,a ,,sy/em ,,( ,,logic1 ,,ratioc9ative ,,& ,,inductive1 ,,be+ ,a ,,connect$ ,,view ,,( ,,! ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,evid5ce1 ,,& ,,! ,,me?ods ,,( ,,sci5tific ,,inve/igation4 by ,,john ,,/u>t ,,mill4 ,eigh? ,edition4 ,new ,york3 ,h>p] ,bro!rs1 ,publi%]s1 ,frankl9 ,squ>e4 #ahhb4 ,,cont5ts ,preface ,to ,! ,fir/ ,edition4 ,preface ,to ,! ,?ird ,& ,f\r? ,editions4 ,introduction4 ,book ,i4 ,( ,names ,& ,propositions4 ,*apt] ,i4 ,( ,! ,necessity ,( ,comm5c+ ,) ,an ,analysis ,( ,language4 ,*apt] ,,ii4 ,( ,names4 ,*apt] ,,iii4 ,( ,! ,?+s ,d5ot$ ,by ,names4 ,*apt] ,,iv4 ,( ,propositions4 ,*apt] ,v4 ,( ,! ,import ,( ,propositions4 ,*apt] ,,vi4 ,( ,propositions ,m]ely ,v]bal4 ,*apt] ,,vii4 ,( ,! ,nature ,( ,classification1 ,& ,! ,five ,pr$icables4 ,*apt] ,,viii4 ,( ,def9ition4 ,book ,,ii4 ,on ,reason+4 ,*apt] ,i4 ,( ,inf]5ce1 ,or ,reason+1 ,9 ,g5]al4 ,*apt] ,,ii4 ,( ,ratioc9ation1 ,or ,syllogism4 ,*apt] ,,iii4 ,( ,! ,functions ,& ,logical ,value ,( ,! ,syllogism4 ,*apt] ,,iv4 ,( ,tra9s ,( ,reason+1 ,& ,d$uctive ,sci5ces4 ,*apt] ,v4 ,( ,demon/ration1 ,& ,necess>y ,tru?s4 ,*apt] ,,vi4 ,! ,same ,subject ,cont9u$4 ,*apt] ,,vii4 ,exam9ation ,( ,"s ,op9ions ,oppos$ ,to ,! ,prec$+ ,doctr9es4 ,book ,,iii4 ,( ,induction4 ,*apt] ,i4 ,prelim9>y ,obs]vations ,on ,induction ,9 ,g5]al4 ,*apt] ,,ii4 ,( ,inductions ,improp]ly ,s ,call$4 ,*apt] ,,iii4 ,( ,! ,gr\nd ,( ,induction4 ,*apt] ,,iv4 ,( ,laws ,( ,nature4 ,*apt] ,v4 ,( ,! ,law ,( ,univ]sal ,causation4 ,*apt] ,,vi4 ,on ,! ,composition ,( ,causes4 ,*apt] ,,vii4 ,on ,obs]vation ,& ,exp]im5t4 ,*apt] ,,viii4 ,( ,! ,f\r ,me?ods ,( ,exp]im5tal ,inquiry4 ,*apt] ,,ix4 ,miscellane\s ,examples ,( ,! ,f\r ,me?ods4 ,*apt] ,x4 ,( ,plurality ,( ,causes1 ,& ,( ,! ,int]mixture ,( ,effects4 ,*apt] ,,xi4 ,( ,! ,d$uctive ,me?od4 ,*apt] ,,xii4 ,( ,! ,explanation ,( ,laws ,( ,nature4 ,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,miscellane\s ,examples ,( ,! ,explanation ,( ,laws ,( ,nature4 ,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,( ,! ,limits ,to ,! ,explanation ,( ,laws ,( ,nature2 ,& ,( ,hypo!ses4 ,*apt] ,,xv4 ,( ,progressive ,effects2 ,& ,( ,! ,cont9u$ ,action ,( ,causes4 ,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,( ,empirical ,laws4 ,*apt] ,,xvii4 ,( ,*ance ,& ,its ,elim9ation4 ,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,( ,! ,calculation ,( ,*ances4 ,*apt] ,,xix4 ,( ,! ,ext5sion ,( ,d]ivative ,laws ,to ,adjac5t ,cases4 ,*apt] ,,xx4 ,( ,analogy4 ,*apt] ,,xxi4 ,( ,! ,evid5ce ,( ,! ,law ,( ,univ]sal ,causation4 ,*apt] ,,xxii4 ,( ,uni=mities ,( ,co-,exi/5ce ,n ,dep5d5t ,on ,causation4 ,*apt] ,,xxiii4 ,( ,approximate ,g5]alizations1 ,& ,probable ,evid5ce4 ,*apt] ,,xxiv4 ,( ,! ,rema9+ ,laws ,( ,nature4 ,*apt] ,,xxv4 ,( ,! ,gr\nds ,( ,disbelief4 ,book ,,iv4 ,( ,op]ations ,subsidi>y ,to ,induction4 ,*apt] ,i4 ,( ,obs]vation ,& ,description4 ,*apt] ,,ii4 ,( ,ab/raction1 ,or ,! ,=mation ,( ,conceptions4 ,*apt] ,,iii4 ,( ,nam+1 ,z ,subsidi>y ,to ,induction4 ,*apt] ,,iv4 ,( ,! ,requisites ,( ,a ,philosophical ,language1 ,& ,! ,pr9ciples ,( ,def9ition4 ,*apt] ,v4 ,on ,! ,natural ,hi/ory ,( ,! ,v>iations ,9 ,! ,mean+ ,( ,t]ms4 ,*apt] ,,vi4 ,! ,pr9ciples ,( ,a ,philosophical ,language ,fur!r ,consid]$4 ,*apt] ,,vii4 ,( ,classification1 ,z ,subsidi>y ,to ,induction4 ,*apt] ,,viii4 ,( ,classification ,by ,s]ies4 ,book ,v4 ,on ,fallacies4 ,*apt] ,i4 ,( ,fallacies ,9 ,g5]al4 ,*apt] ,,ii4 ,classification ,( ,fallacies4 ,*apt] ,,iii4 ,fallacies ,( ,simple ,inspection2 ,or ,a ,priori ,fallacies4 ,*apt] ,,iv4 ,fallacies ,( ,obs]vation4 ,*apt] ,v4 ,fallacies ,( ,g5]alization4 ,*apt] ,,vi4 ,fallacies ,( ,ratioc9ation4 ,*apt] ,,vii4 ,fallacies ,( ,confusion4 ,book ,,vi4 ,on ,! ,logic ,( ,! ,moral ,sci5ces4 ,*apt] ,i4 ,introductory ,rem>ks4 ,*apt] ,,ii4 ,( ,lib]ty ,& ,necessity4 ,*apt] ,,iii4 ,t ,!re ,is1 ,or ,may ,be1 ,a ,sci5ce ,( ,human ,nature4 ,*apt] ,,iv4 ,( ,! ,laws ,( ,m9d4 ,*apt] ,v4 ,( ,e?ology1 ,or ,! ,sci5ce ,( ,! ,=mation ,( ,"*4 ,*apt] ,,vi4 ,g5]al ,consid]ations ,on ,! ,social ,sci5ce4 ,*apt] ,,vii4 ,( ,! ,*emical1 ,or ,exp]im5tal1 ,me?od ,9 ,! ,social ,sci5ce4 ,*apt] ,,viii4 ,( ,! ,geometrical1 ,or ,ab/ract1 ,me?od4 ,*apt] ,,ix4 ,( ,! ,physical1 ,or ,concrete ,d$uctive1 ,me?od4 ,*apt] ,x4 ,( ,! ,inv]se ,d$uctive1 ,or ,hi/orical1 ,me?od4 ,*apt] ,,xi4 ,additional ,elucidations ,( ,! ,sci5ce ,( ,hi/ory4 ,*apt] ,,xii4 ,( ,! ,logic ,( ,practice1 ,or ,art2 ,includ+ ,morality ,& ,policy4 ,footnotes ,,preface ,,to ,,! ,,fir/ ,,edition4 ,?is book makes no pret5se ( giv+ to ! _w a new !ory ( ! intellectual op]ations4 ,its claim to att5tion1 if x possess any1 is gr\nd$ on ! fact t x is an attempt1 n to sup]s$e1 b to embody & sy/ematize1 ! be/ ideas :i* h be5 ei!r promulgat$ on its subject by speculative writ]s1 or con=m$ to by accurate ?9k]s 9 _! sci5tific inquiries4 ,to cem5t toge!r ! deta*$ fragm5ts ( a subject1 nev] yet treat$ z a :ole2 to h>monize ! true portions ( discordant !ories1 by supply+ ! l9ks ( ?\ght necess>y to connect !m1 & by dis5tangl+ !m f ! errors ) :i* !y are always m or less int]wov51 mu/ necess>ily require a consid]able am\nt ( orig9al speculation4 ,to o!r orig9ality ?an ?is1 ! pres5t "w lays no claim4 ,9 ! exi/+ /ate ( ! cultivation ( ! sci5ces1 !re w\ld be a v /rong presumption aga9/ any "o :o %\ld imag9e t he _h effect$ a revolution 9 ! !ory ( ! inve/igation ( tru?1 or add$ any fundam5tally new process to ! practice ( x4 ,! improvem5t :i* rema9s to be effect$ 9 ! me?ods ( philosophiz+ 7& ! au?or believes t !y h mu* ne$ ( improvem5t7 c only consi/ 9 p]=m+ m sy/ematically & accurately op]ations ) :i*1 at lea/ 9 _! elem5t>y =m1 ! human intellect1 9 "s "o or o!r ( its employm5ts1 is already famili>4 ,9 ! portion ( ! "w :i* treats ( ,ratioc9ation1 ! au?or has n deem$ x necess>y to ent] into te*nical details :i* may be obta9$ 9 s p]fect a %ape f ! exi/+ treatises on :at is t]m$ ! ,logic ( ! ,s*ools4 ,9 ! contempt ent]ta9$ by _m mod]n philosoph]s = ! syllogi/ic art1 x w be se5 t he by no means p>ticipates2 ?\gh ! sci5tific !ory on :i* its def5se is usually re/$ appe>s to him errone\s3 & ! view :i* he has sugge/$ ( ! nature & functions ( ! ,syllogism may1 p]haps1 af=d ! means ( conciliat+ ! pr9ciples ( ! art ) z mu* z is well gr\nd$ 9 ! doctr9es & objections ( its assailants4 ,! same ab/95ce f details c\ld n be obs]v$ 9 ! ,fir/ ,book1 on ,names & ,propositions2 because _m useful pr9ciples & di/9ctions :i* 7 conta9$ 9 ! old ,logic h be5 gradually omitt$ f ! writ+s ( its lat] tea*]s2 & x appe>$ desirable bo? to revive ^!1 & to re=m & rationalize ! philosophical f\ndation on :i* !y /ood4 ,! e>li] *apt]s ( ?is prelim9>y ,book w consequ5tly appe>1 to "s read]s1 ne$lessly elem5t>y & s*ola/ic4 ,b ^? :o "k 9 :at d>kness ! nature ( our k1 & ( ! processes by :i* x is obta9$1 is (t5 involv$ by a confus$ appreh5sion ( ! import ( ! diff]5t classes ( ,words & ,ass]tions1 w n reg>d ^! discussions z ei!r frivol\s1 or irrelevant to ! topics consid]$ 9 ! lat] ,books4 ,on ! subject ( ,induction1 ! task to be p]=m$ 0 t ( g5]aliz+ ! modes ( inve/igat+ tru? & e/imat+ evid5ce1 by :i* s _m important & recondite laws ( nature h1 9 ! v>i\s sci5ces1 be5 aggregat$ to ! /ock ( human k4 ,t ?is is n a task free f difficulty may be presum$ f ! fact t ev5 at a v rec5t p]iod1 em95t writ]s 7among :om x is suffici5t to "n ,ar*bi%op ,:ately1 & ! au?or ( a celebrat$ article on ,bacon 9 ! ,ed9burgh ,review7 h n scrupl$ to pron\nce x impossible47#a7 ,! au?or has endeavor$ to combat _! !ory 9 ! mann] 9 :i* ,diog5es confut$ ! skeptical reason+s aga9/ ! possibility ( motion2 rememb]+ t ,diog5es's argum5t w\ld h be5 equally conclusive1 ?\gh 8 individual p]ambulations might n h ext5d$ beyond ! circuit ( 8 own tub4 ,:atev] may be ! value ( :at ! au?or has succe$$ 9 effect+ on ?is bran* ( 8 subject1 x is a duty to ackn[l$ge t = mu* ( x he has be5 indebt$ to sev]al important treatises1 p>tly hi/orical & p>tly philosophical1 on ! g5]alities & processes ( physical sci5ce1 :i* h be5 publi%$ )9 ! la/ few ye>s4 ,to ^! treatises1 & to _! au?ors1 he has endeavor$ to d ju/ice 9 ! body ( ! "w4 ,b z ) "o ( ^! writ]s1 ,dr4 ,:ewell1 he has occasion frequ5tly to express diff]5ces ( op9ion1 x is m p>ticul>ly incumb5t on him 9 ?is place to decl>e1 t )\t ! aid d]iv$ f ! facts & ideas conta9$ 9 t g5tleman's 8,hi/ory ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces10 ! correspond+ portion ( ?is "w w\ld probably n h be5 writt54 ,! conclud+ ,book is an attempt to contribute t[>d ! solution ( a "q :i* ! decay ( old op9ions1 & ! agitation t di/urbs ,european society to its inmo/ dep?s1 r5d] z important 9 ! pres5t day to ! practical int]e/s ( human life1 z x mu/ at all times be to ! complet5ess ( our speculative k--viz43 ,:e!r moral & social ph5om5a are really exceptions to ! g5]al c]ta9ty & uni=mity ( ! c\rse ( nature2 & h[ f> ! me?ods by :i* s _m ( ! laws ( ! physical _w h be5 numb]$ among tru?s irrevocably acquir$ & univ]sally ass5t$ to1 c be made in/rum5tal to ! =mation ( a simil> body ( receiv$ doctr9e 9 moral & political sci5ce4 ,,preface ,,to ,,! ,,?ird ,,& ,,f\r? ,,editions4 ,sev]al criticisms1 ( a m or less controv]sial "*1 on ?is "w1 h appe>$ s9ce ! publication ( ! second edition2 & ,dr4 ,:ewell has lately publi%$ a reply to ^? p>ts ( x 9 :i* "s ( 8 op9ions 7 controv]t$47#b7 ,i h c>efully reconsid]$ all ! po9ts on :i* my conclusions h be5 assail$4 ,b ,i h n to ann\nce a *ange ( op9ion on any matt] ( importance4 ,su* m9or ov]sights z h be5 detect$1 ei!r by myself or by my critics1 ,i h1 9 g5]al sil5tly1 correct$3 b x is n to be inf]r$ t ,i agree ) ! objections :i* h be5 made to a passage1 9 e in/ance 9 :i* ,i h alt]$ or cancel$ x4 ,i h (t5 done s1 m]ely t x might n rema9 a /umbl+-block1 :5 ! am\nt ( discussion necess>y to place ! matt] 9 its true light w\ld h exce$$ :at 0 suitable to ! occasion4 ,to sev]al ( ! argum5ts :i* h be5 urg$ aga9/ me1 ,i h ?\ght x useful to reply ) "s degree ( m9ut5ess2 n f any ta/e = controv]sy1 b because ! opportunity 0 favorable = plac+ my own conclusions1 & ! gr\nds ( !m1 m cle>ly & completely be=e ! read]4 ,tru? on ^! subjects is militant1 & c only e/abli% itself by means ( conflict4 ,! mo/ opposite op9ions c make a plausible %[ ( evid5ce :ile ea* has ! /atem5t ( its own case2 & x is only possible to asc]ta9 :i* ( !m is 9 ! "r1 aft] he>+ & comp>+ :at ea* c say aga9/ ! o!r1 & :at ! o!r c urge 9 its def5se4 ,ev5 ! criticisms f :i* ,i mo/ diss5t h be5 ( great s]vice to me1 by %[+ 9 :at places ! exposition mo/ ne$$ to be improv$1 or ! argum5t /r5g!n$4 ,& ,i %\ld h be5 well pleas$ if ! book _h und]gone a mu* great] am\nt ( attack2 z 9 t case ,i %\ld probably h be5 enabl$ to improve x /ill m ?an ,i believe ,i h n[ done4 ------------------------------------ ,9 ! subsequ5t editions1 ! attempt to improve ! "w by additions & corrections1 sugge/$ by criticism or by ?\ght1 has be5 cont9u$4 ,! additions & corrections 9 ! pres5t 7eigh?7 edition1 :i* are n v consid]able1 are *iefly su* z h be5 sugge/$ by ,pr(essor ,ba9's 8,logic10 a book ( great m]it & value4 ,mr4 ,ba9's view ( ! sci5ce is ess5tially ! same ) t tak5 9 ! pres5t treatise1 ! diff]5ces ( op9ion be+ few & unimportant comp>$ ) ! agreem5ts2 & he has n only enri*$ ! exposition by _m applications & illu/rative details1 b has app5d$ to x a m9ute & v valuable discussion ( ! logical pr9ciples specially applicable to ea* ( ! sci5ces--a task = :i* ! encyclop$ical "* ( 8 k peculi>ly qualifi$ him4 ,i h 9 sev]al in/ances made use ( 8 exposition to improve my own1 by adopt+1 & occasionally by controv]t+1 matt] conta9$ 9 8 treatise4 ,! longe/ ( ! additions belongs to ! *apt] on ,causation1 & is a discussion ( ! "q h[ f>1 if at all1 ! ord9>y mode ( /at+ ! law ( ,cause & ,effect requires modification to adapt x to ! new doctr9e ( ! ,cons]vation ( ,=ce--a po9t /ill m fully & elaborately treat$ 9 ,mr4 ,ba9's "w4 ,,introduction4 #a4 ,!re is z great div]sity among au?ors 9 ! modes :i* !y h adopt$ ( def9+ logic1 z 9 _! treatm5t ( ! details ( x4 ,?is is :at might naturally be expect$ on any subject on :i* writ]s h avail$ !mselves ( ! same language z a means ( deliv]+ diff]5t ideas4 ,e?ics & jurisprud5ce are liable to ! rem>k 9 common ) logic4 ,almo/ e writ] hav+ tak5 a diff]5t view ( "s ( ! p>ticul>s :i* ^! bran*es ( k are usually und]/ood to include2 ea* has s fram$ 8 def9ition z to indicate be=eh& 8 own peculi> t5ets1 & sometimes to beg ! "q 9 _! favor4 ,?is div]sity is n s mu* an evil to be compla9$ (1 z an inevitable & 9 "s degree a prop] result ( ! imp]fect /ate ( ^? sci5ces4 ,x is n to be expect$ t !re %\ld be agreem5t ab\t ! def9ition ( any ?+1 until !re is agreem5t ab\t ! ?+ itself4 ,to def9e1 is to select f among all ! prop]ties ( a ?+1 ^? :i* %all be und]/ood to be designat$ & decl>$ by its "n2 & ! prop]ties mu/ be well kn[n to u be=e we c be compet5t to det]m9e :i* ( !m are fitte/ to be *os5 = ?is purpose4 ,accord+ly1 9 ! case ( s complex an aggregation ( p>ticul>s z are compreh5d$ 9 any ?+ :i* c be call$ a sci5ce1 ! def9ition we set out ) is seldom t :i* a m ext5sive k ( ! subject %[s to be ! mo/ appropriate4 ,until we "k ! p>ticul>s !mselves1 we c n fix ^u ! mo/ correct & compact mode ( circumscrib+ !m by a g5]al description4 ,x 0 n until aft] an ext5sive & accurate acqua9tance ) ! details ( *emical ph5om5a1 t x 0 f\nd possible to frame a rational def9ition ( *emi/ry2 & ! def9ition ( ! sci5ce ( life & organization is /ill a matt] ( dispute4 ,s long z ! sci5ces are imp]fect1 ! def9itions mu/ p>take ( _! imp]fection2 & if ! =m] are progressive1 ! latt] ought to be s too4 ,z mu*1 !re=e1 z is to be expect$ f a def9ition plac$ at ! comm5cem5t ( a subject1 is t x %\ld def9e ! scope ( our inquiries3 & ! def9ition :i* ,i am ab\t to (f] ( ! sci5ce ( logic1 pret5ds to no?+ m ?an to be a /atem5t ( ! "q :i* ,i h put to myself1 & :i* ?is book is an attempt to resolve4 ,! read] is at lib]ty to object to x z a def9ition ( logic2 b x is at all ev5ts a correct def9ition ( ! subject ( ?is volume4 #b4 ,logic has (t5 be5 call$ ! ,art ( ,reason+4 ,a writ]7#c7 :o has done m ?an any o!r p]son to re/ore ?is /udy to ! rank f :i* x _h fall5 9 ! e/imation ( ! cultivat$ class 9 our own c\ntry1 has adopt$ ! above def9ition ) an am5dm5t2 he has def9$ ,logic to be ! ,sci5ce1 z well z ! ,art1 ( reason+2 mean+ by ! =m] t]m1 ! analysis ( ! m5tal process :i* takes place :5ev] we reason1 & by ! latt]1 ! rules1 gr\nd$ on t analysis1 = conduct+ ! process correctly4 ,!re c be no d\bt z to ! propriety ( ! em5dation4 ,a "r und]/&+ ( ! m5tal process itself1 ( ! conditions x dep5ds on1 & ! /eps ( :i* x consi/s1 is ! only basis on :i* a sy/em ( rules1 fitt$ = ! direction ( ! process1 c possibly be f\nd$4 ,art necess>ily presupposes k2 art1 9 any b its infant /ate1 presupposes sci5tific k3 & if e art does n be> ! "n ( a sci5ce1 x is only because sev]al sci5ces are (t5 necess>y to =m ! gr\ndwork ( a s+le art4 ,s complicat$ are ! conditions :i* gov]n our practical ag5cy1 t to enable "o ?+ to be done1 x is (t5 requisite to "k ! nature & prop]ties ( _m ?+s4 ,logic1 !n1 comprises ! sci5ce ( reason+1 z well z an art1 f\nd$ on t sci5ce4 ,b ! ^w ,reason+1 aga91 l mo/ o!r sci5tific t]ms 9 popul> use1 ab\nds 9 ambiguities4 ,9 "o ( its acceptations1 x means syllogiz+2 or ! mode ( inf]5ce :i* may be call$ 7) suffici5t accuracy = ! pres5t purpose7 conclud+ f g5]als to p>ticul>s4 ,9 ano!r ( its s5ses1 to reason is simply to inf] any ass]tion1 f ass]tions already admitt$3 & 9 ?is s5se induction is z mu* entitl$ to be call$ reason+ z ! demon/rations ( geometry4 ,writ]s on logic h g5]ally pref]r$ ! =m] acceptation ( ! t]m3 ! latt]1 & m ext5sive signification is t 9 :i* ,i mean to use x4 ,i d ?is by virtue ( ! "r ,i claim = e au?or1 to give :atev] provisional def9ition he pleases ( 8 own subject4 ,b suffici5t reasons w1 ,i believe1 unfold !mselves z we advance1 :y ?is %\ld be n only ! provisional b ! f9al def9ition4 ,x involves1 at all ev5ts1 no arbitr>y *ange 9 ! mean+ ( ! ^w2 =1 ) ! g5]al usage ( ! ,engli% language1 ! wid] signification1 ,i believe1 accords bett] ?an ! m re/rict$ "o4 #c4 ,b reason+1 ev5 9 ! wide/ s5se ( :i* ! ^w is susceptible1 does n seem to compreh5d all t is includ$1 ei!r 9 ! be/1 or ev5 9 ! mo/ curr5t1 conception ( ! scope & prov9ce ( our sci5ce4 ,! employm5t ( ! ^w ,logic to d5ote ! !ory ( ,argum5tation1 is d]iv$ f ! ,ari/otelian1 or1 z !y are commonly t]m$1 ! s*ola/ic1 logicians4 ,yet ev5 ) !m1 9 _! sy/ematic treatises1 ,argum5tation 0 ! subject only ( ! ?ird "p3 ! two =m] treat$ ( ,t]ms1 & ( ,propositions2 "u "o or o!r ( :i* heads 7 also includ$ ,def9ition & ,division4 ,by "s1 inde$1 ^! previ\s topics 7 pr(ess$ly introduc$ only on acc\nt ( _! connection ) reason+1 & z a prep>ation = ! doctr9e & rules ( ! syllogism4 ,yet !y 7 treat$ ) great] m9ut5ess1 & dwelt on at great] l5g?1 ?an 0 requir$ = t purpose alone4 ,m rec5t writ]s on logic h g5]ally und]/ood ! t]m z x 0 employ$ by ! able au?or ( ! ,port ,royal ,logic2 viz41 z equival5t to ! ,art ( ,?9k+4 ,nor is ?is acceptation conf9$ to books1 & sci5tific inquiries4 ,ev5 9 ord9>y conv]sation1 ! ideas connect$ ) ! ^w ,logic include at lea/ precision ( language1 & accuracy ( classification3 & we p]haps (t5] he> p]sons speak ( a logical arrangem5t1 or ( expressions logically def9$1 ?an ( conclusions logically d$uc$ f premises4 ,aga91 a man is (t5 call$ a great logician1 or a man ( p[]ful logic1 n = ! accuracy ( 8 d$uctions1 b = ! ext5t ( 8 comm& ov] premises2 because ! g5]al propositions requir$ = expla9+ a difficulty or refut+ a sophism1 copi\sly & promptly occur to him3 because1 9 %ort1 8 k1 besides be+ ample1 is well "u 8 comm& = argum5tative use4 ,:e!r1 !re=e1 we con=m to ! practice ( ^? :o h made ! subject _! p>ticul> /udy1 or to t ( popul> writ]s & common disc\rse1 ! prov9ce ( logic w include sev]al op]ations ( ! intellect n usually consid]$ to fall )9 ! mean+ ( ! t]ms ,reason+ & ,argum5tation4 ,^! v>i\s op]ations might be br\ght )9 ! compass ( ! sci5ce1 & ! additional advantage be obta9$ ( a v simple def9ition1 if1 by an ext5sion ( ! t]m1 sanction$ by high au?orities1 we 7 to def9e logic z ! sci5ce :i* treats ( ! op]ations ( ! human und]/&+ 9 ! pursuit ( tru?4 ,= to ?is ultimate end1 nam+1 classification1 def9ition1 & all o!r op]ations ov] :i* logic has ev] claim$ jurisdiction1 are ess5tially subsidi>y4 ,!y may all be reg>d$ z contrivances = enabl+ a p]son to "k ! tru?s :i* are ne$ful to him1 & to "k !m at ! precise mom5t at :i* !y are ne$ful4 ,o!r purposes1 inde$1 are also s]v$ by ^! op]ations2 = in/ance1 t ( imp>t+ our k to o!rs4 ,b1 view$ ) reg>d to ?is purpose1 !y h nev] be5 consid]$ z )9 ! prov9ce ( ! logician4 ,! sole object ( ,logic is ! guidance ( "o's own ?\ghts3 ! communication ( ^? ?\ghts to o!rs falls "u ! consid]ation ( ,rhetoric1 9 ! l>ge s5se 9 :i* t art 0 conceiv$ by ! anci5ts2 or ( ! /ill m ext5sive art ( ,education4 ,logic takes cognizance ( our intellectual op]ations only z !y conduce to our own k1 & to our comm& ov] t k = our own uses4 ,if !re 7 b "o rational be+ 9 ! univ]se1 t be+ might be a p]fect logician2 & ! sci5ce & art ( logic w\ld be ! same = t "o p]son z = ! :ole human race4 #d4 ,b1 if ! def9ition :i* we =m]ly exam9$ includ$ too little1 t :i* is n[ sugge/$ has ! opposite fault ( includ+ too mu*4 ,tru?s are kn[n to u 9 two ways3 "s are kn[n directly1 & ( !mselves2 "s ?r\gh ! m$ium ( o!r tru?s4 ,! =m] are ! subject ( ,intuition1 or ,consci\sness27#d7 ! latt]1 ( ,inf]5ce4 ,! tru?s kn[n by intuition are ! orig9al premises f :i* all o!rs are inf]r$4 ,our ass5t to ! conclusion be+ gr\nd$ on ! tru? ( ! premises1 we nev] c\ld arrive at any k by reason+1 unless some?+ c\ld be kn[n antec$5tly to all reason+4 ,examples ( tru?s kn[n to u by imm$iate consci\sness1 are our own bodily s5sations & m5tal feel+s4 ,i "k directly1 & ( my own k1 t ,i 0 vex$ ye/]day1 or t ,i am hungry to-day4 ,examples ( tru?s :i* we "k only by way ( inf]5ce1 are occurr5ces :i* took place :ile we 7 abs5t1 ! ev5ts record$ 9 hi/ory1 or ! !orems ( ma!matics4 ,! two =m] we inf] f ! te/imony adduc$1 or f ! traces ( ^? pa/ occurr5ces :i* /ill exi/2 ! latt]1 f ! premises laid d[n 9 books ( geometry1 "u ! title ( def9itions & axioms4 ,:atev] we are capable ( kn[+ mu/ belong to ! "o class or to ! o!r2 mu/ be 9 ! numb] ( ! primitive data1 or ( ! conclusions :i* c be drawn f ^!4 ,) ! orig9al data1 or ultimate premises ( our k2 ) _! numb] or nature1 ! mode 9 :i* !y are obta9$1 or ! te/s by :i* !y may be di/+ui%$2 logic1 9 a direct way at lea/1 has1 9 ! s5se 9 :i* ,i conceive ! sci5ce1 no?+ to d4 ,^! que/ions are p>tly n a subject ( sci5ce at all1 p>tly t ( a v diff]5t sci5ce4 ,:atev] is kn[n to u by consci\sness is kn[n beyond possibility ( "q4 ,:at "o sees or feels1 :e!r bodily or m5tally1 "o c n b be sure t "o sees or feels4 ,no sci5ce is requir$ = ! purpose ( e/abli%+ su* tru?s2 no rules ( art c r5d] our k ( !m m c]ta9 ?an x is 9 itself4 ,!re is no logic = ?is portion ( our k4 ,b we may fancy t we see or feel :at we 9 reality inf]4 ,a tru?1 or suppos$ tru?1 :i* is really ! result ( a v rapid inf]5ce1 may seem to be appreh5d$ intuitively4 ,x has long be5 agre$ by ?9k]s ( ! mo/ opposite s*ools1 t ?is mi/ake is actually made 9 s famili> an in/ance z t ( ! eyesight4 ,!re is no?+ ( :i* we appe> to ourselves to be m directly consci\s ?an ! di/ance ( an object f u4 ,yet x has long be5 asc]ta9$1 t :at is p]ceiv$ by ! eye1 is at mo/ no?+ m ?an a v>i\sly color$ surface2 t :5 we fancy we see di/ance1 all we really see is c]ta9 v>iations ( app>5t size1 & degrees ( fa9tness ( color2 t our e/imate ( ! object's di/ance f u is ! result p>tly ( a rapid inf]5ce f ! muscul> s5sations accompany+ ! adju/m5t ( ! focal di/ance ( ! eye to objects unequally remote f u1 & p>tly ( a comp>ison 7made ) s mu* rapidity t we are unconsci\s ( mak+ x7 betwe5 ! size & color ( ! object z !y appe> at ! "t1 & ! size & color ( ! same or ( simil> objects z !y appe>$ :5 close at h&1 or :5 _! degree ( remot5ess 0 kn[n by o!r evid5ce4 ,! p]ception ( di/ance by ! eye1 :i* seems s l intuition1 is ?us1 9 reality1 an inf]5ce gr\nd$ on exp]i5ce2 an inf]5ce1 too1 :i* we le>n to make2 & :i* we make ) m & m correctness z our exp]i5ce increases2 ?\gh 9 famili> cases x takes place s rapidly z to appe> exactly on a p> ) ^? p]ceptions ( sight :i* are really intuitive1 our p]ceptions ( color47#e7 ,( ! sci5ce1 !re=e1 :i* exp\nds ! op]ations ( ! human und]/&+ 9 ! pursuit ( tru?1 "o ess5tial "p is ! inquiry3 ,:at are ! facts :i* are ! objects ( intuition or consci\sness1 & :at are ^? :i* we m]ely inf]8 ,b ?is inquiry has nev] be5 consid]$ a portion ( logic4 ,its place is 9 ano!r & a p]fectly di/9ct dep>tm5t ( sci5ce1 to :i* ! "n metaphysics m p>ticul>ly belongs3 t portion ( m5tal philosophy :i* attempts to det]m9e :at "p ( ! furniture ( ! m9d belongs to x orig9ally1 & :at "p is con/ruct$ out ( mat]ials furni%$ to x f )\t4 ,to ?is sci5ce app]ta9 ! great & mu* debat$ que/ions ( ! exi/5ce ( matt]2 ! exi/5ce ( _s1 & ( a di/9ction betwe5 x & matt]2 ! reality ( "t & space1 z ?+s )\t ! m9d1 & di/+ui%able f ! objects :i* are said to exi/ 9 !m4 ,= 9 ! pres5t /ate ( ! discussion on ^! topics1 x is almo/ univ]sally all[$ t ! exi/5ce ( matt] or ( _s1 ( space or ( "t1 is 9 its nature unsusceptible ( be+ prov$2 & t if any ?+ is kn[n ( !m1 x mu/ be by imm$iate intuition4 ,to ! same sci5ce belong ! inquiries into ! nature ( ,conception1 ,p]ception1 ,memory1 & ,belief2 all ( :i* are op]ations ( ! und]/&+ 9 ! pursuit ( tru?2 b ) :i*1 z ph5om5a ( ! m9d1 or ) ! possibility :i* may or may n exi/ ( analyz+ any ( !m into simpl] ph5om5a1 ! logician z su* has no conc]n4 ,to ?is sci5ce mu/ also be ref]r$ ! foll[+1 & all analog\s que/ions3 ,to :at ext5t our intellectual faculties & our emotions are innate--to :at ext5t ! result ( association3 ,:e!r ,god & duty are realities1 ! exi/5ce ( :i* is manife/ to u a priori by ! con/itution ( our rational faculty2 or :e!r our ideas ( !m are acquir$ notions1 ! orig9 ( :i* we are able to trace & expla92 & ! reality ( ! objects !mselves a "q n ( consci\sness or intuition1 b ( evid5ce & reason+4 ,! prov9ce ( logic mu/ be re/rict$ to t portion ( our k :i* consi/s ( inf]5ces f tru?s previ\sly kn[n2 :e!r ^? antec$5t data be g5]al propositions1 or p>ticul> obs]vations & p]ceptions4 ,logic is n ! sci5ce ( ,belief1 b ! sci5ce ( ,pro(1 or ,evid5ce4 ,9 s f> z belief pr(esses to be f\nd$ on pro(1 ! (fice ( logic is to supply a te/ = asc]ta9+ :e!r or n ! belief is well gr\nd$4 ,) ! claims :i* any proposition has to belief on ! evid5ce ( consci\sness--t is1 )\t evid5ce 9 ! prop] s5se ( ! ^w--logic has no?+ to d4 #e4 ,by f> ! greate/ portion ( our k1 :e!r ( g5]al tru?s or ( p>ticul> facts1 be+ av[$ly matt] ( inf]5ce1 ne>ly ! :ole1 n only ( sci5ce1 b ( human conduct1 is am5able to ! au?ority ( logic4 ,to draw inf]5ces has be5 said to be ! great bus9ess ( life4 ,e "o has daily1 h\rly1 & mom5t>y ne$ ( asc]ta9+ facts :i* he has n directly obs]v$2 n f any g5]al purpose ( add+ to 8 /ock ( k1 b because ! facts !mselves are ( importance to 8 int]e/s or to 8 occupations4 ,! bus9ess ( ! magi/rate1 ( ! milit>y comm&]1 ( ! navigator1 ( ! physician1 ( ! agriculturi/1 is m]ely to judge ( evid5ce1 & to act accord+ly4 ,!y all h to asc]ta9 c]ta9 facts1 9 ord] t !y may aft]w>d apply c]ta9 rules1 ei!r devis$ by !mselves or prescrib$ = _! guidance by o!rs2 & z !y d ?is well or ill1 s !y dis*>ge well or ill ! duties ( _! sev]al call+s4 ,x is ! only occupation 9 :i* ! m9d nev] ceases to be engag$2 & is ! subject1 n ( logic1 b ( k 9 g5]al4 ,logic1 h[ev]1 is n ! same ?+ ) k1 ?\gh ! field ( logic is co-ext5sive ) ! field ( k4 ,logic is ! common judge & arbit] ( all p>ticul> inve/igations4 ,x does n und]take to f9d evid5ce1 b to det]m9e :e!r x has be5 f\nd4 ,logic nei!r obs]ves1 nor inv5ts1 nor discov]s2 b judges4 ,x is no "p ( ! bus9ess ( logic to in=m ! surgeon :at appe>ances are f\nd to accompany a viol5t dea?4 ,?is he mu/ le>n f 8 own exp]i5ce & obs]vation1 or f t ( o!rs1 8 pr$ecessors 9 8 peculi> pursuit4 ,b logic sits 9 judgm5t on ! suffici5cy ( t obs]vation & exp]i5ce to ju/ify 8 rules1 & on ! suffici5cy ( 8 rules to ju/ify 8 conduct4 ,x does n give him pro(s1 b tea*es him :at makes !m pro(s1 & h[ he is to judge ( !m4 ,x does n tea* t any p>ticul> fact proves any o!r1 b po9ts out to :at conditions all facts mu/ con=m1 9 ord] t !y may prove o!r facts4 ,to decide :e!r any giv5 fact fulfills ^! conditions1 or :e!r facts c be f\nd :i* fulfill !m 9 a giv5 case1 belongs exclusively to ! p>ticul> art or sci5ce1 or to our k ( ! p>ticul> subject4 ,x is 9 ?is s5se t logic is1 :at x 0 s expressively call$ by ! s*oolm5 & by ,bacon1 ars artium2 ! sci5ce ( sci5ce itself4 ,all sci5ce consi/s ( data & conclusions f ^? data1 ( pro(s & :at !y prove3 n[ logic po9ts out :at relations mu/ subsi/ betwe5 data & :atev] c be conclud$ f !m1 betwe5 pro( & e ?+ :i* x c prove4 ,if !re be any su* indisp5sable relations1 & if ^! c be precisely det]m9$1 e p>ticul> bran* ( sci5ce1 z well z e individual 9 ! guidance ( 8 conduct1 is b\nd to con=m to ^? relations1 "u ! p5alty ( mak+ false inf]5ces--( draw+ conclusions :i* are n gr\nd$ 9 ! realities ( ?+s4 ,:atev] has at any "t be5 conclud$ ju/ly1 :atev] k has be5 acquir$ o!rwise ?an by imm$iate intuition1 dep5d$ on ! obs]vance ( ! laws :i* x is ! prov9ce ( logic to inve/igate4 ,if ! conclusions are j1 & ! k real1 ^? laws1 :e!r kn[n or n1 h be5 obs]v$4 #f4 ,we ne$ n1 !re=e1 seek any fur!r = a solution ( ! "q1 s (t5 agitat$1 respect+ ! utility ( logic4 ,if a sci5ce ( logic exi/s1 or is capable ( exi/+1 x mu/ be useful4 ,if !re be rules to :i* e m9d consci\sly or unconsci\sly con=ms 9 e in/ance 9 :i* x inf]s rightly1 !re seems little necessity = discuss+ :e!r a p]son is m likely to obs]ve ^? rules1 :5 he kn[s ! rules1 ?an :5 he is unacqua9t$ ) !m4 ,a sci5ce may und\bt$ly be br\ght to a c]ta91 n inconsid]able1 /age ( advancem5t1 )\t ! application ( any o!r logic to x ?an :at all p]sons1 :o are said to h a s\nd und]/&+1 acquire empirically 9 ! c\rse ( _! /udies4 ,mank9d judg$ ( evid5ce1 & (t5 correctly1 be=e logic 0 a sci5ce1 or !y nev] c\ld h made x "o4 ,& !y execut$ great me*anical works be=e !y und]/ood ! laws ( me*anics4 ,b !re are limits bo? to :at me*anicians c d )\t pr9ciples ( me*anics1 & to :at ?9k]s c d )\t pr9ciples ( logic4 ,a few individuals1 by extraord9>y g5ius1 or by ! accid5tal acquisition ( a good set ( intellectual habits1 may "w )\t pr9ciples 9 ! same way1 or ne>ly ! same way1 9 :i* !y w\ld h work$ if !y _h be5 9 possession ( pr9ciples4 ,b ! bulk ( mank9d require ei!r to und]/& ! !ory ( :at !y are do+1 or to h rules laid d[n = !m by ^? :o h und]/ood ! !ory4 ,9 ! progress ( sci5ce f its easie/ to its m difficult problems1 ea* great /ep 9 advance has usually _h ei!r z its precursor1 or z its accompanim5t & necess>y condition1 a correspond+ improvem5t 9 ! notions & pr9ciples ( logic receiv$ among ! mo/ advanc$ ?9k]s4 ,& if sev]al ( ! m difficult sci5ces are /ill 9 s defective a /ate2 if n only s little is prov$1 b disputation has n t]m9at$ ev5 ab\t ! little :i* seem$ to be s2 ! reason p]haps is1 t m5's logical notions h n yet acquir$ ! degree ( ext5sion1 or ( accuracy1 requisite = ! e/imation ( ! evid5ce prop] to ^? p>ticul> dep>tm5ts ( k4 #g4 ,logic1 !n1 is ! sci5ce ( ! op]ations ( ! und]/&+ :i* are subs]vi5t to ! e/imation ( evid5ce3 bo? ! process itself ( advanc+ f kn[n tru?s to unkn[n1 & all o!r intellectual op]ations 9 s f> z auxili>y to ?is4 ,x includes1 !re=e1 ! op]ation ( ,nam+2 = language is an in/rum5t ( ?\ght1 z well z a means ( communicat+ our ?\ghts4 ,x includes1 also1 ,def9ition1 & ,classification4 ,=1 ! use ( ^! op]ations 7putt+ all o!r m9ds ?an "o's own out ( consid]ation7 is to s]ve n only = keep+ our evid5ces & ! conclusions f !m p]man5t & readily accessible 9 ! memory1 b = s m>%al+ ! facts :i* we may at any "t be engag$ 9 inve/igat+1 z to enable u to p]ceive m cle>ly :at evid5ce !re is1 & to judge ) few] *ances ( error :e!r x be suffici5t4 ,^!1 !re=e1 are op]ations specially in/rum5tal to ! e/imation ( evid5ce1 &1 z su*1 are )9 ! prov9ce ( ,logic4 ,!re are o!r m elem5t>y processes1 conc]n$ 9 all ?9k+1 su* z ,conception1 ,memory1 & ! l2 b ( ^! x is n necess>y t ,logic %\ld take any peculi> cognizance1 s9ce !y h no special connection ) ! problem ( ,evid5ce1 fur!r ?an t1 l all o!r problems address$ to ! und]/&+1 x presupposes !m4 ,our object1 !n1 w be1 to attempt a correct analysis ( ! intellectual process call$ ,reason+ or ,inf]5ce1 & ( su* o!r m5tal op]ations z are int5d$ to facilitate ?is3 z well z1 on ! f\ndation ( ?is analysis1 & p>i passu ) x1 to br+ toge!r or frame a set ( rules or canons = te/+ ! suffici5cy ( any giv5 evid5ce to prove any giv5 proposition4 ,) respect to ! fir/ "p ( ?is und]tak+1 ,i d n attempt to decompose ! m5tal op]ations 9 "q into _! ultimate elem5ts4 ,x is en\gh if ! analysis z f> z x goes is correct1 & if x goes f> en\gh = ! practical purposes ( logic consid]$ z an art4 ,! sep>ation ( a complicat$ ph5om5on into its compon5t p>ts is n l a connect$ & int]dep5d5t *a9 ( pro(4 ,if "o l9k ( an argum5t breaks1 ! :ole drops to ! gr\nd2 b "o /ep t[>d an analysis holds good & has an indep5d5t value1 ?\gh we %\ld nev] be able to make a second4 ,! results :i* h be5 obta9$ by analytical *emi/ry are n ! less valuable1 ?\gh x %\ld be discov]$ t all :i* we n[ call simple sub/ances are really comp\nds4 ,all o!r ?+s are at any rate comp\nd$ ( ^? elem5ts3 :e!r ! elem5ts !mselves admit ( decomposition1 is an important inquiry1 b does n affect ! c]ta9ty ( ! sci5ce up to t po9t4 ,i %all1 accord+ly1 attempt to analyze ! process ( inf]5ce1 & ! processes subord9ate to inf]5ce1 s f> only z may be requisite = asc]ta9+ ! diff]5ce betwe5 a correct & an incorrect p]=mance ( ^? processes4 ,! reason = ?us limit+ our design1 is evid5t4 ,x has be5 said by objectors to logic1 t we d n le>n to use our muscles by /udy+ _! anatomy4 ,! fact is n q fairly /at$2 = if ! action ( any ( our muscles 7 vitiat$ by local weakness1 or o!r physical defect1 a k ( _! anatomy might be v necess>y = effect+ a cure4 ,b we %\ld be ju/ly liable to ! criticism involv$ 9 ?is objection1 7 we1 9 a treatise on logic1 to c>ry ! analysis ( ! reason+ process beyond ! po9t at :i* any inaccuracy :i* may h crept into x mu/ become visible4 ,9 le>n+ bodily ex]cises 7to c>ry on ! same illu/ration7 we d1 & mu/1 analyze ! bodily motions s f> z is necess>y = di/+ui%+ ^? :i* ought to be p]=m$ f ^? :i* ought n4 ,to a simil> ext5t1 & no fur!r1 x is necess>y t ! logician %\ld analyze ! m5tal processes ) :i* ,logic is conc]n$4 ,logic has no int]e/ 9 c>ry+ ! analysis beyond ! po9t at :i* x becomes app>5t :e!r ! op]ations h 9 any individual case be5 rightly or wrongly p]=m$3 9 ! same mann] z ! sci5ce ( music tea*es u to discrim9ate betwe5 musical notes1 & to "k ! comb9ations ( :i* !y are susceptible1 b n :at numb] ( vibrations 9 a second correspond to ea*2 :i*1 ?\gh useful to be kn[n1 is useful = totally diff]5t purposes4 ,! ext5sion ( ,logic z a ,sci5ce is det]m9$ by its necessities z an ,art3 :atev] x does n ne$ = its practical ends1 x leaves to ! l>g] sci5ce :i* may be said to correspond1 n to any p>ticul> art1 b to art 9 g5]al2 ! sci5ce :i* deals ) ! con/itution ( ! human faculties2 & to :i*1 9 ! "p ( our m5tal nature :i* conc]ns ,logic1 z well z 9 all o!r p>ts1 x belongs to decide :at are ultimate facts1 & :at are resolvable into o!r facts4 ,& ,i believe x w be f\nd t mo/ ( ! conclusions arriv$ at 9 ?is "w h no necess>y connection ) any p>ticul> views respect+ ! ult]ior analysis4 ,logic is common gr\nd on :i* ! p>tisans ( ,h>tley & ( ,reid1 ( ,locke & ( ,kant1 may meet & jo9 h&s4 ,p>ticul> & deta*$ op9ions ( all ^! ?9k]s w no d\bt occasionally be controv]t$1 s9ce all ( !m 7 logicians z well z metaphysicians2 b ! field on :i* _! pr9cipal battles h be5 f\ght1 lies beyond ! b\nd>ies ( our sci5ce4 ,x c n1 inde$1 be pret5d$ t logical pr9ciples c be altoge!r irrelevant to ^? m ab/ruse discussions2 nor is x possible b t ! view we are l$ to take ( ! problem :i* logic proposes1 mu/ h a t5d5cy favorable to ! adoption ( "s "o op9ion1 on ^! controv]t$ subjects1 r ?an ano!r4 ,= metaphysics1 9 endeavor+ to solve its own peculi> problem1 mu/ employ means1 ! validity ( :i* falls "u ! cognizance ( logic4 ,x proce$s1 no d\bt1 z f> z possible1 m]ely by a clos] & m att5tive int]rogation ( our consci\sness1 or m prop]ly speak+1 ( our memory2 & s f> is n am5able to logic4 ,b :]ev] ?is me?od is insuffici5t to atta9 ! end ( its inquiries1 x mu/ proce$1 l o!r sci5ces1 by means ( evid5ce4 ,n[1 ! mom5t ?is sci5ce beg9s to draw inf]5ces f evid5ce1 logic becomes ! sov]eign judge :e!r its inf]5ces are well gr\nd$1 or :at o!r inf]5ces w\ld be s4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 con/itutes no ne>] or o!r relation betwe5 logic & metaphysics1 ?an t :i* exi/s betwe5 logic & e o!r sci5ce4 ,& ,i c consci5ti\sly affirm t no "o proposition laid d[n 9 ?is "w has be5 adopt$ = ! sake ( e/abli%+1 or ) any ref]5ce to its fitness = be+ employ$ 9 e/abli%+1 preconceiv$ op9ions 9 any dep>tm5t ( k or ( inquiry on :i* ! speculative _w is /ill undecid$47#f7 ,book ,i4 ,,( ,,names ,,& ,,propositions4 8,la scola/ique1 qui produisit dans la logique1 comme dans la morale1 et dans une p>tie de la mtaphysique1 une subtilit1 une prcision d'ides1 dont l'habitude inconnue aux anci5s1 a contribu plus qu'on ne croit au progrs de la bonne philosophie40--,,condorcet1 ,vie de ,turgot4 8,to ! s*oolm5 ! vulg> languages are pr9cipally indebt$ = :at precision & analytic subtlety !y possess40--,,sir ,w4 ,,hamilton1 ,discussions 9 ,philosophy4 ,*apt] ,i4 ,( ,! ,necessity ,( ,comm5c+ ,) ,an ,analysis ,( ,language4 #a4 ,x is s mu* ! e/abli%$ practice ( writ]s on logic to comm5ce _! treatises by a few g5]al obs]vations 79 mo/ cases1 x is true1 r meagre7 on ,t]ms & _! v>ieties1 t x w1 p]haps1 sc>cely be requir$ f me1 9 m]ely foll[+ ! common usage1 to be z p>ticul> 9 assign+ my reasons1 z x is usually expect$ t ^? %\ld be :o deviate f x4 ,! practice1 inde$1 is recomm5d$ by consid]ations f> too obvi\s to require a =mal ju/ification4 ,logic is a portion ( ! ,art ( ,?9k+3 ,language is evid5tly1 & by ! admission ( all philosoph]s1 "o ( ! pr9cipal in/rum5ts or helps ( ?\ght2 & any imp]fection 9 ! in/rum5t1 or 9 ! mode ( employ+ x1 is confess$ly liable1 /ill m ?an 9 almo/ any o!r art1 to confuse & imp$e ! process1 & de/roy all gr\nd ( confid5ce 9 ! result4 ,= a m9d n previ\sly v]s$ 9 ! mean+ & "r use ( ! v>i\s k9ds ( words1 to attempt ! /udy ( me?ods ( philosophiz+1 w\ld be z if "s "o %\ld attempt to become an a/ronomical obs]v]1 hav+ nev] le>n$ to adju/ ! focal di/ance ( 8 optical in/rum5ts s z to see di/9ctly4 ,s9ce ,reason+1 or ,inf]5ce1 ! pr9cipal subject ( logic1 is an op]ation :i* usually takes place by means ( words1 & 9 complicat$ cases c take place 9 no o!r way2 ^? :o h n a ?or\gh insight into ! signification & purposes ( words1 w be "u *ances1 am\nt+ almo/ to c]ta9ty1 ( reason+ or inf]r+ incorrectly4 ,& logicians h g5]ally felt t unless1 9 ! v fir/ /age1 !y remov$ ?is s\rce ( error2 unless !y taught _! pupil to put away ! glasses :i* di/ort ! object1 & to use ^? :i* are adapt$ to 8 purpose 9 su* a mann] z to assi/1 n p]plex1 8 vision2 he w\ld n be 9 a condition to practice ! rema9+ "p ( _! discipl9e ) any prospect ( advantage4 ,!re=e x is t an inquiry into language1 s f> z is ne$ful to gu>d aga9/ ! errors to :i* x gives rise1 has at all times be5 deem$ a necess>y prelim9>y to ! /udy ( logic4 ,b !re is ano!r reason1 ( a /ill m fundam5tal nature1 :y ! import ( words %\ld be ! e>lie/ subject ( ! logician's consid]ation3 because )\t x he c n exam9e into ! import ( ,propositions4 ,n[ ?is is a subject :i* /&s on ! v ?re%old ( ! sci5ce ( logic4 ,! object ( logic1 z def9$ 9 ! ,introductory ,*apt]1 is to asc]ta9 h[ we come by t portion ( our k 7mu* ! greate/ portion7 :i* is n intuitive3 & by :at crit]ion we c1 9 matt]s n self-evid5t1 di/+ui% betwe5 ?+s prov$ & ?+s n prov$1 betwe5 :at is wor?y & :at is unwor?y ( belief4 ,( ! v>i\s que/ions :i* pres5t !mselves to our inquir+ faculties1 "s receive an answ] f direct consci\sness1 o!rs1 if resolv$ at all1 c only be resolv$ by means ( evid5ce4 ,logic is conc]n$ ) ^! la/4 ,b be=e inquir+ into ! mode ( resolv+ que/ions1 x is necess>y to inquire :at are ^? :i* (f] !mselves2 :at que/ions are conceivable2 :at inquiries are !re1 to :i* mank9d h ei!r obta9$1 or be5 able to imag9e x possible t !y %\ld obta91 an answ]4 ,?is po9t is be/ asc]ta9$ by a survey & analysis ( ,propositions4 #b4 ,! answ] to e "q :i* x is possible to frame1 mu/ be conta9$ 9 a ,proposition1 or ,ass]tion4 ,:atev] c be an object ( belief1 or ev5 ( disbelief1 mu/1 :5 put into words1 assume ! =m ( a proposition4 ,all tru? & all error lie 9 propositions4 ,:at1 by a conv5i5t misapplication ( an ab/ract t]m1 we call a ,tru?1 means simply a ,true ,proposition2 & errors are false propositions4 ,to "k ! import ( all possible propositions w\ld be to "k all que/ions :i* c be rais$1 all matt]s :i* are susceptible ( be+ ei!r believ$ or disbeliev$4 ,h[ _m k9ds ( inquiries c be prop\nd$2 h[ _m k9ds ( judgm5ts c be made2 & h[ _m k9ds ( propositions x is possible to frame ) a mean+1 are b diff]5t =ms ( "o & ! same "q4 ,s9ce1 !n1 ! objects ( all ,belief & ( all ,inquiry express !mselves 9 propositions1 a suffici5t scrut9y ( ,propositions & ( _! v>ieties w apprise u :at que/ions mank9d h actually ask$ ( !mselves1 & :at1 9 ! nature ( answ]s to ^? que/ions1 !y h actually ?\ght !y _h gr\nds to believe4 ,n[ ! fir/ glance at a proposition %[s t x is =m$ by putt+ toge!r two names4 ,a proposition1 accord+ to ! common simple def9ition1 :i* is suffici5t = our purpose is1 disc\rse1 9 :i* some?+ is affirm$ or d5i$ ( some?+4 ,?us1 9 ! proposition1 ,gold is yell[1 ! quality yell[ is affirm$ ( ! sub/ance gold4 ,9 ! proposition1 ,frankl9 0 n born 9 ,engl&1 ! fact express$ by ! words born 9 ,engl& is d5i$ ( ! man ,frankl94 ,e proposition consi/s ( ?ree p>ts3 ! ,subject1 ! ,pr$icate1 & ! ,copula4 ,! pr$icate is ! "n d5ot+ t :i* is affirm$ or d5i$4 ,! subject is ! "n d5ot+ ! p]son or ?+ :i* some?+ is affirm$ or d5i$ (4 ,! copula is ! sign d5ot+ t !re is an affirmation or d5ial1 & !reby enabl+ ! he>] or read] to di/+ui% a proposition f any o!r k9d ( disc\rse4 ,?us1 9 ! proposition1 ,! e>? is r\nd1 ! ,pr$icate is ! ^w r\nd1 :i* d5otes ! quality affirm$1 or 7z ! phrase is7 pr$icat$3 ! e>?1 words d5ot+ ! object :i* t quality is affirm$ (1 compose ! ,subject2 ! ^w is1 :i* s]ves z ! connect+ m>k betwe5 ! subject & pr$icate1 to %[ t "o ( !m is affirm$ ( ! o!r1 is call$ ! ,copula4 ,dismiss+1 = ! pres5t1 ! copula1 ( :i* m w be said h]eaft]1 e proposition1 !n1 consi/s ( at lea/ two names--br+s toge!r two names1 9 a p>ticul> mann]4 ,?is is already a fir/ /ep t[>d :at we are 9 que/ (4 ,x appe>s f ?is1 t = an act ( belief1 "o object is n suffici5t2 ! simple/ act ( belief supposes1 & has some?+ to d )1 two objects--two names1 to say ! lea/2 & 7s9ce ! names mu/ be names ( some?+7 two namable ?+s4 ,a l>ge class ( ?9k]s w\ld cut ! matt] %ort by say+1 two ideas4 ,!y w\ld say1 t ! subject & pr$icate are bo? ( !m names ( ideas2 ! idea ( gold1 = in/ance1 & ! idea ( yell[2 & t :at takes place 7or "p ( :at takes place7 9 ! act ( belief consi/s 9 br++ 7z x is (t5 express$7 "o ( ^! ideas "u ! o!r4 ,b ?is we are n yet 9 a condition to say3 :e!r su* be ! correct mode ( describ+ ! ph5om5on1 is an aft] consid]ation4 ,! result ) :i* = ! pres5t we mu/ be cont5t$1 is1 t 9 e act ( belief two objects are 9 "s mann] tak5 cognizance (2 t !re c be no belief claim$1 or "q prop\nd$1 :i* does n embrace two di/9ct 7ei!r mat]ial or intellectual7 subjects ( ?\ght2 ea* ( !m capable1 or n1 ( be+ conceiv$ by itself1 b incapable ( be+ believ$ by itself4 ,i may say1 = in/ance1 8! sun40 ,! ^w has a mean+1 & sugge/s t mean+ to ! m9d ( any "o :o is li/5+ to me4 ,b suppose ,i ask him1 ,:e!r x is true3 :e!r he believes x8 ,he c give no answ]4 ,!re is z yet no?+ to believe1 or to disbelieve4 ,n[1 h[ev]1 let me make1 ( all possible ass]tions respect+ ! sun1 ! "o :i* involves ! lea/ ( ref]5ce to any object besides itself2 let me say1 8! sun exi/s40 ,"h1 at once1 is some?+ :i* a p]son c say he believes4 ,b "h1 in/ead ( only "o1 we f9d two di/9ct objects ( conception3 ! sun is "o object2 exi/5ce is ano!r4 ,let x n be said t ?is second conception1 exi/5ce1 is involv$ 9 ! fir/2 = ! sun may be conceiv$ z no long] exi/+4 8,! sun0 does n convey all ! mean+ t is convey$ by 8! sun exi/s30 8my fa!r0 does n include all ! mean+ ( 8my fa!r exi/s10 = he may be dead2 8a r\nd squ>e0 does n include ! mean+ ( 8a r\nd squ>e exi/s10 = x does n & c n exi/4 ,:5 ,i say 8! sun10 8my fa!r10 or a 8r\nd squ>e10 ,i d n call ^u ! he>] = any belief or disbelief1 nor c ei!r ! "o or ! o!r be af=d$ me2 b if ,i say1 8! sun exi/s10 8my fa!r exi/s10 or 8a r\nd squ>e exi/s10 ,i call = belief2 & %\ld1 9 ! fir/ ( ! ?ree in/ances1 meet ) x2 9 ! second1 ) belief or disbelief1 z ! case might be2 9 ! ?ird1 ) disbelief4 #c4 ,?is fir/ /ep 9 ! analysis ( ! object ( belief1 :i*1 ?\gh s obvi\s1 w be f\nd to be n unimportant1 is ! only "o :i* we %all f9d x practicable to make )\t a prelim9>y survey ( language4 ,if we attempt to proce$ fur!r 9 ! same pa?1 t is1 to analyze any fur!r ! import ( ,propositions2 we f9d =c$ ^u u1 z a subject ( previ\s consid]ation1 ! import ( ,names4 ,= e proposition consi/s ( two names2 & e proposition affirms or d5ies "o ( ^! names1 ( ! o!r4 ,n[ :at we d1 :at passes 9 our m9d1 :5 we affirm or d5y two names ( "o ano!r1 mu/ dep5d on :at !y are names (2 s9ce x is ) ref]5ce to t1 & n to ! m]e names !mselves1 t we make ! affirmation or d5ial4 ,"h1 !re=e1 we f9d a new reason :y ! signification ( names1 & ! relation g5]ally betwe5 names & ! ?+s signifi$ by !m1 mu/ occupy ! prelim9>y /age ( ! inquiry we are engag$ 94 ,x may be object$ t ! mean+ ( names c guide u at mo/ only to ! op9ions1 possibly ! fooli% & gr\ndless op9ions1 :i* mank9d h =m$ conc]n+ ?+s1 & t z ! object ( philosophy is tru?1 n op9ion1 ! philosoph] %\ld dismiss words & look into ?+s !mselves1 to asc]ta9 :at que/ions c be ask$ & answ]$ 9 reg>d to !m4 ,?is advice 7:i* no "o has x 9 8 p[] to foll[7 is 9 reality an exhortation to disc>d ! :ole fruits ( ! labors ( 8 pr$ecessors1 & conduct himself z if he 7 ! fir/ p]son :o _h ev] turn$ an inquir+ eye ^u nature4 ,:at does any "o's p]sonal k ( ,?+s am\nt to1 aft] subtract+ all :i* he has acquir$ by means ( ! words ( o!r p8 ,ev5 aft] he has le>n$ z mu* z p usually d le>n f o!rs1 w ! notions ( ?+s conta9$ 9 8 individual m9d af=d z suffici5t a basis = a catalogue raisonn z ! notions :i* are 9 ! m9ds ( all mank9d8 ,9 any enum]ation & classification ( ,?+s1 :i* does n set out f _! names1 no v>ieties ( ?+s w ( c\rse be compreh5d$ b ^? recogniz$ by ! p>ticul> inquir]2 & x w /ill rema9 to be e/abli%$1 by a subsequ5t exam9ation ( names1 t ! enum]ation has omitt$ no?+ :i* ought to h be5 includ$4 ,b if we beg9 ) names1 & use !m z our clue to ! ?+s1 we br+ at once be=e u all ! di/9ctions :i* h be5 recogniz$1 n by a s+le inquir]1 b by all inquir]s tak5 toge!r4 ,x d\btless may1 & ,i believe x w1 be f\nd1 t mank9d h multipli$ ! v>ieties unnecess>ily1 & h imag9$ di/9ctions among ?+s1 :]e !re 7 only di/9ctions 9 ! mann] ( nam+ !m4 ,b we are n entitl$ to assume ?is 9 ! comm5cem5t4 ,we mu/ beg9 by recogniz+ ! di/9ctions made by ord9>y language4 ,if "s ( ^! appe>1 on a close exam9ation1 n to be fundam5tal1 ! enum]ation ( ! diff]5t k9ds ( realities may be abridg$ accord+ly4 ,b to impose ^u ! facts 9 ! fir/ in/ance ! yoke ( a !ory1 :ile ! gr\nds ( ! !ory are res]v$ = discussion 9 a subsequ5t /age1 is n a c\rse :i* a logician c reasonably adopt4 ,*apt] ,,ii4 ,( ,names4 #a4 8,a "n10 says ,hobbes17#g7 8is a ^w tak5 at pleasure to s]ve = a m>k :i* may raise 9 our m9d a ?\ght l to "s ?\ght we _h be=e1 & :i* be+ pron\nc$ to o!rs1 may be to !m a sign ( :at ?\ght ! speak] _h7#h7 be=e 9 8 m9d40 ,?is simple def9ition ( a "n1 z a ^w 7or set ( words7 s]v+ ! d\ble purpose ( a m>k to recall to ourselves ! lik5ess ( a =m] ?\ght1 & a sign to make x kn[n to o!rs1 appe>s unexceptionable4 ,names1 inde$1 d mu* m ?an ?is2 b :atev] else !y d1 gr[s out (1 & is ! result ( ?is3 z w appe> 9 its prop] place4 ,are names m prop]ly said to be ! names ( ?+s1 or ( our ideas ( ?+s8 ,! fir/ is ! expression 9 common use2 ! la/ is t ( "s metaphysicians1 :o conceiv$ t 9 adopt+ x !y 7 introduc+ a highly important di/9ction4 ,! em95t ?9k]1 j quot$1 seems to c\nt5ance ! latt] op9ion4 8,b see+10 he cont9ues1 8names ord]$ 9 spee* 7z is def9$7 are signs ( our conceptions1 x is manife/ !y are n signs ( ! ?+s !mselves2 = t ! s\nd ( ?is ^w /one %\ld be ! sign ( a /one1 c n be und]/ood 9 any s5se b ?is1 t he t he>s x collects t he t pron\nces x ?9ks ( a /one40 ,if x be m]ely meant t ! conception alone1 & n ! ?+ itself1 is recall$ by ! "n1 or imp>t$ to ! he>]1 ?is ( c\rse c n be d5i$4 ,nev]!less1 !re seems good reason = adh]+ to ! common usage1 & call+ 7z inde$ ,hobbes himself does 9 o!r places7 ! ^w sun ! "n ( ! sun1 & n ! "n ( our idea ( ! sun4 ,= names are n int5d$ only to make ! he>] conceive :at we conceive1 b also to in=m him :at we believe4 ,n[1 :5 ,i use a "n = ! purpose ( express+ a belief1 x is a belief conc]n+ ! ?+ itself1 n conc]n+ my idea ( x4 ,:5 ,i say1 8! sun is ! cause ( day10 ,i d n mean t my idea ( ! sun causes or excites 9 me ! idea ( day2 or 9 o!r words1 t ?9k+ ( ! sun makes me ?9k ( day4 ,i mean1 t a c]ta9 physical fact1 :i* is call$ ! sun's pres5ce 7& :i*1 9 ! ultimate analysis1 resolves itself into s5sations1 n ideas7 causes ano!r physical fact1 :i* is call$ day4 ,x seems prop] to consid] a ^w z ! "n ( t :i* we int5d to be und]/ood by x :5 we use x2 ( t :i* any fact t we ass]t ( x is to be und]/ood (2 t1 9 %ort1 conc]n+ :i*1 :5 we employ ! ^w1 we int5d to give in=mation4 ,names1 !re=e1 %all always be spok5 ( 9 ?is "w z ! names ( ?+s !mselves1 & n m]ely ( our ideas ( ?+s4 ,b ! "q n[ arises1 ( :at ?+s8 & to answ] ?is x is necess>y to take into consid]ation ! diff]5t k9ds ( names4 #b4 ,x is usual1 be=e exam9+ ! v>i\s classes into :i* names are commonly divid$1 to beg9 by di/+ui%+ f names ( e description1 ^? words :i* are n names1 b only p>ts ( names4 ,among su* are reckon$ p>ticles1 z (1 to1 truly1 (t52 ! inflect$ cases ( n\ns sub/antive1 z me1 him1 ,john's2 & ev5 adjectives1 z l>ge1 heavy4 ,^! words d n express ?+s ( :i* any ?+ c be affirm$ or d5i$4 ,we c n say1 ,heavy fell1 or ,a heavy fell2 ,truly1 or ,a truly1 0 ass]t$2 ,(1 or ,an (1 0 9 ! room4 ,unless1 inde$1 we are speak+ ( ! m]e words !mselves1 z :5 we say1 ,truly is an ,engli% ^w1 or1 ,heavy is an adjective4 ,9 t case !y are complete names--viz41 names ( ^? p>ticul> s\nds1 or ( ^? p>ticul> collections ( writt5 *>act]s4 ,?is employm5t ( a ^w to d5ote ! m]e lett]s & syllables ( :i* x is compos$1 0 t]m$ by ! s*oolm5 ! suppositio mat]ialis ( ! ^w4 ,9 any o!r s5se we c n introduce "o ( ^! words into ! subject ( a proposition1 unless 9 comb9ation ) o!r words2 z1 ,a heavy body fell1 ,a truly important fact 0 ass]t$1 ,a memb] ( p>liam5t 0 9 ! room4 ,an adjective1 h[ev]1 is capable ( /&+ by itself z ! pr$icate ( a proposition2 z :5 we say1 ,sn[ is :ite2 & occasionally ev5 z ! subject1 = we may say1 ,:ite is an agreeable color4 ,! adjective is (t5 said to be s us$ by a grammatical ellipsis3 ,sn[ is :ite1 in/ead ( ,sn[ is a :ite object2 ,:ite is an agreeable color1 in/ead (1 ,a :ite color1 or1 ,! color :ite1 is agreeable4 ,! ,greeks & ,romans 7 all[$1 by ! rules ( _! language1 to employ ?is ellipsis univ]sally 9 ! subject z well z 9 ! pr$icate ( a proposition4 ,9 ,engli% ?is c n1 g5]ally speak+1 be done4 ,we may say1 ,! e>? is r\nd2 b we c n say1 ,r\nd is easily mov$2 we mu/ say1 ,a r\nd object4 ,?is di/9ction1 h[ev]1 is r grammatical ?an logical4 ,s9ce !re is no diff]5ce ( mean+ betwe5 r\nd1 & a r\nd object1 x is only cu/om :i* prescribes t on any giv5 occasion "o %all be us$1 & n ! o!r4 ,we %all1 !re=e1 )\t scruple1 speak ( adjectives z names1 :e!r 9 _! own "r1 or z repres5tative ( ! m circuit\s =ms ( expression above exemplifi$4 ,! o!r classes ( subsidi>y words h no title :atev] to be consid]$ z names4 ,an adv]b1 or an accusative case1 c n "u any circum/ances 7except :5 _! m]e lett]s & syllables are spok5 (7 figure z "o ( ! t]ms ( a proposition4 ,words :i* are n capable ( be+ us$ z names1 b only z p>ts ( names1 7 call$ by "s ( ! s*oolm5 ,syncategorematic t]ms3 f 1 )1 & 1 to pr$icate1 because x 0 only ) "s o!r ^w t !y c\ld be pr$icat$4 ,a ^w :i* c\ld be us$ ei!r z ! subject or pr$icate ( a proposition )\t be+ accompani$ by any o!r ^w1 0 t]m$ by ! same au?orities a ,categorematic t]m4 ,a comb9ation ( "o or m ,categorematic1 & "o or m ,syncategorematic words1 z ,a heavy body1 or ,a c\rt ( ju/ice1 !y sometimes call$ a mix$ t]m2 b ?is seems a ne$less multiplication ( te*nical expressions4 ,a mix$ t]m is1 9 ! only useful s5se ( ! ^w1 ,categorematic4 ,x belongs to ! class ( :at h be5 call$ _m-word$ names4 ,=1 z "o ^w is frequ5tly n a "n1 b only "p ( a "n1 s a numb] ( words (t5 compose "o s+le "n1 & no m4 ,^! words1 8,! place :i* ! wisdom or policy ( antiquity _h de/9$ = ! resid5ce ( ! ,abyss9ian pr9ces10 =m 9 ! e/imation ( ! logician only "o "n2 "o ,categorematic t]m4 ,a mode ( det]m9+ :e!r any set ( words makes only "o "n1 or m ?an "o1 is by pr$icat+ some?+ ( x1 & obs]v+ :e!r1 by ?is pr$ication1 we make only "o ass]tion or sev]al4 ,?us1 :5 we say1 ,john ,nokes1 :o 0 ! mayor ( ! t[n1 di$ ye/]day--by ?is pr$ication we make b "o ass]tion2 :5ce x appe>s t 8,john ,nokes1 :o 0 ! mayor ( ! t[n10 is no m ?an "o "n4 ,x is true t 9 ?is proposition1 besides ! ass]tion t ,john ,nokes di$ ye/]day1 !re is includ$ ano!r ass]tion1 namely1 t ,john ,nokes 0 mayor ( ! t[n4 ,b ?is la/ ass]tion 0 already made3 we did n make x by add+ ! pr$icate1 8di$ ye/]day40 ,suppose1 h[ev]1 t ! words _h be51 ,john ,nokes & ! mayor ( ! t[n1 !y w\ld h =m$ two names in/ead ( "o4 ,= :5 we say1 ,john ,nokes & ! mayor ( ! t[n di$ ye/]day1 we make two ass]tions3 "o1 t ,john ,nokes di$ ye/]day2 ! o!r1 t ! mayor ( ! t[n di$ ye/]day4 ,x be+ ne$less to illu/rate at any great] l5g? ! subject ( _m-word$ names1 we proce$ to ! di/9ctions :i* h be5 e/abli%$ among names1 n accord+ to ! words !y are compos$ (1 b accord+ to _! signification4 #c4 ,all names are names ( some?+1 real or imag9>y2 b all ?+s h n names appropriat$ to !m individually4 ,= "s individual objects we require1 & consequ5tly h1 sep>ate di/+ui%+ names2 !re is a "n = e p]son1 & = e rem>kable place4 ,o!r objects1 ( :i* we h n occasion to speak s frequ5tly1 we d n designate by a "n ( _! own2 b :5 ! necessity arises = nam+ !m1 we d s by putt+ toge!r sev]al words1 ea* ( :i*1 by itself1 might be & is us$ = an indef9ite numb] ( o!r objects2 z :5 ,i say1 ?is /one3 8?is0 & 8/one0 be+1 ea* ( !m1 names t may be us$ ( _m o!r objects besides ! p>ticul> "o meant1 ?\gh ! only object ( :i* !y c bo? be us$ at ! giv5 mom5t1 consi/5tly ) _! signification1 may be ! "o ( :i* ,i wi% to speak4 ,7 ?is ! sole purpose = :i* names1 t are common to m ?+s ?an "o1 c\ld be employ$2 if !y only s]v$1 by mutually limit+ ea* o!r1 to af=d a designation = su* individual objects z h no names ( _! own3 !y c\ld only be rank$ among contrivances = economiz+ ! use ( language4 ,b x is evid5t t ?is is n _! sole function4 ,x is by _! means t we are enabl$ to ass]t g5]al propositions2 to affirm or d5y any pr$icate ( an indef9ite numb] ( ?+s at once4 ,! di/9ction1 !re=e1 betwe5 g5]al names1 & individual or s+ul> names1 is fundam5tal2 & may be consid]$ z ! fir/ gr& division ( names4 ,a g5]al "n is famili>ly def9$1 a "n :i* is capable ( be+ truly affirm$1 9 ! same s5se1 ( ea* ( an indef9ite numb] ( ?+s4 ,an individual or s+ul> "n is a "n :i* is only capable ( be+ truly affirm$1 9 ! same s5se1 ( "o ?+4 ,?us1 man is capable ( be+ truly affirm$ ( ,john1 ,george1 ,m>y1 & o!r p]sons )\t assignable limit2 & x is affirm$ ( all ( !m 9 ! same s5se2 = ! ^w man expresses c]ta9 qualities1 & :5 we pr$icate x ( ^? p]sons1 we ass]t t !y all possess ^? qualities4 ,b ,john is only capable ( be+ truly affirm$ ( "o s+le p]son1 at lea/ 9 ! same s5se4 ,=1 ?\gh !re are _m p]sons :o be> t "n1 x is n conf]r$ ^u !m to indicate any qualities1 or any ?+ :i* belongs to !m 9 common2 & c n be said to be affirm$ ( !m 9 any s5se at all1 consequ5tly n 9 ! same s5se4 8,! k+ :o succe$$ ,william ! ,conqu]or10 is also an individual "n4 ,=1 t !re c n be m ?an "o p]son ( :om x c be truly affirm$1 is impli$ 9 ! mean+ ( ! words4 ,ev5 8! k+10 :5 ! occasion or ! context def9es ! individual ( :om x is to be und]/ood1 may ju/ly be reg>d$ z an individual "n4 ,x is n unusual1 by way ( expla9+ :at is meant by a g5]al "n1 to say t x is ! "n ( a class4 ,b ?is1 ?\gh a conv5i5t mode ( expression = "s purposes1 is objectionable z a def9ition1 s9ce x expla9s ! cle>] ( two ?+s by ! m obscure4 ,x w\ld be m logical to rev]se ! proposition1 & turn x into a def9ition ( ! ^w class3 8,a class is ! indef9ite multitude ( individuals d5ot$ by a g5]al "n40 ,x is necess>y to di/+ui% g5]al f collective names4 ,a g5]al "n is "o :i* c be pr$icat$ ( ea* individual ( a multitude2 a collective "n c n be pr$icat$ ( ea* sep>ately1 b only ( all tak5 toge!r4 8,! #gf? regim5t ( foot 9 ! ,briti% army10 :i* is a collective "n1 is n a g5]al b an individual "n2 = ?\gh x c be pr$icat$ ( a multitude ( individual soldi]s tak5 jo9tly1 x c n be pr$icat$ ( !m sev]ally4 ,we may say1 ,jones is a soldi]1 & ,?ompson is a soldi]1 & ,smi? is a soldi]1 b we c n say1 ,jones is ! #gf? regim5t1 & ,?ompson is ! #gf? regim5t1 & ,smi? is ! #gf? regim5t4 ,we c only say1 ,jones1 & ,?ompson1 & ,smi?1 & ,br[n1 & s =? 7enum]at+ all ! soldi]s71 are ! #gf? regim5t4 8,! #gf? regim5t0 is a collective "n1 b n a g5]al "o3 8a regim5t0 is bo? a collective & a g5]al "n4 ,g5]al ) respect to all individual regim5ts1 ( ea* ( :i* sep>ately x c be affirm$3 collective ) respect to ! individual soldi]s ( :om any regim5t is compos$4 #d4 ,! second g5]al division ( names is into concrete & ab/ract4 ,a concrete "n is a "n :i* /&s = a ?+2 an ab/ract "n is a "n :i* /&s = an attribute ( a ?+4 ,?us ,john1 ! sea1 ?is table1 are names ( ?+s4 ,:ite1 also1 is a "n ( a ?+1 or r ( ?+s4 ,:it5ess1 aga91 is ! "n ( a quality or attribute ( ^? ?+s4 ,man is a "n ( _m ?+s2 humanity is a "n ( an attribute ( ^? ?+s4 ,old is a "n ( ?+s3 old age is a "n ( "o ( _! attributes4 ,i h us$ ! words concrete & ab/ract 9 ! s5se annex$ to !m by ! s*oolm51 :o1 not)/&+ ! imp]fections ( _! philosophy1 7 unrival$ 9 ! con/ruction ( te*nical language1 & ^: def9itions1 9 logic at lea/1 ?\gh !y nev] w5t m ?an a little way into ! subject1 h seldom1 ,i ?9k1 be5 alt]$ b to be spoil$4 ,a practice1 h[ev]1 has gr[n up 9 m mod]n times1 :i*1 if n introduc$ by ,locke1 has ga9$ curr5cy *iefly f 8 example1 ( apply+ ! expression 8ab/ract "n0 to all names :i* are ! result ( ab/raction or g5]alization1 & consequ5tly to all g5]al names1 in/ead ( conf9+ x to ! names ( attributes4 ,! metaphysicians ( ! ,condillac s*ool--^: admiration ( ,locke1 pass+ ov] ! pr(\nde/ speculations ( t truly orig9al g5ius1 usually fa/5s ) peculi> eag]ness ^u 8 weake/ po9ts--h gone on imitat+ him 9 ?is abuse ( language1 until !re is n[ "s difficulty 9 re/or+ ! ^w to its orig9al signification4 ,a m wanton alt]ation 9 ! mean+ ( a ^w is r>ely to be met )2 = ! expression g5]al "n1 ! exact equival5t ( :i* exi/s 9 all languages ,i am acqua9t$ )1 0 already available = ! purpose to :i* ab/ract has be5 misappropriat$1 :ile ! misappropriation leaves t important class ( words1 ! names ( attributes1 )\t any compact di/9ctive appellation4 ,! old acceptation1 h[ev]1 has n gone s completely out ( use z to deprive ^? :o /ill adh]e to x ( all *ance ( be+ und]/ood4 ,by ab/ract1 !n1 ,i %all always1 9 ,logic prop]1 mean ! opposite ( concrete2 by an ab/ract "n1 ! "n ( an attribute2 by a concrete "n1 ! "n ( an object4 ,d ab/ract names belong to ! class ( g5]al1 or to t ( s+ul> names8 ,"s ( !m are c]ta9ly g5]al4 ,i mean ^? :i* are names n ( "o s+le & def9ite attribute1 b ( a class ( attributes4 ,su* is ! ^w color1 :i* is a "n common to :it5ess1 r$ness1 etc4 ,su* is ev5 ! ^w :it5ess1 9 respect ( ! diff]5t %ades ( :it5ess to :i* x is appli$ 9 common3 ! ^w magnitude1 9 respect ( ! v>i\s degrees ( magnitude & ! v>i\s dim5sions ( space2 ! ^w weight1 9 respect ( ! v>i\s degrees ( weight4 ,su* also is ! ^w attribute itself1 ! common "n ( all p>ticul> attributes4 ,b :5 only "o attribute1 nei!r v>iable 9 degree nor 9 k9d1 is designat$ by ! "n2 z visibl5ess2 tangibl5ess2 equality2 squ>5ess2 milk-:it5ess2 !n ! "n c h>dly be consid]$ g5]al2 = ?\gh x d5otes an attribute ( _m diff]5t objects1 ! attribute itself is always conceiv$ z "o1 n _m47#i7 ,to avoid ne$less logoma*ies1 ! be/ c\rse w\ld probably be to consid] ^! names z nei!r g5]al nor individual1 & to place !m 9 a class ap>t4 ,x may be object$ to our def9ition ( an ab/ract "n1 t n only ! names :i* we h call$ ab/ract1 b adjectives1 :i* we h plac$ 9 ! concrete class1 are names ( attributes2 t :ite1 = example1 is z mu* ! "n ( ! color z :it5ess is4 ,b 7z be=e rem>k$7 a ^w ought to be consid]$ z ! "n ( t :i* we int5d to be und]/ood by x :5 we put x to its pr9cipal use1 t is1 :5 we employ x 9 pr$ication4 ,:5 we say sn[ is :ite1 milk is :ite1 l95 is :ite1 we d n mean x to be und]/ood t sn[1 or l951 or milk1 is a color4 ,we mean t !y are ?+s hav+ ! color4 ,! rev]se is ! case ) ! ^w :it5ess2 :at we affirm to be :it5ess is n sn[1 b ! color ( sn[4 ,:it5ess1 !re=e1 is ! "n ( ! color exclusively3 :ite is a "n ( all ?+s :atev] hav+ ! color2 a "n1 n ( ! quality :it5ess1 b ( e :ite object4 ,x is true1 ?is "n 0 giv5 to all ^? v>i\s objects on acc\nt ( ! quality2 & we may !re=e say1 )\t impropriety1 t ! quality =ms "p ( its signification2 b a "n c only be said to /& =1 or to be a "n (1 ! ?+s ( :i* x c be pr$icat$4 ,we %all pres5tly see t all names :i* c be said to h any signification1 all names by apply+ :i* to an individual we give any in=mation respect+ t individual1 may be said to imply an attribute ( "s sort2 b !y are n names ( ! attribute2 x has its own prop] ab/ract "n4 #e4 ,?is leads to ! consid]ation ( a ?ird great division ( names1 into connotative & non-connotative1 ! latt] sometimes1 b improp]ly1 call$ absolute4 ,?is is "o ( ! mo/ important di/9ctions :i* we %all h occasion to po9t out1 & "o ( ^? :i* g deepe/ into ! nature ( language4 ,a non-connotative t]m is "o :i* signifies a subject only1 or an attribute only4 ,a connotative t]m is "o :i* d5otes a subject1 & implies an attribute4 ,by a subject is "h meant any ?+ :i* possesses attributes4 ,?us ,john1 or ,london1 or ,engl&1 are names :i* signify a subject only4 ,:it5ess1 l5g?1 virtue1 signify an attribute only4 ,none ( ^! names1 !re=e1 are connotative4 ,b :ite1 long1 virtu\s1 are connotative4 ,! ^w :ite1 d5otes all :ite ?+s1 z sn[1 pap]1 ! foam ( ! sea1 etc41 & implies1 or 9 ! language ( ! s*oolm51 connotes17#aj7 ! attribute :it5ess4 ,! ^w :ite is n pr$icat$ ( ! attribute1 b ( ! subjects1 sn[1 etc42 b :5 we pr$icate x ( !m1 we convey ! mean+ t ! attribute :it5ess belongs to !m4 ,! same may be said ( ! o!r words above cit$4 ,virtu\s1 = example1 is ! "n ( a class1 :i* includes ,socrates1 ,h[>d1 ! ,man ( ,ross1 & an undef9able numb] ( o!r individuals1 pa/1 pres5t1 & to come4 ,^! individuals1 collectively & sev]ally1 c alone be said ) propriety to be d5ot$ by ! ^w3 ( !m alone c x prop]ly be said to be a "n4 ,b x is a "n appli$ to all ( !m 9 consequ5ce ( an attribute :i* !y are suppos$ to possess 9 common1 ! attribute :i* has receiv$ ! "n ( virtue4 ,x is appli$ to all be+s t are consid]$ to possess ?is attribute2 & to none :i* are n s consid]$4 ,all concrete g5]al names are connotative4 ,! ^w man1 = example1 d5otes ,pet]1 ,jane1 ,john1 & an indef9ite numb] ( o!r individuals1 ( :om1 tak5 z a class1 x is ! "n4 ,b x is appli$ to !m1 because !y possess1 & to signify t !y possess1 c]ta9 attributes4 ,^! seem to be1 corporeity1 animal life1 rationality1 & a c]ta9 ext]nal =m1 :i* = di/9ction we call ! human4 ,e exi/+ ?+1 :i* possess$ all ^! attributes1 w\ld be call$ a man2 & any ?+ :i* possess$ none ( !m1 or only "o1 or two1 or ev5 ?ree ( !m )\t ! f\r?1 w\ld n be s call$4 ,= example1 if 9 ! int]ior ( ,africa !re 7 to be discov]$ a race ( animals possess+ reason equal to t ( human be+s1 b ) ! =m ( an elephant1 !y w\ld n be call$ m54 ,swift's ,h\yhnhnms w\ld n be s call$4 ,or if su* newly-discov]$ be+s possess$ ! =m ( man )\t any ve/ige ( reason1 x is probable t "s o!r "n ?an t ( man w\ld be f\nd = !m4 ,h[ x happ5s t !re c be any d\bt ab\t ! matt]1 w appe> h]eaft]4 ,! ^w man1 !re=e1 signifies all ^! attributes1 & all subjects :i* possess ^! attributes4 ,b x c be pr$icat$ only ( ! subjects4 ,:at we call m51 are ! subjects1 ! individual ,/iles & ,nokes2 n ! qualities by :i* _! humanity is con/itut$4 ,! "n1 !re=e1 is said to signify ! subjects directly1 ! attributes indirectly2 x d5otes ! subjects1 & implies1 or involves1 or indicates1 or z we %all say h5ce=? connotes1 ! attributes4 ,x is a connotative "n4 ,connotative names h h5ce be5 also call$ d5om9ative1 because ! subject :i* !y d5ote is d5om9at$ by1 or receives a "n f ! attribute :i* !y connote4 ,sn[1 & o!r objects1 receive ! "n :ite1 because !y possess ! attribute :i* is call$ :it5ess2 ,pet]1 ,james1 & o!rs receive ! "n man because !y possess ! attributes :i* are consid]$ to con/itute humanity4 ,! attribute1 or attributes1 may !re=e be said to d5om9ate ^? objects1 or to give !m a common "n47#aa7 ,x has be5 se5 t all concrete g5]al names are connotative4 ,ev5 ab/ract names1 ?\gh ! names only ( attributes1 may 9 "s in/ances be ju/ly consid]$ z connotative2 = attributes !mselves may h attributes ascrib$ to !m2 & a ^w :i* d5otes attributes may connote an attribute ( ^? attributes4 ,( ?is description1 = example1 is su* a ^w z fault2 equival5t to bad or hurtful quality4 ,?is ^w is a "n common to _m attributes1 & connotes hurtfulness1 an attribute ( ^? v>i\s attributes4 ,:51 = example1 we say t sl[ness1 9 a horse1 is a fault1 we d n mean t ! sl[ movem5t1 ! actual *ange ( pace ( ! sl[ horse1 is a bad ?+1 b t ! prop]ty or peculi>ity ( ! horse1 f :i* x d]ives t "n1 ! quality ( be+ a sl[ mov]1 is an undesirable peculi>ity4 ,9 reg>d to ^? concrete names :i* are n g5]al b individual1 a di/9ction mu/ be made4 ,prop] names are n connotative3 !y d5ote ! individuals :o are call$ by !m2 b !y d n indicate or imply any attributes z belong+ to ^? individuals4 ,:5 we "n a *ild by ! "n ,paul1 or a dog by ! "n ,cs>1 ^! names are simply m>ks us$ to enable ^? individuals to be made subjects ( disc\rse4 ,x may be said1 inde$1 t we mu/ h _h "s reason = giv+ !m ^? names r ?an any o!rs2 & ?is is true2 b ! "n1 once giv51 is indep5d5t ( ! reason4 ,a man may h be5 nam$ ,john1 because t 0 ! "n ( 8 fa!r2 a t[n may h be5 nam$ ,d>tm\?1 because x is situat$ at ! m\? ( ! ,d>t4 ,b x is no "p ( ! signification ( ! ^w ,john1 t ! fa!r ( ! p]son s call$ bore ! same "n2 nor ev5 ( ! ^w ,d>tm\?1 to be situat$ at ! m\? ( ! ,d>t4 ,if s& %\ld *oke up ! m\? ( ! riv]1 or an e>?quake *ange its c\rse1 & remove x to a di/ance f ! t[n1 ! "n ( ! t[n w\ld n necess>ily be *ang$4 ,t fact1 !re=e1 c =m no "p ( ! signification ( ! ^w2 = o!rwise1 :5 ! fact confess$ly ceas$ to be true1 no "o w\ld any long] ?9k ( apply+ ! "n4 ,prop] names are atta*$ to ! objects !mselves1 & are n dep5d5t on ! cont9uance ( any attribute ( ! object4 ,b !re is ano!r k9d ( names1 :i*1 al?\gh !y are individual names--t is1 pr$icable only ( "o object--are really connotative4 ,=1 ?\gh we may give to an individual a "n utt]ly unmean+1 :i* we call a prop] "n--a ^w :i* answ]s ! purpose ( %[+ :at ?+ x is we are talk+ ab\t1 b n ( tell+ any ?+ ab\t x2 yet a "n peculi> to an individual is n necess>ily ( ?is description4 ,x may be significant ( "s attribute1 or "s union ( attributes1 :i*1 be+ possess$ by no object b "o1 det]m9es ! "n exclusively to t individual4 8,! sun0 is a "n ( ?is description2 8,god10 :5 us$ by a mono!i/1 is ano!r4 ,^!1 h[ev]1 are sc>cely examples ( :at we are n[ attempt+ to illu/rate1 be+1 9 /rictness ( language1 g5]al1 n individual names3 =1 h[ev] !y may be 9 fact pr$icable only ( "o object1 !re is no?+ 9 ! mean+ ( ! words !mselves :i* implies ?is3 &1 accord+ly1 :5 we are imag9+ & n affirm+1 we may speak ( _m suns2 & ! majority ( mank9d h believ$1 & /ill believe1 t !re are _m gods4 ,b x is easy to produce words :i* are real in/ances ( connotative individual names4 ,x may be "p ( ! mean+ ( ! connotative "n itself1 t !re c exi/ b "o individual possess+ ! attribute :i* x connotes3 z1 = in/ance1 8! only son ( ,john ,/iles20 8! fir/ emp]or ( ,rome40 ,or ! attribute connot$ may be a connection ) "s det]m9ate ev5t1 & ! connection may be ( su* a k9d z only "o individual c\ld h2 or may at lea/ be su* z only "o individual actually _h2 & ?is may be impli$ 9 ! =m ( ! expression4 8,! fa!r ( ,socrates0 is an example ( ! "o k9d 7s9ce ,socrates c\ld n h _h two fa!rs72 8! au?or ( ! ,iliad10 8! murd]] ( ,h5ri ,quatre10 ( ! second4 ,=1 ?\gh x is conceivable t m p]sons ?an "o might h p>ticipat$ 9 ! au?or%ip ( ! ,iliad1 or 9 ! murd] ( ,h5ri ,quatre1 ! employm5t ( ! article ! implies t1 9 fact1 ?is 0 n ! case4 ,:at is "h done by ! ^w !1 is done 9 o!r cases by ! context3 ?us1 8,cs>'s army0 is an individual "n1 if x appe>s f ! context t ! army meant is t :i* ,cs> comm&$ 9 a p>ticul> battle4 ,! /ill m g5]al expressions1 8! ,roman army10 or 8! ,*ri/ian army10 may be individualiz$ 9 a simil> mann]4 ,ano!r case ( frequ5t occurr5ce has already be5 notic$2 x is ! foll[+3 ,! "n1 be+ a _m-word$ "o1 may consi/1 9 ! fir/ place1 ( a g5]al "n1 capable !re=e 9 itself ( be+ affirm$ ( m ?+s ?an "o1 b :i* is1 9 ! second place1 s limit$ by o!r words jo9$ ) x1 t ! entire expression c only be pr$icat$ ( "o object1 consi/5tly ) ! mean+ ( ! g5]al t]m4 ,?is is exemplifi$ 9 su* an in/ance z ! foll[+3 8! pres5t prime m9i/] ( ,engl&40 ,prime ,m9i/] ( ,engl& is a g5]al "n2 ! attributes :i* x connotes may be possess$ by an indef9ite numb] ( p]sons3 9 succession h[ev]1 n simultane\sly2 s9ce ! mean+ ( ! "n itself imports 7among o!r ?+s7 t !re c be only "o su* p]son at a "t4 ,?is be+ ! case1 & ! application ( ! "n be+ aft]w>d limit$ by ! article & ! ^w pres5t1 to su* individuals z possess ! attributes at "o indivisible po9t ( "t1 x becomes applicable only to "o individual4 ,& z ?is appe>s f ! mean+ ( ! "n1 )\t any extr9sic pro(1 x is /rictly an individual "n4 ,f ! prec$+ obs]vations x w easily be collect$1 t :5ev] ! names giv5 to objects convey any in=mation--t is1 :5ev] !y h prop]ly any mean+--! mean+ resides n 9 :at !y d5ote1 b 9 :at !y connote4 ,! only names ( objects :i* connote no?+ are prop] names2 & ^! h1 /rictly speak+1 no signification47#ab7 ,if1 l ! robb] 9 ! ,arabian ,nights1 we make a m>k ) *alk on a h\se to enable u to "k x aga91 ! m>k has a purpose1 b x has n prop]ly any mean+4 ,! *alk does n decl>e any ?+ ab\t ! h\se2 x does n mean1 ,?is is su* a p]son's h\se1 or ,?is is a h\se :i* conta9s booty4 ,! object ( mak+ ! m>k is m]ely di/9ction4 ,i say to myself1 ,all ^! h\ses are s ne>ly alike t if ,i lose sight ( !m ,i %all n aga9 be able to di/+ui% t :i* ,i am n[ look+ at1 f any ( ! o!rs2 ,i mu/ !re=e contrive to make ! appe>ance ( ?is "o h\se unlike t ( ! o!rs1 t ,i may h]eaft] "k :5 ,i see ! m>k--n inde$ any attribute ( ! h\se--b simply t x is ! same h\se :i* ,i am n[ look+ at4 ,morgiana *alk$ all ! o!r h\ses 9 a simil> mann]1 & defeat$ ! s*eme3 h[8 simply by oblit]at+ ! diff]5ce ( appe>ance betwe5 t h\se & ! o!rs4 ,! *alk 0 /ill !re1 b x no long] s]v$ ! purpose ( a di/9ctive m>k4 ,:5 we impose a prop] "n1 we p]=m an op]ation 9 "s degree analog\s to :at ! robb] int5d$ 9 *alk+ ! h\se4 ,we put a m>k1 n inde$ ^u ! object itself1 b1 s to speak1 ^u ! idea ( ! object4 ,a prop] "n is b an unmean+ m>k :i* we connect 9 our m9ds ) ! idea ( ! object1 9 ord] t :5ev] ! m>k meets our eyes or occurs to our ?\ghts1 we may ?9k ( t individual object4 ,n be+ atta*$ to ! ?+ itself1 x does n1 l ! *alk1 enable u to di/+ui% ! object :5 we see x2 b x enables u to di/+ui% x :5 x is spok5 (1 ei!r 9 ! records ( our own exp]i5ce1 or 9 ! disc\rse ( o!rs2 to "k t :at we f9d ass]t$ 9 any proposition ( :i* x is ! subject1 is ass]t$ ( ! individual ?+ ) :i* we 7 previ\sly acqua9t$4 ,:5 we pr$icate ( any ?+ its prop] "n2 :5 we say1 po9t+ to a man1 ?is is ,br[n or ,smi?1 or po9t+ to a city1 t x is ,york1 we d n1 m]ely by s do+1 convey to ! read] any in=mation ab\t !m1 except t ^? are _! names4 ,by enabl+ him to id5tify ! individuals1 we may connect !m ) in=mation previ\sly possess$ by him2 by say+1 ,?is is ,york1 we may tell him t x conta9s ! ,m9/]4 ,b ?is is 9 virtue ( :at he has previ\sly he>d conc]n+ ,york2 n by any ?+ impli$ 9 ! "n4 ,x is o!rwise :5 objects are spok5 ( by connotative names4 ,:5 we say1 ,! t[n is built ( m>ble1 we give ! he>] :at may be entirely new in=mation1 & ?is m]ely by ! signification ( ! _m-word$ connotative "n1 8built ( m>ble40 ,su* names are n signs ( ! m]e objects1 inv5t$ because we h occasion to ?9k & speak ( ^? objects individually2 b signs :i* accompany an attribute2 a k9d ( liv]y 9 :i* ! attribute clo!s all objects :i* are recogniz$ z possess+ x4 ,!y are n m]e m>ks1 b m1 t is to say1 significant m>ks2 & ! connotation is :at con/itutes _! significance4 ,z a prop] "n is said to be ! "n ( ! "o individual :i* x is pr$icat$ (1 s 7z well f ! importance ( adh]+ to analogy1 z = ! o!r reasons =m]ly assign$7 a connotative "n ought to be consid]$ a "n ( all ! v>i\s individuals :i* x is pr$icable (1 or 9 o!r words d5otes1 & n ( :at x connotes4 ,b by le>n+ :at ?+s x is a "n (1 we d n le>n ! mean+ ( ! "n3 = to ! same ?+ we may1 ) equal propriety1 apply _m names1 n equival5t 9 mean+4 ,?us1 ,i call a c]ta9 man by ! "n ,sophroniscus3 ,i call him by ano!r "n1 ,! fa!r ( ,socrates4 ,bo? ^! are names ( ! same individual1 b _! mean+ is altoge!r diff]5t2 !y are appli$ to t individual = two diff]5t purposes3 ! "o1 m]ely to di/+ui% him f o!r p]sons :o are spok5 (2 ! o!r to indicate a fact relat+ to him1 ! fact t ,socrates 0 8 son4 ,i fur!r apply to him ^! o!r expressions3 a man1 a ,greek1 an ,a!nian1 a sculptor1 an old man1 an hone/ man1 a brave man4 ,all ^! are1 or may be1 names ( ,sophroniscus1 n inde$ ( him alone1 b ( him & ea* ( an indef9ite numb] ( o!r human be+s4 ,ea* ( ^! names is appli$ to ,sophroniscus = a diff]5t reason1 & by ea* :oev] und]/&s its mean+ is appris$ ( a di/9ct fact or numb] ( facts conc]n+ him2 b ^? :o knew no?+ ab\t ! names except t !y 7 applicable to ,sophroniscus1 w\ld be altoge!r ignorant ( _! mean+4 ,x is ev5 possible t ,i might "k e s+le individual ( :om a giv5 "n c\ld be ) tru? affirm$1 & yet c\ld n be said to "k ! mean+ ( ! "n4 ,a *ild kn[s :o are its bro!rs & si/]s1 long be=e x has any def9ite conception ( ! nature ( ! facts :i* are involv$ 9 ! signification ( ^? words4 ,9 "s cases x is n easy to decide precisely h[ mu* a p>ticul> ^w does or does n connote2 t is1 we d n exactly "k 7! case n hav+ aris57 :at degree ( diff]5ce 9 ! object w\ld occasion a diff]5ce 9 ! "n4 ,?us1 x is cle> t ! ^w man1 besides animal life & rationality1 connotes also a c]ta9 ext]nal =m2 b x w\ld be impossible to say precisely :at =m2 t is1 to decide h[ great a deviation f ! =m ord9>ily f\nd 9 ! be+s :om we are accu/om$ to call m51 w\ld suffice 9 a newly-discov]$ race to make u refuse !m ! "n ( man4 ,rationality1 also1 be+ a quality :i* admits ( degrees1 x has nev] be5 settl$ :at is ! l[e/ degree ( t quality :i* w\ld entitle any creature to be consid]$ a human be+4 ,9 all su* cases1 ! mean+ ( ! g5]al "n is s f> unsettl$ & vague2 mank9d h n come to any positive agreem5t ab\t ! matt]4 ,:5 we come to treat ( ,classification1 we %all h occasion to %[ "u :at conditions ?is vagu5ess may exi/ )\t practical inconv5i5ce2 & cases w appe> 9 :i* ! ends ( language are bett] promot$ by x ?an by complete precision2 9 ord] t1 9 natural hi/ory = in/ance1 individuals or species ( no v m>k$ "* may be rang$ ) ^? m /rongly *>act]iz$ individuals or species to :i*1 9 all _! prop]ties tak5 toge!r1 !y be> ! ne>e/ resemblance4 ,b ?is p>tial unc]ta9ty 9 ! connotation ( names c only be free f mis*ief :5 gu>d$ by /rict precautions4 ,"o ( ! *ief s\rces1 inde$1 ( lax habits ( ?\ght1 is ! cu/om ( us+ connotative t]ms )\t a di/9ctly asc]ta9$ connotation1 & ) no m precise notion ( _! mean+ ?an c be loosely collect$ f obs]v+ :at objects !y are us$ to d5ote4 ,x is 9 ?is mann] t we all acquire1 & inevitably s1 our fir/ k ( our v]nacul> language4 ,a *ild le>ns ! mean+ ( ! words man1 or :ite1 by he>+ !m appli$ to a v>iety ( individual objects1 & f9d+ out1 by a process ( g5]alization & analysis :i* he c\ld n himself describe1 :at ^? diff]5t objects h 9 common4 ,9 ! case ( ^! two words ! process is s easy z to require no assi/ance f culture2 ! objects call$ human be+s1 & ! objects call$ :ite1 diff]+ f all o!rs by qualities ( a peculi>ly def9ite & obvi\s "*4 ,b 9 _m o!r cases1 objects be> a g5]al resemblance to "o ano!r1 :i* leads to _! be+ famili>ly class$ toge!r "u a common "n1 :ile1 )\t m analytic habits ?an ! g5]ality ( mank9d possess1 x is n imm$iately app>5t :at are ! p>ticul> attributes1 ^u ! possession ( :i* 9 common by !m all1 _! g5]al resemblance dep5ds4 ,:5 ?is is ! case1 p use ! "n )\t any recogniz$ connotation1 t is1 )\t any precise mean+2 !y talk1 & consequ5tly ?9k1 vaguely1 & rema9 cont5t$ to atta* only ! same degree ( significance to _! own words1 :i* a *ild ?ree ye>s old atta*es to ! words bro!r & si/]4 ,! *ild at lea/ is seldom puzzl$ by ! />t+ up ( new individuals1 on :om he is ignorant :e!r or n to conf] ! title2 because !re is usually an au?ority close at h& compet5t to solve all d\bts4 ,b a simil> res\rce does n exi/ 9 ! g5]ality ( cases2 & new objects are cont9ually pres5t+ !mselves to m51 wom51 & *ildr51 :i* !y are call$ ^u to class proprio motu4 ,!y1 accord+ly1 d ?is on no o!r pr9ciple ?an t ( sup]ficial simil>ity1 giv+ to ea* new object ! "n ( t famili> object1 ! idea ( :i* x mo/ readily recalls1 or :i*1 on a cursory inspection1 x seems to !m mo/ to resemble3 z an unkn[n sub/ance f\nd 9 ! gr\nd w be call$1 accord+ to its texture1 e>?1 s&1 or a /one4 ,9 ?is mann]1 names creep on f subject to subject1 until all traces ( a common mean+ sometimes disappe>1 & ! ^w comes to d5ote a numb] ( ?+s n only indep5d5tly ( any common attribute1 b :i* h actually no attribute 9 common2 or none b :at is %>$ by o!r ?+s to :i* ! "n is caprici\sly refus$47#ac7 ,ev5 sci5tific writ]s h aid$ 9 ?is p]v]sion ( g5]al language f its purpose2 sometimes because1 l ! vulg>1 !y knew no bett]2 & sometimes 9 def]5ce to t av]sion to admit new words1 :i* induces mank9d1 on all subjects n consid]$ te*nical1 to attempt to make ! orig9al /ock ( names s]ve ) b little augm5tation to express a con/antly increas+ numb] ( objects & di/9ctions1 &1 consequ5tly1 to express !m 9 a mann] progressively m & m imp]fect4 ,to :at a degree ?is loose mode ( class+ & d5om9at+ objects has r5d]$ ! vocabul>y ( m5tal & moral philosophy unfit = ! purposes ( accurate ?9k+1 is be/ kn[n to :oev] has mo/ m$itat$ on ! pres5t condition ( ^? bran*es ( k4 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 ! introduction ( a new te*nical language z ! vehicle ( speculations on subjects belong+ to ! doma9 ( daily discussion1 is extremely difficult to effect1 & w\ld n be free f inconv5i5ce ev5 if effect$1 ! problem = ! philosoph]1 & "o ( ! mo/ difficult :i* he has to resolve1 is1 9 reta9+ ! exi/+ phraseology1 h[ be/ to alleviate its imp]fections4 ,?is c only be accompli%$ by giv+ to e g5]al concrete "n :i* !re is frequ5t occasion to pr$icate1 a def9ite & fix$ connotation2 9 ord] t x may be kn[n :at attributes1 :5 we call an object by t "n1 we really mean to pr$icate ( ! object4 ,& ! "q ( mo/ nicety is1 h[ to give ?is fix$ connotation to a "n1 ) ! lea/ possible *ange 9 ! objects :i* ! "n is habitually employ$ to d5ote2 ) ! lea/ possible dis>rangem5t1 ei!r by add+ or subtraction1 ( ! gr\p ( objects :i*1 9 h[ev] imp]fect a mann]1 x s]ves to circumscribe & hold toge!r2 & ) ! lea/ vitiation ( ! tru? ( any propositions :i* are commonly receiv$ z true4 ,?is desirable purpose1 ( giv+ a fix$ connotation :]e x is want+1 is ! end aim$ at :5ev] any "o attempts to give a def9ition ( a g5]al "n already 9 use2 e def9ition ( a connotative "n be+ an attempt ei!r m]ely to decl>e1 or to decl>e & analyze1 ! connotation ( ! "n4 ,& ! fact1 t no que/ions :i* h aris5 9 ! moral sci5ces h be5 subjects ( ke5] controv]sy ?an ! def9itions ( almo/ all ! lead+ expressions1 is a pro( h[ great an ext5t ! evil to :i* we h adv]t$ has atta9$4 ,names ) indet]m9ate connotation are n to be conf\nd$ ) names :i* h m ?an "o connotation1 t is to say1 ambigu\s words4 ,a ^w may h sev]al mean+s1 b all ( !m fix$ & recogniz$ ones2 z ! ^w po/1 = example1 or ! ^w box1 ! v>i\s s5ses ( :i* x w\ld be endless to enum]ate4 ,& ! paucity ( exi/+ names1 9 comp>ison ) ! dem& = !m1 may (t5 r5d] x advisable & ev5 necess>y to reta9 a "n 9 ?is multiplicity ( acceptations1 di/+ui%+ ^! s cle>ly z to prev5t _! be+ conf\nd$ ) "o ano!r4 ,su* a ^w may be consid]$ z two or m names1 accid5tally writt5 & spok5 alike47#ad7 #f4 ,! f\r? pr9cipal division ( names1 is into positive & negative4 ,positive1 z man1 tree1 good2 negative1 z n-man1 n-tree1 n-good4 ,to e positive concrete "n1 a correspond+ negative "o might be fram$4 ,aft] giv+ a "n to any "o ?+1 or to any plurality ( ?+s1 we might create a second "n :i* %\ld be a "n ( all ?+s :atev]1 except t p>ticul> ?+ or ?+s4 ,^! negative names are employ$ :5ev] we h occasion to speak collectively ( all ?+s o!r ?an "s ?+ or class ( ?+s4 ,:5 ! positive "n is connotative1 ! correspond+ negative "n is connotative likewise2 b 9 a peculi> way1 connot+ n ! pres5ce b ! abs5ce ( an attribute4 ,?us1 n-:ite d5otes all ?+s :atev] except :ite ?+s2 & connotes ! attribute ( n possess+ :it5ess4 ,= ! non-possession ( any giv5 attribute is also an attribute1 & may receive a "n z su*2 & ?us negative concrete names may obta9 negative ab/ract names to correspond to !m47#ae7 ,names :i* are positive 9 =m are (t5 negative 9 reality1 & o!rs are really positive ?\gh _! =m is negative4 ,! ^w inconv5i5t1 = example1 does n express ! m]e abs5ce ( conv5i5ce2 x expresses a positive attribute--t ( be+ ! cause ( discom=t or annoyance4 ,s ! ^w unpleasant1 not)/&+ its negative =m1 does n connote ! m]e abs5ce ( pleasantness1 b a less degree ( :at is signifi$ by ! ^w pa9ful1 :i*1 x is h>dly necess>y to say1 is positive4 ,idle1 on ! o!r h&1 is a ^w :i*1 ?\gh positive 9 =m1 expresses no?+ b :at w\ld be signifi$ ei!r by ! phrase n work+1 or by ! phrase n dispos$ to "w2 & sob]1 ei!r by n drunk or by n drunk54 ,!re is a class ( names call$ privative4 ,a privative "n is equival5t 9 its signification to a positive & a negative "n tak5 toge!r2 be+ ! "n ( some?+ :i* has once _h a p>ticul> attribute1 or = "s o!r reason might h be5 expect$ to h x1 b :i* has x n4 ,su* is ! ^w bl9d1 :i* is n equival5t to n see+1 or to n capable ( see+1 = x w\ld n1 except by a poetical or rhetorical figure1 be appli$ to /ocks & /ones4 ,a ?+ is n usually said to be bl9d1 unless ! class to :i* x is mo/ famili>ly ref]r$1 or to :i* x is ref]r$ on ! p>ticul> occasion1 be *iefly compos$ ( ?+s :i* c see1 z 9 ! case ( a bl9d man1 or a bl9d horse2 or unless x is suppos$ = any reason t x ought to see2 z 9 say+ ( a man1 t he ru%$ bl9dly into an abyss1 or ( philosoph]s or ! cl]gy t ! great] "p ( !m are bl9d guides4 ,! names call$ privative1 !re=e1 connote two ?+s2 ! abs5ce ( c]ta9 attributes1 & ! pres5ce ( o!rs1 f :i* ! pres5ce also ( ! =m] might naturally h be5 expect$4 #g4 ,! fif? lead+ division ( names is into relative & absolute1 or let u r say1 relative & non-relative2 = ! ^w absolute is put ^u mu* too h>d duty 9 metaphysics1 n to be will+ly sp>$ :5 its s]vices c be disp5s$ )4 ,x resembles ! ^w civil 9 ! language ( jurisprud5ce1 :i* /&s = ! opposite ( crim9al1 ! opposite ( ecclesia/ical1 ! opposite ( milit>y1 ! opposite ( political--9 %ort1 ! opposite ( any positive ^w :i* wants a negative4 ,relative names are su* z fa!r1 son2 rul]1 subject2 l2 equal2 unlike2 unequal2 long]1 %ort]2 cause1 effect4 ,_! *>act]i/ic prop]ty is1 t !y are always giv5 9 pairs4 ,e relative "n :i* is pr$icat$ ( an object1 supposes ano!r object 7or objects71 ( :i* we may pr$icate ei!r t same "n or ano!r relative "n :i* is said to be ! correlative ( ! =m]4 ,?us1 :5 we call any p]son a son1 we suppose o!r p]sons :o mu/ be call$ p>5ts4 ,:5 we call any ev5t a cause1 we suppose ano!r ev5t :i* is an effect4 ,:5 we say ( any di/ance t x is long]1 we suppose ano!r di/ance :i* is %ort]4 ,:5 we say ( any object t x is l1 we mean t x is l "s o!r object1 :i* is also said to be l ! fir/4 ,9 ?is la/ case bo? objects receive ! same "n2 ! relative t]m is its own correlative4 ,x is evid5t t ^! words1 :5 concrete1 are1 l o!r concrete g5]al names1 connotative2 !y d5ote a subject1 & connote an attribute2 & ea* ( !m has1 or might h1 a correspond+ ab/ract "n1 to d5ote ! attribute connot$ by ! concrete4 ,?us ! concrete l has its ab/ract lik5ess2 ! concretes1 fa!r & son1 h1 or might h1 ! ab/racts1 pat]nity1 & filiety1 or son%ip4 ,! concrete "n connotes an attribute1 & ! ab/ract "n :i* answ]s to x d5otes t attribute4 ,b ( :at nature is ! attribute8 ,:]e9 consi/s ! peculi>ity 9 ! connotation ( a relative "n8 ,! attribute signifi$ by a relative "n1 say "s1 is a relation2 & ?is !y give1 if n z a suffici5t explanation1 at lea/ z ! only "o atta9able4 ,if !y are ask$1 ,:at !n is a relation8 !y d n pr(ess to be able to tell4 ,x is g5]ally reg>d$ z some?+ peculi>ly recondite & my/]i\s4 ,i c n1 h[ev]1 p]ceive 9 :at respect x is m s ?an any o!r attribute2 inde$1 x appe>s to me to be s 9 a some:at less degree4 ,i conceive r1 t x is by exam9+ into ! signification ( relative names1 or1 9 o!r words1 into ! nature ( ! attribute :i* !y connote1 t a cle> insight may be/ be obta9$ into ! nature ( all attributes3 ( all t is meant by an attribute4 ,x is obvi\s1 9 fact1 t if we take any two correlative names1 fa!r & son = in/ance1 ?\gh ! objects denot$ by ! names are diff]5t1 !y bo?1 9 a c]ta9 s5se1 connote ! same ?+4 ,!y c n1 inde$1 be said to connote ! same attribute3 to be a fa!r1 is n ! same ?+ z to be a son4 ,b :5 we call "o man a fa!r1 ano!r a son1 :at we mean to affirm is a set ( facts1 :i* are exactly ! same 9 bo? cases4 ,to pr$icate ( ,a t he is ! fa!r ( ,b1 & ( ,b t he is ! son ( ,a1 is to ass]t "o & ! same fact 9 diff]5t words4 ,! two propositions are exactly equival5t3 nei!r ( !m ass]ts m or ass]ts less ?an ! o!r4 ,! pat]nity ( ,a & ! filiety ( ,b are n two facts1 b two modes ( express+ ! same fact4 ,t fact1 :5 analys$1 consi/s ( a s]ies ( physical ev5ts or ph5om5a1 9 :i* bo? ,a & ,b are p>ties conc]n$1 & f :i* !y bo? d]ive names4 ,:at ^? names really connote1 is ?is s]ies ( ev5ts3 t is ! mean+1 & ! :ole mean+1 :i* ei!r ( !m is int5d$ to convey4 ,! s]ies ( ev5ts may be said to con/itute ! relation2 ! s*oolm5 call$ x ! f\ndation ( ! relation1 fundam5tum relationis4 ,9 ?is mann] any fact1 or s]ies ( facts1 9 :i* two diff]5t objects are implicat$1 & :i* is !re=e pr$icable ( bo? ( !m1 may be ei!r consid]$ z con/itut+ an attribute ( ! "o1 or an attribute ( ! o!r4 ,accord+ z we consid] x 9 ! =m]1 or 9 ! latt] aspect1 x is connot$ by ! "o or ! o!r ( ! two correlative names4 ,fa!r connotes ! fact1 reg>d$ z con/itut+ an attribute ( ,a2 son connotes ! same fact1 z con/itut+ an attribute ( ,b4 ,x may evid5tly be reg>d$ ) equal propriety 9 ei!r light4 ,& all t appe>s necess>y to acc\nt = ! exi/5ce ( relative names1 is1 t :5ev] !re is a fact 9 :i* two individuals are conc]n$1 an attribute gr\nd$ on t fact may be ascrib$ to ei!r ( ^! individuals4 ,a "n1 !re=e1 is said to be relative1 :51 ov] & above ! object :i* x d5otes1 x implies 9 its signification ! exi/5ce ( ano!r object1 also d]iv+ a d5om9ation f ! same fact :i* is ! gr\nd ( ! fir/ "n4 ,or 7to express ! same mean+ 9 o!r words7 a "n is relative1 :51 be+ ! "n ( "o ?+1 its signification c n be expla9$ b by m5tion+ ano!r4 ,or we may /ate x ?us--:5 ! "n c n be employ$ 9 disc\rse s z to h a mean+1 unless ! "n ( "s o!r ?+ ?an :at x is itself ! "n (1 be ei!r express$ or und]/ood4 ,^! def9itions are all1 at bottom1 equival5t1 be+ modes ( v>i\sly express+ ?is "o di/9ctive circum/ance--t e o!r attribute ( an object might1 )\t any contradiction1 be conceiv$ /ill to exi/ if no object besides t "o _h ev] exi/$27#af7 b ^? ( its attributes :i* are express$ by relative names1 w\ld on t supposition be swept away4 #h4 ,names h be5 fur!r di/+ui%$ into univocal & quivocal3 ^!1 h[ev]1 are n two k9ds ( names1 b two diff]5t modes ( employ+ names4 ,a "n is univocal1 or appli$ univocally1 ) respect to all ?+s ( :i* x c be pr$icat$ 9 ! same s5se2 x is quivocal1 or appli$ quivocally1 z respects ^? ?+s ( :i* x is pr$icat$ 9 diff]5t s5ses4 ,x is sc>cely necess>y to give in/ances ( a fact s famili> z ! d\ble mean+ ( a ^w4 ,9 reality1 z has be5 already obs]v$1 an quivocal or ambigu\s ^w is n "o "n1 b two names1 accid5tally co9cid+ 9 s\nd4 ,file mean+ a /eel in/rum5t1 & file mean+ a l9e ( soldi]s1 h no m title to be consid]$ "o ^w1 because writt5 alike1 ?an grease & ,greece h1 because !y are pron\nc$ alike4 ,!y are "o s\nd1 appropriat$ to =m two diff]5t words4 ,an int]m$iate case is t ( a "n us$ analogically or metaphorically2 t is1 a "n :i* is pr$icat$ ( two ?+s1 n univocally1 or exactly 9 ! same signification1 b 9 significations some:at simil>1 & :i* be+ d]iv$ "o f ! o!r1 "o ( !m may be consid]$ ! prim>y1 & ! o!r a second>y signification4 ,z :5 we speak ( a brilliant light & a brilliant a*ievem5t4 ,! ^w is n appli$ 9 ! same s5se to ! light & to ! a*ievem5t2 b hav+ be5 appli$ to ! light 9 its orig9al s5se1 t ( brightness to ! eye1 x is transf]r$ to ! a*ievem5t 9 a d]ivative signification1 suppos$ to be some:at l ! primitive "o4 ,! ^w1 h[ev]1 is j z prop]ly two names in/ead ( "o1 9 ?is case1 z 9 t ( ! mo/ p]fect ambiguity4 ,& "o ( ! commone/ =ms ( fallaci\s reason+ aris+ f ambiguity1 is t ( argu+ f a metaphorical expression z if x 7 lit]al2 t is1 z if a ^w1 :5 appli$ metaphorically1 7 ! same "n z :5 tak5 9 its orig9al s5se3 :i* w be se5 m p>ticul>ly 9 its place4 ,*apt] ,,iii4 ,( ,! ,?+s ,d5ot$ ,by ,names4 #a4 ,look+ back n[ to ! comm5cem5t ( our inquiry1 let u attempt to measure h[ f> x has advanc$4 ,logic1 we f\nd1 is ! ,!ory ( ,pro(4 ,b pro( supposes some?+ provable1 :i* mu/ be a ,proposition or ,ass]tion2 s9ce no?+ b a ,proposition c be an object ( belief1 or !re=e ( pro(4 ,a ,proposition is1 disc\rse :i* affirms or d5ies some?+ ( "s o!r ?+4 ,?is is "o /ep3 !re mu/1 x seems1 be two ?+s conc]n$ 9 e act ( belief4 ,b :at are ^! ,?+s8 ,!y c be no o!r ?an ^? signifi$ by ! two names1 :i* be+ jo9$ toge!r by a copula con/itute ! ,proposition4 ,if1 !re=e1 we knew :at all names signify1 we %\ld "k e ?+ :i*1 9 ! exi/+ /ate ( human k1 is capable ei!r ( be+ made a subject ( affirmation or d5ial1 or ( be+ itself affirm$ or d5i$ ( a subject4 ,we h accord+ly1 9 ! prec$+ *apt]1 review$ ! v>i\s k9ds ( ,names1 9 ord] to asc]ta9 :at is signifi$ by ea* ( !m4 ,& we h n[ c>ri$ ?is survey f> en\gh to be able to take an acc\nt ( its results1 & to exhibit an enum]ation ( all k9ds ( ,?+s :i* are capable ( be+ made pr$icates1 or ( hav+ any ?+ pr$icat$ ( !m3 aft] :i* to det]m9e ! import ( ,pr$ication1 t is1 ( ,propositions1 c be no ardu\s task4 ,! necessity ( an enum]ation ( ,exi/5ces1 z ! basis ( ,logic1 did n escape ! att5tion ( ! s*oolm51 & ( _! ma/] ,ari/otle1 ! mo/ compreh5sive1 if n also ! mo/ sagaci\s1 ( ! anci5t philosoph]s4 ,! ,categories1 or ,pr$icam5ts--! =m] a ,greek ^w1 ! latt] its lit]al translation 9 ! ,lat9 language--7 believ$ to be an enum]ation ( all ?+s capable ( be+ nam$2 an enum]ation by ! summa g5]a1 i4e41 ! mo/ ext5sive classes into :i* ?+s c\ld be di/ribut$2 :i*1 !re=e1 7 s _m highe/ ,pr$icates1 "o or o!r ( :i* 0 suppos$ capable ( be+ affirm$ ) tru? ( e namable ?+ :atsoev]4 ,! foll[+ are ! classes into :i*1 accord+ to ?is s*ool ( philosophy1 ,?+s 9 g5]al might be r$uc$3 1 ,sub/antia4 1 ,quantitas4 1 ,qualitas4 1 ,relatio4 1 ,actio4 1 ,passio4 1 ,ubi4 1 ,qu&o4 1 ,situs4 1 ,habitus4 ,! imp]fections ( ?is classification are too obvi\s to require1 & its m]its are n suffici5t to rew>d1 a m9ute exam9ation4 ,x is a m]e catalogue ( ! di/9ctions rudely m>k$ out by ! language ( famili> life1 ) little or no attempt to p5etrate1 by philosophic analysis1 to ! rationale ev5 ( ^? common di/9ctions4 ,su* an analysis1 h[ev] sup]ficially conduct$1 w\ld h %[n ! enum]ation to be bo? r$undant & defective4 ,"s objects are omitt$1 & o!rs repeat$ sev]al times "u diff]5t heads4 ,x is l a division ( animals into m51 quadrup$s1 horses1 asses1 & ponies4 ,t1 = in/ance1 c\ld n be a v compreh5sive view ( ! nature ( ,relation :i* c\ld exclude action1 passivity1 & local situation f t category4 ,! same obs]vation applies to ! categories ,qu&o 7or position 9 "t71 & ,ubi 7or position 9 space72 :ile ! di/9ction betwe5 ! latt] & ,situs is m]ely v]bal4 ,! incongruity ( erect+ into a summum g5us ! class :i* =ms ! t5? category is manife/4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! enum]ation takes no notice ( any ?+ besides sub/ances & attributes4 ,9 :at category are we to place s5sations1 or any o!r feel+s & /ates ( m9d2 z hope1 joy1 fe>2 s\nd1 smell1 ta/e2 pa91 pleasure2 ?\ght1 judgm5t1 conception1 & ! l8 ,probably all ^! w\ld h be5 plac$ by ! ,ari/otelian s*ool 9 ! categories ( actio & passio2 & ! relation ( su* ( !m z are active1 to _! objects1 & ( su* ( !m z are passive1 to _! causes1 w\ld rightly be s plac$2 b ! ?+s !mselves1 ! feel+s or /ates ( m9d1 wrongly4 ,feel+s1 or /ates ( consci\sness1 are assur$ly to be acc\nt$ among realities1 b !y c n be reckon$ ei!r among sub/ances or attributes47#ag7 #b4 ,be=e recomm5c+1 "u bett] auspices1 ! attempt made ) su* imp]fect success by ! e>ly logicians1 we mu/ take notice ( an un=tunate ambiguity 9 all ! concrete names :i* correspond to ! mo/ g5]al ( all ab/ract t]ms1 ! ^w ,exi/5ce4 ,:5 we h occasion = a "n :i* %all be capable ( d5ot+ :atev] exi/s1 z contradi/+ui%$ f non-entity or ,no?+1 !re is h>dly a ^w applicable to ! purpose :i* is n also1 & ev5 m famili>ly1 tak5 9 a s5se 9 :i* x d5otes only sub/ances4 ,b sub/ances are n all t exi/s2 attributes1 if su* ?+s are to be spok5 (1 mu/ be said to exi/2 feel+s c]ta9ly exi/4 ,yet :5 we speak ( an object1 or ( a ?+1 we are almo/ always suppos$ to mean a sub/ance4 ,!re seems a k9d ( contradiction 9 us+ su* an expression z t "o ?+ is m]ely an attribute ( ano!r ?+4 ,& ! ann\ncem5t ( a ,classification ( ,?+s w\ld1 ,i believe1 prep>e mo/ read]s = an enum]ation l ^? 9 natural hi/ory1 beg9n+ ) ! great divisions ( animal1 vegetable1 & m9]al1 & subdivid+ !m into classes & ord]s4 ,if1 reject+ ! ^w ,?+1 we endeavor to f9d ano!r ( a m g5]al import1 or at lea/ m exclusively conf9$ to t g5]al import1 a ^w d5ot+ all t exi/s1 & connot+ only simple exi/5ce2 no ^w might be presum$ fitt] = su* a purpose ?an be+3 orig9ally ! pres5t p>ticiple ( a v]b :i* 9 "o ( its mean+s is exactly equival5t to ! v]b exi/s2 & !re=e suitable1 ev5 by its grammatical =mation1 to be ! concrete ( ! ab/ract exi/5ce4 ,b ?is ^w1 /range z ! fact may appe>1 is /ill m completely spoil$ = ! purpose :i* x seem$ expressly made =1 ?an ! ^w ,?+4 ,be+ is1 by cu/om1 exactly synonym\s ) sub/ance2 except t x is free f a slight ta9t ( a second ambiguity2 be+ impli$ imp>tially to matt] & to m9d1 :ile sub/ance1 ?\gh orig9ally & 9 /rictness applicable to bo?1 is apt to sugge/ 9 pref]5ce ! idea ( matt]4 ,attributes are nev] call$ ,be+s2 nor are feel+s4 ,a ,be+ is t :i* excites feel+s1 & :i* possesses attributes4 ,! s\l is call$ a ,be+2 ,god & angels are call$ ,be+s2 b if we 7 to say1 ext5sion1 color1 wisdom1 virtue1 are be+s1 we %\ld p]haps be suspect$ ( ?9k+ ) "s ( ! anci5ts1 t ! c>d9al virtues are animals2 or1 at ! lea/1 ( hold+ ) ! ,platonic s*ool ! doctr9e ( self-exi/5t ,ideas1 or ) ! foll[]s ( ,epicurus t ( ,s5sible ,=ms1 :i* deta* !mselves 9 e direction f bodies1 & by com+ 9 contact ) our organs1 cause our p]ceptions4 ,we %\ld be suppos$1 9 %ort1 to believe t ,attributes are ,sub/ances4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ?is p]v]sion ( ! ^w ,be+1 philosoph]s look+ ab\t = some?+ to supply its place1 laid _! h&s ^u ! ^w ,entity1 a piece ( b>b>\s ,lat91 inv5t$ by ! s*oolm5 to be us$ z an ab/ract "n1 9 :i* class its grammatical =m w\ld seem to place x3 b be+ seiz$ by logicians 9 di/ress to /op a leak 9 _! t]m9ology1 x has ev] s9ce be5 us$ z a concrete "n4 ,! k9dr$ ^w ess5ce1 born at ! same "t & ( ! same p>5ts1 sc>cely und]w5t a m complete trans=mation :51 f be+ ! ab/ract ( ! v]b to be1 x came to d5ote some?+ suffici5tly concrete to be inclos$ 9 a glass bottle4 ,! ^w ,entity1 s9ce x settl$ d[n into a concrete "n1 has reta9$ its univ]sality ( signification some:at less impair$ ?an any ( ! names be=e m5tion$4 ,yet ! same gradual decay to :i*1 aft] a c]ta9 age1 all ! language ( psy*ology seems liable1 has be5 at "w ev5 "h4 ,if y call virtue an entity1 y are inde$ some:at less /rongly suspect$ ( believ+ x to be a sub/ance ?an if y call$ x a be+2 b y are by no means free f ! suspicion4 ,e ^w :i* 0 orig9ally int5d$ to connote m]e exi/5ce1 seems1 aft] a "t1 to enl>ge its connotation to sep>ate exi/5ce1 or exi/5ce fre$ f ! condition ( belong+ to a sub/ance2 :i* condition be+ precisely :at con/itutes an attribute1 attributes are gradually %ut out2 & along ) !m feel+s1 :i* 9 n9ety-n9e cases out ( a hundr$ h no o!r "n ?an t ( ! attribute :i* is gr\nd$ on !m4 ,/range t :5 ! greate/ emb>rassm5t felt by all :o h any consid]able numb] ( ?\ghts to express1 is to f9d a suffici5t v>iety ( precise words fitt$ to express !m1 !re %\ld be no practice to :i* ev5 sci5tific ?9k]s are m addict$ ?an t ( tak+ valuable words to express ideas :i* are suffici5tly express$ by o!r words already appropriat$ to !m4 ,:5 x is impossible to obta9 good tools1 ! next be/ ?+ is to und]/& ?or\ghly ! defects ( ^? we h4 ,i h !re=e w>n$ ! read] ( ! ambiguity ( ! names :i*1 = want ( bett]1 ,i am necessitat$ to employ4 ,x mu/ n[ be ! writ]'s endeavor s to employ !m z 9 no case to leave ! mean+ d\btful or obscure4 ,no "o ( ! above t]ms be+ altoge!r unambigu\s1 ,i %all n conf9e myself to any "o1 b %all employ on ea* occasion ! ^w :i* seems lea/ likely 9 ! p>ticul> case to lead to misund]/&+2 nor d ,i pret5d to use ei!r ^! or any o!r words ) a rigor\s adh]5ce to "o s+le s5se4 ,to d s w\ld (t5 leave u )\t a ^w to express :at is signifi$ by a kn[n ^w 9 "s "o or o!r ( its s5ses3 unless au?ors _h an unlimit$ lic5se to co9 new words1 toge!r ) 7:at x w\ld be m difficult to assume7 unlimit$ p[] ( mak+ read]s und]/& !m4 ,nor w\ld x be wise 9 a writ]1 on a subject involv+ s mu* ( ab/raction1 to d5y himself ! advantage d]iv$ f ev5 an improp] use ( a t]m1 :51 by means ( x1 "s famili> association is call$ up :i* br+s ! mean+ home to ! m9d1 z x 7 by a fla%4 ,! difficulty bo? to ! writ] & read]1 ( ! attempt :i* mu/ be made to use vague words s z to convey a precise mean+1 is n :olly a matt] ( regret4 ,x is n unfitt+ t logical treatises %\ld af=d an example ( t1 to facilitate :i* is among ! mo/ important uses ( logic4 ,philosophical language w = a long "t1 & popul> language /ill long]1 reta9 s mu* ( vagu5ess & ambiguity1 t logic w\ld be ( little value if x did n1 among its o!r advantages1 ex]cise ! und]/&+ 9 do+ its "w neatly & correctly ) ^! imp]fect tools4 ,aft] ?is preamble x is "t to proce$ to our enum]ation4 ,we %all comm5ce ) ,feel+s1 ! simple/ class ( namable ?+s2 ! t]m ,feel+ be+ ( c\rse und]/ood 9 its mo/ enl>g$ s5se4 ,i4 ,feel+s1 ,or ,/ates ( ,consci\sness4 #c4 ,a ,feel+ & a ,/ate ( consci\sness are1 9 ! language ( philosophy1 equival5t expressions3 e ?+ is a feel+ ( :i* ! m9d is consci\s2 e ?+ :i* x feels1 or1 9 o!r words1 :i* =ms a "p ( its own s5ti5t exi/5ce4 ,9 popul> language ,feel+ is n always synonym\s ) ,/ate ( ,consci\sness2 be+ (t5 tak5 m peculi>ly = ^? /ates :i* are conceiv$ z belong+ to ! s5sitive1 or to ! emotional1 phasis ( our nature1 & sometimes1 ) a /ill n>r[] re/riction1 to ! emotional alone1 z di/+ui%$ f :at are conceiv$ z belong+ to ! p]cipi5t or to ! intellectual phasis4 ,b ?is is an admitt$ dep>ture f correctness ( language2 j z1 by a popul> p]v]sion ! exact conv]se ( ?is1 ! ^w ,m9d is )drawn f its rightful g5]ality ( signification1 & re/rict$ to ! intellect4 ,! /ill great] p]v]sion by :i* ,feel+ is sometimes conf9$ n only to bodily s5sations1 b to ! s5sations ( a s+le s5se1 t ( t\*1 ne$s n be m p>ticul>ly adv]t$ to4 ,feel+1 9 ! prop] s5se ( ! t]m1 is a g5us1 ( :i* ,s5sation1 ,emotion1 & ,?\ght1 are subord9ate species4 ,"u ! ^w ,?\ght is "h to be includ$ :atev] we are int]nally consci\s ( :5 we are said to ?9k2 f ! consci\sness we h :5 we ?9k ( a r$ color )\t hav+ x be=e our eyes1 to ! mo/ recondite ?\ghts ( a philosoph] or poet4 ,be x rememb]$1 h[ev]1 t by a ?\ght is to be und]/ood :at passes 9 ! m9d itself1 & n any object ext]nal to ! m9d1 :i* ! p]son is commonly said to be ?9k+ (4 ,he may be ?9k+ ( ! sun1 or ( ,god1 b ! sun & ,god are n ?\ghts2 8 m5tal image1 h[ev]1 ( ! sun1 & 8 idea ( ,god1 are ?\ghts2 /ates ( 8 m9d1 n ( ! objects !mselves2 & s also is 8 belief ( ! exi/5ce ( ! sun1 or ( ,god2 or 8 disbelief1 if ! case be s4 ,ev5 imag9>y objects 7:i* are said to exi/ only 9 our ideas7 are to be di/+ui%$ f our ideas ( !m4 ,i may ?9k ( a hobgobl91 z ,i may ?9k ( ! loaf :i* 0 eat5 ye/]day1 or ( ! fl[] :i* w bloom to-morr[4 ,b ! hobgobl9 :i* nev] exi/$ is n ! same ?+ ) my idea ( a hobgobl91 any m ?an ! loaf :i* once exi/$ is ! same ?+ ) my idea ( a loaf1 or ! fl[] :i* does n yet exi/1 b :i* w exi/1 is ! same ) my idea ( a fl[]4 ,!y are all1 n ?\ghts1 b objects ( ?\ght2 ?\gh at ! pres5t "t all ! objects are alike non-exi/5t4 ,9 l mann]1 a ,s5sation is to be c>efully di/+ui%$ f ! object :i* causes ! s5sation2 our s5sation ( :ite f a :ite object3 nor is x less to be di/+ui%$ f ! attribute :it5ess1 :i* we ascribe to ! object 9 consequ5ce ( its excit+ ! s5sation4 ,un=tunately = cle>ness & due discrim9ation 9 consid]+ ^! subjects1 our s5sations seldom receive sep>ate names4 ,we h a "n = ! objects :i* produce 9 u a c]ta9 s5sation3 ! ^w :ite4 ,we h a "n = ! quality 9 ^? objects1 to :i* we ascribe ! s5sation3 ! "n :it5ess4 ,b :5 we speak ( ! s5sation itself 7z we h n occasion to d ?is (t5 except 9 our sci5tific speculations71 language1 :i* adapts itself = ! mo/ "p only to ! common uses ( life1 has provid$ u ) no s+le-word$ or imm$iate designation2 we mu/ employ a circumlocution1 & say1 ,! s5sation ( :ite1 or ,! s5sation ( :it5ess2 we mu/ d5om9ate ! s5sation ei!r f ! object1 or f ! attribute1 by :i* x is excit$4 ,yet ! s5sation1 ?\gh x nev] does1 might v well be conceiv$ to exi/1 )\t any ?+ :atev] to excite x4 ,we c conceive x z aris+ spontane\sly 9 ! m9d4 ,b if x s arose1 we %\ld h no "n to d5ote x :i* w\ld n be a misnom]4 ,9 ! case ( our s5sations ( he>+ we are bett] provid$2 we h ! ^w ,s\nd1 & a :ole vocabul>y ( words to d5ote ! v>i\s k9ds ( s\nds4 ,= z we are (t5 consci\s ( ^! s5sations 9 ! abs5ce ( any p]ceptible object1 we c m easily conceive hav+ !m 9 ! abs5ce ( any object :atev]4 ,we ne$ only %ut our eyes & li/5 to music1 to h a conception ( a univ]se ) no?+ 9 x except s\nds1 & ourselves he>+ !m3 & :at is easily conceiv$ sep>ately1 easily obta9s a sep>ate "n4 ,b 9 g5]al our names ( s5sations d5ote indiscrim9ately ! s5sation & ! attribute4 ,?us1 color /&s = ! s5sations ( :ite1 r$1 etc41 b also = ! quality 9 ! color$ object4 ,we talk ( ! colors ( ?+s z among _! prop]ties4 #d4 ,9 ! case ( s5sations1 ano!r di/9ction has also to be kept 9 view1 :i* is (t5 conf\nd$1 & nev] )\t mis*iev\s consequ5ces4 ,?is is1 ! di/9ction betwe5 ! s5sation itself1 & ! /ate ( ! bodily organs :i* prec$es ! s5sation1 & :i* con/itutes ! physical ag5cy by :i* x is produc$4 ,"o ( ! s\rces ( confusion on ?is subject is ! division commonly made ( feel+s into ,bodily & ,m5tal4 ,philosophically speak+1 !re is no f\ndation at all = ?is di/9ction3 ev5 s5sations are /ates ( ! s5ti5t m9d1 n /ates ( ! body1 z di/+ui%$ f x4 ,:at ,i am consci\s ( :5 ,i see ! color blue1 is a feel+ ( blue color1 :i* is "o ?+2 ! picture on my ret9a1 or ! ph5om5on ( hi!rto my/]i\s nature :i* takes place 9 my optic n]ve or 9 my bra91 is ano!r ?+1 ( :i* ,i am n at all consci\s1 & :i* sci5tific inve/igation alone c\ld h appris$ me (4 ,^! are /ates ( my body2 b ! s5sation ( blue1 :i* is ! consequ5ce ( ^! /ates ( body1 is n a /ate ( body3 t :i* p]ceives & is consci\s is call$ ,m9d4 ,:5 s5sations are call$ bodily feel+s1 x is only z be+ ! class ( feel+s :i* are imm$iately occasion$ by bodily /ates2 :]eas ! o!r k9ds ( feel+s1 ?\ghts1 = in/ance1 or emotions1 are imm$iately excit$ n by any ?+ act+ ^u ! bodily organs1 b by s5sations1 or by previ\s ?\ghts4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is a di/9ction n 9 our feel+s1 b 9 ! ag5cy :i* produces our feel+s3 all ( !m :5 actually produc$ are /ates ( m9d4 ,besides ! affection ( our bodily organs f )\t1 & ! s5sation !reby produc$ 9 our m9ds1 _m writ]s admit a ?ird l9k 9 ! *a9 ( ph5om5a1 :i* !y call a ,p]ception1 & :i* consi/s 9 ! recognition ( an ext]nal object z ! excit+ cause ( ! s5sation4 ,?is p]ception1 !y say1 is an act ( ! m9d1 proce$+ f its own spontane\s activity2 :ile 9 a s5sation ! m9d is passive1 be+ m]ely act$ ^u by ! outw>d object4 ,& accord+ to "s metaphysicians1 x is by an act ( ! m9d1 simil> to p]ception1 except 9 n be+ prec$$ by any s5sation1 t ! exi/5ce ( ,god1 ! s\l1 & o!r hyp]physical objects1 is recogniz$4 ,^! acts ( :at is t]m$ p]ception1 :atev] be ! conclusion ultimately come to respect+ _! nature1 mu/1 ,i conceive1 take _! place among ! v>ieties ( feel+s or /ates ( m9d4 ,9 s class+ !m1 ,i h n ! smalle/ int5tion ( decl>+ or ins9uat+ any !ory z to ! law ( m9d 9 :i* ^! m5tal processes may be suppos$ to orig9ate1 or ! conditions "u :i* !y may be legitimate or ! rev]se4 ,f> less d ,i mean 7z ,dr4 ,:ewell seems to suppose mu/ be meant 9 an analog\s case7#ah77 to indicate t z !y are 8m]ely /ates ( m9d10 x is sup]flu\s to inquire into _! di/+ui%+ peculi>ities4 ,i ab/a9 f ! inquiry z irrelevant to ! sci5ce ( logic4 ,9 ^! s-call$ p]ceptions1 or direct recognitions by ! m9d1 ( objects1 :e!r physical or spiritual1 :i* are ext]nal to itself1 ,i c see only cases ( belief2 b ( belief :i* claims to be intuitive1 or indep5d5t ( ext]nal evid5ce4 ,:5 a /one lies be=e me1 ,i am consci\s ( c]ta9 s5sations :i* ,i receive f x2 b if ,i say t ^! s5sations come to me f an ext]nal object :i* ,i p]ceive1 ! mean+ ( ^! words is1 t receiv+ ! s5sations1 ,i intuitively believe t an ext]nal cause ( ^? s5sations exi/s4 ,! laws ( intuitive belief1 & ! conditions "u :i* x is legitimate1 are a subject :i*1 z we h already s (t5 rem>k$1 belongs n to logic1 b to ! sci5ce ( ! ultimate laws ( ! human m9d4 ,to ! same region ( speculation belongs all t c be said respect+ ! di/9ction :i* ! ,g]man metaphysicians & _! ,fr5* & ,engli% foll[]s s elaborately draw betwe5 ! acts ( ! m9d & its m]ely passive /ates2 betwe5 :at x receives f1 & :at x gives to1 ! crude mat]ials ( its exp]i5ce4 ,i am aw>e t ) ref]5ce to ! view :i* ^? writ]s take ( ! prim>y elem5ts ( ?\ght & k1 ?is di/9ction is fundam5tal4 ,b = ! pres5t purpose1 :i* is to exam9e1 n ! orig9al gr\ndwork ( our k1 b h[ we come by t portion ( x :i* is n orig9al2 ! diff]5ce betwe5 active & passive /ates ( m9d is ( second>y importance4 ,= u1 !y all are /ates ( m9d1 !y all are feel+s2 by :i*1 let x be said once m1 ,i mean to imply no?+ ( passivity1 b simply t !y are psy*ological facts1 facts :i* take place 9 ! m9d1 & are to be c>efully di/+ui%$ f ! ext]nal or physical facts ) :i* !y may be connect$ ei!r z effects or z causes4 #e4 ,among active /ates ( m9d1 !re is1 h[ev]1 "o species :i* m]its p>ticul> att5tion1 because x =ms a pr9cipal "p ( ! connotation ( "s important classes ( names4 ,i mean volitions1 or acts ( ! w4 ,:5 we speak ( s5ti5t be+s by relative names1 a l>ge portion ( ! connotation ( ! "n usually consi/s ( ! actions ( ^? be+s2 actions pa/1 pres5t1 & possible or probable future4 ,take1 = in/ance1 ! words ,sov]eign & ,subject4 ,:at mean+ d ^! words convey1 b t ( innum]able actions1 done or to be done by ! sov]eign & ! subjects1 to or 9 reg>d to "o ano!r reciprocally8 ,s ) ! words physician & pati5t1 lead] & foll[]1 tutor & pupil4 ,9 _m cases ! words also connote actions :i* w\ld be done "u c]ta9 cont+5cies by p]sons o!r ?an ^? d5ot$3 z ! words mortgagor & mortgagee1 obligor & obligee1 & _m o!r words expressive ( legal relation1 :i* connote :at a c\rt ( ju/ice w\ld d to en=ce ! legal obligation if n fulfill$4 ,!re are also words :i* connote actions previ\sly done by p]sons o!r ?an ^? d5ot$ ei!r by ! "n itself or by its correlative2 z ! ^w bro!r4 ,f ^! in/ances1 x may be se5 h[ l>ge a portion ( ! connotation ( names consi/s ( actions4 ,n[ :at is an action8 ,n "o ?+1 b a s]ies ( two ?+s3 ! /ate ( m9d call$ a volition1 foll[$ by an effect4 ,! volition or int5tion to produce ! effect1 is "o ?+2 ! effect produc$ 9 consequ5ce ( ! int5tion1 is ano!r ?+2 ! two toge!r con/itute ! action4 ,i =m ! purpose ( in/antly mov+ my arm2 t is a /ate ( my m9d3 my arm 7n be+ ti$ or p>alytic7 moves 9 ob$i5ce to my purpose2 t is a physical fact1 consequ5t on a /ate ( m9d4 ,! int5tion1 foll[$ by ! fact1 or 7if we pref] ! expression7 ! fact :5 prec$$ & caus$ by ! int5tion1 is call$ ! action ( mov+ my arm4 #f4 ,( ! fir/ lead+ division ( namable ?+s1 viz41 ,feel+s or ,/ates ( ,consci\sness1 we began by recogniz+ ?ree subdivisions2 ,s5sations1 ,?\ghts1 & ,emotions4 ,! fir/ two ( ^! we h illu/rat$ at consid]able l5g?2 ! ?ird1 ,emotions1 n be+ p]plex$ by simil> ambiguities1 does n require simil> exemplification4 ,&1 f9ally1 we h f\nd x necess>y to add to ^! ?ree a f\r? species1 commonly kn[n by ! "n ,volitions4 ,we %all n[ proce$ to ! two rema9+ classes ( namable ?+s2 all ?+s :i* are reg>d$ z ext]nal to ! m9d be+ consid]$ z belong+ ei!r to ! class ( ,sub/ances or to t ( ,attributes4 ,,ii4 ,sub/ances4 ,logicians h endeavor$ to def9e ,sub/ance & ,attribute2 b _! def9itions are n s mu* attempts to draw a di/9ction betwe5 ! ?+s !mselves1 z in/ructions :at diff]5ce x is cu/om>y to make 9 ! grammatical /ructure ( ! s5t5ce1 accord+ z we are speak+ ( sub/ances or ( attributes4 ,su* def9itions are r lessons ( ,engli%1 or ( ,greek1 ,lat91 or ,g]man1 ?an ( m5tal philosophy4 ,an attribute1 say ! s*ool logicians1 mu/ be ! attribute ( some?+2 color1 = example1 mu/ be ! color ( some?+2 goodness mu/ be ! goodness ( some?+2 & if ?is some?+ %\ld cease to exi/1 or %\ld cease to be connect$ ) ! attribute1 ! exi/5ce ( ! attribute w\ld be at an end4 ,a sub/ance1 on ! contr>y1 is self-exi/5t2 9 speak+ ab\t x1 we ne$ n put ( aft] its "n4 ,a /one is n ! /one ( any ?+2 ! moon is n ! moon ( any ?+1 b simply ! moon4 ,unless1 inde$1 ! "n :i* we *oose to give to ! sub/ance be a relative "n2 if s1 x mu/ be foll[$ ei!r by (1 or by "s o!r p>ticle1 imply+1 z t preposition does1 a ref]5ce to some?+ else3 b !n ! o!r *>act]i/ic peculi>ity ( an attribute w\ld fail2 ! some?+ might be de/roy$1 & ! sub/ance might /ill subsi/4 ,?us1 a fa!r mu/ be ! fa!r ( some?+1 & s f> resembles an attribute1 9 be+ ref]r$ to some?+ besides himself3 if !re 7 no *ild1 !re w\ld be no fa!r3 b ?is1 :5 we look into ! matt]1 only means t we %\ld n call him fa!r4 ,! man call$ fa!r might /ill exi/ ?\gh !re 7 no *ild1 z he exi/$ be=e !re 0 a *ild2 & !re w\ld be no contradiction 9 suppos+ him to exi/1 ?\gh ! :ole univ]se except himself 7 de/roy$4 ,b de/roy all :ite sub/ances1 & :]e w\ld be ! attribute :it5ess8 ,:it5ess1 )\t any :ite ?+1 is a contradiction 9 t]ms4 ,?is is ! ne>e/ approa* to a solution ( ! difficulty1 t w be f\nd 9 ! common treatises on logic4 ,x w sc>cely be ?\ght to be a satisfactory "o4 ,if an attribute is di/+ui%$ f a sub/ance by be+ ! attribute ( some?+1 x seems highly necess>y to und]/& :at is meant by (2 a p>ticle :i* ne$s explanation too mu* itself1 to be plac$ 9 front ( ! explanation ( any ?+ else4 ,& z = ! self-exi/5ce ( sub/ance1 x is v true t a sub/ance may be conceiv$ to exi/ )\t any o!r sub/ance1 b s also may an attribute )\t any o!r attribute3 & we c no m imag9e a sub/ance )\t attributes ?an we c imag9e attributes )\t a sub/ance4 ,metaphysicians1 h[ev]1 h prob$ ! "q deep]1 & giv5 an acc\nt ( ,sub/ance consid]ably m satisfactory ?an ?is4 ,sub/ances are usually di/+ui%$ z ,bodies or ,m9ds4 ,( ea* ( ^!1 philosoph]s h at l5g? provid$ u ) a def9ition :i* seems unexceptionable4 #g4 ,a body1 accord+ to ! receiv$ doctr9e ( mod]n metaphysicians1 may be def9$1 ! ext]nal cause to :i* we ascribe our s5sations4 ,:5 ,i see & t\* a piece ( gold1 ,i am consci\s ( a s5sation ( yell[ color1 & s5sations ( h>dness & weight2 & by v>y+ ! mode ( h&l+1 ,i may add to ^! s5sations _m o!rs completely di/9ct f !m4 ,! s5sations are all ( :i* ,i am directly consci\s2 b ,i consid] !m z produc$ by some?+ n only exi/+ indep5d5tly ( my w1 b ext]nal to my bodily organs & to my m9d4 ,?is ext]nal some?+ ,i call a body4 ,x may be ask$1 h[ come we to ascribe our s5sations to any ext]nal cause8 ,& is !re suffici5t gr\nd = s ascrib+ !m8 ,x is kn[n1 t !re are metaphysicians :o h rais$ a controv]sy on ! po9t2 ma9ta9+ t we are n w>rant$ 9 ref]r+ our s5sations to a cause su* z we und]/& by ! ^w ,body1 or to any ext]nal cause :atev]4 ,?\gh we h no conc]n "h ) ?is controv]sy1 nor ) ! metaphysical niceties on :i* x turns1 "o ( ! be/ ways ( %[+ :at is meant by ,sub/ance is1 to consid] :at position x is necess>y to take up1 9 ord] to ma9ta9 its exi/5ce aga9/ oppon5ts4 ,x is c]ta91 !n1 t a "p ( our notion ( a body consi/s ( ! notion ( a numb] ( s5sations ( our own1 or ( o!r s5ti5t be+s1 habitually occurr+ simultane\sly4 ,my conception ( ! table at :i* ,i am writ+ is comp\nd$ ( its visible =m & size1 :i* are complex s5sations ( sight2 its tangible =m & size1 :i* are complex s5sations ( our organs ( t\* & ( our muscles2 its weight1 :i* is also a s5sation ( t\* & ( ! muscles2 its color1 :i* is a s5sation ( sight2 its h>dness1 :i* is a s5sation ( ! muscles2 its composition1 :i* is ano!r ^w = all ! v>ieties ( s5sation :i* we receive "u v>i\s circum/ances f ! wood ( :i* x is made1 & s =?4 ,all or mo/ ( ^! v>i\s s5sations frequ5tly are1 &1 z we le>n by exp]i5ce1 always might be1 exp]i5c$ simultane\sly1 or 9 _m diff]5t ord]s ( succession at our own *oice3 & h5ce ! ?\ght ( any "o ( !m makes u ?9k ( ! o!rs1 & ! :ole becomes m5tally amalgamat$ into "o mix$ /ate ( consci\sness1 :i*1 9 ! language ( ! s*ool ( ,locke & ,h>tley1 is t]m$ a ,complex ,idea4 ,n[1 !re are philosoph]s :o h argu$ z foll[s3 ,if we conceive an orange to be dive/$ ( its natural color )\t acquir+ any new "o2 to lose its s(tness )\t becom+ h>d1 its r\ndness )\t becom+ squ>e or p5tagonal1 or ( any o!r regul> or irregul> figure :atev]2 to be depriv$ ( size1 ( weight1 ( ta/e1 ( smell2 to lose all its me*anical & all its *emical prop]ties1 & acquire no new ones2 to become1 9 %ort1 invisible1 intangible1 imp]ceptible n only by all our s5ses1 b by ! s5ses ( all o!r s5ti5t be+s1 real or possible2 no?+1 say ^! ?9k]s1 w\ld rema94 ,= ( :at nature1 !y ask1 c\ld be ! residuum8 & by :at tok5 c\ld x manife/ its pres5ce8 ,to ! unreflect+ its exi/5ce seems to re/ on ! evid5ce ( ! s5ses4 ,b to ! s5ses no?+ is app>5t except ! s5sations4 ,we "k1 inde$1 t ^! s5sations are b\nd toge!r by "s law2 !y d n come toge!r at r&om1 b accord+ to a sy/ematic ord]1 :i* is "p ( ! ord] e/abli%$ 9 ! univ]se4 ,:5 we exp]i5ce "o ( ^! s5sations1 we usually exp]i5ce ! o!rs also1 or "k t we h x 9 our p[] to exp]i5ce !m4 ,b a fix$ law ( connection1 mak+ ! s5sations occur toge!r1 does n1 say ^! philosoph]s1 necess>ily require :at is call$ a sub/ratum to support !m4 ,! conception ( a sub/ratum is b "o ( _m possible =ms 9 :i* t connection pres5ts itself to our imag9ation2 a mode (1 z x 71 realiz+ ! idea4 ,if !re be su* a sub/ratum1 suppose x at ?is in/ant miracul\sly annihilat$1 & let ! s5sations cont9ue to occur 9 ! same ord]1 & h[ w\ld ! sub/ratum be miss$8 ,by :at signs %\ld we be able to discov] t its exi/5ce _h t]m9at$8 ,%\ld we n h z mu* reason to believe t x /ill exi/$ z we n[ h8 ,& if we %\ld n !n be w>rant$ 9 believ+ x1 h[ c we be s n[8 ,a body1 !re=e1 accord+ to ^! metaphysicians1 is n any ?+ intr9sically diff]5t f ! s5sations :i* ! body is said to produce 9 u2 x is1 9 %ort1 a set ( s5sations1 or r1 ( possibilities ( s5sation1 jo9$ toge!r accord+ to a fix$ law4 ,! controv]sies to :i* ^! speculations h giv5 rise1 & ! doctr9es :i* h be5 develop$ 9 ! attempt to f9d a conclusive answ] to !m1 h be5 fruitful ( important consequ5ces to ! ,sci5ce ( ,m9d4 ,! s5sations 7x 0 answ]$7 :i* we are consci\s (1 & :i* we receive1 n at r&om1 b jo9$ toge!r 9 a c]ta9 uni=m mann]1 imply n only a law or laws ( connection1 b a cause ext]nal to our m9d1 :i* cause1 by its own laws1 det]m9es ! laws accord+ to :i* ! s5sations are connect$ & exp]i5c$4 ,! s*oolm5 us$ to call ?is ext]nal cause by ! "n we h already employ$1 a sub/ratum2 & its attributes 7z !y express$ !mselves7 inh]$1 lit]ally /uck1 9 x4 ,to ?is sub/ratum ! "n ,matt] is usually giv5 9 philosophical discussions4 ,x 0 soon1 h[ev]1 ackn[l$g$ by all :o reflect$ on ! subject1 t ! exi/5ce ( matt] c n be prov$ by extr9sic evid5ce4 ,! answ]1 !re=e1 n[ usually made to ,b]keley & 8 foll[]s1 is1 t ! belief is intuitive2 t mank9d1 9 all ages1 h felt !mselves compell$1 by a necessity ( _! nature1 to ref] _! s5sations to an ext]nal cause3 t ev5 ^? :o d5y x 9 !ory1 yield to ! necessity 9 practice1 & bo? 9 spee*1 ?\ght1 & feel+1 d1 equally ) ! vulg>1 ackn[l$ge _! s5sations to be ! effects ( some?+ ext]nal to !m3 ?is k1 !re=e1 x is affirm$1 is z evid5tly intuitive z our k ( our s5sations !mselves is intuitive4 ,& "h ! "q m]ges 9 ! fundam5tal problem ( metaphysics prop]ly s call$3 to :i* sci5ce we leave x4 ,b al?\gh ! extreme doctr9e ( ! ,ideali/ metaphysicians1 t objects are no?+ b our s5sations & ! laws :i* connect !m1 has n be5 g5]ally adopt$ by subsequ5t ?9k]s2 ! po9t ( mo/ real importance is "o on :i* ^? metaphysicians are n[ v g5]ally consid]$ to h made out _! case3 viz41 t all we "k ( objects is ! s5sations :i* !y give u1 & ! ord] ( ! occurr5ce ( ^? s5sations4 ,kant himself1 on ?is po9t1 is z explicit z ,b]keley or ,locke4 ,h[ev] firmly conv9c$ t !re exi/s a univ]se ( 8,?+s 9 !mselves10 totally di/9ct f ! univ]se ( ph5om5a1 or ( ?+s z !y appe> to our s5ses2 & ev5 :5 br++ into use a te*nical expression 7,n\m5on7 to d5ote :at ! ?+ is 9 itself1 z contra/$ ) ! repres5tation ( x 9 our m9ds2 he all[s t ?is repres5tation 7! matt] ( :i*1 he says1 consi/s ( our s5sations1 ?\gh ! =m is giv5 by ! laws ( ! m9d itself7 is all we "k ( ! object3 & t ! real nature ( ! ,?+ is1 & by ! con/itution ( our faculties ev] mu/ rema91 at lea/ 9 ! pres5t /ate ( exi/5ce1 an imp5etrable my/]y to u4 8,( ?+s absolutely or 9 !mselves10 says ,sir ,william ,hamilton17#ai7 8be !y ext]nal1 be !y int]nal1 we "k no?+1 or "k !m only z incognizable2 & become aw>e ( _! incompreh5sible exi/5ce1 only z ?is is indirectly & accid5tally reveal$ to u1 ?r\gh c]ta9 qualities relat$ to our faculties ( k1 & :i* qualities1 aga91 we c n ?9k z unconditional1 irrelative1 exi/5t 9 & ( ourselves4 ,all t we "k is !re=e ph5om5al--ph5om5al ( ! unkn[n407#bj7 ,! same doctr9e is laid d[n 9 ! cle>e/ & /ronge/ t]ms by ,m4 ,c\s91 ^: obs]vations on ! subject are ! m wor?y ( att5tion1 z1 9 consequ5ce ( ! ultra-,g]man & ontological "* ( 8 philosophy 9 o!r respects1 !y may be reg>d$ z ! admissions ( an oppon5t47#ba7 ,!re is n ! slighte/ reason = believ+ t :at we call ! s5sible qualities ( ! object are a type ( any ?+ inh]5t 9 itself1 or be> any aff9ity to its own nature4 ,a cause does n1 z su*1 resemble its effects2 an ea/ w9d is n l ! feel+ ( cold1 nor heat l ! /eam ( boil+ wat]4 ,:y !n %\ld matt] resemble our s5sations8 ,:y %\ld ! inmo/ nature ( fire or wat] resemble ! impressions made by ^? objects ^u our s5ses87#bb7 ,or on :at pr9ciple are we au?oriz$ to d$uce f ! effects1 any ?+ conc]n+ ! cause1 except t x is a cause adequate to produce ^? effects8 ,x may1 !re=e1 safely be laid d[n z a tru? bo? obvi\s 9 itself1 & admitt$ by all :om x is at pres5t necess>y to take into consid]ation1 t1 ( ! outw>d _w1 we "k & c "k absolutely no?+1 except ! s5sations :i* we exp]i5ce f x47#bc7 #h4 ,body hav+ n[ be5 def9$ ! ext]nal cause1 & 7accord+ to ! m reasonable op9ion7 ! unkn[n ext]nal cause1 to :i* we ref] our s5sations2 x rema9s to frame a def9ition ( ,m9d4 ,nor1 aft] ! prec$+ obs]vations1 w ?is be difficult4 ,=1 z our conception ( a body is t ( an unkn[n excit+ cause ( s5sations1 s our conception ( a m9d is t ( an unkn[n recipi5t or p]cipi5t1 ( !m2 & n ( !m alone1 b ( all our o!r feel+s4 ,z body is und]/ood to be ! my/]i\s some?+ :i* excites ! m9d to feel1 s m9d is ! my/]i\s some?+ :i* feels & ?9ks4 ,x is unnecess>y to give 9 ! case ( m9d1 z we gave 9 ! case ( matt]1 a p>ticul> /atem5t ( ! skeptical sy/em by :i* its exi/5ce z a ,?+ 9 itself1 di/9ct f ! s]ies ( :at are d5om9at$ its /ates1 is call$ 9 "q4 ,b x is necess>y to rem>k1 t on ! inmo/ nature 7:atev] be meant by inmo/ nature7 ( ! ?9k+ pr9ciple1 z well z on ! inmo/ nature ( matt]1 we are1 & ) our faculties mu/ always rema91 entirely 9 ! d>k4 ,all :i* we are aw>e (1 ev5 9 our own m9ds1 is 79 ! words ( ,james ,mill7 a c]ta9 8?read ( consci\sness20 a s]ies ( feel+s1 t is1 ( s5sations1 ?\ghts1 emotions1 & volitions1 m or less num]\s & complicat$4 ,!re is a some?+ ,i call ,myself1 or1 by ano!r =m ( expression1 my m9d1 :i* ,i consid] z di/9ct f ^! s5sations1 ?\ghts1 etc42 a some?+ :i* ,i conceive to be n ! ?\ghts1 b ! be+ t has ! ?\ghts1 & :i* ,i c conceive z exi/+ =ev] 9 a /ate ( quiesc5ce1 )\t any ?\ghts at all4 ,b :at ?is be+ is1 ?\gh x is myself1 ,i h no k1 o!r ?an ! s]ies ( its /ates ( consci\sness4 ,z bodies manife/ !mselves to me only ?r\gh ! s5sations ( :i* ,i reg>d !m z ! causes1 s ! ?9k+ pr9ciple1 or m9d1 9 my own nature1 makes itself kn[n to me only by ! feel+s ( :i* x is consci\s4 ,i "k no?+ ab\t myself1 save my capacities ( feel+ or be+ consci\s 7includ+1 ( c\rse1 ?9k+ & will+73 & 7 ,i to le>n any ?+ new conc]n+ my own nature1 ,i c n ) my pres5t faculties conceive ?is new in=mation to be any ?+ else1 ?an t ,i h "s additional capacities1 z yet unkn[n to me1 ( feel+1 ?9k+1 or will+4 ,?us1 !n1 z body is ! uns5ti5t cause to :i* we are naturally prompt$ to ref] a c]ta9 portion ( our feel+s1 s m9d may be describ$ z ! s5ti5t subject 79 ! s*ola/ic s5se ( ! t]m7 ( all feel+s2 t :i* has or feels !m4 ,b ( ! nature ( ei!r body or m9d1 fur!r ?an ! feel+s :i* ! =m] excites1 & :i* ! latt] exp]i5ces1 we d n1 accord+ to ! be/ exi/+ doctr9e1 "k any ?+2 & if any ?+1 logic has no?+ to d ) x1 or ) ! mann] 9 :i* ! k is acquir$4 ,) ?is result we may conclude ?is portion ( our subject1 & pass to ! ?ird & only rema9+ class or division ( ,namable ,?+s4 ,,iii4 ,attributes3 &1 fir/1 ,qualities4 #i4 ,f :at has already be5 said ( ,sub/ance1 :at is to be said ( ,attribute is easily d$ucible4 ,= if we "k n1 & c n "k1 any ?+ ( bodies b ! s5sations :i* !y excite 9 u or 9 o!rs1 ^? s5sations mu/ be all t we c1 at bottom1 mean by _! attributes2 & ! di/9ction :i* we v]bally make betwe5 ! prop]ties ( ?+s & ! s5sations we receive f !m1 mu/ orig9ate 9 ! conv5i5ce ( disc\rse r ?an 9 ! nature ( :at is signifi$ by ! t]ms4 ,attributes are usually di/ribut$ "u ! ?ree heads ( ,quality1 ,quantity1 & ,relation4 ,we %all come to ! two latt] pres5tly3 9 ! fir/ place we %all conf9e ourselves to ! =m]4 ,let u take1 !n1 z our example1 "o ( :at are t]m$ ! s5sible qualities ( objects1 & let t example be :it5ess4 ,:5 we ascribe :it5ess to any sub/ance1 z1 = in/ance1 sn[2 :5 we say t sn[ has ! quality :it5ess1 :at d we really ass]t8 ,simply1 t :5 sn[ is pres5t to our organs1 we h a p>ticul> s5sation1 :i* we are accu/om$ to call ! s5sation ( :ite4 ,b h[ d ,i "k t sn[ is pres5t8 ,obvi\sly by ! s5sations :i* ,i d]ive f x1 & n o!rwise4 ,i inf] t ! object is pres5t1 because x gives me a c]ta9 assemblage or s]ies ( s5sations4 ,& :5 ,i ascribe to x ! attribute :it5ess1 my mean+ is only1 t1 ( ! s5sations compos+ ?is gr\p or s]ies1 t :i* ,i call ! s5sation ( :ite color is "o4 ,?is is "o view :i* may be tak5 ( ! subject4 ,b !re is also ano!r & a diff]5t view4 ,x may be said1 t x is true we "k no?+ ( s5sible objects1 except ! s5sations !y excite 9 u2 t ! fact ( our receiv+ f sn[ ! p>ticul> s5sation :i* is call$ a s5sation ( :ite1 is ! gr\nd on :i* we ascribe to t sub/ance ! quality :it5ess2 ! sole pro( ( its possess+ t quality4 ,b because "o ?+ may be ! sole evid5ce ( ! exi/5ce ( ano!r ?+1 x does n foll[ t ! two are "o & ! same4 ,! attribute :it5ess 7x may be said7 is n ! fact ( receiv+ ! s5sation1 b some?+ 9 ! object itself2 a p[] inh]5t 9 x2 some?+ 9 virtue ( :i* ! object produces ! s5sation4 ,& :5 we affirm t sn[ possesses ! attribute :it5ess1 we d n m]ely ass]t t ! pres5ce ( sn[ produces 9 u t s5sation1 b t x does s ?r\gh1 & by reason (1 t p[] or quality4 ,= ! purposes ( logic x is n ( mat]ial importance :i* ( ^! op9ions we adopt4 ,! full discussion ( ! subject belongs to ! o!r dep>tm5t ( sci5tific inquiry1 s (t5 allud$ to "u ! "n ( metaphysics2 b x may be said "h1 t = ! doctr9e ( ! exi/5ce ( a peculi> species ( entities call$ qualities1 ,i c see no f\ndation except 9 a t5d5cy ( ! human m9d :i* is ! cause ( _m delusions4 ,i mean1 ! disposition1 :]ev] we meet ) two names :i* are n precisely synonym\s1 to suppose t !y mu/ be ! names ( two diff]5t ?+s2 :]eas 9 reality !y may be names ( ! same ?+ view$ 9 two diff]5t lights1 or "u diff]5t suppositions z to surr\nd+ circum/ances4 ,because quality & s5sation c n be put indiscrim9ately "o = ! o!r1 x is suppos$ t !y c n bo? signify ! same ?+1 namely1 ! impression or feel+ ) :i* we are affect$ ?r\gh our s5ses by ! pres5ce ( an object2 ?\gh !re is at lea/ no absurdity 9 suppos+ t ?is id5tical impression or feel+ may be call$ a s5sation :5 consid]$ m]ely 9 itself1 & a quality :5 look$ at 9 relation to any "o ( ! num]\s objects1 ! pres5ce ( :i* to our organs excites 9 our m9ds t among v>i\s o!r s5sations or feel+s4 ,& if ?is be admissible z a supposition1 x re/s ) ^? :o cont5d = an entity p] se call$ a quality1 to %[ t _! op9ion is pref]able1 or is any ?+ 9 fact b a l+]+ remnant ( ! old doctr9e ( occult causes2 ! v absurdity :i* ,molire s happily ridicul$ :5 he made "o ( 8 p$antic physicians acc\nt = ! fact t opium produces sleep by ! maxim1 ,because x has a soporific virtue4 ,x is evid5t t :5 ! physician /at$ t opium has a soporific virtue1 he did n acc\nt =1 b m]ely ass]t$ ov] aga91 ! fact t x produces sleep4 ,9 l mann]1 :5 we say t sn[ is :ite because x has ! quality ( :it5ess1 we are only re-ass]t+ 9 m te*nical language ! fact t x excites 9 u ! s5sation ( :ite4 ,if x be said t ! s5sation mu/ h "s cause1 ,i answ]1 its cause is ! pres5ce ( ! assemblage ( ph5om5a :i* is t]m$ ! object4 ,:5 we h ass]t$ t z (t5 z ! object is pres5t1 & our organs 9 _! normal /ate1 ! s5sation takes place1 we h /at$ all t we "k ab\t ! matt]4 ,!re is no ne$1 aft] assign+ a c]ta9 & intelligible cause1 to suppose an occult cause besides1 = ! purpose ( enabl+ ! real cause to produce its effect4 ,if ,i am ask$1 :y does ! pres5ce ( ! object cause ?is s5sation 9 me1 ,i c n tell3 ,i c only say t su* is my nature1 & ! nature ( ! object2 t ! fact =ms a "p ( ! con/itution ( ?+s4 ,& to ?is we mu/ at la/ come1 ev5 aft] int]polat+ ! imag9>y entity4 ,:atev] numb] ( l9ks ! *a9 ( causes & effects may consi/ (1 h[ any "o l9k produces ! "o :i* is next to x1 rema9s equally inexplicable to u4 ,x is z easy to compreh5d t ! object %\ld produce ! s5sation directly & at once1 z t x %\ld produce ! same s5sation by ! aid ( some?+ else call$ ! p[] ( produc+ x4 ,b1 z ! difficulties :i* may be felt 9 adopt+ ?is view ( ! subject c n be remov$ )\t discussions transc5d+ ! b\nds ( our sci5ce1 ,i cont5t myself ) a pass+ indication1 & %all1 = ! purposes ( logic1 adopt a language compatible ) ei!r view ( ! nature ( qualities4 ,i %all say--:at at lea/ admits ( no dispute--t ! quality ( :it5ess ascrib$ to ! object sn[1 is gr\nd$ on its excit+ 9 u ! s5sation ( :ite2 & adopt+ ! language already us$ by ! s*ool logicians 9 ! case ( ! k9d ( attributes call$ ,relations1 ,i %all t]m ! s5sation ( :ite ! f\ndation ( ! quality :it5ess4 ,= logical purposes ! s5sation is ! only ess5tial "p ( :at is meant by ! ^w2 ! only "p :i* we ev] c be conc]n$ 9 prov+4 ,:5 t is prov$1 ! quality is prov$2 if an object excites a s5sation1 x has1 ( c\rse1 ! p[] ( excit+ x4 ,,iv4 ,relations4 #aj4 ,! qualities ( a body1 we h said1 are ! attributes gr\nd$ on ! s5sations :i* ! pres5ce ( t p>ticul> body to our organs excites 9 our m9ds4 ,b :5 we ascribe to any object ! k9d ( attribute call$ a ,relation1 ! f\ndation ( ! attribute mu/ be some?+ 9 :i* o!r objects are conc]n$ besides itself & ! p]cipi5t4 ,z !re may ) propriety be said to be a relation betwe5 any two ?+s to :i* two correlative names are or may be giv51 we may expect to discov] :at con/itutes a relation 9 g5]al1 if we enum]ate ! pr9cipal cases 9 :i* mank9d h impos$ correlative names1 & obs]ve :at ^! cases h 9 common4 ,:at1 !n1 is ! "* :i* is possess$ 9 common by /ates ( circum/ances s het]og5e\s & discordant z ^!3 "o ?+ l ano!r2 "o ?+ unlike ano!r2 "o ?+ ne> ano!r2 "o ?+ f> f ano!r2 "o ?+ be=e1 aft]1 along ) ano!r2 "o ?+ great]1 equal1 less1 ?an ano!r2 "o ?+ ! cause ( ano!r1 ! effect ( ano!r2 "o p]son ! ma/]1 s]vant1 *ild1 p>5t1 debtor1 cr$itor1 sov]eign1 subject1 attorney1 cli5t1 ( ano!r1 & s on8 ,omitt+1 = ! pres5t1 ! case ( ,resemblance1 7a relation :i* requires to be consid]$ sep>ately17 !re seems to be "o ?+ common to all ^! cases1 & only "o2 t 9 ea* ( !m !re exi/s or occurs1 or has exi/$ or occurr$1 or may be expect$ to exi/ or occur1 "s fact or ph5om5on1 into :i* ! two ?+s :i* are said to be relat$ to ea* o!r1 bo? ent] z p>ties conc]n$4 ,?is fact1 or ph5om5on1 is :at ! ,ari/otelian logicians call$ ! fundam5tum relationis4 ,?us 9 ! relation ( great] & less betwe5 two magnitudes1 ! fundam5tum relationis is ! fact t "o ( ! two magnitudes c\ld1 "u c]ta9 conditions1 be includ$ 91 )\t entirely fill+1 ! space occupi$ by ! o!r magnitude4 ,9 ! relation ( ma/] & s]vant1 ! fundam5tum relationis is ! fact t ! "o has und]tak51 or is compell$1 to p]=m c]ta9 s]vices = ! b5efit & at ! bidd+ ( ! o!r4 ,examples might be indef9itely multipli$2 b x is already obvi\s t :5ev] two ?+s are said to be relat$1 !re is "s fact1 or s]ies ( facts1 into :i* !y bo? ent]2 & t :5ev] any two ?+s are involv$ 9 "s "o fact1 or s]ies ( facts1 we may ascribe to ^? two ?+s a mutual relation gr\nd$ on ! fact4 ,ev5 if !y h no?+ 9 common b :at is common to all ?+s1 t !y are memb]s ( ! univ]se1 we call t a relation1 & d5om9ate !m fell[-creatures1 fell[-be+s1 or fell[-d5iz5s ( ! univ]se4 ,b 9 proportion z ! fact into :i* ! two objects ent] z p>ts is ( a m special & peculi>1 or ( a m complicat$ nature1 s also is ! relation gr\nd$ ^u x4 ,& !re are z _m conceivable relations z !re are conceivable k9ds ( fact 9 :i* two ?+s c be jo9tly conc]n$4 ,9 ! same mann]1 !re=e1 z a quality is an attribute gr\nd$ on ! fact t a c]ta9 s5sation or s5sations are produc$ 9 u by ! object1 s an attribute gr\nd$ on "s fact into :i* ! object ent]s jo9tly ) ano!r object1 is a relation betwe5 x & t o!r object4 ,b ! fact 9 ! latt] case consi/s ( ! v same k9d ( elem5ts z ! fact 9 ! =m]2 namely1 /ates ( consci\sness4 ,9 ! case1 = example1 ( any legal relation1 z debtor & cr$itor1 pr9cipal & ag5t1 gu>dian & w>d1 ! fundam5tum relationis consi/s entirely ( ?\ghts1 feel+s1 & volitions 7actual or cont+5t71 ei!r ( ! p]sons !mselves or ( o!r p]sons conc]n$ 9 ! same s]ies ( transactions2 z1 = in/ance1 ! int5tions :i* w\ld be =m$ by a judge1 9 case a compla9t 7 made to 8 tribunal ( ! infr+em5t ( any ( ! legal obligations impos$ by ! relation2 & ! acts :i* ! judge w\ld p]=m 9 consequ5ce2 acts be+ 7z we h already se57 ano!r ^w = int5tions foll[$ by an effect1 & t effect be+ b ano!r ^w = s5sations1 or "s o!r feel+s1 occasion$ ei!r to ! ag5t himself or to somebody else4 ,!re is no "p ( :at ! names expressive ( ! relation imply1 t is n resolvable into /ates ( consci\sness2 outw>d objects be+1 no d\bt1 suppos$ ?r\gh\t z ! causes by :i* "s ( ^? /ates ( consci\sness are excit$1 & m9ds z ! subjects by :i* all ( !m are exp]i5c$1 b nei!r ! ext]nal objects nor ! m9ds mak+ _! exi/5ce kn[n o!rwise ?an by ! /ates ( consci\sness4 ,cases ( relation are n always s complicat$ z ^? to :i* we la/ allud$4 ,! simple/ ( all cases ( relation are ^? express$ by ! words antec$5t & consequ5t1 & by ! ^w simultane\s4 ,if we say1 = in/ance1 t dawn prec$$ sunrise1 ! fact 9 :i* ! two ?+s1 dawn & sunrise1 7 jo9tly conc]n$1 consi/$ only ( ! two ?+s !mselves2 no ?ird ?+ ent]$ into ! fact or ph5om5on at all4 ,unless1 inde$1 we *oose to call ! succession ( ! two objects a ?ird ?+2 b _! succession is n some?+ add$ to ! ?+s !mselves2 x is some?+ involv$ 9 !m4 ,dawn & sunrise ann\nce !mselves to our consci\sness by two successive s5sations4 ,our consci\sness ( ! succession ( ^! s5sations is n a ?ird s5sation or feel+ add$ to !m2 we h n fir/ ! two feel+s1 & !n a feel+ ( _! succession4 ,to h two feel+s at all1 implies hav+ !m ei!r successively1 or else simultane\sly4 ,s5sations1 or o!r feel+s1 be+ giv51 succession & simultane\sness are ! two conditions1 to ! alt]native ( :i* !y are subject$ by ! nature ( our faculties2 & no "o has be5 able1 or ne$s expect1 to analyze ! matt] any fur!r4 #aa4 ,9 a some:at simil> position are two o!r sorts ( relations1 ,lik5ess & ,unlik5ess4 ,i h two s5sations2 we w suppose !m to be simple ones2 two s5sations ( :ite1 or "o s5sation ( :ite & ano!r ( black4 ,i call ! fir/ two s5sations l2 ! la/ two unlike4 ,:at is ! fact or ph5om5on con/itut+ ! fundam5tum ( ?is relation8 ,! two s5sations fir/1 & !n :at we call a feel+ ( resemblance1 or ( want ( resemblance4 ,let u conf9e ourselves to ! =m] case4 ,resemblance is evid5tly a feel+2 a /ate ( ! consci\sness ( ! obs]v]4 ,:e!r ! feel+ ( ! resemblance ( ! two colors be a ?ird /ate ( consci\sness1 :i* ,i h aft] hav+ ! two s5sations ( color1 or :e!r 7l ! feel+ ( _! succession7 x is involv$ 9 ! s5sations !mselves1 may be a matt] ( discussion4 ,b 9 ei!r case1 ^! feel+s ( resemblance1 & ( its opposite dissimil>ity1 are p>ts ( our nature2 & p>ts s f> f be+ capable ( analysis1 t !y are presuppos$ 9 e attempt to analyze any ( our o!r feel+s4 ,lik5ess & unlik5ess1 !re=e1 z well z antec$5ce1 sequ5ce1 & simultane\sness1 mu/ /& ap>t among relations1 z ?+s sui g5]is4 ,!y are attributes gr\nd$ on facts1 t is1 on /ates ( consci\sness1 b on /ates :i* are peculi>1 unresolvable1 & inexplicable4 ,b1 ?\gh lik5ess or unlik5ess c n be resolv$ into any ?+ else1 complex cases ( lik5ess or unlik5ess c be resolv$ into simpl] ones4 ,:5 we say ( two ?+s :i* consi/ ( p>ts1 t !y are l "o ano!r1 ! lik5ess ( ! :oles does admit ( analysis2 x is comp\nd$ ( lik5esses betwe5 ! v>i\s p>ts respectively1 & ( lik5ess 9 _! arrangem5t4 ,( h[ va/ a v>iety ( resemblances ( p>ts mu/ t resemblance be compos$1 :i* induces u to say t a portrait1 or a l&scape1 is l its orig9al4 ,if "o p]son mimics ano!r ) any success1 ( h[ _m simple lik5esses mu/ ! g5]al or complex lik5ess be comp\nd$3 lik5ess 9 a succession ( bodily po/ures2 lik5ess 9 voice1 or 9 ! acc5ts & intonations ( ! voice2 lik5ess 9 ! *oice ( words1 & 9 ! ?\ghts or s5tim5ts express$1 :e!r by ^w1 c\nt5ance1 or ge/ure4 ,all lik5ess & unlik5ess ( :i* we h any cognizance1 resolve !mselves into lik5ess & unlik5ess betwe5 /ates ( our own1 or "s o!r1 m9d4 ,:5 we say t "o body is l ano!r1 7s9ce we "k no?+ ( bodies b ! s5sations :i* !y excite17 we mean really t !re is a resemblance betwe5 ! s5sations excit$ by ! two bodies1 or betwe5 "s portions at lea/ ( ^? s5sations4 ,if we say t two attributes are l "o ano!r 7s9ce we "k no?+ ( attributes except ! s5sations or /ates ( feel+ on :i* !y are gr\nd$71 we mean really t ^? s5sations1 or /ates ( feel+1 resemble ea* o!r4 ,we may also say t two relations are alike4 ,! fact ( resemblance betwe5 relations is sometimes call$ analogy1 =m+ "o ( ! num]\s mean+s ( t ^w4 ,! relation 9 :i* ,priam /ood to ,hector1 namely1 t ( fa!r & son1 resembles ! relation 9 :i* ,philip /ood to ,alex&]2 resembles x s closely t !y are call$ ! same relation4 ,! relation 9 :i* ,cromwell /ood to ,engl& resembles ! relation 9 :i* ,napoleon /ood to ,france1 ?\gh n s closely z to be call$ ! same relation4 ,! mean+ 9 bo? ^! in/ances mu/ be1 t a resemblance exi/$ betwe5 ! facts :i* con/itut$ ! fundam5tum relationis4 ,?is resemblance may exi/ 9 all conceivable gradations1 f p]fect undi/+ui%abl5ess to some?+ extremely slight4 ,:5 we say1 t a ?\ght sugge/$ to ! m9d ( a p]son ( g5ius is l a se$ ca/ into ! gr\nd1 because ! =m] produces a multitude ( o!r ?\ghts1 & ! latt] a multitude ( o!r se$s1 ?is is say+ t betwe5 ! relation ( an inv5tive m9d to a ?\ght conta9$ 9 x1 & ! relation ( a f]tile soil to a se$ conta9$ 9 x1 !re exi/s a resemblance3 ! real resemblance be+ 9 ! two fundam5ta relationis1 9 ea* ( :i* !re occurs a g]m1 produc+ by its developm5t a multitude ( o!r ?+s simil> to itself4 ,& z1 :5ev] two objects are jo9tly conc]n$ 9 a ph5om5on1 ?is con/itutes a relation betwe5 ^? objects1 s1 if we suppose a second pair ( objects conc]n$ 9 a second ph5om5on1 ! slighte/ resemblance betwe5 ! two ph5om5a is suffici5t to admit ( its be+ said t ! two relations resemble2 provid$1 ( c\rse1 ! po9ts ( resemblance are f\nd 9 ^? portions ( ! two ph5om5a respectively :i* are connot$ by ! relative names4 ,:ile speak+ ( resemblance1 x is necess>y to take notice ( an ambiguity ( language1 aga9/ :i* sc>cely any "o is suffici5tly on 8 gu>d4 ,resemblance1 :5 x exi/s 9 ! highe/ degree ( all1 am\nt+ to undi/+ui%abl5ess1 is (t5 call$ id5tity1 & ! two simil> ?+s are said to be ! same4 ,i say (t51 n always2 = we d n say t two visible objects1 two p]sons1 = in/ance1 are ! same1 because !y are s mu* alike t "o might be mi/ak5 = ! o!r3 b we con/antly use ?is mode ( expression :5 speak+ ( feel+s2 z :5 ,i say t ! sight ( any object gives me ! same s5sation or emotion to-day t x did ye/]day1 or ! same :i* x gives to "s o!r p]son4 ,?is is evid5tly an incorrect application ( ! ^w same2 = ! feel+ :i* ,i _h ye/]day is gone1 nev] to return2 :at ,i h to-day is ano!r feel+1 exactly l ! =m]1 p]haps1 b di/9ct f x2 & x is evid5t t two diff]5t p]sons c n be exp]i5c+ ! same feel+1 9 ! s5se 9 :i* we say t !y are bo? sitt+ at ! same table4 ,by a simil> ambiguity we say1 t two p]sons are ill ( ! same disease2 t two p]sons hold ! same (fice2 n 9 ! s5se 9 :i* we say t !y are engag$ 9 ! same adv5ture1 or sail+ 9 ! same %ip1 b 9 ! s5se t !y fill (fices exactly simil>1 ?\gh1 p]haps1 9 di/ant places4 ,great confusion ( ideas is (t5 produc$1 & _m fallacies eng5d]$1 9 o!rwise enlight5$ und]/&+s1 by n be+ suffici5tly alive to ! fact 79 itself n always to be avoid$71 t !y use ! same "n to express ideas s diff]5t z ^? ( id5tity & undi/+ui%able resemblance4 ,among mod]n writ]s1 ,ar*bi%op ,:ately /&s almo/ alone 9 hav+ drawn att5tion to ?is di/9ction1 & to ! ambiguity connect$ ) x4 ,sev]al relations1 g5]ally call$ by o!r names1 are really cases ( resemblance4 ,z1 = example1 equality2 :i* is b ano!r ^w = ! exact resemblance commonly call$ id5tity1 consid]$ z subsi/+ betwe5 ?+s 9 respect ( _! quantity4 ,& ?is example =ms a suitable transition to ! ?ird & la/ ( ! ?ree heads "u :i*1 z already rem>k$1 ,attributes are commonly arrang$4 ,v4 ,quantity4 #ab4 ,let u imag9e two ?+s1 betwe5 :i* !re is no diff]5ce 7t is1 no dissimil>ity71 except 9 quantity alone2 = in/ance1 a gallon ( wat]1 & m ?an a gallon ( wat]4 ,a gallon ( wat]1 l any o!r ext]nal object1 makes its pres5ce kn[n to u by a set ( s5sations :i* x excites4 ,t5 gallons ( wat] are also an ext]nal object1 mak+ its pres5ce kn[n to u 9 a simil> mann]2 & z we d n mi/ake t5 gallons ( wat] = a gallon ( wat]1 x is pla9 t ! set ( s5sations is m or less diff]5t 9 ! two cases4 ,9 l mann]1 a gallon ( wat]1 & a gallon ( w9e1 are two ext]nal objects1 mak+ _! pres5ce kn[n by two sets ( s5sations1 :i* s5sations are diff]5t f ea* o!r4 ,9 ! fir/ case1 h[ev]1 we say t ! diff]5ce is 9 quantity2 9 ! la/ !re is a diff]5ce 9 quality1 :ile ! quantity ( ! wat] & ( ! w9e is ! same4 ,:at is ! real di/9ction betwe5 ! two cases8 ,x is n )9 ! prov9ce ( ,logic to analyze x2 nor to decide :e!r x is susceptible ( analysis or n4 ,= u ! foll[+ consid]ations are suffici5t3 ,x is evid5t t ! s5sations ,i receive f ! gallon ( wat]1 & ^? ,i receive f ! gallon ( w9e1 are n ! same1 t is1 n precisely alike2 nei!r are !y altoge!r unlike3 !y are p>tly simil>1 p>tly dissimil>2 & t 9 :i* !y resemble is precisely t 9 :i* alone ! gallon ( wat] & ! t5 gallons d n resemble4 ,t 9 :i* ! gallon ( wat] & ! gallon ( w9e are l ea* o!r1 & 9 :i* ! gallon & ! t5 gallons ( wat] are unlike ea* o!r1 is call$ _! quantity4 ,?is lik5ess & unlik5ess ,i d n pret5d to expla91 no m ?an any o!r k9d ( lik5ess or unlik5ess4 ,b my object is to %[1 t :5 we say ( two ?+s t !y diff] 9 quantity1 j z :5 we say t !y diff] 9 quality1 ! ass]tion is always gr\nd$ on a diff]5ce 9 ! s5sations :i* !y excite4 ,nobody1 ,i presume1 w say1 t to see1 or to lift1 or to dr9k1 t5 gallons ( wat]1 does n include 9 itself a diff]5t set ( s5sations f ^? ( see+1 lift+1 or dr9k+ "o gallon2 or t to see or h&le a foot-rule1 & to see or h&le a y>d-measure made exactly l x1 are ! same s5sations4 ,i d n und]take to say :at ! diff]5ce 9 ! s5sations is4 ,e body kn[s1 & nobody c tell2 no m ?an any "o c\ld tell :at :ite is to a p]son :o _h nev] _h ! s5sation4 ,b ! diff]5ce1 s f> z cognizable by our faculties1 lies 9 ! s5sations4 ,:atev] diff]5ce we say !re is 9 ! ?+s !mselves1 is1 9 ?is z 9 all o!r cases1 gr\nd$1 & gr\nd$ exclusively1 on a diff]5ce 9 ! s5sations excit$ by !m4 ,,vi4 ,attributes ,conclud$4 #ac4 ,?us1 !n1 all ! attributes ( bodies :i* are class$ "u ,quality or ,quantity1 are gr\nd$ on ! s5sations :i* we receive f ^? bodies1 & may be def9$1 ! p[]s :i* ! bodies h ( excit+ ^? s5sations4 ,& ! same g5]al explanation has be5 f\nd to apply to mo/ ( ! attributes usually class$ "u ! head ( ,relation4 ,!y1 too1 are gr\nd$ on "s fact or ph5om5on into :i* ! relat$ objects ent] z p>ts2 t fact or ph5om5on hav+ no mean+ & no exi/5ce to u1 except ! s]ies ( s5sations or o!r /ates ( consci\sness by :i* x makes itself kn[n2 & ! relation be+ simply ! p[] or capacity :i* ! object possesses ( tak+ "p along ) ! correlat$ object 9 ! production ( t s]ies ( s5sations or /ates ( consci\sness4 ,we h be5 oblig$1 inde$1 to recognize a some:at diff]5t "* 9 c]ta9 peculi> relations1 ^? ( succession & simultaneity1 ( lik5ess & unlik5ess4 ,^!1 n be+ gr\nd$ on any fact or ph5om5on di/9ct f ! relat$ objects !mselves1 d n admit ( ! same k9d ( analysis4 ,b ^! relations1 ?\gh n1 l o!r relations1 gr\nd$ on /ates ( consci\sness1 are !mselves /ates ( consci\sness3 resemblance is no?+ b our feel+ ( resemblance2 succession is no?+ b our feel+ ( succession4 ,or1 if ?is be disput$ 7& we c n1 )\t transgress+ ! b\nds ( our sci5ce1 discuss x "h71 at lea/ our k ( ^! relations1 & ev5 our possibility ( k1 is conf9$ to ^? :i* subsi/ betwe5 s5sations1 or o!r /ates ( consci\sness2 =1 ?\gh we ascribe resemblance1 or succession1 or simultaneity1 to objects & to attributes1 x is always 9 virtue ( resemblance or succession or simultaneity 9 ! s5sations or /ates ( consci\sness :i* ^? objects excite1 & on :i* ^? attributes are gr\nd$4 #ad4 ,9 ! prec$+ inve/igation we h1 = ! sake ( simplicity1 consid]$ bodies only1 & omitt$ m9ds4 ,b :at we h said1 is applicable1 mutatis mut&is1 to ! latt]4 ,! attributes ( m9ds1 z well z ^? ( bodies1 are gr\nd$ on /ates ( feel+ or consci\sness4 ,b 9 ! case ( a m9d1 we h to consid] its own /ates1 z well z ^? :i* x produces 9 o!r m9ds4 ,e attribute ( a m9d consi/s ei!r 9 be+ itself affect$ 9 a c]ta9 way1 or affect+ o!r m9ds 9 a c]ta9 way4 ,consid]$ 9 itself1 we c pr$icate no?+ ( x b ! s]ies ( its own feel+s4 ,:5 we say ( any m9d1 t x is dev\t1 or sup]/iti\s1 or m$itative1 or *e]ful1 we mean t ! ideas1 emotions1 or volitions impli$ 9 ^? words1 =m a frequ5tly recurr+ "p ( ! s]ies ( feel+s1 or /ates ( consci\sness1 :i* fill up ! s5ti5t exi/5ce ( t m9d4 ,9 addition1 h[ev]1 to ^? attributes ( a m9d :i* are gr\nd$ on its own /ates ( feel+1 attributes may also be ascrib$ to x1 9 ! same mann] z to a body1 gr\nd$ on ! feel+s :i* x excites 9 o!r m9ds4 ,a m9d does n1 inde$1 l a body1 excite s5sations1 b x may excite ?\ghts or emotions4 ,! mo/ important example ( attributes ascrib$ on ?is gr\nd1 is ! employm5t ( t]ms expressive ( approbation or blame4 ,:51 = example1 we say ( any "*1 or 79 o!r words7 ( any m9d1 t x is admirable1 we mean t ! contemplation ( x excites ! s5tim5t ( admiration2 & inde$ some:at m1 = ! ^w implies t we n only feel admiration1 b approve t s5tim5t 9 ourselves4 ,9 "s cases1 "u ! semblance ( a s+le attribute1 two are really pr$icat$3 "o ( !m1 a /ate ( ! m9d itself2 ! o!r1 a /ate ) :i* o!r m9ds are affect$ by ?9k+ ( x4 ,z :5 we say ( any "o t he is g5]\s4 ,! ^w g5]osity expresses a c]ta9 /ate ( m9d1 b be+ a t]m ( praise1 x also expresses t ?is /ate ( m9d excites 9 u ano!r m5tal /ate1 call$ approbation4 ,! ass]tion made1 !re=e1 is tw(old1 & ( ! foll[+ purport3 ,c]ta9 feel+s =m habitually a "p ( ?is p]son's s5ti5t exi/5ce2 & ! idea ( ^? feel+s ( 81 excites ! s5tim5t ( approbation 9 ourselves or o!rs4 ,z we ?us ascribe attributes to m9ds on ! gr\nd ( ideas & emotions1 s may we to bodies on simil> gr\nds1 & n solely on ! gr\nd ( s5sations3 z 9 speak+ ( ! beauty ( a /atue2 s9ce ?is attribute is gr\nd$ on ! peculi> feel+ ( pleasure :i* ! /atue produces 9 our m9ds2 :i* is n a s5sation1 b an emotion4 ,,vii4 ,g5]al ,results4 #ae4 ,our survey ( ! v>ieties ( ,?+s :i* h be51 or :i* are capable ( be+1 nam$--:i* h be51 or are capable ( be+1 ei!r pr$icat$ ( o!r ,?+s1 or !mselves made ! subject ( pr$ications--is n[ conclud$4 ,our enum]ation comm5c$ ) ,feel+s4 ,^! we scrupul\sly di/+ui%$ f ! objects :i* excite !m1 & f ! organs by :i* !y are1 or may be suppos$ to be1 convey$4 ,feel+s are ( f\r sorts3 ,s5sations1 ,?\ghts1 ,emotions1 & ,volitions4 ,:at are call$ ,p]ceptions are m]ely a p>ticul> case ( ,belief1 & ,belief is a k9d ( ?\ght4 ,actions are m]ely volitions foll[$ by an effect4 ,aft] ,feel+s we proce$$ to ,sub/ances4 ,^! are ei!r ,bodies or ,m9ds4 ,)\t ent]+ into ! gr\nds ( ! metaphysical d\bts :i* h be5 rais$ conc]n+ ! exi/5ce ( ,matt] & ,m9d z objective realities1 we /at$ z suffici5t = u ! conclusion 9 :i* ! be/ ?9k]s are n[ = ! mo/ "p agre$1 t all we c "k ( ,matt] is ! s5sations :i* x gives u1 & ! ord] ( occurr5ce ( ^? s5sations2 & t :ile ! sub/ance ,body is ! unkn[n cause ( our s5sations1 ! sub/ance ,m9d is ! unkn[n recipi5t4 ,! only rema9+ class ( ,namable ,?+s is ,attributes2 & ^! are ( ?ree k9ds1 ,quality1 ,relation1 & ,quantity4 ,qualities1 l sub/ances1 are kn[n to u no o!rwise ?an by ! s5sations or o!r /ates ( consci\sness :i* !y excite3 & :ile1 9 compliance ) common usage1 we h cont9u$ to speak ( !m z a di/9ct class ( ,?+s1 we %[$ t 9 pr$icat+ !m no "o means to pr$icate any ?+ b ^? s5sations or /ates ( consci\sness1 on :i* !y may be said to be gr\nd$1 & by :i* alone !y c be def9$ or describ$4 ,relations1 except ! simple cases ( lik5ess & unlik5ess1 succession & simultaneity1 are simil>ly gr\nd$ on "s fact or ph5om5on1 t is1 on "s s]ies ( s5sations or /ates ( consci\sness1 m or less complicat$4 ,! ?ird species ( ,attribute1 ,quantity1 is also manife/ly gr\nd$ on some?+ 9 our s5sations or /ates ( feel+1 s9ce !re is an indubitable diff]5ce 9 ! s5sations excit$ by a l>g] & a small] bulk1 or by a great] or a less degree ( int5sity1 9 any object ( s5se or ( consci\sness4 ,all attributes1 !re=e1 are to u no?+ b ei!r our s5sations & o!r /ates ( feel+1 or some?+ inextricably involv$ !re92 & to ?is ev5 ! peculi> & simple relations j adv]t$ to are n exceptions4 ,^? peculi> relations1 h[ev]1 are s important1 &1 ev5 if !y might 9 /rictness be class$ among /ates ( consci\sness1 are s fundam5tally di/9ct f any o!r ( ^? /ates1 t x w\ld be a va9 subtlety to br+ !m "u t common description1 & x is necess>y t !y %\ld be class$ ap>t47#bd7 ,z ! result1 !re=e1 ( our analysis1 we obta9 ! foll[+ z an enum]ation & classification ( all ,namable ,?+s3 #a/4 ,feel+s1 or ,/ates ( ,consci\sness4 #b;d4 ,! ,m9ds :i* exp]i5ce ^? feel+s4 #c;d4 ,! ,bodies1 or ext]nal objects :i* excite c]ta9 ( ^? feel+s1 toge!r ) ! p[]s or prop]ties :]eby !y excite !m2 ^! latt] 7at lea/7 be+ includ$ r 9 compliance ) common op9ion1 & because _! exi/5ce is tak5 = grant$ 9 ! common language f :i* ,i c n prud5tly deviate1 ?an because ! recognition ( su* p[]s or prop]ties z real exi/5ces appe>s to be w>rant$ by a s\nd philosophy4 #d?1 & la/4 ,! ,successions & ,co-exi/5ces1 ! ,lik5esses & ,unlik5esses1 betwe5 feel+s or /ates ( consci\sness4 ,^? relations1 :5 consid]$ z subsi/+ betwe5 o!r ?+s1 exi/ 9 reality only betwe5 ! /ates ( consci\sness :i* ^? ?+s1 if bodies1 excite1 if m9ds1 ei!r excite or exp]i5ce4 ,?is1 until a bett] c be sugge/$1 may s]ve z a sub/itute = ! ,categories ( ,ari/otle consid]$ z a classification ( ,exi/5ces4 ,! practical application ( x w appe> :5 we comm5ce ! inquiry into ! ,import ( ,propositions2 9 o!r words1 :5 we inquire :at x is :i* ! m9d actually believes1 :5 x gives :at is call$ its ass5t to a proposition4 ,^! f\r classes compris+1 if ! classification be correct1 all ,namable ,?+s1 ^! or "s ( !m mu/ ( c\rse compose ! signification ( all names3 & ( ^!1 or "s ( !m1 is made up :atev] we call a fact4 ,= di/9ction's sake1 e fact :i* is solely compos$ ( feel+s or /ates ( consci\sness consid]$ z su*1 is (t5 call$ a ,psy*ological or ,subjective fact2 :ile e fact :i* is compos$1 ei!r :olly or 9 "p1 ( some?+ diff]5t f ^!1 t is1 ( sub/ances & attributes1 is call$ an ,objective fact4 ,we may say1 !n1 t e objective fact is gr\nd$ on a correspond+ subjective "o2 & has no mean+ to u 7ap>t f ! subjective fact :i* corresponds to x71 except z a "n = ! unkn[n & inscrutable process by :i* t subjective or psy*ological fact is br\ght to pass4 ,*apt] ,,iv4 ,( ,propositions4 #a4 ,9 treat+ ( ,propositions1 z already 9 treat+ ( ,names1 "s consid]ations ( a comp>atively elem5t>y nature respect+ _! =m & v>ieties mu/ be premis$1 be=e ent]+ ^u t analysis ( ! import convey$ by !m1 :i* is ! real subject & purpose ( ?is prelim9>y book4 ,a proposition1 we h be=e said1 is a portion ( disc\rse 9 :i* a pr$icate is affirm$ or d5i$ ( a subject4 ,a pr$icate & a subject are all t is necess>ily requir$ to make up a proposition3 b z we c n conclude f m]ely see+ two names put toge!r1 t !y are a pr$icate & a subject1 t is1 t "o ( !m is int5d$ to be affirm$ or d5i$ ( ! o!r1 x is necess>y t !re %\ld be "s mode or =m ( indicat+ t su* is ! int5tion2 "s sign to di/+ui% a pr$ication f any o!r k9d ( disc\rse4 ,?is is sometimes done by a slight alt]ation ( "o ( ! words1 call$ an inflection2 z :5 we say1 ,fire burns2 ! *ange ( ! second ^w f burn to burns %[+ t we mean to affirm ! pr$icate burn ( ! subject fire4 ,b ?is function is m commonly fulfill$ by ! ^w is1 :5 an affirmation is int5d$1 is n1 :5 a negation2 or by "s o!r "p ( ! v]b to be4 ,! ^w :i* ?us s]ves ! purpose ( a sign ( pr$ication is call$1 z we =m]ly obs]v$1 ! copula4 ,x is important t !re %\ld be no indi/9ctness 9 our conception ( ! nature & (fice ( ! copula2 = confus$ notions respect+ x are among ! causes :i* h spread my/icism ov] ! field ( logic1 & p]v]t$ its speculations into logoma*ies4 ,x is apt to be suppos$ t ! copula is some?+ m ?an a m]e sign ( pr$ication2 t x also signifies exi/5ce4 ,9 ! proposition1 ,socrates is j1 x may seem to be impli$ n only t ! quality j c be affirm$ ( ,socrates1 b moreov] t ,socrates is1 t is to say1 exi/s4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 only %[s t !re is an ambiguity 9 ! ^w is2 a ^w :i* n only p]=ms ! function ( ! copula 9 affirmations1 b has also a mean+ ( its own1 9 virtue ( :i* x may itself be made ! pr$icate ( a proposition4 ,t ! employm5t ( x z a copula does n necess>ily include ! affirmation ( exi/5ce1 appe>s f su* a proposition z ?is1 ,a c5taur is a fiction ( ! poets2 :]e x c n possibly be impli$ t a c5taur exi/s1 s9ce ! proposition itself expressly ass]ts t ! ?+ has no real exi/5ce4 ,_m volumes might be fill$ ) ! frivol\s speculations conc]n+ ! nature ( ,be+ 7 1 1 ,ens1 ,entitas1 ,ess5tia1 & ! l71 :i* h aris5 f ov]look+ ?is d\ble mean+ ( ! ^w to be2 f suppos+ t :5 x signifies to exi/1 & :5 x signifies to be "s specifi$ ?+1 z to be a man1 to be ,socrates1 to be se5 or spok5 (1 to be a phantom1 ev5 to be a non5tity1 x mu/ /ill1 at bottom1 answ] to ! same idea2 & t a mean+ mu/ be f\nd = x :i* %all suit all ^! cases4 ,! fog :i* rose f ?is n>r[ spot diffus$ itself at an e>ly p]iod ov] ! :ole surface ( metaphysics4 ,yet x becomes u n to triumph ov] ! great intellects ( ,plato & ,ari/otle because we are n[ able to pres]ve ourselves f _m errors into :i* !y1 p]haps inevitably1 fell4 ,! fire-teaz] ( a mod]n /eam-eng9e produces by 8 ex]tions f> great] effects ?an ,milo ( ,crotona c\ld1 b he is n !re=e a /rong] man4 ,! ,greeks seldom knew any language b _! own4 ,?is r5d]$ x f> m difficult = !m ?an x is = u1 to acquire a read9ess 9 detect+ ambiguities4 ,"o ( ! advantages ( hav+ accurately /udi$ a plurality ( languages1 especially ( ^? languages :i* em95t ?9k]s h us$ z ! vehicle ( _! ?\ghts1 is ! practical lesson we le>n respect+ ! ambiguities ( words1 by f9d+ t ! same ^w 9 "o language corresponds1 on diff]5t occasions1 to diff]5t words 9 ano!r4 ,:5 n ?us ex]cis$1 ev5 ! /ronge/ und]/&+s f9d x difficult to believe t ?+s :i* h a common "n1 h n 9 "s respect or o!r a common nature2 & (t5 exp5d mu* labor v unpr(itably 7z 0 frequ5tly done by ! two philosoph]s j m5tion$7 9 va9 attempts to discov] 9 :at ?is common nature consi/s4 ,b1 ! habit once =m$1 intellects mu* inf]ior are capable ( detect+ ev5 ambiguities :i* are common to _m languages3 & x is surpris+ t ! "o n[ "u consid]ation1 ?\gh x exi/s 9 ! mod]n languages z well z 9 ! anci5t1 %\ld h be5 ov]look$ by almo/ all au?ors4 ,! quantity ( futile speculation :i* _h be5 caus$ by a misappreh5sion ( ! nature ( ! copula1 0 h9t$ at by ,hobbes2 b ,mr4 ,james ,mill7#be7 01 ,i believe1 ! fir/ :o di/9ctly *>act]iz$ ! ambiguity1 & po9t$ out h[ _m errors 9 ! receiv$ sy/ems ( philosophy x has _h to answ] =4 ,x has1 inde$1 misl$ ! mod]ns sc>cely less ?an ! anci5ts1 ?\gh _! mi/akes1 because our und]/&+s are n yet s completely emancipat$ f _! influ5ce1 d n appe> equally irrational4 ,we %all n[ briefly review ! pr9cipal di/9ctions :i* exi/ among propositions1 & ! te*nical t]ms mo/ commonly 9 use to express ^? di/9ctions4 #b4 ,a proposition be+ a portion ( disc\rse 9 :i* some?+ is affirm$ or d5i$ ( some?+1 ! fir/ division ( propositions is into affirmative & negative4 ,an affirmative proposition is t 9 :i* ! pr$icate is affirm$ ( ! subject2 z1 ,cs> is dead4 ,a negative proposition is t 9 :i* ! pr$icate is d5i$ ( ! subject2 z1 ,cs> is n dead4 ,! copula1 9 ?is la/ species ( proposition1 consi/s ( ! words is n1 :i* are ! sign ( negation2 is be+ ! sign ( affirmation4 ,"s logicians1 among :om may be m5tion$ ,hobbes1 /ate ?is di/9ction diff]5tly2 !y recognize only "o =m ( copula1 is1 & atta* ! negative sign to ! pr$icate4 8,cs> is dead10 & 8,cs> is n dead10 accord+ to ^! writ]s1 are propositions agree+ n 9 ! subject & pr$icate1 b 9 ! subject only4 ,!y d n consid] 8dead10 b 8n dead10 to be ! pr$icate ( ! second proposition1 & !y accord+ly def9e a negative proposition to be "o 9 :i* ! pr$icate is a negative "n4 ,! po9t1 ?\gh n ( mu* practical mom5t1 des]ves notice z an example 7n unfrequ5t 9 logic7 :]e by means ( an app>5t simplification1 b :i* is m]ely v]bal1 matt]s are made m complex ?an be=e4 ,! notion ( ^! writ]s 01 t !y c\ld get rid ( ! di/9ction betwe5 affirm+ & d5y+1 by treat+ e case ( d5y+ z ! affirm+ ( a negative "n4 ,b :at is meant by a negative "n8 ,a "n expressive ( ! abs5ce ( an attribute4 ,s t :5 we affirm a negative "n1 :at we are really pr$icat+ is abs5ce & n pres5ce2 we are ass]t+ n t any ?+ is1 b t some?+ is n2 to express :i* op]ation no ^w seems s prop] z ! ^w d5y+4 ,! fundam5tal di/9ction is betwe5 a fact & ! non-exi/5ce ( t fact2 betwe5 see+ some?+ & n see+ x1 betwe5 ,cs>'s be+ dead & 8 n be+ dead2 & if ?is 7 a m]ely v]bal di/9ction1 ! g5]alization :i* br+s bo? )9 ! same =m ( ass]tion w\ld be a real simplification3 ! di/9ction1 h[ev]1 be+ real1 & 9 ! facts1 x is ! g5]alization conf\nd+ ! di/9ction t is m]ely v]bal2 & t5ds to obscure ! subject1 by treat+ ! diff]5ce betwe5 two k9ds ( tru?s z if x 7 only a diff]5ce betwe5 two k9ds ( words4 ,to put ?+s toge!r1 & to put !m or keep !m asund]1 w rema9 diff]5t op]ations1 :atev] tricks we may play ) language4 ,a rem>k ( a simil> nature may be appli$ to mo/ ( ^? di/9ctions among propositions :i* are said to h ref]5ce to _! modality2 z1 diff]5ce ( t5se or "t2 ! sun did rise1 ! sun is ris+1 ! sun w rise4 ,^! diff]5ces1 l t betwe5 affirmation & negation1 might be gloss$ ov] by consid]+ ! incid5t ( "t z a m]e modification ( ! pr$icate3 ?us1 ,! sun is an object hav+ ris51 ,! sun is an object n[ ris+1 ,! sun is an object to rise h]eaft]4 ,b ! simplification w\ld be m]ely v]bal4 ,pa/1 pres5t1 & future1 d n con/itute s _m diff]5t k9ds ( ris+2 !y are designations belong+ to ! ev5t ass]t$1 to ! sun's ris+ to-day4 ,!y affect1 n ! pr$icate1 b ! applicability ( ! pr$icate to ! p>ticul> subject4 ,t :i* we affirm to be pa/1 pres5t1 or future1 is n :at ! subject signifies1 nor :at ! pr$icate signifies1 b specifically & expressly :at ! pr$ication signifies2 :at is express$ only by ! proposition z su*1 & n by ei!r or bo? ( ! t]ms4 ,!re=e ! circum/ance ( "t is prop]ly consid]$ z atta*+ to ! copula1 :i* is ! sign ( pr$ication1 & n to ! pr$icate4 ,if ! same c n be said ( su* modifications z ^!1 ,cs> may be dead2 ,cs> is p]haps dead2 x is possible t ,cs> is dead2 x is only because ^! fall altoge!r "u ano!r head1 be+ prop]ly ass]tions n ( any ?+ relat+ to ! fact itself1 b ( ! /ate ( our own m9d 9 reg>d to x2 namely1 our abs5ce ( disbelief ( x4 ,?us 8,cs> may be dead0 means 8,i am n sure t ,cs> is alive40 #c4 ,! next division ( propositions is into ,simple & ,complex2 m aptly 7by ,pr(essor ,ba97#bf77 t]m$ ,comp\nd4 ,a simple proposition is t 9 :i* "o pr$icate is affirm$ or d5i$ ( "o subject4 ,a comp\nd proposition is t 9 :i* !re is m ?an "o pr$icate1 or m ?an "o subject1 or bo?4 ,at fir/ sight ?is division has ! air ( an absurdity2 a solemn di/9ction ( ?+s into "o & m ?an "o2 z if we 7 to divide horses into s+le horses & teams ( horses4 ,& x is true t :at is call$ a complex 7or comp\nd7 proposition is (t5 n a proposition at all1 b sev]al propositions1 held toge!r by a conjunction4 ,su*1 = example1 is ?is3 ,cs> is dead1 & ,brutus is alive3 or ev5 ?is1 ,cs> is dead1 b ,brutus is alive4 ,!re are "h two di/9ct ass]tions2 & we might z well call a /reet a complex h\se1 z ^! two propositions a complex proposition4 ,x is true t ! syncategorematic words & & b h a mean+2 b t mean+ is s f> f mak+ ! two propositions "o1 t x adds a ?ird proposition to !m4 ,all p>ticles are abbreviations1 & g5]ally abbreviations ( propositions2 a k9d ( %ort-h&1 :]eby some?+ :i*1 to be express$ fully1 w\ld h requir$ a proposition or a s]ies ( propositions1 is sugge/$ to ! m9d at once4 ,?us ! words1 ,cs> is dead & ,brutus is alive1 are equival5t to ^!3 ,cs> is dead2 ,brutus is alive2 x is desir$ t ! two prec$+ propositions %\ld be ?\ght ( toge!r4 ,if ! words 71 ,cs> is dead1 b ,brutus is alive1 ! s5se w\ld be equival5t to ! same ?ree propositions toge!r ) a f\r?2 8betwe5 ! two prec$+ propositions !re exi/s a contra/30 viz41 ei!r betwe5 ! two facts !mselves1 or betwe5 ! feel+s ) :i* x is desir$ t !y %\ld be reg>d$4 ,9 ! in/ances cit$ ! two propositions are kept visibly di/9ct1 ea* subject hav+ its sep>ate pr$icate1 & ea* pr$icate its sep>ate subject4 ,= brevity1 h[ev]1 & to avoid repetition1 ! propositions are (t5 bl5d$ toge!r3 z 9 ?is1 8,pet] & ,james prea*$ at ,j]usalem & 9 ,galilee10 :i* conta9s f\r propositions3 ,pet] prea*$ at ,j]usalem1 ,pet] prea*$ 9 ,galilee1 ,james prea*$ at ,j]usalem1 ,james prea*$ 9 ,galilee4 ,we h se5 t :5 ! two or m propositions compris$ 9 :at is call$ a complex proposition are /at$ absolutely1 & n "u any condition or proviso1 x is n a proposition at all1 b a plurality ( propositions2 s9ce :at x expresses is n a s+le ass]tion1 b sev]al ass]tions1 :i*1 if true :5 jo9$1 are true also :5 sep>at$4 ,b !re is a k9d ( proposition :i*1 ?\gh x conta9s a plurality ( subjects & ( pr$icates1 & may be said 9 "o s5se ( ! ^w to consi/ ( sev]al propositions1 conta9s b "o ass]tion2 & its tru? does n at all imply t ( ! simple propositions :i* compose x4 ,an example ( ?is is1 :5 ! simple propositions are connect$ by ! p>ticle or2 z1 ei!r ,a is ,b or ,c is ,d2 or by ! p>ticle if2 z1 ,a is ,b if ,c is ,d4 ,9 ! =m] case1 ! proposition is call$ disjunctive1 9 ! latt]1 conditional3 ! "n hypo!tical 0 orig9ally common to bo?4 ,z has be5 well rem>k$ by ,ar*bi%op ,:ately & o!rs1 ! disjunctive =m is resolvable into ! conditional2 e disjunctive proposition be+ equival5t to two or m conditional ones4 8,ei!r ,a is ,b or ,c is ,d10 means1 8if ,a is n ,b1 ,c is ,d2 & if ,c is n ,d1 ,a is ,b40 ,all hypo!tical propositions1 !re=e1 ?\gh disjunctive 9 =m1 are conditional 9 mean+2 & ! words hypo!tical & conditional may be1 z inde$ !y g5]ally are1 us$ synonym\sly4 ,propositions 9 :i* ! ass]tion is n dep5d5t on a condition1 are said1 9 ! language ( logicians1 to be categorical4 ,a hypo!tical proposition is n1 l ! pret5d$ complex propositions :i* we previ\sly consid]$1 a m]e aggregation ( simple propositions4 ,! simple propositions :i* =m "p ( ! words 9 :i* x is c\*$1 =m no "p ( ! ass]tion :i* x conveys4 ,:5 we say1 ,if ! ,koran comes f ,god1 ,mohamm$ is ! prophet ( ,god1 we d n int5d to affirm ei!r t ! ,koran does come f ,god1 or t ,mohamm$ is really 8 prophet4 ,nei!r ( ^! simple propositions may be true1 & yet ! tru? ( ! hypo!tical proposition may be indisputable4 ,:at is ass]t$ is n ! tru? ( ei!r ( ! propositions1 b ! inf]ribility ( ! "o f ! o!r4 ,:at1 !n1 is ! subject1 & :at ! pr$icate ( ! hypo!tical proposition8 8,! ,koran0 is n ! subject ( x1 nor is 8,mohamm$30 = no?+ is affirm$ or d5i$ ei!r ( ! ,koran or ( ,mohamm$4 ,! real subject ( ! pr$ication is ! entire proposition1 8,mohamm$ is ! prophet ( ,god20 & ! affirmation is1 t ?is is a legitimate inf]5ce f ! proposition1 8,! ,koran comes f ,god40 ,! subject & pr$icate1 !re=e1 ( a hypo!tical proposition are names ( propositions4 ,! subject is "s "o proposition4 ,! pr$icate is a g5]al relative "n applicable to propositions2 ( ?is =m--8an inf]5ce f s & s40 ,a fre% in/ance is "h af=d$ ( ! rem>k1 t p>ticles are abbreviations2 s9ce 8,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d10 is f\nd to be an abbreviation ( ! foll[+3 8,! proposition ,c is ,d1 is a legitimate inf]5ce f ! proposition ,a is ,b40 ,! di/9ction1 !re=e1 betwe5 hypo!tical & categorical propositions is n s great z x at fir/ appe>s4 ,9 ! conditional1 z well z 9 ! categorical =m1 "o pr$icate is affirm$ ( "o subject1 & no m3 b a conditional proposition is a proposition conc]n+ a proposition2 ! subject ( ! ass]tion is itself an ass]tion4 ,nor is ?is a prop]ty peculi> to hypo!tical propositions4 ,!re are o!r classes ( ass]tions conc]n+ propositions4 ,l o!r ?+s1 a proposition has attributes :i* may be pr$icat$ ( x4 ,! attribute pr$icat$ ( x 9 a hypo!tical proposition1 is t ( be+ an inf]5ce f a c]ta9 o!r proposition4 ,b ?is is only "o ( _m attributes t might be pr$icat$4 ,we may say1 ,t ! :ole is great] ?an its "p1 is an axiom 9 ma!matics3 ,t ! ,holy ,gho/ proce$s f ! ,fa!r alone1 is a t5et ( ! ,greek ,*ur*3 ,! doctr9e ( ! div9e "r ( k+s 0 r5\nc$ by ,p>liam5t at ! ,revolution3 ,! infallibility ( ! ,pope has no c\nt5ance f ,scripture4 ,9 all ^! cases ! subject ( ! pr$ication is an entire proposition4 ,t :i* ^! diff]5t pr$icates are affirm$ (1 is ! proposition1 8! :ole is great] ?an its "p20 ! proposition1 8! ,holy ,gho/ proce$s f ! ,fa!r alone20 ! proposition1 8k+s h a div9e "r20 ! proposition1 8! ,pope is infallible40 ,see+1 !n1 t !re is mu* less diff]5ce betwe5 hypo!tical propositions & any o!rs1 ?an "o might be l$ to imag9e f _! =m1 we %\ld be at a loss to acc\nt = ! conspicu\s position :i* !y h be5 select$ to fill 9 treatises on logic1 if we did n rememb] t :at !y pr$icate ( a proposition1 namely1 its be+ an inf]5ce f some?+ else1 is precisely t "o ( its attributes ) :i* mo/ ( all a logician is conc]n$4 #d4 ,! next ( ! common divisions ( ,propositions is into ,univ]sal1 ,p>ticul>1 ,indef9ite1 & ,s+ul>3 a di/9ction f\nd$ on ! degree ( g5]ality 9 :i* ! "n1 :i* is ! subject ( ! proposition1 is to be und]/ood4 ,! foll[+ are examples3 ,all m5 are mortal--,univ]sal4 ,"s m5 are mortal--,p>ticul>4 ,man is mortal--,indef9ite4 ,julius ,cs> is mortal--,s+ul>4 ,! proposition is ,s+ul>1 :5 ! subject is an individual "n4 ,! individual "n ne$s n be a prop] "n4 8,! ,f\nd] ( ,*ri/ianity 0 crucifi$10 is z mu* a s+ul> proposition z 8,*ri/ 0 crucifi$40 ,:5 ! "n :i* is ! subject ( ! proposition is a g5]al "n1 we may int5d to affirm or d5y ! pr$icate1 ei!r ( all ! ?+s t ! subject d5otes1 or only ( "s4 ,:5 ! pr$icate is affirm$ or d5i$ ( all & ea* ( ! ?+s d5ot$ by ! subject1 ! proposition is univ]sal2 :5 ( "s undef9$ portion ( !m only1 x is p>ticul>4 ,?us1 ,all m5 are mortal2 ,e man is mortal2 are univ]sal propositions4 ,no man is immortal1 is also a univ]sal proposition1 s9ce ! pr$icate1 immortal1 is d5i$ ( ea* & e individual d5ot$ by ! t]m man2 ! negative proposition be+ exactly equival5t to ! foll[+1 ,e man is n-immortal4 ,b 8"s m5 are wise10 8"s m5 are n wise10 are p>ticul> propositions2 ! pr$icate wise be+ 9 ! "o case affirm$ & 9 ! o!r d5i$ n ( ea* & e individual d5ot$ by ! t]m man1 b only ( ea* & e "o ( "s portion ( ^? individuals1 )\t specify+ :at portion2 = if ?is 7 specifi$1 ! proposition w\ld be *ang$ ei!r into a s+ul> proposition1 or into a univ]sal proposition ) a diff]5t subject2 z1 = in/ance1 8all prop]ly in/ruct$ m5 are wise40 ,!re are o!r =ms ( p>ticul> propositions2 z1 8,mo/ m5 are imp]fectly educat$30 x be+ immat]ial h[ l>ge a portion ( ! subject ! pr$icate is ass]t$ (1 z long z x is left unc]ta9 h[ t portion is to be di/+ui%$ f ! re/47#bg7 ,:5 ! =m ( ! expression does n cle>ly %[ :e!r ! g5]al "n :i* is ! subject ( ! proposition is meant to /& = all ! individuals d5ot$ by x1 or only = "s ( !m1 ! proposition is1 by "s logicians1 call$ ,indef9ite2 b ?is1 z ,ar*bi%op ,:ately obs]ves1 is a solecism1 ( ! same nature z t committ$ by "s gramm>ians :5 9 _! li/ ( g5d]s !y enum]ate ! d\btful g5d]4 ,! speak] mu/ mean to ass]t ! proposition ei!r z a univ]sal or z a p>ticul> proposition1 ?\gh he has fail$ to decl>e :i*3 & x (t5 happ5s t ?\gh ! words d n %[ :i* ( ! two he int5ds1 ! context1 or ! cu/om ( spee*1 supplies ! defici5cy4 ,?us1 :5 x is affirm$ t 8,man is mortal10 nobody d\bts t ! ass]tion is int5d$ ( all human be+s2 & ! ^w indicative ( univ]sality is commonly omitt$1 only because ! mean+ is evid5t )\t x4 ,9 ! proposition1 8,w9e is good10 x is und]/ood ) equal read9ess1 ?\gh = some:at diff]5t reasons1 t ! ass]tion is n int5d$ to be univ]sal1 b p>ticul>47#bh7 ,z is obs]v$ by ,pr(essor ,ba917#bi7 ! *ief examples ( ,indef9ite propositions occur 8) names ( mat]ial1 :i* are ! subjects sometimes ( univ]sal1 & at o!r times ( p>ticul> pr$ication4 #8,food is *emically con/itut$ by c>bon1 oxyg51 etc41' is a proposition ( univ]sal quantity2 ! mean+ is all food--all k9ds ( food4 #8,food is necess>y to animal life' is a case ( p>ticul> quantity2 ! mean+ is "s sort ( food1 n necess>ily all sorts4 #8,metal is requisite 9 ord] to /r5g?' does n mean all k9ds ( metal4 #8,gold w make a way1' means a portion ( gold40 ,:5 a g5]al "n /&s = ea* & e individual :i* x is a "n (1 or 9 o!r words1 :i* x d5otes1 x is said by logicians to be di/ribut$1 or tak5 di/ributively4 ,?us1 9 ! proposition1 ,all m5 are mortal1 ! subject1 ,man1 is di/ribut$1 because mortality is affirm$ ( ea* & e man4 ,! pr$icate1 ,mortal1 is n di/ribut$1 because ! only mortals :o are spok5 ( 9 ! proposition are ^? :o happ5 to be m52 :ile ! ^w may1 = aught t appe>s1 & 9 fact does1 compreh5d )9 x an indef9ite numb] ( objects besides m54 ,9 ! proposition1 ,"s m5 are mortal1 bo? ! pr$icate & ! subject are undi/ribut$4 ,9 ! foll[+1 ,no m5 h w+s1 bo? ! pr$icate & ! subject are di/ribut$4 ,n only is ! attribute ( hav+ w+s d5i$ ( ! entire class ,man1 b t class is sev]$ & ca/ out f ! :ole ( ! class ,w+$1 & n m]ely f "s "p ( t class4 ,?is phraseology1 :i* is ( great s]vice 9 /at+ & demon/rat+ ! rules ( ! syllogism1 enables u to express v concisely ! def9itions ( a univ]sal & a p>ticul> proposition4 ,a univ]sal proposition is t ( :i* ! subject is di/ribut$2 a p>ticul> proposition is t ( :i* ! subject is undi/ribut$4 ,!re are _m m di/9ctions among propositions ?an ^? we h "h /at$1 "s ( !m ( consid]able importance4 ,b1 = expla9+ & illu/rat+ ^!1 m suitable opportunities w occur 9 ! sequel4 ,*apt] ,v4 ,( ,! ,import ,( ,propositions4 #a4 ,an inquiry into ! nature ( propositions mu/ h "o ( two objects3 to analyze ! /ate ( m9d call$ ,belief1 or to analyze :at is believ$4 ,all language recognizes a diff]5ce betwe5 a doctr9e or op9ion1 & ! fact ( ent]ta9+ ! op9ion2 betwe5 ass5t1 & :at is ass5t$ to4 ,logic1 accord+ to ! conception "h =m$ ( x1 has no conc]n ) ! nature ( ! act ( judg+ or believ+2 ! consid]ation ( t act1 z a ph5om5on ( ! m9d1 belongs to ano!r sci5ce4 ,philosoph]s1 h[ev]1 f ,desc>tes d[nw>d1 & especially f ! era ( ,leibnitz & ,locke1 h by no means obs]v$ ?is di/9ction2 & w\ld h treat$ ) great disrespect any attempt to analyze ! import ( ,propositions1 unless f\nd$ on an analysis ( ! act ( ,judgm5t4 ,a proposition1 !y w\ld h said1 is b ! expression 9 words ( a ,judgm5t4 ,! ?+ express$1 n ! m]e v]bal expression1 is ! important matt]4 ,:5 ! m9d ass5ts to a proposition1 x judges4 ,let u f9d out :at ! m9d does :5 x judges1 & we %all "k :at propositions mean1 & n o!rwise4 ,con=mably to ^! views1 almo/ all ! writ]s on ,logic 9 ! la/ two c5turies1 :e!r ,engli%1 ,g]man1 or ,fr5*1 h made _! !ory ( ,propositions1 f "o end to ! o!r1 a !ory ( ,judgm5ts4 ,!y consid]$ a ,proposition1 or a ,judgm5t1 = !y us$ ! two words indiscrim9ately1 to consi/ 9 affirm+ or d5y+ "o idea ( ano!r4 ,to judge1 0 to put two ideas toge!r1 or to br+ "o idea "u ano!r1 or to comp>e two ideas1 or to p]ceive ! agreem5t or disagreem5t betwe5 two ideas3 & ! :ole doctr9e ( ,propositions1 toge!r ) ! !ory ( ,reason+ 7always necess>ily f\nd$ on ! !ory ( ,propositions71 0 /at$ z if ,ideas1 or ,conceptions1 or :atev] o!r t]m ! writ] pref]r$ z a "n = m5tal repres5tations g5]ally1 con/itut$ ess5tially ! subject-matt] & sub/ance ( ^? op]ations4 ,x is1 ( c\rse1 true1 t 9 any case ( judgm5t1 z = in/ance :5 we judge t gold is yell[1 a process takes place 9 our m9ds1 ( :i* "s "o or o!r ( ^! !ories is a p>tially correct acc\nt4 ,we mu/ h ! idea ( gold & ! idea ( yell[1 & ^! two ideas mu/ be br\ght toge!r 9 our m9d4 ,b 9 ! fir/ place1 x is evid5t t ?is is only a "p ( :at takes place2 = we may put two ideas toge!r )\t any act ( belief2 z :5 we m]ely imag9e some?+1 su* z a gold5 m\nta92 or :5 we actually disbelieve3 = 9 ord] ev5 to disbelieve t ,mohamm$ 0 an apo/le ( ,god1 we mu/ put ! idea ( ,mohamm$ & t ( an apo/le ( ,god toge!r4 ,to det]m9e :at x is t happ5s 9 ! case ( ass5t or diss5t besides putt+ two ideas toge!r1 is "o ( ! mo/ intricate ( metaphysical problems4 ,b :atev] ! solution may be1 we may v5ture to ass]t t x c h no?+ :atev] to d ) ! import ( propositions2 = ?is reason1 t propositions 7except sometimes :5 ! m9d itself is ! subject treat$ (7 are n ass]tions respect+ our ideas ( ?+s1 b ass]tions respect+ ! ?+s !mselves4 ,9 ord] to believe t gold is yell[1 ,i mu/1 inde$1 h ! idea ( gold1 & ! idea ( yell[1 & some?+ hav+ ref]5ce to ^? ideas mu/ take place 9 my m9d2 b my belief has n ref]5ce to ! ideas1 x has ref]5ce to ! ?+s4 ,:at ,i believe1 is a fact relat+ to ! outw>d ?+1 gold1 & to ! impression made by t outw>d ?+ ^u ! human organs2 n a fact relat+ to my conception ( gold1 :i* w\ld be a fact 9 my m5tal hi/ory1 n a fact ( ext]nal nature4 ,x is true1 t 9 ord] to believe ?is fact 9 ext]nal nature1 ano!r fact mu/ take place 9 my m9d1 a process mu/ be p]=m$ ^u my ideas2 b s x mu/ 9 e ?+ else t ,i d4 ,i c n dig ! gr\nd unless ,i h ! idea ( ! gr\nd1 & ( a spade1 & ( all ! o!r ?+s ,i am op]at+ ^u1 & unless ,i put ^? ideas toge!r47#cj7 ,b x w\ld be a v ridicul\s description ( digg+ ! gr\nd to say t x is putt+ "o idea into ano!r4 ,digg+ is an op]ation :i* is p]=m$ ^u ! ?+s !mselves1 ?\gh x c n be p]=m$ unless ,i h 9 my m9d ! ideas ( !m4 ,& 9 l mann]1 believ+ is an act :i* has = its subject ! facts !mselves1 ?\gh a previ\s m5tal conception ( ! facts is an indisp5sable condition4 ,:5 ,i say t fire causes heat1 d ,i mean t my idea ( fire causes my idea ( heat8 ,no3 ,i mean t ! natural ph5om5on1 fire1 causes ! natural ph5om5on1 heat4 ,:5 ,i mean to ass]t any ?+ respect+ ! ideas1 ,i give !m _! prop] "n1 ,i call !m ideas3 z :5 ,i say1 t a *ild's idea ( a battle is unlike ! reality1 or t ! ideas ent]ta9$ ( ! ,deity h a great effect on ! *>act]s ( mank9d4 ,! notion t :at is ( prim>y importance to ! logician 9 a proposition1 is ! relation betwe5 ! two ideas correspond+ to ! subject & pr$icate 7in/ead ( ! relation betwe5 ! two ph5om5a :i* !y respectively express71 seems to me "o ( ! mo/ fatal errors ev] introduc$ into ! philosophy ( ,logic2 & ! pr9cipal cause :y ! !ory ( ! sci5ce has made su* inconsid]able progress dur+ ! la/ two c5turies4 ,! treatises on ,logic1 & on ! bran*es ( ,m5tal ,philosophy connect$ ) ,logic1 :i* h be5 produc$ s9ce ! intrusion ( ?is c>d9al error1 ?\gh sometimes writt5 by m5 ( extraord9>y abilities & atta9m5ts1 almo/ always tacitly imply a !ory t ! inve/igation ( tru? consi/s 9 contemplat+ & h&l+ our ideas1 or conceptions ( ?+s1 in/ead ( ! ?+s !mselves3 a doctr9e tantam\nt to ! ass]tion1 t ! only mode ( acquir+ k ( nature is to /udy x at second h&1 z repres5t$ 9 our own m9ds4 ,mean:ile1 inquiries into e k9d ( natural ph5om5a 7 incessantly e/abli%+ great & fruitful tru?s on mo/ important subjects1 by processes ^u :i* ^! views ( ! nature ( ,judgm5t & ,reason+ ?rew no light1 & 9 :i* !y af=d$ no assi/ance :atev]4 ,no wond] t ^? :o knew by practical exp]i5ce h[ tru?s are arriv$ at1 %\ld deem a sci5ce futile1 :i* consi/$ *iefly ( su* speculations4 ,:at has be5 done = ! advancem5t ( ,logic s9ce ^! doctr9es came into vogue1 has be5 done n by pr(ess$ logicians1 b by discov]]s 9 ! o!r sci5ces2 9 ^: me?ods ( inve/igation _m pr9ciples ( logic1 n previ\sly ?\ght (1 h successively come =? into light1 b :o h g5]ally committ$ ! error ( suppos+ t no?+ :atev] 0 kn[n ( ! art ( philosophiz+ by ! old logicians1 because _! mod]n int]pret]s h writt5 to s little purpose respect+ x4 ,we h to inquire1 !n1 on ! pres5t occasion1 n into ,judgm5t1 b judgm5ts2 n into ! act ( believ+1 b into ! ?+ believ$4 ,:at is ! imm$iate object ( belief 9 a ,proposition8 ,:at is ! matt] ( fact signifi$ by x8 ,:at is x to :i*1 :5 ,i ass]t ! proposition1 ,i give my ass5t1 & call ^u o!rs to give !irs8 ,:at is t :i* is express$ by ! =m ( disc\rse call$ a ,proposition1 & ! con=mity ( :i* to fact con/itutes ! tru? ( ! proposition8 #b4 ,"o ( ! cle>e/ & mo/ consecutive ?9k]s :om ?is c\ntry or ! _w has produc$1 ,i mean ,hobbes1 has giv5 ! foll[+ answ] to ?is "q4 ,9 e proposition 7says he7 :at is signifi$ is1 ! belief ( ! speak] t ! pr$icate is a "n ( ! same ?+ ( :i* ! subject is a "n2 & if x really is s1 ! proposition is true4 ,?us ! proposition1 ,all m5 are liv+ be+s 7he w\ld say7 is true1 because liv+ be+ is a "n ( e ?+ ( :i* man is a "n4 ,all m5 are six feet high1 is n true1 because six feet high is n a "n ( e ?+ 7?\gh x is ( "s ?+s7 ( :i* man is a "n4 ,:at is /at$ 9 ?is !ory z ! def9ition ( a true proposition1 mu/ be all[$ to be a prop]ty :i* all true propositions possess4 ,! subject & pr$icate be+ bo? ( !m names ( ?+s1 if !y 7 names ( q diff]5t ?+s ! "o "n c\ld n1 consi/5tly ) its signification1 be pr$icat$ ( ! o!r4 ,if x be true t "s m5 are copp]-color$1 x mu/ be true--& ! proposition does really ass]t--t among ! individuals d5ot$ by ! "n man1 !re are "s :o are also among ^? d5ot$ by ! "n copp]-color$4 ,if x be true t all ox5 rum9ate1 x mu/ be true t all ! individuals d5ot$ by ! "n ox are also among ^? d5ot$ by ! "n rum9at+2 & :oev] ass]ts t all ox5 rum9ate1 und\bt$ly does ass]t t ?is relation subsi/s betwe5 ! two names4 ,! ass]tion1 !re=e1 :i*1 accord+ to ,hobbes1 is ! only "o made 9 any proposition1 really is made 9 e proposition3 & 8 analysis has consequ5tly "o ( ! requisites = be+ ! true "o4 ,we may g a /ep fur!r2 x is ! only analysis t is rigor\sly true ( all propositions )\t exception4 ,:at he gives z ! mean+ ( propositions1 is "p ( ! mean+ ( all propositions1 & ! :ole mean+ ( "s4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 only %[s :at an extremely m9ute fragm5t ( mean+ x is q possible to include )9 ! logical =mula ( a proposition4 ,x does n %[ t no proposition means m4 ,to w>rant u 9 putt+ toge!r two words ) a copula betwe5 !m1 x is really en\gh t ! ?+ or ?+s d5ot$ by "o ( ! names %\ld be capable1 )\t violation ( usage1 ( be+ call$ by ! o!r "n also4 ,if1 !n1 ?is be all ! mean+ necess>ily impli$ 9 ! =m ( disc\rse call$ a ,proposition1 :y d ,i object to x z ! sci5tific def9ition ( :at a proposition means8 ,because1 ?\gh ! m]e collocation :i* makes ! proposition a proposition1 conveys no m ?an ?is scanty am\nt ( mean+1 t same collocation comb9$ ) o!r circum/ances1 t =m comb9$ ) o!r matt]1 does convey m1 & ! proposition 9 ^? o!r circum/ances does ass]t m1 ?an m]ely t relation betwe5 ! two names4 ,! only propositions ( :i* ,hobbes's pr9ciple is a suffici5t acc\nt1 are t limit$ & unimportant class 9 :i* bo? ! pr$icate & ! subject are prop] names4 ,=1 z has already be5 rem>k$1 prop] names h /rictly no mean+2 !y are m]e m>ks = individual objects3 & :5 a prop] "n is pr$icat$ ( ano!r prop] "n1 all ! signification convey$ is1 t bo? ! names are m>ks = ! same object4 ,b ?is is precisely :at ,hobbes produces z a !ory ( pr$ication 9 g5]al4 ,8 doctr9e is a full explanation ( su* pr$ications z ^!3 ,hyde 0 ,cl>5don1 or1 ,tully is ,cic]o4 ,x exhau/s ! mean+ ( ^? propositions4 ,b x is a sadly inadequate !ory ( any o!rs4 ,t x %\ld ev] h be5 ?\ght ( z su*1 c be acc\nt$ = only by ! fact1 t ,hobbes1 9 common ) ! o!r ,nom9ali/s1 be/[$ little or no att5tion ^u ! connotation ( words2 & s\ght = _! mean+ exclusively 9 :at !y d5ote3 z if all names _h be5 7:at none b prop] names really are7 m>ks put ^u individuals2 & z if !re 7 no diff]5ce betwe5 a prop] & a g5]al "n1 except t ! fir/ d5otes only "o individual1 & ! la/ a great] numb]4 ,x has be5 se51 h[ev]1 t ! mean+ ( all names1 except prop] names & t portion ( ! class ( ab/ract names :i* are n connotative1 resides 9 ! connotation4 ,:51 !re=e1 we are analyz+ ! mean+ ( any proposition 9 :i* ! pr$icate & ! subject1 or ei!r ( !m1 are connotative names1 x is to ! connotation ( ^? t]ms t we mu/ exclusively look1 & n to :at !y d5ote1 or 9 ! language ( ,hobbes 7language s f> correct7 are names (4 ,9 ass]t+ t ! tru? ( a proposition dep5ds on ! con=mity ( import betwe5 its t]ms1 z1 = in/ance1 t ! proposition1 ,socrates is wise1 is a true proposition1 because ,socrates & wise are names applicable to1 or1 z he expresses x1 names (1 ! same p]son2 x is v rem>kable t s p[]ful a ?9k] %\ld n h ask$ himself ! "q1 ,b h[ came !y to be names ( ! same p]son8 ,surely n because su* 0 ! int5tion ( ^? :o inv5t$ ! words4 ,:5 mank9d fix$ ! mean+ ( ! ^w wise1 !y 7 n ?9k+ ( ,socrates1 nor1 :5 8 p>5ts gave him ! "n ( ,socrates1 7 !y ?9k+ ( wisdom4 ,! names happ5 to fit ! same p]son because ( a c]ta9 fact1 :i* fact 0 n kn[n1 nor 9 be+1 :5 ! names 7 inv5t$4 ,if we want to "k :at ! fact is1 we %all f9d ! clue to x 9 ! connotation ( ! names4 ,a bird or a /one1 a man1 or a wise man1 means simply1 an object hav+ su* & su* attributes4 ,! real mean+ ( ! ^w man1 is ^? attributes1 & n ,smi?1 ,br[n1 & ! rema9d] ( ! individuals4 ,! ^w mortal1 9 l mann] connotes a c]ta9 attribute or attributes2 & :5 we say1 ,all m5 are mortal1 ! mean+ ( ! proposition is1 t all be+s :i* possess ! "o set ( attributes1 possess also ! o!r4 ,if1 9 our exp]i5ce1 ! attributes connot$ by man are always accompani$ by ! attribute connot$ by mortal1 x w foll[ z a consequ5ce1 t ! class man w be :olly includ$ 9 ! class mortal1 & t mortal w be a "n ( all ?+s ( :i* man is a "n3 b :y8 ,^? objects are br\ght "u ! "n1 by possess+ ! attributes connot$ by x3 b _! possession ( ! attributes is ! real condition on :i* ! tru? ( ! proposition dep5ds2 n _! be+ call$ by ! "n4 ,connotative names d n prec$e1 b foll[1 ! attributes :i* !y connote4 ,if "o attribute happ5s to be always f\nd 9 conjunction ) ano!r attribute1 ! concrete names :i* answ] to ^? attributes w ( c\rse be pr$icable ( ! same subjects1 & may be said1 9 ,hobbes's language 79 ! propriety ( :i* on ?is occasion ,i fully concur71 to be two names = ! same ?+s4 ,b ! possibility ( a concurr5t application ( ! two names1 is a m]e consequ5ce ( ! conjunction betwe5 ! two attributes1 & 01 9 mo/ cases1 nev] ?\ght ( :5 ! names 7 introduc$ & _! signification fix$4 ,t ! diamond is combu/ible1 0 a proposition c]ta9ly n dream$ ( :5 ! words ,diamond & ,combu/ible fir/ receiv$ _! mean+2 & c\ld n h be5 discov]$ by ! mo/ +5i\s & ref9$ analysis ( ! signification ( ^? words4 ,x 0 f\nd out by a v diff]5t process1 namely1 by ex]t+ ! s5ses1 & le>n+ f !m1 t ! attribute ( combu/ibility exi/$ 9 ! diamonds ^u :i* ! exp]im5t 0 tri$2 ! numb] or "* ( ! exp]im5ts be+ su*1 t :at 0 true ( ^? individuals might be conclud$ to be true ( all sub/ances 8call$ by ! "n10 t is1 ( all sub/ances possess+ ! attributes :i* ! "n connotes4 ,! ass]tion1 !re=e1 :5 analyz$1 is1 t :]ev] we f9d c]ta9 attributes1 !re w be f\nd a c]ta9 o!r attribute3 :i* is n a "q ( ! signification ( names1 b ( laws ( nature2 ! ord] exi/+ among ph5om5a4 #c4 ,al?\gh ,hobbes's !ory ( ,pr$ication has n1 9 ! t]ms 9 :i* he /at$ x1 met ) a v favorable reception f subsequ5t ?9k]s1 a !ory virtually id5tical ) x1 & n by any means s p]spicu\sly express$1 may almo/ be said to h tak5 ! rank ( an e/abli%$ op9ion4 ,! mo/ g5]ally receiv$ notion ( ,pr$ication decid$ly is t x consi/s 9 ref]r+ some?+ to a class1 i4e41 ei!r plac+ an individual "u a class1 or plac+ "o class "u ano!r class4 ,?us1 ! proposition1 ,man is mortal1 ass]ts1 accord+ to ?is view ( x1 t ! class man is includ$ 9 ! class mortal4 8,plato is a philosoph]10 ass]ts t ! individual ,plato is "o ( ^? :o compose ! class philosoph]4 ,if ! proposition is negative1 !n in/ead ( plac+ some?+ 9 a class1 x is said to exclude some?+ f a class4 ,?us1 if ! foll[+ be ! proposition1 ,! elephant is n c>nivor\s2 :at is ass]t$ 7accord+ to ?is !ory7 is1 t ! elephant is exclud$ f ! class c>nivor\s1 or is n numb]$ among ! ?+s compris+ t class4 ,!re is no real diff]5ce1 except 9 language1 betwe5 ?is !ory ( ,pr$ication & ! !ory ( ,hobbes4 ,= a class is absolutely no?+ b an indef9ite numb] ( individuals d5ot$ by a g5]al "n4 ,! "n giv5 to !m 9 common1 is :at makes !m a class4 ,to ref] any ?+ to a class1 !re=e1 is to look ^u x z "o ( ! ?+s :i* are to be call$ by t common "n4 ,to exclude x f a class1 is to say t ! common "n is n applicable to x4 ,h[ widely ^! views ( pr$ication h prevail$1 is evid5t f ?is1 t !y are ! basis ( ! celebrat$ dictum de omni et nullo4 ,:5 ! syllogism is resolv$1 by all :o treat ( x1 into an inf]5ce t :at is true ( a class is true ( all ?+s :atev] t belong to ! class2 & :5 ?is is laid d[n by almo/ all pr(ess$ logicians z ! ultimate pr9ciple to :i* all reason+ owes its validity2 x is cle> t 9 ! g5]al e/imation ( logicians1 ! propositions ( :i* reason+s are compos$ c be ! expression ( no?+ b ! process ( divid+ ?+s into classes1 & ref]r+ e ?+ to its prop] class4 ,?is !ory appe>s to me a signal example ( a logical error v (t5 committ$ 9 logic1 t ( 1 or expla9+ a ?+ by some?+ :i* presupposes x4 ,:5 ,i say t sn[ is :ite1 ,i may & ought to be ?9k+ ( sn[ z a class1 because ,i am ass]t+ a proposition z true ( all sn[3 b ,i am c]ta9ly n ?9k+ ( :ite objects z a class2 ,i am ?9k+ ( no :ite object :atev] except sn[1 b only ( t1 & ( ! s5sation ( :ite :i* x gives me4 ,:51 inde$1 ,i h judg$1 or ass5t$ to ! propositions1 t sn[ is :ite1 & t sev]al o!r ?+s are also :ite1 ,i gradually beg9 to ?9k ( :ite objects z a class1 includ+ sn[ & ^? o!r ?+s4 ,b ?is is a conception :i* foll[$1 n prec$$1 ^? judgm5ts1 & !re=e c n be giv5 z an explanation ( !m4 ,in/ead ( expla9+ ! effect by ! cause1 ?is doctr9e expla9s ! cause by ! effect1 & is1 ,i conceive1 f\nd$ on a lat5t misconception ( ! nature ( classification4 ,!re is a sort ( language v g5]ally preval5t 9 ^! discussions1 :i* seems to suppose t classification is an arrangem5t & gr\p+ ( def9ite & kn[n individuals3 t :5 names 7 impos$1 mank9d took into consid]ation all ! individual objects 9 ! univ]se1 di/ribut$ !m into p>cels or li/s1 & gave to ! objects ( ea* li/ a common "n1 repeat+ ?is op]ation toties quoties until !y _h inv5t$ all ! g5]al names ( :i* language consi/s2 :i* hav+ be5 once done1 if a "q subsequ5tly arises :e!r a c]ta9 g5]al "n c be truly pr$icat$ ( a c]ta9 p>ticul> object1 we h only 7z x 77 to read ! roll ( ! objects ^u :i* t "n 0 conf]r$1 & see :e!r ! object ab\t :i* ! "q arises is to be f\nd among !m4 ,! fram]s ( language 7x w\ld seem to be suppos$7 h pr$et]m9$ all ! objects t are to compose ea* class1 & we h only to ref] to ! record ( an antec$5t decision4 ,s absurd a doctr9e w be own$ by nobody :5 ?us nak$ly /at$2 b if ! commonly receiv$ explanations ( classification & nam+ d n imply ?is !ory1 x requires to be %[n h[ !y admit ( be+ reconcil$ ) any o!r4 ,g5]al names are n m>ks put ^u def9ite objects2 classes are n made by draw+ a l9e r\nd a giv5 numb] ( assignable individuals4 ,! objects :i* compose any giv5 class are p]petually fluctuat+4 ,we may frame a class )\t kn[+ ! individuals1 or ev5 any ( ! individuals1 ( :i* x may be compos$2 we may d s :ile believ+ t no su* individuals exi/4 ,if by ! mean+ ( a g5]al "n are to be und]/ood ! ?+s :i* x is ! "n (1 no g5]al "n1 except by accid5t1 has a fix$ mean+ at all1 or ev] long reta9s ! same mean+4 ,! only mode 9 :i* any g5]al "n has a def9ite mean+1 is by be+ a "n ( an indef9ite v>iety ( ?+s2 namely1 ( all ?+s1 kn[n or unkn[n1 pa/1 pres5t1 or future1 :i* possess c]ta9 def9ite attributes4 ,:51 by /udy+ n ! mean+ ( words1 b ! ph5om5a ( nature1 we discov] t ^! attributes are possess$ by "s object n previ\sly kn[n to possess !m 7z :5 *emi/s f\nd t ! diamond 0 combu/ible71 we include ?is new object 9 ! class2 b x did n already belong to ! class4 ,we place ! individual 9 ! class because ! proposition is true2 ! proposition is n true because ! object is plac$ 9 ! class47#ca7 ,x w appe> h]eaft]1 9 treat+ ( reason+1 h[ mu* ! !ory ( t intellectual process has be5 vitiat$ by ! influ5ce ( ^! errone\s notions1 & by ! habit :i* !y exemplify ( assimilat+ all ! op]ations ( ! human und]/&+ :i* h tru? = _! object1 to processes ( m]e classification & nam+4 ,un=tunately1 ! m9ds :i* h be5 entangl$ 9 ?is net are precisely ^? :i* h escap$ ! o!r c>d9al error comm5t$ ^u 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! pres5t *apt]4 ,s9ce ! revolution :i* dislodg$ ,ari/otle f ! s*ools1 logicians may almo/ be divid$ into ^? :o h look$ ^u reason+ z ess5tially an affair ( ,ideas1 & ^? :o h look$ ^u x z ess5tially an affair ( ,names4 ,al?\gh1 h[ev]1 ,hobbes's !ory ( ,pr$ication1 accord+ to ! well-kn[n rem>k ( ,leibnitz1 & ! av[al ( ,hobbes himself17#cb7 r5d]s tru? & falsity completely arbitr>y1 ) no /&>d b ! w ( m51 x mu/ n be conclud$ t ei!r ,hobbes1 or any ( ! o!r ?9k]s :o h 9 ! ma9 agre$ ) him1 did 9 fact consid] ! di/9ction betwe5 tru? & error z less real1 or atta*$ less importance to x1 ?an o!r p4 ,to suppose t !y did s w\ld argue total unacqua9tance ) _! o!r speculations4 ,b ?is %[s h[ little hold _! doctr9e possess$ ov] _! own m9ds4 ,no p]son1 at bottom1 ev] imag9$ t !re 0 no?+ m 9 tru? ?an propriety ( expression2 ?an us+ language 9 con=mity to a previ\s conv5tion4 ,:5 ! inquiry 0 br\ght d[n f g5]als to a p>ticul> case1 x has always be5 ackn[l$g$ t !re is a di/9ction betwe5 v]bal & real que/ions2 t "s false propositions are utt]$ f ignorance ( ! mean+ ( words1 b t 9 o!rs ! s\rce ( ! error is a misappreh5sion ( ?+s2 t a p]son :o has n ! use ( language at all may =m propositions m5tally1 & t !y may be untrue--t is1 he may believe z matt]s ( fact :at are n really s4 ,?is la/ admission c n be made 9 /rong] t]ms ?an x is by ,hobbes himself17#cc7 ?\gh he w n all[ su* errone\s belief to be call$ falsity1 b only error4 ,& he has himself laid d[n1 9 o!r places1 doctr9es 9 :i* ! true !ory ( pr$ication is by implication conta9$4 ,he di/9ctly says t g5]al names are giv5 to ?+s on acc\nt ( _! attributes1 & t ab/ract names are ! names ( ^? attributes4 8,ab/ract is t :i* 9 any subject d5otes ! cause ( ! concrete "n4444 ,& ^! causes ( names are ! same ) ! causes ( our conceptions1 namely1 "s p[] ( action1 or affection1 ( ! ?+ conceiv$1 :i* "s call ! mann] by :i* any ?+ works ^u our s5ses1 b by mo/ m5 !y are call$ accid5ts407#cd7 ,x is /range t hav+ gone s f>1 he %\ld n h gone "o /ep fur!r1 & se5 t :at he calls ! cause ( ! concrete "n1 is 9 reality ! mean+ ( x2 & t :5 we pr$icate ( any subject a "n :i* is giv5 because ( an attribute 7or1 z he calls x1 an accid5t71 our object is n to affirm ! "n1 b1 by means ( ! "n1 to affirm ! attribute4 #d4 ,let ! pr$icate be1 z we h said1 a connotative t]m2 & to take ! simple/ case fir/1 let ! subject be a prop] "n3 8,! summit ( ,*imborazo is :ite40 ,! ^w :ite connotes an attribute :i* is possess$ by ! individual object designat$ by ! words 8summit ( ,*imborazo20 :i* attribute consi/s 9 ! physical fact1 ( its excit+ 9 human be+s ! s5sation :i* we call a s5sation ( :ite4 ,x w be admitt$ t1 by ass]t+ ! proposition1 we wi% to communicate in=mation ( t physical fact1 & are n ?9k+ ( ! names1 except z ! necess>y means ( mak+ t communication4 ,! mean+ ( ! proposition1 !re=e1 is1 t ! individual ?+ d5ot$ by ! subject1 has ! attributes connot$ by ! pr$icate4 ,if we n[ suppose ! subject also to be a connotative "n1 ! mean+ express$ by ! proposition has advanc$ a /ep fur!r 9 complication4 ,let u fir/ suppose ! proposition to be univ]sal1 z well z affirmative3 8,all m5 are mortal40 ,9 ?is case1 z 9 ! la/1 :at ! proposition ass]ts 7or expresses a belief (7 is1 ( c\rse1 t ! objects d5ot$ by ! subject 7man7 possess ! attributes connot$ by ! pr$icate 7mortal74 ,b ! *>act]i/ic ( ?is case is1 t ! objects are no long] individually designat$4 ,!y are po9t$ out only by "s ( _! attributes3 !y are ! objects call$ m51 t is1 possess+ ! attributes connot$ by ! "n man2 & ! only ?+ kn[n ( !m may be ^? attributes3 inde$1 z ! proposition is g5]al1 & ! objects d5ot$ by ! subject are !re=e indef9ite 9 numb]1 mo/ ( !m are n kn[n individually at all4 ,! ass]tion1 !re=e1 is n1 z be=e1 t ! attributes :i* ! pr$icate connotes are possess$ by any giv5 individual1 or by any numb] ( individuals previ\sly kn[n z ,john1 ,?omas1 etc41 b t ^? attributes are possess$ by ea* & e individual possess+ c]ta9 o!r attributes2 t :atev] has ! attributes connot$ by ! subject1 has also ^? connot$ by ! pr$icate2 t ! latt] set ( attributes con/antly accompany ! =m] set4 ,:atev] has ! attributes ( man has ! attribute ( mortality2 mortality con/antly accompanies ! attributes ( man47#ce7 ,if x be rememb]$ t e attribute is gr\nd$ on "s fact or ph5om5on1 ei!r ( outw>d s5se or ( inw>d consci\sness1 & t to possess an attribute is ano!r phrase = be+ ! cause (1 or =m+ "p (1 ! fact or ph5om5on ^u :i* ! attribute is gr\nd$2 we may add "o m /ep to complete ! analysis4 ,! proposition :i* ass]ts t "o attribute always accompanies ano!r attribute1 really ass]ts !reby no o!r ?+ ?an ?is1 t "o ph5om5on always accompanies ano!r ph5om5on2 insomu* t :]e we f9d ! latt]1 we h assurance ( ! exi/5ce ( ! =m]4 ,?us1 9 ! proposition1 ,all m5 are mortal1 ! ^w man connotes ! attributes :i* we ascribe to a c]ta9 k9d ( liv+ creatures1 on ! gr\nd ( c]ta9 ph5om5a :i* !y exhibit1 & :i* are p>tly physical ph5om5a1 namely ! impressions made on our s5ses by _! bodily =m & /ructure1 & p>tly m5tal ph5om5a1 namely ! s5ti5t & intellectual life :i* !y h ( _! own4 ,all ?is is und]/ood :5 we utt] ! ^w man1 by any "o to :om ! mean+ ( ! ^w is kn[n4 ,n[1 :5 we say1 ,man is mortal1 we mean t :]ev] ^! v>i\s physical & m5tal ph5om5a are all f\nd1 !re we h assurance t ! o!r physical & m5tal ph5om5on1 call$ dea?1 w n fail to take place4 ,! proposition does n affirm :52 = ! connotation ( ! ^w mortal goes no fur!r ?an to ! occurr5ce ( ! ph5om5on at "s "t or o!r1 leav+ ! p>ticul> "t undecid$4 #e4 ,we h already proce$$ f> en\gh1 n only to demon/rate ! error ( ,hobbes1 b to asc]ta9 ! real import ( by f> ! mo/ num]\s class ( propositions4 ,! object ( belief 9 a proposition1 :5 x ass]ts any ?+ m ?an ! mean+ ( words1 is g5]ally1 z 9 ! cases :i* we h exam9$1 ei!r ! co-exi/5ce or ! sequ5ce ( two ph5om5a4 ,at ! v comm5cem5t ( our inquiry1 we f\nd t e act ( belief impli$ two ,?+s3 we h n[ asc]ta9$ :at1 9 ! mo/ frequ5t case1 ^! two ?+s are1 namely1 two ,ph5om5a2 9 o!r words1 two /ates ( consci\sness2 & :at x is :i* ! proposition affirms 7or d5ies7 to subsi/ betwe5 !m1 namely1 ei!r succession or co-exi/5ce4 ,& ?is case includes innum]able in/ances :i* no "o1 previ\s to reflection1 w\ld ?9k ( ref]r+ to x4 ,take ! foll[+ example3 ,a g5]\s p]son is wor?y ( honor4 ,:o w\ld expect to recognize "h a case ( co-exi/5ce betwe5 ph5om5a8 ,b s x is4 ,! attribute :i* causes a p]son to be t]m$ g5]\s1 is ascrib$ to him on ! gr\nd ( /ates ( 8 m9d1 & p>ticul>s ( 8 conduct3 bo? are ph5om5a3 ! =m] are facts ( int]nal consci\sness2 ! latt]1 s f> z di/9ct f ! =m]1 are physical facts1 or p]ceptions ( ! s5ses4 ,wor?y ( honor admits ( a simil> analysis4 ,honor1 z "h us$1 means a /ate ( approv+ & admir+ emotion1 foll[$ on occasion by correspond+ outw>d acts4 8,wor?y ( honor0 connotes all ?is1 toge!r ) our approval ( ! act ( %[+ honor4 ,all ^! are ph5om5a2 /ates ( int]nal consci\sness1 accompani$ or foll[$ by physical facts4 ,:5 we say1 ,a g5]\s p]son is wor?y ( honor1 we affirm co-exi/5ce betwe5 ! two complicat$ ph5om5a connot$ by ! two t]ms respectively4 ,we affirm1 t :]ev] & :5ev] ! inw>d feel+s & outw>d facts impli$ 9 ! ^w g5]osity h place1 !n & !re ! exi/5ce & manife/ation ( an inw>d feel+1 honor1 w\ld be foll[$ 9 our m9ds by ano!r inw>d feel+1 approval4 ,aft] ! analysis1 9 a =m] *apt]1 ( ! import ( names1 _m examples are n ne$$ to illu/rate ! import ( propositions4 ,:5 !re is any obscurity1 or difficulty1 x does n lie 9 ! mean+ ( ! proposition1 b 9 ! mean+ ( ! names :i* compose x2 9 ! extremely complicat$ connotation ( _m words2 ! imm5se multitude & prolong$ s]ies ( facts :i* (t5 con/itute ! ph5om5on connot$ by a "n4 ,b :]e x is se5 :at ! ph5om5on is1 !re is seldom any difficulty 9 see+ t ! ass]tion convey$ by ! proposition is1 ! co-exi/5ce ( "o su* ph5om5on ) ano!r2 or ! succession ( "o su* ph5om5on to ano!r3 s t :]e ! "o is f\nd1 we may calculate on f9d+ ! o!r1 ?\gh p]haps n conv]sely4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 ?\gh ! mo/ common1 is n ! only mean+ :i* propositions are ev] int5d$ to convey4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 sequ5ces & co-exi/5ces are n only ass]t$ respect+ ,ph5om5a2 we make propositions also respect+ ^? hidd5 causes ( ph5om5a1 :i* are nam$ sub/ances & attributes4 ,a sub/ance1 h[ev]1 be+ to u no?+ b ei!r t :i* causes1 or t :i* is consci\s (1 ph5om5a2 & ! same be+ true1 mutatis mut&is1 ( attributes2 no ass]tion c be made1 at lea/ ) a mean+1 conc]n+ ^! unkn[n & unkn[able entities1 except 9 virtue ( ! ,ph5om5a by :i* alone !y manife/ !mselves to our faculties4 ,:5 we say ,socrates 0 contempor>y ) ! ,peloponnesian w>1 ! f\ndation ( ?is ass]tion1 z ( all ass]tions conc]n+ sub/ances1 is an ass]tion conc]n+ ! ph5om5a :i* !y exhibit--namely1 t ! s]ies ( facts by :i* ,socrates manife/$ himself to mank9d1 & ! s]ies ( m5tal /ates :i* con/itut$ 8 s5ti5t exi/5ce1 w5t on simultane\sly ) ! s]ies ( facts kn[n by ! "n ( ! ,peloponnesian w>4 ,/ill1 ! proposition z commonly und]/ood does n ass]t t alone2 x ass]ts t ! ,?+ 9 itself1 ! n\m5on ,socrates1 0 exi/+1 & do+ or exp]i5c+ ^? v>i\s facts dur+ ! same "t4 ,co-exi/5ce & sequ5ce1 !re=e1 may be affirm$ or d5i$ n only betwe5 ph5om5a1 b betwe5 n\m5a1 or betwe5 a n\m5on & ph5om5a4 ,& bo? ( n\m5a & ( ph5om5a we may affirm simple exi/5ce4 ,b :at is a n\m5on8 ,an unkn[n cause4 ,9 affirm+1 !re=e1 ! exi/5ce ( a n\m5on1 we affirm causation4 ,"h1 !re=e1 are two additional k9ds ( fact1 capable ( be+ ass]t$ 9 a proposition4 ,besides ! propositions :i* ass]t ,sequ5ce or ,co-exi/5ce1 !re are "s :i* ass]t simple ,exi/5ce27#cf7 & o!rs ass]t ,causation1 :i*1 subject to ! explanations :i* w foll[ 9 ! ,?ird ,book1 mu/ be consid]$ provisionally z a di/9ct & peculi> k9d ( ass]tion4 #f4 ,to ^! f\r k9ds ( matt]-(-fact or ass]tion1 mu/ be add$ a fif?1 ,resemblance4 ,?is 0 a species ( attribute :i* we f\nd x impossible to analyze2 = :i* no fundam5tum1 di/9ct f ! objects !mselves1 c\ld be assign$4 ,besides propositions :i* ass]t a sequ5ce or co-exi/5ce betwe5 two ph5om5a1 !re are !re=e also propositions :i* ass]t resemblance betwe5 !m2 z1 ,?is color is l t color2 ,! heat ( to-day is equal to ! heat ( ye/]day4 ,x is true t su* an ass]tion might ) "s plausibility be br\ght )9 ! description ( an affirmation ( sequ5ce1 by consid]+ x z an ass]tion t ! simultane\s contemplation ( ! two colors is foll[$ by a specific feel+ t]m$ ! feel+ ( resemblance4 ,b !re w\ld be no?+ ga9$ by incumb]+ ourselves1 especially 9 ?is place1 ) a g5]alization :i* may be look$ ^u z /ra9$4 ,logic does n und]take to analyze m5tal facts into _! ultimate elem5ts4 ,resemblance betwe5 two ph5om5a is m intelligible 9 itself ?an any explanation c\ld make x1 & "u any classification mu/ rema9 specifically di/9ct f ! ord9>y cases ( sequ5ce & co-exi/5ce4 ,x is sometimes said1 t all propositions :atev]1 ( :i* ! pr$icate is a g5]al "n1 d1 9 po9t ( fact1 affirm or d5y resemblance4 ,all su* propositions affirm t a ?+ belongs to a class2 b ?+s be+ class$ toge!r accord+ to _! resemblance1 e ?+ is ( c\rse class$ ) ! ?+s :i* x is suppos$ to resemble mo/2 & !nce1 x may be said1 :5 we affirm t ,gold is a metal1 or t ,socrates is a man1 ! affirmation int5d$ is1 t gold resembles o!r metals1 & ,socrates o!r m51 m ne>ly ?an !y resemble ! objects conta9$ 9 any o!r ( ! classes co-ord9ate ) ^!4 ,!re is "s slight degree ( f\ndation = ?is rem>k1 b no m ?an a slight degree4 ,! arrangem5t ( ?+s into classes1 su* z ! class metal1 or ! class man1 is gr\nd$ inde$ on a resemblance among ! ?+s :i* are plac$ 9 ! same class1 b n on a m]e g5]al resemblance3 ! resemblance x is gr\nd$ on consi/s 9 ! possession by all ^? ?+s1 ( c]ta9 common peculi>ities2 & ^? peculi>ities x is :i* ! t]ms connote1 & :i* ! propositions consequ5tly ass]t2 n ! resemblance4 ,= ?\gh :5 ,i say1 ,gold is a metal1 ,i say by implication t if !re be any o!r metals x mu/ resemble !m1 yet if !re 7 no o!r metals ,i might /ill ass]t ! proposition ) ! same mean+ z at pres5t1 namely1 t gold has ! v>i\s prop]ties impli$ 9 ! ^w metal2 j z x might be said1 ,*ri/ians are m51 ev5 if !re 7 no m5 :o 7 n ,*ri/ians4 ,propositions1 !re=e1 9 :i* objects are ref]r$ to a class because !y possess ! attributes con/itut+ ! class1 are s f> f ass]t+ no?+ b resemblance1 t !y d n1 prop]ly speak+1 ass]t resemblance at all4 ,b we rem>k$ "s "t ago 7& ! reasons ( ! rem>k w be m fully ent]$ into 9 a subsequ5t ,book7#cg77 t !re is sometimes a conv5i5ce 9 ext5d+ ! b\nd>ies ( a class s z to include ?+s :i* possess 9 a v inf]ior degree1 if 9 any1 "s ( ! *>act]i/ic prop]ties ( ! class--provid$ !y resemble t class m ?an any o!r1 insomu* t ! g5]al propositions :i* are true ( ! class1 w be ne>] to be+ true ( ^? ?+s ?an any o!r equally g5]al propositions4 ,= in/ance1 !re are sub/ances call$ metals :i* h v few ( ! prop]ties by :i* metals are commonly recogniz$2 & almo/ e great family ( plants or animals has a few anomal\s g5]a or species on its bord]s1 :i* are admitt$ into x by a sort ( c\rtesy1 & conc]n+ :i* x has be5 matt] ( discussion to :at family !y prop]ly belong$4 ,n[ :5 ! class-"n is pr$icat$ ( any object ( ?is description1 we d1 by s pr$icat+ x1 affirm resemblance & no?+ m4 ,& 9 ord] to be scrupul\sly correct x ought to be said1 t 9 e case 9 :i* we pr$icate a g5]al "n1 we affirm1 n absolutely t ! object possesses ! prop]ties designat$ by ! "n1 b t x ei!r possesses ^? prop]ties1 or if x does n1 at any rate resembles ! ?+s :i* d s1 m ?an x resembles any o!r ?+s4 ,9 mo/ cases1 h[ev]1 x is unnecess>y to suppose any su* alt]native1 ! latt] ( ! two gr\nds be+ v seldom t on :i* ! ass]tion is made3 & :5 x is1 !re is g5]ally "s slight diff]5ce 9 ! =m ( ! expression1 z1 ,?is species 7or g5us7 is consid]$1 or may be rank$1 z belong+ to su* & su* a family3 we %\ld h>dly say positively t x does belong to x1 unless x possess$ unequivocally ! prop]ties ( :i* ! class-"n is sci5tifically significant4 ,!re is /ill ano!r exceptional case1 9 :i*1 ?\gh ! pr$icate is ! "n ( a class1 yet 9 pr$icat+ x we affirm no?+ b resemblance1 ! class be+ f\nd$ n on resemblance 9 any giv5 p>ticul>1 b on g5]al unanalyzable resemblance4 ,! classes 9 "q are ^? into :i* our simple s5sations1 or o!r simple feel+s1 are divid$4 ,s5sations ( :ite1 = in/ance1 are class$ toge!r1 n because we c take !m to pieces1 & say !y are alike 9 ?is1 & n alike 9 t1 b because we feel !m to be alike altoge!r1 ?\gh 9 diff]5t degrees4 ,:51 !re=e1 ,i say1 ,! color ,i saw ye/]day 0 a :ite color1 or1 ,! s5sation ,i feel is "o ( tightness1 9 bo? cases ! attribute ,i affirm ( ! color or ( ! o!r s5sation is m]e resemblance--simple lik5ess to s5sations :i* ,i h _h be=e1 & :i* h _h ^? names be/[$ ^u !m4 ,! names ( feel+s1 l o!r concrete g5]al names1 are connotative2 b !y connote a m]e resemblance4 ,:5 pr$icat$ ( any individual feel+1 ! in=mation !y convey is t ( its lik5ess to ! o!r feel+s :i* we h be5 accu/om$ to call by ! same "n4 ,?us mu* may suffice 9 illu/ration ( ! k9d ( propositions 9 :i* ! matt]-(-fact ass]t$ 7or d5i$7 is simple ,resemblance4 ,exi/5ce1 ,co-exi/5ce1 ,sequ5ce1 ,causation1 ,resemblance3 "o or o!r ( ^! is ass]t$ 7or d5i$7 9 e proposition :i* is n m]ely v]bal4 ,?is five-fold division is an exhau/ive classification ( matt]s-(-fact2 ( all ?+s t c be believ$1 or t5d]$ = belief2 ( all que/ions t c be prop\nd$1 & all answ]s t c be return$ to !m4 ,pr(essor ,ba97#ch7 di/+ui%es two k9ds ( ,propositions ( ,co-exi/5ce4 8,9 ! "o k9d1 acc\nt is tak5 ( ,place2 !y may be describ$ z propositions ( ,ord] 9 ,place40 ,9 ! o!r k9d1 ! co-exi/5ce :i* is pr$icat$ is t]m$ by ,mr4 ,ba9 ,co-inh]5ce ( ,attributes4 8,?is is a di/9ct v>iety ( ,propositions ( ,co-exi/5ce4 ,in/ead ( an arrangem5t 9 place ) num]ical int]vals1 we h ! concurr5ce ( two or m attributes or p[]s 9 ! same "p or locality4 ,a mass ( gold conta9s1 9 e atom1 ! concurr+ attributes t m>k ! sub/ance--weight1 h>dness1 color1 lu/re1 incorrosibility1 etc4 ,an animal1 besides hav+ p>ts situat$ 9 place1 has co-inh]+ functions 9 ! same p>ts1 ex]t$ by ! v same masses & molecules ( its sub/ance4444 ,! ,m9d1 :i* af=ds no ,propositions ( ,ord] 9 ,place1 has co-inh]+ functions4 ,we affirm m9d to conta9 ,feel+1 ,w1 & ,?\ght1 n 9 local sep>ation1 b 9 comm+l+ ex]cise4 ,! concurr+ prop]ties ( m9]als1 ( plants1 & ( ! bodily & ! m5tal /ructure ( animals1 are unit$ 9 affirmations ( co-inh]5ce40 ,! di/9ction is real & important4 ,b1 z has be5 se51 an ,attribute1 :5 x is any ?+ b a simple unanalyzable ,resemblance betwe5 ! subject & "s o!r ?+s1 consi/s 9 caus+ impressions ( "s sort on consci\sness4 ,consequ5tly1 ! co-inh]5ce ( two attributes is b ! co-exi/5ce ( ! two /ates ( consci\sness impli$ 9 _! mean+3 ) ! diff]5ce1 h[ev]1 t ?is co-exi/5ce is sometimes pot5tial only1 ! attribute be+ consid]$ z 9 exi/5ce1 ?\gh ! fact on :i* x is gr\nd$ may n be actually1 b only pot5tially pres5t4 ,sn[1 = in/ance1 is1 ) great conv5i5ce1 said to be :ite ev5 9 a /ate ( total d>kness1 because1 ?\gh we are n n[ consci\s ( ! color1 we %all be consci\s ( x z soon z morn+ breaks4 ,co-inh]5ce ( attributes is !re=e /ill a case1 ?\gh a complex "o1 ( co-exi/5ce ( /ates ( consci\sness2 a totally diff]5t ?+1 h[ev]1 f ,ord] 9 ,place4 ,be+ a "p ( simultaneity1 x belongs n to ,place b to ,"t4 ,we may !re=e 7& we %all sometimes f9d x a conv5i5ce7 in/ead ( ,co-exi/5ce & ,sequ5ce1 say1 = great] p>ticul>ity1 ,ord] 9 ,place & ,ord] 9 ,"t3 ,ord] 9 ,place be+ a specific mode ( co-exi/5ce1 n necess>y to be m p>ticul>ly analyz$ "h2 :ile ! m]e fact ( co-exi/5ce1 :e!r betwe5 actual s5sations1 or betwe5 ! pot5tialities ( caus+ !m1 kn[n by ! "n ( attributes1 may be class$1 toge!r ) ,sequ5ce1 "u ! head ( ,ord] 9 ,"t4 #g4 ,9 ! =ego+ inquiry into ! import ( propositions1 we h ?\ght x necess>y to analyze directly ^? alone1 9 :i* ! t]ms ( ! proposition 7or ! pr$icate at lea/7 are concrete t]ms4 ,b1 9 do+ s1 we h indirectly analyz$ ^? 9 :i* ! t]ms are ab/ract4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 an ab/ract t]m & its correspond+ concrete1 does n turn ^u any diff]5ce 9 :at !y are appo9t$ to signify2 = ! real signification ( a concrete g5]al "n is1 z we h s (t5 said1 its connotation2 & :at ! concrete t]m connotes1 =ms ! entire mean+ ( ! ab/ract "n4 ,s9ce !re is no?+ 9 ! import ( an ab/ract "n :i* is n 9 ! import ( ! correspond+ concrete1 x is natural to suppose t nei!r c !re be any ?+ 9 ! import ( a proposition ( :i* ! t]ms are ab/ract1 b :at !re is 9 "s proposition :i* c be fram$ ( concrete t]ms4 ,& ?is presumption a clos] exam9ation w confirm4 ,an ab/ract "n is ! "n ( an attribute1 or comb9ation ( attributes4 ,! correspond+ concrete is a "n giv5 to ?+s1 because (1 & 9 ord] to express1 _! possess+ t attribute1 or t comb9ation ( attributes4 ,:51 !re=e1 we pr$icate ( any ?+ a concrete "n1 ! attribute is :at we 9 reality pr$icate ( x4 ,b x has n[ be5 %[n t 9 all propositions ( :i* ! pr$icate is a concrete "n1 :at is really pr$icat$ is "o ( five ?+s3 ,exi/5ce1 ,co-exi/5ce1 ,causation1 ,sequ5ce1 or ,resemblance4 ,an attribute1 !re=e1 is necess>ily ei!r an exi/5ce1 a co-exi/5ce1 a causation1 a sequ5ce1 or a resemblance4 ,:5 a proposition consi/s ( a subject & pr$icate :i* are ab/ract t]ms1 x consi/s ( t]ms :i* mu/ necess>ily signify "o or o!r ( ^! ?+s4 ,:5 we pr$icate ( any ?+ an ab/ract "n1 we affirm ( ! ?+ t x is "o or o!r ( ^! five ?+s2 t x is a case ( ,exi/5ce1 or ( ,co-exi/5ce1 or ( ,causation1 or ( ,sequ5ce1 or ( ,resemblance4 ,x is impossible to imag9e any proposition express$ 9 ab/ract t]ms1 :i* c n be trans=m$ into a precisely equival5t proposition 9 :i* ! t]ms are concrete2 namely1 ei!r ! concrete names :i* connote ! attributes !mselves1 or ! names ( ! fundam5ta ( ^? attributes2 ! facts or ph5om5a on :i* !y are gr\nd$4 ,to illu/rate ! latt] case1 let u take ?is proposition1 ( :i* ! subject only is an ab/ract "n1 8,?\ghtlessness is dang]\s40 ,?\ghtlessness is an attribute1 gr\nd$ on ! facts :i* we call ?\ghtless actions2 & ! proposition is equival5t to ?is1 ,?\ghtless actions are dang]\s4 ,9 ! next example ! pr$icate z well z ! subject are ab/ract names3 8,:it5ess is a color20 or 8,! color ( sn[ is a :it5ess40 ,^! attributes be+ gr\nd$ on s5sations1 ! equival5t propositions 9 ! concrete w\ld be1 ,! s5sation ( :ite is "o ( ! s5sations call$ ^? ( color--,! s5sation ( sight1 caus$ by look+ at sn[1 is "o ( ! s5sations call$ s5sations ( :ite4 ,9 ^! propositions1 z we h be=e se51 ! matt]-(-fact ass]t$ is a ,resemblance4 ,9 ! foll[+ examples1 ! concrete t]ms are ^? :i* directly correspond to ! ab/ract names2 connot+ ! attribute :i* ^! d5ote4 8,prud5ce is a virtue30 ?is may be r5d]$1 8,all prud5t p]sons1 9 s f> z prud5t1 are virtu\s30 8,c\rage is des]v+ ( honor20 ?us1 8,all c\rage\s p]sons are des]v+ ( honor 9 s f> z !y are c\rage\s30 :i* is equival5t to ?is--8,all c\rage\s p]sons des]ve an addition to ! honor1 or a dim9ution ( ! disgrace1 :i* w\ld atta* to !m on o!r gr\nds40 ,9 ord] to ?r[ /ill fur!r light ^u ! import ( propositions ( :i* ! t]ms are ab/ract1 we w subject "o ( ! examples giv5 above to a m9ut] analysis4 ,! proposition we %all select is ! foll[+3 8,prud5ce is a virtue40 ,let u sub/itute = ! ^w virtue an equival5t b m def9ite expression1 su* z 8a m5tal quality b5eficial to society10 or 8a m5tal quality pleas+ to ,god10 or :atev] else we adopt z ! def9ition ( virtue4 ,:at ! proposition ass]ts is a sequ5ce1 accompani$ ) causation2 namely1 t b5efit to society1 or t ! approval ( ,god1 is consequ5t on1 & caus$ by1 prud5ce4 ,"h is a sequ5ce2 b betwe5 :at8 ,we und]/& ! consequ5t ( ! sequ5ce1 b we h yet to analyze ! antec$5t4 ,prud5ce is an attribute2 &1 9 connection ) x1 two ?+s besides itself are to be consid]$2 prud5t p]sons1 :o are ! subjects ( ! attribute1 & prud5tial conduct1 :i* may be call$ ! f\ndation ( x4 ,n[ is ei!r ( ^! ! antec$5t8 &1 fir/1 is x meant1 t ! approval ( ,god1 or b5efit to society1 is att5dant ^u all prud5t p]sons8 ,no2 except 9 s f> z !y are prud5t2 = prud5t p]sons :o are sc\ndrels c seldom1 on ! :ole1 be b5eficial to society1 nor c !y be acceptable to a good be+4 ,is x ^u prud5tial conduct1 !n1 t div9e approbation & b5efit to mank9d are suppos$ to be inv>iably consequ5t8 ,nei!r is ?is ! ass]tion meant1 :5 x is said t prud5ce is a virtue2 except ) ! same res]vation z be=e1 & = ! same reason1 namely1 t prud5tial conduct1 al?\gh 9 s f> z x is prud5tial x is b5eficial to society1 may yet1 by reason ( "s o!r ( its qualities1 be productive ( an injury outweigh+ ! b5efit1 & des]ve a displeasure exce$+ ! approbation :i* w\ld be due to ! prud5ce4 ,nei!r ! sub/ance1 !re=e 7viz41 ! p]son71 nor ! ph5om5on 7! conduct71 is an antec$5t on :i* ! o!r t]m ( ! sequ5ce is univ]sally consequ5t4 ,b ! proposition1 8,prud5ce is a virtue10 is a univ]sal proposition4 ,:at is x1 !n1 ^u :i* ! proposition affirms ! effects 9 "q to be univ]sally consequ5t8 ,^u t 9 ! p]son1 & 9 ! conduct1 :i* causes !m to be call$ prud5t1 & :i* is equally 9 !m :5 ! action1 ?\gh prud5t1 is wick$2 namely1 a correct =esight ( consequ5ces1 a j e/imation ( _! importance to ! object 9 view1 & repression ( any unreflect+ impulse at v>iance ) ! delib]ate purpose4 ,^!1 :i* are /ates ( ! p]son's m9d1 are ! real antec$5t 9 ! sequ5ce1 ! real cause 9 ! causation1 ass]t$ by ! proposition4 ,b ^! are also ! real gr\nd1 or f\ndation1 ( ! attribute ,prud5ce2 s9ce :]ev] ^! /ates ( m9d exi/ we may pr$icate prud5ce1 ev5 be=e we "k :e!r any conduct has foll[$4 ,& 9 ?is mann] e ass]tion respect+ an attribute1 may be trans=m$ into an ass]tion exactly equival5t respect+ ! fact or ph5om5on :i* is ! gr\nd ( ! attribute4 ,& no case c be assign$1 :]e t :i* is pr$icat$ ( ! fact or ph5om5on1 does n belong to "o or o!r ( ! five species =m]ly enum]at$3 x is ei!r simple ,exi/5ce1 or x is "s ,sequ5ce1 ,co-exi/5ce1 ,causation1 or ,resemblance4 ,& z ^! five are ! only ?+s :i* c be affirm$1 s are !y ! only ?+s :i* c be d5i$4 8,no horses are web-foot$0 d5ies t ! attributes ( a horse ev] co-exi/ ) web-feet4 ,x is sc>cely necess>y to apply ! same analysis to ,p>ticul> affirmations & negations4 8,"s birds are web-foot$10 affirms t1 ) ! attributes connot$ by bird1 ! ph5om5on web-feet is sometimes co-exi/5t3 8,"s birds are n web-foot$10 ass]ts t !re are o!r in/ances 9 :i* ?is co-exi/5ce does n h place4 ,any fur!r explanation ( a ?+ :i*1 if ! previ\s exposition has be5 ass5t$ to1 is s obvi\s1 may "h be sp>$4 ,*apt] ,,vi4 ,( ,propositions ,m]ely ,v]bal4 #a4 ,z a prep>ation = ! inquiry :i* is ! prop] object ( ,logic1 namely1 9 :at mann] propositions are to be prov$1 we h f\nd x necess>y to inquire :at !y conta9 :i* requires1 or is susceptible (1 pro(2 or 7:i* is ! same ?+7 :at !y ass]t4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ?is prelim9>y inve/igation into ! import ( ,propositions1 we exam9$ ! op9ion ( ! ,conceptuali/s1 t a proposition is ! expression ( a relation betwe5 two ideas2 & ! doctr9e ( ! extreme ,nom9ali/s1 t x is ! expression ( an agreem5t or disagreem5t betwe5 ! mean+s ( two names4 ,we decid$ t1 z g5]al !ories1 bo? ( ^! are errone\s2 & t1 ?\gh propositions may be made bo? respect+ names & respect+ ideas1 nei!r ! "o nor ! o!r are ! subject-matt] ( ,propositions consid]$ g5]ally4 ,we !n exam9$ ! diff]5t k9ds ( ,propositions1 & f\nd t1 ) ! exception ( ^? :i* are m]ely v]bal1 !y ass]t five diff]5t k9ds ( matt]s ( fact1 namely1 ,exi/5ce1 ,ord] 9 ,place1 ,ord] 9 ,"t1 ,causation1 & ,resemblance2 t 9 e proposition "o ( ^! five is ei!r affirm$1 or d5i$1 ( "s fact or ph5om5on1 or ( "s object ! unkn[n s\rce ( a fact or ph5om5on4 ,9 di/+ui%+1 h[ev]1 ! diff]5t k9ds ( matt]s ( fact ass]t$ 9 propositions1 we res]v$ "o class ( propositions1 :i* d n relate to any matt] ( fact1 9 ! prop] s5se ( ! t]m at all1 b to ! mean+ ( names4 ,s9ce names & _! signification are entirely arbitr>y1 su* propositions are n1 /rictly speak+1 susceptible ( tru? or falsity1 b only ( con=mity or discon=mity to usage or conv5tion2 & all ! pro( !y are capable (1 is pro( ( usage2 pro( t ! words h be5 employ$ by o!rs 9 ! acceptation 9 :i* ! speak] or writ] desires to use !m4 ,^! propositions occupy1 h[ev]1 a conspicu\s place 9 philosophy2 & _! nature & *>act]i/ics are ( z mu* importance 9 logic1 z ^? ( any ( ! o!r classes ( propositions previ\sly adv]t$ to4 ,if all propositions respect+ ! signification ( words 7 z simple & unimportant z ^? :i* s]v$ u = examples :5 exam9+ ,hobbes's !ory ( pr$ication1 viz41 ^? ( :i* ! subject & pr$icate are prop] names1 & :i* ass]t only t ^? names h1 or t !y h n1 be5 conv5tionally assign$ to ! same individual1 !re w\ld be little to attract to su* propositions ! att5tion ( philosoph]s4 ,b ! class ( m]ely v]bal propositions embraces n only mu* m ?an ^!1 b mu* m ?an any propositions :i* at fir/ sight pres5t !mselves z v]bal2 compreh5d+ a k9d ( ass]tions :i* h be5 reg>d$ n only z relat+ to ?+s1 b z hav+ actually a m intimate relation ) !m ?an any o!r propositions :atev]4 ,! /ud5t 9 philosophy w p]ceive t ,i allude to ! di/9ction on :i* s mu* /ress 0 laid by ! s*oolm51 & :i* has be5 reta9$ ei!r "u ! same or "u o!r names by mo/ metaphysicians to ! pres5t day1 viz41 betwe5 :at 7 call$ ess5tial1 & :at 7 call$ accid5tal1 propositions1 & betwe5 ess5tial & accid5tal prop]ties or attributes4 #b4 ,almo/ all metaphysicians prior to ,locke1 z well z _m s9ce 8 "t1 h made a great my/]y ( ,ess5tial ,pr$ication1 & ( pr$icates :i* are said to be ( ! ess5ce ( ! subject4 ,! ess5ce ( a ?+1 !y said1 0 t )\t :i* ! ?+ c\ld nei!r be1 nor be conceiv$ to be4 ,?us1 rationality 0 ( ! ess5ce ( man1 because )\t rationality1 man c\ld n be conceiv$ to exi/4 ,! diff]5t attributes :i* made up ! ess5ce ( ! ?+ 7 call$ its ess5tial prop]ties2 & a proposition 9 :i* any ( ^! 7 pr$icat$ ( x 0 call$ an ,ess5tial ,proposition1 & 0 consid]$ to g deep] into ! nature ( ! ?+1 & to convey m important in=mation respect+ x1 ?an any o!r proposition c\ld d4 ,all prop]ties1 n ( ! ess5ce ( ! ?+1 7 call$ its accid5ts2 7 suppos$ to h no?+ at all1 or no?+ comp>atively1 to d ) its inmo/ nature2 & ! propositions 9 :i* any ( ^! 7 pr$icat$ ( x 7 call$ ,accid5tal ,propositions4 ,a connection may be trac$ betwe5 ?is di/9ction1 :i* orig9at$ ) ! s*oolm51 & ! well-kn[n dogmas ( sub/anti secund or g5]al sub/ances1 & sub/antial =ms1 doctr9es :i* "u v>ieties ( language p]vad$ alike ! ,ari/otelian & ! ,platonic s*ools1 & ( :i* m ( ! _s has come d[n to mod]n times ?an might be conjectur$ f ! disuse ( ! phraseology4 ,! false views ( ! nature ( classification & g5]alization :i* prevail$ among ! s*oolm51 & ( :i* ^! dogmas 7 ! te*nical expression1 af=d ! only explanation :i* c be giv5 ( _! hav+ misund]/ood ! real nature ( ^? ,ess5ces :i* held s conspicu\s a place 9 _! philosophy4 ,!y said1 truly1 t man c n be conceiv$ )\t rationality4 ,b ?\gh man c n1 a be+ may be conceiv$ exactly l a man 9 all po9ts except t "o quality1 & ^? o!rs :i* are ! conditions or consequ5ces ( x4 ,all1 !re=e1 :i* is really true 9 ! ass]tion t man c n be conceiv$ )\t rationality1 is only1 t if he _h n rationality1 he w\ld n be reput$ a man4 ,!re is no impossibility 9 conceiv+ ! ?+1 nor1 = aught we "k1 9 its exi/+3 ! impossibility is 9 ! conv5tions ( language1 :i* w n all[ ! ?+1 ev5 if x exi/1 to be call$ by ! "n :i* is res]v$ = rational be+s4 ,rationality1 9 %ort1 is involv$ 9 ! mean+ ( ! ^w man3 is "o ( ! attributes connot$ by ! "n4 ,! ess5ce ( man1 simply means ! :ole ( ! attributes connot$ by ! ^w2 & any "o ( ^? attributes tak5 s+ly1 is an ess5tial prop]ty ( man4 ,b ^! reflections1 s easy to u1 w\ld h be5 difficult to p]sons :o ?\ght1 z mo/ ( ! lat] ,ari/otelians did1 t objects 7 made :at !y 7 call$1 t gold 7= in/ance7 0 made gold1 n by ! possession ( c]ta9 prop]ties to :i* mank9d h *os5 to atta* t "n1 b by p>ticipation 9 ! nature ( a g5]al sub/ance1 call$ gold 9 g5]al1 :i* sub/ance1 toge!r ) all ! prop]ties t belong$ to x1 inh]$ 9 e individual piece ( gold47#ci7 ,z !y did n consid] ^! univ]sal sub/ances to be atta*$ to all g5]al names1 b only to "s1 !y ?\ght t an object borr[$ only a "p ( its prop]ties f a univ]sal sub/ance1 & t ! re/ belong$ to x individually3 ! =m] !y call$ its ess5ce1 & ! latt] its accid5ts4 ,! s*ola/ic doctr9e ( ess5ces long surviv$ ! !ory on :i* x re/$1 t ( ! exi/5ce ( real entities correspond+ to g5]al t]ms2 & x 0 res]v$ = ,locke1 at ! end ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 to conv9ce philosoph]s t ! suppos$ ess5ces ( classes 7 m]ely ! signification ( _! names2 nor1 among ! signal s]vices :i* 8 writ+s r5d]$ to philosophy1 0 !re "o m ne$ful or m valuable4 ,n[1 z ! mo/ famili> ( ! g5]al names by :i* an object is designat$ usually connotes n "o only1 b sev]al attributes ( ! object1 ea* ( :i* attributes sep>ately =ms also ! bond ( union ( "s class1 & ! mean+ ( "s g5]al "n2 we may pr$icate ( a "n :i* connotes a v>iety ( attributes1 ano!r "n :i* connotes only "o ( ^! attributes1 or "s small] numb] ( !m ?an all4 ,9 su* cases1 ! univ]sal affirmative proposition w be true2 s9ce :atev] possesses ! :ole ( any set ( attributes1 mu/ possess any "p ( t same set4 ,a proposition ( ?is sort1 h[ev]1 conveys no in=mation to any "o :o previ\sly und]/ood ! :ole mean+ ( ! t]ms4 ,! propositions1 ,e man is a corporeal be+1 ,e man is a liv+ creature1 ,e man is rational1 convey no k to any "o :o 0 already aw>e ( ! entire mean+ ( ! ^w man1 = ! mean+ ( ! ^w includes all ?is3 & t e man has ! attributes connot$ by all ^! pr$icates1 is already ass]t$ :5 he is call$ a man4 ,n[1 ( ?is nature are all ! propositions :i* h be5 call$ ess5tial4 ,!y are1 9 fact1 id5tical propositions4 ,x is true t a proposition :i* pr$icates any attribute1 ev5 ?\gh x be "o impli$ 9 ! "n1 is 9 mo/ cases und]/ood to involve a tacit ass]tion t !re exi/s a ?+ correspond+ to ! "n1 & possess+ ! attributes connot$ by x2 & ?is impli$ ass]tion may convey in=mation1 ev5 to ^? :o und]/ood ! mean+ ( ! "n4 ,b all in=mation ( ?is sort1 convey$ by all ! ess5tial propositions ( :i* man c be made ! subject1 is includ$ 9 ! ass]tion1 ,m5 exi/4 ,& ?is assumption ( real exi/5ce is1 aft] all1 ! result ( an imp]fection ( language4 ,x arises f ! ambiguity ( ! copula1 :i*1 9 addition to its prop] (fice ( a m>k to %[ t an ass]tion is made1 is also1 z =m]ly rem>k$1 a concrete ^w connot+ exi/5ce4 ,! actual exi/5ce ( ! subject ( ! proposition is !re=e only app>5tly1 n really1 impli$ 9 ! pr$ication1 if an ess5tial "o3 we may say1 ,a gho/ is a disembodi$ _s1 )\t believ+ 9 gho/s4 ,b an accid5tal1 or non-ess5tial1 affirmation1 does imply ! real exi/5ce ( ! subject1 because 9 ! case ( a non-exi/5t subject !re is no?+ = ! proposition to ass]t4 ,su* a proposition z1 ,! gho/ ( a murd]$ p]son haunts ! c\* ( ! murd]]1 c only h a mean+ if und]/ood z imply+ a belief 9 gho/s2 = s9ce ! signification ( ! ^w gho/ implies no?+ ( ! k9d1 ! speak] ei!r means no?+1 or means to ass]t a ?+ :i* he wi%es to be believ$ to h really tak5 place4 ,x w be h]eaft] se5 t :5 any important consequ5ces seem to foll[1 z 9 ma!matics1 f an ess5tial proposition1 or1 9 o!r words1 f a proposition involv$ 9 ! mean+ ( a "n1 :at !y really fl[ f is ! tacit assumption ( ! real exi/5ce ( ! objects s nam$4 ,ap>t f ?is assumption ( real exi/5ce1 ! class ( propositions 9 :i* ! pr$icate is ( ! ess5ce ( ! subject 7t is1 9 :i* ! pr$icate connotes ! :ole or "p ( :at ! subject connotes1 b no?+ besides7 answ] no purpose b t ( unfold+ ! :ole or "s "p ( ! mean+ ( ! "n1 to ^? :o did n previ\sly "k x4 ,accord+ly1 ! mo/ useful1 & 9 /rictness ! only useful k9d ( ess5tial propositions1 are ,def9itions3 :i*1 to be complete1 %\ld unfold ! :ole ( :at is involv$ 9 ! mean+ ( ! ^w def9$2 t is 7:5 x is a connotative ^w71 ! :ole ( :at x connotes4 ,9 def9+ a "n1 h[ev]1 x is n usual to specify its entire connotation1 b s mu* only z is suffici5t to m>k out ! objects usually d5ot$ by x f all o!r kn[n objects4 ,& sometimes a m]ely accid5tal prop]ty1 n involv$ 9 ! mean+ ( ! "n1 answ]s ?is purpose equally well4 ,! v>i\s k9ds ( def9ition :i* ^! di/9ctions give rise to1 & ! purposes to :i* !y are respectively subs]vi5t1 w be m9utely consid]$ 9 ! prop] place4 #c4 ,accord+ to ! above view ( ess5tial propositions1 no proposition c be reckon$ su* :i* relates to an individual by "n1 t is1 9 :i* ! subject is a prop] "n4 ,individuals h no ess5ces4 ,:5 ! s*oolm5 talk$ ( ! ess5ce ( an individual1 !y did n mean ! prop]ties impli$ 9 its "n1 = ! names ( individuals imply no prop]ties4 ,!y reg>d$ z ( ! ess5ce ( an individual1 :atev] 0 ( ! ess5ce ( ! species 9 :i* !y 7 accu/om$ to place t individual2 i4e41 ( ! class to :i* x 0 mo/ famili>ly ref]r$1 & to :i*1 !re=e1 !y conceiv$ t x by nature belong$4 ,?us1 because ! proposition ,man is a rational be+1 0 an ess5tial proposition1 !y affirm$ ! same ?+ ( ! proposition1 ,julius ,cs> is a rational be+4 ,?is foll[$ v naturally if g5]a & species 7 to be consid]$ z entities1 di/9ct f1 b inh]+ 91 ! individuals compos+ !m4 ,if man 0 a sub/ance inh]+ 9 ea* individual man1 ! ess5ce ( man 7:atev] t might mean7 0 naturally suppos$ to accompany x2 to inh]e 9 ,john ,?ompson1 & to =m ! common ess5ce ( ,?ompson & ,julius ,cs>4 ,x might !n be fairly said1 t rationality1 be+ ( ! ess5ce ( ,man1 0 ( ! ess5ce also ( ,?ompson4 ,b if ,man altoge!r be only ! individual m5 & a "n be/[$ ^u !m 9 consequ5ce ( c]ta9 common prop]ties1 :at becomes ( ,john ,?ompson's ess5ce8 ,a fundam5tal error is seldom expell$ f philosophy by a s+le victory4 ,x retreats sl[ly1 def5ds e in* ( gr\nd1 & (t51 aft] x has be5 driv5 f ! op5 c\ntry1 reta9s a foot+ 9 "s remote fa/ness4 ,! ess5ces ( individuals 7 an unmean+ figm5t aris+ f a misappreh5sion ( ! ess5ces ( classes1 yet ev5 ,locke1 :5 he extirpat$ ! p>5t error1 c\ld n %ake himself free f t :i* 0 its fruit4 ,he di/+ui%$ two sorts ( ess5ces1 ,real & ,nom9al4 ,8 nom9al ess5ces 7 ! ess5ces ( classes1 expla9$ ne>ly z we h n[ expla9$ !m4 ,nor is any ?+ want+ to r5d] ! ?ird book ( ,locke's ,essay a ne>ly unexceptional treatise on ! connotation ( names1 except to free its language f ! assumption ( :at are call$ ,ab/ract ,ideas1 :i* un=tunately is involv$ 9 ! phraseology1 ?\gh n necess>ily connect$ ) ! ?\ghts conta9$ 9 t immortal ,?ird ,book47#dj7 ,b besides nom9al ess5ces1 he admitt$ real ess5ces1 or ess5ces ( individual objects1 :i* he suppos$ to be ! causes ( ! s5sible prop]ties ( ^? objects4 ,we "k n 7said he7 :at ^! are 7& ?is ackn[l$gm5t r5d]$ ! fiction comp>atively innocu\s72 b if we did1 we c\ld1 f !m alone1 demon/rate ! s5sible prop]ties ( ! object1 z ! prop]ties ( ! triangle are demon/rat$ f ! def9ition ( ! triangle4 ,i %all h occasion to rev]t to ?is !ory 9 treat+ ( ,demon/ration1 & ( ! conditions "u :i* "o prop]ty ( a ?+ admits ( be+ demon/rat$ f ano!r prop]ty4 ,x is en\gh "h to rem>k t1 accord+ to ?is def9ition1 ! real ess5ce ( an object has1 9 ! progress ( physics1 come to be conceiv$ z ne>ly equival5t1 9 ! case ( bodies1 to _! corpuscul> /ructure3 :at x is n[ suppos$ to mean 9 ! case ( any o!r entities1 ,i w\ld n take ^u myself to def9e4 #d4 ,an ess5tial proposition1 !n1 is "o :i* is purely v]bal2 :i* ass]ts ( a ?+ "u a p>ticul> "n1 only :at is ass]t$ ( x 9 ! fact ( call+ x by t "n2 & :i*1 !re=e1 ei!r gives no in=mation1 or gives x respect+ ! "n1 n ! ?+4 ,non-ess5tial1 or accid5tal propositions1 on ! contr>y1 may be call$ ,real ,propositions1 9 opposition to ,v]bal4 ,!y pr$icate ( a ?+ "s fact n involv$ 9 ! signification ( ! "n by :i* ! proposition speaks ( x2 "s attribute n connot$ by t "n4 ,su* are all propositions conc]n+ ?+s individually designat$1 & all g5]al or p>ticul> propositions 9 :i* ! pr$icate connotes any attribute n connot$ by ! subject4 ,all ^!1 if true1 add to our k3 !y convey in=mation1 n already involv$ 9 ! names employ$4 ,:5 ,i am told t all1 or ev5 t "s objects1 :i* h c]ta9 qualities1 or :i* /& 9 c]ta9 relations1 h also c]ta9 o!r qualities1 or /& 9 c]ta9 o!r relations1 ,i le>n f ?is proposition a new fact2 a fact n includ$ 9 my k ( ! mean+ ( ! words1 nor ev5 ( ! exi/5ce ( ,?+s answ]+ to ! signification ( ^? words4 ,x is ?is class ( propositions only :i* are 9 !mselves in/ructive1 or f :i* any in/ructive propositions c be inf]r$47#da7 ,no?+ has probably contribut$ m to ! op9ion s long preval5t ( ! futility ( ! s*ool logic1 ?an ! circum/ance t almo/ all ! examples us$ 9 ! common s*ool books to illu/rate ! doctr9e ( pr$ication & t ( ! syllogism1 consi/ ( ess5tial propositions4 ,!y 7 usually tak5 ei!r f ! bran*es or f ! ma9 trunk ( ! ,pr$icam5tal ,tree1 :i* includ$ no?+ b :at 0 ( ! ess5ce ( ! species3 ,omne corpus e/ sub/antia1 ,omne animal e/ corpus1 ,omnis homo e/ corpus1 ,omnis homo e/ animal1 ,omnis homo e/ rationalis1 & s =?4 ,x is f> f wond]ful t ! syllogi/ic art %\ld h be5 ?\ght to be ( no use 9 assi/+ correct reason+1 :5 almo/ ! only propositions :i*1 9 ! h&s ( its pr(ess$ tea*]s1 x 0 employ$ to prove1 7 su* z e "o ass5t$ to )\t pro( ! mom5t he compreh5d$ ! mean+ ( ! words2 & /ood exactly on a level1 9 po9t ( evid5ce1 ) ! premises f :i* !y 7 drawn4 ,i h1 !re=e1 ?r\gh\t ?is "w1 avoid$ ! employm5t ( ess5tial propositions z examples1 except :]e ! nature ( ! pr9ciple to be illu/rat$ specifically requir$ !m4 #e4 ,) respect to propositions :i* d convey in=mation--:i* ass]t some?+ ( a ,?+1 "u a "n t does n already presuppose :at is ab\t to be ass]t$2 !re are two diff]5t aspects 9 :i* ^!1 or r su* ( !m z are g5]al propositions1 may be consid]$3 we may ei!r look at !m z portions ( speculative tru?1 or z memor&a = practical use4 ,accord+ z we consid] propositions 9 "o or ! o!r ( ^! lights1 _! import may be conv5i5tly express$ 9 "o or 9 ! o!r ( two =mulas4 ,accord+ to ! =mula :i* we h hi!rto employ$1 & :i* is be/ adapt$ to express ! import ( ! proposition z a portion ( our !oretical k1 ,all m5 are mortal1 means t ! attributes ( man are always accompani$ by ! attribute mortality3 ,no m5 are gods1 means t ! attributes ( man are nev] accompani$ by ! attributes1 or at lea/ nev] by all ! attributes1 signifi$ by ! ^w god4 ,b :5 ! proposition is consid]$ z a memor&um = practical use1 we %all f9d a diff]5t mode ( express+ ! same mean+ bett] adapt$ to indicate ! (fice :i* ! proposition p]=ms4 ,! practical use ( a proposition is1 to apprise or rem9d u :at we h to expect1 9 any individual case :i* comes )9 ! ass]tion conta9$ 9 ! proposition4 ,9 ref]5ce to ?is purpose1 ! proposition1 ,all m5 are mortal1 means t ! attributes ( man are evid5ce (1 are a m>k (1 mortality2 an indication by :i* ! pres5ce ( t attribute is made manife/4 ,no m5 are gods1 means t ! attributes ( man are a m>k or evid5ce t "s or all ( ! attributes und]/ood to belong to a god are n !re2 t :]e ! =m] are1 we ne$ n expect to f9d ! latt]4 ,^! two =ms ( expression are at bottom equival5t2 b ! "o po9ts ! att5tion m directly to :at a proposition means1 ! latt] to ! mann] 9 :i* x is to be us$4 ,n[ x is to be obs]v$ t ,reason+ 7! subject to :i* we are next to proce$7 is a process into :i* propositions ent] n z ultimate results1 b z means to ! e/abli%m5t ( o!r propositions4 ,we may expect1 !re=e1 t ! mode ( exhibit+ ! import ( a g5]al proposition :i* %[s x 9 its application to practical use1 w be/ express ! function :i* propositions p]=m 9 ,reason+4 ,& accord+ly1 9 ! !ory ( ,reason+1 ! mode ( view+ ! subject :i* consid]s a ,proposition z ass]t+ t "o fact or ph5om5on is a m>k or evid5ce ( ano!r fact or ph5om5on1 w be f\nd almo/ indisp5sable4 ,= ! purposes ( t ,!ory1 ! be/ mode ( def9+ ! import ( a proposition is n ! mode :i* %[s mo/ cle>ly :at x is 9 itself1 b t :i* mo/ di/9ctly sugge/s ! mann] 9 :i* x may be made available = advanc+ f x to o!r propositions4 ,*apt] ,,vii4 ,( ,! ,nature ,( ,classification1 ,& ,! ,five ,pr$icables4 #a4 ,9 exam9+ into ! nature ( g5]al propositions1 we h adv]t$ mu* less ?an is usual ) logicians to ! ideas ( a ,class1 & ,classification2 ideas :i*1 s9ce ! ,reali/ doctr9e ( ,g5]al ,sub/ances w5t out ( vogue1 h =m$ ! basis ( almo/ e attempt at a philosophical !ory ( g5]al t]ms & g5]al propositions4 ,we h consid]$ g5]al names z hav+ a mean+1 q indep5d5tly ( _! be+ ! names ( classes4 ,t circum/ance is 9 tru? accid5tal1 x be+ :olly immat]ial to ! signification ( ! "n :e!r !re are _m objects1 or only "o1 to :i* x happ5s to be applicable1 or :e!r !re be any at all4 ,god is z mu* a g5]al t]m to ! ,*ri/ian or ,jew z to ! ,poly!i/2 & dragon1 hippogriff1 *im]a1 m]maid1 gho/1 are z mu* s z if real objects exi/$1 correspond+ to ^? names4 ,e "n ! signification ( :i* is con/itut$ by attributes1 is pot5tially a "n ( an indef9ite numb] ( objects2 b x ne$s n be actually ! "n ( any2 & if ( any1 x may be ! "n ( only "o4 ,z soon z we employ a "n to connote attributes1 ! ?+s1 be !y m or few]1 :i* happ5 to possess ^? attributes1 are con/itut$ ipso facto a class4 ,b 9 pr$icat+ ! "n we pr$icate only ! attributes2 & ! fact ( belong+ to a class does n1 9 _m cases1 come into view at all4 ,al?\gh1 h[ev]1 ,pr$ication does n presuppose ,classification1 & ?\gh ! !ory ( ,names & ( ,propositions is n cle>$ up1 b only encumb]$1 by intrud+ ! idea ( classification into x1 !re is nev]!less a close connection betwe5 ,classification & ! employm5t ( ,g5]al ,names4 ,by e g5]al "n :i* we introduce1 we create a class1 if !re be any ?+s1 real or imag9>y1 to compose x2 t is1 any ,?+s correspond+ to ! signification ( ! "n4 ,classes1 !re=e1 mo/ly owe _! exi/5ce to g5]al language4 ,b g5]al language1 also1 ?\gh t is n ! mo/ common case1 sometimes owes its exi/5ce to classes4 ,a g5]al1 :i* is z mu* z to say a significant1 "n1 is inde$ mo/ly introduc$ because we h a signification to express by x2 because we ne$ a ^w by means ( :i* to pr$icate ! attributes :i* x connotes4 ,b x is also true t a "n is sometimes introduc$ because we h f\nd x conv5i5t to create a class2 because we h ?\ght x useful = ! regulation ( our m5tal op]ations1 t a c]ta9 gr\p ( objects %\ld be ?\ght ( toge!r4 ,a naturali/1 = purposes connect$ ) 8 p>ticul> sci5ce1 sees reason to di/ribute ! animal or vegetable creation into c]ta9 gr\ps r ?an into any o!rs1 & he requires a "n to b9d1 z x 71 ea* ( 8 gr\ps toge!r4 ,x mu/ n1 h[ev]1 be suppos$ t su* names1 :5 introduc$1 diff] 9 any respect1 z to _! mode ( signification1 f o!r connotative names4 ,! classes :i* !y d5ote are1 z mu* z any o!r classes1 con/itut$ by c]ta9 common attributes1 & _! names are significant ( ^? attributes1 & ( no?+ else4 ,! names ( ,cuvi]'s classes & ord]s1 ,plantigrades1 ,digitigrades1 etc41 are z mu* ! expression ( attributes z if ^? names _h prec$$1 in/ead ( gr[n out (1 8 classification ( animals4 ,! only peculi>ity ( ! case is1 t ! conv5i5ce ( classification 0 "h ! prim>y motive = introduc+ ! names2 :ile 9 o!r cases ! "n is introduc$ z a means ( pr$ication1 & ! =mation ( a class d5ot$ by x is only an indirect consequ5ce4 ,! pr9ciples :i* ought to regulate ,classification1 z a logical process subs]vi5t to ! inve/igation ( tru?1 c n be discuss$ to any purpose until a mu* lat] /age ( our inquiry4 ,b1 ( ,classification z result+ f1 & impli$ 91 ! fact ( employ+ g5]al language1 we c n =be> to treat "h1 )\t leav+ ! !ory ( g5]al names1 & ( _! employm5t 9 pr$ication1 mutilat$ & =mless4 #b4 ,?is portion ( ! !ory ( g5]al language is ! subject ( :at is t]m$ ! doctr9e ( ! ,pr$icables2 a set ( di/9ctions h&$ d[n f ,ari/otle1 & 8 foll[] ,porphyry1 _m ( :i* h tak5 a firm root 9 sci5tific1 & "s ( !m ev5 9 popul>1 phraseology4 ,! pr$icables are a fivefold division ( ,g5]al ,names1 n gr\nd$ z usual on a diff]5ce 9 _! mean+1 t is1 9 ! attribute :i* !y connote1 b on a diff]5ce 9 ! k9d ( class :i* !y d5ote4 ,we may pr$icate ( a ?+ five diff]5t v>ieties ( class-"n3 ,a g5us ( ! ?+3 774 ,a species3 774 ,a diff]5tia3 774 ,a proprium3 774 ,an accid5s3 774 ,x is to be rem>k$ ( ^! di/9ctions1 t !y express1 n :at ! pr$icate is 9 its own mean+1 b :at relation x be>s to ! subject ( :i* x happ5s on ! p>ticul> occasion to be pr$icat$4 ,!re are n "s names :i* are exclusively g5]a1 & o!rs :i* are exclusively species1 or diff]5ti2 b ! same "n is ref]r$ to "o or ano!r pr$icable1 accord+ to ! subject ( :i* x is pr$icat$ on ! p>ticul> occasion4 ,animal1 = in/ance1 is a g5us ) respect to man1 or ,john2 a species ) respect to ,sub/ance1 or ,be+4 ,rectangul> is "o ( ! ,diff]5ti ( a geometrical squ>e2 x is m]ely "o ( ! ,accid5tia ( ! table at :i* ,i am writ+4 ,! words g5us1 species1 etc41 are !re=e relative t]ms2 !y are names appli$ to c]ta9 pr$icates1 to express ! relation betwe5 !m & "s giv5 subject3 a relation gr\nd$1 z we %all see1 n on :at ! pr$icate connotes1 b on ! class :i* x d5otes1 & on ! place :i*1 9 "s giv5 classification1 t class occupies relatively to ! p>ticul> subject4 #c4 ,( ^! five names1 two1 ,g5us & ,species1 are n only us$ by naturali/s 9 a te*nical acceptation n precisely agree+ ) _! philosophical mean+1 b h also acquir$ a popul> acceptation1 mu* m g5]al ?an ei!r4 ,9 ?is popul> s5se any two classes1 "o ( :i* includes ! :ole ( ! o!r & m1 may be call$ a ,g5us & a ,species4 ,su*1 = in/ance1 are ,animal & ,man2 ,man & ,ma!matician4 ,animal is a ,g5us2 ,man & ,brute are its two species2 or we may divide x into a great] numb] ( species1 z man1 horse1 dog1 etc4 ,bip$1 or two-foot$ animal1 may also be consid]$ a g5us1 ( :i* man & bird are two species4 ,ta/e is a g5us1 ( :i* sweet ta/e1 s\r ta/e1 salt ta/e1 etc41 are species4 ,virtue is a g5us2 ju/ice1 prud5ce1 c\rage1 =titude1 g5]osity1 etc41 are its species4 ,! same class :i* is a g5us ) ref]5ce to ! sub-classes or species includ$ 9 x1 may be itself a species ) ref]5ce to a m compreh5sive1 or1 z x is (t5 call$1 a sup]ior g5us4 ,man is a species ) ref]5ce to animal1 b a g5us ) ref]5ce to ! species ,ma!matician4 ,animal is a g5us1 divid$ into two species1 man & brute2 b animal is also a species1 :i*1 ) ano!r species1 vegetable1 makes up ! g5us1 organiz$ be+4 ,bip$ is a g5us ) ref]5ce to man & bird1 b a species ) respect to ! sup]ior g5us1 animal4 ,ta/e is a g5us divid$ into species1 b also a species ( ! g5us s5sation4 ,virtue1 a g5us ) ref]5ce to ju/ice1 temp]ance1 etc41 is "o ( ! species ( ! g5us1 m5tal quality4 ,9 ?is popul> s5se ! words ,g5us & ,species h pass$ into common disc\rse4 ,& x %\ld be obs]v$ t 9 ord9>y p>lance1 n ! "n ( ! class1 b ! class itself1 is said to be ! g5us or species2 n1 ( c\rse1 ! class 9 ! s5se ( ea* individual ( ! class1 b ! individuals collectively1 consid]$ z an aggregate :ole2 ! "n by :i* ! class is designat$ be+ !n call$ n ! g5us or species1 b ! g5]ic or specific "n4 ,& ?is is an admissible =m ( expression2 nor is x ( any importance :i* ( ! two modes ( speak+ we adopt1 provid$ ! re/ ( our language is consi/5t ) x2 b1 if we call ! class itself ! g5us1 we mu/ n talk ( pr$icat+ ! g5us4 ,we pr$icate ( man ! "n mortal2 & by pr$icat+ ! "n1 we may be said1 9 an intelligible s5se1 to pr$icate :at ! "n expresses1 ! attribute mortality2 b 9 no all[able s5se ( ! ^w pr$ication d we pr$icate ( man ! class mortal4 ,we pr$icate ( him ! fact ( belong+ to ! class4 ,by ! ,ari/otelian logicians1 ! t]ms g5us & species 7 us$ 9 a m re/rict$ s5se4 ,!y did n admit e class :i* c\ld be divid$ into o!r classes to be a g5us1 or e class :i* c\ld be includ$ 9 a l>g] class to be a species4 ,animal 0 by !m consid]$ a g5us2 man & brute co-ord9ate species "u t g5us3 bip$1 h[ev]1 w\ld n h be5 admitt$ to be a g5us ) ref]5ce to man1 b a proprium or accid5s only4 ,x 0 requisite1 accord+ to _! !ory1 t g5us & species %\ld be ( ! ess5ce ( ! subject4 ,animal 0 ( ! ess5ce ( man2 bip$ 0 n4 ,& 9 e classification !y consid]$ "s "o class z ! l[e/ or infima species4 ,man1 = in/ance1 0 a l[e/ species4 ,any fur!r divisions into :i* ! class might be capable ( be+ brok5 d[n1 z man into :ite1 black1 & r$ man1 or into prie/ & layman1 !y did n admit to be species4 ,x has be5 se51 h[ev]1 9 ! prec$+ *apt]1 t ! di/9ction betwe5 ! ess5ce ( a class1 & ! attributes or prop]ties :i* are n ( its ess5ce--a di/9ction :i* has giv5 occasion to s mu* ab/ruse speculation1 & to :i* s my/]i\s a "* 0 =m]ly1 & by _m writ]s is /ill1 atta*$--am\nts to no?+ m ?an ! diff]5ce betwe5 ^? attributes ( ! class :i* are1 & ^? :i* are n1 involv$ 9 ! signification ( ! class-"n4 ,z appli$ to individuals1 ! ^w ,ess5ce1 we f\nd1 has no mean+1 except 9 connection ) ! explod$ t5ets ( ! ,reali/s2 & :at ! s*oolm5 *ose to call ! ess5ce ( an individual1 0 simply ! ess5ce ( ! class to :i* t individual 0 mo/ famili>ly ref]r$4 ,is !re no diff]5ce1 !n1 save ?is m]ely v]bal "o1 betwe5 ! classes :i* ! s*oolm5 admitt$ to be g5]a or species1 & ^? to :i* !y refus$ ! title8 ,is x an error to reg>d "s ( ! diff]5ces :i* exi/ among objects z diff]5ces 9 k9d 7g5]e or specie71 & o!rs only z diff]5ces 9 ! accid5ts8 ,7 ! s*oolm5 "r or wrong 9 giv+ to "s ( ! classes into :i* ?+s may be divid$1 ! "n ( k9ds1 & consid]+ o!rs z second>y divisions1 gr\nd$ on diff]5ces ( a comp>atively sup]ficial nature8 ,exam9ation w %[ t ! ,ari/otelians did mean some?+ by ?is di/9ction1 & some?+ important2 b :i*1 be+ b indi/9ctly conceiv$1 0 inadequately express$ by ! phraseology ( ess5ces1 & ! v>i\s o!r modes ( spee* to :i* !y _h rec\rse4 #d4 ,x is a fundam5tal pr9ciple 9 logic1 t ! p[] ( fram+ classes is unlimit$1 z long z !re is any 7ev5 ! smalle/7 diff]5ce to f\nd a di/9ction ^u4 ,take any attribute :atev]1 & if "s ?+s h x1 & o!rs h n1 we may gr\nd on ! attribute a division ( all ?+s into two classes2 & we actually d s1 ! mom5t we create a "n :i* connotes ! attribute4 ,! numb] ( possible classes1 !re=e1 is b\ndless2 & !re are z _m actual classes 7ei!r ( real or ( imag9>y ?+s7 z !re are g5]al names1 positive & negative toge!r4 ,b if we contemplate any "o ( ! classes s =m$1 su* z ! class animal or plant1 or ! class sulphur or phosphorus1 or ! class :ite or r$1 & consid] 9 :at p>ticul>s ! individuals includ$ 9 ! class diff] f ^? :i* d n come )9 x1 we f9d a v rem>kable div]sity 9 ?is respect betwe5 "s classes & o!rs4 ,!re are "s classes1 ! ?+s conta9$ 9 :i* diff] f o!r ?+s only 9 c]ta9 p>ticul>s :i* may be numb]$1 :ile o!rs diff] 9 m ?an c be numb]$1 m ev5 ?an we ne$ ev] expect to "k4 ,"s classes h little or no?+ 9 common to *>act]ize !m by1 except precisely :at is connot$ by ! "n3 :ite ?+s1 = example1 are n di/+ui%$ by any common prop]ties except :it5ess2 or if !y are1 x is only by su* z are 9 "s way dep5d5t on1 or connect$ )1 :it5ess4 ,b a hundr$ g5]ations h n exhau/$ ! common prop]ties ( animals or ( plants1 ( sulphur or ( phosphorus2 nor d we suppose !m to be exhau/ible1 b proce$ to new obs]vations & exp]im5ts1 9 ! full confid5ce ( discov]+ new prop]ties :i* 7 by no means impli$ 9 ^? we previ\sly knew4 ,:ile1 if any "o 7 to propose = inve/igation ! common prop]ties ( all ?+s :i* are ( ! same color1 ! same %ape1 or ! same specific gravity1 ! absurdity w\ld be palpable4 ,we h no gr\nd to believe t any su* common prop]ties exi/1 except su* z may be %[n to be involv$ 9 ! supposition itself1 or to be d]ivable f x by "s law ( causation4 ,x appe>s1 !re=e1 t ! prop]ties1 on :i* we gr\nd our classes1 sometimes exhau/ all t ! class has 9 common1 or conta9 x all by "s mode ( implication2 b 9 o!r in/ances we make a selection ( a few prop]ties f among n only a great] numb]1 b a numb] inexhau/ible by u1 & to :i* z we "k no b\nds1 !y may1 s f> z we are conc]n$1 be reg>d$ z inf9ite4 ,!re is no impropriety 9 say+ t1 ( ^! two classifications1 ! "o answ]s to a mu* m radical di/9ction 9 ! ?+s !mselves1 ?an ! o!r does4 ,& if any "o ev5 *ooses to say t ! "o classification is made by nature1 ! o!r by u = our conv5i5ce1 he w be "r2 provid$ he means no m ?an ?is3 ,:]e a c]ta9 app>5t diff]5ce betwe5 ?+s 7?\gh p]haps 9 itself ( little mom5t7 answ]s to we "k n :at numb] ( o!r diff]5ces1 p]vad+ n only _! kn[n prop]ties1 b prop]ties yet undiscov]$1 x is n optional b imp]ative to recognize ?is diff]5ce z ! f\ndation ( a specific di/9ction2 :ile1 on ! contr>y1 diff]5ces t are m]ely f9ite & det]m9ate1 l ^? designat$ by ! words :ite1 black1 or r$1 may be disreg>d$ if ! purpose = :i* ! classification is made does n require att5tion to ^? p>ticul> prop]ties4 ,! diff]5ces1 h[ev]1 are made by nature1 9 bo? cases2 :ile ! recognition ( ^? diff]5ces z gr\nds ( classification & ( nam+1 is1 equally 9 bo? cases1 ! act ( man3 only 9 ! "o case1 ! ends ( language & ( classification w\ld be subv]t$ if no notice 7 tak5 ( ! diff]5ce1 :ile 9 ! o!r case1 ! necessity ( tak+ notice ( x dep5ds on ! importance or unimportance ( ! p>ticul> qualities 9 :i* ! diff]5ce happ5s to consi/4 ,n[1 ^! classes1 di/+ui%$ by unkn[n multitudes ( prop]ties1 & n solely by a few det]m9ate ones--:i* are p>t$ (f f "o ano!r by an unfa?omable *asm1 in/ead ( a m]e ord9>y dit* ) a visible bottom--are ! only classes :i*1 by ! ,ari/otelian logicians1 7 consid]$ z g5]a or species4 ,diff]5ces :i* ext5d$ only to a c]ta9 prop]ty or prop]ties1 & !re t]m9at$1 !y consid]$ z diff]5ces only 9 ! accid5ts ( ?+s2 b :]e any class diff]$ f o!r ?+s by an inf9ite s]ies ( diff]5ces1 kn[n & unkn[n1 !y consid]$ ! di/9ction z "o ( k9d1 & spoke ( x z be+ an ess5tial diff]5ce1 :i* is also "o ( ! curr5t mean+s ( t vague expression at ! pres5t day4 ,conceiv+ ! s*oolm5 to h be5 ju/ifi$ 9 draw+ a broad l9e ( sep>ation betwe5 ^! two k9ds ( classes & ( class-di/9ctions1 ,i %all n only reta9 ! division itself1 b cont9ue to express x 9 _! language4 ,accord+ to t language1 ! proximate 7or l[e/7 ,k9d to :i* any individual is ref]rible1 is call$ its species4 ,con=mably to ?is1 ,isaac ,newton w\ld be said to be ( ! species man4 ,!re are inde$ num]\s sub-classes includ$ 9 ! class man1 to :i* ,newton also belongs2 = example1 ,*ri/ian1 & ,engli%man1 & ,ma!matician4 ,b ^!1 ?\gh di/9ct classes1 are n1 9 our s5se ( ! t]m1 di/9ct ,k9ds ( m54 ,a ,*ri/ian1 = example1 diff]s f o!r human be+s2 b he diff]s only 9 ! attribute :i* ! ^w expresses1 namely1 belief 9 ,*ri/ianity1 & :atev] else t implies1 ei!r z involv$ 9 ! fact itself1 or connect$ ) x ?r\gh "s law ( cause & effect4 ,we %\ld nev] ?9k ( inquir+ :at prop]ties1 unconnect$ ) ,*ri/ianity1 ei!r z cause or effect1 are common to all ,*ri/ians & peculi> to !m2 :ile 9 reg>d to all ,m51 physiologi/s are p]petually c>ry+ on su* an inquiry2 nor is ! answ] ev] likely to be complet$4 ,man1 !re=e1 we may call a species2 ,*ri/ian1 or ,ma!matician1 we c n4 ,note "h1 t x is by no means int5d$ to imply t !re may n be diff]5t ,k9ds1 or logical species1 ( man4 ,! v>i\s races & temp]am5ts1 ! two sexes1 & ev5 ! v>i\s ages1 may be diff]5ces ( k9d1 )9 our mean+ ( ! t]m4 ,i d n say t !y are s4 ,= 9 ! progress ( physiology x may almo/ be said to be made out1 t ! diff]5ces :i* really exi/ betwe5 diff]5t races1 sexes1 etc41 foll[ z consequ5ces1 "u laws ( nature1 f a small numb] ( prim>y diff]5ces :i* c be precisely det]m9$1 & :i*1 z ! phrase is1 acc\nt = all ! re/4 ,if ?is be s1 ^! are n di/9ctions 9 k9d2 no m ?an ,*ri/ian1 ,jew1 ,mussulman1 & ,pagan1 a diff]5ce :i* also c>ries _m consequ5ces along ) x4 ,& 9 ?is way classes are (t5 mi/ak5 = real ,k9ds1 :i* are aft]w>d prov$ n to be s4 ,b if x turn$ out t ! diff]5ces 7 n capable ( be+ ?us acc\nt$ =1 !n ,caucasian1 ,mongolian1 ,negro1 etc41 w\ld be really diff]5t ,k9ds ( human be+s1 & entitl$ to be rank$ z species by ! logician2 ?\gh n by ! naturali/4 ,= 7z already notic$7 ! ^w species is us$ 9 a diff]5t signification 9 logic & 9 natural hi/ory4 ,by ! naturali/1 organiz$ be+s are n usually said to be ( diff]5t species1 if x is suppos$ t !y h desc5d$ f ! same /ock4 ,t1 h[ev]1 is a s5se artificially giv5 to ! ^w1 = ! te*nical purposes ( a p>ticul> sci5ce4 ,to ! logician1 if a negro & a :ite man diff] 9 ! same mann] 7h[ev] less 9 degree7 z a horse & a camel d1 t is1 if _! diff]5ces are inexhau/ible1 & n ref]rible to any common cause1 !y are diff]5t species1 :e!r !y are desc5d$ f common ance/ors or n4 ,b if _! diff]5ces c all be trac$ to climate & habits1 or to "s "o or a few special diff]5ces 9 /ructure1 !y are n1 9 ! logician's view1 specifically di/9ct4 ,:5 ! infima species1 or proximate ,k9d1 to :i* an individual belongs1 has be5 asc]ta9$1 ! prop]ties common to t ,k9d include necess>ily ! :ole ( ! common prop]ties ( e o!r real ,k9d to :i* ! individual c be ref]rible4 ,let ! individual1 = example1 be ,socrates1 & ! proximate ,k9d1 man4 ,animal1 or liv+ creature1 is also a real k9d1 & includes ,socrates2 b1 s9ce x likewise includes man1 or 9 o!r words1 s9ce all m5 are animals1 ! prop]ties common to animals =m a portion ( ! common prop]ties ( ! sub-class1 man4 ,& if !re be any class :i* includes ,socrates )\t includ+ man1 t class is n a real ,k9d4 ,let ! class1 = example1 be flat-nos$2 t be+ a class :i* includes ,socrates1 )\t includ+ all m54 ,to det]m9e :e!r x is a real ,k9d1 we mu/ ask ourselves ?is "q3 ,h all flat-nos$ animals1 9 addition to :atev] is impli$ 9 _! flat noses1 any common prop]ties1 o!r ?an ^? :i* are common to all animals :atev]8 ,if !y _h2 if a flat nose 7 a m>k or index to an indef9ite numb] ( o!r peculi>ities1 n d$ucible f ! =m] by an asc]ta9able law1 !n out ( ! class man we might cut ano!r class1 flat-nos$ man1 :i*1 accord+ to our def9ition1 w\ld be a ,k9d4 ,b if we c\ld d ?is1 man w\ld n be1 z x 0 assum$ to be1 ! proximate ,k9d4 ,!re=e1 ! prop]ties ( ! proximate ,k9d d compreh5d ^? 7:e!r kn[n or unkn[n7 ( all o!r ,k9ds to :i* ! individual belongs2 :i* 0 ! po9t we und]took to prove4 ,& h5ce1 e o!r ,k9d :i* is pr$icable ( ! individual1 w be to ! proximate ,k9d 9 ! relation ( a g5us1 accord+ to ev5 ! popul> acceptation ( ! t]ms g5us & species2 t is1 x w be a l>g] class1 includ+ x & m4 ,we are n[ able to fix ! logical mean+ ( ^! t]ms4 ,e class :i* is a real ,k9d1 t is1 :i* is di/+ui%$ f all o!r classes by an indet]m9ate multitude ( prop]ties n d]ivable f "o ano!r1 is ei!r a g5us or a species4 ,a ,k9d :i* is n divisible into o!r ,k9ds1 c n be a g5us1 because x has no species "u x2 b x is itself a species1 bo? ) ref]5ce to ! individuals bel[ & to ! g5]a above 7,species ,prdicabilis & ,species ,subjicibilis74 ,b e ,k9d :i* admits ( division into real ,k9ds 7z animal into mammal1 bird1 fi%1 etc41 or bird into v>i\s species ( birds7 is a g5us to all bel[ x1 a species to all g5]a 9 :i* x is itself includ$4 ,& "h we may close ?is "p ( ! discussion1 & pass to ! ?ree rema9+ pr$icables1 ,diff]5tia1 ,proprium1 & ,accid5s4 #e4 ,to beg9 ) ,diff]5tia4 ,?is ^w is correlative ) ! words g5us & species1 & z all admit1 x signifies ! attribute :i* di/+ui%es a giv5 species f e o!r species ( ! same g5us4 ,?is is s f> cle>3 b we may /ill ask1 :i* ( ! di/+ui%+ attributes x signifies4 ,= we h se5 t e ,k9d 7& a species mu/ be a ,k9d7 is di/+ui%$ f o!r ,k9ds1 n by any "o attribute1 b by an indef9ite numb]4 ,man1 = in/ance1 is a species ( ! g5us animal3 ,rational 7or rationality1 = x is ( no consequ5ce "h :e!r we use ! concrete or ! ab/ract =m7 is g5]ally assign$ by logicians z ! ,diff]5tia2 & d\btless ?is attribute s]ves ! purpose ( di/9ction3 b x has also be5 rem>k$ ( man1 t he is a cook+ animal2 ! only animal t dresses its food4 ,?is1 !re=e1 is ano!r ( ! attributes by :i* ! species man is di/+ui%$ f o!r species ( ! same g5us3 w\ld ?is attribute s]ve equally well = a diff]5tia8 ,! ,ari/otelians say ,no2 hav+ laid x d[n t ! diff]5tia mu/1 l ! g5us & species1 be ( ! ess5ce ( ! subject4 ,& "h we lose ev5 t ve/ige ( a mean+ gr\nd$ 9 ! nature ( ! ?+s !mselves1 :i* may be suppos$ to be atta*$ to ! ^w ess5ce :5 x is said t g5us & species mu/ be ( ! ess5ce ( ! ?+4 ,!re c be no d\bt t :5 ! s*oolm5 talk$ ( ! ess5ces ( ?+s z oppos$ to _! accid5ts1 !y _h confus$ly 9 view ! di/9ction betwe5 diff]5ces ( k9d1 & ! diff]5ces :i* are n ( k9d2 !y meant to intimate t g5]a & species mu/ be ,k9ds4 ,_! notion ( ! ess5ce ( a ?+ 0 a vague notion ( a some?+ :i* makes x :at x is1 i4e41 :i* makes x ! ,k9d ( ?+ t x is--:i* causes x to h all t v>iety ( prop]ties :i* di/+ui% its ,k9d4 ,b :5 ! matt] came to be look$ at m closely1 nobody c\ld discov] :at caus$ ! ?+ to h all ^? prop]ties1 nor ev5 t !re 0 any ?+ :i* caus$ x to h !m4 ,logicians1 h[ev]1 n lik+ to admit ?is1 & be+ unable to detect :at made ! ?+ to be :at x 01 satisfi$ !mselves ) :at made x to be :at x 0 call$4 ,( ! innum]able prop]ties1 kn[n & unkn[n1 t are common to ! class man1 a portion only1 & ( c\rse a v small portion1 are connot$ by its "n2 ^! few1 h[ev]1 w naturally h be5 ?us di/+ui%$ f ! re/ ei!r = _! great] obvi\sness1 or = great] suppos$ importance4 ,^! prop]ties1 !n1 :i* 7 connot$ by ! "n1 logicians seiz$ ^u1 & call$ !m ! ess5ce ( ! species2 & n /opp+ !re1 !y affirm$ !m1 9 ! case ( ! infima species1 to be ! ess5ce ( ! individual too2 = x 0 _! maxim1 t ! species conta9$ ! 8:ole ess5ce0 ( ! ?+4 ,metaphysics1 t f]tile field ( delusion propagat$ by language1 does n af=d a m signal in/ance ( su* delusion4 ,on ?is acc\nt x 0 t rationality1 be+ connot$ by ! "n man1 0 all[$ to be a diff]5tia ( ! class2 b ! peculi>ity ( cook+ _! food1 n be+ connot$1 0 relegat$ to ! class ( accid5tal prop]ties4 ,! di/9ction1 !re=e1 betwe5 ,diff]5tia1 ,proprium1 & ,accid5s1 is n gr\nd$ 9 ! nature ( ?+s1 b 9 ! connotation ( names2 & we mu/ seek x !re1 if we wi% to f9d :at x is4 ,f ! fact t ! g5us includes ! species1 9 o!r words denotes m ?an ! species1 or is pr$icable ( a great] numb] ( individuals1 x foll[s t ! species mu/ connote m ?an ! g5us4 ,x mu/ connote all ! attributes :i* ! g5us connotes1 or !re w\ld be no?+ to prev5t x f d5ot+ individuals n includ$ 9 ! g5us4 ,& x mu/ connote some?+ besides1 o!rwise x w\ld include ! :ole g5us4 ,animal d5otes all ! individuals d5ot$ by man1 & _m m4 ,man1 !re=e1 mu/ connote all t animal connotes1 o!rwise !re might be m5 :o are n animals2 & x mu/ connote some?+ m ?an animal connotes1 o!rwise all animals w\ld be m54 ,?is surplus ( connotation--?is :i* ! species connotes ov] & above ! connotation ( ! g5us--is ! ,diff]5tia1 or specific diff]5ce2 or1 to /ate ! same proposition 9 o!r words1 ! ,diff]5tia is t :i* mu/ be add$ to ! connotation ( ! g5us1 to complete ! connotation ( ! species4 ,! ^w man1 = in/ance1 exclusively ( :at x connotes 9 common ) animal1 also connotes rationality1 & at lea/ "s approximation to t ext]nal =m :i* we all "k1 b :i* z we h no "n = x consid]$ 9 itself1 we are cont5t to call ! human4 ,! ,diff]5tia1 or specific diff]5ce1 !re=e1 ( man1 z ref]r$ to ! g5us animal1 is t outw>d =m & ! possession ( reason4 ,! ,ari/otelians said1 ! possession ( reason1 )\t ! outw>d =m4 ,b if !y adh]$ to ?is1 !y w\ld h be5 oblig$ to call ! ,h\yhnhnms m54 ,! "q nev] arose1 & !y 7 nev] call$ ^u to decide h[ su* a case w\ld h affect$ _! notion ( ess5tiality4 ,h[ev] ?is may be1 !y 7 satisfi$ ) tak+ su* a portion ( ! diff]5tia z suffic$ to di/+ui% ! species f all o!r exi/+ ?+s1 ?\gh by s do+ !y might n exhau/ ! connotation ( ! "n4 #f4 ,& "h1 to prev5t ! notion ( diff]5tia f be+ re/rict$ )9 too n>r[ limits1 x is necess>y to rem>k1 t a species1 ev5 z ref]r$ to ! same g5us1 w n always h ! same diff]5tia1 b a diff]5t "o1 accord+ to ! pr9ciple & purpose :i* preside ov] ! p>ticul> classification4 ,= example1 a naturali/ surveys ! v>i\s k9ds ( animals1 & looks out = ! classification ( !m mo/ 9 accordance ) ! ord] 9 :i*1 = zoological purposes1 he consid]s x desirable t we %\ld ?9k ( !m4 ,) ?is view he f9ds x advisable t "o ( 8 fundam5tal divisions %\ld be into w>m-blood$ & cold-blood$ animals2 or into animals :i* brea! ) lungs & ^? :i* brea! ) gills2 or into c>nivor\s1 & frugivor\s or gram9ivor\s2 or into ^? :i* walk on ! flat "p & ^? :i* walk on ! extremity ( ! foot1 a di/9ction on :i* two ( ,cuvi]'s families are f\nd$4 ,9 do+ ?is1 ! naturali/ creates z _m new classes2 :i* are by no means ^? to :i* ! individual animal is famili>ly & spontane\sly ref]r$2 nor %\ld we ev] ?9k ( assign+ to !m s prom95t a position 9 our arrangem5t ( ! animal k+dom1 unless = a preconceiv$ purpose ( sci5tific conv5i5ce4 ,& to ! lib]ty ( do+ ?is !re is no limit4 ,9 ! examples we h giv51 mo/ ( ! classes are real ,k9ds1 s9ce ea* ( ! peculi>ities is an index to a multitude ( prop]ties belong+ to ! class :i* x *>act]izes3 b ev5 if ! case 7 o!rwise--if ! o!r prop]ties ( ^? classes c\ld all be d]iv$1 by any process kn[n to u1 f ! "o peculi>ity on :i* ! class is f\nd$--ev5 !n1 if ^! d]ivative prop]ties 7 ( prim>y importance = ! purposes ( ! naturali/1 he w\ld be w>rant$ 9 f\nd+ 8 prim>y divisions on !m4 ,if1 h[ev]1 practical conv5i5ce is a suffici5t w>rant = mak+ ! ma9 dem>cations 9 our arrangem5t ( objects run 9 l9es n co9cid+ ) any di/9ction ( ,k9d1 & s creat+ g5]a & species 9 ! popul> s5se :i* are n g5]a or species 9 ! rigor\s s5se at all2 =tiori mu/ we be w>rant$1 :5 our g5]a & species are real g5]a & species1 9 m>k+ ! di/9ction betwe5 !m by ^? ( _! prop]ties :i* consid]ations ( practical conv5i5ce mo/ /rongly recomm5d4 ,if we cut a species out ( a giv5 g5us--! species man1 = in/ance1 out ( ! g5us animal--) an int5tion on our "p t ! peculi>ity by :i* we are to be guid$ 9 ! application ( ! "n man %\ld be rationality1 !n rationality is ! diff]5tia ( ! species man4 ,suppose1 h[ev]1 t be+ naturali/s1 we1 = ! purposes ( our p>ticul> /udy1 cut out ( ! g5us animal ! same species man1 b ) an int5tion t ! di/9ction betwe5 man & all o!r species ( animal %\ld be1 n rationality1 b ! possession ( 8f\r incisors 9 ea* jaw1 tusks solit>y1 & erect po/ure40 ,x is evid5t t ! ^w man1 :5 us$ by u z naturali/s1 no long] connotes rationality1 b connotes ! ?ree o!r prop]ties specifi$2 = t :i* we h expressly 9 view :5 we impose a "n1 assur$ly =ms "p ( ! mean+ ( t "n4 ,we may1 !re=e1 lay x d[n z a maxim1 t :]ev] !re is a ,g5us1 & a ,species m>k$ out f t g5us by an assignable diff]5tia1 ! "n ( ! species mu/ be connotative1 & mu/ connote ! diff]5tia2 b ! connotation may be special--n involv$ 9 ! signification ( ! t]m z ord9>ily us$1 b giv5 to x :5 employ$ z a t]m ( art or sci5ce4 ,! ^w ,man 9 common use1 connotes rationality & a c]ta9 =m1 b does n connote ! numb] or "* ( ! tee?2 9 ! ,l9nan sy/em x connotes ! numb] ( incisor & can9e tee?1 b does n connote rationality nor any p>ticul> =m4 ,! ^w man has1 !re=e1 two diff]5t mean+s2 ?