,,! ,,economic ,,aspects ,,( ,,geology ,c4 ,k4 ,,lei? ,,univ]sity ,,( ,,wiscons9 ,illu/ration ,,new ,,york ,,h5ry ,,holt ,,& ,,company ,,copyright1 #aiba ,,by ,,h5ry ,,holt ,,& ,,company ,augu/1 #aibc ,,pr9t$ ,,9 ,,! ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 ,,cont5ts ,,page ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,introduction #a ,,survey ,,( ,,field #a ,,economic ,,applications ,,( ,,! ,,sev]al ,,bran*es ,,( ,,geology ,,& ,,( ,,o!r ,,sci5ces #c ,m9]alogy & petrology #c ,/ratigraphy & paleontology #d ,/ructural geology #e ,physiography #f ,rock alt]ations or metamorphism #aj ,application ( o!r sci5ces #aj ,,treatm5t ,,( ,,! ,,subject ,,9 ,,?is ,,volume #aa ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,! ,,common ,,elem5ts1 ,,m9]als1 ,,& ,,rocks ,,( ,,! ,,e>? ,,& ,,_! ,,orig9s #ac ,,relative ,,abundance ,,( ,,! ,,pr9cipal ,,elem5ts ,,( ,,! ,,li?osph]e #ac ,,relative ,,abundance ,,( ,,! ,,pr9cipal ,,m9]als ,,( ,,! ,,li?osph]e #ad ,,relative ,,abundance ,,( ,,! ,,pr9cipal ,,rocks ,,( ,,! ,,li?osph]e #af ,,wat] 7,,hydrosph]e7 #ah ,,soils ,,& ,,clays #ah ,,comp>ison ,,( ,,li/s ,,( ,,mo/ ,,abundant ,,rocks ,,& ,,m9]als ,,) ,,comm]cial ,,rocks ,,& ,,m9]als #ah ,,! ,,orig9 ,,( ,,common ,,rocks ,,& ,,m9]als #ah ,igne\s processes #ai ,igne\s aft]-effects #ai ,wea!r+ ( igne\s rocks & ve9s #bj ,s$im5t>y processes #bb ,wea!r+ ( s$im5t>y rocks #bc ,consolidation1 cem5tation1 & o!r sub-surface alt]ations ( rocks #bd ,cem5tation #bd ,dynamic & contact metamorphism #be ,,! ,,metamorphic ,,cycle ,,z ,,an ,,aid ,,9 ,,/udy+ ,,m9]al ,,deposits #bg ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,"s ,,sali5t ,,features ,,( ,,! ,,geology ,,& ,,classification ,,( ,,m9]al ,,deposits #bi ,,v>i\s ,,me?ods ,,( ,,classification #bi ,,names #ca ,,m9]al ,,deposits ,,z ,,magmatic ,,segregations ,,9 ,,igne\s ,,rocks #cd ,,m9]al ,,deposits ,,)9 ,,& ,,adjac5t ,,to ,,igne\s ,,rocks1 ,,:i* ,,7 ,,=m$ ,,imm$iately ,,aft] ,,! ,,cool+ ,,& ,,cry/allization ,,( ,,! ,,magmas ,,?r\gh ,,! ,,ag5cy ,,( ,,hot ,,magmatic ,,solutions #cf ,evid5ce ( igne\s s\rce #cg ,possible influ5ce ( meteoric wat]s 9 deposition ( ores ( ?is class #da ,zonal arrangem5t ( m9]als relat$ to igne\s rocks #db ,! relation ( contact metamorphism to ore bodies ( ! =ego+ class #de ,,second>y ,,conc5tration ,,9 ,,place ,,( ,,! ,,=ego+ ,,classes ,,( ,,m9]al ,,deposits ,,?r\gh ,,! ,,ag5cy ,,( ,,surface ,,solutions #df ,,residual ,,m9]al ,,deposits ,,=m$ ,,by ,,! ,,wea!r+ ,,( ,,igne\s ,,rocks ,,9 ,,place #ej ,,m9]al ,,deposits ,,=m$ ,,directly ,,z ,,plac]s ,,& ,,s$im5ts #ea ,me*anically deposit$ m9]als #ea ,*emically & organically deposit$ m9]als #eb ,,s$im5t>y ,,m9]al ,,deposits ,,:i* ,,h ,,requir$ ,,fur!r ,,conc5tration ,,to ,,make ,,!m ,,comm]cially ,,available #ed ,,anamorphism ,,( ,,m9]al ,,deposits #eg ,,conclusion #eh ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,m9]al ,,res\rces--,,"s ,,g5]al ,,quantitative ,,consid]ations #fj ,,_w ,,annual ,,production ,,( ,,m9]als ,,9 ,,%ort ,,tons #fj ,,_w ,,annual ,,production ,,( ,,m9]als ,,9 ,,t]ms ,,( ,,value #fb ,,significance ,,( ,,geographic ,,di/ribution ,,( ,,m9]al ,,production #fc ,,! ,,increas+ ,,rate ,,( ,,production #fc ,,capital ,,value ,,( ,,_w ,,m9]al ,,res]ves #fd ,,political ,,& ,,comm]cial ,,control ,,( ,,m9]al ,,res\rces #fe ,,res]ves ,,( ,,m9]al ,,res\rces #fe ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,wat] ,,z ,a ,,m9]al ,,res\rce #fg ,,g5]al ,,geologic ,,relations #fg ,,di/ribution ,,( ,,und]gr\nd ,,wat] #fh ,,movem5t ,,( ,,und]gr\nd ,,wat] #ga ,,wells ,,& ,,spr+s #gb ,,composition ,,( ,,und]gr\nd ,,wat]s #gc ,,relation ,,( ,,geology ,,to ,,und]gr\nd ,,wat] ,,supply #ge ,,surface ,,wat] ,,supplies #gf ,,und]gr\nd ,,& ,,surface ,,wat]s ,,9 ,,relation ,,to ,,excavation ,,& ,,con/ruction #gh ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,! ,,common ,,rocks ,,& ,,soils ,,z ,,m9]al ,,res\rces #hj ,,economic ,,features ,,( ,,! ,,common ,,rocks #hj ,granite #hb ,basalt & relat$ types #hb ,lime/one1 m>l1 *alk #hb ,m>ble #hc ,s&1 s&/one1 qu>tzite 7& qu>tz7 #hd ,s& & gravel #hd ,clay1 %ale1 slate #he ,! feldsp>s #hf ,hydraulic cem5t 7includ+ ,portl&1 natural1 & ,puzzolan cem5ts7 #hf ,,geologic ,,features ,,( ,,! ,,common ,,rocks #hh ,build+ /one #hh ,cru%$ /one #ij ,/one = metallurgical purposes #ia ,clay #ia ,limitations ( geologic field 9 comm]cial inve/igation ( common rocks #ib ,,soils ,,z ,a ,,m9]al ,,res\rce #id ,orig9 ( soils #id ,composition ( soils & plant gr[? #if ,use ( geology 9 soil /udy #ig ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,! ,,f]tiliz] ,,gr\p ,,( ,,m9]als #ii ,,g5]al ,,comm5ts #ii ,,nitrates #aja ,economic features #aja ,geologic features #ajb ,,phosphates #ajd ,economic features #ajd ,geologic features #aje ,,pyrite #ajg ,economic features #ajg ,geologic features #ajh ,,sulphur #aji ,economic features #aji ,geologic features #aaj ,,pota% #aaa ,economic features #aaa ,geologic features #aab ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,! ,,en]gy ,,res\rces--,,coal1 ,,oil1 ,,gas 7,,& ,,asphalt7 #aae ,,coal #aae ,,economic ,,features #aae ,_w production & trade #aae ,production 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates #aag ,coke #aah ,classification ( coals #aai ,,geologic ,,features #abc ,,petroleum #abg ,,economic ,,features #abg ,production & res]ves #abh ,me?ods ( e/imat+ res]ves #acd ,classes ( oils #acf ,cons]vation ( oil #acg ,,geologic ,,features #adj ,organic !ory ( orig9 #adj ,effect ( diff]5tial pressures & fold+ on oil g5esis & migration #adb ,inorganic !ory ( orig9 #adc ,oil exploration #add ,,oil ,,%ales #aej ,,natural ,,gas #aea ,economic features #aea ,geologic features #aea ,,asphalt ,,& ,,bitum5 #aea ,economic features #aea ,geologic features #aec ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,m9]als ,,us$ ,,9 ,,! ,,production ,,( ,,iron ,,& ,,/eel 7,,! ,,f]ro-,,alloy ,,gr\p7 #aed ,,g5]al ,,features #aed ,,iron ,,ores #aeh ,,economic ,,features #aeh ,te*nical & comm]cial factors det]m9+ use ( iron ore mat]ials #aeh ,geographic di/ribution ( iron ore production #afj ,_w res]ves & future production ( iron ore #afb ,,geologic ,,features #aff ,s$im5t>y iron ores #aff ,iron ores associat$ ) igne\s rocks #aga ,iron ores due to wea!r+ ( igne\s rocks #aga ,iron ores due to wea!r+ ( sulphide ores #agc ,,manganese ,,ores #agc ,economic features #agc ,geologic features #agf ,,*rome 7,,or ,,*romite7 ,,ores #agh ,economic features #agh ,geologic features #agi ,,nickel ,,ores #ahj ,economic features #ahj ,geologic features #aha ,,tung/5 7,,wolfram7 ,,ores #ahb ,economic features #ahb ,geologic features #ahd ,,molybd5um ,,ores #ahe ,economic features #ahe ,geologic features #ahf ,,vanadium ,,ores #ahg ,economic features #ahg ,geologic features #ahh ,,zirconium ,,ores #ahi ,economic features #ahi ,geologic features #ahi ,,titanium ,,ores #aij ,economic features #aij ,geologic features #aij ,,magnesite #aia ,economic features #aia ,geologic features #aib ,,fluorsp> #aic ,economic features #aic ,geologic features #aid ,,silica #aie ,economic features #aie ,geologic features #aif ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,copp]1 ,,lead ,,& ,,z9c ,,m9]als #aig ,,copp] ,,ores #aig ,economic features #aig ,geologic features #aii ,copp] deposits associat$ ) igne\s fl[s #bjj ,copp] ve9s 9 igne\s rocks #bja ,porphyry copp]s #bjc ,copp] 9 lime/one ne> igne\s contacts #bjd ,copp] deposits 9 s*i/s #bjd ,s$im5t>y copp] deposits #bje ,g5]al comm5ts #bjf ,,lead ,,ores #bji ,economic features #bji ,geologic features #baa ,,z9c ,,ores #bac ,economic features #bac ,geologic features #baf ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,gold1 ,,silv]1 ,,& ,,plat9um ,,m9]als #bba ,,gold ,,ores #bba ,economic features #bba ,geologic features #bbf ,,silv] ,,ores #bca ,economic features #bca ,geologic features #bcd ,,plat9um ,,ores #bcg ,economic features #bcg ,geologic features #bci ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,miscellane\s ,,metallic ,,m9]als #bda ,,alum9um ,,ores #bda ,economic features #bda ,geologic features #bdc ,,antimony ,,ores #bdf ,economic features #bdf ,geologic features #bdh ,,ars5ic ,,ores #bdi ,economic features #bdi ,geologic features #bea ,,bismu? ,,ores #beb ,economic features #beb ,geologic features #beb ,,cadmium ,,ores #bec ,economic features #bec ,geologic features #bed ,,cobalt ,,ores #bed ,economic features #bed ,geologic features #bee ,,m]cury 7,,quicksilv]7 ,,ores #bee ,economic features #bee ,geologic features #beh ,,t9 ,,ores #bfj ,economic features #bfj ,geologic features #bfa ,,uranium ,,& ,,radium ,,ores #bfc ,economic features #bfc ,geologic features #bfd ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,miscellane\s ,,non-,,metallic ,,m9]als #bfg ,,natural ,,abrasives #bfg ,economic features #bfg ,geologic features #bfi ,,asbe/os #bgj ,economic features #bgj ,geologic features #bga ,,b>ite 7,,b>ytes7 #bgb ,economic features #bgb ,geologic features #bgc ,,borax #bgd ,economic features #bgd ,geologic features #bge ,,brom9e #bgg ,economic features #bgg ,geologic features #bgh ,,full]',s ,,e>? #bgh ,economic features #bgh ,geologic features #bgi ,,graphite 7,,plumbago7 #bgi ,economic features #bgi ,geologic features #bhb ,,gypsum #bhc ,economic features #bhc ,geologic features #bhd ,,mica #bhe ,economic features #bhe ,geologic features #bhg ,,monazite 7,,?orium ,,& ,,c]ium ,,ores7 #bhh ,economic features #bhh ,geologic features #bhi ,,preci\s ,,/ones #bhi ,economic features #bhi ,geologic features #bia ,,salt #bid ,economic features #bid ,geologic features #bie ,,talc ,,& ,,soap/one #bii ,economic features #bii ,geologic features #bii ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,,exploration ,,& ,,developm5t #cja ,,! ,,g5]al ,,relations ,,( ,,! ,,geologi/ ,,to ,,exploration ,,& ,,developm5t #cja ,,p>tly ,,explor$ ,,v]sus ,,virg9 ,,t]ritories #cjc ,,! ,,use ,,( ,,all ,,available ,,in=mation #cjd ,,coop]ation ,,9 ,,exploration #cje ,,economic ,,factors ,,9 ,,exploration #cjf ,,geologic ,,factors ,,9 ,,exploration #cjg ,,m9]al ,,prov9ces ,,& ,,epo*s #cjh ,,classification ,,( ,,m9]al ,,l&s #cji ,,outcrops ,,( ,,m9]al ,,deposits #caa ,"s illu/rative cases #cab ,topography & climate z aids 9 se>*+ = m9]al outcrops #cad ,size & dep? ( ore bodies z det]m9$ f outcrops #cae ,! use ( plac]s 9 trac+ m9]al outcrops #caf ,! use ( magnetic surveys 9 trac+ m9]al l$ges #cag ,,! ,,use ,,( ,,electrical ,,conductivity ,,& ,,o!r ,,qualities ,,( ,,rocks ,,9 ,,exploration #cai ,,! ,,use ,,( ,,/ructure ,,& ,,metamorphism ,,9 ,,exploration #cai ,,drill+ ,,9 ,,exploration #cbj ,,quantitative ,,aspects ,,( ,,geologic ,,exploration #cba ,,orig9 ,,( ,,m9]al ,,deposits ,,z ,a ,,factor ,,9 ,,exploration #cbb ,,lake ,,sup]ior ,,iron ,,ore ,,exploration ,,z ,,an ,,illu/ration #cbc ,,developm5t ,,& ,,exploitation ,,( ,,m9]al ,,deposits #cbf ,,*apt] ,,xv4 ,,valuation ,,& ,,taxation ,,( ,,m9]al ,,res\rces #cbh ,,popul> ,,conception ,,( ,,m9]al ,,valuation #cbh ,,valuation ,,& ,,taxation ,,( ,,m9es #cbi ,intr9sic & extr9sic factors 9 valuation #cbi ,values ( m9]al deposits n (t5 e/abli%$ by m>ket transf]s #cca ,! ad valorem me?od ( valuation #cca ,o!r me?ods ( m9]al valuation & taxation #cce ,,g5]al ,,comm5ts ,,on ,,taxation ,,( ,,m9]al ,,res\rces #cch ,,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,,laws ,,relat+ ,,to ,,m9]al ,,res\rces #cdb ,i4 ,,laws ,,relat+ ,,to ,,own]%ip ,,& ,,control ,,( ,,m9]al ,,res\rces #cdb ,on ali5at$ l&s #cdc ,on ! public doma9 #cdd ,nationalization ( m9]al res\rces #cde ,effect ( own]%ip laws on exploration #cdg ,use ( geology 9 relation to own]%ip laws #cdi ,,ii4 ,,laws ,,relat+ ,,to ,,extraction ,,( ,,m9]al ,,res\rces #cee ,,iii4 ,,laws ,,relat+ ,,to ,,di/ribution ,,& ,,transportation ,,( ,,m9]al ,,res\rces #cee ,,iv4 ,,o!r ,,relations ,,( ,,geology ,,to ,,law #cef ,,*apt] ,,xvii4 ,,cons]vation ,,( ,,m9]al ,,res\rces #cei ,,! ,,problem #cei ,,diff]5ces ,,betwe5 ,,private ,,& ,,public ,,ef=ts ,,9 ,,cons]vation #cfc ,,! ,,int]e/ ,,rate ,,z ,a ,,guide ,,9 ,,cons]vation #cfd ,,anti-,,cons]vational ,,effects ,,( ,,w> #cfe ,,cons]vation ,,( ,,coal #cff ,,measures ,,introduc$ ,,or ,,propos$ ,,to ,,cons]ve ,,coal #cfg 7,a7 ,m9+ & prep>ation ( coal #cfh ,progress 9 above me?ods #cgj 7,b7 ,improvem5t ( labor & liv+ conditions at ! m9es #cgb 7,c7 ,introduction or modification ( laws to regulate or to remove c]ta9 re/rictions on ! coal indu/ry #cgc 7,d7 ,di/ribution & transportation ( coal #cgf 7,e7 ,utilization ( coal #cgg 7,f7 ,sub/itutes = coal z a s\rce ( p[] #cgh ,,division ,,( ,,responsibility ,,betwe5 ,,gov]nm5t ,,& ,,private ,,int]e/s ,,9 ,,! ,,cons]vation ,,( ,,coal #cgi ,,cons]vation ,,( ,,m9]als ,,o!r ,,?an ,,coal #chb ,,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,,int]national ,,aspects ,,( ,,m9]al ,,res\rces #chc ,,_w ,,movem5t ,,( ,,m9]als #chc ,movem5t ( m9]als "u pre-w> conditions ( int]national trade #che ,*anges dur+ ! w> #che ,po/-w> condition ( ! m9]al trade #chg ,,t5d5cies ,,t[>d ,,int]national ,,coop]ation ,,& ,,possibility ,,( ,,int]national ,,control ,,( ,,m9]als #chi ,me?ods ( int]national coop]ation #cia ,,cons]vation ,,9 ,,its ,,int]national ,,relations #cic ,,exploration ,,9 ,,its ,,int]national ,,relations #cie ,,valuation ,,9 ,,its ,,int]national ,,relations #cif ,,relative ,,position ,,( ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates ,,9 ,,reg>d ,,to ,,supplies ,,( ,,m9]als #cif ,,! ,,coal ,,& ,,iron ,,situation ,,( ,,we/]n ,,europe ,,"u ,,! ,,t]ms ,,( ,,! ,,peace #djj ,,conclusion #djc ,,lit]ature #djc ,,*apt] ,,xix4 ,,geology ,,& ,,w> #dje ,,geology ,,beh9d ,,! ,,front #dje ,,geology ,,at ,,! ,,front #djh ,,effect ,,( ,,! ,,w> ,,on ,,! ,,sci5ce ,,( ,,economic ,,geology #dab ,,*apt] ,,xx4 ,,geology ,,& ,,eng9e]+ ,,con/ruction #dac ,,f\ndations #dac ,,surface ,,wat]s #dad ,,tunnels #dad ,,slides #dae ,,subsid5ce #dag ,,railway ,,build+ #dag ,,road ,,build+ #dah ,,geology ,,9 ,,eng9e]+ ,,c\rses #dai ,,*apt] ,,xxi4 ,,! ,,tra9+1 ,,opportunities ,,& ,,e?ics ,,( ,,! ,,economic ,,geologi/ #dbj ,,pure ,,v]sus ,,appli$ ,,sci5ce #dbj ,,c\rse ,,( ,,/udy ,,sugge/$ #dbb ,field "w #dbe ,specialization 9 /udies #dbf ,a degree ( ,economic ,geology #dbg ,,! ,,opportunities ,,( ,,! ,,economic ,,geologi/ #dbh ,,e?ics ,,( ,,! ,,economic ,,geologi/ #dcj ,,illu/rations ,,figure ,,page #a4 ,graphic repres5tation ( volume *ange 9 wea!r+ ( a ,georgia granite #ba #b4 ,comm]cial 7f9ancial7 control ( ! m9]al res\rces ( ! _w #fd #c4 ,political 7t]ritorial7 control ( ! m9]al res\rces ( ! _w #fd #d4 ,! f]tiliz] situation 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates #ajj #e4 ,diagram %[+ ! *emical composition & heat effici5cy ( ! sev]al ranks ( coal #abb #f4 ,orig9 & developm5t ( coal #abc #g4 ,*>t %[+ ! pres5t t5d5cy ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 respect to its unm9$ res]ve ( petroleum #acd #h4 ,! annual output ( ! pr9cipal oil fields ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates = ! la/ tw5ty ye>s #ace #i4 ,curve %[+ ! usual decl9e 9 oil field production aft] ! p]iod ( maximum output is rea*$ #acf #aj4 ,*>t %[+ ! relative values ( ! pr9cipal petroleum products manufactur$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates f #ahii to #aiad #ach #aa4 ,alt]ation ( ,lake ,sup]ior iron =mation to iron ore by ! lea*+ ( silica #afh #ab4 ,repres5t+ 9 t]ms ( weight ! m9]alogical *anges 9 ! katamorphism ( s]p5t9e rocks to iron ore1 ea/]n ,cuba #agb #ac4 ,diagram %[+ gradation f sy5ite to bauxite 9 t]ms ( volume #bde ,,*apt] ,i ,,introduction ,,survey ,,( ,,field ,9 adapt+ ourselves to physical environm5t x has be5 necess>y to le>n some?+ ab\t ! e>?4 ,ma9ly )9 ! la/ c5tury has ?is k be5 organiz$ into ! sci5ce ( geology1 & only )9 ! la/ few decades h ! complex & increas+ dem&s ( mod]n civilization requir$ ! applications ( geology to practical uses1 result+ 9 ! developm5t ( ! sci5ce g5]ally kn[n z economic geology4 ,?is sci5ce is n %>ply m>k$ (f f ! sci5ce ( geology prop]2 almo/ any phase ( geology may at "s "t or "s place take on its economic aspect4 ,! usefulness ( economic geology 0 fir/ recogniz$ 9 relation to m9]al res\rces1--& p>ticul>ly 9 relation to metallic res\rces1 _! discov]y & developm5t1--b ! sci5ce has be5 f\nd to h mu* wid] practical application4 ,! practice ( ! economic geologi/ 9 rec5t ye>s has tak5 on _m new phases4 ,! geologi/ is call$ ^u to /udy ! geologic features ( m9]al deposits1 _! occurr5ce1 /ructure1 & orig94 ,! basic in=mation ?us acquir$ is useful 9 e/imat+ res]ves & life ( m9]al deposits4 ,?is leads naturally to consid]ations ( valuation4 ,because valuation plays su* a l>ge "p 9 any tax program1 ! geologi/ is be+ us$ by tax bo>ds ( ! f$]al & /ate gov]nm5ts4 ,bo? 9 ! =mulation ( laws relat+ to m9]al res\rces1 & 9 ! litigation gr[+ out ( ! infraction ( ^! laws1 ! economic geologi/ plays a "p4 ,"o _c g v f> ) ! /udy ( m9]al res\rces )\t consid]ation ( ! "q ( cons]vation4 ,geologi/s are call$ on n only = broad surveys ( ! m9]al res]ves1 b = ! =mulation ( g5]al pr9ciples ( cons]vation & _! application to specific m9es & m9]als4 ,! geologi/'s famili>ity ) ! di/ribution & nature ( m9]al res\rces has giv5 him a "p 9 cop+ ) broad que/ions ( int]national use ( natural res\rces4 ,w> conditions made x necess>y to use new s\rces ( supply1 new *annels ( di/ribution1 & new me?ods ( utilization4 ,! economic geologi/ came into t\* ) que/ions ( int]national trade1 t>iffs1 & %ipp+4 ,b economic geology is n solely conf9$ to m9]al res\rces4 ,9 relation to eng9e]+ ent]prises ( ! greate/ v>iety--canals1 aqu$ucts1 tunnels1 dams1 build+ excavations1 f\ndations1 etc4--geology n[ figures l>gely1 bo? 9 w> & 9 peace4 ,! nature1 am\nt1 & di/ribution ( und]gr\nd wat] supplies are s involv$ ) geologic consid]ations t a consid]able numb] ( geologi/s give up _! "t :olly to ?is phase ( ! subject4 ,x might seem f ?is li/ ( activities t geology is spread+ too f> into ! fields ( eng9e]+ & comm]ce1 b !re are equally rapid ext5sions ( o!r fields ( k t[>d geology4 ,! organization ( ^! int]m$iate fields is requir$ bo? 9 ! int]e/ ( sci5ce & 9 ! int]e/ ( bett] adaptation ( ! race to its environm5t4 ,! geologi/ is requir$ to d 8 "p 9 ^! new fields1 b n to ab&on 8 traditional field4 ,x is propos$ 9 ?is volume to discuss ! economic aspects ( geology )\t exhau/ive discussion ( ! pr9ciples ( geology :i* are involv$4 ,practically ! :ole range ( geologic sci5ce has "s sort ( economic application1 & x w\ld be futile to attempt 9 "o volume ev5 a survey ( ! sci5ce ( geology z a :ole4 ,our purpose is r to indicate & illu/rate1 9 "s p]spective1 ! g5]al nature ( ! application ( geology to practical affairs4 ,9 pr(essional prep>ation = ! practice ( economic geology !re is no easy %ort-cut4 ,/ud5ts sometimes ?9k t a smatt]+ ( geological pr9ciples1 comb9$ ) a little bus9ess & economic in=mation1 may be suffici5t4 ,analysis ( pr(essional successes %\ld make x cle> t economic geologi/s are mo/ effective & 9 mo/ dem&1 n prim>ily because ( bus9ess aptitude1 ?\gh ?is helps1 b because ( _! pr(ici5cy 9 ! sci5ce ( geology itself4 ,9 %ort1 to ent] successfully ! field ( economic geology "o %\ld fir/ become a sci5ti/1 if only 9 a limit$ field4 ,! traditional conception ( ! geologi/ z a mu/y & /oop$ individual1 ) a bag1 hamm]1 & magnify+ glass1 collect+ specim5s to deposit 9 a du/y museum1 w d\btless survive z a c>icature1 b w h>dly s]ve to id5tify ! economic geologi/ 9 8 pres5t-day "w4 ,9 writ+ ?is book1 x is hop$ 9 "s measure to convey an impression ( ! bread? & v>iety 9 ?is field4 ,few o!r sci5ces (f] s wide a range ( opportunity1 f ! purely sci5tific to ! practical & comm]cial1 c\pl$ ) travel1 exploration1 & ev5 adv5ture4 ,,economic ,,applications ,,( ,,! ,,sev]al ,,bran*es ,,( ,,geology ,,& ,,( ,,o!r ,,sci5ces ,!re is no phase ( geology :i* at "s "t or place does n h its economic application4 ,_m ref]5ces to ^! applications are made 9 o!r *apt]s4 ,x is propos$ "h to indicate briefly "s ( ! phases ( geologic sci5ce :i* are mo/ necess>y to ! practice ( economic geology4 ,! /ud5t 9 8 prep>ation _c af=d to elim9ate any ( !m on ! gr\nd t !y are m]ely sci5tific or academic or !oretical4 ,,m9]alogy ,,& ,,petrology ,m9]alogy1 ! /udy ( m9]als1 & petrology1 ! /udy ( rocks 7aggregations ( m9]als71 are ( c\rse elem5t>y requisites 9 prep>ation4 ,!re mu/ be famili>ity ) ! pr9cipal m9]als & rocks1 & especially ) ! me?ods & processes ( _! id5tification1 ) _! nature1 & ) _! orig94 ,?is involves a /udy ( _! cry/allography1 *emical composition1 physical qualities1 & optical prop]ties z /udi$ ) ! microscope4 ,9 rec5t ye>s ! microscopical /udy ( poli%$ & et*$ surfaces ( ores has prov$ a valuable tool4 ,,/ratigraphy ,,& ,,paleontology ,/ratigraphy & paleontology are conc]n$ ) ! s$im5t>y & life hi/ory ( ! e>?4 ,! det]m9ation ( ! ages ( ! e>?'s /rata & ( ! conditions ( _! deposition is requir$ 9 ! practice ( economic geology4 ,= example1 a detail$ k ( ! succession ( rocks & _! ages1 z det]m9$ by fossils & o!r /ratigraphic evid5ce1 is vital to ! int]pretation ( conditions 9 an oil or coal field1 & to ! successful exploration & developm5t ( its deposits4 ,! success ( c]ta9 paleontologi/s & /ratigraphic speciali/s 9 oil exploration is an evid5ce ( ?is situation4 ,c]ta9 iron ores1 phosphates1 salts1 pota%1 & o!r m9]als1 z well z _m ( ! common rocks us$ = economic purposes1 are f\nd 9 s$im5t>y deposits1 & require = _! successful exploration & developm5t ! application ( /ratigraphic & paleontologic k4 ,closely relat$ to /ratigraphy 7z well z to physiography1 see pp4 #f-aj7 is ! /udy ( s$im5tation1--i4 e41 ! /udy ( ! physical1 *emical1 climatic1 & topographic conditions ( ! deposition ( s$im5ts4 ,?is is com+ to play an increas+ly l>ge "p 9 geologic "w1 & is ess5tial to ! int]pretation ( _m m9]al deposits1 p>ticul>ly ^? 