\gh n commonly consid]$ z ambigu\s1 because x happ5s 9 bo? cases to denote ! same individual objects4 ,b a case is conceivable 9 :i* ! ambiguity w\ld become evid5t3 we h only to imag9e t "s new k9d ( animal 7 discov]$1 hav+ ,l9nu's ?ree *>act]i/ics ( humanity1 b n rational1 or n ( ! human =m4 ,9 ord9>y p>lance1 ^! animals w\ld n be call$ m52 b 9 natural hi/ory !y mu/ /ill be call$ s by ^?1 if any !re %\ld be1 :o adh]e to ! ,l9nan classification2 & ! "q w\ld arise1 :e!r ! ^w %\ld cont9ue to be us$ 9 two s5ses1 or ! classification be giv5 up1 & ! te*nical s5se ( ! t]m be ab&on$ along ) x4 ,words n o!rwise connotative may1 9 ! mode j adv]t$ to1 acquire a special or te*nical connotation4 ,?us ! ^w :it5ess1 z we h s (t5 rem>k$1 connotes no?+2 x m]ely d5otes ! attribute correspond+ to a c]ta9 s5sation3 b if we are mak+ a classification ( colors1 & desire to ju/ify1 or ev5 m]ely to po9t out1 ! p>ticul> place assign$ to :it5ess 9 our arrangem5t1 we may def9e x 8! color produc$ by ! mixture ( all ! simple rays20 & ?is fact1 ?\gh by no means impli$ 9 ! mean+ ( ! ^w :it5ess z ord9>ily us$1 b only kn[n by subsequ5t sci5tific inve/igation1 is "p ( its mean+ 9 ! p>ticul> essay or treatise1 & becomes ! diff]5tia ( ! species47#db7 ,! diff]5tia1 !re=e1 ( a species may be def9$ to be1 t "p ( ! connotation ( ! specific "n1 :e!r ord9>y or special & te*nical1 :i* di/+ui%es ! species 9 "q f all o!r species ( ! g5us to :i* on ! p>ticul> occasion we are ref]r+ x4 #g4 ,hav+ dispos$ ( ,g5us1 ,species1 & ,diff]5tia1 we %all n f9d mu* difficulty 9 atta9+ a cle> conception ( ! di/9ction betwe5 ! o!r two pr$icables1 z well z betwe5 !m & ! fir/ ?ree4 ,9 ! ,ari/otelian phraseology1 ,g5us & ,diff]5tia are ( ! ess5ce ( ! subject2 by :i*1 z we h se51 is really meant t ! prop]ties signifi$ by ! g5us & ^? signifi$ by ! diff]5tia1 =m "p ( ! connotation ( ! "n d5ot+ ! species4 ,proprium & ,accid5s1 on ! o!r h&1 =m no "p ( ! ess5ce1 b are pr$icat$ ( ! species only accid5tally4 ,bo? are ,accid5ts1 9 ! wid] s5se 9 :i* ! accid5ts ( a ?+ are oppos$ to its ess5ce2 ?\gh1 9 ! doctr9e ( ! ,pr$icables1 ,accid5s is us$ = "o sort ( accid5t only1 ,proprium be+ ano!r sort4 ,proprium1 cont9ue ! s*oolm51 is pr$icat$ accid5tally1 inde$1 b necess>ily2 or1 z !y fur!r expla9 x1 signifies an attribute :i* is n inde$ "p ( ! ess5ce1 b :i* fl[s f1 or is a consequ5ce (1 ! ess5ce1 & is1 !re=e1 insep>ably atta*$ to ! species2 e4g41 ! v>i\s prop]ties ( a triangle1 :i*1 ?\gh no "p ( its def9ition1 mu/ necess>ily be possess$ by :atev] comes "u t def9ition4 ,accid5s1 on ! contr>y1 has no connection :atev] ) ! ess5ce1 b may come & g1 & ! species /ill rema9 :at x 0 be=e4 ,if a species c\ld exi/ )\t its ,propria1 x mu/ be capable ( exi/+ )\t t on :i* its ,propria are necess>ily consequ5t1 & !re=e )\t its ess5ce1 )\t t :i* con/itutes x a species4 ,b an ,accid5s1 :e!r sep>able or insep>able f ! species 9 actual exp]i5ce1 may be suppos$ sep>at$1 )\t ! necessity ( suppos+ any o!r alt]ation2 or at lea/1 )\t suppos+ any ( ! ess5tial prop]ties ( ! species to be alt]$1 s9ce ) !m an ,accid5s has no connection4 ,a ,proprium1 !re=e1 ( ! species1 may be def9$1 any attribute :i* belongs to all ! individuals includ$ 9 ! species1 & :i*1 ?\gh n connot$ by ! specific "n 7ei!r ord9>ily if ! classification we are consid]+ be = ord9>y purposes1 or specially if x be = a special purpose71 yet foll[s f "s attribute :i* ! "n ei!r ord9>ily or specially connotes4 ,"o attribute may foll[ f ano!r 9 two ways2 & !re are consequ5tly two k9ds ( ,proprium4 ,x may foll[ z a conclusion foll[s premises1 or x may foll[ z an effect foll[s a cause4 ,?us1 ! attribute ( hav+ ! opposite sides equal1 :i* is n "o ( ^? connot$ by ! ^w ,p>allelogram1 nev]!less foll[s f ^? connot$ by x1 namely1 f hav+ ! opposite sides /raight l9es & p>allel1 & ! numb] ( sides f\r4 ,! attribute1 !re=e1 ( hav+ ! opposite sides equal1 is a ,proprium ( ! class p>allelogram2 & a ,proprium ( ! fir/ k9d1 :i* foll[s f ! connot$ attributes by way ( demon/ration4 ,! attribute ( be+ capable ( und]/&+ language1 is a ,proprium ( ! species man1 s9ce )\t be+ connot$ by ! ^w1 x foll[s f an attribute :i* ! ^w does connote1 viz41 f ! attribute ( rationality4 ,b ?is is a ,proprium ( ! second k9d1 :i* foll[s by way ( causation4 ,h[ x is t "o prop]ty ( a ?+ foll[s1 or c be inf]r$1 f ano!r2 "u :at conditions ?is is possible1 & :at is ! exact mean+ ( ! phrase2 are among ! que/ions :i* w occupy u 9 ! two succe$+ ,books4 ,at pres5t x ne$s only be said1 t :e!r a ,proprium foll[s by demon/ration or by causation1 x foll[s necess>ily2 t is to say1 its n foll[+ w\ld be inconsi/5t ) "s law :i* we reg>d z a "p ( ! con/itution ei!r ( our ?9k+ faculty or ( ! univ]se4 #h4 ,"u ! rema9+ pr$icable1 ,accid5s1 are includ$ all attributes ( a ?+ :i* are nei!r involv$ 9 ! signification ( ! "n 7:e!r ord9>ily or z a t]m ( art71 nor h1 s f> z we "k1 any necess>y connection ) attributes :i* are s involv$4 ,!y are commonly divid$ into ,sep>able & ,insep>able ,accid5ts4 ,insep>able accid5ts are ^? :i*--al?\gh we "k ( no connection betwe5 !m & ! attributes con/itutive ( ! species1 & al?\gh1 !re=e1 s f> z we are aw>e1 !y might be abs5t )\t mak+ ! "n inapplicable & ! species a diff]5t species--are yet nev] 9 fact kn[n to be abs5t4 ,a concise mode ( express+ ! same mean+ is1 t insep>able accid5ts are prop]ties :i* are univ]sal to ! species1 b n necess>y to x4 ,?us1 blackness is an attribute ( a cr[1 &1 z f> z we "k1 a univ]sal "o4 ,b if we 7 to discov] a race ( :ite birds1 9 o!r respects resembl+ cr[s1 we %\ld n say1 ,^! are n cr[s2 we %\ld say1 ,^! are :ite cr[s4 ,cr[1 !re=e1 does n connote blackness2 nor1 f any ( ! attributes :i* x does connote1 :e!r z a ^w 9 popul> use or z a t]m ( art1 c\ld blackness be inf]r$4 ,n only1 !re=e1 c we conceive a :ite cr[1 b we "k ( no reason :y su* an animal %\ld n exi/4 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 none b black cr[s are kn[n to exi/1 blackness1 9 ! pres5t /ate ( our k1 ranks z an accid5t1 b an insep>able accid5t1 ( ! species cr[4 ,sep>able ,accid5ts are ^? :i* are f\nd1 9 po9t ( fact1 to be sometimes abs5t f ! species2 :i* are n only n necess>y1 b n ev5 univ]sal4 ,!y are su* z d n belong to e individual ( ! species1 b only to "s individuals2 or if to all1 n at all times4 ,?us ! color ( a ,european is "o ( ! sep>able accid5ts ( ! species man1 because x is n an attribute ( all human creatures4 ,be+ born1 is also 7speak+ 9 ! logical s5se7 a sep>able accid5t ( ! species man1 because1 ?\gh an attribute ( all human be+s1 x is s only at "o p>ticul> "t4 ,a =tiori ^? attributes :i* are n con/ant ev5 9 ! same individual1 z1 to be 9 "o or 9 ano!r place1 to be hot or cold1 sitt+ or walk+1 mu/ be rank$ z sep>able accid5ts4 ,*apt] ,,viii4 ,( ,def9ition4 #a4 ,"o necess>y "p ( ! !ory ( ,names & ( ,propositions rema9s to be treat$ ( 9 ?is place3 ! !ory ( ,def9itions4 ,z be+ ! mo/ important ( ! class ( propositions :i* we h *>act]iz$ z purely v]bal1 !y h already receiv$ "s notice 9 ! *apt] prec$+ ! la/4 ,b _! full] treatm5t 0 at t "t po/pon$1 because def9ition is s closely connect$ ) classification1 t1 until ! nature ( ! latt] process is 9 "s measure und]/ood1 ! =m] c n be discuss$ to mu* purpose4 ,! simple/ & mo/ correct notion ( a ,def9ition is1 a proposition decl>atory ( ! mean+ ( a ^w2 namely1 ei!r ! mean+ :i* x be>s 9 common acceptation1 or t :i* ! speak] or writ]1 = ! p>ticul> purposes ( 8 disc\rse1 int5ds to annex to x4 ,! def9ition ( a ^w be+ ! proposition :i* enunciates its mean+1 words :i* h no mean+ are unsusceptible ( def9ition4 ,prop] names1 !re=e1 c n be def9$4 ,a prop] "n be+ a m]e m>k put ^u an individual1 & ( :i* x is ! *>act]i/ic prop]ty to be de/itute ( mean+1 its mean+ c n ( c\rse be decl>$2 ?\gh we may indicate by language1 z we might indicate /ill m conv5i5tly by po9t+ ) ! f+]1 ^u :at individual t p>ticul> m>k has be51 or is int5d$ to be1 put4 ,x is no def9ition ( 8,john ,?omson0 to say he is 8! son ( ,g5]al ,?omson20 = ! "n ,john ,?omson does n express ?is4 ,nei!r is x any def9ition ( 8,john ,?omson0 to say he is 8! man n[ cross+ ! /reet40 ,^! propositions may s]ve to make kn[n :o is ! p>ticul> man to :om ! "n belongs1 b t may be done /ill m unambigu\sly by po9t+ to him1 :i*1 h[ev]1 has n be5 e/eem$ "o ( ! modes ( def9ition4 ,9 ! case ( connotative names1 ! mean+1 z has be5 s (t5 obs]v$1 is ! connotation2 & ! def9ition ( a connotative "n1 is ! proposition :i* decl>es its connotation4 ,?is might be done ei!r directly or indirectly4 ,! direct mode w\ld be by a proposition 9 ?is =m3 8,man0 7or :atsoev] ! ^w may be7 8is a "n connot+ su* & su* attributes10 or 8is a "n :i*1 :5 pr$icat$ ( any ?+1 signifies ! possession ( su* & su* attributes by t ?+40 ,or ?us3 ,man is e ?+ :i* possesses su* & su* attributes3 ,man is e ?+ :i* possesses corporeity1 organization1 life1 rationality1 & c]ta9 peculi>ities ( ext]nal =m4 ,?is =m ( def9ition is ! mo/ precise & lea/ equivocal ( any2 b x is n brief en\gh1 & is besides too te*nical = common disc\rse4 ,! m usual mode ( decl>+ ! connotation ( a "n1 is to pr$icate ( x ano!r "n or names ( kn[n signification1 :i* connote ! same aggregation ( attributes4 ,?is may be done ei!r by pr$icat+ ( ! "n int5d$ to be def9$1 ano!r connotative "n exactly synonym\s1 z1 8,man is a human be+10 :i* is n commonly acc\nt$ a def9ition at all2 or by pr$icat+ two or m connotative names1 :i* make up among !m ! :ole connotation ( ! "n to be def9$4 ,9 ?is la/ case1 aga91 we may ei!r compose our def9ition ( z _m connotative names z !re are attributes1 ea* attribute be+ connot$ by "o1 z1 ,man is a corporeal1 organiz$1 animat$1 rational be+1 %ap$ s & s2 or we employ names :i* connote sev]al ( ! attributes at once1 z1 ,man is a rational animal1 %ap$ s & s4 ,! def9ition ( a "n1 accord+ to ?is view ( x1 is ! sum total ( all ! ess5tial propositions :i* c be fram$ ) t "n = _! subject4 ,all propositions ! tru? ( :i* is impli$ 9 ! "n1 all ^? :i* we are made aw>e ( by m]ely he>+ ! "n1 are includ$ 9 ! def9ition1 if complete1 & may be evolv$ f x )\t ! aid ( any o!r premises2 :e!r ! def9ition expresses !m 9 two or ?ree words1 or 9 a l>g] numb]4 ,x is1 !re=e1 n )\t reason t ,condillac & o!r writ]s h affirm$ a def9ition to be an analysis4 ,to resolve any complex :ole into ! elem5ts ( :i* x is comp\nd$1 is ! mean+ ( analysis3 & ?is we d :5 we replace "o ^w :i* connotes a set ( attributes collectively1 by two or m :i* connote ! same attributes s+ly1 or 9 small] gr\ps4 #b4 ,f ?is1 h[ev]1 ! "q naturally arises1 9 :at mann] are we to def9e a "n :i* connotes only a s+le attribute3 = in/ance1 8:ite10 :i* connotes no?+ b :it5ess2 8rational10 :i* connotes no?+ b ! possession ( reason4 ,x might seem t ! mean+ ( su* names c\ld only be decl>$ 9 two ways2 by a synonym\s t]m1 if any su* c be f\nd2 or 9 ! direct way already allud$ to3 8,:ite is a "n connot+ ! attribute :it5ess40 ,let u see1 h[ev]1 :e!r ! analysis ( ! mean+ ( ! "n1 t is1 ! break+ d[n ( t mean+ into sev]al p>ts1 admits ( be+ c>ri$ f>!r4 ,)\t at pres5t decid+ ?is "q z to ! ^w :ite1 x is obvi\s t 9 ! case ( rational "s fur!r explanation may be giv5 ( its mean+ ?an is conta9$ 9 ! proposition1 8,rational is t :i* possesses ! attribute ( reason20 s9ce ! attribute reason itself admits ( be+ def9$4 ,& "h we mu/ turn our att5tion to ! def9itions ( attributes1 or r ( ! names ( attributes1 t is1 ( ab/ract names4 ,9 reg>d to su* names ( attributes z are connotative1 & express attributes ( ^? attributes1 !re is no difficulty3 l o!r connotative names1 !y are def9$ by decl>+ _! connotation4 ,?us ! ^w fault may be def9$1 8a quality productive ( evil or inconv5i5ce40 ,sometimes1 aga91 ! attribute to be def9$ is n "o attribute1 b a union ( sev]al3 we h only1 !re=e1 to put toge!r ! names ( all ! attributes tak5 sep>ately1 & we obta9 ! def9ition ( ! "n :i* belongs to !m all tak5 toge!r2 a def9ition :i* w correspond exactly to t ( ! correspond+ concrete "n4 ,=1 z we def9e a concrete "n by enum]at+ ! attributes :i* x connotes1 & z ! attributes connot$ by a concrete "n =m ! entire signification ( ! correspond+ ab/ract "n1 ! same enum]ation w s]ve = ! def9ition ( bo?4 ,?us1 if ! def9ition ( a human be+ be ?is1 8a be+1 corporeal1 animat$1 rational1 %ap$ s & s10 ! def9ition ( humanity w be corporeity & animal life1 comb9$ ) rationality1 & ) su* & su* a %ape4 ,:51 on ! o!r h&1 ! ab/ract "n does n express a complication ( attributes1 b a s+le attribute1 we mu/ rememb] t e attribute is gr\nd$ on "s fact or ph5om5on1 f :i*1 & :i* alone1 x d]ives its mean+4 ,to t fact or ph5om5on1 call$ 9 a =m] *apt] ! f\ndation ( ! attribute1 we mu/1 !re=e1 h rec\rse = its def9ition4 ,n[1 ! f\ndation ( ! attribute may be a ph5om5on ( any degree ( complexity1 consi/+ ( _m diff]5t p>ts1 ei!r co-exi/5t or 9 succession4 ,to obta9 a def9ition ( ! attribute1 we mu/ analyze ! ph5om5on into ^! p>ts4 ,eloqu5ce1 = example1 is ! "n ( "o attribute only2 b ?is attribute is gr\nd$ on ext]nal effects ( a complicat$ nature1 fl[+ f acts ( ! p]son to :om we ascribe ! attribute2 & by resolv+ ?is ph5om5on ( causation into its two p>ts1 ! cause & ! effect1 we obta9 a def9ition ( eloqu5ce1 viz4 ! p[] ( influ5c+ ! feel+s by spee* or writ+4 ,a "n1 !re=e1 :e!r concrete or ab/ract1 admits ( def9ition1 provid$ we are able to analyze1 t is1 to di/+ui% into p>ts1 ! attribute or set ( attributes :i* con/itute ! mean+ bo? ( ! concrete "n & ( ! correspond+ ab/ract3 if a set ( attributes1 by enum]at+ !m2 if a s+le attribute1 by dissect+ ! fact or ph5om5on 7:e!r ( p]ception or ( int]nal consci\sness7 :i* is ! f\ndation ( ! attribute4 ,b1 fur!r1 ev5 :5 ! fact is "o ( our simple feel+s or /ates ( consci\sness1 & !re=e unsusceptible ( analysis1 ! names bo? ( ! object & ( ! attribute /ill admit ( def9ition2 or r1 w\ld d s if all our simple feel+s _h names4 ,:it5ess may be def9$1 ! prop]ty or p[] ( excit+ ! s5sation ( :ite4 ,a :ite object may be def9$1 an object :i* excites ! s5sation ( :ite4 ,! only names :i* are unsusceptible ( def9ition1 because _! mean+ is unsusceptible ( analysis1 are ! names ( ! simple feel+s !mselves4 ,^! are 9 ! same condition z prop] names4 ,!y are n inde$1 l prop] names1 unmean+2 = ! words s5sation ( :ite signify1 t ! s5sation :i* ,i s d5om9ate resembles o!r s5sations :i* ,i rememb] to h _h be=e1 & to h call$ by t "n4 ,b z we h no words by :i* to recall ^? =m] s5sations1 except ! v ^w :i* we seek to def9e1 or "s o!r :i*1 be+ exactly synonym\s ) x1 requires def9ition z mu*1 words c n unfold ! signification ( ?is class ( names2 & we are oblig$ to make a direct appeal to ! p]sonal exp]i5ce ( ! individual :om we address4 #c4 ,hav+ /at$ :at seems to be ! true idea ( a ,def9ition1 ,i proce$ to exam9e "s op9ions ( philosoph]s1 & "s popul> conceptions on ! subject1 :i* conflict m or less ) t idea4 ,! only adequate def9ition ( a "n is1 z already rem>k$1 "o :i* decl>es ! facts1 & ! :ole ( ! facts1 :i* ! "n involves 9 its signification4 ,b ) mo/ p]sons ! object ( a def9ition does n embrace s mu*2 !y look = no?+ m1 9 a def9ition1 ?an a guide to ! correct use ( ! t]m--a protection aga9/ apply+ x 9 a mann] inconsi/5t ) cu/om & conv5tion4 ,any ?+1 !re=e1 is to !m a suffici5t def9ition ( a t]m1 :i* w s]ve z a correct index to :at ! t]m denotes2 ?\gh n embrac+ ! :ole1 & sometimes1 p]haps1 n ev5 any "p1 ( :at x connotes4 ,?is gives rise to two sorts ( imp]fect1 or unsci5tific def9ition2 ,ess5tial b incomplete ,def9itions1 & ,accid5tal ,def9itions1 or ,descriptions4 ,9 ! =m]1 a connotative "n is def9$ by a "p only ( its connotation2 9 ! latt]1 by some?+ :i* =ms no "p ( ! connotation at all4 ,an example ( ! fir/ k9d ( imp]fect def9itions is ! foll[+3 ,man is a rational animal4 ,x is impossible to consid] ?is z a complete def9ition ( ! ^w ,man1 s9ce 7z be=e rem>k$7 if we adh]$ to x we %\ld be oblig$ to call ! ,h\yhnhnms m52 b z !re happ5 to be no ,h\yhnhnms1 ?is imp]fect def9ition is suffici5t to m>k out & di/+ui% f all o!r ?+s1 ! objects at pres5t d5ot$ by 8man20 all ! be+s actually kn[n to exi/1 ( :om ! "n is pr$icable4 ,?\gh ! ^w is def9$ by "s only among ! attributes :i* x connotes1 n by all1 x happ5s t all kn[n objects :i* possess ! enum]at$ attributes1 possess also ^? :i* are omitt$2 s t ! field ( pr$ication :i* ! ^w cov]s1 & ! employm5t ( x :i* is con=mable to usage1 are z well indicat$ by ! inadequate def9ition z by an adequate "o4 ,su* def9itions1 h[ev]1 are always liable to be ov]?r[n by ! discov]y ( new objects 9 nature4 ,def9itions ( ?is k9d are :at logicians h _h 9 view1 :5 !y laid d[n ! rule1 t ! def9ition ( a species %\ld be p] g5us et diff]5tiam4 ,diff]5tia be+ seldom tak5 to mean ! :ole ( ! peculi>ities con/itutive ( ! species1 b "s "o ( ^? peculi>ities only1 a complete def9ition w\ld be p] g5us et diff]5tias1 r ?an diff]5tiam4 ,x w\ld include1 ) ! "n ( ! sup]ior g5us1 n m]ely "s attribute :i* di/+ui%es ! species int5d$ to be def9$ f all o!r species ( ! same g5us1 b all ! attributes impli$ 9 ! "n ( ! species1 :i* ! "n ( ! sup]ior g5us has n already impli$4 ,! ass]tion1 h[ev]1 t a def9ition mu/ ( necessity consi/ ( a g5us & diff]5ti1 is n t5able4 ,x 0 e>ly rem>k$ by logicians1 t ! summum g5us 9 any classification1 hav+ no g5us sup]ior to itself1 c\ld n be def9$ 9 ?is mann]4 ,yet we h se5 t all names1 except ^? ( our elem5t>y feel+s1 are susceptible ( def9ition 9 ! /ricte/ s5se2 by sett+ =? 9 words ! con/itu5t p>ts ( ! fact or ph5om5on1 ( :i* ! connotation ( e ^w is ultimately compos$4 #d4 ,al?\gh ! fir/ k9d ( imp]fect def9ition 7:i* def9es a connotative t]m by a "p only ( :at x connotes1 b a "p suffici5t to m>k out correctly ! b\nd>ies ( its d5otation71 has be5 consid]$ by ! anci5ts1 & by logicians 9 g5]al1 z a complete def9ition2 x has always be5 deem$ necess>y t ! attributes employ$ %\ld really =m "p ( ! connotation2 = ! rule 0 t ! def9ition mu/ be drawn f ! ess5ce ( ! class2 & ?is w\ld n h be5 ! case if x _h be5 9 any degree made up ( attributes n connot$ by ! "n4 ,! second k9d ( imp]fect def9ition1 !re=e1 9 :i* ! "n ( a class is def9$ by any ( its accid5ts--t is1 by attributes :i* are n includ$ 9 its connotation--has be5 reject$ f ! rank ( g5u9e ,def9ition by all logicians1 & has be5 t]m$ ,description4 ,?is k9d ( imp]fect def9ition1 h[ev]1 takes its rise f ! same cause z ! o!r1 namely1 ! will+ness to accept z a def9ition any ?+ :i*1 :e!r x exp\nds ! mean+ ( ! "n or n1 enables u to discrim9ate ! ?+s d5ot$ by ! "n f all o!r ?+s1 & consequ5tly to employ ! t]m 9 pr$ication )\t deviat+ f e/abli%$ usage4 ,?is purpose is duly answ]$ by /at+ any 7no matt] :at7 ( ! attributes :i* are common to ! :ole ( ! class1 & peculi> to x2 or any comb9ation ( attributes :i* happ5s to be peculi> to x1 ?\gh sep>ately ea* ( ^? attributes may be common to x ) "s o!r ?+s4 ,x is only necess>y t ! def9ition 7or description7 ?us =m$1 %\ld be conv]tible ) ! "n :i* x pr(esses to def9e2 t is1 %\ld be exactly co-ext5sive ) x1 be+ pr$icable ( e ?+ ( :i* x is pr$icable1 & ( no?+ ( :i* x is n pr$icable2 ?\gh ! attributes specifi$ may h no connection ) ^? :i* mank9d _h 9 view :5 !y =m$ or recogniz$ ! class1 & gave x a "n4 ,! foll[+ are correct def9itions ( ,man1 accord+ to ?is te/3 ,man is a mammif]\s animal1 hav+ 7by nature7 two h&s 7= ! human species answ]s to ?is description1 & no o!r animal does73 ,man is an animal :o cooks 8 food3 ,man is a fea!rless bip$4 ,:at w\ld o!rwise be a m]e description1 may be rais$ to ! rank ( a real def9ition by ! peculi> purpose :i* ! speak] or writ] has 9 view4 ,z 0 se5 9 ! prec$+ *apt]1 x may1 = ! ends ( a p>ticul> art or sci5ce1 or = ! m conv5i5t /atem5t ( an au?or's p>ticul> doctr9es1 be advisable to give to "s g5]al "n1 )\t alt]+ its d5otation1 a special connotation1 diff]5t f its ord9>y "o4 ,:5 ?is is done1 a def9ition ( ! "n by means ( ! attributes :i* make up ! special connotation1 ?\gh 9 g5]al a m]e accid5tal def9ition or description1 becomes on ! p>ticul> occasion & = ! p>ticul> purpose a complete & g5u9e def9ition4 ,?is actually occurs ) respect to "o ( ! prec$+ examples1 8,man is a mammif]\s animal hav+ two h&s10 :i* is ! sci5tific def9ition ( man1 consid]$ z "o ( ! species 9 ,cuvi]'s di/ribution ( ! animal k+dom4 ,9 cases ( ?is sort1 ?\gh ! def9ition is /ill a decl>ation ( ! mean+ :i* 9 ! p>ticul> in/ance ! "n is appo9t$ to convey1 x c n be said t to /ate ! mean+ ( ! ^w is ! purpose ( ! def9ition4 ,! purpose is n to exp\nd a "n1 b a classification4 ,! special mean+ :i* ,cuvi] assign$ to ! ^w ,man 7q =eign to its ord9>y mean+1 ?\gh involv+ no *ange 9 ! d5otation ( ! ^w71 0 incid5tal to a plan ( arrang+ animals into classes on a c]ta9 pr9ciple1 t is1 accord+ to a c]ta9 set ( di/9ctions4 ,& s9ce ! def9ition ( ,man accord+ to ! ord9>y connotation ( ! ^w1 ?\gh x w\ld h answ]$ e o!r purpose ( a def9ition1 w\ld n h po9t$ out ! place :i* ! species ought to occupy 9 t p>ticul> classification2 he gave ! ^w a special connotation1 t he might be able to def9e x by ! k9d ( attributes on :i*1 = reasons ( sci5tific conv5i5ce1 he _h resolv$ to f\nd 8 division ( animat$ nature4 ,sci5tific def9itions1 :e!r !y are def9itions ( sci5tific t]ms1 or ( common t]ms us$ 9 a sci5tific s5se1 are almo/ always ( ! k9d la/ spok5 (3 _! ma9 purpose is to s]ve z ! l&m>ks ( sci5tific classification4 ,& s9ce ! classifications 9 any sci5ce are cont9ually modifi$ z sci5tific k advances1 ! def9itions 9 ! sci5ces are also con/antly v>y+4 ,a /rik+ in/ance is af=d$ by ! words ,acid & ,alkali1 especially ! =m]4 ,z exp]im5tal discov]y advanc$1 ! sub/ances class$ ) acids h be5 con/antly multiply+1 & by a natural consequ5ce ! attributes connot$ by ! ^w h rec$$ & become few]4 ,at fir/ x connot$ ! attributes1 ( comb9+ ) an alkali to =m a neutral sub/ance 7call$ a salt72 be+ comp\nd$ ( a base & oxyg52 cau/icity to ! ta/e & t\*2 fluidity1 etc4 ,! true analysis ( muriatic acid1 into *lor9e & hydrog51 caus$ ! second prop]ty1 composition f a base & oxyg51 to be exclud$ f ! connotation4 ,! same discov]y fix$ ! att5tion ( *emi/s ^u hydrog5 z an important elem5t 9 acids2 & m rec5t discov]ies hav+ l$ to ! recognition ( its pres5ce 9 sulphuric1 nitric1 & _m o!r acids1 :]e its exi/5ce 0 n previ\sly suspect$1 !re is n[ a t5d5cy to include ! pres5ce ( ?is elem5t 9 ! connotation ( ! ^w4 ,b c>bonic acid1 silica1 sulphur\s acid1 h no hydrog5 9 _! composition2 t prop]ty c n1 !re=e1 be connot$ by ! t]m1 unless ^? sub/ances are no long] to be consid]$ acids4 ,cau/icity & fluidity h long s9ce be5 exclud$ f ! *>act]i/ics ( ! class1 by ! inclusion ( silica & _m o!r sub/ances 9 x2 & ! =mation ( neutral bodies by comb9ation ) alkalis1 toge!r ) su* electro-*emical peculi>ities z ?is is suppos$ to imply1 are n[ ! only diff]5ti :i* =m ! fix$ connotation ( ! ^w ,acid1 z a t]m ( *emical sci5ce4 ,:at is true ( ! def9ition ( any t]m ( sci5ce1 is ( c\rse true ( ! def9ition ( a sci5ce itself2 & accord+ly 7z obs]v$ 9 ! ,introductory ,*apt] ( ?is "w71 ! def9ition ( a sci5ce mu/ necess>ily be progressive & provisional4 ,any ext5sion ( k or alt]ation 9 ! curr5t op9ions respect+ ! subject-matt]1 may lead to a *ange m or less ext5sive 9 ! p>ticul>s includ$ 9 ! sci5ce2 & its composition be+ ?us alt]$1 x may easily happ5 t a diff]5t set ( *>act]i/ics w be f\nd bett] adapt$ z diff]5ti = def9+ its "n4 ,9 ! same mann] 9 :i* a special or te*nical def9ition has = its object to exp\nd ! artificial classification out ( :i* x gr[s2 ! ,ari/otelian logicians seem to h imag9$ t x 0 also ! bus9ess ( ord9>y def9ition to exp\nd ! ord9>y1 & :at !y deem$ ! natural1 classification ( ?+s1 namely1 ! division ( !m into ,k9ds2 & to %[ ! place :i* ea* ,k9d occupies1 z sup]ior1 collat]al1 or subord9ate1 among o!r ,k9ds4 ,?is notion w\ld acc\nt = ! rule t all def9ition mu/ necess>ily be p] g5us et diff]5tiam1 & w\ld also expla9 :y a s+le diff]5tia 0 deem$ suffici5t4 ,b to exp\nd1 or express 9 words1 a di/9ction ( ,k9d1 has already be5 %[n to be an impossibility3 ! v mean+ ( a ,k9d is1 t ! prop]ties :i* di/+ui% x d n gr[ out ( "o ano!r1 & c n !re=e be set =? 9 words1 ev5 by implication1 o!rwise ?an by enum]at+ !m all3 & all are n kn[n1 nor are ev] likely to be s4 ,x is idle1 !re=e1 to look to ?is z "o ( ! purposes ( a def9ition3 :ile1 if x be only requir$ t ! def9ition ( a ,k9d %\ld indicate :at k9ds include x or are includ$ by x1 any def9itions :i* exp\nd ! connotation ( ! names w d ?is3 = ! "n ( ea* class mu/ necess>ily connote en\gh ( its prop]ties to fix ! b\nd>ies ( ! class4 ,if ! def9ition1 !re=e1 be a full /atem5t ( ! connotation1 x is all t a def9ition c be requir$ to be47#dc7 #e4 ,( ! two incomplete & popul> modes ( def9ition1 & 9 :at !y diff] f ! complete or philosophical mode1 en\gh has n[ be5 said4 ,we %all next exam9e an anci5t doctr9e1 once g5]ally preval5t & /ill by no means explod$1 :i* ,i reg>d z ! s\rce ( a great "p ( ! obscurity hang+ ov] "s ( ! mo/ important processes ( ! und]/&+ 9 ! pursuit ( tru?4 ,accord+ to ?is1 ! def9itions ( :i* we h n[ treat$ are only "o ( two sorts into :i* def9itions may be divid$1 viz41 def9itions ( names1 & def9itions ( ?+s4 ,! =m] are int5d$ to expla9 ! mean+ ( a t]m2 ! latt]1 ! nature ( a ?+2 ! la/ be+ incomp>ably ! mo/ important4 ,?is op9ion 0 held by ! anci5t philosoph]s1 & by _! foll[]s1 ) ! exception ( ! ,nom9ali/s2 b z ! _s ( mod]n metaphysics1 until a rec5t p]iod1 has be5 on ! :ole a ,nom9ali/ _s1 ! notion ( def9itions ( ?+s has be5 to a c]ta9 ext5t 9 abeyance1 /ill cont9u+1 h[ev]1 to bre$ confusion 9 logic1 by its consequ5ces inde$ r ?an by itself4 ,yet ! doctr9e 9 its own prop] =m n[ & !n breaks out1 & has appe>$ 7among o!r places7 :]e x 0 sc>cely to be expect$1 9 a ju/ly admir$ ^w1 ,ar*bi%op ,:ately's ,logic47#dd7 ,9 a review ( t "w publi%$ by me 9 ! ,we/m9/] ,review = ,janu>y1 #ahbh1 & conta9+ "s op9ions :i* ,i no long] ent]ta91 ,i f9d ! foll[+ obs]vations on ! "q n[ be=e u2 obs]vations ) :i* my pres5t view ( t "q is /ill suffici5tly 9 accordance4 8,! di/9ction betwe5 nom9al & real def9itions1 betwe5 def9itions ( words & :at are call$ def9itions ( ?+s1 ?\gh con=mable to ! ideas ( mo/ ( ! ,ari/otelian logicians1 c n1 z x appe>s to u1 be ma9ta9$4 ,we appreh5d t no def9ition is ev] int5d$ to #8expla9 & unfold ! nature ( a ?+4' ,x is "s confirmation ( our op9ion1 t none ( ^? writ]s :o h ?\ght t !re 7 def9itions ( ?+s1 h ev] succe$$ 9 discov]+ any crit]ion by :i* ! def9ition ( a ?+ c be di/+ui%$ f any o!r proposition relat+ to ! ?+4 ,! def9ition1 !y say1 unfolds ! nature ( ! ?+3 b no def9ition c unfold its :ole nature2 & e proposition 9 :i* any quality :atev] is pr$icat$ ( ! ?+1 unfolds "s "p ( its nature4 ,! true /ate ( ! case we take to be ?is4 ,all def9itions are ( names1 & ( names only2 b1 9 "s def9itions1 x is cle>ly app>5t1 t no?+ is int5d$ except to expla9 ! mean+ ( ! ^w2 :ile 9 o!rs1 besides expla9+ ! mean+ ( ! ^w1 x is int5d$ to be impli$ t !re exi/s a ?+1 correspond+ to ! ^w4 ,:e!r ?is be or be n impli$ 9 any giv5 case1 c n be collect$ f ! m]e =m ( ! expression4 #8,a c5taur is an animal ) ! upp] p>ts ( a man & ! l[] p>ts ( a horse1' & #8,a triangle is a rectil9eal figure ) ?ree sides1' are1 9 =m1 expressions precisely simil>2 al?\gh 9 ! =m] x is n impli$ t any ?+1 con=mable to ! t]m1 really exi/s1 :ile 9 ! latt] x is2 z may be se5 by sub/itut+ 9 bo? def9itions1 ! ^w means = is4 ,9 ! fir/ expression1 #8,a c5taur means an animal1' etc41 ! s5se w\ld rema9 un*ang$3 9 ! second1 #8,a triangle means1' etc41 ! mean+ w\ld be alt]$1 s9ce x w\ld be obvi\sly impossible to d$uce any ( ! tru?s ( geometry f a proposition expressive only ( ! mann] 9 :i* we int5d to employ a p>ticul> sign4 8,!re are1 !re=e1 expressions1 commonly pass+ = def9itions1 :i* include 9 !mselves m ?an ! m]e explanation ( ! mean+ ( a t]m4 ,b x is n correct to call an expression ( ?is sort a peculi> k9d ( def9ition4 ,its diff]5ce f ! o!r k9d consi/s 9 ?is1 t x is n a def9ition1 b a def9ition & some?+ m4 ,! def9ition above giv5 ( a triangle1 obvi\sly comprises n "o1 b two propositions1 p]fectly di/+ui%able4 ,! "o is1 #8,!re may exi/ a figure1 b\nd$ by ?ree /raight l9es2' ! o!r1 #8,& ?is figure may be t]m$ a triangle4' ,! =m] ( ^! propositions is n a def9ition at all3 ! latt] is a m]e nom9al def9ition1 or explanation ( ! use & application ( a t]m4 ,! fir/ is susceptible ( tru? or falsehood1 & may !re=e be made ! f\ndation ( a tra9 ( reason+4 ,! latt] c nei!r be true nor false2 ! only "* x is susceptible ( is t ( con=mity or discon=mity to ! ord9>y usage ( language40 ,!re is a real di/9ction1 !n1 betwe5 def9itions ( names1 & :at are errone\sly call$ def9itions ( ?+s2 b x is1 t ! latt]1 along ) ! mean+ ( a "n1 cov]tly ass]ts a matt] ( fact4 ,?is cov]t ass]tion is n a def9ition1 b a po/ulate4 ,! def9ition is a m]e id5tical proposition1 :i* gives in=mation only ab\t ! use ( language1 & f :i* no conclusions affect+ matt]s ( fact c possibly be drawn4 ,! accompany+ po/ulate1 on ! o!r h&1 affirms a fact1 :i* may lead to consequ5ces ( e degree ( importance4 ,x affirms ! actual or possible exi/5ce ( ,?+s possess+ ! comb9ation ( attributes set =? 9 ! def9ition2 & ?is1 if true1 may be f\ndation suffici5t on :i* to build a :ole fabric ( sci5tific tru?4 ,we h already made1 & %all (t5 h to repeat1 ! rem>k1 t ! philosoph]s :o ov]?rew ,realism by no means got rid ( ! consequ5ces ( ,realism1 b reta9$ long aft]w>d1 9 _! own philosophy1 num]\s propositions :i* c\ld only h a rational mean+ z "p ( a ,reali/ic sy/em4 ,x _h be5 h&$ d[n f ,ari/otle1 & probably f e>li] times1 z an obvi\s tru?1 t ! sci5ce ( ,geometry is d$uc$ f def9itions4 ,?is1 s long z a def9ition 0 consid]$ to be a proposition 8unfold+ ! nature ( ! ?+10 did well en\gh4 ,b ,hobbes foll[$1 & reject$ utt]ly ! notion t a def9ition decl>es ! nature ( ! ?+1 or does any ?+ b /ate ! mean+ ( a "n2 yet he cont9u$ to affirm z broadly z any ( 8 pr$ecessors1 t ! 1 pr9cipia1 or orig9al premises ( ma!matics1 & ev5 ( all sci5ce1 are def9itions2 produc+ ! s+ul> p>adox1 t sy/ems ( sci5tific tru?1 nay1 all tru?s :atev] at :i* we arrive by reason+1 are d$uc$ f ! arbitr>y conv5tions ( mank9d conc]n+ ! signification ( words4 ,to save ! cr$it ( ! doctr9e t def9itions are ! premises ( sci5tific k1 ! proviso is sometimes add$1 t !y are s only "u a c]ta9 condition1 namely1 t !y be fram$ con=mably to ! ph5om5a ( nature2 t is1 t !y ascribe su* mean+s to t]ms z %all suit objects actually exi/+4 ,b ?is is only an in/ance ( ! attempt s (t5 made1 to escape f ! necessity ( ab&on+ old language aft] ! ideas :i* x expresses h be5 ex*ang$ = contr>y ones4 ,f ! mean+ ( a "n 7we are told7 x is possible to inf] physical facts1 provid$ ! "n has correspond+ to x an exi/+ ?+4 ,b if ?is proviso be necess>y1 f :i* ( ! two is ! inf]5ce really drawn8 ,f ! exi/5ce ( a ?+ hav+ ! prop]ties1 or f ! exi/5ce ( a "n mean+ !m8 ,take1 = in/ance1 any ( ! def9itions laid d[n z premises 9 ,euclid's ,elem5ts2 ! def9ition1 let u say1 ( a circle4 ,?is1 be+ analyz$1 consi/s ( two propositions2 ! "o an assumption ) respect to a matt] ( fact1 ! o!r a g5u9e def9ition4 8,a figure may exi/1 hav+ all ! po9ts 9 ! l9e :i* b\nds x equally di/ant f a s+le po9t )9 x30 8,any figure possess+ ?is prop]ty is call$ a circle40 ,let u look at "o ( ! demon/rations :i* are said to dep5d on ?is def9ition1 & obs]ve to :i* ( ! two propositions conta9$ 9 x ! demon/ration really appeals4 8,ab\t ! c5tre ,a1 describe ! circle ,b ,c ,d40 ,"h is an assumption t a figure1 su* z ! def9ition expresses1 may be describ$2 :i* is no o!r ?an ! po/ulate1 or cov]t assumption1 involv$ 9 ! s-call$ def9ition4 ,b :e!r t figure be call$ a circle or n is q immat]ial4 ,! purpose w\ld be z well answ]$1 9 all respects except brevity1 7 we to say1 8,?r\gh ! po9t ,b1 draw a l9e return+ into itself1 ( :i* e po9t %all be at an equal di/ance f ! po9t ,a40 ,by ?is ! def9ition ( a circle w\ld be got rid (1 & r5d]$ ne$less2 b n ! po/ulate impli$ 9 x2 )\t t ! demon/ration c\ld n /&4 ,! circle be+ n[ describ$1 let u proce$ to ! consequ5ce4 8,s9ce ,b ,c ,d is a circle1 ! radius ,b ,a is equal to ! radius ,c ,a40 ,b ,a is equal to ,c ,a1 n because ,b ,c ,d is a circle1 b because ,b ,c ,d is a figure ) ! radii equal4 ,our w>rant = assum+ t su* a figure ab\t ! c5tre ,a1 ) ! radius ,b ,a1 may be made to exi/1 is ! po/ulate4 ,:e!r ! admissibility ( ^! po/ulates re/s on intuition1 or on pro(1 may be a matt] ( dispute2 b 9 ei!r case !y are ! premises on :i* ! !orems dep5d2 & :ile ^! are reta9$ x w\ld make no diff]5ce 9 ! c]ta9ty ( geometrical tru?s1 ?\gh e def9ition 9 ,euclid1 & e te*nical t]m !re9 def9$1 7 laid aside4 ,x is1 p]haps1 sup]flu\s to dwell at s mu* l5g? on :at is s ne>ly self-evid5t2 b :5 a di/9ction1 obvi\s z x may appe>1 has be5 conf\nd$1 & by p[]ful intellects1 x is bett] to say too mu* ?an too little = ! purpose ( r5d]+ su* mi/akes impossible 9 future4 ,i w1 !re=e deta9 ! read] :ile ,i po9t out "o ( ! absurd consequ5ces fl[+ f ! supposition t def9itions1 z su*1 are ! premises 9 any ( our reason+s1 except su* z relate to words only4 ,if ?is supposition 7 true1 we might argue correctly f true premises1 & arrive at a false conclusion4 ,we %\ld only h to assume z a premise ! def9ition ( a non5tity2 or r ( a "n :i* has no entity correspond+ to x4 ,let ?is1 = in/ance1 be our def9ition3 ,a dragon is a s]p5t brea?+ flame4 ,?is proposition1 consid]$ only z a def9ition1 is indisputably correct4 ,a dragon is a s]p5t brea?+ flame3 ! ^w means t4 ,! tacit assumption1 inde$ 7if !re 7 any su* und]/ood ass]tion71 ( ! exi/5ce ( an object ) prop]ties correspond+ to ! def9ition1 w\ld1 9 ! pres5t in/ance1 be false4 ,out ( ?is def9ition we may c>ve ! premises ( ! foll[+ syllogism3 ,a dragon is a ?+ :i* brea!s flame3 ,a dragon is a s]p5t3 ,f :i* ! conclusion is1 ,!re=e "s s]p5t or s]p5ts brea! flame3 an unexceptionable syllogism 9 ! fir/ mode ( ! ?ird figure1 9 :i* bo? premises are true & yet ! conclusion false2 :i* e logician kn[s to be an absurdity4 ,! conclusion be+ false & ! syllogism correct1 ! premises c n be true4 ,b ! premises1 consid]$ z p>ts ( a def9ition1 are true4 ,!re=e1 ! premises consid]$ z p>ts ( a def9ition c n be ! real ones4 ,! real premises mu/ be-- ,a dragon is a really exi/+ ?+ :i* brea!s flame3 ,a dragon is a really exi/+ s]p5t3 :i* impli$ premises be+ false1 ! falsity ( ! conclusion pres5ts no absurdity4 ,if we w\ld det]m9e :at conclusion foll[s f ! same o/5sible premises :5 ! tacit assumption ( real exi/5ce is left out1 let u1 accord+ to ! recomm5dation 9 a previ\s page1 sub/itute means = is4 ,we !n h-- ,dragon is a ^w mean+ a ?+ :i* brea!s flame3 ,dragon is a ^w mean+ a s]p5t3 ,f :i* ! conclusion is1 ,"s ^w or words :i* mean a s]p5t1 also mean a ?+ :i* brea!s flame3 :]e ! conclusion 7z well z ! premises7 is true1 & is ! only k9d ( conclusion :i* c ev] foll[ f a def9ition1 namely1 a proposition relat+ to ! mean+ ( words4 ,!re is /ill ano!r %ape into :i* we may trans=m ?is syllogism4 ,we may suppose ! middle t]m to be ! designation nei!r ( a ?+ nor ( a "n1 b ( an idea4 ,we !n h-- ,! idea ( a dragon is an idea ( a ?+ :i* brea!s flame3 ,! idea ( a dragon is an idea ( a s]p5t3 ,!re=e1 !re is an idea ( a s]p5t1 :i* is an idea ( a ?+ brea?+ flame4 ,"h ! conclusion is true1 & also ! premises2 b ! premises are n def9itions4 ,!y are propositions affirm+ t an idea exi/+ 9 ! m9d1 includes c]ta9 ideal elem5ts4 ,! tru? ( ! conclusion foll[s f ! exi/5ce ( ! psy*ological ph5om5on call$ ! idea ( a dragon2 & !re=e /ill f ! tacit assumption ( a matt] ( fact47#de7 ,:51 z 9 ?is la/ syllogism1 ! conclusion is a proposition respect+ an idea1 ! assumption on :i* x dep5ds may be m]ely t ( ! exi/5ce ( an idea4 ,b :5 ! conclusion is a proposition conc]n+ a ,?+1 ! po/ulate involv$ 9 ! def9ition :i* /&s z ! app>5t premise1 is ! exi/5ce ( a ?+ con=mable to ! def9ition1 & n m]ely ( an idea con=mable to x4 ,?is assumption ( real exi/5ce we always convey ! impression t we int5d to make1 :5 we pr(ess to def9e any "n :i* is already kn[n to be a "n ( really exi/+ objects4 ,on ?is acc\nt x is1 t ! assumption 0 n necess>ily impli$ 9 ! def9ition ( a dragon1 :ile !re 0 no d\bt ( its be+ includ$ 9 ! def9ition ( a circle4 #f4 ,"o ( ! circum/ances :i* h contribut$ to keep up ! notion1 t demon/rative tru?s foll[ f def9itions r ?an f ! po/ulates impli$ 9 ^? def9itions1 is1 t ! po/ulates1 ev5 9 ^? sci5ces :i* are consid]$ to surpass all o!rs 9 demon/rative c]ta9ty1 are n always exactly true4 ,x is n true t a circle exi/s1 or c be describ$1 :i* has all its radii exactly equal4 ,su* accuracy is ideal only2 x is n f\nd 9 nature1 /ill less c x be realiz$ by art4 ,p _h a difficulty1 !re=e1 9 conceiv+ t ! mo/ c]ta9 ( all conclusions c\ld re/ on premises :i*1 in/ead ( be+ c]ta9ly true1 are c]ta9ly n true to ! full ext5t ass]t$4 ,?is app>5t p>adox w be exam9$ :5 we come to treat ( ,demon/ration2 :]e we %all be able to %[ t z mu* ( ! po/ulate is true1 z is requir$ to support z mu* z is true ( ! conclusion4 ,philosoph]s1 h[ev]1 to :om ?is view _h n occurr$1 or :om x did n satisfy1 h ?\ght x indisp5sable t !re %\ld be f\nd 9 def9itions some?+ m c]ta91 or at lea/ m accurately true1 ?an ! impli$ po/ulate ( ! real exi/5ce ( a correspond+ object4 ,& ?is some?+ !y flatt]$ !mselves !y _h f\nd1 :5 !y laid x d[n t a def9ition is a /atem5t & analysis n ( ! m]e mean+ ( a ^w1 nor yet ( ! nature ( a ?+1 b ( an idea4 ,?us1 ! proposition1 8,a circle is a plane figure b\nd$ by a l9e all ! po9ts ( :i* are at an equal di/ance f a giv5 po9t )9 x10 0 consid]$ by !m1 n z an ass]tion t any real circle has t prop]ty 7:i* w\ld n be exactly true71 b t we conceive a circle z hav+ x2 t our ab/ract idea ( a circle is an idea ( a figure ) its radii exactly equal4 ,con=mably to ?is x is said1 t ! subject-matt] ( ma!matics1 & ( e o!r demon/rative sci5ce1 is n ?+s z !y really exi/1 b ab/ractions ( ! m9d4 ,a geometrical l9e is a l9e )\t bread?2 b no su* l9e exi/s 9 nature2 x is a notion m]ely sugge/$ to ! m9d by its exp]i5ce ( nature4 ,! def9ition 7x is said7 is a def9ition ( ?is m5tal l9e1 n ( any actual l9e3 & x is only ( ! m5tal l9e1 n ( any l9e exi/+ 9 nature1 t ! !orems ( geometry are accurately true4 ,all[+ ?is doctr9e respect+ ! nature ( demon/rative tru? to be correct 7:i*1 9 a subsequ5t place1 ,i %all endeavor to prove t x is n72 ev5 on t supposition1 ! conclusions :i* seem to foll[ f a def9ition1 d n foll[ f ! def9ition z su*1 b f an impli$ po/ulate4 ,ev5 if x be true t !re is no object 9 nature answ]+ to ! def9ition ( a l9e1 & t ! geometrical prop]ties ( l9es are n true ( any l9es 9 nature1 b only ( ! idea ( a l9e2 ! def9ition1 at all ev5ts1 po/ulates ! real exi/5ce ( su* an idea3 x assumes t ! m9d c frame1 or r has fram$1 ! notion ( l5g? )\t bread?1 & )\t any o!r s5sible prop]ty :atev]4 ,to me1 inde$1 x appe>s t ! m9d c n =m any su* notion2 x c n conceive l5g? )\t bread?2 x c only1 9 contemplat+ objects1 att5d to _! l5g?1 exclusively ( _! o!r s5sible qualities1 & s det]m9e :at prop]ties may be pr$icat$ ( !m 9 virtue ( _! l5g? alone4 ,if ?is be true1 ! po/ulate involv$ 9 ! geometrical def9ition ( a l9e1 is ! real exi/5ce1 n ( l5g? )\t bread?1 b m]ely ( l5g?1 t is1 ( long objects4 ,?is is q en\gh to support all ! tru?s ( geometry1 s9ce e prop]ty ( a geometrical l9e is really a prop]ty ( all physical objects 9 s f> z possess+ l5g?4 ,b ev5 :at ,i hold to be ! false doctr9e on ! subject1 leaves ! conclusion t our reason+s are gr\nd$ on ! matt]s ( fact po/ulat$ 9 def9itions1 & n on ! def9itions !mselves1 entirely unaffect$2 & accord+ly ?is conclusion is "o :i* ,i h 9 common ) ,dr4 ,:ewell1 9 8 ,philosophy ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces3 ?\gh1 on ! nature ( demon/rative tru?1 ,dr4 ,:ewell's op9ions are greatly at v>iance ) m9e4 ,& "h1 z 9 _m o!r in/ances1 ,i gladly ackn[l$ge t 8 writ+s are em95tly s]viceable 9 cle>+ f confusion ! initial /eps 9 ! analysis ( ! m5tal processes1 ev5 :]e 8 views respect+ ! ultimate analysis are su* z 7?\gh ) unfeign$ respect7 ,i c n b reg>d z fundam5tally errone\s4 #g4 ,al?\gh1 accord+ to ! op9ion "h pres5t$1 ,def9itions are prop]ly ( names only1 & n ( ?+s1 x does n foll[ f ?is t def9itions are arbitr>y4 ,h[ to def9e a "n1 may n only be an inquiry ( consid]able difficulty & intricacy1 b may involve consid]ations go+ deep into ! nature ( ! ?+s :i* are d5ot$ by ! "n4 ,su*1 = in/ance1 are ! inquiries :i* =m ! subjects ( ! mo/ important ( ,plato's ,dialogues2 z1 8,:at is rhetoric80 ! topic ( ! ,gorgias1 or1 8,:at is ju/ice80 t ( ! ,republic4 ,su*1 also1 is ! "q scornfully ask$ by ,pilate1 8,:at is tru?80 & ! fundam5tal "q ) speculative morali/s 9 all ages1 8,:at is virtue80 ,x w\ld be a mi/ake to repres5t ^! difficult & noble inquiries z hav+ no?+ 9 view beyond asc]ta9+ ! conv5tional mean+ ( a "n4 ,!y are inquiries n s mu* to det]m9e :at is1 z :at %\ld be1 ! mean+ ( a "n2 :i*1 l o!r practical que/ions ( t]m9ology1 requires = its solution t we %\ld ent]1 & sometimes ent] v deeply1 into ! prop]ties n m]ely ( names b ( ! ?+s nam$4 ,al?\gh ! mean+ ( e concrete g5]al "n resides 9 ! attributes :i* x connotes1 ! objects 7 nam$ be=e ! attributes2 z appe>s f ! fact t 9 all languages1 ab/ract names are mo/ly comp\nds or o!r d]ivatives ( ! concrete names :i* correspond to !m4 ,connotative names1 !re=e1 71 aft] prop] names1 ! fir/ :i* 7 us$3 & 9 ! simpl] cases1 no d\bt1 a di/9ct connotation 0 pres5t to ! m9ds ( ^? :o fir/ us$ ! "n1 & 0 di/9ctly int5d$ by !m to be convey$ by x4 ,! fir/ p]son :o us$ ! ^w :ite1 z appli$ to sn[ or to any o!r object1 knew1 no d\bt1 v well :at quality he int5d$ to pr$icate1 & _h a p]fectly di/9ct conception 9 8 m9d ( ! attribute signifi$ by ! "n4 ,b :]e ! resemblances & diff]5ces on :i* our classifications are f\nd$ are n ( ?is palpable & easily det]m9able k9d2 especially :]e !y consi/ n 9 any "o quality b 9 a numb] ( qualities1 ! effects ( :i*1 be+ bl5d$ toge!r1 are n v easily discrim9at$1 & ref]r$ ea* to its true s\rce2 x (t5 happ5s t names are appli$ to namable objects1 ) no di/9ct connotation pres5t to ! m9ds ( ^? :o apply !m4 ,!y are only influ5c$ by a g5]al resemblance betwe5 ! new object & all or "s ( ! old famili> objects :i* !y h be5 accu/om$ to call by t "n4 ,?is1 z we h se51 is ! law :i* ev5 ! m9d ( ! philosoph] mu/ foll[1 9 giv+ names to ! simple elem5t>y feel+s ( our nature3 b1 :]e ! ?+s to be nam$ are complex :oles1 a philosoph] is n cont5t ) notic+ a g5]al resemblance2 he exam9es :at ! resemblance consi/s 93 & he only gives ! same "n to ?+s :i* resemble "o ano!r 9 ! same def9ite p>ticul>s4 ,! philosoph]1 !re=e1 habitually employs 8 g5]al names ) a def9ite connotation4 ,b language 0 n made1 & c only 9 "s small degree be m5d$1 by philosoph]s4 ,9 ! m9ds ( ! real arbit]s ( language1 g5]al names1 especially :]e ! classes !y d5ote c n be br\ght be=e ! tribunal ( ! outw>d s5ses to be id5tifi$ & discrim9at$1 connote little m ?an a vague gross resemblance to ! ?+s :i* !y 7 e>lie/1 or h be5 mo/1 accu/om$ to call by ^? names4 ,:51 = in/ance1 ord9>y p]sons pr$icate ! words j or unju/ ( any action1 noble or mean ( any s5tim5t1 expression1 or demeanor1 /atesman or *>latan ( any p]sonage figur+ 9 politics1 d !y mean to affirm ( ^? v>i\s subjects any det]m9ate attributes1 ( :atev] k9d8 ,no3 !y m]ely recognize1 z !y ?9k1 "s lik5ess1 m or less vague & loose1 betwe5 ^! & "s o!r ?+s :i* !y h be5 accu/om$ to d5om9ate or to he> d5om9at$ by ^? appellations4 ,language1 z ,sir ,james ,mack9to% us$ to say ( gov]nm5ts1 8is n made1 b gr[s40 ,a "n is n impos$ at once & by previ\s purpose ^u a class ( objects1 b is fir/ appli$ to "o ?+1 & !n ext5d$ by a s]ies ( transitions to ano!r & ano!r4 ,by ?is process 7z has be5 rem>k$ by sev]al writ]s1 & illu/rat$ ) great =ce & cle>ness by ,dugald ,/ew>t 9 8 ,philosophical ,essays7 a "n n unfrequ5tly passes by successive l9ks ( resemblance f "o object to ano!r1 until x becomes appli$ to ?+s hav+ no?+ 9 common ) ! fir/ ?+s to :i* ! "n 0 giv52 :i*1 h[ev]1 d n1 = t reason1 drop ! "n2 s t x at la/ d5otes a confus$ huddle ( objects1 hav+ no?+ :atev] 9 common2 & connotes no?+1 n ev5 a vague & g5]al resemblance4 ,:5 a "n has fall5 into ?is /ate1 9 :i* by pr$icat+ x ( any object we ass]t lit]ally no?+ ab\t ! object1 x has become unfit = ! purposes ei!r ( ?\ght or ( ! communication ( ?\ght2 & c only be made s]viceable by /ripp+ x ( "s "p ( its multif>i\s d5otation1 & conf9+ x to objects possess$ ( "s attributes 9 common1 :i* x may be made to connote4 ,su* are ! inconv5i5ces ( a language :i* 8is n made1 b gr[s40 ,l ! gov]nm5ts :i* are 9 a simil> case1 x may be comp>$ to a road :i* is n made b has made itself3 x requires cont9ual m5d+ 9 ord] to be passable4 ,f ?is x is already evid5t1 :y ! "q respect+ ! def9ition ( an ab/ract "n is (t5 "o ( s mu* difficulty4 ,! "q1 ,:at is ju/ice8 is1 9 o!r words1 ,:at is ! attribute :i* mank9d mean to pr$icate :5 !y call an action j8 ,to :i* ! fir/ answ] is1 t hav+ come to no precise agreem5t on ! po9t1 !y d n mean to pr$icate di/9ctly any attribute at all4 ,nev]!less1 all believe t !re is "s common attribute belong+ to all ! actions :i* !y are 9 ! habit ( call+ j4 ,! "q !n mu/ be1 :e!r !re is any su* common attribute8 &1 9 ! fir/ place1 :e!r mank9d agree suffici5tly ) "o ano!r z to ! p>ticul> actions :i* !y d or d n call j1 to r5d] ! inquiry1 :at quality ^? actions h 9 common1 a possible "o3 if s1 :e!r ! actions really h any quality 9 common2 & if !y h1 :at x is4 ,( ^! ?ree1 ! fir/ alone is an inquiry into usage & conv5tion2 ! o!r two are inquiries into matt]s ( fact4 ,& if ! second "q 7:e!r ! actions =m a class at all7 has be5 answ]$ negatively1 !re rema9s a f\r?1 (t5 m ardu\s ?an all ! re/1 namely1 h[ be/ to =m a class artificially1 :i* ! "n may d5ote4 ,& "h x is fitt+ to rem>k1 t ! /udy ( ! spontane\s gr[? ( languages is ( ! utmo/ importance to ^? :o w\ld logically remodel !m4 ,! classifications rudely made by e/abli%$ language1 :5 ret\*$1 z !y almo/ all require to be1 by ! h&s ( ! logician1 are (t5 !mselves excell5tly suit$ to 8 purposes4 ,z comp>$ ) ! classifications ( a philosoph]1 !y are l ! cu/om>y law ( a c\ntry1 :i* has gr[n up z x 7 spontane\sly1 comp>$ ) laws me?odiz$ & dige/$ into a code3 ! =m] are a f> less p]fect in/rum5t ?an ! latt]2 b be+ ! result ( a long1 ?\gh unsci5tific1 c\rse ( exp]i5ce1 !y conta9 a mass ( mat]ials :i* may be made v usefully available 9 ! =mation ( ! sy/ematic body ( writt5 law4 ,9 l mann]1 ! e/abli%$ gr\p+ ( objects "u a common "n1 ev5 :5 f\nd$ only on a gross & g5]al resemblance1 is evid5ce1 9 ! fir/ place1 t ! resemblance is obvi\s1 & !re=e consid]able2 &1 9 ! next place1 t x is a resemblance :i* has /ruck great numb]s ( p]sons dur+ a s]ies ( ye>s & ages4 ,ev5 :5 a "n1 by successive ext5sions1 has come to be appli$ to ?+s among :i* !re does n exi/ ?is gross resemblance common to !m all1 /ill at e /ep 9 its progress we %all f9d su* a resemblance4 ,& ^! transitions ( ! mean+ ( words are (t5 an index to real connections betwe5 ! ?+s d5ot$ by !m1 :i* might o!rwise escape ! notice ( ?9k]s2 ( ^? at lea/ :o1 f us+ a diff]5t language1 or f any diff]5ce 9 _! habitual associations1 h fix$ _! att5tion 9 pref]5ce on "s o!r aspect ( ! ?+s4 ,! hi/ory ( philosophy ab\nds 9 examples ( su* ov]sights1 committ$ = want ( p]ceiv+ ! hidd5 l9k t connect$ toge!r ! seem+ly disp>ate mean+s ( "s ambigu\s ^w47#df7 ,:5ev] ! inquiry into ! def9ition ( ! "n ( any real object consi/s ( any ?+ else ?an a m]e comp>ison ( au?orities1 we tacitly assume t a mean+ mu/ be f\nd = ! "n1 compatible ) its cont9u+ to d5ote1 if possible all1 b at any rate ! great] or ! m important "p1 ( ! ?+s ( :i* x is commonly pr$icat$4 ,! inquiry1 !re=e1 into ! def9ition1 is an inquiry into ! resemblances & diff]5ces among ^? ?+s3 :e!r !re be any resemblance runn+ ?r\gh !m all2 if n1 ?r\gh :at portion ( !m su* a g5]al resemblance c be trac$3 & f9ally1 :at are ! common attributes1 ! possession ( :i* gives to !m all1 or to t portion ( !m1 ! "* ( resemblance :i* has l$ to _! be+ class$ toge!r4 ,:5 ^! common attributes h be5 asc]ta9$ & specifi$1 ! "n :i* belongs 9 common to ! resembl+ objects acquires a di/9ct in/ead ( a vague connotation2 & by possess+ ?is di/9ct connotation1 becomes susceptible ( def9ition4 ,9 giv+ a di/9ct connotation to ! g5]al "n1 ! philosoph] w endeavor to fix ^u su* attributes z1 :ile !y are common to all ! ?+s usually d5ot$ by ! "n1 are also ( greate/ importance 9 !mselves2 ei!r directly1 or f ! numb]1 ! conspicu\sness1 or ! int]e/+ "*1 ( ! consequ5ces to :i* !y lead4 ,he w select1 z f> z possible1 su* diff]5ti z lead to ! greate/ numb] ( int]e/+ propria4 ,= ^!1 r ?an ! m obscure & recondite qualities on :i* !y (t5 dep5d1 give t g5]al "* & aspect to a set ( objects1 :i* det]m9e ! gr\ps into :i* !y naturally fall4 ,b to p5etrate to ! m hidd5 agreem5t on :i* ^! obvi\s & sup]ficial agreem5ts dep5d1 is (t5 "o ( ! mo/ difficult ( sci5tific problems4 ,z x is among ! mo/ difficult1 s x seldom fails to be among ! mo/ important4 ,& s9ce ^u ! result ( ?is inquiry respect+ ! causes ( ! prop]ties ( a class ( ?+s1 !re incid5tally dep5ds ! "q :at %all be ! mean+ ( a ^w2 "s ( ! mo/ pr(\nd & mo/ valuable inve/igations :i* philosophy pres5ts to u1 h be5 introduc$ by1 & h (f]$ !mselves "u ! guise (1 inquiries into ! def9ition ( a "n4 ,book ,,ii4 ,,( ,,reason+4 1 1 1 4 1 1 4 1 2 1 4--,,ari/41 ,analyt4 ,prior41 l4 i41 cap4 #d4 ,*apt] ,i4 ,( ,inf]5ce1 ,or ,reason+1 ,9 ,g5]al4 #a4 ,9 ! prec$+ ,book1 we h be5 occupi$ n ) ! nature ( ,pro(1 b ) ! nature ( ,ass]tion3 ! import convey$ by a ,proposition1 :e!r t ,proposition be true or false2 n ! means by :i* to discrim9ate true f false ,propositions4 ,! prop] subject1 h[ev]1 ( ,logic is ,pro(4 ,be=e we c\ld und]/& :at ,pro( is1 x 0 necess>y to und]/& :at t is to :i* pro( is applicable2 :at t is :i* c be a subject ( belief or disbelief1 ( affirmation or d5ial2 :at1 9 %ort1 ! diff]5t k9ds ( ,propositions ass]t4 ,?is prelim9>y inquiry we h prosecut$ to a def9ite result4 ,ass]tion1 9 ! fir/ place1 relates ei!r to ! mean+ ( words1 or to "s prop]ty ( ! ?+s :i* words signify4 ,ass]tions respect+ ! mean+ ( words1 among :i* def9itions are ! mo/ important1 hold a place1 & an indisp5sable "o1 9 philosophy2 b z ! mean+ ( words is ess5tially arbitr>y1 ?is class ( ass]tions are n susceptible ( tru? or falsity1 nor !re=e ( pro( or dispro(4 ,ass]tions respect+ ,?+s1 or :at may be call$ ,real ,propositions1 9 contradi/9ction to v]bal ones1 are ( v>i\s sorts4 ,we h analyz$ ! import ( ea* sort1 & h asc]ta9$ ! nature ( ! ?+s !y relate to1 & ! nature ( :at !y sev]ally ass]t respect+ ^? ?+s4 ,we f\nd t :atev] be ! =m ( ! proposition1 & :atev] its nom9al subject or pr$icate1 ! real subject ( e proposition is "s "o or m facts or ph5om5a ( consci\sness1 or "s "o or m ( ! hidd5 causes or p[]s to :i* we ascribe ^? facts2 & t :at is pr$icat$ or ass]t$1 ei!r 9 ! affirmative or negative1 ( ^? ph5om5a or ^? p[]s1 is always ei!r ,exi/5ce1 ,ord] 9 ,place1 ,ord] 9 ,"t1 ,causation1 or ,resemblance4 ,?is1 !n1 is ! !ory ( ! ,import ( ,propositions1 r$uc$ to its ultimate elem5ts3 b !re is ano!r & a less ab/ruse expression = x1 :i*1 ?\gh /opp+ %ort 9 an e>li] /age ( ! analysis1 is suffici5tly sci5tific = _m ( ! purposes = :i* su* a g5]al expression is requir$4 ,?is expression recognizes ! commonly receiv$ di/9ction betwe5 ,subject & ,attribute1 & gives ! foll[+ z ! analysis ( ! mean+ ( propositions3--,e ,proposition ass]ts1 t "s giv5 subject does or does n possess "s attribute2 or t "s attribute is or is n 7ei!r 9 all or 9 "s portion ( ! subjects 9 :i* x is met )7 conjo9$ ) "s o!r attribute4 ,we %all n[ = ! pres5t take our leave ( ?is portion ( our inquiry1 & proce$ to ! peculi> problem ( ! ,sci5ce ( ,logic1 namely1 h[ ! ass]tions1 ( :i* we h analyz$ ! import1 are prov$ or disprov$2 su* ( !m1 at lea/1 z1 n be+ am5able to direct consci\sness or intuition1 are appropriate subjects ( pro(4 ,we say ( a fact or /atem5t1 t x is prov$1 :5 we believe its tru? by reason ( "s o!r fact or /atem5t f :i* x is said to foll[4 ,mo/ ( ! propositions1 :e!r affirmative or negative1 univ]sal1 p>ticul>1 or s+ul>1 :i* we believe1 are n believ$ on _! own evid5ce1 b on ! gr\nd ( some?+ previ\sly ass5t$ to1 f :i* !y are said to be inf]r$4 ,to inf] a proposition f a previ\s proposition or propositions2 to give cr$5ce to x1 or claim cr$5ce = x1 z a conclusion f some?+ else2 is to reason1 9 ! mo/ ext5sive s5se ( ! t]m4 ,!re is a n>r[] s5se1 9 :i* ! "n reason+ is conf9$ to ! =m ( inf]5ce :i* is t]m$ ratioc9ation1 & ( :i* ! syllogism is ! g5]al type4 ,! reasons = n con=m+ to ?is re/rict$ use ( ! t]m 7 /at$ 9 an e>li] /age ( our inquiry1 & additional motives w be sugge/$ by ! consid]ations on :i* we are n[ ab\t to ent]4 #b4 ,9 proce$+ to take into consid]ation ! cases 9 :i* inf]5ces c legitimately be drawn1 we %all fir/ m5tion "s cases 9 :i* ! inf]5ce is app>5t1 n real2 & :i* require notice *iefly t !y may n be conf\nd$ ) cases ( inf]5ce prop]ly s call$4 ,?is occurs :5 ! proposition o/5sibly inf]r$ f ano!r1 appe>s on analysis to be m]ely a repetition ( ! same1 or "p ( ! same1 ass]tion1 :i* 0 conta9$ 9 ! fir/4 ,all ! cases m5tion$ 9 books ( ,logic z examples ( equipoll5cy or equival5ce ( propositions1 are ( ?is nature4 ,?us1 if we 7 to argue1 ,no man is incapable ( reason1 = e man is rational2 or1 ,all m5 are mortal1 = no man is exempt f dea?2 x w\ld be pla9 t we 7 n prov+ ! proposition1 b only appeal+ to ano!r mode ( word+ x1 :i* may or may n be m readily compreh5sible by ! he>]1 or bett] adapt$ to sugge/ ! real pro(1 b :i* conta9s 9 itself no %ad[ ( pro(4 ,ano!r case is :]e1 f a univ]sal proposition1 we affect to inf] ano!r :i* diff]s f x only 9 be+ p>ticul>3 z ,all ,a is ,b1 !re=e ,"s ,a is ,b3 ,no ,a is ,b1 !re=e ,"s ,a is n ,b4 ,?is1 too1 is n to conclude "o proposition f ano!r1 b to repeat a second "t some?+ :i* _h be5 ass]t$ at fir/2 ) ! diff]5ce1 t we d n "h repeat ! :ole ( ! previ\s ass]tion1 b only an indef9ite "p ( x4 ,a ?ird case is :]e1 ! antec$5t hav+ affirm$ a pr$icate ( a giv5 subject1 ! consequ5t affirms ( ! same subject some?+ already connot$ by ! =m] pr$icate3 z1 ,socrates is a man1 !re=e ,socrates is a liv+ creature2 :]e all t is connot$ by liv+ creature 0 affirm$ ( ,socrates :5 he 0 ass]t$ to be a man4 ,if ! propositions are negative1 we mu/ inv]t _! ord]1 ?us3 ,socrates is n a liv+ creature1 !re=e he is n a man2 = if we d5y ! less1 ! great]1 :i* includes x1 is already d5i$ by implication4 ,^!1 !re=e1 are n really cases ( inf]5ce2 & yet ! trivial examples by :i*1 9 manuals ( ,logic1 ! rules ( ! syllogism are illu/rat$1 are (t5 ( ?is ill-*os5 k9d2 =mal demon/rations ( conclusions to :i* :oev] und]/&s ! t]ms us$ 9 ! /atem5t ( ! data1 has already1 & consci\sly1 ass5t$47#dg7 ,! mo/ complex case ( ?is sort ( app>5t inf]5ce is :at is call$ ! ,conv]sion ( propositions2 :i* consi/s 9 turn+ ! pr$icate into a subject1 & ! subject into a pr$icate1 & fram+ out ( ! same t]ms ?us rev]s$1 ano!r proposition1 :i* mu/ be true if ! =m] is true4 ,?us1 f ! p>ticul> affirmative proposition1 ,"s ,a is ,b1 we may inf] t ,"s ,b is ,a4 ,f ! univ]sal negative1 ,no ,a is ,b1 we may conclude t ,no ,b is ,a4 ,f ! univ]sal affirmative proposition1 ,all ,a is ,b1 x c n be inf]r$ t all ,b is ,a2 ?\gh all wat] is liquid1 x is n impli$ t all liquid is wat]2 b x is impli$ t "s liquid is s2 & h5ce ! proposition1 ,all ,a is ,b1 is legitimately conv]tible into ,"s ,b is ,a4 ,?is process1 :i* conv]ts a univ]sal proposition into a p>ticul>1 is t]m$ conv]sion p] accid5s4 ,f ! proposition1 ,"s ,a is n ,b1 we c n ev5 inf] t "s ,b is n ,a2 ?\gh "s m5 are n ,engli%m51 x does n foll[ t "s ,engli%m5 are n m54 ,! only mode usually recogniz$ ( conv]t+ a p>ticul> negative proposition1 is 9 ! =m1 ,"s ,a is n ,b1 !re=e some?+ :i* is n ,b is ,a2 & ?is is t]m$ conv]sion by contraposition4 ,9 ?is case1 h[ev]1 ! pr$icate & subject are n m]ely rev]s$1 b "o ( !m is *ang$4 ,in/ead ( ,a & ,b1 ! t]ms ( ! new proposition are a ?+ :i* is n ,b1 & ,a4 ,! orig9al proposition1 ,"s ,a is n ,b1 is fir/ *ang$ into a proposition equipoll5t ) x1 ,"s ,a is 8a ?+ :i* is n ,b20 & ! proposition1 be+ n[ no long] a p>ticul> negative1 b a p>ticul> affirmative1 admits ( conv]sion 9 ! fir/ mode1 or z x is call$1 simple conv]sion47#dh7 ,9 all ^! cases !re is n really any inf]5ce2 !re is 9 ! conclusion no new tru?1 no?+ b :at 0 already ass]t$ 9 ! premises1 & obvi\s to :oev] appreh5ds !m4 ,! fact ass]t$ 9 ! conclusion is ei!r ! v same fact1 or "p ( ! fact1 ass]t$ 9 ! orig9al proposition4 ,?is foll[s f our previ\s analysis ( ! ,import ( ,propositions4 ,:5 we say1 = example1 t "s lawful sov]eigns are tyrants1 :at is ! mean+ ( ! ass]tion8 ,t ! attributes connot$ by ! t]m 8lawful sov]eign10 & ! attributes connot$ by ! t]m 8tyrant10 sometimes co-exi/ 9 ! same individual4 ,n[ ?is is also precisely :at we mean1 :5 we say t "s tyrants are lawful sov]eigns2 :i*1 !re=e1 is n a second proposition inf]r$ f ! fir/1 any m ?an ! ,engli% translation ( ,euclid's ,elem5ts is a collection ( !orems diff]5t f & consequ5ces (1 ^? conta9$ 9 ! ,greek orig9al4 ,aga91 if we ass]t t no great g5]al is a ra% man1 we mean t ! attributes connot$ by 8great g5]al10 & ^? connot$ by 8ra%10 nev] co-exi/ 9 ! same subject2 :i* is also ! exact mean+ :i* w\ld be express$ by say+1 t no ra% man is a great g5]al4 ,:5 we say t all quadrup$s are w>m-blood$1 we ass]t1 n only t ! attributes connot$ by 8quadrup$0 & ^? connot$ by 8w>m-blood$0 sometimes co-exi/1 b t ! =m] nev] exi/ )\t ! latt]3 n[ ! proposition1 ,"s w>m-blood$ creatures are quadrup$s1 expresses ! fir/ half ( ?is mean+1 dropp+ ! latt] half2 & !re=e has be5 already affirm$ 9 ! antec$5t proposition1 ,all quadrup$s are w>m-blood$4 ,b t all w>m-blood$ creatures are quadrup$s1 or1 9 o!r words1 t ! attributes connot$ by 8w>m-blood$0 nev] exi/ )\t ^? connot$ by 8quadrup$10 has n be5 ass]t$1 & c n be inf]r$4 ,9 ord] to re-ass]t1 9 an inv]t$ =m1 ! :ole ( :at 0 affirm$ 9 ! proposition1 ,all quadrup$s are w>m-blood$1 we mu/ conv]t x by contraposition1 ?us1 ,no?+ :i* is n w>m-blood$ is a quadrup$4 ,?is proposition1 & ! "o f :i* x is d]iv$1 are exactly equival5t1 & ei!r ( !m may be sub/itut$ = ! o!r2 =1 to say t :5 ! attributes ( a quadrup$ are pres5t1 ^? ( a w>m-blood$ creature are pres5t1 is to say t :5 ! latt] are abs5t ! =m] are abs5t4 ,9 a manual = "y /ud5ts1 x w\ld be prop] to dwell at great] l5g? on ! conv]sion & equipoll5cy ( propositions4 ,= ?\gh t c n be call$ reason+ or inf]5ce :i* is a m]e re-ass]tion 9 diff]5t words ( :at _h be5 ass]t$ be=e1 !re is no m important intellectual habit1 nor any ! cultivation ( :i* falls m /rictly )9 ! prov9ce ( ! art ( logic1 ?an t ( disc]n+ rapidly & surely ! id5tity ( an ass]tion :5 disguis$ "u div]sity ( language4 ,t important *apt] 9 logical treatises :i* relates to ! ,opposition ( ,propositions1 & ! excell5t te*nical language :i* logic provides = di/+ui%+ ! diff]5t k9ds or modes ( opposition1 are ( use *iefly = ?is purpose4 ,su* consid]ations z ^!1 t contr>y propositions may bo? be false1 b c n bo? be true2 t subcontr>y propositions may bo? be true1 b c n bo? be false2 t ( two contradictory propositions "o mu/ be true & ! o!r false2 t ( two subalt]nate propositions ! tru? ( ! univ]sal proves ! tru? ( ! p>ticul>1 & ! falsity ( ! p>ticul> proves ! falsity ( ! univ]sal1 b n vic v]sa27#di7 are apt to appe>1 at fir/ sight1 v te*nical & my/]i\s1 b :5 expla9$1 seem almo/ too obvi\s to require s =mal a /atem5t1 s9ce ! same am\nt ( explanation :i* is necess>y to make ! pr9ciples intelligible1 w\ld enable ! tru?s :i* !y convey to be appreh5d$ 9 any p>ticul> case :i* c occur4 ,9 ?is respect1 h[ev]1 ^! axioms ( logic are on a level ) ^? ( ma!matics4 ,t ?+s :i* are equal to ! same ?+ are equal to "o ano!r1 is z obvi\s 9 any p>ticul> case z x is 9 ! g5]al /atem5t3 & if no su* g5]al maxim _h ev] be5 laid d[n1 ! demon/rations 9 ,euclid w\ld nev] h halt$ = any difficulty 9 /epp+ across ! gap :i* ?is axiom at pres5t s]ves to bridge ov]4 ,yet no "o has ev] c5sur$ writ]s on geometry1 = plac+ a li/ ( ^! elem5t>y g5]alizations at ! head ( _! treatises1 z a fir/ ex]cise to ! le>n] ( ! faculty :i* w be requir$ 9 him at e /ep1 t ( appreh5d+ a g5]al tru?4 ,& ! /ud5t ( logic1 9 ! discussion ev5 ( su* tru?s z we h cit$ above1 acquires habits ( circumspect int]pretation ( words1 & ( exactly measur+ ! l5g? & bread? ( 8 ass]tions1 :i* are among ! mo/ indisp5sable conditions ( any consid]able m5tal atta9m5t1 & :i* x is "o ( ! prim>y objects ( logical discipl9e to cultivate4 #c4 ,hav+ notic$1 9 ord] to exclude f ! prov9ce ( ,reason+ or ,inf]5ce prop]ly s call$1 ! cases 9 :i* ! progression f "o tru? to ano!r is only app>5t1 ! logical consequ5t be+ a m]e repetition ( ! logical antec$5t2 we n[ pass to ^? :i* are cases ( inf]5ce 9 ! prop] acceptation ( ! t]m1 ^? 9 :i* we set out f kn[n tru?s1 to arrive at o!rs really di/9ct f !m4 ,reason+1 9 ! ext5d$ s5se 9 :i* ,i use ! t]m1 & 9 :i* x is synonym\s ) ,inf]5ce1 is popul>ly said to be ( two k9ds3 reason+ f p>ticul>s to g5]als1 & reason+ f g5]als to p>ticul>s2 ! =m] be+ call$ ,induction1 ! latt] ,ratioc9ation or ,syllogism4 ,x w pres5tly be %[n t !re is a ?ird species ( reason+1 :i* falls "u nei!r ( ^! descriptions1 & :i*1 nev]!less1 is n only valid1 b is ! f\ndation ( bo? ! o!rs4 ,x is necess>y to obs]ve1 t ! expressions1 reason+ f p>ticul>s to g5]als1 & reason+ f g5]als to p>ticul>s1 are recomm5d$ by brevity r ?an by precision1 & d n adequately m>k1 )\t ! aid ( a comm5t>y1 ! di/9ction betwe5 ,induction 79 ! s5se n[ adv]t$ to7 & ,ratioc9ation4 ,! mean+ int5d$ by ^! expressions is1 t ,induction is inf]r+ a proposition f propositions less g5]al ?an itself1 & ,ratioc9ation is inf]r+ a proposition f propositions equally or m g5]al4 ,:51 f ! obs]vation ( a numb] ( individual in/ances1 we asc5d to a g5]al proposition1 or :51 by comb9+ a numb] ( g5]al propositions1 we conclude f !m ano!r proposition /ill m g5]al1 ! process1 :i* is sub/antially ! same 9 bo? in/ances1 is call$ ,induction4 ,:5 f a g5]al proposition1 n alone 7= f a s+le proposition no?+ c be conclud$ :i* is n involv$ 9 ! t]ms71 b by comb9+ x ) o!r propositions1 we inf] a proposition ( ! same degree ( g5]ality ) itself1 or a less g5]al proposition1 or a proposition m]ely individual1 ! process is ,ratioc9ation4 ,:51 9 %ort1 ! conclusion is m g5]al ?an ! l>ge/ ( ! premises1 ! argum5t is commonly call$ ,induction2 :5 less g5]al1 or equally g5]al1 x is ,ratioc9ation4 ,z all exp]i5ce beg9s ) individual cases1 & proce$s f !m to g5]als1 x might seem mo/ con=mable to ! natural ord] ( ?\ght t ,induction %\ld be treat$ ( be=e we t\* ^u ,ratioc9ation4 ,x w1 h[ev]1 be advantage\s1 9 a sci5ce :i* aims at trac+ our acquir$ k to its s\rces1 t ! inquir] %\ld comm5ce ) ! latt] r ?an ) ! e>li] /ages ( ! process ( con/ruct+ our k2 & %\ld trace d]ivative tru?s backw>d to ! tru?s f :i* !y are d$uc$1 & on :i* !y dep5d = _! evid5ce1 be=e attempt+ to po9t out ! orig9al spr+ f :i* bo? ultimately take _! rise4 ,! advantages ( ?is ord] ( proce$+ 9 ! pres5t in/ance w manife/ !mselves z we advance1 9 a mann] sup]s$+ ! necessity ( any fur!r ju/ification or explanation4 ,( ,induction1 !re=e1 we %all say no m at pres5t1 ?an t x at lea/ is1 )\t d\bt1 a process ( real inf]5ce4 ,! conclusion 9 an induction embraces m ?an is conta9$ 9 ! premises4 ,! pr9ciple or law collect$ f p>ticul> in/ances1 ! g5]al proposition 9 :i* we embody ! result ( our exp]i5ce1 cov]s a mu* l>g] ext5t ( gr\nd ?an ! individual exp]im5ts :i* =m its basis4 ,a pr9ciple asc]ta9$ by exp]i5ce1 is m ?an a m]e summ+ up ( :at has be5 specifically obs]v$ 9 ! individual cases :i* h be5 exam9$2 x is a g5]alization gr\nd$ on ^? cases1 & expressive ( our belief1 t :at we !re f\nd true is true 9 an indef9ite numb] ( cases :i* we h n exam9$1 & are nev] likely to exam9e4 ,! nature & gr\nds ( ?is inf]5ce1 & ! conditions necess>y to make x legitimate1 w be ! subject ( discussion 9 ! ,?ird ,book3 b t su* inf]5ce really takes place is n susceptible ( "q4 ,9 e induction we proce$ f tru?s :i* we knew1 to tru?s :i* we did n "k2 f facts c]tifi$ by obs]vation1 to facts :i* we h n obs]v$1 & ev5 to facts n capable ( be+ n[ obs]v$2 future facts1 = example2 b :i* we d n hesitate to believe on ! sole evid5ce ( ! induction itself4 ,induction1 !n1 is a real process ( ,reason+ or ,inf]5ce4 ,:e!r1 & 9 :at s5se1 z mu* c be said ( ! ,syllogism1 rema9s to be det]m9$ by ! exam9ation into :i* we are ab\t to ent]4 ,*apt] ,,ii4 ,( ,ratioc9ation1 ,or ,syllogism4 #a4 ,! analysis ( ! ,syllogism has be5 s accurately & fully p]=m$ 9 ! common manuals ( ,logic1 t 9 ! pres5t "w1 :i* is n design$ z a manual1 x is suffici5t to recapitulate1 memori caus1 ! lead+ results ( t analysis1 z a f\ndation = ! rem>ks to be aft]w>d made on ! functions ( ! ,syllogism1 & ! place :i* x holds 9 sci5ce4 ,to a legitimate syllogism x is ess5tial t !re %\ld be ?ree1 & no m ?an ?ree1 propositions1 namely1 ! conclusion1 or proposition to be prov$1 & two o!r propositions :i* toge!r prove x1 & :i* are call$ ! premises4 ,x is ess5tial t !re %\ld be ?ree1 & no m ?an ?ree1 t]ms1 namely1 ! subject & pr$icate ( ! conclusion1 & ano!r call$ ! middle t]m1 :i* mu/ be f\nd 9 bo? premises1 s9ce x is by means ( x t ! o!r two t]ms are to be connect$ toge!r4 ,! pr$icate ( ! conclusion is call$ ! major t]m ( ! syllogism2 ! subject ( ! conclusion is call$ ! m9or t]m4 ,z !re c be b ?ree t]ms1 ! major & m9or t]ms mu/ ea* be f\nd 9 "o1 & only "o1 ( ! premises1 toge!r ) ! middle t]m :i* is 9 !m bo?4 ,! premise :i* conta9s ! middle t]m & ! major t]m is call$ ! major premise2 t :i* conta9s ! middle t]m & ! m9or t]m is call$ ! m9or premise4 ,syllogisms are divid$ by "s logicians into ?ree figures1 by o!rs into f\r1 accord+ to ! position ( ! middle t]m1 :i* may ei!r be ! subject 9 bo? premises1 ! pr$icate 9 bo?1 or ! subject 9 "o & ! pr$icate 9 ! o!r4 ,! mo/ common case is t 9 :i* ! middle t]m is ! subject ( ! major premise & ! pr$icate ( ! m9or4 ,?is is reckon$ z ! fir/ figure4 ,:5 ! middle t]m is ! pr$icate 9 bo? premises1 ! syllogism belongs to ! second figure2 :5 x is ! subject 9 bo?1 to ! ?ird4 ,9 ! f\r? figure ! middle t]m is ! subject ( ! m9or premise & ! pr$icate ( ! major4 ,^? writ]s :o reckon no m ?an ?ree figures1 include ?is case 9 ! fir/4 ,ea* figure is divid$ into moods1 accord+ to :at are call$ ! quantity & quality ( ! propositions1 t is1 accord+ z !y are univ]sal or p>ticul>1 affirmative or negative4 ,! foll[+ are examples ( all ! legitimate moods1 t is1 all ^? 9 :i* ! conclusion correctly foll[s f ! premises4 ,a is ! m9or t]m1 ,c ! major1 ,b ! middle t]m4 ,,fir/ ,,figure4 ,all ,b is ,c ,no ,b is ,c ,all ,b is ,c ,no ,b is ,c ,all ,a is ,b ,all ,a is ,b ,"s ,a is ,b ,"s ,a is ,b !re=e !re=e !re=e !re=e ,all ,a is ,c ,no ,a is ,c ,"s ,a is ,c ,"s ,a is n ,c ,,second ,,figure4 ,no ,c is ,b ,all ,c is ,b ,no ,c is ,b ,all ,c is ,b ,all ,a is ,b ,no ,a is ,b ,"s ,a is ,b ,"s ,a is n ,b !re=e !re=e !re=e !re=e ,no ,a is ,c ,no ,a is ,c ,"s ,a is n ,c ,"s ,a is n ,c ,,?ird ,,figure4 ,all ,b is ,no ,b is ,c ,"s ,b is ,all ,b is ,"s ,b is ,no ,b is ,c ,c ,c ,c n ,c ,all ,b is ,all ,b is ,all ,b is ,"s ,b is ,all ,b is ,"s ,b is ,a ,a ,a ,a ,a ,a !re=e !re=e !re=e !re=e !re=e !re=e ,"s ,a is ,"s ,a is ,"s ,a is ,"s ,a is ,"s ,a is ,"s ,a is ,c n ,c ,c ,c n ,c n ,c ,,f\r? ,,figure4 ,all ,c is ,b ,all ,c is ,b ,"s ,c is ,b ,no ,c is ,b ,no ,c is ,b ,all ,b is ,a ,no ,b is ,a ,all ,b is ,a ,all ,b is ,a ,"s ,b is ,a !re=e !re=e !re=e !re=e !re=e ,"s ,a is ,c ,"s ,a is ,"s ,a is ,c ,"s ,a is ,"s ,a is n ,c n ,c n ,c ,9 ^! exempl>s1 or blank =ms = mak+ syllogisms1 no place is assign$ to s+ul> propositions2 n1 ( c\rse1 because su* propositions are n us$ 9 ratioc9ation1 b because1 _! pr$icate be+ affirm$ or d5i$ ( ! :ole ( ! subject1 !y are rank$1 = ! purposes ( ! syllogism1 ) univ]sal propositions4 ,?us1 ^! two syllogisms-- ,all m5 are mortal1 ,all m5 are mortal1 ,all k+s are m51 ,socrates is a man1 !re=e !re=e ,all k+s are mortal1 ,socrates is mortal1 are argum5ts precisely simil>1 & are bo? rank$ 9 ! fir/ mood ( ! fir/ figure47#ej7 ,! reasons :y syllogisms 9 any ( ! above =ms are legitimate1 t is1 :y1 if ! premises are true1 ! conclusion mu/ inevitably be s1 & :y ?is is n ! case 9 any o!r possible mood 7t is1 9 any o!r comb9ation ( univ]sal & p>ticul>1 affirmative & negative propositions71 any p]son tak+ int]e/ 9 ^! inquiries may be presum$ to h ei!r le>n$ f ! common-s*ool books ( ! syllogi/ic logic1 or to be capable ( discov]+ = himself4 ,! read] may1 h[ev]1 be ref]r$1 = e ne$ful explanation1 to ,ar*bi%op ,:ately's ,elem5ts ( ,logic1 :]e he w f9d /at$ ) philosophical precision1 & expla9$ ) rem>kable p]spicuity1 ! :ole ( ! common doctr9e ( ! syllogism4 ,all valid ratioc9ation2 all reason+ by :i*1 f g5]al propositions previ\sly admitt$1 o!r propositions equally or less g5]al are inf]r$2 may be exhibit$ 9 "s ( ! above =ms4 ,! :ole ( ,euclid1 = example1 might be ?r[n )\t difficulty into a s]ies ( syllogisms1 regul> 9 mood & figure4 ,?\gh a syllogism fram$ accord+ to any ( ^! =mul is a valid argum5t1 all correct ratioc9ation admits ( be+ /at$ 9 syllogisms ( ! fir/ figure alone4 ,! rules = ?r[+ an argum5t 9 any ( ! o!r figures into ! fir/ figure1 are call$ rules = ! r$uction ( syllogisms4 ,x is done by ! conv]sion ( "o or o!r1 or bo?1 ( ! premises4 ,?us an argum5t 9 ! fir/ mood ( ! second figure1 z-- ,no ,c is ,b ,all ,a is ,b !re=e ,no ,a is ,c1 may be r$uc$ z foll[s4 ,! proposition1 ,no ,c is ,b1 be+ a univ]sal negative1 admits ( simple conv]sion1 & may be *ang$ into ,no ,b is ,c1 :i*1 z we %[$1 is ! v same ass]tion 9 o!r words--! same fact diff]5tly express$4 ,?is trans=mation hav+ be5 effect$1 ! argum5t assumes ! foll[+ =m3 ,no ,b is ,c ,all ,a is ,b !re=e ,no ,a is ,c1 :i* is a good syllogism 9 ! second mood ( ! fir/ figure4 ,aga91 an argum5t 9 ! fir/ mood ( ! ?ird figure mu/ resemble ! foll[+3 ,all ,b is ,c ,all ,b is ,a !re=e ,"s ,a is ,c1 :]e ! m9or premise1 ,all ,b is ,a1 con=mably to :at 0 laid d[n 9 ! la/ *apt] respect+ univ]sal affirmatives1 does n admit ( simple conv]sion1 b may be conv]t$ p] accid5s1 ?us1 ,"s ,a is ,b2 :i*1 ?\gh x does n express ! :ole ( :at is ass]t$ 9 ! proposition ,all ,b is ,a1 expresses1 z 0 =m]ly %[n1 "p ( x1 & mu/ !re=e be true if ! :ole is true4 ,we h1 !n1 z ! result ( ! r$uction1 ! foll[+ syllogism 9 ! ?ird mood ( ! fir/ figure3 ,all ,b is ,c ,"s ,a is ,b1 f :i* x obvi\sly foll[s1 t ,"s ,a is ,c4 ,9 ! same mann]1 or 9 a mann] on :i* aft] ^! examples x is n necess>y to enl>ge1 e mood ( ! second1 ?ird1 & f\r? figures may be r$uc$ to "s "o ( ! f\r moods ( ! fir/4 ,9 o!r words1 e conclusion :i* c be prov$ 9 any ( ! la/ ?ree figures1 may be prov$ 9 ! fir/ figure f ! same premises1 ) a slight alt]ation 9 ! m]e mann] ( express+ !m4 ,e valid ratioc9ation1 !re=e1 may be /at$ 9 ! fir/ figure1 t is1 9 "o ( ! foll[+ =ms3 ,e ,b is ,c ,no ,b is ,c ,all ,a is ,b1 ,all ,a is ,b1 ,"s ,a is ,b1 ,"s ,a is ,b1 !re=e !re=e ,all ,a is ,c4 ,no ,a is ,c4 ,"s ,a is ,c4 ,"s ,a is n ,c4 ,or1 if m significant symbols are pref]r$3 ,to prove an affirmative1 ! argum5t mu/ admit ( be+ /at$ 9 ?is =m3 ,all animals are mortal2 ,all m5_/,"s m5_/,socrates are animals2 !re=e ,all m5_/,"s m5_/,socrates are mortal4 ,to prove a negative1 ! argum5t mu/ be capable ( be+ express$ 9 ?is =m3 ,no "o :o is capable ( self-control is necess>ily vici\s2 ,no "o :o is capable ( self-control is necess>ily vici\s2 ,all negroes_/,"s negroes_/,mr4 ,a's negro are capable ( self-control2 !re=e ,no negroes are_/,"s negroes are n_/,mr4 ,a's negro is n necess>ily vici\s4 ,?\gh all ratioc9ation admits ( be+ ?r[n into "o or ! o!r ( ^! =ms1 & sometimes ga9s consid]ably by ! trans=mation1 bo? 9 cle>ness & 9 ! obvi\sness ( its consequ5ce2 !re are1 no d\bt1 cases 9 :i* ! argum5t falls m naturally into "o ( ! o!r ?ree figures1 & 9 :i* its conclusiv5ess is m app>5t at ! fir/ glance 9 ^? figures1 ?an :5 r$uc$ to ! fir/4 ,?us1 if ! proposition 7 t pagans may be virtu\s1 & ! evid5ce to prove x 7 ! example ( ,ari/ides2 a syllogism 9 ! ?ird figure1 ,ari/ides 0 virtu\s1 ,ari/ides 0 a pagan1 !re=e ,"s pagan 0 virtu\s1 w\ld be a m natural mode ( /at+ ! argum5t1 & w\ld c>ry conviction m in/antly home1 ?an ! same ratioc9ation /ra9$ into ! fir/ figure1 ?us-- ,ari/ides 0 virtu\s1 ,"s pagan 0 ,ari/ides1 !re=e ,"s pagan 0 virtu\s4 ,a ,g]man philosoph]1 ,lamb]t1 ^: ,neues ,organon 7publi%$ 9 ! ye> #agfd7 conta9s among o!r ?+s "o ( ! mo/ elaborate & complete expositions :i* _h ev] be5 made ( ! syllogi/ic doctr9e1 has expressly exam9$ :at sort ( argum5ts fall mo/ naturally & suitably into ea* ( ! f\r figures2 & 8 inve/igation is *>act]iz$ by great +5uity & cle>ness ( ?\ght47#ea7 ,! argum5t1 h[ev]1 is "o & ! same1 9 :i*ev] figure x is express$2 s9ce1 z we h already se51 ! premises ( a syllogism 9 ! second1 ?ird1 or f\r? figure1 & ^? ( ! syllogism 9 ! fir/ figure to :i* x may be r$uc$1 are ! same premises 9 e ?+ except language1 or1 at lea/1 z mu* ( !m z contributes to ! pro( ( ! conclusion is ! same4 ,we are !re=e at lib]ty1 9 con=mity ) ! g5]al op9ion ( logicians1 to consid] ! two elem5t>y =ms ( ! fir/ figure z ! univ]sal types ( all correct ratioc9ation2 ! "o1 :5 ! conclusion to be prov$ is affirmative1 ! o!r1 :5 x is negative2 ev5 ?\gh c]ta9 argum5ts may h a t5d5cy to clo! !mselves 9 ! =ms ( ! second1 ?ird1 & f\r? figures2 :i*1 h[ev]1 c n possibly happ5 ) ! only class ( argum5ts :i* are ( fir/-rate sci5tific importance1 ^? 9 :i* ! conclusion is a univ]sal affirmative1 su* conclusions be+ susceptible ( pro( 9 ! fir/ figure alone47#eb7 #b4 ,on exam9+1 !n1 ^! two g5]al =mul1 we f9d t 9 bo? ( !m1 "o premise1 ! major1 is a univ]sal proposition2 & accord+ z ?is is affirmative or negative1 ! conclusion is s too4 ,all ratioc9ation1 !re=e1 />ts f a g5]al proposition1 pr9ciple1 or assumption3 a proposition 9 :i* a pr$icate is affirm$ or d5i$ ( an entire class2 t is1 9 :i* "s attribute1 or ! negation ( "s attribute1 is ass]t$ ( an indef9ite numb] ( objects di/+ui%$ by a common *>act]i/ic1 & designat$1 9 consequ5ce1 by a common "n4 ,! o!r premise is always affirmative1 & ass]ts t some?+ 7:i* may be ei!r an individual1 a class1 or "p ( a class7 belongs to1 or is includ$ 91 ! class respect+ :i* some?+ 0 affirm$ or d5i$ 9 ! major premise4 ,x foll[s t ! attribute affirm$ or d5i$ ( ! entire class may 7if t affirmation or d5ial 0 correct7 be affirm$ or d5i$ ( ! object or objects alleg$ to be includ$ 9 ! class3 & ?is is precisely ! ass]tion made 9 ! conclusion4 ,:e!r or n ! =ego+ is an adequate acc\nt ( ! con/itu5t p>ts ( ! syllogism1 w be pres5tly consid]$2 b z f> z x goes x is a true acc\nt4 ,x has accord+ly be5 g5]aliz$1 & erect$ into a logical maxim1 on :i* all ratioc9ation is said to be f\nd$1 insomu* t to reason1 & to apply ! maxim1 are suppos$ to be "o & ! same ?+4 ,! maxim is1 ,t :atev] c be affirm$ 7or d5i$7 ( a class1 may be affirm$ 7or d5i$7 ( e ?+ includ$ 9 ! class4 ,?is axiom1 suppos$ to be ! basis ( ! syllogi/ic !ory1 is t]m$ by logicians ! dictum de omni et nullo4 ,?is maxim1 h[ev]1 :5 consid]$ z a pr9ciple ( reason+1 appe>s suit$ to a sy/em ( metaphysics once inde$ g5]ally receiv$1 b :i* = ! la/ two c5turies has be5 consid]$ z f9ally ab&on$1 ?\gh !re h n be5 want+ 9 our own day attempts at its revival4 ,s long z :at are t]m$ ,univ]sals 7 reg>d$ z a peculi> k9d ( sub/ances1 hav+ an objective exi/5ce di/9ct f ! individual objects class$ "u !m1 ! dictum de omni convey$ an important mean+2 because x express$ ! int]community ( nature1 :i* x 0 necess>y on t !ory t we %\ld suppose to exi/ betwe5 ^? g5]al sub/ances & ! p>ticul> sub/ances :i* 7 subord9at$ to !m4 ,t e ?+ pr$icable ( ! univ]sal 0 pr$icable ( ! v>i\s individuals conta9$ "u x1 0 !n no id5tical proposition1 b a /atem5t ( :at 0 conceiv$ z a fundam5tal law ( ! univ]se4 ,! ass]tion t ! entire nature & prop]ties ( ! sub/antia secunda =m$ "p ( ! nature & prop]ties ( ea* ( ! individual sub/ances call$ by ! same "n2 t ! prop]ties ( ,man1 = example1 7 prop]ties ( all m52 0 a proposition ( real significance :5 man did n mean all m51 b some?+ inh]5t 9 m51 & va/ly sup]ior to !m 9 dignity4 ,n[1 h[ev]1 :5 x is kn[n t a class1 a univ]sal1 a g5us or species1 is n an entity p] se1 b nei!r m nor less ?an ! individual sub/ances !mselves :i* are plac$ 9 ! class1 & t !re is no?+ real 9 ! matt] except ^? objects1 a common "n giv5 to !m1 & common attributes indicat$ by ! "n2 :at1 ,i %\ld be glad to "k1 d we le>n by be+ told1 t :atev] c be affirm$ ( a class1 may be affirm$ ( e object conta9$ 9 ! class8 ,! class is no?+ b ! objects conta9$ 9 x3 & ! dictum de omni m]ely am\nts to ! id5tical proposition1 t :atev] is true ( c]ta9 objects1 is true ( ea* ( ^? objects4 ,if all ratioc9ation 7 no m ?an ! application ( ?is maxim to p>ticul> cases1 ! syllogism w\ld inde$ be1 :at x has s (t5 be5 decl>$ to be1 solemn trifl+4 ,! dictum de omni is on a p> ) ano!r tru?1 :i* 9 its "t 0 also reckon$ ( great importance1 8,:atev] is1 is40 ,to give any real mean+ to ! dictum de omni1 we mu/ consid] x n z an axiom1 b z a def9ition2 we mu/ look ^u x z int5d$ to expla91 9 a circuit\s & p>aphra/ic mann]1 ! mean+ ( ! ^w class4 ,an error :i* seem$ f9ally refut$ & dislodg$ f ?\ght1 (t5 ne$s only put on a new suit ( phrases1 to be welcom$ back to its old qu>t]s1 & all[$ to repose unque/ion$ = ano!r cycle ( ages4 ,mod]n philosoph]s h n be5 sp>+ 9 _! contempt = ! s*ola/ic dogma t g5]a & species are a peculi> k9d ( sub/ances1 :i* g5]al sub/ances be+ ! only p]man5t ?+s1 :ile ! individual sub/ances compreh5d$ "u !m are 9 a p]petual flux1 k1 :i* necess>ily imports /ability1 c only h relation to ^? g5]al sub/ances or univ]sals1 & n to ! facts or p>ticul>s includ$ "u !m4 ,yet1 ?\gh nom9ally reject$1 ?is v doctr9e1 :e!r disguis$ "u ! ,ab/ract ,ideas ( ,locke 7^: speculations1 h[ev]1 x has less vitiat$ ?an ^? ( p]haps any o!r writ] :o has be5 infect$ ) x71 "u ! ultra-nom9alism ( ,hobbes & ,condillac1 or ! ontology ( ! lat] ,g]man s*ools1 has nev] ceas$ to poison philosophy4 ,once accu/om$ to consid] sci5tific inve/igation z ess5tially consi/+ 9 ! /udy ( univ]sals1 m5 did n drop ?is habit ( ?\ght :5 !y ceas$ to reg>d univ]sals z possess+ an indep5d5t exi/5ce3 & ev5 ^? :o w5t ! l5g? ( consid]+ !m z m]e names1 c\ld n free !mselves f ! notion t ! inve/igation ( tru? consi/$ entirely or p>tly 9 "s k9d ( conjuration or juggle ) ^? names4 ,:5 a philosoph] adopt$ fully ! ,nom9ali/ view ( ! signification ( g5]al language1 reta9+ along ) x ! dictum de omni z ! f\ndation ( all reason+1 two su* premises fairly put toge!r 7 likely1 if he 0 a consi/5t ?9k]1 to l& him 9 r />tl+ conclusions4 ,accord+ly x has be5 s]i\sly held1 by writ]s ( des]v$ celebrity1 t ! process ( arriv+ at new tru?s by reason+ consi/s 9 ! m]e sub/itution ( "o set ( arbitr>y signs = ano!r2 a doctr9e :i* !y suppose to d]ive irresi/ible confirmation f ! example ( algebra4 ,if !re 7 any process 9 sorc]y or necromancy m pret]natural ?an ?is1 ,i %\ld be mu* surpris$4 ,! culm9at+ po9t ( ?is philosophy is ! not$ aphorism ( ,condillac1 t a sci5ce is no?+1 or sc>cely any ?+1 b une langue bi5 faite2 9 o!r words1 t ! "o suffici5t rule = discov]+ ! nature & prop]ties ( objects is to "n !m prop]ly3 z if ! rev]se 7 n ! tru?1 t x is impossible to "n !m prop]ly except 9 proportion z we are already acqua9t$ ) _! nature & prop]ties4 ,c x be necess>y to say1 t none1 n ev5 ! mo/ trivial k ) respect to ,?+s1 ev] 0 or c\ld be orig9ally got at by any conceivable manipulation ( m]e names1 z su*2 & t :at c be le>n$ f names1 is only :at somebody :o us$ ! names knew be=e8 ,philosophical analysis confirms ! indication ( common s5se1 t ! function ( names is b t ( enabl+ u to rememb] & to communicate our ?\ghts4 ,t !y also /r5g!n1 ev5 to an incalculable ext5t1 ! p[] ( ?\ght itself1 is mo/ true3 b !y d ?is by no intr9sic & peculi> virtue2 !y d x by ! p[] inh]5t 9 an artificial memory1 an in/rum5t ( :i* few h adequately consid]$ ! imm5se pot5cy4 ,z an artificial memory1 language truly is1 :at x has s (t5 be5 call$1 an in/rum5t ( ?\ght2 b x is "o ?+ to be ! in/rum5t1 & ano!r to be ! exclusive subject ^u :i* ! in/rum5t is ex]cis$4 ,we ?9k1 inde$1 to a consid]able ext5t1 by means ( names1 b :at we ?9k (1 are ! ?+s call$ by ^? names2 & !re c n be a great] error ?an to imag9e t ?\ght c be c>ri$ on ) no?+ 9 our m9d b names1 or t we c make ! names ?9k = u4 #c4 ,^? :o consid]$ ! dictum de omni z ! f\ndation ( ! syllogism1 look$ ^u argum5ts 9 a mann] correspond+ to ! errone\s view :i* ,hobbes took ( propositions4 ,because !re are "s propositions :i* are m]ely v]bal1 ,hobbes1 9 ord] app>5tly t 8 def9ition might be rigor\sly univ]sal1 def9$ a proposition z if no propositions decl>$ any ?+ except ! mean+ ( words4 ,if ,hobbes 0 "r2 if no fur!r acc\nt ?an ?is c\ld be giv5 ( ! import ( propositions2 no !ory c\ld be giv5 b ! commonly receiv$ "o1 ( ! comb9ation ( propositions 9 a syllogism4 ,if ! m9or premise ass]t$ no?+ m ?an t some?+ belongs to a class1 & if ! major premise ass]t$ no?+ ( t class except t x is includ$ 9 ano!r class1 ! conclusion w\ld only be t :at 0 includ$ 9 ! l[] class is includ$ 9 ! high]1 & ! result1 !re=e1 no?+ except t ! classification is consi/5t ) itself4 ,b we h se5 t x is no suffici5t acc\nt ( ! mean+ ( a proposition1 to say t x ref]s some?+ to1 or excludes some?+ f1 a class4 ,e proposition :i* conveys real in=mation ass]ts a matt] ( fact1 dep5d5t on ! laws ( nature1 & n on classification4 ,x ass]ts t a giv5 object does or does n possess a giv5 attribute2 or x ass]ts t two attributes1 or sets ( attributes1 d or d n 7con/antly or occasionally7 co-exi/4 ,s9ce su* is ! purport ( all propositions :i* convey any real k1 & s9ce ratioc9ation is a mode ( acquir+ real k1 any !ory ( ratioc9ation :i* does n recognize ?is import ( propositions1 c n1 we may be sure1 be ! true "o4 ,apply+ ?is view ( propositions to ! two premises ( a syllogism1 we obta9 ! foll[+ results4 ,! major premise1 :i*1 z already rem>k$1 is always univ]sal1 ass]ts1 t all ?+s :i* h a c]ta9 attribute 7or attributes7 h or h n along ) x1 a c]ta9 o!r attribute 7or attributes74 ,! m9or premise ass]ts t ! ?+ or set ( ?+s :i* are ! subject ( t premise1 h ! fir/-m5tion$ attribute2 & ! conclusion is1 t !y h 7or t !y h n71 ! second4 ,?us 9 our =m] example1 ,all m5 are mortal1 ,socrates is a man1 !re=e ,socrates is mortal1 ! subject & pr$icate ( ! major premise are connotative t]ms1 d5ot+ objects & connot+ attributes4 ,! ass]tion 9 ! major premise is1 t along ) "o ( ! two sets ( attributes1 we always f9d ! o!r3 t ! attributes connot$ by 8man0 nev] exi/ unless conjo9$ ) ! attribute call$ mortality4 ,! ass]tion 9 ! m9or premise is t ! individual nam$ ,socrates possesses ! =m] attributes2 & x is conclud$ t he possesses also ! attribute mortality4 ,or1 if bo? ! premises are g5]al propositions1 z ,all m5 are mortal1 ,all k+s are m51 !re=e ,all k+s are mortal1 ! m9or premise ass]ts t ! attributes d5ot$ by k+%ip only exi/ 9 conjunction ) ^? signifi$ by ! ^w man4 ,! major ass]ts z be=e1 t ! la/-m5tion$ attributes are nev] f\nd )\t ! attribute ( mortality4 ,! conclusion is1 t :]ev] ! attributes ( k+%ip are f\nd1 t ( mortality is f\nd also4 ,if ! major premise 7 negative1 z1 ,no m5 are omnipot5t1 x w\ld ass]t1 n t ! attributes connot$ by 8man0 nev] exi/ )\t1 b t !y nev] exi/ )1 ^? connot$ by 8omnipot5t30 f :i*1 toge!r ) ! m9or premise1 x is conclud$1 t ! same incompatibility exi/s betwe5 ! attribute omnipot5ce & ^? con/itut+ a k+4 ,9 a simil> mann] we might analyze any o!r example ( ! syllogism4 ,if we g5]alize ?is process1 & look out = ! pr9ciple or law involv$ 9 e su* inf]5ce1 & presuppos$ 9 e syllogism1 ! propositions ( :i* are any ?+ m ?an m]ely v]bal2 we f9d1 n ! unmean+ dictum de omni et nullo1 b a fundam5tal pr9ciple1 or r two pr9ciples1 /rik+ly resembl+ ! axioms ( ma!matics4 ,! fir/1 :i* is ! pr9ciple ( affirmative syllogisms1 is1 t ?+s :i* co-exi/ ) ! same ?+1 co-exi/ ) "o ano!r3 or 7/ill m precisely7 a ?+ :i* co-exi/s ) ano!r ?+1 :i* o!r co-exi/s ) a ?ird ?+1 also co-exi/s ) t ?ird ?+4 ,! second is ! pr9ciple ( negative syllogisms1 & is to ?is effect3 t a ?+ :i* co-exi/s ) ano!r ?+1 ) :i* o!r a ?ird ?+ does n co-exi/1 is n co-exi/5t ) t ?ird ?+4 ,^! axioms manife/ly relate to facts1 & n to conv5tions2 & "o or o!r ( !m is ! gr\nd ( ! legitimacy ( e argum5t 9 :i* facts & n conv5tions are ! matt] treat$ (47#ec7 #d4 ,x rema9s to translate ?is exposition ( ! syllogism f ! "o into ! o!r ( ! two languages 9 :i* we =m]ly rem>k$7#ed7 t all propositions1 & ( c\rse !re=e all comb9ations ( propositions1 might be express$4 ,we obs]v$ t a proposition might be consid]$ 9 two diff]5t lights2 z a portion ( our k ( nature1 or z a memor&um = our guidance4 ,"u ! =m]1 or speculative aspect1 an affirmative g5]al proposition is an ass]tion ( a speculative tru?1 viz41 t :atev] has a c]ta9 attribute has a c]ta9 o!r attribute4 ,"u ! o!r aspect1 x is to be reg>d$ n z a "p ( our k1 b z an aid = our practical exig5cies1 by enabl+ u1 :5 we see or le>n t an object possesses "o ( ! two attributes1 to inf] t x possesses ! o!r2 ?us employ+ ! fir/ attribute z a m>k or evid5ce ( ! second4 ,?us reg>d$1 e syllogism comes )9 ! foll[+ g5]al =mula3 ,attribute ,a is a m>k ( attribute ,b1 ,! giv5 object has ! m>k ,a1 !re=e ,! giv5 object has ! attribute ,b4 ,ref]r$ to ?is type1 ! argum5ts :i* we h lately cit$ z specim5s ( ! syllogism1 w express !mselves 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 ,! attributes ( man are a m>k ( ! attribute mortality1 ,socrates has ! attributes ( man1 !re=e ,socrates has ! attribute mortality4 ,& aga91 ,! attributes ( man are a m>k ( ! attribute mortality1 ,! attributes ( a k+ are a m>k ( ! attributes ( man1 !re=e ,! attributes ( a k+ are a m>k ( ! attribute mortality4 ,&1 la/ly1 ,! attributes ( man are a m>k ( ! abs5ce ( ! attribute omnipot5ce1 ,! attributes ( a k+ are a m>k ( ! attributes ( man1 !re=e ,! attributes ( a k+ are a m>k ( ! abs5ce ( ! attribute signifi$ by ! ^w omnipot5t 7or1 are evid5ce ( ! abs5ce ( t attribute74 ,to correspond ) ?is alt]ation 9 ! =m ( ! syllogisms1 ! axioms on :i* ! syllogi/ic process is f\nd$ mu/ und]go a correspond+ trans=mation4 ,9 ?is alt]$ phraseology1 bo? ^? axioms may be br\ght "u "o g5]al expression2 namely1 t :atev] has any m>k1 has t :i* x is a m>k (4 ,or1 :5 ! m9or premise z well z ! major is univ]sal1 we may /ate x ?us3 ,:atev] is a m>k ( any m>k1 is a m>k ( t :i* ?is la/ is a m>k (4 ,to trace ! id5tity ( ^! axioms ) ^? previ\sly laid d[n1 may be left to ! intellig5t read]4 ,we %all f9d1 z we proce$1 ! great conv5i5ce ( ! phraseology into :i* we h la/ ?r[n !m1 & :i* is bett] adapt$ ?an any ,i am acqua9t$ )1 to express ) precision & =ce :at is aim$ at1 & actually accompli%$1 9 e case ( ! asc]ta9m5t ( a tru? by ratioc9ation47#ee7 ,*apt] ,,iii4 ,( ,! ,functions ,& ,logical ,value ,( ,! ,syllogism4 #a4 ,we h %[n :at is ! real nature ( ! tru?s ) :i* ! ,syllogism is conv]sant1 9 contradi/9ction to ! m sup]ficial mann] 9 :i* _! import is conceiv$ 9 ! common !ory2 & :at are ! fundam5tal axioms on :i* its probative =ce or conclusiv5ess dep5ds4 ,we h n[ to inquire1 :e!r ! syllogi/ic process1 t ( reason+ f g5]als to p>ticul>s1 is1 or is n1 a process ( inf]5ce2 a progress f ! kn[n to ! unkn[n3 a means ( com+ to a k ( some?+ :i* we did n "k be=e4 ,logicians h be5 rem>kably unanim\s 9 _! mode ( answ]+ ?is "q4 ,x is univ]sally all[$ t a syllogism is vici\s if !re be any ?+ m 9 ! conclusion ?an 0 assum$ 9 ! premises4 ,b ?is is1 9 fact1 to say1 t no?+ ev] 01 or c be1 prov$ by syllogism1 :i* 0 n kn[n1 or assum$ to be kn[n1 be=e4 ,is ratioc9ation1 !n1 n a process ( inf]5ce8 ,& is ! syllogism1 to :i* ! ^w reason+ has s (t5 be5 repres5t$ to be exclusively appropriate1 n really entitl$ to be call$ reason+ at all8 ,?is seems an inevitable consequ5ce ( ! doctr9e1 admitt$ by all writ]s on ! subject1 t a syllogism c prove no m ?an is involv$ 9 ! premises4 ,yet ! ackn[l$gm5t s explicitly made1 has n prev5t$ "o set ( writ]s f cont9u+ to repres5t ! syllogism z ! correct analysis ( :at ! m9d actually p]=ms 9 discov]+ & prov+ ! l>g] half ( ! tru?s1 :e!r ( sci5ce or ( daily life1 :i* we believe2 :ile ^? :o h avoid$ ?is inconsi/5cy1 & foll[$ out ! g5]al !orem respect+ ! logical value ( ! syllogism to its legitimate coroll>y1 h be5 l$ to impute uselessness & frivolity to ! syllogi/ic !ory itself1 on ! gr\nd ( ! petitio pr9cipii :i* !y allege to be inh]5t 9 e syllogism4 ,z ,i believe bo? ^! op9ions to be fundam5tally errone\s1 ,i mu/ reque/ ! att5tion ( ! read] to c]ta9 consid]ations1 )\t :i* any j appreciation ( ! true "* ( ! syllogism1 & ! functions x p]=ms 9 philosophy1 appe>s to me impossible2 b :i* seem to h be5 ei!r ov]look$1 or insuffici5tly adv]t$ to1 bo? by ! def5d]s ( ! syllogi/ic !ory & by its assailants4 #b4 ,x mu/ be grant$ t 9 e syllogism1 consid]$ z an argum5t to prove ! conclusion1 !re is a petitio pr9cipii4 ,:5 we say1 ,all m5 are mortal1 ,socrates is a man1 !re=e ,socrates is mortal2 x is unansw]ably urg$ by ! adv]s>ies ( ! syllogi/ic !ory1 t ! proposition1 ,socrates is mortal1 is presuppos$ 9 ! m g5]al assumption1 ,all m5 are mortal3 t we c n be assur$ ( ! mortality ( all m51 unless we are already c]ta9 ( ! mortality ( e individual man3 t if x be /ill d\btful :e!r ,socrates1 or any o!r individual we *oose to "n1 be mortal or n1 ! same degree ( unc]ta9ty mu/ hang ov] ! ass]tion1 ,all m5 are mortal3 t ! g5]al pr9ciple1 in/ead ( be+ giv5 z evid5ce ( ! p>ticul> case1 c n itself be tak5 = true )\t exception1 until e %ad[ ( d\bt :i* c\ld affect any case compris$ ) x1 is dispell$ by evid5ce aliund2 & !n :at rema9s = ! syllogism to prove8 ,t1 9 %ort1 no reason+ f g5]als to p>ticul>s c1 z su*1 prove any ?+3 s9ce f a g5]al pr9ciple we c n inf] any p>ticul>s1 b ^? :i* ! pr9ciple itself assumes z kn[n4 ,?is doctr9e appe>s to me irrefragable2 & if logicians1 ?\gh unable to dispute x1 h usually exhibit$ a /rong disposition to expla9 x away1 ?is 0 n because !y c\ld discov] any flaw 9 ! argum5t itself1 b because ! contr>y op9ion seem$ to re/ on argum5ts equally indisputable4 ,9 ! syllogism la/ ref]r$ to1 = example1 or 9 any ( ^? :i* we previ\sly con/ruct$1 is x n evid5t t ! conclusion may1 to ! p]son to :om ! syllogism is pres5t$1 be actually & bona fide a new tru?8 ,is x n matt] ( daily exp]i5ce t tru?s previ\sly un?\ght (1 facts :i* h n be51 & c n be1 directly obs]v$1 are arriv$ at by way ( g5]al reason+8 ,we believe t ! ,duke ( ,well+ton is mortal4 ,we d n "k ?is by direct obs]vation1 s long z he is n yet dead4 ,if we 7 ask$ h[1 ?is be+ ! case1 we "k ! duke to be mortal1 we %\ld probably answ]1 ,because all m5 are s4 ,"h1 !re=e1 we arrive at ! k ( a tru? n 7z yet7 susceptible ( obs]vation1 by a reason+ :i* admits ( be+ exhibit$ 9 ! foll[+ syllogism3 ,all m5 are mortal1 ,! ,duke ( ,well+ton is a man1 !re=e ,! ,duke ( ,well+ton is mortal4 ,& s9ce a l>ge portion ( our k is ?us acquir$1 logicians h p]si/$ 9 repres5t+ ! syllogism z a process ( inf]5ce or pro(2 ?\gh none ( !m has cle>$ up ! difficulty :i* arises f ! inconsi/5cy betwe5 t ass]tion1 & ! pr9ciple1 t if !re be any ?+ 9 ! conclusion :i* 0 n already ass]t$ 9 ! premises1 ! argum5t is vici\s4 ,= x is impossible to atta* any s]i\s sci5tific value to su* a m]e salvo1 z ! di/9ction drawn betwe5 be+ involv$ by implication 9 ! premises1 & be+ directly ass]t$ 9 !m4 ,:5 ,ar*bi%op ,:ately says7#ef7 t ! object ( reason+ is 8m]ely to exp& & unfold ! ass]tions wrapp$ up1 z x 71 & impli$ 9 ^? ) :i* we set out1 & to br+ a p]son to p]ceive & ackn[l$ge ! full =ce ( t :i* he has admitt$10 he does n1 ,i ?9k1 meet ! real difficulty requir+ to be expla9$1 namely1 h[ x happ5s t a sci5ce1 l geometry1 c be all 8wrapp$ up0 9 a few def9itions & axioms4 ,nor does ?is def5se ( ! syllogism diff] mu* f :at its assailants urge aga9/ x z an accusation1 :5 !y *>ge x ) be+ ( no use except to ^? :o seek to press ! consequ5ces ( an admission into :i* a p]son has be5 entrapp$ )\t hav+ consid]$ & und]/ood its full =ce4 ,:5 y admitt$ ! major premise1 y ass]t$ ! conclusion2 b1 says ,ar*bi%op ,:ately1 y ass]t$ x by implication m]ely3 ?is1 h[ev]1 c "h only mean t y ass]t$ x unconsci\sly2 t y did n "k y 7 ass]t+ x2 b1 if s1 ! difficulty revives 9 ?is %ape--,ought y n to h kn[n8 ,7 y w>rant$ 9 ass]t+ ! g5]al proposition )\t hav+ satisfi$ y\rself ( ! tru? ( e ?+ :i* x fairly includes8 ,& if n1 is n ! syllogi/ic art prima facie :at its assailants affirm x to be1 a contrivance = cat*+ y 9 a trap1 & hold+ y fa/ 9 x87#eg7 #c4 ,f ?is difficulty !re appe>s to be b "o issue4 ,! proposition t ! ,duke ( ,well+ton is mortal1 is evid5tly an inf]5ce2 x is got at z a conclusion f some?+ else2 b d we1 9 reality1 conclude x f ! proposition1 ,all m5 are mortal8 ,i answ]1 no4 ,! error committ$ is1 ,i conceive1 t ( ov]look+ ! di/9ction betwe5 two p>ts ( ! process ( philosophiz+1 ! inf]r+ "p1 & ! regi/]+ "p2 & ascrib+ to ! latt] ! functions ( ! =m]4 ,! mi/ake is t ( ref]r+ a p]son to 8 own notes = ! orig9 ( 8 k4 ,if a p]son is ask$ a "q1 & is at ! mom5t unable to answ] x1 he may refre% 8 memory by turn+ to a memor&um :i* he c>ries ab\t ) him4 ,b if he 7 ask$1 h[ ! fact came to 8 k1 he w\ld sc>cely answ]1 because x 0 set d[n 9 8 note-book3 unless ! book 0 writt51 l ! ,koran1 ) a quill f ! w+ ( ! angel ,gabriel4 ,assum+ t ! proposition1 ,! ,duke ( ,well+ton is mortal1 is imm$iately an inf]5ce f ! proposition1 ,all m5 are mortal2 :5ce d we d]ive our k ( t g5]al tru?8 ,( c\rse f obs]vation4 ,n[1 all :i* man c obs]ve are individual cases4 ,f ^! all g5]al tru?s mu/ be drawn1 & into ^! !y may be aga9 resolv$2 = a g5]al tru? is b an aggregate ( p>ticul> tru?s2 a compreh5sive expression1 by :i* an indef9ite numb] ( individual facts are affirm$ or d5i$ at once4 ,b a g5]al proposition is n m]ely a comp5di\s =m = record+ & pres]v+ 9 ! memory a numb] ( p>ticul> facts1 all ( :i* h be5 obs]v$4 ,g5]alization is n a process ( m]e nam+1 x is also a process ( inf]5ce4 ,f in/ances :i* we h obs]v$1 we feel w>rant$ 9 conclud+1 t :at we f\nd true 9 ^? in/ances1 holds 9 all simil> ones1 pa/1 pres5t1 & future1 h[ev] num]\s !y may be4 ,we !n1 by t valuable contrivance ( language :i* enables u to speak ( _m z if !y 7 "o1 record all t we h obs]v$1 toge!r ) all t we inf] f our obs]vations1 9 "o concise expression2 & h ?us only "o proposition1 in/ead ( an endless numb]1 to rememb] or to communicate4 ,! results ( _m obs]vations & inf]5ces1 & in/ructions = mak+ innum]able inf]5ces 9 un=ese5 cases1 are compress$ into "o %ort s5t5ce4 ,:51 !re=e1 we conclude f ! dea? ( ,john & ,?omas1 & e o!r p]son we ev] he>d ( 9 ^: case ! exp]im5t _h be5 fairly tri$1 t ! ,duke ( ,well+ton is mortal l ! re/2 we may1 inde$1 pass ?r\gh ! g5]alization1 ,all m5 are mortal1 z an int]m$iate /age2 b x is n 9 ! latt] half ( ! process1 ! desc5t f all m5 to ! ,duke ( ,well+ton1 t ! inf]5ce resides4 ,! inf]5ce is f9i%$ :5 we h ass]t$ t all m5 are mortal4 ,:at rema9s to be p]=m$ aft]w>d is m]ely deciph]+ our own notes4 ,ar*bi%op ,:ately has cont5d$ t syllogiz+1 or reason+ f g5]als to p>ticul>s1 is n1 agreeably to ! vulg> idea1 a peculi> mode ( reason+1 b ! philosophical analysis ( ! mode 9 :i* all m5 reason1 & mu/ d s if !y reason at all4 ,) ! def]5ce due to s high an au?ority1 ,i c n help ?9k+ t ! vulg> notion is1 9 ?is case1 ! m correct4 ,if1 f our exp]i5ce ( ,john1 ,?omas1 etc41 :o once 7 liv+1 b are n[ dead1 we are entitl$ to conclude t all human be+s are mortal1 we might surely )\t any logical inconsequ5ce h conclud$ at once f ^? in/ances1 t ! ,duke ( ,well+ton is mortal4 ,! mortality ( ,john1 ,?omas1 & o!rs is1 aft] all1 ! :ole evid5ce we h = ! mortality ( ! ,duke ( ,well+ton4 ,n "o iota is add$ to ! pro( by int]polat+ a g5]al proposition4 ,s9ce ! individual cases are all ! evid5ce we c possess1 evid5ce :i* no logical =m into :i* we *oose to ?r[ x c make great] ?an x is2 & s9ce t evid5ce is ei!r suffici5t 9 itself1 or1 if insuffici5t = ! "o purpose1 c n be suffici5t = ! o!r2 ,i am unable to see :y we %\ld be =bidd5 to take ! %orte/ cut f ^! suffici5t premises to ! conclusion1 & con/ra9$ to travel ! 8high priori road10 by ! arbitr>y fiat ( logicians4 ,i c n p]ceive :y x %\ld be impossible to j\rney f "o place to ano!r unless we 8m>* up a hill1 & !n m>* d[n aga940 ,x may be ! safe/ road1 & !re may be a re/+-place at ! top ( ! hill1 af=d+ a comm&+ view ( ! surr\nd+ c\ntry2 b = ! m]e purpose ( arriv+ at our j\rney's end1 our tak+ t road is p]fectly optional2 x is a "q ( "t1 tr\ble1 & dang]4 ,n only may we reason f p>ticul>s to p>ticul>s )\t pass+ ?r\gh g5]als1 b we p]petually d s reason4 ,all our e>lie/ inf]5ces are ( ?is nature4 ,f ! fir/ dawn ( intellig5ce we draw inf]5ces1 b ye>s elapse be=e we le>n ! use ( g5]al language4 ,! *ild1 :o1 hav+ burn$ 8 f+]s1 avoids to ?ru/ !m aga9 into ! fire1 has reason$ or inf]r$1 ?\gh he has nev] ?\ght ( ! g5]al maxim1 ,fire burns4 ,he kn[s f memory t he has be5 burn$1 & on ?is evid5ce believes1 :5 he sees a c&le1 t if he puts 8 f+] into ! flame ( x1 he w be burn$ aga94 ,he believes ?is 9 e case :i* happ5s to arise2 b )\t look+1 9 ea* in/ance1 beyond ! pres5t case4 ,he is n g5]aliz+2 he is inf]r+ a p>ticul> f p>ticul>s4 ,9 ! same way1 also1 brutes reason4 ,!re is no gr\nd = attribut+ to any ( ! l[] animals ! use ( signs1 ( su* a nature z to r5d] g5]al propositions possible4 ,b ^? animals pr(it by exp]i5ce1 & avoid :at !y h f\nd to cause !m pa91 9 ! same mann]1 ?\gh n always ) ! same skill1 z a human creature4 ,n only ! burn$ *ild1 b ! burn$ dog1 dreads ! fire4 ,i believe t1 9 po9t ( fact1 :5 draw+ inf]5ces f our p]sonal exp]i5ce1 & n f maxims h&$ d[n to u by books or tradition1 we mu* (t5] conclude f p>ticul>s to p>ticul>s directly1 ?an ?r\gh ! int]m$iate ag5cy ( any g5]al proposition4 ,we are con/antly reason+ f ourselves to o!r p1 or f "o p]son to ano!r1 )\t giv+ ourselves ! tr\ble to erect our obs]vations into g5]al maxims ( human or ext]nal nature4 ,:5 we conclude t "s p]son w1 on "s giv5 occasion1 feel or act s & s1 we sometimes judge f an enl>g$ consid]ation ( ! mann] 9 :i* human be+s 9 g5]al1 or p]sons ( "s p>ticul> "*1 are accu/om$ to feel & act2 b mu* (t5] f m]ely recollect+ ! feel+s & conduct ( ! same p]son 9 "s previ\s in/ance1 or f consid]+ h[ we %\ld feel or act ourselves4 ,x is n only ! village matron1 :o1 :5 call$ to a consultation ^u ! case ( a neighbor's *ild1 pron\nces on ! evil & its rem$y simply on ! recollection & au?ority ( :at %e acc\nts ! simil> case ( h] ,lucy4 ,we all1 :]e we h no def9ite maxims to /e] by1 guide ourselves 9 ! same way3 & if we h an ext5sive exp]i5ce1 & reta9 its impressions /rongly1 we may acquire 9 ?is mann] a v consid]able p[] ( accurate judgm5t1 :i* we may be utt]ly incapable ( ju/ify+ or ( communicat+ to o!rs4 ,among ! high] ord] ( practical intellects !re h be5 _m ( :om x 0 rem>k$ h[ admirably !y suit$ _! means to _! ends1 )\t be+ able to give any suffici5t reasons = :at !y did2 & appli$1 or seem$ to apply1 recondite pr9ciples :i* !y 7 :olly unable to /ate4 ,?is is a natural consequ5ce ( hav+ a m9d /or$ ) appropriate p>ticul>s1 & hav+ be5 long accu/om$ to reason at once f ^! to fre% p>ticul>s1 )\t practic+ ! habit ( /at+ to "o's self or to o!rs ! correspond+ g5]al propositions4 ,an old w>rior1 on a rapid glance at ! outl9es ( ! gr\nd1 is able at once to give ! necess>y ord]s = a skillful arrangem5t ( 8 troops2 ?\gh if he has receiv$ little !oretical in/ruction1 & has seldom be5 call$ ^u to answ] to o!r p = 8 conduct1 he may nev] h _h 9 8 m9d a s+le g5]al !orem respect+ ! relation betwe5 gr\nd & array4 ,b 8 exp]i5ce ( encampm5ts1 9 circum/ances m or less simil>1 has left a numb] ( vivid1 unexpress$1 ung5]aliz$ analogies 9 8 m9d1 ! mo/ appropriate ( :i*1 in/antly sugge/+ itself1 det]m9es him to a judici\s arrangem5t4 ,! skill ( an un$ucat$ p]son 9 ! use ( weapons1 or ( tools1 is ( a precisely simil> nature4 ,! savage :o executes un]r+ly ! exact ?r[ :i* br+s d[n 8 game1 or 8 enemy1 9 ! mann] mo/ suit$ to 8 purpose1 "u ! op]ation ( all ! conditions necess>ily involv$1 ! weight & =m ( ! weapon1 ! direction & di/ance ( ! object1 ! action ( ! w9d1 etc41 owes ?is p[] to a long s]ies ( previ\s exp]im5ts1 ! results ( :i* he c]ta9ly nev] fram$ into any v]bal !orems or rules4 ,! same ?+ may g5]ally be said ( any o!r extraord9>y manual dext]ity4 ,n long ago a ,scot* manufactur] procur$ f ,engl&1 at a high rate ( wages1 a work+ dy]1 fam\s = produc+ v f9e colors1 ) ! view ( tea*+ to 8 o!r workm5 ! same skill4 ,! workman came2 b 8 mode ( proportion+ ! +r$i5ts1 9 :i* lay ! secret ( ! effects he produc$1 0 by tak+ !m up 9 h&fuls1 :ile ! common me?od 0 to weigh !m4 ,! manufactur] s\ght to make him turn 8 h&l+ sy/em into an equival5t weigh+ sy/em1 t ! g5]al pr9ciple ( 8 peculi> mode ( proce$+ might be asc]ta9$4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 ! man f\nd himself q unable to d1 & !re=e c\ld imp>t 8 skill to nobody4 ,he _h1 f ! individual cases ( 8 own exp]i5ce1 e/abli%$ a connection 9 8 m9d betwe5 f9e effects ( color1 & tactual p]ceptions 9 h&l+ 8 dye+ mat]ials2 & f ^! p]ceptions he c\ld1 9 any p>ticul> case1 inf] ! means to be employ$1 & ! effects :i* w\ld be produc$1 b c\ld n put o!rs 9 possession ( ! gr\nds on :i* he proce$$1 f hav+ nev] g5]aliz$ !m 9 8 own m9d1 or express$ !m 9 language4 ,almo/ e "o kn[s ,"l ,mansfield's advice to a man ( practical good s5se1 :o1 be+ appo9t$ gov]nor ( a colony1 _h to preside 9 its c\rts ( ju/ice1 )\t previ\s judicial practice or legal education4 ,! advice 0 to give 8 decision boldly1 = x w\ld probably be "r2 b nev] to v5ture on assign+ reasons1 = !y w\ld almo/ infallibly be wrong4 ,9 cases l ?is1 :i* are ( no uncommon occurr5ce1 x w\ld be absurd to suppose t ! bad reason 0 ! s\rce ( ! good decision4 ,"l ,mansfield knew t if any reason 7 assign$ x w\ld be necess>ily an aft]?\ght1 ! judge be+ 9 fact guid$ by impressions f pa/ exp]i5ce1 )\t ! circuit\s process ( fram+ g5]al pr9ciples f !m1 & t if he attempt$ to frame any su* he w\ld assur$ly fail4 ,"l ,mansfield1 h[ev]1 w\ld n h d\bt$ t a man ( equal exp]i5ce :o _h also a m9d /or$ ) g5]al propositions d]iv$ by legitimate induction f t exp]i5ce1 w\ld h be5 greatly pref]able z a judge1 to "o1 h[ev] sagaci\s1 :o c\ld n be tru/$ ) ! explanation & ju/ification ( 8 own judgm5ts4 ,! cases ( m5 ( tal5t p]=m+ wond]ful ?+s !y "k n h[1 are examples ( ! rude/ & mo/ spontane\s =m ( ! op]ations ( sup]ior m9ds4 ,x is a defect 9 !m1 & (t5 a s\rce ( errors1 n to h g5]aliz$ z !y w5t on2 b g5]alization1 ?\gh a help1 ! mo/ important inde$ ( all helps1 is n an ess5tial4 ,ev5 ! sci5tifically in/ruct$1 :o possess1 9 ! =m ( g5]al propositions1 a sy/ematic record ( ! results ( ! exp]i5ce ( mank9d1 ne$ n always rev]t to ^? g5]al propositions 9 ord] to apply t exp]i5ce to a new case4 ,x is ju/ly rem>k$ by ,dugald ,/ew>t1 t ?\gh ! reason+s 9 ma!matics dep5d entirely on ! axioms1 x is by no means necess>y to our see+ ! conclusiv5ess ( ! pro(1 t ! axioms %\ld be expressly adv]t$ to4 ,:5 x is inf]r$ t ,,ab is equal to ,,cd because ea* ( !m is equal to ,,ef1 ! mo/ uncultivat$ und]/&+1 z soon z ! propositions 7 und]/ood1 w\ld ass5t to ! inf]5ce1 )\t hav+ ev] he>d ( ! g5]al tru? t 8?+s :i* are equal to ! same ?+ are equal to "o ano!r40 ,?is rem>k ( ,/ew>t1 consi/5tly foll[$ out1 goes to ! root1 z ,i conceive1 ( ! philosophy ( ratioc9ation2 & x is to be regrett$ t he himself /opp$ %ort at a mu* m limit$ application ( x4 ,he saw t ! g5]al propositions on :i* a reason+ is said to dep5d1 may1 9 c]ta9 cases1 be altoge!r omitt$1 )\t impair+ its probative =ce4 ,b he imag9$ ?is to be a peculi>ity belong+ to axioms2 & argu$ f x1 t axioms are n ! f\ndations or fir/ pr9ciples ( geometry1 f :i* all ! o!r tru?s ( ! sci5ce are syn!tically d$uc$ 7z ! laws ( motion & ( ! composition ( =ces 9 dynamics1 ! equal mobility ( fluids 9 hydro/atics1 ! laws ( reflection & refraction 9 optics1 are ! fir/ pr9ciples ( ^? sci5ces72 b are m]ely necess>y assumptions1 self-evid5t inde$1 & ! d5ial ( :i* w\ld annihilate all demon/ration1 b f :i*1 z premises1 no?+ c be demon/rat$4 ,9 ! pres5t1 z 9 _m o!r in/ances1 ?is ?\ghtful & elegant writ] has p]ceiv$ an important tru?1 b only by halves4 ,f9d+1 9 ! case ( geometrical axioms1 t g5]al names h n any talismanic virtue = conjur+ new tru?s out ( ! well :]e !y lie hid1 & n see+ t ?is is equally true 9 e o!r case ( g5]alization1 he cont5d$ t axioms are 9 _! nature b>r5 ( consequ5ces1 & t ! really fruitful tru?s1 ! real fir/ pr9ciples ( geometry1 are ! def9itions2 t ! def9ition1 = example1 ( ! circle is to ! prop]ties ( ! circle1 :at ! laws ( equilibrium & ( ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e are to ! rise ( ! m]cury 9 ! ,torricellian tube4 ,yet all t he _h ass]t$ respect+ ! function to :i* ! axioms are conf9$ 9 ! demon/rations ( geometry1 holds equally true ( ! def9itions4 ,e demon/ration 9 ,euclid might be c>ri$ on )\t !m4 ,?is is app>5t f ! ord9>y process ( prov+ a proposition ( geometry by means ( a diagram4 ,:at assumption1 9 fact1 d we set out f1 to demon/rate by a diagram any ( ! prop]ties ( ! circle8 ,n t 9 all circles ! radii are equal1 b only t !y are s 9 ! circle ,,abc4 ,z our w>rant = assum+ ?is1 we appeal1 x is true1 to ! def9ition ( a circle 9 g5]al2 b x is only necess>y t ! assumption be grant$ 9 ! case ( ! p>ticul> circle suppos$4 ,f ?is1 :i* is n a g5]al b a s+ul> proposition1 comb9$ ) o!r propositions ( a simil> k9d1 "s ( :i* :5 g5]aliz$ are call$ def9itions1 & o!r axioms1 we prove t a c]ta9 conclusion is true1 n ( all circles1 b ( ! p>ticul> circle ,,abc2 or at lea/ w\ld be s1 if ! facts precisely accord$ ) our assumptions4 ,! enunciation1 z x is call$1 t is1 ! g5]al !orem :i* /&s at ! head ( ! demon/ration1 is n ! proposition actually demon/rat$4 ,"o in/ance only is demon/rat$3 b ! process by :i* ?is is done1 is a process :i*1 :5 we consid] its nature1 we p]ceive might be exactly copi$ 9 an indef9ite numb] ( o!r in/ances2 9 e in/ance :i* con=ms to c]ta9 conditions4 ,! contrivance ( g5]al language furni%+ u ) t]ms :i* connote ^! conditions1 we are able to ass]t ?is indef9ite multitude ( tru?s 9 a s+le expression1 & ?is expression is ! g5]al !orem4 ,by dropp+ ! use ( diagrams1 & sub/itut+1 9 ! demon/rations1 g5]al phrases = ! lett]s ( ! alphabet1 we might prove ! g5]al !orem directly1 t is1 we might demon/rate all ! cases at once2 & to d ?is we mu/1 ( c\rse1 employ z our premises1 ! axioms & def9itions 9 _! g5]al =m4 ,b ?is only means1 t if we c prove an individual conclusion by assum+ an individual fact1 !n 9 :atev] case we are w>rant$ 9 mak+ an exactly simil> assumption1 we may draw an exactly simil> conclusion4 ,! def9ition is a sort ( notice to ourselves & o!rs1 :at assumptions we ?9k ourselves entitl$ to make4 ,& s 9 all cases1 ! g5]al propositions1 :e!r call$ def9itions1 axioms1 or laws ( nature1 :i* we lay d[n at ! beg9n+ ( our reason+s1 are m]ely abridg$ /atem5ts1 9 a k9d ( %ort-h&1 ( ! p>ticul> facts1 :i*1 z occasion arises1 we ei!r ?9k we may proce$ on z prov$1 or int5d to assume4 ,9 any "o demon/ration x is en\gh if we assume = a p>ticul> case suitably select$1 :at by ! /atem5t ( ! def9ition or pr9ciple we ann\nce t we int5d to assume 9 all cases :i* may arise4 ,! def9ition ( ! circle1 !re=e1 is to "o ( ,euclid's demon/rations1 exactly :at1 accord+ to ,/ew>t1 ! axioms are2 t is1 ! demon/ration does n dep5d on x1 b yet if we d5y x ! demon/ration fails4 ,! pro( does n re/ on ! g5]al assumption1 b on a simil> assumption conf9$ to ! p>ticul> case3 t case1 h[ev]1 be+ *os5 z a specim5 or p>adigm ( ! :ole class ( cases includ$ 9 ! !orem1 !re c be no gr\nd = mak+ ! assumption 9 t case :i* does n exi/ 9 e o!r2 & to d5y ! assumption z a g5]al tru?1 is to d5y ! "r ( mak+ x 9 ! p>ticul> in/ance4 ,!re are1 und\bt$ly1 ! mo/ ample reasons = /at+ bo? ! pr9ciples & ! !orems 9 _! g5]al =m1 & ^! w be expla9$ pres5tly1 s f> z explanation is requisite4 ,b1 t unpractic$ le>n]s1 ev5 9 mak+ use ( "o !orem to demon/rate ano!r1 reason r f p>ticul> to p>ticul> ?an f ! g5]al proposition1 is manife/ f ! difficulty !y f9d 9 apply+ a !orem to a case 9 :i* ! configuration ( ! diagram is extremely unlike t ( ! diagram by :i* ! orig9al !orem 0 demon/rat$4 ,a difficulty :i*1 except 9 cases ( unusual m5tal p[]1 long practice c alone remove1 & removes *iefly by r5d]+ u famili> ) all ! configurations consi/5t ) ! g5]al conditions ( ! !orem4 #d4 ,f ! consid]ations n[ adduc$1 ! foll[+ conclusions seem to be e/abli%$4 ,all inf]5ce is f p>ticul>s to p>ticul>s3 ,g5]al propositions are m]ely regi/]s ( su* inf]5ces already made1 & %ort =mul = mak+ m3 ,! major premise ( a syllogism1 consequ5tly1 is a =mula ( ?is description3 & ! conclusion is n an inf]5ce drawn f ! =mula1 b an inf]5ce drawn accord+ to ! =mula3 ! real logical antec$5t1 or premise1 be+ ! p>ticul> facts f :i* ! g5]al proposition 0 collect$ by induction4 ,^? facts1 & ! individual in/ances :i* suppli$ !m1 may h be5 =gott53 b a record rema9s1 n inde$ descriptive ( ! facts !mselves1 b %[+ h[ ^? cases may be di/+ui%$1 respect+ :i*1 ! facts1 :5 kn[n1 7 consid]$ to w>rant a giv5 inf]5ce4 ,accord+ to ! indications ( ?is record we draw our conclusion3 :i* is1 to all int5ts & purposes1 a conclusion f ! =gott5 facts4 ,= ?is x is ess5tial t we %\ld read ! record correctly3 & ! rules ( ! syllogism are a set ( precautions to insure our do+ s4 ,?is view ( ! functions ( ! syllogism is confirm$ by ! consid]ation ( precisely ^? cases :i* might be expect$ to be lea/ favorable to x1 namely1 ^? 9 :i* ratioc9ation is indep5d5t ( any previ\s induction4 ,we h already obs]v$ t ! syllogism1 9 ! ord9>y c\rse ( our reason+1 is only ! latt] half ( ! process ( travel+ f premises to a conclusion4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 "s peculi> cases 9 :i* x is ! :ole process4 ,p>ticul>s alone are capable ( be+ subject$ to obs]vation2 & all k :i* is d]iv$ f obs]vation1 beg9s1 !re=e1 ( necessity1 9 p>ticul>s2 b our k may1 9 cases ( c]ta9 descriptions1 be conceiv$ z com+ to u f o!r s\rces ?an obs]vation4 ,x may pres5t itself z com+ f te/imony1 :i*1 on ! occasion & = ! purpose 9 h&1 is accept$ z ( an au?oritative "*3 & ! in=mation ?us communicat$1 may be conceiv$ to comprise n only p>ticul> facts b g5]al propositions1 z :5 a sci5tific doctr9e is accept$ )\t exam9ation on ! au?ority ( writ]s1 or a !ological doctr9e on t ( ,scripture4 ,or ! g5]alization may n be1 9 ! ord9>y s5se1 an ass]tion at all1 b a comm&2 a law1 n 9 ! philosophical1 b 9 ! moral & political s5se ( ! t]m3 an expression ( ! desire ( a sup]ior1 t we1 or any numb] ( o!r p]sons1 %all con=m our conduct to c]ta9 g5]al in/ructions4 ,s f> z ?is ass]ts a fact1 namely1 a volition ( ! legislator1 t fact is an individual fact1 & ! proposition1 !re=e1 is n a g5]al proposition4 ,b ! description !re9 conta9$ ( ! conduct :i* x is ! w ( ! legislator t 8 subjects %\ld obs]ve1 is g5]al4 ,! proposition ass]ts1 n t all m5 are any ?+1 b t all m5 %all d some?+4 ,9 bo? ^! cases ! g5]alities are ! orig9al data1 & ! p>ticul>s are elicit$ f !m by a process :i* correctly resolves itself into a s]ies ( syllogisms4 ,! real nature1 h[ev]1 ( ! suppos$ d$uctive process1 is evid5t en\gh4 ,! only po9t to be det]m9$ is1 :e!r ! au?ority :i* decl>$ ! g5]al proposition1 int5d$ to include ?is case 9 x2 & :e!r ! legislator int5d$ 8 comm& to apply to ! pres5t case among o!rs1 or n4 ,?is is asc]ta9$ by exam9+ :e!r ! case possesses ! m>ks by :i*1 z ^? au?orities h signifi$1 ! cases :i* !y meant to c]tify or to influ5ce may be kn[n4 ,! object ( ! inquiry is to make out ! witness's or ! legislator's int5tion1 ?r\gh ! indication giv5 by _! words4 ,?is is a "q1 z ! ,g]mans express x1 ( h]m5eutics4 ,! op]ation is n a process ( inf]5ce1 b a process ( int]pretation4 ,9 ?is la/ phrase we h obta9$ an expression :i* appe>s to me to *>act]ize1 m aptly ?an any o!r1 ! functions ( ! syllogism 9 all cases4 ,:5 ! premises are giv5 by au?ority1 ! function ( ,reason+ is to asc]ta9 ! te/imony ( a witness1 or ! w ( a legislator1 by int]pret+ ! signs 9 :i* ! "o has intimat$ 8 ass]tion & ! o!r 8 comm&4 ,9 l mann]1 :5 ! premises are d]iv$ f obs]vation1 ! function ( ,reason+ is to asc]ta9 :at we 7or our pr$ecessors7 =m]ly ?\ght might be inf]r$ f ! obs]v$ facts1 & to d ?is by int]pret+ a memor&um ( ours1 or ( !irs4 ,! memor&um rem9ds u1 t f evid5ce1 m or less c>efully weigh$1 x =m]ly appe>$ t a c]ta9 attribute might be inf]r$ :]ev] we p]ceive a c]ta9 m>k4 ,! proposition1 ,all m5 are mortal 7= in/ance7 %[s t we h _h exp]i5ce f :i* we ?\ght x foll[$ t ! attributes connot$ by ! t]m man1 are a m>k ( mortality4 ,b :5 we conclude t ! ,duke ( ,well+ton is mortal1 we d n inf] ?is f ! memor&um1 b f ! =m] exp]i5ce4 ,all t we inf] f ! memor&um is our own previ\s belief1 7or t ( ^? :o transmitt$ to u ! proposition71 conc]n+ ! inf]5ces :i* t =m] exp]i5ce w\ld w>rant4 ,?is view ( ! nature ( ! syllogism r5d]s consi/5t & intelligible :at o!rwise rema9s obscure & confus$ 9 ! !ory ( ,ar*bi%op ,:ately & o!r enlight5$ def5d]s ( ! syllogi/ic doctr9e1 respect+ ! limits to :i* its functions are conf9$4 ,!y affirm 9 z explicit t]ms z c be us$1 t ! sole (fice ( g5]al reason+ is to prev5t inconsi/5cy 9 our op9ions2 to prev5t u f ass5t+ to any ?+1 ! tru? ( :i* w\ld contradict some?+ to :i* we _h previ\sly on good gr\nds giv5 our ass5t4 ,& !y tell u1 t ! sole gr\nd :i* a syllogism af=ds = ass5t+ to ! conclusion1 is t ! supposition ( its be+ false1 comb9$ ) ! supposition t ! premises are true1 w\ld lead to a contradiction 9 t]ms4 ,n[ ?is w\ld be b a lame acc\nt ( ! real gr\nds :i* we h = believ+ ! facts :i* we le>n f reason+1 9 contradi/9ction to obs]vation4 ,! true reason :y we believe t ! ,duke ( ,well+ton w die1 is t 8 fa!rs1 & our fa!rs1 & all o!r p]sons :o 7 contempor>y ) !m1 h di$4 ,^? facts are ! real premises ( ! reason+4 ,b we are n l$ to inf] ! conclusion f ^? premises1 by ! necessity ( avoid+ any v]bal inconsi/5cy4 ,!re is no contradiction 9 suppos+ t all ^? p]sons h di$1 & t ! ,duke ( ,well+ton may1 not)/&+1 live =ev]4 ,b !re w\ld be a contradiction if we fir/1 on ! gr\nd ( ^? same premises1 made a g5]al ass]tion includ+ & cov]+ ! case ( ! ,duke ( ,well+ton1 & !n refus$ to /& to x 9 ! individual case4 ,!re is an inconsi/5cy to be avoid$ betwe5 ! memor&um we make ( ! inf]5ces :i* may be ju/ly drawn 9 future cases1 & ! inf]5ces we actually draw 9 ^? cases :5 !y arise4 ,) ?is view we int]pret our own =mula1 precisely z a judge int]prets a law3 9 ord] t we may avoid draw+ any inf]5ces n con=mable to our =m] int5tion1 z a judge avoids giv+ any decision n con=mable to ! legislator's int5tion4 ,! rules = ?is int]pretation are ! rules ( ! syllogism3 & its sole purpose is to ma9ta9 consi/5cy betwe5 ! conclusions we draw 9 e p>ticul> case1 & ! previ\s g5]al directions = draw+ !m2 :e!r ^? g5]al directions 7 fram$ by ourselves z ! result ( induction1 or 7 receiv$ by u f an au?ority compet5t to give !m4 #e4 ,9 ! above obs]vations x has1 ,i ?9k1 be5 %[n1 t1 ?\gh !re is always a process ( reason+ or inf]5ce :]e a syllogism is us$1 ! syllogism is n a correct analysis ( t process ( reason+ or inf]5ce2 :i* is1 on ! contr>y 7:5 n a m]e inf]5ce f te/imony71 an inf]5ce f p>ticul>s to p>ticul>s2 au?oriz$ by a previ\s inf]5ce f p>ticul>s to g5]als1 & sub/antially ! same ) x2 ( ! nature1 !re=e1 ( ,induction4 ,b :ile ^! conclusions appe> to me und5iable1 ,i mu/ yet ent] a prote/1 z /rong z t ( ,ar*bi%op ,:ately himself1 aga9/ ! doctr9e t ! syllogi/ic art is useless = ! purposes ( reason+4 ,! reason+ lies 9 ! act ( g5]alization1 n 9 int]pret+ ! record ( t act2 b ! syllogi/ic =m is an indisp5sable collat]al security = ! correctness ( ! g5]alization itself4 ,x has already be5 se51 t if we h a collection ( p>ticul>s suffici5t = gr\nd+ an induction1 we ne$ n frame a g5]al proposition2 we may reason at once f ^? p>ticul>s to o!r p>ticul>s4 ,b x is to be rem>k$ )al1 t :5ev]1 f a set ( p>ticul> cases1 we c legitimately draw any inf]5ce1 we may legitimately make our inf]5ce a g5]al "o4 ,if1 f obs]vation & exp]im5t1 we c conclude to "o new case1 s may we to an indef9ite numb]4 ,if t :i* has held true 9 our pa/ exp]i5ce w !re=e hold 9 "t to come1 x w hold n m]ely 9 "s individual case1 b 9 all cases ( "s giv5 description4 ,e induction1 !re=e1 :i* suffices to prove "o fact1 proves an indef9ite multitude ( facts3 ! exp]i5ce :i* ju/ifies a s+le pr$iction mu/ be su* z w suffice to be> out a g5]al !orem4 ,?is !orem x is extremely important to asc]ta9 & decl>e1 9 its broade/ =m ( g5]ality2 & ?us to place be=e our m9ds1 9 its full ext5t1 ! :ole ( :at our evid5ce mu/ prove if x proves any ?+4 ,?is ?r[+ ( ! :ole body ( possible inf]5ces f a giv5 set ( p>ticul>s1 into "o g5]al expression1 op]ates z a security = _! be+ j inf]5ces1 9 m ways ?an "o4 ,fir/1 ! g5]al pr9ciple pres5ts a l>g] object to ! imag9ation ?an any ( ! s+ul> propositions :i* x conta9s4 ,a process ( ?\ght :i* leads to a compreh5sive g5]ality1 is felt z ( great] importance ?an "o :i* t]m9ates 9 an insulat$ fact2 & ! m9d is1 ev5 unconsci\sly1 l$ to be/[ great] att5tion ^u ! process1 & to weigh m c>efully ! suffici5cy ( ! exp]i5ce appeal$ to1 = support+ ! inf]5ce gr\nd$ ^u x4 ,!re is ano!r1 & a m important1 advantage4 ,9 reason+ f a c\rse ( individual obs]vations to "s new & unobs]v$ case1 :i* we are b imp]fectly acqua9t$ ) 7or we %\ld n be inquir+ into x71 & 9 :i*1 s9ce we are inquir+ into x1 we probably feel a peculi> int]e/2 !re is v little to prev5t u f giv+ way to neglig5ce1 or to any bias :i* may affect our wi%es or our imag9ation1 &1 "u t influ5ce1 accept+ insuffici5t evid5ce z suffici5t4 ,b if1 in/ead ( conclud+ /raight to ! p>ticul> case1 we place be=e ourselves an entire class ( facts--! :ole cont5ts ( a g5]al proposition1 e tittle ( :i* is legitimately inf]able f our premises1 if t "o p>ticul> conclusion is s2 !re is !n a consid]able likelihood t if ! premises are insuffici5t1 & ! g5]al inf]5ce !re=e1 gr\ndless1 x w comprise )9 x "s fact or facts ! rev]se ( :i* we already "k to be true2 & we %all ?us discov] ! error 9 our g5]alization by a r$uctio ad impossibile4 ,?us if1 dur+ ! reign ( ,m>cus ,aurelius1 a subject ( ! ,roman empire1 "u ! bias naturally giv5 to ! imag9ation & expectations by ! lives & *>act]s ( ! ,anton9es1 _h be5 dispos$ to expect t ,commodus w\ld be a j rul]2 suppos+ him to /op !re1 he might only h be5 undeceiv$ by sad exp]i5ce4 ,b if he reflect$ t ?is expectation c\ld n be ju/ifiable unless f ! same evid5ce he 0 w>rant$ 9 conclud+ "s g5]al proposition1 z1 = in/ance1 t all ,roman emp]ors are j rul]s2 he w\ld imm$iately h ?\ght ( ,n]o1 ,domitian1 & o!r in/ances1 :i*1 %[+ ! falsity ( ! g5]al conclusion1 & !re=e ! insuffici5cy ( ! premises1 w\ld h w>n$ him t ^? premises c\ld n prove 9 ! in/ance ( ,commodus1 :at !y 7 inadequate to prove 9 any collection ( cases 9 :i* 8 0 includ$4 ,! advantage1 9 judg+ :e!r any controv]t$ inf]5ce is legitimate1 ( ref]r+ to a p>allel case1 is univ]sally ackn[l$g$4 ,b by asc5d+ to ! g5]al proposition1 we br+ "u our view n "o p>allel case only1 b all possible p>allel cases at once2 all cases to :i* ! same set ( evid5ti>y consid]ations are applicable4 ,:51 !re=e1 we argue f a numb] ( kn[n cases to ano!r case suppos$ to be analog\s1 x is always possible1 & g5]ally advantage\s1 to div]t our argum5t into ! circuit\s *annel ( an induction f ^? kn[n cases to a g5]al proposition1 & a subsequ5t application ( t g5]al proposition to ! unkn[n case4 ,?is second "p ( ! op]ation1 :i*1 z be=e obs]v$1 is ess5tially a process ( int]pretation1 w be resolvable into a syllogism or a s]ies ( syllogisms1 ! majors ( :i* w be g5]al propositions embrac+ :ole classes ( cases2 e "o ( :i* propositions mu/ be true 9 all its ext5t1 if ! argum5t is ma9ta9able4 ,if1 !re=e1 any fact fairly com+ )9 ! range ( "o ( ^! g5]al propositions1 & consequ5tly ass]t$ by x1 is kn[n or suspect$ to be o!r ?an ! proposition ass]ts x to be1 ?is mode ( /at+ ! argum5t causes u to "k or to suspect t ! orig9al obs]vations1 :i* are ! real gr\nds ( our conclusion1 are n suffici5t to support x4 ,& 9 proportion to ! great] *ance ( our detect+ ! inconclusiv5ess ( our evid5ce1 w be ! increas$ reliance we are entitl$ to place 9 x if no su* evid5ce ( defect %all appe>4 ,! value1 !re=e1 ( ! syllogi/ic =m1 & ( ! rules = us+ x correctly1 does n consi/ 9 _! be+ ! =m & ! rules accord+ to :i* our reason+s are necess>ily1 or ev5 usually1 made2 b 9 _! furni%+ u ) a mode 9 :i* ^? reason+s may always be repres5t$1 & :i* is admirably calculat$1 if !y are inconclusive1 to br+ _! inconclusiv5ess to light4 ,an induction f p>ticul>s to g5]als1 foll[$ by a syllogi/ic process f ^? g5]als to o!r p>ticul>s1 is a =m 9 :i* we may always /ate our reason+s if we please4 ,x is n a =m 9 :i* we mu/ reason1 b x is a =m 9 :i* we may reason1 & into :i* x is indisp5sable to ?r[ our reason+1 :5 !re is any d\bt ( its validity3 ?\gh :5 ! case is famili> & little complicat$1 & !re is no suspicion ( error1 we may1 & d1 reason at once f ! kn[n p>ticul> cases to unkn[n ones47#eh7 ,^! are ! uses ( syllogism1 z a mode ( v]ify+ any giv5 argum5t4 ,its ult]ior uses1 z respects ! g5]al c\rse ( our intellectual op]ations1 h>dly require illu/ration1 be+ 9 fact ! ackn[l$g$ uses ( g5]al language4 ,!y am\nt sub/antially to ?is1 t ! inductions may be made once = all3 a s+le c>eful int]rogation ( exp]i5ce may suffice1 & ! result may be regi/]$ 9 ! =m ( a g5]al proposition1 :i* is committ$ to memory or to writ+1 & f :i* aft]w>d we h only to syllogize4 ,! p>ticul>s ( our exp]im5ts may !n be dismiss$ f ! memory1 9 :i* x w\ld be impossible to reta9 s great a multitude ( details2 :ile ! k :i* ^? details af=d$ = future use1 & :i* w\ld o!rwise be lo/ z soon z ! obs]vations 7 =gott51 or z _! record became too bulky = ref]5ce1 is reta9$ 9 a commodi\s & imm$iately available %ape by means ( g5]al language4 ,aga9/ ?is advantage is to be set ! c\nt]vail+ inconv5i5ce1 t inf]5ces orig9ally made on insuffici5t evid5ce become consecrat$1 &1 z x 71 h>d5$ into g5]al maxims2 & ! m9d cleaves to !m f habit1 aft] x has outgr[n any liability to be misl$ by simil> fallaci\s appe>ances if !y 7 n[ = ! fir/ "t pres5t$2 b hav+ =gott5 ! p>ticul>s1 x does n ?9k ( revis+ its own =m] decision4 ,an inevitable drawback1 :i*1 h[ev] consid]able 9 itself1 =ms evid5tly b a small set-(f aga9/ ! imm5se b5efits ( g5]al language4 ,! use ( ! syllogism is 9 tru? no o!r ?an ! use ( g5]al propositions 9 reason+4 ,we c reason )\t !m2 9 simple & obvi\s cases we habitually d s2 m9ds ( great sagacity c d x 9 cases n simple & obvi\s1 provid$ _! exp]i5ce supplies !m ) in/ances ess5tially simil> to e comb9ation ( circum/ances likely to arise4 ,b o!r m9ds1 & ! same m9ds :]e !y h n ! same pre-em95t advantages ( p]sonal exp]i5ce1 are q helpless )\t ! aid ( g5]al propositions1 :]ev] ! case pres5ts ! smalle/ complication2 & if we made no g5]al propositions1 few p]sons w\ld get mu* beyond ^? simple inf]5ces :i* are drawn by ! m intellig5t ( ! brutes4 ,?\gh n necess>y to reason+1 g5]al propositions are necess>y to any consid]able progress 9 reason+4 ,x is1 !re=e1 natural & indisp5sable to sep>ate ! process ( inve/igation into two p>ts2 & obta9 g5]al =mul = det]m9+ :at inf]5ces may be drawn1 be=e ! occasion arises = draw+ ! inf]5ces4 ,! "w ( draw+ !m is !n t ( apply+ ! =mul2 & ! rules ( syllogism are a sy/em ( securities = ! correctness ( ! application4 #f4 ,to complete ! s]ies ( consid]ations connect$ ) ! philosophical "* ( ! syllogism1 x is requisite to consid]1 s9ce ! syllogism is n ! univ]sal type ( ! reason+ process1 :at is ! real type4 ,?is resolves itself into ! "q1 :at is ! nature ( ! m9or premise1 & 9 :at mann] x contributes to e/abli% ! conclusion3 = z to ! major1 we n[ fully und]/&1 t ! place :i* x nom9ally occupies 9 our reason+s1 prop]ly belongs to ! individual facts or obs]vations ( :i* x expresses ! g5]al result2 ! major itself be+ no real "p ( ! argum5t1 b an int]m$iate halt+-place = ! m9d1 int]pos$ by an artifice ( language betwe5 ! real premises & ! conclusion1 by way ( a security1 :i* x is 9 a mo/ mat]ial degree1 = ! correctness ( ! process4 ,! m9or1 h[ev]1 be+ an indisp5sable "p ( ! syllogi/ic expression ( an argum5t1 )\t d\bt ei!r is1 or corresponds to1 an equally indisp5sable "p ( ! argum5t itself1 & we h only to inquire :at "p4 ,x is p]haps wor? :ile to notice "h a speculation ( a philosoph] to :om m5tal sci5ce is mu* indebt$1 b :o1 ?\gh a v p5etrat+1 0 a v ha/y ?9k]1 & ^: want ( due circumspection r5d]$ him fully z rem>kable = :at he did n see1 z = :at he saw4 ,i allude to ,dr4 ,?omas ,br[n1 ^: !ory ( ratioc9ation is peculi>4 ,he saw ! petitio pr9cipii :i* is inh]5t 9 e syllogism1 if we consid] ! major to be itself ! evid5ce by :i* ! conclusion is prov$1 in/ead ( be+1 :at 9 fact x is1 an ass]tion ( ! exi/5ce ( evid5ce suffici5t to prove any conclusion ( a giv5 description4 ,see+ ?is1 ,dr4 ,br[n n only fail$ to see ! imm5se advantage1 9 po9t ( security = correctness1 :i* is ga9$ by int]pos+ ?is /ep betwe5 ! real evid5ce & ! conclusion2 b he ?\ght x incumb5t on him to /rike out ! major altoge!r f ! reason+ process1 )\t sub/itut+ any ?+ else1 & ma9ta9$ t our reason+s consi/ only ( ! m9or premise & ! conclusion1 ,socrates is a man1 !re=e ,socrates is mortal3 ?us actually suppress+1 z an unnecess>y /ep 9 ! argum5t1 ! appeal to =m] exp]i5ce4 ,! absurdity ( ?is 0 disguis$ f him by ! op9ion he adopt$1 t reason+ is m]ely analyz+ our own g5]al notions1 or ab/ract ideas2 & t ! proposition1 ,socrates is mortal1 is evolv$ f ! proposition1 ,socrates is a man1 simply by recogniz+ ! notion ( mortality z already conta9$ 9 ! notion we =m ( a man4 ,aft] ! explanations s fully ent]$ into on ! subject ( propositions1 mu* fur!r discussion c n be necess>y to make ! radical error ( ?is view ( ratioc9ation app>5t4 ,if ! ^w man connot$ mortality2 if ! mean+ ( 8mortal0 7 involv$ 9 ! mean+ ( 8man20 we might1 und\bt$ly1 evolve ! conclusion f ! m9or alone1 because ! m9or w\ld h already ass]t$ x4 ,b if1 z is 9 fact ! case1 ! ^w man does n connote mortality1 h[ does x appe> t 9 ! m9d ( e p]son :o admits ,socrates to be a man1 ! idea ( man mu/ include ! idea ( mortality8 ,dr4 ,br[n c\ld n help see+ ?is difficulty1 & 9 ord] to avoid x1 0 l$1 contr>y to 8 int5tion1 to re-e/abli%1 "u ano!r "n1 t /ep 9 ! argum5t :i* corresponds to ! major1 by affirm+ ! necessity ( previ\sly p]ceiv+ ! relation betwe5 ! idea ( man & ! idea ( mortal4 ,if ! reason] has n previ\sly p]ceiv$ ?is relation1 he w n1 says ,dr4 ,br[n1 inf] because ,socrates is a man1 t ,socrates is mortal4 ,b ev5 ?is admission1 ?\gh am\nt+ to a surr5d] ( ! doctr9e t an argum5t consi/s ( ! m9or & ! conclusion alone1 w n save ! rema9d] ( ,dr4 ,br[n's !ory4 ,! failure ( ass5t to ! argum5t does n take place m]ely because ! reason]1 = want ( due analysis1 does n p]ceive t 8 idea ( man includes ! idea ( mortality2 x takes place1 mu* m commonly1 because 9 8 m9d t relation betwe5 ! two ideas has nev] exi/$4 ,& 9 tru? x nev] does exi/1 except z ! result ( exp]i5ce4 ,cons5t+1 = ! sake ( ! argum5t1 to discuss ! "q on a supposition ( :i* we h recogniz$ ! radical incorrectness1 namely1 t ! mean+ ( a proposition relates to ! ideas ( ! ?+s spok5 (1 & n to ! ?+s !mselves2 ,i mu/ yet obs]ve1 t ! idea ( man1 z a univ]sal idea1 ! common prop]ty ( all rational creatures1 c n involve any ?+ b :at is /rictly impli$ 9 ! "n4 ,if any "o includes 9 8 own private idea ( man1 z no d\bt is always ! case1 "s o!r attributes1 su* = in/ance z mortality1 he does s only z ! consequ5ce ( exp]i5ce1 aft] hav+ satisfi$ himself t all m5 possess t attribute3 s t :atev] ! idea conta9s1 9 any p]son's m9d1 beyond :at is includ$ 9 ! conv5tional signification ( ! ^w1 has be5 add$ to x z ! result ( ass5t to a proposition2 :ile ,dr4 ,br[n's !ory requires u to suppose1 on ! contr>y1 t ass5t to ! proposition is produc$ by evolv+1 ?r\gh an analytic process1 ?is v elem5t out ( ! idea4 ,?is !ory1 !re=e1 may be consid]$ z suffici5tly refut$2 & ! m9or premise mu/ be reg>d$ z totally insuffici5t to prove ! conclusion1 except ) ! assi/ance ( ! major1 or ( t :i* ! major repres5ts1 namely1 ! v>i\s s+ul> propositions expressive ( ! s]ies ( obs]vations1 ( :i* ! g5]alization call$ ! major premise is ! result4 ,9 ! argum5t1 !n1 :i* proves t ,socrates is mortal1 "o indisp5sable "p ( ! premises w be z foll[s3 8,my fa!r1 & my fa!r's fa!r1 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 & an indef9ite numb] ( o!r p]sons1 7 mortal20 :i* is only an expression 9 diff]5t words ( ! obs]v$ fact t !y h di$4 ,?is is ! major premise dive/$ ( ! petitio pr9cipii1 & cut d[n to z mu* z is really kn[n by direct evid5ce4 ,9 ord] to connect ?is proposition ) ! conclusion ,socrates is mortal1 ! additional l9k necess>y is su* a proposition z ! foll[+3 8,socrates resembles my fa!r1 & my fa!r's fa!r1 & ! o!r individuals specifi$40 ,?is proposition we ass]t :5 we say t ,socrates is a man4 ,by say+ s we likewise ass]t 9 :at respect he resembles !m1 namely1 9 ! attributes connot$ by ! ^w man4 ,& we conclude t he fur!r resembles !m 9 ! attribute mortality4 #g4 ,we h ?us obta9$ :at we 7 seek+1 a univ]sal type ( ! reason+ process4 ,we f9d x resolvable 9 all cases into ! foll[+ elem5ts3 ,c]ta9 individuals h a giv5 attribute2 an individual or individuals resemble ! =m] 9 c]ta9 o!r attributes2 !re=e !y resemble !m also 9 ! giv5 attribute4 ,?is type ( ratioc9ation does n claim1 l ! syllogism1 to be conclusive f ! m]e =m ( ! expression2 nor c x possibly be s4 ,t "o proposition does or does n ass]t ! v fact :i* 0 already ass]t$ 9 ano!r1 may appe> f ! =m ( ! expression1 t is1 f a comp>ison ( ! language2 b :5 ! two propositions ass]t facts :i* are bona fide diff]5t1 :e!r ! "o fact proves ! o!r or n c nev] appe> f ! language1 b mu/ dep5d on o!r consid]ations4 ,:e!r1 f ! attributes 9 :i* ,socrates resembles ^? m5 :o h h]et(ore di$1 x is all[able to inf] t he resembles !m also 9 be+ mortal1 is a "q ( ,induction2 & is to be decid$ by ! pr9ciples or canons :i* we %all h]eaft] recognize z te/s ( ! correct p]=mance ( t great m5tal op]ation4 ,mean:ile1 h[ev]1 x is c]ta91 z be=e rem>k$1 t if ?is inf]5ce c be drawn z to ,socrates1 x c be drawn z to all o!rs :o resemble ! obs]v$ individuals 9 ! same attributes 9 :i* he resembles !m2 t is 7to express ! ?+ concisely7 ( all mank9d4 ,if1 !re=e1 ! argum5t be admissible 9 ! case ( ,socrates1 we are at lib]ty1 once = all1 to treat ! possession ( ! attributes ( man z a m>k1 or satisfactory evid5ce1 ( ! attribute ( mortality4 ,?is we d by lay+ d[n ! univ]sal proposition1 ,all m5 are mortal1 & int]pret+ ?is1 z occasion arises1 9 its application to ,socrates & o!rs4 ,by ?is means we e/abli% a v conv5i5t division ( ! entire logical op]ation into two /eps2 fir/1 t ( asc]ta9+ :at attributes are m>ks ( mortality2 &1 secondly1 :e!r any giv5 individuals possess ^? m>ks4 ,& x w g5]ally be advisable1 9 our speculations on ! reason+ process1 to consid] ?is d\ble op]ation z 9 fact tak+ place1 & all reason+ z c>ri$ on 9 ! =m into :i* x mu/ necess>ily be ?r[n to enable u to apply to x any te/ ( its correct p]=mance4 ,al?\gh1 !re=e1 all processes ( ?\ght 9 :i* ! ultimate premises are p>ticul>s1 :e!r we conclude f p>ticul>s to a g5]al =mula1 or f p>ticul>s to o!r p>ticul>s accord+ to t =mula1 are equally ,induction2 we %all yet1 con=mably to usage1 consid] ! "n ,induction z m peculi>ly belong+ to ! process ( e/abli%+ ! g5]al proposition1 & ! rema9+ op]ation1 :i* is sub/antially t ( int]pret+ ! g5]al proposition1 we %all call by its usual "n1 ,d$uction4 ,& we %all consid] e process by :i* any ?+ is inf]r$ respect+ an unobs]v$ case1 z consi/+ ( an ,induction foll[$ by a ,d$uction2 because1 al?\gh ! process ne$s n necess>ily be c>ri$ on 9 ?is =m1 x is always susceptible ( ! =m1 & mu/ be ?r[n into x :5 assurance ( sci5tific accuracy is ne$$ & desir$4 #h4 ,! !ory ( ! syllogism laid d[n 9 ! prec$+ pages1 has obta9$1 among o!r important adhesions1 ?ree ( peculi> value3 ^? ( ,sir ,john ,h]s*el17#ei7 ,dr4 ,:ewell17#fj7 & ,mr4 ,bailey27#fa7 ,sir ,john ,h]s*el consid]+ ! doctr9e1 ?\gh n /rictly 8a discov]y10 hav+ be5 anticipat$ by ,b]keley17#fb7 to be 8"o ( ! greate/ /eps :i* h yet be5 made 9 ! philosophy ( ,logic40 8,:5 we consid]0 7to quote ! fur!r words ( ! same au?ority7 8! invet]acy ( ! habits & prejudices :i* x has ca/ to ! w9ds10 !re is no cause = misgiv+ 9 ! fact t o!r ?9k]s1 no less entitl$ to consid]ation1 h =m$ a v diff]5t e/imate ( x4 ,_! pr9cipal objection c n be bett] or m succ9ctly /at$ ?an by borr[+ a s5t5ce f ,ar*bi%op ,:ately47#fc7 8,9 e case :]e an inf]5ce is drawn f ,induction 7unless t "n is to be giv5 to a m]e r&om guess )\t any gr\nds at all7 we mu/ =m a judgm5t t ! in/ance or in/ances adduc$ are suffici5t to au?orize ! conclusion2 t x is all[able to take ^! in/ances z a sample w>rant+ an inf]5ce respect+ ! :ole class20 & ! expression ( ?is judgm5t 9 words 7x has be5 said by sev]al ( my critics7 is ! major premise4 ,i q admit t ! major is an affirmation ( ! suffici5cy ( ! evid5ce on :i* ! conclusion re/s4 ,t x is s1 is ! v ess5ce ( my own !ory4 ,& :oev] admits t ! major premise is only ?is1 adopts ! !ory 9 its ess5tials4 ,b ,i c n conc$e t ?is recognition ( ! suffici5cy ( ! evid5ce--t is1 ( ! correctness ( ! induction--is a "p ( ! induction itself2 unless we ought to say t x is a "p ( e ?+ we d1 to satisfy ourselves t x has be5 done rightly4 ,we conclude f kn[n in/ances to unkn[n by ! impulse ( ! g5]aliz+ prop5sity2 & 7until aft] a consid]able am\nt ( practice & m5tal discipl9e7 ! "q ( ! suffici5cy ( ! evid5ce is only rais$ by a retrospective act1 turn+ back ^u our own foot/eps1 & exam9+ :e!r we 7 w>rant$ 9 do+ :at we h provisionally done4 ,to speak ( ?is reflex op]ation z "p ( ! orig9al "o1 requir+ to be express$ 9 words 9 ord] t ! v]bal =mula may correctly repres5t ! psy*ological process1 appe>s to me false psy*ology47#fd7 ,we review our syllogi/ic z well z our inductive processes1 & recognize t !y h be5 correctly p]=m$2 b logicians d n add a ?ird premise to ! syllogism1 to express ?is act ( recognition4 ,a c>eful copyi/ v]ifies 8 transcript by collat+ x ) ! orig9al2 & if no error appe>s1 he recognizes t ! transcript has be5 correctly made4 ,b we d n call ! exam9ation ( ! copy a "p ( ! act ( copy+4 ,! conclusion 9 an induction is inf]r$ f ! evid5ce itself1 & n f a recognition ( ! suffici5cy ( ! evid5ce2 z ,i inf] t my fri5d is walk+ t[>d me because ,i see him1 & n because ,i recognize t my eyes are op51 & t eyesight is a means ( k4 ,9 all op]ations :i* require c>e1 x is good to assure ourselves t ! process has be5 p]=m$ accurately2 b ! te/+ ( ! process is n ! process itself2 &1 besides1 may h be5 omitt$ altoge!r1 & yet ! process be correct4 ,x is precisely because t op]ation is omitt$ 9 ord9>y unsci5tific reason+1 t !re is any ?+ ga9$ 9 c]ta9ty by ?r[+ reason+ into ! syllogi/ic =m4 ,to make sure1 z f> z possible1 t x %all n be omitt$1 we make ! te/+ op]ation a "p ( ! reason+ process itself4 ,we insi/ t ! inf]5ce f p>ticul>s to p>ticul>s %all pass ?r\gh a g5]al proposition4 ,b ?is is a security = good reason+1 n a condition ( all reason+2 & 9 "s cases n ev5 a security4 ,our mo/ famili> inf]5ces are all made be=e we le>n ! use ( g5]al propositions2 & a p]son ( untutor$ sagacity w skillfully apply 8 acquir$ exp]i5ce to adjac5t cases1 ?\gh he w\ld bungle griev\sly 9 fix+ ! limits ( ! appropriate g5]al !orem4 ,b ?\gh he may conclude rightly1 he nev]1 prop]ly speak+1 kn[s :e!r he has done s or n2 he has n te/$ 8 reason+4 ,n[1 ?is is precisely :at =ms ( reason+ d = u4 ,we d n ne$ !m to enable u to reason1 b to enable u to "k :e!r we reason correctly4 ,9 /ill fur!r answ] to ! objection1 x may be add$ t--ev5 :5 ! te/ has be5 appli$1 & ! suffici5cy ( ! evid5ce recogniz$--if x is suffici5t to support ! g5]al proposition1 x is suffici5t also to support an inf]5ce f p>ticul>s to p>ticul>s )\t pass+ ?r\gh ! g5]al proposition4 ,! inquir] :o has logically satisfi$ himself t ! conditions ( legitimate induction 7 realiz$ 9 ! cases ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 w\ld be z mu* ju/ifi$ 9 conclud+ directly to ! ,duke ( ,well+ton z 9 conclud+ to all m54 ,! g5]al conclusion is nev] legitimate1 unless ! p>ticul> "o w\ld be s too2 & 9 no s5se1 intelligible to me1 c ! p>ticul> conclusion be said to be drawn f ! g5]al "o4 ,:5ev] !re is gr\nd = draw+ any conclusion at all f p>ticul> in/ances1 !re is gr\nd = a g5]al conclusion2 b t ?is g5]al conclusion %\ld be actually drawn1 h[ev] useful1 c n be an indisp5sable condition ( ! validity ( ! inf]5ce 9 ! p>ticul> case4 ,a man gives away sixp5ce by ! same p[] by :i* he disposes ( 8 :ole =tune2 b x is n necess>y to ! legality ( ! small] act1 t he %\ld make a =mal ass]tion ( 8 "r to ! great] "o4 ,"s additional rem>ks1 9 reply to m9or objections1 are app5d$47#fe7 #i4 ,! prec$+ consid]ations enable u to und]/& ! true nature ( :at is t]m$1 by rec5t writ]s1 ,=mal ,logic1 & ! relation betwe5 x & ,logic 9 ! wide/ s5se4 ,logic1 z ,i conceive x1 is ! entire !ory ( ! asc]ta9m5t ( reason$ or inf]r$ tru?4 ,=mal ,logic1 !re=e1 :i* ,sir ,william ,hamilton f 8 own po9t ( view1 & ,ar*bi%op ,:ately f 81 h repres5t$ z ! :ole ( ,logic prop]ly s call$1 is really a v subord9ate "p ( x1 n be+ directly conc]n$ ) ! process ( ,reason+ or ,inf]5ce 9 ! s5se 9 :i* t process is a "p ( ! ,inve/igation ( ,tru?4 ,:at1 !n1 is ,=mal ,logic8 ,! "n seems to be prop]ly appli$ to all t portion ( doctr9e :i* relates to ! equival5ce ( diff]5t modes ( expression2 ! rules = det]m9+ :5 ass]tions 9 a giv5 =m imply or suppose ! tru? or falsity ( o!r ass]tions4 ,?is includes ! !ory ( ! ,import ( ,propositions1 & ( _! ,conv]sion1 quipoll5ce1 & ,opposition2 ( ^? falsely call$ ,inductions 7to be h]eaft] spok5 (77#ff71 9 :i* ! app>5t g5]alization is a m]e abridg$ /atem5t ( cases kn[n individually2 & f9ally1 ( ! syllogism3 :ile ! !ory ( ,nam+1 & ( 7:at is insep>ably connect$ ) x7 ,def9ition1 ?\gh belong+ /ill m to ! o!r & l>g] k9d ( logic ?an to ?is1 is a necess>y prelim9>y to ?is4 ,! end aim$ at by ,=mal ,logic1 & atta9$ by ! obs]vance ( its precepts1 is n tru?1 b consi/5cy4 ,x has be5 se5 t ?is is ! only direct purpose ( ! rules ( ! syllogism2 ! int5tion & effect ( :i* is simply to keep our inf]5ces or conclusions 9 complete consi/5cy ) our g5]al =mul or directions = draw+ !m4 ,! ,logic ( ,consi/5cy is a necess>y auxili>y to ! logic ( tru?1 n only because :at is inconsi/5t ) itself or ) o!r tru?s c n be true1 b also because tru? c only be successfully pursu$ by draw+ inf]5ces f exp]i5ce1 :i*1 if w>rantable at all1 admit ( be+ g5]aliz$1 &1 to te/ _! w>rantabl5ess1 require to be exhibit$ 9 a g5]aliz$ =m2 aft] :i* ! correctness ( _! application to p>ticul> cases is a "q :i* specially conc]ns ! ,logic ( ,consi/5cy4 ,?is ,logic1 n requir+ any prelim9>y k ( ! processes or conclusions ( ! v>i\s sci5ces1 may be /udi$ ) b5efit 9 a mu* e>li] /age ( education ?an ! ,logic ( ,tru?3 & ! practice :i* has empirically obta9$ ( tea*+ x ap>t1 ?r\gh elem5t>y treatises :i* d n attempt to include any ?+ else1 ?\gh ! reasons assign$ = ! practice are 9 g5]al v f> f philosophical1 admits ( philosophical ju/ification4 ,*apt] ,,iv4 ,( ,tra9s ,( ,reason+1 ,& ,d$uctive ,sci5ces4 #a4 ,9 our analysis ( ! syllogism1 x appe>$ t ! m9or premise always affirms a resemblance betwe5 a new case & "s cases previ\sly kn[n2 :ile ! major premise ass]ts some?+ :i*1 hav+ be5 f\nd true ( ^? kn[n cases1 we consid] ourselves w>rant$ 9 hold+ true ( any o!r case resembl+ ! =m] 9 c]ta9 giv5 p>ticul>s4 ,if all ratioc9ations resembl$1 z to ! m9or premise1 ! examples :i* 7 exclusively employ$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]2 if ! resemblance1 :i* t premise ass]ts1 7 obvi\s to ! s5ses1 z 9 ! proposition 8,socrates is a man10 or 7 at once asc]ta9able by direct obs]vation2 !re w\ld be no necessity = tra9s ( reason+1 & ,d$uctive or ,ratioc9ative ,sci5ces w\ld n exi/4 ,tra9s ( reason+ exi/ only = ! sake ( ext5d+ an induction f\nd$1 z all inductions mu/ be1 on obs]v$ cases1 to o!r cases 9 :i* we n only c n directly obs]ve ! fact :i* is to be prov$1 b c n directly obs]ve ev5 ! m>k :i* is to prove x4 #b4 ,suppose ! syllogism to be1 ,all c[s rum9ate1 ! animal :i* is be=e me is a c[1 !re=e x rum9ates4 ,! m9or1 if true at all1 is obvi\sly s3 ! only premise ! e/abli%m5t ( :i* requires any ant]ior process ( inquiry1 is ! major2 & provid$ ! induction ( :i* t premise is ! expression 0 correctly p]=m$1 ! conclusion respect+ ! animal n[ pres5t w be in/antly drawn2 because1 z soon z %e is comp>$ ) ! =mula1 %e w be id5tifi$ z be+ includ$ 9 x4 ,b suppose ! syllogism to be ! foll[+3 ,all ars5ic is poison\s1 ! sub/ance :i* is be=e me is ars5ic1 !re=e x is poison\s4 ,! tru? ( ! m9or may n "h be obvi\s at fir/ sight2 x may n be intuitively evid5t1 b may itself be kn[n only by inf]5ce4 ,x may be ! conclusion ( ano!r argum5t1 :i*1 ?r[n into ! syllogi/ic =m1 w\ld /& ?us3 ,:atev] :5 light$ produces a d>k spot on a piece ( :ite porcela9 held 9 ! flame1 :i* spot is soluble 9 hypo*loride ( calcium1 is ars5ic2 ! sub/ance be=e me con=ms to ?is condition2 !re=e x is ars5ic4 ,to e/abli%1 !re=e1 ! ultimate conclusion1 ,! sub/ance be=e me is poison\s1 requires a process1 :i*1 9 ord] to be syllogi/ically express$1 /&s 9 ne$ ( two syllogisms2 & we h a ,tra9 ( ,reason+4 ,:51 h[ev]1 we ?us add syllogism to syllogism1 we are really add+ induction to induction4 ,two sep>ate inductions mu/ h tak5 place to r5d] ?is *a9 ( inf]5ce possible2 inductions f\nd$1 probably1 on diff]5t sets ( individual in/ances1 b :i* conv]ge 9 _! results1 s t ! in/ance :i* is ! subject ( inquiry comes )9 ! range ( !m bo?4 ,! record ( ^! inductions is conta9$ 9 ! majors ( ! two syllogisms4 ,fir/1 we1 or o!rs = u1 h exam9$ v>i\s objects :i* yield$ "u ! giv5 circum/ances a d>k spot ) ! giv5 prop]ty1 & f\nd t !y possess$ ! prop]ties connot$ by ! ^w ars5ic2 !y 7 metallic1 volatile1 _! vapor _h a smell ( g>lic1 & s =?4 ,next1 we1 or o!rs = u1 h exam9$ v>i\s specim5s :i* possess$ ?is metallic & volatile "*1 ^: vapor _h ?is smell1 etc41 & h inv>iably f\nd t !y 7 poison\s4 ,! fir/ obs]vation we judge t we may ext5d to all sub/ances :atev] :i* yield t p>ticul> k9d ( d>k spot2 ! second1 to all metallic & volatile sub/ances resembl+ ^? we exam9$2 & consequ5tly1 n to ^? only :i* are se5 to be su*1 b to ^? :i* are conclud$ to be su* by ! prior induction4 ,! sub/ance be=e u is only se5 to come )9 "o ( ^! inductions2 b by means ( ?is "o1 x is br\ght )9 ! o!r4 ,we are /ill1 z be=e1 conclud+ f p>ticul>s to p>ticul>s2 b we are n[ conclud+ f p>ticul>s obs]v$1 to o!r p>ticul>s :i* are n1 z 9 ! simple case1 se5 to resemble !m 9 mat]ial po9ts1 b inf]r$ to d s1 because resembl+ !m 9 some?+ else1 :i* we h be5 l$ by q a diff]5t set ( in/ances to consid] z a m>k ( ! =m] resemblance4 ,?is fir/ example ( a tra9 ( reason+ is /ill extremely simple1 ! s]ies consi/+ ( only two syllogisms4 ,! foll[+ is some:at m complicat$3 ,no gov]nm5t1 :i* e>ne/ly seeks ! good ( its subjects1 is likely to be ov]?r[n2 "s p>ticul> gov]nm5t e>ne/ly seeks ! good ( its subjects1 !re=e x is n likely to be ov]?r[n4 ,! major premise 9 ?is argum5t we %all suppose n to be d]iv$ f consid]ations a priori1 b to be a g5]alization f hi/ory1 :i*1 :e!r correct or errone\s1 mu/ h be5 f\nd$ on obs]vation ( gov]nm5ts conc]n+ ^: desire ( ! good ( _! subjects !re 0 no d\bt4 ,x has be5 f\nd1 or ?\ght to be f\nd1 t ^! 7 n easily ov]?r[n1 & x has be5 deem$ t ^? in/ances w>rant$ an ext5sion ( ! same pr$icate to any & e gov]nm5t :i* resembles !m 9 ! attribute ( desir+ e>ne/ly ! good ( its subjects4 ,b does ! gov]nm5t 9 "q ?us resemble !m8 ,?is may be debat$ pro & con by _m argum5ts1 & mu/1 9 any case1 be prov$ by ano!r induction2 = we c n directly obs]ve ! s5tim5ts & desires ( ! p]sons :o c>ry on ! gov]nm5t4 ,to prove ! m9or1 !re=e1 we require an argum5t 9 ?is =m3 ,e gov]nm5t :i* acts 9 a c]ta9 mann]1 desires ! good ( its subjects2 ! suppos$ gov]nm5t acts 9 t p>ticul> mann]1 !re=e x desires ! good ( its subjects4 ,b is x true t ! gov]nm5t acts 9 ! mann] suppos$8 ,?is m9or also may require pro(2 /ill ano!r induction1 z ?us3 ,:at is ass]t$ by intellig5t & dis9t]e/$ witnesses1 may be believ$ to be true2 t ! gov]nm5t acts 9 ?is mann]1 is ass]t$ by su* witnesses1 !re=e x may be believ$ to be true4 ,! argum5t h5ce consi/s ( ?ree /eps4 ,hav+ ! evid5ce ( our s5ses t ! case ( ! gov]nm5t "u consid]ation resembles a numb] ( =m] cases1 9 ! circum/ance ( hav+ some?+ ass]t$ respect+ x by intellig5t & dis9t]e/$ witnesses1 we inf]1 fir/1 t1 z 9 ^? =m] in/ances1 s 9 ?is in/ance1 ! ass]tion is true4 ,secondly1 :at 0 ass]t$ ( ! gov]nm5t be+ t x acts 9 a p>ticul> mann]1 & o!r gov]nm5ts or p]sons hav+ be5 obs]v$ to act 9 ! same mann]1 ! gov]nm5t 9 "q is br\ght into kn[n resemblance ) ^? o!r gov]nm5ts or p]sons2 & s9ce !y 7 kn[n to desire ! good ( ! p1 x is !reupon1 by a second induction1 inf]r$ t ! p>ticul> gov]nm5t spok5 (1 desires ! good ( ! p4 ,?is br+s t gov]nm5t into kn[n resemblance ) ! o!r gov]nm5ts :i* 7 ?\ght likely to escape revolution1 & !nce1 by a ?ird induction1 x is conclud$ t ?is p>ticul> gov]nm5t is also likely to escape4 ,?is is /ill reason+ f p>ticul>s to p>ticul>s1 b we n[ reason to ! new in/ance f ?ree di/9ct sets ( =m] in/ances3 to "o only ( ^? sets ( in/ances d we directly p]ceive ! new "o to be simil>2 b f t simil>ity we inductively inf] t x has ! attribute by :i* x is assimilat$ to ! next set1 & br\ght )9 ! correspond+ induction2 aft] :i* by a repetition ( ! same op]ation we inf] x to be simil> to ! ?ird set1 & h5ce a ?ird induction conducts u to ! ultimate conclusion4 #c4 ,not)/&+ ! sup]ior complication ( ^! examples1 comp>$ ) ^? by :i* 9 ! prec$+ *apt] we illu/rat$ ! g5]al !ory ( reason+1 e doctr9e :i* we !n laid d[n holds equally true 9 ^! m intricate cases4 ,! successive g5]al propositions are n /eps 9 ! reason+1 are n int]m$iate l9ks 9 ! *a9 ( inf]5ce1 betwe5 ! p>ticul>s obs]v$ & ^? to :i* we apply ! obs]vation4 ,if we _h suffici5tly capaci\s memories1 & a suffici5t p[] ( ma9ta9+ ord] among a huge mass ( details1 ! reason+ c\ld g on )\t any g5]al propositions2 !y are m]e =mul = inf]r+ p>ticul>s f p>ticul>s4 ,! pr9ciple ( g5]al reason+ is 7z be=e expla9$71 t if1 f obs]vation ( c]ta9 kn[n p>ticul>s1 :at 0 se5 to be true ( !m c be inf]r$ to be true ( any o!rs1 x may be inf]r$ ( all o!rs :i* are ( a c]ta9 description4 ,& 9 ord] t we may nev] fail to draw ?is conclusion 9 a new case :5 x c be drawn correctly1 & may avoid draw+ x :5 x c n1 we det]m9e once = all :at are ! di/+ui%+ m>ks by :i* su* cases may be recogniz$4 ,! subsequ5t process is m]ely t ( id5tify+ an object1 & asc]ta9+ x to h ^? m>ks2 :e!r we id5tify x by ! v m>ks !mselves1 or by o!rs :i* we h asc]ta9$ 7?r\gh ano!r & a simil> process7 to be m>ks ( ^? m>ks4 ,! real inf]5ce is always f p>ticul>s to p>ticul>s1 f ! obs]v$ in/ances to an unobs]v$ "o3 b 9 draw+ ?is inf]5ce1 we con=m to a =mula :i* we h adopt$ = our guidance 9 su* op]ations1 & :i* is a record ( ! crit]ia by :i* we ?\ght we _h asc]ta9$ t we might di/+ui% :5 ! inf]5ce c\ld1 & :5 x c\ld n1 be drawn4 ,! real premises are ! individual obs]vations1 ev5 ?\gh !y may h be5 =gott51 or1 be+ ! obs]vations ( o!rs & n ( ourselves1 may1 to u1 nev] h be5 kn[n3 b we h be=e u pro( t we or o!rs once ?\ght !m suffici5t = an induction1 & we h m>ks to %[ :e!r any new case is "o ( ^? to :i*1 if !n kn[n1 ! induction w\ld h be5 deem$ to ext5d4 ,^! m>ks we ei!r recognize at once1 or by ! aid ( o!r m>ks1 :i* by ano!r previ\s induction we collect$ to be m>ks ( ! fir/4 ,ev5 ^! m>ks ( m>ks may only be recogniz$ ?r\gh a ?ird set ( m>ks2 & we may h a tra9 ( reason+1 ( any l5g?1 to br+ a new case )9 ! scope ( an induction gr\nd$ on p>ticul>s its simil>ity to :i* is only asc]ta9$ 9 ?is indirect mann]4 ,?us1 9 ! prec$+ example1 ! ultimate inductive inf]5ce 01 t a c]ta9 gov]nm5t 0 n likely to be ov]?r[n2 ?is inf]5ce 0 drawn accord+ to a =mula 9 :i* desire ( ! public good 0 set d[n z a m>k ( n be+ likely to be ov]?r[n2 a m>k ( ?is m>k 01 act+ 9 a p>ticul> mann]2 & a m>k ( act+ 9 t mann] 01 be+ ass]t$ to d s by intellig5t & dis9t]e/$ witnesses3 ?is m>k1 ! gov]nm5t "u discussion 0 recogniz$ by ! s5ses z possess+4 ,h5ce t gov]nm5t fell )9 ! la/ induction1 & by x 0 br\ght )9 all ! o!rs4 ,! p]ceiv$ resemblance ( ! case to "o set ( obs]v$ p>ticul> cases1 br\ght x into kn[n resemblance ) ano!r set1 & t ) a ?ird4 ,9 ! m complex bran*es ( k1 ! d$uctions seldom consi/1 z 9 ! examples hi!rto exhibit$1 ( a s+le *a91 a a m>k ( b1 b ( c1 c ( d1 !re=e a a m>k ( d4 ,!y consi/ 7to c>ry on ! same metaphor7 ( sev]al *a9s unit$ at ! extremity1 z ?us3 a a m>k ( d1 b ( e1 c ( f1 d e f ( n1 !re=e a b c a m>k ( n4 ,suppose1 = example1 ! foll[+ comb9ation ( circum/ances3 #a/1 rays ( light imp++ on a reflect+ surface2 #b;d1 t surface p>abolic2 #c;d1 ^? rays p>allel to ea* o!r & to ! axis ( ! surface4 ,x is to be prov$ t ! conc\rse ( ^! ?ree circum/ances is a m>k t ! reflect$ rays w pass ?r\gh ! focus ( ! p>abolic surface4 ,n[1 ea* ( ! ?ree circum/ances is s+ly a m>k ( some?+ mat]ial to ! case4 ,rays ( light imp++ on a reflect+ surface are a m>k t ^? rays w be reflect$ at an angle equal to ! angle ( incid5ce4 ,! p>abolic =m ( ! surface1 is a m>k t1 f any po9t ( x1 a l9e drawn to ! focus & a l9e p>allel to ! axis w make equal angles ) ! surface4 ,& f9ally1 ! p>allelism ( ! rays to ! axis is a m>k t _! angle ( incid5ce co9cides ) "o ( ^! equal angles4 ,! ?ree m>ks tak5 toge!r are !re=e a m>k ( all ^! ?ree ?+s unit$4 ,b ! ?ree unit$ are evid5tly a m>k t ! angle ( reflection mu/ co9cide ) ! o!r ( ! two equal angles1 t =m$ by a l9e drawn to ! focus2 & ?is aga91 by ! fundam5tal axiom conc]n+ /raight l9es1 is a m>k t ! reflect$ rays pass ?r\gh ! focus4 ,mo/ *a9s ( physical d$uction are ( ?is m complicat$ type2 & ev5 9 ma!matics su* are abundant1 z 9 all propositions :]e ! hypo!sis includes num]\s conditions3 8,if a circle be tak51 & if )9 t circle a po9t be tak51 n ! c5tre1 & if /raight l9es be drawn f t po9t to ! circumf]5ce1 !n10 etc4 #d4 ,! consid]ations n[ /at$ remove a s]i\s difficulty f ! view we h tak5 ( reason+2 :i* view might o!rwise h seem$ n easily reconcilable ) ! fact t !re are ,d$uctive or ,ratioc9ative ,sci5ces4 ,x might seem to foll[1 if all reason+ be induction1 t ! difficulties ( philosophical inve/igation mu/ lie 9 ! inductions exclusively1 & t :5 ^! 7 easy1 & susceptible ( no d\bt or hesitation1 !re c\ld be no sci5ce1 or1 at lea/1 no difficulties 9 sci5ce4 ,! exi/5ce1 = example1 ( an ext5sive ,sci5ce ( ,ma!matics1 requir+ ! highe/ sci5tific g5ius 9 ^? :o contribut$ to its creation1 & call+ = a mo/ cont9u$ & vigor\s ex]tion ( intellect 9 ord] to appropriate x :5 creat$1 may seem h>d to be acc\nt$ = on ! =ego+ !ory4 ,b ! consid]ations m rec5tly adduc$ remove ! my/]y1 by %[+1 t ev5 :5 ! inductions !mselves are obvi\s1 !re may be mu* difficulty 9 f9d+ :e!r ! p>ticul> case :i* is ! subject ( inquiry comes )9 !m2 & ample room = sci5tific +5uity 9 s comb9+ v>i\s inductions1 z1 by means ( "o )9 :i* ! case evid5tly falls1 to br+ x )9 o!rs 9 :i* x c n be directly se5 to be includ$4 ,:5 ! m obvi\s ( ! inductions :i* c be made 9 any sci5ce f direct obs]vations1 h be5 made1 & g5]al =mulas h be5 fram$1 det]m9+ ! limits )9 :i* ^! inductions are applicable2 z (t5 z a new case c be at once se5 to come )9 "o ( ! =mulas1 ! induction is appli$ to ! new case1 & ! bus9ess is end$4 ,b new cases are cont9ually aris+1 :i* d n obvi\sly come )9 any =mula :]eby ! "q we want solv$ 9 respect ( !m c\ld be answ]$4 ,let u take an in/ance f geometry3 & z x is tak5 only = illu/ration1 let ! read] conc$e to u = ! pres5t1 :at we %all endeavor to prove 9 ! next *apt]1 t ! fir/ pr9ciples ( geometry are results ( induction4 ,our example %all be ! fif? proposition ( ! fir/ book ( ,euclid4 ,! inquiry is1 ,are ! angles at ! base ( an isosceles triangle equal or unequal8 ,! fir/ ?+ to be consid]$ is1 :at inductions we h1 f :i* we c inf] equality or inequality4 ,= inf]r+ equality we h ! foll[+ =mul3 ,?+s :i* be+ appli$ to ea* o!r co9cide1 are equals4 ,?+s :i* are equal to ! same ?+ are equals4 ,a :ole & ! sum ( its p>ts are equals4 ,! sums ( equal ?+s are equals4 ,! diff]5ces ( equal ?+s are equals4 ,!re are no o!r orig9al =mul to prove equality4 ,= inf]r+ inequality we h ! foll[+3 ,a :ole & its p>ts are unequals4 ,! sums ( equal ?+s & unequal ?+s are unequals4 ,! diff]5ces ( equal ?+s & unequal ?+s are unequals4 ,9 all1 eight =mul4 ,! angles at ! base ( an isosceles triangle d n obvi\sly come )9 any ( ^!4 ,! =mul specify c]ta9 m>ks ( equality & ( inequality1 b ! angles c n be p]ceiv$ intuitively to h any ( ^? m>ks4 ,on exam9ation x appe>s t !y h2 & we ultimately succe$ 9 br++ !m )9 ! =mula1 8,! diff]5ces ( equal ?+s are equal40 ,:5ce comes ! difficulty ( recogniz+ ^! angles z ! diff]5ces ( equal ?+s8 ,because ea* ( !m is ! diff]5ce n ( "o pair only1 b ( innum]able pairs ( angles2 & out ( ^! we _h to imag9e & select two1 :i* c\ld ei!r be intuitively p]ceiv$ to be equals1 or possess$ "s ( ! m>ks ( equality set d[n 9 ! v>i\s =mul4 ,by an ex]cise ( +5uity1 :i*1 on ! "p ( ! fir/ inv5tor1 des]ves to be reg>d$ z consid]able1 two pairs ( angles 7 hit ^u1 :i* unit$ ^! requisites4 ,fir/1 x c\ld be p]ceiv$ intuitively t _! diff]5ces 7 ! angles at ! base2 &1 secondly1 !y possess$ "o ( ! m>ks ( equality1 namely1 co9cid5ce :5 appli$ to "o ano!r4 ,?is co9cid5ce1 h[ev]1 0 n p]ceiv$ intuitively1 b inf]r$1 9 con=mity to ano!r =mula4 ,= great] cle>ness1 ,i subjo9 an analysis ( ! demon/ration4 ,euclid1 x w be rememb]$1 demon/rates 8 fif? proposition by means ( ! f\r?4 ,?is x is n all[able = u to d1 because we are und]tak+ to trace d$uctive tru?s n to prior d$uctions1 b to _! orig9al inductive f\ndation4 ,we mu/1 !re=e1 use ! premises ( ! f\r? proposition in/ead ( its conclusion1 & prove ! fif? directly f fir/ pr9ciples4 ,to d s requires six =mulas4 7,we presuppose an equilat]al triangle1 ^: v]tices are ,a1 ,d1 ,e1 ) po9t ,b on ! side ,,ad1 & po9t ,c on ! side ,,ae1 su* t ,,bc is p>allel to ,,de4 ,we mu/ beg91 z 9 ,euclid1 by prolong+ ! equal sides ,,ab1 ,,ac1 to equal di/ances1 & jo9+ ! extremities ,,be1 ,,dc47 ,,fir/ ,,=mula4--,! sums ( equals are equal4 ,,ad & ,,ae are sums ( equals by ! supposition4 ,hav+ t m>k ( equality1 !y are conclud$ by ?is =mula to be equal4 ,,second ,,=mula4--,equal /raight l9es or angles1 be+ appli$ to "o ano!r1 co9cide4 ,,ac1 ,,ab1 are )9 ?is =mula by supposition2 ,,ad1 ,,ae1 h be5 br\ght )9 x by ! prec$+ /ep4 ,! angle at ,a consid]$ z an angle ( ! triangle ,,abe1 & ! same angle consid]$ z an angle ( ! triangle ,,acd1 are ( c\rse )9 ! =mula4 ,all ^! pairs1 !re=e1 possess ! prop]ty :i*1 accord+ to ! second =mula1 is a m>k t :5 appli$ to "o ano!r !y w co9cide4 ,conceive !m1 !n1 appli$ to "o ano!r1 by turn+ ov] ! triangle ,,abe1 & lay+ x on ! triangle ,,acd 9 su* a mann] t ,,ab ( ! "o %all lie ^u ,,ac ( ! o!r4 ,!n1 by ! equality ( ! angles1 ,,ae w lie on ,,ad4 ,b ,,ab & ,,ac1 ,,ae & ,,ad are equals2 !re=e !y w co9cide altoge!r1 & ( c\rse at _! extremities1 ,d1 ,e1 & ,b1 ,c4 ,,?ird ,,=mula4--,/raight l9es1 hav+ _! extremities co9cid5t1 co9cide4 ,,be & ,,cd h be5 br\ght )9 ?is =mula by ! prec$+ induction2 !y w1 !re=e1 co9cide4 ,,f\r? ,,=mula4--,angles1 hav+ _! sides co9cid5t1 co9cide4 ,! ?ird induction hav+ %[n t ,,be & ,,cd co9cide1 & ! second t ,,ab1 ,,ac1 co9cide1 ! angles ,,abe & ,,acd are !reby br\ght )9 ! f\r? =mula1 & accord+ly co9cide4 ,,fif? ,,=mula4--,?+s :i* co9cide are equal4 ,! angles ,,abe & ,,acd are br\ght )9 ?is =mula by ! induction imm$iately prec$+4 ,?is tra9 ( reason+ be+ also applicable1 mutatis mut&is1 to ! angles ,,ebc1 ,,dcb1 ^! also are br\ght )9 ! fif? =mula4 ,&1 f9ally1 ,,six? ,,=mula4--,! diff]5ces ( equals are equal4 ,! angle ,,abc be+ ! diff]5ce ( ,,abe1 ,,cbe1 & ! angle ,,acb be+ ! diff]5ce ( ,,acd1 ,,dcb2 :i* h be5 prov$ to be equals2 ,,abc & ,,acb are br\ght )9 ! la/ =mula by ! :ole ( ! previ\s process4 ,! difficulty "h enc\nt]$ is *iefly t ( figur+ to ourselves ! two angles at ! base ( ! triangle ,,abc z rema9d]s made by cutt+ "o pair ( angles out ( ano!r1 :ile ea* pair %all be correspond+ angles ( triangles :i* h two sides & ! int]v5+ angle equal4 ,x is by ?is happy contrivance t s _m diff]5t inductions are br\ght to be> ^u ! same p>ticul> case4 ,& ?is n be+ at all an obvi\s ?\ght1 x may be se5 f an example s ne> ! ?re%old ( ma!matics1 h[ mu* scope !re may well be = sci5tific dext]ity 9 ! high] bran*es ( t & o!r sci5ces1 9 ord] s to comb9e a few simple inductions1 z to br+ )9 ea* ( !m innum]able cases :i* are n obvi\sly includ$ 9 x2 & h[ long1 & num]\s1 & complicat$ may be ! processes necess>y = br++ ! inductions toge!r1 ev5 :5 ea* induction may itself be v easy & simple4 ,all ! inductions involv$ 9 all geometry are compris$ 9 ^? simple ones1 ! =mul ( :i* are ! ,axioms1 & a few ( ! s-call$ ,def9itions4 ,! rema9d] ( ! sci5ce is made up ( ! processes employ$ = br++ un=ese5 cases )9 ^! inductions2 or 79 syllogi/ic language7 = prov+ ! m9ors necess>y to complete ! syllogisms2 ! majors be+ ! def9itions & axioms4 ,9 ^? def9itions & axioms are laid d[n ! :ole ( ! m>ks1 by an artful comb9ation ( :i* x has be5 f\nd possible to discov] & prove all t is prov$ 9 geometry4 ,! m>ks be+ s few1 & ! inductions :i* furni% !m be+ s obvi\s & famili>2 ! connect+ ( sev]al ( !m toge!r1 :i* con/itutes ,d$uctions1 or ,tra9s ( ,reason+1 =ms ! :ole difficulty ( ! sci5ce1 &1 ) a trifl+ exception1 its :ole bulk2 & h5ce ,geometry is a ,d$uctive ,sci5ce4 #e4 ,x w be se5 h]eaft]7#fg7 t !re are weighty sci5tific reasons = giv+ to e sci5ce z mu* ( ! "* ( a ,d$uctive ,sci5ce z possible2 = endeavor+ to con/ruct ! sci5ce f ! fewe/ & ! simple/ possible inductions1 & to make ^!1 by any comb9ations h[ev] complicat$1 suffice = prov+ ev5 su* tru?s1 relat+ to complex cases1 z c\ld be prov$1 if we *ose1 by inductions f specific exp]i5ce4 ,e bran* ( natural philosophy 0 orig9ally exp]im5tal2 ea* g5]alization re/$ on a special induction1 & 0 d]iv$ f its own di/9ct set ( obs]vations & exp]im5ts4 ,f be+ sci5ces ( pure exp]im5t1 z ! phrase is1 or1 to speak m correctly1 sci5ces 9 :i* ! reason+s mo/ly consi/ ( no m ?an "o /ep1 & are express$ by s+le syllogisms1 all ^! sci5ces h become to "s ext5t1 & "s ( !m 9 ne>ly ! :ole ( _! ext5t1 sci5ces ( pure reason+2 :]eby multitudes ( tru?s1 already kn[n by induction f z _m diff]5t sets ( exp]im5ts1 h come to be exhibit$ z d$uctions or coroll>ies f inductive propositions ( a simpl] & m univ]sal "*4 ,?us me*anics1 hydro/atics1 optics1 ac\/ics1 !rmology1 h successively be5 r5d]$ ma!matical2 & a/ronomy 0 br\ght by ,newton )9 ! laws ( g5]al me*anics4 ,:y x is t ! sub/itution ( ?is circuit\s mode ( proce$+ = a process app>5tly mu* easi] & m natural1 is held1 & ju/ly1 to be ! greate/ triumph ( ! inve/igation ( nature1 we are n1 9 ?is /age ( our inquiry1 prep>$ to exam9e4 ,b x is necess>y to rem>k1 t al?\gh1 by ?is progressive trans=mation1 all sci5ces t5d to become m & m ,d$uctive1 !y are n1 !re=e1 ! less ,inductive2 e /ep 9 ! ,d$uction is /ill an ,induction4 ,! opposition is n betwe5 ! t]ms ,d$uctive & ,inductive1 b betwe5 ,d$uctive & ,exp]im5tal4 ,a sci5ce is exp]im5tal1 9 proportion z e new case1 :i* pres5ts any peculi> features1 /&s 9 ne$ ( a new set ( obs]vations & exp]im5ts--a fre% induction4 ,x is d$uctive1 9 proportion z x c draw conclusions1 respect+ cases ( a new k9d1 by processes :i* br+ ^? cases "u old inductions2 by asc]ta9+ t cases :i* c n be obs]v$ to h ! requisite m>ks1 h1 h[ev]1 m>ks ( ^? m>ks4 ,we c n[1 !re=e1 p]ceive :at is ! g5]ic di/9ction betwe5 sci5ces :i* c be made ,d$uctive1 & ^? :i* mu/ z yet rema9 ,exp]im5tal4 ,! diff]5ce consi/s 9 our hav+ be5 able1 or n yet able1 to discov] m>ks ( m>ks4 ,if by our v>i\s inductions we h be5 able to proce$ no fur!r ?an to su* propositions z ^!1 a a m>k ( b1 or a & b m>ks ( "o ano!r1 c a m>k ( d1 or c & d m>ks ( "o ano!r1 )\t any ?+ to connect a or b ) c or d2 we h a sci5ce ( deta*$ & mutually indep5d5t g5]alizations1 su* z ^!1 t acids r$d5 vegetable blues1 & t alkalies color !m gre52 f nei!r ( :i* propositions c\ld we1 directly or indirectly1 inf] ! o!r3 & a sci5ce1 s f> z x is compos$ ( su* propositions1 is purely exp]im5tal4 ,*emi/ry1 9 ! pres5t /ate ( our k1 has n yet ?r[n (f ?is "*4 ,!re are o!r sci5ces1 h[ev]1 ( :i* ! propositions are ( ?is k9d3 a a m>k ( b1 b a m>k ( c1 c ( d1 d ( e1 etc4 ,9 ^! sci5ces we c m\nt ! ladd] f a to e by a process ( ratioc9ation2 we c conclude t a is a m>k ( e1 & t e object :i* has ! m>k a has ! prop]ty e1 al?\gh1 p]haps1 we nev] 7 able to obs]ve a & e toge!r1 & al?\gh ev5 d1 our only direct m>k ( e1 may n be p]ceptible 9 ^? objects1 b only inf]able4 ,or1 v>y+ ! fir/ metaphor1 we may be said to get f a to e und]gr\nd3 ! m>ks b1 c1 d1 :i* indicate ! r\te1 mu/ all be possess$ some:]e by ! objects conc]n+ :i* we are inquir+2 b !y are bel[ ! surface3 a is ! only m>k t is visible1 & by x we are able to trace 9 succession all ! re/4 #f4 ,we c n[ und]/& h[ an exp]im5tal may trans=m itself into a d$uctive sci5ce by ! m]e progress ( exp]im5t4 ,9 an exp]im5tal sci5ce1 ! inductions1 z we h said1 lie deta*$1 z1 a a m>k ( b1 c a m>k ( d1 e a m>k ( f1 & s on3 n[1 a new set ( in/ances1 & a consequ5t new induction1 may at any "t bridge ov] ! int]val betwe5 two ( ^! unconnect$ ar*es2 b1 = example1 may be asc]ta9$ to be a m>k ( c1 :i* enables u !nce=? to prove d$uctively t a is a m>k ( c4 ,or1 z sometimes happ5s1 "s compreh5sive induction may raise an ar* high 9 ! air1 :i* bridges ov] ho/s ( !m at once2 b1 d1 f1 & all ! re/1 turn+ out to be m>ks ( "s "o ?+1 or ( ?+s betwe5 :i* a connection has already be5 trac$4 ,z :5 ,newton discov]$ t ! motions1 :e!r regul> or app>5tly anomal\s1 ( all ! bodies ( ! sol> sy/em 7ea* ( :i* motions _h be5 inf]r$ by a sep>ate logical op]ation1 f sep>ate m>ks71 7 all m>ks ( mov+ r\nd a common c5tre1 ) a c5tripetal =ce v>y+ directly z ! mass1 & inv]sely z ! squ>e ( ! di/ance f t c5tre4 ,?is is ! greate/ example :i* has yet occurr$ ( ! trans=mation1 at "o /roke1 ( a sci5ce :i* 0 /ill to a great degree m]ely exp]im5tal1 into a d$uctive sci5ce4 ,trans=mations ( ! same nature1 b on a small] scale1 cont9ually take place 9 ! less advanc$ bran*es ( physical k1 )\t enabl+ !m to ?r[ (f ! "* ( exp]im5tal sci5ces4 ,?us ) reg>d to ! two unconnect$ propositions be=e cit$1 namely1 ,acids r$d5 vegetable blues1 ,alkalies make !m gre52 x is rem>k$ by ,liebig1 t all blue color+ matt]s :i* are r$d5$ by acids 7z well z1 reciprocally1 all r$ color+ matt]s :i* are r5d]$ blue by alkalies7 conta9 nitrog53 & x is q possible t ?is circum/ance may "o day furni% a bond ( connection betwe5 ! two propositions 9 "q1 by %[+ t ! antagoni/ic action ( acids & alkalies 9 produc+ or de/roy+ ! color blue1 is ! result ( "s "o1 m g5]al1 law4 ,al?\gh ?is connect+ ( deta*$ g5]alizations is s mu* ga91 x t5ds b little to give a d$uctive "* to any sci5ce z a :ole2 because ! new c\rses ( obs]vation & exp]im5t1 :i* ?us enable u to connect toge!r a few g5]al tru?s1 usually make kn[n to u a /ill great] numb] ( unconnect$ new ones4 ,h5ce *emi/ry1 ?\gh simil> ext5sions & simplifications ( its g5]alizations are cont9ually tak+ place1 is /ill 9 ! ma9 an exp]im5tal sci5ce2 & is likely s to cont9ue unless "s compreh5sive induction %\ld be h]eaft] arriv$ at1 :i*1 l ,newton's1 %all connect a va/ numb] ( ! small] kn[n inductions toge!r1 & *ange ! :ole me?od ( ! sci5ce at once4 ,*emi/ry has already "o great g5]alization1 :i*1 ?\gh relat+ to "o ( ! subord9ate aspects ( *emical ph5om5a1 possesses )9 its limit$ sph]e ?is compreh5sive "*2 ! pr9ciple ( ,dalton1 call$ ! atomic !ory1 or ! doctr9e ( *emical equival5ts3 :i* by enabl+ u to a c]ta9 ext5t to =esee ! proportions 9 :i* two sub/ances w comb9e1 be=e ! exp]im5t has be5 tri$1 con/itutes und\bt$ly a s\rce ( new *emical tru?s obta9able by d$uction1 z well z a connect+ pr9ciple = all tru?s ( ! same description previ\sly obta9$ by exp]im5t4 #g4 ,! discov]ies :i* *ange ! me?od ( a sci5ce f exp]im5tal to d$uctive1 mo/ly consi/ 9 e/abli%+1 ei!r by d$uction or by direct exp]im5t1 t ! v>ieties ( a p>ticul> ph5om5on uni=mly accompany ! v>ieties ( "s o!r ph5om5on bett] kn[n4 ,?us ! sci5ce ( s\nd1 :i* previ\sly /ood 9 ! l[e/ rank ( m]ely exp]im5tal sci5ce1 became d$uctive :5 x 0 prov$ by exp]im5t t e v>iety ( s\nd 0 consequ5t on1 & !re=e a m>k (1 a di/9ct & def9able v>iety ( oscillatory motion among ! p>ticles ( ! transmitt+ m$ium4 ,:5 ?is 0 asc]ta9$1 x foll[$ t e relation ( succession or co-exi/5ce :i* obta9$ betwe5 ph5om5a ( ! m kn[n class1 obta9$ also betwe5 ! ph5om5a :i* correspond to !m 9 ! o!r class4 ,e s\nd1 be+ a m>k ( a p>ticul> oscillatory motion1 became a m>k ( e ?+ :i*1 by ! laws ( dynamics1 0 kn[n to be inf]able f t motion2 & e ?+ :i* by ^? same laws 0 a m>k ( any oscillatory motion among ! p>ticles ( an ela/ic m$ium1 became a m>k ( ! correspond+ s\nd4 ,& ?us _m tru?s1 n be=e suspect$1 conc]n+ s\nd1 become d$ucible f ! kn[n laws ( ! propagation ( motion ?r\gh an ela/ic m$ium2 :ile facts already empirically kn[n respect+ s\nd1 become an indication ( correspond+ prop]ties ( vibrat+ bodies1 previ\sly undiscov]$4 ,b ! gr& ag5t = trans=m+ exp]im5tal into d$uctive sci5ces1 is ! sci5ce ( numb]4 ,! prop]ties ( numb]1 alone among all kn[n ph5om5a1 are1 9 ! mo/ rigor\s s5se1 prop]ties ( all ?+s :atev]4 ,all ?+s are n color$1 or pond]able1 or ev5 ext5d$2 b all ?+s are num]able4 ,& if we consid] ?is sci5ce 9 its :ole ext5t1 f common ari?metic up to ! calculus ( v>iations1 ! tru?s already asc]ta9$ seem all b inf9ite1 & admit ( indef9ite ext5sion4 ,^! tru?s1 ?\gh affirmable ( all ?+s :atev]1 ( c\rse apply to !m only 9 respect ( _! quantity4 ,b if x comes to be discov]$ t v>iations ( quality 9 any class ( ph5om5a1 correspond regul>ly to v>iations ( quantity ei!r 9 ^? same or 9 "s o!r ph5om5a2 e =mula ( ma!matics applicable to quantities :i* v>y 9 t p>ticul> mann]1 becomes a m>k ( a correspond+ g5]al tru?1 respect+ ! v>iations 9 quality :i* accompany !m3 & ! sci5ce ( quantity be+ 7z f> z any sci5ce c be7 altoge!r d$uctive1 ! !ory ( t p>ticul> k9d ( qualities becomes1 to ?is ext5t1 d$uctive likewise4 ,! mo/ /rik+ in/ance 9 po9t :i* hi/ory af=ds 7?\gh n an example ( an exp]im5tal sci5ce r5d]$ d$uctive1 b ( an unp>allel$ ext5sion giv5 to ! d$uctive process 9 a sci5ce :i* 0 d$uctive already71 is ! revolution 9 geometry :i* orig9at$ ) ,desc>tes1 & 0 complet$ by ,clairaut4 ,^! great ma!maticians po9t$ out ! importance ( ! fact1 t to e v>iety ( position 9 po9ts1 direction 9 l9es1 or =m 9 curves or surfaces 7all ( :i* are ,qualities71 !re corresponds a peculi> relation ( quantity betwe5 ei!r two or ?ree rectil9eal co-ord9ates2 insomu* t if ! law 7 kn[n accord+ to :i* ^? co-ord9ates v>y relatively to "o ano!r1 e o!r geometrical prop]ty ( ! l9e or surface 9 "q1 :e!r relat+ to quantity or quality1 w\ld be capable ( be+ inf]r$4 ,h5ce x foll[$ t e geometrical "q c\ld be solv$1 if ! correspond+ algebraical "o c\ld2 & geometry receiv$ an accession 7actual or pot5tial7 ( new tru?s1 correspond+ to e prop]ty ( numb]s :i* ! progress ( ! calculus _h br\ght1 or might 9 future br+1 to light4 ,9 ! same g5]al mann]1 me*anics1 a/ronomy1 & 9 a less degree1 e bran* ( natural philosophy commonly s call$1 h be5 made algebraical4 ,! v>ieties ( physical ph5om5a ) :i* ^? sci5ces are conv]sant1 h be5 f\nd to answ] to det]m9able v>ieties 9 ! quantity ( "s circum/ance or o!r2 or at lea/ to v>ieties ( =m or position1 = :i* correspond+ equations ( quantity _h already be51 or 7 susceptible ( be+1 discov]$ by geomet]s4 ,9 ^! v>i\s trans=mations1 ! propositions ( ! sci5ce ( numb] d b fulfill ! function prop] to all propositions =m+ a tra9 ( reason+1 viz41 t ( enabl+ u to arrive 9 an indirect me?od1 by m>ks ( m>ks1 at su* ( ! prop]ties ( objects z we c n directly asc]ta9 7or n s conv5i5tly7 by exp]im5t4 ,we travel f a giv5 visible or tangible fact1 ?r\gh ! tru?s ( numb]s1 to ! facts s\ght4 ,! giv5 fact is a m>k t a c]ta9 relation subsi/s betwe5 ! quantities ( "s ( ! elem5ts conc]n$2 :ile ! fact s\ght presupposes a c]ta9 relation betwe5 ! quantities ( "s o!r elem5ts3 n[1 if ^! la/ quantities are dep5d5t 9 "s kn[n mann] ^u ! =m]1 or vic v]sa1 we c argue f ! num]ical relation betwe5 ! "o set ( quantities1 to det]m9e t :i* subsi/s betwe5 ! o!r set2 ! !orems ( ! calculus af=d+ ! int]m$iate l9ks4 ,& ?us "o ( ! two physical facts becomes a m>k ( ! o!r1 by be+ a m>k ( a m>k ( a m>k ( x4 ,*apt] ,v4 ,( ,demon/ration1 ,& ,necess>y ,tru?s4 #a4 ,if1 z laid d[n 9 ! two prec$+ *apt]s1 ! f\ndation ( all sci5ces1 ev5 d$uctive or demon/rative sci5ces1 is ,induction2 if e /ep 9 ! ratioc9ations ev5 ( geometry is an act ( induction2 & if a tra9 ( reason+ is b br++ _m inductions to be> ^u ! same subject ( inquiry1 & draw+ a case )9 "o induction by means ( ano!r2 :]e9 lies ! peculi> c]ta9ty always ascrib$ to ! sci5ces :i* are entirely1 or almo/ entirely1 d$uctive8 ,:y are !y call$ ! ,exact ,sci5ces8 ,:y are ma!matical c]ta9ty1 & ! evid5ce ( demon/ration1 common phrases to express ! v highe/ degree ( assurance atta9able by reason8 ,:y are ma!matics by almo/ all philosoph]s1 & 7by "s7 ev5 ^? bran*es ( natural philosophy :i*1 ?r\gh ! m$ium ( ma!matics1 h be5 conv]t$ into d$uctive sci5ces1 consid]$ to be indep5d5t ( ! evid5ce ( exp]i5ce & obs]vation1 & *>act]iz$ z sy/ems ( ,necess>y ,tru?8 ,! answ] ,i conceive to be1 t ?is "* ( necessity1 ascrib$ to ! tru?s ( ma!matics1 & 7ev5 ) "s res]vations to be h]eaft] made7 ! peculi> c]ta9ty attribut$ to !m1 is an illusion2 9 ord] to su/a9 :i*1 x is necess>y to suppose t ^? tru?s relate to1 & express ! prop]ties (1 purely imag9>y objects4 ,x is ackn[l$g$ t ! conclusions ( geometry are d$uc$1 p>tly at lea/1 f ! s-call$ ,def9itions1 & t ^? def9itions are assum$ to be correct repres5tations1 z f> z !y g1 ( ! objects ) :i* geometry is conv]sant4 ,n[ we h po9t$ out t1 f a def9ition z su*1 no proposition1 unless x be "o conc]n+ ! mean+ ( a ^w1 c ev] foll[2 & t :at app>5tly foll[s f a def9ition1 foll[s 9 reality f an impli$ assumption t !re exi/s a real ?+ con=mable !reto4 ,?is assumption1 9 ! case ( ! def9itions ( geometry1 is n /rictly true3 !re exi/ no real ?+s exactly con=mable to ! def9itions4 ,!re exi/ no po9ts )\t magnitude2 no l9es )\t bread?1 nor p]fectly /raight2 no circles ) all _! radii exactly equal1 nor squ>es ) all _! angles p]fectly "r4 ,x w p]haps be said t ! assumption does n ext5d to ! actual1 b only to ! possible1 exi/5ce ( su* ?+s4 ,i answ] t1 accord+ to any te/ we h ( possibility1 !y are n ev5 possible4 ,_! exi/5ce1 s f> z we c =m any judgm5t1 w\ld seem to be inconsi/5t ) ! physical con/itution ( our planet at lea/1 if n ( ! univ]se4 ,to get rid ( ?is difficulty1 & at ! same "t to save ! cr$it ( ! suppos$ sy/em ( necess>y tru?1 x is cu/om>y to say t ! po9ts1 l9es1 circles1 & squ>es :i* are ! subject ( geometry1 exi/ 9 our conceptions m]ely1 & are "p ( our m9ds2 :i* m9ds1 by work+ on _! own mat]ials1 con/ruct an a priori sci5ce1 ! evid5ce ( :i* is purely m5tal1 & has no?+ :atev] to d ) outw>d exp]i5ce4 ,by h[soev] high au?orities ?is doctr9e may h be5 sanction$1 x appe>s to me psy*ologically incorrect4 ,! po9ts1 l9es1 circles1 & squ>es :i* any "o has 9 8 m9d1 are 7,i appreh5d7 simply copies ( ! po9ts1 l9es1 circles1 & squ>es :i* he has kn[n 9 8 exp]i5ce4 ,our idea ( a po9t1 ,i appreh5d to be simply our idea ( ! m9imum visibile1 ! smalle/ portion ( surface :i* we c see4 ,a l9e1 z def9$ by geomet]s1 is :olly inconceivable4 ,we c reason ab\t a l9e z if x _h no bread?2 because we h a p[]1 :i* is ! f\ndation ( all ! control we c ex]cise ov] ! op]ations ( our m9ds2 ! p[]1 :5 a p]ception is pres5t to our s5ses1 or a conception to our intellects1 ( att5d+ to a "p only ( t p]ception or conception1 in/ead ( ! :ole4 ,b we c n conceive a l9e )\t bread?2 we c =m no m5tal picture ( su* a l9e3 all ! l9es :i* we h 9 our m9ds are l9es possess+ bread?4 ,if any "o d\bts ?is1 we may ref] him to 8 own exp]i5ce4 ,i mu* "q if any "o :o fancies t he c conceive :at is call$ a ma!matical l9e1 ?9ks s f ! evid5ce ( 8 consci\sness3 ,i suspect x is r because he supposes t unless su* a conception 7 possible1 ma!matics c\ld n exi/ z a sci5ce3 a supposition :i* !re w be no difficulty 9 %[+ to be entirely gr\ndless4 ,s9ce1 !n1 nei!r 9 nature1 nor 9 ! human m9d1 d !re exi/ any objects exactly correspond+ to ! def9itions ( geometry1 :ile yet t sci5ce c n be suppos$ to be conv]sant ab\t non5tities2 no?+ rema9s b to consid] geometry z conv]sant ) su* l9es1 angles1 & figures1 z really exi/2 & ! def9itions1 z !y are call$1 mu/ be reg>d$ z "s ( our fir/ & mo/ obvi\s g5]alizations conc]n+ ^? natural objects4 ,! correctness ( ^? g5]alizations1 z g5]alizations1 is )\t a flaw3 ! equality ( all ! radii ( a circle is true ( all circles1 s f> z x is true ( any "o3 b x is n exactly true ( any circle2 x is only ne>ly true2 s ne>ly t no error ( any importance 9 practice w be incurr$ by feign+ x to be exactly true4 ,:5 we h occasion to ext5d ^! inductions1 or _! consequ5ces1 to cases 9 :i* ! error w\ld be appreciable--to l9es ( p]ceptible bread? or ?ickness1 p>allels :i* deviate s5sibly f equidi/ance1 & ! l--we correct our conclusions1 by comb9+ ) !m a fre% set ( propositions relat+ to ! ab]ration2 j z we also take 9 propositions relat+ to ! physical or *emical prop]ties ( ! mat]ial1 if ^? prop]ties happ5 to introduce any modification into ! result2 :i* !y easily may1 ev5 ) respect to figure & magnitude1 z 9 ! case1 = in/ance1 ( expansion by heat4 ,s long1 h[ev]1 z !re exi/s no practical necessity = att5d+ to any ( ! prop]ties ( ! object except its geometrical prop]ties1 or to any ( ! natural irregul>ities 9 ^?1 x is conv5i5t to neglect ! consid]ation ( ! o!r prop]ties & ( ! irregul>ities1 & to reason z if ^! did n exi/3 accord+ly1 we =mally ann\nce 9 ! def9itions1 t we int5d to proce$ on ?is plan4 ,b x is an error to suppose1 because we resolve to conf9e our att5tion to a c]ta9 numb] ( ! prop]ties ( an object1 t we !re=e conceive1 or h an idea (1 ! object1 d5ud$ ( its o!r prop]ties4 ,we are ?9k+1 all ! "t1 ( precisely su* objects z we h se5 & t\*$1 & ) all ! prop]ties :i* naturally belong to !m2 b1 = sci5tific conv5i5ce1 we feign !m to be dive/$ ( all prop]ties1 except ^? :i* are mat]ial to our purpose1 & 9 reg>d to :i* we design to consid] !m4 ,! peculi> accuracy1 suppos$ to be *>act]i/ic ( ! fir/ pr9ciples ( geometry1 ?us appe>s to be fictiti\s4 ,! ass]tions on :i* ! reason+s ( ! sci5ce are f\nd$1 d n1 any m ?an 9 o!r sci5ces1 exactly correspond ) ! fact2 b we suppose t !y d s1 = ! sake ( trac+ ! consequ5ces :i* foll[ f ! supposition4 ,! op9ion ( ,dugald ,/ew>t respect+ ! f\ndations ( geometry1 is1 ,i conceive1 sub/antially correct2 t x is built on hypo!ses2 t x owes to ?is alone ! peculi> c]ta9ty suppos$ to di/+ui% x2 & t 9 any sci5ce :atev]1 by reason+ f a set ( hypo!ses1 we may obta9 a body ( conclusions z c]ta9 z ^? ( geometry1 t is1 z /rictly 9 accordance ) ! hypo!ses1 & z irresi/ibly compell+ ass5t1 on condition t ^? hypo!ses are true47#fh7 ,:51 !re=e1 x is affirm$ t ! conclusions ( geometry are necess>y tru?s1 ! necessity consi/s 9 reality only 9 ?is1 t !y correctly foll[ f ! suppositions f :i* !y are d$uc$4 ,^? suppositions are s f> f be+ necess>y1 t !y are n ev5 true2 !y purposely dep>t1 m or less widely1 f ! tru?4 ,! only s5se 9 :i* necessity c be ascrib$ to ! conclusions ( any sci5tific inve/igation1 is t ( legitimately foll[+ f "s assumption1 :i*1 by ! conditions ( ! inquiry1 is n to be que/ion$4 ,9 ?is relation1 ( c\rse1 ! d]ivative tru?s ( e d$uctive sci5ce mu/ /& to ! inductions1 or assumptions1 on :i* ! sci5ce is f\nd$1 & :i*1 :e!r true or untrue1 c]ta9 or d\btful 9 !mselves1 are always suppos$ c]ta9 = ! purposes ( ! p>ticul> sci5ce4 ,& !re=e ! conclusions ( all d$uctive sci5ces 7 said by ! anci5ts to be necess>y propositions4 ,we h obs]v$ already t to be pr$icat$ necess>ily 0 *>act]i/ic ( ! pr$icable ,proprium1 & t a proprium 0 any prop]ty ( a ?+ :i* c\ld be d$uc$ f its ess5ce1 t is1 f ! prop]ties includ$ 9 its def9ition4 #b4 ,! important doctr9e ( ,dugald ,/ew>t1 :i* ,i h endeavor$ to en=ce1 has be5 conte/$ by ,dr4 ,:ewell1 bo? 9 ! diss]tation app5d$ to 8 excell5t ,me*anical ,euclid1 & 9 8 elaborate "w on ! ,philosophy ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces2 9 :i* la/ he also replies to an article 9 ! ,ed9burgh ,review 7ascrib$ to a writ] ( great sci5tific em95ce71 9 :i* ,/ew>t's op9ion 0 def5d$ aga9/ 8 =m] /rictures4 ,! suppos$ refutation ( ,/ew>t consi/s 9 prov+ aga9/ him 7z has also be5 done 9 ?is "w7 t ! premises ( geometry are n def9itions1 b assumptions ( ! real exi/5ce ( ?+s correspond+ to ^? def9itions4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is do+ little = ,dr4 ,:ewell's purpose2 = x is ^! v assumptions :i* are ass]t$ to be hypo!ses1 & :i* he1 if he d5ies t geometry is f\nd$ on hypo!ses1 mu/ %[ to be absolute tru?s4 ,all he does1 h[ev]1 is to obs]ve1 t !y1 at any rate1 are n arbitr>y hypo!ses2 t we %\ld n be at lib]ty to sub/itute o!r hypo!ses = !m2 t n only 8a def9ition1 to be admissible1 mu/ necess>ily ref] to & agree ) "s conception :i* we c di/9ctly frame 9 our ?\ghts10 b t ! /raight l9es1 = in/ance1 :i* we def9e1 mu/ be 8^? by :i* angles are conta9$1 ^? by :i* triangles are b\nd$1 ^? ( :i* p>allelism may be pr$icat$1 & ! l407#fi7 ,& ?is is true2 b ?is has nev] be5 contradict$4 ,^? :o say t ! premises ( geometry are hypo!ses1 are n b\nd to ma9ta9 !m to be hypo!ses :i* h no relation :atev] to fact4 ,s9ce an hypo!sis fram$ = ! purpose ( sci5tific inquiry mu/ relate to some?+ :i* has real exi/5ce 7= !re c be no sci5ce respect+ non5tities71 x foll[s t any hypo!sis we make respect+ an object1 to facilitate our /udy ( x1 mu/ n involve any ?+ :i* is di/9ctly false1 & repugnant to its real nature3 we mu/ n ascribe to ! ?+ any prop]ty :i* x has n2 our lib]ty ext5ds only to slightly exagg]at+ "s ( ^? :i* x has 7by assum+ x to be completely :at x really is v ne>ly71 & suppress+ o!rs1 "u ! indisp5sable obligation ( re/or+ !m :5ev]1 & 9 z f> z1 _! pres5ce or abs5ce w\ld make any mat]ial diff]5ce 9 ! tru? ( our conclusions4 ,( ?is nature1 accord+ly1 are ! fir/ pr9ciples involv$ 9 ! def9itions ( geometry4 ,t ! hypo!ses %\ld be ( ?is p>ticul> "*1 is1 h[ev]1 no fur!r necess>y1 ?an inasmu* z no o!rs c\ld enable u to d$uce conclusions :i*1 ) due corrections1 w\ld be true ( real objects3 & 9 fact1 :5 our aim is only to illu/rate tru?s1 & n to inve/igate !m1 we are n "u any su* re/riction4 ,we might suppose an imag9>y animal1 & "w out by d$uction1 f ! kn[n laws ( physiology1 its natural hi/ory2 or an imag9>y commonweal?1 & f ! elem5ts compos+ x1 might argue :at w\ld be its fate4 ,& ! conclusions :i* we might ?us draw f purely arbitr>y hypo!ses1 might =m a highly useful intellectual ex]cise3 b z !y c\ld only tea* u :at w\ld be ! prop]ties ( objects :i* d n really exi/1 !y w\ld n con/itute any addition to our k ( nature3 :ile1 on ! contr>y1 if ! hypo!sis m]ely dive/s a real object ( "s portion ( its prop]ties1 )\t clo?+ x 9 false ones1 ! conclusions w always express1 "u kn[n liability to correction1 actual tru?4 #c4 ,b ?\gh ,dr4 ,:ewell has n %ak5 ,/ew>t's doctr9e z to ! hypo!tical "* ( t portion ( ! fir/ pr9ciples ( geometry :i* are involv$ 9 ! s-call$ def9itions1 he has1 ,i conceive1 greatly ! advantage ( ,/ew>t on ano!r important po9t 9 ! !ory ( geometrical reason+2 ! necessity ( admitt+1 among ^? fir/ pr9ciples1 axioms z well z def9itions4 ,"s ( ! axioms ( ,euclid might1 no d\bt1 be exhibit$ 9 ! =m ( def9itions1 or might be d$uc$1 by reason+1 f propositions simil> to :at are s call$4 ,?us1 if in/ead ( ! axiom1 ,magnitudes :i* c be made to co9cide are equal1 we introduce a def9ition1 8,equal magnitudes are ^? :i* may be s appli$ to "o ano!r z to co9cide20 ! ?ree axioms :i* foll[ 7,magnitudes :i* are equal to ! same are equal to "o ano!r--,if equals are add$ to equals1 ! sums are equal--,if equals are tak5 f equals1 ! rema9d]s are equal71 may be prov$ by an imag9>y sup]position1 resembl+ t by :i* ! f\r? proposition ( ! fir/ book ( ,euclid is demon/rat$4 ,b ?\gh ^! & sev]al o!rs may be /ruck out ( ! li/ ( fir/ pr9ciples1 because1 ?\gh n requir+ demon/ration1 !y are susceptible ( x2 !re w be f\nd 9 ! li/ ( axioms two or ?ree fundam5tal tru?s1 n capable ( be+ demon/rat$3 among :i* mu/ be reckon$ ! proposition t two /raight l9es c n inclose a space 7or its equival5t1 ,/raight l9es :i* co9cide 9 two po9ts co9cide altoge!r71 & "s prop]ty ( p>allel l9es1 o!r ?an t :i* con/itutes _! def9ition3 "o ( ! mo/ suitable = ! purpose be+ t select$ by ,pr(essor ,playfair3 8,two /raight l9es :i* int]sect ea* o!r c n bo? ( !m be p>allel to a ?ird /raight l9e407#gj7 ,! axioms1 z well ^? :i* are indemon/rable z ^? :i* admit ( be+ demon/rat$1 diff] f t o!r class ( fundam5tal pr9ciples :i* are involv$ 9 ! def9itions1 9 ?is1 t !y are true )\t any mixture ( hypo!sis4 ,t ?+s :i* are equal to ! same ?+ are equal to "o ano!r1 is z true ( ! l9es & figures 9 nature1 z x w\ld be ( ! imag9>y ones assum$ 9 ! def9itions4 ,9 ?is respect1 h[ev]1 ma!matics are only on a p> ) mo/ o!r sci5ces4 ,9 almo/ all sci5ces !re are "s g5]al propositions :i* are exactly true1 :ile ! great] "p are only m or less di/ant approximations to ! tru?4 ,?us 9 me*anics1 ! fir/ law ( motion 7! cont9uance ( a movem5t once impress$1 until /opp$ or slack5$ by "s resi/+ =ce7 is true )\t qualification or error4 ,! rotation ( ! e>? 9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 ( ! same l5g? z 9 our "t1 has gone on s9ce ! fir/ accurate obs]vations1 )\t ! increase or dim9ution ( "o second 9 all t p]iod4 ,^! are inductions :i* require no fiction to make !m be receiv$ z accurately true3 b along ) !m !re are o!rs1 z = in/ance ! propositions respect+ ! figure ( ! e>?1 :i* are b approximations to ! tru?2 & 9 ord] to use !m = ! fur!r advancem5t ( our k1 we mu/ feign t !y are exactly true1 ?\gh !y really want some?+ ( be+ s4 #d4 ,x rema9s to inquire1 :at is ! gr\nd ( our belief 9 axioms--:at is ! evid5ce on :i* !y re/8 ,i answ]1 !y are exp]im5tal tru?s2 g5]alizations f obs]vation4 ,! proposition1 ,two /raight l9es c n inclose a space--or1 9 o!r words1 ,two /raight l9es :i* h once met1 d n meet aga91 b cont9ue to div]ge--is an induction f ! evid5ce ( our s5ses4 ,?is op9ion runs c\nt] to a sci5tific prejudice ( long /&+ & great /r5g?1 & !re is probably no proposition enunciat$ 9 ?is "w = :i* a m unfavorable reception is to be expect$4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 no new op9ion2 & ev5 if x 7 s1 w\ld be entitl$ to be judg$1 n by its novelty1 b by ! /r5g? ( ! argum5ts by :i* x c be support$4 ,i consid] x v =tunate t s em95t a *ampion ( ! contr>y op9ion z ,dr4 ,:ewell has f\nd occasion = a mo/ elaborate treatm5t ( ! :ole !ory ( axioms1 9 attempt+ to con/ruct ! philosophy ( ! ma!matical & physical sci5ces on ! basis ( ! doctr9e aga9/ :i* ,i n[ cont5d4 ,:oev] is anxi\s t a discussion %\ld g to ! bottom ( ! subject1 mu/ rejoice to see ! opposite side ( ! "q wor?ily repres5t$4 ,if :at is said by ,dr4 ,:ewell1 9 support ( an op9ion :i* he has made ! f\ndation ( a sy/ematic "w1 c be %[n n to be conclusive1 en\gh w h be5 done1 )\t go+ else:]e 9 que/ ( /rong] argum5ts & a m p[]ful adv]s>y4 ,x is n necess>y to %[ t ! tru?s :i* we call axioms are orig9ally sugge/$ by obs]vation1 & t we %\ld nev] h kn[n t two /raight l9es c n inclose a space if we _h nev] se5 a /raight l9e3 ?us mu* be+ admitt$ by ,dr4 ,:ewell1 & by all1 9 rec5t times1 :o h tak5 8 view ( ! subject4 ,b !y cont5d1 t x is n exp]i5ce :i* proves ! axiom2 b t its tru? is p]ceiv$ a priori1 by ! con/itution ( ! m9d itself1 f ! fir/ mom5t :5 ! mean+ ( ! proposition is appreh5d$2 & )\t any necessity = v]ify+ x by repeat$ trials1 z is requisite 9 ! case ( tru?s really asc]ta9$ by obs]vation4 ,!y c n1 h[ev]1 b all[ t ! tru? ( ! axiom1 ,two /raight l9es c n inclose a space1 ev5 if evid5t indep5d5tly ( exp]i5ce1 is also evid5t f exp]i5ce4 ,:e!r ! axiom ne$s confirmation or n1 x receives confirmation 9 almo/ e in/ant ( our lives2 s9ce we c n look at any two /raight l9es :i* int]sect "o ano!r1 )\t see+ t f t po9t !y cont9ue to div]ge m & m4 ,exp]im5tal pro( cr[ds 9 ^u u 9 su* endless pr(usion1 & )\t "o in/ance 9 :i* !re c be ev5 a suspicion ( an exception to ! rule1 t we %\ld soon h /rong] gr\nd = believ+ ! axiom1 ev5 z an exp]im5tal tru?1 ?an we h = almo/ any ( ! g5]al tru?s :i* we confess$ly le>n f ! evid5ce ( our s5ses4 ,indep5d5tly ( a priori evid5ce1 we %\ld c]ta9ly believe x ) an int5sity ( conviction f> great] ?an we accord to any ord9>y physical tru?3 & ?is too at a "t ( life mu* e>li] ?an t f :i* we date almo/ any "p ( our acquir$ k1 & mu* too e>ly to admit ( our reta9+ any recollection ( ! hi/ory ( our intellectual op]ations at t p]iod4 ,:]e !n is ! necessity = assum+ t our recognition ( ^! tru?s has a diff]5t orig9 f ! re/ ( our k1 :5 its exi/5ce is p]fectly acc\nt$ = by suppos+ its orig9 to be ! same8 :5 ! causes :i* produce belief 9 all o!r in/ances1 exi/ 9 ?is in/ance1 & 9 a degree ( /r5g? z mu* sup]ior to :at exi/s 9 o!r cases1 z ! int5sity ( ! belief itself is sup]ior8 ,! burd5 ( pro( lies on ! advocates ( ! contr>y op9ion3 x is = !m to po9t out "s fact1 inconsi/5t ) ! supposition t ?is "p ( our k ( nature is d]iv$ f ! same s\rces z e o!r "p47#ga7 ,?is1 = in/ance1 !y w\ld be able to d1 if !y c\ld prove *ronologically t we _h ! conviction 7at lea/ practically7 s e>ly 9 infancy z to be ant]ior to ^? impressions on ! s5ses1 ^u :i*1 on ! o!r !ory1 ! conviction is f\nd$4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 c n be prov$3 ! po9t be+ too f> back to be )9 ! rea* ( memory1 & too obscure = ext]nal obs]vation4 ,! advocates ( ! a priori !ory are oblig$ to h rec\rse to o!r argum5ts4 ,^! are r$ucible to two1 :i* ,i %all endeavor to /ate z cle>ly & z =cibly z possible4 #e4 ,9 ! fir/ place x is said1 t if our ass5t to ! proposition t two /raight l9es c n inclose a space1 7 d]iv$ f ! s5ses1 we c\ld only be conv9c$ ( its tru? by actual trial1 t is1 by see+ or feel+ ! /raight l9es2 :]eas1 9 fact1 x is se5 to be true by m]ely ?9k+ ( !m4 ,t a /one ?r[n into wat] goes to ! bottom1 may be p]ceiv$ by our s5ses1 b m]e ?9k+ ( a /one ?r[n into ! wat] w\ld nev] h l$ u to t conclusion3 n s1 h[ev]1 ) ! axioms relat+ to /raight l9es3 if ,i c\ld be made to conceive :at a /raight l9e is1 )\t hav+ se5 "o1 ,i %\ld at once recognize t two su* l9es c n inclose a space4 ,intuition is 8imag9>y look+207#gb7 b exp]i5ce mu/ be real look+3 if we see a prop]ty ( /raight l9es to be true by m]ely fancy+ ourselves to be look+ at !m1 ! gr\nd ( our belief c n be ! s5ses1 or exp]i5ce2 x mu/ be some?+ m5tal4 ,to ?is argum5t x might be add$ 9 ! case ( ?is p>ticul> axiom 7= ! ass]tion w\ld n be true ( all axioms71 t ! evid5ce ( x f actual ocul> inspection is n only unnecess>y1 b unatta9able4 ,:at says ! axiom8 ,t two /raight l9es c n inclose a space2 t aft] hav+ once int]sect$1 if !y are prolong$ to inf9ity !y d n meet1 b cont9ue to div]ge f "o ano!r4 ,h[ c ?is1 9 any s+le case1 be prov$ by actual obs]vation8 ,we may foll[ ! l9es to any di/ance we please2 b we c n foll[ !m to inf9ity3 = aught our s5ses c te/ify1 !y may1 imm$iately beyond ! f>!/ po9t to :i* we h trac$ !m1 beg9 to approa*1 & at la/ meet4 ,unless1 !re=e1 we _h "s o!r pro( ( ! impossibility ?an obs]vation af=ds u1 we %\ld h no gr\nd = believ+ ! axiom at all4 ,to ^! argum5ts1 :i* ,i tru/ ,i c n be accus$ ( und]/at+1 a satisfactory answ] w1 ,i conceive1 be f\nd1 if we adv]t to "o ( ! *>act]i/ic prop]ties ( geometrical =ms--_! capacity ( be+ pa9t$ 9 ! imag9ation ) a di/9ctness equal to reality3 9 o!r words1 ! exact resemblance ( our ideas ( =m to ! s5sations :i* sugge/ !m4 ,?is1 9 ! fir/ place1 enables u to make 7at lea/ ) a little practice7 m5tal pictures ( all possible comb9ations ( l9es & angles1 :i* resemble ! realities q z well z any :i* we c\ld make on pap]2 & 9 ! next place1 make ^? pictures j z fit subjects ( geometrical exp]im5tation z ! realities !mselves2 inasmu* z pictures1 if suffici5tly accurate1 exhibit ( c\rse all ! prop]ties :i* w\ld be manife/$ by ! realities at "o giv5 in/ant1 & on simple inspection3 & 9 geometry we are conc]n$ only ) su* prop]ties1 & n ) t :i* pictures c\ld n exhibit1 ! mutual action ( bodies "o ^u ano!r4 ,! f\ndations ( geometry w\ld !re=e be laid 9 direct exp]i5ce1 ev5 if ! exp]im5ts 7:i* 9 ?is case consi/ m]ely 9 att5tive contemplation7 7 practic$ solely ^u :at we call our ideas1 t is1 ^u ! diagrams 9 our m9ds1 & n ^u outw>d objects4 ,= 9 all sy/ems ( exp]im5tation we take "s objects to s]ve z repres5tatives ( all :i* resemble !m2 & 9 ! pres5t case ! conditions :i* qualify a real object to be ! repres5tative ( its class1 are completely fulfill$ by an object exi/+ only 9 our fancy4 ,)\t d5y+1 !re=e1 ! possibility ( satisfy+ ourselves t two /raight l9es c n inclose a space1 by m]ely ?9k+ ( /raight l9es )\t actually look+ at !m2 ,i cont5d1 t we d n believe ?is tru? on ! gr\nd ( ! imag9>y intuition simply1 b because we "k t ! imag9>y l9es exactly resemble real ones1 & t we may conclude f !m to real ones ) q z mu* c]ta9ty z we c\ld conclude f "o real l9e to ano!r4 ,! conclusion1 !re=e1 is /ill an induction f obs]vation4 ,& we %\ld n be au?oriz$ to sub/itute obs]vation ( ! image 9 our m9d1 = obs]vation ( ! reality1 if we _h n le>n$ by long-cont9u$ exp]i5ce t ! prop]ties ( ! reality are fai?fully repres5t$ 9 ! image2 j z we %\ld be sci5tifically w>rant$ 9 describ+ an animal :i* we h nev] se51 f a picture made ( x ) a dagu]reotype2 b n until we _h le>n$ by ample exp]i5ce1 t obs]vation ( su* a picture is precisely equival5t to obs]vation ( ! orig9al4 ,^! consid]ations also remove ! objection aris+ f ! impossibility ( ocul>ly foll[+ ! l9es 9 _! prolongation to inf9ity4 ,= ?\gh1 9 ord] actually to see t two giv5 l9es nev] meet1 x w\ld be necess>y to foll[ !m to inf9ity2 yet )\t do+ s we may "k t if !y ev] d meet1 or if1 aft] div]g+ f "o ano!r1 !y beg9 aga9 to approa*1 ?is mu/ take place n at an inf9ite1 b at a f9ite di/ance4 ,suppos+1 !re=e1 su* to be ! case1 we c transport ourselves ?i!r 9 imag9ation1 & c frame a m5tal image ( ! appe>ance :i* "o or bo? ( ! l9es mu/ pres5t at t po9t1 :i* we may rely on z be+ precisely simil> to ! reality4 ,n[1 :e!r we fix our contemplation ^u ?is imag9>y picture1 or call to m9d ! g5]alizations we h _h occasion to make f =m] ocul> obs]vation1 we le>n by ! evid5ce ( exp]i5ce1 t a l9e :i*1 aft] div]g+ f ano!r /raight l9e1 beg9s to approa* to x1 produces ! impression on our s5ses :i* we describe by ! expression1 8a b5t l9e10 n by ! expression1 8a /raight l9e407#gc7 ,! prec$+ argum5t1 :i* is1 to my m9d unansw]able1 m]ges1 h[ev]1 9 a /ill m compreh5sive "o1 :i* is /at$ mo/ cle>ly & conclusively by ,pr(essor ,ba94 ,! psy*ological reason :y axioms1 & inde$ _m propositions n ord9>ily class$ z su*1 may be le>n$ f ! idea only )\t ref]r+ to ! fact1 is t 9 ! process ( acquir+ ! idea we h le>n$ ! fact4 ,! proposition is ass5t$ to z soon z ! t]ms are und]/ood1 because 9 le>n+ to und]/& ! t]ms we h acquir$ ! exp]i5ce :i* proves ! proposition to be true4 8,we requir$10 says ,mr4 ,ba917#gd7 8concrete exp]i5ce 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 to atta9 to ! notion ( :ole & "p2 b ! notion1 once arriv$ at1 implies t ! :ole is great]4 ,9 fact1 we c\ld n h ! notion )\t an exp]i5ce tantam\nt to ?is conclusion4444 ,:5 we h ma/]$ ! notion ( /raightness1 we h also ma/]$ t aspect ( x express$ by ! affirmation t two /raight l9es c n inclose a space4 ,no intuitive or innate p[]s or p]ceptions are ne$$ 9 su* case4444 ,we c n h ! full mean+ ( ,/raightness1 )\t go+ ?r\gh a comp>ison ( /raight objects among !mselves1 & ) _! opposites1 b5t or crook$ objects4 ,! result ( ?is comp>ison is1 int] alia1 t /raightness 9 two l9es is se5 to be incompatible ) inclos+ a space2 ! inclosure ( space involves crook$ness 9 at lea/ "o ( ! l9es40 ,& simil>ly1 9 ! case ( e fir/ pr9ciple17#ge7 8! same k t makes x und]/ood1 suffices to v]ify x40 ,! m ?is obs]vation is consid]$ ! m 7,i am conv9c$7 x w be felt to g to ! v root ( ! controv]sy4 #f4 ,! fir/ ( ! two argum5ts 9 support ( ! !ory t axioms are a priori tru?s1 hav+1 ,i ?9k1 be5 suffici5tly answ]$2 ,i proce$ to ! second1 :i* is usually ! mo/ reli$ on4 ,axioms 7x is ass]t$7 are conceiv$ by u n only z true1 b z univ]sally & necess>ily true4 ,n[1 exp]i5ce c n possibly give to any proposition ?is "*4 ,i may h se5 sn[ a hundr$ times1 & may h se5 t x 0 :ite1 b ?is c n give me entire assurance ev5 t all sn[ is :ite2 mu* less t sn[ mu/ be :ite4 8,h[ev] _m in/ances we may h obs]v$ ( ! tru? ( a proposition1 !re is no?+ to assure u t ! next case %all n be an exception to ! rule4 ,if x be /rictly true t e rum9ant animal yet kn[n has clov5 ho(s1 we /ill c n be sure t "s creature w n h]eaft] be discov]$ :i* has ! fir/ ( ^! attributes1 )\t hav+ ! o!r4444 ,exp]i5ce mu/ always consi/ ( a limit$ numb] ( obs]vations2 &1 h[ev] num]\s ^! may be1 !y c %[ no?+ ) reg>d to ! inf9ite numb] ( cases 9 :i* ! exp]im5t has n be5 made40 ,besides1 ,axioms are n only univ]sal1 !y are also necess>y4 ,n[ 8exp]i5ce c n (f] ! smalle/ gr\nd = ! necessity ( a proposition4 ,%e c obs]ve & record :at has happ5$2 b %e c n f9d1 9 any case1 or 9 any accumulation ( cases1 any reason = :at mu/ happ54 ,%e may see objects side by side2 b %e c n see a reason :y !y mu/ ev] be side by side4 ,%e f9ds c]ta9 ev5ts to occur 9 succession2 b ! succession supplies1 9 its occurr5ce1 no reason = its recurr5ce4 ,%e contemplates ext]nal objects2 b %e c n detect any int]nal bond1 :i* indissolubly connects ! future ) ! pa/1 ! possible ) ! real4 ,to le>n a proposition by exp]i5ce1 & to see x to be necess>ily true1 are two altoge!r diff]5t processes ( ?\ght407#gf7 ,& ,dr4 ,:ewell adds1 8,if any "o does n cle>ly compreh5d ?is di/9ction ( necess>y & cont+5t tru?s1 he w n be able to g along ) u 9 our rese>*es into ! f\ndations ( human k2 nor1 inde$1 to pursue ) success any speculation on ! subject407#gg7 ,9 ! foll[+ passage1 we are told :at ! di/9ction is1 ! non-recognition ( :i* incurs ?is d5unciation4 8,necess>y tru?s are ^? 9 :i* we n only le>n t ! proposition is true1 b see t x mu/ be true2 9 :i* ! negation ( ! tru? is n only false1 b impossible2 9 :i* we c n1 ev5 by an ef=t ( imag9ation1 or 9 a supposition1 conceive ! rev]se ( t :i* is ass]t$4 ,t !re are su* tru?s c n be d\bt$4 ,we may take1 = example1 all relations ( numb]4 ,?ree & ,two add$ toge!r make ,five4 ,we c n conceive x to be o!rwise4 ,we c n1 by any freak ( ?\ght1 imag9e ,?ree & ,two to make ,sev5407#gh7 ,al?\gh ,dr4 ,:ewell has naturally & prop]ly employ$ a v>iety ( phrases to br+ 8 mean+ m =cibly home1 he w\ld1 ,i presume1 all[ t !y are all equival5t2 & t :at he means by a necess>y tru?1 w\ld be suffici5tly def9$1 a proposition ! negation ( :i* is n only false b inconceivable4 ,i am unable to f9d 9 any ( 8 expressions1 turn !m :at way y w1 a mean+ beyond ?is1 & ,i d n believe he w\ld cont5d t !y mean any ?+ m4 ,?is1 !re=e1 is ! pr9ciple ass]t$3 t propositions1 ! negation ( :i* is inconceivable1 or 9 o!r words1 :i* we c n figure to ourselves z be+ false1 mu/ re/ on evid5ce ( a high] & m cog5t description ?an any :i* exp]i5ce c af=d4 ,n[ ,i c n b wond] t s mu* /ress %\ld be laid on ! circum/ance ( inconceivabl5ess1 :5 !re is su* ample exp]i5ce to %[1 t our capacity or incapacity ( conceiv+ a ?+ has v little to d ) ! possibility ( ! ?+ 9 itself2 b is 9 tru? v mu* an affair ( accid5t1 & dep5ds on ! pa/ hi/ory & habits ( our own m9ds4 ,!re is no m g5]ally ackn[l$g$ fact 9 human nature1 ?an ! extreme difficulty at fir/ felt 9 conceiv+ any ?+ z possible1 :i* is 9 contradiction to long e/abli%$ & famili> exp]i5ce2 or ev5 to old famili> habits ( ?\ght4 ,& ?is difficulty is a necess>y result ( ! fundam5tal laws ( ! human m9d4 ,:5 we h (t5 se5 & ?\ght ( two ?+s toge!r1 & h nev] 9 any "o in/ance ei!r se5 or ?\ght ( !m sep>ately1 !re is by ! prim>y law ( association an increas+ difficulty1 :i* may 9 ! end become insup]able1 ( conceiv+ ! two ?+s ap>t4 ,?is is mo/ ( all conspicu\s 9 un$ucat$ p]sons1 :o are 9 g5]al utt]ly unable to sep>ate any two ideas :i* h once become firmly associat$ 9 _! m9ds2 & if p]sons ( cultivat$ intellect h any advantage on ! po9t1 x is only because1 hav+ se5 & he>d & read m1 & be+ m accu/om$ to ex]cise _! imag9ation1 !y h exp]i5c$ _! s5sations & ?\ghts 9 m v>i$ comb9ations1 & h be5 prev5t$ f =m+ _m ( ^! insep>able associations4 ,b ?is advantage has necess>ily its limits4 ,! mo/ practic$ intellect is n exempt f ! univ]sal laws ( our conceptive faculty4 ,if daily habit pres5ts to any "o = a long p]iod two facts 9 comb9ation1 & if he is n l$ dur+ t p]iod ei!r by accid5t or by 8 volunt>y m5tal op]ations to ?9k ( !m ap>t1 he w probably 9 "t become incapable ( do+ s ev5 by ! /ronge/ ef=t2 & ! supposition t ! two facts c be sep>at$ 9 nature1 w at la/ pres5t itself to 8 m9d ) all ! *>act]s ( an inconceivable ph5om5on47#gi7 ,!re are rem>kable in/ances ( ?is 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce3 in/ances 9 :i* ! mo/ in/ruct$ m5 reject$ z impossible1 because inconceivable1 ?+s :i* _! po/]ity1 by e>li] practice & long] p]sev]ance 9 ! attempt1 f\nd x q easy to conceive1 & :i* e body n[ kn[s to be true4 ,!re 0 a "t :5 m5 ( ! mo/ cultivat$ intellects1 & ! mo/ emancipat$ f ! dom9ion ( e>ly prejudice1 c\ld n cr$it ! exi/5ce ( antipodes2 7 unable to conceive1 9 opposition to old association1 ! =ce ( gravity act+ upw>d in/ead ( d[nw>d4 ,! ,c>tesians long reject$ ! ,newtonian doctr9e ( ! gravitation ( all bodies t[>d "o ano!r1 on ! fai? ( a g5]al proposition1 ! rev]se ( :i* seem$ to !m to be inconceivable--! proposition t a body c n act :]e x is n4 ,all ! cumbr\s ma*9]y ( imag9>y vortices1 assum$ )\t ! smalle/ p>ticle ( evid5ce1 appe>$ to ^! philosoph]s a m rational mode ( expla9+ ! heav5ly motions1 ?an "o :i* involv$ :at seem$ to !m s great an absurdity47#hj7 ,& !y no d\bt f\nd x z impossible to conceive t a body %\ld act ^u ! e>? f ! di/ance ( ! sun or moon1 z we f9d x to conceive an end to space or "t1 or two /raight l9es inclos+ a space4 ,newton himself _h n be5 able to realize ! conception1 or we %\ld n h _h 8 hypo!sis ( a subtle e!r1 ! occult cause ( gravitation2 & 8 writ+s prove1 t ?\gh he deem$ ! p>ticul> nature ( ! int]m$iate ag5cy a matt] ( conjecture1 ! necessity ( "s su* ag5cy appe>$ to him indubitable4 ,if1 !n1 x be s natural to ! human m9d1 ev5 9 a high /ate ( culture1 to be incapable ( conceiv+1 & on t gr\nd to believe impossible1 :at is aft]w>d n only f\nd to be conceivable b prov$ to be true2 :at wond] if 9 cases :]e ! association is /ill old]1 m confirm$1 & m famili>1 & 9 :i* no?+ ev] occurs to %ake our conviction1 or ev5 sugge/ to u any conception at v>iance ) ! association1 ! acquir$ incapacity %\ld cont9ue1 & be mi/ak5 = a natural incapacity8 ,x is true1 our exp]i5ce ( ! v>ieties 9 nature enables u1 )9 c]ta9 limits1 to conceive o!r v>ieties analog\s to !m4 ,we c conceive ! sun or moon fall+2 = ?\gh we nev] saw !m fall1 nor ev]1 p]haps1 imag9$ !m fall+1 we h se5 s _m o!r ?+s fall1 t we h innum]able famili> analogies to assi/ ! conception2 :i*1 aft] all1 we %\ld probably h "s difficulty 9 fram+1 7 we n well accu/om$ to see ! sun & moon move 7or appe> to move71 s t we are only call$ ^u to conceive a slight *ange 9 ! direction ( motion1 a circum/ance famili> to our exp]i5ce4 ,b :5 exp]i5ce af=ds no model on :i* to %ape ! new conception1 h[ is x possible = u to =m x8 ,h[1 = example1 c we imag9e an end to space or "t8 ,we nev] saw any object )\t some?+ beyond x1 nor exp]i5c$ any feel+ )\t some?+ foll[+ x4 ,:51 !re=e1 we attempt to conceive ! la/ po9t ( space1 we h ! idea irresi/ibly rais$ ( o!r po9ts beyond x4 ,:5 we try to imag9e ! la/ in/ant ( "t1 we c n help conceiv+ ano!r in/ant aft] x4 ,nor is !re any necessity to assume1 z is done by a mod]n s*ool ( metaphysicians1 a peculi> fundam5tal law ( ! m9d to acc\nt = ! feel+ ( inf9ity inh]5t 9 our conceptions ( space & "t2 t app>5t inf9ity is suffici5tly acc\nt$ = by simpl] & univ]sally ackn[l$g$ laws4 ,n[1 9 ! case ( a geometrical axiom1 su*1 = example1 z t two /raight l9es c n inclose a space--a tru? :i* is te/ifi$ to u by our v e>lie/ impressions ( ! ext]nal _w--h[ is x possible 7:e!r ^? ext]nal impressions be or be n ! gr\nd ( our belief7 t ! rev]se ( ! proposition c\ld be o!rwise ?an inconceivable to u8 ,:at analogy h we1 :at simil> ord] ( facts 9 any o!r bran* ( our exp]i5ce1 to facilitate to u ! conception ( two /raight l9es inclos+ a space8 ,nor is ev5 ?is all4 ,i h already call$ att5tion to ! peculi> prop]ty ( our impressions ( =m1 t ! ideas or m5tal images exactly resemble _! prototypes1 & adequately repres5t !m = ! purposes ( sci5tific obs]vation4 ,f ?is1 & f ! intuitive "* ( ! obs]vation1 :i* 9 ?is case r$uces itself to simple inspection1 we c n s mu* z call up 9 our imag9ation two /raight l9es1 9 ord] to attempt to conceive !m inclos+ a space1 )\t by t v act repeat+ ! sci5tific exp]im5t :i* e/abli%es ! contr>y4 ,w x really be cont5d$ t ! inconceivabl5ess ( ! ?+1 9 su* circum/ances1 proves any ?+ aga9/ ! exp]im5tal orig9 ( ! conviction8 ,is x n cle> t 9 :i*ev] mode our belief 9 ! proposition may h orig9at$1 ! impossibility ( our conceiv+ ! negative ( x mu/1 on ei!r hypo!sis1 be ! same8 ,z1 !n1 ,dr4 ,:ewell exhorts ^? :o h any difficulty 9 recogniz+ ! di/9ction held by him betwe5 necess>y & cont+5t tru?s1 to /udy geometry--a condition :i* ,i c assure him ,i h consci5ti\sly fulfill$--,i1 9 return1 ) equal confid5ce1 exhort ^? :o agree ) him1 to /udy ! g5]al laws ( association2 be+ conv9c$ t no?+ m is requisite ?an a mod]ate famili>ity ) ^? laws1 to dispel ! illusion :i* ascribes a peculi> necessity to our e>lie/ inductions f exp]i5ce1 & measures ! possibility ( ?+s 9 !mselves1 by ! human capacity ( conceiv+ !m4 ,i hope to be p>don$ = add+1 t ,dr4 ,:ewell himself has bo? confirm$ by 8 te/imony ! effect ( habitual association 9 giv+ to an exp]im5tal tru? ! appe>ance ( a necess>y "o1 & af=d$ a /rik+ in/ance ( t rem>kable law 9 8 own p]son4 ,9 8 ,philosophy ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces he cont9ually ass]ts1 t propositions :i* n only are n self-evid5t1 b :i* we "k to h be5 discov]$ gradually1 & by great ef=ts ( g5ius & pati5ce1 h1 :5 once e/abli%$1 appe>$ s self-evid5t t1 b = hi/orical pro(1 x w\ld h be5 impossible to conceive t !y _h n be5 recogniz$ f ! fir/ by all p]sons 9 a s\nd /ate ( _! faculties4 8,we n[ despise ^? :o1 9 ! ,cop]nican controv]sy1 c\ld n conceive ! app>5t motion ( ! sun on ! helioc5tric hypo!sis2 or ^? :o1 9 opposition to ,galileo1 ?\ght t a uni=m =ce might be t :i* g5]at$ a velocity proportional to ! space2 or ^? :o held !re 0 some?+ absurd 9 ,newton's doctr9e ( ! diff]5t refrangibility ( diff]5tly color$ rays2 or ^? :o imag9$ t :5 elem5ts comb9e1 _! s5sible qualities mu/ be manife/ 9 ! comp\nd2 or ^? :o 7 reluctant to give up ! di/9ction ( vegetables into h]bs1 %rubs1 & trees4 ,we c n help ?9k+ t m5 mu/ h be5 s+ul>ly dull ( compreh5sion1 to f9d a difficulty 9 admitt+ :at is to u s pla9 & simple4 ,we h a lat5t p]suasion t we 9 _! place %\ld h be5 wis] & m cle>-sight$2 t we %\ld h tak5 ! "r side1 & giv5 our ass5t at once to ! tru?4 ,yet 9 reality su* a p]suasion is a m]e delusion4 ,! p]sons :o1 9 su* in/ances z ! above1 7 on ! los+ side1 7 v f>1 9 mo/ cases1 f be+ p]sons m prejudic$1 or /upid1 or n>r[-m9d$1 ?an ! great] "p ( mank9d n[ are2 & ! cause = :i* !y f\ght 0 f> f be+ a manife/ly bad "o1 till x _h be5 s decid$ by ! result ( ! w>4444 ,s complete has be5 ! victory ( tru? 9 mo/ ( ^! in/ances1 t at pres5t we c h>dly imag9e ! /ruggle to h be5 necess>y4 ,! v ess5ce ( ^! triumphs is1 t !y lead u to reg>d ! views we reject z n only false b inconceivable407#ha7 ,?is la/ proposition is precisely :at ,i cont5d =2 & ,i ask no m1 9 ord] to ov]?r[ ! :ole !ory ( its au?or on ! nature ( ! evid5ce ( axioms4 ,= :at is t !ory8 ,t ! tru? ( axioms c n h be5 le>n$ f exp]i5ce1 because _! falsity is inconceivable4 ,b ,dr4 ,:ewell himself says1 t we are cont9ually l$1 by ! natural progress ( ?\ght1 to reg>d z inconceivable :at our =efa!rs n only conceiv$ b believ$1 nay ev5 7he might h add$7 7 unable to conceive ! rev]se (4 ,he c n int5d to ju/ify ?is mode ( ?\ght3 he c n mean to say1 t we c be "r 9 reg>d+ z inconceivable :at o!rs h conceiv$1 & z self-evid5t :at to o!rs did n appe> evid5t at all4 ,aft] s complete an admission t inconceivabl5ess is an accid5tal ?+1 n inh]5t 9 ! ph5om5on itself1 b dep5d5t on ! m5tal hi/ory ( ! p]son :o tries to conceive x1 h[ c he ev] call ^u u to reject a proposition z impossible on no o!r gr\nd ?an its inconceivabl5ess8 ,yet he n only does s1 b has un9t5tionally af=d$ "s ( ! mo/ rem>kable examples :i* c be cit$ ( ! v illusion :i* he has himself s cle>ly po9t$ out4 ,i select z specim5s1 8 rem>ks on ! evid5ce ( ! ?ree laws ( motion1 & ( ! atomic !ory4 ,) respect to ! laws ( motion1 ,dr4 ,:ewell says3 8,no "o c d\bt t1 9 hi/orical fact1 ^! laws 7 collect$ f exp]i5ce4 ,t su* is ! case1 is no matt] ( conjecture4 ,we "k ! "t1 ! p]sons1 ! circum/ances1 belong+ to ea* /ep ( ea* discov]y407#hb7 ,aft] ?is te/imony1 to adduce evid5ce ( ! fact w\ld be sup]flu\s4 ,& n only 7 ^! laws by no means intuitively evid5t1 b "s ( !m 7 orig9ally p>adoxes4 ,! fir/ law 0 especially s4 ,t a body1 once 9 motion1 w\ld cont9ue =ev] to move 9 ! same direction ) undim9i%$ velocity unless act$ ^u by "s new =ce1 0 a proposition :i* mank9d f\nd = a long "t ! greate/ difficulty 9 cr$it+4 ,x /ood oppos$ to app>5t exp]i5ce ( ! mo/ famili> k9d1 :i* taught t x 0 ! nature ( motion to abate gradually1 & at la/ t]m9ate ( itself4 ,yet :5 once ! contr>y doctr9e 0 firmly e/abli%$1 ma!maticians1 z ,dr4 ,:ewell obs]ves1 spe$ily began to believe t laws1 ?us contradictory to fir/ appe>ances1 & :i*1 ev5 aft] full pro( _h be5 obta9$1 x _h requir$ g5]ations to r5d] famili> to ! m9ds ( ! sci5tific _w1 7 "u 8a demon/rable necessity1 compell+ !m to be su* z !y are & no o!r20 & he himself1 ?\gh n v5tur+ 8absolutely to pron\nce0 t all ^! laws 8c be rigor\sly trac$ to an absolute necessity 9 ! nature ( ?+s107#hc7 does actually s ?9k ( ! law j m5tion$2 ( :i* he says3 8,?\gh ! discov]y ( ! fir/ law ( motion 0 made1 hi/orically speak+1 by means ( exp]im5t1 we h n[ atta9$ a po9t ( view 9 :i* we see t x might h be5 c]ta9ly kn[n to be true1 indep5d5tly ( exp]i5ce407#hd7 ,c !re be a m /rik+ exemplification ?an is "h af=d$1 ( ! effect ( association :i* we h describ$8 ,philosoph]s1 = g5]ations1 h ! mo/ extraord9>y difficulty 9 putt+ c]ta9 ideas toge!r2 !y at la/ succe$ 9 do+ s2 & aft] a suffici5t repetition ( ! process1 !y fir/ fancy a natural bond betwe5 ! ideas1 !n exp]i5ce a gr[+ difficulty1 :i* at la/1 by ! cont9uation ( ! same progress1 becomes an impossibility1 ( sev]+ !m f "o ano!r4 ,if su* be ! progress ( an exp]im5tal conviction ( :i* ! date is ( ye/]day1 & :i* is 9 opposition to fir/ appe>ances1 h[ mu/ x f>e ) ^? :i* are con=mable to appe>ances famili> f ! fir/ dawn ( intellig5ce1 & ( ! conclusiv5ess ( :i*1 f ! e>lie/ records ( human ?\ght1 no skeptic has sugge/$ ev5 a mom5t>y d\bt8 ,! o!r in/ance :i* ,i %all quote is a truly a/oni%+ "o1 & may be call$ ! r$uctio ad absurdum ( ! !ory ( inconceivabl5ess4 ,speak+ ( ! laws ( *emical composition1 ,dr4 ,:ewell says37#he7 8,t !y c\ld nev] h be5 cle>ly und]/ood1 & !re=e nev] firmly e/abli%$1 )\t labori\s & exact exp]im5ts1 is c]ta92 b yet we may v5ture to say1 t be+ once kn[n1 !y possess an evid5ce beyond t ( m]e exp]im5t4 ,= h[ 9 fact c we conceive comb9ations1 o!rwise ?an z def9ite 9 k9d & quality8 ,if we 7 to suppose ea* elem5t ready to comb9e ) any o!r indiff]5tly1 & indiff]5tly 9 any quantity1 we %\ld h a _w 9 :i* all w\ld be confusion & indef9it5ess4 ,!re w\ld be no fix$ k9ds ( bodies4 ,salts1 & /ones1 & ores1 w\ld approa* to & graduate into ea* o!r by ins5sible degrees4 ,in/ead ( ?is1 we "k t ! _w consi/s ( bodies di/+ui%able f ea* o!r by def9ite diff]5ces1 capable ( be+ classifi$ & nam$1 & ( hav+ g5]al propositions ass]t$ conc]n+ !m4 ,& z we c n conceive a _w 9 :i* ?is %\ld n be ! case1 x w\ld appe> t we c n conceive a /ate ( ?+s 9 :i* ! laws ( ! comb9ation ( elem5ts %\ld n be ( t def9ite & measur$ k9d :i* we h above ass]t$40 ,t a philosoph] ( ,dr4 ,:ewell's em95ce %\ld gravely ass]t t we c n conceive a _w 9 :i* ! simple elem5ts %\ld comb9e 9 o!r ?an def9ite proportions2 t by d9t ( m$itat+ on a sci5tific tru?1 ! orig9al discov]] ( :i* 0 /ill liv+1 he %\ld h r5d]$ ! association 9 8 own m9d betwe5 ! idea ( comb9ation & t ( con/ant proportions s famili> & intimate z to be unable to conceive ! "o fact )\t ! o!r2 is s signal an in/ance ( ! m5tal law = :i* ,i am cont5d+1 t "o ^w m 9 illu/ration mu/ be sup]flu\s4 ,9 ! late/ & mo/ complete elaboration ( 8 metaphysical sy/em 7! ,philosophy ( ,discov]y71 z well z 9 ! e>li] disc\rse on ! ,fundam5tal ,anti!sis ( ,philosophy1 repr9t$ z an app5dix to t "w1 ,dr4 ,:ewell1 :ile v c&idly admitt+ t 8 language 0 op5 to misconception1 disclaims hav+ int5d$ to say t mank9d 9 g5]al c n[ p]ceive ! law ( def9ite proportions 9 *emical comb9ation to be a necess>y tru?4 ,all he meant 0 t philosophical *emi/s 9 a future g5]ation may possibly see ?is4 8,"s tru?s may be se5 by intuition1 b yet ! intuition ( !m may be a r>e & a difficult atta9m5t407#hf7 ,& he expla9s t ! inconceivabl5ess :i*1 accord+ to 8 !ory1 is ! te/ ( axioms1 8dep5ds entirely ^u ! cle>ness ( ! ,ideas :i* ! axioms involve4 ,s long z ^? ideas are vague & indi/9ct1 ! contr>y ( an axiom may be ass5t$ to1 ?\gh x c n be di/9ctly conceiv$4 ,x may be ass5t$ to1 n because x is possible1 b because we d n see cle>ly :at is possible4 ,to a p]son :o is only beg9n+ to ?9k geometrically1 !re may appe> no?+ absurd 9 ! ass]tion t two /raight l9es may inclose a space4 ,& 9 ! same mann]1 to a p]son :o is only beg9n+ to ?9k ( me*anical tru?s1 x may n appe> to be absurd1 t 9 me*anical processes1 ,reaction %\ld be great] or less ?an ,action2 & s1 aga91 to a p]son :o has n ?\ght /eadily ab\t ,sub/ance1 x may n appe> inconceivable1 t by *emical op]ations1 we %\ld g5]ate new matt]1 or de/roy matt] :i* already exi/s407#hg7 ,necess>y tru?s1 !re=e1 are n ^? ( :i* we c n conceive1 b 8^? ( :i* we c n di/9ctly conceive1 ! contr>y407#hh7 ,s long z our ideas are indi/9ct altoge!r1 we d n "k :at is or is n capable ( be+ di/9ctly conceiv$2 b1 by ! ev] increas+ di/9ctness ) :i* sci5tific m5 appreh5d ! g5]al conceptions ( sci5ce1 !y 9 "t come to p]ceive t !re are c]ta9 laws ( nature1 :i*1 ?\gh hi/orically & z a matt] ( fact !y 7 le>n$ f exp]i5ce1 we c n1 n[ t we "k !m1 di/9ctly conceive to be o!r ?an !y are4 ,! acc\nt :i* ,i %\ld give ( ?is progress ( ! sci5tific m9d is some:at diff]5t4 ,aft] a g5]al law ( nature has be5 asc]ta9$1 m5's m9ds d n at fir/ acquire a complete facility ( famili>ly repres5t+ to !mselves ! ph5om5a ( nature 9 ! "* :i* t law assigns to !m4 ,! habit :i* con/itutes ! sci5tific ca/ ( m9d1 t ( conceiv+ facts ( all descriptions con=mably to ! laws :i* regulate !m--ph5om5a ( all descriptions accord+ to ! relations :i* h be5 asc]ta9$ really to exi/ betwe5 !m2 ?is habit1 9 ! case ( newly-discov]$ relations1 comes only by degrees4 ,s long z x is n ?or\ghly =m$1 no necess>y "* is ascrib$ to ! new tru?4 ,b 9 "t1 ! philosoph] atta9s a /ate ( m9d 9 :i* 8 m5tal picture ( nature spontane\sly repres5ts to him all ! ph5om5a ) :i* ! new !ory is conc]n$1 9 ! exact light 9 :i* ! !ory reg>ds !m3 all images or conceptions d]iv$ f any o!r !ory1 or f ! confus$ view ( ! facts :i* is ant]ior to any !ory1 hav+ entirely disappe>$ f 8 m9d4 ,! mode ( repres5t+ facts :i* results f ! !ory1 has n[ become1 to 8 faculties1 ! only natural mode ( conceiv+ !m4 ,x is a kn[n tru?1 t a prolong$ habit ( arrang+ ph5om5a 9 c]ta9 gr\ps1 & expla9+ !m by means ( c]ta9 pr9ciples1 makes any o!r arrangem5t or explanation ( ^! facts be felt z unnatural3 & x may at la/ become z difficult to him to repres5t ! facts to himself 9 any o!r mode1 z x (t5 01 orig9ally1 to repres5t !m 9 t mode4 ,b1 fur!r 7if ! !ory is true1 z we are suppos+ x to be71 any o!r mode 9 :i* he tries1 or 9 :i* he 0 =m]ly accu/om$1 to repres5t ! ph5om5a1 w be se5 by him to be inconsi/5t ) ! facts t sugge/$ ! new !ory--facts :i* n[ =m a "p ( 8 m5tal picture ( nature4 ,& s9ce a contradiction is always inconceivable1 8 imag9ation rejects ^! false !ories1 & decl>es itself incapable ( conceiv+ !m4 ,_! inconceivabl5ess to him does n1 h[ev]1 result f any ?+ 9 ! !ories !mselves1 intr9sically & a priori repugnant to ! human faculties2 x results f ! repugnance betwe5 !m & a portion ( ! facts2 :i* facts z long z he did n "k1 or did n di/9ctly realize 9 8 m5tal repres5tations1 ! false !ory did n appe> o!r ?an conceivable2 x becomes inconceivable1 m]ely f ! fact t contradictory elem5ts c n be comb9$ 9 ! same conception4 ,al?\gh1 !n1 8 real reason = reject+ !ories at v>iance ) ! true "o1 is no o!r ?an t !y cla% ) 8 exp]i5ce1 he easily falls into ! belief1 t he rejects !m because !y are inconceivable1 & t he adopts ! true !ory because x is self-evid5t1 & does n ne$ ! evid5ce ( exp]i5ce at all4 ,?is ,i take to be ! real & suffici5t explanation ( ! p>adoxical tru?1 on :i* s mu* /ress is laid by ,dr4 ,:ewell1 t a sci5tifically cultivat$ m9d is actually1 9 virtue ( t cultivation1 unable to conceive suppositions :i* a common man conceives )\t ! smalle/ difficulty4 ,= !re is no?+ inconceivable 9 ! suppositions !mselves2 ! impossibility is 9 comb9+ !m ) facts inconsi/5t ) !m1 z "p ( ! same m5tal picture2 an ob/acle ( c\rse only felt by ^? :o "k ! facts1 & are able to p]ceive ! inconsi/5cy4 ,z f> z ! suppositions !mselves are conc]n$1 9 ! case ( _m ( ,dr4 ,:ewell's necess>y tru?s ! negative ( ! axiom is1 & probably w be z long z ! human race la/s1 z easily conceivable z ! affirmative4 ,!re is no axiom 7= example7 to :i* ,dr4 ,:ewell ascribes a m ?or\gh "* ( necessity & self-evid5ce1 ?an t ( ! inde/ructibility ( matt]4 ,t ?is is a true law ( nature ,i fully admit2 b ,i imag9e !re is no human be+ to :om ! opposite supposition is inconceivable--:o has any difficulty 9 imag9+ a portion ( matt] annihilat$3 inasmu* z its app>5t annihilation1 9 no respect di/+ui%able f real by our unassi/$ s5ses1 takes place e "t t wat] dries up1 or fuel is consum$4 ,aga91 ! law t bodies comb9e *emically 9 def9ite proportions is und5iably true2 b few besides ,dr4 ,:ewell h rea*$ ! po9t :i* he seems p]sonally to h arriv$ at 7?\gh he only d>es prophesy simil> success to ! multitude aft] ! lapse ( g5]ations71 t ( be+ unable to conceive a _w 9 :i* ! elem5ts are ready to comb9e ) "o ano!r 8indiff]5tly 9 any quantity20 nor is x likely t we %all ev] rise to ?is sublime height ( inability1 s long z all ! me*anical mixtures 9 our planet1 :e!r solid1 liquid1 or ari=m1 exhibit to our daily obs]vation ! v ph5om5on decl>$ to be inconceivable4 ,accord+ to ,dr4 ,:ewell1 ^! & simil> laws ( nature c n be drawn f exp]i5ce1 inasmu* z !y are1 on ! contr>y1 assum$ 9 ! int]pretation ( exp]i5ce4 ,our inability to 8add to or dim9i% ! quantity ( matt] 9 ! _w10 is a tru? :i* 8nei!r is nor c be d]iv$ f exp]i5ce2 = ! exp]im5ts :i* we make to v]ify x presuppose its tru?4444 ,:5 m5 began to use ! balance 9 *emical analysis1 !y did n prove by trial1 b took = grant$1 z self-evid5t1 t ! weight ( ! :ole mu/ be f\nd 9 ! aggregate weight ( ! elem5ts407#hi7 ,true1 x is assum$2 b1 ,i appreh5d1 no o!rwise ?an z all exp]im5tal inquiry assumes provisionally "s !ory or hypo!sis1 :i* is to be f9ally held true or n1 accord+ z ! exp]im5ts decide4 ,! hypo!sis *os5 = ?is purpose w naturally be "o :i* gr\ps toge!r "s consid]able numb] ( facts already kn[n4 ,! proposition t ! mat]ial ( ! _w1 z e/imat$ by weight1 is nei!r increas$ nor dim9i%$ by any ( ! processes ( nature or art1 _h _m appe>ances 9 its favor to beg9 )4 ,x express$ truly a great numb] ( famili> facts4 ,!re 7 o!r facts :i* x _h ! appe>ance ( conflict+ )1 & :i* made its tru?1 z a univ]sal law ( nature1 at fir/ d\btful4 ,because x 0 d\btful1 exp]im5ts 7 devis$ to v]ify x4 ,m5 assum$ its tru? hypo!tically1 & proce$$ to try :e!r1 on m c>eful exam9ation1 ! ph5om5a :i* app>5tly po9t$ to a diff]5t conclusion1 w\ld n be f\nd to be consi/5t ) x4 ,?is turn$ out to be ! case2 & f t "t ! doctr9e took its place z a univ]sal tru?1 b z "o prov$ to be su* by exp]i5ce4 ,t ! !ory itself prec$$ ! pro( ( its tru?--t x _h to be conceiv$ be=e x c\ld be prov$1 & 9 ord] t x might be prov$--does n imply t x 0 self-evid5t1 & did n ne$ pro(4 ,o!rwise all ! true !ories 9 ! sci5ces are necess>y & self-evid5t2 = no "o kn[s bett] ?an ,dr4 ,:ewell t !y all began by be+ assum$1 = ! purpose ( connect+ !m by d$uctions ) ^? facts ( exp]i5ce on :i*1 z evid5ce1 !y n[ confess$ly re/47#ij7 ,*apt] ,,vi4 ,! ,same ,subject ,cont9u$4 #a4 ,9 ! exam9ation :i* =m$ ! subject ( ! la/ *apt]1 into ! nature ( ! evid5ce ( ^? d$uctive sci5ces :i* are commonly repres5t$ to be sy/ems ( necess>y tru?1 we h be5 l$ to ! foll[+ conclusions4 ,! results ( ^? sci5ces are inde$ necess>y1 9 ! s5se ( necess>ily foll[+ f c]ta9 fir/ pr9ciples1 commonly call$ axioms & def9itions2 t is1 ( be+ c]ta9ly true if ^? axioms & def9itions are s2 = ! ^w necessity1 ev5 9 ?is acceptation ( x1 means no m ?an c]ta9ty4 ,b _! claim to ! "* ( necessity 9 any s5se beyond ?is1 z imply+ an evid5ce indep5d5t ( & sup]ior to obs]vation & exp]i5ce1 mu/ dep5d on ! previ\s e/abli%m5t ( su* a claim 9 favor ( ! def9itions & axioms !mselves4 ,) reg>d to axioms1 we f\nd t1 consid]$ z exp]im5tal tru?s1 !y re/ on sup]abundant & obvi\s evid5ce4 ,we inquir$1 :e!r1 s9ce ?is is ! case1 x be imp]ative to suppose any o!r evid5ce ( ^? tru?s ?an exp]im5tal evid5ce1 any o!r orig9 = our belief ( !m ?an an exp]im5tal orig94 ,we decid$1 t ! burd5 ( pro( lies ) ^? :o ma9ta9 ! affirmative1 & we exam9$1 at consid]able l5g?1 su* argum5ts z !y h produc$4 ,! exam9ation hav+ l$ to ! rejection ( ^? argum5ts1 we h ?\ght ourselves w>rant$ 9 conclud+ t axioms are b a class1 ! mo/ univ]sal class1 ( inductions f exp]i5ce2 ! simple/ & easie/ cases ( g5]alization f ! facts furni%$ to u by our s5ses or by our int]nal consci\sness4 ,:ile ! axioms ( demon/rative sci5ces ?us appe>$ to be exp]im5tal tru?s1 ! def9itions1 z !y are incorrectly call$1 9 ^? sci5ces1 7 f\nd by u to be g5]alizations f exp]i5ce :i* are n ev51 accurately speak+1 tru?s2 be+ propositions 9 :i*1 :ile we ass]t ( "s k9d ( object1 "s prop]ty or prop]ties :i* obs]vation %[s to belong to x1 we at ! same "t d5y t x possesses any o!r prop]ties1 ?\gh 9 tru? o!r prop]ties d 9 e individual in/ance accompany1 & 9 almo/ all in/ances modify1 ! prop]ty ?us exclusively pr$icat$4 ,! d5ial1 !re=e1 is a m]e fiction1 or supposition1 made = ! purpose ( exclud+ ! consid]ation ( ^? modify+ circum/ances1 :5 _! influ5ce is ( too trifl+ am\nt to be wor? consid]+1 or adj\rn+ x1 :5 important to a m conv5i5t mom5t4 ,f ^! consid]ations x w\ld appe> t ,d$uctive or ,demon/rative ,sci5ces are all1 )\t exception1 ,inductive ,sci5ces2 t _! evid5ce is t ( exp]i5ce2 b t !y are also1 9 virtue ( ! peculi> "* ( "o indisp5sable portion ( ! g5]al =mul accord+ to :i* _! inductions are made1 ,hypo!tical ,sci5ces4 ,_! conclusions are only true on c]ta9 suppositions1 :i* are1 or ought to be1 approximations to ! tru?1 b are seldom1 if ev]1 exactly true2 & to ?is hypo!tical "* is to be ascrib$ ! peculi> c]ta9ty1 :i* is suppos$ to be inh]5t 9 demon/ration4 ,:at we h n[ ass]t$1 h[ev]1 _c be receiv$ z univ]sally true ( ,d$uctive or ,demon/rative ,sci5ces1 until v]ifi$ by be+ appli$ to ! mo/ rem>kable ( all ^? sci5ces1 t ( ,numb]s2 ! !ory ( ! ,calculus2 ,ari?metic & ,algebra4 ,x is h>d] to believe ( ! doctr9es ( ?is sci5ce ?an ( any o!r1 ei!r t !y are n tru?s a priori1 b exp]im5tal tru?s1 or t _! peculi> c]ta9ty is ow+ to _! be+ n absolute b only conditional tru?s4 ,?is1 !re=e1 is a case :i* m]its exam9ation ap>t2 & ! m s1 because on ?is subject we h a d\ble set ( doctr9es to cont5d )2 t ( ! a priori philosoph]s on "o side2 & on ! o!r1 a !ory ! mo/ opposite to !irs1 :i* 0 at "o "t v g5]ally receiv$1 & is /ill f> f be+ altoge!r explod$1 among metaphysicians4 #b4 ,?is !ory attempts to solve ! difficulty app>5tly inh]5t 9 ! case1 by repres5t+ ! propositions ( ! sci5ce ( numb]s z m]ely v]bal1 & its processes z simple trans=mations ( language1 sub/itutions ( "o expression = ano!r4 ,! proposition1 ,two & "o is equal to ?ree1 accord+ to ^! writ]s1 is n a tru?1 is n ! ass]tion ( a really exi/+ fact1 b a def9ition ( ! ^w ?ree2 a /atem5t t mank9d h agre$ to use ! "n ?ree z a sign exactly equival5t to two & "o2 to call by ! =m] "n :atev] is call$ by ! o!r m clumsy phrase4 ,accord+ to ?is doctr9e1 ! longe/ process 9 algebra is b a succession ( *anges 9 t]m9ology1 by :i* equival5t expressions are sub/itut$ "o = ano!r2 a s]ies ( translations ( ! same fact1 f "o into ano!r language2 ?\gh h[1 aft] su* a s]ies ( translations1 ! fact itself comes out *ang$ 7z :5 we demon/rate a new geometrical !orem by algebra71 !y h n expla9$2 & x is a difficulty :i* is fatal to _! !ory4 ,x mu/ be ackn[l$g$ t !re are peculi>ities 9 ! processes ( ari?metic & algebra :i* r5d] ! !ory 9 "q v plausible1 & h n unnaturally made ^? sci5ces ! /ronghold ( ,nom9alism4 ,! doctr9e t we c discov] facts1 detect ! hidd5 processes ( nature1 by an artful manipulation ( language1 is s contr>y to common s5se1 t a p]son mu/ h made "s advances 9 philosophy to believe x3 m5 fly to s p>adoxical a belief to avoid1 z !y ?9k1 "s ev5 great] difficulty1 :i* ! vulg> d n see4 ,:at has l$ _m to believe t reason+ is a m]e v]bal process1 is1 t no o!r !ory seem$ reconcilable ) ! nature ( ! ,sci5ce ( ,numb]s4 ,= we d n c>ry any ideas along ) u :5 we use ! symbols ( ari?metic or ( algebra4 ,9 a geometrical demon/ration we h a m5tal diagram1 if n "o on pap]2 ,,ab1 ,,ac1 are pres5t to our imag9ation z l9es1 int]sect+ o!r l9es1 =m+ an angle ) "o ano!r1 & ! l2 b n s a & b4 ,^! may repres5t l9es or any o!r magnitudes1 b ^? magnitudes are nev] ?\ght (2 no?+ is realiz$ 9 our imag9ation b a & b4 ,! ideas :i*1 on ! p>ticul> occasion1 !y happ5 to repres5t1 are bani%$ f ! m9d dur+ e int]m$iate "p ( ! process1 betwe5 ! beg9n+1 :5 ! premises are translat$ f ?+s into signs1 & ! end1 :5 ! conclusion is translat$ back f signs into ?+s4 ,no?+1 !n1 be+ 9 ! reason]'s m9d b ! symbols1 :at c seem m inadmissible ?an to cont5d t ! reason+ process has to d ) any ?+ m8 ,we seem to h come to "o ( ,bacon's ,pr]ogative ,in/ances2 an exp]im5tum crucis on ! nature ( reason+ itself4 ,nev]!less1 x w appe> on consid]ation1 t ?is app>5tly s decisive in/ance is no in/ance at all2 t !re is 9 e /ep ( an ari?metical or algebraical calculation a real induction1 a real inf]5ce ( facts f facts2 & t :at disguises ! induction is simply its compreh5sive nature1 & ! consequ5t extreme g5]ality ( ! language4 ,all numb]s mu/ be numb]s ( some?+3 !re are no su* ?+s z numb]s 9 ! ab/ract4 ,t5 mu/ mean t5 bodies1 or t5 s\nds1 or t5 beat+s ( ! pulse4 ,b ?\gh numb]s mu/ be numb]s ( some?+1 !y may be numb]s ( any ?+4 ,propositions1 !re=e1 conc]n+ numb]s1 h ! rem>kable peculi>ity t !y are propositions conc]n+ all ?+s :atev]2 all objects1 all exi/5ces ( e k9d1 kn[n to our exp]i5ce4 ,all ?+s possess quantity2 consi/ ( p>ts :i* c be numb]$2 & 9 t "* possess all ! prop]ties :i* are call$ prop]ties ( numb]s4 ,t half ( f\r is two1 mu/ be true :atev] ! ^w f\r repres5ts1 :e!r f\r h\rs1 f\r miles1 or f\r p\nds weight4 ,we ne$ only conceive a ?+ divid$ into f\r equal p>ts 7& all ?+s may be conceiv$ z s divid$71 to be able to pr$icate ( x e prop]ty ( ! numb] f\r1 t is1 e ari?metical proposition 9 :i* ! numb] f\r /&s on "o side ( ! equation4 ,algebra ext5ds ! g5]alization /ill f>!r3 e numb] repres5ts t p>ticul> numb] ( all ?+s )\t di/9ction1 b e algebraical symbol does m1 x repres5ts all numb]s )\t di/9ction4 ,z soon z we conceive a ?+ divid$ into equal p>ts1 )\t kn[+ into :at numb] ( p>ts1 we may call x a or x1 & apply to x1 )\t dang] ( error1 e algebraical =mula 9 ! books4 ,! proposition1 #b 7a b7 #b a #b b1 is a tru? co-ext5sive ) all nature4 ,s9ce !n algebraical tru?s are true ( all ?+s :atev]1 & n1 l ^? ( geometry1 true ( l9es only or ( angles only1 x is no wond] t ! symbols %\ld n excite 9 our m9ds ideas ( any ?+s 9 p>ticul>4 ,:5 we demon/rate ! =ty-sev5? proposition ( ,euclid1 x is n necess>y t ! words %\ld raise 9 u an image ( all "r-angl$ triangles1 b only ( "s "o "r-angl$ triangle3 s 9 algebra we ne$ n1 "u ! symbol a1 picture to ourselves all ?+s :atev]1 b only "s "o ?+2 :y n1 !n1 ! lett] itself8 ,! m]e writt5 *>act]s1 a1 b1 x1 y1 z1 s]ve z well = repres5tatives ( ,?+s 9 g5]al1 z any m complex & app>5tly m concrete conception4 ,t we are consci\s ( !m1 h[ev]1 9 _! "* ( ?+s1 & n ( m]e signs1 is evid5t f ! fact t our :ole process ( reason+ is c>ri$ on by pr$icat+ ( !m ! prop]ties ( ?+s4 ,9 resolv+ an algebraic equation1 by :at rules d we proce$8 ,by apply+ at ea* /ep to a1 b1 & x1 ! proposition t equals add$ to equals make equals2 t equals tak5 f equals leave equals2 & o!r propositions f\nd$ on ^! two4 ,^! are n prop]ties ( language1 or ( signs z su*1 b ( magnitudes1 :i* is z mu* z to say1 ( all ?+s4 ,! inf]5ces1 !re=e1 :i* are successively drawn1 are inf]5ces conc]n+ ?+s1 n symbols2 ?\gh z any ,?+s :atev] w s]ve ! turn1 !re is no necessity = keep+ ! idea ( ! ,?+ at all di/9ct1 & consequ5tly ! process ( ?\ght may1 9 ?is case1 be all[$ )\t dang] to d :at all processes ( ?\ght1 :5 !y h be5 p]=m$ (t51 w d if p]mitt$1 namely1 to become entirely me*anical4 ,h5ce ! g5]al language ( algebra comes to be us$ famili>ly )\t excit+ ideas1 z all o!r g5]al language is prone to d f m]e habit1 ?\gh 9 no o!r case ?an ?is c x be done ) complete safety4 ,b :5 we look back to see f :5ce ! probative =ce ( ! process is d]iv$1 we f9d t at e s+le /ep1 unless we suppose ourselves to be ?9k+ & talk+ ( ! ?+s1 & n ! m]e symbols1 ! evid5ce fails4 ,!re is ano!r circum/ance1 :i*1 /ill m ?an t :i* we h n[ m5tion$1 gives plausibility to ! notion t ! propositions ( ari?metic & algebra are m]ely v]bal4 ,t is1 t :5 consid]$ z propositions respect+ ,?+s1 !y all h ! appe>ance ( be+ id5tical propositions4 ,! ass]tion1 ,two & "o is equal to ?ree1 consid]$ z an ass]tion respect+ objects1 z = in/ance1 8,two pebbles & "o pebble are equal to ?ree pebbles10 does n affirm equality betwe5 two collections ( pebbles1 b absolute id5tity4 ,x affirms t if we put "o pebble to two pebbles1 ^? v pebbles are ?ree4 ,! objects1 !re=e1 be+ ! v same1 & ! m]e ass]tion t 8objects are !mselves0 be+ insignificant1 x seems b natural to consid] ! proposition1 ,two & "o is equal to ?ree1 z ass]t+ m]e id5tity ( signification betwe5 ! two names4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 ?\gh x looks s plausible1 w n be> exam9ation4 ,! expression 8two pebbles & "o pebble10 & ! expression 8?ree pebbles10 /& inde$ = ! same aggregation ( objects1 b !y by no means /& = ! same physical fact4 ,!y are names ( ! same objects1 b ( ^? objects 9 two diff]5t /ates3 ?\gh !y denote ! same ?+s1 _! connotation is diff]5t4 ,?ree pebbles 9 two sep>ate p>cels1 & ?ree pebbles 9 "o p>cel1 d n make ! same impression on our s5ses2 & ! ass]tion t ! v same pebbles may by an alt]ation ( place & arrangem5t be made to produce ei!r ! "o set ( s5sations or ! o!r1 ?\gh a v famili> proposition1 is n an id5tical "o4 ,x is a tru? kn[n to u by e>ly & con/ant exp]i5ce3 an inductive tru?2 & su* tru?s are ! f\ndation ( ! sci5ce ( ,numb]4 ,! fundam5tal tru?s ( t sci5ce all re/ on ! evid5ce ( s5se2 !y are prov$ by %[+ to our eyes & our f+]s t any giv5 numb] ( objects--t5 balls1 = example--may by sep>ation & re-arrangem5t exhibit to our s5ses all ! diff]5t sets ( numb]s ! sums ( :i* is equal to t54 ,all ! improv$ me?ods ( tea*+ ari?metic to *ildr5 proce$ on a k ( ?is fact4 ,all :o wi% to c>ry ! *ild's m9d along ) !m 9 le>n+ ari?metic2 all :o wi% to tea* numb]s1 & n m]e ciph]s--n[ tea* x ?r\gh ! evid5ce ( ! s5ses1 9 ! mann] we h describ$4 ,we may1 if we please1 call ! proposition1 8,?ree is two & "o10 a def9ition ( ! numb] ?ree1 & ass]t t ari?metic1 z x has be5 ass]t$ t geometry1 is a sci5ce f\nd$ on def9itions4 ,b !y are def9itions 9 ! geometrical s5se1 n ! logical2 ass]t+ n ! mean+ ( a t]m only1 b along ) x an obs]v$ matt] ( fact4 ,! proposition1 8,a circle is a figure b\nd$ by a l9e :i* has all its po9ts equally di/ant f a po9t )9 x10 is call$ ! def9ition ( a circle2 b ! proposition f :i* s _m consequ5ces foll[1 & :i* is really a fir/ pr9ciple 9 geometry1 is1 t figures answ]+ to ?is description exi/4 ,& ?us we may call 8,?ree is two & "o0 a def9ition ( ?ree2 b ! calculations :i* dep5d on t proposition d n foll[ f ! def9ition itself1 b f an ari?metical !orem presuppos$ 9 x1 namely1 t collections ( objects exi/1 :i* :ile !y impress ! s5ses ?us1 ,symbol3 ?ree circles1 two above "o1 may be sep>at$ into two p>ts1 ?us1 ,symbol3 two circles1 a space1 & a ?ird circle4 ,?is proposition be+ grant$1 we t]m all su* p>cels ,?rees1 aft] :i* ! enunciation ( ! above-m5tion$ physical fact w s]ve also = a def9ition ( ! ^w ,?ree4 ,! ,sci5ce ( ,numb] is ?us no exception to ! conclusion we previ\sly arriv$ at1 t ! processes ev5 ( d$uctive sci5ces are altoge!r inductive1 & t _! fir/ pr9ciples are g5]alizations f exp]i5ce4 ,x rema9s to be exam9$ :e!r ?is sci5ce resembles geometry 9 ! fur!r circum/ance1 t "s ( its inductions are n exactly true2 & t ! peculi> c]ta9ty ascrib$ to x1 on acc\nt ( :i* its propositions are call$ ,necess>y ,tru?s1 is fictiti\s & hypo!tical1 be+ true 9 no o!r s5se ?an t ^? propositions legitimately foll[ f ! hypo!sis ( ! tru? ( premises :i* are av[$ly m]e approximations to tru?4 #c4 ,! inductions ( ari?metic are ( two sorts3 fir/1 ^? :i* we h j exp\nd$1 su* z ,"o & "o are two1 ,two & "o are ?ree1 etc41 :i* may be call$ ! def9itions ( ! v>i\s numb]s1 9 ! improp] or geometrical s5se ( ! ^w ,def9ition2 & secondly1 ! two foll[+ axioms3 ,! sums ( equals are equal1 ,! diff]5ces ( equals are equal4 ,^! two are suffici5t2 = ! correspond+ propositions respect+ unequals may be prov$ f ^! by a r$uctio ad absurdum4 ,^! axioms1 & likewise ! s-call$ def9itions1 are1 z has already be5 said1 results ( induction2 true ( all objects :atev]1 &1 z x may seem1 exactly true1 )\t ! hypo!tical assumption ( unqualifi$ tru? :]e an approximation to x is all t exi/s4 ,! conclusions1 !re=e1 x w naturally be inf]r$1 are exactly true1 & ! sci5ce ( numb] is an exception to o!r demon/rative sci5ces 9 ?is1 t ! categorical c]ta9ty :i* is pr$icable ( its demon/rations is indep5d5t ( all hypo!sis4 ,on m accurate inve/igation1 h[ev]1 x w be f\nd t1 ev5 9 ?is case1 !re is "o hypo!tical elem5t 9 ! ratioc9ation4 ,9 all propositions conc]n+ numb]s1 a condition is impli$1 )\t :i* none ( !m w\ld be true2 & t condition is an assumption :i* may be false4 ,! condition is1 t #aa2 t all ! numb]s are numb]s ( ! same or ( equal units4 ,let ?is be d\btful1 & n "o ( ! propositions ( ari?metic w hold true4 ,h[ c we "k t "o p\nd & "o p\nd make two p\nds1 if "o ( ! p\nds may be troy1 & ! o!r avoirdupois8 ,!y may n make two p\nds ( ei!r1 or ( any weight4 ,h[ c we "k t a =ty-horse p[] is always equal to itself1 unless we assume t all horses are ( equal /r5g?8 ,x is c]ta9 t #a is always equal 9 numb] to #a2 & :]e ! m]e numb] ( objects1 or ( ! p>ts ( an object1 )\t suppos+ !m to be equival5t 9 any o!r respect1 is all t is mat]ial1 ! conclusions ( ari?metic1 s f> z !y g to t alone1 are true )\t mixture ( hypo!sis4 ,!re are su* cases 9 /ati/ics2 z1 = in/ance1 an inquiry into ! am\nt ( ! population ( any c\ntry4 ,x is indiff]5t to t inquiry :e!r !y are gr[n p or *ildr51 /rong or weak1 tall or %ort2 ! only ?+ we want to asc]ta9 is _! numb]4 ,b :5ev]1 f equality or inequality ( numb]1 equality or inequality 9 any o!r respect is to be inf]r$1 ari?metic c>ri$ into su* inquiries becomes z hypo!tical a sci5ce z geometry4 ,all units mu/ be assum$ to be equal 9 t o!r respect2 & ?is is nev] accurately true1 = "o actual p\nd weight is n exactly equal to ano!r1 nor "o measur$ mile's l5g? to ano!r2 a nic] balance1 or m accurate measur+ in/rum5ts1 w\ld always detect "s diff]5ce4 ,:at is commonly call$ ma!matical c]ta9ty1 !re=e1 :i* comprises ! tw(old conception ( unconditional tru? & p]fect accuracy1 is n an attribute ( all ma!matical tru?s1 b ( ^? only :i* relate to pure ,numb]1 z di/+ui%$ f ,quantity 9 ! m enl>g$ s5se2 & only s long z we ab/a9 f suppos+ t ! numb]s are a precise index to actual quantities4 ,! c]ta9ty usually ascrib$ to ! conclusions ( geometry1 & ev5 to ^? ( me*anics1 is no?+ :atev] b c]ta9ty ( inf]5ce4 ,we c h full assurance ( p>ticul> results "u p>ticul> suppositions1 b we c n h ! same assurance t ^! suppositions are accurately true1 nor t !y include all ! data :i* may ex]cise an influ5ce ov] ! result 9 any giv5 in/ance4 #d4 ,x appe>s1 !re=e1 t ! me?od ( all ,d$uctive ,sci5ces is hypo!tical4 ,!y proce$ by trac+ ! consequ5ces ( c]ta9 assumptions2 leav+ = sep>ate consid]ation :e!r ! assumptions are true or n1 & if n exactly true1 :e!r !y are a suffici5tly ne> approximation to ! tru?4 ,! reason is obvi\s4 ,s9ce x is only 9 que/ions ( pure numb] t ! assumptions are exactly true1 & ev5 !re only s long z no conclusions except purely num]ical ones are to be f\nd$ on !m2 x mu/1 9 all o!r cases ( d$uctive inve/igation1 =m a "p ( ! inquiry1 to det]m9e h[ mu* ! assumptions want ( be+ exactly true 9 ! case 9 h&4 ,?is is g5]ally a matt] ( obs]vation1 to be repeat$ 9 e fre% case2 or if x has to be settl$ by argum5t in/ead ( obs]vation1 may require 9 e diff]5t case diff]5t evid5ce1 & pres5t e degree ( difficulty1 f ! l[e/ to ! highe/4 ,b ! o!r "p ( ! process--namely1 to det]m9e :at else may be conclud$ if we f9d1 & 9 proportion z we f9d1 ! assumptions to be true--may be p]=m$ once = all1 & ! results held ready to be employ$ z ! occasions turn up = use4 ,we ?us d all be=eh& t c be s done1 & leave ! lea/ possible "w to be p]=m$ :5 cases arise & press = a decision4 ,?is inquiry into ! inf]5ces :i* c be drawn f assumptions1 is :at prop]ly con/itutes ,demon/rative ,sci5ce4 ,x is ( c\rse q z practicable to arrive at new conclusions f facts assum$1 z f facts obs]v$2 f fictiti\s1 z f real1 inductions4 ,d$uction1 z we h se51 consi/s ( a s]ies ( inf]5ces 9 ?is =m--a is a m>k ( b1 b ( c1 c ( d1 !re=e a is a m>k ( d1 :i* la/ may be a tru? inaccessible to direct obs]vation4 ,9 l mann] x is all[able to say1 suppose t a 7 a m>k ( b1 b ( c1 & c ( d1 a w\ld be a m>k ( d1 :i* la/ conclusion 0 n ?\ght ( by ^? :o laid d[n ! premises4 ,a sy/em ( propositions z complicat$ z geometry might be d$uc$ f assumptions :i* are false2 z 0 done by ,ptolemy1 ,desc>tes1 & o!rs1 9 _! attempts to expla9 syn!tically ! ph5om5a ( ! sol> sy/em on ! supposition t ! app>5t motions ( ! heav5ly bodies 7 ! real motions1 or 7 produc$ 9 "s way m or less diff]5t f ! true "o4 ,sometimes ! same ?+ is kn[+ly done1 = ! purpose ( %[+ ! falsity ( ! assumption2 :i* is call$ a r$uctio ad absurdum4 ,9 su* cases1 ! reason+ is z foll[s3 a is a m>k ( b1 & b ( c2 n[ if c 7 also a m>k ( d1 a w\ld be a m>k ( d2 b d is kn[n to be a m>k ( ! abs5ce ( a2 consequ5tly a w\ld be a m>k ( its own abs5ce1 :i* is a contradiction2 !re=e c is n a m>k ( d4 #e4 ,x has ev5 be5 held by "s writ]s1 t all ratioc9ation re/s 9 ! la/ resort on a r$uctio ad absurdum2 s9ce ! way to en=ce ass5t to x1 9 case ( obscurity1 w\ld be to %[ t if ! conclusion be d5i$ we mu/ d5y "s "o at lea/ ( ! premises1 :i*1 z !y are all suppos$ true1 w\ld be a contradiction4 ,& 9 accordance ) ?is1 _m h ?\ght t ! peculi> nature ( ! evid5ce ( ratioc9ation consi/$ 9 ! impossibility ( admitt+ ! premises & reject+ ! conclusion )\t a contradiction 9 t]ms4 ,?is !ory1 h[ev]1 is inadmissible z an explanation ( ! gr\nds on :i* ratioc9ation itself re/s4 ,if any "o d5ies ! conclusion not)/&+ 8 admission ( ! premises1 he is n involv$ 9 any direct & express contradiction until he is compell$ to d5y "s premise2 & he c only be =c$ to d ?is by a r$uctio ad absurdum1 t is1 by ano!r ratioc9ation3 n[1 if he d5ies ! validity ( ! reason+ process itself1 he c no m be =c$ to ass5t to ! second syllogism ?an to ! fir/4 ,9 tru?1 !re=e1 no "o is ev] =c$ to a contradiction 9 t]ms3 he c only be =c$ to a contradiction 7or r an infr+em5t7 ( ! fundam5tal maxim ( ratioc9ation1 namely1 t :atev] has a m>k1 has :at x is a m>k (2 or 79 ! case ( univ]sal propositions71 t :atev] is a m>k ( any ?+1 is a m>k ( :atev] else t ?+ is a m>k (4 ,= 9 ! case ( e correct argum5t1 z soon z ?r[n into ! syllogi/ic =m1 x is evid5t )\t ! aid ( any o!r syllogism1 t he :o1 admitt+ ! premises1 fails to draw ! conclusion1 does n con=m to ! above axiom4 ,we h n[ proce$$ z f> 9 ! !ory ( ,d$uction z we c advance 9 ! pres5t /age ( our inquiry4 ,any fur!r insight into ! subject requires t ! f\ndation %all h be5 laid ( ! philosophic !ory ( ,induction itself2 9 :i* !ory t ( ,d$uction1 z a mode ( ,induction1 :i* we h n[ %[n x to be1 w assume spontane\sly ! place :i* belongs to x1 & w receive its %>e ( :atev] light may be ?r[n ^u ! great intellectual op]ation ( :i* x =ms s important a "p4 ,*apt] ,,vii4 ,exam9ation ,( ,"s ,op9ions ,oppos$ ,to ,! ,prec$+ ,doctr9es4 #a4 ,polemical discussion is =eign to ! plan ( ?is "w4 ,b an op9ion :i* /&s 9 ne$ ( mu* illu/ration1 c (t5 receive x mo/ effectually1 & lea/ t$i\sly1 9 ! =m ( a def5se aga9/ objections4 ,& on subjects conc]n+ :i* speculative m9ds are /ill divid$1 a writ] does b half 8 duty by /at+ 8 own doctr9e1 if he does n also exam9e1 & to ! be/ ( 8 ability judge1 ^? ( o!r ?9k]s4 ,9 ! diss]tation :i* ,mr4 ,h]b]t ,sp5c] has prefix$ to 81 9 _m respects1 highly philosophical treatise on ! ,m9d17#ia7 he criticises "s ( ! doctr9es ( ! two prec$+ *apt]s1 & prop\nds a !ory ( 8 own on ! subject ( fir/ pr9ciples4 ,mr4 ,sp5c] agrees ) me 9 consid]+ axioms to be 8simply our e>lie/ inductions f exp]i5ce40 ,b he diff]s f me 8widely z to ! wor? ( ! te/ ( inconceivabl5ess40 ,he ?9ks t x is ! ultimate te/ ( all beliefs4 ,he arrives at ?is conclusion by two /eps4 ,fir/1 we nev] c h any /rong] gr\nd = believ+ any ?+1 ?an t ! belief ( x 8inv>iably exi/s40 ,:5ev] any fact or proposition is inv>iably believ$2 t is1 if ,i und]/& ,mr4 ,sp5c] rightly1 believ$ by all p]sons1 & by "o's self at all times2 x is entitl$ to be receiv$ z "o ( ! primitive tru?s1 or orig9al premises ( our k4 ,secondly1 ! crit]ion by :i* we decide :e!r any ?+ is inv>iably believ$ to be true1 is our inability to conceive x z false4 8,! inconceivability ( its negation is ! te/ by :i* we asc]ta9 :e!r a giv5 belief inv>iably exi/s or n40 8,= our prim>y beliefs1 ! fact ( inv>iable exi/5ce1 te/$ by an abortive ef=t to cause _! non-exi/5ce1 is ! only reason assignable40 ,he ?9ks ?is ! sole gr\nd ( our belief 9 our own s5sations4 ,if ,i believe t ,i feel cold1 ,i only receive ?is z true because ,i c n conceive t ,i am n feel+ cold4 8,:ile ! proposition rema9s true1 ! negation ( x rema9s inconceivable40 ,!re are num]\s o!r beliefs :i* ,mr4 ,sp5c] consid]s to re/ on ! same basis2 be+ *iefly ^?1 or a "p ( ^?1 :i* ! metaphysicians ( ! ,reid & ,/ew>t s*ool consid] z tru?s ( imm$iate intuition4 ,t !re exi/s a mat]ial _w2 t ?is is ! v _w :i* we directly & imm$iately p]ceive1 & n m]ely ! hidd5 cause ( our p]ceptions2 t ,space1 ,"t1 ,=ce1 ,ext5sion1 ,figure1 are n modes ( our consci\sness1 b objective realities2 are reg>d$ by ,mr4 ,sp5c] z tru?s kn[n by ! inconceivabl5ess ( _! negatives4 ,we c n1 he says1 by any ef=t1 conceive ^! objects ( ?\ght z m]e /ates ( our m9d2 z n hav+ an exi/5ce ext]nal to u4 ,_! real exi/5ce is1 !re=e1 z c]ta9 z our s5sations !mselves4 ,! tru?s :i* are ! subject ( direct k1 be+1 accord+ to ?is doctr9e1 kn[n to be tru?s only by ! inconceivability ( _! negation2 & ! tru?s :i* are n ! object ( direct k1 be+ kn[n z inf]5ces f ^? :i* are2 & ^? inf]5ces be+ believ$ to foll[ f ! premises1 only because we c n conceive !m n to foll[2 inconceivability is ?us ! ultimate gr\nd ( all assur$ beliefs4 ,?us f>1 !re is no v wide diff]5ce betwe5 ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s doctr9e & ! ord9>y "o ( philosoph]s ( ! intuitive s*ool1 f ,desc>tes to ,dr4 ,:ewell2 b at ?is po9t ,mr4 ,sp5c] div]ges f !m4 ,= he does n1 l !m1 set up ! te/ ( inconceivability z infallible4 ,on ! contr>y1 he holds t x may be fallaci\s1 n f any fault 9 ! te/ itself1 b because 8m5 h mi/ak5 = inconceivable ?+s1 "s ?+s :i* 7 n inconceivable40 ,& he himself1 9 ?is v book1 d5ies n a few propositions usually reg>d$ z among ! mo/ m>k$ examples ( tru?s ^: negations are inconceivable4 ,b occasional failure1 he says1 is incid5t to all te/s4 ,if su* failure vitiates 8! te/ ( inconceivabl5ess10 x 8mu/ simil>ly vitiate all te/s :atev]4 ,we consid] an inf]5ce logically drawn f e/abli%$ premises to be true4 ,yet 9 millions ( cases m5 h be5 wrong 9 ! inf]5ces !y h ?\ght ?us drawn4 ,d we !re=e argue t x is absurd to consid] an inf]5ce true on no o!r gr\nd ?an t x is logically drawn f e/abli%$ premises8 ,no3 we say t ?\gh m5 may h tak5 = logical inf]5ces1 inf]5ces t 7 n logical1 !re nev]!less are logical inf]5ces1 & t we are ju/ifi$ 9 assum+ ! tru? ( :at seem to u su*1 until bett] in/ruct$4 ,simil>ly1 ?\gh m5 may h ?\ght "s ?+s inconceivable :i* 7 n s1 !re may /ill be inconceivable ?+s2 & ! inability to conceive ! negation ( a ?+1 may /ill be our be/ w>rant = believ+ x4444 ,?\gh occasionally x may prove an imp]fect te/1 yet1 z our mo/ c]ta9 beliefs are capable ( no bett]1 to d\bt any "o belief because we h no high] gu>antee = x1 is really to d\bt all beliefs40 ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s doctr9e1 !re=e1 does n erect ! curable1 b only ! incurable limitations ( ! human conceptive faculty1 into laws ( ! outw>d univ]se4 #b4 ,! doctr9e1 t 8a belief :i* is prov$ by ! inconceivabl5ess ( its negation to inv>iably exi/1 is true10 ,mr4 ,sp5c] en=ces by two argum5ts1 "o ( :i* may be di/+ui%$ z positive1 & ! o!r z negative4 ,! positive argum5t is1 t e su* belief repres5ts ! aggregate ( all pa/ exp]i5ce4 8,conc$+ ! entire tru? (0 ! 8position1 t dur+ any phase ( human progress1 ! ability or inability to =m a specific conception :olly dep5ds on ! exp]i5ces m5 h _h2 & t1 by a wid5+ ( _! exp]i5ces1 !y may1 by & by1 be enabl$ to conceive ?+s be=e inconceivable to !m1 x may /ill be argu$ t z1 at any "t1 ! be/ w>rant m5 c h = a belief is ! p]fect agreem5t ( all pre-exi/+ exp]i5ce 9 support ( x1 x foll[s t1 at any "t1 ! inconceivabl5ess ( its negation is ! deepe/ te/ any belief admits (4444 ,objective facts are ev] impress+ !mselves ^u u2 our exp]i5ce is a regi/] ( ^! objective facts2 & ! inconceivabl5ess ( a ?+ implies t x is :olly at v>iance ) ! regi/]4 ,ev5 7 ?is all1 x is n cle> h[1 if e tru? is prim>ily inductive1 any bett] te/ ( tru? c\ld exi/4 ,b x mu/ be rememb]$ t :ile _m ( ^! facts1 impress+ !mselves ^u u1 are occasional2 :ile o!rs aga9 are v g5]al2 "s are univ]sal & un*ang+4 ,^! univ]sal & un*ang+ facts are1 by ! hypo!sis1 c]ta9 to e/abli% beliefs ( :i* ! negations are inconceivable2 :ile ! o!rs are n c]ta9 to d ?is2 & if !y d1 subsequ5t facts w rev]se _! action4 ,h5ce if1 aft] an imm5se accumulation ( exp]i5ces1 !re rema9 beliefs ( :i* ! negations are /ill inconceivable1 mo/1 if n all ( !m1 mu/ correspond to univ]sal objective facts4 ,if !re be 444 c]ta9 absolute uni=mities 9 nature2 if ^! uni=mities produce1 z !y mu/1 absolute uni=mities 9 our exp]i5ce2 & if 444 ^! absolute uni=mities 9 our exp]i5ce disable u f conceiv+ ! negations ( !m2 !n answ]+ to ea* absolute uni=mity 9 nature :i* we c cognize1 !re mu/ exi/ 9 u a belief ( :i* ! negation is inconceivable1 & :i* is absolutely true4 ,9 ?is wide range ( cases subjective inconceivabl5ess mu/ correspond to objective impossibility4 ,fur!r exp]i5ce w produce correspond5ce :]e x may n yet exi/2 & we may expect ! correspond5ce to become ultimately complete4 ,9 ne>ly all cases ?is te/ ( inconceivabl5ess mu/ be valid n[0 7,i wi% ,i c\ld ?9k we 7 s ne>ly arriv$ at omnisci5ce72 8& :]e x is n1 x /ill expresses ! net result ( our exp]i5ce up to ! pres5t "t2 :i* is ! mo/ t any te/ c d40 ,to ?is ,i answ]1 fir/1 t x is by no means true t ! inconceivability1 by u1 ( ! negative ( a proposition proves all1 or ev5 any1 8pre-exi/+ exp]i5ce0 to be 9 favor ( ! affirmative4 ,!re may h be5 no su* pre-exi/+ exp]i5ces1 b only a mi/ak5 supposition ( exp]i5ce4 ,h[ did ! inconceivability ( antipodes prove t exp]i5ce _h giv5 any te/imony aga9/ _! possibility8 ,h[ did ! incapacity m5 felt ( conceiv+ sunset o!rwise ?an z a motion ( ! sun1 repres5t any 8net result0 ( exp]i5ce 9 support ( its be+ ! sun & n ! e>? t moves8 ,x is n exp]i5ce t is repres5t$1 x is only a sup]ficial semblance ( exp]i5ce4 ,! only ?+ prov$ ) reg>d to real exp]i5ce1 is ! negative fact1 t m5 h n _h x ( ! k9d :i* w\ld h made ! inconceivable proposition conceivable4 ,next3 ,ev5 if x 7 true t inconceivabl5ess repres5ts ! net result ( all pa/ exp]i5ce1 :y %\ld we /op at ! repres5tative :5 we c get at ! ?+ repres5t$8 ,if our incapacity to conceive ! negation ( a giv5 supposition is pro( ( its tru?1 because prov+ t our exp]i5ce has hi!rto be5 uni=m 9 its favor1 ! real evid5ce = ! supposition is n ! inconceivabl5ess1 b ! uni=mity ( exp]i5ce4 ,n[ ?is1 :i* is ! sub/antial & only pro(1 is directly accessible4 ,we are n oblig$ to presume x f an incid5tal consequ5ce4 ,if all pa/ exp]i5ce is 9 favor ( a belief1 let ?is be /at$1 & ! belief op5ly re/$ on t gr\nd3 aft] :i* ! "q arises1 :at t fact may be wor? z evid5ce ( its tru?8 ,= uni=mity ( exp]i5ce is evid5ce 9 v diff]5t degrees3 9 "s cases x is /rong evid5ce1 9 o!rs weak1 9 o!rs x sc>cely am\nts to evid5ce at all4 ,t all metals s9k 9 wat]1 0 a uni=m exp]i5ce1 f ! orig9 ( ! human race to ! discov]y ( potassium 9 ! pres5t c5tury by ,sir ,humphry ,davy4 ,t all swans are :ite1 0 a uni=m exp]i5ce d[n to ! discov]y ( ,au/ralia4 ,9 ! few cases 9 :i* uni=mity ( exp]i5ce does am\nt to ! /ronge/ possible pro(1 z ) su* propositions z ^!1 ,two /raight l9es c n inclose a space1 ,e ev5t has a cause1 x is n because _! negations are inconceivable1 :i* is n always ! fact2 b because ! exp]i5ce1 :i* has be5 ?us uni=m1 p]vades all nature4 ,x w be %[n 9 ! foll[+ ,book t none ( ! conclusions ei!r ( induction or ( d$uction c be consid]$ c]ta91 except z f> z _! tru? is %[n to be insep>ably b\nd up ) tru?s ( ?is class4 ,i ma9ta9 !n1 fir/1 t uni=mity ( pa/ exp]i5ce is v f> f be+ univ]sally a crit]ion ( tru?4 ,b secondly1 inconceivabl5ess is /ill fur!r f be+ a te/ ev5 ( t te/4 ,uni=mity ( contr>y exp]i5ce is only "o ( _m causes ( inconceivability4 ,tradition h&$ d[n f a p]iod ( m limit$ k1 is "o ( ! commone/4 ,! m]e famili>ity ( "o mode ( production ( a ph5om5on (t5 suffices to make e o!r mode appe> inconceivable4 ,:atev] connects two ideas by a /rong association may1 & cont9ually does1 r5d] _! sep>ation 9 ?\ght impossible2 z ,mr4 ,sp5c]1 9 o!r p>ts ( 8 speculations1 frequ5tly recognizes4 ,x 0 n = want ( exp]i5ce t ! ,c>tesians 7 unable to conceive t "o body c\ld produce motion 9 ano!r )\t contact4 ,!y _h z mu* exp]i5ce ( o!r modes ( produc+ motion z !y _h ( t mode4 ,! planets _h revolv$1 & heavy bodies _h fall51 e h\r ( _! lives4 ,b !y fanci$ ^! ph5om5a to be produc$ by a hidd5 ma*9]y :i* !y did n see1 because )\t x !y 7 unable to conceive :at !y did see4 ,! inconceivabl5ess1 in/ead ( repres5t+ _! exp]i5ce1 dom9at$ & ov]rode _! exp]i5ce4 ,)\t dwell+ fur!r on :at ,i h t]m$ ! positive argum5t ( ,mr4 ,sp5c] 9 support ( 8 crit]ion ( tru?1 ,i pass to 8 negative argum5t1 on :i* he lays m /ress4 #c4 ,! negative argum5t is1 t1 :e!r inconceivability be good evid5ce or bad1 no /rong] evid5ce is to be obta9$4 ,t :at is inconceivable c n be true1 is po/ulat$ 9 e act ( ?\ght4 ,x is ! f\ndation ( all our orig9al premises4 ,/ill m x is assum$ 9 all conclusions f ^? premises4 ,! inv>iability ( belief1 te/$ by ! inconceivabl5ess ( its negation1 8is our sole w>rant = e demon/ration4 ,logic is simply a sy/ematization ( ! process by :i* we indirectly obta9 ?is w>rant = beliefs t d n directly possess x4 ,to ga9 ! /ronge/ conviction possible respect+ any complex fact1 we ei!r analytically desc5d f x by successive /eps1 ea* ( :i* we unconsci\sly te/ by ! inconceivabl5ess ( its negation1 until we rea* "s axiom or tru? :i* we h simil>ly te/$2 or we syn!tically asc5d f su* axiom or tru? by su* /eps4 ,9 ei!r case we connect "s isolat$ belief1 ) a belief :i* inv>iably exi/s1 by a s]ies ( int]m$iate beliefs :i* inv>iably exi/40 ,! foll[+ passage sums up ! !ory3 8,:5 we p]ceive t ! negation ( ! belief is inconceivable1 we h all possible w>rant = ass]t+ ! inv>iability ( its exi/5ce3 & 9 ass]t+ ?is1 we express alike our logical ju/ification ( x1 & ! inexorable necessity we are "u ( hold+ x4444 ,we h se5 t ?is is ! assumption on :i* e conclusion :atev] ultimately re/s4 ,we h no o!r gu>antee = ! reality ( consci\sness1 ( s5sations1 ( p]sonal exi/5ce2 we h no o!r gu>antee = any axiom2 we h no o!r gu>antee = any /ep 9 a demon/ration4 ,h5ce1 z be+ tak5 = grant$ 9 e act ( ! und]/&+1 x mu/ be reg>d$ z ! ,univ]sal ,po/ulate40 ,b z ?is po/ulate1 :i* we are "u an 8inexorable necessity0 ( hold+ true1 is sometimes false2 z 8beliefs t once 7 %[n by ! inconceivabl5ess ( _! negations to inv>iably exi/1 h s9ce be5 f\nd untrue10 & z 8beliefs t n[ possess ?is "* may "s day %>e ! same fate20 ! canon ( belief laid d[n by ,mr4 ,sp5c] is1 t 8! mo/ c]ta9 conclusion0 is t 8:i* involves ! po/ulate ! fewe/ times40 ,reason+1 !re=e1 nev] ought to prevail aga9/ "o ( ! imm$iate beliefs 7! belief 9 ,matt]1 9 ! outw>d reality ( ,ext5sion1 ,space1 & ! l71 because ea* ( ^! involves ! po/ulate only once2 :ile an argum5t1 besides involv+ x 9 ! premises1 involves x aga9 9 e /ep ( ! ratioc9ation1 no "o ( ! successive acts ( inf]5ce be+ recogniz$ z valid except because we c n conceive ! conclusion n to foll[ f ! premises4 ,x w be conv5i5t to take ! la/ "p ( ?is argum5t fir/4 ,9 e reason+1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,sp5c]1 ! assumption ( ! po/ulate is r5ew$ at e /ep4 ,at ea* inf]5ce we judge t ! conclusion foll[s f ! premises1 our sole w>rant = t judgm5t be+ t we c n conceive x n to foll[4 ,consequ5tly if ! po/ulate is fallible1 ! conclusions ( reason+ are m vitiat$ by t unc]ta9ty ?an direct intuitions2 & ! disproportion is great]1 ! m num]\s ! /eps ( ! argum5t4 ,to te/ ?is doctr9e1 let u fir/ suppose an argum5t consi/+ only ( a s+le /ep1 :i* w\ld be repres5t$ by "o syllogism4 ,?is argum5t does re/ on an assumption1 & we h se5 9 ! prec$+ *apt]s :at ! assumption is4 ,x is1 t :atev] has a m>k1 has :at x is a m>k (4 ,! evid5ce ( ?is axiom ,i %all n consid] at pres5t27#ib7 let u suppose x 7) ,mr4 ,sp5c]7 to be ! inconceivabl5ess ( its rev]se4 ,let u n[ add a second /ep to ! argum5t3 we require1 :at8 ,ano!r assumption8 ,no3 ! same assumption a second "t2 & s on to a ?ird1 & a f\r?4 ,i confess ,i d n see h[1 on ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s own pr9ciples1 ! repetition ( ! assumption at all weak5s ! =ce ( ! argum5t4 ,if x 7 necess>y ! second "t to assume "s o!r axiom1 ! argum5t w\ld no d\bt be weak5$1 s9ce x w\ld be necess>y to its validity t bo? axioms %\ld be true1 & x might happ5 t "o 0 true & n ! o!r3 mak+ two *ances ( error in/ead ( "o4 ,b s9ce x is ! same axiom1 if x is true once x is true e "t2 & if ! argum5t1 be+ ( a hundr$ l9ks1 assum$ ! axiom a hundr$ times1 ^! hundr$ assumptions w\ld make b "o *ance ( error among !m all4 ,x is satisfactory t we are n oblig$ to suppose ! d$uctions ( pure ma!matics to be among ! mo/ unc]ta9 ( argum5tative processes1 :i* on ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s !ory !y c\ld h>dly fail to be1 s9ce !y are ! longe/4 ,b ! numb] ( /eps 9 an argum5t does n subtract f its reliabl5ess1 if no new premises1 ( an unc]ta9 "*1 are tak5 up by ! way47#ic7 ,to speak next ( ! premises4 ,our assurance ( _! tru?1 :e!r !y be g5]alities or individual facts1 is gr\nd$1 9 ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s op9ion1 on ! inconceivabl5ess ( _! be+ false4 ,x is necess>y to adv]t to a d\ble mean+ ( ! ^w inconceivable1 :i* ,mr4 ,sp5c] is aw>e (1 & w\ld s9c]ely disclaim f\nd+ an argum5t ^u1 b f :i* 8 case d]ives no little advantage not)/&+4 ,by inconceivabl5ess is sometimes meant1 inability to =m or get rid ( an idea2 sometimes1 inability to =m or get rid ( a belief4 ,! =m] mean+ is ! mo/ con=mable to ! analogy ( language2 = a conception always means an idea1 & nev] a belief4 ,! wrong mean+ ( 8inconceivable0 is1 h[ev]1 fully z frequ5t 9 philosophical discussion z ! "r mean+1 & ! intuitive s*ool ( metaphysicians c\ld n well d )\t ei!r4 ,to illu/rate ! diff]5ce1 we w take two contra/$ examples4 ,! e>ly physical speculators consid]$ antipodes incr$ible1 because inconceivable4 ,b antipodes 7 n inconceivable 9 ! primitive s5se ( ! ^w4 ,an idea ( !m c\ld be =m$ )\t difficulty3 !y c\ld be completely pictur$ to ! m5tal eye4 ,:at 0 difficult1 &1 z x !n seem$1 impossible1 0 to appreh5d !m z believable4 ,! idea c\ld be put toge!r1 ( m5 /ick+ on by _! feet to ! "u side ( ! e>?2 b ! belief w\ld foll[1 t !y mu/ fall (f4 ,antipodes 7 n unimag9able1 b !y 7 unbelievable4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :5 ,i endeavor to conceive an end to ext5sion1 ! two ideas refuse to come toge!r4 ,:5 ,i attempt to =m a conception ( ! la/ po9t ( space1 ,i c n help figur+ to myself a va/ space beyond t la/ po9t4 ,! comb9ation is1 "u ! conditions ( our exp]i5ce1 unimag9able4 ,?is d\ble mean+ ( inconceivable x is v important to be> 9 m9d1 = ! argum5t f inconceivabl5ess almo/ always turns on ! alt]nate sub/itution ( ea* ( ^? mean+s = ! o!r4 ,9 :i* ( ^! two s5ses does ,mr4 ,sp5c] employ ! t]m1 :5 he makes x a te/ ( ! tru? ( a proposition t its negation is inconceivable8 ,until ,mr4 ,sp5c] expressly /at$ ! contr>y1 ,i inf]r$ f ! c\rse ( 8 argum5t1 t he meant unbelievable4 ,he has1 h[ev]1 9 a pap] publi%$ 9 ! fif? numb] ( ! ,=tnightly ,review1 disclaim$ ?is mean+1 & decl>$ t by an inconceivable proposition he means1 n[ & always1 8"o ( :i* ! t]ms c n1 by any ef=t1 be br\ght be=e consci\sness 9 t relation :i* ! proposition ass]ts betwe5 !m--a proposition ( :i* ! subject & pr$icate (f] an insurm\ntable resi/ance to union 9 ?\ght40 ,we n[1 !re=e1 "k positively t ,mr4 ,sp5c] always endeavors to use ! ^w inconceivable 9 ?is1 its prop]1 s5se3 b x may yet be que/ion$ :e!r 8 endeavor is always successful2 :e!r ! o!r1 & popul> use ( ! ^w1 does n sometimes creep 9 ) its associations1 & prev5t him f ma9ta9+ a cle> sep>ation betwe5 ! two4 ,:51 = example1 he says1 t :5 ,i feel cold1 ,i c n conceive t ,i am n feel+ cold1 ?is expression c n be translat$ into 8,i c n conceive myself n feel+ cold10 = x is evid5t t ,i c3 ! ^w conceive1 !re=e1 is "h us$ to express ! recognition ( a matt] ( fact--! p]ception ( tru? or falsehood2 :i* ,i appreh5d to be exactly ! mean+ ( an act ( belief1 z di/+ui%$ f simple conception4 ,aga91 ,mr4 ,sp5c] calls ! attempt to conceive some?+ :i* is inconceivable 8an abortive ef=t to cause ! non-exi/5ce10 n ( a conception or m5tal repres5tation1 b ( a belief4 ,!re is ne$1 !re=e1 to revise a consid]able "p ( ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s language1 if x is to be kept always consi/5t ) 8 def9ition ( inconceivability4 ,b 9 tru? ! po9t is ( little importance2 s9ce inconceivability1 9 ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s !ory1 is only a te/ ( tru?1 inasmu* z x is a te/ ( believability4 ,! inconceivabl5ess ( a supposition is ! extreme case ( its unbelievability4 ,?is is ! v f\ndation ( ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s doctr9e4 ,! inv>iability ( ! belief is ) him ! real gu>antee4 ,! attempt to conceive ! negative is made 9 ord] to te/ ! inevitabl5ess ( ! belief4 ,x %\ld be call$1 an attempt to believe ! negative4 ,:5 ,mr4 ,sp5c] says t :ile look+ at ! sun a man c n conceive t he is look+ into d>kness1 he %\ld h said t a man c n believe t he is do+ s4 ,= x is surely possible1 9 broad daylight1 to imag9e "o's self look+ into d>kness47#id7 ,z ,mr4 ,sp5c] himself says1 speak+ ( ! belief ( our own exi/5ce1 8,t he might n exi/1 he c conceive well en\gh2 b t he does n exi/1 he f9ds x impossible to conceive10 i4e41 to believe4 ,s t ! /atem5t resolves itself into ?is3 ,t ,i exi/1 & t ,i h s5sations1 ,i believe1 because ,i c n believe o!rwise4 ,& 9 ?is case e "o w admit t ! impossibility is real4 ,any "o's pres5t s5sations1 or o!r /ates ( subjective consci\sness1 t "o p]son inevitably believes4 ,!y are facts kn[n p] se3 x is impossible to asc5d beyond !m4 ,_! negative is really unbelievable1 & !re=e !re is nev] any "q ab\t believ+ x4 ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s !ory is n ne$$ = ^! tru?s4 ,b accord+ to ,mr4 ,sp5c] !re are o!r beliefs1 relat+ to o!r ?+s ?an our own subjective feel+s1 = :i* we h ! same gu>antee--:i* are1 9 a simil> mann]1 inv>iable & necess>y4 ,) reg>d to ^! o!r beliefs1 !y c n be necess>y1 s9ce !y d n always exi/4 ,!re h be51 & are1 _m p]sons :o d n believe ! reality ( an ext]nal _w1 /ill less ! reality ( ext5sion & figure z ! =ms ( t ext]nal _w2 :o d n believe t space & "t h an exi/5ce indep5d5t ( ! m9d--nor any o!r ( ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s objective intuitions4 ,! negations ( ^! alleg$ inv>iable beliefs are n unbelievable1 = !y are believ$4 ,x may be ma9ta9$1 )\t obvi\s error1 t we c n imag9e tangible objects z m]e /ates ( our own & o!r p's consci\sness2 t ! p]ception ( !m irresi/ibly sugge/s to u ! idea ( some?+ ext]nal to ourselves3 & ,i am n 9 a condition to say t ?is is n ! fact 7?\gh ,i d n ?9k any "o is entitl$ to affirm x ( any p]son besides himself74 ,b _m ?9k]s h believ$1 :e!r !y c\ld conceive x or n1 t :at we repres5t to ourselves z mat]ial objects1 are m]e modifications ( consci\sness2 complex feel+s ( t\* & ( muscul> action4 ,mr4 ,sp5c] may ?9k ! inf]5ce correct f ! unimag9able to ! unbelievable1 because he holds t belief itself is b ! p]si/5ce ( an idea1 & t :at we c succe$ 9 imag9+ we c n at ! mom5t help appreh5d+ z believable4 ,b ( :at consequ5ce is x :at we appreh5d at ! mom5t1 if ! mom5t is 9 contradiction to ! p]man5t /ate ( our m9d8 ,a p]son :o has be5 fright5$ :5 an infant by /ories ( gho/s1 ?\gh he disbelieves !m 9 aft] ye>s 7& p]haps nev] believ$ !m71 may be unable all 8 life to be 9 a d>k place1 9 circum/ances /imulat+ to ! imag9ation1 )\t m5tal discomposure4 ,! idea ( gho/s1 ) all its att5dant t]rors1 is irresi/ibly call$ up 9 8 m9d by ! outw>d circum/ances4 ,mr4 ,sp5c] may say1 t :ile he is "u ! influ5ce ( ?is t]ror he does n disbelieve 9 gho/s1 b has a tempor>y & uncontrollable belief 9 !m4 ,be x s2 b all[+ x to be s1 :i* w\ld x be true/ to say ( ?is man on ! :ole--t he believes 9 gho/s1 or t he does n believe 9 !m8 ,assur$ly t he does n believe 9 !m4 ,! case is simil> ) ^? :o disbelieve a mat]ial _w4 ,?\gh !y c n get rid ( ! idea2 ?\gh :ile look+ at a solid object !y c n help hav+ ! conception1 & !re=e1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s metaphysics1 ! mom5t>y belief1 ( its ext]nality2 ev5 at t mom5t !y w\ld s9c]ely d5y hold+ t belief3 & x w\ld be incorrect to call !m o!r ?an disbeliev]s ( ! doctr9e4 ,! belief !re=e is n inv>iable2 & ! te/ ( inconceivabl5ess fails 9 ! only cases to :i* !re c\ld ev] be any occasion to apply x4 ,t a ?+ may be p]fectly believable1 & yet may n h become conceivable1 & t we may habitually believe "o side ( an alt]native1 & conceive only 9 ! o!r1 is famili>ly exemplifi$ 9 ! /ate ( m9d ( educat$ p]sons respect+ sunrise & sunset4 ,all educat$ p]sons ei!r "k by inve/igation1 or believe on ! au?ority ( sci5ce1 t x is ! e>? & n ! sun :i* moves3 b !re are probably few :o habitually conceive ! ph5om5on o!rwise ?an z ! asc5t or desc5t ( ! sun4 ,assur$ly no "o c d s )\t a prolong$ trial2 & x is probably n easi] n[ ?an 9 ! fir/ g5]ation aft] ,cop]nicus4 ,mr4 ,sp5c] does n say1 8,9 look+ at sunrise x is impossible n to conceive t x is ! sun :i* moves1 !re=e ?is is :at e body believes1 & we h all ! evid5ce = x t we c h = any tru?40 ,yet ?is w\ld be an exact p>allel to 8 doctr9e ab\t ! belief 9 matt]4 ,! exi/5ce ( matt]1 & o!r ,n\m5a1 z di/+ui%$ f ! ph5om5al _w1 rema9s a "q ( argum5t1 z x 0 be=e2 & ! v g5]al1 b nei!r necess>y nor univ]sal1 belief 9 !m1 /&s z a psy*ological ph5om5on to be expla9$1 ei!r on ! hypo!sis ( its tru?1 or on "s o!r4 ,! belief is n a conclusive pro( ( its own tru?1 unless !re are no su* ?+s z idola tribs2 b be+ a fact1 x calls on antagoni/s to %[1 f :at except ! real exi/5ce ( ! ?+ believ$1 s g5]al & app>5tly spontane\s a belief c h orig9at$4 ,& its oppon5ts h nev] hesitat$ to accept ?is *all5ge47#ie7 ,! am\nt ( _! success 9 meet+ x w probably det]m9e ! ultimate v]dict ( philosoph]s on ! "q4 #d4 ,9 ! revision1 or r recon/ruction1 ( 8 8,pr9ciples ( ,psy*ology10 z "o ( ! /ages or plat=ms 9 ! impos+ /ructure ( 8 ,sy/em ( ,philosophy1 ,mr4 ,sp5c] has resum$ :at he ju/ly t]ms7#if7 ! 8amicable controv]sy t has be5 long p5d+ betwe5 u20 express+ at ! same "t a regret1 :i* ,i cordially %>e1 t 8?is l5g!n$ exposition ( a s+le po9t ( diff]5ce1 unaccompani$ by an exposition ( ! num]\s po9ts ( concurr5ce1 unavoidably produces an appe>ance ( diss5t v f> great] ?an t :i* exi/s40 ,i believe1 ) ,mr4 ,sp5c]1 t ! diff]5ce betwe5 u1 if measur$ by our conclusions1 is 8sup]ficial r ?an sub/antial20 & ! value ,i atta* to s great an am\nt ( agreem5t1 9 ! field ( analytic psy*ology1 ) a ?9k] ( 8 =ce & dep?1 is su* z ,i c h>dly ov]/ate4 ,b ,i also agree ) him t ! diff]5ce :i* exi/s 9 our premises is "o ( 8pr(\nd importance1 philosophically consid]$20 & n to be dismiss$ :ile any "p ( ! case ( ei!r ( u has n be5 fully exam9$ & discuss$4 ,9 8 pres5t /atem5t ( ! ,univ]sal ,po/ulate1 ,mr4 ,sp5c] has ex*ang$ 8 =m] expression1 8beliefs :i* inv>iably exi/10 = ! foll[+3 8cognitions ( :i* ! pr$icates inv>iably exi/ along ) _! subjects40 ,& he says t 8an abortive ef=t to conceive ! negation ( a proposition1 %[s t ! cognition express$ is "o ( :i* ! pr$icate inv>iably exi/s along ) its subject2 & ! discov]y t ! pr$icate inv>iably exi/s along ) its subject1 is ! discov]y t ?is cognition is "o we are compell$ to accept40 ,bo? ^! premises ( ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s syllogism ,i am able to ass5t to1 b 9 diff]5t s5ses ( ! middle t]m4 ,if ! inv>iable exi/5ce ( ! pr$icate along ) its subject1 is to be und]/ood 9 ! mo/ obvi\s mean+1 z an exi/5ce 9 actual ,nature1 or 9 o!r words1 9 our objective1 or s5sational1 exp]i5ce1 ,i ( c\rse admit t ?is1 once asc]ta9$1 compels u to accept ! proposition3 b !n ,i d n admit t ! failure ( an attempt to conceive ! negative1 proves ! pr$icate to be always co-exi/5t ) ! subject 9 actual ,nature4 ,if1 on ! o!r h& 7:i* ,i believe to be ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s mean+7 ! inv>iable exi/5ce ( ! pr$icate along ) ! subject is to be und]/ood only ( our conceptive faculty1 i4e41 t ! "o is insep>able f ! o!r 9 our ?\ghts2 !n1 inde$1 ! inability to sep>ate ! two ideas proves _! insep>able conjunction1 "h & n[1 9 ! m9d :i* has fail$ 9 ! attempt2 b ?is insep>ability 9 ?\ght does n prove a correspond+ insep>ability 9 fact2 nor ev5 9 ! ?\ghts ( o!r p1 or ( ! same p]son 9 a possible future4 8,t "s propositions h be5 wrongly accept$ z true1 because _! negations 7 suppos$ inconceivable :5 !y 7 n10 does n1 9 ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s op9ion1 8disprove ! validity ( ! te/20 n only because any te/ :atev] 8is liable to yield untrue results1 ei!r f incapacity or f c>elessness 9 ^? :o use x10 b because ! propositions 9 "q 87 complex propositions1 n to be e/abli%$ by a te/ applicable to propositions no fur!r decomposable40 8,a te/ legitimately applicable to a simple proposition1 ! subject & pr$icate ( :i* are 9 direct relation1 c n be legitimately appli$ to a complex proposition1 ! subject & pr$icate ( :i* are indirectly relat$ ?r\gh ! _m simple propositions impli$40 8,t ?+s :i* are equal to ! same ?+ are equal to "o ano!r1 is a fact :i* c be kn[n by direct comp>ison ( actual or ideal relations4444 ,b t ! squ>e ( ! hypo!nuse ( a "r-angl$ triangle equals ! sum ( ! squ>es ( ! o!r two sides1 c n be kn[n imm$iately by comp>ison ( two /ates ( consci\sness3 "h ! tru? c be rea*$ only m$iately1 ?r\gh a s]ies ( simple judgm5ts respect+ ! lik5esses or unlik5esses ( c]ta9 relations40 ,moreov]1 ev5 :5 ! proposition admits ( be+ te/$ by imm$iate consci\sness1 p (t5 neglect to d x4 ,a s*ool-boy1 9 add+ up a column ( figures1 w say 8#ce & #i are #df10 ?\gh ?is is contr>y to ! v]dict :i* consci\sness gives :5 #ce & #i are really call$ up be=e x2 b ?is is n done4 ,& n only s*ool-boys1 b m5 & ?9k]s1 d n always 8di/9ctly translate into _! equival5t /ates ( consci\sness ! words !y use40 ,x is b j to give ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s doctr9e ! b5efit ( ! limitation he claims--viz41 t x is only applicable to propositions :i* are ass5t$ to on simple inspection1 )\t any int]v5+ m$ia ( pro(4 ,b ?is limitation does n exclude "s ( ! mo/ m>k$ in/ances ( propositions n[ kn[n to be false or gr\ndless1 b ^: negative 0 once f\nd inconceivable3 su* z1 t 9 sunrise & sunset x is ! sun :i* moves2 t gravitation may exi/ )\t an int]v5+ m$ium2 & ev5 ! case ( antipodes4 ,! di/9ction drawn by ,mr4 ,sp5c] is real2 b1 9 ! case ( ! propositions class$ by him z complex1 consci\sness1 until ! m$ia ( pro( are suppli$1 gives no v]dict at all3 x nei!r decl>es ! equality ( ! squ>e ( ! hypo!nuse ) ! sum ( ! squ>es ( ! sides to be inconceivable1 nor _! inequality to be inconceivable4 ,b 9 all ! ?ree cases :i* ,i h j cit$1 ! inconceivability seems to be appreh5d$ directly2 no tra9 ( argum5t 0 ne$$1 z 9 ! case ( ! squ>e ( ! hypo!nuse1 to obta9 ! v]dict ( consci\sness on ! po9t4 ,nei!r is any ( ! ?ree a case l t ( ! s*ool-boy's mi/ake1 9 :i* ! m9d 0 nev] really br\ght into contact ) ! proposition4 ,!y are cases 9 :i* "o ( two opposite pr$icates1 m]o adspectu1 seem$ to be incompatible ) ! subject1 & ! o!r1 !re=e1 to be prov$ always to exi/ ) x47#ig7 ,z n[ limit$ by ,mr4 ,sp5c]1 ! ultimate cognitions fit to be submitt$ to 8 te/ are only ^? ( s univ]sal & elem5t>y a "* z to be repres5t$ 9 ! e>lie/ & mo/ unv>y+ exp]i5ce1 or app>5t exp]i5ce1 ( all mank9d4 ,9 su* cases ! inconceivability ( ! negative1 if real1 is acc\nt$ = by ! exp]i5ce3 & :y 7,i h ask$7 %\ld ! tru? be te/$ by ! inconceivability1 :5 we c g fur!r back = pro(--namely1 to ! exp]i5ce itself8 ,to ?is ,mr4 ,sp5c] answ]s1 t ! exp]i5ces c n be all recall$ to m9d1 & if recall$1 w\ld be ( unmanageable multitude4 ,to te/ a proposition by exp]i5ce seems to him to mean t 8be=e accept+ z c]ta9 ! proposition t any rectil9eal figure mu/ h z _m angles z x has sides10 ,i h 8to ?9k ( e triangle1 squ>e1 p5tagon1 hexagon1 etc41 :i* ,i h ev] se51 & to v]ify ! ass]t$ relation 9 ea* case40 ,i c only say1 ) surprise1 t ,i d n und]/& ?is to be ! mean+ ( an appeal to exp]i5ce4 ,x is en\gh to "k t "o has be5 see+ ! fact all "o's life1 & has nev] rem>k$ any in/ance to ! contr>y1 & t o!r p1 ) e opportunity ( obs]vation1 unanim\sly decl>e ! same ?+4 ,x is true1 ev5 ?is exp]i5ce may be insuffici5t1 & s x might be ev5 if ,i c\ld recall to m9d e in/ance ( x2 b its insuffici5cy1 in/ead ( be+ br\ght to light1 is disguis$1 if in/ead ( sift+ ! exp]i5ce itself1 ,i appeal to a te/ :i* be>s no relation to ! suffici5cy ( ! exp]i5ce1 b1 at ! mo/1 only to its famili>ity4 ,^! rem>ks d n lose _! =ce ev5 if we believe1 ) ,mr4 ,sp5c]1 t m5tal t5d5cies orig9ally d]iv$ f exp]i5ce impress !mselves p]man5tly on ! c]ebral /ructure & are transmitt$ by inh]itance1 s t modes ( ?9k+ :i* are acquir$ by ! race become innate & a priori 9 ! individual1 ?us repres5t+1 9 ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s op9ion1 ! exp]i5ce ( 8 prog5itors1 9 addition to 8 own4 ,all t w\ld foll[ f ?is is1 t a conviction might be really innate1 i4e41 prior to individual exp]i5ce1 & yet n be true1 s9ce ! inh]it$ t5d5cy to accept x may h be5 orig9ally ! result ( o!r causes ?an its tru?4 ,mr4 ,sp5c] w\ld h a mu* /rong] case1 if he c\ld really %[ t ! evid5ce ( ,reason+ re/s on ! ,po/ulate1 or1 9 o!r words1 t we believe t a conclusion foll[s f premises only because we c n conceive x n to foll[4 ,b ?is /atem5t seems to me to be ( ! same k9d z "o ,i h previ\sly comm5t$ on1 viz41 t ,i believe ,i see light1 because ,i c n1 :ile ! s5sation rema9s1 conceive t ,i am look+ into d>kness4 ,bo? ^! /atem5ts seem to me incompatible ) ! mean+ 7z v rightly limit$ by ,mr4 ,sp5c]7 ( ! v]b to conceive4 ,to say t :5 ,i appreh5d t ,a is ,b & t ,b is ,c1 ,i c n conceive t ,a is n ,c1 is to my m9d m]ely to say t ,i am compell$ to believe t ,a is ,c4 ,if to conceive be tak5 9 its prop] mean+1 viz41 to =m a m5tal repres5tation1 ,i may be able to conceive ,a z n be+ ,c4 ,aft] ass5t+1 ) full und]/&+1 to ! ,cop]nican pro( t x is ! e>? & n ! sun t moves1 ,i n only c conceive1 or repres5t to myself1 sunset z a motion ( ! sun1 b almo/ e "o f9ds ?is conception ( sunset easi] to =m1 ?an t :i* !y nev]!less "k to be ! true "o4 #e4 ,sir ,william ,hamilton holds z ,i d1 t inconceivability is no crit]ion ( impossibility4 8,!re is no gr\nd = inf]r+ a c]ta9 fact to be impossible1 m]ely f our inability to conceive its possibility40 8,?+s !re are :i* may1 nay mu/1 be true1 ( :i* ! und]/&+ is :olly unable to con/rue to itself ! possibility407#ih7 ,sir ,william ,hamilton is1 h[ev]1 a firm believ] 9 ! a priori "* ( _m axioms1 & ( ! sci5ces d$uc$ f !m2 & is s f> f consid]+ ^? axioms to re/ on ! evid5ce ( exp]i5ce1 t he decl>es c]ta9 ( !m to be true ev5 ( ,n\m5a--( ! ,uncondition$--( :i* x is "o ( ! pr9cipal aims ( 8 philosophy to prove t ! nature ( our faculties deb>s u f hav+ any k4 ,! axioms to :i* he attributes ?is exceptional emancipation f ! limits :i* conf9e all our o!r possibilities ( k2 ! *9ks ?r\gh :i*1 z he repres5ts1 "o ray ( light f9ds its way to u f beh9d ! curta9 :i* veils f u ! my/]i\s _w ( ,?+s 9 !mselves--are ! two pr9ciples1 :i* he t]ms1 aft] ! s*ool-m51 ! ,pr9ciple ( ,contradiction1 & ! ,pr9ciple ( ,exclud$ ,middle3 ! fir/1 t two contradictory propositions c n bo? be true2 ! second1 t !y c n bo? be false4 ,arm$ ) ^! logical weapons1 we may boldly face ,?+s 9 !mselves1 & t5d] to !m ! d\ble alt]native1 sure t !y mu/ absolutely elect "o or ! o!r side1 ?\gh we may be =ev] preclud$ f discov]+ :i*4 ,to take 8 favorite example1 we c n conceive ! inf9ite divisibility ( matt]1 & we c n conceive a m9imum1 or end to divisibility3 yet "o or ! o!r mu/ be true4 ,z ,i h hi!rto said no?+ ( ! two axioms 9 "q1 ^? ( ,contradiction & ( ,exclud$ ,middle1 x is n unseasonable to consid] !m "h4 ,! =m] ass]ts t an affirmative proposition & ! correspond+ negative proposition c n bo? be true2 :i* has g5]ally be5 held to be intuitively evid5t4 ,sir ,william ,hamilton & ! ,g]mans consid] x to be ! /atem5t 9 words ( a =m or law ( our ?9k+ faculty4 ,o!r philosoph]s1 n less des]v+ ( consid]ation1 deem x to be an id5tical proposition2 an ass]tion involv$ 9 ! mean+ ( t]ms2 a mode ( def9+ ,negation1 & ! ^w ,n4 ,i am able to g "o /ep ) ^! la/4 ,an affirmative ass]tion & its negative are n two indep5d5t ass]tions1 connect$ ) ea* o!r only z mutually incompatible4 ,t if ! negative be true1 ! affirmative mu/ be false1 really is a m]e id5tical proposition2 = ! negative proposition ass]ts no?+ b ! falsity ( ! affirmative1 & has no o!r s5se or mean+ :atev]4 ,! ,pr9cipium ,contradictionis %\ld !re=e put (f ! ambiti\s phraseology :i* gives x ! air ( a fundam5tal anti!sis p]vad+ nature1 & %\ld be enunciat$ 9 ! simpl] =m1 t ! same proposition c n at ! same "t be false & true4 ,b ,i c g no fur!r ) ! ,nom9ali/s2 = ,i c n look ^u ?is la/ z a m]ely v]bal proposition4 ,i consid] x to be1 l o!r axioms1 "o ( our fir/ & mo/ famili> g5]alizations f exp]i5ce4 ,! orig9al f\ndation ( x ,i take to be1 t ,belief & ,disbelief are two diff]5t m5tal /ates1 exclud+ "o ano!r4 ,?is we "k by ! simple/ obs]vation ( our own m9ds4 ,& if we c>ry our obs]vation outw>d1 we also f9d t light & d>kness1 s\nd & sil5ce1 motion & quiesc5ce1 equality & inequality1 prec$+ & foll[+1 succession & simultane\sness1 any positive ph5om5on :atev] & its negative1 are di/9ct ph5om5a1 po9t$ly contra/$1 & ! "o always abs5t :]e ! o!r is pres5t4 ,i consid] ! maxim 9 "q to be a g5]alization f all ^! facts4 ,9 l mann] z ! ,pr9ciple ( ,contradiction 7t "o ( two contradictories mu/ be false7 means t an ass]tion c n be bo? true & false1 s ! ,pr9ciple ( ,exclud$ ,middle1 or t "o ( two contradictories mu/ be true1 means t an ass]tion mu/ be ei!r true or false3 ei!r ! affirmative is true1 or o!rwise ! negative is true1 :i* means t ! affirmative is false4 ,i c n help ?9k+ ?is pr9ciple a surpris+ specim5 ( a s-call$ necessity ( ,?\ght1 s9ce x is n ev5 true1 unless ) a l>ge qualification4 ,a proposition mu/ be ei!r true or false1 provid$ t ! pr$icate be "o :i* c 9 any intelligible s5se be attribut$ to ! subject2 7& z ?is is always assum$ to be ! case 9 treatises on logic1 ! axiom is always laid d[n !re z ( absolute tru?74 8,abracadabra is a second int5tion0 is nei!r true nor false4 ,betwe5 ! true & ! false !re is a ?ird possibility1 ! ,unmean+3 & ?is alt]native is fatal to ,sir ,william ,hamilton's ext5sion ( ! maxim to ,n\m5a4 ,t ,matt] mu/ ei!r h a m9imum ( divisibility or be inf9itely divisible1 is m ?an we c ev] "k4 ,= 9 ! fir/ place1 ,matt]1 9 any o!r ?an ! ph5om5al s5se ( ! t]m1 may n exi/3 & x w sc>cely be said t a non5tity mu/ be ei!r inf9itely or f9itely divisible4 ,9 ! second place1 ?\gh matt]1 consid]$ z ! occult cause ( our s5sations1 d really exi/1 yet :at we call divisibility may be an attribute only ( our s5sations ( sight & t\*1 & n ( _! uncognizable cause4 ,divisibility may n be pr$icable at all1 9 any intelligible s5se1 ( ,?+s 9 !mselves1 nor !re=e ( ,matt] 9 itself2 & ! assum$ necessity ( be+ ei!r inf9itely or f9itely divisible1 may be an inapplicable alt]native4 ,on ?is "q ,i am happy to h ! full concurr5ce ( ,mr4 ,h]b]t ,sp5c]1 f ^: pap] 9 ! ,=tnightly ,review ,i extract ! foll[+ passage4 ,! g]m ( an idea id5tical ) t ( ,mr4 ,sp5c] may be f\nd 9 ! pres5t *apt]1 on a prec$+ page2 b 9 ,mr4 ,sp5c] x is n an undevelop$ ?\ght1 b a philosophical !ory4 8,:5 rememb]+ a c]ta9 ?+ z 9 a c]ta9 place1 ! place & ! ?+ are m5tally repres5t$ toge!r2 :ile to ?9k ( ! non-exi/5ce ( ! ?+ 9 t place implies a consci\sness 9 :i* ! place is repres5t$1 b n ! ?+4 ,simil>ly1 if in/ead ( ?9k+ ( an object z colorless1 we ?9k ( its hav+ color1 ! *ange consi/s 9 ! addition to ! concept ( an elem5t t 0 be=e abs5t f x--! object c n be ?\ght ( fir/ z r$ & !n z n r$1 )\t "o compon5t ( ! ?\ght be+ totally expell$ f ! m9d by ano!r4 ,! law ( ! ,exclud$ ,middle1 !n1 is simply a g5]alization ( ! univ]sal exp]i5ce t "s m5tal /ates are directly de/ructive ( o!r /ates4 ,x =mulates a c]ta9 absolutely con/ant law1 t ! appe>ance ( any positive mode ( consci\sness c n occur )\t exclud+ a correlative negative mode2 & t ! negative mode c n occur )\t exclud+ ! correlative positive mode3 ! anti!sis ( positive & negative be+1 inde$1 m]ely an expression ( ?is exp]i5ce4 ,h5ce x foll[s t if consci\sness is n 9 "o ( ! two modes x mu/ be 9 ! o!r407#ii7 ,i mu/ "h close ?is supplem5t>y *apt]1 & ) x ! ,second ,book4 ,! !ory ( ,induction1 9 ! mo/ compreh5sive s5se ( ! t]m1 w =m ! subject ( ! ,?ird4 ,book ,,iii4 ,,( ,,induction4 8,accord+ to ! doctr9e n[ /at$1 ! highe/1 or r ! only prop] object ( physics1 is to asc]ta9 ^? e/abli%$ conjunctions ( successive ev5ts1 :i* con/itute ! ord] ( ! univ]se2 to record ! ph5om5a :i* x exhibits to our obs]vations1 or :i* x discloses to our exp]im5ts2 & to ref] ^! ph5om5a to _! g5]al laws40--,d4 ,,/ew>t1 ,elem5ts ( ! ,philosophy ( ! ,human ,m9d1 vol4 ii41 *ap4 iv41 sect4 #a4 8,9 su* cases ! inductive & d$uctive me?ods ( inquiry may be said to g h& 9 h&1 ! "o v]ify+ ! conclusions d$uc$ by ! o!r2 & ! comb9ation ( exp]im5t & !ory1 :i* may ?us be br\ght to be> 9 su* cases1 =ms an eng9e ( discov]y inf9itely m p[]ful ?an ei!r tak5 sep>ately4 ,?is /ate ( any dep>tm5t ( sci5ce is p]haps ( all o!rs ! mo/ int]e/+1 & t :i* promises ! mo/ to rese>*40--,,sir ,j4 ,,h]s*el1 ,disc\rse on ! ,/udy ( ,natural ,philosophy4 ,*apt] ,i4 ,prelim9>y ,obs]vations ,on ,induction ,9 ,g5]al4 #a4 ,! portion ( ! pres5t inquiry ^u :i* we are n[ ab\t to ent]1 may be consid]$ z ! pr9cipal1 bo? f its surpass+ 9 intricacy all ! o!r bran*es1 & because x relates to a process :i* has be5 %[n 9 ! prec$+ ,book to be t 9 :i* ! inve/igation ( nature ess5tially consi/s4 ,we h f\nd t all ,inf]5ce1 consequ5tly all ,pro(1 & all discov]y ( tru?s n self-evid5t1 consi/s ( inductions1 & ! int]pretation ( inductions3 t all our k1 n intuitive1 comes to u exclusively f t s\rce4 ,:at ,induction is1 !re=e1 & :at conditions r5d] x legitimate1 c n b be deem$ ! ma9 "q ( ! sci5ce ( logic--! "q :i* includes all o!rs4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 "o :i* pr(ess$ writ]s on logic h almo/ entirely pass$ ov]4 ,! g5]alities ( ! subject h n be5 altoge!r neglect$ by metaphysicians2 b1 = want ( suffici5t acqua9tance ) ! processes by :i* sci5ce has actually succe$$ 9 e/abli%+ g5]al tru?s1 _! analysis ( ! inductive op]ation1 ev5 :5 unexceptionable z to correctness1 has n be5 specific en\gh to be made ! f\ndation ( practical rules1 :i* might be = induction itself :at ! rules ( ! syllogism are = ! int]pretation ( induction3 :ile ^? by :om physical sci5ce has be5 c>ri$ to its pres5t /ate ( improvem5t--& :o1 to arrive at a complete !ory ( ! process1 ne$$ only to g5]alize1 & adapt to all v>ieties ( problems1 ! me?ods :i* !y !mselves employ$ 9 _! habitual pursuits--nev] until v lately made any s]i\s attempt to philosophize on ! subject1 nor reg>d$ ! mode 9 :i* !y arriv$ at _! conclusions z des]v+ ( /udy1 indep5d5tly ( ! conclusions !mselves4 #b4 ,= ! purposes ( ! pres5t inquiry1 ,induction may be def9$1 ! op]ation ( discov]+ & prov+ g5]al propositions4 ,x is true t 7z already %[n7 ! process ( indirectly asc]ta9+ individual facts1 is z truly inductive z t by :i* we e/abli% g5]al tru?s4 ,b x is n a diff]5t k9d ( induction2 x is a =m ( ! v same process3 s9ce1 on ! "o h&1 g5]als are b collections ( p>ticul>s1 def9ite 9 k9d b indef9ite 9 numb]2 & on ! o!r h&1 :5ev] ! evid5ce :i* we d]ive f obs]vation ( kn[n cases ju/ifies u 9 draw+ an inf]5ce respect+ ev5 "o unkn[n case1 we %\ld on ! same evid5ce be ju/ifi$ 9 draw+ a simil> inf]5ce ) respect to a :ole class ( cases4 ,! inf]5ce ei!r does n hold at all1 or x holds 9 all cases ( a c]ta9 description2 9 all cases :i*1 9 c]ta9 def9able respects1 resemble ^? we h obs]v$4 ,if ^! rem>ks are j2 if ! pr9ciples & rules ( inf]5ce are ! same :e!r we inf] g5]al propositions or individual facts2 x foll[s t a complete logic ( ! sci5ces w\ld be also a complete logic ( practical bus9ess & common life4 ,s9ce !re is no case ( legitimate inf]5ce f exp]i5ce1 9 :i* ! conclusion may n legitimately be a g5]al proposition2 an analysis ( ! process by :i* g5]al tru?s are arriv$ at1 is virtually an analysis ( all induction :atev]4 ,:e!r we are inquir+ into a sci5tific pr9ciple or into an individual fact1 & :e!r we proce$ by exp]im5t or by ratioc9ation1 e /ep 9 ! tra9 ( inf]5ces is ess5tially inductive1 & ! legitimacy ( ! induction dep5ds 9 bo? cases on ! same conditions4 ,true x is t 9 ! case ( ! practical inquir]1 :o is endeavor+ to asc]ta9 facts n = ! purposes ( sci5ce b = ^? ( bus9ess1 su*1 = in/ance1 z ! advocate or ! judge1 ! *ief difficulty is "o 9 :i* ! pr9ciples ( induction w af=d him no assi/ance4 ,x lies n 9 mak+ 8 inductions1 b 9 ! selection ( !m2 9 *oos+ f among all g5]al propositions asc]ta9$ to be true1 ^? :i* furni% m>ks by :i* he may trace :e!r ! giv5 subject possesses or n ! pr$icate 9 "q4 ,9 argu+ a d\btful "q ( fact be=e a jury1 ! g5]al propositions or pr9ciples to :i* ! advocate appeals are mo/ly1 9 !mselves1 suffici5tly trite1 & ass5t$ to z soon z /at$3 8 skill lies 9 br++ 8 case "u ^? propositions or pr9ciples2 9 call+ to m9d su* ( ! kn[n or receiv$ maxims ( probability z admit ( application to ! case 9 h&1 & select+ f among !m ^? be/ adapt$ to 8 object4 ,success is "h dep5d5t on natural or acquir$ sagacity1 aid$ by k ( ! p>ticul> subject1 & ( subjects alli$ ) x4 ,inv5tion1 ?\gh x c be cultivat$1 c n be r$uc$ to rule2 !re is no sci5ce :i* w enable a man to be?9k himself ( t :i* w suit 8 purpose4 ,b :5 he has ?\ght ( some?+1 sci5ce c tell him :e!r t :i* he has ?\ght ( w suit 8 purpose or n4 ,! inquir] or argu] mu/ be guid$ by 8 own k & sagacity 9 ! *oice ( ! inductions out ( :i* he w con/ruct 8 argum5t4 ,b ! validity ( ! argum5t :5 con/ruct$1 dep5ds on pr9ciples1 & mu/ be tri$ by te/s :i* are ! same = all descriptions ( inquiries1 :e!r ! result be to give ,a an e/ate1 or to enri* sci5ce ) a new g5]al tru?4 ,9 ! "o case & 9 ! o!r1 ! s5ses1 or te/imony1 mu/ decide on ! individual facts2 ! rules ( ! syllogism w det]m9e :e!r1 ^? facts be+ suppos$ correct1 ! case really falls )9 ! =mul ( ! diff]5t inductions "u :i* x has be5 successively br\ght2 & f9ally1 ! legitimacy ( ! inductions !mselves mu/ be decid$ by o!r rules1 & ^! x is n[ our purpose to inve/igate4 ,if ?is ?ird "p ( ! op]ation be1 9 _m ( ! que/ions ( practical life1 n ! mo/1 b ! lea/ ardu\s portion ( x1 we h se5 t ?is is also ! case 9 "s great dep>tm5ts ( ! field ( sci5ce2 9 all ^? :i* are pr9cipally d$uctive1 & mo/ ( all 9 ma!matics2 :]e ! inductions !mselves are few 9 numb]1 & s obvi\s & elem5t>y t !y seem to /& 9 no ne$ ( ! evid5ce ( exp]i5ce1 :ile to comb9e !m s z to prove a giv5 !orem or solve a problem1 may call = ! utmo/ p[]s ( inv5tion & contrivance ) :i* our species is gift$4 ,if ! id5tity ( ! logical processes :i* prove p>ticul> facts & ^? :i* e/abli% g5]al sci5tific tru?s1 requir$ any additional confirmation1 x w\ld be suffici5t to consid] t 9 _m bran*es ( sci5ce1 s+le facts h to be prov$1 z well z pr9ciples2 facts z completely individual z any t are debat$ 9 a c\rt ( ju/ice2 b :i* are prov$ 9 ! same mann] z ! o!r tru?s ( ! sci5ce1 & )\t di/urb+ 9 any degree ! homog5eity ( its me?od4 ,a rem>kable example ( ?is is af=d$ by a/ronomy4 ,! individual facts on :i* t sci5ce gr\nds its mo/ important d$uctions1 su* facts z ! magnitudes ( ! bodies ( ! sol> sy/em1 _! di/ances f "o ano!r1 ! figure ( ! e>?1 & its rotation1 are sc>cely any ( !m accessible to our means ( direct obs]vation3 !y are prov$ indirectly1 by ! aid ( inductions f\nd$ on o!r facts :i* we c m easily rea*4 ,= example1 ! di/ance ( ! moon f ! e>? 0 det]m9$ by a v circuit\s process4 ,! %>e :i* direct obs]vation _h 9 ! "w consi/$ 9 asc]ta9+1 at "o & ! same in/ant1 ! z5i? di/ances ( ! moon1 z se5 f two po9ts v remote f "o ano!r on ! e>?'s surface4 ,! asc]ta9m5t ( ^! angul> di/ances asc]ta9$ _! supplem5ts2 & s9ce ! angle at ! e>?'s c5tre subt5d$ by ! di/ance betwe5 ! two places ( obs]vation 0 d$ucible by sph]ical trigonometry f ! latitude & longitude ( ^? places1 ! angle at ! moon subt5d$ by ! same l9e became ! f\r? angle ( a quadrilat]al ( :i* ! o!r ?ree angles 7 kn[n4 ,! f\r angles be+ ?us asc]ta9$1 & two sides ( ! quadrilat]al be+ radii ( ! e>?2 ! two rema9+ sides & ! diagonal1 or1 9 o!r words1 ! moon's di/ance f ! two places ( obs]vation & f ! c5tre ( ! e>?1 c\ld be asc]ta9$1 at lea/ 9 t]ms ( ! e>?'s radius1 f elem5t>y !orems ( geometry4 ,at ea* /ep 9 ?is demon/ration a new induction is tak5 91 repres5t$ 9 ! aggregate ( its results by a g5]al proposition4 ,n only is ! process by :i* an individual a/ronomical fact 0 ?us asc]ta9$1 exactly simil> to ^? by :i* ! same sci5ce e/abli%es its g5]al tru?s1 b also 7z we h %[n to be ! case 9 all legitimate reason+7 a g5]al proposition might h be5 conclud$ in/ead ( a s+le fact4 ,9 /rictness1 inde$1 ! result ( ! reason+ is a g5]al proposition2 a !orem respect+ ! di/ance1 n ( ! moon 9 p>ticul>1 b ( any inaccessible object2 %[+ 9 :at relation t di/ance /&s to c]ta9 o!r quantities4 ,& al?\gh ! moon is almo/ ! only heav5ly body ! di/ance ( :i* f ! e>? c really be ?us asc]ta9$1 ?is is m]ely ow+ to ! accid5tal circum/ances ( ! o!r heav5ly bodies1 :i* r5d] !m incapable ( af=d+ su* data z ! application ( ! !orem requires2 = ! !orem itself is z true ( !m z x is ( ! moon47#ajj7 ,we %all fall into no error1 !n1 if 9 treat+ ( ,induction1 we limit our att5tion to ! e/abli%m5t ( g5]al propositions4 ,! pr9ciples & rules ( ,induction z direct$ to ?is end1 are ! pr9ciples & rules ( all ,induction2 & ! logic ( ,sci5ce is ! univ]sal ,logic1 applicable to all inquiries 9 :i* man c engage4 ,*apt] ,,ii4 ,( ,inductions ,improp]ly ,s ,call$4 #a4 ,induction1 !n1 is t op]ation ( ! m9d1 by :i* we inf] t :at we "k to be true 9 a p>ticul> case or cases1 w be true 9 all cases :i* resemble ! =m] 9 c]ta9 assignable respects4 ,9 o!r words1 ,induction is ! process by :i* we conclude t :at is true ( c]ta9 individuals ( a class is true ( ! :ole class1 or t :at is true at c]ta9 times w be true 9 simil> circum/ances at all times4 ,?is def9ition excludes f ! mean+ ( ! t]m ,induction1 v>i\s logical op]ations1 to :i* x is n unusual to apply t "n4 ,induction1 z above def9$1 is a process ( inf]5ce2 x proce$s f ! kn[n to ! unkn[n2 & any op]ation involv+ no inf]5ce1 any process 9 :i* :at seems ! conclusion is no wid] ?an ! premises f :i* x is drawn1 does n fall )9 ! mean+ ( ! t]m4 ,yet 9 ! common books ( ,logic we f9d ?is laid d[n z ! mo/ p]fect1 inde$ ! only q p]fect1 =m ( induction4 ,9 ^? books1 e process :i* sets out f a less g5]al & t]m9ates 9 a m g5]al expression--:i* admits ( be+ /at$ 9 ! =m1 8,?is & t ,a are ,b1 !re=e e ,a is ,b0--is call$ an induction1 :e!r any ?+ be really conclud$ or n3 & ! induction is ass]t$ n to be p]fect1 unless e s+le individual ( ! class ,a is includ$ 9 ! antec$5t1 or premise3 t is1 unless :at we affirm ( ! class has already be5 asc]ta9$ to be true ( e individual 9 x1 s t ! nom9al conclusion is n really a conclusion1 b a m]e re-ass]tion ( ! premises4 ,if we 7 to say1 ,all ! planets %9e by ! sun's light1 f obs]vation ( ea* sep>ate planet1 or ,all ! ,apo/les 7 ,jews1 because ?is is true ( ,pet]1 ,paul1 ,john1 & e o!r apo/le--^!1 & su* z ^!1 w\ld1 9 ! phraseology 9 "q1 be call$ p]fect1 & ! only p]fect1 ,inductions4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is a totally diff]5t k9d ( induction f ours2 x is n an inf]5ce f facts kn[n to facts unkn[n1 b a m]e %ort-h& regi/ration ( facts kn[n4 ,! two simulat$ argum5ts :i* we h quot$1 are n g5]alizations2 ! propositions purport+ to be conclusions f !m1 are n really g5]al propositions4 ,a g5]al proposition is "o 9 :i* ! pr$icate is affirm$ or d5i$ ( an unlimit$ numb] ( individuals2 namely1 all1 :e!r few or _m1 exi/+ or capable ( exi/+1 :i* possess ! prop]ties connot$ by ! subject ( ! proposition4 8,all m5 are mortal0 does n mean all n[ liv+1 b all m5 pa/1 pres5t1 & to come4 ,:5 ! signification ( ! t]m is limit$ s z to r5d] x a "n n = any & e individual fall+ "u a c]ta9 g5]al description1 b only = ea* ( a numb] ( individuals1 designat$ z su*1 & z x 7 c\nt$ (f individually1 ! proposition1 ?\gh x may be g5]al 9 its language1 is no g5]al proposition1 b m]ely t numb] ( s+ul> propositions1 writt5 9 an abridg$ "*4 ,! op]ation may be v useful1 z mo/ =ms ( abridg$ notation are2 b x is no "p ( ! inve/igation ( tru?1 ?\gh (t5 be>+ an important "p 9 ! prep>ation ( ! mat]ials = t inve/igation4 ,z we may sum up a def9ite numb] ( s+ul> propositions 9 "o proposition1 :i* w be app>5tly1 b n really1 g5]al1 s we may sum up a def9ite numb] ( g5]al propositions 9 "o proposition1 :i* w be app>5tly1 b n really1 m g5]al4 ,if by a sep>ate induction appli$ to e di/9ct species ( animals1 x has be5 e/abli%$ t ea* possesses a n]v\s sy/em1 & we affirm !reupon t all animals h a n]v\s sy/em2 ?is looks l a g5]alization1 ?\gh z ! conclusion m]ely affirms ( all :at has already be5 affirm$ ( ea*1 x seems to tell u no?+ b :at we knew be=e4 ,a di/9ction1 h[ev]1 mu/ be made4 ,if 9 conclud+ t all animals h a n]v\s sy/em1 we mean ! same ?+ & no m z if we _h said 8all kn[n animals10 ! proposition is n g5]al1 & ! process by :i* x is arriv$ at is n induction4 ,b if our mean+ is t ! obs]vations made ( ! v>i\s species ( animals h discov]$ to u a law ( animal nature1 & t we are 9 a condition to say t a n]v\s sy/em w be f\nd ev5 9 animals yet undiscov]$1 ?is inde$ is an induction2 b 9 ?is case ! g5]al proposition conta9s m ?an ! sum ( ! special propositions f :i* x is inf]r$4 ,! di/9ction is /ill m =cibly br\ght out :5 we consid]1 t if ?is real g5]alization be legitimate at all1 its legitimacy probably does n require t we %\ld h exam9$ )\t exception e kn[n species4 ,x is ! numb] & nature ( ! in/ances1 & n _! be+ ! :ole ( ^? :i* happ5 to be kn[n1 t makes !m suffici5t evid5ce to prove a g5]al law3 :ile ! m limit$ ass]tion1 :i* /ops at all kn[n animals1 c n be made unless we h rigor\sly v]ifi$ x 9 e species4 ,9 l mann] 7to return to a =m] example7 we might h inf]r$1 n t all ! planets1 b t all planets1 %9e by reflect$ light3 ! =m] is no induction2 ! latt] is an induction1 & a bad "o1 be+ disprov$ by ! case ( d\ble />s--self-lum9\s bodies :i* are prop]ly planets1 s9ce !y revolve r\nd a c5tre4 #b4 ,!re are sev]al processes us$ 9 ma!matics :i* require to be di/+ui%$ f ,induction1 be+ n unfrequ5tly call$ by t "n1 & be+ s f> simil> to ,induction prop]ly s call$1 t ! propositions !y lead to are really g5]al propositions4 ,= example1 :5 we h prov$ ) respect to ! circle1 t a /raight l9e c n meet x 9 m ?an two po9ts1 & :5 ! same ?+ has be5 successively prov$ ( ! ellipse1 ! p>abola1 & ! hyp]bola1 x may be laid d[n z a univ]sal prop]ty ( ! sections ( ! cone4 ,! di/9ction drawn 9 ! two previ\s examples c h no place "h1 !re be+ no diff]5ce betwe5 all kn[n sections ( ! cone & all sections1 s9ce a cone demon/rably c n be int]sect$ by a plane except 9 "o ( ^! f\r l9es4 ,x w\ld be difficult1 !re=e1 to refuse to ! proposition arriv$ at1 ! "n ( a g5]alization1 s9ce !re is no room = any g5]alization beyond x4 ,b !re is no induction1 because !re is no inf]5ce3 ! conclusion is a m]e summ+ up ( :at 0 ass]t$ 9 ! v>i\s propositions f :i* x is drawn4 ,a case some:at1 ?\gh n altoge!r1 simil>1 is ! pro( ( a geometrical !orem by means ( a diagram4 ,:e!r ! diagram be on pap] or only 9 ! imag9ation1 ! demon/ration 7z =m]ly obs]v$7#aja77 does n prove directly ! g5]al !orem2 x proves only t ! conclusion1 :i* ! !orem ass]ts g5]ally1 is true ( ! p>ticul> triangle or circle exhibit$ 9 ! diagram2 b s9ce we p]ceive t 9 ! same way 9 :i* we h prov$ x ( t circle1 x might also be prov$ ( any o!r circle1 we ga!r up into "o g5]al expression all ! s+ul> propositions susceptible ( be+ ?us prov$1 & embody !m 9 a univ]sal proposition4 ,hav+ %[n t ! ?ree angles ( ! triangle ,,abc are toge!r equal to two "r angles1 we conclude t ?is is true ( e o!r triangle1 n because x is true ( ,,abc1 b = ! same reason :i* prov$ x to be true ( ,,abc4 ,if ?is 7 to be call$ ,induction1 an appropriate "n = x w\ld be1 induction by p>ity ( reason+4 ,b ! t]m c n prop]ly belong to x2 ! *>act]i/ic quality ( ,induction is want+1 s9ce ! tru? obta9$1 ?\gh really g5]al1 is n believ$ on ! evid5ce ( p>ticul> in/ances4 ,we d n conclude t all triangles h ! prop]ty because "s triangles h1 b f ! ult]ior demon/rative evid5ce :i* 0 ! gr\nd ( our conviction 9 ! p>ticul> in/ances4 ,!re are nev]!less1 9 ma!matics1 "s examples ( s-call$ ,induction1 9 :i* ! conclusion does be> ! appe>ance ( a g5]alization gr\nd$ on "s ( ! p>ticul> cases includ$ 9 x4 ,a ma!matician1 :5 he has calculat$ a suffici5t numb] ( ! t]ms ( an algebraical or ari?metical s]ies to h asc]ta9$ :at is call$ ! law ( ! s]ies1 does n hesitate to fill up any numb] ( ! succe$+ t]ms )\t repeat+ ! calculations4 ,b ,i appreh5d he only does s :5 x is app>5t f a priori consid]ations 7:i* might be exhibit$ 9 ! =m ( demon/ration7 t ! mode ( =mation ( ! subsequ5t t]ms1 ea* f t :i* prec$$ x1 mu/ be simil> to ! =mation ( ! t]ms :i* h be5 already calculat$4 ,& :5 ! attempt has be5 haz>d$ )\t ! sanction ( su* g5]al consid]ations1 !re are in/ances on record 9 :i* x has l$ to false results4 ,x is said t ,newton discov]$ ! b9omial !orem by induction2 by rais+ a b9omial successively to a c]ta9 numb] ( p[]s1 & comp>+ ^? p[]s ) "o ano!r until he detect$ ! relation 9 :i* ! algebraic =mula ( ea* p[] /&s to ! expon5t ( t p[]1 & to ! two t]ms ( ! b9omial4 ,! fact is n improbable3 b a ma!matician l ,newton1 :o seem$ to arrive p] saltum at pr9ciples & conclusions t ord9>y ma!maticians only rea*$ by a succession ( /eps1 c]ta9ly c\ld n h p]=m$ ! comp>ison 9 "q )\t be+ l$ by x to ! a priori gr\nd ( ! law2 s9ce any "o :o und]/&s suffici5tly ! nature ( multiplication to v5ture ^u multiply+ sev]al l9es ( symbols at "o op]ation1 c n b p]ceive t 9 rais+ a b9omial to a p[]1 ! co-effici5ts mu/ dep5d on ! laws ( p]mutation & comb9ation3 & z soon z ?is is recogniz$1 ! !orem is demon/rat$4 ,inde$1 :5 once x 0 se5 t ! law prevail$ 9 a few ( ! l[] p[]s1 its id5tity ) ! law ( p]mutation w\ld at once sugge/ ! consid]ations :i* prove x to obta9 univ]sally4 ,ev51 !re=e1 su* cases z ^!1 are b examples ( :at ,i h call$ ,induction by p>ity ( reason+1 t is1 n really ,induction1 because n involv+ inf]5ce ( a g5]al proposition f p>ticul> in/ances4 #c4 ,!re rema9s a ?ird improp] use ( ! t]m ,induction1 :i* x is ( real importance to cle> up1 because ! !ory ( ,induction has be51 9 no ord9>y degree1 confus$ by x1 & because ! confusion is exemplifi$ 9 ! mo/ rec5t & elaborate treatise on ! inductive philosophy :i* exi/s 9 our language4 ,! error 9 "q is t ( conf\nd+ a m]e description1 by g5]al t]ms1 ( a set ( obs]v$ ph5om5a1 ) an induction f !m4 ,suppose t a ph5om5on consi/s ( p>ts1 & t ^! p>ts are only capable ( be+ obs]v$ sep>ately1 & z x 7 piecemeal4 ,:5 ! obs]vations h be5 made1 !re is a conv5i5ce 7am\nt+ = _m purposes to a necessity7 9 obta9+ a repres5tation ( ! ph5om5on z a :ole1 by comb9+1 or z we may say1 piec+ ^! deta*$ fragm5ts toge!r4 ,a navigator sail+ 9 ! mid/ ( ! ocean discov]s l&3 he c n at fir/1 or by any "o obs]vation1 det]m9e :e!r x is a cont95t or an isl&2 b he coa/s along x1 & aft] a few days f9ds himself to h sail$ completely r\nd x3 he !n pron\nces x an isl&4 ,n[ !re 0 no p>ticul> "t or place ( obs]vation at :i* he c\ld p]ceive t ?is l& 0 entirely surr\nd$ by wat]3 he asc]ta9$ ! fact by a succession ( p>tial obs]vations1 & !n select$ a g5]al expression :i* summ$ up 9 two or ?ree words ! :ole ( :at he s obs]v$4 ,b is !re any ?+ ( ! nature ( an induction 9 ?is process8 ,did he inf] any ?+ t _h n be5 obs]v$1 f some?+ else :i* _h8 ,c]ta9ly n4 ,he _h obs]v$ ! :ole ( :at ! proposition ass]ts4 ,t ! l& 9 "q is an isl&1 is n an inf]5ce f ! p>tial facts :i* ! navigator saw 9 ! c\rse ( 8 circumnavigation2 x is ! facts !mselves2 x is a summ>y ( ^? facts2 ! description ( a complex fact1 to :i* ^? simpl] ones are z ! p>ts ( a :ole4 ,n[ !re is1 ,i conceive1 no diff]5ce 9 k9d betwe5 ?is simple op]ation1 & t by :i* ,kepl] asc]ta9$ ! nature ( ! planet>y orbits3 & ,kepl]'s op]ation1 all at lea/ t 0 *>act]i/ic 9 x1 0 n m an inductive act ?an t ( our suppos$ navigator4 ,! object ( ,kepl] 0 to det]m9e ! real pa? describ$ by ea* ( ! planets1 or let u say by ! planet ,m>s 7s9ce x 0 ( t body t he fir/ e/abli%$ ! two ( 8 ?ree laws :i* did n require a comp>ison ( planets74 ,to d ?is !re 0 no o!r mode ?an t ( direct obs]vation3 & all :i* obs]vation c\ld d 0 to asc]ta9 a great numb] ( ! successive places ( ! planet2 or r1 ( its app>5t places4 ,t ! planet occupi$ successively all ^! positions1 or at all ev5ts1 positions :i* produc$ ! same impressions on ! eye1 & t x pass$ f "o ( ^! to ano!r ins5sibly1 & )\t any app>5t brea* ( cont9uity2 ?us mu* ! s5ses1 ) ! aid ( ! prop] in/rum5ts1 c\ld asc]ta94 ,:at ,kepl] did m ?an ?is1 0 to f9d :at sort ( a curve ^! diff]5t po9ts w\ld make1 suppos+ !m to be all jo9$ toge!r4 ,he express$ ! :ole s]ies ( ! obs]v$ places ( ,m>s by :at ,dr4 ,:ewell calls ! g5]al conception ( an ellipse4 ,?is op]ation 0 f> f be+ z easy z t ( ! navigator :o express$ ! s]ies ( 8 obs]vations on successive po9ts ( ! coa/ by ! g5]al conception ( an isl&4 ,b x is ! v same sort ( op]ation2 & if ! "o is n an induction b a description1 ?is mu/ also be true ( ! o!r4 ,! only real induction conc]n$ 9 ! case1 consi/$ 9 inf]r+ t because ! obs]v$ places ( ,m>s 7 correctly repres5t$ by po9ts 9 an imag9>y ellipse1 !re=e ,m>s w\ld cont9ue to revolve 9 t same ellipse2 & 9 conclud+ 7be=e ! gap _h be5 fill$ up by fur!r obs]vations7 t ! positions ( ! planet dur+ ! "t :i* int]v5$ betwe5 two obs]vations1 mu/ h co9cid$ ) ! int]m$iate po9ts ( ! curve4 ,= ^! 7 facts :i* _h n be5 directly obs]v$4 ,!y 7 inf]5ces f ! obs]vations2 facts inf]r$1 z di/+ui%$ f facts se54 ,b ^! inf]5ces 7 s f> f be+ a "p ( ,kepl]'s philosophical op]ation1 t !y _h be5 drawn long be=e he 0 born4 ,a/ronom]s _h long kn[n t ! planets p]iodically return$ to ! same places4 ,:5 ?is _h be5 asc]ta9$1 !re 0 no induction left = ,kepl] to make1 nor did he make any fur!r induction4 ,he m]ely appli$ 8 new conception to ! facts inf]r$1 z he did to ! facts obs]v$4 ,kn[+ already t ! planets cont9u$ to move 9 ! same pa?s2 :5 he f\nd t an ellipse correctly repres5t$ ! pa/ pa?1 he knew t x w\ld repres5t ! future pa?4 ,9 f9d+ a comp5di\s expression = ! "o set ( facts1 he f\nd "o = ! o!r3 b he f\nd ! expression only1 n ! inf]5ce2 nor did he 7:i* is ! true te/ ( a g5]al tru?7 add any ?+ to ! p[] ( pr$iction already possess$4 #d4 ,! descriptive op]ation :i* enables a numb] ( details to be summ$ up 9 a s+le proposition1 ,dr4 ,:ewell1 by an aptly *os5 expression1 has t]m$ ! ,colligation ( ,facts4 ,9 mo/ ( 8 obs]vations conc]n+ t m5tal process ,i fully agree1 & w\ld gladly transf] all t portion ( 8 book into my own pages4 ,i only ?9k him mi/ak5 9 sett+ up ?is k9d ( op]ation1 :i* accord+ to ! old & receiv$ mean+ ( ! t]m1 is n induction at all1 z ! type ( induction g5]ally2 & lay+ d[n1 ?r\gh\t 8 "w1 z pr9ciples ( induction1 ! pr9ciples ( m]e colligation4 ,dr4 ,:ewell ma9ta9s t ! g5]al proposition :i* b9ds toge!r ! p>ticul> facts1 & makes !m1 z x 71 "o fact1 is n ! m]e sum ( ^? facts1 b some?+ m1 s9ce !re is introduc$ a conception ( ! m9d1 :i* did n exi/ 9 ! facts !mselves4 8,! p>ticul> facts10 says he17#ajb7 8are n m]ely br\ght toge!r1 b !re is a new elem5t add$ to ! comb9ation by ! v act ( ?\ght by :i* !y are comb9$4444 ,:5 ! ,greeks1 aft] long obs]v+ ! motions ( ! planets1 saw t ^! motions might be rightly consid]$ z produc$ by ! motion ( "o :eel revolv+ 9 ! inside ( ano!r :eel1 ^! :eels 7 creations ( _! m9ds1 add$ to ! facts :i* !y p]ceiv$ by s5se4 ,& ev5 if ! :eels 7 no long] suppos$ to be mat]ial1 b 7 r$uc$ to m]e geometrical sph]es or circles1 !y 7 n ! less products ( ! m9d alone--some?+ additional to ! facts obs]v$4 ,! same is ! case 9 all o!r discov]ies4 ,! facts are kn[n1 b !y are insulat$ & unconnect$1 till ! discov]] supplies f 8 own /ore a pr9ciple ( connection4 ,! pe>ls are !re1 b !y w n hang toge!r till "s "o provides ! /r+40 ,let me fir/ rem>k t ,dr4 ,:ewell1 9 ?is passage1 bl5ds toge!r1 indiscrim9ately1 examples ( bo? ! processes :i* ,i am endeavor+ to di/+ui% f "o ano!r4 ,:5 ! ,greeks ab&on$ ! supposition t ! planet>y motions 7 produc$ by ! revolution ( mat]ial :eels1 & fell back ^u ! idea ( 8m]e geometrical sph]es or circles10 !re 0 m 9 ?is *ange ( op9ion ?an ! m]e sub/itution ( an ideal curve = a physical "o4 ,!re 0 ! ab&onm5t ( a !ory1 & ! replacem5t ( x by a m]e description4 ,no "o w\ld ?9k ( call+ ! doctr9e ( mat]ial :eels a m]e description4 ,t doctr9e 0 an attempt to po9t out ! =ce by :i* ! planets 7 act$ ^u1 & compell$ to move 9 _! orbits4 ,b :51 by a great /ep 9 philosophy1 ! mat]iality ( ! :eels 0 disc>d$1 & ! geometrical =ms alone reta9$1 ! attempt to acc\nt = ! motions 0 giv5 up1 & :at 0 left ( ! !ory 0 a m]e description ( ! orbits4 ,! ass]tion t ! planets 7 c>ri$ r\nd by :eels revolv+ 9 ! inside ( o!r :eels1 gave place to ! proposition1 t !y mov$ 9 ! same l9es :i* w\ld be trac$ by bodies s c>ri$3 :i* 0 a m]e mode ( repres5t+ ! sum ( ! obs]v$ facts2 z ,kepl]'s 0 ano!r & a bett] mode ( repres5t+ ! same obs]vations4 ,x is true t = ^! simply descriptive op]ations1 z well z = ! errone\s inductive "o1 a conception ( ! m9d 0 requir$4 ,! conception ( an ellipse mu/ h pres5t$ itself to ,kepl]'s m9d1 be=e he c\ld id5tify ! planet>y orbits ) x4 ,accord+ to ,dr4 ,:ewell1 ! conception 0 some?+ add$ to ! facts4 ,he expresses himself z if ,kepl] _h put some?+ into ! facts by 8 mode ( conceiv+ !m4 ,b ,kepl] did no su* ?+4 ,! ellipse 0 9 ! facts be=e ,kepl] recogniz$ x2 j z ! isl& 0 an isl& be=e x _h be5 sail$ r\nd4 ,kepl] did n put :at he _h conceiv$ into ! facts1 b saw x 9 !m4 ,a conception implies1 & corresponds to1 some?+ conceiv$3 & ?\gh ! conception itself is n 9 ! facts1 b 9 our m9d1 yet if x is to convey any k relat+ to !m1 x mu/ be a conception ( some?+ :i* really is 9 ! facts1 "s prop]ty :i* !y actually possess1 & :i* !y w\ld manife/ to our s5ses1 if our s5ses 7 able to take cognizance ( x4 ,if1 = in/ance1 ! planet left beh9d x 9 space a visible track1 & if ! obs]v] 7 9 a fix$ position at su* a di/ance f ! plane ( ! orbit z w\ld enable him to see ! :ole ( x at once1 he w\ld see x to be an ellipse2 & if gift$ ) appropriate in/rum5ts & p[]s ( locomotion1 he c\ld prove x to be su* by measur+ its diff]5t dim5sions4 ,nay1 fur!r3 if ! track 7 visible1 & he 7 s plac$ t he c\ld see all p>ts ( x 9 succession1 b n all ( !m at once1 he might be able1 by piec+ toge!r 8 successive obs]vations1 to discov] bo? t x 0 an ellipse & t ! planet mov$ 9 x4 ,! case w\ld !n exactly resemble t ( ! navigator :o discov]s ! l& to be an isl& by sail+ r\nd x4 ,if ! pa? 0 visible1 no "o ,i ?9k w\ld dispute t to id5tify x ) an ellipse is to describe x3 & ,i c n see :y any diff]5ce %\ld be made by its n be+ directly an object ( s5se1 :5 e po9t 9 x is z exactly asc]ta9$ z if x 7 s4 ,subject to ! indisp5sable condition :i* has j be5 /at$1 ,i d n conceive t ! "p :i* conceptions h 9 ! op]ation ( /udy+ facts1 has ev] be5 ov]look$ or und]valu$4 ,no "o ev] disput$ t 9 ord] to reason ab\t any ?+ we mu/ h a conception ( x2 or t :5 we include a multitude ( ?+s "u a g5]al expression1 !re is impli$ 9 ! expression a conception ( some?+ common to ^? ?+s4 ,b x by no means foll[s t ! conception is necess>ily pre-exi/5t1 or con/ruct$ by ! m9d out ( its own mat]ials4 ,if ! facts are rightly class$ "u ! conception1 x is because !re is 9 ! facts !mselves some?+ ( :i* ! conception is itself a copy2 & :i* if we c n directly p]ceive1 x is because ( ! limit$ p[] ( our organs1 & n because ! ?+ itself is n !re4 ,! conception itself is (t5 obta9$ by ab/raction f ! v facts :i*1 9 ,dr4 ,:ewell's language1 x is aft]w>d call$ 9 to connect4 ,?is he himself admits1 :5 he obs]ves 7:i* he does on sev]al occasions71 h[ great a s]vice w\ld be r5d]$ to ! sci5ce ( physiology by ! philosoph] 8:o %\ld e/abli% a precise1 t5able1 & consi/5t conception ( life407#ajc7 ,su* a conception c only be ab/ract$ f ! ph5om5a ( life itself2 f ! v facts :i* x is put 9 requisition to connect4 ,9 o!r cases1 no d\bt1 in/ead ( collect+ ! conception f ! v ph5om5a :i* we are attempt+ to colligate1 we select x f among ^? :i* h be5 previ\sly collect$ by ab/raction f o!r facts4 ,9 ! in/ance ( ,kepl]'s laws1 ! latt] 0 ! case4 ,! facts be+ out ( ! rea* ( be+ obs]v$1 9 any su* mann] z w\ld h enabl$ ! s5ses to id5tify directly ! pa? ( ! planet1 ! conception requisite = fram+ a g5]al description ( t pa? c\ld n be collect$ by ab/raction f ! obs]vations !mselves2 ! m9d _h to supply hypo!tically1 f among ! conceptions x _h obta9$ f o!r portions ( its exp]i5ce1 "s "o :i* w\ld correctly repres5t ! s]ies ( ! obs]v$ facts4 ,x _h to frame a supposition respect+ ! g5]al c\rse ( ! ph5om5on1 & ask itself1 ,if ?is be ! g5]al description1 :at w ! details be8 & !n comp>e ^! ) ! details actually obs]v$4 ,if !y agre$1 ! hypo!sis w\ld s]ve = a description ( ! ph5om5on3 if n1 x 0 necess>ily ab&on$1 & ano!r tri$4 ,x is su* a case z ?is :i* gives rise to ! doctr9e t ! m9d1 9 fram+ ! descriptions1 adds some?+ ( its own :i* x does n f9d 9 ! facts4 ,yet x is a fact surely1 t ! planet does describe an ellipse2 & a fact :i* we c\ld see1 if we _h adequate visual organs & a suitable position4 ,n hav+ ^! advantages1 b possess+ ! conception ( an ellipse1 or 7to express ! mean+ 9 less te*nical language7 kn[+ :at an ellipse 01 ,kepl] tri$ :e!r ! obs]v$ places ( ! planet 7 consi/5t ) su* a pa?4 ,he f\nd !y 7 s2 & he1 consequ5tly1 ass]t$ z a fact t ! planet mov$ 9 an ellipse4 ,b ?is fact1 :i* ,kepl] did n add to1 b f\nd 91 ! motions ( ! planet1 namely1 t x occupi$ 9 succession ! v>i\s po9ts 9 ! circumf]5ce ( a giv5 ellipse1 0 ! v fact1 ! sep>ate p>ts ( :i* _h be5 sep>ately obs]v$2 x 0 ! sum ( ! diff]5t obs]vations4 ,hav+ /at$ ?is fundam5tal diff]5ce betwe5 my op9ion & t ( ,dr4 ,:ewell1 ,i mu/ add1 t 8 acc\nt ( ! mann] 9 :i* a conception is select$1 suitable to express ! facts1 appe>s to me p]fectly j4 ,! exp]i5ce ( all ?9k]s w1 ,i believe1 te/ify t ! process is t5tative2 t x consi/s ( a succession ( guesses2 _m be+ reject$1 until "o at la/ occurs fit to be *os54 ,we "k f ,kepl] himself t be=e hitt+ ^u ! 8conception0 ( an ellipse1 he tri$ n9ete5 o!r imag9>y pa?s1 :i*1 f9d+ !m inconsi/5t ) ! obs]vations1 he 0 oblig$ to reject4 ,b z ,dr4 ,:ewell truly says1 ! successful hypo!sis1 ?\gh a guess1 ought g5]ally to be call$1 n a lucky1 b a skillful guess4 ,! guesses :i* s]ve to give m5tal unity & :ol5ess to a *aos ( scatt]$ p>ticul>s1 are accid5ts :i* r>ely occur to any m9ds b ^? ab\nd+ 9 k & discipl9$ 9 intellectual comb9ations4 ,h[ f> ?is t5tative me?od1 s indisp5sable z a means to ! colligation ( facts = purposes ( description1 admits ( application to ,induction itself1 & :at functions belong to x 9 t dep>tm5t1 w be consid]$ 9 ! *apt] ( ! pres5t ,book :i* relates to ,hypo!ses4 ,on ! pres5t occasion we h *iefly to di/+ui% ?is process ( ,colligation f ,induction prop]ly s call$2 & t ! di/9ction may be made cle>]1 x is well to adv]t to a curi\s & int]e/+ rem>k1 :i* is z /rik+ly true ( ! =m] op]ation1 z x appe>s to me unequivocally false ( ! latt]4 ,9 diff]5t /ages ( ! progress ( k1 philosoph]s h employ$1 = ! colligation ( ! same ord] ( facts1 diff]5t conceptions4 ,! e>ly rude obs]vations ( ! heav5ly bodies1 9 :i* m9ute precision 0 nei!r atta9$ nor s\ght1 pres5t$ no?+ inconsi/5t ) ! repres5tation ( ! pa? ( a planet z an exact circle1 hav+ ! e>? = its c5tre4 ,z obs]vations increas$ 9 accuracy1 facts 7 disclos$ :i* 7 n reconcilable ) ?is simple supposition3 = ! colligation ( ^? additional facts1 ! supposition 0 v>i$2 & v>i$ aga9 & aga9 z facts became m num]\s & precise4 ,! e>? 0 remov$ f ! c5tre to "s o!r po9t )9 ! circle2 ! planet 0 suppos$ to revolve 9 a small] circle call$ an epicycle1 r\nd an imag9>y po9t :i* revolv$ 9 a circle r\nd ! e>?3 9 proportion z obs]vation elicit$ fre% facts contradictory to ^! repres5tations1 o!r epicycles & o!r ecc5trics 7 add$1 produc+ additional complication2 until at la/ ,kepl] swept all ^! circles away1 & sub/itut$ ! conception ( an exact ellipse4 ,ev5 ?is is f\nd n to repres5t ) complete correctness ! accurate obs]vations ( ! pres5t day1 :i* disclose _m slight deviations f an orbit exactly elliptical4 ,n[ ,dr4 ,:ewell has rem>k$ t ^! successive g5]al expressions1 ?\gh app>5tly s conflict+1 7 all correct3 !y all answ]$ ! purpose ( colligation2 !y all enabl$ ! m9d to repres5t to itself ) facility1 & by a simultane\s glance1 ! :ole body ( facts at ! "t asc]ta9$3 ea* 9 its turn s]v$ z a correct description ( ! ph5om5a1 s f> z ! s5ses _h up to t "t tak5 cognizance ( !m4 ,if a necessity aft]w>d arose = disc>d+ "o ( ^! g5]al descriptions ( ! planet's orbit1 & fram+ a diff]5t imag9>y l9e1 by :i* to express ! s]ies ( obs]v$ positions1 x 0 because a numb] ( new facts _h n[ be5 add$1 :i* x 0 necess>y to comb9e ) ! old facts into "o g5]al description4 ,b ?is did n affect ! correctness ( ! =m] expression1 consid]$ z a g5]al /atem5t ( ! only facts :i* x 0 int5d$ to repres5t4 ,& s true is ?is1 t1 z is well rem>k$ by ,m4 ,comte1 ^! anci5t g5]alizations1 ev5 ! rude/ & mo/ imp]fect ( !m1 t ( uni=m movem5t 9 a circle1 are s f> f be+ entirely false1 t !y are ev5 n[ habitually employ$ by a/ronom]s :5 only a r\gh approximation to correctness is requir$4 8,l'a/ronomie mod]ne1 en dtruisant sans ret\r les hypo?ses primitives1 envisages comme lois relles du monde1 a soigneusem5t ma9t5u leur valeur positive et p]man5te1 la proprit de reprs5t] commodm5t les phnomnes qu& il s'agit d'une premire bau*e4 ,nos ress\rces cet g>d sont mme bi5 plus t5dues1 prcism5t cause que n\s ne n\s faisons aucune illusion sur la ralit des hypo?ses2 ce qui n\s p]met d'employ] sans scrupule1 en *aque cas1 celle que n\s jugeons la plus avantageuse407#ajd7 ,dr4 ,:ewell's rem>k1 !re=e1 is philosophically correct4 ,successive expressions = ! colligation ( obs]v$ facts1 or1 9 o!r words1 successive descriptions ( a ph5om5on z a :ole1 :i* has be5 obs]v$ only 9 p>ts1 may1 ?\gh conflict+1 be all correct z f> z !y g4 ,b x w\ld surely be absurd to ass]t ?is ( conflict+ inductions4 ,! sci5tific /udy ( facts may be und]tak5 = ?ree diff]5t purposes3 ! simple description ( ! facts2 _! explanation2 or _! pr$iction3 mean+ by pr$iction1 ! det]m9ation ( ! conditions "u :i* simil> facts may be expect$ aga9 to occur4 ,to ! fir/ ( ^! ?ree op]ations ! "n ( ,induction does n prop]ly belong3 to ! o!r two x does4 ,n[1 ,dr4 ,:ewell's obs]vation is true ( ! fir/ alone4 ,consid]$ z a m]e description1 ! circul> !ory ( ! heav5ly motions repres5ts p]fectly well _! g5]al features3 & by add+ epicycles )\t limit1 ^? motions1 ev5 z n[ kn[n to u1 might be express$ ) any degree ( accuracy t might be requir$4 ,! elliptical !ory1 z a m]e description1 w\ld h a great advantage 9 po9t ( simplicity1 & 9 ! consequ5t facility ( conceiv+ x & reason+ ab\t x2 b x w\ld n really be m true ?an ! o!r4 ,diff]5t descriptions1 !re=e1 may be all true3 b n1 surely1 diff]5t explanations4 ,! doctr9e t ! heav5ly bodies mov$ by a virtue inh]5t 9 _! cele/ial nature2 ! doctr9e t !y 7 mov$ by impact 7:i* l$ to ! hypo!sis ( vortices z ! only impell+ =ce capable ( :irl+ bodies 9 circles71 & ! ,newtonian doctr9e1 t !y are mov$ by ! composition ( a c5tripetal ) an orig9al projectile =ce2 all ^! are explanations1 collect$ by real induction f suppos$ p>allel cases2 & !y 7 all successively receiv$ by philosoph]s1 z sci5tific tru?s on ! subject ( ! heav5ly bodies4 ,c x be said ( ^!1 z 0 said ( ! diff]5t descriptions1 t !y are all true z f> z !y g8 ,is x n cle> t only "o c be true 9 any degree1 & ! o!r two mu/ be altoge!r false8 ,s mu* = explanations3 let u n[ comp>e diff]5t pr$ictions3 ! fir/1 t eclipses w occur :5 "o planet or satellite is s situat$ z to ca/ its %ad[ ^u ano!r2 ! second1 t !y w occur :5 "s great calamity is imp5d+ ov] mank9d4 ,d ^! two doctr9es only diff] 9 ! degree ( _! tru?1 z express+ real facts ) unequal degrees ( accuracy8 ,assur$ly ! "o is true1 & ! o!r absolutely false47#aje7 ,9 e way1 !re=e1 x is evid5t t to expla9 induction z ! colligation ( facts by means ( appropriate conceptions1 t is1 conceptions :i* w really express !m1 is to conf\nd m]e description ( ! obs]v$ facts ) inf]5ce f ^? facts1 & ascribe to ! latt] :at is a *>act]i/ic prop]ty ( ! =m]4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 betwe5 ,colligation & ,induction1 a real correlation1 :i* x is important to conceive correctly4 ,colligation is n always induction2 b induction is always colligation4 ,! ass]tion t ! planets move 9 ellipses1 0 b a mode ( repres5t+ obs]v$ facts2 x 0 b a colligation2 :ile ! ass]tion t !y are drawn1 or t5d1 t[>d ! sun1 0 ! /atem5t ( a new fact1 inf]r$ by induction4 ,b ! induction1 once made1 accompli%es ! purposes ( colligation likewise4 ,x br+s ! same facts1 :i* ,kepl] _h connect$ by 8 conception ( an ellipse1 "u ! additional conception ( bodies act$ ^u by a c5tral =ce1 & s]ves1 !re=e1 z a new bond ( connection = ^? facts2 a new pr9ciple = _! classification4 ,fur!r1 ! descriptions :i* are improp]ly conf\nd$ ) induction1 are nev]!less a necess>y prep>ation = induction2 no less necess>y ?an correct obs]vation ( ! facts !mselves4 ,)\t ! previ\s colligation ( deta*$ obs]vations by means ( "o g5]al conception1 we c\ld nev] h obta9$ any basis = an induction1 except 9 ! case ( ph5om5a ( v limit$ compass4 ,we %\ld n be able to affirm any pr$icates at all1 ( a subject incapable ( be+ obs]v$ o!rwise ?an piecemeal3 mu* less c\ld we ext5d ^? pr$icates by induction to o!r simil> subjects4 ,induction1 !re=e1 always presupposes1 n only t ! necess>y obs]vations are made ) ! necess>y accuracy1 b also t ! results ( ^! obs]vations are1 s f> z practicable1 connect$ toge!r by g5]al descriptions1 enabl+ ! m9d to repres5t to itself z :oles :atev] ph5om5a are capable ( be+ s repres5t$4 #e4 ,dr4 ,:ewell has repli$ at "s l5g? to ! prec$+ obs]vations1 re/at+ 8 op9ions1 b )\t 7z f> z ,i c p]ceive7 add+ any ?+ mat]ial to 8 =m] argum5ts4 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 m9e h n _h ! good =tune to make any impression ^u him1 ,i w subjo9 a few rem>ks1 t5d+ to %[ m cle>ly 9 :at our diff]5ce ( op9ion consi/s1 z well z1 9 "s measure1 to acc\nt = x4 ,ne>ly all ! def9itions ( induction1 by writ]s ( au?ority1 make x consi/ 9 draw+ inf]5ces f kn[n cases to unkn[n2 affirm+ ( a class1 a pr$icate :i* has be5 f\nd true ( "s cases belong+ to ! class2 conclud+ because "s ?+s h a c]ta9 prop]ty1 t o!r ?+s :i* resemble !m h ! same prop]ty--or because a ?+ has manife/$ a prop]ty at a c]ta9 "t1 t x has & w h t prop]ty at o!r times4 ,x w sc>cely be cont5d$ t ,kepl]'s op]ation 0 an ,induction 9 ?is s5se ( ! t]m4 ,! /atem5t1 t ,m>s moves 9 an elliptical orbit1 0 no g5]alization f individual cases to a class ( cases4 ,nei!r 0 x an ext5sion to all "t1 ( :at _h be5 f\nd true at "s p>ticul> "t4 ,! :ole am\nt ( g5]alization :i* ! case admitt$ (1 0 already complet$1 or might h be5 s4 ,long be=e ! elliptic !ory 0 ?\ght (1 x _h be5 asc]ta9$ t ! planets return$ p]iodically to ! same app>5t places2 ! s]ies ( ^! places 01 or might h be51 completely det]m9$1 & ! app>5t c\rse ( ea* planet m>k$ out on ! cele/ial globe 9 an un9t]rupt$ l9e4 ,kepl] did n ext5d an obs]v$ tru? to o!r cases ?an ^? 9 :i* x _h be5 obs]v$3 he did n wid5 ! subject ( ! proposition :i* express$ ! obs]v$ facts4 ,! alt]ation he made 0 9 ! pr$icate4 ,in/ead ( say+1 ! successive places ( ,m>s are s & s1 he summ$ !m up 9 ! /atem5t1 t ! successive places ( ,m>s are po9ts 9 an ellipse4 ,x is true1 ?is /atem5t1 z ,dr4 ,:ewell says1 0 n ! sum ( ! obs]vations m]ely2 x 0 ! sum ( ! obs]vations se5 "u a new po9t ( view47#ajf7 ,b x 0 n ! sum ( m ?an ! obs]vations1 z a real induction is4 ,x took 9 no cases b ^? :i* _h be5 actually obs]v$1 or :i* c\ld h be5 inf]r$ f ! obs]vations be=e ! new po9t ( view pres5t$ itself4 ,!re 0 n t transition f kn[n cases to unkn[n1 :i* con/itutes ,induction 9 ! orig9al & ackn[l$g$ mean+ ( ! t]m4 ,old def9itions1 x is true1 c n prevail aga9/ new k3 & if ! ,kepl]ian op]ation1 z a logical process1 be really id5tical ) :at takes place 9 ackn[l$g$ induction1 ! def9ition ( induction ought to be s wid5$ z to take x 92 s9ce sci5tific language ought to adapt itself to ! true relations :i* subsi/ betwe5 ! ?+s x is employ$ to designate4 ,"h !n x is t ,i am at issue ) ,dr4 ,:ewell4 ,he does ?9k ! op]ations id5tical4 ,he all[s ( no logical process 9 any case ( induction1 o!r ?an :at !re 0 9 ,kepl]'s case1 namely1 guess+ until a guess is f\nd :i* tallies ) ! facts2 & accord+ly1 z we %all see h]eaft]1 he rejects all canons ( induction1 because x is n by means ( !m t we guess4 ,dr4 ,:ewell's !ory ( ! logic ( sci5ce w\ld be v p]fect if x did n pass ov] altoge!r ! "q ( ,pro(4 ,b 9 my appreh5sion !re is su* a ?+ z pro(1 & inductions diff] altoge!r f descriptions 9 _! relation to t elem5t4 ,induction is pro(2 x is inf]r+ some?+ unobs]v$ f some?+ obs]v$3 x requires1 !re=e1 an appropriate te/ ( pro(2 & to provide t te/1 is ! special purpose ( inductive logic4 ,:51 on ! contr>y1 we m]ely collate kn[n obs]vations1 &1 9 ,dr4 ,:ewell's phraseology1 connect !m by means ( a new conception2 if ! conception does s]ve to connect ! obs]vations1 we h all we want4 ,z ! proposition 9 :i* x is embodi$ pret5ds to no o!r tru? ?an :at x may %>e ) _m o!r modes ( repres5t+ ! same facts1 to be consi/5t ) ! facts is all x requires3 x nei!r ne$s nor admits ( pro(2 ?\gh x may s]ve to prove o!r ?+s1 inasmu* z1 by plac+ ! facts 9 m5tal connection ) o!r facts1 n previ\sly se5 to resemble !m1 x assimilates ! case to ano!r class ( ph5om5a1 conc]n+ :i* real ,inductions h already be5 made4 ,?us ,kepl]'s s-call$ law br\ght ! orbit ( ,m>s into ! class ellipse1 & by do+ s1 prov$ all ! prop]ties ( an ellipse to be true ( ! orbit3 b 9 ?is pro( ,kepl]'s law suppli$ ! m9or premise1 & n 7z is ! case ) real ,inductions7 ! major4 ,dr4 ,:ewell calls no?+ ,induction :]e !re is n a new m5tal conception introduc$1 & e ?+ induction :]e !re is4 ,b ?is is to conf\nd two v diff]5t ?+s1 ,inv5tion & ,pro(4 ,! introduction ( a new conception belongs to ,inv5tion3 & inv5tion may be requir$ 9 any op]ation1 b is ! ess5ce ( none4 ,a new conception may be introduc$ = descriptive purposes1 & s x may = inductive purposes4 ,b x is s f> f con/itut+ induction1 t induction does n necess>ily /& 9 ne$ ( x4 ,mo/ inductions require no conception b :at 0 pres5t 9 e "o ( ! p>ticul> in/ances on :i* ! induction is gr\nd$4 ,t all m5 are mortal is surely an inductive conclusion2 yet no new conception is introduc$ by x4 ,:oev] kn[s t any man has di$1 has all ! conceptions involv$ 9 ! inductive g5]alization4 ,b ,dr4 ,:ewell consid]s ! process ( inv5tion :i* consi/s 9 fram+ a new conception consi/5t ) ! facts1 to be n m]ely a necess>y "p ( all induction1 b ! :ole ( x4 ,! m5tal op]ation :i* extracts f a numb] ( deta*$ obs]vations c]ta9 g5]al *>act]s 9 :i* ! obs]v$ ph5om5a resemble "o ano!r1 or resemble o!r kn[n facts1 is :at ,bacon1 ,locke1 & mo/ subsequ5t metaphysicians1 h und]/ood by ! ^w ,ab/raction4 ,a g5]al expression obta9$ by ab/raction1 connect+ kn[n facts by means ( common *>act]s1 b )\t conclud+ f !m to unkn[n1 may1 ,i ?9k1 ) /rict logical correctness1 be t]m$ a ,description2 nor d ,i "k 9 :at o!r way ?+s c ev] be describ$4 ,my position1 h[ev]1 does n dep5d on ! employm5t ( t p>ticul> ^w2 ,i am q cont5t to use ,dr4 ,:ewell's t]m ,colligation1 or ! m g5]al phrases1 8mode ( repres5t+1 or ( express+1 ph5om5a30 provid$ x be cle>ly se5 t ! process is n ,induction1 b some?+ radically diff]5t4 ,:at m may usefully be said on ! subject ( ,colligation1 or ( ! correlative expression inv5t$ by ,dr4 ,:ewell1 ! ,explication ( ,conceptions1 & g5]ally on ! subject ( ideas & m5tal repres5tations z connect$ ) ! /udy ( facts1 w f9d a m appropriate place 9 ! ,f\r? ,book1 on ! ,op]ations ,subsidi>y to ,induction3 to :i* ,i mu/ ref] ! read] = ! removal ( any difficulty :i* ! pres5t discussion may h left4 ,*apt] ,,iii4 ,( ,! ,gr\nd ,( ,induction4 #a4 ,induction prop]ly s call$1 z di/+ui%$ f ^? m5tal op]ations1 sometimes1 ?\gh improp]ly1 designat$ by ! "n1 :i* ,i h attempt$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt] to *>act]ize1 may1 !n1 be summ>ily def9$ z ,g5]alization f ,exp]i5ce4 ,x consi/s 9 inf]r+ f "s individual in/ances 9 :i* a ph5om5on is obs]v$ to occur1 t x occurs 9 all in/ances ( a c]ta9 class2 namely1 9 all :i* resemble ! =m]1 9 :at are reg>d$ z ! mat]ial circum/ances4 ,9 :at way ! mat]ial circum/ances are to be di/+ui%$ f ^? :i* are immat]ial1 or :y "s ( ! circum/ances are mat]ial & o!rs n s1 we are n yet ready to po9t out4 ,we mu/ fir/ obs]ve1 t !re is a pr9ciple impli$ 9 ! v /atem5t ( :at ,induction is2 an assumption ) reg>d to ! c\rse ( nature & ! ord] ( ! univ]se2 namely1 t !re are su* ?+s 9 nature z p>allel cases2 t :at happ5s once1 w1 "u a suffici5t degree ( simil>ity ( circum/ances1 happ5 aga91 & n only aga91 b z (t5 z ! same circum/ances recur4 ,?is1 ,i say1 is an assumption1 involv$ 9 e case ( induction4 ,&1 if we consult ! actual c\rse ( nature1 we f9d t ! assumption is w>rant$4 ,! univ]se1 s f> z kn[n to u1 is s con/itut$1 t :atev] is true 9 any "o case1 is true 9 all cases ( a c]ta9 description2 ! only difficulty is1 to f9d :at description4 ,?is univ]sal fact1 :i* is our w>rant = all inf]5ces f exp]i5ce1 has be5 describ$ by diff]5t philosoph]s 9 diff]5t =ms ( language3 t ! c\rse ( nature is uni=m2 t ! univ]se is gov]n$ by g5]al laws2 & ! l4 ,"o ( ! mo/ usual ( ^! modes ( expression1 b also "o ( ! mo/ inadequate1 is t :i* has be5 br\ght into famili> use by ! metaphysicians ( ! s*ool ( ,reid & ,/ew>t4 ,! disposition ( ! human m9d to g5]alize f exp]i5ce--a prop5sity consid]$ by ^! philosoph]s z an in/9ct ( our nature--!y usually describe "u "s su* "n z 8our intuitive conviction t ! future w resemble ! pa/40 ,n[ x has be5 well po9t$ out by ,mr4 ,bailey17#ajg7 t 7:e!r ! t5d5cy be or n an orig9al & ultimate elem5t ( our nature71 ,"t1 9 its modifications ( pa/1 pres5t1 & future1 has no conc]n ei!r ) ! belief itself1 or ) ! gr\nds ( x4 ,we believe t fire w burn to-morr[1 because x burn$ to-day & ye/]day2 b we believe1 on precisely ! same gr\nds1 t x burn$ be=e we 7 born1 & t x burns ?is v day 9 ,co*9-,*9a4 ,x is n f ! pa/ to ! future1 z pa/ & future1 t we inf]1 b f ! kn[n to ! unkn[n2 f facts obs]v$ to facts unobs]v$2 f :at we h p]ceiv$1 or be5 directly consci\s (1 to :at has n come )9 our exp]i5ce4 ,9 ?is la/ pr$icam5t is ! :ole region ( ! future2 b also ! va/ly great] portion ( ! pres5t & ( ! pa/4 ,:atev] be ! mo/ prop] mode ( express+ x1 ! proposition t ! c\rse ( nature is uni=m1 is ! fundam5tal pr9ciple1 or g5]al axiom ( ,induction4 ,x w\ld yet be a great error to (f] ?is l>ge g5]alization z any explanation ( ! inductive process4 ,on ! contr>y1 ,i hold x to be itself an in/ance ( induction1 & induction by no means ( ! mo/ obvi\s k9d4 ,f> f be+ ! fir/ induction we make1 x is "o ( ! la/1 or at all ev5ts "o ( ^? :i* are late/ 9 atta9+ /rict philosophical accuracy4 ,z a g5]al maxim1 inde$1 x has sc>cely ent]$ into ! m9ds ( any b philosoph]s2 nor ev5 by !m1 z we %all h _m opportunities ( rem>k+1 h its ext5t & limits be5 always v ju/ly conceiv$4 ,! tru? is1 t ?is great g5]alization is itself f\nd$ on prior g5]alizations4 ,! obscur] laws ( nature 7 discov]$ by means ( x1 b ! m obvi\s ones mu/ h be5 und]/ood & ass5t$ to z g5]al tru?s be=e x 0 ev] he>d (4 ,we %\ld nev] h ?\ght ( affirm+ t all ph5om5a take place accord+ to g5]al laws1 if we _h n fir/ arriv$1 9 ! case ( a great multitude ( ph5om5a1 at "s k ( ! laws !mselves2 :i* c\ld be done no o!rwise ?an by induction4 ,9 :at s5se1 !n1 c a pr9ciple1 :i* is s f> f be+ our e>lie/ induction1 be reg>d$ z our w>rant = all ! o!rs8 ,9 ! only s5se1 9 :i* 7z we h already se57 ! g5]al propositions :i* we place at ! head ( our reason+s :5 we ?r[ !m into syllogisms1 ev] really contribute to _! validity4 ,z ,ar*bi%op ,:ately rem>ks1 e induction is a syllogism ) ! major premise suppress$2 or 7z ,i pref] express+ x7 e induction may be ?r[n into ! =m ( a syllogism1 by supply+ a major premise4 ,if ?is be actually done1 ! pr9ciple :i* we are n[ consid]+1 t ( ! uni=mity ( ! c\rse ( nature1 w appe> z ! ultimate major premise ( all inductions1 & w1 !re=e1 /& to all inductions 9 ! relation 9 :i*1 z has be5 %[n at s mu* l5g?1 ! major proposition ( a syllogism always /&s to ! conclusion2 n contribut+ at all to prove x1 b be+ a necess>y condition ( its be+ prov$2 s9ce no conclusion is prov$1 = :i* !re c n be f\nd a true major premise47#ajh7 ,! /atem5t1 t ! uni=mity ( ! c\rse ( nature is ! ultimate major premise 9 all cases ( induction1 may be ?\ght to require "s explanation4 ,! imm$iate major premise 9 e inductive argum5t1 x c]ta9ly is n4 ,( t1 ,ar*bi%op ,:ately's mu/ be held to be ! correct acc\nt4 ,! induction1 8,john1 ,pet]1 etc41 are mortal1 !re=e all mank9d are mortal10 may1 z he ju/ly says1 be ?r[n into a syllogism by prefix+ z a major premise 7:at is at any rate a necess>y condition ( ! validity ( ! argum5t71 namely1 t :at is true ( ,john1 ,pet]1 etc41 is true ( all mank9d4 ,b h[ came we by ?is major premise8 ,x is n self-evid5t2 nay1 9 all cases ( unw>rant$ g5]alization1 x is n true4 ,h[1 !n1 is x arriv$ at8 ,necess>ily ei!r by induction or ratioc9ation2 & if by induction1 ! process1 l all o!r inductive argum5ts1 may be ?r[n into ! =m ( a syllogism4 ,?is previ\s syllogism x is1 !re=e1 necess>y to con/ruct4 ,!re is1 9 ! long run1 only "o possible con/ruction4 ,! real pro( t :at is true ( ,john1 ,pet]1 etc41 is true ( all mank9d1 c only be1 t a diff]5t supposition w\ld be inconsi/5t ) ! uni=mity :i* we "k to exi/ 9 ! c\rse ( nature4 ,:e!r !re w\ld be ?is inconsi/5cy or n1 may be a matt] ( long & delicate inquiry2 b unless !re w\ld1 we h no suffici5t gr\nd = ! major ( ! inductive syllogism4 ,x h5ce appe>s1 t if we ?r[ ! :ole c\rse ( any inductive argum5t into a s]ies ( syllogisms1 we %all arrive by m or few] /eps at an ultimate syllogism1 :i* w h = its major premise ! pr9ciple1 or axiom1 ( ! uni=mity ( ! c\rse ( nature47#aji7 ,x 0 n to be expect$ t 9 ! case ( ?is axiom1 any m ?an ( o!r axioms1 !re %\ld be unanimity among ?9k]s ) respect to ! gr\nds on :i* x is to be receiv$ z true4 ,i h already /at$ t ,i reg>d x z itself a g5]alization f exp]i5ce4 ,o!rs hold x to be a pr9ciple :i*1 antec$5tly to any v]ification by exp]i5ce1 we are compell$ by ! con/itution ( our ?9k+ faculty to assume z true4 ,hav+ s rec5tly1 & at s mu* l5g?1 combat$ a simil> doctr9e z appli$ to ! axioms ( ma!matics1 by argum5ts :i* are 9 a great measure applicable to ! pres5t case1 ,i %all def] ! m p>ticul> discussion ( ?is controv]t$ po9t 9 reg>d to ! fundam5tal axiom ( induction1 until a m advanc$ p]iod ( our inquiry47#aaj7 ,at pres5t x is ( m importance to und]/& ?or\ghly ! import ( ! axiom itself4 ,= ! proposition1 t ! c\rse ( nature is uni=m1 possesses r ! brevity suitable to popul>1 ?an ! precision requisite 9 philosophical language3 its t]ms require to be expla9$1 & a /rict] ?an _! ord9>y signification giv5 to !m1 be=e ! tru? ( ! ass]tion c be admitt$4 #b4 ,e p]son's consci\sness assures him t he does n always expect uni=mity 9 ! c\rse ( ev5ts2 he does n always believe t ! unkn[n w be simil> to ! kn[n1 t ! future w resemble ! pa/4 ,nobody believes t ! succession ( ra9 & f9e wea!r w be ! same 9 e future ye> z 9 ! pres5t4 ,nobody expects to h ! same dreams repeat$ e night4 ,on ! contr>y1 e body m5tions x z some?+ extraord9>y1 if ! c\rse ( nature is con/ant1 & resembles itself1 9 ^! p>ticul>s4 ,to look = con/ancy :]e con/ancy is n to be expect$1 z = in/ance t a day :i* has once br\ght good =tune w always be a =tunate day1 is ju/ly acc\nt$ sup]/ition4 ,! c\rse ( nature1 9 tru?1 is n only uni=m1 x is also inf9itely v>i\s4 ,"s ph5om5a are always se5 to recur 9 ! v same comb9ations 9 :i* we met ) !m at fir/2 o!rs seem altoge!r caprici\s2 :ile "s1 :i* we _h be5 accu/om$ to reg>d z b\nd d[n exclusively to a p>ticul> set ( comb9ations1 we unexpect$ly f9d deta*$ f "s ( ! elem5ts ) :i* we _h hi!rto f\nd !m conjo9$1 & unit$ to o!rs ( q a contr>y description4 ,to an inhabitant ( ,c5tral ,africa1 fifty ye>s ago1 no fact probably appe>$ to re/ on m uni=m exp]i5ce ?an ?is1 t all human be+s are black4 ,to ,europeans1 n _m ye>s ago1 ! proposition1 ,all swans are :ite1 appe>$ an equally unequivocal in/ance ( uni=mity 9 ! c\rse ( nature4 ,fur!r exp]i5ce has prov$ to bo? t !y 7 mi/ak52 b !y _h to wait fifty c5turies = ?is exp]i5ce4 ,dur+ t long "t1 mank9d believ$ 9 a uni=mity ( ! c\rse ( nature :]e no su* uni=mity really exi/$4 ,accord+ to ! notion :i* ! anci5ts ent]ta9$ ( induction1 ! =ego+ 7 cases ( z legitimate inf]5ce z any inductions :atev]4 ,9 ^! two in/ances1 9 :i*1 ! conclusion be+ false1 ! gr\nd ( inf]5ce mu/ h be5 insuffici5t1 !re 01 nev]!less1 z mu* gr\nd = x z ?is conception ( induction admitt$ (4 ,! induction ( ! anci5ts has be5 well describ$ by ,bacon1 "u ! "n ( 8,inductio p] enum]ationem simplicem1 ubi non rep]itur in/antia contradictoria40 ,x consi/s 9 ascrib+ ! "* ( g5]al tru?s to all propositions :i* are true 9 e in/ance t we happ5 to "k (4 ,?is is ! k9d ( induction :i* is natural to ! m9d :5 unaccu/om$ to sci5tific me?ods4 ,! t5d5cy1 :i* "s call an in/9ct1 & :i* o!rs acc\nt = by association1 to inf] ! future f ! pa/1 ! kn[n f ! unkn[n1 is simply a habit ( expect+ t :at has be5 f\nd true once or sev]al times1 & nev] yet f\nd false1 w be f\nd true aga94 ,:e!r ! in/ances are few or _m1 conclusive or inconclusive1 does n mu* affect ! matt]3 ^! are consid]ations :i* occur only on reflection2 ! unprompt$ t5d5cy ( ! m9d is to g5]alize its exp]i5ce1 provid$ ?is po9ts all 9 "o direction2 provid$ no o!r exp]i5ce ( a conflict+ "* comes uns\ght4 ,! notion ( seek+ x1 ( exp]im5t+ = x1 ( int]rogat+ nature 7to use ,bacon's expression7 is ( mu* lat] gr[?4 ,! obs]vation ( nature1 by uncultivat$ intellects1 is purely passive3 !y accept ! facts :i* pres5t !mselves1 )\t tak+ ! tr\ble ( se>*+ = m3 x is a sup]ior m9d only :i* asks itself :at facts are ne$$ to enable x to come to a safe conclusion1 & !n looks out = ^!4 ,b ?\gh we h always a prop5sity to g5]alize f unv>y+ exp]i5ce1 we are n always w>rant$ 9 do+ s4 ,be=e we c be at lib]ty to conclude t some?+ is univ]sally true because we h nev] kn[n an in/ance to ! contr>y1 we mu/ h reason to believe t if !re 7 9 nature any in/ances to ! contr>y1 we %\ld h kn[n ( !m4 ,?is assurance1 9 ! great majority ( cases1 we c n h1 or c h only 9 a v mod]ate degree4 ,! possibility ( hav+ x1 is ! f\ndation on :i* we %all see h]eaft] t induction by simple enum]ation may 9 "s rem>kable cases am\nt practically to pro(47#aaa7 ,no su* assurance1 h[ev]1 c be _h1 on any ( ! ord9>y subjects ( sci5tific inquiry4 ,popul> notions are usually f\nd$ on induction by simple enum]ation2 9 sci5ce x c>ries u b a little way4 ,we are =c$ to beg9 ) x2 we mu/ (t5 rely on x provisionally1 9 ! abs5ce ( means ( m se>*+ inve/igation4 ,b1 = ! accurate /udy ( nature1 we require a sur] & a m pot5t in/rum5t4 ,x 01 above all1 by po9t+ out ! insuffici5cy ( ?is rude & loose conception ( ,induction1 t ,bacon m]it$ ! title s g5]ally aw>d$ to him1 ( ,f\nd] ( ! ,inductive ,philosophy4 ,! value ( 8 own contributions to a m philosophical !ory ( ! subject has c]ta9ly be5 exagg]at$4 ,al?\gh 7along ) "s fundam5tal errors7 8 writ+s conta91 m or less fully develop$1 sev]al ( ! mo/ important pr9ciples ( ! ,inductive ,me?od1 physical inve/igation has n[ f> outgr[n ! ,baconian conception ( ,induction4 ,moral & political inquiry1 inde$1 are z yet f> beh9d t conception4 ,! curr5t & approv$ modes ( reason+ on ^! subjects are /ill ( ! same vici\s description aga9/ :i* ,bacon prote/$2 ! me?od almo/ exclusively employ$ by ^? pr(ess+ to treat su* matt]s inductively1 is ! v inductio p] enum]ationem simplicem :i* he condemns2 & ! exp]i5ce :i* we he> s confid5tly appeal$ to by all sects1 p>ties1 & int]e/s1 is /ill1 9 8 own emphatic words1 m]a palpatio4 #c4 ,9 ord] to a bett] und]/&+ ( ! problem :i* ! logician mu/ solve if he w\ld e/abli% a sci5tific !ory ( ,induction1 let u comp>e a few cases ( incorrect inductions ) o!rs :i* are ackn[l$g$ to be legitimate4 ,"s1 we "k1 :i* 7 believ$ = c5turies to be correct1 7 nev]!less incorrect4 ,t all swans are :ite1 c n h be5 a good induction1 s9ce ! conclusion has turn$ out errone\s4 ,! exp]i5ce1 h[ev]1 on :i* ! conclusion re/$1 0 g5u9e4 ,f ! e>lie/ records1 ! te/imony ( ! inhabitants ( ! kn[n _w 0 unanim\s on ! po9t4 ,! uni=m exp]i5ce1 !re=e1 ( ! inhabitants ( ! kn[n _w1 agree+ 9 a common result1 )\t "o kn[n in/ance ( deviation f t result1 is n always suffici5t to e/abli% a g5]al conclusion4 ,b let u n[ turn to an in/ance app>5tly n v dissimil> to ?is4 ,mank9d 7 wrong1 x seems1 9 conclud+ t all swans 7 :ite3 are we also wrong1 :5 we conclude t all m5's heads gr[ above _! %\ld]s1 & nev] bel[1 9 spite ( ! conflict+ te/imony ( ! naturali/ ,pl9y8 ,z !re 7 black swans1 ?\gh civiliz$ p _h exi/$ = ?ree ?\s& ye>s on ! e>? )\t meet+ ) !m1 may !re n also be 8m5 ^: heads d gr[ b5ea? _! %\ld]s10 not)/&+ a r less p]fect unanimity ( negative te/imony f obs]v]s8 ,mo/ p]sons w\ld answ] ,no2 x 0 m cr$ible t a bird %\ld v>y 9 its color1 ?an t m5 %\ld v>y 9 ! relative position ( _! pr9cipal organs4 ,& !re is no d\bt t 9 s say+ !y w\ld be "r3 b to say :y !y are "r1 w\ld be impossible1 )\t ent]+ m deeply ?an is usually done1 into ! true !ory ( ,induction4 ,aga91 !re are cases 9 :i* we reckon ) ! mo/ unfail+ confid5ce ^u uni=mity1 & o!r cases 9 :i* we d n c\nt ^u x at all4 ,9 "s we feel complete assurance t ! future w resemble ! pa/1 ! unkn[n be precisely simil> to ! kn[n4 ,9 o!rs1 h[ev] inv>iable may be ! result obta9$ f ! in/ances :i* h be5 obs]v$1 we draw f !m no m ?an a v feeble presumption t ! l result w hold 9 all o!r cases4 ,t a /raight l9e is ! %orte/ di/ance betwe5 two po9ts1 we d n d\bt to be true ev5 9 ! region ( ! fix$ />s47#aab7 ,:5 a *emi/ ann\nces ! exi/5ce & prop]ties ( a newly-discov]$ sub/ance1 if we confide 9 8 accuracy1 we feel assur$ t ! conclusions he has arriv$ at w hold univ]sally1 ?\gh ! induction be f\nd$ b on a s+le in/ance4 ,we d n )hold our ass5t1 wait+ = a repetition ( ! exp]im5t2 or if we d1 x is f a d\bt :e!r ! "o exp]im5t 0 prop]ly made1 n :e!r if prop]ly made x w\ld be conclusive4 ,"h1 !n1 is a g5]al law ( nature1 inf]r$ )\t hesitation f a s+le in/ance2 a univ]sal proposition f a s+ul> "o4 ,n[ m>k ano!r case1 & contra/ x ) ?is4 ,n all ! in/ances :i* h be5 obs]v$ s9ce ! beg9n+ ( ! _w1 9 support ( ! g5]al proposition t all cr[s are black1 w\ld be deem$ a suffici5t presumption ( ! tru? ( ! proposition1 to outweigh ! te/imony ( "o unexceptionable witness :o %\ld affirm t 9 "s region ( ! e>? n fully explor$1 he _h caught & exam9$ a cr[1 & _h f\nd x to be gray4 ,:y is a s+le in/ance1 9 "s cases1 suffici5t = a complete induction1 :ile 9 o!rs1 myriads ( concurr+ in/ances1 )\t a s+le exception kn[n or presum$1 g su* a v little way t[>d e/abli%+ a univ]sal proposition8 ,:oev] c answ] ?is "q kn[s m ( ! philosophy ( logic ?an ! wise/ ( ! anci5ts1 & has solv$ ! problem ( induction4 ,*apt] ,,iv4 ,( ,laws ,( ,nature4 #a4 ,9 ! contemplation ( t uni=mity 9 ! c\rse ( nature1 :i* is assum$ 9 e inf]5ce f exp]i5ce1 "o ( ! fir/ obs]vations t pres5t !mselves is1 t ! uni=mity 9 "q is n prop]ly uni=mity1 b uni=mities4 ,! g5]al regul>ity results f ! co-exi/5ce ( p>tial regul>ities4 ,! c\rse ( nature 9 g5]al is con/ant1 because ! c\rse ( ea* ( ! v>i\s ph5om5a t compose x is s4 ,a c]ta9 fact inv>iably occurs :5ev] c]ta9 circum/ances are pres5t1 & does n occur :5 !y are abs5t2 ! l is true ( ano!r fact2 & s on4 ,f ^! sep>ate ?reads ( connection betwe5 p>ts ( ! great :ole :i* we t]m nature1 a g5]al tissue ( connection unavoidably weaves itself1 by :i* ! :ole is held toge!r4 ,if ,a is always accompani$ by ,d1 ,b by ,e1 & ,c by ,f1 x foll[s t ,a ,b is accompani$ by ,d ,e1 ,a ,c by ,d ,f1 ,b ,c by ,e ,f1 & f9ally ,a ,b ,c by ,d ,e ,f2 & ?us ! g5]al "* ( regul>ity is produc$1 :i*1 along ) & 9 ! mid/ ( inf9ite div]sity1 p]vades all nature4 ,! fir/ po9t1 !re=e1 to be not$ 9 reg>d to :at is call$ ! uni=mity ( ! c\rse ( nature1 is1 t x is itself a complex fact1 comp\nd$ ( all ! sep>ate uni=mities :i* exi/ 9 respect to s+le ph5om5a4 ,^! v>i\s uni=mities1 :5 asc]ta9$ by :at is reg>d$ z a suffici5t induction1 we call1 9 common p>lance1 ,laws ( ,nature4 ,sci5tifically speak+1 t title is employ$ 9 a m re/rict$ s5se1 to designate ! uni=mities :5 r$uc$ to _! mo/ simple expression4 ,?us 9 ! illu/ration already employ$1 !re 7 sev5 uni=mities2 all ( :i*1 if consid]$ suffici5tly c]ta91 w\ld1 9 ! m lax application ( ! t]m1 be call$ laws ( nature4 ,b ( ! sev51 ?ree alone are prop]ly di/9ct & indep5d5t3 ^! be+ presuppos$1 ! o!rs foll[ ( c\rse4 ,! fir/ ?ree1 !re=e1 accord+ to ! /rict] acceptation1 are call$ laws ( nature2 ! rema9d] n2 because !y are 9 tru? m]e cases ( ! fir/ ?ree2 virtually includ$ 9 !m2 said1 !re=e1 to result f !m3 :oev] affirms ^? ?ree has already affirm$ all ! re/4 ,to sub/itute real examples = symbolical ones1 ! foll[+ are ?ree uni=mities1 or call !m laws ( nature3 ! law t air has weight1 ! law t pressure on a fluid is propagat$ equally 9 all directions1 & ! law t pressure 9 "o direction1 n oppos$ by equal pressure 9 ! contr>y direction1 produces motion1 :i* does n cease until equilibrium is re/or$4 ,f ^! ?ree uni=mities we %\ld be able to pr$ict ano!r uni=mity1 namely1 ! rise ( ! m]cury 9 ! ,torricellian tube4 ,?is1 9 ! /rict] use ( ! phrase1 is n a law ( nature4 ,x is ! result ( laws ( nature4 ,x is a case ( ea* & e "o ( ! ?ree laws3 & is ! only occurr5ce by :i* !y c\ld all be fulfill$4 ,if ! m]cury 7 n su/a9$ 9 ! b>omet]1 & su/a9$ at su* a height t ! column ( m]cury 7 equal 9 weight to a column ( ! atmosph]e ( ! same diamet]2 "h w\ld be a case1 ei!r ( ! air n press+ ^u ! surface ( ! m]cury ) ! =ce :i* is call$ its weight1 or ( ! d[nw>d pressure on ! m]cury n be+ propagat$ equally 9 an upw>d direction1 or ( a body press$ 9 "o direction & n 9 ! direction opposite1 ei!r n mov+ 9 ! direction 9 :i* x is press$1 or /opp+ be=e x _h atta9$ equilibrium4 ,if we knew1 !re=e1 ! ?ree simple laws1 b _h nev] tri$ ! ,torricellian exp]im5t1 we might d$uce its result f ^? laws4 ,! kn[n weight ( ! air1 comb9$ ) ! position ( ! app>atus1 w\ld br+ ! m]cury )9 ! fir/ ( ! ?ree inductions2 ! fir/ induction w\ld br+ x )9 ! second1 & ! second )9 ! ?ird1 9 ! mann] :i* we *>act]iz$ 9 treat+ ( ,ratioc9ation4 ,we %\ld ?us come to "k ! m complex uni=mity1 indep5d5tly ( specific exp]i5ce1 ?r\gh our k ( ! simpl] ones f :i* x results2 ?\gh1 = reasons :i* w appe> h]eaft]1 v]ification by specific exp]i5ce w\ld /ill be desirable1 & might possibly be indisp5sable4 ,complex uni=mities :i*1 l ?is1 are m]e cases ( simpl] ones1 & h1 !re=e1 be5 virtually affirm$ 9 affirm+ ^?1 may ) propriety be call$ laws1 b c sc>cely1 9 ! /rictness ( sci5tific spee*1 be t]m$ ,laws ( ,nature4 ,x is ! cu/om 9 sci5ce1 :]ev] regul>ity ( any k9d c be trac$1 to call ! g5]al proposition :i* expresses ! nature ( t regul>ity1 a law2 z :51 9 ma!matics1 we speak ( ! law ( decrease ( ! successive t]ms ( a conv]g+ s]ies4 ,b ! expression law ( nature has g5]ally be5 employ$ ) a sort ( tacit ref]5ce to ! orig9al s5se ( ! ^w law1 namely1 ! expression ( ! w ( a sup]ior4 ,:51 !re=e1 x appe>$ t any ( ! uni=mities :i* 7 obs]v$ 9 nature1 w\ld result spontane\sly f c]ta9 o!r uni=mities1 no sep>ate act ( creative w be+ suppos$ necess>y = ! production ( ! d]ivative uni=mities1 ^! h n usually be5 spok5 ( z laws ( nature4 ,accord+ to "o mode ( expression1 ! "q1 ,:at are ! laws ( nature8 may be /at$ ?us3 ,:at are ! fewe/ & simple/ assumptions1 :i* be+ grant$1 ! :ole exi/+ ord] ( nature w\ld result8 ,ano!r mode ( /at+ x w\ld be ?us3 ,:at are ! fewe/ g5]al propositions f :i* all ! uni=mities :i* exi/ 9 ! univ]se might be d$uctively inf]r$8 ,e great advance :i* m>ks an epo* 9 ! progress ( sci5ce1 has consi/$ 9 a /ep made t[>d ! solution ( ?is problem4 ,ev5 a simple colligation ( inductions already made1 )\t any fre% ext5sion ( ! inductive inf]5ce1 is already an advance 9 t direction4 ,:5 ,kepl] express$ ! regul>ity :i* exi/s 9 ! obs]v$ motions ( ! heav5ly bodies1 by ! ?ree g5]al propositions call$ 8 laws1 he1 9 s do+1 po9t$ out ?ree simple suppositions :i*1 in/ead ( a mu* great] numb]1 w\ld suffice to con/ruct ! :ole s*eme ( ! heav5ly motions1 s f> z x 0 kn[n up to t "t4 ,a simil> & /ill great] /ep 0 made :5 ^! laws1 :i* at fir/ did n seem to be includ$ 9 any m g5]al tru?s1 7 discov]$ to be cases ( ! ?ree laws ( motion1 z obta9+ among bodies :i* mutually t5d t[>d "o ano!r ) a c]ta9 =ce1 & h _h a c]ta9 in/antane\s impulse orig9ally impress$ ^u !m4 ,aft] ?is great discov]y1 ,kepl]'s ?ree propositions1 ?\gh /ill call$ laws1 w\ld h>dly1 by any p]son accu/om$ to use language ) precision1 be t]m$ laws ( nature3 t phrase w\ld be res]v$ = ! simpl] & m g5]al laws into :i* ,newton is said to h resolv$ !m4 ,accord+ to ?is language1 e well-gr\nd$ inductive g5]alization is ei!r a law ( nature1 or a result ( laws ( nature1 capable1 if ^? laws are kn[n1 ( be+ pr$ict$ f !m4 ,& ! problem ( ,inductive ,logic may be summ$ up 9 two que/ions3 h[ to asc]ta9 ! laws ( nature2 & h[1 aft] hav+ asc]ta9$ !m1 to foll[ !m into _! results4 ,on ! o!r h&1 we mu/ n suff] ourselves to imag9e t ?is mode ( /atem5t am\nts to a real analysis1 or to any ?+ b a m]e v]bal trans=mation ( ! problem2 = ! expression1 ,laws ( ,nature1 means no?+ b ! uni=mities :i* exi/ among natural ph5om5a 7or1 9 o!r words1 ! results ( induction71 :5 r$uc$ to _! simple/ expression4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 some?+ to h advanc$ s f>1 z to see t ! /udy ( nature is ! /udy ( laws1 n a law2 ( uni=mities1 9 ! plural numb]3 t ! diff]5t natural ph5om5a h _! sep>ate rules or modes ( tak+ place1 :i*1 ?\gh mu* int]mix$ & entangl$ ) "o ano!r1 may1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 be /udi$ ap>t3 t 7to resume our =m] metaphor7 ! regul>ity :i* exi/s 9 nature is a web compos$ ( di/9ct ?reads1 & only to be und]/ood by trac+ ea* ( ! ?reads sep>ately2 = :i* purpose x is (t5 necess>y to unravel "s portion ( ! web1 & exhibit ! fibres ap>t4 ,! rules ( exp]im5tal inquiry are ! contrivances = unravel+ ! web4 #b4 ,9 ?us attempt+ to asc]ta9 ! g5]al ord] ( nature by asc]ta9+ ! p>ticul> ord] ( ! occurr5ce ( ea* "o ( ! ph5om5a ( nature1 ! mo/ sci5tific proce$+ c be no m ?an an improv$ =m ( t :i* 0 primitively pursu$ by ! human und]/&+1 :ile undirect$ by sci5ce4 ,:5 mank9d fir/ =m$ ! idea ( /udy+ ph5om5a accord+ to a /rict] & sur] me?od ?an t :i* !y _h 9 ! fir/ in/ance spontane\sly adopt$1 !y did n1 con=mably to ! well-meant b impracticable precept ( ,desc>tes1 set out f ! supposition t no?+ _h be5 already asc]ta9$4 ,_m ( ! uni=mities exi/+ among ph5om5a are s con/ant1 & s op5 to obs]vation1 z to =ce !mselves ^u involunt>y recognition4 ,"s facts are s p]petually & famili>ly accompani$ by c]ta9 o!rs1 t mank9d le>n$1 z *ildr5 le>n1 to expect ! "o :]e !y f\nd ! o!r1 long be=e !y knew h[ to put _! expectation into words by ass]t+1 9 a proposition1 ! exi/5ce ( a connection betwe5 ^? ph5om5a4 ,no sci5ce 0 ne$$ to tea* t food n\ri%es1 t wat] dr[ns1 or qu5*es ?ir/1 t ! sun gives light & heat1 t bodies fall to ! gr\nd4 ,! fir/ sci5tific inquir]s assum$ ^! & ! l z kn[n tru?s1 & set out f !m to discov] o!rs :i* 7 unkn[n3 nor 7 !y wrong 9 s do+1 subject1 h[ev]1 z !y aft]w>d began to see1 to an ult]ior revision ( ^! spontane\s g5]alizations !mselves1 :5 ! progress ( k po9t$ out limits to !m1 or %[$ _! tru? to be cont+5t on "s circum/ance n orig9ally att5d$ to4 ,x w appe>1 ,i ?9k1 f ! subsequ5t "p ( our inquiry1 t !re is no logical fallacy 9 ?is mode ( proce$+2 b we may see already t any o!r mode is rigor\sly impracticable3 s9ce x is impossible to frame any sci5tific me?od ( induction1 or te/ ( ! correctness ( inductions1 unless on ! hypo!sis t "s inductions des]v+ ( reliance h be5 already made4 ,let u rev]t1 = in/ance1 to "o ( our =m] illu/rations1 & consid] :y x is t1 ) exactly ! same am\nt ( evid5ce1 bo? negative & positive1 we did n reject ! ass]tion t !re are black swans1 :ile we %\ld refuse cr$5ce to any te/imony :i* ass]t$ t !re 7 m5 we>+ _! heads und]nea? _! %\ld]s4 ,! fir/ ass]tion 0 m cr$ible ?an ! latt]4 ,b :y m cr$ible8 ,s long z nei!r ph5om5on _h be5 actually witness$1 :at reason 0 !re = f9d+ ! "o h>d] to be believ$ ?an ! o!r8 ,app>5tly because !re is less con/ancy 9 ! colors ( animals1 ?an 9 ! g5]al /ructure ( _! anatomy4 ,b h[ d we "k ?is8 ,d\btless1 f exp]i5ce4 ,x appe>s1 !n1 t we ne$ exp]i5ce to in=m u1 9 :at degree1 & 9 :at cases1 or sorts ( cases1 exp]i5ce is to be reli$ on4 ,exp]i5ce mu/ be consult$ 9 ord] to le>n f x "u :at circum/ances argum5ts f x w be valid4 ,we h no ult]ior te/ to :i* we subject exp]i5ce 9 g5]al2 b we make exp]i5ce its own te/4 ,exp]i5ce te/ifies1 t among ! uni=mities :i* x exhibits or seems to exhibit1 "s are m to be reli$ on ?an o!rs2 & uni=mity1 !re=e1 may be presum$1 f any giv5 numb] ( in/ances1 ) a great] degree ( assurance1 9 proportion z ! case belongs to a class 9 :i* ! uni=mities h hi!rto be5 f\nd m uni=m4 ,?is mode ( correct+ "o g5]alization by means ( ano!r1 a n>r[] g5]alization by a wid]1 :i* common s5se sugge/s & adopts 9 practice1 is ! real type ( sci5tific ,induction4 ,all t art c d is b to give accuracy & precision to ?is process1 & adapt x to all v>ieties ( cases1 )\t any ess5tial alt]ation 9 its pr9ciple4 ,!re are ( c\rse no means ( apply+ su* a te/ z t above describ$1 unless we already possess a g5]al k ( ! preval5t "* ( ! uni=mities exi/+ ?r\gh\t nature4 ,! indisp5sable f\ndation1 !re=e1 ( a sci5tific =mula ( induction1 mu/ be a survey ( ! inductions to :i* mank9d h be5 conduct$ 9 unsci5tific practice2 ) ! special purpose ( asc]ta9+ :at k9ds ( uni=mities h be5 f\nd p]fectly inv>iable1 p]vad+ all nature1 & :at are ^? :i* h be5 f\nd to v>y ) diff]5ce ( "t1 place1 or o!r *angeable circum/ances4 #c4 ,! necessity ( su* a survey is confirm$ by ! consid]ation1 t ! /rong] inductions are ! t\*-/one to :i* we always endeavor to br+ ! weak]4 ,if we f9d any means ( d$uc+ "o ( ! less /rong inductions f /rong] ones1 x acquires1 at once1 all ! /r5g? ( ^? f :i* x is d$uc$2 & ev5 adds to t /r5g?2 s9ce ! indep5d5t exp]i5ce on :i* ! weak] induction previ\sly re/$1 becomes additional evid5ce ( ! tru? ( ! bett] e/abli%$ law 9 :i* x is n[ f\nd to be includ$4 ,we may h inf]r$1 f hi/orical evid5ce1 t ! uncontroll$ p[] ( a mon>*1 ( an ari/ocracy1 or ( ! majority1 w (t5 be abus$3 b we are entitl$ to rely on ?is g5]alization ) mu* great] assurance :5 x is %[n to be a coroll>y f /ill bett] e/abli%$ facts2 ! v l[ degree ( elevation ( "* ev] yet atta9$ by ! av]age ( mank9d1 & ! little efficacy1 = ! mo/ "p1 ( ! modes ( education hi!rto practic$1 9 ma9ta9+ ! pr$om9ance ( reason & consci5ce ov] ! selfi% prop5sities4 ,x is at ! same "t obvi\s t ev5 ^! m g5]al facts d]ive an accession ( evid5ce f ! te/imony :i* hi/ory be>s to ! effects ( despotism4 ,! /rong induction becomes /ill /rong] :5 a weak] "o has be5 b\nd up ) x4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if an induction conflicts ) /rong] inductions1 or ) conclusions capable ( be+ correctly d$uc$ f !m1 !n1 unless on reconsid]ation x %\ld appe> t "s ( ! /rong] inductions h be5 express$ ) great] univ]sality ?an _! evid5ce w>rants1 ! weak] "o mu/ give way4 ,! op9ion s long preval5t t a comet1 or any o!r unusual appe>ance 9 ! heav5ly regions1 0 ! precursor ( calamities to mank9d1 or to ^? at lea/ :o witness$ x2 ! belief 9 ! v]acity ( ! oracles ( ,delphi or ,dodona2 ! reliance on a/rology1 or on ! wea!r-prophecies 9 almanacs1 7 d\btless inductions suppos$ to be gr\nd$ on exp]i5ce37#aac7 & fai? 9 su* delusions seems q capable ( hold+ out aga9/ a great multitude ( failures1 provid$ x be n\ri%$ by a reasonable numb] ( casual co9cid5ces betwe5 ! pr$iction & ! ev5t4 ,:at has really put an end to ^! insuffici5t inductions1 is _! inconsi/5cy ) ! /rong] inductions subsequ5tly obta9$ by sci5tific inquiry1 respect+ ! causes on :i* t]re/rial ev5ts really dep5d2 & :]e ^? sci5tific tru?s h n yet p5etrat$1 ! same or simil> delusions /ill prevail4 ,x may be affirm$ z a g5]al pr9ciple1 t all inductions1 :e!r /rong or weak1 :i* c be connect$ by ratioc9ation1 are confirmatory ( "o ano!r2 :ile any :i* lead d$uctively to consequ5ces t are incompatible1 become mutually ea* o!r's te/1 %[+ t "o or o!r mu/ be giv5 up1 or at lea/ m gu>d$ly express$4 ,9 ! case ( inductions :i* confirm ea* o!r1 ! "o :i* becomes a conclusion f ratioc9ation rises to at lea/ ! level ( c]ta9ty ( ! weake/ ( ^? f :i* x is d$uc$2 :ile 9 g5]al all are m or less increas$ 9 c]ta9ty4 ,?us ! ,torricellian exp]im5t1 ?\gh a m]e case ( ?ree m g5]al laws1 n only /r5g!n$ greatly ! evid5ce on :i* ^? laws re/$1 b conv]t$ "o ( !m 7! weight ( ! atmosph]e7 f a /ill d\btful g5]alization into a completely e/abli%$ doctr9e4 ,if1 !n1 a survey ( ! uni=mities :i* h be5 asc]ta9$ to exi/ 9 nature1 %\ld po9t out "s :i*1 z f> z any human purpose requires c]ta9ty1 may be consid]$ q c]ta9 & q univ]sal2 !n by means ( ^! uni=mities we may be able to raise multitudes ( o!r inductions to ! same po9t 9 ! scale4 ,= if we c %[1 ) respect to any inductive inf]5ce1 t ei!r x mu/ be true1 or "o ( ^! c]ta9 & univ]sal inductions mu/ admit ( an exception2 ! =m] g5]alization w atta9 ! same c]ta9ty1 & indefeasibl5ess )9 ! b\nds assign$ to x1 :i* are ! attributes ( ! latt]4 ,x w be prov$ to be a law2 & if n a result ( o!r & simpl] laws1 x w be a law ( nature4 ,!re are su* c]ta9 & univ]sal inductions2 & x is because !re are su*1 t a ,logic ( ,induction is possible4 ,*apt] ,v4 ,( ,! ,law ,( ,univ]sal ,causation4 #a4 ,! ph5om5a ( nature exi/ 9 two di/9ct relations to "o ano!r2 t ( simultaneity1 & t ( succession4 ,e ph5om5on is relat$1 9 a uni=m mann]1 to "s ph5om5a t co-exi/ ) x1 & to "s t h prec$$ & w foll[ x4 ,( ! uni=mities :i* exi/ among syn*ron\s ph5om5a1 ! mo/ important1 on e acc\nt1 are ! laws ( numb]2 & next to !m ^? ( space1 or1 9 o!r words1 ( ext5sion & figure4 ,! laws ( numb] are common to syn*ron\s & successive ph5om5a4 ,t two & two make f\r1 is equally true :e!r ! second two foll[ ! fir/ two or accompany !m4 ,x is z true ( days & ye>s z ( feet & in*es4 ,! laws ( ext5sion & figure 79 o!r words1 ! !orems ( geometry1 f its l[e/ to its highe/ bran*es7 are1 on ! contr>y1 laws ( simultane\s ph5om5a only4 ,! v>i\s p>ts ( space1 & ( ! objects :i* are said to fill space1 co-exi/2 & ! unv>y+ laws :i* are ! subject ( ! sci5ce ( geometry1 are an expression ( ! mode ( _! co-exi/5ce4 ,?is is a class ( laws1 or 9 o!r words1 ( uni=mities1 = ! compreh5sion & pro( ( :i* x is n necess>y to suppose any lapse ( "t1 any v>iety ( facts or ev5ts succe$+ "o ano!r4 ,! propositions ( geometry are indep5d5t ( ! succession ( ev5ts4 ,all ?+s :i* possess ext5sion1 or1 9 o!r words1 :i* fill space1 are subject to geometrical laws4 ,possess+ ext5sion1 !y possess figure2 possess+ figure1 !y mu/ possess "s figure 9 p>ticul>1 & h all ! prop]ties :i* geometry assigns to t figure4 ,if "o body be a sph]e & ano!r a cyl9d]1 ( equal height & diamet]1 ! "o w be exactly two-?irds ( ! o!r1 let ! nature & quality ( ! mat]ial be :at x w4 ,aga91 ea* body1 & ea* po9t ( a body1 mu/ occupy "s place or position among o!r bodies2 & ! position ( two bodies relatively to ea* o!r1 ( :atev] nature ! bodies be1 may be un]r+ly inf]r$ f ! position ( ea* ( !m relatively to any ?ird body4 ,9 ! laws ( numb]1 !n1 & 9 ^? ( space1 we recognize 9 ! mo/ unqualifi$ mann]1 ! rigor\s univ]sality ( :i* we are 9 que/4 ,^? laws h be5 9 all ages ! type ( c]ta9ty1 ! /&>d ( comp>ison = all inf]ior degrees ( evid5ce4 ,_! inv>iability is s p]fect1 t x r5d]s u unable ev5 to conceive any exception to !m2 & philosoph]s h be5 l$1 ?\gh 7z ,i h endeavor$ to %[7 errone\sly1 to consid] _! evid5ce z ly+ n 9 exp]i5ce1 b 9 ! orig9al con/itution ( ! intellect4 ,if1 !re=e1 f ! laws ( space & numb]1 we 7 able to d$uce uni=mities ( any o!r description1 ?is w\ld be conclusive evid5ce to u t ^? o!r uni=mities possess$ ! same rigor\s c]ta9ty4 ,b ?is we c n d4 ,f laws ( space & numb] alone1 no?+ c be d$uc$ b laws ( space & numb]4 ,( all tru?s relat+ to ph5om5a1 ! mo/ valuable to u are ^? :i* relate to ! ord] ( _! succession4 ,on a k ( ^! is f\nd$ e reasonable anticipation ( future facts1 & :atev] p[] we possess ( influ5c+ ^? facts to our advantage4 ,ev5 ! laws ( geometry are *iefly ( practical importance to u z be+ a portion ( ! premises f :i* ! ord] ( ! succession ( ph5om5a may be inf]r$4 ,inasmu* z ! motion ( bodies1 ! action ( =ces1 & ! propagation ( influ5ces ( all sorts1 take place 9 c]ta9 l9es & ov] def9ite spaces1 ! prop]ties ( ^? l9es & spaces are an important "p ( ! laws to :i* ^? ph5om5a are !mselves subject4 ,aga91 motions1 =ces1 or o!r influ5ces1 & times1 are num]able quantities2 & ! prop]ties ( numb] are applicable to !m z to all o!r ?+s4 ,b ?\gh ! laws ( numb] & space are important elem5ts 9 ! asc]ta9m5t ( uni=mities ( succession1 !y c d no?+ t[>d x :5 tak5 by !mselves4 ,!y c only be made in/rum5tal to t purpose :5 we comb9e ) !m additional premises1 expressive ( uni=mities ( succession already kn[n4 ,by tak+1 = in/ance1 z premises ^! propositions1 t bodies act$ ^u by an in/antane\s =ce move ) uni=m velocity 9 /raight l9es2 t bodies act$ ^u by a cont9u\s =ce move ) accel]at$ velocity 9 /raight l9es2 & t bodies act$ ^u by two =ces 9 diff]5t directions move 9 ! diagonal ( a p>allelogram1 ^: sides repres5t ! direction & quantity ( ^? =ces2 we may by comb9+ ^! tru?s ) propositions relat+ to ! prop]ties ( /raight l9es & ( p>allelograms 7z t a triangle is half a p>allelogram ( ! same base & altitude71 d$uce ano!r important uni=mity ( succession1 viz41 t a body mov+ r\nd a c5tre ( =ce describes areas proportional to ! times4 ,b unless !re _h be5 laws ( succession 9 our premises1 !re c\ld h be5 no tru?s ( succession 9 our conclusions4 ,a simil> rem>k might be ext5d$ to e o!r class ( ph5om5a really peculi>2 &1 _h x be5 att5d$ to1 w\ld h prev5t$ _m *im]ical attempts at demon/rations ( ! indemon/rable1 & explanations :i* d n expla94 ,x is n1 !re=e1 en\gh = u t ! laws ( space1 :i* are only laws ( simultane\s ph5om5on1 & ! laws ( numb]1 :i* ?\gh true ( successive ph5om5a d n relate to _! succession1 possess ! rigor\s c]ta9ty & univ]sality ( :i* we are 9 se>*4 ,we mu/ endeavor to f9d "s law ( succession :i* has ^? same attributes1 & is !re=e fit to be made ! f\ndation ( processes = discov]+1 & ( a te/ = v]ify+1 all o!r uni=mities ( succession4 ,?is fundam5tal law mu/ resemble ! tru?s ( geometry 9 _! mo/ rem>kable peculi>ity1 t ( nev] be+1 9 any in/ance :atev]1 defeat$ or susp5d$ by any *ange ( circum/ances4 ,n[ among all ^? uni=mities 9 ! succession ( ph5om5a1 :i* common obs]vation is suffici5t to br+ to light1 !re are v few :i* h any1 ev5 app>5t1 pret5sion to ?is rigor\s indefeasibility3 & ( ^? few1 "o only has be5 f\nd capable ( completely su/a9+ x4 ,9 t "o1 h[ev]1 we recognize a law :i* is univ]sal also 9 ano!r s5se2 x is co-ext5sive ) ! entire field ( successive ph5om5a1 all in/ances :atev] ( succession be+ examples ( x4 ,?is law is ! ,law ( ,causation4 ,! tru? t e fact :i* has a beg9n+ has a cause1 is co-ext5sive ) human exp]i5ce4 ,?is g5]alization may appe> to "s m9ds n to am\nt to mu*1 s9ce aft] all x ass]ts only ?is3 8x is a law1 t e ev5t dep5ds on "s law30 8x is a law1 t !re is a law = e ?+40 ,we mu/ n1 h[ev]1 conclude t ! g5]ality ( ! pr9ciple is m]ely v]bal2 x w be f\nd on inspection to be no vague or unmean+ ass]tion1 b a mo/ important & really fundam5tal tru?4 #b4 ,! notion ( ,cause be+ ! root ( ! :ole !ory ( ,induction1 x is indisp5sable t ?is idea %\ld1 at ! v outset ( our inquiry1 be1 ) ! utmo/ practicable degree ( precision1 fix$ & det]m9$4 ,if1 inde$1 x 7 necess>y = ! purpose ( inductive logic t ! /rife %\ld be quell$1 :i* has s long rag$ among ! diff]5t s*ools ( metaphysicians1 respect+ ! orig9 & analysis ( our idea ( causation2 ! promulgation1 or at lea/ ! g5]al reception1 ( a true !ory ( induction1 might be consid]$ desp]ate = a long "t to come4 ,b ! sci5ce ( ! ,inve/igation ( ,tru? by means ( ,evid5ce1 is happily indep5d5t ( _m ( ! controv]sies :i* p]plex ! sci5ce ( ! ultimate con/itution ( ! human m9d1 & is "u no necessity ( pu%+ ! analysis ( m5tal ph5om5on to t extreme limit :i* alone ought to satisfy a metaphysician4 ,i premise1 !n1 t :5 9 ! c\rse ( ?is inquiry ,i speak ( ! cause ( any ph5om5on1 ,i d n mean a cause :i* is n itself a ph5om5on2 ,i make no rese>* into ! ultimate or ontological cause ( any ?+4 ,to adopt a di/9ction famili> 9 ! writ+s ( ! ,scot* metaphysicians1 & especially ( ,reid1 ! causes ) :i* ,i conc]n myself are n effici5t1 b physical causes4 ,!y are causes 9 t s5se alone1 9 :i* "o physical fact is said to be ! cause ( ano!r4 ,( ! effici5t causes ( ph5om5a1 or :e!r any su* causes exi/ at all1 ,i am n call$ ^u to give an op9ion4 ,! notion ( causation is deem$1 by ! s*ools ( metaphysics mo/ 9 vogue at ! pres5t mom5t1 to imply a my/]i\s & mo/ p[]ful tie1 su* z c n1 or at lea/ does n1 exi/ betwe5 any physical fact & t o!r physical fact on :i* x is inv>iably consequ5t1 & :i* is popul>ly t]m$ its cause3 & !nce is d$uc$ ! suppos$ necessity ( asc5d+ high]1 into ! ess5ces & inh]5t con/itution ( ?+s1 to f9d ! true cause1 ! cause :i* is n only foll[$ by1 b actually produces1 ! effect4 ,no su* necessity exi/s = ! purposes ( ! pres5t inquiry1 nor w any su* doctr9e be f\nd 9 ! foll[+ pages4 ,! only notion ( a cause1 :i* ! !ory ( induction requires1 is su* a notion z c be ga9$ f exp]i5ce4 ,! ,law ( ,causation1 ! recognition ( :i* is ! ma9 pill> ( inductive sci5ce1 is b ! famili> tru?1 t inv>iability ( succession is f\nd by obs]vation to obta9 betwe5 e fact 9 nature & "s o!r fact :i* has prec$$ x2 indep5d5tly ( all consid]ations respect+ ! ultimate mode ( production ( ph5om5a1 & ( e o!r "q reg>d+ ! nature ( 8,?+s 9 !mselves40 ,betwe5 ! ph5om5a1 !n1 :i* exi/ at any in/ant1 & ! ph5om5a :i* exi/ at ! succe$+ in/ant1 !re is an inv>iable ord] ( succession2 &1 z we said 9 speak+ ( ! g5]al uni=mity ( ! c\rse ( nature1 ?is web is compos$ ( sep>ate fibres2 ?is collective ord] is made up ( p>ticul> sequ5ces1 obta9+ inv>iably among ! sep>ate p>ts4 ,to c]ta9 facts1 c]ta9 facts always d1 &1 z we believe1 w cont9ue to1 succe$4 ,! inv>iable antec$5t is t]m$ ! cause2 ! inv>iable consequ5t1 ! effect4 ,& ! univ]sality ( ! law ( causation consi/s 9 ?is1 t e consequ5t is connect$ 9 ?is mann] ) "s p>ticul> antec$5t1 or set ( antec$5ts4 ,let ! fact be :at x may1 if x has begun to exi/1 x 0 prec$$ by "s fact or facts1 ) :i* x is inv>iably connect$4 ,= e ev5t !re exi/s "s comb9ation ( objects or ev5ts1 "s giv5 concurr5ce ( circum/ances1 positive & negative1 ! occurr5ce ( :i* is always foll[$ by t ph5om5on4 ,we may n h f\nd out :at ?is concurr5ce ( circum/ances may be2 b we nev] d\bt t !re is su* a "o1 & t x nev] occurs )\t hav+ ! ph5om5on 9 "q z its effect or consequ5ce4 ,on ! univ]sality ( ?is tru? dep5ds ! possibility ( r$uc+ ! inductive process to rules4 ,! und\bt$ assurance we h t !re is a law to be f\nd if we only knew h[ to f9d x1 w be se5 pres5tly to be ! s\rce f :i* ! canons ( ! ,inductive ,logic d]ive _! validity4 #c4 ,x is seldom1 if ev]1 betwe5 a consequ5t & a s+le antec$5t1 t ?is inv>iable sequ5ce subsi/s4 ,x is usually betwe5 a consequ5t & ! sum ( sev]al antec$5ts2 ! concurr5ce ( all ( !m be+ requisite to produce1 t is1 to be c]ta9 ( be+ foll[$ by1 ! consequ5t4 ,9 su* cases x is v common to s+le out "o only ( ! antec$5ts "u ! d5om9ation ( ,cause1 call+ ! o!rs m]ely ,conditions4 ,?us1 if a p]son eats ( a p>ticul> di%1 & dies 9 consequ5ce1 t is1 w\ld n h di$ if he _h n eat5 ( x1 p w\ld be apt to say t eat+ ( t di% 0 ! cause ( 8 dea?4 ,!re ne$s n1 h[ev]1 be any inv>iable connection betwe5 eat+ ( ! di% & dea?2 b !re c]ta9ly is1 among ! circum/ances :i* took place1 "s comb9ation or o!r on :i* dea? is inv>iably consequ5t3 z1 = in/ance1 ! act ( eat+ ( ! di%1 comb9$ ) a p>ticul> bodily con/itution1 a p>ticul> /ate ( pres5t heal?1 & p]haps ev5 a c]ta9 /ate ( ! atmosph]e2 ! :ole ( :i* circum/ances p]haps con/itut$ 9 ?is p>ticul> case ! conditions ( ! ph5om5on1 or1 9 o!r words1 ! set ( antec$5ts :i* det]m9$ x1 & b = :i* x w\ld n h happ5$4 ,! real ,cause1 is ! :ole ( ^! antec$5ts2 & we h1 philosophically speak+1 no "r to give ! "n ( cause to "o ( !m1 exclusively ( ! o!rs4 ,:at1 9 ! case we h suppos$1 disguises ! incorrectness ( ! expression1 is ?is3 t ! v>i\s conditions1 except ! s+le "o ( eat+ ! food1 7 n ev5ts 7t is1 in/antane\s *anges1 or successions ( in/antane\s *anges7 b /ates1 possess+ m or less ( p]man5cy2 & might !re=e h prec$$ ! effect by an indef9ite l5g? ( duration1 = want ( ! ev5t :i* 0 requisite to complete ! requir$ concurr5ce ( conditions3 :ile z soon z t ev5t1 eat+ ! food1 occurs1 no o!r cause is wait$ =1 b ! effect beg9s imm$iately to take place3 & h5ce ! appe>ance is pres5t$ ( a m imm$iate & close connection betwe5 ! effect & t "o antec$5t1 ?an betwe5 ! effect & ! rema9+ conditions4 ,b ?\gh we may ?9k prop] to give ! "n ( cause to t "o condition1 ! fulfillm5t ( :i* completes ! tale1 & br+s ab\t ! effect )\t fur!r delay2 ?is condition has really no clos] relation to ! effect ?an any ( ! o!r conditions has4 ,all ! conditions 7 equally indisp5sable to ! production ( ! consequ5t2 & ! /atem5t ( ! cause is incomplete1 unless 9 "s %ape or o!r we introduce !m all4 ,a man takes m]cury1 goes out-(-doors1 & cat*es cold4 ,we say1 p]haps1 t ! cause ( 8 tak+ cold 0 exposure to ! air4 ,x is cle>1 h[ev]1 t 8 hav+ tak5 m]cury may h be5 a necess>y condition ( 8 cat*+ cold2 & ?\gh x might consi/ ) usage to say t ! cause ( 8 attack 0 exposure to ! air1 to be accurate we ought to say t ! cause 0 exposure to ! air :ile "u ! effect ( m]cury4 ,if we d n1 :5 aim+ at accuracy1 enum]ate all ! conditions1 x is only because "s ( !m w 9 mo/ cases be und]/ood )\t be+ express$1 or because = ! purpose 9 view !y may )\t detrim5t be ov]look$4 ,= example1 :5 we say1 ! cause ( a man's dea? 0 t 8 foot slipp$ 9 climb+ a ladd]1 we omit z a ?+ unnecess>y to be /at$ ! circum/ance ( 8 weight1 ?\gh q z indisp5sable a condition ( ! effect :i* took place4 ,:5 we say t ! ass5t ( ! cr[n to a bill makes x law1 we mean t ! ass5t1 be+ nev] giv5 until all ! o!r conditions are fulfill$1 makes up ! sum ( ! conditions1 ?\gh no "o n[ reg>ds x z ! pr9cipal "o4 ,:5 ! decision ( a legislative assembly has be5 det]m9$ by ! ca/+ vote ( ! *airman1 we sometimes say t ?is "o p]son 0 ! cause ( all ! effects :i* result$ f ! enactm5t4 ,yet we d n really suppose t 8 s+le vote contribut$ m to ! result ?an t ( any o!r p]son :o vot$ 9 ! affirmative2 b1 = ! purpose we h 9 view1 :i* is to insi/ on 8 individual responsibility1 ! "p :i* any o!r p]son _h 9 ! transaction is n mat]ial4 ,9 all ^! in/ances ! fact :i* 0 dignifi$ ) ! "n ( cause1 0 ! "o condition :i* came la/ into exi/5ce4 ,b x mu/ n be suppos$ t 9 ! employm5t ( ! t]m ?is or any o!r rule is always adh]$ to4 ,no?+ c bett] %[ ! abs5ce ( any sci5tific gr\nd = ! di/9ction betwe5 ! cause ( a ph5om5on & its conditions1 ?an ! caprici\s mann] 9 :i* we select f among ! conditions t :i* we *oose to d5om9ate ! cause4 ,h[ev] num]\s ! conditions may be1 !re is h>dly any ( !m :i* may n1 accord+ to ! purpose ( our imm$iate disc\rse1 obta9 t nom9al pre-em95ce4 ,?is w be se5 by analyz+ ! conditions ( "s "o famili> ph5om5on4 ,= example1 a /one ?r[n into wat] falls to ! bottom4 ,:at are ! conditions ( ?is ev5t8 ,9 ! fir/ place !re mu/ be a /one1 & wat]1 & ! /one mu/ be ?r[n into ! wat]2 b ^! suppositions =m+ "p ( ! enunciation ( ! ph5om5on itself1 to include !m also among ! conditions w\ld be a vici\s tautology2 & ?is class ( conditions1 !re=e1 h nev] receiv$ ! "n ( cause f any b ! ,ari/otelians1 by :om !y 7 call$ ! mat]ial cause1 causa mat]ialis4 ,! next condition is1 !re mu/ be an e>?3 & accord+ly x is (t5 said1 t ! fall ( a /one is caus$ by ! e>?2 or by a p[] or prop]ty ( ! e>?1 or a =ce ex]t$ by ! e>?1 all ( :i* are m]ely r\ndab\t ways ( say+ t x is caus$ by ! e>?2 or1 la/ly1 ! e>?'s attraction2 :i* also is only a te*nical mode ( say+ t ! e>? causes ! motion1 ) ! additional p>ticul>ity t ! motion is t[>d ! e>?1 :i* is n a "* ( ! cause1 b ( ! effect4 ,let u n[ pass to ano!r condition4 ,x is n en\gh t ! e>? %\ld exi/2 ! body mu/ be )9 t di/ance f x1 9 :i* ! e>?'s attraction prepond]ates ov] t ( any o!r body4 ,accord+ly we may say1 & ! expression w\ld be confess$ly correct1 t ! cause ( ! /one's fall+ is its be+ )9 ! sph]e ( ! e>?'s attraction4 ,we proce$ to a fur!r condition4 ,! /one is imm]s$ 9 wat]3 x is !re=e a condition ( its rea*+ ! gr\nd1 t its specific gravity exce$ t ( ! surr\nd+ fluid1 or 9 o!r words t x surpass 9 weight an equal volume ( wat]4 ,accord+ly any "o w\ld be ackn[l$g$ to speak correctly :o said1 t ! cause ( ! /one's go+ to ! bottom is its exce$+ 9 specific gravity ! fluid 9 :i* x is imm]s$4 ,?us we see t ea* & e condition ( ! ph5om5on may be tak5 9 its turn1 &1 ) equal propriety 9 common p>lance1 b ) equal impropriety 9 sci5tific disc\rse1 may be spok5 ( z if x 7 ! entire cause4 ,& 9 practice1 t p>ticul> condition is usually /yl$ ! cause1 ^: %>e 9 ! matt] is sup]ficially ! mo/ conspicu\s1 or ^: requisit5ess to ! production ( ! effect we happ5 to be insi/+ on at ! mom5t4 ,s great is ! =ce ( ?is la/ consid]ation1 t x sometimes induces u to give ! "n ( cause ev5 to "o ( ! negative conditions4 ,we say1 = example1 ,! army 0 surpris$ because ! s5t9el 0 (f 8 po/4 ,b s9ce ! s5t9el's abs5ce 0 n :at creat$ ! enemy1 or put ! soldi]s asleep1 h[ did x cause !m to be surpris$8 ,all t is really meant is1 t ! ev5t w\ld n h happ5$ if he _h be5 at 8 duty4 ,8 be+ (f 8 po/ 0 no produc+ cause1 b ! m]e abs5ce ( a prev5t+ cause3 x 0 simply equival5t to 8 non-exi/5ce4 ,f no?+1 f a m]e negation1 no consequ5ces c proce$4 ,all effects are connect$1 by ! law ( causation1 ) "s set ( positive conditions2 negative ones1 x is true1 be+ almo/ always requir$ 9 addition4 ,9 o!r words1 e fact or ph5om5on :i* has a beg9n+1 inv>iably arises :5 "s c]ta9 comb9ation ( positive facts exi/s1 provid$ c]ta9 o!r positive facts d n exi/4 ,!re is1 no d\bt1 a t5d5cy 7:i* our fir/ example1 t ( dea? f tak+ a p>ticul> food1 suffici5tly illu/rates7 to associate ! idea ( causation ) ! proximate antec$5t ev5t1 r ?an ) any ( ! antec$5t /ates1 or p]man5t facts1 :i* may happ5 also to be conditions ( ! ph5om5on2 ! reason be+ t ! ev5t n only exi/s1 b beg9s to exi/ imm$iately previ\s2 :ile ! o!r conditions may h pre-exi/$ = an indef9ite "t4 ,& ?is t5d5cy %[s itself v visibly 9 ! diff]5t logical fictions :i* are resort$ to1 ev5 by m5 ( sci5ce1 to avoid ! necessity ( giv+ ! "n ( cause to any ?+ :i* _h exi/$ = an indet]m9ate l5g? ( "t be=e ! effect4 ,?us1 r ?an say t ! e>? causes ! fall ( bodies1 !y ascribe x to a =ce ex]t$ by ! e>?1 or an attraction by ! e>?1 ab/ractions :i* !y c repres5t to !mselves z exhau/$ by ea* ef=t1 & !re=e con/itut+ at ea* successive in/ant a fre% fact1 simultane\s )1 or only imm$iately prec$+1 ! effect4 ,inasmu* z ! com+ ( ! circum/ance :i* completes ! assemblage ( conditions1 is a *ange or ev5t1 x !nce happ5s t an ev5t is always ! antec$5t 9 close/ app>5t proximity to ! consequ5t3 & ?is may acc\nt = ! illusion :i* disposes u to look ^u ! proximate ev5t z /&+ m peculi>ly 9 ! position ( a cause ?an any ( ! antec$5t /ates4 ,b ev5 ?is peculi>ity1 ( be+ 9 clos] proximity to ! effect ?an any o!r ( its conditions1 is1 z we h already se51 f> f be+ necess>y to ! common notion ( a cause2 ) :i* notion1 on ! contr>y1 any "o ( ! conditions1 ei!r positive or negative1 is f\nd1 on occasion1 completely to accord47#aad7 ,! cause1 !n1 philosophically speak+1 is ! sum total ( ! conditions1 positive & negative tak5 toge!r2 ! :ole ( ! cont+5cies ( e description1 :i* be+ realiz$1 ! consequ5t inv>iably foll[s4 ,! negative conditions1 h[ev]1 ( any ph5om5on1 a special enum]ation ( :i* w\ld g5]ally be v prolix1 may be all summ$ up "u "o head1 namely1 ! abs5ce ( prev5t+ or c\nt]act+ causes4 ,! conv5i5ce ( ?is mode ( expression is ma9ly gr\nd$ on ! fact1 t ! effects ( any cause 9 c\nt]act+ ano!r cause may 9 mo/ cases be1 ) /rict sci5tific exactness1 reg>d$ z a m]e ext5sion ( its own prop] & sep>ate effects4 ,if gravity ret>ds ! upw>d motion ( a projectile1 & deflects x into a p>abolic trajectory1 x produces1 9 s do+1 ! v same k9d ( effect1 & ev5 7z ma!maticians "k7 ! same quantity ( effect1 z x does 9 its ord9>y op]ation ( caus+ ! fall ( bodies :5 simply depriv$ ( _! support4 ,if an alkal9e solution mix$ ) an acid de/roys its s\rness1 & prev5ts x f r$d5+ vegetable blues1 x is because ! specific effect ( ! alkali is to comb9e ) ! acid1 & =m a comp\nd ) totally diff]5t qualities4 ,?is prop]ty1 :i* causes ( all descriptions possess1 ( prev5t+ ! effects ( o!r causes by virtue 7= ! mo/ "p7 ( ! same laws accord+ to :i* !y produce _! own17#aae7 enables u1 by e/abli%+ ! g5]al axiom t all causes are liable to be c\nt]act$ 9 _! effects by "o ano!r1 to disp5se ) ! consid]ation ( negative conditions entirely1 & limit ! notion ( cause to ! assemblage ( ! positive conditions ( ! ph5om5on3 "o negative condition inv>iably und]/ood1 & ! same 9 all in/ances 7namely1 ! abs5ce ( c\nt]act+ causes7 be+ suffici5t1 along ) ! sum ( ! positive conditions1 to make up ! :ole set ( circum/ances on :i* ! ph5om5on is dep5d5t4 #d4 ,among ! positive conditions1 z we h se5 t !re are "s to :i*1 9 common p>lance1 ! t]m cause is m readily & frequ5tly aw>d$1 s !re are o!rs to :i* x is1 9 ord9>y circum/ances1 refus$4 ,9 mo/ cases ( causation a di/9ction is commonly drawn betwe5 some?+ :i* acts1 & "s o!r ?+ :i* is act$ ^u2 betwe5 an ag5t & a pati5t4 ,bo? ( ^!1 x w\ld be univ]sally all[$1 are conditions ( ! ph5om5on2 b x w\ld be ?\ght absurd to call ! latt] ! cause1 t title be+ res]v$ = ! =m]4 ,! di/9ction1 h[ev]1 vani%es on exam9ation1 or r is f\nd to be only v]bal2 aris+ f an incid5t ( m]e expression1 namely1 t ! object said to be act$ ^u1 & :i* is consid]$ z ! sc5e 9 :i* ! effect takes place1 is commonly includ$ 9 ! phrase by :i* ! effect is spok5 (1 s t if x 7 also reckon$ z "p ( ! cause1 ! seem+ incongruity w\ld arise ( its be+ suppos$ to cause itself4 ,9 ! in/ance :i* we h already _h1 ( fall+ bodies1 ! "q 0 ?us put3 ,:at is ! cause :i* makes a /one fall8 & if ! answ] _h be5 8! /one itself10 ! expression w\ld h be5 9 app>5t contradiction to ! mean+ ( ! ^w cause4 ,! /one1 !re=e1 is conceiv$ z ! pati5t1 & ! e>? 7or1 accord+ to ! common & mo/ unphilosophical practice1 an occult quality ( ! e>?7 is repres5t$ z ! ag5t or cause4 ,b t !re is no?+ fundam5tal 9 ! di/9ction may be se5 f ?is1 t x is q possible to conceive ! /one z caus+ its own fall1 provid$ ! language employ$ be su* z to save ! m]e v]bal incongruity4 ,we might say t ! /one moves t[>d ! e>? by ! prop]ties ( ! matt] compos+ x2 & accord+ to ?is mode ( pres5t+ ! ph5om5on1 ! /one itself might )\t impropriety be call$ ! ag5t2 ?\gh1 to save ! e/abli%$ doctr9e ( ! inactivity ( matt]1 m5 usually pref] "h also to ascribe ! effect to an occult quality1 & say t ! cause is n ! /one itself1 b ! weight or gravitation ( ! /one4 ,^? :o h cont5d$ = a radical di/9ction betwe5 ag5t & pati5t1 h g5]ally conceiv$ ! ag5t z t :i* causes "s /ate (1 or "s *ange 9 ! /ate (1 ano!r object :i* is call$ ! pati5t4 ,b a little reflection w %[ t ! lic5se we assume ( speak+ ( ph5om5a z /ates ( ! v>i\s objects :i* take "p 9 !m 7an artifice ( :i* s mu* use has be5 made by "s philosoph]s1 ,br[n 9 p>ticul>1 = ! app>5t explanation ( ph5om5a71 is simply a sort ( logical fiction1 useful sometimes z "o among sev]al modes ( expression1 b :i* %\ld nev] be suppos$ to be ! enunciation ( a sci5tific tru?4 ,ev5 ^? attributes ( an object :i* might seem ) greate/ propriety to be call$ /ates ( ! object itself1 its s5sible qualities1 its color1 h>dness1 %ape1 & ! l1 are 9 reality 7z no "o has po9t$ out m cle>ly ?an ,br[n himself7 ph5om5a ( causation1 9 :i* ! sub/ance is di/9ctly ! ag5t1 or produc+ cause1 ! pati5t be+ our own organs1 & ^? ( o!r s5ti5t be+s4 ,:at we call /ates ( objects1 are always sequ5ces into :i* ! objects ent]1 g5]ally z antec$5ts or causes2 & ?+s are nev] m active ?an 9 ! production ( ^? ph5om5a 9 :i* !y are said to be act$ ^u4 ,?us1 9 ! example ( a /one fall+ to ! e>?1 accord+ to ! !ory ( gravitation ! /one is z mu* an ag5t z ! e>?1 :i* n only attracts1 b is itself attract$ by1 ! /one4 ,9 ! case ( a s5sation produc$ 9 our organs1 ! laws ( our organization1 & ev5 ^? ( our m9ds1 are z directly op]ative 9 det]m9+ ! effect produc$1 z ! laws ( ! outw>d object4 ,?\gh we call prussic acid ! ag5t ( a p]son's dea?1 ! :ole ( ! vital & organic prop]ties ( ! pati5t are z actively in/rum5tal z ! poison1 9 ! *a9 ( effects :i* s rapidly t]m9ates 8 s5ti5t exi/5ce4 ,9 ! process ( education1 we may call ! tea*] ! ag5t1 & ! s*ol> only ! mat]ial act$ ^u2 yet 9 tru? all ! facts :i* pre-exi/$ 9 ! s*ol>'s m9d ex]t ei!r co-op]at+ or c\nt]act+ ag5cies 9 relation to ! tea*]'s ef=ts4 ,x is n light alone :i* is ! ag5t 9 vision1 b light c\pl$ ) ! active prop]ties ( ! eye & bra91 & ) ^? ( ! visible object4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 ag5t & pati5t is m]ely v]bal3 pati5ts are always ag5ts2 9 a great proportion1 inde$1 ( all natural ph5om5a1 !y are s to su* a degree z to react =cibly on ! causes :i* act$ ^u !m3 & ev5 :5 ?is is n ! case1 !y contribute1 9 ! same mann] z any ( ! o!r conditions1 to ! production ( ! effect ( :i* !y are vulg>ly treat$ z ! m]e !atre4 ,all ! positive conditions ( a ph5om5on are alike ag5ts1 alike active2 & 9 any expression ( ! cause :i* pr(esses to be complete1 none ( !m c ) reason be exclud$1 except su* z h already be5 impli$ 9 ! words us$ = describ+ ! effect2 nor by includ+ ev5 ^! w\ld !re be incurr$ any b a m]ely v]bal impropriety4 #e4 ,!re is a case ( causation :i* calls = sep>ate notice1 z x possesses a peculi> feature1 & pres5ts a great] degree ( complexity ?an ! common case4 ,x (t5 happ5s t ! effect1 or "o ( ! effects1 ( a cause1 is1 n to produce ( itself a c]ta9 ph5om5on1 b to fit some?+ else = produc+ x4 ,9 o!r words1 !re is a case ( causation 9 :i* ! effect is to inve/ an object ) a c]ta9 prop]ty4 ,:5 sulphur1 *>coal1 & nitre are put toge!r 9 c]ta9 proportions & 9 a c]ta9 mann]1 ! effect is1 n an explosion1 b t ! mixture acquires a prop]ty by :i*1 9 giv5 circum/ances1 x w explode4 ,! v>i\s causes1 natural & artificial1 :i* educate ! human body or ! human m9d1 h = _! pr9cipal effect1 n to make ! body or m9d imm$iately d any ?+1 b to end[ x ) c]ta9 prop]ties--9 o!r words1 to give assurance t 9 giv5 circum/ances c]ta9 results w take place 9 x1 or z consequ5ces ( x4 ,physiological ag5cies (t5 h = ! *ief "p ( _! op]ation to pr$ispose ! con/itution to "s mode ( action4 ,to take a simpl] in/ance ?an all ^!3 putt+ a coat ( :ite pa9t ^u a wall does n m]ely produce 9 ^? :o see x done1 ! s5sation ( :ite2 x conf]s on ! wall ! p]man5t prop]ty ( giv+ t k9d ( s5sation4 ,reg>d$ 9 ref]5ce to ! s5sation1 ! putt+ on ( ! pa9t is a condition ( a condition2 x is a condition ( ! wall's caus+ t p>ticul> fact4 ,! wall may h be5 pa9t$ ye>s ago1 b x has acquir$ a prop]ty :i* has la/$ till n[1 & w la/ long]2 ! antec$5t condition necess>y to enable ! wall to become 9 its turn a condition1 has be5 fulfill$ once = all4 ,9 a case l ?is1 :]e ! imm$iate consequ5t 9 ! sequ5ce is a prop]ty produc$ 9 an object1 no "o n[ supposes ! prop]ty to be a sub/antive entity 8inh]5t0 9 ! object4 ,:at has be5 produc$ is :at1 9 o!r language1 may be call$ a /ate ( prep>ation 9 an object = produc+ an effect4 ,! +r$i5ts ( ! gunp[d] h be5 br\ght into a /ate ( prep>ation = explod+ z soon z ! o!r conditions ( an explosion %all h occurr$4 ,9 ! case ( ! gunp[d]1 ?is /ate ( prep>ation consi/s 9 a c]ta9 collocation ( its p>ticles relatively to "o ano!r4 ,9 ! example ( ! wall1 x consi/s 9 a new collocation ( two ?+s relatively to ea* o!r--! wall & ! pa9t4 ,9 ! example ( ! mold+ influ5ces on ! human m9d1 its be+ a collocation at all is only conjectural2 =1 ev5 on ! mat]iali/ic hypo!sis1 x w\ld rema9 to be prov$ t ! increas$ facility ) :i* ! bra9 sums up a column ( figures :5 x has be5 long tra9$ to calculation1 is ! result ( a p]man5t new arrangem5t ( "s ( its mat]ial p>ticles4 ,we mu/1 !re=e1 cont5t ourselves ) :at we "k1 & mu/ include among ! effects ( causes1 ! capacities giv5 to objects ( be+ causes ( o!r effects4 ,?is capacity is n a real ?+ exi/+ 9 ! objects2 x is b a "n = our conviction t !y w act 9 a p>ticul> mann] :5 c]ta9 new circum/ances arise4 ,we may inve/ ?is assurance ( future ev5ts ) a fictiti\s objective exi/5ce1 by call+ x a /ate ( ! object4 ,b unless ! /ate consi/s1 z 9 ! case ( ! gunp[d] x does1 9 a collocation ( p>ticles1 x expresses no pres5t fact2 x is b ! cont+5t future fact br\ght back "u ano!r "n4 ,x may be ?\ght t ?is =m ( causation requires u to admit an exception to ! doctr9e t ! conditions ( a ph5om5on--! antec$5ts requir$ = call+ x into exi/5ce--mu/ all be f\nd among ! facts imm$iately1 n remotely1 prec$+ its comm5cem5t4 ,b :at we h arriv$ at is n a correction1 x is only an explanation1 ( t doctr9e4 ,9 ! enum]ation ( ! conditions requir$ = ! occurr5ce ( any ph5om5on1 x always has to be includ$ t objects mu/ be pres5t1 possess$ ( giv5 prop]ties4 ,x is a condition ( ! ph5om5on explosion t an object %\ld be pres5t1 ( "o or o!r ( c]ta9 k9ds1 :i* = t reason are call$ explosive4 ,! pres5ce ( "o ( ^! objects is a condition imm$iately prec$5t to ! explosion4 ,! condition :i* is n imm$iately prec$5t is ! cause :i* produc$1 n ! explosion1 b ! explosive prop]ty4 ,! conditions ( ! explosion itself 7 all pres5t imm$iately be=e x took place1 & ! g5]al law1 !re=e1 rema9s intact4 #f4 ,x n[ rema9s to adv]t to a di/9ction :i* is ( fir/-rate importance bo? = cle>+ up ! notion ( cause1 & = obviat+ a v speci\s objection (t5 made aga9/ ! view :i* we h tak5 ( ! subject4 ,:5 we def9e ! cause ( any ?+ 79 ! only s5se 9 :i* ! pres5t inquiry has any conc]n ) causes7 to be 8! antec$5t :i* x inv>iably foll[s10 we d n use ?is phrase z exactly synonym\s ) 8! antec$5t :i* x inv>iably has foll[$ 9 our pa/ exp]i5ce40 ,su* a mode ( conceiv+ causation w\ld be liable to ! objection v plausibly urg$ by ,dr4 ,reid1 namely1 t accord+ to ?is doctr9e night mu/ be ! cause ( day1 & day ! cause ( night2 s9ce ^! ph5om5a h inv>iably succe$$ "o ano!r f ! beg9n+ ( ! _w4 ,b x is necess>y to our us+ ! ^w cause1 t we %\ld believe n only t ! antec$5t always has be5 foll[$ by ! consequ5t1 b t1 z long z ! pres5t con/itution ( ?+s7#aaf7 endures1 x always w be s4 ,& ?is w\ld n be true ( day & night4 ,we d n believe t night w be foll[$ by day "u all imag9able circum/ances1 b only t x w be s provid$ ! sun rises above ! horizon4 ,if ! sun ceas$ to rise1 :i*1 = aught we "k1 may be p]fectly compatible ) ! g5]al laws ( matt]1 night w\ld be1 or might be1 et]nal4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if ! sun is above ! horizon1 8 light n ext9ct1 & no opaque body betwe5 u & him1 we believe firmly t unless a *ange takes place 9 ! prop]ties ( matt]1 ?is comb9ation ( antec$5ts w be foll[$ by ! consequ5t1 day2 t if ! comb9ation ( antec$5ts c\ld be indef9itely prolong$1 x w\ld be always day2 & t if ! same comb9ation _h always exi/$1 x w\ld always h be5 day1 q indep5d5tly ( night z a previ\s condition4 ,!re=e is x t we d n call night ! cause1 nor ev5 a condition1 ( day4 ,! exi/5ce ( ! sun 7or "s su* lum9\s body71 & !re be+ no opaque m$ium 9 a /raight l9e7#aag7 betwe5 t body & ! "p ( ! e>? :]e we are situat$1 are ! sole conditions2 & ! union ( ^!1 )\t ! addition ( any sup]flu\s circum/ance1 con/itutes ! cause4 ,?is is :at writ]s mean :5 !y say t ! notion ( cause involves ! idea ( necessity4 ,if !re be any mean+ :i* confess$ly belongs to ! t]m necessity1 x is unconditionalness4 ,t :i* is necess>y1 t :i* mu/ be1 means t :i* w be1 :atev] supposition we may make 9 reg>d to all o!r ?+s4 ,! succession ( day & night evid5tly is n necess>y 9 ?is s5se4 ,x is conditional on ! occurr5ce ( o!r antec$5ts4 ,t :i* w be foll[$ by a giv5 consequ5t :51 & only :51 "s ?ird circum/ance also exi/s1 is n ! cause1 ev5 ?\gh no case %\ld ev] h occurr$ 9 :i* ! ph5om5on took place )\t x4 ,inv>iable sequ5ce1 !re=e1 is n synonym\s ) causation1 unless ! sequ5ce1 besides be+ inv>iable1 is unconditional4 ,!re are sequ5ces1 z uni=m 9 pa/ exp]i5ce z any o!rs :atev]1 :i* yet we d n reg>d z cases ( causation1 b z conjunctions 9 "s sort accid5tal4 ,su*1 to an accurate ?9k]1 is t ( day & night4 ,! "o might h exi/$ = any l5g? ( "t1 & ! o!r n h foll[$ ! soon] = its exi/5ce2 x foll[s only if c]ta9 o!r antec$5ts exi/2 & :]e ^? antec$5ts exi/$1 x w\ld foll[ 9 any case4 ,no "o1 probably1 ev] call$ night ! cause ( day2 mank9d mu/ s soon h arriv$ at ! v obvi\s g5]alization1 t ! /ate ( g5]al illum9ation :i* we call day w\ld foll[ f ! pres5ce ( a suffici5tly lum9\s body1 :e!r d>kness _h prec$$ or n4 ,we may def9e1 !re=e1 ! cause ( a ph5om5on1 to be ! antec$5t1 or ! concurr5ce ( antec$5ts1 on :i* x is inv>iably & unconditionally consequ5t4 ,or if we adopt ! conv5i5t modification ( ! mean+ ( ! ^w cause1 :i* conf9es x to ! assemblage ( positive conditions )\t ! negative1 !n in/ead ( 8unconditionally10 we mu/ say1 8subject to no o!r ?an negative conditions40 ,to "s x may appe>1 t ! sequ5ce betwe5 night & day be+ inv>iable 9 our exp]i5ce1 we h z mu* gr\nd 9 ?is case z exp]i5ce c give 9 any case1 = recogniz+ ! two ph5om5a z cause & effect2 & t to say t m is necess>y--to require a belief t ! succession is unconditional1 or1 9 o!r words1 t x w\ld be inv>iable "u all *anges ( circum/ances1 is to ackn[l$ge 9 causation an elem5t ( belief n d]iv$ f exp]i5ce4 ,! answ] to ?is is1 t x is exp]i5ce itself :i* tea*es u t "o uni=mity ( sequ5ce is conditional & ano!r unconditional4 ,:5 we judge t ! succession ( night & day is a d]ivative sequ5ce1 dep5d+ on some?+ else1 we proce$ on gr\nds ( exp]i5ce4 ,x is ! evid5ce ( exp]i5ce :i* conv9ces u t day c\ld equally exi/ )\t be+ foll[$ by night1 & t night c\ld equally exi/ )\t be+ foll[$ by day4 ,to say t ^! beliefs are 8n g5]at$ by our m]e obs]vation ( sequ5ce107#aah7 is to =get t twice 9 e tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 :5 ! sky is cle>1 we h an exp]im5tum crucis t ! cause ( day is ! sun4 ,we h an exp]im5tal k ( ! sun :i* ju/ifies u on exp]im5tal gr\nds 9 conclud+1 t if ! sun 7 always above ! horizon !re w\ld be day1 ?\gh !re _h be5 no night1 & t if ! sun 7 always bel[ ! horizon !re w\ld be night1 ?\gh !re _h be5 no day4 ,we ?us "k f exp]i5ce t ! succession ( night & day is n unconditional4 ,let me add1 t ! antec$5t :i* is only conditionally inv>iable1 is n ! inv>iable antec$5t4 ,?\gh a fact may1 9 exp]i5ce1 h always be5 foll[$ by ano!r fact1 yet if ! rema9d] ( our exp]i5ce tea*es u t x might n always be s foll[$1 or if ! exp]i5ce itself is su* z leaves room = a possibility t ! kn[n cases may n correctly repres5t all possible cases1 ! hi!rto inv>iable antec$5t is n acc\nt$ ! cause2 b :y8 ,because we are n sure t x is ! inv>iable antec$5t4 ,su* cases ( sequ5ce z t ( day & night n only d n contradict ! doctr9e :i* resolves causation into inv>iable sequ5ce1 b are necess>ily impli$ 9 t doctr9e4 ,x is evid5t1 t f a limit$ numb] ( unconditional sequ5ces1 !re w result a mu* great] numb] ( conditional ones4 ,c]ta9 causes be+ giv51 t is1 c]ta9 antec$5ts :i* are unconditionally foll[$ by c]ta9 consequ5ts2 ! m]e co-exi/5ce ( ^! causes w give rise to an unlimit$ numb] ( additional uni=mities4 ,if two causes exi/ toge!r1 ! effects ( bo? w exi/ toge!r2 & if _m causes co-exi/1 ^! causes 7by :at we %all t]m h]eaft] ! int]mixture ( _! laws7 w give rise to new effects1 accompany+ or succe$+ "o ano!r 9 "s p>ticul> ord]1 :i* ord] w be inv>iable :ile ! causes cont9ue to co-exi/1 b no long]4 ,! motion ( ! e>? 9 a giv5 orbit r\nd ! sun1 is a s]ies ( *anges :i* foll[ "o ano!r z antec$5ts & consequ5ts1 & w cont9ue to d s :ile ! sun's attraction1 & ! =ce ) :i* ! e>? t5ds to advance 9 a direct l9e ?r\gh space1 cont9ue to co-exi/ 9 ! same quantities z at pres5t4 ,b v>y ei!r ( ^! causes1 & ?is p>ticul> succession ( motions w\ld cease to take place4 ,! s]ies ( ! e>?'s motions1 !re=e1 ?\gh a case ( sequ5ce inv>iable )9 ! limits ( human exp]i5ce1 is n a case ( causation4 ,x is n unconditional4 ,?is di/9ction betwe5 ! relations ( succession :i*1 s f> z we "k1 are unconditional1 & ^? relations1 :e!r ( succession or ( co-exi/5ce1 :i*1 l ! e>?'s motions1 or ! succession ( day & night1 dep5d on ! exi/5ce or on ! co-exi/5ce ( o!r antec$5t facts--corresponds to ! great division :i* ,dr4 ,:ewell & o!r writ]s h made ( ! field ( sci5ce1 into ! inve/igation ( :at !y t]m ! ,laws ( ,ph5om5a1 & ! inve/igation ( causes2 a phraseology1 z ,i conceive1 n philosophically su/a9able1 inasmu* z ! asc]ta9m5t ( causes1 su* causes z ! human faculties c asc]ta91 namely1 causes :i* are !mselves ph5om5a1 is1 !re=e1 m]ely ! asc]ta9m5t ( o!r & m univ]sal ,laws ( ,ph5om5a4 ,& let me "h obs]ve1 t ,dr4 ,:ewell1 & 9 "s degree ev5 ,sir ,john ,h]s*el1 seem to h misund]/ood ! mean+ ( ^? writ]s :o1 l ,m4 ,comt1 limit ! sph]e ( sci5tific inve/igation to ,laws ( ,ph5om5a1 & speak ( ! inquiry into causes z va9 & futile4 ,! causes :i* ,m4 ,comt designates z inaccessible1 are effici5t causes4 ,! inve/igation ( physical1 z oppos$ to effici5t1 causes 7includ+ ! /udy ( all ! active =ces 9 ,nature1 consid]$ z facts ( obs]vation7 is z important a "p ( ,m4 ,comt's conception ( sci5ce z ( ,dr4 ,:ewell's4 ,8 objection to ! ^w cause is a m]e matt] ( nom5clature1 9 :i*1 z a matt] ( nom5clature1 ,i consid] him to be entirely wrong4 8,^?10 x is ju/ly rem>k$ by ,mr4 ,bailey17#aai7 8:o1 l ,m4 ,comt1 object to designate ev5ts z causes1 are object+ )\t any real gr\nd to a m]e b extremely conv5i5t g5]alization1 to a v useful common "n1 ! employm5t ( :i* involves1 or ne$s involve1 no p>ticul> !ory40 ,to :i* x may be add$1 t by reject+ ?is =m ( expression1 ,m4 ,comt leaves himself )\t any t]m = m>k+ a di/9ction :i*1 h[ev] incorrectly express$1 is n only real1 b is "o ( ! fundam5tal di/9ctions 9 sci5ce2 inde$ x is on ?is alone1 z we %all h]eaft] f9d1 t ! possibility re/s ( fram+ a rigor\s ,canon ( ,induction4 ,& z ?+s left )\t a "n are apt to be =gott51 a ,canon ( t description is n "o ( ! _m b5efits :i* ! philosophy ( ,induction has receiv$ f ,m4 ,comt's great p[]s4 #g4 ,does a cause always /& ) its effect 9 ! relation ( antec$5t & consequ5t8 ,d we n (t5 say ( two simultane\s facts t !y are cause & effect--z :5 we say t fire is ! cause ( w>m?1 ! sun & moi/ure ! cause ( vegetation1 & ! l8 ,s9ce a cause does n necess>ily p]i% because its effect has be5 produc$1 ! two ?+s d v g5]ally co-exi/2 & !re are "s appe>ances1 & "s common expressions1 seem+ to imply n only t causes may1 b t !y mu/1 be contemporane\s ) _! effects4 ,cessante caus cessat et effectus1 has be5 a dogma ( ! s*ools3 ! necessity = ! cont9u$ exi/5ce ( ! cause 9 ord] to ! cont9uance ( ! effect1 seems to h be5 once a g5]ally receiv$ doctr9e4 ,kepl]'s num]\s attempts to acc\nt = ! motions ( ! heav5ly bodies on me*anical pr9ciples1 7 r5d]$ abortive by 8 always suppos+ t ! ag5cy :i* set ^? bodies 9 motion mu/ cont9ue to op]ate 9 ord] to keep up ! motion :i* x at fir/ produc$4 ,yet !re 7 at all times _m famili> in/ances ( ! cont9uance ( effects1 long aft] _! causes _h ceas$4 ,a c\p de soleil gives a p]son bra9-fev]3 w ! fev] g (f z soon z he is mov$ out ( ! sun%9e8 ,a sword is run ?r\gh 8 body3 mu/ ! sword rema9 9 8 body 9 ord] t he may cont9ue dead8 ,a pl[%>e once made1 rema9s a pl[%>e1 )\t any cont9uance ( heat+ & hamm]+1 & ev5 aft] ! man :o heat$ & hamm]$ x has be5 ga!r$ to 8 fa!rs4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! pressure :i* =ces up ! m]cury 9 an exhau/$ tube mu/ be cont9u$ 9 ord] to su/a9 x 9 ! tube4 ,?is 7x may be repli$7 is because ano!r =ce is act+ )\t int]mission1 ! =ce ( gravity1 :i* w\ld re/ore x to its level1 unless c\nt]pois$ by a =ce equally con/ant4 ,b aga93 a tight b&age causes pa91 :i* pa9 w sometimes g (f z soon z ! b&age is remov$4 ,! illum9ation :i* ! sun diffuses ov] ! e>? ceases :5 ! sun goes d[n4 ,!re is1 !re=e1 a di/9ction to be drawn4 ,! conditions :i* are necess>y = ! fir/ production ( a ph5om5on1 are occasionally also necess>y = its cont9uance2 ?\gh m commonly its cont9uance requires no condition except negative ones4 ,mo/ ?+s1 once produc$1 cont9ue z !y are1 until some?+ *anges or de/roys !m2 b "s require ! p]man5t pres5ce ( ! ag5cies :i* produc$ !m at fir/4 ,^! may1 if we please1 be consid]$ z in/antane\s ph5om5a1 requir+ to be r5ew$ at ea* in/ant by ! cause by :i* !y 7 at fir/ g5]at$4 ,accord+ly1 ! illum9ation ( any giv5 po9t ( space has always be5 look$ ^u z an in/antane\s fact1 :i* p]i%es & is p]petually r5ew$ z long z ! necess>y conditions subsi/4 ,if we adopt ?is language we avoid ! necessity ( admitt+ t ! cont9uance ( ! cause is ev] requir$ to ma9ta9 ! effect4 ,we may say1 x is n requir$ to ma9ta91 b to reproduce1 ! effect1 or else to c\nt]act "s =ce t5d+ to de/roy x4 ,& ?is may be a conv5i5t phraseology4 ,b x is only a phraseology4 ,! fact rema9s1 t 9 "s cases 7?\gh ^? are a m9ority7 ! cont9uance ( ! conditions :i* produc$ an effect is necess>y to ! cont9uance ( ! effect4 ,z to ! ult]ior "q1 :e!r x is /rictly necess>y t ! cause1 or assemblage ( conditions1 %\ld prec$e1 by ev] s %ort an in/ant1 ! production ( ! effect 7a "q rais$ & argu$ ) mu* +5uity by ,sir ,john ,h]s*el 9 an ,essay already quot$717#abj7 ! inquiry is ( no consequ5ce = our pres5t purpose4 ,!re c]ta9ly are cases 9 :i* ! effect foll[s )\t any int]val p]ceptible by our faculties2 & :5 !re is an int]val1 we c n tell by h[ _m int]m$iate l9ks imp]ceptible to u t int]val may really be fill$ up4 ,b ev5 grant+ t an effect may comm5ce simultane\sly ) its cause1 ! view ,i h tak5 ( causation is 9 no way practically affect$4 ,:e!r ! cause & its effect be necess>ily successive or n1 ! beg9n+ ( a ph5om5on is :at implies a cause1 & causation is ! law ( ! succession ( ph5om5a4 ,if ^! axioms be grant$1 we c af=d1 ?\gh ,i see no necessity = do+ s1 to drop ! words antec$5t & consequ5t z appli$ to cause & effect4 ,i h no objection to def9e a cause1 ! assemblage ( ph5om5a1 :i* occurr+1 "s o!r ph5om5on inv>iably comm5ces1 or has its orig94 ,:e!r ! effect co9cides 9 po9t ( "t )1 or imm$iately foll[s1 ! h9dmo/ ( its conditions1 is immat]ial4 ,at all ev5ts1 x does n prec$e x2 & :5 we are 9 d\bt1 betwe5 two co-exi/5t ph5om5a1 :i* is cause & :i* effect1 we rightly deem ! "q solv$ if we c asc]ta9 :i* ( !m prec$$ ! o!r4 #h4 ,x cont9ually happ5s t sev]al diff]5t ph5om5a1 :i* are n 9 ! slighte/ degree dep5d5t or conditional on "o ano!r1 are f\nd all to dep5d1 z ! phrase is1 on "o & ! same ag5t2 9 o!r words1 "o & ! same ph5om5on is se5 to be foll[$ by sev]al sorts ( effects q het]og5e\s1 b :i* g on simultane\sly "o ) ano!r2 provid$1 ( c\rse1 t all o!r conditions requisite = ea* ( !m also exi/4 ,?us1 ! sun produces ! cele/ial motions2 x produces daylight1 & x produces heat4 ,! e>? causes ! fall ( heavy bodies1 & x also1 9 its capacity ( a great magnet1 causes ! ph5om5a ( ! magnetic ne$le4 ,a cry/al ( gal5a causes ! s5sations ( h>dness1 ( weight1 ( cubical =m1 ( gray color1 & _m o!rs betwe5 :i* we c trace no int]dep5d5ce4 ,! purpose to :i* ! phraseology ( ,prop]ties & ,p[]s is specially adapt$1 is ! expression ( ?is sort ( cases4 ,:5 ! same ph5om5on is foll[$ 7ei!r subject or n to ! pres5ce ( o!r conditions7 by effects ( diff]5t & dissimil> ord]s1 x is usual to say t ea* diff]5t sort ( effect is produc$ by a diff]5t prop]ty ( ! cause4 ,?us we di/+ui% ! attractive or gravitative prop]ty ( ! e>?1 & its magnetic prop]ty3 ! gravitative1 lum9if]\s1 & calorific prop]ties ( ! sun3 ! color1 %ape1 weight1 & h>dness ( a cry/al4 ,^! are m]e phrases1 :i* expla9 no?+1 & add no?+ to our k ( ! subject2 b1 consid]$ z ab/ract names d5ot+ ! connection betwe5 ! diff]5t effects produc$ & ! object :i* produces !m1 !y are a v p[]ful in/rum5t ( abridgm5t1 & ( t accel]ation ( ! process ( ?\ght :i* abridgm5t accompli%es4 ,?is class ( consid]ations leads to a conception :i* we %all f9d to be ( great importance1 t ( a ,p]man5t ,cause1 or orig9al natural ag5t4 ,!re exi/ 9 nature a numb] ( p]man5t causes1 :i* h subsi/$ ev] s9ce ! human race has be5 9 exi/5ce1 & = an indef9ite & probably an enorm\s l5g? ( "t previ\s4 ,! sun1 ! e>?1 & planets1 ) _! v>i\s con/itu5ts1 air1 wat]1 & o!r di/+ui%able sub/ances1 :e!r simple or comp\nd1 ( :i* nature is made up1 are su* ,p]man5t ,causes4 ,^! h exi/$1 & ! effects or consequ5ces :i* !y 7 fitt$ to produce h tak5 place 7z (t5 z ! o!r conditions ( ! production met71 f ! v beg9n+ ( our exp]i5ce4 ,b we c give no acc\nt ( ! orig9 ( ! ,p]man5t ,causes !mselves4 ,:y ^! p>ticul> natural ag5ts exi/$ orig9ally & no o!rs1 or :y !y are comm+l$ 9 su* & su* proportions1 & di/ribut$ 9 su* & su* a mann] ?r\gh\t space1 is a "q we c n answ]4 ,m ?an ?is3 we c discov] no?+ regul> 9 ! di/ribution itself2 we c r$uce x to no uni=mity1 to no law4 ,!re are no means by :i*1 f ! di/ribution ( ^! causes or ag5ts 9 "o "p ( space1 we c\ld conjecture :e!r a simil> di/ribution prevails 9 ano!r4 ,! co-exi/5ce1 !re=e1 ( ,primeval ,causes ranks1 to u1 among m]ely casual concurr5ces3 & all ^? sequ5ces or co-exi/5ces among ! effects ( sev]al su* causes1 :i*1 ?\gh inv>iable :ile ^? causes co-exi/1 w\ld1 if ! co-exi/5ce t]m9at$1 t]m9ate along ) x1 we d n class z cases ( causation1 or laws ( nature3 we c only calculate on f9d+ ^! sequ5ces or co-exi/5ces :]e we "k by direct evid5ce1 t ! natural ag5ts on ! prop]ties ( :i* !y ultimately dep5d1 are di/ribut$ 9 ! requisite mann]4 ,^! ,p]man5t ,causes are n always objects2 !y are sometimes ev5ts1 t is to say1 p]iodical cycles ( ev5ts1 t be+ ! only mode 9 :i* ev5ts c possess ! prop]ty ( p]man5ce4 ,n only1 = in/ance1 is ! e>? itself a p]man5t cause1 or primitive natural ag5t1 b ! e>?'s rotation is s too3 x is a cause :i* has produc$1 f ! e>lie/ p]iod 7by ! aid ( o!r necess>y conditions71 ! succession ( day & night1 ! ebb & fl[ ( ! sea1 & _m o!r effects1 :ile1 z we c assign no cause 7except conjecturally7 = ! rotation itself1 x is entitl$ to be rank$ z a primeval cause4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 only ! orig9 ( ! rotation :i* is my/]i\s to u3 once begun1 its cont9uance is acc\nt$ = by ! fir/ law ( motion 7t ( ! p]man5ce ( rectil9e> motion once impress$7 comb9$ ) ! gravitation ( ! p>ts ( ! e>? t[>d "o ano!r4 ,all ph5om5a )\t exception :i* beg9 to exi/1 t is1 all except ! primeval causes1 are effects ei!r imm$iate or remote ( ^? primitive facts1 or ( "s comb9ation ( !m4 ,!re is no ,?+ produc$1 no ev5t happ5+1 9 ! kn[n univ]se1 :i* is n connect$ by a uni=mity1 or inv>iable sequ5ce1 ) "s "o or m ( ! ph5om5a :i* prec$$ x2 insomu* t x w happ5 aga9 z (t5 z ^? ph5om5a occur aga91 & z no o!r ph5om5on hav+ ! "* ( a c\nt]act+ cause %all co-exi/4 ,^! antec$5t ph5om5a1 aga91 7 connect$ 9 a simil> mann] ) "s t prec$$ !m2 & s on1 until we rea*1 z ! ultimate /ep atta9able by u1 ei!r ! prop]ties ( "s "o primeval cause1 or ! conjunction ( sev]al4 ,! :ole ( ! ph5om5a ( nature 7 !re=e ! necess>y1 or1 9 o!r words1 ! unconditional1 consequ5ces ( "s =m] collocation ( ! ,p]man5t ,causes4 ,! /ate ( ! :ole univ]se at any in/ant1 we believe to be ! consequ5ce ( its /ate at ! previ\s in/ant2 insomu* t "o :o knew all ! ag5ts :i* exi/ at ! pres5t mom5t1 _! collocation 9 space1 & all _! prop]ties1 9 o!r words1 ! laws ( _! ag5cy1 c\ld pr$ict ! :ole subsequ5t hi/ory ( ! univ]se1 at lea/ unless "s new volition ( a p[] capable ( controll+ ! univ]se %\ld sup]v5e47#aba7 ,& if any p>ticul> /ate ( ! entire univ]se c\ld ev] recur a second "t1 all subsequ5t /ates w\ld return too1 & hi/ory w\ld1 l a circulat+ decimal ( _m figures1 p]iodically repeat itself3 ,jam r$it et virgo1 r$eunt ,saturnia regna4444 ,alt] erit tum ,tiphys1 et alt]a qu vehat ,argo ,delectos h]oas2 erunt quoque alt]a bella1 ,atque it]um ad ,trojam magnus mittetur ,a*illes4 ,& ?\gh ?+s d n really revolve 9 ?is et]nal r\nd1 ! :ole s]ies ( ev5ts 9 ! hi/ory ( ! univ]se1 pa/ & future1 is n ! less capable1 9 its own nature1 ( be+ con/ruct$ a priori by any "o :om we c suppose acqua9t$ ) ! orig9al di/ribution ( all natural ag5ts1 & ) ! :ole ( _! prop]ties1 t is1 ! laws ( succession exi/+ betwe5 !m & _! effects3 sav+ ! f> m ?an human p[]s ( comb9ation & calculation :i* w\ld be requir$1 ev5 9 "o possess+ ! data1 = ! actual p]=mance ( ! task4 #i4 ,s9ce e ?+ :i* occurs is det]m9$ by laws ( causation & collocations ( ! orig9al causes1 x foll[s t ! co-exi/5ces :i* are obs]vable among effects c n be !mselves ! subject ( any simil> set ( laws1 di/9ct f laws ( causation4 ,uni=mities !re are1 z well ( co-exi/5ce z ( succession1 among effects2 b ^! mu/ 9 all cases be a m]e result ei!r ( ! id5tity or ( ! co-exi/5ce ( _! causes3 if ! causes did n co-exi/1 nei!r c\ld ! effects4 ,& ^! causes be+ also effects ( prior causes1 & ^! ( o!rs1 until we rea* ! primeval causes1 x foll[s t 7except 9 ! case ( effects :i* c be trac$ imm$iately or remotely to "o & ! same cause7 ! co-exi/5ces ( ph5om5a c 9 no case be univ]sal1 unless ! co-exi/5ces ( ! primeval causes to :i* ! effects are ultimately traceable c be r$uc$ to a univ]sal law3 b we h se5 t !y c n4 ,!re are1 accord+ly1 no orig9al & indep5d5t1 9 o!r words no unconditional1 uni=mities ( co-exi/5ce1 betwe5 effects ( diff]5t causes2 if !y co-exi/1 x is only because ! causes h casually co-exi/$4 ,! only indep5d5t & unconditional co-exi/5ces :i* are suffici5tly inv>iable to h any claim to ! "* ( laws1 are betwe5 diff]5t & mutually indep5d5t effects ( ! same cause2 9 o!r words1 betwe5 diff]5t prop]ties ( ! same natural ag5t4 ,?is portion ( ! ,laws ( ,nature w be treat$ ( 9 ! latt] "p ( ! pres5t ,book1 "u ! "n ( ! ,specific ,prop]ties ( ,k9ds4 #aj4 ,s9ce ! fir/ publication ( ! pres5t treatise1 ! sci5ces ( physical nature h made a great advance 9 g5]alization1 ?r\gh ! doctr9e kn[n z ! ,cons]vation or ,p]si/5ce ( ,=ce4 ,?is impos+ edifice ( !ory1 ! build+ & lay+ out ( :i* has = "s "t be5 ! pr9cipal occupation ( ! mo/ sy/ematic m9ds among physical inquir]s1 consi/s ( two /ages3 "o1 ( asc]ta9$ fact1 ! o!r conta9+ a l>ge elem5t ( hypo!sis4 ,to beg9 ) ! fir/4 ,x is prov$ by num]\s facts1 bo? natural & ( artificial production1 t ag5cies :i* _h be5 reg>d$ z di/9ct & indep5d5t s\rces ( =ce--heat1 electricity1 *emical action1 n]v\s & muscul> action1 mom5tum ( mov+ bodies--are int]*angeable1 9 def9ite & fix$ quantities1 ) "o ano!r4 ,x _h long be5 kn[n t ^! dissimil> ph5om5a _h ! p[]1 "u c]ta9 conditions1 ( produc+ "o ano!r3 :at is new 9 ! !ory is a m accurate e/imation ( :at ?is production consi/s 94 ,:at happ5s is1 t ! :ole or "p ( ! "o k9d ( ph5om5a disappe>s1 & is replac$ by ph5om5a ( "o ( ! o!r descriptions1 & t !re is an equival5ce 9 quantity betwe5 ! ph5om5a t h disappe>$ & ^? :i* h be5 produc$1 insomu* t if ! process be rev]s$1 ! v same quantity :i* _h disappe>$ w re-appe>1 )\t increase or dim9ution4 ,?us ! am\nt ( heat :i* w raise ! temp]ature ( a p\nd ( wat] "o degree ( ! !rmomet]1 w1 if exp5d$1 say 9 ! expansion ( /eam1 lift a weight ( #ggb p\nds "o foot1 or a weight ( "o p\nd #ggb feet3 & ! same exact quantity ( heat c1 by c]ta9 means1 be recov]$1 ?r\gh ! exp5diture ( exactly t am\nt ( me*anical motion4 ,! e/abli%m5t ( ?is compreh5sive law has l$ to a *ange 9 ! language 9 :i* ! sci5tific _w _h be5 accu/om$ to speak ( :at are call$ ! ,=ces ( nature4 ,be=e ?is correlation betwe5 ph5om5a mo/ unlike "o ano!r _h be5 asc]ta9$1 _! unlik5ess _h caus$ !m to be ref]r$ to s _m di/9ct =ces4 ,n[ t !y are kn[n to be conv]tible into "o ano!r )\t loss1 !y are spok5 ( z all ( !m results ( "o & ! same =ce1 manife/+ itself 9 diff]5t modes4 ,?is =ce 7x is said7 c only produce a limit$ & def9ite quantity ( effect1 b always does produce t def9ite quantity2 & produces x1 accord+ to circum/ances1 9 "o or ano!r ( ! =ms1 or divides x among sev]al1 b s z 7accord+ to a scale ( num]ical equival5ts e/abli%$ by exp]im5t7 always to make up ! same sum2 & no "o ( ! manife/ations c be produc$1 save by ! disappe>ance ( ! equival5t quantity ( ano!r1 :i* 9 its turn1 9 appropriate circum/ances1 w re-appe> undim9i%$4 ,?is mutual int]*angeability ( ! =ces ( nature1 accord+ to fix$ num]ical equival5ts1 is ! "p ( ! new doctr9e :i* re/s on irrefragable fact4 ,to make ! /atem5t true1 h[ev]1 x is necess>y to add1 t an indef9ite & p]haps imm5se int]val ( "t may elapse betwe5 ! disappe>ance ( ! =ce 9 "o =m & its re-appe>ance 9 ano!r4 ,a /one ?r[n up into ! air ) a giv5 =ce1 & fall+ back imm$iately1 w1 by ! "t x rea*es ! e>?1 recov] ! exact am\nt ( me*anical mom5tum :i* 0 exp5d$ 9 ?r[+ x up1 d$uction be+ made ( a small portion ( motion :i* has be5 communicat$ to ! air4 ,b if ! /one has lodg$ on a height1 x may n fall back = ye>s1 or p]haps ages1 & until x does1 ! =ce exp5d$ 9 rais+ x is tempor>ily lo/1 be+ repres5t$ only by :at1 9 ! language ( ! new !ory1 is call$ pot5tial en]gy4 ,! coal imb$d$ 9 ! e>? is consid]$ by ! !ory z a va/ res]voir ( =ce1 :i* has rema9$ dormant = _m geological p]iods1 & w s rema9 until1 by be+ burn$1 x gives out ! /or$-up =ce 9 ! =m ( heat4 ,yet x is n suppos$ t ?is =ce is a mat]ial ?+ :i* c be conf9$ by b\nds1 z us$ to be ?\ght ( lat5t heat :5 t important ph5om5on 0 fir/ discov]$4 ,:at is meant is t :5 ! coal does at la/1 by combu/ion1 g5]ate a quantity ( heat 7trans=mable l all o!r heat into me*anical mom5tum1 & ! o!r =ms ( =ce71 ?is extrication ( heat is ! re-appe>ance ( a =ce d]iv$ f ! sun's rays1 exp5d$ myriads ( ages ago 9 ! vegetation ( ! organic sub/ances :i* 7 ! mat]ial ( ! coal4 ,let u n[ pass to ! high] /age ( ! !ory ( ,cons]vation ( ,=ce2 ! "p :i* is no long] a g5]alization ( prov$ fact1 b a comb9ation ( fact & hypo!sis4 ,/at$ 9 few words1 x is z foll[s3 ,t ! ,cons]vation ( ,=ce is really ! ,cons]vation ( ,motion2 t 9 ! v>i\s int]*anges betwe5 ! =ms ( =ce1 x is always motion t is trans=m$ into motion4 ,to e/abli% ?is1 x is necess>y to assume motions :i* are hypo!tical4 ,! supposition is1 t !re are motions :i* manife/ !mselves to our s5ses only z heat1 electricity1 etc41 be+ molecul> motions2 oscillations1 invisible to u1 among ! m9ute p>ticles ( bodies2 & t ^! molecul> motions are transmutable into mol> motions 7motions ( masses71 & mol> motions into molecul>4 ,n[ !re is a real basis ( fact = ?is supposition3 we h positive evid5ce ( ! exi/5ce ( molecul> motion 9 ^! manife/ations ( =ce4 ,9 ! case ( *emical action1 = in/ance1 ! p>ticles sep>ate & =m new comb9ations1 (t5 ) a great visible di/urbance ( ! mass4 ,9 ! case ( heat1 ! evid5ce is equally conclusive1 s9ce heat exp&s bodies 7t is1 causes _! p>ticles to move f "o ano!r72 & if ( suffici5t am\nt1 *anges _! mode ( aggregation f solid to liquid1 or f liquid to gase\s4 ,aga91 ! me*anical actions :i* produce heat--friction1 & ! collision ( bodies--mu/ f ! nature ( ! case produce a %ock1 t is1 an int]nal motion ( p>ticles1 :i* inde$1 we f9d1 is (t5 s viol5t z to break !m p]man5tly asund]4 ,su* facts are ?\ght to w>rant ! inf]5ce1 t x is n1 z 0 suppos$1 heat t causes ! motion ( p>ticles1 b ! motion ( p>ticles t causes heat2 ! orig9al cause ( bo? be+ ! previ\s motion 7:e!r mol> or molecul>--collision ( bodies or combu/ion ( fuel7 :i* =m$ ! heat+ ag5cy4 ,?is inf]5ce already conta9s hypo!sis2 b at lea/ ! suppos$ cause1 ! inte/9e motion ( molecules1 is a v]a causa4 ,b 9 ord] to r$uce ! ,cons]vation ( ,=ce to ,cons]vation ( ,motion1 x 0 necess>y to attribute to motion ! heat propagat$1 ?r\gh app>5tly empty space1 f ! sun4 ,?is requir$ ! supposition 7already made = ! explanation ( ! laws ( light7 ( a subtle e!r p]vad+ space1 :i*1 ?\gh impalpable to u1 mu/ h ! prop]ty :i* con/itutes matt]1 t ( resi/ance1 s9ce waves are propagat$ ?r\gh x by an impulse f a giv5 po9t4 ,! e!r mu/ be suppos$ 7a supposition n requir$ by ! !ory ( light7 to p5etrate into ! m9ute int]/ices ( all bodies4 ,! vibratory motion suppos$ to be tak+ place 9 ! heat$ mass ( ! sun1 is consid]$ z imp>t$ f t mass to ! p>ticles ( ! surr\nd+ e!r1 & ?r\gh !m to ! p>ticles ( ! same e!r 9 ! int]/ices ( t]re/rial bodies2 & ?is1 too1 ) a suffici5t me*anical =ce to ?r[ ! p>ticles ( ^? bodies into a /ate ( simil> vibration1 produc+ ! expansion ( _! mass1 & ! s5sation ( heat 9 s5ti5t creatures4 ,all ?is is hypo!sis1 ?\gh1 ( its legitimacy z hypo!sis1 ,i d n mean to express any d\bt4 ,x w\ld seem to foll[ z a consequ5ce f ?is !ory1 t ,=ce may & %\ld be def9$1 matt] 9 motion4 ,?is def9ition1 h[ev]1 w n /&1 =1 z has already be5 se51 ! matt] ne$s n be 9 actual motion4 ,x is n necess>y to suppose t ! motion aft]w>d manife/$1 is actually tak+ place among ! molecules ( ! coal dur+ its soj\rn 9 ! e>?27#abb7 c]ta9ly n 9 ! /one :i* is at re/ on ! em95ce to :i* x has be5 rais$4 ,! true def9ition ( ,=ce mu/ be1 n motion1 b ,pot5tiality ( ,motion2 & :at ! doctr9e1 if e/abli%$1 am\nts to1 is1 n t !re is at all times ! same quantity ( actual motion 9 ! univ]se2 b t ! possibilities ( motion are limit$ to a def9ite quantity1 :i* c n be add$ to1 b :i* c n be exhau/$2 & t all actual motion :i* takes place 9 ,nature is a draft ^u ?is limit$ /ock4 ,x ne$s n all ( x h ev] exi/$ z actual motion4 ,!re is a va/ am\nt ( pot5tial motion 9 ! univ]se 9 ! =m ( gravitation1 :i* x w\ld be a great abuse ( hypo!sis to suppose to h be5 /or$ up by ! exp5diture ( an equal am\nt ( actual motion 9 "s =m] /ate ( ! univ]se4 ,nor does ! motion produc$ by gravity take place1 s f> z we "k1 at ! exp5se ( any o!r motion1 ei!r mol> or molecul>4 ,x is prop] to consid] :e!r ! adoption ( ?is !ory z a sci5tific tru?1 involv+ z x does a *ange 9 ! conception hi!rto ent]ta9$ ( ! mo/ g5]al physical ag5cies1 requires any modification 9 ! view ,i h tak5 ( ,causation z a law ( nature4 ,z x appe>s to me1 none :atev]4 ,! manife/ations :i* ! !ory reg>ds z modes ( motion1 are z mu* di/9ct & sep>ate ph5om5a :5 ref]r$ to a s+le =ce1 z :5 attribut$ to sev]al4 ,:e!r ! ph5om5on is call$ a trans=mation ( =ce or ! g5]ation ( "o1 x has its own set or sets ( antec$5ts1 ) :i* x is connect$ by inv>iable & unconditional sequ5ce2 & t set1 or ^? sets1 ( antec$5ts are its cause4 ,! relation ( ! ,cons]vation !ory to ! pr9ciple ( ,causation is discuss$ 9 mu* detail1 & v in/ructively1 by ,pr(essor ,ba91 9 ! second volume ( 8 ,logic4 ,! *ief practical conclusion drawn by him1 be>+ on ,causation1 is1 t we mu/ di/+ui% 9 ! assemblage ( conditions :i* con/itutes ! ,cause ( a ph5om5on1 two elem5ts3 "o1 ! pres5ce ( a =ce2 ! o!r1 ! collocation or position ( objects :i* is requir$ 9 ord] t ! =ce may und]go ! p>ticul> transmutation :i* con/itutes ! ph5om5on4 ,n[1 x might always h be5 said ) ackn[l$g$ correctness1 t a =ce & a collocation 7 bo? ( !m necess>y to produce any ph5om5on4 ,! law ( causation is1 t *ange c only be produc$ by *ange4 ,along ) any numb] ( /ation>y antec$5ts1 :i* are collocations1 !re mu/ be at lea/ "o *ang+ antec$5t1 :i* is a =ce4 ,to produce a bonfire1 !re mu/ n only be fuel1 & air1 & a sp>k1 :i* are collocations1 b *emical action betwe5 ! air & ! mat]ials1 :i* is a =ce4 ,to gr9d corn1 !re mu/ be a c]ta9 collocation ( ! p>ts compos+ a mill1 relatively to "o ano!r & to ! corn2 b !re mu/ also be ! gravitation ( wat]1 or ! motion ( w9d1 to supply a =ce4 ,b z ! =ce 9 ^! cases 0 reg>d$ z a prop]ty ( ! objects 9 :i* x is embodi$1 x seem$ tautology to say t !re mu/ be ! collocation & ! =ce4 ,z ! collocation mu/ be a collocation ( objects possess+ ! =ce-giv+ prop]ty1 ! collocation1 s und]/ood1 includ$ ! =ce4 ,h[1 !n1 %all we h to express ^! facts1 if ! !ory be f9ally sub/antiat$ t all ,=ce is r$ucible to a previ\s ,motion8 ,we %all h to say1 t "o ( ! conditions ( e ph5om5on is an antec$5t ,motion4 ,b x w h to be expla9$ t ?is ne$s n be actual motion4 ,! coal :i* supplies ! =ce ex]t$ 9 combu/ion is n %[n to h be5 ex]t+ t =ce 9 ! =m ( molecul> motion 9 ! pit2 x 0 n ev5 ex]t+ pressure4 ,! /one on ! em95ce is ex]t+ a pressure1 b only equival5t to its weight1 n to ! additional mom5tum x w\ld acquire by fall+4 ,! antec$5t1 !re=e1 is n a =ce 9 action2 & we c /ill only call x a prop]ty ( ! objects1 by :i* !y w\ld ex]t a =ce on ! occurr5ce ( a fre% collocation4 ,! collocation1 !re=e1 /ill includes ! =ce4 ,! =ce said to be /or$ up1 is simply a p>ticul> prop]ty :i* ! object has acquir$4 ,! cause we are 9 se>* (1 is a collocation ( objects possess+ t p>ticul> prop]ty4 ,:51 inde$1 we inquire fur!r into ! cause f :i* !y d]ive t prop]ty1 ! new conception introduc$ by ! ,cons]vation !ory comes 93 ! prop]ty is itself an effect1 & its cause1 accord+ to ! !ory1 is a =m] motion ( exactly equival5t am\nt1 :i* has be5 impress$ on ! p>ticles ( ! body1 p]haps at "s v di/ant p]iod4 ,b ! case is simply "o ( ^? we h already consid]$1 9 :i* ! efficacy ( a cause consi/s 9 its inve/+ an object ) a prop]ty4 ,! =ce said to be laid up1 & m]ely pot5tial1 is no m a really exi/+ ?+ ?an any o!r prop]ties ( objects are really exi/+ ?+s4 ,! expression is a m]e artifice ( language1 conv5i5t = describ+ ! ph5om5a3 x is unnecess>y to suppose t any ?+ has be5 9 cont9u\s exi/5ce except an ab/ract pot5tiality4 ,a =ce susp5d$ 9 its op]ation1 nei!r manife/+ itself by motion nor by pressure1 is n an exi/+ fact1 b a "n = our conviction t 9 appropriate circum/ances a fact w\ld take place4 ,we "k t a p\nd weight1 7 x to fall f ! e>? into ! sun1 w\ld acquire 9 fall+ a mom5tum equal to millions ( p\nds2 b we d n cr$it ! p\nd weight ) m ( actually exi/+ =ce ?an is equal to ! pressure x is n[ ex]t+ on ! e>?1 & t is exactly a p\nd4 ,we might z well say t a =ce ( millions ( p\nds exi/s 9 a p\nd1 z t ! =ce :i* w manife/ itself :5 ! coal is burn$ is a real ?+ exi/+ 9 ! coal4 ,:at is fix$ 9 ! coal is only a c]ta9 prop]ty3 x has become fit to be ! antec$5t ( an effect call$ combu/ion1 :i* p>tly consi/s 9 giv+ out1 "u c]ta9 conditions1 a giv5 def9ite quantity ( heat4 ,we ?us see t no new g5]al conception ( ,causation is introduc$ by ! ,cons]vation !ory4 ,! inde/ructibility ( ,=ce no m int]f]es ) ! !ory ( ,causation ?an ! inde/ructibility ( ,matt]1 mean+ by matt] ! elem5t ( resi/ance 9 ! s5sible _w4 ,x only enables u to und]/& bett] ?an be=e ! nature & laws ( "s ( ! sequ5ces4 ,?is bett] und]/&+1 h[ev]1 enables u1 ) ,mr4 ,ba91 to admit1 z "o ( ! te/s = di/+ui%+ causation f m]e concomitance1 ! exp5diture or transf] ( en]gy4 ,if ! effect1 or any "p ( ! effect1 to be acc\nt$ =1 consi/s 9 putt+ matt] 9 motion1 !n any ( ! objects pres5t :i* has lo/ motion has contribut$ to ! effect2 & ?is is ! true mean+ ( ! proposition t ! cause is t "o ( ! antec$5ts :i* ex]ts active =ce4 #aa4 ,x is prop] 9 ?is place to adv]t to a r anci5t doctr9e respect+ causation1 :i* has be5 reviv$ dur+ ! la/ few ye>s 9 _m qu>t]s1 & at pres5t gives m signs ( life ?an any o!r !ory ( causation at v>iance ) t set =? 9 ! prec$+ pages4 ,accord+ to ! !ory 9 "q1 ,m9d1 or to speak move precisely1 ,w1 is ! only cause ( ph5om5a4 ,! type ( ,causation1 z well z ! exclusive s\rce f :i* we d]ive ! idea1 is our own volunt>y ag5cy4 ,"h1 & "h only 7x is said71 we h direct evid5ce ( causation4 ,we "k t we c move our bodies4 ,respect+ ! ph5om5a ( inanimate nature1 we h no o!r direct k ?an t ( antec$5ce & sequ5ce4 ,b 9 ! case ( our volunt>y actions1 x is affirm$ t we are consci\s ( p[] be=e we h exp]i5ce ( results4 ,an act ( volition1 :e!r foll[$ by an effect or n1 is accompani$ by a consci\sness ( ef=t1 8( =ce ex]t$1 ( p[] 9 action1 :i* is necess>ily causal1 or causative40 ,?is feel+ ( en]gy or =ce1 inh]5t 9 an act ( w1 is k a priori2 assurance1 prior to exp]i5ce1 t we h ! p[] ( caus+ effects4 ,volition1 !re=e1 x is ass]t$1 is some?+ m ?an an unconditional antec$5t2 x is a cause1 9 a diff]5t s5se f t 9 :i* physical ph5om5a are said to cause "o ano!r3 x is an ,effici5t ,cause4 ,f ?is ! transition is easy to ! fur!r doctr9e1 t ,volition is ! sole ,effici5t ,cause ( all ph5om5a4 8,x is inconceivable t dead =ce c\ld cont9ue unsupport$ = a mom5t beyond its creation4 ,we c n ev5 conceive ( *ange or ph5om5a )\t ! en]gy ( a m9d40 8,! ^w action0 itself1 says ano!r writ] ( ! same s*ool1 8has no real significance except :5 appli$ to ! do+s ( an intellig5t ag5t4 ,let any "o conceive1 if he c1 ( any p[]1 en]gy1 or =ce inh]5t 9 a lump ( matt]40 ,ph5om5a may h ! semblance ( be+ produc$ by physical causes1 b !y are 9 reality produc$1 say ^! writ]s1 by ! imm$iate ag5cy ( m9d4 ,all ?+s :i* d n proce$ f a human 7or1 ,i suppose1 an animal7 w proce$1 !y say1 directly f div9e w4 ,! e>? is n mov$ by ! comb9ation ( a c5tripetal & a projectile =ce2 ?is is b a mode ( speak+1 :i* s]ves to facilitate our conceptions4 ,x is mov$ by ! direct volition ( an omnipot5t ,be+1 9 a pa? co9cid+ ) t :i* we d$uce f ! hypo!sis ( ^! two =ces4 ,z ,i h s (t5 obs]v$1 ! g5]al "q ( ! exi/5ce ( ,effici5t ,causes does n fall )9 ! limits ( our subject2 b a !ory :i* repres5ts !m z capable ( be+ subjects ( human k1 & :i* passes (f z effici5t causes :at are only physical or ph5om5al causes1 belongs z mu* to ,logic z to metaphysics1 & is a fit subject = discussion "h4 ,to my appreh5sion1 a volition is n an effici5t1 b simply a physical cause4 ,our w causes our bodily actions 9 ! same s5se1 & 9 no o!r1 9 :i* cold causes ice1 or a sp>k causes an explosion ( gunp[d]4 ,! volition1 a /ate ( our m9d1 is ! antec$5t2 ! motion ( our limbs 9 con=mity to ! volition1 is ! consequ5t4 ,?is sequ5ce ,i conceive to be n a subject ( direct consci\sness1 9 ! s5se int5d$ by ! !ory4 ,! antec$5t1 inde$1 & ! consequ5t1 are subjects ( consci\sness4 ,b ! connection betwe5 !m is a subject ( exp]i5ce4 ,i c n admit t our consci\sness ( ! volition conta9s 9 itself any a priori k t ! muscul> motion w foll[4 ,if our n]ves ( motion 7 p>alyz$1 or our muscles /iff & inflexible1 & _h be5 s all our lives1 ,i d n see ! slighte/ gr\nd = suppos+ t we %\ld ev] 7unless by in=mation f o!r p7 h kn[n any ?+ ( volition z a physical p[]1 or be5 consci\s ( any t5d5cy 9 feel+s ( our m9d to produce motions ( our body1 or ( o!r bodies4 ,i w n und]take to say :e!r we %\ld 9 t case h _h ! physical feel+ :i* ,i suppose is meant :5 ^! writ]s speak ( 8consci\sness ( ef=t30 ,i see no reason :y we %\ld n2 s9ce t physical feel+ is probably a /ate ( n]v\s s5sation beg9n+ & end+ 9 ! bra91 )\t involv+ ! motory app>atus3 b we c]ta9ly %\ld n h designat$ x by any t]m equival5t to ef=t1 s9ce ef=t implies consci\sly aim+ at an end1 :i* we %\ld n only 9 t case h _h no reason to d1 b c\ld n ev5 h _h ! idea ( do+4 ,if consci\s at all ( ?is peculi> s5sation1 we %\ld h be5 consci\s ( x1 ,i conceive1 only z a k9d ( uneas9ess1 accompany+ our feel+s ( desire4 ,x is well argu$ by ,sir ,william ,hamilton aga9/ ! !ory 9 "q1 t x 8is refut$ by ! consid]ation t betwe5 ! ov]t fact ( corporeal movem5t ( :i* we are cognizant1 & ! int]nal act ( m5tal det]m9ation ( :i* we are also cognizant1 !re int]v5es a num]\s s]ies ( int]m$iate ag5cies ( :i* we h no k2 &1 consequ5tly1 t we c h no consci\sness ( any causal connection betwe5 ! extreme l9ks ( ?is *a91 ! volition to move & ! limb mov+1 z ?is hypo!sis ass]ts4 ,no "o is imm$iately consci\s1 = example1 ( mov+ 8 arm ?r\gh 8 volition4 ,previ\sly to ?is ultimate movem5t1 muscles1 n]ves1 a multitude ( solid & fluid p>ts1 mu/ be set 9 motion by ! w1 b ( ?is motion we "k1 f consci\sness1 absolutely no?+4 ,a p]son /ruck ) p>alysis is consci\s ( no inability 9 8 limb to fulfill ! det]m9ations ( 8 w2 & x is only aft] hav+ will$1 & f9d+ t 8 limbs d n obey 8 volition1 t he le>ns by ?is exp]i5ce1 t ! ext]nal movem5t does n foll[ ! int]nal act4 ,b z ! p>alytic le>ns aft] ! volition t 8 limbs d n obey 8 m9d2 s x is only aft] volition t ! man 9 heal? le>ns1 t 8 limbs d obey ! m&ates ( 8 w407#abc7 ,^? aga9/ :om ,i am cont5d+ h nev] produc$1 & d n pret5d to produce1 any positive evid5ce7#abd7 t ! p[] ( our w to move our bodies w\ld be kn[n to u indep5d5tly ( exp]i5ce4 ,:at !y h to say on ! subject is1 t ! production ( physical ev5ts by a w seems to c>ry its own explanation ) x1 :ile ! action ( matt] ^u matt] seems to require some?+ else to expla9 x2 & is ev51 accord+ to !m1 8inconceivable0 on any o!r supposition ?an t "s w int]v5es betwe5 ! app>5t cause & its app>5t effect4 ,!y ?us re/ _! case on an appeal to ! inh]5t laws ( our conceptive faculty2 mi/ak+1 z ,i appreh5d1 = ! laws ( t faculty its acquir$ habits1 gr\nd$ on ! spontane\s t5d5cies ( its uncultur$ /ate4 ,! succession betwe5 ! w to move a limb & ! actual motion is "o ( ! mo/ direct & in/antane\s ( all sequ5ces :i* come "u our obs]vation1 & is famili> to e mom5t's exp]i5ce f our e>lie/ infancy2 m famili> ?an any succession ( ev5ts ext]ior to our bodies1 & especially m s ?an any o!r case ( ! app>5t orig9ation 7z di/+ui%$ f ! m]e communication7 ( motion4 ,n[1 x is ! natural t5d5cy ( ! m9d to be always attempt+ to facilitate its conception ( unfamili> facts by assimilat+ !m to o!rs :i* are famili>4 ,accord+ly1 our volunt>y acts1 be+ ! mo/ famili> to u ( all cases ( causation1 are1 9 ! infancy & e>ly y\? ( ! human race1 spontane\sly tak5 z ! type ( causation 9 g5]al1 & all ph5om5a are suppos$ to be directly produc$ by ! w ( "s s5ti5t be+4 ,?is orig9al ,feti*ism ,i %all n *>act]ize 9 ! words ( ,hume1 or ( any foll[] ( ,hume1 b 9 ^? ( a religi\s metaphysician1 ,dr4 ,reid1 9 ord] m effectually to %[ ! unanimity :i* exi/s on ! subject among all compet5t ?9k]s4 8,:5 we turn our att5tion to ext]nal objects1 & beg9 to ex]cise our rational faculties ab\t !m1 we f9d t !re are "s motions & *anges 9 !m :i* we h p[] to produce1 & t !re are _m :i* mu/ h "s o!r cause4 ,ei!r ! objects mu/ h life & active p[]1 z we h1 or !y mu/ be mov$ or *ang$ by some?+ t has life & active p[]1 z ext]nal objects are mov$ by u4 8,our fir/ ?\ghts seem to be1 t ! objects 9 :i* we p]ceive su* motion h und]/&+ & active p[] z we h4 #8,savages1' says ! ,abb ,raynal1 #8:]ev] !y see motion :i* !y c n acc\nt =1 !re !y suppose a s\l4' ,all m5 may be consid]$ z savages 9 ?is respect1 until !y are capable ( in/ruction1 & ( us+ _! faculties 9 a m p]fect mann] ?an savages d4 8,! ,abb ,raynal's obs]vation is suffici5tly confirm$1 bo? f fact1 & f ! /ructure ( all languages4 8,rude nations d really believe sun1 moon1 & />s1 e>?1 sea1 & air1 f\nta9s1 & lakes1 to h und]/&+ & active p[]4 ,to pay homage to !m1 & implore _! favor1 is a k9d ( idolatry natural to savages4 8,all languages c>ry 9 _! /ructure ! m>ks ( _! be+ =m$ :5 ?is belief prevail$4 ,! di/9ction ( v]bs & p>ticiples into active & passive1 :i* is f\nd 9 all languages1 mu/ h be5 orig9ally int5d$ to di/+ui% :at is really active f :at is m]ely passive2 & 9 all languages1 we f9d active v]bs appli$ to ^? objects1 9 :i*1 accord+ to ! ,abb ,raynal's obs]vation1 savages suppose a s\l4 8,?us we say ! sun rises & sets1 & comes to ! m]idian1 ! moon *anges1 ! sea ebbs & fl[s1 ! w9ds bl[4 ,languages 7 =m$ by m5 :o believ$ ^! objects to h life & active p[] 9 !mselves4 ,x 0 !re=e prop] & natural to express _! motions & *anges by active v]bs4 8,!re is no sur] way ( trac+ ! s5tim5ts ( nations be=e !y h records1 ?an by ! /ructure ( _! language1 :i*1 not)/&+ ! *anges produc$ 9 x by "t1 w always reta9 "s signatures ( ! ?\ghts ( ^? by :om x 0 inv5t$4 ,:5 we f9d ! same s5tim5ts indicat$ 9 ! /ructure ( all languages1 ^? s5tim5ts mu/ h be5 common to ! human species :5 languages 7 inv5t$4 8,:5 a few1 ( sup]ior intellectual abilities1 f9d leisure = speculation1 !y beg9 to philosophize1 & soon discov]1 t _m ( ^? objects :i* at fir/ !y believ$ to be intellig5t & active are really lifeless & passive4 ,?is is a v important discov]y4 ,x elevates ! m9d1 emancipates f _m vulg> sup]/itions1 & invites to fur!r discov]ies ( ! same k9d4 8,z philosophy advances1 life & activity 9 natural objects retires1 & leaves !m dead & inactive4 ,in/ead ( mov+ volunt>ily1 we f9d !m to be mov$ necess>ily2 in/ead ( act+1 we f9d !m to be act$ ^u2 & ,nature appe>s z "o great ma*9e1 :]e "o :eel is turn$ by ano!r1 t by a ?ird2 & h[ f> ?is necess>y succession may rea*1 ! philosoph] does n "k407#abe7 ,!re is1 !n1 a spontane\s t5d5cy ( ! intellect to acc\nt to itself = all cases ( causation by assimilat+ !m to ! int5tional acts ( volunt>y ag5ts l itself4 ,?is is ! in/9ctive philosophy ( ! human m9d 9 its e>lie/ /age1 be=e x has become famili> ) any o!r inv>iable sequ5ces ?an ^? betwe5 its own volitions or ^? ( o!r human be+s & _! volunt>y acts4 ,z ! notion ( fix$ laws ( succession among ext]nal ph5om5a gradually e/abli%es itself1 ! prop5sity to ref] all ph5om5a to volunt>y ag5cy sl[ly gives way be=e x4 ,! sugge/ions1 h[ev]1 ( daily life cont9u+ to be m p[]ful ?an ^? ( sci5tific ?\ght1 ! orig9al in/9ctive philosophy ma9ta9s its gr\nd 9 ! m9d1 und]nea? ! gr[?s obta9$ by cultivation1 & keeps up a con/ant resi/ance to _! ?r[+ _! roots deep into ! soil4 ,! !ory aga9/ :i* ,i am cont5d+ d]ives its n\ri%m5t f t sub/ratum4 ,its /r5g? does n lie 9 argum5t1 b 9 its aff9ity to an ob/9ate t5d5cy ( ! infancy ( ! human m9d4 ,t ?is t5d5cy1 h[ev]1 is n ! result ( an inh]5t m5tal law1 is prov$ by sup]abundant evid5ce4 ,! hi/ory ( sci5ce1 f its e>lie/ dawn1 %[s t mank9d h n be5 unanim\s 9 ?9k+ ei!r t ! action ( matt] ^u matt] 0 n conceivable1 or t ! action ( m9d ^u matt] 04 ,to "s ?9k]s1 & "s s*ools ( ?9k]s1 bo? 9 anci5t & 9 mod]n times1 ?is la/ has appe>$ mu* m inconceivable ?an ! =m]4 ,sequ5ces entirely physical & mat]ial1 z soon z !y _h become suffici5tly famili> to ! human m9d1 came to be ?\ght p]fectly natural1 & 7 reg>d$ n only z ne$+ no explanation !mselves1 b z be+ capable ( af=d+ x to o!rs1 & ev5 ( s]v+ z ! ultimate explanation ( ?+s 9 g5]al4 ,"o ( ! able/ rec5t support]s ( ! ,volitional !ory has furni%$ an explanation1 at once hi/orically true & philosophically acute1 ( ! failure ( ! ,greek philosoph]s 9 physical inquiry1 9 :i*1 z ,i conceive1 he unconsci\sly depicts 8 own /ate ( m9d4 8,_! /umbl+-block 0 "o z to ! nature ( ! evid5ce !y _h to expect = _! conviction4444 ,!y _h n seiz$ ! idea t !y mu/ n expect to und]/& ! processes ( outw>d causes1 b only _! results2 & consequ5tly1 ! :ole physical philosophy ( ! ,greeks 0 an attempt to id5tify m5tally ! effect ) its cause1 to feel aft] "s n only necess>y b natural connection1 :]e !y meant by natural t :i* w\ld p] se c>ry "s presumption to _! own m9d4444 ,!y want$ to see "s reason :y ! physical antec$5t %\ld produce ?is p>ticul> consequ5t1 & _! only attempts 7 9 directions :]e !y c\ld f9d su* reasons407#abf7 ,9 o!r words1 !y 7 n cont5t m]ely to "k t "o ph5om5on 0 always foll[$ by ano!r2 !y ?\ght t !y _h n atta9$ ! true aim ( sci5ce1 unless !y c\ld p]ceive some?+ 9 ! nature ( ! "o ph5om5on f :i* x might h be5 kn[n or presum$ previ\s to trial t x w\ld be foll[$ by ! o!r3 j :at ! writ]1 :o has s cle>ly po9t$ out _! error1 ?9ks t he p]ceives 9 ! nature ( ! ph5om5on ,volition4 ,& to complete ! /atem5t ( ! case1 he %\ld h add$ t ^! e>ly speculators n only made ?is _! aim1 b 7 q satisfi$ ) _! success 9 x2 n only s\ght = causes :i* %\ld c>ry 9 _! m]e /atem5t evid5ce ( _! effici5cy1 b fully believ$ t !y _h f\nd su* causes4 ,! review] c see pla9ly t ?is 0 an error1 because he does n believe t !re exi/ any relations betwe5 mat]ial ph5om5a :i* c acc\nt = _! produc+ "o ano!r2 b ! v fact ( ! p]si/5cy ( ! ,greeks 9 ?is error1 %[s t _! m9ds 7 9 a v diff]5t /ate3 !y 7 able to d]ive f ! assimilation ( physical facts to o!r physical facts1 ! k9d ( m5tal satisfaction :i* we connect ) ! ^w explanation1 & :i* ! review] w\ld h u ?9k c only be f\nd 9 ref]r+ ph5om5a to a w4 ,:5 ,?ales & ,hippo held t moi/ure 0 ! univ]sal cause1 & ext]nal elem5t1 ( :i* all o!r ?+s 7 b ! inf9itely v>i\s s5sible manife/ations2 :5 ,anaxim5es pr$icat$ ! same ?+ ( air1 ,py?agoras ( numb]s1 & ! l1 !y all ?\ght t !y _h f\nd a real explanation2 & 7 cont5t to re/ 9 ?is explanation z ultimate4 ,! ord9>y sequ5ces ( ! ext]nal univ]se appe>$ to !m1 no less ?an to _! critic1 to be inconceivable )\t ! supposition ( "s univ]sal ag5cy to connect ! antec$5ts ) ! consequ5ts2 b !y did n ?9k t ,volition1 ex]t$ by m9ds1 0 ! only ag5cy :i* fulfill$ ?is requirem5t4 ,moi/ure1 or air1 or numb]s1 c>ri$ to _! m9ds a precisely simil> impression ( mak+ intelligible :at 0 o!rwise inconceivable1 & gave ! same full satisfaction to ! dem&s ( _! conceptive faculty4 ,x 0 n ! ,greeks alone1 :o 8want$ to see "s reason :y ! physical antec$5t %\ld produce ?is p>ticul> consequ5t10 "s connection 8:i* w\ld p] se c>ry "s presumption to _! own m9d40 ,among mod]n philosoph]s1 ,leibnitz laid x d[n z a self-evid5t pr9ciple t all physical causes )\t exception mu/ conta9 9 _! own nature some?+ :i* makes x intelligible t !y %\ld be able to produce ! effects :i* !y d produce4 ,f> f admitt+ ,volition z ! only k9d ( cause :i* c>ri$ int]nal evid5ce ( its own p[]1 & z ! real bond ( connection betwe5 physical antec$5ts & _! consequ5ts1 he dem&$ "s naturally & p] se effici5t physical antec$5t z ! bond ( connection betwe5 ,volition itself & its effects4 ,he di/9ctly refus$ to admit ! w ( ,god z a suffici5t explanation ( any ?+ except miracles2 & insi/$ ^u f9d+ some?+ t w\ld acc\nt bett] = ! ph5om5a ( nature ?an a m]e ref]5ce to div9e volition47#abg7 ,aga91 & conv]sely1 ! action ( m9d ^u matt] 7:i*1 we are n[ told1 n only ne$s no explanation itself1 b is ! explanation ( all o!r effects71 has appe>$ to "s ?9k]s to be itself ! gr& inconceivability4 ,x 0 to get ov] ?is v difficulty t ! ,c>tesians inv5t$ ! sy/em ( ,occasional ,causes4 ,!y c\ld n conceive t ?\ghts 9 a m9d c\ld produce movem5ts 9 a body1 or t bodily movem5ts c\ld produce ?\ghts4 ,!y c\ld see no necess>y connection1 no relation a priori1 betwe5 a motion & a ?\ght4 ,& z ! ,c>tesians1 m ?an any o!r s*ool ( philosophical speculation be=e or s9ce1 made _! own m9ds ! measure ( all ?+s1 & refus$1 on pr9ciple1 to believe t ,nature _h done :at !y 7 unable to see any reason :y %e mu/ d1 !y affirm$ x to be impossible t a mat]ial & a m5tal fact c\ld be causes "o ( ano!r4 ,!y reg>d$ !m z m]e ,occasions on :i* ! real ag5t1 ,god1 ?\ght fit to ex]t 8 p[] z a ,cause4 ,:5 a man wills to move 8 foot1 x is n 8 w t moves x1 b ,god 7!y said7 moves x on ! occasion ( 8 w4 ,god1 accord+ to ?is sy/em1 is ! only effici5t cause1 n qu m9d1 or qu end[$ ) volition1 b qu omnipot5t4 ,?is hypo!sis 01 z ,i said1 orig9ally sugge/$ by ! suppos$ inconceivability ( any real mutual action betwe5 ,m9d & ,matt]2 b x 0 aft]w>d ext5d$ to ! action ( ,matt] ^u ,matt]1 = on a nic] exam9ation !y f\nd ?is inconceivable too1 & !re=e1 accord+ to _! logic1 impossible4 ,! deus ex ma*9 0 ultimately call$ 9 to produce a sp>k on ! occasion ( a fl9t & /eel com+ toge!r1 or to break an egg on ! occasion ( its fall+ on ! gr\nd4 ,all ?is1 und\bt$ly1 %[s t x is ! disposition ( mank9d 9 g5]al1 n to be satisfi$ ) kn[+ t "o fact is inv>iably antec$5t & ano!r consequ5t1 b to look out = some?+ :i* may seem to expla9 _! be+ s4 ,b we also see t ?is dem& may be completely satisfi$ by an ag5cy purely physical1 provid$ x be mu* m famili> ?an t :i* x is invok$ to expla94 ,to ,?ales & ,anaxim5es1 x appe>$ inconceivable t ! antec$5ts :i* we see 9 nature %\ld produce ! consequ5ts2 b p]fectly natural t wat]1 or air1 %\ld produce !m4 ,! writ]s :om ,i oppose decl>e ?is inconceivable1 b c conceive t m9d1 or volition1 is p] se an effici5t cause3 :ile ! ,c>tesians c\ld n conceive ev5 t1 b p]emptorily decl>$ t no mode ( production ( any fact :atev] 0 conceivable1 except ! direct ag5cy ( an omnipot5t be+2 ?us giv+ additional pro( ( :at f9ds new confirmation 9 e /age ( ! hi/ory ( sci5ce3 t bo? :at p]sons c1 & :at !y c n1 conceive1 is v mu* an affair ( accid5t1 & dep5ds altoge!r on _! exp]i5ce1 & _! habits ( ?\ght2 t by cultivat+ ! requisite associations ( ideas1 p may make !mselves unable to conceive any giv5 ?+2 & may make !mselves able to conceive mo/ ?+s1 h[ev] inconceivable ^! may at fir/ appe>2 & ! same facts 9 ea* p]son's m5tal hi/ory :i* det]m9e :at is or is n conceivable to him1 det]m9e also :i* among ! v>i\s sequ5ces 9 nature w appe> to him s natural & plausible1 z to ne$ no o!r pro( ( _! exi/5ce2 to be evid5t by _! own light1 indep5d5t equally ( exp]i5ce & ( explanation4 ,by :at rule is any "o to decide betwe5 "o !ory ( ?is description & ano!r8 ,! !ori/s d n direct u to any ext]nal evid5ce2 !y appeal ea* to 8 own subjective feel+s4 ,"o says1 ! succession ,c ,b appe>s to me m natural1 conceivable1 & cr$ible p] se1 ?an ! succession ,a ,b2 y are !re=e mi/ak5 9 ?9k+ t ,b dep5ds ^u ,a2 ,i am c]ta91 ?\gh ,i c give no o!r evid5ce ( x1 t ,c comes 9 betwe5 ,a & ,b1 & is ! real & only cause ( ,b4 ,! o!r answ]s1 ! successions ,c ,b & ,a ,b appe> to me equally natural & conceivable1 or ! latt] m s ?an ! =m]3 ,a is q capable ( produc+ ,b )\t any o!r int]v5tion4 ,a ?ird agrees ) ! fir/ 9 be+ unable to conceive t ,a c produce ,b1 b f9ds ! sequ5ce ,d ,b /ill m natural ?an ,c ,b1 or ( ne>] k9 to ! subject-matt]1 & pref]s 8 ,d !ory to ! ,c !ory4 ,x is pla9 t !re is no univ]sal law op]at+ "h1 except ! law t ea* p]son's conceptions are gov]n$ & limit$ by 8 individual exp]i5ces & habits ( ?\ght4 ,we are w>rant$ 9 say+ ( all ?ree1 :at ea* ( !m already believes ( ! o!r two1 namely1 t !y exalt into an orig9al law ( ! human intellect & ( outw>d nature "o p>ticul> sequ5ce ( ph5om5a1 :i* appe>s to !m m natural & m conceivable ?an o!r sequ5ces1 only because x is m famili>4 ,& f ?is judgm5t ,i am unable to except ! !ory1 t ,volition is an ,effici5t ,cause4 ,i am unwill+ to leave ! subject )\t adv]t+ to ! additional fallacy conta9$ 9 ! coroll>y f ?is !ory2 9 ! inf]5ce t because ,volition is an effici5t cause1 !re=e x is ! only cause1 & ! direct ag5t 9 produc+ ev5 :at is app>5tly produc$ by some?+ else4 ,volitions are n kn[n to produce any ?+ directly except n]v\s action1 = ! w influ5ces ev5 ! muscles only ?r\gh ! n]ves4 ,?\gh x 7 grant$1 !n1 t e ph5om5on has an effici5t1 & n m]ely a ph5om5al cause1 & t volition1 9 ! case ( ! peculi> ph5om5a :i* are kn[n to be produc$ by x1 is t effici5t cause2 are we !re=e to say1 ) ^! writ]s1 t s9ce we "k ( no o!r effici5t cause1 & ought n to assume "o )\t evid5ce1 !re is no o!r1 & volition is ! direct cause ( all ph5om5a8 ,a m outrage\s /ret* ( inf]5ce c\ld h>dly be made4 ,because among ! inf9ite v>iety ( ! ph5om5a ( nature !re is "o1 namely1 a p>ticul> mode ( action ( c]ta9 n]ves1 :i* has = its cause1 & z we are n[ suppos+ = its effici5t cause1 a /ate ( our m9d2 & because ?is is ! only effici5t cause ( :i* we are consci\s1 be+ ! only "o ( :i* 9 ! nature ( ! case we c be consci\s1 s9ce x is ! only "o :i* exi/s )9 ourselves2 does ?is ju/ify u 9 conclud+ t all o!r ph5om5a mu/ h ! same k9d ( effici5t cause ) t "o em95tly special1 n>r[1 & peculi>ly human or animal1 ph5om5on8 ,! ne>e/ p>allel to ?is specim5 ( g5]alization is sugge/$ by ! rec5tly reviv$ controv]sy on ! old subject ( ,plurality ( ,worlds1 9 :i* ! cont5d+ p>ties h be5 s conspicu\sly successful 9 ov]?r[+ "o ano!r4 ,"h also we h exp]i5ce only ( a s+le case1 t ( ! _w 9 :i* we live1 b t ?is is inhabit$ we "k absolutely1 & )\t possibility ( d\bt4 ,n[ if on ?is evid5ce any "o 7 to inf] t e heav5ly body )\t exception1 sun1 planet1 satellite1 comet1 fix$ /> or nebula1 is inhabit$1 & mu/ be s f ! inh]5t con/itution ( ?+s1 8 inf]5ce w\ld exactly resemble t ( ! writ]s :o conclude t because volition is ! effici5t cause ( our own bodily motions1 x mu/ be ! effici5t cause ( e ?+ else 9 ! univ]se4 ,x is true !re are cases 9 :i*1 ) ackn[l$g$ propriety1 we g5]alize f a s+le in/ance to a multitude ( in/ances4 ,b !y mu/ be in/ances :i* resemble ! "o kn[n in/ance1 & n su* z h no circum/ance 9 common ) x except t ( be+ in/ances4 ,i h1 = example1 no direct evid5ce t any creature is alive except myself1 yet ,i attribute1 ) full assurance1 life & s5sation to o!r human be+s & animals4 ,b ,i d n conclude t all o!r ?+s are alive m]ely because ,i am4 ,i ascribe to c]ta9 o!r creatures a life l my own1 because !y manife/ x by ! same sort ( indications by :i* m9e is manife/$4 ,i f9d t _! ph5om5a & m9e con=m to ! same laws1 & x is = ?is reason t ,i believe bo? to arise f a simil> cause4 ,accord+ly ,i d n ext5d ! conclusion beyond ! gr\nds = x4 ,e>?1 fire1 m\nta9s1 trees1 are rem>kable ag5cies1 b _! ph5om5a d n con=m to ! same laws z my actions d1 & ,i !re=e d n believe e>? or fire1 m\nta9s or trees1 to possess animal life4 ,b ! support]s ( ! ,volition ,!ory ask u to inf] t volition causes e ?+1 = no reason except t x causes "o p>ticul> ?+2 al?\gh t "o ph5om5on1 f> f be+ a type ( all natural ph5om5a1 is em95tly peculi>2 its laws be>+ sc>cely any resemblance to ^? ( any o!r ph5om5on1 :e!r ( inorganic or ( organic nature4 ,,note ,,supplem5t>y ,,to ,,! ,,prec$+ ,,*apt]4 ,! au?or ( ! ,second ,burnett ,prize ,essay 7,dr4 ,tullo*71 :o has employ$ a consid]able numb] ( pages 9 controv]t+ ! doctr9es ( ! prec$+ *apt]1 has some:at surpris$ me by d5y+ a fact1 :i* ,i imag9$ too well kn[n to require pro(--t !re h be5 philosoph]s :o f\nd 9 physical explanations ( ph5om5a ! same complete m5tal satisfaction :i* we are told is only giv5 by volitional explanation1 & o!rs :o d5i$ ! ,volitional ,!ory on ! same gr\nd ( inconceivability on :i* x is def5d$4 ,! ass]tion ( ! ,essayi/ is c\nt]sign$ /ill m positively by an able review] ( ! ,essay37#abh7 8,two illu/rations10 says ! review]1 8are advanc$ by ,mr4 ,mill3 ! case ( ,?ales & ,anaxim5es1 /at$ by him to h ma9ta9$1 ! "o ,moi/ure & ! o!r ,air to be ! orig9 ( all ?+s2 & t ( ,desc>tes & ,leibnitz1 :om he ass]ts to h f\nd ! action ( ,m9d ^u ,matt] ! gr& inconceivability4 ,9 c\nt]-/atem5t z to ! fir/ ( ^! cases ! au?or %[s--:at we believe n[ h>dly admits ( d\bt--t ! ,greek philosoph]s di/9ctly recogniz$ z beyond & above _! primal mat]ial s\rce1 ! 1 or ,div9e ,intellig5ce1 z ! effici5t & orig9at+ ,s\rce ( all2 & z to ! second1 by pro( t x 0 ! mode1 n ! fact1 ( t action on matt]1 :i* 0 repres5t$ z inconceivable40 ,a great] quantity ( hi/orical error has seldom be5 compris$ 9 a s+le s5t5ce4 ,) reg>d to ,?ales1 ! ass]tion t he consid]$ wat] z a m]e mat]ial 9 ! h&s ( re/s on a passage ( ,cic]o de ,natur ,deorum2 & :oev] w ref] to any ( ! accurate hi/orians ( philosophy1 w f9d t !y treat ?is z a m]e fancy ( ,cic]o1 re/+ on no au?ority1 oppos$ to all ! evid5ce2 & make surmises z to ! mann] 9 :i* ,cic]o may h be5 l$ into ! error4 7,see ,rutt]1 vol4 i41 p4 #baa1 #b;d ed42 ,br&is1 vol4 i41 pp4 #aah-i1 #a/ ed42 ,prell]1 ,hi/oria ,philosophi ,grco-,roman1 p4 #aj4 8,s*iefe ,ansi*t1 dur*aus zu v]w]f520 8aug5s*e9li* folg]nd /att zu b]i*t520 8quibus v]a s5t5tia ,?aletis plane detorquetur10 are ! expressions ( ^! writ]s47 ,z = ,anaxim5es1 he ev5 accord+ to ,cic]o1 ma9ta9$1 n t air 0 ! mat]ial out ( :i* ,god made ! _w1 b t ! air 0 a god3 8,anaxim5es ara deum /atuit20 or1 accord+ to ,/4 ,augu/9e1 t x 0 ! mat]ial out ( :i* ! gods 7 made2 8non tam5 ab ipsis ,diis arem factum1 s$ ipsos ex are ortos cr$idit40 ,^? :o are n famili> ) ! metaphysical t]m9ology ( antiquity1 mu/ n be misl$ by f9d+ x /at$ t ,anaxim5es attribut$ 7translat$ s\l1 or life7 to 8 univ]sal elem5t1 ! air4 ,! ,greek philosoph]s ackn[l$g$ sev]al k9ds ( 1 ! nutritive1 ! s5sitive1 & ! intellective47#abi7 ,ev5 ! mod]ns1 ) admitt$ correctness1 attribute life to plants4 ,z f> z we c make out ! mean+ ( ,anaxim5es1 he made *oice ( ,air z ! univ]sal ag5t1 on ! gr\nd t x is p]petually 9 motion1 )\t any app>5t cause ext]nal to itself3 s t he conceiv$ x z ex]cis+ spontane\s =ce1 & z ! pr9ciple ( life & activity 9 all ?+s1 m5 & gods inclusive4 ,if ?is be n repres5t+ x z ! ,effici5t ,cause ! dispute altoge!r has no mean+4 ,if ei!r ,anaxim5es1 or ,?ales1 or any ( _! contempor>ies1 _h held ! doctr9e t 0 ! ,effici5t ,cause1 t doctr9e c\ld n h be5 reput$1 z x 0 ?r\gh\t antiquity1 to h orig9at$ ) ,anaxagoras4 ,! te/imony ( ,ari/otle1 9 ! fir/ book ( 8 ,metaphysics1 is p]fectly decisive ) respect to ^! e>ly speculations4 ,aft] enum]at+ f\r k9ds ( causes1 or r f\r diff]5t mean+s ( ! ^w ,cause1 viz41 ! ,ess5ce ( a ?+1 ! ,matt] ( x1 ! ,orig9 ( ,motion 7,effici5t ,cause71 & ! ,end or ,f9al ,cause1 he proce$s to say1 t mo/ ( ! e>ly philosoph]s recogniz$ only ! second k9d ( ,cause1 ! ,matt] ( a ?+1 4 ,z 8 fir/ example he specifies ,?ales1 :om he describes z tak+ ! lead 9 ?is view ( ! subject1 1 & goes on to ,hippon1 ,anaxim5es1 ,diog5es 7( ,apollonia71 ,hippasus ( ,metapontum1 ,h]aclitus1 & ,emp$ocles4 ,anaxagoras1 h[ev] 7he proce$s to say71 taught a diff]5t doctr9e1 z we "k1 & x is alleg$ t ,h]motimus ( ,clazom5 taught x be=e him4 ,anaxagoras repres5t$1 t ev5 if ^! v>i\s !ories ( ! univ]sal mat]ial 7 true1 !re w\ld be ne$ ( "s o!r cause to acc\nt = ! trans=mations ( ! mat]ials1 s9ce ! mat]ial c n orig9ate its own *anges3 2 1 1 1 viz41 ! o!r k9d ( cause1 --an ,effici5t ,cause4 ,ari/otle expresses great approbation ( ?is doctr9e 7:i* he says made its au?or appe> ! only sob] man among p]sons rav+1 72 b :ile describ+ ! influ5ce :i* x ex]cis$ ov] subsequ5t speculation1 he rem>ks t ! philosoph]s aga9/ :om ?is1 z he ?9ks1 insup]able difficulty 0 urg$1 _h n felt x to be any difficulty3 4 ,x is surely unnecess>y to say m 9 pro( ( ! matt] ( fact :i* ,dr4 ,tullo* & 8 review] disbelieve4 ,hav+ po9t$ out :at he ?9ks ! error ( ^! e>ly speculators 9 n recogniz+ ! ne$ ( an effici5t cause1 ,ari/otle goes on to m5tion two o!r effici5t causes to :i* !y might h _h rec\rse1 in/ead ( intellig5ce3 1 *ance1 & 1 spontaneity4 ,he inde$ puts ^! aside z n suffici5tly wor?y causes = ! ord] 9 ! univ]se1 2 b he does n reject !m z incapable ( produc+ any effect1 b only z incapable ( produc+ t effect4 ,he himself recognizes & z co-ord9ate ag5ts ) ,m9d 9 produc+ ! ph5om5a ( ! univ]se2 ! dep>tm5t allott$ to !m be+ compos$ ( all ! classes ( ph5om5a :i* are n suppos$ to foll[ any uni=m law4 ,by ?us includ+ ,*ance among effici5t causes1 ,ari/otle fell into an error :i* philosophy has n[ outgr[n1 b :i* is by no means s ali5 to ! _s ev5 ( mod]n speculation z x may at fir/ sight appe>4 ,up to q a rec5t p]iod philosoph]s w5t on ascrib+1 & _m ( !m h n yet ceas$ to ascribe1 a real exi/5ce to ! results ( ab/raction4 ,*ance c\ld make out z good a title to t dignity z _m o!r ( ! m9d's ab/ract creations3 x _h _h a "n giv5 to x1 & :y %\ld x n be a reality8 ,z = 1 x is recogniz$ ev5 yet z "o ( ! modes ( orig9ation ( ph5om5a by all ^? ?9k]s :o ma9ta9 :at is call$ ! ,fre$om ( ! ,w4 ,! same self-det]m9+ p[] :i* t doctr9e attributes to volitions1 0 suppos$ by ! anci5ts to be possess$ also by "s o!r natural ph5om5a3 a circum/ance :i* ?r[s consid]able light on m ?an "o ( ! suppos$ inv9cible necessities ( belief4 ,i h introduc$ x "h1 because ?is belief ( ,ari/otle1 or r ( ! ,greek philosoph]s g5]ally1 is z fatal z ! doctr9es ( ,?ales & ! ,ionic s*ool to ! !ory t ! human m9d is compell$ by its con/itution to conceive volition z ! orig9 ( all =ce1 & ! effici5t cause ( all ph5om5a47#acj7 ,) reg>d to ! mod]n philosoph]s 7,leibnitz & ! ,c>tesians7 :om ,i _h cit$ z hav+ ma9ta9$ t ! action ( m9d ^u matt]1 s f> f be+ ! only conceivable orig9 ( mat]ial ph5om5a1 is itself inconceivable2 ! attempt to rebut ?is argum5t by ass]t+ t ! mode1 n ! fact1 ( ! action ( m9d on matt] 0 repres5t$ z inconceivable1 is an abuse ( ! privilege ( writ+ confid5tly ab\t au?ors )\t read+ !m2 = any k :atev] ( ,leibnitz w\ld h taught ^? :o ?us speak ( him1 t ! inconceivability ( ! mode1 & ! impossibility ( ! ?+1 7 9 8 m9d conv]tible expressions4 ,:at 0 8 fam\s ,pr9ciple ( ! ,suffici5t ,reason1 ! v corn]-/one ( 8 ,philosophy1 f :i* ! ,pre-e/abli%$ ,h>mony1 ! doctr9e ( ,monads1 & all ! op9ions mo/ *>act]i/ic ( ,leibnitz1 7 coroll>ies8 ,x 01 t no?+ exi/s1 ! exi/5ce ( :i* is n capable ( be+ prov$ & expla9$ a priori2 ! pro( & explanation 9 ! case ( cont+5t facts be+ d]iv$ f ! nature ( _! causes2 :i* c\ld n be ! causes unless !re 0 some?+ 9 _! nature %[+ !m to be capable ( produc+ ^? p>ticul> effects4 ,& ?is 8some?+0 :i* acc\nts = ! production ( physical effects1 he 0 able to f9d 9 _m physical causes1 b c\ld n f9d x 9 any f9ite m9ds1 :i* !re=e he unhesitat+ly ass]t$ to be incapable ( produc+ any physical effects :atev]4 8,on ne saurait concevoir10 he says1 8une action rciproque de la matire et de l'intellig5ce l'une sur l'autre10 & !re is !re=e 7he cont5ds7 no *oice b betwe5 ! ,occasional ,causes ( ! ,c>tesians & 8 own ,pre-e/abli%$ ,h>mony1 accord+ to :i* !re is no m connection betwe5 our volitions & our muscul> actions ?an !re is betwe5 two clocks :i* are w\nd up to /rike at ! same in/ant4 ,b he felt no simil> difficulty z to physical causes2 & ?r\gh\t 8 speculations1 z 9 ! passage ,i h already cit$ respect+ gravitation1 he di/9ctly refuses to consid] z "p ( ! ord] ( nature any fact :i* is n explicable f ! nature ( its physical cause4 ,) reg>d to ! ,c>tesians 7n ,desc>tes2 ,i did n make t mi/ake1 ?\gh ! review] ( ,dr4 ,tullo*'s ,essay attributes x to me7 ,i take a passage almo/ at r&om f ,malebran*e1 :o is ! be/ kn[n ( ! ,c>tesians1 &1 ?\gh n ! inv5tor ( ! sy/em ( ,occasional ,causes1 is its pr9cipal expositor4 ,9 ,"p ,,ii41 *ap4 iii41 ( 8 ,six? ,book1 hav+ fir/ said t matt] c n h ! p[] ( mov+ itself1 he proce$s to argue t nei!r c m9d h ! p[] ( mov+ x4 8,qu& on exam9e l'ide que l'on a de t\s les esprits f9is1 on ne voit po9t de liaison ncessaire entre leur volont et le m\vem5t de quelque corps que ce soit1 on voit au contraire qu'il n'y en a po9t1 et qu'il n'y en peut avoir0 7!re is no?+ 9 ! idea ( f9ite m9d :i* c acc\nt = its caus+ ! motion ( a body72 8on doit aussi conclure1 si on v5t raisonn] selon ses lumires1 qu'il n'y a aucun esprit cr qui puisse remu] quelque corps que ce soit comme cause vritable on pr9cipale1 de mme que l'on a dit qu'aucun corps ne se p\vait remu] soi-mme30 ?us ! idea ( ,m9d is accord+ to him z incompatible z ! idea ( ,matt] ) ! ex]cise ( active =ce4 ,b :51 he cont9ues1 we consid] n a creat$ b a ,div9e ,m9d1 ! case is alt]$2 = ! idea ( a ,div9e ,m9d includes omnipot5ce2 & ! idea ( omnipot5ce does conta9 ! idea ( be+ able to move bodies4 ,?us x is ! nature ( omnipot5ce :i* r5d]s ! motion ( bodies ev5 by ! ,div9e ,m9d cr$ible or conceivable1 :ile1 s f> z dep5d$ on ! m]e nature ( m9d1 x w\ld h be5 inconceivable & incr$ible4 ,if ,malebran*e _h n believ$ 9 an omnipot5t ,be+1 he w\ld h held all action ( m9d on body to be a demon/rat$ impossibility47#aca7 ,a doctr9e m precisely ! rev]se ( ! ,volitional !ory ( causation c n well be imag9$4 ,! ,volitional !ory is1 t we "k by intuition or by direct exp]i5ce ! action ( our own m5tal volitions on matt]2 t we may h5ce inf] all o!r action ^u matt] to be t ( volition1 & might ?us "k1 )\t any o!r evid5ce1 t matt] is "u ! gov]nm5t ( a ,div9e ,m9d4 ,leibnitz & ! ,c>tesians1 on ! contr>y1 ma9ta9 t our volitions d n & c n act ^u matt]1 & t x is only ! exi/5ce ( an all-gov]n+ ,be+1 & t ,be+ omnipot5t1 :i* c acc\nt = ! sequ5ce betwe5 our volitions & our bodily actions4 ,:5 we consid] t ea* ( ^! two !ories1 :i*1 z !ories ( causation1 /& at ! opposite extremes ( possible div]g5ce f "o ano!r1 invokes n only z its evid5ce1 b z its sole evid5ce1 ! absolute inconceivability ( any !ory b itself1 we are enabl$ to measure ! wor? ( ?is k9d ( evid5ce3 & :5 we f9d ! ,volitional !ory entirely built ^u ! ass]tion t by our m5tal con/itution we are compell$ to recognize our volitions z effici5t causes1 & !n f9d o!r ?9k]s ma9ta9+ t we "k t !y are n & c n be su* causes1 & c n conceive !m to be s1 ,i ?9k we h a "r to say t ?is suppos$ law ( our m5tal con/itution does n exi/4 ,dr4 ,tullo* 7pp4 #de-dg7 ?9ks x a suffici5t answ] to ?is1 t ,leibnitz & ! ,c>tesians 7 ,!i/s1 & believ$ ! w ( ,god to be an effici5t cause4 ,d\btless !y did1 & ! ,c>tesians ev5 believ$ 7?\gh ,leibnitz did n7 t x is ! only su* cause4 ,dr4 ,tullo* mi/akes ! nature ( ! "q4 ,i 0 n writ+ on ,!ism1 z ,dr4 ,tullo* is1 b aga9/ a p>ticul> !ory ( causation1 :i*1 if x be unf\nd$1 c give no effective support to ,!ism or to any ?+ else4 ,i f\nd x ass]t$ t volition is ! only effici5t cause1 on ! gr\nd t no o!r effici5t cause is conceivable4 ,to ?is ass]tion ,i oppose ! in/ances ( ,leibnitz & ( ! ,c>tesians1 :o affirm$ ) equal positiv5ess t volition z an effici5t cause is itself n conceivable1 & t omnipot5ce1 :i* r5d]s all ?+s conceivable1 c alone take away ! impossibility4 ,?is ,i ?\ght1 & ?9k1 a conclusive answ] to ! argum5t on :i* ?is !ory ( causation av[$ly dep5ds4 ,b ,i c]ta9ly did n imag9e t ,!ism 0 b\nd up ) t !ory2 nor expect$ to be *>g$ ) d5y+ ,leibnitz & ! ,c>tesians to be ,!i/s because ,i d5i$ t !y held ! !ory4 ,*apt] ,,vi4 ,on ,! ,composition ,( ,causes4 #a4 ,to complete ! g5]al notion ( causation on :i* ! rules ( exp]im5tal inquiry into ! laws ( nature mu/ be f\nd$1 "o di/9ction /ill rema9s to be po9t$ out3 a di/9ction s radical1 & ( s mu* importance1 z to require a *apt] to itself4 ,! prec$+ discussions h r5d]$ u famili> ) ! case 9 :i* sev]al ag5ts1 or causes1 concur z conditions to ! production ( an effect2 a case1 9 tru?1 almo/ univ]sal1 !re be+ v few effects to ! production ( :i* no m ?an "o ag5t contributes4 ,suppose1 !n1 t two diff]5t ag5ts1 op]at+ jo9tly1 are foll[$1 "u a c]ta9 set ( collat]al conditions1 by a giv5 effect4 ,if ei!r ( ^! ag5ts1 in/ead ( be+ jo9$ ) ! o!r1 _h op]at$ alone1 "u ! same set ( conditions 9 all o!r respects1 "s effect w\ld probably h foll[$1 :i* w\ld h be5 diff]5t f ! jo9t effect ( ! two1 & m or less dissimil> to x4 ,n[1 if we happ5 to "k :at w\ld be ! effect ( ea* cause :5 act+ sep>ately f ! o!r1 we are (t5 able to arrive d$uctively1 or a priori1 at a correct pr$iction ( :at w arise f _! conjunct ag5cy4 ,to r5d] ?is possible1 x is only necess>y t ! same law :i* expresses ! effect ( ea* cause act+ by itself1 %all also correctly express ! "p due to t cause ( ! effect :i* foll[s f ! two toge!r4 ,?is condition is realiz$ 9 ! ext5sive & important class ( ph5om5a commonly call$ me*anical1 namely ! ph5om5a ( ! communication ( motion 7or ( pressure1 :i* is t5d5cy to motion7 f "o body to ano!r4 ,9 ?is important class ( cases ( causation1 "o cause nev]1 prop]ly speak+1 defeats or fru/rates ano!r2 bo? h _! full effect4 ,if a body is propell$ 9 two directions by two =ces1 "o t5d+ to drive x to ! nor? & ! o!r to ! ea/1 x is caus$ to move 9 a giv5 "t exactly z f> 9 bo? directions z ! two =ces w\ld sep>ately h c>ri$ x2 & is left precisely :]e x w\ld h arriv$ if x _h be5 act$ ^u fir/ by "o ( ! two =ces1 & aft]w>d by ! o!r4 ,?is law ( nature is call$1 9 dynamics1 ! pr9ciple ( ! ,composition ( ,=ces2 & 9 imitation ( t well-*os5 expression1 ,i %all give ! "n ( ! ,composition ( ,causes to ! pr9ciple :i* is exemplifi$ 9 all cases 9 :i* ! jo9t effect ( sev]al causes is id5tical ) ! sum ( _! sep>ate effects4 ,?is pr9ciple1 h[ev]1 by no means prevails 9 all dep>tm5ts ( ! field ( nature4 ,! *emical comb9ation ( two sub/ances produces1 z is well kn[n1 a ?ird sub/ance1 ) prop]ties diff]5t f ^? ( ei!r ( ! two sub/ances sep>ately1 or ( bo? ( !m tak5 toge!r4 ,n a trace ( ! prop]ties ( hydrog5 or ( oxyg5 is obs]vable 9 ^? ( _! comp\nd1 wat]4 ,! ta/e ( sug> ( lead is n ! sum ( ! ta/es ( its compon5t elem5ts1 acetic acid & lead or its oxide2 nor is ! color ( blue vitriol a mixture ( ! colors ( sulphuric acid & copp]4 ,?is expla9s :y me*anics is a d$uctive or demon/rative sci5ce1 & *emi/ry n4 ,9 ! "o1 we c compute ! effects ( comb9ations ( causes1 :e!r real or hypo!tical1 f ! laws :i* we "k to gov]n ^? causes :5 act+ sep>ately1 because !y cont9ue to obs]ve ! same laws :5 9 comb9ation :i* !y obs]ve :5 sep>ate3 :atev] w\ld h happ5$ 9 consequ5ce ( ea* cause tak5 by itself1 happ5s :5 !y are toge!r1 & we h only to ca/ up ! results4 ,n s 9 ! ph5om5a :i* are ! peculi> subject ( ! sci5ce ( *emi/ry4 ,!re mo/ ( ! uni=mities to :i* ! causes con=m :5 sep>ate1 cease altoge!r :5 !y are conjo9$2 & we are n1 at lea/ 9 ! pres5t /ate ( our k1 able to =esee :at result w foll[ f any new comb9ation until we h tri$ ! specific exp]im5t4 ,if ?is be true ( *emical comb9ations1 x is /ill m true ( ^? f> m complex comb9ations ( elem5ts :i* con/itute organiz$ bodies2 & 9 :i* ^? extraord9>y new uni=mities arise :i* are call$ ! laws ( life4 ,all organiz$ bodies are compos$ ( p>ts simil> to ^? compos+ inorganic nature1 & :i* h ev5 !mselves exi/$ 9 an inorganic /ate2 b ! ph5om5a ( life1 :i* result f ! juxtaposition ( ^? p>ts 9 a c]ta9 mann]1 be> no analogy to any ( ! effects :i* w\ld be produc$ by ! action ( ! compon5t sub/ances consid]$ z m]e physical ag5ts4 ,to :atev] degree we might imag9e our k ( ! prop]ties ( ! sev]al +r$i5ts ( a liv+ body to be ext5d$ & p]fect$1 x is c]ta9 t no m]e summ+ up ( ! sep>ate actions ( ^? elem5ts w ev] am\nt to ! action ( ! liv+ body itself4 ,! tongue1 = in/ance1 is1 l all o!r p>ts ( ! animal frame1 compos$ ( gelat9e1 fibr9e1 & o!r products ( ! *emi/ry ( dige/ion2 b f no k ( ! prop]ties ( ^? sub/ances c\ld we ev] pr$ict t x c\ld ta/e1 unless gelat9e or fibr9e c\ld !mselves ta/e2 = no elem5t>y fact c be 9 ! conclusion :i* 0 n 9 ! premises4 ,!re are ?us two diff]5t modes ( ! conjunct action ( causes2 f :i* arise two modes ( conflict1 or mutual int]f]5ce1 betwe5 laws ( nature4 ,suppose1 at a giv5 po9t ( "t & space1 two or m causes1 :i*1 if !y act$ sep>ately1 w\ld produce effects contr>y1 or at lea/ conflict+ ) ea* o!r2 "o ( !m t5d+ to undo1 :olly or p>tially1 :at ! o!r t5ds to d4 ,?us ! expansive =ce ( ! gases g5]at$ by ! ignition ( gunp[d] t5ds to project a bullet t[>d ! sky1 :ile its gravity t5ds to make x fall to ! gr\nd4 ,a /ream runn+ into a res]voir at "o end t5ds to fill x high] & high]1 :ile a dra9 at ! o!r extremity t5ds to empty x4 ,n[1 9 su* cases z ^!1 ev5 if ! two causes :i* are 9 jo9t action exactly annul "o ano!r1 /ill ! laws ( bo? are fulfill$2 ! effect is ! same z if ! dra9 _h be5 op5 = half an h\r fir/17#acb7 & ! /ream _h fl[$ 9 = z long aft]w>d4 ,ea* ag5t produces ! same am\nt ( effect z if x _h act$ sep>ately1 ?\gh ! contr>y effect :i* 0 tak+ place dur+ ! same "t oblit]at$ x z fa/ z x 0 produc$4 ,"h1 !n1 are two causes1 produc+ by _! jo9t op]ations an effect :i* at fir/ seems q dissimil> to ^? :i* !y produce sep>ately1 b :i* on exam9ation proves to be really ! sum ( ^? sep>ate effects4 ,x w be notic$ t we "h enl>ge ! idea ( ! sum ( two effects1 s z to include :at is commonly call$ _! diff]5ce1 b :i* is 9 reality ! result ( ! addition ( opposites2 a conception to :i* mank9d are indebt$ = t admirable ext5sion ( ! algebraical calculus1 :i* has s va/ly increas$ its p[]s z an in/rum5t ( discov]y1 by introduc+ into its reason+s 7) ! sign ( subtraction prefix$1 & "u ! "n ( ,negative ,quantities7 e description :atev] ( positive ph5om5a1 provid$ !y are ( su* a quality 9 ref]5ce to ^? previ\sly introduc$1 t to add ! "o is equival5t to subtract+ an equal quantity ( ! o!r4 ,!re is1 !n1 "o mode ( ! mutual int]f]5ce ( laws ( nature1 9 :i*1 ev5 :5 ! concurr5t causes annihilate ea* o!r's effects1 ea* ex]ts its full efficacy accord+ to its own law--its law z a sep>ate ag5t4 ,b 9 ! o!r description ( cases1 ! ag5cies :i* are br\ght toge!r cease entirely1 & a totally diff]5t set ( ph5om5a arise3 z 9 ! exp]im5t ( two liquids :i*1 :5 mix$ 9 c]ta9 proportions1 in/antly become1 n a l>g] am\nt ( liquid1 b a solid mass4 #b4 ,?is diff]5ce betwe5 ! case 9 :i* ! jo9t effect ( causes is ! sum ( _! sep>ate effects1 & ! case 9 :i* x is het]og5e\s to !m--betwe5 laws :i* "w toge!r )\t alt]ation1 & laws :i*1 :5 call$ ^u to "w toge!r1 cease & give place to o!rs--is "o ( ! fundam5tal di/9ctions 9 nature4 ,! =m] case1 t ( ! ,composition ( ,causes1 is ! g5]al "o2 ! o!r is always special & exceptional4 ,!re are no objects :i* d n1 z to "s ( _! ph5om5a1 obey ! pr9ciple ( ! ,composition ( ,causes2 none t h n "s laws :i* are rigidly fulfill$ 9 e comb9ation into :i* ! objects ent]4 ,! weight ( a body1 = in/ance1 is a prop]ty :i* x reta9s 9 all ! comb9ations 9 :i* x is plac$4 ,! weight ( a *emical comp\nd1 or ( an organiz$ body1 is equal to ! sum ( ! weights ( ! elem5ts :i* compose x4 ,! weight ei!r ( ! elem5ts or ( ! comp\nd w v>y1 if !y be c>ri$ f>!r f _! c5tre ( attraction1 or br\ght ne>] to x2 b :atev] effects ! "o effects ! o!r4 ,!y always rema9 precisely equal4 ,s1 aga91 ! compon5t p>ts ( a vegetable or animal sub/ance d n lose _! me*anical & *emical prop]ties z sep>ate ag5ts1 :51 by a peculi> mode ( juxtaposition1 !y1 z an aggregate :ole1 acquire physiological or vital prop]ties 9 addition4 ,^? bodies cont9ue1 z be=e1 to obey me*anical & *emical laws1 9 s f> z ! op]ation ( ^? laws is n c\nt]act$ by ! new laws :i* gov]n !m z organiz$ be+s2 :51 9 %ort1 a concurr5ce ( causes takes place :i* calls into action new laws be>+ no analogy to any t we c trace 9 ! sep>ate op]ation ( ! causes1 ! new laws1 :ile !y sup]s$e "o portion ( ! previ\s laws1 may co-exi/ ) ano!r portion1 & may ev5 comp\nd ! effect ( ^? previ\s laws ) _! own4 ,aga91 laws :i* 7 !mselves g5]at$ 9 ! second mode1 may g5]ate o!rs 9 ! fir/4 ,?\gh !re are laws :i*1 l ^? ( *emi/ry & physiology1 owe _! exi/5ce to a brea* ( ! pr9ciple ( ,composition ( ,causes1 x does n foll[ t ^! peculi>1 or1 z !y might be t]m$1 het]opa?ic laws1 are n capable ( composition ) "o ano!r4 ,! causes :i* by "o comb9ation h _h _! laws alt]$1 may c>ry _! new laws ) !m unalt]$ into _! ult]ior comb9ations4 ,& h5ce !re is no reason to despair ( ultimately rais+ *emi/ry & physiology to ! condition ( d$uctive sci5ces2 = ?\gh x is impossible to d$uce all *emical & physiological tru?s f ! laws or prop]ties ( simple sub/ances or elem5t>y ag5ts1 !y may possibly be d$ucible f laws :i* comm5ce :5 ^! elem5t>y ag5ts are br\ght toge!r into "s mod]ate numb] ( n v complex comb9ations4 ,! ,laws ( ,life w nev] be d$ucible f ! m]e laws ( ! +r$i5ts1 b ! prodigi\sly complex ,facts ( ,life may all be d$ucible f comp>atively simple laws ( life2 :i* laws 7dep5d+ inde$ on comb9ations1 b on comp>atively simple comb9ations1 ( antec$5ts7 may1 9 m complex circum/ances1 be /rictly comp\nd$ ) "o ano!r1 & ) ! physical & *emical laws ( ! +r$i5ts4 ,! details ( ! vital ph5om5a1 ev5 n[1 af=d innum]able exemplifications ( ! ,composition ( ,causes2 & 9 proportion z ^! ph5om5a are m accurately /udi$1 !re appe>s m reason to believe t ! same laws :i* op]ate 9 ! simpl] comb9ations ( circum/ances d1 9 fact1 cont9ue to be obs]v$ 9 ! m complex4 ,?is w be f\nd equally true 9 ! ph5om5a ( m9d2 & ev5 9 social & political ph5om5a1 ! results ( ! laws ( m9d4 ,x is 9 ! case ( *emical ph5om5a t ! lea/ progress has yet be5 made 9 br++ ! special laws "u g5]al ones f :i* !y may be d$uc$2 b !re are ev5 9 *emi/ry _m circum/ances to enc\rage ! hope t su* g5]al laws w h]eaft] be discov]$4 ,! diff]5t actions ( a *emical comp\nd w nev]1 und\bt$ly1 be f\nd to be ! sums ( ! actions ( its sep>ate elem5ts2 b !re may exi/1 betwe5 ! prop]ties ( ! comp\nd & ^? ( its elem5ts1 "s con/ant relation1 :i*1 if discov]able by a suffici5t induction1 w\ld enable u to =esee ! sort ( comp\nd :i* w result f a new comb9ation be=e we h actually tri$ x1 & to judge ( :at sort ( elem5ts "s new sub/ance is comp\nd$ be=e we h analyz$ x4 ,! law ( def9ite proportions1 fir/ discov]$ 9 its full g5]ality by ,dalton1 is a complete solution ( ?is problem 9 "o1 ?\gh b a second>y aspect1 t ( quantity2 & 9 respect to quality1 we h already "s p>tial g5]alizations1 suffici5t to indicate ! possibility ( ultimately proce$+ f>!r4 ,we c pr$icate "s common prop]ties ( ! k9d ( comp\nds :i* result f ! comb9ation1 9 ea* ( ! small numb] ( possible proportions1 ( any acid :atev] ) any base4 ,we h also ! curi\s law1 discov]$ by ,b]?ollet1 t two soluble salts mutually decompose "o ano!r :5ev] ! new comb9ations :i* result produce an insoluble comp\nd1 or "o less soluble ?an ! two =m]4 ,ano!r uni=mity is t call$ ! law ( isomorphism2 ! id5tity ( ! cry/all9e =ms ( sub/ances :i* possess 9 common c]ta9 peculi>ities ( *emical composition47#acc7 ,?us x appe>s t ev5 het]opa?ic laws1 su* laws ( comb9$ ag5cy z are n comp\nd$ ( ! laws ( ! sep>ate ag5cies1 are yet1 at lea/ 9 "s cases1 d]iv$ f !m accord+ to a fix$ pr9ciple4 ,!re may1 !re=e1 be laws ( ! g5]ation ( laws f o!rs dissimil> to !m2 & 9 *emi/ry1 ^! undiscov]$ laws ( ! dep5d5ce ( ! prop]ties ( ! comp\nd on ! prop]ties ( its elem5ts1 may1 toge!r ) ! laws ( ! elem5ts !mselves1 furni% ! premises by :i* ! sci5ce is p]haps de/9$ "o day to be r5d]$ d$uctive4 ,x w\ld seem1 !re=e1 t !re is no class ( ph5om5a 9 :i* ! ,composition ( ,causes does n obta93 t z a g5]al rule1 causes 9 comb9ation produce exactly ! same effects z :5 act+ s+ly3 b t ?is rule1 ?\gh g5]al1 is n univ]sal3 t 9 "s in/ances1 at "s p>ticul> po9ts 9 ! transition f sep>ate to unit$ action1 ! laws *ange1 & an entirely new set ( effects are ei!r add$ to1 or take ! place (1 ^? :i* arise f ! sep>ate ag5cy ( ! same causes3 ! laws ( ^! new effects be+ aga9 susceptible ( composition1 to an indef9ite ext5t1 l ! laws :i* !y sup]s$$4 #c4 ,t effects are proportional to _! causes is laid d[n by "s writ]s z an axiom 9 ! !ory ( causation2 & great use is sometimes made ( ?is pr9ciple 9 reason+s respect+ ! laws ( nature1 ?\gh x is encumb]$ ) _m difficulties & app>5t exceptions1 :i* mu* +5uity has be5 exp5d$ 9 %[+ n to be real ones4 ,?is proposition1 9 s f> z x is true1 ent]s z a p>ticul> case into ! g5]al pr9ciple ( ! ,composition ( ,causes2 ! causes comp\nd$ be+1 9 ?is in/ance1 homog5e\s2 9 :i* case1 if 9 any1 _! jo9t effect might be expect$ to be id5tical ) ! sum ( _! sep>ate effects4 ,if a =ce equal to "o hundr$ weight w raise a c]ta9 body along an incl9$ plane1 a =ce equal to two hundr$ weight w raise two bodies exactly simil>1 & ?us ! effect is proportional to ! cause4 ,b does n a =ce equal to two hundr$ weight actually conta9 9 itself two =ces ea* equal to "o hundr$ weight1 :i*1 if employ$ ap>t1 w\ld sep>ately raise ! two bodies 9 "q8 ,! fact1 !re=e1 t :5 ex]t$ jo9tly !y raise bo? bodies at once1 results f ! ,composition ( ,causes1 & is a m]e in/ance ( ! g5]al fact t me*anical =ces are subject to ! law ( ,composition4 ,& s 9 e o!r case :i* c be suppos$4 ,= ! doctr9e ( ! proportionality ( effects to _! causes c n ( c\rse be applicable to cases 9 :i* ! augm5tation ( ! cause alt]s ! k9d ( effect2 t is1 9 :i* ! surplus quantity sup]add$ to ! cause does n become comp\nd$ ) x1 b ! two toge!r g5]ate an altoge!r new ph5om5on4 ,suppose t ! application ( a c]ta9 quantity ( heat to a body m]ely increases its bulk1 t a d\ble quantity melts x1 & a triple quantity decomposes x3 ^! ?ree effects be+ het]og5e\s1 no ratio1 :e!r correspond+ or n to t ( ! quantities ( heat appli$1 c be e/abli%$ betwe5 !m4 ,?us ! suppos$ axiom ( ! proportionality ( effects to _! causes fails at ! precise po9t :]e ! pr9ciple ( ! ,composition ( ,causes also fails2 viz41 :]e ! concurr5ce ( causes is su* z to det]m9e a *ange 9 ! prop]ties ( ! body g5]ally1 & r5d] x subject to new laws1 m or less dissimil> to ^? to :i* x con=m$ 9 its previ\s /ate4 ,! recognition1 !re=e1 ( any su* law ( proportionality is sup]s$$ by ! m compreh5sive pr9ciple1 9 :i* z mu* ( x z is true is implicitly ass]t$47#acd7 ,! g5]al rem>ks on causation1 :i* seem$ necess>y z an introduction to ! !ory ( ! inductive process1 may "h t]m9ate4 ,t process is ess5tially an inquiry into cases ( causation4 ,all ! uni=mities :i* exi/ 9 ! succession ( ph5om5a1 & mo/ ( ! uni=mities 9 _! co-exi/5ce1 are ei!r1 z we h se51 !mselves laws ( causation1 or consequ5ces result+ f1 & coroll>ies capable ( be+ d$uc$ f1 su* laws4 ,if we c\ld det]m9e :at causes are correctly assign$ to :at effects1 & :at effects to :at causes1 we %\ld be virtually acqua9t$ ) ! :ole c\rse ( nature4 ,all ^? uni=mities :i* are m]e results ( causation might !n be expla9$ & acc\nt$ =2 & e individual fact or ev5t might be pr$ict$1 provid$ we _h ! requisite data1 t is1 ! requisite k ( ! circum/ances :i*1 9 ! p>ticul> in/ance1 prec$$ x4 ,to asc]ta91 !re=e1 :at are ! laws ( causation :i* exi/ 9 nature2 to det]m9e ! effect ( e cause1 & ! causes ( all effects1 is ! ma9 bus9ess ( ,induction2 & to po9t out h[ ?is is done is ! *ief object ( ,inductive ,logic4 ,*apt] ,,vii4 ,on ,obs]vation ,& ,exp]im5t4 #a4 ,x results f ! prec$+ exposition1 t ! process ( asc]ta9+ :at consequ5ts1 9 nature1 are inv>iably connect$ ) :at antec$5ts1 or 9 o!r words :at ph5om5a are relat$ to ea* o!r z causes & effects1 is 9 "s sort a process ( analysis4 ,t e fact :i* beg9s to exi/ has a cause1 & t ?is cause mu/ be f\nd 9 "s fact or conc\rse ( facts :i* imm$iately prec$$ ! occurr5ce1 may be tak5 = c]ta94 ,! :ole ( ! pres5t facts are ! infallible result ( all pa/ facts1 & m imm$iately ( all ! facts :i* exi/$ at ! mom5t previ\s4 ,"h1 !n1 is a great sequ5ce1 :i* we "k to be uni=m4 ,if ! :ole prior /ate ( ! entire univ]se c\ld aga9 recur1 x w\ld aga9 be foll[$ by ! pres5t /ate4 ,! "q is1 h[ to resolve ?is complex uni=mity into ! simpl] uni=mities :i* compose x1 & assign to ea* portion ( ! va/ antec$5t ! portion ( ! consequ5t :i* is att5dant on x4 ,?is op]ation1 :i* we h call$ analytical1 inasmu* z x is ! resolution ( a complex :ole into ! compon5t elem5ts1 is m ?an a m]ely m5tal analysis4 ,no m]e contemplation ( ! ph5om5a1 & p>tition ( !m by ! intellect alone1 w ( itself accompli% ! end we h n[ 9 view4 ,nev]!less1 su* a m5tal p>tition is an indisp5sable fir/ /ep4 ,! ord] ( nature1 z p]ceiv$ at a fir/ glance1 pres5ts at e in/ant a *aos foll[$ by ano!r *aos4 ,we mu/ decompose ea* *aos into s+le facts4 ,we mu/ le>n to see 9 ! *aotic antec$5t a multitude ( di/9ct antec$5ts1 9 ! *aotic consequ5t a multitude ( di/9ct consequ5ts4 ,?is1 suppos+ x done1 w n ( itself tell u on :i* ( ! antec$5ts ea* consequ5t is inv>iably att5dant4 ,to det]m9e t po9t1 we mu/ endeavor to effect a sep>ation ( ! facts f "o ano!r1 n 9 our m9ds only1 b 9 nature4 ,! m5tal analysis1 h[ev]1 mu/ take place fir/4 ,& e "o kn[s t 9 ! mode ( p]=m+ x1 "o intellect diff]s imm5sely f ano!r4 ,x is ! ess5ce ( ! act ( obs]v+2 = ! obs]v] is n he :o m]ely sees ! ?+ :i* is be=e 8 eyes1 b he :o sees :at p>ts t ?+ is compos$ (4 ,to d ?is well is a r>e tal5t4 ,"o p]son1 f inatt5tion1 or att5d+ only 9 ! wrong place1 ov]looks half ( :at he sees2 ano!r sets d[n mu* m ?an he sees1 conf\nd+ x ) :at he imag9es1 or ) :at he inf]s2 ano!r takes note ( ! k9d ( all ! circum/ances1 b be+ inexp]t 9 e/imat+ _! degree1 leaves ! quantity ( ea* vague & unc]ta92 ano!r sees inde$ ! :ole1 b makes su* an awkw>d division ( x into p>ts1 ?r[+ ?+s into "o mass :i* require to be sep>at$1 & sep>at+ o!rs :i* might m conv5i5tly be consid]$ z "o1 t ! result is mu* ! same1 sometimes ev5 worse1 ?an if no analysis _h be5 attempt$ at all4 ,x w\ld be possible to po9t out :at qualities ( m9d1 & modes ( m5tal culture1 fit a p]son = be+ a good obs]v]3 t1 h[ev]1 is a "q n ( ,logic1 b ( ! ,!ory ( ,education1 9 ! mo/ enl>g$ s5se ( ! t]m4 ,!re is n prop]ly an ,art ( ,obs]v+4 ,!re may be rules = obs]v+4 ,b ^!1 l rules = inv5t+1 are prop]ly in/ructions = ! prep>ation ( "o's own m9d2 = putt+ x into ! /ate 9 :i* x w be mo/ fitt$ to obs]ve1 or mo/ likely to inv5t4 ,!y are1 !re=e1 ess5tially rules ( self-education1 :i* is a diff]5t ?+ f ,logic4 ,!y d n tea* h[ to d ! ?+1 b h[ to make ourselves capable ( do+ x4 ,!y are an art ( /r5g!n+ ! limbs1 n an art ( us+ !m4 ,! ext5t & m9ut5ess ( obs]vation :i* may be requisite1 & ! degree ( decomposition to :i* x may be necess>y to c>ry ! m5tal analysis1 dep5d on ! p>ticul> purpose 9 view4 ,to asc]ta9 ! /ate ( ! :ole univ]se at any p>ticul> mom5t is impossible1 b w\ld also be useless4 ,9 mak+ *emical exp]im5ts1 we d n ?9k x necess>y to note ! position ( ! planets2 because exp]i5ce has %[n1 z a v sup]ficial exp]i5ce is suffici5t to %[1 t 9 su* cases t circum/ance is n mat]ial to ! result3 & accord+ly1 9 ! ages :5 m5 believ$ 9 ! occult influ5ces ( ! heav5ly bodies1 x might h be5 unphilosophical to omit asc]ta9+ ! precise condition ( ^? bodies at ! mom5t ( ! exp]im5t4 ,z to ! degree ( m9ut5ess ( ! m5tal subdivision1 if we 7 oblig$ to break d[n :at we obs]ve into its v simple/ elem5ts1 t is1 lit]ally into s+le facts1 x w\ld be difficult to say :]e we %\ld f9d !m2 we c h>dly ev] affirm t our divisions ( any k9d h rea*$ ! ultimate unit4 ,b ?is1 too1 is =tunately unnecess>y4 ,! only object ( ! m5tal sep>ation is to sugge/ ! requisite physical sep>ation1 s t we may ei!r accompli% x ourselves1 or seek = x 9 nature2 & we h done en\gh :5 we h c>ri$ ! subdivision z f> z ! po9t at :i* we are able to see :at obs]vations or exp]im5ts we require4 ,x is only ess5tial1 at :atev] po9t our m5tal decomposition ( facts may = ! pres5t h /opp$1 t we %\ld hold ourselves ready & able to c>ry x fur!r z occasion requires1 & %\ld n all[ ! fre$om ( our discrim9at+ faculty to be imprison$ by ! swa!s & b&s ( ord9>y classification2 z 0 ! case ) all e>ly speculative inquir]s1 n except+ ! ,greeks1 to :om x seldom occurr$ t :at 0 call$ by "o ab/ract "n might1 9 reality1 be sev]al ph5om5a1 or t !re 0 a possibility ( decompos+ ! facts ( ! univ]se into any elem5ts b ^? :i* ord9>y language already recogniz$4 #b4 ,! diff]5t antec$5ts & consequ5ts be+1 !n1 suppos$ to be1 s f> z ! case requires1 asc]ta9$ & discrim9at$ f "o ano!r1 we are to inquire :i* is connect$ ) :i*4 ,9 e in/ance :i* comes "u our obs]vation1 !re are _m antec$5ts & _m consequ5ts4 ,if ^? antec$5ts c\ld n be sev]$ f "o ano!r except 9 ?\ght1 or if ^? consequ5ts nev] 7 f\nd ap>t1 x w\ld be impossible = u to di/+ui% 7a po/]iori at lea/7 ! real laws1 or to assign to any cause its effect1 or to any effect its cause4 ,to d s1 we mu/ be able to meet ) "s ( ! antec$5ts ap>t f ! re/1 & obs]ve :at foll[s f !m2 or "s ( ! consequ5ts1 & obs]ve by :at !y are prec$$4 ,we mu/1 9 %ort1 foll[ ! ,baconian rule ( v>y+ ! circum/ances4 ,?is is1 inde$1 only ! fir/ rule ( physical inquiry1 & n1 z "s h ?\ght1 ! sole rule2 b x is ! f\ndation ( all ! re/4 ,= ! purpose ( v>y+ ! circum/ances1 we may h rec\rse 7accord+ to a di/9ction commonly made7 ei!r to obs]vation or to exp]im5t2 we may ei!r f9d an in/ance 9 nature suit$ to our purposes1 or1 by an artificial arrangem5t ( circum/ances1 make "o4 ,! value ( ! in/ance dep5ds on :at x is 9 itself1 n on ! mode 9 :i* x is obta9$3 its employm5t = ! purposes ( induction dep5ds on ! same pr9ciples 9 ! "o case & 9 ! o!r2 z ! uses ( money are ! same :e!r x is inh]it$ or acquir$4 ,!re is1 9 %ort1 no diff]5ce 9 k9d1 no real logical di/9ction1 betwe5 ! two processes ( inve/igation4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 practical di/9ctions to :i* x is ( consid]able importance to adv]t4 #c4 ,! fir/ & mo/ obvi\s di/9ction betwe5 ,obs]vation & ,exp]im5t is1 t ! latt] is an imm5se ext5sion ( ! =m]4 ,x n only enables u to produce a mu* great] numb] ( v>iations 9 ! circum/ances ?an nature spontane\sly (f]s1 b also1 9 ?\s&s ( cases1 to produce ! precise sort ( v>iation :i* we are 9 want ( = discov]+ ! law ( ! ph5om5on2 a s]vice :i* nature1 be+ con/ruct$ on a q diff]5t s*eme f t ( facilitat+ our /udies1 is seldom s fri5dly z to be/[ ^u u4 ,= example1 9 ord] to asc]ta9 :at pr9ciple 9 ! atmosph]e enables x to su/a9 life1 ! v>iation we require is t a liv+ animal %\ld be imm]s$ 9 ea* compon5t elem5t ( ! atmosph]e sep>ately4 ,b nature does n supply ei!r oxyg5 or azote 9 a sep>ate /ate4 ,we are indebt$ to artificial exp]im5t = our k t x is ! =m]1 & n ! latt]1 :i* supports respiration2 & = our k ( ! v exi/5ce ( ! two +r$i5ts4 ,?us f> ! advantage ( exp]im5tation ov] simple obs]vation is univ]sally recogniz$3 all are aw>e t x enables u to obta9 innum]able comb9ations ( circum/ances :i* are n to be f\nd 9 nature1 & s add to nature's exp]im5ts a multitude ( exp]im5ts ( our own4 ,b !re is ano!r sup]iority 7or1 z ,bacon w\ld h express$ x1 ano!r pr]ogative7 ( in/ances artificially obta9$ ov] spontane\s in/ances--( our own exp]im5ts ov] ev5 ! same exp]im5ts :5 made by nature--:i* is n ( less importance1 & :i* is f> f be+ felt & ackn[l$g$ 9 ! same degree4 ,:5 we c produce a ph5om5on artificially1 we c take x1 z x 71 home ) u1 & obs]ve x 9 ! mid/ ( circum/ances ) :i* 9 all o!r respects we are accurately acqua9t$4 ,if we desire to "k :at are ! effects ( ! cause ,a1 & are able to produce ,a by means at our disposal1 we c g5]ally det]m9e at our own discretion1 s f> z is compatible ) ! nature ( ! ph5om5on ,a1 ! :ole ( ! circum/ances :i* %all be pres5t along ) x3 & ?us1 kn[+ exactly ! simultane\s /ate ( e ?+ else :i* is )9 ! rea* ( ,a's influ5ce1 we h only to obs]ve :at alt]ation is made 9 t /ate by ! pres5ce ( ,a4 ,= example1 by ! electric ma*9e we c produce1 9 ! mid/ ( kn[n circum/ances1 ! ph5om5a :i* nature exhibits on a gr&] scale 9 ! =m ( lightn+ & ?und]4 ,n[ let any "o consid] :at am\nt ( k ( ! effects & laws ( electric ag5cy mank9d c\ld h obta9$ f ! m]e obs]vation ( ?und]-/orms1 & comp>e x ) t :i* !y h ga9$1 & may expect to ga91 f electrical & galvanic exp]im5ts4 ,?is example is ! m /rik+1 n[ t we h reason to believe t electric action is ( all natural ph5om5a 7except heat7 ! mo/ p]vad+ & univ]sal1 :i*1 !re=e1 x might antec$5tly h be5 suppos$ c\ld /& lea/ 9 ne$ ( artificial means ( production to enable x to be /udi$2 :ile ! fact is s mu* ! contr>y1 t )\t ! electric ma*9e1 ! ,leyd5 j>1 & ! voltaic batt]y1 we probably %\ld nev] h suspect$ ! exi/5ce ( electricity z "o ( ! great ag5ts 9 nature2 ! few electric ph5om5a we %\ld h kn[n ( w\ld h cont9u$ to be reg>d$ ei!r z sup]natural1 or z a sort ( anomalies & ecc5tricities 9 ! ord] ( ! univ]se4 ,:5 we h succe$$ 9 insulat+ ! ph5om5on :i* is ! subject ( inquiry1 by plac+ x among kn[n circum/ances1 we may produce fur!r v>iations ( circum/ances to any ext5t1 & ( su* k9ds z we ?9k be/ calculat$ to br+ ! laws ( ! ph5om5on into a cle> light4 ,by introduc+ "o well-def9$ circum/ance aft] ano!r into ! exp]im5t1 we obta9 assurance ( ! mann] 9 :i* ! ph5om5on behaves "u an indef9ite v>iety ( possible circum/ances4 ,?us1 *emi/s1 aft] hav+ obta9$ "s newly-discov]$ sub/ance 9 a pure /ate 7t is1 hav+ made sure t !re is no?+ pres5t :i* c int]f]e ) & modify its ag5cy71 introduce v>i\s o!r sub/ances1 "o by "o1 to asc]ta9 :e!r x w comb9e ) !m1 or decompose !m1 & ) :at result2 & also apply heat1 or electricity1 or pressure1 to discov] :at w happ5 to ! sub/ance "u ea* ( ^! circum/ances4 ,b if1 on ! o!r h&1 x is out ( our p[] to produce ! ph5om5on1 & we h to seek = in/ances 9 :i* nature produces x1 ! task be=e u is v diff]5t4 ,in/ead ( be+ able to *oose :at ! concomitant circum/ances %all be1 we n[ h to discov] :at !y are2 :i*1 :5 we g beyond ! simple/ & mo/ accessible cases1 x is next to impossible to d ) any precision & complet5ess4 ,let u take1 z an exemplification ( a ph5om5on :i* we h no means ( fabricat+ artificially1 a human m9d4 ,nature produces _m2 b ! consequ5ce ( our n be+ able to produce !m by art is1 t 9 e in/ance 9 :i* we see a human m9d develop+ itself1 or act+ ^u o!r ?+s1 we see x surr\nd$ & obscur$ by an indef9ite multitude ( unasc]ta9able circum/ances1 r5d]+ ! use ( ! common exp]im5tal me?ods almo/ delusive4 ,we may conceive to :at ext5t ?is is true1 if we consid]1 among o!r ?+s1 t :5ev] ,nature produces a human m9d1 %e produces1 9 close connection ) x1 a body2 t is1 a va/ complication ( physical facts1 9 no two cases p]haps exactly simil>1 & mo/ ( :i* 7except ! m]e /ructure1 :i* we c exam9e 9 a sort ( co>se way aft] x has ceas$ to act71 are radically out ( ! rea* ( our means ( exploration4 ,if1 in/ead ( a human m9d1 we suppose ! subject ( inve/igation to be a human society or ,/ate1 all ! same difficulties recur 9 a greatly augm5t$ degree4 ,we h ?us already come )9 sight ( a conclusion1 :i* ! progress ( ! inquiry w1 ,i ?9k1 br+ be=e u ) ! cle>e/ evid5ce3 namely1 t 9 ! sci5ces :i* deal ) ph5om5a 9 :i* artificial exp]im5ts are impossible 7z 9 ! case ( a/ronomy71 or 9 :i* !y h a v limit$ range 7z 9 m5tal philosophy1 social sci5ce1 & ev5 physiology71 induction f direct exp]i5ce is practic$ at a disadvantage 9 mo/ cases equival5t to impracticability2 f :i* x foll[s t ! me?ods ( ^? sci5ces1 9 ord] to accompli% any ?+ wor?y ( atta9m5t1 mu/ be to a great ext5t1 if n pr9cipally1 d$uctive4 ,?is is already kn[n to be ! case ) ! fir/ ( ! sci5ces we h m5tion$1 a/ronomy2 t x is n g5]ally recogniz$ z true ( ! o!rs1 is probably "o ( ! reasons :y !y are n 9 a m advanc$ /ate4 #d4 ,if :at is call$ pure obs]vation is at s great a disadvantage1 comp>$ ) artificial exp]im5tation1 9 "o dep>tm5t ( ! direct exploration ( ph5om5a1 !re is ano!r bran* 9 :i* ! advantage is all on ! side ( ! =m]4 ,inductive inquiry hav+ = its object to asc]ta9 :at causes are connect$ ) :at effects1 we may beg9 ?is se>* at ei!r end ( ! road :i* leads f ! "o po9t to ! o!r3 we may ei!r inquire into ! effects ( a giv5 cause or into ! causes ( a giv5 effect4 ,! fact t light black5s *loride ( silv] might h be5 discov]$ ei!r by exp]im5ts on light1 try+ :at effect x w\ld produce on v>i\s sub/ances1 or by obs]v+ t portions ( ! *loride _h repeat$ly become black1 & inquir+ into ! circum/ances4 ,! effect ( ! urali poison might h become kn[n ei!r by adm9i/]+ x to animals1 or by exam9+ h[ x happ5$ t ! w\nds :i* ! ,indians ( ,guiana inflict ) _! arr[s prove s uni=mly mortal4 ,n[ x is manife/ f ! m]e /atem5t ( ! examples1 )\t any !oretical discussion1 t artificial exp]im5tation is applicable only to ! =m] ( ^! modes ( inve/igation4 ,we c take a cause1 & try :at x w produce2 b we c n take an effect1 & try :at x w be produc$ by4 ,we c only wat* till we see x produc$1 or are enabl$ to produce x by accid5t4 ,?is w\ld be ( little importance1 if x always dep5d$ on our *oice f :i* ( ! two ends ( ! sequ5ce we w\ld und]take our inquiries4 ,b we h seldom any option4 ,z we c only travel f ! kn[n to ! unkn[n1 we are oblig$ to comm5ce at :i*ev] end we are be/ acqua9t$ )4 ,if ! ag5t is m famili> to u ?an its effects1 we wat* =1 or contrive1 in/ances ( ! ag5t1 "u su* v>ieties ( circum/ances z are op5 to u1 & obs]ve ! result4 ,if1 on ! contr>y1 ! conditions on :i* a ph5om5on dep5ds are obscure1 b ! ph5om5on itself famili>1 we mu/ comm5ce our inquiry f ! effect4 ,if we are /ruck ) ! fact t *loride ( silv] has be5 black5$1 & h no suspicion ( ! cause1 we h no res\rce b to comp>e in/ances 9 :i* ! fact has *anc$ to occur1 until by t comp>ison we discov] t 9 all ^? in/ances ! sub/ances _h be5 expos$ to light4 ,if we knew no?+ ( ! ,indian arr[s b _! fatal effect1 accid5t alone c\ld turn our att5tion to exp]im5ts on ! urali2 9 ! regul> c\rse ( inve/igation1 we c\ld only inquire1 or try to obs]ve1 :at _h be5 done to ! arr[s 9 p>ticul> in/ances4 ,:]ev]1 hav+ no?+ to guide u to ! cause1 we are oblig$ to set out f ! effect1 & to apply ! rule ( v>y+ ! circum/ances to ! consequ5ts1 n ! antec$5ts1 we are necess>ily de/itute ( ! res\rce ( artificial exp]im5tation4 ,we c n1 at our *oice1 obta9 consequ5ts1 z we c antec$5ts1 "u any set ( circum/ances compatible ) _! nature4 ,!re are no means ( produc+ effects b ?r\gh _! causes1 & by ! supposition ! causes ( ! effect 9 "q are n kn[n to u4 ,we h1 !re=e1 no exp$i5t b to /udy x :]e x (f]s itself spontane\sly4 ,if nature happ5s to pres5t u ) in/ances suffici5tly v>i$ 9 _! circum/ances1 & if we are able to discov]1 ei!r among ! proximate antec$5ts or among "s o!r ord] ( antec$5ts1 some?+ :i* is always f\nd :5 ! effect is f\nd1 h[ev] v>i\s ! circum/ances1 & nev] f\nd :5 x is n1 we may discov]1 by m]e obs]vation )\t exp]im5t1 a real uni=mity 9 nature4 ,b ?\gh ?is is c]ta9ly ! mo/ favorable case = sci5ces ( pure obs]vation1 z contra/$ ) ^? 9 :i* artificial exp]im5ts are possible1 !re is 9 reality no case :i* m /rik+ly illu/rates ! inh]5t imp]fection ( direct induction :5 n f\nd$ on exp]im5tation4 ,suppose t1 by a comp>ison ( cases ( ! effect1 we h f\nd an antec$5t :i* appe>s to be1 & p]haps is1 inv>iably connect$ ) x3 we h n yet prov$ t antec$5t to be ! cause until we h rev]s$ ! process1 & produc$ ! effect by means ( t antec$5t4 ,if we c produce ! antec$5t artificially1 & if1 :5 we d s1 ! effect foll[s1 ! induction is complete2 t antec$5t is ! cause ( t consequ5t47#ace7 ,b we h !n add$ ! evid5ce ( exp]im5t to t ( simple obs]vation4 ,until we _h done s1 we _h only prov$ inv>iable antec$5ce )9 ! limits ( exp]i5ce1 b n unconditional antec$5ce1 or causation4 ,until x _h be5 %[n by ! actual production ( ! antec$5t "u kn[n circum/ances1 & ! occurr5ce !reupon ( ! consequ5t1 t ! antec$5t 0 really ! condition on :i* x dep5d$2 ! uni=mity ( succession :i* 0 prov$ to exi/ betwe5 !m might1 = aught we knew1 be 7l ! succession ( day & night7 n a case ( causation at all2 bo? antec$5t & consequ5t might be successive /ages ( ! effect ( an ult]ior cause4 ,obs]vation1 9 %ort1 )\t exp]im5t 7suppos+ no aid f d$uction7 c asc]ta9 sequ5ces & co-exi/5ces1 b c n prove causation4 ,9 ord] to see ^! rem>ks v]ifi$ by ! actual /ate ( ! sci5ces1 we h only to ?9k ( ! condition ( natural hi/ory4 ,9 zoology1 = example1 !re is an imm5se numb] ( uni=mities asc]ta9$1 "s ( co-exi/5ce1 o!rs ( succession1 to _m ( :i*1 not)/&+ consid]able v>iations ( ! att5dant circum/ances1 we "k n any exception3 b ! antec$5ts1 = ! mo/ "p1 are su* z we c n artificially produce2 or if we c1 x is only by sett+ 9 motion ! exact process by :i* nature produces !m2 & ?is be+ to u a my/]i\s process1 ( :i* ! ma9 circum/ances are n only unkn[n b unobs]vable1 we d n succe$ 9 obta9+ ! antec$5ts "u kn[n circum/ances4 ,:at is ! result8 ,t on ?is va/ subject1 :i* af=ds s mu* & su* v>i$ scope = obs]vation1 we h made mo/ scanty progress 9 asc]ta9+ any laws ( causation4 ,we "k n ) c]ta9ty1 9 ! case ( mo/ ( ! ph5om5a t we f9d conjo9$1 :i* is ! condition ( ! o!r2 :i* is cause1 & :i* effect1 or :e!r ei!r ( !m is s1 or !y are n r conjunct effects ( causes yet to be discov]$1 complex results ( laws hi!rto unkn[n4 ,al?\gh "s ( ! =ego+ obs]vations may be1 9 te*nical /rictness ( arrangem5t1 premature 9 ?is place1 x seem$ t a few g5]al rem>ks on ! diff]5ce betwe5 sci5ces ( m]e obs]vation & sci5ces ( exp]im5tation1 & ! extreme disadvantage "u :i* directly inductive inquiry is necess>ily c>ri$ on 9 ! =m]1 7 ! be/ prep>ation = discuss+ ! me?ods ( direct induction2 a prep>ation r5d]+ sup]flu\s mu* t mu/ o!rwise h be5 introduc$1 ) "s inconv5i5ce1 into ! he>t ( t discussion4 ,to ! consid]ation ( ^! me?ods we n[ proce$4 ,*apt] ,,viii4 ,( ,! ,f\r ,me?ods ,( ,exp]im5tal ,inquiry4 #a4 ,! simple/ & mo/ obvi\s modes ( s+l+ out f among ! circum/ances :i* prec$e or foll[ a ph5om5on1 ^? ) :i* x is really connect$ by an inv>iable law1 are two 9 numb]4 ,"o is1 by comp>+ toge!r diff]5t in/ances 9 :i* ! ph5om5on occurs4 ,! o!r is1 by comp>+ in/ances 9 :i* ! ph5om5on does occur1 ) in/ances 9 o!r respects simil> 9 :i* x does n4 ,^! two me?ods may be respectively d5om9at$1 ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 & ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce4 ,9 illu/rat+ ^! me?ods1 x w be necess>y to be> 9 m9d ! tw(old "* ( inquiries into ! laws ( ph5om5a2 :i* may be ei!r inquiries into ! cause ( a giv5 effect1 or into ! effects or prop]ties ( a giv5 cause4 ,we %all consid] ! me?ods 9 _! application to ei!r ord] ( inve/igation1 & %all draw our examples equally f bo?4 ,we %all d5ote antec$5ts by ! l>ge lett]s ( ! alphabet1 & ! consequ5ts correspond+ to !m by ! small4 ,let ,a1 !n1 be an ag5t or cause1 & let ! object ( our inquiry be to asc]ta9 :at are ! effects ( ?is cause4 ,if we c ei!r f9d1 or produce1 ! ag5t ,a 9 su* v>ieties ( circum/ances t ! diff]5t cases h no circum/ance 9 common except ,a2 !n :atev] effect we f9d to be produc$ 9 all our trials1 is indicat$ z ! effect ( ,a4 ,suppose1 = example1 t ,a is tri$ along ) ,b & ,c1 & t ! effect is a b c2 & suppose t ,a is next tri$ ) ,d & ,e1 b )\t ,b & ,c1 & t ! effect is a d e4 ,!n we may reason ?us3 b & c are n effects ( ,a1 = !y 7 n produc$ by x 9 ! second exp]im5t2 nor are d & e1 = !y 7 n produc$ 9 ! fir/4 ,:atev] is really ! effect ( ,a mu/ h be5 produc$ 9 bo? in/ances2 n[ ?is condition is fulfill$ by no circum/ance except a4 ,! ph5om5on a c n h be5 ! effect ( ,b or ,c1 s9ce x 0 produc$ :]e !y 7 n2 nor ( ,d or ,e1 s9ce x 0 produc$ :]e !y 7 n4 ,!re=e x is ! effect ( ,a4 ,= example1 let ! antec$5t ,a be ! contact ( an alkal9e sub/ance & an oil4 ,?is comb9ation be+ tri$ "u sev]al v>ieties ( circum/ances1 resembl+ ea* o!r 9 no?+ else1 ! results agree 9 ! production ( a greasy & det]sive or saponace\s sub/ance3 x is !re=e conclud$ t ! comb9ation ( an oil & an alkali causes ! production ( a soap4 ,x is ?us we inquire1 by ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 into ! effect ( a giv5 cause4 ,9 a simil> mann] we may inquire into ! cause ( a giv5 effect4 ,let a be ! effect4 ,"h1 z %[n 9 ! la/ *apt]1 we h only ! res\rce ( obs]vation )\t exp]im5t3 we c n take a ph5om5on ( :i* we "k n ! orig91 & try to f9d its mode ( production by produc+ x3 if we succe$$ 9 su* a r&om trial x c\ld only be by accid5t4 ,b if we c obs]ve a 9 two diff]5t comb9ations1 a b c & a d e2 & if we "k1 or c discov]1 t ! antec$5t circum/ances 9 ^! cases respectively 7 ,a ,b ,c & ,a ,d ,e1 we may conclude by a reason+ simil> to t 9 ! prec$+ example1 t ,a is ! antec$5t connect$ ) ! consequ5t a by a law ( causation4 ,b & ,c1 we may say1 c n be causes ( a1 s9ce on its second occurr5ce !y 7 n pres5t2 nor are ,d & ,e1 = !y 7 n pres5t on its fir/ occurr5ce4 ,a1 alone ( ! five circum/ances1 0 f\nd among ! antec$5ts ( a 9 bo? in/ances4 ,= example1 let ! effect a be cry/allization4 ,we comp>e in/ances 9 :i* bodies are kn[n to assume cry/all9e /ructure1 b :i* h no o!r po9t ( agreem5t2 & we f9d !m to h "o1 & z f> z we c obs]ve1 only "o1 antec$5t 9 common3 ! deposition ( a solid matt] f a liquid /ate1 ei!r a /ate ( fusion or ( solution4 ,we conclude1 !re=e1 t ! solidification ( a sub/ance f a liquid /ate is an inv>iable antec$5t ( its cry/allization4 ,9 ?is example we may g fur!r1 & say1 x is n only ! inv>iable antec$5t b ! cause2 or at lea/ ! proximate ev5t :i* completes ! cause4 ,= 9 ?is case we are able1 aft] detect+ ! antec$5t ,a1 to produce x artificially1 & by f9d+ t a foll[s x1 v]ify ! result ( our induction4 ,! importance ( ?us rev]s+ ! pro( 0 /rik+ly manife/$ :51 by keep+ a phial ( wat] *>g$ ) silice\s p>ticles undi/urb$ = ye>s1 a *emi/ 7,i believe ,dr4 ,wolla/on7 succe$$ 9 obta9+ cry/als ( qu>tz2 & 9 ! equally int]e/+ exp]im5t 9 :i* ,sir ,james ,hall produc$ artificial m>ble by ! cool+ ( its mat]ials f fusion "u imm5se pressure3 two admirable examples ( ! light :i* may be ?r[n ^u ! mo/ secret processes ( ,nature by well-contriv$ int]rogation ( h]4 ,b if we c n artificially produce ! ph5om5on ,a1 ! conclusion t x is ! cause ( a rema9s subject to v consid]able d\bt4 ,?\gh an inv>iable1 x may n be ! unconditional antec$5t ( a1 b may prec$e x z day prec$es night or night day4 ,?is unc]ta9ty arises f ! impossibility ( assur+ ourselves t ,a is ! only imm$iate antec$5t common to bo? ! in/ances4 ,if we c\ld be c]ta9 ( hav+ asc]ta9$ all ! inv>iable antec$5ts1 we might be sure t ! unconditional inv>iable antec$5t1 or cause1 mu/ be f\nd some:]e among !m4 ,un=tunately x is h>dly ev] possible to asc]ta9 all ! antec$5ts1 unless ! ph5om5on is "o :i* we c produce artificially4 ,ev5 !n1 ! difficulty is m]ely light5$1 n remov$3 m5 knew h[ to raise wat] 9 pumps long be=e !y adv]t$ to :at 0 really ! op]at+ circum/ance 9 ! means !y employ$1 namely1 ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e on ! op5 surface ( ! wat]4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 mu* easi] to analyze completely a set ( arrangem5ts made by ourselves1 ?an ! :ole complex mass ( ! ag5cies :i* nature happ5s to be ex]t+ at ! mom5t ( ! production ( a giv5 ph5om5on4 ,we may ov]look "s ( ! mat]ial circum/ances 9 an exp]im5t ) an electrical ma*9e2 b we %all1 at ! wor/1 be bett] acqua9t$ ) !m ?an ) ^? ( a ?und]-/orm4 ,! mode ( discov]+ & prov+ laws ( nature1 :i* we h n[ exam9$1 proce$s on ! foll[+ axiom3 ,:atev] circum/ances c be exclud$1 )\t prejudice to ! ph5om5on1 or c be abs5t not)/&+ its pres5ce1 is n connect$ ) x 9 ! way ( causation4 ,! casual circum/ances be+ ?us elim9at$1 if only "o rema9s1 t "o is ! cause :i* we are 9 se>* (3 if m ?an "o1 !y ei!r are1 or conta9 among !m1 ! cause2 & s1 mutatis mut&is1 ( ! effect4 ,z ?is me?od proce$s by comp>+ diff]5t in/ances to asc]ta9 9 :at !y agree1 ,i h t]m$ x ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t2 & we may adopt z its regulat+ pr9cipal ! foll[+ canon3 ,,fir/ ,,canon4 ,if two or m in/ances ( ! ph5om5on "u inve/igation h only "o circum/ance 9 common1 ! circum/ance 9 :i* alone all ! in/ances agree1 is ! cause 7or effect7 ( ! giv5 ph5om5on4 ,quitt+ = ! pres5t ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 to :i* we %all almo/ imm$iately return1 we proce$ to a /ill m pot5t in/rum5t ( ! inve/igation ( nature1 ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce4 #b4 ,9 ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 we endeavor$ to obta9 in/ances :i* agre$ 9 ! giv5 circum/ance b diff]$ 9 e o!r3 9 ! pres5t me?od we require1 on ! contr>y1 two in/ances resembl+ "o ano!r 9 e o!r respect1 b diff]+ 9 ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( ! ph5om5on we wi% to /udy4 ,if our object be to discov] ! effects ( an ag5t ,a1 we mu/ procure ,a 9 "s set ( asc]ta9$ circum/ances1 z ,a ,b ,c1 & hav+ not$ ! effects produc$1 comp>e !m ) ! effect ( ! rema9+ circum/ances ,b ,c1 :5 ,a is abs5t4 ,if ! effect ( ,a ,b ,c is a b c1 & ! effect ( ,b ,c b c1 x is evid5t t ! effect ( ,a is a4 ,s aga91 if we beg9 at ! o!r end1 & desire to inve/igate ! cause ( an effect a1 we mu/ select an in/ance1 z a b c1 9 :i* ! effect occurs1 & 9 :i* ! antec$5ts 7 ,a ,b ,c1 & we mu/ look out = ano!r in/ance 9 :i* ! rema9+ circum/ances1 b c1 occur )\t a4 ,if ! antec$5ts1 9 t in/ance1 are ,b ,c1 we "k t ! cause ( a mu/ be ,a3 ei!r ,a alone1 or ,a 9 conjunction ) "s ( ! o!r circum/ances pres5t4 ,x is sc>cely necess>y to give examples ( a logical process to :i* we owe almo/ all ! inductive conclusions we draw 9 daily life4 ,:5 a man is %ot ?r\gh ! he>t1 x is by ?is me?od we "k t x 0 ! gun%ot :i* kill$ him3 = he 0 9 ! fullness ( life imm$iately be=e1 all circum/ances be+ ! same1 except ! w\nd4 ,! axioms impli$ 9 ?is me?od are evid5tly ! foll[+4 ,:atev] antec$5t c n be exclud$ )\t prev5t+ ! ph5om5on1 is ! cause1 or a condition1 ( t ph5om5on3 :atev] consequ5t c be exclud$1 ) no o!r diff]5ce 9 ! antec$5ts ?an ! abs5ce ( a p>ticul> "o1 is ! effect ( t "o4 ,in/ead ( comp>+ diff]5t in/ances ( a ph5om5on1 to discov] 9 :at !y agree1 ?is me?od comp>es an in/ance ( its occurr5ce ) an in/ance ( its non-occurr5ce1 to discov] 9 :at !y diff]4 ,! canon :i* is ! regulat+ pr9ciple ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce may be express$ z foll[s3 ,,second ,,canon4 ,if an in/ance 9 :i* ! ph5om5on "u inve/igation occurs1 & an in/ance 9 :i* x does n occur1 h e circum/ance 9 common save "o1 t "o occurr+ only 9 ! =m]2 ! circum/ance 9 :i* alone ! two in/ances diff]1 is ! effect1 or ! cause1 or an indisp5sable "p ( ! cause1 ( ! ph5om5on4 #c4 ,! two me?ods :i* we h n[ /at$ h _m features ( resemblance1 b !re are also _m di/9ctions betwe5 !m4 ,bo? are me?ods ( elim9ation4 ,?is t]m 7employ$ 9 ! !ory ( equations to d5ote ! process by :i* "o aft] ano!r ( ! elem5ts ( a "q is exclud$1 & ! solution made to dep5d on ! relation betwe5 ! rema9+ elem5ts only7 is well suit$ to express ! op]ation1 analog\s to ?is1 :i* has be5 und]/ood s9ce ! "t ( ,bacon to be ! f\ndation ( exp]im5tal inquiry3 namely1 ! successive exclusion ( ! v>i\s circum/ances :i* are f\nd to accompany a ph5om5on 9 a giv5 in/ance1 9 ord] to asc]ta9 :at are ^? among !m :i* c be abs5t consi/5tly ) ! exi/5ce ( ! ph5om5on4 ,! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t /&s on ! gr\nd t :atev] c be elim9at$1 is n connect$ ) ! ph5om5on by any law4 ,! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce has = its f\ndation1 t :atev] c n be elim9at$1 is connect$ ) ! ph5om5on by a law4 ,( ^! me?ods1 t ( ,diff]5ce is m p>ticul>ly a me?od ( artificial exp]im5t2 :ile t ( ,agreem5t is m especially ! res\rce employ$ :]e exp]im5tation is impossible4 ,a few reflections w prove ! fact1 & po9t out ! reason ( x4 ,x is inh]5t 9 ! peculi> "* ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 t ! nature ( ! comb9ations :i* x requires is mu* m /rictly def9$ ?an 9 ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t4 ,! two in/ances :i* are to be comp>$ ) "o ano!r mu/ be exactly simil>1 9 all circum/ances except ! "o :i* we are attempt+ to inve/igate3 !y mu/ be 9 ! relation ( ,a ,b ,c & ,b ,c1 or ( a b c & b c4 ,x is true t ?is simil>ity ( circum/ances ne$s n ext5d to su* z are already kn[n to be immat]ial to ! result4 ,& 9 ! case ( mo/ ph5om5a we le>n at once1 f ! commone/ exp]i5ce1 t mo/ ( ! co-exi/5t ph5om5a ( ! univ]se may be ei!r pres5t or abs5t )\t affect+ ! giv5 ph5om5on2 or1 if pres5t1 are pres5t indiff]5tly :5 ! ph5om5on does n happ5 & :5 x does4 ,/ill1 ev5 limit+ ! id5tity :i* is requir$ betwe5 ! two in/ances1 ,a ,b ,c & ,b ,c1 to su* circum/ances z are n already kn[n to be indiff]5t1 x is v seldom t nature af=ds two in/ances1 ( :i* we c be assur$ t !y /& 9 ?is precise relation to "o ano!r4 ,9 ! spontane\s op]ations ( nature !re is g5]ally su* complication & su* obscurity1 !y are mo/ly ei!r on s ov]:elm+ly l>ge or on s inaccessibly m9ute a scale1 we are s ignorant ( a great "p ( ! facts :i* really take place1 & ev5 ^? ( :i* we are n ignorant are s multitud9\s1 & !re=e s seldom exactly alike 9 any two cases1 t a spontane\s exp]im5t1 ( ! k9d requir$ by ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 is commonly n to be f\nd4 ,:51 on ! contr>y1 we obta9 a ph5om5on by an artificial exp]im5t1 a pair ( in/ances su* z ! me?od requires is obta9$ almo/ z a matt] ( c\rse1 provid$ ! process does n la/ a long "t4 ,a c]ta9 /ate ( surr\nd+ circum/ances exi/$ be=e we comm5c$ ! exp]im5t2 ?is is ,b ,c4 ,we !n introduce ,a2 say1 = in/ance1 by m]ely br++ an object f ano!r "p ( ! room1 be=e !re has be5 "t = any *ange 9 ! o!r elem5ts4 ,x is1 9 %ort 7z ,m4 ,comt obs]ves71 ! v nature ( an exp]im5t1 to introduce into ! pre-exi/+ /ate ( circum/ances a *ange p]fectly def9ite4 ,we *oose a previ\s /ate ( ?+s ) :i* we are well acqua9t$1 s t no un=ese5 alt]ation 9 t /ate is likely to pass unobs]v$2 & into ?is we introduce1 z rapidly z possible1 ! ph5om5on :i* we wi% to /udy2 s t 9 g5]al we are entitl$ to feel complete assurance t ! pre-exi/+ /ate1 & ! /ate :i* we h produc$1 diff] 9 no?+ except ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( t ph5om5on4 ,if a bird is tak5 f a cage1 & in/antly plung$ into c>bonic acid gas1 ! exp]im5tali/ may be fully assur$ 7at all ev5ts aft] "o or two repetitions7 t no circum/ance capable ( caus+ suffocation _h sup]v5$ 9 ! int]im1 except ! *ange f imm]sion 9 ! atmosph]e to imm]sion 9 c>bonic acid gas4 ,!re is "o d\bt1 inde$1 :i* may rema9 9 "s cases ( ?is description2 ! effect may h be5 produc$ n by ! *ange1 b by ! means employ$ to produce ! *ange4 ,! possibility1 h[ev]1 ( ?is la/ supposition g5]ally admits ( be+ conclusively te/$ by o!r exp]im5ts4 ,x ?us appe>s t 9 ! /udy ( ! v>i\s k9ds ( ph5om5a :i* we c1 by our volunt>y ag5cy1 modify or control1 we c 9 g5]al satisfy ! requisitions ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce2 b t by ! spontane\s op]ations ( nature ^? requisitions are seldom fulfill$4 ,! rev]se ( ?is is ! case ) ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t4 ,we d n "h require in/ances ( s special & det]m9ate a k9d4 ,any in/ances :atev]1 9 :i* nature pres5ts u ) a ph5om5on1 may be exam9$ = ! purposes ( ?is me?od2 & if all su* in/ances agree 9 any ?+1 a conclusion ( consid]able value is already atta9$4 ,we c seldom1 inde$1 be sure t ! "o po9t ( agreem5t is ! only "o2 b ?is ignorance does n1 z 9 ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 vitiate ! conclusion2 ! c]ta9ty ( ! result1 z f> z x goes1 is n affect$4 ,we h asc]ta9$ "o inv>iable antec$5t or consequ5t1 h[ev] _m o!r inv>iable antec$5ts or consequ5ts may /ill rema9 unasc]ta9$4 ,if ,a ,b ,c1 ,a ,d ,e1 ,a ,f ,g1 are all equally foll[$ by a1 !n a is an inv>iable consequ5t ( ,a4 ,if a b c1 a d e1 a f g1 all numb] ,a among _! antec$5ts1 !n ,a is connect$ z an antec$5t1 by "s inv>iable law1 ) a4 ,b to det]m9e :e!r ?is inv>iable antec$5t is a cause1 or ?is inv>iable consequ5t an effect1 we mu/ be able1 9 addition1 to produce ! "o by means ( ! o!r2 or1 at lea/1 to obta9 t :i* alone con/itutes our assurance ( hav+ produc$ any ?+1 namely1 an in/ance 9 :i* ! effect1 a1 has come into exi/5ce1 ) no o!r *ange 9 ! pre-exi/+ circum/ances ?an ! addition ( ,a4 ,& ?is1 if we c d x1 is an application ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 n ( ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t4 ,x ?us appe>s to be by ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce alone t we c ev]1 9 ! way ( direct exp]i5ce1 arrive ) c]ta9ty at causes4 ,! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t leads only to laws ( ph5om5a 7z "s writ]s call !m1 b improp]ly1 s9ce laws ( causation are also laws ( ph5om5a73 t is1 to uni=mities1 :i* ei!r are n laws ( causation1 or 9 :i* ! "q ( causation mu/ = ! pres5t rema9 undecid$4 ,! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t is *iefly to be resort$ to1 z a means ( sugge/+ applications ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce 7z 9 ! la/ example ! comp>ison ( ,a ,b ,c1 ,a ,d ,e1 ,a ,f ,g1 sugge/$ t ,a 0 ! antec$5t on :i* to try ! exp]im5t :e!r x c\ld produce a72 or z an inf]ior res\rce1 9 case ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce is impracticable2 :i*1 z we be=e %[$1 g5]ally arises f ! impossibility ( artificially produc+ ! ph5om5a4 ,& h5ce x is t ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 ?\gh applicable 9 pr9ciple to ei!r case1 is m emphatically ! me?od ( inve/igation on ^? subjects :]e artificial exp]im5tation is impossible2 because on ^? x is1 g5]ally1 our only res\rce ( a directly inductive nature2 :ile1 9 ! ph5om5a :i* we c produce at pleasure1 ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce g5]ally af=ds a m efficaci\s process1 :i* w asc]ta9 causes z well z m]e laws4 #d4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 _m cases 9 :i*1 ?\gh our p[] ( produc+ ! ph5om5on is complete1 ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce ei!r c n be made available at all1 or n )\t a previ\s employm5t ( ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t4 ,?is occurs :5 ! ag5cy by :i* we c produce ! ph5om5on is n t ( "o s+le antec$5t1 b a comb9ation ( antec$5ts1 :i* we h no p[] ( sep>at+ f ea* o!r1 & exhibit+ ap>t4 ,= in/ance1 suppose ! subject ( inquiry to be ! cause ( ! d\ble refraction ( light4 ,we c produce ?is ph5om5on at pleasure1 by employ+ any "o ( ! _m sub/ances :i* are kn[n to refract light 9 t peculi> mann]4 ,b if1 tak+ "o ( ^? sub/ances1 z ,icel& sp>1 = example1 we wi% to det]m9e on :i* ( ! prop]ties ( ,icel& sp> ?is rem>kable ph5om5on dep5ds1 we c make no use1 = t purpose1 ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce2 = we c n f9d ano!r sub/ance precisely resembl+ ,icel& sp> except 9 "s "o prop]ty4 ,! only mode1 !re=e1 ( prosecut+ ?is inquiry is t af=d$ by ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t2 by :i*1 9 fact1 ?r\gh a comp>ison ( all ! kn[n sub/ances :i* h ! prop]ty ( d\bly refract+ light1 x 0 asc]ta9$ t !y agree 9 ! circum/ance ( be+ cry/all9e sub/ances2 & ?\gh ! conv]se does n hold1 ?\gh all cry/all9e sub/ances h n ! prop]ty ( d\ble refraction1 x 0 conclud$1 ) reason1 t !re is a real connection betwe5 ^! two prop]ties2 t ei!r cry/all9e /ructure1 or ! cause :i* gives rise to t /ructure1 is "o ( ! conditions ( d\ble refraction4 ,out ( ?is employm5t ( ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t arises a peculi> modification ( t me?od1 :i* is sometimes ( great avail 9 ! inve/igation ( nature4 ,9 cases simil> to ! above1 9 :i* x is n possible to obta9 ! precise pair ( in/ances :i* our second canon requires--in/ances agree+ 9 e antec$5t except ,a1 or 9 e consequ5t except a1 we may yet be able1 by a d\ble employm5t ( ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 to discov] 9 :at ! in/ances :i* conta9 ,a or a diff] f ^? :i* d n4 ,if we comp>e v>i\s in/ances 9 :i* a occurs1 & f9d t !y all h 9 common ! circum/ance ,a1 & 7z f> z c be obs]v$7 no o!r circum/ance1 ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 s f>1 be>s te/imony to a connection betwe5 ,a & a4 ,9 ord] to conv]t ?is evid5ce ( connection into pro( ( causation by ! direct ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 we ought to be able1 9 "s "o ( ^! in/ances1 z = example1 ,a ,b ,c1 to leave out ,a1 & obs]ve :e!r by do+ s1 a is prev5t$4 ,n[ suppos+ 7:at is (t5 ! case7 t we are n able to try ?is decisive exp]im5t2 yet1 provid$ we c by any means discov] :at w\ld be its result if we c\ld try x1 ! advantage w be ! same4 ,suppose1 !n1 t z we previ\sly exam9$ a v>iety ( in/ances 9 :i* a occurr$1 & f\nd !m to agree 9 conta9+ ,a1 s we n[ obs]ve a v>iety ( in/ances 9 :i* a does n occur1 & f9d !m agree 9 n conta9+ ,a2 :i* e/abli%es1 by ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 ! same connection betwe5 ! abs5ce ( ,a & ! abs5ce ( a1 :i* 0 be=e e/abli%$ betwe5 _! pres5ce4 ,z1 !n1 x _h be5 %[n t :5ev] ,a is pres5t a is pres5t1 s1 x be+ n[ %[n t :5 ,a is tak5 away a is remov$ along ) x1 we h by ! "o proposition ,a ,b ,c1 a b c1 by ! o!r ,b ,c1 b c1 ! positive & negative in/ances :i* ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce requires4 ,?is me?od may be call$ ! ,indirect ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 or ! ,jo9t ,me?od ( ,agreem5t & ,diff]5ce2 & consi/s 9 a d\ble employm5t ( ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 ea* pro( be+ indep5d5t ( ! o!r1 & corroborat+ x4 ,b x is n equival5t to a pro( by ! direct ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce4 ,= ! requisitions ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce are n satisfi$1 unless we c be q sure ei!r t ! in/ances affirmative ( a agree 9 no antec$5t :atev] b ,a1 or t ! in/ances negative ( a agree 9 no?+ b ! negation ( ,a4 ,n[1 if x 7 possible1 :i* x nev] is1 to h ?is assurance1 we %\ld n ne$ ! jo9t me?od2 = ei!r ( ! two sets ( in/ances sep>ately w\ld !n be suffici5t to prove causation4 ,?is indirect me?od1 !re=e1 c only be reg>d$ z a great ext5sion & improvem5t ( ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 b n z p>ticipat+ 9 ! m cog5t nature ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce4 ,! foll[+ may be /at$ z its canon3 ,,?ird ,,canon4 ,if two or m in/ances 9 :i* ! ph5om5on occurs h only "o circum/ance 9 common1 :ile two or m in/ances 9 :i* x does n occur h no?+ 9 common save ! abs5ce ( t circum/ance1 ! circum/ance 9 :i* alone ! two sets ( in/ances diff]1 is ! effect1 or ! cause1 or an indisp5sable "p ( ! cause1 ( ! ph5om5on4 ,we %all pres5tly see t ! ,jo9t ,me?od ( ,agreem5t & ,diff]5ce con/itutes1 9 ano!r respect n yet adv]t$ to1 an improvem5t ^u ! common ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 namely1 9 be+ unaffect$ by a *>act]i/ic imp]fection ( t me?od1 ! nature ( :i* /ill rema9s to be po9t$ out4 ,b z we c n ent] into ?is exposition )\t introduc+ a new elem5t ( complexity into ?is long & intricate discussion1 ,i %all po/pone x to a subsequ5t *apt]1 & %all at once proce$ to a /atem5t ( two o!r me?ods1 :i* w complete ! enum]ation ( ! means :i* mank9d possess = explor+ ! laws ( nature by specific obs]vation & exp]i5ce4 #e4 ,! fir/ ( ^! has be5 aptly d5om9at$ ! ,me?od ( ,residues4 ,its pr9ciple is v simple4 ,subduct+ f any giv5 ph5om5on all ! portions :i*1 by virtue ( prec$+ inductions1 c be assign$ to kn[n causes1 ! rema9d] w be ! effect ( ! antec$5ts :i* _h be5 ov]look$1 or ( :i* ! effect 0 z yet an unkn[n quantity4 ,suppose1 z be=e1 t we h ! antec$5ts ,a ,b ,c1 foll[$ by ! consequ5ts a b c1 & t by previ\s inductions 7f\nd$1 we w suppose1 on ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce7 we h asc]ta9$ ! causes ( "s ( ^! effects1 or ! effects ( "s ( ^! causes2 & are !nce appris$ t ! effect ( ,a is a1 & t ! effect ( ,b is b4 ,subtract+ ! sum ( ^! effects f ! total ph5om5on1 !re rema9s c1 :i* n[1 )\t any fre% exp]im5ts1 we may "k to be ! effect ( ,c4 ,?is ,me?od ( ,residues is 9 tru? a peculi> modification ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce4 ,if ! in/ance ,a ,b ,c1 a b c1 c\ld h be5 comp>$ ) a s+le in/ance ,a ,b1 a b1 we %\ld h prov$ ,c to be ! cause ( c1 by ! common process ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce4 ,9 ! pres5t case1 h[ev]1 in/ead ( a s+le in/ance ,a ,b1 we h _h to /udy sep>ately ! causes ,a & ,b1 & to inf] f ! effects :i* !y produce sep>ately :at effect !y mu/ produce 9 ! case ,a ,b ,c1 :]e !y act toge!r4 ,( ! two in/ances1 !re=e1 :i* ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce requires--! "o positive1 ! o!r negative--! negative "o1 or t 9 :i* ! giv5 ph5om5on is abs5t1 is n ! direct result ( obs]vation & exp]im5t1 b has be5 arriv$ at by d$uction4 ,z "o ( ! =ms ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 ! ,me?od ( ,residues p>takes ( its rigor\s c]ta9ty1 provid$ ! previ\s inductions1 ^? :i* gave ! effects ( ,a & ,b1 7 obta9$ by ! same infallible me?od1 & provid$ we are c]ta9 t ,c is ! only antec$5t to :i* ! residual ph5om5on c c be ref]r$2 ! only ag5t ( :i* we _h n already calculat$ & subduct$ ! effect4 ,b z we c nev] be q c]ta9 ( ?is1 ! evid5ce d]iv$ f ! ,me?od ( ,residues is n complete unless we c obta9 ,c artificially1 & try x sep>ately1 or unless its ag5cy1 :5 once sugge/$1 c be acc\nt$ =1 & prov$ d$uctively f kn[n laws4 ,ev5 ) ^! res]vations1 ! ,me?od ( ,residues is "o ( ! mo/ important among our in/rum5ts ( discov]y4 ,( all ! me?ods ( inve/igat+ laws ( nature1 ?is is ! mo/ f]tile 9 unexpect$ results3 (t5 in=m+ u ( sequ5ces 9 :i* nei!r ! cause nor ! effect 7 suffici5tly conspicu\s to attract ( !mselves ! att5tion ( obs]v]s4 ,! ag5t ,c may be an obscure circum/ance1 n likely to h be5 p]ceiv$ unless s\ght =1 nor likely to h be5 s\ght = until att5tion _h be5 awak5$ by ! insuffici5cy ( ! obvi\s causes to acc\nt = ! :ole ( ! effect4 ,& c may be s disguis$ by its int]mixture ) a & b1 t x w\ld sc>cely h pres5t$ itself spontane\sly z a subject ( sep>ate /udy4 ,( ^! uses ( ! me?od1 we %all pres5tly cite "s rem>kable examples4 ,! canon ( ! ,me?od ( ,residues is z foll[s3 ,,f\r? ,,canon4 ,subduct f any ph5om5on su* "p z is kn[n by previ\s inductions to be ! effect ( c]ta9 antec$5ts1 & ! residue ( ! ph5om5on is ! effect ( ! rema9+ antec$5ts4 #f4 ,!re rema9s a class ( laws :i* x is impracticable to asc]ta9 by any ( ! ?ree me?ods :i* ,i h attempt$ to *>act]ize3 namely1 ! laws ( ^? ,p]man5t ,causes1 or inde/ructible natural ag5ts1 :i* x is impossible ei!r to exclude or to isolate2 :i* we c nei!r h9d] f be+ pres5t1 nor contrive t !y %all be pres5t alone4 ,x w\ld appe> at fir/ sight t we c\ld by no means sep>ate ! effects ( ^! ag5ts f ! effects ( ^? o!r ph5om5a ) :i* !y c n be prev5t$ f co-exi/+4 ,9 respect1 inde$1 to mo/ ( ! p]man5t causes1 no su* difficulty exi/s2 s9ce1 ?\gh we c n elim9ate !m z co-exi/+ facts1 we c elim9ate !m z influ5c+ ag5ts1 by simply try+ our exp]im5t 9 a local situation beyond ! limits ( _! influ5ce4 ,! p5dulum1 = example1 has its oscillations di/urb$ by ! vic9ity ( a m\nta93 we remove ! p5dulum to a suffici5t di/ance f ! m\nta91 & ! di/urbance ceases3 f ^! data we c det]m9e by ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 ! am\nt ( effect due to ! m\nta92 & beyond a c]ta9 di/ance e ?+ goes on precisely z x w\ld d if ! m\nta9 ex]cis$ no influ5ce :atev]1 :i*1 accord+ly1 we1 ) suffici5t reason1 conclude to be ! fact4 ,! difficulty1 !re=e1 9 apply+ ! me?ods already treat$ ( to det]m9e ! effects ( ,p]man5t ,causes1 is conf9$ to ! cases 9 :i* x is impossible = u to get out ( ! local limits ( _! influ5ce4 ,! p5dulum c be remov$ f ! influ5ce ( ! m\nta91 b x c n be remov$ f ! influ5ce ( ! e>?3 we c n take away ! e>? f ! p5dulum1 nor ! p5dulum f ! e>?1 to asc]ta9 :e!r x w\ld cont9ue to vibrate if ! action :i* ! e>? ex]ts ^u x 7 )drawn4 ,on :at evid5ce1 !n1 d we ascribe its vibrations to ! e>?'s influ5ce8 ,n on any sanction$ by ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce2 = "o ( ! two in/ances1 ! negative in/ance1 is want+4 ,nor by ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t2 = ?\gh all p5dulums agree 9 ?is1 t dur+ _! oscillations ! e>? is always pres5t1 :y may we n z well ascribe ! ph5om5on to ! sun1 :i* is equally a co-exi/5t fact 9 all ! exp]im5ts8 ,x is evid5t t to e/abli% ev5 s simple a fact ( causation z ?is1 !re 0 requir$ "s me?od ov] & above ^? :i* we h yet exam9$4 ,z ano!r example1 let u take ! ph5om5on ,heat4 ,indep5d5tly ( all hypo!sis z to ! real nature ( ! ag5cy s call$1 ?is fact is c]ta91 t we are unable to exhau/ any body ( ! :ole ( its heat4 ,x is equally c]ta9 t no "o ev] p]ceiv$ heat n emanat+ f a body4 ,be+ unable1 !n1 to sep>ate ,body & ,heat1 we c n effect su* a v>iation ( circum/ances z ! =ego+ ?ree me?ods require2 we c n asc]ta91 by ^? me?ods1 :at portion ( ! ph5om5a exhibit$ by any body is due to ! heat conta9$ 9 x4 ,if we c\ld obs]ve a body ) its heat1 & ! same body entirely dive/$ ( heat1 ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce w\ld %[ ! effect due to ! heat1 ap>t f t due to ! body4 ,if we c\ld obs]ve heat "u circum/ances agree+ 9 no?+ b heat1 & !re=e n *>act]iz$ also by ! pres5ce ( a body1 we c\ld asc]ta9 ! effects ( heat1 f an in/ance ( heat ) a body & an in/ance ( heat )\t a body1 by ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t2 or we c\ld det]m9e by ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce :at effect 0 due to ! body1 :5 ! rema9d] :i* 0 due to ! heat w\ld be giv5 by ! ,me?od ( ,residues4 ,b we c d none ( ^! ?+s2 & )\t !m ! application ( any ( ! ?ree me?ods to ! solution ( ?is problem w\ld be illusory4 ,x w\ld be idle1 = in/ance1 to attempt to asc]ta9 ! effect ( heat by subtract+ f ! ph5om5a exhibit$ by a body all t is due to its o!r prop]ties2 = z we h nev] be5 able to obs]ve any bodies )\t a portion ( heat 9 !m1 effects due to t heat might =m a "p ( ! v results :i* we 7 affect+ to subtract1 9 ord] t ! effect ( heat might be %[n by ! residue4 ,if1 !re=e1 !re 7 no o!r me?ods ( exp]im5tal inve/igation ?an ^! ?ree1 we %\ld be unable to det]m9e ! effects due to heat z a cause4 ,b we h /ill a res\rce4 ,?\gh we c n exclude an antec$5t altoge!r1 we may be able to produce1 or nature may produce = u "s modification 9 x4 ,by a modification is "h meant1 a *ange 9 x n am\nt+ to its total removal4 ,if "s modification 9 ! antec$5t ,a is always foll[$ by a *ange 9 ! consequ5t a1 ! o!r consequ5ts b & c rema9+ ! same2 or vic v]sa1 if e *ange 9 a is f\nd to h be5 prec$$ by "s modification 9 ,a1 none be+ obs]vable 9 any ( ! o!r antec$5ts1 we may safely conclude t a is1 :olly or 9 "p1 an effect traceable to ,a1 or at lea/ 9 "s way connect$ ) x ?r\gh causation4 ,= example1 9 ! case ( heat1 ?\gh we c n expel x altoge!r f any body1 we c modify x 9 quantity1 we c increase or dim9i% x2 & do+ s1 we f9d by ! v>i\s me?ods ( exp]im5tation or obs]vation already treat$ (1 t su* increase or dim9ution ( heat is foll[$ by expansion or contraction ( ! body4 ,9 ?is mann] we arrive at ! conclusion1 o!rwise unatta9able by u1 t "o ( ! effects ( heat is to enl>ge ! dim5sions ( bodies2 or1 :at is ! same ?+ 9 o!r words1 to wid5 ! di/ances betwe5 _! p>ticles4 ,a *ange 9 a ?+1 n am\nt+ to its total removal1 t is1 a *ange :i* leaves x /ill ! same ?+ x 01 mu/ be a *ange ei!r 9 its quantity1 or 9 "s ( its v>iable relations to o!r ?