9 :i* /ratigraphic & physiographic que/ions are involv$4 ,/ill ano!r aspect ( ! problem ( /ratigraphy & s$im5tation is cov]$ by ! /udy ( paleogeography1 or ! areal di/ribution ( ! faunas & s$im5ts ( geologic p]iods caus$ by ! alt]nat+ subm]g5ce & em]g5ce ( l& areas4 ,9 ! se>* = ! treasures ( s$im5t>y deposits1 a k ( anci5t geographies & ( anci5t faunas makes x possible to elim9ate c]ta9 regions f consid]ation4 ,f a /udy ( ! faunas ( ea/]n ,kansas & ,miss\ri1 & ( ^? along ! ea/]n "p ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s1 x has be5 inf]r$ t a ridge mu/ h ext5d$ across ea/]n ,kansas dur+ e>ly ,p5nsylvanian "t1--a conclusion :i* is ( consid]able economic importance 9 relation to oil exploration4 ,,/ructural ,,geology ,/ructural geology is ! /udy ( ! physical =ms & relations ( rocks :i* result ma9ly f de=mation by e>? =ces4 ,if rocks rema9$ 9 _! orig9al =ms ! /ructural problem w\ld be a comp>atively easy "o1 b usually !y d n4 ,(t5 !y are fault$ & fold$ & ma%$ to su* an ext5t t x is difficult to g beh9d ! sup]pos$ /ructural features to ! orig9al conditions 9 ord] to "w out ! geologic hi/ory4 ,n only is /ructural /udy necess>y = ! int]pretation ( geologic hi/ory1 b x is (t5 m directly applicable to economic problems1--z :51 = in/ance1 ore deposits h be5 =m$ 9 ! cracks & jo9ts ( rocks1 & ! ore deposits !mselves h be5 fault$ & fold$4 ,wat] res\rces are (t5 locat$ 9 ! cracks & o!r op5+s ( rocks1 & are limit$ 9 _! di/ribution & fl[ because ( ! complex attitude ( de=m$ rocks4 ,oil & gas deposits (t5 be> a well-def9$ relation to /ructural features1 ! work+ out ( :i* is almo/ ess5tial to _! discov]y4 ,x is n desirable to /op ) ! m]ely descriptive aspects ( /ructural geology1 z is s (t5 done2 = mu* light c be ?r[n on ! economic applications ( ?is subject by consid]ation ( ! und]ly+ pr9ciples ( me*anics1--involv+ ! relations ( e>? /resses to rock /ructures4 ,! m]e field mapp+ & description ( faults & jo9ts is useful1 b 9 "s cases x is necess>y to g a /ep fur!r & to asc]ta9 ! me*anical conditions ( _! orig9 9 ord] to int]pret !m cle>ly4 ,if1 = illu/ration1 !re are successive gr\ps ( m9]aliz$ ve9s 9 a m9+ camp1 ! lat] ones cutt+ ! e>li] ones1 ^! might be treat$ z sep>ate /ructural units4 ,b if x c be %[n t ! sev]al sets ( ve9s h =m$ f a s+le movem5t1 t !re is no %>p g5etic sep>ation betwe5 ! diff]5t sets & t !y are a "p ( a s+le sy/em1 ?is int]pretation ?r[s new light on exploration & developm5t1 & ev5 on que/ions ( own]%ip & extralat]al rights 7,*apt] ,,xvi74 ,,physiography ,physiography is a phase ( geology :i* inve/igates ! surface features ( ! e>?4 ,x has to d n only ) ! description & classification ( surface =ms1 pres5t & pa/ 7physical geography or geomorphology71 b ) ! processes & hi/ory ( _! developm5t4 ,! subject is closely relat$ to geography1 climatology1 s$im5tation1 & hydrology4 ,z "o ( ! late/ phases ( geology to be organiz$ & taught1 its economic applications h be5 comp>atively rec5t & are n yet widely recogniz$4 ,because ( ?is fact its economic applications may be summ>iz$ at some:at great] l5g? ?an ^? ( ! o!r bran*es ( geology above m5tion$1 :i* are to be m or less tak5 = grant$4 ,! c5tral feature ( physiography is ! s-call$ erosion cycle or topographic cycle4 ,erosion1 act+ ?r\gh ! ag5cies ( w9d1 wat]1 & ice1 is con/antly at "w on ! e>?'s surface2 ! erod$ mat]ials are 9 l>ge "p c>ri$ (f by /reams1 ultimately to be deposit$ 9 ! ocean ne> ! cont95tal m>g9s4 ,! f9al result is ! r$uction ( ! l& surface to an approximate pla91 call$ a p5epla91 some:]e ne> sea level4 ,geological hi/ory %[s t su* p5epla9s are (t5 elevat$ aga9 ) ref]5ce to sea level1 by e>? =ces or by subsid5ce ( ! sea1 :5 erosion aga9 beg9s its "w1--fir/ cutt+ n>r[1 /eep gul*es & valleys1 & leav+ broad int]v5+ upl&s1 9 :i* condition ! erosion surface is describ$ z t ( topographic y\?2 !n =m+ wid] & m ext5sive valleys1 leav+ only po9ts & ridges ( ! orig9al p5epla9s1 9 :i* /age ! surface is said to repres5t topographic maturity2 !n r\nd+ (f & r$uc+ ! elevations1 leav+ few or none ( ! orig9al po9ts on ! p5epla91 wid5+ ! valleys /ill fur!r & t5d+ to r$uce ! :ole c\ntry to a ne>ly flat surface1 result+ 9 ! condition ( topographic old age4 ,! f9al /age is aga9 ! p5epla94 ,?is cycle ( ev5ts is call$ ! erosion cycle or topographic cycle4 ,uplift may beg9 aga9 be=e ! surface is r$uc$ to base level2 9 fact1 !re is a con/ant oscillation & conte/ betwe5 erosion & relative uplift ( ! l& surface4 ,! action ( ! erosion cycle on rocks ( diff]+ resi/ance to erosion & ( div]se /ructure gives rise to ! great v>iety ( surface =ms4 ,! physiograph] sees ^! =ms1 n z het]og5e\s units1 b z p>ts ( a def9ite sy/em & z /ages 9 an ord]ly s]ies ( ev5ts4 ,he is able to see into ! topographic conditions beyond ! range ( imm$iate & direct obs]vation4 ,he is able to det]m9e :at ^! =ms 7 9 ! pa/ & to pr$ict _! condition 9 ! future4 ,he is able to read f ! topography ! und]gr\nd /ructure :i* has det]m9$ t topography4 ,a giv5 /ructure may 9 diff]5t /ages ( topographic developm5t give q div]se topographic =ms4 ,9 su* a case x is important to realize t ! div]sity is only sup]ficial4 ,on ! o!r h&1 a slight local div]g5ce f ! usual topographic =ms 9 a giv5 region may reflect a simil> local div]g5ce 9 ! und]gr\nd /ructure4 ,?us x is t an appreciation ( ! physiographic details may sugge/ important v>iations 9 ! und]gr\nd /ructure :i* w\ld o!rwise pass undiscov]$4 ,_m m9]al deposits owe _! orig9 or enri*m5t to wea!r+ & o!r relat$ processes :i* are prelim9>y to erosion4 ,^! processes v>y 9 int5sity1 di/ribution1 & dep?1 ) ! /age ( erosion1 or 9 relation to ! phase ( ! erosion cycle4 ,!y v>y ) ! climatic conditions :i* obta9 on ! erosion surface4 ,m9]al deposits are !re=e (t5 closely relat$ to ! topographic features1 pres5t & pa/1 9 k9d1 %ape1 & di/ribution4 ,a few illu/rative cases foll[4 ,_m ( ! great copp] deposits ( ! we/]n ,unit$ ,/ates owe _! values to a second>y enri*m5t ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( wat]s work+ d[n f ! surface4 ,:5 ?is fact ( second>y enri*m5t 0 discov]$1 x 0 naturally assum$ t ! process 0 relat$ to ! pres5t erosion surface & to pres5t climatic & hydrologic conditions4 ,c]ta9 inf]5ces 7 drawn1 !re=e1 z to dep? & di/ribution ( ! enri*$ ores4 ,?is conception1 h[ev]1 prov$ to be too n>r[2 = evid5ces 7 f\nd 9 _m cases t ! copp] deposits _h be5 conc5trat$ 9 previ\s erosion cycles1 & !re=e 9 relation to erosion surfaces1 n[ p>tly buri$1 diff]5t f ! pres5t surface4 ,! importance ( ?is k f an explor+ & developm5t /&po9t is cle>4 ,x has made x possible to f9d & foll[ ri* ores1 f> f ! pres5t erosion surface1 :i* w\ld o!rwise h be5 disclos$ solely by *ance4 ,/udies ( ?is k9d 9 ! copp] camps are yet s rec5t t mu* rema9s to be le>n$4 ,! economic geologi/ advis+ exploration & developm5t 9 copp] ores :o does n 9 ! future take physiographic factors into acc\nt is likely to g wrong 9 ess5tial ways1 z he has done 9 "s cases 9 ! pa/4 ,n only is x necess>y to relate ! second>y enri*m5t ( copp] deposits to ! erosion surface1 pres5t or pa/1 b by a /udy ( ! conditions x mu/ be asc]ta9$ h[ closely erosion has foll[$ aft] ! processes ( enri*m5t4 ,9 "s cases erosion has foll[$ s sl[ly z to leave l>ge zones ( second>y enri*m5t4 ,9 o!r cases erosion has foll[$ up s closely aft] ! processes ( second>y enri*m5t z to remove f ! surface important p>ts ( ! second>ily enri*$ deposits4 ,! iron ores ( ! ,lake ,sup]ior region are ! result ( ! action ( wat]s f ! surface on s-call$ iron =mations or jasp]s4 ,"h aga9 x 0 at fir/ suppos$ t ! enri*m5t 0 relat$ to ! pres5t erosion surface2 b ^u fur!r /udies ! fact 0 disclos$ t ! conc5tration ( ! ores took place 9 ! p]iod betwe5 ! deposition ( ,kewe5awan & ,cambrian rocks1 & ?us a new light 0 ?r[n on ! possibilities z to dep? & di/ribution ( ! ores4 ,! old pre-,cambrian surface1 ) ref]5ce to :i* ! conc5tration took place1 c be foll[$ ) "s precision b5ea? ! pres5t surface4 ,?is makes x possible to =eca/ a q diff]5t dep? & di/ribution ( ! ores f t :i* might be inf]r$ f pres5t surface conditions4 ,pres5t surface conditions1 ( l[ relief1 consid]able humidity1 & ) ! wat] table usually n m ?an #ajj feet f ! surface1 d n promise ore deposits at great dep?4 ,! erosion :i* =m$ ! old pre-,cambrian surface1 h[ev]1 />t$ on a c\ntry ( great relief & semi-arid climate1 conditions :i* favor$ deep p5etration ( ! surface wat]s :i* conc5trat$ ! ores4 ,! iron ores ( ea/]n ,cuba are =m$ by ! wea!r+ ( a s]p5t9e rock on an elevat$ plateau ( l[ relief1 :]e ! sluggi% /reams are unable rapidly to c>ry (f ! products ( wea!r+4 ,:]e /reams h cut into ?is plateau & :]e ! plateau breaks d[n ) %>p slopes to ! ocean1 erosion has remov$ ! products ( wea!r+1 & !re=e ! iron ore4 ,an important elem5t1 !n1 9 iron ore exploration 9 ?is c\ntry is ! location ( regions ( slight erosion 9 ! s]p5t9e area4 ,"o ( ! l>ge/ discov]ies 0 made purely on a topographic basis4 ,x 0 inf]r$ m]ely f a /udy ( topography t a c]ta9 l>ge unexplor$ area ought to c>ry iron ore4 ,subsequ5t "w 9 ! ?ick & almo/ imp5etrable jungle disclos$ x4 ,bauxite deposits 9 sev]al p>ts ( ! _w require some:at simil> conditions ( conc5tration1 & a /udy ( ! physiographic features is an important factor 9 _! location & int]pretation4 ,a physiographic problem ( ano!r sort is ! det]m9ation ( ! conditions surr\nd+ ! orig9 ( s$im5t>y ores4 ,c]ta9 m9]al deposits1 l ! ,cl9ton iron ores1 ! copp] ores 9 ! ,r$ ,b$s ( s\?we/]n ,unit$ ,/ates & 9 ! ,mansfield slates ( ,g]many1 _m salt deposits1 & almo/ ! entire gr\p ( plac] deposits ( gold1 t91 & o!r metals1 are ! result ( s$im5tation1 f wat]s :i* d]iv$ _! mat]ials f ! erosion ( ! l& surface4 ,x is sometimes possible f ! /udy ( ^! deposits to discov] ! position & configuration ( ! %ore l9e1 ! dep? ( wat]1 & ! probable cont9uity & ext5t ( ! deposits4 ,simil> que/ions are met 9 ! /udy ( coal & oil4 ,?is g5]al problem is "o ( ! phases ( geology :i* is n[ receiv+ a l>ge am\nt ( att5tion1 n only f ! /&po9t ( ore deposition1 b f a broad] geologic /&po9t4 ,9 spite ( ! fact t s$im5t>y processes ( great v>iety c be obs]v$ 9 op]ation today1 x is yet extremely difficult to inf] f a giv5 s$im5t>y deposit ! precise conditions :i* det]m9$ its deposition & limit$ its di/ribution4 ,= in/ance1 s$im5t>y iron =mations furni% a l>ge "p ( ! _w's iron ore4 ,! surface di/ribution1 ! /ructure1 ! features ( second>y enri*m5t1 are all pretty well und]/ood2 likewise ! g5]al conditions ( s$im5tation are reasonably cle>1--b ! close int]pretation ( ^! conditions1 to enable u to pr$ict ! ext5t ( "o ( ^! deposits1 or to expla9 its pres5ce 9 "o place & abs5ce 9 ano!r1 is 9 an e>ly & sket*y /age4 ,an und]/&+ ( ! pr9ciples & me?ods ( physiography is also vital to an intellig5t application ( geology to wat] res\rces1 to soils1 to dam & res]voir con/ruction1 & to a great v>iety ( eng9e]+ und]tak+s1 b z ^! subjects involve ! application ( _m o!r phases ( geology1 !y are consid]$ 9 sep>ate *apt]s4 7,*apt]s ,v1 ,,vi1 & ,,xx47 ,,rock ,,alt]ations ,,or ,,metamorphism ,?is is "o ( ! new] special phases ( geology :i* = a long "t 0 reg>d$ z ! play?+ ( ! petrograph] or /ud5t ( rocks4 ,) ! sy/ematic developm5t ( ! subject1 h[ev]1 x 0 f\nd t ! extremely num]\s & complex alt]ations ( rocks & m9]als may be def9itely gr\p$1 & t !y are controll$ by broad pr9ciples4 ,x became app>5t also t ^! pr9ciples apply bo? to ! economic & non-economic m9]als & rocks1--9 o!r words1 t ! segregation ( economic m9]als is a m]e incid5t 9 p]vasive cycles ( ! alt]ations :i* affect all rocks4 ,metamorphic geology1 !re=e1 = "s geologi/s becomes a conv5i5t approa* to ! subject ( economic geology4 ,x has ! great advantage t x t5ds to keep all m9]als & all processes ( ore deposition 9 prop] p]spective ) relation to rocks & rock processes 9 g5]al4 ,x is n argu$ t ?is is ! only approa* or t x is ! be/ = all purposes4 ,a brief acc\nt ( ?is phase ( geology is giv5 9 ,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,application ,,( ,,o!r ,,sci5ces ,geology is sometimes def9$ z ! application ( o!r sci5ces to ! e>?4 ,consid]$ broadly1 !re is no phase ( sci5ce :i* is n involv$ 9 economic geology4 ,9 o!r *apt]s 9 ?is book _m ref]5ces are made to applications ( eng9e]+1 ma!matics1 physics1 *emi/ry1 metallurgy1 biology1 & economics4 ,at diff]5t times & places ! requirem5ts = e>? mat]ials are q diff]5t4 ,9 ! ,/one ,age !re 0 little use = metals2 9 lat] ages ! use ( metals broad5$4 ,! multiplicity ( dem&s ( mod]n civilization1 ! increas+ k ( processes ( metallurgy1 *emi/ry & physics1 bett] transportation1 bett] organization ( comm]cial life1 & _m o!r factors1 t5d to br+ new e>? mat]ials into use1--&1 !re=e1 into ! field ( economic geology4 ,a comp>atively few ye>s ago alum9a1 "o ( ! mo/ common & abundant sub/ances ( ! e>?'s cru/1 0 9 no g5]al dem& except = v limit$ use z an ornam5t4 ,little att5tion 0 paid to x by economic geologi/s z a comm]cial product2 n[1 h[ev]1 alum9um is 9 great dem&1 & ! raw mat]ials :i* produce x h become ! subjects ( int5sive /udy by economic geologi/s4 ,9 %ort1 economic geology includes ! consid]ation ( man 9 reaction to 8 physical environm5t4 ,!re are "s e>? mat]ials & "s conditions ( ! e>? environm5t :i* d n yet come )9 ! field ( economic geology4 ,b s l>ge a proportion ( !m d1 t ! complete economic geologi/ %\ld inde$ be almo/ omnisci5t4 ,:5 "o consid]s :at an insignificantly small portion ( ?is field c be cov]$ by any individual1 x is app>5t t ! title ( economic geologi/ implies no ma/]y ( ! entire field4 ,!re is yet no cr[d+4 ,,treatm5t ,,( ,,! ,,subject ,,9 ,,?is ,,volume ,9 scope & mann] ( treatm5t ?is volume foll[s some:at ! writ]'s pres5tation ( ! subject 9 univ]sity tea*+4 ,! purpose is to expla9 ! nature ( ! economic dem&s = ! sci5ce ( geology1 & to discuss some?+ ( ! philosophy ( ! f9d+ & use ( raw mat]ials4 ,some:at g5]aliz$ /ati/ics are us$ z a means ( ga9+ p]spective4 ,no ef=t has be5 made = detail$ accuracy or = complet5ess4 ,s f> z possible ! quantitative features are express$ 9 g5]al proportions1 & :]e specific figures are giv5 !y are meant to indicate only su* g5]al proportions4 ,! ?\ght has be5 n to be s specific t ! figures w\ld soon be out ( date4 ,all /&>d /ati/ical s\rces h be5 drawn on1 b ! pr9cipal s\rces h be5 ! results ( ! v>i\s special inve/igations call$ out by ! w>1 9 :i* ! writ] _h a "p4 ,on ! geologic side _m s\rces h be5 drawn on outside ( ! writ]'s own exp]i5ce4 ,= ! mo/ "p1 no specific ref]5ces or ackn[l$gm5ts are made1 on ! gr\nd t ! book aims to pres5t ! g5]al features :i* are n[ ! m or less common k ( economic geologi/s4 ,to make ! ref]5ces really adequate = exhau/ive /udy w\ld n only burd5 ! text1 b w\ld require a specificity ( treatm5t :i* x has be5 hop$ to avoid4 ,! illu/rative cases *os5 = discussion are (t5 tak5 f ! writ]'s field ( exp]i5ce4 ,?is field has be5 pr9cipally ! ,lake ,sup]ior region1 b has includ$ also ! pr9cipal m9]al deposits ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 ,cuba1 & limit$ areas 9 ,s\? ,am]ica & ,europe4 ,?us ! ,lake ,sup]ior iron & copp] region might seem to be br\ght =w>d m ?an is w>rant$ by its sci5tific or economic importance4 ,= ?is1 ! writ] (f]s no apology4 ,an au?or's p]spective is l>gely det]m9$ by 8 backgr\nd ( tra9+ & exp]i5ce1 & a frank recognition ( ?is fact may aid 9 det]m9+ ! weight to be giv5 to 8 conclusions4 ,x might ev5 add to sci5tific effici5cy if ea* writ] 7 to conf9e 8 discussion almo/ solely to matt]s )9 8 own range ( obs]vation & /udy4 ,! writ]'s indebt$ness = in=mation d]iv$ f ! pr9t$ page & = p]sonal discussion & advice is ( wide range4 ,he w\ld express 8 w>m appreciation ( ! fri5dly _s ( coop]ation & advice ) :i* ?is ef=t has be5 aid$--a _s :i* he likes to ?9k is p>ticul>ly *>act]i/ic ( ! pr(ession ( economic geology4 ,9 p>ticul> he w\ld ackn[l$ge ! effici5t aid ( ,mr4 ,julian ,d4 ,conov] 9 prep>ation & revision ( ! manuscript4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,! ,,common ,,elem5ts1 ,,m9]als1 ,,& ,,rocks ,,( ,,! ,,e>? ,,& ,,_! ,,orig9s ,a li/ ( ! solid sub/ances ( ! e>? mak+ up ! s-call$ li?osph]e 7or rock sph]e7 9 ord] ( _! abundance1 does n at all correspond to a li/ made 9 ord] ( comm]cial importance4 ,"s ( ! mo/ valuable sub/ances con/itute su* a small proportion ( ! total mass ( ! li?osph]e t !y h>dly figure at all 9 a table ( ! common sub/ances4 ,,relative ,,abundance ,,( ,,! ,,pr9cipal ,,elem5ts ,,( ,,! ,,li?osph]e ,:5 r$uc$ to ! simple/ t]ms ( elem5ts ! out] t5 miles ( ! li?osph]e consi/s (3#a ,,p]c5tage ,,( ,,pr9cipal ,,elem5ts ,,9 ,,! ,,li?osph]e ,oxyg5 #dg4cc ,silicon #bg4gd ,alum9um #g4he ,iron #d4ej ,calcium #c4dg ,magnesium #b4bd ,sodium #b4df ,potassium #b4df ----- #ih4je ,! rema9d] ( ! elem5ts exi/ 9 quantities ( less ?an #a p] c5t4 ,none ( ^! pr9cipal elem5ts occur sep>ately 9 nature & none ( !m are m9$ z elem5ts = economic purposes4 ,,relative ,,abundance ,,( ,,! ,,pr9cipal ,,m9]als ,,( ,,! ,,li?osph]e ,m9]als exceptionally consi/ ( s+le elem5ts1 b ord9>ily are comb9ations ( two or m elem5ts2 = in/ance1 qu>tz consi/s ( a *emical comb9ation ( silicon & oxyg54 ,! proportions ( ! common m9]als 9 ! out] t5 miles ( ! li?osph]e are 9 r\nd numb]s z foll[s3 ,,p]c5tage ,,( ,,common ,,m9]als ,,9 ,,li?osph]e ,feldsp> #di ,qu>tz #ba ,augite1 hornbl5de1 & oliv9e #ae ,mica #h ,magnetite #c ,titanite & ilm5ite #a ,kaol91 limonite1 hematite1 dolomite1 calcite1 *lorite1 etc4 #c --- #ajj ,9 mak+ up ?is table x is assum$ t ! rocks to a dep? ( t5 miles are ab\t #ie p] c5t ( igne\s type1 t is1 cry/alliz$ f molt5 magma1 & ab\t #e p] c5t ( s$im5t>y type1 t is1 =m$ f ! wea!r+ & erosion ( igne\s rocks or preexi/+ s$im5ts1 & deposit$ 9 b$s or lay]s1 ei!r by wat] or by air 7see pp4 #af-ag74 ,m reliable figures = ! relative abundance ( ! m9]als are available = ea* ( ! two classes ( rocks1 igne\s & s$im5t>y4 ,! igne\s rocks conta9 m9]als 9 ab\t ! foll[+ proportions3 ,,p]c5tage ,,( ,,common ,,m9]als ,,9 ,,igne\s ,,rocks ,feldsp> #ej ,qu>tz #ba ,augite1 hornbl5de1 oliv9e1 etc4 #ag ,mica #h ,magnetite #c ,titanite & ilm5ite #a --- #ajj ,! s$im5t>y rocks conta9 m9]als 9 ab\t ! foll[+ proportions3 ,,p]c5tage ,,( ,,common ,,m9]als ,,9 ,,s$im5t>y ,,rocks ,qu>tz #ce ,feldsp> #af ,:ite mica #ae ,kaol9 7clay7 #i ,dolomite #i ,*lorite #e ,calcite #d ,limonite #d ,gypsum1 c>bon1 rutile1 apatite1 magnetite1 etc4 #c --- #ajj ,! s$im5t>y rocks comprise ?ree ma9 divisions3 7#a7 ,! muds & clays1 ) _! alt]$ equival5ts1 %ale1 slate1 etc42 7#b7 ! s&s1 ) _! alt]$ equival5ts1 s&/one1 qu>tzite1 qu>tz-s*i/1 etc42 7#c7 ! m>ls1 lime/ones1 & dolomites1 ) _! alt]$ equival5ts1 m>ble1 talc-s*i/1 etc4 ,= brevity ^! gr\ps are ref]r$ to respectively z %ale1 s&/one1 & lime/one4 ,! proportions ( m9]als 9 ea* ( ^! gr\ps ( rocks are z foll[s3 ,,p]c5tage ,,( ,,common ,,m9]als ,,9 ,,%ale1 ,,s&/one1 ,,& ,,lime/one ---------------------------------------- --- ,av]age ,av]age ,av]age %ale s&/one lime/one ---------------------------------------- --- ,qu>tz #ca4ia #fi4gf #c4ga ,kaol9 #aj4jj #g4ih #a4jc ,:ite mica #ah4dj ,*lorite #f4dj #a4ae ,limonite #d4ge 4#hj ,dolomite #g4ij #c4dd #cf4bea ,calcite #g4ba #ef4ef ,gypsum #a4ag 4#ab 4#aj ,feldsp> #ag4fj #h4da #b4bj ,magnetite 4#eh ,rutile 4#ff 4#ab 4#jf ,ilm5ite 4#be ,apatite 4#dj 4#ah 4#ji ,c>bon 4#ha ---------------------------------------- --- ,total #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj ---------------------------------------- --- #a3 ,includes small am\nt ( ,fe,c,o#c4 ,9 comp>+ ! m9]al composition ( igne\s & s$im5t>y rocks1 x w be not$ t ! mo/ abundant s+le m9]al ( ! igne\s rocks1 & ! mo/ abundant m9]al ( ! li?osph]e z a :ole1 is feldsp>2 t next 9 ord] is qu>tz2 & t ?ird comes a gr\p ( d>k gre5 m9]als typifi$ by augite & hornbl5de1 commonly call$ f]ro-magnesian silicates because !y consi/ ( iron & magnesia1 ) o!r bases1 9 comb9ation ) silica4 ,! s$im5t>y rocks1 :i* are ultimately d]iv$ f ! de/ruction ( ! igne\s rocks1 contra/ ) ! igne\s rocks ma9ly 9 _! small] proportions ( feldsp>s & f]ro-magnesian m9]als1 _! high] proportions ( qu>tz & :ite mica 7s]icite or muscovite71 & _! cont5t ( kaol91 dolomite1 calcite1 *lorite1 limonite1 etc41 :i* are ne>ly abs5t f ! unalt]$ igne\s rocks4 ,evid5tly ! developm5t ( s$im5ts f igne\s rocks has involv$ ! de/ruction ( mu* ( ! feldsp>s & f]ro-magnesian silicates1 & ! build+ f ! elem5ts ( ^! de/roy$ m9]als ( m qu>tz1 :ite mica1 clay1 dolomite1 calcite1 *lorite & limonite4 ,! composition ( ! m9]als ( ! s$im5t>y rocks is su* z to indicate t ! con/itu5ts ( ! air & wat] h be5 add$ 9 important am\nts to accompli% ?is *ange ( m9]al "*4 ,= in/ance1 c>bon dioxide ( ! atmosph]e has be5 add$ to lime & magnesia ( ! igne\s rocks to make calcite & dolomite1 wat] has be5 add$ to "s ( ! alum9a & silica ( ! igne\s rocks to make kaol9 or clay1 & bo? oxyg5 & wat] h be5 add$ to ! iron ( ! igne\s rocks to make limonite4 ,,relative ,,abundance ,,( ,,! ,,pr9cipal ,,rocks ,,( ,,! ,,li?osph]e ,j z elem5ts comb9e *emically to =m m9]als1 s d m9]als comb9e me*anically1 ei!r loosely or compactly1 to =m rocks4 ,= in/ance1 qu>tz is a m9]al4 ,an aggregation ( qu>tz p>ticles =ms s& or s&/one or qu>tzite4 ,mo/ rocks conta9 m ?an "o k9d ( m9]al4 ,s$im5t>y rocks occupy consid]able areas ( ! e>?'s surface1 b !y are relatively sup]ficial4 ,x has be5 e/imat$ t if spread ev5ly & cont9u\sly ov] ! e>?1 :i* !y are n1 !y w\ld con/itute a %ell sc>cely a half mile ?ick4#b ,igne\s rocks are relatively m abundant deep bel[ ! surface4 ,if ! s$im5ts be assum$ to be limit$ to a volume equival5t to a half-mile %ell1 & ! rema9d] ( ! rocks be assum$ to be igne\s1 x is evid5t t to a dep? ( t5 miles #ie p] c5t ( ! rocks are igne\s4 ,our actual obs]vation is conf9$ to a %all[ sup]ficial zone 9 :i* s$im5ts make up at lea/ half ( all ! rocks4 ,igne\s rocks c be divid$ = conv5i5ce into two ma9 types3 7#a7 granite & alli$ rocks1 conta9+ a good deal ( silica & !re=e acid 9 a *emical s5se1 & 7#b7 basalt & alli$ types1 conta9+ less silica & m lime1 magnesia1 iron1 soda & potassa1 & !re=e basic 9 a *emical s5se4 ,! =m] are light-color$ gray & p9k rocks :ile ! latt] are d>k-color$ gre5 & gray rocks4 ,granite & basalt z te*nically def9$ are v common igne\s rocks1--s common t ! names are sometimes us$ to classify igne\s rocks 9 g5]al into two great gr\ps1 ! granitic & ! basaltic4 ,x has be5 e/imat$ t ab\t #fe p] c5t ( ! igne\s rocks are ( ! granitic gr\p & #ce p] c5t ( ! basaltic gr\p4 ,s$im5t>y rocks1 z already indicat$1 consi/ pr9cipally ( ?ree gr\ps1 :i* = conv5i5ce are nam$ %ale1 s&/one1 & lime/one4 ,if we approximate ! av]age composition ( ea* gr\p & ! av]age composition ( ! igne\s rocks f :i* !y are ultimately d]iv$1 x c be calculat$ t s$im5t>y rocks mu/ =m 9 ! proportions ( #hb p] c5t %ale1 #ab p] c5t s&/one1 & #f p] c5t lime/one4 ,only ?is comb9ation ( ! ?ree s$im5ts w yield an av]age composition comp>able ) t ( ! p>5t igne\s rocks4 ,z actually obs]v$ 9 ! field ! s&/ones & lime/ones are 9 relatively high] p]c5tage ?an is "h indicat$1 sugge/+ t "p ( ! %ales may h be5 deposit$ 9 deep seas :]e !y _c be obs]v$1 & t "p may h be5 s *ang$ or metamorphos$ t !y are no long] recogniz$ z %ales4 ,,soils ,,& ,,clays ,wea!r$ & dis9tegrat$ rocks at ! surface =m soils & clays4 ,no e/imate is made ( abundance1 b obvi\sly ! total volume ( ^! products is small z comp>$ ) ! major classes ( e>? mat]ials above not$1 & 9 l>ge "p !y may be includ$ ) ^! major classes4 ,,wat] 7,,hydrosph]e7 ,x has be5 e/imat$ t all ! wat] ( ! e>?1 includ+ ! ocean1 surface wat]s1 & und]gr\nd wat]s1 con/itutes ab\t #g p] c5t ( ! volume ( ! e>? to a dep? ( #aj miles4#c ,,comp>ison ,,( ,,li/s ,,( ,,mo/ ,,abundant ,,rocks ,,& ,,m9]als ,,) ,,comm]cial ,,rocks ,,& ,,m9]als ,( ! common rocks & m9]als figur+ z ! m abundant mat]ials ( ! e>?'s cru/1 only a few are prom95tly repres5t$ 9 ! tables ( m9]al res\rces4 ,( ^! wat] & soils /& fir/4 ,o!rs are ! common igne\s & s$im5t>y rocks us$ = build+ & road mat]ials4 ,miss+ f ! li/s ( ! mo/ abundant m9]als & rocks1 are ! great] "p ( ! comm]cially important m9]al res\rces--includ+ su* z coal1 oil1 gas1 iron ore1 copp]1 gold1 & silv]1--imply+ t ^! m9]al products1 not)/&+ _! great absolute bulk & comm]cial importance1 occur 9 relatively insignificant am\nts z comp>$ ) ! common rock m9]als ( ! e>?4 ,,! ,,orig9 ,,( ,,common ,,rocks ,,& ,,m9]als ,! common rocks & m9]als develop 9 a g5]al sequ5ce1 />t+ ) igne\s processes1 & pass+ ?r\gh /ages ( wea!r+1 erosion1 s$im5t>y processes1 & alt]ations b5ea? ! surface4 ,! comm]cial m9]als are incid5tal developm5ts "u ! same processes4 ,,igne\s ,,processes ,! e>lie/ kn[n rocks are l>gely igne\s4 ,s$im5t>y rocks are =m$ f ! break+ d[n ( igne\s rocks1 & ! orig9 ( rocks !re=e />ts ) ! =mation ( igne\s rocks4 ,igne\s rocks are =m$ by ! cool+ ( molt5 rock mat]ial4 ,! ultimate s\rce ( ?is molt5 mat]ial does n "h conc]n u4 ,x may come f deep )9 ! e>? or f comp>atively few miles d[n4 ,x may include preexi/+ rock ( any k9d :i* has be5 locally fus$ )9 ! e>?4 ,:]ev] & h[ev] =m$1 its t5d5cy is to travel upw>d t[>d ! surface4 ,x may /op f> bel[ ! surface & cool sl[ly1 =m+ co>sely cry/alliz$ rocks ( ! granite & gabbro types4 ,igne\s rocks s =m$ are call$ plutonic intrusive rocks4 ,or ! molt5 mass may come well t[>d ! surface & cry/allize m rapidly into rocks ( less co>se1 & (t5 porphyritic1 textures4 ,su* intrusive rocks are porphyries1 diabases1 etc4 ,or ! molt5 mass may actually ov]fl[ at ! surface or be ?r[n out f volcanoes ) explosive =ce4 ,x !n cools quickly & =ms f9ely cry/all9e rocks ( ! rhyolite & basalt types4 ,^! are call$ effusives or extrusives1 or lavas or volcanics1 to di/+ui% !m f intrusives =m$ bel[ ! surface4 ,! intrusive masses may take v>i\s =ms1 call$ /ocks1 ba?oli?s1 laccoli?s1 sills1 %eets & dikes1 def9itions & illu/rations ( :i* are giv5 9 any geological textbook4 ,! effusives or volcanics at ! surface take ! =m ( %eets1 fl[s1 tuffs1 agglom]ates1 etc4 ,"s ( ! igne\s rocks are !mselves m9]al products1 z = in/ance build+ /ones & road mat]ials4 ,c]ta9 basic intrusive igne\s rocks conta9 titanif]\s magnetites or iron ores z orig9al con/itu5ts4 ,o!rs c>ry diamonds z orig9al con/itu5ts4 ,c]ta9 special v>ieties ( igne\s rocks1 kn[n z pegmatites1 c>ry co>sely cry/alliz$ mica & feldsp> ( comm]cial value1 z well z a consid]able v>iety ( preci\s gems & o!r comm]cial m9]als4 ,pegmatites are closely relat$ to igne\s aft]-effects1 discuss$ "u ! next head+4 ,z a :ole1 ! m9]al products =m$ directly 9 igne\s rocks con/itute a mu* less important class ?an m9]al products =m$ 9 o!r ways1 z describ$ bel[4 ,igne\s aft]-effects4 ,! lat] /ages 9 ! =mation ( igne\s rocks are frequ5tly accompani$ by ! expulsion ( hot wat]s & gases :i* c>ry ) !m m9]al sub/ances4 ,^! become deposit$ 9 op5+s 9 adjac5t rocks1 or replace !m1 or are deposit$ 9 previ\sly h>d5$ portions ( ! p>5t igne\s mass itself4 ,!y =m contact-metamorphic & c]ta9 ve9 deposits4 ,pegmatites1 ref]r$ to above1 are 9 a broad s5se 9 ?is class ( igne\s aft]-effects1 9 t !y are late developm5ts 9 igne\s intrusions & (t5 grade into ve9s cle>ly =m$ by aque\s or gase\s solutions4 ,among ! valuable m9]als ( ! igne\s aft]-effect class are ores ( gold1 silv]1 copp]1 iron1 antimony1 m]cury1 z9c1 lead1 & o!rs4 ,:ile m9]al products ( mu* value h ?is orig91 mo/ ( !m h ne$$ enri*m5t by wea!r+ to give !m ! value !y n[ h4 ,,wea!r+ ,,( ,,igne\s ,,rocks ,,& ,,ve9s ,no soon] d igne\s rocks appe> at or ne> ! e>?'s surface1 ei!r by extrusion or z a result ( removal by erosion ( ! ov]ly+ cov]1 ?an !y are attack$ vigor\sly by ! gases & wat]s ( ! atmosph]e & hydrosph]e z well z by v>i\s organisms1--) maximum effect at ! surface1 b ) notable effects ext5d+ z f> d[n z ^! ag5ts p5etrate4 ,! effectiv5ess ( ^! ag5ts is also gov]n$ by ! climatic & topographic conditions4 ,"u conditions ( extreme cold or extreme aridity1 wea!r+ takes ! =m ma9ly ( me*anical dis9tegration1 & *emical *ange is less conspicu\s4 ,"u ord9>y conditions1 h[ev]1 processes ( *emical decomposition are v app>5t4 ,! result is def9itely kn[n4 ,! rocks become s(t5$1 loose1 & incoh]5t4 ,voids & op5+s appe>4 ,! volume t5ds to increase1 if all end products are tak5 into acc\nt4 ,! orig9al m9]als1 l>gely feldsp>1 f]ro-magnesian m9]als1 & qu>tz1 become *ang$ to clay1 mix$ ) qu>tz or s&1 calcite or dolomite1 & iron oxide1 toge!r ) residual p>ticles ( ! orig9al feldsp>s & f]ro-magnesian m9]als :i* h only p>tly decompos$4 ,9 t]ms ( elem5ts or *emical composition1 wat]1 oxyg51 & c>bon dioxide1 all common con/itu5ts ( ! atmosph]e & hydrosph]e1 h be5 add$2 & c]ta9 sub/ances su* z soda1 potassa1 lime1 magnesia1 & silica h 9 "p be5 c>ri$ away by circulat+ wat]s1 to be r$eposit$ else:]e z s$im5ts1 ve9 fill+s1 & cem5ts4 ,figure #a illu/rates ! actual m9]al & volume *anges 9 ! wea!r+ ( a granite--"o ( ! mo/ common rocks4 ,! m9]als anor?ite1 albite1 & or?oclase nam$ 9 ?is figure are all feldsp>s2 sylvite & halite are *lorides ( pota% & soda4 ,! wea!r+ processes t5d to de/roy ! orig9al m9]als1 textures1 & *emical composition4 ,!y are collectively kn[n z katamorphic alt]ations1 mean+ de/ructive *anges4 ,! zone 9 :i* ^! *anges are at a maximum is call$ ! zone ( wea!r+4 ,?is g5]al zone is pr9cipally above ! surface or level ( ! gr\nd-wat]s1 b = "s rocks x ext5ds well bel[ ?is level4 ,9 "s regions ! gr\nd-wat] level may be ne>ly at ! surface1 & 9 o!rs1 especially :]e arid1 x may be two ?\s& or m feet d[n4 ,dis9tegrat$ wea!r$ rocks =m a blanket ( v>iable ?ickness1 :i* is sometimes spok5 ( z ! residual mantle1 or mantle rock4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,graphic repres5tation ( volume *ange 9 wea!r+ ( a ,georgia granite4 ,m9]al products =m$ by wea!r+ f common igne\s rocks include soils1 clay1 bauxite1 & c]ta9 iron1 *romite1 & nickel ores4 ,aga9 ! comm]cial importance ( ?is gr\p is n l>ge1 z comp>$ ) products =m$ 9 o!r ways describ$ bel[4 ,! same wea!r+ processes describ$ above = igne\s rocks cause consid]able *anges ( economic significance 9 deposits =m$ z igne\s aft]-effects4 ,9 "s cases !y result 9 remov+ ! less valuable m9]als1 ?us conc5trat+ ! m valuable ones1 z well z 9 s(t5+ ! rock & mak+ x easi] to "w2 & 9 o!r cases !y t5d to remove ! valuable con/itu5ts1 :i* may !n be r$eposit$ directly bel[ or may be c>ri$ completely out ( ! vic9ity4 ,! oxide zones ( _m ore bodies are =m$ by ^! processes4 ,,s$im5t>y ,,processes ,s$im5t>y rocks are =m$ by ! removal & deposition ( ! wea!r$ products ( a l& surface4 ,air1 wat]1 & ice1 mov+ "u ! influ5ce ( gravity & o!r =ces1 all aid 9 ?is transf]4 ,! brok5 or alt]$ rock mat]ials may be m]ely mov$ d[n slopes a little way & r$eposit$ on ! surface1 =m+ "o type ( t]re/rial or suba]ial deposits1 or !y may be transf]r$ & sort$ by /reams4 ,:5 deposit$ 9 /reams or ne> _! m\?s1 !y are kn[n z riv]1 alluvial1 or delta deposits4 ,:5 c>ri$ to lakes & deposit$ !y =m lake deposits4 ,ultimately ! great] "p ( !m are likely to be c>ri$ to ! ocean & deposit$ z m>9e s$im5ts4 ,"p ( ! wea!r$ sub/ances are c>ri$ me*anically z clay & s&1 :i* g to make up ! %ale & s&/one s$im5ts4 ,"p are c>ri$ 9 solution1 z = example lime c>bonate & magnesium c>bonate1 :i* g to make up lime/one & dolomite4 ,"s ( ! dissolv$ sub/ances are nev] r$eposit$1 b rema9 9 solution z salts 9 ! sea1 ! mo/ abundant ( :i* is sodium *loride4 ,"s ( ! dissolv$ sub/ances ( wea!r+1 su* z calcite1 qu>tz1 & iron oxide1 are c>ri$ d[n & deposit$ 9 op5+s ( ! rocks1 :]e !y act z cem5ts4 ,! s$im5ts z a :ole consi/ ( ?ree ma9 types1--%ales 7kaol91 qu>tz1 etc471 s&/ones 7qu>tz1 feldsp>1 etc471 & lime/ones or dolomites 7c>bonates ( lime & magnesia74 ,( ^!1 ! %ale gr\p is by f> ! mo/ abundant4 ,!re are ( c\rse _m s$im5ts ) composition int]m$iate betwe5 ^! types4 ,!re are also s$im5ts made up ( l>ge undecompos$ fragm5ts ( ! orig9al rocks1 cem5t$ to =m conglom]ates1 or made up ( small fragm5ts ( ! orig9al rocks cem5t$ to =m arkoses & graywackes4 ,^!1 h[ev]1 may be reg>d$ z simply /ages 9 ! alt]ation1 :i* 9 repeat$ cycles ( wea!r+ mu/ ultimately result 9 produc+ ! ?ree ma9 gr\ps1--%ales1 s&/ones1 & lime/ones4 ,m9]al products =m$ by s$im5t>y processes include s&/ones1 lime/ones1 & %ales1 us$ z build+ /one & road mat]ials2 c]ta9 s$im5t>y deposits ( iron1 l ! ,cl9ton ores ( ! s\!a/]n ,unit$ ,/ates & ! ,brazilian ores2 important phosphate deposits2 mo/ deposits ( salt1 gypsum1 pota%1 nitrates1 etc42 comp>atively few & unimportant copp] deposits2 & important plac] deposits ( gold1 t91 & o!r metals1 & preci\s /ones4 ,) ! aid ( organic ag5cies1 s$im5t>y processes also acc\nt = ! prim>y deposition ( coal & oil4 ,,wea!r+ ,,( ,,s$im5t>y ,,rocks ,aft] s$im5t>y rocks are =m$1 & 9 _m cases cov]$ by lat] s$im5ts1 !y may be br\ght aga9 by e>? movem5ts & erosion to ! surface1 :]e !y 9 turn are wea!r$4 ,! wea!r+ ( s$im5t>y rocks proce$s along l9es already indicat$ = ! igne\s rocks4 ,residual mantles ( impure clay & s& are commonly =m$4 ,! m9]al composition ( s$im5t>y rocks be+ diff]5t f t ( igne\s rocks to />t )1 ! result+ products are 9 slightly diff]5t proportions2 b ! *anges are ! same 9 k9d & t5d m]ely to c>ry ! g5]al process ( alt]ation f>!r 9 ! same direction1--t is1 t[>d ! production ( a few sub/ances l clay1 qu>tz1 iron oxide1 & calcite1 :i* are transport$ & r$eposit$ to =m clay1 s&1 & lime/one4 ,cycles ( ?is k9d may be repeat$ indef9itely4 ,by wea!r+ ( s$im5t>y rocks are produc$ "s soils1 c]ta9 comm]cial clays1 iron ores1 lead & z9c ores1 & o!r valuable m9]al products4 ,,consolidation1 ,,cem5tation1 ,,& ,,o!r ,,subsurface ,,alt]ations ,,( ,,rocks4 ,cem5tation4 ,no soon] are residual wea!r$ mantles =m$ or s$im5t>y rocks deposit$1 :e!r "u air or wat]1 ?an processes ( consolidation beg94 ,settl+1 infiltration ( cem5t+ mat]ials1 & new gr[?s1 or recry/allization1 ( ! orig9al m9]als ( ! rock all play a "p 9 ! process4 ,! mud or clay becomes a %ale1 ! s& becomes s&/one or qu>tzite1 ! m>l becomes lime/one or m>ble4 ,all ! m9ute op5+s betwe5 ! gra9s1 z well z l>g] op5+s su* z fissures & jo9ts1 may ?us be fill$4 ,at ! same "t ! cem5t+ mat]ials may replace "s ( ! orig9al m9]als ( ! rock1 ! new m9]als ei!r pres]v+ or de/roy+ ! orig9al textures4 ,?is process is sometimes call$ metasomatic replacem5t4 ,igne\s rocks z a rule are compact1 & h5ce are n s mu* subject to ! processes ( cem5tation z s$im5t>y rocks2 b c]ta9 ( ! m por\s phases ( ! surface lavas1 z well z any jo9ts 9 igne\s rocks1 may become cem5t$4 ,all ( ^! *anges may be gr\p$ "u ! g5]al t]m cem5tation4 ,a special phase ( consolidation & cem5tation is produc$ ne> intrusive igne\s rocks ?r\gh ! action ( ! heat & pressure & ! expell$ sub/ances ( ! igne\s rock4 ,?is is call$ contact metamorphism or !rmal metamorphism4 ,! processes are ev5 m effective :5 act+ 9 connection ) ! m int5se metamorphism describ$ "u ! next head+4 ,by cem5tation "s ( ! common rocks1 especially ! s$im5ts1 become suffici5tly compact & /rong to be useful z comm]cial products1 su* z build+ /ones & road mat]ials4 ,m important z m9]al products are ! cem5t+ mat]ials !mselves4 ,^! are commonly qu>tz1 calcite1 or iron oxide1 ( no especial value1 b locally !y include comm]cially valuable m9]als conta9+ gold1 copp]1 silv]1 lead1 z9c1 & _m o!r m9]al products4 ,x is a matt] ( simple & direct obs]vation1 ab\t :i* !re is no controv]sy1 t _m m9]als are deposit$ z cem5ts 9 ! op5+s 9 rocks or replac+ rocks4 ,z to ! s\rce ( ! solutions br++ 9 ^! m9]als1 on ! o!r h&1 !re has be5 mu* disagreem5t4 ,9 g5]al1 ! common cem5t+ mat]ials su* z qu>tz & calcite1 z well z "s ( ! comm]cial m9]als1 are cle>ly =m$ z by-products ( wea!r+1 & are transport$ & r$eposit$ by ! wat]s p5etrat+ d[nw>d f ! surface4 ,! s-call$ second>y enri*m5t ( _m valuable ve9s is m]ely "o ( ! special phases ( cem5tation f a sup]ficial s\rce4 ,9 o!r cases x is believ$ t deep circulation ( ord9>y gr\nd-wat]s may pick up disp]s$ m9]al sub/ances ?r\gh a consid]able zone1 & r$eposit !m 9 conc5trat$ =m 9 ve9s & o!r trunk *annels4 ,= /ill o!r cem5t+ mat]ials1 x is suspect$ t ! ultimate s\rce is 9 igne\s intrusions2 9 fact1 deposits ( ?is g5]al "* %[ all gradations f ^? cle>ly =m$ by surface wat]s1 indep5d5tly ( igne\s activity1 to ^? ( a contact-metamorphic nature & o!rs belong+ "u ! head ( igne\s aft]-effects4 ,hypo!sis & inf]5ce play a consid]able "p 9 arriv+ at any conclusion z to ! s\rce ( cem5t+ mat]ials1--) ! result t !re is (t5 wide latitude = diff]5ce ( op9ion & ( emphasis on ! relative importance ( ! diff]5t s\rces ( ore m9]als4 ,dynamic & contact metamorphism4 ,b5ea? ! surface rocks are n only cem5t$1 b may be de=m$ or ma%$ by dynamic movem5ts caus$ by great e>? /resses2 ! rocks may und]go rock fl[age4 ,! result is (t5 a rem>kable trans=mation ( ! "* ( ! rocks1 mak+ x difficult to recognize _! orig9al nature4 ,also1 igne\s intrusions may cr[d & ma% ! adjac5t rocks1 at ! same "t *ang+ !m by heat & contributions ( new mat]ials4 ,?is process may be call$ contact metamorphism1 b 9 s f> z x results 9 ma%+ ( ! rocks x is closely alli$ to dynamic metamorphism4 ,! =m] t]m is also appli$ to less pr(\nd *anges 9 connection ) igne\s intrusions1 :i* result m]ely 9 cem5tation )\t ma%+4 ,dynamic & contact metamorphism may 9 "s cases produce rocks id5tical 9 appe>ance ) ^? produc$ by ord9>y processes ( cem5tation & recry/allization )\t movem5t4 ,= in/ance1 x is difficult to tell h[ mu* movem5t !re has be5 9 ! production ( a m>ble1 because bo? k9ds ( processes seem to produce mu* ! same result4 ,commonly1 h[ev]1 ! effect ( dynamic metamorphism is to produce a p>allel arrangem5t ( m9]al p>ticles & to segregate ! m9]al p>ticles ( l k9d into b&s1 giv+ a foliat$ or s*i/ose or gneissic /ructure1 & ! rocks !n become kn[n z slates1 s*i/s1 or gneisses4 ,commonly !y possess a capacity to "p along p>allel surfaces1 call$ cleavage4 ,! developm5t ( ! s*i/ose or gneissic /ructure is accompani$ by ! recry/allization ( ! rock mat]ials1 produc+ new m9]als ( a platy or column> type adapt$ to ?is p>allel arrangem5t4 ,ev5 ! composition ( ! rock may be sub/antially *ang$1 ?\gh ?is is p]haps n ! mo/ common case4 ,:]eas by wea!r+ ! rock is loos5$ up & dis9tegrat$1 sub/ances l c>bon dioxide1 oxyg51 & wat] are abundantly add$1 & light m9]als ( simple composition t5d to develop1--by dynamic metamorphism on ! o!r h&1 c>bon dioxide1 oxyg51 & wat] are usually expell$1 ! m9]als are comb9$ to make heavi] & m complex m9]als1 pore space is elim9at$1 & altoge!r ! rock becomes mu* m d5se & cry/all9e4 ,:ile segregation ( mat]ials is *>act]i/ic ( ! surficial products ( wea!r+1 ! opposite t5d5cy1 ( mix+ & aggregation1 is ! rule "u dynamic metamorphism1 not)/&+ ! m9or segregation above not$4 ,dynamic metamorphism is = ! mo/ "p unfavorable to ! developm5t ( m9]al products4 ,ore bodies br\ght into a zone :]e ^! processes are active may be pr(\ndly modifi$1 b n ord9>ily enri*$4 ,"o ( ! exceptions to ?is g5]al rule is ! developm5t ( ! cleavage ( a slate1 :i* enables x to be readily split & !reby gives x value4 ,contact metamorphism1 on ! o!r h&1 may develop valuable m9]al deposits 7see pp4 #bj1 #de-df74 ,,! ,,metamorphic ,,cycle ,,z ,,an ,,aid ,,9 ,,/udy+ ,,m9]al ,,deposits ,all ( ! *emical1 m9]alogical1 & textural *anges 9 rocks above describ$ may be collectively ref]r$ to z metamorphism4 ,! phase ( metamorphism deal+ ) surficial wea!r+1 simil> *anges bel[ ! surface1 & ! =mation ( s$im5ts1 is call$ katamorphism or de/ructive *ange4 ,! phase ( metamorphism deal+ ) ! con/ructive *anges 9 rocks1 due to cem5tation1 dynamic movem5ts1 & igne\s influ5ces1 is call$ anamorphism4 ,"s geologi/s conf9e ! t]m metamorphism to ! *anges involv$ 9 contact & dynamic metamorphism1 & call ! result+ products metamorphic rocks4 ,! zone 9 :i* katamorphism is mo/ active1 usually ne> ! surface1 is call$ ! zone ( katamorphism4 ,! deep] zone 9 :i* anamorphism is prepond]ant is call$ ! zone ( anamorphism4 ,!re are no def9ite limits ( dep? to ^! zones4 ,a giv5 rock may be und]go+ katamorphism :ile rocks on ei!r side at ! same dep? are suff]+ anamorphism4 ,by katamorphism rocks break d[n to produce ! surficial rocks1 & by anamorphism ! surficial rocks are aga9 consolidat$ & alt]$ to produce highly cry/all9e rocks1 :i* are n dissimil> 9 _m ( _! *>act]i/ics to ! igne\s rocks f :i* all rocks trace _! ultimate orig94 ,9 o!r words1 anamorphism t5ds t[>d ! reproduction ( igne\s rocks1 ?