+s1 ( :i* v>iable relations ! pr9cipal is its position 9 space4 ,9 ! previ\s example1 ! modification :i* 0 produc$ 9 ! antec$5t 0 an alt]ation 9 its quantity4 ,let u n[ suppose ! "q to be1 :at influ5ce ! moon ex]ts on ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,we c n try an exp]im5t 9 ! abs5ce ( ! moon1 s z to obs]ve :at t]re/rial ph5om5a h] annihilation w\ld put an end to2 b :5 we f9d t all ! v>iations 9 ! position ( ! moon are foll[$ by correspond+ v>iations 9 ! "t & place ( high wat]1 ! place be+ always ei!r ! "p ( ! e>? :i* is ne>e/ to1 or t :i* is mo/ remote f1 ! moon1 we h ample evid5ce t ! moon is1 :olly or p>tially1 ! cause :i* det]m9es ! tides4 ,x v commonly happ5s1 z x does 9 ?is in/ance1 t ! v>iations ( an effect are correspond5t1 or analog\s1 to ^? ( its cause2 z ! moon moves f>!r t[>d ! ea/1 ! high-wat] po9t does ! same3 b ?is is n an indisp5sable condition1 z may be se5 9 ! same example1 = along ) t high-wat] po9t !re is at ! same in/ant ano!r high-wat] po9t diametrically opposite to x1 & :i*1 !re=e1 ( necessity1 moves t[>d ! we/1 z ! moon1 foll[$ by ! ne>] ( ! tide waves1 advances t[>d ! ea/3 & yet bo? ^! motions are equally effects ( ! moon's motion4 ,t ! oscillations ( ! p5dulum are caus$ by ! e>?1 is prov$ by simil> evid5ce4 ,^? oscillations take place betwe5 equidi/ant po9ts on ! two sides ( a l9e1 :i*1 be+ p]p5dicul> to ! e>?1 v>ies ) e v>iation 9 ! e>?'s position1 ei!r 9 space or relatively to ! object4 ,speak+ accurately1 we only "k by ! me?od n[ *>act]iz$1 t all t]re/rial bodies t5d to ! e>?1 & n to "s unkn[n fix$ po9t ly+ 9 ! same direction4 ,9 e tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 by ! e>?'s rotation1 ! l9e drawn f ! body at "r angles to ! e>? co9cides successively ) all ! radii ( a circle1 & 9 ! c\rse ( six mon?s ! place ( t circle v>ies by ne>ly two hundr$ millions ( miles2 yet 9 all ^! *anges ( ! e>?'s position1 ! l9e 9 :i* bodies t5d to fall cont9ues to be direct$ t[>d x3 :i* proves t t]re/rial gravity is direct$ to ! e>?1 & n1 z 0 once fanci$ by "s1 to a fix$ po9t ( space4 ,! me?od by :i* ^! results 7 obta9$ may be t]m$ ! ,me?od ( ,concomitant ,v>iations2 x is regulat$ by ! foll[+ canon3 ,,fif? ,,canon4 ,:atev] ph5om5on v>ies 9 any mann] :5ev] ano!r ph5om5on v>ies 9 "s p>ticul> mann]1 is ei!r a cause or an effect ( t ph5om5on1 or is connect$ ) x ?r\gh "s fact ( causation4 ,! la/ clause is subjo9$1 because x by no means foll[s :5 two ph5om5a accompany ea* o!r 9 _! v>iations1 t ! "o is cause & ! o!r effect4 ,! same ?+ may1 & inde$ mu/ happ51 suppos+ !m to be two diff]5t effects ( a common cause3 & by ?is me?od alone x w\ld nev] be possible to asc]ta9 :i* ( ! suppositions is ! true "o4 ,! only way to solve ! d\bt w\ld be t :i* we h s (t5 adv]t$ to1 viz41 by endeavor+ to asc]ta9 :e!r we c produce ! "o set ( v>iations by means ( ! o!r4 ,9 ! case ( heat1 = example1 by increas+ ! temp]ature ( a body we increase its bulk1 b by increas+ its bulk we d n increase its temp]ature2 on ! contr>y 7z 9 ! r>efaction ( air "u ! receiv] ( an air-pump71 we g5]ally dim9i% x3 !re=e heat is n an effect1 b a cause1 ( increase ( bulk4 ,if we c n ourselves produce ! v>iations1 we mu/ endeavor1 ?\gh x is an attempt :i* is seldom successful1 to f9d !m produc$ by nature 9 "s case 9 :i* ! preexi/+ circum/ances are p]fectly kn[n to u4 ,x is sc>cely necess>y to say1 t 9 ord] to asc]ta9 ! uni=m concomitance ( v>iations 9 ! effect ) v>iations 9 ! cause1 ! same precautions mu/ be us$ z 9 any o!r case ( ! det]m9ation ( an inv>iable sequ5ce4 ,we mu/ endeavor to reta9 all ! o!r antec$5ts un*ang$1 :ile t p>ticul> "o is subject$ to ! requisite s]ies ( v>iations2 or1 9 o!r words1 t we may be w>rant$ 9 inf]r+ causation f concomitance ( v>iations1 ! concomitance itself mu/ be prov$ by ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce4 ,x might at fir/ appe> t ! ,me?od ( ,concomitant ,v>iations assumes a new axiom1 or law ( causation 9 g5]al1 namely1 t e modification ( ! cause is foll[$ by a *ange 9 ! effect4 ,& x does usually happ5 t :5 a ph5om5on ,a causes a ph5om5on a1 any v>iation 9 ! quantity or 9 ! v>i\s relations ( ,a1 is uni=mly foll[$ by a v>iation 9 ! quantity or relations ( a4 ,to take a famili> in/ance1 t ( gravitation4 ,! sun causes a c]ta9 t5d5cy to motion 9 ! e>?2 "h we h cause & effect2 b t t5d5cy is t[>d ! sun1 & !re=e v>ies 9 direction z ! sun v>ies 9 ! relation ( position2 &1 moreov]1 ! t5d5cy v>ies 9 int5sity1 9 a c]ta9 num]ical correspond5ce to ! sun's di/ance f ! e>?1 t is1 accord+ to ano!r relation ( ! sun4 ,?us we see t !re is n only an inv>iable connection betwe5 ! sun & ! e>?'s gravitation1 b t two ( ! relations ( ! sun1 its position ) respect to ! e>? & its di/ance f ! e>?1 are inv>iably connect$ z antec$5ts ) ! quantity & direction ( ! e>?'s gravitation4 ,! cause ( ! e>?'s gravitat+ at all1 is simply ! sun2 b ! cause ( its gravitat+ ) a giv5 int5sity & 9 a giv5 direction1 is ! exi/5ce ( ! sun 9 a giv5 direction & at a giv5 di/ance4 ,x is n /range t a modifi$ cause1 :i* is 9 tru? a diff]5t cause1 %\ld produce a diff]5t effect4 ,al?\gh x is = ! mo/ "p true t a modification ( ! cause is foll[$ by a modification ( ! effect1 ! ,me?od ( ,concomitant ,v>iations does n1 h[ev]1 presuppose ?is z an axiom4 ,x only requires ! conv]se proposition3 t any ?+ on ^: modifications1 modifications ( an effect are inv>iably consequ5t1 mu/ be ! cause 7or connect$ ) ! cause7 ( t effect2 a proposition1 ! tru? ( :i* is evid5t2 = if ! ?+ itself _h no influ5ce on ! effect1 nei!r c\ld ! modifications ( ! ?+ h any influ5ce4 ,if ! />s h no p[] ov] ! =tunes ( mank9d1 x is impli$ 9 ! v t]ms t ! conjunctions or oppositions ( diff]5t />s c h no su* p[]4 ,al?\gh ! mo/ /rik+ applications ( ! ,me?od ( ,concomitant ,v>iations take place 9 ! cases 9 :i* ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 /rictly s call$1 is impossible1 its use is n conf9$ to ^? cases2 x may (t5 usefully foll[ aft] ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 to give additional precision to a solution :i* t has f\nd4 ,:5 by ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce x has fir/ be5 asc]ta9$ t a c]ta9 object produces a c]ta9 effect1 ! ,me?od ( ,concomitant ,v>iations may be usefully call$ 91 to det]m9e accord+ to :at law ! quantity or ! diff]5t relations ( ! effect foll[ ^? ( ! cause4 #g4 ,! case 9 :i* ?is me?od admits ( ! mo/ ext5sive employm5t1 is t 9 :i* ! v>iations ( ! cause are v>iations ( quantity4 ,( su* v>iations we may 9 g5]al affirm ) safety1 t !y w be att5d$ n only ) v>iations1 b ) simil> v>iations1 ( ! effect3 ! proposition t m ( ! cause is foll[$ by m ( ! effect1 be+ a coroll>y f ! pr9ciple ( ! ,composition ( ,causes1 :i*1 z we h se51 is ! g5]al rule ( causation2 cases ( ! opposite description1 9 :i* causes *ange _! prop]ties on be+ conjo9$ ) "o ano!r1 be+1 on ! contr>y1 special & exceptional4 ,suppose1 !n1 t :5 ,a *anges 9 quantity1 a also *anges 9 quantity1 & 9 su* a mann] t we c trace ! num]ical relation :i* ! *anges ( ! "o be> to su* *anges ( ! o!r z take place )9 our limits ( obs]vation4 ,we may !n1 ) c]ta9 precautions1 safely conclude t ! same num]ical relation w hold beyond ^? limits4 ,if1 = in/ance1 we f9d t :5 ,a is d\ble1 a is d\ble2 t :5 ,a is treble or quadruple1 a is treble or quadruple2 we may conclude t if ,a 7 a half or a ?ird1 a w\ld be a half or a ?ird1 & f9ally1 t if ,a 7 annihilat$1 a w\ld be annihilat$2 & t a is :olly ! effect ( ,a1 or :olly ! effect ( ! same cause ) ,a4 ,& s ) any o!r num]ical relation accord+ to :i* ,a & a w\ld vani% simultane\sly2 z1 = in/ance1 if a 7 proportional to ! squ>e ( ,a4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 a is n :olly ! effect ( ,a1 b yet v>ies :5 ,a v>ies1 x is probably a ma!matical function n ( ,a alone1 b ( ,a & some?+ else3 its *anges1 = example1 may be su* z w\ld occur if "p ( x rema9$ con/ant1 or v>i$ on "s o!r pr9ciple1 & ! rema9d] v>i$ 9 "s num]ical relations to ! v>iations ( ,a4 ,9 t case1 :5 ,a dim9i%es1 a w be se5 to approa* n t[>d z]o1 b t[>d "s o!r limit2 & :5 ! s]ies ( v>iations is su* z to indicate :at t limit is1 if con/ant1 or ! law ( its v>iation1 if v>iable1 ! limit w exactly measure h[ mu* ( a is ! effect ( "s o!r & indep5d5t cause1 & ! rema9d] w be ! effect ( ,a 7or ( ! cause ( ,a74 ,^! conclusions1 h[ev]1 mu/ n be drawn )\t c]ta9 precautions4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! possibility ( draw+ !m at all1 manife/ly supposes t we are acqua9t$ n only ) ! v>iations1 b ) ! absolute quantities bo? ( ,a & a4 ,if we d n "k ! total quantities1 we c n1 ( c\rse1 det]m9e ! real num]ical relation accord+ to :i* ^? quantities v>y4 ,x is1 !re=e1 an error to conclude1 z "s h conclud$1 t because increase ( heat exp&s bodies1 t is1 increases ! di/ance betwe5 _! p>ticles1 !re=e ! di/ance is :olly ! effect ( heat1 & t if we c\ld entirely exhau/ ! body ( its heat1 ! p>ticles w\ld be 9 complete contact4 ,?is is no m ?an a guess1 & ( ! mo/ haz>d\s sort1 n a legitimate induction3 = s9ce we nei!r "k h[ mu* heat !re is 9 any body1 nor :at is ! real di/ance betwe5 any two ( its p>ticles1 we c n judge :e!r ! contraction ( ! di/ance does or does n foll[ ! dim9ution ( ! quantity ( heat accord+ to su* a num]ical relation t ! two quantities w\ld vani% simultane\sly4 ,9 contra/ ) ?is1 let u consid] a case 9 :i* ! absolute quantities are kn[n2 ! case contemplat$ 9 ! fir/ law ( motion3 viz41 t all bodies 9 motion cont9ue to move 9 a /raight l9e ) uni=m velocity until act$ ^u by "s new =ce4 ,?is ass]tion is 9 op5 opposition to fir/ appe>ances2 all t]re/rial objects1 :5 9 motion1 gradually abate _! velocity1 & at la/ /op2 :i* accord+ly ! anci5ts1 ) _! inductio p] enum]ationem simplicem1 imag9$ to be ! law4 ,e mov+ body1 h[ev]1 enc\nt]s v>i\s ob/acles1 z friction1 ! resi/ance ( ! atmosph]e1 etc41 :i* we "k by daily exp]i5ce to be causes capable ( de/roy+ motion4 ,x 0 sugge/$ t ! :ole ( ! ret>dation might be ow+ to ^! causes4 ,h[ 0 ?is inquir$ into8 ,if ! ob/acles c\ld h be5 entirely remov$1 ! case w\ld h be5 am5able to ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce4 ,!y c\ld n be remov$1 !y c\ld only be dim9i%$1 & ! case1 !re=e1 admitt$ only ( ! ,me?od ( ,concomitant ,v>iations4 ,?is accord+ly be+ employ$1 x 0 f\nd t e dim9ution ( ! ob/acles dim9i%$ ! ret>dation ( ! motion3 & inasmu* z 9 ?is case 7unlike ! case ( heat7 ! total quantities bo? ( ! antec$5t & ( ! consequ5t 7 kn[n1 x 0 practicable to e/imate1 ) an approa* to accuracy1 bo? ! am\nt ( ! ret>dation & ! am\nt ( ! ret>d+ causes1 or resi/ances1 & to judge h[ ne> !y bo? 7 to be+ exhau/$2 & x appe>$ t ! effect dw9dl$ z rapidly1 & at ea* /ep 0 z f> on ! road t[>d annihilation1 z ! cause 04 ,! simple oscillation ( a weight susp5d$ f a fix$ po9t1 & mov$ a little out ( ! p]p5dicul>1 :i* 9 ord9>y circum/ances la/s b a few m9utes1 0 prolong$ 9 ,borda's exp]im5ts to m ?an ?irty h\rs1 by dim9i%+ z mu* z possible ! friction at ! po9t ( susp5sion1 & by mak+ ! body oscillate 9 a space exhau/$ z ne>ly z possible ( its air4 ,!re c\ld !re=e be no hesitation 9 assign+ ! :ole ( ! ret>dation ( motion to ! influ5ce ( ! ob/acles2 & s9ce1 aft] subduct+ ?is ret>dation f ! total ph5om5on1 ! rema9d] 0 a uni=m velocity1 ! result 0 ! proposition kn[n z ! fir/ law ( motion4 ,!re is also ano!r *>act]i/ic unc]ta9ty affect+ ! inf]5ce t ! law ( v>iation :i* ! quantities obs]ve )9 our limits ( obs]vation1 w hold beyond ^? limits4 ,!re is1 ( c\rse1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 ! possibility t beyond ! limits1 & 9 circum/ances !re=e ( :i* we h no direct exp]i5ce1 "s c\nt]act+ cause might develop itself2 ei!r a new ag5t or a new prop]ty ( ! ag5ts conc]n$1 :i* lies dormant 9 ! circum/ances we are able to obs]ve4 ,?is is an elem5t ( unc]ta9ty :i* ent]s l>gely into all our pr$ictions ( effects2 b x is n peculi>ly applicable to ! ,me?od ( ,concomitant ,v>iations4 ,! unc]ta9ty1 h[ev]1 ( :i* ,i am ab\t to speak1 is *>act]i/ic ( t me?od2 especially 9 ! cases 9 :i* ! extreme limits ( our obs]vation are v n>r[1 9 comp>ison ) ! possible v>iations 9 ! quantities ( ! ph5om5a4 ,any "o :o has ! slighte/ acqua9tance ) ma!matics1 is aw>e t v diff]5t laws ( v>iation may produce num]ical results :i* diff] b slightly f "o ano!r )9 n>r[ limits2 & x is (t5 only :5 ! absolute am\nts ( v>iation are consid]able1 t ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! results giv5 by "o law & by ano!r becomes appreciable4 ,:51 !re=e1 su* v>iations 9 ! quantity ( ! antec$5ts z we h ! means ( obs]v+ are small 9 comp>ison ) ! total quantities1 !re is mu* dang] le/ we %\ld mi/ake ! num]ical law1 & be l$ to miscalculate ! v>iations :i* w\ld take place beyond ! limits2 a miscalculation :i* w\ld vitiate any conclusion respect+ ! dep5d5ce ( ! effect ^u ! cause1 t c\ld be f\nd$ on ^? v>iations4 ,examples are n want+ ( su* mi/akes4 8,! =mul10 says ,sir ,john ,h]s*el17#acf7 8:i* h be5 empirically d$uc$ = ! ela/icity ( /eam 7till v rec5tly71 & ^? = ! resi/ance ( fluids1 & o!r simil> subjects10 :5 reli$ on beyond ! limits ( ! obs]vations f :i* !y 7 d$uc$1 8h almo/ inv>iably fail$ to support ! !oretical /ructures :i* h be5 erect$ on !m40 ,9 ?is unc]ta9ty1 ! conclusion we may draw f ! concomitant v>iations ( a & ,a1 to ! exi/5ce ( an inv>iable & exclusive connection betwe5 !m1 or to ! p]man5cy ( ! same num]ical relation betwe5 _! v>iations :5 ! quantities are mu* great] or small] ?an ^? :i* we h _h ! means ( obs]v+1 c n be consid]$ to re/ on a complete induction4 ,all t 9 su* a case c be reg>d$ z prov$ on ! subject ( causation is1 t !re is "s connection betwe5 ! two ph5om5a2 t ,a1 or some?+ :i* c influ5ce ,a1 mu/ be "o ( ! causes :i* collectively det]m9e a4 ,we may1 h[ev]1 feel assur$ t ! relation :i* we h obs]v$ to exi/ betwe5 ! v>iations ( ,a & a1 w hold true 9 all cases :i* fall betwe5 ! same extreme limits2 t is1 :]ev] ! utmo/ increase or dim9ution 9 :i* ! result has be5 f\nd by obs]vation to co9cide ) ! law1 is n exce$$4 ,! f\r me?ods :i* x has n[ be5 attempt$ to describe1 are ! only possible modes ( exp]im5tal inquiry--( direct induction a po/]iori1 z di/+ui%$ f d$uction3 at lea/1 ,i "k n1 nor am able to imag9e any o!rs4 ,& ev5 ( ^!1 ! ,me?od ( ,residues1 z we h se51 is n indep5d5t ( d$uction2 ?\gh1 z x also requires specific exp]i5ce1 x may1 )\t impropriety1 be includ$ among me?ods ( direct obs]vation & exp]im5t4 ,^!1 !n1 ) su* assi/ance z c be obta9$ f ,d$uction1 compose ! available res\rces ( ! human m9d = asc]ta9+ ! laws ( ! succession ( ph5om5a4 ,be=e proce$+ to po9t out c]ta9 circum/ances by :i* ! employm5t ( ^! me?ods is subject$ to an imm5se increase ( complication & ( difficulty1 x is exp$i5t to illu/rate ! use ( ! me?ods1 by suitable examples drawn f actual physical inve/igations4 ,^!1 accord+ly1 w =m ! subject ( ! succe$+ *apt]4 ,*apt] ,,ix4 ,miscellane\s ,examples ,( ,! ,f\r ,me?ods4 #a4 ,i %all select1 z a fir/ example1 an int]e/+ speculation ( "o ( ! mo/ em95t ( !oretical *emi/s1 ,b>on ,liebig4 ,! object 9 view is to asc]ta9 ! imm$iate cause ( ! dea? produc$ by metallic poisons4 ,ars5i\s acid1 & ! salts ( lead1 bismu?1 copp]1 & m]cury1 if introduc$ into ! animal organism1 except 9 ! smalle/ doses1 de/roy life4 ,^! facts h long be5 kn[n1 z insulat$ tru?s ( ! l[e/ ord] ( g5]alization2 b x 0 res]v$ = ,liebig1 by an apt employm5t ( ! fir/ two ( our me?ods ( exp]im5tal inquiry1 to connect ^! tru?s toge!r by a high] induction1 po9t+ out :at prop]ty1 common to all ^! delet]i\s sub/ances1 is ! really op]at+ cause ( _! fatal effect4 ,:5 solutions ( ^! sub/ances are plac$ 9 suffici5tly close contact ) _m animal products1 album51 milk1 muscul> fibre1 & animal membranes1 ! acid or salt leaves ! wat] 9 :i* x 0 dissolv$1 & ent]s into comb9ation ) ! animal sub/ance1 :i* sub/ance1 aft] be+ ?us act$ ^u1 is f\nd to h lo/ its t5d5cy to spontane\s decomposition1 or putrefaction4 ,obs]vation also %[s1 9 cases :]e dea? has be5 produc$ by ^! poisons1 t ! p>ts ( ! body ) :i* ! poison\s sub/ances h be5 br\ght into contact1 d n aft]w>d putrefy4 ,&1 f9ally1 :5 ! poison has be5 suppli$ 9 too small a quantity to de/roy life1 es*>s are produc$1 t is1 c]ta9 sup]ficial portions ( ! tissues are de/roy$1 :i* are aft]w>d ?r[n (f by ! rep>ative process tak+ place 9 ! heal?y p>ts4 ,^! ?ree sets ( in/ances admit ( be+ treat$ accord+ to ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t4 ,9 all ( !m ! metallic comp\nds are br\ght into contact ) ! sub/ances :i* compose ! human or animal body2 & ! in/ances d n seem to agree 9 any o!r circum/ance4 ,! rema9+ antec$5ts are z diff]5t1 & ev5 opposite1 z !y c\ld possibly be made2 = 9 "s ! animal sub/ances expos$ to ! action ( ! poisons are 9 a /ate ( life1 9 o!rs only 9 a /ate ( organization1 9 o!rs n ev5 9 t4 ,& :at is ! result :i* foll[s 9 all ! cases8 ,! conv]sion ( ! animal sub/ance 7by comb9ation ) ! poison7 into a *emical comp\nd1 held toge!r by s p[]ful a =ce z to resi/ ! subsequ5t action ( ! ord9>y causes ( decomposition4 ,n[1 organic life 7! necess>y condition ( s5sitive life7 consi/+ 9 a cont9ual /ate ( decomposition & recomposition ( ! diff]5t organs & tissues1 :atev] incapacitates !m = ?is decomposition de/roys life4 ,& ?us ! proximate cause ( ! dea? produc$ by ?is description ( poisons is asc]ta9$1 z f> z ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t c asc]ta9 x4 ,let u n[ br+ our conclusion to ! te/ ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce4 ,sett+ out f ! cases already m5tion$1 9 :i* ! antec$5t is ! pres5ce ( sub/ances =m+ ) ! tissues a comp\nd incapable ( putrefaction1 7& a =tiori incapable ( ! *emical actions :i* con/itute life71 & ! consequ5t is dea?1 ei!r ( ! :ole organism1 or ( "s portion ( x2 let u comp>e ) ^! cases o!r cases1 z mu* resembl+ !m z possible1 b 9 :i* t effect is n produc$4 ,&1 fir/1 8_m insoluble basic salts ( ars5i\s acid are kn[n n to be poison\s4 ,! sub/ance call$ alk>g51 discov]$ by ,buns51 :i* conta9s a v l>ge quantity ( ars5ic1 & approa*es v closely 9 composition to ! organic ars5i\s comp\nds f\nd 9 ! body1 has n ! slighte/ injuri\s action ^u ! organism40 ,n[ :5 ^! sub/ances are br\ght into contact ) ! tissues 9 any way1 !y d n comb9e ) !m2 !y d n arre/ _! progress to decomposition4 ,z f>1 !re=e1 z ^! in/ances g1 x appe>s t :5 ! effect is abs5t1 x is by reason ( ! abs5ce ( t antec$5t :i* we _h already good gr\nd = consid]+ z ! proximate cause4 ,b ! rigor\s conditions ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce are n yet satisfi$2 = we c n be sure t ^! unpoison\s bodies agree ) ! poison\s sub/ances 9 e prop]ty1 except ! p>ticul> "o ( ent]+ into a difficultly decomposable comp\nd ) ! animal tissues4 ,to r5d] ! me?od /rictly applicable1 we ne$ an in/ance1 n ( a diff]5t sub/ance1 b ( "o ( ! v same sub/ances1 9 circum/ances :i* w\ld prev5t x f =m+1 ) ! tissues1 ! sort ( comp\nd 9 "q2 & !n1 if dea? does n foll[1 our case is made out4 ,n[ su* in/ances are af=d$ by ! antidotes to ^! poisons4 ,= example1 9 case ( poison+ by ars5i\s acid1 if hydrat$ p]oxide ( iron is adm9i/]$1 ! de/ructive ag5cy is in/antly *eck$4 ,n[ ?is p]oxide is kn[n to comb9e ) ! acid1 & =m a comp\nd1 :i*1 be+ insoluble1 c n act at all on animal tissues4 ,s1 aga91 sug> is a well-kn[n antidote to poison+ by salts ( copp]2 & sug> r$uces ^? salts ei!r into metallic copp]1 or into ! r$ sub-oxide1 nei!r ( :i* ent]s into comb9ation ) animal matt]4 ,! disease call$ pa9t]'s colic1 s common 9 manufactories ( :ite-lead1 is unkn[n :]e ! workm5 are accu/om$ to take1 z a pres]vative1 sulphuric acid lemonade 7a solution ( sug> r5d]$ acid by sulphuric acid74 ,n[ dilut$ sulphuric acid has ! prop]ty ( decompos+ all comp\nds ( lead ) organic matt]1 or ( prev5t+ !m f be+ =m$4 ,!re is ano!r class ( in/ances1 ( ! nature requir$ by ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 :i* seem at fir/ sight to conflict ) ! !ory4 ,soluble salts ( silv]1 su* = in/ance z ! nitrate1 h ! same /iff5+ antiseptic effect on decompos+ animal sub/ances z corrosive sublimate & ! mo/ deadly metallic poisons2 & :5 appli$ to ! ext]nal p>ts ( ! body1 ! nitrate is a p[]ful cau/ic1 depriv+ ^? p>ts ( all active vitality1 & caus+ !m to be ?r[n (f by ! neighbor+ liv+ /ructures1 9 ! =m ( an es*>4 ,! nitrate & ! o!r salts ( silv] ought1 !n1 x w\ld seem1 if ! !ory be correct1 to be poison\s2 yet !y may be adm9i/]$ int]nally ) p]fect impunity4 ,f ?is app>5t exception arises ! /ronge/ confirmation :i* ! !ory has yet receiv$4 ,nitrate ( silv]1 9 spite ( its *emical prop]ties1 does n poison :5 introduc$ into ! /oma*2 b 9 ! /oma*1 z 9 all animal liquids1 !re is common salt2 & 9 ! /oma* !re is also free muriatic acid4 ,^! sub/ances op]ate z natural antidotes1 comb9+ ) ! nitrate1 & if its quantity is n too great1 imm$iately conv]t+ x into *loride ( silv]1 a sub/ance v slightly soluble1 & !re=e incapable ( comb9+ ) ! tissues1 al?\gh to ! ext5t ( its solubility x has a m$ic9al influ5ce1 ?\gh an entirely diff]5t class ( organic actions4 ,! prec$+ in/ances h af=d$ an induction ( a high ord] ( conclusiv5ess1 illu/rative ( ! two simple/ ( our f\r me?ods2 ?\gh n ris+ to ! maximum ( c]ta9ty :i* ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 9 its mo/ p]fect exemplification1 is capable ( af=d+4 ,= 7let u n =get7 ! positive in/ance & ! negative "o :i* ! rigor ( t me?od requires1 ought to diff] only 9 ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( "o s+le circum/ance4 ,n[1 9 ! prec$+ argum5t1 !y diff] 9 ! pres5ce or abs5ce n ( a s+le circum/ance1 b ( a s+le sub/ance3 & z e sub/ance has innum]able prop]ties1 !re is no kn[+ :at numb] ( real diff]5ces are involv$ 9 :at is nom9ally & app>5tly only "o diff]5ce4 ,x is conceivable t ! antidote1 ! p]oxide ( iron = example1 may c\nt]act ! poison ?r\gh "s o!r ( its prop]ties ?an t ( =m+ an insoluble comp\nd ) x2 & if s1 ! !ory w\ld fall to ! gr\nd1 s f> z x is support$ by t in/ance4 ,?is s\rce ( unc]ta9ty1 :i* is a s]i\s h9d]ance to all ext5sive g5]alizations 9 *emi/ry1 is1 h[ev]1 r$uc$ 9 ! pres5t case to almo/ ! l[e/ degree possible1 :5 we f9d t n only "o sub/ance1 b _m sub/ances1 possess ! capacity ( act+ z antidotes to metallic poisons1 & t all ^! agree 9 ! prop]ty ( =m+ insoluble comp\nds ) ! poisons1 :ile !y c n be asc]ta9$ to agree 9 any o!r prop]ty :atsoev]4 ,we h ?us1 9 favor ( ! !ory1 all ! evid5ce :i* c be obta9$ by :at we t]m$ ! ,indirect ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 or ! ,jo9t ,me?od ( ,agreem5t & ,diff]5ce2 ! evid5ce ( :i*1 ?\gh x nev] c am\nt to t ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce prop]ly s call$1 may approa* indef9itely ne> to x4 #b4 ,let ! object be7#acg7 to asc]ta9 ! law ( :at is t]m$ induc$ electricity2 to f9d "u :at conditions any electrifi$ body1 :e!r positively or negatively electrifi$1 gives rise to a contr>y electric /ate 9 "s o!r body adjac5t to x4 ,! mo/ famili> exemplification ( ! ph5om5on to be inve/igat$ is ! foll[+4 ,ar\nd ! prime conductors ( an electrical ma*9e ! atmosph]e to "s di/ance1 or any conduct+ surface susp5d$ 9 t atmosph]e1 is f\nd to be 9 an electric condition opposite to t ( ! prime conductor itself4 ,ne> & ar\nd ! positive prime conductor !re is negative electricity1 & ne> & ar\nd ! negative prime conductor !re is positive electricity4 ,:5 pi? balls are br\ght ne> to ei!r ( ! conductors1 !y become electrifi$ ) ! opposite electricity to x2 ei!r receiv+ a %>e f ! already electrifi$ atmosph]e by conduction1 or act$ ^u by ! direct inductive influ5ce ( ! conductor itself3 !y are !n attract$ by ! conductor to :i* !y are 9 opposition2 or1 if )drawn 9 _! electrifi$ /ate1 !y w be attract$ by any o!r oppositely *>g$ body4 ,9 l mann] ! h&1 if br\ght ne> en\gh to ! conductor1 receives or gives an electric dis*>ge2 n[ we h no evid5ce t a *>g$ conductor c be sudd5ly dis*>g$ unless by ! approa* ( a body oppositely electrifi$4 ,9 ! case1 !re=e1 ( ! electric ma*9e1 x appe>s t ! accumulation ( electricity 9 an insulat$ conductor is always accompani$ by ! excitem5t ( ! contr>y electricity 9 ! surr\nd+ atmosph]e1 & 9 e conductor plac$ ne> ! =m] conductor4 ,x does n seem possible1 9 ?is case1 to produce "o electricity by itself4 ,let u n[ exam9e all ! o!r in/ances :i* we c obta91 resembl+ ?is in/ance 9 ! giv5 consequ5t1 namely1 ! evolution ( an opposite electricity 9 ! neighborhood ( an electrifi$ body4 ,z "o rem>kable in/ance we h ! ,leyd5 j>2 & aft] ! spl5did exp]im5ts ( ,f>aday 9 complete & f9al e/abli%m5t ( ! sub/antial id5tity ( magnetism & electricity1 we may cite ! magnet1 bo? ! natural & ! electro-magnet1 9 nei!r ( :i* x is possible to produce "o k9d ( electricity by itself1 or to *>ge "o pole )\t *>g+ an opposite pole ) ! contr>y electricity at ! same "t4 ,we c n h a magnet ) "o pole3 if we break a natural load/one into a ?\s& pieces1 ea* piece w h its two oppositely electrifi$ poles complete )9 itself4 ,9 ! voltaic circuit1 aga91 we c n h "o curr5t )\t its opposite4 ,9 ! ord9>y electric ma*9e1 ! glass cyl9d] or plate1 & ! rubb]1 acquire opposite electricities4 ,f all ^! in/ances1 treat$ by ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 a g5]al law appe>s to result4 ,! in/ances embrace all ! kn[n modes 9 :i* a body c become *>g$ ) electricity2 & 9 all ( !m !re is f\nd1 z a concomitant or consequ5t1 ! excitem5t ( ! opposite electric /ate 9 "s o!r body or bodies4 ,x seems to foll[ t ! two facts are inv>iably connect$1 & t ! excitem5t ( electricity 9 any body has = "o ( its necess>y conditions ! possibility ( a simultane\s excitem5t ( ! opposite electricity 9 "s neighbor+ body4 ,z ! two contr>y electricities c only be produc$ toge!r1 s !y c only cease toge!r4 ,?is may be %[n by an application ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce to ! example ( ! ,leyd5 j>4 ,x ne$s sc>cely be "h rem>k$ t 9 ! ,leyd5 j>1 electricity c be accumulat$ & reta9$ 9 consid]able quantity1 by ! contrivance ( hav+ two conduct+ surfaces ( equal ext5t1 & p>allel to ea* o!r ?r\gh ! :ole ( t ext5t1 ) a non-conduct+ sub/ance su* z glass betwe5 !m4 ,:5 "o side ( ! j> is *>g$ positively1 ! o!r is *>g$ negatively1 & x 0 by virtue ( ?is fact t ! ,leyd5 j> s]v$ j n[ z an in/ance 9 our employm5t ( ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t4 ,n[ x is impossible to dis*>ge "o ( ! coat+s unless ! o!r c be dis*>g$ at ! same "t4 ,a conductor held to ! positive side c n convey away any electricity unless an equal quantity be all[$ to pass f ! negative side3 if "o coat+ be p]fectly insulat$1 ! *>ge is safe4 ,! dissipation ( "o mu/ proce$ p>i passu ) t ( ! o!r4 ,! law ?us /rongly indicat$ admits ( corroboration by ! ,me?od ( ,concomitant ,v>iations4 ,! ,leyd5 j> is capable ( receiv+ a mu* high] *>ge ?an c ord9>ily be giv5 to ! conductor ( an electrical ma*9e4 ,n[ 9 ! case ( ! ,leyd5 j>1 ! metallic surface :i* receives ! induc$ electricity is a conductor exactly simil> to t :i* receives ! prim>y *>ge1 & is !re=e z susceptible ( receiv+ & reta9+ ! "o electricity1 z ! opposite surface ( receiv+ & reta9+ ! o!r2 b 9 ! ma*9e1 ! neighbor+ body :i* is to be oppositely electrifi$ is ! surr\nd+ atmosph]e1 or any body casually br\ght ne> to ! conductor2 & z ^! are g5]ally mu* inf]ior 9 _! capacity ( becom+ electrifi$1 to ! conductor itself1 _! limit$ p[] imposes a correspond+ limit to ! capacity ( ! conductor = be+ *>g$4 ,z ! capacity ( ! neighbor+ body = support+ ! opposition increases1 a high] *>ge becomes possible3 & to ?is appe>s to be ow+ ! great sup]iority ( ! ,leyd5 j>4 ,a fur!r & mo/ decisive confirmation by ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 is to be f\nd 9 "o ( ,f>aday's exp]im5ts 9 ! c\rse ( 8 rese>*es on ! subject ( ,induc$ ,electricity4 ,s9ce common or ma*9e electricity1 & voltaic electricity1 may be consid]$ = ! pres5t purpose to be id5tical1 ,f>aday wi%$ to "k :e!r1 z ! prime conductor develops opposite electricity ^u a conductor 9 its vic9ity1 s a voltaic curr5t runn+ along a wire w\ld induce an opposite curr5t ^u ano!r wire laid p>allel to x at a %ort di/ance4 ,n[ ?is case is simil> to ! cases previ\sly exam9$1 9 e circum/ance except ! "o to :i* we h ascrib$ ! effect4 ,we f\nd 9 ! =m] in/ances t :5ev] electricity ( "o k9d 0 excit$ 9 "o body1 electricity ( ! opposite k9d mu/ be excit$ 9 a neighbor+ body4 ,b 9 ,f>aday's exp]im5t ?is indisp5sable opposition exi/s )9 ! wire itself4 ,f ! nature ( a voltaic *>ge1 ! two opposite curr5ts necess>y to ! exi/5ce ( ea* o!r are bo? accommodat$ 9 "o wire2 & !re is no ne$ ( ano!r wire plac$ beside x to conta9 "o ( !m1 9 ! same way z ! ,leyd5 j> mu/ h a positive & a negative surface4 ,! excit+ cause c & does produce all ! effect :i* its laws require1 indep5d5tly ( any electric excitem5t ( a neighbor+ body4 ,n[ ! result ( ! exp]im5t ) ! second wire 01 t no opposite curr5t 0 produc$4 ,!re 0 an in/antane\s effect at ! clos+ & break+ ( ! voltaic circuit2 electric inductions appe>$ :5 ! two wires 7 mov$ to & f "o ano!r2 b ^! are ph5om5a ( a diff]5t class4 ,!re 0 no induc$ electricity 9 ! s5se 9 :i* ?is is pr$icat$ ( ! ,leyd5 j>2 !re 0 no su/a9$ curr5t runn+ up ! "o wire :ile an opposite curr5t ran d[n ! neighbor+ wire2 & ?is alone w\ld h be5 a true p>allel case to ! o!r4 ,x ?us appe>s by ! comb9$ evid5ce ( ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 ! ,me?od ( ,concomitant ,v>iations1 & ! mo/ rigor\s =m ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 t nei!r ( ! two k9ds ( electricity c be excit$ )\t an equal excitem5t ( ! o!r & opposite k9d3 t bo? are effects ( ! same cause2 t ! possibility ( ! "o is a condition ( ! possibility ( ! o!r1 & ! quantity ( ! "o an impassable limit to ! quantity ( ! o!r4 ,a sci5tific result ( consid]able int]e/ 9 itself1 & illu/rat+ ^? ?ree me?ods 9 a mann] bo? *>act]i/ic & easily intelligible47#ach7 #c4 ,our ?ird example %all be extract$ f ,sir ,john ,h]s*el's ,disc\rse c\rse on ! ,/udy ( ,natural ,philosophy1 a "w replete ) happily-select$ exemplifications ( inductive processes f almo/ e dep>tm5t ( physical sci5ce1 & 9 :i* alone1 ( all books :i* ,i h met )1 ! f\r me?ods ( induction are di/9ctly recogniz$1 ?\gh n s cle>ly *>act]iz$ & def9$1 nor _! correlation s fully %[n1 z has appe>$ to me desirable4 ,! pres5t example is describ$ by ,sir ,john ,h]s*el z 8"o ( ! mo/ beautiful specim5s0 :i* c be cit$ 8( inductive exp]im5tal inquiry ly+ )9 a mod]ate compass20 ! !ory ( dew1 fir/ promulgat$ by ! late ,dr4 ,wells1 & n[ univ]sally adopt$ by sci5tific au?orities4 ,! passages 9 inv]t$ commas are extract$ v]batim f ! ,disc\rse47#aci7 8,suppose dew 7 ! ph5om5on propos$1 ^: cause we w\ld "k4 ,9 ! fir/ place0 we mu/ det]m9e precisely :at we mean by dew3 :at ! fact really is ^: cause we desire to inve/igate4 8,we mu/ sep>ate dew f ra91 & ! moi/ure ( fogs1 & limit ! application ( ! t]m to :at is really meant1 :i* is ! spontane\s appe>ance ( moi/ure on sub/ances expos$ 9 ! op5 air :5 no ra9 or visible wet is fall+40 ,?is answ]s to a prelim9>y op]ation :i* w be *>act]iz$ 9 ! ensu+ book1 treat+ ( op]ations subsidi>y to induction47#adj7 8,n[1 "h we h analog\s ph5om5a 9 ! moi/ure :i* b$ews a cold metal or /one :5 we brea! ^u x2 t :i* appe>s on a glass ( wat] fre% f ! well 9 hot wea!r2 t :i* appe>s on ! inside ( w9d[s :5 sudd5 ra9 or hail *ills ! ext]nal air2 t :i* runs d[n our walls :51 aft] a long fro/1 a w>m1 moi/ ?aw comes on40 ,comp>+ ^! cases1 we f9d t !y all conta9 ! ph5om5on :i* 0 propos$ z ! subject ( inve/igation4 ,n[ 8all ^! in/ances agree 9 "o po9t1 ! coldness ( ! object dew$1 9 comp>ison ) ! air 9 contact ) x40 ,b !re /ill rema9s ! mo/ important case ( all1 t ( nocturnal dew3 does ! same circum/ance exi/ 9 ?is case8 8,is x a fact t ! object dew$ is cold] ?an ! air8 ,c]ta9ly n1 "o w\ld at fir/ be incl9$ to say2 = :at is to make x s8 ,b 444 ! exp]im5t is easy3 we h only to lay a !rmomet] 9 contact ) ! dew$ sub/ance1 & hang "o at a little di/ance above x1 out ( rea* ( its influ5ce4 ,! exp]im5t has be5 !re=e made1 ! "q has be5 ask$1 & ! answ] has be5 inv>iably 9 ! affirmative4 ,:5ev] an object contracts dew1 x is cold] ?an ! air40 ,"h1 !n1 is a complete application ( ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 e/abli%+ ! fact ( an inv>iable connection betwe5 ! deposition ( dew on a surface1 & ! coldness ( t surface comp>$ ) ! ext]nal air4 ,b :i* ( ^! is cause1 & :i* effect8 or are !y bo? effects ( some?+ else8 ,on ?is subject ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t c af=d u no light3 we mu/ call 9 a m pot5t me?od4 8,we mu/ collect m facts1 or1 :i* comes to ! same ?+1 v>y ! circum/ances2 s9ce e in/ance 9 :i* ! circum/ances diff] is a fre% fact3 & especially1 we mu/ note ! contr>y or negative cases1 i4e41 :]e no dew is produc$30 a comp>ison betwe5 in/ances ( dew & in/ances ( no dew1 be+ ! condition necess>y to br+ ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce into play4 8,n[1 fir/1 no dew is produc$ on ! surface ( poli%$ metals1 b x is v copi\sly on glass1 bo? expos$ ) _! faces upw>d1 & 9 "s cases ! "u side ( a horizontal plate ( glass is also dew$40 ,"h is an in/ance 9 :i* ! effect is produc$1 & ano!r in/ance 9 :i* x is n produc$2 b we c n yet pron\nce1 z ! canon ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce requires1 t ! latt] in/ance agrees ) ! =m] 9 all its circum/ances except "o2 = ! diff]5ces betwe5 glass & poli%$ metals are manifold1 & ! only ?+ we c z yet be sure ( is1 t ! cause ( dew w be f\nd among ! circum/ances by :i* ! =m] sub/ance is di/+ui%$ f ! latt]4 ,b if we c\ld be sure t glass1 & ! v>i\s o!r sub/ances on :i* dew is deposit$1 h only "o quality 9 common1 & t poli%$ metals & ! o!r sub/ances on :i* dew is n deposit$1 h also no?+ 9 common b ! "o circum/ance ( n hav+ ! "o quality :i* ! o!rs h2 ! requisitions ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce w\ld be completely satisfi$1 & we %\ld recognize1 9 t quality ( ! sub/ances1 ! cause ( dew4 ,?is1 accord+ly1 is ! pa? ( inquiry :i* is next to be pursu$4 8,9 ! cases ( poli%$ metal & poli%$ glass1 ! contra/ %[s evid5tly t ! sub/ance has mu* to d ) ! ph5om5on2 !re=e let ! sub/ance alone be div]sifi$ z mu* z possible1 by expos+ poli%$ surfaces ( v>i\s k9ds4 ,?is done1 a scale ( int5sity becomes obvi\s4 ,^? poli%$ sub/ances are f\nd to be mo/ /rongly dew$ :i* conduct heat wor/2 :ile ^? :i* conduct heat well1 resi/ dew mo/ effectually40 ,! complication increases2 "h is ! ,me?od ( ,concomitant ,v>iations call$ to our assi/ance2 & no o!r me?od 0 practicable on ?is occasion2 = ! quality ( conduct+ heat c\ld n be exclud$1 s9ce all sub/ances conduct heat 9 "s degree4 ,! conclusion obta9$ is1 t ct]is p>ibus ! deposition ( dew is 9 "s proportion to ! p[] :i* ! body possesses ( resi/+ ! passage ( heat2 & t ?is1 !re=e 7or some?+ connect$ ) ?is71 mu/ be at lea/ "o ( ! causes :i* assi/ 9 produc+ ! deposition ( dew on ! surface4 8,b if we expose r\gh surfaces in/ead ( poli%$1 we sometimes f9d ?is law int]f]$ )4 ,?us1 r\gh5$ iron1 especially if pa9t$ ov] or black5$1 becomes dew$ soon] ?an v>ni%$ pap]2 ! k9d ( surface1 !re=e1 has a great influ5ce4 ,expose1 !n1 ! same mat]ial 9 v div]sifi$ /ates1 z to surface0 7t is1 employ ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce to asc]ta9 concomitance ( v>iations71 8& ano!r scale ( int5sity becomes at once app>5t2 ^? surfaces :i* "p ) _! heat mo/ readily by radiation are f\nd to contract dew mo/ copi\sly40 ,"h1 !re=e1 are ! requisites = a second employm5t ( ! ,me?od ( ,concomitant ,v>iations2 :i* 9 ?is case also is ! only me?od available1 s9ce all sub/ances radiate heat 9 "s degree or o!r4 ,! conclusion obta9$ by ?is new application ( ! me?od is1 t ct]is p>ibus ! deposition ( dew is also 9 "s proportion to ! p[] ( radiat+ heat2 & t ! quality ( do+ ?is abundantly 7or "s cause on :i* t quality dep5ds7 is ano!r ( ! causes :i* promote ! deposition ( dew on ! sub/ance4 8,aga91 ! influ5ce asc]ta9$ to exi/ ( sub/ance & surface leads u to consid] t ( texture3 & "h1 aga91 we are pres5t$ on trial ) rem>kable diff]5ces1 & ) a ?ird scale ( int5sity1 po9t+ out sub/ances ( a close1 firm texture1 su* z /ones1 metals1 etc41 z unfavorable1 b ^? ( a loose "o1 z clo?1 velvet1 wool1 eid]-d[n1 cotton1 etc41 z em95tly favorable to ! contraction ( dew40 ,! ,me?od ( ,concomitant ,v>iations is "h1 = ! ?ird "t1 _h rec\rse to2 &1 z be=e1 f necessity1 s9ce ! texture ( no sub/ance is absolutely firm or absolutely loose4 ,loos5ess ( texture1 !re=e1 or some?+ :i* is ! cause ( t quality1 is ano!r circum/ance :i* promotes ! deposition ( dew2 b ?is ?ird c\rse resolves itself into ! fir/1 viz41 ! quality ( resi/+ ! passage ( heat3 = sub/ances ( loose texture 8are precisely ^? :i* are be/ adapt$ = clo?+1 or = imp$+ ! free passage ( heat f ! sk9 into ! air1 s z to all[ _! out] surfaces to be v cold1 :ile !y rema9 w>m )920 & ?is la/ is1 !re=e1 an induction 7f fre% in/ances7 simply corroborative ( a =m] induction4 ,x ?us appe>s t ! in/ances 9 :i* mu* dew is deposit$1 :i* are v v>i\s1 agree 9 ?is1 &1 s f> z we are able to obs]ve1 9 ?is only1 t !y ei!r radiate heat rapidly or conduct x sl[ly3 qualities betwe5 :i* !re is no o!r circum/ance ( agreem5t ?an t by virtue ( ei!r1 ! body t5ds to lose heat f ! surface m rapidly ?an x c be re/or$ f )94 ,! in/ances1 on ! contr>y1 9 :i* no dew1 or b a small quantity ( x1 is =m$1 & :i* are also extremely v>i\s1 agree 7z f> z we c obs]ve7 9 no?+ except 9 n hav+ ?is same prop]ty4 ,we seem1 !re=e1 to h detect$ ! *>act]i/ic diff]5ce betwe5 ! sub/ances on :i* dew is produc$ & ^? on :i* x is n produc$4 ,& ?us h be5 realiz$ ! requisitions ( :at we h t]m$ ! ,indirect ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 or ! ,jo9t ,me?od ( ,agreem5t & ,diff]5ce4 ,! example af=d$ ( ?is indirect me?od1 & ( ! mann] 9 :i* ! data are prep>$ = x by ! ,me?ods ( ,agreem5t & ( ,concomitant ,v>iations1 is ! mo/ important ( all ! illu/rations ( induction af=d$ by ?is int]e/+ speculation4 ,we might n[ consid] ! "q1 on :at ! deposition ( dew dep5ds1 to be completely solv$1 if we c\ld be q sure t ! sub/ances on :i* dew is produc$ diff] f ^? on :i* x is n1 9 no?+ b 9 ! prop]ty ( los+ heat f ! surface fa/] ?an ! loss c be repair$ f )94 ,& ?\gh we nev] c h t complete c]ta9ty1 ?is is n ( s mu* importance z might at fir/ be suppos$2 = we h1 at all ev5ts1 asc]ta9$ t ev5 if !re be any o!r quality hi!rto unobs]v$ :i* is pres5t 9 all ! sub/ances :i* contract dew1 & abs5t 9 ^? :i* d n1 ?is o!r prop]ty mu/ be "o :i*1 9 all t great numb] ( sub/ances1 is pres5t or abs5t exactly :]e ! prop]ty ( be+ a bett] radiator ?an conductor is pres5t or abs5t2 an ext5t ( co9cid5ce :i* af=ds a /rong presumption ( a community ( cause1 & a consequ5t inv>iable co-exi/5ce betwe5 ! two prop]ties2 s t ! prop]ty ( be+ a bett] radiator ?an conductor1 if n itself ! cause1 almo/ c]ta9ly always accompanies ! cause1 & = purposes ( pr$iction1 no error is likely to be committ$ by treat+ x z if x 7 really su*4 ,rev]t+ n[ to an e>li] /age ( ! inquiry1 let u rememb] t we _h asc]ta9$ t1 9 e in/ance :]e dew is =m$1 !re is actual coldness ( ! surface bel[ ! temp]ature ( ! surr\nd+ air2 b we 7 n sure :e!r ?is coldness 0 ! cause ( dew1 or its effect4 ,?is d\bt we are n[ able to resolve4 ,we h f\nd t1 9 e su* in/ance1 ! sub/ance is "o :i*1 by its own prop]ties or laws1 w\ld1 if expos$ 9 ! night1 become cold] ?an ! surr\nd+ air4 ,! coldness1 !re=e1 be+ acc\nt$ = indep5d5tly ( ! dew1 :ile x is prov$ t !re is a connection betwe5 ! two1 x mu/ be ! dew :i* dep5ds on ! coldness2 or1 9 o!r words1 ! coldness is ! cause ( ! dew4 ,?is law ( causation1 already s amply e/abli%$1 admits1 h[ev]1 ( effici5t additional corroboration 9 no less ?an ?ree ways4 ,fir/1 by d$uction f ! kn[n laws ( aque\s vapor :5 diffus$ ?r\gh air or any o!r gas2 & ?\gh we h n yet come to ! ,d$uctive ,me?od1 we w n omit :at is necess>y to r5d] ?is speculation complete4 ,x is kn[n by direct exp]im5t t only a limit$ quantity ( wat] c rema9 susp5d$ 9 ! /ate ( vapor at ea* degree ( temp]ature1 & t ?is maximum gr[s less & less z ! temp]ature dim9i%es4 ,f ?is x foll[s1 d$uctively1 t if !re is already z mu* vapor susp5d$ z ! air w conta9 at its exi/+ temp]ature1 any l[]+ ( t temp]ature w cause a portion ( ! vapor to be cond5s$1 & become wat]4 ,b aga91 we "k d$uctively1 f ! laws ( heat1 t ! contact ( ! air ) a body cold] ?an itself w necess>ily l[] ! temp]ature ( ! /ratum ( air imm$iately appli$ to its surface2 & w1 !re=e1 cause x to "p ) a portion ( its wat]1 :i* accord+ly w1 by ! ord9>y laws ( gravitation or cohesion1 atta* itself to ! surface ( ! body1 !reby con/itut+ dew4 ,?is d$uctive pro(1 x w h be5 se51 has ! advantage ( at once prov+ causation z well z co-exi/5ce2 & x has ! additional advantage t x also acc\nts = ! exceptions to ! occurr5ce ( ! ph5om5on1 ! cases 9 :i*1 al?\gh ! body is cold] ?an ! air1 yet no dew is deposit$2 by %[+ t ?is w necess>ily be ! case :5 ! air is s "u-suppli$ ) aque\s vapor1 comp>atively to its temp]ature1 t ev5 :5 some:at cool$ by ! contact ( ! cold] body x c /ill cont9ue to hold 9 susp5sion all ! vapor :i* 0 previ\sly susp5d$ 9 x3 ?us 9 a v dry summ] !re are no dews1 9 a v dry w9t] no ho>-fro/4 ,"h1 !re=e1 is an additional condition ( ! production ( dew1 :i* ! me?ods we previ\sly made use ( fail$ to detect1 & :i* might h rema9$ /ill undetect$1 if rec\rse _h n be5 _h to ! plan ( d$uc+ ! effect f ! asc]ta9$ prop]ties ( ! ag5ts kn[n to be pres5t4 ,! second corroboration ( ! !ory is by direct exp]im5t1 accord+ to ! canon ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce4 ,we c1 by cool+ ! surface ( any body1 f9d 9 all cases "s temp]ature 7m or less inf]ior to t ( ! surr\nd+ air1 accord+ to its hygrometric condition7 at :i* dew w beg9 to be deposit$4 ,"h1 too1 !re=e1 ! causation is directly prov$4 ,we c1 x is true1 accompli% ?is only on a small scale1 b we h ample reason to conclude t ! same op]ation1 if conduct$ 9 nature's great laboratory1 w\ld equally produce ! effect4 ,&1 f9ally1 ev5 on t great scale we are able to v]ify ! result4 ,! case is "o ( ^? r>e cases1 z we h %[n !m to be1 9 :i* nature works ! exp]im5t = u 9 ! same mann] 9 :i* we ourselves p]=m x2 introduc+ into ! previ\s /ate ( ?+s a s+le & p]fectly def9ite new circum/ance1 & manife/+ ! effect s rapidly t !re is n "t = any o!r mat]ial *ange 9 ! pre-exi/+ circum/ances4 8,x is obs]v$ t dew is nev] copi\sly deposit$ 9 situations mu* scre5$ f ! op5 sky1 & n at all 9 a cl\dy night2 b if ! cl\ds )draw ev5 = a few m9utes1 & leave a cle> op5+1 a deposition ( dew pres5tly beg9s1 & goes on increas+444 ,dew =m$ 9 cle> int]vals w (t5 ev5 evaporate aga9 :5 ! sky becomes ?ickly ov]ca/40 ,! pro(1 !re=e1 is complete1 t ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( an un9t]rupt$ communication ) ! sky causes ! deposition or non-deposition ( dew4 ,n[1 s9ce a cle> sky is no?+ b ! abs5ce ( cl\ds1 & x is a kn[n prop]ty ( cl\ds1 z ( all o!r bodies betwe5 :i* & any giv5 object no?+ int]v5es b an ela/ic fluid1 t !y t5d to raise or keep up ! sup]ficial temp]ature ( ! object by radiat+ heat to x1 we see at once t ! disappe>ance ( cl\ds w cause ! surface to cool2 s t nature1 9 ?is case1 produces a *ange 9 ! antec$5t by def9ite & kn[n means1 & ! consequ5t foll[s accord+ly3 a natural exp]im5t :i* satisfies ! requisitions ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce47#ada7 ,! accumulat$ pro( ( :i* ! ,!ory ( ,dew has be5 f\nd susceptible1 is a /rik+ in/ance ( ! fullness ( assurance :i* ! inductive evid5ce ( laws ( causation may atta91 9 cases 9 :i* ! inv>iable sequ5ce is by no means obvi\s to a sup]ficial view4 #d4 ,! admirable physiological inve/igations ( ,dr4 ,br[n-,squ>d af=d brilliant examples ( ! application ( ! ,inductive ,me?ods to a class ( inquiries 9 :i*1 = reasons :i* w pres5tly be giv51 direct induction takes place "u peculi> difficulties & disadvantages4 ,z "o ( ! mo/ apt in/ances1 ,i select 8 speculation 79 ! proce$+s ( ! ,royal ,society = ,may #af1 #ahfa7 on ! relations betwe5 muscul> irritability1 cadav]ic rigidity1 & putrefaction4 ,! law :i* ,dr4 ,br[n-,squ>d's inve/igation t5ds to e/abli%1 is ! foll[+3 8,! great] ! degree ( muscul> irritability at ! "t ( dea?1 ! lat] ! cadav]ic rigidity sets 91 & ! long] x la/s1 & ! lat] also putrefaction appe>s1 & ! sl[] x progresses40 ,"o w\ld say at fir/ sight t ! me?od "h requir$ mu/ be t ( ,concomitant ,v>iations4 ,b ?is is a delusive appe>ance1 aris+ f ! circum/ance t ! conclusion to be te/$ is itself a fact ( concomitant v>iations4 ,= ! e/abli%m5t ( t fact any ( ! ,me?ods may be put 9 requisition1 & x w be f\nd t ! f\r? ,me?od1 ?\gh really employ$1 has only a subord9ate place 9 ?is p>ticul> inve/igation4 ,! evid5ces by :i* ,dr4 ,br[n-,squ>d e/abli%es ! law may be enum]at$ z foll[s3 #a/4 ,p>alyz$ muscles h great] irritability ?an heal?y muscles4 ,n[1 p>alyz$ muscles are lat] 9 assum+ ! cadav]ic rigidity ?an heal?y muscles1 ! rigidity la/s long]1 & putrefaction sets 9 lat]1 & proce$s m sl[ly4 ,bo? ^! propositions _h to be prov$ by exp]im5t2 & = ! exp]im5ts :i* prove !m1 sci5ce is also indebt$ to ,dr4 ,br[n-,squ>d4 ,! =m] ( ! two--t p>alyz$ muscles h great] irritability ?an heal?y muscles--he asc]ta9$ 9 v>i\s ways1 b mo/ decisively by 8comp>+ ! duration ( irritability 9 a p>alyz$ muscle & 9 ! correspond+ heal?y "o ( ! opposite side1 :ile !y are bo? submitt$ to ! same excitation40 ,he 8(t5 f\nd1 9 exp]im5t+ 9 t way1 t ! p>alyz$ muscle rema9$ irritable twice1 ?ree times1 or ev5 f\r times z long z ! heal?y "o40 ,?is is a case ( induction by ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce4 ,! two limbs1 be+ ^? ( ! same animal1 7 presum$ to diff] 9 no circum/ance mat]ial to ! case except ! p>alysis1 to ! pres5ce & abs5ce ( :i*1 !re=e1 ! diff]5ce 9 ! muscul> irritability 0 to be attribut$4 ,?is assumption ( complete resemblance 9 all mat]ial circum/ances save "o1 evid5tly c\ld n be safely made 9 any "o pair ( exp]im5ts1 because ! two legs ( any giv5 animal might be accid5tally 9 v diff]5t pa?ological conditions2 b if1 besides tak+ pa9s to avoid any su* diff]5ce1 ! exp]im5t 0 repeat$ suffici5tly (t5 9 diff]5t animals to exclude ! supposition t any abnormal circum/ance c\ld be pres5t 9 !m all1 ! conditions ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce 7 adequately secur$4 ,9 ! same mann] 9 :i* ,dr4 ,br[n-,squ>d prov$ t p>alyz$ muscles h great] irritability1 he also prov$ ! correlative proposition respect+ cadav]ic rigidity & putrefaction4 ,hav+1 by section ( ! roots ( ! sciatic n]ve1 & aga9 ( a lat]al half ( ! sp9al cord1 produc$ p>alysis 9 "o h9d leg ( an animal :ile ! o!r rema9$ heal?y1 he f\nd t n only did muscul> irritability la/ mu* long] 9 ! p>alyz$ limb1 b rigidity set 9 lat] & end$ lat]1 & putrefaction began lat] & 0 less rapid ?an on ! heal?y side4 ,?is is a common case ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 requir+ no comm5t4 ,a fur!r & v important corroboration 0 obta9$ by ! same me?od4 ,:5 ! animal 0 kill$1 n %ortly aft] ! section ( ! n]ve1 b a mon? lat]1 ! effect 0 rev]s$2 rigidity set 9 soon]1 & la/$ a %ort] "t1 ?an 9 ! heal?y muscles4 ,b aft] ?is lapse ( "t1 ! p>alyz$ muscles1 hav+ be5 kept by ! p>alysis 9 a /ate ( re/1 _h lo/ a great "p ( _! irritability1 & in/ead ( m1 _h become less irritable ?an ^? on ! heal?y side4 ,?is gives ! ,a ,b ,c1 a b c1 & ,b ,c1 b c1 ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce4 ,"o antec$5t1 increas$ irritability1 be+ *ang$1 & ! o!r circum/ances be+ ! same1 ! consequ5ce did n foll[2 &1 moreov]1 :5 a new antec$5t1 contr>y to ! fir/1 0 suppli$1 x 0 foll[$ by a contr>y consequ5t4 ,?is in/ance is att5d$ ) ! special advantage ( prov+ t ! ret>dation & prolongation ( ! rigidity d n dep5d directly on ! p>alysis1 s9ce t 0 ! same 9 bo? ! in/ances2 b specifically on "o effect ( ! p>alysis1 namely1 ! increas$ irritability2 s9ce !y ceas$ :5 x ceas$1 & 7 rev]s$ :5 x 0 rev]s$4 #b;d4 ,dim9ution ( ! temp]ature ( muscles be=e dea? increases _! irritability4 ,b dim9ution ( _! temp]ature also ret>ds cadav]ic rigidity & putrefaction4 ,bo? ^! tru?s 7 fir/ made kn[n by ,dr4 ,br[n-,squ>d himself1 ?r\gh exp]im5ts :i* conclude accord+ to ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce4 ,!re is no?+ 9 ! nature ( ! process requir+ specific analysis4 #c;d4 ,muscul> ex]cise1 prolong$ to exhau/ion1 dim9i%es ! muscul> irritability4 ,?is is a well-kn[n tru?1 dep5d5t on ! mo/ g5]al laws ( muscul> action1 & prov$ by exp]im5ts "u ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 con/antly repeat$4 ,n[1 x has be5 %[n by obs]vation t ov]driv5 cattle1 if kill$ be=e recov]y f _! fatigue1 become rigid & putrefy 9 a surpris+ly %ort "t4 ,a simil> fact has be5 obs]v$ 9 ! case ( animals hunt$ to dea?2 cocks kill$ dur+ or %ortly aft] a fight2 & soldi]s sla9 9 ! field ( battle4 ,^! v>i\s cases agree 9 no circum/ance1 directly connect$ ) ! muscles1 except t ^! h j be5 subject$ to exhau/+ ex]cise4 ,"u ! canon1 !re=e1 ( ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 x may be inf]r$ t !re is a connection betwe5 ! two facts4 ,! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 inde$1 z has be5 %[n1 is n compet5t to prove causation4 ,! pres5t case1 h[ev]1 is already kn[n to be a case ( causation1 x be+ c]ta9 t ! /ate ( ! body aft] dea? mu/ someh[ dep5d ^u its /ate at ! "t ( dea?4 ,we are1 !re=e1 w>rant$ 9 conclud+ t ! s+le circum/ance 9 :i* all ! in/ances agree1 is ! "p ( ! antec$5t :i* is ! cause ( t p>ticul> consequ5t4 #d?4 ,9 proportion z ! nutrition ( muscles is 9 a good /ate1 _! irritability is high4 ,?is fact also re/s on ! g5]al evid5ce ( ! laws ( physiology1 gr\nd$ on _m famili> applications ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce4 ,n[1 9 ! case ( ^? :o die f accid5t or viol5ce1 ) _! muscles 9 a good /ate ( nutrition1 ! muscul> irritability cont9ues long aft] dea?1 rigidity sets 9 late1 & p]si/s long )\t ! putrefactive *ange4 ,on ! contr>y1 9 cases ( disease 9 :i* nutrition has be5 dim9i%$ = a long "t be=e dea?1 all ^! effects are rev]s$4 ,^! are ! conditions ( ! ,jo9t ,me?od ( ,agreem5t & ,diff]5ce4 ,! cases ( ret>d$ & long cont9u$ rigidity "h 9 "q agree only 9 be+ prec$$ by a high /ate ( nutrition ( ! muscles2 ! cases ( rapid & brief rigidity agree only 9 be+ prec$$ by a l[ /ate ( muscul> nutrition2 a connection is1 !re=e1 inductively prov$ betwe5 ! degree ( ! nutrition1 & ! sl[ness & prolongation ( ! rigidity4 #e?4 ,convulsions1 l exhau/+ ex]cise1 b 9 a /ill great] degree1 dim9i% ! muscul> irritability4 ,n[1 :5 dea? foll[s viol5t & prolong$ convulsions1 z 9 tetanus1 hydrophobia1 "s cases ( *ol]a1 & c]ta9 poisons1 rigidity sets 9 v rapidly1 & aft] a v brief duration1 gives place to putrefaction4 ,?is is ano!r example ( ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 ( ! same "* ) ,no4 #c4 #f?4 ,! s]ies ( in/ances :i* we %all take la/1 is ( a m complex "*1 & requires a m m9ute analysis4 ,x has long be5 obs]v$ t 9 "s cases ( dea? by lightn+1 cadav]ic rigidity ei!r does n take place at all1 or is ( su* extremely brief duration z to escape notice1 & t 9 ^! cases putrefaction is v rapid4 ,9 o!r cases1 h[ev]1 ! usual cadav]ic rigidity appe>s4 ,!re mu/ be "s diff]5ce 9 ! cause1 to acc\nt = ?is diff]5ce 9 ! effect4 ,n[1 8dea? by lightn+ may be ! result (1 #a/1 a syncope by fright1 or 9 consequ5ce ( a direct or reflex influ5ce ( lightn+ on ! p> vagum2 #b;d1 hemorrhage 9 or ar\nd ! bra91 or 9 ! lungs1 ! p]ic>dium1 etc42 #c;d1 concussion1 or "s o!r alt]ation 9 ! bra920 none ( :i* ph5om5a h any kn[n prop]ty capable ( acc\nt+ = ! suppression1 or almo/ suppression1 ( ! cadav]ic rigidity4 ,b ! cause ( dea? may also be t ! lightn+ produces 8a viol5t convulsion ( e muscle 9 ! body10 ( :i*1 if ( suffici5t int5sity1 ! kn[n effect w\ld be t 8muscul> irritability ceases almo/ at once40 ,if ,dr4 ,br[n-,squ>d's g5]alization is a true law1 ^! w be ! v cases 9 :i* rigidity is s mu* abridg$ z to escape notice2 & ! cases 9 :i*1 on ! contr>y1 rigidity takes place z usual1 w be ^? 9 :i* ! /roke ( lightn+ op]ates 9 "s ( ! o!r modes :i* h be5 enum]at$4 ,h[1 !n1 is ?is br\ght to ! te/8 ,by exp]im5ts1 n on lightn+1 :i* c n be comm&$ at pleasure1 b on ! same natural ag5cy 9 a manageable =m1 t ( artificial galvanism4 ,dr4 ,br[n-,squ>d galvaniz$ ! entire bodies ( animals imm$iately aft] dea?4 ,galvanism c n op]ate 9 any ( ! modes 9 :i* ! /roke ( lightn+ may h op]at$1 except ! s+le "o ( produc+ muscul> convulsions4 ,if1 !re=e1 aft] ! bodies h be5 galvaniz$1 ! duration ( rigidity is mu* %ort5$ & putrefaction mu* accel]at$1 x is reasonable to ascribe ! same effects :5 produc$ by lightn+ to ! prop]ty :i* galvanism %>es ) lightn+1 & n to ^? :i* x does n4 ,n[ ?is ,dr4 ,br[n-,squ>d f\nd to be ! fact4 ,! galvanic exp]im5t 0 tri$ ) *>ges ( v v>i\s degrees ( /r5g?2 & ! m p[]ful ! *>ge1 ! %ort] 0 f\nd to be ! duration ( rigidity1 & ! m spe$y & rapid ! putrefaction4 ,9 ! exp]im5t 9 :i* ! *>ge 0 /ronge/1 & ! muscul> irritability mo/ promptly de/roy$1 ! rigidity only la/$ fifte5 m9utes4 ,on ! pr9ciple1 !re=e1 ( ! ,me?od ( ,concomitant ,v>iations1 x may be inf]r$ t ! duration ( ! rigidity dep5ds on ! degree ( ! irritability2 & t if ! *>ge _h be5 z mu* /rong] ?an ,dr4 ,br[n-,squ>d's /ronge/1 z a /roke ( lightn+ mu/ be /rong] ?an any electric %ock :i* we c produce artificially1 ! rigidity w\ld h be5 %ort5$ 9 a correspond+ ratio1 & might h disappe>$ altoge!r4 ,?is conclusion hav+ be5 arriv$ at1 ! case ( an electric %ock1 :e!r natural or artificial1 becomes an in/ance1 9 addition to all ^? already asc]ta9$1 ( correspond5ce betwe5 ! irritability ( ! muscle & ! duration ( rigidity4 ,all ^! in/ances are summ$ up 9 ! foll[+ /atem5t3 8,t :5 ! degree ( muscul> irritability at ! "t ( dea? is consid]able1 ei!r 9 consequ5ce ( a good /ate ( nutrition1 z 9 p]sons :o die 9 full heal? f an accid5tal cause1 or 9 consequ5ce ( re/1 z 9 cases ( p>alysis1 or on acc\nt ( ! influ5ce ( cold1 cadav]ic rigidity 9 all ^! cases sets 9 late & la/s long1 & putrefaction appe>s late1 & progresses sl[ly20 b 8t :5 ! degree ( muscul> irritability at ! "t ( dea? is slight1 ei!r 9 consequ5ce ( a bad /ate ( nutrition1 or ( exhau/ion f ov]ex]tion1 or f convulsions caus$ by disease or poison1 cadav]ic rigidity sets 9 & ceases soon1 & putrefaction appe>s & progresses quickly40 ,^! facts pres5t1 9 all _! complet5ess1 ! conditions ( ! ,jo9t ,me?od ( ,agreem5t & ,diff]5ce4 ,e>ly & brief rigidity takes place 9 cases :i* agree only 9 ! circum/ance ( a l[ /ate ( muscul> irritability4 ,rigidity beg9s late & la/s long 9 cases :i* agree only 9 ! contr>y circum/ance1 ( a muscul> irritability high & unusually prolong$4 ,x foll[s t !re is a connection ?r\gh causation betwe5 ! degree ( muscul> irritability aft] dea?1 & ! t>d9ess & prolongation ( ! cadav]ic rigidity4 ,?is inve/igation places 9 a /rong light ! value & efficacy ( ! ,jo9t ,me?od4 ,=1 z we h already se51 ! defect ( t ,me?od is1 t l ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 ( :i* x is only an improv$ =m1 x c n prove causation4 ,b 9 ! pres5t case 7z 9 "o ( ! /eps 9 ! argum5t :i* l$ up to x7 causation is already prov$2 s9ce !re c\ld nev] be any d\bt t ! rigidity altoge!r1 & ! putrefaction :i* foll[s x1 are caus$ by ! fact ( dea?3 ! obs]vations & exp]im5ts on :i* ?is re/s are too famili> to ne$ analysis1 & fall "u ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce4 ,x be+1 !re=e1 beyond d\bt t ! aggregate antec$5t1 ! dea?1 is ! actual cause ( ! :ole tra9 ( consequ5ts1 :atev] ( ! circum/ances att5d+ ! dea? c be %[n to be foll[$ 9 all its v>iations by v>iations 9 ! effect "u inve/igation1 mu/ be ! p>ticul> feature ( ! fact ( dea? on :i* t effect dep5ds4 ,! degree ( muscul> irritability at ! "t ( dea? fulfills ?is condition4 ,! only po9t t c\ld be br\ght into "q1 w\ld be :e!r ! effect dep5d$ on ! irritability itself1 or on some?+ :i* always accompani$ ! irritability3 & ?is d\bt is set at re/ by e/abli%+1 z ! in/ances d1 t by :atev] cause ! high or l[ irritability is produc$1 ! effect equally foll[s2 & c n1 !re=e1 dep5d ^u ! causes ( irritability1 nor ^u ! o!r effects ( ^? causes1 :i* are z v>i\s z ! causes !mselves1 b ^u ! irritability1 solely4 #e4 ,! la/ two examples w h convey$ to any "o by :om !y h be5 duly foll[$1 s cle> a conception ( ! use & practical managem5t ( ?ree ( ! f\r me?ods ( exp]im5tal inquiry1 z to sup]s$e ! necessity ( any fur!r exemplification ( !m4 ,! rema9+ me?od1 t ( ,residues1 n hav+ f\nd a place 9 any ( ! prec$+ inve/igations1 ,i %all quote f ,sir ,john ,h]s*el "s examples ( t me?od1 ) ! rem>ks by :i* !y are introduc$4 8,x is by ?is process1 9 fact1 t sci5ce1 9 its pres5t advanc$ /ate1 is *iefly promot$4 ,mo/ ( ! ph5om5a :i* ,nature pres5ts are v complicat$2 & :5 ! effects ( all kn[n causes are e/imat$ ) exactness1 & subduct$1 ! residual facts are con/antly appe>+ 9 ! =m ( ph5om5a altoge!r new1 & lead+ to ! mo/ important conclusions4 8,= example3 ! return ( ! comet pr$ict$ by ,pr(essor ,eucke a great _m times 9 succession1 & ! g5]al good agreem5t ( its calculat$ ) its obs]v$ place dur+ any "o ( its p]iods ( visibility1 w\ld lead u to say t its gravitation t[>d ! sun & planets is ! sole & suffici5t cause ( all ! ph5om5a ( its orbitual motion2 b :5 ! effect ( ?is cause is /rictly calculat$ & subduct$ f ! obs]v$ motion1 !re is f\nd to rema9 beh9d a residual ph5om5on1 :i* w\ld nev] h be5 o!rwise asc]ta9$ to exi/1 :i* is a small anticipation ( ! "t ( its re-appe>ance1 or a dim9ution ( its p]iodic "t1 :i* c n be acc\nt$ = by gravity1 & ^: cause is !re=e to be inquir$ into4 ,su* an anticipation w\ld be caus$ by ! resi/ance ( a m$ium dissem9at$ ?r\gh ! cele/ial regions2 & z !re are o!r good reasons = believ+ ?is to be a v]a causa0 7an actually exi/+ antec$5t71 8x has !re=e be5 ascrib$ to su* a resi/ance47#adb7 8,m4 ,arago1 hav+ susp5d$ a magnetic ne$le by a silk ?read1 & set x 9 vibration1 obs]v$1 t x came mu* soon] to a /ate ( re/ :5 susp5d$ ov] a plate ( copp]1 ?an :5 no su* plate 0 b5ea? x4 ,n[1 9 bo? cases !re 7 two v] caus0 7antec$5ts kn[n to exi/7 8:y x %\ld come at l5g? to re/1 viz41 ! resi/ance ( ! air1 :i* opposes1 & at l5g? de/roys1 all motions p]=m$ 9 x2 & ! want ( p]fect mobility 9 ! silk ?read4 ,b ! effect ( ^! causes be+ exactly kn[n by ! obs]vation made 9 ! abs5ce ( ! copp]1 & be+ ?us all[$ = & subduct$1 a residual ph5om5on appe>$1 9 ! fact t a ret>d+ influ5ce 0 ex]t$ by ! copp] itself2 & ?is fact1 once asc]ta9$1 spe$ily l$ to ! k ( an entirely new & unexpect$ class ( relations40 ,?is example belongs1 h[ev]1 n to ! ,me?od ( ,residues b to ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 ! law be+ asc]ta9$ by a direct comp>ison ( ! results ( two exp]im5ts1 :i* diff]$ 9 no?+ b ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( ! plate ( copp]4 ,to h made x exemplify ! ,me?od ( ,residues1 ! effect ( ! resi/ance ( ! air & t ( ! rigidity ( ! silk %\ld h be5 calculat$ a priori1 f ! laws obta9$ by sep>ate & =egone exp]im5ts4 8,unexpect$ & peculi>ly /rik+ confirmations ( inductive laws frequ5tly occur 9 ! =m ( residual ph5om5a1 9 ! c\rse ( inve/igations ( a widely diff]5t nature f ^? :i* gave rise to ! inductions !mselves4 ,a v elegant example may be cit$ 9 ! unexpect$ confirmation ( ! law ( ! developm5t ( heat 9 ela/ic fluids by compression1 :i* is af=d$ by ! ph5om5a ( s\nd4 ,! inquiry into ! cause ( s\nd _h l$ to conclusions respect+ its mode ( propagation1 f :i* its velocity 9 ! air c\ld be precisely calculat$4 ,! calculations 7 p]=m$2 b1 :5 comp>$ ) fact1 ?\gh ! agreem5t 0 q suffici5t to %[ ! g5]al correctness ( ! cause & mode ( propagation assign$1 yet ! :ole velocity c\ld n be %[n to arise f ?is !ory4 ,!re 0 /ill a residual velocity to be acc\nt$ =1 :i* plac$ dynamical philosoph]s = a long "t 9 great dilemma4 ,at l5g? ,laplace /ruck on ! happy idea1 t ?is might arise f ! heat develop$ 9 ! act ( t cond5sation :i* necess>ily takes place at e vibration by :i* s\nd is convey$4 ,! matt] 0 subject$ to exact calculation1 & ! result 0 at once ! complete explanation ( ! residual ph5om5on1 & a /rik+ confirmation ( ! g5]al law ( ! developm5t ( heat by compression1 "u circum/ances beyond artificial imitation40 8,_m ( ! new elem5ts ( *emi/ry h be5 detect$ 9 ! inve/igation ( residual ph5om5a4 ,?us ,arfw$son discov]$ li?ia by p]ceiv+ an excess ( weight 9 ! sulphate produc$ f a small portion ( :at he consid]$ z magnesia pres5t 9 a m9]al he _h analyz$4 ,x is on ?is pr9ciple1 too1 t ! small conc5trat$ residues ( great op]ations 9 ! arts are almo/ sure to be ! lurk+-places ( new *emical +r$i5ts3 witness iod9e1 brome1 sel5ium1 & ! new metals accompany+ plat9a 9 ! exp]im5ts ( ,wolla/on & ,t5nant4 ,x 0 a happy ?\ght ( ,glaub] to exam9e :at e body else ?rew away407#adc7 8,almo/ all ! greate/ discov]ies 9 ,a/ronomy10 says ! same au?or17#add7 8h result$ f ! consid]ation ( residual ph5om5a ( a quantitative or num]ical k9d4444 ,x 0 ?us t ! gr& discov]y ( ! precession ( ! equ9oxes result$ z a residual ph5om5on1 f ! imp]fect explanation ( ! return ( ! seasons by ! return ( ! sun to ! same app>5t place among ! fix$ />s4 ,?us1 also1 ab]ration & nutation result$ z residual ph5om5a f t portion ( ! *anges ( ! app>5t places ( ! fix$ />s :i* 0 left unacc\nt$ = by precession4 ,& ?us aga9 ! app>5t prop] motions ( ! />s are ! obs]v$ residues ( _! app>5t movem5ts out/&+ & unacc\nt$ = by /rict calculation ( ! effects ( precession1 nutation1 & ab]ration4 ,! ne>e/ approa* :i* human !ories c make to p]fection is to dim9i% ?is residue1 ?is caput mortuum ( obs]vation1 z x may be consid]$1 z mu* z practicable1 &1 if possible1 to r$uce x to no?+1 ei!r by %[+ t some?+ has be5 neglect$ 9 our e/imation ( kn[n causes1 or by reason+ ^u x z a new fact1 & on ! pr9ciple ( ! inductive philosophy asc5d+ f ! effect to its cause or causes40 ,! di/urb+ effects mutually produc$ by ! e>? & planets ^u ea* o!r's motions 7 fir/ br\ght to light z residual ph5om5a1 by ! diff]5ce :i* appe>$ betwe5 ! obs]v$ places ( ^? bodies1 & ! places calculat$ on a consid]ation solely ( _! gravitation t[>d ! sun4 ,x 0 ?is :i* det]m9$ a/ronom]s to consid] ! law ( gravitation z obta9+ betwe5 all bodies :atev]1 & !re=e betwe5 all p>ticles ( matt]2 _! fir/ t5d5cy hav+ be5 to reg>d x z a =ce act+ only betwe5 ea* planet or satellite & ! c5tral body to ^: sy/em x belong$4 ,aga91 ! cata/rophi/s1 9 geology1 be _! op9ion "r or wrong1 support x on ! plea1 t aft] ! effect ( all causes n[ 9 op]ation has be5 all[$ =1 !re rema9s 9 ! exi/+ con/itution ( ! e>? a l>ge residue ( facts1 prov+ ! exi/5ce at =m] p]iods ei!r ( o!r =ces1 or ( ! same =ces 9 a mu* great] degree ( int5sity4 ,to add "o m example3 ^? :o ass]t1 :at no "o has %[n any real gr\nd = believ+1 t !re is 9 "o human individual1 "o sex1 or "o race ( mank9d ov] ano!r1 an inh]5t & inexplicable sup]iority 9 m5tal faculties1 c\ld only sub/antiate _! proposition by subtract+ f ! diff]5ces ( intellect :i* we 9 fact see1 all t c be trac$ by kn[n laws ei!r to ! asc]ta9$ diff]5ces ( physical organization1 or to ! diff]5ces :i* h exi/$ 9 ! outw>d circum/ances 9 :i* ! subjects ( ! comp>ison h hi!rto be5 plac$4 ,:at ^! causes might fail to acc\nt = w\ld con/itute a residual ph5om5on1 :i* & :i* alone w\ld be evid5ce ( an ult]ior orig9al di/9ction1 & ! measure ( its am\nt4 ,b ! ass]t]s ( su* suppos$ diff]5ces h n provid$ !mselves ) ^! necess>y logical conditions ( ! e/abli%m5t ( _! doctr9e4 ,! _s ( ! ,me?od ( ,residues be+1 x is hop$1 suffici5tly intelligible f ^! examples1 & ! o!r ?ree me?ods hav+ already be5 s fully exemplifi$1 we may "h close our exposition ( ! f\r me?ods1 consid]$ z employ$ 9 ! inve/igation ( ! simpl] & m elem5t>y ord] ( ! comb9ations ( ph5om5a4 #f4 ,dr4 ,:ewell has express$ a v unfavorable op9ion ( ! utility ( ! ,f\r ,me?ods1 z well z ( ! aptness ( ! examples by :i* ,i h attempt$ to illu/rate !m4 ,8 words are ^!37#ade7 8,^u ^! me?ods1 ! obvi\s ?+ to rem>k is1 t !y take = grant$ ! v ?+ :i* is mo/ difficult to discov]1 ! r$uction ( ! ph5om5a to =mul su* z are "h pres5t$ to u4 ,:5 we h any set ( complex facts (f]$ to u2 = in/ance1 ^? :i* 7 (f]$ 9 ! cases ( discov]y :i* ,i h m5tion$--! facts ( ! planet>y pa?s1 ( fall+ bodies1 ( refract$ rays1 ( cosmical motions1 ( *emical analysis2 & :51 9 any ( ^! cases1 we w\ld discov] ! law ( nature :i* gov]ns !m1 or1 if any "o *ooses s to t]m x1 ! feature 9 :i* all ! cases agree1 :]e are we to look = our ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 & a1 b1 c8 ,nature does n pres5t to u ! cases 9 ?is =m2 & h[ are we to r$uce !m to ?is =m8 ,y say :5 we f9d ! comb9ation ( ,a ,b ,c ) a b c & ,a ,b ,d ) a b d1 !n we may draw our inf]5ce4 ,grant$2 b :5 & :]e are we to f9d su* comb9ations8 ,ev5 n[ t ! discov]ies are made1 :o w po9t out to u :at are ! ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 & a1 b1 c1 elem5ts ( ! cases :i* h j be5 enum]at$8 ,:o w tell u :i* ( ! me?ods ( inquiry ^? hi/orically real & successful inquiries exemplify8 ,:o w c>ry ^! =mul ?r\gh ! hi/ory ( ! sci5ces1 z !y h really gr[n up1 & %[ u t ^! f\r me?ods h be5 op]ative 9 _! =mation2 or t any light is ?r[n ^u ! /eps ( _! progress by ref]5ce to ^! =mul80 ,he adds t1 9 ?is "w1 ! me?ods h n be5 appli$ 8to a l>ge body ( conspicu\s & und\bt$ examples ( discov]y1 ext5d+ along ! :ole hi/ory ( sci5ce20 :i* ought to h be5 done 9 ord] t ! me?ods might be %[n to possess ! 8advantage0 7:i* he claims z belong+ to 8 own7 ( be+ ^? 8by :i* all great discov]ies 9 sci5ce h really be5 made40--7,p4 #bgg47 ,!re is a /rik+ simil>ity betwe5 ! objections "h made aga9/ ,canons ( ,induction1 & :at 0 alleg$1 9 ! la/ c5tury1 by z able m5 z ,dr4 ,:ewell1 aga9/ ! ackn[l$g$ ,canon ( ,ratioc9ation4 ,^? :o prote/$ aga9/ ! ,ari/otelian ,logic said ( ! ,syllogism1 :at ,dr4 ,:ewell says ( ! ,inductive ,me?ods1 t x 8takes = grant$ ! v ?+ :i* is mo/ difficult to discov]1 ! r$uction ( ! argum5t to =mul su* z are "h pres5t$ to u40 ,! gr& difficulty1 !y said1 is to obta9 y\r syllogism1 n to judge ( its correctness :5 obta9$4 ,on ! matt] ( fact1 bo? !y & ,dr4 ,:ewell are "r4 ,! greate/ difficulty 9 bo? cases is1 fir/1 t ( obta9+ ! evid5ce1 & next1 ( r$uc+ x to ! =m :i* te/s its conclusiv5ess4 ,b if we try to r$uce x )\t kn[+ :at x is to be r$uc$ to1 we are n likely to make mu* progress4 ,x is a m difficult ?+ to solve a geometrical problem1 ?an to judge :e!r a propos$ solution is correct3 b if p 7 n able to judge ( ! solution :5 f\nd1 !y w\ld h little *ance ( f9d+ x4 ,& x c n be pret5d$ t to judge ( an induction :5 f\nd is p]fectly easy1 is a ?+ = :i* aids & in/rum5ts are sup]flu\s2 = errone\s inductions1 false inf]5ces f exp]i5ce1 are q z common1 on "s subjects mu* common] ?an true ones4 ,! bus9ess ( ,inductive ,logic is to provide rules & models 7su* z ! ,syllogism & its rules are = ratioc9ation7 to :i* if inductive argum5ts con=m1 ^? argum5ts are conclusive1 & n o!rwise4 ,?is is :at ! ,f\r ,me?ods pr(ess to be1 & :at ,i believe !y are univ]sally consid]$ to be by exp]im5tal philosoph]s1 :o _h practic$ all ( !m long be=e any "o s\ght to r$uce ! practice to !ory4 ,! assailants ( ! ,syllogism _h also anticipat$ ,dr4 ,:ewell 9 ! o!r bran* ( 8 argum5t4 ,!y said t no discov]ies 7 ev] made by syllogism2 & ,dr4 ,:ewell says1 or seems to say1 t none 7 ev] made by ! ,f\r ,me?ods ( ,induction4 ,to ! =m] objectors1 ,ar*bi%op ,:ately v p]t95tly answ]$1 t _! argum5t1 if good at all1 0 good aga9/ ! reason+ process altoge!r2 = :atev] c n be r$uc$ to syllogism1 is n reason+4 ,& ,dr4 ,:ewell's argum5t1 if good at all1 is good aga9/ all inf]5ces f exp]i5ce4 ,9 say+ t no discov]ies 7 ev] made by ! ,f\r ,me?ods1 he affirms t none 7 ev] made by obs]vation & exp]im5t2 = assur$ly if any 71 x 0 by processes r$ucible to "o or o!r ( ^? me?ods4 ,?is diff]5ce betwe5 u acc\nts = ! dissatisfaction :i* my examples give him2 = ,i did n select !m ) a view to satisfy any "o :o requir$ to be conv9c$ t obs]vation & exp]im5t are modes ( acquir+ k3 ,i confess t 9 ! *oice ( !m ,i ?\ght only ( illu/ration1 & ( facilitat+ ! conception ( ! ,me?ods by concrete in/ances4 ,if x _h be5 my object to ju/ify ! processes !mselves z means ( inve/igation1 !re w\ld h be5 no ne$ to look f> (f1 or make use ( recondite or complicat$ in/ances4 ,z a specim5 ( a tru? asc]ta9$ by ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 ,i might h *os5 ! proposition1 8,dogs b>k40 ,?is dog1 & t dog1 & ! o!r dog1 answ] to ,a ,b ,c1 ,a ,d ,e1 ,a ,f ,g4 ,! circum/ance ( be+ a dog answ]s to ,a4 ,b>k+ answ]s to a4 ,z a tru? made kn[n by ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 8,fire burns0 might h suffic$4 ,be=e ,i t\* ! fire ,i am n burn$2 ?is is ,b ,c3 ,i t\* x1 & am burn$2 ?is is ,a ,b ,c1 a ,b ,c4 ,su* famili> exp]im5tal processes are n reg>d$ z inductions by ,dr4 ,:ewell2 b !y are p]fectly homog5e\s ) ^? by :i*1 ev5 on 8 own %[+1 ! pyramid ( sci5ce is suppli$ ) its base4 ,9 va9 he attempts to escape f ?is conclusion by lay+ ! mo/ arbitr>y re/rictions on ! *oice ( examples admissible z in/ances ( ,induction3 !y mu/ nei!r be su* z are /ill matt] ( discussion 7p4 #bfe71 nor mu/ any ( !m be drawn f m5tal & social subjects 7p4 #bfi71 nor f ord9>y obs]vation & practical life 7pp4 #bda-bdg74 ,!y mu/ be tak5 exclusively f ! g5]alizations by :i* sci5tific ?9k]s h asc5d$ to great & compreh5sive laws ( natural ph5om5a4 ,n[ x is seldom possible1 9 ^! complicat$ inquiries1 to g mu* beyond ! initial /eps1 )\t call+ 9 ! in/rum5t ( ,d$uction1 & ! tempor>y aid ( hypo!sis2 z ,i myself1 9 common ) ,dr4 ,:ewell1 h ma9ta9$ aga9/ ! purely empirical s*ool4 ,s9ce1 !re=e1 su* cases c\ld n conv5i5tly be select$ to illu/rate ! pr9ciples ( m]e obs]vation & exp]im5t1 ,dr4 ,:ewell is misl$ by _! abs5ce into repres5t+ ! ,exp]im5tal ,me?ods z s]v+ no purpose 9 sci5tific inve/igation2 =gett+ t if ^? me?ods _h n suppli$ ! fir/ g5]alizations1 !re w\ld h be5 no mat]ials = 8 own conception ( ,induction to "w ^u4 ,8 *all5ge1 h[ev]1 to po9t out :i* ( ! f\r me?ods are exemplifi$ 9 c]ta9 important cases ( sci5tific inquiry1 is easily answ]$4 8,! planet>y pa?s10 z f> z !y are a case ( induction at all17#adf7 fall "u ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t4 ,! law ( 8fall+ bodies10 namely1 t !y describe spaces proportional to ! squ>es ( ! times1 0 hi/orically a d$uction f ! fir/ law ( motion2 b ! exp]im5ts by :i* x 0 v]ifi$1 & by :i* x might h be5 discov]$1 7 examples ( ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t2 & ! app>5t v>iation f ! true law1 caus$ by ! resi/ance ( ! air1 0 cle>$ up by exp]im5ts 9 vacuo1 con/itut+ an application ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce4 ,! law ( 8refract$ rays0 7! con/ancy ( ! ratio betwe5 ! s9es ( incid5ce & ( refraction = ea* refract+ sub/ance7 0 asc]ta9$ by direct measurem5t1 & !re=e by ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t4 ,! 8cosmical motions0 7 det]m9$ by highly complex processes ( ?\ght1 9 :i* ,d$uction 0 pr$om9ant1 b ! ,me?ods ( ,agreem5t & ( ,concomitant ,v>iations _h a l>ge "p 9 e/abli%+ ! empirical laws4 ,e case )\t exception ( 8*emical analysis0 con/itutes a well-m>k$ example ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce4 ,to any "o acqua9t$ ) ! subjects--to ,dr4 ,:ewell himself1 !re w\ld n be ! smalle/ difficulty 9 sett+ out 8! ,a ,b ,c & a b c elem5ts0 ( ^! cases4 ,if discov]ies are ev] made by obs]vation & exp]im5t )\t ,d$uction1 ! f\r me?ods are me?ods ( discov]y3 b ev5 if !y 7 n me?ods ( discov]y1 x w\ld n be ! less true t !y are ! sole me?ods ( ,pro(2 & 9 t "*1 ev5 ! results ( d$uction are am5able to !m4 ,! great g5]alizations :i* beg9 z ,hypo!ses1 mu/ end by be+ prov$1 & are 9 reality 7z w be %[n h]eaft]7 prov$1 by ! ,f\r ,me?ods4 ,n[ x is ) ,pro(1 z su*1 t ,logic is pr9cipally conc]n$4 ,?is di/9ction has inde$ no *ance ( f9d+ favor ) ,dr4 ,:ewell2 = x is ! peculi>ity ( 8 sy/em1 n to recognize1 9 cases ( ,induction1 any necessity = pro(4 ,if1 aft] assum+ an hypo!sis & c>efully collat+ x ) facts1 no?+ is br\ght to light inconsi/5t ) x1 t is1 if exp]i5ce does n disprove x1 he is cont5t3 at lea/ until a simpl] hypo!sis1 equally consi/5t ) exp]i5ce1 pres5ts itself4 ,if ?is be ,induction1 d\btless !re is no necessity = ! f\r me?ods4 ,b to suppose t x is s1 appe>s to me a radical misconception ( ! nature ( ! evid5ce ( physical tru?s4 ,s real & practical is ! ne$ ( a te/ = induction1 simil> to ! syllogi/ic te/ ( ratioc9ation1 t inf]5ces :i* bid defiance to ! mo/ elem5t>y notions ( inductive logic are put =? )\t misgiv+ by p]sons em95t 9 physical sci5ce1 z soon z !y are (f ! gr\nd on :i* !y are conv]sant ) ! facts1 & n r$uc$ to judge only by ! argum5ts2 & z = educat$ p]sons 9 g5]al1 x may be d\bt$ if !y are bett] judges ( a good or a bad induction ?an !y 7 be=e ,bacon wrote4 ,! improvem5t 9 ! results ( ?9k+ has seldom ext5d$ to ! processes2 or has rea*$1 if any process1 t ( inve/igation only1 n t ( pro(4 ,a k ( _m laws ( nature has d\btless be5 arriv$ at1 by fram+ hypo!ses & f9d+ t ! facts correspond$ to !m2 & _m errors h be5 got rid ( by com+ to a k ( facts :i* 7 inconsi/5t ) !m1 b n by discov]+ t ! mode ( ?\ght :i* l$ to ! errors 0 itself faulty1 & might h be5 kn[n to be su* indep5d5tly ( ! facts :i* disprov$ ! specific conclusion4 ,h5ce x is1 t :ile ! ?\ghts ( mank9d h on _m subjects work$ !mselves practically "r1 ! ?9k+ p[] rema9s z weak z ev]3 & on all subjects on :i* ! facts :i* w\ld *eck ! result are n accessible1 z 9 :at relates to ! invisible _w1 & ev51 z has be5 se5 lately1 to ! visible _w ( ! planet>y regions1 m5 ( ! greate/ sci5tific acquirem5ts argue z pitiably z ! m]e/ ignoramus4 ,= ?\gh !y h made _m s\nd inductions1 !y h n le>n$ f !m 7& ,dr4 ,:ewell ?9ks !re is no necessity t !y %\ld le>n7 ! pr9ciples ( inductive evid5ce4 ,*apt] ,x4 ,( ,plurality ,( ,causes1 ,& ,( ,! ,int]mixture ,( ,effects4 #a4 ,9 ! prec$+ exposition ( ! f\r me?ods ( obs]vation & exp]im5t1 by :i* we contrive to di/+ui% among a mass ( co-exi/5t ph5om5a ! p>ticul> effect due to a giv5 cause1 or ! p>ticul> cause :i* gave bir? to a giv5 effect1 x has be5 necess>y to suppose1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 = ! sake ( simplification1 t ?is analytical op]ation is encumb]$ by no o!r difficulties ?an :at are ess5tially inh]5t 9 its nature2 & to repres5t to ourselves1 !re=e1 e effect1 on ! "o h& z connect$ exclusively ) a s+le cause1 & on ! o!r h& z incapable ( be+ mix$ & conf\nd$ ) any o!r co-exi/5t effect4 ,we h reg>d$ a b c d e1 ! aggregate ( ! ph5om5a exi/+ at any mom5t1 z consi/+ ( dissimil> facts1 a1 b1 c1 d1 & e1 = ea* ( :i* "o1 & only "o1 cause ne$s be s\ght2 ! difficulty be+ only t ( s+l+ out ?is "o cause f ! multitude ( antec$5t circum/ances1 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 & ,e4 ,! cause inde$ may n be simple2 x may consi/ ( an assemblage ( conditions2 b we h suppos$ t !re 0 only "o possible assemblage ( conditions f :i* ! giv5 effect c\ld result4 ,if su* 7 ! fact1 x w\ld be comp>atively an easy task to inve/igate ! laws ( nature4 ,b ! supposition does n hold 9 ei!r ( its p>ts4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x is n true t ! same ph5om5on is always produc$ by ! same cause3 ! effect a may sometimes arise f ,a1 sometimes f ,b4 ,&1 secondly1 ! effects ( diff]5t causes are (t5 n dissimil>1 b homog5e\s1 & m>k$ out by no assignable b\nd>ies f "o ano!r3 ,a & ,b may produce n a & b1 b diff]5t portions ( an effect a4 ,! obscurity & difficulty ( ! inve/igation ( ! laws ( ph5om5a is s+ul>ly increas$ by ! necessity ( adv]t+ to ^! two circum/ances3 ,int]mixture ( ,effects1 & ,plurality ( ,causes4 ,to ! latt]1 be+ ! simpl] ( ! two consid]ations1 we %all fir/ direct our att5tion4 ,x is n true1 !n1 t "o effect mu/ be connect$ ) only "o cause1 or assemblage ( conditions2 t ea* ph5om5on c be produc$ only 9 "o way4 ,!re are (t5 sev]al indep5d5t modes 9 :i* ! same ph5om5on c\ld h orig9at$4 ,"o fact may be ! consequ5t 9 sev]al inv>iable sequ5ces2 x may foll[1 ) equal uni=mity1 any "o ( sev]al antec$5ts1 or collections ( antec$5ts4 ,_m causes may produce me*anical motion2 _m causes may produce "s k9ds ( s5sation2 _m causes may produce dea?4 ,a giv5 effect may really be produc$ by a c]ta9 cause1 & yet be p]fectly capable ( be+ produc$ )\t x4 #b4 ,"o ( ! pr9cipal consequ5ces ( ?is fact ( ,plurality ( ,causes is1 to r5d] ! fir/ ( ! inductive me?ods1 t ( ,agreem5t1 unc]ta94 ,to illu/rate t me?od1 we suppos$ two in/ances1 ,a ,b ,c foll[$ by a b c1 & ,a ,d ,e foll[$ by a d e4 ,f ^! in/ances x might app>5tly be conclud$ t ,a is an inv>iable antec$5t ( a1 & ev5 t x is ! unconditional inv>iable antec$5t1 or cause1 if we c\ld be sure t !re is no o!r antec$5t common to ! two cases4 ,t ?is difficulty may n /& 9 ! way1 let u suppose ! two cases positively asc]ta9$ to h no antec$5t 9 common except ,a4 ,! mom5t1 h[ev]1 t we let 9 ! possibility ( a plurality ( causes1 ! conclusion fails4 ,= x involves a tacit supposition1 t a mu/ h be5 produc$ 9 bo? in/ances by ! same cause4 ,if !re c possibly h be5 two causes1 ^? two may1 = example1 be ,c & ,e3 ! "o may h be5 ! cause ( a 9 ! =m] ( ! in/ances1 ! o!r 9 ! latt]1 ,a hav+ no influ5ce 9 ei!r case4 ,suppose1 = example1 t two great arti/s or great philosoph]s1 t two extremely selfi% or extremely g5]\s *>act]s1 7 comp>$ toge!r z to ! circum/ances ( _! education & hi/ory1 & ! two cases 7 f\nd to agree only 9 "o circum/ance3 w\ld x foll[ t ?is "o circum/ance 0 ! cause ( ! quality :i* *>act]iz$ bo? ^? individuals8 ,n at all2 = ! causes :i* may produce any type ( "* are v num]\s2 & ! two p]sons might equally h agre$ 9 _! "*1 ?\gh !re _h be5 no mann] ( resemblance 9 _! previ\s hi/ory4 ,?is1 !re=e1 is a *>act]i/ic imp]fection ( ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 f :i* imp]fection ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce is free4 ,= if we h two in/ances1 ,a ,b ,c & ,b ,c1 ( :i* ,b ,c gives b c1 & ,a be+ add$ conv]ts x into a b c1 x is c]ta9 t 9 ?is in/ance at lea/1 ,a 0 ei!r ! cause ( a1 or an indisp5sable portion ( its cause1 ev5 ?\gh ! cause :i* produces x 9 o!r in/ances may be altoge!r diff]5t4 ,plurality ( ,causes1 !re=e1 n only does n dim9i% ! reliance due to ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 b does n ev5 r5d] a great] numb] ( obs]vations or exp]im5ts necess>y3 two in/ances1 ! "o positive & ! o!r negative1 are /ill suffici5t = ! mo/ complete & rigor\s induction4 ,n s1 h[ev]1 ) ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t4 ,! conclusions :i* t yields1 :5 ! numb] ( in/ances comp>$ is small1 are ( no real value1 except z1 9 ! "* ( sugge/ions1 !y may lead ei!r to exp]im5ts br++ !m to ! te/ ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 or to reason+s :i* may expla9 & v]ify !m d$uctively4 ,x is only :5 ! in/ances1 be+ indef9itely multipli$ & v>i$1 cont9ue to sugge/ ! same result1 t ?is result acquires any high degree ( indep5d5t value4 ,if !re are b two in/ances1 ,a ,b ,c & ,a ,d ,e1 ?\gh ^! in/ances h no antec$5t 9 common except ,a1 yet z ! effect may possibly h be5 produc$ 9 ! two cases by diff]5t causes1 ! result is at mo/ only a slight probability 9 favor ( ,a2 !re may be causation1 b x is almo/ equally probable t !re 0 only a co9cid5ce4 ,b ! (t5] we repeat ! obs]vation1 v>y+ ! circum/ances1 ! m we advance t[>d a solution ( ?is d\bt4 ,= if we try ,a ,f ,g1 ,a ,h ,k1 etc41 all unlike "o ano!r except 9 conta9+ ! circum/ance ,a1 & if we f9d ! effect a ent]+ into ! result 9 all ^! cases1 we mu/ suppose "o ( two ?+s1 ei!r t x is caus$ by ,a1 or t x has z _m diff]5t causes z !re are in/ances4 ,) ea* addition1 !re=e1 to ! numb] ( in/ances1 ! presumption is /r5g!n$ 9 favor ( ,a4 ,! inquir]1 ( c\rse1 w n neglect1 if an opportunity pres5t itself1 to exclude ,a f "s "o ( ^! comb9ations1 f ,a ,h ,k = in/ance1 & by try+ ,h ,k sep>ately1 appeal to ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce 9 aid ( ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t4 ,by ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce alone c x be asc]ta9$ t ,a is ! cause ( a2 b t x is ei!r ! cause1 or ano!r effect ( ! same cause1 may be plac$ beyond any reasonable d\bt by ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 provid$ ! in/ances are v num]\s z well z suffici5tly v>i\s4 ,aft] h[ great a multiplication1 !n1 ( v>i$ in/ances1 all agree+ 9 no o!r antec$5t except ,a1 is ! supposition ( a plurality ( causes suffici5tly rebutt$1 & ! conclusion t a is connect$ ) ,a dive/$ ( ! *>act]i/ic imp]fection1 & r$uc$ to a virtual c]ta9ty8 ,?is is a "q :i* we c n be exempt$ f answ]+3 b ! consid]ation ( x belongs to :at is call$ ! ,!ory ( ,probability1 :i* w =m ! subject ( a *apt] h]eaft]4 ,x is se51 h[ev]1 at once1 t ! conclusion does am\nt to a practical c]ta9ty aft] a suffici5t numb] ( in/ances1 & t ! me?od1 !re=e1 is n radically vitiat$ by ! *>act]i/ic imp]fection4 ,! result ( ^! consid]ations is only1 9 ! fir/ place1 to po9t out a new s\rce ( inf]iority 9 ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t z comp>$ ) o!r modes ( inve/igation1 & new reasons = nev] re/+ cont5t$ ) ! results obta9$ by x1 )\t attempt+ to confirm !m ei!r by ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 or by connect+ !m d$uctively ) "s law or laws already asc]ta9$ by t sup]ior me?od4 ,&1 9 ! second place1 we le>n f ?is ! true !ory ( ! value ( m]e numb] ( in/ances 9 inductive inquiry4 ,! ,plurality ( ,causes is ! only reason :y m]e numb] is ( any importance4 ,! t5d5cy ( unsci5tific inquir]s is to rely too mu* on numb]1 )\t analyz+ ! in/ances2 )\t look+ closely en\gh into _! nature to asc]ta9 :at circum/ances are or are n elim9at$ by means ( !m4 ,mo/ p hold _! conclusions ) a degree ( assurance proportion$ to ! m]e mass ( ! exp]i5ce on :i* !y appe> to re/2 n consid]+ t by ! addition ( in/ances to in/ances1 all ( ! same k9d1 t is1 diff]+ f "o ano!r only 9 po9ts already recogniz$ z immat]ial1 no?+ :atev] is add$ to ! evid5ce ( ! conclusion4 ,a s+le in/ance elim9at+ "s antec$5t :i* exi/$ 9 all ! o!r cases1 is ( m value ?an ! greate/ multitude ( in/ances :i* are reckon$ by _! numb] alone4 ,x is necess>y1 no d\bt1 to assure ourselves1 by repetition ( ! obs]vation or exp]im5t1 t no error has be5 committ$ conc]n+ ! individual facts obs]v$2 & until we h assur$ ourselves ( ?is1 in/ead ( v>y+ ! circum/ances1 we c n too scrupul\sly repeat ! same exp]im5t or obs]vation )\t any *ange4 ,b :5 once ?is assurance has be5 obta9$1 ! multiplication ( in/ances :i* d n exclude any m circum/ances is entirely useless1 provid$ !re h be5 already en\gh to exclude ! supposition ( ,plurality ( ,causes4 ,x is ( importance to rem>k1 t ! peculi> modification ( ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 :i*1 z p>tak+ 9 "s degree ( ! nature ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 ,i h call$ ! ,jo9t ,me?od ( ,agreem5t & ,diff]5ce1 is n affect$ by ! *>act]i/ic imp]fection n[ po9t$ out4 ,=1 9 ! jo9t me?od1 x is suppos$ n only t ! in/ances 9 :i* a is1 agree only 9 conta9+ ,a1 b also t ! in/ances 9 :i* a is n1 agree only 9 n conta9+ ,a4 ,n[1 if ?is be s1 ,a mu/ be n only ! cause ( a1 b ! only possible cause3 = if !re 7 ano!r1 z = example ,b1 !n 9 ! in/ances 9 :i* a is n1 ,b mu/ h be5 abs5t z well z ,a1 & x w\ld n be true t ^! in/ances agree only 9 n conta9+ ,a4 ,?is1 !re=e1 con/itutes an imm5se advantage ( ! jo9t me?od ov] ! simple ,me?od ( ,agreem5t4 ,x may seem1 inde$1 t ! advantage does n belong s mu* to ! jo9t me?od1 z to "o ( its two premises 7if !y may be s call$71 ! negative premise4 ,! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 :5 appli$ to negative in/ances1 or ^? 9 :i* a ph5om5on does n take place1 is c]ta9ly free f ! *>act]i/ic imp]fection :i* affects x 9 ! affirmative case4 ,! negative premise1 x might !re=e be suppos$1 c\ld be work$ z a simple case ( ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 )\t requir+ an affirmative premise to be jo9$ ) x4 ,b ?\gh ?is is true 9 pr9ciple1 x is g5]ally altoge!r impossible to "w ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t by negative in/ances )\t positive ones2 x is s mu* m difficult to exhau/ ! field ( negation ?an t ( affirmation4 ,= in/ance1 let ! "q be :at is ! cause ( ! transp>5cy ( bodies2 ) :at prospect ( success c\ld we set ourselves to inquire directly 9 :at ! multif>i\s sub/ances :i* are n transp>5t agree8 ,b we might hope mu* soon] to seize "s po9t ( resemblance among ! comp>atively few & def9ite species ( objects :i* are transp>5t2 & ?is be+ atta9$1 we %\ld q naturally be put ^u exam9+ :e!r ! abs5ce ( ?is "o circum/ance be n precisely ! po9t 9 :i* all opaque sub/ances w be f\nd to resemble4 ,! ,jo9t ,me?od ( ,agreem5t & ,diff]5ce1 !re=e1 or z ,i h o!rwise call$ x1 ! ,indirect ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce 7because1 l ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce prop]ly s-call$1 x proce$s by asc]ta9+ h[ & 9 :at ! cases :]e ! ph5om5on is pres5t diff] f ^? 9 :i* x is abs5t7 is1 aft] ! ,direct ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 ! mo/ p[]ful ( ! rema9+ in/rum5ts ( inductive inve/igation2 & 9 ! sci5ces :i* dep5d on pure obs]vation1 ) little or no aid f exp]im5t1 ?is me?od1 s well exemplifi$ 9 ! speculation on ! cause ( dew1 is ! prim>y res\rce1 s f> z direct appeals to exp]i5ce are conc]n$4 #c4 ,we h ?us f> treat$ ,plurality ( ,causes only z a possible supposition1 :i*1 until remov$1 r5d]s our inductions unc]ta92 & h only consid]$ by :at means1 :]e ! plurality does n really exi/1 we may be enabl$ to disprove x4 ,b we mu/ also consid] x z a case actually occurr+ 9 nature1 & :i*1 z (t5 z x does occur1 our me?ods ( induction ought to be capable ( asc]ta9+ & e/abli%+4 ,= ?is1 h[ev]1 !re is requir$ no peculi> me?od4 ,:5 an effect is really producible by two or m causes1 ! process = detect+ !m is 9 no way diff]5t f t by :i* we discov] s+le causes4 ,!y may 7fir/7 be discov]$ z sep>ate sequ5ces1 by sep>ate sets ( in/ances4 ,"o set ( obs]vations or exp]im5ts %[s t ! sun is a cause ( heat1 ano!r t friction is a s\rce ( x1 ano!r t p]cussion1 ano!r t electricity1 ano!r t *emical action is su* a s\rce4 ,or 7secondly7 ! plurality may come to light 9 ! c\rse ( collat+ a numb] ( in/ances1 :5 we attempt to f9d "s circum/ance 9 :i* !y all agree1 & fail 9 do+ s4 ,we f9d x impossible to trace1 9 all ! cases 9 :i* ! effect is met )1 any common circum/ance4 ,we f9d t we c elim9ate all ! antec$5ts2 t no "o ( !m is pres5t 9 all ! in/ances1 no "o ( !m indisp5sable to ! effect4 ,on clos] scrut9y1 h[ev]1 x appe>s t ?\gh no "o is always pres5t1 "o or o!r ( sev]al always is4 ,if1 on fur!r analysis1 we c detect 9 ^! any common elem5t1 we may be able to asc5d f !m to "s "o cause :i* is ! really op]ative circum/ance 9 !m all4 ,?us x is n[ ?\ght t 9 ! production ( heat by friction1 p]cussion1 *emical action1 etc41 ! ultimate s\rce is "o & ! same4 ,b if 7z cont9ually happ5s7 we c n take ?is ult]ior /ep1 ! diff]5t antec$5ts mu/ be set d[n provisionally z di/9ct causes1 ea* suffici5t ( itself to produce ! effect4 ,we "h close our rem>ks on ! ,plurality ( ,causes1 & proce$ to ! /ill m peculi> & m complex case ( ! ,int]mixture ( ,effects1 & ! int]f]5ce ( causes ) "o ano!r3 a case con/itut+ ! pr9cipal "p ( ! complication & difficulty ( ! /udy ( nature2 & ) :i* ! f\r only possible me?ods ( directly inductive inve/igation by obs]vation & exp]im5t1 are1 = ! mo/ "p1 z w appe> pres5tly1 q unequal to cope4 ,! in/rum5t ( ,d$uction alone is adequate to unravel ! complexities proce$+ f ?is s\rce2 & ! f\r me?ods h little m 9 _! p[] ?an to supply premises =1 & a v]ification (1 our d$uctions4 #d4 ,a concurr5ce ( two or m causes1 n sep>ately produc+ ea* its own effect1 b int]f]+ ) or modify+ ! effects ( "o ano!r1 takes place1 z has already be5 expla9$ 9 two diff]5t ways4 ,9 ! "o1 :i* is exemplifi$ by ! jo9t op]ation ( diff]5t =ces 9 me*anics1 ! sep>ate effects ( all ! causes cont9ue to be produc$1 b are comp\nd$ ) "o ano!r1 & disappe> 9 "o total4 ,9 ! o!r1 illu/rat$ by ! case ( *emical action1 ! sep>ate effects cease entirely1 & are succe$$ by ph5om5a altoge!r diff]5t1 & gov]n$ by diff]5t laws4 ,( ^! cases ! =m] is by f> ! m frequ5t1 & ?is case x is :i*1 = ! mo/ "p1 eludes ! grasp ( our exp]im5tal me?ods4 ,! o!r & exceptional case is ess5tially am5able to !m4 ,:5 ! laws ( ! orig9al ag5ts cease entirely1 & a ph5om5on makes its appe>ance1 :i*1 ) ref]5ce to ^? laws1 is q het]og5e\s2 :51 = example1 two gase\s sub/ances1 hydrog5 & oxyg51 on be+ br\ght toge!r1 ?r[ (f _! peculi> prop]ties1 & produce ! sub/ance call$ wat]2 9 su* cases ! new fact may be subject$ to exp]im5tal inquiry1 l any o!r ph5om5on2 & ! elem5ts :i* are said to compose x may be consid]$ z ! m]e ag5ts ( its production--! conditions on :i* x dep5ds1 ! facts :i* make up its cause4 ,! effects ( ! new ph5om5on1 ! prop]ties ( wat]1 = in/ance1 are z easily f\nd by exp]im5t z ! effects ( any o!r cause4 ,b to discov] ! cause ( x1 t is1 ! p>ticul> conjunction ( ag5ts f :i* x results1 is (t5 difficult en\gh4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! orig9 & actual production ( ! ph5om5on are mo/ frequ5tly inaccessible to our obs]vation4 ,if we c\ld n h le>n$ ! composition ( wat] until we f\nd in/ances 9 :i* x 0 actually produc$ f oxyg5 & hydrog51 we %\ld h be5 =c$ to wait until ! casual ?\ght /ruck "s "o ( pass+ an electric sp>k ?r\gh a mixture ( ! two gases1 or ins]t+ a light$ tap] into x1 m]ely to try :at w\ld happ54 ,besides1 _m sub/ances1 ?\gh !y c be analyz$1 c n by any kn[n artificial means be recomp\nd$4 ,fur!r1 ev5 if we c\ld h asc]ta9$1 by ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 t oxyg5 & hydrog5 7 bo? pres5t :5 wat] is produc$1 no exp]im5tation on oxyg5 & hydrog5 sep>ately1 no k ( _! laws1 c\ld h enabl$ u d$uctively to inf] t !y w\ld produce wat]4 ,we require a specific exp]im5t on ! two comb9$4 ,"u ^! difficulties1 we %\ld g5]ally h be5 indebt$ = our k ( ! causes ( ?is class ( effects1 n to any inquiry direct$ specifically t[>d t end1 b ei!r to accid5t1 or to ! gradual progress ( exp]im5tation on ! diff]5t comb9ations ( :i* ! produc+ ag5ts are susceptible2 if x 7 n = a peculi>ity belong+ to effects ( ?is description1 t !y (t51 "u "s p>ticul> comb9ation ( circum/ances1 reproduce _! causes4 ,if wat] results f ! juxtaposition ( hydrog5 & oxyg5 :5ev] ?is c be made suffici5tly close & intimate1 s1 on ! o!r h&1 if wat] itself be plac$ 9 c]ta9 situations1 hydrog5 & oxyg5 are reproduc$ f x3 an abrupt t]m9ation is put to ! new laws1 & ! ag5ts re-appe> sep>ately ) _! own prop]ties z at fir/4 ,:at is call$ *emical analysis is ! process ( se>*+ = ! causes ( a ph5om5on among its effects1 or r among ! effects produc$ by ! action ( "s o!r causes ^u x4 ,lavoisi]1 by heat+ m]cury to a high temp]ature 9 a close vessel conta9+ air1 f\nd t ! m]cury increas$ 9 weight1 & became :at 0 !n call$ r$ precipitate1 :ile ! air1 on be+ exam9$ aft] ! exp]im5t1 prov$ to h lo/ weight1 & to h become incapable ( support+ life or combu/ion4 ,:5 r$ precipitate 0 expos$ to a /ill great] heat1 x became m]cury aga91 & gave (f a gas :i* did support life & flame4 ,?us ! ag5ts :i* by _! comb9ation produc$ r$ precipitate1 namely1 ! m]cury & ! gas1 reappe> z effects result+ f t precipitate :5 act$ ^u by heat4 ,s1 if we decompose wat] by means ( iron fil+s1 we produce two effects1 ru/ & hydrog54 ,n[ ru/ is already kn[n1 by exp]im5ts ^u ! compon5t sub/ances1 to be an effect ( ! union ( iron & oxyg53 ! iron we ourselves suppli$1 b ! oxyg5 mu/ h be5 produc$ f ! wat]4 ,! result1 !re=e1 is t wat] has disappe>$1 & hydrog5 & oxyg5 h appe>$ 9 its /ead2 or1 9 o!r words1 ! orig9al laws ( ^! gase\s ag5ts1 :i* _h be5 susp5d$ by ! sup]9duction ( ! new laws call$ ! prop]ties ( wat]1 h aga9 />t$ into exi/5ce1 & ! causes ( wat] are f\nd among its effects4 ,:]e two ph5om5a1 betwe5 ! laws or prop]ties ( :i*1 consid]$ 9 !mselves1 no connection c be trac$1 are ?us reciprocally cause & effect1 ea* capable 9 its turn ( be+ produc$ f ! o!r1 & ea*1 :5 x produces ! o!r1 ceas+ itself to exi/ 7z wat] is produc$ f oxyg5 & hydrog51 & oxyg5 & hydrog5 are reproduc$ f wat]72 ?is causation ( ! two ph5om5a by "o ano!r1 ea* be+ g5]at$ by ! o!r's de/ruction1 is prop]ly trans=mation4 ,! idea ( *emical composition is an idea ( trans=mation1 b ( a trans=mation :i* is incomplete2 s9ce we consid] ! oxyg5 & hydrog5 to be pres5t 9 ! wat] z oxyg5 & hydrog51 & capable ( be+ discov]$ 9 x if our s5ses 7 suffici5tly ke53 a supposition 7= x is no m7 gr\nd$ solely on ! fact t ! weight ( ! wat] is ! sum ( ! sep>ate weights ( ! two +r$i5ts4 ,if !re _h n be5 ?is exception to ! entire disappe>ance1 9 ! comp\nd1 ( ! laws ( ! sep>ate +r$i5ts2 if ! comb9$ ag5ts _h n1 9 ?is "o p>ticul> ( weight1 pres]v$ _! own laws1 & produc$ a jo9t result equal to ! sum ( _! sep>ate results2 we %\ld nev]1 probably1 h _h ! notion n[ impli$ by ! words *emical composition2 &1 9 ! facts ( wat] produc$ f hydrog5 & oxyg51 & hydrog5 & oxyg5 produc$ f wat]1 z ! trans=mation w\ld h be5 complete1 we %\ld h se5 only a trans=mation4 ,9 ^! cases1 :]e ! het]opa?ic effect 7z we call$ x 9 a =m] *apt]77#adg7 is b a trans=mation ( its cause1 or 9 o!r words1 :]e ! effect & its cause are reciprocally su*1 & mutually conv]tible into ea* o!r2 ! problem ( f9d+ ! cause resolves itself into ! f> easi] "o ( f9d+ an effect1 :i* is ! k9d ( inquiry t admits ( be+ prosecut$ by direct exp]im5t4 ,b !re are o!r cases ( het]opa?ic effects to :i* ?is mode ( inve/igation is n applicable4 ,take1 = in/ance1 ! het]opa?ic laws ( m9d2 t portion ( ! ph5om5a ( our m5tal nature :i* are analog\s to *emical r ?an to dynamical ph5om5a2 z :5 a complex passion is =m$ by ! coalition ( sev]al elem5t>y impulses1 or a complex emotion by sev]al simple pleasures or pa9s1 ( :i* x is ! result )\t be+ ! aggregate1 or 9 any respect homog5e\s ) !m4 ,! product1 9 ^! cases1 is g5]at$ by its v>i\s factors2 b ! factors c n be reproduc$ f ! product2 j z a y\? c gr[ into an old man1 b an old man c n gr[ into a y\?4 ,we c n asc]ta9 f :at simple feel+s any ( our complex /ates ( m9d are g5]at$1 z we asc]ta9 ! +r$i5ts ( a *emical comp\nd1 by mak+ x1 9 its turn1 g5]ate !m4 ,we c only1 !re=e1 discov] ^! laws by ! sl[ process ( /udy+ ! simple feel+s !mselves1 & asc]ta9+ syn!tically1 by exp]im5t+ on ! v>i\s comb9ations ( :i* !y are susceptible1 :at !y1 by _! mutual action ^u "o ano!r1 are capable ( g5]at+4 #e4 ,x might h be5 suppos$ t ! o!r1 & app>5tly simpl] v>iety ( ! mutual int]f]5ce ( causes1 :]e ea* cause cont9ues to produce its own prop] effect accord+ to ! same laws to :i* x con=ms 9 its sep>ate /ate1 w\ld h pres5t$ few] difficulties to ! inductive inquir] ?an t ( :i* we h j f9i%$ ! consid]ation4 ,x pres5ts1 h[ev]1 s f> z direct induction ap>t f d$uction is conc]n$1 inf9itely great] difficulties4 ,:5 a concurr5ce ( causes gives rise to a new effect1 be>+ no relation to ! sep>ate effects ( ^? causes1 ! result+ ph5om5on /&s =? undisguis$1 invit+ att5tion to its peculi>ity1 & pres5t+ no ob/acle to our recogniz+ its pres5ce or abs5ce among any numb] ( surr\nd+ ph5om5a4 ,x admits1 !re=e1 ( be+ easily br\ght "u ! canons ( ,induction1 provid$ in/ances c be obta9$ su* z ^? canons require2 & ! non-occurr5ce ( su* in/ances1 or ! want ( means to produce !m artificially1 is ! real & only difficulty 9 su* inve/igations2 a difficulty n logical b 9 "s sort physical4 ,x is o!rwise ) cases ( :at1 9 a prec$+ *apt]1 has be5 d5om9at$ ! ,composition ( ,causes4 ,!re1 ! effects ( ! sep>ate causes d n t]m9ate & give place to o!rs1 !reby ceas+ to =m any "p ( ! ph5om5on to be inve/igat$2 on ! contr>y1 !y /ill take place1 b are int]m+l$ )1 & disguis$ by1 ! homog5e\s & closely alli$ effects ( o!r causes4 ,!y are no long] a1 b1 c1 d1 e1 exi/+ side by side1 & cont9u+ to be sep>ately disc]nible2 !y are a1 -a1 b1 -b1 #b;b1 etc42 "s ( :i* cancel "o ano!r1 :ile _m o!rs d n appe> di/+ui%ably1 b m]ge 9 "o sum2 =m+ altoge!r a result1 betwe5 :i* & ! causes :]eby x 0 produc$ !re is (t5 an insurm\ntable difficulty 9 trac+ by obs]vation any fix$ relation :atev]4 ,! g5]al idea ( ! ,composition ( ,causes has be5 se5 to be1 t ?\gh two or m laws int]f]e ) "o ano!r1 & app>5tly fru/rate or modify "o ano!r's op]ation1 yet 9 reality all are fulfill$1 ! collective effect be+ ! exact sum ( ! effects ( ! causes tak5 sep>ately4 ,a famili> in/ance is t ( a body kept 9 equilibrium by two equal & contr>y =ces4 ,"o ( ! =ces if act+ alone w\ld c>ry ! body 9 a giv5 "t a c]ta9 di/ance to ! we/1 ! o!r if act+ alone w\ld c>ry x exactly z f> t[>d ! ea/2 & ! result is ! same z if x _h be5 fir/ c>ri$ to ! we/ z f> z ! "o =ce w\ld c>ry x1 & !n back t[>d ! ea/ z f> z ! o!r w\ld c>ry x--t is1 precisely ! same di/ance2 be+ ultimately left :]e x 0 f\nd at fir/4 ,all laws ( causation are liable to be 9 ?is mann] c\nt]act$1 & seem+ly fru/rat$1 by com+ into conflict ) o!r laws1 ! sep>ate result ( :i* is opposite to !irs1 or m or less inconsi/5t ) x4 ,& h5ce1 ) almo/ e law1 _m in/ances 9 :i* x really is entirely fulfill$1 d n1 at fir/ sight1 appe> to be cases ( its op]ation at all4 ,x is s 9 ! example j adduc$3 a =ce 9 me*anics means nei!r m nor less ?an a cause ( motion1 yet ! sum ( ! effects ( two causes ( motion may be re/4 ,aga91 a body solicit$ by two =ces 9 directions mak+ an angle ) "o ano!r1 moves 9 ! diagonal2 & x seems a p>adox to say t motion 9 ! diagonal is ! sum ( two motions 9 two o!r l9es4 ,motion1 h[ev]1 is b *ange ( place1 & at e in/ant ! body is 9 ! exact place x w\ld h be5 9 if ! =ces _h act$ dur+ alt]nate in/ants in/ead ( act+ 9 ! same in/ant 7sav+ t if we suppose two =ces to act successively :i* are 9 tru? simultane\s we mu/ ( c\rse all[ !m d\ble ! "t74 ,x is evid5t1 !re=e1 t ea* =ce has _h1 dur+ ea* in/ant1 all ! effect :i* belong$ to x2 & t ! modify+ influ5ce :i* "o ( two concurr5t causes is said to ex]cise ) respect to ! o!r may be consid]$ z ex]t$ n ov] ! action ( ! cause itself1 b ov] ! effect aft] x is complet$4 ,= all purposes ( pr$ict+1 calculat+1 or expla9+ _! jo9t result1 causes :i* comp\nd _! effects may be treat$ z if !y produc$ simultane\sly ea* ( !m its own effect1 & all ^! effects co-exi/$ visibly4 ,s9ce ! laws ( causes are z really fulfill$ :5 ! causes are said to be c\nt]act$ by oppos+ causes1 z :5 !y are left to _! own undi/urb$ action1 we mu/ be cauti\s n to express ! laws 9 su* t]ms z w\ld r5d] ! ass]tion ( _! be+ fulfill$ 9 ^? cases a contradiction4 ,if1 = in/ance1 x 7 /at$ z a law ( nature t a body to :i* a =ce is appli$ moves 9 ! direction ( ! =ce1 ) a velocity proportion$ to ! =ce directly1 & to its own mass inv]sely2 :5 9 po9t ( fact "s bodies to :i* a =ce is appli$ d n move at all1 & ^? :i* d move 7at lea/ 9 ! region ( our e>?7 are1 f ! v fir/1 ret>d$ by ! action ( gravity & o!r resi/+ =ces1 & at la/ /opp$ altoge!r2 x is cle> t ! g5]al proposition1 ?\gh x w\ld be true "u a c]ta9 hypo!sis1 w\ld n express ! facts z !y actually occur4 ,to accommodate ! expression ( ! law to ! real ph5om5a1 we mu/ say1 n t ! object moves1 b t x t5ds to move1 9 ! direction & ) ! velocity specifi$4 ,we might1 inde$1 gu>d our expression 9 a diff]5t mode1 by say+ t ! body moves 9 t mann] unless prev5t$1 or except 9 s f> z prev5t$1 by "s c\nt]act+ cause4 ,b ! body does n only move 9 t mann] unless c\nt]act$2 x t5ds to move 9 t mann] ev5 :5 c\nt]act$2 x /ill ex]ts1 9 ! orig9al direction1 ! same en]gy ( movem5t z if its fir/ impulse _h be5 undi/urb$1 & produces1 by t en]gy1 an exactly equival5t quantity ( effect4 ,?is is true ev5 :5 ! =ce leaves ! body z x f\nd x1 9 a /ate ( absolute re/2 z :5 we attempt to raise a body ( ?ree tons' weight ) a =ce equal to "o ton4 ,= if1 :ile we are apply+ ?is =ce1 w9d or wat] or any o!r ag5t supplies an additional =ce j exce$+ two tons1 ! body w be rais$2 ?us prov+ t ! =ce we appli$ ex]t$ its full effect1 by neutraliz+ an equival5t portion ( ! weight :i* x 0 insuffici5t altoge!r to ov]come4 ,& if1 :ile we are ex]t+ ?is =ce ( "o ton ^u ! object 9 a direction contr>y to t ( gravity1 x be put into a scale & weigh$1 x w be f\nd to h lo/ a ton ( its weight1 or1 9 o!r words1 to press d[nw>d ) a =ce only equal to ! diff]5ce ( ! two =ces4 ,^! facts are correctly indicat$ by ! expression t5d5cy4 ,all laws ( causation1 9 consequ5ce ( _! liability to be c\nt]act$1 require to be /at$ 9 words affirmative ( t5d5cies only1 & n ( actual results4 ,9 ^? sci5ces ( causation :i* h an accurate nom5clature1 !re are special words :i* signify a t5d5cy to ! p>ticul> effect ) :i* ! sci5ce is conv]sant2 ?us pressure1 9 me*anics1 is synonym\s ) t5d5cy to motion1 & =ces are n reason$ on z caus+ actual motion1 b z ex]t+ pressure4 ,a simil> improvem5t 9 t]m9ology w\ld be v salut>y 9 _m o!r bran*es ( sci5ce4 ,! habit ( neglect+ ?is necess>y elem5t 9 ! precise expression ( ! laws ( nature1 has giv5 bir? to ! popul> prejudice t all g5]al tru?s h exceptions2 & mu* unm]it$ di/ru/ has !nce accru$ to ! conclusions ( sci5ce1 :5 !y h be5 submitt$ to ! judgm5t ( m9ds insuffici5tly discipl9$ & cultivat$4 ,! r\gh g5]alizations sugge/$ by common obs]vation usually h exceptions2 b pr9ciples ( sci5ce1 or1 9 o!r words1 laws ( causation1 h n4 8,:at is ?\ght to be an exception to a pr9ciple0 7to quote words us$ on a diff]5t occasion71 8is always "s o!r & di/9ct pr9ciple cutt+ into ! =m]2 "s o!r =ce :i* imp+es7#adh7 aga9/ ! fir/ =ce1 & deflects x f its direction4 ,!re are n a law & an exception to t law1 ! law act+ 9 n9ety-n9e cases1 & ! exception 9 "o4 ,!re are two laws1 ea* possibly act+ 9 ! :ole hundr$ cases1 & br++ ab\t a common effect by _! conjunct op]ation4 ,if ! =ce :i*1 be+ ! less conspicu\s ( ! two1 is call$ ! di/urb+ =ce1 prevails suffici5tly ov] ! o!r =ce 9 "s "o case1 to con/itute t case :at is commonly call$ an exception1 ! same di/urb+ =ce probably acts z a modify+ cause 9 _m o!r cases :i* no "o w call exceptions4 8,?us if x 7 /at$ to be a law ( nature t all heavy bodies fall to ! gr\nd1 x w\ld probably be said t ! resi/ance ( ! atmosph]e1 :i* prev5ts a balloon f fall+1 con/itutes ! balloon an exception to t pret5d$ law ( nature4 ,b ! real law is1 t all heavy bodies t5d to fall2 & to ?is !re is no exception1 n ev5 ! sun & moon2 = ev5 !y1 z e a/ronom] kn[s1 t5d t[>d ! e>?1 ) a =ce exactly equal to t ) :i* ! e>? t5ds t[>d !m4 ,! resi/ance ( ! atmosph]e might1 9 ! p>ticul> case ( ! balloon1 f a misappreh5sion ( :at ! law ( gravitation is1 be said to prevail ov] ! law2 b its di/urb+ effect is q z real 9 e o!r case1 s9ce ?\gh x does n prev5t1 x ret>ds ! fall ( all bodies :atev]4 ,! rule1 & ! s-call$ exception1 d n divide ! cases betwe5 !m2 ea* ( !m is a compreh5sive rule ext5d+ to all cases4 ,to call "o ( ^! concurr5t pr9ciples an exception to ! o!r1 is sup]ficial1 & contr>y to ! correct pr9ciples ( nom5clature & arrangem5t4 ,an effect ( precisely ! same k9d1 & aris+ f ! same cause1 ought n to be plac$ 9 two diff]5t categories1 m]ely z !re does or does n exi/ ano!r cause prepond]at+ ov] x407#adi7 #f4 ,we h n[ to consid] accord+ to :at me?od ^! complex effects1 comp\nd$ ( ! effects ( _m causes1 are to be /udi$2 h[ we are enabl$ to trace ea* effect to ! concurr5ce ( causes 9 :i* x orig9at$1 & asc]ta9 ! conditions ( its recurr5ce--! circum/ances 9 :i* x may be expect$ aga9 to occur4 ,! conditions ( a ph5om5on :i* arises f a composition ( causes1 may be inve/igat$ ei!r d$uctively or exp]im5tally4 ,! case1 x is evid5t1 is naturally susceptible ( ! d$uctive mode ( inve/igation4 ,! law ( an effect ( ?is description is a result ( ! laws ( ! sep>ate causes on ! comb9ation ( :i* x dep5ds1 & is1 !re=e1 9 itself capable ( be+ d$uc$ f ^! laws4 ,?is is call$ ! me?od a priori4 ,! o!r1 or a po/]iori me?od1 pr(esses to proce$ accord+ to ! canons ( exp]im5tal inquiry4 ,consid]+ ! :ole assemblage ( concurr5t causes :i* produc$ ! ph5om5on1 z "o s+le cause1 x attempts to asc]ta9 ! cause 9 ! ord9>y mann]1 by a comp>ison ( in/ances4 ,?is second me?od subdivides itself into two diff]5t v>ieties4 ,if x m]ely collates in/ances ( ! effect1 x is a me?od ( pure obs]vation4 ,if x op]ates ^u ! causes1 & tries diff]5t comb9ations ( !m1 9 hopes ( ultimately hitt+ ! precise comb9ation :i* w produce ! giv5 total effect1 x is a me?od ( exp]im5t4 ,9 ord] m completely to cle> up ! nature ( ea* ( ^! ?ree me?ods1 & det]m9e :i* ( !m des]ves ! pref]5ce1 x w be exp$i5t 7con=mably to a favorite maxim ( ,"l ,*ancellor ,eldon1 to :i*1 ?\gh x has (t5 incurr$ philosophical ridicule1 a deep] philosophy w n refuse its sanction7 to 8clo! !m 9 circum/ances40 ,we %all select = ?is purpose a case :i* z yet furni%es no v brilliant example ( ! success ( any ( ! ?ree me?ods1 b :i* is all ! m suit$ to illu/rate ! difficulties inh]5t 9 !m4 ,let ! subject ( inquiry be1 ! conditions ( heal? & disease 9 ! human body2 or 7= great] simplicity7 ! conditions ( recov]y f a giv5 disease2 & 9 ord] to n>r[ ! "q /ill m1 let x be limit$1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 to ?is "o inquiry3 ,is1 or is n1 "s p>ticul> m$icam5t 7m]cury1 = in/ance7 a rem$y = ! giv5 disease4 ,n[1 ! d$uctive me?od w\ld set out f kn[n prop]ties ( m]cury1 & kn[n laws ( ! human body1 & by reason+ f ^!1 w\ld attempt to discov] :e!r m]cury w act ^u ! body :5 9 ! morbid condition suppos$1 9 su* a mann] z w\ld t5d to re/ore heal?4 ,! exp]im5tal me?od w\ld simply adm9i/] m]cury 9 z _m cases z possible1 not+ ! age1 sex1 temp]am5t1 & o!r peculi>ities ( bodily con/itution1 ! p>ticul> =m or v>iety ( ! disease1 ! p>ticul> /age ( its progress1 etc41 rem>k+ 9 :i* ( ^! cases x 0 att5d$ ) a salut>y effect1 & ) :at circum/ances x 0 on ^? occasions comb9$4 ,! me?od ( simple obs]vation w\ld comp>e in/ances ( recov]y1 to f9d :e!r !y agre$ 9 hav+ be5 prec$$ by ! adm9i/ration ( m]cury2 or w\ld comp>e in/ances ( recov]y ) in/ances ( failure1 to f9d cases :i*1 agree+ 9 all o!r respects1 diff]$ only 9 ! fact t m]cury _h be5 adm9i/]$1 or t x _h n4 #g4 ,t ! la/ ( ^! ?ree modes ( inve/igation is applicable to ! case1 no "o has ev] s]i\sly cont5d$4 ,no conclusions ( value on a subject ( su* intricacy ev] 7 obta9$ 9 t way4 ,! utmo/ t c\ld result w\ld be a vague g5]al impression = or aga9/ ! efficacy ( m]cury1 ( no avail = guidance unless confirm$ by "o ( ! o!r two me?ods4 ,n t ! results1 :i* ?is me?od /rives to obta91 w\ld n be ( ! utmo/ possible value if !y c\ld be obta9$4 ,if all ! cases ( recov]y :i* pres5t$ !mselves1 9 an exam9ation ext5d+ to a great numb] ( in/ances1 7 cases 9 :i* m]cury _h be5 adm9i/]$1 we might g5]alize ) confid5ce f ?is exp]i5ce1 & %\ld h obta9$ a conclusion ( real value4 ,b no su* basis = g5]alization c we1 9 a case ( ?is description1 hope to obta94 ,! reason is t :i* we h spok5 ( z con/itut+ ! *>act]i/ic imp]fection ( ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 ,plurality ( ,causes4 ,suppos+ ev5 t m]cury does t5d to cure ! disease1 s _m o!r causes1 bo? natural & artificial1 also t5d to cure x1 t !re are sure to be abundant in/ances ( recov]y 9 :i* m]cury has n be5 adm9i/]$1 unless1 inde$1 ! practice be to adm9i/] x 9 all cases2 on :i* supposition x w equally be f\nd 9 ! cases ( failure4 ,:5 an effect results f ! union ( _m causes1 ! %>e :i* ea* has 9 ! det]m9ation ( ! effect c n 9 g5]al be great1 & ! effect is n likely1 ev5 9 its pres5ce or abs5ce1 /ill less 9 its v>iations1 to foll[1 ev5 approximately1 any "o ( ! causes4 ,recov]y f a disease is an ev5t to :i*1 9 e case1 _m influ5ces mu/ concur4 ,m]cury may be "o su* influ5ce2 b f ! v fact t !re are _m o!r su*1 x w necess>ily happ5 t al?\gh m]cury is adm9i/]$1 ! pati5t1 = want ( o!r concurr+ influ5ces1 w (t5 n recov]1 & t he (t5 w recov] :5 x is n adm9i/]$1 ! o!r favorable influ5ces be+ suffici5tly p[]ful )\t x4 ,nei!r1 !re=e1 w ! in/ances ( recov]y agree 9 ! adm9i/ration ( m]cury1 nor w ! in/ances ( failure agree 9 its non-adm9i/ration4 ,x is mu* if1 by multipli$ & accurate returns f hospitals & ! l1 we c collect t !re are r m recov]ies & r few] failures :5 m]cury is adm9i/]$ ?an :5 x is n2 a result ( v second>y value ev5 z a guide to practice1 & almo/ wor?less z a contribution to ! !ory ( ! subject47#aej7 #h4 ,! inapplicability ( ! me?od ( simple obs]vation to asc]ta9 ! conditions ( effects dep5d5t on _m concurr+ causes1 be+ ?us recogniz$1 we %all next inquire :e!r any great] b5efit c be expect$ f ! o!r bran* ( ! a po/]iori me?od1 t :i* proce$s by directly try+ diff]5t comb9ations ( causes1 ei!r artificially produc$ or f\nd 9 nature1 & tak+ notice :at is _! effect2 z1 = example1 by actually try+ ! effect ( m]cury 9 z _m diff]5t circum/ances z possible4 ,?is me?od diff]s f ! "o :i* we h j exam9$ 9 turn+ our att5tion directly to ! causes or ag5ts1 in/ead ( turn+ x to ! effect1 recov]y f ! disease4 ,& s9ce1 z a g5]al rule1 ! effects ( causes are f> m accessible to our /udy ?an ! causes ( effects1 x is natural to ?9k t ?is me?od has a mu* bett] *ance ( prov+ successful ?an ! =m]4 ,! me?od n[ "u consid]ation is call$ ! ,empirical ,me?od2 & 9 ord] to e/imate x fairly1 we mu/ suppose x to be completely1 n incompletely1 empirical4 ,we mu/ exclude f x e ?+ :i* p>takes ( ! nature n ( an exp]im5tal b ( a d$uctive op]ation4 ,if1 = in/ance1 we try exp]im5ts ) m]cury ^u a p]son 9 heal?1 9 ord] to asc]ta9 ! g5]al laws ( its action ^u ! human body1 & !n reason f ^! laws to det]m9e h[ x w act ^u p]sons affect$ ) a p>ticul> disease1 ?is may be a really effectual me?od2 b ?is is d$uction4 ,! exp]im5tal me?od does n d]ive ! law ( a complex case f ! simpl] laws :i* conspire to produce x1 b makes its exp]im5ts directly ^u ! complex case4 ,we mu/ make entire ab/raction ( all k ( ! simpl] t5d5cies1 ! modi op]&i ( m]cury 9 detail4 ,our exp]im5tation mu/ aim at obta9+ a direct answ] to ! specific "q1 ,does or does n m]cury t5d to cure ! p>ticul> disease8 ,let u see1 !re=e1 h[ f> ! case admits ( ! obs]vance ( ^? rules ( exp]im5tation :i* x is f\nd necess>y to obs]ve 9 o!r cases4 ,:5 we devise an exp]im5t to asc]ta9 ! effect ( a giv5 ag5t1 !re are c]ta9 precautions :i* we nev]1 if we c help x1 omit4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 we introduce ! ag5t into ! mid/ ( a set ( circum/ances :i* we h exactly asc]ta9$4 ,x ne$s h>dly be rem>k$ h[ f> ?is condition is f be+ realiz$ 9 any case connect$ ) ! ph5om5a ( life2 h[ f> we are f kn[+ :at are all ! circum/ances :i* pre-exi/ 9 any in/ance 9 :i* m]cury is adm9i/]$ to a liv+ be+4 ,?is difficulty1 h[ev]1 ?\gh insup]able 9 mo/ cases1 may n be s 9 all2 !re are sometimes concurr5ces ( _m causes1 9 :i* we yet "k accurately :at ! causes are4 ,moreov]1 ! difficulty may be att5uat$ by suffici5t multiplication ( exp]im5ts1 9 circum/ances r5d]+ x improbable t any ( ! unkn[n causes %\ld exi/ 9 !m all4 ,b :5 we h got cle> ( ?is ob/acle1 we enc\nt] ano!r /ill m s]i\s4 ,9 o!r cases1 :5 we int5d to try an exp]im5t1 we d n reckon x en\gh t !re be no circum/ance 9 ! case ! pres5ce ( :i* is unkn[n to u4 ,we require1 also1 t none ( ! circum/ances :i* we d "k %all h effects susceptible ( be+ conf\nd$ ) ^? ( ! ag5ts ^: prop]ties we wi% to /udy4 ,we take ! utmo/ pa9s to exclude all causes capable ( composition ) ! giv5 cause2 or1 if =c$ to let 9 any su* causes1 we take c>e to make !m su* t we c compute & all[ = _! influ5ce1 s t ! effect ( ! giv5 cause may1 aft] ! subduction ( ^? o!r effects1 be app>5t z a residual ph5om5on4 ,^! precautions are inapplicable to su* cases z we are n[ consid]+4 ,! m]cury ( our exp]im5t be+ tri$ ) an unkn[n multitude 7or ev5 let x be a kn[n multitude7 ( o!r influ5c+ circum/ances1 ! m]e fact ( _! be+ influ5c+ circum/ances implies t !y disguise ! effect ( ! m]cury1 & preclude u f kn[+ :e!r x has any effect or n4 ,unless we already knew :at & h[ mu* is ow+ to e o!r circum/ance 7t is1 unless we suppose ! v problem solv$ :i* we are consid]+ ! means ( solv+71 we c n tell t ^? o!r circum/ances may n h produc$ ! :ole ( ! effect1 indep5d5tly or ev5 9 spite ( ! m]cury4 ,! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 9 ! ord9>y mode ( its use1 namely1 by comp>+ ! /ate ( ?+s foll[+ ! exp]im5t ) ! /ate :i* prec$$ x1 is ?us1 9 ! case ( int]mixture ( effects1 entirely unavail+2 because o!r causes ?an t ^: effect we are seek+ to det]m9e h be5 op]at+ dur+ ! transition4 ,z = ! o!r mode ( employ+ ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 namely1 by comp>+1 n ! same case at two diff]5t p]iods1 b diff]5t cases1 ?is 9 ! pres5t in/ance is q *im]ical4 ,9 ph5om5a s complicat$ x is que/ionable if two cases1 simil> 9 all respects b "o1 ev] occurr$2 & 7 !y to occur1 we c\ld n possibly "k t !y 7 s exactly simil>4 ,any ?+ l a sci5tific use ( ! me?od ( exp]im5t1 9 ^! complicat$ cases1 is !re=e out ( ! "q4 ,we c g5]ally1 ev5 9 ! mo/ favorable cases1 only discov] by a succession ( trials1 t a c]ta9 cause is v (t5 foll[$ by a c]ta9 effect4 ,=1 9 "o ( ^! conjunct effects1 ! portion :i* is det]m9$ by any "o ( ! influ5c+ ag5ts1 is usually1 z we be=e rem>k$1 b small2 & x mu/ be a m pot5t cause ?an mo/1 if ev5 ! t5d5cy :i* x really ex]ts is n ?w>t$ by o!r t5d5cies 9 ne>ly z _m cases z x is fulfill$4 ,"s causes inde$ !re are :i* are m pot5t ?an any c\nt]act+ causes to :i* !y are commonly expos$2 & accord+ly !re are "s tru?s 9 m$ic9e :i* are suffici5tly prov$ by direct exp]im5t4 ,( ^! ! mo/ famili> are ^? t relate to ! efficacy ( ! sub/ances kn[n z ,specifics = p>ticul> diseases1 8qu99e1 col*icum1 lime-juice1 cod-liv] oil107#aea7 & a few o!rs4 ,ev5 ^! are n inv>iably foll[$ by success2 b !y succe$ 9 s l>ge a proportion ( cases1 & aga9/ su* p[]ful ob/acles1 t _! t5d5cy to re/ore heal? 9 ! disord]s = :i* !y are prescrib$ may be reg>d$ z an exp]im5tal tru?47#aeb7 ,if s little c be done by ! exp]im5tal me?od to det]m9e ! conditions ( an effect ( _m comb9$ causes1 9 ! case ( m$ical sci5ce2 /ill less is ?is me?od applicable to a class ( ph5om5a m complicat$ ?an ev5 ^? ( physiology1 ! ph5om5a ( politics & hi/ory4 ,!re1 ,plurality ( ,causes exi/s 9 almo/ b\ndless excess1 & effects are1 = ! mo/ "p1 inextricably int]wov5 ) "o ano!r4 ,to add to ! emb>rassm5t1 mo/ ( ! inquiries 9 political sci5ce relate to ! production ( effects ( a mo/ compreh5sive description1 su* z ! public weal?1 public security1 public morality1 & ! l3 results liable to be affect$ directly or indirectly ei!r 9 plus or 9 m9us by ne>ly e fact :i* exi/s1 or ev5t :i* occurs1 9 human society4 ,! vulg> notion1 t ! safe me?ods on political subjects are ^? ( ,baconian induction--t ! true guide is n g5]al reason+1 b specific exp]i5ce--w "o day be quot$ z among ! mo/ unequivocal m>ks ( a l[ /ate ( ! speculative faculties 9 any age 9 :i* x is accr$it$4 ,no?+ c be m ludicr\s ?an ! sort ( p>odies on exp]im5tal reason+ :i* "o is accu/om$ to meet )1 n 9 popul> discussion only1 b 9 grave treatises1 :5 ! affairs ( nations are ! !me4 8,h[10 x is ask$1 8c an in/itution be bad1 :5 ! c\ntry has prosp]$ "u x80 8,h[ c su* or su* causes h contribut$ to ! prosp]ity ( "o c\ntry1 :5 ano!r has prosp]$ )\t !m80 ,:oev] makes use ( an argum5t ( ?is k9d1 n int5d+ to deceive1 %\ld be s5t back to le>n ! elem5ts ( "s "o ( ! m easy physical sci5ces4 ,su* reason]s ignore ! fact ( ,plurality ( ,causes 9 ! v case :i* af=ds ! mo/ signal example ( x4 ,s little c\ld be conclud$1 9 su* a case1 f any possible collation ( individual in/ances1 t ev5 ! impossibility1 9 social ph5om5a1 ( mak+ artificial exp]im5ts1 a circum/ance o!rwise s prejudicial to directly inductive inquiry1 h>dly af=ds1 9 ?is case1 additional reason ( regret4 ,= ev5 if we c\ld try exp]im5ts ^u a nation or ^u ! human race1 ) z little scruple z ,m4 ,mag5die tri$ !m on dogs & rabbits1 we %\ld nev] succe$ 9 mak+ two in/ances id5tical 9 e respect except ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( "s "o def9ite circum/ance4 ,! ne>e/ approa* to an exp]im5t 9 ! philosophical s5se1 :i* takes place 9 politics1 is ! introduction ( a new op]ative elem5t into national affairs by "s special & assignable measure ( gov]nm5t1 su* z ! enactm5t or repeal ( a p>ticul> law4 ,b :]e !re are s _m influ5ces at "w1 x requires "s "t = ! influ5ce ( any new cause ^u national ph5om5a to become app>5t2 & z ! causes op]at+ 9 s ext5sive a sph]e are n only inf9itely num]\s1 b 9 a /ate ( p]petual alt]ation1 x is always c]ta9 t be=e ! effect ( ! new cause becomes conspicu\s en\gh to be a subject ( induction1 s _m ( ! o!r influ5c+ circum/ances w h *ang$ z to vitiate ! exp]im5t47#aec7 ,two1 !re=e1 ( ! ?ree possible me?ods = ! /udy ( ph5om5a result+ f ! composition ( _m causes1 be+1 f ! v nature ( ! case1 ineffici5t & illusory1 !re rema9s only ! ?ird--t :i* consid]s ! causes sep>ately1 & inf]s ! effect f ! balance ( ! diff]5t t5d5cies :i* produce x3 9 %ort1 ! d$uctive1 or a priori me?od4 ,! m p>ticul> consid]ation ( ?is intellectual process requires a *apt] to itself4 ,*apt] ,,xi4 ,( ,! ,d$uctive ,me?od4 #a4 ,! mode ( inve/igation :i*1 f ! prov$ inapplicability ( direct me?ods ( obs]vation & exp]im5t1 rema9s to u z ! ma9 s\rce ( ! k we possess or c acquire respect+ ! conditions & laws ( recurr5ce1 ( ! m complex ph5om5a1 is call$1 9 its mo/ g5]al expression1 ! ,d$uctive ,me?od2 & consi/s ( ?ree op]ations3 ! fir/1 "o ( direct induction2 ! second1 ( ratioc9ation2 ! ?ird1 ( v]ification4 ,i call ! fir/ /ep 9 ! process an inductive op]ation1 because !re mu/ be a direct induction z ! basis ( ! :ole2 ?\gh 9 _m p>ticul> inve/igations ! place ( ! induction may be suppli$ by a prior d$uction2 b ! premises ( ?is prior d$uction mu/ h be5 d]iv$ f induction4 ,! problem ( ! ,d$uctive ,me?od is1 to f9d ! law ( an effect1 f ! laws ( ! diff]5t t5d5cies ( :i* x is ! jo9t result4 ,! fir/ requisite1 !re=e1 is to "k ! laws ( ^? t5d5cies2 ! law ( ea* ( ! concurr5t causes3 & ?is supposes a previ\s process ( obs]vation or exp]im5t ^u ea* cause sep>ately2 or else a previ\s d$uction1 :i* also mu/ dep5d = its ultimate premises on obs]vation or exp]im5t4 ,?us1 if ! subject be social or hi/orical ph5om5a1 ! premises ( ! ,d$uctive ,me?od mu/ be ! laws ( ! causes :i* det]m9e t class ( ph5om5a2 & ^? causes are human actions1 toge!r ) ! g5]al outw>d circum/ances "u ! influ5ce ( :i* mank9d are plac$1 & :i* con/itute man's position on ! e>?4 ,! ,d$uctive ,me?od1 appli$ to social ph5om5a1 mu/ beg91 !re=e1 by inve/igat+1 or mu/ suppose to h be5 already inve/igat$1 ! laws ( human action1 & ^? prop]ties ( outw>d ?+s by :i* ! actions ( human be+s 9 society are det]m9$4 ,"s ( ^! g5]al tru?s w naturally be obta9$ by obs]vation & exp]im5t1 o!rs by d$uction3 ! m complex laws ( human action1 = example1 may be d$uc$ f ! simpl] ones2 b ! simple or elem5t>y laws w always1 & necess>ily1 h be5 obta9$ by a directly inductive process4 ,to asc]ta91 !n1 ! laws ( ea* sep>ate cause :i* takes a %>e 9 produc+ ! effect1 is ! fir/ desid]atum ( ! ,d$uctive ,me?od4 ,to "k :at ! causes are :i* mu/ be subject$ to ?is process ( /udy1 may or may n be difficult4 ,9 ! case la/ m5tion$1 ?is fir/ condition is ( easy fulfillm5t4 ,t social ph5om5a dep5d on ! acts & m5tal impressions ( human be+s1 nev] c\ld h be5 a matt] ( any d\bt1 h[ev] imp]fectly x may h be5 kn[n ei!r by :at laws ^? impressions & actions are gov]n$1 or to :at social consequ5ces _! laws naturally lead4 ,nei!r1 aga91 aft] physical sci5ce _h atta9$ a c]ta9 developm5t1 c\ld !re be any real d\bt :]e to look = ! laws on :i* ! ph5om5a ( life dep5d1 s9ce !y mu/ be ! me*anical & *emical laws ( ! solid & fluid sub/ances compos+ ! organiz$ body & ! m$ium 9 :i* x subsi/s1 toge!r ) ! peculi> vital laws ( ! diff]5t tissues con/itut+ ! organic /ructure4 ,9 o!r cases1 really f> m simple ?an ^!1 x 0 mu* less obvi\s 9 :at qu>t] ! causes 7 to be look$ =3 z 9 ! case ( ! cele/ial ph5om5a4 ,until1 by comb9+ ! laws ( c]ta9 causes1 x 0 f\nd t ^? laws expla9$ all ! facts :i* exp]i5ce _h prov$ conc]n+ ! heav5ly motions1 & l$ to pr$ictions :i* x always v]ifi$1 mank9d nev] knew t ^? 7 ! causes4 ,b :e!r we are able to put ! "q be=e1 or n until aft]1 we h become capable ( answ]+ x1 9 ei!r case x mu/ be answ]$2 ! laws ( ! diff]5t causes mu/ be asc]ta9$1 be=e we c proce$ to d$uce f !m ! conditions ( ! effect4 ,! mode ( asc]ta9+ ^? laws nei!r is1 nor c be any o!r ?an ! f\rfold me?od ( exp]im5tal inquiry1 already discuss$4 ,a few rem>ks on ! application ( t me?od to cases ( ! ,composition ( ,causes are all t is requisite4 ,x is obvi\s t we c n expect to f9d ! law ( a t5d5cy by an induction f cases 9 :i* ! t5d5cy is c\nt]act$4 ,! laws ( motion c\ld nev] h be5 br\ght to light f ! obs]vation ( bodies kept at re/ by ! equilibrium ( oppos+ =ces4 ,ev5 :]e ! t5d5cy is n1 9 ! ord9>y s5se ( ! ^w1 c\nt]act$1 b only modifi$1 by hav+ its effects comp\nd$ ) ! effects aris+ f "s o!r t5d5cy or t5d5cies1 we are /ill 9 an unfavorable position = trac+1 by means ( su* cases1 ! law ( ! t5d5cy itself4 ,x w\ld h be5 sc>cely possible to discov] ! law t e body 9 motion t5ds to cont9ue mov+ 9 a /raight l9e1 by an induction f in/ances 9 :i* ! motion is deflect$ into a curve1 by be+ comp\nd$ ) ! effect ( an accel]at+ =ce4 ,not)/&+ ! res\rces af=d$ 9 ?is description ( cases by ! ,me?od ( ,concomitant ,v>iations1 ! pr9ciples ( a judici\s exp]im5tation prescribe t ! law ( ea* ( ! t5d5cies %\ld be /udi$1 if possible1 9 cases 9 :i* t t5d5cy op]ates alone1 or 9 comb9ation ) no ag5cies b ^? ( :i* ! effect c1 f previ\s k1 be calculat$ & all[$ =4 ,accord+ly1 9 ! cases1 un=tunately v num]\s & important1 9 :i* ! causes d n suff] !mselves to be sep>at$ & obs]v$ ap>t1 !re is mu* difficulty 9 lay+ d[n ) due c]ta9ty ! inductive f\ndation necess>y to support ! d$uctive me?od4 ,?is difficulty is mo/ ( all conspicu\s 9 ! case ( physiological ph5om5a2 x be+ seldom possible to sep>ate ! diff]5t ag5cies :i* collectively compose an organiz$ body1 )\t de/roy+ ! v ph5om5a :i* x is our object to inve/igate3 ----foll[+ life1 9 creatures we dissect1 ,we lose x1 9 ! mom5t we detect4 ,& = ?is reason ,i am incl9$ to ! op9ion t physiology 7greatly & rapidly progressive z x n[ is7 is emb>rass$ by great] natural difficulties1 & is probably susceptible ( a less degree ( ultimate p]fection1 ?an ev5 ! social sci5ce2 inasmu* z x is possible to /udy ! laws & op]ations ( "o human m9d ap>t f o!r m9ds1 mu* less imp]fectly ?an we c /udy ! laws ( "o organ or tissue ( ! human body ap>t f ! o!r organs or tissues4 ,x has be5 judici\sly rem>k$ t pa?ological facts1 or1 to speak 9 common language1 diseases 9 _! diff]5t =ms & degrees af=d 9 ! case ( physiological inve/igation ! mo/ valuable equival5t to exp]im5tation prop]ly s call$2 inasmu* z !y (t5 exhibit to u a def9ite di/urbance 9 "s "o organ or organic function1 ! rema9+ organs & functions be+1 9 ! fir/ in/ance at lea/1 unaffect$4 ,x is true t f ! p]petual actions & reactions :i* are go+ on among all p>ts ( ! organic economy1 !re c be no prolong$ di/urbance 9 any "o function )\t ultimately involv+ _m ( ! o!rs2 & :5 once x has done s1 ! exp]im5t = ! mo/ "p loses its sci5tific value4 ,all dep5ds on obs]v+ ! e>ly /ages ( ! d]angem5t2 :i*1 un=tunately1 are ( necessity ! lea/ m>k$4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! organs & functions n di/urb$ 9 ! fir/ in/ance become affect$ 9 a fix$ ord] ( succession1 "s light is !reby ?r[n ^u ! action :i* "o organ ex]cises ov] ano!r3 & we occasionally obta9 a s]ies ( effects :i* we c ref] ) "s confid5ce to ! orig9al local d]angem5t2 b = ?is x is necess>y t we %\ld "k t ! orig9al d]angem5t 0 local4 ,if x 0 :at is t]m$ con/itutional2 t is1 if we d n "k 9 :at "p ( ! animal economy x took its rise1 or ! precise nature ( ! di/urbance :i* took place 9 t "p1 we are unable to det]m9e :i* ( ! v>i\s d]angem5ts 0 cause & :i* effect2 :i* ( !m 7 produc$ by "o ano!r1 & :i* by ! direct1 ?\gh p]haps t>dy1 action ( ! orig9al cause4 ,besides natural pa?ological facts1 we c produce pa?ological facts artificially3 we c try exp]im5ts1 ev5 9 ! popul> s5se ( ! t]m1 by subject+ ! liv+ be+ to "s ext]nal ag5t1 su* z ! m]cury ( our =m] example1 or ! section ( a n]ve to asc]ta9 ! functions ( diff]5t p>ts ( ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,z ?is exp]im5tation is n int5d$ to obta9 a direct solution ( any practical "q1 b to discov] g5]al laws1 f :i* aft]w>d ! conditions ( any p>ticul> effect may be obta9$ by d$uction1 ! be/ cases to select are ^? ( :i* ! circum/ances c be be/ asc]ta9$3 & su* are g5]ally n ^? 9 :i* !re is any practical object 9 view4 ,! exp]im5ts are be/ tri$1 n 9 a /ate ( disease1 :i* is ess5tially a *angeable /ate1 b 9 ! condition ( heal?1 comp>atively a fix$ /ate4 ,9 ! "o1 unusual ag5cies are at "w1 ! results ( :i* we h no means ( pr$ict+3 9 ! o!r1 ! c\rse ( ! accu/om$ physiological ph5om5a w\ld1 x may g5]ally be presum$1 rema9 undi/urb$1 7 x n = ! di/urb+ cause :i* we introduce4 ,su*1 ) ! occasional aid ( ! ,me?od ( ,concomitant ,v>iations 7! latt] n less encumb]$ ?an ! m elem5t>y me?ods by ! peculi> difficulties ( ! subject71 are our inductive res\rces = asc]ta9+ ! laws ( ! causes consid]$ sep>ately1 :5 we h x n 9 our p[] to make trial ( !m 9 a /ate ( actual sep>ation4 ,! insuffici5cy ( ^! res\rces is s gl>+1 t no "o c be surpris$ at ! backw>d /ate ( ! sci5ce ( physiology2 9 :i* inde$ our k ( causes is s imp]fect1 t we c nei!r expla91 nor c\ld )\t specific exp]i5ce h pr$ict$1 _m ( ! facts :i* are c]tifi$ to u by ! mo/ ord9>y obs]vation4 ,=tunately1 we are mu* bett] in=m$ z to ! empirical laws ( ! ph5om5a1 t is1 ! uni=mities respect+ :i* we c n yet decide :e!r !y are cases ( causation1 or m]e results ( x4 ,n only has ! ord] 9 :i* ! facts ( organization & life successively manife/ !mselves1 f ! fir/ g]m ( exi/5ce to dea?1 be5 f\nd to be uni=m1 & v accurately asc]ta9able2 b1 by a great application ( ! ,me?od ( ,concomitant ,v>iations to ! entire facts ( comp>ative anatomy & physiology1 ! *>act]i/ic organic /ructure correspond+ to ea* class ( functions has be5 det]m9$ ) consid]able precision4 ,:e!r ^! organic conditions are ! :ole ( ! conditions1 & 9 _m cases :e!r !y are conditions at all1 or m]e collat]al effects ( "s common cause1 we are q ignorant2 nor are we ev] likely to "k1 unless we c\ld con/ruct an organiz$ body & try :e!r x w\ld live4 ,"u su* disadvantages d we1 9 cases ( ?is description1 attempt ! initial1 or inductive /ep1 9 ! application ( ! ,d$uctive ,me?od to complex ph5om5a4 ,b su*1 =tunately1 is n ! common case4 ,9 g5]al1 ! laws ( ! causes on :i* ! effect dep5ds may be obta9$ by an induction f comp>atively simple in/ances1 or1 at ! wor/1 by d$uction f ! laws ( simpl] causes1 s obta9$4 ,by simple in/ances are meant1 ( c\rse1 ^? 9 :i* ! action ( ea* cause 0 n int]mix$ or int]f]$ )1 or n to any great ext5t1 by o!r causes ^: laws 7 unkn[n4 ,& only :5 ! induction :i* furni%$ ! premises to ! ,d$uctive me?od re/$ on su* in/ances has ! application ( su* a me?od to ! asc]ta9m5t ( ! laws ( a complex effect1 be5 att5d$ ) brilliant results4 #b4 ,:5 ! laws ( ! causes h be5 asc]ta9$1 & ! fir/ /age ( ! great logical op]ation n[ "u discussion satisfactorily accompli%$1 ! second "p foll[s2 t ( det]m9+ f ! laws ( ! causes :at effect any giv5 comb9ation ( ^? causes w produce4 ,?is is a process ( calculation1 9 ! wid] s5se ( ! t]m2 & v (t5 involves processes ( calculation 9 ! n>r[e/ s5se4 ,x is a ratioc9ation2 & :5 our k ( ! causes is s p]fect z to ext5d to ! exact num]ical laws :i* !y obs]ve 9 produc+ _! effects1 ! ratioc9ation may reckon among its premises ! !orems ( ! sci5ce ( numb]1 9 ! :ole imm5se ext5t ( t sci5ce4 ,n only are ! mo/ advanc$ tru?s ( ma!matics (t5 requir$ to enable u to compute an effect1 ! num]ical law ( :i* we already "k2 b1 ev5 by ! aid ( ^? mo/ advanc$ tru?s1 we c g b a little way4 ,9 s simple a case z ! common problem ( ?ree bodies gravitat+ t[>d "o ano!r1 ) a =ce directly z _! mass & inv]sely z ! squ>e ( ! di/ance1 all ! res\rces ( ! calculus h n hi!rto suffic$ to obta9 any g5]al solution1 b an approximate "o4 ,9 a case a little m complex1 b /ill "o ( ! simple/ :i* arise 9 practice1 t ( ! motion ( a projectile1 ! causes :i* affect ! velocity & range 7= example7 ( a cannon-ball may be all kn[n & e/imat$3 ! =ce ( ! gunp[d]1 ! angle ( elevation1 ! d5sity ( ! air1 ! /r5g? & direction ( ! w9d2 b x is "o ( ! mo/ difficult ( ma!matical problems to comb9e all ^!1 s z to det]m9e ! effect result+ f _! collective action4 ,besides ! !orems ( numb]1 ^? ( geometry also come 9 z premises1 :]e ! effects take place 9 space1 & involve motion & ext5sion1 z 9 me*anics1 optics1 ac\/ics1 a/ronomy4 ,b :5 ! complication increases1 & ! effects are "u ! influ5ce ( s _m & su* %ift+ causes z to give no room ei!r = fix$ numb]s1 or = /raight l9es & regul> curves 7z 9 ! case ( physiological1 to say no?+ ( m5tal & social ph5om5a71 ! laws ( numb] & ext5sion are applicable1 if at all1 only on t l>ge scale on :i* precision ( details becomes unimportant4 ,al?\gh ^! laws play a conspicu\s "p 9 ! mo/ /rik+ examples ( ! inve/igation ( nature by ! ,d$uctive ,me?od1 z = example 9 ! ,newtonian !ory ( ! cele/ial motions1 !y are by no means an indisp5sable "p ( e su* process4 ,all t is ess5tial 9 x is reason+ f a g5]al law to a p>ticul> case1 t is1 det]m9+ by means ( ! p>ticul> circum/ances ( t case1 :at result is requir$ 9 t in/ance to fulfill ! law4 ,?us 9 ! ,torricellian exp]im5t1 if ! fact t air has weight _h be5 previ\sly kn[n1 x w\ld h be5 easy1 )\t any num]ical data1 to d$uce f ! g5]al law ( equilibrium1 t ! m]cury w\ld /& 9 ! tube at su* a height t ! column ( m]cury w\ld exactly balance a column ( ! atmosph]e ( equal diamet]2 because1 o!rwise1 equilibrium w\ld n exi/4 ,by su* ratioc9ations f ! sep>ate laws ( ! causes1 we may1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 succe$ 9 answ]+ ei!r ( ! foll[+ que/ions3 ,giv5 a c]ta9 comb9ation ( causes1 :at effect w foll[8 &1 ,:at comb9ation ( causes1 if x exi/$1 w\ld produce a giv5 effect8 ,9 ! "o case1 we det]m9e ! effect to be expect$ 9 any complex circum/ances ( :i* ! diff]5t elem5ts are kn[n3 9 ! o!r case we le>n1 accord+ to :at law--"u :at antec$5t conditions--a giv5 complex effect w occur4 #c4 ,b 7x may "h be ask$7 are n ! same argum5ts by :i* ! me?ods ( direct obs]vation & exp]im5t 7 set aside z illusory :5 appli$ to ! laws ( complex ph5om5a1 applicable ) equal =ce aga9/ ! ,me?od ( ,d$uction8 ,:5 9 e s+le in/ance a multitude1 (t5 an unkn[n multitude1 ( ag5cies1 are cla%+ & comb9+1 :at security h we t 9 our computation a priori we h tak5 all ^! into our reckon+8 ,h[ _m mu/ we n g5]ally be ignorant (8 ,among ^? :i* we "k1 h[ probable t "s h be5 ov]look$2 &1 ev5 7 all includ$1 h[ va9 ! pret5se ( summ+ up ! effects ( _m causes1 unless we "k accurately ! num]ical law ( ea*--a condition 9 mo/ cases n to be fulfill$2 & ev5 :5 x is fulfill$1 to make ! calculation transc5ds1 9 any b v simple cases1 ! utmo/ p[] ( ma!matical sci5ce ) all its mo/ mod]n improvem5ts4 ,^! objections h real weight1 & w\ld be altoge!r unansw]able1 if !re 7 no te/ by :i*1 :5 we employ ! ,d$uctive ,me?od1 we might judge :e!r an error ( any ( ! above descriptions _h be5 committ$ or n4 ,su* a te/1 h[ev]1 !re is3 & its application =ms1 "u ! "n ( ,v]ification1 ! ?ird ess5tial compon5t "p ( ! ,d$uctive ,me?od2 )\t :i* all ! results x c give h little o!r value ?an t ( conjecture4 ,to w>rant reliance on ! g5]al conclusions arriv$ at by d$uction1 ^! conclusions mu/ be f\nd1 on c>eful comp>ison1 to accord ) ! results ( direct obs]vation :]ev] x c be _h4 ,if1 :5 we h exp]i5ce to comp>e ) !m1 ?is exp]i5ce confirms !m1 we may safely tru/ to !m 9 o!r cases ( :i* our specific exp]i5ce is yet to come4 ,b if our d$uctions h l$ to ! conclusion t f a p>ticul> comb9ation ( causes a giv5 effect w\ld result1 !n 9 all kn[n cases :]e t comb9ation c be %[n to h exi/$1 & :]e ! effect has n foll[$1 we mu/ be able to %[ 7or at lea/ to make a probable surmise7 :at fru/rat$ x3 if we c n1 ! !ory is imp]fect1 & n yet to be reli$ ^u4 ,nor is ! v]ification complete1 unless "s ( ! cases 9 :i* ! !ory is borne out by ! obs]v$ result are ( at lea/ equal complexity ) any o!r cases 9 :i* its application c\ld be call$ =4 ,if direct obs]vation & collation ( in/ances h furni%$ u ) any empirical laws ( ! effect 7:e!r true 9 all obs]v$ cases1 or only true = ! mo/ "p71 ! mo/ effectual v]ification ( :i* ! !ory c\ld be susceptible1 w\ld be1 t x l$ d$uctively to ^? empirical laws2 t ! uni=mities1 :e!r complete or incomplete1 :i* 7 obs]v$ to exi/ among ! ph5om5a1 7 acc\nt$ = by ! laws ( ! causes--7 su* z c\ld n b exi/ if ^? be really ! causes by :i* ! ph5om5a are produc$4 ,?us x 0 v reasonably deem$ an ess5tial requisite ( any true !ory ( ! causes ( ! cele/ial motions1 t x %\ld lead by d$uction to ,kepl]'s laws2 :i*1 accord+ly1 ! ,newtonian !ory did4 ,9 ord]1 !re=e1 to facilitate ! v]ification ( !ories obta9$ by d$uction1 x is important t z _m z possible ( ! empirical laws ( ! ph5om5a %\ld be asc]ta9$1 by a comp>ison ( in/ances1 con=mably to ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t3 z well z 7x mu/ be add$7 t ! ph5om5a !mselves %\ld be describ$1 9 ! mo/ compreh5sive z well z accurate mann] possible2 by collect+ f ! obs]vation ( p>ts1 ! simple/ possible correct expressions = ! correspond+ :oles3 z :5 ! s]ies ( ! obs]v$ places ( a planet 0 fir/ express$ by a circle1 !n by a sy/em ( epicycles1 & subsequ5tly by an ellipse4 ,x is wor? rem>k+1 t complex in/ances :i* w\ld h be5 ( no use = ! discov]y ( ! simple laws into :i* we ultimately analyze _! ph5om5a1 nev]!less1 :5 !y h s]v$ to v]ify ! analysis1 become additional evid5ce ( ! laws !mselves4 ,al?\gh we c\ld n h got at ! law f complex cases1 /ill :5 ! law1 got at o!rwise1 is f\nd to be 9 accordance ) ! result ( a complex case1 t case becomes a new exp]im5t on ! law1 & helps to confirm :at x did n assi/ to discov]4 ,x is a new trial ( ! pr9ciple 9 a diff]5t set ( circum/ances2 & occasionally s]ves to elim9ate "s circum/ance n previ\sly exclud$1 & ! exclusion ( :i* might require an exp]im5t impossible to be execut$4 ,?is 0 /rik+ly conspicu\s 9 ! example =m]ly quot$1 9 :i* ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! obs]v$ & ! calculat$ velocity ( s\nd 0 asc]ta9$ to result f ! heat extricat$ by ! cond5sation :i* takes place 9 ea* sonor\s vibration4 ,?is 0 a trial1 9 new circum/ances1 ( ! law ( ! developm5t ( heat by compression2 & x add$ mat]ially to ! pro( ( ! univ]sality ( t law4 ,accord+ly1 any law ( nature is deem$ to h ga9$ 9 po9t ( c]ta9ty1 by be+ f\nd to expla9 "s complex case :i* _h n previ\sly be5 ?\ght ( 9 connection ) x2 & ?is inde$ is a consid]ation to :i* x is ! habit ( sci5tific inquir]s to atta* r too mu* value ?an too little4 ,to ! ,d$uctive ,me?od1 ?us *>act]iz$ 9 its ?ree con/itu5t p>ts1 ,induction1 ,ratioc9ation1 & ,v]ification1 ! human m9d is indebt$ = its mo/ conspicu\s triumphs 9 ! inve/igation ( nature4 ,to x we owe all ! !ories by :i* va/ & complicat$ ph5om5a are embrac$ "u a few simple laws1 :i*1 consid]$ z ! laws ( ^? great ph5om5a1 c\ld nev] h be5 detect$ by _! direct /udy4 ,we may =m "s conception ( :at ! me?od has done = u f ! case ( ! cele/ial motions3 "o ( ! simple/ among ! great] in/ances ( ! ,composition ( ,causes1 s9ce 7except 9 a few cases n ( prim>y importance7 ea* ( ! heav5ly bodies may be consid]$1 )\t mat]ial inaccuracy1 to be nev] at "o "t influ5c$ by ! attraction ( m ?an two bodies1 ! sun & "o o!r planet or satellite2 mak+1 ) ! reaction ( ! body itself1 & ! =ce g5]at$ by ! body's own motion & act+ 9 ! direction ( ! tang5t1 only f\r diff]5t ag5ts on ! concurr5ce ( :i* ! motions ( t body dep5d2 a mu* small] numb]1 no d\bt1 ?an t by :i* any o!r ( ! great ph5om5a ( nature is det]m9$ or modifi$4 ,yet h[ c\ld we ev] h asc]ta9$ ! comb9ation ( =ces on :i* ! motions ( ! e>? & planets are dep5d5t1 by m]ely comp>+ ! orbits or velocities ( diff]5t planets1 or ! diff]5t velocities or positions ( ! same planet8 ,not)/&+ ! regul>ity :i* manife/s itself 9 ^? motions1 9 a degree s r>e among ! effects ( concurr5ce ( causes2 & al?\gh ! p]iodical recurr5ce ( exactly ! same effect1 af=ds positive pro( t all ! comb9ations ( causes :i* occur at all1 recur p]iodically2 we %\ld n h kn[n :at ! causes 71 if ! exi/5ce ( ag5cies precisely simil> on our own e>? _h n1 =tunately1 br\ght ! causes !mselves )9 ! rea* ( exp]im5tation "u simple circum/ances4 ,z we %all h occasion to analyze1 fur!r on1 ?is great example ( ! ,me?od ( ,d$uction1 we %all n occupy any "t ) x "h1 b %all proce$ to t second>y application ( ! ,d$uctive ,me?od1 ! result ( :i* is n to prove laws ( ph5om5a1 b to expla9 !m4 ,*apt] ,,xii4 ,( ,! ,explanation ,( ,laws ,( ,nature4 #a4 ,! d$uctive op]ation by :i* we d]ive ! law ( an effect f ! laws ( ! causes1 ! concurr5ce ( :i* gives rise to x1 may be und]tak5 ei!r = ! purpose ( discov]+ ! law1 or ( expla9+ a law already discov]$4 ,! ^w explanation occurs s cont9ually1 & holds s important a place 9 philosophy1 t a little "t sp5t 9 fix+ ! mean+ ( x w be pr(itably employ$4 ,an individual fact is said to be expla9$1 by po9t+ out its cause1 t is1 by /at+ ! law or laws ( causation1 ( :i* its production is an in/ance4 ,?us1 a conflagration is expla9$1 :5 x is prov$ to h aris5 f a sp>k fall+ into ! mid/ ( a heap ( combu/ibles4 ,& 9 a simil> mann]1 a law or uni=mity 9 nature is said to be expla9$1 :5 ano!r law or laws are po9t$ out1 ( :i* t law itself is b a case1 & f :i* x c\ld be d$uc$4 #b4 ,!re are ?ree di/+ui%able sets ( circum/ances 9 :i* a law ( causation may be expla9$ f1 or1 z x also is (t5 express$1 resolv$ into1 o!r laws4 ,! fir/ is ! case already s fully consid]$2 an int]mixture ( laws1 produc+ a jo9t effect equal to ! sum ( ! effects ( ! causes tak5 sep>ately4 ,! law ( ! complex effect is expla9$1 by be+ resolv$ into ! sep>ate laws ( ! causes :i* contribute to x4 ,?us1 ! law ( ! motion ( a planet is resolv$ into ! law ( ! acquir$ =ce1 :i* t5ds to produce a uni=m motion 9 ! tang5t1 & ! law ( ! c5tripetal =ce1 :i* t5ds to produce an accel]at+ motion t[>d ! sun2 ! real motion be+ a comp\nd ( ! two4 ,x is necess>y "h to rem>k1 t 9 ?is resolution ( ! law ( a complex effect1 ! laws ( :i* x is comp\nd$ are n ! only elem5ts4 ,x is resolv$ into ! laws ( ! sep>ate causes1 toge!r ) ! fact ( _! co-exi/5ce4 ,! "o is z ess5tial an +r$i5t z ! o!r2 :e!r ! object be to discov] ! law ( ! effect1 or only to expla9 x4 ,to d$uce ! laws ( ! heav5ly motions1 we require n only to "k ! law ( a rectil9eal & t ( a gravitative =ce1 b ! exi/5ce ( bo? ^! =ces 9 ! cele/ial regions1 & ev5 _! relative am\nt4 ,! complex laws ( causation are ?us resolv$ into two di/9ct k9ds ( elem5ts3 ! "o1 simpl] laws ( causation1 ! o!r 79 ! aptly select$ expression ( ,dr4 ,*alm]s7 collocations2 ! collocations consi/+ 9 ! exi/5ce ( c]ta9 ag5ts or p[]s1 9 c]ta9 circum/ances ( place & "t4 ,we %all h]eaft] h occasion to return to ?is di/9ction1 & to dwell on x at su* l5g? z disp5ses ) ! necessity ( fur!r insi/+ on x "h4 ,! fir/ mode1 !n1 ( ! explanation ( ,laws ( ,causation1 is :5 ! law ( an effect is resolv$ into ! v>i\s t5d5cies ( :i* x is ! result1 toge!r ) ! laws ( ^? t5d5cies4 #c4 ,a second case is :51 betwe5 :at seem$ ! cause & :at 0 suppos$ to be its effect1 fur!r obs]vation detects an int]m$iate l9k2 a fact caus$ by ! antec$5t1 & 9 its turn caus+ ! consequ5t2 s t ! cause at fir/ assign$ is b ! remote cause1 op]at+ ?r\gh ! int]m$iate ph5om5on4 ,a seem$ ! cause ( ,c1 b x subsequ5tly appe>$ t ,a 0 only ! cause ( ,b1 & t x is ,b :i* 0 ! cause ( ,c4 ,= example3 mank9d 7 aw>e t ! act ( t\*+ an outw>d object caus$ a s5sation4 ,x 0 subsequ5tly discov]$ t aft] we h t\*$ ! object1 & be=e we exp]i5ce ! s5sation1 "s *ange takes place 9 a k9d ( ?read call$ a n]ve1 :i* ext5ds f our outw>d organs to ! bra94 ,t\*+ ! object1 !re=e1 is only ! remote cause ( our s5sation2 t is1 n ! cause1 prop]ly speak+1 b ! cause ( ! cause2 ! real cause ( ! s5sation is ! *ange 9 ! /ate ( ! n]ve4 ,future exp]i5ce may n only give u m k ?an we n[ h ( ! p>ticul> nature ( ?is *ange1 b may also int]polate ano!r l9k3 betwe5 ! contact 7= example7 ( ! object ) our outw>d organs1 & ! production ( ! *ange ( /ate 9 ! n]ve1 !re may take place "s electric ph5om5on1 or "s ph5om5on ( a nature n resembl+ ! effects ( any kn[n ag5cy4 ,hi!rto1 h[ev]1 no su* int]m$iate l9k has be5 discov]$2 & ! t\* ( ! object mu/ be consid]$1 provisionally1 z ! proximate cause ( ! affection ( ! n]ve4 ,! sequ5ce1 !re=e1 ( a s5sation ( t\* on contact ) an object is asc]ta9$ n to be an ultimate law2 x is resolv$1 z ! phrase is1 into two o!r laws--! law t contact ) an object produces an affection ( ! n]ve1 & ! law t an affection ( ! n]ve produces s5sation4 ,to take ano!r example3 ! m p[]ful acids corrode or black5 organic comp\nds4 ,?is is a case ( causation1 b ( remote causation2 & is said to be expla9$ :5 x is %[n t !re is an int]m$iate l9k1 namely1 ! sep>ation ( "s ( ! *emical elem5ts ( ! organic /ructure f ! re/1 & _! ent]+ into comb9ation ) ! acid4 ,! acid causes ?is sep>ation ( ! elem5ts1 & ! sep>ation ( ! elem5ts causes ! disorganization1 & (t5 ! *>r+ ( ! /ructure4 ,s1 aga91 *lor9e extracts color+ matt]s 7:5ce its efficacy 9 blea*+7 & purifies ! air f infection4 ,?is law is resolv$ into ! two foll[+ laws3 ,*lor9e has a p[]ful aff9ity = bases ( all k9ds1 p>ticul>ly metallic bases & hydrog53 su* bases are ess5tial elem5ts ( color+ matt]s & contagi\s comp\nds1 :i* sub/ances1 !re=e1 are decompos$ & de/roy$ by *lor9e4 #d4 ,x is ( importance to rem>k1 t :5 a sequ5ce ( ph5om5a is ?us resolv$ into o!r laws1 !y are always laws m g5]al ?an itself4 ,! law t ,a is foll[$ by ,c1 is less g5]al ?an ei!r ( ! laws :i* connect ,b ) ,c & ,a ) ,b4 ,?is w appe> f v simple consid]ations4 ,all laws ( causation are liable to be c\nt]act$ or fru/rat$1 by ! non-fulfillm5t ( "s negative condition2 ! t5d5cy1 !re=e1 ( ,b to produce ,c may be defeat$4 ,n[ ! law t ,a produces ,b1 is equally fulfill$ :e!r ,b is foll[$ by ,c or n2 b ! law t ,a produces ,c by means ( ,b1 is ( c\rse only fulfill$ :5 ,b is really foll[$ by ,c1 & is1 !re=e1 less g5]al ?an ! law t ,a produces ,b4 ,x is also less g5]al ?an ! law t ,b produces ,c4 ,= ,b may h o!r causes besides ,a2 & z ,a produces ,c only by means ( ,b1 :ile ,b produces ,c1 :e!r x has itself be5 produc$ by ,a or by any ?+ else1 ! second law embraces a great] numb] ( in/ances1 cov]s z x 7 a great] space ( gr\nd1 ?an ! fir/4 ,?us1 9 our =m] example1 ! law t ! contact ( an object causes a *ange 9 ! /ate ( ! n]ve1 is m g5]al ?an ! law t contact ) an object causes s5sation1 s9ce1 = aught we "k1 ! *ange 9 ! n]ve may equally take place :51 f a c\nt]act+ cause1 z1 = in/ance1 /rong m5tal excitem5t1 ! s5sation does n foll[2 z 9 a battle1 :]e w\nds are sometimes receiv$ )\t any consci\sness ( receiv+ !m4 ,& aga91 ! law t *ange 9 ! /ate ( a n]ve produces s5sation1 is m g5]al ?an ! law t contact ) an object produces s5sation2 s9ce ! s5sation equally foll[s ! *ange 9 ! n]ve :5 n produc$ by contact ) an object1 b by "s o!r cause2 z 9 ! well-kn[n case1 :5 a p]son :o has lo/ a limb feels ! same s5sation :i* he has be5 accu/om$ to call a pa9 9 ! limb4 ,n only are ! laws ( m imm$iate sequ5ce into :i* ! law ( a remote sequ5ce is resolv$1 laws ( great] g5]ality ?an t law is1 b 7z a consequ5ce (1 or r z impli$ 91 _! great] g5]ality7 !y are m to be reli$ on2 !re are few] *ances ( _! be+ ultimately f\nd n to be univ]sally true4 ,f ! mom5t :5 ! sequ5ce ( ,a & ,c is %[n n to be imm$iate1 b to dep5d on an int]v5+ ph5om5on1 !n1 h[ev] con/ant & inv>iable ! sequ5ce ( ,a & ,c has hi!rto be5 f\nd1 possibilities arise ( its failure1 exce$+ ^? :i* c effect ei!r ( ! m imm$iate sequ5ces1 ,a1 ,b1 & ,b1 ,c4 ,! t5d5cy ( ,a to produce ,c may be defeat$ by :atev] is capable ( defeat+ ei!r ! t5d5cy ( ,a to produce ,b1 or ! t5d5cy ( ,b to produce ,c2 x is1 !re=e1 twice z liable to failure z ei!r ( ^? m elem5t>y t5d5cies2 & ! g5]alization t ,a is always foll[$ by ,c1 is twice z likely to be f\nd errone\s4 ,& s ( ! conv]se g5]alization1 t ,c is always prec$$ & caus$ by ,a2 :i* w be errone\s n only if !re %\ld happ5 to be a second imm$iate mode ( production ( ,c itself1 b moreov] if !re be a second mode ( production ( ,b1 ! imm$iate antec$5t ( ,c 9 ! sequ5ce4 ,! resolution ( ! "o g5]alization into ! o!r two1 n only %[s t !re are possible limitations ( ! =m]1 f :i* its two elem5ts are exempt1 b %[s also :]e ^! are to be look$ =4 ,z soon z we "k t ,b int]v5es betwe5 ,a & ,c1 we also "k t if !re be cases 9 :i* ! sequ5ce ( ,a & ,c does n hold1 ^! are mo/ likely to be f\nd by /udy+ ! effects or ! conditions ( ! ph5om5on ,b4 ,x appe>s1 !n1 t 9 ! second ( ! ?ree modes 9 :i* a law may be resolv$ into o!r laws1 ! latt] are m g5]al1 t is1 ext5d to m cases1 & are also less likely to require limitation f subsequ5t exp]i5ce1 ?an ! law :i* !y s]ve to expla94 ,!y are m ne>ly unconditional2 !y are defeat$ by few] cont+5cies2 !y are a ne>] approa* to ! univ]sal tru? ( nature4 ,! same obs]vations are /ill m evid5tly true ) reg>d to ! fir/ ( ! ?ree modes ( resolution4 ,:5 ! law ( an effect ( comb9$ =ces is resolv$ into ! sep>ate laws ( ! causes1 ! nature ( ! case implies t ! law ( ! effect is less g5]al ?an ! law ( any ( ! causes1 s9ce x only holds :5 !y are comb9$2 :ile ! law ( any "o ( ! causes holds good bo? !n1 & also :5 t cause acts ap>t f ! re/4 ,x is also manife/ t ! complex law is liable to be (t5] unfulfill$ ?an any "o ( ! simpl] laws ( :i* x is ! result1 s9ce e cont+5cy :i* defeats any ( ! laws prev5ts s mu* ( ! effect z dep5ds on x1 & !reby defeats ! complex law4 ,! m]e ru/+1 = example1 ( "s small "p ( a great ma*9e1 (t5 suffices entirely to prev5t ! effect :i* ought to result f ! jo9t action ( all ! p>ts4 ,! law ( ! effect ( a comb9ation ( causes is always subject to ! :ole ( ! negative conditions :i* atta* to ! action ( all ! causes sev]ally4 ,!re is ano!r & an equally /rong reason :y ! law ( a complex effect mu/ be less g5]al ?an ! laws ( ! causes :i* conspire to produce x4 ,! same causes1 act+ accord+ to ! same laws1 & diff]+ only 9 ! proportions 9 :i* !y are comb9$1 (t5 produce effects :i* diff] n m]ely 9 quantity1 b 9 k9d4 ,! comb9ation ( a c5tripetal ) a projectile =ce1 9 ! proportions :i* obta9 9 all ! planets & satellites ( our sol> sy/em1 gives rise to an elliptical motion2 b if ! ratio ( ! two =ces to ea* o!r 7 slightly alt]$1 x is demon/rat$ t ! motion produc$ w\ld be 9 a circle1 or a p>abola1 or an hyp]bola2 & x is ?\ght t 9 ! case ( "s comets "o ( ^! is probably ! fact4 ,yet ! law ( ! p>abolic motion w\ld be resolvable into ! v same simple laws into :i* t ( ! elliptical motion is resolv$1 namely1 ! law ( ! p]man5ce ( rectil9eal motion1 & ! law ( gravitation4 ,if1 !re=e1 9 ! c\rse ( ages1 "s circum/ance 7 to manife/ itself :i*1 )\t defeat+ ! law ( ei!r ( ^? =ces1 %\ld m]ely alt] _! proportion to "o ano!r 7su* z ! %ock ( "s solid body1 or ev5 ! accumulat+ effect ( ! resi/ance ( ! m$ium 9 :i* a/ronom]s h be5 l$ to surmise t ! motions ( ! heav5ly bodies take place71 ! elliptical motion might be *ang$ into a motion 9 "s o!r conic section2 & ! complex law1 t ! planet>y motions take place 9 ellipses1 w\ld be depriv$ ( its univ]sality1 ?\gh ! discov]y w\ld n at all detract f ! univ]sality ( ! simpl] laws into :i* t complex law is resolv$4 ,! law1 9 %ort1 ( ea* ( ! concurr5t causes rema9s ! same1 h[ev] _! collocations may v>y2 b ! law ( _! jo9t effect v>ies ) e diff]5ce 9 ! collocations4 ,!re ne$s no m to %[ h[ mu* m g5]al ! elem5t>y laws mu/ be ?an any ( ! complex laws :i* are d]iv$ f !m4 #e4 ,besides ! two modes :i* h be5 treat$ (1 !re is a ?ird mode 9 :i* laws are resolv$ into "o ano!r2 & 9 ?is x is self-evid5t t !y are resolv$ into laws m g5]al ?an !mselves4 ,?is ?ird mode is ! subsumption 7z x has be5 call$7 ( "o law "u ano!r2 or 7:at comes to ! same ?+7 ! ga!r+ up ( sev]al laws into "o m g5]al law :i* includes !m all4 ,! mo/ spl5did example ( ?is op]ation 0 :5 t]re/rial gravity & ! c5tral =ce ( ! sol> sy/em 7 br\ght toge!r "u ! g5]al law ( gravitation4 ,x _h be5 prov$ antec$5tly t ! e>? & ! o!r planets t5d to ! sun2 & x _h be5 kn[n f ! e>lie/ times t t]re/rial bodies t5d t[>d ! e>?4 ,^! 7 simil> ph5om5a2 & to enable !m bo? to be subsum$ "u "o law1 x 0 only necess>y to prove t1 z ! effects 7 simil> 9 quality s also !y1 z to quantity1 con=m to ! same rules4 ,?is 0 fir/ %[n to be true ( ! moon1 :i* agre$ ) t]re/rial objects n only 9 t5d+ to a c5tre1 b 9 ! fact t ?is c5tre 0 ! e>?4 ,! t5d5cy ( ! moon t[>d ! e>? be+ asc]ta9$ to v>y z ! inv]se squ>e ( ! di/ance1 x 0 d$uc$ f ?is1 by direct calculation1 t if ! moon 7 z ne> to ! e>? z t]re/rial objects are1 & ! acquir$ =ce 9 ! direction ( ! tang5t 7 susp5d$1 ! moon w\ld fall t[>d ! e>? ?r\gh exactly z _m feet 9 a second z ^? objects d by virtue ( _! weight4 ,h5ce ! inf]5ce 0 irresi/ible1 t ! moon also t5ds to ! e>? by virtue ( its weight3 & t ! two ph5om5a1 ! t5d5cy ( ! moon to ! e>? & ! t5d5cy ( t]re/rial objects to ! e>?1 be+ n only simil> 9 quality1 b1 :5 9 ! same circum/ances1 id5tical 9 quantity1 are cases ( "o & ! same law ( causation4 ,b ! t5d5cy ( ! moon to ! e>?1 & ! t5d5cy ( ! e>? & planets to ! sun1 7 already kn[n to be cases ( ! same law ( causation2 & ?us ! law ( all ^! t5d5cies1 & ! law ( t]re/rial gravity1 7 recogniz$ z id5tical1 & 7 subsum$ "u "o g5]al law1 t ( gravitation4 ,9 a simil> mann]1 ! laws ( magnetic ph5om5a h m rec5tly be5 subsum$ "u kn[n laws ( electricity4 ,x is ?us t ! mo/ g5]al laws ( nature are usually arriv$ at3 we m\nt to !m by successive /eps4 ,=1 to arrive by correct induction at laws :i* hold "u su* an imm5se v>iety ( circum/ances1 laws s g5]al z to be indep5d5t ( any v>ieties ( space or "t :i* we are able to obs]ve1 requires = ! mo/ "p _m di/9ct sets ( exp]im5ts or obs]vations1 conduct$ at diff]5t times & by diff]5t p4 ,"o "p ( ! law is fir/ asc]ta9$1 aft]w>d ano!r "p3 "o set ( obs]vations tea*es u t ! law holds good "u "s conditions1 ano!r t x holds good "u o!r conditions1 by comb9+ :i* obs]vations we f9d t x holds good "u conditions mu* m g5]al1 or ev5 univ]sally4 ,! g5]al law1 9 ?is case1 is lit]ally ! sum ( all ! p>tial ones2 x is a recognition ( ! same sequ5ce 9 diff]5t sets ( in/ances2 & may1 9 fact1 be reg>d$ z m]ely "o /ep 9 ! process ( elim9ation4 ,! t5d5cy ( bodies t[>d "o ano!r1 :i* we n[ call gravity1 _h at fir/ be5 obs]v$ only on ! e>?'s surface1 :]e x manife/$ itself only z a t5d5cy ( all bodies t[>d ! e>?1 & might1 !re=e1 be ascrib$ to a peculi> prop]ty ( ! e>? itself3 "o ( ! circum/ances1 namely1 ! proximity ( ! e>?1 _h n be5 elim9at$4 ,to elim9ate ?is circum/ance requir$ a fre% set ( in/ances 9 o!r p>ts ( ! univ]se3 ^! we c\ld n ourselves create2 & ?\gh nature _h creat$ !m = u1 we 7 plac$ 9 v unfavorable circum/ances = obs]v+ !m4 ,to make ^! obs]vations1 fell naturally to ! lot ( a diff]5t set ( p]sons f ^? :o /udi$ t]re/rial ph5om5a2 & _h1 inde$1 be5 a matt] ( great int]e/ at a "t :5 ! idea ( expla9+ cele/ial facts by t]re/rial laws 0 look$ ^u z ! conf\nd+ ( an indefeasible di/9ction4 ,:51 h[ev]1 ! cele/ial motions 7 accurately asc]ta9$1 & ! d$uctive processes p]=m$1 f :i* x appe>$ t _! laws & ^? ( t]re/rial gravity correspond$1 ^? cele/ial obs]vations became a set ( in/ances :i* exactly elim9at$ ! circum/ance ( proximity to ! e>?2 & prov$ t 9 ! orig9al case1 t ( t]re/rial objects1 x 0 n ! e>?1 z su*1 t caus$ ! motion or ! pressure1 b ! circum/ance common to t case ) ! cele/ial in/ances1 namely1 ! pres5ce ( "s great body )9 c]ta9 limits ( di/ance4 #f4 ,!re are1 !n1 ?ree modes ( expla9+ laws ( causation1 or1 :i* is ! same ?+1 resolv+ !m into o!r laws4 ,fir/1 :5 ! law ( an effect ( comb9$ causes is resolv$ into ! sep>ate laws ( ! causes1 toge!r ) ! fact ( _! comb9ation4 ,secondly1 :5 ! law :i* connects any two l9ks1 n proximate1 9 a *a9 ( causation1 is resolv$ into ! laws :i* connect ea* ) ! int]m$iate l9ks4 ,bo? ( ^! are cases ( resolv+ "o law into two or m2 9 ! ?ird1 two or m are resolv$ into "o3 :51 aft] ! law has be5 %[n to hold good 9 sev]al diff]5t classes ( cases1 we decide t :at is true 9 ea* ( ^! classes ( cases1 is true "u "s m g5]al supposition1 consi/+ ( :at all ^? classes ( cases h 9 common4 ,we may "h rem>k t ?is la/ op]ation involves none ( ! unc]ta9ties att5dant on induction by ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 s9ce we ne$ n suppose ! result to be ext5d$ by way ( inf]5ce to any new class ( cases diff]5t f ^? by ! comp>ison ( :i* x 0 eng5d]$4 ,9 all ^! ?ree processes1 laws are1 z we h se51 resolv$ into laws m g5]al ?an !mselves2 laws ext5d+ to all ! cases :i* ! =m] ext5d$ to1 & o!rs besides4 ,9 ! fir/ two modes !y are also resolv$ into laws m c]ta91 9 o!r words1 m univ]sally true ?an !mselves2 !y are1 9 fact1 prov$ n to be !mselves laws ( nature1 ! "* ( :i* is to be univ]sally true1 b results ( laws ( nature1 :i* may be only true conditionally1 & = ! mo/ "p4 ,no diff]5ce ( ?is sort exi/s 9 ! ?ird case2 s9ce "h ! p>tial laws are1 9 fact1 ! v same law z ! g5]al "o1 & any exception to !m w\ld be an exception to x too4 ,by all ! ?ree processes1 ! range ( d$uctive sci5ce is ext5d$2 s9ce ! laws1 ?us resolv$1 may be !nce=? d$uc$ demon/ratively f ! laws into :i* !y are resolv$4 ,z already rem>k$1 ! same d$uctive process :i* proves a law or fact ( causation if unkn[n1 s]ves to expla9 x :5 kn[n4 ,! ^w explanation is "h us$ 9 its philosophical s5se4 ,:at is call$ expla9+ "o law ( nature by ano!r1 is b sub/itut+ "o my/]y = ano!r2 & does no?+ to r5d] ! g5]al c\rse ( nature o!r ?an my/]i\s3 we c no m assign a :y = ! m ext5sive laws ?an = ! p>tial ones4 ,! explanation may sub/itute a my/]y :i* has become famili>1 & has gr[n to seem n my/]i\s1 = "o :i* is /ill /range4 ,& ?is is ! mean+ ( explanation1 9 common p>lance4 ,b ! process ) :i* we are "h conc]n$ (t5 does ! v contr>y3 x resolves a ph5om5on ) :i* we are famili> into "o ( :i* we previ\sly knew little or no?+2 z :5 ! common fact ( ! fall ( heavy bodies 0 resolv$ into ! t5d5cy ( all p>ticles ( matt] t[>d "o ano!r4 ,x mu/ be kept con/antly 9 view1 !re=e1 t 9 sci5ce1 ^? :o speak ( expla9+ any ph5om5on mean 7or %\ld mean7 po9t+ out n "s m famili>1 b m]ely "s m g5]al1 ph5om5on1 ( :i* x is a p>tial exemplification2 or "s laws ( causation :i* produce x by _! jo9t or successive action1 & f :i*1 !re=e1 its conditions may be det]m9$ d$uctively4 ,e su* op]ation br+s u a /ep ne>] t[>d answ]+ ! "q :i* 0 /at$ 9 a previ\s *apt] z compreh5d+ ! :ole problem ( ! inve/igation ( nature1 viz43 :at are ! fewe/ assumptions1 :i* be+ grant$1 ! ord] ( nature z x exi/s w\ld be ! result8 ,:at are ! fewe/1 g5]al propositions f :i* all ! uni=mities exi/+ 9 nature c\ld be d$uc$8 ,! laws1 ?us expla9$ or resolv$1 are sometimes said to be acc\nt$ =2 b ! expression is incorrect1 if tak5 to mean any ?+ m ?an :at has be5 already /at$4 ,9 m9ds n habituat$ to accurate ?9k+1 !re is (t5 a confus$ notion t ! g5]al laws are ! causes ( ! p>tial ones2 t ! law ( g5]al gravitation1 = example1 causes ! ph5om5on ( ! fall ( bodies to ! e>?4 ,b to ass]t ?is w\ld be a misuse ( ! ^w cause3 t]re/rial gravity is n an effect ( g5]al gravitation1 b a case ( x2 t is1 "o k9d ( ! p>ticul> in/ances 9 :i* t g5]al law obta9s4 ,to acc\nt = a law ( nature means1 & c mean1 no?+ m ?an to assign o!r laws m g5]al1 toge!r ) collocations1 :i* laws & collocations be+ suppos$1 ! p>tial law foll[s )\t any additional supposition4 ,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,miscellane\s ,examples ,( ,! ,explanation ,( ,laws ,( ,nature4 #a4 ,! mo/ /rik+ example :i* ! hi/ory ( sci5ce pres5ts1 ( ! explanation ( laws ( causation & o!r uni=mities ( sequ5ce among special ph5om5a1 by resolv+ !m into laws ( great] simplicity & g5]ality1 is ! great ,newtonian g5]alization2 respect+ :i* typical in/ance1 s mu* hav+ already be5 said1 x is suffici5t to call att5tion to ! great numb] & v>iety ( ! special obs]v$ uni=mities1 :i* are 9 ?is case acc\nt$ =1 ei!r z p>ticul> cases1 or z consequ5ces1 ( "o v simple law ( univ]sal nature4 ,! simple fact ( a t5d5cy ( e p>ticle ( matt] t[>d e o!r p>ticle1 v>y+ inv]sely z ! squ>e ( ! di/ance1 expla9s ! fall ( bodies to ! e>?1 ! revolutions ( ! planets & satellites1 ! motions 7s f> z kn[n7 ( comets1 & all ! v>i\s regul>ities :i* h be5 obs]v$ 9 ^! special ph5om5a2 su* z ! elliptical orbits1 & ! v>iations f exact ellipses2 ! relation betwe5 ! sol> di/ances ( ! planets & ! duration ( _! revolutions2 ! precession ( ! equ9oxes2 ! tides1 & a va/ numb] ( m9or a/ronomical tru?s4 ,m5tion has also be5 made 9 ! prec$+ *apt] ( ! explanation ( ! ph5om5a ( magnetism f laws ( electricity2 ! special laws ( magnetic ag5cy hav+ be5 affiliat$ by d$uction to obs]v$ laws ( electric action1 9 :i* !y h ev] s9ce be5 consid]$ to be includ$ z special cases4 ,an example n s complete 9 itself1 b ev5 m f]tile 9 consequ5ces1 hav+ be5 ! />t+-po9t ( ! really sci5tific /udy ( physiology1 is ! affiliation1 comm5c$ by ,bi*at1 & c>ri$ on by subsequ5t biologi/s1 ( ! prop]ties ( ! bodily organs1 to ! elem5t>y prop]ties ( ! tissues into :i* !y are anatomically decompos$4 ,ano!r /rik+ in/ance is af=d$ by ,dalton's g5]alization1 commonly kn[n z ! atomic !ory4 ,x _h be5 kn[n f ! v comm5cem5t ( accurate *emical obs]vation1 t any two bodies comb9e *emically ) "o ano!r 9 only a c]ta9 numb] ( proportions2 b ^? proportions 7 9 ea* case express$ by a p]c5tage--s _m p>ts 7by weight7 ( ea* +r$i5t1 9 #ajj ( ! comp\nd 7say #ce & a fraction ( "o elem5t1 #fd & a fraction ( ! o!r72 9 :i* mode ( /atem5t no relation 0 p]ceiv$ betwe5 ! proportion 9 :i* a giv5 elem5t comb9es ) "o sub/ance1 & t 9 :i* x comb9es ) o!rs4 ,! great /ep made by ,dalton consi/$ 9 p]ceiv+ t a unit ( weight might be e/abli%$ = ea* sub/ance1 su* t by suppos+ ! sub/ance to ent] into all its comb9ations 9 ! ratio ei!r ( t unit1 or ( "s l[ multiple ( t unit1 all ! diff]5t proportions1 previ\sly express$ by p]c5tages1 7 f\nd to result4 ,?us #a be+ assum$ z ! unit ( hydrog51 if #h 7 !n tak5 z t ( oxyg51 ! comb9ation ( "o unit ( hydrog5 ) "o unit ( oxyg5 w\ld produce ! exact proportion ( weight betwe5 ! two sub/ances :i* is kn[n to exi/ 9 wat]2 ! comb9ation ( "o unit ( hydrog5 ) two units ( oxyg5 w\ld produce ! proportion :i* exi/s 9 ! o!r comp\nd ( ! same two elem5ts1 call$ p]oxide ( hydrog52 & ! comb9ations ( hydrog5 & ( oxyg5 ) all o!r sub/ances1 w\ld correspond ) ! supposition t ^? elem5ts ent] into comb9ation by s+le units1 or twos1 or ?rees1 ( ! numb]s assign$ to !m1 #a & #h1 & ! o!r sub/ances by ones or twos or ?rees ( o!r det]m9ate numb]s prop] to ea*4 ,! result is t a table ( ! equival5t numb]s1 or1 z !y are call$1 atomic weights1 ( all ! elem5t>y sub/ances1 comprises 9 itself1 & sci5tifically expla9s1 all ! proportions 9 :i* any sub/ance1 elem5t>y or comp\nd1 is f\nd capable ( ent]+ into *emical comb9ation ) any o!r sub/ance :atev]4 #b4 ,"s int]e/+ cases ( ! explanation ( old uni=mities by newly asc]ta9$ laws are af=d$ by ! rese>*es ( ,pr(essor ,graham4 ,t em95t *emi/ 0 ! fir/ :o drew att5tion to ! di/9ction :i* may be made ( all sub/ances into two classes1 t]m$ by him cry/alloids & colloids2 or r1 ( all /ates ( matt] into ! cry/alloid & ! colloidal /ates1 = _m sub/ances are capable ( exi/+ 9 ei!r4 ,:5 9 ! colloidal /ate1 _! s5sible prop]ties are v diff]5t f ^? ( ! same sub/ance :5 cry/alliz$1 or :5 9 a /ate easily susceptible ( cry/allization4 ,colloid sub/ances pass ) extreme difficulty & sl[ness into ! cry/all9e /ate1 & are extremely in]t 9 all ! ord9>y *emical relations4 ,sub/ances 9 ! colloid /ate are almo/ always1 :5 comb9$ ) wat]1 m or less visc\s or gelat9\s4 ,! mo/ prom95t examples ( ! /ate are c]ta9 animal & vegetable sub/ances1 p>ticul>ly gelat9e1 album51 />*1 ! gums1 c>amel1 tann91 & "s o!rs4 ,among sub/ances n ( organic orig91 ! mo/ notable in/ances are hydrat$ silicic acid1 & hydrat$ alum9a1 ) o!r metallic p]oxides ( ! alum9\s class4 ,n[ x is f\nd1 t :ile colloidal sub/ances are easily p5etrat$ by wat]1 & by ! solutions ( cry/alloid sub/ances1 !y are v little p5etrable by "o ano!r3 :i* enabl$ ,pr(essor ,graham to introduce a highly effective process 7t]m$ dialysis7 = sep>at+ ! cry/alloid sub/ances conta9$ 9 any liquid mixture1 by pass+ !m ?r\gh a ?9 septum ( colloidal matt]1 :i* does n suff] any ?+ colloidal to pass1 or suff]s x only 9 v m9ute quantity4 ,?is prop]ty ( colloids enabl$ ,mr4 ,graham to acc\nt = a numb] ( special results ( obs]vation1 n previ\sly expla9$4 ,= in/ance1 8:ile soluble cry/alloids are always highly sapid1 soluble colloids are s+ul>ly insipid10 z might be expect$2 =1 z ! s5ti5t extremities ( ! n]ves ( ! palate 8are probably protect$ by a colloidal membrane10 imp]meable to o!r colloids1 a colloid1 :5 ta/$1 probably nev] rea*es ^? n]ves4 ,aga91 8x has be5 obs]v$ t vegetable gum is n dige/$ 9 ! /oma*2 ! coats ( t organ dialyse ! soluble food1 absorb+ cry/alloids1 & reject+ all colloids40 ,"o ( ! my/]i\s processes accompany+ dige/ion1 ! secretion ( free muriatic acid by ! coats ( ! /oma*1 obta9s a probable hypo!tical explanation ?r\gh ! same law4 ,f9ally1 mu* light is ?r[n ^u ! obs]v$ ph5om5a ( osmose 7! passage ( fluids outw>d & inw>d ?r\gh animal membranes7 by ! fact t ! membranes are colloidal4 ,9 consequ5ce1 ! wat] & sal9e solutions conta9$ 9 ! animal body pass easily & rapidly ?r\gh ! membranes1 :ile ! sub/ances directly applicable to nutrition1 :i* are mo/ly colloidal1 are deta9$ by !m47#aed7 ,! prop]ty :i* salt possesses ( pres]v+ animal sub/ances f putrefaction is resolv$ by ,liebig into two m g5]al laws1 ! /rong attraction ( salt = wat]1 & ! necessity ( ! pres5ce ( wat] z a condition ( putrefaction4 ,! int]m$iate ph5om5on :i* is int]polat$ betwe5 ! remote cause & ! effect1 c "h be n m]ely inf]r$ b se52 = x is a famili> fact1 t fle% ^u :i* salt has be5 ?r[n is spe$ily f\nd swimm+ 9 br9e4 ,! second ( ! two factors 7z !y may be t]m$7 into :i* ! prec$+ law has be5 resolv$1 ! necessity ( wat] to putrefaction1 itself af=ds an additional example ( ! ,resolution ( ,laws4 ,! law itself is prov$ by ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 s9ce fle% completely dri$ & kept 9 a dry atmosph]e does n putrefy2 z we see 9 ! case ( dri$ provisions & human bodies 9 v dry climates4 ,a d$uctive explanation ( ?is same law results f ,liebig's speculations4 ,! putrefaction ( animal & o!r azotiz$ bodies is a *emical process1 by :i* !y are gradually dissipat$ 9 a gase\s =m1 *iefly 9 t ( c>bonic acid & ammonia2 n[ to conv]t ! c>bon ( ! animal sub/ance into c>bonic acid requires oxyg51 & to conv]t ! azote into ammonia requires hydrog51 :i* are ! elem5ts ( wat]4 ,! extreme rapidity ( ! putrefaction ( azotiz$ sub/ances1 comp>$ ) ! gradual decay ( non-azotiz$ bodies 7su* z wood & ! l7 by ! action ( oxyg5 alone1 he expla9s f ! g5]al law t sub/ances are mu* m easily decompos$ by ! action ( two diff]5t aff9ities ^u two ( _! elem5ts ?an by ! action ( only "o4 #c4 ,among ! _m important prop]ties ( ! n]v\s sy/em :i* h ei!r be5 fir/ discov]$ or /rik+ly illu/rat$ by ,dr4 ,br[n-,squ>d1 ,i select ! reflex influ5ce ( ! n]v\s sy/em on nutrition & secretion4 ,by reflex n]v\s action is meant1 action :i* "o "p ( ! n]v\s sy/em ex]ts ov] ano!r "p1 )\t any int]m$iate action on ! bra91 & consequ5tly )\t consci\sness2 or :i*1 if x does pass ?r\gh ! bra91 at lea/ produces its effects indep5d5tly ( ! w4 ,!re are _m exp]im5ts :i* prove t irritation ( a n]ve 9 "o "p ( ! body may 9 ?is mann] excite p[]ful action 9 ano!r "p2 = example1 food inject$ into ! /oma* ?r\gh a divid$ sophagus1 nev]!less produces secretion ( saliva2 w>m wat] inject$ into ! b[els1 & v>i\s o!r irritations ( ! l[] inte/9es1 h be5 f\nd to excite secretion ( ! ga/ric juice1 & s =?4 ,! reality ( ! p[] be+ ?us prov$1 its ag5cy expla9s a great v>iety ( app>5tly anomal\s ph5om5a2 ( :i* ,i select ! foll[+ f ,dr4 ,br[n-,squ>d's ,lectures on ! ,n]v\s ,sy/em3 ,! production ( te>s by irritation ( ! eye1 or ( ! muc\s membrane ( ! nose2 ,! secretions ( ! eye & nose increas$ by exposure ( o!r p>ts ( ! body to cold2 ,inflammation ( ! eye1 especially :5 ( traumatic orig91 v frequ5tly excites a simil> affection 9 ! o!r eye1 :i* may be cur$ by section ( ! int]v5+ n]ve2 ,loss ( sight sometimes produc$ by neuralgia1 & has be5 kn[n to be at once cur$ by ! extirpation 7= in/ance7 ( a c>i\s too?2 ,ev5 cat>act has be5 produc$ 9 a heal?y eye by cat>act 9 ! o!r eye1 or by neuralgia1 or by a w\nd ( ! frontal n]ve2 ,! well-kn[n ph5om5on ( a sudd5 /oppage ( ! he>t's action1 & consequ5t dea?1 produc$ by irritation ( "s ( ! n]v\s extremities2 e4g41 by dr9k+ v cold wat]1 or by a bl[ on ! abdom51 or o!r sudd5 excitation ( ! abdom9al sympa!tic n]ve1 ?\gh ?is n]ve may be irritat$ to any ext5t )\t /opp+ ! he>t's action1 if a section be made ( ! communicat+ n]ves2 ,! extraord9>y effects produc$ on ! int]nal organs by an ext5sive burn on ! surface ( ! body1 consi/+ 9 viol5t inflammation ( ! tissues ( ! abdom51 *e/1 or head1 :i*1 :5 dea? ensues f ?is k9d ( injury1 is "o ( ! mo/ frequ5t causes ( x2 ,p>alysis & an/hesia ( "o "p ( ! body f neuralgia 9 ano!r "p2 & muscul> atrophy f neuralgia1 ev5 :5 !re is no p>alysis2 ,tetanus produc$ by ! lesion ( a n]ve4 ,dr4 ,br[n-,squ>d ?9ks x highly probable t hydrophobia is a ph5om5on ( a simil> nature2 ,morbid *anges 9 ! nutrition ( ! bra9 & sp9al cord1 manife/+ !mselves by epilepsy1 *orea1 hy/]ia1 & o!r diseases1 occasion$ by lesion ( "s ( ! n]v\s extremities 9 remote places1 z by worms1 calculi1 tumors1 c>i\s bones1 & 9 "s cases ev5 by v slight irritations ( ! sk94 #d4 ,f ! =ego+ & simil> in/ances1 we may see ! importance1 :5 a law ( nature previ\sly unkn[n has be5 br\ght to light1 or :5 new light has be5 ?r[n ^u a kn[n law by exp]im5t1 ( exam9+ all cases :i* pres5t ! conditions necess>y = br++ t law into action2 a process f]tile 9 demon/rations ( special laws previ\sly unsuspect$1 & explanations ( o!rs already empirically kn[n4 ,= in/ance1 ,f>aday discov]$ by exp]im5t1 t voltaic electricity c\ld be evolv$ f a natural magnet1 provid$ a conduct+ body 7 set 9 motion at "r angles to ! direction ( ! magnet2 & ?is he f\nd to hold n only ( small magnets1 b ( t great magnet1 ! e>?4 ,! law be+ ?us e/abli%$ exp]im5tally1 t electricity is evolv$1 by a magnet1 & a conductor mov+ at "r angles to ! direction ( its poles1 we may n[ look out = fre% in/ances 9 :i* ^! conditions meet4 ,:]ev] a conductor moves or revolves at "r angles to ! direction ( ! e>?'s magnetic poles1 !re we may expect an evolution ( electricity4 ,9 ! nor!rn regions1 :]e ! pol> direction is ne>ly p]p5dicul> to ! horizon1 all horizontal motions ( conductors w produce electricity2 horizontal :eels1 = example1 made ( metal2 likewise all runn+ /reams w evolve a curr5t ( electricity1 :i* w circulate r\nd !m2 & ! air ?us *>g$ ) electricity may be "o ( ! causes ( ! ,aurora ,borealis4 ,9 ! equatorial regions1 on ! contr>y1 upright :eels plac$ p>allel to ! equator w orig9ate a voltaic circuit1 & wat]-falls w naturally become electric4 ,= a second example1 x has be5 prov$1 *iefly by ! rese>*es ( ,pr(essor ,graham1 t gases h a /rong t5d5cy to p]meate animal membranes1 & diffuse !mselves ?r\gh ! spaces :i* su* membranes inclose1 not)/&+ ! pres5ce ( o!r gases 9 ^? spaces4 ,proce$+ f ?is g5]al law1 & review+ a v>iety ( cases 9 :i* gases lie contigu\s to membranes1 we are enabl$ to demon/rate or to expla9 ! foll[+ m special laws3 #a/4 ,! human or animal body1 :5 surr\nd$ ) any gas n already conta9$ )9 ! body1 absorbs x rapidly2 su*1 = in/ance1 z ! gases ( putrefy+ matt]s3 :i* helps to expla9 mal>ia4 #b;d4 ,! c>bonic acid gas ( eff]vesc+ dr9ks1 evolv$ 9 ! /oma*1 p]meates its membranes1 & rapidly spreads ?r\gh ! sy/em4 #c;d4 ,alcohol tak5 into ! /oma* passes into vapor1 & spreads ?r\gh ! sy/em ) great rapidity 7:i*1 comb9$ ) ! high combu/ibility ( alcohol1 or 9 o!r words its ready comb9ation ) oxyg51 may p]haps help to expla9 ! bodily w>m? imm$iately consequ5t on dr9k+ spiritu\s liquors74 #d?4 ,9 any /ate ( ! body 9 :i* peculi> gases are =m$ )9 x1 ^! w rapidly exhale ?r\gh all p>ts ( ! body2 & h5ce ! rapidity ) :i*1 9 c]ta9 /ates ( disease1 ! surr\nd+ atmosph]e becomes ta9t$4 #e?4 ,! putrefaction ( ! int]ior p>ts ( a c>cass w proce$ z rapidly z t ( ! ext]ior1 f ! ready passage outw>d ( ! gase\s products4 #f?4 ,! ex*ange ( oxyg5 & c>bonic acid 9 ! lungs is n prev5t$1 b r promot$1 by ! int]v5tion ( ! membrane ( ! lungs & ! coats ( ! blood-vessels betwe5 ! blood & ! air4 ,x is necess>y1 h[ev]1 t !re %\ld be a sub/ance 9 ! blood ) :i* ! oxyg5 ( ! air may imm$iately comb9e2 o!rwise1 in/ead ( pass+ into ! blood1 x w\ld p]meate ! :ole organism3 & x is necess>y t ! c>bonic acid1 z x is =m$ 9 ! capill>ies1 %\ld also f9d a sub/ance 9 ! blood ) :i* x c comb9e2 o!rwise x w\ld leave ! body at all po9ts1 in/ead ( be+ dis*>g$ ?r\gh ! lungs4 #e4 ,! foll[+ is a d$uction :i* confirms1 by expla9+1 ! empirical g5]alization1 t soda p[d]s weak5 ! human sy/em4 ,^! p[d]s1 consi/+ ( a mixture ( t>t>ic acid ) bic>bonate ( soda1 f :i* ! c>bonic acid is set free1 mu/ pass into ! /oma* z t>trate ( soda4 ,n[1 neutral t>trates1 citrates1 & acetates ( ! alkalis are f\nd1 9 _! passage ?r\gh ! sy/em1 to be *ang$ into c>bonates2 & to conv]t a t>trate into a c>bonate requires an additional quantity ( oxyg51 ! ab/raction ( :i* mu/ less5 ! oxyg5 de/9$ = assimilation ) ! blood1 on ! quantity ( :i* ! vigor\s action ( ! human sy/em p>tly dep5ds4 ,! in/ances ( new !ories agree+ ) & expla9+ old empiricisms1 are innum]able4 ,all ! j rem>ks made by exp]i5c$ p]sons on human "* & conduct1 are s _m special laws1 :i* ! g5]al laws ( ! human m9d expla9 & resolve4 ,! empirical g5]alizations on :i* ! op]ations ( ! arts h usually be5 f\nd$1 are cont9ually ju/ifi$ & confirm$ on ! "o h&1 or correct$ & improv$ on ! o!r1 by ! discov]y ( ! simpl] sci5tific laws on :i* ! efficacy ( ^? op]ations dep5ds4 ,! effects ( ! rotation ( crops1 ( ! v>i\s manures1 & o!r processes ( improv$ agriculture1 h be5 = ! fir/ "t resolv$ 9 our own day into kn[n laws ( *emical & organic action1 by ,davy1 ,liebig1 & o!rs4 ,! processes ( ! m$ical art are ev5 n[ mo/ly empirical3 _! efficacy is conclud$1 9 ea* in/ance1 f a special & mo/ prec>i\s exp]im5tal g5]alization3 b z sci5ce advances 9 discov]+ ! simple laws ( *emi/ry & physiology1 progress is made 9 asc]ta9+ ! int]m$iate l9ks 9 ! s]ies ( ph5om5a1 & ! m g5]al laws on :i* !y dep5d2 & ?us1 :ile ! old processes are ei!r explod$1 or _! efficacy1 9 s f> z real1 expla9$1 bett] processes1 f\nd$ on ! k ( proximate causes1 are cont9ually sugge/$ & br\ght into use47#aee7 ,_m ev5 ( ! tru?s ( geometry 7 g5]alizations f exp]i5ce be=e !y 7 d$uc$ f fir/ pr9ciples4 ,! quadrature ( ! cycloid is said to h be5 fir/ effect$ by measurem5t1 or r by weigh+ a cycloidal c>d1 & comp>+ its weight ) t ( a piece ( simil> c>d ( kn[n dim5sions4 #f4 ,to ! =ego+ examples f physical sci5ce1 let u add ano!r f m5tal4 ,! foll[+ is "o ( ! simple laws ( m9d3 ,ideas ( a pleasurable or pa9ful "* =m associations m easily & /rongly ?an o!r ideas1 t is1 !y become associat$ aft] few] repetitions1 & ! association is m durable4 ,?is is an exp]im5tal law1 gr\nd$ on ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce4 ,by d$uction f ?is law1 _m ( ! m special laws :i* exp]i5ce %[s to exi/ among p>ticul> m5tal ph5om5a may be demon/rat$ & expla9$3 ! ease & rapidity1 = in/ance1 ) :i* ?\ghts connect$ ) our passions or our m *]i%$ int]e/s are excit$1 & ! firm hold :i* ! facts relat+ to !m h on our memory2 ! vivid recollection we reta9 ( m9ute circum/ances :i* accompani$ any object or ev5t t deeply int]e/$ u1 & ( ! times & places 9 :i* we h be5 v happy or v mis]able2 ! horror ) :i* we view ! accid5tal in/rum5t ( any occurr5ce :i* %ock$ u1 or ! locality :]e x took place & ! pleasure we d]ive f any memorial ( pa/ enjoym5t2 all ^! effects be+ proportional to ! s5sibility ( ! individual m9d1 & to ! consequ5t int5sity ( ! pa9 or pleasure f :i* ! association orig9at$4 ,x has be5 sugge/$ by ! able writ] ( a biographical sket* ( ,dr4 ,prie/ley 9 a mon?ly p]iodical17#aef7 t ! same elem5t>y law ( our m5tal con/itution1 suitably foll[$ out1 w\ld expla9 a v>iety ( m5tal ph5om5a previ\sly inexplicable1 & 9 p>ticul> "s ( ! fundam5tal div]sities ( human "* & g5ius4 ,associations be+ ( two sorts1 ei!r betwe5 syn*ron\s1 or betwe5 successive impressions2 & ! influ5ce ( ! law :i* r5d]s associations /rong] 9 proportion to ! pleasurable or pa9ful "* ( ! impressions1 be+ felt ) peculi> =ce 9 ! syn*ron\s class ( associations2 x is rem>k$ by ! writ] ref]r$ to1 t 9 m9ds ( /rong organic s5sibility syn*ron\s associations w be likely to pr$om9ate1 produc+ a t5d5cy to conceive ?+s 9 pictures & 9 ! concrete1 ri*ly clo!d 9 attributes & circum/ances1 a m5tal habit :i* is commonly call$ ,imag9ation1 & is "o ( ! peculi>ities ( ! pa9t] & ! poet2 :ile p]sons ( m mod]ate susceptibility to pleasure & pa9 w h a t5d5cy to associate facts *iefly 9 ! ord] ( _! succession1 & su* p]sons1 if !y possess m5tal sup]iority1 w addict !mselves to hi/ory or sci5ce r ?an to creative art4 ,?is int]e/+ speculation ! au?or ( ! pres5t "w has endeavor$1 on ano!r occasion1 to pursue fur!r1 & to exam9e h[ f> x w avail t[>d expla9+ ! peculi>ities ( ! poetical temp]am5t47#aeg7 ,x is at lea/ an example :i* may s]ve1 in/ead ( _m o!rs1 to %[ ! ext5sive scope :i* exi/s = d$uctive inve/igation 9 ! important & hi!rto s imp]fect ,sci5ce ( ,m9d4 #g4 ,! copi\sness ) :i* ! discov]y & explanation ( special laws ( ph5om5a by d$uction f simpl] & m g5]al ones has "h be5 exemplifi$1 0 prompt$ by a desire to *>act]ize cle>ly1 & place 9 its due position ( importance1 ! ,d$uctive ,me?od2 :i*1 9 ! pres5t /ate ( k1 is de/9$ h5ce=? irrevocably to pr$om9ate 9 ! c\rse ( sci5tific inve/igation4 ,a revolution is peaceably & progressively effect+ itself 9 philosophy1 ! rev]se ( t to :i* ,bacon has atta*$ 8 "n4 ,t great man *ang$ ! me?od ( ! sci5ces f d$uctive to exp]im5tal1 & x is n[ rapidly rev]t+ f exp]im5tal to d$uctive4 ,b ! d$uctions :i* ,bacon aboli%$ 7 f premises ha/ily snat*$ up1 or arbitr>ily assum$4 ,! pr9ciples 7 nei!r e/abli%$ by legitimate canons ( exp]im5tal inquiry1 nor ! results te/$ by t indisp5sable elem5t ( a rational ,d$uctive ,me?od1 v]ification by specific exp]i5ce4 ,betwe5 ! primitive me?od ( ,d$uction & t :i* ,i h attempt$ to *>act]ize1 !re is all ! diff]5ce :i* exi/s betwe5 ! ,ari/otelian physics & ! ,newtonian !ory ( ! heav5s4 ,x w\ld1 h[ev]1 be a mi/ake to expect t ^? great g5]alizations1 f :i* ! subord9ate tru?s ( ! m backw>d sci5ces w probably at "s future p]iod be d$uc$ by reason+ 7z ! tru?s ( a/ronomy are d$uc$ f ! g5]alities ( ! ,newtonian !ory71 w be f\nd 9 all1 or ev5 9 mo/ cases1 among tru?s n[ kn[n & admitt$4 ,we may re/ assur$1 t _m ( ! mo/ g5]al laws ( nature are z yet entirely un?\ght (2 & t _m o!rs1 de/9$ h]eaft] to assume ! same "*1 are kn[n1 if at all1 only z laws or prop]ties ( "s limit$ class ( ph5om5a2 j z electricity1 n[ recogniz$ z "o ( ! mo/ univ]sal ( natural ag5cies1 0 once kn[n only z a curi\s prop]ty :i* c]ta9 sub/ances acquir$ by friction1 ( fir/ attract+ & !n repell+ light bodies4 ,if ! !ories ( heat1 cohesion1 cry/allization1 & *emical action are de/9$1 z !re c be little d\bt t !y are1 to become d$uctive1 ! tru?s :i* w !n be reg>d$ z ! pr9cipia ( ^? sci5ces w\ld probably1 if n[ ann\nc$1 appe> q z novel7#aeh7 z ! law ( gravitation appe>$ to ! contempor>ies ( ,newton2 possibly ev5 m s1 s9ce ,newton's law1 aft] all1 0 b an ext5sion ( ! law ( weight--t is1 ( a g5]alization famili> f ( old1 & :i* already compreh5d$ a n inconsid]able body ( natural ph5om5a4 ,! g5]al laws ( a simil>ly comm&+ "*1 :i* we /ill look =w>d to ! discov]y (1 may n always f9d s mu* ( _! f\ndations already laid4 ,^! g5]al tru?s w d\btless make _! fir/ appe>ance 9 ! "* ( hypo!ses2 n prov$1 nor ev5 admitt+ ( pro(1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 b assum$ z premises = ! purpose ( d$uc+ f !m ! kn[n laws ( concrete ph5om5a4 ,b ?is1 ?\gh _! initial1 c n be _! f9al /ate4 ,to entitle an hypo!sis to be receiv$ z "o ( ! tru?s ( nature1 & n z a m]e te*nical help to ! human faculties1 x mu/ be capable ( be+ te/$ by ! canons ( legitimate induction1 & mu/ actually h be5 submitt$ to t te/4 ,:5 ?is %all h be5 done1 & done successfully1 premises w h be5 obta9$ f :i* all ! o!r propositions ( ! sci5ce w !nce=? be pres5t$ z conclusions1 & ! sci5ce w1 by means ( a new & unexpect$ ,induction1 be r5d]$ ,d$uctive4 ,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,( ,! ,limits ,to ,! ,explanation ,( ,laws ,( ,nature2 ,& ,( ,hypo!ses4 #a4 ,! prec$+ consid]ations h l$ u to recognize a di/9ction betwe5 two k9ds ( laws1 or obs]v$ uni=mities 9 nature3 ultimate laws1 & :at may be t]m$ d]ivative laws4 ,d]ivative laws are su* z are d$ucible f1 & may1 9 any ( ! modes :i* we h po9t$ out1 be resolv$ into1 o!r & m g5]al ones4 ,ultimate laws are ^? :i* c n4 ,we are n sure t any ( ! uni=mities ) :i* we are yet acqua9t$ are ultimate laws2 b we "k t !re mu/ be ultimate laws2 & t e resolution ( a d]ivative law into m g5]al laws br+s u ne>] to !m4 ,s9ce we are cont9ually discov]+ t uni=mities1 n previ\sly kn[n to be o!r ?an ultimate1 are d]ivative1 & resolvable into m g5]al laws2 s9ce 79 o!r words7 we are cont9ually discov]+ ! explanation ( "s sequ5ce :i* 0 previ\sly kn[n only z a fact2 x becomes an int]e/+ "q :e!r !re are any necess>y limits to ?is philosophical op]ation1 or :e!r x may proce$ until all ! uni=m sequ5ces 9 nature are resolv$ into "s "o univ]sal law4 ,= ?is seems1 at fir/ sight1 to be ! ultimatum t[>d :i* ! progress ( induction by ! ,d$uctive ,me?od1 re/+ on a basis ( obs]vation & exp]im5t1 is t5d+4 ,projects ( ?is k9d 7 univ]sal 9 ! infancy ( philosophy2 any speculations :i* held out a less brilliant prospect be+ 9 ^! e>ly times deem$ n wor? pursu+4 ,& ! idea receives s mu* app>5t c\nt5ance f ! nature ( ! mo/ rem>kable a*ievem5ts ( mod]n sci5ce1 t speculators are ev5 n[ frequ5tly appe>+1 :o pr(ess ei!r to h solv$ ! problem1 or to sugge/ modes 9 :i* x may "o day be solv$4 ,ev5 :]e pret5sions ( ?is magnitude are n made1 ! "* ( ! solutions :i* are giv5 or s\ght ( p>ticul> classes ( ph5om5a1 (t5 involves su* conceptions ( :at con/itutes explanation1 z w\ld r5d] ! notion ( expla9+ all ph5om5a :atev] by means ( "s "o cause or law1 p]fectly admissible4 #b4 ,x is1 !re=e1 useful to rem>k t ! ultimate ,laws ( ,nature c n possibly be less num]\s ?an ! di/+ui%able s5sations or o!r feel+s ( our nature2 ^?1 ,i mean1 :i* are di/+ui%able f "o ano!r 9 quality1 & n m]ely 9 quantity or degree4 ,= example3 s9ce !re is a ph5om5on sui g5]is1 call$ color1 :i* our consci\sness te/ifies to be n a p>ticul> degree ( "s o!r ph5om5on1 z heat or odor or motion1 b intr9sically unlike all o!rs1 x foll[s t !re are ultimate laws ( color2 t ?\gh ! facts ( color may admit ( explanation1 !y nev] c be expla9$ f laws ( heat or odor alone1 or ( motion alone1 b t1 h[ev] f> ! explanation may be c>ri$1 !re w always rema9 9 x a law ( color4 ,i d n mean t x might n possibly be %[n t "s o!r ph5om5on1 "s *emical or me*anical action1 = example1 inv>iably prec$es1 & is ! cause (1 e ph5om5on ( color4 ,b ?\gh ?is1 if prov$1 w\ld be an important ext5sion ( our k ( nature1 x w\ld n expla9 h[ or :y a motion1 or a *emical action1 c produce a s5sation ( color2 &1 h[ev] dilig5t might be our scrut9y ( ! ph5om5a1 :atev] numb] ( hidd5 l9ks we might detect 9 ! *a9 ( causation t]m9at+ 9 ! color1 ! la/ l9k w\ld /ill be a law ( color1 n a law ( motion1 nor ( any o!r ph5om5on :atev]4 ,nor does ?is obs]vation apply only to color1 z comp>$ ) any o!r ( ! great classes ( s5sations2 x applies to e p>ticul> color1 z comp>$ ) o!rs4 ,:ite color c 9 no mann] be expla9$ exclusively by ! laws ( ! production ( r$ color4 ,9 any attempt to expla9 x1 we c n b introduce1 z "o elem5t ( ! explanation1 ! proposition t "s antec$5t or o!r produces ! s5sation ( :ite4 ,! ideal limit1 !re=e1 ( ! explanation ( natural ph5om5a 7t[>d :i* z t[>d o!r ideal limits we are con/antly t5d+1 )\t ! prospect ( ev] completely atta9+ x7 w\ld be to %[ t ea* di/+ui%able v>iety ( our s5sations1 or o!r /ates ( consci\sness1 has only "o sort ( cause2 t1 = example1 :5ev] we p]ceive a :ite color1 !re is "s "o condition or set ( conditions :i* is always pres5t1 & ! pres5ce ( :i* always produces 9 u t s5sation4 ,z long z !re are sev]al kn[n modes ( production ( a ph5om5on 7sev]al diff]5t sub/ances1 = in/ance1 :i* h ! prop]ty ( :it5ess1 & betwe5 :i* we c n trace any o!r resemblance7 s long x is n impossible t "o ( ^! modes ( production may be resolv$ into ano!r1 or t all ( !m may be resolv$ into "s m g5]al mode ( production n hi!rto recogniz$4 ,b :5 ! modes ( production are r$uc$ to "o1 we c n1 9 po9t ( simplification1 g any fur!r4 ,?is "o may n1 aft] all1 be ! ultimate mode2 !re may be o!r l9ks to be discov]$ betwe5 ! suppos$ cause & ! effect2 b we c only fur!r resolve ! kn[n law1 by introduc+ "s o!r law hi!rto unkn[n1 :i* w n dim9i% ! numb] ( ultimate laws4 ,9 :at cases1 accord+ly1 has sci5ce be5 mo/ successful 9 expla9+ ph5om5a1 by resolv+ _! complex laws into laws ( great] simplicity & g5]ality8 ,hi!rto *iefly 9 cases ( ! propagation ( v>i\s ph5om5a ?r\gh space2 &1 fir/ & pr9cipally1 ! mo/ ext5sive & important ( all facts ( t description1 me*anical motion4 ,n[ ?is is exactly :at might be expect$ f ! pr9ciples "h laid d[n4 ,n only is motion "o ( ! mo/ univ]sal ( all ph5om5a1 x is also 7z might be expect$ f t circum/ance7 "o ( ^? :i*1 app>5tly at lea/1 are produc$ 9 ! greate/ numb] ( ways2 b ! ph5om5on itself is always1 to our s5sations1 ! same 9 e respect b degree4 ,diff]5ces ( duration or ( velocity1 are evid5tly diff]5ces 9 degree only2 & diff]5ces ( direction 9 space1 :i* alone has any semblance ( be+ a di/9ction 9 k9d1 entirely disappe> 7s f> z our s5sations are conc]n$7 by a *ange 9 our own position2 inde$1 ! v same motion appe>s to u1 accord+ to our position1 to take place 9 e v>iety ( direction1 & motions 9 e diff]5t direction to take place 9 ! same4 ,& aga91 motion 9 a /raight l9e & 9 a curve are no o!rwise di/9ct ?an t ! "o is motion cont9u+ 9 ! same direction1 ! o!r is motion :i* at ea* in/ant *anges its direction4 ,!re is1 !re=e1 accord+ to ! pr9ciples ,i h /at$1 no absurdity 9 suppos+ t all motion may be produc$ 9 "o & ! same way1 by ! same k9d ( cause4 ,accord+ly1 ! greate/ a*ievem5ts 9 physical sci5ce h consi/$ 9 resolv+ "o obs]v$ law ( ! production ( motion into ! laws ( o!r kn[n modes ( production1 or ! laws ( sev]al su* modes into "o m g5]al mode2 z :5 ! fall ( bodies to ! e>?1 & ! motions ( ! planets1 7 br\ght "u ! "o law ( ! mutual attraction ( all p>ticles ( matt]2 :5 ! motions said to be produc$ by magnetism 7 %[n to be produc$ by electricity2 :5 ! motions ( fluids 9 a lat]al direction1 or ev5 contr>y to ! direction ( gravity1 7 %[n to be produc$ by gravity2 & ! l4 ,!re is an abundance ( di/9ct causes ( motion /ill unresolv$ into "o ano!r3 gravitation1 heat1 electricity1 *emical action1 n]v\s action1 & s =?2 b :e!r ! ef=ts ( ! pres5t g5]ation ( savants to resolve all ^! diff]5t modes ( production into "o are ultimately successful or n1 ! attempt s to resolve !m is p]fectly legitimate4 ,=1 ?\gh ^! v>i\s causes produce1 9 o!r respects1 s5sations intr9sically diff]5t1 & are n1 !re=e1 capable ( be+ resolv$ into "o ano!r1 yet1 9 s f> z !y all produce motion1 x is q possible t ! imm$iate antec$5t ( ! motion may 9 all ^! diff]5t cases be ! same2 nor is x impossible t ^! v>i\s ag5cies !mselves may1 z ! new doctr9es ass]t1 all ( !m h = _! own imm$iate antec$5t modes ( molecul> motion4 ,we ne$ n ext5d our illu/ration to o!r cases1 z1 = in/ance1 to ! propagation ( light1 s\nd1 heat1 electricity1 etc41 ?r\gh space1 or any ( ! o!r ph5om5a :i* h be5 f\nd susceptible ( explanation by ! resolution ( _! obs]v$ laws into m g5]al laws4 ,en\gh has be5 said to display ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! k9d ( explanation & resolution ( laws :i* is *im]ical1 & t ( :i* ! accompli%m5t is ! great aim ( sci5ce2 & to %[ into :at sort ( elem5ts ! resolution mu/ be effect$1 if at all47#aei7 #c4 ,z1 h[ev]1 !re is sc>cely any "o ( ! pr9ciples ( a true me?od ( philosophiz+ :i* does n require to be gu>d$ aga9/ errors on bo? sides1 ,i mu/ ent] a caveat aga9/ ano!r misappreh5sion1 ( a k9d directly contr>y to ! prec$+4 ,m4 ,comte1 among o!r occasions on :i* he has condemn$1 ) "s asp]ity1 any attempt to expla9 ph5om5a :i* are 8evid5tly primordial0 7mean+1 app>5tly1 no m ?an t e peculi> ph5om5on mu/ h at lea/ "o peculi> & !re=e inexplicable law71 has spok5 ( ! attempt to furni% any explanation ( ! color belong+ to ea* sub/ance1 8la c\leur lm5taire propre *aque sub/ance10 z ess5tially illusory4 8,no "o10 says he1 89 our "t attempts to expla9 ! p>ticul> specific gravity ( ea* sub/ance or ( ea* /ructure4 ,:y %\ld x be o!rwise z to ! specific color1 ! notion ( :i* is und\bt$ly no less primordial807#afj7 ,n[ al?\gh1 z he else:]e obs]ves1 a color mu/ always rema9 a diff]5t ?+ f a weight or a s\nd1 v>ieties ( color might nev]!less foll[1 or correspond to1 giv5 v>ieties ( weight1 or s\nd1 or "s o!r ph5om5on z diff]5t z ^! are f color itself4 ,x is "o "q :at a ?+ is1 & ano!r :at x dep5ds on2 & ?\gh to asc]ta9 ! conditions ( an elem5t>y ph5om5on is n to obta9 any new insight into ! nature ( ! ph5om5on itself1 t is no reason aga9/ attempt+ to discov] ! conditions4 ,! int]dict aga9/ endeavor+ to r$uce di/9ctions ( color to any common pr9ciple1 w\ld h held equally good aga9/ a l attempt on ! subject ( di/9ctions ( s\nd2 :i* nev]!less h be5 f\nd to be imm$iately prec$$ & caus$ by di/+ui%able v>ieties 9 ! vibrations ( ela/ic bodies2 ?\gh a s\nd1 no d\bt1 is q z diff]5t z a color is f any motion ( p>ticles1 vibratory or o!rwise4 ,we might add1 t1 9 ! case ( colors1 !re are /rong positive indications t !y are n ultimate prop]ties ( ! diff]5t k9ds ( sub/ances1 b dep5d on conditions capable ( be+ sup]9duc$ ^u all sub/ances2 s9ce !re is no sub/ance :i* c n1 accord+ to ! k9d ( light ?r[n ^u x1 be made to assume almo/ any color2 & s9ce almo/ e *ange 9 ! mode ( aggregation ( ! p>ticles ( ! same sub/ance is att5d$ ) alt]ations 9 its color1 & 9 its optical prop]ties g5]ally4 ,! really weak po9t 9 ! attempts :i* h be5 made to acc\nt = colors by ! vibrations ( a fluid1 is n t ! attempt itself is unphilosophical1 b t ! exi/5ce ( ! fluid1 & ! fact ( its vibratory motion1 are n prov$1 b are assum$1 on no o!r gr\nd ?an ! facility !y are suppos$ to af=d ( expla9+ ! ph5om5a4 ,& ?is consid]ation leads to ! important "q ( ! prop] use ( sci5tific hypo!ses1 ! connection ( :i* ) ! subject ( ! explanation ( ! ph5om5a ( nature1 & ( ! necess>y limits to t explanation1 ne$ n be po9t$ out4 #d4 ,an hypo!sis is any supposition :i* we make 7ei!r )\t actual evid5ce1 or on evid5ce av[$ly insuffici5t7 9 ord] to endeavor to d$uce f x conclusions 9 accordance ) facts :i* are kn[n to be real2 "u ! idea t if ! conclusions to :i* ! hypo!sis leads are kn[n tru?s1 ! hypo!sis itself ei!r mu/ be1 or at lea/ is likely to be1 true4 ,if ! hypo!sis relates to ! cause or mode ( production ( a ph5om5on1 x w s]ve1 if admitt$1 to expla9 su* facts z are f\nd capable ( be+ d$uc$ f x4 ,& ?is explanation is ! purpose ( _m1 if n mo/ hypo!ses4 ,s9ce expla9+1 9 ! sci5tific s5se1 means resolv+ a uni=mity :i* is n a law ( causation1 into ! laws ( causation f :i* x results1 or a complex law ( causation into simpl] & m g5]al ones f :i* x is capable ( be+ d$uctively inf]r$1 if !re d n exi/ any kn[n laws :i* fulfill ?is requirem5t1 we may feign or imag9e "s :i* w\ld fulfill x2 & ?is is mak+ an hypo!sis4 ,an hypo!sis be+ a m]e supposition1 !re are no o!r limits to hypo!ses ?an ^? ( ! human imag9ation2 we may1 if we please1 imag9e1 by way ( acc\nt+ = an effect1 "s cause ( a k9d utt]ly unkn[n1 & act+ accord+ to a law altoge!r fictiti\s4 ,b z hypo!ses ( ?is sort w\ld n h any ( ! plausibility belong+ to ^? :i* ally !mselves by analogy ) kn[n laws ( nature1 & besides w\ld n supply ! want :i* arbitr>y hypo!ses are g5]ally inv5t$ to satisfy1 by enabl+ ! imag9ation to repres5t to itself an obscure ph5om5on 9 a famili> light1 !re is probably no hypo!sis 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce 9 :i* bo? ! ag5t itself & ! law ( its op]ation 7 fictiti\s4 ,ei!r ! ph5om5on assign$ z ! cause is real1 b ! law accord+ to :i* x acts m]ely suppos$2 or ! cause is fictiti\s1 b is suppos$ to produce its effects accord+ to laws simil> to ^? ( "s kn[n class ( ph5om5a4 ,an in/ance ( ! fir/ k9d is af=d$ by ! diff]5t suppositions made respect+ ! law ( ! planet>y c5tral =ce1 ant]ior to ! discov]y ( ! true law1 t ! =ce v>ies z ! inv]se squ>e ( ! di/ance2 :i* also sugge/$ itself to ,newton1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 z an hypo!sis1 & 0 v]ifi$ by prov+ t x l$ d$uctively to ,kepl]'s laws4 ,hypo!ses ( ! second k9d are su* z ! vortices ( ,desc>tes1 :i* 7 fictiti\s1 b 7 suppos$ to obey ! kn[n laws ( rotatory motion2 or ! two rival hypo!ses respect+ ! nature ( light1 ! "o ascrib+ ! ph5om5a to a fluid emitt$ f all lum9\s bodies1 ! o!r 7n[ g5]ally receiv$7 attribut+ !m to vibratory motions among ! p>ticles ( an e!r p]vad+ all space4 ,( ! exi/5ce ( ei!r fluid !re is no evid5ce1 save ! explanation !y are calculat$ to af=d ( "s ( ! ph5om5a2 b !y are suppos$ to produce _! effects accord+ to kn[n laws3 ! ord9>y laws ( cont9u$ locomotion 9 ! "o case1 & 9 ! o!r ^? ( ! propagation ( undulatory movem5ts among ! p>ticles ( an ela/ic fluid4 ,accord+ to ! =ego+ rem>ks1 hypo!ses are inv5t$ to enable ! ,d$uctive ,me?od to be e>li] appli$ to ph5om5a4 ,b7#afa7 9 ord] to discov] ! cause ( any ph5om5on by ! ,d$uctive ,me?od1 ! process mu/ consi/ ( ?ree p>ts3 induction1 ratioc9ation1 & v]ification4 ,induction 7! place ( :i*1 h[ev]1 may be suppli$ by a prior d$uction71 to asc]ta9 ! laws ( ! causes2 ratioc9ation1 to compute f ^? laws h[ ! causes w op]ate 9 ! p>ticul> comb9ation kn[n to exi/ 9 ! case 9 h&2 v]ification1 by comp>+ ?is calculat$ effect ) ! actual ph5om5on4 ,no "o ( ^! ?ree p>ts ( ! process c be disp5s$ )4 ,9 ! d$uction :i* proves ! id5tity ( gravity ) ! c5tral =ce ( ! sol> sy/em1 all ! ?ree are f\nd4 ,fir/1 x is prov$ f ! moon's motions1 t ! e>? attracts h] ) a =ce v>y+ z ! inv]se squ>e ( ! di/ance4 ,?is 7?\gh p>tly dep5d5t on prior d$uctions7 corresponds to ! fir/1 or purely inductive1 /ep3 ! asc]ta9m5t ( ! law ( ! cause4 ,secondly1 f ?is law1 & f ! k previ\sly obta9$ ( ! moon's mean di/ance f ! e>?1 & ( ! actual am\nt ( h] deflection f ! tang5t1 x is asc]ta9$ ) :at rapidity ! e>?'s attraction w\ld cause ! moon to fall1 if %e 7 no fur!r (f1 & no m act$ ^u by extrane\s =ces1 ?an t]re/rial bodies are3 t is ! second /ep1 ! ratioc9ation4 ,f9ally1 ?is calculat$ velocity be+ comp>$ ) ! obs]v$ velocity ) :i* all heavy bodies fall1 by m]e gravity1 t[>d ! surface ( ! e>? 7sixte5 feet 9 ! fir/ second1 =ty-eight 9 ! second1 & s =?1 9 ! ratio ( ! odd numb]s1 #a1 #c1 #e1 etc471 ! two quantities are f\nd to agree4 ,! ord] 9 :i* ! /eps are "h pres5t$ 0 n t ( _! discov]y2 b x is _! correct logical ord]1 z portions ( ! pro( t ! same attraction ( ! e>? :i* causes ! moon's motion causes also ! fall ( heavy bodies to ! e>?3 a pro( :i* is ?us complete 9 all its p>ts4 ,n[1 ! ,hypo!tical ,me?od suppresses ! fir/ ( ! ?ree /eps1 ! induction to asc]ta9 ! law2 & cont5ts itself ) ! o!r two op]ations1 ratioc9ation & v]ification2 ! law :i* is reason$ f be+ assum$ in/ead ( prov$4 ,?is process may evid5tly be legitimate on "o supposition1 namely1 if ! nature ( ! case be su* t ! f9al /ep1 ! v]ification1 %all am\nt to1 & fulfill ! conditions (1 a complete induction4 ,we want to be assur$ t ! law we h hypo!tically assum$ is a true "o2 & its lead+ d$uctively to true results w af=d ?is assurance1 provid$ ! case be su* t a false law c n lead to a true result2 provid$ no law1 except ! v "o :i* we h assum$1 c lead d$uctively to ! same conclusions :i* t leads to4 ,& ?is proviso is (t5 realiz$4 ,= example1 9 ! v complete specim5 ( d$uction :i* we j cit$1 ! orig9al major premise ( ! ratioc9ation1 ! law ( ! attractive =ce1 0 asc]ta9$ 9 ?is mode2 by ?is legitimate employm5t ( ! ,hypo!tical ,me?od4 ,newton began by an assumption t ! =ce :i* at ea* in/ant deflects a planet f its rectil9eal c\rse1 & makes x describe a curve r\nd ! sun1 is a =ce t5d+ directly t[>d ! sun4 ,he !n prov$ t if ?is be s1 ! planet w describe1 z we "k by ,kepl]'s fir/ law t x does describe1 equal areas 9 equal times2 &1 la/ly1 he prov$ t if ! =ce act$ 9 any o!r direction :atev]1 ! planet w\ld n describe equal areas 9 equal times4 ,x be+ ?us %[n t no o!r hypo!sis w\ld accord ) ! facts1 ! assumption 0 prov$2 ! hypo!sis became an inductive tru?4 ,n only did ,newton asc]ta9 by ?is hypo!tical process ! direction ( ! deflect+ =ce2 he proce$$ 9 exactly ! same mann] to asc]ta9 ! law ( v>iation ( ! quantity ( t =ce4 ,he assum$ t ! =ce v>i$ inv]sely z ! squ>e ( ! di/ance2 %[$ t f ?is assumption ! rema9+ two ( ,kepl]'s laws might be d$uc$2 &1 f9ally1 t any o!r law ( v>iation w\ld give results inconsi/5t ) ^? laws1 & inconsi/5t1 !re=e1 ) ! real motions ( ! planets1 ( :i* ,kepl]'s laws 7 kn[n to be a correct expression4 ,i h said t 9 ?is case ! v]ification fulfills ! conditions ( an induction2 b an induction ( :at sort8 ,on exam9ation we f9d t x con=ms to ! canon ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce4 ,x af=ds ! two in/ances1 ,a ,b ,c1 a b c1 & ,b ,c1 b c4 ,a repres5ts c5tral =ce2 ,a ,b ,c1 ! planets plus a c5tral =ce2 ,b ,c1 ! planets ap>t f a c5tral =ce4 ,! planets ) a c5tral =ce give a1 areas proportional to ! times2 ! planets )\t a c5tral =ce give b c 7a set ( motions7 )\t a1 or ) some?+ else in/ead ( a4 ,?is is ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce 9 all its /rictness4 ,x is true1 ! two in/ances :i* ! me?od requires are obta9$ 9 ?is case1 n by exp]im5t1 b by a prior d$uction4 ,b t is ( no consequ5ce4 ,x is immat]ial :at is ! nature ( ! evid5ce f :i* we d]ive ! assurance t ,a ,b ,c w produce a b c1 & ,b ,c only b c2 x is en\gh t we h t assurance4 ,9 ! pres5t case1 a process ( reason+ furni%$ ,newton ) ! v in/ances :i*1 if ! nature ( ! case _h admitt$ ( x1 he w\ld h s\ght by exp]im5t4 ,x is ?us p]fectly possible1 & inde$ is a v common occurr5ce1 t :at 0 an hypo!sis at ! beg9n+ ( ! inquiry becomes a prov$ law ( nature be=e its close4 ,b 9 ord] t ?is %\ld happ51 we mu/ be able1 ei!r by d$uction or exp]im5t1 to obta9 bo? ! in/ances :i* ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce requires4 ,t we are able f ! hypo!sis to d$uce ! kn[n facts1 gives only ! affirmative in/ance1 ,a ,b ,c1 a b c4 ,x is equally necess>y t we %\ld be able to obta91 z ,newton did1 ! negative in/ance ,b ,c1 b c2 by %[+ t no antec$5t1 except ! "o assum$ 9 ! hypo!sis1 w\ld 9 conjunction ) ,b ,c produce a4 ,n[ x appe>s to me t ?is assurance c n be obta9$1 :5 ! cause assum$ 9 ! hypo!sis is an unkn[n cause imag9$ solely to acc\nt = a4 ,:5 we are only seek+ to det]m9e ! precise law ( a cause already asc]ta9$1 or to di/+ui% ! p>ticul> ag5t :i* is 9 fact ! cause1 among sev]al ag5ts ( ! same k9d1 "o or o!r ( :i* x is already kn[n to be1 we may !n obta9 ! negative in/ance4 ,an inquiry :i* ( ! bodies ( ! sol> sy/em causes by its attraction "s p>ticul> irregul>ity 9 ! orbit or p]iodic "t ( "s satellite or comet1 w\ld be a case ( ! second description4 ,newton's 0 a case ( ! fir/4 ,if x _h n be5 previ\sly kn[n t ! planets 7 h9d]$ f mov+ 9 /raight l9es by "s =ce t5d+ t[>d ! int]ior ( _! orbit1 ?\gh ! exact direction 0 d\btful2 or if x _h n be5 kn[n t ! =ce increas$ 9 "s proportion or o!r z ! di/ance dim9i%$1 & dim9i%$ z x increas$1 ,newton's argum5t w\ld n h prov$ 8 conclusion4 ,^! facts1 h[ev]1 be+ already c]ta91 ! range ( admissible suppositions 0 limit$ to ! v>i\s possible directions ( a l9e1 & ! v>i\s possible num]ical relations betwe5 ! v>iations ( ! di/ance1 & ! v>iations ( ! attractive =ce4 ,n[ among ^! x 0 easily %[n t diff]5t suppositions c\ld n lead to id5tical consequ5ces4 ,accord+ly1 ,newton c\ld n h p]=m$ 8 second great sci5tific op]ation3 t ( id5tify+ t]re/rial gravity ) ! c5tral =ce ( ! sol> sy/em by ! same hypo!tical me?od4 ,:5 ! law ( ! moon's attraction _h be5 prov$ f ! data ( ! moon itself1 !n1 on f9d+ ! same law to accord ) ! ph5om5a ( t]re/rial gravity1 he 0 w>rant$ 9 adopt+ x z ! law ( ^? ph5om5a likewise2 b x w\ld n h be5 all[able = him1 )\t any lun> data1 to assume t ! moon 0 attract$ t[>d ! e>? ) a =ce z ! inv]se squ>e ( ! di/ance1 m]ely because t ratio w\ld enable him to acc\nt = t]re/rial gravity2 = x w\ld h be5 impossible = him to prove t ! obs]v$ law ( ! fall ( heavy bodies to ! e>? c\ld n result f any =ce1 save "o ext5d+ to ! moon1 & proportional to ! inv]se squ>e4 ,x appe>s1 !n1 to be a condition ( ! mo/ g5u9ely sci5tific hypo!sis1 t x be n de/9$ always to rema9 an hypo!sis1 b be ( su* a nature z to be ei!r prov$ or disprov$ by comp>ison ) obs]v$ facts4 ,?is condition is fulfill$ :5 ! effect is already kn[n to dep5d on ! v cause suppos$1 & ! hypo!sis relates only to ! precise mode ( dep5d5ce2 ! law ( ! v>iation ( ! effect accord+ to ! v>iations 9 ! quantity or 9 ! relations ( ! cause4 ,) ^! may be class$ ! hypo!ses :i* d n make any supposition ) reg>d to causation1 b only ) reg>d to ! law ( correspond5ce betwe5 facts :i* accompany ea* o!r 9 _! v>iations1 ?\gh !re may be no relation ( cause & effect betwe5 !m4 ,su* 7 ! diff]5t false hypo!ses :i* ,kepl] made respect+ ! law ( ! refraction ( light4 ,x 0 kn[n t ! direction ( ! l9e ( refraction v>i$ ) e v>iation 9 ! direction ( ! l9e ( incid5ce1 b x 0 n kn[n h[2 t is1 :at *anges ( ! "o correspond$ to ! diff]5t *anges ( ! o!r4 ,9 ?is case any law diff]5t f ! true "o mu/ h l$ to false results4 ,&1 la/ly1 we mu/ add to ^! all hypo!tical modes ( m]ely repres5t+ or describ+ ph5om5a2 su* z ! hypo!sis ( ! anci5t a/ronom]s t ! heav5ly bodies mov$ 9 circles2 ! v>i\s hypo!ses ( ecc5trics1 def]5ts1 & epicycles1 :i* 7 add$ to t orig9al hypo!sis2 ! n9ete5 false hypo!ses :i* ,kepl] made & ab&on$ respect+ ! =m ( ! planet>y orbits2 & ev5 ! doctr9e 9 :i* he f9ally re/$1 t ^? orbits are ellipses1 :i* 0 b an hypo!sis l ! re/ until v]ifi$ by facts4 ,9 all ^! cases1 v]ification is pro(2 if ! supposition accords ) ! ph5om5a !re ne$s no o!r evid5ce ( x4 ,b 9 ord] t ?is may be ! case1 ,i conceive x to be necess>y1 :5 ! hypo!sis relates to causation1 t ! suppos$ cause %\ld n only be a real ph5om5on1 some?+ actually exi/+ 9 nature1 b %\ld be already kn[n to ex]cise1 or at lea/ to be capable ( ex]cis+1 an influ5ce ( "s sort ov] ! effect4 ,9 any o!r case1 x is no suffici5t evid5ce ( ! tru? ( ! hypo!sis t we are able to d$uce ! real ph5om5a f x4 ,is x1 !n1 nev] all[able1 9 a sci5tific hypo!sis1 to assume a cause1 b only to ascribe an assum$ law to a kn[n cause8 ,i d n ass]t ?is4 ,i only say1 t 9 ! latt] case alone c ! hypo!sis be receiv$ z true m]ely because x expla9s ! ph5om5a4 ,9 ! =m] case x may be v useful by sugge/+ a l9e ( inve/igation :i* may possibly t]m9ate 9 obta9+ real pro(4 ,b = ?is purpose1 z is ju/ly rem>k$ by ,m4 ,comte1 x is indisp5sable t ! cause sugge/$ by ! hypo!sis %\ld be 9 its own nature susceptible ( be+ prov$ by o!r evid5ce4 ,?is seems to be ! philosophical import ( ,newton's maxim1 7s (t5 cit$ ) approbation by subsequ5t writ]s71 t ! cause assign$ = any ph5om5on mu/ n only be su* z if admitt$ w\ld expla9 ! ph5om5on1 b mu/ also be a v]a causa4 ,:at he meant by a v]a causa ,newton did n inde$ v explicitly def9e2 & ,dr4 ,:ewell1 :o diss5ts f ! propriety ( any su* re/riction ^u ! latitude ( fram+ hypo!ses1 has _h little difficulty 9 %[+7#afb7 t 8 conception ( x 0 nei!r precise nor consi/5t ) itself2 accord+ly 8 optical !ory 0 a signal in/ance ( ! violation ( 8 own rule4 ,x is c]ta9ly n necess>y t ! cause assign$ %\ld be a cause already kn[n2 o!rwise we %\ld sacrifice our be/ opportunities ( becom+ acqua9t$ ) new causes4 ,b :at is true 9 ! maxim is1 t ! cause1 ?\gh n kn[n previ\sly1 %\ld be capable ( be+ kn[n !reaft]2 t its exi/5ce %\ld be capable ( be+ detect$1 & its connection ) ! effect ascrib$ to x %\ld be susceptible ( be+ prov$1 by indep5d5t evid5ce4 ,! hypo!sis1 by sugge/+ obs]vations & exp]im5ts1 puts u on ! road to t indep5d5t evid5ce1 if x be really atta9able2 & till x be atta9$1 ! hypo!sis ought only to c\nt = a m or less plausible conjecture4 #e4 ,?is function1 h[ev]1 ( hypo!ses1 is "o :i* mu/ be reckon$ absolutely indisp5sable 9 sci5ce4 ,:5 ,newton said1 8,hypo!ses non f+o10 he did n mean t he depriv$ himself ( ! facilities ( inve/igation af=d$ by assum+ 9 ! fir/ in/ance :at he hop$ ultimately to be able to prove4 ,)\t su* assumptions1 sci5ce c\ld nev] h atta9$ its pres5t /ate2 !y are necess>y /eps 9 ! progress to some?+ m c]ta92 & ne>ly e ?+ :i* is n[ !ory 0 once hypo!sis4 ,ev5 9 purely exp]im5tal sci5ce1 "s inducem5t is necess>y = try+ "o exp]im5t r ?an ano!r2 & ?\gh x is ab/ract$ly possible t all ! exp]im5ts :i* h be5 tri$1 might h be5 produc$ by ! m]e desire to asc]ta9 :at w\ld happ5 9 c]ta9 circum/ances1 )\t any previ\s conjecture z to ! result2 yet1 9 po9t ( fact1 ^? unobvi\s1 delicate1 & (t5 cumbr\s & t$i\s processes ( exp]im5t1 :i* h ?r[n mo/ light ^u ! g5]al con/itution ( nature1 w\ld h>dly ev] h be5 und]tak5 by ! p]sons or at ! "t !y 71 unless x _h seem$ to dep5d on !m :e!r "s g5]al doctr9e or !ory :i* _h be5 sugge/$1 b n yet prov$1 %\ld be admitt$ or n4 ,if ?is be true ev5 ( m]ely exp]im5tal inquiry1 ! conv]sion ( exp]im5tal into d$uctive tru?s c\ld /ill less h be5 effect$ )\t l>ge tempor>y assi/ance f hypo!ses4 ,! process ( trac+ regul>ity 9 any complicat$1 & at fir/ sight confus$1 set ( appe>ances1 is necess>ily t5tative2 we beg9 by mak+ any supposition1 ev5 a false "o1 to see :at consequ5ces w foll[ f x2 & by obs]v+ h[ ^! diff] f ! real ph5om5a1 we le>n :at corrections to make 9 our assumption4 ,! simple/ supposition :i* accords ) ! m obvi\s facts is ! be/ to beg9 )2 because its consequ5ces are ! mo/ easily trac$4 ,?is rude hypo!sis is !n rudely correct$1 & ! op]ation repeat$2 & ! comp>ison ( ! consequ5ces d$ucible f ! correct$ hypo!sis1 ) ! obs]v$ facts1 sugge/s /ill fur!r correction1 until ! d$uctive results are at la/ made to tally ) ! ph5om5a4 8,"s fact is z yet little und]/ood1 or "s law is unkn[n2 we frame on ! subject an hypo!sis z accordant z possible ) ! :ole ( ! data already possess$2 & ! sci5ce1 be+ ?us enabl$ to move =w>d freely1 always ends by lead+ to new consequ5ces capable ( obs]vation1 :i* ei!r confirm or refute1 unequivocally1 ! fir/ supposition40 ,nei!r induction nor d$uction w\ld enable u to und]/& ev5 ! simple/ ph5om5a1 8if we did n (t5 comm5ce by anticipat+ on ! results2 by mak+ a provisional supposition1 at fir/ ess5tially conjectural1 z to "s ( ! v notions :i* con/itute ! f9al object ( ! inquiry407#afc7 ,let any "o wat* ! mann] 9 :i* he himself unravels a complicat$ mass ( evid5ce2 let him obs]ve h[1 = in/ance1 he elicits ! true hi/ory ( any occurr5ce f ! involv$ /atem5ts ( "o or ( _m witnesses2 he w f9d t he does n take all ! items ( evid5ce into 8 m9d at once1 & attempt to weave !m toge!r2 he extemporizes1 f a few ( ! p>ticul>s1 a fir/ rude !ory ( ! mode 9 :i* ! facts took place1 & !n looks at ! o!r /atem5ts "o by "o1 to try :e!r !y c be reconcil$ ) t provisional !ory1 or :at alt]ations or additions x requires to make x squ>e ) !m4 ,9 ?is way1 :i* has be5 ju/ly comp>$ to ! ,me?ods ( ,approximation ( ma!maticians1 we arrive1 by means ( hypo!ses1 at conclusions n hypo!tical47#afd7 #f4 ,x is p]fectly consi/5t ) ! _s ( ! me?od1 to assume 9 ?is provisional mann] n only an hypo!sis respect+ ! law ( :at we already "k to be ! cause1 b an hypo!sis respect+ ! cause itself4 ,x is all[able1 useful1 & (t5 ev5 necess>y1 to beg9 by ask+ ourselves :at cause may h produc$ ! effect1 9 ord] t we may "k 9 :at direction to look out = evid5ce to det]m9e :e!r x actually did4 ,! vortices ( ,desc>tes w\ld h be5 a p]fectly legitimate hypo!sis1 if x _h be5 possible1 by any mode ( exploration :i* we c\ld ent]ta9 ! hope ( ev] possess+1 to br+ ! reality ( ! vortices1 z a fact 9 nature1 conclusively to ! te/ ( obs]vation4 ,! vice ( ! hypo!sis 0 t x c\ld n lead to any c\rse ( inve/igation capable ( conv]t+ x f an hypo!sis into a prov$ fact4 ,x might *ance to be disprov$1 ei!r by "s want ( correspond5ce ) ! ph5om5a x purport$ to expla91 or 7z actually happ5$7 by "s extrane\s fact4 8,! free passage ( comets ?r\gh ! spaces 9 :i* ^! vortices %\ld h be51 conv9c$ m5 t ^! vortices did n exi/407#afe7 ,b ! hypo!sis w\ld h be5 false1 ?\gh no su* direct evid5ce ( its falsity _h be5 procurable4 ,direct evid5ce ( its tru? !re c\ld n be4 ,! prevail+ hypo!sis ( a lum9if]\s e!r1 9 o!r respects n )\t analogy to t ( ,desc>tes1 is n 9 its own nature entirely cut (f f ! possibility ( direct evid5ce 9 its favor4 ,x is well kn[n t ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! calculat$ & ! obs]v$ times ( ! p]iodical return ( ,encke's comet1 has l$ to a conjecture t a m$ium capable ( oppos+ resi/ance to motion is diffus$ ?r\gh space4 ,if ?is surmise %\ld be confirm$1 9 ! c\rse ( ages1 by ! gradual accumulation ( a simil> v>iance 9 ! case ( ! o!r bodies ( ! sol> sy/em1 ! lum9if]\s e!r w\ld h made a consid]able advance t[>d ! "* ( a v]a causa1 s9ce ! exi/5ce w\ld h be5 asc]ta9$ ( a great cosmical ag5t1 possess+ "s ( ! attributes :i* ! hypo!sis assumes2 ?\gh !re w\ld /ill rema9 _m difficulties1 & ! id5tification ( ! e!r ) ! resi/+ m$ium w\ld ev51 ,i imag9e1 give rise to new ones4 ,at pres5t1 h[ev]1 ?is supposition c n be look$ ^u z m ?an a conjecture2 ! exi/5ce ( ! e!r /ill re/s on ! possibility ( d$uc+ f its assum$ laws a consid]able numb] ( actual ph5om5a2 & ?is evid5ce ,i c n reg>d z conclusive1 because we c n h1 9 ! case ( su* an hypo!sis1 ! assurance t if ! hypo!sis be false x mu/ lead to results at v>iance ) ! true facts4 ,accord+ly1 mo/ ?9k]s ( any degree ( sobriety all[ t an hypo!sis ( ?is k9d is n to be receiv$ z probably true because x acc\nts = all ! kn[n ph5om5a2 s9ce ?is is a condition sometimes fulfill$ tol]ably well by two conflict+ hypo!ses2 :ile !re are probably _m o!rs :i* are equally possible1 b :i*1 = want ( any ?+ analog\s 9 our exp]i5ce1 our m9ds are unfitt$ to conceive4 ,b x seems to be ?\ght t an hypo!sis ( ! sort 9 "q is entitl$ to a m favorable reception1 if1 besides acc\nt+ = all ! facts previ\sly kn[n1 x has l$ to ! anticipation & pr$iction ( o!rs :i* exp]i5ce aft]w>d v]ifi$2 z ! undulatory !ory ( light l$ to ! pr$iction1 subsequ5tly realiz$ by exp]im5t1 t two lum9\s rays might meet ea* o!r 9 su* a mann] z to produce d>kness4 ,su* pr$ictions & _! fulfillm5t are1 inde$1 well calculat$ to impress ! un9=m$1 ^: fai? 9 sci5ce re/s solely on simil> co9cid5ces betwe5 its prophecies & :at comes to pass4 ,b x is /range t any consid]able /ress %\ld be laid ^u su* a co9cid5ce by p]sons ( sci5tific atta9m5ts4 ,if ! laws ( ! propagation ( light accord ) ^? ( ! vibrations ( an ela/ic fluid 9 z _m respects z is necess>y to make ! hypo!sis af=d a correct expression ( all or mo/ ( ! ph5om5a kn[n at ! "t1 x is no?+ /range t !y %\ld accord ) ea* o!r 9 "o respect m4 ,?\gh tw5ty su* co9cid5ces %\ld occur1 !y w\ld n prove ! reality ( ! undulatory e!r2 x w\ld n foll[ t ! ph5om5a ( light 7 results ( ! laws ( ela/ic fluids1 b at mo/ t !y are gov]n$ by laws p>tially id5tical ) ^!2 :i*1 we may obs]ve1 is already c]ta91 f ! fact t ! hypo!sis 9 "q c\ld be = a mom5t t5able47#aff7 ,cases may be cit$1 ev5 9 our imp]fect acqua9tance ) nature1 :]e ag5cies t we h good reason to consid] z radically di/9ct produce _! effects1 or "s ( _! effects1 accord+ to laws :i* are id5tical4 ,! law1 = example1 ( ! inv]se squ>e ( ! di/ance1 is ! measure ( ! int5sity n only ( gravitation1 b 7x is believ$7 ( illum9ation1 & ( heat diffus$ f a c5tre4 ,yet no "o looks ^u ?is id5tity z prov+ simil>ity 9 ! me*anism by :i* ! ?ree k9ds ( ph5om5a are produc$4 ,accord+ to ,dr4 ,:ewell1 ! co9cid5ce ( results pr$ict$ f an hypo!sis ) facts aft]w>d obs]v$1 am\nts to a conclusive pro( ( ! tru? ( ! !ory4 8,if ,i copy a long s]ies ( lett]s1 ( :i* ! la/ half-doz5 are conceal$1 & if ,i guess ^! aright1 z is f\nd to be ! case :5 !y are aft]w>d uncov]$1 ?is mu/ be because ,i h made out ! import ( ! inscription4 ,to say t because ,i h copi$ all t ,i c\ld see1 x is no?+ /range t ,i %\ld guess ^? :i* ,i c n see1 w\ld be absurd1 )\t suppos+ su* a gr\nd = guess+407#afg7 ,if any "o1 f exam9+ ! great] "p ( a long inscription1 c int]pret ! *>act]s s t ! inscription gives a rational mean+ 9 a kn[n language1 !re is a /rong presumption t 8 int]pretation is correct2 b ,i d n ?9k ! presumption mu* increas$ by 8 be+ able to guess ! few rema9+ lett]s )\t see+ !m2 = we %\ld naturally expect 7:5 ! nature ( ! case excludes *ance7 t ev5 an errone\s int]pretation :i* accord$ ) all ! visible p>ts ( ! inscription w\ld accord also ) ! small rema9d]2 z w\ld be ! case1 = example1 if ! inscription _h be5 design$ly s contriv$ z to admit ( a d\ble s5se4 ,i assume t ! uncov]$ *>act]s af=d an am\nt ( co9cid5ce too great to be m]ely casual2 o!rwise ! illu/ration is n a fair "o4 ,no "o supposes ! agreem5t ( ! ph5om5a ( light ) ! !ory ( undulations to be m]ely =tuit\s4 ,x mu/ arise f ! actual id5tity ( "s ( ! laws ( undulations ) "s ( ^? ( light2 & if !re be t id5tity1 x is reasonable to suppose t its consequ5ces w\ld n end ) ! ph5om5a :i* fir/ sugge/$ ! id5tification1 nor be ev5 conf9$ to su* ph5om5a z 7 kn[n at ! "t4 ,b x does n foll[1 because "s ( ! laws agree ) ^? ( undulations1 t !re are any actual undulations2 no m ?an x foll[$ because "s 7?\gh n s _m7 ( ! same laws agre$ ) ^? ( ! projection ( p>ticles1 t !re 0 actual emission ( p>ticles4 ,ev5 ! undulatory hypo!sis does n acc\nt = all ! ph5om5a ( light4 ,! natural colors ( objects1 ! comp\nd nature ( ! sol> ray1 ! absorption ( light1 & its *emical & vital action1 ! hypo!sis leaves z my/]i\s z x f\nd !m2 & "s ( ^! facts are1 at lea/ app>5tly1 m reconcilable ) ! emission !ory ?an ) t ( ,"y & ,fresnel4 ,:o kn[s b t "s ?ird hypo!sis1 includ+ all ^! ph5om5a1 may 9 "t leave ! undulatory !ory z f> beh9d z t has left ! !ory ( ,newton & 8 successors8 ,to ! /atem5t1 t ! condition ( acc\nt+ = all ! kn[n ph5om5a is (t5 fulfill$ equally well by two conflict+ hypo!ses1 ,dr4 ,:ewell makes answ] t he kn[s 8( no su* case 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce1 :]e ! ph5om5a are at all num]\s & complicat$407#afh7 ,su* an affirmation1 by a writ] ( ,dr4 ,:ewell's m9ute acqua9tance ) ! hi/ory ( sci5ce1 w\ld c>ry great au?ority1 if he _h n1 a few pages be=e1 tak5 pa9s to refute x17#afi7 by ma9ta9+ t ev5 ! explod$ sci5tific hypo!ses might always1 or almo/ always1 h be5 s modifi$ z to make !m correct repres5tations ( ! ph5om5a4 ,! hypo!sis ( vortices1 he tells u1 01 by successive modifications1 br\ght to co9cide 9 its results ) ! ,newtonian !ory & ) ! facts4 ,! vortices did n1 inde$1 expla9 all ! ph5om5a :i* ! ,newtonian !ory 0 ultimately f\nd to acc\nt =1 su* z ! precession ( ! equ9oxes2 b ?is ph5om5on 0 n1 at ! "t1 9 ! contemplation ( ei!r p>ty1 z "o ( ! facts to be acc\nt$ =4 ,all ! facts :i* !y did contemplate1 we may believe on ,dr4 ,:ewell's au?ority to h accord$ z accurately ) ! ,c>tesian hypo!sis1 9 its f9ally improv$ /ate1 z ) ,newton's4 ,b x is n1 ,i conceive1 a valid reason = accept+ any giv5 hypo!sis1 t we are unable to imag9e any o!r :i* w acc\nt = ! facts4 ,!re is no necessity = suppos+ t ! true explanation mu/ be "o :i*1 ) only our pres5t exp]i5ce1 we c\ld imag9e4 ,among ! natural ag5ts ) :i* we are acqua9t$1 ! vibrations ( an ela/ic fluid may be ! only "o ^: laws be> a close resemblance to ^? ( light2 b we c n tell t !re does n exi/ an unkn[n cause1 o!r ?an an ela/ic e!r diffus$ ?r\gh space1 yet produc+ effects id5tical 9 "s respects ) ^? :i* w\ld result f ! undulations ( su* an e!r4 ,to assume t no su* cause c exi/1 appe>s to me an extreme case ( assumption )\t evid5ce4 ,& at ! risk ( be+ *>g$ ) want ( mode/y1 ,i c n help express+ a/oni%m5t t a philosoph] ( ,dr4 ,:ewell's abilities & atta9m5ts %\ld h writt5 an elaborate treatise on ! philosophy ( induction1 9 :i* he recognizes absolutely no mode ( induction except t ( try+ hypo!sis aft] hypo!sis until "o is f\nd :i* fits ! ph5om5a2 :i* "o1 :5 f\nd1 is to be assum$ z true1 ) no o!r res]vation ?an t if1 on re-exam9ation1 x %\ld appe> to assume m ?an is ne$ful = expla9+ ! ph5om5a1 ! sup]flu\s "p ( ! assumption %\ld be cut (f4 ,& ?is )\t ! slighte/ di/9ction betwe5 ! cases 9 :i* x may be kn[n be=eh& t two diff]5t hypo!ses c n lead to ! same result1 & ^? 9 :i*1 = aught we c ev] "k1 ! range ( suppositions1 all equally consi/5t ) ! ph5om5a1 may be inf9ite47#agj7 ,nev]!less1 ,i d n agree ) ,m4 ,comte 9 condemn+ ^? :o employ !mselves 9 work+ out into detail ! application ( ^! hypo!ses to ! explanation ( asc]ta9$ facts1 provid$ !y be> 9 m9d t ! utmo/ !y c prove is1 n t ! hypo!sis is1 b t x may be true4 ,! e!r hypo!sis has a v /rong claim to be s foll[$ out1 a claim greatly /r5g!n$ s9ce x has be5 %[n to af=d a me*anism :i* w\ld expla9 ! mode ( production1 n ( light only1 b also ( heat4 ,inde$1 ! speculation has a small] elem5t ( hypo!sis 9 its application to heat1 ?an 9 ! case = :i* x 0 orig9ally fram$4 ,we h pro( by our s5ses ( ! exi/5ce ( molecul> movem5t among ! p>ticles ( all heat$ bodies2 :ile we h no simil> exp]i5ce 9 ! case ( light4 ,:51 !re=e1 heat is communicat$ f ! sun to ! e>? across app>5tly empty space1 ! *a9 ( causation has molecul> motion bo? at ! beg9n+ & end4 ,! hypo!sis only makes ! motion cont9u\s by ext5d+ x to ! middle4 ,n[1 motion 9 a body is kn[n to be capable ( be+ imp>t$ to ano!r body contigu\s to x2 & ! int]v5tion ( a hypo!tical ela/ic fluid occupy+ ! space betwe5 ! sun & ! e>?1 supplies ! contiguity :i* is ! only condition want+1 & :i* c be suppli$ by no supposition b t ( an int]v5+ m$ium4 ,! supposition1 not)/&+1 is at be/ a probable conjecture1 n a prov$ tru?4 ,= !re is no pro( t contiguity is absolutely requir$ = ! communication ( motion f "o body to ano!r4 ,contiguity does n always exi/1 to our s5ses at lea/1 9 ! cases 9 :i* motion produces motion4 ,! =ces :i* g "u ! "n ( attraction1 especially ! greate/ ( all1 gravitation1 are examples ( motion produc+ motion )\t app>5t contiguity4 ,:5 a planet moves1 its di/ant satellites accompany its motion4 ,! sun c>ries ! :ole sol> sy/em along ) x 9 ! progress :i* x is asc]ta9$ to be execut+ ?r\gh space4 ,& ev5 if we 7 to accept z conclusive ! geometrical reason+s 7/rik+ly simil> to ^? by :i* ! ,c>tesians def5d$ _! vortices7 by :i* x has be5 attempt$ to %[ t ! motions ( ! e!r may acc\nt = gravitation itself1 ev5 !n x w\ld only h be5 prov$ t ! suppos$ mode ( production may be1 b n t no o!r mode c be1 ! true "o4 #g4 ,x is necess>y1 be=e quitt+ ! subject ( hypo!ses1 to gu>d aga9/ ! appe>ance ( reflect+ ^u ! sci5tific value ( sev]al bran*es ( physical inquiry1 :i*1 ?\gh only 9 _! infancy1 ,i hold to be /rictly inductive4 ,!re is a great diff]5ce betwe5 inv5t+ ag5cies to acc\nt = classes ( ph5om5a1 & endeavor+1 9 con=mity ) kn[n laws1 to conjecture :at =m] collocations ( kn[n ag5ts may h giv5 bir? to individual facts /ill 9 exi/5ce4 ,! latt] is ! legitimate op]ation ( inf]r+ f an obs]v$ effect ! exi/5ce1 9 "t pa/1 ( a cause simil> to t by :i* we "k x to be produc$ 9 all cases 9 :i* we h actual exp]i5ce ( its orig94 ,?is1 = example1 is ! scope ( ! inquiries ( geology2 & !y are no m illogical or vision>y ?an judicial inquiries1 :i* also aim at discov]+ a pa/ ev5t by inf]5ce f ^? ( its effects :i* /ill subsi/4 ,z we c asc]ta9 :e!r a man 0 murd]$ or di$ a natural dea?1 f ! indications exhibit$ by ! corpse1 ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( signs ( /ruggl+ on ! gr\nd or on ! adjac5t objects1 ! m>ks ( blood1 ! foot/eps ( ! suppos$ murd]]s1 & s on1 proce$+ ?r\gh\t on uni=mities asc]ta9$ by a p]fect induction )\t any mixture ( hypo!sis2 s if we f9d1 on & b5ea? ! surface ( our planet1 masses exactly simil> to deposits f wat]1 or to results ( ! cool+ ( matt] melt$ by fire1 we may ju/ly conclude t su* has be5 _! orig92 & if ! effects1 ?\gh simil> 9 k9d1 are on a f> l>g] scale ?an any :i* are n[ produc$1 we may rationally1 & )\t hypo!sis1 conclude ei!r t ! causes exi/$ =m]ly ) great] int5sity1 or t !y h op]at$ dur+ an enorm\s l5g? ( "t4 ,fur!r ?an ?is no geologi/ ( au?ority has1 s9ce ! rise ( ! pres5t enlight5$ s*ool ( geological speculation1 attempt$ to g4 ,9 _m geological inquiries x d\btless happ5s t ?\gh ! laws to :i* ! ph5om5a are ascrib$ are kn[n laws1 & ! ag5ts kn[n ag5ts1 ^? ag5ts are n kn[n to h be5 pres5t 9 ! p>ticul> case4 ,9 ! speculation respect+ ! igne\s orig9 ( trap or granite1 ! fact does n admit ( direct pro( t ^? sub/ances h be5 actually subject$ to int5se heat4 ,b ! same ?+ might be said ( all judicial inquiries :i* proce$ on circum/antial evid5ce4 ,we c conclude t a man 0 murd]$1 ?\gh x is n prov$ by ! te/imony ( eye-witnesses t "s p]son :o _h ! int5tion ( murd]+ him 0 pres5t on ! spot4 ,x is en\gh = mo/ purposes1 if no o!r kn[n cause c\ld h g5]at$ ! effects %[n to h be5 produc$4 ------------------------------------ ,! celebrat$ speculation ( ,laplace conc]n+ ! orig9 ( ! e>? & planets1 p>ticipates ess5tially 9 ! inductive "* ( mod]n geological !ory4 ,! speculation is1 t ! atmosph]e ( ! sun orig9ally ext5d$ to ! pres5t limits ( ! sol> sy/em2 f :i*1 by ! process ( cool+1 x has contract$ to its pres5t dim5sions2 & s9ce1 by ! g5]al pr9ciples ( me*anics ! rotation ( ! sun & ( its accompany+ atmosph]e mu/ increase 9 rapidity z its volume dim9i%es1 ! increas$ c5trifugal =ce g5]at$ by ! m rapid rotation1 ov]balanc+ ! action ( gravitation1 has caus$ ! sun to ab&on successive r+s ( vapor\s matt]1 :i* are suppos$ to h cond5s$ by cool+1 & to h become ! planets4 ,!re is 9 ?is !ory no unkn[n sub/ance introduc$ on supposition1 nor any unkn[n prop]ty or law ascrib$ to a kn[n sub/ance4 ,! kn[n laws ( matt] au?orize u to suppose t a body :i* is con/antly giv+ out s l>ge an am\nt ( heat z ! sun is1 mu/ be progressively cool+1 & t1 by ! process ( cool+ x mu/ contract2 if1 !re=e1 we endeavor1 f ! pres5t /ate ( t lum9>y1 to inf] its /ate 9 a "t long pa/1 we mu/ necess>ily suppose t its atmosph]e ext5d$ mu* f>!r ?an at pres5t1 & we are entitl$ to suppose t x ext5d$ z f> z we c trace effects su* z x might naturally leave beh9d x on retir+2 & su* ! planets are4 ,^! suppositions be+ made1 x foll[s f kn[n laws t successive zones ( ! sol> atmosph]e might be ab&on$2 t ^! w\ld cont9ue to revolve r\nd ! sun ) ! same velocity z :5 !y =m$ "p ( its sub/ance2 & t !y w\ld cool d[n1 long be=e ! sun itself1 to any giv5 temp]ature1 & consequ5tly to t at :i* ! great] "p ( ! vapor\s matt] ( :i* !y consi/$ w\ld become liquid or solid4 ,! kn[n law ( gravitation w\ld !n cause !m to agglom]ate 9 masses1 :i* w\ld assume ! %ape our planets actually exhibit2 w\ld acquire1 ea* ab\t its own axis1 a rotatory movem5t2 & w\ld 9 t /ate revolve1 z ! planets actually d1 ab\t ! sun1 9 ! same direction ) ! sun's rotation1 b ) less velocity1 because 9 ! same p]iodic "t :i* ! sun's rotation occupi$ :5 8 atmosph]e ext5d$ to t po9t4 ,!re is ?us1 9 ,laplace's !ory1 no?+1 /rictly speak+1 hypo!tical2 x is an example ( legitimate reason+ f a pres5t effect to a possible pa/ cause1 accord+ to ! kn[n laws ( t cause4 ,! !ory1 !re=e1 is1 z ,i h said1 ( a simil> "* to ! !ories ( geologi/s2 b consid]ably inf]ior to !m 9 po9t ( evid5ce4 ,ev5 if x 7 prov$ 7:i* x is n7 t ! conditions necess>y = det]m9+ ! break+ (f ( successive r+s w\ld c]ta9ly occur1 !re w\ld /ill be a mu* great] *ance ( error 9 assum+ t ! exi/+ laws ( nature are ! same :i* exi/$ at ! orig9 ( ! sol> sy/em1 ?an 9 m]ely presum+ 7) geologi/s7 t ^? laws h la/$ ?r\gh a few revolutions & trans=mations ( a s+le "o among ! bodies ( :i* t sy/em is compos$4 ,*apt] ,,xv4 ,( ,progressive ,effects2 ,& ,( ,! ,cont9u$ ,action ,( ,causes4 #a4 ,9 ! la/ f\r *apt]s we h trac$ ! g5]al outl9es ( ! !ory ( ! g5]ation ( d]ivative laws f ultimate ones4 ,9 ! pres5t *apt] our att5tion w be direct$ to a p>ticul> case ( ! d]ivation ( laws f o!r laws1 b a case s g5]al1 & s important z n only to repay1 b to require1 a sep>ate exam9ation4 ,?is is ! case ( a complex ph5om5on result+ f "o simple law1 by ! cont9ual addition ( an effect to itself4 ,!re are "s ph5om5a1 "s bodily s5sations1 = example1 :i* are ess5tially in/antane\s1 & ^: exi/5ce c only be prolong$ by ! prolongation ( ! exi/5ce ( ! cause by :i* !y are produc$4 ,b mo/ ph5om5a are 9 _! own nature p]man5t2 hav+ begun to exi/1 !y w\ld exi/ =ev] unless "s cause int]v5$ hav+ a t5d5cy to alt] or de/roy !m4 ,su*1 = example1 are all ! facts ( ph5om5a :i* we call bodies4 ,wat]1 once produc$1 w n ( itself relapse into a /ate ( hydrog5 & oxyg52 su* a *ange requires "s ag5t hav+ ! p[] ( decompos+ ! comp\nd4 ,su*1 aga91 are ! positions 9 space & ! movem5ts ( bodies4 ,no object at re/ alt]s its position )\t ! int]v5tion ( "s conditions extrane\s to itself2 & :5 once 9 motion1 no object returns to a /ate ( re/1 or alt]s ei!r its direction or its velocity1 unless "s new ext]nal conditions are sup]9duc$4 ,x1 !re=e1 p]petually happ5s t a tempor>y cause gives rise to a p]man5t effect4 ,! contact ( iron ) moi/ air = a few h\rs1 produces a ru/ :i* may endure = c5turies2 or a projectile =ce :i* laun*es a cannon-ball into space1 produces a motion :i* w\ld cont9ue =ev] unless "s o!r =ce c\nt]act$ x4 ,betwe5 ! two examples :i* we h "h giv51 !re is a diff]5ce wor? po9t+ out4 ,9 ! =m] 79 :i* ! ph5om5on produc$ is a sub/ance1 & n a motion ( a sub/ance71 s9ce ! ru/ rema9s =ev] & unalt]$ unless "s new cause sup]v5es1 we may speak ( ! contact ( air a hundr$ ye>s ago z ev5 ! proximate cause ( ! ru/ :i* has exi/$ f t "t until n[4 ,b :5 ! effect is motion1 :i* is itself a *ange1 we mu/ use a diff]5t language4 ,! p]man5cy ( ! effect is n[ only ! p]man5cy ( a s]ies ( *anges4 ,! second foot1 or in*1 or mile ( motion is n ! m]e prolong$ duration ( ! fir/ foot1 or in*1 or mile1 b ano!r fact :i* succe$s1 & :i* may 9 "s respects be v unlike ! =m]1 s9ce x c>ries ! body ?r\gh a diff]5t region ( space4 ,n[1 ! orig9al projectile =ce :i* set ! body mov+ is ! remote cause ( all its motion1 h[ev] long cont9u$1 b ! proximate cause ( no motion except t :i* took place at ! fir/ in/ant4 ,! motion at any subsequ5t in/ant is proximately caus$ by ! motion :i* took place at ! in/ant prec$+4 ,x is on t1 & n on ! orig9al mov+ cause1 t ! motion at any giv5 mom5t dep5ds4 ,=1 suppose t ! body passes ?r\gh "s resi/+ m$ium1 :i* p>tially c\nt]acts ! effect ( ! orig9al impulse1 & ret>ds ! motion2 ?is c\nt]action 7x ne$ sc>cely "h be repeat$7 is z /rict an example ( ob$i5ce to ! law ( ! impulse1 z if ! body _h gone on mov+ ) its orig9al velocity2 b ! motion :i* results is diff]5t1 be+ n[ a comp\nd ( ! effects ( two causes act+ 9 contr>y directions1 in/ead ( ! s+le effect ( "o cause4 ,n[1 :at cause does ! body obey 9 its subsequ5t motion8 ,! orig9al cause ( motion1 or ! actual motion at ! prec$+ in/ant8 ,! latt]2 = :5 ! object issues f ! resi/+ m$ium1 x cont9ues mov+1 n ) its orig9al1 b ) its ret>d$ velocity4 ,! motion hav+ once be5 dim9i%$1 all t :i* foll[s is dim9i%$4 ,! effect *anges1 because ! cause :i* x really obeys1 ! proximate cause1 ! real cause 9 fact1 has *ang$4 ,?is pr9ciple is recogniz$ by ma!maticians :5 !y enum]ate among ! causes by :i* ! motion ( a body is at any in/ant det]m9$ ! =ce g5]at$ by ! previ\s motion2 an expression :i* w\ld be absurd if tak5 to imply t ?is 8=ce0 0 an int]m$iate l9k betwe5 ! cause & ! effect1 b :i* really means only ! previ\s motion itself1 consid]$ z a cause ( fur!r motion4 ,we mu/1 !re=e1 if we w\ld speak ) p]fect precision1 consid] ea* l9k 9 ! succession ( motions z ! effect ( ! l9k prec$+ x4 ,b if1 = ! conv5i5ce ( disc\rse1 we speak ( ! :ole s]ies z "o effect1 x mu/ be z an effect produc$ by ! orig9al impell+ =ce2 a p]man5t effect produc$ by an in/antane\s cause1 & possess+ ! prop]ty ( self-p]petuation4 ,let u n[ suppose t ! orig9al ag5t or cause1 in/ead ( be+ in/antane\s1 is p]man5t4 ,:atev] effect has be5 produc$ up to a giv5 "t1 w\ld 7unless prev5t$ by ! int]v5tion ( "s new cause7 subsi/ p]man5tly1 ev5 if ! cause 7 to p]i%4 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 ! cause does n p]i%1 b cont9ues to exi/ & to op]ate1 x mu/ g on produc+ m & m ( ! effect2 & in/ead ( a uni=m effect1 we h a progressive s]ies ( effects1 aris+ f ! accumulat$ influ5ce ( a p]man5t cause4 ,?us1 ! contact ( iron ) ! atmosph]e causes a portion ( x to ru/2 & if ! cause ceas$1 ! effect already produc$ w\ld be p]man5t1 b no fur!r effect w\ld be add$4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! cause1 namely1 exposure to moi/ air1 cont9ues1 m & m ( ! iron becomes ru/$1 until all :i* is expos$ is conv]t$ into a r$ p[d]1 :5 "o ( ! conditions ( ! production ( ru/1 namely1 ! pres5ce ( unoxidiz$ iron1 has ceas$1 & ! effect c n any long] be produc$4 ,aga91 ! e>? causes bodies to fall t[>d x2 t is1 ! exi/5ce ( ! e>? at a giv5 in/ant causes an unsupport$ body to move t[>d x at ! succe$+ in/ant2 & if ! e>? 7 annihilat$1 z mu* ( ! effect z is already produc$ w\ld cont9ue2 ! object w\ld g on mov+ 9 ! same direction1 ) its acquir$ velocity1 until int]cept$ by "s body or deflect$ by "s o!r =ce4 ,! e>?1 h[ev]1 n be+ annihilat$1 goes on produc+ 9 ! second in/ant an effect simil> & ( equal am\nt ) ! fir/1 :i* two effects be+ add$ toge!r1 !re results an accel]at$ velocity2 & ?is op]ation be+ repeat$ at ea* successive in/ant1 ! m]e p]man5ce ( ! cause1 ?\gh )\t increase1 gives rise to a con/ant progressive increase ( ! effect1 s long z all ! conditions1 negative & positive1 ( ! production ( t effect cont9ue to be realiz$4 ,x is obvi\s t ?is /ate ( ?+s is m]ely a case ( ! ,composition ( ,causes4 ,a cause :i* cont9ues 9 action mu/ on a /rict analysis be consid]$ z a numb] ( causes exactly simil>1 successively introduc$1 & produc+ by _! comb9ation ! sum ( ! effects :i* !y w\ld sev]ally produce if !y act$ s+ly4 ,! progressive ru/+ ( ! iron is 9 /rictness ! sum ( ! effects ( _m p>ticles ( air act+ 9 succession ^u correspond+ p>ticles ( iron4 ,! cont9u$ action ( ! e>? ^u a fall+ body is equival5t to a s]ies ( =ces1 appli$ 9 successive in/ants1 ea* t5d+ to produce a c]ta9 con/ant quantity ( motion2 & ! motion at ea* in/ant is ! sum ( ! effects ( ! new =ce appli$ at ! prec$+ in/ant1 & ! motion already acquir$4 ,9 ea* in/ant a fre% effect1 ( :i* gravity is ! proximate cause1 is add$ to ! effect ( :i* x 0 ! remote cause2 or 7to express ! same ?+ 9 ano!r mann]71 ! effect produc$ by ! e>?'s influ5ce at ! in/ant la/ elaps$ is add$ to ! sum ( ! effects ( :i* ! remote causes 7 ! influ5ces ex]t$ by ! e>? at all ! previ\s in/ants s9ce ! motion began4 ,! case1 !re=e1 comes "u ! pr9ciple ( a concurr5ce ( causes produc+ an effect equal to ! sum ( _! sep>ate effects4 ,b z ! causes come into play n all at once1 b successively1 & z ! effect at ea* in/ant is ! sum ( ! effects ( ^? causes only :i* h come into action up to t in/ant1 ! result assumes ! =m ( an asc5d+ s]ies2 a succession ( sums1 ea* great] ?an t :i* prec$$ x2 & we h ?us a progressive effect f ! cont9u$ action ( a cause4 ,s9ce ! cont9uance ( ! cause influ5ces ! effect only by add+ to its quantity1 & s9ce ! addition takes place accord+ to a fix$ law 7equal quantities 9 equal times71 ! result is capable ( be+ comput$ on ma!matical pr9ciples4 ,9 fact1 ?is case1 be+ t ( inf9itesimal increm5ts1 is precisely ! case :i* ! diff]5tial calculus 0 inv5t$ to meet4 ,! que/ions1 :at effect w result f ! cont9ual addition ( a giv5 cause to itself1 & :at am\nt ( ! cause1 be+ cont9ually add$ to itself1 w produce a giv5 am\nt ( ! effect1 are evid5tly ma!matical que/ions1 & to be treat$1 !re=e1 d$uctively4 ,if1 z we h se51 cases ( ! ,composition ( ,causes are seldom adapt$ = any o!r ?an d$uctive inve/igation1 ?is is especially true 9 ! case n[ exam9$1 ! cont9ual composition ( a cause ) its own previ\s effects2 s9ce su* a case is peculi>ly am5able to ! d$uctive me?od1 :ile ! undi/+ui%able mann] 9 :i* ! effects are bl5d$ ) "o ano!r & ) ! causes1 mu/ make ! treatm5t ( su* an in/ance exp]im5tally /ill m *im]ical ?an 9 any o!r case4 #b4 ,we %all next adv]t to a r m intricate op]ation ( ! same pr9ciple1 namely1 :5 ! cause does n m]ely cont9ue 9 action1 b und]goes1 dur+ ! same "t1 a progressive *ange 9 ^? ( its circum/ances :i* contribute to det]m9e ! effect4 ,9 ?is case1 z 9 ! =m]1 ! total effect goes on accumulat+ by ! cont9ual addition ( a fre% effect to t already produc$1 b x is no long] by ! addition ( equal quantities 9 equal times2 ! quantities add$ are unequal1 & ev5 ! quality may n[ be diff]5t4 ,if ! *ange 9 ! /ate ( ! p]man5t cause be progressive1 ! effect w g ?r\gh a d\ble s]ies ( *anges1 aris+ p>tly f ! accumulat$ action ( ! cause1 & p>tly f ! *anges 9 its action4 ,! effect is /ill a progressive effect1 produc$1 h[ev]1 n by ! m]e cont9uance ( a cause1 b by its cont9uance & its progressiv5ess comb9$4 ,a famili> example is af=d$ by ! increase ( ! temp]ature z summ] advances1 t is1 z ! sun draws ne>] to a v]tical position1 & rema9s a great] numb] ( h\rs above ! horizon4 ,?is in/ance exemplifies 9 a v int]e/+ mann] ! tw(old op]ation on ! effect1 aris+ f ! cont9uance ( ! cause1 & f its progressive *ange4 ,:5 once ! sun has come ne> en\gh to ! z5i?1 & rema9s above ! horizon long en\gh1 to give m w>m? dur+ "o diurnal rotation ?an ! c\nt]act+ cause1 ! e>?'s radiation1 c c>ry (f1 ! m]e cont9uance ( ! cause w\ld progressively increase ! effect1 ev5 if ! sun came no ne>] & ! days grew no long]2 b 9 addition to ?is1 a *ange takes place 9 ! accid5ts ( ! cause 7its s]ies ( diurnal positions71 t5d+ to increase ! quantity ( ! effect4 ,:5 ! summ] sol/ice has pass$1 ! progressive *ange 9 ! cause beg9s to take place ! rev]se way1 b1 = "s "t1 ! accumulat+ effect ( ! m]e cont9uance ( ! cause exce$s ! effect ( ! *anges 9 x1 & ! temp]ature cont9ues to increase4 ,aga91 ! motion ( a planet is a progressive effect1 produc$ by causes at once p]man5t & progressive4 ,! orbit ( a planet is det]m9$ 7omitt+ p]turbations7 by two causes3 fir/1 ! action ( ! c5tral body1 a p]man5t cause1 :i* alt]nately increases & dim9i%es z ! planet draws ne>] to or goes f>!r f its p]ihelion1 & :i* acts at e po9t 9 a diff]5t direction2 &1 secondly1 ! t5d5cy ( ! planet to cont9ue mov+ 9 ! direction & ) ! velocity :i* x has already acquir$4 ,?is =ce also gr[s great] z ! planet draws ne>] to its p]ihelion1 because z x does s its velocity increases1 & less1 z x rec$es f its p]ihelion2 & ?is =ce z well z ! o!r acts at ea* po9t 9 a diff]5t direction1 because at e po9t ! action ( ! c5tral =ce1 by deflect+ ! planet f its previ\s direction1 alt]s ! l9e 9 :i* x t5ds to cont9ue mov+4 ,! motion at ea* in/ant is det]m9$ by ! am\nt & direction ( ! motion1 & ! am\nt & direction ( ! sun's action1 at ! previ\s in/ant2 & if we speak ( ! entire revolution ( ! planet z "o ph5om5on 7:i*1 z x is p]iodical & simil> to itself1 we (t5 f9d x conv5i5t to d71 t ph5om5on is ! progressive effect ( two p]man5t & progressive causes1 ! c5tral =ce & ! acquir$ motion4 ,^? causes happ5+ to be progressive 9 ! p>ticul> way :i* is call$ p]iodical1 ! effect necess>ily is s too2 because ! quantities to be add$ toge!r return+ 9 a regul> ord]1 ! same sums mu/ also regul>ly return4 ,?is example is wor?y ( consid]ation also 9 ano!r respect4 ,?\gh ! causes !mselves are p]man5t1 & indep5d5t ( all conditions kn[n to u1 ! *anges :i* take place 9 ! quantities & relations ( ! causes are actually caus$ by ! p]iodical *anges 9 ! effects4 ,! causes1 z !y exi/ at any mom5t1 hav+ produc$ a c]ta9 motion1 t motion1 becom+ itself a cause1 reacts ^u ! causes1 & produces a *ange 9 !m4 ,by alt]+ ! di/ance & direction ( ! c5tral body relatively to ! planet1 & ! direction & quantity ( ! =ce 9 ! direction ( ! tang5t1 x alt]s ! elem5ts :i* det]m9e ! motion at ! next succe$+ in/ant4 ,?is *ange r5d]s ! next motion some:at diff]5t2 & ?is diff]5ce1 by a fre% reaction ^u ! causes1 r5d]s ! next motion aga9 diff]5t1 & s on4 ,! orig9al /ate ( ! causes might h be5 su* t ?is s]ies ( actions modifi$ by reactions w\ld n h be5 p]iodical4 ,! sun's action1 & ! orig9al impell+ =ce1 might h be5 9 su* a ratio to "o ano!r1 t ! reaction ( ! effect w\ld h be5 su* z to alt] ! causes m & m1 )\t ev] br++ !m back to :at !y 7 at any =m] "t4 ,! planet w\ld !n h mov$ 9 a p>abola1 or an hyp]bola1 curves n return+ into !mselves4 ,! quantities ( ! two =ces 71 h[ev]1 orig9ally su*1 t ! successive reactions ( ! effect br+ back ! causes1 aft] a c]ta9 "t1 to :at !y 7 be=e2 & f t "t all ! v>iations cont9u$ to recur aga9 & aga9 9 ! same p]iodical ord]1 & mu/ s cont9ue :ile ! causes subsi/ & are n c\nt]act$4 #c4 ,9 all cases ( progressive effects1 :e!r aris+ f ! accumulation ( un*ang+ or ( *ang+ elem5ts1 !re is a uni=mity ( succession n m]ely betwe5 ! cause & ! effect1 b betwe5 ! fir/ /ages ( ! effect & its subsequ5t /ages4 ,t a body 9 vacuo falls sixte5 feet 9 ! fir/ second1 =ty-eight 9 ! second1 & s on 9 ! ratio ( ! odd numb]s1 is z mu* a uni=m sequ5ce z t :5 ! supports are remov$ ! body falls4 ,! sequ5ce ( spr+ & summ] is z regul> & inv>iable z t ( ! approa* ( ! sun & spr+2 b we d n consid] spr+ to be ! cause ( summ]2 x is evid5t t bo? are successive effects ( ! heat receiv$ f ! sun1 & t1 consid]$ m]ely 9 itself1 spr+ might cont9ue =ev] )\t hav+ ! slighte/ t5d5cy to produce summ]4 ,z we h s (t5 rem>k$1 n ! conditional1 b ! unconditional inv>iable antec$5t is t]m$ ! cause4 ,t :i* w\ld n be foll[$ by ! effect unless some?+ else _h prec$$1 & :i* if t some?+ else _h prec$$1 w\ld n h be5 requir$1 is n ! cause1 h[ev] invaluable ! sequ5ce may 9 fact be4 ,x is 9 ?is way t mo/ ( ^? uni=mities ( succession are g5]at$1 :i* are n cases ( causation4 ,:5 a ph5om5on goes on increas+1 or p]iodically increases & dim9i%es1 or goes ?r\gh any cont9u$ & unceas+ process ( v>iation r$ucible to a uni=m rule or law ( succession1 we d n on ?is acc\nt presume t any two successive t]ms ( ! s]ies are cause & effect4 ,we presume ! contr>y2 we expect to f9d t ! :ole s]ies orig9ates ei!r f ! cont9u$ action ( fix$ causes or f causes :i* g ?r\gh a correspond+ process ( cont9u\s *ange4 ,a tree gr[s f half an in* high to a hundr$ feet2 & "s trees w g5]ally gr[ to t height unless prev5t$ by "s c\nt]act+ cause4 ,b we d n call ! se$l+ ! cause ( ! full-gr[n tree2 ! inv>iable antec$5t x c]ta9ly is1 & we "k v imp]fectly on :at o!r antec$5ts ! sequ5ce is cont+5t1 b we are conv9c$ t x is cont+5t on some?+2 because ! homog5e\sness ( ! antec$5t ) ! consequ5t1 ! close resemblance ( ! se$l+ to ! tree 9 all respects except magnitude1 & ! graduality ( ! gr[?1 s exactly resembl+ ! progressively accumulat+ effect produc$ by ! long action ( "s "o cause1 leave no possibility ( d\bt+ t ! se$l+ & ! tree are two t]ms 9 a s]ies ( t description1 ! fir/ t]m ( :i* is yet to seek4 ,! conclusion is fur!r confirm$ by ?is1 t we are able to prove by /rict induction ! dep5d5ce ( ! gr[? ( ! tree1 & ev5 ( ! cont9uance ( its exi/5ce1 ^u ! cont9u$ repetition ( c]ta9 processes ( nutrition1 ! rise ( ! sap1 ! absorptions & exhalations by ! leaves1 etc42 & ! same exp]im5ts w\ld probably prove to u t ! gr[? ( ! tree is ! accumulat$ sum ( ! effects ( ^! cont9u$ processes1 7 we n1 = want ( suffici5tly microscopic eyes1 unable to obs]ve correctly & 9 detail :at ^? effects are4 ,?is supposition by no means requires t ! effect %\ld n1 dur+ its progress1 und]go _m modifications besides ^? ( quantity1 or t x %\ld n sometimes appe> to und]go a v m>k$ *ange ( "*4 ,?is may be ei!r because ! unkn[n cause consi/s ( sev]al compon5t elem5ts or ag5ts1 ^: effects1 accumulat+ accord+ to diff]5t laws1 are comp\nd$ 9 diff]5t proportions at diff]5t p]iods 9 ! exi/5ce ( ! organiz$ be+2 or because1 at c]ta9 po9ts 9 its progress1 fre% causes or ag5cies come 91 or are evolv$1 :i* int]mix _! laws ) ^? ( ! prime ag5t4 ,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,( ,empirical ,laws4 #a4 ,sci5tific inquir]s give ! "n ( ,empirical ,laws to ^? uni=mities :i* obs]vation or exp]im5t has %[n to exi/1 b on :i* !y hesitate to rely 9 cases v>y+ mu* f ^? :i* h be5 actually obs]v$1 = want ( see+ any reason :y su* a law %\ld exi/4 ,x is impli$1 !re=e1 9 ! notion ( an empirical law1 t x is n an ultimate law2 t if true at all1 its tru? is capable ( be+1 & requires to be1 acc\nt$ =4 ,x is a d]ivative law1 ! d]ivation ( :i* is n yet kn[n4 ,to /ate ! explanation1 ! :y1 ( ! empirical law1 w\ld be to /ate ! laws f :i* x is d]iv$--! ultimate causes on :i* x is cont+5t4 ,& if we knew ^!1 we %\ld also "k :at are its limits2 "u :at conditions x w\ld cease to be fulfill$4 ,! p]iodical return ( eclipses1 z orig9ally asc]ta9$ by ! p]sev]+ obs]vation ( ! e>ly ,ea/]n a/ronom]s1 0 an empirical law1 until ! g5]al laws ( ! cele/ial motions _h acc\nt$ = x4 ,! foll[+ are empirical laws /ill wait+ to be resolv$ into ! simpl] laws f :i* !y are d]iv$3 ! local laws ( ! flux & reflux ( ! tides 9 diff]5t places2 ! succession ( c]ta9 k9ds ( wea!r to c]ta9 appe>ances ( sky2 ! app>5t exceptions to ! almo/ univ]sal tru? t bodies exp& by increase ( temp]ature2 ! law t bre$s1 bo? animal & vegetable1 are improv$ by cross+2 t gases h a /rong t5d5cy to p]meate animal membranes2 t sub/ances conta9+ a v high proportion ( nitrog5 7su* z hydrocyanic acid & morphia7 are p[]ful poisons2 t :5 diff]5t metals are fus$ toge!r ! alloy is h>d] ?an ! v>i\s elem5ts2 t ! numb] ( atoms ( acid requir$ to neutralize "o atom ( any base is equal to ! numb] ( atoms ( oxyg5 9 ! base2 t ! solubility ( sub/ances 9 "o ano!r dep5ds17#aga7 at lea/ 9 "s degree1 on ! simil>ity ( _! elem5ts4 ,an empirical law1 !n1 is an obs]v$ uni=mity1 presum$ to be resolvable into simpl] laws1 b n yet resolv$ into !m4 ,! asc]ta9m5t ( ! empirical laws ( ph5om5a (t5 prec$es by a long int]val ! explanation ( ^? laws by ! ,d$uctive ,me?od2 & ! v]ification ( a d$uction usually consi/s 9 ! comp>ison ( its results ) empirical laws previ\sly asc]ta9$4 #b4 ,f a limit$ numb] ( ultimate laws ( causation1 !re are necess>ily g5]at$ a va/ numb] ( d]ivative uni=mities1 bo? ( succession & co-exi/5ce4 ,"s are laws ( succession or ( co-exi/5ce betwe5 diff]5t effects ( ! same cause2 ( ^! we _h examples 9 ! la/ *apt]4 ,"s are laws ( succession betwe5 effects & _! remote causes1 resolvable into ! laws :i* connect ea* ) ! int]m$iate l9k4 ,?irdly1 :5 causes act toge!r & comp\nd _! effects1 ! laws ( ^? causes g5]ate ! fundam5tal law ( ! effect1 namely1 t x dep5ds on ! co-exi/5ce ( ^? causes4 ,&1 f9ally1 ! ord] ( succession or ( co-exi/5ce :i* obta9s among effects necess>ily dep5ds on _! causes4 ,if !y are effects ( ! same cause1 x dep5ds on ! laws ( t cause2 if on diff]5t causes1 x dep5ds on ! laws ( ^? causes sev]ally1 & on ! circum/ances :i* det]m9e _! co-exi/5ce4 ,if we inquire fur!r :5 & h[ ! causes w co-exi/1 t1 aga91 dep5ds on _! causes2 & we may ?us trace back ! ph5om5a high] & high]1 until ! diff]5t s]ies ( effects meet 9 a po9t1 & ! :ole is %[n to h dep5d$ ultimately on "s common cause2 or until1 in/ead ( conv]g+ to "o po9t1 !y t]m9ate 9 diff]5t po9ts1 & ! ord] ( ! effects is prov$ to h aris5 f ! collocation ( "s ( ! primeval causes1 or natural ag5ts4 ,= example1 ! ord] ( succession & ( co-exi/5ce among ! heav5ly motions1 :i* is express$ by ,kepl]'s laws1 is d]iv$ f ! co-exi/5ce ( two primeval causes1 ! sun1 & ! orig9al impulse or projectile =ce belong+ to ea* planet47#agb7 ,kepl]'s laws are resolv$ into ! laws ( ^! causes & ! fact ( _! co-exi/5ce4 ,d]ivative laws1 !re=e1 d n dep5d solely on ! ultimate laws into :i* !y are resolvable2 !y mo/ly dep5d on ^? ultimate laws1 & an ultimate fact2 namely1 ! mode ( co-exi/5ce ( "s ( ! compon5t elem5ts ( ! univ]se4 ,! ultimate laws ( causation might be ! same z at pres5t1 & yet ! d]ivative laws completely diff]5t1 if ! causes co-exi/$ 9 diff]5t proportions1 or ) any diff]5ce 9 ^? ( _! relations by :i* ! effects are influ5c$4 ,if1 = example1 ! sun's attraction1 & ! orig9al projectile =ce1 _h exi/$ 9 "s o!r ratio to "o ano!r ?an !y did 7& we "k ( no reason :y ?is %\ld n h be5 ! case71 ! d]ivative laws ( ! heav5ly motions might h be5 q diff]5t f :at !y are4 ,! proportions :i* exi/ happ5 to be su* z to produce regul> elliptical motions2 any o!r proportions w\ld h produc$ diff]5t ellipses1 or circul>1 or p>abolic1 or hyp]bolic motions1 b /ill regul> ones2 because ! effects ( ea* ( ! ag5ts accumulate accord+ to a uni=m law2 & two regul> s]ies ( quantities1 :5 _! correspond+ t]ms are add$1 mu/ produce a regul> s]ies ( "s sort1 :atev] ! quantities !mselves are4 #c4 ,n[ ?is la/-m5tion$ elem5t 9 ! resolution ( a d]ivative law1 ! elem5t :i* is n a law ( causation1 b a collocation ( causes1 c n itself be r$uc$ to any law4 ,!re is1 z =m]ly rem>k$17#agc7 no uni=mity1 no norma1 pr9ciple1 or rule1 p]ceivable 9 ! di/ribution ( ! primeval natural ag5ts ?r\gh ! univ]se4 ,! diff]5t sub/ances compos+ ! e>?1 ! p[]s t p]vade ! univ]se1 /& 9 no con/ant relation to "o ano!r4 ,"o sub/ance is m abundant ?an o!rs1 "o p[] acts ?r\gh a l>g] ext5t ( space ?an o!rs1 )\t any p]vad+ analogy t we c discov]4 ,we n only d n "k ( any reason :y ! sun's attraction & ! =ce 9 ! direction ( ! tang5t co-exi/ 9 ! exact proportion !y d1 b we c trace no co9cid5ce betwe5 x & ! proportions 9 :i* any o!r elem5t>y p[]s 9 ! univ]se are int]m+l$4 ,! utmo/ disord] is app>5t 9 ! comb9ation ( ! causes1 :i* is consi/5t ) ! mo/ regul> ord] 9 _! effects2 = :5 ea* ag5t c>ries on its own op]ations accord+ to a uni=m law1 ev5 ! mo/ caprici\s comb9ation ( ag5cies w g5]ate a regul>ity ( "s sort2 z we see 9 ! kaleidoscope1 :]e any casual arrangem5t ( color$ bits ( glass produces by ! laws ( reflection a beautiful regul>ity 9 ! effect4 #d4 ,9 ! above consid]ations lies ! ju/ification ( ! limit$ degree ( reliance :i* sci5tific inquir]s are accu/om$ to place 9 empirical laws4 ,a d]ivative law :i* results :olly f ! op]ation ( "s "o cause1 w be z univ]sally true z ! laws ( ! cause itself2 t is1 x w always be true except :]e "s "o ( ^? effects ( ! cause1 on :i* ! d]ivative law dep5ds1 is defeat$ by a c\nt]act+ cause4 ,b :5 ! d]ivative law results n f diff]5t effects ( "o cause1 b f effects ( sev]al causes1 we c n be c]ta9 t x w be true "u any v>iation 9 ! mode ( co-exi/5ce ( ^? causes1 or ( ! primitive natural ag5ts on :i* ! causes ultimately dep5d4 ,! proposition t coal-b$s re/ on c]ta9 descriptions ( /rata exclusively1 ?\gh true on ! e>?1 s f> z our obs]vation has rea*$1 c n be ext5d$ to ! moon or ! o!r planets1 suppos+ coal to exi/ !re2 because we c n be assur$ t ! orig9al con/itution ( any o!r planet 0 su* z to produce ! diff]5t depositions 9 ! same ord] z 9 our globe4 ,! d]ivative law 9 ?is case dep5ds n solely on laws1 b on a collocation2 & collocations c n be r$uc$ to any law4 ,n[ x is ! v nature ( a d]ivative law :i* has n yet be5 resolv$ into its elem5ts1 9 o!r words1 an empirical law1 t we d n "k :e!r x results f ! diff]5t effects ( "o cause1 or f effects ( diff]5t causes4 ,we c n tell :e!r x dep5ds :olly on laws1 or p>tly on laws & p>tly on a collocation4 ,if x dep5ds on a collocation1 x w be true 9 all ! cases 9 :i* t p>ticul> collocation exi/s4 ,b1 s9ce we are entirely ignorant1 9 case ( its dep5d+ on a collocation1 :at ! collocation is1 we are n safe 9 ext5d+ ! law beyond ! limits ( "t & place 9 :i* we h actual exp]i5ce ( its tru?4 ,s9ce )9 ^? limits ! law has always be5 f\nd true1 we h evid5ce t ! collocations1 :atev] !y are1 on :i* x dep5ds1 d really exi/ )9 ^? limits4 ,b1 kn[+ ( no rule or pr9ciple to :i* ! collocations !mselves con=m1 we c n conclude t because a collocation is prov$ to exi/ )9 c]ta9 limits ( place or "t1 x w exi/ beyond ^? limits4 ,empirical laws1 !re=e1 c only be receiv$ z true )9 ! limits ( "t & place 9 :i* !y h be5 f\nd true by obs]vation2 & n m]ely ! limits ( "t & place1 b ( "t1 place1 & circum/ance2 =1 s9ce x is ! v mean+ ( an empirical law t we d n "k ! ultimate laws ( causation on :i* x is dep5d5t1 we c n =esee1 )\t actual trial1 9 :at mann] or to :at ext5t ! introduction ( any new circum/ance may affect x4 #e4 ,b h[ are we to "k t a uni=mity asc]ta9$ by exp]i5ce is only an empirical law8 ,s9ce1 by ! supposition1 we h n be5 able to resolve x into any o!r laws1 h[ d we "k t x is n an ultimate law ( causation8 ,i answ] t no g5]alization am\nts to m ?an an empirical law :5 ! only pro( on :i* x re/s is t ( ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t4 ,= x has be5 se5 t by t me?od alone we nev] c arrive at causes4 ,! utmo/ t ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t c d is1 to asc]ta9 ! :ole ( ! circum/ances common to all cases 9 :i* a ph5om5on is produc$2 & ?is aggregate includes n only ! cause ( ! ph5om5on1 b all ph5om5a ) :i* x is connect$ by any d]ivative uni=mity1 :e!r z be+ collat]al effects ( ! same cause1 or effects ( any o!r cause :i*1 9 all ! in/ances we h be5 able to obs]ve1 co-exi/$ ) x4 ,! me?od af=ds no means ( det]m9+ :i* ( ^! uni=mities are laws ( causation1 & :i* are m]ely d]ivative laws1 result+ f ^? laws ( causation & f ! collocation ( ! causes4 ,none ( !m1 !re=e1 c be receiv$ 9 any o!r "* ?an t ( d]ivative laws1 ! d]ivation ( :i* has n be5 trac$2 9 o!r words1 empirical laws3 9 :i* light all results obta9$ by ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t 7& !re=e almo/ all tru?s obta9$ by simple obs]vation )\t exp]im5t7 mu/ be consid]$1 until ei!r confirm$ by ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 or expla9$ d$uctively2 9 o!r words1 acc\nt$ = a priori4 ,^! empirical laws may be ( great] or less au?ority1 accord+ z !re is reason to presume t !y are resolvable into laws only1 or into laws & collocations toge!r4 ,! sequ5ces :i* we obs]ve 9 ! production & subsequ5t life ( an animal or a vegetable1 re/+ on ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t only1 are m]e empirical laws2 b ?\gh ! antec$5ts 9 ^? sequ5ces may n be ! causes ( ! consequ5ts1 bo? ! "o & ! o!r are d\btless1 9 ! ma91 successive /ages ( a progressive effect orig9at+ 9 a common cause1 & !re=e indep5d5t ( collocations4 ,! uni=mities1 on ! o!r h&1 9 ! ord] ( sup]position ( /rata on ! e>?1 are empirical laws ( a mu* weak] k9d1 s9ce !y n only are n laws ( causation1 b !re is no reason to believe t !y dep5d on any common cause2 all appe>ances are 9 favor ( _! dep5d+ on ! p>ticul> collocation ( natural ag5ts :i* at "s "t or o!r exi/$ on our globe1 & f :i* no inf]5ce c be drawn z to ! collocation :i* exi/s or has exi/$ 9 any o!r portion ( ! univ]se4 #f4 ,our def9ition ( an empirical law1 includ+ n only ^? uni=mities :i* are n kn[n to be laws ( causation1 b also ^? :i* are1 provid$ !re be reason to presume t !y are n ultimate laws2 ?is is ! prop] place to consid] by :at signs we may judge t ev5 if an obs]v$ uni=mity be a law ( causation1 x is n an ultimate1 b a d]ivative law4 ,! fir/ sign is1 if betwe5 ! antec$5t a & ! consequ5t b !re be evid5ce ( "s int]m$iate l9k2 "s ph5om5on ( :i* we c surmise ! exi/5ce1 ?\gh f ! imp]fection ( our s5ses or ( our in/rum5ts we are unable to asc]ta9 its precise nature & laws4 ,if !re be su* a ph5om5on 7:i* may be d5ot$ by ! lett] x71 x foll[s t ev5 if a be ! cause ( b1 x is b ! remote cause1 & t ! law1 a causes b1 is resolvable into at lea/ two laws1 a causes x1 & x causes b4 ,?is is a v frequ5t case1 s9ce ! op]ations ( nature mo/ly take place on s m9ute a scale1 t _m ( ! successive /eps are ei!r imp]ceptible1 or v indi/9ctly p]ceiv$4 ,take1 = example1 ! laws ( ! *emical composition ( sub/ances2 z t hydrog5 & oxyg5 be+ comb9$1 wat] is produc$4 ,all we see ( ! process is1 t ! two gases be+ mix$ 9 c]ta9 proportions1 & heat or electricity be+ appli$1 an explosion takes place1 ! gases disappe>1 & wat] rema9s4 ,!re is no d\bt ab\t ! law1 or ab\t its be+ a law ( causation4 ,b betwe5 ! antec$5t 7! gases 9 a /ate ( me*anical mixture1 heat$ or electrifi$71 & ! consequ5t 7! production ( wat]71 !re mu/ be an int]m$iate process :i* we d n see4 ,= if we take any portion :atev] ( ! wat]1 & subject x to analysis1 we f9d t x always conta9s hydrog5 & oxyg52 nay1 ! v same proportions ( !m1 namely1 two-?irds1 9 volume1 ( hydrog51 & "o-?ird oxyg54 ,?is is true ( a s+le drop2 x is true ( ! m9ute/ portion :i* our in/rum5ts are capable ( appreciat+4 ,s9ce1 !n1 ! smalle/ p]ceptible portion ( ! wat] conta9s bo? ^? sub/ances1 portions ( hydrog5 & oxyg5 small] ?an ! smalle/ p]ceptible mu/ h come toge!r 9 e su* m9ute portion ( space2 mu/ h come clos] toge!r ?an :5 ! gases 7 9 a /ate ( me*anical mixture1 s9ce 7to m5tion no o!r reasons7 ! wat] occupies f> less space ?an ! gases4 ,n[1 z we c n see ?is contact or close approa* ( ! m9ute p>ticles1 we c n obs]ve ) :at circum/ances x is att5d$1 or accord+ to :at laws x produces its effects4 ,! production ( wat]1 t is1 ( ! s5sible ph5om5a :i* *>act]ize ! comp\nd1 may be a v remote effect ( ^? laws4 ,!re may be innum]able int]v5+ l9ks2 & we are sure t !re mu/ be "s4 ,hav+ full pro( t corpuscul> action ( "s k9d takes place previ\s to any ( ! great trans=mations 9 ! s5sible prop]ties ( sub/ances1 we c h no d\bt t ! laws ( *emical action1 z at pres5t kn[n1 are n ultimate1 b d]ivative laws2 h[ev] ignorant we may be1 & ev5 ?\gh we %\ld =ev] rema9 ignorant1 ( ! nature ( ! laws ( corpuscul> action f :i* !y are d]iv$4 ,9 l mann]1 all ! processes ( vegetative life1 :e!r 9 ! vegetable prop]ly s call$ or 9 ! animal body1 are corpuscul> processes4 ,nutrition is ! addition ( p>ticles to "o ano!r1 sometimes m]ely replac+ o!r p>ticles sep>at$ & excret$1 sometimes occasion+ an increase ( bulk or weight s gradual t only aft] a long cont9uance does x become p]ceptible4 ,v>i\s organs1 by means ( peculi> vessels1 secrete f ! blood fluids1 ! compon5t p>ticles ( :i* mu/ h be5 9 ! blood1 b :i* diff] f x mo/ widely bo? 9 me*anical prop]ties & 9 *emical composition4 ,"h1 !n1 are abundance ( unkn[n l9ks to be fill$ up2 & !re c be no d\bt t ! laws ( ! ph5om5a ( vegetative or organic life are d]ivative laws1 dep5d5t on prop]ties ( ! corpuscles1 & ( ^? elem5t>y tissues :i* are comp>atively simple comb9ations ( corpuscles4 ,! fir/ sign1 !n1 f :i* a law ( causation1 ?\gh hi!rto unresolv$1 may be inf]r$ to be a d]ivative law1 is any indication ( ! exi/5ce ( an int]m$iate l9k or l9ks betwe5 ! antec$5t & ! consequ5t4 ,! second is1 :5 ! antec$5t is an extremely complex ph5om5on1 & its effects1 !re=e1 probably 9 "p at lea/1 comp\nd$ ( ! effects ( its diff]5t elem5ts2 s9ce we "k t ! case 9 :i* ! effect ( ! :ole is n made up ( ! effects ( its p>ts is exceptional1 ! ,composition ( ,causes be+ by f> ! m ord9>y case4 ,we w illu/rate ?is by two examples1 9 "o ( :i* ! antec$5t is ! sum ( _m homog5e\s1 9 ! o!r ( het]og5e\s1 p>ts4 ,! weight ( a body is made up ( ! weights ( its m9ute p>ticles2 a tru? :i* a/ronom]s express 9 its mo/ g5]al t]ms :5 !y say t bodies1 at equal di/ances1 gravitate to "o ano!r 9 proportion to _! quantity ( matt]4 ,all true propositions1 !re=e1 :i* c be made conc]n+ gravity1 are d]ivative laws2 ! ultimate law into :i* !y are all resolvable be+1 t e p>ticle ( matt] attracts e o!r4 ,z our second example1 we may take any ( ! sequ5ces obs]v$ 9 meteorology2 = in/ance1 a dim9ution ( ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e 7indicat$ by a fall ( ! b>omet]7 is foll[$ by ra94 ,! antec$5t is "h a complex ph5om5on1 made up ( het]og5e\s elem5ts2 ! column ( ! atmosph]e ov] any p>ticul> place consi/+ ( two p>ts1 a column ( air1 & a column ( aque\s vapor mix$ ) x2 & ! *ange 9 ! two toge!r manife/$ by a fall ( ! b>omet]1 & foll[$ by ra91 mu/ be ei!r a *ange 9 "o ( ^!1 or 9 ! o!r1 or 9 bo?4 ,we might1 !n1 ev5 9 ! abs5ce ( any o!r evid5ce1 =m a reasonable presumption1 f ! inv>iable pres5ce ( bo? ^! elem5ts 9 ! antec$5t1 t ! sequ5ce is probably n an ultimate law1 b a result ( ! laws ( ! two diff]5t ag5ts2 a presumption only to be de/roy$ :5 we _h made ourselves s well acqua9t$ ) ! laws ( bo?1 z to be able to affirm t ^? laws c\ld n by !mselves produce ! obs]v$ result4 ,!re are b few kn[n cases ( succession f v complex antec$5ts :i* h n ei!r be5 actually acc\nt$ = f simpl] laws1 or inf]r$ ) great probability 7f ! asc]ta9$ exi/5ce ( int]m$iate l9ks ( causation n yet und]/ood7 to be capable ( be+ s acc\nt$ =4 ,x is1 !re=e1 highly probable t all sequ5ces f complex antec$5ts are ?us resolvable1 & t ultimate laws are 9 all cases comp>atively simple4 ,if !re 7 n ! o!r reasons already m5tion$ = believ+ t ! laws ( organiz$ nature are resolvable into simpl] laws1 x w\ld be almo/ a suffici5t reason t ! antec$5ts 9 mo/ ( ! sequ5ces are s v complex4 #g4 ,9 ! prec$+ discussion we h recogniz$ two k9ds ( empirical laws3 ^? kn[n to be laws ( causation1 b presum$ to be resolvable into simpl] laws2 & ^? n kn[n to be laws ( causation at all4 ,bo? ^! k9ds ( laws agree 9 ! dem& :i* !y make = be+ expla9$ by d$uction1 & agree 9 be+ ! appropriate means ( v]ify+ su* d$uction1 s9ce !y repres5t ! exp]i5ce ) :i* ! result ( ! d$uction mu/ be comp>$4 ,!y agree1 fur!r1 9 ?is1 t until expla9$1 & connect$ ) ! ultimate laws f :i* !y result1 !y h n atta9$ ! highe/ degree ( c]ta9ty ( :i* laws are susceptible4 ,x has be5 %[n on a =m] occasion t laws ( causation :i* are d]ivative1 & comp\nd$ ( simpl] laws1 are n only1 z ! nature ( ! case implies1 less g5]al1 b ev5 less c]ta91 ?an ! simpl] laws f :i* !y result2 n 9 ! same degree to be reli$ on z univ]sally true4 ,! inf]iority ( evid5ce1 h[ev]1 :i* atta*es to ?is class ( laws1 is trifl+1 comp>$ ) t :i* is inh]5t 9 uni=mities n kn[n to be laws ( causation at all4 ,s long z ^! are unresolv$1 we c n tell on h[ _m collocations1 z well z laws1 _! tru? may be dep5d5t2 we c nev]1 !re=e1 ext5d !m ) any confid5ce to cases 9 :i* we h n assur$ ourselves1 by trial1 t ! necess>y collocation ( causes1 :atev] x may be1 exi/s4 ,x is to ?is class ( laws alone t ! prop]ty1 :i* philosoph]s usually consid] z *>act]i/ic ( empirical laws1 belongs 9 all its /rictness--! prop]ty ( be+ unfit to be reli$ on beyond ! limits ( "t1 place1 & circum/ance 9 :i* ! obs]vations h be5 made4 ,^! are empirical laws 9 a m emphatic s5se2 & :5 ,i employ t t]m 7except :]e ! context manife/ly indicates ! rev]se7 ,i %all g5]ally mean to designate ^? uni=mities only1 :e!r ( succession or ( co-exi/5ce1 :i* are n kn[n to be laws ( causation4 ,*apt] ,,xvii4 ,( ,*ance ,& ,its ,elim9ation4 #a4 ,consid]+1 !n1 z empirical laws only ^? obs]v$ uni=mities respect+ :i* ! "q :e!r !y are laws ( causation mu/ rema9 undecid$ until !y c be expla9$ d$uctively1 or until "s means are f\nd ( apply+ ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce to ! case1 x has be5 %[n 9 ! prec$+ *apt] t until a uni=mity c1 9 "o or ! o!r ( ^! modes1 be tak5 out ( ! class ( empirical laws1 & br\ght ei!r into t ( laws ( causation or ( ! demon/rat$ results ( laws ( causation1 x c n ) any assurance be pron\nc$ true beyond ! local & o!r limits )9 :i* x has be5 f\nd s by actual obs]vation4 ,x rema9s to consid] h[ we are to assure ourselves ( its tru? ev5 )9 ^? limits2 aft] :at quantity ( exp]i5ce a g5]alization :i* re/s solely on ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t c be consid]$ suffici5tly e/abli%$1 ev5 z an empirical law4 ,9 a =m] *apt]1 :5 treat+ ( ! ,me?ods ( ,direct ,induction1 we expressly res]v$ ?is "q17#agd7 & ! "t is n[ come = endeavor+ to solve x4 ,we f\nd t ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t has ! defect ( n prov+ causation1 & c1 !re=e1 only be employ$ = ! asc]ta9m5t ( empirical laws4 ,b we also f\nd t besides ?is defici5cy1 x labors "u a *>act]i/ic imp]fection1 t5d+ to r5d] unc]ta9 ev5 su* conclusions z x is 9 itself adapt$ to prove4 ,?is imp]fection arises f ,plurality ( ,causes4 ,al?