\gh x seldom fully accompli%es ?is result4 ,^! two ma9 gr\ps ( *anges toge!r con/itute ! metamorphic cycle4 ,"s rocks g ?r\gh all phases ( ! cycle1 b o!rs may pass directly f "o phase to an advanc$ phase )\t go+ ?r\gh ! int]m$iate /ages4 ,= in/ance1 an igne\s rock may become a s*i/ )\t go+ ?r\gh ! int]m$iate /age ( s$im5tation4 ,rocks are n p]man5t 9 _! condition1 b at practically all times & places are und]go+ "s k9d ( metamorphism :i* t5ds to adapt !m to _! environm5t4 ,! conception ( rocks z repres5t+ phases or /ages 9 a progressive s]ies ( *anges call$ ! metamorphic cycle aids greatly 9 correlat+ & hold+ 9 m9d _m details ( rock nature & orig91 & br+s into "s sort ( p]spective ! conditions :i* h produc$ rocks4 ,a s*i/ose s$im5t comes to be reg>d$ z an end product ( a long s]ies ( alt]ations1 beg9n+ ) igne\s rocks & pass+ ?r\gh ! /ages ( wea!r+1 s$im5tation1 cem5tation1 etc41 ea* ( :i* /ages has be5 responsible = c]ta9 m9]alogical1 *emical1 & textural features n[ *>act]iz+ ! rock4 ,! alt]nation ( con/ructive & de/ructive *anges ( ! metamorphic cycle1 & ! repetitions ( ! cycle itself1 p]iodically "w ov] ! e>? mat]ials into new =ms4 ,usually ! cycles are n complete1 9 ! s5se t !y seldom br+ ! rock back to exactly ! same condition f :i* x />t$4 ,m s$im5ts are =m$ ?an are *ang$ to s*i/s & gneisses1 & m s*i/s & gneisses are =m$ ?an are *ang$ back to igne\s rocks4 ,salts 9 ! ocean cont9u\sly accumulate4 ,! net result ( ! metamorphic cycle1 is1 !re=e1 ! accumulation ( mat]ials ( ! same k9ds4 ,incid5tal to ^! accumulations is ! segregation ( comm]cial m9]al products4 ,! metamorphic cycle becomes a logical & conv5i5t geologic basis = correlat+1 int]pret+1 & classify+ m9]al products4 ,because ( ! great v>iety ( mat]ials & conditions repres5t$ 9 m9]al deposits1 prodigi\s ef=ts are requir$ to rememb] !m z indep5d5t entities2 b z incid5ts or /ages 9 ! well-kn[n progress ( ! metamorphic cycle1 _! ess5tial *>act]i/ics may be easily rememb]$ & kept 9 "s p]spective4 ,ores ( c]ta9 metals1 su* z iron1 occur 9 almo/ e phase ( ! metamorphic cycle1--z igne\s aft]-effects1 z wea!r$ products1 z s$im5ts1 & z s*i/s4 ,! ores ( ea* ( ^! sev]al phases h gr\p *>act]i/ics :i* s]ve to di/+ui% !m 9 important p>ticul>s f ores belong+ to o!r phases ( ! cycle4 ,hav+ e/abli%$ ! position ( any p>ticul> ore 9 ! metamorphic cycle1 a numb] ( safe inf]5ces are possible z to m9]alogical composition1 %ape1 ext5t1 & o!r conditions1 k ( :i* is necess>y = an e/imate ( comm]cial possibilities4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,cl>ke1 ,f4 ,w41 ,data ( geo*emi/ry3 ,bull4 #fie1 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,survey1 #aibj1 p4 #ce4 #b ,cl>ke1 ,f4 ,w41 ,data ( geo*emi/ry3 ,bull4 #fie1 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,survey1 #aibj1 p4 #cc4 #c ,cl>ke1 ,f4 ,w41 ,data ( geo*emi/ry3 ,bull4 #fie1 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,survey1 #aibj1 pp4 #bb-bc4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,"s ,,sali5t ,,features ,,( ,,! ,,geology ,,& ,,classification ,,( ,,m9]al ,,deposits ,,v>i\s ,,me?ods ,,( ,,classification ,m9]al products may be classifi$ accord+ to use1 comm]cial importance1 geographic di/ribution1 =m & /ructure1 m9]alogical & *emical composition1 or orig94 ,ea* ( ^! classifications is useful = "s purposes4 ,! geologi/ usually pref]s a classification bas$ on orig9 or g5esis4 ,9 ! foll[+ *apt]s on m9]al res\rces1 h[ev]1 su* a classification is n ! prim>y "o1 because ( ! desire to emphasize economic features4 ,! m9]al commodities are treat$ z units & by gr\p uses4 ,"s m9]al commodities h s _m diff]5t k9ds ( orig9 9 diff]5t regions t to di/ribute !m among sev]al g5etic gr\ps 9 description w\ld make x impossible to pres]ve ! unity necess>y = consid]ation ( ! economic features4 ,:ile 9 ! descriptive *apt]s _m ref]5ces are made to orig91 x may be difficult = ! read] to assemble !m 9 p]spective2 = ?is reason we summ>ize at ! outset "s ( ! sali5t features ( orig9 ( m9]al deposits & ( _! geologic classification4 ,to ! layman ! reason = emphasis on orig9 is (t5 n cle>4 ,! practical man frequ5tly reg>ds ?is phase ( ! subject z m]ely incid5tal to ! imm$iate economic que/ions--a playgr\nd = h>mless !ori/s4 ,! answ] ( ! economic geologi/ is t 9 no o!r way ?an by a k ( orig9 is x possible to arrive at an und]/&+ ( conditions :i* s well enables "o to answ] _m practical que/ions4 ,9 ! exploration = m9]al deposits1 x is obvi\s t an und]/&+ ( ! k9ds ( geologic conditions & processes "u :i* a giv5 type ( deposit is kn[n to develop results 9 ! elim9ation ( mu* unpromis+ t]ritory1 & ! conc5tration ( "w on favorable localities4 ,9 =m+ any e/imate ( m9]al deposits beyond ! gr\nd imm$iately op5$ up1--= in/ance1 9 e/imat+ dep?1 =m1 *ange 9 values1 m9]alogical "*1 or int]ruptions due to fault+1--x is difficult to =m any intellig5t conception ( ! probabilities unless ! hi/ory ( ! deposit is und]/ood4 ,if1 = in/ance1 ! ore is kn[n to be =m$ by hot wat]s1 associat$ ) ! cool+ ( igne\s rocks1 diff]5t conditions are to be expect$ bel[ ! zone ( obs]vation ?an if ! ore is =m$ by surface wat]s4 ,if ! ore body is =m$ z a s+le episode "u simple geologic conditions1 ! int]pretation ( ! possibilities 9 ! situation may be q diff]5t f ! int]pretation appli$ :]e ! hi/ory has be5 m complex4 ,if ! surface conditions sugge/ possibilities ( second>y enri*m5t ( ! ores1 ! int]pretation ( ! conditions und]gr\nd w be diff]5t f ^? appli$ :]e !re is no evid5ce ( su* enri*m5t4 ,:]e a m9]al deposit is completely op5$ up 9 ?ree dim5sions1 x is (t5 possible to "w out economic que/ions ( tonnage1 grade1 %ape1 & values1 )\t ! aid ( geology4 ,also1 :]e conditions are comp>atively simple & uni=m ?r\gh\t a di/rict1 ! local k ( o!r m9es may be a suffici5t basis = answ]+ ^! que/ions = any new prop]ty develop$4 ,empirical me?ods may suffice4 ,h[ev]1 x is seldom t ! conditions are s simple t "s geological inf]5ce is n necess>y4 ,ev5 :]e problems are settl$ )\t call+ 9 ! geologi/1 geological inf]5ces are requir$ 9 ! int]pretation (1 & projection f1 ! kn[n facts4 ,x is (t5 ! case t ! practical man has 9 8 m9d a r elaborate assortm5t ( geologic hypo!ses1 bas$ on 8 individual exp]i5ce1 :i* make ! s-call$ !ories ( ! geologi/ seem cons]vative 9 comp>ison4 ,! geologi/ comes to ! p>ticul> problem ) a backgr\nd ( e/abli%$ geologic pr9ciples & obs]vations1 & 8 fir/ ?\ght is to asc]ta9 all ! local conditions :i* w aid 9 deciph]+ ! complete hi/ory ( ! m9]al deposit4 ,!re is no fact be>+ on ! hi/ory1 h[ev] remote f practical que/ions1 :i* may n be pot5tially valuable4 ,) ?is digression to expla9 ! geologi/'s emphasis on orig9 ( m9]al products1 we may return to a consid]ation ( a few ( ! pr9ciples ( rock & m9]al g5esis :i* h be5 f\nd to be significant 9 ! /udy ( m9]al products4 ,9 ! prec$+ *apt]s x has be5 indicat$ t m9]al deposits are m]e incid5ts 9 ! mass ( common rocks2 t !y are made by ! same processes :i* make common rocks1 t none ( ! processes affect+ m9]al deposits are unique = ^! m9]als1 & t mo/ common rocks are on occasion !mselves us$ z m9]al res\rces4 ,^! facts are emphasiz$ 9 ord] to make x cle> t ! /udy ( m9]al deposits _c be dissociat$ f ! /udy ( rocks1 & t ! /udy ( ! latt] is ess5tial to br+ m9]al deposits into _! prop] p]spective4 ,absorption 9 ! details ( a m9]al deposit makes x easy = ! inve/igator to =get or m9imize ^! relations4 ,nev]!less1 9 ! /udy ( m9]al deposits1 & especially deposits ( ! metallic m9]als1 c]ta9 geologic features /& out conspicu\sly aga9/ ! common backgr\nd indicat$ above4 ,our discussion ( ^! features w foll[ ! ord] ( rock g5esis indicat$ 9 ! description ( ! metamorphic cycle4 ,,names ,any classification ( m9]al deposits on ! basis ( orig9 is m or less arbitr>y4 ,! %>p l9es impli$ by ! use ( class names d n exi/ 9 nature4 ,m9]al deposits are s complex & s int]relat$ 9 orig91 t a classification accord+ to g5esis indicates only ! ess5tial & c5tral class features2 x does n %>ply def9e ! limits ( ! classes4 ,x is practically impossible = any geologi/ to pres5t a classification :i* w be accept$ )\t qualification by o!r geologi/s1 al?\gh !re may be agreem5t on ess5tial features4 ,difficulties 9 rea*+ agreem5t are increas$ by ! inh]itance f ! pa/ ( names1 def9itions1 & classifications :i* d n exactly fit pres5t conceptions bas$ on full] in=mation1--b :i*1 nev]!less1 h become s firmly e/abli%$ 9 ! lit]ature t x is difficult to avoid _! use4 ,9 ! progress ( inve/igation _m new names are co9$ to fit m precisely ! p>ticul> situation 9 h&1 b only 9 =tunate cases d ^! new names /& up aga9/ ! traditional curr5cy & au?ority ( old names4 ,! geologi/ is (t5 9 despair 9 8 attempt to express 8 ideas cle>ly & precisely1 & at ! same "t to use t]ms :i* w be und]/&able by 8 read]s & w n ar\se ne$less controv]sy4 ,z illu/rative ( ! above rem>ks ref]5ce may be made to a few t]ms commonly us$ 9 economic geology1 su* z prim>y1 second>y1 syng5etic1 epig5etic1 sup]g5e1 hypog5e1 protore1 etc4 ,! mo/ commonly us$ ( ^! t]ms are prim>y & second>y4 ,x is almo/ impossible to def9e !m 9 a way :i* w cov] all ! conceptions = :i* !y h be5 us$1 & yet 9 _! context !y h be5 v useful 9 convey+ ess5tial ideas4 ,an ore =m$ by direct processes ( s$im5tation has sometimes be5 call$ prim>y1 :]eas an ore =m$ by lat] enri*m5t ( ^! s$im5ts has be5 call$ second>y4 ,an ore =m$ directly by igne\s processes has be5 call$ prim>y1 :ile an ore =m$ by enri*m5t ( su* prim>y ore by lat] processes has be5 call$ second>y4 ,x is cle>1 h[ev]1 t ^! t]ms are m]ely relative1 ) application to a specific sequ5ce1 & t !y d n fix ! absolute position ( ! ore 9 a sequ5ce apply+ to all ores4 ,= in/ance1 ores deposit$ directly z s$im5ts or plac]s may be d]iv$ f ! erosion ( preexi/+ ore bodies1--9 :i* case x may sometimes be conv5i5t to ref] to ! s$im5t>y ores or plac]s z second>y & ! e>li] ores z prim>y4 ,or a sulphide deposit orig9at+ ?r\gh igne\s ag5cies may und]go two or ?ree successive enri*m5ts1 ea* successive "o second>y to ! prec$+1 b prim>y to ! "o foll[+4 ,9 spite ( ^! obvi\s difficulties1 ! t]ms prim>y & second>y may be entirely intelligible z indicat+ relative ord] ( developm5t "u a giv5 set ( conditions4 ,! t]m syng5etic has be5 us$ = m9]al deposits =m$ by processes simil> to ^? :i* h =m$ ! enclos+ rocks & 9 g5]al simultane\sly ) !m1 & epig5etic = ^? introduc$ into preexi/+ rocks4 ,9 c]ta9 cases syng5etic may be r\ghly synonym\s ) prim>y1 & epig5etic ) second>y1 & yet a prim>y ore may be epig5etic4 ,= in/ance1 z9c sulphides 9 ! ,mississippi valley lime/ones 7pp4 #ed-ee7 are epig5etic1 & yet are prim>y ) ref]5ce to a lat] enri*m5t4 ,! two sets ( t]ms are meant to convey some:at diff]5t ideas & are n int]*angeable4 ,ransome#d has sugge/$1 especially = ve9 & contact deposits1 a s]ies ( names :i* has ! consid]able advantage ( def9it5ess3--hypog5e ores1 =m$ 9 g5]al by asc5d+ non-oxidiz+ solutions1 p]haps hot2 sup]g5e ores1 =m$ 9 g5]al by oxidiz+ & surface solutions1 initially cold & d[nw>d mov+2 & protores1 or metalliz$ rock or ve9 sub/ances :i* are too l[ 9 t5or to be class$ z ores1 b :i* w\ld h be5 conv]t$ into ores _h ! enri*+ process be5 c>ri$ f> en\gh4 ,9 ?is connection ,ransome def9es prim>y ore z un5ri*$ mat]ial t c be pr(itably m9$4 ,9 view ( ! g5]al use ( ! t]ms prim>y & second>y z express+ a sequ5tial relation ( ore developm5t1 x is d\btful :e!r ?is m precise def9ition w sup]s$e ! old] usage4 ,also x may be not$ t comm]cial conditions might require1 "u ^! def9itions1 ! designation ( an ore z a protore at "o "t or place & z a prim>y ore at ano!r4 ,hypog5e ores are dom9antly prim>y1 & sup]g5e ores are dom9antly second>y1 b ei!r may include bo? prim>y & second>y ores4 ,! t]ms ( ^! sev]al classifications ov]lap1 & seek to express diff]5t aspects ( ! same situation4 ,:ile almo/ synonym\s 9 c]ta9 applications !y are n 9 o!rs4 ,9 ?is text ! writ] has c]ta9ly n escap$ ! difficulties 9 reg>d to names above ref]r$ to1 nor 9 fact has he made any exceptional ef=t to d s4 ,8 *ief purpose is to convey1 9 some:at elem5t>y t]ms1 an und]/&able idea ( ! c5tral features ( economic geology4 ,9 ! ma91 ! mo/ widely accept$ t]ms are us$4 ,almo/ at e turn x w\ld be possible1 9 ! int]e/s ( precision1 to introduce qualify+ discussions ( names1--b at ! exp5se ( cont9uity & p]spective 9 ! pres5tation ( ! pr9cipal subject-matt]4 ,! writ] does n wi% to m9imize ! necessity = c>eful & precise nom5clature2 b he reg>ds x important t ! /ud5t focus 8 att5tion on ! c5tral objective facts ( ! subject1 & t he d n become misl$ by ! sometimes ov]-/r5u\s advocacy ( c]ta9 names or classifications 9 pref]5ce to o!rs4 ,if ! facts are und]/ood1 he w ord9>ily h no difficulty 9 judg+ ! significance ( ! v>iety ( names propos$ to express ^! facts4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! /ud5t approa*es ! subject ) a ready-made set ( names & def9itions le>n$ by rote1 he is 9 dang] ( p]ceiv+ 8 facts f "o angle only & ?r\gh a di/ort$ p]spective4 ,,m9]al ,,deposits ,,z ,,magmatic ,,segregations ,,9 ,,igne\s ,,rocks ,9 ?is class are includ$ deposits :i* cry/allize )9 ! body ( igne\s rock1 almo/1 if n q1 simultane\sly ) ! adjac5t rock4 ,^! deposits =m "o ( ! ma9 types ( syng5etic deposits4 ,! titanif]\s magnetites con/itute a widely di/ribut$ b at pres5t comm]cially unavailable class ( iron ores4 ,! magnetite cry/als ( ^! deposits int]p5etrate ) ! o!r con/itu5ts ( an igne\s rock1 commonly ( a gabbro type1 & ! deposits !mselves are ess5tially igne\s rocks4 ,_! %apes are = ! mo/ "p irregul>1 _! b\nd>ies ill-def9$1 & _! conc5tration v>y+4 ,:ile _! magmatic orig9 is cle>1 !re is little agreem5t z to ! precise conditions :i* det]m9$ _! segregation 9 ! molt5 rock4 ,!re is (t5 a t5d5cy = ! ores to foll[ c]ta9 prim>y %eet$ /ructures 9 ! igne\s mass1 a fact = :i* ! reason is n obvi\s4 ,! ,sudbury nickel ores1 ( ,ont>io1 ,canada1 ! pr9cipal s\rce ( ! _w's nickel1 lie ma9ly )9 & along ! l[] m>g9 ( a great intrusive igne\s mass ( a basic type call$ norite1 & locally ! ores project beyond ! m>g9 into adjac5t rocks4 ,_! textures & _! int]cry/allization ) ! prim>y m9]als ( ! igne\s rock h sugge/$ t !y are ess5tially a "p ( ! norite mass1 & t !y cry/alliz$ dur+ "s segregative processes :i* 7 effective be=e ! magma _h solidifi$4 ,ne> ! ores !re are likely to be granitic rocks1 :i*1 l ! ores1 seem to be segregations f ! norite magma4 ,locally bo? ! ores & ! associat$ granitic rocks replace ! ma9 norite body 9 su* a fa%ion z to indicate _! slightly lat] cry/allization4 ,h[ev]1 ! intimate association ( ! ores ) ! prim>y m9]als 9 ! magma1 toge!r ) _! abs5ce f high] p>ts ( ! norite & f ! extrane\s rocks f> f ! contact1 indicate to o!r inve/igators t !y 7 n br\ght 9 f outside 9 vagrant solutions :i* foll[$ ! intrusion ( ! ma9 magma1 b t !y 7 segregat$ )9 ! magma ess5tially 9 place4 ,! occurr5ce ( ^! heavy ores ne> ! base ( ! norite naturally sugge/s t !y 7 segregat$ by s9k+ to ! bottom ( ! molt5 magma1 b ?is conclusion implies c]ta9 physical conditions ( ! magma :i* h n yet be5 prov$4 ,aga9 ! precise nature ( ! process & ! "p play$ 9 x by aque\s & gase\s solutions are subject to "s d\bt & controv]sy4 ,! settlem5t ( ?is problem awaits ! solution ( ! m g5]al problem ( ! orig9 & cry/allization ( magmas4 ,9 ?is g5]al class ( igne\s deposits may be m5tion$ also diamonds1 plat9um1 *romite1 corundum1 & o!r m9]al products1 al?\gh = ! =mation ( comm]cial ores ( _m ( ^! sub/ances fur!r conc5tration by wea!r+ & s$im5tation has be5 requir$4 ,pegmatites are co>sely cry/all9e acid dike rocks :i* (t5 accompany a l>ge igne\s intrusion & :i* h obvi\sly cry/alliz$ some:at lat] ?an ! ma9 igne\s mass4 ,!y may con/itute ei!r %>ply delimit$ dikes or m irregul> bodies :i* grade into ! surr\nd+ igne\s mass4 ,!y h a composition r\ghly simil> to ! associat$ igne\s rock1 b usually a diff]5t proportion ( m9]als4 ,!y are probably ! result ( ! diff]5tiation ( ! p>5t magma4 ,! pegmatites are ( especial int]e/ to ! economic geologi/ because ( ! frequ5cy ) :i* !y c>ry comm]cial m9]als1 su* z ! preci\s /ones1 mica1 feldsp>1 cassit]ite 7t9 ore71 & o!rs4 ,!y %[ a complete gradation f dikes ( def9itely igne\s *>act]i/ics to ve9s consi/+ l>gely ( qu>tz 9 :i* evid5ce ( igne\s orig9 is n s cle>4 ,! pegmatites ?us af=d a connect+ l9k betwe5 ores ( direct igne\s s\rces & ores =m$ z igne\s aft]-effects1 :i* are discuss$ 9 ! next p>agraph4 ,aplites are f9e-gra9$ acid igne\s rocks ( some:at ! same composition z ! pegmatites & (t5 %[ ! same g5]al relations to ores4 ,,m9]al ,,deposits ,,)9 ,,& ,,adjac5t ,,to ,,igne\s ,,rocks ,,:i* ,,7 ,,=m$ ,,imm$iately ,,aft] ,,! ,,cool+ ,,& ,,cry/allization ,,( ,,! ,,magmas ,,?r\gh ,,! ,,ag5cy ,,( ,,hot ,,magmatic ,,solutions4 ,^! deposits are closely associat$ 9 place & age ) igne\s rocks1 ei!r intrusive or extrusive1 & are usually consid]$ to h come f approximately ! same s\rce2 & yet !y af=d di/9ct evid5ce ( hav+ be5 deposit$ aft] ! adjac5t igne\s rocks 7 completely cry/alliz$ & fractur$4 ,!y are ?us epig5etic deposits4 ,!y are n !mselves igne\s rocks & !y d n con/itute pegmatites1 b !y (t5 grade into pegmatites & belong to ! same g5]al /age 9 ! sequ5ce ( ev5ts4 ,!y include deposits =m$ by contact metamorphism4 ,!y are sometimes designat$ by ! g5]al t]m igne\s aft]-effects--a t]m also appli$ 9 "s cases to pegmatites4 ,"s geologi/s discrim9ate betwe5 deep ve9 deposits 7p4 #dc7 & contact-metamorphic deposits1 b ! two are s closely relat$ 9 place & orig9 t = our purposes !y w be consid]$ toge!r4 ,! ores ( ?is class are cle>ly deposit$ f vagrant solutions :i* w&] ?r\gh op5+s ( all k9ds 9 ! igne\s rock & outw>d into ! adjac5t c\ntry rocks4 ,!y also replace ! wall rocks2 lime/one is especially susceptible4 ,?is is a phase ( contact metamorphism4 ,"s ( ! mo/ important metallif]\s deposits belong 9 ?is class1 includ+ mo/ ( ! gold1 silv]1 copp]1 iron1 lead & z9c ores ( ! we/]n ,unit$ ,/ates & ! copp] deposits ( ,lake ,sup]ior4 ,9 g5]al1 ores ( ?is class are m abundant ab\t intrusive igne\s rocks1 t is ab\t igne\s rocks :i* h /opp$ & cool$ be=e rea*+ ! surface1--?an 9 association ) extrusive igne\s rocks :i* h p\r$ ov] ! surface z lava fl[s--b ! latt] are by no means insignificant1 includ+ z !y d su* deposits z ! ,lake ,sup]ior copp] ores1 ! ,k5necott copp] ores ( ,alaska1 "s ( ! gold-silv] deposits ( ,goldfield & o!r ,nevada camps1 & _m o!rs4 ,!re is g5]al simil>ity 9 ! succession ( ev5ts %[n by /udy ( ore bodies relat$ to intrusives4 ,fir/1 ! invasion ( ! magma1 result+ 9 contact metamorphism ( ! adjac5t rocks1 sometimes )1 & (t5 )\t conspicu\s cr[d+ effects on ! invad$ rocks2 second1 ! cool+1 cry/allization1 & crack+ ( bo? ! igne\s rock & ! adjac5t rock2 ?ird1 ! introduction ( ore-be>+ solutions into ^! cracks1--sometimes z a s+le episode1 sometimes z a long cont9u$ & complex process =m+ v>i\s types ( m9]als at successive /ages4 ,?is ord] may 9 "s cases be repeat$ 9 cycles1 & ov]lapp+ ( ! successive ev5ts is a common feature4 ,"o ( ! int]e/+ facts is ! way 9 :i* ! igne\s mass has invad$ & ext5sively alt]$ ! c\ntry rocks 9 "s m9]al di/ricts1--9 "s cases by cr[d+ & crumpl+ !m1 & 9 o!rs )\t greatly di/urb+ _! /ructural attitudes4 ,! latt] is illu/rat$ 9 ! ,b+ham di/rict ( ,utah & ! ,philipsburg di/rict ( ,montana4 ,9 su* cases !re is s little evid5ce ( cr[d+ ( ! c\ntry rocks z to raise ! "q h[ su* l>ge masses ( intrusives c\ld be introduc$ )\t great] di/urb+ /ructural effect4 ,?is leads naturally to consid]ation ( ! g5]al problem ( ! mann] ( progress ( magmas ?r\gh adjac5t rocks1--a subject :i* is /ill l>gely 9 ! realm ( speculation1 b :i* is n !reby elim9at$ f ! field ( controv]sy4 ,facts ( ?is k9d seem to favor ! position ( c]ta9 geologi/s t magmas may assimilate ! rocks !y invade4 ,,evid5ce ,,( ,,igne\s ,,s\rce ,no "o ev] saw "o ( ^! deposits 9 ! process ( =mation2 ! conclusion1 !re=e1 t !y orig9at$ f hot solutions1 ei!r aque\s or gase\s1 or bo?1 :i* 7 ess5tially aft]-effects ( igne\s activity & came f ! same prim>y s\rce z ! associat$ igne\s rocks1 is an inf]5ce bas$ on circum/antial evid5ce ( ! k9d bel[ summ>iz$3 7#a7 ,! close association bo? 9 place & age ) igne\s rocks4 ,?is applies n only to individual deposits1 b to c]ta9 gr\ps ( deposits :i* h common *>act]i/ics1 & :i* con/itute a metallog5ic prov9ce2 also to gr\ps ( ! same geologic age1 :i* indicate a metallog5ic epo* 7pp4 #cjh-cji74 ,! association ) igne\s rocks 9 "o place might be a co9cid5ce b its frequ5t repetition c h>dly be s expla9$4 ,a zonal arrangem5t ( m9]als ab\t intrusives is (t5 not$4 ,geologic evid5ce (t5 %[s ! processes ( ore deposition to h be5 complete be=e ! next succe$+ geologic ev5t1--z = in/ance 9 ! ,tonopah di/rict ( ,nevada 7p4 #bcf71 :]e ! ores h be5 =m$ 9 relation to c]ta9 volcanic fl[s & h be5 cov]$ by lat] fl[s n c>ry+ ore1 )\t any consid]able erosion int]val betwe5 ! two ev5ts4 7#b7 ,! g5]al contra/ 9 m9]alogical & *emical composition1 texture1 & m9]al associations1 betwe5 ^! ore m9]als & ! m9]als kn[n to be =m$ by ord9>y surficial ag5cies "u ord9>y temp]atures4 ,! latt] c>ry di/9ctive evid5ces ( _! orig94 ,:51 !re=e1 a m9]al gr\p is f\nd :i* %[s contra/+ evid5ces1 x is cle> t "s o!r ag5cies h be5 at "w2 & ! natural assumption is t ! solutions 7 hot r ?an cold2 t !y came f bel[ r ?an above4 7#c7 ,! contra/ betwe5 ! "* & composition ( ^! ores 7& _! associat$ gangue7 & ! "* & composition ( ! wall rocks1 toge!r ) ! abs5ce ( lea*+ ( ! wall rocks1 favor ! conclusion t ! ore m9]als are =eign sub/ances introduc$ f extrane\s s\rces4 ,! s\rce n be+ app>5t above & ! processes !re obs]v$ n be+ ( a k9d to produce ^! results1 x is conclud$ t ! deposit+ solutions 7 hot & came f bel[4 7#d7 ,! fact t _m ( ! ore m9]als are nev] kn[n to develop "u ord9>y temp]atures at ! surface4 ,= "s ( !m1 exp]im5tal "w has also indicat$ high temp]ature z a requisite to _! =mation4 ,qu>tz1 :i* is a common associate ( ! ores & (t5 con/itutes ! pr9cipal gangue1 s]ves z a geologic !rmomet] 9 t x possesses an inv]sion po9t or temp]ature above :i* x cry/allizes 9 a c]ta9 =m1 bel[ :i* 9 ano!r4 ,9 deposits ( ?is class x has (t5 be5 f\nd to cry/allize at ! high] temp]atures4 ,! qu>tz sometimes %[s bubbles conta9+ liquid1 gas1 & small heavy cry/als1 probably ( f]ric oxide1 z 9 ! ,clifton-,mor5ci di/rict ( ,arizona4 ,x is cle> t ! ore-be>+ solutions 9 ^! cavities1 be=e ! cry/allization ( ! heavy m9]al inclusions1 held dissolv$ n only mu* l>g] quantities ( m9]al sub/ances ?an c be tak5 up by wat] at ord9>y temp]atures1 b also a sub/ance l f]ric oxide :i* is entirely insoluble "u ord9>y cool conditions4 7#e7 ,! association ( ! ores ) m9]als c>ry+ fluor9e & boron1 ) _m silicate m9]als1 su* z g>net1 amphiboles1 pyrox5es1 mica 7s]icite7 & o!rs1 & ) o!r m9]als :i* are kn[n to be *>act]i/ic developm5ts )9 or ne> igne\s masses & :i* are n kn[n to =m "u wea!r+ ag5cies at ! surface4 ,v>i\s *>act]i/ic gr\p+s ( ^! associat$ m9]als are not$4 ,9 lime/one mu* ( ! mass may be replac$ by g>net & o!r silicates 9 a matrix ( qu>tz4 ,9 igne\s rock ! ore-be>+ solutions may h alt]$ ! wall rock to a d5se mixture ( qu>tz1 s]icite1 & *lorite4 ,:]e s]icite is dom9ant1 ! alt]ation is call$ s]icitic alt]ation4 ,:]e *lorite is important1 x is sometimes call$ *loritic or propylitic alt]ation4 ,! *loritic phases are usually f>!r f ! ore deposit ?an ! s]icitic phases1 indicat+ less int5se & probably cool] conditions ( deposition4 ,locally o!r m9]als are associat$ ) ! ores1 z1 = in/ance1 9 ! ,goldfield di/rict ( ,nevada 7p4 #bcj71 :]e alunite replaces ! igne\s rock4 ,alunite is a potassium-alum9um sulphate1 :i* diff]s f s]icite 9 t sulphur takes ! place ( silicon4 ,9 ! qu>tzites ( ! lead-silv] m9es ( ! ,coeur d',al5e di/rict ( ,idaho 7p4 #bab71 sid]ite or iron c>bonate is a *>act]i/ic gangue mat]ial replac+ ! wall rock4 ,qu>tz 9 "s cases1 z not$ above1 gives evid5ce ( high temp]ature orig9 & !re=e ( igne\s association4 ,jasp]oid qu>tz1 z well illu/rat$ 9 ! ,t9tic di/rict ( ,utah 7p4 #bce71 may %[ texture & cry/allization sugge/ive ( deposition f colloidal solution1--a process :i* c occur "u bo? cold & hot conditions1 b :i* is believ$ to be accel]at$ by heat4 ,c]ta9 m9]als1 su* z magnetite1 ilm5ite1 sp9el1 corundum1 etc41 are (t5 f\nd z prim>y segregations )9 ! mass ( igne\s rock4 ,^! & o!r m9]als1 includ+ m9]als ( t9 & tung/51 monazite1 t\rmal9e1 rutile1 & v>i\s preci\s /ones1 are *>act]i/ically develop$ 9 pegmatites1 :i* are kn[n to be igne\s rocks1 cry/alliz$ 9 ! lat] /ages ( igne\s intrusion4 ,:51 !re=e1 su* m9]als are f\nd 9 o!r ore deposits an igne\s s\rce is a plausible inf]5ce4 ,= in/ance1 9 ! copp] ve9s ( ,butte1 ,montana 7p4 #bja71 are f\nd cassit]ite 7t9 oxide7 & tung/5 m9]als4 ,_! pres5ce1 !re=e1 adds ano!r item to ! evid5ce ( a hot-wat] s\rce f bel[4 7#f7 ,! occasional exi/5ce ( hot spr+s 9 ! vic9ity ( ^! ore deposits4 ,:]e hot spr+s are ( rec5t age !y may sugge/ by _! heat1 /eady fl[1 & m9]al cont5t1 t !y are orig9at+ f emanations f ! /ill cool+ magmas4 ,9 ! ,tonopah camp 7p4 #bcf71 cold & hot spr+s exi/ side by side1 exhibit+ su* contra/s z to sugge/ t "s are due to ord9>y circulation f ! surface & t o!rs may h a deep s\rce bel[ 9 ! cool+ igne\s rocks4 ,?is evid5ce is n conclusive4 ,hot spr+s 9 g5]al fail to %[ evid5ce ( ore deposition on any scale approximat+ t :i* mu/ h be5 involv$ 9 ! =mation ( ?is class ( ore bodies4 ,mu* has be5 made ( ! slight am\nts ( metallic m9]als f\nd 9 a few hot spr+s1 b ! m9]al cont5t is small & ! conclusion by no means c]ta9 t ! wat]s are prim>y wat]s f ! cool+ ( igne\s rocks bel[4 ,9 ?is connection ! m]cury deposits ( ,cali=nia 7p4 #bei71 contribute a unique l9e ( evid5ce4 ,9 areas ( rec5t lavas1 m]curic sulphide 7c9nab>7 is actually be+ deposit$ f hot spr+s ( suppos$ magmatic orig91 ! wat]s ( :i* c>ry sodium c>bonate1 sodium sulphide1 & hydrog5 sulphide1--a *emical comb9ation kn[n exp]im5tally to dissolve m]cury sulphide4 ,! oxidation & neutralization ( ^! hot-spr+ solutions ne> ! surface ?r[s out ! m]cury sulphide4 ,at ! same "t ! sulphuric acid ?us =m$ ext5sively lea*es & blea*es ! surr\nd+ rocks4 ,su* blea*+ is common ab\t m]cury deposits4 ,:5 x is rememb]$ t ! m]cury deposits conta9 m9or am\nts ( gold & silv] & sulphides ( o!r metals2 t !y are closely associat$ ) gold & silv] deposits2 & fur!r t su* gold1 silv]1 & o!r sulphide deposits (t5 conta9 m9or am\nts ( m]cury1--x is easy to assume ! possibility t ^! m9]als may likewise h _h _! orig9 9 hot solutions f bel[4 ,! pres5ce ( m]cury 9 a deposit !n becomes sugge/ive ( hot-wat] conditions4 7#g7 ,ores sometimes occur 9 inv]t$ tr\ghs indicat+ lodgm5t by solutions f bel[1 z1 = in/ance1 9 ! saddle-reef gold ores ( ,nova ,scotia & ,au/ralia1 & 9 c]ta9 copp] ores ( ! ,j]ome camp ( ,arizona 7p4 #bjd47 ,?is occurr5ce does n indicate :e!r ! solutions 7 hot or cold1 magmatic or meteoric1 b 9 connection ) o!r evid5ces has sometimes be5 reg>d$ z significant ( a magmatic s\rce b5ea?4 ,p]haps no "o ( ^! l9es ( evid5ce is conclusive2 b toge!r !y make a /rong case = ! conclusion t ! solutions :i* deposit$ ! ores ( ?is class 7 hot1 came f deep s\rces1 & 7 probably prim>y solutions giv5 (f by cool+ magmas4 ,! conclusion t "s ores are d]iv$ f igne\s s\rces1 bas$ on evid5ce ( ! k9d above outl9$1 does n mean necess>ily t ! ore is d]iv$ f ! imm$iately adjac5t "p ( ! cool+ magma4 ,9 fact ! evid5ce is decisive1 9 p]haps ! majority ( cases1 t ! s\rce ( ! m9]al solutions 0 some:at bel[2 t ^! solutions may h orig9at$ 9 ! same melt+-pot ) ! magma1 b t !y came up indep5d5tly & a little lat]1--p]haps along ! same *annels1 p]haps along o!rs4 ,,possible ,,influ5ce ,,( ,,meteoric ,,wat]s ,,9 ,,deposition ,,( ,,ores ,,( ,,?is ,,class ,x is h>dly safe1 ) exi/+ k1 to apply ! above conclusion to all ore deposits ) igne\s associations1 or 9 any case to elim9ate entirely ano!r ag5cy1--namely1 gr\nd-wat]s ( surface or meteoric orig91 :i* are n[ pres5t & may be presum$ (t5 to h be5 pres5t 9 ! rocks into :i* ! ores 7 introduc$4 ,su* wat]s may h be5 heat$ & />t$ 9 vigor\s circulation by ! introduction ( igne\s masses1 & !reby may h be5 enabl$ to effectively se>* out & segregate m9utely dissem9at$ ore p>ticles f wide areas4 ,?is has be5 sugge/$ z a probability = ! ,k5necott copp] ores ( ,alaska 7p4 #bjj7 & = ! copp] ores ( ,ely1 ,nevada4 ,9 ! ,goldfield camp 7p4 #bcj7 ! ores are closely associat$ ) alunite 9 su* a mann] z to sugge/ a common orig94 ,x has be5 f\nd difficult to expla9 ! pres5ce ( ! alunite except ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( surface oxidiz+ wat]s act+ on hydrog5 sulphide com+ f bel[4 ,9 ! e>ly days ( economic geology !re 0 relatively m emphasis on ! possible effectiv5ess ( gr\nd-wat]s 9 conc5trat+ ores ( ?is type4 ,) ! recognition ( evid5ce ( a deep] s\rce relat$ to magmas1 ! emphasis has swung rapidly to ! o!r extreme4 ,:ile ! evid5ce is s\nd t ! magmatic process has be5 an important "o1 x is difficult to see h[ & to j :at ext5t ?is process may h be5 relat$ to ! action ( gr\nd-wat]s1--:i* 7 probably pres5t 9 a heat$ condition ne> ! contact4 ,x may nev] be possible to discrim9ate closely betwe5 ^! two ag5cies4 ,x seems likely t at "s /ages ! two 7 s intimately associat$ t ! net result ( deposition _c be specifically assign$ ei!r to "o or to ! o!r4 ,,zonal ,,arrangem5t ,,( ,,m9]als ,,relat$ ,,to ,,igne\s ,,rocks ,evid5ce is accumulat+ 9 _m m9+ di/ricts t ore deposits ( ^! igne\s associations 7 deposit$ ) a r\gh zonal arrangem5t ab\t ! igne\s rock4 ,at ,b+ham1 ,t9tic1 & ,butte 7pp4 #bjd1 #bjh1 #bce71 copp] ores are on ! :ole close/ to ! igne\s rock1 & ! lead1 z9c1 & silv] ores are f>!r away4 ,fur!rmore1 ! qu>tz gangue ne> ! igne\s rock is likely to conta9 m9]als *>act]i/ic ( hot solutions1 :ile f>!r away su* m9]als z dolomite & calcite appe> 9 ! gangue1 sugge/ive ( cool] conditions4 ,9 ,cornwall 7p4 #bfb71 t9 ores occur close to ! intrusives1 & lead-silv] ores f>!r away4 ,! gradations are by no means uni=m2 %oots ( "o class ( ore may locally cut abruptly across or ?r\gh ^? ( ano!r class4 ,! exi/5ce ( zones horizontally or areally arrang$ ab\t intrusives sugge/s also ! possibility ( a v]tical zonal arrangem5t ) ref]5ce to ! deep s\rces ( ! solutions4 ,( c\rse :5 second>y conc5tration f ! surface1 describ$ lat]1 is tak5 into acc\nt1 !re may be a m>k$ zonal di/ribution 9 a v]tical direction1 b ?is is n prim>y zon+4 ,a few ve9s & di/ricts %[ evid5ce ( v]tical zon+ app>5tly relat$ to prim>y deposition2 = ! mo/ "p1 h[ev]1 9 any "o m9e or camp !re is yet little evid5ce ( prim>y v]tical zon+4 ,on ! o!r h&1 c]ta9 gr\ps ( m9]als are *>act]i/ic ( int5se conditions ( heat & pressure1 z indicat$ by ! co>se recry/allization & high degree ( metamorphism ( ! rocks ) :i* !y are associat$2 & o!r gr\ps h su* associations z to indicate mu* less int5se conditions ( temp]ature & pressure4 ,dep? is only "o factor det]m9+ int5sity ( conditions1 b x af=ds a conv5i5t way to indicate !m2 s m9]al deposits associat$ ) igne\s rocks are sometimes classifi$ by economic geologi/s on ! basis ( deep1 int]m$iate1 & %all[ dep?s ( =mation4 ,!re are a consid]able numb] ( m9]als :i* are =m$ 9 all ?ree ( ^! zones1 al?\gh 9 diff]+ proportions4 ,!re are comp>atively few :i* are uni=mly *>act]i/ic ( a s+le zone4 ,on ! :ole1 x is possible to contra/ satisfactorily m9]al deposits repres5t+ v int5se metamorphic conditions1 usually associat$ ) =mation at great dep?1 ) ^? =m$ at or ne> ! surface2 b !re are _m deposits ) int]m$iate *>act]i/ics :i* x is difficult to place satisfactorily4 ,! accessible deposits ( ! deep zone are associat$ ) plutonic igne\s rocks :i* h be5 deeply erod$1 & n ) surface lavas4 ,!y are *>act]iz$ by m9]als ( gold1 t91 iron1 titanium1 z9c1 & copp]1 & sometimes ( tung/5 & molybd5um1 9 a gangue ( qu>tz1 :i* conta9s also m9]als su* z g>net1 corundum1 amphibole1 pyrox5e1 t\rmal9e1 sp9el1 & mica4 ,! deep-zone m9]als are n unlike ! pegmatite m9]als 9 _! gr\p+ & associations4 ,deposits =m$ at %all[ dep?s are relat$ to extrusive rocks & to intrusives ne> ! surface4 ,erosion has n be5 deep4 ,m]cury1 silv] & gold 7tellurides1 native metals1 & silv] sulphides71 antimony1 lead1 & z9c m9]als are *>act]i/ic1 toge!r ) alunite1 adul>ia1 & b>ite4 ,metallic copp] also is n infrequ5t4 ,v (t5 ! gangue mat]ial is m l>gely calcite ?an qu>tz1 :]eas calcite is n pres5t 9 ! deep zone4#e ,! tr5d ( evid5ce 9 rec5t ye>s has favor$ ! conclusion t ! pr9cipal ores associat$ ) igne\s rocks h n develop$ at v great dep?s4 ,ev5 )9 our n>r[ range ( obs]vation !re is a diff]5ce 9 favor ( ! %all[] dep?s1 & ! greate/ dep?s we c obs]ve are aft] all b trivial on ! scale ( ! e>?4 ,a survey ( ! ore deposits ( ,utah has sugge/$ ! g5]alization t ores are m commonly relat$ to intrusive /ocks ?an to ! =ms kn[n z laccoli?s1 & t )9 & ab\t intrusive /ocks ! ores are mu* m abundant ne> ! top or apex ( a /ock ?an l[] d[n4#f ,9 p>ts ( ! region :]e erosion has remov$ all b ! deep] portions ( ! /ocks1 ore bodies are less abundant4 ,x w be ( int]e/ to foll[ ! te/+ ( ?is g5]alization 9 o!r p>ts ( ! _w4 ,! sci5ti/ is con/antly grop+ = und]ly+ simple tru?4 ,su* glimpses ( ord] & symmetry 9 ! di/ribution ( ore ar\nd igne\s rocks z are af=d$ by ! facts above /at$1 tempt ! imag9ation to a conception ( a simple type or patt]n ( ore di/ribution ar\nd intrusions4 ,= ?is reason we %\ld n lose sight ( ! fact t1 9 ! pres5t /ate ( k1 ! common & obvi\s case is "o ( irregul> & het]og5e\s di/ribution1 & t !re are _m v>iations & contradictions ev5 to ! simple/ g5]alization t c be made4 ,! obs]v] is repeat$ly /ruck by ! freaki% di/ribution ( ores ab\t igne\s masses1 z comp>$ ) _! regul>ity ( arrangem5t "u s$im5t>y processes to be discuss$ lat]4 ,x is yet unexpla9$ h[ an intrusive l ! ,butte granite c produce s _m diff]5t types ( ores at diff]5t places along its p]iph]y or )9 its mass1 & yet all app>5tly "u mu* ! same g5]al conditions & range ( "t4 ,x is difficult also to disc]n ! laws "u :i* successive migrations ( magma1 f :at seems to be a s+le deep-seat$ s\rce or melt+-pot1 may c>ry widely contra/+ m9]al solutions4 ,f> bel[ ! surface1 beyond our range ( obs]vation1 x is cle> t !re is a wond]ful laboratory = ! comp\nd+ & ref9em5t ( ores1 b z to its precise location & ! nature ( its processes we c only guess4 ,o!r features ( di/ribution ( m9]als associat$ ) igne\s rocks are indicat$ by _! gr\p+ 9 metallog5ic prov9ces & epo*s 7see pp4 #cjh-cji74 ,,! ,,relation ,,( ,,contact ,,metamorphism ,,to ,,ore ,,bodies ,,( ,,! ,,=ego+ ,,class4 ,! deposition ( ores ( igne\s s\rce 9 ! c\ntry rock into :i* ! igne\s rocks are intrud$ is a phase ( contact metamorphism4 ,ord9>ily :]e ?is deposition occurs !re are fur!r ext5sive replacem5ts & alt]ations ( ! c\ntry rock1 result+ 9 ! developm5t ( great masses ( qu>tz1 g>net1 pyrox5e1 amphibole1 & o!r silicates1 & 9 "s cases ( calcite1 dolomite1 sid]ite1 b>ite1 alunite1 & o!r m9]als4 ,look$ at broadly1 ! deposition ( ores at igne\s contacts "u contact metamorphism is a m]e incid5t 9 ! mu* m widespread & ext5sive alt]ations ( ?is k9d4 ,h5ce x is t ! subject ( contact metamorphism is ( int]e/ to economic geologi/s4 ,! m9]als "h =m$ :i* d n con/itute ores ?r[ mu* light on ! nature ( ! ore-be>+ solutions1 ! conditions ( temp]ature & pressure1 & ! processes :i* locally & incid5tally develop ! ore bodies4 ,! subject1 h[ev]1 is a complex "o1 ! full discussion ( :i* belongs 9 treatises on metamorphism4#g ,we may note only a few sali5t features4 ,= _m hundr$s ( y>ds ! rocks adjac5t to ! intrusions may be metamorphos$ almo/ beyond recognition4 ,?is is especially true ( ! lime/one1 :i* may be *ang$ completely to solid masses ( qu>tz & silicates4 ,! %ales & s&/ones are ord9>ily less vitally affect$4 ,! %ales become d5se1 highly cry/all9e rocks ( a horn/one type1 ) porphyritic developm5ts ( silicate m9]als4 ,! s&s & s&/ones become highly cry/all9e qu>tzites1 spott$ ) porphyritic developm5ts ( silicates4 ,occasionally ev5 ^! rocks may be ext5sively replac$ by o!r m9]als1 z 9 ! ,coeur d',al5e di/rict1 :]e qu>tzites adjac5t to ! ore ve9s may be completely replac$ by iron c>bonate4 ,a "q ( special int]e/ to economic geologi/s is ! s\rce ( ! mat]ials = ! new m9]als 9 ^! ext5sively alt]$ zones4 ,9 "s cases ! m9]als are kn[n to be ! result ( recry/allization ( mat]ials already 9 ! rock1 aft] ! elim9ation ( c]ta9 sub/ances su* z c>bon dioxide & lime1 "u ! pressures & temp]atures ( ! contact conditions4 ,9 su* cases !re has obvi\sly be5 l>ge r$uction 9 volume to close ! voids creat$ by ! elim9ation ( sub/ances4 ,9 ! majority ( cases1 ! new sub/ances or m9]als are cle>ly introduc$ f ! igne\s s\rce1 replac+ ! wall rock volume = volume s precisely t su* orig9al textures & /ructures z b$d+ are n de/roy$4 ,9 _m cases ! result is cle>ly due to a comb9ation ( recry/allization ( mat]ials already pres5t & introduction ( m9]als by magmatic solutions f )\t4 ,s obvi\s is ! evid5ce ( ! introduction ( mat]ials f )\t1 t !re has be5 a t5d5cy 9 "s qu>t]s to ov]look ! ext5sive recry/allization ( sub/ances already pres5t2 & ! v>y+ emphasis plac$ on ^! two processes by diff]5t obs]v]s has l$ to "s controv]sy4 ,,second>y ,,conc5tration ,,9 ,,place ,,( ,,! ,,=ego+ ,,classes ,,( ,,m9]al ,,deposits ,,?r\gh ,,! ,,ag5cy ,,( ,,surface ,,solutions ,m9]al deposits ( direct magmatic segregation are seldom mu* affect$ by surficial alt]ation1 p]haps because ( _! co>se cry/allization & _! int]m+l+ ) resi/ant cry/all9e rocks4 ,m9]al deposits ( ! igne\s aft]-effect type may be pr(\ndly alt]$ ?r\gh surficial ag5cies4 ,! m soluble con/itu5ts are tak5 away1 leav+ ! less soluble4 ,! p>ts t rema9 are likely to be conv]t$ into oxides1 c>bonates1 & hydrates1 ?r\gh reaction ) oxyg51 c>bon dioxide1 & wat]1 :i* are always pres5t at ! surface & at %all[ dep?s4 ,^! processes are mo/ effective at ! surface & d[n to ! level ( p]man5t gr\nd-wat]1 ?\gh locally !y may ext5d deep]4 ,?is alt]$ upp] "p ( ! ore bodies is usually call$ ! oxide zone4 ,x may repres5t ei!r an enri*m5t or a depletion ( ore values1 dep5d+ on :e!r ! ore m9]als are tak5 into solution less rapidly or m rapidly ?an ! associat$ m9]als & rocks2 all are remov$ to "s ext5t4 ,9 c]ta9 deposits1 !re is evid5ce t bo? z9c & copp] h be5 tak5 out ( ! upp] zone 9 great quantity2 b !y happ5 to be associat$ ) lime/one1 :i* has dissolv$ /ill m rapidly1 ) ! result t !re is a residual accumulation ( copp] & z9c values4 ,manganese1 iron1 & qu>tz are usually m resi/ant ?an ! o!r m9]als & t5d to rema9 conc5trat$ above4 ,! same is true to "s ext5t ( gold & silv]4 ,! abundance ( iron oxide ?us left expla9s ! "n iron cap or gossan s (t5 appli$ to ! upp] "p ( ! oxide zone4 ,n infrequ5tly1 & especially 9 copp] ores1 ! upp] "p ( ! oxide zone is ne>ly or entirely b>r5 ( values & is call$ ! capp+4 ,! dep? or ?ickness ( ! oxide zone dep5ds on topography1 dep? ( wat] table1 climatic conditions1 & spe$ ( erosion4 ,a =tunate comb9ation ( conditions may result 9 a deep oxide zone ) important accumulations ( values4 ,9 o!r cases erosion may foll[ oxidation s rapidly z to prev5t ! gr[? ( a ?ick oxide zone4 ,x is cle> f ! /udy ( _m ore deposits t ! process ( oxidation has n proce$$ uni=mly to ! pres5t1 b has dep5d$ ^u a =tunate comb9ation ( factors :i* has n be5 (t5 repeat$ dur+ geologic "t4 ,z illu/rative ( ?is1 ! pr9cipal oxidation ( ! ,bisbee copp] ores ( ,arizona 7p4 #bjd7 occurr$ be=e ,t]ti>y "t1 ) ref]5ce to a place t has s9ce be5 cov]$ by lat] s$im5ts4 ,! conditions 9 ! ,ray1 ,miami1 & ,j]ome copp] camps ( ,arizona 7pp4 #bjc-bje7 likewise indicate maximum oxidation at an e>ly p]iod4 ,! ,lake ,sup]ior iron ore deposits 7pp4 #afg-agj7 7 ma9ly conc5trat$ be=e ,cambrian "t1 dur+ ! base-level+ ( a m\nta9\s c\ntry 9 an arid or semi-arid climate4 ,! oxide zone ( ^! deposits has no close relation to ! pres5t topography or to ! pres5t gr\nd-wat] level4 ,9 ! ,k5necott 7,alaska7 copp] deposits all oxidation has be5 /opp$ s9ce glacial "t by ! freez+ ( ! aque\s solutions4 ,at ,butte & at ,b+ham ! ma9 conc5tration ( ! ores is believ$ to h occurr$ 9 an e>li] physiographic cycle ?an ! pres5t "o4 ,! cyclic nature ( ! =mation ( oxide zones is ( comp>atively rec5t recognition1 & mu* m w d\btless be f\nd out ab\t x 9 ! comp>atively ne> future4 ,its practical be>+ on exploration is obvi\s 7see p4 #cbe74 ,x %\ld be cle>ly recogniz$ t oxidiz+ processes are n limit$ to ! zone above ! gr\nd-wat] level4 ,locally oxidiz+ solutions may p5etrate & d effective "w to mu* great] dep?s1 especially :]e ! rocks trav]s$ at high] elevations are ( su* composition or 9 su* a /age ( alt]ation z n to extract mo/ ( ! oxyg54 ,consequ5tly ! pres5ce ( oxide ores bel[ ! wat] table is n necess>ily pro( t ! wat] table has ris5 s9ce _! =mation4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! facts ( obs]vation d indicate g5]ally a m>k$ diff]5ce1 9 circulation & *emical effect1 betwe5 wat]s above & bel[ ?is horizon1 & %[ t oxidation is dom9antly accompli%$ above r ?an bel[ ?is datum surface4 ,dur+ ! =mation ( ! oxide zone1 erosion removes "s ( ! ore mat]ials entirely f ! area1 bo? me*anically & 9 solution4 ,"p ( ! mat]ial 9 solution1 h[ev]1 is kn[n to p5etrate d[nw>d & to be r$eposit$ 9 p>ts ( ! ore body bel[ ! oxide zone1--t is1 usually bel[ ! wat] table4 ,evid5ce ( ?is process is decisive 9 reg>d to sev]al m9]als4 ,copp] is kn[n to be tak5 into solution z copp] sulphate at ! surface1 & to be r$eposit$ z *alcocite :]e ^! sulphate solutions come 9 contact ) *alcopyrite or pyrite bel[4 ,n only has ! process be5 duplicat$ 9 ! laboratory1 b ! common coat+ ( *alcocite ar\nd gra9s ( pyrite & *alcopyrite bel[ ! wat] level indicates t ?is process has be5 really effective4 ,sulphides ( z9c1 lead1 silv]1 & o!r metals are simil>ly conc5trat$1 9 v>y+ degrees4 ,! zone ( deposition ( second>y sulphides ?us =m$ is call$ ! zone ( second>y sulphide enri*m5t4 ,ores consi/+ ma9ly ( second>y sulphides are also call$ sup]g5e ores 7p4 #cc74 ,9 "s deposits1 z 9 ! copp] deposits ( ,ray & ,miami1 !re is f\nd1 bel[ ! second>y sulphide zone1 a lean sulphide zone :i* is evid5tly ( prim>y nature4 ,! m9]aliz$ mat]ial ( ?is zone1 :]e too lean to m9e1 has be5 call$ a protore4 ,) ! discov]y ( und\bt$ evid5ce ( second>y sulphide enri*m5t1 !re 0 a natural t5d5cy to magnify its importance z a cause ( values4 ,cont9u$ /udy ( sulphide deposits1 :ile n disprov+ its exi/5ce & local importance1 has 9 "s di/ricts %[n cle>ly t ! process has its limitations z a factor 9 ore conc5tration1 & t x is n safe to assume its effectiv5ess 9 all camps or "u all conditions4 ,at ,butte = in/ance1 second>y *alcocite is cle>ly to be recogniz$4 ,! natural inf]5ce 0 t z ! ve9s 7 foll[$ deep] ! proportion ( *alcocite w\ld rapidly dim9i%1 & t a lean] prim>y zone ( *alcopyrite1 en>gite & o!r prim>y m9]als w\ld be met4 ,h[ev]1 ! great abundance ( *alcocite 9 solid masses :i* h n[ be5 prov$ to a dep? ( #cejj feet1 f> bel[ ! probable range ( wat]s f ! surface 9 any geologic p]iod1 seems to indicate t mu* ( ! *alcocite is prim>y4 ,! pres5t t5d5cy at ,butte is to consid] z second>y *alcocite only c]ta9 sooty phases to be f\nd 9 upp] levels4 ,! solid masses ( *alcocite 9 ! ,k5necott copp] m9es seem h>dly expla9able z ! result ( second>y sulphide enri*m5t4 ,no traces ( o!r prim>y m9]als are pres5t & ! *alcocite "h is reg>d$ z probably prim>y4 ,! possible magnification ( ! process ( second>y enri*m5t above ref]r$ to has _h = its logical consequ5ce a t5d5cy to ov]-emphasize ! p]si/5ce ( prim>y ores 9 dep?4 ,! v use ( ! t]ms second>y & prim>y has sugge/$ anti!sis betwe5 surficial & deep ores4 ,progress 9 inve/igation1 z indicat$ on previ\s pages1 seems to indicate t ! prim>y ores are n uni=mly deep & t 9 _m cases !y are di/9ctly limit$ to a giv5 set ( =mations or conditions comp>atively ne> ! surface4 ,9 g5]al ! processes ( oxidation & second>y sulphide enri*m5t h be5 /udi$ ma9ly by qualitative me?ods ) ! aid ( ! microscope & by consid]ations ( possible *emical processes4 ,^! me?ods h disclos$ ! nature b n ! quantitative range & relations ( ! diff]5t processes4 ,mu* rema9s to be done 9 ! way ( l>ge scale quantitative analysis ( ores at diff]5t dep?s1 z a *eck to inf]5ces drawn by o!r me?ods4 ,"o may "k1 = in/ance1 t a m9]al is soluble & is actually remov$ f ! oxide zone & r$eposit$ bel[4 ,! natural inf]5ce1 !re=e1 is t ! m9]al w be f\nd to be deplet$ above & enri*$ bel[4 ,9 _m cases its actual di/ribution is ! rev]se1--indicat+ t ?is process has be5 only "o ( ! factors 9 ! net result1 ! m rapid solution & deposition ( o!r mat]ials be+ ano!r factor4 ,if "o 7 to approa* ! /udy ( ! conc5tration ( iron ores ) ! fix$ idea ( insolubility ( qu>tz f a *emical /&po9t1 & 7 to draw conclusions accord+ly1 he w\ld fail to pres5t a true picture ( ! situation4 ,:ile qu>tz is insoluble z comp>$ ) mo/ m9]als1 x is nev]!less m soluble ?an iron oxide1 & !re=e ! net result ( conc5tration at ! surface is to accumulate ! iron r ?an ! silica4 ,descriptions ( enri*m5t processes z publi%$ 9 _m reports are (t5 mislead+ 9 ?is reg>d4 ,!y may be correct 9 indicat+ ! actual exi/5ce ( a process1 b may lead ! read] to assumptions z to net results :i* are incorrect4 ,,residual ,,m9]al ,,deposits ,,=m$ ,,by ,,! ,,wea!r+ ,,( ,,igne\s ,,rocks ,,9 ,,place ,igne\s rocks n conta9+ m9]al deposits may on wea!r+ *ange to m9]al deposits4 ,! lat]itic iron ores su* z ^? ( ,cuba 7p4 #agb71 _m bauxite deposits1 _m residual clays1 & c]ta9 *romite & nickel deposits are conspicu\s repres5tatives ( ?is class4 ,! *emical & m9]alogical *anges involv$ 9 ! =mation ( ^! deposits are pretty well und]/ood4 ,c]ta9 con/itu5ts ( ! orig9al rock are lea*$ out & c>ri$ away1 leav+ o!r con/itu5ts1 z oxides & hydrates1 9 suffici5tly l>ge p]c5tage 9 ! mass to be comm]cially available4 ,! accumulation ( l>ge deposits dep5ds on ! exi/5ce ( climatic & erosional conditions :i* det]m9e t ! residual deposit %all rema9 9 place r ?an be c>ri$ (f by erosion z fa/ z made4 ,9 ! glaciat$ p>ts ( ! _w1 deposits ( ?is nature h usually be5 remov$ & disp]s$ 9 ! glacial drift4 ,:5 ! m9]als ( ^! deposits are erod$1 transport$1 & r$eposit$ 9 conc5trat$ =m1 !y come "u ! class ( plac] or s$im5t>y deposits describ$ "u ! foll[+ head+4 ,!re are ( c\rse _m int]m$iate /ages1 :]e ! residual deposit is only locally mov$ & :]e ! di/9ction betwe5 ?is class ( deposits & t next describ$ is an arbitr>y "o4 ,,m9]al ,,deposits ,,=m$ ,,directly ,,z ,,plac]s ,,& ,,s$im5ts ,m9]al deposits ( ?is class are ( l>ge value1 includ+ z !y d salt1 gypsum1 pota%1 sulphur1 phosphates1 nitrates1 & important fractions ( ! ores ( iron1 manganese1 gold1 t91 tung/51 plat9um1 & preci\s /ones2 also _m common rocks ( comm]cial importance4 ,! m9]als ( ^! deposits are d]iv$ f ! wea!r+ & erosion ( l& surfaces1 ei!r igne\s or s$im5t>y4 ,!y are deposit$ bo? "u air & "u wat]1 bo? me*anically & *emically 79 "p by ! aid ( organisms74 ,^! deposits =m ! pr9cipal type ( syng5etic deposits 7p4 #cb72 ! t]m s$ig5etic deposits has also be5 appli$ to !m4 ,,me*anically ,,deposit$ ,,m9]als ,me*anical erosion ( preexi/+ m9]al deposits or rocks & _! transportation1 sort+1 & deposition are responsible = ! plac]s ( gold1 t91 tung/51 plat9um1 & v>i\s preci\s /ones1 & = c]ta9 iron s&s & conglom]ates4 ,s&s1 s&/ones1 %ales1 & c]ta9 clays & bauxites also belong 9 ?is gr\p4 ,^! deposits may be =m$ "u air or "u wat]1 & "u v>i\s climatic & topographic conditions4 ,dur+ ! process ( =mation ! m9]als ( diff]+ d5sity are m or less sort$ out & t5d to become segregat$ 9 lay]s4 ,! process is n unlike ! artificial process ( me*anical conc5tration :]e ores are cru%$1 %ak5 up1 & treat$ ) runn+ wat]4 ,! process is mo/ effective = m9]als :i* are resi/ant to abrasion & to solution1 & ( su* d5sity z to diff]5tiate !m f ! o!r m9]als ( ! p>5t rock4 ,! orig9 ( deposits ( ?is k9d is fairly obvi\s :]e !y are ( rec5t age & h n be5 subsequ5tly alt]$ or buri$4 ,a consid]able am\nt ( exp]im5tal "w has br\ght out cle>ly ! ma9 elem5ts ( ! processes4 ,physiographic & climatic conditions play an important "p1 & _c be safely ov]look$ by anyone /udy+ su* deposits4 ,ext5sive copp] deposits exi/ z s$im5ts 7pp4 #bje-bjf74 ,x is n cle> to :at ext5t !y are me*anically or to :at ext5t *emically deposit$4 ,= ! mo/ "p ! conc5tration ( copp] 9 ?is mann] has n be5 suffici5t to yield deposits ( l>ge comm]cial value2 ! m9]al is too mu* disp]s$4 ,relatively small am\nts are m9$ 9 ! ,mansfield %ales ( ,g]many & ! ,nonesu* %ales & s&/ones ( ! ,lake ,sup]ior c\ntry4 ,! ,cl9ton & simil> iron ores ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,newf\ndl&1 ! pre-,cambrian iron ores ( ,brazil1 & ! ,jurassic iron ores ( ,engl& & we/]n ,europe 7pp4 #aff-afg7 are n[ commonly agre$ to be direct s$im5t>y deposits 9 :i* me*anical ag5cies ( sort+ & deposition play$ a consid]able "p4 ,h[ f> *emical & bact]ial ag5cies h also be5 effective is n cle>4 ,! climatic1 topographic1 & o!r physiographic & s$im5t>y conditions :i* cause ! deposition ( ?is great gr\p ( ores pres5t "o ( ! great unsolv$ problems ( economic geology4 ,! /udy ( pres5t-day conditions ( deposition af=ds little clue z to ! peculi> comb9ation ( conditions :i* 0 necess>y to accompli% su* rem>kable results 9 ! pa/4 ,on ! :ole1 m9]als ( ?is me*anically deposit$ gr\p are n greatly affect$ by lat] surficial alt]ation & conc5tration1 because1 hav+ already be5 subject$ to wea!r+1 !y are 9 a condition to resi/ su* influ5ces4 ,,*emically ,,& ,,organically ,,deposit$ ,,m9]als ,! products ( surface wea!r+ & erosion are 9 "p c>ri$ away 9 *emical solution & r$eposit$ z s$im5ts4 ,s$im5ts ?us =m$ include lime/one & dolomite1 sid]ite1 salt1 gypsum1 pota%1 sulphur1 phosphates1 nitrates1 & o!r m9]als4 ,precipitation may be caus$ by *emical reactions1 by organic secretion1 or by evaporation ( ! solutions4 ,! processes are qualitatively und]/ood & x is usually possible to asc]ta9 ) reasonable accuracy ! conditions ( dep? ( wat]1 relation to %ore l9e1 climate1 nature ( erosion1 & o!r simil> factors2 yet ! va/ scale ( "s ( ^! deposits1 & _! erratic areal & /ratigraphic di/ribution1 pres5t unsolv$ problems z to ! precise comb9ations ( factors :i* h made su* results possible4 ,*emically & organically deposit$ m9]als ( ?is class are usually susceptible to fur!r alt]ation by surface wea!r+1 & "s ( !m1 = in/ance ! phosphates & sid]ites1 are ?us second>ily conc5trat$4 ,^! processes are discuss$ "u ! next head+4 ,9 g5]al ! great unsolv$ problem ( ! orig9 ( ! entire gr\p ( m9]al deposits 9 plac]s & s$im5ts relates to ! scale ( ! results4 ,obs]vation ( pres5t-day processes & conditions ( deposition ( ^! m9]als af=ds satisfactory evid5ce ( _! nature1 b fails to give u a cle> idea ( ! precise comb9ations ( ag5cies & conditions necess>y to produce su* va/ results z are repres5t$ by ! m9]al deposits4 ,= example1 solution ( iron on a l& surface & r$eposition 9 bogs & lagoons 7z actually obs]v$ to be tak+ place today7 %[ h[ "s iron-ore s$im5ts may be =m$2 b ^! processes are entirely inadequate to expla9 ! deposition ( iron ores 9 ?ick masses ov] broad areas )\t int]m+l+ ( o!r s$im5ts--z repres5t$ by ! ,cl9ton iron ores ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 ! ,jurassic ores ( ,europe & ,engl&1 & ! anci5t iron ores ( ,brazil4 ,! ,paleozoic seas 9 nor!rn & ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates encroa*$ ov] l& areas to ! nor? & ea/ & deposit$ ord9>y s$im5ts su* z s&/one1 %ale1 & lime/one4 ,sudd5ly1 )\t1 s f> z kn[n1 tapp+ any new s\rces ( supply on ! anci5t l& areas1 & )\t any yet asc]ta9able *ange 9 topographic or climatic conditions1 !y deposit$ enorm\s masses ( iron ore4 ,!re is cle>ly "s cyclic factor 9 ! situation :i* we d n yet und]/&4 ,! v>i\s deposits ( salt1 gypsum1 pota%1 sulphur1 & o!r m9]als are kn[n to be ! result ( evaporation1 & ! deposition ( ea* ( ^! m9]als is kn[n to be relat$ to ! degree ( evaporation z well z to temp]ature1 pressure1 & factors su* z mass action & cry/allization ( d\ble salts4 ,! nature ( ! processes is fairly well und]/ood2 b aga91 obs]vation ( ! pres5t-day op]ation ( ^! processes fails to give u mu* clue to ! enorm\s accumulations at c]ta9 times & places 9 ! pa/4 ,x is difficult to say j :at conditions ( climate1 9 comb9ation ) p>ticul> physiographic factors1 c\ld h pres]v$ uni=mity ( conditions = ! long p]iods necess>y to acc\nt = "s ( ! enorm\sly ?ick salt deposits4 ,aga9 "s cyclic factor 9 ! situation rema9s to be work$ out4 ,,s$im5t>y ,,m9]al ,,deposits ,,:i* ,,h ,,requir$ ,,fur!r ,,conc5tration ,,to ,,make ,,!m ,,comm]cially ,,available ,! conditions = ! direct deposition ( s$im5t>y m9]al deposits ( ! =ego+ class are also responsible = ! deposition ( m9]als 9 m disp]s$ or dissem9at$ =m1 requir+ fur!r conc5tration ?r\gh surface ag5cies to r5d] !m comm]cially available4 ,"s ( ^! deposits are discuss$ bel[4 ,! lead & z9c ores ( ! ,mississippi ,valley1 ,virg9ia1 ,t5nessee1 ,silesia1 ,belgium1 & ,g]many 7pp4 #baa-bab1 #baf-bai7 are 9 s$im5t>y rocks f> remov$ f igne\s s\rces4 ,lead & z9c 7 deposit$ 9 m or less disp]s$ =m ) ! enclos+ s$im5ts4 ,x is suppos$ t deposition 0 orig9ally *emical & 0 favor$ by ! pres5ce ( organic mat]ial1 :i* is a r common accompanim5t ( ! s$im5ts4 ,x is suppos$ fur!r t ^! organic p>ticipants 7 orig9ally localiz$ dur+ s$im5tation 9 s-call$ e/u>9e *annels & %ore-l9e embaym5ts4 ,:5 subsequ5tly expos$ to wea!r+1 ! lead & z9c m9]als 7 dissolv$ & r$eposit$ 9 m conc5trat$ =m 9 fissures & z replacem5ts ( lime/one4 ,agreem5t z to orig9 ( ^! deposits1 s f> z x exi/s1 does n g beyond ^! broad g5]alizations4 ,!re is controv]sy z to :e!r ! orig9al s\rces ( ! ore m9]als 7 ! s$im5ts directly above1 f :i* ! m9]al solutions h be5 transf]r$ d[nw>d dur+ wea!r+ & erosion1 or :e!r ! orig9al m9]als 7 bel[ & h be5 transf]r$ upw>d by artesian circulation1 or :e!r !y 7 situat$ lat]ally & h be5 br\ght to _! pres5t position by movem5t along ! b$s1 or :e!r !re has be5 "s comb9ation ( ^! processes4 ,x is ! writ]'s view t ! evid5ce ?us f> ga!r$ favors on ! :ole ! conclusion ( direct d[nw>d conc5tration f ov]ly+ s\rces :i* h be5 remov$ by erosion1 al?\gh ?is conclusion fails to expla9 :y c]ta9 sulphide deposits give s little evid5ce ( important d[nw>d transf] f _! pres5t position4 ,?is matt] is fur!r discuss$ on pages #baf-bai4 ,! *oice ( ! v>i\s alt]natives has "s practical be>+ on exploration4 ,s9ce ^! ores 7 br\ght into approximately _! pres5t position1 !y h und]gone consid]able oxidation ne> ! surface & second>y sulphide enri*m5t bel[4 ,! *emical & m9]alogical *anges are pretty well und]/ood1 b ! quantitative range ( ^! *anges & _! relative importance 9 det]m9+ ! net result are f> f kn[n4 ,und\bt$ evid5ce ( second>y sulphide enri*m5t has l$ 9 "s qu>t]s to an assumption ( effectiv5ess 9 produc+ values :i* is app>5tly n borne out by quantitative te/s4 ,a gr\p ( m9]al deposits 9 s&/ones 9 ,utah is reg>d$ z due to *emical conc5tration ( mat]ial orig9ally dissem9at$ 9 ! rock4 ,!y include silv]1 copp]1 manganese1 uranium1 & radium deposits4 ,! ,silv] ,reef deposits1 includ+ silv]1 copp]1 uranium1 & vanadium1 are comm]cially ! mo/ important ( ?is type4#h ,! ore m9]als are commonly associat$ ) c>boniz$ mat]ial repres5t+ plant rema9s1 & h replac$ ! calc>e\s & cem5t+ mat]ial ( ! rock1 & also "s ( ! qu>tz gra9s4 ,! deposits are reg>d$ z hav+ be5 =m$ by circulat+ wat]s :i* collect$ ! m9]als dissem9at$ ?r\gh ! s$im5t>y rocks1 & deposit$ !m on contact ) c>bonace\s matt]1 e>li] sulphides1 or o!r precipitat+ ag5ts4 ,! circulation 9 "s places is believ$ to h be5 ( artesian "* & to h be5 controll$ to a l>ge ext5t by /ructural features4 ,! ,silv] ,reef deposits are ne> ! cre/ ( a prom95t anticl9e4 ,mo/ ( ! m9]als h be5 lat] alt]$ by surface solutions4 ,ano!r great gr\p ( ores to be consid]$ "u ?is head are ! iron ores ( ,lake ,sup]ior1--:i* 7 orig9ally deposit$ z s$im5ts1 call$ jasp]s or iron =mations1 ) too l[ a p]c5tage ( iron to be ( use1 & :i* h requir$ a second>y conc5tration by surficial ag5cies to r5d] !m valuable4 ,! process ( conc5tration has be5 a simple "o4 ,! iron m9]als h be5 oxidiz$ 9 place & ! non-f]r\s m9]als h be5 lea*$ out1 leav+ iron ores4 ,?is process contra/s ) ! conc5tration describ$ above1 9 t !re is little evid5ce ( collection ( iron m9]als f dissem9at$ s\rces4 ,! ,lake ,sup]ior iron ores are ess5tially residual conc5trations 9 place4 ,! out/&+ problems ( second>y conc5tration relate to ! /ructural features :i* det]m9$ ! *annels ?r\gh :i* ! oxidiz+ & lea*+ wat]s work$1 & to ! topographic & climatic conditions :i* exi/$ at ! "t ! "w 0 done4 ,z ) _m o!r classes ( ores1 x 0 fir/ assum$ t ^! processes 7 relat$ to ! pres5t erosion surface2 b x is n[ kn[n t conc5tration happ5$ long ago "u conditions f> diff]5t f ^? n[ exi/+4 ,^! deposits contribute to ! rapidly accumulat+ evid5ce ( ! cyclic nature ( ore conc5tration4 ,our lea/ satisfactory k ( ! ,lake ,sup]ior ores relates to ! peculi> conditions :i* det]m9$ ! initial /age ( s$im5tation ( ! s-call$ iron =mation4 ,z 9 ! case ( ! ,cl9ton iron ores1 no pres5t-day s$im5tation gives an adequate clue4 ,/ud5ts ( ! problem h fall5 back on ! association ( ! iron =mation ) contemporane\s volcanic rocks1 z af=d+ a possible explanation ( ! wide dep>ture f ord9>y conditions ( s$im5tation evid5c$ by ^! =mations4#i ,coal deposits are direct results ( s$im5tation ( organic mat]ial4 ,!y are ma9ly accumulations ( vegetable matt] 9 place4 ,to make !m available = use1 h[ev]1 !y und]go a long p]iod ( cond5sation & di/illation4 ,conditions ( prim>y deposition may be inf]r$ f mod]n swamps & bogs2 b1 z 9 ! case ( s$im5ts describ$ "u ! prec$+ head+1 we are sometimes at a loss to expla9 ! magnitude ( ! process1 & especially to expla9 ! ma9t5ance ( prop] surface conditions ( plant gr[? & accumulation = ! long p]iods dur+ :i* subsid5ce ( l& areas & encroa*m5t ( seas are believ$ to h be5 tak+ place4 ,! processes ( second>y conc5tration are also und]/ood qualitatively1 b mu* rema9s to be le>n$ ab\t ! influ5ces ( pressure & heat1 ! effect ( imp]vi\s capp+ rocks1 & o!r factors4 ,v>i\s oil %ales & asphaltic deposits are ess5tially orig9al s$im5ts :i* h subsequ5tly und]gone m or less decay & di/illation4 ,! migration ( ! di/illates to suitable und]gr\nd res]voirs is responsible = ! accumulation ( oil & gas pools4 ,oil & gas are di/illates f ^! oil %ales & asphaltic deposits1 & also f o!r organic s$im5ts su* z c>bonace\s lime/ones4 ,! di/illates h migrat$ to _! pres5t positions "u pressure ( gr\nd-wat]s4 ,! /ratigraphic horizons favorable to _! accumulation are g5]ally recogniz$4 ,! geologi/ is conc]n$ 9 id5tify+ ^! horizons & 9 asc]ta9+ :]e !y exi/ und]gr\nd4 ,he is fur!r conc]n$ 9 analysis ( ! v>i\s /ructural conditions :i* w give a clue to ! exi/5ce ( local res]voirs 9 :i* ! oil or gas may h be5 accumulat$4 ,s caprici\s are ! oil migrations t ! mo/ int5sive /udy ( ^! conditions /ill leaves va/ undiscov]$ possibilities4 ,,anamorphism ,,( ,,m9]al ,,deposits ,m9]al deposits =m$ 9 any "o ( ! ways indicat$ above may und]go repeat$ vicissitudes1 bo? at ! surface & deep bel[ ! surface1 ) consequ5t modifications ( "*4 ,!y may be cem5t$ or replac$ by introduction ( m9]al solutions f )\t4 ,!y may be de=m$ by great e>? pressures1 und]go+ :at is call$ dynamic metamorphism 7pp4 #be-bg71 :i* t5ds to di/ort !m & give !m s*i/ose & cry/all9e *>act]s4 ,!y may be intrud$ by igne\s rocks1 caus+ consid]able *emical1 m9]alogical1 & /ructural *anges4 ,all ^! *anges may take place ne> ! surface1 b on ! :ole !y are m abundant & h m m>k$ effects deep bel[ ! surface4 ,9 g5]al all ^! *anges ( ! deep] zone t5d to make ! rocks m cry/all9e & d5se & to make ! m9]als m complex4 ,cavities are clos$4 ,! process is 9 ! ma9 an integrat+ & con/ructive "o :i* has be5 call$ anamorphism1 to contra/ x ) ! dis9tegrat+ & de/ructive processes ne> ! surface1 :i* h be5 call$ katamorphism 7see also pp4 #bg-bh74 ,!re is little 9 ! process ( anamorphism 9 ! way ( sort+ & segregation :i* t5ds to enri* & conc5trate ! metallic ore bodies4 ,on ! contr>y ! process t5ds to lock up ! valuable m9]als 9 resi/ant comb9ations ) o!r sub/ances1 mak+ !m m difficult to recov] 9 m9+4 ,lat] igne\s intrusions or ! ord9>y gr\nd-wat]s may br+ 9 m9]als :i* locally enri* ores "u anamorphic conditions1 b ^! are relatively m9or effects4 ,an illu/ration ( ! g5]al effect is af=d$ by a comp>ison ( ! ,cuban iron ores1 :i* are s(t & c be easily tak5 out1 ) ! ,cle ,elum iron ores ( ,wa%+ton1 :i* seem to be ( mu* ! same orig91 b :i* h subsequ5tly be5 buri$ by o!r rocks & r5d]$ h>d & cry/all9e4 ,9 ! fir/ case ! ores c be m9$ easily & *eaply ) /eam %ovels at ! surface4 ,9 ! second1 und]gr\nd me?ods ( m9+ are requir$1 :i* co/ too mu* = ! grade ( ore recov]$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! same g5]al k9d ( anamorphic processes1 :5 appli$ to coal1 result 9 conc5tration & improvem5t ( grade4 ,! same is true up to a c]ta9 po9t 9 ! conc5tration ( oil2 b :]e ! process goes too f>1 ! oil may be lo/ 7pp4 #adj-ada74 ,,conclusion ,m9]al deposits are =m$ & modifi$ by practically all kn[n geologic processes1 b look$ at broadly ! ma9 values are produc$ 9 ?ree pr9cipal ways3 7#a7 ,z aft] effects ( igne\s intrusion1 ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( aque\s & gase\s solutions giv5 (f f ! cool+ magma4 7#b7 ,?r\gh ! sort+ processes ( s$im5tation1--! same processes :i* =m s&/one1 %ale1 & lime/one4 ,organic ag5cies are important factors 9 ^! processes4 7#c7 ,?r\gh wea!r+ ( ! rock surface 9 place1 :i* may develop values ei!r by dissolv+ out ! valuable m9]als & r$eposit+ !m 9 conc5trat$ =m1 or by dissolv+ out ! non-valuable m9]als & leav+ ! valuable m9]als conc5trat$ 9 place4 ,! latt] process is by f> ! m important4 ,! ov]:elm+ prepond]ance ( values ( m9]al deposits z a :ole is f\nd 9 ! second ( ! classes nam$4 ,"u all ^! conditions x appe>s t ! maximum results are obta9$ at & ne> ! surface4 ,on ! scale ( ! e>? ev5 ! s-call$ deep ve9s may be reg>d$ z deposits f solutions rea*+ ! m op5 & cool] out] portions ( ! e>?4 ,h[ev]1 valuable m9]al deposits are f\nd 9 ! deepe/ rocks :i* h be5 expos$ by erosion1 & ! "q ( :at w\ld be f\nd at /ill great] dep?s1 clos] to ! c5t] ( ! e>?1 is a matt] ( pure speculation4 ,ultimately all m9]als are d]iv$ f igne\s s\rces )9 ! e>?4 ,! direct contributions f ^! s\rces are only 9 small "p ( suffici5t conc5tration to be ( value2 = ! mo/ "p !y ne$ sort+ & segregation "u surface conditions4 ,we c only speculate z to causes ( ! occurr5ce ( valuable m9]als 9 c]ta9 igne\s rocks & n 9 o!rs4 ,_m granites are intrud$ into ! out] %ell ( ! e>?1 b only a few c>ry m9]als2 also1 ( a s]ies ( intrusions 9 ! same locality1 only "o may c>ry valuable m9]als4 ,x is cle> t 9 "s fa%ion ^! m9]als are prim>ily segregat$ )9 ! e>?4 ,causes ( ?is segregation are s involv$ ) ! problem ( ! orig9 ( ! e>? z a :ole t no adequate explanation c yet be (f]$4 ,our inductive reason+ f kn[n facts is z yet limit$ to ! segregation )9 a giv5 mass ( magma1 & ev5 "h ! conditions are only dimly p]ceiv$4 ,a discussion ( ^! ultimate problems is beyond ! scope ( ?is book4 ,,footnotes3 #d ,ransome1 ,fr$]ick ,leslie1 ,copp] deposits ne> ,sup]ior1 ,arizona3 ,bull4 #edj1 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,survey1 #aiad1 pp4 #aeb-aec2 ,! copp] deposits ( ,ray & ,miami1 ,arizona3 ,pr(4 ,pap] #aae1 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,survey1 #aiai1 p4 #aef2 ,discussion3 ,econ4 ,geol41 vol4 #h1 #aiac1 p4 #gba4 #e ,= m specific def9itions ( v]tical zones ( ore deposition 9 association ) igne\s rocks see ,spurr1 ,j4 ,e41 ,!ory ( ore deposition3 ,econ4 ,geol41 vol4 #g1 #aiab1 pp4 #dhi-dij2 ,l9dgr51 ,w41 ,m9]al deposits1 ,mc,graw-,hill ,book ,co41 #b;d ed41 #aiai1 ,*apt]s ,,xxiv-,,xxvi2 & ,emmons1 ,w4 ,h41 ,! pr9ciples ( economic geology1 ,mc,graw-,hill ,book ,co41 #aiah1 ,*apt]s ,,vi-,,viii4 ,an excell5t discussion ( a case ( v]tical & areal zon+ ( m9]als is conta9$ 9 ,ore deposits ( ! ,b\ld] ba?oli? ( ,montana1 by ,paul ,bill+sley & ,j4 ,a4 ,grimes1 ,bull4 ,am4 ,in/4 ,m94 ,engrs41 vol4 #eh1 #aiah1 pp4 #bhd-cfh4 #f ,butl]1 ,b4 ,s41 ,l\ghl91 ,g4 ,f41 ,heikes1 ,v4 ,c41 & o!rs1 ,! ore deposits ( ,utah3 ,pr(4 ,pap] #aaa1 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,survey1 #aibj1 p4 #bja4 #g ,lei?1 ,c4 ,k41 & ,mead1 ,w4 ,j41 ,metamorphic ,geology1 ,pt4 #b1 ,h5ry ,holt & ,company1 ,new ,york1 #aiae4 #h ,butl]1 ,b4 ,s41 ,l\ghl91 ,g4 ,f41 ,heikes1 ,v4 ,c41 & o!rs1 ,! ore deposits ( ,utah3 ,pr(4 ,pap] #aaa1 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,survey1 #aibj1 pp4 #aeb-aeh4 #i ,van ,hise1 ,c4 ,r41 & ,lei?1 ,c4 ,k41 ,geology ( ! ,lake ,sup]ior region4 ,mon4 #eb1 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,survey1 #aiaa1 pp4 #ejf-eah2 & ref]5ces !re giv54 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,m9]al ,,res\rces--,,"s ,,g5]al ,,quantitative ,,consid]ations ,( ! #a1ejj kn[n m9]al species1 p]haps #bjj figure 9 comm]ce z m9]al res\rces4 ,= ! m9]al sub/ances us$ comm]cially1 ! t]m m9]al is us$ 9 ?is *apt] ) a broad significance to cov] any or all ( ! mat]ials f :i* ! ne$$ elem5ts are extract$1--:e!r ^! mat]ials be s+le m9]als or gr\ps ( m9]als2 :e!r !y be rocks or ores2 :e!r !y be liquid or solid4 ,! foll[+ figures are g5]alizations bas$ on ! miscellane\s in=mation available4 ,! purpose is to indicate ! g5]al p]spective r ?an ! detail :i* w\ld be necess>y = precise /atem5t4 ,,_w ,,annual ,,production ,,( ,,m9]als ,,9 ,,%ort ,,tons ,exclusive ( wat]1 b inclusive ( petroleum1 ! _w's annual output ( m9]al res\rces am\nts to two billions ( tons4 ,?is figure ref]s to ! crude