\gh two or m cases 9 :i* ! ph5om5on a has be5 met ) may h no common antec$5t except ,a1 ?is does n prove t !re is any connection betwe5 a & ,a1 s9ce a may h _m causes1 & may h be5 produc$1 9 ^! diff]5t in/ances1 n by any ?+ :i* ! in/ances _h 9 common1 b by "s ( ^? elem5ts 9 !m :i* 7 diff]5t4 ,we nev]!less obs]v$1 t 9 proportion to ! multiplication ( in/ances po9t+ to ,a z ! antec$5t1 ! *>act]i/ic unc]ta9ty ( ! me?od dim9i%es1 & ! exi/5ce ( a law ( connection betwe5 ,a & a m ne>ly approa*es to c]ta9ty4 ,x is n[ to be det]m9$ aft] :at am\nt ( exp]i5ce ?is c]ta9ty may be deem$ to be practically atta9$1 & ! connection betwe5 ,a & a may be receiv$ z an empirical law4 ,?is "q may be o!rwise /at$ 9 m famili> t]ms3 ,aft] h[ _m & :at sort ( in/ances may x be conclud$ t an obs]v$ co9cid5ce betwe5 two ph5om5a is n ! effect ( *ance8 ,x is ( ! utmo/ importance = und]/&+ ! logic ( induction1 t we %\ld =m a di/9ct conception ( :at is meant by *ance1 & h[ ! ph5om5a :i* common language ascribes to t ab/raction are really produc$4 #b4 ,*ance is usually spok5 ( 9 direct anti!sis to law2 :atev]1 x is suppos$1 c n be ascrib$ to any law is attribut$ to *ance4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 c]ta9 t :atev] happ5s is ! result ( "s law2 is an effect ( causes1 & c\ld h be5 pr$ict$ f a k ( ! exi/5ce ( ^? causes1 & f _! laws4 ,if ,i turn up a p>ticul> c>d1 t is a consequ5ce ( its place 9 ! pack4 ,its place 9 ! pack 0 a consequ5ce ( ! mann] 9 :i* ! c>ds 7 %uffl$1 or ( ! ord] 9 :i* !y 7 play$ 9 ! la/ game2 :i*1 aga91 7 effects ( prior causes4 ,at e /age1 if we _h possess$ an accurate k ( ! causes 9 exi/5ce1 x w\ld h be5 ab/ract$ly possible to =etell ! effect4 ,an ev5t occurr+ by *ance may be bett] describ$ z a co9cid5ce f :i* we h no gr\nd to inf] a uni=mity--! occurr5ce ( a ph5om5on 9 c]ta9 circum/ances1 )\t our hav+ reason on t acc\nt to inf] t x w happ5 aga9 9 ^? circum/ances4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 :5 look$ closely into1 implies t ! enum]ation ( ! circum/ances is n complete4 ,:atev] ! fact be1 s9ce x has occurr$ once1 we may be sure t if all ! same circum/ances 7 repeat$ x w\ld occur aga92 & n only if all1 b !re is "s p>ticul> portion ( ^? circum/ances on :i* ! ph5om5on is inv>iably consequ5t4 ,) mo/ ( !m1 h[ev]1 x is n connect$ 9 any p]man5t mann]2 its conjunction ) ^? is said to be ! effect ( *ance1 to be m]ely casual4 ,facts casually conjo9$ are sep>ately ! effects ( causes1 & !re=e ( laws2 b ( diff]5t causes1 & causes n connect$ by any law4 ,x is incorrect1 !n1 to say t any ph5om5on is produc$ by *ance2 b we may say t two or m ph5om5a are conjo9$ by *ance1 t !y co-exi/ or succe$ "o ano!r only by *ance2 mean+ t !y are 9 no way relat$ ?r\gh causation2 t !y are nei!r cause & effect1 nor effects ( ! same cause1 nor effects ( causes betwe5 :i* !re subsi/s any law ( co-exi/5ce1 nor ev5 effects ( ! same collocation ( primeval causes4 ,if ! same casual co9cid5ce nev] occurr$ a second "t1 we %\ld h an easy te/ = di/+ui%+ su* f ! co9cid5ces :i* are ! results ( a law4 ,z long z ! ph5om5a _h be5 f\nd toge!r only once1 s long1 unless we knew "s m g5]al laws f :i* ! co9cid5ce might h result$1 we c\ld n di/+ui% x f a casual "o2 b if x occurr$ twice1 we %\ld "k t ! ph5om5a s conjo9$ mu/ be 9 "s way connect$ ?r\gh _! causes4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 no su* te/4 ,a co9cid5ce may occur aga9 & aga91 & yet be only casual4 ,nay1 x w\ld be inconsi/5t ) :at we "k ( ! ord] ( nature to d\bt t e casual co9cid5ce w soon] or lat] be repeat$1 z long z ! ph5om5a betwe5 :i* x occurr$ d n cease to exi/1 or to be reproduc$4 ,! recurr5ce1 !re=e1 ( ! same co9cid5ce m ?an once1 or ev5 its frequ5t recurr5ce1 does n prove t x is an in/ance ( any law2 does n prove t x is n casual1 or1 9 common language1 ! effect ( *ance4 ,& yet1 :5 a co9cid5ce c n be d$uc$ f kn[n laws1 nor prov$ by exp]im5t to be itself a case ( causation1 ! frequ5cy ( its occurr5ce is ! only evid5ce f :i* we c inf] t x is ! result ( a law4 ,n1 h[ev]1 its absolute frequ5cy4 ,! "q is n :e!r ! co9cid5ce occurs (t5 or seldom1 9 ! ord9>y s5se ( ^? t]ms2 b :e!r x occurs m (t5 ?an *ance w acc\nt =2 m (t5 ?an might rationally be expect$ if ! co9cid5ce 7 casual4 ,we h to decide1 !re=e1 :at degree ( frequ5cy 9 a co9cid5ce *ance w acc\nt =2 & to ?is !re c be no g5]al answ]4 ,we c only /ate ! pr9ciple by :i* ! answ] mu/ be det]m9$2 ! answ] itself w be diff]5t 9 e diff]5t case4 ,suppose t "o ( ! ph5om5a1 ,a1 exi/s always1 & ! o!r ph5om5on1 ,b1 only occasionally2 x foll[s t e in/ance ( ,b w be an in/ance ( its co9cid5ce ) ,a1 & yet ! co9cid5ce w be m]ely casual1 n ! result ( any connection betwe5 !m4 ,! fix$ />s h be5 con/antly 9 exi/5ce s9ce ! beg9n+ ( human exp]i5ce1 & all ph5om5a t h come "u human obs]vation h1 9 e s+le in/ance1 co-exi/$ ) !m2 yet ?is co9cid5ce1 ?\gh equally inv>iable ) t :i* exi/s betwe5 any ( ^? ph5om5a & its own cause1 does n prove t ! />s are its cause1 nor t !y are 9 anywise connect$ ) x4 ,z /rong a case ( co9cid5ce1 !re=e1 z c possibly exi/1 & a mu* /rong] "o 9 po9t ( m]e frequ5cy ?an mo/ ( ^? :i* prove laws1 does n "h prove a law2 :y8 because1 s9ce ! />s exi/ always1 !y mu/ co-exi/ ) e o!r ph5om5on1 :e!r connect$ ) !m by causation or n4 ,! uni=mity1 great ?\gh x be1 is no great] ?an w\ld occur on ! supposition t no su* connection exi/s4 ,on ! o!r h&1 suppose t we 7 inquir+ :e!r !re be any connection betwe5 ra9 & any p>ticul> w9d4 ,ra91 we "k1 occasionally occurs ) e w9d2 !re=e1 ! connection1 if x exi/s1 c n be an actual law2 b /ill ra9 may be connect$ ) "s p>ticul> w9d ?r\gh causation2 t is1 ?\gh !y c n be always effects ( ! same cause 7= if s !y w\ld regul>ly co-exi/71 !re may be "s causes common to ! two1 s t 9 s f> z ei!r is produc$ by ^? common causes1 !y w1 f ! laws ( ! causes1 be f\nd to co-exi/4 ,h[1 !n1 %all we asc]ta9 ?is8 ,! obvi\s answ] is1 by obs]v+ :e!r ra9 occurs ) "o w9d m frequ5tly ?an ) any o!r4 ,t1 h[ev]1 is n en\gh2 = p]haps t "o w9d bl[s m frequ5tly ?an any o!r2 s t its bl[+ m frequ5tly 9 ra9y wea!r is no m ?an w\ld happ51 al?\gh x _h no connection ) ! causes ( ra91 provid$ x 7 n connect$ ) causes adv]se to ra94 ,9 ,engl&1 we/]ly w9ds bl[ dur+ ab\t twice z great a portion ( ! ye> z ea/]ly4 ,if1 !re=e1 x ra9s only twice z (t5 ) a we/]ly z ) an ea/]ly w9d1 we h no reason to inf] t any law ( nature is conc]n$ 9 ! co9cid5ce4 ,if x ra9s m ?an twice z (t51 we may be sure t "s law is conc]n$2 ei!r !re is "s cause 9 nature :i*1 9 ?is climate1 t5ds to produce bo? ra9 & a we/]ly w9d1 or a we/]ly w9d has itself "s t5d5cy to produce ra94 ,b if x ra9s less ?an twice z (t51 we may draw a directly opposite inf]5ce3 ! "o1 in/ead ( be+ a cause1 or connect$ ) causes ( ! o!r1 mu/ be connect$ ) causes adv]se to x1 or ) ! abs5ce ( "s cause :i* produces x2 & ?\gh x may /ill ra9 mu* (t5] ) a we/]ly w9d ?an ) an ea/]ly1 s f> w\ld ?is be f prov+ any connection betwe5 ! ph5om5a1 t ! connection prov$ w\ld be betwe5 ra9 & an ea/]ly w9d1 to :i*1 9 m]e frequ5cy ( co9cid5ce1 x is less alli$4 ,"h1 !n1 are two examples3 9 "o1 ! greate/ possible frequ5cy ( co9cid5ce1 ) no in/ance :atev] to ! contr>y1 does n prove t !re is any law2 9 ! o!r1 a mu* less frequ5cy ( co9cid5ce1 ev5 :5 non-co9cid5ce is /ill m frequ5t1 does prove t !re is a law4 ,9 bo? cases ! pr9ciple is ! same4 ,9 bo? we consid] ! positive frequ5cy ( ! ph5om5a !mselves1 & h[ great frequ5cy ( co9cid5ce t mu/ ( itself br+ ab\t1 )\t suppos+ any connection betwe5 !m1 provid$ !re be no repugnance2 provid$ nei!r be connect$ ) any cause t5d+ to fru/rate ! o!r4 ,if we f9d a great] frequ5cy ( co9cid5ce ?an ?is1 we conclude t !re is "s connection2 if a less frequ5cy1 t !re is "s repugnance4 ,9 ! =m] case1 we conclude t "o ( ! ph5om5a c "u "s circum/ances cause ! o!r1 or t !re exi/s some?+ capable ( caus+ !m bo?2 9 ! latt]1 t "o ( !m1 or "s cause :i* produces "o ( !m1 is capable ( c\nt]act+ ! production ( ! o!r4 ,we h ?us to d$uct f ! obs]v$ frequ5cy ( co9cid5ce z mu* z may be ! effect ( *ance1 t is1 ( ! m]e frequ5cy ( ! ph5om5a !mselves2 & if any ?+ rema9s1 :at does rema9 is ! residual fact :i* proves ! exi/5ce ( a law4 ,! frequ5cy ( ! ph5om5a c only be asc]ta9$ )9 def9ite limits ( space & "t2 dep5d+ z x does on ! quantity & di/ribution ( ! primeval natural ag5ts1 ( :i* we c "k no?+ beyond ! b\nd>ies ( human obs]vation1 s9ce no law1 no regul>ity1 c be trac$ 9 x1 enabl+ u to inf] ! unkn[n f ! kn[n4 ,b = ! pres5t purpose ?is is no disadvantage1 ! "q be+ conf9$ )9 ! same limits z ! data4 ,! co9cid5ces occurr$ 9 c]ta9 places & times1 & )9 ^? we c e/imate ! frequ5cy ) :i* su* co9cid5ces w\ld be produc$ by *ance4 ,if1 !n1 we f9d f obs]vation t ,a exi/s 9 "o case out ( e two1 & ,b 9 "o case out ( e ?ree2 !n1 if !re be nei!r connection nor repugnance betwe5 !m1 or betwe5 any ( _! causes1 ! in/ances 9 :i* ,a & ,b w bo? exi/1 t is to say w co-exi/1 w be "o case 9 e six4 ,= ,a exi/s 9 ?ree cases out ( six2 & ,b1 exi/+ 9 "o case out ( e ?ree )\t reg>d to ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( ,a1 w exi/ 9 "o case out ( ^? ?ree4 ,!re w !re=e be1 ( ! :ole numb] ( cases1 two 9 :i* ,a exi/s )\t ,b2 "o case ( ,b )\t ,a2 two 9 :i* nei!r ,b nor ,a exi/s1 & "o case out ( six 9 :i* !y bo? exi/4 ,if1 !n1 9 po9t ( fact1 !y are f\nd to co-exi/ (t5] ?an 9 "o case out ( six2 &1 consequ5tly1 ,a does n exi/ )\t ,b s (t5 z twice 9 ?ree times1 nor ,b )\t ,a s (t5 z once 9 e twice1 !re is "s cause 9 exi/5ce :i* t5ds to produce a conjunction betwe5 ,a & ,b4 ,g5]aliz+ ! result1 we may say t if ,a occurs 9 a l>g] proportion ( ! cases :]e ,b is ?an ( ! cases :]e ,b is n1 !n w ,b also occur 9 a l>g] proportion ( ! cases :]e ,a is ?an ( ! cases :]e ,a is n2 & !re is "s connection1 ?r\gh causation1 betwe5 ,a & ,b4 ,if we c\ld asc5d to ! causes ( ! two ph5om5a1 we %\ld f9d1 at "s /age1 ei!r proximate or remote1 "s cause or causes common to bo?2 & if we c\ld asc]ta9 :at ^! are1 we c\ld frame a g5]alization :i* w\ld be true )\t re/riction ( place or "t2 b until we c d s1 ! fact ( a connection betwe5 ! two ph5om5a rema9s an empirical law4 #c4 ,hav+ consid]$ 9 :at mann] x may be det]m9$ :e!r any giv5 conjunction ( ph5om5a is casual1 or ! result ( "s law1 to complete ! !ory ( *ance x is necess>y t we %\ld n[ consid] ^? effects :i* are p>tly ! result ( *ance & p>tly ( law1 or1 9 o!r words1 9 :i* ! effects ( casual conjunctions ( causes are habitually bl5d$ 9 "o result ) ! effects ( a con/ant cause4 ,?is is a case ( ,composition ( ,causes2 & ! peculi>ity ( x is1 t in/ead ( two or m causes int]mix+ _! effects 9 a regul> mann] ) ^? ( "o ano!r1 we h n[ "o con/ant cause1 produc+ an effect :i* is successively modifi$ by a s]ies ( v>iable causes4 ,?us1 z summ] advances1 ! approa* ( ! sun to a v]tical position t5ds to produce a con/ant increase ( temp]ature2 b ) ?is effect ( a con/ant cause1 !re are bl5d$ ! effects ( _m v>iable causes1 w9ds1 cl\ds1 evaporation1 electric ag5cies & ! l1 s t ! temp]ature ( any giv5 day dep5ds 9 "p on ^! fleet+ causes1 & only 9 "p on ! con/ant cause4 ,if ! effect ( ! con/ant cause is always accompani$ & disguis$ by effects ( v>iable causes1 x is impossible to asc]ta9 ! law ( ! con/ant cause 9 ! ord9>y mann] by sep>at+ x f all o!r causes & obs]v+ x ap>t4 ,h5ce arises ! necessity ( an additional rule ( exp]im5tal inquiry4 ,:5 ! action ( a cause ,a is liable to be int]f]$ )1 n /eadily by ! same cause or causes1 b by diff]5t causes at diff]5t times1 & :5 ^! are s frequ5t1 or s indet]m9ate1 t we c n possibly exclude all ( !m f any exp]im5t1 ?\gh we may v>y !m2 our res\rce is1 to endeavor to asc]ta9 :at is ! effect ( all ! v>iable causes tak5 toge!r4 ,9 ord] to d ?is1 we make z _m trials z possible1 pres]v+ ,a inv>iable4 ,! results ( ^! diff]5t trials w naturally be diff]5t1 s9ce ! indet]m9ate modify+ causes are diff]5t 9 ea*2 if1 !n1 we d n f9d ^! results to be progressive1 b1 on ! contr>y1 to oscillate ab\t a c]ta9 po9t1 "o exp]im5t giv+ a result a little great]1 ano!r a little less1 "o a result t5d+ a little m 9 "o direction1 ano!r a little m 9 ! contr>y direction2 :ile ! av]age or middle po9t does n v>y1 b diff]5t sets ( exp]im5ts 7tak5 9 z great a v>iety ( circum/ances z possible7 yield ! same mean1 provid$ only !y be suffici5tly num]\s2 !n t mean1 or av]age result1 is ! "p1 9 ea* exp]im5t1 :i* is due to ! cause ,a1 & is ! effect :i* w\ld h be5 obta9$ if ,a c\ld h act$ alone2 ! v>iable rema9d] is ! effect ( *ance1 t is1 ( causes ! co-exi/5ce ( :i* ) ! cause ,a 0 m]ely casual4 ,! te/ ( ! suffici5cy ( ! induction 9 ?is case is1 :5 any increase ( ! numb] ( trials f :i* ! av]age is /ruck does n mat]ially alt] ! av]age4 ,?is k9d ( elim9ation1 9 :i* we d n elim9ate any "o assignable cause1 b ! multitude ( float+ unassignable ones1 may be t]m$ ! ,elim9ation ( ,*ance4 ,we af=d an example ( x :5 we repeat an exp]im5t1 9 ord]1 by tak+ ! mean ( diff]5t results1 to get rid ( ! effects ( ! unavoidable errors ( ea* individual exp]im5t4 ,:5 !re is no p]man5t cause1 su* z w\ld produce a t5d5cy to error peculi>ly 9 "o direction1 we are w>rant$ by exp]i5ce 9 assum+ t ! errors on "o side w1 9 a c]ta9 numb] ( exp]im5ts1 ab\t balance ! errors on ! contr>y side4 ,we !re=e repeat ! exp]im5t1 until any *ange :i* is produc$ 9 ! av]age ( ! :ole by fur!r repetition1 falls )9 limits ( error consi/5t ) ! degree ( accuracy requir$ by ! purpose we h 9 view47#age7 #d4 ,9 ! supposition hi!rto made1 ! effect ( ! con/ant cause ,a has be5 assum$ to =m s great & conspicu\s a "p ( ! g5]al result1 t its exi/5ce nev] c\ld be a matt] ( unc]ta9ty1 & ! object ( ! elim9at+ process 0 only to asc]ta9 h[ mu* is attributable to t cause2 :at is its exact law4 ,cases1 h[ev]1 occur 9 :i* ! effect ( a con/ant cause is s small1 comp>$ ) t ( "s ( ! *angeable causes ) :i* x is liable to be casually conjo9$1 t ( itself x escapes notice1 & ! v exi/5ce ( any effect aris+ f a con/ant cause is fir/ le>n$ by ! process :i* 9 g5]al s]ves only = asc]ta9+ ! quantity ( t effect4 ,?is case ( induction may be *>act]iz$ z foll[s3 ,a giv5 effect is kn[n to be *iefly1 & n kn[n n to be :olly1 det]m9$ by *angeable causes4 ,if x be :olly s produc$1 !n if ! aggregate be tak5 ( a suffici5t numb] ( in/ances1 ! effects ( ^! diff]5t causes w cancel "o ano!r4 ,if1 !re=e1 we d n f9d ?is to be ! case1 b1 on ! contr>y1 aft] su* a numb] ( trials has be5 made t no fur!r increase alt]s ! av]age result1 we f9d t av]age to be1 n z]o1 b "s o!r quantity1 ab\t :i*1 ?\gh small 9 comp>ison ) ! total effect1 ! effect nev]!less oscillates1 & :i* is ! middle po9t 9 its oscillation2 we may conclude ?is to be ! effect ( "s con/ant cause2 :i* cause1 by "s ( ! me?ods already treat$ (1 we may hope to detect4 ,?is may be call$ ! discov]y ( a residual ph5om5on by elim9at+ ! effects ( *ance4 ,x is 9 ?is mann]1 = example1 t load$ dice may be discov]$4 ,( c\rse no dice are s clumsily load$ t !y mu/ always ?r[ c]ta9 numb]s2 o!rwise ! fraud w\ld be in/antly detect$4 ,! load+1 a con/ant cause1 m+les ) ! *angeable causes :i* det]m9e :at ca/ w be ?r[n 9 ea* individual in/ance4 ,if ! dice 7 n load$1 & ! ?r[ 7 left to dep5d entirely on ! *angeable causes1 ^! 9 a suffici5t numb] ( in/ances w\ld balance "o ano!r1 & !re w\ld be no prepond]ant numb] ( ?r[s ( any "o k9d4 ,if1 !re=e1 aft] su* a numb] ( trials t no fur!r increase ( _! numb] has any mat]ial effect ^u ! av]age1 we f9d a prepond]ance 9 favor ( a p>ticul> ?r[2 we may conclude ) assurance t !re is "s con/ant cause act+ 9 favor ( t ?r[1 or1 9 o!r words1 t ! dice are n fair2 & ! exact am\nt ( ! unfairness4 ,9 a simil> mann]1 :at is call$ ! diurnal v>iation ( ! b>omet]1 :i* is v small comp>$ ) ! v>iations aris+ f ! irregul> *anges 9 ! /ate ( ! atmosph]e1 0 discov]$ by comp>+ ! av]age height ( ! b>omet] at diff]5t h\rs ( ! day4 ,:5 ?is comp>ison 0 made1 x 0 f\nd t !re 0 a small diff]5ce1 :i* on ! av]age 0 con/ant1 h[ev] ! absolute quantities might v>y1 & :i* diff]5ce1 !re=e1 mu/ be ! effect ( a con/ant cause4 ,?is cause 0 aft]w>d asc]ta9$1 d$uctively1 to be ! r>efaction ( ! air1 occasion$ by ! increase ( temp]ature z ! day advances4 #e4 ,aft] ^! g5]al rem>ks on ! nature ( *ance1 we are prep>$ to consid] 9 :at mann] assurance may be obta9$ t a conjunction betwe5 two ph5om5a1 :i* has be5 obs]v$ a c]ta9 numb] ( times1 is n casual1 b a result ( causation1 & to be receiv$1 !re=e1 z "o ( ! uni=mities ( nature1 ?\gh 7until acc\nt$ = a priori7 only z an empirical law4 ,we w suppose ! /ronge/ case1 namely1 t ! ph5om5on ,b has nev] be5 obs]v$ except 9 conjunction ) ,a4 ,ev5 !n1 ! probability t !y are connect$ is n measur$ by ! total numb] ( in/ances 9 :i* !y h be5 f\nd toge!r1 b by ! excess ( t numb] above ! numb] due to ! absolutely frequ5cy ( ,a4 ,if1 = example1 ,a exi/s always1 & !re=e co-exi/s ) e ?+1 no numb] ( in/ances ( its co-exi/5ce ) ,b w\ld prove a connection2 z 9 our example ( ! fix$ />s4 ,if ,a be a fact ( su* common occurr5ce t x may be presum$ to be pres5t 9 half ( all ! cases t occur1 & !re=e 9 half ! cases 9 :i* ,b occurs1 x is only ! proportional excess above half t is to be reckon$ z evid5ce t[>d prov+ a connection betwe5 ,a & ,b4 ,9 addition to ! "q1 ,:at is ! numb] ( co9cid5ces :i*1 on an av]age ( a great multitude ( trials1 may be expect$ to arise f *ance alone8 !re is also ano!r "q1 namely1 ,( :at ext5t ( deviation f t av]age is ! occurr5ce cr$ible1 f *ance alone1 9 "s numb] ( in/ances small] ?an t requir$ = /rik+ a fair av]age8 ,x is n only to be consid]$ :at is ! g5]al result ( ! *ances 9 ! long run1 b also :at are ! extreme limits ( v>iation f ! g5]al result1 :i* may occasionally be expect$ z ! result ( "s small] numb] ( in/ances4 ,! consid]ation ( ! latt] "q1 & any consid]ation ( ! =m] beyond t already giv5 to x1 belong to :at ma!maticians t]m ! doctr9e ( *ances1 or1 9 a phrase ( great] pret5sion1 ! ,!ory ( ,probabilities4 ,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,( ,! ,calculation ,( ,*ances4 #a4 8,probability10 says ,laplace17#agf7 8has ref]5ce p>tly to our ignorance1 p>tly to our k4 ,we "k t among ?ree or m ev5ts1 "o1 & only "o1 mu/ happ52 b !re is no?+ lead+ u to believe t any "o ( !m w happ5 r ?an ! o!rs4 ,9 ?is /ate ( indecision1 x is impossible = u to pron\nce ) c]ta9ty on _! occurr5ce4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 probable t any "o ( ^! ev5ts1 select$ at pleasure1 w n take place2 because we p]ceive sev]al cases1 all equally possible1 :i* exclude its occurr5ce1 & only "o :i* favors x4 8,! !ory ( *ances consi/s 9 r$uc+ all ev5ts ( ! same k9d to a c]ta9 numb] ( cases equally possible1 t is1 su* t we are equally undecid$ z to _! exi/5ce2 & 9 det]m9+ ! numb] ( ^! cases :i* are favorable to ! ev5t ( :i* ! probability is s\ght4 ,! ratio ( t numb] to ! numb] ( all ! possible cases is ! measure ( ! probability2 :i* is ?us a fraction1 hav+ = its num]ator ! numb] ( cases favorable to ! ev5t1 & = its d5om9ator ! numb] ( all ! cases :i* are possible40 ,to a calculation ( *ances1 !n1 accord+ to ,laplace1 two ?+s are necess>y2 we mu/ "k t ( sev]al ev5ts "s "o w c]ta9ly happ51 & no m ?an "o2 & we mu/ n "k1 nor h any reason to expect1 t x w be "o ( ^! ev5ts r ?an ano!r4 ,x has be5 cont5d$ t ^! are n ! only requisites1 & t ,laplace has ov]look$1 9 ! g5]al !oretical /atem5t1 a necess>y "p ( ! f\ndation ( ! doctr9e ( *ances4 ,to be able 7x has be5 said7 to pron\nce two ev5ts equally probable1 x is n en\gh t we %\ld "k t "o or ! o!r mu/ happ51 & %\ld h no gr\nds = conjectur+ :i*4 ,exp]i5ce mu/ h %[n t ! two ev5ts are ( equally frequ5t occurr5ce4 ,:y1 9 toss+ up a half-p5ny1 d we reckon x equally probable t we %all ?r[ cross or pile8 ,because we "k t 9 any great numb] ( ?r[s1 cross & pile are ?r[n ab\t equally (t52 & t ! m ?r[s we make1 ! m ne>ly ! equality is p]fect4 ,we may "k ?is if we please by actual exp]im5t1 or by ! daily exp]i5ce :i* life af=ds ( ev5ts ( ! same g5]al "*1 or1 d$uctively1 f ! effect ( me*anical laws on a symmetrical body act$ ^u by =ces v>y+ indef9itely 9 quantity & direction4 ,we may "k x1 9 %ort1 ei!r by specific exp]i5ce1 or on ! evid5ce ( our g5]al k ( nature4 ,b1 9 "o way or ! o!r1 we mu/ "k x1 to ju/ify u 9 call+ ! two ev5ts equally probable2 & if we knew x n1 we %\ld proce$ z mu* at hap-haz>d 9 /ak+ equal sums on ! result1 z 9 lay+ odds4 ,?is view ( ! subject 0 tak5 9 ! fir/ edition ( ! pres5t "w2 b ,i h s9ce become conv9c$ t ! !ory ( *ances1 z conceiv$ by ,laplace & by ma!maticians g5]ally1 has n ! fundam5tal fallacy :i* ,i _h ascrib$ to x4 ,we mu/ rememb] t ! probability ( an ev5t is n a quality ( ! ev5t itself1 b a m]e "n = ! degree ( gr\nd :i* we1 or "s "o else1 h = expect+ x4 ,! probability ( an ev5t to "o p]son is a diff]5t ?+ f ! probability ( ! same ev5t to ano!r1 or to ! same p]son aft] he has acquir$ additional evid5ce4 ,! probability to me1 t an individual ( :om ,i "k no?+ b 8 "n w die )9 ! ye>1 is totally alt]$ by my be+ told ! next m9ute t he is 9 ! la/ /age ( a consumption4 ,yet ?is makes no diff]5ce 9 ! ev5t itself1 nor 9 any ( ! causes on :i* x dep5ds4 ,e ev5t is 9 itself c]ta91 n probable2 if we knew all1 we %\ld ei!r "k positively t x w happ51 or positively t x w n4 ,b its probability to u means ! degree ( expectation ( its occurr5ce1 :i* we are w>rant$ 9 ent]ta9+ by our pres5t evid5ce4 ,be>+ ?is 9 m9d1 ,i ?9k x mu/ be admitt$1 t ev5 :5 we h no k :atev] to guide our expectations1 except ! k t :at happ5s mu/ be "s "o ( a c]ta9 numb] ( possibilities1 we may /ill reasonably judge1 t "o supposition is m probable to u ?an ano!r supposition2 & if we h any int]e/ at /ake1 we %all be/ provide = x by act+ con=mably to t judgm5t4 #b4 ,suppose t we are requir$ to take a ball f a box1 ( :i* we only "k t x conta9s balls bo? black & :ite1 & none ( any o!r color4 ,we "k t ! ball we select w be ei!r a black or a :ite ball2 b we h no gr\nd = expect+ black r ?an :ite1 or :ite r ?an black4 ,9 t case1 if we are oblig$ to make a *oice1 & to /ake some?+ on "o or ! o!r supposition1 x w1 z a "q ( prud5ce1 be p]fectly indiff]5t :i*2 & we %all act precisely z we %\ld h act$ if we _h kn[n be=eh& t ! box conta9$ an equal numb] ( black & :ite balls4 ,b ?\gh our conduct w\ld be ! same1 x w\ld n be f\nd$ on any surmise t ! balls 7 9 fact ?us equally divid$2 = we might1 on ! contr>y1 "k by au!ntic in=mation t ! box conta9$ n9ety-n9e balls ( "o color1 & only "o ( ! o!r2 /ill1 if we are n told :i* color has only "o1 & :i* has n9ety-n9e1 ! draw+ ( a :ite & ( a black ball w be equally probable to u4 ,we %all h no reason = /ak+ any ?+ on ! "o ev5t r ?an on ! o!r2 ! option betwe5 ! two w be a matt] ( indiff]5ce2 9 o!r words1 x w be an ev5 *ance4 ,b let x n[ be suppos$ t in/ead ( two !re are ?ree colors--:ite1 black1 & r$2 & t we are entirely ignorant ( ! proportion 9 :i* !y are m+l$4 ,we %\ld !n h no reason = expect+ "o m ?an ano!r1 & if oblig$ to bet1 %\ld v5ture our /ake on r$1 :ite1 or black ) equal indiff]5ce4 ,b %\ld we be indiff]5t :e!r we bett$ = or aga9/ "s "o color1 z1 = in/ance1 :ite8 ,surely n4 ,f ! v fact t black & r$ are ea* ( !m sep>ately equally probable to u ) :ite1 ! two toge!r mu/ be twice z probable4 ,we %\ld 9 ?is case expect n :ite r ?an :ite1 & s mu* r t we w\ld lay two to "o ^u x4 ,x is true1 !re might1 = aught we knew1 be m :ite balls ?an black & r$ toge!r2 & if s1 our bet w\ld1 if we knew m1 be se5 to be a disadvantage\s "o4 ,b s also1 = aught we knew1 might !re be m r$ balls ?an black & :ite1 or m black balls ?an :ite & r$1 & 9 su* case ! effect ( additional k w\ld be to prove to u t our bet 0 m advantage\s ?an we _h suppos$ x to be4 ,!re is 9 ! exi/+ /ate ( our k a rational probability ( two to "o aga9/ :ite2 a probability fit to be made a basis ( conduct4 ,no reasonable p]son w\ld lay an ev5 wag] 9 favor ( :ite aga9/ black & r$2 ?\gh aga9/ black alone or r$ alone he might d s )\t imprud5ce4 ,! common !ory1 !re=e1 ( ! calculation ( *ances1 appe>s to be t5able4 ,ev5 :5 we "k no?+ except ! numb] ( ! possible & mutually exclud+ cont+5cies1 & are entirely ignorant ( _! comp>ative frequ5cy1 we may h gr\nds1 & gr\nds num]ically appreciable1 = act+ on "o supposition r ?an on ano!r2 & ?is is ! mean+ ( ,probability4 #c4 ,! pr9ciple1 h[ev]1 on :i* ! reason+ proce$s1 is suffici5tly evid5t4 ,x is ! obvi\s "o t :5 ! cases :i* exi/ are %>$ among sev]al k9ds1 x is impossible t ea* ( ^? k9ds %\ld be a majority ( ! :ole3 on ! contr>y1 !re mu/ be a majority aga9/ ea* k9d1 except "o at mo/2 & if any k9d has m ?an its %>e 9 proportion to ! total numb]1 ! o!rs collectively mu/ h less4 ,grant+ ?is axiom1 & assum+ t we h no gr\nd = select+ any "o k9d z m likely ?an ! re/ to surpass ! av]age proportion1 x foll[s t we c n rationally presume ?is ( any1 :i* we %\ld d if we 7 to bet 9 favor ( x1 receiv+ less odds ?an 9 ! ratio ( ! numb] ( ! o!r k9ds4 ,ev51 !re=e1 9 ?is extreme case ( ! calculation ( probabilities1 :i* does n re/ on special exp]i5ce at all1 ! logical gr\nd ( ! process is our k--su* k z we !n h--( ! laws gov]n+ ! frequ5cy ( occurr5ce ( ! diff]5t cases2 b 9 ?is case ! k is limit$ to t :i*1 be+ univ]sal & axiomatic1 does n require ref]5ce to specific exp]i5ce1 or to any consid]ations aris+ out ( ! special nature ( ! problem "u discussion4 ,except1 h[ev]1 9 su* cases z games ( *ance1 :]e ! v purpose 9 view requires ignorance in/ead ( k1 ,i c conceive no case 9 :i* we ought to be satisfi$ ) su* an e/imate ( *ances z ?is--an e/imate f\nd$ on ! absolute m9imum ( k respect+ ! subject4 ,x is pla9 t1 9 ! case ( ! color$ balls1 a v slight gr\nd ( surmise t ! :ite balls 7 really m num]\s ?an ei!r ( ! o!r colors1 w\ld suffice to vitiate ! :ole ( ! calculations made 9 our previ\s /ate ( indiff]5ce4 ,x w\ld place u 9 t position ( m advanc$ k1 9 :i* ! probabilities1 to u1 w\ld be diff]5t f :at !y 7 be=e2 & 9 e/imat+ ^! new probabilities we %\ld h to proce$ on a totally diff]5t set ( data1 furni%$ no long] by m]e c\nt+ ( possible suppositions1 b by specific k ( facts4 ,su* data x %\ld always be our endeavor to obta92 & 9 all inquiries1 unless on subjects equally beyond ! range ( our means ( k & our practical uses1 !y may be obta9$1 if n good1 at lea/ bett] ?an none at all47#agg7 ,x is obvi\s1 too1 t ev5 :5 ! probabilities are d]iv$ f obs]vation & exp]im5t1 a v slight improvem5t 9 ! data1 by bett] obs]vations1 or by tak+ into full] consid]ation ! special circum/ances ( ! case1 is ( m use ?an ! mo/ elaborate application ( ! calculus to probabilities f\nd$ on ! data 9 _! previ\s /ate ( inf]iority4 ,! neglect ( ?is obvi\s reflection has giv5 rise to misapplications ( ! calculus ( probabilities :i* h made x ! real opprobrium ( ma!matics4 ,x is suffici5t to ref] to ! applications made ( x to ! cr$ibility ( witnesses1 & to ! correctness ( ! v]dicts ( juries4 ,9 reg>d to ! fir/1 common s5se w\ld dictate t x is impossible to /rike a g5]al av]age ( ! v]acity & o!r qualifications = true te/imony ( mank9d1 or ( any class ( !m2 & ev5 if x 7 possible1 ! employm5t ( x = su* a purpose implies a misappreh5sion ( ! use ( av]ages1 :i* s]ve1 inde$1 to protect ^? ^: int]e/ is at /ake1 aga9/ mi/ak+ ! g5]al result ( l>ge masses ( in/ances1 b are ( extremely small value z gr\nds ( expectation 9 any "o individual in/ance1 unless ! case be "o ( ^? 9 :i* ! great majority ( individual in/ances d n diff] mu* f ! av]age4 ,9 ! case ( a witness1 p]sons ( common s5se w\ld draw _! conclusions f ! degree ( consi/5cy ( 8 /atem5ts1 8 conduct "u cross-exam9ation1 & ! relation ( ! case itself to 8 int]e/s1 8 p>tialities1 & 8 m5tal capacity1 in/ead ( apply+ s rude a /&>d 7ev5 if x 7 capable ( be+ v]ifi$7 z ! ratio betwe5 ! numb] ( true & ! numb] ( errone\s /atem5ts :i* he may be suppos$ to make 9 ! c\rse ( 8 life4 ,aga91 on ! subject ( juries or o!r tribunals1 "s ma!maticians h set out f ! proposition t ! judgm5t ( any "o judge or juryman is1 at lea/ 9 "s small degree1 m likely to be "r ?an wrong1 & h conclud$ t ! *ance ( a numb] ( p]sons concurr+ 9 a wrong v]dict is dim9i%$ ! m ! numb] is increas$2 s t if ! judges are only made suffici5tly num]\s1 ! correctness ( ! judgm5t may be r$uc$ almo/ to c]ta9ty4 ,i say no?+ ( ! disreg>d %[n to ! effect produc$ on ! moral position ( ! judges by multiply+ _! numb]s1 ! virtual de/ruction ( _! individual responsibility1 & weak5+ ( ! application ( _! m9ds to ! subject4 ,i rem>k only ! fallacy ( reason+ f a wide av]age to cases necess>ily diff]+ greatly f any av]age4 ,x may be true t1 tak+ all causes "o ) ano!r1 ! op9ion ( any "o ( ! judges w\ld be (t5] "r ?an wrong2 b ! argum5t =gets t 9 all b ! m simple cases1 9 all cases 9 :i* x is really ( mu* consequ5ce :at ! tribunal is1 ! proposition might probably be rev]s$2 besides :i*1 ! cause ( error1 :e!r aris+ f ! intricacy ( ! case or f "s common prejudice or m5tal infirmity1 if x act$ ^u "o judge1 w\ld be extremely likely to affect all ! o!rs 9 ! same mann]1 or at lea/ a majority1 & ?us r5d] a wrong in/ead ( a "r decision m probable ! m ! numb] 0 increas$4 ,^! are b samples ( ! errors frequ5tly committ$ by m5 :o1 hav+ made !mselves famili> ) ! difficult =mul :i* algebra af=ds = ! e/imation ( *ances "u suppositions ( a complex "*1 l bett] to employ ^? =mul 9 comput+ :at are ! probabilities to a p]son half in=m$ ab\t a case ?an to look out = means ( be+ bett] in=m$4 ,be=e apply+ ! doctr9e ( *ances to any sci5tific purpose1 ! f\ndation mu/ be laid = an evaluation ( ! *ances1 by possess+ ourselves ( ! utmo/ atta9able am\nt ( positive k4 ,! k requir$ is t ( ! comp>ative frequ5cy ) :i* ! diff]5t ev5ts 9 fact occur4 ,= ! purposes1 !re=e1 ( ! pres5t "w1 x is all[able to suppose t conclusions respect+ ! probability ( a fact ( a p>ticul> k9d re/ on our k ( ! proportion betwe5 ! cases 9 :i* facts ( t k9d occur1 & ^? 9 :i* !y d n occur2 ?is k be+ ei!r d]iv$ f specific exp]im5t1 or d$uc$ f our k ( ! causes 9 op]ation :i* t5d to produce1 comp>$ ) ^? :i* t5d to prev5t1 ! fact 9 "q4 ,su* calculation ( *ances is gr\nd$ on an induction2 & to r5d] ! calculation legitimate1 ! induction mu/ be a valid "o4 ,x is n less an induction1 ?\gh x does n prove t ! ev5t occurs 9 all cases ( a giv5 description1 b only t out ( a giv5 numb] ( su* cases x occurs 9 ab\t s _m4 ,! fraction :i* ma!maticians use to designate ! probability ( an ev5t is ! ratio ( ^! two numb]s2 ! asc]ta9$ proportion betwe5 ! numb] ( cases 9 :i* ! ev5t occurs & ! sum ( all ! cases1 ^? 9 :i* x occurs & 9 :i* x does n occur1 tak5 toge!r4 ,9 play+ at cross & pile1 ! description ( cases conc]n$ are ?r[s1 & ! probability ( cross is "o-half1 because if we ?r[ (t5 en\gh cross is ?r[n ab\t once 9 e two ?r[s4 ,9 ! ca/ ( a die1 ! probability ( ace is "o-six?2 n simply because !re are six possible ?r[s1 ( :i* ace is "o1 & because we d n "k any reason :y "o %\ld turn up r ?an ano!r--?\gh ,i h admitt$ ! validity ( ?is gr\nd 9 default ( a bett]--b because we d actually "k1 ei!r by reason+ or by exp]i5ce1 t 9 a hundr$ or a million ( ?r[s ace is ?r[n 9 ab\t "o-six? ( t numb]1 or once 9 six times4 #d4 ,i say1 8ei!r by reason+ or by exp]i5ce10 mean+ specific exp]i5ce4 ,b 9 e/imat+ probabilities1 x is n a matt] ( indiff]5ce f :i* ( ^! two s\rces we d]ive our assurance4 ,! probability ( ev5ts1 z calculat$ f _! m]e frequ5cy 9 pa/ exp]i5ce1 af=ds a less secure basis = practical guidance ?an _! probability z d$uc$ f an equally accurate k ( ! frequ5cy ( occurr5ce ( _! causes4 ,! g5]alization t an ev5t occurs 9 t5 out ( e hundr$ cases ( a giv5 description1 is z real an induction z if ! g5]alization 7 t x occurs 9 all cases4 ,b :5 we arrive at ! conclusion by m]ely c\nt+ in/ances 9 actual exp]i5ce1 & comp>+ ! numb] ( cases 9 :i* ,a has be5 pres5t ) ! numb] 9 :i* x has be5 abs5t1 ! evid5ce is only t ( ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 & ! conclusion am\nts only to an empirical law4 ,we c make a /ep beyond ?is :5 we c asc5d to ! causes on :i* ! occurr5ce ( ,a or its non-occurr5ce w dep5d1 & =m an e/imate ( ! comp>ative frequ5cy ( ! causes favorable & ( ^? unfavorable to ! occurr5ce4 ,^! are data ( a high] ord]1 by :i* ! empirical law d]iv$ f a m]e num]ical comp>ison ( affirmative & negative in/ances w be ei!r correct$ or confirm$1 & 9 ei!r case we %all obta9 a m correct measure ( probability ?an is giv5 by t num]ical comp>ison4 ,x has be5 well rem>k$ t 9 ! k9d ( examples by :i* ! doctr9e ( *ances is usually illu/rat$1 t ( balls 9 a box1 ! e/imate ( probabilities is support$ by reasons ( causation1 /rong] ?an specific exp]i5ce4 8,:at is ! reason t 9 a box :]e !re are n9e black balls & "o :ite1 we expect to draw a black ball n9e times z mu* 79 o!r words1 n9e times z (t51 frequ5cy be+ ! gauge ( int5sity 9 expectation7 z a :ite8 ,obvi\sly because ! local conditions are n9e times z favorable2 because ! h& may alight 9 n9e places & get a black ball1 :ile x c only alight 9 "o place & f9d a :ite ball2 j = ! same reason t we d n expect to succe$ 9 f9d+ a fri5d 9 a cr[d1 ! conditions 9 ord] t we & he %\ld come toge!r be+ _m & difficult4 ,?is ( c\rse w\ld n hold to ! same ext5t 7 ! :ite balls ( small] size ?an ! black1 nei!r w\ld ! probability rema9 ! same2 ! l>g] ball w\ld be mu* m likely to meet ! h&407#agh7 ,x is1 9 fact1 evid5t t :5 once causation is admitt$ z a univ]sal law1 our expectation ( ev5ts c only be rationally gr\nd$ on t law4 ,to a p]son :o recognizes t e ev5t dep5ds on causes1 a ?+'s hav+ happ5$ once is a reason = expect+ x to happ5 aga91 only because prov+ t !re exi/s1 or is liable to exi/1 a cause adequate to produce x47#agi7 ,! frequ5cy ( ! p>ticul> ev5t1 ap>t f all surmise respect+ its cause1 c give rise to no o!r induction ?an t p] enum]ationem simplicem2 & ! prec>i\s inf]5ces d]iv$ f ?is are sup]s$$1 & disappe> f ! field z soon z ! pr9ciple ( causation makes its appe>ance !re4 ,not)/&+1 h[ev]1 ! ab/ract sup]iority ( an e/imate ( probability gr\nd$ on causes1 x is a fact t 9 almo/ all cases 9 :i* *ances admit ( e/imation suffici5tly precise to r5d] _! num]ical appreciation ( any practical value1 ! num]ical data are n drawn f k ( ! causes1 b f exp]i5ce ( ! ev5ts !mselves4 ,! probabilities ( life at diff]5t ages or 9 diff]5t climates2 ! probabilities ( recov]y f a p>ticul> disease2 ! *ances ( ! bir? ( male or female (fspr+2 ! *ances ( ! de/ruction ( h\ses or o!r prop]ty by fire2 ! *ances ( ! loss ( a %ip 9 a p>ticul> voyage1 are d$uc$ f bills ( mortality1 returns f hospitals1 regi/]s ( bir?s1 ( %ipwrecks1 etc41 t is1 f ! obs]v$ frequ5cy n ( ! causes1 b ( ! effects4 ,! reason is1 t 9 all ^! classes ( facts ! causes are ei!r n am5able to direct obs]vation at all1 or n ) ! requisite precision1 & we h no means ( judg+ ( _! frequ5cy except f ! empirical law af=d$ by ! frequ5cy ( ! effects4 ,! inf]5ce does n ! less dep5d on causation alone4 ,we reason f an effect to a simil> effect by pass+ ?r\gh ! cause4 ,if ! actu>y ( an insurance (fice inf]s f 8 tables t among a hundr$ p]sons n[ liv+ ( a p>ticul> age1 five on ! av]age w atta9 ! age ( sev5ty1 8 inf]5ce is legitimate1 n = ! simple reason t ?is is ! proportion :o h liv$ till sev5ty 9 times pa/1 b because ! fact ( _! hav+ s liv$ %[s t ?is is ! proportion exi/+1 at t place & "t1 betwe5 ! causes :i* prolong life to ! age ( sev5ty & ^? t5d+ to br+ x to an e>li] close47#ahj7 #e4 ,f ! prec$+ pr9ciples x is easy to d$uce ! demon/ration ( t !orem ( ! doctr9e ( probabilities :i* is ! f\ndation ( its application to inquiries = asc]ta9+ ! occurr5ce ( a giv5 ev5t1 or ! reality ( an individual fact4 ,! signs or evid5ces by :i* a fact is usually prov$ are "s ( its consequ5ces2 & ! inquiry h+es ^u det]m9+ :at cause is mo/ likely to h produc$ a giv5 effect4 ,! !orem applicable to su* inve/igations is ! ,six? ,pr9ciple 9 ,laplace's 8,essai ,philosophique sur les ,probabilits10 :i* is describ$ by him z ! 8fundam5tal pr9ciple ( t bran* ( ! ,analysis ( ,*ances :i* consi/s 9 asc5d+ f ev5ts to _! causes407#aha7 ,giv5 an effect to be acc\nt$ =1 & !re be+ sev]al causes :i* might h produc$ x1 b ( ! pres5ce ( :i* 9 ! p>ticul> case no?+ is kn[n2 ! probability t ! effect 0 produc$ by any "o ( ^! causes is z ! antec$5t probability ( ! cause1 multipli$ by ! probability t ! cause1 if x exi/$1 w\ld h produc$ ! giv5 effect4 ,let ,m be ! effect1 & ,a1 ,b1 two causes1 by ei!r ( :i* x might h be5 produc$4 ,to f9d ! probability t x 0 produc$ by ! "o & n by ! o!r1 asc]ta9 :i* ( ! two is mo/ likely to h exi/$1 & :i* ( !m1 if x did exi/1 0 mo/ likely to produce ! effect ,m3 ! probability s\ght is a comp\nd ( ^! two probabilities4 ,,case ,i4 ,let ! causes be bo? alike 9 ! second respect3 ei!r ,a or ,b1 :5 x exi/s1 be+ suppos$ equally likely 7or equally c]ta97 to produce ,m2 b let ,a be 9 itself twice z likely z ,b to exi/1 t is1 twice z frequ5t a ph5om5on4 ,!n x is twice z likely to h exi/$ 9 ?is case1 & to h be5 ! cause :i* produc$ ,m4 ,=1 s9ce ,a exi/s 9 nature twice z (t5 z ,b1 9 any #cjj cases 9 :i* "o or o!r exi/$1 ,a has exi/$ #bjj times & ,b #ajj4 ,b ei!r ,a or ,b mu/ h exi/$ :]ev] ,m is produc$2 !re=e1 9 #cjj times t ,m is produc$1 ,a 0 ! produc+ cause #bjj times1 ,b only #ajj1 t is1 9 ! ratio ( #b to #a4 ,?us1 !n1 if ! causes are alike 9 _! capacity ( produc+ ! effect1 ! probability z to :i* actually produc$ x is 9 ! ratio ( _! antec$5t probabilities4 ,,case ,,ii4 ,rev]s+ ! la/ hypo!sis1 let u suppose t ! causes are equally frequ5t1 equally likely to h exi/$1 b n equally likely1 if !y did exi/1 to produce ,m2 t 9 ?ree times 9 :i* ,a occurs1 x produces t effect twice1 :ile ,b1 9 ?ree times1 produces x only once4 ,s9ce ! two causes are equally frequ5t 9 _! occurr5ce2 9 e six times t ei!r "o or ! o!r exi/s1 ,a exi/s ?ree times & ,b ?ree times4 ,a1 ( its ?ree times1 produces ,m 9 two2 ,b1 ( its ?ree times1 produces ,m 9 "o4 ,?us1 9 ! :ole six times1 ,m is only produc$ ?rice2 b ( t ?rice x is produc$ twice by ,a1 once only by ,b4 ,consequ5tly1 :5 ! antec$5t probabilities ( ! causes are equal1 ! *ances t ! effect 0 produc$ by !m are 9 ! ratio ( ! probabilities t if !y did exi/ !y w\ld produce ! effect4 ,,case ,,iii4 ,! ?ird case1 t 9 :i* ! causes are unlike 9 bo? respects1 is solv$ by :at has prec$$4 ,=1 :5 a quantity dep5ds on two o!r quantities1 9 su* a mann] t :ile ei!r ( !m rema9s con/ant x is proportional to ! o!r1 x mu/ necess>ily be proportional to ! product ( ! two quantities1 ! product be+ ! only function ( ! two :i* obeys t law ( v>iation4 ,!re=e1 ! probability t ,m 0 produc$ by ei!r cause1 is z ! antec$5t probability ( ! cause1 multipli$ by ! probability t if x exi/$ x w\ld produce ,m4 ,:i* 0 to be demon/rat$4 ,or we may prove ! ?ird case z we prov$ ! fir/ & second4 ,let ,a be twice z frequ5t z ,b1 & let !m also be unequally likely1 :5 !y exi/1 to produce ,m2 let ,a produce x twice 9 f\r times1 ,b ?rice 9 f\r times4 ,! antec$5t probability ( ,a is to t ( ,b z #b to #a2 ! probabilities ( _! produc+ ,m are z #b to #c2 ! product ( ^! ratios is ! ratio ( #d to #c2 & ?is w be ! ratio ( ! probabilities t ,a or ,b 0 ! produc+ cause 9 ! giv5 in/ance4 ,=1 s9ce ,a is twice z frequ5t z ,b1 out ( twelve cases 9 :i* "o or o!r exi/s1 ,a exi/s 9 #h & ,b 9 #d4 ,b ( its eight cases1 ,a1 by ! supposition1 produces ,m 9 only #d1 :ile ,b ( its f\r cases produces ,m 9 #c4 ,m1 !re=e1 is only produc$ at all 9 sev5 ( ! twelve cases2 b 9 f\r ( ^! x is produc$ by ,a1 9 ?ree by ,b2 h5ce ! probabilities ( its be+ produc$ by ,a & by ,b are z #d to #c1 & are express$ by ! fractions & 4 ,:i* 0 to be demon/rat$4 #f4 ,x rema9s to exam9e ! be>+ ( ! doctr9e ( *ances on ! peculi> problem :i* occupi$ u 9 ! prec$+ *apt]1 namely1 h[ to di/+ui% co9cid5ces :i* are casual f ^? :i* are ! result ( law2 f ^? 9 :i* ! facts :i* accompany or foll[ "o ano!r are someh[ connect$ ?r\gh causation4 ,! doctr9e ( *ances af=ds means by :i*1 if we knew ! av]age numb] ( co9cid5ces to be look$ = betwe5 two ph5om5a connect$ only casually1 we c\ld det]m9e h[ (t5 any giv5 deviation f t av]age w occur by *ance4 ,if ! probability ( any casual co9cid5ce1 consid]$ 9 itself1 be #a_/m1 ! probability t ! same co9cid5ce w be repeat$ n times 9 succession is #a_/mn4 ,= example1 9 "o ?r[ ( a die ! probability ( ace be+ 2 ! probability ( ?r[+ ace twice 9 succession w be #a divid$ by ! squ>e ( #f1 or 4 ,= ace is ?r[n at ! fir/ ?r[ once 9 six1 or six 9 ?irty-six times1 & ( ^? six1 ! die be+ ca/ aga91 ace w be ?r[n b once2 be+ altoge!r once 9 ?irty-six times4 ,! *ance ( ! same ca/ ?ree times successively is1 by a simil> reason+1 or 2 t is1 ! ev5t w happ51 on a l>ge av]age1 only once 9 two hundr$ & sixte5 ?r[s4 ,we h ?us a rule by :i* to e/imate ! probability t any giv5 s]ies ( co9cid5ces arises f *ance1 provid$ we c measure correctly ! probability ( a s+le co9cid5ce4 ,if we c obta9 an equally precise expression = ! probability t ! same s]ies ( co9cid5ces arises f causation1 we %\ld only h to comp>e ! numb]s4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 c r>ely be done4 ,let u see :at degree ( approximation c practically be made to ! necess>y precision4 ,! "q falls )9 ,laplace's six? pr9ciple1 j demon/rat$4 ,! giv5 fact1 t is to say1 ! s]ies ( co9cid5ces1 may h orig9at$ ei!r 9 a casual conjunction ( causes or 9 a law ( nature4 ,! probabilities1 !re=e1 t ! fact orig9at$ 9 ^! two modes1 are z _! antec$5t probabilities1 multipli$ by ! probabilities t if !y exi/$ !y w\ld produce ! effect4 ,b ! p>ticul> comb9ation ( *ances1 if x occurr$1 or ! law ( nature if real1 w\ld c]ta9ly produce ! s]ies ( co9cid5ces4 ,! probabilities1 !re=e1 t ! co9cid5ces are produc$ by ! two causes 9 "q are z ! antec$5t probabilities ( ! causes4 ,"o ( ^!1 ! antec$5t probability ( ! comb9ation ( m]e *ances :i* w\ld produce ! giv5 result1 is an appreciable quantity4 ,! antec$5t probability ( ! o!r supposition may be susceptible ( a m or less exact e/imation1 accord+ to ! nature ( ! case4 ,9 "s cases1 ! co9cid5ce1 suppos+ x to be ! result ( causation at all1 mu/ be ! result ( a kn[n cause2 z ! succession ( aces1 if n accid5tal1 mu/ arise f ! load+ ( ! die4 ,9 su* cases we may be able to =m a conjecture z to ! antec$5t probability ( su* a circum/ance f ! *>act]s ( ! p>ties conc]n$1 or o!r su* evid5ce2 b x w\ld be impossible to e/imate t probability ) any ?+ l num]ical precision4 ,! c\nt]-probability1 h[ev]1 t ( ! accid5tal orig9 ( ! co9cid5ce1 dw9dl+ s rapidly z x does at ea* new trial1 ! /age is soon rea*$ at :i* ! *ance ( unfairness 9 ! die1 h[ev] small 9 itself1 mu/ be great] ?an t ( a casual co9cid5ce2 & on ?is gr\nd1 a practical decision c g5]ally be come to )\t mu* hesitation1 if !re be ! p[] ( repeat+ ! exp]im5t4 ,:51 h[ev]1 ! co9cid5ce is "o :i* c n be acc\nt$ = by any kn[n cause1 & ! connection betwe5 ! two ph5om5a1 if produc$ by causation1 mu/ be ! result ( "s law ( nature hi!rto unkn[n2 :i* is ! case we _h 9 view 9 ! la/ *apt]2 !n1 ?\gh ! probability ( a casual co9cid5ce may be capable ( appreciation1 t ( ! c\nt]-supposition1 ! exi/5ce ( an undiscov]$ law ( nature1 is cle>ly unsusceptible ( ev5 an approximate valuation4 ,9 ord] to h ! data :i* su* a case w\ld require1 x w\ld be necess>y to "k :at proportion ( all ! individual sequ5ces or co-exi/5ces occurr+ 9 nature are ! result ( law1 & :at proportion are m]e casual co9cid5ces4 ,x be+ evid5t t we c n =m any plausible conjecture z to ?is proportion1 mu* less appreciate x num]ically1 we c n attempt any precise e/imation ( ! comp>ative probabilities4 ,b ( ?is we are sure1 t ! detection ( an unkn[n law ( nature--( "s previ\sly unrecogniz$ con/ancy ( conjunction among ph5om5a--is no uncommon ev5t4 ,if1 !re=e1 ! numb] ( in/ances 9 :i* a co9cid5ce is obs]v$1 ov] & above t :i* w\ld arise on ! av]age f ! m]e concurr5ce ( *ances1 be su* t s great an am\nt ( co9cid5ces f accid5t alone w\ld be an extremely uncommon ev5t2 we h reason to conclude t ! co9cid5ce is ! effect ( causation1 & may be receiv$ 7subject to correction f fur!r exp]i5ce7 z an empirical law4 ,fur!r ?an ?is1 9 po9t ( precision1 we c n g2 nor1 9 mo/ cases1 is great] precision requir$1 = ! solution ( any practical d\bt47#ahb7 ,*apt] ,,xix4 ,( ,! ,ext5sion ,( ,d]ivative ,laws ,to ,adjac5t ,cases4 #a4 ,we h _h frequ5t occasion to notice ! inf]ior g5]ality ( d]ivative laws1 comp>$ ) ! ultimate laws f :i* !y are d]iv$4 ,?is inf]iority1 :i* affects n only ! ext5t ( ! propositions !mselves1 b _! degree ( c]ta9ty )9 t ext5t1 is mo/ conspicu\s 9 ! uni=mities ( co-exi/5ce & sequ5ce obta9+ betwe5 effects :i* dep5d ultimately on diff]5t primeval causes4 ,su* uni=mities w only obta9 :]e !re exi/s ! same collocation ( ^? primeval causes4 ,if ! collocation v>ies1 ?\gh ! laws !mselves rema9 ! same1 a totally diff]5t set ( d]ivative uni=mities may1 & g5]ally w1 be ! result4 ,ev5 :]e ! d]ivative uni=mity is betwe5 diff]5t effects ( ! same cause1 x w by no means obta9 z univ]sally z ! law ( ! cause itself4 ,if a & b accompany or succe$ "o ano!r z effects ( ! cause ,a1 x by no means foll[s t ,a is ! only cause :i* c produce !m1 or t if !re be ano!r cause1 z ,b1 capable ( produc+ a1 x mu/ produce b likewise4 ,! conjunction1 !re=e1 ( a & b p]haps does n hold univ]sally1 b only 9 ! in/ances 9 :i* a arises f ,a4 ,:5 x is produc$ by a cause o!r ?an ,a1 a & b may be dissev]$4 ,day 7= example7 is always 9 our exp]i5ce foll[$ by night2 b day is n ! cause ( night2 bo? are successive effects ( a common cause1 ! p]iodical passage ( ! spectator into & out ( ! e>?'s %ad[1 consequ5t on ! e>?'s rotation1 & on ! illum9at+ prop]ty ( ! sun4 ,if1 !re=e1 day is ev] produc$ by a diff]5t cause or set ( causes f ?is1 day w n1 or at lea/ may n1 be foll[$ by night4 ,on ! sun's own surface1 = in/ance1 ?is may be ! case4 ,f9ally1 ev5 :5 ! d]ivative uni=mity is itself a law ( causation 7result+ f ! comb9ation ( sev]al causes71 x is n altoge!r indep5d5t ( collocations4 ,if a cause sup]v5es1 capable ( :olly or p>tially c\nt]act+ ! effect ( any "o ( ! conjo9$ causes1 ! effect w no long] con=m to ! d]ivative law4 ,:ile1 !re=e1 ea* ultimate law is only liable to fru/ration f "o set ( c\nt]act+ causes1 ! d]ivative law is liable to x f sev]al4 ,n[1 ! possibility ( ! occurr5ce ( c\nt]act+ causes :i* d n arise f any ( ! conditions involv$ 9 ! law itself dep5ds on ! orig9al collocations4 ,x is true t1 z we =m]ly rem>k$1 laws ( causation1 :e!r ultimate or d]ivative1 are1 9 mo/ cases1 fulfill$ ev5 :5 c\nt]act$2 ! cause produces its effect1 ?\gh t effect is de/roy$ by some?+ else4 ,t ! effect may be fru/rat$1 is1 !re=e1 no objection to ! univ]sality ( laws ( causation4 ,b x is fatal to ! univ]sality ( ! sequ5ces or co-exi/5ces ( effects1 :i* compose ! great] "p ( ! d]ivative laws fl[+ f laws ( causation4 ,:51 f ! law ( a c]ta9 comb9ation ( causes1 !re results a c]ta9 ord] 9 ! effects2 z f ! comb9ation ( a s+le sun ) ! rotation ( an opaque body r\nd its axis1 !re results1 on ! :ole surface ( t opaque body1 an alt]nation ( day & night2 !n1 if we suppose "o ( ! comb9$ causes c\nt]act$1 ! rotation /opp$1 ! sun ext+ui%$1 or a second sun sup]add$1 ! tru? ( t p>ticul> law ( causation is 9 no way affect$2 x is /ill true t "o sun %9+ on an opaque revolv+ body w alt]nately produce day & night2 b s9ce ! sun no long] does %9e on su* a body1 ! d]ivative uni=mity1 ! succession ( day & night on ! giv5 planet1 is no long] true4 ,^? d]ivative uni=mities1 !re=e1 :i* are n laws ( causation1 are 7except 9 ! r>e case ( _! dep5d+ on "o cause alone1 n on a comb9ation ( causes7 always m or less cont+5t on collocations2 & are h5ce subject to ! *>act]i/ic infirmity ( empirical laws--t ( be+ admissible only :]e ! collocations are kn[n by exp]i5ce to be su* z are requisite = ! tru? ( ! law2 t is1 only )9 ! conditions ( "t & place confirm$ by actual obs]vation4 #b4 ,?is pr9ciple1 :5 /at$ 9 g5]al t]ms1 seems cle> & indisputable2 yet _m ( ! ord9>y judgm5ts ( mank9d1 ! propriety ( :i* is n que/ion$1 h at lea/ ! semblance ( be+ inconsi/5t ) x4 ,on :at gr\nds1 x may be ask$1 d we expect t ! sun w rise to-morr[8 ,to-morr[ is beyond ! limits ( "t compreh5d$ 9 our obs]vations4 ,!y h ext5d$ ov] "s ?\s&s ( ye>s pa/1 b !y d n include ! future4 ,yet we inf] ) confid5ce t ! sun w rise to-morr[2 & nobody d\bts t we are entitl$ to d s4 ,let u consid] :at is ! w>rant = ?is confid5ce4 ,9 ! example 9 "q1 we "k ! causes on :i* ! d]ivative uni=mity dep5ds4 ,!y are3 ! sun giv+ out light1 ! e>? 9 a /ate ( rotation & int]cept+ light4 ,! induction :i* %[s ^! to be ! real causes1 & n m]ely prior effects ( a common cause1 be+ complete1 ! only circum/ances :i* c\ld defeat ! d]ivative law are su* z w\ld de/roy or c\nt]act "o or o!r ( ! comb9$ causes4 ,:ile ! causes exi/ & are n c\nt]act$1 ! effect w cont9ue4 ,if !y exi/ & are n c\nt]act$ to-morr[1 ! sun w rise to-morr[4 ,s9ce ! causes1 namely1 ! sun & ! e>?1 ! "o 9 ! /ate ( giv+ out light1 ! o!r 9 a /ate ( rotation1 w exi/ until some?+ de/roys !m1 all dep5ds on ! probabilities ( _! de/ruction1 or ( _! c\nt]action4 ,we "k by obs]vation 7omitt+ ! inf]5tial pro(s ( an exi/5ce = ?\s&s ( ages ant]ior7 t ^! ph5om5a h cont9u$ = 7say7 five ?\s& ye>s4 ,)9 t "t !re has exi/$ no cause suffici5t to dim9i% !m appreciably1 nor :i* has c\nt]act$ _! effect 9 any appreciable degree4 ,! *ance1 !re=e1 t ! sun may n rise to-morr[ am\nts to ! *ance t "s cause1 :i* has n manife/$ itself 9 ! smalle/ degree dur+ five ?\s& ye>s1 w exi/ to-morr[ 9 su* int5sity z to de/roy ! sun or ! e>?1 ! sun's light or ! e>?'s rotation1 or to produce an imm5se di/urbance 9 ! effect result+ f ^? causes4 ,n[1 if su* a cause w exi/ to-morr[1 or at any future "t1 "s cause1 proximate or remote1 ( t cause mu/ exi/ n[1 & mu/ h exi/$ dur+ ! :ole ( ! five ?\s& ye>s4 ,if1 !re=e1 ! sun d n rise to-morr[1 x w be because "s cause has exi/$1 ! effects ( :i*1 ?\gh dur+ five ?\s& ye>s !y h n am\nt$ to a p]ceptible quantity1 w 9 "o day become ov]:elm+4 ,s9ce ?is cause has n be5 recogniz$ dur+ su* an int]val ( "t by obs]v]s /ation$ on our e>?1 x mu/1 if x be a s+le ag5t1 be ei!r "o ^: effects develop !mselves gradually & v sl[ly1 or "o :i* exi/$ 9 regions beyond our obs]vation1 & is n[ on ! po9t ( arriv+ 9 our "p ( ! univ]se4 ,n[ all causes :i* we h exp]i5ce ( act accord+ to laws incompatible ) ! supposition t _! effects1 aft] accumulat+ s sl[ly z to be imp]ceptible = five ?\s& ye>s1 %\ld />t into imm5sity 9 a s+le day4 ,no ma!matical law ( proportion betwe5 an effect & ! quantity or relations ( its cause c\ld produce su* contradictory results4 ,! sudd5 developm5t ( an effect ( :i* !re 0 no previ\s trace always arises f ! com+ toge!r ( sev]al di/9ct causes1 n previ\sly conjo9$2 b if su* sudd5 conjunction is de/9$ to take place1 ! causes1 or _! causes1 mu/ h exi/$ dur+ ! entire five ?\s& ye>s2 & _! n hav+ once come toge!r dur+ t p]iod %[s h[ r>e t p>ticul> comb9ation is4 ,we h1 !re=e1 ! w>rant ( a rigid induction = consid]+ x probable1 9 a degree undi/+ui%able f c]ta9ty1 t ! kn[n conditions requisite = ! sun's ris+ w exi/ to-morr[4 #c4 ,b ?is ext5sion ( d]ivative laws1 n causative1 beyond ! limits ( obs]vation c only be to adjac5t cases4 ,if1 in/ead ( to-morr[1 we _h said ?is day tw5ty ?\s& ye>s1 ! inductions w\ld h be5 any ?+ b conclusive4 ,t a cause :i*1 9 opposition to v p[]ful causes1 produc$ no p]ceptible effect dur+ five ?\s& ye>s1 %\ld produce a v consid]able "o by ! end ( tw5ty ?\s&1 has no?+ 9 x :i* is n 9 con=mity ) our exp]i5ce ( causes4 ,we "k _m ag5ts1 ! effect ( :i* 9 a %ort p]iod does n am\nt to a p]ceptible quantity1 b by accumulat+ = a mu* long] p]iod becomes consid]able4 ,besides1 look+ at ! imm5se multitude ( ! heav5ly bodies1 _! va/ di/ances1 & ! rapidity ( ! motion ( su* ( !m z are kn[n to move1 x is a supposition n at all contradictory to exp]i5ce t "s body may be 9 motion t[>d u1 or we t[>d x1 )9 ! limits ( ^: influ5ce we h n come dur+ five ?\s& ye>s1 b :i* 9 tw5ty ?\s& m may be produc+ effects ^u u ( ! mo/ extraord9>y k9d4 ,or ! fact :i* is capable ( prev5t+ sunrise may be1 n ! cumulative effect ( "o cause1 b "s new comb9ation ( causes2 & ! *ances favorable to t comb9ation1 ?\gh !y h n produc$ x once 9 five ?\s& ye>s1 may produce x once 9 tw5ty ?\s&4 ,s t ! inductions :i* au?orize u to expect future ev5ts1 gr[ weak] & weak] ! fur!r we look into ! future1 & at l5g? become inappreciable4 ,we h consid]$ ! probabilities ( ! sun's ris+ to-morr[1 z d]iv$ f ! real laws2 t is1 f ! laws ( ! causes on :i* t uni=mity is dep5d5t4 ,let u n[ consid] h[ ! matt] w\ld h /ood if ! uni=mity _h be5 kn[n only z an empirical law2 if we _h n be5 aw>e t ! sun's light & ! e>?'s rotation 7or ! sun's motion7 7 ! causes on :i* ! p]iodical occurr5ce ( daylight dep5ds4 ,we c\ld h ext5d$ ?is empirical law to cases adjac5t 9 "t1 ?\gh n to s great a di/ance ( "t z we c n[4 ,hav+ evid5ce t ! effects _h rema9$ unalt]$ & be5 punctually conjo9$ = five ?\s& ye>s1 we c\ld inf] t ! unkn[n causes on :i* ! conjunction is dep5d5t _h exi/$ undim9i%$ & unc\nt]act$ dur+ ! same p]iod4 ,! same conclusions1 !re=e1 w\ld foll[ z 9 ! prec$+ case1 except t we %\ld only "k t dur+ five ?\s& ye>s no?+ _h occurr$ to defeat p]ceptibly ?is p>ticul> effect2 :ile1 :5 we "k ! causes1 we h ! additional assurance t dur+ t int]val no su* *ange has be5 noticeable 9 ! causes !mselves z by any degree ( multiplication or l5g? ( cont9uance c\ld defeat ! effect4 ,to ?is mu/ be add$1 t :5 we "k ! causes1 we may be able to judge :e!r !re exi/s any kn[n cause capable ( c\nt]act+ !m1 :ile z long z !y are unkn[n1 we c n be sure b t if we did "k !m1 we c\ld pr$ict _! de/ruction f causes actually 9 exi/5ce4 ,a b$-ridd5 savage1 :o _h nev] se5 ! cat>act ( ,niag>a1 b :o liv$ )9 he>+ ( x1 might imag9e t ! s\nd he he>d w\ld endure =ev]2 b if he knew x to be ! effect ( a ru% ( wat]s ov] a b>ri] ( rock :i* is progressively we>+ away1 he w\ld "k t )9 a numb] ( ages :i* may be calculat$ x w be he>d no m4 ,9 proportion1 !re=e1 to our ignorance ( ! causes on :i* ! empirical law dep5ds1 we c be less assur$ t x w cont9ue to hold good2 & ! fur!r we look into futurity1 ! less improbable is x t "s "o ( ! causes1 ^: co-exi/5ce gives rise to ! d]ivative uni=mity1 may be de/roy$ or c\nt]act$4 ,) e prolongation ( "t ! *ances multiply ( su* an ev5t2 t is to say1 its non-occurr5ce hi!rto becomes a less gu>antee ( its n occurr+ )9 ! giv5 "t4 ,if1 !n1 x is only to cases :i* 9 po9t ( "t are adjac5t 7or ne>ly adjac5t7 to ^? :i* we h actually obs]v$1 t any d]ivative law1 n ( causation1 c be ext5d$ ) an assurance equival5t to c]ta9ty1 mu* m is ?is true ( a m]ely empirical law4 ,happily1 = ! purposes ( life x is to su* cases alone t we c almo/ ev] h occasion to ext5d !m4 ,9 respect ( place1 x might seem t a m]ely empirical law c\ld n be ext5d$ ev5 to adjac5t cases2 t we c\ld h no assurance ( its be+ true 9 any place :]e x has n be5 specially obs]v$4 ,! pa/ duration ( a cause is a gu>antee = its future exi/5ce1 unless some?+ occurs to de/roy x2 b ! exi/5ce ( a cause 9 "o or any numb] ( places is no gu>antee = its exi/5ce 9 any o!r place1 s9ce !re is no uni=mity 9 ! collocations ( primeval causes4 ,:51 !re=e1 an empirical law is ext5d$ beyond ! local limits )9 :i* x has be5 f\nd true by obs]vation1 ! cases to :i* x is ?us ext5d$ mu/ be su* z are presumably )9 ! influ5ce ( ! same individual ag5ts4 ,if we discov] a new planet )9 ! kn[n b\nds ( ! sol> sy/em 7or ev5 beyond ^? b\nds1 b indicat+ its connection ) ! sy/em by revolv+ r\nd ! sun71 we may conclude1 ) great probability1 t x revolves on its axis4 ,= all ! kn[n planets d s2 & ?is uni=mity po9ts to "s common cause1 antec$5t to ! fir/ records ( a/ronomical obs]vation2 & ?\gh ! nature ( ?is cause c only be matt] ( conjecture1 yet if x be1 z is n unlikely1 & z ,laplace's !ory supposes1 n m]ely ! same k9d ( cause1 b ! same individual cause 7su* z an impulse giv5 to all ! bodies at once71 t cause1 act+ at ! extreme po9ts ( ! space occupi$ by ! sun & planets1 is likely1 unless defeat$ by "s c\nt]act+ cause1 to h act$ at e int]m$iate po9t1 & probably some:at beyond2 & !re=e act$1 9 all probability1 ^u ! suppos$ newly-discov]$ planet4 ,:51 !re=e1 effects :i* are always f\nd conjo9$ c be trac$ ) any probability to an id5tical 7& n m]ely a simil>7 orig91 we may ) ! same probability ext5d ! empirical law ( _! conjunction to all places )9 ! extreme local b\nd>ies )9 :i* ! fact has be5 obs]v$1 subject to ! possibility ( c\nt]act+ causes 9 "s portion ( ! field4 ,/ill m confid5tly may we d s :5 ! law is n m]ely empirical2 :5 ! ph5om5a :i* we f9d conjo9$ are effects ( asc]ta9$ causes1 f ! laws ( :i* ! conjunction ( _! effects is d$ucible4 ,9 t case1 we may bo? ext5d ! d]ivative uni=mity ov] a l>g] space1 & ) less abatem5t = ! *ance ( c\nt]act+ causes4 ,! fir/1 because in/ead ( ! local b\nd>ies ( our obs]vation ( ! fact itself1 we may include ! extreme b\nd>ies ( ! asc]ta9$ influ5ce ( its causes4 ,?us ! succession ( day & night1 we "k1 holds true ( all ! bodies ( ! sol> sy/em except ! sun itself2 b we "k ?is only because we are acqua9t$ ) ! causes4 ,if we 7 n1 we c\ld n ext5d ! proposition beyond ! orbits ( ! e>? & moon1 at bo? extremities ( :i* we h ! evid5ce ( obs]vation = its tru?4 ,) respect to ! probability ( c\nt]act+ causes1 x has be5 se5 t ?is calls = a great] abatem5t ( confid5ce1 9 proportion to our ignorance ( ! causes on :i* ! ph5om5a dep5d4 ,on bo? acc\nts1 !re=e1 a d]ivative law :i* we "k h[ to resolve1 is susceptible ( a great] ext5sion to cases adjac5t 9 place1 ?an a m]ely empirical law4 ,*apt] ,,xx4 ,( ,analogy4 #a4 ,! ^w ,analogy1 z ! "n ( a mode ( reason+1 is g5]ally tak5 = "s k9d ( argum5t suppos$ to be ( an inductive nature1 b n am\nt+ to a complete induction4 ,!re is no ^w1 h[ev]1 :i* is us$ m loosely1 or 9 a great] v>iety ( s5ses1 ?an ,analogy4 ,x sometimes /&s = argum5ts :i* may be examples ( ! mo/ rigor\s induction4 ,ar*bi%op ,:ately1 = in/ance1 foll[+ ,f]guson & o!r writ]s1 def9es ,analogy con=mably to its primitive acceptation1 t :i* 0 giv5 to x by ma!maticians3 ,resemblance ( ,relations4 ,9 ?is s5se1 :5 a c\ntry :i* has s5t out colonies is t]m$ ! "m c\ntry1 ! expression is analogical1 signify+ t ! colonies ( a c\ntry /& 9 ! same relation to h] 9 :i* *ildr5 /& to _! p>5ts4 ,& if any inf]5ce be drawn f ?is resemblance ( relations1 z1 = in/ance1 t ob$i5ce or affection is due f colonies to ! "m c\ntry1 ?is is call$ reason+ by analogy4 ,or1 if x be argu$ t a nation is mo/ b5eficially gov]n$ by an assembly elect$ by ! p1 f ! admitt$ fact t o!r associations = a common purpose1 su* z jo9t-/ock companies1 are be/ manag$ by a committee *os5 by ! p>ties int]e/$2 ?is1 too1 is an argum5t f analogy 9 ! prec$+ s5se1 because its f\ndation is1 n t a nation is l a jo9t-/ock company1 or ,p>liam5t l a bo>d ( directors1 b t ,p>liam5t /&s 9 ! same relation to ! nation 9 :i* a bo>d ( directors /&s to a jo9t-/ock company4 ,n[1 9 an argum5t ( ?is nature1 !re is no inh]5t inf]iority ( conclusiv5ess4 ,l o!r argum5ts f resemblance1 x may am\nt to no?+1 or x may be a p]fect & conclusive induction4 ,! circum/ance 9 :i* ! two cases resemble1 may be capable ( be+ %[n to be ! mat]ial circum/ance2 to be t on :i* all ! consequ5ces1 necess>y to be tak5 into acc\nt 9 ! p>ticul> discussion1 dep5d4 ,9 ! example la/ giv51 ! resemblance is "o ( relation2 ! fundam5tum relationis be+ ! managem5t1 by a few p]sons1 ( affairs 9 :i* a mu* great] numb] are int]e/$ along ) !m4 ,n[1 "s may cont5d t ?is circum/ance :i* is common to ! two cases1 & ! v>i\s consequ5ces :i* foll[ f x1 h ! *ief %>e 9 det]m9+ all ! effects :i* make up :at we t]m good or bad adm9i/ration4 ,if !y c e/abli% ?is1 _! argum5t has ! =ce ( a rigor\s induction2 if !y c n1 !y are said to h fail$ 9 prov+ ! analogy betwe5 ! two cases2 a mode ( spee* :i* implies t :5 ! analogy c be prov$1 ! argum5t f\nd$ on x c n be resi/$4 #b4 ,x is on ! :ole m usual1 h[ev]1 to ext5d ! "n ( analogical evid5ce to argum5ts f any sort ( resemblance1 provid$ !y d n am\nt to a complete induction2 )\t peculi>ly di/+ui%+ resemblance ( relations4 ,analogical reason+1 9 ?is s5se1 may be r$uc$ to ! foll[+ =mula3 ,two ?+s resemble ea* o!r 9 "o or m respects2 a c]ta9 proposition is true ( ! "o2 !re=e x is true ( ! o!r4 ,b we h no?+ "h by :i* to discrim9ate analogy f induction1 s9ce ?is type w s]ve = all reason+ f exp]i5ce4 ,9 ! /ricte/ induction1 equally ) ! fa9te/ analogy1 we conclude because ,a resembles ,b 9 "o or m prop]ties1 t x does s 9 a c]ta9 o!r prop]ty4 ,! diff]5ce is1 t 9 ! case ( a complete induction x has be5 previ\sly %[n1 by due comp>ison ( in/ances1 t !re is an inv>iable conjunction betwe5 ! =m] prop]ty or prop]ties & ! latt] prop]ty2 b 9 :at is call$ analogical reason+1 no su* conjunction has be5 made out4 ,!re h be5 no opportunities ( putt+ 9 practice ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 or ev5 ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t2 b we conclude 7& t is all :i* ! argum5t ( analogy am\nts to7 t a fact m1 kn[n to be true ( ,a1 is m likely to be true ( ,b if ,b agrees ) ,a 9 "s ( its prop]ties 7ev5 ?\gh no connection is kn[n to exi/ betwe5 m & ^? prop]ties71 ?an if no resemblance at all c\ld be trac$ betwe5 ,b & any o!r ?+ kn[n to possess ! attribute m4 ,to ?is argum5t x is ( c\rse requisite t ! prop]ties common to ,a ) ,b %all be m]ely n kn[n to be connect$ ) m2 !y mu/ n be prop]ties kn[n to be unconnect$ ) x4 ,if1 ei!r by processes ( elim9ation1 or by d$uction f previ\s k ( ! laws ( ! prop]ties 9 "q1 x c be conclud$ t !y h no?+ to d ) m1 ! argum5t ( analogy is put out ( c\rt4 ,! supposition mu/ be t m is an effect really dep5d5t on "s prop]ty ( ,a1 b we "k n on :i*4 ,we c n po9t out any ( ! prop]ties ( ,a1 :i* is ! cause ( m1 or unit$ ) x by any law4 ,aft] reject+ all :i* we "k to h no?+ to d ) x1 !re rema9 sev]al betwe5 :i* we are unable to decide2 ( :i* rema9+ prop]ties1 ,b possesses "o or m4 ,?is1 accord+ly1 we consid] z af=d+ gr\nds1 ( m or less /r5g?1 = conclud+ by analogy t ,b possesses ! attribute m4 ,!re c be no d\bt t e su* resemblance :i* c be po9t$ out betwe5 ,b & ,a1 af=ds "s degree ( probability1 beyond :at w\ld o!rwise exi/1 9 favor ( ! conclusion drawn f x4 ,if ,b resembl$ ,a 9 all its ultimate prop]ties1 its possess+ ! attribute m w\ld be a c]ta9ty1 n a probability2 & e resemblance :i* c be %[n to exi/ betwe5 !m1 places x by s mu* ! ne>] to t po9t4 ,if ! resemblance be 9 an ultimate prop]ty1 !re w be resemblance 9 all ! d]ivative prop]ties dep5d5t on t ultimate prop]ty1 & ( ^! m may be "o4 ,if ! resemblance be 9 a d]ivative prop]ty1 !re is reason to expect resemblance 9 ! ultimate prop]ty on :i* x dep5ds1 & 9 ! o!r d]ivative prop]ties dep5d5t on ! same ultimate prop]ty4 ,e resemblance :i* c be %[n to exi/1 af=ds gr\nd = expect+ an indef9ite numb] ( o!r resemblances2 ! p>ticul> resemblance s\ght w1 !re=e1 be (t5] f\nd among ?+s ?us kn[n to resemble1 ?an among ?+s betwe5 :i* we "k ( no resemblance4 ,= example1 ,i might inf] t !re are probably inhabitants 9 ! moon1 because !re are inhabitants on ! e>?1 9 ! sea1 & 9 ! air3 & ?is is ! evid5ce ( analogy4 ,! circum/ance ( hav+ inhabitants is "h assum$ n to be an ultimate prop]ty1 b 7z is reasonable to suppose7 a consequ5ce ( o!r prop]ties2 & dep5d+1 !re=e1 9 ! case ( ! e>?1 on "s ( its prop]ties z a portion ( ! univ]se1 b on :i* ( ^? prop]ties we "k n4 ,n[ ! moon resembles ! e>? 9 be+ a solid1 opaque1 ne>ly sph]ical sub/ance1 appe>+ to conta91 or to h conta9$1 active volcanoes2 receiv+ heat & light f ! sun1 9 ab\t ! same quantity z our e>?2 revolv+ on its axis2 compos$ ( mat]ials :i* gravitate1 & obey+ all ! v>i\s laws result+ f t prop]ty4 ,& ,i ?9k no "o w d5y t if ?is 7 all t 0 kn[n ( ! moon1 ! exi/5ce ( inhabitants 9 t lum9>y w\ld d]ive f ^! v>i\s resemblances to ! e>?1 a great] degree ( probability ?an x w\ld o!rwise h2 ?\gh ! am\nt ( ! augm5tation x w\ld be useless to attempt to e/imate4 ,if1 h[ev]1 e resemblance prov$ betwe5 ,b & ,a1 9 any po9t n kn[n to be immat]ial ) respect to m1 =ms "s additional reason = presum+ t ,b has ! attribute m2 x is cle>1 contra1 t e dissimil>ity :i* c be prov$ betwe5 !m furni%es a c\nt]-probability ( ! same nature on ! o!r side4 ,x is n1 inde$1 unusual t diff]5t ultimate prop]ties %\ld1 9 "s p>ticul> in/ances1 produce ! same d]ivative prop]ty2 b on ! :ole x is c]ta9 t ?+s :i* diff] 9 _! ultimate prop]ties1 w diff] at lea/ z mu* 9 ! aggregate ( _! d]ivative prop]ties1 & t ! diff]5ces :i* are unkn[n w1 on ! av]age ( cases1 be> "s proportion to ^? :i* are kn[n4 ,!re w1 !re=e1 be a competition betwe5 ! kn[n po9ts ( agreem5t & ! kn[n po9ts ( diff]5ce 9 ,a & ,b2 & accord+ z ! "o or ! o!r may be deem$ to prepond]ate1 ! probability d]iv$ f analogy w be = or aga9/ ,b's hav+ ! prop]ty m4 ,! moon1 = in/ance1 agrees ) ! e>? 9 ! circum/ances already m5tion$2 b diff]s 9 be+ small]1 9 hav+ its surface m unequal1 & app>5tly volcanic ?r\gh\t1 9 hav+1 at lea/ on ! side next ! e>?1 no atmosph]e suffici5t to refract light1 no cl\ds1 & 7x is !re=e conclud$7 no wat]4 ,^! diff]5ces1 consid]$ m]ely z su*1 might p]haps balance ! resemblances1 s t analogy w\ld af=d no presumption ei!r way4 ,b consid]+ t "s ( ! circum/ances :i* are want+ on ! moon are among ^? :i*1 on ! e>?1 are f\nd to be indisp5sable conditions ( animal life1 we may conclude t if t ph5om5on does exi/ 9 ! moon 7or at all ev5ts on ! ne>] side71 x mu/ be z an effect ( causes totally diff]5t f ^? on :i* x dep5ds "h2 z a consequ5ce1 !re=e1 ( ! moon's diff]5ces f ! e>?1 n ( ! po9ts ( agreem5t4 ,view$ 9 ?is light1 all ! resemblances :i* exi/ become presumptions aga9/1 n 9 favor (1 ! moon's be+ inhabit$4 ,s9ce life c n exi/ !re 9 ! mann] 9 :i* x exi/s "h1 ! great] ! resemblance ( ! lun> _w to ! t]re/rial 9 o!r respects1 ! less reason we h to believe t x c conta9 life4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 o!r bodies 9 our sy/em1 betwe5 :i* & ! e>? !re is a mu* clos] resemblance2 :i* possess an atmosph]e1 cl\ds1 consequ5tly wat] 7or "s fluid analog\s to x71 & ev5 give /rong indications ( sn[ 9 _! pol> regions2 :ile ! cold1 or heat1 ?\gh diff]+ greatly on ! av]age f ours1 is1 9 "s p>ts at lea/ ( ^? planets1 possibly n m extreme ?an 9 "s regions ( our own :i* are habitable4 ,to balance ^! agreem5ts1 ! asc]ta9$ diff]5ces are *iefly 9 ! av]age light & heat1 velocity ( rotation1 d5sity ( mat]ial1 int5sity ( gravity1 & simil> circum/ances ( a second>y k9d4 ,) reg>d to ^! planets1 !re=e1 ! argum5t ( analogy gives a decid$ prepond]ance 9 favor ( _! resembl+ ! e>? 9 any ( its d]ivative prop]ties1 su* z t ( hav+ inhabitants2 ?\gh :5 we consid] h[ immeasurably multitud9\s are ^? ( _! prop]ties :i* we are entirely ignorant (1 comp>$ ) ! few :i* we "k1 we c atta* b trifl+ weight to any consid]ations ( resemblance 9 :i* ! kn[n elem5ts be> s inconsid]able a proportion to ! unkn[n4 ,besides ! competition betwe5 analogy & div]sity1 !re may be a competition ( conflict+ analogies4 ,! new case may be simil> 9 "s ( its circum/ances to cases 9 :i* ! fact m exi/s1 b 9 o!rs to cases 9 :i* x is kn[n n to exi/4 ,amb] has "s prop]ties 9 common ) vegetable1 o!rs ) m9]al products4 ,a pa9t+ ( unkn[n orig9 may resemble1 9 c]ta9 ( its *>act]s1 kn[n works ( a p>ticul> ma/]1 b 9 o!rs x may z /rik+ly resemble ^? ( "s o!r pa9t]4 ,a vase may be> "s analogy to works ( ,grecian1 & "s to ^? ( ,etruscan1 or ,egyptian art4 ,we are ( c\rse suppos+ t x does n possess any quality :i* has be5 asc]ta9$1 by a suffici5t induction1 to be a conclusive m>k ei!r ( ! "o or ( ! o!r4 #c4 ,s9ce ! value ( an analogical argum5t inf]r+ "o resemblance f o!r resemblances )\t any antec$5t evid5ce ( a connection betwe5 !m1 dep5ds on ! ext5t ( asc]ta9$ resemblance1 comp>$ fir/ ) ! am\nt ( asc]ta9$ diff]5ce1 & next ) ! ext5t ( ! unexplor$ region ( unasc]ta9$ prop]ties2 x foll[s t :]e ! resemblance is v great1 ! asc]ta9$ diff]5ce v small1 & our k ( ! subject-matt] tol]ably ext5sive1 ! argum5t f analogy may approa* 9 /r5g? v ne> to a valid induction4 ,if1 aft] mu* obs]vation ( ,b1 we f9d t x agrees ) ,a 9 n9e out ( t5 ( its kn[n prop]ties1 we may conclude ) a probability ( n9e to "o1 t x w possess any giv5 d]ivative prop]ty ( ,a4 ,if we discov]1 = example1 an unkn[n animal or plant1 resembl+ closely "s kn[n "o 9 ! great] numb] ( ! prop]ties we obs]ve 9 x1 b diff]+ 9 "s few1 we may reasonably expect to f9d 9 ! unobs]v$ rema9d] ( its prop]ties1 a g5]al agreem5t ) ^? ( ! =m]2 b also a diff]5ce correspond+ proportionately to ! am\nt ( obs]v$ div]sity4 ,x ?us appe>s t ! conclusions d]iv$ f analogy are only ( any consid]able value1 :5 ! case to :i* we reason is an adjac5t case2 adjac5t1 n z be=e1 9 place or "t1 b 9 circum/ances4 ,9 ! case ( effects ( :i* ! causes are imp]fectly or n at all kn[n1 :5 consequ5tly ! obs]v$ ord] ( _! occurr5ce am\nts only to an empirical law1 x (t5 happ5s t ! conditions :i* h co-exi/$ :5ev] ! effect 0 obs]v$1 h be5 v num]\s4 ,n[ if a new case pres5ts itself1 9 :i* all ^! conditions d n exi/1 b ! f> great] "p ( !m d1 "s "o or a few only be+ want+1 ! inf]5ce t ! effect w occur1 not)/&+ ?is defici5cy ( complete resemblance to ! cases 9 :i* x has be5 obs]v$1 may1 ?\gh ( ! nature ( analogy1 possess a high degree ( probability4 ,x is h>dly necess>y to add t1 h[ev] consid]able ?is probability may be1 no compet5t inquir] into nature w re/ satisfi$ ) x :5 a complete induction is atta9able2 b w consid] ! analogy z a m]e guide-po/1 po9t+ out ! direction 9 :i* m rigor\s inve/igations %\ld be prosecut$4 ,x is 9 ?is la/ respect t consid]ations ( analogy h ! highe/ sci5tific value4 ,! cases 9 :i* analogical evid5ce af=ds 9 itself any v high degree ( probability1 are1 z we h obs]v$1 only ^? 9 :i* ! resemblance is v close & ext5sive2 b !re is no analogy1 h[ev] fa9t1 :i* may n be ( ! utmo/ value 9 sugge/+ exp]im5ts or obs]vations t may lead to m positive conclusions4 ,:5 ! ag5ts & _! effects are out ( ! rea* ( fur!r obs]vation & exp]im5t1 z 9 ! speculations already allud$ to respect+ ! moon & planets1 su* slight probabilities are no m ?an an int]e/+ !me = ! pleasant ex]cise ( imag9ation2 b any suspicion1 h[ev] slight1 t sets an +5i\s p]son at "w to contrive an exp]im5t1 or af=ds a reason = try+ "o exp]im5t r ?an ano!r1 may be ( ! greate/ b5efit to sci5ce4 ,on ?is gr\nd1 ?\gh ,i c n accept z positive tru?s any ( ^? sci5tific hypo!ses :i* are unsusceptible ( be+ ultimately br\ght to ! te/ ( actual induction1 su*1 = in/ance1 z ! two !ories ( light1 ! emission !ory ( ! la/ c5tury1 & ! undulatory !ory :i* pr$om9ates 9 ! pres5t1 ,i am yet unable to agree ) ^? :o consid] su* hypo!ses to be wor?y ( entire disreg>d4 ,z is well said by ,h>tley 7& concurr$ 9 by a ?9k] 9 g5]al s diametrically oppos$ to ,h>tley's op9ions z ,dugald ,/ew>t71 8any hypo!sis :i* has s mu* plausibility z to expla9 a consid]able numb] ( facts1 helps u to dige/ ^! facts 9 prop] ord]1 to br+ new ones to light1 & make exp]im5ta crucis = ! sake ( future inquir]s407#ahc7 ,if an hypo!sis bo? expla9s kn[n facts1 & has l$ to ! pr$iction ( o!rs previ\sly unkn[n1 & s9ce v]ifi$ by exp]i5ce1 ! laws ( ! ph5om5on :i* is ! subject ( inquiry mu/ be> at lea/ a great simil>ity to ^? ( ! class ( ph5om5a to :i* ! hypo!sis assimilates x2 & s9ce ! analogy :i* ext5ds s f> may probably ext5d fur!r1 no?+ is m likely to sugge/ exp]im5ts t5d+ to ?r[ light ^u ! real prop]ties ( ! ph5om5on1 ?an ! foll[+ out su* an hypo!sis4 ,b to ?is end x is by no means necess>y t ! hypo!sis be mi/ak5 = a sci5tific tru?4 ,on ! contr>y1 t illusion is 9 ?is respect1 z 9 e o!r1 an imp$im5t to ! progress ( real k1 by lead+ inquir]s to re/rict !mselves arbitr>ily to ! p>ticul> hypo!sis :i* is mo/ accr$it$ at ! "t1 in/ead ( look+ out = e class ( ph5om5a betwe5 ! laws ( :i* & ^? ( ! giv5 ph5om5on any analogy exi/s1 & try+ all su* exp]im5ts z may t5d to ! discov]y ( ult]ior analogies po9t+ 9 ! same direction4 ,*apt] ,,xxi4 ,( ,! ,evid5ce ,( ,! ,law ,( ,univ]sal ,causation4 #a4 ,we h n[ complet$ our review ( ! logical processes by :i* ! laws1 or uni=mities1 ( ! sequ5ce ( ph5om5a1 & ^? uni=mities 9 _! co-exi/5ce :i* dep5d on ! laws ( _! sequ5ce1 are asc]ta9$ or te/$4 ,z we recogniz$ 9 ! comm5cem5t1 & h be5 enabl$ to see m cle>ly 9 ! progress ( ! inve/igation1 ! basis ( all ^! logical op]ations is ! law ( causation4 ,! validity ( all ! ,inductive ,me?ods dep5ds on ! assumption t e ev5t1 or ! beg9n+ ( e ph5om5on1 mu/ h "s cause2 "s antec$5t1 on ! exi/5ce ( :i* x is inv>iably & unconditionally consequ5t4 ,9 ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t ?is is obvi\s2 t me?od av[$ly proce$+ on ! supposition t we h f\nd ! true cause z soon z we h negativ$ e o!r4 ,! ass]tion is equally true ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce4 ,t me?od au?orizes u to inf] a g5]al law f two in/ances2 "o1 9 :i* ,a exi/s toge!r ) a multitude ( o!r circum/ances1 & ,b foll[s2 ano!r1 9 :i*1 ,a be+ remov$1 & all o!r circum/ances rema9+ ! same1 ,b is prev5t$4 ,:at1 h[ev]1 does ?is prove8 ,x proves t ,b1 9 ! p>ticul> in/ance1 c n h _h any o!r cause ?an ,a2 b to conclude f ?is t ,a 0 ! cause1 or t ,a w on o!r occasions be foll[$ by ,b1 is only all[able on ! assumption t ,b mu/ h "s cause2 t among its antec$5ts 9 any s+le in/ance 9 :i* x occurs1 !re mu/ be "o :i* has ! capacity ( produc+ x at o!r times4 ,?is be+ admitt$1 x is se5 t 9 ! case 9 "q t antec$5t c be no o!r ?an ,a2 b t if x be no o!r ?an ,a x mu/ be ,a1 is n prov$1 by ^! in/ances at lea/1 b tak5 = grant$4 ,!re is no ne$ to sp5d "t 9 prov+ t ! same ?+ is true ( ! o!r ,inductive ,me?ods4 ,! univ]sality ( ! law ( causation is assum$ 9 !m all4 ,b is ?is assumption w>rant$8 ,d\btless 7x may be said7 mo/ ph5om5a are connect$ z effects ) "s antec$5t or cause1 t is1 are nev] produc$ unless "s assignable fact has prec$$ !m2 b ! v circum/ance t complicat$ processes ( induction are sometimes necess>y1 %[s t cases exi/ 9 :i* ?is regul> ord] ( succession is n app>5t to our unaid$ appreh5sion4 ,if1 !n1 ! processes :i* br+ ^! cases )9 ! same category ) ! re/1 require t we %\ld assume ! univ]sality ( ! v law :i* !y d n at fir/ sight appe> to exemplify1 is n ?is a petitio pr9cipii8 ,c we prove a proposition1 by an argum5t :i* takes x = grant$8 ,& if n s prov$1 on :at evid5ce does x re/8 ,= ?is difficulty1 :i* ,i h purposely /at$ 9 ! /ronge/ t]ms x w admit (1 ! s*ool ( metaphysicians :o h long pr$om9at$ 9 ?is c\ntry f9d a ready salvo4 ,!y affirm1 t ! univ]sality ( causation is a tru? :i* we c n help believ+2 t ! belief 9 x is an in/9ct1 "o ( ! laws ( our believ+ faculty4 ,z ! pro( ( ?is1 !y say1 & !y h no?+ else to say1 t e body does believe x2 & !y numb] x among ! propositions1 r num]\s 9 _! catalogue1 :i* may be logically argu$ aga9/1 & p]haps c n be logically prov$1 b :i* are ( high] au?ority ?an logic1 & s ess5tially inh]5t 9 ! human m9d1 t ev5 he :o d5ies !m 9 speculation1 %[s by 8 habitual practice t 8 argum5ts make no impression ^u himself4 ,into ! m]its ( ?is "q1 consid]$ z "o ( psy*ology1 x w\ld be =eign to my purpose to ent] "h2 b ,i mu/ prote/ aga9/ adduc+1 z evid5ce ( ! tru? ( a fact 9 ext]nal nature1 ! disposition1 h[ev] /rong or h[ev] g5]al1 ( ! human m9d to believe x4 ,belief is n pro(1 & does n disp5se ) ! necessity ( pro(4 ,i am aw>e1 t to ask = evid5ce ( a proposition :i* we are suppos$ to believe in/9ctively1 is to expose "o's self to ! *>ge ( reject+ ! au?ority ( ! human faculties2 :i* ( c\rse no "o c consi/5tly d1 s9ce ! human faculties are all :i* any "o has to judge by2 & inasmu* z ! mean+ ( ! ^w evid5ce is suppos$ to be1 some?+ :i* :5 laid be=e ! m9d1 induces x to believe2 to dem& evid5ce :5 ! belief is insur$ by ! m9d's own laws1 is suppos$ to be appeal+ to ! intellect aga9/ ! intellect4 ,b ?is1 ,i appreh5d1 is a misund]/&+ ( ! nature ( evid5ce4 ,by evid5ce is n meant any ?+ & e ?+ :i* produces belief4 ,!re are _m ?+s :i* g5]ate belief besides evid5ce4 ,a m]e /rong association ( ideas (t5 causes a belief s int5se z to be un%akable by exp]i5ce or argum5t4 ,evid5ce is n t :i* ! m9d does or mu/ yield to1 b t :i* x ought to yield to1 namely1 t1 by yield+ to :i* its belief is kept con=mable to fact4 ,!re is no appeal f ! human faculties g5]ally1 b !re is an appeal f "o human faculty to ano!r2 f ! judg+ faculty1 to ^? :i* take cognizance ( fact1 ! faculties ( s5se & consci\sness4 ,! legitimacy ( ?is appeal is admitt$ :5ev] x is all[$ t our judgm5ts ought to be con=mable to fact4 ,to say t belief suffices = its own ju/ification is mak+ op9ion ! te/ ( op9ion2 x is d5y+ ! exi/5ce ( any outw>d /&>d1 ! con=mity ( an op9ion to :i* con/itutes its tru?4 ,we call "o mode ( =m+ op9ions "r & ano!r wrong1 because ! "o does1 & ! o!r does n1 t5d to make ! op9ion agree ) ! fact--to make p believe :at really is1 & expect :at really w be4 ,n[ a m]e disposition to believe1 ev5 if suppos$ in/9ctive1 is no gu>antee = ! tru? ( ! ?+ believ$4 ,if1 inde$1 ! belief ev] am\nt$ to an irresi/ible necessity1 !re w\ld !n be no use 9 appeal+ f x1 because !re w\ld be no possibility ( alt]+ x4 ,b ev5 !n ! tru? ( ! belief w\ld n foll[2 x w\ld only foll[ t mank9d 7 "u a p]man5t necessity ( believ+ :at might possibly n be true2 9 o!r words1 t a case might occur 9 :i* our s5ses or consci\sness1 if !y c\ld be appeal$ to1 might te/ify "o ?+1 & our reason believe ano!r4 ,b 9 fact !re is no su* p]man5t necessity4 ,!re is no proposition ( :i* x c be ass]t$ t e human m9d mu/ et]nally & irrevocably believe x4 ,_m ( ! propositions ( :i* ?is is mo/ confid5tly /at$1 great numb]s ( human be+s h disbeliev$4 ,! ?+s :i* x has be5 suppos$ t nobody c\ld possibly help believ+1 are innum]able2 b no two g5]ations w\ld make out ! same catalogue ( !m4 ,"o age or nation believes implicitly :at to ano!r seems incr$ible & inconceivable2 "o individual has n a ve/ige ( a belief :i* ano!r deems to be absolutely inh]5t 9 humanity4 ,!re is n "o ( ^! suppos$ in/9ctive beliefs :i* is really inevitable4 ,x is 9 ! p[] ( e "o to cultivate habits ( ?\ght :i* make him indep5d5t ( !m4 ,! habit ( philosophical analysis 7( :i* x is ! sure/ effect to enable ! m9d to comm&1 in/ead ( be+ comm&$ by1 ! laws ( ! m]ely passive "p ( its own nature71 by %[+ to u t ?+s are n necess>ily connect$ 9 fact because _! ideas are connect$ 9 our m9ds1 is able to loos5 innum]able associations :i* reign despotically ov] ! undiscipl9$ or e>ly-prejudic$ m9d4 ,& ?is habit is n )\t p[] ev5 ov] ^? associations :i* ! s*ool ( :i* ,i h be5 speak+ reg>d z connate & in/9ctive4 ,i am conv9c$ t any "o accu/om$ to ab/raction & analysis1 :o w fairly ex]t 8 faculties = ! purpose1 w1 :5 8 imag9ation has once le>n$ to ent]ta9 ! notion1 f9d no difficulty 9 conceiv+ t 9 "s "o1 = in/ance1 ( ! _m firmam5ts into :i* sid]eal a/ronomy n[ divides ! univ]se1 ev5ts may succe$ "o ano!r at r&om1 )\t any fix$ law2 nor c any ?+ 9 our exp]i5ce1 or 9 our m5tal nature1 con/itute a suffici5t1 or inde$ any1 reason = believ+ t ?is is n[h]e ! case4 ,7 we to suppose 7:at x is p]fectly possible to imag9e7 t ! pres5t ord] ( ! univ]se 7 br\ght to an end1 & t a *aos succe$$ 9 :i* !re 0 no fix$ succession ( ev5ts1 & ! pa/ gave no assurance ( ! future2 if a human be+ 7 miracul\sly kept alive to witness ?is *ange1 he surely w\ld soon cease to believe 9 any uni=mity1 ! uni=mity itself no long] exi/+4 ,if ?is be admitt$1 ! belief 9 uni=mity ei!r is n an in/9ct1 or x is an in/9ct conqu]able1 l all o!r in/9cts1 by acquir$ k4 ,b !re is no ne$ to speculate on :at might be1 :5 we h positive & c]ta9 k ( :at has be54 ,x is n true1 z a matt] ( fact1 t mank9d h always believ$ t all ! successions ( ev5ts 7 uni=m & accord+ to fix$ laws4 ,! ,greek philosoph]s1 n ev5 except+ ,ari/otle1 recogniz$ ,*ance & ,spontaneity 7 & 7 z among ! ag5ts 9 nature2 9 o!r words1 !y believ$ t to t ext5t !re 0 no gu>antee t ! pa/ _h be5 simil> to itself1 or t ! future w\ld resemble ! pa/4 ,ev5 n[ a full half ( ! philosophical _w1 includ+ ! v same metaphysicians :o cont5d mo/ = ! in/9ctive "* ( ! belief 9 uni=mity1 consid] "o important class ( ph5om5a1 volitions1 to be an exception to ! uni=mity1 & n gov]n$ by a fix$ law47#ahd7 #b4 ,z 0 obs]v$ 9 a =m] place17#ahe7 ! belief we ent]ta9 9 ! univ]sality1 ?r\gh\t nature1 ( ! law ( cause & effect1 is itself an in/ance ( induction2 & by no means "o ( ! e>lie/ :i* any ( u1 or :i* mank9d 9 g5]al1 c h made4 ,we arrive at ?is univ]sal law1 by g5]alization f _m laws ( inf]ior g5]ality4 ,we %\ld nev] h _h ! notion ( causation 79 ! philosophical mean+ ( ! t]m7 z a condition ( all ph5om5a1 unless _m cases ( causation1 or 9 o!r words1 _m p>tial uni=mities ( sequ5ce1 _h previ\sly become famili>4 ,! m obvi\s ( ! p>ticul> uni=mities sugge/1 & give evid5ce (1 ! g5]al uni=mity1 & ! g5]al uni=mity1 once e/abli%$1 enables u to prove ! rema9d] ( ! p>ticul> uni=mities ( :i* x is made up4 ,z1 h[ev]1 all rigor\s processes ( induction presuppose ! g5]al uni=mity1 our k ( ! p>ticul> uni=mities f :i* x 0 fir/ inf]r$ 0 n1 ( c\rse1 d]iv$ f rigor\s induction1 b f ! loose & unc]ta9 mode ( induction p] enum]ationem simplicem2 & ! law ( univ]sal causation1 be+ collect$ f results s obta9$1 c n itself re/ on any bett] f\ndation4 ,x w\ld seem1 !re=e1 t induction p] enum]ationem simplicem n only is n necess>ily an illicit logical process1 b is 9 reality ! only k9d ( induction possible2 s9ce ! m elaborate process dep5ds = its validity on a law1 itself obta9$ 9 t in>tificial mode4 ,is !re n !n an inconsi/5cy 9 contra/+ ! loos5ess ( "o me?od ) ! rigidity ( ano!r1 :5 t o!r is indebt$ to ! loos] me?od = its own f\ndation8 ,! inconsi/5cy1 h[ev]1 is only app>5t4 ,assur$ly1 if induction by simple enum]ation 7 an invalid process1 no process gr\nd$ on x c\ld be valid2 j z no reliance c\ld be plac$ on telescopes1 if we c\ld n tru/ our eyes4 ,b ?\gh a valid process1 x is a fallible "o1 & fallible 9 v diff]5t degrees3 if1 !re=e1 we c sub/itute = ! m fallible =ms ( ! process1 an op]ation gr\nd$ on ! same process 9 a less fallible =m1 we %all h effect$ a v mat]ial improvem5t4 ,& ?is is :at sci5tific induction does4 ,a mode ( conclud+ f exp]i5ce mu/ be pron\nc$ untru/wor?y :5 subsequ5t exp]i5ce refuses to confirm x4 ,accord+ to ?is crit]ion1 induction by simple enum]ation--9 o!r words1 g5]alization ( an obs]v$ fact f ! m]e abs5ce ( any kn[n in/ance to ! contr>y--af=ds 9 g5]al a prec>i\s & unsafe gr\nd ( assurance2 = su* g5]alizations are incessantly discov]$1 on fur!r exp]i5ce1 to be false4 ,/ill1 h[ev]1 x af=ds "s assurance1 suffici5t1 9 _m cases1 = ! ord9>y guidance ( conduct4 ,x w\ld be absurd to say1 t ! g5]alizations arriv$ at by mank9d 9 ! outset ( _! exp]i5ce1 su* z ^!--food n\ri%es1 fire burns1 wat] dr[ns--7 unwor?y ( reliance47#ahf7 ,!re is a scale ( tru/wor?9ess 9 ! results ( ! orig9al unsci5tific induction2 & on ?is div]sity 7z obs]v$ 9 ! f\r? *apt] ( ! pres5t book7 dep5d ! rules = ! improvem5t ( ! process4 ,! improvem5t consi/s 9 correct+ "o ( ^! in>tificial g5]alizations by means ( ano!r4 ,z has be5 already po9t$ out1 ?is is all t art c d4 ,to te/ a g5]alization1 by %[+ t x ei!r foll[s f1 or conflicts )1 "s /rong] induction1 "s g5]alization re/+ on a broad] f\ndation ( exp]i5ce1 is ! beg9n+ & end ( ! logic ( induction4 #c4 ,n[ ! prec>i\sness ( ! me?od ( simple enum]ation is 9 an inv]se ratio to ! l>g5ess ( ! g5]alization4 ,! process is delusive & insuffici5t1 exactly 9 proportion z ! subject-matt] ( ! obs]vation is special & limit$ 9 ext5t4 ,z ! sph]e wid5s1 ?is unsci5tific me?od becomes less & less liable to mislead2 & ! mo/ univ]sal class ( tru?s1 ! law ( causation1 = in/ance1 & ! pr9ciples ( numb] & ( geometry1 are duly & satisfactorily prov$ by t me?od alone1 nor are !y susceptible ( any o!r pro(4 ,) respect to ! :ole class ( g5]alizations ( :i* we h rec5tly treat$1 ! uni=mities :i* dep5d on causation1 ! tru? ( ! rem>k j made foll[s by obvi\s inf]5ce f ! pr9ciples laid d[n 9 ! prec$+ *apt]s4 ,:5 a fact has be5 obs]v$ a c]ta9 numb] ( times to be true1 & is n 9 any in/ance kn[n to be false1 if we at once affirm t fact z a univ]sal tru? or law ( nature1 )\t ei!r te/+ x by any ( ! f\r me?ods ( induction1 or d$uc+ x f o!r kn[n laws1 we %all 9 g5]al err grossly2 b we are p]fectly ju/ifi$ 9 affirm+ x z an empirical law1 true )9 c]ta9 limits ( "t1 place1 & circum/ance1 provid$ ! numb] ( co9cid5ces be great] ?an c ) any probability be ascrib$ to *ance4 ,! reason = n ext5d+ x beyond ^? limits is1 t ! fact ( its hold+ true )9 !m may be a consequ5ce ( collocations1 :i* c n be conclud$ to exi/ 9 "o place because !y exi/ 9 ano!r2 or may be dep5d5t on ! accid5tal abs5ce ( c\nt]act+ ag5cies1 :i* any v>iation ( "t1 or ! smalle/ *ange ( circum/ances1 may possibly br+ into play4 ,if we suppose1 !n1 ! subject-matt] ( any g5]alization to be s widely diffus$ t !re is no "t1 no place1 & no comb9ation ( circum/ances1 b mu/ af=d an example ei!r ( its tru? or ( its falsity1 & if x be nev] f\nd o!rwise ?an true1 its tru? c n be cont+5t on any collocations1 unless su* z exi/ at all times & places2 nor c x be fru/rat$ by any c\nt]act+ ag5cies1 unless by su* z nev] actually occur4 ,x is1 !re=e1 an empirical law co-ext5sive ) all human exp]i5ce2 at :i* po9t ! di/9ction betwe5 empirical laws & laws ( nature vani%es1 & ! proposition takes its place among ! mo/ firmly e/abli%$ z well z l>ge/ tru?s accessible to sci5ce4 ,n[1 ! mo/ ext5sive 9 its subject-matt] ( all g5]alizations :i* exp]i5ce w>rants1 respect+ ! sequ5ces & co-exi/5ces ( ph5om5a1 is ! law ( causation4 ,x /&s at ! head ( all obs]v$ uni=mities1 9 po9t ( univ]sality1 & !re=e 7if ! prec$+ obs]vations are correct7 9 po9t ( c]ta9ty4 ,& if we consid]1 n :at mank9d w\ld h be5 ju/ifi$ 9 believ+ 9 ! infancy ( _! k1 b :at may rationally be believ$ 9 its pres5t m advanc$ /ate1 we %all f9d ourselves w>rant$ 9 consid]+ ?is fundam5tal law1 ?\gh itself obta9$ by induction f p>ticul> laws ( causation1 z n less c]ta91 b on ! contr>y1 m s1 ?an any ( ^? f :i* x 0 drawn4 ,x adds to !m z mu* pro( z x receives f !m4 ,= !re is probably no "o ev5 ( ! be/ e/abli%$ laws ( causation :i* is n sometimes c\nt]act$1 & to :i*1 !re=e1 app>5t exceptions d n pres5t !mselves1 :i* w\ld h necess>ily & ju/ly %ak5 ! confid5ce ( mank9d 9 ! univ]sality ( ^? laws1 if inductive processes f\nd$ on ! univ]sal law _h n enabl$ u to ref] ^? exceptions to ! ag5cy ( c\nt]act+ causes1 & !reby reconcile !m ) ! law ) :i* !y app>5tly conflict4 ,errors1 moreov]1 may h slipp$ into ! /atem5t ( any "o ( ! special laws1 ?r\gh inatt5tion to "s mat]ial circum/ance3 & in/ead ( ! true proposition1 ano!r may h be5 enunciat$1 false z a univ]sal law1 ?\gh lead+1 9 all cases hi!rto obs]v$1 to ! same result4 ,to ! law ( causation1 on ! contr>y1 we n only d n "k ( any exception1 b ! exceptions :i* limit or app>5tly invalidate ! special laws1 are s f> f contradict+ ! univ]sal "o1 t !y confirm x2 s9ce 9 all cases :i* are suffici5tly op5 to our obs]vation1 we are able to trace ! diff]5ce ( result1 ei!r to ! abs5ce ( a cause :i* _h be5 pres5t 9 ord9>y cases1 or to ! pres5ce ( "o :i* _h be5 abs5t4 ,! law ( cause & effect1 be+ ?us c]ta91 is capable ( imp>t+ its c]ta9ty to all o!r inductive propositions :i* c be d$uc$ f x2 & ! n>r[] inductions may be reg>d$ z receiv+ _! ultimate sanction f t law1 s9ce !re is no "o ( !m :i* is n r5d]$ m c]ta9 ?an x 0 be=e1 :5 we are able to connect x ) t l>g] induction1 & to %[ t x c n be d5i$1 consi/5tly ) ! law t e ?+ :i* beg9s to exi/ has a cause4 ,& h5ce we are ju/ifi$ 9 ! seem+ inconsi/5cy1 ( hold+ induction by simple enum]ation to be good = prov+ ?is g5]al tru?1 ! f\ndation ( sci5tific induction1 & yet refus+ to rely on x = any ( ! n>r[] inductions4 ,i fully admit t if ! law ( causation 7 unkn[n1 g5]alization 9 ! m obvi\s cases ( uni=mity 9 ph5om5a w\ld nev]!less be possible1 & ?\gh 9 all cases m or less prec>i\s1 & 9 "s extremely s1 w\ld suffice to con/itute a c]ta9 measure ( probability2 b :at ! am\nt ( ?is probability might be1 we are disp5s$ f e/imat+1 s9ce x nev] c\ld am\nt to ! degree ( assurance :i* ! proposition acquires1 :51 by ! application to x ( ! ,f\r ,me?ods1 ! supposition ( its falsity is %[n to be inconsi/5t ) ! ,law ( ,causation4 ,we are !re=e logically entitl$1 &1 by ! necessities ( sci5tific induction1 requir$1 to disreg>d ! probabilities d]iv$ f ! e>ly rude me?od ( g5]aliz+1 & to consid] no m9or g5]alization z prov$ except s f> z ! law ( causation confirms x1 nor probable except s f> z x may reasonably be expect$ to be s confirm$4 #d4 ,! ass]tion1 t our inductive processes assume ! law ( causation1 :ile ! law ( causation is itself a case ( induction1 is a p>adox1 only on ! old !ory ( reason+1 :i* supposes ! univ]sal tru?1 or major premise1 9 a ratioc9ation1 to be ! real pro( ( ! p>ticul> tru?s :i* are o/5sibly inf]r$ f x4 ,accord+ to ! doctr9e ma9ta9$ 9 ! pres5t treatise17#ahg7 ! major premise is n ! pro( ( ! conclusion1 b is itself prov$1 along ) ! conclusion f ! same evid5ce4 8,all m5 are mortal0 is n ! pro( t ,"l ,palm]/on is mortal2 b our pa/ exp]i5ce ( mortality au?orizes u to inf] bo? ! g5]al tru? & ! p>ticul> fact1 & ! "o ) exactly ! same degree ( assurance z ! o!r4 ,! mortality ( ,"l ,palm]/on is n an inf]5ce f ! mortality ( all m51 b f ! exp]i5ce :i* proves ! mortality ( all m52 & is a correct inf]5ce f exp]i5ce1 if t g5]al tru? is s too4 ,?is relation betwe5 our g5]al beliefs & _! p>ticul> applications holds equally true 9 ! m compreh5sive case :i* we are n[ discuss+4 ,any new fact ( causation inf]r$ by induction1 is rightly inf]r$1 if no o!r objection c be made to ! inf]5ce ?an c be made to ! g5]al tru? t e ev5t has a cause4 ,! utmo/ c]ta9ty :i* c be giv5 to a conclusion arriv$ at 9 ! way ( inf]5ce1 /ops at ?is po9t4 ,:5 we h asc]ta9$ t ! p>ticul> conclusion mu/ /& or fall ) ! g5]al uni=mity ( ! laws ( nature--t x is liable to no d\bt except ! d\bt :e!r e ev5t has a cause--we h done all t c be done = x4 ,! /ronge/ assurance we c obta9 ( any !ory respect+ ! cause ( a giv5 ph5om5on1 is t ! ph5om5on has ei!r t cause or none4 ,! latt] supposition might h be5 an admissible "o 9 a v e>ly p]iod ( our /udy ( nature4 ,b we h be5 able to p]ceive t 9 ! /age :i* mank9d h n[ rea*$1 ! g5]alization :i* gives ! ,law ( ,univ]sal ,causation has gr[n into a /rong] & bett] induction1 "o des]v+ ( great] reliance1 ?an any ( ! subord9ate g5]alizations4 ,we may ev51 ,i ?9k1 g a /ep fur!r ?an ?is1 & reg>d ! c]ta9ty ( t great induction z n m]ely comp>ative1 b1 = all practical purposes1 complete4 ,! consid]ations1 :i*1 z ,i appreh5d1 give1 at ! pres5t day1 to ! pro( ( ! law ( uni=mity ( succession z true ( all ph5om5a )\t exception1 ?is "* ( complet5ess & conclusiv5ess1 are ! foll[+3 ,fir/1 t we n[ "k x directly to be true ( f> ! greate/ numb] ( ph5om5a2 t !re are none ( :i* we "k x n to be true1 ! utmo/ t c be said be+1 t ( "s we c n positively f direct evid5ce affirm its tru?2 :ile ph5om5on aft] ph5om5on1 z !y become bett] kn[n to u1 are con/antly pass+ f ! latt] class into ! =m]2 & 9 all cases 9 :i* t transition has n yet tak5 place1 ! abs5ce ( direct pro( is acc\nt$ = by ! r>ity or ! obscurity ( ! ph5om5a1 our defici5t means ( obs]v+ !m1 or ! logical difficulties aris+ f ! complication ( ! circum/ances 9 :i* !y occur2 insomu* t1 not)/&+ z rigid a dep5d5ce on giv5 conditions z exi/s 9 ! case ( any o!r ph5om5on1 x 0 n likely t we %\ld be bett] acqua9t$ ) ^? conditions ?an we are4 ,besides ?is fir/ class ( consid]ations1 !re is a second1 :i* /ill fur!r corroborates ! conclusion4 ,al?\gh !re are ph5om5a ! production & *anges ( :i* elude all our attempts to r$uce !m univ]sally to any asc]ta9$ law2 yet 9 e su* case1 ! ph5om5on1 or ! objects conc]n$ 9 x1 are f\nd 9 "s in/ances to obey ! kn[n laws ( nature4 ,! w9d1 = example1 is ! type ( unc]ta9ty & caprice1 yet we f9d x 9 "s cases obey+ ) z mu* con/ancy z any ph5om5on 9 nature ! law ( ! t5d5cy ( fluids to di/ribute !mselves s z to equalize ! pressure on e side ( ea* ( _! p>ticles2 z 9 ! case ( ! trade-w9ds & ! monsoons4 ,lightn+ might once h be5 suppos$ to obey no laws2 b s9ce x has be5 asc]ta9$ to be id5tical ) electricity1 we "k t ! v same ph5om5on 9 "s ( its manife/ations is implicitly ob$i5t to ! action ( fix$ causes4 ,i d n believe t !re is n[ "o object or ev5t 9 all our exp]i5ce ( nature1 )9 ! b\nds ( ! sol> sy/em at lea/1 :i* has n ei!r be5 asc]ta9$ by direct obs]vation to foll[ laws ( its own1 or be5 prov$ to be closely simil> to objects & ev5ts :i*1 9 m famili> manife/ations1 or on a m limit$ scale1 foll[ /rict laws2 our inability to trace ! same laws on a l>g] scale & 9 ! m recondite in/ances1 be+ acc\nt$ = by ! numb] & complication ( ! modify+ causes1 or by _! inaccessibility to obs]vation4 ,! progress ( exp]i5ce1 !re=e1 has dissipat$ ! d\bt :i* mu/ h re/$ on ! univ]sality ( ! law ( causation :ile !re 7 ph5om5a :i* seem$ to be sui g5]is1 n subject to ! same laws ) any o!r class ( ph5om5a1 & n z yet asc]ta9$ to h peculi> laws ( _! own4 ,?is great g5]alization1 h[ev]1 might reasonably h be51 z x 9 fact 01 act$ on z a probability ( ! highe/ ord]1 be=e !re 7 suffici5t gr\nds = receiv+ x z a c]ta9ty4 ,9 matt]s ( evid5ce1 z 9 all o!r human ?+s1 we nei!r require1 nor c atta91 ! absolute4 ,we mu/ hold ev5 our /ronge/ convictions ) an op5+ left 9 our m9ds = ! reception ( facts :i* contradict !m2 & only :5 we h tak5 ?is precaution1 h we e>n$ ! "r to act ^u our convictions ) complete confid5ce :5 no su* contradiction appe>s4 ,:atev] has be5 f\nd true 9 innum]able in/ances1 & nev] f\nd to be false aft] due exam9ation 9 any1 we are safe 9 act+ on z univ]sal provisionally1 until an und\bt$ exception appe>s2 provid$ ! nature ( ! case be su* t a real exception c\ld sc>cely h escap$ notice4 ,:5 e ph5om5on t we ev] knew suffici5tly well to be able to answ] ! "q1 _h a cause on :i* x 0 inv>iably consequ5t1 x 0 m rational to suppose t our inability to assign ! causes ( o!r ph5om5a arose f our ignorance1 ?an t !re 7 ph5om5a :i* 7 uncaus$1 & :i* happ5$ to be exactly ^? :i* we _h hi!rto _h no suffici5t opportunity ( /udy+4 ,x mu/1 at ! same "t1 be rem>k$1 t ! reasons = ?is reliance d n hold 9 circum/ances unkn[n to u1 & beyond ! possible range ( our exp]i5ce4 ,9 di/ant p>ts ( ! /ell> regions1 :]e ! ph5om5a may be entirely unlike ^? ) :i* we are acqua9t$1 x w\ld be folly to affirm confid5tly t ?is g5]al law prevails1 any m ?an ^? special ones :i* we h f\nd to hold univ]sally on our own planet4 ,! uni=mity 9 ! succession ( ev5ts1 o!rwise call$ ! law ( causation1 mu/ be receiv$ n z a law ( ! univ]se1 b ( t portion ( x only :i* is )9 ! range ( our means ( sure obs]vation1 ) a reasonable degree ( ext5sion to adjac5t cases4 ,to ext5d x fur!r is to make a supposition )\t evid5ce1 & to :i*1 9 ! abs5ce ( any gr\nd f exp]i5ce = e/imat+ its degree ( probability1 x w\ld be idle to attempt to assign any47#ahh7 ,*apt] ,,xxii4 ,( ,uni=mities ,( ,co-,exi/5ce ,n ,dep5d5t ,on ,causation4 #a4 ,! ord] ( ! occurr5ce ( ph5om5a 9 "t1 is ei!r successive or simultane\s2 ! uni=mities1 !re=e1 :i* obta9 9 _! occurr5ce1 are ei!r uni=mities ( succession or ( co-exi/5ce4 ,uni=mities ( succession are all compreh5d$ "u ! law ( causation & its consequ5ces4 ,e ph5om5on has a cause1 :i* x inv>iably foll[s2 & f ?is are d]iv$ o!r inv>iable sequ5ces among ! successive /ages ( ! same effect1 z well z betwe5 ! effects result+ f causes :i* inv>iably succe$ "o ano!r4 ,9 ! same mann] ) ^! d]ivative uni=mities ( succession1 a great v>iety ( uni=mities ( co-exi/5ce also take _! rise4 ,co-ord9ate effects ( ! same cause naturally co-exi/ ) "o ano!r4 ,high wat] at any po9t on ! e>?'s surface1 & high wat] at ! po9t diametrically opposite to x1 are effects uni=mly simultane\s1 result+ f ! direction 9 :i* ! comb9$ attractions ( ! sun & moon act ^u ! wat]s ( ! ocean4 ,an eclipse ( ! sun to u1 & an eclipse ( ! e>? to a spectator situat$ 9 ! moon1 are 9 l mann] ph5om5a inv>iably co-exi/5t2 & _! co-exi/5ce c equally be d$uc$ f ! laws ( _! production4 ,x is an obvi\s "q1 !re=e1 :e!r all ! uni=mities ( co-exi/5ce among ph5om5a may n be acc\nt$ = 9 ?is mann]4 ,& x c n be d\bt$ t betwe5 ph5om5a :i* are !mselves effects1 ! co-exi/5ces mu/ necess>ily dep5d on ! causes ( ^? ph5om5a4 ,if !y are effects imm$iately or remotely ( ! same cause1 !y c n co-exi/ except by virtue ( "s laws or prop]ties ( t cause2 if !y are effects ( diff]5t causes1 !y c n co-exi/ unless x be because _! causes co-exi/2 & ! uni=mity ( co-exi/5ce1 if su* !re be1 betwe5 ! effects1 proves t ^? p>ticul> causes1 )9 ! limits ( our obs]vation1 h uni=mly be5 co-exi/5t4 #b4 ,b ^! same consid]ations compel u to recognize t !re mu/ be "o class ( co-exi/5ces :i* c n dep5d on causation3 ! co-exi/5ces betwe5 ! ultimate prop]ties ( ?+s--^? prop]ties :i* are ! causes ( all ph5om5a1 b are n !mselves caus$ by any ph5om5on1 & a cause = :i* c\ld only be s\ght by asc5d+ to ! orig9 ( all ?+s4 ,yet among ^! ultimate prop]ties !re are n only co-exi/5ces1 b uni=mities ( co-exi/5ce4 ,g5]al propositions may be1 & are1 =m$1 :i* ass]t t :5ev] c]ta9 prop]ties are f\nd1 c]ta9 o!rs are f\nd along ) !m4 ,we p]ceive an object2 say1 = in/ance1 wat]4 ,we recognize x to be wat]1 ( c\rse by c]ta9 ( its prop]ties4 ,hav+ recogniz$ x1 we are able to affirm ( x innum]able o!r prop]ties2 :i* we c\ld n d unless x 7 a g5]al tru?1 a law or uni=mity 9 nature1 t ! set ( prop]ties by :i* we id5tify ! sub/ance z wat] always h ^? o!r prop]ties conjo9$ ) !m4 ,9 a =m] place7#ahi7 x has be5 expla9$1 9 "s detail1 :at is meant by ! ,k9ds ( objects2 ^? classes :i* diff] f "o ano!r n by a limit$ & def9ite1 b by an indef9ite & unkn[n1 numb] ( di/9ctions4 ,to ?is we h n[ to add1 t e proposition by :i* any ?+ is ass]t$ ( a ,k9d1 affirms a uni=mity ( co-exi/5ce4 ,s9ce we "k no?+ ( ,k9ds b _! prop]ties1 ! ,k9d1 to u1 is ! set ( prop]ties by :i* x is id5tifi$1 & :i* mu/ ( c\rse be suffici5t to di/+ui% x f e o!r k9d47#aij7 ,9 affirm+ any ?+1 !re=e1 ( a ,k9d1 we are affirm+ some?+ to be uni=mly co-exi/5t ) ! prop]ties by :i* ! k9d is recogniz$2 & t is ! sole mean+ ( ! ass]tion4 ,among ! uni=mities ( co-exi/5ce :i* exi/ 9 nature1 may h5ce be numb]$ all ! prop]ties ( ,k9ds4 ,! :ole ( ^!1 h[ev]1 are n indep5d5t ( causation1 b only a portion ( !m4 ,"s are ultimate prop]ties1 o!rs d]ivative3 ( "s1 no cause c be assign$1 b o!rs are manife/ly dep5d5t on causes4 ,?us1 pure oxyg5 gas is a ,k9d1 & "o ( its mo/ unequivocal prop]ties is its gase\s =m2 ?is prop]ty1 h[ev]1 has = its cause ! pres5ce ( a c]ta9 quantity ( lat5t heat2 & if t heat c\ld be tak5 away 7z has be5 done f s _m gases 9 ,f>aday's exp]im5ts71 ! gase\s =m w\ld d\btless disappe>1 toge!r ) num]\s o!r prop]ties :i* dep5d on1 or are caus$ by1 t prop]ty4 ,9 reg>d to all sub/ances :i* are *emical comp\nds1 & :i* !re=e may be reg>d$ z products ( ! juxtaposition ( sub/ances diff]5t 9 ,k9d f !mselves1 !re is consid]able reason to presume t ! specific prop]ties ( ! comp\nd are consequ5t1 z effects1 on "s ( ! prop]ties ( ! elem5ts1 ?\gh little progress has yet be5 made 9 trac+ any inv>iable relation betwe5 ! latt] & ! =m]4 ,/ill m /rongly w a simil> presumption exi/1 :5 ! object itself1 z 9 ! case ( organiz$ be+s1 is no primeval ag5t1 b an effect1 :i* dep5ds on a cause or causes = its v exi/5ce4 ,! ,k9ds1 !re=e1 :i* are call$ 9 *emi/ry simple sub/ances1 or elem5t>y natural ag5ts1 are ! only ones1 any ( ^: prop]ties c ) c]ta9ty be consid]$ ultimate2 & ( ^! ! ultimate prop]ties are probably mu* m num]\s ?an we at pres5t recognize1 s9ce e successful in/ance ( ! resolution ( ! prop]ties ( _! comp\nds into simpl] laws1 g5]ally leads to ! recognition ( prop]ties 9 ! elem5ts di/9ct f any previ\sly kn[n4 ,! resolution ( ! laws ( ! heav5ly motions e/abli%$ ! previ\sly unkn[n ultimate prop]ty ( a mutual attraction betwe5 all bodies2 ! resolution1 s f> z x has yet proce$$1 ( ! laws ( cry/allization1 ( *emical composition1 electricity1 magnetism1 etc41 po9ts to v>i\s pol>ities1 ultimately inh]5t 9 ! p>ticles ( :i* bodies are compos$2 ! comp>ative atomic weights ( diff]5t k9ds ( bodies 7 asc]ta9$ by resolv+ into m g5]al laws ! uni=mities obs]v$ 9 ! proportions 9 :i* sub/ances comb9e ) "o ano!r1 & s =?4 ,?us1 al?\gh e resolution ( a complex uni=mity into simpl] & m elem5t>y laws has an app>5t t5d5cy to dim9i% ! numb] ( ! ultimate prop]ties1 & really does remove _m prop]ties f ! li/2 yet 7s9ce ! result ( ?is simplify+ process is to trace up an ev] great] v>iety ( diff]5t effects to ! same ag5ts7 ! fur!r we advance 9 ?is direction1 ! great] numb] ( di/9ct prop]ties we are =c$ to recognize 9 "o & ! same object2 ! co-exi/5ces ( :i* prop]ties mu/ accord+ly be rank$ among ! ultimate g5]alities ( nature4 #c4 ,!re are1 !re=e1 only two k9ds ( propositions :i* ass]t uni=mity ( co-exi/5ce betwe5 prop]ties4 ,ei!r ! prop]ties dep5d on causes or !y d n4 ,if !y d1 ! proposition :i* affirms !m to be co-exi/5t is a d]ivative law ( co-exi/5ce betwe5 effects1 &1 until resolv$ into ! laws ( causation on :i* x dep5ds1 is an empirical law1 & to be tri$ by ! pr9ciples ( induction to :i* su* laws are am5able4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! prop]ties d n dep5d on causes1 b are ultimate prop]ties1 !n1 if x be true t !y inv>iably co-exi/1 !y mu/ all be ultimate prop]ties ( "o & ! same ,k9d2 & x is ( ^! only t ! co-exi/5ces c be class$ z a peculi> sort ( laws ( nature4 ,:5 we affirm t all cr[s are black1 or t all negroes h woolly hair1 we ass]t a uni=mity ( co-exi/5ce4 ,we ass]t t ! prop]ty ( blackness or ( hav+ woolly hair inv>iably co-exi/s ) ! prop]ties :i*1 9 common language1 or 9 ! sci5tific classification t we adopt1 are tak5 to con/itute ! class cr[1 or ! class negro4 ,n[1 suppos+ blackness to be an ultimate prop]ty ( black objects1 or woolly hair an ultimate prop]ty ( ! animals :i* possess x2 suppos+ t ^! prop]ties are n results ( causation1 are n connect$ ) antec$5t ph5om5a by any law2 !n if all cr[s are black1 & all negroes h woolly hair1 ^! mu/ be ultimate prop]ties ( ! k9d cr[1 or negro1 or ( "s k9d :i* includes !m4 ,if1 on ! contr>y1 blackness or woolly hair be an effect dep5d+ on causes1 ^! g5]al propositions are manife/ly empirical laws2 & all t has already be5 said respect+ t class ( g5]alizations may be appli$ )\t modification to ^!4 ,n[1 we h se5 t 9 ! case ( all comp\nds--( all ?+s1 9 %ort1 except ! elem5t>y sub/ances & prim>y p[]s ( nature--! presumption is1 t ! prop]ties d really dep5d ^u causes2 & x is impossible 9 any case :atev] to be c]ta9 t !y d n4 ,we !re=e %\ld n be safe 9 claim+ = any g5]alization respect+ ! co-exi/5ce ( prop]ties1 a degree ( c]ta9ty to :i*1 if ! prop]ties %\ld happ5 to be ! result ( causes1 x w\ld h no claim4 ,a g5]alization respect+ co-exi/5ce1 or1 9 o!r words1 respect+ ! prop]ties ( k9ds1 may be an ultimate tru?1 b x may also be m]ely a d]ivative "o2 & s9ce1 if s1 x is "o ( ^? d]ivative laws :i* are nei!r laws ( causation nor h be5 resolv$ into ! laws ( causation on :i* !y dep5d1 x c possess no high] degree ( evid5ce ?an belongs to an empirical law4 #d4 ,?is conclusion w be confirm$ by ! consid]ation ( "o great defici5cy1 :i* precludes ! application to ! ultimate uni=mities ( co-exi/5ce1 ( a sy/em ( rigor\s sci5tific induction1 su* z ! uni=mities 9 ! succession ( ph5om5a h be5 f\nd to admit (4 ,! basis ( su* a sy/em is want+2 !re is no g5]al axiom /&+ 9 ! same relation to ! uni=mities ( co-exi/5ce z ! law ( causation does to ^? ( succession4 ,! ,me?ods ( ,induction applicable to ! asc]ta9m5t ( causes & effects are gr\nd$ on ! pr9ciple t e ?+ :i* has a beg9n+ mu/ h "s cause or o!r2 t among ! circum/ances :i* actually exi/$ at ! "t ( its comm5cem5t1 !re is c]ta9ly "s "o comb9ation1 on :i* ! effect 9 "q is unconditionally consequ5t1 & on ! repetition ( :i* x w\ld c]ta9ly aga9 recur4 ,b 9 an inquiry :e!r "s k9d 7z cr[7 univ]sally possesses a c]ta9 prop]ty 7z blackness71 !re is no room = any assumption analog\s to ?is4 ,we h no previ\s c]ta9ty t ! prop]ty mu/ h some?+ :i* con/antly co-exi/s ) x2 mu/ h an inv>iable co-exi/5t1 9 ! same mann] z an ev5t mu/ h an inv>iable antec$5t4 ,:5 we feel pa91 we mu/ be 9 "s circum/ances "u :i*1 if exactly repeat$1 we %\ld always feel pa94 ,b :5 we are consci\s ( blackness1 x does n foll[ t !re is some?+ else pres5t ( :i* blackness is a con/ant accompanim5t4 ,!re is1 !re=e1 no room = elim9ation2 no me?od ( ,agreem5t or ,diff]5ce1 or ( ,concomitant ,v>iations 7:i* is b a modification ei!r ( ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t or ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce74 ,we c n conclude t ! blackness we see 9 cr[s mu/ be an inv>iable prop]ty ( cr[s m]ely because !re is no?+ else pres5t ( :i* x c be an inv>iable prop]ty4 ,we !re=e inquire into ! tru? ( a proposition l 8,all cr[s are black10 "u ! same disadvantage z if1 9 our inquiries into causation1 we 7 compell$ to let 91 z "o ( ! possibilities1 t ! effect may 9 t p>ticul> in/ance h aris5 )\t any cause at all4 ,to ov]look ?is gr& di/9ction 01 z x seems to me1 ! capital error 9 ,bacon's view ( inductive philosophy4 ,! pr9ciple ( elim9ation1 t great logical in/rum5t :i* he _h ! imm5se m]it ( fir/ br++ into g5]al use1 he deem$ applicable 9 ! same s5se1 & 9 z unqualifi$ a mann]1 to ! inve/igation ( ! co-exi/5ces1 z to t ( ! successions ( ph5om5a4 ,he seems to h ?\ght t z e ev5t has a cause1 or inv>iable antec$5t1 s e prop]ty ( an object has an inv>iable co-exi/5t1 :i* he call$ its =m2 & ! examples he *iefly select$ = ! application & illu/ration ( 8 me?od1 7 inquiries into su* =ms2 attempts to det]m9e 9 :at else all ^? objects resembl$1 :i* agre$ 9 "s "o g5]al prop]ty1 z h>dness or s(tness1 dryness or moi/ness1 heat or coldness4 ,su* inquiries c\ld lead to no result4 ,! objects seldom h any su* circum/ances 9 common4 ,!y usually agree 9 ! "o po9t inquir$ into1 & 9 no?+ else4 ,a great proportion ( ! prop]ties :i*1 s f> z we c conjecture1 are ! likelie/ to be really ultimate1 w\ld seem to be inh]5tly prop]ties ( _m diff]5t k9ds ( ?+s n alli$ 9 any o!r respect4 ,& z = ! prop]ties :i*1 be+ effects ( causes1 we are able to give "s acc\nt (1 !y h g5]ally no?+ to d ) ! ultimate resemblances or div]sities 9 ! objects !mselves1 b dep5d on "s outw>d circum/ances1 "u ! influ5ce ( :i* any objects :atev] are capable ( manife/+ ^? prop]ties2 z is emphatically ! case ) ^? favorite subjects ( ,bacon's sci5tific inquiries1 hotness & coldness1 z well z ) h>dness & s(tness1 solidity & fluidity1 & _m o!r conspicu\s qualities4 ,9 ! abs5ce1 !n1 ( any univ]sal law ( co-exi/5ce simil> to ! univ]sal law ( causation :i* regulates sequ5ce1 we are ?r[n back ^u ! unsci5tific induction ( ! anci5ts1 p] enum]ationem simplicem1 ubi non rep]itur in/antia contradictoria4 ,! reason we h = believ+ t all cr[s are black1 is simply t we h se5 & he>d ( _m black cr[s1 & nev] "o ( any o!r color4 ,x rema9s to be consid]$ h[ f> ?is evid5ce c rea*1 & h[ we are to measure its /r5g? 9 any giv5 case4 #e4 ,x sometimes happ5s t a m]e *ange 9 ! mode ( v]bally enunciat+ a "q1 ?\gh no?+ is really add$ to ! mean+ express$1 is ( itself a consid]able /ep t[>d its solution4 ,?is1 ,i ?9k1 happ5s 9 ! pres5t in/ance4 ,! degree ( c]ta9ty ( any g5]alization :i* re/s on no o!r evid5ce ?an ! agreem5t1 s f> z x goes1 ( all pa/ obs]vation1 is b ano!r phrase = ! degree ( improbability t an exception1 if any exi/$1 c\ld h hi!rto rema9$ unobs]v$4 ,! reason = believ+ t all cr[s are black1 is measur$ by ! improbability t cr[s ( any o!r color %\ld h exi/$ to ! pres5t "t )\t our be+ aw>e ( x4 ,let u /ate ! "q 9 ?is la/ mode1 & consid] :at is impli$ 9 ! supposition t !re may be cr[s :i* are n black1 & "u :at conditions we c be ju/ifi$ 9 reg>d+ ?is z incr$ible4 ,if !re really exi/ cr[s :i* are n black1 "o ( two ?+s mu/ be ! fact4 ,ei!r ! circum/ance ( blackness1 9 all cr[s hi!rto obs]v$1 mu/ be1 z x 71 an accid5t1 n connect$ ) any di/9ction ( ,k9d2 or if x be a prop]ty ( ,k9d1 ! cr[s :i* are n black mu/ be a new ,k9d1 a ,k9d hi!rto ov]look$1 ?\gh com+ "u ! same g5]al description by :i* cr[s h hi!rto be5 *>act]iz$4 ,! fir/ supposition w\ld be prov$ true if we 7 to discov] casually a :ite cr[ among black ones1 or if x 7 f\nd t black cr[s sometimes turn :ite4 ,! second w\ld be %[n to be ! fact if 9 ,au/ralia or ,c5tral ,africa a species or a race ( :ite or gray cr[s 7 f\nd to exi/4 #f4 ,! =m] ( ^! suppositions necess>ily implies t ! color is an effect ( causation4 ,if blackness1 9 ! cr[s 9 :i* x has be5 obs]v$1 be n a prop]ty ( ,k9d1 b c be pres5t or abs5t )\t any diff]5ce g5]ally 9 ! prop]ties ( ! object1 !n x is n an ultimate fact 9 ! individuals !mselves1 b is c]ta9ly dep5d5t on a cause4 ,!re are1 no d\bt1 _m prop]ties :i* v>y f individual to individual ( ! same ,k9d1 ev5 ! same infima species1 or l[e/ ,k9d4 ,"s fl[]s may be ei!r :ite or r$1 )\t diff]+ 9 any o!r respect4 ,b ^! prop]ties are n ultimate2 !y dep5d on causes4 ,s f> z ! prop]ties ( a ?+ belong to its own nature1 & d n arise f "s cause extr9sic to x1 !y are always ! same 9 ! same ,k9d4 ,take1 = in/ance1 all simple sub/ances & elem5t>y p[]s2 ! only ?+s ( :i* we are c]ta9 t "s at lea/ ( _! prop]ties are really ultimate4 ,color is g5]ally e/eem$ ! mo/ v>iable ( all prop]ties3 yet we d n f9d t sulphur is sometimes yell[ & sometimes :ite1 or t x v>ies 9 color at all1 except s f> z color is ! effect ( "s extr9sic cause1 z ( ! sort ( light ?r[n ^u x1 ! me*anical arrangem5t ( ! p>ticles 7z aft] fusion71 etc4 ,we d n f9d t iron is sometimes fluid & sometimes solid at ! same temp]ature2 gold sometimes malleable & sometimes brittle2 t hydrog5 w sometimes comb9e ) oxyg5 & sometimes n2 or ! l4 ,if f simple sub/ances we pass to any ( _! def9ite comp\nds1 z wat]1 lime1 or sulphuric acid1 !re is ! same con/ancy 9 _! prop]ties4 ,:5 prop]ties v>y f individual to individual1 x is ei!r 9 ! case ( miscellane\s aggregations1 su* z atmosph]ic air or rock1 compos$ ( het]og5e\s sub/ances1 & n con/itut+ or belong+ to any real ,k9d17#aia7 or x is 9 ! case ( organic be+s4 ,9 !m1 inde$1 !re is v>iability 9 a high degree4 ,animals ( ! same species & race1 human be+s ( ! same age1 sex1 & c\ntry1 w be mo/ diff]5t1 = example1 9 face & figure4 ,b organiz$ be+s 7f ! extreme complication ( ! laws by :i* !y are regulat$7 be+ m em95tly modifiable1 t is1 liable to be influ5c$ by a great] numb] & v>iety ( causes1 ?an any o!r ph5om5a :atev]2 hav+ also !mselves _h a beg9n+1 & !re=e a cause2 !re is reason to believe t none ( _! prop]ties are ultimate1 b all ( !m d]ivative1 & produc$ by causation4 ,& ! presumption is confirm$1 by ! fact t ! prop]ties :i* v>y f "o individual to ano!r1 also g5]ally v>y m or less at diff]5t times 9 ! same individual2 :i* v>iation1 l any o!r ev5t1 supposes a cause1 & implies1 consequ5tly1 t ! prop]ties are n indep5d5t ( causation4 ,if1 !re=e1 blackness be m]ely accid5tal 9 cr[s1 & capable ( v>y+ :ile ! ,k9d rema9s ! same1 its pres5ce or abs5ce is d\btless no ultimate fact1 b ! effect ( "s unkn[n cause3 & 9 t case ! univ]sality ( ! exp]i5ce t all cr[s are black is suffici5t pro( ( a common cause1 & e/abli%es ! g5]alization z an empirical law4 ,s9ce !re are innum]able in/ances 9 ! affirmative1 & hi!rto none at all 9 ! negative1 ! causes on :i* ! prop]ty dep5ds mu/ exi/ ev]y:]e 9 ! limits ( ! obs]vations :i* h be5 made2 & ! proposition may be receiv$ z univ]sal )9 ^? limits1 & ) ! all[able degree ( ext5sion to adjac5t cases4 #g4 ,if1 9 ! second place1 ! prop]ty1 9 ! in/ances 9 :i* x has be5 obs]v$1 is n an effect ( causation1 x is a prop]ty ( ,k9d2 & 9 t case ! g5]alization c only be set aside by ! discov]y ( a new ,k9d ( cr[4 ,t1 h[ev]1 a peculi> ,k9d n hi!rto discov]$ %\ld exi/ 9 nature1 is a supposition s (t5 realiz$ t x c n be consid]$ at all improbable4 ,we h no?+ to au?orize u 9 attempt+ to limit ! ,k9ds ( ?+s :i* exi/ 9 nature4 ,! only unlikelihood w\ld be t a new ,k9d %\ld be discov]$ 9 localities :i* !re 0 previ\sly reason to believe _h be5 ?or\ghly explor$2 & ev5 ?is improbability dep5ds on ! degree ( conspicu\sness ( ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! newly-discov]$ ,k9d & all o!rs1 s9ce new k9ds ( m9]als1 plants1 & ev5 animals1 previ\sly ov]look$ or conf\nd$ ) kn[n species1 are /ill cont9ually detect$ 9 ! mo/ frequ5t$ situations4 ,on ?is second gr\nd1 !re=e1 z well z on ! fir/1 ! obs]v$ uni=mity ( co-exi/5ce c only hold good z an empirical law1 )9 ! limits n only ( actual obs]vation1 b ( an obs]vation z accurate z ! nature ( ! case requir$4 ,& h5ce x is t 7z rem>k$ 9 an e>ly *apt] ( ! pres5t book7 we s (t5 give up g5]alizations ( ?is class at ! fir/ summons4 ,if any cr$ible witness /at$ t he _h se5 a :ite cr[1 "u circum/ances :i* made x n incr$ible t x %\ld h escap$ notice previ\sly1 we %\ld give full cr$5ce to ! /atem5t4 ,x appe>s1 !n1 t ! uni=mities :i* obta9 9 ! co-exi/5ce ( ph5om5a--^? :i* we h reason to consid] z ultimate1 no less ?an ^? :i* arise f ! laws ( causes yet undetect$--are entitl$ to reception only z empirical laws2 are n to be presum$ true except )9 ! limits ( "t1 place1 & circum/ance1 9 :i* ! obs]vations 7 made1 or except 9 cases /rictly adjac5t4 #h4 ,we h se5 9 ! la/ *apt] t !re is a po9t ( g5]ality at :i* empirical laws become z c]ta9 z laws ( nature1 or1 r1 at :i* !re is no long] any di/9ction betwe5 empirical laws & laws ( nature4 ,z empirical laws approa* ?is po9t1 9 o!r words1 z !y rise 9 _! degree ( g5]ality1 !y become m c]ta92 _! univ]sality may be m /rongly reli$ on4 ,=1 9 ! fir/ place1 if !y are results ( causation 7:i*1 ev5 9 ! class ( uni=mities treat$ ( 9 ! pres5t *apt]1 we nev] c be c]ta9 t !y are n7 ! m g5]al !y are1 ! great] is prov$ to be ! space ov] :i* ! necess>y collocations prevail1 & )9 :i* no causes exi/ capable ( c\nt]act+ ! unkn[n causes on :i* ! empirical law dep5ds4 ,to say t any ?+ is an inv>iable prop]ty ( "s v limit$ class ( objects1 is to say t x inv>iably accompanies "s v num]\s & complex gr\p ( di/+ui%+ prop]ties2 :i*1 if causation be at all conc]n$ 9 ! matt]1 argues a comb9ation ( _m causes1 & !re=e a great liability to c\nt]action2 :ile ! comp>atively n>r[ range ( ! obs]vations r5d]s x impossible to pr$ict to :at ext5t unkn[n c\nt]act+ causes may be di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t nature4 ,b :5 a g5]alization has be5 f\nd to hold good ( a v l>ge proportion ( all ?+s :atev]1 x is already prov$ t ne>ly all ! causes :i* exi/ 9 nature h no p[] ov] x2 t v few *anges 9 ! comb9ation ( causes c affect x2 s9ce ! great] numb] ( possible comb9ations mu/ h already exi/$ 9 "s "o or o!r ( ! in/ances 9 :i* x has be5 f\nd true4 ,if1 !re=e1 any empirical law is a result ( causation1 ! m g5]al x is1 ! m x may be dep5d$ on4 ,& ev5 if x be no result ( causation1 b an ultimate co-exi/5ce1 ! m g5]al x is1 ! great] am\nt ( exp]i5ce x is d]iv$ f1 & ! great] !re=e is ! probability t if exceptions _h exi/$1 "s w\ld already h pres5t$ !mselves4 ,= ^! reasons1 x requires mu* m evid5ce to e/abli% an exception to "o ( ! m g5]al empirical laws ?an to ! m special ones4 ,we %\ld n h any difficulty 9 believ+ t !re might be a new ,k9d ( cr[2 or a new k9d ( bird resembl+ a cr[ 9 ! prop]ties hi!rto consid]$ di/9ctive ( t ,k9d4 ,b x w\ld require /rong] pro( to conv9ce u ( ! exi/5ce ( a ,k9d ( cr[ hav+ prop]ties at v>iance ) any g5]ally recogniz$ univ]sal prop]ty ( birds2 & a /ill high] degree if ! prop]ties conflict ) any recogniz$ univ]sal prop]ty ( animals4 ,& ?is is con=mable to ! mode ( judgm5t recomm5d$ by ! common s5se & g5]al practice ( mank9d1 :o are m incr$ul\s z to any novelties 9 nature1 accord+ to ! degree ( g5]ality ( ! exp]i5ce :i* ^! novelties seem to contradict4 #i4 ,x is conceivable t ! alleg$ prop]ties might conflict ) "s recogniz$ univ]sal prop]ty ( all matt]4 ,9 t case _! improbability w\ld be at ! highe/1 b w\ld n ev5 !n am\nt to incr$ibility4 ,!re are only two kn[n prop]ties common to all matt]2 9 o!r words1 !re is b "o kn[n uni=mity ( co-exi/5ce ( prop]ties co-ext5sive ) all physical nature1 namely1 t :atev] opposes resi/ance to movem5t gravitates1 or1 z ,pr(essor ,ba9 expresses x1 ,in]tia & ,gravity are co-exi/5t ?r\gh all matt]1 & proportionate 9 _! am\nt4 ,^! prop]ties1 z he truly says1 are n mutually implicat$2 f nei!r ( !m c\ld we1 on gr\nds ( causation1 presume ! o!r4 ,b1 = ?is v reason1 we are nev] c]ta9 t a ,k9d may n be discov]$ possess+ "o ( ! prop]ties )\t ! o!r4 ,! hypo!tical e!r1 if x exi/s1 may be su* a ,k9d4 ,our s5ses c n recognize 9 x ei!r resi/ance or gravity2 b if ! reality ( a resi/+ m$ium %\ld ev5tually be prov$ 7by alt]ation1 = example1 9 ! times ( revolution ( p]iodic comets1 comb9$ ) ! evid5ces af=d$ by ! ph5om5a ( light & heat71 x w\ld be ra% to conclude f ?is alone1 )\t o!r pro(s1 t x mu/ gravitate4 ,= ev5 ! great] g5]alizations1 :i* embrace compreh5sive ,k9ds conta9+ "u !m a great numb] & v>iety ( infim species1 are only empirical laws1 re/+ on induction by simple enum]ation m]ely1 & n on any process ( elim9ation--a process :olly inapplicable to ?is sort ( case4 ,su* g5]alizations1 !re=e1 ought to be gr\nd$ on an exam9ation ( all ! infim species compreh5d$ 9 !m1 & n ( a portion only4 ,we c n conclude 7:]e causation is n conc]n$71 because a proposition is true ( a numb] ( ?+s resembl+ "o ano!r only 9 be+ animals1 t x is !re=e true ( all animals4 ,if1 inde$1 any ?+ be true ( species :i* diff] m f "o ano!r ?an ei!r diff]s f a ?ird1 especially if t ?ird species occupies 9 mo/ ( its kn[n prop]ties a position betwe5 ! two =m]1 !re is "s probability t ! same ?+ w also be true ( t int]m$iate species2 = x is (t51 ?\gh by no means univ]sally1 f\nd1 t !re is a sort ( p>allelism 9 ! prop]ties ( diff]5t ,k9ds1 & t _! degree ( unlik5ess 9 "o respect be>s "s proportion to _! unlik5ess 9 o!rs4 ,we see ?is p>allelism 9 ! prop]ties ( ! diff]5t metals2 9 ^? ( sulphur1 phosphorus1 & c>bon2 ( *lor9e1 iod9e1 & brom9e2 9 ! natural ord]s ( plants & animals1 etc4 ,b !re are innum]able anomalies & exceptions to ?is sort ( con=mity2 if inde$ ! con=mity itself be any ?+ b an anomaly & an exception 9 nature4 ,univ]sal propositions1 !re=e1 respect+ ! prop]ties ( sup]ior ,k9ds1 unless gr\nd$ on prov$ or presum$ connection by causation1 ought n to be haz>d$ except aft] sep>ately exam9+ e kn[n sub-k9d includ$ 9 ! l>g] ,k9d4 ,& ev5 !n su* g5]alizations mu/ be held 9 read9ess to be giv5 up on ! occurr5ce ( "s new anomaly1 :i*1 :5 ! uni=mity is n d]iv$ f causation1 c nev]1 ev5 9 ! case ( ! mo/ g5]al ( ^! empirical laws1 be consid]$ v improbable4 ,?us1 all ! univ]sal propositions :i* x has be5 attempt$ to lay d[n respect+ simple sub/ances1 or conc]n+ any ( ! classes :i* h be5 =m$ among simple sub/ances 7& ! attempt has be5 (t5 made71 h1 ) ! progress ( exp]i5ce1 ei!r fad$ into inanity1 or be5 prov$ to be errone\s2 & ea* ,k9d ( simple sub/ance rema9s1 ) its own collection ( prop]ties ap>t f ! re/1 sav+ a c]ta9 p>allelism ) a few o!r ,k9ds1 ! mo/ simil> to itself4 ,9 organiz$ be+s1 inde$1 !re are abundance ( propositions asc]ta9$ to be univ]sally true ( sup]ior g5]a1 to _m ( :i* ! discov]y h]eaft] ( any exceptions mu/ be reg>d$ z extremely improbable4 ,b ^!1 z already obs]v$1 are1 we h e reason to believe1 prop]ties dep5d5t on causation47#aib7 ,uni=mities ( co-exi/5ce1 !n1 n only :5 !y are consequ5ces ( laws ( succession1 b also :5 !y are ultimate tru?s1 mu/ be rank$1 = ! purpose ( logic1 among empirical laws2 & are am5able 9 e respect to ! same rules ) ^? unresolv$ uni=mities :i* are kn[n to be dep5d5t on causation47#aic7 ,*apt] ,,xxiii4 ,( ,approximate ,g5]alizations1 ,& ,probable ,evid5ce4 #a4 ,9 our inquiries into ! nature ( ! inductive process1 we mu/ n conf9e our notice to su* g5]alizations f exp]i5ce z pr(ess to be univ]sally true4 ,!re is a class ( inductive tru?s av[$ly n univ]sal2 9 :i* x is n pret5d$ t ! pr$icate is always true ( ! subject2 b ! value ( :i*1 z g5]alizations1 is nev]!less extremely great4 ,an important portion ( ! field ( inductive k does n consi/ ( univ]sal tru?s1 b ( approximations to su* tru?s2 & :5 a conclusion is said to re/ on probable evid5ce1 ! premises x is drawn f are usually g5]alizations ( ?is sort4 ,z e c]ta9 inf]5ce respect+ a p>ticul> case implies t !re is gr\nd = a g5]al proposition ( ! =m1 e ,a is ,b2 s does e probable inf]5ce suppose t !re is gr\nd = a proposition ( ! =m1 ,mo/ ,a are ,b2 & ! degree ( probability ( ! inf]5ce 9 an av]age case w dep5d on ! proportion betwe5 ! numb] ( in/ances exi/+ 9 nature :i* accord ) ! g5]alization1 & ! numb] ( ^? :i* conflict ) x4 #b4 ,propositions 9 ! =m1 ,mo/ ,a are ,b1 are ( a v diff]5t degree ( importance 9 sci5ce1 & 9 ! practice ( life4 ,to ! sci5tific inquir] !y are valuable *iefly z mat]ials =1 & /eps t[>d univ]sal tru?s4 ,! discov]y ( ^! is ! prop] end ( sci5ce2 its "w is n done if x /ops at ! proposition t a majority ( ,a are ,b1 )\t circumscrib+ t majority by "s common "*1 fitt$ to di/+ui% !m f ! m9ority4 ,indep5d5tly ( ! inf]ior precision ( su* imp]fect g5]alizations1 & ! inf]ior assurance ) :i* !y c be appli$ to individual cases1 x is pla9 t1 comp>$ ) exact g5]alizations1 !y are almo/ useless z means ( discov]+ ult]ior tru?s by way ( d$uction4 ,we may1 x is true1 by comb9+ ! proposition ,mo/ ,a are ,b1 ) a univ]sal proposition1 ,e ,b is ,c1 arrive at ! conclusion t ,mo/ ,a are ,c4 ,b :5 a second proposition ( ! approximate k9d is introduc$--or ev5 :5 !re is b "o1 if t "o be ! major premise--no?+ c1 9 g5]al1 be positively conclud$4 ,:5 ! major is ,mo/ ,b are ,d1 !n1 ev5 if ! m9or be ,e ,a is ,b1 we c n inf] t mo/ ,a are ,d1 or ) any c]ta9ty t ev5 "s ,a are ,d4 ,?\gh ! majority ( ! class ,b h ! attribute signifi$ by ,d1 ! :ole ( ! sub-class ,a may belong to ! m9ority47#aid7 ,?\gh s little use c be made1 9 sci5ce1 ( approximate g5]alizations1 except z a /age on ! road to some?+ bett]1 = practical guidance !y are (t5 all we h to rely on4 ,ev5 :5 sci5ce has really det]m9$ ! univ]sal laws ( any ph5om5on1 n only are ^? laws g5]ally too mu* encumb]$ ) conditions to be adapt$ = ev]yday use1 b ! cases :i* pres5t !mselves 9 life are too complicat$1 & our decisions require to be tak5 too rapidly1 to admit ( wait+ till ! exi/5ce ( a ph5om5on c be prov$ by :at h be5 sci5tifically asc]ta9$ to be univ]sal m>ks ( x4 ,to be indecisive & reluctant to act1 because we h n evid5ce ( a p]fectly conclusive "* to act on1 is a defect sometimes incid5t to sci5tific m9ds1 b :i*1 :]ev] x exi/s1 r5d]s !m unfit = practical em]g5cies4 ,if we w\ld succe$ 9 action1 we mu/ judge by indications :i*1 ?\gh !y d n g5]ally mislead u1 sometimes d1 & mu/ make up1 z f> z possible1 = ! incomplete conclusiv5ess ( any "o indication1 by obta9+ o!rs to corroborate x4 ,! pr9ciples ( induction applicable to approximate g5]alization are !re=e a n less important subject ( inquiry ?an ! rules = ! inve/igation ( univ]sal tru?s2 & might reasonably be expect$ to deta9 u almo/ z long1 7 x n t ^! pr9ciples are m]e coroll>ies f ^? :i* h be5 already treat$ (4 #c4 ,!re are two sorts ( cases 9 :i* we are =c$ to guide ourselves by g5]alizations ( ! imp]fect =m1 ,mo/ ,a are ,b4 ,! fir/ is1 :5 we h no o!rs2 :5 we h n be5 able to c>ry our inve/igation ( ! laws ( ! ph5om5a any fur!r2 z 9 ! foll[+ propositions--,mo/ d>k-ey$ p]sons h d>k hair2 ,mo/ spr+s conta9 m9]al sub/ances2 ,mo/ /ratifi$ =mations conta9 fossils4 ,! importance ( ?is class ( g5]alizations is n v great2 =1 ?\gh x frequ5tly happ5s t we see no reason :y t :i* is true ( mo/ individuals ( a class is n true ( ! rema9d]1 nor are able to br+ ! =m] "u any g5]al description :i* c di/+ui% !m f ! latt]1 yet if we are will+ to be satisfi$ ) propositions ( a less degree ( g5]ality1 & to break d[n ! class ,a into sub-classes1 we may g5]ally obta9 a collection ( propositions exactly true4 ,we d n "k :y mo/ wood is light] ?an wat]1 nor c we po9t out any g5]al prop]ty :i* discrim9ates wood t is light] ?an wat] f t :i* is heavi]4 ,b we "k exactly :at species are ! "o & :at ! o!r4 ,& if we meet ) a specim5 n con=mable to any kn[n species 7! only case 9 :i* our previ\s k af=ds no o!r guidance ?an ! approximate g5]alization71 we c g5]ally make a specific exp]im5t1 :i* is a sur] res\rce4 ,x (t5 happ5s1 h[ev]1 t ! proposition1 ,mo/ ,a are ,b1 is n ! ultimatum ( our sci5tific atta9m5ts1 ?\gh ! k we possess beyond x c n conv5i5tly be br\ght to be> ^u ! p>ticul> in/ance4 ,we may "k well en\gh :at circum/ances di/+ui% ! portion ( ,a :i* has ! attribute ,b f ! portion :i* has x n1 b may h no means1 or may n h "t1 to exam9e :e!r ^? *>act]i/ic circum/ances exi/ or n 9 ! individual case4 ,?is is ! situation we are g5]ally 9 :5 ! inquiry is ( ! k9d call$ moral1 t is1 ( ! k9d :i* has 9 view to pr$ict human actions4 ,to enable u to affirm any ?+ univ]sally conc]n+ ! actions ( classes ( human be+s1 ! classification mu/ be gr\nd$ on ! circum/ances ( _! m5tal culture & habits1 :i* 9 an individual case are seldom exactly kn[n2 & classes gr\nd$ on ^! di/9ctions w\ld nev] precisely accord ) ^? into :i* mank9d are divid$ = social purposes4 ,all propositions :i* c be fram$ respect+ ! actions ( human be+s z ord9>ily classifi$1 or z classifi$ accord+ to any k9d ( outw>d indications1 are m]ely approximate4 ,we c only say1 ,mo/ p]sons ( a p>ticul> age1 pr(ession1 c\ntry1 or rank 9 society1 h su* & su* qualities2 or1 ,mo/ p]sons1 :5 plac$ 9 c]ta9 circum/ances1 act 9 su* & su* a way4 ,n t we d n (t5 "k well en\gh on :at causes ! qualities dep5d1 or :at sort ( p]sons !y are :o act 9 t p>ticul> way2 b we h seldom ! means ( kn[+ :e!r any individual p]son has be5 "u ! influ5ce ( ^? causes1 or is a p]son ( t p>ticul> sort4 ,we c\ld replace ! approximate g5]alizations by propositions univ]sally true2 b ^! w\ld h>dly ev] be capable ( be+ appli$ to practice4 ,we %\ld be sure ( our majors1 b we %\ld n be able to get m9ors to fit2 we are =c$1 !re=e1 to draw our conclusions f co>s] & m fallible indications4 #d4 ,proce$+ n[ to consid] :at is to be reg>d$ z suffici5t evid5ce ( an approximate g5]alization1 we c h no difficulty 9 at once recogniz+ t1 :5 admissible at all1 x is admissible only z an empirical law4 ,propositions ( ! =m1 ,e ,a is ,b1 are n necess>ily laws ( causation1 or ultimate uni=mities ( co-exi/5ce2 propositions l ,mo/ ,a are ,b1 c n be s4 ,propositions hi!rto f\nd true 9 e obs]v$ in/ance may yet be no necess>y consequ5ce ( laws ( causation1 or ( ultimate uni=mities1 & unless !y are s1 may1 = aught we "k1 be false beyond ! limits ( actual obs]vation2 /ill m evid5tly mu/ ?is be ! case ) propositions :i* are only true 9 a m]e majority ( ! obs]v$ in/ances4 ,!re is "s diff]5ce1 h[ev]1 9 ! degree ( c]ta9ty ( ! proposition1 ,mo/ ,a are ,b1 accord+ z t approximate g5]alization composes ! :ole ( our k ( ! subject1 or n4 ,suppose1 fir/1 t ! =m] is ! case4 ,we "k only t mo/ ,a are ,b1 n :y !y are s1 nor 9 :at respect ^? :i* are diff] f ^? :i* are n4 ,h[1 !n1 did we le>n t mo/ ,a are ,b8 ,precisely 9 ! mann] 9 :i* we %\ld h le>n$1 _h su* happ5$ to be ! fact t all ,a are ,b4 ,we collect$ a numb] ( in/ances suffici5t to elim9ate *ance1 &1 hav+ done s1 comp>$ ! numb] ( in/ances 9 ! affirmative ) ! numb] 9 ! negative4 ,! result1 l o!r unresolv$ d]ivative laws1 c be reli$ on solely )9 ! limits n only ( place & "t1 b also ( circum/ance1 "u :i* its tru? has be5 actually obs]v$2 =1 z we are suppos$ to be ignorant ( ! causes :i* make ! proposition true1 we c n tell 9 :at mann] any new circum/ance might p]haps affect x4 ,! proposition1 ,mo/ judges are inaccessible to bribes1 w\ld probably be f\nd true ( ,engli%m51 ,fr5*m51 ,g]mans1 ,nor? ,am]icans1 & s =?2 b if on ?is evid5ce alone we ext5d$ ! ass]tion to ,ori5tals1 we %\ld /ep beyond ! limits1 n only ( place b ( circum/ance1 )9 :i* ! fact _h be5 obs]v$1 & %\ld let 9 possibilities ( ! abs5ce ( ! det]m9+ causes1 or ! pres5ce ( c\nt]act+ ones1 :i* might be fatal to ! approximate g5]alization4 ,9 ! case :]e ! approximate proposition is n ! ultimatum ( our sci5tific k1 b only ! mo/ available =m ( x = practical guidance2 :]e we "k1 n only t mo/ ,a h ! attribute ,b1 b also ! causes ( ,b1 or "s prop]ties by :i* ! portion ( ,a :i* has t attribute is di/+ui%$ f ! portion :i* has x n1 we are r m favorably situat$ ?an 9 ! prec$+ case4 ,= we h n[ a d\ble mode ( asc]ta9+ :e!r x be true t mo/ ,a are ,b2 ! direct mode1 z be=e1 & an indirect "o1 t ( exam9+ :e!r ! proposition admits ( be+ d$uc$ f ! kn[n cause1 or f any kn[n crit]ion1 ( ,b4 ,let ! "q1 = example1 be :e!r mo/ ,scot*m5 c read8 ,we may n h obs]v$1 or receiv$ ! te/imony ( o!rs respect+1 a suffici5t numb] & v>iety ( ,scot*m5 to asc]ta9 ?is fact2 b :5 we consid] t ! cause ( be+ able to read is ! hav+ be5 taught x1 ano!r mode ( det]m9+ ! "q pres5ts itself1 namely1 by inquir+ :e!r mo/ ,scot*m5 h be5 s5t to s*ools :]e read+ is effectually taught4 ,( ^! two modes1 sometimes "o & sometimes ! o!r is ! m available4 ,9 "s cases1 ! frequ5cy ( ! effect is ! m accessible to t ext5sive & v>i$ obs]vation :i* is indisp5sable to ! e/abli%m5t ( an empirical law2 at o!r times1 ! frequ5cy ( ! causes1 or ( "s collat]al indications4 ,x commonly happ5s t nei!r is susceptible ( s satisfactory an induction z c\ld be desir$1 & t ! gr\nds on :i* ! conclusion is receiv$ are comp\nd$ ( bo?4 ,?us a p]son may believe t mo/ ,scot*m5 c read1 because1 s f> z 8 in=mation ext5ds1 mo/ ,scot*m5 h be5 s5t to s*ool1 & mo/ ,scot* s*ools tea* read+ effectually2 & also because mo/ ( ! ,scot*m5 :om he has kn[n or he>d ( c\ld read2 ?\gh nei!r ( ^! two sets ( obs]vations may by itself fulfill ! necess>y conditions ( ext5t & v>iety4 ,al?\gh ! approximate g5]alization may 9 mo/ cases be indisp5sable = our guidance1 ev5 :5 we "k ! cause1 or "s c]ta9 m>k1 ( ! attribute pr$icat$1 x ne$s h>dly be obs]v$ t we may always replace ! unc]ta9 indication by a c]ta9 "o1 9 any case 9 :i* we c actually recognize ! exi/5ce ( ! cause or m>k4 ,= example1 an ass]tion is made by a witness1 & ! "q is :e!r to believe x4 ,if we d n look to any ( ! individual circum/ances ( ! case1 we h no?+ to direct u b ! approximate g5]alization1 t tru? is m common ?an falsehood1 or1 9 o!r words1 t mo/ p]sons1 on mo/ occasions1 speak tru?4 ,b if we consid] 9 :at circum/ances ! cases :]e tru? is spok5 diff] f ^? 9 :i* x is n1 we f9d1 = in/ance1 ! foll[+3 ! witness's be+ an hone/ p]son or n2 8 be+ an accurate obs]v] or n2 8 hav+ an int]e/ to s]ve 9 ! matt] or n4 ,n[1 n only may we be able to obta9 o!r approximate g5]alizations respect+ ! degree ( frequ5cy ( ^! v>i\s possibilities1 b we may "k :i* ( !m is positively realiz$ 9 ! individual case4 ,t ! witness has or has n an int]e/ to s]ve1 we p]haps "k directly2 & ! o!r two po9ts indirectly1 by means ( m>ks2 z1 = example1 f 8 conduct on "s =m] occasion2 or f 8 reputation1 :i*1 ?\gh a v unc]ta9 m>k1 af=ds an approximate g5]alization 7z1 = in/ance1 ,mo/ p]sons :o are believ$ to be hone/ by ^? ) :om !y h _h frequ5t deal+s1 are really s71 :i* approa*es ne>] to a univ]sal tru? ?an ! approximate g5]al proposition ) :i* we set out1 viz41 ,mo/ p]sons on mo/ occasions speak tru?4 ,z x seems unnecess>y to dwell fur!r on ! "q ( ! evid5ce ( approximate g5]alizations1 we %all proce$ to a n less important topic1 t ( ! cautions to be obs]v$ 9 argu+ f ^! incompletely univ]sal propositions to p>ticul> cases4 #e4 ,s f> z reg>ds ! direct application ( an approximate g5]alization to an individual in/ance1 ?is "q pres5ts no difficulty4 ,if ! proposition1 ,mo/ ,a are ,b1 has be5 e/abli%$1 by a suffici5t induction1 z an empirical law1 we may conclude t any p>ticul> ,a is ,b ) a probability proportion$ to ! prepond]ance ( ! numb] ( affirmative in/ances ov] ! numb] ( exceptions4 ,if x has be5 f\nd practicable to atta9 num]ical precision 9 ! data1 a correspond+ degree ( precision may be giv5 to ! evaluation ( ! *ances ( error 9 ! conclusion4 ,if x c be e/abli%$ z an empirical law t n9e out ( e t5 ,a are ,b1 !re w be "o *ance 9 t5 ( error 9 assum+ t any ,a1 n individually kn[n to u1 is a ,b3 b ?is ( c\rse holds only )9 ! limits ( "t1 place1 & circum/ance1 embrac$ 9 ! obs]vations1 & !re=e c n be c\nt$ on = any sub-class or v>iety ( ,a 7or = ,a 9 any set ( ext]nal circum/ances7 :i* 7 n includ$ 9 ! av]age4 ,x mu/ be add$1 t we c guide ourselves by ! proposition1 ,n9e out ( e t5 ,a are ,b1 only 9 cases ( :i* we "k no?+ except t !y fall )9 ! class ,a4 ,= if we "k1 ( any p>ticul> in/ances i1 n only t x falls "u ,a1 b to :at species or v>iety ( ,a x belongs1 we %all g5]ally err 9 apply+ to i ! av]age /ruck = ! :ole g5us1 f :i* ! av]age correspond+ to t species alone w\ld1 9 all probability1 mat]ially diff]4 ,& s if i1 in/ead ( be+ a p>ticul> sort ( in/ance1 is an in/ance kn[n to be "u ! influ5ce ( a p>ticul> set ( circum/ances1 ! presumption drawn f ! num]ical proportions 9 ! :ole g5us w\ld probably1 9 su* a case1 only mislead4 ,a g5]al av]age %\ld only be appli$ to cases :i* are nei!r kn[n1 nor c be presum$1 to be o!r ?an av]age cases4 ,su* av]ages1 !re=e1 are commonly ( little use = ! practical guidance ( any affairs b ^? :i* conc]n l>ge numb]s4 ,tables ( ! *ances ( life are useful to insurance (fices1 b !y g a v little way t[>d in=m+ any "o ( ! *ances ( 8 own life1 or any o!r life 9 :i* he is int]e/$1 s9ce almo/ e life is ei!r bett] or worse ?an ! av]age4 ,su* av]ages c only be consid]$ z supply+ ! fir/ t]m 9 a s]ies ( approximations2 ! subsequ5t t]ms proce$+ on an appreciation ( ! circum/ances belong+ to ! p>ticul> case4 #f4 ,f ! application ( a s+le approximate g5]alization to individual cases1 we proce$ to ! application ( two or m ( !m toge!r to ! same case4 ,:5 a judgm5t appli$ to an individual in/ance is gr\nd$ on two approximate g5]alizations tak5 9 conjunction1 ! propositions may coop]ate t[>d ! result 9 two diff]5t ways4 ,9 ! "o1 ea* proposition is sep>ately applicable to ! case 9 h&1 & our object 9 comb9+ !m is to give to ! conclusion 9 t p>ticul> case ! d\ble probability aris+ f ! two propositions sep>ately4 ,?is may be call$ jo9+ two probabilities by way ( ,addition2 & ! result is a probability great] ?an ei!r4 ,! o!r mode is1 :5 only "o ( ! propositions is directly applicable to ! case1 ! second be+ only applicable to x by virtue ( ! application ( ! fir/4 ,?is is jo9+ two probabilities by way ( ,ratioc9ation or ,d$uction2 ! result ( :i* is a less probability ?an ei!r4 ,! type ( ! fir/ argum5t is1 ,mo/ ,a are ,b2 mo/ ,c are ,b2 ?is ?+ is bo? an ,a & a ,c2 !re=e x is probably a ,b4 ,! type ( ! second is1 ,mo/ ,a are ,b2 mo/ ,c are ,a2 ?is is a ,c2 !re=e x is probably an ,a1 !re=e x is probably a ,b4 ,! fir/ is exemplifi$ :5 we prove a fact by ! te/imony ( two unconnect$ witnesses2 ! second1 :5 we adduce only ! te/imony ( "o witness t he has he>d ! ?+ ass]t$ by ano!r4 ,or aga91 9 ! fir/ mode x may be argu$ t ! accus$ committ$ ! crime1 because he conceal$ himself1 & because 8 clo!s 7 /a9$ ) blood2 9 ! second1 t he committ$ x because he wa%$ or de/roy$ 8 clo!s1 :i* is suppos$ to r5d] x probable t !y 7 /a9$ ) blood4 ,in/ead ( only two l9ks1 z 9 ^! in/ances1 we may suppose *a9s ( any l5g?4 ,a *a9 ( ! =m] k9d 0 t]m$ by ,b5?am7#aie7 a self-corroborative *a9 ( evid5ce2 ! second1 a self-infirmative *a94 ,:5 approximate g5]alizations are jo9$ by way ( addition1 we may d$uce f ! !ory ( probabilities laid d[n 9 a =m] *apt]1 9 :at mann] ea* ( !m adds to ! probability ( a conclusion :i* has ! w>rant ( !m all4 ,if1 on an av]age1 two ( e ?ree ,z are ,bs1 & ?ree ( e f\r ,cs are ,bs1 ! probability t some?+ :i* is bo? an ,a & a ,c is a ,b1 w be m ?an two 9 ?ree1 or ?an ?ree 9 f\r4 ,( e twelve ?+s :i* are ,z1 all except f\r are ,bs by ! supposition2 & if ! :ole twelve1 & consequ5tly ^? f\r1 h ! *>act]s ( ,c likewise1 ?ree ( ^! w be ,bs on t gr\nd4 ,!re=e1 out ( twelve :i* are bo? ,z & ,cs1 elev5 are ,bs4 ,to /ate ! argum5t 9 ano!r way2 a ?+ :i* is bo? an ,a & a ,c1 b :i* is n a ,b1 is f\nd 9 only "o ( ?ree sections ( ! class ,a1 & 9 only "o ( f\r sections ( ! class ,c2 b ?is f\r? ( ,c be+ spread ov] ! :ole ( ,a indiscrim9ately1 only "o-?ird "p ( x 7or "o-twelf? ( ! :ole numb]7 belongs to ! ?ird section ( ,a2 !re=e a ?+ :i* is n a ,b occurs only once1 among twelve ?+s :i* are bo? ,z & ,cs4 ,! argum5t w\ld1 9 ! language ( ! doctr9e ( *ances1 be ?us express$3 ! *ance t an ,a is n a ,b is 1 ! *ance t a ,c is n a ,b is 2 h5ce if ! ?+ be bo? an ,a & a ,c1 ! *ance is ( 47#aif7 ,9 ?is computation x is ( c\rse suppos$ t ! probabilities aris+ f ,a & ,c are indep5d5t ( ea* o!r4 ,!re mu/ n be any su* connection betwe5 ,a & ,c1 t :5 a ?+ belongs to ! "o class x w !re=e belong to ! o!r1 or ev5 h a great] *ance ( do+ s4 ,o!rwise ! n-,bs :i* are ,cs may be1 mo/ or ev5 all ( !m1 id5tical ) ! n-,bs :i* are ,z2 9 :i* la/ case ! probability aris+ f ,a & ,c toge!r w be no great] ?an t aris+ f ,a alone4 ,:5 approximate g5]alizations are jo9$ toge!r 9 ! o!r mode1 t ( d$uction1 ! degree ( probability ( ! inf]5ce1 in/ead ( increas+1 dim9i%es at ea* /ep4 ,f two su* premises z ,mo/ ,a are ,b1 ,mo/ ,b are ,c1 we c n ) c]ta9ty conclude t ev5 a s+le ,a is ,c2 = ! :ole ( ! portion ( ,a :i* 9 any way falls "u ,b1 may p]haps be compris$ 9 ! exceptional "p ( x4 ,/ill1 ! two propositions 9 "q af=d an appreciable probability t any giv5 ,a is ,c1 provid$ ! av]age on :i* ! second proposition is gr\nd$ 0 tak5 fairly ) ref]5ce to ! fir/2 provid$ ! proposition1 ,mo/ ,b are ,c1 0 arriv$ at 9 a mann] leav+ no suspicion t ! probability aris+ f x is o!rwise ?an fairly di/ribut$ ov] ! section ( ,b :i* belongs to ,a4 ,= ?\gh ! in/ances :i* are ,a may be all 9 ! m9ority1 !y may1 also1 be all 9 ! majority2 & ! "o possibility is to be set aga9/ ! o!r4 ,on ! :ole1 ! probability aris+ f ! two propositions tak5 toge!r1 w be correctly measur$ by ! probability aris+ f ! "o1 abat$ 9 ! ratio ( t aris+ f ! o!r4 ,if n9e out ( t5 ,sw$es h light hair1 & eight out ( n9e inhabitants ( ,/ockholm are ,sw$es1 ! probability aris+ f ^! two propositions1 t any giv5 inhabitant ( ,/ockholm is light-hair$1 w am\nt to eight 9 t52 ?\gh x is rigor\sly possible t ! :ole ,sw$i% population ( ,/ockholm might belong to t t5? section ( ! p ( ,sw$5 :o are an exception to ! re/4 ,if ! premises are kn[n to be true n ( a b>e majority1 b ( ne>ly ! :ole1 ( _! respective subjects1 we may g on jo9+ "o su* proposition to ano!r = sev]al /eps1 be=e we rea* a conclusion n presumably true ev5 ( a majority4 ,! error ( ! conclusion w am\nt to ! aggregate ( ! errors ( all ! premises4 ,let ! proposition1 mo/ ,a are ,b1 be true ( n9e 9 t52 ,mo/ ,b are ,c1 ( eight 9 n9e2 !n n only w "o ,a 9 t5 n be ,c1 because n ,b1 b ev5 ( ! n9e-t5?s :i* are ,b1 only eight-n9?s w be ,c2 t is1 ! cases ( ,a :i* are ,c w be only ( 1 or f\r-fif?s4 ,let u n[ add ,mo/ ,c are ,d1 & suppose ?is to be true ( sev5 cases out ( eight2 ! proportion ( ,a :i* is ,d w be only ( ( 1 or 4 ,?us ! probability progressively dw9dles4 ,! exp]i5ce1 h[ev]1 on :i* our approximate g5]alizations are gr\nd$1 has s r>ely be5 subject$ to1 or admits (1 accurate num]ical e/imation1 t we c n 9 g5]al apply any measurem5t to ! dim9ution ( probability :i* takes place at ea* illation2 b mu/ be cont5t ) rememb]+ t x does dim9i% at e /ep1 & t unless ! premises approa* v ne>ly inde$ to be+ univ]sally true1 ! conclusion aft] a v few /eps is wor? no?+4 ,a he>say ( a he>say1 or an argum5t f presumptive evid5ce dep5d+ n on imm$iate m>ks b on m>ks ( m>ks1 is wor?less at a v few removes f ! fir/ /age4 #g4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 two cases 9 :i* reason+s dep5d+ on approximate g5]alizations may be c>ri$ to any l5g? we please ) z mu* assurance1 & are z /rictly sci5tific1 z if !y 7 compos$ ( univ]sal laws ( nature4 ,b ^! cases are exceptions ( ! sort :i* are curr5tly said to prove ! rule4 ,! approximate g5]alizations are z suitable1 9 ! cases 9 "q1 = purposes ( ratioc9ation1 z if !y 7 complete g5]alizations1 because !y are capable ( be+ trans=m$ into complete g5]alizations exactly equival5t4 ,fir/3 ,if ! approximate g5]alization is ( ! class 9 :i* our reason = /opp+ at ! approximation is n ! impossibility1 b only ! inconv5i5ce1 ( go+ fur!r2 if we are cognizant ( ! "* :i* di/+ui%es ! cases t accord ) ! g5]alization f ^? :i* are exceptions to x2 we may !n sub/itute = ! approximate proposition1 a univ]sal proposition ) a proviso4 ,! proposition1 ,mo/ p]sons :o h uncontroll$ p[] employ x ill1 is a g5]alization ( ?is class1 & may be trans=m$ into ! foll[+3 ,all p]sons :o h uncontroll$ p[] employ x ill1 provid$ !y are n p]sons ( unusual /r5g? ( judgm5t & rectitude ( purpose4 ,! proposition1 c>ry+ ! hypo!sis or proviso ) x1 may !n be dealt ) no long] z an approximate1 b z a univ]sal proposition2 & to :atev] numb] ( /eps ! reason+ may rea*1 ! hypo!sis1 be+ c>ri$ =w>d to ! conclusion1 w exactly indicate h[ f> t conclusion is f be+ applicable univ]sally4 ,if 9 ! c\rse ( ! argum5t o!r approximate g5]alizations are introduc$1 ea* ( !m be+ 9 l mann] express$ z a univ]sal proposition ) a condition annex$1 ! sum ( all ! conditions w appe> at ! end z ! sum ( all ! errors :i* affect ! conclusion4 ,?us1 to ! proposition la/ cit$1 let u add ! foll[+3 ,all absolute mon>*s h uncontroll$ p[]1 unless _! position is su* t !y ne$ ! active support ( _! subjects 7z 0 ! case ) ,que5 ,elizabe?1 ,fr$]ick ( ,prussia1 & o!rs74 ,comb9+ ^! two propositions1 we c d$uce f !m a univ]sal conclusion1 :i* w be subject to bo? ! hypo!ses 9 ! premises2 ,all absolute mon>*s employ _! p[] ill1 unless _! position makes !m ne$ ! active support ( _! subjects1 or unless !y are p]sons ( unusual /r5g? ( judgm5t & rectitude ( purpose4 ,x is ( no consequ5ce h[ rapidly ! errors 9 our premises accumulate1 if we are able 9 ?is mann] to record ea* error1 & keep an acc\nt ( ! aggregate z x swells up4 ,secondly3 !re is a case 9 :i* approximate propositions1 ev5 )\t our tak+ note ( ! conditions "u :i* !y are n true ( individual cases1 are yet1 = ! purposes ( sci5ce1 univ]sal ones2 namely1 9 ! inquiries :i* relate to ! prop]ties n ( individuals1 b ( multitudes4 ,! pr9cipal ( ^! is ! sci5ce ( politics1 or ( human society4 ,?is sci5ce is pr9cipally conc]n$ ) ! actions n ( solit>y individuals1 b ( masses2 ) ! =tunes n ( s+le p]sons1 b ( communities4 ,= ! /atesman1 !re=e1 x is g5]ally en\gh to "k t mo/ p]sons act or are act$ ^u 9 a p>ticul> way2 s9ce 8 speculations & 8 practical arrangem5ts ref] almo/ exclusively to cases 9 :i* ! :ole community1 or "s l>ge portion ( x1 is act$ ^u at once1 & 9 :i*1 !re=e1 :at is done or felt by mo/ p]sons det]m9es ! result produc$ by or ^u ! body at l>ge4 ,he c get on well en\gh ) approximate g5]alizations on human nature1 s9ce :at is true approximately ( all individuals is true absolutely ( all masses4 ,& ev5 :5 ! op]ations ( individual m5 h a "p to play 9 8 d$uctions1 z :5 he is reason+ ( k+s1 or o!r s+le rul]s1 /ill1 z he is provid+ = indef9ite duration1 involv+ an indef9ite succession ( su* individuals1 he mu/ 9 g5]al bo? reason & act z if :at is true ( mo/ p]sons 7 true ( all4 ,! two k9ds ( consid]ations above adduc$ are a suffici5t refutation ( ! popul> error1 t speculations on society & gov]nm5t1 z re/+ on m]ely probable evid5ce1 mu/ be inf]ior 9 c]ta9ty & sci5tific accuracy to ! conclusions ( :at are call$ ! exact sci5ces1 & less to be reli$ on 9 practice4 ,!re are reasons en\gh :y ! moral sci5ces mu/ rema9 inf]ior to at lea/ ! m p]fect ( ! physical2 :y ! laws ( _! m complicat$ ph5om5a c n be s completely deciph]$1 nor ! ph5om5a pr$ict$ ) ! same degree ( assurance4 ,b ?\gh we c n atta9 to s _m tru?s1 !re is no reason t ^? we c atta9 %\ld des]ve less reliance1 or h less ( a sci5tific "*4 ,( ?is topic1 h[ev]1 ,i %all treat m sy/ematically 9 ! conclud+ ,book1 to :i* place any fur!r consid]ation ( x mu/ be def]r$4 ,*apt] ,,xxiv4 ,( ,! ,rema9+ ,laws ,( ,nature4 #a4 ,9 ! ,fir/ ,book we f\nd t all ! ass]tions :i* c be convey$ by language1 express "s "o or m ( five diff]5t ?+s3 ,exi/5ce2 ,ord] 9 ,place2 ,ord] 9 ,"t2 ,causation2 & ,resemblance47#aig7 ,( ^!1 ,causation1 9 our view ( ! subject1 n be+ fundam5tally diff]5t f ,ord] 9 ,"t1 ! five species ( possible ass]tions are r$uc$ to f\r4 ,! propositions :i* affirm ,ord] 9 ,"t 9 ei!r ( its two modes1 ,co-exi/5ce & ,succession1 h =m$1 ?us f>1 ! subject ( ! pres5t ,book4 ,& we h n[ conclud$ ! exposition1 s f> z x falls )9 ! limits assign$ to ?is "w1 ( ! nature ( ! evid5ce on :i* ^! propositions re/1 & ! processes ( inve/igation by :i* !y are asc]ta9$ & prov$4 ,!re rema9 ?ree classes ( facts3 ,exi/5ce1 ,ord] 9 ,place1 & ,resemblance2 9 reg>d to :i* ! same que/ions are n[ to be resolv$4 ,reg>d+ ! fir/ ( ^!1 v little ne$s be said4 ,exi/5ce 9 g5]al1 is a subject n = our sci5ce1 b = metaphysics4 ,to det]m9e :at ?+s c be recogniz$ z really exi/+1 indep5d5tly ( our own s5sible or o!r impressions1 & 9 :at mean+ ! t]m is1 9 t case1 pr$icat$ ( !m1 belongs to ! consid]ation ( 8,?+s 9 !mselves10 f :i*1 ?r\gh\t ?is "w1 we h z mu* z possible kept alo(4 ,exi/5ce1 s f> z ,logic is conc]n$ ab\t x1 has ref]5ce only to ph5om5a2 to actual1 or possible1 /ates ( ext]nal or int]nal consci\sness1 9 ourselves or o!rs4 ,feel+s ( s5sitive be+s1 or possibilities ( hav+ su* feel+s1 are ! only ?+s ! exi/5ce ( :i* c be a subject ( logical induction1 because ! only ?+s ( :i* ! exi/5ce 9 individual cases c be a subject ( exp]i5ce4 ,x is true t a ?+ is said by u to exi/1 ev5 :5 x is abs5t1 & !re=e is n & c n be p]ceiv$4 ,b ev5 !n1 its exi/5ce is to u only ano!r ^w = our conviction t we %\ld p]ceive x on a c]ta9 supposition2 namely1 if we 7 9 ! ne$ful circum/ances ( "t & place1 & end[$ ) ! ne$ful p]fection ( organs4 ,my belief t ! ,emp]or ( ,*9a exi/s1 is simply my belief t if ,i 7 transport$ to ! imp]ial palace or "s o!r locality 9 ,pek91 ,i %\ld see him4 ,my belief t ,julius ,cs> exi/$1 is my belief t ,i %\ld h se5 him if ,i _h be5 pres5t 9 ! field ( ,ph>salia1 or 9 ! s5ate-h\se at ,rome4 ,:5 ,i believe t />s exi/ beyond ! utmo/ range ( my vision1 ?\gh assi/$ by ! mo/ p[]ful telescopes yet inv5t$1 my belief1 philosophically express$1 is1 t ) /ill bett] telescopes1 if su* exi/$1 ,i c\ld see !m1 or t !y may be p]ceiv$ by be+s less remote f !m 9 space1 or ^: capacities ( p]ception are sup]ior to m9e4 ,! exi/5ce1 !re=e1 ( a ph5om5on1 is b ano!r ^w = its be+ p]ceiv$1 or = ! inf]r$ possibility ( p]ceiv+ x4 ,:5 ! ph5om5on is )9 ! range ( pres5t obs]vation1 by pres5t obs]vation we assure ourselves ( its exi/5ce2 :5 x is beyond t range1 & is !re=e said to be abs5t1 we inf] its exi/5ce f m>ks or evid5ces4 ,b :at c ^! evid5ces be8 ,o!r ph5om5a2 asc]ta9$ by induction to be connect$ ) ! giv5 ph5om5on1 ei!r 9 ! way ( succession or ( co-exi/5ce4 ,! simple exi/5ce1 !re=e1 ( an individual ph5om5on1 :5 n directly p]ceiv$1 is inf]r$ f "s inductive law ( succession or co-exi/5ce2 & is consequ5tly n am5able to any peculi> inductive pr9ciples4 ,we prove ! exi/5ce ( a ?+1 by prov+ t x is connect$ by succession or co-exi/5ce ) "s kn[n ?+4 ,) respect to g5]al propositions ( ?is class1 t is1 :i* affirm ! b>e fact ( exi/5ce1 !y h a peculi>ity :i* r5d]s ! logical treatm5t ( !m a v easy matt]2 !y are g5]alizations :i* are suffici5tly prov$ by a s+le in/ance4 ,t gho/s1 or unicorns1 or sea-s]p5ts exi/1 w\ld be fully e/abli%$ if x c\ld be asc]ta9$ positively t su* ?+s _h be5 ev5 once se54 ,:atev] has once happ5$1 is capable ( happ5+ aga92 ! only "q relates to ! conditions "u :i* x happ5s4 ,s f>1 !re=e1 z relates to simple exi/5ce1 ! ,inductive ,logic has no knots to untie4 ,& we may proce$ to ! rema9+ two ( ! great classes into :i* facts h be5 divid$2 ,resemblance1 & ,ord] 9 ,place4 #b4 ,resemblance & its opposite1 except 9 ! case 9 :i* !y assume ! names ( ,equality & ,inequality1 are seldom reg>d$ z subjects ( sci5ce2 !y are suppos$ to be p]ceiv$ by simple appreh5sion2 by m]ely apply+ our s5ses or direct+ our att5tion to ! two objects at once1 or 9 imm$iate succession4 ,& ?is simultane\s1 or virtually simultane\s1 application ( our faculties to ! two ?+s :i* are to be comp>$1 does necess>ily con/itute ! ultimate appeal1 :]ev] su* application is practicable4 ,b1 9 mo/ cases1 x is n practicable3 ! objects c n be br\ght s close toge!r t ! feel+ ( _! resemblance 7at lea/ a complete feel+ ( x7 directly arises 9 ! m9d4 ,we c only comp>e ea* ( !m ) "s ?ird object1 capable ( be+ transport$ f "o to ! o!r4 ,& besides1 ev5 :5 ! objects c be br\ght into imm$iate juxtaposition1 _! resemblance or diff]5ce is b imp]fectly kn[n to u1 unless we h comp>$ !m m9utely1 "p by "p4 ,until ?is has be5 done1 ?+s 9 reality v dissimil> (t5 appe> undi/+ui%ably alike4 ,two l9es ( v unequal l5g? w appe> ab\t equal :5 ly+ 9 diff]5t directions2 b place !m p>allel ) _! f>!r extremities ev51 & if we look at ! ne>] extremities1 _! inequality becomes a matt] ( direct p]ception4 ,to asc]ta9 :e!r1 & 9 :at1 two ph5om5a resemble or diff]1 is n always1 !re=e1 s easy a ?+ z x might at fir/ appe>4 ,:5 ! two c n be br\ght into juxtaposition1 or n s t ! obs]v] is able to comp>e _! sev]al p>ts 9 detail1 he mu/ employ ! indirect means ( reason+ & g5]al propositions4 ,:5 we c n br+ two /raight l9es toge!r1 to det]m9e :e!r !y are equal1 we d x by ! physical aid ( a foot-rule appli$ fir/ to "o & !n to ! o!r1 & ! logical aid ( ! g5]al proposition or =mula1 8,?+s :i* are equal to ! same ?+ are equal to "o ano!r40 ,! comp>ison ( two ?+s ?r\gh ! int]v5tion ( a ?ird ?+1 :5 _! direct comp>ison is impossible1 is ! appropriate sci5tific process = asc]ta9+ resemblances & dissimil>ities1 & is ! sum total ( :at ,logic has to tea* on ! subject4 ,an undue ext5sion ( ?is rem>k induc$ ,locke to consid] reason+ itself z no?+ b ! comp>ison ( two ideas ?r\gh ! m$ium ( a ?ird1 & k z ! p]ception ( ! agreem5t or disagreem5t ( two ideas2 doctr9es :i* ! ,condillac s*ool bl9dly adopt$1 )\t ! qualifications & di/9ctions ) :i* !y 7 /udi\sly gu>d$ by _! illu/ri\s au?or4 ,:]e1 inde$1 ! agreem5t or disagreem5t 7o!rwise call$ resemblance or dissimil>ity7 ( any two ?+s is ! v matt] to be det]m9$1 z is ! case p>ticul>ly 9 ! sci5ces ( quantity & ext5sion2 !re1 ! process by :i* a solution1 if n atta9able by direct p]ception1 mu/ be indirectly s\ght1 consi/s 9 comp>+ ^! two ?+s ?r\gh ! m$ium ( a ?ird4 ,b ?is is f> f be+ true ( all inquiries4 ,! k t bodies fall to ! gr\nd is n a p]ception ( agreem5t or disagreem5t1 b ( a s]ies ( physical occurr5ces1 a succession ( s5sations4 ,locke's def9itions ( k & ( reason+ requir$ to be limit$ to our k (1 & reason+ ab\t1 resemblances4 ,nor1 ev5 :5 ?us re/rict$1 are ! propositions /rictly correct2 s9ce ! comp>ison is n made1 z he repres5ts1 betwe5 ! ideas ( ! two ph5om5a1 b betwe5 ! ph5om5a !mselves4 ,?is mi/ake has be5 po9t$ out 9 an e>li] "p ( our inquiry17#aih7 & we trac$ x to an imp]fect conception ( :at takes place 9 ma!matics1 :]e v (t5 ! comp>ison is really made betwe5 ! ideas1 )\t any appeal to ! outw>d s5ses2 only1 h[ev]1 because 9 ma!matics a comp>ison ( ! ideas is /rictly equival5t to a comp>ison ( ! ph5om5a !mselves4 ,:]e1 z 9 ! case ( numb]s1 l9es1 & figures1 our idea ( an object is a complete picture ( ! object1 s f> z respects ! matt] 9 h&2 we c1 ( c\rse1 le>n f ! picture1 :atev] c\ld be le>n$ f ! object itself by m]e contemplation ( x z x exi/s at ! p>ticul> in/ant :5 ! picture is tak54 ,no m]e contemplation ( gunp[d] w\ld ev] tea* u t a sp>k w\ld make x explode1 nor1 consequ5tly1 w\ld ! contemplation ( ! idea ( gunp[d] d s2 b ! m]e contemplation ( a /raight l9e %[s t x c n inclose a space2 accord+ly ! contemplation ( ! idea ( x w %[ ! same4 ,:at takes place 9 ma!matics is ?us no argum5t t ! comp>ison is betwe5 ! ideas only4 ,x is always1 ei!r indirectly or directly1 a comp>ison ( ! ph5om5a4 ,9 cases 9 :i* we c n br+ ! ph5om5a to ! te/ ( direct inspection at all1 or n 9 a mann] suffici5tly precise1 b mu/ judge ( _! resemblance by inf]5ce f o!r resemblances or dissimil>ities m accessible to obs]vation1 we ( c\rse require1 z 9 all cases ( ratioc9ation1 g5]alizations or =mul applicable to ! subject4 ,we mu/ reason f laws ( nature2 f ! uni=mities :i* are obs]vable 9 ! fact ( lik5ess or unlik5ess4 #c4 ,( ^! laws or uni=mities1 ! mo/ compreh5sive are ^? suppli$ by ma!matics2 ! axioms relat+ to equality1 inequality1 & proportionality1 & ! v>i\s !orems !reon f\nd$4 ,& ^! are ! only ,laws ( ,resemblance :i* require to be1 or :i* c be1 treat$ ap>t4 ,x is true !re are innum]able o!r !orems :i* affirm resemblances among ph5om5a2 z t ! angle ( ! reflection ( light is equal to its angle ( incid5ce 7equality be+ m]ely exact resemblance 9 magnitude74 ,aga91 t ! heav5ly bodies describe equal areas 9 equal times2 & t _! p]iods ( revolution are proportional 7ano!r species ( resemblance7 to ! sesquiplicate p[]s ( _! di/ances f ! c5tre ( =ce4 ,^! & simil> propositions affirm resemblances1 ( ! same nature ) ^? ass]t$ 9 ! !orems ( ma!matics2 b ! di/9ction is1 t ! propositions ( ma!matics are true ( all ph5om5a :atev]1 or at lea/ )\t di/9ction ( orig92 :ile ! tru?s 9 "q are affirm$ only ( special ph5om5a1 :i* orig9ate 9 a c]ta9 way2 & ! equalities1 proportionalities1 or o!r resemblances1 :i* exi/ betwe5 su* ph5om5a1 mu/ necess>ily be ei!r d]iv$ f1 or id5tical )1 ! law ( _! orig9--! law ( causation on :i* !y dep5d4 ,! equality ( ! areas describ$ 9 equal times by ! planets1 is d]iv$ f ! laws ( ! causes2 &1 until its d]ivation 0 %[n1 x 0 an empirical law4 ,! equality ( ! angles ( reflection & incid5ce is id5tical ) ! law ( ! cause2 = ! cause is ! incid5ce ( a ray ( light ^u a reflect+ surface1 & ! equality 9 "q is ! v law accord+ to :i* t cause produces its effects4 ,?is class1 !re=e1 ( ! uni=mities ( resemblance betwe5 ph5om5a1 are insep>able1 9 fact & 9 ?\ght1 f ! laws ( ! production ( ^? ph5om5a2 & ! pr9ciples ( induction applicable to !m are no o!r ?an ^? ( :i* we h treat$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]s ( ?is ,book4 ,x is o!rwise ) ! tru?s ( ma!matics4 ,! laws ( equality & inequality betwe5 spaces1 or betwe5 numb]s1 h no connection ) laws ( causation4 ,t ! angle ( reflection is equal to ! angle ( incid5ce1 is a /atem5t ( ! mode ( action ( a p>ticul> cause2 b t :5 two /raight l9es int]sect ea* o!r ! opposite angles are equal1 is true ( all su* l9es & angles1 by :atev] cause produc$4 ,t ! squ>es ( ! p]iodic times ( ! planets are proportional to ! cubes ( _! di/ances f ! sun1 is a uni=mity d]iv$ f ! laws ( ! causes 7or =ces7 :i* produce ! planet>y motions2 b t ! squ>e ( any numb] is f\r times ! squ>e ( half ! numb]1 is true indep5d5tly ( any cause4 ,! only laws ( resemblance1 !re=e1 :i* we are call$ ^u to consid] indep5d5tly ( causation1 belong to ! prov9ce ( ma!matics4 #d4 ,! same ?+ is evid5t ) respect to ! only "o rema9+ ( our five categories1 ,ord] 9 ,place4 ,! ord] 9 place1 ( ! effects ( a cause1 is 7l e ?+ else belong+ to ! effects7 a consequ5ce ( ! laws ( t cause4 ,! ord] 9 place1 or1 z we h t]m$ x1 ! collocation1 ( ! primeval causes1 is 7z well z _! resemblance7 9 ea* in/ance an ultimate fact1 9 :i* no laws or uni=mities are traceable4 ,! only rema9+ g5]al propositions respect+ ord] 9 place1 & ! only ones :i* h no?+ to d ) causation1 are "s ( ! tru?s ( geometry2 laws ?r\gh :i* we are able1 f ! ord] 9 place ( c]ta9 po9ts1 l9es1 or spaces1 to inf] ! ord] 9 place ( o!rs :i* are connect$ ) ! =m] 9 "s kn[n mode2 q indep5d5tly ( ! p>ticul> nature ( ^? po9ts1 l9es1 or spaces1 9 any o!r respect ?an position or magnitude1 z well z indep5d5tly ( ! physical cause f :i* 9 any p>ticul> case !y happ5 to d]ive _! orig94 ,x ?us appe>s t ma!matics is ! only dep>tm5t ( sci5ce into ! me?ods ( :i* x /ill rema9s to inquire4 ,& !re is ! less necessity t ?is inquiry %\ld occupy u long1 z we h already1 9 ! ,second ,book1 made consid]able progress 9 x4 ,we !re rem>k$1 t ! directly inductive tru?s ( ma!matics are few 9 numb]2 consi/+ ( ! axioms1 toge!r ) c]ta9 propositions conc]n+ exi/5ce1 tacitly involv$ 9 mo/ ( ! s-call$ def9itions4 ,& we gave :at appe>$ conclusive reasons = affirm+ t ^! orig9al premises1 f :i* ! rema9+ tru?s ( ! sci5ce are d$uc$1 are1 not)/&+ all appe>ances to ! contr>y1 results ( obs]vation & exp]i5ce2 f\nd$1 9 %ort1 on ! evid5ce ( ! s5ses4 ,t ?+s equal to ! same ?+ are equal to "o ano!r1 & t two /raight l9es :i* h once int]sect$ "o ano!r cont9ue to div]ge1 are inductive tru?s2 re/+1 inde$1 l ! law ( univ]sal causation1 only on induction p] enum]ationem simplicem2 on ! fact t !y h be5 p]petually p]ceiv$ to be true1 & nev] once f\nd to be false4 ,b1 z we h se5 9 a rec5t *apt] t ?is evid5ce1 9 ! case ( a law s completely univ]sal z ! law ( causation1 am\nts to ! fulle/ pro(1 s is ?is ev5 m evid5tly true ( ! g5]al propositions to :i* we are n[ adv]t+2 because1 z a p]ception ( _! tru? 9 any individual case :atev]1 requires only ! simple act ( look+ at ! objects 9 a prop] position1 !re nev] c\ld h be5 9 _! case 7:at1 = a long p]iod1 !re 7 9 ! case ( ! law ( causation7 in/ances :i* 7 app>5tly1 ?\gh n really1 exceptions to !m4 ,_! infallible tru? 0 recogniz$ f ! v dawn ( speculation2 & z _! extreme famili>ity made x impossible = ! m9d to conceive ! objects "u any o!r law1 !y 71 & /ill are1 g5]ally consid]$ z tru?s recogniz$ by _! own evid5ce1 or by in/9ct4 #e4 ,!re is some?+ :i* seems to require explanation1 9 ! fact t ! imm5se multitude ( tru?s 7a multitude /ill z f> f be+ exhau/$ z ev]7 compris$ 9 ! ma!matical sci5ces1 c be elicit$ f s small a numb] ( elem5t>y laws4 ,"o sees n1 at fir/1 h[ x is t !re c be room = su* an inf9ite v>iety ( true propositions1 on subjects app>5tly s limit$4 ,to beg9 ) ! sci5ce ( numb]4 ,! elem5t>y or ultimate tru?s ( ?is sci5ce are ! common axioms conc]n+ equality1 namely1 8,?+s :i* are equal to ! same ?+ are equal to "o ano!r10 & 8,equals add$ to equals make equal sums0 7no o!r axioms are requir$717#aii7 toge!r ) ! def9itions ( ! v>i\s numb]s4 ,l o!r s-call$ def9itions1 ^! are compos$ ( two ?+s1 ! explanation ( a "n1 & ! ass]tion ( a fact2 ( :i* ! latt] alone c =m a fir/ pr9ciple or premise ( a sci5ce4 ,! fact ass]t$ 9 ! def9ition ( a numb] is a physical fact4 ,ea* ( ! numb]s two1 ?ree1 f\r1 etc41 d5otes physical ph5om5a1 & connotes a physical prop]ty ( ^? ph5om5a4 ,two1 = in/ance1 d5otes all pairs ( ?+s1 & twelve all doz5s ( ?+s1 connot+ :at makes !m pairs1 or doz5s2 & t :i* makes !m s is some?+ physical2 s9ce x c n be d5i$ t two apples are physically di/+ui%able f ?ree apples1 two horses f "o horse1 & s =?2 t !y are a diff]5t visible & tangible ph5om5on4 ,i am n und]tak+ to say :at ! diff]5ce is2 x is en\gh t !re is a diff]5ce ( :i* ! s5ses c take cognizance4 ,& al?\gh a hundr$ & two horses are n s easily di/+ui%$ f a hundr$ & ?ree1 z two horses are f ?ree--?\gh 9 mo/ positions ! s5ses d n p]ceive any diff]5ce--yet !y may be s plac$ t a diff]5ce w be p]ceptible1 or else we %\ld nev] h di/+ui%$ !m1 & giv5 !m diff]5t names4 ,weight is confess$ly a physical prop]ty ( ?+s2 yet small diff]5ces betwe5 great weights are z imp]ceptible to ! s5ses 9 mo/ situations1 z small diff]5ces betwe5 great numb]s2 & are only put 9 evid5ce by plac+ ! two objects 9 a peculi> position--namely1 9 ! opposite scales ( a delicate balance4 ,:at1 !n1 is t :i* is connot$ by a "n ( numb]8 ,( c\rse1 "s prop]ty belong+ to ! agglom]ation ( ?+s :i* we call by ! "n2 & t prop]ty is1 ! *>act]i/ic mann] 9 :i* ! agglom]ation is made up (1 & may be sep>at$ into1 p>ts4 ,i w endeavor to make ?is m intelligible by a few explanations4 ,:5 we call a collection ( objects two1 ?ree1 or f\r1 !y are n two1 ?ree1 or f\r 9 ! ab/ract2 !y are two1 ?ree1 or f\r ?+s ( "s p>ticul> k9d2 pebbles1 horses1 in*es1 p\nds' weight4 ,:at ! "n ( numb] connotes is1 ! mann] 9 :i* s+le objects ( ! giv5 k9d mu/ be put toge!r1 9 ord] to produce t p>ticul> aggregate4 ,if ! aggregate be ( pebbles1 & we call x two1 ! "n implies t1 to compose ! aggregate1 "o pebble mu/ be jo9$ to "o pebble4 ,if we call x ?ree1 "o & "o & "o pebble mu/ be br\ght toge!r to produce x1 or else "o pebble mu/ be jo9$ to an aggregate ( ! k9d call$ two1 already exi/+4 ,! aggregate :i* we call f\r1 has a /ill great] numb] ( *>act]i/ic modes ( =mation4 ,"o & "o & "o & "o pebble may be br\ght toge!r2 or two aggregates ( ! k9d call$ two may be unit$2 or "o pebble may be add$ to an aggregate ( ! k9d call$ ?ree4 ,e succe$+ numb] 9 ! asc5d+ s]ies1 may be =m$ by ! junction ( small] numb]s 9 a progressively great] v>iety ( ways4 ,ev5 limit+ ! p>ts to two1 ! numb] may be =m$1 & consequ5tly may be divid$1 9 z _m diff]5t ways z !re are numb]s small] ?an itself2 &1 if we admit ( ?rees1 f\rs1 etc41 9 a /ill great] v>iety4 ,o!r modes ( arriv+ at ! same aggregate pres5t !mselves1 n by ! union ( small]1 b by ! dismemb]m5t ( l>g] aggregates4 ,?us1 ?ree pebbles may be =m$ by tak+ away "o pebble f an aggregate ( f\r2 two pebbles1 by an equal division ( a simil> aggregate2 & s on4 ,e ari?metical proposition2 e /atem5t ( ! result ( an ari?metical op]ation2 is a /atem5t ( "o ( ! modes ( =mation ( a giv5 numb]4 ,x affirms t a c]ta9 aggregate might h be5 =m$ by putt+ toge!r c]ta9 o!r aggregates1 or by )draw+ c]ta9 portions ( "s aggregate2 & t1 by consequ5ce1 we might reproduce ^? aggregates f x1 by rev]s+ ! process4 ,?us1 :5 we say t ! cube ( #ab is #agbh1 :at we affirm is ?is3 t if1 hav+ a suffici5t numb] ( pebbles or ( any o!r objects1 we put !m toge!r into ! p>ticul> sort ( p>cels or aggregates call$ twelves2 & put toge!r ^! twelves aga9 into simil> collections2 &1 f9ally1 make up twelve ( ^! l>ge/ p>cels2 ! aggregate ?us =m$ w be su* a "o z we call #agbh2 namely1 t :i* 7to take ! mo/ famili> ( its modes ( =mation7 may be made by jo9+ ! p>cel call$ a ?\s& pebbles1 ! p>cel call$ sev5 hundr$ pebbles1 ! p>cel call$ tw5ty pebbles1 & ! p>cel call$ eight pebbles4 ,! conv]se proposition t ! cube root ( #agbh is #ab1 ass]ts t ?is l>ge aggregate may aga9 be decompos$ into ! twelve twelves ( twelves ( pebbles :i* x consi/s (4 ,! modes ( =mation ( any numb] are innum]able2 b :5 we "k "o mode ( =mation ( ea*1 all ! re/ may be det]m9$ d$uctively4 ,if we "k t a is =m$ f b & c1 b f a & e1 c f d & f1 & s =?1 until we h includ$ all ! numb]s ( any scale we *oose to select 7tak+ c>e t = ea* numb] ! mode ( =mation be really a di/9ct "o1 n br++ u r\nd aga9 to ! =m] numb]s1 b introduc+ a new numb]71 we h a set ( propositions f :i* we may reason to all ! o!r modes ( =mation ( ^? numb]s f "o ano!r4 ,hav+ e/abli%$ a *a9 ( inductive tru?s connect+ toge!r all ! numb]s ( ! scale1 we c asc]ta9 ! =mation ( any "o ( ^? numb]s f any o!r by m]ely travel+ f "o to ! o!r along ! *a94 ,suppose t we "k only ! foll[+ modes ( =mation3 #fdb1 #dg-c1 #geb1 #ei-d4 ,we c\ld det]m9e h[ #f may be =m$ f #i4 ,= #fdbg-cbeb-cbi-db-cb4 ,x may !re=e be =m$ by tak+ away #d & #c1 & add+ #b & #b4 ,if we "k besides t #bbd1 we obta9 #f f #i 9 a simpl] mode1 by m]ely tak+ away #c4 ,x is suffici5t1 !re=e1 to select "o ( ! v>i\s modes ( =mation ( ea* numb]1 z a means ( asc]ta9+ all ! re/4 ,& s9ce ?+s :i* are uni=m1 & !re=e simple1 are mo/ easily receiv$ & reta9$ by ! und]/&+1 !re is an obvi\s advantage 9 select+ a mode ( =mation :i* %all be alike = all2 9 fix+ ! connotation ( names ( numb] on "o uni=m pr9ciple4 ,! mode 9 :i* our exi/+ num]ical nom5clature is contriv$ possesses ?is advantage1 ) ! additional "o1 t x happily conveys to ! m9d two ( ! modes ( =mation ( e numb]4 ,ea* numb] is consid]$ z =m$ by ! addition ( a unit to ! numb] next bel[ x 9 magnitude1 & ?is mode ( =mation is convey$ by ! place :i* x occupies 9 ! s]ies4 ,& ea* is also consid]$ z =m$ by ! addition ( a numb] ( units less ?an t51 & a numb] ( aggregates ea* equal to "o ( ! successive p[]s ( t52 & ?is mode ( its =mation is express$ by its spok5 "n1 & by its num]ical "*4 ,:at r5d]s ari?metic ! type ( a d$uctive sci5ce1 is ! =tunate applicability to x ( a law s compreh5sive z 8,! sums ( equals are equals30 or 7to express ! same pr9ciple 9 less famili> b m *>act]i/ic language71 ,:atev] is made up ( p>ts1 is made up ( ! p>ts ( ^? p>ts4 ,?is tru?1 obvi\s to ! s5ses 9 all cases :i* c be fairly ref]r$ to _! decision1 & s g5]al z to be co-ext5sive ) nature itself1 be+ true ( all sorts ( ph5om5a 7= all admit ( be+ numb]$71 mu/ be consid]$ an inductive tru?1 or law ( nature1 ( ! highe/ ord]4 ,& e ari?metical op]ation is an application ( ?is law1 or ( o!r laws capable ( be+ d$uc$ f x4 ,?is is our w>rant = all calculations4 ,we believe t five & two are equal to sev51 on ! evid5ce ( ?is inductive law1 comb9$ ) ! def9itions ( ^? numb]s4 ,we arrive at t conclusion 7z all "k :o rememb] h[ !y fir/ le>n$ x7 by add+ a s+le unit at a "t3 #e #af1 !re=e #eaafag2 & aga9 #baa1 !re=e #ebeaag4 #f4 ,innum]able z are ! true propositions :i* c be =m$ conc]n+ p>ticul> numb]s1 no adequate conception c\ld be ga9$1 f ^! alone1 ( ! ext5t ( ! tru?s compos+ ! sci5ce ( numb]4 ,su* propositions z we h spok5 ( are ! lea/ g5]al ( all num]ical tru?s4 ,x is true t ev5 ^! are co-ext5sive ) all nature2 ! prop]ties ( ! numb] f\r are true ( all objects t are divisible into f\r equal p>ts1 & all objects are ei!r actually or ideally s divisible4 ,b ! propositions :i* compose ! sci5ce ( algebra are true1 n ( a p>ticul> numb]1 b ( all numb]s2 n ( all ?+s "u ! condition ( be+ divid$ 9 a p>ticul> way1 b ( all ?+s "u ! condition ( be+ divid$ 9 any way--( be+ designat$ by a numb] at all4 ,s9ce x is impossible = diff]5t numb]s to h any ( _! modes ( =mation completely 9 common1 x is a k9d ( p>adox to say1 t all propositions :i* c be made conc]n+ numb]s relate to _! modes ( =mation f o!r numb]s1 & yet t !re are propositions :i* are true ( all numb]s4 ,b ?is v p>adox leads to ! real pr9ciple ( g5]alization conc]n+ ! prop]ties ( numb]s4 ,two diff]5t numb]s c n be =m$ 9 ! same mann] f ! same numb]s2 b !y may be =m$ 9 ! same mann] f diff]5t numb]s2 z n9e is =m$ f ?ree by multiply+ x into itself1 & sixte5 is =m$ f f\r by ! same process4 ,?us !re arises a classification ( modes ( =mation1 or 9 ! language commonly us$ by ma!maticians1 a classification ( ,functions4 ,any numb]1 consid]$ z =m$ f any o!r numb]1 is call$ a function ( x2 & !re are z _m k9ds ( functions z !re are modes ( =mation4 ,! simple functions are by no means num]\s1 mo/ functions be+ =m$ by ! comb9ation ( sev]al ( ! op]ations :i* =m simple functions1 or by successive repetitions ( "s "o ( ^? op]ations4 ,! simple functions ( any numb] x are all r$ucible to ! foll[+ =ms3 xa1 x-a1 ax1 x_/a1 log4 x 7to ! base a71 & ! same expressions v>i$ by putt+ x = a & a = x1 :]ev] t sub/itution w\ld alt] ! value3 to :i*1 p]haps1 ought to be add$ s9 x1 & arc 7s9x74 ,all o!r functions ( x are =m$ by putt+ "s "o or m ( ! simple functions 9 ! place ( x or a1 & subject+ !m to ! same elem5t>y op]ations4 ,9 ord] to c>ry on g5]al reason+s on ! subject ( ,functions1 we require a nom5clature enabl+ u to express any two numb]s by names :i*1 )\t specify+ :at p>ticul> numb]s !y are1 %all %[ :at function ea* is ( ! o!r2 or1 9 o!r words1 %all put 9 evid5ce _! mode ( =mation f "o ano!r4 ,! sy/em ( g5]al language call$ algebraical notation does ?is4 ,! expressions a & a#bc;a d5ote1 ! "o any numb]1 ! o!r ! numb] =m$ f x 9 a p>ticul> mann]4 ,! expressions a1 b1 n1 & 7ab7n1 d5ote any ?ree numb]s1 & a f\r? :i* is =m$ f !m 9 a c]ta9 mode4 ,! foll[+ may be /at$ z ! g5]al problem ( ! algebraical calculus3 ,f be+ a c]ta9 function ( a giv5 numb]1 to f9d :at function ,f w be ( any function ( t numb]4 ,= example1 a b9omial a b is a function ( its two p>ts a & b1 & ! p>ts are1 9 _! turn1 functions ( a b3 n[ 7a b7n is a c]ta9 function ( ! b9omial2 :at function w ?is be ( a & b1 ! two p>ts8 ,! answ] to ?is "q is ! b9omial !orem4 ,! =mula 7a b7n an n_/#a an-#a b n4n-#a_/a4b an-#b b#b1 etc41 %[s 9 :at mann] ! numb] :i* is =m$ by multiply+ a b into itself n times1 might be =m$ )\t t process1 directly f a1 b1 & n4 ,& ( ?is nature are all ! !orems ( ! sci5ce ( numb]4 ,!y ass]t ! id5tity ( ! result ( diff]5t modes ( =mation4 ,!y affirm t "s mode ( =mation f x1 & "s mode ( =mation f a c]ta9 function ( x1 produce ! same numb]4 ,su*1 z above describ$1 is ! aim & end ( ! calculus4 ,z = its processes1 e "o kn[s t !y are simply d$uctive4 ,9 demon/rat+ an algebraical !orem1 or 9 resolv+ an equation1 we travel f ! datum to ! qusitum by pure ratioc9ation2 9 :i* ! only premises introduc$1 besides ! orig9al hypo!ses1 are ! fundam5tal axioms already m5tion$--t ?+s equal to ! same ?+ are equal to "o ano!r1 & t ! sums ( equal ?+s are equal4 ,at ea* /ep 9 ! demon/ration or 9 ! calculation1 we apply "o or o!r ( ^! tru?s1 or tru?s d$ucible f !m1 z1 t ! diff]5ces1 products1 etc41 ( equal numb]s are equal4 ,x w\ld be inconsi/5t ) ! scale ( ?is "w1 & n necess>y to its design1 to c>ry ! analysis ( ! tru?s & processes ( algebra any fur!r2 :i* is also ! less ne$ful1 z ! task has be51 to a v great ext5t1 p]=m$ by o!r writ]s4 ,peacock's ,algebra1 & ,dr4 ,:ewell's ,doctr9e ( ,limits1 are full ( in/ruction on ! subject4 ,! pr(\nd treatises ( a truly philosophical ma!matician1 ,pr(essor ,de ,morgan1 %\ld be /udi$ by e "o :o desires to compreh5d ! evid5ce ( ma!matical tru?s1 & ! mean+ ( ! obscur] processes ( ! calculus1 & ! speculations ( ,m4 ,comte1 9 8 ,c\rs de ,philosophie ,positive1 on ! philosophy ( ! high] bran*es ( ma!matics1 are among ! _m valuable gifts = :i* philosophy is indebt$ to t em95t ?9k]4 #g4 ,if ! extreme g5]ality1 & remot5ess n s mu* f s5se z f ! visual & tactual imag9ation1 ( ! laws ( numb]1 r5d]s x a some:at difficult ef=t ( ab/raction to conceive ^? laws z be+ 9 reality physical tru?s obta9$ by obs]vation2 ! same difficulty does n exi/ ) reg>d to ! laws ( ext5sion4 ,! facts ( :i* ^? laws are expressions1 are ( a k9d peculi>ly accessible to ! s5ses1 & sugge/+ em95tly di/9ct images to ! fancy4 ,t geometry is a /rictly physical sci5ce w\ld d\btless h be5 recogniz$ 9 all ages1 _h x n be5 = ! illusions produc$ by two circum/ances4 ,"o ( ^! is ! *>act]i/ic prop]ty1 already notic$1 ( ! facts ( geometry1 t !y may be collect$ f our ideas or m5tal pictures ( objects z effectually z f ! objects !mselves4 ,! o!r is1 ! demon/rative "* ( geometrical tru?s2 :i* 0 at "o "t suppos$ to con/itute a radical di/9ction betwe5 !m & physical tru?s2 ! latt]1 z re/+ on m]ely probable evid5ce1 be+ deem$ ess5tially unc]ta9 & unprecise4 ,! advance ( k has1 h[ev]1 made x manife/ t physical sci5ce1 9 its bett] und]/ood bran*es1 is q z demon/rative z geometry4 ,! task ( d$uc+ its details f a few comp>atively simple pr9ciples is f\nd to be any ?+ b ! impossibility x 0 once suppos$ to be2 & ! notion ( ! sup]ior c]ta9ty ( geometry is an illusion1 aris+ f ! anci5t prejudice :i*1 9 t sci5ce1 mi/akes ! ideal data f :i* we reason1 = a peculi> class ( realities1 :ile ! correspond+ ideal data ( any d$uctive physical sci5ce are recogniz$ z :at !y really are1 hypo!ses4 ,e !orem 9 geometry is a law ( ext]nal nature1 & might h be5 asc]ta9$ by g5]aliz+ f obs]vation & exp]im5t1 :i* 9 ?is case resolve !mselves into comp>ison & measurem5t4 ,b x 0 f\nd practicable1 &1 be+ practicable1 0 desirable1 to d$uce ^! tru?s by ratioc9ation f a small numb] ( g5]al laws ( nature1 ! c]ta9ty & univ]sality ( :i* are obvi\s to ! mo/ c>eless obs]v]1 & :i* compose ! fir/ pr9ciples & ultimate premises ( ! sci5ce4 ,among ^! g5]al laws mu/ be includ$ ! same two :i* we h notic$ z ultimate pr9ciples ( ! ,sci5ce ( ,numb] also1 & :i* are applicable to e description ( quantity2 viz41 ,! sums ( equals are equal1 & ,?+s :i* are equal to ! same ?+ are equal to "o ano!r2 ! latt] ( :i* may be express$ 9 a mann] m sugge/ive ( ! inexhau/ible multitude ( its consequ5ces1 by ! foll[+ t]ms3 ,:atev] is equal to any "o ( a numb] ( equal magnitudes1 is equal to any o!r ( !m4 ,to ^! two mu/ be add$1 9 geometry1 a ?ird law ( equality1 namely1 t l9es1 surfaces1 or solid spaces1 :i* c be s appli$ to "o ano!r z to co9cide1 are equal4 ,"s writ]s h ass]t$ t ?is law ( nature is a m]e v]bal def9ition2 t ! expression 8equal magnitudes0 means no?+ b magnitudes :i* c be s appli$ to "o ano!r z to co9cide4 ,b 9 ?is op9ion ,i c n agree4 ,! equality ( two geometrical magnitudes c n diff] fundam5tally 9 its nature f ! equality ( two weights1 two degrees ( heat1 or two portions ( duration1 to none ( :i* w\ld ?is def9ition ( equality be suitable4 ,none ( ^! ?+s c be s appli$ to "o ano!r z to co9cide1 yet we p]fectly und]/& :at we mean :5 we call !m equal4 ,?+s are equal 9 magnitude1 z ?+s are equal 9 weight1 :5 !y are felt to be exactly simil> 9 respect ( ! attribute 9 :i* we comp>e !m3 & ! application ( ! objects to ea* o!r 9 ! "o case1 l ! balanc+ !m ) a pair ( scales 9 ! o!r1 is b a mode ( br++ !m into a position 9 :i* our s5ses c recognize defici5cies ( exact resemblance t w\ld o!rwise escape our notice4 ,along ) ^! ?ree g5]al pr9ciples or axioms1 ! rema9d] ( ! premises ( geometry consi/s ( ! s-call$ def9itions3 t is to say1 propositions ass]t+ ! real exi/5ce ( ! v>i\s objects !re9 designat$1 toge!r ) "s "o prop]ty ( ea*4 ,9 "s cases m ?an "o prop]ty is commonly assum$1 b 9 no case is m ?an "o necess>y4 ,x is assum$ t !re are su* ?+s 9 nature z /raight l9es1 & t any two ( !m sett+ out f ! same po9t1 div]ge m & m )\t limit4 ,?is assumption 7:i* includes & goes beyond ,euclid's axiom t two /raight l9es c n inclose a space7 is z indisp5sable 9 geometry1 & z evid5t1 re/+ on z simple1 famili>1 & univ]sal obs]vation1 z any ( ! o!r axioms4 ,x is also assum$ t /raight l9es div]ge f "o ano!r 9 diff]5t degrees2 9 o!r words1 t !re are su* ?+s z angles1 & t !y are capable ( be+ equal or unequal4 ,x is assum$ t !re is su* a ?+ z a circle1 & t all its radii are equal2 su* ?+s z ellipses1 & t ! sums ( ! focal di/ances are equal = e po9t 9 an ellipse2 su* ?+s z p>allel l9es1 & t ^? l9es are ev]y:]e equally di/ant47#bjj7 #h4 ,x is a matt] ( m ?an curiosity to consid]1 to :at peculi>ity ( ! physical tru?s :i* are ! subject ( geometry1 x is ow+ t !y c all be d$uc$ f s small a numb] ( orig9al premises2 :y x is t we c set out f only "o *>act]i/ic prop]ty ( ea* k9d ( ph5om5on1 & ) t & two or ?ree g5]al tru?s relat+ to equality1 c travel f m>k to m>k until we obta9 a va/ body ( d]ivative tru?s1 to all appe>ance extremely unlike ^? elem5t>y ones4 ,! explanation ( ?is rem>kable fact seems to lie 9 ! foll[+ circum/ances4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 all que/ions ( position & figure may be resolv$ into que/ions ( magnitude4 ,! position & figure ( any object are det]m9$ by det]m9+ ! position ( a suffici5t numb] ( po9ts 9 x2 & ! position ( any po9t may be det]m9$ by ! magnitude ( ?ree rectangul> co-ord9ates1 t is1 ( ! p]p5dicul>s drawn f ! po9t to ?ree planes at "r angles to "o ano!r1 arbitr>ily select$4 ,by ?is trans=mation ( all que/ions ( quality into que/ions only ( quantity1 geometry is r$uc$ to ! s+le problem ( ! measurem5t ( magnitudes1 t is1 ! asc]ta9m5t ( ! equalities :i* exi/ betwe5 !m4 ,n[ :5 we consid] t by "o ( ! g5]al axioms1 any equality1 :5 asc]ta9$1 is pro( ( z _m o!r equalities z !re are o!r ?+s equal to ei!r ( ! two equals2 & t by ano!r ( ^? axioms1 any asc]ta9$ equality is pro( ( ! equality ( z _m pairs ( magnitudes z c be =m$ by ! num]\s op]ations :i* resolve !mselves into ! addition ( ! equals to !mselves or to o!r equals2 we cease to wond] t 9 proportion z a sci5ce is conv]sant ab\t equality1 x %\ld af=d a m copi\s supply ( m>ks ( m>ks2 & t ! sci5ces ( numb] & ext5sion1 :i* are conv]sant ) little else ?an equality1 %\ld be ! mo/ d$uctive ( all ! sci5ces4 ,!re are also two or ?ree ( ! pr9cipal laws ( space or ext5sion :i* are unusually fitt$ = r5d]+ "o position or magnitude a m>k ( ano!r1 & !reby contribut+ to r5d] ! sci5ce l>gely d$uctive4 ,fir/1 ! magnitudes ( inclos$ spaces1 :e!r sup]ficial or solid1 are completely det]m9$ by ! magnitudes ( ! l9es & angles :i* b\nd !m4 ,secondly1 ! l5g? ( any l9e1 :e!r /raight or curve1 is measur$ 7c]ta9 o!r ?+s be+ giv57 by ! angle :i* x subt5ds1 & vic v]sa4 ,la/ly1 ! angle :i* any two /raight l9es make ) ea* o!r at an inaccessible po9t1 is measur$ by ! angles !y sev]ally make ) any ?ird l9e we *oose to select4 ,by means ( ^! g5]al laws1 ! measurem5t ( all l9es1 angles1 & spaces :atsoev] might be accompli%$ by measur+ a s+le /raight l9e & a suffici5t numb] ( angles2 :i* is ! plan actually pursu$ 9 ! trigonometrical survey ( a c\ntry2 & =tunate x is t ?is is practicable1 ! exact measurem5t ( long /raight l9es be+ always difficult1 & (t5 impossible1 b t ( angles v easy4 ,?ree su* g5]alizations z ! =ego+ af=d su* facilities = ! indirect measurem5t ( magnitudes 7by supply+ u ) kn[n l9es or angles :i* are m>ks ( ! magnitude ( unkn[n ones1 & !reby ( ! spaces :i* !y inclose71 t x is easily intelligible h[ f a few data we c g on to asc]ta9 ! magnitude ( an indef9ite multitude ( l9es1 angles1 & spaces1 :i* we c\ld n easily1 or c\ld n at all1 measure by any m direct process4 #i4 ,su* are ! rem>ks :i* x seems necess>y to make 9 ?is place1 respect+ ! laws ( nature :i* are ! peculi> subject ( ! sci5ces ( numb] & ext5sion4 ,! imm5se "p :i* ^? laws take 9 giv+ a d$uctive "* to ! o!r dep>tm5ts ( physical sci5ce1 is well kn[n2 & is n surpris+1 :5 we consid] t all causes op]ate accord+ to ma!matical laws4 ,! effect is always dep5d5t on1 or is a function (1 ! quantity ( ! ag5t2 & g5]ally ( its position also4 ,we c n1 !re=e1 reason respect+ causation1 )\t introduc+ consid]ations ( quantity & ext5sion at e /ep2 & if ! nature ( ! ph5om5a admits ( our obta9+ num]ical data ( suffici5t accuracy1 ! laws ( quantity become ! gr& in/rum5t = calculat+ =w>d to an effect1 or backw>d to a cause4 ,t 9 all o!r sci5ces1 z well z 9 geometry1 que/ions ( quality are sc>cely ev] indep5d5t ( que/ions ( quantity1 may be se5 f ! mo/ famili> ph5om5a4 ,ev5 :5 sev]al colors are mix$ on a pa9t]'s palette1 ! comp>ative quantity ( ea* entirely det]m9es ! color ( ! mixture4 ,) ?is m]e sugge/ion ( ! g5]al causes :i* r5d] ma!matical pr9ciples & processes s pr$om9ant 9 ^? d$uctive sci5ces :i* af=d precise num]ical data1 ,i mu/1 on ! pres5t occasion1 cont5t myself2 ref]r+ ! read] :o desires a m ?or\gh acqua9tance ) ! subject1 to ! fir/ two volumes ( ,m4 ,comte's sy/ematic "w4 ,9 ! same "w1 & m p>ticul>ly 9 ! ?ird volume1 are also fully discuss$ ! limits ( ! applicability ( ma!matical pr9ciples to ! improvem5t ( o!r sci5ces4 ,su* pr9ciples are manife/ly inapplicable1 :]e ! causes on :i* any class ( ph5om5a dep5d are s imp]fectly accessible to our obs]vation1 t we c n asc]ta91 by a prop] induction1 _! num]ical laws2 or :]e ! causes are s num]\s1 & int]mix$ 9 s complex a mann] ) "o ano!r1 t ev5 suppos+ _! laws kn[n1 ! computation ( ! aggregate effect transc5ds ! p[]s ( ! calculus z x is1 or is likely to be2 or1 la/ly1 :]e ! causes !mselves are 9 a /ate ( p]petual fluctuation2 z 9 physiology1 & /ill m1 if possible1 9 ! social sci5ce4 ,! ma!matical solutions ( physical que/ions become progressively m difficult & imp]fect1 9 proportion z ! que/ions dive/ !mselves ( _! ab/ract & hypo!tical "*1 & approa* ne>] to ! degree ( complication actually exi/+ 9 nature2 insomu* t beyond ! limits ( a/ronomical ph5om5a1 & ( ^? mo/ ne>ly analog\s to !m1 ma!matical accuracy is g5]ally obta9$ 8at ! exp5se ( ! reality ( ! inquiry30 :ile ev5 9 a/ronomical que/ions1 8not)/&+ ! admirable simplicity ( _! ma!matical elem5ts1 our feeble intellig5ce becomes incapable ( foll[+ out effectually ! logical comb9ations ( ! laws on :i* ! ph5om5a are dep5d5t1 z soon z we attempt to take into simultane\s consid]ation m ?an two or ?ree ess5tial influ5ces407#bja7 ,( ?is1 ! problem ( ! ,?ree ,bodies has already be5 cit$1 m ?an once1 z a rem>kable in/ance2 ! complete solution ( s comp>atively simple a "q hav+ va9ly tri$ ! skill ( ! mo/ pr(\nd ma!maticians4 ,we may conceive1 !n1 h[ *im]ical w\ld be ! hope t ma!matical pr9ciples c\ld be advantage\sly appli$ to ph5om5a dep5d5t on ! mutual action ( ! innum]able m9ute p>ticles ( bodies1 z ^? ( *emi/ry1 & /ill m1 ( physiology2 & = simil> reasons ^? pr9ciples rema9 inapplicable to ! /ill m complex inquiries1 ! subjects ( :i* are ph5om5a ( society & gov]nm5t4 ,! value ( ma!matical in/ruction z a prep>ation = ^? m difficult inve/igations1 consi/s 9 ! applicability n ( its doctr9es1 b ( its me?od4 ,ma!matics w ev] rema9 ! mo/ p]fect type ( ! ,d$uctive ,me?od 9 g5]al2 & ! applications ( ma!matics to ! d$uctive bran*es ( physics1 furni% ! only s*ool 9 :i* philosoph]s c effectually le>n ! mo/ difficult & important portion ( _! art1 ! employm5t ( ! laws ( simpl] ph5om5a = expla9+ & pr$ict+ ^? ( ! m complex4 ,^! gr\nds are q suffici5t = deem+ ma!matical tra9+ an indisp5sable basis ( real sci5tific education1 & reg>d+ 7accord+ to ! dictum :i* an old b unau!ntic tradition ascribes to ,plato7 "o :o is 1 z want+ 9 "o ( ! mo/ ess5tial qualifications = ! successful cultivation ( ! high] bran*es ( philosophy4 ,*apt] ,,xxv4 ,( ,! ,gr\nds ,( ,disbelief4 #a4 ,! me?od ( arriv+ at g5]al tru?s1 or g5]al propositions fit to be believ$1 & ! nature ( ! evid5ce on :i* !y are gr\nd$1 h be5 discuss$1 z f> z space & ! writ]'s faculties p]mitt$1 9 ! tw5ty-f\r prec$+ *apt]s4 ,b ! result ( ! exam9ation ( evid5ce is n always belief1 nor ev5 susp5sion ( judgm5t2 x is sometimes disbelief4 ,! philosophy1 !re=e1 ( induction & exp]im5tal inquiry is incomplete1 unless ! gr\nds n only ( belief1 b ( disbelief1 are treat$ (2 & to ?is topic we %all devote "o1 & ! f9al1 *apt]4 ,by disbelief is n "h to be und]/ood ! m]e abs5ce ( belief4 ,! gr\nd = ab/a9+ f belief is simply ! abs5ce or insuffici5cy ( pro(2 & 9 consid]+ :at is suffici5t evid5ce to support any giv5 conclusion1 we h already1 by implication1 consid]$ :at evid5ce is n suffici5t = ! same purpose4 ,by disbelief is "h meant1 n ! /ate ( m9d 9 :i* we =m no op9ion conc]n+ a subject1 b t 9 :i* we are fully p]suad$ t "s op9ion is n true2 insomu* t if evid5ce1 ev5 ( great app>5t /r5g? 7:e!r gr\nd$ on ! te/imony ( o!rs or on our own suppos$ p]ceptions71 7 produc$ 9 favor ( ! op9ion1 we %\ld believe t ! witnesses spoke falsely1 or t !y1 or we ourselves if we 7 ! direct p]cipi5ts1 7 mi/ak54 ,t !re are su* cases1 no "o is likely to dispute4 ,ass]tions = :i* !re is abundant positive evid5ce are (t5 disbeliev$1 on acc\nt ( :at is call$ _! improbability1 or impossibility4 ,& ! "q = consid]ation is :at1 9 ! pres5t case1 ^! words mean1 & h[ f> & 9 :at circum/ances ! prop]ties :i* !y express are suffici5t gr\nds = disbelief4 #b4 ,x is to be rem>k$1 9 ! fir/ place1 t ! positive evid5ce produc$ 9 support ( an ass]tion :i* is nev]!less reject$ on ! score ( impossibility or improbability1 is nev] su* z am\nts to full pro(4 ,x is always gr\nd$ on "s approximate g5]alization4 ,! fact may h be5 ass]t$ by a hundr$ witnesses2 b !re are _m exceptions to ! univ]sality ( ! g5]alization t :at a hundr$ witnesses affirm is true4 ,we may seem to ourselves to h actually se5 ! fact2 b t we really see :at we ?9k we see1 is by no means a univ]sal tru?2 our organs may h be5 9 a morbid /ate2 or we may h inf]r$ some?+1 & imag9$ t we p]ceiv$ x4 ,! evid5ce1 !n1 9 ! affirmative be+ nev] m ?an an approximate g5]alization1 all w dep5d on :at ! evid5ce 9 ! negative is4 ,if t also re/s on an approximate g5]alization1 x is a case = comp>ison ( probabilities4 ,if ! approximate g5]alizations lead+ to ! affirmative are1 :5 add$ toge!r1 less /rong1 or1 9 o!r words1 f>!r f be+ univ]sal1 ?an ! approximate g5]alizations :i* support ! negative side ( ! "q1 ! proposition is said to be improbable1 & is to be disbeliev$ provisionally4 ,if1 h[ev]1 an alleg$ fact be 9 contradiction1 n to any numb] ( approximate g5]alizations1 b to a complet$ g5]alization gr\nd$ on a rigor\s induction1 x is said to be impossible1 & is to be disbeliev$ totally4 ,?is la/ pr9ciple1 simple & evid5t z x appe>s1 is ! doctr9e :i*1 on ! occasion ( an attempt to apply x to ! "q ( ! cr$ibility ( miracles1 excit$ s viol5t a controv]sy4 ,hume's celebrat$ doctr9e1 t no?+ is cr$ible :i* is contradictory to exp]i5ce1 or at v>iance ) laws ( nature1 is m]ely ?is v pla9 & h>mless proposition1 t :atev] is contradictory to a complete induction is incr$ible4 ,t su* a maxim z ?is %\ld ei!r be acc\nt$ a dang]\s h]esy1 or mi/ak5 = a great & recondite tru?1 speaks ill = ! /ate ( philosophical speculation on su* subjects4 ,b does n 7x may be ask$7 ! v /atem5t ( ! proposition imply a contradiction8 ,an alleg$ fact1 accord+ to ?is !ory1 is n to be believ$ if x contradict a complete induction4 ,b x is ess5tial to ! complet5ess ( an induction t x %all n contradict any kn[n fact4 ,is x n1 !n1 a petitio pr9cipii to say1 t ! fact ought to be disbeliev$ because ! induction oppos$ to x is complete8 ,h[ c we h a "r to decl>e ! induction complete1 :ile facts1 support$ by cr$ible evid5ce1 pres5t !mselves 9 opposition to x8 ,i answ]1 we h t "r :5ev] ! sci5tific canons ( induction give x to u2 t is1 :5ev] ! induction c be complete4 ,we h x1 = example1 9 a case ( causation 9 :i* !re has be5 an exp]im5tum crucis4 ,if an antec$5t ,a1 sup]add$ to a set ( antec$5ts 9 all o!r respects unalt]$1 is foll[$ by an effect ,b :i* did n exi/ be=e1 ,a is1 9 t in/ance at lea/1 ! cause ( ,b1 or an indisp5sable "p ( its cause2 & if ,a be tri$ aga9 ) _m totally diff]5t sets ( antec$5ts & ,b /ill foll[s1 !n x is ! :ole cause4 ,if ^! obs]vations or exp]im5ts h be5 repeat$ s (t51 & by s _m p]sons1 z to exclude all supposition ( error 9 ! obs]v]1 a law ( nature is e/abli%$2 & s long z ?is law is receiv$ z su*1 ! ass]tion t on any p>ticul> occasion ,a took place1 & yet ,b did n foll[1 )\t any c\nt]act+ cause1 mu/ be disbeliev$4 ,su* an ass]tion is n to be cr$it$ on any less evid5ce ?an :at w\ld suffice to ov]turn ! law4 ,! g5]al tru?s1 t :atev] has a beg9n+ has a cause1 & t :5 none b ! same causes exi/1 ! same effects foll[1 re/ on ! /ronge/ inductive evid5ce possible2 ! proposition t ?+s affirm$ by ev5 a cr[d ( respectable witnesses are true1 is b an approximate g5]alization2 &--ev5 if we fancy we actually saw or felt ! fact :i* is 9 contradiction to ! law--:at a human be+ c see is no m ?an a set ( appe>ances2 f :i* ! real nature ( ! ph5om5on is m]ely an inf]5ce1 & 9 ?is inf]5ce approximate g5]alizations usually h a l>ge %>e4 ,if1 !re=e1 we make our election to hold by ! law1 no quantity ( evid5ce :atev] ought to p]suade u t !re has occurr$ any ?+ 9 contradiction to x4 ,if1 inde$1 ! evid5ce produc$ is su* t x is m likely t ! set ( obs]vations & exp]im5ts on :i* ! law re/s %\ld h be5 inaccurately p]=m$ or incorrectly int]pret$1 ?an t ! evid5ce 9 "q %\ld be false1 we may believe ! evid5ce2 b !n we mu/ ab&on ! law4 ,& s9ce ! law 0 receiv$ on :at seem$ a complete induction1 x c only be reject$ on evid5ce equival5t2 namely1 z be+ inconsi/5t n ) any numb] ( approximate g5]alizations1 b ) "s o!r & bett] e/abli%$ law ( nature4 ,?is extreme case1 ( a conflict betwe5 two suppos$ laws ( nature1 has probably nev] actually occurr$ :]e1 9 ! process ( inve/igat+ bo? ! laws1 ! true canons ( sci5tific induction _h be5 kept 9 view2 b if x did occur1 x mu/ t]m9ate 9 ! total rejection ( "o ( ! suppos$ laws4 ,x w\ld prove t !re mu/ be a flaw 9 ! logical process by :i* ei!r "o or ! o!r 0 e/abli%$2 & if !re be s1 t suppos$ g5]al tru? is no tru? at all4 ,we c n admit a proposition z a law ( nature1 & yet believe a fact 9 real contradiction to x4 ,we mu/ disbelieve ! alleg$ fact1 or believe t we 7 mi/ak5 9 admitt+ ! suppos$ law4 ,b 9 ord] t any alleg$ fact %\ld be contradictory to a law ( causation1 ! allegation mu/ be1 n simply t ! cause exi/$ )\t be+ foll[$ by ! effect1 = t w\ld be no uncommon occurr5ce2 b t ?is happ5$ 9 ! abs5ce ( any adequate c\nt]act+ cause4 ,n[ 9 ! case ( an alleg$ miracle1 ! ass]tion is ! exact opposite ( ?is4 ,x is1 t ! effect 0 defeat$1 n 9 ! abs5ce1 b 9 consequ5ce ( a c\nt]act+ cause1 namely1 a direct int]position ( an act ( ! w ( "s be+ :o has p[] ov] nature2 & 9 p>ticul> ( a ,be+1 ^: w be+ assum$ to h end[$ all ! causes ) ! p[]s by :i* !y produce _! effects1 may well be suppos$ able to c\nt]act !m4 ,a miracle 7z 0 ju/ly rem>k$ by ,br[n77#bjb7 is no contradiction to ! law ( cause & effect2 x is a new effect1 suppos$ to be produc$ by ! introduction ( a new cause4 ,( ! adequacy ( t cause1 if pres5t1 !re c be no d\bt2 & ! only antec$5t improbability :i* c be ascrib$ to ! miracle1 is ! improbability t any su* cause exi/$4 ,all1 !re=e1 :i* ,hume has made out1 & ?is he mu/ be consid]$ to h made out1 is1 t 7at lea/ 9 ! imp]fect /ate ( our k ( natural ag5cies1 :i* leaves x always possible t "s ( ! physical antec$5ts may h be5 hidd5 f u7 no evid5ce c prove a miracle to any "o :o did n previ\sly believe ! exi/5ce ( a be+ or be+s ) sup]natural p[]2 or :o believes himself to h full pro( t ! "* ( ! ,be+ :om he recognizes is inconsi/5t ) 8 hav+ se5 fit to int]f]e on ! occasion 9 "q4 ,if we d n already believe 9 sup]natural ag5cies1 no miracle c prove to u _! exi/5ce4 ,! miracle itself1 consid]$ m]ely z an extraord9>y fact1 may be satisfactorily c]tifi$ by our s5ses or by te/imony2 b no?+ c ev] prove t x is a miracle2 !re is /ill ano!r possible hypo!sis1 t ( its be+ ! result ( "s unkn[n natural cause2 & ?is possibility c n be s completely %ut out1 z to leave no alt]native b t ( admitt+ ! exi/5ce & int]v5tion ( a be+ sup]ior to nature4 ,^?1 h[ev]1 :o already believe 9 su* a be+ h two hypo!ses to *oose f1 a sup]natural & an unkn[n natural ag5cy2 & !y h to judge :i* ( ! two is ! mo/ probable 9 ! p>ticul> case4 ,9 =m+ ?is judgm5t1 an important elem5t ( ! "q w be ! con=mity ( ! result to ! laws ( ! suppos$ ag5t1 t is1 to ! "* ( ! ,deity z !y conceive x4 ,b ) ! k :i* we n[ possess ( ! g5]al uni=mity ( ! c\rse ( nature1 religion1 foll[+ 9 ! wake ( sci5ce1 has be5 compell$ to ackn[l$ge ! gov]nm5t ( ! univ]se z be+ on ! :ole c>ri$ on by g5]al laws1 & n by special int]positions4 ,to :oev] holds ?is belief1 !re is a g5]al presumption aga9/ any supposition ( div9e ag5cy n op]at+ ?r\gh g5]al laws1 or1 9 o!r words1 !re is an antec$5t improbability 9 e miracle1 :i*1 9 ord] to outweigh x1 requires an extraord9>y /r5g? ( antec$5t probability d]iv$ f ! special circum/ances ( ! case4 #c4 ,x appe>s f :at has be5 said1 t ! ass]tion t a cause has be5 defeat$ ( an effect :i* is connect$ ) x by a completely asc]ta9$ law ( causation1 is to be disbeliev$ or n1 accord+ to ! probability or improbability t !re exi/$ 9 ! p>ticul> in/ance an adequate c\nt]act+ cause4 ,to =m an e/imate ( ?is1 is n m difficult ?an ( o!r probabilities4 ,) reg>d to all kn[n causes capable ( c\nt]act+ ! giv5 causes1 we h g5]ally "s previ\s k ( ! frequ5cy or r>ity ( _! occurr5ce1 f :i* we may draw an inf]5ce z to ! antec$5t improbability ( _! hav+ be5 pres5t 9 any p>ticul> case4 ,& nei!r 9 respect to kn[n nor unkn[n causes are we requir$ to pron\nce on ! probability ( _! exi/+ 9 nature1 b only ( _! hav+ exi/$ at ! "t & place at :i* ! transaction is alleg$ to h happ5$4 ,we are seldom1 !re=e1 )\t ! means 7:5 ! circum/ances ( ! case are at all kn[n to u7 ( judg+ h[ f> x is likely t su* a cause %\ld h exi/$ at t "t & place )\t manife/+ its pres5ce by "s o!r m>ks1 & 79 ! case ( an unkn[n cause7 )\t hav+ hi!rto manife/$ its exi/5ce 9 any o!r in/ance4 ,accord+ z ?is circum/ance1 or ! falsity ( ! te/imony1 appe>s m improbable--t is1 conflicts ) an approximate g5]alization ( a high] ord]--we believe ! te/imony1 or disbelieve x2 ) a /rong] or a weak] degree ( conviction1 accord+ to ! prepond]ance2 at lea/ until we h sift$ ! matt] fur!r4 ,s mu*1 !n1 = ! case 9 :i* ! alleg$ fact conflicts1 or appe>s to conflict1 ) a real law ( causation4 ,b a m common case1 p]haps1 is t ( its conflict+ ) uni=mities ( m]e co-exi/5ce1 n prov$ to be dep5d5t on causation2 9 o!r words1 ) ! prop]ties ( ,k9ds4 ,x is ) ^! uni=mities pr9cipally t ! m>vel\s /ories relat$ by travel]s are apt to be at v>iance2 z ( m5 ) tails1 or ) w+s1 & 7until confirm$ by exp]i5ce7 ( fly+ fi%2 or ( ice1 9 ! celebrat$ anecdote ( ! ,dut* travel]s & ! ,k+ ( ,siam4 ,facts ( ?is description1 facts previ\sly unhe>d (1 b :i* c\ld n f any kn[n law ( causation be pron\nc$ impossible1 are :at ,hume *>act]izes z n contr>y to exp]i5ce1 b m]ely uncon=mable to x2 & ,b5?am1 9 8 treatise on ,evid5ce1 d5om9ates !m facts discon=mable 9 specie1 z di/+ui%$ f su* z are discon=mable 9 toto or 9 degree ,9 a case ( ?is description1 ! fact ass]t$ is ! exi/5ce ( a new ,k9d2 :i* 9 itself is n 9 ! slighte/ degree incr$ible1 & only to be reject$ if ! improbability t any v>iety ( object exi/+ at ! p>ticul> place & "t %\ld n h be5 discov]$ soon]1 be great] ?an t ( error or m5dacity 9 ! witnesses4 ,accord+ly1 su* ass]tions1 :5 made by cr$ible p]sons1 & ( unexplor$ places1 are n disbeliev$1 b at mo/ reg>d$ z requir+ confirmation f subsequ5t obs]v]s2 unless ! alleg$ prop]ties ( ! suppos$ new ,k9d are at v>iance ) kn[n prop]ties ( "s l>g] k9d :i* includes x2 or1 9 o!r words1 unless1 9 ! new ,k9d :i* is ass]t$ to exi/1 "s prop]ties are said to h be5 f\nd disjo9$ f o!rs :i* h always be5 kn[n to accompany !m2 z 9 ! case ( ,pl9y's m51 or any o!r k9d ( animal ( a /ructure diff]5t f t :i* has always be5 f\nd to co-exi/ ) animal life4 ,on ! mode ( deal+ ) any su* case1 little ne$s be add$ to :at has be5 said on ! same topic 9 ! tw5ty-second *apt]47#bjc7 ,:5 ! uni=mities ( co-exi/5ce :i* ! alleg$ fact w\ld violate1 are su* z to raise a /rong presumption ( _! be+ ! result ( causation1 ! fact :i* conflicts ) !m is to be disbeliev$2 at lea/ provisionally1 & subject to fur!r inve/igation4 ,:5 ! presumption am\nts to a virtual c]ta9ty1 z 9 ! case ( ! g5]al /ructure ( organiz$ be+s1 ! only "q requir+ consid]ation is :e!r1 9 ph5om5a s little und]/ood1 !re may n be liabilities to c\nt]action f causes hi!rto unkn[n2 or :e!r ! ph5om5a may n be capable ( orig9at+ 9 "s o!r way1 :i* w\ld produce a diff]5t set ( d]ivative uni=mities4 ,:]e 7z 9 ! case ( ! fly+ fi%1 or ! orni?orhyn*us7 ! g5]alization to :i* ! alleg$ fact w\ld be an exception is v special & ( limit$ range1 nei!r ( ! above suppositions c be deem$ v improbable2 & x is g5]ally1 9 ! case ( su* alleg$ anomalies1 wise to susp5d our judgm5t1 p5d+ ! subsequ5t inquiries :i* w n fail to confirm ! ass]tion if x be true4 ,b :5 ! g5]alization is v compreh5sive1 embrac+ a va/ numb] & v>iety ( obs]vations1 & cov]+ a consid]able prov9ce ( ! doma9 ( nature2 !n1 = reasons :i* h be5 fully expla9$1 su* an empirical law comes ne> to ! c]ta9ty ( an asc]ta9$ law ( causation2 & any alleg$ exception to x c n be admitt$1 unless on ! evid5ce ( "s law ( causation prov$ by a /ill m complete induction4 ,su* uni=mities 9 ! c\rse ( nature z d n be> m>ks ( be+ ! results ( causation are1 z we h already se51 admissible z univ]sal tru?s ) a degree ( cr$5ce proportion$ to _! g5]ality4 ,^? :i* are true ( all ?+s :atev]1 or at lea/ :i* are totally indep5d5t ( ! v>ieties ( ,k9ds1 namely1 ! laws ( numb] & ext5sion1 to :i* we may add ! law ( causation itself1 are probably ! only ones1 an exception to :i* is absolutely & p]man5tly incr$ible4 ,accord+ly1 x is to ass]tions suppos$ to be contradictory to ^! laws1 or to "s o!rs com+ ne> to !m 9 g5]ality1 t ! ^w impossibility 7at lea/ total impossibility7 seems to be g5]ally conf9$4 ,violations ( o!r laws1 ( special laws ( causation1 = in/ance1 are said1 by p]sons /udi\s ( accuracy 9 expression1 to be impossible 9 ! circum/ances ( ! case2 or impossible unless "s cause _h exi/$ :i* did n exi/ 9 ! p>ticul> case47#bjd7 ,( no ass]tion1 n 9 contradiction to "s ( ^! v g5]al laws1 w m ?an improbability be ass]t$ by any cauti\s p]son2 & improbability n ( ! highe/ degree1 unless ! "t & place 9 :i* ! fact is said to h occurr$1 r5d] x almo/ c]ta9 t ! anomaly1 if real1 c\ld n h be5 ov]look$ by o!r obs]v]s4 ,susp5sion ( judgm5t is 9 all o!r cases ! res\rce ( ! judici\s inquir]2 provid$ ! te/imony 9 favor ( ! anomaly pres5ts1 :5 well sift$1 no suspici\s circum/ances4 ,b ! te/imony is sc>cely ev] f\nd to /& t te/1 9 cases 9 :i* ! anomaly is n real4 ,9 ! in/ances on record 9 :i* a great numb] ( witnesses1 ( good reputation & sci5tific acquirem5ts1 h te/ifi$ to ! tru? ( some?+ :i* has turn$ out untrue1 !re h almo/ always be5 circum/ances :i*1 to a ke5 obs]v] :o _h tak5 due pa9s to sift ! matt]1 w\ld h r5d]$ ! te/imony untru/wor?y4 ,!re h g5]ally be5 means ( acc\nt+ = ! impression on ! s5ses or m9ds ( ! alleg$ p]cipi5ts1 by fallaci\s appe>ances2 or "s epidemic delusion1 propagat$ by ! contagi\s influ5ce ( popul> feel+1 has be5 conc]n$ 9 ! case2 or "s /rong int]e/ has be5 implicat$--religi\s zeal1 p>ty feel+1 vanity1 or at lea/ ! passion = ! m>vel\s1 9 p]sons /rongly susceptible ( x4 ,:5 none ( ^! or simil> circum/ances exi/ to acc\nt = ! app>5t /r5g? ( ! te/imony2 & :]e ! ass]tion is n 9 contradiction ei!r to ^? univ]sal laws :i* "k no c\nt]action or anomaly1 or to ! g5]alizations next 9 compreh5siv5ess to !m1 b w\ld only am\nt1 if admitt$1 to ! exi/5ce ( an unkn[n cause or an anomal\s ,k9d1 9 circum/ances n s ?or\ghly explor$ b t x is cr$ible t ?+s hi!rto unkn[n may /ill come to light2 a cauti\s p]son w nei!r admit nor reject ! te/imony1 b w wait = confirmation at o!r times & f o!r unconnect$ s\rces4 ,su* ought to h be5 ! conduct ( ! ,k+ ( ,siam :5 ! ,dut* travel]s affirm$ to him ! exi/5ce ( ice4 ,b an ignorant p]son is z ob/9ate 9 8 contemptu\s incr$ulity z he is unreasonably cr$ul\s4 ,any ?+ unlike 8 own n>r[ exp]i5ce he disbelieves1 if x flatt]s no prop5sity2 any nurs]y tale is swall[$ implicitly by him if x does4 #d4 ,i %all n[ adv]t to a v s]i\s misappreh5sion ( ! pr9ciples ( ! subject1 :i* has be5 committ$ by "s ( ! writ]s aga9/ ,hume's ,essay on ,miracles1 & by ,bi%op ,butl] be=e !m1 9 _! anxiety to de/roy :at appe>$ to !m a =midable weapon ( assault aga9/ ! ,*ri/ian religion2 & ! effect ( :i* is entirely to conf\nd ! doctr9e ( ! ,gr\nds ( ,disbelief4 ,! mi/ake consi/s 9 ov]look+ ! di/9ction betwe5 7:at may be call$7 improbability be=e ! fact & improbability aft] x2 or 7s9ce1 z ,mr4 ,v5n rem>ks1 ! di/9ction ( pa/ & future is n ! mat]ial circum/ance7 betwe5 ! improbability ( a m]e guess be+ "r1 & ! improbability ( an alleg$ fact be+ true4 ,_m ev5ts are altoge!r improbable to u1 be=e !y h happ5$1 or be=e we are in=m$ ( _! happ5+1 :i* are n 9 ! lea/ incr$ible :5 we are in=m$ ( !m1 because n contr>y to any1 ev5 approximate1 induction4 ,9 ! ca/ ( a p]fectly fair die1 ! *ances are five to "o aga9/ ?r[+ ace1 t is1 ace w be ?r[n on an av]age only once 9 six ?r[s4 ,b ?is is no reason aga9/ believ+ t ace 0 ?r[n on a giv5 occasion1 if any cr$ible witness ass]ts x2 s9ce ?\gh ace is only ?r[n once 9 six times1 "s numb] :i* is only ?r[n once 9 six times mu/ h be5 ?r[n if ! die 0 ?r[n at all4 ,! improbability1 !n1 or1 9 o!r words1 ! unusualness1 ( any fact1 is no reason = disbeliev+ x1 if ! nature ( ! case r5d]s x c]ta9 t ei!r t or some?+ equally improbable1 t is1 equally unusual1 did happ54 ,nor is ?is all2 = ev5 if ! o!r five sides ( ! die 7 all twos1 or all ?rees1 yet z ace w\ld /ill1 on ! av]age1 come up once 9 e six ?r[s1 its com+ up 9 a giv5 ?r[ w\ld be n 9 any way contradictory to exp]i5ce4 ,if we disbeliev$ all facts :i* _h ! *ances aga9/ !m be=eh&1 we %\ld believe h>dly any ?+4 ,we are told t ,a4 ,b4 di$ ye/]day2 ! mom5t be=e we 7 s told1 ! *ances aga9/ 8 hav+ di$ on t day may h be5 t5 ?\s& to "o2 b s9ce he 0 c]ta9 to die at "s "t or o!r1 & :5 he di$ mu/ necess>ily die on "s p>ticul> day1 :ile ! prepond]ance ( *ances is v great aga9/ e day 9 p>ticul>1 exp]i5ce af=ds no gr\nd = discr$it+ any te/imony :i* may be produc$ to ! ev5t's hav+ tak5 place on a giv5 day4 ,yet x has be5 consid]$ by ,dr4 ,campbell & o!rs1 z a complete answ] to ,hume's doctr9e 7t ?+s are incr$ible :i* are contr>y to ! uni=m c\rse ( exp]i5ce71 t we d n disbelieve1 m]ely because ! *ances 7 aga9/ !m1 ?+s 9 /rict con=mity to ! uni=m c\rse ( exp]i5ce2 t we d n disbelieve an alleg$ fact m]ely because ! comb9ation ( causes on :i* x dep5ds occurs only once 9 a c]ta9 numb] ( times4 ,x is evid5t t :atev] is %[n by obs]vation1 or c be prov$ f laws ( nature1 to occur 9 a c]ta9 proportion 7h[ev] small7 ( ! :ole numb] ( possible cases1 is n contr>y to exp]i5ce2 ?\gh we are "r 9 disbeliev+ x1 if "s o!r supposition respect+ ! matt] 9 "q involves1 on ! :ole1 a less dep>ture f ! ord9>y c\rse ( ev5ts4 ,yet on su* gr\nds z ?is h able writ]s be5 l$ to ! extraord9>y conclusion1 t no?+ support$ by cr$ible te/imony ought ev] to be disbeliev$4 #e4 ,we h consid]$ two species ( ev5ts1 commonly said to be improbable2 "o k9d :i* are 9 no way extraord9>y1 b :i*1 hav+ an imm5se prepond]ance ( *ances aga9/ !m1 are improbable until !y are affirm$1 b no long]2 ano!r k9d :i*1 be+ contr>y to "s recogniz$ law ( nature1 are incr$ible on any am\nt ( te/imony except su* z w\ld be suffici5t to %ake our belief 9 ! law itself4 ,b betwe5 ^! two classes ( ev5ts1 !re is an int]m$iate class1 consi/+ ( :at are commonly t]m$ ,co9cid5ces3 9 o!r words1 ^? comb9ations ( *ances :i* pres5t "s peculi> & unexpect$ regul>ity1 assimilat+ !m1 9 s f>1 to ! results ( law4 ,z if1 = example1 9 a lott]y ( a ?\s& tickets1 ! numb]s %\ld be drawn 9 ! exact ord] ( :at are call$ ! natural numb]s1 #a1 #b1 #c1 etc4 ,we h /ill to consid] ! pr9ciples ( evid5ce applicable to ?is case3 :e!r !re is any diff]5ce betwe5 co9cid5ces & ord9>y ev5ts1 9 ! am\nt ( te/imony or o!r evid5ce necess>y to r5d] !m cr$ible4 ,x is c]ta9 t on e rational pr9ciple ( expectation1 a comb9ation ( ?is peculi> sort may be expect$ q z (t5 z any o!r giv5 s]ies ( a ?\s& numb]s2 t ) p]fectly fair dice1 sixes w be ?r[n twice1 ?rice1 or any numb] ( times 9 succession1 q z (t5 9 a ?\s& or a million ?r[s1 z any o!r succession ( numb]s fix$ ^u be=eh&2 & t no judici\s play] w\ld give great] odds aga9/ ! "o s]ies ?an aga9/ ! o!r4 ,not)/&+ ?is1 !re is a g5]al disposition to reg>d ! "o z mu* m improbable ?an ! o!r1 & z requir+ mu* /rong] evid5ce to make x cr$ible4 ,su* is ! =ce ( ?is impression1 t x has l$ "s ?9k]s to ! conclusion1 t nature has great] difficulty 9 produc+ regul> comb9ations ?an irregul> ones2 or 9 o!r words1 t !re is "s g5]al t5d5cy ( ?+s1 "s law1 :i* prev5ts regul> comb9ations f occurr+1 or at lea/ f occurr+ s (t5 z o!rs4 ,among ^! ?9k]s may be numb]$ ,d',alemb]t2 :o1 9 an ,essay on ,probabilities to be f\nd 9 ! fif? volume ( 8 ,mlanges1 cont5ds t regul> comb9ations1 ?\gh equally probable accord+ to ! ma!matical !ory ) any o!rs1 are physically less probable4 ,he appeals to common s5se1 or1 9 o!r words1 to common impressions2 say+1 if dice ?r[n repeat$ly 9 our pres5ce gave sixes e "t1 %\ld we n1 be=e ! numb] ( ?r[s _h rea*$ t5 7n to speak ( ?\s&s ( millions71 be ready to affirm1 ) ! mo/ positive conviction1 t ! dice 7 false8 ,! common & natural impression is 9 favor ( ,d',alemb]t3 ! regul> s]ies w\ld be ?\ght mu* m unlikely ?an an irregul>4 ,b ?is common impression is1 ,i appreh5d1 m]ely gr\nd$ on ! fact1 t sc>cely any body rememb]s to h ev] se5 "o ( ^! peculi> co9cid5ces3 ! reason ( :i* is simply t no "o's exp]i5ce ext5ds to any ?+ l ! numb] ( trials1 )9 :i* t or any o!r giv5 comb9ation ( ev5ts c be expect$ to happ54 ,! *ance ( sixes on a s+le ?r[ ( two dice be+ 1 ! *ance ( sixes t5 times 9 succession is #a divid$ by ! t5? p[] ( #cf2 9 o!r words1 su* a concurr5ce is only likely to happ5 once 9 #c1fef1aeh1ddj1jfb1igf trials1 a numb] :i* no dice-play]'s exp]i5ce comes up to a million? "p (4 ,b if1 in/ead ( sixes t5 times1 any o!r giv5 succession ( t5 ?r[s _h be5 fix$ ^u1 x w\ld h be5 exactly z unlikely t 9 any individual's exp]i5ce t p>ticul> succession _h ev] occurr$2 al?\gh ?is does n seem equally improbable1 because no "o w\ld be likely to h rememb]$ :e!r x _h occurr$ or n1 & because ! comp>ison is tacitly made1 n betwe5 sixes t5 times & any "o p>ticul> s]ies ( ?r[s1 b betwe5 all regul> & all irregul> successions tak5 toge!r4 ,t 7z ,d',alemb]t says7 if ! succession ( sixes 0 actually ?r[n be=e our eyes1 we %\ld ascribe x n to *ance1 b to unfairness 9 ! dice1 is unque/ionably true4 ,b ?is arises f a totally diff]5t pr9ciple4 ,we %\ld !n be consid]+1 n ! probability ( ! fact 9 itself1 b ! comp>ative probability ) :i*1 :5 x is kn[n to h happ5$1 x may be ref]r$ to "o or to ano!r cause4 ,! regul> s]ies is n at all less likely ?an ! irregul> "o to be br\ght ab\t by *ance1 b x is mu* m likely ?an ! irregul> "o to be produc$ by design2 or by "s g5]al cause op]at+ ?r\gh ! /ructure ( ! dice4 ,x is ! nature ( casual comb9ations to produce a repetition ( ! same ev5t1 z (t5 & no (t5] ?an any o!r s]ies ( ev5ts4 ,b x is ! nature ( g5]al causes to reproduce1 9 ! same circum/ances1 always ! same ev5t4 ,common s5se & sci5ce alike dictate t1 all o!r ?+s be+ ! same1 we %\ld r attribute ! effect to a cause :i* if real w\ld be v likely to produce x1 ?an to a cause :i* w\ld be v unlikely to produce x4 ,accord+ to ,laplace's six? !orem1 :i* we demon/rat$ 9 a =m] *apt]1 ! diff]5ce ( probability aris+ f ! sup]ior efficacy ( ! con/ant cause1 unfairness 9 ! dice1 w\ld aft] a v few ?r[s f> outweigh any antec$5t probability :i* !re c\ld be aga9/ its exi/5ce4 ,d',alemb]t %\ld h put ! "q 9 ano!r mann]4 ,he %\ld h suppos$ t we _h ourselves previ\sly tri$ ! dice1 & knew by ample exp]i5ce t !y 7 fair4 ,ano!r p]son !n tries !m 9 our abs5ce1 & assures u t he ?rew sixes t5 times 9 succession4 ,is ! ass]tion cr$ible or n8 ,"h ! effect to be acc\nt$ = is n ! occurr5ce itself1 b ! fact ( ! witness's ass]t+ x4 ,?is may arise ei!r f its hav+ really happ5$1 or f "s o!r cause4 ,:at we h to e/imate is ! comp>ative probability ( ^! two suppositions4 ,if ! witness affirm$ t he _h ?r[n any o!r s]ies ( numb]s1 suppos+ him to be a p]son ( v]acity1 & tol]able accuracy1 & to pr(ess t he took p>ticul> notice1 we %\ld believe him4 ,b ! t5 sixes are exactly z likely to h be5 really ?r[n z ! o!r s]ies4 ,if1 !re=e1 ?is ass]tion is less cr$ible ?an ! o!r1 ! reason mu/ be1 n t x is less likely ?an ! o!r to be made truly1 b t x is m likely ?an ! o!r to be made falsely4 ,"o reason obvi\sly pres5ts itself :y :at is call$ a co9cid5ce1 %\ld be (t5] ass]t$ falsely ?an an ord9>y comb9ation4 ,x excites wond]4 ,x gratifies ! love ( ! m>vel\s4 ,! motives1 !re=e1 to falsehood1 "o ( ! mo/ frequ5t ( :i* is ! desire to a/oni%1 op]ate m /rongly 9 favor ( ?is k9d ( ass]tion ?an ( ! o!r k9d4 ,?us f> !re is evid5tly m reason = discr$it+ an alleg$ co9cid5ce1 ?an a /atem5t 9 itself n m probable1 b :i* if made w\ld n be ?\ght rem>kable4 ,!re are cases1 h[ev]1 9 :i* ! presumption on ?is gr\nd w\ld be ! o!r way4 ,!re are "s witnesses :o1 ! m extraord9>y an occurr5ce might appe>1 w\ld be ! m anxi\s to v]ify x by ! utmo/ c>efulness ( obs]vation be=e !y w\ld v5ture to believe x1 & /ill m be=e !y w\ld ass]t x to o!rs4 #f4 ,indep5d5tly1 h[ev]1 ( any peculi> *ances ( m5dacity aris+ f ! nature ( ! ass]tion1 ,laplace cont5ds1 t m]ely on ! g5]al gr\nd ( ! fallibility ( te/imony1 a co9cid5ce is n cr$ible on ! same am\nt ( te/imony on :i* we %\ld be w>rant$ 9 believ+ an ord9>y comb9ation ( ev5ts4 ,9 ord] to d ju/ice to 8 argum5t1 x is necess>y to illu/rate x by ! example *os5 by himself4 ,if1 says ,laplace1 !re 7 "o ?\s& tickets 9 a box1 & "o only has be5 drawn out1 !n if an eye-witness affirms t ! numb] drawn 0 #gi1 ?is1 ?\gh ! *ances 7 #iii 9 #ajjj aga9/ x1 is n on t acc\nt ! less cr$ible2 its cr$ibility is equal to ! antec$5t probability ( ! witness's v]acity4 ,b if !re 7 9 ! box #iii black balls & only "o :ite1 & ! witness affirms t ! :ite ball 0 drawn1 ! case accord+ to ,laplace is v diff]5t3 ! cr$ibility ( 8 ass]tion is b a small fraction ( :at x 0 9 ! =m] case2 ! reason ( ! diff]5ce be+ z foll[s3 ,! witnesses ( :om we are speak+ mu/1 f ! nature ( ! case1 be ( a k9d ^: cr$ibility falls mat]ially %ort ( c]ta9ty2 let u suppose1 !n1 ! cr$ibility ( ! witness 9 ! case 9 "q to be 2 t is1 let u suppose t 9 e t5 /atem5ts :i* ! witness makes1 n9e on an av]age are correct1 & "o incorrect4 ,let u n[ suppose t !re h tak5 place a suffici5t numb] ( draw+s to exhau/ all ! possible comb9ations1 ! witness depos+ 9 e "o4 ,9 "o case out ( e t5 9 all ^! draw+s he w actually h made a false ann\ncem5t4 ,b 9 ! case ( ! ?\s& tickets ^! false ann\ncem5ts w h be5 di/ribut$ imp>tially ov] all ! numb]s1 & ( ! #iii cases 9 :i* ,no4 #gi 0 n drawn1 !re w h be5 only "o case 9 :i* x 0 ann\nc$4 ,on ! contr>y1 9 ! case ( ! ?\s& balls 7! ann\ncem5t be+ always ei!r 8black0 or 8:ite071 if :ite 0 n drawn1 & !re 0 a false ann\ncem5t1 t false ann\ncem5t mu/ h be5 :ite2 & s9ce by ! supposition !re 0 a false ann\ncem5t once 9 e t5 times1 :ite w h be5 ann\nc$ falsely 9 "o-t5? "p ( all ! cases 9 :i* x 0 n drawn1 t is1 9 "o-t5? "p ( #iii cases out ( e ?\s&4 ,:ite1 !n1 is drawn1 on an av]age1 exactly z (t5 z ,no4 #gi1 b x is ann\nc$1 )\t hav+ be5 really drawn1 #iii times z (t5 z ,no4 #gi2 ! ann\ncem5t1 !re=e1 requires a mu* great] am\nt ( te/imony to r5d] x cr$ible47#bje7 ,to make ?is argum5t valid x mu/ ( c\rse be suppos$1 t ! ann\ncem5ts made by ! witness are av]age specim5s ( 8 g5]al v]acity & accuracy2 or1 at lea/1 t !y are nei!r m nor less s 9 ! case ( ! black & :ite balls1 ?an 9 ! case ( ! ?\s& tickets4 ,?is assumption1 h[ev]1 is n w>rant$4 ,a p]son is f> less likely to mi/ake1 :o has only "o =m ( error to gu>d aga9/1 ?an if he _h #iii diff]5t errors to avoid4 ,= in/ance1 9 ! example *os51 a mess5g] :o might make a mi/ake once 9 t5 times 9 report+ ! numb] drawn 9 a lott]y1 might n err once 9 a ?\s& times if s5t simply to obs]ve :e!r a ball 0 black or :ite4 ,laplace's argum5t1 !re=e1 is faulty ev5 z appli$ to 8 own case4 ,/ill less c t case be receiv$ z completely repres5t+ all cases ( co9cid5ce4 ,laplace has s contriv$ 8 example1 t ?\gh black answ]s to #iii di/9ct possibilities1 & :ite only to "o1 ! witness has nev]!less no bias :i* c make him pref] black to :ite4 ,! witness did n "k t !re 7 #iii black balls 9 ! box & only "o :ite2 or if he did1 ,laplace has tak5 c>e to make all ! #iii cases s undi/+ui%ably alike1 t !re is h>dly a possibility ( any cause ( falsehood or error op]at+ 9 favor ( any ( !m1 :i* w\ld n op]ate 9 ! same mann] if !re 7 only "o4 ,alt] ?is supposition1 & ! :ole argum5t falls to ! gr\nd4 ,let ! balls1 = in/ance1 be numb]$1 & let ! :ite ball be ,no4 #gi4 ,consid]$ 9 respect ( _! color1 !re are b two ?+s :i* ! witness c be int]e/$ 9 ass]t+1 or c h dream$ or halluc9at$1 or has to *oose f if he answ]s at r&om1 viz41 black & :ite2 b consid]$ 9 respect ( ! numb]s atta*$ to !m1 !re are a ?\s&2 & if 8 int]e/ or error happ5s to be connect$ ) ! numb]s1 ?\gh ! only ass]tion he makes is ab\t ! color1 ! case becomes precisely assimilat$ to t ( ! ?\s& tickets4 ,or in/ead ( ! balls suppose a lott]y1 ) #ajjj tickets & b "o prize1 & t ,i hold ,no4 #gi1 & be+ int]e/$ only 9 t1 ask ! witness n :at 0 ! numb] drawn1 b :e!r x 0 #gi or "s o!r4 ,!re are n[ only two cases1 z 9 ,laplace's example2 yet he surely w\ld n say t if ! witness answ]$ #gi1 ! ass]tion w\ld be 9 an enorm\s proportion less cr$ible1 ?an if he made ! same answ] to ! same "q ask$ 9 ! o!r way4 ,if1 = in/ance 7to put a case suppos$ by ,laplace himself71 he has /ak$ a l>ge sum on "o ( ! *ances1 & ?9ks t by ann\nc+ its occurr5ce he %all increase 8 cr$it2 he is equally likely to h bett$ on any "o ( ! #iii numb]s :i* are atta*$ to black balls1 & s f> z ! *ances ( m5dacity f ?is cause are conc]n$1 !re w be #iii times z _m *ances ( 8 ann\nc+ black falsely z :ite4 ,or suppose a regim5t ( #ajjj m51 #iii ,engli%m5 & "o ,fr5*man1 & t ( ^! "o man has be5 kill$1 & x is n kn[n :i*4 ,i ask ! "q1 & ! witness answ]s1 ! ,fr5*man4 ,?is 0 n only z improbable a priori1 b is 9 itself z s+ul> a circum/ance1 z rem>kable a co9cid5ce1 z ! draw+ ( ! :ite ball2 yet we %\ld believe ! /atem5t z readily1 z if ! answ] _h be5 ,john ,?ompson4 ,because1 ?\gh ! #iii ,engli%m5 7 all alike 9 ! po9t 9 :i* !y diff]$ f ! ,fr5*man1 !y 7 n1 l ! #iii black balls1 undi/+ui%able 9 e o!r respect2 b be+ all diff]5t1 !y admitt$ z _m *ances ( int]e/ or error1 z if ea* man _h be5 ( a diff]5t nation2 & if a lie 0 told or a mi/ake made1 ! mis/atem5t 0 z likely to fall on any ,jones or ,?ompson ( ! set1 z on ! ,fr5*man4 ,! example ( a co9cid5ce select$ by ,d',alemb]t1 t ( sixes ?r[n on a pair ( dice t5 times 9 succession1 belongs to ?is sort ( cases r ?an to su* z ,laplace's4 ,! co9cid5ce is "h f> m rem>kable1 because ( f> r>] occurr5ce1 ?an ! draw+ ( ! :ite ball4 ,b ?\gh ! improbability ( its really occurr+ is great]1 ! sup]ior probability ( its be+ ann\nc$ falsely c n be e/abli%$ ) ! same evid5ce4 ,! ann\ncem5t 8black0 repres5t$ #iii cases1 b ! witness may n h kn[n ?is1 & if he did1 ! #iii cases are s exactly alike1 t !re is really only "o set ( possible causes ( m5dacity correspond+ to ! :ole4 ,! ann\ncem5t 8sixes n drawn t5 times10 repres5ts1 & is kn[n by ! witness to repres5t1 a great multitude ( cont+5cies1 e "o ( :i* be+ unlike e o!r1 !re may be a diff]5t & a fre% set ( causes ( m5dacity correspond+ to ea*4 ,x appe>s to me1 !re=e1 t ,laplace's doctr9e is n /rictly true ( any co9cid5ces1 & is :olly inapplicable to mo/2 & t to "k :e!r a co9cid5ce does or does n require m evid5ce to r5d] x cr$ible ?an an ord9>y ev5t1 we mu/ ref]1 9 e in/ance1 to fir/ pr9ciples1 & e/imate afre% :at is ! probability t ! giv5 te/imony w\ld h be5 deliv]$ 9 t in/ance1 suppos+ ! fact :i* x ass]ts n to be true4 ,) ^! rem>ks we close ! discussion ( ! ,gr\nds ( ,disbelief2 & along ) x1 su* exposition z space admits1 & z ! writ] has x 9 8 p[] to furni%1 ( ! ,logic ( ,induction4 ,book ,,iv4 ,,( ,,op]ations ,,subsidi>y ,,to ,,induction4 8,cle> & di/9ct ideas are t]ms :i*1 ?\gh famili> & frequ5t 9 m5's m\?s1 ,i h reason to ?9k e "o :o uses does n p]fectly und]/&4 ,& possibly x is b "h & !re "o :o gives himself ! tr\ble to consid] !m s f> z to "k :at he himself or o!rs precisely mean by !m2 ,i h1 !re=e1 9 mo/ places1 *ose to put det]m9ate or det]m9$1 in/ead ( cle> & di/9ct1 z m likely to direct m5's ?\ghts to my mean+ 9 ?is matt]40--,,locke',s ,essay on ! ,human ,und]/&+2 ,epi/le to ! ,read]4 8,il ne peut y avoir qu'une m?ode p>faite1 qui e/ la m?ode naturelle2 on nomme a9si un arrangem5t dans lequel les tres du mme g5re s]ai5t plus vois9s entre eux que ceux de t\s les autres g5res2 les g5res du mme ordre1 plus que ceux de t\s les autres ordres2 et a9si de suite4 ,cette m?ode e/ l'idal auquel l'hi/oire naturelle doit t5dre2 c> il e/ vid5t que si l'on y p>v5ait1 l'on aurait l'expression exacte et complte de la nature entire40--,,cuvi]1 ,rgne ,animal1 ,introduction4 8,deux gr&es notions philosophiques dom95t la ?orie fondam5tale de la m?ode naturelle proprem5t dite1 savoir la =mation des gr\pes naturels1 et ensuite leur succession hir>*ique40--,,comte1 ,c\rs de ,philosophie ,positive1 #dbme leon4 ,*apt] ,i4 ,( ,obs]vation ,& ,description4 #a4 ,! inquiry :i* occupi$ u 9 ! two prec$+ ,books1 has conduct$ u to :at appe>s a satisfactory solution ( ! pr9cipal problem ( ,logic1 accord+ to ! conception ,i h =m$ ( ! sci5ce4 ,we h f\nd1 t ! m5tal process ) :i* ,logic is conv]sant1 ! op]ation ( asc]ta9+ tru?s by means ( evid5ce1 is always1 ev5 :5 appe>ances po9t to a diff]5t !ory ( x1 a process ( induction4 ,& we h p>ticul>iz$ ! v>i\s modes ( induction1 & obta9$ a cle> view ( ! pr9ciples to :i* x mu/ con=m1 9 ord] to lead to results :i* c be reli$ on4 ,! consid]ation ( ,induction1 h[ev]1 does n end ) ! direct rules = its p]=mance4 ,some?+ mu/ be said ( ^? o!r op]ations ( ! m9d1 :i* are ei!r necess>ily presuppos$ 9 all induction1 or are in/rum5tal to ! m difficult & complicat$ inductive processes4 ,! pres5t ,book w be devot$ to ! consid]ation ( ^! subsidi>y op]ations2 among :i* our att5tion mu/ fir/ be giv5 to ^?1 :i* are indisp5sable prelim9>ies to all induction :atsoev]4 ,induction be+ m]ely ! ext5sion to a class ( cases1 ( some?+ :i* has be5 obs]v$ to be true 9 c]ta9 individual in/ances ( ! class2 ! fir/ place among ! op]ations subsidi>y to induction1 is claim$ by ,obs]vation4 ,?is is n1 h[ev]1 ! place to lay d[n rules = mak+ good obs]v]s2 nor is x )9 ! compet5ce ( ,logic to d s1 b ( ! art ( intellectual ,education4 ,our bus9ess ) obs]vation is only 9 its connection ) ! appropriate problem ( logic1 ! e/imation ( evid5ce4 ,we h to consid]1 n h[ or :at to obs]ve1 b "u :at conditions obs]vation is to be reli$ on2 :at is ne$ful1 9 ord] t ! fact1 suppos$ to be obs]v$1 may safely be receiv$ z true4 #b4 ,! answ] to ?is "q is v simple1 at lea/ 9 its fir/ aspect4 ,! sole condition is1 t :at is suppos$ to h be5 obs]v$ %all really h be5 obs]v$2 t x be an obs]vation1 n an inf]5ce4 ,= 9 almo/ e act ( our p]ceiv+ faculties1 obs]vation & inf]5ce are intimately bl5d$4 ,:at we are said to obs]ve is usually a comp\nd result1 ( :i* "o-t5? may be obs]vation1 & ! rema9+ n9e-t5?s inf]5ce4 ,i affirm1 = example1 t ,i he> a man's voice4 ,?is w\ld pass1 9 common language1 = a direct p]ception4 ,all1 h[ev]1 :i* is really p]ception1 is t ,i he> a s\nd4 ,t ! s\nd is a voice1 & t voice ! voice ( a man1 are n p]ceptions b inf]5ces4 ,i affirm1 aga91 t ,i saw my bro!r at a c]ta9 h\r ?is morn+4 ,if any proposition conc]n+ a matt] ( fact w\ld commonly be said to be kn[n by ! direct te/imony ( ! s5ses1 ?is surely w\ld be s4 ,! tru?1 h[ev]1 is f> o!rwise4 ,i only saw a c]ta9 color$ surface2 or r ,i _h ! k9d ( visual s5sations :i* are usually produc$ by a color$ surface2 & f ^! z m>ks1 kn[n to be su* by previ\s exp]i5ce1 ,i conclud$ t ,i saw my bro!r4 ,i might h _h s5sations precisely simil>1 :5 my bro!r 0 n !re4 ,i might h se5 "s o!r p]son s ne>ly resembl+ him 9 appe>ance1 z1 at ! di/ance1 &1 ) ! degree ( att5tion :i* ,i be/[$1 to be mi/ak5 = him4 ,i might h be5 asleep1 & h dream$ t ,i saw him2 or 9 a /ate ( n]v\s disord]1 :i* br\ght 8 image be=e me 9 a wak+ halluc9ation4 ,9 all ^! modes1 _m h be5 l$ to believe t !y saw p]sons well kn[n to !m1 :o 7 dead or f> di/ant4 ,if any ( ^! suppositions _h be5 true1 ! affirmation t ,i saw my bro!r w\ld h be5 errone\s2 b :atev] 0 matt] ( direct p]ception1 namely ! visual s5sations1 w\ld h be5 real4 ,! inf]5ce only w\ld h be5 ill gr\nd$2 ,i %\ld h ascrib$ ^? s5sations to a wrong cause4 ,innum]able in/ances might be giv51 & analyz$ 9 ! same mann]1 ( :at are vulg>ly call$ errors ( s5se4 ,!re are none ( !m prop]ly errors ( s5se2 !y are errone\s inf]5ces f s5se4 ,:5 ,i look at a c&le ?r\gh a multiply+ glass1 ,i see :at seems a doz5 c&les in/ead ( "o2 & if ! real circum/ances ( ! case 7 skillfully disguis$1 ,i might suppose t !re 7 really t numb]2 !re w\ld be :at is call$ an optical deception4 ,9 ! kaleidoscope !re really is t deception2 :5 ,i look ?r\gh ! in/rum5t1 in/ead ( :at is actually !re1 namely a casual arrangem5t ( color$ fragm5ts1 ! appe>ance pres5t$ is t ( ! same comb9ation sev]al times repeat$ 9 symmetrical arrangem5t r\nd a po9t4 ,! delusion is ( c\rse effect$ by giv+ me ! same s5sations :i* ,i %\ld h _h if su* a symmetrical comb9ation _h really be5 pres5t$ to me4 ,if ,i cross two ( my f+]s1 & br+ any small object1 a m>ble = in/ance1 into contact ) bo?1 at po9ts n usually t\*$ simultane\sly by "o object1 ,i c h>dly1 if my eyes are %ut1 help believ+ t !re are two m>bles in/ead ( "o4 ,b x is n my t\* 9 ?is case1 nor my sight 9 ! o!r1 :i* is deceiv$2 ! deception1 :e!r durable or only mom5t>y1 is 9 my judgm5t4 ,f my s5ses ,i h only ! s5sations1 & ^? are g5u9e4 ,be+ accu/om$ to h ^? or simil> s5sations :51 & only :51 a c]ta9 arrangem5t ( outw>d objects is pres5t to my organs1 ,i h ! habit ( in/antly1 :5 ,i exp]i5ce ! s5sations1 inf]r+ ! exi/5ce ( t /ate ( outw>d ?+s4 ,?is habit has become s p[]ful1 t ! inf]5ce1 p]=m$ ) ! spe$ & c]ta9ty ( an in/9ct1 is conf\nd$ ) intuitive p]ceptions4 ,:5 x is correct1 ,i am unconsci\s t x ev] ne$$ pro(2 ev5 :5 ,i "k x to be incorrect1 ,i c n )\t consid]able ef=t ab/a9 f mak+ x4 ,9 ord] to be aw>e t x is n made by in/9ct b by an acquir$ habit1 ,i am oblig$ to reflect on ! sl[ process ?r\gh :i* ,i le>n$ to judge by ! eye ( _m ?+s :i* ,i n[ appe> to p]ceive directly by sight2 & on ! rev]se op]ation p]=m$ by p]sons le>n+ to draw1 :o ) difficulty & labor dive/ !mselves ( _! acquir$ p]ceptions1 & le>n afre% to see ?+s z !y appe> to ! eye4 ,x w\ld be easy to prolong ^! illu/rations1 7 !re any ne$ to expatiate on a topic s copi\sly exemplifi$ 9 v>i\s popul> works4 ,f ! examples already giv51 x is se5 suffici5tly1 t ! individual facts f :i* we collect our inductive g5]alizations are sc>cely ev] obta9$ by obs]vation alone4 ,obs]vation ext5ds only to ! s5sations by :i* we recognize objects2 b ! propositions :i* we make use (1 ei!r 9 sci5ce or 9 common life1 relate mo/ly to ! objects !mselves4 ,9 e act ( :at is call$ obs]vation1 !re is at lea/ "o inf]5ce--f ! s5sations to ! pres5ce ( ! object2 f ! m>ks or diagno/ics1 to ! entire ph5om5on4 ,& h5ce1 among o!r consequ5ces1 foll[s ! seem+ p>adox1 t a g5]al proposition collect$ f p>ticul>s is (t5 m c]ta9ly true ?an any "o ( ! p>ticul> propositions f :i*1 by an act ( induction1 x 0 inf]r$4 ,=1 ea* ( ^? p>ticul> 7or r s+ul>7 propositions involv$ an inf]5ce1 f ! impression on ! s5ses to ! fact :i* caus$ t impression2 & ?is inf]5ce may h be5 errone\s 9 any "o ( ! in/ances1 b c n well h be5 errone\s 9 all ( !m1 provid$ _! numb] 0 suffici5t to elim9ate *ance4 ,! conclusion1 !re=e1 t is1 ! g5]al proposition1 may des]ve m complete reliance ?an x w\ld be safe to repose 9 any "o ( ! inductive premises4 ,! logic ( obs]vation1 !n1 consi/s solely 9 a correct discrim9ation betwe5 t1 9 a result ( obs]vation1 :i* has really be5 p]ceiv$1 & t :i* is an inf]5ce f ! p]ception4 ,:atev] portion is inf]5ce1 is am5able to ! rules ( induction already treat$ (1 & requires no fur!r notice "h2 ! "q = u 9 ?is place is1 :5 all :i* is inf]5ce is tak5 away :at rema9s8 ,!re rema9s1 9 ! fir/ place1 ! m9d's own feel+s or /ates ( consci\sness1 namely1 its outw>d feel+s or s5sations1 & its inw>d feel+s--its ?\ghts1 emotions1 & volitions4 ,:e!r any ?+ else rema9s1 or all else is inf]5ce f ?is2 :e!r ! m9d is capable ( directly p]ceiv+ or appreh5d+ any ?+ except /ates ( its own consci\sness--is a problem ( metaphysics n to be discuss$ 9 ?is place4 ,b aft] exclud+ all que/ions on :i* metaphysicians diff]1 x rema9s true1 t = mo/ purposes ! discrim9ation we are call$ ^u practically to ex]cise is t betwe5 s5sations or o!r feel+s1 ( our own or ( o!r p1 & inf]5ces drawn f !m4 ,& on ! !ory ( ,obs]vation ?is is all :i* seems necess>y to be said = ! purposes ( ! pres5t "w4 #c4 ,if1 9 ! simple/ obs]vation1 or 9 :at passes = su*1 !re is a l>ge "p :i* is n obs]vation b some?+ else2 s 9 ! simple/ description ( an obs]vation1 !re is1 & mu/ always be1 mu* m ass]t$ ?an is conta9$ 9 ! p]ception itself4 ,we c n describe a fact1 )\t imply+ m ?an ! fact4 ,! p]ception is only ( "o individual ?+2 b to describe x is to affirm a connection betwe5 x & e o!r ?+ :i* is ei!r d5ot$ or connot$ by any ( ! t]ms us$4 ,to beg9 ) an example1 ?an :i* none c be conceiv$ m elem5t>y3 ,i h a s5sation ( sight1 & ,i endeavor to describe x by say+ t ,i see some?+ :ite4 ,9 say+ ?is1 ,i d n solely affirm my s5sation2 ,i also class x4 ,i ass]t a resemblance betwe5 ! ?+ ,i see1 & all ?+s :i* ,i & o!rs are accu/om$ to call :ite4 ,i ass]t t x resembles !m 9 ! circum/ance 9 :i* !y all resemble "o ano!r1 9 t :i* is ! gr\nd ( _! be+ call$ by ! "n4 ,?is is n m]ely "o way ( describ+ an obs]vation1 b ! only way4 ,if ,i w\ld ei!r regi/] my obs]vation = my own future use1 or make x kn[n = ! b5efit ( o!rs1 ,i mu/ ass]t a resemblance betwe5 ! fact :i* ,i h obs]v$ & some?+ else4 ,x is inh]5t 9 a description1 to be ! /atem5t ( a resemblance1 or resemblances4 ,we ?us see t x is impossible to express 9 words any result ( obs]vation1 )\t p]=m+ an act possess+ :at ,dr4 ,:ewell consid]s to be *>act]i/ic ( ,induction4 ,!re is always some?+ introduc$ :i* 0 n includ$ 9 ! obs]vation itself2 "s conception common to ! ph5om5on ) o!r ph5om5a to :i* x is comp>$4 ,an obs]vation c n be spok5 ( 9 language at all )\t decl>+ m ?an t "o obs]vation2 )\t assimilat+ x to o!r ph5om5a already obs]v$ & classifi$4 ,b ?is id5tification ( an object--?is recognition ( x z possess+ c]ta9 kn[n *>act]i/ics--has nev] be5 conf\nd$ ) ,induction4 ,x is an op]ation :i* prec$es all induction1 & supplies x ) its mat]ials4 ,x is a p]ception ( resemblances1 obta9$ by comp>ison4 ,^! resemblances are n always appreh5d$ directly1 by m]ely comp>+ ! object obs]v$ ) "s o!r pres5t object1 or ) our recollection ( an object :i* is abs5t4 ,!y are (t5 asc]ta9$ ?r\gh int]m$iate m>ks1 t is1 d$uctively4 ,9 describ+ "s new k9d ( animal1 suppose me to say t x measures t5 feet 9 l5g?1 f ! =ehead to ! extremity ( ! tail4 ,i did n asc]ta9 ?is by ! unassi/$ eye4 ,i _h a two-foot rule :i* ,i appli$ to ! object1 &1 z we commonly say1 measur$ x2 an op]ation :i* 0 n :olly manual1 b p>tly also ma!matical1 involv+ ! two propositions1 ,five times two is t51 & ,?+s :i* are equal to ! same ?+ are equal to "o ano!r4 ,h5ce1 ! fact t ! animal is t5 feet long is n an imm$iate p]ception1 b a conclusion f reason+2 ! m9or premises alone be+ furni%$ by obs]vation ( ! object4 ,nev]!less1 ?is is call$ an obs]vation1 or a description ( ! animal1 n an induction respect+ x4 ,to pass at once f a v simple to a v complex example3 ,i affirm t ! e>? is globul>4 ,! ass]tion is n gr\nd$ on direct p]ception2 = ! figure ( ! e>? c n1 by u1 be directly p]ceiv$1 ?\gh ! ass]tion w\ld n be true unless circum/ances c\ld be suppos$ "u :i* its tru? c\ld be s p]ceiv$4 ,t ! =m ( ! e>? is globul> is inf]r$ f c]ta9 m>ks1 z = in/ance f ?is1 t its %ad[ ?r[n ^u ! moon is circul>2 or ?is1 t on ! sea1 or any ext5sive pla91 our horizon is always a circle2 ei!r ( :i* m>ks is incompatible ) any o!r ?an a globul> =m4 ,i ass]t fur!r1 t ! e>? is t p>ticul> k9d ( a globe :i* is t]m$ an oblate sph]oid2 because x is f\nd by measurem5t 9 ! direction ( ! m]idian1 t ! l5g? on ! surface ( ! e>? :i* subt5ds a giv5 angle at its c5tre1 dim9i%es z we rec$e f ! equator & approa* ! poles4 ,b ^! propositions1 t ! e>? is globul>1 & t x is an oblate sph]oid1 ass]t1 ea* ( !m1 an individual fact2 9 its own nature capable ( be+ p]ceiv$ by ! s5ses :5 ! requisite organs & ! necess>y position are suppos$1 & only n actually p]ceiv$ because ^? organs & t position are want+4 ,?is id5tification ( ! e>?1 fir/ z a globe1 & next z an oblate sph]oid1 :i*1 if ! fact c\ld h be5 se51 w\ld h be5 call$ a description ( ! figure ( ! e>?1 may )\t impropriety be s call$ :51 in/ead ( be+ se51 x is inf]r$4 ,b we c\ld n )\t impropriety call ei!r ( ^! ass]tions an induction f facts respect+ ! e>?4 ,!y are n g5]al propositions collect$ f p>ticul> facts1 b p>ticul> facts d$uc$ f g5]al propositions4 ,!y are conclusions obta9$ d$uctively1 f premises orig9at+ 9 induction3 b ( ^! premises "s 7 n obta9$ by obs]vation ( ! e>?1 nor _h any peculi> ref]5ce to x4 ,if1 !n1 ! tru? respect+ ! figure ( ! e>? is n an induction1 :y %\ld ! tru? respect+ ! figure ( ! e>?'s orbit be s8 ,! two cases only diff] 9 ?is1 t ! =m ( ! orbit 0 n1 l ! =m ( ! e>? itself1 d$uc$ by ratioc9ation f facts :i* 7 m>ks ( ellipticity1 b 0 got at by boldly guess+ t ! pa? 0 an ellipse1 & f9d+ aft]w>d1 on exam9ation1 t ! obs]vations 7 9 h>mony ) ! hypo!sis4 ,accord+ to ,dr4 ,:ewell1 h[ev]1 ?is process ( guess+ & v]ify+ our guesses is n only induction1 b ! :ole ( induction3 no o!r exposition c be giv5 ( t logical op]ation4 ,t he is wrong 9 ! latt] ass]tion1 ! :ole ( ! prec$+ book has1 ,i hope1 suffici5tly prov$2 & t ! process by :i* ! ellipticity ( ! planet>y orbits 0 asc]ta9$1 is n induction at all1 0 attempt$ to be %[n 9 ! second *apt] ( ! same ,book47#bjf7 ,we are n[1 h[ev]1 prep>$ to g m into ! he>t ( ! matt] ?an at t e>li] p]iod ( our inquiry1 & to %[1 n m]ely :at ! op]ation 9 "q is n1 b :at x is4 #d4 ,we obs]v$1 9 ! second *apt]1 t ! proposition 8! e>? moves 9 an ellipse10 s f> z x only s]ves = ! colligation or connect+ toge!r ( actual obs]vations 7t is1 z x only affirms t ! obs]v$ positions ( ! e>? may be correctly repres5t$ by z _m po9ts 9 ! circumf]5ce ( an imag9>y ellipse71 is n an induction1 b a description3 x is an induction1 only :5 x affirms t ! int]m$iate positions1 ( :i* !re has be5 no direct obs]vation1 w\ld be f\nd to correspond to ! rema9+ po9ts ( ! same elliptic circumf]5ce4 ,n[1 ?\gh ?is real induction is "o ?+1 & ! description ano!r1 we are 9 a v diff]5t condition = mak+ ! induction be=e we h obta9$ ! description1 & aft] x4 ,= inasmu* z ! description1 l all o!r descriptions1 conta9s ! ass]tion ( a resemblance betwe5 ! ph5om5on describ$ & some?+ else2 9 po9t+ out some?+ :i* ! s]ies ( obs]v$ places ( a planet resembles1 x po9ts out some?+ 9 :i* ! sev]al places !mselves agree4 ,if ! s]ies ( places correspond to z _m po9ts ( an ellipse1 ! places !mselves agree 9 be+ situat$ 9 t ellipse4 ,we h1 !re=e1 by ! same process :i* gave u ! description1 obta9$ ! requisites = an induction by ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t4 ,! successive obs]v$ places ( ! e>? be+ consid]$ z effects1 & its motion z ! cause :i* produces !m1 we f9d t ^? effects1 t is1 ^? places1 agree 9 ! circum/ance ( be+ 9 an ellipse4 ,we conclude t ! rema9+ effects1 ! places :i* h n be5 obs]v$1 agree 9 ! same circum/ance1 & t ! law ( ! motion ( ! e>? is motion 9 an ellipse4 ,! ,colligation ( ,facts1 !re=e1 by means ( hypo!ses1 or1 z ,dr4 ,:ewell pref]s to say1 by means ( ,conceptions1 in/ead ( be+1 z he supposes1 ,induction itself1 takes its prop] place among op]ations subsidi>y to ,induction4 ,all ,induction supposes t we h previ\sly comp>$ ! requisite numb] ( individual in/ances1 & asc]ta9$ 9 :at circum/ances !y agree4 ,! ,colligation ( ,facts is no o!r ?an ?is prelim9>y op]ation4 ,:5 ,kepl]1 aft] va9ly endeavor+ to connect ! obs]v$ places ( a planet by v>i\s hypo!ses ( circul> motion1 at la/ tri$ ! hypo!ses ( an ellipse & f\nd x answ] to ! ph5om5a2 :at he really attempt$1 fir/ unsuccessfully & at la/ successfully1 0 to discov] ! circum/ance 9 :i* all ! obs]v$ positions ( ! planet agre$4 ,& :5 he 9 l mann] connect$ ano!r set ( obs]v$ facts1 ! p]iodic times ( ! diff]5t planets1 by ! proposition t ! squ>es ( ! times are proportional to ! cubes ( ! di/ances1 :at he did 0 simply to asc]ta9 ! prop]ty 9 :i* ! p]iodic times ( all ! diff]5t planets agre$4 ,s9ce1 !re=e1 all t is true & to ! purpose 9 ,dr4 ,:ewell's doctr9e ( ,conceptions might be fully express$ by ! m famili> t]m ,hypo!sis2 & s9ce 8 ,colligation ( ,facts by means ( appropriate ,conceptions1 is b ! ord9>y process ( f9d+ by a comp>ison ( ph5om5a1 9 :at consi/s _! agreem5t or resemblance2 ,i w\ld will+ly h conf9$ myself to ^? bett] und]/ood expressions1 & p]sev]$ to ! end 9 ! same ab/95ce :i* ,i h hi!rto obs]v$ f ideological discussions2 consid]+ ! me*anism ( our ?\ghts to be a topic di/9ct f & irrelevant to ! pr9ciples & rules by :i* ! tru/wor?9ess ( ! results ( ?9k+ is to be e/imat$4 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 a "w ( su* high pret5sions1 &1 x mu/ also be said1 ( s mu* real m]it1 has re/$ ! :ole !ory ( ,induction ^u su* ideological consid]ations1 x seems necess>y = o!rs :o foll[ to claim = !mselves & _! doctr9es :atev] position may prop]ly belong to !m on ! same metaphysical gr\nd4 ,& ?is is ! object ( ! succe$+ *apt]4 ,*apt] ,,ii4 ,( ,ab/raction1 ,or ,! ,=mation ,( ,conceptions4 #a4 ,! metaphysical inquiry into ! nature & composition ( :at h be5 call$ ,ab/ract ,ideas1 or1 9 o!r words1 ( ! notions :i* answ] 9 ! m9d to classes & to g5]al names1 belongs n to ,logic1 b to a diff]5t sci5ce1 & our purpose does n require t we %\ld ent] ^u x "h4 ,we are only conc]n$ ) ! univ]sally ackn[l$g$ fact1 t su* notions or conceptions d exi/4 ,! m9d c conceive a multitude ( individual ?+s z "o assemblage or class2 & g5]al names d really sugge/ to u c]ta9 ideas or m5tal repres5tations1 o!rwise we c\ld n use ! names ) consci\sness ( a mean+4 ,:e!r ! idea call$ up by a g5]al "n is compos$ ( ! v>i\s circum/ances 9 :i* all ! individuals d5ot$ by ! "n agree1 & ( no o!rs 7:i* is ! doctr9e ( ,locke1 ,br[n1 & ! ,conceptuali/s72 or :e!r x be ! idea ( "s "o ( ^? individuals1 clo!d 9 its individualiz+ peculi>ities1 b ) ! accompany+ k t ^? peculi>ities are n prop]ties ( ! class 7:i* is ! doctr9e ( ,b]keley1 ,mr4 ,bailey17#bjg7 & ! mod]n ,nom9ali/s72 or :e!r 7z held by ,mr4 ,james ,mill7 ! idea ( ! class is t ( a miscellane\s assemblage ( individuals belong+ to ! class2 or :e!r1 f9ally1 x be any "o or any o!r ( all ^!1 accord+ to ! accid5tal circum/ances ( ! case2 c]ta9 x is1 t "s idea or m5tal conception is sugge/$ by a g5]al "n1 :5ev] we ei!r he> x or employ x ) consci\sness ( a mean+4 ,& ?is1 :i* we may call1 if we please1 a g5]al idea1 repres5ts 9 our m9ds ! :ole class ( ?+s to :i* ! "n is appli$4 ,:5ev] we ?9k or reason conc]n+ ! class1 we d s by means ( ?is idea4 ,& ! volunt>y p[] :i* ! m9d has1 ( att5d+ to "o "p ( :at is pres5t to x at any mom5t1 & neglect+ ano!r "p1 enables u to keep our reason+s & conclusions respect+ ! class unaffect$ by any ?+ 9 ! idea or m5tal image :i* is n really1 or at lea/ :i* we d n really believe to be common1 to ! :ole class47#bjh7 ,!re are1 !n1 su* ?+s z g5]al conceptions1 or conceptions by means ( :i* we c ?9k g5]ally2 & :5 we =m a set ( ph5om5a into a class1 t is1 :5 we comp>e !m ) "o ano!r to asc]ta9 9 :at !y agree1 "s g5]al conception is impli$ 9 ?is m5tal op]ation4 ,& inasmu* z su* a comp>ison is a necess>y prelim9>y to ,induction1 x is mo/ true t ,induction c\ld n g on )\t g5]al conceptions4 #b4 ,b x does n !re=e foll[ t ^! g5]al conceptions mu/ h exi/$ 9 ! m9d previ\sly to ! comp>ison4 ,x is n a law ( our intellect1 t 9 comp>+ ?+s ) ea* o!r & tak+ note ( _! agreem5t we m]ely recognize z realiz$ 9 ! outw>d _w some?+ t we already _h 9 our m9ds4 ,! conception orig9ally f\nd its way to u z ! result ( su* a comp>ison4 ,x 0 obta9$ 79 metaphysical phrase7 by ab/raction f individual ?+s4 ,^! ?+s may be ?+s :i* we p]ceiv$ or ?\ght ( on =m] occasions1 b !y may also be ! ?+s :i* we are p]ceiv+ or ?9k+ ( on ! v occasion4 ,:5 ,kepl] comp>$ ! obs]v$ places ( ! planet ,m>s1 & f\nd t !y agre$ 9 be+ po9ts ( an elliptic circumf]5ce1 he appli$ a g5]al conception :i* 0 already 9 8 m9d1 hav+ be5 d]iv$ f 8 =m] exp]i5ce4 ,b ?is is by no means univ]sally ! case4 ,:5 we comp>e sev]al objects & f9d !m to agree 9 be+ :ite1 or :5 we comp>e ! v>i\s species ( rum9at+ animals & f9d !m to agree 9 be+ clov5-foot$1 we h j z mu* a g5]al conception 9 our m9ds z ,kepl] _h 9 83 we h ! conception ( 8a :ite ?+10 or ! conception ( 8a clov5-foot$ animal40 ,b no "o supposes t we necess>ily br+ ^! conceptions ) u1 & sup]9duce !m 7to adopt ,dr4 ,:ewell's expression7 ^u ! facts3 because 9 ^! simple cases e body sees t ! v act ( comp>ison :i* ends 9 our connect+ ! facts by means ( ! conception1 may be ! s\rce f :i* we d]ive ! conception itself4 ,if we _h nev] se5 any :ite object or _h nev] se5 any clov5-foot$ animal be=e1 we %\ld at ! same "t & by ! same m5tal act acquire ! idea1 & employ x = ! colligation ( ! obs]v$ ph5om5a4 ,kepl]1 on ! contr>y1 really _h to br+ ! idea ) him1 & sup]9duce x ^u ! facts2 he c\ld n evolve x out ( !m3 if he _h n already _h ! idea1 he w\ld n h be5 able to acquire x by a comp>ison ( ! planet's positions4 ,b ?is inability 0 a m]e accid5t2 ! idea ( an ellipse c\ld h be5 acquir$ f ! pa?s ( ! planets z effectually z f any ?+ else1 if ! pa?s _h n happ5$ to be invisible4 ,if ! planet _h left a visible track1 & we _h be5 s plac$ t we c\ld see x at ! prop] angle1 we might h ab/ract$ our orig9al idea ( an ellipse f ! planet>y orbit4 ,inde$1 e conception :i* c be made ! in/rum5t = connect+ a set ( facts1 might h be5 orig9ally evolv$ f ^? v facts4 ,! conception is a conception ( some?+2 & t :i* x is a conception (1 is really 9 ! facts1 & might1 "u "s supposable circum/ances1 or by "s supposable ext5sion ( ! faculties :i* we actually possess1 h be5 detect$ 9 !m4 ,& n only is ?is always 9 itself possible1 b x actually happ5s 9 almo/ all cases 9 :i* ! obta9+ ( ! "r conception is a matt] ( any consid]able difficulty4 ,= if !re be no new conception requir$2 if "o ( ^? already famili> to mank9d w s]ve ! purpose1 ! accid5t ( be+ ! fir/ to :om ! "r "o occurs1 may happ5 to almo/ any body2 at lea/ 9 ! case ( a set ( ph5om5a :i* ! :ole sci5tific _w are engag$ 9 attempt+ to connect4 ,! honor1 9 ,kepl]'s case1 0 t ( ! accurate1 pati5t1 & toilsome calculations by :i* he comp>$ ! results t foll[$ f 8 diff]5t guesses1 ) ! obs]vations ( ,ty*o ,brahe2 b ! m]it 0 v small ( guess+ an ellipse2 ! only wond] is t m5 _h n guess$ x be=e1 nor c\ld !y h fail$ to d s if !re _h n exi/$ an ob/9ate a priori prejudice t ! heav5ly bodies mu/ move1 if n 9 a circle1 9 "s comb9ation ( circles4 ,! really difficult cases are ^? 9 :i* ! conception de/9$ to create light & ord] out ( d>kness & confusion has to be s\ght = among ! v ph5om5a :i* x aft]w>d s]ves to arrange4 ,:y1 accord+ to ,dr4 ,:ewell himself1 did ! anci5ts fail 9 discov]+ ! laws ( me*anics1 t is1 ( equilibrium & ( ! communication ( motion8 ,because !y _h n1 or at lea/ _h n cle>ly1 ! ideas or conceptions ( pressure & resi/ance1 mom5tum1 & uni=m & accel]at+ =ce4 ,& :5ce c\ld !y h obta9$ ^! ideas except f ! v facts ( equilibrium & motion8 ,! t>dy developm5t ( sev]al ( ! physical sci5ces1 = example1 ( optics1 electricity1 magnetism1 & ! high] g5]alizations ( *emi/ry1 he ascribes to ! fact t mank9d _h n yet possess$ !mselves ( ! ,idea ( ,pol>ity1 t is1 ! idea ( opposite prop]ties 9 opposite directions4 ,b :at 0 !re to sugge/ su* an idea1 until1 by a sep>ate exam9ation ( sev]al ( ^! diff]5t bran*es ( k1 x 0 %[n t ! facts ( ea* ( !m did pres5t1 9 "s in/ances at lea/1 ! curi\s ph5om5on ( opposite prop]ties 9 opposite directions8 ,! ?+ 0 sup]ficially manife/ only 9 two cases1 ^? ( ! magnet & ( electrifi$ bodies2 & !re ! conception 0 encumb]$ ) ! circum/ance ( mat]ial poles1 or fix$ po9ts 9 ! body itself1 9 :i* po9ts ?is opposition ( prop]ties seem$ to be inh]5t4 ,! fir/ comp>ison & ab/raction _h l$ only to ?is conception ( poles2 & if any ?+ correspond+ to t conception _h exi/$ 9 ! ph5om5a ( *emi/ry or optics1 ! difficulty n[ ju/ly consid]$ s great1 w\ld h be5 extremely small4 ,! obscurity arose f ! fact1 t ! pol>ities 9 *emi/ry & optics 7 di/9ct species1 ?\gh ( ! same g5us1 ) ! pol>ities 9 electricity & magnetism2 & t 9 ord] to assimilate ! ph5om5a to "o ano!r1 x 0 necess>y to comp>e a pol>ity )\t poles1 su* = in/ance z is exemplifi$ 9 ! pol>ization ( light1 & ! pol>ity ) 7app>5t7 poles1 :i* we see 9 ! magnet2 & to recognize t ^! pol>ities1 :ile diff]5t 9 _m o!r respects1 agree 9 ! "o "* :i* is express$ by ! phrase1 opposite prop]ties 9 opposite directions4 ,f ! result ( su* a comp>ison x 0 t ! m9ds ( sci5tific m5 =m$ ?is new g5]al conception2 betwe5 :i*1 & ! fir/ confus$ feel+ ( an analogy betwe5 "s ( ! ph5om5a ( light & ^? ( electricity & magnetism1 !re is a long int]val1 fill$ up by ! labors & m or less sagaci\s sugge/ions ( _m sup]ior m9ds4 ,! conceptions1 !n1 :i* we employ = ! colligation & me?odization ( facts1 d n develop !mselves f )91 b are impress$ ^u ! m9d f )\t2 !y are nev] obta9$ o!rwise ?an by way ( comp>ison & ab/raction1 &1 9 ! mo/ important & ! mo/ num]\s cases1 are evolv$ by ab/raction f ! v ph5om5a :i* x is _! (fice to colligate4 ,i am f>1 h[ev]1 f wi%+ to imply t x is n (t5 a v difficult ?+ to p]=m ?is process ( ab/raction well1 or t ! success ( an inductive op]ation does n1 9 _m cases1 pr9cipally dep5d on ! skill ) :i* we p]=m x4 ,bacon 0 q ju/ifi$ 9 designat+ z "o ( ! pr9cipal ob/acles to good induction1 g5]al conceptions wrongly =m$1 8notiones tem] rebus ab/ract20 to :i* ,dr4 ,:ewell adds1 t n only does bad ab/raction make bad induction1 b t1 9 ord] to p]=m induction well1 we mu/ h ab/ract$ well2 our g5]al conceptions mu/ be 8cle>0 & 8appropriate0 to ! matt] 9 h&4 #c4 ,9 attempt+ to %[ :at ! difficulty 9 ?is matt] really is1 & h[ x is surm\nt$1 ,i mu/ beg ! read]1 once = all1 to be> ?is 9 m9d2 t al?\gh1 9 discuss+ ! op9ions ( a diff]5t s*ool ( philosophy1 ,i am will+ to adopt _! language1 & to speak1 !re=e1 ( connect+ facts ?r\gh ! in/rum5tality ( a conception1 ?is te*nical phraseology means nei!r m nor less ?an :at is commonly call$ comp>+ ! facts ) "o ano!r & det]m9+ 9 :at !y agree4 ,nor has ! te*nical expression ev5 ! advantage ( be+ metaphysically correct4 ,! facts are n connect$1 except 9 a m]ely metaphorical acceptation ( ! t]m4 ,! ideas ( ! facts may become connect$1 t is1 we may be l$ to ?9k ( !m toge!r2 b ?is consequ5ce is no m ?an :at may be produc$ by any casual association4 ,:at really takes place1 is1 ,i conceive1 m philosophically express$ by ! common ^w ,comp>ison1 ?an by ! phrases 8to connect0 or 8to sup]9duce40 ,=1 z ! g5]al conception is itself obta9$ by a comp>ison ( p>ticul> ph5om5a1 s1 :5 obta9$1 ! mode 9 :i* we apply x to o!r ph5om5a is aga9 by comp>ison4 ,we comp>e ph5om5a ) ea* o!r to get ! conception1 & we !n comp>e ^? & o!r ph5om5a ) ! conception4 ,we get ! conception ( an animal 7= in/ance7 by comp>+ diff]5t animals1 & :5 we aft]w>d see a creature resembl+ an animal1 we comp>e x ) our g5]al conception ( an animal2 & if x agrees ) t g5]al conception1 we include x 9 ! class4 ,! conception becomes ! type ( comp>ison4 ,& we ne$ only consid] :at comp>ison is1 to see t :]e ! objects are m ?an two1 & /ill m :5 !y are an indef9ite numb]1 a type ( "s sort is an indisp5sable condition ( ! comp>ison4 ,:5 we h to arrange & classify a great numb] ( objects accord+ to _! agreem5ts & diff]5ces1 we d n make a confus$ attempt to comp>e all ) all4 ,we "k t two ?+s are z mu* z ! m9d c easily att5d to at a "t1 & we !re=e fix ^u "o ( ! objects1 ei!r at haz>d or because x (f]s 9 a peculi>ly /rik+ mann] "s important "*1 &1 tak+ ?is z our /&>d1 comp>e x ) "o object aft] ano!r4 ,if we f9d a second object :i* pres5ts a rem>kable agreem5t ) ! fir/1 induc+ u to class !m toge!r1 ! "q in/antly arises1 9 :at p>ticul> circum/ances d !y agree8 & to take notice ( ^! circum/ances is already a fir/ /age ( ab/raction1 giv+ rise to a g5]al conception4 ,hav+ advanc$ ?us f>1 :5 we n[ take 9 h& a ?ird object we naturally ask ourselves ! "q1 n m]ely :e!r ?is ?ird object agrees ) ! fir/1 b :e!r x agrees ) x 9 ! same circum/ances 9 :i* ! second did8 9 o!r words1 :e!r x agrees ) ! g5]al conception :i* has be5 obta9$ by ab/raction f ! fir/ & second8 ,?us we see ! t5d5cy ( g5]al conceptions1 z soon z =m$1 to sub/itute !mselves z types1 = :atev] individual objects previ\sly answ]$ t purpose 9 our comp>isons4 ,we may1 p]haps1 f9d t no consid]able numb] ( o!r objects agree ) ?is fir/ g5]al conception2 & t we mu/ drop ! conception1 & beg9n+ aga9 ) a diff]5t individual case1 proce$ by fre% comp>isons to a diff]5t g5]al conception4 ,sometimes1 aga91 we f9d t ! same conception w s]ve1 by m]ely leav+ out "s ( its circum/ances2 & by ?is high] ef=t ( ab/raction1 we obta9 a /ill m g5]al conception2 z 9 ! case =m]ly ref]r$ to1 ! sci5tific _w rose f ! conception ( poles to ! g5]al conception ( opposite prop]ties 9 opposite directions2 or z ^? ,s\?-,sea isl&]s1 ^: conception ( a quadrup$ _h be5 ab/ract$ f hogs 7! only animals ( t description :i* !y _h se571 :5 !y aft]w>d comp>$ t conception ) o!r quadrup$s1 dropp$ "s ( ! circum/ances1 & arriv$ at ! m g5]al conception :i* ,europeans associate ) ! t]m4 ,^! brief rem>ks conta91 ,i believe1 all t is well gr\nd$ 9 ! doctr9e1 t ! conception by :i* ! m9d arranges & gives unity to ph5om5a mu/ be furni%$ by ! m9d itself1 & t we f9d ! "r conception by a t5tative process1 try+ fir/ "o & !n ano!r until we hit ! m>k4 ,! conception is n furni%$ by ! m9d until x has be5 furni%$ to ! m9d2 & ! facts :i* supply x are sometimes extrane\s facts1 b m (t5 ! v facts :i* we are attempt+ to arrange by x4 ,x is q true1 h[ev]1 t 9 endeavor+ to arrange ! facts1 at :atev] po9t we beg91 we nev] advance ?ree /eps )\t =m+ a g5]al conception1 m or less di/9ct & precise2 & t ?is g5]al conception becomes ! clue :i* we in/antly endeavor to trace ?r\gh ! re/ ( ! facts1 or r1 becomes ! /&>d ) :i* we !nce=? comp>e !m4 ,if we are n satisfi$ ) ! agreem5ts :i* we discov] among ! ph5om5a by comp>+ !m ) ?is type1 or ) "s /ill m g5]al conception :i* by an additional /age ( ab/raction we c =m f ! type2 we *ange our pa?1 & look out = o!r agreem5ts2 we recomm5ce ! comp>ison f a diff]5t />t+-po9t1 & s g5]ate a diff]5t set ( g5]al conceptions4 ,?is is ! t5tative process :i* ,dr4 ,:ewell speaks (2 & :i* has n unnaturally sugge/$ ! !ory1 t ! conception is suppli$ by ! m9d itself2 s9ce ! diff]5t conceptions :i* ! m9d successively tries1 x ei!r already possess$ f its previ\s exp]i5ce1 or !y 7 suppli$ to x 9 ! fir/ /age ( ! correspond+ act ( comp>ison2 s t1 9 ! subsequ5t "p ( ! process1 ! conception manife/$ itself z some?+ comp>$ ) ! ph5om5a1 n evolv$ f !m4 #d4 ,if ?is be a correct acc\nt ( ! in/rum5tality ( g5]al conceptions 9 ! comp>ison :i* necess>ily prec$es ,induction1 we are n[ able to translate into our own language :at ,dr4 ,:ewell means by say+ t conceptions1 to be subs]vi5t to ,induction1 mu/ be 8cle>0 & 8appropriate40 ,if ! conception corresponds to a real agreem5t among ! ph5om5a2 if ! comp>ison :i* we h made ( a set ( objects has l$ u to class !m accord+ to real resemblances & diff]5ces2 ! conception :i* does ?is c n fail to be appropriate1 = "s purpose or o!r4 ,! "q ( appropriat5ess is relative to ! p>ticul> object we h 9 view4 ,z soon z1 by our comp>ison1 we h asc]ta9$ "s agreem5t1 some?+ :i* c be pr$icat$ 9 common ( a numb] ( objects2 we h obta9$ a basis on :i* an inductive process is capable ( be+ f\nd$4 ,b ! agreem5ts1 or ! ult]ior consequ5ces to :i* ^? agreem5ts lead1 may be ( v diff]5t degrees ( importance4 ,if1 = in/ance1 we only comp>e animals accord+ to _! color1 & class ^? toge!r :i* are color$ alike1 we =m ! g5]al conceptions ( a :ite animal1 a black animal1 etc41 :i* are conceptions legitimately =m$2 & if an induction 7 to be attempt$ conc]n+ ! causes ( ! colors ( animals1 ?is comp>ison w\ld be ! prop] & necess>y prep>ation = su* an induction1 b w\ld n help u t[>d a k ( ! laws ( any o!r ( ! prop]ties ( animals2 :ile if1 ) ,cuvi]1 we comp>e & class !m accord+ to ! /ructure ( ! skeleton1 or1 ) ,bla9ville1 accord+ to ! nature ( _! outw>d integum5ts1 ! agreem5ts & diff]5ces :i* are obs]vable 9 ^! respects are n only ( mu* great] importance 9 !mselves1 b are m>ks ( agreem5ts & diff]5ces 9 _m o!r important p>ticul>s ( ! /ructure & mode ( life ( ! animals4 ,if1 !re=e1 ! /udy ( _! /ructure & habits be our object1 ! conceptions g5]at$ by ^! la/ comp>isons are f> m 8appropriate0 ?an ^? g5]at$ by ! =m]4 ,no?+1 o!r ?an ?is1 c be meant by ! appropriat5ess ( a conception4 ,:5 ,dr4 ,:ewell says t ! anci5ts1 or ! s*ool-m51 or any mod]n inquir]s1 miss$ discov]+ ! real law ( a ph5om5on because !y appli$ to x an inappropriate in/ead ( an appropriate conception2 he c only mean t 9 comp>+ v>i\s in/ances ( ! ph5om5on1 to asc]ta9 9 :at ^? in/ances agre$1 !y miss$ ! important po9ts ( agreem5t2 & fa/5$ ^u su* z 7 ei!r imag9>y1 & n agreem5ts at all1 or1 if real agreem5ts1 7 comp>atively trifl+1 & _h no connection ) ! ph5om5on1 ! law ( :i* 0 s\ght4 ,ari/otle1 philosophiz+ on ! subject ( motion1 rem>k$ t c]ta9 motions app>5tly take place spontane\sly2 bodies fall to ! gr\nd1 flame asc5ds1 bubbles ( air rise 9 wat]1 etc42 & ^! he call$ natural motions2 :ile o!rs n only nev] take place )\t ext]nal incitem5t1 b ev5 :5 su* incitem5t is appli$1 t5d spontane\sly to cease2 :i*1 to di/+ui% !m f ! =m]1 he call$ viol5t motions4 ,n[1 9 comp>+ ! s-call$ natural motions ) "o ano!r1 x appe>$ to ,ari/otle t !y agre$ 9 "o circum/ance1 namely1 t ! body :i* mov$ 7or seem$ to move7 spontane\sly1 0 mov+ t[>d its own place2 mean+ !reby ! place f :5ce x orig9ally came1 or ! place :]e a great quantity ( matt] simil> to itself 0 assembl$4 ,9 ! o!r class ( motions1 z :5 bodies are ?r[n up 9 ! air1 !y are1 on ! contr>y1 mov+ f _! own place4 ,n[1 ?is conception ( a body mov+ t[>d its own place may ju/ly be consid]$ inappropriate2 because1 ?\gh x expresses a circum/ance really f\nd 9 "s ( ! mo/ famili> in/ances ( motion app>5tly spontane\s1 yet1 fir/1 !re are _m o!r cases ( su* motion1 9 :i* t circum/ance is abs5t2 ! motion1 = in/ance1 ( ! e>? & planets4 ,secondly1 ev5 :5 x is pres5t1 ! motion1 on clos] exam9ation1 w\ld (t5 be se5 n to be spontane\s2 z1 :5 air rises 9 wat]1 x does n rise by its own nature1 b is pu%$ up by ! sup]ior weight ( ! wat] :i* presses ^u x4 ,f9ally1 !re are _m cases 9 :i* ! spontane\s motion takes place 9 ! contr>y direction to :at ! !ory consid]s z ! body's own place2 = in/ance1 :5 a fog rises f a lake1 or :5 wat] dries up4 ,! agreem5t1 !re=e1 :i* ,ari/otle select$ z 8 pr9ciple ( classification1 did n ext5d to all cases ( ! ph5om5on he want$ to /udy1 spontane\s motion2 :ile x did include cases ( ! abs5ce ( ! ph5om5on1 cases ( motion n spontane\s4 ,! conception 0 h5ce 8inappropriate40 ,we may add t1 9 ! case 9 "q1 no conception w\ld be appropriate2 !re is no agreem5t :i* runs ?r\gh all ! cases ( spontane\s or app>5tly spontane\s motion & no o!rs2 !y c n be br\ght "u "o law2 x is a case ( ,plurality ( ,causes47#bji7 #e4 ,s mu* = ! fir/ ( ,dr4 ,:ewell's conditions1 t conceptions mu/ be appropriate4 ,! second is1 t !y %all be 8cle>30 & let u consid] :at ?is implies4 ,unless ! conception corresponds to a real agreem5t1 x has a worse defect ?an t ( n be+ cle>3 x is n applicable to ! case at all4 ,among ! ph5om5a1 !re=e1 :i* we are attempt+ to connect by means ( ! conception1 we mu/ suppose t !re really is an agreem5t1 & t ! conception is a conception ( t agreem5t4 ,9 ord]1 !n1 t x may be cle>1 ! only requisite is1 t we %all "k exactly 9 :at ! agreem5t consi/s2 t x %all h be5 c>efully obs]v$1 & accurately rememb]$4 ,we are said n to h a cle> conception ( ! resemblance among a set ( objects1 :5 we h only a g5]al feel+ t !y resemble1 )\t hav+ analyz$ _! resemblance1 or p]ceiv$ 9 :at po9ts x consi/s1 & fix$ 9 our memory an exact recollection ( ^? po9ts4 ,?is want ( cle>ness1 or1 z x may be o!rwise call$1 ?is vagu5ess 9 ! g5]al conception1 may be ow+ ei!r to our hav+ no accurate k ( ! objects !mselves1 or m]ely to our n hav+ c>efully comp>$ !m4 ,?us a p]son may h no cle> idea ( a %ip because he has nev] se5 "o1 or because he rememb]s b little1 & t fa9tly1 ( :at he has se54 ,or he may h a p]fect k & remembrance ( _m %ips ( v>i\s k9ds1 frigates among ! re/1 b he may h no cle> b only a confus$ idea ( a frigate1 because he has nev] be5 told1 & has n comp>$ !m suffici5tly to h rem>k$ & rememb]$1 9 :at p>ticul> po9ts a frigate diff]s f "s o!r k9d ( %ip4 ,x is n1 h[ev]1 necess>y1 9 ord] to h cle> ideas1 t we %\ld "k all ! common prop]ties ( ! ?+s :i* we class toge!r4 ,t w\ld be to h our conception ( ! class complete z well z cle>4 ,x is suffici5t if we nev] class ?+s toge!r )\t kn[+ exactly :y we d s--)\t hav+ asc]ta9$ exactly :at agreem5ts we are ab\t to include 9 our conception2 & if1 aft] hav+ ?us fix$ our conception1 we nev] v>y f x1 nev] include 9 ! class any ?+ :i* has n ^? common prop]ties1 nor exclude f x any ?+ :i* has4 ,a cle> conception means a det]m9ate conception2 "o :i* does n fluctuate1 :i* is n "o ?+ to-day & ano!r to-morr[1 b rema9s fix$ & inv>iable1 except :51 f ! progress ( our k1 or ! correction ( "s error1 we consci\sly add to x or alt] x4 ,a p]son ( cle> ideas is a p]son :o always kn[s 9 virtue ( :at prop]ties 8 classes are con/itut$2 :at attributes are connot$ by 8 g5]al names4 ,! pr9cipal requisites1 !re=e1 ( cle> conceptions1 are habits ( att5tive obs]vation1 an ext5sive exp]i5ce1 & a memory :i* receives & reta9s an exact image ( :at is obs]v$4 ,& 9 proportion z any "o has ! habit ( obs]v+ m9utely & comp>+ c>efully a p>ticul> class ( ph5om5a1 & an accurate memory = ! results ( ! obs]vation & comp>ison1 s w 8 conceptions ( t class ( ph5om5a be cle>2 provid$ he has ! indisp5sable habit 7naturally1 h[ev]1 result+ f ^? o!r end[m5ts71 ( nev] us+ g5]al names )\t a precise connotation4 ,z ! cle>ness ( our conceptions *iefly dep5ds on ! c>efulness & accuracy ( our obs]v+ & comp>+ faculties1 s _! appropriat5ess1 or r ! *ance we h ( hitt+ ^u ! appropriate conception 9 any case1 ma9ly dep5ds on ! activity ( ! same faculties4 ,he :o by habit1 gr\nd$ on suffici5t natural aptitude1 has acquir$ a read9ess 9 accurately obs]v+ & comp>+ ph5om5a1 w p]ceive s _m m agreem5ts1 & w p]ceive !m s mu* m rapidly ?an o!r p1 t ! *ances are mu* great] ( 8 p]ceiv+1 9 any in/ance1 ! agreem5t on :i* ! important consequ5ces dep5d4 #f4 ,x is ( s mu* importance t ! "p ( ! process ( inve/igat+ tru?1 discuss$ 9 ?is *apt]1 %\ld be rightly und]/ood1 t ,i ?9k x is desirable to re/ate ! results we h arriv$ at1 9 a some:at diff]5t mode ( expression4 ,we c n asc]ta9 g5]al tru?s1 t is1 tru?s applicable to classes1 unless we h =m$ ! classes 9 su* a mann] t g5]al tru?s c be affirm$ ( !m4 ,9 ! =mation ( any class1 !re is involv$ a conception ( x z a class1 t is1 a conception ( c]ta9 circum/ances z be+ ^? :i* *>act]ize ! class1 & di/+ui% ! objects compos+ x f all o!r ?+s4 ,:5 we "k exactly :at ^! circum/ances are1 we h a cle> idea 7or conception7 ( ! class1 & ( ! mean+ ( ! g5]al "n :i* designates x4 ,! prim>y condition impli$ 9 hav+ ?is cle> idea1 is t ! class be really a class2 t x correspond to a real di/9ction2 t ! ?+s x includes really d agree ) "o ano!r 9 c]ta9 p>ticul>s1 & diff]1 9 ^? same p>ticul>s1 f all o!r ?+s4 ,a p]son )\t cle> ideas is "o :o habitually classes toge!r1 "u ! same g5]al names1 ?+s :i* h no common prop]ties1 or none :i* are n possess$ also by o!r ?+s2 or :o1 if ! usage ( o!r p prev5ts him f actually misclass+ ?+s1 is unable to /ate to himself ! common prop]ties 9 virtue ( :i* he classes !m rightly4 ,b is x n ! sole requisite ( classification t ! classes %\ld be real classes1 fram$ by a legitimate m5tal process8 ,"s modes ( class+ ?+s are m valuable ?an o!rs = human uses1 :e!r ( speculation or ( practice2 & our classifications are n well made1 unless ! ?+s :i* !y br+ toge!r n only agree ) ea* o!r 9 some?+ :i* di/+ui%es !m f all o!r ?+s1 b agree ) ea* o!r & diff] f o!r ?+s 9 ! v circum/ances :i* are ( prim>y importance = ! purpose 7!oretical or practical7 :i* we h 9 view1 & :i* con/itutes ! problem be=e u4 ,9 o!r words1 our conceptions1 ?\gh !y may be cle>1 are n appropriate = our purpose1 unless ! prop]ties we comprise 9 !m are ^? :i* w help u t[>d :at we wi% to und]/&--i4e41 ei!r ^? :i* g deepe/ into ! nature ( ! ?+s1 if our object be to und]/& t1 or ^? :i* are mo/ closely connect$ ) ! p>ticul> prop]ty :i* we are endeavor+ to inve/igate4 ,we c n1 !re=e1 frame good g5]al conceptions be=eh&4 ,t ! conception we h obta9$ is ! "o we want1 c only be kn[n :5 we h done ! "w = ! sake ( :i* we want$ x2 :5 we completely und]/& ! g5]al "* ( ! ph5om5a1 or ! conditions ( ! p>ticul> prop]ty ) :i* we conc]n ourselves4 ,g5]al conceptions =m$ )\t ?is ?or\gh k1 are ,bacon's 8notiones tem] rebus ab/ract40 ,yet su* premature conceptions we mu/ be cont9ually mak+ up1 9 our progress to some?+ bett]4 ,!y are an imp$im5t to ! progress ( k1 only :5 !y are p]man5tly acquiesc$ 94 ,:5 x has become our habit to gr\p ?+s 9 wrong classes--9 gr\ps :i* ei!r are n really classes1 hav+ no di/9ctive po9ts ( agreem5t 7abs5ce ( cle> ideas71 or :i* are n classes ( :i* any ?+ important to our purpose c be pr$icat$ 7abs5ce ( appropriate ideas72 & :51 9 ! belief t ^! badly made classes are ^? sanction$ by nature1 we refuse to ex*ange !m = o!rs1 & c n or w n make up our g5]al conceptions f any o!r elem5ts2 9 t case all ! evils :i* ,bacon ascribes to 8 8notiones tem] ab/ract0 really occur4 ,?is 0 :at ! anci5ts did 9 physics1 & :at ! _w 9 g5]al does 9 morals & politics to ! pres5t day4 ,x w\ld ?us1 9 my view ( ! matt]1 be an inaccurate mode ( expression to say1 t obta9+ appropriate conceptions is a condition prec$5t to g5]alization4 ,?r\gh\t ! :ole process ( comp>+ ph5om5a ) "o ano!r = ! purpose ( g5]alization1 ! m9d is try+ to make up a conception2 b ! conception :i* x is try+ to make up is t ( ! really important po9t ( agreem5t 9 ! ph5om5a4 ,z we obta9 m k ( ! ph5om5a !mselves1 & ( ! conditions on :i* _! important prop]ties dep5d1 our views on ?is subject naturally alt]2 & ?us we advance f a less to a m 8appropriate0 g5]al conception1 9 ! progress ( our inve/igations4 ,we ought n1 at ! same "t1 to =get t ! really important agreem5t c n always be discov]$ by m]e comp>ison ( ! v ph5om5a 9 "q1 )\t ! aid ( a conception acquir$ else:]e2 z 9 ! case1 s (t5 ref]r$ to1 ( ! planet>y orbits4 ,! se>* = ! agreem5t ( a set ( ph5om5a is 9 tru? v simil> to ! se>* = a lo/ or hidd5 object4 ,at fir/ we place ourselves 9 a suffici5tly comm&+ position1 & ca/ our eyes r\nd u1 & if we c see ! object x is well2 if n1 we ask ourselves m5tally :at are ! places 9 :i* x may be hid1 9 ord] t we may !re se>* = x3 & s on1 until we imag9e ! place :]e x really is4 ,& "h too we require to h _h a previ\s conception1 or k1 ( ^? diff]5t places4 ,z 9 ?is famili> process1 s 9 ! philosophical op]ation :i* x illu/rates1 we fir/ endeavor to f9d ! lo/ object or recognize ! common attribute1 )\t conjecturally invok+ ! aid ( any previ\sly acquir$ conception1 or1 9 o!r words1 ( any hypo!sis4 ,hav+ fail$ 9 ?is1 we call ^u our imag9ation = "s hypo!sis ( a possible place1 or a possible po9t ( resemblance1 & !n look to see :e!r ! facts agree ) ! conjecture4 ,= su* cases some?+ m is requir$ ?an a m9d accu/om$ to accurate obs]vation & comp>ison4 ,x mu/ be a m9d /or$ ) g5]al conceptions1 previ\sly acquir$1 ( ! sorts :i* be> aff9ity to ! subject ( ! p>ticul> inquiry4 ,& mu* w also dep5d on ! natural /r5g? & acquir$ culture ( :at has be5 t]m$ ! sci5tific imag9ation2 on ! faculty possess$ ( m5tally arrang+ kn[n elem5ts into new comb9ations1 su* z h n yet be5 obs]v$ 9 nature1 ?\gh n contradictory to any kn[n laws4 ,b ! v>iety ( intellectual habits1 ! purposes :i* !y s]ve1 & ! modes 9 :i* !y may be fo/]$ & cultivat$1 are consid]ations belong+ to ! ,art ( ,education3 a subject f> wid] ?an ,logic1 & :i* ?is treatise does n pr(ess to discuss4 ,"h1 !re=e1 ! pres5t *apt] may prop]ly close4 ,*apt] ,,iii4 ,( ,nam+1 ,z ,subsidi>y ,to ,induction4 #a4 ,x does n belong to ! pres5t und]tak+ to dwell on ! importance ( language z a m$ium ( human int]c\rse1 :e!r = purposes ( sympa?y or ( in=mation4 ,nor does our design admit ( m ?an a pass+ allusion to t great prop]ty ( names1 on :i* _! functions z an intellectual in/rum5t are1 9 reality1 ultimately dep5d5t2 _! pot5cy z a means ( =m+1 & ( rivet+1 associations among our o!r ideas2 a subject on :i* an able ?9k]7#baj7 has ?us writt53 8,names are impressions ( s5se1 & z su* take ! /ronge/ hold on ! m9d1 & ( all o!r impressions c be mo/ easily recall$ & reta9$ 9 view4 ,!y !re=e s]ve to give a po9t ( atta*m5t to all ! m volatile objects ( ?\ght & feel+4 ,impressions t :5 pass$ might be dissipat$ =ev]1 are1 by _! connection ) language1 always )9 rea*4 ,?\ghts1 ( !mselves1 are p]petually slipp+ out ( ! field ( imm$iate m5tal vision2 b ! "n abides ) u1 & ! utt]ance ( x re/ores !m 9 a mom5t4 ,words are ! cu/odi]s ( e product ( m9d less impressive ?an !mselves4 ,all ext5sions ( human k1 all new g5]alizations1 are fix$ & spread1 ev5 un9t5tionally1 by ! use ( words4 ,! *ild gr[+ up le>ns1 along ) ! vocables ( 8 "m-tongue1 t ?+s :i* he w\ld h believ$ to be diff]5t are1 9 important po9ts1 ! same4 ,)\t any =mal in/ruction1 ! language 9 :i* we gr[ up tea*es u all ! common philosophy ( ! age4 ,x directs u to obs]ve & "k ?+s :i* we %\ld h ov]look$2 x supplies u ) classifications ready made1 by :i* ?+s are arrang$ 7z f> z ! light ( by-gone g5]ations admits7 ) ! objects to :i* !y be> ! greate/ total resemblance4 ,! numb] ( g5]al names 9 a language1 & ! degree ( g5]ality ( ^? names1 af=d a te/ ( ! k ( ! era1 & ( ! intellectual insight :i* is ! bir?right ( any "o born into x40 ,x is n1 h[ev]1 ( ! functions ( ,names1 consid]$ g5]ally1 t we h "h to treat1 b only ( ! mann] & degree 9 :i* !y are directly in/rum5tal to ! inve/igation ( tru?2 9 o!r words1 to ! process ( induction4 #b4 ,obs]vation & ,ab/raction1 ! op]ations :i* =m$ ! subject ( ! two =ego+ *apt]s1 are conditions indisp5sable to induction2 !re c be no induction :]e !y are n4 ,x has be5 imag9$ t ,nam+ is also a condition equally indisp5sable4 ,!re are ?9k]s :o h held t language is n solely1 accord+ to a phrase g5]ally curr5t1 an in/rum5t ( ?\ght1 b ! in/rum5t2 t names1 or some?+ equival5t to !m1 "s species ( artificial signs1 are necess>y to reason+2 t !re c\ld be no inf]5ce1 & consequ5tly no induction1 )\t !m4 ,b if ! nature ( reason+ 0 correctly expla9$ 9 ! e>li] "p ( ! pres5t "w1 ?is op9ion mu/ be held to be an exagg]ation1 ?\gh ( an important tru?4 ,if reason+ be f p>ticul>s to p>ticul>s1 & if x consi/ 9 recogniz+ "o fact z a m>k ( ano!r1 or a m>k ( a m>k ( ano!r1 no?+ is requir$ to r5d] reason+ possible1 except s5ses & association2 s5ses to p]ceive t two facts are conjo9$2 association1 z ! law by :i* "o ( ^? two facts raises up ! idea ( ! o!r47#baa7 ,= ^! m5tal ph5om5a1 z well z = ! belief or expectation :i* foll[s1 & by :i* we recognize z hav+ tak5 place1 or z ab\t to take place1 t ( :i* we h p]ceiv$ a m>k1 !re is evid5tly no ne$ ( language4 ,& ?is inf]5ce ( "o p>ticul> fact f ano!r is a case ( induction4 ,x is ( ?is sort ( induction t brutes are capable2 x is 9 ?is %ape t uncultivat$ m9ds make almo/ all _! inductions1 & t we all d s 9 ! cases 9 :i* famili> exp]i5ce =ces our conclusions ^u u )\t any active process ( inquiry on our "p1 & 9 :i* ! belief or expectation foll[s ! sugge/ion ( ! evid5ce ) ! promptitude & c]ta9ty ( an in/9ct47#bab7 #c4 ,b ?\gh inf]5ce ( an inductive "* is possible )\t ! use ( signs1 x c\ld nev]1 )\t !m1 be c>ri$ mu* beyond ! v simple cases :i* we h j describ$1 & :i* =m1 9 all probability1 ! limit ( ! reason+s ( ^? animals to :om conv5tional language is unkn[n4 ,)\t language1 or some?+ equival5t to x1 !re c\ld only be z mu* reason+ f exp]i5ce z c take place )\t ! aid ( g5]al propositions4 ,n[1 ?\gh 9 /rictness we may reason f pa/ exp]i5ce to a fre% individual case )\t ! int]m$iate /age ( a g5]al proposition1 yet )\t g5]al propositions we %\ld seldom rememb] :at pa/ exp]i5ce we h _h1 & sc>cely ev] :at conclusions t exp]i5ce w w>rant4 ,! division ( ! inductive process into two p>ts1 ! fir/ asc]ta9+ :at is a m>k ( ! giv5 fact1 ! second :e!r 9 ! new case t m>k exi/s1 is natural1 & sci5tifically indisp5sable4 ,x is1 inde$1 9 a majority ( cases1 r5d]$ necess>y by m]e di/ance ( "t4 ,! exp]i5ce by :i* we are to guide our judgm5ts may be o!r p's exp]i5ce1 little ( :i* c be communicat$ to u o!rwise ?an by language2 :5 x is our own1 x is g5]ally exp]i5ce long pa/2 unless1 !re=e1 x 7 record$ by means ( artificial signs1 little ( x 7except 9 cases involv+ our int5s] s5sations or emotions1 or ! subjects ( our daily & h\rly contemplation7 w\ld be reta9$ 9 ! memory4 ,x is h>dly necess>y to add1 t :5 ! inductive inf]5ce is ( any b ! mo/ direct & obvi\s nature--:5 x requires sev]al obs]vations or exp]im5ts1 9 v>y+ circum/ances1 & ! comp>ison ( "o ( ^! ) ano!r--x is impossible to proce$ a /ep1 )\t ! artificial memory :i* words be/[4 ,)\t words1 we %\ld1 if we _h (t5 se5 ,a & ,b 9 imm$iate & obvi\s conjunction1 expect ,b :5ev] we saw ,a2 b to discov] _! conjunction :5 n obvi\s1 or to det]m9e :e!r x is really con/ant or only casual1 & :e!r !re is reason to expect x "u any giv5 *ange ( circum/ances1 is a process f> too complex to be p]=m$ )\t "s contrivance to make our remembrance ( our own m5tal op]ations accurate4 ,n[1 language is su* a contrivance4 ,:5 t in/rum5t is call$ to our aid1 ! difficulty is r$uc$ to t ( mak+ our remembrance ( ! mean+ ( words accurate4 ,?is be+ secur$1 :atev] passes ?r\gh our m9ds may be rememb]$ accurately1 by putt+ x c>efully into words1 & committ+ ! words ei!r to writ+ or to memory4 ,! function ( ,nam+1 & p>ticul>ly ( ,g5]al ,names1 9 ,induction1 may be recapitulat$ z foll[s4 ,e inductive inf]5ce :i* is good at all1 is good = a :ole class ( cases2 &1 t ! inf]5ce may h any bett] w>rant ( its correctness ?an ! m]e cl++ toge!r ( two ideas1 a process ( exp]im5tation & comp>ison is necess>y2 9 :i* ! :ole class ( cases mu/ be br\ght to view1 & "s uni=mity 9 ! c\rse ( nature evolv$ & asc]ta9$1 s9ce ! exi/5ce ( su* a uni=mity is requir$ z a ju/ification = draw+ ! inf]5ce 9 ev5 a s+le case4 ,?is uni=mity1 !re=e1 may be asc]ta9$ once = all2 & if1 be+ asc]ta9$1 x c be rememb]$1 x w s]ve z a =mula = mak+1 9 p>ticul> cases1 all su* inf]5ces z ! previ\s exp]i5ce w w>rant4 ,b we c only secure its be+ rememb]$1 or give ourselves ev5 a *ance ( c>ry+ 9 our memory any consid]able numb] ( su* uni=mities1 by regi/]+ !m ?r\gh ! m$ium ( p]man5t signs2 :i* 7be+1 f ! nature ( ! case1 signs n ( an individual fact1 b ( a uni=mity1 t is1 ( an indef9ite numb] ( facts simil> to "o ano!r7 are g5]al signs2 univ]sals2 g5]al names1 & g5]al propositions4 #d4 ,& "h ,i c n omit to notice an ov]sight committ$ by "s em95t ?9k]s2 :o h said t ! cause ( our us+ g5]al names is ! inf9ite multitude ( individual objects1 :i*1 mak+ x impossible to h a "n = ea*1 compels u to make "o "n s]ve = _m4 ,?is is a v limit$ view ( ! function ( g5]al names4 ,ev5 if !re 7 a "n = e individual object1 we %\ld require g5]al names z mu* z we n[ d4 ,)\t !m we c\ld n express ! result ( a s+le comp>ison1 nor record any "o ( ! uni=mities exi/+ 9 nature2 & %\ld be h>dly bett] (f 9 respect to ,induction ?an if we _h no names at all4 ,) none b names ( individuals 7or1 9 o!r words1 prop] names71 we might1 by pron\nc+ ! "n1 sugge/ ! idea ( ! object1 b we c\ld n ass]t any proposition2 except ! unmean+ ones =m$ by pr$icat+ two prop] names "o ( ano!r4 ,x is only by means ( g5]al names t we c convey any in=mation1 pr$icate any attribute1 ev5 ( an individual1 mu* m ( a class4 ,rigor\sly speak+1 we c\ld get on )\t any o!r g5]al names ?an ! ab/ract names ( attributes2 all our propositions might be ( ! =m 8su* an individual object possesses su* an attribute10 or 8su* an attribute is always 7or nev]7 conjo9$ ) su* ano!r attribute40 ,9 fact1 h[ev]1 mank9d h always giv5 g5]al names to objects z well z attributes1 & inde$ be=e attributes3 b ! g5]al names giv5 to objects imply attributes1 d]ive _! :ole mean+ f attributes2 & are *iefly useful z ! language by means ( :i* we pr$icate ! attributes :i* !y connote4 ,x rema9s to be consid]$ :at pr9ciples are to be adh]$ to 9 giv+ g5]al names1 s t ^! names1 & ! g5]al propositions 9 :i* !y fill a place1 may conduce mo/ to ! purposes ( ,induction4 ,*apt] ,,iv4 ,( ,! ,requisites ,( ,a ,philosophical ,language1 ,& ,! ,pr9ciples ,( ,def9ition4 #a4 ,9 ord] t we may possess a language p]fectly suitable = ! inve/igation & expression ( g5]al tru?s1 !re are two pr9cipal1 & sev]al m9or requisites4 ,! fir/ is1 t e g5]al "n %\ld h a mean+1 /eadily fix$1 & precisely det]m9$4 ,:51 by ! fulfillm5t ( ?is condition1 su* names z we possess are fitt$ = ! due p]=mance ( _! functions1 ! next requisite1 & ! second 9 ord] ( importance1 is t we %\ld possess a "n :]ev] "o is ne$$2 :]ev] !re is any ?+ to be designat$ by x1 :i* x is ( importance to express4 ,! =m] ( ^! requisites is t to :i* our att5tion w be exclusively direct$ 9 ! pres5t *apt]4 #b4 ,e g5]al "n1 !n1 mu/ h a c]ta9 & kn[able mean+4 ,n[ ! mean+ 7z has s (t5 be5 expla9$7 ( a g5]al connotative "n1 resides 9 ! connotation2 9 ! attribute on acc\nt ( :i*1 & to express :i*1 ! "n is giv54 ,?us1 ! "n animal be+ giv5 to all ?+s :i* possess ! attributes ( s5sation & volunt>y motion1 ! ^w connotes ^? attributes exclusively1 & !y con/itute ! :ole ( its mean+4 ,if ! "n be ab/ract1 its d5otation is ! same ) ! connotation ( ! correspond+ concrete2 x designates directly ! attribute1 :i* ! concrete t]m implies4 ,to give a precise mean+ to g5]al names is1 !n1 to fix ) /ead9ess ! attribute or attributes connot$ by ea* concrete g5]al "n1 & d5ot$ by ! correspond+ ab/ract4 ,s9ce ab/ract names1 9 ! ord] ( _! creation1 d n prec$e b foll[ concrete ones1 z is prov$ by ! etymological fact t !y are almo/ always d]iv$ f !m2 we may consid] _! mean+ z det]m9$ by1 & dep5d5t on1 ! mean+ ( _! concrete2 & ?us ! problem ( giv+ a di/9ct mean+ to g5]al language1 is all includ$ 9 t ( giv+ a precise connotation to all concrete g5]al names4 ,?is is n difficult 9 ! case ( new names2 ( ! te*nical t]ms creat$ by sci5tific inquir]s = ! purposes ( sci5ce or art4 ,b :5 a "n is 9 common use1 ! difficulty is great]2 ! problem 9 ?is case n be+ t ( *oos+ a conv5i5t connotation = ! "n1 b ( asc]ta9+ & fix+ ! connotation ) :i* x is already us$4 ,t ?is c ev] be a matt] ( d\bt1 is a sort ( p>adox4 ,b ! vulg> 7includ+ 9 t t]m all :o h n accurate habits ( ?\ght7 seldom "k exactly :at ass]tion !y int5d to make1 :at common prop]ty !y mean to express1 :5 !y apply ! same "n to a numb] ( diff]5t ?+s4 ,all :i* ! "n expresses ) !m1 :5 !y pr$icate x ( an object1 is a confus$ feel+ ( resemblance betwe5 t object & "s ( ! o!r ?+s :i* !y h be5 accu/om$ to d5ote by ! "n4 ,!y h appli$ ! "n ,/one to v>i\s objects previ\sly se52 !y see a new object1 :i* appe>s to !m some:at l ! =m]1 & !y call x a /one1 )\t ask+ !mselves 9 :at respect x is l1 or :at mode or degree ( resemblance ! be/ au?orities1 or ev5 !y !mselves1 require z a w>rant = us+ ! "n4 ,?is r\gh g5]al impression ( resemblance is1 h[ev]1 made up ( p>ticul> circum/ances ( resemblance2 & into ^! x is ! bus9ess ( ! logician to analyze x2 to asc]ta9 :at po9ts ( resemblance among ! diff]5t ?+s commonly call$ by ! "n1 h produc$ 9 ! common m9d ?is vague feel+ ( lik5ess2 h giv5 to ! ?+s ! simil>ity ( aspect1 :i* has made !m a class1 & has caus$ ! same "n to be be/[$ ^u !m4 ,b ?\gh g5]al names are impos$ by ! vulg> )\t any m def9ite connotation ?an t ( a vague resemblance2 g5]al propositions come 9 "t to be made1 9 :i* pr$icates are appli$ to ^? names1 t is1 g5]al ass]tions are made conc]n+ ! :ole ( ! ?+s :i* are d5ot$ by ! "n4 ,& s9ce by ea* ( ^! propositions "s attribute1 m or less precisely conceiv$1 is ( c\rse pr$icat$1 ! ideas ( ^! v>i\s attributes ?us become associat$ ) ! "n1 & 9 a sort ( unc]ta9 way x comes to connote !m2 !re is a hesitation to apply ! "n 9 any new case 9 :i* any ( ! attributes famili>ly pr$icat$ ( ! class d n exi/4 ,& ?us1 to common m9ds1 ! propositions :i* !y are 9 ! habit ( he>+ or utt]+ conc]n+ a class make up 9 a loose way a sort ( connotation = ! class "n4 ,let u take1 = in/ance1 ! ^w ,civiliz$4 ,h[ few c\ld be f\nd1 ev5 among ! mo/ educat$ p]sons1 :o w\ld und]take to say exactly :at ! t]m ,civiliz$ connotes4 ,yet !re is a feel+ 9 ! m9ds ( all :o use x1 t !y are us+ x ) a mean+2 & ?is mean+ is made up1 9 a confus$ mann]1 ( e ?+ :i* !y h he>d or read t civiliz$ m5 or civiliz$ communities are1 or may be expect$ to be4 ,x is at ?is /age1 probably1 9 ! progress ( a concrete "n1 t ! correspond+ ab/ract "n g5]ally comes into use4 ,"u ! notion t ! concrete "n mu/ ( c\rse convey a mean+1 or1 9 o!r words1 t !re is "s prop]ty common to all ?+s :i* x d5otes1 p give a "n to ?is common prop]ty2 f ! concrete ,civiliz$1 !y =m ! ab/ract ,civilization4 ,b s9ce mo/ p h nev] comp>$ ! diff]5t ?+s :i* are call$ by ! concrete "n1 9 su* a mann] z to asc]ta9 :at prop]ties ^! ?+s h 9 common1 or :e!r !y h any2 ea* is ?r[n back ^u ! m>ks by :i* he himself has be5 accu/om$ to be guid$ 9 8 application ( ! t]m2 & ^!1 be+ m]ely vague he>says & curr5t phrases1 are n ! same 9 any two p]sons1 nor 9 ! same p]son at diff]5t times4 ,h5ce ! ^w 7z ,civilization1 = example7 :i* pr(esses to be ! designation ( ! unkn[n common prop]ty1 conveys sc>cely to any two m9ds ! same idea4 ,no two p]sons agree 9 ! ?+s !y pr$icate ( x2 & :5 x is itself pr$icat$ ( any ?+1 no o!r p]son kn[s1 nor does ! speak] himself "k ) precision1 :at he means to ass]t4 ,_m o!r words :i* c\ld be nam$1 z ! ^w honor1 or ! ^w g5tleman1 exemplify ?is unc]ta9ty /ill m /rik+ly4 ,x ne$s sc>cely be obs]v$1 t g5]al propositions ( :i* no "o c tell exactly :at !y ass]t1 c n possibly h be5 br\ght to ! te/ ( a correct induction4 ,:e!r a "n is to be us$ z an in/rum5t ( ?9k+1 or z a means ( communicat+ ! result ( ?\ght1 x is imp]ative to det]m9e exactly ! attribute or attributes :i* x is to express2 to give x1 9 %ort1 a fix$ & asc]ta9$ connotation4 #c4 ,x w\ld1 h[ev]1 be a complete misund]/&+ ( ! prop] (fice ( a logician 9 deal+ ) t]ms already 9 use1 if we 7 to ?9k t because a "n has n at pres5t an asc]ta9$ connotation1 x is compet5t to any "o to give x su* a connotation at 8 own *oice4 ,! mean+ ( a t]m actually 9 use is n an arbitr>y quantity to be fix$1 b an unkn[n quantity to be s\ght4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x is obvi\sly desirable to avail ourselves1 z f> z possible1 ( ! associations already connect$ ) ! "n2 n enjo9+ ! employm5t ( x 9 a mann] :i* conflicts ) all previ\s habits1 & especially n s z to require ! rupture ( ^? /ronge/ ( all associations betwe5 names1 :i* are creat$ by famili>ity ) propositions 9 :i* !y are pr$icat$ ( "o ano!r4 ,a philosoph] w\ld h little *ance ( hav+ 8 example foll[$1 if he 7 to give su* a mean+ to 8 t]ms z %\ld require u to call ! ,nor? ,am]ican ,indians a civiliz$ p1 or ! high] classes 9 ,europe savages2 or to say t civiliz$ p live by hunt+1 & savages by agriculture4 ,7 !re no o!r reason1 ! extreme difficulty ( effect+ s complete a revolution 9 spee* w\ld be m ?an a suffici5t "o4 ,! endeavor %\ld be1 t all g5]ally receiv$ propositions into :i* ! t]m ent]s1 %\ld be at lea/ z true aft] its mean+ is fix$1 z !y 7 be=e2 & t ! concrete "n1 !re=e1 %\ld n receive su* a connotation z %all prev5t x f d5ot+ ?+s :i*1 9 common language1 x is curr5tly affirm$ (4 ,! fix$ & precise connotation :i* x receives %\ld n be 9 deviation f1 b 9 agreem5t 7z f> z x goes7 )1 ! vague & fluctuat+ connotation :i* ! t]m already _h4 ,to fix ! connotation ( a concrete "n1 or ! d5otation ( ! correspond+ ab/ract1 is to def9e ! "n4 ,:5 ?is c be done )\t r5d]+ any receiv$ ass]tions inadmissible1 ! "n c be def9$ 9 accordance ) its receiv$ use1 :i* is vulg>ly call$ def9+ n ! "n b ! ?+4 ,:at is meant by ! improp] expression ( def9+ a ?+ 7or r a class ( ?+s--= nobody talks ( def9+ an individual71 is to def9e ! "n1 subject to ! condition t x %all d5ote ^? ?+s4 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 supposes a comp>ison ( ! ?+s1 feature by feature & prop]ty by prop]ty1 to asc]ta9 :at attributes !y agree 92 & n unfrequ5tly an op]ation /rictly inductive1 = ! purpose ( asc]ta9+ "s unobvi\s agreem5t1 :i* is ! cause ( ! obvi\s agreem5ts4 ,=1 9 ord] to give a connotation to a "n1 consi/5tly ) its d5ot+ c]ta9 objects1 we h to make our selection f among ! v>i\s attributes 9 :i* ^? objects agree4 ,to asc]ta9 9 :at !y d agree is1 !re=e1 ! fir/ logical op]ation requisite4 ,:5 ?is has be5 done z f> z is necess>y or practicable1 ! "q arises1 :i* ( ^! common attributes %all be select$ to be associat$ ) ! "n4 ,= if ! class :i* ! "n d5otes be a ,k9d1 ! common prop]ties are innum]able2 & ev5 if n1 !y are (t5 extremely num]\s4 ,our *oice is fir/ limit$ by ! pref]5ce to be giv5 to prop]ties :i* are well kn[n1 & famili>ly pr$icat$ ( ! class2 b ev5 ^! are (t5 too num]\s to be all includ$ 9 ! def9ition1 &1 besides1 ! prop]ties mo/ g5]ally kn[n may n be ^? :i* s]ve be/ to m>k out ! class f all o!rs4 ,we %\ld !re=e select f among ! common prop]ties 7if among !m any su* are to be f\nd7 ^? on :i* x has be5 asc]ta9$ by exp]i5ce1 or prov$ by d$uction1 t _m o!rs dep5d2 or at lea/ :i* are sure m>ks ( !m1 & f :5ce1 !re=e1 _m o!rs w foll[ by inf]5ce4 ,we ?us see t to frame a good def9ition ( a "n already 9 use1 is n a matt] ( *oice b ( discussion1 & discussion n m]ely respect+ ! usage ( language1 b respect+ ! prop]ties ( ?+s1 & ev5 ! orig9 ( ^? prop]ties4 ,& h5ce e enl>gem5t ( our k ( ! objects to :i* ! "n is appli$1 is liable to sugge/ an improvem5t 9 ! def9ition4 ,x is impossible to frame a p]fect set ( def9itions on any subject1 until ! !ory ( ! subject is p]fect2 & z sci5ce makes progress1 its def9itions are also progressive4 #d4 ,! discussion ( ,def9itions1 9 s f> z x does n turn on ! use ( words b on ! prop]ties ( ?+s1 ,dr4 ,:ewell calls ! ,explication ( ,conceptions4 ,! act ( asc]ta9+1 bett] ?an be=e1 9 :at p>ticul>s any ph5om5a :i* are class$ toge!r agree1 he calls 9 8 te*nical phraseology1 unfold+ ! g5]al conception 9 virtue ( :i* !y are s class$4 ,mak+ all[ance = :at appe>s to me ! d>k5+ & mislead+ t5d5cy ( ?is mode ( expression1 sev]al ( 8 rem>ks are s mu* to ! purpose1 t ,i %all take ! lib]ty ( transcrib+ !m4 ,he obs]ves17#bac7 t _m ( ! controv]sies :i* h _h an important %>e 9 ! =mation ( ! exi/+ body ( sci5ce1 h 8assum$ ! =m ( a battle ( ,def9itions4 ,= example1 ! inquiry conc]n+ ! laws ( fall+ bodies l$ to ! "q :e!r ! prop] def9ition ( a uni=m =ce is t x g5]ates a velocity proportional to ! space f re/1 or to ! "t4 ,! controv]sy ( ! vis viva 0 :at 0 ! prop] def9ition ( ! measure ( =ce4 ,a pr9cipal "q 9 ! classification ( m9]als is1 :at is ! def9ition ( a m9]al species4 ,physiologi/s h endeavor$ to ?r[ light on _! subject by def9+ organization1 or "s simil> t]m40 ,que/ions ( ! same nature 7 long op5 & are n yet completely clos$1 respect+ ! def9itions ( ,specific ,heat1 ,lat5t ,heat1 ,*emical ,comb9ation1 & ,solution4 8,x is v important = u to obs]ve1 t ^! controv]sies h nev] be5 que/ions ( insulat$ & arbitr>y def9itions1 z m5 seem (t5 tempt$ to imag9e !m to h be54 ,9 all cases !re is a tacit assumption ( "s proposition :i* is to be express$ by means ( ! def9ition1 & :i* gives x its importance4 ,! dispute conc]n+ ! def9ition ?us acquires a real value1 & becomes a "q conc]n+ true & false4 ,?us1 9 ! discussion ( ! "q1 ,:at is a uni=m =ce8 x 0 tak5 = grant$ t gravity is a uni=m =ce4 ,9 ! debate ( ! vis viva1 x 0 assum$ t 9 ! mutual action ( bodies ! :ole effect ( ! =ce is un*ang$4 ,9 ! zoological def9ition ( species 7t x consi/s ( individuals :i* h1 or may h1 sprung f ! same p>5ts71 x is presum$ t individuals s relat$ resemble ea* o!r m ?an ^? :i* are exclud$ by su* a def9ition2 or1 p]haps1 t species s def9$ h p]man5t & def9ite diff]5ces4 ,a def9ition ( organization1 or ( "s o!r t]m :i* 0 n employ$ to express "s pr9ciple1 w\ld be ( no value4 8,! e/abli%m5t1 !re=e1 ( a "r def9ition ( a t]m1 may be a useful /ep 9 ! explication ( our conceptions2 b ?is w be ! case !n only :5 we h "u our consid]ation "s proposition 9 :i* ! t]m is employ$4 ,= !n ! "q really is1 h[ ! conception %all be und]/ood & def9$ 9 ord] t ! proposition may be true4 8,to unfold our conceptions by means ( def9itions has nev] be5 s]viceable to sci5ce1 except :5 x has be5 associat$ ) an imm$iate use ( ! def9itions4 ,! endeavor to def9e a ,uni=m ,=ce 0 comb9$ ) ! ass]tion t gravity is a uni=m =ce2 ! attempt to def9e ,accel]at+ ,=ce 0 imm$iately foll[$ by ! doctr9e t accel]at+ =ces may be comp\nd$2 ! process ( def9+ ,mom5tum 0 connect$ ) ! pr9ciple t mom5ta ga9$ & lo/ are equal2 naturali/s w\ld h giv5 9 va9 ! def9ition ( ,species :i* we h quot$1 if !y _h n also giv5 ! *>act]s ( species s sep>at$4444 ,def9ition may be ! be/ mode ( expla9+ our conception1 b t :i* alone makes x wor? :ile to expla9 x 9 any mode1 is ! opportunity ( us+ x 9 ! expression ( tru?4 ,:5 a def9ition is prop\nd$ to u z a useful /ep 9 k1 we are always entitl$ to ask :at pr9ciple x s]ves to enunciate40 ,9 giv+1 !n1 an exact connotation to ! phrase1 8a uni=m =ce10 ! condition 0 und]/ood1 t ! phrase %\ld cont9ue to d5ote gravity4 ,! discussion1 !re=e1 respect+ ! def9ition1 resolv$ itself into ?is "q1 ,:at is !re ( a uni=m nature 9 ! motions produc$ by gravity8 ,by obs]vations & comp>isons1 x 0 f\nd t :at 0 uni=m 9 ^? motions 0 ! ratio ( ! velocity acquir$ to ! "t elaps$2 equal velocities be+ add$ 9 equal times4 ,a uni=m =ce1 !re=e1 0 def9$ a =ce :i* adds equal velocities 9 equal times4 ,s1 aga91 9 def9+ mom5tum4 ,x 0 already a receiv$ doctr9e t1 :5 two objects imp+e ^u "o ano!r1 ! mom5tum lo/ by ! "o is equal to t ga9$ by ! o!r4 ,?is proposition x 0 deem$ necess>y to pres]ve1 n f ! motive 7:i* op]ates 9 _m o!r cases7 t x 0 firmly fix$ 9 popul> belief2 = ! proposition 9 "q _h nev] be5 he>d ( by any b ! sci5tifically in/ruct$4 ,b x 0 felt to conta9 a tru?2 ev5 a sup]ficial obs]vation ( ! ph5om5a left no d\bt t 9 ! propagation ( motion f "o body to ano!r1 !re 0 some?+ ( :i* ! "o body ga9$ precisely :at ! o!r lo/2 & ! ^w mom5tum _h be5 inv5t$ to express ?is unkn[n some?+4 ,! settlem5t1 !re=e1 ( ! def9ition ( mom5tum1 involv$ ! det]m9ation ( ! "q1 ,:at is t ( :i* a body1 :5 x sets ano!r body 9 motion1 loses exactly z mu* z x communicates8 ,& :5 exp]im5t _h %[n t ?is some?+ 0 ! product ( ! velocity ( ! body by its mass1 or quantity ( matt]1 ?is became ! def9ition ( mom5tum4 ,! foll[+ rem>ks17#bad7 !re=e1 are p]fectly j3 8,! bus9ess ( def9ition is "p ( ! bus9ess ( discov]y4444 ,to def9e1 s t our def9ition %all h any sci5tific value1 requires no small portion ( t sagacity by :i* tru? is detect$4444 ,:5 x has be5 cle>ly se5 :at ought to be our def9ition1 x mu/ be pretty well kn[n :at tru? we h to /ate4 ,! def9ition1 z well z ! discov]y1 supposes a decid$ /ep 9 our k to h be5 made4 ,! writ]s on ,logic1 9 ! ,middle ,ages1 made ,def9ition ! la/ /age 9 ! progress ( k2 & 9 ?is arrangem5t at lea/1 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce1 & ! philosophy d]iv$ f ! hi/ory1 confirm _! speculative views40 ,= 9 ord] to judge f9ally h[ ! "n :i* d5otes a class may be/ be def9$1 we mu/ "k all ! prop]ties common to ! class1 & all ! relations ( causation or dep5d5ce among ^? prop]ties4 ,if ! prop]ties :i* are fitte/ to be select$ z m>ks ( o!r common prop]ties are also obvi\s & famili>1 & especially if !y be> a great "p 9 produc+ t g5]al air ( resemblance :i* 0 ! orig9al inducem5t to ! =mation ( ! class1 ! def9ition w !n be mo/ felicit\s4 ,b x is (t5 necess>y to def9e ! class by "s prop]ty n famili>ly kn[n1 provid$ t prop]ty be ! be/ m>k ( ^? :i* are kn[n4 ,m4 ,de ,bla9ville1 = in/ance1 f\nd$ 8 def9ition ( life on ! process ( decomposition & recomposition :i* incessantly takes place 9 e liv+ body1 s t ! p>ticles compos+ x are nev] = two in/ants ! same4 ,?is is by no means "o ( ! mo/ obvi\s prop]ties ( liv+ bodies2 x might escape altoge!r ! notice ( an unsci5tific obs]v]4 ,yet great au?orities 7indep5d5tly ( ,m4 ,de ,bla9ville1 :o is himself a fir/-rate au?ority7 h ?\ght t no o!r prop]ty s well answ]s ! conditions requir$ = ! def9ition4 #e4 ,hav+ laid d[n ! pr9ciples :i* ought = ! mo/ "p to be obs]v$ 9 attempt+ to give a precise connotation to a t]m 9 use1 ,i mu/ n[ add1 t x is n always practicable to adh]e to ^? pr9ciples1 & t ev5 :5 practicable1 x is occasionally n desirable4 ,cases 9 :i* x is impossible to comply ) all ! conditions ( a precise def9ition ( a "n 9 agreem5t ) usage1 occur v frequ5tly4 ,!re is (t5 no "o connotation capable ( be+ giv5 to a ^w1 s t x %all /ill d5ote e ?+ x is accu/om$ to d5ote2 or t all ! propositions into :i* x is accu/om$ to ent]1 & :i* h any f\ndation 9 tru?1 %all rema9 true4 ,indep5d5tly ( accid5tal ambiguities1 9 :i* ! diff]5t mean+s h no connection ) "o ano!r2 x cont9ually happ5s t a ^w is us$ 9 two or m s5ses d]iv$ f ea* o!r1 b yet radically di/9ct4 ,s long z a t]m is vague1 t is1 s long z its connotation is n asc]ta9$ & p]man5tly fix$1 x is con/antly liable to be appli$ by ext5sion f "o ?+ to ano!r1 until x rea*es ?+s :i* h little1 or ev5 no1 resemblance to ^? :i* 7 fir/ designat$ by x4 8,suppose10 says ,dugald ,/ew>t1 9 8 ,philosophical ,essays17#bae7 8t ! lett]s ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 d5ote a s]ies ( objects2 t ,a possesses "s "o quality 9 common ) ,b2 ,b a quality 9 common ) ,c2 ,c a quality 9 common ) ,d2 ,d a quality 9 common ) ,e2 :ile at ! same "t1 no quality c be f\nd :i* belongs 9 common to any ?ree objects 9 ! s]ies4 ,is x n conceivable1 t ! aff9ity betwe5 ,a & ,b may produce a transf]5ce ( ! "n ( ! fir/ to ! second2 & t1 9 consequ5ce ( ! o!r aff9ities :i* connect ! rema9+ objects toge!r1 ! same "n may pass 9 succession f ,b to ,c2 f ,c to ,d2 & f ,d to ,e8 ,9 ?is mann]1 a common appellation w arise betwe5 ,a & ,e1 al?\gh ! two objects may1 9 _! nature & prop]ties1 be s widely di/ant f ea* o!r1 t no /ret* ( imag9ation c conceive h[ ! ?\ghts 7 l$ f ! =m] to ! latt]4 ,! transitions1 nev]!less1 may h be5 all s easy & gradual1 t1 7 !y successfully detect$ by ! =tunate +5uity ( a !ori/1 we %\ld in/antly recognize1 n only ! v]isimilitude1 b ! tru? ( ! conjecture3 9 ! same way z we admit1 ) ! confid5ce ( intuitive conviction1 ! c]ta9ty ( ! well-kn[n etymological process :i* connects ! ,lat9 preposition e or ex ) ! ,engli% sub/antive /rang]1 ! mom5t t ! int]m$iate l9ks ( ! *a9 are submitt$ to our exam9ation407#baf7 ,! applications :i* a ^w acquires by ?is gradual ext5sion ( x f "o set ( objects to ano!r1 ,/ew>t1 adopt+ an expression f ,mr4 ,payne ,knight1 calls its transitive applications2 & aft] briefly illu/rat+ su* ( !m z are ! result ( local or casual associations1 he proce$s z foll[s37#bag7 8,b al?\gh by f> ! great] "p ( ! transitive or d]ivative applications ( words dep5d on casual & unacc\ntable caprices ( ! feel+s or ! fancy1 !re are c]ta9 cases 9 :i* !y op5 a v int]e/+ field ( philosophical speculation4 ,su* are ^?1 9 :i* an analog\s transf]5ce ( ! correspond+ t]m may be rem>k$ univ]sally1 or v g5]ally1 9 o!r languages2 & 9 :i*1 ( c\rse1 ! uni=mity ( ! result mu/ be ascrib$ to ! ess5tial pr9ciples ( ! human frame4 ,ev5 9 su* cases1 h[ev]1 x w by no means be always f\nd1 on exam9ation1 t ! v>i\s applications ( ! same t]m h aris5 f any common quality or qualities 9 ! objects to :i* !y relate4 ,9 ! great] numb] ( in/ances1 !y may be trac$ to "s natural & univ]sal associations ( ideas1 f\nd$ 9 ! common faculties1 common organs1 & common condition ( ! human race4444 ,accord+ to ! diff]5t degrees ( intimacy & /r5g? 9 ! associations on :i* ! transitions ( language are f\nd$1 v diff]5t effects may be expect$ to arise4 ,:]e ! association is slight & casual1 ! sev]al mean+s w rema9 di/9ct f ea* o!r1 & w (t51 9 process ( "t1 assume ! appe>ance ( caprici\s v>ieties 9 ! use ( ! same arbitr>y sign4 ,:]e ! association is s natural & habitual z to become virtually indissoluble1 ! transitive mean+s w coalesce 9 "o complex conception2 & e new transition w become a m compreh5sive g5]alization ( ! t]m 9 "q40 ,i solicit p>ticul> att5tion to ! law ( m9d express$ 9 ! la/ s5t5ce1 & :i* is ! s\rce ( ! p]plexity s (t5 exp]i5c$ 9 detect+ ^! transitions ( mean+4 ,ignorance ( t law is ! %oal on :i* "s ( ! mo/ p[]ful intellects :i* h adorn$ ! human race h be5 /r&$4 ,! inquiries ( ,plato into ! def9itions ( "s ( ! mo/ g5]al t]ms ( moral speculation are *>act]iz$ by ,bacon z a f> ne>] approa* to a true inductive me?od ?an is else:]e to be f\nd among ! anci5ts1 & are1 inde$1 almo/ p]fect examples ( ! prep>atory process ( comp>ison & ab/raction2 b1 f be+ unaw>e ( ! law j m5tion$1 he (t5 wa/$ ! p[]s ( ?is great logical in/rum5t on inquiries 9 :i* x c\ld realize no result1 s9ce ! ph5om5a1 ^: common prop]ties he s elaborately endeavor$ to detect1 _h n really any common prop]ties4 ,bacon himself fell into ! same error 9 8 speculations on ! nature ( heat1 9 :i* he evid5tly conf\nd$ "u ! "n hot1 classes ( ph5om5a :i* h no prop]ty 9 common4 ,/ew>t c]ta9ly ov]/ates ! matt] :5 he speaks ( 8a prejudice :i* has desc5d$ to mod]n times f ! s*ola/ic ages1 t :5 a ^w admits ( a v>iety ( significations1 ^! diff]5t significations mu/ all be species ( ! same g5us1 & mu/ consequ5tly include "s ess5tial idea common to e individual to :i* ! g5]ic t]m c be appli$207#bah7 = bo? ,ari/otle & 8 foll[]s 7 well aw>e t !re are su* ?+s z ambiguities ( language1 & delight$ 9 di/+ui%+ !m4 ,b !y nev] suspect$ ambiguity 9 ! cases :]e 7z ,/ew>t rem>ks7 ! association on :i* ! transition ( mean+ 0 f\nd$ is s natural & habitual1 t ! two mean+s bl5d toge!r 9 ! m9d1 & a real transition becomes an app>5t g5]alization4 ,accord+ly !y wa/$ inf9ite pa9s 9 endeavor+ to f9d a def9ition :i* w\ld s]ve = sev]al di/9ct mean+s at once2 z 9 an in/ance notic$ by ,/ew>t himself1 t ( 8causation2 ! ambiguity ( ! ^w :i*1 9 ! ,greek language corresponds to ! ,engli% ^w cause1 hav+ sugge/$ to !m ! va9 attempt ( trac+ ! common idea :i*1 9 ! case ( any effect1 belongs to ! effici5t1 to ! matt]1 to ! =m1 & to ! end4 ,! idle g5]alities0 7he adds7 8we meet ) 9 o!r philosoph]s1 ab\t ! ideas ( ! good1 ! fit1 & ! becom+1 h tak5 _! rise f ! same undue influ5ce ( popul> epi!ts on ! speculations ( ! le>n$407#bai7 ,among ! words :i* h und]gone s _m successive transitions ( mean+ t e trace ( a prop]ty common to all ! ?+s !y are appli$ to1 or at lea/ common & also peculi> to ^? ?+s1 has be5 lo/1 ,/ew>t consid]s ! ^w ,beautiful to be "o4 ,& 7)\t attempt+ to decide a "q :i* 9 no respect belongs to logic7 ,i c n b feel1 ) him1 consid]able d\bt :e!r ! ^w beautiful connotes ! same prop]ty :5 we speak ( a beautiful color1 a beautiful face1 a beautiful sc5e1 a beautiful "*1 & a beautiful poem4 ,! ^w 0 d\btless ext5d$ f "o ( ^! objects to ano!r on acc\nt ( a resemblance betwe5 !m1 or1 m probably1 betwe5 ! emotions !y excit$2 &1 by ?is progressive ext5sion1 x has at la/ rea*$ ?+s v remote f ^? objects ( sight to :i* !re is no d\bt t x 0 fir/ appropriat$2 & x is at lea/ que/ionable :e!r !re is n[ any prop]ty common to all ! ?+s :i*1 consi/5tly ) usage1 may be call$ beautiful1 except ! prop]ty ( agreeabl5ess1 :i* ! t]m c]ta9ly does connote1 b :i* c n be all t p usually int5d to express by x1 s9ce !re are _m agreeable ?+s :i* are nev] call$ beautiful4 ,if su* be ! case1 x is impossible to give to ! ^w ,beautiful any fix$ connotation1 su* t x %all d5ote all ! objects :i* 9 common use x n[ d5otes1 b no o!rs4 ,a fix$ connotation1 h[ev]1 x ought to h2 =1 s long z x has n1 x is unfit to be us$ z a sci5tific t]m1 & is a p]petual s\rce ( false analogies & errone\s g5]alizations4 ,?is1 !n1 con/itutes a case 9 exemplification ( our rem>k1 t ev5 :5 !re is a prop]ty common to all ! ?+s d5ot$ by a "n1 to erect t prop]ty into ! def9ition & exclusive connotation ( ! "n is n always desirable4 ,! v>i\s ?+s call$ beautiful unque/ionably resemble "o ano!r 9 be+ agreeable2 b to make ?is ! def9ition ( beauty1 & s ext5d ! ^w ,beautiful to all agreeable ?+s1 w\ld be to drop altoge!r a portion ( mean+ :i* ! ^w really1 ?\gh indi/9ctly1 conveys1 & to d :at dep5ds on u t[>d caus+ ^? qualities ( ! objects :i* ! ^w previ\sly1 ?\gh vaguely1 po9t$ at1 to be ov]look$ & =gott54 ,x is bett]1 9 su* a case1 to give a fix$ connotation to ! t]m by re/rict+1 ?an by ext5d+ its use2 r exclud+ f ! epi!t ,beautiful "s ?+s to :i* x is commonly consid]$ applicable1 ?an leav+ out ( its connotation any ( ! qualities by :i*1 ?\gh occasionally lo/ sight (1 ! g5]al m9d may h be5 habitually guid$ 9 ! commone/ & mo/ int]e/+ applications ( ! t]m4 ,= !re is no "q t :5 p call any ?+ beautiful1 !y ?9k !y are ass]t+ m ?an t x is m]ely agreeable4 ,!y ?9k !y are ascrib+ a peculi> sort ( agreeabl5ess1 analog\s to t :i* !y f9d 9 "s o!r ( ! ?+s to :i* !y are accu/om$ to apply ! same "n4 ,if1 !re=e1 !re be any peculi> sort ( agreeabl5ess :i* is common ?\gh n to all1 yet to ! pr9cipal ?+s :i* are call$ beautiful1 x is bett] to limit ! d5otation ( ! t]m to ^? ?+s1 ?an to leave t k9d ( quality )\t a t]m to connote x1 & !reby div]t att5tion f its peculi>ities4 #f4 ,! la/ rem>k exemplifies a rule ( t]m9ology1 :i* is ( great importance1 & :i* has h>dly yet be5 recogniz$ z a rule1 b by a few ?9k]s ( ! pres5t c5tury4 ,9 attempt+ to rectify ! use ( a vague t]m by giv+ x a fix$ connotation1 we mu/ take c>e n to disc>d 7unless advis$ly1 & on ! gr\nd ( a deep] k ( ! subject7 any portion ( ! connotation :i* ! ^w1 9 h[ev] indi/9ct a mann]1 previ\sly c>ri$ ) x4 ,= o!rwise language loses "o ( its inh]5t & mo/ valuable prop]ties1 t ( be+ ! cons]vator ( anci5t exp]i5ce2 ! keep]-alive ( ^? ?\ghts & obs]vations ( =m] ages1 :i* may be ali5 to ! t5d5cies ( ! pass+ "t4 ,?is function ( language is s (t5 ov]look$ or und]valu$1 t a few obs]vations on x appe> to be extremely requir$4 ,ev5 :5 ! connotation ( a t]m has be5 accurately fix$1 & /ill m if x has be5 left 9 ! /ate ( a vague unanalyz$ feel+ ( resemblance2 !re is a con/ant t5d5cy 9 ! ^w1 ?r\gh famili> use1 to "p ) a portion ( its connotation4 ,x is a well-kn[n law ( ! m9d1 t a ^w orig9ally associat$ ) a v complex clu/] ( ideas1 is f> f call+ up all ^? ideas 9 ! m9d1 e "t ! ^w is us$2 x calls up only "o or two1 f :i* ! m9d runs on by fre% associations to ano!r set ( ideas1 )\t wait+ = ! sugge/ion ( ! rema9d] ( ! complex clu/]4 ,if ?is 7 n ! case1 processes ( ?\ght c\ld n take place ) any ?+ l ! rapidity :i* we "k !y possess4 ,v (t51 inde$1 :5 we are employ+ a ^w 9 our m5tal op]ations1 we are s f> f wait+ until ! complex idea :i* corresponds to ! mean+ ( ! ^w is consci\sly br\ght be=e u 9 all its p>ts1 t we run on to new tra9s ( ideas by ! o!r associations :i* ! m]e ^w excites1 )\t hav+ realiz$ 9 our imag9ation any "p :atev] ( ! mean+2 ?us us+ ! ^w1 & ev5 us+ x well & accurately1 & c>ry+ on important processes ( reason+ by means ( x1 9 an almo/ me*anical mann]2 s mu* s1 t "s metaphysicians1 g5]aliz+ f an extreme case1 h fanci$ t all reason+ is b ! me*anical use ( a set ( t]ms accord+ to a c]ta9 =m4 ,we may discuss & settle ! mo/ important int]e/s ( t[ns or nations1 by ! application ( g5]al !orems or practical maxims previ\sly laid d[n1 )\t hav+ _h consci\sly sugge/$ to u1 once 9 ! :ole process1 ! h\ses & gre5 fields1 ! ?rong$ m>ket-places & dome/ic he>?s1 ( :i* n only ^? t[ns & nations consi/1 b :i* ! words t[n & nation confess$ly mean4 ,s9ce1 !n1 g5]al names come 9 ?is mann] to be us$ 7& ev5 to d a portion ( _! "w well7 )\t sugge/+ to ! m9d ! :ole ( _! mean+1 & (t5 ) ! sugge/ion ( a v small1 or no "p at all ( t mean+2 we c n wond] t words s us$ come 9 "t to be no long] capable ( sugge/+ any o!r ( ! ideas appropriat$ to !m1 ?an ^? ) :i* ! association is mo/ imm$iate & /ronge/1 or mo/ kept up by ! incid5ts ( life2 ! rema9d] be+ lo/ altoge!r2 unless ! m9d1 by (t5 consci\sly dwell+ on !m1 keeps up ! association4 ,words naturally reta9 mu* m ( _! mean+ to p]sons ( active imag9ation1 :o habitually repres5t to !mselves ?+s 9 ! concrete1 ) ! detail :i* belongs to !m 9 ! actual _w4 ,to m9ds ( a diff]5t description1 ! only antidote to ?is corruption ( language is pr$ication4 ,! habit ( pr$icat+ ( ! "n1 all ! v>i\s prop]ties :i* x orig9ally connot$1 keeps up ! association betwe5 ! "n & ^? prop]ties4 ,b 9 ord] t x may d s1 x is necess>y t ! pr$icates %\ld !mselves reta9 _! association ) ! prop]ties :i* !y sev]ally connote4 ,= ! propositions c n keep ! mean+ ( ! words alive1 if ! mean+ ( ! propositions !mselves %\ld die4 ,& no?+ is m common ?an = propositions to be me*anically repeat$1 me*anically reta9$ 9 ! memory1 & _! tru? und\bt+ly ass5t$ to & reli$ on1 :ile yet !y c>ry no mean+ di/9ctly home to ! m9d2 & :ile ! matt] ( fact or law ( nature :i* !y orig9ally express$ is z mu* lo/ sight (1 & practically disreg>d$1 z if x nev] _h be5 he>d ( at all4 ,9 ^? subjects :i* are at ! same "t famili> & complicat$1 & especially 9 ^? :i* are s 9 z great a degree z moral & social subjects are1 x is a matt] ( common rem>k h[ _m important propositions are believ$ & repeat$ f habit1 :ile no acc\nt c\ld be giv51 & no s5se is practically manife/$1 ( ! tru?s :i* !y convey4 ,h5ce x is1 t ! traditional maxims ( old exp]i5ce1 ?\gh seldom que/ion$1 h (t5 s little effect on ! conduct ( life2 because _! mean+ is nev]1 by mo/ p]sons1 really felt1 until p]sonal exp]i5ce has br\ght x home4 ,& ?us also x is t s _m doctr9es ( religion1 e?ics1 & ev5 politics1 s full ( mean+ & reality to fir/ conv]ts1 h manife/$ 7aft] ! association ( t mean+ ) ! v]bal =mulas has ceas$ to be kept up by ! controv]sies :i* accompani$ _! fir/ introduction7 a t5d5cy to deg5]ate rapidly into lifeless dogmas2 :i* t5d5cy1 all ! ef=ts ( an education expressly & skillfully direct$ to keep+ ! mean+ alive1 are b>ely suffici5t to c\nt]act4 ,consid]+1 !n1 t ! human m9d1 9 diff]5t g5]ations1 occupies itself ) diff]5t ?+s1 & 9 "o age is l$ by ! circum/ances :i* surr\nd x to fix m ( its att5tion ^u "o ( ! prop]ties ( a ?+1 9 ano!r age ^u ano!r2 x is natural & inevitable t 9 e age a c]ta9 portion ( our record$ & traditional k1 n be+ cont9ually sugge/$ by ! pursuits & inquiries ) :i* mank9d are at t "t engross$1 %\ld fall asleep1 z x 71 & fade f ! memory4 ,x w\ld be 9 dang] ( be+ totally lo/1 if ! propositions or =mulas1 ! results ( ! previ\s exp]i5ce1 did n rema91 z =ms ( words x may be1 b ( words t once really convey$1 & are /ill suppos$ to convey1 a mean+3 :i* mean+1 ?\gh susp5d$1 may be hi/orically trac$1 & :5 sugge/$1 may be recogniz$ by m9ds ( ! necess>y end[m5ts z be+ /ill matt] ( fact1 or tru?4 ,:ile ! =mulas rema91 ! mean+ may at any "t revive2 & z1 on ! "o h&1 ! =mulas progressively lose ! mean+ !y 7 int5d$ to convey1 s1 on ! o!r1 :5 ?is =getfulness has rea*$ its height & begun to produce obvi\s consequ5ces1 m9ds arise :i* f ! contemplation ( ! =mulas r$iscov] ! tru?1 :5 tru? x 01 :i* 0 conta9$ 9 !m1 & ann\nce x aga9 to mank9d1 n z a discov]y1 b z ! mean+ ( t :i* !y h be5 taught1 & /ill pr(ess to believe4 ,?us !re is a p]petual oscillation 9 spiritual tru?s1 & 9 spiritual doctr9es ( any significance1 ev5 :5 n tru?s4 ,_! mean+ is almo/ always 9 a process ei!r ( be+ lo/ or ( be+ recov]$4 ,:oev] has att5d$ to ! hi/ory ( ! m s]i\s convictions ( mank9d--( ! op9ions by :i* ! g5]al conduct ( _! lives is1 or z !y conceive ought to be1 m especially regulat$--is aw>e t ev5 :5 recogniz+ v]bally ! same doctr9es1 !y atta* to !m at diff]5t p]iods a great] or a less quantity1 & ev5 a diff]5t k9d ( mean+4 ,! words 9 _! orig9al acceptation connot$1 & ! propositions express$1 a complication ( outw>d facts & inw>d feel+s1 to diff]5t portions ( :i* ! g5]al m9d is m p>ticul>ly alive 9 diff]5t g5]ations ( mank9d4 ,to common m9ds1 only t portion ( ! mean+ is 9 ea* g5]ation sugge/$1 ( :i* t g5]ation possesses ! c\nt]p>t 9 its own habitual exp]i5ce4 ,b ! words & propositions lie ready to sugge/ to any m9d duly prep>$ ! rema9d] ( ! mean+4 ,su* individual m9ds are almo/ always to be f\nd2 & ! lo/ mean+1 reviv$ by !m1 aga9 by degrees works its way into ! g5]al m9d4 ,! arrival ( ?is salut>y reaction may1 h[ev]1 be mat]ially ret>d$ by ! %all[ conceptions & incauti\s proce$+s ( m]e logicians4 ,x sometimes happ5s t t[>d ! close ( ! d[nw>d p]iod1 :5 ! words h lo/ "p ( _! significance1 & h n yet begun to recov] x1 p]sons arise ^: lead+ & favorite idea is ! importance ( cle> conceptions & precise ?\ght1 & ! necessity1 !re=e1 ( def9ite language4 ,^! p]sons1 9 exam9+ ! old =mulas1 easily p]ceive t words are us$ 9 !m )\t a mean+2 & if !y are n ! sort ( p]sons :o are capable ( r$iscov]+ ! lo/ signification1 !y naturally en\gh dismiss ! =mula1 & def9e ! "n )\t ref]5ce to x4 ,9 s do+ !y fa/5 d[n ! "n to :at x connotes 9 common use at ! "t :5 x conveys ! smalle/ quantity ( mean+2 & introduce ! practice ( employ+ x1 consi/5tly & uni=mly1 accord+ to t connotation4 ,! ^w 9 ?is way acquires an ext5t ( d5otation f> beyond :at x _h be=e2 x becomes ext5d$ to _m ?+s to :i* x 0 previ\sly1 9 appe>ance caprici\sly1 refus$4 ,( ! propositions 9 :i* x 0 =m]ly us$1 ^? :i* 7 true 9 virtue ( ! =gott5 "p ( its mean+ are n[1 by ! cle>] light :i* ! def9ition diffuses1 se5 n to be true accord+ to ! def9ition2 :i*1 h[ev]1 is ! recogniz$ & suffici5tly correct expression ( all t is p]ceiv$ to be 9 ! m9d ( any "o by :om ! t]m is us$ at ! pres5t day4 ,! anci5t =mulas are consequ5tly treat$ z prejudices2 & p are no long] taught z be=e1 ?\gh n to und]/& !m1 yet to believe t !re is tru? 9 !m4 ,!y no long] rema9 9 ! g5]al m9d surr\nd$ by respect1 & ready at any "t to sugge/ _! orig9al mean+4 ,:atev] tru?s !y conta9 are n only1 9 ^! circum/ances1 r$iscov]$ f> m sl[ly1 b1 :5 r$iscov]$1 ! prejudice ) :i* novelties are reg>d$ is n[1 9 "s degree at lea/1 aga9/ !m1 in/ead ( be+ on _! side4 ,an example may make ^! rem>ks m intelligible4 ,9 all ages1 except :]e moral speculation has be5 sil5c$ by outw>d compulsion1 or :]e ! feel+s :i* prompt to x /ill cont9ue to be satisfi$ by ! traditional doctr9es ( an e/abli%$ fai?1 "o ( ! subjects :i* h mo/ occupi$ ! m9ds ( ?9k+ p]sons is ! inquiry1 ,:at is virtue8 or1 ,:at is a virtu\s "*8 ,among ! diff]5t !ories on ! subject :i* h1 at diff]5t times1 gr[n up & obta9$ p>tial curr5cy1 e "o ( :i* reflect$ z 9 ! cle>e/ mirror ! express image ( ! age :i* gave x bir?2 !re 0 "o1 accord+ to :i* virtue consi/s 9 a correct calculation ( our own p]sonal int]e/s1 ei!r 9 ?is _w only1 or also 9 ano!r4 ,to make ?is !ory plausible1 x 0 ( c\rse necess>y t ! only b5eficial actions :i* p 9 g5]al 7 accu/om$ to see1 or 7 !re=e accu/om$ to praise1 %\ld be su* z 71 or at lea/ might )\t contradict+ obvi\s facts be suppos$ to be1 ! result ( a prud5tial reg>d to self-int]e/2 s t ! words really connot$ no m1 9 common acceptation1 ?an 0 set d[n 9 ! def9ition4 ,suppose1 n[1 t ! p>tisans ( ?is !ory _h contriv$ to introduce a consi/5t & undeviat+ use ( ! t]m accord+ to ?is def9ition4 ,suppose t !y _h s]i\sly endeavor$1 & _h succe$$ 9 ! endeavor1 to bani% ! ^w dis9t]e/$ness f ! language2 _h obta9$ ! disuse ( all expressions atta*+ odium to selfi%ness or comm5dation to self-sacrifice1 or :i* impli$ g5]osity or k9dness to be any ?+ b do+ a b5efit 9 ord] to receive a great] p]sonal advantage 9 return4 ,ne$ we say t ?is abrogation ( ! old =mulas = ! sake ( pres]v+ cle> ideas & consi/5cy ( ?\ght1 w\ld h be5 a great evil8 :ile ! v inconsi/5cy incurr$ by ! co-exi/5ce ( ! =mulas ) philosophical op9ions :i* seem$ to condemn !m z absurdities1 op]at$ z a /imulus to ! re-exam9ation ( ! subject & ?us ! v doctr9es orig9at+ 9 ! oblivion into :i* a "p ( ! tru? _h fall51 7 r5d]$ indirectly1 b p[]fully1 in/rum5tal to its revival4 ,! doctr9e ( ! ,col]idge s*ool1 t ! language ( any p among :om culture is ( old date1 is a sacr$ deposit1 ! prop]ty ( all ages1 & :i* no "o age %\ld consid] itself emp[]$ to alt]--bord]s inde$1 z ?us express$1 on an extravagance2 b x is gr\nd$ on a tru?1 frequ5tly ov]look$ by t class ( logicians :o ?9k m ( hav+ a cle> ?an ( hav+ a compreh5sive mean+2 & :o p]ceive t e age is add+ to ! tru?s :i* x has receiv$ f its pr$ecessors1 b fail to see t a c\nt] process ( los+ tru?s already possess$1 is also con/antly go+ on1 & requir+ ! mo/ s$ul\s att5tion to c\nt]act x4 ,language is ! depository ( ! accumulat$ body ( exp]i5ce to :i* all =m] ages h contribut$ _! "p1 & :i* is ! inh]itance ( all yet to come4 ,we h no "r to prev5t ourselves f transmitt+ to po/]ity a l>g] portion ( ?is inh]itance ?an we may ourselves h pr(it$ by4 ,h[ev] mu* we may be able to improve on ! conclusions ( our =efa!rs1 we ought to be c>eful n inadv]t5tly to let any ( _! premises slip ?r\gh our f+]s4 ,x may be good to alt] ! mean+ ( a ^w1 b x is bad to let any "p ( ! mean+ drop4 ,:oev] seeks to introduce a m correct use ( a t]m ) :i* important associations are connect$1 %\ld be requir$ to possess an accurate acqua9tance ) ! hi/ory ( ! p>ticul> ^w1 & ( ! op9ions :i* 9 diff]5t /ages ( its progress x s]v$ to express4 ,to be qualifi$ to def9e ! "n1 we mu/ "k all t has ev] be5 kn[n ( ! prop]ties ( ! class ( objects :i* are1 or orig9ally 71 d5ot$ by x4 ,= if we give x a mean+ accord+ to :i* any proposition w be false :i* has ev] be5 g5]ally held to be true1 x is incumb5t on u to be sure t we "k & h consid]$ all :i* ^? :o believ$ ! proposition und]/ood by x4 ,*apt] ,v4 ,on ,! ,natural ,hi/ory ,( ,! ,v>iations ,9 ,! ,mean+ ,( ,t]ms4 #a4 ,x is n only 9 ! mode :i* has n[ be5 po9t$ out1 namely by gradual inatt5tion to a portion ( ! ideas convey$1 t words 9 common use are liable to %ift _! connotation4 ,! tru? is1 t ! connotation ( su* words is p]petually v>y+2 z might be expect$ f ! mann] 9 :i* words 9 common use acquire _! connotation4 ,a te*nical t]m1 inv5t$ = purposes ( art or sci5ce1 has1 f ! fir/1 ! connotation giv5 to x by its inv5tor2 b a "n :i* is 9 e "o's m\? be=e any "o ?9ks ( def9+ x1 d]ives its connotation only f ! circum/ances :i* are habitually br\ght to m9d :5 x is pron\nc$4 ,among ^! circum/ances1 ! prop]ties common to ! ?+s d5ot$ by ! "n1 h naturally a pr9cipal place2 & w\ld h ! sole place1 if language 7 regulat$ by conv5tion r ?an by cu/om & accid5t4 ,b besides ^! common prop]ties1 :i* if !y exi/ are c]ta9ly pres5t :5ev] ! "n is employ$1 any o!r circum/ance may casually be f\nd along ) x1 s frequ5tly z to become associat$ ) x 9 ! same mann]1 & z /rongly1 z ! common prop]ties !mselves4 ,9 proportion z ?is association =ms itself1 p give up us+ ! "n 9 cases 9 :i* ^? casual circum/ances d n exi/4 ,!y pref] us+ "s o!r "n1 or ! same "n ) "s adjunct1 r ?an employ an expression :i* w call up an idea !y d n want to excite4 ,! circum/ance orig9ally casual1 ?us becomes regul>ly a "p ( ! connotation ( ! ^w4 ,x is ?is cont9ual incorporation ( circum/ances orig9ally accid5tal1 into ! p]man5t signification ( words1 :i* is ! cause t !re are s few exact synonyms4 ,x is ?is also :i* r5d]s ! diction>y mean+ ( a ^w1 by univ]sal rem>k s imp]fect an expon5t ( its real mean+4 ,! diction>y mean+ is m>k$ out 9 a broad1 blunt way1 & probably includes all t 0 orig9ally necess>y = ! correct employm5t ( ! t]m2 b 9 process ( "t s _m collat]al associations adh]e to words1 t :oev] %\ld attempt to use !m ) no o!r guide ?an ! diction>y1 w\ld conf\nd a ?\s& nice di/9ctions & subtle %ades ( mean+ :i* diction>ies take no acc\nt (2 z we notice 9 ! use ( a language 9 conv]sation or writ+ by a =eign] n ?or\ghly ma/] ( x4 ,! hi/ory ( a ^w1 by %[+ ! causes :i* det]m9e its use1 is 9 ^! cases a bett] guide to its employm5t ?an any def9ition2 = def9itions c only %[ its mean+ at ! p>ticul> "t1 or at mo/ ! s]ies ( its successive mean+s1 b its hi/ory may %[ ! law by :i* ! succession 0 produc$4 ,! ^w g5tleman1 = in/ance1 to ! correct employm5t ( :i* a diction>y w\ld be no guide1 orig9ally meant simply a man born 9 a c]ta9 rank4 ,f ?is x came by degrees to connote all su* qualities or adv5titi\s circum/ances z 7 usually f\nd to belong to p]sons ( t rank4 ,?is consid]ation at once expla9s :y 9 "o ( its vulg> acceptations x means any "o :o lives )\t labor1 9 ano!r )\t manual labor1 & 9 its m elevat$ signification x has 9 e age signifi$ ! conduct1 "*1 habits1 & outw>d appe>ance1 9 :omsoev] f\nd1 :i*1 accord+ to ! ideas ( t age1 belong$ or 7 expect$ to belong to p]sons born & educat$ 9 a high social position4 ,x cont9ually happ5s t ( two words1 ^: diction>y mean+s are ei!r ! same or v slightly diff]5t1 "o w be ! prop] ^w to use 9 "o set ( circum/ances1 ano!r 9 ano!r1 )\t its be+ possible to %[ h[ ! cu/om ( s employ+ !m orig9ally grew up4 ,! accid5t t "o ( ! words 0 us$ & n ! o!r on a p>ticul> occasion or 9 a p>ticul> social circle1 w be suffici5t to produce s /rong an association betwe5 ! ^w & "s specialty ( circum/ances1 t mank9d ab&on ! use ( x 9 any o!r case1 & ! specialty becomes "p ( its signification4 ,! tide ( cu/om fir/ drifts ! ^w on ! %ore ( a p>ticul> mean+1 !n retires & leaves x !re4 ,an in/ance 9 po9t is ! rem>kable *ange :i*1 9 ! ,engli% language at lea/1 has tak5 place 9 ! signification ( ! ^w loyalty4 ,t ^w orig9ally meant 9 ,engli%1 z x /ill means 9 ! language f :5ce x came1 fair1 op5 deal+1 & fidelity to engagem5ts2 9 t s5se ! quality x express$ 0 "p ( ! ideal *ivalr\s or knightly "*4 ,by :at process1 9 ,engl&1 ! t]m became re/rict$ to ! s+le case ( fidelity to ! ?rone1 ,i am n suffici5tly v]s$ 9 ! hi/ory ( c\rtly language to be able to pron\nce4 ,! int]val betwe5 a loyal *evali] & a loyal subject is c]ta9ly great4 ,i c only suppose t ! ^w 01 at "s p]iod1 ! favorite t]m at c\rt to express fidelity to ! oa? ( allegiance2 until at l5g? ^? :o wi%$ to speak ( any o!r1 & z x 0 probably deem$1 inf]ior sort ( fidelity1 ei!r did n v5ture to use s dignifi$ a t]m1 or f\nd x conv5i5t to employ "s o!r 9 ord] to avoid be+ misund]/ood4 #b4 ,cases are n unfrequ5t 9 :i* a circum/ance1 at fir/ casually incorporat$ into ! connotation ( a ^w :i* orig9ally _h no ref]5ce to x1 9 "t :olly sup]s$es ! orig9al mean+1 & becomes n m]ely a "p ( ! connotation1 b ! :ole ( x4 ,?is is exemplifi$ 9 ! ^w pagan1 paganus2 :i* orig9ally1 z its etymology imports1 0 equival5t to villag]2 ! inhabitant ( a pagus1 or village4 ,at a p>ticul> era 9 ! ext5sion ( ,*ri/ianity ov] ! ,roman empire1 ! adh]5ts ( ! old religion1 & ! villag]s or c\ntry p1 7 ne>ly ! same body ( individuals1 ! inhabitants ( ! t[ns hav+ be5 e>lie/ conv]t$2 z 9 our own day1 & at all times1 ! great] activity ( social int]c\rse r5d]s !m ! e>lie/ recipi5ts ( new op9ions & modes1 :ile old habits & prejudices l+] longe/ among ! c\ntry p2 n to m5tion t ! t[ns 7 m imm$iately "u ! direct influ5ce ( ! ,gov]nm5t1 :i* at t "t _h embrac$ ,*ri/ianity4 ,f ?is casual co9cid5ce1 ! ^w paganus c>ri$ ) x1 & began m & m /eadily to sugge/1 ! idea ( a wor%ip] ( ! anci5t div9ities2 until at l5g? x sugge/$ t idea s =cibly t p :o did n desire to sugge/ ! idea avoid$ us+ ! ^w4 ,b :5 paganus _h come to connote hea!nism1 ! v unimportant circum/ance1 ) ref]5ce to t fact1 ( ! place ( resid5ce1 0 soon disreg>d$ 9 ! employm5t ( ! ^w4 ,z !re 0 seldom any occasion = mak+ sep>ate ass]tions respect+ hea!ns :o liv$ 9 ! c\ntry1 !re 0 no ne$ = a sep>ate ^w to d5ote !m2 & pagan came n only to mean hea!n1 b to mean t exclusively4 ,a case /ill m famili> to mo/ read]s is t ( ! ^w villa9 or ville94 ,?is t]m1 z e body kn[s1 _h 9 ! ,middle ,ages a connotation z /rictly def9$ z a ^w c\ld h1 be+ ! prop] legal designation = ^? p]sons :o 7 ! subjects ( ! less on]\s =ms ( feudal bondage4 ,! scorn ( ! semi-b>b>\s milit>y ari/ocracy = ^! _! abject dep5dants1 r5d]$ ! act ( lik5+ any p]son to ?is class ( p a m>k ( ! greate/ contumely2 ! same scorn l$ !m to ascribe to ! same p all mann] ( hateful qualities1 :i* d\btless also1 9 ! degrad+ situation 9 :i* !y 7 held1 7 (t5 n unju/ly imput$ to !m4 ,^! circum/ances comb9$ to atta* to ! t]m villa9 ideas ( crime & guilt1 9 s =cible a mann] t ! application ( ! epi!t ev5 to ^? to :om x legally belong$ became an affront1 & 0 ab/a9$ f :5ev] no affront 0 int5d$4 ,f t "t guilt 0 "p ( ! connotation2 & soon became ! :ole ( x1 s9ce mank9d 7 n prompt$ by any urg5t motive to cont9ue mak+ a di/9ction 9 _! language betwe5 bad m5 ( s]vile /ation & bad m5 ( any o!r rank 9 life4 ,^! & simil> in/ances 9 :i* ! orig9al signification ( a t]m is totally lo/--ano!r & an entirely di/9ct mean+ be+ fir/ +raft$ ^u ! =m]1 & f9ally sub/itut$ = x--af=d examples ( ! d\ble movem5t :i* is always tak+ place 9 language3 two c\nt]-movem5ts1 "o ( ,g5]alization1 by :i* words are p]petually los+ portions ( _! connotation1 & becom+ ( less mean+ & m g5]al acceptation2 ! o!r ( ,specialization1 by :i* o!r1 or ev5 ^! same words1 are cont9ually tak+ on fre% connotation2 acquir+ additional mean+ by be+ re/rict$ 9 _! employm5t to a "p only ( ! occasions on :i* !y might prop]ly be us$ be=e4 ,?is d\ble movem5t is ( suffici5t importance 9 ! natural hi/ory ( language 7to :i* natural hi/ory ! artificial modifications ought always to h "s degree ( ref]5ce71 to ju/ify our dwell+ a little long] on ! nature ( ! tw(old ph5om5on1 & ! causes to :i* x owes its exi/5ce4 #c4 ,to beg9 ) ! movem5t ( g5]alization4 ,x might seem unnecess>y to dwell on ! *anges 9 ! mean+ ( names :i* take place m]ely f _! be+ us$ ignorantly1 by p]sons :o1 n hav+ prop]ly ma/]$ ! receiv$ connotation ( a ^w1 apply x 9 a loos] & wid] s5se ?an belongs to x4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is a real s\rce ( alt]ations 9 ! language2 = :5 a ^w1 f be+ (t5 employ$ 9 cases :]e "o ( ! qualities :i* x connotes does n exi/1 ceases to sugge/ t quality ) c]ta9ty1 !n ev5 ^? :o are "u no mi/ake z to ! prop] mean+ ( ! ^w1 pref] express+ t mean+ 9 "s o!r way1 & leave ! orig9al ^w to its fate4 ,! ^w ',squire1 z /&+ = an own] ( a l&$ e/ate2 ,p>son1 z d5ot+ n ! rector ( ! p>i%1 b cl]gym5 9 g5]al2 ,arti/1 to d5ote only a pa9t] or sculptor2 are cases 9 po9t4 ,su* cases give a cle> insight into ! process ( ! deg5]ation ( languages 9 p]iods ( hi/ory :5 lit]>y culture 0 susp5d$2 & we are n[ 9 dang] ( exp]i5c+ a simil> evil ?r\gh ! sup]ficial ext5sion ( ! same culture4 ,s _m p]sons )\t any ?+ des]v+ ! "n ( education h become writ]s by pr(ession1 t writt5 language may almo/ be said to be pr9cipally wield$ by p]sons ignorant ( ! prop] use ( ! in/rum5t1 & :o are spoil+ x m & m = ^? :o und]/& x4 ,vulg>isms1 :i* creep 9 nobody kn[s h[1 are daily depriv+ ! ,engli% language ( valuable modes ( express+ ?\ght4 ,to take a pres5t in/ance3 ! v]b transpire =m]ly convey$ v expressively its correct mean+1 viz41 to become kn[n ?r\gh unnotic$ *annels--to exhale1 z x 71 into publicity ?r\gh invisible pores1 l a vapor or gas dis5gag+ itself4 ,b ( late a practice has comm5c$ ( employ+ ?is ^w1 = ! sake ( f9]y1 z a m]e synonym ( to happ53 8! ev5ts :i* h transpir$ 9 ! ,crimea10 mean+ ! incid5ts ( ! w>4 ,?is vile specim5 ( bad ,engli% is already se5 9 ! dispat*es ( noblem5 & vic]oys2 & ! "t is app>5tly n f> di/ant :5 nobody w und]/& ! ^w if us$ 9 its prop] s5se4 ,9 o!r cases x is n ! love ( f9]y1 b simple want ( education1 :i* makes writ]s employ words 9 s5ses unkn[n to g5u9e ,engli%4 ,! use ( 8aggravat+0 = 8provok+10 9 my boyhood a vulg>ism ( ! nurs]y1 has crept into almo/ all newspap]s1 & into _m books2 & :5 ! ^w is us$ 9 its prop] s5se1 z :5 writ]s on crim9al law speak ( aggravat+ & ext5uat+ circum/ances1 _! mean+1 x is probable1 is already misund]/ood4 ,x is a great error to ?9k t ^! corruptions ( language d no h>m4 ,^? :o are /ruggl+ ) ! difficulty 7& :o "k by exp]i5ce h[ great x already is7 ( express+ "o's self cle>ly ) precision1 f9d _! res\rces cont9ually n>r[$ by illit]ate writ]s1 :o seize & twi/ f its purpose "s =m ( spee* :i* once s]v$ to convey briefly & compactly an unambigu\s mean+4 ,x w\ld h>dly be believ$ h[ (t5 a writ] is compell$ to a circumlocution by ! s+le vulg>ism1 introduc$ dur+ ! la/ few ye>s1 ( us+ ! ^w alone z an adv]b1 only n be+ f9e en\gh = ! rhetoric ( ambiti\s ignorance4 ,a man w say 8to :i* ,i am n alone b\nd by honor b also by law10 unaw>e t :at he has un9t5tionally said is1 t he is n alone b\nd1 "s o!r p]son be+ b\nd ) him4 ,=m]ly1 if any "o said1 8,i am n alone responsible = ?is10 he 0 und]/ood to mean 7:at alone 8 words mean 9 correct ,engli%71 t he is n ! sole p]son responsible2 b if he n[ us$ su* an expression1 ! read] w\ld be confus$ betwe5 t & two o!r mean+s3 t he is n only responsible b some?+ m2 or t he is responsible n only = ?is b = some?+ besides4 ,! "t is com+ :5 ,t5nyson's none c\ld n say1 8,i w n die alone10 le/ %e %\ld be suppos$ to mean t %e w\ld n only die b d some?+ else4 ,! blund] ( writ+ pr$icate = pr$ict has become s widely diffus$ t x bids fair to r5d] "o ( ! mo/ useful t]ms 9 ! sci5tific vocabul>y ( ,logic un9telligible4 ,! ma!matical & logical t]m 8to elim9ate0 is und]go+ a simil> de/ruction4 ,all :o are acqua9t$ ei!r ) ! prop] use ( ! ^w or ) its etymology "k t to elim9ate a ?+ is to ?ru/ x out3 b ^? :o "k no?+ ab\t x1 except t x is a f9e-look+ phrase1 use x 9 a s5se precisely ! rev]se1 to d5ote1 n turn+ any ?+ out1 b br++ x 94 ,!y talk ( elim9at+ "s tru?1 or o!r useful result1 f a mass ( details47#bbj7 ,a simil> p]man5t det]ioration 9 ! language is 9 dang] ( be+ produc$ by ! blund]s ( translators4 ,! writ]s ( telegrams1 & ! =eign correspond5ts ( newspap]s1 h gone on s long translat+ dem&] by 8to dem&10 )\t a suspicion t x means only to ask1 t 7! context g5]ally %[+ t no?+ else is meant7 ,engli% read]s are gradually associat+ ! ,engli% ^w dem& ) simple ask+1 ?us leav+ ! language )\t a t]m to express a dem& 9 its prop] s5se4 ,9 l mann]1 8transaction10 ! ,fr5* ^w = a compromise1 is translat$ into ! ,engli% ^w transaction2 :ile1 curi\sly en\gh1 ! inv]se *ange is tak+ place 9 ,france1 :]e ! ^w 8compromis0 has lately begun to be us$ = express+ ! same idea4 ,if ?is cont9ues1 ! two c\ntries w h ex*ang$ phrases4 ,indep5d5tly1 h[ev]1 ( ! g5]alization ( names ?r\gh _! ignorant misuse1 !re is a t5d5cy 9 ! same direction consi/5tly ) a p]fect k ( _! mean+2 aris+ f ! fact1 t ! numb] ( ?+s kn[n to u1 & ( :i* we feel a desire to speak1 multiply fa/] ?an ! names = !m4 ,except on subjects = :i* !re has be5 con/ruct$ a sci5tific t]m9ology1 ) :i* unsci5tific p]sons d n m$dle1 great difficulty is g5]ally f\nd 9 br++ a new "n into use2 & indep5d5tly ( t difficulty1 x is natural to pref] giv+ to a new object a "n :i* at lea/ expresses its resemblance to some?+ already kn[n1 s9ce by pr$icat+ ( x a "n entirely new we at fir/ convey no in=mation4 ,9 ?is mann] ! "n ( a species (t5 becomes ! "n ( a g5us2 z salt1 = example1 or oil2 ! =m] ( :i* words orig9ally d5ot$ only ! muriate ( soda1 ! latt]1 z its etymology indicates1 only olive-oil2 b :i* n[ d5ote l>ge & div]sifi$ classes ( sub/ances resembl+ ^! 9 "s ( _! qualities1 & connote only ^? common qualities1 in/ead ( ! :ole ( ! di/9ctive prop]ties ( olive-oil & sea-salt4 ,! words glass & soap are us$ by mod]n *emi/s 9 a simil> mann]1 to d5ote g5]a ( :i* ! sub/ances vulg>ly s call$ are s+le species4 ,& x (t5 happ5s1 z 9 ^? in/ances1 t ! t]m keeps its special signification 9 addition to its m g5]al "o1 & becomes ambigu\s1 t is1 two names in/ead ( "o4 ,^! *anges1 by :i* words 9 ord9>y use become m & m g5]aliz$1 & less & less expressive1 take place 9 a /ill great] degree ) ! words :i* express ! complicat$ ph5om5a ( m9d & society4 ,hi/orians1 travel]s1 & 9 g5]al ^? :o speak or write conc]n+ moral & social ph5om5a ) :i* !y are n famili>ly acqua9t$1 are ! great ag5ts 9 ?is modification ( language4 ,! vocabul>y ( all except unusually in/ruct$ z well z ?9k+ p]sons1 is1 on su* subjects1 em95tly scanty4 ,!y h a c]ta9 small set ( words to :i* !y are accu/om$1 & :i* !y employ to express ph5om5a ! mo/ het]og5e\s1 because !y h nev] suffici5tly analyz$ ! facts to :i* ^? words correspond 9 _! own c\ntry1 to h atta*$ p]fectly def9ite ideas to ! words4 ,! fir/ ,engli% conqu]ors ( ,b5gal1 = example1 c>ri$ ) !m ! phrase l&$ proprietor into a c\ntry :]e ! rights ( individuals ov] ! soil 7 extremely diff]5t 9 degree1 & ev5 9 nature1 f ^? recogniz$ 9 ,engl&4 ,apply+ ! t]m ) all its ,engli% associations 9 su* a /ate ( ?+s2 to "o :o _h only a limit$ "r !y gave an absolute "r1 f ano!r because he _h n an absolute "r !y took away all "r1 drove :ole classes ( p to ru9 & despair1 fill$ ! c\ntry ) b&itti1 creat$ a feel+ t no?+ 0 secure1 & produc$1 ) ! be/ int5tions1 a disorganization ( society :i* _h n be5 produc$ 9 t c\ntry by ! mo/ ru?less ( its b>b>ian invad]s4 ,yet ! usage ( p]sons capable ( s gross a misappreh5sion det]m9es ! mean+ ( language2 & ! words !y ?us misuse gr[ 9 g5]ality1 until ! in/ruct$ are oblig$ to acquiesce2 & to employ ^? words 7fir/ free+ !m f vagu5ess by giv+ !m a def9ite connotation7 z g5]ic t]ms1 subdivid+ ! g5]a into species4 #d4 ,:ile ! m rapid gr[? ( ideas ?an ( names ?us creates a p]petual necessity = mak+ ! same names s]ve1 ev5 if imp]fectly1 on a great] numb] ( occasions2 a c\nt]-op]ation is go+ on1 by :i* names become on ! contr>y re/rict$ to few] occasions1 by tak+ on1 z x 71 additional connotation1 f circum/ances n orig9ally includ$ 9 ! mean+1 b :i* h become connect$ ) x 9 ! m9d by "s accid5tal cause4 ,we h se5 above1 9 ! words pagan & villa91 rem>kable examples ( ! specialization ( ! mean+ ( words f casual associations1 z well z ( ! g5]alization ( x 9 a new direction1 :i* (t5 foll[s4 ,simil> specializations are ( frequ5t occurr5ce 9 ! hi/ory ev5 ( sci5tific nom5clature4 8,x is by no means uncommon10 says ,dr4 ,p>is1 9 8 ,ph>macologia17#bba7 8to f9d a ^w :i* is us$ to express g5]al *>act]s subsequ5tly become ! "n ( a specific sub/ance 9 :i* su* *>act]s are pr$om9ant2 & we %all f9d t "s important anomalies 9 nom5clature may be ?us expla9$4 ,! t]m 1 f :i* ! ^w ,ars5ic is d]iv$1 0 an anci5t epi!t appli$ to ^? natural sub/ances :i* possess$ /rong & acrimoni\s prop]ties2 & z ! poison\s quality ( ars5ic 0 f\nd to be rem>kably p[]ful1 ! t]m 0 especially appli$ to ,orpim5t1 ! =m 9 :i* ?is metal mo/ usually occurr$4 ,s ! t]m ,v]b5a 7quasi ,h]b5a7 orig9ally d5ot$ all ^? h]bs t 7 held sacr$ on acc\nt ( _! be+ employ$ 9 ! rites ( sacrifice1 z we le>n f ! poets2 b z "o h]b 0 usually adopt$ ^u ^! occasions1 ! ^w ,v]b5a came to d5ote t p>ticul> h]b only1 & x is transmitt$ to u to ?is day "u ! same title1 viz41 ,v]b5a or ,v]va91 & inde$ until lately x enjoy$ ! m$ical reputation :i* its sacr$ orig9 conf]r$ ^u x1 = x 0 worn susp5d$ ar\nd ! neck z an amulet4 ,vitriol1 9 ! orig9al application ( ! ^w1 d5ot$ any cry/all9e body ) a c]ta9 degree ( transp>5cy 7vitrum72 x is h>dly necess>y to obs]ve t ! t]m is n[ appropriat$ to a p>ticul> species3 9 ! same mann]1 ,b>k1 :i* is a g5]al t]m1 is appli$ to express "o g5us1 & by way ( em95ce x has ! article ,! prefix$1 z ,! b>k2 ! same obs]vation w apply to ! ^w ,opium1 :i*1 9 its primitive s5se1 signifies any juice 71 ,succus71 :ile x n[ only d5otes "o species1 viz41 t ( ! poppy4 ,s1 aga91 ,elat]ium 0 us$ by ,hippocrates to signify v>i\s int]nal applications1 especially purgatives1 ( a viol5t & dra/ic nature 7f ! ^w 1 agito1 moveo1 /imulo71 b by succe$+ au?ors x 0 exclusively appli$ to d5ote ! active matt] :i* subsides f ! juice ( ! wild cucumb]4 ,! ^w ,fecula1 aga91 orig9ally meant to imply any sub/ance :i* 0 d]iv$ by spontane\s subsid5ce f a liquid 7f fx1 ! gr\nds or settlem5t ( any liquor72 aft]w>d x 0 appli$ to ,/>*1 :i* is deposit$ 9 ?is mann] by agitat+ ! fl\r ( :eat 9 wat]2 &1 la/ly1 x has be5 appli$ to a peculi> vegetable pr9ciple1 :i*1 l />*1 is insoluble 9 cold1 b completely soluble 9 boil+ wat]1 ) :i* x =ms a gelat9\s solution4 ,?is indef9ite mean+ ( ! ^w fecula has creat$ num]\s mi/akes 9 ph>maceutic *emi/ry2 ,elat]ium1 = in/ance1 is said to be fecula1 &1 9 ! orig9al s5se ( ! ^w1 x is prop]ly s call$1 inasmu* z x is procur$ f a vegetable juice by spontane\s subsid5ce1 b 9 ! limit$ & mod]n acceptation ( ! t]m x conveys an errone\s idea2 = in/ead ( ! active pr9ciple ( ! juice resid+ 9 fecula1 x is a peculi> proximate pr9ciple1 sui g5]is1 to :i* ,i h v5tur$ to be/[ ! "n ( ,elat94 ,= ! same reason1 mu* d\bt & obscurity involve ! mean+ ( ! ^w ,extract1 because x is appli$ g5]ally to any sub/ance obta9$ by ! evaporation ( a vegetable solution1 & specifically to a peculi> proximate pr9ciple1 possess$ ( c]ta9 *>act]s1 by :i* x is di/+ui%$ f e o!r elem5t>y body40 ,a g5]ic t]m is always liable to become ?us limit$ to a s+le species1 or ev5 individual1 if p h occasion to ?9k & speak ( t individual or species mu* (t5] ?an ( any ?+ else :i* is conta9$ 9 ! g5us4 ,?us by cattle1 a /age-coa*man w und]/& horses2 bea/s1 9 ! language ( agriculturi/s1 /&s = ox52 & birds1 ) "s sportsm51 = p>tridges only4 ,! law ( language :i* op]ates 9 ^! trivial in/ances is ! v same 9 con=mity to :i* ! t]ms 1 ,deus1 & ,god1 7 adopt$ f ,poly!ism by ,*ri/ianity1 to express ! s+le object ( its own adoration4 ,almo/ all ! t]m9ology ( ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur* is made up ( words orig9ally us$ 9 a mu* m g5]al acceptation3 ,ecclesia1 ,assembly2 ,bi%op1 ,episcopus1 ,ov]se]2 ,prie/1 ,presbyt]1 ,eld]2 ,deacon1 ,diaconus1 ,adm9i/rator2 ,sacram5t1 a v[ ( allegiance2 ,evangelium1 good tid+s2 & "s words1 z ,m9i/]1 are /ill us$ bo? 9 ! g5]al & 9 ! limit$ s5se4 ,x w\ld be int]e/+ to trace ! progress by :i* au?or came1 9 its mo/ famili> s5se1 to signify a writ]1 & 1 or mak]1 a poet4 ,( ! incorporation into ! mean+ ( a t]m1 ( circum/ances accid5tally connect$ ) x at "s p>ticul> p]iod1 z 9 ! case ( ,pagan1 in/ances might easily be multipli$4 ,physician 71 or naturali/7 became1 9 ,engl&1 synonym\s ) a heal] ( diseases1 because until a comp>atively late p]iod m$ical practition]s 7 ! only naturali/s4 ,cl]c1 or cl]icus1 a s*ol>1 came to signify an ecclesia/ic1 because ! cl]gy 7 = _m c5turies ! only s*ol>s4 ,( all ideas1 h[ev]1 ! mo/ liable to cl+ by association to any ?+ ) :i* !y h ev] be5 connect$ by proximity1 are ^? ( our pleasures & pa9s1 or ( ! ?+s :i* we habitually contemplate z s\rces ( our pleasures or pa9s4 ,! additional connotation1 !re=e1 :i* a ^w soone/ & mo/ readily takes on1 is t ( agreeabl5ess or pa9fulness1 9 _! v>i\s k9ds & degrees2 ( be+ a good or bad ?+2 desirable or to be avoid$2 an object ( hatr$1 ( dread1 contempt1 admiration1 hope1 or love4 ,accord+ly !re is h>dly a s+le "n1 expressive ( any moral or social fact calculat$ to call =? /rong affections ei!r ( a favorable or ( a ho/ile nature1 :i* does n c>ry ) x decid$ly & irresi/ibly a connotation ( ^? /rong affections1 or1 at ! lea/1 ( approbation or c5sure2 insomu* t to employ ^? names 9 conjunction ) o!rs by :i* ! contr>y s5tim5ts 7 express$1 w\ld produce ! effect ( a p>adox1 or ev5 a contradiction 9 t]ms4 ,! baneful influ5ce ( a connotation ?us acquir$1 on ! prevail+ habits ( ?\ght1 especially 9 morals & politics1 has be5 well po9t$ out on _m occasions by ,b5?am4 ,x gives rise to ! fallacy ( 8"q-begg+ names40 ,! v prop]ty :i* we are inquir+ :e!r a ?+ possesses or n1 has become s associat$ ) ! "n ( ! ?+ z to be "p ( its mean+1 insomu* t by m]ely utt]+ ! "n we assume ! po9t :i* 0 to be made out2 "o ( ! mo/ frequ5t s\rces ( app>5tly self-evid5t propositions4 ,)\t any fur!r multiplication ( examples to illu/rate ! *anges :i* usage is cont9ually mak+ 9 ! signification ( t]ms1 ,i %all add1 z a practical rule1 t ! logician1 n be+ able to prev5t su* trans=mations1 %\ld submit to !m ) a good grace :5 !y are irrevocably effect$1 & if a def9ition is necess>y1 def9e ! ^w accord+ to its new mean+2 reta9+ ! =m] z a second signification1 if x is ne$$1 & if !re is any *ance ( be+ able to pres]ve x ei!r 9 ! language ( philosophy or 9 common use4 ,logicians c n make ! mean+ ( any b sci5tific t]ms2 t ( all o!r words is made by ! collective human race4 ,b logicians c asc]ta9 cle>ly :at x is :i*1 work+ obscurely1 has guid$ ! g5]al m9d to a p>ticul> employm5t ( a "n2 & :5 !y h f\nd ?is1 !y c clo! x 9 su* di/9ct & p]man5t t]ms1 t mank9d %all see ! mean+ :i* be=e !y only felt1 & %all n suff] x to be aft]w>d =gott5 or misappreh5d$4 ,*apt] ,,vi4 ,! ,pr9ciples ,( ,a ,philosophical ,language ,fur!r ,consid]$4 #a4 ,we h1 ?us f>1 consid]$ only "o ( ! requisites ( a language adapt$ = ! inve/igation ( tru?2 t its t]ms %all ea* ( !m convey a det]m9ate & unmi/akable mean+4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 z we h already rem>k$1 o!r requisites2 "s ( !m important only 9 ! second degree1 b "o :i* is fundam5tal1 & b>ely yields 9 po9t ( importance1 if x yields at all1 to ! quality :i* we h already discuss$ at s mu* l5g?4 ,t ! language may be fitt$ = its purposes1 n only %\ld e ^w p]fectly express its mean+1 b !re %\ld be no important mean+ )\t its ^w4 ,:atev] we h occasion to ?9k ( (t51 & = sci5tific purposes1 ought to h a "n appropriat$ to x4 ,?is requisite ( philosophical language may be consid]$ "u ?ree diff]5t heads2 t numb] ( sep>ate conditions be+ involv$ 9 x4 #b4 ,fir/1 !re ought to be all su* names1 z are ne$ful = mak+ su* a record ( individual obs]vations t ! words ( ! record %all exactly %[ :at fact x is :i* has be5 obs]v$4 ,9 o!r words1 !re %\ld be an accurate ,descriptive ,t]m9ology4 ,! only ?+s :i* we c obs]ve directly be+ our own s5sations1 or o!r feel+s1 a complete descriptive language w\ld be "o 9 :i* !re %\ld be a "n = e v>iety ( elem5t>y s5sation or feel+4 ,comb9ations ( s5sations or feel+s may always be describ$1 if we h a "n = ea* ( ! elem5t>y feel+s :i* compose !m2 b brevity ( description1 & cle>ness 7:i* (t5 dep5ds v mu* on brevity71 are greatly promot$ by giv+ di/9ctive names n to ! elem5ts alone1 b also to all comb9ations :i* are ( frequ5t recurr5ce4 ,on ?is occasion ,i c n d bett] ?an quote f ,dr4 ,:ewell7#bbb7 "s ( ! excell5t rem>ks :i* he has made on ?is important bran* ( our subject4 8,! mean+ ( descriptive te*nical t]ms c be fix$ 9 ! fir/ in/ance only by conv5tion1 & c be made intelligible only by pres5t+ to ! s5ses t :i* ! t]ms are to signify4 ,! k ( a color by its "n c only be taught ?r\gh ! eye4 ,no description c convey to a he>] :at we mean by apple-gre5 or ,fr5* gray4 ,x might1 p]haps1 be suppos$ t1 9 ! fir/ example1 ! t]m apple1 ref]r+ to s famili> an object1 suffici5tly sugge/s ! color int5d$4 ,b x may easily be se5 t ?is is n true2 = apples are ( _m diff]5t hues ( gre51 & x is only by a conv5tional selection t we c appropriate ! t]m to "o special %ade4 ,:5 ?is appropriation is once made1 ! t]m ref]s to ! s5sation1 & n to ! p>ts ( ! t]m2 = ^! ent] into ! comp\nd m]ely z a help to ! memory1 :e!r ! sugge/ion be a natural connection z 9 #8apple-gre51' or a casual "o z 9 #8,fr5* gray4' ,9 ord] to d]ive due advantage f te*nical t]ms ( ! k9d1 !y mu/ be associat$ imm$iately ) ! p]ception to :i* !y belong2 & n connect$ ) x ?r\gh ! vague usages ( common language4 ,! memory mu/ reta9 ! s5sation2 & ! te*nical ^w mu/ be und]/ood z directly z ! mo/ famili> ^w1 & m di/9ctly4 ,:5 we f9d su* t]ms z t9-:ite or p9*beck-br[n1 ! metallic color s d5ot$ ought to />t up 9 our memory )\t delay or se>*4 8,?is1 :i* x is mo/ important to recollect ) respect to ! simpl] prop]ties ( bodies1 z color & =m1 is no less true ) respect to m comp\nd notions4 ,9 all cases ! t]m is fix$ to a peculi> mean+ by conv5tion2 & ! /ud5t1 9 ord] to use ! ^w1 mu/ be completely famili> ) ! conv5tion1 s t he has no ne$ to frame conjectures f ! ^w itself4 ,su* conjectures w\ld always be insecure1 & (t5 errone\s4 ,?us ! t]m papilionace\s appli$ to a fl[] is employ$ to indicate1 n only a resemblance to a butt]fly1 b a resemblance aris+ f five petals ( a c]ta9-peculi> %ape & arrangem5t2 & ev5 if ! resemblance 7 mu* /rong] ?an x is 9 su* cases1 yet1 if x 7 produc$ 9 a diff]5t way1 z1 = example1 by "o petal1 or two only1 in/ead ( a #8/&>d1' two #8w+s1' & a #8keel' consi/+ ( two p>ts m or less unit$ into "o1 we %\ld be no long] ju/ifi$ 9 speak+ ( x z a #8papilionace\s' fl[]40 ,:51 h[ev]1 ! ?+ nam$ is1 z 9 ?is la/ case1 a comb9ation ( simple s5sations1 x is n necess>y1 9 ord] to le>n ! mean+ ( ! ^w1 t ! /ud5t %\ld ref] back to ! s5sations !mselves2 x may be communicat$ to him ?r\gh ! m$ium ( o!r words2 ! t]ms1 9 %ort1 may be def9$4 ,b ! names ( elem5t>y s5sations1 or elem5t>y feel+s ( any sort1 c n be def9$2 nor is !re any mode ( mak+ _! signification kn[n b by mak+ ! le>n] exp]i5ce ! s5sation1 or ref]r+ him1 ?r\gh "s kn[n m>k1 to 8 remembrance ( hav+ exp]i5c$ x be=e4 ,h5ce x is only ! impressions on ! outw>d s5ses1 or ^? inw>d feel+s :i* are connect$ 9 a v obvi\s & uni=m mann] ) outw>d objects1 t are really susceptible ( an exact descriptive language4 ,! c\ntless v>iety ( s5sations :i* arise1 = in/ance1 f disease1 or f peculi> physiological /ates1 x w\ld be 9 va9 to attempt to "n2 = z no "o c judge :e!r ! s5sation ,i h is ! same ) 81 ! "n c n h1 to u two1 real community ( mean+4 ,! same may be said1 to a consid]able ext5t1 ( purely m5tal feel+s4 ,b 9 "s ( ! sci5ces :i* are conv]sant ) ext]nal objects1 x is sc>cely possible to surpass ! p]fection to :i* ?is quality ( a philosophical language has be5 c>ri$4 8,! =mation7#bbc7 ( an exact & ext5sive descriptive language = botany has be5 execut$ ) a degree ( skill & felicity1 :i*1 be=e x 0 atta9$1 c\ld h>dly h be5 dream$ ( z atta9able4 ,e "p ( a plant has be5 nam$2 & ! =m ( e "p1 ev5 ! mo/ m9ute1 has _h a l>ge assemblage ( descriptive t]ms appropriat$ to x1 by means ( :i* ! botani/ c convey & receive k ( =m & /ructure1 z exactly z if ea* m9ute "p 7 pres5t$ to him va/ly magnifi$4 ,?is acquisition 0 "p ( ! ,l9nan re=m4444 #8,t\rne=t1' says ,dec&olle1 #8appe>s to h be5 ! fir/ :o really p]ceiv$ ! utility ( fix+ ! s5se ( t]ms 9 su* a way z always to employ ! same ^w 9 ! same s5se1 & always to express ! same idea by ! same words2 b x 0 ,l9nu :o really creat$ & fix$ ?is botanical language1 & ?is is 8 faire/ claim to glory1 = by ?is fixation ( language he has %$ cle>ness & precision ov] all p>ts ( ! sci5ce4' 8,x is n necess>y "h to give any detail$ acc\nt ( ! t]ms ( botany4 ,! fundam5tal ones h be5 gradually introduc$1 z ! p>ts ( plants 7 m c>efully & m9utely exam9$4 ,?us ! fl[] 0 necess>ily di/+ui%$ into ! calyx1 ! corolla1 ! /am5s1 & ! pi/ils2 ! sections ( ! corolla 7 t]m$ petals by ,columna2 ^? ( ! calyx 7 call$ sepals by ,neck]4 ,sometimes t]ms ( great] g5]ality 7 devis$2 z p]ian?1 to include ! calyx & corolla1 :e!r "o or bo? ( ^! 7 pres5t2 p]ic>p1 = ! "p inclos+ ! gra91 ( :atev] k9d x be1 fruit1 nut1 pod1 etc4 ,& x may easily be imag9$1 t descriptive t]ms may1 by def9ition & comb9ation1 become v num]\s & di/9ct4 ,?us leaves may be call$ p9natifid1 p9natip>tite1 p9natisect1 p9natilobate1 palmatifid1 palmatip>tite1 etc41 & ea* ( ^! words designates diff]5t comb9ations ( ! modes & ext5t ( ! divisions ( ! leaf ) ! divisions ( its outl9e4 ,9 "s cases1 arbitr>y num]ical relations are introduc$ into ! def9ition3 ?us1 a leaf is call$ bilobate1 :5 x is divid$ into two p>ts by a not*2 b if ! not* g to ! middle ( its l5g?1 x is bifid2 if x g ne> ! base ( ! leaf1 x is bip>tite2 if to ! base1 x is bisect4 ,?us1 too1 a pod ( a crucif]\s plant is a siliqua1 if x is f\r times z long z x is broad1 b if x be %ort] ?an ?is x is a silicula4 ,su* t]ms be+ e/abli%$1 ! =m ( ! v complex leaf or frond ( a f]n 7,hym5ophyllum ,wilsoni7 is exactly convey$ by ! foll[+ phrase3 #8fronds rigid p9nate1 p9n recurv$ subunilat]al1 p9natifid1 ! segm5ts l9e> undivid$ or bifid1 sp9uloso-s]rate4' 8,o!r *>act]s1 z well z =m1 are convey$ ) ! l precision3 ,color by means ( a classifi$ scale ( colors4444 ,?is 0 done ) mo/ precision by ,w]n]1 & 8 scale ( colors is /ill ! mo/ usual /&>d ( naturali/s4 ,w]n] also introduc$ a m exact t]m9ology ) reg>d to o!r *>act]s :i* are important 9 m9]alogy1 z lu/re1 h>dness4 ,b ,mohs improv$ ^u ?is /ep by giv+ a num]ical scale ( h>dness1 9 :i* talc is #a1 gypsum #b1 calc sp> #c1 & s on4444 ,"s prop]ties1 z specific gravity1 by _! def9ition give at once a num]ical measure2 & o!rs1 z cry/all9e =m1 require a v consid]able array ( ma!matical calculation & reason+1 to po9t out _! relations & gradations40 #c4 ,?us f> ( ,descriptive ,t]m9ology1 or ( ! language requisite = plac+ on record our obs]vation ( individual in/ances4 ,b :5 we proce$ f ?is to ,induction1 or r to t comp>ison ( obs]v$ in/ances :i* is ! prep>atory /ep t[>d x1 we /& 9 ne$ ( an additional & a diff]5t sort ( g5]al names4 ,:5ev]1 = purposes ( ,induction1 we f9d x necess>y to introduce 79 ,dr4 ,:ewell's phraseology7 "s new g5]al conception2 t is1 :5ev] ! comp>ison ( a set ( ph5om5a leads to ! recognition 9 !m ( "s common circum/ance1 :i*1 our att5tion n hav+ be5 direct$ to x on any =m] occasion1 is to u a new ph5om5on2 x is ( importance t ?is new conception1 or ?is new result ( ab/raction1 %\ld h a "n appropriat$ to x2 especially if ! circum/ance x involves be "o :i* leads to _m consequ5ces1 or :i* is likely to be f\nd also 9 o!r classes ( ph5om5a4 ,no d\bt1 9 mo/ cases ( ! k9d1 ! mean+ might be convey$ by jo9+ toge!r sev]al words already 9 use4 ,b :5 a ?+ has to be (t5 spok5 (1 !re are m reasons ?an ! sav+ ( "t & space1 = speak+ ( x 9 ! mo/ concise mann] possible4 ,:at d>kness w\ld be spread ov] geometrical demon/rations1 if :]ev] ! ^w circle is us$1 ! def9ition ( a circle 7 ins]t$ in/ead ( x4 ,9 ma!matics & its applications1 :]e ! nature ( ! processes dem&s t ! att5tion %\ld be /rongly conc5trat$1 b does n require t x %\ld be widely diffus$1 ! importance ( conc5tration also 9 ! expressions has always be5 duly felt2 & a ma!matician no soon] f9ds t he %all (t5 h occasion to speak ( ! same two ?+s toge!r1 ?an he at once creates a t]m to express !m :5ev] comb9$3 j z1 9 8 algebraical op]ations1 he sub/itutes = 7am bn7 p_/q1 or = a_/b b_/c c_/d etc41 ! s+le lett] ,p1 ,q1 or ,s2 n solely to %ort5 8 symbolical expressions1 b to simplify ! purely intellectual "p ( 8 op]ations1 by enabl+ ! m9d to give its exclusive att5tion to ! relation betwe5 ! quantity ,s & ! o!r quantities :i* ent] into ! equation1 )\t be+ di/ract$ by ?9k+ unnecess>ily ( ! p>ts ( :i* ,s is itself compos$4 ,b !re is ano!r reason1 9 addition to t ( promot+ p]spicuity1 = giv+ a brief & compact "n to ea* ( ! m consid]able results ( ab/raction :i* are obta9$ 9 ! c\rse ( our intellectual ph5om5a4 ,by nam+ !m1 we fix our att5tion ^u !m2 we keep !m m con/antly be=e ! m9d4 ,! names are rememb]$1 & be+ rememb]$1 sugge/ _! def9ition2 :ile if in/ead ( specific & *>act]i/ic names1 ! mean+ _h be5 express$ by putt+ toge!r a numb] ( o!r names1 t p>ticul> comb9ation ( words already 9 common use = o!r purposes w\ld h _h no?+ to make itself rememb]$ by4 ,if we want to r5d] a p>ticul> comb9ation ( ideas p]man5t 9 ! m9d1 !re is no?+ :i* cl9*es x l a "n specially devot$ to express x4 ,if ma!maticians _h be5 oblig$ to speak ( 8t to :i* a quantity1 9 increas+ or dim9i%+1 is always approa*+ ne>]1 s t ! diff]5ce becomes less ?an any assignable quantity1 b to :i* x nev] becomes exactly equal10 in/ead ( express+ all ?is by ! simple phrase1 8! limit ( a quantity10 we %\ld probably h long rema9$ )\t mo/ ( ! important tru?s :i* h be5 discov]$ by means ( ! relation betwe5 quantities ( v>i\s k9ds & _! limits4 ,if in/ead ( speak+ ( mom5tum1 x _h be5 necess>y to say1 8! product ( ! numb] ( units ( velocity 9 ! velocity by ! numb] ( units ( mass 9 ! mass10 _m ( ! dynamical tru?s n[ appreh5d$ by means ( ?is complex idea w\ld probably h escap$ notice1 = want ( recall+ ! idea itself ) suffici5t read9ess & famili>ity4 ,& on subjects less remote f ! topics ( popul> discussion1 :oev] wi%es to draw att5tion to "s new or unfamili> di/9ction among ?+s1 w f9d no way s sure z to inv5t or select suitable names = ! express purpose ( m>k+ x4 ,a volume devot$ to expla9+ :at ! writ] means by civilization1 does n raise s vivid a conception ( x z ! s+le expression1 t ,civilization is a diff]5t ?+ f ,cultivation2 ! compactness ( t brief designation = ! contra/$ quality be+ an equival5t = a long discussion4 ,s1 if we w\ld impress =cibly ^u ! und]/&+ & memory ! di/9ction betwe5 ! two diff]5t conceptions ( a repres5tative gov]nm5t1 we c n m effectually d s ?an by say+ t ,delegation is n ,repres5tation4 ,h>dly any orig9al ?\ghts on m5tal or social subjects ev] make _! way among mank9d1 or assume _! prop] importance 9 ! m9ds ev5 ( _! inv5tors1 until aptly-select$ words or phrases h1 z x 71 nail$ !m d[n & held !m fa/4 #d4 ,( ! ?ree ess5tial p>ts ( a philosophical language1 we h n[ m5tion$ two3 a t]m9ology suit$ = describ+ ) precision ! individual facts obs]v$2 & a "n = e common prop]ty ( any importance or int]e/1 :i* we detect by comp>+ ^? facts2 includ+ 7z ! concretes correspond+ to ^? ab/ract t]ms7 names = ! classes :i* we artificially con/ruct 9 virtue ( ^? prop]ties1 or z _m ( !m1 at lea/1 z we h frequ5t occasion to pr$icate any ?+ (4 ,b !re is a sort ( classes1 = ! recognition ( :i* no su* elaborate process is necess>y2 because ea* ( !m is m>k$ out f all o!rs n by "s "o prop]ty1 ! detection ( :i* may dep5d on a difficult act ( ab/raction1 b by its prop]ties g5]ally4 ,i mean1 ! ,k9ds ( ?+s1 9 ! s5se :i*1 9 ?is treatise1 has be5 specially atta*$ to t t]m4 ,by a ,k9d1 x w be rememb]$1 we mean "o ( ^? classes :i* are di/+ui%$ f all o!rs n by "o or a few def9ite prop]ties1 b by an unkn[n multitude ( !m2 ! comb9ation ( prop]ties on :i* ! class is gr\nd$1 be+ a m]e index to an indef9ite numb] ( o!r di/9ctive attributes4 ,! class horse is a ,k9d1 because ! ?+s :i* agree 9 possess+ ! *>act]s by :i* we recognize a horse1 agree 9 a great numb] ( o!r prop]ties1 z we "k1 &1 x c n be d\bt$1 9 _m m ?an we "k4 ,animal1 aga91 is a ,k9d1 because no def9ition t c\ld be giv5 ( ! "n animal c\ld ei!r exhau/ ! prop]ties common to all animals1 or supply premises f :i* ! rema9d] ( ^? prop]ties c\ld be inf]r$4 ,b a comb9ation ( prop]ties :i* does n give evid5ce ( ! exi/5ce ( any o!r indep5d5t peculi>ities1 does n con/itute a ,k9d4 ,:ite horse1 !re=e1 is n a ,k9d2 because horses :i* agree 9 :it5ess1 d n agree 9 any ?+ else1 except ! qualities common to all horses1 & :atev] may be ! causes or effects ( t p>ticul> color4 ,on ! pr9ciple t !re %\ld be a "n = e ?+ :i* we h frequ5t occasion to make ass]tions ab\t1 !re ought evid5tly to be a "n = e ,k9d2 = z x is ! v mean+ ( a ,k9d t ! individuals compos+ x h an indef9ite multitude ( prop]ties 9 common1 x foll[s t1 if n ) our pres5t k1 yet ) t :i* we may h]eaft] acquire1 ! ,k9d is a subject to :i* !re w h to be appli$ _m pr$icates4 ,! ?ird compon5t elem5t ( a philosophical language1 !re=e1 is t !re %all be a "n = e ,k9d4 ,9 o!r words1 !re mu/ n only be a t]m9ology1 b also a nom5clature4 ,! words ,nom5clature & ,t]m9ology are employ$ by mo/ au?ors almo/ indiscrim9ately2 ,dr4 ,:ewell be+1 z f> z ,i am aw>e1 ! fir/ writ] :o has regul>ly assign$ to ! two words diff]5t mean+s4 ,! di/9ction1 h[ev]1 :i* he has drawn betwe5 !m be+ real & important1 8 example is likely to be foll[$2 & 7z is apt to be ! case :5 su* innovations 9 language are felicit\sly made7 a vague s5se ( ! di/9ction is f\nd to h influ5c$ ! employm5t ( ! t]ms 9 common practice1 be=e ! exp$i5cy _h be5 po9t$ out ( discrim9at+ !m philosophically4 ,e "o w\ld say t ! re=m effect$ by ,lavoisi] & ,guyton-,morveau 9 ! language ( *emi/ry consi/$ 9 ! introduction ( a new nom5clature1 n ( a new t]m9ology4 ,l9e>1 lanceolate1 oval1 or oblong1 s]rat$1 d5tate1 or cr5ate leaves1 are expressions =m+ "p ( ! t]m9ology ( botany1 :ile ! names 8,viola odorata10 & 8,ulex ,europu10 belong to its nom5clature4 ,a nom5clature may be def9$1 ! collection ( ! names ( all ! ,k9ds ) :i* any bran* ( k is conv]sant2 or m prop]ly1 ( all ! l[e/ ,k9ds1 or infirm species--^? :i* may be subdivid$ inde$1 b n into ,k9ds1 & :i* g5]ally accord ) :at 9 natural hi/ory are t]m$ simply species4 ,sci5ce possesses two spl5did examples ( a sy/ematic nom5clature2 t ( plants & animals1 con/ruct$ by ,l9nu & 8 successors1 & t ( *emi/ry1 :i* we owe to ! illu/ri\s gr\p ( *emi/s :o fl\ri%$ 9 ,france t[>d ! close ( ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,9 ^! two dep>tm5ts1 n only has e kn[n species1 or l[e/ ,k9d1 a "n assign$ to x1 b :5 new l[e/ ,k9ds are discov]$1 names are at once giv5 to !m on a uni=m pr9ciple4 ,9 o!r sci5ces ! nom5clature is n at pres5t con/ruct$ on any sy/em1 ei!r because ! species to be nam$ are n num]\s en\gh to require "o 7z 9 geometry1 = example71 or because no "o has yet sugge/$ a suitable pr9ciple = su* a sy/em1 z 9 m9]alogy2 9 :i* ! want ( a sci5tifically con/ruct$ nom5clature is n[ ! pr9cipal cause :i* ret>ds ! progress ( ! sci5ce4 #e4 ,a ^w :i* c>ries on its face t x belongs to a nom5clature1 seems at fir/ sight to diff] f o!r concrete g5]al names 9 ?is--t its mean+ does n reside 9 its connotation1 9 ! attributes impli$ 9 x1 b 9 its d5otation1 t is1 9 ! p>ticul> gr\p ( ?+s :i* x is appo9t$ to designate2 & c n1 !re=e1 be unfold$ by means ( a def9ition1 b mu/ be made kn[n 9 ano!r way4 ,?is op9ion1 h[ev]1 appe>s to me errone\s4 ,words belong+ to a nom5clature diff]1 ,i conceive1 f o!r words ma9ly 9 ?is1 t besides ! ord9>y connotation1 !y h a peculi> "o ( _! own3 besides connot+ c]ta9 attributes1 !y also connote t ^? attributes are di/9ctive ( a ,k9d4 ,! t]m 8p]oxide ( iron10 = example1 belong+ by its =m to ! sy/ematic nom5clature ( *emi/ry1 be>s on its face t x is ! "n ( a peculi> ,k9d ( sub/ance4 ,x moreov] connotes1 l ! "n ( any o!r class1 "s portion ( ! prop]ties common to ! class2 9 ?is in/ance ! prop]ty ( be+ a comp\nd ( iron & ! l>ge/ dose ( oxyg5 ) :i* iron w comb9e4 ,^! two ?+s1 ! fact ( be+ su* a comp\nd1 & ! fact ( be+ a ,k9d1 con/itute ! connotation ( ! "n p]oxide ( iron4 ,:5 we say ( ! sub/ance be=e u1 t x is ! p]oxide ( iron1 we !reby ass]t1 fir/1 t x is a comp\nd ( iron & a maximum ( oxyg51 & next1 t ! sub/ance s compos$ is a peculi> ,k9d ( sub/ance4 ,n[1 ?is second "p ( ! connotation ( any ^w belong+ to a nom5clature is z ess5tial a portion ( its mean+ z ! fir/ "p1 :ile ! def9ition only decl>es ! fir/2 & h5ce ! appe>ance t ! signification ( su* t]ms c n be convey$ by a def9ition3 :i* appe>ance1 h[ev]1 is fallaci\s4 ,! "n ,viola odorata d5otes a ,k9d1 ( :i* a c]ta9 numb] ( *>act]s1 suffici5t to di/+ui% x1 are enunciat$ 9 botanical works4 ,?is enum]ation ( *>act]s is surely1 z 9 o!r cases1 a def9ition ( ! "n4 ,no1 say "s1 x is n a def9ition1 = ! "n ,viola odorata does n mean ^? *>act]s2 x means t p>ticul> gr\p ( plants1 & ! *>act]s are select$ f among a mu* great] numb]1 m]ely z m>ks by :i* to recognize ! gr\p4 ,b to ?is ,i reply1 t ! "n does n mean t gr\p1 = x w\ld be appli$ to t gr\p no long] ?an :ile ! gr\p is believ$ to be an infima species2 if x 7 to be discov]$ t sev]al di/9ct ,k9ds h be5 conf\nd$ "u ?is "o "n1 no "o w\ld any long] apply ! "n ,viola odorata to ! :ole ( ! gr\p1 b w\ld apply x1 if reta9$ at all1 to "o only ( ! ,k9ds reta9$ !re94 ,:at is imp]ative1 !re=e1 is n t ! "n %all d5ote "o p>ticul> collection ( objects1 b t x %all d5ote a ,k9d1 & a l[e/ ,k9d4 ,! =m ( ! "n decl>es t1 happ5 :at w1 x is to d5ote an infima species2 & t1 !re=e1 ! prop]ties :i* x connotes1 & :i* are express$ 9 ! def9ition1 are to be connot$ by x no long] ?an :ile we cont9ue to believe t ^? prop]ties1 :5 f\nd toge!r1 indicate a ,k9d1 & t ! :ole ( !m are f\nd 9 no m ?an "o ,k9d4 ,) ! addition ( ?is peculi> connotation1 impli$ 9 ! =m ( e ^w :i* belongs to a sy/ematic nom5clature2 ! set ( *>act]s :i* is employ$ to discrim9ate ea* ,k9d f all o!r ,k9ds 7& :i* is a real def9ition7 con/itutes z completely z 9 any o!r case ! :ole mean+ ( ! t]m4 ,x is no objection to say t 7z is (t5 ! case 9 natural hi/ory7 ! set ( *>act]s may be *ang$1 & ano!r sub/itut$ z be+ bett] suit$ = ! purpose ( di/9ction1 :ile ! ^w1 /ill cont9u+ to d5ote ! same gr\p or ?+s1 is n consid]$ to h *ang$ its mean+4 ,= ?is is no m ?an may happ5 9 ! case ( any o!r g5]al "n3 we may1 9 re=m+ its connotation1 leave its d5otation unt\*$2 & x is g5]ally desirable to d s4 ,! connotation1 h[ev]1 is n ! less = ?is ! real mean+1 = we at once apply ! "n :]ev] ! *>act]s set d[n 9 ! def9ition are f\nd2 & t :i* exclusively guides u 9 apply+ ! t]m1 mu/ con/itute its signification4 ,if we f9d1 contr>y to our previ\s belief1 t ! *>act]s are n peculi> to "o species1 we cease to use ! t]m co-ext5sively ) ! *>act]s2 b !n x is because ! o!r portion ( ! connotation fails2 ! condition t ! class mu/ be a ,k9d4 ,! connotation1 !re=e1 is /ill ! mean+2 ! set ( descriptive *>act]s is a true def9ition2 & ! mean+ is unfold$1 n inde$ 7z 9 o!r cases7 by ! def9ition alone1 b by ! def9ition & ! =m ( ! ^w tak5 toge!r4 #f4 ,we h n[ analyz$ :at is impli$ 9 ! two pr9cipal requisites ( a philosophical language2 fir/1 precision1 or def9it5ess2 &1 secondly1 complet5ess4 ,any fur!r rem>ks on ! mode ( con/ruct+ a nom5clature mu/ be def]r$ until we treat ( ,classification2 ! mode ( nam+ ! ,k9ds ( ?+s be+ necess>ily subord9ate to ! mode ( arrang+ ^? ,k9ds into l>g] classes4 ,) respect to ! m9or requisites ( t]m9ology1 "s ( !m are well /at$ & illu/rat$ 9 ! 8,aphorisms conc]n+ ! ,language ( ,sci5ce10 includ$ 9 ,dr4 ,:ewell's ,philosophy ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces4 ,^!1 z be+ ( second>y importance 9 ! peculi> po9t ( view ( ,logic1 ,i %all n fur!r ref] to1 b %all conf9e my obs]vations to "o m quality1 :i*1 next to ! two already treat$ (1 appe>s to be ! mo/ valuable :i* ! language ( sci5ce c possess4 ,( ?is quality a g5]al notion may be convey$ by ! foll[+ aphorism3 ,:5ev] ! nature ( ! subject p]mits our reason+ processes to be1 )\t dang]1 c>ri$ on me*anically1 ! language %\ld be con/ruct$ on z me*anical pr9ciples z possible2 :ile1 9 ! contr>y case1 x %\ld be s con/ruct$ t !re %all be ! greate/ possible ob/acles to a m]ely me*anical use ( x4 ,i am aw>e t ?is maxim requires mu* explanation1 :i* ,i %all at once proce$ to give4 ,at fir/1 z to :at is meant by us+ a language me*anically4 ,! complete or extreme case ( ! me*anical use ( language1 is :5 x is us$ )\t any consci\sness ( a mean+1 & ) only ! consci\sness ( us+ c]ta9 visible or audible m>ks 9 con=mity to te*nical rules previ\sly laid d[n4 ,?is extreme case is n[h]e realiz$ except 9 ! figures ( ari?metic1 & /ill m ! symbols ( algebra1 a language unique 9 its k9d1 & approa*+ z ne>ly to p]fection1 = ! purposes to :i* x is de/9$1 z c1 p]haps1 be said ( any creation ( ! human m9d4 ,its p]fection consi/s 9 ! complet5ess ( its adaptation to a purely me*anical use4 ,! symbols are m]e c\nt]s1 )\t ev5 ! semblance ( a mean+ ap>t f ! conv5tion :i* is r5ew$ ea* "t !y are employ$1 & :i* is alt]$ at ea* r5ewal1 ! same symbol a or x be+ us$ on diff]5t occasions to repres5t ?+s :i* 7except t1 l all ?+s1 !y are susceptible ( be+ numb]$7 h no prop]ty 9 common4 ,!re is no?+1 !re=e1 to di/ract ! m9d f ! set ( me*anical op]ations :i* are to be p]=m$ ^u ! symbols1 su* z squ>+ bo? sides ( ! equation1 multiply+ or divid+ !m by ! same or by equival5t symbols1 & s =?4 ,ea* ( ^! op]ations1 x is true1 corresponds to a syllogism2 repres5ts "o /ep ( a ratioc9ation relat+ n to ! symbols1 b to ! ?+s signifi$ by !m4 ,b z x has be5 f\nd practicable to frame a te*nical =m1 by con=m+ to :i* we c make sure ( f9d+ ! conclusion ( ! ratioc9ation1 our end c be completely atta9$ )\t our ev] ?9k+ ( any ?+ b ! symbols4 ,be+ ?us int5d$ to "w m]ely z me*anism1 !y h ! qualities :i* me*anism ought to h4 ,!y are ( ! lea/ possible bulk1 s t !y take up sc>cely any room1 & wa/e no "t 9 _! manipulation2 !y are compact1 & fit s closely toge!r t ! eye c take 9 ! :ole at once ( almo/ e op]ation :i* !y are employ$ to p]=m4 ,^! admirable prop]ties ( ! symbolical language ( ma!matics h made s /rong an impression on ! m9ds ( _m ?9k]s1 z to h l$ !m to consid] ! symbolical language 9 "q z ! ideal type ( philosophical language g5]ally2 to ?9k t names 9 g5]al1 or 7z !y are fond ( call+ !m7 signs1 are fitt$ = ! purposes ( ?\ght 9 proportion z !y c be made to approximate to ! compactness1 ! entire unmean+ness1 & ! capability ( be+ us$ z c\nt]s )\t a ?\ght ( :at !y repres5t1 :i* are *>act]i/ic ( ! a & b1 ! x & y1 ( algebra4 ,?is notion has l$ to sangu9e views ( ! accel]ation ( ! progress ( sci5ce by means :i*1 ,i conceive1 c n possibly conduce to t end1 & =ms "p ( t exagg]at$ e/imate ( ! influ5ce ( signs1 :i* has contribut$ 9 no small degree to prev5t ! real laws ( our intellectual op]ations f be+ rightly und]/ood4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 a set ( signs by :i* we reason )\t consci\sness ( _! mean+1 c be s]viceable1 at mo/1 only 9 our d$uctive op]ations4 ,9 our direct inductions we c n = a mom5t disp5se ) a di/9ct m5tal image ( ! ph5om5a1 s9ce ! :ole op]ation turns on a p]ception ( ! p>ticul>s 9 :i* ^? ph5om5a agree & diff]4 ,b1 fur!r1 ?is reason+ by c\nt]s is only suitable to a v limit$ portion ev5 ( our d$uctive processes4 ,9 our reason+s respect+ numb]s1 ! only g5]al pr9ciples :i* we ev] h occasion to introduce are ^!1 ,?+s :i* are equal to ! same ?+ are equal to "o ano!r1 & ,! sums or diff]5ces ( equal ?+s are equal2 ) _! v>i\s coroll>ies4 ,n only c no hesitation ev] arise respect+ ! applicability ( ^! pr9ciples1 s9ce !y are true ( all magnitudes :atev]2 b e possible application ( :i* !y are susceptible1 may be r$uc$ to a te*nical rule2 & su*1 9 fact1 ! rules ( ! calculus are4 ,b if ! symbols repres5t any o!r ?+s ?an m]e numb]s1 let u say ev5 /raight or curve l9es1 we h !n to apply !orems ( geometry n true ( all l9es )\t exception1 & to select ^? :i* are true ( ! l9es we are reason+ ab\t4 ,& h[ c we d ?is unless we keep completely 9 m9d :at p>ticul> l9es ^! are8 ,s9ce additional geometrical tru?s may be introduc$ into ! ratioc9ation 9 any /age ( its progress1 we c n suff] ourselves1 dur+ ev5 ! smalle/ "p ( x1 to use ! names me*anically 7z we use algebraical symbols7 )\t an image annex$ to !m4 ,x is only aft] asc]ta9+ t ! solution ( a "q conc]n+ l9es c be made to dep5d on a previ\s "q conc]n+ numb]s1 or1 9 o!r words1 aft] ! "q has be5 7to speak te*nically7 r$uc$ to an equation1 t ! unmean+ signs become available1 & t ! nature ( ! facts !mselves to :i* ! inve/igation relates c be dismiss$ f ! m9d4 ,up to ! e/abli%m5t ( ! equation1 ! language 9 :i* ma!maticians c>ry on _! reason+ does n diff] 9 "* f t employ$ by close reason]s on any o!r k9d ( subject4 ,i d n d5y t e correct ratioc9ation1 :5 ?r[n into ! syllogi/ic %ape1 is conclusive f ! m]e =m ( ! expression1 provid$ none ( ! t]ms us$ be ambigu\s2 & ?is is "o ( ! circum/ances :i* h l$ "s writ]s to ?9k t if all names 7 s judici\sly con/ruct$ & s c>efully def9$ z n to admit ( any ambiguity1 ! improvem5t ?us made 9 language w\ld n only give to ! conclusions ( e d$uctive sci5ce ! same c]ta9ty ) ^? ( ma!matics1 b w\ld r$uce all reason+s to ! application ( a te*nical =m1 & enable _! conclusiv5ess to be rationally ass5t$ to aft] a m]ely me*anical process1 z is und\bt$ly ! case 9 algebra4 ,b1 if we except geometry1 ! conclusions ( :i* are already z c]ta9 & exact z !y c be made1 !re is no sci5ce b t ( numb]1 9 :i* ! practical validity ( a reason+ c be app>5t to any p]son :o has look$ only at ! reason+ itself4 ,:oev] has ass5t$ to :at 0 said 9 ! la/ ,book conc]n+ ! case ( ! ,composition ( ,causes1 & ! /ill /rong] case ( ! entire sup]session ( "o set ( laws by ano!r1 is aw>e t geometry & algebra are ! only sci5ces ( :i* ! propositions are categorically true2 ! g5]al propositions ( all o!r sci5ces are true only hypo!tically1 suppos+ t no c\nt]act+ cause happ5s to int]f]e4 ,a conclusion1 !re=e1 h[ev] correctly d$uc$1 9 po9t ( =m1 f admitt$ laws ( nature1 w h no o!r ?an an hypo!tical c]ta9ty4 ,at e /ep we mu/ assure ourselves t no o!r law ( nature has sup]s$$1 or int]m+l$ its op]ation )1 ^? :i* are ! premises ( ! reason+2 & h[ c ?is be done by m]ely look+ at ! words8 ,we mu/ n only be con/antly ?9k+ ( ! ph5om5a !mselves1 b we mu/ be con/antly /udy+ !m2 mak+ ourselves acqua9t$ ) ! peculi>ities ( e case to :i* we attempt to apply our g5]al pr9ciples4 ,! algebraic notation1 consid]$ z a philosophical language1 is p]fect 9 its adaptation to ! subjects = :i* x is commonly employ$1 namely ^? ( :i* ! inve/igations h already be5 r$uc$ to ! asc]ta9m5t ( a relation betwe5 numb]s4 ,b1 admirable z x is = its own purpose1 ! prop]ties by :i* x is r5d]$ su* are s f> f con/itut+ x ! ideal model ( philosophical language 9 g5]al1 t ! m ne>ly ! language ( any o!r bran* ( sci5ce approa*es to x1 ! less fit t language is = its own prop] functions4 ,on all o!r subjects1 in/ead ( contrivances to prev5t our att5tion f be+ di/ract$ by ?9k+ ( ! mean+ ( our signs1 we ought to wi% = contrivances to make x impossible t we %\ld ev] lose sight ( t mean+ ev5 = an in/ant4 ,) ?is view1 z mu* mean+ z possible %\ld be ?r[n into ! =mation ( ! ^w itself2 ! aids ( d]ivation & analogy be+ made available to keep alive a consci\sness ( all t is signifi$ by x4 ,9 ?is respect ^? languages h an imm5se advantage :i* =m _! comp\nds & d]ivatives f native roots1 l ! ,g]man1 & n f ^? ( a =eign or dead language1 z is s mu* ! case ) ,engli%1 ,fr5*1 & ,italian2 & ! be/ are ^? :i* =m !m accord+ to fix$ analogies1 correspond+ to ! relations betwe5 ! ideas to be express$4 ,all languages d ?is m or less1 b especially1 among mod]n ,european languages1 ! ,g]man2 :ile ev5 t is inf]ior to ! ,greek1 9 :i* ! relation betwe5 ! mean+ ( a d]ivative ^w & t ( its primitive is 9 g5]al cle>ly m>k$ by its mode ( =mation1 except 9 ! case ( words comp\nd$ ) prepositions1 :i* are (t51 9 bo? ^? languages1 extremely anomal\s4 ,b all t c be done1 by ! mode ( con/ruct+ words1 to prev5t !m f deg5]at+ into s\nds pass+ ?r\gh ! m9d )\t any di/9ct appreh5sion ( :at !y signify1 is f> too little = ! necessity ( ! case4 ,words1 h[ev] well con/ruct$ orig9ally1 are always t5d+1 l co9s1 to h _! inscription worn (f by pass+ f h& to h&2 & ! only possible mode ( reviv+ x is to be ev] /amp+ x afre%1 by liv+ 9 ! habitual contemplation ( ! ph5om5a !mselves1 & n re/+ 9 our famili>ity ) ! words t express !m4 ,if any "o1 hav+ possess$ himself ( ! laws ( ph5om5a z record$ 9 words1 :e!r deliv]$ to him orig9ally by o!rs1 or ev5 f\nd out by himself1 is cont5t f !nce=? to live among ^! =mul1 to ?9k exclusively ( !m1 & ( apply+ !m to cases z !y arise1 )\t keep+ up 8 acqua9tance ) ! realities f :i* ^! laws 7 collect$--n only w he cont9ually fail 9 8 practical ef=ts1 because he w apply 8 =mul )\t duly consid]+ :e!r1 9 ?is case & 9 t1 o!r laws ( nature d n modify or sup]s$e !m2 b ! =mul !mselves w progressively lose _! mean+ to him1 & he w cease at la/ ev5 to be capable ( recogniz+ ) c]ta9ty :e!r a case falls )9 ! contemplation ( 8 =mula or n4 ,x is1 9 %ort1 z necess>y1 on all subjects n ma!matical1 t ! ?+s on :i* we reason %\ld be conceiv$ by u 9 ! concrete1 & 8clo!d 9 circum/ances10 z x is 9 algebra t we %\ld keep all individualiz+ peculi>ities s$ul\sly out ( view4 ,) ?is rem>k we close our obs]vations on ! ,philosophy ( ,language4 ,*apt] ,,vii4 ,( ,classification1 ,z ,subsidi>y ,to ,induction4 #a4 ,!re is1 z has be5 frequ5tly rem>k$ 9 ?is "w1 a classification ( ?+s1 :i* is insep>able f ! fact ( giv+ !m g5]al names4 ,e "n :i* connotes an attribute1 divides1 by t v fact1 all ?+s :atev] into two classes1 ^? :i* h ! attribute & ^? :i* h x n2 ^? ( :i* ! "n c be pr$icat$1 & ^? ( :i* x c n4 ,& ! division ?us made is n m]ely a division ( su* ?+s z actually exi/1 or are kn[n to exi/1 b ( all su* z may h]eaft] be discov]$1 & ev5 ( all :i* c be imag9$4 ,on ?is k9d ( ,classification we h no?+ to add to :at has previ\sly be5 said4 ,! ,classification :i* requires to be discuss$ z a sep>ate act ( ! m9d1 is altoge!r diff]5t4 ,9 ! "o1 ! arrangem5t ( objects 9 gr\ps1 & di/ribution ( !m into comp>tm5ts1 is a m]e incid5tal effect consequ5t on ! use ( names giv5 = ano!r purpose1 namely t ( simply express+ "s ( _! qualities4 ,9 ! o!r1 ! arrangem5t & di/ribution are ! ma9 object1 & ! nam+ is second>y to1 & purposely con=ms itself to1 in/ead ( gov]n+1 t m important op]ation4 ,classification1 ?us reg>d$1 is a contrivance = ! be/ possible ord]+ ( ! ideas ( objects 9 our m9ds2 = caus+ ! ideas to accompany or succe$ "o ano!r 9 su* a way z %all give u ! greate/ comm& ov] our k already acquir$1 & lead mo/ directly to ! acquisition ( m4 ,! g5]al problem ( ,classification1 9 ref]5ce to ^! purposes1 may be /at$ z foll[s3 ,to provide t ?+s %all be ?\ght ( 9 su* gr\ps1 & ^? gr\ps 9 su* an ord]1 z w be/ conduce to ! remembrance & to ! asc]ta9m5t ( _! laws4 ,classification ?us consid]$1 diff]s f classification 9 ! wid] s5se1 9 hav+ ref]5ce to real objects exclusively1 & n to all t are imag9able3 its object be+ ! due co-ord9ation 9 our m9ds ( ^? ?+s only1 ) ! prop]ties ( :i* we h actually occasion to make ourselves acqua9t$4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 x embraces all really exi/+ objects4 ,we c n con/itute any "o class prop]ly1 except 9 ref]5ce to a g5]al division ( ! :ole ( nature2 we c n det]m9e ! gr\p 9 :i* any "o object c mo/ conv5i5tly be plac$1 )\t tak+ into consid]ation all ! v>ieties ( exi/+ objects1 all at lea/ :i* h any degree ( aff9ity ) x4 ,no "o family ( plants or animals c\ld h be5 rationally con/itut$1 except z "p ( a sy/ematic arrangem5t ( all plants or animals2 nor c\ld su* a g5]al arrangem5t h be5 prop]ly made1 )\t fir/ det]m9+ ! exact place ( plants & animals 9 a g5]al division ( nature4 #b4 ,!re is no prop]ty ( objects :i* may n be tak51 if we please1 z ! f\ndation = a classification or m5tal gr\p+ ( ^? objects2 & 9 our fir/ attempts we are likely to select = t purpose prop]ties :i* are simple1 easily conceiv$1 & p]ceptible on a fir/ view1 )\t any previ\s process ( ?\ght4 ,?us ,t\rne=t's arrangem5t ( plants 0 f\nd$ on ! %ape & divisions ( ! corolla2 & t :i* is commonly call$ ! ,l9nan 7?\gh ,l9nu also sugge/$ ano!r & m sci5tific arrangem5t7 0 gr\nd$ *iefly on ! numb] ( ! /am5s & pi/ils4 ,b ^! classifications1 :i* are at fir/ recomm5d$ by ! facility !y af=d ( asc]ta9+ to :at class any individual belongs1 are seldom mu* adapt$ to ! ends ( t ,classification :i* is ! subject ( our pres5t rem>ks4 ,! ,l9nan arrangem5t answ]s ! purpose ( mak+ u ?9k toge!r ( all ^? k9ds ( plants :i* possess ! same numb] ( /am5s & pi/ils2 b to ?9k ( !m 9 t mann] is ( little use1 s9ce we seldom h any ?+ to affirm 9 common ( ! plants :i* h a giv5 numb] ( /am5s & pi/ils4 ,if plants ( ! class ,p5t&ria1 ord] ,monogynia1 agre$ 9 any o!r prop]ties1 ! habit ( ?9k+ & speak+ ( ! plants "u a common designation w\ld conduce to our rememb]+ ^? common prop]ties s f> z !y 7 asc]ta9$1 & w\ld dispose u to be on ! look\t = su* ( !m z 7 n yet kn[n4 ,b s9ce ?is is n ! case1 ! only purpose ( ?\ght :i* ! ,l9nan classification s]ves is t ( caus+ u to rememb]1 bett] ?an we %\ld o!rwise h done1 ! exact numb] ( /am5s & pi/ils ( e species ( plants4 ,n[1 z ?is prop]ty is ( little importance or int]e/1 ! rememb]+ x ) any p>ticul> accuracy is ( no mom5t4 ,&1 inasmu* z1 by habitually ?9k+ ( plants 9 ^? gr\ps1 we are prev5t$ f habitually ?9k+ ( !m 9 gr\ps :i* h a great] numb] ( prop]ties 9 common1 ! effect ( su* a classification1 :5 sy/ematically adh]$ to1 ^u our habits ( ?\ght1 mu/ be reg>d$ z mis*iev\s4 ,! ends ( sci5tific classification are be/ answ]$1 :5 ! objects are =m$ into gr\ps respect+ :i* a great] numb] ( g5]al propositions c be made1 & ^? propositions m important1 ?an c\ld be made respect+ any o!r gr\ps into :i* ! same ?+s c\ld be di/ribut$4 ,! prop]ties1 !re=e1 accord+ to :i* objects are classifi$1 %\ld1 if possible1 be ^? :i* are causes ( _m o!r prop]ties2 or1 at any rate1 :i* are sure m>ks ( !m4 ,causes are pref]able1 bo? z be+ ! sure/ & mo/ direct ( m>ks1 & z be+ !mselves ! prop]ties on :i* x is ( mo/ use t our att5tion %\ld be /rongly fix$4 ,b ! prop]ty :i* is ! cause ( ! *ief peculi>ities ( a class1 is un=tunately seldom fitt$ to s]ve also z ! diagno/ic ( ! class4 ,in/ead ( ! cause1 we mu/ g5]ally select "s ( its m prom95t effects1 :i* may s]ve z m>ks ( ! o!r effects & ( ! cause4 ,a classification ?us =m$ is prop]ly sci5tific or philosophical1 & is commonly call$ a ,natural1 9 contradi/9ction to a ,te*nical or ,artificial1 classification or arrangem5t4 ,! phrase ,natural ,classification seems mo/ peculi>ly appropriate to su* arrangem5ts z correspond1 9 ! gr\ps :i* !y =m1 to ! spontane\s t5d5cies ( ! m9d1 by plac+ toge!r ! objects mo/ simil> 9 _! g5]al aspect2 9 opposition to ^? te*nical sy/ems :i*1 arrang+ ?+s accord+ to _! agreem5t 9 "s circum/ance arbitr>ily select$1 (t5 ?r[ into ! same gr\p objects :i* 9 ! g5]al aggregate ( _! prop]ties pres5t no resemblance1 & into diff]5t & remote gr\ps1 o!rs :i* h ! close/ simil>ity4 ,x is "o ( ! mo/ valid recomm5dations ( any classification to ! "* ( a sci5tific "o1 t x %all be a natural classification 9 ?is s5se also2 = ! te/ ( its sci5tific "* is ! numb] & importance ( ! prop]ties :i* c be ass]t$ 9 common ( all objects includ$ 9 a gr\p2 & prop]ties on :i* ! g5]al aspect ( ! ?+s dep5ds are1 if only on t gr\nd1 important1 z well z1 9 mo/ cases1 num]\s4 ,b1 ?\gh a /rong recomm5dation1 ?is circum/ance is n a s9e qua non2 s9ce ! mo/ obvi\s prop]ties ( ?+s may be ( trifl+ importance comp>$ ) o!rs t are n obvi\s4 ,i h se5 x m5tion$ z a great absurdity 9 ! ,l9nan classification1 t x places 7:i* by-!-way x does n7 ! violet by ! side ( ! oak2 x c]ta9ly dissev]s natural aff9ities1 & br+s toge!r ?+s q z unlike z ! oak & ! violet are4 ,b ! diff]5ce1 app>5tly s wide1 :i* r5d]s ! juxtaposition ( ^? two vegetables s suitable an illu/ration ( a bad arrangem5t1 dep5ds1 to ! common eye1 ma9ly on m]e size & texture2 n[ if we made x our /udy to adopt ! classification :i* w\ld involve ! lea/ p]il ( simil> rappro*em5ts1 we %\ld return to ! obsolete division into trees1 %rubs1 & h]bs1 :i* ?\gh ( prim>y importance ) reg>d to m]e g5]al aspect1 yet 7comp>$ ev5 ) s petty & unobvi\s a di/9ction z t into dicotyl$ons & monocotyl$ons7 answ]s to s few diff]5ces 9 ! o!r prop]ties ( plants1 t a classification f\nd$ on x 7indep5d5tly ( ! indi/9ctness ( ! l9es ( dem>cation7 w\ld be z completely artificial & te*nical z ! ,l9nan4 ,our natural gr\ps1 !re=e1 mu/ (t5 be f\nd$ n on ! obvi\s b on ! unobvi\s prop]ties ( ?+s1 :5 ^! are ( great] importance4 ,b 9 su* cases x is ess5tial t !re %\ld be "s o!r prop]ty or set ( prop]ties1 m readily recognizable by ! obs]v]1 :i* co-exi/ )1 & may be receiv$ z m>ks (1 ! prop]ties :i* are ! real gr\ndwork ( ! classification4 ,a natural arrangem5t1 = example1 ( animals1 mu/ be f\nd$ 9 ! ma9 on _! int]nal /ructure1 b 7z ,m4 ,comte rem>ks7 x w\ld be absurd t we %\ld n be able to det]m9e ! g5us & species ( an animal )\t fir/ kill+ x4 ,on ?is gr\nd1 ! pref]5ce1 among zoological classifications1 is probably due to t ( ,m4 ,de ,bla9ville1 f\nd$ on ! diff]5ces 9 ! ext]nal integum5ts2 diff]5ces :i* correspond1 mu* m accurately ?an might be suppos$1 to ! really important v>ieties1 bo? 9 ! o!r p>ts ( ! /ructure1 & 9 ! habits & hi/ory ( ! animals4 ,?is %[s1 m /rongly ?an ev]1 h[ ext5sive a k ( ! prop]ties ( objects is necess>y = mak+ a good classification ( !m4 ,& z x is "o ( ! uses ( su* a classification t by draw+ att5tion to ! prop]ties on :i* x is f\nd$1 & :i*1 if ! classification be good1 are m>ks ( _m o!rs1 x facilitates ! discov]y ( ^? o!rs2 we see 9 :at mann] our k ( ?+s1 & our classification ( !m1 t5d mutually & indef9itely to ! improvem5t ( ea* o!r4 ,we said j n[ t ! classification ( objects %\ld foll[ ^? ( _! prop]ties :i* indicate n only ! mo/ num]\s1 b also ! mo/ important peculi>ities4 ,:at is "h meant by importance8 ,x has ref]5ce to ! p>ticul> end 9 view2 & ! same objects1 !re=e1 may admit ) propriety ( sev]al diff]5t classifications4 ,ea* sci5ce or art =ms its classification ( ?+s accord+ to ! prop]ties :i* fall )9 its special cognizance1 or ( :i* x mu/ take acc\nt 9 ord] to accompli% its peculi> practical end4 ,a f>m] does n divide plants1 l a botani/1 into dicotyl$on\s & monocotyl$on\s1 b into useful plants & we$s4 ,a geologi/ divides fossils1 n l a zoologi/1 into families correspond+ to ^? ( liv+ species1 b into fossils ( ! paleozoic1 mesozoic1 & t]ti>y p]iods1 above ! coal & bel[ ! coal1 etc4 ,:ales are or are n fi% accord+ to ! purpose = :i* we are consid]+ !m4 8,if we are speak+ ( ! int]nal /ructure & physiology ( ! animal1 we mu/ n call !m fi%2 = 9 ^! respects !y deviate widely f fi%es2 !y h w>m blood1 & produce & suckle _! "y z l& quadrup$s d4 ,b ?is w\ld n prev5t our speak+ ( ! :ale-fi%]y1 & call+ su* animals fi% on all occasions connect$ ) ?is employm5t2 = ! relations ?us aris+ dep5d ^u ! animal's liv+ 9 ! wat]1 & be+ caught 9 a mann] simil> to o!r fi%es4 ,a plea t human laws :i* m5tion fi% d n apply to :ales1 w\ld be reject$ at once by an intellig5t judge407#bbd7 ,^! diff]5t classifications are all good1 = ! purposes ( _! own p>ticul> dep>tm5ts ( k or practice4 ,b :5 we are /udy+ objects n = any special practical end1 b = ! sake ( ext5d+ our k ( ! :ole ( _! prop]ties & relations1 we mu/ consid] z ! mo/ important attributes ^? :i* contribute mo/1 ei!r by !mselves or by _! effects1 to r5d] ! ?+s l "o ano!r1 & unlike o!r ?+s2 :i* give to ! class compos$ ( !m ! mo/ m>k$ individuality2 :i* fill1 z x 71 ! l>ge/ space 9 _! exi/5ce1 & w\ld mo/ impress ! att5tion ( a spectator :o knew all _! prop]ties b 0 n specially int]e/$ 9 any4 ,classes =m$ on ?is pr9ciple may be call$1 9 a m emphatic mann] ?an any o!rs1 natural gr\ps4 #c4 ,on ! subject ( ^! gr\ps ,dr4 ,:ewell lays d[n a !ory1 gr\nd$ on an important tru?1 :i* he has1 9 "s respects1 express$ & illu/rat$ v felicit\sly1 b also1 z x appe>s to me1 ) "s admixture ( error4 ,x w be advantage\s1 = bo? ^! reasons1 to extract ! /atem5t ( 8 doctr9e 9 ! v words he has us$4 8,natural gr\ps10 accord+ to ?is !ory17#bbe7 are 8giv5 by ,type1 n by ,def9ition40 ,& ?is consid]ation acc\nts = t 8indef9it5ess & indecision :i* we frequ5tly f9d 9 ! descriptions ( su* gr\ps1 & :i* mu/ appe> s /range & inconsi/5t to any "o :o does n suppose ^! descriptions to assume any deep] gr\nd ( connection ?an an arbitr>y *oice ( ! botani/4 ,?us 9 ! family ( ! rose-tree1 we are told t ! ovules are v r>ely erect1 ! /igmata usually simple4 ,( :at use1 x might be ask$1 c su* loose acc\nts be8 ,to :i* ! answ] is1 t !y are n ins]t$ 9 ord] to di/+ui% ! species1 b 9 ord] to describe ! family1 & ! total relations ( ! ovules & ! /igmata ( ! family are bett] kn[n by ?is g5]al /atem5t4 ,a simil> obs]vation may be made ) reg>d to ! ,anomalies ( ea* gr\p1 :i* occur s commonly1 t ,dr4 ,l9dley1 9 8 ,introduction to ! ,natural ,sy/em ( ,botany1 makes ! #8,anomalies' an article 9 ea* family4 ,?us1 "p ( ! "* ( ! ,rosace is1 t !y h alt]nate /ipulate leaves1 & t ! album5 is oblit]at$2 b yet 9 ,l[ea1 "o ( ! g5]a ( ?is family1 ! /ipul are abs5t2 & ! album5 is pres5t 9 ano!r1 ,neillia4 ,?is implies1 z we h already se51 t ! artificial "* 7or diagnosis1 z ,mr4 ,l9dley calls x7 is imp]fect4 ,x is1 ?\gh v ne>ly1 yet n exactly1 comm5surate ) ! natural gr\p2 & h5ce 9 c]ta9 cases ?is "* is made to yield to ! g5]al weight ( natural aff9ities4 8,^! views--( classes det]m9$ by *>act]s :i* c n be express$ 9 words--( propositions :i* /ate1 n :at happ5s 9 all cases1 b only usually--( p>ticul>s :i* are includ$ 9 a class1 ?\gh !y transgress ! def9ition ( x1 may probably surprise ! read]4 ,!y are s contr>y to _m ( ! receiv$ op9ions respect+ ! use ( def9itions1 & ! nature ( sci5tific propositions1 t !y w probably appe> to _m p]sons highly illogical & unphilosophical4 ,b a disposition to su* a judgm5t arises 9 a great measure f ?is1 t ! ma!matical & ma!matico-physical sci5ces h1 9 a great degree1 det]m9$ m5's views ( ! g5]al nature & =m ( sci5tific tru?2 :ile ,natural ,hi/ory has n yet _h "t or opportunity to ex]t its due influ5ce ^u ! curr5t habits ( philosophiz+4 ,! app>5t indef9it5ess & inconsi/5cy ( ! classifications & def9itions ( ,natural ,hi/ory belongs1 9 a f> high] degree1 to all o!r except ma!matical speculations2 & ! modes 9 :i* approximations to exact di/9ctions & g5]al tru?s h be5 made 9 ,natural ,hi/ory1 may be wor?y our att5tion1 ev5 = ! light !y ?r[ ^u ! be/ modes ( pursu+ tru? ( all k9ds4 8,?\gh 9 a ,natural gr\p ( objects a def9ition c no long] be ( any use z a regulative pr9ciple1 classes are n !re=e left q loose1 )\t any c]ta9 /&>d or guide4 ,! class is /eadily fix$1 ?\gh n precisely limit$2 x is giv51 ?\gh n circumscrib$2 x is det]m9$1 n by a b\nd>y-l9e )\t1 b by a c5tral po9t )92 n by :at x /rictly excludes1 b by :at x em95tly includes2 by an example1 n by a precept2 9 %ort1 in/ead ( a ,def9ition we h a ,type = our director4 8,a ,type is an example ( any class1 = in/ance a species ( a g5us1 :i* is consid]$ z em95tly possess+ ! "* ( ! class4 ,all ! species :i* h a great] aff9ity ) ?is type-species ?an ) any o!rs1 =m ! g5us1 & are arrang$ ab\t x1 deviat+ f x 9 v>i\s directions & diff]5t degrees4 ,?us a g5us may consi/ ( sev]al species :i* approa* v ne> ! type1 & ( :i* ! claim to a place ) x is obvi\s2 :ile !re may be o!r species :i* /raggle f>!r f ?is c5tral knot1 & :i* yet are cle>ly m connect$ ) x ?an ) any o!r4 ,& ev5 if !re %\ld be "s species ( :i* ! place is dubi\s1 & :i* appe> to be equally b\nd to two g5]ic types1 x is easily se5 t ?is w\ld n de/roy ! reality ( ! g5]ic gr\ps1 any m ?an ! scatt]$ trees ( ! int]v5+ pla9 prev5t our speak+ intelligibly ( ! di/9ct =e/s ( two sep>ate hills4 8,! type-species ( e g5us1 ! type-g5us ( e family1 is !n1 "o :i* possesses all ! *>act]s & prop]ties ( ! g5us 9 a m>k$ & prom95t mann]4 ,! type ( ! ,rose family has alt]nate /ipulate leaves1 wants ! album51 has ! ovules n erect1 has ! /igmata simple1 & besides ^! features1 :i* di/+ui% x f ! exceptions or v>ieties ( its class1 x has ! features :i* make x prom95t 9 its class4 ,x is "o ( ^? :i* possess cle>ly sev]al lead+ attributes2 & ?us1 ?\gh we c n say ( any "o g5us t x mu/ be ! type ( ! family1 or ( any "o species t x mu/ be ! type ( ! g5us1 we are /ill n :olly to seek2 ! type mu/ be connect$ by _m aff9ities ) mo/ ( ! o!rs ( its gr\p2 x mu/ be ne> ! c5tre ( ! cr[d1 & n "o ( ! /raggl]s40 ,9 ?is passage 7! latt] "p ( :i* especially ,i c n help notic+ z an admirable example ( philosophic /yle7 ,dr4 ,:ewell has /at$ v cle>ly & =cibly1 b 7,i ?9k7 )\t mak+ all necess>y di/9ctions1 "o ( ! pr9ciples ( a ,natural ,classification4 ,:at ?is pr9ciple is1 :at are its limits1 & 9 :at mann] he seems to me to h ov]/epp$ !m1 w appe> :5 we h laid d[n ano!r rule ( ,natural ,arrangem5t1 :i* appe>s to me /ill m fundam5tal4 #d4 ,! read] is by ?is "t famili> ) ! g5]al tru? 7:i* ,i re/ate s (t5 on acc\nt ( ! great confusion 9 :i* x is commonly involv$71 t !re are 9 nature di/9ctions ( ,k9d2 di/9ctions n consi/+ 9 a giv5 numb] ( def9ite prop]ties plus ! effects :i* foll[ f ^? prop]ties1 b runn+ ?r\gh ! :ole nature1 ?r\gh ! attributes g5]ally1 ( ! ?+s s di/+ui%$4 ,our k ( ! prop]ties ( a ,k9d is nev] complete4 ,we are always discov]+1 & expect+ to discov]1 new ones4 ,:]e ! di/9ction betwe5 two classes ( ?+s is n "o ( ,k9d1 we expect to f9d _! prop]ties alike1 except :]e !re is "s reason = _! be+ diff]5t4 ,on ! contr>y1 :5 ! di/9ction is 9 ,k9d1 we expect to f9d ! prop]ties diff]5t unless !re be "s cause = _! be+ ! same4 ,all k ( a ,k9d mu/ be obta9$ by obs]vation & exp]im5t ^u ! ,k9d itself2 no inf]5ce respect+ its prop]ties f ! prop]ties ( ?+s n connect$ ) x by ,k9d1 goes = m ?an ! sort ( presumption usually *>act]iz$ z an analogy1 & g5]ally 9 "o ( its fa9t] degrees4 ,s9ce ! common prop]ties ( a true ,k9d1 & consequ5tly ! g5]al ass]tions :i* c be made respect+ x1 or :i* are c]ta9 to be made h]eaft] z our k ext5ds1 are indef9ite & inexhau/ible2 & s9ce ! v fir/ pr9ciple ( natural classification is t ( =m+ ! classes s t ! objects compos+ ea* may h ! greate/ numb] ( prop]ties 9 common2 ?is pr9ciple prescribes t e su* classification %all recognize & adopt into itself all di/9ctions ( ,k9d1 :i* exi/ among ! objects x pr(esses to classify4 ,to pass ov] any di/9ctions ( ,k9d1 & sub/itute def9ite di/9ctions1 :i*1 h[ev] consid]able !y may be1 d n po9t to ult]ior unkn[n diff]5ces1 w\ld be to replace classes ) m by classes ) few] attributes 9 common2 & w\ld be subv]sive ( ! ,natural ,me?od ( ,classification4 ,accord+ly all natural arrangem5ts1 :e!r ! reality ( ! di/9ction ( ,k9ds 0 felt or n by _! fram]s1 h be5 l$1 by ! m]e pursuit ( _! own prop] end1 to con=m !mselves to ! di/9ctions ( ,k9d1 s f> z ^! h be5 asc]ta9$ at ! "t4 ,! species ( ,plants are n only real ,k9ds1 b are probably1 all ( !m1 real l[e/ ,k9ds1 ,infim ,species2 :i*1 if we 7 to subdivide1 z ( c\rse x is op5 to u to d1 into sub-classes1 ! subdivision w\ld necess>ily be f\nd$ on def9ite di/9ctions1 n po9t+ 7ap>t f :at may be kn[n ( _! causes or effects7 to any diff]5ce beyond !mselves4 ,9 s f> z a natural classification is gr\nd$ on real ,k9ds1 its gr\ps are c]ta9ly n conv5tional3 x is p]fectly true t !y d n dep5d ^u an arbitr>y *oice ( ! naturali/4 ,b x does n foll[1 nor1 ,i conceive1 is x true1 t ^! classes are det]m9$ by a type1 & n by *>act]s4 ,to det]m9e !m by a type w\ld be z sure a way ( miss+ ! ,k9d1 z if we 7 to select a set ( *>act]s arbitr>ily4 ,!y are det]m9$ by *>act]s1 b ^! are n arbitr>y4 ,! problem is1 to f9d a few def9ite *>act]s :i* po9t to ! multitude ( indef9ite ones4 ,k9ds are ,classes betwe5 :i* !re is an impassable b>ri]2 & :at we h to seek is1 m>ks :]eby we may det]m9e on :i* side ( ! b>ri] an object takes its place4 ,! *>act]s :i* w be/ d ?is %\ld be *os53 if !y are also important 9 !mselves1 s mu* ! bett]4 ,:5 we h select$ ! *>act]s1 we p>cel out ! objects accord+ to ^? *>act]s1 & n1 ,i conceive1 accord+ to resemblance to a type4 ,we d n compose ! species ,ranunculus acris1 ( all plants :i* be> a satisfactory degree ( resemblance to a model butt]cup1 b ( ^? :i* possess c]ta9 *>act]s select$ z m>ks by :i* we might recognize ! possibility ( a common p>5tage2 & ! enum]ation ( ^? *>act]s is ! def9ition ( ! species4 ,! "q next arises1 :e!r1 z all ,k9ds mu/ h a place among ! classes1 s all ! classes 9 a natural arrangem5t mu/ be ,k9ds8 ,& to ?is ,i answ]1 c]ta9ly n4 ,! di/9ctions ( ,k9ds are n num]\s en\gh to make up ! :ole ( a classification4 ,v few ( ! g5]a ( plants1 or ev5 ( ! families1 c be pron\nc$ ) c]ta9ty to be ,k9ds4 ,! great di/9ctions ( ,vascul> & ,cellul>1 ,dicotyl$on\s or ,exog5\s & ,monocotyl$on\s or ,endog5\s plants1 are p]haps diff]5ces ( k9d2 ! l9es ( dem>cation :i* divide ^? classes seem 7?\gh ev5 on ?is ,i w\ld n pron\nce positively7 to g ?r\gh ! :ole nature ( ! plants4 ,b ! diff]5t species ( a g5us1 or g5]a ( a family1 usually h 9 common only a limit$ numb] ( *>act]s4 ,a ,rose does n seem to diff] f a ,rubus1 or ! ,umbellif] f ! ,ranunculace1 9 mu* else ?an ! *>act]s botanically assign$ to ^? g5]a or ^? families4 ,un5um]at$ diff]5ces c]ta9ly d exi/ 9 "s cases2 !re are families ( plants :i* h peculi>ities ( *emical composition1 or yield products hav+ peculi> effects on ! animal economy4 ,! ,crucif] & ,fungi conta9 an unusual proportion ( nitrog52 ! ,labiat are ! *ief s\rces ( ess5tial oils1 ! ,solane are v commonly n>cotic1 etc4 ,9 ^! & simil> cases !re are possibly di/9ctions ( ,k9d2 b x is by no means indisp5sable t !re %\ld be4 ,g5]a & ,families may be em95tly natural1 ?\gh m>k$ out f "o ano!r by prop]ties limit$ 9 numb]2 provid$ ^? prop]ties are important1 & ! objects conta9$ 9 ea* g5us or family resemble ea* o!r m ?an !y resemble any ?+ :i* is exclud$ f ! g5us or family4 ,aft] ! recognition & def9ition1 !n1 ( ! infim species1 ! next /ep is to arrange ^? infim species into l>g] gr\ps3 mak+ ^! gr\ps correspond to ,k9ds :]ev] x is possible1 b 9 mo/ cases )\t any su* guidance4 ,& 9 do+ ?is x is true t we are naturally & prop]ly guid$1 9 mo/ cases at lea/1 by resemblance to a type4 ,we =m our gr\ps r\nd c]ta9 select$ ,k9ds1 ea* ( :i* s]ves z a sort ( exempl> ( its gr\p4 ,b ?\gh ! gr\ps are sugge/$ by types1 ,i c n ?9k t a gr\p :5 =m$ is det]m9$ by ! type2 t 9 decid+ :e!r a species belongs to ! gr\p1 a ref]5ce is made to ! type1 & n to ! *>act]s2 t ! *>act]s 8c n be express$ 9 words40 ,?is ass]tion is inconsi/5t ) ,dr4 ,:ewell's own /atem5t ( ! fundam5tal pr9ciple ( classification1 namely1 t 8g5]al ass]tions %all be possible40 ,if ! class did n possess any *>act]s 9 common1 :at g5]al ass]tions w\ld be possible respect+ x8 ,except t !y all resemble ea* o!r m ?an !y resemble any ?+ else1 no?+ :atev] c\ld be pr$icat$ ( ! class4 ,! tru? is1 on ! contr>y1 t e g5us or family is fram$ ) di/9ct ref]5ce to c]ta9 *>act]s1 & is compos$1 fir/ & pr9cipally1 ( species :i* agree 9 possess+ all ^? *>act]s4 ,to ^! are add$1 z a sort ( app5dix1 su* o!r species1 g5]ally 9 small numb]1 z possess ne>ly all ! prop]ties select$2 want+ "s ( !m "o prop]ty1 "s ano!r1 & :i*1 :ile !y agree ) ! re/ almo/ z mu* z ^! agree ) "o ano!r1 d n resemble 9 an equal degree any o!r gr\p4 ,our conception ( ! class cont9ues to be gr\nd$ on ! *>act]s2 & ! class might be def9$1 ^? ?+s :i* ei!r possess t set ( *>act]s1 or resemble ! ?+s t d s1 m ?an !y resemble any ?+ else4 ,& ?is resemblance itself is n1 l resemblance betwe5 simple s5sations1 an ultimate fact1 unsusceptible ( analysis4 ,ev5 ! inf]ior degree ( resemblance is creat$ by ! possession ( common *>act]s4 ,:atev] resembles ! g5us ,rose m ?an x resembles any o!r g5us1 does s because x possesses a great] numb] ( ! *>act]s ( t g5us ?an ( ! *>act]s ( any o!r g5us4 ,nor c !re be any real difficulty 9 repres5t+1 by an enum]ation ( *>act]s1 ! nature & degree ( ! resemblance :i* is /rictly suffici5t to include any object 9 ! class4 ,!re are always "s prop]ties common to all ?+s :i* are includ$4 ,o!rs !re (t5 are1 to :i* "s ?+s1 :i* are nev]!less includ$1 are exceptions4 ,b ! objects :i* are exceptions to "o "* are n exceptions to ano!r2 ! resemblance :i* fails 9 "s p>ticul>s mu/ be made up = 9 o!rs4 ,! class1 !re=e1 is con/itut$ by ! possession ( all ! *>act]s :i* are univ]sal1 & mo/ ( ^? :i* admit ( exceptions4 ,if a plant _h ! ovules erect1 ! /igmata divid$1 possess$ ! album51 & 0 )\t /ipules1 x possibly w\ld n be class$ among ! ,rosace4 ,b x may want any "o1 or m ?an "o ( ^! *>act]s1 & n be exclud$4 ,! ends ( a sci5tific classification are bett] answ]$ by includ+ x4 ,s9ce x agrees s ne>ly1 9 its kn[n prop]ties1 ) ! sum ( ! *>act]s ( ! class1 x is likely to resemble t class m ?an any o!r 9 ^? ( its prop]ties :i* are /ill undiscov]$4 ,n only1 !re=e1 are natural gr\ps1 no less ?an any artificial classes1 det]m9$ by *>act]s2 !y are con/itut$ 9 contemplation (1 & by reason (1 *>act]s4 ,b x is 9 contemplation n ( ^? *>act]s only :i* are rigor\sly common to all ! objects includ$ 9 ! gr\p1 b ( ! entire body ( *>act]s1 all ( :i* are f\nd 9 mo/ ( ^? objects1 & mo/ ( !m 9 all4 ,& h5ce our conception ( ! class1 ! image 9 our m9ds :i* is repres5tative ( x1 is t ( a specim5 complete 9 all ! *>act]s2 mo/ naturally a specim5 :i*1 by possess+ !m all 9 ! greate/ degree 9 :i* !y are ev] f\nd1 is ! be/ fitt$ to exhibit cle>ly1 & 9 a m>k$ mann]1 :at !y are4 ,x is by a m5tal ref]5ce to ?is /&>d1 n in/ead (1 b 9 illu/ration (1 ! def9ition ( ! class1 t we usually & advantage\sly det]m9e :e!r any individual or species belongs to ! class or n4 ,& ?is1 z x seems to me1 is ! am\nt ( tru? conta9$ 9 ! doctr9e ( ,types4 ,we %all see pres5tly t :]e ! classification is made = ! express purpose ( a special inductive inquiry1 x is n optional1 b necess>y = fulfill+ ! conditions ( a correct ,inductive ,me?od1 t we %\ld e/abli% a type-species or g5us1 namely1 ! "o :i* exhibits 9 ! mo/ em95t degree ! p>ticul> ph5om5on "u inve/igation4 ,b ( ?is h]eaft]4 ,x rema9s1 = complet+ ! !ory ( natural gr\ps1 t a few words %\ld be said on ! pr9ciples ( ! nom5clature adapt$ to !m4 #e4 ,a ,nom5clature 9 sci5ce is1 z we h said1 a sy/em ( ! names ( ,k9ds4 ,^! names1 l o!r class-names1 are def9$ by ! enum]ation ( ! *>act]s di/9ctive ( ! class4 ,! only m]it :i* a set ( names c h beyond ?is1 is to convey1 by ! mode ( _! con/ruction1 z mu* in=mation z possible3 s t a p]son :o kn[s ! ?+1 may receive all ! assi/ance :i* ! "n c give 9 rememb]+ :at he kn[s2 :ile he :o kn[s x n1 may receive z mu* k respect+ x z ! case admits (1 by m]ely be+ told its "n4 ,!re are two modes ( giv+ to ! "n ( a ,k9d ?is sort ( significance4 ,! be/1 b :i* un=tunately is seldom practicable1 is :5 ! ^w c be made to indicate1 by its =mation1 ! v prop]ties :i* x is design$ to connote4 ,! "n ( a ,k9d does n1 ( c\rse1 connote all ! prop]ties ( ! ,k9d1 s9ce ^! are inexhau/ible1 b su* ( !m z are suffici5t to di/+ui% x2 su* z are sure m>ks ( all ! re/4 ,n[1 x is v r>ely t "o prop]ty1 or ev5 any two or ?ree prop]ties1 c answ] ?is purpose4 ,to di/+ui% ! common daisy f all o!r species ( plants w\ld require ! specification ( _m *>act]s4 ,& a "n c n1 )\t be+ too cumbr\s = use1 give indication1 by its etymology or mode ( con/ruction1 ( m ?an a v small numb] ( ^!4 ,! possibility1 !re=e1 ( an ideally p]fect ,nom5clature1 is probably conf9$ to ! "o case 9 :i* we are happily 9 possession ( some?+ approa*+ to x--! ,nom5clature ( elem5t>y ,*emi/ry4 ,! sub/ances1 :e!r simple or comp\nd1 ) :i* *emi/ry is conv]sant1 are ,k9ds1 &1 z su*1 ! prop]ties :i* di/+ui% ea* ( !m f ! re/ are innum]able2 b 9 ! case ( comp\nd sub/ances 7! simple ones are n num]\s en\gh to require a sy/ematic nom5clature71 !re is "o prop]ty1 ! *emical composition1 :i* is ( itself suffici5t to di/+ui% ! ,k9d2 & is 7) c]ta9 res]vations n yet ?or\ghly und]/ood7 a sure m>k ( all ! o!r prop]ties ( ! comp\nd4 ,all t 0 ne$ful1 !re=e1 0 to make ! "n ( e comp\nd express1 on ! fir/ he>+1 its *emical composition2 t is1 to =m ! "n ( ! comp\nd1 9 "s uni=m mann]1 f ! names ( ! simple sub/ances :i* ent] into x z elem5ts4 ,?is 0 done1 mo/ skillfully & successfully1 by ! ,fr5* *emi/s1 ?\gh _! nom5clature has become inadequate to ! conv5i5t expression ( ! v complicat$ comp\nds n[ kn[n to *emi/s4 ,! only ?+ left unexpress$ by !m 0 ! exact proportion 9 :i* ! elem5ts 7 comb9$2 & ev5 ?is1 s9ce ! e/abli%m5t ( ! atomic !ory1 x has be5 f\nd possible to express by a simple adaptation ( _! phraseology4 ,b :]e ! *>act]s :i* mu/ be tak5 into consid]ation1 9 ord] suffici5tly to designate ! ,k9d1 are too num]\s to be all signifi$ 9 ! d]ivation ( ! "n1 & :]e no "o ( !m is ( su* prepond]ant importance z to ju/ify its be+ s+l$ out to be s indicat$1 we may avail ourselves ( a subsidi>y res\rce4 ,?\gh we c n indicate ! di/9ctive prop]ties ( ! ,k9d1 we may indicate its ne>e/ natural aff9ities1 by incorporat+ into its "n ! "n ( ! proximate natural gr\p ( :i* x is "o ( ! species4 ,on ?is pr9ciple is f\nd$ ! admirable b9>y nom5clature ( botany & zoology4 ,9 ?is nom5clature ! "n ( e species consi/s ( ! "n ( ! g5us1 or natural gr\p next above x1 ) a ^w add$ to di/+ui% ! p>ticul> species4 ,! la/ portion ( ! comp\nd "n is sometimes tak5 f "s "o ( ! peculi>ities 9 :i* t species diff]s f o!rs ( ! g5us2 z ,clematis integrifolia1 ,pot5tilla alba1 ,viola palu/ris1 ,artemisia vulg>is2 sometimes f a circum/ance ( an hi/orical nature1 z ,n>cissus poeticus1 ,pot5tilla torm5tilla 7indicat+ t ! plant is t :i* 0 =m]ly kn[n by ! latt] "n71 ,exacum ,c&ollii 7f ! fact t ,de ,c&olle 0 its fir/ discov]]72 & sometimes ! ^w is purely conv5tional1 z ,?laspi bursapa/oris1 ,ranunculus ?ora2 x is ( little consequ5ce :i*2 s9ce ! second1 or1 z x is usually call$1 ! specific "n1 c\ld at mo/ express1 indep5d5tly ( conv5tion1 no m ?an a v small portion ( ! connotation ( ! t]m4 ,b by add+ to ?is ! "n ( ! sup]ior g5us1 we may make ! be/ am5ds we c = ! impossibility ( s contriv+ ! "n z to express all ! di/9ctive *>act]s ( ! ,k9d4 ,we make x1 at all ev5ts1 express z _m ( ^? *>act]s z are common to ! proximate natural gr\p 9 :i* ! ,k9d is includ$4 ,if ev5 ^? common *>act]s are s num]\s or s little famili> z to require a fur!r ext5sion ( ! same res\rce1 we might1 in/ead ( a b9>y1 adopt a t]n>y nom5clature1 employ+ n only ! "n ( ! g5us1 b t ( ! next natural gr\p 9 ord] ( g5]ality above ! g5us1 commonly call$ ! ,family4 ,?is 0 done 9 ! m9]alogical nom5clature propos$ by ,pr(essor ,mohs4 8,! names fram$ by him 7 n compos$ ( two1 b ( ?ree elem5ts1 designat+ respectively ! ,species1 ! ,g5us1 & ! ,ord]2 ?us he has su* species z ,rhomboh$ral ,lime ,haloide1 ,octoh$ral ,fluor ,haloide1 ,prismatic ,hal ,b>yte407#bbf7 ,! b9>y con/ruction1 h[ev]1 has be5 f\nd suffici5t 9 botany & zoology1 ! only sci5ces 9 :i* ?is g5]al pr9ciple has hi!rto be5 successfully adopt$ 9 ! con/ruction ( a nom5clature4 ,besides ! advantage :i* ?is pr9ciple ( nom5clature possesses1 9 giv+ to ! names ( species ! greate/ quantity ( indep5d5t significance :i* ! circum/ances ( ! case admit (1 x answ]s ! fur!r end ( imm5sely economiz+ ! use ( names1 & prev5t+ an o!rwise intol]able burd5 on ! memory4 ,:5 ! names ( species become extremely num]\s1 "s artifice 7z ,dr4 ,:ewell7#bbg7 obs]ves7 becomes absolutely necess>y to make x possible to recollect or apply !m4 8,! kn[n species ( plants1 = example1 7 t5 ?\s& 9 ! "t ( ,l9nu1 & are n[ probably sixty ?\s&4 ,x w\ld be useless to endeavor to frame & employ sep>ate names = ea* ( ^! species4 ,! division ( ! objects into a subord9at$ sy/em ( classification enables u to introduce a ,nom5clature :i* does n require ?is enorm\s numb] ( names4 ,ea* ( ! g5]a has its "n1 & ! species are m>k$ by ! addition ( "s epi!t to ! "n ( ! g5us4 ,9 ?is mann] ab\t sev5te5 hundr$ g5]ic names1 ) a mod]ate numb] ( specific names1 7 f\nd by ,l9nu suffici5t to designate ) precision all ! species ( vegetables kn[n at 8 "t40 ,& ?\gh ! numb] ( g5]ic names has s9ce greatly increas$1 x has n increas$ 9 any ?+ l ! proportion ( ! multiplication ( kn[n species4 ,*apt] ,,viii4 ,( ,classification ,by ,s]ies4 #a4 ,?us f>1 we h consid]$ ! pr9ciples ( sci5tific classification s f> only z relates to ! =mation ( natural gr\ps2 & at ?is po9t mo/ ( ^? :o h attempt$ a !ory ( natural arrangem5t1 includ+1 among ! re/1 ,dr4 ,:ewell1 h /opp$4 ,!re rema9s1 h[ev]1 ano!r1 & a n less important portion ( ! !ory1 :i* has n yet1 z f> z ,i am aw>e1 be5 sy/ematically treat$ ( by any writ] except ,m4 ,comte4 ,?is is1 ! arrangem5t ( ! natural gr\ps into a natural s]ies47#bbh7 ,! end ( ,classification1 z an in/rum5t = ! inve/igation ( nature1 is 7z be=e /at$7 to make u ?9k ( ^? objects toge!r :i* h ! greate/ numb] ( important common prop]ties2 & :i*1 !re=e1 we h (t5e/ occasion1 9 ! c\rse ( our inductions1 = tak+ into jo9t consid]ation4 ,our ideas ( objects are ?us br\ght into ! ord] mo/ conducive to ! successful prosecution ( inductive inquiries g5]ally4 ,b :5 ! purpose is to facilitate "s p>ticul> inductive inquiry1 m is requir$4 ,to be in/rum5tal to t purpose1 ! classification mu/ br+ ^? objects toge!r1 ! simultane\s contemplation ( :i* is likely to ?r[ mo/ light ^u ! p>ticul> subject4 ,t subject be+ ! laws ( "s ph5om5on or "s set ( connect$ ph5om5a2 ! v ph5om5on or set ( ph5om5a 9 "q mu/ be *os5 z ! gr\ndwork ( ! classification4 ,! requisites ( a classification int5d$ to facilitate ! /udy ( a p>ticul> ph5om5on1 are1 fir/ to br+ into "o class all ,k9ds ( ?+s :i* exhibit t ph5om5on1 9 :atev] v>iety ( =ms or degrees2 &1 secondly1 to arrange ^? ,k9ds 9 a s]ies accord+ to ! degree 9 :i* !y exhibit x1 beg9n+ ) ^? :i* exhibit mo/ ( x1 & t]m9at+ ) ^? :i* exhibit lea/4 ,! pr9cipal example1 z yet1 ( su* a classification1 is af=d$ by comp>ative anatomy & physiology1 f :i*1 !re=e1 our illu/rations %all be tak54 #b4 ,! object be+ suppos$ to be1 ! inve/igation ( ! laws ( animal life2 ! fir/ /ep1 aft] =m+ ! mo/ di/9ct conception ( ! ph5om5on itself1 possible 9 ! exi/+ /ate ( our k1 is to erect into "o great class 7t ( animals7 all ! kn[n ,k9ds ( be+s :]e t ph5om5on pres5ts itself2 9 h[ev] v>i\s comb9ations ) o!r prop]ties1 & 9 h[ev] diff]5t degrees4 ,z "s ( ^! ,k9ds manife/ ! g5]al ph5om5on ( animal life 9 a v high degree1 & o!rs 9 an insignificant degree1 b>ely suffici5t = recognition2 we mu/1 9 ! next place1 arrange ! v>i\s ,k9ds 9 a s]ies1 foll[+ "o ano!r accord+ to ! degrees 9 :i* !y sev]ally exhibit ! ph5om5on2 beg9n+ !re=e ) man1 & end+ ) ! mo/ imp]fect k9ds ( zoophytes4 ,?is is m]ely say+ t we %\ld put ! in/ances1 f :i* ! law is to be inductively collect$1 into ! ord] :i* is impli$ 9 "o ( ! f\r ,me?ods ( ,exp]im5tal ,inquiry discuss$ 9 ! prec$+ ,book2 ! f\r? ,me?od1 t ( ,concomitant ,v>iations4 ,z =m]ly rem>k$1 ?is is (t5 ! only me?od to :i* rec\rse c be _h1 ) assurance ( a true conclusion1 9 cases 9 :i* we h b limit$ means ( effect+1 by artificial exp]im5ts1 a sep>ation ( circum/ances usually conjo9$4 ,! pr9ciple ( ! me?od is1 t facts :i* increase or dim9i% toge!r1 & disappe> toge!r1 are ei!r cause & effect1 or effects ( a common cause4 ,:5 x has be5 asc]ta9$ t ?is relation really subsi/s betwe5 ! v>iations1 a connection betwe5 ! facts !mselves may be confid5tly laid d[n1 ei!r z a law ( nature or only z an empirical law1 accord+ to circum/ances4 ,t ! application ( ?is ,me?od mu/ be prec$$ by ! =mation ( su* a s]ies z we h describ$1 is too obvi\s to ne$ be+ po9t$ out2 & ! m]e arrangem5t ( a set ( objects 9 a s]ies1 accord+ to ! degrees 9 :i* !y exhibit "s fact ( :i* we are seek+ ! law1 is too naturally sugge/$ by ! necessities ( our inductive op]ations1 to require any l5g!n$ illu/ration "h4 ,b !re are cases 9 :i* ! arrangem5t requir$ = ! special purpose becomes ! det]m9+ pr9ciple ( ! classification ( ! same objects = g5]al purposes4 ,?is w naturally & prop]ly happ51 :5 ^? laws ( ! objects :i* are s\ght 9 ! special inquiry enact s pr9cipal a "p 9 ! g5]al "* & hi/ory ( ^? objects--ex]cise s mu* influ5ce 9 det]m9+ all ! ph5om5a ( :i* !y are ei!r ! ag5ts or ! !atre--t all o!r diff]5ces exi/+ among ! objects are fitt+ly reg>d$ z m]e modifications ( ! "o ph5om5on s\ght2 effects det]m9$ by ! co-op]ation ( "s incid5tal circum/ance ) ! laws ( t ph5om5on4 ,?us 9 ! case ( animat$ be+s1 ! diff]5ces betwe5 "o class ( animals & ano!r may reasonably be consid]$ z m]e modifications ( ! g5]al ph5om5on1 animal life2 modifications aris+ ei!r f ! diff]5t degrees 9 :i* t ph5om5on is manife/$ 9 diff]5t animals1 or f ! int]mixture ( ! effects ( incid5tal causes peculi> to ! nature ( ea*1 ) ! effects produc$ by ! g5]al laws ( life2 ^? laws /ill ex]cis+ a pr$om9ant influ5ce ov] ! result4 ,su* be+ ! case1 no o!r inductive inquiry respect+ animals c be successfully c>ri$ on1 except 9 subord9ation to ! great inquiry into ! univ]sal laws ( animal life2 & ! classification ( animals be/ suit$ to t "o purpose1 is ! mo/ suitable to all ! o!r purposes ( zoological sci5ce4 #c4 ,to e/abli% a classification ( ?is sort1 or ev5 to appreh5d x :5 e/abli%$1 requires ! p[] ( recogniz+ ! ess5tial simil>ity ( a ph5om5on1 9 its m9ut] degrees & obscur] =ms1 ) :at is call$ ! same ph5om5on 9 ! greate/ p]fection ( its developm5t2 t is1 ( id5tify+ ) ea* o!r all ph5om5a :i* diff] only 9 degree1 & 9 prop]ties :i* we suppose to be caus$ by diff]5ce ( degree4 ,9 ord] to recognize ?is id5tity1 or1 9 o!r words1 ?is exact simil>ity ( quality1 ! assumption ( a type-species is indisp5sable4 ,we mu/ consid] z ! type ( ! class1 t among ! ,k9ds includ$ 9 x1 :i* exhibits ! prop]ties con/itutive ( ! class1 9 ! highe/ degree2 conceiv+ ! o!r v>ieties z in/ances ( deg5]acy1 z x 71 f t type2 deviations f x by inf]ior int5sity ( ! *>act]i/ic prop]ty or prop]ties4 ,= e ph5om5on is be/ /udi$ 7ct]is p>ibus7 :]e x exi/s 9 ! greate/ int5sity4 ,x is !re t ! effects :i* ei!r dep5d on x1 or dep5d on ! same causes ) x1 w also exi/ 9 ! greate/ degree4 ,x is !re1 consequ5tly1 & only !re1 t ^? effects ( x1 or jo9t effects ) x1 c become fully kn[n to u1 s t we may le>n to recognize _! small] degrees1 or ev5 _! m]e rudim5ts1 9 cases 9 :i* ! direct /udy w\ld h be5 difficult or ev5 impossible4 ,n to m5tion t ! ph5om5on 9 its high] degrees may be att5d$ by effects or collat]al circum/ances :i* 9 its small] degrees d n occur at all1 requir+ = _! production 9 any s5sible am\nt a great] degree ( int5sity ( ! cause ?an is !re met )4 ,9 man1 = example 7! species 9 :i* bo? ! ph5om5on ( animal & t ( organic life exi/ 9 ! highe/ degree71 _m subord9ate ph5om5a develop !mselves 9 ! c\rse ( 8 animat$ exi/5ce1 :i* ! inf]ior v>ieties ( animals d n %[4 ,! k ( ^! prop]ties may nev]!less be ( great avail t[>d ! discov]y ( ! conditions & laws ( ! g5]al ph5om5on ( life1 :i* is common to man ) ^? inf]ior animals4 ,& !y are1 ev51 rightly consid]$ z prop]ties ( animat$ nature itself2 because !y may evid5tly be affiliat$ to ! g5]al laws ( animat$ nature2 because we may fairly presume t "s rudim5ts or feeble degrees ( ^? prop]ties w\ld be recogniz$ 9 all animals by m p]fect organs1 or ev5 by m p]fect in/rum5ts1 ?an ours2 & because ^? may be correctly t]m$ prop]ties ( a class1 :i* a ?+ exhibits exactly 9 proportion z x belongs to ! class1 t is1 9 proportion z x possesses ! ma9 attributes con/itutive ( ! class4 #d4 ,x rema9s to consid] h[ ! int]nal di/ribution ( ! s]ies may mo/ prop]ly take place2 9 :at mann] x %\ld be divid$ into ,ord]s1 ,families1 & ,g5]a4 ,! ma9 pr9ciple ( division mu/ ( c\rse be natural aff9ity2 ! classes =m$ mu/ be natural gr\ps2 & ! =mation ( ^! has already be5 suffici5tly treat$ (4 ,b ! pr9ciples ( natural gr\p+ mu/ be appli$ 9 subord9ation to ! pr9ciple ( a natural s]ies4 ,! gr\ps mu/ n be s con/itut$ z to place 9 ! same gr\p ?+s :i* ought to occupy diff]5t po9ts ( ! g5]al scale4 ,! precaution necess>y to be obs]v$ = ?is purpose is1 t ! prim>y divisions mu/ be gr\nd$ n on all di/9ctions indiscrim9ately1 b on ^? :i* correspond to v>iations 9 ! degree ( ! ma9 ph5om5on4 ,! s]ies ( ,animat$ ,nature %\ld be brok5 into p>ts at ! po9ts :]e ! v>iation 9 ! degree ( int5sity ( ! ma9 ph5om5on 7z m>k$ by its pr9cipal *>act]s1 ,s5sation1 ,?\ght1 ,volunt>y ,motion1 etc47 beg9s to be att5d$ by conspicu\s *anges 9 ! miscellane\s prop]ties ( ! animal4 ,su* well-m>k$ *anges take place1 = example1 :]e ! class ,mammalia ends2 at ! po9ts :]e ,fi%es are sep>at$ f ,insects1 ,insects f ,mollusca1 etc4 ,:5 s =m$1 ! prim>y natural gr\ps w compose ! s]ies by m]e juxtaposition1 )\t r$i/ribution2 ea* ( !m correspond+ to a def9ite portion ( ! scale4 ,9 l mann] ea* family %\ld1 if possible1 be s subdivid$1 t "o portion ( x %all /& high] & ! o!r l[]1 ?\gh ( c\rse contigu\s1 9 ! g5]al scale2 & only :5 ?is is impossible is x all[able to gr\nd ! rema9+ subdivisions on *>act]s hav+ no det]m9able connection ) ! ma9 ph5om5on4 ,:]e ! pr9cipal ph5om5on s f> transc5ds 9 importance all o!r prop]ties on :i* a classification c\ld be gr\nd$1 z x does 9 ! case ( animat$ exi/5ce1 any consid]able deviation f ! rule la/ laid d[n is 9 g5]al suffici5tly gu>d$ aga9/ by ! fir/ pr9ciple ( a natural arrangem5t1 t ( =m+ ! gr\ps accord+ to ! mo/ important *>act]s4 ,all attempts at a sci5tific classification ( animals1 s9ce fir/ _! anatomy & physiology 7 successfully /udi$1 h be5 fram$ ) a c]ta9 degree ( in/9ctive ref]5ce to a natural s]ies1 & h accord$ 9 _m m po9ts ?an !y h diff]$1 ) ! classification :i* w\ld mo/ naturally h be5 gr\nd$ on su* a s]ies4 ,b ! accordance has n always be5 complete2 & x /ill is (t5 a matt] ( discussion1 :i* ( sev]al classifications be/ accords ) ! true scale ( int5sity ( ! ma9 ph5om5on4 ,cuvi]1 = example1 has be5 ju/ly criticis$ = hav+ =m$ 8 natural gr\ps1 ) an undue degree ( ref]5ce to ! mode ( alim5tation1 a circum/ance directly connect$ only ) organic life1 & n lead+ to ! arrangem5t mo/ appropriate = ! purposes ( an inve/igation ( ! laws ( animal life1 s9ce bo? c>nivor\s & h]bivor\s or frugivor\s animals are f\nd at almo/ e degree 9 ! scale ( animal p]fection4 ,bla9ville's classification has be5 consid]$ by high au?orities to be free f ?is defect2 z repres5t+ correctly1 by ! m]e ord] ( ! pr9cipal gr\ps1 ! successive deg5]acy ( animal nature f its highe/ to its mo/ imp]fect exemplification4 #e4 ,a classification ( any l>ge portion ( ! field ( nature 9 con=mity to ! =ego+ pr9ciples1 has hi!rto be5 f\nd practicable only 9 "o great in/ance1 t ( animals4 ,9 ! case ev5 ( vegetables1 ! natural arrangem5t has n be5 c>ri$ beyond ! =mation ( natural gr\ps4 ,naturali/s h f\nd1 & probably w cont9ue to f9d x impossible to =m ^? gr\ps into any s]ies1 ! t]ms ( :i* correspond to real gradations 9 ! ph5om5on ( vegetative or organic life4 ,su* a diff]5ce ( degree may be trac$ betwe5 ! class ( ,vascul> ,plants & t ( ,cellul>1 :i* includes li*5s1 alg1 & o!r sub/ances ^: organization is simpl] & m rudim5t>y ?an t ( ! high] ord] ( vegetables1 & :i* !re=e approa* ne>] to m]e inorganic nature4 ,b :5 we rise mu* above ?is po9t1 we d n f9d any suffici5t diff]5ce 9 ! degree 9 :i* diff]5t plants possess ! prop]ties ( organization & life4 ,! dicotyl$ons are ( m complex /ructure1 & some:at m p]fect organization1 ?an ! monocotyl$ons2 & "s dicotyl$on\s families1 su* z ! ,composit1 are r m complex 9 _! organization ?an ! re/4 ,b ! diff]5ces are n ( a m>k$ "*1 & d n promise to ?r[ any p>ticul> light ^u ! conditions & laws ( vegetable life & developm5t4 ,if !y did1 ! classification ( vegetables w\ld h to be made1 l t ( animals1 ) ref]5ce to ! scale or s]ies indicat$4 ,al?\gh ! sci5tific arrangem5ts ( organic nature af=d z yet ! only complete example ( ! true pr9ciples ( rational classification1 :e!r z to ! =mation ( gr\ps or ( s]ies1 ^? pr9ciples are applicable to all cases 9 :i* mank9d are call$ ^u to br+ ! v>i\s p>ts ( any ext5sive subject into m5tal co-ord9ation4 ,!y are z mu* to ! po9t :5 objects are to be class$ = purposes ( art or bus9ess1 z = ^? ( sci5ce4 ,! prop] arrangem5t1 = example1 ( a code ( laws1 dep5ds on ! same sci5tific conditions z ! classifications 9 natural hi/ory2 nor c\ld !re be a bett] prep>atory discipl9e = t important function1 ?an ! /udy ( ! pr9ciples ( a natural arrangem5t1 n only 9 ! ab/ract1 b 9 _! actual application to ! class ( ph5om5a = :i* !y 7 fir/ elaborat$1 & :i* are /ill ! be/ s*ool = le>n+ _! use4 ,( ?is ! great au?ority on codification1 ,b5?am1 0 p]fectly aw>e2 & 8 e>ly ,fragm5t on ,gov]nm5t1 ! admirable introduction to a s]ies ( writ+s unequal$ 9 _! dep>tm5t1 conta9s cle> & j views 7z f> z !y g7 on ! mean+ ( a natural arrangem5t1 su* z c\ld sc>cely h occurr$ to any "o :o liv$ ant]ior to ! age ( ,l9nu & ,b]n>d de ,jussieu4 ,book ,v4 ,,on ,,fallacies4 8,err>e non modo affirm&o et neg&o1 s$ etiam s5ti5do1 et 9 tacit hom9um cogitatione cont+it40--,,hobbes1 ,computatio sive ,logica1 *ap4 v4 8,il leur semble qu'il n'y a qu' d\t] p> fantaisie1 et qu'il n'y a qu' dire en gnral que notre nature e/ infirme2 que notre esprit e/ ple9 d'aveuglem5t3 qu'il faut avoir un gr& so9 de se dfaire de ses prjugs1 et autres *oses semblables4 ,ils p5s5t que cela suffit p\r ne plus se laiss] sduire ses s5s1 et p\r ne plus se tromp] du t\t4 ,il ne suffit pas de dire que l'esprit e/ foible1 il faut lui faire s5tir ses foiblesses4 ,ce n'e/ pas assez de dire qu'il e/ sujet l'erreur1 il faut lui dc\vrir en quoi consi/5t ses erreurs40--,,malebran*e1 ,re*]*e de la ,vrit4 ,*apt] ,i4 ,( ,fallacies ,9 ,g5]al4 #a4 ,x is a maxim ( ! s*ool-m51 t 8contr>iorum eadem e/ sci5tia30 we nev] really "k :at a ?+ is1 unless we are also able to give a suffici5t acc\nt ( its opposite4 ,con=mably to ?is maxim1 "o consid]able section1 9 mo/ treatises on ,logic1 is devot$ to ! subject ( ,fallacies2 & ! practice is too well wor?y ( obs]vance1 to all[ ( our dep>t+ f x4 ,! philosophy ( reason+1 to be complete1 ought to comprise ! !ory ( bad z well z ( good reason+4 ,we h endeavor$ to asc]ta9 ! pr9ciples by :i* ! suffici5cy ( any pro( c be te/$1 & by :i* ! nature & am\nt ( evid5ce ne$ful to prove any giv5 conclusion c be det]m9$ be=eh&4 ,if ^! pr9ciples 7 adh]$ to1 !n al?\gh ! numb] & value ( ! tru?s asc]ta9$ w\ld be limit$ by ! opportunities1 or by ! indu/ry1 +5uity1 & pati5ce1 ( ! individual inquir]1 at lea/ error w\ld n be embrac$ in/ead ( tru?4 ,b ! g5]al cons5t ( mank9d1 f\nd$ on _! exp]i5ce1 v\*es = _! be+ f> inde$ f ev5 ?is negative k9d ( p]fection 9 ! employm5t ( _! reason+ p[]s4 ,9 ! conduct ( life--9 ! practical bus9ess ( mank9d--wrong inf]5ces1 incorrect int]pretations ( exp]i5ce1 unless aft] mu* culture ( ! ?9k+ faculty1 are absolutely inevitable2 & ) mo/ p1 aft] ! highe/ degree ( culture !y ev] atta91 su* errone\s inf]5ces1 produc+ correspond+ errors 9 conduct1 are lam5tably frequ5t4 ,ev5 9 ! speculations to :i* em95t intellects h sy/ematically devot$ !mselves1 & 9 ref]5ce to :i* ! collective m9d ( ! sci5tific _w is always at h& to aid ! ef=ts & correct ! ab]rations ( individuals1 x is only f ! m p]fect sci5ces1 f ^? ( :i* ! subject-matt] is ! lea/ complicat$1 t op9ions n re/+ on a correct induction h at l5g?1 g5]ally speak+1 be5 expell$4 ,9 ! dep>tm5ts ( inquiry relat+ to ! m complex ph5om5a ( nature1 & especially ^? ( :i* ! subject is man1 :e!r z a moral & intellectual1 a social1 or ev5 z a physical be+2 ! div]sity ( op9ions /ill preval5t among in/ruct$ p]sons1 & ! equal confid5ce ) :i* ^? ( ! mo/ contr>y ways ( ?9k+ cl+ to _! respective t5ets1 are pro( n only t "r modes ( philosophiz+ are n yet g5]ally adopt$ on ^? subjects1 b t wrong ones are2 t inquir]s h n only 9 g5]al miss$ ! tru?1 b h (t5 embrac$ error2 t ev5 ! mo/ cultivat$ portion ( our species h n yet le>n$ to ab/a9 f draw+ conclusions :i* ! evid5ce does n w>rant4 ,! only complete safegu>d aga9/ reason+ ill1 is ! habit ( reason+ well2 famili>ity ) ! pr9ciples ( correct reason+1 & practice 9 apply+ ^? pr9ciples4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 n unimportant to consid] :at are ! mo/ common modes ( bad reason+2 by :at appe>ances ! m9d is mo/ likely to be s$uc$ f ! obs]vance ( true pr9ciples ( induction2 :at1 9 %ort1 are ! mo/ common & mo/ dang]\s v>ieties ( ,app>5t ,evid5ce1 :]eby p]sons are misl$ into op9ions = :i* !re does n exi/ evid5ce really conclusive4 ,a catalogue ( ! v>ieties ( app>5t evid5ce :i* are n real evid5ce1 is an enum]ation ( ,fallacies4 ,)\t su* an enum]ation1 !re=e1 ! pres5t "w w\ld be want+ 9 an ess5tial po9t4 ,& :ile writ]s :o includ$ 9 _! !ory ( reason+ no?+ m ?an ratioc9ation1 h 9 consi/5cy ) ?is limitation1 conf9$ _! rem>ks to ! fallacies :i* h _! seat 9 t portion ( ! process ( inve/igation2 we1 :o pr(ess to treat ( ! :ole process1 mu/ add to our directions = p]=m+ x rightly1 w>n+s aga9/ p]=m+ x wrongly 9 any ( its p>ts3 :e!r ! ratioc9ative or ! exp]im5tal portion ( x be 9 fault1 or ! fault lie 9 disp5s+ ) ratioc9ation & induction altoge!r4 #b4 ,9 consid]+ ! s\rces ( unf\nd$ inf]5ce1 x is unnecess>y to reckon ! errors :i* arise1 n f a wrong me?od1 nor ev5 f ignorance ( ! "r "o1 b f a casual lapse1 ?r\gh hurry or inatt5tion1 9 ! application ( ! true pr9ciples ( induction4 ,su* errors1 l ! accid5tal mi/akes 9 ca/+ up a sum1 d n call = philosophical analysis or classification2 !oretical consid]ations c ?r[ no light ^u ! means ( avoid+ !m4 ,9 ! pres5t treatise our att5tion is requir$1 n to m]e inexp]tness 9 p]=m+ ! op]ation 9 ! "r way 7! only rem$ies = :i* are increas$ att5tion & m s$ul\s practice71 b to ! modes ( p]=m+ x 9 a way fundam5tally wrong2 ! conditions "u :i* ! human m9d p]suades itself t x has suffici5t gr\nds = a conclusion :i* x has n arriv$ at by any ( ! legitimate me?ods ( induction--:i* x has n1 ev5 c>elessly or ov]ha/ily1 endeavor$ to te/ by ^? legitimate me?ods4 #c4 ,!re is ano!r bran* ( :at may be call$ ! ,philosophy ( ,error1 :i* mu/ be m5tion$ "h1 ?\gh only to be exclud$ f our subject4 ,! s\rces ( errone\s op9ions are tw(old1 moral & intellectual4 ,( ^!1 ! moral d n fall )9 ! compass ( ?is "w4 ,!y may be class$ "u two g5]al heads3 ,indiff]5ce to ! atta9m5t ( tru?1 & ,bias2 ( :i* la/ ! mo/ common case is t 9 :i* we are bias$ by our wi%es2 b ! liability is almo/ z great to ! undue adoption ( a conclusion :i* is disagreeable to u1 z ( "o :i* is agreeable1 if x be ( a nature to br+ into action any ( ! /rong] passions4 ,p]sons ( timid "* are ! m pr$ispos$ to believe any /atem5t1 ! m x is calculat$ to al>m !m4 ,inde$ x is a psy*ological law1 d$ucible f ! mo/ g5]al laws ( ! m5tal con/itution ( man1 t any /rong passion r5d]s u cr$ul\s z to ! exi/5ce ( objects suitable to excite x4 ,b ! moral causes ( op9ions1 ?\gh ) mo/ p]sons ! mo/ p[]ful ( all1 are b remote causes2 !y d n act directly1 b by means ( ! intellectual causes2 to :i* !y be> ! same relation t ! circum/ances call$1 9 ! !ory ( m$ic9e1 pr$ispos+ causes1 be> to excit+ causes4 ,indiff]5ce to tru? c n1 9 & by itself1 produce errone\s belief2 x op]ates by prev5t+ ! m9d f collect+ ! prop] evid5ces1 or f apply+ to !m ! te/ ( a legitimate & rigid induction2 by :i* omission x is expos$ unprotect$ to ! influ5ce ( any species ( app>5t evid5ce :i* (f]s itself spontane\sly1 or :i* is elicit$ by t small] quantity ( tr\ble :i* ! m9d may be will+ to take4 ,z little is ,bias a direct s\rce ( wrong conclusions4 ,we c n believe a proposition only by wi%+1 or only by dread+1 to believe x4 ,! mo/ viol5t incl9ation to f9d a set ( propositions true1 w n enable ! weake/ ( mank9d to believe !m )\t a ve/ige ( intellectual gr\nds--)\t any1 ev5 app>5t1 evid5ce4 ,x acts indirectly1 by plac+ ! intellectual gr\nds ( belief 9 an incomplete or di/ort$ %ape be=e 8 eyes4 ,x makes him %r9k f ! irksome labor ( a rigor\s induction1 :5 he has a misgiv+ t its result may be disagreeable2 & 9 su* exam9ation z he does in/itute1 x makes him ex]t t :i* is 9 a c]ta9 measure volunt>y1 8 att5tion1 unfairly1 giv+ a l>g] %>e ( x to ! evid5ce :i* seems favorable to ! desir$ conclusion1 a small] to t :i* seems unfavorable4 ,x op]ates1 too1 by mak+ him look out eag]ly = reasons1 or app>5t reasons1 to support op9ions :i* are con=mable1 or resi/ ^? :i* are repugnant1 to 8 int]e/s or feel+s2 & :5 ! int]e/s or feel+s are common to great numb]s ( p]sons1 reasons are accept$ & pass curr5t1 :i* w\ld n = a mom5t be li/5$ to 9 t "* if ! conclusion _h no?+ m p[]ful ?an its reasons to speak 9 its behalf4 ,! natural or acquir$ p>tialities ( mank9d are cont9ually ?r[+ up philosophical !ories1 ! sole recomm5dation ( :i* consi/s 9 ! premises !y af=d = prov+ *]i%$ doctr9es1 or ju/ify+ favorite feel+s2 & :5 any "o ( ^! !ories has be5 s ?or\ghly discr$it$ z no long] to s]ve ! purpose1 ano!r is always ready to take its place4 ,?is prop5sity1 :5 ex]cis$ 9 favor ( any widely-spread p]suasion or s5tim5t1 is (t5 decorat$ ) complim5t>y epi!ts2 & ! contr>y habit ( keep+ ! judgm5t 9 complete subord9ation to evid5ce1 is /igmatiz$ by v>i\s h>d names1 z skepticism1 immorality1 coldness1 h>d-he>t$ness1 & simil> expressions accord+ to ! nature ( ! case4 ,b ?\gh ! op9ions ( ! g5]ality ( mank9d1 :5 n dep5d5t on m]e habit & inculcation1 h _! root mu* m 9 ! incl9ations ?an 9 ! intellect1 x is a necess>y condition to ! triumph ( ! moral bias t x %\ld fir/ p]v]t ! und]/&+4 ,e errone\s inf]5ce1 ?\gh orig9at+ 9 moral causes1 involves ! intellectual op]ation ( admitt+ insuffici5t evid5ce z suffici5t2 & :oev] 0 on 8 gu>d aga9/ all k9ds ( inconclusive evid5ce :i* c be mi/ak5 = conclusive1 w\ld be 9 no dang] ( be+ l$ into error ev5 by ! /ronge/ bias4 ,!re are m9ds s /rongly =tifi$ on ! intellectual side1 t !y c\ld n bl9d !mselves to ! light ( tru?1 h[ev] really desir\s ( do+ s2 !y c\ld n1 ) all ! incl9ation 9 ! _w1 pass (f ^u !mselves bad argum5ts = good ones4 ,if ! sophi/ry ( ! intellect c\ld be r5d]$ impossible1 t ( ! feel+s1 hav+ no in/rum5t to "w )1 w\ld be p[]less4 ,a compreh5sive classification ( all ^? ?+s :i*1 n be+ evid5ce1 are liable to appe> su* to ! und]/&+1 w1 !re=e1 ( itself include all errors ( judgm5t aris+ f moral causes1 to ! exclusion only ( errors ( practice committ$ aga9/ bett] k4 ,to exam9e1 !n1 ! v>i\s k9ds ( app>5t evid5ce :i* are n evid5ce at all1 & ( app>5tly conclusive evid5ce :i* d n really am\nt to conclusiv5ess1 is ! object ( t "p ( our inquiry into :i* we are ab\t to ent]4 ,! subject is n beyond ! compass ( classification & compreh5sive survey4 ,! ?+s1 inde$1 :i* are n evid5ce ( any giv5 conclusion1 are manife/ly endless1 & ?is negative prop]ty1 hav+ no dep5d5ce on any positive ones1 c n be made ! gr\ndwork ( a real classification4 ,b ! ?+s :i*1 n be+ evid5ce1 are susceptible ( be+ mi/ak5 = x1 are capable ( a classification hav+ ref]5ce to ! positive prop]ty :i* !y possess ( appe>+ to be evid5ce4 ,we may arrange !m1 at our *oice1 on ei!r ( two pr9ciples2 accord+ to ! cause :i* makes !m appe> to be evid5ce1 n be+ s2 or accord+ to ! p>ticul> k9d ( evid5ce :i* !y simulate4 ,! ,classification ( ,fallacies :i* w be attempt$ 9 ! ensu+ *apt]1 is f\nd$ on ^! consid]ations jo9tly4 ,*apt] ,,ii4 ,classification ,( ,fallacies4 #a4 ,9 attempt+ to e/abli% c]ta9 g5]al di/9ctions :i* %all m>k out f "o ano!r ! v>i\s k9ds ( ,fallaci\s ,evid5ce1 we propose to ourselves an altoge!r diff]5t aim f t ( sev]al em95t ?9k]s1 :o h giv51 "u ! "n ( ,political or o!r ,fallacies1 a m]e enum]ation ( a c]ta9 numb] ( errone\s op9ions2 false g5]al propositions :i* happ5 to be (t5 met )2 loci communes ( bad argum5ts on "s p>ticul> subject4 ,logic is n conc]n$ ) ! false op9ions :i* p happ5 to ent]ta91 b ) ! mann] 9 :i* !y come to ent]ta9 !m4 ,! "q is n1 :at facts h at any "t be5 errone\sly suppos$ to be pro( ( c]ta9 o!r facts1 b :at prop]ty 9 ! facts x 0 :i* l$ any "o to ?is mi/ak5 supposition4 ,:5 a fact is suppos$1 ?\gh incorrectly1 to be evid5ti>y (1 or a m>k (1 "s o!r fact1 !re mu/ be a cause ( ! error2 ! suppos$ evid5ti>y fact mu/ be connect$ 9 "s p>ticul> mann] ) ! fact ( :i* x is deem$ evid5ti>y--mu/ /& 9 "s p>ticul> relation to x1 )\t :i* relation x w\ld n be reg>d$ 9 t light4 ,! relation may ei!r be "o result+ f ! simple contemplation ( ! two facts side by side ) "o ano!r1 or x may dep5d on "s process ( m9d1 by :i* a previ\s association has be5 e/abli%$ betwe5 !m4 ,"s peculi>ity ( relation1 h[ev]1 !re mu/ be2 ! fact :i* c1 ev5 by ! wilde/ ab]ration1 be suppos$ to prove ano!r fact1 mu/ /& 9 "s special position ) reg>d to x2 & if we c\ld asc]ta9 & def9e t special position1 we %\ld p]ceive ! orig9 ( ! error4 ,we c n reg>d "o fact z evid5ti>y ( ano!r1 unless we believe t ! two are always1 or 9 ! majority ( cases1 conjo9$4 ,if we believe ,a to be evid5ti>y ( ,b1 if :5 we see ,a we are incl9$ to inf] ,b f x1 ! reason is because we believe t :]ev] ,a is1 ,b also ei!r always or = ! mo/ "p exi/s1 ei!r z an antec$5t1 a consequ5t1 or a concomitant4 ,if :5 we see ,a we are incl9$ n to expect ,b--if we believe ,a to be evid5ti>y ( ! abs5ce ( ,b--x is because we believe t :]e ,a is1 ,b ei!r is nev]1 or at lea/ seldom1 f\nd4 ,errone\s conclusions1 9 %ort1 no less ?an correct conclusions1 h an inv>iable relation to a g5]al =mula1 ei!r express$ or tacitly impli$4 ,:5 we inf] "s fact f "s o!r fact :i* does n really prove x1 we ei!r h admitt$1 or1 if we ma9ta9$ consi/5cy1 ought to admit1 "s gr\ndless g5]al proposition respect+ ! conjunction ( ! two ph5om5a4 ,= e prop]ty1 !re=e1 9 facts1 or 9 our mode ( consid]+ facts1 :i* leads u to believe t !y are habitually conjo9$ :5 !y are n1 or t !y are n :5 9 reality !y are1 !re is a correspond+ k9d ( ,fallacy2 & an enum]ation ( fallacies w\ld consi/ 9 a specification ( ^? prop]ties 9 facts1 & ^? peculi>ities 9 our mode ( consid]+ !m1 :i* give rise to ?is errone\s op9ion4 #b4 ,to beg91 !n2 ! suppos$ connection1 or repugnance1 betwe5 ! two facts1 may ei!r be a conclusion f evid5ce 7t is1 f "s o!r proposition or propositions71 or may be admitt$ )\t any su* gr\nd2 admitt$1 z ! phrase is1 on its own evid5ce2 embrac$ z self-evid5t1 z an axiomatic tru?4 ,?is gives rise to ! fir/ great di/9ction1 t betwe5 ,fallacies ( ,inf]5ce & ,fallacies ( ,simple ,inspection4 ,9 ! latt] division mu/ be includ$ n only all cases 9 :i* a proposition is believ$ & held = true1 lit]ally )\t any extr9sic evid5ce1 ei!r ( specific exp]i5ce or g5]al reason+2 b ^? m frequ5t cases 9 :i* simple inspection creates a presumption 9 favor ( a proposition2 n suffici5t = belief1 b suffici5t to cause ! /rict pr9ciples ( a regul> induction to be disp5s$ )1 & creat+ a pr$isposition to believe x on evid5ce :i* w\ld be se5 to be insuffici5t if no su* presumption exi/$4 ,?is class1 compreh5d+ ! :ole ( :at may be t]m$ ,natural ,prejudices1 & :i* ,i %all call indiscrim9ately ,fallacies ( ,simple ,inspection or ,fallacies a priori1 %all be plac$ at ! head ( our li/4 ,fallacies ( ,inf]5ce1 or errone\s conclusions f suppos$ evid5ce1 mu/ be subdivid$ accord+ to ! nature ( ! app>5t evid5ce f :i* ! conclusions are drawn2 or 7:at is ! same ?+7 accord+ to ! p>ticul> k9d ( s\nd argum5t :i* ! fallacy 9 "q simulates4 ,b !re is a di/9ction to be fir/ drawn1 :i* does n answ] to any ( ! divisions ( s\nd argum5ts1 b arises out ( ! nature ( bad ones4 ,we may "k exactly :at our evid5ce is1 & yet draw a false conclusion f x2 we may conceive precisely :at our premises are1 :at alleg$ matt]s ( fact1 or g5]al pr9ciples1 are ! f\ndation ( our inf]5ce2 & yet1 because ! premises are false1 or because we h inf]r$ f !m :at !y w n support1 our conclusion may be errone\s4 ,b a case1 p]haps ev5 m frequ5t1 is t 9 :i* ! error arises f n conceiv+ our premises ) due cle>ness1 t is 7z %[n 9 ! prec$+ ,book7#bbi771 ) due fixity3 =m+ "o conception ( our evid5ce :5 we collect or receive x1 & ano!r :5 we make use ( x2 or unadvis$ly1 & 9 g5]al unconsci\sly1 sub/itut+1 z we proce$1 diff]5t premises 9 ! place ( ^? ) :i* we set out1 or a diff]5t conclusion = t :i* we und]took to prove4 ,?is gives exi/5ce to a class ( fallacies :i* may be ju/ly t]m$ 79 a phrase borr[$ f ,b5?am7 ,fallacies ( ,confusion2 compreh5d+1 among o!rs1 all ^? :i* h _! s\rce 9 language1 :e!r aris+ f ! vagu5ess or ambiguity ( our t]ms1 or f casual associations ) !m4 ,:5 ! fallacy is n "o ( ,confusion1 t is1 :5 ! proposition believ$1 & ! evid5ce on :i* x is believ$1 are /eadily appreh5d$ & unambigu\sly express$1 !re rema9 to be made two cross divisions4 ,! ,app>5t ,evid5ce may be ei!r p>ticul> facts1 or =egone g5]alizations2 t is1 ! process may simulate ei!r simple ,induction or ,d$uction2 & aga91 ! evid5ce1 :e!r consi/+ ( suppos$ facts or ( g5]al propositions1 may be false 9 itself1 or1 be+ true1 may fail to be> out ! conclusion attempt$ to be f\nd$ on x4 ,?is gives u fir/1 ,fallacies ( ,induction & ,fallacies ( ,d$uction1 & !n a subdivision ( ea* ( ^!1 accord+ z ! suppos$ evid5ce is false1 or true b inconclusive4 ,fallacies ( ,induction1 :]e ! facts on :i* ! induction proce$s are errone\s1 may be t]m$ ,fallacies ( ,obs]vation4 ,! t]m is n /rictly accurate1 or1 r1 n accurately co-ext5sive ) ! class ( fallacies :i* ,i propose to designate by x4 ,induction is n always gr\nd$ on facts imm$iately obs]v$1 b sometimes on facts inf]r$2 & :5 ^! la/ are errone\s1 ! error may n be1 9 ! lit]al s5se ( ! t]m1 an in/ance ( bad obs]vation1 b ( bad inf]5ce4 ,x w be conv5i5t1 h[ev]1 to make only "o class ( all ! inductions ( :i* ! error lies 9 n suffici5tly asc]ta9+ ! facts on :i* ! !ory is gr\nd$2 :e!r ! cause ( failure be malobs]vation1 or simple non-obs]vation1 & :e!r ! malobs]vation be direct1 or by means ( int]m$iate m>ks :i* d n prove :at !y are suppos$ to prove4 ,& 9 ! abs5ce ( any compreh5sive t]m to d5ote ! asc]ta9m5t1 by :atev] means1 ( ! facts on :i* an induction is gr\nd$1 ,i w v5ture to reta9 = ?is class ( fallacies1 "u ! explanation n[ giv51 ! title ( ,fallacies ( ,obs]vation4 ,! o!r class ( inductive fallacies1 9 :i* ! facts are correct1 b ! conclusion n w>rant$ by !m1 are prop]ly d5om9at$ ,fallacies ( ,g5]alization2 & ^!1 aga91 fall into v>i\s subord9ate classes or natural gr\ps1 "s ( :i* w be enum]at$ 9 _! prop] place4 ,:5 we n[ turn to ,fallacies ( ,d$uction1 namely ^? modes ( incorrect argum5tation 9 :i* ! premises1 or "s ( !m1 are g5]al propositions1 & ! argum5t a ratioc9ation2 we may ( c\rse subdivide ^! also into two species simil> to ! two prec$+1 namely1 ^? :i* proce$ on false premises1 & ^? ( :i* ! premises1 ?\gh true1 d n support ! conclusion4 ,b ( ^! species1 ! fir/ mu/ necess>ily fall "u "s "o ( ! heads already enum]at$4 ,= ! error mu/ be ei!r 9 ^? premises :i* are g5]al propositions1 or 9 ^? :i* ass]t individual facts4 ,9 ! =m] case x is an ,inductive ,fallacy1 ( "o or ! o!r class2 9 ! latt] x is a ,fallacy ( ,obs]vation2 unless1 9 ei!r case1 ! errone\s premise has be5 assum$ on simple inspection1 9 :i* case ! fallacy is a priori4 ,or1 f9ally1 ! premises1 ( :i*ev] k9d !y are1 may nev] h be5 conceiv$ 9 s di/9ct a mann] z to produce any cle> consci\sness by :at means !y 7 arriv$ at2 z 9 ! case ( :at is call$ reason+ 9 a circle2 & !n ! fallacy is "o ( ,confusion4 ,!re rema91 !re=e1 z ! only class ( fallacies hav+ prop]ly _! seat 9 d$uction1 ^? 9 :i* ! premises ( ! ratioc9ation d n be> out its conclusion2 ! v>i\s cases1 9 %ort1 ( vici\s argum5tation1 provid$ aga9/ by ! rules ( ! syllogism4 ,we %all call ^!1 ,fallacies ( ,ratioc9ation4 #c4 ,we mu/ n1 h[ev]1 expect to f9d t m5's actual errors always1 or ev5 commonly1 fall s unmi/akably "u "s "o ( ^! classes1 z to be incapable ( be+ ref]r$ to any o!r4 ,errone\s argum5ts d n admit ( su* a %>ply cut division z valid argum5ts d4 ,an argum5t fully /at$1 ) all its /eps di/9ctly set out1 9 language n susceptible ( misund]/&+1 mu/1 if x be errone\s1 be s 9 "s "o ( ^! five modes unequivocally2 or inde$ ( ! fir/ f\r1 s9ce ! fif?1 on su* a supposition1 w\ld vani%4 ,b x is n 9 ! nature ( bad reason+ to express itself ?us unambigu\sly4 ,:5 a sophi/1 :e!r he is impos+ on himself or attempt+ to impose on o!rs1 c be con/ra9$ to ?r[ 8 sophi/ry into s di/9ct a =m1 x ne$s1 9 a l>ge proportion ( cases1 no fur!r exposure4 ,9 all argum5ts1 ev]y:]e b 9 ! s*ools1 "s ( ! l9ks are suppress$2 a =tiori :5 ! argu] ei!r int5ds to deceive1 or is a lame & inexp]t ?9k]1 little accu/om$ to br+ 8 reason+ processes to any te/2 & x is 9 ^? /eps ( ! reason+ :i* are made 9 ?is tacit & half-consci\s1 or ev5 :olly unconsci\s mann]1 t ! error (t5e/ lurks4 ,9 ord] to detect ! fallacy1 ! proposition ?us sil5tly assum$ mu/ be suppli$2 b ! reason]1 mo/ likely1 has nev] really ask$ himself :at he 0 assum+2 8 confut]1 unless p]mitt$ to extort x f him by ! ,socratic mode ( int]rogation1 mu/ himself judge :at ! suppress$ premise ought to be 9 ord] to support ! conclusion4 ,& h5ce1 9 ! words ( ,ar*bi%op ,:ately1 8x mu/ be (t5 a matt] ( d\bt1 or1 r1 ( arbitr>y *oice1 n only to :i* g5us ea* k9d ( fallacy %\ld be ref]r$1 b ev5 to :i* k9d to ref] any "o individual fallacy2 = s9ce1 9 any c\rse ( argum5t1 "o premise is usually suppress$1 x frequ5tly happ5s 9 ! case ( a fallacy1 t ! he>]s are left to ! alt]native ( supply+ ei!r a premise :i* is n true1 or else1 "o :i* does n prove ! conclusion2 e4g41 if a man expatiates on ! di/ress ( ! c\ntry1 & !nce argues t ! gov]nm5t is tyrannical1 we mu/ suppose him to assume ei!r t #8e di/ress$ c\ntry is "u a tyranny1' :i* is a manife/ falsehood1 or m]ely t #8e c\ntry "u a tyranny is di/ress$1' :i*1 h[ev] true1 proves no?+1 ! middle t]m be+ undi/ribut$40 ,! =m] w\ld be rank$1 9 our di/ribution1 among fallacies ( g5]alization1 ! latt] among ^? ( ratioc9ation4 8,:i* are we to suppose ! speak] meant u to und]/&8 ,surely0 7if he und]/ood himself7 8j :i*ev] ea* ( 8 he>]s might happ5 to pref]3 "s might ass5t to ! false premise2 o!rs all[ ! uns\nd syllogism40 ,almo/ all fallacies1 !re=e1 might 9 /rictness be br\ght "u our fif? class1 ,fallacies ( ,confusion4 ,a fallacy c seldom be absolutely ref]r$ to any ( ! o!r classes2 we c only say1 t if all ! l9ks 7 fill$ up :i* %\ld be capable ( be+ suppli$ 9 a valid argum5t1 x w\ld ei!r /& ?us 7=m+ a fallacy ( "o class71 or ?us 7a fallacy ( ano!r72 or at fur!/ we may say1 t ! conclusion is mo/ likely to h orig9at$ 9 a fallacy ( su* & su* a class4 ,?us1 9 ! illu/ration j quot$1 ! error committ$ may be trac$ ) mo/ probability to a fallacy ( g5]alization2 t ( mi/ak+ an unc]ta9 m>k1 or piece ( evid5ce1 = a c]ta9 "o2 conclud+ f an effect to "s "o ( its possible causes1 :5 !re are o!rs :i* w\ld h be5 equally capable ( produc+ x4 ,yet1 ?\gh ! five classes run into ea* o!r1 & a p>ticul> error (t5 seems to be arbitr>ily assign$ to "o ( !m r ?an to any ( ! re/1 !re is consid]able use 9 s di/+ui%+ !m4 ,we %all f9d x conv5i5t to set ap>t1 z ,fallacies ( ,confusion1 ^? ( :i* confusion is ! mo/ obvi\s *>act]i/ic2 9 :i* no o!r cause c be assign$ = ! mi/ake committ$1 ?an neglect or inability to /ate ! "q prop]ly1 & to appreh5d ! evid5ce ) def9it5ess & precision4 ,9 ! rema9+ f\r classes ,i %all place n only ! cases 9 :i* ! evid5ce is cle>ly se5 to be :at x is1 & yet a wrong conclusion drawn f x1 b also ^? 9 :i*1 al?\gh !re be confusion1 ! confusion is n ! sole cause ( ! error1 b !re is "s %ad[ ( a gr\nd = x 9 ! nature ( ! evid5ce itself4 ,& 9 di/ribut+ ^! cases ( p>tial confusion among ! f\r classes1 ,i %all1 :5 !re c be any hesitation z to ! precise seat ( ! fallacy1 suppose x to be 9 t "p ( ! process 9 :i*1 f ! nature ( ! case1 & ! t5d5cies ( ! human m9d1 an error w\ld 9 ! p>ticul> circum/ances be ! mo/ probable4 ,aft] ^! obs]vations we %all proce$1 )\t fur!r preamble1 to consid] ! five classes 9 _! ord]4 ,*apt] ,,iii4 ,fallacies ,( ,simple ,inspection2 ,or ,a ,priori ,fallacies4 #a4 ,! tribe ( errors ( :i* we are to treat 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 are ^? 9 :i* no actual inf]5ce takes place at all2 ! proposition 7x c n 9 su* cases be call$ a conclusion7 be+ embrac$1 n z prov$1 b z requir+ no pro(2 z a self-evid5t tru?2 or else z hav+ su* intr9sic v]isimilitude1 t ext]nal evid5ce n 9 itself am\nt+ to pro(1 is suffici5t 9 aid ( ! antec$5t presumption4 ,an attempt to treat ?is subject compreh5sively w\ld be a transgression ( ! b\nds prescrib$ to ?is "w1 s9ce x w\ld necessitate ! inquiry :i*1 m ?an any o!r1 is ! gr& "q ( :at is call$ metaphysics1 viz41 ,:at are ! propositions :i* may reasonably be receiv$ )\t pro(8 ,t !re mu/ be "s su* propositions all are agre$1 s9ce !re c n be an inf9ite s]ies ( pro(1 a *a9 susp5d$ f no?+4 ,b to det]m9e :at ^! propositions are1 is ! opus magnum ( ! m recondite m5tal philosophy4 ,two pr9cipal divisions ( op9ion on ! subject h divid$ ! s*ools ( philosophy f its fir/ dawn4 ,! "o recognizes no ultimate premises b ! facts ( our subjective consci\sness2 our s5sations1 emotions1 intellectual /ates ( m9d1 & volitions4 ,^!1 & :atev] by /rict rules ( induction c be d]iv$ f ^!1 x is possible1 accord+ to ?is !ory1 = u to "k2 ( all else we mu/ rema9 9 ignorance4 ,! opposite s*ool hold t !re are o!r exi/5ces1 sugge/$ inde$ to our m9ds by ^! subjective ph5om5a1 b n inf]able f !m1 by any process ei!r ( d$uction or ( induction2 :i*1 h[ev]1 we mu/1 by ! con/itution ( our m5tal nature1 recognize z realities2 & realities1 too1 ( a high] ord] ?an ! ph5om5a ( our consci\sness1 be+ ! effici5t causes & necess>y sub/rata ( all ,ph5om5a4 ,among ^! entities !y reckon ,sub/ances1 :e!r matt] or _s2 f ! du/ "u our feet to ! s\l1 & f t to ,deity4 ,all ^!1 accord+ to !m1 are pret]natural or sup]natural be+s1 hav+ no lik5ess 9 exp]i5ce1 ?\gh exp]i5ce is entirely a manife/ation ( _! ag5cy4 ,_! exi/5ce1 toge!r ) m or less ( ! laws to :i* !y con=m 9 _! op]ations1 are1 on ?is !ory1 appreh5d$ & recogniz$ z real by ! m9d itself intuitively2 exp]i5ce 7:e!r 9 ! =m ( s5sation or ( m5tal feel+7 hav+ no o!r "p 9 ! matt] ?an z af=d+ facts :i* are consi/5t ) ^! necess>y po/ulates ( reason1 & :i* are expla9$ & acc\nt$ = by !m4 ,z x is =eign to ! purpose ( ! pres5t treatise to decide betwe5 ^! conflict+ !ories1 we are preclud$ f inquir+ into ! exi/5ce1 or def9+ ! ext5t & limits1 ( k a priori1 & f *>act]iz+ ! k9d ( correct assumption :i* ! fallacy ( incorrect assumption1 n[ "u consid]ation1 simulates4 ,yet s9ce x is all[$ on bo? sides t su* assumptions are (t5 made improp]ly1 we may f9d x practicable1 )\t ent]+ into ! ultimate metaphysical gr\nds ( ! discussion1 to /ate "s speculative propositions1 & sugge/ "s practical cautions1 respect+ ! =ms 9 :i* su* unw>rant$ assumptions are mo/ likely to be made4 #b4 ,9 ! cases 9 :i*1 accord+ to ! ?9k]s ( ! ontological s*ool1 ! m9d appreh5ds1 by intuition1 ?+s1 & ! laws ( ?+s1 n cognizable by our s5sitive faculty2 ^? intuitive1 or suppos$ intuitive1 p]ceptions are undi/+ui%able f :at ! opposite s*ool are accu/om$ to call ideas ( ! m9d4 ,:5 !y !mselves say t !y p]ceive ! ?+s by an imm$iate act ( a faculty giv5 = t purpose by _! ,creator1 x w\ld be said ( !m by _! oppon5ts t !y f9d an idea or conception 9 _! own m9ds1 & f ! idea or conception1 inf] ! exi/5ce ( a correspond+ objective reality4 ,nor w\ld ?is be an unfair /atem5t1 b a m]e v]sion into o!r words ( ! acc\nt giv5 by _m ( !mselves2 & "o to :i* ! m cle>-sight$ ( !m might1 & g5]ally d1 )\t hesitation1 subscribe4 ,s9ce1 !re=e1 9 ! cases :i* lay ! /ronge/ claims to be examples ( k a priori1 ! m9d proce$s f ! idea ( a ?+ to ! reality ( ! ?+ itself1 we c n be surpris$ by f9d+ t illicit assumptions a priori consi/ 9 do+ ! same ?+ errone\sly2 9 mi/ak+ subjective facts = objective1 laws ( ! p]cipi5t m9d = laws ( ! p]ceiv$ object1 prop]ties ( ! ideas or conceptions = prop]ties ( ! ?+s conceiv$4 ,accord+ly1 a l>ge proportion ( ! errone\s ?9k+ :i* exi/s 9 ! _w proce$s on a tacit assumption1 t ! same ord] mu/ obta9 among ! objects 9 nature :i* obta9s among our ideas ( !m4 ,t if we always ?9k ( two ?+s toge!r1 ! two ?+s mu/ always exi/ toge!r4 ,t if "o ?+ makes u ?9k ( ano!r z prec$+ or foll[+ x1 t o!r mu/ prec$e x or foll[ x 9 actual fact4 ,& conv]sely1 t :5 we c n conceive two ?+s toge!r !y c n exi/ toge!r1 & t _! comb9ation may1 )\t fur!r evid5ce1 be reject$ f ! li/ ( possible occurr5ces4 ,few p]sons1 ,i am incl9$ to ?9k1 h reflect$ on ! great ext5t to :i* ?is fallacy has prevail$1 & prevails1 9 ! actual beliefs & actions ( mank9d4 ,= a fir/ illu/ration ( x we may ref] to a l>ge class ( popul> sup]/itions4 ,if any "o w exam9e 9 :at circum/ances mo/ ( ^? ?+s agree1 :i* 9 diff]5t ages & by diff]5t portions ( ! human race h be5 consid]$ z om5s or progno/ics ( "s int]e/+ ev5t1 :e!r calamit\s or =tunate2 !y w be f\nd v g5]ally *>act]iz$ by ?is peculi>ity1 t !y cause ! m9d to ?9k ( t1 ( :i* !y are !re=e suppos$ to =bode ! actual occurr5ce4 8,talk ( ! devil & he w appe>10 has pass$ into a prov]b4 ,talk ( ! devil1 t is1 raise ! idea1 & ! reality w foll[4 ,9 times :5 ! appe>ance ( t p]sonage 9 a visible =m 0 ?\ght to be no unfrequ5t occurr5ce1 x has d\btless (t5 happ5$ to p]sons ( vivid imag9ation & susceptible n]ves1 t talk+ ( ! devil has caus$ !m to fancy !y saw him2 z ev5 9 our m incr$ul\s days1 li/5+ to gho/ /ories pr$isposes u to see gho/s2 & ?us1 z a prop to ! a priori fallacy1 !re might come to be add$ an auxili>y fallacy ( malobs]vation1 ) "o ( false g5]alization gr\nd$ on x4 ,fallacies ( diff]5t ord]s (t5 h]d or clu/] toge!r 9 ?is fa%ion1 "o smoo?+ ! way = ano!r4 ,b ! orig9 ( ! sup]/ition is evid5tly t :i* we h assign$4 ,9 l mann]1 x has be5 univ]sally consid]$ unlucky to speak ( mis=tune4 ,! day on :i* any calamity happ5$ has be5 consid]$ an un=tunate day1 & !re has be5 a feel+ ev]y:]e1 & 9 "s nations a religi\s obligation1 aga9/ transact+ any important bus9ess on t day4 ,= on su* a day our ?\ghts are likely to be ( mis=tune4 ,= a simil> reason1 any unt[>d occurr5ce 9 comm5c+ an und]tak+ has be5 consid]$ om9\s ( failure2 & (t51 d\btless1 has really contribut$ to x by putt+ ! p]sons engag$ 9 ! ent]prise m or less out ( spirits2 b ! belief has equally prevail$ :]e ! disagreeable circum/ance 01 indep5d5tly ( sup]/ition1 too insignificant to depress ! spirits by any influ5ce ( its own4 ,all "k ! /ory ( ,cs>'s accid5tally /umbl+ 9 ! act ( l&+ on ! ,african coa/2 & ! pres5ce ( m9d ) :i* he conv]t$ ! direful presage into a favorable "o by exclaim+1 8,africa1 ,i embrace !e40 ,su* om5s1 x is true1 7 (t5 conceiv$ z w>n+s ( ! future1 giv5 by a fri5dly or a ho/ile deity2 b ?is v sup]/ition grew out ( a pre-exi/+ t5d5cy2 ! god 0 suppos$ to s5d1 z an indication ( :at 0 to come1 some?+ :i* p 7 already dispos$ to consid] 9 t light4 ,s 9 ! case ( lucky or unlucky names4 ,h]odotus tells u h[ ! ,greeks1 on ! way to ,mycale1 7 enc\rag$ 9 _! ent]prise by ! arrival ( a deputation f ,samos1 "o ( ! memb]s ( :i* 0 nam$ ,hegesi/ratus1 ! lead] ( armies4 ,cases may be po9t$ out 9 :i* some?+ :i* c\ld h no real effect b to make p]sons ?9k ( mis=tune1 0 reg>d$ n m]ely z a progno/ic1 b z some?+ approa*+ to an actual cause ( x4 ,! ( ! ,greeks1 & favete l+uis1 or bona v]ba qus1 ( ! ,romans1 ev9ce ! c>e ) :i* !y endeavor$ to repress ! utt]ance ( any ^w expressive or sugge/ive ( ill =tune2 n f notions ( delicate polit5ess1 to :i* _! g5]al mode ( conduct & feel+ _h v little ref]5ce1 b f bona fide al>m le/ ! ev5t s sugge/$ to ! imag9ation %\ld 9 fact occur4 ,"s ve/ige ( a simil> sup]/ition has be5 kn[n to exi/ among un$ucat$ p]sons ev5 9 our own day3 x is ?\ght an un*ri/ian ?+ to talk (1 or suppose1 ! dea? ( any p]son :ile he is alive4 ,x is kn[n h[ c>eful ! ,romans 7 to avoid1 by an indirect mode ( spee*1 ! utt]ance ( any ^w directly expressive ( dea? or o!r calamity2 h[ in/ead ( mortuus e/ !y said vixit2 & 8be ! ev5t =tunate or o!rwise0 in/ead ( adv]se4 ,! "n ,malev5tum1 ( :i* ,salmasius s sagaci\sly detect$ ! ,!ssalian orig9 71 71 !y *ang$ into ! highly propiti\s d5om9ation1 ,b5ev5tum2 ,ege/a into ,sege/a2 & ,epidamnus1 a "n s int]e/+ 9 its associations to ! read] ( ,?ucydides1 !y ex*ang$ = ,dyrrha*ium1 to escape ! p]ils ( a ^w sugge/ive ( damnum or detrim5t4 8,if a h>e cross ! highway10 says ,sir ,?omas ,br[ne17#bcj7 8!re are few above ?reescore t are n p]plex$ !reat2 :i* not)/&+ is b an augurial t]ror1 accord+ to t receiv$ expression1 ,inauspicatum dat it] oblatus lepus4 ,& ! gr\nd ( ! conceit 0 probably no great] ?an ?is1 t a fe>ful animal pass+ by u port5d$ unto u some?+ to be fe>$2 z ^u ! l consid]ation ! meet+ ( a fox presag$ "s future impo/ure40 ,su* sup]/itions z ^! la/ mu/ be ! result ( /udy2 !y are too recondite = natural or spontane\s gr[?4 ,b :5 ! attempt 0 once made to con/ruct a sci5ce ( pr$ictions1 any association1 ?\gh ev] s fa9t or remote1 by :i* an object c\ld be connect$ 9 h[ev] f>-fet*$ a mann] ) ideas ei!r ( prosp]ity or ( dang] & mis=tune1 0 en\gh to det]m9e its be+ class$ among good or evil om5s4 ,an example ( r a diff]5t k9d f any ( ^!1 b fall+ "u ! same pr9ciple1 is ! fam\s attempt on :i* s mu* labor & +5uity 7 exp5d$ by ! al*emi/s1 to make gold potable4 ,! motive to ?is 0 a conceit t potable gold c\ld be no o!r ?an ! univ]sal m$ic9e2 & :y gold8 ,because x 0 s preci\s4 ,x mu/ h all m>vel\s prop]ties z a physical sub/ance1 because ! m9d 0 already accu/om$ to m>vel at x4 ,f a simil> feel+1 8e sub/ance10 says ,dr4 ,p>is17#bca7 8^: orig9 is involv$ 9 my/]y1 has at diff]5t times be5 eag]ly appli$ to ! purposes ( m$ic9e4 ,n long s9ce1 "o ( ^? %[]s :i* are n[ kn[n to consi/ ( ! excrem5ts ( insects1 fell 9 ! nor? ( ,italy2 ! inhabitants reg>d$ x z manna1 or "s sup]natural panacea1 & !y swall[$ x ) su* avidity1 t x 0 only by extreme address t a small quantity 0 obta9$ = a *emical exam9ation40 ,! sup]/ition1 9 ?is in/ance1 ?\gh d\btless p>tly ( a religi\s "*1 probably 9 "p also arose f ! prejudice t a wond]ful ?+ mu/ ( c\rse h wond]ful prop]ties4 #c4 ,! in/ances ( a priori fallacy :i* we h hi!rto cit$ belong to ! class ( vulg> errors1 & d n n[1 nor 9 any b a rude age ev] c\ld1 impose ^u m9ds ( any consid]able atta9m5ts4 ,b ^? to :i* we are ab\t to proce$1 h be51 & /ill are1 all b univ]sally preval5t among ?9k]s4 ,! same disposition to give objectivity to a law ( ! m9d--to suppose t :at is true ( our ideas ( ?+s mu/ be true ( ! ?+s !mselves--exhibits itself 9 _m ( ! mo/ accr$it$ modes ( philosophical inve/igation1 bo? on physical & on metaphysical subjects4 ,9 "o ( its mo/ undisguis$ manife/ations1 x embodies itself 9 two maxims1 :i* lay claim to axiomatic tru?3 ,?+s :i* we c n ?9k ( toge!r1 c n co-exi/2 & ,?+s :i* we c n help ?9k+ ( toge!r1 mu/ co-exi/4 ,i am n sure t ! maxims 7 ev] express$ 9 ^! precise words1 b ! hi/ory bo? ( philosophy & ( popul> op9ions ab\nds ) exemplifications ( bo? =ms ( ! doctr9e4 ,to beg9 ) ! latt] ( !m3 ,?+s :i* we c n ?9k ( except toge!r1 mu/ exi/ toge!r4 ,?is is assum$ 9 ! g5]ally receiv$ & accr$it$ mode ( reason+ :i* concludes t ,a mu/ accompany ,b 9 po9t ( fact1 because 8x is involv$ 9 ! idea40 ,su* ?9k]s d n reflect t ! idea1 be+ a result ( ab/raction1 ought to con=m to ! facts1 & c n make ! facts con=m to x4 ,! argum5t is at mo/ admissible z an appeal to au?ority2 a surmise1 t :at is n[ "p ( ! idea1 mu/1 be=e x became s1 h be5 f\nd by previ\s inquir]s 9 ! facts4 ,nev]!less1 ! philosoph] :o m ?an all o!rs made pr(essions ( reject+ au?ority1 ,desc>tes1 con/ruct$ 8 sy/em on ?is v basis4 ,8 favorite device = arriv+ at tru?1 ev5 9 reg>d to outw>d ?+s1 0 by look+ into 8 own m9d = x4 8,cr$idi me10 says 8 celebrat$ maxim1 8pro regul g5]ali sum]e posse1 omne id quod vald dilucid et di/9ct concipiebam1 v]um esse20 :atev] c be v cle>ly conceiv$ mu/ c]ta9ly exi/2 t is1 z he aft]w>d expla9s x1 if ! idea includes exi/5ce4 ,& on ?is gr\nd he inf]s t geometrical figures really exi/1 because !y c be di/9ctly conceiv$4 ,:5ev] exi/5ce is 8involv$ 9 an idea10 a ?+ con=mable to ! idea mu/ really exi/2 :i* is z mu* z to say1 :atev] ! idea conta9s mu/ h its equival5t 9 ! ?+2 & :at we are n able to leave out ( ! idea c n be abs5t f ! reality47#bcb7 ,?is assumption p]vades ! philosophy n only ( ,desc>tes1 b ( all ! ?9k]s :o receiv$ _! impulse ma9ly f him1 9 p>ticul> ! two mo/ rem>kable among !m1 ,sp9oza & ,leibnitz1 f :om ! mod]n ,g]man metaphysical philosophy is ess5tially an emanation4 ,i am inde$ dispos$ to ?9k t ! fallacy n[ "u consid]ation has be5 ! cause ( two-?irds ( ! bad philosophy1 & especially ( ! bad metaphysics1 :i* ! human m9d has nev] ceas$ to produce4 ,our g5]al ideas conta9 no?+ b :at has be5 put into !m1 ei!r by our passive exp]i5ce1 or by our active habits ( ?\ght2 & ! metaphysicians 9 all ages1 :o h attempt$ to con/ruct ! laws ( ! univ]se by reason+ f our suppos$ necessities ( ?\ght1 h always proce$$1 & only c\ld proce$1 by labori\sly f9d+ 9 _! own m9ds :at !y !mselves _h =m]ly put !re1 & evolv+ f _! ideas ( ?+s :at !y _h fir/ involv$ 9 ^? ideas4 ,9 ?is way all deeply-root$ op9ions & feel+s are enabl$ to create app>5t demon/rations ( _! tru? & reasonabl5ess1 z x 71 out ( _! own sub/ance4 ,! o!r =m ( ! fallacy3 ,?+s :i* we c n ?9k ( toge!r c n exi/ toge!r--includ+ z "o ( its bran*es1 t :at we c n ?9k ( z exi/+ c n exi/ at all--may ?us be briefly express$3 ,:atev] is inconceivable mu/ be false4 ,aga9/ ?is preval5t doctr9e ,i h suffici5tly argu$ 9 a =m] ,book17#bcc7 & no?+ is requir$ 9 ?is place b examples4 ,x 0 long held t ,antipodes 7 impossible because ( ! difficulty :i* 0 f\nd 9 conceiv+ p]sons ) _! heads 9 ! same direction z our feet4 ,& x 0 "o ( ! receiv$ argum5ts aga9/ ! ,cop]nican sy/em1 t we c n conceive s great a void space z t sy/em supposes to exi/ 9 ! cele/ial regions4 ,:5 m5's imag9ations _h always be5 us$ to conceive ! />s z firmly set 9 solid sph]es1 !y naturally f\nd mu* difficulty 9 imag9+ !m 9 s diff]5t1 &1 z x d\btless appe>$ to !m1 s prec>i\s a situation4 ,b !y _h no "r to mi/ake ! limitation 7:e!r natural1 or1 z x 9 fact prov$1 only artificial7 ( _! own faculties1 = an inh]5t limitation ( ! possible modes ( exi/5ce 9 ! univ]se4 ,x may be said 9 objection1 t ! error 9 ^! cases 0 9 ! m9or premise1 n ! major2 an error ( fact1 n ( pr9ciple2 t x did n consi/ 9 suppos+ t :at is inconceivable c n be true1 b 9 suppos+ antipodes to be inconceivable1 :5 pres5t exp]i5ce proves t !y c be conceiv$4 ,ev5 if ?is objection 7 all[$1 & ! proposition t :at is inconceivable c n be true 7 suff]$ to rema9 unque/ion$ z a speculative tru?1 x w\ld be a tru? on :i* no practical consequ5ce c\ld ev] be f\nd$1 s9ce1 on ?is %[+1 x is impossible to affirm ( any proposition1 n be+ a contradiction 9 t]ms1 t x is inconceivable4 ,antipodes 7 really1 n fictiti\sly1 inconceivable to our ance/ors3 !y are inde$ conceivable to u2 & z ! limits ( our p[] ( conception h be5 s l>gely ext5d$1 by ! ext5sion ( our exp]i5ce & ! m v>i$ ex]cise ( our imag9ation1 s may po/]ity f9d _m comb9ations p]fectly conceivable to !m :i* are inconceivable to u4 ,b1 z be+s ( limit$ exp]i5ce1 we mu/ always & necess>ily h limit$ conceptive p[]s2 :ile x does n by any means foll[ t ! same limitation obta9s 9 ! possibilities ( ,nature1 nor ev5 9 h] actual manife/ations4 ,r m ?an a c5tury & a half ago x 0 a sci5tific maxim1 disput$ by no "o1 & :i* no "o deem$ to require any pro(1 t 8a ?+ c n act :]e x is n407#bcd7 ,) ?is weapon ! ,c>tesians wag$ a =midable w> aga9/ ! !ory ( gravitation1 :i*1 accord+ to !m1 involv+ s obvi\s an absurdity1 mu/ be reject$ 9 lim9e3 ! sun c\ld n possibly act ^u ! e>?1 n be+ !re4 ,x 0 n surpris+ t ! adh]5ts ( ! old sy/ems ( a/ronomy %\ld urge ?is objection aga9/ ! new2 b ! false assumption impos$ equally on ,newton himself1 :o1 9 ord] to turn ! edge ( ! objection1 imag9$ a subtle e!r :i* fill$ up ! space betwe5 ! sun & ! e>?1 & by its int]m$iate ag5cy 0 ! proximate cause ( ! ph5om5a ( gravitation4 8,x is inconceivable10 said ,newton1 9 "o ( 8 lett]s to ,dr4 ,b5tley17#bce7 8t inanimate brute matt] %\ld1 )\t ! m$iation ( some?+ else1 :i* is n mat]ial1 op]ate ^u & affect o!r matt] )\t mutual contact4444 ,t gravity %\ld be innate1 inh]5t1 & ess5tial to matt]1 s t "o body may act on ano!r1 at a di/ance1 ?r\gh a vacuum1 )\t ! m$iation ( any ?+ else1 by & ?r\gh :i* _! action & =ce may be convey$ f "o to ano!r1 is to me s great an absurdity1 t ,i believe no man1 :o 9 philosophical matt]s has a compet5t faculty ( ?9k+1 c ev] fall into x40 ,?is passage %\ld be hung up 9 ! cab9et ( e cultivator ( sci5ce :o is ev] tempt$ to pron\nce a fact impossible because x appe>s to him inconceivable4 ,9 our own day "o w\ld be m tempt$1 ?\gh ) equal inju/ice1 to rev]se ! conclud+ obs]vation1 & consid] ! see+ any absurdity at all 9 a ?+ s simple & natural1 to be :at really m>ks ! abs5ce ( 8a compet5t faculty ( ?9k+40 ,no "o n[ feels any difficulty 9 conceiv+ gravity to be1 z mu* z any o!r prop]ty is1 8inh]5t & ess5tial to matt]10 nor f9ds ! compreh5sion ( x facilitat$ 9 ! smalle/ degree by ! supposition ( an e!r 7?\gh "s rec5t inquir]s d give ?is z an explanation ( x72 nor ?9ks x at all incr$ible t ! cele/ial bodies c & d act :]e !y1 9 actual bodily pres5ce1 are n4 ,to u x is n m wond]ful t bodies %\ld act ^u "o ano!r 8)\t mutual contact10 ?an t !y %\ld d s :5 9 contact2 we are famili> ) bo? ^! facts1 & we f9d !m equally inexplicable1 b equally easy to believe4 ,to ,newton1 ! "o1 because 8 imag9ation 0 famili> ) x1 appe>$ natural & a matt] ( c\rse1 :ile ! o!r1 = ! contr>y reason1 seem$ too absurd to be cr$it$4 ,x is /range t any "o1 aft] su* a w>n+1 %\ld rely implicitly on ! evid5ce a priori ( su* propositions z ^!1 t matt] c n ?9k2 t space1 or ext5sion1 is inf9ite2 t no?+ c be made out ( no?+ 7ex nihilo nihil fit74 ,:e!r ^! propositions are true or n ?is is n ! place to det]m9e1 nor ev5 :e!r ! que/ions are soluble by ! human faculties4 ,b su* doctr9es are no m self-evid5t tru?s1 ?an ! anci5t maxim t a ?+ c n act :]e x is n1 :i* probably is n n[ believ$ by any educat$ p]son 9 ,europe47#bcf7 ,matt] c n ?9k2 :y8 because we c n conceive ?\ght to be annex$ to any arrangem5t ( mat]ial p>ticles4 ,space is inf9ite1 because hav+ nev] kn[n any "p ( x :i* _h n o!r p>ts beyond x1 we c n conceive an absolute t]m9ation4 ,ex nihilo nihil fit1 because hav+ nev] kn[n any physical product )\t a pre-exi/+ physical mat]ial1 we c n1 or ?9k we c n1 imag9e a creation out ( no?+4 ,b ^! ?+s may 9 !mselves be z conceivable z gravitation )\t an int]v5+ m$ium1 :i* ,newton ?\ght too great an absurdity = any p]son ( a compet5t faculty ( philosophical ?9k+ to admit3 & ev5 suppos+ !m n conceivable1 ?is1 = aught we "k1 may be m]ely "o ( ! limitations ( our v limit$ m9ds1 & n 9 nature at all4 ,no writ] has m directly id5tifi$ himself ) ! fallacy n[ "u consid]ation1 or has embodi$ x 9 m di/9ct t]ms1 ?an ,leibnitz4 ,9 8 view1 unless a ?+ 0 n m]ely conceivable1 b ev5 expla9able1 x c\ld n exi/ 9 nature4 ,all natural ph5om5a1 accord+ to him1 mu/ be susceptible ( be+ acc\nt$ = a priori4 ,! only facts ( :i* no explanation c\ld be giv5 b ! w ( ,god1 7 miracles prop]ly s call$4 8,je reconnais10 says he17#bcg7 8qu'il n'e/ pas p]mis de ni] ce qu'on n'ent5d pas2 mais j'aj\te qu'on a droit de ni] 7au mo9s dans l'ordre naturel7 ce que absolum5t n'e/ po9t intelligible ni explicable4 ,je s\ti5s aussi 444 qu'enf9 la conception des cratures n'e/ pas la mesure du p\voir de ,dieu1 mais que leur conceptivit1 ou =ce de concevoir1 e/ la mesure du p\voir de la nature1 t\t ce qui e/ con=me l'ordre naturel p\vant tre conu ou ent5du p> quelque crature40 ,n cont5t ) assum+ t no?+ c be true :i* we are unable to conceive1 sci5tific inquir]s h frequ5tly giv5 a /ill fur!r ext5sion to ! doctr9e1 & held t1 ev5 ( ?+s n altoge!r inconceivable1 t :i* we c conceive ) ! greate/ ease is likelie/ to be true4 ,x 0 long an admitt$ axiom1 & is n yet entirely discr$it$1 t 8nature always acts by ! simple/ means10 i4e41 by ^? :i* are mo/ easily conceivable47#bch7 ,a l>ge proportion ( all ! errors ev] committ$ 9 ! inve/igation ( ! laws ( nature1 h aris5 f ! assumption t ! mo/ famili> explanation or hypo!sis mu/ be ! true/4 ,"o ( ! mo/ in/ructive facts 9 sci5tific hi/ory is ! p]t9acity ) :i* ! human m9d clung to ! belief t ! heav5ly bodies mu/ move 9 circles1 or be c>ri$ r\nd by ! revolution ( sph]es2 m]ely because ^? 7 9 !mselves ! simple/ suppositions3 ?\gh1 to make !m accord ) ! facts :i* 7 ev] contradict+ !m m & m1 x became necess>y to add sph]e to sph]e & circle to circle1 until ! orig9al simplicity 0 conv]t$ into almo/ inextricable complication4 #d4 ,we pass to ano!r a priori fallacy or natural prejudice1 alli$ to ! =m]1 & orig9at+1 z t does1 9 ! t5d5cy to presume an exact correspond5ce betwe5 ! laws ( ! m9d & ^? ( ?+s ext]nal to x4 ,! fallacy may be enunciat$ 9 ?is g5]al =m--,:atev] c be ?\ght ( ap>t exi/s ap>t3 & its mo/ rem>kable manife/ation consi/s 9 ! p]sonification ( ab/ractions4 ,mank9d 9 all ages h _h a /rong prop5sity to conclude t :]ev] !re is a "n1 !re mu/ be a di/+ui%able sep>ate entity correspond+ to ! "n2 & e complex idea :i* ! m9d has =m$ = itself by op]at+ ^u its conceptions ( individual ?+s1 0 consid]$ to h an outw>d objective reality answ]+ to x4 ,fate1 ,*ance1 ,nature1 ,"t1 ,space1 7 real be+s1 nay1 ev5 gods4 ,if ! analysis ( qualities 9 ! e>li] "p ( ?is "w be correct1 names ( qualities & names ( sub/ances /& = ! v same sets ( facts or ph5om5a2 :it5ess & a :ite ?+ are only diff]5t phrases1 requir$ by conv5i5ce = speak+ ( ! same ext]nal fact "u diff]5t relations4 ,n su*1 h[ev]1 0 ! notion :i* ?is v]bal di/9ction sugge/$ ( old1 ei!r to ! vulg> or to ! sci5tific4 ,:it5ess 0 an entity1 inh]+ or /ick+ 9 ! :ite sub/ance3 & s ( all o!r qualities4 ,s f> 0 ?is c>ri$1 t ev5 concrete g5]al t]ms 7 suppos$ to be1 n names ( indef9ite numb]s ( individual sub/ances1 b names ( a peculi> k9d ( entities t]m$ ,univ]sal ,sub/ances4 ,because we c ?9k & speak ( man 9 g5]al1 t is1 ( all p]sons 9 s f> z possess+ ! common attributes ( ! species1 )\t fa/5+ our ?\ghts p]man5tly on "s "o individual p]son2 !re=e man 9 g5]al 0 suppos$ to be1 n an aggregate ( individual p]sons1 b an ab/ract or univ]sal man1 di/9ct f ^!4 ,x may be imag9$ :at havoc metaphysicians tra9$ 9 ^! habits made ) philosophy1 :5 !y came to ! l>ge/ g5]alizations ( all4 ,sub/anti ,secund ( any k9d 7 bad en\gh1 b su* ,sub/anti ,secund z 1 = example1 & 1 /&+ = peculi> entities suppos$ to be inh]5t 9 all ?+s :i* exi/1 or 9 all :i* are said to be "o1 7 en\gh to put an end to all intelligible discussion2 especially s9ce1 ) a j p]ception t ! tru?s :i* philosophy pursues are g5]al tru?s1 x 0 soon laid d[n t ^! g5]al sub/ances 7 ! only subjects ( sci5ce1 be+ immutable1 :ile individual sub/ances cognizable by ! s5ses1 be+ 9 a p]petual flux1 c\ld n be ! subject ( real k4 ,?is misappreh5sion ( ! import ( g5]al language con/itutes ,my/icism1 a ^w s mu* (t5] writt5 & spok5 ?an und]/ood4 ,:e!r 9 ! ,v$as1 9 ! ,platoni/s1 or 9 ! ,hegelians1 my/icism is nei!r m nor less ?an ascrib+ objective exi/5ce to ! subjective creations ( our own faculties1 to ideas or feel+s ( ! m9d2 & believ+ t by wat*+ & contemplat+ ^! ideas ( its own mak+1 x c read 9 !m :at takes place 9 ! _w )\t4 #e4 ,proce$+ ) ! enum]ation ( a priori fallacies1 & endeavor+ to arrange !m ) z mu* ref]5ce z possible to _! natural aff9ities1 we come to ano!r1 :i* is also ne>ly alli$ to ! fallacy prec$+ ! la/1 /&+ 9 ! same relation to "o v>iety ( x z ! fallacy la/ m5tion$ does to ! o!r4 ,?is1 too1 repres5ts nature z "u incapacities correspond+ to ^? ( our intellect2 b in/ead ( only ass]t+ t nature c n d a ?+ because we c n conceive x done1 goes ! /ill great] l5g? ( av]r+ t nature does a p>ticul> ?+1 on ! sole gr\nd t we c see no reason :y %e %\ld n4 ,absurd z ?is seems :5 s pla9ly /at$1 x is a receiv$ pr9ciple among sci5tific au?orities = demon/rat+ a priori ! laws ( physical ph5om5a4 ,a ph5om5on mu/ foll[ a c]ta9 law1 because we see no reason :y x %\ld deviate f t law 9 "o way r ?an 9 ano!r4 ,?is is call$ ! ,pr9ciple ( ! ,suffici5t ,reason27#bci7 & by means ( x philosoph]s (t5 flatt] !mselves t !y are able to e/abli%1 )\t any appeal to exp]i5ce1 ! mo/ g5]al tru?s ( exp]im5tal physics4 ,take1 = example1 two ( ! mo/ elem5t>y ( all laws1 ! law ( in]tia & ! fir/ law ( motion4 ,a body at re/ c n1 x is affirm$1 beg9 to move unless act$ ^u by "s ext]nal =ce2 because1 if x did1 x mu/ ei!r move up or d[n1 =w>d or backw>d1 & s =?2 b if no outw>d =ce acts ^u x1 !re c be no reason = its mov+ up r ?an d[n1 or d[n r ?an up1 etc41 ergo1 x w n move at all4 ,?is reason+ ,i conceive to be entirely fallaci\s1 z inde$ ,dr4 ,br[n1 9 8 treatise on ,cause & ,effect1 has %[n ) great acut5ess & ju/ness ( ?\ght4 ,we h be=e rem>k$1 t almo/ e fallacy may be ref]r$ to diff]5t g5]a by diff]5t modes ( fill+ up ! suppress$ /eps2 & ?is p>ticul> "o may1 at our option1 be br\ght "u petitio pr9cipii4 ,x supposes t no?+ c be a 8suffici5t reason0 = a body's mov+ 9 "o p>ticul> direction1 except "s ext]nal =ce4 ,b ?is is ! v ?+ to be prov$4 ,:y n "s int]nal =ce8 ,:y n ! law ( ! ?+'s own nature8 ,s9ce ^! philosoph]s ?9k x necess>y to prove ! law ( in]tia1 !y ( c\rse d n suppose x to be self-evid5t2 !y mu/1 !re=e1 be ( op9ion t previ\sly to all pro(1 ! supposition ( a body's mov+ by int]nal impulse is an admissible hypo!sis2 b if s1 :y is n ! hypo!sis also admissible1 t ! int]nal impulse acts naturally 9 "s "o p>ticul> direction1 n 9 ano!r8 ,if spontane\s motion might h be5 ! law ( matt]1 :y n spontane\s motion t[>d ! sun1 t[>d ! e>?1 or t[>d ! z5i?8 ,:y n1 z ! anci5ts suppos$1 t[>d a p>ticul> place 9 ! univ]se1 appropriat$ to ea* p>ticul> k9d ( sub/ance8 ,surely x is n all[able to say t spontaneity ( motion is cr$ible 9 itself1 b n cr$ible if suppos$ to take place 9 any det]m9ate direction4 ,inde$1 if any "o *ose to ass]t t all bodies :5 uncontroll$ set out 9 a direct l9e t[>d ! ,nor? ,pole1 he might equally prove 8 po9t by ! pr9ciple ( ! ,suffici5t ,reason4 ,by :at "r is x assum$ t a /ate ( re/ is ! p>ticul> /ate :i* c n be deviat$ f )\t special cause8 ,:y n a /ate ( motion1 & ( "s p>ticul> sort ( motion8 ,:y may we n say t ! natural /ate ( a horse left to himself is to amble1 because o!rwise he mu/ ei!r trot1 gallop1 or /& /ill1 & because we "k no reason :y he %\ld d "o ( ^! r ?an ano!r8 ,if ?is is to be call$ an unfair use ( ! 8suffici5t reason10 & ! o!r a fair "o1 !re mu/ be a tacit assumption t a /ate ( re/ is m natural to a horse ?an a /ate ( ambl+4 ,if ?is means t x is ! /ate :i* ! animal w assume :5 left to himself1 t is ! v po9t to be prov$2 & if x does n mean ?is1 x c only mean t a /ate ( re/ is ! simple/ /ate1 & !re=e ! mo/ likely to prevail 9 nature1 :i* is "o ( ! fallacies or natural prejudices we h already exam9$4 ,s aga9 ( ! ,fir/ ,law ( ,motion2 t a body once mov+ w1 if left to itself1 cont9ue to move uni=mly 9 a /raight l9e4 ,an attempt is made to prove ?is law by say+1 t if n1 ! body mu/ deviate ei!r to ! "r or to ! left1 & t !re is no reason :y x %\ld d "o m ?an ! o!r4 ,b :o c\ld "k1 antec$5tly to exp]i5ce1 :e!r !re 0 a reason or n8 ,might x n be ! nature ( bodies1 or ( "s p>ticul> bodies1 to deviate t[>d ! "r8 or if ! supposition is pref]r$1 t[>d ! ea/1 or s\?8 ,x 0 long ?\ght t bodies1 t]re/rial ones at lea/1 _h a natural t5d5cy to deflect d[nw>d2 & !re is no %ad[ ( any ?+ objectionable 9 ! supposition1 except t x is n true4 ,! pret5d$ pro( ( ! law ( motion is ev5 m manife/ly unt5able ?an t ( ! law ( in]tia1 = x is flagrantly inconsi/5t2 x assumes t ! cont9uance ( motion 9 ! direction fir/ tak5 is m natural ?an deviation ei!r to ! "r or to ! left1 b d5ies t "o ( ^! c possibly be m natural ?an ! o!r4 ,all ^! fancies ( ! possibility ( kn[+ :at is natural or n natural by any o!r means ?an exp]i5ce1 are1 9 tru?1 entirely futile4 ,! real & only pro( ( ! laws ( motion1 or ( any o!r law ( ! univ]se1 is exp]i5ce2 x is simply t no o!r suppositions expla9 or are consi/5t ) ! facts ( univ]sal nature4 ,geomet]s h1 9 all ages1 be5 op5 to ! imputation ( endeavor+ to prove ! mo/ g5]al facts ( ! outw>d _w by sophi/ical reason+1 9 ord] to avoid appeals to ! s5ses4 ,ar*im$es1 says ,pr(essor ,playfair17#bdj7 e/abli%$ "s ( ! elem5t>y propositions ( /atics by a process 9 :i* he 8borr[s no pr9ciple f exp]im5t1 b e/abli%es 8 conclusion entirely by reason+ a priori4 ,he assumes1 inde$1 t equal bodies1 at ! ends ( ! equal arms ( a lev]1 w balance "o ano!r2 & also t a cyl9d] or p>allelopip$ ( homog5e\s matt]1 w be balanc$ ab\t its c5tre ( magnitude4 ,^!1 h[ev]1 are n inf]5ces f exp]i5ce2 !y are1 prop]ly speak+1 conclusions d$uc$ f ! pr9ciple ( ! ,suffici5t ,reason40 ,& to ?is day !re are few geomet]s :o w\ld n ?9k x f> m sci5tific to e/abli% ^! or any o!r premises 9 ?is way1 ?an to re/ _! evid5ce on t famili> exp]i5ce :i* 9 ! case 9 "q might h be5 s safely appeal$ to4 #f4 ,ano!r natural prejudice1 ( mo/ ext5sive preval5ce1 & :i* _h a great %>e 9 produc+ ! errors fall5 into by ! anci5ts 9 _! physical inquiries1 0 ?is3 ,t ! diff]5ces 9 nature mu/ correspond to our receiv$ di/9ctions3 t effects :i* we are accu/om$1 9 popul> language1 to call by diff]5t names1 & arrange 9 diff]5t classes1 mu/ be ( diff]5t natures1 & h diff]5t causes4 ,?is prejudice1 s evid5tly ( ! same orig9 ) ^? already treat$ (1 m>ks m especially ! e>lie/ /age ( sci5ce1 :5 x has n yet brok5 loose f ! trammels ( e-day phraseology4 ,! extraord9>y preval5ce ( ! fallacy among ! ,greek philosoph]s may be acc\nt$ = by _! g5]ally kn[+ no o!r language ?an _! own2 f :i* x 0 a consequ5ce t _! ideas foll[$ ! accid5tal or arbitr>y comb9ations ( t language1 m completely ?an c happ5 among ! mod]ns to any b illit]ate p]sons4 ,!y _h great difficulty 9 di/+ui%+ betwe5 ?+s :i* _! language conf\nd$1 or 9 putt+ m5tally toge!r ?+s :i* x di/+ui%$2 & c\ld h>dly comb9e ! objects 9 nature1 into any classes b ^? :i* 7 made = !m by ! popul> phrases ( _! own c\ntry2 or at lea/ c\ld n help fancy+ ^? classes to be natural & all o!rs arbitr>y & artificial4 ,accord+ly1 sci5tific inve/igation among ! ,greek s*ools ( speculation & _! foll[]s 9 ! ,middle ,ages1 0 little m ?an a m]e sift+ & analyz+ ( ! notions atta*$ to common language4 ,!y ?\ght t by det]m9+ ! mean+ ( words1 !y c\ld become acqua9t$ ) facts4 8,!y took = grant$10 says ,dr4 ,:ewell17#bda7 8t philosophy mu/ result f ! relations ( ^? notions :i* are involv$ 9 ! common use ( language1 & !y proce$$ to seek x by /udy+ su* notions40 ,9 8 next *apt]1 ,dr4 ,:ewell has s well illu/rat$ & exemplifi$ ?is error1 t ,i %all take ! lib]ty ( quot+ him at "s l5g?4 8,! prop5sity to seek = pr9ciples 9 ! common usages ( language may be disc]n$ at a v e>ly p]iod4 ,?us we h an example ( x 9 a say+ :i* is report$ ( ,?ales1 ! f\nd] ( ,greek philosophy4 ,:5 he 0 ask$1 #8,:at is ! greate/ ?+8' he repli$ #8,place2 = all o!r ?+s are 9 ! _w1 b ! _w is 9 x4' ,9 ,ari/otle we h ! consummation ( ?is mode ( speculation4 ,! usual po9t f :i* he />ts 9 8 inquiries is1 t we say ?us or ?us 9 common language4 ,?us1 :5 he has to discuss ! "q :e!r !re be1 9 any "p ( ! univ]se1 a void1 or space 9 :i* !re is no?+1 he inquires fir/ 9 h[ _m s5ses we say t "o ?+ is 9 ano!r4 ,he enum]ates _m ( ^!2 we say ! "p is 9 ! :ole1 z ! f+] is 9 ! h&2 aga9 we say1 ! species is 9 ! g5us1 z man is includ$ 9 animal2 aga91 ! gov]nm5t ( ,greece is 9 ! k+2 & v>i\s o!r s5ses are describ$ & exemplifi$1 b ( all ^! ! mo/ prop] is :5 we say a ?+ is 9 a vessel1 & g5]ally 9 place4 ,he next exam9es :at place is1 & comes to ?is conclusion1 t #8if ab\t a body !re be ano!r body includ+ x1 x is 9 place1 & if n1 n4' ,a body moves :5 x *anges its place2 b he adds1 t if wat] be 9 a vessel1 ! vessel be+ at re/1 ! p>ts ( ! wat] may /ill move1 = !y are includ$ by ea* o!r2 s t :ile ! :ole does n *ange its place1 ! p>ts may *ange _! place 9 a circul> ord]4 ,proce$+ !n to ! "q ( a void1 he z usual exam9es ! diff]5t s5ses 9 :i* ! t]m is us$1 & adopts z ! mo/ prop]1 place )\t matt]1 ) no useful result4 8,aga91 9 a "q conc]n+ me*anical action1 he says1 #8,:5 a man moves a /one by pu%+ x ) a /ick1 we say bo? t ! man moves ! /one1 & t ! /ick moves ! /one1 b ! latt] m prop]ly4' 8,aga91 we f9d ! ,greek philosoph]s apply+ !mselves to extract _! dogmas f ! mo/ g5]al & ab/ract notions :i* !y c\ld detect2 = example1 f ! conception ( ! ,univ]se z ,"o or z ,_m ?+s4 ,!y tri$ to det]m9e h[ f> we may1 or mu/1 comb9e ) ^! conceptions t ( a :ole1 ( p>ts1 ( numb]1 ( limits1 ( place1 ( beg9n+ or end1 ( full or void1 ( re/ or motion1 ( cause & effect1 & ! l4 ,! analysis ( su* conceptions ) su* a view1 occupies1 = in/ance1 almo/ ! :ole ( ,ari/otle's ,treatise on ! ,heav5s40 ,! foll[+ p>agraph m]its p>ticul> att5tion3 8,ano!r mode ( reason+1 v widely appli$ 9 ^! attempts1 0 ! doctr9e ( contr>ieties1 9 :i* x 0 assum$ t adjectives or sub/ances :i* are 9 common language1 or 9 "s ab/ract mode ( conception1 oppos$ to ea* o!r1 mu/ po9t at "s fundam5tal anti!sis 9 nature1 :i* x is important to /udy4 ,?us ,ari/otle says t ! ,py?agoreans1 f ! contra/s :i* numb] sugge/s1 collect$ t5 pr9ciples--,limit$ & ,unlimit$1 ,odd & ,ev51 ,"o & ,_m1 ,"r & ,left1 ,male & ,female1 ,re/ & ,motion1 ,/raight & ,curv$1 ,light & ,d>kness1 ,good & ,evil1 ,squ>e & ,oblong4444 ,ari/otle himself d$uc$ ! doctr9e ( f\r elem5ts & o!r dogmas by oppositions ( ! same k9d40 ,( ! mann] 9 :i*1 f premises obta9$ 9 ?is way1 ! anci5ts attempt$ to d$uce laws ( nature1 an example is giv5 9 ! same "w a few pages fur!r on4 8,ari/otle decides t !re is no void on su* argum5ts z ?is4 ,9 a void !re c\ld be no diff]5ce ( up & d[n2 = z 9 no?+ !re are no diff]5ces1 s !re are none 9 a privation or negation2 b a void is m]ely a privation or negation ( matt]2 !re=e1 9 a void1 bodies c\ld n move up & d[n1 :i* x is 9 _! nature to d4 ,x is easily se50 7,dr4 ,:ewell v ju/ly adds7 8t su* a mode ( reason+ elevates ! famili> =ms ( language1 & ! intellectual connections ( t]ms1 to a supremacy ov] facts2 mak+ tru? dep5d ^u :e!r t]ms are or are n privative1 & :e!r we say t bodies fall naturally40 ,! prop5sity to assume t ! same relations obta9 betwe5 objects !mselves1 :i* obta9 betwe5 our ideas ( !m1 is "h se5 9 ! extreme /age ( its developm5t4 ,= ! mode ( philosophiz+1 exemplifi$ 9 ! =ego+ in/ances1 assumes no less ?an t ! prop] way ( arriv+ at k ( nature1 is to /udy nature itself subjectively2 to apply our obs]vation & analysis n to ! facts1 b to ! common notions ent]ta9$ ( ! facts4 ,_m o!r equally /rik+ examples may be giv5 ( ! t5d5cy to assume t ?+s :i* = ! conv5i5ce ( common life are plac$ 9 diff]5t classes1 mu/ diff] 9 e respect4 ,( ?is nature 0 ! univ]sal & deeply-root$ prejudice ( antiquity & ! ,middle ,ages1 t cele/ial & t]re/rial ph5om5a mu/ be ess5tially diff]5t1 & c\ld 9 no mann] or degree dep5d on ! same laws4 ,( ! same k9d1 also1 0 ! prejudice aga9/ :i* ,bacon cont5d$1 t no?+ produc$ by nature c\ld be successfully imitat$ by man3 8,calorem solis et ignis toto g5]e diff]re2 ne scilicet hom9es put5t se p] op]a ignis1 aliquid simile iis qu 9 ,natura fiunt1 educ]e et =m>e posse20 & aga91 8,compositionem tantum opus ,hom9is1 ,mi/ionem v]o opus solius ,natur esse3 ne scilicet hom9es sp]5t aliquam ex arte ,corporum naturalium g5]ationem aut trans=mationem407#bdb7 ,! gr& di/9ction 9 ! anci5t sci5tific speculations1 betwe5 natural & viol5t motions1 ?\gh n )\t a plausible f\ndation 9 ! appe>ances !mselves1 0 d\btless greatly recomm5d$ to adoption by its con=mity to ?is prejudice4 #g4 ,f ! fundam5tal error ( ! sci5tific inquir]s ( antiquity1 we pass1 by a natural association1 to a sc>cely less fundam5tal "o ( _! great rival & successor1 ,bacon4 ,x has excit$ ! surprise ( philosoph]s t ! detail$ sy/em ( inductive logic1 :i* ?is extraord9>y man labor$ to con/ruct1 has be5 turn$ to s little direct use by subsequ5t inquir]s1 hav+ nei!r cont9u$1 except 9 a few ( its g5]alities1 to be recogniz$ z a !ory1 nor hav+ conduct$ 9 practice to any great sci5tific results4 ,b ?is1 ?\gh n unfrequ5tly rem>k$1 has sc>cely receiv$ any plausible explanation2 & "s1 inde$1 h pref]r$ to ass]t t all rules ( induction are useless1 r ?an suppose t ,bacon's rules are gr\nd$ on an insuffici5t analysis ( ! inductive process4 ,su*1 h[ev]1 w be se5 to be ! fact1 z soon z x is consid]$1 t ,bacon entirely ov]look$ ,plurality ( ,causes4 ,all 8 rules tacitly imply ! assumption1 s contr>y to all we n[ "k ( nature1 t a ph5om5on c n h m ?an "o cause4 ,:5 he is inquir+ into :at he t]ms ! =ma calidi aut frigidi1 gravis aut levis1 sicci aut humidi1 & ! l1 he nev] = an in/ant d\bts t !re is "s "o ?+1 "s inv>iable condition or set ( conditions1 :i* is pres5t 9 all cases ( heat1 or cold1 or :atev] o!r ph5om5on he is consid]+2 ! only difficulty be+ to f9d :at x is2 :i* accord+ly he tries to d by a process ( elim9ation1 reject+ or exclud+1 by negative in/ances1 :atev] is n ! =ma or cause1 9 ord] to arrive at :at is4 ,b1 t ?is =ma or cause is "o ?+1 & t x is ! same 9 all hot objects1 he has no m d\bt (1 ?an ano!r p]son has t !re is always "s cause or o!r4 ,9 ! pres5t /ate ( k x c\ld n be necess>y1 ev5 if we _h n already treat$ s fully ( ! "q1 to po9t out h[ widely ?is supposition is at v>iance ) ! tru?4 ,x is p>ticul>ly un=tunate = ,bacon t1 fall+ into ?is error1 he %\ld h fix$ almo/ exclusively ^u a class ( inquiries 9 :i* x 0 especially fatal2 namely1 inquiries into ! causes ( ! s5sible qualities ( objects4 ,= 8 assumption1 gr\ndless 9 e case1 is false 9 a peculi> degree ) respect to ^? s5sible qualities4 ,9 reg>d to sc>cely any ( !m has x be5 f\nd possible to trace any unity ( cause1 any set ( conditions inv>iably accompany+ ! quality4 ,! conjunctions ( su* qualities ) "o ano!r con/itute ! v>iety ( ,k9ds1 9 :i*1 z already rem>k$1 x has n be5 f\nd possible to trace any law4 ,bacon 0 seek+ = :at did n exi/4 ,! ph5om5on ( :i* he s\ght = ! "o cause has (t5e/ no cause at all1 & :5 x has1 dep5ds 7z f> z hi!rto asc]ta9$7 on an unassignable v>iety ( di/9ct causes4 ,& on ?is rock e "o mu/ split1 :o repres5ts to himself z ! fir/ & fundam5tal problem ( sci5ce to asc]ta9 :at is ! cause ( a giv5 effect1 r ?an :at are ! effects ( a giv5 cause4 ,x 0 %[n1 9 an e>ly /age ( our inquiry into ! nature ( ,induction17#bdc7 h[ mu* m ample are ! res\rces :i* sci5ce comm&s = ! latt] ?an = ! =m] inquiry1 s9ce x is ^u ! latt] only t we c ?r[ any direct light by means ( exp]im5t2 ! p[] ( artificially produc+ an effect1 imply+ a previ\s k ( at lea/ "o ( its causes4 ,if we discov] ! causes ( effects1 x is g5]ally by hav+ previ\sly discov]$ ! effects ( causes2 ! greate/ skill 9 devis+ crucial in/ances = ! =m] purpose may only end1 z ,bacon's physical inquiries did1 9 no result at all4 ,0 x t 8 eag]ness to acquire ! p[] ( produc+ = man's b5efit effects ( practical importance to human life1 r5d]+ him impati5t ( pursu+ t end by a circuit\s r\te1 made ev5 him1 ! *ampion ( exp]im5t1 pref] ! direct mode1 ?\gh "o ( m]e obs]vation1 to ! indirect1 9 :i* alone exp]im5t 0 possible8 ,or _h ev5 ,bacon n entirely cle>$ 8 m9d f ! notion ( ! anci5ts1 t 8r]um cognosc]e causas0 0 ! sole object ( philosophy1 & t to inquire into ! effects ( ?+s belong$ to s]vile & me*anical arts8 ,x is wor? rem>k+ t1 :ile ! only effici5t mode ( cultivat+ speculative sci5ce 0 miss$ f an undue contempt ( manual op]ations1 ! false speculative views ?us eng5d]$ gave 9 _! turn a false direction to su* practical & me*anical aims z 7 suff]$ to exi/4 ,! assumption univ]sal among ! anci5ts & 9 ! ,middle ,ages1 t !re 7 pr9ciples ( heat & cold1 dryness & moi/ure1 etc41 l$ directly to a belief 9 al*emy2 9 a transmutation ( sub/ances1 a *ange f "o ,k9d into ano!r4 ,:y %\ld x n be possible to make gold8 ,ea* ( ! *>act]i/ic prop]ties ( gold has its =ma1 its ess5ce1 its set ( conditions1 :i* if we c\ld discov]1 & le>n h[ to realize1 we c\ld sup]9duce t p>ticul> prop]ty ^u any o!r sub/ance1 ^u wood1 or iron1 or lime1 or clay4 ,if1 !n1 we c\ld effect ?is ) respect to e "o ( ! ess5tial prop]ties ( ! preci\s metal1 we %\ld h conv]t$ ! o!r sub/ance into gold4 ,nor did ?is1 if once ! premises 7 grant$1 appe> to transc5d ! real p[]s ( mank9d4 ,= daily exp]i5ce %[$ t almo/ e "o ( ! di/9ctive s5sible prop]ties ( any object1 its consi/5ce1 its color1 its ta/e1 its smell1 its %ape1 admitt$ ( be+ totally *ang$ by fire1 or wat]1 or "s o!r *emical ag5t4 ,! =m ( all ^? qualities seem+1 !re=e1 to be )9 human p[] ei!r to produce or to annihilate1 n only did ! transmutation ( sub/ances appe> ab/ract$ly possible1 b ! employm5t ( ! p[]1 at our *oice1 = practical ends1 seem$ by no means hopeless47#bdd7 ,a prejudice1 univ]sal 9 ! anci5t _w1 & f :i* ,bacon 0 s f> f be+ free1 t x p]vad$ & vitiat$ ! :ole practical "p ( 8 sy/em ( logic1 may ) good reason be rank$ high 9 ! ord] ( ,fallacies ( :i* we are n[ treat+4 #h4 ,!re rema9s "o a priori fallacy or natural prejudice1 ! mo/ deeply-root$1 p]haps1 ( all :i* we h enum]at$2 "o :i* n only reign$ supreme 9 ! anci5t _w1 b /ill possesses almo/ undisput$ dom9ion ov] _m ( ! mo/ cultivat$ m9ds2 & "s ( ! mo/ rem>kable ( ! num]\s in/ances by :i* ,i %all ?9k x necess>y to exemplify x1 w be tak5 f rec5t ?9k]s4 ,?is is1 t ! conditions ( a ph5om5on mu/1 or at lea/ probably w1 resemble ! ph5om5on itself4 ,con=mably to :at we h be=e rem>k$ to be ( frequ5t occurr5ce1 ?is fallacy might )\t mu* impropriety h be5 plac$ 9 a diff]5t class1 among ,fallacies ( ,g5]alization2 = exp]i5ce does af=d a c]ta9 degree ( c\nt5ance to ! assumption4 ,! cause does1 9 v _m cases1 resemble its effect2 l produces l4 ,_m ph5om5a h a direct t5d5cy to p]petuate _! own exi/5ce1 or to give rise to o!r ph5om5a simil> to !mselves4 ,n to m5tion =ms actually m\ld$ on "o ano!r1 z impressions on wax & ! l1 9 :i* ! close/ resemblance betwe5 ! effect & its cause is ! v law ( ! ph5om5on2 all motion t5ds to cont9ue itself1 ) its own velocity1 & 9 its own orig9al direction2 & ! motion ( "o body t5ds to set o!rs 9 motion1 :i* is inde$ ! mo/ common ( ! modes 9 :i* ! motions ( bodies orig9ate4 ,we ne$ sc>cely ref] to contagion1 f]m5tation1 & ! l2 or to ! production ( effects by ! gr[? or expansion ( a g]m or rudim5t resembl+ on a small] scale ! complet$ ph5om5on1 z 9 ! gr[? ( a plant or animal f an embryo1 t embryo itself d]iv+ its orig9 f ano!r plant or animal ( ! same k9d4 ,aga91 ! ?\ghts or rem9isc5ces1 :i* are effects ( our pa/ s5sations1 resemble ^? s5sations2 feel+s produce simil> feel+s by way ( sympa?y2 acts produce simil> acts by involunt>y or volunt>y imitation4 ,) s _m appe>ances 9 its favor1 no wond] if a presumption naturally grew up1 t causes mu/ necess>ily resemble _! effects1 & t l c\ld only be produc$ by l4 ,?is pr9ciple ( fallacy has usually presid$ ov] ! fanta/ical attempts to influ5ce ! c\rse ( nature by conjectural means1 ! *oice ( :i* 0 n direct$ by previ\s obs]vation & exp]im5t4 ,! guess almo/ always fix$ ^u "s means :i* possess$ features ( real or app>5t resemblance to ! end 9 view4 ,if a *>m 0 want$1 z by ,ovid's ,m$ea1 to prolong life1 all long-liv$ animals1 or :at 7 e/eem$ su*1 7 collect$ & brew$ into a bro?3 nec defuit illic ,squamea ,c9yphii t5uis membrana *elydri ,vivacisque jecur c]vi3 quibus insup] addit ,ora caputque novem cornicis scula pass4 ,a simil> notion 0 embodi$ 9 ! celebrat$ m$ical !ory call$ ! 8,doctr9e ( ,signatures10 8:i* is no less10 says ,dr4 ,p>is17#bde7 8?an a belief t e natural sub/ance :i* possesses any m$ic9al virtue indicates by an obvi\s & well-m>k$ ext]nal "* ! disease = :i* x is a rem$y1 or ! object = :i* x %\ld be employ$40 ,?is outw>d "* 0 g5]ally "s feature ( resemblance1 real or fanta/ical1 ei!r to ! effect x 0 suppos$ to produce1 or to ! ph5om5on ov] :i* its p[] 0 ?\ght to be ex]cis$4 8,?us ! lungs ( a fox mu/ be a specific = a/hma1 because t animal is rem>kable = its /rong p[]s ( respiration4 ,turm]ic has a brilliant yell[ color1 :i* indicates t x has ! p[] ( cur+ ! jaundice2 = ! same reason1 poppies mu/ relieve diseases ( ! head2 ,ag>icus ^? ( ! bladd]2 ,cassia fi/ula ! affections ( ! inte/9es1 & ,ari/olo*ia ! disord]s ( ! ut]us3 ! poli%$ surface & /ony h>dness :i* s em95tly *>act]ize ! se$s ( ! ,li?osp]mum (fic9ale 7common gromwell7 7 deem$ a c]ta9 indication ( _! efficacy 9 calcul\s & gravelly disord]s2 = a simil> reason1 ! roots ( ! ,saxifraga granulata 7:ite saxifrage7 ga9$ reputation 9 ! cure ( ! same disease2 & ! ,euphrasia 7eye-bright7 acquir$ fame1 z an application 9 compla9ts ( ! eye1 because x exhibits a black spot 9 its corolla resembl+ ! pupil4 ,! blood-/one1 ! ,heliotropium ( ! anci5ts1 f ! occasional small specks or po9ts ( a blood-r$ color exhibit$ on its gre5 surface1 is ev5 at ?is v day employ$ 9 _m p>ts ( ,engl& & ,scotl& to /op a ble$+ f ! nose2 & nettle tea cont9ues a popul> rem$y = ! cure ( ,urtic>ia4 ,x is also ass]t$ t "s sub/ances be> ! signatures ( ! humors1 z ! petals ( ! r$ rose t ( ! blood1 & ! roots ( rhub>b & ! fl[]s ( saffron t ( ! bile40 ,! e>ly speculations respect+ ! *emical composition ( bodies 7 r5d]$ abortive by no circum/ance m ?an by _! inv>iably tak+ = grant$ t ! prop]ties ( ! elem5ts mu/ resemble ^? ( ! comp\nds :i* 7 =m$ f !m4 ,to desc5d to m mod]n in/ances2 x 0 long ?\ght1 & 0 /\tly ma9ta9$ by ! ,c>tesians & ev5 by ,leibnitz aga9/ ! ,newtonian sy/em 7nor did ,newton himself1 z we h se51 conte/ ! assumption1 b elud$ x by an arbitr>y hypo!sis71 t no?+ 7( a physical nature at lea/7 c\ld acc\nt = motion1 except previ\s motion2 ! impulse or impact ( "s o!r body4 ,x 0 v long be=e ! sci5tific _w c\ld prevail ^u itself to admit attraction & repulsion 7i4e41 spontane\s t5d5cies ( p>ticles to approa* or rec$e f "o ano!r7 z ultimate laws1 no m requir+ to be acc\nt$ = ?an impulse itself1 if inde$ ! latt] 7 n1 9 tru?1 resolvable into ! =m]4 ,f ! same s\rce arose ! innum]able hypo!ses devis$ to expla9 ^? classes ( motion :i* appe>$ m my/]i\s ?an o!rs because !re 0 no obvi\s mode ( attribut+ !m to impulse1 z = example ! volunt>y motions ( ! human body4 ,su* 7 ! int]m9able sy/ems ( vibrations propagat$ along ! n]ves1 or animal spirits ru%+ up & d[n betwe5 ! muscles & ! bra92 :i*1 if ! facts c\ld h be5 prov$1 w\ld h be5 an important addition to our k ( physiological laws2 b ! m]e inv5tion1 or arbitr>y supposition ( !m1 c\ld n unless by ! /ronge/ delusion be suppos$ to r5d] ! ph5om5a ( animal life m compreh5sible1 or less my/]i\s4 ,no?+1 h[ev]1 seem$ satisfactory1 b to make out t motion 0 caus$ by motion2 by some?+ l itself4 ,if x 0 n "o k9d ( motion1 x mu/ be ano!r4 ,9 l mann] x 0 suppos$ t ! physical qualities ( objects mu/ arise f "s simil> quality1 or p]haps only "s quality be>+ ! same "n1 9 ! p>ticles or atoms ( :i* ! objects 7 compos$2 t a %>p ta/e1 = example1 mu/ arise f %>p p>ticles4 ,& rev]s+ ! inf]5ce1 ! effects produc$ by a ph5om5on mu/1 x 0 suppos$1 resemble 9 _! physical attributes ! ph5om5on itself4 ,! influ5ces ( ! planets 7 suppos$ to be analog\s to _! visible peculi>ities3 ,m>s1 be+ ( a r$ color1 port5d$ fire & slaught]2 & ! l4 ,pass+ f physics to metaphysics1 we may notice among ! mo/ rem>kable fruits ( ?is a priori fallacy two closely analog\s !ories1 employ$ 9 anci5t & mod]n times to bridge ov] ! *asm betwe5 ! _w ( m9d & t ( matt]2 ! species s5sibiles ( ! ,epicureans1 & ! mod]n doctr9e ( p]ception by means ( ideas4 ,^! !ories are inde$1 probably1 indebt$ = _! exi/5ce n solely to ! fallacy 9 "q1 b to t fallacy comb9$ ) ano!r natural prejudice already adv]t$ to1 t a ?+ c n act :]e x is n4 ,9 bo? doctr9es x is assum$ t ! ph5om5on :i* takes place 9 u :5 we see or t\* an object1 & :i* we reg>d z an effect ( t object1 or r ( its pres5ce to our organs1 mu/ ( necessity resemble v closely ! outw>d object itself4 ,to fulfill ?is condition1 ! ,epicureans suppos$ t objects 7 con/antly project+ 9 all directions impalpable images ( !mselves1 :i* ent]$ at ! eyes & p5etrat$ to ! m9d2 :ile mod]n metaphysicians1 ?\gh !y reject$ ?is hypo!sis1 agre$ 9 deem+ x necess>y to suppose t n ! ?+ itself1 b a m5tal image or repres5tation ( x1 0 ! direct object ( p]ception4 ,dr4 ,reid _h to employ a _w ( argum5t & illu/ration to famili>ize p ) ! tru?1 t ! s5sations or impressions on our m9ds ne$ n necess>ily be copies (1 or be> any resemblance to1 ! causes :i* produce !m2 9 opposition to ! natural prejudice :i* l$ p to assimilate ! action ( bodies ^u our s5ses1 & ?r\gh !m ^u our m9ds1 to ! transf] ( a giv5 =m f "o object to ano!r by actual m\ld+4 ,! works ( ,dr4 ,reid are ev5 n[ ! mo/ effectual c\rse ( /udy = deta*+ ! m9d f ! prejudice ( :i* ?is 0 an example4 ,& ! value ( ! s]vice :i* he ?us r5d]$ to popul> philosophy is n mu* dim9i%$1 al?\gh we may hold1 ) ,br[n1 t he w5t too f> 9 imput+ ! 8ideal !ory0 z an actual t5et1 to ! g5]ality ( ! philosoph]s :o prec$$ him1 & especially to ,locke & ,hume2 = if !y did n !mselves consci\sly fall into ! error1 unque/ionably !y (t5 l$ _! read]s into x4 ,! prejudice1 t ! conditions ( a ph5om5on mu/ resemble ! ph5om5on1 is occasionally exagg]at$1 at lea/ v]bally1 into a /ill m palpable absurdity2 ! conditions ( ! ?+ are spok5 ( z if !y 7 ! v ?+ itself4 ,9 ,bacon's model inquiry1 :i* occupies s great a space 9 ! ,novum ,organum1 ! inquisitio 9 =mam calidi1 ! conclusion :i* he favors is t heat is a k9d ( motion2 mean+ ( c\rse n ! feel+ ( heat1 b ! conditions ( ! feel+2 mean+1 !re=e1 only t :]ev] !re is heat1 !re mu/ fir/ be a p>ticul> k9d ( motion2 b he makes no di/9ction 9 8 language betwe5 ^! two ideas1 express+ himself z if heat1 & ! conditions ( heat1 7 "o & ! same ?+4 ,s ! eld] ,d>w91 9 ! beg9n+ ( 8 ,zoonomia1 says1 8,! ^w idea has v>i\s mean+s 9 ! writ]s ( metaphysics2 x is "h us$ simply = ^? notions ( ext]nal ?+s :i* our organs ( s5se br+ u acqua9t$ ) orig9ally0 7?us f> ! proposition1 ?\gh vague1 is unexceptionable 9 mean+71 8& is def9$ a contraction1 a motion1 or configuration1 ( ! fibres :i* con/itute ! imm$iate organ ( s5se40 ,our notions1 a configuration ( ! fibres6 ,:at k9d ( logician mu/ he be :o ?9ks t a ph5om5on is def9$ to be ! condition on :i* he supposes x to dep5d8 ,accord+ly he says soon aft]1 n t our ideas are caus$ by1 or consequ5t on1 c]ta9 organic ph5om5a1 b 8our ideas are animal motions ( ! organs ( s5se40 ,& ?is confusion runs ?r\gh ! f\r volumes ( ! ,zoonomia2 ! read] nev] kn[s :e!r ! writ] is speak+ ( ! effect1 or ( its suppos$ cause2 ( ! idea1 a /ate ( m5tal consci\sness1 or ( ! /ate ( ! n]ves & bra9 :i* he consid]s x to presuppose4 ,i h giv5 a v>iety ( in/ances 9 :i* ! natural prejudice1 t causes & _! effects mu/ resemble "o ano!r1 has op]at$ 9 practice s z to give rise to s]i\s errors4 ,i %all n[ g fur!r1 & produce f writ+s ev5 ( ! pres5t or v rec5t times1 in/ances 9 :i* ?is prejudice is laid d[n z an e/abli%$ pr9ciple4 ,m4 ,victor ,c\s91 9 ! la/ ( 8 celebrat$ lectures on ,locke1 enunciates ! maxim 9 ! foll[+ unqualifi$ t]ms3 8,t\t ce qui e/ vrai de l'effet1 e/ vrai de la cause40 ,a doctr9e to :i*1 unless 9 "s peculi> & te*nical mean+ ( ! words cause & effect1 x is n to be imag9$ t any p]son w\ld lit]ally adh]e2 b he :o c\ld s write mu/ be f> en\gh f see+ t ! v rev]se might be ! effect2 t !re is no?+ impossible 9 ! supposition t no "o prop]ty :i* is true ( ! effect might be true ( ! cause4 ,)\t go+ q s f> 9 po9t ( expression1 ,col]idge1 9 8 ,biographia ,lit]>ia17#bdf7 affirms z an 8evid5t tru?10 t 8! law ( causality holds only betwe5 homog5e\s ?+s1 i4e41 ?+s hav+ "s common prop]ty10 & !re=e 8c n ext5d f "o _w into ano!r1 its opposite20 h5ce1 z m9d & matt] h no common prop]ty1 m9d c n act ^u matt]1 nor matt] ^u m9d4 ,:at is ?is b ! a priori fallacy ( :i* we are speak+8 ,! doctr9e1 l _m o!rs ( ,col]idge1 is tak5 f ,sp9oza1 9 ! fir/ book ( ^: ,e?ica 7,de ,deo7 x /&s z ! ,?ird ,proposition1 8,qu res nihil commune int] se hab5t1 e>um una alt]ius causa esse non pote/10 & is !re prov$ f two s-call$ axioms1 equally gratuit\s ) itself2 b ,sp9oza ev] sy/ematically consi/5t1 pursu$ ! doctr9e to its inevitable consequ5ce1 ! mat]iality ( ,god4 ,! same conception ( impossibility l$ ! +5i\s & subtle m9d ( ,leibnitz to 8 celebrat$ doctr9e ( a pre-e/abli%$ h>mony4 ,he1 too1 ?\ght t m9d c\ld n act ^u matt]1 nor matt] ^u m9d1 & t ! two1 !re=e1 mu/ h be5 arrang$ by _! ,mak] l two clocks1 :i*1 ?\gh unconnect$ ) "o ano!r1 /rike simultane\sly1 & always po9t to ! same h\r4 ,malebran*e's equally fam\s !ory ( ,occasional ,causes 0 ano!r =m ( ! same conception2 in/ead ( suppos+ ! clocks orig9ally arrang$ to /rike toge!r1 he held t :5 ! "o /rikes1 ,god int]poses1 & makes ! o!r /rike 9 correspond5ce ) x4 ,desc>tes1 9 l mann]1 ^: works are a ri* m9e ( almo/ e description ( a priori fallacy1 says t ! ,effici5t ,cause mu/ at lea/ h all ! p]fections ( ! effect1 & = ?is s+ul> reason3 8,si enim ponamus aliquid 9 ide rep]iri quod non fu]it 9 ejus caus1 hoc igitur habet a nihilo20 ( :i* x is sc>cely a p>ody to say1 t if !re be pepp] 9 ! s\p !re mu/ be pepp] 9 ! cook :o made x1 s9ce o!rwise ! pepp] w\ld be )\t a cause4 ,a simil> fallacy is committ$ by ,cic]o1 9 8 second book ,de ,f9ibus1 :]e1 speak+ 9 8 own p]son aga9/ ! ,epicureans1 he *>ges !m ) inconsi/5cy 9 say+ t ! pleasures ( ! m9d _h _! orig9 f ^? ( ! body1 & yet t ! =m] 7 m valuable1 z if ! effect c\ld surpass ! cause4 8,animi voluptas oritur propt] voluptatem corporis1 et major e/ animi voluptas quam corporis8 ita fit ut gratulator1 ltior sit quam is cui gratulatur40 ,ev5 t1 surely1 is n an impossibility2 a p]son's good =tune has (t5 giv5 m pleasure to o!rs ?an x gave to ! p]son himself4 ,desc>tes1 ) no less read9ess1 applies ! same pr9ciple ! conv]se way1 & inf]s ! nature ( ! effects f ! assumption t !y mu/1 9 ?is or t prop]ty or 9 all _! prop]ties1 resemble _! cause4 ,to ?is class belong 8 speculations1 & ^? ( s _m o!rs aft] him1 t5d+ to inf] ! ord] ( ! univ]se1 n f obs]vation1 b by a priori reason+ f suppos$ qualities ( ! ,godhead4 ,?is sort ( inf]5ce 0 probably nev] c>ri$ to a great] l5g? ?an x 0 9 "o p>ticul> in/ance by ,desc>tes1 :51 z a pro( ( "o ( 8 physical pr9ciples1 t ! quantity ( motion 9 ! univ]se is inv>iable1 he _h rec\rse to ! immutability ( ! ,div9e ,nature4 ,reason+ ( a v simil> "* is1 h[ev]1 ne>ly z common n[ z x 0 9 8 "t1 & does duty l>gely z a means ( f5c+ (f disagreeable conclusions4 ,writ]s h n yet ceas$ to oppose ! !ory ( div9e b5evol5ce to ! evid5ce ( physical facts1 to ! pr9ciple ( population = example4 ,& p seem 9 g5]al to ?9k t !y h us$ a v p[]ful argum5t1 :5 !y h said1 t to suppose "s proposition true1 w\ld be a reflection on ! goodness or wisdom ( ! ,deity4 ,put into ! simple/ possible t]ms1 _! argum5t is1 8,if x _h dep5d$ on me1 ,i w\ld n h made ! proposition true1 !re=e x is n true40 ,put into o!r words1 x /&s ?us3 8,god is p]fect1 !re=e 7:at ,i ?9k7 p]fection mu/ obta9 9 nature40 ,b s9ce 9 reality e "o feels t nature is v f> f p]fect1 ! doctr9e is nev] appli$ consi/5tly4 ,x furni%es an argum5t :i* 7l _m o!rs ( a simil> "*7 p l to appeal to :5 x makes = _! own side4 ,nobody is conv9c$ by x1 b ea* appe>s to ?9k t x puts religion on 8 side ( ! "q1 & t x is a useful weapon ( (f5se = w\nd+ an adv]s>y4 ,al?\gh sev]al o!r v>ieties ( a priori fallacy might probably be add$ to ^? "h specifi$1 ^! are all aga9/ :i* x seems necess>y to give any special caution4 ,our object is to op51 )\t attempt+ or affect+ to exhau/1 ! subject4 ,hav+ illu/rat$1 !re=e1 ?is fir/ class ( ,fallacies at suffici5t l5g?1 ,i %all proce$ to ! second4 ,*apt] ,,iv4 ,fallacies ,( ,obs]vation4 #a4 ,f ! ,fallacies :i* are prop]ly ,prejudices1 or presumptions antec$5t to1 & sup]s$+1 pro(1 we pass to ^? :i* lie 9 ! incorrect p]=mance ( ! prov+ process4 ,& z ,pro(1 9 its wide/ ext5t1 embraces "o or m1 or all1 ( ?ree processes1 ,obs]vation1 ,g5]alization1 & ,d$uction1 we %all consid] 9 _! ord] ! errors capable ( be+ committ$ 9 ^! ?ree op]ations4 ,& fir/1 ( ! fir/ m5tion$4 ,a fallacy ( misobs]vation may be ei!r negative or positive2 ei!r ,non-obs]vation or ,mal-obs]vation4 ,x is non-obs]vation1 :5 all ! error consi/s 9 ov]look+1 or neglect+1 facts or p>ticul>s :i* ought to h be5 obs]v$4 ,x is mal-obs]vation1 :5 some?+ is n simply unse51 b se5 wrong2 :5 ! fact or ph5om5on1 in/ead ( be+ recogniz$ = :at x is 9 reality1 is mi/ak5 = some?+ else4 #b4 ,non-obs]vation may ei!r take place by ov]look+ in/ances1 or by ov]look+ "s ( ! circum/ances ( a giv5 in/ance4 ,if we 7 to conclude t a =tune-tell] 0 a true prophet1 f n adv]t+ to ! cases 9 :i* 8 pr$ictions _h be5 falsifi$ by ! ev5t1 ?is w\ld be non-obs]vation ( in/ances2 b if we ov]look$ or rema9$ ignorant ( ! fact t 9 cases :]e ! pr$ictions _h be5 fulfill$1 he _h be5 9 collusion ) "s "o :o _h giv5 him ! in=mation on :i* !y 7 gr\nd$1 ?is w\ld be non-obs]vation ( circum/ances4 ,! =m] case1 9 s f> z ! act ( induction f insuffici5t evid5ce is conc]n$1 does n fall "u ?is second class ( ,fallacies1 b "u ! ?ird1 ,fallacies ( ,g5]alization4 ,9 e su* case1 h[ev]1 !re are two defects or errors in/ead ( "o2 !re is ! error ( treat+ ! insuffici5t evid5ce z if x 7 suffici5t1 :i* is a ,fallacy ( ! ?ird class2 & !re is ! insuffici5cy itself2 ! n hav+ bett] evid5ce2 :i*1 :5 su* evid5ce1 or1 9 o!r words1 :5 o!r in/ances1 7 to be _h1 is ,non-obs]vation2 & ! errone\s inf]5ce1 s f> z x is to be attribut$ to ?is cause1 is a ,fallacy ( ! second class4 ,x belongs n to our purpose to treat ( non-obs]vation z aris+ f casual inatt5tion1 f g5]al slov5l9ess ( m5tal habits1 want ( due practice 9 ! use ( ! obs]v+ faculties1 or insuffici5t int]e/ 9 ! subject4 ,! "q p]t95t to logic is--,grant+ ! want ( complete compet5cy 9 ! obs]v]1 on :at po9t is t insuffici5cy on 8 "p likely to lead him wrong8 or r1 :at sorts ( in/ances1 or ( circum/ances 9 any giv5 in/ance1 are mo/ likely to escape ! notice ( obs]v]s g5]ally2 ( mank9d at l>ge4 #c4 ,fir/1 !n1 x is evid5t t :5 ! in/ances on "o side ( a "q are m likely to be rememb]$ & record$ ?an ^? on ! o!r2 especially if !re be any /rong motive to pres]ve ! memory ( ! fir/1 b n ( ! latt]2 ^! la/ are likely to be ov]look$1 & escape ! obs]vation ( ! mass ( mank9d4 ,?is is ! recogniz$ explanation ( ! cr$it giv51 9 spite ( reason & evid5ce1 to _m classes ( impo/ors2 to quack-doctors1 & =tune-tell]s 9 all ages2 to ! 8cunn+ man0 ( mod]n times1 & ! oracles ( old4 ,few h consid]$ ! ext5t to :i* ?is fallacy op]ates 9 practice1 ev5 9 ! tee? ( ! mo/ palpable negative evid5ce4 ,a /rik+ example ( x is ! fai? :i* ! un$ucat$ portion ( ! agricultural classes1 9 ?is & o!r c\ntries1 cont9ue to repose 9 ! prophecies z to wea!r suppli$ by almanac-mak]s2 ?\gh e season af=ds to !m num]\s cases ( completely errone\s pr$iction2 b z e season also furni%es "s cases 9 :i* ! pr$iction is fulfill$1 ?is is en\gh to keep up ! cr$it ( ! prophet1 ) p :o d n reflect on ! numb] ( in/ances requisite = :at we h call$1 9 our inductive t]m9ology1 ! ,elim9ation ( ,*ance2 s9ce a c]ta9 numb] ( casual co9cid5ces n only may b w happ51 betwe5 any two unconnect$ ev5ts4 ,col]idge1 9 "o ( ! essays 9 ! ,fri5d1 has illu/rat$ ! matt] we are n[ consid]+1 9 discuss+ ! orig9 ( a prov]b1 8:i*1 diff]5tly word$1 is to be f\nd 9 all ! languages ( ,europe10 viz41 8,=tune favors fools40 ,he ascribes x p>tly to ! 8t5d5cy to exagg]ate all effects t seem disproportionate to _! visible cause1 & all circum/ances t are 9 any way /rongly contra/$ ) our notions ( ! p]sons "u !m40 ,omitt+ "s explanations :i* w\ld ref] ! error to mal-obs]vation1 or to ! o!r species ( non-obs]vation 7t ( circum/ances71 ,i take up ! quotation fur!r on4 8,un=ese5 co9cid5ces may h greatly help$ a man1 yet if !y h done = him only :at possibly f 8 own abilities he might h effect$ = himself1 8 good luck w excite less att5tion1 & ! in/ances be less rememb]$4 ,t clev] m5 %\ld atta9 _! objects seems natural1 & we neglect ! circum/ances t p]haps produc$ t success ( !mselves )\t ! int]v5tion ( skill or =esight2 b we dwell on ! fact & rememb] x1 z some?+ /range1 :5 ! same happ5s to a weak or ignorant man4 ,s too1 ?\gh ! latt] %\ld fail 9 8 und]tak+s f concurr5ces t might h happ5$ to ! wise/ man1 yet 8 failure be+ no m ?an might h be5 expect$ & acc\nt$ = f 8 folly1 x lays no hold on our att5tion1 b fleets away among ! o!r undi/+ui%$ waves 9 :i* ! /ream ( ord9>y life murmurs by u1 & is =gott54 ,_h x be5 z true z x 0 notori\sly false1 t ^? all-embrac+ discov]ies1 :i* h %$ a dawn ( sci5ce on ! art ( *emi/ry1 & give no obscure promise ( "s "o great con/itutive law1 9 ! light ( :i* dwell dom9ion & ! p[] ( prophecy2 if ^! discov]ies1 in/ead ( hav+ be51 z !y really 71 preconc]t$ by m$itation1 & evolv$ out ( 8 own intellect1 _h occurr$ by a set ( lucky accid5ts to ! illu/ri\s fa!r & f\nd] ( philosophic al*emy2 if !y _h pres5t$ !mselves to ,pr(essor ,davy exclusively 9 consequ5ce ( 8 luck 9 possess+ a p>ticul> galvanic batt]y2 if ?is batt]y1 z f> z ,davy 0 conc]n$1 _h itself be5 an accid5t1 & n 7z 9 po9t ( fact x 07 desir$ & obta9$ by him = ! purpose ( insur+ ! te/imony ( exp]i5ce to 8 pr9ciples1 & 9 ord] to b9d d[n mat]ial nature "u ! inquisition ( reason1 & =ce f h]1 z by torture1 unequivocal answ]s to prep>$ & preconceiv$ que/ions--yet /ill !y w\ld n h be5 talk$ ( or describ$ z in/ances ( luck1 b z ! natural results ( 8 admitt$ g5ius & kn[n skill4 ,b %\ld an accid5t h disclos$ simil> discov]ies to a me*anic at ,birm+ham or ,%effield1 & if ! man %\ld gr[ ri* 9 consequ5ce1 & p>tly by ! envy ( 8 neighbors & p>tly ) good reason1 be consid]$ by !m z a man bel[ p> 9 ! g5]al p[]s ( 8 und]/&+2 !n1 #8,oh1 :at a lucky fell[6 ,well1 ,=tune does favor fools--t's = c]ta96 ,x is always s6' ,& =?) ! exclaim] relates half a doz5 simil> in/ances4 ,?us accumulat+ ! "o sort ( facts & nev] collect+ ! o!r1 we d1 z poets 9 _! diction1 & quacks ( all d5om9ations d 9 _! reason+1 put a "p = ! :ole40 ,?is passage v happily sets =? ! mann] 9 :i*1 "u ! loose mode ( induction :i* proce$s p] enum]ationem simplicem1 n seek+ = in/ances ( su* a k9d z to be decisive ( ! "q1 b g5]aliz+ f any :i* occur1 or r :i* are rememb]$1 op9ions gr[ up ) ! app>5t sanction ( exp]i5ce1 :i* h no f\ndation 9 ! laws ( nature at all4 8,itaque recte respondit ille0 7we may say ) ,bacon7#bdg771 8qui cum susp5sa tabula 9 templo ei mon/r>etur eorum1 qui vota solv]ant1 quod naufragii p]iculo elapsi s9t1 atque int]rog&o prem]etur1 anne tum quidem ,deorum num5 agnosc]et1 qusivit d5uo1 ,at ubi sunt illi depicti qui po/ vota nuncupata p]i]unt8 ,eadem ratio e/ f]e omnis sup]/itionis1 ut 9 ,a/rologicis1 9 ,somniis1 ,om9ibus1 ,nemesibus1 et hujusmodi2 9 quibus1 hom9es delectati hujusmodi vanitatibus1 adv]tunt ev5tus1 ubi impl5tur2 a/ ubi fallunt1 licet multo frequ5tius1 tam5 negligunt1 et prt]eunt40 ,& he proce$s to say t1 indep5d5tly ( ! love ( ! m>vel\s1 or any o!r bias 9 ! incl9ations1 !re is a natural t5d5cy 9 ! intellect itself to ?is k9d ( fallacy2 s9ce ! m9d is m mov$ by affirmative in/ances1 ?\gh negative ones are ( mo/ use 9 philosophy3 8,is tam5 humano intellectui error e/ proprius et p]petuus1 ut magis moveatur et excitetur ,affirmativis quam ,negativis2 cum rite et ord9e quum se utrique prb]e debeat2 qu9 contra1 9 omni ,axiomate v]o con/itu5do1 major vis e/ in/anti negativ40 ,b ! greate/ ( all causes ( non-obs]vation is a preconceiv$ op9ion4 ,?is x is :i*1 9 all ages1 has made ! :ole race ( mank9d1 & e sep>ate section ( x1 = ! mo/ "p unobs]vant ( all facts1 h[ev] abundant1 ev5 :5 pass+ "u _! own eyes1 :i* are contradictory to any fir/ appe>ance1 or any receiv$ t5et4 ,x is wor? :ile to recall occasionally to ! oblivi\s memory ( mank9d "s ( ! /rik+ in/ances 9 :i* op9ions t ! simple/ exp]im5t w\ld h %[n to be errone\s1 cont9u$ to be ent]ta9$ because nobody ev] ?\ght ( try+ t exp]im5t4 ,"o ( ! mo/ rem>kable ( ^! 0 exhibit$ 9 ! ,cop]nican controv]sy4 ,! oppon5ts ( ,cop]nicus argu$ t ! e>? did n move1 because if x did1 a /one let fall f ! top ( a high t[] w\ld n rea* ! gr\nd at ! foot ( ! t[]1 b at a little di/ance f x1 9 a contr>y direction to ! e>?'s c\rse2 9 ! same mann] 7said !y7 z1 if a ball is let drop f ! ma/-head :ile ! %ip is 9 full sail1 x does n fall exactly at ! foot ( ! ma/1 b ne>] to ! /]n ( ! vessel4 ,! ,cop]nicans w\ld h sil5c$ ^! objectors at once if !y _h tri$ dropp+ a ball f ! ma/-head1 s9ce !y w\ld h f\nd t x does fall exactly at ! foot1 z ! !ory requires2 b no2 !y admitt$ ! spuri\s fact1 & /ruggl$ va9ly to make out a diff]5ce betwe5 ! two cases4 8,! ball 0 no "p ( ! %ip--& ! motion =w>d 0 n natural1 ei!r to ! %ip or to ! ball4 ,! /one1 on ! o!r h&1 let fall f ! top ( ! t[]1 0 a "p ( ! e>?2 & !re=e1 ! diurnal & annul> revolutions :i* 7 natural to ! e>?1 7 also natural to ! /one2 ! /one w\ld1 !re=e1 reta9 ! same motion ) ! t[]1 & /rike ! gr\nd precisely at ! bottom ( x407#bdh7 ,o!r examples1 sc>cely less /rik+1 are record$ by ,dr4 ,:ewell17#bdi7 :]e imag9>y laws ( nature h cont9u$ to be receiv$ z real1 m]ely because no p]son _h /eadily look$ at facts :i* almo/ e "o _h ! opportunity ( obs]v+4 8,a vague & loose mode ( look+ at facts v easily obs]vable1 left m5 = a long "t "u ! belief t a body t5 times z heavy z ano!r falls t5 times z fa/2 t objects imm]s$ 9 wat] are always magnifi$1 )\t reg>d to ! =m ( ! surface2 t ! magnet ex]ts an irresi/ible =ce2 t cry/al is always f\nd associat$ ) ice2 & ! l4 ,^! & _m o!rs are examples h[ bl9d & c>eless man c be ev5 9 obs]vation ( ! pla9e/ & commone/ appe>ances2 & !y %[ u t ! m]e faculties ( p]ception1 al?\gh con/antly ex]cis$ ^u innum]able objects1 may long fail 9 lead+ to any exact k40 ,if ev5 on physical facts1 & ^! ( ! mo/ obvi\s "*1 ! obs]v+ faculties ( mank9d c be to ?is degree ! passive slaves ( _! preconceiv$ impressions1 we ne$ n be surpris$ t ?is %\ld be s lam5tably true z all exp]i5ce atte/s x to be1 on ?+s m ne>ly connect$ ) _! /rong] feel+s--on moral1 social1 & religi\s subjects4 ,! in=mation :i* an ord9>y travel] br+s back f a =eign c\ntry1 z ! result ( ! evid5ce ( 8 s5ses1 is almo/ always su* z exactly confirms ! op9ions ) :i* he set out4 ,he has _h eyes & e>s = su* ?+s only z he expect$ to see4 ,m5 read ! sacr$ books ( _! religion1 & pass unobs]v$ !re9 multitudes ( ?+s utt]ly irreconcilable ) ev5 _! own notions ( moral excell5ce4 ,) ! same au?orities be=e !m1 diff]5t hi/orians1 alike innoc5t ( int5tional misrepres5tation1 see only :at is favorable to ,prote/ants or ,ca?olics1 royali/s or republicans1 ,*>les ,i4 or ,cromwell2 :ile o!rs1 hav+ set out ) ! preconception t extremes mu/ be 9 ! wrong1 are incapable ( see+ tru? & ju/ice :5 ^! are :olly on "o side4 ,! influ5ce ( a preconceiv$ !ory is well exemplifi$ 9 ! sup]/itions ( b>b>ians respect+ ! virtues ( m$icam5ts & *>ms4 ,! negroes1 among :om coral1 z ( old among ourselves1 is worn z an amulet1 affirm1 accord+ to ,dr4 ,p>is17#bej7 t its color 8is always affect$ by ! /ate ( heal? ( ! we>]1 x becom+ pal] 9 disease40 ,on a matt] op5 to univ]sal obs]vation1 a g5]al proposition :i* has n ! smalle/ ve/ige ( tru? is receiv$ z a result ( exp]i5ce2 ! preconceiv$ op9ion prev5t+1 x w\ld seem1 any obs]vation :atev] on ! subject4 #d4 ,= illu/ration ( ! fir/ species ( non-obs]vation1 t ( ,in/ances1 :at has n[ be5 /at$ may suffice4 ,b !re may also be non-obs]vation ( "s mat]ial circum/ances1 9 in/ances :i* h n be5 altoge!r ov]look$--nay1 :i* may be ! v in/ances on :i* ! :ole sup]/ructure ( a !ory has be5 f\nd$4 ,z1 9 ! cases hi!rto exam9$1 a g5]al proposition 0 too ra%ly adopt$1 on ! evid5ce ( p>ticul>s1 true inde$1 b insuffici5t to support x2 s 9 ! cases to :i* we n[ turn1 ! p>ticul>s !mselves h be5 imp]fectly obs]v$1 & ! s+ul> propositions on :i* ! g5]alization is gr\nd$1 or "s at lea/ ( ^? s+ul> propositions1 are false4 ,su*1 = in/ance1 0 "o ( ! mi/akes committ$ 9 ! celebrat$ phlogi/ic !ory2 a doctr9e :i* acc\nt$ = combu/ion by ! extrication ( a sub/ance call$ phlogi/on1 suppos$ to be conta9$ 9 all combu/ible matt]4 ,! hypo!sis accord$ tol]ably well ) sup]ficial appe>ances2 ! asc5t ( flame naturally sugge/s ! escape ( a sub/ance2 & ! visible residuum ( a%es1 9 bulk & weight1 g5]ally falls extremely %ort ( ! combu/ible mat]ial4 ,! error 01 non-obs]vation ( an important portion ( ! actual residue1 namely1 ! gase\s products ( combu/ion4 ,:5 ^! 7 at la/ notic$ & br\ght into acc\nt1 x appe>$ to be a univ]sal law1 t all sub/ances ga9 in/ead ( los+ weight by und]go+ combu/ion2 & aft] ! usual attempt to accommodate ! old !ory to ! new fact by means ( an arbitr>y hypo!sis 7t phlogi/on _h ! quality ( positive levity in/ead ( gravity71 *emi/s 7 conduct$ to ! true explanation1 namely1 t in/ead ( a sub/ance sep>at$1 !re 01 on ! contr>y1 a sub/ance absorb$4 ,_m ( ! absurd practices :i* h be5 deem$ to possess m$ic9al efficacy1 h be5 indebt$ = _! reputation to non-obs]vance ( "s accompany+ circum/ance :i* 0 ! real ag5t 9 ! cures ascrib$ to !m4 ,?us1 ( ! sympa!tic p[d] ( ,sir ,k5elm ,digby3 8,:5ev] any w\nd _h be5 inflict$1 ?is p[d] 0 appli$ to ! weapon t _h inflict$ x1 :i* 01 moreov]1 cov]$ ) o9tm5t1 & dress$ two or ?ree times a day4 ,! w\nd itself1 9 ! mean "t1 0 direct$ to be br\ght toge!r1 & c>efully b\nd up ) clean l95 rags1 b1 above all1 to be let alone = sev5 days1 at ! end ( :i* p]iod ! b&ages 7 remov$1 :5 ! w\nd 0 g5]ally f\nd p]fectly unit$4 ,! triumph ( ! cure 0 decre$ to ! my/]i\s ag5cy ( ! sympa!tic p[d] :i* _h be5 s assidu\sly appli$ to ! weapon1 :]eas x is h>dly necess>y to obs]ve t ! promptness ( ! cure dep5d$ on ! total exclusion ( air f ! w\nd1 & ^u ! sanative op]ations ( nature n hav+ receiv$ any di/urbance f ! (fici\s int]f]5ce ( art4 ,! result1 beyond all d\bt1 furni%$ ! fir/ h9t :i* l$ surgeons to ! improv$ practice ( heal+ w\nds by :at is te*nically call$ ! fir/ int5tion407#bea7 8,9 all records10 adds ,dr4 ,p>is1 ( 8extraord9>y cures p]=m$ by my/]i\s ag5ts1 !re is a great desire to conceal ! rem$ies & o!r curative means :i* 7 simultane\sly adm9i/]$ ) !m2 ?us ,oribasius comm5ds 9 high t]ms a necklace ( ,pony root = ! cure ( epilepsy2 b we le>n t he always took c>e to accompany its use ) copi\s evacuations1 al?\gh he assigns to !m no %>e ( cr$it 9 ! cure4 ,9 lat] times we h a good specim5 ( ?is species ( deception1 pres5t$ to u 9 a "w on scr(ula by ,mr4 ,morley1 writt51 z we are in=m$1 = ! sole purpose ( re/or+ ! mu*-injur$ "* & use ( ! ,v]va92 9 :i* ! au?or directs ! root ( ?is plant to be ti$ ) a y>d ( :ite sat9 ribbon ar\nd ! neck1 :]e x is to rema9 until ! pati5t is cur$2 b m>k--dur+ ?is int]val he calls to 8 aid ! mo/ active m$ic9es 9 ! mat]ia m$ica407#beb7 ,9 o!r cases1 ! cures really produc$ by re/1 regim51 & amusem5t h be5 ascrib$ to ! m$ic9al1 or occasionally to ! sup]natural1 means :i* 7 put 9 requisition4 8,! celebrat$ ,john ,wesley1 :ile he commemorates ! triumph ( sulphur & supplication ov] 8 bodily infirmity1 =gets to appreciate ! resuscitat+ influ5ce ( f\r mon?s' repose f 8 apo/olic labors2 & su* is ! disposition ( ! human m9d to place confid5ce 9 ! op]ation ( my/]i\s ag5ts1 t we f9d him m dispos$ to attribute 8 cure to a br[n pap] pla/] ( egg & brim/one1 ?an to ,dr4 ,fo!rgill's salut>y prescription ( c\ntry air1 re/1 asses' milk1 & horse ex]cise407#bec7 ,9 ! foll[+ example1 ! circum/ance ov]look$ 0 ( a some:at diff]5t "*4 8,:5 ! yell[ fev] rag$ 9 ,am]ica1 ! practition]s tru/$ exclusively to ! copi\s use ( m]cury2 at fir/ ?is plan 0 deem$ s univ]sally efficaci\s1 t1 9 ! en?usiasm ( ! mom5t1 x 0 triumphantly proclaim$ t dea? nev] took place aft] ! m]cury _h ev9c$ its effect ^u ! sy/em3 all ?is 0 v true1 b x furni%$ no pro( ( ! efficacy ( t metal1 s9ce ! disease 9 its aggravat$ =m 0 s rapid 9 its c>e]1 t x swept away its victims long be=e ! sy/em c\ld be br\ght "u m]curial influ5ce1 :ile 9 its mild] %ape x pass$ (f equally well )\t any assi/ance f art407#bed7 ,9 ^! examples ! circum/ance ov]look$ 0 cognizable by ! s5ses4 ,9 o!r cases1 x is "o ! k ( :i* c\ld only be arriv$ at by reason+2 b ! fallacy may /ill be class$ "u ! head to :i*1 = want ( a m appropriate "n1 we h giv5 ! appellation ,fallacies ( ,non-obs]vation4 ,x is n ! nature ( ! faculties :i* ought to h be5 employ$1 b ! non-employm5t ( !m1 :i* con/itutes ?is ,natural ,ord] ( ,fallacies4 ,:]ev] ! error is negative1 n positive2 :]ev] x consi/s especially 9 ov]look+1 9 be+ ignorant or unm9dful ( "s fact :i*1 if kn[n & att5d$ to1 w\ld h made a diff]5ce 9 ! conclusion arriv$ at2 ! error is prop]ly plac$ 9 ! ,class :i* we are consid]+4 ,9 ?is ,class1 !re is n1 z 9 all o!r fallacies !re is1 a positive mise/imate ( evid5ce actually _h4 ,! conclusion w\ld be j1 if ! portion :i* is se5 ( ! case 7 ! :ole ( x2 b !re is ano!r portion ov]look$1 :i* vitiates ! result4 ,= in/ance1 !re is a rem>kable doctr9e :i* has occasionally f\nd a v5t 9 ! public spee*es ( unwise legislators1 b :i* only 9 "o in/ance t ,i am aw>e ( has receiv$ ! sanction ( a philosophical writ]1 namely1 ,m4 ,c\s91 :o 9 8 preface to ! ,gorgias ( ,plato1 cont5d+ t puni%m5t mu/ h "s o!r & high] ju/ification ?an ! prev5tion ( crime1 makes use ( ?is argum5t--t if puni%m5t 7 only = ! sake ( example1 x w\ld be indiff]5t :e!r we puni%$ ! innoc5t or ! guilty1 s9ce ! puni%m5t1 consid]$ z an example1 is equally efficaci\s 9 ei!r case4 ,n[ we mu/1 9 ord] to g along ) ?is reason+1 suppose1 t ! p]son :o feels himself "u temptation1 obs]v+ somebody puni%$1 concludes himself to be 9 dang] ( be+ puni%$ likewise1 & is t]rifi$ accord+ly4 ,b x is =gott5 t if ! p]son puni%$ is suppos$ to be innoc5t1 or ev5 if !re be any d\bt ( 8 guilt1 ! spectator w reflect t 8 own dang]1 :atev] x may be1 is n cont+5t on 8 guilt9ess1 b ?reat5s him equally if he rema9s innoc5t1 & h[1 !re=e1 is he det]r$ f guilt by ! appreh5sion ( su* puni%m5t8 ,m4 ,c\s9 supposes t p w be dissuad$ f guilt by :atev] r5d]s ! condition ( ! guilty m p]il\s1 =gett+ t ! condition ( ! innoc5t 7also "o ( ! elem5ts 9 ! calculation7 is1 9 ! case suppos$1 made p]il\s 9 precisely an equal degree4 ,?is is a fallacy ( ov]look+2 or ( non-obs]vation1 )9 ! int5t ( our classification4 ,fallacies ( ?is description are ! great /umbl+-block to correct ?9k+ 9 political economy4 ,! economical work+s ( society af=d num]\s cases 9 :i* ! effects ( a cause consi/ ( two sets ( ph5om5a3 ! "o imm$iate1 conc5trat$1 obvi\s to all eyes1 & pass+1 9 common appreh5sion1 = ! :ole effect2 ! o!r widely diffus$1 or ly+ deep] "u ! surface1 & :i* is exactly contr>y to ! =m]4 ,take1 = in/ance1 ! common notion s plausible at ! fir/ glance1 ( ! enc\ragem5t giv5 to indu/ry by lavi% exp5diture4 ,a1 :o sp5ds 8 :ole income1 & ev5 8 capital1 9 exp5sive liv+1 is suppos$ to give great employm5t to labor4 ,b1 :o lives on a small portion1 & inve/s ! rema9d] 9 ! funds1 is ?\ght to give little or no employm5t4 ,= e body sees ! ga9s :i* are made by ,a's tradesm51 s]vants1 & o!rs1 :ile 8 money is sp5d+4 ,b's sav+s1 on ! contr>y1 pass into ! h&s ( ! p]son ^: /ock he pur*as$1 :o ) x pays a debt he ow$ to "s bank]1 :o l5ds x aga9 to "s m]*ant or manufactur]2 & ! capital be+ laid out 9 hir+ sp9n]s & weav]s1 or c>ri]s & ! crews ( m]*ant vessels1 n only gives imm$iate employm5t to at lea/ z mu* indu/ry z ,a employs dur+ ! :ole ( 8 c>e]1 b com+ back ) increase by ! sale ( ! goods :i* h be5 manufactur$ or import$1 =ms a fund = ! employm5t ( ! same & p]haps a great] quantity ( labor 9 p]petuity4 ,b ! obs]v] does n see1 & !re=e does n consid]1 :at becomes ( ,b's money2 he does see :at is done ) ,a's2 he obs]ves ! am\nt ( indu/ry :i* ,a's pr(usion fe$s2 he obs]ves n ! f> great] quantity :i* x prev5ts f be+ f$2 & !nce ! prejudice1 univ]sal to ! "t ( ,adam ,smi?1 t prodigality enc\rages indu/ry1 & p>simony is a disc\ragem5t to x4 ,! common argum5t aga9/ free trade 0 a fallacy ( ! same nature4 ,! pur*as] ( ,briti% silk enc\rages ,briti% indu/ry2 ! pur*as] ( ,lyons silk enc\rages only ,fr5*2 ! =m] conduct is patriotic1 ! latt] ought to be prev5t$ by law4 ,! circum/ance is ov]look$1 t ! pur*as] ( any =eign commodity necess>ily causes1 directly or indirectly1 ! export ( an equival5t value ( "s article ( home production 7beyond :at w\ld o!rwise be export$71 ei!r to ! same =eign c\ntry or to "s o!r2 :i* fact1 ?\gh f ! complication ( ! circum/ances x c n always be v]ifi$ by specific obs]vation1 no obs]vation c possibly be br\ght to contradict1 :ile ! evid5ce ( reason+ on :i* x re/s is irrefragable4 ,! fallacy is1 !re=e1 ! same z 9 ! prec$+ case1 t ( see+ a "p only ( ! ph5om5a1 & imag9+ t "p to be ! :ole2 & may be rank$ among ,fallacies ( ,non-obs]vation4 #e4 ,to complete ! exam9ation ( ! second ( our five classes1 we h n[ to speak ( ,mal-obs]vation2 9 :i* ! error does n lie 9 ! fact t some?+ is unse51 b t some?+ se5 is se5 wrong4 ,p]ception be+ infallible evid5ce ( :atev] is really p]ceiv$1 ! error n[ "u consid]ation c be committ$ no o!rwise ?an by mi/ak+ = conception :at is1 9 fact1 inf]5ce4 ,we h =m]ly %[n h[ intimately ! two are bl5d$ 9 almo/ e ?+ :i* is call$ obs]vation1 & /ill m 9 e ,description47#bee7 ,:at is actually on any occasion p]ceiv$ by our s5ses be+ s m9ute 9 am\nt1 & g5]ally s unimportant a portion ( ! /ate ( facts :i* we wi% to asc]ta9 or to communicate2 x w\ld be absurd to say t ei!r 9 our obs]vations1 or 9 convey+ _! result to o!rs1 we ought n to m+le inf]5ce ) fact2 all t c be said is1 t :5 we d s we ought to be aw>e ( :at we are do+1 & to "k :at "p ( ! ass]tion re/s on consci\sness1 & is !re=e indisputable1 :at "p on inf]5ce1 & is !re=e que/ionable4 ,"o ( ! mo/ celebrat$ examples ( a univ]sal error produc$ by mi/ak+ an inf]5ce = ! direct evid5ce ( ! s5ses1 0 ! resi/ance made1 on ! gr\nd ( common s5se1 to ! ,cop]nican sy/em4 ,p fanci$ !y saw ! sun rise & set1 ! />s revolve 9 circles r\nd ! pole4 ,we n[ "k t !y saw no su* ?+2 :at !y really saw 0 a set ( appe>ances1 equally reconcilable ) ! !ory !y held & ) a totally diff]5t "o4 ,x seems /range t su* an in/ance z ?is ( ! te/imony ( ! s5ses plead$ ) ! mo/ entire conviction 9 favor ( some?+ :i* 0 a m]e inf]5ce ( ! judgm5t1 &1 z x turn$ out1 a false inf]5ce1 %\ld n h op5$ ! eyes ( ! bigots ( common s5se1 & inspir$ !m ) a m mode/ di/ru/ ( ! compet5cy ( m]e ignorance to judge ! conclusions ( cultivat$ ?\ght4 ,9 proportion to any p]son's defici5cy ( k & m5tal cultivation is1 g5]ally1 8 inability to discrim9ate betwe5 8 inf]5ces & ! p]ceptions on :i* !y 7 gr\nd$4 ,_m a m>vel\s tale1 _m a sc&al\s anecdote1 owes its orig9 to ?is incapacity4 ,! n>rator relates1 n :at he saw or he>d1 b ! impression :i* he d]iv$ f :at he saw or he>d1 & ( :i* p]haps ! great] "p consi/$ ( inf]5ce1 ?\gh ! :ole is relat$1 n z inf]5ce b z matt] ( fact4 ,! difficulty ( induc+ witnesses to re/ra9 )9 any mod]ate limits ! int]mixture ( _! inf]5ces ) ! n>rative ( _! p]ceptions1 is well kn[n to exp]i5c$ cross-exam9]s2 & /ill m is ?is ! case :5 ignorant p]sons attempt to describe any natural ph5om5on4 8,! simple/ n>rative10 says ,dugald ,/ew>t17#bef7 8( ! mo/ illit]ate obs]v] involves m or less ( hypo!sis2 nay1 9 g5]al1 x w be f\nd t1 9 proportion to 8 ignorance1 ! great] is ! numb] ( conjectural pr9ciples involv$ 9 8 /atem5ts4 ,a village apo!c>y 7&1 if possible1 9 a /ill great] degree1 an exp]i5c$ nurse7 is seldom able to describe ! pla9e/ case1 )\t employ+ a phraseology ( :i* e ^w is a !ory3 :]eas a simple & g5u9e specification ( ! ph5om5a :i* m>k a p>ticul> disease2 a specification unsophi/icat$ by fancy1 or by preconceiv$ op9ions1 may be reg>d$ z unequivocal evid5ce ( a m9d tra9$ by long & successful /udy to ! mo/ difficult ( all arts1 t ( ! fai?ful int]pretation ( nature40 ,! univ]sality ( ! confusion betwe5 p]ceptions & ! inf]5ces drawn f !m1 & ! r>ity ( ! p[] to discrim9ate ! "o f ! o!r1 ceases to surprise u :5 we consid] t 9 ! f> great] numb] ( in/ances ! actual p]ceptions ( our s5ses are ( no importance or int]e/ to u except z m>ks f :i* we inf] some?+ beyond !m4 ,x is n ! color & sup]ficial ext5sion p]ceiv$ by ! eye t are important to u1 b ! object1 ( :i* ^? visible appe>ances te/ify ! pres5ce2 & :]e ! s5sation itself is indiff]5t1 z x g5]ally is1 we h no motive to att5d p>ticul>ly to x1 b acquire a habit ( pass+ x ov] )\t di/9ct consci\sness1 & go+ on at once to ! inf]5ce4 ,s t to "k :at ! s5sation actually 01 is a /udy 9 itself1 to :i* pa9t]s1 = example1 h to tra9 !mselves by special & long-cont9u$ discipl9e & application4 ,9 ?+s f>!r remov$ f ! dom9ion ( ! outw>d s5ses1 no "o :o has n great exp]i5ce 9 psy*ological analysis is compet5t to break ?is int5se association2 & :5 su* analytic habits d n exi/ 9 ! requisite degree1 x is h>dly possible to m5tion any ( ! habitual judgm5ts ( mank9d on subjects ( a high degree ( ab/raction1 f ! be+ ( a ,god & ! immortality ( ! s\l d[n to ! multiplication table1 :i* are n1 or h n be51 consid]$ z matt] ( direct intuition4 ,s /rong is ! t5d5cy to ascribe an intuitive "* to judgm5ts :i* are m]e inf]5ces1 & (t5 false ones4 ,no "o c d\bt t _m a delud$ vision>y has actually believ$ t he 0 directly inspir$ f ,heav51 & t ! ,almighty _h conv]s$ ) him face to face2 :i* yet 0 only1 on 8 "p1 a conclusion drawn f appe>ances to 8 s5ses1 or feel+s 9 8 int]nal consci\sness1 :i* af=d$ no w>rant = any su* belief4 ,a caution1 !re=e1 aga9/ ?is class ( errors1 is n only ne$ful b indisp5sable2 ?\gh to det]m9e :e!r1 on any ( ! great que/ions ( metaphysics1 su* errors are actually committ$1 belongs n to ?is place1 b1 z ,i h s (t5 said1 to a diff]5t sci5ce4 ,*apt] ,v4 ,fallacies ,( ,g5]alization4 #a4 ,! class ( ,fallacies ( :i* we are n[ to speak1 is ! mo/ ext5sive ( all2 embrac+ a great] numb] & v>iety ( unf\nd$ inf]5ces ?an any ( ! o!r classes1 & :i* x is ev5 m difficult to r$uce to sub-classes or species4 ,if ! attempt made 9 ! prec$+ books to def9e ! pr9ciples ( well-gr\nd$ g5]alization has be5 successful1 all g5]alizations n con=mable to ^? pr9ciples might1 9 a c]ta9 s5se1 be br\ght "u ! pres5t class2 :51 h[ev]1 ! rules are kn[n & kept 9 view1 b a casual lapse committ$ 9 ! application ( !m1 ?is is a blund]1 n a fallacy4 ,to entitle an error ( g5]alization to ! latt] epi!t1 x mu/ be committ$ on pr9ciple2 !re mu/ lie 9 x "s errone\s g5]al conception ( ! inductive process2 ! legitimate mode ( draw+ conclusions f obs]vation & exp]im5t mu/ be fundam5tally misconceiv$4 ,)\t attempt+ any ?+ s *im]ical z an exhau/ive classification ( all ! misconceptions :i* c exi/ on ! subject1 let u cont5t ourselves ) not+1 among ! cautions :i* might be sugge/$1 a few ( ! mo/ useful & ne$ful4 #b4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 !re are c]ta9 k9ds ( g5]alization :i*1 if ! pr9ciples already laid d[n be correct1 mu/ be gr\ndless2 exp]i5ce c n af=d ! necess>y conditions = e/abli%+ !m by a correct induction4 ,su*1 = in/ance1 are all inf]5ces f ! ord] ( nature exi/+ on ! e>?1 or 9 ! sol> sy/em1 to t :i* may exi/ 9 remote p>ts ( ! univ]se2 :]e ! ph5om5a1 = aught we "k1 may be entirely diff]5t1 or may succe$ "o ano!r accord+ to diff]5t laws1 or ev5 accord+ to no fix$ law at all4 ,su*1 aga91 9 matt]s dep5d5t on causation1 are all univ]sal negatives1 all propositions t ass]t impossibility4 ,! non-exi/5ce ( any giv5 ph5om5on1 h[ev] uni=mly exp]i5ce may z yet h te/ifi$ to ! fact1 proves at mo/ t no cause1 adequate to its production1 has yet manife/$ itself2 b t no su* causes exi/ 9 nature c only be inf]r$ if we are s fooli% z to suppose t we "k all ! =ces 9 nature4 ,! supposition w\ld at lea/ be premature :ile our acqua9tance ) "s ev5 ( ^? :i* we d "k is s extremely rec5t4 ,& h[ev] mu* our k ( nature may h]eaft] be ext5d$1 x is n easy to see h[ t k c\ld ev] be complete1 or h[1 if x 71 we c\ld ev] be assur$ ( its be+ s4 ,! only laws ( nature :i* af=d suffici5t w>rant = attribut+ impossibility 7ev5 ) ref]5ce to ! exi/+ ord] ( nature1 & to our own region ( ! univ]se7 are1 fir/1 ^? ( numb] & ext5sion1 :i* are p>am\nt to ! laws ( ! succession ( ph5om5a1 & n expos$ to ! ag5cy ( c\nt]act+ causes2 &1 secondly1 ! univ]sal law ( causality itself4 ,t no valuation 9 any effect or consequ5t w take place :ile ! :ole ( ! antec$5ts rema9 ! same1 may be affirm$ ) full assurance4 ,b1 t ! addition ( "s new antec$5t might n entirely alt] & subv]t ! accu/om$ consequ5t1 or t antec$5ts compet5t to d ?is d n exi/ 9 nature1 we are 9 no case emp[]$ positively to conclude4 #c4 ,x is next to be rem>k$ t all g5]alizations :i* pr(ess1 l ! !ories ( ,?ales1 ,democritus1 & o!rs ( ! e>ly ,greek speculators1 to resolve all ?+s into "s "o elem5t1 or l _m mod]n !ories1 to resolve ph5om5a radically diff]5t into ! same1 are necess>ily false4 ,by radically diff]5t ph5om5a ,i mean impressions on our s5ses :i* diff] 9 quality1 & n m]ely 9 degree4 ,on ?is subject :at appe>$ necess>y 0 said 9 ! *apt] on ! ,limits to ! ,explanation ( ,laws ( ,nature2 b z ! fallacy is ev5 9 our own times a common "o1 ,i %all t\* on x some:at fur!r 9 ?is place4 ,:5 we say t ! =ce :i* reta9s ! planets 9 _! orbits is resolv$ into gravity1 or t ! =ce :i* makes sub/ances comb9e *emically is resolv$ into electricity1 we ass]t 9 ! "o case :at is1 & 9 ! o!r case :at might1 & probably w ultimately1 be a legitimate result ( induction4 ,9 bo? ^! cases motion is resolv$ into motion4 ,! ass]tion is1 t a case ( motion1 :i* 0 suppos$ to be special1 & to foll[ a di/9ct law ( its own1 con=ms to & is includ$ 9 ! g5]al law :i* regulates ano!r class ( motions4 ,b1 f ^! & simil> g5]alizations1 c\nt5ance & curr5cy h be5 giv5 to attempts to resolve1 n motion into motion1 b heat into motion1 light into motion1 s5sation itself into motion2 /ates ( consci\sness into /ates ( ! n]v\s sy/em1 z 9 ! rud] =ms ( ! mat]iali/ philosophy2 vital ph5om5a into me*anical or *emical processes1 z 9 "s s*ools ( physiology4 ,n[ ,i am f> f pret5d+ t x may n be capable ( pro(1 or t x is n an important addition to our k if prov$1 t c]ta9 motions 9 ! p>ticles ( bodies are ! conditions ( ! production ( heat or light2 t c]ta9 assignable physical modifications ( ! n]ves may be ! conditions n only ( our s5sations or emotions1 b ev5 ( our ?