m9]al z x comes f ! gr\nd & n to ! m9]al 9 its conc5trat$ =m4 ,( ?is total extraction1 coal am\nts to ne>ly #gj p] c5t1 /one & clay #aj p] c5t1 iron ore ab\t #i p] c5t1 petroleum #d p] c5t1 copp] ore #c p] c5t1 & all ! rema9+ m9]als con/itute less ?an #f p] c5t4 ,if spread out on ! surface 9 a uni=m mass ) an e/imat$ av]age d5sity bas$ on relative proportions ( ! crude m9]als1 ?is annual production w\ld cov] a squ>e mile to a dep? ( #b1cjj feet4 ,( ! total annual production #he p] c5t comes f c\ntries bord]+ ! ,nor? ,atlantic bas92 #ge p] c5t is acc\nt$ = by ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,engl&1 & ,g]many2 ! ,unit$ ,/ates has #ci p] c5t ( ! total1 ,engl& #ah p] c5t1 & ,g]many #ah p] c5t4 ,by cont95ts1 ,europe acc\nts = ne>ly #ea p] c5t1 ,nor? ,am]ica = ne>ly #db p] c5t1 ,asia = ne>ly #d p] c5t1 & ! rema9+ cont95ts = ne>ly #d p] c5t4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates m9]al production 9 rec5t ye>s has be5 ab\t #ijj1jjj1jjj tons4 ,accord+ to ! ,unit$ ,/ates c5sus ( #aibj1 ne>ly half ( all ! e/abli%m5ts or bus9esses engag$ 9 qu>ry+ or m9+ op]ations 9 ?is c\ntry are op]at+ 9 oil & gas4 ,( ! crude mat]ials extract$ f ! gr\nd p]haps #aj p] c5t1 includ+ gold1 silv]1 copp]1 lead1 z9c1 nickel1 & o!r ores1 are conc5trat$ ma9ly at ! m9e1 ) ! result t ?is fraction ( ! tonnage 9 l>ge "p does n travel beyond ! m9e4 ,ab\t #ij p] c5t ( ! total production1 !re=e1 figures l>gely 9 ! transportation ( m9]al res\rces4 ,x is e/imat$ t r\ghly two-?irds ( ! annual _w production is us$ or smelt$ )9 ! c\ntries ( orig91 ! rema9+ "o-?ird be+ export$4 ,( ! m9]als mov+ int]nationally1 coal & iron con/itute #ij p] c5t ( ! tonnage4 ,! metal smelt+ capacity ( ! _w 9 t]ms ( ye>ly production ( crude metal is e/imat$ at ne>ly #ajj1jjj1jjj %ort tons4 ,( ?is am\nt ab\t #hj p] c5t is locat$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,engl&1 & ,g]many4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates alone has ov] half ( ! total4 ,( ! oil-ref9+ capacity ! ,unit$ ,/ates controls ne>ly #gj p] c5t4 ,"o ( ! significant features ( ! situation above summ>iz$ is ! conc5tration ( production & smelt+ 9 a comp>atively few places 9 ! _w4 ,?is /atem5t applies ) ev5 m =ce to ! individual m9]al commodities4 ,wat] may be reg>d$ z a m9]al res\rce 9 s f> z x is utiliz$ z a commodity = dr9k+1 wa%+1 p[]1 irrigation1 & o!r indu/rial uses4 ,= purposes ( navigation & dra9age1 or z a det]r5t 9 excavation1 x w\ld probably n be s class$4 ,:ile x is n easy to def9e ! limits ( wat]'s use z a m9]al res\rce1 x is cle> t ev5 ) a n>r[ int]pretation ! total tonnage extract$ f ! e>? z a m9]al res\rce exce$s 9 am\nt all o!r m9]al res\rces comb9$4 ,,_w ,,annual ,,production ,,( ,,m9]als ,,9 ,,t]ms ,,( ,,value ,9 t]ms ( value1 m9]al res\rces appe> 9 diff]5t p]spective4 ,! annual _w value ( m9]al production1 exclusive ( wat]1 is approximately #i1jjj1jjj1jjj4 ,?is figure is obta9$ by divid+ ! annual value ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates output ( ea* ( ! pr9cipal m9]als by ! p]c5tage :i* ! ,unit$ ,/ates output con/itutes 9 ! _w output1 & add+ ! figures ?us obta9$4 ,! values "h us$ are ma9ly sell+ prices at ! m9es4 ,x is impossible to r$uce ! figures absolutely to ! value ( ! m9]al z x comes f ! gr\nd2 !re are always "s items ( transportation includ$4 ,?is me?od ( figur+ is ( c\rse only ! r\ghe/ approximation2 ! values z obta9$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates _c be accurately ext]polat$ = ! re/ ( ! _w because ( locally v>y+ conditions4 ,h[ev]1 ! figures w s]ve = r\gh comp>ative purposes4 ,( ?is total value coal repres5ts r\ghly #fa p] c5t1 petroleum #ab p] c5t1 iron #f p] c5t1 copp] #e p] c5t1 & gold #c p] c5t4 ,9 t]ms ( value1 ab\t #be p] c5t ( ! _w's m9]al production is available = export beyond ! c\ntries ( orig94 ,( ?is exportable surplus ! ,unit$ ,/ates has ab\t #dj p] c5t1 consi/+ pr9cipally ( coal1 copp]1 & =m]ly petroleum4 ,! value ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates annual m9]al production 9 rec5t ye>s has be5 f ab\t #c1ejj1jjj1jjj to #e1ejj1jjj1jjj4 ,annual imports ( m9]al products into ! ,unit$ ,/ates h av]ag$ rec5tly 9 ! g5]al vic9ity ( #dej1jjj1jjj1 ! l>g] items be+ copp]1 t91 f]tiliz]s1 petroleum1 gems & preci\s /ones1 manganese1 nickel1 & tung/54 ,aga9 ! p]spective is *ang$ :5 ! value ( wat] res\rces is consid]$4 ,z a physiologically indisp5sable res\rce1 ! value ( wat] 9 "o s5se is inf9ite4 ,!re is no way ( putt+ an accurate value on ! total annual output us$ = dr9k+ & dome/ic purposes1--al?\gh ev5 "h "s notion ( ! magnitude ( ! figures involv$ may be obta9$ by consid]+ ! av]age p] capita co/ ( wat] 9 cities :]e figures are kept1 & multiply+ ?is into ! _w population4 ,?is calculation w\ld n imply t any su* am\nt is actually paid = wat]1 because ! local use ( spr+s1 wells1 & /reams c h>dly be figur$ on a ca% basis2 b1 if human ef=t ! _w ov] 9 secur+ ! necess>y wat] is ab\t z effici5t z 9 ! av]age ,am]ican city1 ! figures w\ld indicate ! total money equival5t ( ?is ef=t4 ,,significance ,,( ,,geographic ,,di/ribution ,,( ,,m9]al ,,production ,! rem>kable conc5tration ( ! _w's m9+ & smelt+ ar\nd ! ,nor? ,atlantic bas91 indicat$ by ! =ego+ figures1 does n mean t nature has conc5trat$ ! m9]al deposits "h to ?is ext5t4 ,x is an expression r ( ! localiz$ application ( en]gy to m9]al res\rces by ! p ( ?is "p ( ! _w4 ,! application ( ! same am\nt ( en]gy 9 o!r p>ts ( ! _w w\ld ess5tially *ange ! di/ribution ( curr5t m9]al production4 ,! controll+ factor is n ! am\nt ( m9]als pres5t 9 ! gr\nd2 ?is is kn[n to be l>ge 9 o!r p>ts ( ! _w & m w be f\nd :5 necess>y4 ,controll+ factors mu/ be look$ = 9 hi/orical1 e?nological1 & environm5tal conditions4 ,?is subject is fur!r discuss$ 9 ! *apt]s on ! sev]al res\rces1 & p>ticul>ly 9 relation to iron & /eel4 ,,! ,,increas+ ,,rate ,,( ,,production ,! extraction ( m9]al res\rces on ! huge scale above indicat$ is ( comp>atively rec5t date4 ,f #ahhj to ! end ( #aiah ! value ( ! annual m9]al production ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates has increas$ f #cfg1jjj1jjj to m ?an #e1ejj1jjj1jjj1 or ne>ly fifte5 times2 measur$ 9 ano!r way1 x has increas$ f a little ov] #g p] capita to m ?an #eb4aj ,m coal has be5 m9$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates s9ce #aije ?an 9 all ! prec$+ hi/ory ( ! c\ntry4 ,m iron ore has be5 m9$ s9ce #aijf ?an 9 all ! prec$+ hi/ory4 ,! gold production ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates practically />t$ ) ! ,cali=nia gold ru% 9 #ahdi4 ,! great ,s\? ,african gold production began 9 #ahhh4 ,production ( diamonds 9 ,s\? ,africa began ab\t #ahfi4 ,! l>ge use ( all f]tiliz] m9]als is ( comp>atively rec5t date4 ,! _w's oil production is great] n[ ea* ye> ?an x 0 = any t5 ye>s prec$+ #ahia1 & m oil has come out ( ! gr\nd s9ce #aijh ?an 9 all ! prec$+ hi/ory ( ! _w4 ,! use ( bauxite on a l>ge scale z alum9um ore dat$ practically f ! introduction ( pat5t$ electrolytic me?ods ( r$uction 9 #ahhi4 ,9 "o s5se ! _w has j ent]$ on a gigantic exp]im5t 9 ! use ( e>? mat]ials4 ,! mo/ /rik+ feature ( ?is exp]im5t relates to ! va/ acquisition ( p[] indicat$ by ! accel]at+ rate ( production & consumption ( ! en]gy res\rces--coal1 oil1 & gas 7& wat] p[]74 ,s9ce #ahij ! p] capita consumption ( coal 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates has trebl$ & ! p] capita consumption ( oil has become five times z great z x 04 ,if ! p[] f ^! s\rces us$ annually 9 rec5t ye>s be translat$ r\ghly into man p[]1 x appe>s t e man1 woman1 & *ild 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates has pot5tial control ( ! equival5t ( ?irty labor]s1--z aga9/ sev5 9 #ahij4 ,en]gy is be+ releas$ on a scale nev] be=e approximat$1 ) consequ5ces :i* we c yet h>dly asc]ta9 & appraise4 ,?is consid]ation _c b raise ! "q z to ! ability ( mod]n civilization to control & cood9ate ! dynamic factors 9 ! situation4 ,,capital ,,value ,,( ,,_w ,,m9]al ,,res]ves ,x is impossible to d$uce accurately ! capital value ( m9]al res\rces f values ( annual output1 b aga9 "s approximation may be made4 ,! pr(it on ! extraction ( m9]al res\rces on ! :ole1 consid]+ ! co/ ( exploration1 is probably no great] ?an 9 o!r indu/ries 7p4 #ccj74 ,if we assume a #f p] c5t return1 :i* p]haps is some:]e ne> ! _w-wide /&>d ( int]e/ rate = money1 & capitalize ! value ( ! _w's annual output at ?is rate1 we obta9 a _w capital value = m9]al res\rces1 exclusive ( wat]1 ( #aej billions ( doll>s4 ,?is assumes an indef9itely long life = res]ves4 ,?is assumption may ne$ "s qualifications1 b x is ! writ]'s view 7,*apt] ,,xvii7 t x is ju/ifi$ = a suffici5tly long p]iod to sub/antiate ! above me?od ( calculation4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,comm]cial 7f9ancial7 control ( ! m9]al res\rces ( ! _w4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,political 7t]ritorial7 control ( ! m9]al res\rces ( ! _w4 ,,political ,,& ,,comm]cial ,,control ,,( ,,m9]al ,,res\rces ,! occurr5ce ( a m9]al res\rce )9 a c\ntry does n necess>ily mean control by t p>ticul> political unit4 ,a citiz5 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates may own a m9]al res\rce 9 ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,comm]cial control ( ?is sort 0 demon/rat$ dur+ ! w> to be ( m f>-rea*+ significance ?an _h be5 suppos$1 & x became necess>y to asc]ta91 n only ! output ( ! diff]5t c\ntries1 b ! comm]cial control ( ?is output4 ,inve/igation ( ?is subject = tw5ty-?ree lead+ commodities %[s t ! political & comm]cial control are by no means ! same4 ,^! are p>tly summ>iz$ 9 ! accompany+ graphs f ,spurr4#aa ,x is to be not$ t ! graphs %[ ! control ( _m commodities z x exi/$ 9 #aiac1 ! la/ normal ye> be=e ! w>4 ,*anges dur+ & s9ce ! w> h ( c\rse l>gely alt]$ ! situation = c]ta9 commodities1 notably = iron1 coal1 & pota%4 ,^! developm5ts are summ>iz$ 9 ! discussion ( ! individual res\rces4 ,x is also to be not$ t ! comm]cial or f9ancial control ( ! _w's m9]als1 "u ! influ5ce ( ! fo/]+ & protective policies ( c]ta9 gov]nm5ts discuss$ 9 ,*apt] ,,xviii1 is at pres5t 9 a /ate ( flux4 ,consid]able *anges are tak+ place today & are to be look$ = 9 ! future4 ,,res]ves ,,( ,,m9]al ,,res\rces ,annual production figures are only to a v p>tial ext5t an indication ( ! di/ribution ( ! great res]ves ( m9]al res\rces4 ,= in/ance1 !re are enorm\s res]ves ( coal 9 ,*9a :i* are n yet utiliz$ to any l>ge ext5t4 ,! m9]als ( ,s\? ,am]ica & ,africa are 9 a v e>ly /age ( developm5t4 ,! total _w res]ves w ( c\rse n be kn[n until exploration & developm5t ( ! _w's res\rces are complete--a "t :i* w probably nev] come4 ,figures ( res]ves repres5t only our pres5t p>tial /ate ( k & are likely to be consid]ably modifi$ 9 ! future4 ,fur!rmore1 ! quantitative accuracy ( k ( res]ves is s v>iable 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! _w t x is almo/ impossible to make up _w figures :i* h any great validity4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 c]ta9 broad facts asc]ta9able4 ,e c\ntry 9 ! globe is defici5t 9 supplies ( "s m9]als4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates is bett] (f ?an any o!r c\ntry1 b /ill lacks _m m9]al commodities 7see pp4 #cif-cii47 ,no s+le cont95t has suffici5t res]ves ( all m9]al commodities4 ,= ! _w1 h[ev]1 x may be /at$ ) reasonable c]ta9ty t ! res]ves ( ! pr9cipal m9]als are n[ kn[n to be ample ) ! exception ( ^? ( oil1 t91 & p]haps gold & silv]4 ,by ample we mean suffici5t to give no cause = worry = ! next few decades4 ,= _m m9]al commodities ! am\nts n[ actually 9 sight w n la/ long1 b ! possibilities ( ext5sion & discov]y are s great t a long future availability ( ^! commodities c be c\nt$ ^u ) reasonable safety4 ,! pres5t %ortages 9 oil1 t91 & o!r m9]als m5tion$ may be only tempor>y4 ,!re is a l>ge "p ( ! _w /ill to be explor$1 & ! pres5t res]ves m]ely m>k a /age 9 ?is exploration4 ,nev]!less1 ! ratio ( res]ves & discov]y on ! "o h& to accel]at$ use on ! o!r gives cause = mu* conc]n4 ,look+ =w>d to ! future1 ! problem ( m9]al res]ves 9 g5]al is n "o ( ! possible ultimate am\nt :i* ! e>? may conta9--presumably 9 no case is ?is defici5t--b ( ! success ) :i* ! res\rce may be f\nd & develop$ to keep up ) ! rapid accel]ation ( dem&4 ,9 ! *apt] on cons]vation ! sugge/ion is made t future difficulties are m likely to arise f failure to cood9ate ! dynamic factors ( supply & dem&1 ?an f absolute %ortage ( mat]ial 9 ! e>?4 ,,footnotes3 #aj ,ba/91 ,edson ,s41 & ,mc,caskey1 ,h4 ,d41 ,! "w on m9]al res\rces done by ! ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey3 ,m94 ,res4 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates = #aiah1 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,survey1 pt4 #a1 #aibj1 p4 #c;a4 #aa ,spurr1 ,j4 ,e41 ,:o owns ! e>?83 ,eng4 & ,m94 ,j\r41 vol4 #aji1 #aibj1 pp4 #chi-cij4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,wat] ,,z ,a ,,m9]al ,,res\rce ,,g5]al ,,geologic ,,relations ,) ! solid e>? z ! special c>e ( geology1 x may seem presumptu\s = ! geologi/ to claim ! wat]s !re(1 b he does n disclaim ?is inh]itance4 ,wat] is s all-p]vasive t x is m or less tak5 = grant$2 & s _m & s intricate are its relations t x is n easy to make an objective survey ( ! wat] problem 9 its relation to geology4 ,! orig9al s\rce ( wat]1 z well z ( air1 is 9 molt5 magmas com+ f bel[4 ,^! c>ry wat] & gases1--"s ( :i* are releas$ & "s ( :i* are lock$ up 9 ! rocks on cool+1 to be lat] releas$ dur+ ! alt]ations ( ! rocks4 ,x is suppos$1 :atev] !ory ( ! orig9 ( ! e>? we favor1 t 9 its e>ly /ages ! e>? lack$ bo? hydrosph]e & atmosph]e1 & t dur+ ! gr[? ( ! e>? ^! gradually accumulat$ on & ne> ! surface 9 ! mann] /at$4 ,dur+ alt]ations at ! surface wat] is add$ to ! m9]al con/itution ( ! rocks1 & by alt]ations deep bel[ ! surface x may be subtract$4 ,wat] is ! ag5t ?r\gh :i* mo/ m9]al & *emical *anges ( rocks are accompli%$4 ,x is ! ag5t also :i* is ma9ly responsible = ! segregation ( m9]al deposits4 ,wat]1 bo? z runn+ wat] & 9 ! solid =m ( ice1 plays an important "p 9 det]m9+ ! configuration ( ! e>?'s surface4 ,wat] is ! m$ium 9 :i* mo/ s$im5t>y rocks are =m$4 ,x is an important ag5t 9 ! developm5t ( soil & 9 organic gr[?4 ,^! v>i\s influ5ces ( wat] on geological processes t\* ! economic field at _m po9ts1 especially 9 relation to ! conc5tration ( ores & to ! developm5t ( soils & surface =ms4 ,wat] comes ev5 m directly into ! field ( economic geology z a m9]al res\rce4 ,wat] supplies1 = ! greate/ v>iety ( purposes1 involve geologic consid]ations at almo/ e turn4 ,f9ally1 wat] may be an aid or a h9drance to excavation & to a great v>iety ( /ructural op]ations1 bo? 9 w> & 9 peace2 & 9 ?is relation x aga9 af=ds geologic problems4 ,! "p play$ by wat] 9 geologic processes1 su* z t ( m9]al segregation1 is m or less incid5tally discuss$ 9 o!r *apt]s4 ,we may consid] m fully 9 ?is *apt] ! application ( geology to ! g5]al subject ( wat] supplies4 ,f ! geological po9t ( view1 wat] is a m9]al1--"o ( ! mo/ important ( m9]als1--z well z a con/itu5t ( o!r m9]als4 ,x becomes a m9]al res\rce :5 directly us$ by man4 ,x is ord9>ily li/$ z a m9]al res\rce :5 %ipp$ & sold z m9]al wat]1 b !re is obvi\sly no satisfactory l9e betwe5 wat]s s nam$ & wat] supplies 9 g5]al1 = mo/ ( !m are us$ = ! same purposes & none ( !m are free f m9]al matt]4 ,wat] :i* is pump$ & pip$ = municipal wat] supply is z mu* a m9]al res\rce z wat] :i* is bottl$ & sold "u a trade "n4 ,likewise wat] :i* is us$ = irrigation1 wat] p[]1 & a wide v>iety ( o!r purposes may logically be consid]$ a m9]al res\rce4 ,not)/&+ ! imm5se economic importance ( wat] z a m9]al res\rce its value is m or less tak5 = grant$1 & consid]ations ( valuation & taxation are mu* less 9 evid5ce ?an 9 ! case ( o!r m9]al res\rces4 ,wat] mu/ be _h1 reg>dless ( value1 & m>ket consid]ations are to a mu* less ext5t a limit+ factor4 ,economic applications ( geology to ?is res\rce are r m conf9$ to matt]s ( exploration1 developm5t1 total supply1 & cons]vation1 ?an to attempts to fix money value4 ,,di/ribution ,,( ,,und]gr\nd ,,wat] ,free wat] exi/s 9 ! op5+s 9 rocks :]e x is sometimes call$ hygroscopic wat]4 ,!re is also a l>ge am\nt ( wat] comb9$ molecul>ly ) _m ( ! m9]als ( rocks1 9 :i* =m x is call$ wat] ( con/itution4 ,?is wat] is fix$ 9 ! rock s t x is n available = use1 ?\gh "s ( ! processes ( rock alt]ation lib]ate x & contribute x to ! free wat]4 ,! imm$iate s\rce ( und]gr\nd wat]1 bo? free & comb9$1 is ma9ly ! surface or ra9 wat]s4 ,a subord9ate am\nt may come directly f igne\s emanations or f de/ruction ( c]ta9 hydr\s m9]als4 ,ultimately1 z already indicat$1 ev5 ! surface wat] orig9ates f su* s\rces4 ,! op5+s 9 rocks consi/ ( jo9ts & _m o!r fractures1 small spaces betwe5 ! gra9s ( rocks 7pore space71 & amygdaloidal & o!r op5+s *>act]i/ic ( surface volcanic rocks4 ,_m ( ^! op5+s are capill>y & sub-capill>y 9 size4 ,mo/ rocks1 ev5 d5se igne\s rocks1 are por\s 9 "s degree1 & c]ta9 rocks are por\s 9 a v high degree4 ,! voids 9 "s surface mat]ials may am\nt to #hd p] c5t ( ! total volume4 ,9 g5]al ! l>ge/ & mo/ cont9u\s op5+s are ne> ! surface1--:]e rocks on ! :ole are m l>gely ( ! s$im5t>y type & are m fractur$1 dis9tegrat$1 & decompos$1 ?an !y are deep )9 ! e>?4 ,! l>ge/ supplies ( wat] are 9 ! unconsolidat$ s$im5ts4 ,! wat] 9 igne\s & o!r d5se rocks is ord9>ily 9 m limit$ quantity4 ,,approximate ,,quantity ,,( ,,wat] ,,:i* ,,w ,,be ,,absorb$ ,,by ,,soils ,,& ,,rocks#a ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,volume ( wat] asborb$ ,mat]ial p] #ajj ( mat]ial ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,s&y soil#b #de4d ,*alk soil#b #di4e ,clay#b #ej-eb4g ,loam#b #de4a-fj4a ,g>d5 e>? #b #fi4j ,co>se s& #b #ci4d ,peat subsoil#b #hd4j ,s& #cj-dj ,s&/one #e-bj ,lime/one & dolomite #a-h ,*alk #f-bg ,granite #jc4-4h ---------------------------------------- -------------- #a3 ,mead1 ,daniel ,w41 ,hydrology3 ,mc,graw-,hill ,book ,co41 ,new ,york1 #aiai1 p4 #cic4 #b3 ,woodw>d1 ,h4 ,b41 ,geology ( soils & sub/rata3 ,edw>d ,arnold1 ,london1 #aiab4 ,imm$iately at ! surface1 ! op5+s ( rocks may n be fill$ ) wat]2 b bel[ ! surface1 at di/ances v>y+ ) climatic & topographic conditions1 ! wat] saturates ! op5+s ( ! rocks & =ms :at is sometimes call$ ! zone ( saturation or ! sea ( und]gr\nd wat]4 ,! top surface ( ?is zone is call$ ! wat] table1 or ! gr\nd-wat] level4 ,! space betwe5 ! wat] table & ! e>?'s surface is sometimes ref]r$ to z ! vadose zone or ! zone ( wea!r+1 s9ce x is ! belt 9 :i* wea!r+ processes are mo/ active4 ,! zone ( wea!r+ is n necess>ily dry4 ,wat] f ! surface ent]s & s9ks ?r\gh x & wat] also rises ?r\gh x f bel[2 x may conta9 susp5d$ pockets ( wat] surr\nd$ by dry rocks2 x is n cont9u\sly & fully saturat$4 ,! wat] table or gr\nd-wat] level may be ne> or at ! surface 9 l[ & humid areas1 & x may be two ?\s& feet or m bel[ ! surface 9 arid regions ( high topographic relief4 ,because ( ! influ5ce ( capill>ity1 ! wat] table is n a horizontal surface4 ,x %[s irregul>ities m or less foll[+ ! surface cont\rs1 ?\gh n ne>ly s %>ply acc5tuat$4 ,! l[] limit ( ! gr\nd-wat] is m irregul> ?an ! upp] surface & is less def9itely kn[n4 ,9 g5]al1 op5+s 9 rocks t5d to dim9i% ) dep?1 due to cem5tation & to clos+ ( cavities by pressures :i* are too great = ! rock to )/&4 ,b rocks diff] s widely 9 _! orig9al "*1 & 9 _! response to physical & *emical environm5t1 t x is n unusual to f9d d5se & imp]vi\s rocks above1 & op5 & por\s rocks bel[4 ,! l[] limit ( ! zone ( abundant und]gr\nd wat] v>ies accord+ly4 ,a well may enc\nt] ne>ly dry rock at a comp>atively %all[ dep?1 or x may rea* a por\s wat]-be>+ /ratum at consid]able dep?4 ,at ! great] dep?s pockets ( wat] are sometimes f\nd :i* h a composition diff]5t f t ( ! surface wat]1 & :i* evid5tly are isolat$ f ! surface wat] by zones ( non-p]vi\s rock4 ,attempts h be5 made to calculate ! total volume ( und]gr\nd wat] by measur+ ! op5+s ( rocks & mak+ assumptions z to ! dep? to :i* su* op5+s may ext5d4 ,9 ?is mann] x has be5 e/imat$ t1 if all ! gr\nd-wat] 7 assembl$ 9 a s+le body1 x w\ld make a %ell betwe5 eighty & two hundr$ feet ?ick 7dep5d+ on ! assumptions7 ov] all ! cont95tal areas4 ,,movem5t ,,( ,,und]gr\nd ,,wat] ,availability ( wat] supplies is det]m9$ by ! movem5t or fl[ ( wat] z well z by its di/ribution & am\nt4 ,! natural fl[ ( wat] und]gr\nd is caus$ by gravity 9 ! l>g] op5+s1 b 9 ! small] op5+s adhesion & capill>ity are also important =ces4 ,( all ! wat] fall+ on ! surface1 "s may n g bel[ ! surface at all b may imm$iately evaporate or jo9 ! run(f--t is1 ! surface /reams4 ,ano!r "p may p5etrate a little di/ance into ! zone ( wea!r+ & !n jo9 ! run(f4 ,( ! wat] :i* rea*es ! zone ( saturation1 a "p may soon come to ! surface 9 l[ areas & jo9 ! run(f1 & a "p may p5etrate deeply4 ,above ! zone ( saturation gravity c>ries ! wat] d[nw>d 9 devi\s c\rses until x rea*es ! wat] table4 ,!reaft] its c\rse is det]m9$ l>gely by ! l[e/ po9t ( escape f ! wat] table4 ,9 o!r words1 ! wat] table is an irregul> surface2 & "u ! influ5ce ( gravity ! wat] t5ds to move f ! high to ! l[ po9ts ( ?is surface4 ,betwe5 ! po9t ( entrance & ! po9t ( escape f ! wat] table1 ! wat] foll[s v>i\s c\rses1 dep5d+ ^u ! porosity & ! op5+s 9 ! rocks4 ,9 g5]al x fills all ( ! available op5+s1 & uses ! entire available cross section 9 mak+ its progress f "o po9t to ano!r4 ,! diff]5ce 9 height or ! head betwe5 ! po9t ( entrance & ! po9t ( escape1 toge!r ) ! porosity ( ! rock & o!r factors1 det]m9e ! g5]al spe$ ( its movem5t 7see p4 #gc74 ,) equal porosity ! fl[ is at a maximum along a l9e directly connect+ ! two po9ts1 & on m devi\s c\rses ! fl[ is less4 ,! surface wat] fir/ ent]s ! gr\nd ?r\gh innum]able small op5+s4 ,soon1 h[ev]1 x t5ds to be conc5trat$ into *annels ( easie/ fl[1 ) ! result t 9 ! lat] "p ( its und]gr\nd c\rse x may be mu* conc5trat$ 9 l>ge trunk *annels4 ,^! *annels may consi/ ( jo9ts1 or frequ5tly ( v co>se & p]vi\s b$s4 ,! s$im5t>y rocks z a :ole conta9 ! mo/ voids1 & !re=e ! l>ge/ fl[ & l>ge/ supply ( wat] is (t5 localiz$ 9 !m4 ,( ! s$im5t>y rocks1 s&/ones & lime/ones usually conta9 ! l>ge/ & mo/ cont9u\s op5+s1 & ?us af=d ! free/ circulation = wat]4 ,! voids 9 f9e-gra9$ %ales may equal 9 volume ^? 