\ghts2 t c]ta9 me*anical & *emical conditions may1 9 ! ord] ( nature1 be suffici5t to det]m9e to action ! physiological laws ( life4 ,all ,i insi/ ^u1 9 common ) e ?9k] :o ent]ta9s any cle> idea ( ! logic ( sci5ce1 is1 t x %all n be suppos$ t by prov+ ^! ?+s "o /ep w\ld be made t[>d a real explanation ( heat1 light1 or s5sation2 or t ! g5]ic peculi>ity ( ^? ph5om5a c be 9 ! lea/ degree evad$ by any su* discov]ies1 h[ev] well e/abli%$4 ,let x be %[n1 = in/ance1 t ! mo/ complex s]ies ( physical causes & effects succe$ "o ano!r 9 ! eye & 9 ! bra9 to produce a s5sation ( color2 rays fall+ on ! eye1 refract$1 conv]g+1 cross+ "o ano!r1 mak+ an inv]t$ image on ! ret9a1 & aft] ?is a motion--let x be a vibration1 or a ru% ( n]v\s fluid1 or :atev] else y are pleas$ to suppose1 along ! optic n]ve--a propagation ( ?is motion to ! bra9 itself1 & z _m m diff]5t motions z y *oose2 /ill1 at ! end ( ^! motions1 !re is some?+ :i* is n motion1 !re is a feel+ or s5sation ( color4 ,:atev] numb] ( motions we may be able to int]polate1 & :e!r !y be real or imag9>y1 we %all /ill f9d1 at ! end ( ! s]ies1 a motion antec$5t & a color consequ5t4 ,! mode 9 :i* any "o ( ! motions produces ! next1 may possibly be susceptible ( explanation by "s g5]al law ( motion3 b ! mode 9 :i* ! la/ motion produces ! s5sation ( color1 c n be expla9$ by any law ( motion2 x is ! law ( color3 :i* is1 & mu/ always rema91 a peculi> ?+4 ,:]e our consci\sness recognizes betwe5 two ph5om5a an inh]5t di/9ction2 :]e we are s5sible ( a diff]5ce :i* is n m]ely ( degree1 & feel t no add+ "o ( ! ph5om5a to itself w\ld produce ! o!r2 any !ory :i* attempts to br+ ei!r "u ! laws ( ! o!r mu/ be false2 ?\gh a !ory :i* m]ely treats ! "o z a cause or condition ( ! o!r1 may possibly be true4 #d4 ,among ! rema9+ =ms ( errone\s g5]alization1 sev]al ( ^? mo/ wor?y ( & mo/ requir+ notice h fall5 "u our exam9ation 9 =m] places1 :]e1 9 inve/igat+ ! rules ( correct induction1 we h _h occasion to adv]t to ! di/9ction betwe5 x & "s common mode ( ! incorrect4 ,9 ?is numb] is :at ,i h =m]ly call$ ! natural ,induction ( un9quir+ m9ds1 ! induction ( ! anci5ts1 :i* proce$s p] enum]ationem simplicem3 8,?is1 t1 & ! o!r ,a are ,b1 ,i c n ?9k ( any ,a :i* is n ,b1 !re=e e ,a is ,b40 ,z a f9al condemnation ( ?is rude & slov5ly mode ( g5]alization1 ,i w quote ,bacon's emphatic d5unciation ( x2 ! mo/ important "p1 z ,i h m ?an once v5tur$ to ass]t1 ( ! p]man5t s]vice r5d]$ by him to philosophy4 8,inductio qu proc$it p] enum]ationem simplicem1 res pu]ilis e/1 et prec>io concludit0 7concludes only by y\r leave1 or provisionally71 8et p]iculo exponitur ab in/anti contradictori1 et pl]umque secundum pauciora quam p> e/1 et ex 8 tantummodo qu pr/o sunt pronunciat4 ,at ,inductio qu ad inv5tionem et demon/rationem ,sci5ti>um et ,artium erit utilis1 ,naturam sep>>e debet1 p] rejectiones et exclusiones debitas2 ac de9de po/ negativas tot quot sufficiunt1 sup] affirmativas conclud]e40 ,i h already said t ! mode ( ,simple ,enum]ation is /ill ! common & receiv$ me?od ( ,induction 9 :atev] relates to man & society4 ,( ?is a v few in/ances1 m by way ( mem5to ?an ( in/ruction1 may suffice4 ,:at1 = example1 is to be ?\ght ( all ! 8common-s5se0 maxims = :i* ! foll[+ may s]ve z ! univ]sal =mula1 8,:atsoev] has nev] be51 w nev] be40 ,z = example3 negroes h nev] be5 z civiliz$ z :ites sometimes are1 !re=e x is impossible !y %\ld be s4 ,wom51 z a class1 are suppos$ n to h hi!rto be5 equal 9 intellect to m51 !re=e !y are necess>ily inf]ior4 ,society c n prosp] )\t ?is or ! o!r in/itution2 e4g41 9 ,ari/otle's "t1 )\t slav]y2 9 lat] times1 )\t an e/abli%$ prie/hood1 )\t artificial di/9ctions ( rank1 etc4 ,"o poor p]son 9 a ?\s&1 educat$1 :ile ! n9e hundr$ & n9ety-n9e rema9 un$ucat$1 has usually aim$ at rais+ himself out ( 8 class1 !re=e education makes p dissatisfi$ ) ! condition ( a labor]4 ,booki% m51 tak5 f speculative pursuits & set to "w on some?+ !y "k no?+ ab\t1 h g5]ally be5 f\nd or ?\ght to d x ill2 !re=e philosoph]s are unfit = bus9ess1 etc41 etc4 ,all ^! are inductions by simple enum]ation4 ,reasons hav+ "s ref]5ce to ! canons ( sci5tific inve/igation h be5 attempt$ to be giv51 h[ev] unsuccessfully1 = "s ( ^! propositions2 b to ! multitude ( ^? :o p>rot !m1 ! enum]atio simplex1 ex 8 tantummodo qu pr/o sunt pronuncians1 is ! sole evid5ce4 ,_! fallacy consi/s 9 ?is1 t !y are inductions )\t elim9ation3 !re has be5 no real comp>ison ( in/ances1 nor ev5 asc]ta9m5t ( ! mat]ial facts 9 any giv5 in/ance4 ,!re is also ! fur!r error1 ( =gett+ t su* g5]alizations1 ev5 if well e/abli%$1 c\ld n be ultimate tru?s1 b mu/ be results ( laws mu* m elem5t>y2 & !re=e1 until d$uc$ f su*1 c\ld at mo/ be admitt$ z empirical laws1 hold+ good )9 ! limits ( space & "t by :i* ! p>ticul> obs]vations t sugge/$ ! g5]alization 7 b\nd$4 ,?is error1 ( plac+ m]e empirical laws1 & laws 9 :i* !re is no direct evid5ce ( causation1 on ! same foot+ ( c]ta9ty z laws ( cause & effect1 an error :i* is at ! root ( p]haps ! great] numb] ( bad inductions1 is exemplifi$ only 9 its grosse/ =m 9 ! k9d ( g5]alizations to :i* we h n[ ref]r$4 ,^!1 inde$1 d n possess ev5 ! degree ( evid5ce :i* p]ta9s to a well-asc]ta9$ empirical law2 b admit ( refutation on ! empirical gr\nd itself1 )\t asc5d+ to casual laws4 ,a little reflection1 inde$1 w %[ t m]e negations c only =m ! gr\nd ( ! l[e/ & lea/ valuable k9d ( empirical law4 ,a ph5om5on has nev] be5 notic$2 ?is only proves t ! conditions ( t ph5om5on h n yet occurr$ 9 exp]i5ce1 b does n prove t !y may n occur h]eaft]4 ,!re is a bett] k9d ( empirical law ?an ?is1 namely1 :5 a ph5om5on :i* is obs]v$ pres5ts )9 ! limits ( obs]vation a s]ies ( gradations1 9 :i* a regul>ity1 or some?+ l a ma!matical law1 is p]ceptible2 f :i*1 !re=e1 some?+ may be rationally presum$ z to ^? t]ms ( ! s]ies :i* are beyond ! limits ( obs]vation4 ,b 9 negation !re are no gradations1 & no s]ies2 ! g5]alizations1 !re=e1 :i* d5y ! possibility ( any giv5 condition ( man & society m]ely because x has nev] yet be5 witness$1 c n possess ?is high] degree ( validity ev5 z empirical laws4 ,:at is m1 ! m9ut] exam9ation :i* t high] ord] ( empirical laws presupposes1 be+ appli$ to ! subject-matt] ( ^!1 n only does n confirm b actually refutes !m4 ,= 9 reality ! pa/ hi/ory ( ,man & ,society1 in/ead ( exhibit+ !m z immovable1 un*angeable1 incapable ( ev] pres5t+ new ph5om5a1 %[s !m1 on ! contr>y1 to be1 9 _m mo/ important p>ticul>s1 n only *angeable1 b actually und]go+ a progressive *ange4 ,! empirical law1 !re=e1 be/ expressive1 9 mo/ cases1 ( ! g5u9e result ( obs]vation1 w\ld be1 n t su* & su* a ph5om5on w cont9ue un*ang$1 b t x w cont9ue to *ange 9 "s p>ticul> mann]4 ,accord+ly1 :ile almo/ all g5]alizations relat+ to ,man & ,society1 antec$5t to ! la/ fifty or sixty ye>s1 h err$ 9 ! gross way :i* we h attempt$ to *>act]ize1 namely1 by implicitly assum+ t nature & society w =ev] revolve 9 ! same orbit1 & exhibit ess5tially ! same ph5om5a2 :i* is also ! vulg> error ( ! o/5tati\sly practical1 ! vot>ies ( s-call$ common s5se1 9 our day1 especially 9 ,great ,brita92 ! m ?9k+ m9ds ( ! pres5t age1 hav+ appli$ a m m9ute analysis to ! pa/ records ( our race1 h = ! mo/ "p adopt$ a contr>y op9ion1 t ! human species is 9 a /ate ( necess>y progression1 & t f ! t]ms ( ! s]ies :i* are pa/ we may inf] positively ^? :i* are yet to come4 ,( ?is doctr9e1 consid]$ z a philosophical t5et1 we %all h occasion to speak m fully 9 ! conclud+ ,book4 ,if n1 9 all its =ms1 free f error1 x is at lea/ free f ! gross & error :i* we previ\sly exemplifi$4 ,b1 9 all except ! mo/ em95tly philosophical m9ds1 x is infect$ ) precisely ! same k9d ( fallacy z t is4 ,= we mu/ rememb] t ev5 ?is o!r & bett] g5]alization1 ! progressive *ange 9 ! condition ( ! human species1 is1 aft] all1 b an empirical law2 to :i*1 too1 x is n difficult to po9t out exce$+ly l>ge exceptions2 & ev5 if ^! c\ld be got rid (1 ei!r by disput+ ! facts or by expla9+ & limit+ ! !ory1 ! g5]al objection rema9s valid aga9/ ! suppos$ law1 z applicable to any o!r ?an :at1 9 our ?ird book1 7 t]m$ ,adjac5t ,cases4 ,= n only is x no ultimate1 b n ev5 a causal law4 ,*anges d inde$ take place 9 human affairs1 b e "o ( ^? *anges dep5ds on det]m9ate causes2 ! 8progressiv5ess ( ! species0 is n a cause1 b a summ>y expression = ! g5]al result ( all ! causes4 ,s soon z1 by a q diff]5t sort ( induction1 x %all be asc]ta9$ :at causes h produc$ ^! successive *anges1 f ! beg9n+ ( hi/ory1 9 s f> z !y h really tak5 place1 & by :at causes ( a contr>y t5d5cy !y h be5 occasionally *eck$ or entirely c\nt]act$1 we may !n be prep>$ to pr$ict ! future ) reasonable =esight2 we may be 9 possession ( ! real law ( ! future2 & may be able to decl>e on :at circum/ances ! cont9uance ( ! same onw>d movem5t w ev5tually dep5d4 ,b ?is x is ! error ( _m ( ! m advanc$ ?9k]s1 9 ! pres5t age1 to ov]look2 & to imag9e t ! empirical law collect$ f a m]e comp>ison ( ! condition ( our species at diff]5t pa/ times1 is a real law1 is ! law ( its *anges1 n only pa/ b also to come4 ,! tru? is1 t ! causes on :i* ! ph5om5a ( ! moral _w dep5d1 are 9 e age1 & almo/ 9 e c\ntry1 comb9$ 9 "s diff]5t proportion2 s t x is sc>cely to be expect$ t ! g5]al result ( !m all %\ld con=m v closely1 9 its details at lea/1 to any uni=mly progressive s]ies4 ,& all g5]alizations :i* affirm t mank9d h a t5d5cy to gr[ bett] or worse1 ri*] or poor]1 m cultivat$ or m b>b>\s1 t population increases fa/] ?an subsi/5ce1 or subsi/5ce ?an population1 t inequality ( =tune has a t5d5cy to increase or to break d[n1 & ! l1 propositions ( consid]able value z empirical laws )9 c]ta9 7b g5]ally r n>r[7 limits1 are 9 reality true or false accord+ to times & circum/ances4 ,:at we h said ( empirical g5]alizations f times pa/ to times /ill to come1 holds equally true ( simil> g5]alizations f pres5t times to times pa/2 :5 p]sons ^: acqua9tance ) moral & social facts is conf9$ to _! own age1 take ! m5 & ! ?+s ( t age = ! type ( m5 & ?+s 9 g5]al1 & apply )\t scruple to ! int]pretation ( ! ev5ts ( hi/ory1 ! empirical laws :i* repres5t suffici5tly = daily guidance ! common ph5om5a ( human nature at t "t & 9 t p>ticul> /ate ( society4 ,if examples are want$1 almo/ e hi/orical "w1 until a v rec5t p]iod1 ab\nd$ 9 !m4 ,! same may be said ( ^? :o g5]alize empirically f ! p ( _! own c\ntry to ! p ( o!r c\ntries1 z if human be+s felt1 judg$1 & act$ ev]y:]e 9 ! same mann]4 #e4 ,9 ! =ego+ in/ances1 ! di/9ction is conf\nd$ betwe5 empirical laws1 :i* express m]ely ! cu/om>y ord] ( ! succession ( effects1 & ! laws ( causation on :i* ! effects dep5d4 ,!re may1 h[ev]1 be incorrect g5]alization :5 ?is mi/ake is n committ$2 :5 ! inve/igation takes its prop] direction1 t ( causes1 & ! result errone\sly obta9$ purports to be a really causal law4 ,! mo/ vulg> =m ( ?is fallacy is t :i* is commonly call$ po/ hoc1 ergo propt] hoc1 or1 cum hoc1 ergo propt] hoc4 ,z :5 x 0 inf]r$ t ,engl& ow$ h] indu/rial pre-em95ce to h] re/rictions on comm]ce2 z :5 ! old s*ool ( f9anci]s1 & "s speculative writ]s1 ma9ta9$ t ! national debt 0 "o ( ! causes ( national prosp]ity2 z :5 ! excell5ce ( ! ,*ur*1 ( ! ,h\ses ( ,lords & ,commons1 ( ! proc$ure ( ! law c\rts1 etc41 7 inf]r$ f ! m]e fact t ! c\ntry _h prosp]$ "u !m4 ,9 su* cases z ^!1 if x c be r5d]$ probable by o!r evid5ce t ! suppos$ causes h "s t5d5cy to produce ! effect ascrib$ to !m1 ! fact ( its hav+ be5 produc$1 ?\gh only 9 "o in/ance1 is ( "s value z a v]ification by specific exp]i5ce2 b 9 itself x goes sc>cely any way at all t[>d e/abli%+ su* a t5d5cy1 s9ce1 admitt+ ! effect1 a hundr$ o!r antec$5ts c\ld %[ an equally /rong title ( t k9d to be consid]$ z ! cause4 ,9 ^! examples we see bad g5]alization a po/]iori1 or empiricism prop]ly s call$2 causation inf]r$ f casual conjunction1 )\t ei!r due elim9ation1 or any presumption aris+ f kn[n prop]ties ( ! suppos$ ag5t4 ,b bad g5]alization a priori is fully z common2 :i* is prop]ly call$ false !ory2 conclusions drawn1 by way ( d$uction1 f prop]ties ( "s "o ag5t :i* is kn[n or suppos$ to be pres5t1 all o!r co-exi/+ ag5ts be+ ov]look$4 ,z ! =m] is ! error ( %e] ignorance1 s ! latt] is especially t ( semi-in/ruct$ m9ds2 & is ma9ly committ$ 9 attempt+ to expla9 complicat$ ph5om5a by a simpl] !ory ?an _! nature admits (4 ,z :5 "o s*ool ( physicians s\ght = ! univ]sal pr9ciple ( all disease 9 8l5tor & morbid viscidity ( ! blood10 & imput+ mo/ bodily d]angem5ts to me*anical ob/ructions1 ?\ght to cure !m by me*anical rem$ies27#beg7 :ile ano!r1 ! *emical s*ool1 8ackn[l$g$ no s\rce ( disease b ! pres5ce ( "s ho/ile acid or alkali1 or "s d]ang$ condition 9 ! *emical composition ( ! fluid or solid p>ts10 & conceiv$1 !re=e1 t 8all rem$ies mu/ act by produc+ *emical *anges 9 ! body40 ,we f9d ,t\rne=t busily engag$ 9 te/+ e vegetable juice1 9 ord] to discov] 9 x "s traces ( an acid or alkal9e +r$i5t1 :i* might conf] ^u x m$ic9al activity4 ,! fatal errors into :i* su* an hypo!sis 0 liable to betray ! practition]1 receiv$ an awful illu/ration 9 ! hi/ory ( ! memorable fev] t rag$ at ,leyd5 9 ! ye> #afii1 & :i* consign$ two-?irds ( ! population ( t city to an untimely grave2 an ev5t :i* 9 a great measure dep5d$ ^u ! ,pr(essor ,sylvius de la ,boe1 :o hav+ j embrac$ ! *emical doctr9es ( ,van ,helmont1 assign$ ! orig9 ( ! di/emp] to a prevail+ acid1 & decl>$ t its cure c\ld alone only be effect$ by ! copi\s adm9i/ration ( absorb5t & te/ace\s m$ic9es47#beh7 ,^! ab]rations 9 m$ical !ory h _! exact p>allels 9 politics4 ,all ! doctr9es :i* ascribe absolute goodness to p>ticul> =ms ( gov]nm5t1 p>ticul> social arrangem5ts1 & ev5 to p>ticul> modes ( education1 )\t ref]5ce to ! /ate ( civilization & ! v>i\s di/+ui%+ *>act]s ( ! society = :i* !y are int5d$1 are op5 to ! same objection--t ( assum+ "o class ( influ5c+ circum/ances to be ! p>am\nt rul]s ( ph5om5a :i* dep5d 9 an equal or great] degree on _m o!rs4 ,b on ^! consid]ations x is ! less necess>y t we %\ld n[ dwell1 z !y w occupy our att5tion m l>gely 9 ! conclud+ ,book4 #f4 ,! la/ ( ! modes ( errone\s g5]alization to :i* ,i %all adv]t1 is t to :i* we may give ! "n ( ,false ,analogies4 ,?is ,fallacy /&s di/+ui%$ f ^? already treat$ ( by ! peculi>ity t x does n ev5 simulate a complete & conclusive induction1 b consi/s 9 ! misapplication ( an argum5t :i* is at be/ only admissible z an inconclusive presumption1 :]e real pro( is unatta9able4 ,an argum5t f analogy1 is an inf]5ce t :at is true 9 a c]ta9 case is true 9 a case kn[n to be some:at simil>1 b n kn[n to be exactly p>allel1 t is1 to be simil> 9 all ! mat]ial circum/ances4 ,an object has ! prop]ty ,b3 ano!r object is n kn[n to h t prop]ty1 b resembles ! fir/ 9 a prop]ty ,a1 n kn[n to be connect$ ) ,b2 & ! conclusion to :i* ! analogy po9ts1 is t ?is object has ! prop]ty ,b also4 ,z1 = example1 t ! planets are inhabit$1 because ! e>? is s4 ,! planets resemble ! e>? 9 describ+ elliptical orbits r\nd ! sun1 9 be+ attract$ by x & by "o ano!r1 9 be+ ne>ly sph]ical1 revolv+ on _! axes1 etc42 &1 z we h n[ reason to believe f ! revelations ( ! spectroscope1 are compos$1 9 great "p at lea/1 ( simil> mat]ials2 b x is n kn[n t any ( ^! prop]ties1 or all ( !m toge!r1 are ! conditions on :i* ! possession ( inhabitants is dep5d5t1 or are m>ks ( ^? conditions4 ,nev]!less1 s long z we d n "k :at ! conditions are1 !y may be connect$ by "s law ( nature ) ^? common prop]ties2 & to ! ext5t ( t possibility ! planets are m likely to be inhabit$ ?an if !y did n resemble ! e>? at all4 ,?is non-assignable & g5]ally small increase ( probability1 beyond :at w\ld o!rwise exi/1 is all ! evid5ce :i* a conclusion c d]ive f analogy4 ,= if we h ! slighte/ reason to suppose any real connection betwe5 ! two prop]ties ,a & ,b1 ! argum5t is no long] "o ( analogy4 ,if x _h be5 asc]ta9$ 7,i purposely put an absurd supposition7 t !re 0 a connection by causation betwe5 ! fact ( revolv+ on an axis & ! exi/5ce ( animat$ be+s1 or if !re 7 any reasonable gr\nd = ev5 suspect+ su* a connection1 a probability w\ld arise ( ! exi/5ce ( inhabitants 9 ! planets1 :i* might be ( any degree ( /r5g?1 up to a complete induction2 b we %\ld !n inf] ! fact f ! asc]ta9$ or presum$ law ( causation1 & n f ! analogy ( ! e>?4 ,! "n analogy1 h[ev]1 is sometimes employ$ by ext5sion to d5ote ^? argum5ts ( an inductive "* b n am\nt+ to a real induction1 :i* are employ$ to /r5g!n ! argum5t drawn f a simple resemblance4 ,?\gh ,a1 ! prop]ty common to ! two cases1 c n be %[n to be ! cause or effect ( ,b1 ! analogical reason] w endeavor to %[ t !re is "s less close degree ( connection betwe5 !m2 t ,a is "o ( a set ( conditions f :i*1 :5 all unit$1 ,b w\ld result2 or is an occasional effect ( "s cause :i* has be5 kn[n also to produce ,b2 & ! l4 ,any ( :i* ?+s1 if %[n1 w\ld r5d] ! exi/5ce ( ,b by s mu* m probable1 ?an if !re _h n be5 ev5 t am\nt ( kn[n connection betwe5 ,b & ,a4 ,n[ an error or fallacy ( analogy may occur 9 two ways4 ,sometimes x consi/s 9 employ+ an argum5t ( ei!r ( ! above k9ds ) correctness inde$1 b ov]rat+ its probative =ce4 ,?is v common ab]ration is sometimes suppos$ to be p>ticul>ly incid5t to p]sons di/+ui%$ = _! imag9ation2 b 9 reality x is ! *>act]i/ic intellectual vice ( ^? ^: imag9ations are b>r51 ei!r f want ( ex]cise1 natural defect1 or ! n>r[ness ( _! range ( ideas4 ,to su* m9ds objects pres5t !mselves clo!d 9 b few prop]ties2 & z1 !re=e1 few analogies betwe5 "o object & ano!r occur to !m1 !y almo/ inv>iably ov]rate ! degree ( importance ( ^? few3 :ile "o ^: fancy takes a wid] range1 p]ceives & rememb]s s _m analogies t5d+ to conflict+ conclusions1 t he is mu* less likely to lay undue /ress on any ( !m4 ,we always f9d t ^? are ! greate/ slaves to metaphorical language :o h b "o set ( metaphors4 ,b ?is is only "o ( ! modes ( error 9 ! employm5t ( argum5ts ( analogy4 ,!re is ano!r1 m prop]ly des]v+ ! "n ( fallacy2 namely1 :5 resemblance 9 "o po9t is inf]r$ f resemblance 9 ano!r po9t1 ?\gh !re is n only no evid5ce to connect ! two circum/ances by way ( causation1 b ! evid5ce t5ds positively to disconnect !m4 ,?is is prop]ly ! ,fallacy ( ,false ,analogies4 ,z a fir/ in/ance1 we may cite t favorite argum5t 9 def5se ( absolute p[]1 drawn f ! analogy ( pat]nal gov]nm5t 9 a family1 :i* gov]nm5t1 h[ev] mu* 9 ne$ ( control1 is n & c n be controll$ by ! *ildr5 !mselves1 :ile !y rema9 *ildr54 ,pat]nal gov]nm5t1 says ! argum5t1 works well2 !re=e1 despotic gov]nm5t 9 a /ate w "w well4 ,i waive1 z n p]t95t 9 ?is place1 all t c\ld be said 9 qualification ( ! alleg$ excell5ce ( pat]nal gov]nm5t4 ,h[ev] ?is might be1 ! argum5t f ! family to ! /ate w\ld n ! less proce$ on a false analogy2 imply+ t ! b5eficial work+ ( p>5tal gov]nm5t dep5ds1 9 ! family1 on ! only po9t :i* x has 9 common ) political despotism1 namely1 irresponsibility4 ,:]eas x dep5ds1 :5 real1 n on t b on two o!r circum/ances ( ! case1 ! affection ( ! p>5t = ! *ildr51 & ! sup]iority ( ! p>5t 9 wisdom & exp]i5ce2 nei!r ( :i* prop]ties c be reckon$ on1 or are at all likely to exi/1 betwe5 a political despot & 8 subjects2 & :5 ei!r ( ^! circum/ances fails ev5 9 ! family1 & ! influ5ce ( ! irresponsibility is all[$ to "w uncorrect$1 ! result is any ?+ b good gov]nm5t4 ,?is1 !re=e1 is a false analogy4 ,ano!r example is ! n uncommon dictum t bodies politic h y\?1 maturity1 old age1 & dea?1 l bodies natural2 t aft] a c]ta9 duration ( prosp]ity1 !y t5d spontane\sly to decay4 ,?is also is a false analogy1 because ! decay ( ! vital p[]s 9 an animat$ body c be di/9ctly trac$ to ! natural progress ( ^? v *anges ( /ructure :i*1 9 _! e>li] /ages1 con/itutes its gr[? to maturity2 :ile 9 ! body politic ! progress ( ^? *anges c n1 g5]ally speak+1 h any effect b ! /ill fur!r cont9uance ( gr[?3 x is ! /oppage ( t progress1 & ! comm5cem5t ( retrogression1 t alone w\ld con/itute decay4 ,bodies politic die1 b x is ( disease1 or viol5t dea?2 !y h no old age4 ,! foll[+ s5t5ce f ,hook]'s ,ecclesia/ical ,polity is an in/ance ( a false analogy f physical bodies to :at are call$ bodies politic4 8,z !re c\ld be 9 natural bodies no motion ( any ?+ unless !re 7 "s :i* move? all ?+s1 & cont9ue? immovable2 ev5 s 9 politic societies !re mu/ be "s unpuni%able1 or else no man %all suff] puni%m5t40 ,!re is a d\ble fallacy "h1 = n only ! analogy1 b ! premise f :i* x is drawn1 is unt5able4 ,! notion t !re mu/ be some?+ immovable :i* moves all o!r ?+s1 is ! old s*ola/ic error ( a primum mobile4 ,! foll[+ in/ance ,i quote f ,ar*bi%op ,:ately's ,rhetoric3 8,x w\ld be admitt$ t a great & p]man5t dim9ution 9 ! quantity ( "s useful commodity1 su* z corn1 or coal1 or iron1 ?r\gh\t ! _w1 w\ld be a s]i\s & la/+ loss2 & aga91 t if ! fields & coal-m9es yield$ regul>ly d\ble quantities1 ) ! same labor1 we %\ld be s mu* ! ri*]2 h5ce x might be inf]r$1 t if ! quantity ( gold & silv] 9 ! _w 7 dim9i%$ "o-half1 or 7 d\bl$1 l results w\ld foll[2 ! utility ( ^! metals1 = ! purposes ( co91 be+ v great4 ,n[ !re are _m po9ts ( resemblance & _m ( diff]5ce1 betwe5 ! preci\s metals on ! "o h&1 & corn1 coal1 etc41 on ! o!r2 b ! important circum/ance to ! suppos$ argum5t is1 t ! utility ( gold & silv] 7z co91 :i* is f> ! *ief7 dep5ds on _! value1 :i* is regulat$ by _! sc>city2 or r1 to speak /rictly1 by ! difficulty ( obta9+ !m2 :]eas1 if corn & coal 7 t5 times z abundant 7i4e41 m easily obta9$71 a bu%el ( ei!r w\ld /ill be z useful z n[4 ,b if x 7 twice z easy to procure gold z x is1 a sov]eign w\ld be twice z l>ge2 if only half z easy1 x w\ld be ( ! size ( a half-sov]eign1 & ?is 7besides ! trifl+ circum/ance ( ! *eapness or de>ness ( gold ornam5ts7 w\ld be all ! diff]5ce4 ,! analogy1 !re=e1 fails 9 ! po9t ess5tial to ! argum5t40 ,! same au?or notices1 aft] ,bi%op ,cople/on1 ! case ( ,false ,analogy :i* consi/s 9 inf]r+ f ! simil>ity 9 _m respects betwe5 ! metropolis ( a c\ntry & ! he>t ( ! animal body1 t ! increas$ size ( ! metropolis is a disease4 ,"s ( ! false analogies on :i* sy/ems ( physics 7 confid5tly gr\nd$ 9 ! "t ( ! ,greek philosoph]s1 are su* z we n[ call fanciful1 n t ! resemblances are n (t5 real1 b t x is long s9ce any "o has be5 incl9$ to draw f !m ! inf]5ces :i* 7 !n drawn4 ,su*1 = in/ance1 are ! curi\s speculations ( ! ,py?agoreans on ! subject ( numb]s4 ,f9d+ t ! di/ances ( ! planets bore1 or seem$ to be>1 to "o ano!r a proportion n v>y+ mu* f t ( ! divisions ( ! mono*ord1 !y inf]r$ f x ! exi/5ce ( an inaudible music1 t ( ! sph]es2 z if ! music ( a h>p _h dep5d$ solely on ! num]ical proportions1 & n on ! mat]ial1 nor ev5 on ! exi/5ce ( any mat]ial1 any /r+s at all4 ,x has be5 simil>ly imag9$ t c]ta9 comb9ations ( numb]s1 :i* 7 f\nd to prevail 9 "s natural ph5om5a1 mu/ run ?r\gh ! :ole ( nature3 z t !re mu/ be f\r elem5ts1 because !re are f\r possible comb9ations ( hot & cold1 wet & dry2 t !re mu/ be sev5 planets1 because !re 7 sev5 metals1 & ev5 because !re 7 sev5 days ( ! week4 ,kepl] himself ?\ght t !re c\ld be only six planets1 because !re 7 only five regul> solids4 ,) ^! we may class ! reason+s1 s common 9 ! speculations ( ! anci5ts1 f\nd$ on a suppos$ p]fection 9 nature2 mean+ by nature ! cu/om>y ord] ( ev5ts z !y take place ( !mselves )\t human int]f]5ce4 ,?is also is a rude guess at an analogy suppos$ to p]vade all ph5om5a1 h[ev] dissimil>4 ,s9ce :at 0 ?\ght to be p]fection appe>$ to obta9 9 "s ph5om5a1 x 0 inf]r$ 79 opposition to ! pla9e/ evid5ce7 to obta9 9 all4 8,we always suppose t :i* is bett] to take place 9 nature1 if x be possible10 says ,ari/otle2 & ! vague/ & mo/ het]og5e\s qualities be+ conf\nd$ toge!r "u ! notion ( be+ bett]1 !re 0 no limit to ! wildness ( ! inf]5ces4 ,?us1 because ! heav5ly bodies 7 8p]fect10 !y mu/ move 9 circles & uni=mly4 ,= 8!y0 7! ,py?agoreans7 8w\ld n all[10 says ,gem9us17#bei7 8( any su* disord] among div9e & et]nal ?+s1 z t !y %\ld sometimes move quick] & sometimes sl[]1 & sometimes /& /ill2 = no "o w\ld tol]ate su* anomaly 9 ! movem5ts ev5 ( a man1 :o 0 dec5t & ord]ly4 ,! occasions ( life1 h[ev]1 are (t5 reasons = m5 go+ quick] or sl[]2 b 9 ! incorruptible nature ( ! />s1 x is n possible t any cause c be alleg$ ( quickness or sl[ness40 ,x is seek+ an argum5t ( analogy v f>1 to suppose t ! />s mu/ obs]ve ! rules ( decorum 9 gait & c>riage prescrib$ = !mselves by ! long-be>d$ philosoph]s satiriz$ by ,lucian4 ,z late z ! ,cop]nican controv]sy x 0 urg$ z an argum5t 9 favor ( ! true !ory ( ! sol> sy/em1 t x plac$ ! fire1 ! noble/ elem5t1 9 ! c5tre ( ! univ]se4 ,?is 0 a remnant ( ! notion t ! ord] ( nature mu/ be p]fect1 & t p]fection consi/$ 9 con=mity to rules ( prec$5cy 9 dignity1 ei!r real or conv5tional4 ,aga91 rev]t+ to numb]s3 c]ta9 numb]s 7 p]fect1 !re=e ^? numb]s mu/ obta9 9 ! great ph5om5a ( nature4 ,six 0 a p]fect numb]1 t is1 equal to ! sum ( all its factors2 an additional reason :y !re mu/ be exactly six planets4 ,! ,py?agoreans1 on ! o!r h&1 attribut$ p]fection to ! numb] t52 b agre$ 9 ?9k+ t ! p]fect numb] mu/ be someh[ realiz$ 9 ! heav5s2 & kn[+ only ( n9e heav5ly bodies1 to make up ! enum]ation1 !y ass]t$ 8t !re 0 an anti*?on1 or c\nt]-e>?1 on ! o!r side ( ! sun1 invisible to u407#bfj7 ,ev5 ,huyg5s 0 p]suad$ t :5 ! numb] ( ! heav5ly bodies _h rea*$ twelve1 x c\ld n admit ( any fur!r increase4 ,creative p[] c\ld n g beyond t sacr$ numb]4 ,"s curi\s in/ances ( false analogy are to be f\nd 9 ! argum5ts ( ! ,/oics to prove ! equality ( all crimes1 & ! equal wret*$ness ( all :o _h n realiz$ _! idea ( p]fect virtue4 ,cic]o1 t[>d ! end ( 8 ,f\r? ,book1 ,de ,f9ibus1 /ates "s ( ^! z foll[s3 8,ut1 inquit1 9 fidibus plurimis1 si nulla e>um ita cont5ta num]is sit1 ut conc5tum s]v>e possit1 omnes que incont5t sunt2 sic peccata1 quia discrepant1 que discrepant2 p>ia sunt igitur40 ,to :i* ,cic]o himself aptly answ]s1 8que cont+it omnibus fidibus1 ut incont5t s9t2 illud non cont9uo1 ut que incont5t40 ,! ,/oic resumes3 8,ut enim1 inquit1 gub]nator que peccat1 si pale>um navem ev]tit1 et si auri2 item que peccat qui p>5tem1 et qui s]vum1 injuri v]b]at20 assum+1 t because ! magnitude ( ! int]e/ at /ake makes no diff]5ce 9 ! m]e defect ( skill1 x c make none 9 ! moral defect3 a false analogy4 ,aga91 8,quis ignorat1 si plures ex alto em]g]e vel9t1 propius =e eos quidem ad respir&um1 qui ad summam jam aquam approp9quant1 s$ nihilo magis respir>e posse1 quam eos1 qui sunt 9 pr(undo8 ,nihil ergo adjuvat proc$]e1 et progr$i 9 virtute1 quom9us mis]rimus sit1 antequam ad eam p]v5]it1 quoniam 9 aqu nihil adjuvat3 et quoniam catuli1 qui jam despecturi sunt1 cci que1 et ii qui modo nati2 ,platonem quoque necesse e/1 quoniam nondum videbat sapi5tiam1 que ccum animo1 ac ,phal>im fuisse40 ,cic]o1 9 8 own p]son1 combats ^! false analogies by o!r analogies t5d+ to an opposite conclusion4 8,i/a similia non sunt1 ,cato4444 ,illa sunt similia2 hebes acies e/ cuipiam oculorum3 corpore alius languescit3 hi curatione adhibit levantur 9 dies3 alt] valet plus quotidie3 alt] videt4 ,hi similes sunt omnibus1 qui virtuti /ud5t2 levantur vitiis1 levantur erroribus40 #g4 ,9 ^! & all o!r argum5ts drawn f remote analogies1 & f metaphors1 :i* are cases ( analogy1 x is app>5t 7especially :5 we consid] ! extreme facility ( rais+ up contr>y analogies & conflict+ metaphors7 t1 s f> f ! metaphor or analogy prov+ any ?+1 ! applicability ( ! metaphor is ! v ?+ to be made out4 ,x has to be %[n t 9 ! two cases ass]t$ to be analog\s1 ! same law is really op]at+2 t betwe5 ! kn[n resemblance & ! inf]r$ "o !re is "s connection by means ( causation4 ,cic]o & ,cato might h b&i$ opposite analogies =ev]2 x re/$ ) ea* ( !m to prove by j induction1 or at lea/ to r5d] probable1 t ! case resembl$ ! "o set ( analog\s cases & n ! o!r1 9 ! circum/ances on :i* ! disput$ "q really h+$4 ,metaphors1 = ! mo/ "p1 !re=e1 assume ! proposition :i* !y are br\ght to prove3 _! use is1 to aid ! appreh5sion ( x2 to make cle>ly & vividly compreh5d$ :at x is t ! p]son :o employs ! metaphor is propos+ to make out2 & sometimes also1 by :at m$ia he proposes to d s4 ,= an apt metaphor1 ?\gh x c n prove1 (t5 sugge/s ! pro(4 ,= in/ance1 :5 ,d',alemb]t 7,i believe7 rem>k$ t 9 c]ta9 gov]nm5ts only two creatures f9d _! way to ! highe/ places1 ! eagle & ! s]p5t1 ! metaphor n only conveys ) great vividness ! ass]tion int5d$1 b contributes t[>d sub/antiat+ x1 by sugge/+1 9 a lively mann]1 ! means by :i* ! two opposite *>act]s ?us typifi$ effect _! rise4 ,:5 x is said t a c]ta9 p]son misund]/&s ano!r because ! less] ( two objects c n compreh5d ! great]1 ! application ( :at is true 9 ! lit]al s5se ( ! ^w compreh5d1 to its metaphorical s5se1 po9ts to ! fact :i* is ! gr\nd & ju/ification ( ! ass]tion1 viz41 t "o m9d c n ?or\ghly und]/& ano!r unless x c conta9 x 9 itself1 t is1 unless x possesses all t is conta9$ 9 ! o!r4 ,:5 x is urg$ z an argum5t = education1 t if ! soil is left uncultivat$1 we$s w spr+ up1 ! metaphor1 ?\gh no pro(1 b a /atem5t ( ! ?+ to be prov$1 /ates x 9 t]ms :i*1 by sugge/+ a p>allel case1 put ! m9d ^u ! track ( ! real pro(4 ,=1 ! reason :y we$s gr[ 9 an uncultivat$ soil1 is t ! se$s ( wor?less products exi/ ev]y:]e1 & c g]m9ate & gr[ 9 almo/ all circum/ances1 :ile ! rev]se is ! case ) ^? :i* are valuable2 & ?is be+ equally true ( m5tal products1 ?is mode ( convey+ an argum5t1 indep5d5tly ( its rhetorical advantages1 has a logical value2 s9ce x n only sugge/s ! gr\nds ( ! conclusion1 b po9ts to ano!r case 9 :i* ^? gr\nds h be5 f\nd1 or at lea/ deem$ to be1 suffici5t4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :5 ,bacon1 :o is equally conspicu\s 9 ! use & abuse ( figurative illu/ration1 says t ! /ream ( "t has br\ght d[n to u only ! lea/ valuable "p ( ! writ+s ( ! anci5ts1 z a riv] c>ries fro? & /raws float+ on its surface1 :ile m weighty objects s9k to ! bottom2 ?is1 ev5 if ! ass]tion illu/rat$ by x 7 true1 w\ld be no good illu/ration1 !re be+ no p>ity ( cause4 ,! levity by :i* sub/ances float on a /ream1 & ! levity :i* is synonym\s ) wor?lessness1 h no?+ 9 common except ! "n2 & 7to %[ h[ little value !re is 9 ! metaphor7 we ne$ only *ange ! ^w into buoyancy1 to turn ! semblance ( argum5t involv$ 9 ,bacon's illu/ration aga9/ himself4 ,a metaphor1 !n1 is n to be consid]$ z an argum5t1 b z an ass]tion t an argum5t exi/s2 t a p>ity subsi/s betwe5 ! case f :i* ! metaphor is drawn & t to :i* x is appli$4 ,?is p>ity may exi/ ?\gh ! two cases be app>5tly v remote f "o ano!r2 ! only resemblance exi/+ betwe5 !m may be a resemblance ( relations1 an analogy 9 ,f]guson's & ,ar*bi%op ,:ately's s5se3 z 9 ! prec$+ in/ance1 9 :i* an illu/ration f agriculture 0 appli$ to m5tal cultivation4 #h4 ,to t]m9ate ! subject ( ,fallacies ( ,g5]alization1 x rema9s to be said1 t ! mo/ f]tile s\rce ( !m is bad classification3 br++ toge!r 9 "o gr\p1 & "u "o "n1 ?+s :i* h no common prop]ties1 or none b su* z are too unimportant to all[ g5]al propositions ( any consid]able value to be made respect+ ! class4 ,! mislead+ effect is greate/1 :5 a ^w :i* 9 common use expresses "s def9ite fact1 is ext5d$ by slight l9ks ( connection to cases 9 :i* t fact does n exi/1 b "s o!r or o!rs1 only slightly resembl+ x4 ,?us ,bacon17#bfa7 9 speak+ ( ! ,idola or ,fallacies aris+ f notions tem]e et 9qualit] rebus ab/ract1 exemplifies !m by ! notion ( ,humidum or ,wet1 s famili> 9 ! physics ( antiquity & ( ! ,middle ,ages4 8,inv5ietur v]bum i/ud1 ,humidum1 nihil aliud quam nota confusa div]s>um actionum1 qu nullam con/antiam aut r$uctionem patiuntur4 ,significat enim1 et quod circa aliud corpus facile se circumfundit2 et quod 9 se e/ indet]m9abile1 nec consi/]e pote/2 et quod facile c$it undique2 et quod facile se dividit et disp]git2 et quod facile se unit et colligit2 et quod facile fluit1 et 9 motu ponitur2 et quod alt]i corpori facile adhret1 idque madefacit2 et quod facile r$ucitur 9 liquidum1 sive colliquatur1 cum antea consi/]et4 ,itaque quum ad hujus nom9is prdicationem et impositionem v5tum sit2 si alia accipias1 flamma humida e/2 si alia accipias1 a] humidus non e/2 si alia1 pulvis m9utus humidus e/2 si alia1 vitrum humidum e/3 ut facile app>eat1 i/am notionem ex aqu tantum1 et communibus et vulg>ibus liquoribus1 absque ull debit v]ificatione1 tem]e ab/ractam esse40 ,bacon himself is n exempt f a simil> accusation :5 inquir+ into ! nature ( heat3 :]e he occasionally proce$s l "o :o1 seek+ = ! cause ( h>dness1 aft] exam9+ t quality 9 iron1 fl9t1 & diamond1 %\ld expect to f9d t x is some?+ :i* c be trac$ also 9 h>d wat]1 a h>d knot1 & a h>d he>t4 ,! ^w 9 ! ,greek philosophy1 & ! words ,g5]ation & ,corruption1 bo? !n & long aft]w>d1 d5ot$ su* a multitude ( het]og5e\s ph5om5a1 t any attempt at philosophiz+ 9 :i* ^? words 7 us$ 0 almo/ z necess>ily abortive z if ! ^w h>d _h be5 tak5 to d5ote a class includ+ all ! ?+s m5tion$ above4 1 = in/ance1 :i* prop]ly signifi$ motion1 0 tak5 to d5ote n only all motion b ev5 all *ange3 be+ recogniz$ z "o ( ! modes ( 4 ,! effect 01 to connect ) e =m ( or *ange1 ideas drawn f motion 9 ! prop] & lit]al s5se1 & :i* _h no real connection ) any o!r k9d ( ?an t4 ,ari/otle & ,plato labor$ "u a cont9ual emb>rassm5t f ?is misuse ( t]ms4 ,b if we proce$ fur!r 9 ?is direction we %all encroa* ^u ! ,fallacy ( ,ambiguity1 :i* belongs to a diff]5t class1 ! la/ 9 ord] ( our classification1 ,fallacies ( ,confusion4 ,*apt] ,,vi4 ,fallacies ,( ,ratioc9ation4 #a4 ,we h n[1 9 our progress ?r\gh ! classes ( ,fallacies1 arriv$ at ^? to :i*1 9 ! common books ( logic1 ! appellation is 9 g5]al exclusively appropriat$2 ^? :i* h _! seat 9 ! ratioc9ative or d$uctive "p ( ! inve/igation ( tru?4 ,( ^! fallacies x is ! less necess>y = u to insi/ at any l5g?1 z !y h be5 mo/ satisfactorily treat$ 9 a "w famili> to almo/ all1 9 ?is c\ntry at lea/1 :o feel any int]e/ 9 ^! speculations1 ,ar*bi%op ,:ately's ,logic4 ,aga9/ ! m obvi\s =ms ( ?is class ( fallacies1 ! rules ( ! syllogism are a complete protection4 ,n 7z we h s (t5 said7 t ratioc9ation c n be good unless x be 9 ! =m ( a syllogism2 b t1 by %[+ x 9 t =m1 we are sure to discov] if x be bad1 or at lea/ if x conta9 any fallacy ( ?is class4 #b4 ,among ,fallacies ( ,ratioc9ation1 we ought p]haps to include ! errors committ$ 9 processes :i* h ! appe>ance only1 n ! reality1 ( an inf]5ce f premises2 ! fallacies connect$ ) ! conv]sion & quipoll5cy ( propositions4 ,i believe errors ( ?is description to be f> m frequ5tly committ$ ?an is g5]ally suppos$1 or ?an _! extreme obvi\sness might seem to admit (4 ,= example1 ! simple conv]sion ( a univ]sal affirmative proposition1 ,all ,a are ,b1 !re=e all ,b are ,a1 ,i take to be a v common =m ( error3 ?\gh committ$1 l _m o!r fallacies1 (t5] 9 ! sil5ce ( ?\ght ?an 9 express words1 = x c sc>cely be cle>ly enunciat$ )\t be+ detect$4 ,& s ) ano!r =m ( fallacy1 n sub/antially diff]5t f ! prec$+3 ! errone\s conv]sion ( an hypo!tical proposition4 ,! prop] conv]se ( an hypo!tical proposition is ?is3 ,if ! consequ5t be false1 ! antec$5t is false2 b ?is1 ,if ! consequ5t be true1 ! antec$5t is true1 by no means holds good1 b is an error correspond+ to ! simple conv]sion ( a univ]sal affirmative4 ,yet h>dly any ?+ is m common ?an = p1 9 _! private ?\ghts1 to draw ?is inf]5ce4 ,z :5 ! conclusion is accept$1 :i* x s (t5 is1 = pro( ( ! premises4 ,t ! premises c n be true if ! conclusion is false1 is ! unexceptionable f\ndation ( ! legitimate mode ( reason+ call$ r$uctio ad absurdum4 ,b p cont9ually ?9k & express !mselves1 z if !y also believ$ t ! premises c n be false if ! conclusion is true4 ,! tru?1 or suppos$ tru?1 ( ! inf]5ces :i* foll[ f a doctr9e1 (t5 enables x to f9d acceptance 9 spite ( gross absurdities 9 x4 ,h[ _m philosophical sy/ems :i* _h sc>cely any intr9sic recomm5dation1 h be5 receiv$ by ?\ghtful m5 because !y 7 suppos$ to l5d additional support to religion1 morality1 "s favorite view ( politics1 or "s o!r *]i%$ p]suasion3 n m]ely because _! wi%es 7 !reby enli/$ on its side1 b because its lead+ to :at !y deem$ s\nd conclusions appe>$ to !m a /rong presumption 9 favor ( its tru?3 ?\gh ! presumption1 :5 view$ 9 its true light1 am\nt$ only to ! abs5ce ( t p>ticul> evid5ce ( falsehood1 :i* w\ld h result$ f its lead+ by correct inf]5ce to some?+ already kn[n to be false4 ,aga91 ! v frequ5t error 9 conduct1 ( mi/ak+ rev]se ( wrong = "r1 is ! practical =m ( a logical error ) respect to ! ,opposition ( ,propositions4 ,x is committ$ = want ( ! habit ( di/+ui%+ ! contr>y ( a proposition f ! contradictory ( x1 & ( att5d+ to ! logical canon1 t contr>y propositions1 ?\gh !y c n bo? be true1 may bo? be false4 ,if ! error 7 to express itself 9 words1 x w\ld run di/9ctly c\nt] to ?is canon4 ,x g5]ally1 h[ev]1 does n s express itself1 & to compel x to d s is ! mo/ effectual me?od ( detect+ & expos+ x4 #c4 ,among ,fallacies ( ,ratioc9ation are to be rank$1 9 ! fir/ place1 all ! cases ( vici\s syllogism laid d[n 9 ! books4 ,^! g5]ally resolve !mselves into hav+ m ?an ?ree t]ms to ! syllogism1 ei!r av[$ly1 or 9 ! cov]t mode ( an undi/ribut$ middle t]m1 or an illicit process ( "o ( ! two extremes4 ,x is n1 inde$1 v easy fully to convict an argum5t ( fall+ "u any "o ( ^! vici\s cases 9 p>ticul>2 = ! reason already m ?an once ref]r$ to1 t ! premises are seldom =mally set out3 if !y 71 ! fallacy w\ld impose ^u nobody2 & :ile !y are n1 x is almo/ always to a c]ta9 degree optional 9 :at mann] ! suppress$ l9k %all be fill$ up4 ,! rules ( ! syllogism are rules = compell+ a p]son to be aw>e ( ! :ole ( :at he mu/ und]take to def5d if he p]si/s 9 ma9ta9+ 8 conclusion4 ,he has x almo/ always 9 8 p[] to make 8 syllogism good by introduc+ a false premise2 & h5ce x is sc>cely ev] possible decid$ly to affirm t any argum5t involves a bad syllogism3 b ?is detracts no?+ f ! value ( ! syllogi/ic rules1 s9ce x is by !m t a reason] is compell$ di/9ctly to make 8 election :at premises he is prep>$ to ma9ta94 ,! election made1 !re is g5]ally s little difficulty 9 see+ :e!r ! conclusion foll[s f ! premises set out1 t we might )\t mu* logical impropriety h m]g$ ?is f\r? class ( fallacies 9 ! fif?1 or ,fallacies ( ,confusion4 #d4 ,p]haps1 h[ev]1 ! commone/1 & c]ta9ly ! mo/ dang]\s fallacies ( ?is class1 are ^? :i* d n lie 9 a s+le syllogism1 b slip 9 betwe5 "o syllogism & ano!r 9 a *a9 ( argum5t1 & are committ$ by *ang+ ! premises4 ,a proposition is prov$1 or an ackn[l$g$ tru? laid d[n1 9 ! fir/ "p ( an argum5tation1 & 9 ! second a fur!r argum5t is f\nd$ n on ! same proposition1 b on "s o!r1 resembl+ x suffici5tly to be mi/ak5 = x4 ,in/ances ( ?is fallacy w be f\nd 9 almo/ all ! argum5tative disc\rses ( unprecise ?9k]s2 & we ne$ only "h adv]t to "o ( ! obscur] =ms ( x1 recogniz$ by ! s*ool-m5 z ! fallacy dicto secundum quid ad dictum simplicit]4 ,?is is committ$ :51 9 ! premises1 a proposition is ass]t$ ) a qualification1 & ! qualification lo/ sight ( 9 ! conclusion2 or (t5]1 :5 a limitation or condition1 ?\gh n ass]t$1 is necess>y to ! tru? ( ! proposition1 b is =gott5 :5 t proposition comes to be employ$ z a premise4 ,_m ( ! bad argum5ts 9 vogue belong to ?is class ( error4 ,! premise is "s admitt$ tru?1 "s common maxim1 ! reasons or evid5ce = :i* h be5 =gott51 or are n ?\ght ( at ! "t1 b if !y _h be5 ?\ght ( w\ld h %[n ! necessity ( s limit+ ! premise t x w\ld no long] h support$ ! conclusion drawn f x4 ,( ?is nature is ! fallacy 9 :at is call$1 by ,adam ,smi? & o!rs1 ! ,m]cantile ,!ory 9 ,political ,economy4 ,t !ory sets out f ! common maxim1 t :atev] br+s 9 money enri*es2 or t e "o is ri* 9 proportion to ! quantity ( money he obta9s4 ,f ?is x is conclud$ t ! value ( any bran* ( trade1 or ( ! trade ( ! c\ntry altoge!r1 consi/s 9 ! balance ( money x br+s 92 t any trade :i* c>ries m money out ( ! c\ntry ?an x draws into x is a los+ trade2 t !re=e money %\ld be attract$ into ! c\ntry & kept !re1 by prohibitions & b\nties2 & a tra9 ( simil> coroll>ies4 ,all = want ( reflect+ t if ! ri*es ( an individual are 9 proportion to ! quantity ( money he c comm&1 x is because t is ! measure ( 8 p[] ( pur*as+ money's wor?2 & is !re=e subject to ! proviso t he is n deb>r$ f employ+ 8 money 9 su* pur*ases4 ,! premise1 !re=e1 is only true secundum quid2 b ! !ory assumes x to be true absolutely1 & inf]s t increase ( money is increase ( ri*es1 ev5 :5 produc$ by means subv]sive ( ! condition "u :i* alone money c be ri*es4 ,a second in/ance is1 ! argum5t by :i* x us$ to be cont5d$1 be=e ! commutation ( ti!1 t ti!s fell on ! l&lord1 & 7 a d$uction f r5t2 because ! r5t ( ti!-free l& 0 always high] ?an t ( l& ( ! same quality1 & ! same advantages ( situation1 subject to ti!4 ,:e!r x be true or n t a ti! falls on r5t1 a treatise on ,logic is n ! place to exam9e2 b x is c]ta9 t ?is is no pro( ( x4 ,:e!r ! proposition be true or false1 ti!-free l& mu/1 by ! necessity ( ! case1 pay a high] r5t4 ,= if ti!s d n fall on r5t1 x mu/ be because !y fall on ! consum]2 because !y raise ! price ( agricultural produce4 ,b if ! produce be rais$ 9 price1 ! f>m] ( ti!-free z well z ! f>m] ( ti!d l& gets ! b5efit4 ,to ! latt] ! rise is b a comp5sation = ! ti! he pays2 to ! fir/1 :o pays none1 x is cle> ga91 & !re=e enables him1 & if !re be fre$om ( competition1 =ces him1 to pay s mu* m r5t to 8 l&lord4 ,! "q rema9s1 to :at class ( fallacies ?is belongs4 ,! premise is1 t ! own] ( ti!d l& receives less r5t ?an ! own] ( ti!-free l&2 ! conclusion is1 t !re=e he receives less ?an he himself w\ld receive if ti! 7 aboli%$4 ,b ! premise is only true conditionally2 ! own] ( ti!d l& receives less ?an :at ! own] ( ti!-free l& is enabl$ to receive :5 o!r l&s are ti!d2 :ile ! conclusion is appli$ to a /ate ( circum/ances 9 :i* t condition fails1 & 9 :i*1 by consequ5ce1 ! premise w n be true4 ,! fallacy1 !re=e1 is dicto secundum quid ad dictum simplicit]4 ,a ?ird example is ! opposition sometimes made to legitimate int]f]5ces ( gov]nm5t 9 ! economical affairs ( society1 gr\nd$ on a misapplication ( ! maxim1 t an individual is a bett] judge ?an ! gov]nm5t ( :at is = 8 own pecuni>y int]e/4 ,?is objection 0 urg$ to ,mr4 ,wakefield's pr9ciple ( colonization2 ! conc5tration ( ! settl]s1 by fix+ su* a price on unoccupi$ l& z may pres]ve ! mo/ desirable proportion betwe5 ! quantity ( l& 9 culture & ! labor+ population4 ,aga9/ ?is x 0 argu$1 t if individuals f\nd x = _! advantage to occupy ext5sive tracts ( l&1 !y1 be+ bett] judges ( _! own int]e/ ?an ! legislature 7:i* c only proce$ on g5]al rules71 ought n to be re/ra9$ f do+ s4 ,b 9 ?is argum5t x 0 =gott5 t ! fact ( a p]son's tak+ a l>ge tract ( l& is evid5ce only t x is 8 int]e/ to take z mu* z o!r p1 b n t x might n be = 8 int]e/ to cont5t himself ) less1 if he c\ld be assur$ t o!r p w\ld d s too2 an assurance :i* no?+ b a gov]nm5t regulation c give4 ,if all o!r p took mu*1 & he only a little1 he w\ld reap none ( ! advantages d]iv$ f ! conc5tration ( ! population & ! consequ5t possibility ( procur+ labor = hire1 b w\ld h plac$ himself1 )\t equival5t1 9 a situation ( volunt>y inf]iority4 ,! proposition1 !re=e1 t ! quantity ( l& :i* p w take :5 left to !mselves is t :i* is mo/ = _! int]e/ to take1 is true only secundum quid3 x is only _! int]e/ :ile !y h no gu>antee = ! conduct ( "o ano!r4 ,b ! arrangem5t disreg>ds ! limitation1 & takes ! proposition = true simplicit]4 ,"o ( ! conditions (t5e/ dropp$1 :5 :at w\ld o!rwise be a true proposition is employ$ z a premise = prov+ o!rs1 is ! condition ( "t4 ,x is a pr9ciple ( political economy t prices1 pr(its1 wages1 etc41 8always f9d _! level20 b ?is is (t5 int]pret$ z if x meant t !y are always1 or g5]ally1 at _! level1 :ile ! tru? is1 z ,col]idge epigrammatically expresses x1 t !y are always f9d+ _! level1 8:i* might be tak5 z a p>aphrase or ironical def9ition ( a /orm40 ,"u ! same head ( fallacy 7 dicto secundum quid ad dictum simplicit]7 might be plac$ all ! errors :i* are vulg>ly call$ misapplications ( ab/ract tru?s2 t is1 :]e a pr9ciple1 true 7z ! common expression is7 9 ! ab/ract1 t is1 all modify+ causes be+ suppos$ abs5t1 is reason$ on z if x 7 true absolutely1 & no modify+ circum/ance c\ld ev] by possibility exi/4 ,?is v common =m ( error x is n requisite t we %\ld exemplify "h1 z x w be p>ticul>ly treat$ ( h]eaft] 9 its application to ! subjects on :i* x is mo/ frequ5t & mo/ fatal1 ^? ( politics & society47#bfb7 ,*apt] ,,vii4 ,fallacies ,( ,confusion4 #a4 ,"u ?is fif? & la/ class x is conv5i5t to arrange all ^? fallacies 9 :i* ! s\rce ( error is n s mu* a false e/imate ( ! probative =ce ( kn[n evid5ce1 z an indi/9ct1 indef9ite1 & fluctuat+ conception ( :at ! evid5ce is4 ,at ! head ( ^! /&s t multitud9\s body ( fallaci\s reason+s 9 :i* ! s\rce ( error is ! ambiguity ( t]ms3 :5 some?+ :i* is true if a ^w be us$ 9 a p>ticul> s5se1 is reason$ on z if x 7 true 9 ano!r s5se4 ,9 su* a case !re is n a mal-e/imation ( evid5ce1 because !re is n prop]ly any evid5ce to ! po9t at all2 !re is evid5ce1 b to a diff]5t po9t1 :i* f a confus$ appreh5sion ( ! mean+ ( ! t]ms us$1 is suppos$ to be ! same4 ,?is error w naturally be (t5] committ$ 9 our ratioc9ations ?an 9 our direct inductions1 because 9 ! =m] we are deciph]+ our own or o!r p's notes1 :ile 9 ! latt] we h ! ?+s !mselves pres5t1 ei!r to ! s5ses or to ! memory4 ,except1 inde$1 :5 ! induction is n f individual cases to a g5]ality1 b f g5]alities to a /ill high] g5]alization2 9 t case ! fallacy ( ambiguity may affect ! inductive process z well z ! ratioc9ative4 ,x occurs 9 ratioc9ation 9 two ways3 :5 ! middle t]m is ambigu\s1 or :5 "o ( ! t]ms ( ! syllogism is tak5 9 "o s5se 9 ! premises1 & 9 ano!r s5se 9 ! conclusion4 ,"s good exemplifications ( ?is fallacy are giv5 by ,ar*bi%op ,:ately4 8,"o case10 says he1 8:i* may be reg>d$ z com+ "u ! head ( ,ambigu\s ,middle1 is 7:at ,i believe logical writ]s mean by #8,fallacia ,figur ,dictionis'7 ! fallacy built on ! grammatical /ructure ( language1 f m5's usually tak+ = grant$ t p>onym\s 7or conjugate7 words1 i4e41 ^? belong+ to ea* o!r1 z ! sub/antive1 adjective1 v]b1 etc41 ( ! same root1 h a precisely correspond+ mean+2 :i* is by no means univ]sally ! case4 ,su* a fallacy c\ld n inde$ be ev5 exhibit$ 9 /rict logical =m1 :i* w\ld preclude ev5 ! attempt at x1 s9ce x has two middle t]ms 9 s\nd z well z s5se4 ,b no?+ is m common 9 practice ?an to v>y cont9ually ! t]ms employ$1 ) a view to grammatical conv5i5ce2 nor is !re any ?+ unfair 9 su* a practice1 z long z ! mean+ is pres]v$ unalt]$2 e4g41 #8murd] %\ld be puni%$ ) dea?2 ?is man is a murd]]1 !re=e he des]ves to die1' etc4 ,"h we proce$ on ! assumption 79 ?is case j7 t to commit murd]1 & to be a murd]]--to des]ve dea?1 & to be "o :o ought to die1 are1 respectively1 equival5t expressions2 & x w\ld frequ5tly prove a heavy inconv5i5ce to be deb>r$ ?is k9d ( lib]ty2 b ! abuse ( x gives rise to ! ,fallacy 9 "q2 e4g41 projectors are unfit to be tru/$2 ?is man has =m$ a project1 !re=e he is unfit to be tru/$3 "h ! sophi/ proce$s on ! hypo!sis t he :o =ms a project mu/ be a projector3 :]eas ! bad s5se t commonly atta*es to ! latt] ^w1 is n at all impli$ 9 ! =m]4 ,?is fallacy may (t5 be consid]$ z ly+ n 9 ! ,middle1 b 9 "o ( ! t]ms ( ! ,conclusion2 s t ! conclusion drawn %all n be1 9 reality1 at all w>rant$ by ! premises1 ?\gh x w appe> to be s1 by means ( ! grammatical aff9ity ( ! words2 e4g41 to be acqua9t$ ) ! guilty is a presumption ( guilt2 ?is man is s acqua9t$1 !re=e we may presume t he is guilty3 ?is argum5t proce$s on ! supposition ( an exact correspond5ce betwe5 presume & presumption1 :i*1 h[ev]1 does n really exi/2 = #8presumption' is commonly us$ to express a k9d ( slight suspicion2 :]eas1 #8to presume' am\nts to actual belief4 ,!re are innum]able in/ances ( a non-correspond5ce 9 p>onym\s words1 simil> to t above in/anc$2 z betwe5 art & artful1 design & design+1 fai? & fai?ful1 etc42 & ! m slight ! v>iation ( ! mean+1 ! m likely is ! fallacy to be successful2 = :5 ! words h become s widely remov$ 9 s5se z #8pity' & #8pitiful1' e "o w\ld p]ceive su* a fallacy1 nor w\ld x be employ$ b 9 je/47#bfc7 8,! pres5t ,fallacy is ne>ly alli$ to1 or r1 p]haps1 may be reg>d$ z a bran* (1 t f\nd$ on etymology--viz41 :5 a t]m is us$1 at "o "t 9 its cu/om>y1 & at ano!r 9 its etymological s5se4 ,p]haps no example ( ?is c be f\nd t is m ext5sively & mis*iev\sly employ$ ?an 9 ! case ( ! ^w repres5tative3 assum+ t its "r mean+ mu/ correspond exactly ) ! /rict & orig9al s5se ( ! v]b #8repres5t1' ! sophi/ p]suades ! multitude t a memb] ( ! ,h\se ( ,commons is b\nd to be guid$ 9 all po9ts by ! op9ion ( 8 con/itu5ts2 &1 9 %ort1 to be m]ely _! spokesman2 :]eas law & cu/om1 :i* 9 ?is case may be consid]$ z fix+ ! mean+ ( ! t]m1 require no su* ?+1 b enjo9 ! repres5tative to act accord+ to ! be/ ( 8 own judgm5t1 & on 8 own responsibility40 ,! foll[+ are in/ances ( great practical importance1 9 :i* argum5ts are habitually f\nd$ on a v]bal ambiguity4 ,! m]cantile public are frequ5tly l$ into ?is fallacy by ! phrase 8sc>city ( money40 ,9 ! language ( comm]ce1 8money0 has two mean+s3 curr5cy1 or ! circulat+ m$ium2 & capital seek+ inve/m5t1 especially inve/m5t on loan4 ,9 ?is la/ s5se ! ^w is us$ :5 ! 8money m>ket0 is spok5 (1 & :5 ! 8value ( money0 is said to be high or l[1 ! rate ( int]e/ be+ meant4 ,! consequ5ce ( ?is ambiguity is1 t z soon z sc>city ( money 9 ! latt] ( ^! s5ses beg9s to be felt--z soon z !re is difficulty ( obta9+ loans1 & ! rate ( int]e/ is high--x is conclud$ t ?is mu/ arise f causes act+ ^u ! quantity ( money 9 ! o!r & m popul> s5se2 t ! circulat+ m$ium mu/ h dim9i%$ 9 quantity1 or ought to be increas$4 ,i am aw>e t1 indep5d5tly ( ! d\ble mean+ ( ! t]m1 !re are 9 ! facts !mselves "s peculi>ities1 giv+ an app>5t support to ?is error2 b ! ambiguity ( ! language /&s on ! v ?re%old ( ! subject1 & int]cepts all attempts to ?r[ light ^u x4 ,ano!r ambigu\s expression :i* cont9ually meets u 9 ! political controv]sies ( ! pres5t "t1 especially 9 ^? :i* relate to organic *anges1 is ! phrase 8influ5ce ( prop]ty0--:i* is sometimes us$ = ! influ5ce ( respect = sup]ior intellig5ce or gratitude = ! k9d (fices :i* p]sons ( l>ge prop]ty h x s mu* 9 _! p[] to be/[2 at o!r times = ! influ5ce ( fe>2 fe> ( ! wor/ sort ( p[]1 :i* l>ge prop]ty also gives to its possessor1 ! p[] ( do+ mis*ief to dep5d5ts4 ,to conf\nd ^! two1 is ! /&+ fallacy ( ambiguity br\ght aga9/ ^? :o seek to purify ! electoral sy/em f corruption & intimidation4 ,p]suasive influ5ce1 act+ ?r\gh ! consci5ce ( ! vot]1 & c>ry+ 8 he>t & m9d ) x1 is b5eficial--!re=e 7x is pret5d$7 co]cive influ5ce1 :i* compels him to =get t he is a moral ag5t1 or to act 9 opposition to 8 moral convictions1 ought n to be plac$ "u re/ra9t4 ,ano!r ^w :i* is (t5 turn$ into an in/rum5t ( ! fallacy ( ambiguity1 is ,!ory4 ,9 its mo/ prop] acceptation1 !ory means ! complet$ result ( philosophical induction f exp]i5ce4 ,9 t s5se1 !re are errone\s z well z true !ories1 = induction may be incorrectly p]=m$1 b !ory ( "s sort is ! necess>y result ( kn[+ any ?+ ( a subject1 & hav+ put "o's k into ! =m ( g5]al propositions = ! guidance ( practice4 ,9 ?is1 ! prop] s5se ( ! ^w1 ,!ory is ! explanation ( practice4 ,9 ano!r & a m vulg> s5se1 !ory means any m]e fiction ( ! imag9ation1 endeavor+ to conceive h[ a ?+ may possibly h be5 produc$1 in/ead ( exam9+ h[ x 0 produc$4 ,9 ?is s5se only are !ory & !ori/s unsafe guides2 b because ( ?is1 ridicule or discr$it is attempt$ to be atta*$ to !ory 9 its prop] s5se1 t is1 to legitimate g5]alization1 ! end & aim ( all philosophy2 & a conclusion is repres5t$ z wor?less1 j because t has be5 done :i*1 if done correctly1 con/itutes ! highe/ wor? t a pr9ciple = ! guidance ( practice c possess1 namely1 to compreh5d 9 a few words ! real law on :i* a ph5om5on dep5ds1 or "s prop]ty or relation :i* is univ]sally true ( x4 8,! ,*ur*0 is sometimes und]/ood to mean ! cl]gy alone1 sometimes ! :ole body ( believ]s1 or at lea/ ( communicants4 ,! declamations respect+ ! inviolability ( *ur* prop]ty are indebt$ = ! great] "p ( _! app>5t =ce to ?is ambiguity4 ,! cl]gy1 be+ call$ ! *ur*1 are suppos$ to be ! real own]s ( :at is call$ *ur* prop]ty2 :]eas !y are 9 tru? only ! manag+ memb]s ( a mu* l>g] body ( proprietors1 & enjoy on _! own "p a m]e usufruct1 n ext5d+ beyond a life int]e/4 ,! foll[+ is a ,/oical argum5t tak5 f ,cic]o1 ,de ,f9ibus1 book ! ?ird3 8,quod e/ bonum1 omne laudabile e/4 ,quod autem laudabile e/1 omne hone/um e/4 ,bonum igitur quod e/1 hone/um e/40 ,"h ! ambigu\s ^w is laudabile1 :i* 9 ! m9or premise means any ?+ :i* mank9d are accu/om$1 on good gr\nds1 to admire or value2 z beauty1 = in/ance1 or good =tune3 b 9 ! major1 x d5otes exclusively moral qualities4 ,9 mu* ! same mann] ! ,/oics endeavor$ logically to ju/ify z philosophical tru?s1 _! figurative & rhetorical expressions ( e?ical s5tim5t3 z t ! virtu\s man is alone free1 alone beautiful1 alone a k+1 etc4 ,:oev] has virtue has ,good 7because x has be5 previ\sly det]m9$ n to call any ?+ else good72 b1 aga91 ,good necess>ily includes fre$om1 beauty1 & ev5 k+%ip1 all ^! be+ good ?+s2 !re=e :oev] has virtue has all ^!4 ,! foll[+ is an argum5t ( ,desc>tes to prove1 9 8 a priori mann]1 ! be+ ( a ,god4 ,! conception1 says he1 ( an inf9ite ,be+ proves ! real exi/5ce ( su* a be+4 ,= if !re is n really any su* be+1 ,i mu/ h made ! conception2 b if ,i c\ld make x1 ,i c also unmake x2 :i* evid5tly is n true2 !re=e !re mu/ be1 ext]nally to myself1 an ar*etype1 f :i* ! conception 0 d]iv$4 ,9 ?is argum5t 7:i*1 x may be obs]v$1 w\ld equally prove ! real exi/5ce ( gho/s & ( wit*es7 ! ambiguity is 9 ! pron\n ,i1 by :i*1 9 "o place1 is to be und]/ood my w1 9 ano!r ! laws ( my nature4 ,if ! conception1 exi/+ z x does 9 my m9d1 _h no orig9al )\t1 ! conclusion w\ld unque/ionably foll[ t ,i made x2 t is1 ! laws ( my nature mu/ h someh[ evolv$ x3 b t my w made x1 w\ld n foll[4 ,n[ :5 ,desc>tes aft]w>d adds t ,i c n unmake ! conception1 he means t ,i c n get rid ( x by an act ( my w3 :i* is true1 b is n ! proposition requir$4 ,i c z mu* unmake ?is conception z ,i c any o!r3 no conception :i* ,i h once _h1 c ,i ev] dismiss by m]e volition2 b :at "s ( ! laws ( my nature h produc$1 o!r laws1 or ^? same laws 9 o!r circum/ances1 may1 & (t5 d1 subsequ5tly efface4 ,analog\s to ?is are "s ( ! ambiguities 9 ! free-w controv]sy2 :i*1 z !y w come "u special consid]ation 9 ! conclud+ ,book1 ,i only m5tion memori caus4 ,9 t discussion1 too1 ! ^w ,i is (t5 %ift$ f "o mean+ to ano!r1 at "o "t /&+ = my volitions1 at ano!r "t = ! actions :i* are ! consequ5ces ( !m1 or ! m5tal dispositions f :i* !y proce$4 ,! latt] ambiguity is exemplifi$ 9 an argum5t ( ,col]idge 79 8 ,aids to ,reflection71 9 support ( ! fre$om ( ! w4 ,x is n true1 he says1 t a man is gov]n$ by motives2 8! man makes ! motive1 n ! motive ! man20 ! pro( be+ t 8:at is a /rong motive to "o man is no motive at all to ano!r40 ,! premise is true1 b only am\nts to ?is1 t diff]5t p]sons h diff]5t degrees ( susceptibility to ! same motive2 z !y h also to ! same intoxicat+ liquid1 :i*1 h[ev]1 does n prove t !y are free to be drunk or n drunk1 :atev] quantity ( ! fluid !y may dr9k4 ,:at is prov$ is1 t c]ta9 m5tal conditions 9 ! p]son himself mu/ co-op]ate1 9 ! production ( ! act1 ) ! ext]nal inducem5t2 b ^? m5tal conditions also are ! effect ( causes2 & !re is no?+ 9 ! argum5t to prove t !y c arise )\t a cause--t a spontane\s det]m9ation ( ! w1 )\t any cause at all1 ev] takes place1 z ! free-w doctr9e supposes4 ,! d\ble use1 9 ! free-w controv]sy1 ( ! ^w ,necessity1 :i* sometimes /&s only = ,c]ta9ty1 at o!r times = ,compulsion2 sometimes = :at c n be prev5t$1 at o!r times only = :at we h reason to be assur$ w n2 we %all h occasion h]eaft] to pursue to "s ( its ult]ior consequ5ces4 ,a mo/ important ambiguity1 bo? 9 common & 9 metaphysical language1 is ?us po9t$ out by ,ar*bi%op ,:ately 9 ! ,app5dix to 8 ,logic3 8,same 7z well z ,"o1 ,id5tical1 & o!r words d]iv$ f !m7 is us$ frequ5tly 9 a s5se v diff]5t f its prim>y "o1 z applicable to a s+le object2 be+ employ$ to d5ote great simil>ity4 ,:5 sev]al objects are undi/+ui%ably alike1 "o s+le description w apply equally to any ( !m2 & !nce !y are said to be all ( "o & ! same nature1 appe>ance1 etc4 ,z1 e4g41 :5 we say #8?is h\se is built ( ! same /one ) su* ano!r1' we only mean t ! /ones are undi/+ui%able 9 _! qualities2 n t ! "o build+ 0 pull$ d[n1 & ! o!r con/ruct$ ) ! mat]ials4 ,:]eas sam5ess1 9 ! prim>y s5se1 does n ev5 necess>ily imply simil>ity2 = if we say ( any man t he is greatly alt]$ s9ce su* a "t1 we und]/&1 & inde$ imply by ! v expression1 t he is "o p]son1 ?\gh diff]5t 9 sev]al qualities4 ,x is wor? obs]v+ also1 t ,same1 9 ! second>y s5se1 admits1 accord+ to popul> usage1 ( degrees3 we speak ( two ?+s be+ ne>ly ! same1 b n entirely3 p]sonal id5tity does n admit ( degrees4 ,no?+1 p]haps1 has contribut$ m to ! error ( ,realism ?an inatt5tion to ?is ambiguity4 ,:5 sev]al p]sons are said to h "o & ! same op9ion1 ?\ght1 or idea1 _m m51 ov]look+ ! true simple /atem5t ( ! case1 :i* is1 t !y are all ?9k+ alike1 look = some?+ m ab/ruse & my/ical1 & imag9e !re mu/ be "s ,"o ,?+1 9 ! prim>y s5se1 ?\gh n an individual :i* is pres5t at once 9 ! m9d ( ea* ( ^! p]sons2 & !nce readily sprung ,plato's !ory ( ,ideas1 ea* ( :i* 01 accord+ to him1 "o real1 et]nal object1 exi/+ entire & complete 9 ea* ( ! individual objects t are kn[n by "o "n40 ,x is1 inde$1 n a matt] ( inf]5ce1 b ( au!ntic hi/ory1 t ,plato's doctr9e ( ,ideas1 & ! ,ari/otelian doctr9e 79 ?is respect simil> to ! ,platonic7 ( sub/antial =ms & second sub/ances1 grew up 9 ! precise way "h po9t$ out2 f ! suppos$ necessity ( f9d+1 9 ?+s :i* 7 said to h ! same nature1 or ! same qualities1 some?+ :i* 0 ! same 9 ! v s5se 9 :i* a man is ! same z himself4 ,all ! idle speculations respect+ 1 1 1 & simil> ab/ractions1 s common 9 ! anci5t & 9 "s mod]n s*ools ( ?\ght1 sprang f ! same s\rce4 ,! ,ari/otelian logicians saw1 h[ev]1 "o case ( ! ambiguity1 & provid$ aga9/ x ) _! peculi> felicity 9 ! inv5tion ( te*nical language1 :5 !y di/+ui%$ ?+s :i* diff]$ bo? specie & num]o1 f ^? :i* diff]$ num]o tantum1 t is1 :i* 7 exactly alike 79 "s p>ticul> respect at lea/7 b 7 di/9ct individuals4 ,an ext5sion ( ?is di/9ction to ! two mean+s ( ! ^w ,same1 namely1 ?+s :i* are ! same specie tantum1 & a ?+ :i* is ! same num]o z well z specie1 w\ld h prev5t$ ! confusion :i* has be5 a s\rce ( s mu* d>kness & su* an abundance ( positive error 9 metaphysical philosophy4 ,"o ( ! mo/ s+ul> examples ( ! l5g? to :i* a ?9k] ( em95ce may be l$ away by an ambiguity ( language1 is af=d$ by ?is v case4 ,i ref] to ! fam\s argum5t by :i* ,bi%op ,b]keley flatt]$ himself t he _h =ev] put an end to 8skepticism1 a!ism1 & irreligion40 ,x is briefly z foll[s3 ,i ?\ght ( a ?+ ye/]day2 ,i ceas$ to ?9k ( x2 ,i ?9k ( x aga9 to-day4 ,i _h1 !re=e1 9 my m9d ye/]day an idea ( ! object2 ,i h also an idea ( x to-day2 ?is idea is evid5tly n ano!r1 b ! v same idea4 ,yet an int]v5+ "t elaps$ 9 :i* ,i _h x n4 ,:]e 0 ! idea dur+ ?is int]val8 ,x mu/ h be5 some:]e2 x did n cease to exi/2 o!rwise ! idea ,i _h ye/]day c\ld n be ! same idea2 no m ?an ! man ,i see alive to-day c be ! same :om ,i saw ye/]day if ! man has di$ 9 ! mean :ile4 ,n[ an idea c n be conceiv$ to exi/ any:]e except 9 a m9d2 & h5ce !re mu/ exi/ a ,univ]sal ,m9d1 9 :i* all ideas h _! p]man5t resid5ce dur+ ! int]vals ( _! consci\s pres5ce 9 our own m9ds4 ,x is evid5t t ,b]keley "h conf\nd$ sam5ess num]o ) sam5ess specie1 t is1 ) exact resemblance1 & assum$ ! =m] :]e !re 0 only ! latt]2 n p]ceiv+ t :5 we say we h ! same ?\ght to-day :i* we _h ye/]day1 we d n mean ! same individual ?\ght1 b a ?\ght exactly simil>3 z we say t we h ! same illness :i* we _h la/ ye>1 mean+ only ! same sort ( illness4 ,9 "o rem>kable in/ance ! sci5tific _w 0 divid$ into two furi\sly ho/ile p>ties by an ambiguity ( language affect+ a bran* ( sci5ce :i*1 m completely ?an mo/ o!rs1 enjoys ! advantage ( a precise & well-def9$ t]m9ology4 ,i ref] to ! fam\s dispute respect+ ! vis viva1 ! hi/ory ( :i* is giv5 at l>ge 9 ,pr(essor ,playfair's ,diss]tation4 ,! "q 01 :e!r ! =ce ( a mov+ body 0 proportional 7its mass be+ giv57 to its velocity simply1 or to ! squ>e ( its velocity3 & ! ambiguity 0 9 ! ^w ,=ce4 8,"o ( ! effects10 says ,playfair1 8produc$ by a mov+ body is proportional to ! squ>e ( ! velocity1 :ile ano!r is proportional to ! velocity simply30 f :5ce cle>] ?9k]s 7 subsequ5tly l$ to e/abli% a d\ble measure ( ! effici5cy ( a mov+ p[]1 "o be+ call$ vis viva1 & ! o!r mom5tum4 ,ab\t ! facts1 bo? p>ties 7 f ! fir/ agre$3 ! only "q 01 ) :i* ( ! two effects ! t]m =ce %\ld be1 or c\ld mo/ conv5i5tly be1 associat$4 ,b ! disputants 7 by no means aw>e t ?is 0 all2 !y ?\ght t =ce 0 "o ?+1 ! production ( effects ano!r2 & ! "q1 by :i* set ( effects ! =ce :i* produc$ bo? ! "o & ! o!r %\ld be measur$1 0 suppos$ to be a "q n ( t]m9ology1 b ( fact4 ,! ambiguity ( ! ^w ,inf9ite is ! real fallacy 9 ! amus+ logical puzzle ( ,a*illes & ! ,tortoise1 a puzzle :i* has be5 too h>d = ! +5uity or pati5ce ( _m philosoph]s1 & :i* no less a ?9k] ?an ,sir ,william ,hamilton consid]$ z insoluble2 z a s\nd argum5t1 ?\gh lead+ to a palpable falsehood4 ,! fallacy1 z ,hobbes h9t$1 lies 9 ! tacit assumption t :atev] is inf9itely divisible is inf9ite2 b ! foll[+ solution 7to ! inv5tion ( :i* ,i h no claim7 is m precise & satisfactory4 ,! argum5t is1 let ,a*illes run t5 times z fa/ z ! tortoise1 yet if ! tortoise has ! />t1 ,a*illes w nev] ov]take him4 ,= suppose !m to be at fir/ sep>at$ by an int]val ( a ?\s& feet3 :5 ,a*illes has run ^! ?\s& feet1 ! tortoise w h got on a hundr$2 :5 ,a*illes has run ^? hundr$1 ! tortoise w h run t51 & s on =ev]3 !re=e ,a*illes may run =ev] )\t ov]tak+ ! tortoise4 ,n[ ! 8=ev]10 9 ! conclusion1 means1 = any l5g? ( "t t c be suppos$2 b 9 ! premises1 8ev]0 does n mean any l5g? ( "t2 x means any numb] ( subdivisions ( "t4 ,x means t we may divide a ?\s& feet by t51 & t quoti5t aga9 by t51 & s on z (t5 z we please2 t !re nev] ne$s be an end to ! subdivisions ( ! di/ance1 nor consequ5tly to ^? ( ! "t 9 :i* x is p]=m$4 ,b an unlimit$ numb] ( subdivisions may be made ( t :i* is itself limit$4 ,! argum5t proves no o!r inf9ity ( duration ?an may be embrac$ )9 five m9utes4 ,z long z ! five m9utes are n expir$1 :at rema9s ( !m may be divid$ by t51 & aga9 by t51 z (t5 z we l1 :i* is p]fectly compatible ) _! be+ only five m9utes altoge!r4 ,x proves1 9 %ort1 t to pass ?r\gh ?is f9ite space requires a "t :i* is inf9itely divisible1 b n an inf9ite "t2 ! conf\nd+ ( :i* di/9ction ,hobbes _h already se5 to be ! gi/ ( ! fallacy4 ,! foll[+ ambiguities ( ! ^w "r 79 addition to ! obvi\s & famili> "o ( a "r & ! adjective "r7 are extract$ f a =gott5 pap] ( my own1 9 a p]iodical3 8,speak+ morally1 y are said to h a "r to d a ?+1 if all p]sons are morally b\nd n to h9d] y f do+ x4 ,b1 9 ano!r s5se1 to h a "r to d a ?+ is ! opposite ( hav+ no "r to d x1 i4e41 ( be+ "u a moral obligation to =be> do+ x4 ,9 ?is s5se1 to say t y h a "r to d a ?+1 means t y may d x )\t any brea* ( duty on y\r "p2 t o!r p]sons n only ought n to h9d] y1 b h no cause to ?9k worse ( y = do+ x4 ,?is is a p]fectly di/9ct proposition f ! prec$+4 ,! "r :i* y h by virtue ( a duty incumb5t ^u o!r p]sons1 is obvi\sly q a diff]5t ?+ f a "r consi/+ 9 ! abs5ce ( any duty incumb5t ^u y\rself4 ,yet ! two ?+s are p]petually conf\nd$4 ,?us1 a man w say he has a "r to publi% 8 op9ions2 :i* may be true 9 ?is s5se1 t x w\ld be a brea* ( duty 9 any o!r p]son to int]f]e & prev5t ! publication3 b he assumes !reupon t1 9 publi%+ 8 op9ions1 he himself violates no duty2 :i* may ei!r be true or false1 dep5d+1 z x does1 on 8 hav+ tak5 due pa9s to satisfy himself1 fir/1 t ! op9ions are true1 & next1 t _! publication 9 ?is mann]1 & at ?is p>ticul> juncture1 w probably be b5eficial to ! int]e/s ( tru? on ! :ole4 8,! second ambiguity is t ( conf\nd+ a "r ( any k9d1 ) a "r to en=ce t "r by resi/+ or puni%+ a violation ( x4 ,p w say1 = example1 t !y h a "r to good gov]nm5t1 :i* is und5iably true1 x be+ ! moral duty ( _! gov]nors to gov]n !m well4 ,b 9 grant+ ?is1 y are suppos$ to h admitt$ _! "r or lib]ty to turn out _! gov]nors1 & p]haps to puni% !m1 = hav+ fail$ 9 ! p]=mance ( ?is duty2 :i*1 f> f be+ ! same ?+1 is by no means univ]sally true1 b dep5ds on an imm5se numb] ( v>y+ circum/ances10 requir+ to be consci5ti\sly weigh$ be=e adopt+ or act+ on su* a resolution4 ,?is la/ example is 7l o!rs :i* h be5 cit$7 a case ( fallacy )9 fallacy2 x involves n only ! second ( ! two ambiguities po9t$ out1 b ! fir/ likewise4 ,"o n unusual =m ( ! ,fallacy ( ,ambigu\s ,t]ms is kn[n te*nically z ! ,fallacy ( ,composition & ,division2 :5 ! same t]m is collective 9 ! premises1 di/ributive 9 ! conclusion1 or vic v]sa2 or :5 ! middle t]m is collective 9 "o premise1 di/ributive 9 ! o!r4 ,z if "o 7 to say 7,i quote f ,ar*bi%op ,:ately71 8,all ! angles ( a triangle are equal to two "r angles3 ,a ,b ,c is an angle ( a triangle2 !re=e ,a ,b ,c is equal to two "r angles4444 ,!re is no fallacy m common1 or m likely to deceive1 ?an ! "o n[ be=e u4 ,! =m 9 :i* x is mo/ usually employ$ is to e/abli% "s tru?1 sep>ately1 conc]n+ ea* s+le memb] ( a c]ta9 class1 & !nce to inf] ! same ( ! :ole collectively40 ,z 9 ! argum5t "o sometimes he>s1 to prove t ! _w c\ld d )\t great m54 ,if ,columbus 7x is said7 _h nev] liv$1 ,am]ica w\ld /ill h be5 discov]$1 at mo/ only a few ye>s lat]2 if ,newton _h nev] liv$1 "s o!r p]son w\ld h discov]$ ! law ( gravitation2 & s =?4 ,mo/ true3 ^! ?+s w\ld h be5 done1 b 9 all probability n till "s "o _h aga9 be5 f\nd ) ! qualities ( ,columbus or ,newton4 ,because any "o great man might h _h 8 place suppli$ by o!r great m51 ! argum5t concludes t all great m5 c\ld h be5 disp5s$ )4 ,! t]m 8great m50 is di/ributive 9 ! premises & collective 9 ! conclusion4 8,su* also is ! fallacy :i* probably op]ates on mo/ adv5tur]s 9 lott]ies2 e4g41 #8! ga9+ ( a high prize is no uncommon occurr5ce2 & :at is no uncommon occurr5ce may reasonably be expect$2 !re=e ! ga9+ ( a high prize may reasonably be expect$2' ! conclusion1 :5 appli$ to ! individual 7z 9 practice x is71 mu/ be und]/ood 9 ! s5se ( #8reasonably expect$ by a c]ta9 individual2' !re=e = ! major premise to be true1 ! middle t]m mu/ be und]/ood to mean1 #8no uncommon occurr5ce to "s "o p>ticul> p]son2' :]eas = ! m9or 7:i* has be5 plac$ fir/7 to be true1 y mu/ und]/& x ( #8no uncommon occurr5ce to "s "o or o!r2' & ?us y w h ! ,fallacy ( ,composition4 8,?is is a ,fallacy ) :i* m5 are extremely apt to deceive !mselves2 = :5 a multitude ( p>ticul>s are pres5t$ to ! m9d1 _m are too weak or too indol5t to take a compreh5sive view ( !m1 b conf9e _! att5tion to ea* s+le po9t1 by turns2 & !n decide1 inf]1 & act accord+ly2 e4g41 ! imprud5t sp5d?rift1 f9d+ t he is able to af=d ?is1 or t1 or ! o!r exp5se1 =gets t all ( !m toge!r w ru9 him40 ,! debau*ee de/roys 8 heal? by successive acts ( intemp]ance1 because no "o ( ^? acts w\ld be ( itself suffici5t to d him any s]i\s h>m4 ,a sick p]son reasons ) himself1 8"o1 & ano!r1 & ano!r1 ( my symptoms d n prove t ,i h a fatal disease20 & practically concludes t all tak5 toge!r d n prove x4 #b4 ,we h n[ suffici5tly exemplifi$ "o ( ! pr9cipal ,g5]a 9 ?is ,ord] ( ,fallacies2 :]e1 ! s\rce ( error be+ ! ambiguity ( t]ms1 ! premises are v]bally :at is requir$ to support ! conclusion1 b n really s4 ,9 ! second great ,fallacy ( ,confusion !y are nei!r v]bally nor really suffici5t1 ?\gh1 f _! multiplicity & confus$ arrangem5t1 & /ill (t5] f defect ( memory1 !y are n se5 to be :at !y are4 ,! fallacy ,i mean is t ( ,petitio ,pr9cipii1 or begg+ ! "q2 includ+ ! m complex & n uncommon v>iety ( x1 :i* is t]m$ ,reason+ 9 a ,circle4 ,petitio ,pr9cipii1 z def9$ by ,ar*bi%op ,:ately1 is ! fallacy 89 :i* ! premise ei!r appe>s manife/ly to be ! same z ! conclusion1 or is actually prov$ f ! conclusion1 or is su* z w\ld naturally & prop]ly s be prov$40 ,by ! la/ clause ,i presume is meant1 t x is n susceptible ( any o!r pro(2 = o!rwise1 !re w\ld be no fallacy4 ,to d$uce f a proposition propositions f :i* x w\ld itself m naturally be d$uc$1 is (t5 an all[able deviation f ! usual didactic ord]2 or at mo/1 :at1 by an adaptation ( a phrase famili> to ma!maticians1 may be call$ a logical inelegance47#bfd7 ,! employm5t ( a proposition to prove t on :i* x is itself dep5d5t = pro(1 by no means implies ! degree ( m5tal imbecility :i* might at fir/ be suppos$4 ,! difficulty ( compreh5d+ h[ ?is fallacy c\ld possibly be committ$1 disappe>s :5 we reflect t all p]sons1 ev5 ! in/ruct$1 hold a great numb] ( op9ions )\t exactly recollect+ h[ !y came by !m4 ,believ+ t !y h at "s =m] "t v]ifi$ !m by suffici5t evid5ce1 b hav+ =gott5 :at ! evid5ce 01 !y may easily be betray$ into d$uc+ f !m ! v propositions :i* are alone capable ( s]v+ z premises = _! e/abli%m5t4 8,z if10 says ,ar*bi%op ,:ately1 8"o %\ld attempt to prove ! be+ ( a ,god f ! au?ority ( ,holy ,writ20 :i* might easily happ5 to "o ) :om bo? doctr9es1 z fundam5tal t5ets ( 8 religi\s cre$1 /& on ! same gr\nd ( famili> & traditional belief4 ,argu+ 9 a circle1 h[ev]1 is a /rong] case ( ! fallacy1 & implies m ?an ! m]e passive reception ( a premise by "o :o does n rememb] h[ x is to be prov$4 ,x implies an actual attempt to prove two propositions reciprocally f "o ano!r2 & is seldom resort$ to1 at lea/ 9 express t]ms1 by any p]son 9 8 own speculations1 b is committ$ by ^? :o1 be+ h>d press$ by an adv]s>y1 are =c$ into giv+ reasons = an op9ion ( :i*1 :5 !y began to argue1 !y _h n suffici5tly consid]$ ! gr\nds4 ,z 9 ! foll[+ example f ,ar*bi%op ,:ately3 8,"s me*anicians attempt to prove 7:at !y ought to lay d[n z a probable b d\btful hypo!sis77#bfe7 t e p>ticle ( matt] gravitates equally3 #8:y8' #8because ^? bodies :i* conta9 m p>ticles ev] gravitate m /rongly1 i4e41 are heavi]3' #8b 7x may be urg$7 ^? :i* are heavie/ are n always m bulky2' #8no1 b !y conta9 m p>ticles1 ?\gh m closely cond5s$3' #8h[ d y "k t8' #8because !y are heavi]3' #8h[ does t prove x8' #8because all p>ticles ( matt] gravitat+ equally1 t mass :i* is specifically ! heavi] mu/ ne$s h ! m ( !m 9 ! same space4'0 ,x appe>s to me t ! fallaci\s reason]1 9 8 private ?\ghts1 w\ld n be likely to proce$ beyond ! fir/ /ep4 ,he w\ld acquiesce 9 ! suffici5cy ( ! reason fir/ giv51 8bodies :i* conta9 m p>ticles are heavi]40 ,x is :5 he f9ds ?is que/ion$1 & is call$ ^u to prove x1 )\t kn[+ h[1 t he tries to e/abli% 8 premise by suppos+ prov$ :at he is attempt+ to prove by x4 ,! mo/ effectual way1 9 fact1 ( expos+ a petitio pr9cipii1 :5 circum/ances all[ ( x1 is by *all5g+ ! reason] to prove 8 premises2 :i* if he attempts to d1 he is necess>ily driv5 into argu+ 9 a circle4 ,x is n uncommon1 h[ev]1 = ?9k]s1 & ^? n ( ! l[e/ description1 to be l$ ev5 9 _! own ?\ghts1 n inde$ into =mally prov+ ea* ( two propositions f ! o!r1 b into admitt+ propositions :i* c only be s prov$4 ,9 ! prec$+ example ! two toge!r =m a complete & consi/5t1 ?\gh hypo!tical1 explanation ( ! facts conc]n$4 ,& ! t5d5cy to mi/ake mutual coh]5cy = tru?--to tru/ "o's safety to a /rong *a9 ?\gh x has no po9t ( support--is at ! bottom ( mu* :i*1 :5 r$uc$ to ! /rict =ms ( argum5tation1 c exhibit itself no o!rwise ?an z reason+ 9 a circle4 ,all exp]i5ce be>s te/imony to ! en?rall+ effect ( neat concat5ation 9 a sy/em ( doctr9es1 & ! difficulty ) :i* p admit ! p]suasion t any ?+ :i* holds s well toge!r c possibly fall4 ,s9ce e case :]e a conclusion :i* c only be prov$ f c]ta9 premises is us$ = ! pro( ( ^? premises1 is a case ( petitio pr9cipii1 t fallacy includes a v great proportion ( all incorrect reason+4 ,x is necess>y1 = complet+ our view ( ! fallacy1 to exemplify "s ( ! disguises "u :i* x is accu/om$ to mask itself1 & to escape exposure4 ,a proposition w\ld n be admitt$ by any p]son 9 8 s5ses z a coroll>y f itself1 unless x 7 express$ 9 language :i* made x seem diff]5t4 ,"o ( ! commone/ modes ( s express+ x1 is to pres5t ! proposition itself 9 ab/ract t]ms1 z a pro( ( ! same proposition express$ 9 concrete language4 ,?is is a v frequ5t mode1 n only ( pret5d$ pro(1 b ( pret5d$ explanation2 & is p>odi$ :5 ,molire 7,le ,malade ,imag9aire7 makes "o ( 8 absurd physicians say1 ,mihi a docto doctore1 ,dem&atur causam et rationem qu>e ,opium facit dormire4 ,a quoi respondeo1 ,quia e/ 9 eo ,virtus dormitiva1 ,cujus e/ natura ,s5sus ass\pire4 ,! words ,nature & ,ess5ce are gr& in/rum5ts ( ?is mode ( begg+ ! "q1 z 9 ! well-kn[n argum5t ( ! s*ola/ic !ologians1 t ! m9d ?9ks always1 because ! ess5ce ( ! m9d is to ?9k4 ,locke _h to po9t out1 t if by ess5ce is "h meant "s prop]ty :i* mu/ manife/ itself by actual ex]cise at all times1 ! premise is a direct assumption ( ! conclusion2 :ile if x only means t to ?9k is ! di/9ctive prop]ty ( a m9d1 !re is no connection betwe5 ! premise & ! conclusion1 s9ce x is n necess>y t a di/9ctive prop]ty %\ld be p]petually 9 action4 ,! foll[+ is "o ( ! modes 9 :i* ^! ab/ract t]ms1 ,nature & ,ess5ce1 are us$ z in/rum5ts ( ?is fallacy4 ,"s p>ticul> prop]ties ( a ?+ are select$1 m or less arbitr>ily1 to be t]m$ its nature or ess5ce2 & :5 ?is has be5 done1 ^! prop]ties are suppos$ to be inve/$ ) a k9d ( indefeasibl5ess2 to h become p>am\nt to all ! o!r prop]ties ( ! ?+1 & incapable ( be+ prevail$ ov] or c\nt]act$ by !m4 ,z :5 ,ari/otle1 9 a passage already cit$1 8decides t !re is no void on su* argum5ts z ?is3 9 a void !re c\ld be no diff]5ce ( up & d[n2 = z 9 no?+ !re are no diff]5ces1 s !re are none 9 a privation or negation2 b a void is m]ely a privation or negation ( matt]2 !re=e1 9 a void1 bodies c\ld n move up & d[n1 :i* x is 9 _! nature to d407#bff7 ,9 o!r words1 x is 9 ! nature ( bodies to move up & d[n1 ergo any physical fact :i* supposes !m n s to move1 c n be au!ntic4 ,?is mode ( reason+1 by :i* a bad g5]alization is made to ov]rule all facts :i* contradict x1 is ,petitio ,pr9cipii 9 "o ( its mo/ palpable =ms4 ,none ( ! modes ( assum+ :at %\ld be prov$ are 9 m frequ5t use ?an :at are t]m$ by ,b5?am 8"q-begg+ appellatives20 names :i* beg ! "q "u ! disguise ( /at+ x4 ,! mo/ pot5t ( ^! are su* z h a laudatory or vitup]ative "*4 ,= in/ance1 9 politics1 ! ^w ,innovation4 ,! diction>y mean+ ( ?is t]m be+ m]ely 8a *ange to some?+ new10 x is difficult = ! def5d]s ev5 ( ! mo/ salut>y improvem5t to d5y t x is an innovation2 yet ! ^w hav+ acquir$ 9 common usage a vitup]ative connotation 9 addition to its diction>y mean+1 ! admission is always con/ru$ z a l>ge concession to ! disadvantage ( ! ?+ propos$4 ,! foll[+ passage f ! argum5t 9 refutation ( ! ,epicureans1 9 ! second book ( ,cic]o1 8,de ,f9ibus10 af=ds a f9e example ( ?is sort ( fallacy3 8,et quidem illud ipsum non nimium probo 7et tantum patior7 philosophum loqui de cupiditatibus f9i5dis4 ,an pote/ cupiditas f9iri8 toll5da e/1 atque extrah5da radicitus4 ,quis e/ enim1 9 quo sit cupiditas1 qu9 recte cupidus dici possit8 ,ergo et av>us erit1 s$ f9ite3 adult]1 v]um habebit modum3 et luxuriosus eodem modo4 ,qualis i/a philosophia e/1 qu non int]itum aff]at pravitatis1 s$ sit cont5ta m$iocritate vitiorum80 ,! "q 01 :e!r c]ta9 desires1 :5 kept )9 b\nds1 are vices or n2 & ! argum5t decides ! po9t by apply+ to !m a ^w 7cupiditas7 :i* implies vice4 ,x is %[n1 h[ev]1 9 ! rem>ks :i* foll[1 t ,cic]o did n int5d ?is z a s]i\s argum5t1 b z a criticism on :at he deem$ an inappropriate expression4 8,rem ipsam prorsus probo3 elegantiam desid]o4 ,appellet hc desid]ia natur2 cupiditatis nom5 s]vet alio10 etc4 ,b _m p]sons1 bo? anci5t & mod]n1 h employ$ ?is1 or some?+ equival5t to x1 z a real & conclusive argum5t4 ,we may rem>k t ! passage respect+ cupiditas & cupidus is also an example ( ano!r fallacy already notic$1 t ( ,p>onym\s ,t]ms4 ,_m m ( ! argum5ts ( ! anci5t morali/s1 & especially ( ! ,/oics1 fall )9 ! def9ition ( ,petitio ,pr9cipii4 ,9 ! 8,de ,f9ibus10 = example1 :i* ,i cont9ue to quote z be+ probably ! be/ extant exemplification at once ( ! doctr9es & ! me?ods ( ! s*ools ( philosophy exi/+ at t "t2 ( :at value z argum5ts are su* pleas z ^? ( ,cato 9 ! ?ird book3 ,t if virtue 7 n happ9ess1 x c\ld n be a ?+ to boa/ (3 ,t if dea? or pa9 7 evils1 x w\ld be impossible n to fe> !m1 & x c\ld n1 !re=e1 be laudable to despise !m1 etc4 ,9 "o way ( view+ ^! argum5ts1 !y may be reg>d$ z appeals to ! au?ority ( ! g5]al s5tim5t ( mank9d :i* _h /amp$ its approval ^u c]ta9 actions & *>act]s by ! phrases ref]r$ to2 b t su* c\ld h be5 ! mean+ int5d$ is v unlikely1 consid]+ ! contempt ( ! anci5t philosoph]s = vulg> op9ion4 ,9 any o!r s5se !y are cle> cases ( ,petitio ,pr9cipii1 s9ce ! ^w laudable1 & ! idea ( boa/+1 imply pr9ciples ( conduct2 & practical maxims c only be prov$ f speculative tru?s1 namely1 f ! prop]ties ( ! subject-matt]1 & c n1 !re=e1 be employ$ to prove ^? prop]ties4 ,z well might x be argu$ t a gov]nm5t is good because we ought to support x1 or t !re is a ,god because x is our duty to pray to him4 ,x is assum$ by all ! disputants 9 ! 8,de ,f9ibus0 z ! f\ndation ( ! inquiry into ! summum bonum1 t 8sapi5s semp] beatus e/40 ,n simply t wisdom gives ! be/ *ance ( happ9ess1 or t wisdom consi/s 9 kn[+ :at happ9ess is1 & by :at ?+s x is promot$2 ^! propositions w\ld n h be5 en\gh = !m2 b t ! sage always is1 & mu/ ( necessity be1 happy4 ,! idea t wisdom c\ld be consi/5t ) unhapp9ess1 0 always reject$ z inadmissible3 ! reason assign$ by "o ( ! int]locutors1 ne> ! beg9n+ ( ! ?ird book1 be+1 t if ! wise c\ld be unhappy1 !re 0 little use 9 pursu+ wisdom4 ,b by unhapp9ess !y did n mean pa9 or suff]+2 to t x 0 grant$ t ! wise/ p]son 0 liable 9 common ) o!rs3 he 0 happy1 because 9 possess+ wisdom he _h ! mo/ valuable ( all possessions1 ! mo/ to be s\ght & priz$ ( all ?+s1 & to possess ! mo/ valuable ?+ 0 to be ! mo/ happy4 ,by lay+ x d[n1 !re=e1 at ! comm5cem5t ( ! inquiry1 t ! sage mu/ be happy1 ! disput$ "q respect+ ! summum bonum 0 9 fact begg$2 ) ! fur!r assumption1 t pa9 & suff]+1 s f> z !y c co-exi/ ) wisdom1 are n unhapp9ess1 & are no evil4 ,! foll[+ are additional in/ances ( ,petitio ,pr9cipii1 "u m or less ( disguise4 ,plato1 9 ! ,sophi/es1 attempts to prove t ?+s may exi/ :i* are incorporeal1 by ! argum5t t ju/ice & wisdom are incorporeal1 & ju/ice & wisdom mu/ be some?+4 ,"h1 if by some?+ be meant1 z ,plato did 9 fact mean1 a ?+ capable ( exi/+ 9 & by itself1 & n z a quality ( "s o!r ?+1 he begs ! "q 9 ass]t+ t ju/ice & wisdom mu/ be some?+2 if he means any ?+ else1 8 conclusion is n prov$4 ,?is fallacy might also be class$ "u ambigu\s middle-t]m2 some?+1 9 ! "o premise1 mean+ "s sub/ance1 9 ! o!r m]ely "s object ( ?\ght1 :e!r sub/ance or attribute4 ,x 0 =m]ly an argum5t employ$ 9 pro( ( :at is n[ no long] a popul> doctr9e1 ! inf9ite divisibility ( matt]1 t e portion ( matt] h[ev] small1 mu/ at lea/ h an upp] & an "u surface4 ,^? :o us$ ?is argum5t did n see t x assum$ ! v po9t 9 dispute1 ! impossibility ( arriv+ at a m9imum ( ?ickness2 = if !re be a m9imum1 its upp] & "u surface w ( c\rse be "o2 x w be itself a surface1 & no m4 ,! argum5t owes its v consid]able plausibility to ?is1 t ! premise does actually seem m obvi\s ?an ! conclusion1 ?\gh really id5tical ) x4 ,z express$ 9 ! premise1 ! proposition appeals directly & 9 concrete language to ! incapacity ( ! human imag9ation = conceiv+ a m9imum4 ,view$ 9 ?is light1 x becomes a case ( ! a priori fallacy or natural prejudice1 t :atev] c n be conceiv$ c n exi/4 ,e fallacy ( ,confusion 7x is almo/ unnecess>y to repeat7 w1 if cle>$ up1 become a fallacy ( "s o!r sort2 & x w be f\nd ( d$uctive or ratioc9ative fallacies g5]ally1 t :5 !y mislead1 !re is mo/ly1 z 9 ?is case1 a fallacy ( "s o!r description lurk+ "u !m1 by virtue ( :i* *iefly x is t ! v]bal juggle1 :i* is ! outside or body ( ?is k9d ( fallacy1 passes undetect$4 ,eul]'s ,algebra1 a book o!rwise ( great m]it1 b full1 to ov]fl[+1 ( logical errors 9 respect to ! f\ndation ( ! sci5ce1 conta9s ! foll[+ argum5t to prove t m9us multipli$ by m9us gives plus1 a doctr9e ! opprobrium ( all m]e ma!maticians1 & :i* ,eul] _h n a glimpse ( ! true me?od ( prov+4 ,he says m9us multipli$ by m9us c n give m9us2 = m9us multipli$ by plus gives m9us1 & m9us multipli$ by m9us c n give ! same product z m9us multipli$ by plus4 ,n[ "o is oblig$ to ask1 :y m9us multipli$ by m9us mu/ give any product at all8 & if x does1 :y its product c n be ! same z t ( m9us multipli$ by plus8 = ?is w\ld seem1 at ! fir/ glance1 n m absurd ?an t m9us by m9us %\ld give ! same z plus by plus1 ! proposition :i* ,eul] pref]s to x4 ,! premise requires pro(1 z mu* z ! conclusion2 nor c x be prov$1 except by t m compreh5sive view ( ! nature ( multiplication1 & ( algebraic processes 9 g5]al1 :i* w\ld also supply a f> bett] pro( ( ! my/]i\s doctr9e :i* ,eul] is "h endeavor+ to demon/rate4 ,a /rik+ in/ance ( reason+ 9 a circle is t ( "s e?ical writ]s1 :o fir/ take = _! /&>d ( moral tru? :at1 be+ ! g5]al1 !y deem to be ! natural or in/9ctive s5tim5ts & p]ceptions ( mank9d1 & !n expla9 away ! num]\s in/ances ( div]g5ce f _! assum$ /&>d1 by repres5t+ !m z cases 9 :i* ! p]ceptions are unheal?y4 ,"s p>ticul> mode ( conduct or feel+ is affirm$ to be unnatural2 :y8 because x is abhorr5t to ! univ]sal & natural s5tim5ts ( mank9d4 ,f9d+ no su* s5tim5t 9 y\rself1 y "q ! fact2 & ! answ] is 7if y\r antagoni/ is polite71 t y are an exception1 a peculi> case4 ,b nei!r 7say y7 d ,i f9d 9 ! p ( "s o!r c\ntry1 or ( "s =m] age1 any su* feel+ ( abhorr5ce2 8ay1 b _! feel+s 7 sophi/icat$ & unheal?y40 ,"o ( ! mo/ notable specim5s ( reason+ 9 a circle is ! doctr9e ( ,hobbes1 ,r\sseau1 & o!rs1 :i* re/s ! obligations by :i* human be+s are b\nd z memb]s ( society1 on a suppos$ social compact4 ,i waive ! consid]ation ( ! fictiti\s nature ( ! compact itself2 b :5 ,hobbes1 ?r\gh ! :ole ,levia?an1 elaborately d$uces ! obligation ( obey+ ! sov]eign1 n f ! necessity or utility ( do+ s1 b f a promise suppos$ to h be5 made by our ance/ors1 on r5\nc+ savage life & agree+ to e/abli% political society1 x is impossible n to retort by ! "q1 ,:y are we b\nd to keep a promise made = u by o!rs8 or :y b\nd to keep a promise at all8 ,no satisfactory gr\nd c be assign$ = ! obligation1 except ! mis*iev\s consequ5ces ( ! abs5ce ( fai? & mutual confid5ce among mank9d4 ,we are1 !re=e1 br\ght r\nd to ! int]e/s ( society1 z ! ultimate gr\nd ( ! obligation ( a promise2 & yet ^? int]e/s are n admitt$ to be a suffici5t ju/ification = ! exi/5ce ( gov]nm5t & law4 ,)\t a promise x is ?\ght t we %\ld n be b\nd to t :i* is impli$ 9 all modes ( liv+ 9 society1 namely1 to yield a g5]al ob$i5ce to ! laws !re9 e/abli%$2 & s necess>y is ! promise deem$1 t if none has actually be5 made1 "s additional safety is suppos$ to be giv5 to ! f\ndations ( society by feign+ "o4 #c4 ,two pr9cipal subdivisions ( ! class ( ,fallacies ( ,confusion hav+ be5 dispos$ (2 !re rema9s a ?ird1 9 :i* ! confusion is n1 z 9 ! ,fallacy ( ,ambiguity1 9 misconceiv+ ! import ( ! premises1 nor1 z 9 ,petitio ,pr9cipii1 9 =gett+ :at ! premises are1 b 9 mi/ak+ ! conclusion :i* is to be prov$4 ,?is is ! fallacy ( ,ignoratio ,el5*i1 9 ! wide/ s5se ( ! phrase2 also call$ by ,ar*bi%op ,:ately ! ,fallacy ( ,irrelevant ,conclusion4 ,8 examples & rem>ks are highly wor?y ( citation4 8,v>i\s k9ds ( propositions are1 accord+ to ! occasion1 sub/itut$ = ! "o ( :i* pro( is requir$2 sometimes ! p>ticul> = ! univ]sal2 sometimes a proposition ) diff]5t t]ms2 & v>i\s are ! contrivances employ$ to effect & to conceal ?is sub/itution1 & to make ! conclusion :i* ! sophi/ has drawn1 answ] practically ! same purpose z ! "o he ought to h e/abli%$4 ,we say1 #8practically ! same purpose1' because x w v (t5 happ5 t "s emotion w be excit$1 "s s5tim5t impress$ on ! m9d 7by a dext]\s employm5t ( ?is fallacy71 su* z %all br+ m5 into ! disposition requisite = y\r purpose2 ?\gh !y may n h ass5t$ to1 or ev5 /at$ di/9ctly 9 _! own m9ds1 ! proposition :i* x 0 y\r bus9ess to e/abli%4 ,?us if a sophi/ has to def5d "o :o has be5 guilty ( "s s]i\s (f5se1 :i* he wi%es to ext5uate1 ?\gh he is unable di/9ctly to prove t x is n su*1 yet if he c succe$ 9 mak+ ! audi5ce laugh at "s casual matt]1 he has ga9$ practically ! same po9t4 ,s also if any "o has po9t$ out ! ext5uat+ circum/ances 9 "s p>ticul> case ( (f5se1 s z to %[ t x diff]s widely f ! g5]ality ( ! same class1 ! sophi/1 if he f9ds himself unable to disprove ^! circum/ances1 may d away ! =ce ( !m1 by simply ref]r+ ! action to t v class1 :i* no "o c d5y t x belongs to1 & ! v "n ( :i* w excite a feel+ ( disgu/ suffici5t to c\nt]act ! ext5uation2 e4g41 let x be a case ( peculation1 & t _m mitigat+ circum/ances h be5 br\ght =w>d :i* c n be d5i$2 ! sophi/ical oppon5t w reply1 #8,well1 b aft] all1 ! man is a rogue1 & !re is an end ( x2' n[ 9 reality ?is 0 7by hypo!sis7 nev] ! "q2 & ! m]e ass]tion ( :at 0 nev] d5i$ ought n1 9 fairness1 to be reg>d$ z decisive2 b1 practically1 ! odi\sness ( ! ^w1 aris+ 9 great measure f ! association ( ^? v circum/ances :i* belong to mo/ ( ! class1 b :i* we h suppos$ to be abs5t 9 ?is p>ticul> in/ance1 excites precisely t feel+ ( disgu/ :i*1 9 effect1 de/roys ! =ce ( ! def5se4 ,9 l mann] we may ref] to ?is head all cases ( improp] appeal to ! passions1 & e ?+ else :i* is m5tion$ by ,ari/otle z extrane\s to ! matt] 9 h& 7 740 ,aga91 8in/ead ( prov+ t #8?is prison] has committ$ an atroci\s fraud1' y prove t ! fraud he is accus$ ( is atroci\s2 in/ead ( prov+ 7z 9 ! well-kn[n tale ( ,cyrus & ! two coats7 t ! tall] boy _h a "r to =ce ! o!r boy to ex*ange coats ) him1 y prove t ! ex*ange w\ld h be5 advantage\s to bo?2 in/ead ( prov+ t ! poor ought to be reliev$ 9 ?is way r ?an 9 t1 y prove t ! poor ought to be reliev$2 in/ead ( prov+ t ! irrational ag5t--:e!r a brute or a madman--c nev] be det]r$ f any act by appreh5sion ( puni%m5t 7z1 = in/ance1 a dog f %eep-bit+1 by fe> ( be+ beat571 y prove t ! beat+ ( "o dog does n op]ate z an example to o!r dogs1 etc4 8,x is evid5t t ,ignoratio ,el5*i may be employ$ z well = ! app>5t refutation ( y\r oppon5t's proposition1 z = ! app>5t e/abli%m5t ( y\r own2 = x is sub/antially ! same ?+1 to prove :at 0 n d5i$ or to disprove :at 0 n ass]t$4 ,! latt] practice is n less common1 & x is m (f5sive1 because x frequ5tly am\nts to a p]sonal affront1 9 attribut+ to a p]son op9ions1 etc41 :i* he p]haps holds 9 abhorr5ce4 ,?us1 :5 9 a discussion "o p>ty v9dicates1 on ! gr\nd ( g5]al exp$i5cy1 a p>ticul> in/ance ( resi/ance to gov]nm5t 9 a case ( intol]able oppression1 ! oppon5t may gravely ma9ta91 #8t we ought n to d evil t good may come2' a proposition :i* ( c\rse _h nev] be5 d5i$1 ! po9t 9 dispute be+1 #8:e!r resi/ance 9 ?is p>ticul> case 7 do+ evil or n4' ,or aga91 by way ( disprov+ ! ass]tion ( ! "r ( private judgm5t 9 religion1 "o may he> a grave argum5t to prove t #8x is impossible e "o c be "r 9 8 judgm5t4'0 ,! works ( controv]sial writ]s are seldom free f ?is fallacy4 ,! attempts1 = in/ance1 to disprove ! population doctr9es ( ,mal?us1 h be5 mo/ly cases ( ignoratio el5*i4 ,mal?us has be5 suppos$ to be refut$ if x c\ld be %[n t 9 "s c\ntries or ages population has be5 ne>ly /ation>y2 z if he _h ass]t$ t population always increases 9 a giv5 ratio1 or _h n expressly decl>$ t x increases only 9 s f> z x is n re/ra9$ by prud5ce1 or kept d[n by pov]ty & disease4 ,or1 p]haps1 a collection ( facts is produc$ to prove t 9 "s "o c\ntry ! p are bett] (f ) a d5se population ?an !y are 9 ano!r c\ntry ) a ?9 "o2 or t ! p h become m num]\s & bett] (f at ! same "t4 ,z if ! ass]tion 7 t a d5se population c\ld n possibly be well (f2 z if x 7 n "p ( ! v doctr9e1 & ess5tial to x1 t :]e !re is a m abundant production !re may be a great] population )\t any increase ( pov]ty1 or ev5 ) a dim9ution ( x4 ,! favorite argum5t aga9/ ,b]keley's !ory ( ! non-exi/5ce ( matt]1 & ! mo/ popul>ly effective1 next to a 8gr907#bfg7--;an argum5t1 moreov]1 :i* is n conf9$ to 8coxcombs10 nor to m5 l ,samuel ,johnson1 ^: greatly ov]rat$ ability c]ta9ly did n lie 9 ! direction ( metaphysical speculation1 b is ! /ock argum5t ( ! ,scot* s*ool ( metaphysicians--is a palpable ,ignoratio ,el5*i4 ,! argum5t is p]haps z frequ5tly express$ by ge/ure z by words1 & "o ( its commone/ =ms consi/s 9 knock+ a /ick aga9/ ! gr\nd4 ,?is %ort & easy confutation ov]looks ! fact1 t 9 d5y+ matt]1 ,b]keley did n d5y any ?+ to :i* our s5ses be> witness1 & !re=e c n be answ]$ by any appeal to !m4 ,8 skepticism relat$ to ! suppos$ sub/ratum1 or hidd5 cause ( ! appe>ances p]ceiv$ by our s5ses2 ! evid5ce ( :i*1 :atev] may be ?\ght ( its conclusiv5ess1 is c]ta9ly n ! evid5ce ( s5se4 ,& x w always rema9 a signal pro( ( ! want ( metaphysical pr(undity ( ,reid1 ,/ew>t1 &1 ,i am sorry to add1 ( ,br[n1 t !y %\ld h p]si/$ 9 ass]t+ t ,b]keley1 if he believ$ 8 own doctr9e1 0 b\nd to walk into ! k5nel1 or run 8 head aga9/ a po/4 ,z if p]sons :o d n recognize an occult cause ( _! s5sations c\ld n possibly believe t a fix$ ord] subsi/s among ! s5sations !mselves4 ,su* a want ( compreh5sion ( ! di/9ction betwe5 a ?+ & its s5sible manife/ation1 or1 9 metaphysical language1 betwe5 ! n\m5on & ! ph5om5on1 w\ld be impossible to ev5 ! dulle/ disciple ( ,kant or ,col]idge4 ,x w\ld be easy to add a great] numb] ( examples ( ?is fallacy1 z well z ( ! o!rs :i* ,i h attempt$ to *>act]ize4 ,b a m copi\s exemplification does n seem to be necess>y2 & ! intellig5t read] w h little difficulty 9 add+ to ! catalogue f 8 own read+ & exp]i5ce4 ,we %all1 !re=e1 "h close our exposition ( ! g5]al pr9ciples ( logic1 & proce$ to ! supplem5t>y inquiry :i* is necess>y to complete our design4 ,book ,,vi4 ,,on ,,! ,,logic ,,( ,,! ,,moral ,,sci5ces4 8,si l'homme peut prdire1 avec une assurance presque entire1 les phnomnes dont il connat les lois2 si lors mme qu'elles lui sont inconnues1 il peut1 d'aprs l'expri5ce1 prvoir avec une gr&e probabilit les vnem5ts de l'av5ir2 p\rquoi reg>d]ait-on comme une entreprise *imrique1 celle de trac] avec quelque vraisemblance le tableau des de/9es futures de l'espce huma9e1 d'aprs les rsultats de son hi/oire8 ,le seul fondem5t de croyance dans les sci5ces naturelles1 e/ cette ide1 que les lois gnrales1 connues ou ignores1 qui rgl5t les phnomnes de l'univ]s1 sont ncessaires et con/antes2 et p> quelle raison ce pr9cipe s]ait-il mo9s vrai p\r le dveloppem5t des facults intellectuelles et morales de l'homme1 que p\r les autres oprations de la nature8 ,enf91 puisque des op9ions =mes d'aprs l'expri5ce 444 sont la seule rgle de la conduite des hommes les plus sages1 p\rquoi int]dirait-on au philosophe d'appuy] ses conjectures sur cette mme base1 p\rvu qu'il ne leur attribue pas une c]titude suprieure celle qui peut natre du nombre1 de la con/ance1 de l'exactitude des obs]vations80--,,condorcet1 ,esquisse d'un ,tableau ,hi/orique des ,progrs de l',esprit ,huma94 ,*apt] ,i4 ,introductory ,rem>ks4 #a4 ,pr9ciples ( ,evid5ce & ,!ories ( ,me?od are n to be con/ruct$ a priori4 ,! laws ( our rational faculty1 l ^? ( e o!r natural ag5cy1 are only le>n$ by see+ ! ag5t at "w4 ,! e>li] a*ievem5ts ( sci5ce 7 made )\t ! consci\s obs]vance ( any ,sci5tific ,me?od2 & we %\ld nev] h kn[n by :at process tru? is to be asc]ta9$1 if we _h n previ\sly asc]ta9$ _m tru?s4 ,b x 0 only ! easi] problems :i* c\ld be ?us resolv$3 natural sagacity1 :5 x tri$ its /r5g? aga9/ ! m difficult ones1 ei!r fail$ altoge!r1 or1 if x succe$$ "h & !re 9 obta9+ a solution1 _h no sure means ( conv9c+ o!rs t its solution 0 correct4 ,9 sci5tific inve/igation1 z 9 all o!r works ( human skill1 ! way ( obta9+ ! end is se5 z x 7 in/9ctively by sup]ior m9ds 9 "s comp>atively simple case1 & is !n1 by judici\s g5]alization1 adapt$ to ! v>iety ( complex cases4 ,we le>n to d a ?+ 9 difficult circum/ances1 by att5d+ to ! mann] 9 :i* we h spontane\sly done ! same ?+ 9 easi] ones4 ,?is tru? is exemplifi$ by ! hi/ory ( ! v>i\s bran*es ( k :i* h successively1 9 ! asc5d+ ord] ( _! complication1 assum$ ! "* ( sci5ces2 & w d\btless receive fre% confirmation f ^? ( :i* ! f9al sci5tific con/itution is yet to come1 & :i* are /ill ab&on$ to ! unc]ta9ties ( vague & popul> discussion4 ,al?\gh sev]al o!r sci5ces h em]g$ f ?is /ate at a comp>atively rec5t date1 none n[ rema9 9 x except ^? :i* relate to man himself1 ! mo/ complex & mo/ difficult subject ( /udy on :i* ! human m9d c be engag$4 ,conc]n+ ! physical nature ( man1 z an organiz$ be+--?\gh !re is /ill mu* unc]ta9ty & mu* controv]sy1 :i* c only be t]m9at$ by ! g5]al ackn[l$gm5t & employm5t ( /rict] rules ( induction ?an are commonly recogniz$--!re is1 h[ev]1 a consid]able body ( tru?s :i* all :o h att5d$ to ! subject consid] to be fully e/abli%$2 nor is !re n[ any radical imp]fection 9 ! me?od obs]v$ 9 ! dep>tm5t ( sci5ce by its mo/ di/+ui%$ mod]n tea*]s4 ,b ! laws ( ,m9d1 &1 9 ev5 a great] degree1 ^? ( ,society1 are s f> f hav+ atta9$ a simil> /ate ( ev5 p>tial recognition1 t x is /ill a controv]sy :e!r !y are capable ( becom+ subjects ( sci5ce 9 ! /rict s5se ( ! t]m3 & among ^? :o are agre$ on ?is po9t1 !re reigns ! mo/ irreconcilable div]sity on almo/ e o!r4 ,"h1 !re=e1 if any:]e1 ! pr9ciples laid d[n 9 ! prec$+ ,books may be expect$ to be useful4 ,if on matt]s s mu* ! mo/ important ) :i* human intellect c occupy itself a m g5]al agreem5t is ev] to exi/ among ?9k]s2 if :at has be5 pron\nc$ 8! prop] /udy ( mank9d0 is n de/9$ to rema9 ! only subject :i* ,philosophy c n succe$ 9 rescu+ f ,empiricism2 ! same process ?r\gh :i* ! laws ( _m simpl] ph5om5a h by g5]al ackn[l$gm5t be5 plac$ beyond dispute1 mu/ be consci\sly & delib]ately appli$ to ^? m difficult inquiries4 ,if !re are "s subjects on :i* ! results obta9$ h f9ally receiv$ ! unanim\s ass5t ( all :o h att5d$ to ! pro(1 & o!rs on :i* mank9d h n yet be5 equally successful2 on :i* ! mo/ sagaci\s m9ds h occupi$ !mselves f ! e>lie/ date1 & h nev] succe$$ 9 e/abli%+ any consid]able body ( tru?s1 s z to be beyond d5ial or d\bt2 x is by g5]aliz+ ! me?ods successfully foll[$ 9 ! =m] inquiries1 & adapt+ !m to ! latt]1 t we may hope to remove ?is blot on ! face ( sci5ce4 ,! rema9+ *apt]s are an endeavor to facilitate ?is mo/ desirable object4 #b4 ,9 attempt+ ?is1 ,i am n unm9dful h[ little c be done t[>d x 9 a m]e treatise on ,logic1 or h[ vague & unsatisfactory all precepts ( ,me?od mu/ necess>ily appe> :5 n practically exemplifi$ 9 ! e/abli%m5t ( a body ( doctr9e4 ,d\btless1 ! mo/ effectual mode ( %[+ h[ ! sci5ces ( ,e?ics & ,politics may be con/ruct$ w\ld be to con/ruct !m3 a task :i*1 x ne$s sc>cely be said1 ,i am n ab\t to und]take4 ,b ev5 if !re 7 no o!r examples1 ! memorable "o ( ,bacon w\ld be suffici5t to demon/rate1 t x is sometimes bo? possible & useful to po9t out ! way1 ?\gh )\t be+ "o's self prep>$ to adv5ture f> into x4 ,& if m 7 to be attempt$1 ?is at lea/ is n a prop] place = ! attempt4 ,9 sub/ance1 :atev] c be done 9 a "w l ?is = ! ,logic ( ! ,moral ,sci5ces1 has be5 or ought to h be5 accompli%$ 9 ! five prec$+ ,books2 to :i* ! pres5t c be only a k9d ( supplem5t or app5dix1 s9ce ! me?ods ( inve/igation applicable to moral & social sci5ce mu/ h be5 already describ$1 if ,i h succe$$ 9 enum]at+ & *>act]iz+ ^? ( sci5ce 9 g5]al4 ,x rema9s1 h[ev]1 to exam9e :i* ( ^? me?ods are m especially suit$ to ! v>i\s bran*es ( moral inquiry2 "u :at peculi> facilities or difficulties !y are !re employ$2 h[ f> ! unsatisfactory /ate ( ^? inquiries is ow+ to a wrong *oice ( me?ods1 h[ f> to want ( skill 9 ! application ( "r ones2 & :at degree ( ultimate success may be atta9$ or hop$ = by a bett] *oice or m c>eful employm5t ( logical processes appropriate to ! case4 ,9 o!r words1 :e!r moral sci5ces exi/1 or c exi/2 to :at degree ( p]fection !y are susceptible ( be+ c>ri$2 & by :at selection or adaptation ( ! me?ods br\ght to view 9 ! previ\s "p ( ?is "w t degree ( p]fection is atta9able4 ,at ! ?re%old ( ?is inquiry we are met by an objection1 :i*1 if n remov$1 w\ld be fatal to ! attempt to treat human conduct z a subject ( sci5ce4 ,are ! actions ( human be+s1 l all o!r natural ev5ts1 subject to inv>iable laws8 ,does t con/ancy ( causation1 :i* is ! f\ndation ( e sci5tific !ory ( successive ph5om5a1 really obta9 among !m8 ,?is is (t5 d5i$2 & = ! sake ( sy/ematic complet5ess1 if n f any v urg5t practical necessity1 ! "q %\ld receive a delib]ate answ] 9 ?is place4 ,we %all devote to ! subject a *apt] ap>t4 ,*apt] ,,ii4 ,( ,lib]ty ,& ,necessity4 #a4 ,! "q1 :e!r ! law ( causality applies 9 ! same /rict s5se to human actions z to o!r ph5om5a1 is ! celebrat$ controv]sy conc]n+ ! fre$om ( ! w2 :i*1 f at lea/ z f> back z ! "t ( ,pelagius1 has divid$ bo? ! philosophical & ! religi\s _w4 ,! affirmative op9ion is commonly call$ ! doctr9e ( ,necessity1 z ass]t+ human volitions & actions to be necess>y & inevitable4 ,! negative ma9ta9s t ! w is n det]m9$1 l o!r ph5om5a1 by antec$5ts1 b det]m9es itself2 t our volitions are n1 prop]ly speak+1 ! effects ( causes1 or at lea/ h no causes :i* !y uni=mly & implicitly obey4 ,i h already made x suffici5tly app>5t t ! =m] ( ^! op9ions is t :i* ,i consid] ! true "o2 b ! mislead+ t]ms 9 :i* x is (t5 express$1 & ! indi/9ct mann] 9 :i* x is usually appreh5d$1 h bo? ob/ruct$ its reception1 & p]v]t$ its influ5ce :5 receiv$4 ,! metaphysical !ory ( free-w1 z held by philosoph]s 7= ! practical feel+ ( x1 common 9 a great] or less degree to all mank9d1 is 9 no way inconsi/5t ) ! contr>y !ory71 0 inv5t$ because ! suppos$ alt]native ( admitt+ human actions to be necess>y 0 deem$ inconsi/5t ) e "o's in/9ctive consci\sness1 z well z humiliat+ to ! pride & ev5 degrad+ to ! moral nature ( man4 ,nor d ,i d5y t ! doctr9e1 z sometimes held1 is op5 to ^! imputations2 = ! misappreh5sion 9 :i* ,i %all be able to %[ t !y orig9ate1 un=tunately is n conf9$ to ! oppon5ts ( ! doctr9e1 b is p>ticipat$ 9 by _m1 p]haps we might say by mo/1 ( its support]s4 #b4 ,correctly conceiv$1 ! doctr9e call$ ,philosophical ,necessity is simply ?is3 t1 giv5 ! motives :i* are pres5t to an individual's m9d1 & giv5 likewise ! "* & disposition ( ! individual1 ! mann] 9 :i* he w act might be un]r+ly inf]r$2 t if we knew ! p]son ?or\ghly1 & knew all ! inducem5ts :i* are act+ ^u him1 we c\ld =etell 8 conduct ) z mu* c]ta9ty z we c pr$ict any physical ev5t4 ,?is proposition ,i take to be a m]e int]pretation ( univ]sal exp]i5ce1 a /atem5t 9 words ( :at e "o is int]nally conv9c$ (4 ,no "o :o believ$ t he knew ?or\ghly ! circum/ances ( any case1 & ! *>act]s ( ! diff]5t p]sons conc]n$1 w\ld hesitate to =etell h[ all ( !m w\ld act4 ,:atev] degree ( d\bt he may 9 fact feel1 arises f ! unc]ta9ty :e!r he really kn[s ! circum/ances1 or ! "* ( "s "o or o!r ( ! p]sons1 ) ! degree ( accuracy requir$2 b by no means f ?9k+ t if he did "k ^! ?+s1 !re c\ld be any unc]ta9ty :at ! conduct w\ld be4 ,nor does ?is full assurance conflict 9 ! smalle/ degree ) :at is call$ our feel+ ( fre$om4 ,we d n feel ourselves ! less free1 because ^? to :om we are intimately kn[n are well assur$ h[ we %all w to act 9 a p>ticul> case4 ,we (t51 on ! contr>y1 reg>d ! d\bt :at our conduct w be1 z a m>k ( ignorance ( our "*1 & sometimes ev5 res5t x z an imputation4 ,! religi\s metaphysicians :o h ass]t$ ! fre$om ( ! w1 h always ma9ta9$ x to be consi/5t ) div9e =ekn[l$ge ( our actions3 & if ) div9e1 !n ) any o!r =ekn[l$ge4 ,we may be free1 & yet ano!r may h reason to be p]fectly c]ta9 :at use we %all make ( our fre$om4 ,x is n1 !re=e1 ! doctr9e t our volitions & actions are inv>iable consequ5ts ( our antec$5t /ates ( m9d1 t is ei!r contradict$ by our consci\sness1 or felt to be degrad+4 ,b ! doctr9e ( causation1 :5 consid]$ z obta9+ betwe5 our volitions & _! antec$5ts1 is almo/ univ]sally conceiv$ z involv+ m ?an ?is4 ,_m d n believe1 & v few practically feel1 t !re is no?+ 9 causation b inv>iable1 c]ta91 & unconditional sequ5ce4 ,!re are few to :om m]e con/ancy ( succession appe>s a suffici5tly /r+5t bond ( union = s peculi> a relation z t ( cause & effect4 ,ev5 if ! reason repudiates1 ! imag9ation reta9s1 ! feel+ ( "s m intimate connection1 ( "s peculi> tie1 or my/]i\s con/ra9t ex]cis$ by ! antec$5t ov] ! consequ5t4 ,n[ ?is x is :i*1 consid]$ z apply+ to ! human w1 conflicts ) our consci\sness1 & revolts our feel+s4 ,we are c]ta9 t1 9 ! case ( our volitions1 !re is n ?is my/]i\s con/ra9t4 ,we "k t we are n compell$1 z by a magical spell1 to obey any p>ticul> motive4 ,we feel1 t if we wi%$ to prove t we h ! p[] ( resi/+ ! motive1 we c\ld d s 7t wi% be+1 x ne$s sc>cely be obs]v$1 a new antec$5t72 & x w\ld be humiliat+ to our pride1 & 7:at is ( m importance7 p>alyz+ to our desire ( excell5ce1 if we ?\ght o!rwise4 ,b nei!r is any su* my/]i\s compulsion n[ suppos$1 by ! be/ philosophical au?orities1 to be ex]cis$ by any o!r cause ov] its effect4 ,^? :o ?9k t causes draw _! effects aft] !m by a my/ical tie1 are "r 9 believ+ t ! relation betwe5 volitions & _! antec$5ts is ( ano!r nature4 ,b !y %\ld g f>!r1 & admit t ?is is also true ( all o!r effects & _! antec$5ts4 ,if su* a tie is consid]$ to be involv$ 9 ! ^w ,necessity1 ! doctr9e is n true ( human actions2 b nei!r is x !n true ( inanimate objects4 ,x w\ld be m correct to say t matt] is n b\nd by necessity1 ?an t m9d is s4 ,t ! free-w metaphysicians1 be+ mo/ly ( ! s*ool :i* rejects ,hume's & ,br[n's analysis ( ,cause & ,effect1 %\ld miss _! way = want ( ! light :i* t analysis af=ds1 c n surprise u4 ,! wond] is1 t ! necessit>ians1 :o usually admit t philosophical !ory1 %\ld 9 practice equally lose sight ( x4 ,! v same misconception ( ! doctr9e call$ ,philosophical ,necessity1 :i* prev5ts ! opposite p>ty f recogniz+ its tru?1 ,i believe to exi/ m or less obscurely 9 ! m9ds ( mo/ necessit>ians1 h[ev] !y may 9 words disav[ x4 ,i am mu* mi/ak5 if !y habitually feel t ! necessity :i* !y recognize 9 actions is b uni=mity ( ord]1 & capability ( be+ pr$ict$4 ,!y h a feel+ z if !re 7 at bottom a /rong] tie betwe5 ! volitions & _! causes2 z if1 :5 !y ass]t$ t ! w is gov]n$ by ! balance ( motives1 !y meant some?+ m cog5t ?an if !y _h only said1 t :oev] knew ! motives1 & our habitual susceptibilities to !m1 c\ld pr$ict h[ we %\ld w to act4 ,!y commit1 9 opposition to _! own sci5tific sy/em1 ! v same mi/ake :i* _! adv]s>ies commit 9 ob$i5ce to !irs2 & 9 consequ5ce d really 9 "s in/ances suff] ^? depress+ consequ5ces :i* _! oppon5ts errone\sly impute to ! doctr9e itself4 #c4 ,i am incl9$ to ?9k t ?is error is almo/ :olly an effect ( ! associations ) a ^w1 & t x w\ld be prev5t$1 by =be>+ to employ1 = ! expression ( ! simple fact ( causation1 s extremely inappropriate a t]m z ,necessity4 ,t ^w1 9 its o!r acceptations1 involves mu* m ?an m]e uni=mity ( sequ5ce3 x implies irresi/ibl5ess4 ,appli$ to ! w1 x only means t1 ! giv5 cause w be foll[$ by ! effect1 subject to all possibilities ( c\nt]action by o!r causes2 b 9 common use x /&s = ! op]ation ( ^? causes exclusively :i* are suppos$ too p[]ful to be c\nt]act$ at all4 ,:5 we say t all human actions take place ( necessity1 we only mean t !y w c]ta9ly happ5 if no?+ prev5ts2 :5 we say t dy+ ( want1 to ^? :o c n get food1 is a necessity1 we mean t x w c]ta9ly happ5 :atev] may be done to prev5t x4 ,! application ( ! same t]m to ! ag5cies on :i* human actions dep5d1 z is us$ to express ^? ag5cies ( nature :i* are really uncontrollable1 c n fail1 :5 habitual1 to create a feel+ ( uncontrollabl5ess 9 ! =m] also4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is a m]e illusion4 ,!re are physical sequ5ces :i* we call necess>y1 z dea? = want ( food or air2 !re are o!rs :i*1 ?\gh z mu* cases ( causation z ! =m]1 are n said to be necess>y1 z dea? f poison1 :i* an antidote1 or ! use ( ! /oma*-pump1 w sometimes av]t4 ,x is apt to be =gott5 by p's feel+s1 ev5 if rememb]$ by _! und]/&+s1 t human actions are 9 ?is la/ pr$icam5t3 !y are nev] 7except 9 "s cases ( mania7 rul$ by any "o motive ) su* absolute sway t !re is no room = ! influ5ce ( any o!r4 ,! causes1 !re=e1 on :i* action dep5ds1 are nev] uncontrollable2 & any giv5 effect is only necess>y provid$ t ! causes t5d+ to produce x are n controll$4 ,t :atev] happ5s1 c\ld n h happ5$ o!rwise1 unless some?+ _h tak5 place :i* 0 capable ( prev5t+ x1 no "o surely ne$s hesitate to admit4 ,b to call ?is by ! "n ,necessity is to use ! t]m 9 a s5se s diff]5t f its primitive & famili> mean+1 f t :i* x be>s 9 ! common occasions ( life1 z to am\nt almo/ to a play ^u words4 ,! associations d]iv$ f ! ord9>y s5se ( ! t]m w adh]e to x 9 spite ( all we c d2 & ?\gh ! doctr9e ( ,necessity1 z /at$ by mo/ :o hold x1 is v remote f fatalism1 x is probable t mo/ necessit>ians are fatali/s1 m or less1 9 _! feel+s4 ,a fatali/ believes1 or half believes 7= nobody is a consi/5t fatali/71 n only t :atev] is ab\t to happ5 w be ! infallible result ( ! causes :i* produce x 7:i* is ! true necessit>ian doctr9e71 b moreov] t !re is no use 9 /ruggl+ aga9/ x2 t x w happ51 h[ev] we may /rive to prev5t x4 ,n[1 a necessit>ian1 believ+ t our actions foll[ f our *>act]s1 & t our *>act]s foll[ f our organization1 our education1 & our circum/ances1 is apt to be1 ) m or less ( consci\sness on 8 "p1 a fatali/ z to 8 own actions1 & to believe t 8 nature is su*1 or t 8 education & circum/ances h s m\ld$ 8 "*1 t no?+ c n[ prev5t him f feel+ & act+ 9 a p>ticul> way1 or at lea/ t no ef=t ( 8 own c h9d] x4 ,9 ! words ( ! sect :i* 9 our own day has mo/ p]sev]+ly inculcat$ & mo/ p]v]sely misund]/ood ?is great doctr9e1 8 "* is =m$ = him1 & n by him2 !re=e 8 wi%+ t x _h be5 =m$ diff]5tly is ( no use2 he has no p[] to alt] x4 ,b ?is is a gr& error4 ,he has1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 a p[] to alt] 8 "*4 ,its be+1 9 ! ultimate resort1 =m$ = him1 is n inconsi/5t ) its be+1 9 "p1 =m$ by him z "o ( ! int]m$iate ag5ts4 ,8 "* is =m$ by 8 circum/ances 7includ+ among ^! 8 p>ticul> organization72 b 8 own desire to m\ld x 9 a p>ticul> way1 is "o ( ^? circum/ances1 & by no means "o ( ! lea/ influ5tial4 ,we c n1 inde$1 directly w to be diff]5t f :at we are4 ,b nei!r did ^? :o are suppos$ to h =m$ our *>act]s directly w t we %\ld be :at we are4 ,_! w _h no direct p[] except ov] _! own actions4 ,!y made u :at !y did make u1 by will+1 n ! end1 b ! requisite means2 & we1 :5 our habits are n too invet]ate1 c1 by simil>ly will+ ! requisite means1 make ourselves diff]5t4 ,if !y c\ld place u "u ! influ5ce ( c]ta9 circum/ances1 we1 9 l mann]1 c place ourselves "u ! influ5ce ( o!r circum/ances4 ,we are exactly z capable ( mak+ our own "*1 if we w1 z o!rs are ( mak+ x = u4 ,yes 7answ]s ! ,ow5ite71 b ^! words1 8if we w10 surr5d] ! :ole po9t3 s9ce ! w to alt] our own "* is giv5 u1 n by any ef=ts ( ours1 b by circum/ances :i* we c n help1 x comes to u ei!r f ext]nal causes1 or n at all4 ,mo/ true3 if ! ,ow5ite /ops "h1 he is 9 a position f :i* no?+ c expel him4 ,our "* is =m$ by u z well z = u2 b ! wi% :i* induces u to attempt to =m x is =m$ = u2 & h[8 ,n1 9 g5]al1 by our organization1 nor :olly by our education1 b by our exp]i5ce2 exp]i5ce ( ! pa9ful consequ5ces ( ! "* we previ\sly _h2 or by "s /rong feel+ ( admiration or aspiration1 accid5tally ar\s$4 ,b to ?9k t we h no p[] ( alt]+ our "*1 & to ?9k t we %all n use our p[] unless we desire to use x1 are v diff]5t ?+s1 & h a v diff]5t effect on ! m9d4 ,a p]son :o does n wi% to alt] 8 "*1 c n be ! p]son :o is suppos$ to feel disc\rag$ or p>alyz$ by ?9k+ himself unable to d x4 ,! depress+ effect ( ! fatali/ doctr9e c only be felt :]e !re is a wi% to d :at t doctr9e repres5ts z impossible4 ,x is ( no consequ5ce :at we ?9k =ms our "*1 :5 we h no desire ( our own ab\t =m+ x2 b x is ( great consequ5ce t we %\ld n be prev5t$ f =m+ su* a desire by ?9k+ ! atta9m5t impracticable1 & t if we h ! desire1 we %\ld "k t ! "w is n s irrevocably done z to be incapable ( be+ alt]$4 ,& inde$1 if we exam9e closely1 we %all f9d t ?is feel+1 ( our be+ able to modify our own "* if we wi%1 is itself ! feel+ ( moral fre$om :i* we are consci\s (4 ,a p]son feels morally free :o feels t 8 habits or 8 temptations are n 8 ma/]s1 b he !irs2 :o1 ev5 9 yield+ to !m1 kn[s t he c\ld resi/2 t 7 he desir\s ( altoge!r ?r[+ !m (f1 !re w\ld n be requir$ = t purpose a /rong] desire ?an he kn[s himself to be capable ( feel+4 ,x is ( c\rse necess>y1 to r5d] our consci\sness ( fre$om complete1 t we %\ld h succe$$ 9 mak+ our "* all we h hi!rto attempt$ to make x2 = if we h wi%$ & n atta9$1 we h1 to t ext5t1 n p[] ov] our own "*2 we are n free4 ,or at lea/1 we mu/ feel t our wi%1 if n /rong en\gh to alt] our "*1 is /rong en\gh to conqu] our "* :5 ! two are br\ght into conflict 9 any p>ticul> case ( conduct4 ,& h5ce x is said ) tru?1 t none b a p]son ( confirm$ virtue is completely free4 ,! application ( s improp] a t]m z ,necessity to ! doctr9e ( cause & effect 9 ! matt] ( human "*1 seems to me "o ( ! mo/ signal in/ances 9 philosophy ( ! abuse ( t]ms1 & its practical consequ5ces "o ( ! mo/ /rik+ examples ( ! p[] ( language ov] our associations4 ,! subject w nev] be g5]ally und]/ood until t objectionable t]m is dropp$4 ,! free-w doctr9e1 by keep+ 9 view precisely t portion ( ! tru? :i* ! ^w ,necessity puts out ( sight1 namely ! p[] ( ! m9d to co-op]ate 9 ! =mation ( its own "*1 has giv5 to its adh]5ts a practical feel+ mu* ne>] to ! tru? ?an has g5]ally 7,i believe7 exi/$ 9 ! m9ds ( necessit>ians4 ,! latt] may h _h a /rong] s5se ( ! importance ( :at human be+s c d to %ape ! *>act]s ( "o ano!r2 b ! free-w doctr9e has1 ,i believe1 fo/]$ 9 its support]s a mu* /rong] _s ( self-culture4 #d4 ,!re is /ill "o fact :i* requires to be notic$ 79 addition to ! exi/5ce ( a p[] ( self-=mation7 be=e ! doctr9e ( ! causation ( human actions c be fre$ f ! confusion & misappreh5sions :i* surr\nd x 9 _m m9ds4 ,:5 ! w is said to be det]m9$ by motives1 a motive does n mean always1 or solely1 ! anticipation ( a pleasure or ( a pa94 ,i %all n "h inquire :e!r x be true t1 9 ! comm5cem5t1 all our volunt>y actions are m]e means consci\sly employ$ to obta9 "s pleasure or avoid "s pa94 ,x is at lea/ c]ta9 t we gradually1 ?r\gh ! influ5ce ( association1 come to desire ! means )\t ?9k+ ( ! end2 ! action itself becomes an object ( desire1 & is p]=m$ )\t ref]5ce to any motive beyond itself4 ,?us f>1 x may /ill be object$ t1 ! action hav+ ?r\gh association become pleasurable1 we are1 z mu* z be=e1 mov$ to act by ! anticipation ( a pleasure1 namely1 ! pleasure ( ! action itself4 ,b grant+ ?is1 ! matt] does n end "h4 ,z we proce$ 9 ! =mation ( habits1 & become accu/om$ to w a p>ticul> act or a p>ticul> c\rse ( conduct because x is pleasurable1 we at la/ cont9ue to w x )\t any ref]5ce to its be+ pleasurable4 ,al?\gh1 f "s *ange 9 u or 9 our circum/ances1 we h ceas$ to f9d any pleasure 9 ! action1 or p]haps to anticipate any pleasure z ! consequ5ce ( x1 we /ill cont9ue to desire ! action1 & consequ5tly to d x4 ,9 ?is mann] x is t habits ( hurtful excess cont9ue to be practic$ al?\gh !y h ceas$ to be pleasurable2 & 9 ?is mann] also x is t ! habit ( will+ to p]sev]e 9 ! c\rse :i* he has *os51 does n des]t ! moral h]o1 ev5 :5 ! rew>d1 h[ev] real1 :i* he d\btless receives f ! consci\sness ( well-do+1 is any ?+ b an equival5t = ! suff]+s he und]goes1 or ! wi%es :i* he may h to r5\nce4 ,a habit ( will+ is commonly call$ a purpose2 & among ! causes ( our volitions1 & ( ! actions :i* fl[ f !m1 mu/ be reckon$ n only lik+s & av]sions1 b also purposes4 ,x is only :5 our purposes h become indep5d5t ( ! feel+s ( pa9 or pleasure f :i* !y orig9ally took _! rise1 t we are said to h a confirm$ "*4 8,a "*10 says ,novalis1 8is a completely fa%ion$ w30 & ! w1 once s fa%ion$1 may be /eady & con/ant1 :5 ! passive susceptibilities ( pleasure & pa9 are greatly weak5$ or mat]ially *ang$4 ,) ! corrections & explanations n[ giv51 ! doctr9e ( ! causation ( our volitions by motives1 & ( motives by ! desirable objects (f]$ to u1 comb9$ ) our p>ticul> susceptibilities ( desire1 may be consid]$1 ,i hope1 z suffici5tly e/abli%$ = ! purposes ( ?is treatise47#bfh7 ,*apt] ,,iii4 ,t ,!re ,is1 ,or ,may ,be1 ,a ,sci5ce ,( ,human ,nature4 #a4 ,x is a common notion1 or at lea/ x is impli$ 9 _m common modes ( spee*1 t ! ?\ghts1 feel+s1 & actions ( s5ti5t be+s are n a subject ( sci5ce1 9 ! same /rict s5se 9 :i* ?is is true ( ! objects ( outw>d nature4 ,?is notion seems to involve "s confusion ( ideas1 :i* x is necess>y to beg9 by cle>+ up4 ,any facts are fitt$1 9 !mselves1 to be a subject ( sci5ce :i* foll[ "o ano!r accord+ to con/ant laws1 al?\gh ^? laws may n h be5 discov]$1 nor ev5 be discov]able by our exi/+ res\rces4 ,take1 = in/ance1 ! mo/ famili> class ( meteorological ph5om5a1 ^? ( ra9 & sun%9e4 ,sci5tific inquiry has n yet succe$$ 9 asc]ta9+ ! ord] ( antec$5ce & consequ5ce among ^! ph5om5a1 s z to be able1 at lea/ 9 our regions ( ! e>?1 to pr$ict !m ) c]ta9ty1 or ev5 ) any high degree ( probability4 ,yet no "o d\bts t ! ph5om5a dep5d on laws1 & t ^! mu/ be d]ivative laws result+ f kn[n ultimate laws1 ^? ( heat1 electricity1 vaporization1 & ela/ic fluids4 ,nor c x be d\bt$ t if we 7 acqua9t$ ) all ! antec$5t circum/ances1 we c\ld1 ev5 f ^? m g5]al laws1 pr$ict 7sav+ difficulties ( calculation7 ! /ate ( ! wea!r at any future "t4 ,meteorology1 !re=e1 n only has 9 itself e natural requisite = be+1 b actually is1 a sci5ce2 ?\gh1 f ! difficulty ( obs]v+ ! facts on :i* ! ph5om5a dep5d 7a difficulty inh]5t 9 ! peculi> nature ( ^? ph5om5a71 ! sci5ce is extremely imp]fect2 & 7 x p]fect1 might probably be ( little avail 9 practice1 s9ce ! data requisite = apply+ its pr9ciples to p>ticul> in/ances w\ld r>ely be procurable4 ,a case may be conceiv$1 ( an int]m$iate "*1 betwe5 ! p]fection ( sci5ce & ?is its extreme imp]fection4 ,x may happ5 t ! great] causes1 ^? on :i* ! pr9cipal "p ( ! ph5om5a dep5ds1 are )9 ! rea* ( obs]vation & measurem5t2 s t if no o!r causes int]v5$1 a complete explanation c\ld be giv5 n only ( ! ph5om5a 9 g5]al1 b ( all ! v>iations & modifications :i* x admits (4 ,b inasmu* z o!r1 p]haps _m o!r causes1 sep>ately insignificant 9 _! effects1 co-op]ate or conflict 9 _m or 9 all cases ) ^? great] causes1 ! effect1 accord+ly1 pres5ts m or less ( ab]ration f :at w\ld be produc$ by ! great] causes alone4 ,n[ if ^! m9or causes are n s con/antly accessible1 or n accessible at all1 to accurate obs]vation1 ! pr9cipal mass ( ! effect may /ill1 z be=e1 be acc\nt$ =1 & ev5 pr$ict$2 b !re w be v>iations & modifications :i* we %all n be compet5t to expla9 ?or\ghly1 & our pr$ictions w n be fulfill$ accurately1 b only approximately4 ,x is ?us1 = example1 ) ! !ory ( ! tides4 ,no "o d\bts t ,tidology 7z ,dr4 ,:ewell proposes to call x7 is really a sci5ce4 ,z mu* ( ! ph5om5a z dep5ds on ! attraction ( ! sun & moon is completely und]/ood1 & may1 9 any1 ev5 unkn[n1 "p ( ! e>?'s surface1 be =etold ) c]ta9ty2 & ! f> great] "p ( ! ph5om5a dep5ds on ^? causes4 ,b circum/ances ( a local or casual nature1 su* z ! configuration ( ! bottom ( ! ocean1 ! degree ( conf9em5t f %ores1 ! direction ( ! w9d1 etc41 influ5ce1 9 _m or 9 all places1 ! height & "t ( ! tide2 & a portion ( ^! circum/ances be+ ei!r n accurately kn[able1 n precisely measurable1 or n capable ( be+ c]ta9ly =ese51 ! tide 9 kn[n places commonly v>ies f ! calculat$ result ( g5]al pr9ciples by "s diff]5ce t we c n expla91 & 9 unkn[n ones may v>y f x by a diff]5ce t we are n able to =esee or conjecture4 ,nev]!less1 n only is x c]ta9 t ^! v>iations dep5d on causes1 & foll[ _! causes by laws ( un]r+ uni=mity2 n only1 !re=e1 is tidology a sci5ce1 l meteorology1 b x is1 :at hi!rto at lea/ meteorology is n1 a sci5ce l>gely available 9 practice4 ,g5]al laws may be laid d[n respect+ ! tides1 pr$ictions may be f\nd$ on ^? laws1 & ! result w 9 ! ma91 ?\gh (t5 n ) complete accuracy1 correspond to ! pr$ictions4 ,& ?is is :at is or ought to be meant by ^? :o speak ( sci5ces :i* are n exact sci5ces4 ,a/ronomy 0 once a sci5ce1 )\t be+ an exact sci5ce4 ,x c\ld n become exact until n only ! g5]al c\rse ( ! planet>y motions1 b ! p]turbations also1 7 acc\nt$ =1 & ref]r$ to _! causes4 ,x has become an exact sci5ce1 because its ph5om5a h be5 br\ght "u laws compreh5d+ ! :ole ( ! causes by :i* ! ph5om5a are influ5c$1 :e!r 9 a great or only 9 a trifl+ degree1 :e!r 9 all or only 9 "s cases1 & assign+ to ea* ( ^? causes ! %>e ( effect :i* really belongs to x4 ,b 9 ! !ory ( ! tides ! only laws z yet accurately asc]ta9$ are ^? ( ! causes :i* affect ! ph5om5on 9 all cases1 & 9 a consid]able degree2 :ile o!rs :i* affect x 9 "s cases only1 or1 if 9 all1 only 9 a slight degree1 h n be5 suffici5tly asc]ta9$ & /udi$ to enable u to lay d[n _! laws2 /ill less to d$uce ! complet$ law ( ! ph5om5on1 by comp\nd+ ! effects ( ! great] ) ^? ( ! m9or causes4 ,tidology1 !re=e1 is n yet an exact sci5ce2 n f any inh]5t incapacity ( be+ s1 b f ! difficulty ( asc]ta9+ ) complete precision ! real d]ivative uni=mities4 ,by comb9+1 h[ev]1 ! exact laws ( ! great] causes1 & ( su* ( ! m9or ones z are suffici5tly kn[n1 ) su* empirical laws or su* approximate g5]alizations respect+ ! miscellane\s v>iations z c be obta9$ by specific obs]vation1 we c lay d[n g5]al propositions :i* w be true 9 ! ma91 & on :i*1 ) all[ance = ! degree ( _! probable inaccuracy1 we may safely gr\nd our expectations & our conduct4 #b4 ,! sci5ce ( human nature is ( ?is description4 ,x falls f> %ort ( ! /&>d ( exactness n[ realiz$ 9 ,a/ronomy2 b !re is no reason t x %\ld n be z mu* a sci5ce z ,tidology is1 or z ,a/ronomy 0 :5 its calculations _h only ma/]$ ! ma9 ph5om5a1 b n ! p]turbations4 ,! ph5om5a ) :i* ?is sci5ce is conv]sant be+ ! ?\ghts1 feel+s1 & actions ( human be+s1 x w\ld h atta9$ ! ideal p]fection ( a sci5ce if x enabl$ u to =etell h[ an individual w\ld ?9k1 feel1 or act ?r\gh\t life1 ) ! same c]ta9ty ) :i* a/ronomy enables u to pr$ict ! places & ! occultations ( ! heav5ly bodies4 ,x ne$s sc>cely be /at$ t no?+ approa*+ to ?is c be done4 ,! actions ( individuals c\ld n be pr$ict$ ) sci5tific accuracy1 7 x only because we c n =esee ! :ole ( ! circum/ances 9 :i* ^? individuals w be plac$4 ,b fur!r1 ev5 9 any giv5 comb9ation ( 7pres5t7 circum/ances1 no ass]tion1 :i* is bo? precise & univ]sally true1 c be made respect+ ! mann] 9 :i* human be+s w ?9k1 feel1 or act4 ,?is is n1 h[ev]1 because e p]son's modes ( ?9k+1 feel+1 & act+ d n dep5d on causes2 nor c we d\bt t if1 9 ! case ( any individual1 our data c\ld be complete1 we ev5 n[ "k en\gh ( ! ultimate laws by :i* m5tal ph5om5a are det]m9$1 to enable u 9 _m cases to pr$ict1 ) tol]able c]ta9ty1 :at1 9 ! great] numb] ( supposable comb9ations ( circum/ances1 8 conduct or s5tim5ts w\ld be4 ,b ! impressions & actions ( human be+s are n solely ! result ( _! pres5t circum/ances1 b ! jo9t result ( ^? circum/ances & ( ! *>act]s ( ! individuals2 & ! ag5cies :i* det]m9e human "* are s num]\s & div]sifi$ 7no?+ :i* has happ5$ to ! p]son ?r\gh\t life be+ )\t its portion ( influ5ce71 t 9 ! aggregate !y are nev] 9 any two cases exactly simil>4 ,h5ce1 ev5 if our sci5ce ( human nature 7 !oretically p]fect1 t is1 if we c\ld calculate any "* z we c calculate ! orbit ( any planet1 f giv5 data2 /ill1 z ! data are nev] all giv51 nor ev] precisely alike 9 diff]5t cases1 we c\ld nei!r make positive pr$ictions1 nor lay d[n univ]sal propositions4 ,inasmu*1 h[ev]1 z _m ( ^? effects :i* x is ( mo/ importance to r5d] am5able to human =esight & control are det]m9$1 l ! tides1 9 an incomp>ably great] degree by g5]al causes1 ?an by all p>tial causes tak5 toge!r2 dep5d+ 9 ! ma9 on ^? circum/ances & qualities :i* are common to all mank9d1 or at lea/ to l>ge bodies ( !m1 & only 9 a small degree on ! idiosyncrasies ( organization or ! peculi> hi/ory ( individuals2 x is evid5tly possible ) reg>d to all su* effects1 to make pr$ictions :i* w almo/ always be v]ifi$1 & g5]al propositions :i* are almo/ always true4 ,& :5ev] x is suffici5t to "k h[ ! great majority ( ! human race1 or ( "s nation or class ( p]sons1 w ?9k1 feel1 & act1 ^! propositions are equival5t to univ]sal ones4 ,= ! purposes ( political & social sci5ce ?is is suffici5t4 ,z we =m]ly rem>k$17#bfi7 an approximate g5]alization is1 9 social inquiries1 = mo/ practical purposes equival5t to an exact "o2 t :i* is only probable :5 ass]t$ ( individual human be+s indiscrim9ately select$1 be+ c]ta9 :5 affirm$ ( ! "* & collective conduct ( masses4 ,x is no disp>agem5t1 !re=e1 to ! sci5ce ( ,human ,nature1 t ^? ( its g5]al propositions :i* desc5d suffici5tly into detail to s]ve z a f\ndation = pr$ict+ ph5om5a 9 ! concrete1 are = ! mo/ "p only approximately true4 ,b 9 ord] to give a g5u9ely sci5tific "* to ! /udy1 x is indisp5sable t ^! approximate g5]alizations1 :i* 9 !mselves w\ld am\nt only to ! l[e/ k9d ( empirical laws1 %\ld be connect$ d$uctively ) ! laws ( nature f :i* !y result2 %\ld be resolv$ into ! prop]ties ( ! causes on :i* ! ph5om5a dep5d4 ,9 o!r words1 ! sci5ce ( ,human ,nature may be said to exi/ 9 proportion z ! approximate tru?s1 :i* compose a practical k ( mank9d1 c be exhibit$ z coroll>ies f ! univ]sal laws ( human nature on :i* !y re/2 :]eby ! prop] limits ( ^? approximate tru?s w\ld be %[n1 & we %\ld be enabl$ to d$uce o!rs = any new /ate ( circum/ances1 9 anticipation ( specific exp]i5ce4 ,! proposition n[ /at$ is ! text on :i* ! two succe$+ *apt]s w furni% ! comm5t4 ,*apt] ,,iv4 ,( ,! ,laws ,( ,m9d4 #a4 ,:at ! ,m9d is1 z well z :at ,matt] is1 or any o!r "q respect+ ,?+s 9 !mselves1 z di/+ui%$ f _! s5sible manife/ations1 x w\ld be =eign to ! purposes ( ?is treatise to consid]4 ,"h1 z ?r\gh\t our inquiry1 we %all keep cle> ( all speculations respect+ ! m9d's own nature1 & %all und]/& by ! laws ( m9d ^? ( m5tal ,ph5om5a2 ( ! v>i\s feel+s or /ates ( consci\sness ( s5ti5t be+s4 ,^!1 accord+ to ! classification we h uni=mly foll[$1 consi/ ( ,?\ghts1 ,emotions1 ,volitions1 & ,s5sations2 ! la/ be+ z truly /ates ( ,m9d z ! ?ree =m]4 ,x is usual1 inde$1 to speak ( s5sations z /ates ( body1 n ( m9d4 ,b ?is is ! common confusion1 ( giv+ "o & ! same "n to a ph5om5on & to ! approximate cause or conditions ( ! ph5om5on4 ,! imm$iate antec$5t ( a s5sation is a /ate ( body1 b ! s5sation itself is a /ate ( m9d4 ,if ! ^w ,m9d means any ?+1 x means t :i* feels4 ,:atev] op9ion we hold respect+ ! fundam5tal id5tity or div]sity ( matt] & m9d1 9 any case ! di/9ction betwe5 m5tal & physical facts1 betwe5 ! int]nal & ! ext]nal _w1 w always rema91 z a matt] ( classification2 & 9 t classification1 s5sations1 l all o!r feel+s1 mu/ be rank$ z m5tal ph5om5a4 ,! me*anism ( _! production1 bo? 9 ! body itself & 9 :at is call$ outw>d nature1 is all t c ) any propriety be class$ z physical4 ,! ph5om5a ( m9d1 !n1 are ! v>i\s feel+s ( our nature1 bo? ^? improp]ly call$ physical & ^? peculi>ly designat$ z m5tal2 & by ! laws ( m9d1 ,i mean ! laws accord+ to :i* ^? feel+s g5]ate "o ano!r4 #b4 ,all /ates ( m9d are imm$iately caus$ ei!r by o!r /ates ( m9d1 or by /ates ( body4 ,:5 a /ate ( m9d is produc$ by a /ate ( m9d1 ,i call ! law conc]n$ 9 ! case a law ( ,m9d4 ,:5 a /ate ( m9d is produc$ directly by a /ate ( body1 ! law is a law ( ,body1 & belongs to physical sci5ce4 ,) reg>d to ^? /ates ( m9d :i* are call$ s5sations1 all are agre$ t ^! h = _! imm$iate antec$5ts1 /ates ( body4 ,e s5sation has = its proximate cause "s affection ( ! portion ( our frame call$ ! n]v\s sy/em1 :e!r ?is affection orig9ates 9 ! action ( "s ext]nal object1 or 9 "s pa?ological condition ( ! n]v\s organization itself4 ,! laws ( ?is portion ( our nature--! v>ieties ( our s5sations1 & ! physical conditions on :i* !y proximately dep5d--manife/ly belong to ! prov9ce ( ,physiology4 ,:e!r ! rema9d] ( our m5tal /ates are simil>ly dep5d5t on physical conditions1 is "o ( ! vexat que/iones 9 ! sci5ce ( human nature4 ,x is /ill disput$ :e!r our ?\ghts1 emotions1 & volitions are g5]at$ ?r\gh ! int]v5tion ( mat]ial me*anism2 :e!r we h organs ( ?\ght & ( emotion1 9 ! same s5se 9 :i* we h organs ( s5sation4 ,_m em95t physiologi/s hold ! affirmative4 ,^! cont5d t a ?\ght 7= example7 is z mu* ! result ( n]v\s ag5cy1 z a s5sation2 t "s p>ticul> /ate ( our n]v\s sy/em1 9 p>ticul> ( t c5tral portion ( x call$ ! bra91 inv>iably prec$es1 & is presuppos$ by1 e /ate ( our consci\sness4 ,accord+ to ?is !ory1 "o /ate ( m9d is nev] really produc$ by ano!r3 all are produc$ by /ates ( body4 ,:5 "o ?\ght seems to call up ano!r by association1 x is n really a ?\ght :i* recalls a ?\ght2 ! association did n exi/ betwe5 ! two ?\ghts1 b betwe5 ! two /ates ( ! bra9 or n]ves :i* prec$$ ! ?\ghts3 "o ( ^? /ates recalls ! o!r1 ea* be+ att5d$ 9 its passage by ! p>ticul> /ate ( consci\sness :i* is consequ5t on x4 ,on ?is !ory ! uni=mities ( succession among /ates ( m9d w\ld be m]e d]ivative uni=mities1 result+ f ! laws ( succession ( ! bodily /ates :i* cause !m4 ,!re w\ld be no orig9al m5tal laws1 no ,laws ( ,m9d 9 ! s5se 9 :i* ,i use ! t]m1 at all2 & m5tal sci5ce w\ld be a m]e bran*1 ?\gh ! highe/ & mo/ recondite bran*1 ( ! sci5ce ( physiology4 ,m4 ,comte1 accord+ly1 claims ! sci5tific cognizance ( moral & intellectual ph5om5a exclusively = physiologi/s2 & n only d5ies to ,psy*ology1 or ,m5tal ,philosophy prop]ly s call$1 ! "* ( a sci5ce1 b places x1 9 ! *im]ical nature ( its objects & pret5sions1 almo/ on a p> ) a/rology4 ,b1 aft] all has be5 said :i* c be said1 x rema9s inconte/able t !re exi/ uni=mities ( succession among /ates ( m9d1 & t ^! c be asc]ta9$ by obs]vation & exp]im5t4 ,fur!r1 t e m5tal /ate has a n]v\s /ate = its imm$iate antec$5t & proximate cause1 ?\gh extremely probable1 c n hi!rto be said to be prov$1 9 ! conclusive mann] 9 :i* ?is c be prov$ ( s5sations2 & ev5 7 x c]ta91 yet e "o mu/ admit t we are :olly ignorant ( ! *>act]i/ics ( ^! n]v\s /ates2 we "k n1 & at pres5t h no means ( kn[+1 9 :at respect "o ( !m diff]s f ano!r2 & our only mode ( /udy+ _! successions or co-exi/5ces mu/ be by obs]v+ ! successions & co-exi/5ces ( ! m5tal /ates1 ( :i* !y are suppos$ to be ! g5]ators or causes4 ,! successions1 !re=e1 :i* obta9 among m5tal ph5om5a1 d n admit ( be+ d$uc$ f ! physiological laws ( our n]v\s organization2 & all real k ( !m mu/ cont9ue1 = a long "t at lea/1 if n always1 to be s\ght 9 ! direct /udy1 by obs]vation & exp]im5t1 ( ! m5tal successions !mselves4 ,s9ce1 !re=e1 ! ord] ( our m5tal ph5om5a mu/ be /udi$ 9 ^? ph5om5a1 & n inf]r$ f ! laws ( any ph5om5a m g5]al1 !re is a di/9ct & sep>ate ,sci5ce ( ,m9d4 ,! relations1 inde$1 ( t sci5ce to ! sci5ce ( physiology mu/ nev] be ov]look$ or und]valu$4 ,x mu/ by no means be =gott5 t ! laws ( m9d may be d]ivative laws result+ f laws ( animal life1 & t _! tru?1 !re=e1 may ultimately dep5d on physical conditions2 & ! influ5ce ( physiological /ates or physiological *anges 9 alt]+ or c\nt]act+ ! m5tal successions1 is "o ( ! mo/ important dep>tm5ts ( psy*ological /udy4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 to reject ! res\rce ( psy*ological analysis1 & con/ruct ! !ory ( ! m9d solely on su* data z physiology at pres5t af=ds1 seems to me z great an error 9 pr9ciple1 & an ev5 m s]i\s "o 9 practice4 ,imp]fect z is ! sci5ce ( m9d1 ,i d n scruple to affirm t x is 9 a consid]ably m advanc$ /ate ?an ! portion ( physiology :i* corresponds to x2 & to disc>d ! =m] = ! latt] appe>s1 to me an infr+em5t ( ! true canons ( inductive philosophy1 :i* mu/ produce1 & :i* does produce1 errone\s conclusions 9 "s v important dep>tm5ts ( ! sci5ce ( human nature4 #c4 ,! subject1 !n1 ( ,psy*ology is ! uni=mities ( succession1 ! laws1 :e!r ultimate or d]ivative1 accord+ to :i* "o m5tal /ate succe$s ano!r2 is caus$ by1 or at lea/1 is caus$ to foll[1 ano!r4 ,( ^! laws "s are g5]al1 o!rs m special4 ,! foll[+ are examples ( ! mo/ g5]al laws3 ,fir/4 ,:5ev] any /ate ( consci\sness has once be5 excit$ 9 u1 no matt] by :at cause1 an inf]ior degree ( ! same /ate ( consci\sness1 a /ate ( consci\sness resembl+ ! =m]1 b inf]ior 9 int5sity1 is capable ( be+ reproduc$ 9 u1 )\t ! pres5ce ( any su* cause z excit$ x at fir/4 ,?us1 if we h once se5 or t\*$ an object1 we c aft]w>d ?9k ( ! object ?\gh x be abs5t f our sight or f our t\*4 ,if we h be5 joyful or griev$ at "s ev5t1 we c ?9k ( or rememb] our pa/ joy or grief1 ?\gh no new ev5t ( a happy or pa9ful nature has tak5 place4 ,:5 a poet has put toge!r a m5tal picture ( an imag9>y object1 a ,ca/le ( ,indol5ce1 a ,una1 or a ,hamlet1 he c aft]w>d ?9k ( ! ideal object he has creat$1 )\t any fre% act ( intellectual comb9ation4 ,?is law is express$ by say+1 9 ! language ( ,hume1 t e m5tal impression has its idea4 ,secondly4 ,^! ideas1 or second>y m5tal /ates1 are excit$ by our impressions1 or by o!r ideas1 accord+ to c]ta9 laws :i* are call$ ,laws ( ,association4 ,( ^! laws ! fir/ is1 t simil> ideas t5d to excite "o ano!r4 ,! second is1 t :5 two impressions h be5 frequ5tly exp]i5c$ 7or ev5 ?\ght (7 ei!r simultane\sly or 9 imm$iate succession1 !n :5ev] "o ( ^! impressions1 or ! idea ( x1 recurs1 x t5ds to excite ! idea ( ! o!r4 ,! ?ird law is1 t great] int5sity 9 ei!r or bo? ( ! impressions is equival5t1 9 r5d]+ !m excitable by "o ano!r1 to a great] frequ5cy ( conjunction4 ,^! are ! laws ( ideas1 on :i* ,i %all n enl>ge 9 ?is place1 b ref] ! read] to works pr(ess$ly psy*ological1 9 p>ticul> to ,mr4 ,james ,mill's ,analysis ( ! ,ph5om5a ( ! ,human ,m9d1 :]e ! pr9cipal laws ( association1 along ) _m ( _! applications1 are copi\sly exemplifi$1 & ) a ma/]ly h&47#bgj7 ,^! simple or elem5t>y ,laws ( ,m9d h be5 asc]ta9$ by ! ord9>y me?ods ( exp]im5tal inquiry2 nor c\ld !y h be5 asc]ta9$ 9 any o!r mann]4 ,b a c]ta9 numb] ( elem5t>y laws hav+ ?us be5 obta9$1 x is a fair subject ( sci5tific inquiry h[ f> ^? laws c be made to g 9 expla9+ ! actual ph5om5a4 ,x is obvi\s t complex laws ( ?\ght & feel+ n only may1 b mu/1 be g5]at$ f ^! simple laws4 ,& x is to be rem>k$1 t ! case is n always "o ( ,composition ( ,causes3 ! effect ( concurr+ causes is n always precisely ! sum ( ! effects ( ^? causes :5 sep>ate1 nor ev5 always an effect ( ! same k9d ) !m4 ,rev]t+ to ! di/9ction :i* occupies s prom95t a place 9 ! !ory ( induction1 ! laws ( ! ph5om5a ( m9d are sometimes analog\s to me*anical1 b sometimes also to *emical laws4 ,:5 _m impressions or ideas are op]at+ 9 ! m9d toge!r1 !re sometimes takes place a process ( a simil> k9d to *emical comb9ation4 ,:5 impressions h be5 s (t5 exp]i5c$ 9 conjunction1 t ea* ( !m calls up readily & in/antane\sly ! ideas ( ! :ole gr\p1 ^? ideas sometimes melt & coalesce into "o ano!r1 & appe> n sev]al ideas1 b "o2 9 ! same mann] z1 :5 ! sev5 prismatic colors are pres5t$ to ! eye 9 rapid succession1 ! s5sation produc$ is t ( :ite4 ,b z 9 ?is la/ case x is correct to say t ! sev5 colors :5 !y rapidly foll[ "o ano!r g5]ate :ite1 b n t !y actually are :ite2 s x appe>s to me t ! ,complex ,idea1 =m$ by ! bl5d+ toge!r ( sev]al simpl] ones1 %\ld1 :5 x really appe>s simple 7t is1 :5 ! sep>ate elem5ts are n consci\sly di/+ui%able 9 x71 be said to result f1 or be g5]at$ by1 ! simple ideas1 n to consi/ ( !m4 ,our idea ( an orange really consi/s ( ! simple ideas ( a c]ta9 color1 a c]ta9 =m1 a c]ta9 ta/e & smell1 etc41 because we c1 by int]rogat+ our consci\sness1 p]ceive all ^! elem5ts 9 ! idea4 ,b we c n p]ceive1 9 s app>5tly simple a feel+ z our p]ception ( ! %ape ( an object by ! eye1 all t multitude ( ideas d]iv$ f o!r s5ses1 )\t :i* x is well asc]ta9$ t no su* visual p]ception w\ld ev] h _h exi/5ce2 nor1 9 our idea ( ,ext5sion1 c we discov] ^? elem5t>y ideas ( resi/ance1 d]iv$ f our muscul> frame1 9 :i* x has be5 conclusively %[n t ! idea orig9ates4 ,^!1 !re=e1 are cases ( m5tal *emi/ry2 9 :i* x is prop] to say t ! simple ideas g5]ate1 r ?an t !y compose1 ! complex ones4 ,) respect to all ! o!r con/itu5ts ( ! m9d1 its beliefs1 its ab/rus] conceptions1 its s5tim5ts1 emotions1 & volitions1 !re are "s 7among :om are ,h>tley & ! au?or ( ! ,analysis7 :o ?9k t ! :ole ( ^! are g5]at$ f simple ideas ( s5sation1 by a *emi/ry simil> to t :i* we h j exemplifi$4 ,^! philosoph]s h made out a great "p ( _! case1 b ,i am n satisfi$ t !y h e/abli%$ ! :ole ( x4 ,!y h %[n t !re is su* a ?+ z m5tal *emi/ry2 t ! het]og5e\s nature ( a feel+ ,a1 consid]$ 9 relation to ,b & ,c1 is no conclusive argum5t aga9/ its be+ g5]at$ f ,b & ,c4 ,hav+ prov$ ?is1 !y proce$ to %[1 t :]e ,a is f\nd1 ,b & ,c 71 or may h be5 pres5t1 & :y1 !re=e1 !y ask1 %\ld n ,a h be5 g5]at$ f ,b & ,c8 ,b ev5 if ?is evid5ce 7 c>ri$ to ! highe/ degree ( complet5ess :i* x admits (2 if x 7 %[n 7:i* hi!rto x has n1 9 all cases1 be57 t c]ta9 gr\ps ( associat$ ideas n only might h be51 b actually 71 pres5t :5ev] ! m recondite m5tal feel+ 0 exp]i5c$2 ?is w\ld am\nt only to ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 & c\ld n prove causation until confirm$ by ! m conclusive evid5ce ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce4 ,if ! "q be :e!r ,belief is a m]e case ( close association ( ideas1 x w\ld be necess>y to exam9e exp]im5tally if x be true t any ideas :atev]1 provid$ !y are associat$ ) ! requir$ degree ( clos5ess1 give rise to belief4 ,if ! inquiry be into ! orig9 ( moral feel+s1 ! feel+ = example ( moral reprobation1 x is necess>y to comp>e all ! v>ieties ( actions or /ates ( m9d :i* are ev] morally disapprov$1 & see :e!r 9 all ^! cases x c be %[n1 or reasonably surmis$1 t ! action or /ate ( m9d _h become connect$ by association1 9 ! disapprov+ m9d1 ) "s p>ticul> class ( hateful or disgu/+ ideas2 & ! me?od employ$ is1 ?us f>1 t ( ,agreem5t4 ,b ?is is n en\gh4 ,suppos+ ?is prov$1 we mu/ try fur!r by ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 :e!r ?is p>ticul> k9d ( hateful or disgu/+ ideas1 :5 x becomes associat$ ) an action previ\sly indiff]5t1 w r5d] t action a subject ( moral disapproval4 ,if ?is "q c be answ]$ 9 ! affirmative1 x is %[n to be a law ( ! human m9d1 t an association ( t p>ticul> description is ! g5]at+ cause ( moral reprobation4 ,t all ?is is ! case has be5 r5d]$ extremely probable1 b ! exp]im5ts h n be5 tri$ ) ! degree ( precision necess>y = a complete & absolutely conclusive induction47#bga7 ,x is fur!r to be rememb]$1 t ev5 if all :i* ?is !ory ( m5tal ph5om5a cont5ds = c\ld be prov$1 we %\ld n be ! m enabl$ to resolve ! laws ( ! m complex feel+s into ^? ( ! simpl] ones4 ,! g5]ation ( "o class ( m5tal ph5om5a f ano!r1 :5ev] x c be made out1 is a highly int]e/+ fact 9 psy*ological *emi/ry2 b x no m sup]s$es ! necessity ( an exp]im5tal /udy ( ! g5]at$ ph5om5on1 ?an a k ( ! prop]ties ( oxyg5 & sulphur enables u to d$uce ^? ( sulphuric acid )\t specific obs]vation & exp]im5t4 ,:atev]1 !re=e1 may be ! f9al issue ( ! attempt to acc\nt = ! orig9 ( our judgm5ts1 our desires1 or our volitions1 f simpl] m5tal ph5om5a1 x is n ! less imp]ative to asc]ta9 ! sequ5ces ( ! complex ph5om5a !mselves1 by special /udy 9 con=mity to ! canons ( ,induction4 ,?us1 9 respect to ,belief1 psy*ologi/s w always h to inquire :at beliefs we h by direct consci\sness1 & accord+ to :at laws "o belief produces ano!r2 :at are ! laws 9 virtue ( :i* "o ?+ is recogniz$ by ! m9d1 ei!r rightly or errone\sly1 z evid5ce ( ano!r ?+4 ,9 reg>d to ,desire1 !y w h to exam9e :at objects we desire naturally1 & by :at causes we are made to desire ?+s orig9ally indiff]5t1 or ev5 disagreeable to u2 & s =?4 ,x may be rem>k$ t ! g5]al laws ( association prevail among ^! m intricate /ates ( m9d1 9 ! same mann] z among ! simpl] ones4 ,a desire1 an emotion1 an idea ( ! high] ord] ( ab/raction1 ev5 our judgm5ts & volitions1 :5 !y h become habitual1 are call$ up by association1 accord+ to precisely ! same laws z our simple ideas4 #d4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ^! inquiries1 x w be natural & necess>y to exam9e h[ f> ! production ( "o /ate ( m9d by ano!r is influ5c$ by any assignable /ate ( body4 ,! commone/ obs]vation %[s t diff]5t m9ds are susceptible 9 v diff]5t degrees to ! action ( ! same psy*ological causes4 ,! idea1 = example1 ( a giv5 desirable object w excite 9 diff]5t m9ds v diff]5t degrees ( int5sity ( desire4 ,! same subject ( m$itation1 pres5t$ to diff]5t m9ds1 w excite 9 !m v unequal degrees ( intellectual action4 ,^! diff]5ces ( m5tal susceptibility 9 diff]5t individuals may be1 fir/1 orig9al & ultimate facts2 or1 secondly1 !y may be consequ5ces ( ! previ\s m5tal hi/ory ( ^? individuals2 or1 ?irdly & la/ly1 !y may dep5d on v>ieties ( physical organization4 ,t ! previ\s m5tal hi/ory ( ! individuals mu/ h "s %>e 9 produc+ or 9 modify+ ! :ole ( _! m5tal "*1 is an inevitable consequ5ce ( ! laws ( m9d2 b t diff]5ces ( bodily /ructure also co-op]ate1 is ! op9ion ( all physiologi/s1 confirm$ by common exp]i5ce4 ,x is to be regrett$ t hi!rto ?is exp]i5ce1 be+ accept$ 9 ! gross1 )\t due analysis1 has be5 made ! gr\ndwork ( empirical g5]alizations mo/ detrim5tal to ! progress ( real k4 ,x is c]ta9 t ! natural diff]5ces :i* really exi/ 9 ! m5tal pr$ispositions or susceptibilities ( diff]5t p]sons are (t5 n unconnect$ ) div]sities 9 _! organic con/itution4 ,b x does n !re=e foll[ t ^! organic diff]5ces mu/ 9 all cases influ5ce ! m5tal ph5om5a directly & imm$iately4 ,!y (t5 affect !m ?r\gh ! m$ium ( _! psy*ological causes4 ,= example1 ! idea ( "s p>ticul> pleasure may excite 9 diff]5t p]sons1 ev5 indep5d5tly ( habit or education1 v diff]5t /r5g?s ( desire1 & ?is may be ! effect ( _! diff]5t degrees or k9ds ( n]v\s susceptibility2 b ^! organic diff]5ces1 we mu/ rememb]1 w r5d] ! pleasurable s5sation itself m int5se 9 "o ( ^! p]sons ?an 9 ! o!r2 s t ! idea ( ! pleasure w also be an int5s] feel+1 & w1 by ! op]ation ( m]e m5tal laws1 excite an int5s] desire1 )\t its be+ necess>y to suppose t ! desire itself is directly influ5c$ by ! physical peculi>ity4 ,z 9 ?is1 s 9 _m cases1 su* diff]5ces 9 ! k9d or 9 ! int5sity ( ! physical s5sations z mu/ necess>ily result f diff]5ces ( bodily organization1 w ( !mselves acc\nt = _m diff]5ces n only 9 ! degree1 b ev5 9 ! k9d1 ( ! o!r m5tal ph5om5a4 ,s true is ?is1 t ev5 diff]5t qualities ( m9d1 diff]5t types ( m5tal "*1 w naturally be produc$ by m]e diff]5ces ( int5sity 9 ! s5sations g5]ally2 z is well po9t$ out 9 ! able essay on ,dr4 ,prie/ley1 by ,mr4 ,m>t9eau1 m5tion$ 9 a =m] *apt]3 8,! s5sations :i* =m ! elem5ts ( all k are receiv$ ei!r simultane\sly or successively3 :5 sev]al are receiv$ simultane\sly1 z ! smell1 ! ta/e1 ! color1 ! =m1 etc41 ( a fruit1 _! association toge!r con/itutes our idea ( an object2 :5 receiv$ successively1 _! association makes up ! idea ( an ev5t4 ,any ?+1 !n1 :i* favors ! associations ( syn*ron\s ideas w t5d to produce a k ( objects1 a p]ception ( qualities2 :ile any ?+ :i* favors association 9 ! successive ord]1 w t5d to produce a k ( ev5ts1 ( ! ord] ( occurr5ces1 & ( ! connection ( cause & effect3 9 o!r words1 9 ! "o case a p]ceptive m9d1 ) a discrim9ate feel+ ( ! pleasurable & pa9ful prop]ties ( ?+s1 a s5se ( ! gr& & ! beautiful w be ! result3 9 ! o!r1 a m9d att5tive to ! movem5ts & ph5om5a1 a ratioc9ative & philosophic intellect4 ,n[ x is an ackn[l$g$ pr9ciple1 t all s5sations exp]i5c$ dur+ ! pres5ce ( any vivid impression become /rongly associat$ ) x1 & ) ea* o!r2 & does x n foll[ t ! syn*ron\s feel+s ( a s5sitive con/itution 7i4e41 ! "o :i* has vivid impressions7 w be m intimately bl5d$ ?an 9 a diff]5tly =m$ m9d8 ,if ?is sugge/ion has any f\ndation 9 tru?1 x leads to an inf]5ce n unimportant2 t :]e nature has end[$ an individual ) great orig9al susceptibility1 he w probably be di/+ui%$ by fondness = natural hi/ory1 a reli% = ! beautiful & great1 & moral en?usiasm2 :]e !re is b a m$iocrity ( s5sibility1 a love ( sci5ce1 ( ab/ract tru?1 ) a defici5cy ( ta/e & ( f]vor1 is likely to be ! result40 ,we see f ?is example1 t :5 ! g5]al laws ( m9d are m accurately kn[n1 &1 above all1 m skillfully appli$ to ! detail$ explanation ( m5tal peculi>ities1 !y w acc\nt = _m m ( ^? peculi>ities ?an is ord9>ily suppos$4 ,un=tunately ! reaction ( ! la/ & pres5t g5]ation aga9/ ! philosophy ( ! eighte5? c5tury has produc$ a v g5]al neglect ( ?is great dep>tm5t ( analytical inquiry2 ( :i*1 consequ5tly1 ! rec5t progress has be5 by no means proportional to its e>ly promise4 ,! majority ( ^? :o speculate on human nature pref] dogmatically to assume t ! m5tal diff]5ces :i* !y p]ceive1 or ?9k !y p]ceive1 among human be+s1 are ultimate facts1 incapable ( be+ ei!r expla9$ or alt]$1 r ?an take ! tr\ble ( fitt+ !mselves1 by ! requisite processes ( ?\ght1 = ref]r+ ^? m5tal diff]5ces to ! outw>d causes by :i* !y are = ! mo/ "p produc$1 & on ! removal ( :i* !y w\ld cease to exi/4 ,! ,g]man s*ool ( metaphysical speculation1 :i* has n yet lo/ its tempor>y pr$om9ance 9 ,european ?\ght1 has _h ?is among _m o!r injuri\s influ5ces2 & at ! opposite extreme ( ! psy*ological scale1 no writ]1 ei!r ( e>ly or ( rec5t date1 is *>geable 9 a high] degree ) ?is ab]ration f ! true sci5tific _s1 ?an ,m4 ,comte4 ,x is c]ta9 t1 9 human be+s at lea/1 diff]5ces 9 education & 9 outw>d circum/ances are capable ( af=d+ an adequate explanation ( by f> ! greate/ portion ( "*2 & t ! rema9d] may be 9 great "p acc\nt$ = by physical diff]5ces 9 ! s5sations produc$ 9 diff]5t individuals by ! same ext]nal or int]nal cause4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 "s m5tal facts :i* d n seem to admit ( ^! modes ( explanation4 ,su*1 to take ! /ronge/ case1 are ! v>i\s in/9cts ( animals1 & ! portion ( human nature :i* corresponds to ^? in/9cts4 ,no mode has be5 sugge/$1 ev5 by way ( hypo!sis1 9 :i* ^! c receive any satisfactory1 or ev5 plausible1 explanation f psy*ological causes alone2 & !re is great reason to ?9k t !y h z positive1 & ev5 z direct & imm$iate1 a connection ) physical conditions ( ! bra9 & n]ves z any ( our m]e s5sations h4 ,a supposition :i* 7x is p]haps n sup]flu\s to add7 9 no way conflicts ) ! indisputable fact t ^! in/9cts may be modifi$ to any ext5t1 or entirely conqu]$1 9 human be+s1 & to no inconsid]able ext5t ev5 9 "s ( ! dome/icat$ animals1 by o!r m5tal influ5ces1 & by education4 ,:e!r organic causes ex]cise a direct influ5ce ov] any o!r classes ( m5tal ph5om5a1 is hi!rto z f> f be+ asc]ta9$ z is ! precise nature ( ! organic conditions ev5 9 ! case ( in/9cts4 ,! physiology1 h[ev]1 ( ! bra9 & n]v\s sy/em is 9 a /ate ( su* rapid advance1 & is cont9ually br++ =? su* new & int]e/+ results1 t if !re be really a connection betwe5 m5tal peculi>ities & any v>ieties cognizable by our s5ses 9 ! /ructure ( ! c]ebral & n]v\s app>atus1 ! nature ( t connection is n[ 9 a fair way ( be+ f\nd out4 ,! late/ discov]ies 9 c]ebral physiology appe> to h prov$ t any su* connection :i* may exi/ is ( a radically diff]5t "* f t cont5d$ = by ,gall & 8 foll[]s1 & t1 :atev] may h]eaft] be f\nd to be ! true !ory ( ! subject1 phr5ology at lea/ is unt5able4 ,*apt] ,v4 ,( ,e?ology1 ,or ,! ,sci5ce ,( ,! ,=mation ,( ,"*4 #a4 ,! laws ( m9d z *>act]iz$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]1 compose ! univ]sal or ab/ract portion ( ! philosophy ( human nature2 & all ! tru?s ( common exp]i5ce1 con/itut+ a practical k ( mank9d1 mu/1 to ! ext5t to :i* !y are tru?s1 be results or consequ5ces ( ^!4 ,su* famili> maxims1 :5 collect$ a po/]iori f obs]vation ( life1 occupy among ! tru?s ( ! sci5ce ! place ( :at1 9 our analysis ( ,induction1 h s (t5 be5 spok5 ( "u ! title ( ,empirical ,laws4 ,an ,empirical ,law 7x w be rememb]$7 is a uni=mity1 :e!r ( succession or ( co-exi/5ce1 :i* holds true 9 all in/ances )9 our limits ( obs]vation1 b is n ( a nature to af=d any assurance t x w\ld hold beyond ^? limits2 ei!r because ! consequ5t is n really ! effect ( ! antec$5t1 b =ms "p along ) x ( a *a9 ( effects fl[+ f prior causes n yet asc]ta9$1 or because !re is gr\nd to believe t ! sequ5ce 7?\gh a case ( causation7 is resolvable into simpl] sequ5ces1 &1 dep5d+ !re=e on a concurr5ce ( sev]al natural ag5cies1 is expos$ to an unkn[n multitude ( possibilities ( c\nt]action4 ,9 o!r words1 an empirical law is a g5]alization1 ( :i*1 n cont5t ) f9d+ x true1 we are oblig$ to ask1 :y is x true8 kn[+ t its tru? is n absolute1 b dep5d5t on "s m g5]al conditions1 & t x c only be reli$ on 9 s f> z !re is gr\nd ( assurance t ^? conditions are realiz$4 ,n[1 ! obs]vations conc]n+ human affairs collect$ f common exp]i5ce are precisely ( ?is nature4 ,ev5 if !y 7 univ]sally & exactly true )9 ! b\nds ( exp]i5ce1 :i* !y nev] are1 /ill !y are n ! ultimate laws ( human action2 !y are n ! pr9ciples ( human nature1 b results ( ^? pr9ciples "u ! circum/ances 9 :i* mank9d h happ5$ to be plac$4 ,:5 ! ,psalmi/ 8said 9 8 ha/e t all m5 are li>s10 he enunciat$ :at 9 "s ages & c\ntries is borne out by ample exp]i5ce2 b x is n a law ( man's nature to lie2 ?\gh x is "o ( ! consequ5ces ( ! laws ( human nature1 t ly+ is ne>ly univ]sal :5 c]ta9 ext]nal circum/ances exi/ univ]sally1 especially circum/ances productive ( habitual di/ru/ & fe>4 ,:5 ! "* ( ! old is ass]t$ to be cauti\s1 & ( ! "y impetu\s1 ?is1 aga91 is b an empirical law2 = x is n because ( _! y\? t ! "y are impetu\s1 nor because ( _! age t ! old are cauti\s4 ,x is *iefly1 if n :olly1 because ! old1 dur+ _! _m ye>s ( life1 h g5]ally _h mu* exp]i5ce ( its v>i\s evils1 & hav+ suff]$ or se5 o!rs suff] mu* f incauti\s exposure to !m1 h acquir$ associations favorable to circumspection2 :ile ! "y1 z well f ! abs5ce ( simil> exp]i5ce z f ! great] /r5g? ( ! incl9ations :i* urge !m to ent]prise1 engage !mselves 9 x m readily4 ,"h1 !n1 is ! explanation ( ! empirical law2 "h are ! conditions :i* ultimately det]m9e :e!r ! law holds good or n4 ,if an old man has n be5 (t5] ?an mo/ "y m5 9 contact ) dang] & difficulty1 he w be equally incauti\s2 if a y\? has n /rong] incl9ations ?an an old man1 he probably w be z little ent]pris+4 ,! empirical law d]ives :atev] tru? x has f ! causal laws ( :i* x is a consequ5ce4 ,if we "k ^? laws1 we "k :at are ! limits to ! d]ivative law2 :ile1 if we h n yet acc\nt$ = ! empirical law--if x re/s only on obs]vation--!re is no safety 9 apply+ x f> beyond ! limits ( "t1 place1 & circum/ance 9 :i* ! obs]vations 7 made4 ,! really sci5tific tru?s1 !n1 are n ^! empirical laws1 b ! causal laws :i* expla9 !m4 ,! empirical laws ( ^? ph5om5a :i* dep5d on kn[n causes1 & ( :i* a g5]al !ory c !re=e be con/ruct$1 h1 :atev] may be _! value 9 practice1 no o!r function 9 sci5ce ?an t ( v]ify+ ! conclusions ( !ory4 ,/ill m mu/ ?is be ! case :5 mo/ ( ! empirical laws am\nt1 ev5 )9 ! limits ( obs]vation1 only to approximate g5]alizations4 #b4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is n1 s mu* z is sometimes suppos$1 a peculi>ity ( ! sci5ces call$ moral4 ,x is only 9 ! simple/ bran*es ( sci5ce t empirical laws are ev] exactly true2 & n always 9 ^?4 ,a/ronomy1 = example1 is ! simple/ ( all ! sci5ces :i* expla91 9 ! concrete1 ! actual c\rse ( natural ev5ts4 ,! causes or =ces on :i* a/ronomical ph5om5a dep5d1 are few] 9 numb] ?an ^? :i* det]m9e any o!r ( ! great ph5om5a ( nature4 ,accord+ly1 z ea* effect results f ! conflict ( b few causes1 a great degree ( regul>ity & uni=mity might be expect$ to exi/ among ! effects2 & su* is really ! case3 !y h a fix$ ord]1 & return 9 cycles4 ,b propositions :i* %\ld express1 ) absolute correctness1 all ! successive positions ( a planet until ! cycle is complet$1 w\ld be ( almo/ unmanageable complexity1 & c\ld be obta9$ f !ory alone4 ,! g5]alizations :i* c be collect$ on ! subject f direct obs]vation1 ev5 su* z ,kepl]'s law1 are m]e approximations2 ! planets1 ow+ to _! p]turbations by "o ano!r1 d n move 9 exact ellipses4 ,?us ev5 9 a/ronomy1 p]fect exactness 9 ! m]e empirical laws is n to be look$ =2 mu* less1 !n1 9 m complex subjects ( inquiry4 ,! same example %[s h[ little c be inf]r$ aga9/ ! univ]sality or ev5 ! simplicity ( ! ultimate laws1 f ! impossibility ( e/abli%+ any b approximate empirical laws ( ! effects4 ,! laws ( causation accord+ to :i* a class ( ph5om5a are produc$ may be v few & simple1 & yet ! effects !mselves may be s v>i\s & complicat$ t x %all be impossible to trace any regul>ity :atev] completely ?r\gh !m4 ,= ! ph5om5a 9 "q may be ( an em95tly modifiable "*2 insomu* t innum]able circum/ances are capable ( influ5c+ ! effect1 al?\gh !y may all d x accord+ to a v small numb] ( laws4 ,suppose t all :i* passes 9 ! m9d ( man is det]m9$ by a few simple laws2 /ill1 if ^? laws be su* t !re is n "o ( ! facts surr\nd+ a human be+1 or ( ! ev5ts :i* happ5 to him1 t does n influ5ce 9 "s mode or degree 8 subsequ5t m5tal hi/ory1 & if ! circum/ances ( diff]5t human be+s are extremely diff]5t1 x w be no wond] if v few propositions c be made respect+ ! details ( _! conduct or feel+s1 :i* w be true ( all mank9d4 ,n[1 )\t decid+ :e!r ! ultimate laws ( our m5tal nature are few or _m1 x is at lea/ c]ta9 t !y are ( ! above description4 ,x is c]ta9 t our m5tal /ates1 & our m5tal capacities & susceptibilities1 are modifi$1 ei!r = a "t or p]man5tly1 by e ?+ :i* happ5s to u 9 life4 ,consid]+1 !re=e1 h[ mu* ^! modify+ causes diff] 9 ! case ( any two individuals1 x w\ld be unreasonable to expect t ! empirical laws ( ! human m9d1 ! g5]alizations :i* c be made respect+ ! feel+s or actions ( mank9d )\t ref]5ce to ! causes t det]m9e !m1 %\ld be any ?+ b approximate g5]alizations4 ,!y are ! common wisdom ( common life1 & z su* are invaluable2 especially z !y are mo/ly to be appli$ to cases n v dissimil> to ^? f :i* !y 7 collect$4 ,b :5 maxims ( ?is sort1 collect$ f ,engli%m51 come to be appli$ to ,fr5*m51 or :5 ^? collect$ f ! pres5t day are appli$ to pa/ or future g5]ations1 !y are apt to be v mu* at fault4 ,unless we h resolv$ ! empirical law into ! laws ( ! causes on :i* x dep5ds1 & asc]ta9$ t ^? causes ext5d to ! case :i* we h 9 view1 !re c be no reliance plac$ 9 our inf]5ces4 ,= e individual is surr\nd$ by circum/ances diff]5t f ^? ( e o!r individual2 e nation or g5]ation ( mank9d f e o!r nation or g5]ation3 & none ( ^! diff]5ces are )\t _! influ5ce 9 =m+ a diff]5t type ( "*4 ,!re is1 inde$1 also a c]ta9 g5]al resemblance2 b peculi>ities ( circum/ances are cont9ually con/itut+ exceptions ev5 to ! propositions :i* are true 9 ! great majority ( cases4 ,al?\gh1 h[ev]1 !re is sc>cely any mode ( feel+ or conduct :i* is1 9 ! absolute s5se1 common to all mank9d2 & ?\gh ! g5]alizations :i* ass]t t any giv5 v>iety ( conduct or feel+ w be f\nd univ]sally 7h[ev] ne>ly !y may approximate to tru? )9 giv5 limits ( obs]vation71 w be consid]$ z sci5tific propositions by no "o :o is at all famili> ) sci5tific inve/igation2 yet all modes ( feel+ & conduct met ) among mank9d h causes :i* produce !m2 & 9 ! propositions :i* assign ^? causes w be f\nd ! explanation ( ! empirical laws1 & ! limit+ pr9ciple ( our reliance on !m4 ,human be+s d n all feel & act alike 9 ! same circum/ances2 b x is possible to det]m9e :at makes "o p]son1 9 a giv5 position1 feel or act 9 "o way1 ano!r 9 ano!r2 h[ any giv5 mode ( feel+ & conduct1 compatible ) ! g5]al laws 7physical & m5tal7 ( human nature1 has be51 or may be1 =m$4 ,9 o!r words1 mank9d h n "o univ]sal "*1 b !re exi/ univ]sal laws ( ! ,=mation ( ,"*4 ,& s9ce x is by ^! laws1 comb9$ ) ! facts ( ea* p>ticul> case1 t ! :ole ( ! ph5om5a ( human action & feel+ are produc$1 x is on ^! t e rational attempt to con/ruct ! sci5ce ( human nature 9 ! concrete1 & = practical purposes1 mu/ proce$4 #c4 ,! laws1 !n1 ( ! =mation ( "* be+ ! pr9cipal object ( sci5tific inquiry into human nature1 x rema9s to det]m9e ! me?od ( inve/igation be/ fitt$ = asc]ta9+ !m4 ,& ! logical pr9ciples accord+ to :i* ?is "q is to be decid$1 mu/ be ^? :i* preside ov] e o!r attempt to inve/igate ! laws ( v complex ph5om5a4 ,= x is evid5t t bo? ! "* ( any human be+1 & ! aggregate ( ! circum/ances by :i* t "* has be5 =m$1 are facts ( a high ord] ( complexity4 ,n[ to su* cases we h se5 t ! ,d$uctive ,me?od1 sett+ out f g5]al laws1 & v]ify+ _! consequ5ces by specific exp]i5ce1 is alone applicable4 ,! gr\nds ( ?is great logical doctr9e h =m]ly be5 /at$2 & its tru? w d]ive additional support f a brief exam9ation ( ! specialties ( ! pres5t case4 ,!re are only two modes 9 :i* laws ( nature c be asc]ta9$--d$uctively & exp]im5tally2 includ+ "u ! d5om9ation ( exp]im5tal inquiry1 obs]vation z well z artificial exp]im5t4 ,are ! laws ( ! =mation ( "* susceptible ( a satisfactory inve/igation by ! me?od ( exp]im5tation8 ,evid5tly n2 because1 ev5 if we suppose unlimit$ p[] ( v>y+ ! exp]im5t 7:i* is ab/ract$ly possible1 ?\gh no "o b an ,ori5tal despot has t p[]1 or1 if he _h1 w\ld probably be dispos$ to ex]cise x71 a /ill m ess5tial condition is want+--! p[] ( p]=m+ any ( ! exp]im5ts ) sci5tific accuracy4 ,! in/ances requisite = ! prosecution ( a directly exp]im5tal inquiry into ! =mation ( "*1 w\ld be a numb] ( human be+s to br+ up & educate1 f infancy to mature age4 ,& to p]=m any "o ( ^! exp]im5ts ) sci5tific propriety1 x w\ld be necess>y to "k & record e s5sation or impression receiv$ by ! "y pupil f a p]iod long be=e x c\ld speak2 includ+ its own notions respect+ ! s\rces ( all ^? s5sations & impressions4 ,x is n only impossible to d ?is completely1 b ev5 to d s mu* ( x z %\ld con/itute a tol]able approximation4 ,"o app>5tly trivial circum/ance :i* elud$ our vigilance might let 9 a tra9 ( impressions & associations suffici5t to vitiate ! exp]im5t z an au!ntic exhibition ( ! effects fl[+ f giv5 causes4 ,no "o :o has suffici5tly reflect$ on education is ignorant ( ?is tru?2 & :oev] has n1 w f9d x mo/ in/ructively illu/rat$ 9 ! writ+s ( ,r\sseau & ,helvetius on t great subject4 ,"u ?is impossibility ( /udy+ ! laws ( ! =mation ( "* by exp]im5ts purposely contriv$ to elucidate !m1 !re rema9s ! res\rce ( simple obs]vation4 ,b if x be impossible to asc]ta9 ! influ5c+ circum/ances ) any approa* to complet5ess ev5 :5 we h ! %ap+ ( !m ourselves1 mu* m impossible is x :5 ! cases are fur!r remov$ f our obs]vation1 & altoge!r out ( our control4 ,consid] ! difficulty ( ! v fir/ /ep--( asc]ta9+ :at actually is ! "* ( ! individual1 9 ea* p>ticul> case t we exam9e4 ,!re is h>dly any p]son liv+ conc]n+ "s ess5tial "p ( ^: "* !re are n diff]5ces ( op9ion ev5 among 8 intimate acqua9tances2 & a s+le action1 or conduct cont9u$ only = a %ort "t1 goes a v little way t[>d asc]ta9+ x4 ,we c only make our obs]vations 9 a r\gh way & en masse2 n attempt+ to asc]ta9 completely 9 any giv5 in/ance1 :at "* has be5 =m$1 & /ill less by :at causes2 b only obs]v+ 9 :at /ate ( previ\s circum/ances x is f\nd t c]ta9 m>k$ m5tal qualities or defici5cies (t5e/ exi/4 ,^! conclusions1 besides t !y are m]e approximate g5]alizations1 des]ve no reliance1 ev5 z su*1 unless ! in/ances are suffici5tly num]\s to elim9ate n only *ance1 b e assignable circum/ance 9 :i* a numb] ( ! cases exam9$ may happ5 to h resembl$ "o ano!r4 ,s num]\s & v>i\s1 too1 are ! circum/ances :i* =m individual "*1 t ! consequ5ce ( any p>ticul> comb9ation is h>dly ev] "s def9ite & /rongly m>k$ "*1 always f\nd :]e t comb9ation exi/s1 & n o!rwise4 ,:at is obta9$1 ev5 aft] ! mo/ ext5sive & accurate obs]vation1 is m]ely a comp>ative result2 z1 = example1 t 9 a giv5 numb] ( ,fr5*m51 tak5 indiscrim9ately1 !re w be f\nd m p]sons ( a p>ticul> m5tal t5d5cy1 & few] ( ! contr>y t5d5cy1 ?an among an equal numb] ( ,italians or ,engli%1 simil>ly tak52 or ?us3 ( a hundr$ ,fr5*m5 & an equal numb] ( ,engli%m51 fairly select$1 & arrang$ accord+ to ! degree 9 :i* !y possess a p>ticul> m5tal *>act]i/ic1 ea* numb]1 #a1 #b1 #c1 etc41 ( ! "o s]ies1 w be f\nd to possess m ( t *>act]i/ic ?an ! correspond+ numb] ( ! o!r4 ,s9ce1 !re=e1 ! comp>ison is n "o ( k9ds1 b ( ratios & degrees2 & s9ce1 9 proportion z ! diff]5ces are slight1 x requires a great] numb] ( in/ances to elim9ate *ance1 x c n (t5 happ5 to any "o to "k a suffici5t numb] ( cases ) ! accuracy requisite = mak+ ! sort ( comp>ison la/ m5tion$2 less ?an :i*1 h[ev]1 w\ld n con/itute a real induction4 ,accord+ly1 !re is h>dly "o curr5t op9ion respect+ ! *>act]s ( nations1 classes1 or descriptions ( p]sons1 :i* is univ]sally ackn[l$g$ z indisputable47#bgb7 ,& f9ally1 if we c\ld ev5 obta9 by way ( exp]im5t a mu* m satisfactory assurance ( ^! g5]alizations ?an is really possible1 !y w\ld /ill be only empirical laws4 ,!y w\ld %[1 inde$1 t !re 0 "s connection betwe5 ! type ( "* =m$ & ! circum/ances exi/+ 9 ! case2 b n :at ! precise connection 01 nor to :i* ( ! peculi>ities ( ^? circum/ances ! effect 0 really ow+4 ,!y c\ld only1 !re=e1 be receiv$ z results ( causation1 requir+ to be resolv$ into ! g5]al laws ( ! causes3 until ! det]m9ation ( :i*1 we c\ld n judge )9 :at limits ! d]ivative laws might s]ve z presumptions 9 cases yet unkn[n1 or ev5 be dep5d$ on z p]man5t 9 ! v cases f :i* !y 7 collect$4 ,! ,fr5* p _h1 or 7 suppos$ to h1 a c]ta9 national "*2 b !y drive out _! royal family & ari/ocracy1 alt] _! in/itutions1 pass ?r\gh a s]ies ( extraord9>y ev5ts = ! great] "p ( a c5tury1 & at ! end ( t "t _! "* is f\nd to h und]gone important *anges4 ,a long li/ ( m5tal & moral diff]5ces are obs]v$1 or suppos$ to exi/ betwe5 m5 & wom52 b at "s future &1 x may be hop$1 n di/ant p]iod1 equal fre$om & an equally indep5d5t social position come to be possess$ by bo?1 & _! diff]5ces ( "* are ei!r remov$ or totally alt]$4 ,b if ! diff]5ces :i* we ?9k we obs]ve betwe5 ,fr5* & ,engli%1 or betwe5 m5 & wom51 c be connect$ ) m g5]al laws2 if !y be su* z might be expect$ to be produc$ by ! diff]5ces ( gov]nm5t1 =m] cu/oms1 & physical peculi>ities 9 ! two nations1 & by ! div]sities ( education1 occupations1 p]sonal indep5d5ce1 & social privileges1 & :atev] orig9al diff]5ces !re may be 9 bodily /r5g? & n]v\s s5sibility betwe5 ! two sexes2 !n1 inde$1 ! co9cid5ce ( ! two k9ds ( evid5ce ju/ifies u 9 believ+ t we h bo? reason$ rightly & obs]v$ rightly4 ,our obs]vation1 ?\gh n suffici5t z pro(1 is ample z v]ification4 ,& hav+ asc]ta9$ n only ! empirical laws1 b ! causes1 ( ! peculi>ities1 we ne$ be "u no difficulty 9 judg+ h[ f> !y may be expect$ to be p]man5t1 or by :at circum/ances !y w\ld be modifi$ or de/roy$4 #d4 ,s9ce !n x is impossible to obta9 really accurate propositions respect+ ! =mation ( "* f obs]vation & exp]im5t alone1 we are driv5 p]=ce to t :i*1 ev5 if x _h n be5 ! indisp5sable1 w\ld h be5 ! mo/ p]fect1 mode ( inve/igation1 & :i* x is "o ( ! pr9cipal aims ( philosophy to ext5d2 namely1 t :i* tries its exp]im5ts n on ! complex facts1 b on ! simple ones ( :i* !y are comp\nd$2 & aft] asc]ta9+ ! laws ( ! causes1 ! composition ( :i* gives rise to ! complex ph5om5a1 !n consid]s :e!r ^! w n expla9 & acc\nt = ! approximate g5]alizations :i* h be5 fram$ empirically respect+ ! sequ5ces ( ^? complex ph5om5a4 ,! laws ( ! =mation ( "* are1 9 %ort1 d]ivative laws1 result+ f ! g5]al laws ( m9d1 & are to be obta9$ by d$uc+ !m f ^? g5]al laws by suppos+ any giv5 set ( circum/ances1 & !n consid]+ :at1 accord+ to ! laws ( m9d1 w be ! influ5ce ( ^? circum/ances on ! =mation ( "*4 ,a sci5ce is ?us =m$1 to :i* ,i w\ld propose to give ! "n ( ,e?ology1 or ! ,sci5ce ( ,"*1 f 1 a ^w m ne>ly correspond+ to ! t]m 8"*0 z ,i "h use x1 ?an any o!r ^w 9 ! same language4 ,! "n is p]haps etymologically applicable to ! entire sci5ce ( our m5tal & moral nature2 b if1 z is usual & conv5i5t1 we employ ! "n ,psy*ology = ! sci5ce ( ! elem5t>y laws ( m9d1 ,e?ology w s]ve = ! ult]ior sci5ce :i* det]m9es ! k9d ( "* produc$ 9 con=mity to ^? g5]al laws by any set ( circum/ances1 physical & moral4 ,accord+ to ?is def9ition1 ,e?ology is ! sci5ce :i* corresponds to ! art ( education 9 ! wide/ s5se ( ! t]m1 includ+ ! =mation ( national or collective "* z well z individual4 ,x w\ld inde$ be va9 to expect 7h[ev] completely ! laws ( ! =mation ( "* might be asc]ta9$7 t we c\ld "k s accurately ! circum/ances ( any giv5 case z to be able positively to pr$ict ! "* t w\ld be produc$ 9 t case4 ,b we mu/ rememb] t a degree ( k f> %ort ( ! p[] ( actual pr$iction is (t5 ( mu* practical value4 ,!re may be great p[] ( influ5c+ ph5om5a1 ) a v imp]fect k ( ! causes by :i* !y are 9 any giv5 in/ance det]m9$4 ,x is en\gh t we "k t c]ta9 means h a t5d5cy to produce a giv5 effect1 & t o!rs h a t5d5cy to fru/rate x4 ,:5 ! circum/ances ( an individual or ( a nation are 9 any consid]able degree "u our control1 we may1 by our k ( t5d5cies1 be enabl$ to %ape ^? circum/ances 9 a mann] mu* m favorable to ! ends we desire1 ?an ! %ape :i* !y w\ld ( !mselves assume4 ,?is is ! limit ( our p[]2 b )9 ?is limit ! p[] is a mo/ important "o4 ,?is sci5ce ( ,e?ology may be call$ ! ,exact ,sci5ce ( ,human ,nature2 = its tru?s are n1 l ! empirical laws :i* dep5d on !m1 approximate g5]alizations1 b real laws4 ,x is1 h[ev] 7z 9 all cases ( complex ph5om5a71 necess>y to ! exactness ( ! propositions1 t !y %\ld be hypo!tical only1 & affirm t5d5cies1 n facts4 ,!y mu/ n ass]t t some?+ w always1 or c]ta9ly1 happ52 b only t su* & su* w be ! effect ( a giv5 cause1 s f> z x op]ates unc\nt]act$4 ,x is a sci5tific proposition1 t bodily /r5g? t5ds to make m5 c\rage\s2 n t x always makes !m s3 t an int]e/ on "o side ( a "q t5ds to bias ! judgm5t2 n t x inv>iably does s3 t exp]i5ce t5ds to give wisdom2 n t su* is always its effect4 ,^! propositions1 be+ ass]tive only ( t5d5cies1 are n ! less univ]sally true because ! t5d5cies may be fru/rat$4 #e4 ,:ile1 on ! "o h&1 ,psy*ology is altoge!r1 or pr9cipally1 a sci5ce ( obs]vation & exp]im5t1 ,e?ology1 z ,i h conceiv$ x1 is1 z ,i h already rem>k$1 altoge!r d$uctive4 ,! "o asc]ta9s ! simple laws ( ,m9d 9 g5]al1 ! o!r traces _! op]ation 9 complex comb9ations ( circum/ances4 ,e?ology /&s to ,psy*ology 9 a relation v simil> to t 9 :i* ! v>i\s bran*es ( natural philosophy /& to me*anics4 ,! pr9ciples ( ,e?ology are prop]ly ! middle pr9ciples1 ! axiomata m$ia 7z ,bacon w\ld h said7 ( ! sci5ce ( m9d3 z di/+ui%$1 on ! "o h&1 f ! empirical laws result+ f simple obs]vation1 &1 on ! o!r1 f ! highe/ g5]alizations4 ,& ?is seems a suitable place = a logical rem>k1 :i*1 ?\gh ( g5]al application1 is ( peculi> importance 9 ref]5ce to ! pres5t subject4 ,bacon has judici\sly obs]v$ t ! axiomata m$ia ( e sci5ce pr9cipally con/itute its value4 ,! l[e/ g5]alizations1 until expla9$ by & resolv$ into ! middle pr9ciples ( :i* !y are ! consequ5ces1 h only ! imp]fect accuracy ( empirical laws2 :ile ! mo/ g5]al laws are too g5]al1 & include too few circum/ances1 to give suffici5t indication ( :at happ5s 9 individual cases1 :]e ! circum/ances are almo/ always imm5sely num]\s4 ,9 ! importance1 !re=e1 :i* ,bacon assigns1 9 e sci5ce1 to ! middle pr9ciples1 x is impossible n to agree ) him4 ,b ,i conceive him to h be5 radically wrong 9 8 doctr9e respect+ ! mode 9 :i* ^! axiomata m$ia %\ld be arriv$ at2 ?\gh !re is no "o proposition laid d[n 9 8 works = :i* he has be5 m extravagantly eulogiz$4 ,he enunciates z a univ]sal rule t induction %\ld proce$ f ! l[e/ to ! middle pr9ciples1 & f ^? to ! highe/1 nev] rev]s+ t ord]1 &1 consequ5tly1 leav+ no room = ! discov]y ( new pr9ciples by way ( d$uction at all4 ,x is n to be conceiv$ t a man ( 8 sagacity c\ld h fall5 into ?is mi/ake if !re _h exi/$ 9 8 "t1 among ! sci5ces :i* treat ( successive ph5om5a1 "o s+le in/ance ( a d$uctive sci5ce1 su* z me*anics1 a/ronomy1 optics1 ac\/ics1 etc41 n[ are4 ,9 ^? sci5ces x is evid5t t ! high] & middle pr9ciples are by no means d]iv$ f ! l[e/1 b ! rev]se4 ,9 "s ( !m ! v highe/ g5]alizations 7 ^? e>lie/ asc]ta9$ ) any sci5tific exactness2 z1 = example 79 me*anics71 ! laws ( motion4 ,^? g5]al laws _h n1 inde$1 at fir/ ! ackn[l$g$ univ]sality :i* !y acquir$ aft] hav+ be5 successfully employ$ to expla9 _m classes ( ph5om5a to :i* !y 7 n orig9ally se5 to be applicable2 z :5 ! laws ( motion 7 employ$1 9 conjunction ) o!r laws1 to expla9 d$uctively ! cele/ial ph5om5a4 ,/ill1 ! fact rema9s1 t ! propositions :i* 7 aft]w>d recogniz$ z ! mo/ g5]al tru?s ( ! sci5ce 71 ( all its accurate g5]alizations1 ^? e>lie/ arriv$ at4 ,bacon's greate/ m]it c n !re=e consi/1 z we are s (t5 told t x did1 9 explod+ ! vici\s me?od pursu$ by ! anci5ts ( fly+ to ! highe/ g5]alizations fir/1 & d$uc+ ! middle pr9ciples f !m2 s9ce ?is is nei!r a vici\s nor an explod$1 b ! univ]sally accr$it$ me?od ( mod]n sci5ce1 & t to :i* x owes its greate/ triumphs4 ,! error ( anci5t speculation did n consi/ 9 mak+ ! l>ge/ g5]alizations fir/1 b 9 mak+ !m )\t ! aid or w>rant ( rigor\s inductive me?ods1 & apply+ !m d$uctively )\t ! ne$ful use ( t important "p ( ! ,d$uctive ,me?od t]m$ ,v]ification4 ,! ord] 9 :i* tru?s ( ! v>i\s degrees ( g5]ality %\ld be asc]ta9$ c n1 ,i appreh5d1 be prescrib$ by any unb5d+ rule4 ,i "k ( no maxim :i* c be laid d[n on ! subject1 b to obta9 ^? fir/ 9 respect to :i* ! conditions ( a real induction c be fir/ & mo/ completely realiz$4 ,n[1 :]ev] our means ( inve/igation c rea* causes1 )\t /opp+ at ! empirical laws ( ! effects1 ! simple/ cases1 be+ ^? 9 :i* fewe/ causes are simultane\sly conc]n$1 w be mo/ am5able to ! inductive process2 & ^! are ! cases :i* elicit laws ( ! greate/ compreh5siv5ess4 ,9 e sci5ce1 !re=e1 :i* has rea*$ ! /age at :i* x becomes a sci5ce ( causes1 x w be usual z well z desirable fir/ to obta9 ! highe/ g5]alizations1 & !n d$uce ! m special ones f !m4 ,nor c ,i discov] any f\ndation = ! ,baconian maxim1 s mu* extoll$ by subsequ5t writ]s1 except ?is3 ,t be=e we attempt to expla9 d$uctively f m g5]al laws any new class ( ph5om5a1 x is desirable to h gone z f> z is practicable 9 asc]ta9+ ! empirical laws ( ^? ph5om5a2 s z to comp>e ! results ( d$uction1 n ) "o individual in/ance aft] ano!r1 b ) g5]al propositions expressive ( ! po9ts ( agreem5t :i* h be5 f\nd among _m in/ances4 ,= if ,newton _h be5 oblig$ to v]ify ! !ory ( gravitation1 n by d$uc+ f x ,kepl]'s laws1 b by d$uc+ all ! obs]v$ planet>y positions :i* _h s]v$ ,kepl] to e/abli% ^? laws1 ! ,newtonian !ory w\ld probably nev] h em]g$ f ! /ate ( an hypo!sis47#bgc7 ,! applicability ( ^! rem>ks to ! special case "u consid]ation c n admit ( "q4 ,! sci5ce ( ! =mation ( "* is a sci5ce ( causes4 ,! subject is "o to :i* ^? among ! canons ( induction1 by :i* laws ( causation are asc]ta9$1 c be rigor\sly appli$4 ,x is1 !re=e1 bo? natural & advisable to asc]ta9 ! simple/1 :i* are necess>ily ! mo/ g5]al1 laws ( causation fir/1 & to d$uce ! middle pr9ciples f !m4 ,9 o!r words1 ,e?ology1 ! d$uctive sci5ce1 is a sy/em ( coroll>ies f ,psy*ology1 ! exp]im5tal sci5ce4 #f4 ,( ^!1 ! e>li] alone has be51 z yet1 really conceiv$ or /udi$ z a sci5ce2 ! o!r1 ,e?ology1 is /ill to be creat$4 ,b its creation has at l5g? become practicable4 ,! empirical laws1 de/9$ to v]ify its d$uctions1 h be5 =m$ 9 abundance by e successive age ( humanity2 & ! premises = ! d$uctions are n[ suffici5tly complete4 ,except+ ! degree ( unc]ta9ty :i* /ill exi/s z to ! ext5t ( ! natural diff]5ces ( individual m9ds1 & ! physical circum/ances on :i* ^! may be dep5d5t 7consid]ations :i* are ( second>y importance :5 we are consid]+ mank9d 9 ! av]age1 or en masse71 ,i believe mo/ compet5t judges w agree t ! g5]al laws ( ! diff]5t con/itu5t elem5ts ( human nature are ev5 n[ suffici5tly und]/ood to r5d] x possible = a compet5t ?9k] to d$uce f ^? laws1 ) a consid]able approa* to c]ta9ty1 ! p>ticul> type ( "* :i* w\ld be =m$ 9 mank9d g5]ally by any assum$ set ( circum/ances4 ,a sci5ce ( ,e?ology1 f\nd$ on ! laws ( ,psy*ology1 is !re=e possible2 ?\gh little has yet be5 done1 & t little n at all sy/ematically1 t[>d =m+ x4 ,! progress ( ?is important b mo/ imp]fect sci5ce w dep5d on a d\ble process3 fir/1 t ( d$uc+ !oretically ! e?ological consequ5ces ( p>ticul> circum/ances ( position1 & comp>+ !m ) ! recogniz$ results ( common exp]i5ce2 &1 secondly1 ! rev]se op]ation2 increas$ /udy ( ! v>i\s types ( human nature t are to be f\nd 9 ! _w2 conduct$ by p]sons n only capable ( analyz+ & record+ ! circum/ances 9 :i* ^! types sev]ally prevail1 b also suffici5tly acqua9t$ ) psy*ological laws to be able to expla9 & acc\nt = ! *>act]i/ics ( ! type1 by ! peculi>ities ( ! circum/ances3 ! residuum alone1 :5 !re proves to be any1 be+ set d[n to ! acc\nt ( cong5ital pr$ispositions4 ,= ! exp]im5tal or a po/]iori "p ( ?is process1 ! mat]ials are cont9ually accumulat+ by ! obs]vation ( mank9d4 ,s f> z ?\ght is conc]n$1 ! great problem ( ,e?ology is to d$uce ! requisite middle pr9ciples f ! g5]al laws ( ,psy*ology4 ,! subject to be /udi$ is1 ! orig9 & s\rces ( all ^? qualities 9 human be+s :i* are int]e/+ to u1 ei!r z facts to be produc$1 to be avoid$1 or m]ely to be und]/ood2 & ! object is1 to det]m9e1 f ! g5]al laws ( m9d1 comb9$ ) ! g5]al position ( our species 9 ! univ]se1 :at actual or possible comb9ations ( circum/ances are capable ( promot+ or ( prev5t+ ! production ( ^? qualities4 ,a sci5ce :i* possesses middle pr9ciples ( ?is k9d1 arrang$ 9 ! ord]1 n ( causes1 b ( ! effects :i* x is desirable to produce or to prev5t1 is duly prep>$ to be ! f\ndation ( ! correspond+ ,art4 ,& :5 ,e?ology %all be ?us prep>$1 practical education w be ! m]e trans=mation ( ^? pr9ciples into a p>allel sy/em ( precepts1 & ! adaptation ( ^! to ! sum total ( ! individual circum/ances :i* exi/ 9 ea* p>ticul> case4 ,x is h>dly necess>y aga9 to repeat t1 z 9 e o!r d$uctive sci5ce1 v]ification a po/]iori mu/ proce$ p>i passu ) d$uction a priori4 ,! inf]5ce giv5 by !ory z to ! type ( "* :i* w\ld be =m$ by any giv5 circum/ances mu/ be te/$ by specific exp]i5ce ( ^? circum/ances :5ev] obta9able2 & ! conclusions ( ! sci5ce z a :ole mu/ und]go a p]petual v]ification & correction f ! g5]al rem>ks af=d$ by common exp]i5ce respect+ human nature 9 our own age1 & by hi/ory respect+ times gone by4 ,! conclusions ( !ory c n be tru/$1 unless confirm$ by obs]vation2 nor ^? ( obs]vation1 unless !y c be affiliat$ to !ory1 by d$uc+ !m f ! laws ( human nature1 & f a close analysis ( ! circum/ances ( ! p>ticul> situation4 ,x is ! accordance ( ^! two k9ds ( evid5ce sep>ately tak5--! consili5ce ( a priori reason+ & specific exp]i5ce--:i* =ms ! only suffici5t gr\nd = ! pr9ciples ( any sci5ce s 8imm]s$ 9 matt]10 deal+ ) su* complex & concrete ph5om5a1 z ,e?ology4 ,*apt] ,,vi4 ,g5]al ,consid]ations ,on ,! ,social ,sci5ce4 #a4 ,next aft] ! sci5ce ( individual man comes ! sci5ce ( man 9 society--( ! actions ( collective masses ( mank9d1 & ! v>i\s ph5om5a :i* con/itute social life4 ,if ! =mation ( individual "* is already a complex subject ( /udy1 ?is subject mu/ be1 9 appe>ance at lea/1 /ill m complex2 because ! numb] ( concurr5t causes1 all ex]cis+ m or less influ5ce on ! total effect1 is great]1 9 ! proportion 9 :i* a nation1 or ! species at l>ge1 exposes a l>g] surface to ! op]ation ( ag5ts1 psy*ological & physical1 ?an any s+le individual4 ,if x 0 necess>y to prove1 9 opposition to an exi/+ prejudice1 t ! simpl] ( ! two is capable ( be+ a subject ( sci5ce1 ! prejudice is likely to be yet /rong] aga9/ ! possibility ( giv+ a sci5tific "* to ! /udy ( ,politics1 & ( ! ph5om5a ( ,society4 ,x is1 accord+ly1 b ( ye/]day t ! conception ( a political or social sci5ce has exi/$ any:]e b 9 ! m9d ( "h & !re an insulat$ ?9k]1 g5]ally v ill prep>$ = its realization3 ?\gh ! subject itself has ( all o!rs engag$ ! mo/ g5]al att5tion1 & be5 a !me ( int]e/$ & e>ne/ discussions1 almo/ f ! beg9n+ ( record$ "t4 ,! condition1 inde$1 ( politics z a bran* ( k 01 until v lately1 & has sc>cely ev5 yet ceas$ to be1 t :i* ,bacon animadv]t$ on1 z ! natural /ate ( ! sci5ces :ile _! cultivation is ab&on$ to practition]s2 n be+ c>ri$ on z a bran* ( speculative inquiry1 b only ) a view to ! exig5cies ( daily practice1 & ! fructif]a exp]im5ta1 !re=e1 be+ aim$ at1 almo/ to ! exclusion ( ! lucif]a4 ,su* 0 m$ical inve/igation1 be=e physiology & natural hi/ory began to be cultivat$ z bran*es ( g5]al k4 ,! only que/ions exam9$ 71 :at diet is :olesome1 or :at m$ic9e w cure "s giv5 disease2 )\t any previ\s sy/ematic inquiry into ! laws ( nutrition1 & ( ! heal?y & morbid action ( ! diff]5t organs1 on :i* laws ! effect ( any diet or m$ic9e mu/ evid5tly dep5d4 ,& 9 politics ! que/ions :i* engag$ g5]al att5tion 7 simil>3 ,is su* an enactm5t1 or su* a =m ( gov]nm5t1 b5eficial or ! rev]se--ei!r univ]sally1 or to "s p>ticul> community8 )\t any previ\s inquiry into ! g5]al conditions by :i* ! op]ation ( legislative measures1 or ! effects produc$ by =ms ( gov]nm5t1 are det]m9$4 ,/ud5ts 9 politics ?us attempt$ to /udy ! pa?ology & !rapeutics ( ! social body1 be=e !y _h laid ! necess>y f\ndation 9 its physiology2 to cure disease )\t und]/&+ ! laws ( heal?4 ,& ! result 0 su* z x mu/ always be :5 p]sons1 ev5 ( ability1 attempt to deal ) ! complex que/ions ( a sci5ce be=e its simpl] & m elem5t>y tru?s h be5 e/abli%$4 ,no wond] t1 :5 ! ph5om5a ( society h s r>ely be5 contemplat$ 9 ! po9t ( view *>act]i/ic ( sci5ce1 ! philosophy ( society %\ld h made little progress2 %\ld conta9 few g5]al propositions suffici5tly precise & c]ta9 = common inquir]s to recognize 9 !m a sci5tific "*4 ,! vulg> notion accord+ly is1 t all pret5sion to lay d[n g5]al tru?s on politics & society is quack]y2 t no univ]sality & no c]ta9ty are atta9able 9 su* matt]s4 ,:at p>tly excuses ?is common notion is1 t x is really n )\t f\ndation 9 "o p>ticul> s5se4 ,a l>ge proportion ( ^? :o h laid claim to ! "* ( philosophic politicians h attempt$ n to asc]ta9 univ]sal sequ5ces1 b to frame univ]sal precepts4 ,!y h imag9$ "s "o =m ( gov]nm5t1 or sy/em ( laws1 to fit all cases--a pret5sion well m]it+ ! ridicule ) :i* x is treat$ by practition]s1 & :olly unsupport$ by ! analogy ( ! art to :i*1 f ! nature ( its subject1 t ( politics mu/ be ! mo/ ne>ly alli$4 ,no "o n[ supposes x possible t "o rem$y c cure all diseases1 or ev5 ! same disease 9 all con/itutions & habits ( body4 ,x is n necess>y ev5 to ! p]fection ( a sci5ce1 t ! correspond+ art %\ld possess univ]sal1 or ev5 g5]al1 rules4 ,! ph5om5a ( society might n only be completely dep5d5t on kn[n causes1 b ! mode ( action ( all ^? causes might be r$ucible to laws ( consid]able simplicity1 & yet no two cases might admit ( be+ treat$ 9 precisely ! same mann]4 ,s great might be ! v>iety ( circum/ances on :i* ! results 9 diff]5t cases dep5d1 t ! art might n h a s+le g5]al precept to give1 except t ( wat*+ ! circum/ances ( ! p>ticul> case1 & adapt+ our measures to ! effects :i*1 accord+ to ! pr9ciples ( ! sci5ce1 result f ^? circum/ances4 ,b al?\gh1 9 s complicat$ a class ( subjects1 x is impossible to lay d[n practical maxims ( univ]sal application1 x does n foll[ t ! ph5om5a d n con=m to univ]sal laws4 #b4 ,all ph5om5a ( society are ph5om5a ( human nature1 g5]at$ by ! action ( outw>d circum/ances ^u masses ( human be+s2 & if1 !re=e1 ! ph5om5a ( human ?\ght1 feel+1 & action are subject to fix$ laws1 ! ph5om5a ( society c n b con=m to fix$ laws1 ! consequ5ce ( ! prec$+4 ,!re is1 inde$1 no hope t ^! laws1 ?\gh our k ( !m 7 z c]ta9 & z complete z x is 9 a/ronomy1 w\ld enable u to pr$ict ! hi/ory ( society1 l t ( ! cele/ial appe>ances1 = ?\s&s ( ye>s to come4 ,b ! diff]5ce ( c]ta9ty is n 9 ! laws !mselves1 x is 9 ! data to :i* ^! laws are to be appli$4 ,9 a/ronomy ! causes influ5c+ ! result are few1 & *ange little1 & t little accord+ to kn[n laws2 we c asc]ta9 :at !y are n[1 & !nce det]m9e :at !y w be at any epo* ( a di/ant future4 ,! data1 !re=e1 9 a/ronomy are z c]ta9 z ! laws !mselves4 ,! circum/ances1 on ! contr>y1 :i* influ5ce ! condition & progress ( society are innum]able1 & p]petually *ang+2 & ?\gh !y all *ange 9 ob$i5ce to causes1 & !re=e to laws1 ! multitude ( ! causes is s great z to defy our limit$ p[]s ( calculation4 ,n to say t ! impossibility ( apply+ precise numb]s to facts ( su* a description w\ld set an impassable limit to ! possibility ( calculat+ !m be=eh&1 ev5 if ! p[]s ( ! human intellect 7 o!rwise adequate to ! task4 ,b1 z be=e rem>k$1 an am\nt ( k q insuffici5t = pr$iction1 may be mo/ valuable = guidance4 ,! sci5ce ( society w\ld h atta9$ a v high po9t ( p]fection if x enabl$ u1 9 any giv5 condition ( social affairs1 9 ! condition1 = in/ance1 ( ,europe or any ,european c\ntry at ! pres5t "t1 to und]/& by :at causes x _h1 9 any & e p>ticul>1 be5 made :at x 02 :e!r x 0 t5d+ to any1 & to :at1 *anges2 :at effects ea* feature ( its exi/+ /ate 0 likely to produce 9 ! future2 & by :at means any ( ^? effects might be prev5t$1 modifi$1 or accel]at$1 or a diff]5t class ( effects sup]9duc$4 ,!re is no?+ *im]ical 9 ! hope t g5]al laws1 suffici5t to enable u to answ] ^! v>i\s que/ions = any c\ntry or "t ) ! individual circum/ances ( :i* we are well acqua9t$1 d really admit ( be+ asc]ta9$2 & t ! o!r bran*es ( human k1 :i* ?is und]tak+ presupposes1 are s f> advanc$ t ! "t is ripe = its comm5cem5t4 ,su* is ! object ( ! ,social ,sci5ce4 ,t ! nature ( :at ,i consid] ! true me?od ( ! sci5ce may be made m palpable1 by fir/ %[+ :at t me?od is n1 x w be exp$i5t to *>act]ize briefly two radical misconceptions ( ! prop] mode ( philosophiz+ on society & gov]nm5t1 "o or o!r ( :i* is1 ei!r explicitly or m (t5 unconsci\sly1 ent]ta9$ by almo/ all :o h m$itat$ or argu$ respect+ ! logic ( politics1 s9ce ! notion ( treat+ x by /rict rules1 & on ,baconian pr9ciples1 has be5 curr5t among ! m advanc$ ?9k]s4 ,^! errone\s me?ods1 if ! ^w me?od c be appli$ to errone\s t5d5cies aris+ f ! abs5ce ( any suffici5tly di/9ct conception ( me?od1 may be t]m$ ! ,exp]im5tal1 or ,*emical1 mode ( inve/igation1 & ! ,ab/ract1 or ,geometrical1 mode4 ,we %all beg9 ) ! =m]4 ,*apt] ,,vii4 ,( ,! ,*emical1 ,or ,exp]im5tal1 ,me?od ,9 ,! ,social ,sci5ce4 #a4 ,! laws ( ! ph5om5a ( society are1 & c be1 no?+ b ! laws ( ! actions & passions ( human be+s unit$ toge!r 9 ! social /ate4 ,m51 h[ev]1 9 a /ate ( society are /ill m52 _! actions & passions are ob$i5t to ! laws ( individual human nature4 ,m5 are n1 :5 br\ght toge!r1 conv]t$ into ano!r k9d ( sub/ance1 ) diff]5t prop]ties2 z hydrog5 & oxyg5 are diff]5t f wat]1 or z hydrog51 oxyg51 c>bon1 & azote1 are diff]5t f n]ves1 muscles1 & t5dons4 ,human be+s 9 society h no prop]ties b ^? :i* are d]iv$ f1 & may be resolv$ into1 ! laws ( ! nature ( individual man4 ,9 social ph5om5a ! ,composition ( ,causes is ! univ]sal law4 ,n[1 ! me?od ( philosophiz+ :i* may be t]m$ *emical ov]looks ?is fact1 & proce$s z if ! nature ( man z an individual 7 n conc]n$ at all1 or 7 conc]n$ 9 a v inf]ior degree1 9 ! op]ations ( human be+s 9 society4 ,all reason+ 9 political or social affairs1 gr\nd$ on pr9ciples ( human nature1 is object$ to by reason]s ( ?is sort1 "u su* names z 8ab/ract !ory40 ,= ! direction ( _! op9ions & conduct1 !y pr(ess to dem&1 9 all cases )\t exception1 specific exp]i5ce4 ,?is mode ( ?9k+ is n only g5]al ) practition]s 9 politics1 & ) t v num]\s class :o 7on a subject :i* no "o1 h[ev] ignorant1 ?9ks himself incompet5t to discuss7 pr(ess to guide !mselves by common s5se r ?an by sci5ce2 b is (t5 c\nt5anc$ by p]sons ) great] pret5sions to in/ruction--p]sons :o1 hav+ suffici5t acqua9tance ) books & ) ! curr5t ideas to h he>d t ,bacon taught mank9d to foll[ exp]i5ce1 & to gr\nd _! conclusions on facts in/ead ( metaphysical dogmas1 ?9k t1 by treat+ political facts 9 z directly exp]im5tal a me?od z *emical facts1 !y are %[+ !mselves true ,baconians1 & prov+ _! adv]s>ies to be m]e syllogiz]s & s*ool-m54 ,z1 h[ev]1 ! notion ( ! applicability ( exp]im5tal me?ods to political philosophy c n co-exi/ ) any j conception ( ^! me?ods !mselves1 ! k9d ( argum5ts f exp]i5ce :i* ! *emical !ory br+s =? z its fruits 7& :i* =m ! /aple1 9 ?is c\ntry especially1 ( p>liam5t>y & hu/+s oratory71 are su* z1 at no "t s9ce ,bacon1 w\ld h be5 admitt$ to be valid 9 *emi/ry itself1 or 9 any o!r bran* ( exp]im5tal sci5ce4 ,!y are su* z ^!3 t ! prohibition ( =eign commodities mu/ conduce to national weal?1 because ,engl& has fl\ri%$ "u x1 or because c\ntries 9 g5]al :i* h adopt$ x h fl\ri%$2 t our laws1 or our int]nal adm9i/ration1 or our con/itution1 are excell5t = a simil> reason2 & ! et]nal argum5ts f hi/orical examples1 f ,a!ns or ,rome1 f ! fires 9 ,smi?field or ! ,fr5* ,revolution4 ,i w n wa/e "t 9 cont5d+ aga9/ modes ( argum5tation :i* no p]son ) ! smalle/ practice 9 e/imat+ evid5ce c\ld possibly be betray$ into2 :i* draw conclusions ( g5]al application f a s+le unanalyz$ in/ance1 or arbitr>ily ref] an effect to "s "o among its antec$5ts1 )\t any process ( elim9ation or comp>ison ( in/ances4 ,x is a rule bo? ( ju/ice & ( good s5se to grapple n ) ! absurde/1 b ) ! mo/ reasonable =m ( a wrong op9ion4 ,we %all suppose our inquir] acqua9t$ ) ! true conditions ( exp]im5tal inve/igation1 & compet5t 9 po9t ( acquirem5ts = realiz+ !m1 s f> z !y c be realiz$4 ,he %all "k z mu* ( ! facts ( hi/ory z m]e erudition c tea*--z mu* z c be prov$ by te/imony1 )\t ! assi/ance ( any !ory2 & if ^? m]e facts1 prop]ly collat$1 c fulfill ! conditions ( a real induction1 he %all be qualifi$ = ! task4 ,b t no su* attempt c h ! smalle/ *ance ( success1 has be5 abundantly %[n 9 ! t5? *apt] ( ! ,?ird ,book47#bgd7 ,we !re exam9$ :e!r effects :i* dep5d on a complication ( causes c be made ! subject ( a true induction by obs]vation & exp]im5t2 & conclud$1 on ! mo/ conv9c+ gr\nds1 t !y c n4 ,s9ce1 ( all effects1 none dep5d on s great a complication ( causes z social ph5om5a1 we might leave our case to re/ 9 safety on t previ\s %[+4 ,b a logical pr9ciple z yet s little famili> to ! ord9>y run ( ?9k]s1 requires to be insi/$ on m ?an once1 9 ord] to make ! due impression2 & ! pres5t be+ ! case :i* ( all o!rs exemplifies x ! mo/ /rongly1 !re w be advantage 9 re-/at+ ! gr\nds ( ! g5]al maxim1 z appli$ to ! specialties ( ! class ( inquiries n[ "u consid]ation4 #b4 ,! fir/ difficulty :i* meets u 9 ! attempt to apply exp]im5tal me?ods = asc]ta9+ ! laws ( social ph5om5a1 is t we are )\t ! means ( mak+ artificial exp]im5ts4 ,ev5 if we c\ld contrive exp]im5ts at leisure1 & try !m )\t limit1 we %\ld d s "u imm5se disadvantage2 bo? f ! impossibility ( asc]ta9+ & tak+ note ( all ! facts ( ea* case1 & because 7^? facts be+ 9 a p]petual /ate ( *ange71 be=e suffici5t "t _h elaps$ to asc]ta9 ! result ( ! exp]im5t1 "s mat]ial circum/ances w\ld always h ceas$ to be ! same4 ,b x is unnecess>y to consid] ! logical objections :i* w\ld exi/ to ! conclusiv5ess ( our exp]im5ts1 s9ce we palpably nev] h ! p[] ( try+ any4 ,we c only wat* ^? :i* nature produces1 or :i* are produc$ = o!r reasons4 ,we c n adapt our logical means to our wants1 by v>y+ ! circum/ances z ! exig5cies ( elim9ation may require4 ,if ! spontane\s in/ances1 =m$ by contempor>y ev5ts & by ! successions ( ph5om5a record$ 9 hi/ory1 af=d a suffici5t v>iation ( circum/ances1 an induction f specific exp]i5ce is atta9able2 o!rwise n4 ,! "q to be resolv$ is1 !re=e1 :e!r ! requisites = induction respect+ ! causes ( political effects or ! prop]ties ( political ag5ts1 are to be met ) 9 hi/ory8 includ+ "u ! t]m1 contempor>y hi/ory4 ,& 9 ord] to give fixity to our conceptions1 x w be advisable to suppose ?is "q ask$ 9 ref]5ce to "s special subject ( political inquiry or controv]sy2 su* z t frequ5t topic ( debate 9 ! pres5t c5tury1 ! op]ation ( re/rictive & prohibitory comm]cial legislation ^u national weal?4 ,let ?is1 !n1 be ! sci5tific "q to be inve/igat$ by specific exp]i5ce4 #c4 ,9 ord] to apply to ! case ! mo/ p]fect ( ! me?ods ( exp]im5tal inquiry1 ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 we require to f9d two in/ances :i* tally 9 e p>ticul> except ! "o :i* is ! subject ( inquiry4 ,if two nations c be f\nd :i* are alike 9 all natural advantages & disadvantages2 ^: p resemble ea* o!r 9 e quality1 physical & moral1 spontane\s & acquir$2 ^: habits1 usages1 op9ions1 laws1 & in/itutions are ! same 9 all respects1 except t "o ( !m has a m protective t>iff1 or 9 o!r respects int]f]es m ) ! fre$om ( indu/ry2 if "o ( ^! nations is f\nd to be ri* & ! o!r poor1 or "o ri*] ?an ! o!r1 ?is w be an exp]im5tum crucis3 a real pro( by exp]i5ce1 :i* ( ! two sy/ems is mo/ favorable to national ri*es4 ,b ! supposition t two su* in/ances c be met ) is manife/ly absurd4 ,nor is su* a concurr5ce ev5 ab/ract$ly possible4 ,two nations :i* agre$ 9 e ?+ except _! comm]cial policy w\ld agree also 9 t4 ,diff]5ces ( legislation are n inh]5t & ultimate div]sities2 are n prop]ties ( ,k9ds4 ,!y are effects ( pre-exi/+ causes4 ,if ! two nations diff] 9 ?is portion ( _! in/itutions1 x is f "s diff]5ce 9 _! position1 & !nce 9 _! app>5t int]e/s1 or 9 "s portion or o!r ( _! op9ions1 habits1 & t5d5cies2 :i* op5s a view ( fur!r diff]5ces )\t any assignable limit1 capable ( op]at+ on _! indu/rial prosp]ity1 z well z on e o!r feature ( _! condition1 9 m ways ?an c be enum]at$ or imag9$4 ,!re is ?us a demon/rat$ impossibility ( obta9+1 9 ! inve/igations ( ! social sci5ce1 ! conditions requir$ = ! mo/ conclusive =m ( inquiry by specific exp]i5ce4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( ! direct1 we may next try1 z 9 o!r cases1 ! supplem5t>y res\rce1 call$ 9 a =m] place ! ,indirect ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce2 :i*1 in/ead ( two in/ances diff]+ 9 no?+ b ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( a giv5 circum/ance1 comp>es two classes ( in/ances respectively agree+ 9 no?+ b ! pres5ce ( a circum/ance on ! "o side & its abs5ce on ! o!r4 ,to *oose ! mo/ advantage\s case conceivable 7a case f> too advantage\s to be ev] obta9$71 suppose t we comp>e "o nation :i* has a re/rictive policy ) two or m nations agree+ 9 no?+ b 9 p]mitt+ free trade4 ,we ne$ n n[ suppose t ei!r ( ^! nations agrees ) ! fir/ 9 all its circum/ances2 "o may agree ) x 9 "s ( its circum/ances1 & ano!r 9 ! rema9d]4 ,& x may be argu$1 t if ^! nations rema9 poor] ?an ! re/rictive nation1 x c n be = want ei!r ( ! fir/ or ( ! second set ( circum/ances1 b x mu/ be = want ( ! protective sy/em4 ,if 7we might say7 ! re/rictive nation _h prosp]$ f ! "o set ( causes1 ! fir/ ( ! free-trade nations w\ld h prosp]$ equally2 if by reason ( ! o!r1 ! second w\ld2 b nei!r has2 !re=e ! prosp]ity 0 ow+ to ! re/rictions4 ,?is w be all[$ to be a v favorable specim5 ( an argum5t f specific exp]i5ce 9 politics1 & if ?is be inconclusive1 x w\ld n be easy to f9d ano!r pref]able to x4 ,yet1 t x is inconclusive1 sc>cely requires to be po9t$ out4 ,:y mu/ ! prosp]\s nation h prosp]$ f "o cause exclusively8 ,national prosp]ity is always ! collective result ( a multitude ( favorable circum/ances2 & ( ^!1 ! re/rictive nation may unite a great] numb] ?an ei!r ( ! o!rs1 ?\gh x may h all ( ^? circum/ances 9 common ) ei!r "o or ! o!r ( !m4 ,its prosp]ity may be p>tly ow+ to circum/ances common to x ) "o ( ^? nations1 & p>tly ) ! o!r1 :ile !y1 hav+ ea* ( !m only half ! numb] ( favorable circum/ances1 h rema9$ inf]ior4 ,s t ! close/ imitation :i* c be made1 9 ! social sci5ce1 ( a legitimate induction f direct exp]i5ce1 gives b a speci\s semblance ( conclusiv5ess1 )\t any real value4 #d4 ,! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce 9 ei!r ( its =ms be+ ?us completely out ( ! "q1 !re rema9s ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t4 ,b we are already aw>e ( h[ little value ?is me?od is1 9 cases admitt+ ,plurality ( ,causes2 & social ph5om5a are ^? 9 :i* ! plurality prevails 9 ! utmo/ possible ext5t4 ,suppose t ! obs]v] makes ! luckie/ hit :i* c\ld be giv5 by any conceivable comb9ation ( *ances2 t he f9ds two nations :i* agree 9 no circum/ance :atev]1 except 9 hav+ a re/rictive sy/em1 & 9 be+ prosp]\s2 or a numb] ( nations1 all prosp]\s1 :i* h no antec$5t circum/ances common to !m all b t ( hav+ a re/rictive policy4 ,x is unnecess>y to g into ! consid]ation ( ! impossibility ( asc]ta9+ f hi/ory1 or ev5 f contempor>y obs]vation1 t su* is really ! fact2 t ! nations agree 9 no o!r circum/ance capable ( influ5c+ ! case4 ,let u suppose ?is impossibility vanqui%$1 & ! fact asc]ta9$ t !y agree only 9 a re/rictive sy/em z an antec$5t1 & indu/rial prosp]ity z a consequ5t4 ,:at degree ( presumption does ?is raise t ! re/rictive sy/em caus$ ! prosp]ity8 ,"o s trifl+ z to be equival5t to none at all4 ,t "s "o antec$5t is ! cause ( a giv5 effect1 because all o!r antec$5ts h be5 f\nd capable ( be+ elim9at$1 is a j inf]5ce1 only if ! effect c h b "o cause4 ,if x admits ( sev]al1 no?+ is m natural ?an t ea* ( ^! %\ld sep>ately admit ( be+ elim9at$4 ,n[1 9 ! case ( political ph5om5a1 ! supposition ( unity ( cause is n only wide ( ! tru?1 b at an immeasurable di/ance f x4 ,! causes ( e social ph5om5on :i* we are p>ticul>ly int]e/$ ab\t1 security1 weal?1 fre$om1 good gov]nm5t1 public virtue1 g5]al intellig5ce1 or _! opposites1 are inf9itely num]\s1 especially ! ext]nal or remote causes1 :i* alone are1 = ! mo/ "p1 accessible to direct obs]vation4 ,no "o cause suffices ( itself to produce any ( ^! ph5om5a2 :ile !re are c\ntless causes :i* h "s influ5ce ov] !m1 & may co-op]ate ei!r 9 _! production or 9 _! prev5tion4 ,f ! m]e fact1 !re=e1 ( our hav+ be5 able to elim9ate "s circum/ance1 we c by no means inf] t ?is circum/ance 0 n in/rum5tal to ! effect 9 "s ( ! v in/ances f :i* we h elim9at$ x4 ,we c conclude t ! effect is sometimes produc$ )\t x2 b n t1 :5 pres5t1 x does n contribute its %>e4 ,simil> objections w be f\nd to apply to ! ,me?od ( ,concomitant ,v>iations4 ,if ! causes :i* act ^u ! /ate ( any society produc$ effects diff]+ f "o ano!r 9 k9d2 if weal? dep5d$ on "o cause1 peace on ano!r1 a ?ird made p virtu\s1 a f\r? intellig5t2 we might1 ?\gh unable to sev] ! causes f "o ano!r1 ref] to ea* ( !m t prop]ty ( ! effect :i* wax$ z x wax$1 & :i* wan$ z x wan$4 ,b e attribute ( ! social body is influ5c$ by innum]able causes2 & su* is ! mutual action ( ! co-exi/+ elem5ts ( society1 t :atev] affects any "o ( ! m important ( !m1 w by t alone1 if x does n affect ! o!rs directly1 affect !m indirectly4 ,! effects1 !re=e1 ( diff]5t ag5ts n be+ diff]5t 9 quality1 :ile ! quantity ( ea* is ! mix$ result ( all ! ag5ts1 ! v>iations ( ! aggregate c n be> a uni=m proportion to ^? ( any "o ( its compon5t p>ts4 #e4 ,!re rema9s ! ,me?od ( ,residues2 :i* appe>s1 on ! fir/ view1 less =eign to ?is k9d ( inquiry ?an ! ?ree o!r me?ods1 because x only requires t we %\ld accurately note ! circum/ances ( "s "o c\ntry1 or /ate ( society4 ,mak+ all[ance1 !reupon1 = ! effect ( all causes ^: t5d5cies are kn[n1 ! residue :i* ^? causes are inadequate to expla9 may plausibly be imput$ to ! rema9d] ( ! circum/ances :i* are kn[n to h exi/$ 9 ! case4 ,some?+ simil> to ?is is ! me?od :i* ,col]idge7#bge7 describes himself z hav+ foll[$ 9 8 political essays 9 ! ,morn+ ,po/4 8,on e great occurr5ce ,i endeavor$ to discov] 9 pa/ hi/ory ! ev5t t mo/ ne>ly resembl$ x4 ,i procur$1 :5ev] x 0 possible1 ! contempor>y hi/orians1 memoriali/s1 & pamphlete]s4 ,!n fairly subtract+ ! po9ts ( diff]5ce f ^? ( lik5ess1 z ! balance favor$ ! =m] or ! latt]1 ,i conjectur$ t ! result w\ld be ! same or diff]5t4 ,z1 = in/ance1 9 ! s]ies ( essays entitl$ #8,a ,comp>ison ( ,france "u ,napoleon ) ,rome "u ! fir/ ,cs>s1' & 9 ^? :i* foll[$1 #8on ! probable f9al re/oration ( ! ,b\rbons4' ,! same plan ,i pursu$ at ! comm5cem5t ( ! ,spani% ,revolution1 & ) ! same success1 tak+ ! w> ( ! ,unit$ ,prov9ces ) ,philip ,,ii4 z ! gr\ndwork ( ! comp>ison40 ,9 ?is inquiry he no d\bt employ$ ! ,me?od ( ,residues2 =1 9 8subtract+ ! po9ts ( diff]5ce f ^? ( lik5ess10 he d\btless weigh$1 & did n cont5t himself ) numb]+1 !m3 he d\btless took ^? po9ts ( agreem5t only :i* he presum$ f _! own nature to be capable ( influ5c+ ! effect1 &1 all[+ = t influ5ce1 conclud$ t ! rema9d] ( ! result w\ld be ref]able to ! po9ts ( diff]5ce4 ,:atev] may be ! efficacy ( ?is me?od1 x is1 z we long ago rem>k$1 n a me?od ( pure obs]vation & exp]im5t2 x concludes1 n f a comp>ison ( in/ances1 b f ! comp>ison ( an in/ance ) ! result ( a previ\s d$uction4 ,appli$ to social ph5om5a1 x presupposes t ! causes f :i* "p ( ! effect proce$$ are already kn[n2 & z we h %[n t ^! c n h be5 kn[n by specific exp]i5ce1 !y mu/ h be5 le>n$ by d$uction f pr9ciples ( human nature2 exp]i5ce be+ call$ 9 only z a supplem5t>y res\rce1 to det]m9e ! causes :i* produc$ an unexpla9$ residue4 ,b if ! pr9ciples ( human nature may be _h rec\rse to = ! e/abli%m5t ( "s political tru?s1 !y may = all4 ,if x be admissible to say1 ,engl& mu/ h prosp]$ by reason ( ! prohibitory sy/em1 because aft] all[+ = all ! o!r t5d5cies :i* h be5 op]at+1 !re is a portion ( prosp]ity /ill to be acc\nt$ =2 x mu/ be admissible to g to ! same s\rce = ! effect ( ! prohibitory sy/em1 & exam9e :at acc\nt ! laws ( human motives & actions w enable u to give ( its t5d5cies4 ,nor1 9 fact1 w ! exp]im5tal argum5t am\nt to any ?+1 except 9 v]ification ( a conclusion drawn f ^? g5]al laws4 ,= we may subtract ! effect ( "o1 two1 ?ree1 or f\r causes1 b we %all nev] succe$ 9 subtract+ ! effect ( all causes except "o2 :ile x w\ld be a curi\s in/ance ( ! dang]s ( too mu* caution if1 to avoid dep5d+ on a priori reason+ conc]n+ ! effect ( a s+le cause1 we %\ld oblige ourselves to dep5d on z _m sep>ate a priori reason+s z !re are causes op]at+ concurr5tly ) t p>ticul> cause 9 "s giv5 in/ance4 ,we h n[ suffici5tly *>act]iz$ ! gross misconception ( ! mode ( inve/igation prop] to political ph5om5a1 :i* ,i h t]m$ ! ,*emical ,me?od4 ,s l5g!n$ a discussion w\ld n h be5 necess>y1 if ! claim to decide au?oritatively on political doctr9es 7 conf9$ to p]sons :o _h compet5tly /udi$ any "o ( ! high] dep>tm5ts ( physical sci5ce4 ,b s9ce ! g5]ality ( ^? :o reason on political subjects1 satisfactorily to !mselves & to a m or less num]\s body ( admir]s1 "k no?+ :atev] ( ! me?ods ( physical inve/igation beyond a few precepts :i* !y cont9ue to p>rot aft] ,bacon1 be+ entirely unaw>e t ,bacon's conception ( sci5tific inquiry has done its "w1 & t sci5ce has n[ advanc$ into a high] /age1 !re are probably _m to :om su* rem>ks z ! =ego+ may /ill be useful4 ,9 an age 9 :i* *emi/ry itself1 :5 attempt+ to deal ) ! m complex *emical sequ5ces--^? ( ! animal or ev5 ! vegetable organism--has f\nd x necess>y to become1 & has succe$$ 9 becom+1 a ,d$uctive ,sci5ce1 x is n to be appreh5d$ t any p]son ( sci5tific habits1 :o has kept pace ) ! g5]al progress ( ! k ( nature1 c be 9 dang] ( apply+ ! me?ods ( elem5t>y *emi/ry to explore ! sequ5ces ( ! mo/ complex ord] ( ph5om5a 9 exi/5ce4 ,*apt] ,,viii4 ,( ,! ,geometrical1 ,or ,ab/ract1 ,me?od4 #a4 ,! misconception discuss$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt] is1 z we said1 *iefly committ$ by p]sons n mu* accu/om$ to sci5tific inve/igation3 practition]s 9 politics1 :o r employ ! commonplaces ( philosophy to ju/ify _! practice ?an seek to guide _! practice by philosophic pr9ciples2 or imp]fectly educat$ p]sons1 :o1 9 ignorance ( ! c>eful selection & elaborate comp>ison ( in/ances requir$ = ! =mation ( a s\nd !ory1 attempt to f\nd "o ^u a few co9cid5ces :i* !y h casually notic$4 ,! errone\s me?od ( :i* we are n[ to treat is1 on ! contr>y1 peculi> to ?9k+ & /udi\s m9ds4 ,x nev] c\ld h sugge/$ itself b to p]sons ( "s famili>ity ) ! nature ( sci5tific rese>*2 :o1 be+ aw>e ( ! impossibility ( e/abli%+1 by casual obs]vation or direct exp]im5tation1 a true !ory ( sequ5ces s complex z are ^? ( ! social ph5om5a1 h rec\rse to ! simpl] laws :i* are imm$iately op]ative 9 ^? ph5om5a1 & :i* are no o!r ?an ! laws ( ! nature ( ! human be+s !re9 conc]n$1 ,^! ?9k]s p]ceive 7:at ! p>tisans ( ! *emical or exp]im5tal !ory d n7 t ! sci5ce ( society mu/ necess>ily be d$uctive4 ,b1 f an insuffici5t consid]ation ( ! specific nature ( ! subject-matt]--& (t5 because 7_! own sci5tific education hav+ /opp$ %ort 9 too e>ly a /age7 geometry /&s 9 _! m9ds z ! type ( all d$uctive sci5ce--x is to geometry1 r ?an to a/ronomy & natural philosophy1 t !y unconsci\sly assimilate ! d$uctive sci5ce ( society4 ,among ! diff]5ces betwe5 geometry 7a sci5ce ( co-exi/5t facts1 altoge!r indep5d5t ( ! laws ( ! succession ( ph5om5a71 & ^? physical ,sci5ces ( ,causation :i* h be5 r5d]$ d$uctive1 ! foll[+ is "o ( ! mo/ conspicu\s3 ,t geometry af=ds no room = :at s con/antly occurs 9 me*anics & its applications1 ! case ( conflict+ =ces2 ( causes :i* c\nt]act or modify "o ano!r4 ,9 me*anics we cont9ually f9d two or m mov+ =ces produc+1 n motion1 b re/2 or motion 9 a diff]5t direction f t :i* w\ld h be5 produc$ by ei!r ( ! g5]at+ =ces4 ,x is true t ! effect ( ! jo9t =ces is ! same :5 !y act simultane\sly1 z if !y _h act$ "o aft] ano!r1 or by turns2 & x is 9 ?is t ! diff]5ce betwe5 me*anical & *emical laws consi/s4 ,b /ill ! effects1 :e!r produc$ by successive or by simultane\s action1 d1 :olly or 9 "p1 cancel "o ano!r3 :at ! "o =ce does1 ! o!r1 p>tly1 or altoge!r undoes4 ,!re is no simil> /ate ( ?+s 9 geometry4 ,! result :i* foll[s f "o geometrical pr9ciple has no?+ t conflicts ) ! result :i* foll[s f ano!r4 ,:at is prov$ true f "o geometrical !orem1 :at w\ld be true if no o!r geometrical pr9ciples exi/$1 c n be alt]$ & made no long] true by reason ( "s o!r geometrical pr9ciple4 ,:at is once prov$ true is true 9 all cases1 :atev] supposition may be made 9 reg>d to any o!r matt]4 ,n[ a conception simil> to ?is la/ w\ld appe> to h be5 =m$ ( ! social sci5ce1 9 ! m9ds ( ! e>li] ( ^? :o h attempt$ to cultivate x by a d$uctive me?od4 ,me*anics w\ld be a sci5ce v simil> to geometry1 if e motion result$ f "o =ce alone1 & n f a conflict ( =ces4 ,9 ! geometrical !ory ( society1 x seems to be suppos$ t ?is is really ! case ) ! social ph5om5a2 t ea* ( !m results always f only "o =ce1 "o s+le prop]ty ( human nature4 ,at ! po9t :i* we h n[ rea*$1 x c n be necess>y to say any ?+ ei!r 9 pro( or 9 illu/ration ( ! ass]tion t su* is n ! true "* ( ! social ph5om5a4 ,!re is n1 among ^! mo/ complex & 7= t reason7 mo/ modifiable ( all ph5om5a1 any "o ov] :i* innum]able =ces d n ex]cise influ5ce2 :i* does n dep5d on a conjunction ( v _m causes4 ,we h n1 !re=e1 to prove ! notion 9 "q to be an error1 b to prove t ! error has be5 committ$2 t s mi/ak5 a conception ( ! mode 9 :i* ! ph5om5a ( society are produc$ has actually be5 asc]ta9$4 #b4 ,"o num]\s division ( ! reason]s :o h treat$ social facts accord+ to geometrical me?ods1 n admitt+ any modification ( "o law by ano!r1 mu/ = ! pres5t be left out ( consid]ation1 because 9 !m ?is error is complicat$ )1 & is ! effect (1 ano!r fundam5tal misconception1 ( :i* we h already tak5 "s notice1 & :i* w be fur!r treat$ ( be=e we conclude4 ,i speak ( ^? :o d$uce political conclusions n f laws ( nature1 n f sequ5ces ( ph5om5a1 real or imag9>y1 b f unb5d+ practical maxims4 ,su*1 = example1 are all :o f\nd _! !ory ( politics on :at is call$ ab/ract "r1 t is to say1 on univ]sal precepts2 a pret5sion ( :i* we h already notic$ ! *im]ical nature4 ,su*1 9 l mann]1 are ^? :o make ! assumption ( a social contract1 or any o!r k9d ( orig9al obligation1 & apply x to p>ticul> cases by m]e int]pretation4 ,b 9 ?is ! fundam5tal error is ! attempt to treat an art l a sci5ce1 & to h a d$uctive art2 ! irrationality ( :i* w be %[n 9 a future *apt]4 ,x w be prop] to take our exemplification ( ! geometrical !ory f ^? ?9k]s :o h avoid$ ?is additional error1 & :o ent]ta91 s f>1 a ju/] idea ( ! nature ( political inquiry4 ,we may cite1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 ^? :o assume z ! pr9ciple ( _! political philosophy t gov]nm5t is f\nd$ on fe>2 t ! dread ( ea* o!r is ! "o motive by :i* human be+s 7 orig9ally br\ght into a /ate ( society1 & are /ill held 9 x4 ,"s ( ! e>li] sci5tific inquir]s into politics1 9 p>ticul> ,hobbes1 assum$ ?is proposition1 n by implication1 b av[$ly1 z ! f\ndation ( _! doctr9e1 & attempt$ to build a complete philosophy ( politics !reupon4 ,x is true t ,hobbes did n f9d ?is "o maxim suffici5t to c>ry him ?r\gh ! :ole ( 8 subject1 b 0 oblig$ to eke x out by ! d\ble sophism ( an orig9al contract4 ,i call ?is a d\ble sophism2 fir/1 z pass+ (f a fiction = a fact1 &1 secondly1 assum+ a practical pr9ciple1 or precept1 z ! basis ( a !ory2 :i* is a petitio pr9cipii1 s9ce 7z we notic$ 9 treat+ ( t ,fallacy7 e rule ( conduct1 ev5 ?\gh x be s b9d+ a "o z ! obs]vance ( a promise1 mu/ re/ its own f\ndations on ! !ory ( ! subject2 & ! !ory1 !re=e1 c n re/ ^u x4 #c4 ,pass+ ov] less important in/ances1 ,i %all come at once to ! mo/ rem>kable example af=d$ by our own times ( ! geometrical me?od 9 politics2 emanat+ f p]sons :o are well aw>e ( ! di/9ction betwe5 sci5ce & art2 :o knew t rules ( conduct mu/ foll[1 n prec$e1 ! asc]ta9m5t ( laws ( nature1 & t ! latt]1 n ! =m]1 is ! legitimate field = ! application ( ! d$uctive me?od4 ,i allude to ! int]e/-philosophy ( ! ,b5?am s*ool4 ,! pr(\nd & orig9al ?9k]s :o are commonly kn[n "u ?is description1 f\nd$ _! g5]al !ory ( gov]nm5t on "o compreh5sive premise1 namely1 t m5's actions are always det]m9$ by _! int]e/s4 ,!re is an ambiguity 9 ?is la/ expression2 =1 z ! same philosoph]s1 especially ,b5?am1 gave ! "n ( an int]e/ to any ?+ :i* a p]son likes1 ! proposition may be und]/ood to mean only ?is1 t m5's actions are always det]m9$ by _! wi%es4 ,9 ?is s5se1 h[ev]1 x w\ld n be> out any ( ! consequ5ces :i* ^! writ]s drew f x2 & ! ^w1 !re=e1 9 _! political reason+s1 mu/ be und]/ood to mean 7:i* is also ! explanation !y !mselves1 on su* occasions gave ( x7 :at is commonly t]m$ private1 or worldly1 int]e/4 ,tak+ ! doctr9e1 !n1 9 ?is s5se1 an objection pres5ts itself 9 lim9e :i* might be deem$ a fatal "o1 namely1 t s sweep+ a proposition is f> f be+ univ]sally true4 ,human be+s are n gov]n$ 9 all _! actions by _! worldly int]e/s4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is by no means s conclusive an objection z x at fir/ appe>s2 because 9 politics we are = ! mo/ "p conc]n$ ) ! conduct1 n ( individual p]sons1 b ei!r ( a s]ies ( p]sons 7z a succession ( k+s71 or a body or mass ( p]sons1 z a nation1 an ari/ocracy1 or a repres5tative assembly4 ,& :atev] is true ( a l>ge majority ( mank9d1 may )\t mu* error be tak5 = true ( any succession ( p]sons1 consid]$ z a :ole1 or ( any collection ( p]sons 9 :i* ! act ( ! majority becomes ! act ( ! :ole body4 ,al?\gh1 !re=e1 ! maxim is sometimes express$ 9 a mann] unnecess>ily p>adoxical1 ! consequ5ces drawn f x w hold equally good if ! ass]tion be limit$ z foll[s3 ,any succession ( p]sons1 or ! majority ( any body ( p]sons1 w be gov]n$ 9 ! bulk ( _! conduct by _! p]sonal int]e/s4 ,we are b\nd to all[ to ?is s*ool ( ?9k]s ! b5efit ( ?is m rational /atem5t ( _! fundam5tal maxim1 :i* is also 9 /rict con=mity to ! explanations :i*1 :5 consid]$ to be call$ =1 h be5 giv5 by !mselves4 ,! !ory goes on to inf]1 q correctly1 t if ! actions ( mank9d are det]m9$ 9 ! ma9 by _! selfi% int]e/s1 ! only rul]s :o w gov]n accord+ to ! int]e/ ( ! gov]n$1 are ^? ^: selfi% int]e/s are 9 accordance ) x4 ,& to ?is is add$ a ?ird proposition1 namely1 t no rul]s h _! selfi% int]e/ id5tical ) t ( ! gov]n$1 unless x be r5d]$ s by acc\ntability1 t is1 by dep5d5ce on ! w ( ! gov]n$4 ,9 o!r words 7& z ! result ( ! :ole71 t ! desire ( reta9+ or ! fe> ( los+ _! p[]1 & :atev] is !reon consequ5t1 is ! sole motive :i* c be reli$ on = produc+ on ! "p ( rul]s a c\rse ( conduct 9 accordance ) ! g5]al int]e/4 ,we h ?us a fundam5tal !orem ( political sci5ce1 consi/+ ( ?ree syllogisms1 & dep5d+ *iefly on two g5]al premises1 9 ea* ( :i* a c]ta9 effect is consid]$ z det]m9$ only by "o cause1 n by a concurr5ce ( causes4 ,9 ! "o1 x is assum$ t ! actions ( av]age rul]s are det]m9$ solely by self-int]e/2 9 ! o!r1 t ! s5se ( id5tity ( int]e/ ) ! gov]n$1 is produc$ & producible by no o!r cause ?an responsibility4 ,nei!r ( ^! propositions is by any means true2 ! la/ is extremely wide ( ! tru?4 ,x is n true t ! actions ev5 ( av]age rul]s are :olly1 or any ?+ approa*+ to :olly1 det]m9$ by _! p]sonal int]e/1 or ev5 by _! own op9ion ( _! p]sonal int]e/4 ,i d n speak ( ! influ5ce ( a s5se ( duty1 or feel+s ( philan?ropy1 motives nev] to be ma9ly reli$ on1 ?\gh 7except 9 c\ntries or dur+ p]iods ( great moral debasem5t7 !y influ5ce almo/ all rul]s 9 "s degree1 & "s rul]s 9 a v great degree4 ,b ,i insi/ only on :at is true ( all rul]s1 viz41 t ! "* & c\rse ( _! actions is l>gely influ5c$ 7indep5d5tly ( p]sonal calculation7 by ! habitual s5tim5ts & feel+s1 ! g5]al modes ( ?9k+ & act+1 :i* prevail ?r\gh\t ! community ( :i* !y are memb]s2 z well z by ! feel+s1 habits1 & modes ( ?\ght :i* *>act]ize ! p>ticul> class 9 t community to :i* !y !mselves belong4 ,& no "o w und]/& or be able to deciph] _! sy/em ( conduct1 :o does n take all ^! ?+s into acc\nt4 ,!y are also mu* influ5c$ by ! maxims & traditions :i* h desc5d$ to !m f o!r rul]s1 _! pr$ecessors2 :i* maxims & traditions h be5 kn[n to reta9 an asc5dancy dur+ long p]iods1 ev5 9 opposition to ! private int]e/s ( ! rul]s = ! "t be+4 ,i put aside ! influ5ce ( o!r less g5]al causes4 ,al?\gh1 !re=e1 ! private int]e/ ( ! rul]s or ( ! rul+ class is a v p[]ful =ce1 con/antly 9 action1 & ex]cis+ ! mo/ important influ5ce ^u _! conduct1 !re is also1 9 :at !y d1 a l>ge portion :i* t private int]e/ by no means af=ds a suffici5t explanation (2 & ev5 ! p>ticul>s :i* con/itute ! goodness or badness ( _! gov]nm5t1 are 9 "s1 & no small degree1 influ5c$ by ^? among ! circum/ances act+ ^u !m1 :i* c n1 ) any propriety1 be includ$ 9 ! t]m self-int]e/4 ,turn+ n[ to ! o!r proposition1 t responsibility to ! gov]n$ is ! only cause capable ( produc+ 9 ! rul]s a s5se ( id5tity ( int]e/ ) ! community1 ?is is /ill less admissible z a univ]sal tru?1 ?an ev5 ! =m]4 ,i am n speak+ ( p]fect id5tity ( int]e/1 :i* is an impracticable *im]a2 :i*1 mo/ assur$ly1 responsibility to ! p does n give4 ,i speak ( id5tity 9 ess5tials2 & ! ess5tials are diff]5t at diff]5t places & times4 ,!re are a l>ge numb] ( cases 9 :i* ^? ?+s :i* x is mo/ = ! g5]al int]e/ t ! rul]s %\ld d1 are also ^? :i* !y are prompt$ to d by _! /ronge/ p]sonal int]e/1 ! consolidation ( _! p[]4 ,! suppression1 = in/ance1 ( an>*y & resi/ance to law--! complete e/abli%m5t ( ! au?ority ( ! c5tral gov]nm5t1 9 a /ate ( society l t ( ,europe 9 ! ,middle ,ages--is "o ( ! /ronge/ int]e/s ( ! p1 & also ( ! rul]s simply because !y are ! rul]s2 & responsibility on _! "p c\ld n /r5g!n1 ?\gh 9 _m conceivable ways x might weak51 ! motives prompt+ !m to pursue ?is object4 ,dur+ ! great] "p1 ( ! reign ( ,que5 ,elizabe?1 & ( _m o!r mon>*s :o might be nam$1 ! s5se ( id5tity ( int]e/ betwe5 ! sov]eign & ! majority ( ! p 0 probably /rong] ?an x usually is 9 responsible gov]nm5ts2 e ?+ t ! p _h mo/ at he>t1 ! mon>* _h at he>t too4 ,_h ,pet] ! ,great1 or ! rugg$ savages :om he began to civilize1 ! true/ incl9ation t[>d ! ?+s :i* 7 = ! real int]e/ ( ^? savages8 ,i am n "h attempt+ to e/abli% a !ory ( gov]nm5t1 & am n call$ ^u to det]m9e ! proportional weight :i* ought to be giv5 to ! circum/ances :i* ?is s*ool ( geometrical politicians left out ( _! sy/em1 & ^? :i* !y took into x4 ,i am only conc]n$ to %[ t _! me?od 0 unsci5tific2 n to measure ! am\nt ( error :i* may h affect$ _! practical conclusions4 ,x is b ju/ice to !m1 h[ev]1 to rem>k1 t _! mi/ake 0 n s mu* "o ( sub/ance z ( =m1 & consi/$ 9 pres5t+ 9 a sy/ematic %ape1 & z ! sci5tific treatm5t ( a great philosophical "q1 :at %\ld h pass$ = t :i* x really 01 ! m]e polemics ( ! day4 ,al?\gh ! actions ( rul]s are by no means :olly det]m9$ by _! selfi% int]e/s1 x is *iefly z a security aga9/ ^? selfi% int]e/s t con/itutional *ecks are requir$2 & = t purpose su* *ecks1 9 ,engl&1 & ! o!r nations ( mod]n ,europe1 c 9 no mann] be disp5s$ )4 ,x is likewise true1 t 9 ^! same nations1 & 9 ! pres5t age1 responsibility to ! gov]n$ is ! only means practically available to create a feel+ ( id5tity ( int]e/1 9 ! cases1 & on ! po9ts1 :]e t feel+ does n suffici5tly exi/4 ,to all ?is1 & to ! argum5ts :i* may be f\nd$ on x 9 favor ( measures = ! correction ( our repres5tative sy/em1 ,i h no?+ to object2 b ,i confess my regret1 t ! small ?\gh highly important portion ( ! philosophy ( gov]nm5t1 :i* 0 want$ = ! imm$iate purpose ( s]v+ ! cause ( p>liam5t>y re=m1 %\ld h be5 held =? by ?9k]s ( su* em95ce z a complete !ory4 ,x is n to be imag9$ possible1 nor is x true 9 po9t ( fact1 t ^! philosoph]s reg>d$ ! few premises ( _! !ory z includ+ all t is requir$ = expla9+ social ph5om5a1 or = det]m9+ ! *oice ( =ms ( gov]nm5t & measures ( legislation & adm9i/ration4 ,!y 7 too highly in/ruct$1 ( too compreh5sive intellect1 & "s ( !m ( too sob] & practical a "*1 = su* an error4 ,!y w\ld h appli$1 & did apply1 _! pr9ciples ) innum]able all[ances4 ,b x is n all[ances t are want$4 ,!re is little *ance ( mak+ due am5ds 9 ! sup]/ructure ( a !ory = ! want ( suffici5t bread? 9 its f\ndations4 ,x is unphilosophical to con/ruct a sci5ce out ( a few ( ! ag5cies by :i* ! ph5om5a are det]m9$1 & leave ! re/ to ! r\t9e ( practice or ! sagacity ( conjecture4 ,we ei!r ought n to pret5d to sci5tific =ms1 or we ought to /udy all ! det]m9+ ag5cies equally1 & endeavor1 s f> z x c be done1 to include all ( !m )9 ! pale ( ! sci5ce2 else we %all infallibly be/[ a disproportionate att5tion ^u ^? :i* our !ory takes into acc\nt1 :ile we mise/imate ! re/1 & probably und]rate _! importance4 ,t ! d$uctions %\ld be f ! :ole & n f a "p only ( ! laws ( nature t are conc]n$1 w\ld be desirable ev5 if ^? omitt$ 7 s insignificant 9 comp>ison ) ! o!rs1 t !y might1 = mo/ purposes & on mo/ occasions1 be left out ( ! acc\nt4 ,b ?is is f> inde$ f be+ true 9 ! social sci5ce4 ,! ph5om5a ( society d n dep5d1 9 ess5tials1 on "s "o ag5cy or law ( human nature1 ) only inconsid]able modifications f o!rs4 ,! :ole ( ! qualities ( human nature influ5ce ^? ph5om5a1 & !re is n "o :i* influ5ces !m 9 a small degree4 ,!re is n "o1 ! removal or any great alt]ation ( :i* w\ld n mat]ially affect ! :ole aspect ( society1 & *ange m or less ! sequ5ces ( social ph5om5a g5]ally4 ,! !ory :i* has be5 ! subject ( ^! rem>ks is1 9 ?is c\ntry at lea/1 ! pr9cipal contempor>y example ( :at ,i h /yl$ ! geometrical me?od ( philosophiz+ 9 ! social sci5ce2 & our exam9ation ( x has1 = ?is reason1 be5 m detail$ ?an w\ld o!rwise h be5 suitable to a "w l ! pres5t4 ,hav+ n[ suffici5tly illu/rat$ ! two errone\s me?ods1 we %all pass )\t fur!r prelim9>y to ! true me?od2 t :i* proce$s 7con=mably to ! practice ( ! m complex physical sci5ces7 d$uctively inde$1 b by d$uction f _m1 n f "o or a v few1 orig9al premises2 consid]+ ea* effect z 7:at x really is7 an aggregate result ( _m causes1 op]at+ sometimes ?r\gh ! same1 sometimes ?r\gh diff]5t m5tal ag5cies1 or laws ( human nature4 ,*apt] ,,ix4 ,( ,! ,physical1 ,or ,concrete ,d$uctive1 ,me?od4 #a4 ,aft] :at has be5 said to illu/rate ! nature ( ! inquiry into social ph5om5a1 ! g5]al "* ( ! me?od prop] to t inquiry is suffici5tly evid5t1 & ne$s only to be recapitulat$1 n prov$4 ,h[ev] complex ! ph5om5a1 all _! sequ5ces & co-exi/5ces result f ! laws ( ! sep>ate elem5ts4 ,! effect produc$1 9 social ph5om5a1 by any complex set ( circum/ances1 am\nts precisely to ! sum ( ! effects ( ! circum/ances tak5 s+ly2 & ! complexity does n arise f ! numb] ( ! laws !mselves1 :i* is n rem>kably great1 b f ! extraord9>y numb] & v>iety ( ! data or elem5ts--( ! ag5ts :i*1 9 ob$i5ce to t small numb] ( laws1 co-op]ate t[>d ! effect4 ,! ,social ,sci5ce1 !re=e 7:i*1 by a conv5i5t b>b>ism1 has be5 t]m$ ,sociology71 is a d$uctive sci5ce2 n1 inde$1 aft] ! model ( geometry1 b aft] t ( ! m complex physical sci5ces4 ,x inf]s ! law ( ea* effect f ! laws ( causation on :i* t effect dep5ds2 n1 h[ev]1 f ! law m]ely ( "o cause1 z 9 ! geometrical me?od1 b by consid]+ all ! causes :i* conjunctly influ5ce ! effect1 & comp\nd+ _! laws ) "o ano!r4 ,its me?od1 9 %ort1 is ! ,concrete ,d$uctive ,me?od3 t ( :i* a/ronomy furni%es ! mo/ p]fect1 natural philosophy a some:at less p]fect1 example1 & ! employm5t ( :i*1 ) ! adaptations & precautions requir$ by ! subject1 is beg9n+ to reg5]ate physiology4 ,nor does x admit ( d\bt1 t simil> adaptations & precautions are indisp5sable 9 sociology4 ,9 apply+ to t mo/ complex ( all /udies :at is demon/rably ! sole me?od capable ( ?r[+ ! light ( sci5ce ev5 ^u ph5om5a ( a f> inf]ior degree ( complication1 we ought to be aw>e t ! same sup]ior complexity :i* r5d]s ! in/rum5t ( ,d$uction m necess>y1 r5d]s x also m prec>i\s2 & we mu/ be prep>$ to meet1 by appropriate contrivances1 ?is increase ( difficulty4 ,! actions & feel+s ( human be+s 9 ! social /ate1 are1 no d\bt1 entirely gov]n$ by psy*ological & e?ological laws3 :atev] influ5ce any cause ex]cises ^u ! social ph5om5a1 x ex]cises ?r\gh ^? laws4 ,suppos+ !re=e ! laws ( human actions & feel+s to be suffici5tly kn[n1 !re is no extraord9>y difficulty 9 det]m9+ f ^? laws1 ! nature ( ! social effects :i* any giv5 cause t5ds to produce4 ,b :5 ! "q is t ( comp\nd+ sev]al t5d5cies toge!r1 & comput+ ! aggregate result ( _m co-exi/5t causes2 & especially :51 by attempt+ to pr$ict :at w actually occur 9 a giv5 case1 we incur ! obligation ( e/imat+ & comp\nd+ ! influ5ces ( all ! causes :i* happ5 to exi/ 9 t case1 we attempt a task to proce$ f> 9 :i*1 surpasses ! compass ( ! human faculties4 ,if all ! res\rces ( sci5ce are n suffici5t to enable u to calculate1 a priori1 ) complete precision1 ! mutual action ( ?ree bodies gravitat+ t[>d "o ano!r1 x may be judg$ ) :at prospect ( success we %\ld endeavor to calculate ! result ( ! conflict+ t5d5cies :i* are act+ 9 a ?\s& diff]5t directions & promot+ a ?\s& diff]5t *anges at a giv5 in/ant 9 a giv5 society2 al?\gh we might & ought to be able1 f ! laws ( human nature1 to di/+ui% correctly en\gh ! t5d5cies !mselves1 s f> z !y dep5d on causes accessible to our obs]vation2 & to det]m9e ! direction :i* ea* ( !m1 if act+ alone1 w\ld impress ^u society1 z well z1 9 a g5]al way at lea/1 to pron\nce t "s ( ^! t5d5cies are m p[]ful ?an o!rs4 ,b1 )\t dissembl+ ! necess>y imp]fections ( ! a priori me?od :5 appli$ to su* a subject1 nei!r ought we1 on ! o!r h&2 to exagg]ate !m4 ,! same objections :i* apply to ! ,me?od ( ,d$uction 9 ?is its mo/ difficult employm5t1 apply to x1 z we =m]ly %[$17#bgf7 9 its easie/2 & w\ld ev5 !re h be5 insup]able1 if !re _h n exi/$1 z 0 !n fully expla9$1 an appropriate rem$y4 ,?is rem$y consi/s 9 ! process :i*1 "u ! "n ( ,v]ification1 we h *>act]iz$ z ! ?ird ess5tial con/itu5t "p ( ! ,d$uctive ,me?od2 t ( collat+ ! conclusions ( ! ratioc9ation ei!r ) ! concrete ph5om5a !mselves1 or1 :5 su* are obta9able1 ) _! empirical laws4 ,! gr\nd ( confid5ce 9 any concrete d$uctive sci5ce is n ! a priori reason+ itself1 b ! accordance betwe5 its results & ^? ( obs]vation a po/]iori4 ,ei!r ( ^! processes1 ap>t f ! o!r1 dim9i%es 9 value z ! subject increases 9 complication1 & ?is is 9 s rapid a ratio z soon to become entirely wor?less2 b ! reliance to be plac$ 9 ! concurr5ce ( ! two sorts ( evid5ce1 n only does n dim9i% 9 any ?+ l ! same proportion1 b is n necess>ily mu* dim9i%$ at all4 ,no?+ m results ?an a di/urbance 9 ! ord] ( prec$5cy ( ! two processes1 sometimes am\nt+ to its actual inv]sion3 insomu* t in/ead ( d$uc+ our conclusions by reason+1 & v]ify+ !m by obs]vation1 we 9 "s cases beg9 by obta9+ !m provisionally f specific exp]i5ce1 & aft]w>d connect !m ) ! pr9ciples ( human nature by a priori reason+s1 :i* reason+s are ?us a real ,v]ification4 ,! only ?9k] :o1 ) a compet5t k ( sci5tific me?ods 9 g5]al1 has attempt$ to *>act]ize ! ,me?od ( ,sociology1 ,m4 ,comte1 consid]s ?is inv]se ord] z insep>ably inh]5t 9 ! nature ( sociological speculation4 ,he looks ^u ! social sci5ce z ess5tially consi/+ ( g5]alizations f hi/ory1 v]ifi$1 n orig9ally sugge/$1 by d$uction f ! laws ( human nature4 ,?\gh !re is a tru? conta9$ 9 ?is op9ion1 ( :i* ,i %all pres5tly endeavor to %[ ! importance1 ,i c n b ?9k t ?is tru? is enunciat$ 9 too unlimit$ a mann]1 & t !re is consid]able scope 9 sociological inquiry = ! direct1 z well z = ! inv]se1 ,d$uctive ,me?od4 ,x w1 9 fact1 be %[n 9 ! next *apt]1 t !re is a k9d ( sociological inquiries to :i*1 f _! prodigi\s complication1 ! me?od ( direct d$uction is altoge!r inapplicable1 :ile by a happy comp5sation x is precisely 9 ^! cases t we are able to obta9 ! be/ empirical laws3 to ^! inquiries1 !re=e1 ! ,inv]se ,me?od is exclusively adapt$4 ,b !re are also1 z w pres5tly appe>1 o!r cases 9 :i* x is impossible to obta9 f direct obs]vation any ?+ wor?y ! "n ( an empirical law2 & x =tunately happ5s t ^! are ! v cases 9 :i* ! ,direct ,me?od is lea/ affect$ by ! objection :i* und\bt$ly mu/ always affect x 9 a c]ta9 degree4 ,we %all beg91 !n1 by look+ at ! ,social ,sci5ce z a sci5ce ( direct ,d$uction1 & consid]+ :at c be accompli%$ 9 x1 & "u :at limitations1 by t mode ( inve/igation4 ,we %all1 !n1 9 a sep>ate *apt]1 exam9e & endeavor to *>act]ize ! inv]se process4 #b4 ,x is evid5t1 9 ! fir/ place1 t ,sociology1 consid]$ z a sy/em ( d$uctions a priori1 c n be a sci5ce ( positive pr$ictions1 b only ( t5d5cies4 ,we may be able to conclude1 f ! laws ( human nature appli$ to ! circum/ances ( a giv5 /ate ( society1 t a p>ticul> cause w op]ate 9 a c]ta9 mann] unless c\nt]act$2 b we c nev] be assur$ to :at ext5t or am\nt x w s op]ate1 or affirm ) c]ta9ty t x w n be c\nt]act$2 because we c seldom "k1 ev5 approximately1 all ! ag5cies :i* may co-exi/ ) x1 & /ill less calculate ! 8collective result0 ( s _m comb9$ elem5ts4 ,! rem>k1 h[ev]1 mu/ "h be once m repeat$1 t k insuffici5t = pr$iction may be mo/ valuable = guidance4 ,x is n necess>y = ! wise conduct ( ! affairs ( society1 no m ?an ( any "o's private conc]ns1 t we %\ld be able to =esee infallibly ! results ( :at we d4 ,we mu/ seek our objects by means :i* may p]haps be defeat$1 & take precautions aga9/ dang]s :i* possibly may nev] be realiz$4 ,! aim ( practical politics is to surr\nd any giv5 society ) ! greate/ possible numb] ( circum/ances ( :i* ! t5d5cies are b5eficial1 & to remove or c\nt]act1 z f> z practicable1 ^? ( :i* ! t5d5cies are injuri\s4 ,a k ( ! t5d5cies only1 ?\gh )\t ! p[] ( accurately pr$ict+ _! conjunct result1 gives u to a consid]able ext5t ?is p[]4 ,x w\ld1 h[ev]1 be an error to suppose t ev5 ) respect to t5d5cies we c\ld arrive 9 ?is mann] at any great numb] ( propositions :i* w be true 9 all societies )\t exception4 ,su* a supposition w\ld be inconsi/5t ) ! em95tly modifiable nature ( ! social ph5om5a1 & ! multitude & v>iety ( ! circum/ances by :i* !y are modifi$--circum/ances nev] ! same1 or ev5 ne>ly ! same1 9 two diff]5t societies1 or 9 two diff]5t p]iods ( ! same society4 ,?is w\ld n be s s]i\s an ob/acle if1 ?\gh ! causes act+ ^u society 9 g5]al are num]\s1 ^? :i* influ5ce any "o feature ( society 7 limit$ 9 numb]2 = we might !n insulate any p>ticul> social ph5om5on1 & inve/igate its laws )\t di/urbance f ! re/4 ,b ! tru? is ! v opposite ( ?is4 ,:atev] affects1 9 an appreciable degree1 any "o elem5t ( ! social /ate1 affects ?r\gh x all ! o!r elem5ts4 ,! mode ( production ( all social ph5om5a is "o great case ( ,int]mixture ( ,laws4 ,we c nev] ei!r und]/& 9 !ory or comm& 9 practice ! condition ( a society 9 any "o respect1 )\t tak+ into consid]ation its condition 9 all o!r respects4 ,!re is no social ph5om5on :i* is n m or less influ5c$ by e o!r "p ( ! condition ( ! same society1 & !re=e by e cause :i* is influ5c+ any o!r ( ! contemporane\s social ph5om5a4 ,!re is1 9 %ort1 :at physiologi/s t]m a cons5sus1 simil> to t exi/+ among ! v>i\s organs & functions ( ! physical frame ( man & ! m p]fect animals2 & con/itut+ "o ( ! _m analogies :i* h r5d]$ univ]sal su* expressions z ! 8body politic0 & 8body natural40 ,x foll[s f ?is cons5sus1 t unless two societies c\ld be alike 9 all ! circum/ances :i* surr\nd & influ5ce !m 7:i* w\ld imply _! be+ alike 9 _! previ\s hi/ory71 no portion :atev] ( ! ph5om5a w1 unless by accid5t1 precisely correspond2 no "o cause w produce exactly ! same effects 9 bo?4 ,e cause1 z its effect spreads ?r\gh society1 comes some:]e 9 contact ) diff]5t sets ( ag5cies1 & ?us has its effects on "s ( ! social ph5om5a diff]5tly modifi$2 & ^! diff]5ces1 by _! reaction1 produce a diff]5ce ev5 9 ^? ( ! effects :i* w\ld o!rwise h be5 ! same4 ,we c nev]1 !re=e1 affirm ) c]ta9ty t a cause :i* has a p>ticul> t5d5cy 9 "o p or 9 "o age w h exactly ! same t5d5cy 9 ano!r1 )\t ref]r+ back to our premises1 & p]=m+ ov] aga9 = ! second age or nation1 t analysis ( ! :ole ( its influ5c+ circum/ances :i* we _h already p]=m$ = ! fir/4 ,! d$uctive sci5ce ( society w n lay d[n a !orem1 ass]t+ 9 a univ]sal mann] ! effect ( any cause2 b w r tea* u h[ to frame ! prop] !orem = ! circum/ances ( any giv5 case4 ,x w n give ! laws ( society 9 g5]al1 b ! means ( det]m9+ ! ph5om5a ( any giv5 society f ! p>ticul> elem5ts or data ( t society4 ,all ! g5]al propositions :i* c be fram$ by ! d$uctive sci5ce1 are !re=e1 9 ! /ricte/ s5se ( ! ^w1 hypo!tical4 ,!y are gr\nd$ on "s suppositi\s set ( circum/ances1 & decl>e h[ "s giv5 cause w\ld op]ate 9 ^? circum/ances1 suppos+ t no o!rs 7 comb9$ ) !m4 ,if ! set ( circum/ances suppos$ h be5 copi$ f ^? ( any exi/+ society1 ! conclusions w be true ( t society1 provid$1 & 9 z f> z1 ! effect ( ^? circum/ances %all n be modifi$ by o!rs :i* h n be5 tak5 into ! acc\nt4 ,if we desire a ne>] approa* to concrete tru?1 we c only aim at x by tak+1 or endeavor+ to take1 a great] numb] ( individualiz+ circum/ances into ! computation4 ,consid]+1 h[ev]1 9 h[ accel]at+ a ratio ! unc]ta9ty ( our conclusions increases z we attempt to take ! effect ( a great] numb] ( concurr5t causes into our calculations1 ! hypo!tical comb9ations ( circum/ances on :i* we con/ruct ! g5]al !orems ( ! sci5ce1 c n be made v complex1 )\t s rapidly accumulat+ a liability to error z mu/ soon deprive our conclusions ( all value4 ,?is mode ( inquiry1 consid]$ z a means ( obta9+ g5]al propositions1 mu/1 !re=e1 on pa9 ( frivolity1 be limit$ to ^? classes ( social facts :i*1 ?\gh influ5c$ l ! re/ by all sociological ag5ts1 are "u ! imm$iate influ5ce1 pr9cipally at lea/1 ( a few only4 #c4 ,not)/&+ ! univ]sal cons5sus ( ! social ph5om5a1 :]eby no?+ :i* takes place 9 any "p ( ! op]ations ( society is )\t its %>e ( influ5ce on e o!r "p2 & not)/&+ ! p>am\nt asc5dancy :i* ! g5]al /ate ( civilization & social progress 9 any giv5 society mu/ h5ce ex]cise ov] all ! p>tial & subord9ate ph5om5a2 x is n ! less true t diff]5t species ( social facts are 9 ! ma9 dep5d5t1 imm$iately & 9 ! fir/ resort1 on diff]5t k9ds ( causes2 & !re=e n only may ) advantage1 b mu/1 be /udi$ ap>t3 j z 9 ! natural body we /udy sep>ately ! physiology & pa?ology ( ea* ( ! pr9cipal organs & tissues1 ?\gh e "o is act$ ^u by ! /ate ( all ! o!rs2 & ?\gh ! peculi> con/itution & g5]al /ate ( heal? ( ! organism co-op]ates )1 & (t5 prepond]ates ov]1 ! local causes1 9 det]m9+ ! /ate ( any p>ticul> organ4 ,on ^! consid]ations is gr\nd$ ! exi/5ce ( di/9ct & sep>ate1 ?\gh n indep5d5t1 bran*es or dep>tm5ts ( sociological speculation4 ,!re is1 = example1 "o l>ge class ( social ph5om5a 9 :i* ! imm$iately det]m9+ causes are pr9cipally ^? :i* act ?r\gh ! desire ( weal?1 & 9 :i* ! psy*ological law ma9ly conc]n$ is ! famili> "o1 t a great] ga9 is pref]r$ to a small]4 ,i mean1 ( c\rse1 t portion ( ! ph5om5a ( society :i* emanate f ! indu/rial1 or productive1 op]ations ( mank9d2 & f ^? ( _! acts ?r\gh :i* ! di/ribution ( ! products ( ^? indu/rial op]ations takes place1 9 s f> z n effect$ by =ce1 or modifi$ by volunt>y gift4 ,by reason+ f t "o law ( human nature1 & f ! pr9cipal outw>d circum/ances 7:e!r univ]sal or conf9$ to p>ticul> /ates ( society7 :i* op]ate ^u ! human m9d ?r\gh t law1 we may be enabl$ to expla9 & pr$ict ?is portion ( ! ph5om5a ( society1 s f> z !y dep5d on t class ( circum/ances only2 ov]look+ ! influ5ce ( any o!r ( ! circum/ances ( society2 & !re=e nei!r trac+ back ! circum/ances :i* we d take into acc\nt1 to _! possible orig9 9 "s o!r facts 9 ! social /ate1 nor mak+ all[ance = ! mann] 9 :i* any ( ^? o!r circum/ances may int]f]e )1 & c\nt]act or modify1 ! effect ( ! =m]4 ,a dep>tm5t ( sci5ce may ?us be con/ruct$1 :i* has receiv$ ! "n ( ,political ,economy4 ,! motive :i* sugge/s ! sep>ation ( ?is portion ( ! social ph5om5a f ! re/1 & ! creation ( a di/9ct bran* ( sci5ce relat+ to !m is--t !y d ma9ly dep5d1 at lea/ 9 ! fir/ resort1 on "o class ( circum/ances only2 & t ev5 :5 o!r circum/ances int]f]e1 ! asc]ta9m5t ( ! effect due to ! "o class ( circum/ances alone1 is a suffici5tly intricate & difficult bus9ess to make x exp$i5t to p]=m x once = all1 & !n all[ = ! effect ( ! modify+ circum/ances2 especially z c]ta9 fix$ comb9ations ( ! =m] are apt to recur (t51 9 conjunction ) ev]-v>y+ circum/ances ( ! latt] class4 ,political ,economy1 z ,i h said on ano!r occasion1 conc]ns itself only ) 8su* ( ! ph5om5a ( ! social /ate z take place 9 consequ5ce ( ! pursuit ( weal?4 ,x makes entire ab/raction ( e o!r human passion or motive2 except ^? :i* may be reg>d$ z p]petually antagoniz+ pr9ciples to ! desire ( weal?1 namely1 av]sion to labor1 & desire ( ! pres5t enjoym5t ( co/ly indulg5ces4 ,^! x takes1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 into its calculations1 because ^! d n m]ely1 l our o!r desires1 occasionally conflict ) ! pursuit ( weal?1 b accompany x always z a drag or imp$im5t1 & are !re=e insep>ably mix$ up 9 ! consid]ation ( x4 ,political ,economy consid]s mank9d z occupi$ solely 9 acquir+ & consum+ weal?2 & aims at %[+ :at is ! c\rse ( action into :i* mank9d1 liv+ 9 a /ate ( society1 w\ld be impell$1 if t motive1 except 9 ! degree 9 :i* x is *eck$ by ! two p]petual c\nt]-motives above adv]t$ to1 7 absolute rul] ( all _! actions4 ,"u ! influ5ce ( ?is desire1 x %[s mank9d accumulat+ weal?1 & employ+ t weal? 9 ! production ( o!r weal?2 sanction+ by mutual agreem5t ! in/itution ( prop]ty2 e/abli%+ laws to prev5t individuals f encroa*+ ^u ! prop]ty ( o!rs by =ce or fraud2 adopt+ v>i\s contrivances = increas+ ! productiv5ess ( _! labor2 settl+ ! division ( ! produce by agreem5t1 "u ! influ5ce ( competition 7competition itself be+ gov]n$ by c]ta9 laws1 :i* laws are !re=e ! ultimate regulators ( ! division ( ! produce72 & employ+ c]ta9 exp$i5ts 7z money1 cr$it1 etc47 to facilitate ! di/ribution4 ,all ^! op]ations1 ?\gh _m ( !m are really ! result ( a plurality ( motives1 are consid]$ by political economy z fl[+ solely f ! desire ( weal?4 ,! sci5ce !n proce$s to inve/igate ! laws :i* gov]n ^! sev]al op]ations1 "u ! supposition t man is a be+ :o is det]m9$1 by ! necessity ( 8 nature1 to pref] a great] portion ( weal? to a small]1 9 all cases1 )\t any o!r exception ?an t con/itut$ by ! two c\nt]-motives already specifi$4 ,n t any political economi/ 0 ev] s absurd z to suppose t mank9d are really ?us con/itut$1 b because ?is is ! mode 9 :i* sci5ce mu/ necess>ily proce$4 ,:5 an effect dep5ds on a concurr5ce ( causes1 ^! causes mu/ be /udi$ "o at a "t1 & _! laws sep>ately inve/igat$1 if we wi%1 ?r\gh ! causes1 to obta9 ! p[] ( ei!r pr$ict+ or controll+ ! effect2 s9ce ! law ( ! effect is comp\nd$ ( ! laws ( all ! causes :i* det]m9e x4 ,! law ( ! c5tripetal & t ( ! projectile =ce mu/ h be5 kn[n1 be=e ! motions ( ! e>? & planets c\ld be expla9$1 or _m ( !m pr$ict$4 ,! same is ! case ) ! conduct ( man 9 society4 ,9 ord] to judge h[ he w act "u ! v>iety ( desires & av]sions :i* are concurr5tly op]at+ ^u him1 we mu/ "k h[ he w\ld act "u ! exclusive influ5ce ( ea* "o 9 p>ticul>4 ,!re is1 p]haps1 no action ( a man's life 9 :i* he is nei!r "u ! imm$iate nor "u ! remote influ5ce ( any impulse b ! m]e desire ( weal?4 ,) respect to ^? p>ts ( human conduct ( :i* weal? is n ev5 ! pr9cipal object1 to ^! political economy does n pret5d t its conclusions are applicable4 ,b !re are also c]ta9 dep>tm5ts ( human affairs1 9 :i* ! acquisition ( weal? is ! ma9 & ackn[l$g$ end4 ,x is only ( ^! t political economy takes notice4 ,! mann] 9 :i* x necess>ily proce$s is t ( treat+ ! ma9 & ackn[l$g$ end z if x 7 ! sole end2 :i*1 ( all hypo!ses equally simple1 is ! ne>e/ to ! tru?4 ,! political economi/ inquires1 :at are ! actions :i* w\ld be produc$ by ?is desire1 if )9 ! dep>tm5ts 9 "q x 7 unimp$$ by any o!r4 ,9 ?is way a ne>] approximation is obta9$ ?an w\ld o!rwise be practicable to ! real ord] ( human affairs 9 ^? dep>tm5ts4 ,?is approximation has !n to be correct$ by mak+ prop] all[ance = ! effects ( any impulses ( a diff]5t description1 :i* c be %[n to int]f]e ) ! result 9 any p>ticul> case4 ,only 9 a few ( ! mo/ /rik+ cases 7su* z ! important "o ( ! pr9ciple ( population7 are ^! corrections int]polat$ into ! expositions ( political economy itself2 ! /rictness ( purely sci5tific arrangem5t be+ !reby some:at dep>t$ f1 = ! sake ( practical utility4 ,s f> z x is kn[n1 or may be presum$1 t ! conduct ( mank9d 9 ! pursuit ( weal? is "u ! collat]al influ5ce ( any o!r ( ! prop]ties ( our nature ?an ! desire ( obta9+ ! greate/ quantity ( weal? ) ! lea/ labor & self-d5ial1 ! conclusions ( political economy w s f> fail ( be+ applicable to ! explanation or pr$iction ( real ev5ts1 until !y are modifi$ by a correct all[ance = ! degree ( influ5ce ex]cis$ by ! o!r cause407#bgg7 ,ext5sive & important practical guidance may be d]iv$1 9 any giv5 /ate ( society1 f g5]al propositions su* z ^? above indicat$2 ev5 ?\gh ! modify+ influ5ce ( ! miscellane\s causes :i* ! !ory does n take into acc\nt1 z well z ! effect ( ! g5]al social *anges 9 progress1 be provisionally ov]look$4 ,& ?\gh x has be5 a v common error ( political economi/s to draw conclusions f ! elem5ts ( "o /ate ( society1 & apply !m to o!r /ates 9 :i* _m ( ! elem5ts are n ! same1 x is ev5 !n n difficult1 by trac+ back ! demon/rations1 & introduc+ ! new premises 9 _! prop] places1 to make ! same g5]al c\rse ( argum5t :i* s]v$ = ! "o case1 s]ve = ! o!rs too4 ,= example1 x has be5 greatly ! cu/om ( ,engli% political economi/s to discuss ! laws ( ! di/ribution ( ! produce ( indu/ry1 on a supposition :i* is sc>cely realiz$ any:]e out ( ,engl& & ,scotl&1 namely1 t ! produce is 8%>$ among ?ree classes1 altoge!r di/9ct f "o ano!r1 labor]s1 capitali/s1 & l&lords2 & t all ^! are free ag5ts1 p]mitt$ 9 law & 9 fact to set ^u _! labor1 _! capital1 & _! l&1 :atev] price !y are able to get = x4 ,! conclusions ( ! sci5ce1 be+ all adapt$ to a society ?us con/itut$1 require to be revis$ :5ev] !y are appli$ to any o!r4 ,!y are inapplicable :]e ! only capitali/s are ! l&lords1 & ! labor]s are _! prop]ty1 z 9 slave c\ntries4 ,!y are inapplicable :]e ! almo/ univ]sal l&lord is ! /ate1 z 9 ,india4 ,!y are inapplicable :]e ! agricultural labor] is g5]ally ! own] bo? ( ! l& itself & ( ! capital1 z frequ5tly 9 ,france1 or ( ! capital only1 z 9 ,irel&40 ,b ?\gh x may (t5 be v ju/ly object$ to ! exi/+ race ( political economi/s 8t !y attempt to con/ruct a p]man5t fabric out ( transitory mat]ials2 t !y take = grant$ ! immutability ( arrangem5ts ( society1 _m ( :i* are 9 _! nature fluctuat+ or progressive1 & enunciate ) z little qualification z if !y 7 univ]sal & absolute tru?s1 propositions :i* are p]haps applicable to no /ate ( society except ! p>ticul> "o 9 :i* ! writ] happ5$ to live20 ?is does n take away ! value ( ! propositions1 consid]$ ) ref]5ce to ! /ate ( society f :i* !y 7 drawn4 ,& ev5 z applicable to o!r /ates ( society1 8x mu/ n be suppos$ t ! sci5ce is s incomplete & unsatisfactory z ?is might seem to prove4 ,?\gh _m ( its conclusions are only locally true1 its me?od ( inve/igation is applicable univ]sally2 & z :oev] has solv$ a c]ta9 numb] ( algebraic equations1 c )\t difficulty solve all o!rs ( ! same k9d1 s :oev] kn[s ! political economy ( ,engl&1 or ev5 ( ,york%ire1 kn[s t ( all nations1 actual or possible1 provid$ he h good s5se en\gh n to expect ! same conclusion to issue f v>y+ premises40 ,:oev] has ma/]$ ) ! degree ( precision :i* is atta9able ! laws :i*1 "u free competition1 det]m9e ! r5t1 pr(its1 & wages1 receiv$ by l&lords1 capitali/s1 & labor]s1 9 a /ate ( society 9 :i* ! ?ree classes are completely sep>ate1 w h no difficulty 9 det]m9+ ! v diff]5t laws :i* regulate ! di/ribution ( ! produce among ! classes int]e/$ 9 x 9 any ( ! /ates ( cultivation & l&$ prop]ty set =? 9 ! =ego+ extract47#bgh7 #d4 ,i w\ld n "h und]take to decide :at o!r hypo!tical or ab/ract sci5ces simil> to ,political ,economy1 may admit ( be+ c>v$ out ( ! g5]al body ( ! social sci5ce2 :at o!r portions ( ! social ph5om5a are 9 a suffici5tly close & complete dep5d5ce1 9 ! fir/ resort1 on a peculi> class ( causes1 to make x conv5i5t to create a prelim9>y sci5ce ( ^? causes2 po/pon+ ! consid]ation ( ! causes :i* act ?r\gh !m1 or 9 concurr5ce ) !m1 to a lat] p]iod ( ! inquiry4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 among ^! sep>ate dep>tm5ts "o :i* c n be pass$ ov] 9 sil5ce1 be+ ( a m compreh5sive & comm&+ "* ?an any ( ! o!r bran*es into :i* ! social sci5ce may admit ( be+ divid$4 ,l !m1 x is directly conv]sant ) ! causes ( only "o class ( social facts1 b a class :i* ex]cises1 imm$iately or remotely1 a p>am\nt influ5ce ov] ! te/4 ,i allude to :at may be t]m$ ,political ,e?ology1 or ! !ory ( ! causes :i* det]m9e ! type ( "* belong+ to a p or to an age4 ,( all ! subord9ate bran*es ( ! social sci5ce1 ?is is ! mo/ completely 9 its infancy4 ,! causes ( national "* are sc>cely at all und]/ood1 & ! effect ( in/itutions or social arrangem5ts ^u ! "* ( ! p is g5]ally t portion ( _! effects :i* is lea/ att5d$ to1 & lea/ compreh5d$4 ,nor is ?is wond]ful1 :5 we consid] ! infant /ate ( ! sci5ce ( ,e?ology itself1 f :5ce ! laws mu/ be drawn1 ( :i* ! tru?s ( political e?ology c be b results & exemplifications4 ,yet1 to :oev] well consid]s ! matt]1 x mu/ appe> t ! laws ( national 7or collective7 "* are by f> ! mo/ important class ( sociological laws4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! "* :i* is =m$ by any /ate ( social circum/ances is 9 itself ! mo/ int]e/+ ph5om5on :i* t /ate ( society c possibly pres5t4 ,secondly1 x is also a fact :i* ent]s l>gely into ! production ( all ! o!r ph5om5a4 ,& above all1 ! "*1 t is1 ! op9ions1 feel+s1 & habits1 ( ! p1 ?\gh greatly ! results ( ! /ate ( society :i* prec$es !m1 are also greatly ! causes ( ! /ate ( society :i* foll[s !m2 & are ! p[] by :i* all ^? ( ! circum/ances ( society :i* are artificial1 laws & cu/oms = in/ance1 are altoge!r m\ld$3 cu/oms evid5tly1 laws no less really1 ei!r by ! direct influ5ce ( public s5tim5t ^u ! rul+ p[]s1 or by ! effect :i* ! /ate ( national op9ion & feel+ has 9 det]m9+ ! =m ( gov]nm5t & %ap+ ! "* ( ! gov]nors4 ,z might be expect$1 ! mo/ imp]fect "p ( ^? bran*es ( social inquiry :i* h be5 cultivat$ z sep>ate sci5ces1 is ! !ory ( ! mann] 9 :i* _! conclusions are affect$ by e?ological consid]ations4 ,! omission is no defect 9 !m z ab/ract or hypo!tical sci5ces1 b x vitiates !m 9 _! practical application z bran*es ( a compreh5sive social sci5ce4 ,9 political economy1 = in/ance1 empirical laws ( human nature are tacitly assum$ by ,engli% ?9k]s1 :i* are calculat$ only = ,great ,brita9 & ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,among o!r ?+s1 an int5sity ( competition is con/antly suppos$1 :i*1 z a g5]al m]cantile fact1 exi/s 9 no c\ntry 9 ! _w except ^? two4 ,an ,engli% political economi/1 l 8 c\ntrym5 9 g5]al1 has seldom le>n$ t x is possible t m51 9 conduct+ ! bus9ess ( sell+ _! goods ov] a c\nt]1 %\ld c>e m ab\t _! ease or _! vanity ?an ab\t _! pecuni>y ga94 ,yet ^? :o "k ! habits ( ! cont95t ( ,europe are aw>e h[ app>5tly small a motive (t5 outweighs ! desire ( money gett+1 ev5 9 ! op]ations :i* h money gett+ = _! direct object4 ,! m highly ! sci5ce ( e?ology is cultivat$1 & ! bett] ! div]sities ( individual & national "* are und]/ood1 ! small]1 probably1 w ! numb] ( propositions become1 :i* x w be consid]$ safe to build on z univ]sal pr9ciples ( human nature4 ,^! consid]ations %[ t ! process ( divid+ (f ! social sci5ce into comp>tm5ts1 9 ord] t ea* may be /udi$ sep>ately1 & its conclusions aft]w>d correct$ = practice by ! modifications suppli$ by ! o!rs1 mu/ be subject to at lea/ "o important limitation4 ,^? portions alone ( ! social ph5om5a c ) advantage be made ! subjects1 ev5 provisionally1 ( di/9ct bran*es ( sci5ce1 into :i* ! div]sities ( "* betwe5 diff]5t nations or diff]5t times ent] z influ5c+ causes only 9 a second>y degree4 ,^? ph5om5a1 on ! contr>y1 ) :i* ! influ5ces ( ! e?ological /ate ( ! p are mix$ up at e /ep 7s t ! connection ( effects & causes c n be ev5 rudely m>k$ out )\t tak+ ^? influ5ces into consid]ation7 c\ld n ) any advantage1 nor )\t great disadvantage1 be treat$ indep5d5tly ( political e?ology1 nor1 !re=e1 ( all ! circum/ances by :i* ! qualities ( a p are influ5c$4 ,= ?is reason 7z well z = o!rs :i* w h]eaft] appe>7 !re c be no sep>ate ,sci5ce ( ,gov]nm5t2 t be+ ! fact :i*1 ( all o!rs1 is mo/ mix$ up1 bo? z cause & effect1 ) ! qualities ( ! p>ticul> p or ( ! p>ticul> age4 ,all que/ions respect+ ! t5d5cies ( =ms ( gov]nm5t mu/ /& "p ( ! g5]al sci5ce ( society1 n ( any sep>ate bran* ( x4 ,?is g5]al ,sci5ce ( ,society1 z di/+ui%$ f ! sep>ate dep>tm5ts ( ! sci5ce 7ea* ( :i* ass]ts its conclusions only conditionally1 subject to ! p>am\nt control ( ! laws ( ! g5]al sci5ce7 n[ rema9s to be *>act]iz$4 ,& z w be %[n pres5tly1 no?+ ( a really sci5tific "* is "h possible1 except by ! inv]se d$uctive me?od4 ,b be=e we quit ! subject ( ^? sociological speculations :i* proce$ by way ( direct d$uction1 we mu/ exam9e 9 :at relation !y /& to t indisp5sable elem5t 9 all d$uctive sci5ces1 ,v]ification by ,specific ,exp]i5ce--comp>ison betwe5 ! conclusions ( reason+ & ! results ( obs]vation4 #e4 ,we h se5 t1 9 mo/ d$uctive sci5ces1 & among ! re/ 9 ,e?ology itself1 :i* is ! imm$iate f\ndation ( ! ,social ,sci5ce1 a prelim9>y "w ( prep>ation is p]=m$ on ! obs]v$ facts1 to fit !m = be+ rapidly & accurately collat$ 7sometimes ev5 = be+ collat$ at all7 ) ! conclusions ( !ory4 ,?is prep>atory treatm5t consi/s 9 f9d+ g5]al propositions :i* express concisely :at is common to l>ge classes ( obs]v$ facts2 & ^! are call$ ! empirical laws ( ! ph5om5a4 ,we h1 !re=e1 to inquire1 :e!r any simil> prep>atory process c be p]=m$ on ! facts ( ! social sci5ce2 :e!r !re are any empirical laws 9 hi/ory or /ati/ics4 ,9 /ati/ics1 x is evid5t t empirical laws may sometimes be trac$2 & ! trac+ !m =ms an important "p ( t sy/em ( indirect obs]vation on :i* we mu/ (t5 rely = ! data ( ! ,d$uctive ,sci5ce4 ,! process ( ! sci5ce consi/s 9 inf]r+ effects f _! causes2 b we h (t5 no means ( obs]v+ ! causes1 except ?r\gh ! m$ium ( _! effects4 ,9 su* cases ! d$uctive sci5ce is unable to pr$ict ! effects1 = want ( ! necess>y data2 x c det]m9e :at causes are capable ( produc+ any giv5 effect1 b n ) :at frequ5cy & 9 :at quantities ^? causes exi/4 ,an in/ance 9 po9t is af=d$ by a newspap] n[ ly+ be=e me4 ,a /atem5t 0 furni%$ by "o ( ! (ficial assignees 9 bankruptcy %[+ among ! v>i\s bankruptcies :i* x _h be5 8 duty to inve/igate1 9 h[ _m cases ! losses _h be5 caus$ by misconduct ( diff]5t k9ds1 & 9 h[ _m by unavoidable mis=tunes4 ,! result 01 t ! numb] ( failures caus$ by misconduct greatly prepond]at$ ov] ^? aris+ f all o!r causes :atev]4 ,no?+ b specific exp]i5ce c\ld h giv5 suffici5t gr\nd = a conclusion to ?is purport4 ,to collect1 !re=e1 su* empirical laws 7:i* are nev] m ?an approximate g5]alizations7 f direct obs]vation1 is an important "p ( ! process ( sociological inquiry4 ,! exp]im5tal process is n "h to be reg>d$ z a di/9ct road to ! tru?1 b z a means 7happ5+ accid5tally to be ! only1 or ! be/1 available7 = obta9+ ! necess>y data = ! d$uctive sci5ce4 ,:5 ! imm$iate causes ( social facts are n op5 to direct obs]vation1 ! empirical law ( ! effects gives u ! empirical law 7:i* 9 t case is all t we c obta97 ( ! causes likewise4 ,b ^? imm$iate causes dep5d on remote causes2 & ! empirical law1 obta9$ by ?is indirect mode ( obs]vation1 c only be reli$ on z applicable to unobs]v$ cases1 s long z !re is reason to ?9k t no *ange has tak5 place 9 any ( ! remote causes on :i* ! imm$iate causes dep5d4 ,9 mak+ use1 !re=e1 ( ev5 ! be/ /ati/ical g5]alizations = ! purpose ( inf]r+ 7?\gh x be only conjecturally7 t ! same empirical laws w hold 9 any new case1 x is necess>y t we be well acqua9t$ ) ! remot] causes1 9 ord] t we may avoid apply+ ! empirical law to cases :i* diff] 9 any ( ! circum/ances on :i* ! tru? ( ! law ultimately dep5ds4 ,& ?us1 ev5 :]e conclusions d]iv$ f specific obs]vation are available = practical inf]5ces 9 new cases1 x is necess>y t ! d$uctive sci5ce %\ld /& s5t9el ov] ! :ole process2 t x %\ld be con/antly ref]r$ to1 & its sanction obta9$ to e inf]5ce4 ,! same ?+ holds true ( all g5]alizations :i* c be gr\nd$ on hi/ory4 ,n only !re are su* g5]alizations1 b x w pres5tly be %[n t ! g5]al sci5ce ( society1 :i* inquires into ! laws ( succession & co-exi/5ce ( ! great facts con/itut+ ! /ate ( society & civilization at any "t1 c proce$ 9 no o!r mann] ?an by mak+ su* g5]alizations--aft]w>d to be confirm$ by connect+ !m ) ! psy*ological & e?ological laws on :i* !y mu/ really dep5d4 #f4 ,b 7res]v+ ?is "q = its prop] place7 9 ^? m special inquiries :i* =m ! subject ( ! sep>ate bran*es ( ! social sci5ce1 ?is tw(old logical process & reciprocal v]ification is n possible2 specific exp]i5ce af=ds no?+ am\nt+ to empirical laws4 ,?is is p>ticul>ly ! case :]e ! object is to det]m9e ! effect ( any "o social cause among a great numb] act+ simultane\sly2 ! effect1 = example1 ( corn laws1 or ( a prohibitive comm]cial sy/em g5]ally4 ,?\gh x may be p]fectly c]ta91 f !ory1 :at k9d ( effects corn laws mu/ produce1 & 9 :at g5]al direction _! influ5ce mu/ tell ^u indu/rial prosp]ity1 _! effect is yet ( necessity s mu* disguis$ by ! simil> or contr>y effects ( o!r influ5c+ ag5ts1 t specific exp]i5ce c at mo/ only %[ t on ! av]age ( "s great numb] ( in/ances1 ! cases :]e !re 7 corn laws exhibit$ ! effect 9 a great] degree ?an ^? :]e !re 7 n4 ,n[ ! numb] ( in/ances necess>y to exhau/ ! :ole r\nd ( comb9ations ( ! v>i\s influ5tial circum/ances1 & ?us af=d a fair av]age1 nev] c be obta9$4 ,n only we c nev] le>n ) suffici5t au!nticity ! facts ( s _m in/ances1 b ! _w itself does n af=d !m 9 suffici5t numb]s1 )9 ! limits ( ! giv5 /ate ( society & civilization :i* su* inquiries always presuppose4 ,hav+ ?us no previ\s empirical g5]alizations ) :i* to collate ! conclusions ( !ory1 ! only mode ( direct v]ification :i* rema9s is to comp>e ^? conclusions ) ! result ( an individual exp]im5t or in/ance4 ,b "h ! difficulty is equally great4 ,= 9 ord] to v]ify a !ory by an exp]im5t1 ! circum/ances ( ! exp]im5t mu/ be exactly ! same ) ^? contemplat$ 9 ! !ory4 ,b 9 social ph5om5a ! circum/ances ( no two cases are exactly alike4 ,a trial ( corn laws 9 ano!r c\ntry1 or 9 a =m] g5]ation1 w\ld g a v little way t[>d v]ify+ a conclusion drawn respect+ _! effect 9 ?is g5]ation & 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,x ?us happ5s1 9 mo/ cases1 t ! only individual in/ance really fitt$ to v]ify ! pr$ictions ( !ory is ! v in/ance = :i* ! pr$ictions 7 made2 & ! v]ification comes too late to be ( any avail = practical guidance4 ,al?\gh1 h[ev]1 direct v]ification is impossible1 !re is an indirect v]ification1 :i* is sc>cely ( less value1 & :i* is always practicable4 ,! conclusion drawn z to ! individual case c only be directly v]ifi$ 9 t case2 b x is v]ifi$ indirectly1 by ! v]ification ( o!r conclusions1 drawn 9 o!r individual cases f ! same laws4 ,! exp]i5ce :i* comes too late to v]ify ! p>ticul> proposition to :i* x ref]s1 is n too late to help t[>d v]ify+ ! g5]al suffici5cy ( ! !ory4 ,! te/ ( ! degree 9 :i* ! sci5ce af=ds safe gr\nd = pr$ict+ 7& consequ5tly = practically deal+ )7 :at has n yet happ5$1 is ! degree 9 :i* x w\ld h enabl$ u to pr$ict :at has actually occurr$4 ,be=e our !ory ( ! influ5ce ( a p>ticul> cause1 9 a giv5 /ate ( circum/ances1 c be entirely tru/$1 we mu/ be able to expla9 & acc\nt = ! exi/+ /ate ( all t portion ( ! social ph5om5a :i* t cause has a t5d5cy to influ5ce4 ,if1 = in/ance1 we w\ld apply our speculations 9 political economy to ! pr$iction or guidance ( ! ph5om5a ( any c\ntry1 we mu/ be able to expla9 all ! m]cantile or indu/rial facts ( a g5]al "*1 app]ta9+ to ! pres5t /ate ( t c\ntry2 to po9t out causes suffici5t to acc\nt = all ( !m1 & prove1 or %[ good gr\nd = suppos+1 t ^! causes h really exi/$4 ,if we c n d ?is1 x is a pro( ei!r t ! facts :i* ought to be tak5 into acc\nt are n yet completely kn[n to u1 or t al?\gh we "k ! facts1 we are n ma/]s ( a suffici5tly p]fect !ory to enable u to assign _! consequ5ces4 ,9 ei!r case we are n1 9 ! pres5t /ate ( our k1 fully compet5t to draw conclusions1 speculative or practical1 = t c\ntry4 ,9 l mann]1 if we w\ld attempt to judge ( ! effect :i* any political in/itution w\ld h1 suppos+ t x c\ld be introduc$ into any giv5 c\ntry1 we mu/ be able to %[ t ! exi/+ /ate ( ! practical gov]nm5t ( t c\ntry1 & ( :atev] else dep5ds !reon1 toge!r ) ! p>ticul> "* & t5d5cies ( ! p1 & _! /ate 9 respect to ! v>i\s elem5ts ( social well-be+1 are su* z ! in/itutions !y h liv$ "u1 9 conjunction ) ! o!r circum/ances ( _! nature or ( _! position1 7 calculat$ to produce4 ,to prove1 9 %ort1 t our sci5ce1 & our k ( ! p>ticul> case1 r5d] u compet5t to pr$ict ! future1 we mu/ %[ t !y w\ld h enabl$ u to pr$ict ! pres5t & ! pa/4 ,if !re be any ?+ :i* we c\ld n h pr$ict$1 ?is con/itutes a residual ph5om5on1 requir+ fur!r /udy = ! purpose ( explanation2 & we mu/ ei!r se>* among ! circum/ances ( ! p>ticul> case until we f9d "o :i*1 on ! pr9ciples ( our exi/+ !ory1 acc\nts = ! unexpla9$ ph5om5on1 or we mu/ turn back1 & seek ! explanation by an ext5sion & improvem5t ( ! !ory itself4 ,*apt] ,x4 ,( ,! ,inv]se ,d$uctive1 ,or ,hi/orical1 ,me?od4 #a4 ,!re are two k9ds ( sociological inquiry4 ,9 ! fir/ k9d1 ! "q propos$ is1 :at effect w foll[ f a giv5 cause1 a c]ta9 g5]al condition ( social circum/ances be+ presuppos$4 ,z1 = example1 :at w\ld be ! effect ( impos+ or ( repeal+ corn laws1 ( aboli%+ mon>*y or introduc+ univ]sal suffrage1 9 ! pres5t condition ( society & civilization 9 any ,european c\ntry1 or "u any o!r giv5 supposition ) reg>d to ! circum/ances ( society 9 g5]al1 )\t ref]5ce to ! *anges :i* might take place1 or :i* may already be 9 progress1 9 ^? circum/ances4 ,b !re is also a second inquiry1 namely1 :at are ! laws :i* det]m9e ^? g5]al circum/ances !mselves4 ,9 ?is la/ ! "q is1 n :at w be ! effect ( a giv5 cause 9 a c]ta9 /ate ( society1 b :at are ! causes :i* produce1 & ! ph5om5a :i* *>act]ize1 /ates ( society g5]ally4 ,9 ! solution ( ?is "q consi/s ! g5]al ,sci5ce ( ,society2 by :i* ! conclusions ( ! o!r & m special k9d ( inquiry mu/ be limit$ & controll$4 #b4 ,9 ord] to conceive correctly ! scope ( ?is g5]al sci5ce1 & di/+ui% x f ! subord9ate dep>tm5ts ( sociological speculation1 x is necess>y to fix ! ideas atta*$ to ! phrase1 8,a ,/ate ( ,society40 ,:at is call$ a /ate ( society1 is ! simultane\s /ate ( all ! great] social facts or ph5om5a4 ,su* are3 ! degree ( k1 & ( intellectual & moral culture1 exi/+ 9 ! community1 & 9 e class ( x2 ! /ate ( indu/ry1 ( weal? & its di/ribution2 ! habitual occupations ( ! community2 _! division into classes1 & ! relations ( ^? classes to "o ano!r2 ! common beliefs :i* !y ent]ta9 on all ! subjects mo/ important to mank9d1 & ! degree ( assurance ) :i* ^? beliefs are held2 _! ta/es1 & ! "* & degree ( _! /hetic developm5t2 _! =m ( gov]nm5t1 & ! m important ( _! laws & cu/oms4 ,! condition ( all ^! ?+s1 & ( _m m :i* w readily sugge/ !mselves1 con/itute ! /ate ( society1 or ! /ate ( civilization1 at any giv5 "t4 ,:5 /ates ( society1 & ! causes :i* produce !m1 are spok5 ( z a subject ( sci5ce1 x is impli$ t !re exi/s a natural correlation among ^! diff]5t elem5ts2 t n e v>iety ( comb9ation ( ^! g5]al social facts is possible1 b only c]ta9 comb9ations2 t1 9 %ort1 !re exi/ ,uni=mities ( ,co-exi/5ce betwe5 ! /ates ( ! v>i\s social ph5om5a4 ,& su* is ! tru?2 z is inde$ a necess>y consequ5ce ( ! influ5ce ex]cis$ by e "o ( ^? ph5om5a ov] e o!r4 ,x is a fact impli$ 9 ! cons5sus ( ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! social body4 ,/ates ( society are l diff]5t con/itutions or diff]5t ages 9 ! physical frame2 !y are conditions n ( "o or a few organs or functions1 b ( ! :ole organism4 ,accord+ly1 ! in=mation :i* we possess respect+ pa/ ages1 & respect+ ! v>i\s /ates ( society n[ exi/+ 9 diff]5t regions ( ! e>?1 does1 :5 duly analyz$1 exhibit uni=mities4 ,x is f\nd t :5 "o ( ! features ( society is 9 a p>ticul> /ate1 a /ate ( _m o!r features1 m or less precisely det]m9ate1 always or usually co-exi/s ) x4 ,b ! uni=mities ( co-exi/5ce obta9+ among ph5om5a :i* are effects ( causes1 mu/ 7z we h s (t5 obs]v$7 be coroll>ies f ! laws ( causation by :i* ^! ph5om5a are really det]m9$4 ,! mutual correlation betwe5 ! diff]5t elem5ts ( ea* /ate ( society1 is1 !re=e1 a d]ivative law1 result+ f ! laws :i* regulate ! succession betwe5 "o /ate ( society & ano!r2 = ! proximate cause ( e /ate ( society is ! /ate ( society imm$iately prec$+ x4 ,! fundam5tal problem1 !re=e1 ( ! social sci5ce1 is to f9d ! laws accord+ to :i* any /ate ( society produces ! /ate :i* succe$s x & takes its place4 ,?is op5s ! great & vex$ "q ( ! progressiv5ess ( man & society2 an idea involv$ 9 e j conception ( social ph5om5a z ! subject ( a sci5ce4 #c4 ,x is "o ( ! *>act]s1 n absolutely peculi> to ! sci5ces ( human nature & society1 b belong+ to !m 9 a peculi> degree1 to be conv]sant ) a subject-matt] ^: prop]ties are *angeable4 ,i d n mean *angeable f day to day1 b f age to age2 s t n only ! qualities ( individuals v>y1 b ^? ( ! majority are n ! same 9 "o age z 9 ano!r4 ,! pr9cipal cause ( ?is peculi>ity is ! ext5sive & con/ant reaction ( ! effects ^u _! causes4 ,! circum/ances 9 :i* mank9d are plac$1 op]at+ accord+ to _! own laws & to ! laws ( human nature1 =m ! *>act]s ( ! human be+s2 b ! human be+s1 9 _! turn1 m\ld & %ape ! circum/ances = !mselves & = ^? :o come aft] !m4 ,f ?is reciprocal action !re mu/ necess>ily result ei!r a cycle or a progress4 ,9 a/ronomy also1 e fact is at once effect & cause2 ! successive positions ( ! v>i\s heav5ly bodies produce *anges bo? 9 ! direction & 9 ! int5sity ( ! =ces by :i* ^? positions are det]m9$4 ,b 9 ! case ( ! sol> sy/em1 ^! mutual actions br+ ar\nd aga91 aft] a c]ta9 numb] ( *anges1 ! =m] /ate ( circum/ances2 :i*1 ( c\rse1 leads to ! p]petual recurr5ce ( ! same s]ies 9 an unv>y+ ord]4 ,^? bodies1 9 %ort1 revolve 9 orbits3 b !re are 7or1 con=mably to ! laws ( a/ronomy1 !re might be7 o!rs :i*1 in/ead ( an orbit1 describe a trajectory--a c\rse n return+ into itself4 ,"o or o!r ( ^! mu/ be ! type to :i* human affairs mu/ con=m4 ,"o ( ! ?9k]s :o e>lie/ conceiv$ ! succession ( hi/orical ev5ts z subject to fix$ laws1 & endeavor$ to discov] ^! laws by an analytical survey ( hi/ory1 ,vico1 ! celebrat$ au?or ( ! ,sci5za ,nuova1 adopt$ ! =m] ( ^! op9ions4 ,he conceiv$ ! ph5om5a ( human society z revolv+ 9 an orbit2 z go+ ?r\gh p]iodically ! same s]ies ( *anges4 ,?\gh !re 7 n want+ circum/ances t5d+ to give "s plausibility to ?is view1 x w\ld n be> a close scrut9y3 & ^? :o h succe$$ ,vico 9 ?is k9d ( speculations h univ]sally adopt$ ! idea ( a trajectory or progress1 9 lieu ( an orbit or cycle4 ,! words ,progress & ,progressiv5ess are n "h to be und]/ood z synonym\s ) improvem5t & t5d5cy to improvem5t4 ,x is conceivable t ! laws ( human nature might det]m9e1 & ev5 necessitate1 a c]ta9 s]ies ( *anges 9 man & society1 :i* might n 9 e case1 or :i* might n on ! :ole1 be improvem5ts4 ,x is my belief1 inde$1 t ! g5]al t5d5cy is1 & w cont9ue to be1 sav+ occasional & tempor>y exceptions1 "o ( improvem5t2 a t5d5cy t[>d a bett] & happi] /ate4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is n a "q ( ! me?od ( ! social sci5ce1 b a !orem ( ! sci5ce itself4 ,= our purpose x is suffici5t t !re is a progressive *ange bo? 9 ! "* ( ! human race & 9 _! outw>d circum/ances1 s f> z m\ld$ by !mselves2 t 9 ea* successive age ! pr9cipal ph5om5a ( society are diff]5t f :at !y 7 9 ! age prec$+1 & /ill m diff]5t f any previ\s age3 ! p]iods :i* mo/ di/9ctly m>k ^! successive *anges be+ int]vals ( "o g5]ation1 dur+ :i* a new set ( human be+s h be5 educat$1 h gr[n up f *ildhood1 & tak5 possession ( society4 ,! progressiv5ess ( ! human race is ! f\ndation on :i* a me?od ( philosophiz+ 9 ! social sci5ce has be5 ( late ye>s erect$1 f> sup]ior to ei!r ( ! two modes :i* _h previ\sly be5 preval5t1 ! *emical or exp]im5tal1 & ! geometrical modes4 ,?is me?od1 :i* is n[ g5]ally adopt$ by ! mo/ advanc$ ?9k]s on ! ,cont95t1 consi/s 9 attempt+1 by a /udy & analysis ( ! g5]al facts ( hi/ory1 to discov] 7:at ^! philosoph]s t]m7 ! law ( progress3 :i* law1 once asc]ta9$1 mu/ accord+ to !m enable u to pr$ict future ev5ts1 j z aft] a few t]ms ( an inf9ite s]ies 9 algebra we are able to detect ! pr9ciple1 ( regul>ity 9 _! =mation1 & to pr$ict ! re/ ( ! s]ies to any numb] ( t]ms we please4 ,! pr9cipal aim ( hi/orical speculation 9 ,france1 ( late ye>s1 has be5 to asc]ta9 ?is law4 ,b :ile ,i gladly ackn[l$ge ! great s]vices :i* h be5 r5d]$ to hi/orical k by ?is s*ool1 ,i c n b deem !m to be mo/ly *>geable ) a fundam5tal misconception ( ! true me?od ( social philosophy4 ,! misconception consi/s 9 suppos+ t ! ord] ( succession :i* we may be able to trace among ! diff]5t /ates ( society & civilization :i* hi/ory pres5ts to u1 ev5 if t ord] 7 m rigidly uni=m ?an x has yet be5 prov$ to be1 c\ld ev] am\nt to a law ( nature4 ,x c only be an empirical law4 ,! succession ( /ates ( ! human m9d & ( human society c n h an indep5d5t law ( its own2 x mu/ dep5d on ! psy*ological & e?ological laws :i* gov]n ! action ( circum/ances on m5 & ( m5 on circum/ances4 ,x is conceivable t ^? laws might be su*1 & ! g5]al circum/ances ( ! human race su*1 z to det]m9e ! successive trans=mations ( man & society to "o giv5 & unv>y+ ord]4 ,b ev5 if ! case 7 s1 x c n be ! ultimate aim ( sci5ce to discov] an empirical law4 ,until t law c\ld be connect$ ) ! psy*ological & e?ological laws on :i* x mu/ dep5d1 &1 by ! consili5ce ( d$uction a priori ) hi/orical evid5ce1 c\ld be conv]t$ f an empirical law into a sci5tific "o1 x c\ld n be reli$ on = ! pr$iction ( future ev5ts1 beyond1 at mo/1 /rictly adjac5t cases4 ,m4 ,comte alone1 among ! new hi/orical s*ool1 has se5 ! necessity ( ?us connect+ all our g5]alizations f hi/ory ) ! laws ( human nature4 #d4 ,b1 :ile x is an imp]ative rule nev] to introduce any g5]alization f hi/ory into ! social sci5ce unless suffici5t gr\nds c be po9t$ out = x 9 human nature1 ,i d n ?9k any "o w cont5d t x w\ld h be5 possible1 sett+ out f ! pr9ciples ( human nature & f ! g5]al circum/ances ( ! position ( our species1 to det]m9e a priori ! ord] 9 :i* human developm5t mu/ take place1 & to pr$ict1 consequ5tly1 ! g5]al facts ( hi/ory up to ! pres5t "t4 ,aft] ! fir/ few t]ms ( ! s]ies1 ! influ5ce ex]cis$1 ov] ea* g5]ation by ! g5]ations :i* prec$$ x1 becomes1 7z is well obs]v$ by ! writ] la/ ref]r$ to7 m & m prepond]ant ov] all o!r influ5ces2 until at l5g? :at we n[ are & d1 is 9 a v small degree ! result ( ! univ]sal circum/ances ( ! human race1 or ev5 ( our own circum/ances act+ ?r\gh ! orig9al qualities ( our species1 b ma9ly ( ! qualities produc$ 9 u by ! :ole previ\s hi/ory ( humanity4 ,s long a s]ies ( actions & reactions betwe5 ,circum/ances & ,man1 ea* successive t]m be+ compos$ ( an ev] great] numb] & v>iety ( p>ts1 c\ld n possibly be comput$ by human faculties f ! elem5t>y laws :i* produce x4 ,! m]e l5g? ( ! s]ies w\ld be a suffici5t ob/acle1 s9ce a slight error 9 any "o ( ! t]ms w\ld augm5t 9 rapid progression at e subsequ5t /ep4 ,if1 !re=e1 ! s]ies ( ! effects !mselves did n1 :5 exam9$ z a :ole1 manife/ any regul>ity1 we %\ld 9 va9 attempt to con/ruct a g5]al sci5ce ( society4 ,we mu/ 9 t case h cont5t$ ourselves ) t subord9ate ord] ( sociological speculation =m]ly notic$1 namely1 ) endeavor+ to asc]ta9 :at w\ld be ! effect ( ! introduction ( any new cause1 9 a /ate ( society suppos$ to be fix$--a k suffici5t = ! m common exig5cies ( daily political practice1 b liable to fail 9 all cases 9 :i* ! progressive movem5t ( society is "o ( ! influ5c+ elem5ts2 & !re=e m prec>i\s 9 proportion z ! case is m important4 ,b s9ce bo? ! natural v>ieties ( mank9d1 & ! orig9al div]sities ( local circum/ances1 are mu* less consid]able ?an ! po9ts ( agreem5t1 !re w naturally be a c]ta9 degree ( uni=mity 9 ! progressive developm5t ( ! species & ( its works4 ,& ?is uni=mity t5ds to become great]1 n less1 z society advances2 s9ce ! evolution ( ea* p1 :i* is at fir/ det]m9$ exclusively by ! nature & circum/ances ( t p1 is gradually br\ght "u ! influ5ce 7:i* becomes /rong] z civilization advances7 ( ! o!r nations ( ! e>?1 & ( ! circum/ances by :i* !y h be5 influ5c$4 ,hi/ory accord+ly does1 :5 judici\sly exam9$1 af=d ,empirical ,laws ( ,society4 ,& ! problem ( g5]al sociology is to asc]ta9 ^!1 & connect !m ) ! laws ( human nature1 by d$uctions %[+ t su* 7 ! d]ivative laws naturally to be expect$ z ! consequ5ces ( ^? ultimate ones4 ,x is1 inde$1 h>dly ev] possible1 ev5 aft] hi/ory has sugge/$ ! d]ivative law1 to demon/rate a priori t su* 0 ! only ord] ( succession or ( co-exi/5ce 9 :i* ! effects c\ld1 consi/5tly ) ! laws ( human nature1 h be5 produc$4 ,we c at mo/ make out t !re 7 /rong a priori reasons = expect+ x1 & t no o!r ord] ( succession or co-exi/5ce w\ld h be5 s likely to result f ! nature ( man & ! g5]al circum/ances ( 8 position4 ,(t5 we c n d ev5 ?is2 we c n ev5 %[ t :at did take place 0 probable a priori1 b only t x 0 possible4 ,?is1 h[ev]--:i*1 9 ! ,inv]se ,d$uctive ,me?od t we are n[ *>act]iz+1 is a real process ( v]ification--is z indisp5sable1 z v]ification by specific exp]i5ce has be5 %[n to be1 :]e ! conclusion is orig9ally obta9$ by ! direct way ( d$uction4 ,! empirical laws mu/ be ! result ( b a few in/ances1 s9ce few nations h ev] atta9$ at all1 & /ill few] by _! own indep5d5t developm5t1 a high /age ( social progress4 ,if1 !re=e1 ev5 "o or two ( ^! few in/ances be insuffici5tly kn[n1 or imp]fectly analyz$ into _! elem5ts1 & !re=e n adequately comp>$ ) o!r in/ances1 no?+ is m probable ?an t a wrong empirical law w em]ge in/ead ( ! "r "o4 ,accord+ly1 ! mo/ errone\s g5]alizations are cont9ually made f ! c\rse ( hi/ory2 n only 9 ?is c\ntry1 :]e hi/ory c n yet be said to be at all cultivat$ z a sci5ce1 b 9 o!r c\ntries :]e x is s cultivat$1 & by p]sons well v]s$ 9 x4 ,! only *eck or corrective is1 con/ant v]ification by psy*ological & e?ological laws4 ,we may add to ?is1 t no "o b a p]son compet5tly skill$ 9 ^? laws is capable ( prep>+ ! mat]ials = hi/orical g5]alization1 by analyz+ ! facts ( hi/ory1 or ev5 by obs]v+ ! social ph5om5a ( 8 own "t4 ,no o!r w be aw>e ( ! comp>ative importance ( diff]5t facts1 nor consequ5tly "k :at facts to look =1 or to obs]ve2 /ill less w he be capable ( e/imat+ ! evid5ce ( facts :i*1 z is ! case ) mo/1 c n be asc]ta9$ by direct obs]vation or le>n$ f te/imony1 b mu/ be inf]r$ f m>ks4 #e4 ,! ,empirical ,laws ( ,society are ( two k9ds2 "s are uni=mities ( co-exi/5ce1 "s ( succession4 ,accord+ z ! sci5ce is occupi$ 9 asc]ta9+ & v]ify+ ! =m] sort ( uni=mities or ! latt]1 ,m4 ,comte gives x ! title ( ,social ,/atics1 or ( ,social ,dynamics2 con=mably to ! di/9ction 9 me*anics betwe5 ! conditions ( equilibrium & ^? ( movem5t2 or 9 biology1 betwe5 ! laws ( organization & ^? ( life4 ,! fir/ bran* ( ! sci5ce asc]ta9s ! conditions ( /ability 9 ! social union2 ! second1 ! laws ( progress4 ,social ,dynamics is ! !ory ( ,society consid]$ 9 a /ate ( progressive movem5t2 :ile ,social ,/atics is ! !ory ( ! cons5sus already spok5 ( z exi/+ among ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! social organism2 9 o!r words1 ! !ory ( ! mutual actions & reactions ( contemporane\s social ph5om5a2 mak+7#bgi7 provisionally1 z f> z possible1 ab/raction1 = sci5tific purposes1 ( ! fundam5tal movem5t :i* is at all times gradually modify+ ! :ole ( !m4 8,9 ?is fir/ po9t ( view1 ! provisions ( sociology w enable u to inf] "o f ano!r 7subject to ult]ior v]ification by direct obs]vation7 ! v>i\s *>act]i/ic m>ks ( ea* di/9ct mode ( social exi/5ce1 9 a mann] ess5tially analog\s to :at is n[ habitually practic$ 9 ! anatomy ( ! physical body4 ,?is prelim9>y aspect1 !re=e1 ( political sci5ce1 ( necessity supposes t 7contr>y to ! exi/+ habits ( philosoph]s7 ea* ( ! num]\s elem5ts ( ! social /ate1 ceas+ to be look$ at indep5d5tly & absolutely1 %all be always & exclusively consid]$ relatively to all ! o!r elem5ts1 ) ! :ole ( :i* x is unit$ by mutual int]dep5d5ce4 ,x w\ld be sup]flu\s to insi/ "h ^u ! great & con/ant utility ( ?is bran* ( sociological speculation4 ,x is1 9 ! fir/ place1 ! indisp5sable basis ( ! !ory ( social progress4 ,x may1 moreov]1 be employ$1 imm$iately1 & ( itself1 to supply ! place1 provisionally at lea/1 ( direct obs]vation1 :i* 9 _m cases is n always practicable = "s ( ! elem5ts ( society1 ! real condition ( :i* may1 h[ev]1 be suffici5tly judg$ ( by means ( ! relations :i* connect !m ) o!rs previ\sly kn[n4 ,! hi/ory ( ! sci5ces may give u "s notion ( ! habitual importance ( ?is auxili>y res\rce1 by rem9d+ u1 = example1 h[ ! vulg> errors ( m]e erudition conc]n+ ! pret5d$ acquirem5ts ( ! anci5t ,egyptians 9 ! high] a/ronomy 7 irrevocably dissipat$ 7ev5 be=e s5t5ce _h be5 pass$ on !m by a s\nd] erudition7 f ! s+le consid]ation ( ! inevitable connection betwe5 ! g5]al /ate ( a/ronomy & t ( ab/ract geometry1 !n evid5tly 9 its infancy4 ,x w\ld be easy to cite a multitude ( analog\s cases1 ! "* ( :i* c\ld admit ( no dispute4 ,9 ord] to avoid exagg]ation1 h[ev]1 x %\ld be rem>k$1 t ^! necess>y relations among ! diff]5t aspects ( society c n1 f _! v nature1 be s simple & precise t ! results obs]v$ c\ld only h aris5 f "s "o mode ( mutual co-ord9ation4 ,su* a notion1 already too n>r[ 9 ! sci5ce ( life1 w\ld be completely at v>iance ) ! /ill m complex nature ( sociological speculations4 ,b ! exact e/imation ( ^! limits ( v>iation1 bo? 9 ! heal?y & 9 ! morbid /ate1 con/itutes1 at lea/ z mu* z 9 ! anatomy ( ! natural body1 an indisp5sable complem5t to e !ory ( ,sociological ,/atics2 )\t :i* ! indirect exploration above spok5 ( w\ld (t5 lead into error4 8,?is is n ! place = me?odically demon/rat+ ! exi/5ce ( a necess>y relation among all ! possible aspects ( ! same social organism2 a po9t on :i*1 9 pr9ciple at lea/1 !re is n[ little diff]5ce ( op9ion among s\nd ?9k]s4 ,f :i*ev] ( ! social elem5ts we *oose to set out1 we may easily recognize t x has always a connection1 m or less imm$iate1 ) all ! o!r elem5ts1 ev5 ) ^? :i* at fir/ sight appe> ! mo/ indep5d5t ( x4 ,! dynamical consid]ation ( ! progressive developm5t ( civiliz$ humanity1 af=ds1 no d\bt1 a /ill m efficaci\s means ( effect+ ?is int]e/+ v]ification ( ! cons5sus ( ! social ph5om5a1 by display+ ! mann] 9 :i* e *ange 9 any "o "p1 op]ates imm$iately1 or v spe$ily1 ^u all ! re/4 ,b ?is indication may be prec$$1 or at all ev5ts foll[$1 by a confirmation ( a purely /atical k9d2 =1 9 politics z 9 me*anics1 ! communication ( motion f "o object to ano!r proves a connection betwe5 !m4 ,)\t desc5d+ to ! m9ute int]dep5d5ce ( ! diff]5t bran*es ( any "o sci5ce or art1 is x n evid5t t among ! diff]5t sci5ces1 z well z among mo/ ( ! arts1 !re exi/s su* a connection1 t if ! /ate ( any "o well-m>k$ division ( !m is suffici5tly kn[n to u1 we c ) real sci5tific assurance inf]1 f _! necess>y correlation1 ! contemporane\s /ate ( e "o ( ! o!rs8 ,by a fur!r ext5sion ( ?is consid]ation1 we may conceive ! necess>y relation :i* exi/s betwe5 ! condition ( ! sci5ces 9 g5]al & t ( ! arts 9 g5]al1 except t ! mutual dep5d5ce is less int5se 9 proportion z x is m indirect4 ,! same is ! case1 :51 in/ead ( consid]+ ! aggregate ( ! social ph5om5a 9 "s "o p1 we exam9e x simultane\sly 9 diff]5t contemporane\s nations2 betwe5 :i* ! p]petual reciprocity ( influ5ce1 especially 9 mod]n times1 c n be conte/$1 ?\gh ! cons5sus mu/ 9 ?is case be ord9>ily ( a less decid$ "*1 & mu/ decrease gradually ) ! aff9ity ( ! cases & ! multiplicity ( ! po9ts ( contact1 s z at la/1 9 "s cases1 to disappe> almo/ entirely2 z =1 example1 betwe5 ,we/]n ,europe & ,ea/]n ,asia1 ( :i* ! v>i\s g5]al /ates ( society appe> to h be5 hi!rto almo/ indep5d5t ( "o ano!r40 ,^! rem>ks are foll[$ by illu/rations ( "o ( ! mo/ important1 & until lately1 mo/ neglect$1 ( ! g5]al pr9ciples :i*1 9 ?is division ( ! social sci5ce1 may be consid]$ z e/abli%$2 namely1 ! necess>y correlation betwe5 ! =m ( gov]nm5t exi/+ 9 any society & ! contemporane\s /ate ( civilization3 a natural law :i* /amps ! endless discussions & innum]able !ories respect+ =ms ( gov]nm5t 9 ! ab/ract1 z fruitless & wor?less1 = any o!r purpose ?an z a prep>atory treatm5t ( mat]ials to be aft]w>d us$ = ! con/ruction ( a bett] philosophy4 ,z already rem>k$1 "o ( ! ma9 results ( ! sci5ce ( social /atics w\ld be to asc]ta9 ! requisites ( /able political union4 ,!re are "s circum/ances :i*1 be+ f\nd 9 all societies )\t exception1 & 9 ! greate/ degree :]e ! social union is mo/ complete1 may be consid]$ 7:5 psy*ological & e?ological laws confirm ! indication7 z conditions ( ! exi/5ce ( ! complex ph5om5a call$ a ,/ate4 ,= example1 no num]\s society has ev] be5 held toge!r )\t laws1 or usages equival5t to !m2 )\t tribunals1 & an organiz$ =ce ( "s sort to execute _! decisions4 ,!re h always be5 public au?orities :om1 ) m or less /rictness & 9 cases m or less accurately def9$1 ! re/ ( ! community obey$1 or accord+ to g5]al op9ion 7 b\nd to obey4 ,by foll[+ out ?is c\rse ( inquiry we %all f9d a numb] ( requisites1 :i* h be5 pres5t 9 e society t has ma9ta9$ a collective exi/5ce1 & on ! cessation ( :i* x has ei!r m]g$ 9 "s o!r society1 or recon/ruct$ itself on "s new basis1 9 :i* ! conditions 7 con=m$ to4 ,al?\gh ^! results1 obta9$ by comp>+ diff]5t =ms & /ates ( society1 am\nt 9 !mselves only to empirical laws2 "s ( !m1 :5 once sugge/$1 are f\nd to foll[ ) s mu* probability f g5]al laws ( human nature1 t ! consili5ce ( ! two processes raises ! evid5ce to pro(1 & ! g5]alizations to ! rank ( sci5tific tru?s4 ,?is seems to be affirmable 7= in/ance7 ( ! conclusions arriv$ at 9 ! foll[+ passage1 extract$1 ) "s alt]ations1 f a criticism on ! negative philosophy ( ! eighte5? c5tury17#bhj7 & :i* ,i quote1 ?\gh 7z 9 "s =m] in/ances7 f myself1 because ,i h no bett] way ( illu/rat+ ! conception ,i h =m$ ( ! k9d ( !orems ( :i* sociological /atics w\ld consi/4 8,! v fir/ elem5t ( ! social union1 ob$i5ce to a gov]nm5t ( "s sort1 has n be5 f\nd s easy a ?+ to e/abli% 9 ! _w4 ,among a timid & spiritless race l ! inhabitants ( ! va/ pla9s ( tropical c\ntries1 passive ob$i5ce may be ( natural gr[?2 ?\gh ev5 !re we d\bt :e!r x has ev] be5 f\nd among any p ) :om fatalism1 or 9 o!r words1 submission to ! pressure ( circum/ances z a div9e decree1 did n prevail z a religi\s doctr9e4 ,b ! difficulty ( induc+ a brave & w>like race to submit _! individual arbitrium to any common umpire1 has always be5 felt to be s great1 t no?+ %ort ( sup]natural p[] has be5 deem$ adequate to ov]come x2 & su* tribes h always assign$ to ! fir/ in/itution ( civil society a div9e orig94 ,s diff]5tly did ^? judge :o knew savage m5 by actual exp]i5ce1 f ^? :o _h no acqua9tance ) !m except 9 ! civiliz$ /ate4 ,9 mod]n ,europe itself1 aft] ! fall ( ! ,roman empire1 to subdue ! feudal an>*y & br+ ! :ole p ( any ,european nation into subjection to gov]nm5t 7?\gh ,*ri/ianity 9 ! mo/ conc5trat$ =m ( its influ5ce 0 co-op]at+ 9 ! "w7 requir$ ?rice z _m c5turies z h elaps$ s9ce t "t4 8,n[ if ^! philosoph]s _h kn[n human nature "u any o!r type ?an t ( _! own age1 & ( ! p>ticul> classes ( society among :om !y liv$1 x w\ld h occurr$ to !m1 t :]ev] ?is habitual submission to law & gov]nm5t has be5 firmly & durably e/abli%$1 & yet ! vigor & manl9ess ( "* :i* resi/$ its e/abli%m5t h be5 9 any degree pres]v$1 c]ta9 requisites h exi/$1 c]ta9 conditions h be5 fulfill$1 ( :i* ! foll[+ may be reg>d$ z ! pr9cipal4 8,fir/3 !re has exi/$1 = all :o 7 acc\nt$ citiz5s--= all :o 7 n slaves1 kept d[n by brute =ce--a sy/em ( education1 beg9n+ ) infancy & cont9u$ ?r\gh life1 ( :i* :atev] else x might include1 "o ma9 & incessant +r$i5t 0 re/ra9+ discipl9e4 ,to tra9 ! human be+ 9 ! habit1 & !nce ! p[]1 ( subord9at+ 8 p]sonal impulses & aims to :at 7 consid]$ ! ends ( society2 ( adh]+1 aga9/ all temptation1 to ! c\rse ( conduct :i* ^? ends prescrib$2 ( controll+ 9 himself all feel+s :i* 7 liable to militate aga9/ ^? ends1 & enc\rag+ all su* z t5d$ t[>d !m2 ?is 0 ! purpose1 to :i* e outw>d motive t ! au?ority direct+ ! sy/em c\ld comm&1 & e inw>d p[] or pr9ciple :i* its k ( human nature enabl$ x to evoke1 7 endeavor$ to be r5d]$ in/rum5tal4 ,! entire civil & milit>y policy ( ! anci5t commonweal?s 0 su* a sy/em ( tra9+2 9 mod]n nations its place has be5 attempt$ to be suppli$1 pr9cipally1 by religi\s tea*+4 ,& :5ev] & 9 proportion z ! /rictness ( ! re/ra9+ discipl9e 0 relax$1 ! natural t5d5cy ( mank9d to an>*y re-ass]t$ itself2 ! /ate became disorganiz$ f )92 mutual conflict = selfi% ends1 neutraliz$ ! en]gies :i* 7 requir$ to keep up ! conte/ aga9/ natural causes ( evil2 & ! nation1 aft] a long] or brief] int]val ( progressive decl9e1 became ei!r ! slave ( a despotism1 or ! prey ( a =eign invad]4 8,! second condition ( p]man5t political society has be5 f\nd to be1 ! exi/5ce1 9 "s =m or o!r1 ( ! feel+ ( allegiance or loyalty4 ,?is feel+ may v>y 9 its objects1 & is n conf9$ to any p>ticul> =m ( gov]nm5t2 b :e!r 9 a democracy or 9 a mon>*y1 its ess5ce is always ! same2 viz41 t !re be 9 ! con/itution ( ! /ate some?+ :i* is settl$1 some?+ p]man5t1 & n to be call$ 9 "q2 some?+ :i*1 by g5]al agreem5t1 has a "r to be :]e x is1 & to be secure aga9/ di/urbance1 :atev] else may *ange4 ,?is feel+ may atta* itself1 z among ! ,jews 7& 9 mo/ ( ! commonweal?s ( antiquity71 to a common ,god or gods1 ! protectors & gu>dians ( _! /ate4 ,or x may atta* itself to c]ta9 p]sons1 :o are deem$ to be1 :e!r by div9e appo9tm5t1 by long prescription1 or by ! g5]al recognition ( _! sup]ior capacity & wor?9ess1 ! rightful guides & gu>dians ( ! re/4 ,or x may connect itself ) laws2 ) anci5t lib]ties or ord9ances4 ,or1 f9ally1 7& ?is is ! only %ape 9 :i* ! feel+ is likely to exi/ h]eaft]71 x may atta* itself to ! pr9ciples ( individual fre$om & political & social equality1 z realiz$ 9 in/itutions :i* z yet exi/ n[h]e1 or exi/ only 9 a rudim5t>y /ate4 ,b 9 all political societies :i* h _h a durable exi/5ce1 !re has be5 "s fix$ po9t3 some?+ :i* p agre$ 9 hold+ sacr$2 :i*1 :]ev] fre$om ( discussion 0 a recogniz$ pr9ciple1 x 0 ( c\rse lawful to conte/ 9 !ory1 b :i* no "o c\ld ei!r fe> or hope to see %ak5 9 practice2 :i*1 9 %ort 7except p]haps dur+ "s tempor>y crisis71 0 9 ! common e/imation plac$ beyond discussion4 ,& ! necessity ( ?is may easily be made evid5t4 ,a /ate nev] is1 nor until mank9d are va/ly improv$1 c hope to be1 = any long "t exempt f int]nal diss5sion2 = !re nei!r is nor has ev] be5 any /ate ( society 9 :i* collisions did n occur betwe5 ! imm$iate int]e/s & passions ( p[]ful sections ( ! p4 ,:at1 !n1 enables nations to wea!r ^! /orms1 & pass ?r\gh turbul5t times )\t any p]man5t weak5+ ( ! securities = peaceable exi/5ce8 ,precisely ?is--t h[ev] important ! int]e/s ab\t :i* m5 fell out1 ! conflict did n affect ! fundam5tal pr9ciple ( ! sy/em ( social union :i* happ5$ to exi/2 nor ?reat5 l>ge portions ( ! community ) ! subv]sion ( t on :i* !y _h built _! calculations1 & ) :i* _! hopes & aims _h become id5tifi$4 ,b :5 ! que/ion+ ( ^! fundam5tal pr9ciples is 7n ! occasional disease1 or salut>y m$ic9e1 b7 ! habitual condition ( ! body politic1 & :5 all ! viol5t animosities are call$ =?1 :i* spr+ naturally f su* a situation1 ! /ate is virtually 9 a position ( civil w>2 & c nev] long rema9 free f x 9 act & fact4 8,! ?ird ess5tial condition ( /ability 9 political society1 is a /rong & active pr9ciple ( cohesion among ! memb]s ( ! same community or /ate4 ,we ne$ sc>cely say t we d n mean nationality1 9 ! vulg> s5se ( ! t]m2 a s5seless antipa?y to =eign]s2 indiff]5ce to ! g5]al welf>e ( ! human race1 or an unju/ pref]5ce ( ! suppos$ int]e/s ( our own c\ntry2 a *]i%+ ( bad peculi>ities because !y are national1 or a refusal to adopt :at has be5 f\nd good by o!r c\ntries4 ,we mean a pr9ciple ( sympa?y1 n ( ho/ility2 ( union1 n ( sep>ation4 ,we mean a feel+ ( common int]e/ among ^? :o live "u ! same gov]nm5t1 & are conta9$ )9 ! same natural or hi/orical b\nd>ies4 ,we mean1 t "o "p ( ! community d n consid] !mselves z =eign]s ) reg>d to ano!r "p2 t !y set a value on _! connection--feel t !y are "o p1 t _! lot is ca/ toge!r1 t evil to any ( _! fell[-c\ntrym5 is evil to !mselves1 & d n desire selfi%ly to free !mselves f _! %>e ( any common inconv5i5ce by sev]+ ! connection4 ,h[ /rong ?is feel+ 0 9 ^? anci5t commonweal?s :i* atta9$ any durable greatness1 e "o kn[s4 ,h[ happily ,rome1 9 spite ( all h] tyranny1 succe$$ 9 e/abli%+ ! feel+ ( a common c\ntry among ! prov9ces ( h] va/ & divid$ empire1 w appe> :5 any "o :o has giv5 due att5tion to ! subject %all take ! tr\ble to po9t x out4 ,9 mod]n times ! c\ntries :i* h _h t feel+ 9 ! /ronge/ degree h be5 ! mo/ p[]ful c\ntries3 ,engl&1 ,france1 &1 9 proportion to _! t]ritory & res\rces1 ,holl& & ,switz]l&2 :ile ,engl& 9 h] connection ) ,irel& is "o ( ! mo/ signal examples ( ! consequ5ces ( its abs5ce4 ,e ,italian kn[s :y ,italy is "u a =eign yoke2 e ,g]man kn[s :at ma9ta9s despotism 9 ! ,au/rian empire27#bha7 ! evils ( ,spa9 fl[ z mu* f ! abs5ce ( nationality among ! ,spani>ds !mselves1 z f ! pres5ce ( x 9 _! relations ) =eign]s3 :ile ! complete/ illu/ration ( all is af=d$ by ! republics ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 :]e ! p>ts ( "o & ! same /ate adh]e s slightly toge!r1 t no soon] does any prov9ce ?9k itself aggriev$ by ! g5]al gov]nm5t ?an x proclaims itself a sep>ate nation40 #f4 ,:ile ! d]ivative laws ( social /atics are asc]ta9$ by analyz+ diff]5t /ates ( society1 & comp>+ !m ) "o ano!r1 )\t reg>d to ! ord] ( _! succession1 ! consid]ation ( ! successive ord] is1 on ! contr>y1 pr$om9ant 9 ! /udy ( social dynamics1 ( :i* ! aim is to obs]ve & expla9 ! sequ5ces ( social conditions4 ,?is bran* ( ! social sci5ce w\ld be z complete z x c be made1 if e "o ( ! lead+ g5]al circum/ances ( ea* g5]ation 7 trac$ to its causes 9 ! g5]ation imm$iately prec$+4 ,b ! cons5sus is s complete 7especially 9 mod]n hi/ory71 t 9 ! filiation ( "o g5]ation & ano!r1 x is ! :ole :i* produces ! :ole1 r ?an any "p a "p4 ,little progress1 !re=e1 c be made 9 e/abli%+ ! filiation1 directly f laws ( human nature1 )\t hav+ fir/ asc]ta9$ ! imm$iate or d]ivative laws accord+ to :i* social /ates g5]ate "o ano!r z society advances2 ! axiomata m$ia ( ,g5]al ,sociology4 ,! empirical laws :i* are mo/ readily obta9$ by g5]alization f hi/ory d n am\nt to ?is4 ,!y are n ! 8middle pr9ciples0 !mselves1 b only evid5ce t[>d ! e/abli%m5t ( su* pr9ciples4 ,!y consi/ ( c]ta9 g5]al t5d5cies :i* may be p]ceiv$ 9 society2 a progressive increase ( "s social elem5ts1 & dim9ution ( o!rs1 or a gradual *ange 9 ! g5]al "* ( c]ta9 elem5ts4 ,x is easily se51 = in/ance1 t z society advances1 m5tal t5d m & m to prevail ov] bodily qualities1 & masses ov] individuals2 t ! occupation ( all t portion ( mank9d :o are n "u ext]nal re/ra9t is at fir/ *iefly milit>y1 b society becomes progressively m & m engross$ ) productive pursuits1 & ! milit>y _s gradually gives way to ! indu/rial2 to :i* _m simil> tru?s might be add$4 ,& ) g5]alizations ( ?is description1 ord9>y inquir]s1 ev5 ( ! hi/orical s*ool n[ pr$om9ant on ! ,cont95t1 are satisfi$4 ,b ^! & all su* results are /ill at too great a di/ance f ! elem5t>y laws ( human nature on :i* !y dep5d--too _m l9ks int]v5e1 & ! concurr5ce ( causes at ea* l9k is f> too complicat$--to enable ^! propositions to be pres5t$ z direct coroll>ies f ^? elem5t>y pr9ciples4 ,!y h1 !re=e1 9 ! m9ds ( mo/ inquir]s1 rema9$ 9 ! /ate ( empirical laws1 applicable only )9 ! b\nds ( actual obs]vation2 )\t any means ( det]m9+ _! real limits1 & ( judg+ :e!r ! *anges :i* h hi!rto be5 9 progress are de/9$ to cont9ue indef9itely1 or to t]m9ate1 or ev5 to be rev]s$4 #g4 ,9 ord] to obta9 bett] empirical laws1 we mu/ n re/ satisfi$ ) not+ ! progressive *anges :i* manife/ !mselves 9 ! sep>ate elem5ts ( society1 & 9 :i* no?+ is indicat$ b ! relation ( fragm5ts ( ! effect to correspond+ fragm5ts ( ! cause4 ,x is necess>y to comb9e ! /atical view ( social ph5om5a ) ! dynamical1 consid]+ n only ! progressive *anges ( ! diff]5t elem5ts1 b ! contemporane\s condition ( ea*2 & ?us obta9 empirically ! law ( correspond5ce n only betwe5 ! simultane\s /ates1 b betwe5 ! simultane\s *anges1 ( ^? elem5ts4 ,?is law ( correspond5ce x is1 :i*1 duly v]ifi$ a priori1 w\ld become ! real sci5tific d]ivative law ( ! developm5t ( humanity & human affairs4 ,9 ! difficult process ( obs]vation & comp>ison :i* is "h requir$1 x w\ld evid5tly be a great assi/ance if x %\ld happ5 to be ! fact1 t "s "o elem5t 9 ! complex exi/5ce ( social man is pre-em95t ov] all o!rs z ! prime ag5t ( ! social movem5t4 ,= we c\ld !n take ! progress ( t "o elem5t z ! c5tral *a91 to ea* successive l9k ( :i*1 ! correspond+ l9ks ( all ! o!r progressions be+ app5d$1 ! succession ( ! facts w\ld by ?is alone be pres5t$ 9 a k9d ( spontane\s ord]1 f> m ne>ly approa*+ to ! real ord] ( _! filiation ?an c\ld be obta9$ by any o!r m]ely empirical process4 ,n[1 ! evid5ce ( hi/ory & t ( human nature comb9e1 by a /rik+ in/ance ( consili5ce1 to %[ t !re really is "o social elem5t :i* is ?us pr$om9ant1 & almo/ p>am\nt1 among ! ag5ts ( ! social progression4 ,?is is1 ! /ate ( ! speculative faculties ( mank9d2 includ+ ! nature ( ! beliefs :i* by any means !y h arriv$ at1 conc]n+ !mselves & ! _w by :i* !y are surr\nd$4 ,x w\ld be a great error1 & "o v little likely to be committ$1 to ass]t t speculation1 intellectual activity1 ! pursuit ( tru?1 is among ! m p[]ful prop5sities ( human nature1 or holds a pr$om9at+ place 9 ! lives ( any1 save decid$ly exceptional1 individuals4 ,b1 not)/&+ ! relative weakness ( ?is pr9ciple among o!r sociological ag5ts1 its influ5ce is ! ma9 det]m9+ cause ( ! social progress2 all ! o!r dispositions ( our nature :i* contribute to t progress be+ dep5d5t on x = ! means ( accompli%+ _! %>e ( ! "w4 ,?us 7to take ! mo/ obvi\s case fir/71 ! impell+ =ce to mo/ ( ! improvem5ts effect$ 9 ! arts ( life1 is ! desire ( increas$ mat]ial com=t2 b z we c only act ^u ext]nal objects 9 proportion to our k ( !m1 ! /ate ( k at any "t is ! limit ( ! indu/rial improvem5ts possible at t "t2 & ! progress ( indu/ry mu/ foll[1 & dep5d on1 ! progress ( k4 ,! same ?+ may be %[n to be true1 ?\gh x is n q s obvi\s1 ( ! progress ( ! f9e arts4 ,fur!r1 z ! /ronge/ prop5sities ( uncultivat$ or half-cultivat$ human nature 7be+ ! purely selfi% ones1 & ^? ( a sympa!tic "* :i* p>take mo/ ( ! nature ( selfi%ness7 evid5tly t5d 9 !mselves to disunite mank9d1 n to unite !m--to make !m rivals1 n conf$]ates1 social exi/5ce is only possible by a discipl9+ ( ^? m p[]ful prop5sities1 :i* consi/s 9 subord9at+ !m to a common sy/em ( op9ions4 ,! degree ( ?is subord9ation is ! measure ( ! complet5ess ( ! social union1 & ! nature ( ! common op9ions det]m9es its k9d4 ,b 9 ord] t mank9d %\ld con=m _! actions to any set ( op9ions1 ^! op9ions mu/ exi/1 mu/ be believ$ by !m4 ,& ?us1 ! /ate ( ! speculative faculties1 ! "* ( ! propositions ass5t$ to by ! intellect1 ess5tially det]m9es ! moral & political /ate ( ! community1 z we h already se5 t x det]m9es ! physical4 ,^! conclusions1 d$uc$ f ! laws ( human nature1 are 9 entire accordance ) ! g5]al facts ( hi/ory4 ,e consid]able *ange hi/orically kn[n to u 9 ! condition ( any portion ( mank9d1 :5 n br\ght ab\t by ext]nal =ce1 has be5 prec$$ by a *ange1 ( proportional ext5t1 9 ! /ate ( _! k1 or 9 _! preval5t beliefs4 ,z betwe5 any giv5 /ate ( speculation1 & ! correlative /ate ( e ?+ else1 x 0 almo/ always ! =m] :i* fir/ %[$ itself2 ?\gh ! effects1 no d\bt1 react$ pot5tly ^u ! cause4 ,e consid]able advance 9 mat]ial civilization has be5 prec$$ by an advance 9 k3 & :5 any great social *ange has come to pass1 ei!r 9 ! way ( gradual developm5t or ( sudd5 conflict1 x has _h = its precursor a great *ange 9 ! op9ions & modes ( ?9k+ ( society4 ,poly!ism1 ,judaism1 ,*ri/ianity1 ,prote/antism1 ! critical philosophy ( mod]n ,europe1 & its positive sci5ce--ea* ( ^! has be5 a prim>y ag5t 9 mak+ society :at x 0 at ea* successive p]iod1 :ile society 0 b second>ily in/rum5tal 9 mak+ !m1 ea* ( !m 7s f> z causes c be assign$ = its exi/5ce7 be+ ma9ly an emanation n f ! practical life ( ! p]iod1 b f ! previ\s /ate ( belief & ?\ght4 ,! weakness ( ! speculative prop5sity 9 mank9d g5]ally has n1 !re=e1 prev5t$ ! progress ( speculation f gov]n+ t ( society at l>ge2 x has only1 & too (t51 prev5t$ progress altoge!r1 :]e ! intellectual progression has come to an e>ly /& = want ( suffici5tly favorable circum/ances4 ,f ?is accumulat$ evid5ce1 we are ju/ifi$ 9 conclud+1 t ! ord] ( human progression 9 all respects w ma9ly dep5d on ! ord] ( progression 9 ! intellectual convictions ( mank9d1 t is1 on ! law ( ! successive trans=mations ( human op9ions4 ,! "q rema9s1 :e!r ?is law c be det]m9$2 at fir/ f hi/ory z an empirical law1 !n conv]t$ into a sci5tific !orem by d$uc+ x a priori f ! pr9ciples ( human nature4 ,z ! progress ( k & ! *anges 9 ! op9ions ( mank9d are v sl[1 & manife/ !mselves 9 a well-def9$ mann] only at long int]vals1 x c n be expect$ t ! g5]al ord] ( sequ5ce %\ld be discov]able f ! exam9ation ( less ?an a v consid]able "p ( ! duration ( ! social progress4 ,x is necess>y to take into consid]ation ! :ole ( pa/ "t1 f ! fir/ record$ condition ( ! human race1 to ! memorable ph5om5a ( ! la/ & pres5t g5]ations4 #h4 ,! inve/igation :i* ,i h ?us endeavor$ to *>act]ize1 has be5 sy/ematically attempt$1 up to ! pres5t "t1 by ,m4 ,comte alone4 ,8 "w is hi!rto ! only kn[n example ( ! /udy ( social ph5om5a accord+ to ?is conception ( ! ,hi/orical ,me?od4 ,)\t discuss+ "h ! wor? ( 8 conclusions1 & especially ( 8 pr$ictions & recomm5dations ) respect to ! ,future ( society1 :i* appe> to me greatly inf]ior 9 value to 8 appreciation ( ! ,pa/1 ,i %all conf9e myself to m5tion+ "o important g5]alization1 :i* ,m4 ,comte reg>ds z ! fundam5tal law ( ! progress ( human k4 ,speculation he conceives to h1 on e subject ( human inquiry1 ?ree successive /ages2 9 ! fir/ ( :i* x t5ds to expla9 ! ph5om5a by sup]natural ag5cies1 9 ! second by metaphysical ab/ractions1 & 9 ! ?ird or f9al /ate conf9es itself to asc]ta9+ _! laws ( succession & similitude4 ,?is g5]alization appe>s to me to h t high degree ( sci5tific evid5ce :i* is d]iv$ f ! concurr5ce ( ! indications ( hi/ory ) ! probabilities d]iv$ f ! con/itution ( ! human m9d4 ,nor c\ld x be easily conceiv$1 f ! m]e enunciation ( su* a proposition1 :at a flood ( light x lets 9 ^u ! :ole c\rse ( hi/ory1 :5 its consequ5ces are trac$1 by connect+ ) ea* ( ! ?ree /ates ( human intellect :i* x di/+ui%es1 & ) ea* successive modification ( ^? ?ree /ates1 ! correlative condition ( o!r social ph5om5a47#bhb7 ,b :atev] decision compet5t judges may pron\nce on ! results arriv$ at by any individual inquir]1 ! me?od n[ *>act]iz$ is t by :i* ! d]ivative laws ( social ord] & ( social progress mu/ be s\ght4 ,by its aid we may h]eaft] succe$ n only 9 look+ f> =w>d into ! future hi/ory ( ! human race1 b 9 det]m9+ :at artificial means may be us$1 & to :at ext5t1 to accel]ate ! natural progress 9 s f> z x is b5eficial2 to comp5sate = :atev] may be its inh]5t inconv5i5ces or disadvantages2 & to gu>d aga9/ ! dang]s or accid5ts to :i* our species is expos$ f ! necess>y incid5ts ( its progression4 ,su* practical in/ructions1 f\nd$ on ! highe/ bran* ( speculative sociology1 w =m ! noble/ & mo/ b5eficial portion ( ! ,political ,art4 ,t ( ?is sci5ce & art ev5 ! f\ndations are b beg9n+ to be laid1 is suffici5tly evid5t4 ,b ! sup]ior m9ds are fairly turn+ !mselves t[>d t object4 ,x has become ! aim ( really sci5tific ?9k]s to connect by !ories ! facts ( univ]sal hi/ory3 x is ackn[l$g$ to be "o ( ! requisites ( a g5]al sy/em ( social doctr9e1 t x %\ld expla91 s f> z ! data exi/1 ! ma9 facts ( hi/ory2 & a ,philosophy ( ,hi/ory is g5]ally admitt$ to be at once ! v]ification1 & ! initial =m1 ( ! ,philosophy ( ! ,progress ( ,society4 ,if ! endeavors n[ mak+ 9 all ! m cultivat$ nations1 & beg9n+ to be made ev5 9 ,engl& 7usually ! la/ to ent] into ! g5]al movem5t ( ! ,european m9d7 = ! con/ruction ( a ,philosophy ( ,hi/ory1 %all be direct$ & controll$ by ^? views ( ! nature ( sociological evid5ce :i* ,i h 7v briefly & imp]fectly7 attempt$ to *>act]ize2 !y c n fail to give bir? to a sociological sy/em widely remov$ f ! vague & conjectural "* ( all =m] attempts1 & wor?y to take its place1 at la/1 among ! sci5ces4 ,:5 ?is "t %all come1 no important bran* ( human affairs w be any long] ab&on$ to empiricism & unsci5tific surmise3 ! circle ( human k w be complete1 & x c only !reaft] receive fur!r enl>gem5t by p]petual expansion f )94 ,*apt] ,,xi4 ,additional ,elucidations ,( ,! ,sci5ce ,( ,hi/ory4 #a4 ,! doctr9e :i* ! prec$+ *apt]s 7 int5d$ to en=ce & elucidate--t ! collective s]ies ( social ph5om5a1 9 o!r words ! c\rse ( hi/ory1 is subject to g5]al laws1 :i* philosophy may possibly detect--has be5 famili> = g5]ations to ! sci5tific ?9k]s ( ! ,cont95t1 & has = ! la/ qu>t] ( a c5tury pass$ out ( _! peculi> doma91 into t ( newspap]s & ord9>y political discussion4 ,9 our own c\ntry1 h[ev]1 at ! "t ( ! fir/ publication ( ?is ,treatise1 x 0 almo/ a novelty1 & ! prevail+ habits ( ?\ght on hi/orical subjects 7 ! v rev]se ( a prep>ation = x4 ,s9ce !n a great *ange has tak5 place1 & has be5 em95tly promot$ by ! important "w ( ,mr4 ,buckle2 :o1 ) *>act]i/ic en]gy1 flung d[n ?is great pr9ciple1 toge!r ) _m /rik+ exemplifications ( x1 into ! ar5a ( popul> discussion1 to be f\ght ov] by a sort ( combatants1 9 ! pres5ce ( a sort ( spectators1 :o w\ld nev] ev5 h be5 aw>e t !re exi/$ su* a pr9ciple if !y _h be5 left to le>n its exi/5ce f ! speculations ( pure sci5ce4 ,& h5ce has aris5 a consid]able am\nt ( controv]sy1 t5d+ n only to make ! pr9ciple rapidly famili> to ! majority ( cultivat$ m9ds1 b also to cle> x f ! confusions & misund]/&+s by :i* x 0 b natural t x %\ld = a "t be cl\d$1 & :i* impair ! wor? ( ! doctr9e to ^? :o accept x1 & are ! /umbl+-block ( _m :o d n4 ,among ! imp$im5ts to ! g5]al ackn[l$gm5t1 by ?\ghtful m9ds1 ( ! subjection ( hi/orical facts to sci5tific laws1 ! mo/ fundam5tal cont9ues to be t :i* is gr\nd$ on ! doctr9e ( ,free ,w1 or1 9 o!r words1 on ! d5ial t ! law ( inv>iable ,causation holds true ( human volitions2 = if x does n1 ! c\rse ( hi/ory1 be+ ! result ( human volitions1 c n be a subject ( sci5tific laws1 s9ce ! volitions on :i* x dep5ds c nei!r be =ese51 nor r$uc$ to any canon ( regul>ity ev5 aft] !y h occurr$4 ,i h discuss$ ?is "q1 z f> z seem$ suitable to ! occasion1 9 a =m] *apt]2 & ,i only ?9k x necess>y to repeat1 t ! doctr9e ( ! ,causation ( human actions1 improp]ly call$ ! doctr9e ( ,necessity1 affirms no my/]i\s nexus1 or ov]rul+ fatality3 x ass]ts only t m5's actions are ! jo9t result ( ! g5]al laws & circum/ances ( human nature1 & ( _! own p>ticul> *>act]s2 ^? *>act]s aga9 be+ ! consequ5ce ( ! natural & artificial circum/ances t con/itut$ _! education1 among :i* circum/ances mu/ be reckon$ _! own consci\s ef=ts4 ,any "o :o is will+ to take 7if ! expression may be p]mitt$7 ! tr\ble ( ?9k+ himself into ! doctr9e z ?us /at$1 w f9d x1 ,i believe1 n only a fai?ful int]pretation ( ! univ]sal exp]i5ce ( human conduct1 b a correct repres5tation ( ! mode 9 :i* he himself1 9 e p>ticul> case1 spontane\sly int]prets 8 own exp]i5ce ( t conduct4 ,b if ?is pr9ciple is true ( individual man1 x mu/ be true ( collective man4 ,if x is ! law ( human life1 ! law mu/ be realiz$ 9 hi/ory4 ,! exp]i5ce ( human affairs :5 look$ at en masse1 mu/ be 9 accordance ) x if true1 or repugnant to x if false4 ,! support :i* ?is a po/]iori v]ification af=ds to ! law1 is ! "p ( ! case :i* has be5 mo/ cle>ly & triumphantly br\ght out by ,mr4 ,buckle4 ,! facts ( /ati/ics1 s9ce !y h be5 made a subject ( c>eful recordation & /udy1 h yield$ conclusions1 "s ( :i* h be5 v />tl+ to p]sons n accu/om$ to reg>d moral actions z subject to uni=m laws4 ,! v ev5ts :i* 9 _! own nature appe> mo/ caprici\s & unc]ta91 & :i* 9 any individual case no atta9able degree ( k w\ld enable u to =esee1 occur1 :5 consid]able numb]s are tak5 into ! acc\nt1 ) a degree ( regul>ity approa*+ to ma!matical4 ,:at act is !re :i* all w\ld consid] z m completely dep5d5t on individual "*1 & on ! ex]cise ( individual free w1 ?an t ( slay+ a fell[-creature8 ,yet 9 any l>ge c\ntry1 ! numb] ( murd]s1 9 proportion to ! population1 v>ies 7x has be5 f\nd7 v little f "o ye> to ano!r1 & 9 its v>iations nev] deviates widely f a c]ta9 av]age4 ,:at is /ill m rem>kable1 !re is a simil> approa* to con/ancy 9 ! proportion ( ^! murd]s annually committ$ ) e p>ticul> k9d ( in/rum5t4 ,!re is a l approximation to id5tity1 z betwe5 "o ye> & ano!r1 9 ! comp>ative numb] ( legitimate & ( illegitimate bir?s4 ,! same ?+ is f\nd true ( suicides1 accid5ts1 & all o!r social ph5om5a ( :i* ! regi/ration is suffici5tly p]fect2 "o ( ! mo/ curi\sly illu/rative examples be+ ! fact1 asc]ta9$ by ! regi/]s ( ! ,london & ,p>is po/-(fices1 t ! numb] ( lett]s po/$ :i* ! writ]s h =gott5 to direct1 is ne>ly ! same1 9 proportion to ! :ole numb] ( lett]s po/$1 9 "o ye> z 9 ano!r4 8,ye> aft] ye>10 says ,mr4 ,buckle1 8! same proportion ( lett]-writ]s =get ?is simple act2 s t = ea* successive p]iod we c actually =etell ! numb] ( p]sons ^: memory w fail !m 9 reg>d to ?is trifl+1 & z x might appe>1 accid5tal occurr5ce407#bhc7 ,?is s+ul> degree ( regul>ity en masse1 comb9$ ) ! extreme ( irregul>ity 9 ! cases compos+ ! mass1 is a felicit\s v]ification a po/]iori ( ! law ( causation 9 its application to human conduct4 ,assum+ ! tru? ( t law1 e human action1 e murd]1 = in/ance1 is ! concurr5t result ( two sets ( causes4 ,on ! "o "p1 ! g5]al circum/ances ( ! c\ntry & its inhabitants2 ! moral1 educational1 economical1 & o!r influ5ces op]at+ on ! :ole p1 & con/itut+ :at we t]m ! /ate ( civilization4 ,on ! o!r "p1 ! great v>iety ( influ5ces special to ! individual3 8 temp]am5t1 & o!r peculi>ities ( organization1 8 p>5tage1 habitual associates1 temptations1 & s =?4 ,if we n[ take ! :ole ( ! in/ances :i* occur )9 a suffici5tly l>ge field to exhau/ all ! comb9ations ( ^! special influ5ces1 or1 9 o!r words1 to elim9ate *ance2 & if all ^! in/ances h occurr$ )9 su* n>r[ limits ( "t1 t no mat]ial *ange c h tak5 place 9 ! g5]al influ5ces con/itut+ ! /ate ( civilization ( ! c\ntry2 we may be c]ta91 t if human actions are gov]n$ by inv>iable laws1 ! aggregate result w be some?+ l a con/ant quantity4 ,! numb] ( murd]s committ$ )9 t space & "t1 be+ ! effect p>tly ( g5]al causes :i* h n v>i$1 & p>tly ( p>tial causes ! :ole r\nd ( ^: v>iations has be5 includ$1 w be1 practically speak+1 inv>iable4 ,lit]ally & ma!matically inv>iable x is n1 & c\ld n be expect$ to be3 because ! p]iod ( a ye> is too %ort to include all ! possible comb9ations ( p>tial causes1 :ile x is1 at ! same "t1 suffici5tly long to make x probable t 9 "s ye>s at lea/1 ( e s]ies1 !re w h be5 introduc$ new influ5ces ( a m or less g5]al "*2 su* z a m vigor\s or a m relax$ police2 "s tempor>y excitem5t f political or religi\s causes2 or "s incid5t g5]ally notori\s1 ( a nature to act morbidly on ! imag9ation4 ,t 9 spite ( ^! unavoidable imp]fections 9 ! data1 !re %\ld be s v trifl+ a m>g9 ( v>iation 9 ! annual results1 is a brilliant cont9uation ( ! g5]al !ory4 #b4 ,! same consid]ations :i* ?us /rik+ly corroborate ! evid5ce ( ! doctr9e1 t hi/orical facts are ! inv>iable effects ( causes1 t5d equally to cle> t doctr9e f v>i\s misappreh5sions1 ! exi/5ce ( :i* has be5 put 9 evid5ce by ! rec5t discussions4 ,"s p]sons1 = in/ance1 seem+ly imag9e ! doctr9e to imply1 n m]ely t ! total numb] ( murd]s committ$ 9 a giv5 space & "t is entirely ! effect ( ! g5]al circum/ances ( society1 b t e p>ticul> murd] is s too--t ! individual murd]] is1 s to speak1 a m]e in/rum5t 9 ! h&s ( g5]al causes t he himself has no option1 or1 if he has1 & *ose to ex]cise x1 "s "o else w\ld be necessitat$ to take 8 place2 t if any "o ( ! actual murd]]s _h ab/a9$ f ! crime1 "s p]son :o w\ld o!rwise h rema9$ innoc5t1 w\ld h committ$ an extra murd] to make up ! av]age4 ,su* a coroll>y w\ld c]ta9ly convict any !ory :i* necess>ily l$ to x ( absurdity4 ,x is obvi\s1 h[ev]1 t ea* p>ticul> murd] dep5ds1 n on ! g5]al /ate ( society only1 b on t comb9$ ) causes special to ! case1 :i* are g5]ally mu* m p[]ful2 & if ^! special causes1 :i* h great] influ5ce ?an ! g5]al ones 9 caus+ e p>ticul> murd]1 h no influ5ce on ! numb] ( murd]s 9 a giv5 p]iod1 x is because ! field ( obs]vation is s ext5sive z to include all possible comb9ations ( ! special causes--all v>ieties ( individual "* & individual temptation compatible ) ! g5]al /ate ( society4 ,! collective exp]im5t1 z x may be t]m$1 exactly sep>ates ! effect ( ! g5]al f t ( ! special causes1 & %[s ! net result ( ! =m]2 b x decl>es no?+ at all respect+ ! am\nt ( influ5ce ( ! special causes1 be x great] or small]1 s9ce ! scale ( ! exp]im5t ext5ds to ! numb] ( cases )9 :i* ! effects ( ! special causes balance "o ano!r1 & disappe> 9 t ( ! g5]al causes4 ,i w n pret5d t all ! def5d]s ( ! !ory h always kept _! language free f ?is same confusion1 & h %[n no t5d5cy to exalt ! influ5ce ( g5]al causes at ! exp5se ( special4 ,i am ( op9ion1 on ! contr>y1 t !y h done s 9 a v great degree1 & by s do+ h encumb]$ _! !ory ) difficulties1 & laid x op5 to objections1 :i* d n necess>ily affect x4 ,"s1 = example 7among :om is ,mr4 ,buckle himself71 h inf]r$1 or all[$ x to be suppos$ t !y inf]r$1 f ! regul>ity 9 ! recurr5ce ( ev5ts :i* dep5d on moral qualities1 t ! moral qualities ( mank9d are little capable ( be+ improv$1 or are ( little importance 9 ! g5]al progress ( society1 comp>$ ) intellectual or economic causes4 ,b to draw ?is inf]5ce is to =get t ! /ati/ical tables1 f :i* ! inv>iable av]ages are d$uc$1 7 compil$ f facts occurr+ )9 n>r[ geographical limits & 9 a small numb] ( successive ye>s2 t is1 f a field ! :ole ( :i* 0 "u ! op]ation ( ! same g5]al causes1 & dur+ too %ort a "t to all[ ( mu* *ange !re94 ,all moral causes b ^? common to ! c\ntry g5]ally1 h be5 elim9at$ by ! great numb] ( in/ances tak52 & ^? :i* are common to ! :ole c\ntry h n v>i$ consid]ably1 9 ! %ort space ( "t compris$ 9 ! obs]vations4 ,if we admit ! supposition t !y h v>i$2 if we comp>e "o age ) ano!r1 or "o c\ntry ) ano!r1 or ev5 "o "p ( a c\ntry ) ano!r1 diff]+ 9 position & "* z to ! moral elem5ts1 ! crimes committ$ )9 a ye> give no long] ! same1 b a widely diff]5t num]ical aggregate4 ,& ?is c n b be ! case3 =1 inasmu* z e s+le crime committ$ by an individual ma9ly dep5ds on 8 moral qualities1 ! crimes committ$ by ! entire population ( ! c\ntry mu/ dep5d 9 an equal degree on _! collective moral qualities4 ,to r5d] ?is elem5t inop]ative ^u ! l>ge scale1 x w\ld be necess>y to suppose t ! g5]al moral av]age ( mank9d does n v>y f c\ntry to c\ntry or f age to age2 :i* is n true1 &1 ev5 if x 7 true1 c\ld n possibly be prov$ by any exi/+ /ati/ics4 ,i d n on ?is acc\nt ! less agree 9 ! op9ion ( ,mr4 ,buckle1 t ! intellectual elem5t 9 mank9d1 includ+ 9 t expression ! nature ( _! beliefs1 ! am\nt ( _! k1 & ! developm5t ( _! intellig5ce1 is ! pr$om9ant circum/ance 9 det]m9+ _! progress4 ,b ,i am ( ?is op9ion1 n because ,i reg>d _! moral or economical condition ei!r z less p[]ful or less v>iable ag5cies1 b because ^! are 9 a great degree ! consequ5ces ( ! intellectual condition1 & are1 9 all cases1 limit$ by x2 z 0 obs]v$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]4 ,! intellectual *anges are ! mo/ conspicu\s ag5ts 9 hi/ory1 n f _! sup]ior =ce1 consid]$ 9 !mselves1 b because practically !y "w ) ! unit$ p[] belong+ to all ?ree47#bhd7 #c4 ,!re is ano!r di/9ction (t5 neglect$ 9 ! discussion ( ?is subject1 :i* x is extremely important to obs]ve4 ,! !ory ( ! subjection ( social progress to inv>iable laws1 is (t5 held 9 conjunction ) ! doctr9e1 t social progress c n be mat]ially influ5c$ by ! ex]tions ( individual p]sons1 or by ! acts ( gov]nm5ts4 ,b ?\gh ^! op9ions are (t5 held by ! same p]sons1 !y are two v diff]5t op9ions1 & ! confusion betwe5 !m is ! et]nally recurr+ error ( conf\nd+ ,causation ) ,fatalism4 ,because :atev] happ5s w be ! effect ( causes1 human volitions among ! re/1 x does n foll[ t volitions1 ev5 ^? ( peculi> individuals1 are n ( great efficacy z causes4 ,if any "o 9 a /orm at sea1 because ab\t ! same numb] ( p]sons 9 e ye> p]i% by %ipwreck1 %\ld conclude t x 0 useless = him to attempt to save 8 own life1 we %\ld call him a ,fatali/2 & %\ld rem9d him t ! ef=ts ( %ipwreck$ p]sons to save _! lives are s f> f be+ immat]ial1 t ! av]age am\nt ( ^? ef=ts is "o ( ! causes on :i* ! asc]ta9$ annual numb] ( dea?s by %ipwreck dep5d4 ,h[ev] univ]sal ! laws ( social developm5t may be1 !y c n be m univ]sal or m rigor\s ?an ^? ( ! physical ag5cies ( nature2 yet human w c conv]t ^! into in/rum5ts ( its designs1 & ! ext5t to :i* x does s makes ! *ief diff]5ce betwe5 savages & ! mo/ highly civiliz$ p4 ,human & social facts1 f _! m complicat$ nature1 are n less1 b m1 modifiable ?an me*anical & *emical facts2 human ag5cy1 !re=e1 has /ill great] p[] ov] !m4 ,& accord+ly1 ^? :o ma9ta9 t ! evolution ( society dep5ds exclusively1 or almo/ exclusively1 on g5]al causes1 always include among ^! ! collective k & intellectual developm5t ( ! race4 ,b if ( ! race1 :y n also ( "s p[]ful mon>* or ?9k]1 or ( ! rul+ portion ( "s political society1 act+ ?r\gh its gov]nm5t8 ,?\gh ! v>ieties ( "* among ord9>y individuals neutralize "o ano!r on any l>ge scale1 exceptional individuals 9 important positions d n 9 any giv5 age neutralize "o ano!r2 !re 0 n ano!r ,!mi/ocles1 or ,lu!r1 or ,julius ,cs>1 ( equal p[]s & contr>y dispositions1 :o exactly balanc$ ! giv5 ,!mi/ocles1 ,lu!r1 & ,cs>1 & prev5t$ !m f hav+ any p]man5t effect4 ,moreov]1 = aught t appe>s1 ! volitions ( exceptional p]sons1 or ! op9ions & purposes ( ! individuals :o at "s p>ticul> "t compose a gov]nm5t1 may be indisp5sable l9ks 9 ! *a9 ( causation by :i* ev5 ! g5]al causes produce _! effects2 & ,i believe ?is to be ! only t5able =m ( ! !ory4 ,"l ,macaulay1 9 a celebrat$ passage ( "o ( 8 e>ly essays 7let me add t x 0 "o :i* he did n himself *oose to repr9t71 gives expression to ! doctr9e ( ! absolute inop]ativ5ess ( great m51 m unqualifi$1 ,i %\ld ?9k1 ?an has be5 giv5 to x by any writ] ( equal abilities4 ,he comp>es !m to p]sons :o m]ely /& on a l(ti] height1 & !nce receive ! sun's rays a little e>li]1 ?an ! re/ ( ! human race4 8,! sun illum9ates ! hills :ile x is /ill bel[ ! horizon1 & tru? is discov]$ by ! highe/ m9ds a little be=e x becomes manife/ to ! multitude4 ,?is is ! ext5t ( _! sup]iority4 ,!y are ! fir/ to cat* & reflect a light :i*1 )\t _! assi/ance1 mu/ 9 a %ort "t be visible to ^? :o lie f> b5ea? !m407#bhe7 ,if ?is metaphor is to be c>ri$ out1 x foll[s t if !re _h be5 no ,newton1 ! _w w\ld n only h _h ! ,newtonian sy/em1 b w\ld h _h x equally soon2 z ! sun w\ld h ris5 j z e>ly to spectators 9 ! pla9 if !re _h be5 no m\nta9 at h& to cat* /ill e>li] rays4 ,& s x w\ld be1 if tru?s1 l ! sun1 rose by _! own prop] motion1 )\t human ef=t2 b n o!rwise4 ,i believe t if ,newton _h n liv$1 ! _w mu/ h wait$ = ! ,newtonian philosophy until !re _h be5 ano!r ,newton1 or 8 equival5t4 ,no ord9>y man1 & no succession ( ord9>y m51 c\ld h a*iev$ x4 ,i w n g ! l5g? ( say+ t :at ,newton did 9 a s+le life1 might n h be5 done 9 successive /eps by "s ( ^? :o foll[$ him1 ea* s+ly inf]ior to him 9 g5ius4 ,b ev5 ! lea/ ( ^? /eps requir$ a man ( great intellectual sup]iority4 ,em95t m5 d n m]ely see ! com+ light f ! hill-top1 !y m\nt on ! hill-top & evoke x2 & if no "o _h ev] asc5d$ ?i!r1 ! light1 9 _m cases1 might nev] h ris5 ^u ! pla9 at all4 ,philosophy & religion are abundantly am5able to g5]al causes2 yet few w d\bt t1 _h !re be5 no ,socrates1 no ,plato1 & no ,ari/otle1 !re w\ld h be5 no philosophy = ! next two ?\s& ye>s1 nor 9 all probability !n2 & t if !re _h be5 no ,*ri/1 & no ,/4 ,paul1 !re w\ld h be5 no ,*ri/ianity4 ,! po9t 9 :i*1 above all1 ! influ5ce ( rem>kable individuals is decisive1 is 9 det]m9+ ! cel]ity ( ! movem5t4 ,9 mo/ /ates ( society x is ! exi/5ce ( great m5 :i* decides ev5 :e!r !re %all be any progress4 ,x is conceivable t ,greece1 or t ,*ri/ian ,europe1 might h be5 progressive 9 c]ta9 p]iods ( _! hi/ory ?r\gh g5]al causes only3 b if !re _h be5 no ,mohamm$1 w\ld ,arabia h produc$ ,avic5na or ,av]roes1 or ,caliphs ( ,bagdad or ( ,cordova8 ,9 det]m9+1 h[ev]1 9 :at mann] & ord] ! progress ( mank9d %all take place if x take place at all1 mu* less dep5ds on ! "* ( individuals4 ,!re is a sort ( necessity e/abli%$ 9 ?is respect by ! g5]al laws ( human nature--by ! con/itution ( ! human m9d4 ,c]ta9 tru?s c n be discov]$1 nor inv5tions made1 unless c]ta9 o!rs h be5 made fir/2 c]ta9 social improvem5ts1 f ! nature ( ! case1 c only foll[1 & n prec$e1 o!rs4 ,! ord] ( human progress1 !re=e1 may to a c]ta9 ext5t h def9ite laws assign$ to x3 :ile z to its cel]ity1 or ev5 z to its tak+ place at all1 no g5]alization1 ext5d+ to ! human species g5]ally1 c possibly be made2 b only "s v prec>i\s approximate g5]alizations1 conf9$ to ! small portion ( mank9d 9 :om !re has be5 any ?+ l consecutive progress )9 ! hi/orical p]iod1 & d$uc$ f _! special position1 or collect$ f _! p>ticul> hi/ory4 ,ev5 look+ to ! mann] ( progress1 ! ord] ( succession ( social /ates1 !re is ne$ ( great flexibility 9 our g5]alizations4 ,! limits ( v>iation 9 ! possible developm5t ( social1 z ( animal life1 are a subject ( :i* little is yet und]/ood1 & are "o ( ! great problems 9 social sci5ce4 ,x is1 at all ev5ts1 a fact1 t diff]5t portions ( mank9d1 "u ! influ5ce ( diff]5t circum/ances1 h develop$ !mselves 9 a m or less diff]5t mann] & into diff]5t =ms2 & among ^! det]m9+ circum/ances1 ! individual "* ( _! great speculative ?9k]s or practical organiz]s may well h be5 "o4 ,:o c tell h[ pr(\ndly ! :ole subsequ5t hi/ory ( ,*9a may h be5 influ5c$ by ! individuality ( ,confucius8 & ( ,sp>ta 7& h5ce ( ,greece & ! _w7 by t ( ,lycurgus8 ,conc]n+ ! nature & ext5t ( :at a great man "u favorable circum/ances c d = mank9d1 z well z ( :at a gov]nm5t c d = a nation1 _m diff]5t op9ions are possible2 & e %ade ( op9ion on ^! po9ts is consi/5t ) ! fulle/ recognition t !re are inv>iable laws ( hi/orical ph5om5a4 ,( c\rse ! degree ( influ5ce :i* has to be assign$ to ^! m special ag5cies1 makes a great diff]5ce 9 ! precision :i* c be giv5 to ! g5]al laws1 & 9 ! confid5ce ) :i* pr$ictions c be gr\nd$ on !m4 ,:atev] dep5ds on ! peculi>ities ( individuals1 comb9$ ) ! accid5t ( ! positions !y hold1 is necess>ily incapable ( be+ =ese54 ,und\bt$ly ^! casual comb9ations might be elim9at$ l any o!rs1 by tak+ a suffici5tly l>ge cycle3 ! peculi>ities ( a great hi/orical "* make _! influ5ce felt 9 hi/ory sometimes = sev]al ?\s& ye>s1 b x is highly probable t !y w make no diff]5ce at all at ! end ( fifty millions4 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 we c n obta9 an av]age ( ! va/ l5g? ( "t necess>y to exhau/ all ! possible comb9ations ( great m5 & circum/ances1 z mu* ( ! law ( evolution ( human affairs z dep5ds ^u ?is av]age1 is & rema9s inaccessible to u2 & )9 ! next ?\s& ye>s1 :i* are ( consid]ably m importance to u ?an ! :ole rema9d] ( ! fifty millions1 ! favorable & unfavorable comb9ations :i* w occur w be to u purely accid5tal4 ,we c n =esee ! adv5t ( great m54 ,^? :o introduce new speculative ?\ghts or great practical conceptions into ! _w1 c n h _! epo* fix$ be=eh&4 ,:at sci5ce c d1 is ?is4 ,x c trace ?r\gh pa/ hi/ory ! g5]al causes :i* _h br\ght mank9d into t prelim9>y /ate :i*1 :5 ! "r sort ( great man appe>$1 r5d]$ !m accessible to 8 influ5ce4 ,if ?is /ate cont9ues1 exp]i5ce r5d]s x tol]ably c]ta9 t 9 a long] or %ort] p]iod ! great man w be produc$2 provid$ t ! g5]al circum/ances ( ! c\ntry & p are 7:i* v (t5 !y are n7 compatible ) 8 exi/5ce2 ( :i* po9t also1 sci5ce c 9 "s measure judge4 ,x is 9 ?is mann] t ! results ( progress1 except z to ! cel]ity ( _! production1 c be1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 r$uc$ to regul>ity & law4 ,& ! belief t !y c be s1 is equally consi/5t ) assign+ v great1 or v little efficacy1 to ! influ5ce ( exceptional m51 or ( ! acts ( gov]nm5ts4 ,& ! same may be said ( all o!r accid5ts & di/urb+ causes4 #d4 ,x w\ld nev]!less be a great error to assign only a trifl+ importance to ! ag5cy ( em95t individuals1 or ( gov]nm5ts4 ,x mu/ n be conclud$ t ! influ5ce ( ei!r is small1 because !y c n be/[ :at ! g5]al circum/ances ( society1 & ! c\rse ( its previ\s hi/ory1 h n prep>$ x to receive4 ,nei!r ?9k]s nor gov]nm5ts effect all t !y int5d1 b 9 comp5sation !y (t5 produce important results :i* !y did n 9 ! lea/ =esee4 ,great m51 & great actions1 are seldom wa/$2 !y s5d =? a ?\s& unse5 influ5ces1 m effective ?an ^? :i* are se52 & ?\gh n9e out ( e t5 ?+s done1 ) a good purpose1 by ^? :o are 9 advance ( _! age1 produce no mat]ial effect1 ! t5? ?+ produces effects tw5ty times z great z any "o w\ld h dream$ ( pr$ict+ f x4 ,ev5 ! m5 :o = want ( suffici5tly favorable circum/ances left no impress at all ^u _! own age1 h (t5 be5 ( ! greate/ value to po/]ity4 ,:o c\ld appe> to h liv$ m entirely 9 va9 ?an "s ( ! e>ly h]etics8 ,!y 7 burn$ or massacr$1 _! writ+s extirpat$1 _! memory ana!matiz$1 & _! v names & exi/5ce left = sev5 or eight c5turies 9 ! obscurity ( mu/y manuscripts--_! hi/ory to be ga!r$1 p]haps1 only f ! s5t5ces by :i* !y 7 condemn$4 ,yet ! memory ( ^! m5--m5 :o resi/$ c]ta9 pret5sions or c]ta9 dogmas ( ! ,*ur* 9 ! v age 9 :i* ! unanim\s ass5t ( ,*ri/5dom 0 aft]w>d claim$ z hav+ be5 giv5 to !m1 & ass]t$ z ! gr\nd ( _! au?ority--broke ! *a9 ( tradition1 e/abli%$ a s]ies ( prec$5ts = resi/ance1 inspir$ lat] ,re=m]s ) ! c\rage1 & arm$ !m ) ! weapons1 :i* !y ne$$ :5 mank9d 7 bett] prep>$ to foll[ _! impulse4 ,to ?is example f m51 let u add ano!r f gov]nm5ts4 ,! comp>atively enlight5$ rule ( :i* ,spa9 _h ! b5efit dur+ a consid]able "p ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 did n correct ! fundam5tal defects ( ! ,spani% p2 & 9 consequ5ce1 ?\gh x did great tempor>y good1 s mu* ( t good p]i%$ ) x1 t x may plausibly be affirm$ to h _h no p]man5t effect4 ,! case has be5 cit$ z a pro( h[ little gov]nm5ts c d 9 opposition to ! causes :i* h det]m9$ ! g5]al "* ( ! nation4 ,x does %[ h[ mu* !re is :i* !y c n d2 b n t !y c d no?+4 ,comp>e :at ,spa9 0 at ! beg9n+ ( t half-c5tury ( lib]al gov]nm5t1 ) :at %e _h become at its close4 ,t p]iod fairly let 9 ! light ( ,european ?\ght ^u ! m educat$ classes2 & x nev] aft]w>d ceas$ to g on spread+4 ,previ\s to t "t ! *ange 0 9 an inv]se direction2 culture1 light1 intellectual & ev5 mat]ial activity1 7 becom+ ext+ui%$4 ,0 x no?+ to arre/ ?is d[nw>d & conv]t x into an upw>d c\rse8 ,h[ mu* t ,*>les ! ,?ird & ,ar&a c\ld n d1 has be5 ! ultimate consequ5ce ( :at !y did6 ,to t half-c5tury ,spa9 owes t %e has got rid ( ! ,inquisition1 t %e has got rid ( ! monks1 t %e n[ has p>liam5ts & 7save 9 exceptional int]vals7 a free press1 & ! feel+s ( fre$om & citiz5%ip1 & is acquir+ railroads & all ! o!r con/itu5ts ( mat]ial & economical progress4 ,9 ! ,spa9 :i* prec$$ t era1 !re 0 n a s+le elem5t at "w :i* c\ld h l$ to ^! results 9 any l5g? ( "t1 if ! c\ntry _h cont9u$ to be gov]n$ z x 0 by ! la/ pr9ces ( ! ,au/rian dyna/y1 or if ! ,b\rbon rul]s _h be5 f ! fir/ :at1 bo? 9 ,spa9 & 9 ,naples1 !y aft]w>d became4 ,& if a gov]nm5t c d mu*1 ev5 :5 x seems to h done little1 9 caus+ positive improvem5t1 /ill great] are ! issues dep5d5t on x 9 ! way ( w>d+ (f evils1 bo? int]nal & ext]nal1 :i* else w\ld /op improvem5t altoge!r4 ,a good or a bad c\nselor1 9 a s+le city at a p>ticul> crisis1 has affect$ ! :ole subsequ5t fate ( ! _w4 ,x is z c]ta9 z any cont+5t judgm5t respect+ hi/orical ev5ts c be1 t if !re _h be5 no ,!mi/ocles !re w\ld h be5 no victory ( ,salamis2 & _h !re n1 :]e w\ld h be5 all our civilization8 ,h[ diff]5t1 aga91 w\ld h be5 ! issue if ,epam9ondas1 or ,timoleon1 or ev5 ,iphicrates1 in/ead ( ,*>es & ,lysicles1 _h comm&$ at ,*roneia4 ,z is well said 9 ! second ( two ,essays on ! ,/udy ( ,hi/ory17#bhf7 9 my judgm5t ! s\nde/ & mo/ philosophical productions :i* ! rec5t controv]sies on ?is subject h call$ =?1 hi/orical sci5ce au?orizes n absolute1 b only conditional pr$ictions4 ,g5]al causes c\nt = mu*1 b individuals also 8produce great *anges 9 hi/ory1 & color its :ole complexion long aft] _! dea?4444 ,no "o c d\bt t ! ,roman republic w\ld h subsid$ into a milit>y despotism if ,julius ,cs> _h nev] liv$0 7?us mu* 0 r5d]$ practically c]ta9 by g5]al causes72 8b is x at all cle> t 9 t case ,gaul w\ld ev] h =m$ a prov9ce ( ! empire8 ,might n ,v>us h lo/ 8 ?ree legions on ! banks ( ! ,rhone8 & might n t riv] h become ! fronti] in/ead ( ! ,rh9e8 ,?is might well h happ5$ if ,cs> & ,crassus _h *ang$ prov9ces2 & x is surely impossible to say t 9 su* an ev5t ! v5ue 7z lawy]s say7 ( ,european civilization might n h be5 *ang$4 ,! ,norman ,conque/ 9 ! same way 0 z mu* ! act ( a s+le man1 z ! writ+ ( a newspap] article2 & kn[+ z we d ! hi/ory ( t man & 8 family1 we c retrospectively pr$ict ) all b infallible c]ta9ty1 t no o!r p]son0 7no o!r 9 t age1 ,i presume1 is meant7 8c\ld h accompli%$ ! ent]prise4 ,if x _h n be5 accompli%$1 is !re any gr\nd to suppose t ei!r our hi/ory or our national "* w\ld h be5 :at !y are80 ,z is mo/ truly rem>k$ by ! same writ]1 ! :ole /ream ( ,grecian hi/ory1 z cle>$ up by ,mr4 ,grote1 is "o s]ies ( examples h[ (t5 ev5ts on :i* ! :ole de/9y ( subsequ5t civilization turn$1 7 dep5d5t on ! p]sonal "* = good or evil ( "s "o individual4 ,x mu/ be said1 h[ev]1 t ,greece furni%es ! mo/ extreme example ( ?is nature to be f\nd 9 hi/ory1 & is a v exagg]at$ specim5 ( ! g5]al t5d5cy4 ,x has happ5$ only t once1 & w probably nev] happ5 aga91 t ! =tunes ( mank9d dep5d$ ^u keep+ a c]ta9 ord] ( ?+s 9 exi/5ce 9 a s+le t[n1 or a c\ntry sc>cely l>g] ?an ,york%ire2 capable ( be+ ru9$ or sav$ by a hundr$ causes1 ( v slight magnitude 9 comp>ison ) ! g5]al t5d5cies ( human affairs4 ,nei!r ord9>y accid5ts1 nor ! *>act]s ( individuals1 c ev] aga9 be s vitally important z !y !n 74 ,! long] our species la/s1 & ! m civiliz$ x becomes1 ! m1 z ,comte rem>ks1 does ! influ5ce ( pa/ g5]ations ov] ! pres5t1 & ( mank9d en masse ov] e individual 9 x1 pr$om9ate ov] o!r =ces2 & ?\gh ! c\rse ( affairs nev] ceases to be susceptible ( alt]ation bo? by accid5ts & by p]sonal qualities1 ! increas+ prepond]ance ( ! collective ag5cy ( ! species ov] all m9or causes1 is con/antly br++ ! g5]al evolution ( ! race into some?+ :i* deviates less f a c]ta9 & preappo9t$ track4 ,hi/orical sci5ce1 !re=e1 is always becom+ m possible2 n solely because x is bett] /udi$1 b because1 9 e g5]ation1 x becomes bett] adapt$ = /udy4 ,*apt] ,,xii4 ,( ,! ,logic ,( ,practice1 ,or ,art2 ,includ+ ,morality ,& ,policy4 #a4 ,9 ! prec$+ *apt]s we h endeavor$ to *>act]ize ! pres5t /ate ( ^? among ! bran*es ( k call$ ,moral1 :i* are sci5ces 9 ! only prop] s5se ( ! t]m1 t is1 inquiries into ! c\rse ( nature4 ,x is cu/om>y1 h[ev]1 to include "u ! t]m moral k1 & ev5 7?\gh improp]ly7 "u t ( moral sci5ce1 an inquiry ! results ( :i* d n express !mselves 9 ! indicative1 b 9 ! imp]ative mood1 or 9 p]iphrases equival5t to x2 :at is call$ ! k ( duties2 practical e?ics1 or morality4 ,n[1 ! imp]ative mood is ! *>act]i/ic ( art1 z di/+ui%$ f sci5ce4 ,:atev] speaks 9 rules1 or precepts1 n 9 ass]tions respect+ matt]s ( fact1 is art2 & e?ics1 or morality1 is prop]ly a portion ( ! art correspond+ to ! sci5ces ( human nature & society47#bhg7 ,! ,me?od1 !re=e1 ( ,e?ics1 c be no o!r ?an t ( ,art1 or ,practice1 9 g5]al2 & ! portion yet uncomplet$ ( ! task :i* we propos$ to ourselves 9 ! conclud+ ,book1 is to *>act]ize ! g5]al ,me?od ( ,art1 z di/+ui%$ f ,sci5ce4 #b4 ,9 all bran*es ( practical bus9ess !re are cases 9 :i* individuals are b\nd to con=m _! practice to a pre-e/abli%$ rule1 :ile !re are o!rs 9 :i* x is "p ( _! task to f9d or con/ruct ! rule by :i* !y are to gov]n _! conduct4 ,! fir/1 = example1 is ! case ( a judge1 "u a def9ite writt5 code4 ,! judge is n call$ ^u to det]m9e :at c\rse w\ld be intr9sically ! mo/ advisable 9 ! p>ticul> case 9 h&1 b only )9 :at rule ( law x falls2 :at ! legislature has orda9$ to be done 9 ! k9d ( case1 & mu/ !re=e be presum$ to h int5d$ 9 ! individual case4 ,! me?od mu/ "h be :olly & exclusively "o ( ratioc9ation1 or syllogism2 & ! process is obvi\sly1 :at 9 our analysis ( ! syllogism we %[$ t all ratioc9ation is1 namely ! int]pretation ( a =mula4 ,9 ord] t our illu/ration ( ! opposite case may be tak5 f ! same class ( subjects z ! =m]1 we w suppose1 9 contra/ ) ! situation ( ! judge1 ! position ( ! legislator4 ,z ! judge has laws = 8 guidance1 s ! legislator has rules1 & maxims ( policy2 b x w\ld be a manife/ error to suppose t ! legislator is b\nd by ^! maxims 9 ! same mann] z ! judge is b\nd by ! laws1 & t all he has to d is to argue d[n f !m to ! p>ticul> case1 z ! judge does f ! laws4 ,! legislator is b\nd to take into consid]ation ! reasons or gr\nds ( ! maxim2 ! judge has no?+ to d ) ^? ( ! law1 except s f> z a consid]ation ( !m may ?r[ light ^u ! int5tion ( ! law-mak]1 :]e 8 words h left x d\btful4 ,to ! judge1 ! rule1 once positively asc]ta9$1 is f9al2 b ! legislator1 or o!r practition]1 :o goes by rules r ?an by _! reasons1 l ! old-fa%ion$ ,g]man tacticians :o 7 vanqui%$ by ,napoleon1 or ! physician :o pref]r$ t 8 pati5ts %\ld die by rule r ?an recov] contr>y to x1 is rightly judg$ to be a m]e p$ant1 & ! slave ( 8 =mulas4 ,n[1 ! reasons ( a maxim ( policy1 or ( any o!r rule ( art1 c be no o!r ?an ! !orems ( ! correspond+ sci5ce4 ,! relation 9 :i* rules ( art /& to doctr9es ( sci5ce may be ?us *>act]iz$4 ,! art proposes to itself an end to be atta9$1 def9es ! end1 & h&s x ov] to ! sci5ce4 ,! sci5ce receives x1 consid]s x z a ph5om5on or effect to be /udi$1 & hav+ inve/igat$ its causes & conditions1 s5ds x back to art ) a !orem ( ! comb9ation ( circum/ances by :i* x c\ld be produc$4 ,art !n exam9es ^! comb9ations ( circum/ances1 & accord+ z any ( !m are or are n 9 human p[]1 pron\nces ! end atta9able or n4 ,! only "o ( ! premises1 !re=e1 :i* ,art supplies1 is ! orig9al major premise1 :i* ass]ts t ! atta9m5t ( ! giv5 end is desirable4 ,sci5ce !n l5ds to ,art ! proposition 7obta9$ by a s]ies ( inductions or ( d$uctions7 t ! p]=mance ( c]ta9 actions w atta9 ! end4 ,f ^! premises ,art concludes t ! p]=mance ( ^! actions is desirable1 & f9d+ x also practicable1 conv]ts ! !orem into a rule or precept4 #c4 ,x des]ves p>ticul> notice1 t ! !orem or speculative tru? is n ripe = be+ turn$ into a precept1 until ! :ole1 & n a "p m]ely1 ( ! op]ation :i* belongs to sci5ce1 has be5 p]=m$4 ,suppose t we h complet$ ! sci5tific process only up to a c]ta9 po9t2 h discov]$ t a p>ticul> cause w produce ! desir$ effect1 b h n asc]ta9$ all ! negative conditions :i* are necess>y1 t is1 all ! circum/ances :i*1 if pres5t1 w\ld prev5t its production4 ,if1 9 ?is imp]fect /ate ( ! sci5tific !ory1 we attempt to frame a rule ( art1 we p]=m t op]ation prematurely4 ,:5ev] any c\nt]act+ cause1 ov]look$ by ! !orem1 takes place1 ! rule w be at fault2 we %all employ ! means & ! end w n foll[4 ,no argu+ f or ab\t ! rule itself w !n help u ?r\gh ! difficulty2 !re is no?+ = x b to turn back & f9i% ! sci5tific process :i* %\ld h prec$$ ! =mation ( ! rule4 ,we mu/ re-op5 ! inve/igation to inquire into ! rema9d] ( ! conditions on :i* ! effect dep5ds2 & only aft] we h asc]ta9$ ! :ole ( ^! are we prep>$ to trans=m ! complet$ law ( ! effect into a precept1 9 :i* ^? circum/ances or comb9ations ( circum/ances :i* ! sci5ce exhibits z conditions are prescrib$ z means4 ,x is true t1 = ! sake ( conv5i5ce1 rules mu/ be =m$ f some?+ less ?an ?is ideally p]fect !ory3 9 ! fir/ place1 because ! !ory c seldom be made ideally p]fect2 & next1 because1 if all ! c\nt]act+ cont+5cies1 :e!r ( frequ5t or ( r>e occurr5ce1 7 includ$1 ! rules w\ld be too cumbr\s to be appreh5d$ & rememb]$ by ord9>y capacities1 on ! common occasions ( life4 ,! rules ( art d n attempt to comprise m conditions ?an require to be att5d$ to 9 ord9>y cases2 & are !re=e always imp]fect4 ,9 ! manual arts1 :]e ! requisite conditions are n num]\s1 & :]e ^? :i* ! rules d n specify are g5]ally ei!r pla9 to common obs]vation or spe$ily le>n$ f practice1 rules may (t5 be safely act$ on by p]sons :o "k no?+ m ?an ! rule4 ,b 9 ! complicat$ affairs ( life1 & /ill m 9 ^? ( /ates & societies1 rules c n be reli$ on1 )\t con/antly ref]r+ back to ! sci5tific laws on :i* !y are f\nd$4 ,to "k :at are ! practical cont+5cies :i* require a modification ( ! rule1 or :i* are altoge!r exceptions to x1 is to "k :at comb9ations ( circum/ances w\ld int]f]e )1 or entirely c\nt]act1 ! consequ5ces ( ^? laws2 & ?is c only be le>n$ by a ref]5ce to ! !oretic gr\nds ( ! rule4 ,by a wise practition]1 !re=e1 rules ( conduct w only be consid]$ z provisional4 ,be+ made = ! mo/ num]\s cases1 or = ^? ( mo/ ord9>y occurr5ce1 !y po9t out ! mann] 9 :i* x w be lea/ p]il\s to act1 :]e "t or means d n exi/ = analyz+ ! actual circum/ances ( ! case1 or :]e we c n tru/ our judgm5t 9 e/imat+ !m4 ,b !y d n at all sup]s$e ! propriety ( go+ ?r\gh1 :5 circum/ances p]mit1 ! sci5tific process requisite = fram+ a rule f ! data ( ! p>ticul> case be=e u4 ,at ! same "t1 ! common rule may v prop]ly s]ve z an admonition t a c]ta9 mode ( action has be5 f\nd by ourselves & o!rs to be well adapt$ to ! cases ( mo/ common occurr5ce2 s t if x be unsuitable to ! case 9 h&1 ! reason ( its be+ s w be likely to arise f "s unusual circum/ance4 #d4 ,! error is !re=e app>5t ( ^? :o w\ld d$uce ! l9e ( conduct prop] to p>ticul> cases f suppos$ univ]sal practical maxims1 ov]look+ ! necessity ( con/antly ref]r+ back to ! pr9ciples ( ! speculative sci5ce1 9 ord] to be sure ( atta9+ ev5 ! specific end :i* ! rules h 9 view4 ,h[ mu* great] /ill1 !n1 mu/ ! error be1 ( sett+ up su* unb5d+ pr9ciples1 n m]ely z univ]sal rules = atta9+ a giv5 end1 b z rules ( conduct g5]ally1 )\t reg>d to ! possibility1 n only t "s modify+ cause may prev5t ! atta9m5t ( ! giv5 end by ! means :i* ! rule prescribes1 b t success itself may conflict ) "s o!r end1 :i* may possibly *ance to be m desirable4 ,?is is ! habitual error ( _m ( ! political speculators :om ,i h *>act]iz$ z ! geometrical s*ool2 especially 9 ,france1 :]e ratioc9ation f rules ( practice =ms ! /aple commodity ( j\rnalism & political oratory--a misappreh5sion ( ! functions ( ,d$uction :i* has br\ght mu* discr$it1 9 ! e/imation ( o!r c\ntries1 ^u ! _s ( g5]alization s honorably *>act]i/ic ( ! ,fr5* m9d4 ,! commonplaces ( politics 9 ,france are l>ge & sweep+ practical maxims1 f :i*1 z ultimate premises1 m5 reason d[nw>d to p>ticul> applications2 & ?is !y call be+ logical & consi/5t4 ,= in/ance1 !y are p]petually argu+ t su* & su* a measure ought to be adopt$1 because x is a consequ5ce ( ! pr9ciple on :i* ! =m ( gov]nm5t is f\nd$2 ( ! pr9ciple ( legitimacy1 or ! pr9ciple ( ! sov]eignty ( ! p4 ,to :i* x may be answ]$1 t if ^! be really practical pr9ciples1 !y mu/ re/ on speculative gr\nds2 ! sov]eignty ( ! p1 = example1 mu/ be a "r f\ndation = gov]nm5t1 because a gov]nm5t ?us con/itut$ t5ds to produce c]ta9 b5eficial effects4 ,inasmu*1 h[ev]1 z no gov]nm5t produces all possible b5eficial effects1 b all are att5d$ ) m or few] inconv5i5ces1 & s9ce ^! c n usually be combat$ by means drawn f ! v causes :i* produce !m1 x w\ld be (t5 a mu* /rong] recomm5dation ( "s practical arrangem5t1 t x does n foll[ f :at is call$ ! g5]al pr9ciple ( ! gov]nm5t1 ?an t x does4 ,"u a gov]nm5t ( legitimacy1 ! presumption is f> r 9 favor ( in/itutions ( popul> orig92 & 9 a democracy1 9 favor ( arrangem5ts t5d+ to *eck ! impetus ( popul> w4 ,! l9e ( augm5tation s commonly mi/ak5 9 ,france = political philosophy1 t5ds to ! practical conclusion t we %\ld ex]t our utmo/ ef=ts to aggravate1 in/ead ( alleviat+1 :atev] are ! *>act]i/ic imp]fections ( ! sy/em ( in/itutions :i* we pref]1 or "u :i* we happ5 to live4 #e4 ,! gr\nds1 !n1 ( e rule ( art1 are to be f\nd 9 ! !orems ( sci5ce4 ,an art1 or a body ( art1 consi/s ( ! rules1 toge!r ) z mu* ( ! speculative propositions z comprises ! ju/ification ( ^? rules4 ,! complete art ( any matt] includes a selection ( su* a portion f ! sci5ce z is necess>y to %[ on :at conditions ! effects1 :i* ! art aims at produc+1 dep5d4 ,& ,art 9 g5]al1 consi/s ( ! tru?s ( ,sci5ce1 arrang$ 9 ! mo/ conv5i5t ord] = practice1 in/ead ( ! ord] :i* is ! mo/ conv5i5t = ?\ght4 ,sci5ce gr\ps & arranges its tru?s1 s z to enable u to take 9 at "o view z mu* z possible ( ! g5]al ord] ( ! univ]se4 ,art1 ?\gh x mu/ assume ! same g5]al laws1 foll[s !m only into su* ( _! detail$ consequ5ces z h l$ to ! =mation ( rules ( conduct2 & br+s toge!r f p>ts ( ! field ( sci5ce mo/ remote f "o ano!r1 ! tru?s relat+ to ! production ( ! diff]5t & het]og5e\s conditions necess>y to ea* effect :i* ! exig5cies ( practical life require to be produc$47#bhh7 ,sci5ce1 !re=e1 foll[+ "o cause to its v>i\s effects1 :ile art traces "o effect to its multipli$ & div]sifi$ causes & conditions1 !re is ne$ ( a set ( int]m$iate sci5tific tru?s1 d]iv$ f ! high] g5]alities ( sci5ce1 & de/9$ to s]ve z ! g5]alia or fir/ pr9ciples ( ! v>i\s arts4 ,! sci5tific op]ation ( fram+ ^! int]m$iate pr9ciples1 ,m4 ,comte *>act]izes z "o ( ^? results ( philosophy :i* are res]v$ = futurity4 ,! only complete example :i* he po9ts out z actually realiz$1 & :i* c be held up z a type to be imitat$ 9 m important matt]s1 is ! g5]al !ory ( ! art ( ,descriptive ,geometry1 z conceiv$ by ,m4 ,monge4 ,x is n1 h[ev]1 difficult to und]/& :at ! nature ( ^! int]m$iate pr9ciples mu/ g5]ally be4 ,aft] fram+ ! mo/ compreh5sive possible conception ( ! end to be aim$ at1 t is1 ( ! effect to be produc$1 & det]m9+ 9 ! same compreh5sive mann] ! set ( conditions on :i* t effect dep5ds1 !re rema9s to be tak51 a g5]al survey ( ! res\rces :i* c be comm&$ = realiz+ ?is set ( conditions2 & :5 ! result ( ?is survey has be5 embodi$ 9 ! fewe/ & mo/ ext5sive propositions possible1 ^? propositions w express ! g5]al relation betwe5 ! available means & ! end1 & w con/itute ! g5]al sci5tific !ory ( ! art1 f :i* its practical me?ods w foll[ z coroll>ies4 #f4 ,b ?\gh ! reason+s :i* connect ! end or purpose ( e art ) its means belong to ! doma9 ( ,sci5ce1 ! def9ition ( ! end itself belongs exclusively to ,art1 & =ms its peculi> prov9ce4 ,e art has "o fir/ pr9ciple1 or g5]al major premise1 n borr[$ f sci5ce2 t :i* enunciates ! object aim$ at1 & affirms x to be a desirable object4 ,! build]'s art assumes t x is desirable to h build+s2 ar*itecture1 z "o ( ! f9e arts1 t x is desirable to h !m beautiful or impos+4 ,! hygi5ic & m$ical arts assume1 ! "o t ! pres]vation ( heal?1 ! o!r t ! cure ( disease1 are fitt+ & desirable ends4 ,^! are n propositions ( sci5ce4 ,propositions ( sci5ce ass]t a matt] ( fact3 an exi/5ce1 a co-exi/5ce1 a succession1 or a resemblance4 ,! propositions n[ spok5 ( d n ass]t t any ?+ is1 b enjo9 or recomm5d t some?+ %\ld be4 ,!y are a class by !mselves4 ,a proposition ( :i* ! pr$icate is express$ by ! words ought or %\ld be1 is g5]ically diff]5t f "o :i* is express$ by is1 or w be4 ,x is true1 t 9 ! l>ge/ s5se ( ! words1 ev5 ^! propositions ass]t some?+ z a matt] ( fact4 ,! fact affirm$ 9 !m is1 t ! conduct recomm5d$ excites 9 ! speak]'s m9d ! feel+ ( approbation4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 does n g to ! bottom ( ! matt]2 = ! speak]'s approbation is no suffici5t reason :y o!r p %\ld approve2 nor ought x to be a conclusive reason ev5 ) himself4 ,= ! purposes ( practice1 e "o mu/ be requir$ to ju/ify 8 approbation2 & = ?is !re is ne$ ( g5]al premises1 det]m9+ :at are ! prop] objects ( approbation1 & :at ! prop] ord] ( prec$5ce among ^? objects4 ,^! g5]al premises1 toge!r ) ! pr9cipal conclusions :i* may be d$uc$ f !m1 =m 7or r might =m7 a body ( doctr9e1 :i* is prop]ly ! ,art ( ,life1 9 its ?ree dep>tm5ts1 ,morality1 ,prud5ce or ,policy1 & /hetics2 ! ,"r1 ! ,exp$i5t1 & ! ,beautiful or ,noble1 9 human conduct & works4 ,to ?is art 7:i*1 9 ! ma91 is un=tunately /ill to be creat$71 all o!r arts are subord9ate2 s9ce its pr9ciples are ^? :i* mu/ det]m9e :e!r ! special aim ( any p>ticul> art is wor?y & desirable1 & :at is its place 9 ! scale ( desirable ?+s4 ,e art is ?us a jo9t result ( laws ( nature disclos$ by sci5ce1 & ( ! g5]al pr9ciples ( :at has be5 call$ ,teleology1 or ! ,doctr9e ( ,ends27#bhi7 :i*1 borr[+ ! language ( ! ,g]man metaphysicians1 may also be t]m$1 n improp]ly1 ! pr9ciples ( ,practical ,reason4 ,a sci5tific obs]v] or reason]1 m]ely z su*1 is n an advis] = practice4 ,8 "p is only to %[ t c]ta9 consequ5ces foll[ f c]ta9 causes1 & t to obta9 c]ta9 ends1 c]ta9 means are ! mo/ effectual4 ,:e!r ! ends !mselves are su* z ought to be pursu$1 & if s1 9 :at cases & to h[ great a l5g?1 x is no "p ( 8 bus9ess z a cultivator ( sci5ce to decide1 & sci5ce alone w nev] qualify him = ! decision4 ,9 purely physical sci5ce1 !re is n mu* temptation to assume ?is ult]ior (fice2 b ^? :o treat ( human nature & society inv>iably claim x3 !y always und]take to say1 n m]ely :at is1 b :at ought to be4 ,to entitle !m to d ?is1 a complete doctr9e ( ,teleology is indisp5sable4 ,a sci5tific !ory1 h[ev] p]fect1 ( ! subject-matt]1 consid]$ m]ely z "p ( ! ord] ( nature1 c 9 no degree s]ve z a sub/itute4 ,9 ?is respect ! v>i\s subord9ate arts af=d a mislead+ analogy4 ,9 !m !re is seldom any visible necessity = ju/ify+ ! end1 s9ce 9 g5]al its desirabl5ess is d5i$ by nobody1 & x is only :5 ! "q ( prec$5ce is to be decid$ betwe5 t end & "s o!r1 t ! g5]al pr9ciples ( ,teleology h to be call$ 92 b a writ] on ,morals & ,politics requires ^? pr9ciples at e /ep4 ,! mo/ elaborate & well-dige/$ exposition ( ! laws ( succession & co-exi/5ce among m5tal or social ph5om5a1 & ( _! relation to "o ano!r z causes & effects1 w be ( no avail t[>d ! art ( ,life or ( ,society1 if ! ends to be aim$ at by t art are left to ! vague sugge/ions ( ! intellectus sibi p]missus1 or are tak5 = grant$ )\t analysis or que/ion+4 #g4 ,!re is1 !n1 a philosophia prima peculi> to ,art1 z !re is "o :i* belongs to ,sci5ce4 ,!re are n only fir/ pr9ciples ( ,k1 b fir/ pr9ciples ( ,conduct4 ,!re mu/ be "s /&>d by :i* to det]m9e ! goodness or badness1 absolute & comp>ative1 ( ends1 or objects ( desire4 ,& :atev] t /&>d is1 !re c be b "o2 = if !re 7 sev]al ultimate pr9ciples ( conduct1 ! same conduct might be approv$ by "o ( ^? pr9ciples & condemn$ by ano!r2 & !re w\ld be ne$$ "s m g5]al pr9ciple1 z umpire betwe5 !m4 ,accord+ly1 writ]s on ,moral ,philosophy h mo/ly felt ! necessity n only ( ref]r+ all rules ( conduct1 & all judgm5ts ( praise & blame1 to pr9ciples1 b ( ref]r+ !m to "s "o pr9ciple2 "s rule1 or /&>d1 ) :i* all o!r rules ( conduct 7 requir$ to be consi/5t1 & f :i* by ultimate consequ5ce !y c\ld all be d$uc$4 ,^? :o h disp5s$ ) ! assumption ( su* a univ]sal /&>d1 h only be5 enabl$ to d s by suppos+ t a moral s5se1 or in/9ct1 inh]5t 9 our con/itution1 in=ms u1 bo? :at pr9ciples ( conduct we are b\nd to obs]ve1 & also 9 :at ord] ^! %\ld be subord9at$ to "o ano!r4 ,! !ory ( ! f\ndations ( morality is a subject :i* x w\ld be out ( place1 9 a "w l ?is1 to discuss at l>ge1 & :i* c\ld n to any useful purpose be treat$ incid5tally4 ,i %all cont5t myself1 !re=e1 ) say+1 t ! doctr9e ( intuitive moral pr9ciples1 ev5 if true1 w\ld provide only = t portion ( ! field ( conduct :i* is prop]ly call$ moral4 ,= ! rema9d] ( ! practice ( life "s g5]al pr9ciple1 or /&>d1 mu/ /ill be s\ght2 & if t pr9ciple be rightly *os51 x w be f\nd1 ,i appreh5d1 to s]ve q z well = ! ultimate pr9ciple ( ,morality1 z = t ( ,prud5ce1 ,policy1 or ,ta/e4 ,)\t attempt+ 9 ?is place to ju/ify my op9ion1 or ev5 to def9e ! k9d ( ju/ification :i* x admits (1 ,i m]ely decl>e my conviction1 t ! g5]al pr9ciple to :i* all rules ( practice ought to con=m1 & ! te/ by :i* !y %\ld be tri$1 is t ( conduciv5ess to ! happ9ess ( mank9d1 or r1 ( all s5ti5t be+s2 9 o!r words1 t ! promotion ( happ9ess is ! ultimate pr9ciple ( ,teleology47#bij7 ,i d n mean to ass]t t ! promotion ( happ9ess %\ld be itself ! end ( all actions1 or ev5 ( all rules ( action4 ,x is ! ju/ification1 & ought to be ! controll]1 ( all ends1 b x is n itself ! sole end4 ,!re are _m virtu\s actions1 & ev5 virtu\s modes ( action 7?\gh ! cases are1 ,i ?9k1 less frequ5t ?an is (t5 suppos$71 by :i* happ9ess 9 ! p>ticul> in/ance is sacrific$1 m pa9 be+ produc$ ?an pleasure4 ,b conduct ( :i* ?is c be truly ass]t$1 admits ( ju/ification only because x c be %[n t1 on ! :ole1 m happ9ess w exi/ 9 ! _w1 if feel+s are cultivat$ :i* w make p1 9 c]ta9 cases1 reg>dless ( happ9ess4 ,i fully admit t ?is is true2 t ! cultivation ( an ideal nobl5ess ( w & conduct %\ld be to individual human be+s an end1 to :i* ! specific pursuit ei!r ( _! own happ9ess or ( t ( o!rs 7except s f> z includ$ 9 t idea7 %\ld1 9 any case ( conflict1 give way4 ,b ,i hold t ! v "q1 :at con/itutes ?is elevation ( "*1 is itself to be decid$ by a ref]5ce to happ9ess z ! /&>d4 ,! "* itself %\ld be1 to ! individual1 a p>am\nt end1 simply because ! exi/5ce ( ?is ideal nobl5ess ( "*1 or ( a ne> approa* to x1 9 any abundance1 w\ld g f>!r ?an all ?+s else t[>d mak+ human life happy1 bo? 9 ! comp>atively humble s5se ( pleasure & fre$om f pa91 & 9 ! high] mean+1 ( r5d]+ life1 n :at x n[ is almo/ univ]sally1 pu]ile & insignificant1 b su* z human be+s ) highly develop$ faculties c c>e to h4 #h4 ,) ^! rem>ks we mu/ close ?is summ>y view ( ! application ( ! g5]al logic ( sci5tific inquiry to ! moral & social dep>tm5ts ( sci5ce4 ,not)/&+ ! extreme g5]ality ( ! pr9ciples ( me?od :i* ,i h laid d[n 7a g5]ality :i*1 ,i tru/1 is n1 9 ?is in/ance1 synonym\s ) vagu5ess71 ,i h indulg$ ! hope t to "s ( ^? on :om ! task w devolve ( br++ ^? mo/ important ( all sci5ces into a m satisfactory /ate1 ^! obs]vations may be useful1 bo? 9 remov+ errone\s1 & 9 cle>+ up ! true1 conceptions ( ! means by :i*1 on subjects ( s high a degree ( complication1 tru? c be atta9$4 ,%\ld ?is hope be realiz$1 :at is probably de/9$ to be ! great intellectual a*ievem5t ( ! next two or ?ree g5]ations ( ,european ?9k]s w h be5 9 "s degree =w>d$4 ,,! ,,end4 ,,footnotes #a ,9 ! lat] editions ( ,ar*bi%op ,:ately's 8,logic10 he /ates 8 mean+ to be1 n t 8rules0 = ! asc]ta9m5t ( tru?s by inductive inve/igation c n be laid d[n1 or t !y may n be 8( em95t s]vice10 b t !y 8mu/ always be comp>atively vague & g5]al1 & incapable ( be+ built up into a regul> demon/rative !ory l t ( ! ,syllogism40 7,book iv41 *4 iv41 #c47 ,& he obs]ves1 t to devise a sy/em = ?is purpose1 capable ( be+ 8br\ght into a sci5tific =m10 w\ld be an a*ievem5t :i* 8he mu/ be m sangu9e ?an sci5tific :o expects40 7,book iv41 *4 ii41 #d47 ,to effect ?is1 h[ev]1 be+ ! express object ( ! portion ( ! pres5t "w :i* treats ( ,induction1 ! words 9 ! text are no ov]/atem5t ( ! diff]5ce ( op9ion betwe5 ,ar*bi%op ,:ately & me on ! subject4 #b ,n[ =m+ a *apt] 9 8 volume on 8,! ,philosophy ( ,discov]y40 #c ,ar*bi%op ,:ately4 #d ,i use ^! t]ms indiscrim9ately1 because1 = ! purpose 9 view1 !re is no ne$ = mak+ any di/9ction betwe5 !m4 ,b metaphysicians usually re/rict ! "n ,intuition to ! direct k we are suppos$ to h ( ?+s ext]nal to our m9ds1 & ,consci\sness to our k ( our own m5tal ph5om5a4 #e ,?is important !ory has ( late be5 call$ 9 "q by a writ] ( des]v$ reputation1 ,mr4 ,samuel ,bailey2 b ,i d n conceive t ! gr\nds on :i* x has be5 admitt$ z an e/abli%$ doctr9e = a c5tury pa/1 h be5 at all %ak5 by t g5tleman's objections4 ,i h else:]e said :at appe>$ to me necess>y 9 reply to 8 argum5ts4 7,we/m9/] ,review = ,octob]1 #ahdb2 repr9t$ 9 8,diss]tations & ,discussions10 vol4 ii47 #f ,! view tak5 9 ! text1 ( ! def9ition & purpose ( ,logic1 /&s 9 m>k$ opposition to t ( ! s*ool ( philosophy :i*1 9 ?is c\ntry1 is repres5t$ by ! writ+s ( ,sir ,william ,hamilton & ( 8 num]\s pupils4 ,logic1 z ?is s*ool conceives x1 is 8! ,sci5ce ( ! ,=mal ,laws ( ,?\ght20 a def9ition fram$ = ! express purpose ( exclud+1 z irrelevant to ,logic1 :atev] relates to ,belief & ,disbelief1 or to ! pursuit ( tru? z su*1 & re/rict+ ! sci5ce to t v limit$ portion ( its total prov9ce1 :i* has ref]5ce to ! conditions1 n ( ,tru?1 b ( ,consi/5cy4 ,:at ,i h ?\ght x useful to say 9 opposition to ?is limitation ( ! field ( ,logic1 has be5 said at "s l5g? 9 a sep>ate "w1 fir/ publi%$ 9 #ahfe1 & entitl$ 8,an ,exam9ation ( ,sir ,william ,hamilton's ,philosophy1 & ( ! ,pr9cipal ,philosophical ,que/ions discuss$ 9 8 ,writ+s40 ,= ! purposes ( ! pres5t ,treatise1 ,i am cont5t t ! ju/ification ( ! l>g] ext5sion :i* ,i give to ! doma9 ( ! sci5ce1 %\ld re/ on ! sequel ( ! ,treatise itself4 ,"s rem>ks on ! relation :i* ! ,logic ( ,consi/5cy be>s to ! ,logic ( ,tru?1 & on ! place :i* t p>ticul> "p occupies 9 ! :ole to :i* x belongs1 w be f\nd 9 ! pres5t volume 7,book ,,ii41 *ap4 iii41 #i74 #g ,computation or ,logic1 *ap4 ii4 #h ,9 ! orig9al 8_h1 or _h n40 ,^! la/ words1 z involv+ a subtlety =eign to our pres5t purpose1 ,i h =borne to quote4 #i ,vide infra1 note at ! end ( #c1 book ii41 *ap4 ii4 #aj ,not>e1 to m>k2 connot>e1 to m>k along )2 to m>k "o ?+ ) or 9 addition to ano!r4 #aa ,ar*bi%op ,:ately1 :o1 9 ! lat] editions ( 8 ,elem5ts ( ,logic1 aid$ 9 reviv+ ! important di/9ction treat$ ( 9 ! text1 proposes ! t]m 8,attributive0 z a sub/itute = 8,connotative0 7p4 #bb1 #i? edit474 ,! expression is1 9 itself1 appropriate2 b z x has n ! advantage ( be+ connect$ ) any v]b1 ( s m>k$ly di/9ctive a "* z 8to connote10 x is n1 ,i ?9k1 fitt$ to supply ! place ( ! ^w ,connotative 9 sci5tific use4 #ab ,a writ] :o entitles 8 book ,philosophy2 or1 ! ,sci5ce ( ,tru?1 *>ges me 9 8 v fir/ page 7ref]r+ at ! foot ( x to ?is passage7 ) ass]t+ t g5]al names h prop]ly no signification4 ,& he repeats ?is /atem5t _m times 9 ! c\rse ( 8 volume1 ) comm5ts1 n at all flatt]+1 !reon4 ,x is well to be n[ & !n rem9d$ to h[ great a l5g? p]v]se misquotation 7=1 /range z x appe>s1 ,i d n believe t ! writ] is di%one/7 c sometimes g4 ,x is a w>n+ to read]s :5 !y see an au?or accus$1 ) volume & page ref]r$ to1 & ! app>5t gu>antee ( inv]t$ commas1 ( ma9ta9+ some?+ m ?an commonly absurd1 n to give implicit cr$5ce to ! ass]tion )\t v]ify+ ! ref]5ce4 #ac 8,take ! famili> t]m ,/one4 ,x is appli$ to m9]al & rocky mat]ials1 to ! k]nels ( fruit1 to ! accumulations 9 ! gall-bladd] & 9 ! kidney2 :ile x is refus$ to poli%$ m9]als 7call$ gems71 to rocks t h ! cleavage suit$ = ro(+ 7slates71 & to bak$ clay 7bricks74 ,x occurs 9 ! designation ( ! magnetic oxide ( iron 7load/one71 & n 9 speak+ ( o!r metallic ores4 ,su* a t]m is :olly unfit = accurate reason+1 unless h$g$ r\nd on e occasion by o!r phrases2 z build+ /one1 preci\s /one1 gall-/one1 etc4 ,moreov]1 ! me?ods ( def9ition are baffl$ = want ( suffici5t community to gr\nd ^u4 ,!re is no quality uni=mly pres5t 9 ! cases :]e x is appli$1 & uni=mly abs5t :]e x is n appli$2 h5ce ! def9] w\ld h to employ l>gely ! lic5se ( /rik+ (f exi/+ applications1 & tak+ 9 new ones40--,,ba91 ,logic1 ii41 #agb4 #ad ,be=e quitt+ ! subject ( connotative names1 x is prop] to obs]ve1 t ! fir/ writ] :o1 9 our times1 has adopt$ f ! s*oolm5 ! ^w to connote1 ,mr4 ,james ,mill1 9 8 ,analysis ( ! ,ph5om5a ( ! ,human ,m9d1 employs x 9 a signification diff]5t f t 9 :i* x is "h us$4 ,he uses ! ^w 9 a s5se co-ext5sive ) its etymology1 apply+ x to e case 9 :i* a "n1 :ile po9t+ directly to "o ?+ 7:i* is consequ5tly t]m$ its signification71 includes also a tacit ref]5ce to "s o!r ?+4 ,9 ! case consid]$ 9 ! text1 t ( concrete g5]al names1 8 language & m9e are ! conv]se ( "o ano!r4 ,consid]+ 7v ju/ly7 ! signification ( ! "n to lie 9 ! attribute1 he speaks ( ! ^w z not+ ! attribute1 & connot+ ! ?+s possess+ ! attribute4 ,& he describes ab/ract names z be+ prop]ly concrete names ) _! connotation dropp$2 :]eas1 9 my view1 x is ! denotation :i* w\ld be said to be dropp$1 :at 0 previ\sly connot$ becom+ ! :ole signification4 ,9 adopt+ a phraseology at v>iance ) t :i* s high an au?ority1 & "o :i* ,i am less likely ?an any o!r p]son to und]value1 has delib]ately sanction$1 ,i h be5 influ5c$ by ! urg5t necessity = a t]m exclusively appropriat$ to express ! mann] 9 :i* a concrete g5]al "n s]ves to m>k ! attributes :i* are involv$ 9 its signification4 ,?is necessity c sc>cely be felt 9 its full =ce by any "o :o has n f\nd by exp]i5ce h[ va9 is ! attempt to communicate cle> ideas on ! philosophy ( language )\t su* a ^w4 ,x is h>dly an exagg]ation to say1 t "s ( ! mo/ preval5t ( ! errors ) :i* logic has be5 infect$1 & a l>ge "p ( ! cl\d9ess & confusion ( ideas :i* h envelop$ x1 w\ld1 9 all probability1 h be5 avoid$1 if a t]m _h be5 9 common use to express exactly :at ,i h signifi$ by ! t]m to connote4 ,& ! s*oolm51 to :om we are indebt$ = ! great] "p ( our logical language1 gave u ?is also1 & 9 ?is v s5se4 ,= ?\gh "s ( _! g5]al expressions c\nt5ance ! use ( ! ^w 9 ! m ext5sive & vague acceptation 9 :i* x is tak5 by ,mr4 ,mill1 yet :5 !y _h to def9e x specifically z a te*nical t]m1 & to fix its mean+ z su*1 ) t admirable precision :i* always *>act]izes _! def9itions1 !y cle>ly expla9$ t no?+ 0 said to be connot$ except =ms1 :i* ^w may g5]ally1 9 _! writ+s1 be und]/ood z synonym\s ) attributes4 ,n[1 if ! ^w to connote1 s well suit$ to ! purpose to :i* !y appli$ x1 be div]t$ f t purpose by be+ tak5 to fulfill ano!r1 = :i* x does n seem to me to be at all requir$2 ,i am unable to f9d any expression to replace x1 b su* z are commonly employ$ 9 a s5se s mu* m g5]al1 t x w\ld be useless attempt+ to associate !m peculi>ly ) ?is precise idea4 ,su* are ! words1 to involve1 to imply1 etc4 ,by employ+ ^!1 ,i %\ld fail ( atta9+ ! object = :i* alone ! "n is ne$$1 namely1 to di/+ui% ?is p>ticul> k9d ( involv+ & imply+ f all o!r k9ds1 & to assure to x ! degree ( habitual att5tion :i* its importance dem&s4 #ae ,pr(essor ,ba9 7,logic1 i41 #ef7 ?9ks t negative names are n names ( all ?+s :atev] except ^? d5ot$ by ! correlative positive "n1 b only = all ?+s ( "s p>ticul> class3 n-:ite1 = in/ance1 he deems n to be a "n = e ?+ 9 nature except :ite ?+s1 b only = e color$ ?+ o!r ?an :ite4 ,9 ?is case1 h[ev]1 z 9 all o!rs1 ! te/ ( :at a "n d5otes is :at x c be pr$icat$ (3 & we c c]ta9ly pr$icate ( a s\nd1 or a smell1 t x is n :ite4 ,! affirmation & ! negation ( ! same attribute c n b divide ! :ole field ( pr$ication betwe5 !m4 #af ,or r1 all objects except itself & ! p]cipi5t m9d2 =1 z we %all see h]eaft]1 to ascribe any attribute to an object1 necess>ily implies a m9d to p]ceive x4 ,! simple & cle> explanation giv5 9 ! text1 ( relation & relative names1 a subject s long ! opprobrium ( metaphysics1 0 giv5 7z f> z ,i "k7 = ! fir/ "t1 by ,mr4 ,james ,mill1 9 8 ,analysis ( ! ,ph5om5a ( ! ,human ,m9d4 #ag ,on ! prec$+ passage ,pr(essor ,ba9 rem>ks 7,logic1 i41 #bfe73 8,! ,categories d n seem to h be5 int5d$ z a classification ( ,namable ,?+s1 9 ! s5se ( #8an enum]ation ( all k9ds ( ,?+s :i* are capable ( be+ made pr$icates1 or ( hav+ any ?+ pr$icat$ ( !m4' ,!y seem to h be5 r int5d$ z a g5]alization ( pr$icates2 an analysis ( ! f9al import ( pr$ication4 ,view$ 9 ?is light1 !y are n op5 to ! objections (f]$ by ,mr4 ,mill4 ,! prop] "q to ask is n--,9 :at ,category are we to place s5sations or o!r feel+s or /ates ( m9d8 b1 ,"u :at ,categories c we pr$icate reg>d+ /ates ( m9d8 ,take1 = example1 ,hope4 ,:5 we say t x is a /ate ( m9d1 we pr$icate ,sub/ance3 we may also describe h[ great x is 7,quantity71 :at is ! quality ( x1 pleasurable or pa9ful 7,quality71 :at x has ref]5ce to 7,relation74 ,ari/otle seems to h fram$ ! ,categories on ! plan--,"h is an individual2 :at is ! f9al analysis ( all t we c pr$icate ab\t him80 ,?is is d\btless a true /atem5t ( ! lead+ idea 9 ! classification4 ,! ,category 0 c]ta9ly und]/ood by ,ari/otle to be a g5]al "n = all possible answ]s to ! "q ,quid sit8 :5 ask$ respect+ a concrete individual2 z ! o!r ,categories are names compreh5d+ all possible answ]s to ! que/ions ,quantum sit8 ,quale sit8 etc4 ,9 ,ari/otle's conception1 !re=e1 ! ,categories may n h be5 a classification ( ,?+s2 b !y 7 soon conv]t$ into "o by 8 ,s*ola/ic foll[]s1 :o c]ta9ly reg>d$ & treat$ !m z a classification ( ,?+s1 & c>ri$ !m out z su*1 divid+ d[n ! ,category ,sub/ance z a naturali/ might d1 into ! diff]5t classes ( physical or metaphysical objects z di/+ui%$ f attributes1 & ! o!r ,categories into ! pr9cipal v>ieties ( quantity1 quality1 relation1 etc4 ,x is1 !re=e1 a j subject ( compla9t aga9/ !m1 t !y _h no ,category ( ,feel+4 ,feel+ is assur$ly pr$icable z a summum g5us1 ( e p>ticul> k9d ( feel+1 = in/ance1 z 9 ,mr4 ,ba9's example1 ( ,hope3 b x c n be br\ght )9 any ( ! ,categories z int]pret$ ei!r by ,ari/otle or by 8 foll[]s4 #ah ,philosophy ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces1 vol4 i41 p4 #dj4 #ai ,discussions on ,philosophy1 etc4 ,app5dix ,i41 pp4 #fdc1 #fdd4 #bj ,x is to be regrett$ t ,sir ,william ,hamilton1 ?\gh he (t5 /r5u\sly insi/s on ?is doctr9e1 & ?\gh1 9 ! passage quot$1 he /ates x ) a compreh5siv5ess & =ce :i* leave no?+ to be desir$1 did n consi/5tly adh]e to 8 own doctr9e1 b ma9ta9$ along ) x op9ions ) :i* x is utt]ly irreconcilable4 ,see ! ?ird & o!r *apt]s ( ,an ,exam9ation ( ,sir ,william ,hamilton's ,philosophy4 #ba 8,n\s savons qu'il exi/e quelque *ose hors de n\s1 p>ceque n\s ne p\vons expliqu] nos p]ceptions sans les ratta*] des causes di/9ctes de n\s mmes2 n\s savons de plus que ces causes1 dont n\s ne connaissons pas d'ailleurs l'ess5ce1 produis5t les effets les plus v>iables1 les plus div]s1 et mme les plus contraires1 selon qu'elles r5contr5t telle nature ou telle disposition du sujet4 ,mais savons-n\s quelque *ose de plus8 et mme1 vu le c>actre indt]m9 des causes que n\s concevons dans les corps1 y a-t-il quelque *ose de plus savoir8 ,y a-t-il lieu de n\s enqurir si n\s p]cevons les *oses telles qu'elles sont8 ,non videmm5t4444 ,je ne dis pas que le problme e/ insoluble1 je dis qu'il e/ absurde et enf]me une contradiction4 ,n\s ne savons pas ce que ces causes sont en elles-mmes1 et la raison n\s df5d de *]*] le connatre3 mais il e/ bi5 vid5t priori1 qu'elles ne sont pas en elles-mmes ce qu'elles sont p> rapport n\s1 puisque la prs5ce du sujet modifie ncessairem5t leur action4 ,supprimez t\t sujet s5tant1 il e/ c]ta9 que ces causes agirai5t encore puisqu'elles cont9u]ai5t d'exi/]2 mais elles agirai5t autrem5t2 elles s]ai5t encore des qualits et des proprits1 mais qui ne ressembl]ai5t ri5 de ce que n\s connaissons4 ,le feu ne manife/]ait plus aucune des proprits que n\s lui connaissons3 que s]ait-il8 ,c'e/ ce que n\s ne saurons jamais4 ,c'e/ d'ailleurs peut-tre un problme qui ne rpugne pas seulem5t la nature de notre esprit1 mais l'ess5ce mme des *oses4 ,qu& mme en effet on supprim]ait p> le p5se t\s les sujets s5tants1 il faudrait encore admettre que nul corps ne manife/]ait ses proprits autrem5t qu'en relation avec un sujet quelconque1 et dans ce cas ses proprits ne s]ai5t encore que relatives3 en sorte qu'il me p>at =t raisonnable d'admettre que les proprits dt]m9es des corps n'exi/5t pas indp5damm5t d'un sujet quelconque1 et que qu& on dem&e si les proprits de la mati]e sont telles que n\s les p]cevons1 il faudrait voir aup>avant si elles sont en tant que dt]m9es1 et dans quel s5s il e/ vrai de dire qu'elles sont40--,c\rs d',hi/oire de la ,philosophie ,morale au #ahme sicle1 #hme leon4 #bb ,an attempt1 inde$1 has be5 made by ,reid & o!rs1 to e/abli% t al?\gh "s ( ! prop]ties we ascribe to objects exi/ only 9 our s5sations1 o!rs exi/ 9 ! ?+s !mselves1 be+ su* z c n possibly be copies ( any impression ^u ! s5ses2 & !y ask1 f :at s5sations our notions ( ext5sion & figure h be5 d]iv$8 ,! gauntlet ?r[n d[n by ,reid 0 tak5 up by ,br[n1 :o1 apply+ great] p[]s ( analysis ?an _h previ\sly be5 appli$ to ! notions ( ext5sion & figure1 po9t$ out t ! s5sations f :i* ^? notions are d]iv$1 are s5sations ( t\*1 comb9$ ) s5sations ( a class previ\sly too little adv]t$ to by metaphysicians1 ^? :i* h _! seat 9 our muscul> frame4 ,8 analysis1 :i* 0 adopt$ & foll[$ up by ,james ,mill1 has be5 fur!r & greatly improv$ ^u 9 ,pr(essor ,ba9's pr(\nd "w1 ,! ,s5ses & ! ,intellect1 & 9 ! *apt]s on 8,p]ception0 ( a "w ( em95t analytic p[]1 ,mr4 ,h]b]t ,sp5c]'s ,pr9ciples ( ,psy*ology4 ,on ?is po9t ,m4 ,c\s9 may aga9 be cit$ 9 favor ( ! bett] doctr9e4 ,m4 ,c\s9 recognizes1 9 opposition to ,reid1 ! ess5tial subjectivity ( our conceptions ( :at are call$ ! prim>y qualities ( matt]1 z ext5sion1 solidity1 etc41 equally ) ^? ( color1 heat1 & ! rema9d] ( ! s-call$ second>y qualities4--,c\rs1 ut supra1 #ime leon4 #bc ,?is doctr9e1 :i* is ! mo/ complete =m ( ! philosophical !ory kn[n z ! ,relativity ( ,human ,k1 has1 s9ce ! rec5t revival 9 ?is c\ntry ( an active int]e/ 9 metaphysical speculation1 be5 ! subject ( a greatly increas$ am\nt ( discussion & controv]sy2 & diss5ti5ts h manife/$ !mselves 9 consid]ably great] numb] ?an ,i _h any k ( :5 ! passage 9 ! text 0 writt54 ,! doctr9e has be5 attack$ f two sides4 ,"s ?9k]s1 among :om are ! late ,pr(essor ,f]ri]1 9 8 ,in/itutes ( ,metaphysic1 & ,pr(essor ,john ,grote1 9 8 ,exploratio ,philosophica1 appe> to d5y altoge!r ! reality ( ,n\m5a1 or ,?+s 9 !mselves--( an unkn[able sub/ratum or support = ! s5sations :i* we exp]i5ce1 & :i*1 accord+ to ! !ory1 con/itute all our k ( an ext]nal _w4 ,x seems to me1 h[ev]1 t 9 ,pr(essor ,grote's case at lea/1 ! d5ial ( ,n\m5a is only app>5t1 & t he does n ess5tially diff] f ! o!r class ( objectors1 includ+ ,mr4 ,bailey 9 8 valuable ,lett]s on ! ,philosophy ( ! ,human ,m9d1 & 79 spite ( ! /rik+ passage quot$ 9 ! text7 also ,sir ,william ,hamilton1 :o cont5d = a direct k by ! human m9d ( m ?an ! s5sations--( c]ta9 attributes or prop]ties z !y exi/ n 9 u1 b 9 ! ,?+s !mselves4 ,) ! fir/ ( ^! op9ions1 t :i* d5ies ,n\m5a1 ,i h1 z a metaphysician1 no qu>rel2 b1 :e!r x be true or false1 x is irrelevant to ,logic4 ,& s9ce all ! =ms ( language are 9 contradiction to x1 no?+ b confusion c\ld result f its unnecess>y introduction into a treatise1 e ess5tial doctr9e ( :i* c\ld /& equally well ) ! opposite & accr$it$ op9ion4 ,! o!r & rival doctr9e1 t ( a direct p]ception or intuitive k ( ! outw>d object z x is 9 itself1 consid]$ z di/9ct f ! s5sations we receive f x1 is ( f> great] practical mom5t4 ,b ev5 ?is "q1 dep5d+ on ! nature & laws ( ,intuitive ,k1 is n )9 ! prov9ce ( ,logic4 ,= ! gr\nds ( my own op9ion conc]n+ x1 ,i mu/ cont5t myself ) ref]r+ to a "w already m5tion$--,an ,exam9ation ( ,sir ,william ,hamilton's ,philosophy2 sev]al *apt]s ( :i* are devot$ to a full discussion ( ! que/ions & !ories relat+ to ! suppos$ direct p]ception ( ext]nal objects4 #bd ,pr(essor ,ba9 7,logic1 i41 #di7 def9es attributes z 8po9ts ( community among classes40 ,?is def9ition expresses well "o po9t ( view1 b is liable to ! objection t x applies only to ! attributes ( classes2 ?\gh an object1 unique 9 its k9d1 may be said to h attributes4 ,moreov]1 ! def9ition is n ultimate1 s9ce ! po9ts ( community !mselves admit (1 & require1 fur!r analysis2 & ,mr4 ,ba9 does analyze !m into resemblances 9 ! s5sations1 or o!r /ates ( consci\sness excit$ by ! object4 #be ,analysis ( ! ,human ,m9d1 i41 #abf et seq4 #bf ,logic1 i41 #he4 #bg ,in/ead ( ,univ]sal & ,p>ticul> z appli$ to propositions1 ,pr(essor ,ba9 proposes 7,logic1 i41 #ha7 ! t]ms ,total & ,p>tial2 res]v+ ! =m] pair ( t]ms = _! inductive mean+1 8! contra/ betwe5 a g5]al proposition & ! p>ticul>s or individuals t we d]ive x f40 ,?is *ange 9 nom5clature w\ld be att5d$ ) ! fur!r advantage1 t ,s+ul> propositions1 :i* 9 ! ,syllogism foll[ ! same rules z ,univ]sal1 w\ld be includ$ along ) !m 9 ! same class1 t ( ,total pr$ications4 ,x is n ! ,subject's d5ot+ _m ?+s or only "o1 t is ( importance 9 reason+1 x is t ! ass]tion is made ( ! :ole or a "p only ( :at ! ,subject d5otes4 ,! words ,univ]sal & ,p>ticul>1 h[ev]1 are s famili> & s well und]/ood 9 bo? ! s5ses m5tion$ by ,mr4 ,ba91 t ! d\ble mean+ does n produce any mat]ial inconv5i5ce4 #bh ,x may1 h[ev]1 be consid]$ z equival5t to a univ]sal proposition ) a diff]5t pr$icate1 viz43 8,all w9e is good qu w9e10 or 8is good 9 respect ( ! qualities :i* con/itute x w9e40 #bi ,logic1 i41 #hb4 #cj ,dr4 ,:ewell 7,philosophy ( ,discov]y1 p4 #bdb7 que/ions ?is /atem5t1 & asks1 8,are we to say t a mole c n dig ! gr\nd1 except he has an idea ( ! gr\nd1 & ( ! sn\t & paws ) :i* he digs x80 ,i d n "k :at passes 9 a mole's m9d1 nor :at am\nt ( m5tal appreh5sion may or may n accompany 8 in/9ctive actions4 ,b a human be+ does n use a spade by in/9ct2 & he c]ta9ly c\ld n use x unless he _h k ( a spade1 & ( ! e>? :i* he uses x ^u4 #ca ,pr(essor ,ba9 rem>ks1 9 qualification ( ! /atem5t 9 ! text 7,logic1 i41 #ej71 t ! ^w ,class has two mean+s2 8! class def9ite1 & ! class indef9ite4 ,! class def9ite is an enum]ation ( actual individuals1 z ! ,pe]s ( ! ,realm1 ! oceans ( ! globe1 ! kn[n planets4444 ,! class indef9ite is un5um]at$4 ,su* classes are />s1 planets1 gold-be>+ rocks1 m51 poets1 virtu\s4444 ,9 ?is la/ acceptation ( ! ^w1 class "n & g5]al "n are id5tical4 ,! class "n d5otes an indef9ite numb] ( individuals1 & connotes ! po9ts ( community or lik5ess40 ,! !ory controv]t$ 9 ! text1 tacitly supposes all classes to be def9ite4 ,i h assum$ !m to be indef9ite2 because1 = ! purposes ( ,logic1 def9ite classes1 z su*1 are almo/ useless2 ?\gh (t5 s]viceable z means ( abridg$ expression4 7,vide infra1 book iii41 *ap4 ii47 #cb 8,f h5ce also ?is may be d$uc$1 t ! fir/ tru?s 7 arbitr>ily made by ^? t fir/ ( all impos$ names ^u ?+s1 or receiv$ !m f ! imposition ( o!rs4 ,= x is true 7= example7 t man is a liv+ creature1 b x is = ?is reason1 t x pleas$ m5 to impose bo? ^! names on ! same ?+40--,computation or ,logic1 *ap4 iii41 sect4 #h4 #cc 8,m5 are subject to err n only 9 affirm+ & d5y+1 b also 9 p]ception1 & 9 sil5t cogitation4444 ,tacit errors1 or ! errors ( s5se & cogitation1 are made by pass+ f "o imag9ation to ! imag9ation ( ano!r diff]5t ?+2 or by feign+ t to be pa/1 or future1 :i* nev] 01 nor ev] %all be2 z :5 by see+ ! image ( ! sun 9 wat]1 we imag9e ! sun itself to be !re2 or by see+ swords1 t !re has be51 or %all be1 fight+1 because x us$ to be s = ! mo/ "p2 or :5 f promises we feign ! m9d ( ! promis] to be su* & su*2 or1 la/ly1 :5 f any sign we va9ly imag9e some?+ to be signifi$ :i* is n4 ,& errors ( ?is sort are common to all ?+s t h s5se40--,computation or ,logic1 *ap4 v41 sect4 #a4 #cd ,*ap4 iii41 sect #c4 #ce ,to ! prec$+ /atem5t x has be5 object$1 t 8we naturally con/rue ! subject ( a proposition 9 its ext5sion1 & ! pr$icate 7:i* !re=e may be an adjective7 9 its int5sion 7connotation73 & t consequ5tly co-exi/5ce ( attributes does n1 any m ?an ! opposite !ory ( equation ( gr\ps1 correspond ) ! liv+ processes ( ?\ght & language40 ,i ackn[l$ge ! di/9ction "h drawn1 :i*1 inde$1 ,i _h myself laid d[n & exemplifi$ a few pages back 7p4 #gg74 ,b ?\gh x is true t we naturally 8con/rue ! subject ( a proposition 9 its ext5sion10 ?is ext5sion1 or 9 o!r words1 ! ext5t ( ! class d5ot$ by ! "n1 is n appreh5d$ or indicat$ directly4 ,x is bo? appreh5d$ & indicat$ solely ?r\gh ! attributes4 ,9 ! 8liv+ processes ( ?\ght & language0 ! ext5sion1 ?\gh 9 ?is case really ?\ght ( 7:i* 9 ! case ( ! pr$icate x is n71 is ?\ght ( only ?r\gh ! m$ium ( :at my acute & c\rte\s critic t]ms ! 8int5sion40 ,= fur!r illu/rations ( ?is subject1 see ,exam9ation ( ,sir ,william ,hamilton's ,philosophy1 *ap4 xxii4 #cf ,pr(essor ,ba91 9 8 ,logic 7i41 #bef71 excludes ,exi/5ce f ! li/1 consid]+ x z a m]e "n4 ,all propositions1 he says1 :i* pr$icate m]e exi/5ce 8are m or less abbreviat$1 or elliptical3 :5 fully express$ !y fall "u ei!r co-exi/5ce or succession4 ,:5 we say !re exi/s a conspiracy = a p>ticul> purpose1 we mean t at ! pres5t "t a body ( m5 h =m$ !mselves into a society = a p>ticul> object2 :i* is a complex affirmation1 resolvable into propositions ( co-exi/5ce & succession 7z causation74 ,! ass]tion t ! dodo does n exi/1 po9ts to ! fact t ?is animal1 once kn[n 9 a c]ta9 place1 has disappe>$ or become ext9ct2 is no long] associat$ ) ! locality3 all :i* may be bett] /at$ )\t ! use ( ! v]b #8exi/4' ,!re is a debat$ "q--,does an e!r exi/8 b ! concrete =m w\ld be ?is--#8,are heat & light & o!r radiant influ5ces propagat$ by an e!real m$ium diffus$ 9 space2' :i* is a proposition ( causation4 ,9 l mann] ! "q ( ! ,exi/5ce ( a ,deity c n be discuss$ 9 t =m4 ,x is prop]ly a "q z to ! ,fir/ ,cause ( ! ,univ]se1 & z to ! cont9u$ ex]tion ( t ,cause 9 provid5tial sup]9t5d5ce40 7i41 #djg47 ,mr4 ,ba9 ?9ks x 8fictiti\s & unmean+ language0 to c>ry up ! classification ( ,nature to "o summum g5us1 ,be+1 or t :i* ,exi/s2 s9ce no?+ c be p]ceiv$ or appreh5d$ b by way ( contra/ ) some?+ else 7( :i* important tru?1 "u ! "n ( ,law ( ,relativity1 he has be5 9 our "t ! pr9cipal exp\nd] & *ampion71 & we h no o!r class to oppose to ,be+1 or fact to contra/ ) ,exi/5ce4 ,i accept fully ,mr4 ,ba9's ,law ( ,relativity1 b ,i d n und]/& by x t to enable u to appreh5d or be consci\s ( any fact1 x is necess>y t we %\ld contra/ x ) "s o!r positive fact4 ,! anti!sis necess>y to consci\sness ne$ n1 ,i conceive1 be an anti!sis betwe5 two positives2 x may be betwe5 "o positive & its negative4 ,hobbes 0 und\bt$ly "r :5 he said t a s+le s5sation indef9itely prolong$ w\ld cease to be felt at all2 b simple int]mission1 )\t o!r *ange1 w\ld re/ore x to consci\sness4 ,9 ord] to be consci\s ( heat1 x is n necess>y t we %\ld pass to x f cold2 x suffices t we %\ld pass to x f a /ate ( no s5sation1 or f a s5sation ( "s o!r k9d4 ,! relative opposite ( ,be+1 consid]$ z a summum g5us1 is ,non5tity1 or ,no?+2 & we h1 n[ & !n1 occasion to consid] & discuss ?+s m]ely 9 contra/ ) ,non5tity4 ,i grant t ! decision ( que/ions ( ,exi/5ce usually if n always dep5ds on a previ\s "q ( ei!r ,causation or ,co-exi/5ce4 ,b ,exi/5ce is nev]!less a diff]5t ?+ f ,causation or ,co-exi/5ce1 & c be pr$icat$ ap>t f !m4 ,! mean+ ( ! ab/ract "n ,exi/5ce1 & ! connotation ( ! concrete "n ,be+1 consi/1 l ! mean+ ( all o!r names1 9 s5sations or /ates ( consci\sness3 _! peculi>ity is t to exi/1 is to excite1 or be capable ( excit+1 any s5sations or /ates ( consci\sness3 no matt] :at1 b x is indisp5sable t !re %\ld be "s4 ,x 0 f ov]look+ ?is t ,hegel1 f9d+ t ,be+ is an ab/raction rea*$ by ?9k+ away all p>ticul> attributes1 arriv$ at ! self-contradictory proposition on :i* he f\nd$ all 8 philosophy1 t ,be+ is ! same z ,no?+4 ,x is really ! "n ( ,some?+1 tak5 9 ! mo/ compreh5sive s5se ( ! ^w4 #cg ,book iv41 *ap4 vii4 #ch ,logic1 i41 #ajc-aje4 #ci ,! doctr9es :i* prev5t$ ! real mean+ ( ,ess5ces f be+ und]/ood1 _h n assum$ s settl$ a %ape 9 ! "t ( ,ari/otle & 8 imm$iate foll[]s1 z 0 aft]w>d giv5 to !m by ! ,reali/s ( ! ,middle ,ages4 ,ari/otle himself 79 8 ,treatise on ! ,categories7 expressly d5ies t ! 1 or ,sub/anti ,secund1 inh]e 9 a subject4 ,!y are only1 he says1 pr$icat$ ( x4 #dj ,! always acute & (t5 pr(\nd au?or ( ,an ,outl9e ( ,sematology 7,mr4 ,b4 ,h4 ,sm>t7 ju/ly says1 8,locke w be mu* m intelligible1 if1 9 ! majority ( places1 we sub/itute #8! k (' = :at he calls #8! ,idea ('0 7p4 #aj74 ,among ! _m criticisms on ,locke's use ( ! ^w ,idea1 ?is is ! "o :i*1 z x appe>s to me1 mo/ ne>ly hits ! m>k2 & ,i quote x = ! additional reason t x precisely expresses ! po9t ( diff]5ce respect+ ! import ( ,propositions1 betwe5 my view & :at ,i h spok5 ( z ! ,conceptuali/ view ( !m4 ,:]e a ,conceptuali/ says t a "n or a proposition expresses our ,idea ( a ?+1 ,i %\ld g5]ally say 7in/ead ( our ,idea7 our ,k1 or ,belief1 conc]n+ ! ?+ itself4 #da ,?is di/9ction corresponds to t :i* is drawn by ,kant & o!r metaphysicians betwe5 :at !y t]m analytic & syn!tic1 judgm5ts2 ! =m] be+ ^? :i* c be evolv$ f ! mean+ ( ! t]ms us$4 #db ,if we all[ a diff]5tia to :at is n really a species4 ,= ! di/9ction ( ,k9ds1 9 ! s5se expla9$ by u1 n be+ 9 any way applicable to attributes1 x ( c\rse foll[s t al?\gh attributes may be put into classes1 ^? classes c be admitt$ to be g5]a or species only by c\rtesy4 #dc ,pr(essor ,ba91 9 8 ,logic1 takes a peculi> view ( ,def9ition4 ,he holds 7i41 #ga7 ) ! pres5t "w1 t 8! def9ition 9 its full import1 is ! sum ( all ! prop]ties connot$ by ! "n2 x exhau/s ! mean+ ( a ^w40 ,b he reg>ds ! mean+ ( a g5]al "n z includ+1 n inde$ all ! common prop]ties ( ! class nam$1 b all ( !m t are ultimate prop]ties1 n resolvable into "o ano!r4 8,! enum]ation ( ! attributes ( oxyg51 ( gold1 ( man1 %\ld be an enum]ation ( ! f9al 7s f> z c be made out71 ! und]ivable1 p[]s or functions ( ea*10 & no?+ less ?an ?is is a complete ,def9ition 7i41 #ge74 ,an indep5d5t prop]ty1 n d]ivable f o!r prop]ties1 ev5 if previ\sly unkn[n1 yet z soon z discov]$ becomes1 accord+ to him1 "p ( ! mean+ ( ! t]m1 & %\ld be includ$ 9 ! def9ition4 8,:5 we are told t diamond1 :i* we "k to be a transp>5t1 glitt]+1 h>d1 & high-pric$ sub/ance1 is compos$ ( c>bon1 & is combu/ible1 we mu/ put ^! additional prop]ties on ! same level z ! re/2 to u !y are h5ce=? connot$ by ! "n0 7i41 #gc74 ,consequ5tly ! propositions t diamond is compos$ ( c>bon1 & t x is combu/ible1 are reg>d$ by ,mr4 ,ba9 z m]ely v]bal propositions4 ,he c>ries ?is doctr9e s f> z to say t unless mortality c be %[n to be a consequ5ce ( ! ultimate laws ( animal organization1 mortality is connot$ by man1 & 8,man is ,mortal0 is a m]ely v]bal proposition4 ,& "o ( ! peculi>ities 7,i ?9k a disadvantage\s peculi>ity7 ( 8 able & valuable treatise1 is ! l>ge numb] ( propositions requir+ pro(1 & le>n$ by exp]i5ce1 :i*1 9 con=mity ) ?is doctr9e1 he consid]s z n real1 b v]bal1 propositions4 ,! objection ,i h to ?is language is t x conf\nds1 or at lea/ confuses1 a mu* m important di/9ction ?an t :i* x draws4 ,! only reason = divid+ ,propositions into real & v]bal1 is 9 ord] to discrim9ate propositions :i* convey in=mation ab\t facts1 f ^? :i* d n4 ,a proposition :i* affirms t an object has a giv5 attribute1 :ile designat+ ! object by a "n :i* already signifies ! attribute1 adds no in=mation to t :i* 0 already possess$ by all :o und]/ood ! "n4 ,b :5 ?is is said1 x is impli$ t1 by ! signification ( a "n1 is meant ! signification atta*$ to x 9 ! common usage ( life4 ,i c n ?9k we ought to say t ! mean+ ( a ^w includes matt]s ( fact :i* are unkn[n to e p]son :o uses ! ^w unless he has le>n$ !m by special /udy ( a p>ticul> dep>tm5t ( ,nature2 or t because a few p]sons are aw>e ( ^! matt]s ( fact1 ! affirmation ( !m is a proposition convey+ no in=mation4 ,i hold t 7special sci5tific connotation ap>t7 a "n means1 or connotes1 only ! prop]ties :i* x is a m>k ( 9 ! g5]al m9d2 & t 9 ! case ( any additional prop]ties1 h[ev] uni=mly f\nd to accompany ^!1 x rema9s possible t a ?+ :i* did n possess ! prop]ties might /ill be ?\ght entitl$ to ! "n4 ,rum9ant1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,ba9's use ( language1 connotes clov5-ho($1 s9ce ! two prop]ties are always f\nd toge!r1 & no connection has ev] be5 discov]$ betwe5 !m3 b rum9ant does n mean clov5-ho($2 & 7 an animal to be discov]$ :i* *ews ! cud1 b has its feet undivid$1 ,i v5ture to say t x w\ld /ill be call$ rum9ant4 #dd ,9 ! full] discussion :i* ,ar*bi%op ,:ately has giv5 to ?is subject 9 8 lat] editions1 he almo/ ceases to reg>d ! def9itions ( names & ^? ( ?+s z1 9 any important s5se1 di/9ct4 ,he seems 7#i? ed41 p4 #ade7 to limit ! notion ( a ,real ,def9ition to "o :i* 8expla9s any ?+ m ( ! nature ( ! ?+ ?an is impli$ 9 ! "n20 7includ+ "u ! ^w 8impli$10 n only :at ! "n connotes1 b e ?+ :i* c be d$uc$ by reason+ f ! attributes connot$74 ,ev5 ?is1 z he adds1 is usually call$ n a ,def9ition1 b a ,description2 & 7z x seems to me7 rightly s call$4 ,a ,description1 ,i conceive1 c only be rank$ among ,def9itions1 :5 tak5 7z 9 ! case ( ! zoological def9ition ( man7 to fulfill ! true (fice ( a ,def9ition1 by decl>+ ! connotation giv5 to a ^w 9 "s special use1 z a t]m ( sci5ce or art3 :i* special connotation ( c\rse w\ld n be express$ by ! prop] def9ition ( ! ^w 9 its ord9>y employm5t4 ,mr4 ,de ,morgan1 exactly rev]s+ ! doctr9e ( ,ar*bi%op ,:ately1 und]/&s by a ,real ,def9ition "o :i* conta9s less ?an ! ,nom9al ,def9ition1 provid$ only t :at x conta9s is suffici5t = di/9ction4 8,by real def9ition ,i mean su* an explanation ( ! ^w1 be x ! :ole ( ! mean+ or only "p1 z w be suffici5t to sep>ate ! ?+s conta9$ "u t ^w f all o!rs4 ,?us ! foll[+1 ,i believe1 is a complete def9ition ( an elephant3 ,an animal :i* naturally dr9ks by draw+ ! wat] into its nose1 & !n spurt+ x into its m\?40--,=mal ,logic1 p4 #cf4 ,mr4 ,de ,morgan's g5]al proposition & 8 example are at v>iance2 = ! peculi> mode ( dr9k+ ( ! elephant c]ta9ly =ms no "p ( ! mean+ ( ! ^w elephant4 ,x c\ld n be said1 because a p]son happ5$ to be ignorant ( ?is prop]ty1 t he did n "k :at an elephant means4 #de ,9 ! only attempt :i*1 s f> z ,i "k1 has be5 made to refute ! prec$+ argum5tation1 x is ma9ta9$ t 9 ! fir/ =m ( ! syllogism1 ,a dragon is a ?+ :i* brea!s flame1 ,a dragon is a s]p5t1 ,!re=e "s s]p5t or s]p5ts brea! flame1 8!re is j z mu* tru? 9 ! conclusion z !re is 9 ! premises1 or r1 no m 9 ! latt] ?an 9 ! =m]4 ,if ! g5]al "n s]p5t includes bo? real & imag9>y s]p5ts1 !re is no falsity 9 ! conclusion2 if n1 !re is falsity 9 ! m9or premise40 ,let u1 !n1 try to set out ! syllogism on ! hypo!sis t ! "n s]p5t includes imag9>y s]p5ts4 ,we %all f9d t x is n[ necess>y to alt] ! pr$icates2 = x c n be ass]t$ t an imag9>y creature brea!s flame2 9 pr$icat+ ( x su* a fact1 we ass]t by ! mo/ positive implication t x is real1 & n imag9>y4 ,! conclusion mu/ run ?us1 8,"s s]p5t or s]p5ts ei!r d or are imag9$ to brea! flame40 ,& to prove ?is conclusion by ! in/ance ( dragons1 ! premises mu/ be1 ,a dragon is imag9$ z brea?+ flame4 ,a dragon is a 7real or imag9>y7 s]p5t3 f :i* x und\bt$ly foll[s1 t !re are s]p5ts :i* are imag9$ to brea! flame2 b ! major premise is n a def9ition1 nor "p ( a def9ition2 :i* is all t ,i am conc]n$ to prove4 ,let u n[ exam9e ! o!r ass]tion--t if ! ^w s]p5t /&s = none b real s]p5ts1 ! m9or premise 7a dragon is a s]p5t7 is false4 ,?is is exactly :at ,i h myself said ( ! premise1 consid]$ z a /atem5t ( fact3 b x is n false z "p ( ! def9ition ( a dragon2 & s9ce ! premises1 or "o ( !m1 mu/ be false 7! conclusion be+ s71 ! real premise c n be ! def9ition1 :i* is true1 b ! /atem5t ( fact1 :i* is false4 #df 8,few p0 7,i h said 9 ano!r place7 8h reflect$ h[ great a k ( ,?+s is requir$ to enable a man to affirm t any giv5 argum5t turns :olly ^u words4 ,!re is1 p]haps1 n "o ( ! lead+ t]ms ( philosophy :i* is n us$ 9 almo/ innum]able %ades ( mean+1 to express ideas m or less widely diff]5t f "o ano!r4 ,betwe5 two ( ^! ideas a sagaci\s & p5etrat+ m9d w disc]n1 z x 7 intuitively1 an unobvi\s l9k ( connection1 ^u :i*1 ?\gh p]haps unable to give a logical acc\nt ( x1 he w f\nd a p]fectly valid argum5t1 :i* 8 critic1 n hav+ s ke5 an insight into ! ,?+s1 w mi/ake = a fallacy turn+ on ! d\ble mean+ ( a t]m4 ,& ! great] ! g5ius ( him :o ?us safely leaps ov] ! *asm1 ! great] w probably be ! cr[+ & va+lory ( ! m]e logician1 :o1 hobbl+ aft] him1 ev9ces 8 own sup]ior wisdom by paus+ on its br9k1 & giv+ up z desp]ate 8 prop] bus9ess ( bridg+ x ov]40 #dg ,! diff]5t cases ( ,equipoll5cy1 or 8,equival5t ,propositional ,=ms10 are set =? ) "s fullness 9 ,pr(essor ,ba9's ,logic4 ,"o ( ! commone/ ( ^! *anges ( expression1 t f affirm+ a proposition to d5y+ its negative1 or vic v]sa1 ,mr4 ,ba9 designates1 v happily1 by ! "n ,obv]sion4 #dh ,z ,sir ,william ,hamilton has po9t$ out1 8,"s ,a is n ,b0 may also be conv]t$ 9 ! foll[+ =m3 8,no ,b is "s ,a40 ,"s m5 are n negroes2 !re=e1 ,no negroes are "s m5 7e4g41 ,europeans74 #di ,contr>ies3 ,all ,a is ,b ,no ,a is ,b ,subtr>ies3 ,"s ,a is ,b ,"s ,a is n ,b ,contradictories3 ,all ,a is ,b ,"s ,a is n ,b ,also contradictories3 ,no ,a is ,b ,"s ,a is ,b ,respectively subalt]nate3 ,all ,a is ,b & ,no ,a is ,b ,"s ,a is ,b & ,"s ,a is n ,b #ej ,pr(essor ,ba9 d5ies ! claim ( ,s+ul> ,propositions to be class$1 = ! purposes ( ratioc9ation1 ) ,univ]sal2 ?\gh !y come )9 ! designation :i* he himself proposes z an equival5t = ,univ]sal1 t ( ,total4 ,he w\ld ev51 to use 8 own expression1 bani% !m entirely f ! syllogism4 ,he takes z an example1 ,socrates is wise1 ,socrates is poor1 !re=e ,"s poor m5 are wise1 or m prop]ly 7z he obs]ves7 8"o poor man is wise40 8,n[1 if wise1 poor1 & a man1 are attributes belong+ to ! mean+ ( ! ^w ,socrates1 !re is !n no m>* ( reason+ at all4 ,we h giv5 9 ,socrates1 int] alia1 ! facts wise1 poor1 & a man1 & we m]ely repeat ! concurr5ce :i* is select$ f ! :ole aggregate ( prop]ties mak+ up ! :ole1 ,socrates4 ,! case is "o "u ! head #8,great] & ,less ,connotation' 9 ,equival5t ,propositional ,=ms1 or ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce4 8,b ! example 9 ?is =m does n d ju/ice to ! syllogism ( s+ul>s4 ,we mu/ suppose bo? propositions to be real1 ! pr$icates be+ 9 no way involv$ 9 ! subject4 ,?us ,socrates 0 ! ma/] ( ,plato1 ,socrates f\ght at ,delium1 ,! ma/] ( ,plato f\ght at ,delium4 8,x may fairly be d\bt$ :e!r ! transitions1 9 ?is in/ance1 are any ?+ m ?an equival5t =ms4 ,= ! proposition #8,socrates 0 ! ma/] ( ,plato & f\ght at ,delium1' comp\nd$ out ( ! two premises1 is obvi\sly no?+ m ?an a grammatical abbreviation4 ,no "o c say t !re is "h any *ange ( mean+1 or any ?+ beyond a v]bal modification ( ! orig9al =m4 ,! next /ep is1 #8,! ma/] ( ,plato f\ght at ,delium1' :i* is ! previ\s /atem5t cut d[n by ! omission ( ,socrates4 ,x cont5ts itself ) reproduc+ a "p ( ! mean+1 or say+ less ?an _h be5 previ\sly said4 ,! full equival5t ( ! affirmation is1 #8,! ma/] ( ,plato f\ght at ,delium1 & ! ma/] ( ,plato 0 ,socrates3' ! new =m omits ! la/ piece ( in=mation1 & gives only ! fir/4 ,n[1 we nev] consid] t we h made a real inf]5ce1 a /ep 9 advance1 :5 we repeat less ?an we are entitl$ to say1 or drop f a complex /atem5t "s portion n desir$ at ! mom5t4 ,su* an op]ation keeps /rictly )9 ! doma9 ( equival5ce1 or ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce4 ,9 no way1 !re=e1 c a syllogism ) two s+ul> premises be view$ z a g5u9e syllogi/ic or d$uctive inf]5ce40 7,logic1 i41 #aei47 ,! fir/ argum5t1 z w h be5 se51 re/s ^u ! supposition t ! "n ,socrates has a mean+2 t man1 wise1 & poor1 are p>ts ( ?is mean+2 & t by pr$icat+ !m ( ,socrates we convey no in=mation2 a view ( ! signification ( names :i*1 = reasons already giv5 7,note to #d ( ! *apt] on ,def9ition1 supra1 pp4 #aaj1 #aaa471 ,i c n admit1 & :i*1 z appli$ to ! class ( names :i* ,socrates belongs to1 is at w> ) ,mr4 ,ba9's own def9ition ( a ,prop] ,"n 7i41 #adh71 8a s+le mean+less m>k or designation appropriat$ to ! ?+40 ,su* names1 ,mr4 ,ba9 proce$$ to say1 d n necess>ily indicate ev5 human be+s3 mu* less !n does ! "n ,socrates include ! mean+ ( wise or poor4 ,o!rwise x w\ld foll[ t if ,socrates _h gr[n ri*1 or _h lo/ 8 m5tal faculties by illness1 he w\ld no long] h be5 call$ ,socrates4 ,! second "p ( ,mr4 ,ba9's argum5t1 9 :i* he cont5ds t ev5 :5 ! premises convey real in=mation1 ! conclusion is m]ely ! premises ) a "p left out1 is applicable1 if at all1 z mu* to univ]sal propositions z to s+ul>4 ,9 e syllogism ! conclusion conta9s less ?an is ass]t$ 9 ! two premises tak5 toge!r4 ,suppose ! syllogism to be ,all bees are intellig5t1 ,all bees are insects1 !re=e ,"s insects are intellig5t3 "o might use ! same lib]ty tak5 by ,mr4 ,ba91 ( jo9+ toge!r ! two premises z if !y 7 "o--8,all bees are insects & intellig5t0--& might say t 9 omitt+ ! middle t]m bees we make no real inf]5ce1 b m]ely reproduce "p ( :at _h be5 previ\sly said4 ,mr4 ,ba9's is really an objection to ! syllogism itself1 or at all ev5ts to ! ?ird figure3 x has no special applicability to s+ul> propositions4 #ea ,8 conclusions are1 8,! fir/ figure is suit$ to ! discov]y or pro( ( ! prop]ties ( a ?+2 ! second to ! discov]y or pro( ( ! di/9ctions betwe5 ?+s2 ! ?ird to ! discov]y or pro( ( in/ances & exceptions2 ! f\r? to ! discov]y1 or exclusion1 ( ! diff]5t species ( a g5us40 ,! ref]5ce ( syllogisms 9 ! la/ ?ree figures to ! dictum de omni et nullo is1 9 ,lamb]t's op9ion1 /ra9$ & unnatural3 to ea* ( ! ?ree belongs1 accord+ to him1 a sep>ate axiom1 co-ord9ate & ( equal au?ority ) t dictum1 & to :i* he gives ! names ( dictum de div]so = ! second figure1 dictum de exemplo = ! ?ird1 & dictum de reciproco = ! f\r?4 ,see "p i41 or ,dianoiologie1 *ap1 iv41 #bbi et seqq4 ,mr4 ,bailey 7,!ory ( ,reason+1 #b;d ed41 pp4 #gj-gd7 takes a simil> view ( ! subject4 #eb ,s9ce ?is *apt] 0 writt51 two treatises h appe>$ 7or r a treatise & a fragm5t ( a treatise71 :i* aim at a fur!r improvem5t 9 ! !ory ( ! =ms ( ratioc9ation3 ,mr4 ,de ,morgan's 8,=mal ,logic2 or1 ! ,calculus ( ,inf]5ce1 ,necess>y & ,probable20 & ! 8,new ,analytic ( ,logical ,=ms10 atta*$ z an ,app5dix to ,sir ,william ,hamilton's ,discussions on ,philosophy1 & at great] l5g?1 to 8 po/hum\s ,lectures on ,logic4 ,9 ,mr4 ,de ,morgan's volume--ab\nd+1 9 its m popul> p>ts1 ) valuable obs]vations felicit\sly express$--! pr9cipal feature ( orig9ality is an attempt to br+ )9 /rict te*nical rules ! cases 9 :i* a conclusion c be drawn f premises ( a =m usually class$ z p>ticul>4 ,mr4 ,de ,morgan obs]ves1 v ju/ly1 t f ! premises mo/ ,bs are ,cs1 mo/ ,bs are ,z1 x may be conclud$ ) c]ta9ty t "s ,z are ,cs1 s9ce two portions ( ! class ,b1 ea* ( !m compris+ m ?an half1 mu/ necess>ily 9 "p consi/ ( ! same individuals4 ,foll[+ out ?is l9e ( ?\ght1 x is equally evid5t t if we knew exactly :at proportion ! 8mo/0 9 ea* ( ! premises be> to ! entire class ,b1 we c\ld increase 9 a correspond+ degree ! def9it5ess ( ! conclusion4 ,?us if #fj p] c5t4 ( ,b are includ$ 9 ,c1 & #gj p] c5t4 9 ,a1 #cj p] c5t4 at lea/ mu/ be common to bo?2 9 o!r words1 ! numb] ( ,z :i* are ,cs1 & ( ,cs :i* are ,z1 mu/ be at lea/ equal to #cj p] c5t4 ( ! class ,b4 ,proce$+ on ?is conception ( 8num]ically def9ite propositions10 & ext5d+ x to su* =ms z ^!3--8#de ,xs 7or m7 are ea* ( !m "o ( #gj ,ys10 or 8#de ,xs 7or m7 are no "o ( !m to be f\nd among #gj ,ys10 & exam9+ :at inf]5ces admit ( be+ drawn f ! v>i\s comb9ations :i* may be made ( premises ( ?is description1 ,mr4 ,de ,morgan e/abli%es univ]sal =mul = su* inf]5ces2 creat+ = t purpose n only a new te*nical language1 b a =midable array ( symbols analog\s to ^? ( algebra4 ,s9ce x is und5iable t inf]5ces1 9 ! cases exam9$ by ,mr4 ,de ,morgan1 c legitimately be drawn1 & t ! ord9>y !ory takes no acc\nt ( !m1 ,i w n say t x 0 n wor? :ile to %[ 9 detail h[ ^! also c\ld be r$uc$ to =mul z rigor\s z ^? ( ,ari/otle4 ,:at ,mr4 ,de ,morgan has done 0 wor? do+ once 7p]haps m ?an once1 z a s*ool ex]cise72 b ,i "q if its results are wor? /udy+ & ma/]+ = any practical purpose4 ,! practical use ( te*nical =ms ( reason+ is to b> out fallacies3 b ! fallacies :i* require to be gu>d$ aga9/ 9 ratioc9ation prop]ly s call$1 arise f ! incauti\s use ( ! common =ms ( language2 & ! logician mu/ track ! fallacy into t t]ritory1 in/ead ( wait+ = x on a t]ritory ( 8 own4 ,:ile he rema9s among propositions :i* h acquir$ ! num]ical precision ( ! ,calculus ( ,probabilities1 ! enemy is left 9 possession ( ! only gr\nd on :i* he c be =midable4 ,& s9ce ! propositions 7%ort ( univ]sal7 on :i* a ?9k] has to dep5d1 ei!r = purposes ( speculation or ( practice1 d n1 except 9 a few peculi> cases1 admit ( any num]ical precision2 common reason+ c n be translat$ into ,mr4 ,de ,morgan's =ms1 :i* !re=e c n s]ve any purpose z a te/ ( x4 ,sir ,william ,hamilton's !ory ( ! 8quantification ( ! pr$icate0 may be describ$ z foll[s3 8,logically0 7,i quote 8 words7 8we ought to take into acc\nt ! quantity1 always und]/ood 9 ?\ght1 b usually1 = manife/ reasons1 elid$ 9 its expression1 n only ( ! subject1 b also ( ! pr$icate ( a judgm5t40 ,all ,a is ,b1 is equival5t to all ,a is "s ,b4 ,no ,a is ,b1 to ,no ,a is any ,b4 ,"s ,a is ,b1 is tantam\nt to "s ,a is "s ,b4 ,"s ,a is n ,b1 to ,"s ,a is n any ,b4 ,z 9 ^! =ms ( ass]tion ! pr$icate is exactly co-ext5sive ) ! subject1 !y all admit ( simple conv]sion2 & by ?is we obta9 two additional =ms--,"s ,b is all ,a1 & ,no ,b is "s ,a4 ,we may also make ! ass]tion ,all ,a is all ,b1 :i* w be true if ! classes ,a & ,b are exactly co-ext5sive4 ,! la/ ?ree =ms1 ?\gh convey+ real ass]tions1 h no place 9 ! ord9>y classification ( ,propositions4 ,all propositions1 !n1 be+ suppos$ to be translat$ into ?is language1 & writt5 ea* 9 t "o ( ! prec$+ =ms :i* answ]s to its signification1 !re em]ges a new set ( syllogi/ic rules1 mat]ially diff]5t f ! common ones4 ,a g5]al view ( ! po9ts ( diff]5ce may be giv5 9 ! words ( ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton 7,discussions1 #b;d ed41 p4 #fea73 8,! revocation ( ! two t]ms ( a ,proposition to _! true relation2 a proposition be+ always an equation ( its subject & its pr$icate4 8,! consequ5t r$uction ( ! ,conv]sion ( ,propositions f ?ree species to "o--t ( ,simple ,conv]sion4 8,! r$uction ( all ! ,g5]al ,laws ( ,categorical ,syllogisms to a s+le ,canon4 8,! evolution f t "o canon ( all ! ,species & v>ieties ( ,syllogisms4 8,! abrogation ( all ! ,special ,laws ( ,syllogism4 8,a demon/ration ( ! exclusive possibility ( ,?ree ,syllogi/ic ,figures2 & 7on new gr\nds7 ! sci5tific & f9al abolition ( ! ,f\r?4 8,a manife/ation t ,figure is an uness5tial v>iation 9 syllogi/ic =m2 & ! consequ5t absurdity ( ,r$uc+ ! syllogisms ( ! o!r figures to ! fir/4 8,an en\ncem5t ( "o ,organic ,pr9ciple = ea* ,figure4 8,a det]m9ation ( ! true numb] ( ! ,legitimate ,moods2 ) 8,_! amplification 9 numb] 7?irty-six72 8,_! num]ical equality "u all ! figures2 & 8,_! relative equival5ce1 or virtual id5tity1 ?r\gh\t e s*ematic diff]5ce4 8,t1 9 ! second & ?ird figures1 ! extremes hold+ bo? ! same relation to ! middle t]m1 !re is n1 z 9 ! fir/1 an opposition & subord9ation betwe5 a t]m major & a t]m m9or1 mutually conta9+ & conta9$1 9 ! c\nt] :oles ( ,ext5sion & ,compreh5sion4 8,consequ5tly1 9 ! second & ?ird figures1 !re is no det]m9ate major & m9or premises1 & !re are two indiff]5t conclusions3 :]eas 9 ! fir/ ! premises are det]m9ate1 & !re is a s+le proximate conclusion40 ,?is doctr9e1 l t ( ,mr4 ,de ,morgan previ\sly notic$1 is a real addition to ! syllogi/ic !ory2 & has moreov] ?is advantage ov] ,mr4 ,de ,morgan's 8num]ically def9ite ,syllogism10 t ! =ms x supplies are really available z a te/ ( ! correctness ( ratioc9ation2 s9ce propositions 9 ! common =m may always h _! pr$icates quantifi$1 & s be made am5able to ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton's rules4 ,consid]$1 h[ev]1 z a contribution to ! ,sci5ce ( ,logic1 t is1 to ! analysis ( ! m5tal processes conc]n$ 9 reason+1 ! new doctr9e appe>s to me1 ,i confess1 n m]ely sup]flu\s1 b errone\s2 s9ce ! =m 9 :i* x clo!s propositions does n1 l ! ord9>y =m1 express :at is 9 ! m9d ( ! speak] :5 he enunciates ! proposition4 ,i c n ?9k ,sir ,william ,hamilton "r 9 ma9ta9+ t ! quantity ( ! pr$icate is 8always und]/ood 9 ?\ght40 ,x is impli$1 b is n pres5t to ! m9d ( ! p]son :o ass]ts ! proposition4 ,! quantification ( ! pr$icate1 in/ead ( be+ a means ( br++ out m cle>ly ! mean+ ( ! proposition1 actually leads ! m9d out ( ! proposition1 into ano!r ord] ( ideas4 ,= :5 we say1 ,all m5 are mortal1 we simply mean to affirm ! attribute mortality ( all m52 )\t ?9k+ at all ( ! class mortal 9 ! concrete1 or tr\bl+ ourselves ab\t :e!r x conta9s any o!r be+s or n4 ,x is only = "s artificial purpose t we ev] look at ! proposition 9 ! aspect 9 :i* ! pr$icate also is ?\ght ( z a class-"n1 ei!r includ+ ! subject only1 or ! subject & some?+ m4 7,see above1 p4 #gg1 #gh47 ,= a full] discussion ( ?is subject1 see ! tw5ty-second *apt] ( a "w already ref]r$ to1 8,an ,exam9ation ( ,sir ,william ,hamilton's ,philosophy40 #ec ,mr4 ,h]b]t ,sp5c] 7,pr9ciples ( ,psy*ology1 pp4 #abe-g71 ?\gh 8 !ory ( ! syllogism co9cides ) all t is ess5tial ( m9e1 ?9ks x a logical fallacy to pres5t ! two axioms 9 ! text1 z ! regulat+ pr9ciples ( syllogism4 ,he *>ges me ) fall+ into ! error po9t$ out by ,ar*bi%op ,:ately & myself1 ( conf\nd+ exact lik5ess ) lit]al id5tity2 & ma9ta9s1 t we ought n to say t ,socrates possesses ! same attributes :i* are connot$ by ! ^w ,man1 b only t he possesses attributes exactly l !m3 accord+ to :i* phraseology1 ,socrates1 & ! attribute mortality1 are n two ?+s co-exi/+ ) ! same ?+1 z ! axiom ass]ts1 b two ?+s coexi/+ ) two diff]5t ?+s4 ,! "q betwe5 ,mr4 ,sp5c] & me is m]ely "o ( language2 = nei!r ( u 7if ,i und]/& ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s op9ions rightly7 believes an attribute to be a real ?+1 possess$ ( objective exi/5ce2 we believe x to be a p>ticul> mode ( nam+ our s5sations1 or our expectations ( s5sation1 :5 look$ at 9 _! relation to an ext]nal object :i* excites !m4 ,! "q rais$ by ,mr4 ,sp5c] does n1 !re=e1 conc]n ! prop]ties ( any really exi/+ ?+1 b ! comp>ative appropriat5ess1 = philosophical purposes1 ( two diff]5t modes ( us+ a "n4 ,consid]$ 9 ?is po9t ( view1 ! phraseology ,i h employ$1 :i* is t commonly us$ by philosoph]s1 seems to me to be ! be/4 ,mr4 ,sp5c] is ( op9ion t because ,socrates & ,alcibiades are n ! same man1 ! attribute :i* con/itutes !m m5 %\ld n be call$ ! same attribute2 t because ! humanity ( "o man & t ( ano!r express !mselves to our s5ses n by ! same individual s5sations b by s5sations exactly alike1 humanity ought to be reg>d$ z a diff]5t attribute 9 e diff]5t man4 ,b on ?is %[+1 ! humanity ev5 ( any "o man %\ld be consid]$ z diff]5t attributes n[ & half an h\r h5ce2 = ! s5sations by :i* x w !n manife/ itself to my organs w n be a cont9uation ( my pres5t s5sations1 b a repetition ( !m2 fre% s5sations1 n id5tical )1 b only exactly l ! pres5t4 ,if e g5]al conception1 in/ead ( be+ 8! ,"o 9 ! ,_m10 7 consid]$ to be z _m diff]5t conceptions z !re are ?+s to :i* x is applicable1 !re w\ld be no su* ?+ z g5]al language4 ,a "n w\ld h no g5]al mean+ if man connot$ "o ?+ :5 pr$icat$ ( ,john1 & ano!r1 ?\gh closely resembl+1 ?+ :5 pr$icat$ ( ,william4 ,accord+ly a rec5t pamphlet ass]ts ! impossibility ( g5]al k on ?is precise gr\nd4 ,! mean+ ( any g5]al "n is "s outw>d or inw>d ph5om5on1 consi/+1 9 ! la/ resort1 ( feel+s2 & ^! feel+s1 if _! cont9uity is = an in/ant brok51 are no long] ! same feel+s1 9 ! s5se ( individual id5tity4 ,:at1 !n1 is ! common some?+ :i* gives a mean+ to ! g5]al "n8 ,mr4 ,sp5c] c only say1 x is ! simil>ity ( ! feel+s2 & ,i rejo91 ! attribute is precisely t simil>ity4 ,! names ( attributes are 9 _! ultimate analysis names = ! resemblances ( our s5sations 7or o!r feel+s74 ,e g5]al "n1 :e!r ab/ract or concrete1 d5otes or connotes "o or m ( ^? resemblances4 ,x w n1 probably1 be d5i$1 t if a hundr$ s5sations are undi/+ui%ably alike1 _! resemblance ought to be spok5 ( z "o resemblance1 & n a hundr$ resemblances :i* m]ely resemble "o ano!r4 ,! ?+s comp>$ are _m1 b ! some?+ common to all ( !m mu/ be conceiv$ z "o1 j z ! "n is conceiv$ z "o1 ?\gh correspond+ to num]ically diff]5t s5sations ( s\nd ea* "t x is pron\nc$4 ,! g5]al t]m man does n connote ! s5sations d]iv$ once f "o man1 :i*1 once gone1 c no m occur aga9 ?an ! same fla% ( lightn+4 ,x connotes ! g5]al type ( ! s5sations d]iv$ always f all m51 & ! p[] 7always ?\ght ( z "o7 ( produc+ s5sations ( t type4 ,& ! axiom might be ?us word$3 ,two types ( s5sation ea* ( :i* co-exi/s ) a ?ird type1 co-exi/ ) ano!r2 or ,two p[]s ea* ( :i* co-exi/s ) a ?ird p[] co-exi/ ) "o ano!r4 ,mr4 ,sp5c] has misund]/ood me 9 ano!r p>ticul>4 ,he supposes t ! co-exi/5ce spok5 ( 9 ! axiom1 ( two ?+s ) ! same ?ird ?+1 means simultane\sness 9 "t4 ,! co-exi/5ce meant is t ( be+ jo9tly attributes ( ! same subject4 ,! attribute ( be+ born )\t tee?1 & ! attribute ( hav+ ?irty-two tee? 9 mature age1 are 9 ?is s5se co-exi/5t1 bo? be+ attributes ( man1 ?\gh ex vi t]m9i nev] ( ! same man at ! same "t4 #ed ,supra1 p4 #ic4 #ee ,pr(essor ,ba9 7,logic1 i41 #aeg7 consid]s ! axiom 7or r axioms7 "h propos$ z a sub/itute = ! dictum de omni1 to possess c]ta9 advantages1 b to be 8unworkable z a basis ( ! syllogism4 ,! fatal defect consi/s 9 ?is1 t x is ill-adapt$ to br+ out ! diff]5ce betwe5 total & p>tial co9cid5ce ( t]ms1 ! obs]vation ( :i* is ! ess5tial precaution 9 syllogiz+ correctly4 ,if all ! t]ms 7 co-ext5sive1 ! axiom w\ld fl[ on admirably2 ,a c>ries ,b1 all ,b & none b ,b2 ,b c>ries ,c 9 ! same mann]2 at once ,a c>ries ,c1 )\t limitation or res]ve4 ,b 9 po9t ( fact1 we "k t :ile ,a c>ries ,b1 o!r ?+s c>ry ,b also2 :5ce a process ( limitation is requir$1 9 transf]r+ ,a to ,c ?r\gh ,b4 ,a 79 common ) o!r ?+s7 c>ries ,b2 ,b 79 common ) o!r ?+s7 c>ries ,c2 :5ce ,a 79 common ) o!r ?+s7 c>ries ,c4 ,! axiom provides no means ( mak+ ?is limitation2 if we 7 to foll[ ,a lit]ally1 we %\ld be l$ to suppose ,a & ,c co-ext5sive3 = su* is ! only obvi\s mean+ ( #8! attribute ,a co9cides ) ! attribute ,c4'0 ,x is c]ta9ly possible t a c>eless le>n] "h & !re may suppose t if ,a c>ries ,b1 x foll[s t ,b c>ries ,a4 ,b if any "o is s incauti\s z to commit ?is mi/ake1 ! v e>lie/ lesson 9 ! logic ( inf]5ce1 ! ,conv]sion ( propositions1 w correct x4 ,! fir/ ( ! two =ms 9 :i* ,i h /at$ ! axiom1 is 9 "s degree op5 to ,mr4 ,ba9's criticism3 :5 ,b is said to co-exi/ ) ,a 7x mu/ be by a lapsus calami t ,mr4 ,ba9 uses ! ^w co9cide71 x is possible1 9 ! abs5ce ( w>n+1 to suppose ! mean+ to be t ! two ?+s are only f\nd toge!r4 ,b ?is mis9t]pretation is exclud$ by ! o!r1 or practical1 =m ( ! maxim2 ,nota n e/ nota rei ipsius4 ,no "o w\ld be 9 any dang] ( inf]r+ t because a is a m>k ( b1 b c nev] exi/ )\t a2 t because be+ 9 a confirm$ consumption is a m>k ( be+ ab\t to die1 no "o dies :o is n 9 a consumption2 t because be+ coal is a m>k ( hav+ come out ( ! e>?1 no?+ c come out ( ! e>? except coal4 ,ord9>y k ( ,engli% seems a suffici5t protection aga9/ ^! mi/akes1 s9ce 9 speak+ ( a m>k ( any ?+ we are nev] und]/ood z imply+ reciprocity4 ,a m fundam5tal objection is /at$ by ,mr4 ,ba9 9 a subsequ5t passage 7p4 #aeh74 8,! axiom does n accommodate itself to ! type ( ,d$uctive ,reason+ z contra/$ ) ,induction--! application ( a g5]al pr9ciple to a special case4 ,any ?+ t fails to make prom95t ?is circum/ance is n adapt$ z a f\ndation = ! syllogism40 ,b ?\gh x may be prop] to limit ! t]m ,d$uction to ! application ( a g5]al pr9ciple to a special case1 x has nev] be5 held t ,ratioc9ation or ,syllogism is subject to ! same limitation2 & ! adoption ( x w\ld exclude a great am\nt ( valid & conclusive syllogi/ic reason+4 ,moreov]1 if ! dictum de omni makes prom95t ! fact ( ! application ( a g5]al pr9ciple to a p>ticul> case1 ! axiom ,i propose makes prom95t ! condition :i* alone makes t application a real inf]5ce4 ,i conclude1 !re=e1 t bo? =ms h _! value1 & _! place 9 ,logic4 ,! dictum de omni %\ld be reta9$ z ! fundam5tal axiom ( ! logic ( m]e consi/5cy1 (t5 call$ ,=mal ,logic2 nor h ,i ev] qu>rel$ ) ! use ( x 9 t "*1 nor propos$ to bani% x f treatises on ,=mal ,logic4 ,b ! o!r is ! prop] axiom = ! logic ( ! pursuit ( tru? by way ( ,d$uction2 & ! recognition ( x c alone %[ h[ x is possible t d$uctive reason+ c be a road to tru?4 #ef ,logic1 p4 #bci 7#i? ed474 #eg ,x is h>dly necess>y to say1 t ,i am n cont5d+ = any su* absurdity z t we actually 8ought to h kn[n0 & consid]$ ! case ( e individual man1 pa/1 pres5t1 & future1 be=e affirm+ t all m5 are mortal3 al?\gh ?is int]pretation has be51 /rangely en\gh1 put ^u ! prec$+ obs]vations4 ,!re is no diff]5ce betwe5 me & ,ar*bi%op ,:ately1 or any o!r def5d] ( ! syllogism1 on ! practical "p ( ! matt]2 ,i am only po9t+ out an inconsi/5cy 9 ! logical !ory ( x1 z conceiv$ by almo/ all writ]s4 ,i d n say t a p]son :o affirm$1 be=e ! ,duke ( ,well+ton 0 born1 t all m5 are mortal1 knew t ! ,duke ( ,well+ton 0 mortal2 b ,i d say t he ass]t$ x2 & ,i ask = an explanation ( ! app>5t logical fallacy1 ( adduc+ 9 pro( ( ! ,duke ( ,well+ton's mortality1 a g5]al /atem5t :i* presupposes x4 ,f9d+ no suffici5t resolution ( ?is difficulty 9 any ( ! writ]s on ,logic1 ,i h attempt$ to supply "o4 #eh ,! language ( ratioc9ation w\ld1 ,i ?9k1 be br\ght into clos] agreem5t ) ! real nature ( ! process1 if ! g5]al propositions employ$ 9 reason+1 in/ead ( be+ 9 ! =m ,all m5 are mortal1 or ,e man is mortal1 7 express$ 9 ! =m ,any man is mortal4 ,?is mode ( expression1 exhibit+ z ! type ( all reason+ f exp]i5ce 8,! m5 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 etc41 are s & s1 !re=e any man is s & s10 w\ld mu* bett] manife/ ! true idea--t inductive reason+ is always1 at bottom1 inf]5ce f p>ticul>s to p>ticul>s1 & t ! :ole function ( g5]al propositions 9 reason+1 is to v\* = ! legitimacy ( su* inf]5ces4 #ei ,review ( ,quetelet on ,probabilities1 ,essays1 p4 #cfg4 #fj ,philosophy ( ,discov]y1 p4 #bhi4 #fa ,!ory ( ,reason+1 *ap4 iv41 to :i* ,i may ref] = an able /atem5t & en=cem5t ( ! gr\nds ( ! doctr9e4 #fb ,on a rec5t c>eful rep]usal ( ,b]keley's :ole works1 ,i h be5 unable to f9d ?is doctr9e 9 !m4 ,sir ,john ,h]s*el probably meant t x is impli$ 9 ,b]keley's argum5t aga9/ ab/ract ideas4 ,b ,i c n f9d t ,b]keley saw ! implication1 or _h ev] ask$ himself :at be>+ 8 argum5t _h on ! !ory ( ! syllogism4 ,/ill less c ,i admit t ! doctr9e is 7z has be5 affirm$ by "o ( my able/ & mo/ c&id critics7 8among ! /&+ m>ks ( :at is call$ ! empirical philosophy40 #fc ,logic1 book iv41 *ap4 i41 sect4 #a4 #fd ,see ! important *apt] on ,belief1 9 ,pr(essor ,ba9's great treatise1 ,! ,emotions & ! ,w1 pp4 #eha-d4 #fe ,a writ] 9 ! 8,briti% ,qu>t]ly ,review0 7,augu/1 #ahdf71 9 a review ( ?is treatise1 endeavors to %[ t !re is no petitio pr9cipii 9 ! syllogism1 by d5y+ t ! proposition1 ,all m5 are mortal1 ass]ts or assumes t ,socrates is mortal4 ,9 support ( ?is d5ial1 he argues t we may1 & 9 fact d1 admit ! g5]al proposition t all m5 are mortal1 )\t hav+ p>ticul>ly exam9$ ! case ( ,socrates1 & ev5 )\t kn[+ :e!r ! individual s nam$ is a man or some?+ else4 ,b ?is ( c\rse 0 nev] d5i$4 ,t we c & d draw conclusions conc]n+ cases specifically unkn[n to u1 is ! datum f :i* all :o discuss ?is subject mu/ set out4 ,! "q is1 9 :at t]ms ! evid5ce1 or gr\nd1 on :i* we draw ^! conclusions1 may be/ be designat$--:e!r x is mo/ correct to say1 t ! unkn[n case is prov$ by kn[n cases1 or t x is prov$ by a g5]al proposition includ+ bo? sets ( cases1 ! unkn[n & ! kn[n8 ,i cont5d = ! =m] mode ( expression4 ,i hold x an abuse ( language to say1 t ! pro( t ,socrates is mortal1 is t all m5 are mortal4 ,turn x 9 :at way we w1 ?is seems to me to be ass]t+ t a ?+ is ! pro( ( itself4 ,:oev] pron\nces ! words1 ,all m5 are mortal1 has affirm$ t ,socrates is mortal1 ?\gh he may nev] h he>d ( ,socrates2 = s9ce ,socrates1 :e!r kn[n to be s or n1 really is a man1 he is includ$ 9 ! words1 ,all m51 & 9 e ass]tion ( :i* !y are ! subject4 ,if ! review] does n see t !re is a difficulty "h1 ,i c only advise him to reconsid] ! subject until he does3 aft] :i* he w be a bett] judge ( ! success or failure ( an attempt to remove ! difficulty4 ,t he _h reflect$ v little on ! po9t :5 he wrote 8 rem>ks1 is %[n by 8 ov]sight respect+ ! dictum de omni et nullo4 ,he ackn[l$ges t ?is maxim z commonly express$--8,:atev] is true ( a class1 is true ( e ?+ includ$ 9 ! class10 is a m]e id5tical proposition1 s9ce ! class is no?+ b ! ?+s includ$ 9 x4 ,b he ?9ks ?is defect w\ld be cur$ by word+ ! maxim ?us--8,:atev] is true ( a class1 is true ( e ?+ :i* c be %[n to be a memb] ( ! class30 z if a ?+ c\ld 8be %[n0 to be a memb] ( ! class )\t be+ "o4 ,if a class means ! sum ( all ! ?+s includ$ 9 ! class1 ! ?+s :i* c 8be %[n0 to be includ$ 9 x are "p ( ! sum1 & ! dictum is z mu* an id5tical proposition ) respect to !m z to ! re/4 ,"o w\ld almo/ imag9e t1 9 ! review]'s op9ion1 ?+s are n memb]s ( a class until !y are call$ up publicly to take _! place 9 x--t s long1 9 fact1 z ,socrates is n kn[n to be a man1 he is n a man1 & any ass]tion :i* c be made conc]n+ m5 does n at all reg>d him1 nor is affect$ z to its tru? or falsity by any ?+ 9 :i* he is conc]n$4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! review]'s !ory & m9e may be ?us /at$4 ,bo? admit t :5 we say1 ,all m5 are mortal1 we make an ass]tion rea*+ beyond ! sph]e ( our k ( individual cases2 & t :5 a new individual1 ,socrates1 is br\ght )9 ! field ( our k by means ( ! m9or premise1 we le>n t we h already made an ass]tion respect+ ,socrates )\t kn[+ x3 our own g5]al =mula be+1 to t ext5t1 = ! fir/ "t int]pret$ to u4 ,b accord+ to ! review]'s !ory1 ! small] ass]tion is prov$ by ! l>g]3 :ile ,i cont5d1 t bo? ass]tions are prov$ toge!r1 by ! same evid5ce1 namely1 ! gr\nds ( exp]i5ce on :i* ! g5]al ass]tion 0 made1 & by :i* x mu/ be ju/ifi$4 ,! review] says1 t if ! major premise includ$ ! conclusion1 8we %\ld be able to affirm ! conclusion )\t ! int]v5tion ( ! m9or premise2 b e "o sees t t is impossible40 ,a simil> argum5t is urg$ by ,mr4 ,de ,morgan 7,=mal ,logic1 p4 #bei73 8,! :ole objection tacitly assumes ! sup]fluity ( ! m9or2 t is1 tacitly assumes we "k ,socrates 7,mr4 ,de ,morgan says #8,plato1' b to prev5t confusion ,i h kept to my own exemplum47 to be a man z soon z we "k him to be ,socrates40 ,! objection w\ld be well gr\nd$ if ! ass]tion t ! major premise includes ! conclusion1 meant t x individually specifies all x includes4 ,z1 h[ev]1 ! only indication x gives is a description by m>ks1 we h /ill to comp>e any new individual ) ! m>ks2 & to %[ t ?is comp>ison has be5 made1 is ! (fice ( ! m9or4 ,b s9ce1 by supposition1 ! new individual has ! m>ks1 :e!r we h asc]ta9$ him to h !m or n2 if we h affirm$ ! major premise1 we h ass]t$ him to be mortal4 ,n[ my position is t ?is ass]tion c n be a necess>y "p ( ! argum5t4 ,x c n be a necess>y condition ( reason+ t we %\ld beg9 by mak+ an ass]tion1 :i* is aft]w>d to be employ$ 9 prov+ a "p ( itself4 ,i c conceive only "o way out ( ?is difficulty1 viz41 t :at really =ms ! pro( is ! o!r "p ( ! ass]tion3 ! portion ( x1 ! tru? ( :i* has be5 asc]ta9$ previ\sly3 & t ! unprov$ "p is b\nd up 9 "o =mula ) ! prov$ "p 9 m]e anticipation1 & z a memor&um ( ! nature ( ! conclusions :i* we are prep>$ to prove4 ,) respect to ! m9or premise 9 its =mal %ape1 ! m9or z x /&s 9 ! syllogism1 pr$icat+ ( ,socrates a def9ite class "n1 ,i readily admit t x is no m a necess>y "p ( reason+ ?an ! major4 ,:5 !re is a major1 do+ its "w by means ( a class "n1 m9ors are ne$$ to int]pret x3 b reason+ c be c>ri$ on )\t ei!r ! "o or ! o!r4 ,!y are n ! conditions ( reason+1 b a precaution aga9/ errone\s reason+4 ,! only m9or premise necess>y to reason+ 9 ! example "u consid]ation1 is1 ,socrates is l ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 & ! o!r individuals :o are kn[n to h di$4 ,& ?is is ! only univ]sal type ( t /ep 9 ! reason+ process :i* is repres5t$ by ! m9or4 ,exp]i5ce1 h[ev]1 ( ! unc]ta9ty ( ?is loose mode ( inf]5ce1 tea*es ! exp$i5cy ( det]m9+ be=eh& :at k9d ( lik5ess to ! cases obs]v$1 is necess>y to br+ an unobs]v$ case )9 ! same pr$icate2 & ! answ] to ?is "q is ! major4 ,! m9or !n id5tifies ! precise k9d ( lik5ess possess$ by ,socrates1 z be+ ! k9d requir$ by ! =mula4 ,?us ! syllogi/ic major & ! syllogi/ic m9or />t into exi/5ce toge!r1 & are call$ =? by ! same exig5cy4 ,:5 we conclude f p]sonal exp]i5ce )\t ref]r+ to any record--to any g5]al !orems1 ei!r writt51 or traditional1 or m5tally regi/]$ by ourselves z conclusions ( our own draw+--we d n use1 9 our ?\ghts1 ei!r a major or a m9or1 su* z ! syllogism puts into words4 ,:51 h[ev]1 we revise ?is r\gh inf]5ce f p>ticul>s to p>ticul>s1 & sub/itute a c>eful "o1 ! revision consi/s 9 select+ two syllogi/ic premises4 ,b ?is nei!r alt]s nor adds to ! evid5ce we _h be=e2 x only puts u 9 a bett] position = judg+ :e!r our inf]5ce f p>ticul>s to p>ticul>s is well gr\nd$4 #ff ,infra1 book iii41 *ap4 ii4 #fg ,infra1 book iii41 *4 iv41 #c1 & else:]e4 #fh ,x is ju/ly rem>k$ by ,pr(essor ,ba9 7,logic1 ii41 #acd7 t ! ^w ,hypo!sis is "h us$ 9 a some:at peculi> s5se4 ,an hypo!sis1 9 sci5ce1 usually means a supposition n prov$ to be true1 b surmis$ to be s1 because if true x w\ld acc\nt = c]ta9 kn[n facts2 & ! f9al result ( ! speculation may be to prove its tru?4 ,! hypo!ses spok5 ( 9 ! text are ( a diff]5t "*2 !y are kn[n n to be lit]ally true1 :ile z mu* ( !m z is true is n hypo!tical1 b c]ta94 ,! two cases1 h[ev]1 resemble 9 ! circum/ance t 9 bo? we reason1 n f a tru?1 b f an assumption1 & ! tru? !re=e ( ! conclusions is conditional1 n categorical4 ,?is suffices to ju/ify1 9 po9t ( logical propriety1 ,/ew>t's use ( ! t]m4 ,x is ( c\rse ne$ful to be> 9 m9d t ! hypo!tical elem5t 9 ! def9itions ( geometry is ! assumption t :at is v ne>ly true is exactly s4 ,?is unreal exactitude might be call$ a fiction1 z prop]ly z an hypo!sis2 b t appellation1 /ill m ?an ! o!r1 w\ld fail to po9t out ! close relation :i* exi/s betwe5 ! fictiti\s po9t or l9e & ! po9ts & l9es ( :i* we h exp]i5ce4 #fi ,me*anical ,euclid1 pp4 #adi et seqq4 #gj ,we might1 x is true1 ins]t ?is prop]ty into ! def9ition ( p>allel l9es1 fram+ ! def9ition s z to require1 bo? t :5 produc$ indef9itely !y %all nev] meet1 & also t any /raight l9e :i* int]sects "o ( !m %all1 if prolong$1 meet ! o!r4 ,b by do+ ?is we by no means get rid ( ! assumption2 we are /ill oblig$ to take = grant$ ! geometrical tru?1 t all /raight l9es 9 ! same plane1 :i* h ! =m] ( ^! prop]ties1 h also ! latt]4 ,= if x 7 possible t !y %\ld n1 t is1 if any /raight l9es 9 ! same plane1 o!r ?an ^? :i* are p>allel accord+ to ! def9ition1 _h ! prop]ty ( nev] meet+ al?\gh indef9itely produc$1 ! demon/rations ( ! subsequ5t portions ( ! !ory ( p>allels c\ld n be ma9ta9$4 #ga ,"s p]sons f9d !mselves prev5t$ f believ+ t ! axiom1 ,two /raight l9es c n inclose a space1 c\ld ev] become kn[n to u ?r\gh exp]i5ce1 by a difficulty :i* may be /at$ z foll[s3 ,if ! /raight l9es spok5 ( are ^? contemplat$ 9 ! def9ition--l9es absolutely )\t bread? & absolutely /raight--t su* are incapable ( inclos+ a space is n prov$ by exp]i5ce1 = l9es su* z ^! d n pres5t !mselves 9 our exp]i5ce4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! l9es meant are su* /raight l9es z we d meet ) 9 exp]i5ce1 l9es /raight en\gh = practical purposes1 b 9 reality slightly zigzag1 & ) "s1 h[ev] trifl+1 bread?2 z appli$ to ^! l9es ! axiom is n true1 = two ( !m may1 & sometimes d1 inclose a small portion ( space4 ,9 nei!r case1 !re=e1 does exp]i5ce prove ! axiom4 ,^? :o employ ?is argum5t to %[ t geometrical axioms c n be prov$ by induction1 %[ !mselves unfamili> ) a common & p]fectly valid mode ( inductive pro(2 pro( by approximation4 ,?\gh exp]i5ce furni%es u ) no l9es s unimpea*ably /raight t two ( !m are incapable ( inclos+ ! smalle/ space1 x pres5ts u ) gradations ( l9es possess+ less & less ei!r ( bread? or ( flexure1 ( :i* s]ies ! /raight l9e ( ! def9ition is ! ideal limit4 ,& obs]vation %[s t j z mu*1 & z ne>ly1 z ! /raight l9es ( exp]i5ce approximate to hav+ no bread? or flexure1 s mu* & s ne>ly does ! space-inclos+ p[] ( any two ( !m approa* to z]o4 ,! inf]5ce t if !y _h no bread? or flexure at all1 !y w\ld inclose no space at all1 is a correct inductive inf]5ce f ^! facts1 con=mable to "o ( ! f\r ,inductive ,me?ods h]e9aft] *>act]iz$1 ! ,me?od ( ,concomitant ,v>iations2 ( :i* ! ma!matical ,doctr9e ( ,limits pres5ts ! extreme case4 #gb ,:ewell's ,hi/ory ( ,sci5tific ,ideas1 i41 #adj4 #gc ,dr4 ,:ewell 7,philosophy ( ,discov]y1 p4 #bhi7 ?9ks x unreasonable to cont5d t we "k by exp]i5ce1 t our idea ( a l9e exactly resembles a real l9e4 8,x does n appe>10 he says1 8h[ we c comp>e our ideas ) ! realities1 s9ce we "k ! realities only by our ideas40 ,we "k ! realities by our s5sations4 ,dr4 ,:ewell surely does n hold ! 8doctr9e ( p]ception by means ( ideas10 :i* ,reid gave himself s mu* tr\ble to refute4 ,if ,dr4 ,:ewell d\bts :e!r we comp>e our ideas ) ! correspond+ s5sations1 & assume t !y resemble1 let me ask on :at evid5ce d we judge t a portrait ( a p]son n pres5t is l ! orig9al4 ,surely because x is l our idea1 or m5tal image ( ! p]son1 & because our idea is l ! man himself4 ,dr4 ,:ewell also says1 t x does n appe> :y ?is resemblance ( ideas to ! s5sations ( :i* !y are copies1 %\ld be spok5 ( z if x 7 a peculi>ity ( "o class ( ideas1 ^? ( space4 ,my reply is1 t ,i d n s speak ( x4 ,! peculi>ity ,i cont5d = is only "o ( degree4 ,all our ideas ( s5sation ( c\rse resemble ! correspond+ s5sations1 b !y d s ) v diff]5t degrees ( exactness & ( reliability4 ,no "o1 ,i presume1 c recall 9 imag9ation a color or an odor ) ! same di/9ctness & accuracy ) :i* almo/ e "o c m5tally reproduce an image ( a /raight l9e or a triangle4 ,to ! ext5t1 h[ev]1 ( _! capabilities ( accuracy1 our recollections ( colors or ( odors may s]ve z subjects ( exp]im5tation1 z well z ^? ( l9es & spaces1 & may yield conclusions :i* w be true ( _! ext]nal prototypes4 ,a p]son 9 :om1 ei!r f natural gift or f cultivation1 ! impressions ( color 7 peculi>ly vivid & di/9ct1 if ask$ :i* ( two blue fl[]s 0 ( ! d>ke/ t+e1 ?\gh he might nev] h comp>$ ! two1 or ev5 look$ at !m toge!r1 might be able to give a confid5t answ] on ! fai? ( 8 di/9ct recollection ( ! colors2 t is1 he might exam9e 8 m5tal pictures1 & f9d !re a prop]ty ( ! outw>d objects4 ,b 9 h>dly any case except t ( simple geometrical =ms1 c\ld ?is be done by mank9d g5]ally1 ) a degree ( assurance equal to t :i* is giv5 by a contemplation ( ! objects !mselves4 ,p]sons diff] mo/ widely 9 ! precision ( _! recollection1 ev5 ( =ms3 "o p]son1 :5 he has look$ any "o 9 ! face = half a m9ute1 c draw an accurate lik5ess ( him f memory2 ano!r may h se5 him e day = six mon?s1 & h>dly "k :e!r 8 nose is long or %ort4 ,b e body has a p]fectly di/9ct m5tal image ( a /raight l9e1 a circle1 or a rectangle4 ,& e "o concludes confid5tly f ^! m5tal images to ! correspond+ outw>d ?+s4 ,! tru? is1 t we may1 & cont9ually d1 /udy nature 9 our recollections1 :5 ! objects !mselves are abs5t2 & 9 ! case ( geometrical =ms we c p]fectly1 b 9 mo/ o!r cases only imp]fectly1 tru/ our recollections4 #gd ,logic1 i41 #bbb4 #ge ,ibid41 #bbf4 #gf ,hi/ory ( ,sci5tific ,ideas1 i41 #fe-fg4 #gg ,ibid41 i41 #fj4 #gh ,ibid41 #eh1 #ei4 #gi 8,if all mank9d _h spok5 "o language1 we c n d\bt t !re w\ld h be5 a p[]ful1 p]haps a univ]sal1 s*ool ( philosoph]s1 :o w\ld h believ$ 9 ! inh]5t connection betwe5 names & ?+s1 :o w\ld h tak5 ! s\nd man to be ! mode ( agitat+ ! air :i* is ess5tially communicative ( ! ideas ( reason1 cook]y1 bip$ality1 etc40--,de ,morgan1 ,=mal ,logic1 p4 #bdf4 #hj ,x w\ld be difficult to "n a man m rem>kable at once = ! greatness & ! wide range ( 8 m5tal accompli%m5ts1 ?an ,leibnitz4 ,yet ?is em95t man gave z a reason = reject+ ,newton's s*eme ( ! sol> sy/em1 t ,god c\ld n make a body revolve r\nd a di/ant c5tre1 unless ei!r by "s impell+ me*anism1 or by miracle3 8,t\t ce qui n'e/ pas explicable10 says he 9 a lett] to ! ,abb ,conti1 8p> la nature des cratures1 e/ miraculeux4 ,il ne suffit pas de dire3 ,dieu a fait une telle loi de nature2 donc la *ose e/ naturelle4 ,il faut que la loi soit excutable p> les natures des cratures4 ,si ,di5 donnait cette loi1 p> exemple1 un corps libre1 de t\rn] l'ent\r d'un c]ta9 c5tre1 il faudrait ou qu'il y joignt d'autres corps qui p> leur impulsion l'obligeass5t de re/] t\j\rs dans son orbite circulaire1 ou qu'il mt un ange ses tr\sses1 ou enf9 il faudrait qu'il y conc\rt extraord9airem5t2 c> naturellem5t il s'c>t]a p> la tang5te40--,works ( ,leibnitz1 ed4 ,dut5s1 iii41 #ddf4 #ha ,novum ,organum ,r5ovatum1 pp4 #cb1 #cc4 #hb ,hi/ory ( ,sci5tific ,ideas1 i41 #bfd4 #hc ,ibid41 i41 #bfc4 #hd ,ibid41 #bdj4 #he ,hi/4 ,sci5tific ,ideas1 ii41 #be1 #bf4 #hf ,phil4 ( ,disc41 p4 #cci4 #hg ,phil4 ( ,disc41 p4 #cch4 #hh ,ibid41 p4 #dfc4 #hi ,phil4 ( ,disc41 pp4 #dgb1 #dgc4 #ij ,! ,qu>t]ly ,review = ,june1 #ahda1 conta9$ an article ( great ability on ,dr4 ,:ewell's two great works 7s9ce ackn[l$g$ & repr9t$ 9 ,sir ,john ,h]s*el's ,essays7 :i* ma9ta9s1 on ! subject ( axioms1 ! doctr9e advanc$ 9 ! text1 t !y are g5]alizations f exp]i5ce1 & supports t op9ion by a l9e ( argum5t /rik+ly co9cid+ ) m9e4 ,:5 ,i /ate t ! :ole ( ! pres5t *apt] 7except ! la/ f\r pages1 add$ 9 ! fif? edition7 0 writt5 be=e ,i _h se5 ! article 7! great] "p1 inde$1 be=e x 0 publi%$71 x is n my object to occupy ! read]'s att5tion ) a matt] s unimportant z ! degree ( orig9ality :i* may or may n belong to any portion ( my own speculations1 b to obta9 = an op9ion :i* is oppos$ to reign+ doctr9es1 ! recomm5dation d]iv$ f a /rik+ concurr5ce ( s5tim5t betwe5 two inquir]s entirely indep5d5t ( "o ano!r4 ,i embrace ! opportunity ( cit+ f a writ] ( ! ext5sive acquirem5ts 9 physical & metaphysical k & ! capacity ( sy/ematic ?\ght :i* ! article ev9ces1 passages s rem>kably 9 unison ) my own views z ! foll[+3 8,! tru?s ( geometry are summ$ up & embodi$ 9 its def9itions & axioms4444 ,let u turn to ! axioms1 & :at d we f9d8 ,a /r+ ( propositions conc]n+ magnitude 9 ! ab/ract1 :i* are equally true ( space1 "t1 =ce1 numb]1 & e o!r magnitude susceptible ( aggregation & subdivision4 ,su* propositions1 :]e !y are n m]e def9itions1 z "s ( !m are1 c>ry _! inductive orig9 on ! face ( _! enunciation4444 ,^? :i* decl>e t two /raight l9es c n inclose a space1 & t two /raight l9es :i* cut "o ano!r c n bo? be p>allel to a ?ird1 are 9 reality ! only ones :i* express *>act]i/ic prop]ties ( space1 & ^! x w be wor? :ile to consid] m ne>ly4 ,n[ ! only cle> notion we c =m ( /raightness is uni=mity ( direction1 = space 9 its ultimate analysis is no?+ b an assemblage ( di/ances & directions4 ,& 7n to dwell on ! notion ( cont9u$ contemplation1 i4e41 m5tal exp]i5ce1 z includ$ 9 ! v idea ( uni=mity2 nor on t ( transf] ( ! contemplat+ be+ f po9t to po9t1 & ( exp]i5ce1 dur+ su* transf]1 ( ! homog5eity ( ! int]val pass$ ov]7 we c n ev5 propose ! proposition 9 an intelligible =m to any "o ^: exp]i5ce ev] s9ce he 0 born has n assur$ him ( ! fact4 ,! unity ( direction1 or t we c n m>* f a giv5 po9t by m ?an "o pa? direct to ! same object1 is matt] ( practical exp]i5ce long be=e x c by possibility become matt] ( ab/ract ?\ght4 ,we c n attempt m5tally to exemplify ! conditions ( ! ass]tion 9 an imag9>y case oppos$ to x1 )\t violat+ our habitual recollection ( ?is exp]i5ce1 & defac+ our m5tal picture ( space z gr\nd$ on x4 ,:at b exp]i5ce1 we may ask1 c possibly assure u ( ! homog5eity ( ! p>ts ( di/ance1 "t1 =ce1 & measurable aggregates 9 g5]al1 on :i* ! tru? ( ! o!r axioms dep5ds8 ,z reg>ds ! latt] axiom1 aft] :at has be5 said x mu/ be cle> t ! v same c\rse ( rem>ks equally applies to its case1 & t its tru? is q z mu* =c$ on ! m9d z t ( ! =m] by daily & h\rly exp]i5ce1 444 includ+ always1 be x obs]v$1 9 our notion ( exp]i5ce1 t :i* is ga9$ by contemplation ( ! inw>d picture :i* ! m9d =ms to itself 9 any propos$ case1 or :i* x arbitr>ily selects z an example--su* picture1 9 virtue ( ! extreme simplicity ( ^! prim>y relations1 be+ call$ up by ! imag9ation ) z mu* vividness & cle>ness z c\ld be done by any ext]nal impression1 :i* is ! only mean+ we c atta* to ! ^w intuition1 z appli$ to su* relations40 ,& aga91 ( ! axioms ( me*anics3 8,z we admit no su* propositions1 o!r ?an z tru?s inductively collect$ f obs]vation1 ev5 9 geometry itself1 x c h>dly be expect$ t1 9 a sci5ce ( obvi\sly cont+5t relations1 we %\ld acquiesce 9 a contr>y view4 ,let u take "o ( ^! axioms & exam9e its evid5ce3 = in/ance1 t equal =ces p]p5dicul>ly appli$ at ! opposite ends ( equal arms ( a /raight lev] w balance ea* o!r4 ,:at b exp]i5ce1 we may ask1 9 ! fir/ place1 c possibly in=m u t a =ce s appli$ w h any t5d5cy to turn ! lev] on its c5tre at all8 or t =ce c be s transmitt$ along a rigid l9e p]p5dicul> to its direction1 z to act else:]e 9 space ?an along its own l9e ( action8 ,surely ?is is s f> f be+ self-evid5t t x has ev5 a p>adoxical appe>ance1 :i* is only to be remov$ by giv+ our lev] ?ickness1 mat]ial composition1 & molecul> p[]s4 ,aga91 we conclude1 t ! two =ces1 be+ equal & appli$ "u precisely simil> circum/ances1 mu/1 if !y ex]t any ef=t at all to turn ! lev]1 ex]t equal & opposite ef=ts3 b :at a priori reason+ c possibly assure u t !y d act "u precisely simil> circum/ances8 t po9ts :i* diff] 9 place are simil>ly circum/anc$ z reg>ds ! ex]tion ( =ce8 t univ]sal space may n h relations to univ]sal =ce--or1 at all ev5ts1 t ! organization ( ! mat]ial univ]se may n be su* z to place t portion ( space occupi$ by x 9 su* relations to ! =ces ex]t$ 9 x1 z may invalidate ! absolute simil>ity ( circum/ances assum$8 ,or we may argue1 :at h we to d ) ! notion ( angul> movem5t 9 ! lev] at all8 ,! case is "o ( re/1 & ( quiesc5t de/ruction ( =ce by =ce4 ,n[ h[ is ?is de/ruction effect$8 ,assur$ly by ! c\nt]-pressure :i* supports ! fulcrum4 ,b w\ld n ?is de/ruction equally arise1 & by ! same am\nt ( c\nt]act+ =ce1 if ea* =ce simply press$ its own half ( ! lev] aga9/ ! fulcrum8 ,& :at c assure u t x is n s1 except removal ( "o or o!r =ce1 & consequ5t tilt+ ( ! lev]8 ,! o!r fundam5tal axiom ( /atics1 t ! pressure on ! po9t ( support is ! sum ( ! weights 444 is m]ely a sci5tific trans=mation & m ref9$ mode ( /at+ a co>se & obvi\s result ( univ]sal exp]i5ce1 viz41 t ! weight ( a rigid body is ! same1 h&le x or susp5d x 9 :at position or by :at po9t we w1 & t :atev] su/a9s x su/a9s its total weight4 ,assur$ly1 z ,mr4 ,:ewell ju/ly rem>ks1 #8,no "o probably ev] made a trial = ! purpose ( %[+ t ! pressure on ! support is equal to ! sum ( ! weights4' 444 ,b x is precisely because 9 e action ( 8 life f e>lie/ infancy he has be5 cont9ually mak+ ! trial1 & see+ x made by e o!r liv+ be+ ab\t him1 t he nev] dreams ( /ak+ its result on "o additional attempt made ) sci5tific accuracy4 ,?is w\ld be z if a man %\ld resolve to decide by exp]im5t :e!r 8 eyes 7 useful = ! purpose ( see+1 by h]metically seal+ himself up = half an h\r 9 a metal case40 ,on ! 8p>adox ( univ]sal propositions obta9$ by exp]i5ce10 ! same writ] says3 8,if !re be necess>y & univ]sal tru?s expressible 9 propositions ( axiomatic simplicity & obvi\sness1 & hav+ = _! subject-matt] ! elem5ts ( all our exp]i5ce & all our k1 surely ^! are ! tru?s :i*1 if exp]i5ce sugge/ to u any tru?s at all1 x ought to sugge/ mo/ readily1 cle>ly1 & unceas+ly4 ,if x 7 a tru?1 univ]sal & necess>y1 t a net is spread ov] ! :ole surface ( e planet>y globe1 we %\ld n travel f> on our own )\t gett+ entangl$ 9 its me%es1 & mak+ ! necessity ( "s means ( extrication an axiom ( locomotion4444 ,!re is1 !re=e1 no?+ p>adoxical1 b ! rev]se1 9 our be+ l$ by obs]vation to a recognition ( su* tru?s1 z g5]al propositions1 co-ext5sive at lea/ ) all human exp]i5ce4 ,t !y p]vade all ! objects ( exp]i5ce1 mu/ insure _! cont9ual sugge/ion by exp]i5ce2 t !y are true1 mu/ insure t consi/5cy ( sugge/ion1 t it]ation ( uncontradict$ ass]tion1 :i* comm&s implicit ass5t1 & removes all occasion ( exception2 t !y are simple1 & admit ( no misund]/&+1 mu/ secure _! admission by e m9d40 8,a tru?1 necess>y & univ]sal1 relative to any object ( our k1 mu/ v]ify itself 9 e in/ance :]e t object is be=e our contemplation1 & if at ! same "t x be simple & intelligible1 its v]ification mu/ be obvi\s4 ,! s5tim5t ( su* a tru? c n1 !re=e1 b be pres5t to our m9ds :5ev] t object is contemplat$1 & mu/ !re=e make a "p ( ! m5tal picture or idea ( t object :i* we may on any occasion summon be=e our imag9ation4444 ,all propositions1 !re=e1 become n only untrue b inconceivable1 if 444 axioms be violat$ 9 _! enunciation40 ,ano!r em95t ma!matician _h previ\sly sanction$ by 8 au?ority ! doctr9e ( ! orig9 ( geometrical axioms 9 exp]i5ce4 8,geometry is ?us f\nd$ likewise on obs]vation2 b ( a k9d s famili> & obvi\s1 t ! prim>y notions :i* x furni%es might seem intuitive40--,sir ,john ,leslie1 quot$ by ,sir ,william ,hamilton1 ,disc\rses1 etc41 p4 #bgb4 #ia ,pr9ciples ( ,psy*ology4 #ib ,mr4 ,sp5c] is mi/ak5 9 suppos+ me to claim any peculi> 8necessity0 = ?is axiom z comp>$ ) o!rs4 ,i h correct$ ! expressions :i* l$ him into t misappreh5sion ( my mean+4 #ic ,mr4 ,sp5c]1 9 rec5tly return+ to ! subject 7,pr9ciples ( ,psy*ology1 new edition1 *ap4 xii43 8,! ,te/ ( ,relative ,validity071 makes two answ]s to ! prec$+ rem>ks4 ,"o is3 8,7 an argum5t =m$ by repeat+ ! same proposition ov] & ov] aga91 x w\ld be true t any intr9sic fallibility ( ! po/ulate w\ld n make ! conclusion m untru/wor?y ?an ! fir/ /ep4 ,b an argum5t consi/s ( unlike propositions4 ,n[1 s9ce ,mr4 ,mill's criticism on ! ,univ]sal ,po/ulate is t 9 "s cases1 :i* he names1 x has prov$ to be an untru/wor?y te/2 x foll[s t 9 any argum5t consi/+ ( het]og5e\s propositions1 !re is a risk1 increas+ z ! numb] ( propositions increases1 t "s "o ( !m belongs to ?is class ( cases1 & is wrongly accept$ because ( ! inconceivabl5ess ( its negation40 ,no d\bt3 b ?is supposes new premises to be tak5 94 ,! po9t we are discuss+ is ! fallibility n ( ! premises1 b ( ! reason+1 z di/+ui%$ f ! premises4 ,n[ ! validity ( ! reason+ dep5ds always ^u ! same axiom1 repeat$ 79 ?\ght7 8ov] & ov] aga910 viz41 t :atev] has a m>k1 has :at x is a m>k (4 ,ev51 !re=e1 on ! assumption t ?is axiom re/s ultimately on ! ,univ]sal ,po/ulate1 & t1 ! ,po/ulate n be+ :olly tru/wor?y1 ! axiom may be "o ( ! cases ( its failure2 all ! risk !re is ( ?is is incurr$ at ! v fir/ /ep ( ! reason+1 & is n add$ to1 h[ev] long may be ! s]ies ( subsequ5t /eps4 ,i am "h argu+1 ( c\rse1 f ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s po9t ( view4 ,f my own ! case is /ill cle>]2 =1 9 my view1 ! tru? t :atev] has a m>k has :at x is a m>k (1 is :olly tru/wor?y1 & d]ives none ( its evid5ce f s v untru/wor?y a te/ z ! inconceivability ( ! negative4 ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s second answ] is valid up to a c]ta9 po9t2 x is1 t e prolongation ( ! process involves additional *ances ( casual error1 f c>elessness 9 ! reason+ op]ation4 ,?is is an important consid]ation 9 ! private speculations ( an individual reason]2 & ev5 ) respect to mank9d at l>ge1 x mu/ be admitt$ t1 ?\gh m]e ov]sights 9 ! syllogi/ic process1 l errors ( addition 9 an acc\nt1 are special to ! individual1 & seldom escape detection1 confusion ( ?\ght produc$ 7= example7 by ambigu\s t]ms has l$ :ole nations or ages to accept fallaci\s reason+ z valid4 ,b ?is v fact po9ts to causes ( error s mu* m dang]\s ?an ! m]e l5g? ( ! process1 z q to vitiate ! doctr9e t ! 8te/ ( ! relative validities ( conflict+ conclusions0 is ! numb] ( times ! fundam5tal po/ulate is involv$4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! subjects on :i* ! tra9s ( reason+ are longe/1 & ! assumption1 !re=e1 (t5e/ repeat$1 are 9 g5]al ^? :i* are be/ =tifi$ aga9/ ! really =midable causes ( fallacy2 z 9 ! example already giv5 ( ma!matics4 #id ,mr4 ,sp5c] makes a di/9ction betwe5 conceiv+ myself look+ into d>kness1 & conceiv+ t ,i am !n & !re look+ into d>kness4 ,to me x seems t ?is *ange ( ! expression to ! =m ,i am1 j m>ks ! transition f conception to belief1 & t ! phrase 8to conceive t ,i am10 or 8t any ?+ is10 is n consi/5t ) us+ ! ^w conceive 9 its rigor\s s5se4 #ie ,i h myself accept$ ! conte/1 & f\ght x out on ?is battle-gr\nd1 9 ! elev5? *apt] ( ,an ,exam9ation ( ,sir ,william ,hamilton's ,philosophy4 #if ,*ap4 xi4 #ig ,9 "o ( ! ?ree cases1 ,mr4 ,sp5c]1 to my no small surprise1 ?9ks t ! belief ( mank9d 8c n be rightly said to h und]gone0 ! *ange ,i allege4 ,mr4 ,sp5c] himself /ill ?9ks we are unable to conceive gravitation act+ ?r\gh empty space4 8,if an a/ronom] av[$ t he c\ld conceive gravitative =ce z ex]cis$ ?r\gh space absolutely void1 my private op9ion w\ld be t he mi/ook ! nature ( conception4 ,conception implies repres5tation4 ,"h ! elem5ts ( ! repres5tation are ! two bodies & an ag5cy by :i* ei!r affects ! o!r4 ,to conceive ?is ag5cy is to repres5t x 9 "s t]ms d]iv$ f our exp]i5ces--t is1 f our s5sations4 ,z ?is ag5cy gives u no s5sations1 we are oblig$ 7if we try to conceive x7 to use symbols idealiz$ f our s5sations--impond]able units =m+ a m$ium40 ,if ,mr4 ,sp5c] means t ! action ( gravitation gives u no s5sations1 ! ass]tion is "o ?an :i* ,i h n se51 9 ! writ+s ( philosoph]s1 _m m />tl+4 ,:at o!r s5sation d we ne$ ?an ! s5sation ( "o body mov+ t[>d ano!r8 8,! elem5ts ( ! repres5tation0 are n two bodies & an 8ag5cy10 b two bodies & an effect2 viz41 ! fact ( _! approa*+ "o ano!r4 ,if we are able to conceive a vacuum1 is !re any difficulty 9 conceiv+ a body fall+ to ! e>? ?r\gh x8 #ih ,discussions1 etc41 #b;d ed41 p4 #fbd4 #ii ,pr(essor ,ba9 7,logic1 i41 #af7 id5tifies ! ,pr9ciple ( ,contradiction ) 8 ,law ( ,relativity1 viz41 t 8e ?+ t c be ?\ght (1 e affirmation t c be made1 has an opposite or c\nt] notion or affirmation20 a proposition :i* is "o ( ! g5]al results ( ! :ole body ( human exp]i5ce4 ,= fur!r consid]ations respect+ ! axioms ( ,contradiction & ,exclud$ ,middle1 see ! tw5ty-fir/ *apt] ( ,an ,exam9ation ( ,sir ,william ,hamilton's ,philosophy4 #ajj ,dr4 ,:ewell ?9ks x improp] to apply ! t]m ,induction to any op]ation n t]m9at+ 9 ! e/abli%m5t ( a g5]al tru?4 ,induction1 he says 7,philosophy ( ,discov]y1 p4 #bde71 8is n ! same ?+ z exp]i5ce & obs]vation4 ,induction is exp]i5ce or obs]vation consci\sly look$ at 9 a g5]al =m4 ,?is consci\sness & g5]ality are necess>y p>ts ( t k :i* is sci5ce40 ,& he objects 7p4 #bda7 to ! mode 9 :i* ! ^w ,induction is employ$ 9 ?is "w1 z an undue ext5sion ( t t]m 8n only to ! cases 9 :i* ! g5]al induction is consci\sly appli$ to a p>ticul> in/ance1 b to ! cases 9 :i* ! p>ticul> in/ance is dealt ) by means ( exp]i5ce 9 t rude s5se 9 :i* exp]i5ce c be ass]t$ ( brutes1 & 9 :i* ( c\rse we c 9 no way imag9e t ! law is possess$ or und]/ood z a g5]al proposition40 ,?is use ( ! t]m he deems a 8confusion ( k ) practical t5d5cies40 ,i disclaim1 z /rongly z ,dr4 ,:ewell c d1 ! application ( su* t]ms z induction1 inf]5ce1 or reason+1 to op]ations p]=m$ by m]e in/9ct1 t is1 f an animal impulse1 )\t ! ex]tion ( any intellig5ce4 ,b ,i p]ceive no gr\nd = conf9+ ! use ( ^? t]ms to cases 9 :i* ! inf]5ce is drawn 9 ! =ms & ) ! precautions requir$ by sci5tific propriety4 ,to ! idea ( ,sci5ce1 an express recognition & di/9ct appreh5sion ( g5]al laws z su*1 is ess5tial3 b n9e-t5?s ( ! conclusions drawn f exp]i5ce 9 ! c\rse ( practical life1 are drawn )\t any su* recognition3 !y are direct inf]5ces f kn[n cases1 to a case suppos$ to be simil>4 ,i h endeavor$ to %[ t ?is is n only z legitimate an op]ation1 b sub/antially ! same op]ation1 z t ( asc5d+ f kn[n cases to a g5]al proposition2 except t ! latt] process has "o great security = correctness :i* ! =m] does n possess4 ,9 sci5ce1 ! inf]5ce mu/ necess>ily pass ?r\gh ! int]m$iate /age ( a g5]al proposition1 because ,sci5ce wants its conclusions = record1 & n = in/antane\s use4 ,b ! inf]5ces drawn = ! guidance ( practical affairs1 by p]sons :o w\ld (t5 be q incapable ( express+ 9 unexceptionable t]ms ! correspond+ g5]alizations1 may & frequ5tly d exhibit intellectual p[]s q equal to any :i* h ev] be5 display$ 9 sci5ce2 & if ^! inf]5ces are n inductive1 :at are !y8 ,! limitation impos$ on ! t]m by ,dr4 ,:ewell seems p]fectly arbitr>y2 nei!r ju/ifi$ by any fundam5tal di/9ction betwe5 :at he includes & :at he desires to exclude1 nor sanction$ by usage1 at lea/ f ! "t ( ,reid & ,/ew>t1 ! pr9cipal legislators 7z f> z ! ,engli% language is conc]n$7 ( mod]n metaphysical t]m9ology4 #aja ,supra1 p4 #ade4 #ajb ,novum ,organum ,r5ovatum1 pp4 #gb1 #gc4 #ajc ,novum ,organum ,r5ovatum1 p4 #cb4 #ajd ,c\rs de ,philosophie ,positive1 vol4 ii41 p4 #bjb4 #aje ,dr4 ,:ewell1 9 8 reply1 conte/s ! di/9ction "h drawn1 & ma9ta9s1 t n only diff]5t descriptions1 b diff]5t explanations ( a ph5om5on1 may all be true4 ,( ! ?ree !ories respect+ ! motions ( ! heav5ly bodies1 he says 7,philosophy ( ,discov]y1 p4 #bca73 8,und\bt$ly all ^! explanations may be true & consi/5t ) ea* o!r1 & w\ld be s if ea* _h be5 foll[$ out s z to %[ 9 :at mann] x c\ld be made consi/5t ) ! facts4 ,& ?is 01 9 reality1 9 a great measure done4 ,! doctr9e t ! heav5ly bodies 7 mov$ by vortices 0 successfully modifi$1 s t x came to co9cide 9 its results ) ! doctr9e ( an inv]se-quadratic c5tripetal =ce4444 ,:5 ?is po9t 0 rea*$1 ! vortex 0 m]ely a ma*9]y1 well or ill devis$1 = produc+ su* a c5tripetal =ce1 & !re=e did n contradict ! doctr9e ( a c5tripetal =ce4 ,newton himself does n appe> to h be5 av]se to expla9+ gravity by impulse4 ,s little is x true t if "o !ory be true ! o!r mu/ be false4 ,! attempt to expla9 gravity by ! impulse ( /reams ( p>ticles fl[+ ?r\gh ! univ]se 9 all directions1 :i* ,i h m5tion$ 9 ! ,philosophy1 is s f> f be+ inconsi/5t ) ! ,newtonian !ory1 t x is f\nd$ entirely ^u x4 ,& ev5 ) reg>d to ! doctr9e1 t ! heav5ly bodies move by an inh]5t virtue2 if ?is doctr9e _h be5 ma9ta9$ 9 any su* way t x 0 br\ght to agree ) ! facts1 ! inh]5t virtue mu/ h _h its laws det]m9$2 & !n x w\ld h be5 f\nd t ! virtue _h a ref]5ce to ! c5tral body2 & s1 ! #8inh]5t virtue' mu/ h co9cid$ 9 its effect ) ! ,newtonian =ce2 & !n1 ! two explanations w\ld agree1 except s f> z ! ^w #8inh]5t' 0 conc]n$4 ,& if su* a "p ( an e>li] !ory z ?is ^w inh]5t indicates1 is f\nd to be unt5able1 x is ( c\rse reject$ 9 ! transition to lat] & m exact !ories1 9 ,inductions ( ?is k9d1 z well z 9 :at ,mr4 ,mill calls ,descriptions4 ,!re is1 !re=e1 /ill no validity discov]able 9 ! di/9ction :i* ,mr4 ,mill attempts to draw betwe5 descriptions l ,kepl]'s law ( elliptical orbits1 & o!r examples ( induction40 ,if ! doctr9e ( vortices _h meant1 n t vortices exi/$1 b only t ! planets mov$ 9 ! same mann] z if !y _h be5 :irl$ by vortices2 if ! hypo!sis _h be5 m]ely a mode ( repres5t+ ! facts1 n an attempt to acc\nt = !m2 if1 9 %ort1 x _h be5 only a ,description2 x w\ld1 no d\bt1 h be5 reconcilable ) ! ,newtonian !ory4 ,! vortices1 h[ev]1 7 n a m]e aid to conceiv+ ! motions ( ! planets1 b a suppos$ physical ag5t1 actively impell+ !m2 a mat]ial fact1 :i* might be true or n true1 b c\ld n be bo? true & n true4 ,accord+ to ,desc>tes's !ory x 0 true1 accord+ to ,newton's x 0 n true4 ,dr4 ,:ewell probably means t s9ce ! phrases1 c5tripetal & projectile =ce1 d n decl>e ! nature b only ! direction ( ! =ces1 ! ,newtonian !ory does n absolutely contradict any hypo!sis :i* may be fram$ respect+ ! mode ( _! production4 ,! ,newtonian !ory1 reg>d$ z a m]e description ( ! planet>y motions1 does n2 b ! ,newtonian !ory z an explanation ( !m does4 ,= 9 :at does ! explanation consi/8 ,9 ascrib+ ^? motions to a g5]al law :i* obta9s betwe5 all p>ticles ( matt]1 & 9 id5tify+ ?is ) ! law by :i* bodies fall to ! gr\nd4 ,if ! planets are kept 9 _! orbits by a =ce :i* draws ! p>ticles compos+ !m t[>d e o!r p>ticle ( matt] 9 ! sol> sy/em1 !y are n kept 9 ^? orbits by ! impulsive =ce ( c]ta9 /reams ( matt] :i* :irl !m r\nd4 ,! "o explanation absolutely excludes ! o!r4 ,ei!r ! planets are n mov$ by vortices1 or !y d n move by a law common to all matt]4 ,x is impossible t bo? op9ions c be true4 ,z well might x be said t !re is no contradiction betwe5 ! ass]tions1 t a man di$ because somebody kill$ him1 & t he di$ a natural dea?4 ,s1 aga91 ! !ory t ! planets move by a virtue inh]5t 9 _! cele/ial nature1 is incompatible ) ei!r ( ! two o!rs3 ei!r t ( _! be+ mov$ by vortices1 or t :i* reg>ds !m z mov+ by a prop]ty :i* !y h 9 common ) ! e>? & all t]re/rial bodies4 ,dr4 ,:ewell says t ! !ory ( an inh]5t virtue agrees ) ,newton's :5 ! ^w inh]5t is left out1 :i* ( c\rse x w\ld be 7he says7 if 8f\nd to be unt5able40 ,b leave t out1 & :]e is ! !ory8 ,! ^w inh]5t is ! !ory4 ,:5 t is omitt$1 !re rema9s no?+ except t ! heav5ly bodies move 8by a virtue10 i4e41 by a p[] ( "s sort2 or by virtue ( _! cele/ial nature1 :i* directly contradicts ! doctr9e t t]re/rial bodies fall by ! same law4 ,if ,dr4 ,:ewell is n yet satisfi$1 any o!r subject w s]ve equally well to te/ 8 doctr9e4 ,he w h>dly say t !re is no contradiction betwe5 ! emission !ory & ! undulatory !ory ( light2 or t !re c be bo? "o & two electricities2 or t ! hypo!sis ( ! production ( ! high] organic =ms by developm5t f ! l[]1 & ! supposition ( sep>ate & successive acts ( creation1 are q reconcilable2 or t ! !ory t volcanoes are f$ f a c5tral fire1 & ! doctr9es :i* ascribe !m to *emical action at a comp>atively small dep? bel[ ! e>?'s surface1 are consi/5t ) "o ano!r1 & all true z f> z !y g4 ,if diff]5t explanations ( ! same fact c n bo? be true1 /ill less1 surely1 c diff]5t pr$ictions4 ,dr4 ,:ewell qu>rels 7on :at gr\nd x is n necess>y "h to consid]7 ) ! example ,i _h *os5 on ?is po9t1 & ?9ks an objection to an illu/ration a suffici5t answ] to a !ory4 ,examples n liable to 8 objection are easily f\nd1 if ! proposition t conflict+ pr$ictions c n bo? be true1 c be made cle>] by _m examples4 ,suppose ! ph5om5on to be a newly-discov]$ comet1 & t "o a/ronom] pr$icts its return once 9 e #cjj ye>s--ano!r once 9 e #djj3 c !y bo? be "r8 ,:5 ,columbus pr$ict$ t by sail+ con/antly we/w>d he %\ld 9 "t return to ! po9t f :i* he set out1 :ile o!rs ass]t$ t he c\ld nev] d s except by turn+ back1 7 bo? he & 8 oppon5ts true prophets8 ,7 ! pr$ictions :i* =etold ! wond]s ( railways & /eam%ips1 & ^? :i* av]r$ t ! ,atlantic c\ld nev] be cross$ by /eam navigation1 nor a railway tra9 propell$ t5 miles an h\r1 bo? 79 ,dr4 ,:ewell's words7 8true1 & consi/5t ) "o ano!r80 ,dr4 ,:ewell sees no di/9ction betwe5 hold+ contradictory op9ions on a "q ( fact1 & m]ely employ+ diff]5t analogies to facilitate ! conception ( ! same fact4 ,! case ( diff]5t ,inductions belongs to ! =m] class1 t ( diff]5t ,descriptions to ! latt]4 #ajf ,phil4 ( ,discov41 p4 #bef4 #ajg ,essays on ! ,pursuit ( ,tru?4 #ajh ,9 ! fir/ edition a note 0 app5d$ at ?is place1 conta9+ "s criticism on ,ar*bi%op ,:ately's mode ( conceiv+ ! relation betwe5 ,syllogism & ,induction4 ,9 a subsequ5t issue ( 8 ,logic1 ! ,ar*bi%op made a reply to ! criticism1 :i* induc$ me to cancel "p ( ! note1 incorporat+ ! rema9d] 9 ! text4 ,9 a /ill lat] edition1 ! ,ar*bi%op obs]ves 9 a tone ( some?+ l disapprobation1 t ! objections1 8d\btless f _! be+ fully answ]$ & f\nd unt5able1 7 sil5tly suppress$10 & t h5ce he might appe> to "s ( 8 read]s to be combat+ a %ad[4 ,on ?is latt] po9t1 ! ,ar*bi%op ne$ give himself no uneas9ess4 ,8 read]s1 ,i make bold to say1 w fully cr$it 8 m]e affirmation t ! objections h actually be5 made4 ,b z he seems to ?9k t :at he t]ms ! suppression ( ! objections ought n to h be5 made 8sil5tly10 ,i n[ break t sil5ce1 & /ate exactly :at x is t ,i suppress$1 & :y4 ,i suppress$ t alone :i* might be reg>d$ z p]sonal criticism on ! ,ar*bi%op4 ,i _h imput$ to him ! hav+ omitt$ to ask himself a p>ticul> "q4 ,i f\nd t he _h ask$ himself ! "q1 & c\ld give x an answ] consi/5t ) 8 own !ory4 ,i _h also1 )9 ! compass ( a p>5!sis1 haz>d$ "s rem>ks on c]ta9 g5]al *>act]i/ics ( ,ar*bi%op ,:ately z a philosoph]4 ,^! rem>ks1 ?\gh _! tone1 ,i hope1 0 nei!r disrespectful nor arrogant1 ,i felt1 on reconsid]ation1 t ,i 0 h>dly entitl$ to make2 lea/ ( all1 :5 ! in/ance :i* ,i _h reg>d$ z an illu/ration ( !m1 fail$1 z ,i n[ saw1 to be> !m out4 ,! real matt] at ! bottom ( ! :ole dispute1 ! diff]5t view we take ( ! function ( ! major premise1 rema9s exactly :]e x 02 & s f> 0 ,i f ?9k+ t my op9ion _h be5 fully 8answ]$0 & 0 8unt5able10 t 9 ! same edition 9 :i* ,i cancel$ ! note1 ,i n only en=c$ ! op9ion by fur!r argum5ts1 b answ]$ 7?\gh )\t nam+ him7 ^? ( ! ,ar*bi%op4 ,= n hav+ made ?is /atem5t be=e1 ,i d n ?9k x ne$ful to apologize4 ,x w\ld be atta*+ v great importance to "o's smalle/ say+s1 to ?9k a =mal retractation requisite e "t t "o falls into an error4 ,nor is ,ar*bi%op ,:ately's well-e>n$ fame ( s t5d] a quality z to require t 9 )draw+ a slight criticism on him ,i %\ld h be5 b\nd to (f] a public am5de = hav+ made x4 #aji ,b ?\gh x is a condition ( ! validity ( e induction t !re be uni=mity 9 ! c\rse ( nature1 x is n a necess>y condition t ! uni=mity %\ld p]vade all nature4 ,x is en\gh t x p]vades ! p>ticul> class ( ph5om5a to :i* ! induction relates4 ,an induction conc]n+ ! motions ( ! planets1 or ! prop]ties ( ! magnet1 w\ld n be vitiat$ ?\gh we 7 to suppose t w9d & wea!r are ! sport ( *ance1 provid$ x be assum$ t a/ronomical & magnetic ph5om5a are "u ! dom9ion ( g5]al laws4 ,o!rwise ! e>ly exp]i5ce ( mank9d w\ld h re/$ on a v weak f\ndation2 = 9 ! infancy ( sci5ce x c\ld n be kn[n t all ph5om5a are regul> 9 _! c\rse4 ,nei!r w\ld x be correct to say t e induction by :i* we inf] any tru?1 implies ! g5]al fact ( uni=mity z =ekn[n1 ev5 9 ref]5ce to ! k9d ( ph5om5a conc]n$4 ,x implies1 ei!r t ?is g5]al fact is already kn[n1 or t we may n[ "k x3 z ! conclusion1 ! ,duke ( ,well+ton is mortal1 drawn f ! in/ances ,a1 ,b1 & ,c1 implies ei!r t we h already conclud$ all m5 to be mortal1 or t we are n[ entitl$ to d s f ! same evid5ce4 ,a va/ am\nt ( confusion & p>alogism respect+ ! gr\nds ( ,induction w\ld be dispell$ by keep+ 9 view ^! simple consid]ations4 #aaj ,infra1 *ap4 xxi4 #aaa ,infra1 *ap4 xxi41 xxii4 #aab ,9 /rictness1 :]ev] ! pres5t con/itution ( space exi/s2 :i* we h ample reason to believe t x does 9 ! region ( ! fix$ />s4 #aac ,dr4 ,:ewell 7,phil4 ( ,discov41 p4 #bdf7 w n all[ ^! & simil> errone\s judgm5ts to be call$ inductions2 inasmu* z su* sup]/iti\s fancies 87 n collect$ f ! facts by seek+ a law ( _! occurr5ce1 b 7 sugge/$ by an imag9ation ( ! ang] ( sup]ior p[]s1 %[n by su* deviations f ! ord9>y c\rse ( nature40 ,i conceive ! "q to be1 n 9 :at mann] ^! notions 7 at fir/ sugge/$1 b by :at evid5ce !y h1 f "t to "t1 be5 suppos$ to be sub/antiat$4 ,if ! believ]s 9 ^! errone\s op9ions _h be5 put on _! def5se1 !y w\ld h ref]r$ to exp]i5ce3 to ! comet :i* prec$$ ! assass9ation ( ,julius ,cs>1 or to oracles & o!r prophecies kn[n to h be5 fulfill$4 ,x is by su* appeals to facts t all analog\s sup]/itions1 ev5 9 our day1 attempt to ju/ify !mselves2 ! suppos$ evid5ce ( exp]i5ce is necess>y to _! hold on ! m9d4 ,i q admit t ! influ5ce ( su* co9cid5ces w\ld n be :at x is1 if /r5g? 7 n l5t to x by an antec$5t presumption2 b ?is is n peculi> to su* cases2 preconceiv$ notions ( probability =m "p ( ! explanation ( _m o!r cases ( belief on insuffici5t evid5ce4 ,! a priori prejudice does n prev5t ! errone\s op9ion f be+ s9c]ely reg>d$ z a legitimate conclusion f exp]i5ce2 ?\gh x improp]ly pr$isposes ! m9d to t int]pretation ( exp]i5ce4 ,?us mu* 9 def5se ( ! sort ( examples object$ to4 ,b x w\ld be easy to produce in/ances1 equally adapt$ to ! purpose1 & 9 :i* no antec$5t prejudice is at all conc]n$4 8,= _m ages10 says ,ar*bi%op ,:ately1 8all f>m]s & g>d5]s 7 firmly conv9c$--& conv9c$ ( _! kn[+ x by exp]i5ce--t ! crops w\ld nev] turn out good unless ! se$ 7 s[n dur+ ! increase ( ! moon40 ,?is 0 induction1 b bad induction2 j z a vici\s syllogism is reason+1 b bad reason+4 #aad ,! ass]tion1 t any & e "o ( ! conditions ( a ph5om5on may be & is1 on "s occasions & = "s purposes1 spok5 ( z ! cause1 has be5 disput$ by an intellig5t review] ( ?is "w 9 ! ,prospective ,review 7! pr$ecessor ( ! ju/ly e/eem$ ,national ,review71 :o ma9ta9s t 8we always apply ! ^w cause r to t elem5t 9 ! antec$5ts :i* ex]cises =ce1 & :i* w\ld t5d at all times to produce ! same or a simil> effect to t :i*1 "u c]ta9 conditions1 x w\ld actually produce40 ,& he says1 t 8e "o w\ld feel0 ! expression1 t ! cause ( a surprise 0 ! s5t9el's be+ (f 8 po/1 to be incorrect2 b t ! 8allurem5t or =ce :i* drew him (f 8 po/1 might be s call$1 because 9 do+ s x remov$ a resi/+ p[] :i* w\ld h prev5t$ ! surprise40 ,i c n ?9k t x w\ld be wrong to say1 t ! ev5t took place because ! s5t9el 0 abs5t1 & yet "r to say t x took place because he 0 brib$ to be abs5t4 ,s9ce ! only direct effect ( ! bribe 0 8 abs5ce1 ! bribe c\ld be call$ ! remote cause ( ! surprise1 only on ! supposition t ! abs5ce 0 ! proximate cause2 nor does x seem to me t any "o 7:o _h n a !ory to support7 w\ld use ! "o expression & reject ! o!r4 ,! review] obs]ves1 t :5 a p]son dies ( poison1 8 possession ( bodily organs is a necess>y condition1 b t no "o w\ld ev] speak ( x z ! cause4 ,i admit ! fact2 b ,i believe ! reason to be1 t ! occasion c\ld nev] arise = s speak+ ( x2 = :5 9 ! inaccuracy ( common disc\rse we are l$ to speak ( "s "o condition ( a ph5om5on z its cause1 ! condition s spok5 ( is always "o :i* x is at lea/ possible t ! he>] may require to be in=m$ (4 ,! possession ( bodily organs is a kn[n condition1 & to give t z ! answ]1 :5 ask$ ! cause ( a p]son's dea?1 w\ld n supply ! in=mation s\ght4 ,once conceive t a d\bt c\ld exi/ z to 8 hav+ bodily organs1 or t he 7 to be comp>$ ) "s be+ :o _h !m n1 & cases may be imag9$ 9 :i* x might be said t 8 possession ( !m 0 ! cause ( 8 dea?4 ,if ,fau/ & ,mephi/opheles toge!r took poison1 x might be said t ,fau/ di$ because he 0 a human be+1 & _h a body1 :ile ,mephi/opheles surviv$ because he 0 a _s4 ,x is = ! same reason t no "o 7z ! review] rem>ks7 8calls ! cause ( a leap1 ! muscles or s9ews ( ! body1 ?\gh !y are necess>y conditions2 nor ! cause ( a self-sacrifice1 ! k :i* 0 necess>y = x2 nor ! cause ( writ+ a book1 t a man has "t = x1 :i* is a necess>y condition40 ,^! conditions 7besides t !y are antec$5t /ates1 & n proximate antec$5t ev5ts1 & are !re=e nev] ! conditions 9 close/ app>5t proximity to ! effect7 are all ( !m s obvi\sly impli$1 t x is h>dly possible !re %\ld exi/ t necessity = insi/+ on !m1 :i* alone gives occasion = speak+ ( a s+le condition z if x 7 ! cause4 ,:]ev] ?is necessity exi/s 9 reg>d to "s "o condition1 & does n exi/ 9 reg>d to any o!r1 ,i conceive t x is consi/5t ) usage1 :5 sci5tific accuracy is n aim$ at1 to apply ! "n cause to t "o condition4 ,if ! only condition :i* c be suppos$ to be unkn[n is a negative condition1 ! negative condition may be spok5 ( z ! cause4 ,x might be said t a p]son di$ = want ( m$ical advice3 ?\gh ?is w\ld n be likely to be said1 unless ! p]son 0 already und]/ood to be ill1 & 9 ord] to indicate t ?is negative circum/ance 0 :at made ! illness fatal1 & n ! weakness ( 8 con/itution1 or ! orig9al virul5ce ( ! disease4 ,x might be said t a p]son 0 dr[n$ because he c\ld n swim2 ! positive condition1 namely1 t he fell into ! wat]1 be+ already impli$ 9 ! ^w dr[n$4 ,& "h let me rem>k1 t 8 fall+ into ! wat] is 9 ?is case ! only positive condition3 all ! conditions n expressly or virtually includ$ 9 ?is 7z t he c\ld n swim1 t nobody help$ him1 & s =?7 are negative4 ,yet1 if x 7 simply said t ! cause ( a man's dea? 0 fall+ into ! wat]1 !re w\ld be q z great a s5se ( impropriety 9 ! expression1 z !re w\ld be if x 7 said t ! cause 0 8 inability to swim2 because1 ?\gh ! "o condition is positive & ! o!r negative1 x w\ld be felt t nei!r ( !m 0 suffici5t1 )\t ! o!r1 to produce dea?4 ,) reg>d to ! ass]tion t no?+ is t]m$ ! cause1 except ! elem5t :i* ex]ts active =ce2 ,i waive ! "q z to ! mean+ ( active =ce1 & accept+ ! phrase 9 its popul> s5se1 ,i rev]t to a =m] example1 & ,i ask1 w\ld x be m agreeable to cu/om to say t a man fell because 8 foot slipp$ 9 climb+ a ladd]1 or t he fell because ( 8 weight8 = 8 weight1 & n ! motion ( 8 foot1 0 ! active =ce :i* det]m9$ 8 fall4 ,if a p]son walk+ out 9 a fro/y day1 /umbl$ & fell1 x might be said t he /umbl$ because ! gr\nd 0 slipp]y1 or because he 0 n suffici5tly c>eful3 b few p1 ,i suppose1 w\ld say1 t he /umbl$ because he walk$4 ,yet ! only active =ce conc]n$ 0 t :i* he ex]t$ 9 walk+3 ! o!rs 7 m]e negative conditions2 b !y happ5$ to be ! only ones :i* !re c\ld be any necessity to /ate2 = he walk$1 mo/ likely1 9 exactly 8 usual mann]1 & ! negative conditions made all ! diff]5ce4 ,aga91 if a p]son 7 ask$ :y ! army ( ,x]xes defeat$ t ( ,leonidas1 he w\ld probably say1 because !y 7 a ?\s& times ! numb]2 b ,i d n ?9k he w\ld say1 x 0 because !y f\ght1 ?\gh t 0 ! elem5t ( active =ce4 ,to borr[ ano!r example1 us$ by ,mr4 ,grove & by ,mr4 ,bad5 ,p[ell1 ! op5+ ( flood-gates is said to be ! cause ( ! fl[ ( wat]2 yet ! active =ce is ex]t$ by ! wat] itself1 & op5+ ! flood-gates m]ely supplies a negative condition4 ,! review] adds1 8,!re are "s conditions absolutely passive1 & yet absolutely necess>y to physical ph5om5a1 viz41 ! relations ( space & "t2 & to ^! no "o ev] applies ! ^w cause )\t be+ imm$iately arre/$ by ^? :o he> him40 ,ev5 f ?is /atem5t ,i am compell$ to diss5t4 ,few p]sons w\ld feel x incongru\s to say 7= example7 t a secret became kn[n because x 0 spok5 ( :5 ,a4 ,b4 0 )9 he>+2 :i* is a condition ( space3 or t ! cause :y "o ( two p>ticul> trees is tall] ?an ! o!r1 is t x has be5 long] plant$2 :i* is a condition ( "t4 #aae ,!re are a few exceptions2 = !re are "s prop]ties ( objects :i* seem to be purely prev5tive2 z ! prop]ty ( opaque bodies1 by :i* !y int]cept ! passage ( light4 ,?is1 z f> z we are able to und]/& x1 appe>s an in/ance n ( "o cause c\nt]act+ ano!r by ! same law :]eby x produces its own effects1 b ( an ag5cy :i* manife/s itself 9 no o!r way ?an 9 defeat+ ! effects ( ano!r ag5cy4 ,if we knew on :at o!r relations to light1 or on :at peculi>ities ( /ructure1 opacity dep5ds1 we might f9d t ?is is only an app>5t1 n a real1 exception to ! g5]al proposition 9 ! text4 ,9 any case x ne$s n affect ! practical application4 ,! =mula :i* includes all ! negative conditions ( an effect 9 ! s+le "o ( ! abs5ce ( c\nt]act+ causes1 is n violat$ by su* cases z ?is2 ?\gh1 if all c\nt]act+ ag5cies 7 ( ?is description1 !re w\ld be no purpose s]v$ by employ+ ! =mula4 #aaf ,i mean by ?is expression1 ! ultimate laws ( nature 7:atev] !y may be7 z di/+ui%$ f ! d]ivative laws & f ! collocations4 ,! diurnal revolution ( ! e>? 7= example7 is n a "p ( ! con/itution ( ?+s1 because no?+ c be s call$ :i* might possibly be t]m9at$ or alt]$ by natural causes4 #aag ,i use ! words 8/raight l9e0 = brevity & simplicity4 ,9 reality ! l9e 9 "q is n exactly /raight1 =1 f ! effect ( refraction1 we actually see ! sun = a %ort int]val dur+ :i* ! opaque mass ( ! e>? is int]pos$ 9 a direct l9e betwe5 ! sun & our eyes2 ?us realiz+1 ?\gh b to a limit$ ext5t1 ! covet$ desid]atum ( see+ r\nd a corn]4 #aah ,second ,burnett ,prize ,essay1 by ,pr9cipal ,tullo*1 p4 #be4 #aai ,lett]s on ! ,philosophy ( ! ,human ,m9d1 ,fir/ ,s]ies1 p4 #bai4 #abj ,essays1 pp4 #bjf-bjh4 #aba ,to ! univ]sality :i* mank9d are agre$ 9 ascrib+ to ! ,law ( ,causation1 !re is "o claim ( exception1 "o disput$ case1 t ( ! ,human ,w2 ! det]m9ations ( :i*1 a l>ge class ( metaphysicians are n will+ to reg>d z foll[+ ! causes call$ motives1 accord+ to z /rict laws z ^? :i* !y suppose to exi/ 9 ! _w ( m]e matt]4 ,?is controv]t$ po9t w und]go a special exam9ation :5 we come to treat p>ticul>ly ( ! ,logic ( ! ,moral ,sci5ces 7,book vi41 *ap4 #b74 ,9 ! mean "t1 ,i may rem>k t ^! metaphysicians1 :o1 x mu/ be obs]v$1 gr\nd ! ma9 "p ( _! objection on ! suppos$ repugnance ( ! doctr9e 9 "q to our consci\sness1 seem to me to mi/ake ! fact :i* consci\sness te/ifies aga9/4 ,:at is really 9 contradiction to consci\sness1 !y w\ld1 ,i ?9k1 on /rict self-exam9ation1 f9d to be1 ! application to human actions & volitions ( ! ideas involv$ 9 ! common use ( ! t]m ,necessity2 :i* ,i agree ) !m 9 object+ to4 ,b if !y w\ld consid] t by say+ t a p]son's actions necess>ily foll[ f 8 "*1 all t is really meant 7= no m is meant 9 any case :atev] ( causation7 is t he inv>iably does act 9 con=mity to 8 "*1 & t any "o :o ?or\ghly knew 8 "* c\ld c]ta9ly pr$ict h[ he w\ld act 9 any supposable case2 !y probably w\ld n f9d ?is doctr9e ei!r contr>y to _! exp]i5ce or revolt+ to _! feel+s4 ,& no m ?an ?is is cont5d$ = by any "o b an ,asiatic fatali/4 #abb ,i believe1 h[ev]1 ! accr$it$ au?orities d suppose t molecul> motion1 equival5t 9 am\nt to t :i* w be manife/$ 9 ! combu/ion ( ! coal1 is actually tak+ place dur+ ! :ole ( ! long int]val1 if n 9 ! coal1 yet 9 ! oxyg5 :i* w !n comb9e ) x4 ,b h[ purely hypo!tical ?is supposition is1 ne$ h>dly be rem>k$2 ,i v5ture to say1 unnecess>ily & extravagantly hypo!tical4 #abc ,lectures on ,metaphysics1 vol4 ii41 ,lect4 xxxix41 pp4 #cia-b4 ,i regret t ,i c n invoke ! au?ority ( ,sir ,william ,hamilton 9 favor ( my own op9ions on ,causation1 z ,i c aga9/ ! p>ticul> !ory :i* ,i am n[ combat+4 ,b t acute ?9k] has a !ory ( ,causation peculi> to himself1 :i* has nev] yet1 z f> z ,i "k1 be5 analytically exam9$1 b :i*1 ,i v5ture to ?9k1 admits ( z complete refutation z any "o ( ! false or insuffici5t psy*ological !ories :i* /rew ! gr\nd 9 su* numb]s "u 8 pot5t metaphysical scy!4 7,s9ce exam9$ & controv]t$ 9 ! sixte5? *apt] ( ,an ,exam9ation ( ,sir ,william ,hamilton's ,philosophy47 #abd ,unless we are to consid] z su* ! foll[+ /atem5t1 by "o ( ! writ]s quot$ 9 ! text3 8,9 ! case ( m5tal ex]tion1 ! result to be accompli%$ is preconsid]$ or m$itat$1 & is !re=e kn[n a priori1 or be=e exp]i5ce40--7,b[5's ,l[ell ,lectures on ! ,application ( ,metaphysical & ,e?ical ,sci5ce to ! ,evid5ce ( ,religion4 ,bo/on1 #ahdi47 ,?is is m]ely say+ t :5 we w a ?+ we h an idea ( x4 ,b to h an idea ( :at we wi% to happ51 does n imply a prophetic k t x w happ54 ,p]haps x w be said t ! fir/ "t we ex]t$ our w1 :5 we _h ( c\rse no exp]i5ce ( any ( ! p[]s resid+ 9 u1 we nev]!less mu/ already h kn[n t we possess$ !m1 s9ce we c n w t :i* we d n believe to be 9 our p[]4 ,b ! impossibility is p]haps 9 ! words only1 & n 9 ! facts2 = we may desire :at we d n "k to be 9 our p[]2 & f9d+ by exp]i5ce t our bodies move accord+ to our desire1 we may !n1 & only !n1 pass into ! m complicat$ m5tal /ate :i* is t]m$ w4 ,aft] all1 ev5 if we _h an in/9ctive k t our actions w\ld foll[ our w1 ?is1 z ,br[n rem>ks1 w\ld prove no?+ z to ! nature ( ,causation4 ,our kn[+1 previ\s to exp]i5ce1 t an antec$5t w be foll[$ by a c]ta9 consequ5t1 w\ld n prove ! relation betwe5 !m to be any ?+ m ?an antec$5ce & consequ5ce4 #abe ,reid's ,essays on ! ,active ,p[]s1 ,essay iv41 *ap4 #c4 #abf ,prospective ,review = ,febru>y1 #ahej4 #abg ,vide supra1 p4 #agh1 note4 #abh ,we/m9/] ,review = ,octob]1 #ahee4 #abi ,see ! :ole doctr9e 9 ,ari/otle de nim1 :]e ! is treat$ z exactly equival5t to 4 #acj ,x des]ves notice t ! p>ts ( nature :i* ,ari/otle reg>ds z repres5t+ evid5ce ( design1 are ! ,uni=mities3 ! ph5om5a 9 s f> z r$ucible to law4 & satisfy him z explanations ( ! v>iable elem5t 9 ph5om5a1 b _! occurr+ accord+ to a fix$ rule c only1 to 8 conceptions1 be acc\nt$ = by an ,intellig5t ,w4 ,! common1 or :at may be call$ ! in/9ctive1 religi\s int]pretation ( nature1 is ! rev]se ( ?is4 ,! ev5ts 9 :i* m5 spontane\sly see ! h& ( a sup]natural be+1 are ^? :i* c n1 z !y ?9k1 be r$uc$ to a physical law4 ,:at !y c di/9ctly connect ) physical causes1 & especially :at !y c pr$ict1 ?\gh ( c\rse ascrib$ to an ,au?or ( ,nature1 if !y already recognize su* an au?or1 might be conceiv$1 !y ?9k1 to arise f a bl9d fatality1 & 9 any case d n appe> to !m to be> s obvi\sly ! m>k ( a div9e w4 ,& ?is di/9ction has be5 c\nt5anc$ by em95t writ]s on ,natural ,!ology1 9 p>ticul> by ,dr4 ,*alm]s1 :o ?9ks t ?\gh design is pres5t ev]y:]e1 ! irresi/ible evid5ce ( x is to be f\nd n 9 ! laws ( nature b 9 ! collocations1 i4e41 9 ! "p ( nature 9 :i* x is impossible to trace any law4 ,a few prop]ties ( dead matt] might1 he ?9ks1 conceivably acc\nt = ! regul> & inv>iable succession ( effects & causes2 b t ! diff]5t k9ds ( matt] h be5 s plac$ z to promote b5efic5t ends1 is :at he reg>ds z ! pro( ( a ,div9e ,provid5ce4 ,mr4 ,bad5 ,p[ell1 9 8 ,essay entitl$ 8,philosophy ( ,creation10 has return$ to ! po9t ( view ( ,ari/otle & ! anci5ts1 & vigor\sly re-ass]ts ! doctr9e t ! indication ( design 9 ! univ]se is n special adaptations1 b ,uni=mity & ,law1 ^! be+ ! evid5ces ( m9d1 & n :at appe>s to u to be a provision = our uses4 ,:ile ,i decl9e to express any op9ion "h on ?is vexata qu/io1 ,i ought n to m5tion ,mr4 ,p[ell's volume )\t ! ackn[l$gm5t due to ! philosophic _s :i* p]vades g5]ally ! ?ree ,essays compos+ x1 =m+ 9 ! case ( "o ( !m 7! 8,unity ( ,worlds07 an honorable contra/ ) ! o!r diss]tations1 s f> z !y h come "u my notice1 :i* h appe>$ on ei!r side ( t controv]sy4 #aca ,9 ! words ( ,font5elle1 ano!r celebrat$ ,c>tesian1 8les philosophes aussi bi5 que le peuple avai5t cru que l'me et le corps agissai5t rellem5t et physiquem5t l'un sur l'autre4 ,desc>tes v9t1 qui pr\va que leur nature ne p]mettait po9t cette sorte de communication vritable1 et qu'ils n'en p\vai5t avoir qu'une app>5te1 dont ,dieu tait le ,mdiateur40--7uvres de ,font5elle1 ed4 #agfg1 tom4 v41 p4 #ecd47 #acb ,i omit1 = simplicity1 to take into acc\nt ! effect1 9 ?is latt] case1 ( ! dim9ution ( pressure1 9 dim9i%+ ! fl[ ( wat] ?r\gh ! dra92 :i* evid5tly 9 no way affects ! tru? or applicability ( ! pr9ciple1 s9ce :5 ! two causes act simultane\sly ! conditions ( t dim9ution ( pressure d n arise4 #acc ,pr(essor ,ba9 adds sev]al o!r well-e/abli%$ *emical g5]alizations3 8,! laws t simple sub/ances exhibit ! /ronge/ aff9ities2 t comp\nds are m fusible ?an _! elem5ts2 t comb9ation t5ds to a l[] /ate ( matt] f gas d[n to solid20 & "s g5]al propositions conc]n+ ! circum/ances :i* facilitate or resi/ *emical comb9ation4 7,logic1 ii41 #bed47 #acd ,pr(essor ,ba9 7,logic1 ii41 #ci7 po9ts out a class ( cases1 o!r ?an t spok5 ( 9 ! text1 :i* he ?9ks mu/ be reg>d$ z an exception to ! ,composition ( ,causes4 8,causes t m]ely make good ! collocation = br++ a prime mov] into action1 or t release a pot5tial =ce1 d n foll[ any su* rule4 ,"o man may direct a gun ^u a =t z well z ?ree3 two sp>ks are n m effectual ?an "o 9 explod+ a b>rel ( gunp[d]4 ,9 m$ic9e !re is a c]ta9 dose t answ]s ! end2 & add+ to x does no m good40 ,i am n sure t ^! cases are really exceptions4 ,! law ( ,composition ( ,causes1 ,i ?9k1 is really fulfill$1 & ! appe>ance to ! contr>y is produc$ by att5d+ to ! remote in/ead ( ! imm$iate effect ( ! causes4 ,9 ! cases m5tion$1 ! imm$iate effect ( ! causes 9 action is a collocation1 & ! duplication ( ! cause does d\ble ! quantity ( collocation4 ,two m5 c\ld raise ! gun to ! requir$ angle twice z quickly z "o1 ?\gh "o is en\gh4 ,two sp>ks put two sets ( p>ticles ( ! gunp[d] into ! /ate ( inte/9e motion :i* makes !m explode1 ?\gh "o is suffici5t4 ,x is ! collocation itself t does n1 by be+ d\bl$1 always d\ble ! effect2 because 9 _m cases a c]ta9 collocation1 once obta9$1 is all t is requir$ = ! production ( ! :ole am\nt ( effect :i* c be produc$ at all at ! giv5 "t & place4 ,d\bl+ ! collocation ) diff]5ce ( "t & place1 z by po9t+ two guns1 or explod+ a second b>rel aft] ! fir/1 does d\ble ! effect4 ,?is rem>k applies /ill m to ,mr4 ,ba9's ?ird example1 t ( a d\ble dose ( m$ic9e2 = a d\ble dose ( an ap]i5t does purge m viol5tly1 & a d\ble dose ( laudanum does produce long] & s\nd] sleep4 ,b a d\ble purg+1 or a d\ble am\nt ( n>cotism1 may h remote effects diff]5t 9 k9d f ! effect ( ! small] am\nt1 r$uc+ ! case to t ( het]opa?ic laws1 discuss$ 9 ! text4 #ace ,unless1 inde$1 ! consequ5t 0 g5]at$1 n by ! antec$5t1 b by ! means employ$ to produce ! antec$5t4 ,z1 h[ev]1 ^! means are "u our p[]1 !re is s f> a probability t !y are also suffici5tly )9 our k to enable u to judge :e!r t c\ld be ! case or n4 #acf ,disc\rse on ! ,/udy ( ,natural ,philosophy1 p4 #agi4 #acg ,= ?is speculation1 z = _m o!r ( my sci5tific illu/rations1 ,i am indebt$ to ,pr(essor ,ba91 ^: subsequ5t treatise on ,logic ab\nds ) apt illu/rations ( all ! inductive me?ods4 #ach ,?is view ( ! necess>y co-exi/5ce ( opposite excitem5ts involves a great ext5sion ( ! orig9al doctr9e ( two electricities4 ,! e>ly !ori/s assum$ t1 :5 amb] 0 rubb$1 ! amb] 0 made positive & ! rubb] negative to ! same degree2 b x nev] occurr$ to !m to suppose t ! exi/5ce ( ! amb] *>ge 0 dep5d5t on an opposite *>ge 9 ! bodies ) :i* ! amb] 0 contigu\s1 :ile ! exi/5ce ( ! negative *>ge on ! rubb] 0 equally dep5d5t on a contr>y /ate ( ! surfaces t might accid5tally be confront$ ) x2 t1 9 fact1 9 a case ( electrical excitem5t by friction1 f\r *>ges 7 ! m9imum t c\ld exi/4 ,b ?is d\ble electrical action is ess5tially impli$ 9 ! explanation n[ univ]sally adopt$ 9 reg>d to ! ph5om5a ( ! common electric ma*9e4 #aci ,pp4 #aaj1 #aaa4 #adj ,infra1 book iv41 *ap4 ii41 ,on ,ab/raction4 #ada ,i mu/1 h[ev]1 rem>k1 t ?is example1 :i* seems to militate aga9/ ! ass]tion we made ( ! comp>ative inapplicability ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce to cases ( pure obs]vation1 is really "o ( ^? exceptions :i*1 accord+ to a prov]bial expression1 prove ! g5]al rule4 ,= 9 ?is case1 9 :i* ,nature1 9 h] exp]im5t1 seems to h imitat$ ! type ( ! exp]im5ts made by man1 %e has only succe$$ 9 produc+ ! lik5ess ( man's mo/ imp]fect exp]im5ts2 namely1 ^? 9 :i*1 ?\gh he succe$s 9 produc+ ! ph5om5on1 he does s by employ+ complex means1 :i* he is unable p]fectly to analyze1 & c =m1 !re=e1 no suffici5t judgm5t :at portion ( ! effects may be due1 n to ! suppos$ cause1 b to "s unkn[n ag5cy ( ! means by :i* t cause 0 produc$4 ,9 ! natural exp]im5t :i* we are speak+ (1 ! means us$ 0 ! cle>+ (f a canopy ( cl\ds2 & we c]ta9ly d n "k suffici5tly 9 :at ?is process consi/s1 or on :at x dep5ds1 to be c]ta9 a priori t x might n op]ate ^u ! deposition ( dew indep5d5tly ( any !rmometric effect at ! e>?'s surface4 ,ev51 !re=e1 9 a case s favorable z ?is to ,nature's exp]im5tal tal5ts1 h] exp]im5t is ( little value except 9 corroboration ( a conclusion already atta9$ ?r\gh o!r means4 #adb ,9 8 subsequ5t "w1 ,outl9es ( ,a/ronomy 7 #egj71 ,sir ,john ,h]s*el sugge/s ano!r possible explanation ( ! accel]ation ( ! revolution ( a comet4 #adc ,disc\rse1 pp4 #aef-h1 & #aga4 #add ,outl9es ( ,a/ronomy1 #hef4 #ade ,philosophy ( ,discov]y1 pp4 #bfc1 #bfd4 #adf ,see1 on ?is po9t1 ! second *apt] ( ! pres5t book4 #adg ,ante1 *ap4 vii41 #a4 #adh ,x seems h>dly necess>y to say t ! ^w imp+e1 z a g5]al t]m to express collision ( =ces1 is "h us$ by a figure ( spee*1 & n z expressive ( any !ory respect+ ! nature ( =ce4 #adi ,essays on "s ,unsettl$ ,que/ions ( ,political ,economy1 ,essay ,v4 #aej ,x is ju/ly rem>k$ by ,pr(essor ,ba91 t ?\gh ! ,me?ods ( ,agreem5t & ,diff]5ce are n applicable to ^! cases1 !y are n :olly inaccessible to ! ,me?od ( ,concomitant ,v>iations4 8,if a cause happ5s to v>y alone1 ! effect w also v>y alone3 a cause & effect may be ?us s+l$ out "u ! greate/ complications4 ,?us1 :5 ! appetite = food increases ) ! cold1 we h a /rong evid5ce ( connection betwe5 ^! two facts1 al?\gh o!r circum/ances may op]ate 9 ! same direction4 ,! assign+ ( ! respective p>ts ( ! sun & moon 9 ! action ( ! tides may be effect$1 to a c]ta9 degree ( exactness1 by ! v>iations ( ! am\nt accord+ to ! positions ( ! two attractive bodies4 ,by a s]ies ( exp]im5ts ( ,concomitant ,v>iations1 direct$ to asc]ta9 ! elim9ation ( nitrog5 f ! human body "u v>ieties ( muscul> ex]cise1 ,dr4 ,p>kes obta9$ ! rem>kable conclusion1 t a muscle gr[s dur+ ex]cise1 & loses bulk dur+ ! subsequ5t re/40 7,logic1 ii41 #hc47 ,x is1 no d\bt1 (t5 possible to s+le out ! influ5c+ causes f among a great numb] ( m]e concomitants1 by not+ :at are ! antec$5ts1 a v>iation 9 :i* is foll[$ by a v>iation 9 ! effect4 ,b :5 !re are _m influ5c+ causes1 no "o ( !m greatly pr$om9at+ ov] ! re/1 & especially :5 "s ( ^! are cont9ually *ang+1 x is sc>cely ev] possible to trace su* a relation betwe5 ! v>iations ( ! effect & ^? ( any "o cause z w\ld enable u to assign to t cause its real %>e 9 ! production ( ! effect4 #aea ,ba9's ,logic1 ii41 #cfj4 #aeb ,:at is said 9 ! text on ! applicability ( ! exp]im5tal me?ods to resolve p>ticul> que/ions ( m$ical treatm5t1 does n detract f _! efficacy 9 asc]ta9+ ! g5]al laws ( ! animal or human sy/em4 ,! functions1 = example1 ( ! diff]5t classes ( n]ves h be5 discov]$1 & probably c\ld only h be5 discov]$1 by exp]im5ts on liv+ animals4 ,obs]vation & exp]im5t are ! ultimate basis ( all k3 f !m we obta9 ! elem5t>y laws ( life1 z we obta9 all o!r elem5t>y tru?s4 ,x is 9 deal+ ) ! complex comb9ations t ! exp]im5tal me?ods are = ! mo/ "p illusory1 & ! d$uctive mode ( inve/igation mu/ be invok$ to dis5tangle ! complexity4 #aec ,pr(essor ,ba91 ?\gh concurr+ g5]ally 9 ! views express$ 9 ?is *apt]1 seems to e/imate m highly ?an ,i d ! scope = specific exp]im5tal evid5ce 9 politics4 7,logic1 ii41 #ccc-ccg47 ,!re are1 x is true1 z he rem>ks 7p4 #ccf71 "s cases 8:5 an ag5t sudd5ly introduc$ is almo/ in/antane\sly foll[$ by "s o!r *anges1 z :5 ! ann\ncem5t ( a diplomatic rupture betwe5 two nations is foll[$ ! same day by a d]angem5t ( ! money-m>ket40 ,b ?is exp]im5t w\ld be q inconclusive m]ely z an exp]im5t4 ,x c only s]ve1 z any exp]im5t may1 to v]ify ! conclusion ( a d$uction4 ,unless we already knew by our k ( ! motives :i* act on bus9ess m51 t ! prospect ( w> t5ds to d]ange ! money-m>ket1 we %\ld nev] h be5 able to prove a connection betwe5 ! two facts1 unless aft] hav+ asc]ta9$ hi/orically t ! "o foll[$ ! o!r 9 too great a numb] ( in/ances to be consi/5t ) _! hav+ be5 record$ ) due precautions4 ,:oev] has c>efully exam9$ any ( ! attempts cont9ually made to prove economic doctr9es by su* a recital ( in/ances1 kn[s well h[ futile !y are4 ,x always turns out t ! circum/ances ( sc>cely any ( ! cases h be5 fully /at$2 & t cases1 9 equal or great] numb]s1 h be5 omitt$ :i* w\ld h t5d$ to an opposite conclusion4 #aed ,vide ,memoir by ,?omas ,graham1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,ma/] ( ! ,m9t1 8,on ,liquid ,diffusion appli$ to ,analysis10 9 ! ,philosophical ,transactions = #ahfb1 repr9t$ 9 ! ,j\rnal ( ! ,*emical ,society1 & also sep>ately z a pamphlet4 #aee ,x 0 an old g5]alization 9 surg]y1 t tight b&ag+ _h a t5d5cy to prev5t or dissipate local inflammation4 ,?is sequ5ce1 be+1 9 ! progress ( physiological k1 resolv$ into m g5]al laws1 l$ to ! important surgical inv5tion made by ,dr4 ,arnott1 ! treatm5t ( local inflammation & tumors by means ( an equable pressure1 produc$ by a bladd] p>tially fill$ ) air4 ,! pressure1 by keep+ back ! blood f ! "p1 prev5ts ! inflammation1 or ! tumor1 f be+ n\ri%$3 9 ! case ( inflammation1 x removes ! /imulus1 :i* ! organ is unfit to receive2 9 ! case ( tumors1 by keep+ back ! nutritive fluid1 x causes ! absorption ( matt] to exce$ ! supply1 & ! diseas$ mass is gradually absorb$ & disappe>s4 #aef ,s9ce ackn[l$g$ & repr9t$ 9 ,mr4 ,m>t9eau's ,miscellanies4 #aeg ,diss]tations & ,discussions1 vol4 i41 f\r? pap]4 #aeh ,writt5 be=e ! rise ( ! new views respect+ ! relation ( heat to me*anical =ce2 b confirm$ r ?an contradict$ by !m4 #aei ,z is well rem>k$ by ,pr(essor ,ba91 9 ! v valuable *apt] ( 8 ,logic :i* treats ( ?is subject 7ii41 #aba71 8sci5tific explanation & inductive g5]alization be+ ! same ?+1 ! limits ( ,explanation are ! limits ( ,induction10 & 8! limits to inductive g5]alization are ! limits to ! agreem5t or community ( facts4 ,induction supposes simil>ity among ph5om5a2 & :5 su* simil>ity is discov]$1 x r$uces ! ph5om5a "u a common /atem5t4 ,! simil>ity ( t]re/rial gravity to cele/ial attraction enables ! two to be express$ z "o ph5om5on4 ,! simil>ity betwe5 capill>y attraction1 solution1 ! op]ation ( cem5ts1 etc41 leads to _! be+ reg>d$ n z a plurality1 b z a unity1 a s+le causative l9k1 ! op]ation ( a s+le ag5cy4444 ,if x be ask$ :e!r we c m]ge gravity itself 9 "s /ill high] law1 ! answ] mu/ dep5d ^u ! facts4 ,are !re any o!r =ces1 at pres5t held di/9ct f gravity1 t we may hope to make frat]nize ) x1 s z to jo9 9 con/itut+ a high] unity8 ,gravity is an attractive =ce2 & ano!r great attractive =ce is cohesion1 or ! =ce t b9ds toge!r ! atoms ( solid matt]4 ,might we1 !n1 jo9 ^! two 9 a /ill high] unity1 express$ "u a m compreh5sive law8 ,c]ta9ly we might1 b n to any advantage4 ,! two k9ds ( =ce agree 9 ! "o po9t1 attraction1 b !y agree 9 no o!r2 inde$1 9 ! mann] ( ! attraction1 !y diff] widely2 s widely t we %\ld h to /ate totally di/9ct laws = ea*4 ,gravity is common to all matt]1 & equal 9 am\nt 9 equal masses ( matt]1 :atev] be ! k9d2 x foll[s ! law ( ! diffusion ( space f a po9t 7! inv]se squ>e ( ! di/ance72 x ext5ds to di/ances unlimit$2 x is inde/ructible & inv>iable4 ,cohesion is special = ea* sep>ate sub/ance2 x decreases accord+ to di/ance mu* m rapidly ?an ! inv]se squ>e1 vani%+ entirely at v small di/ances4 ,two su* =ces h n suffici5t k9dr$ to be g5]aliz$ into "o =ce2 ! g5]alization is only illusory2 ! /atem5t ( ! diff]5ce w\ld /ill make two =ces2 :ile ! consid]ation ( "o w\ld n 9 any way simplify ! ph5om5a ( ! o!r1 z happ5$ 9 ! g5]alization ( gravity itself40 ,to ! impassable limit ( ! explanation ( laws ( nature1 set =? 9 ! text1 mu/ !re=e be add$ a fur!r limitation4 ,al?\gh1 :5 ! ph5om5a to be expla9$ are n1 9 _! own nature1 g5]ically di/9ct1 ! attempt to ref] !m to ! same cause is sci5tifically legitimate2 yet to ! success ( ! attempt x is indisp5sable t ! cause %\ld be %[n to be capable ( produc+ !m accord+ to ! same law4 ,o!rwise ! unity ( cause is a m]e guess1 & ! g5]alization only a nom9al "o1 :i*1 ev5 if admitt$1 w\ld n dim9i% ! numb] ( ultimate laws ( nature4 #afj ,c\rs de ,philosophie ,positive1 ii41 #fef4 #afa ,vide supra1 book iii41 *ap4 xi4 #afb ,philosophy ( ,discov]y1 p4 #ahe et seq4 #afc ,comte1 ,philosophie ,positive1 ii41 #dcd-dcg4 #afd ,z an example ( legitimate hypo!sis accord+ to ! te/ "h laid d[n1 has be5 ju/ly cit$ t ( ,br\ssais1 :o1 proce$+ on ! v rational pr9ciple t e disease mu/ orig9ate 9 "s def9ite "p or o!r ( ! organism1 boldly assum$ t c]ta9 fev]s1 :i* n be+ kn[n to be local 7 call$ con/itutional1 _h _! orig9 9 ! muc\s membrane ( ! alim5t>y canal4 ,! supposition 01 inde$1 z is n[ g5]ally admitt$1 errone\s2 b he 0 ju/ifi$ 9 mak+ x1 s9ce by d$uc+ ! consequ5ces ( ! supposition1 & comp>+ !m ) ! facts ( ^? maladies1 he might be c]ta9 ( disprov+ 8 hypo!sis if x 0 ill f\nd$1 & might expect t ! comp>ison w\ld mat]ially aid him 9 fram+ ano!r m con=mable to ! ph5om5a4 ,! doctr9e n[ univ]sally receiv$ t ! e>? is a natural magnet1 0 orig9ally an hypo!sis ( ! celebrat$ ,gilb]t4 ,ano!r hypo!sis1 to ! legitimacy ( :i* no objection c lie1 & :i* is well calculat$ to light ! pa? ( sci5tific inquiry1 is t sugge/$ by sev]al rec5t writ]s1 t ! bra9 is a voltaic pile1 & t ea* ( its pulsations is a dis*>ge ( electricity ?r\gh ! sy/em4 ,x has be5 rem>k$ t ! s5sation felt by ! h& f ! beat+ ( a bra91 be>s a /rong resemblance to a voltaic %ock4 ,& ! hypo!sis1 if foll[$ to its consequ5ces1 might af=d a plausible explanation ( _m physiological facts1 :ile !re is no?+ to disc\rage ! hope t we may 9 "t suffici5tly und]/& ! conditions ( voltaic ph5om5a to r5d] ! tru? ( ! hypo!sis am5able to obs]vation & exp]im5t4 ,! attempt to localize1 9 diff]5t regions ( ! bra91 ! physical organs ( our diff]5t m5tal faculties & prop5sities1 01 on ! "p ( its orig9al au?or1 a legitimate example ( a sci5tific hypo!sis2 & we ought n1 !re=e1 to blame him = ! extremely slight gr\nds on :i* he (t5 proce$$1 9 an op]ation :i* c\ld only be t5tative1 ?\gh we may regret t mat]ials b>ely suffici5t = a fir/ rude hypo!sis %\ld h be5 ha/ily work$ up into ! va9 semblance ( a sci5ce4 ,if !re be really a connection betwe5 ! scale ( m5tal end[m5ts & ! v>i\s degrees ( complication 9 ! c]ebral sy/em1 ! nature ( t connection 0 9 no o!r way s likely to be br\ght to light z by fram+1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 an hypo!sis simil> to t ( ,gall4 ,b ! v]ification ( any su* hypo!sis is att5d$1 f ! peculi> nature ( ! ph5om5a1 ) difficulties :i* phr5ologi/s h n %[n !mselves ev5 compet5t to appreciate1 mu* less to ov]come4 ,mr4 ,d>w9's rem>kable speculation on ! ,orig9 ( ,species is ano!r unimpea*able example ( a legitimate hypo!sis4 ,:at he t]ms 8natural selection0 is n only a v]a causa1 b "o prov$ to be capable ( produc+ effects ( ! same k9d ) ^? :i* ! hypo!sis ascribes to x2 ! "q ( possibility is entirely "o ( degree4 ,x is unreasonable to accuse ,mr4 ,d>w9 7z has be5 done7 ( violat+ ! rules ( ,induction4 ,! rules ( ,induction are conc]n$ ) ! conditions ( ,pro(4 ,mr4 ,d>w9 has nev] pret5d$ t 8 doctr9e 0 prov$4 ,he 0 n b\nd by ! rules ( ,induction1 b by ^? ( ,hypo!sis4 ,& ^! la/ h seldom be5 m completely fulfill$4 ,he has op5$ a pa? ( inquiry full ( promise1 ! results ( :i* none c =esee4 ,& is x n a wond]ful feat ( sci5tific k & +5uity to h r5d]$ s bold a sugge/ion1 :i* ! fir/ impulse ( e "o 0 to reject at once1 admissible & discussible1 ev5 z a conjecture8 #afe ,:ewell's ,phil4 ( ,discov]y1 pp4 #bge1 #bgf4 #aff ,:at has mo/ contribut$ to accr$it ! hypo!sis ( a physical m$ium = ! conveyance ( light1 is ! c]ta9 fact t light travels 7:i* c n be prov$ ( gravitation72 t its communication is n in/antane\s1 b requires "t2 & t x is int]cept$ 7:i* gravitation is n7 by int]v5+ objects4 ,^! are analogies betwe5 its ph5om5a & ^? ( ! me*anical motion ( a solid or fluid sub/ance4 ,b we are n entitl$ to assume t me*anical motion is ! only p[] 9 nature capable ( exhibit+ ^? attributes4 #afg ,phil4 ( ,discov]y1 p4 #bgd4 #afh ,p4 #bga4 #afi ,p4 #bea & ! :ole ( ,app5dix ,g4 #agj ,9 ,dr4 ,:ewell's late/ v]sion ( 8 !ory 7,philosophy ( ,discov]y1 p4 #cca7 he makes a concession respect+ ! m$ium ( ! transmission ( light1 :i*1 tak5 9 conjunction ) ! re/ ( 8 doctr9e on ! subject1 is n1 ,i confess1 v intelligible to me1 b :i* goes f> t[>d remov+1 if x does n actually remove1 ! :ole ( ! diff]5ce betwe5 u4 ,he is cont5d+1 aga9/ ,sir ,william ,hamilton1 t all matt] has weight4 ,sir ,william1 9 pro( ( ! contr>y1 cit$ ! lum9if]\s e!r1 & ! calorific & electric fluids1 8:i*10 he said1 8we c nei!r d5ude ( _! "* ( sub/ance1 nor clo! ) ! attribute ( weight40 8,to :i*10 cont9ues ,dr4 ,:ewell1 8my reply is1 t precisely because ,i c n clo! ^! ag5ts ) ! attribute ( ,weight1 ,i d d5ude !m ( ! "* ( ,sub/ance4 ,!y are n sub/ances1 b ag5cies4 ,^! ,impond]able ,ag5ts are n prop]ly call$ ,impond]able ,fluids4 ,?is ,i conceive t ,i h prov$40 ,no?+ c be m philosophical4 ,b if ! lum9if]\s e!r is n matt]1 & fluid matt]1 too1 :at is ! mean+ ( its undulations8 ,c an ag5cy undulate8 ,c !re be alt]nate motion =w>d & backw>d ( ! p>ticles ( an ag5cy8 ,& does n ! :ole ma!matical !ory ( ! undulations imply !m to be mat]ial8 ,is x n a s]ies ( d$uctions f ! kn[n prop]ties ( ela/ic fluids8 ,?is op9ion ( ,dr4 ,:ewell r$uces ! undulations to a figure ( spee*1 & ! undulatory !ory to ! proposition :i* all mu/ admit1 t ! transmission ( light takes place accord+ to laws :i* pres5t a v /rik+ & rem>kable agreem5t ) ^? ( undulations4 ,if ,dr4 ,:ewell is prep>$ to /& by ?is doctr9e1 ,i h no diff]5ce ) him on ! subject4 #aga ,?us wat]1 ( :i* eight-n9?s 9 weight are oxyg51 dissolves mo/ bodies :i* conta9 a high proportion ( oxyg51 su* z all ! nitrates 7:i* h m oxyg5 ?an any o!rs ( ! common salts71 mo/ ( ! sulphates1 _m ( ! c>bonates1 etc4 ,aga91 bodies l>gely compos$ ( combu/ible elem5ts1 l hydrog5 & c>bon1 are soluble 9 bodies ( simil> composition2 res91 = in/ance1 w dissolve 9 alcohol1 t> 9 oil ( turp5t9e4 ,?is empirical g5]alization is f> f be+ univ]sally true2 no d\bt because x is a remote1 & !re=e easily defeat$1 result ( g5]al laws too deep = u at pres5t to p5etrate2 b x w probably 9 "t sugge/ processes ( inquiry1 lead+ to ! discov]y ( ^? laws4 #agb ,or1 accord+ to ,laplace's !ory1 ! sun & ! sun's rotation4 #agc ,supra1 book iii41 *ap4 v41 #g4 #agd ,supra1 book iii41 *ap4 x41 #b #age ,9 ! prec$+ discussion1 ! mean is spok5 ( z if x 7 exactly ! same ?+ ) ! av]age4 ,b ! mean1 = purposes ( inductive inquiry1 is n ! av]age1 or ari?metical mean1 ?\gh 9 a famili> illu/ration ( ! !ory ! diff]5ce may be disreg>d$4 ,if ! deviations on "o side ( ! av]age are mu* m num]\s ?an ^? on ! o!r 7^! la/ be+ few] b great]71 ! effect due to ! inv>iable cause1 z di/9ct f ! v>iable ones1 w n co9cide ) ! av]age1 b w be ei!r bel[ or above ! av]age1 ! deviation be+ t[>d ! side on :i* ! greate/ numb] ( ! in/ances are f\nd4 ,?is foll[s f a tru?1 asc]ta9$ bo? inductively & d$uctively1 t small deviations f ! true c5tral po9t are greatly m frequ5t ?an l>ge ones4 ,! ma!matical law is1 8t ! mo/ probable det]m9ation ( "o or m inv>iable elem5ts f obs]vation is t 9 :i* ! sum ( ! squ>es ( ! individual ab]rations10 or deviations1 8%all be ! lea/ possible40 ,see ?is pr9ciple /at$1 & its gr\nds popul>ly expla9$1 by ,sir ,john ,h]s*el1 9 8 review ( ,quetelet on ,probabilities1 ,essays1 p4 #cie et seq4 #agf ,essai ,philosophique sur les ,probabilits1 fif? ,p>is edition1 p4 #g4 #agg ,x ev5 appe>s to me t ! calculation ( *ances1 :]e !re are no data gr\nd$ ei!r on special exp]i5ce or on special inf]5ce1 mu/1 9 an imm5se majority ( cases1 break d[n1 f %e] impossibility ( assign+ any pr9ciple by :i* to be guid$ 9 sett+ out ! li/ ( possibilities4 ,9 ! case ( ! color$ balls we h no difficulty 9 mak+ ! enum]ation1 because we ourselves det]m9e :at ! possibilities %all be4 ,b suppose a case m analog\s to ^? :i* occur 9 nature3 in/ead ( ?ree colors1 let !re be 9 ! box all possible colors1 we be+ suppos$ ignorant ( ! comp>ative frequ5cy ) :i* diff]5t colors occur 9 nature1 or 9 ! productions ( art4 ,h[ is ! li/ ( cases to be made out8 ,is e di/9ct %ade to c\nt z a color8 ,if s1 is ! te/ to be a common eye1 or an educat$ eye--a pa9t]'s1 = in/ance8 ,on ! answ] to ^! que/ions w\ld dep5d :e!r ! *ances aga9/ "s p>ticul> color w\ld be e/imat$ at t51 tw5ty1 or p]haps five hundr$ to "o4 ,:ile if we knew f exp]i5ce t ! p>ticul> color occurs on an av]age a c]ta9 numb] ( times 9 e hundr$ or ?\s&1 we %\ld n require to "k any ?+ ei!r ( ! frequ5cy or ( ! numb] ( ! o!r possibilities4 #agh ,prospective ,review = ,febru>y1 #ahej4 #agi 8,if ?is be n s1 :y d we feel s mu* m probability add$ by ! fir/ in/ance ?an by any s+le subsequ5t in/ance8 ,:y1 except t ! fir/ in/ance gives u its possibility 7a cause adequate to x71 :ile e o!r only gives u ! frequ5cy ( its conditions8 ,if no ref]5ce to a cause be suppos$1 possibility w\ld h no mean+2 yet x is cle> t1 antec$5t to its happ5+1 we might h suppos$ ! ev5t impossible1 i4e41 h believ$ t !re 0 no physical en]gy really exi/+ 9 ! _w equal to produc+ x4444 ,aft] ! fir/ "t ( happ5+1 :i* is1 !n1 m important to ! :ole probability ?an any o!r s+le in/ance 7because prov+ ! possibility71 ! numb] ( times becomes important z an index to ! int5sity or ext5t ( ! cause1 & its indep5d5ce ( any p>ticul> "t4 ,if we took ! case ( a trem5d\s leap1 = in/ance1 & wi%$ to =m an e/imate ( ! probability ( its succe$+ a c]ta9 numb] ( times2 ! fir/ in/ance1 by %[+ its possibility 7be=e d\btful7 is ( ! mo/ importance2 b e succe$+ leap %[s ! p[] to be m p]fectly "u control1 great] & m inv>iable1 & s increases ! probability2 & no "o w\ld ?9k ( reason+ 9 ?is case /raight f "o in/ance to ! next1 )\t ref]r+ to ! physical en]gy :i* ea* leap indicat$4 ,is x n1 !n1 cle> t we d n ev]0 7let u r say1 t we d n 9 an advanc$ /ate ( our k7 8conclude directly f ! happ5+ ( an ev5t to ! probability ( its happ5+ aga92 b t we ref] to ! cause1 reg>d+ ! pa/ cases z an index to ! cause1 & ! cause z our guide to ! future80--,ibid4 #ahj ,! writ] la/ quot$ says t ! valuation ( *ances by comp>+ ! numb] ( cases 9 :i* ! ev5t occurs ) ! numb] 9 :i* x does n occur1 8w\ld g5]ally be :olly errone\s10 & 8is n ! true !ory ( probability40 ,x is at lea/ t :i* =ms ! f\ndation ( insurance1 & ( all ^? calculations ( *ances 9 ! bus9ess ( life :i* exp]i5ce s abundantly v]ifies4 ,! reason :i* ! review] gives = reject+ ! !ory is1 t x 8w\ld reg>d an ev5t z c]ta9 :i* _h hi!rto nev] fail$2 :i* is exce$+ly f> f ! tru?1 ev5 = a v l>ge numb] ( con/ant successes40 ,?is is n a defect 9 a p>ticul> !ory1 b 9 any !ory ( *ances4 ,no pr9ciple ( evaluation c provide = su* a case z t :i* ! review] supposes4 ,if an ev5t has nev] once fail$1 9 a numb] ( trials suffici5t to elim9ate *ance1 x really has all ! c]ta9ty :i* c be giv5 by an empirical law2 x is c]ta9 dur+ ! cont9uance ( ! same collocation ( causes :i* exi/$ dur+ ! obs]vations4 ,if x ev] fails1 x is 9 consequ5ce ( "s *ange 9 t collocation4 ,n[1 no !ory ( *ances w enable u to inf] ! future probability ( an ev5t f ! pa/1 if ! causes 9 op]ation1 capable ( influ5c+ ! ev5t1 h int]m$iately und]gone a *ange4 #aha ,pp4 #ah1 #ai4 ,! !orem is n /at$ by ,laplace 9 ! exact t]ms 9 :i* ,i h /at$ x2 b ! id5tity ( import ( ! two modes ( expression is easily demon/rable4 #ahb ,= a full] treatm5t ( ! _m int]e/+ que/ions rais$ by ! !ory ( probabilities1 ,i may n[ ref] to a rec5t "w by ,mr4 ,v5n1 ,fell[ ( ,caius ,college1 ,cambridge1 8,! ,logic ( ,*ance20 "o ( ! mo/ ?\ghtful & philosophical treatises on any subject connect$ ) ,logic & ,evid5ce :i* h be5 produc$1 to my k1 = _m ye>s4 ,"s criticisms conta9$ 9 x h be5 v useful to me 9 revis+ ! correspond+ *apt]s ( ! pres5t "w4 ,9 sev]al ( ,mr4 ,v5n's op9ions1 h[ev]1 ,i d n agree4 ,:at ^! are w be obvi\s to any read] ( ,mr4 ,v5n's "w :o is also a read] ( ?is4 #ahc ,h>tley's ,obs]vations on ,man1 vol4 i41 p4 #af4 ,! passage is n 9 ,prie/ley's curtail$ edition4 #ahd ,i am happy to be able to quote ! foll[+ excell5t passage f ,mr4 ,bad5 ,p[ell's ,essay on ! ,inductive ,philosophy1 9 confirmation1 bo? 9 reg>d to hi/ory & to doctr9e1 ( ! /atem5t made 9 ! text4 ,speak+ ( ! 8conviction ( ! univ]sal & p]man5t uni=mity ( nature10 ,mr4 ,p[ell says 7pp4 #ih-ajj73 8,we may rem>k t ?is idea1 9 its prop] ext5t1 is by no means "o ( popul> acceptance or natural gr[?4 ,j s f> z ! daily exp]i5ce ( e "o goes1 s f> inde$ he comes to embrace a c]ta9 p]suasion ( ?is k9d1 b m]ely to ?is limit$ ext5t1 t :at is go+ on ar\nd him at pres5t1 9 8 own n>r[ sph]e ( obs]vation1 w g on 9 l mann] 9 future4 ,! peasant believes t ! sun :i* rose to-day w rise aga9 to-morr[2 t ! se$ put into ! gr\nd w be foll[$ 9 due "t by ! h>ve/ ?is ye> z x 0 la/ ye>1 & ! l2 b has no notion ( su* inf]5ces 9 subjects beyond 8 imm$iate obs]vation4 ,& x %\ld be obs]v$ t ea* class ( p]sons1 9 admitt+ ?is belief )9 ! limit$ range ( 8 own exp]i5ce1 ?\gh he d\bt or d5y x 9 e ?+ beyond1 is1 9 fact1 be>+ unconsci\s te/imony to its univ]sal tru?4 ,nor1 aga91 is x only among ! mo/ ignorant t ?is limitation is put ^u ! tru?4 ,!re is a v g5]al prop5sity to believe t e ?+ beyond common exp]i5ce1 or especially asc]ta9$ laws ( nature1 is left to ! dom9ion ( *ance or fate or arbitr>y int]v5tion2 & ev5 to object to any attempt$ explanation by physical causes1 if conjecturally ?r[n out = an app>5tly unacc\ntable ph5om5on4 8,! precise doctr9e ( ! g5]alization ( ?is idea ( ! uni=mity ( nature1 s f> f be+ obvi\s1 natural1 or intuitive1 is utt]ly beyond ! atta9m5t ( ! _m4 ,9 all ! ext5t ( its univ]sality x is *>act]i/ic ( ! philosoph]4 ,x is cle>ly ! result ( philosophic cultivation & tra9+1 & by no means ! spontane\s (fspr+ ( any prim>y pr9ciple naturally inh]5t 9 ! m9d1 z "s seem to believe4 ,x is no m]e vague p]suasion tak5 up )\t exam9ation1 z a common prepossession to :i* we are always accu/om$2 on ! contr>y1 all common prejudices & associations are aga9/ x4 ,x is pre-em95tly an acquir$ idea4 ,x is n atta9$ )\t deep /udy & reflection4 ,! be/ in=m$ philosoph] is ! man :o mo/ firmly believes x1 ev5 9 opposition to receiv$ notions2 its acceptance dep5ds on ! ext5t & pr(\ndness ( 8 inductive /udies40 #ahe ,supra1 book iii41 *ap4 iii41 #a #ahf ,x des]ves rem>k1 t ^! e>ly g5]alizations did n1 l sci5tific inductions1 presuppose causation4 ,:at !y did presuppose1 0 uni=mity 9 physical facts4 ,b ! obs]v]s 7 z ready to presume uni=mity 9 ! co-exi/5ce ( facts z 9 ! sequ5ces4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !y nev] ?\ght ( assum+ t ?is uni=mity 0 a pr9ciple p]vad+ all nature3 _! g5]alizations did n imply t !re 0 uni=mity 9 e ?+1 b only t z mu* uni=mity z exi/$ )9 _! obs]vation1 exi/$ also beyond x4 ,! induction1 fire burns1 does n require = its validity t all nature %\ld obs]ve uni=m laws1 b only t !re %\ld be uni=mity 9 "o p>ticul> class ( natural ph5om5a2 ! effects ( fire on ! s5ses & on combu/ible sub/ances4 ,& uni=mity to ?is ext5t 0 n assum$1 ant]ior to ! exp]i5ce1 b prov$ by ! exp]i5ce4 ,! same obs]v$ in/ances :i* prov$ ! n>r[] tru?1 prov$ z mu* ( ! wid] "o z correspond$ to x4 ,x is f los+ sight ( ?is fact1 & consid]+ ! law ( causation 9 its full ext5t z necess>ily presuppos$ 9 ! v e>lie/ g5]alizations1 t p]sons h be5 l$ into ! belief t ! law ( causation is kn[n a priori1 & is n itself a conclusion f exp]i5ce4 #ahg ,book ii41 *ap4 iii4 #ahh ,"o ( ! mo/ ris+ ?9k]s ( ! new g5]ation 9 ,france1 ,m4 ,ta9e 7:o has giv51 9 ! ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 ! mo/ ma/]ly analysis1 at lea/ 9 "o po9t ( view1 ev] made ( ! pres5t "w71 ?\gh he rejects1 on ?is & simil> po9ts ( psy*ology1 ! intuition !ory 9 its ord9>y =m1 nev]!less assigns to ! law ( causation1 & to "s o!r ( ! mo/ univ]sal laws1 t c]ta9ty beyond ! b\nds ( human exp]i5ce1 :i* ,i h n be5 able to accord to !m4 ,he does ?is on ! fai? ( our faculty ( ab/raction1 9 :i* he seems to recognize an indep5d5t s\rce ( evid5ce1 n inde$ disclos+ tru?s n conta9$ 9 our exp]i5ce1 b af=d+ an assurance :i* exp]i5ce c n give1 ( ! univ]sality ( ^? :i* x does conta94 ,by ab/raction ,m4 ,ta9e seems to ?9k t we are able1 n m]ely to analyze t "p ( nature :i* we see1 & exhibit ap>t ! elem5ts :i* p]vade x1 b to di/+ui% su* ( !m z are elem5ts ( ! sy/em ( nature consid]$ z a :ole1 n incid5ts belong+ to our limit$ t]re/rial exp]i5ce4 ,i am n sure t ,i fully ent] into ,m4 ,ta9e's mean+2 b ,i confess ,i d n see h[ any m]e ab/ract conception1 elicit$ by our m9ds f our exp]i5ce1 c be evid5ce ( an objective fact 9 univ]sal ,nature1 beyond :at ! exp]i5ce itself be>s witness (2 or h[1 9 ! process ( int]pret+ 9 g5]al language ! te/imony ( exp]i5ce1 ! limitations ( ! te/imony itself c be ca/ (f4 ,dr4 ,w>d1 9 an able article 9 ! ,dubl9 ,review = ,octob]1 #ahga1 cont5ds t ! uni=mity ( nature c n be prov$ f exp]i5ce1 b f 8transc5d5tal consid]ations0 only1 & t1 consequ5tly1 all physical sci5ce w\ld be depriv$ ( its basis1 if su* transc5d5tal pro( 7 impossible4 ,:5 physical sci5ce is said to dep5d on ! assumption t ! c\rse ( nature is inv>iable1 all t is meant is t ! conclusions ( physical sci5ce are n kn[n z absolute tru?s3 ! tru? ( !m is conditional on ! uni=mity ( ! c\rse ( nature2 & all t ! mo/ conclusive obs]vations & exp]im5ts c prove1 is t ! result arriv$ at w be true if1 & z long z1 ! pres5t laws ( nature are valid4 ,b ?is is all ! assurance we require = ! guidance ( our conduct4 ,dr4 ,w>d himself does n ?9k t 8 transc5d5tal pro(s make x practically great]2 = he believes1 z a ,ca?olic1 t ! c\rse ( nature n only has be51 b frequ5tly & ev5 daily is1 susp5d$ by sup]natural int]v5tion4 ,b ?\gh ?is conditional conclusiv5ess ( ! evid5ce ( exp]i5ce1 :i* is suffici5t = ! purposes ( life1 is all t ,i 0 necess>ily conc]n$ to prove1 ,i h giv5 reasons = ?9k+ t ! uni=mity1 z itself a "p ( exp]i5ce1 is suffici5tly prov$ to ju/ify und\bt+ reliance on x4 ,?is ,dr4 ,w>d conte/s1 = ! foll[+ reasons3 ,fir/ 7p4 #cae71 suppos+ x true t !re has hi!rto be5 no well au!nticat$ case ( a brea* 9 ! uni=mity ( nature2 8! numb] ( natural ag5ts con/antly at "w is incalculably l>ge2 & ! obs]v$ cases ( uni=mity 9 _! action mu/ be immeasurably few] ?an "o ?\s&? ( ! :ole4 ,sci5tific m51 we assume = ! mom5t1 h discov]$ t 9 a c]ta9 proportion ( in/ances--immeasurably few] ?an "o ?\s&? ( ! :ole--a c]ta9 fact has prevail$2 ! fact ( uni=mity2 & !y h n f\nd a s+le in/ance 9 :i* t fact does n prevail4 ,are !y ju/ifi$1 we ask1 9 inf]r+ f ^! premises t ! fact is univ]sal8 ,surely ! "q answ]s itself4 ,let u make a v grotesque supposition1 9 :i*1 h[ev]1 ! conclusion w\ld really be tri$ accord+ to ! argum5ts adduc$4 ,9 "s des]t ( ,africa !re is an enorm\s connect$ edifice1 surr\nd+ "s va/ space1 9 :i* dwell c]ta9 reasonable be+s1 :o are unable to leave ! inclosure4 ,9 ?is edifice are m ?an a ?\s& *amb]s1 :i* "s ye>s ago 7 entirely lock$ up1 & ! keys no "o knew :]e4 ,by con/ant dilig5ce tw5ty-five keys h be5 f\nd1 out ( ! :ole numb]2 & ! correspond+ *amb]s1 situat$ promiscu\sly ?r\gh\t ! edifice1 h be5 op5$4 ,ea* *amb]1 :5 exam9$1 is f\nd to be 9 ! precise %ape ( a dodecah$ron4 ,are ! inhabitants ju/ifi$ on t acc\nt 9 hold+ ) c]titude t ! rema9+ #ige *amb]s are built on ! same plan80 ,n ) p]fect c]titude1 b 7if ! *amb]s to :i* ! keys h be5 f\nd are really 8situat$ promiscu\sly07 ) s high a degree ( probability t !y w\ld be ju/ifi$ 9 act+ ^u ! presumption until an exception appe>$4 ,dr4 ,w>d's argum5t1 h[ev]1 does n t\* m9e z x /&s 9 ! text4 ,my argum5t is gr\nd$ on ! fact t ! uni=mity ( ! c\rse ( nature z a :ole1 is con/itut$ by ! uni=m sequ5ces ( special effects f special natural ag5cies2 t ! numb] ( ^! natural ag5cies 9 ! "p ( ! univ]se kn[n to u is n incalculable1 nor ev5 extremely great2 t we h n[ reason to ?9k t at lea/ ! f> great] numb] ( !m1 if n sep>ately1 at lea/ 9 "s ( ! comb9ations into :i* !y ent]1 h be5 made suffici5tly am5able to obs]vation1 to h enabl$ u actually to asc]ta9 "s ( _! fix$ laws2 & t ?is am\nt ( exp]i5ce ju/ifies ! same degree ( assurance t ! c\rse ( nature is uni=m ?r\gh\t1 :i* we previ\sly _h ( ! uni=mity ( sequ5ce among ! ph5om5a be/ kn[n to u4 ,?is view ( ! subject1 if correct1 de/roys ! =ce ( ,dr4 ,w>d's fir/ argum5t4 ,8 second argum5t is1 t _m or mo/ p]sons1 bo? sci5tific & unsci5tific1 believe t !re are well au!nticat$ cases ( brea* 9 ! uni=mity ( nature1 namely1 miracles4 ,nei!r does ?is consid]ation t\* :at ,i h said 9 ! text4 ,i admit no o!r uni=mity 9 ! ev5ts ( nature ?an ! law ( ,causation2 & 7z ,i h expla9$ 9 ! *apt] ( ?is volume :i* treats ( ! ,gr\nds ( ,disbelief7 a miracle is no exception to t law4 ,9 e case ( alleg$ miracle1 a new antec$5t is affirm$ to exi/2 a c\nt]act+ cause1 namely1 ! volition ( a sup]natural be+4 ,to all1 !re=e1 to :om be+s ) sup]human p[] ov] nature are a v]a causa1 a miracle is a case ( ! ,law ( ,univ]sal ,causation1 n a deviation f x4 ,dr4 ,w>d's la/1 & z he says1 /ronge/ argum5t1 is ! famili> "o ( ,reid1 ,/ew>t1 & _! foll[]s--t :atev] k exp]i5ce gives u ( ! pa/ & pres5t1 x gives u none ( ! future4 ,i confess t ,i see no =ce :atev] 9 ?is argum5t4 ,:]e9 does a future fact diff] f a pres5t or a pa/ fact1 except 9 _! m]ely mom5t>y relation to ! human be+s at pres5t 9 exi/5ce8 ,! answ] made by ,prie/ley1 9 8 ,exam9ation ( ,reid1 seems to me suffici5t1 viz41 t ?\gh we h _h no exp]i5ce ( :at is future1 we h _h abundant exp]i5ce ( :at 0 future4 ,! 8leap 9 ! d>k0 7z ,pr(essor ,ba9 calls x7 f ! pa/ to ! future1 is exactly z mu* 9 ! d>k & no m1 z ! leap f a pa/ :i* we h p]sonally obs]v$1 to a pa/ :i* we h n4 ,i agree ) ,mr4 ,ba9 9 ! op9ion t ! resemblance ( :at we h n exp]i5c$ to :at we h1 is1 by a law ( our nature1 presum$ ?r\gh ! m]e en]gy ( ! idea1 be=e exp]i5ce has prov$ x4 ,?is psy*ological tru?1 h[ev]1 is n1 z ,dr4 ,w>d :5 criticis+ ,mr4 ,ba9 appe>s to ?9k1 inconsi/5t ) ! logical tru? t exp]i5ce does prove x4 ,! pro( comes aft] ! presumption1 & consi/s 9 its inv>iable v]ification by exp]i5ce :5 ! exp]i5ce arrives4 ,! fact :i* :ile x 0 future c\ld n be obs]v$1 hav+ z yet no exi/5ce1 is always1 :5 x becomes pres5t & c be obs]v$1 f\nd con=mable to ! pa/4 ,dr4 ,m',co% ma9ta9s 7,exam9ation ( ,mr4 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill's ,philosophy1 p4 #beg7 t ! uni=mity ( ! c\rse ( nature is a diff]5t ?+ f ! law ( causation2 & :ile he all[s t ! =m] is only prov$ by a long cont9uance ( exp]i5ce1 & t x is n inconceivable nor necess>ily incr$ible t !re may be worlds 9 :i* x does n prevail1 he consid]s ! law ( causation to be kn[n intuitively4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 no o!r uni=mity 9 ! ev5ts ( nature ?an t :i* arises f ! law ( causation3 s long !re=e z !re rema9$ any d\bt t ! c\rse ( nature 0 uni=m ?r\gh\t1 at lea/ :5 n modifi$ by ! int]v5tion ( a new 7sup]natural7 cause1 a d\bt 0 necess>ily impli$1 n inde$ ( ! reality ( causation1 b ( its univ]sality4 ,if ! uni=mity ( ! c\rse ( nature has any exceptions--if any ev5ts succe$ "o ano!r )\t fix$ laws--to t ext5t ! law ( causation fails2 !re are ev5ts :i* d n dep5d on causes4 #ahi ,book i41 *ap4 vii4 #aij ,9 "s cases1 a ,k9d is suffici5tly id5tifi$ by "s "o rem>kable prop]ty3 b mo/ commonly sev]al are requir$2 ea* prop]ty consid]$ s+ly1 be+ a jo9t prop]ty ( t & ( o!r ,k9ds4 ,! color & brightness ( ! diamond are common to x ) ! pa/e f :i* false diamonds are made2 its octoh$ral =m is common to x ) alum1 & magnetic iron ore2 b ! color & brightness & ! =m toge!r1 id5tify its ,k9d3 t is1 are a m>k to u t x is combu/ible2 t :5 burn$ x produces c>bonic acid2 t x c n be cut ) any kn[n sub/ance2 toge!r ) _m o!r asc]ta9$ prop]ties1 & ! fact t !re exi/ an indef9ite numb] /ill unasc]ta9$4 #aia ,?is doctr9e ( c\rse assumes t ! allotropic =ms ( :at is *emically ! same sub/ance are s _m diff]5t ,k9ds2 & su*1 9 ! s5se 9 :i* ! ^w ,k9d is us$ 9 ?is treatise1 !y really are4 #aib ,pr(essor ,ba9 7,logic1 ii41 #ac7 m5tions two empirical laws1 :i* he consid]s to be1 ) ! exception ( ! law connect+ ,gravity ) ,resi/ance to motion1 8! two mo/ widely op]at+ laws z yet discov]$ :]eby two di/9ct prop]ties are conjo9$ ?r\gh\t sub/ances g5]ally40 ,! fir/ is1 8a law connect+ ,atomic ,weight & ,specific ,heat by an inv]se proportion4 ,= equal weights ( ! simple bodies1 ! atomic weight multipli$ by a numb] express+ ! specific heat1 gives a ne>ly uni=m product4 ,! products1 = all ! elem5ts1 are ne> ! con/ant numb] #f40 ,! o!r is a law :i* obta9s 8betwe5 ! specific gravity ( sub/ances 9 ! gase\s /ate1 & ! atomic weights4 ,! relation%ip ( ! two numb]s is 9 "s in/ances equality2 9 o!r in/ances ! "o is a multiple ( ! o!r40 ,nei!r ( ^! g5]alizations has ! smalle/ appe>ance ( be+ an ultimate law4 ,!y po9t unmi/akably to high] laws4 ,s9ce ! heat necess>y to raise to a giv5 temp]ature ! same weight ( diff]5t sub/ances 7call$ _! specific heat7 is inv]sely z _! atomic weight1 t is1 directly z ! numb] ( atoms 9 a giv5 weight ( ! sub/ance1 x foll[s t a s+le atom ( e sub/ance requires ! same am\nt ( heat to raise x to a giv5 temp]ature2 a mo/ int]e/+ & important law1 b a law ( causation4 ,! o!r law m5tion$ by ,mr4 ,ba9 po9ts to ! conclusion1 t 9 ! gase\s /ate all sub/ances conta91 9 ! same space1 ! same numb] ( atoms2 :i*1 z ! gase\s /ate susp5ds all cohesive =ce1 might naturally be expect$1 ?\gh x c\ld n h be5 positively assum$4 ,?is law may also be a result ( ! mode ( action ( causes1 namely1 ( molecul> motions4 ,! cases 9 :i* "o ( ! numb]s is n id5tical ) ! o!r1 b a multiple ( x1 may be expla9$ on ! n[ise unlikely supposition1 t 9 our pres5t e/imate ( ! atomic weights ( "s sub/ances1 we mi/ake two1 or ?ree1 atoms = "o1 or "o = sev]al4 #aic ,dr4 ,m',co% 7p4 #cbd ( 8 book7 consid]s ! laws ( ! *emical composition ( bodies z n com+ "u ! pr9ciple ( ,causation2 & ?9ks x an omission 9 ?is "w n to h provid$ special canons = _! inve/igation & pro(4 ,b e case ( *emical composition is1 z ,i h expla9$1 a case ( causation4 ,:5 x is said t wat] is compos$ ( hydrog5 & oxyg51 ! affirmation is t hydrog5 & oxyg51 by ! action on "o ano!r :i* !y ex]t "u c]ta9 conditions1 g5]ate ! prop]ties ( wat]4 ,! ,canons ( ,induction1 !re=e1 z laid d[n 9 ?is treatise1 are applicable to ! case4 ,su* special adaptations z ! ,inductive me?ods may require 9 _! application to *emi/ry1 or any o!r sci5ce1 are a prop] subject = any "o :o treats ( ! logic ( ! special sci5ces1 z ,pr(essor ,ba9 has done 9 ! latt] "p ( 8 "w2 b !y d n app]ta9 to ,g5]al ,logic4 ,dr4 ,m',co% also compla9s 7p4 #cbe7 t ,i h giv5 no canons = ^? sci5ces 9 :i* 8! end s\ght is n ! discov]y ( ,causes or ( ,composition1 b ( ,classes2 t is1 ,natural ,classes40 ,su* canons c\ld be no o!r ?an ! pr9ciples & rules ( ,natural ,classification1 :i* ,i c]ta9ly ?\ght t ,i _h exp\nd$ at consid]able l5g?4 ,b ?is is f> f ! only in/ance 9 :i* ,dr4 ,m',co% does n appe> to be aw>e ( ! cont5ts ( ! books he is criticis+4 #aid ,mr4 ,de ,morgan1 9 8 ,=mal ,logic1 makes ! j rem>k1 t f two su* premises z ,mo/ ,a are ,b1 & ,mo/ ,a are ,c1 we may inf] ) c]ta9ty t "s ,b are ,c4 ,b ?is is ! utmo/ limit ( ! conclusions :i* c be drawn f two approximate g5]alizations1 :5 ! precise degree ( _! approximation to univ]sality is unkn[n or undef9$4 #aie ,rationale ( ,judicial ,evid5ce1 vol4 iii41 p4 #bbd4 #aif ,! evaluation ( ! *ances 9 ?is /atem5t has be5 object$ to by a ma!matical fri5d4 ,! correct mode1 9 8 op9ion1 ( sett+ out ! possibilities is z foll[s4 ,if ! ?+ 7let u call x ,t7 :i* is bo? an ,a & a ,c1 is a ,b1 some?+ is true :i* is only true twice 9 e ?rice1 & some?+ else :i* is only true ?rice 9 e f\r times4 ,! fir/ fact be+ true eight times 9 twelve1 & ! second be+ true six times 9 e eight1 & consequ5tly six times 9 ^? eight2 bo? facts w be true only six times 9 twelve4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if ,t1 al?\gh x is bo? an ,a & a ,c1 is n a ,b1 some?+ is true :i* is only true once 9 e ?rice1 & some?+ else :i* is only true once 9 e f\r times4 ,! =m] be+ true f\r times out ( twelve1 & ! latt] once 9 e f\r1 & !re=e once 9 ^? f\r2 bo? are only true 9 "o case out ( twelve4 ,s t ,t is a ,b six times 9 twelve1 & ,t is n a ,b1 only once3 mak+ ! comp>ative probabilities1 n elev5 to "o1 z ,i _h previ\sly made !m1 b six to "o4 ,9 ! la/ edition ,i accept$ ?is reason+ z conclusive4 ,m att5tive consid]ation1 h[ev]1 has conv9c$ me t x conta9s a fallacy4 ,! objector argues1 t ! fact ( ,a's be+ a ,b is true eight times 9 twelve1 & ! fact ( ,c's be+ a ,b six times 9 eight1 & consequ5tly six times 9 ^? eight2 bo? facts1 !re=e1 are true only six times 9 e twelve4 ,t is1 he concludes t because among ,z tak5 indiscrim9ately only eight out ( twelve are ,bs & ! rema9+ f\r are n1 x mu/ equally hold t f\r out ( twelve are n ,bs :5 ! twelve are tak5 f ! select portion ( ,z :i* are also ,cs4 ,& by ?is assumption he arrives at ! /range result1 t !re are few] ,bs among ?+s :i* are bo? ,z & ,cs ?an !re are among ei!r ,z or ,cs tak5 indiscrim9ately2 s t a ?+ :i* has bo? *ances ( be+ a ,b1 is less likely to be s ?an if x _h only ! "o *ance or only ! o!r4 ,! objector 7z has be5 acutely rem>k$ by ano!r correspond5t7 applies to ! problem "u consid]ation1 a mode ( calculation only suit$ to ! rev]se problem4 ,_h ! "q be5--,if two ( e ?ree ,bs are ,z & ?ree out ( e f\r ,bs are ,cs1 h[ _m ,bs w be bo? ,z & ,cs1 8 reason+ w\ld h be5 correct4 ,= ! ,bs t are bo? ,z & ,cs mu/ be few] ?an ei!r ! ,bs t are ,z or ! ,bs t are ,cs1 & to f9d _! numb] we mu/ abate ei!r ( ^! numb]s 9 ! ratio due to ! o!r4 ,b :5 ! problem is to f9d1 n h[ _m ,bs are bo? ,z & ,cs1 b h[ _m ?+s t are bo? ,z & ,cs are ,bs1 x is evid5t t among ^! ! proportion ( ,bs mu/ be n less1 b great]1 ?an among ?+s :i* are only ,a1 or among ?+s :i* are only ,b4 ,! true !ory ( ! *ances is be/ f\nd by go+ back to ! sci5tific gr\nds on :i* ! proportions re/4 ,! degree ( frequ5cy ( a co9cid5ce dep5ds on1 & is a measure (1 ! frequ5cy1 comb9$ ) ! efficacy1 ( ! causes 9 op]ation t are favorable to x4 ,if out ( e twelve ,z tak5 indiscrim9ately eight are ,bs & f\r are n1 x is impli$ t !re are causes op]at+ on ,a :i* t5d to make x a ,b1 & t ^! causes are suffici5tly con/ant & suffici5tly p[]ful to succe$ 9 eight out ( twelve cases1 b fail 9 ! rema9+ f\r4 ,s if ( twelve ,cs1 n9e are ,bs & ?ree are n1 !re mu/ be causes ( ! same t5d5cy op]at+ on ,c1 :i* succe$ 9 n9e cases & fail 9 ?ree4 ,n[ suppose twelve cases :i* are bo? ,z & ,cs4 ,! :ole twelve are n[ "u ! op]ation ( bo? sets ( causes4 ,"o set is suffici5t to prevail 9 eight ( ! twelve cases1 ! o!r 9 n9e4 ,! analysis ( ! cases %[s t six ( ! twelve w be ,bs ?r\gh ! op]ation ( bo? sets ( causes2 two m 9 virtue ( ! causes op]at+ on ,a2 & ?ree m ?r\gh ^? op]at+ on ,c1 & t !re w be only "o case 9 :i* all ! causes w be inop]ative4 ,! total numb]1 !re=e1 :i* are ,bs w be elev5 9 twelve1 & ! evaluation 9 ! text is correct4 #aig ,supra1 book i41 *ap4 v4 #aih ,supra1 book i41 *ap4 v41 #a1 & book ii41 *ap1 v41 #e4 #aii ,! axiom1 8,equals subtract$ f equals leave equal diff]5ces10 may be demon/rat$ f ! two axioms 9 ! text4 ,if ,a a & ,b b1 ,a-,b a-b4 ,= if n1 let ,a-,b a-bc4 ,!n s9ce ,b b1 add+ equals to equals1 ,a ac4 ,b ,a a4 ,!re=e a ac1 :i* is impossible4 ,?is proposition hav+ be5 demon/rat$1 we may1 by means ( x1 demon/rate ! foll[+3 8,if equals be add$ to unequals1 ! sums are unequal40 ,if ,a a & ,b n b1 ,a,b is n ab4 ,= suppose x to be s4 ,!n1 s9ce ,a a & ,a,b ab1 subtract+ equals f equals1 ,b b2 :i* is contr>y to ! hypo!sis4 ,s aga91 x may be prov$ t two ?+s1 "o ( :i* is equal & ! o!r unequal to a ?ird ?+1 are unequal to "o ano!r4 ,if ,a a & ,a n ,b1 nei!r is a ,b4 ,= suppose x to be equal4 ,!n s9ce ,a a & a ,b1 & s9ce ?+s equal to ! same ?+ are equal to "o ano!r ,a ,b2 :i* is contr>y to ! hypo!sis4 #bjj ,geomet]s h usually pref]r$ to def9e p>allel l9es by ! prop]ty ( be+ 9 ! same plane & nev] meet+4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 has r5d]$ x necess>y = !m to assume1 z an additional axiom1 "s o!r prop]ty ( p>allel l9es2 & ! unsatisfactory mann] 9 :i* prop]ties = t purpose h be5 select$ by ,euclid & o!rs has always be5 deem$ ! opprobrium ( elem5t>y geometry4 ,ev5 z a v]bal def9ition1 equidi/ance is a fitt] prop]ty to *>act]ize p>allels by1 s9ce x is ! attribute really involv$ 9 ! signification ( ! "n4 ,if to be 9 ! same plane & nev] to meet 7 all t is meant by be+ p>allel1 we %\ld feel no incongruity 9 speak+ ( a curve z p>allel to its asymptote4 ,! mean+ ( p>allel l9es is1 l9es :i* pursue exactly ! same direction1 & :i*1 !re=e1 nei!r draw ne>] nor g f>!r f "o ano!r2 a conception sugge/$ at once by ! contemplation ( nature4 ,t ! l9es w nev] meet is ( c\rse includ$ 9 ! m compreh5sive proposition t !y are ev]y:]e equally di/ant4 ,& t any /raight l9es :i* are 9 ! same plane & n equidi/ant w c]ta9ly meet1 may be demon/rat$ 9 ! mo/ rigor\s mann] f ! fundam5tal prop]ty ( /raight l9es assum$ 9 ! text1 viz41 t if !y set out f ! same po9t1 !y div]ge m & m )\t limit4 #bja ,philosophie ,positive1 iii41 #dad-daf4 #bjb ,see ! two rem>kable notes 7,a7 & 7,f71 app5d$ to 8 ,inquiry into ! ,relation ( ,cause & ,effect4 #bjc ,supra1 p4 #dac4 #bjd ,a writ] to :om ,i h sev]al times ref]r$1 gives z ! def9ition ( an impossibility1 t :i* !re exi/s 9 ! _w no cause adequate to produce4 ,?is def9ition does n take 9 su* impossibilities z ^!--t two & two %\ld make five2 t two /raight l9es %\ld inclose a space2 or t any ?+ %\ld beg9 to exi/ )\t a cause4 ,i c ?9k ( no def9ition ( impossibility compreh5sive en\gh to include all its v>ieties1 except ! "o :i* ,i h giv53 viz41 ,an impossibility is t1 ! tru? ( :i* w\ld conflict ) a complete induction1 t is1 ) ! mo/ conclusive evid5ce :i* we possess ( univ]sal tru?4 ,z to ! reput$ impossibilities :i* re/ on no o!r gr\nds ?an our ignorance ( any cause capable ( produc+ ! suppos$ effects2 v few ( !m are c]ta9ly impossible1 or p]man5tly incr$ible4 ,! facts ( travel+ sev5ty miles an h\r1 pa9less surgical op]ations1 & conv]s+ by in/antane\s signals betwe5 ,london & ,new ,york1 held a high place1 n _m ye>s ago1 among su* impossibilities4 #bje ,n1 h[ev]1 z might at fir/ sight appe>1 #iii times z mu*4 ,a complete analysis ( ! cases %[s t 7always assum+ ! v]acity ( ! witness to be 7 9 #aj1jjj draw+s1 ! draw+ ( ,no4 #gi w occur n9e times1 & be ann\nc$ incorrectly once2 ! cr$ibility1 !re=e1 ( ! ann\ncem5t ( ,no4 #gi is 2 :ile ! draw+ ( a :ite ball w occur n9e times1 & be ann\nc$ incorrectly #iii times4 ,! cr$ibility1 !re=e1 ( ! ann\ncem5t ( :ite is 1 & ! ratio ( ! two #ajjh3aj2 ! "o ann\ncem5t be+ ?us only ab\t a hundr$ times m cr$ible ?an ! o!r1 in/ead ( #iii times4 #bjf ,supra1 book iii41 *ap4 ii41 #c1 #d1 #e4 #bjg ,mr4 ,bailey has giv5 ! be/ /atem5t ( ?is !ory4 8,! g5]al "n10 he says1 8raises up ! image sometimes ( "o individual ( ! class =m]ly se51 sometimes ( ano!r1 n unfrequ5tly ( _m individuals 9 succession2 & x sometimes sugge/s an image made up ( elem5ts f sev]al diff]5t objects1 by a lat5t process ( :i* ,i am n consci\s40 7,lett]s on ! ,philosophy ( ! ,human ,m9d1 #a/ s]ies1 lett] #bb47 ,b ,mr4 ,bailey mu/ all[ t we c>ry on inductions & ratioc9ations respect+ ! class1 by means ( ?is idea or conception ( "s "o individual 9 x4 ,?is is all ,i require4 ,! "n ( a class calls up "s idea1 ?r\gh :i* we c1 to all int5ts & purposes1 ?9k ( ! class z su*1 & n solely ( an individual memb] ( x4 #bjh ,i h ent]$ r fully into ?is "q 9 *ap4 xvii4 ( ,an ,exam9ation ( ,sir ,william ,hamilton's ,philosophy1 head$ 8,! ,doctr9e ( ,concepts or ,g5]al ,notions10 :i* conta9s my la/ views on ! subject4 #bji ,o!r examples ( inappropriate conceptions are giv5 by ,dr4 ,:ewell 7,phil4 ,ind4 ,sc4 ii41 #ahe7 z foll[s3 8,ari/otle & 8 foll[]s endeavor$ 9 va9 to acc\nt = ! me*anical relation ( =ces 9 ! lev]1 by apply+ ! inappropriate geometrical conceptions ( ! prop]ties ( ! circle3 !y fail$ 9 expla9+ ! =m ( ! lum9\s spot made by ! sun %9+ ?r\gh a hole1 because !y appli$ ! inappropriate conception ( a circul> quality 9 ! sun's light3 !y speculat$ to no purpose ab\t ! elem5t>y composition ( bodies1 because !y assum$ ! inappropriate conception ( lik5ess betwe5 ! elem5ts & ! comp\nd1 in/ead ( ! g5u9e notion ( elem5ts m]ely det]m9+ ! qualities ( ! comp\nd40 ,b 9 ^! cases !re is m ?an an inappropriate conception2 !re is a false conception2 "o :i* has no prototype 9 nature1 no?+ correspond+ to x 9 facts4 ,?is is evid5t 9 ! la/ two examples1 & is equally true 9 ! fir/2 ! 8prop]ties ( ! circle0 :i* 7 ref]r$ to1 be+ purely fanta/ical4 ,!re is1 !re=e1 an error beyond ! wrong *oice ( a pr9ciple ( g5]alization2 !re is a false assumption ( matt]s ( fact4 ,! attempt is made to resolve c]ta9 laws ( nature into a m g5]al law1 t law n be+ "o :i*1 ?\gh real1 is inappropriate1 b "o :olly imag9>y4 #baj ,pr(essor ,ba94 #baa ,?is s5t5ce hav+ be5 errone\sly und]/ood z if ,i _h meant to ass]t t belief is no?+ b an irresi/ible association1 ,i ?9k x necess>y to obs]ve t ,i express no !ory respect+ ! ultimate analysis ei!r ( reason+ or ( belief1 two ( ! mo/ obscure po9ts 9 analytical psy*ology4 ,i am speak+ n ( ! p[]s !mselves1 b ( ! previ\s conditions necess>y to enable ^? p[]s to ex]t !mselves3 ( :i* conditions ,i am cont5d+ t language is n "o1 s5ses & association be+ suffici5t )\t x4 ,! irresi/ible association !ory ( belief1 & ! difficulties connect$ ) ! subject1 h be5 discuss$ at l5g? 9 ! notes to ! new edition ( ,mr4 ,james ,mill's ,analysis ( ! ,ph5om5a ( ! ,human ,m9d4 #bab ,mr4 ,bailey agrees ) me 9 ?9k+ t :5ev] 8f some?+ actually pres5t to my s5ses1 conjo9$ ) pa/ exp]i5ce1 ,i feel satisfi$ t some?+ has happ5$1 or w happ51 or is happ5+1 beyond ! sph]e ( my p]sonal obs]vation10 ,i may ) /rict propriety be said to reason3 & ( c\rse to reason inductively1 = demon/rative reason+ is exclud$ by ! circum/ances ( ! case4 7,! ,!ory ( ,reason+1 #b;d ed41 p4 #bg47 #bac ,novum ,organum ,r5ovatum1 pp4 #ce-cg4 #bad ,novum ,organum ,r5ovatum1 pp4 #ci1 #dj4 #bae ,p4 #bag1 #dto edition4 #baf 8,e1 ex1 extra1 extraneus1 trang]1 /rang]40 ,ano!r etymological example sometimes cit$ is ! d]ivation ( ! ,engli% uncle f ! ,lat9 avus4 ,x is sc>cely possible = two words to be> few] outw>d m>ks ( relation%ip1 yet !re is b "o /ep betwe5 !m1 avus1 avunculus1 uncle4 ,s pilgrim1 f ag]3 p] agrum1 p]agr9us1 p]egr9us1 pellegr9o1 pilgrim4 ,pr(essor ,ba9 gives "s apt examples ( ^! transitions ( mean+4 8,! ^w #8damp' prim>ily signifi$ moi/1 humid1 wet4 ,b ! prop]ty is (t5 accompani$ ) ! feel+ ( cold or *ill9ess1 & h5ce ! idea ( cold is /rongly sugge/$ by ! ^w4 ,?is is n all4 ,proce$+ ^u ! sup]add$ mean+1 we speak ( damp+ a man's ardor1 a metaphor :]e ! cool+ is ! only circum/ance conc]n$2 we g on /ill fur!r to designate ! iron slide t %uts (f ! draft ( a /ove1 #8! damp]1' ! prim>y mean+ be+ n[ entirely dropp$4 #8,dry1' 9 l mann]1 ?r\gh signify+ ! abs5ce ( moi/ure1 wat]1 or liquidity1 is appli$ to sulphuric acid conta9+ wat]1 al?\gh n !reby ceas+ to be a moi/1 wet1 or liquid sub/ance40 ,s 9 ! phrases1 dry %]ry1 or ,*ampagne4 8#8,/reet1' orig9ally a pav$ way1 ) or )\t h\ses1 has be5 ext5d$ to roads l9$ ) h\ses1 :e!r pav$ or unpav$4 #8,imp]t95t' signifi$ at fir/ irrelevant1 ali5 to ! purpose 9 h&3 ?r\gh :i* x has come to mean1 m$dl+1 intrusive1 unmann]ly1 insol5t40 7,logic1 ii41 #agc1 #agd47 #bag ,pp4 #bbf1 #bbg4 #bah ,essays1 p4 #bad4 #bai ,essays1 p4 #bae4 #bbj ,?\gh no su* evil consequ5ces z take place 9 ^! in/ances are likely to arise f ! mod]n freak ( writ+ sanatory in/ead ( sanit>y1 x des]ves notice z a *>m+ specim5 ( p$antry +raft$ ^u ignorance4 ,^? :o ?us und]take to correct ! spell+ ( ! classical ,engli% writ]s1 are n aw>e t ! mean+ ( sanatory1 if !re 7 su* a ^w 9 ! language1 w\ld h ref]5ce n to ! pres]vation ( heal?1 b to ! cure ( disease4 #bba ,hi/orical ,introduction1 vol4 i41 pp4 #ff-fh4 #bbb ,hi/ory ( ,sci5tific ,ideas1 ii41 #aaj1 #aaa4 #bbc ,hi/ory ( ,sci5tific ,ideas1 ii41 #aaa-aac4 #bbd ,nov4 ,org4 ,r5ov41 pp4 #bhf1 #bhg4 #bbe ,hi/ory ( ,sci5tific ,ideas1 ii41 #abj-abb4 #bbf ,nov4 ,org4 ,r5ov41 p4 #bgd4 #bbg ,hi/4 ,sc4 ,id41 i4 #acc4 #bbh ,dr4 ,:ewell1 9 8 reply 7,philosophy ( ,discov]y1 p4 #bgj7 says t he 8/opp$ %ort (1 or r pass$ by1 ! doctr9e ( a s]ies ( organiz$ be+s10 because he 8?\ght x bad & n>r[ philosophy40 ,if he did1 x 0 evid5tly )\t und]/&+ ?is =m ( ! doctr9e2 = he proce$s to quote a passage f 8 8,hi/ory10 9 :i* ! doctr9e he condemns is designat$ z t ( 8a m]e l9e> progression 9 nature1 :i* w\ld place ea* g5us 9 contact only ) ! prec$+ & succe$+ ones40 ,n[ ! s]ies treat$ ( 9 ! text agrees ) ?is l9e> progression 9 no?+ :atev] b 9 be+ a progression4 #bbi ,supra1 p4 #acg4 #bcj ,vulg> ,errors1 book v41 *ap4 #ba4 #bca ,ph>macologia1 ,hi/orical ,introduction1 p4 #af4 #bcb ,! au?or ( "o ( ! ,bridgewat] ,treatises has fall51 z x seems to me1 into a simil> fallacy :51 aft] argu+ 9 r a curi\s way to prove t matt] may exi/ )\t any ( ! kn[n prop]ties ( matt]1 & may !re=e be *angeable1 he concludes t x c n be et]nal1 because 8et]nal 7passive7 exi/5ce necess>ily involves incapability ( *ange40 ,i believe x w\ld be difficult to po9t out any o!r connection betwe5 ! facts ( et]nity & un*angeabl5ess1 ?an a /rong association betwe5 ! two ideas4 ,mo/ ( ! a priori argum5ts1 bo? religi\s & anti-religi\s1 on ! orig9 ( ?+s1 are fallacies drawn f ! same s\rce4 #bcc ,supra1 book ii41 *ap4 v41 #f1 & *ap4 vii41 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d4 ,see also ,exam9ation ( ,sir ,william ,hamilton's ,philosophy1 *ap4 vi4 & else:]e4 #bcd ,x seems t ?is doctr9e 01 be=e ! "t ,i h m5tion$1 disput$ by "s ?9k]s4 ,dr4 ,w>d m5tions ,scotus1 ,vasquez1 ,biel1 ,francis ,lugo1 & ,val5tia4 #bce ,i quote ?is passage f ,playfair's celebrat$ ,diss]tation on ! ,progress ( ,ma!matical & ,physical ,sci5ce4 #bcf ,?is /atem5t ,i mu/ n[ correct1 z too unqualifi$4 ,! maxim 9 "q 0 ma9ta9$ ) full conviction by no less an au?ority ?an ,sir ,william ,hamilton4 ,see my ,exam9ation1 *ap4 xxiv4 #bcg ,n\veaux ,essais sur l',ent5dem5t ,huma9--,avant-propos4 7uvres1 ,p>is ed41 #ahdb1 vol4 i41 p4 #ai47 #bch ,?is doctr9e also 0 accept$ z true1 & conclusions 7 gr\nd$ on x1 by ,sir ,william ,hamilton4 ,see ,exam9ation1 *ap4 xxiv4 #bci ,n t ( ,leibnitz1 b ! pr9ciple commonly appeal$ to "u t "n by ma!maticians4 #bdj ,diss]tation1 p4 #bg4 #bda ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc41 ,book i41 *ap4 i4 #bdb ,novum ,organum1 ,aph4 #ge4 #bdc ,supra1 book iii41 *ap4 vii41 #d4 #bdd ,x is h>dly ne$ful to rem>k t no?+ is "h int5d$ to be said aga9/ ! possibility at "s future p]iod ( mak+ gold--by fir/ discov]+ x to be a comp\nd1 & putt+ toge!r its diff]5t elem5ts or +r$i5ts4 ,b ?is is a totally diff]5t idea f t ( ! seek]s ( ! gr& arcanum4 #bde ,ph>macologia1 pp4 #dc-de4 #bdf ,vol4 i41 *ap4 #h4 #bdg ,nov4 ,org41 ,aph4 #df4 #bdh ,playfair's ,diss]tation1 sect4 #d4 #bdi ,nov4 ,org4 ,r5ov41 p4 #fa4 #bej ,ph>macologia1 p4 #ba4 #bea ,ph>macologia1 pp4 #bc1 #bd4 #beb ,ibid41 p4 #bh4 #bec ,ibid41 p4 #fb4 #bed ,ibid41 pp4 #fa1 #fb4 #bee ,supra1 p4 #dej4 #bef ,elem5ts ( ! ,philosophy ( ! ,m9d1 vol4 ii41 *ap4 #d1 sect4 #e4 #beg 8,?us ,f\rcroy10 says ,dr4 ,p>is1 8expla9$ ! op]ation ( m]cury by its specific gravity1 & ! advocates ( ?is doctr9e favor$ ! g5]al introduction ( ! prep>ations ( iron1 especially 9 scirrhus ( ! sple5 or liv]1 ^u ! same hypo!tical pr9ciple2 =1 say !y1 :atev] is mo/ =cible 9 remov+ ! ob/ruction mu/ be ! mo/ prop] in/rum5t ( cure3 su* is /eel1 :i*1 besides ! att5uat+ p[] ) :i* x is furni%$1 has /ill a great] =ce 9 ?is case f ! gravity ( its p>ticles1 :i*1 be+ sev5 times specifically heavi] ?an any vegetable1 acts 9 proportion ) a /rong] impulse1 & !re=e is a m p[]ful deob/ru5t4 ,?is may be tak5 z a specim5 ( ! /yle 9 :i* ^! me*anical physicians reason$ & practic$40--,ph>macologia1 pp4 #ch1 #ci4 #beh ,ph>macologia1 pp4 #ci1 #dj4 #bei ,i quote f ,dr4 ,:ewell's ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc41 #c;d ed41 i41 #abi4 #bfj ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc41 i41 #eb4 #bfa ,nov4 ,org41 ,aph4 #fj4 #bfb 8,an advocate10 says ,mr4 ,de ,morgan 7,=mal ,logic1 p4 #bgj71 8is sometimes guilty ( ! argum5t dicto secundum quid ad dictum simplicit]3 x is 8 bus9ess to d = 8 cli5t all t 8 cli5t might hone/ly d = himself4 ,is n ! ^w 9 italics frequ5tly omitt$8 ,might any man hone/ly try to d = himself all t c\nsel frequ5tly try to d = him8 ,we are (t5 rem9d$ ( ! two m5 :o /ole ! leg ( mutton2 "o c\ld swe> he _h n got x1 ! o!r t he _h n tak5 x4 ,! c\nsel is do+ 8 duty by 8 cli5t1 ! cli5t has left ! matt] to 8 c\nsel4 ,betwe5 ! unexecut$ int5tion ( ! cli5t1 & ! un9t5d$ execution ( ! c\nsel1 !re may be a wrong done1 &1 if we are to believe ! usual maxims1 no wrong-do]40 ,! same writ] ju/ly rem>ks 7p4 #bea7 t !re is a conv]se fallacy1 dicto simplicit] ad dictum secundum quid1 call$ by ! s*ola/ic logicians fallacia accid5tis2 & ano!r :i* may be call$ dicto secundum quid ad dictum secundum alt]um quid 7p4 #bfe74 ,= apt in/ances ( bo?1 ,i mu/ ref] ! read] to ,mr4 ,de ,morgan's able *apt] on ,fallacies4 #bfc ,an example ( ?is fallacy is ! popul> error t /rong dr9k mu/ be a cause ( /r5g?4 ,!re is "h fallacy )9 fallacy2 = grant+ t ! words 8/rong0 & 8/r5g?0 7 n 7z !y are7 appli$ 9 a totally diff]5t s5se to f]m5t$ liquors & to ! human body1 !re w\ld /ill be involv$ ! error ( suppos+ t an effect mu/ be l its cause2 t ! conditions ( a ph5om5on are likely to resemble ! ph5om5on itself2 :i* we h already treat$ ( z an a priori fallacy ( ! fir/ rank4 ,z well might x be suppos$ t a /rong poison w make ! p]son :o takes x /rong4 #bfd ,9 8 lat] editions1 ,ar*bi%op ,:ately conf9es ! "n ( ,petitio ,pr9cipii 8to ^? cases 9 :i* "o ( ! premises ei!r is manife/ly ! same 9 s5se ) ! conclusion1 or is actually prov$ f x1 or is su* z ! p]sons y are address+ are n likely to "k1 or to admit1 except z an inf]5ce f ! conclusion2 z1 e4g41 if any "o %\ld inf] ! au!nticity ( a c]ta9 hi/ory1 f its record+ su* & su* facts1 ! reality ( :i* re/s on ! evid5ce ( t hi/ory40 #bfe ,no long] ev5 a probable hypo!sis1 s9ce ! e/abli%m5t ( ! atomic !ory2 x be+ n[ c]ta9 t ! integral p>ticles ( diff]5t sub/ances gravitate unequally4 ,x is true t ^! p>ticles1 ?\gh real m9ima = ! purposes ( *emical comb9ation1 may n be ! ultimate p>ticles ( ! sub/ance2 & ?is d\bt alone r5d]s ! hypo!sis admissible1 ev5 z an hypo!sis4 #bff ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc41 i41 #cd4 #bfg 8,& coxcombs vanqui% ,b]keley ) a gr940 #bfh ,"s argum5ts & explanations1 supplem5t>y to ^? 9 ! text1 w be f\nd 9 ,an ,exam9ation ( ,sir ,william ,hamilton's ,philosophy1 *ap4 xxvi4 #bfi ,supra1 p4 #dbd4 #bgj ,:5 ?is *apt] 0 writt51 ,pr(essor ,ba9 _h n yet publi%$ ev5 ! fir/ "p 78,! ,s5ses & ! ,intellect07 ( 8 pr(\nd ,treatise on ! ,m9d4 ,9 ?is ! laws ( association h be5 m compreh5sively /at$ & m l>gely exemplifi$ ?an by any previ\s writ]2 & ! "w1 hav+ be5 complet$ by ! publication ( 8,! ,emotions & ! ,w10 may n[ be ref]r$ to z incomp>ably ! mo/ complete analytical exposition ( ! m5tal ph5om5a1 on ! basis ( a legitimate ,induction1 :i* has yet be5 produc$4 ,m rec5tly /ill1 ,mr4 ,ba9 has jo9$ ) me 9 app5d+ to a new edition ( ! 8,analysis10 notes int5d$ to br+ up ! analytic sci5ce ( ,m9d to its late/ improvem5ts4 ,_m /rik+ applications ( ! laws ( association to ! explanation ( complex m5tal ph5om5a are also to be f\nd 9 ,mr4 ,h]b]t ,sp5c]'s 8,pr9ciples ( ,psy*ology40 #bga ,9 ! case ( ! moral s5tim5ts ! place ( direct exp]im5t is to a consid]able ext5t suppli$ by hi/orical exp]i5ce1 & we are able to trace ) a tol]able approa* to c]ta9ty ! p>ticul> associations by :i* ^? s5tim5ts are eng5d]$4 ,?is has be5 attempt$1 s f> z respects ! s5tim5t ( ju/ice1 9 a little "w by ! pres5t au?or1 entitl$ ,utilit>ianism4 #bgb ,! mo/ favorable cases = mak+ su* approximate g5]alizations are :at may be t]m$ collective in/ances2 :]e we are =tunately enabl$ to see ! :ole class respect+ :i* we are inquir+ 9 action at once1 &1 f ! qualities display$ by ! collective body1 are able to judge :at mu/ be ! qualities ( ! majority ( ! individuals compos+ x4 ,?us ! "* ( a nation is %[n 9 its acts z a nation2 n s mu* 9 ! acts ( its gov]nm5t1 = ^? are mu* influ5c$ by o!r causes2 b 9 ! curr5t popul> maxims1 & o!r m>ks ( ! g5]al direction ( public op9ion2 9 ! "* ( ! p]sons or writ+s t are held 9 p]man5t e/eem or admiration2 9 laws & in/itutions1 s f> z !y are ! "w ( ! nation itself1 or are ackn[l$g$ & support$ by x2 & s =?4 ,b ev5 "h !re is a l>ge m>g9 ( d\bt & unc]ta9ty4 ,^! ?+s are liable to be influ5c$ by _m circum/ances2 !y are p>tially det]m9$ by ! di/9ctive qualities ( t nation or body ( p]sons1 b p>tly also by ext]nal causes :i* w\ld influ5ce any o!r body ( p]sons 9 ! same mann]4 ,9 ord]1 !re=e1 to make ! exp]im5t really complete1 we ought to be able to try x )\t v>iation ^u o!r nations3 to try h[ ,engli%m5 w\ld act or feel if plac$ 9 ! same circum/ances 9 :i* we h suppos$ ,fr5*m5 to be plac$2 to apply1 9 %ort1 ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ces z well z t ( ,agreem5t4 ,n[ ^! exp]im5ts we c n try1 nor ev5 approximate to4 #bgc 8,to :i*10 says ,dr4 ,:ewell1 8we may add1 t x is c]ta91 f ! hi/ory ( ! subject1 t 9 t case ! hypo!sis w\ld nev] h be5 fram$ at all40 ,dr4 ,:ewell 7,philosophy ( ,discov]y1 pp4 #bgg-bhb7 def5ds ,bacon's rule aga9/ ! prec$+ /rictures4 ,b 8 def5se consi/s only 9 ass]t+ & exemplify+ a proposition :i* ,i _h myself /at$1 viz41 t ?\gh ! l>ge/ g5]alizations may be ! e>lie/ made1 !y are n at fir/ se5 9 _! entire g5]ality1 b acquire x by degrees1 z !y are f\nd to expla9 "o class aft] ano!r ( ph5om5a4 ,! laws ( motion1 = example1 7 n kn[n to ext5d to ! cele/ial regions1 until ! motions ( ! cele/ial bodies _h be5 d$uc$ f !m4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 does n 9 any way affect ! fact1 t ! middle pr9ciples ( a/ronomy1 ! c5tral =ce1 = example1 & ! law ( ! inv]se squ>e1 c\ld n h be5 discov]$1 if ! laws ( motion1 :i* are s mu* m univ]sal1 _h n be5 kn[n fir/4 ,on ,bacon's sy/em ( /ep-by-/ep g5]alization1 x w\ld be impossible 9 any sci5ce to asc5d high] ?an ! empirical laws2 a rem>k :i* ,dr4 ,:ewell's own ,inductive ,tables1 ref]r$ to by him 9 support ( 8 argum5t1 amply be> out4 #bgd ,supra1 page #cag to ! end ( ! *apt]4 #bge ,biographia ,lit]>ia1 i41 #bad4 #bgf ,supra1 p4 #cba4 #bgg ,essays on "s ,unsettl$ ,que/ions ( ,political ,economy1 pp4 #acg-adj4 #bgh ,! quotations 9 ?is p>agraph are f a pap] writt5 by ! au?or1 & publi%$ 9 a p]iodical 9 #ahcd4 #bgi ,c\rs de ,philosophie ,positive1 iv41 #cbe-bi4 #bhj ,s9ce repr9t$ entire 9 ,diss]tations & ,discussions1 z ! conclud+ pap] ( ! fir/ volume4 #bha ,writt5 & fir/ publi%$ 9 #ahdj4 #bhb ,?is great g5]alization is (t5 unfavorably criticis$ 7z by ,dr4 ,:ewell1 = in/ance7 "u a misappreh5sion ( its real import4 ,! doctr9e1 t ! !ological explanation ( ph5om5a belongs only to ! infancy ( our k ( !m1 ought n to be con/ru$ z if x 0 equival5t to ! ass]tion1 t mank9d1 z _! k advances1 w necess>ily cease to believe 9 any k9d ( !ology4 ,?is 0 ,m4 ,comte's op9ion2 b x is by no means impli$ 9 8 fundam5tal !orem4 ,all t is impli$ is1 t 9 an advanc$ /ate ( human k1 no o!r ,rul] ( ! ,_w w be ackn[l$g$ ?an "o :o rules by univ]sal laws1 & does n at all1 or does n unless 9 v peculi> cases1 produce ev5ts by special int]positions4 ,orig9ally all natural ev5ts 7 ascrib$ to su* int]positions4 ,at pres5t e educat$ p]son rejects ?is explanation 9 reg>d to all classes ( ph5om5a ( :i* ! laws h be5 fully asc]ta9$2 ?\gh "s h n yet rea*$ ! po9t ( ref]r+ all ph5om5a to ! idea ( ,law1 b believe t ra9 & sun%9e1 fam9e & pe/il5ce1 victory & defeat1 dea? & life1 are issues :i* ! ,creator does n leave to ! op]ation ( 8 g5]al laws1 b res]ves to be decid$ by express acts ( volition4 ,m4 ,comte's !ory is ! negation ( ?is doctr9e4 ,dr4 ,:ewell equally misund]/&s ,m4 ,comte's doctr9e respect+ ! second or metaphysical /age ( speculation4 ,m4 ,comte did n mean t 8discussions conc]n+ ideas0 are limit$ to an e>ly /age ( inquiry1 & cease :5 sci5ce ent]s into ! positive /age4 7,philosophy ( ,discov]y1 pp4 #bbf et seq47 ,9 all ,m4 ,comte's speculations z mu* /ress is laid on ! process ( cle>+ up our conceptions z on ! asc]ta9m5t ( facts4 ,:5 ,m4 ,comte speaks ( ! metaphysical /age ( speculation1 he means ! /age 9 :i* m5 speak ( 8,nature0 & o!r ab/ractions z if !y 7 active =ces1 produc+ effects2 :5 ,nature is said to d ?is1 or =bid t2 :5 ,nature's horror ( a vacuum1 ,nature's non-admission ( a break1 ,nature's vis m$icatrix1 7 (f]$ z explanations ( ph5om5a2 :5 ! qualities ( ?+s 7 mi/ak5 = real entities dwell+ 9 ! ?+s2 :5 ! ph5om5a ( liv+ bodies 7 ?\ght to be acc\nt$ = by be+ ref]r$ to a 8vital =ce20 :51 9 %ort1 ! ab/ract names ( ph5om5a 7 mi/ak5 = ! causes ( _! exi/5ce4 ,9 ?is s5se ( ! ^w x c n be reasonably d5i$ t ! metaphysical explanation ( ph5om5a1 equally ) ! !ological1 gives way be=e ! advance ( real sci5ce4 ,t ! f9al1 or positive /age1 z conceiv$ by ,m4 ,comte1 has be5 equally misund]/ood1 & t1 not)/&+ "s expressions op5 to j criticism1 ,m4 ,comte nev] dream$ ( d5y+ ! legitimacy ( inquiry into all causes :i* are accessible to human inve/igation1 ,i h po9t$ out 9 a =m] place4 #bhc ,buckle's ,hi/ory ( ,civilization1 i41 #cj4 #bhd ,i h be5 assur$ by an intimate fri5d ( ,mr4 ,buckle t he w\ld n h )held 8 ass5t f ^! rem>ks1 & t he nev] int5d$ to affirm or imply t mank9d are n progressive 9 _! moral z well z 9 _! intellectual qualities4 8,9 deal+ ) 8 problem1 he avail$ himself ( ! artifice resort$ to by ! ,political ,economi/1 :o leaves out ( consid]ation ! g5]\s & b5evol5t s5tim5ts1 & f\nds 8 sci5ce on ! proposition t mank9d are actuat$ by acquisitive prop5sities alone10 n because su* is ! fact1 b because x is necess>y to beg9 by treat+ ! pr9cipal influ5ce z if x 0 ! sole "o1 & make ! due corrections aft]w>d4 8,he desir$ to make ab/raction ( ! intellect z ! det]m9+ & dynamical elem5t ( ! progression1 elim9at+ ! m dep5d5t set ( conditions1 & treat+ ! m active "o z if x 7 an entirely indep5d5t v>iable40 ,! same fri5d ( ,mr4 ,buckle /ates t :5 he us$ expressions :i* seem$ to exagg]ate ! influ5ce ( g5]al at ! exp5se ( special causes1 & especially at ! exp5se ( ! influ5ce ( individual m9ds1 ,mr4 ,buckle really int5d$ no m ?an to affirm emphatically t ! greate/ m5 c n effect great *anges 9 human affairs unless ! g5]al m9d has be5 9 "s consid]able degree prep>$ = !m by ! g5]al circum/ances ( ! age2 a tru? :i*1 ( c\rse1 no "o ?9ks ( d5y+4 ,& !re c]ta9ly are passages 9 ,mr4 ,buckle's writ+s :i* speak ( ! influ5ce ex]cis$ by great individual intellects 9 z /rong t]ms z c\ld be desir$4 #bhe ,essay on ,dryd51 9 ,miscellane\s ,writ+s1 i41 #ahf4 #bhf ,9 ! ,cornhill ,magaz9e = ,june & ,july1 #ahfa4 #bhg ,x is almo/ sup]flu\s to obs]ve1 t !re is ano!r mean+ ( ! ^w ,art1 9 :i* x may be said to d5ote ! poetical dep>tm5t or aspect ( ?+s 9 g5]al1 9 contradi/9ction to ! sci5tific4 ,9 ! text1 ! ^w is us$ 9 its old]1 & ,i hope1 n yet obsolete s5se4 #bhh ,pr(essor ,ba9 & o!rs call ! selection f ! tru?s ( sci5ce made = ! purposes ( an art1 a ,practical ,sci5ce1 & conf9e ! "n ,art to ! actual rules4 #bhi ,! ^w ,teleology is also1 b inconv5i5tly & improp]ly1 employ$ by "s writ]s z a "n = ! attempt to expla9 ! ph5om5a ( ! univ]se f f9al causes4 #bij ,= an express discussion & v9dication ( ?is pr9ciple1 see ! little volume entitl$ 8,utilit>ianism40