9 s&/ones & lime/ones1 b ! op5+s are s small & discont9u\s t ! wat] does n fl[ freely4 ,reg>dless ( total am\nt ( wat]1 unless !re are cont9u\s op5+s ( "s size ! fl[ may be small4 ,! relations ( m por\s rocks to conta9+ imp]vi\s /rata also pr(\ndly affect ! fl[ ( und]gr\nd wat]4 ,betwe5 imp]vi\s /rata ! circulation may be conc5trat$ & vigor\s )9 ! por\s b$4 ,:]e ! por\s b$ is n s conta9$1 ! movem5t may be m disp]s$ & less vigor\s locally4 ,! incl9ation ( ! b$s1 ( c\rse1 also affects ! direction & am\nt ( ! fl[4 ,! influ5ce ( gravity ^u und]gr\nd wat] may locally t5d t[>d a /ate ( equilibrium 9 :i* !re is little movem5t4 ,9 su* a case ! wat] is sub/antially pond$1 & moves only :5 tapp$ by artificial op5+s4 ,,wells ,,& ,,spr+s ,und]gr\nd wat] becomes available = use by means ( spr+s & ?r\gh wells or bore holes4 ,wat] rises to ! surface 9 natural spr+s at po9ts :]e ! pressure or head1 due to its entrance into ! gr\nd at a high] level1 is suffici5t to =ce x to ! surface aft] a long] or %ort] und]gr\nd c\rse4 ,! movem5t may be all d[nw>d & lat]al to ! po9t ( escape1 or x may be d[nw>d1 lat]al1 & upw>d4 ,ord9>ily1 ! c\rse ( spr+ wat]s does n c>ry !m f> bel[ ! surface4 ,heat & gases may be add$ b5ea? ! surface by contact ) or contributions f cool+ igne\s rocks4 ,^! may accel]ate ! upw>d movem5t ( spr+ wat]s1 & yield !rmal & gas-*>g$ wat]s1 z 9 ! spr+s & geys]s ( ,yell[/one ,p>k4 ,:5 a well is sunk to tap ! und]gr\nd wat] supply1 ! wat] may n rise 9 ! artificial op5+ b may h to be lift$ to ! surface4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! wat] is conf9$ b5ea? an imp]vi\s /ratum & is "u pressure f ! wat] ( high] areas1 a well op5+ may simply all[ x to move upw>d "u its own pressure or head4 ,?is pressure may c>ry x upw>d only a few feet or q to ! surface or beyond1 9 :i* latt] case ! well is call$ an artesian well4 ,! ess5tial condition = an artesian circulation is a por\s zone1 incl9+ d[nw>d f ! surface b5ea? an imp]vi\s /ratum :i* t5ds to conf9e & pond ! wat]4 ,! wat] at any po9t 9 ! wat]-be>+ rock is "u pressure :i* is m or less equival5t to ! weight ( ! column ( wat] det]m9$ by ! diff]5ce 9 height betwe5 ?is po9t & ! po9t ( entrance or fe$+ area ( ! wat]4 ,if ! fe$+ area is high] ?an ! coll> ( ! well1 ! wat] w rise q to ! surface2 if n1 x w rise only "p way4 ,capill>y resi/ance1 h[ev]1 may & usually does less5 ! !oretical pressure s figur$4 ,! fl[ 9 deep artesian circulations is ord9>ily a sl[ "o4 ,= ! artesian wells ( s\!rn ,wiscons91 x has be5 calculat$ t wat]s ent]+ ! outcrop ( ! s\?w>d dipp+ s&/one & lime/one lay]s 9 ! nor!rn "p ( ! /ate h requir$ two or ?ree hundr$ ye>s to rea* a po9t 9 ! s\!rn "p ( ! /ate :]e !y are tapp$4 ,because ( ?is sl[ movem5t1 a l>ge numb] ( wells 9 any "o spot may exhau/ ! local supply fa/] ?an x is repl5i%$ f ! rema9d] ( ! =mation4 ,! drill+ ( additional wells ne> at h& 9 su* cases does n increase ! total yield1 b m]ely divides x among a l>g] numb] ( wells4 ,! porosity ( ! rocks1 & !re=e ! fl[ ( an artesian circulation1 may 9 "s cases be artificially increas$ by bla/+ & %att]+4 ,,composition ,,( ,,und]gr\nd ,,wat]s ,und]gr\nd wat]s are nev] entirely free f dissolv$ m9]al sub/ances1 & seldom are !y free f susp5d$ p>ticles4 ,"s wat]s are desir$ because !y conta9 v small quantities ( dissolv$ m9]al matt]4 ,o!rs are priz$ because !y h an unusually high cont5t ( c]ta9 m9]al sub/ances4 ,9 det]m9+ ! delet]i\s or b5eficial effect ( dissolv$ sub/ances1 mu* dep5ds on ! purpose = :i* ! wat] is to be us$1--:e!r = dr9k+1 wa%+1 /eam boil]s1 or irrigation4 ,ne> ! surface und]gr\nd wat]s may c>ry bact]ia1 z well z animal & vegetable refuse1 :i* f a sanit>y /&po9t are usually objectionable4 ,deep] wat]s are m likely to lack ?is contam9ation because ( filtration ?r\gh rocks & soils4 ,! dissolv$ m9]al sub/ances ( und]gr\nd wat] are d]iv$ = ! mo/ "p f ! solution ( rocks ) :i* ! wat]s come 9 contact1 p>ticul>ly at or ne> ! surface4 ,?r\gh ! ag5cy ( und]gr\nd wat] mo/ ( ! m9]al & *emical *anges ( rocks are produc$4 ,! dissolv$ sub/ances 9 solution at any "t & place may !re=e be reg>d$ z by-products ( rock alt]ations4 ,locally !y may to "s ext5t be d]iv$ f direct emanations f cool+ igne\s masses4 ,! mo/ common m9]al sub/ances conta9$ 9 wat]s are lime & magnesia4 ,less common1 b abundant locally1 are soda1 pota%1 iron1 & silica4 ,wat]s conta9 also c]ta9 acid & gase\s sub/ances1 ! mo/ common ( :i* is c>bon dioxide2 & less widespread1 b locally abundant1 are *lor9e & sulphur dioxide4 ,:]e lime & magnesia are abundant ! wat] is ord9>ily class$ z a h>d wat]4 ,:]e abs5t1 or subord9ate to soda & pota%1 ! wat] is ord9>ily class$ z a s(t wat]4 ,l>ge am\nts ( ! acid sub/ances l *lor9e & sulphur are detrim5tal = mo/ purposes4 ,:]e !re are unusual am\nts ( c>bon dioxide or o!r gases pres5t1 !y may by expansion cause ! wat] to bubble4 ,if we 7 to attempt to describe & def9e ! *>act]i/ics1 ) ref]5ce to dissolv$ m9]al cont5t & temp]ature1 :i* make a giv5 wat] m desirable ?an ano!r1 we %\ld ent] a field ( ! mo/ amaz+ complexity & "o ) _m surpris+ contradictions4 ,= ! mo/ widespread use1 ! mo/ desirable wat] is a cold wat] z free f m9]al cont5t z possible1 & especially "o lack+ an excess ( lime & magnesia :i* make x h>d2 also lack+ an excess ( acid con/itu5ts l sulphur dioxide1 c>bon dioxide1 or *lor9e1 :i* give ! wat] a ta/e1 or :i* make impossible its use 9 boil]s4 ,locally & = special reasons1 wat]s ( o!r qualities are 9 dem&4 ,wat]s s excessively c>bonat$ z to bubble1 sulphuret$ wat]s1 *lor9e wat]s1 wat]s high 9 iron1 high 9 silica1 high 9 pota%1 high 9 soda1 or high 9 magnesia1 or wat]s ( high temp]ature1 may come to be reg>d$ z desirable4 ,x is an int]e/+ fact t any wat] ) unusual ta/e1 or unusual m9]al cont5t1 or unusual temp]ature1 is likely to be reg>d$ z hav+ m$ic9al value4 ,sometimes ?is view is bas$ on sci5tific k2 sometimes x is an empirical conclusion bas$ on exp]i5ce2 & aga9 x may be m]ely sup]/ition4 ,9 "o case ! desirable feature may be ! pres5ce ( a l>ge am\nt ( c>bon dioxide2 9 ano!r case x may be its abs5ce4 ,9 "o case ! desirable feature may be high temp]ature2 9 ano!r case l[ temp]ature4 ,! same comb9ation ( qualities :i* 9 a c]ta9 locality may be reg>d$ z highly desirable1 may be reg>d$ z highly detrim5tal some:]e else :]e c]ta9 o!r types ( wat]s are 9 vogue4 ,propriet>y rights & adv]tis+ h br\ght c]ta9 wat]s into use = dr9k+ purposes :i* are n ess5tially diff]5t f m widely available wat]s :i* are n reg>d$ z hav+ special value4 ,two spr+s locat$ side by side1 or a spr+ & a deep well1 ^: wat]s h exactly ! same *emical *>act]i/ics1 may be us$ & valu$ on entirely diff]5t scales4 ,any attempt to classify m9]al wat]s sold to ! public 9 any sci5tific way discloses a mo/ intricate & confus$ situation4 ,"o c only conclude t ! popul>ity ( c]ta9 wat]s is n bas$ alone on objective qualities ( composition1 b r on causes :i* lie 9 ! fields ( psy*ology & comm]ce4 ,! "p play$ by s5tim5t 9 putt+ value on wat] is well illu/rat$ by ! g5]al pref]5ce = spr+ wat]s z comp>$ ) well wat]s4 ,9 ! public m9d1 spr+ wat] d5otes wat] ( unusual purity & ( m desirable m9]al cont5t ?an well wat]4 ,illu/rations c\ld be cit$ ( di/ricts 9 :i* ! surface or spr+ wat]s h a composition n diff]5t f t ( ! deep] well wat]s1 & are mu* m likely to be contam9at$ because ( proximity to ! surface2 & yet p w pay consid]able sums = ! spr+ wat] 9 pref]5ce to ! *eaply available well wat]4 ,,relation ,,( ,,geology ,,to ,,und]gr\nd ,,wat] ,,supply ,x is obvi\s t a k ( geology is helpful 9 locat+ an und]gr\nd wat] supply4 ,locally ! facts may become s well kn[n empirically t ! well drill] is able to get satisfactory results )\t us+ any?+ b ! crude/ geologic k2 b 9 g5]al1 att5tion to geologic consid]ations t5ds to elim9ate failures 9 well drill+ & to insure a m c]ta9 & satisfactory wat] supply4 ,9 drill+ = wat]1 x is ess5tial to "k ! nature1 succession1 & /ructure ( ! rocks b5ea? ! surface 9 ord] to be able to id5tify & correlate !m f drill samples4 ,! m]e id5tification ( samples is (t5 suffici5t to det]m9e :e!r a well has be5 drill$ f> en\gh or too f> to secure ! maximum results4 ,9 ord] to arrive at any advance approximation ( results = a giv5 locality1 a k ( ! g5]al geology ( ! entire region may be necess>y4 ,especially = exp5sive deep artesian wells x is necess>y to "w out ! geologic possibilities well 9 advance4 ,x is useless1 = in/ance1 to look = artesian wat] 9 a granite2 b 9 an area ( g5tly incl9$ /rata1 ) alt]nations ( por\s & imp]vi\s lay]s1 ! exp]t may (t5 figure ) a consid]able degree ( c]ta9ty ! dep? at :i* a giv5 por\s /ratum w be f\nd1 & ! pressure "u :i* ! wat] w be 9 ?is p>ticul> /ratum at a giv5 po9t4 ,ev5 ! m9]al cont5t ( ! wat] may 9 "s cases be pr$ict$ f geologic /udy4 ,"o ( ! mo/ obvi\s & imm$iately useful s]vices ( ! geologi/ 9 mo/ localities is ! collection & pres]vation ( well samples = purposes ( id5tification & correlation ( rock =mations1 & z a guide to fur!r drill+4 ,failure to pres]ve samples has (t5 l$ to useless & exp5sive duplication ( "w4 ,! problem ( wat] supply 9 "s localities is comp>atively simple & easy4 ,9 o!r areas !re is an inf9ite v>iety ( geologic conditions :i* affect ! problem1 & ! geologi/ f9ds x necess>y to br+ to be> all ! sci5tific k ( any sort :i* c be us$1--p>ticul>ly k 9 relation to ! type ( rock1 ! /ratigraphy & ! /ructure4 ,,surface ,,wat] ,,supplies ,:]e und]gr\nd wat] is n abundant or n *eaply available1 or :]e l>g] am\nts ( wat] are ne$$1 z 9 l>ge cities or = irrigation purposes1 surface wat] is us$4 ,9 g5]al1 surface wat]s are m likely to be contam9at$ by vegetable & animal matt] & to require purification = dr9k+ purposes4 ,surface wat]s are also us$ = irrigation1 wat] p[]1 dra9age1 ! c>ry+ ( sewage1 etc4 ,?is great v>iety ( uses br+s ! consid]ation ( surface wat]s into _m fields o!r ?an geology1 b an und]/&+ & int]pretation ( ! geological conditions is none ! less fundam5tal4 ,?is is evid5c$ by ! inclusion ( geologic discussions 9 mo/ textbooks ( hydrology1 & 9 ! reports ( ! ,hydrographic ,bran* ( ! ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey4 ,! v fact t ?is important bran* ( gov]nm5tal inve/igation is 9 a *>ge ( ! ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey indicates its close relation to geology4 ,! pr9ciples ( geology us$ 9 ! /udy ( surface wat]s relate *iefly to physiography 7see ,*apt] ,i74 ,x is usually necess>y to "k ! total quantity ( fl[1 its annual & seasonal v>iation1 & ! possible me?ods ( equalization or conc5tration2 ! maximum quantity ( fl[1 ! v>iation dur+ p]iods ( flood1 & ! possibilities ( r$uction or control2 ! m9imum fl[ & its possible modification by /orage or an auxili>y supply4 ,^! que/ions are obvi\sly relat$ to ! size & %ape ( ! cat*m5t area1 ! topography1 ! rock /ructure1 ! relation betwe5 und]gr\nd fl[ or absorption & ! run(f1 & o!r physiographic factors4 ,quot+ f ,d4 ,w4 ,mead3#ab ,geological conditions are frequ5tly ( great importance 9 _! influ5ce on ! quantity & regul>ity ( run(f4 ,if ! geological deposits ( ! dra9age area are highly imp]vi\s1 ! surface fl[ w receive & transmit ! wat] into ! mass only ?r\gh ! cracks & fissures 9 ! rock4 ,p]vi\s mat]ials1 su* z s&/ones1 s&s1 gravels1 & crack$ or fissur$ rocks1 induce seepage1 ret>d run(f1 &1 if su* deposits are und]laid ) an imp]vi\s b$1 provide und]gr\nd /orage :i* imp\nds wat] away f ! conditions :i* p]mit evaporation1 & h5ce t5ds to increase run(f & equalize fl[4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if su* p]vi\s deposits possess o!r outlets outside ( ! /ream *annel & dra9age area1 !y may result 9 ! )drawal ( m or less ( ! seepage wat]s entirely f ! ultimate fl[ ( ! /ream4 ,co>se s&s & gravels w rapidly imbibe ! ra9fall into _! /ructure4 ,f9e & loose b$s ( s& also rapidly receive & transmit ! ra9fall unless ! precipitation is exce$+ly heavy "u :i* conditions "s ( x may fl[ away on ! surface4 ,_m ( ! highly p]vi\s indurat$ =mations receive wat] sl[ly & require a consid]able "t ( contact 9 ord] to receive & remove ! maximum am\nt4 ,9 flat1 p]vi\s areas1 ra9falls ( a c]ta9 int5sity are frequ5tly ess5tial to ! production ( any result+ /ream fl[4 ,9 a c]ta9 ,colorado dra9age area1 ! dra9age *annel is normally dry except aft] a ra9fall ( "o-half in* or m4 ,a less ra9fall1 except "u ! condition ( a previ\sly saturat$ area1 evaporates & s9ks ?r\gh ! soil & into ! deep ly+ p]vi\s s& rock "u ! surface :i* transmits x beyond ! dra9age area4 ,su* results are frequ5tly greatly obscur$ by ! int]f]5ce ( o!r factors1 su* z temp]ature1 vegetation1 etc4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! natural /orage ( any dra9age area & ! possibilities ( artificial /orage dep5d pr9cipally ^u its topography & geology4 ,/orage equalizes fl[1 al?\gh ! )drawal ( precipitation by sn[ or ice /orage 9 nor!rn areas (t5 r$uces w9t] fl[ to ! m9imum = ! ye>4 ,bo? surface & sub-surface /orage sometimes hold ! wat] f ! /reams at times :5 x might be advantage\sly us$4 ,/orage1 :ile ess5tial to regulation1 is n always an advantage to imm$iate fl[ conditions4 ,,und]gr\nd ,,& ,,surface ,,wat]s ,,9 ,,relation ,,to ,,excavation ,,& ,,con/ruction ,sc>cely m ?an a m5tion ( ?is subject is necess>y4 ,9 m9+1 ! pump+ *>ge is "o ( ! great factors ( co/4 ,a =eca/ ( ! am\nt & fl[ ( wat] to be enc\nt]$ 9 m9+ is bas$ on ! geologic conditions4 ,! same is true 9 excavat+ tunnels1 canals1 & deep f\ndations4 ,detail$ /udy ( ! am\nt & nature ( wat] 9 ! rock & soil ( ! ,panama ,canal has be5 vital to a k ( ! cause & possibilities ( prev5tion ( slides4 ,rock slides 9 g5]al are closely relat$ to ! am\nt & di/ribution ( ! wat] cont5t4 ,! importance ( gr\nd-wat] z a detrim5t 9 milit>y op]ations 0 %[n dur+ ! rec5t w> 9 tr5*+ & o!r field works4 ,at ! outset1 ) ! possible exception ( ! ,g]man army1 a lack ( sci5tific /udy ( gr\nd-wat] conditions l$ to mu* unnecess>y difficulty4 ,x soon became necess>y to /udy & map ! wat] conditions 9 great detail 9 advance ( op]ations4 ,mu* ( ?is "w 0 done by geologi/s 7see ,*apt] ,,xix74 ,geological consid]ations are involv$ 9 a great v>iety ( eng9e]+ und]tak+s relat$ to riv] & h>bor improvem5ts1 dam sites1 etc41 m5tion$ 9 ,*apt] ,,xx4 ,,footnotes3 #ab ,mead1 ,daniel ,w41 ,hydrology3 ,mc,graw-,hill ,book ,co41 ,new ,york1 #aiai1 pp4 #ddg-ddh1 #def4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,! ,,common ,,rocks ,,& ,,soils ,,z ,,m9]al ,,res\rces ,,economic ,,features ,,( ,,! ,,common ,,rocks ,"u ! g5]al head+ ( common rocks are includ$ ! ord9>y igne\s1 s$im5t>y1 & metamorphic rocks1 & ! unconsolidat$ clays1 s&s1 & gravels *>act]i/ic ( surface conditions1 :i* are m9$ & qu>ri$ = comm]cial use4 ,soils are closely relat$ to ?is gr\p2 b s9ce !y pres5t special problems ( _! own1 !y are discuss$ "u a sep>ate head+ at ! end ( ! *apt]4 ,names ( ! common rocks w be us$ ) ! g5]al comm]cial significance giv5 !m by ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,geological ,survey 9 its m9]al res\rce reports4 ,because ( _! inexhau/ible quantity & ready availability1 ! value ( ! common rock products is n l>ge p] unit ( weight2 b 9 ! aggregate x ranks high among m9]al products4 ,9 respect to tonnage1 common rocks con/itute p]haps #aj p] c5t ( ! _w annual output ( all m9]al commodities 7exclusive ( wat]74 ,! great] tonnage ( ! common rocks is us$ comm]cially 9 cru%$ or comm9ut$ =ms = road mat]ial1 = railroad balla/1 & = cem5t1 brick1 concrete1 & flux4 ,9 blocks & /ructural %apes1 ( less aggregate tonnage1 !y are us$ z build+ /one1 monum5tal /one1 pav+ blocks1 curb+1 flagg+1 ro(+1 refractory /one1 & = _m o!r build+ & manufactur+ purposes4 ,! common rocks are commodities 9 :i* mo/ c\ntries ( ! globe are self-suffic+4 ,int]national trade 9 ^! commodities is insignificant1 be+ conf9$ to small quantities ( mat]ials = special purposes1 or to local movem5ts ( %ort di/ances1 all[$ by good transportation facilities4 ,! common rocks are s abundant & widespread t ! cons]vation ( raw mat]ials is n ord9>ily a vital problem4 ,cons]vational pr9ciples d apply1 h[ev]1 to ! human en]gy factor requir$ = _! effici5t use4 ,9 ! valuation ( common rocks1 also1 ! m important factors are n ! intr9sic qualities ( ! /ones1 b r ! conditions ( _! availability = use4 ,because ( bulk & comp>atively l[ intr9sic value1 ! pr9cipal comm]cial factors 9 ! availability ( ! common rocks are transportation & ease ( qu>ry+1 b ^! are by no means ! only factors det]m9+ availability4 ,_! m9]al & *emical composition1 _! texture & /ructure1 _! durability1 _! behavior "u pressure & temp]ature *anges1 & o!r factors ent] 9 to important degrees4 ,! weight+ & integration ( ^! factors1 = ! purpose ( rea*+ conclusions z to ! availability ( p>ticul> rock mat]ials1 dep5d also on ! purposes = :i* ^! mat]ials are to be us$4 ,! problem is any?+ b simple4 ,! se>* = a p>ticul> rock to meet a c]ta9 dem& )9 c]ta9 limits ( co/ is (t5 a long & ardu\s "o4 ,on acc\nt ( ! abundance & widespread di/ribution ( common rocks & _! v>iety ( uses1 !re is a good deal ( popul> misappreh5sion z to _! availability4 ,_m build+ & manufactur+ ent]prises h met disa/r\s *ecks1 because ( a t5d5cy to assume availability ( /one )\t mak+ ! fulle/ te*nical inve/igation4 ,_m qu>ry+ v5tures h come to grief = ! same reason4 ,x is easy to assume t1 because a granite 9 a c]ta9 locality is pr(itably qu>ri$ & us$1 "s o!r granite 9 ! same locality has equal *ances4 ,h[ev]1 m9or diff]5ces 9 /ructure1 texture1 & composition1 or 9 co/s ( qu>ry+ & transportation1 may make all ! diff]5ce betwe5 pr(it & loss4 ,ev5 ?\gh all ^! conditions are satisfactorily met1 build]s & us]s are (t5 s cons]vative t a new product f9ds difficulty 9 break+ into ! m>ket4 ,a well-e/abli%$ build+ or ornam5tal /one1 or a lime/one us$ = flux1 may hold ! m>ket = ye>s 9 ! face ( competition f equally good & *eap] supplies4 ,! v size ( a qu>ry und]tak+ may det]m9e its success or failure4 ,,granite ,! t]m granite1 z us$ comm]cially1 includes true granite & su* alli$ rocks z sy5ite & gneiss4 ,9 fact ev5 qu>tzite is sometimes call$ granite 9 comm]ce1 z 9 ! case ( ! ,b>aboo qu>tzites ( ,wiscons91 b ?is is go+ too f>4 ,= /ati/ical purposes1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,geological ,survey has also includ$ small quantities ( diorite & gabbro4 ,! pr9cipal uses ( granite are1 r\ghly 9 ord] ( importance1 = monum5tal /one1 build+ /one1 cru%$ /one1 pav+1 curb+1 riprap & rubble4 ,?irty /ates 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates produce granite1 ! lead]s be+ ,v]mont1 ,massa*usetts1 ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 ,ma9e1 ,wiscons91 ,m9nesota1 & ,cali=nia4 ,,basalt ,,& ,,relat$ ,,types ,basalt & relat$ rocks are sometimes includ$ "u ! "n trap rock1 :i* comprises1--besides typical basalt & diabase1--f9e-gra9$ diorite1 gabbro1 & o!r basic rocks1 :i* are less common 9 occurr5ce & are simil> 9 *emical & physical prop]ties4 ,! pr9cipal use ( ^! rocks is z cru%$ /one = road & balla/ purposes & = concrete4 ,!y are produc$ 9 "s fifte5 /ates1 ! lead]s be+ ,new ,j]sey1 ,p5nsylvania1 ,cali=nia1 & ,connecticut4 ,,lime/one1 ,,m>l1 ,,*alk ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates lime/one is us$ pr9cipally z cru%$ /one = road mat]ial1 railroad balla/1 concrete1 & cem5t1 z flux+ /one = metallurgical purposes1 & 9 ! manufacture ( lime4 ,m9or uses are z build+ /ones1 pav+ blocks1 curb+1 flagg+1 rubble1 & riprap2 9 alkali works1 sug> factories1 pap] mills1 & glass works2 & = agricultural purposes4 ,= ! mak+ ( cem5t1 9 metallurgical fluxes1 & 9 mo/ ( ! manufactur+ & agricultural uses1 bo? lime/one & lime 7lime/one ) ! ,,co#b driv5 out by heat+7 are us$4 ,lime is also ext5sively us$ 9 ! mak+ ( mort> = build+ op]ations1 9 tann+ lea!r1 & 9 a great v>iety ( *emical indu/ries4 ,! total quantity ( lime/one us$ = all purposes 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ne>ly equals t ( iron ore4 ,ne>ly e /ate 9 ! union produces lime/one1 b ! m important produc]s are ,p5nsylvania 7:]e a l>ge am\nt is us$ = flux+71 ,ohio1 ,indiana1 ,new ,york1 ,mi*igan1 & ,ill9ois4 ,closely associat$ ) lime/one 9 comm]cial uses1 z well z 9 *emical composition1 is calc>e\s m>l1 :i* is us$ ext5sively 9 ! manufacture ( ,portl& cem5t4 ,*alk is a s(t amorph\s sub/ance ( ! same composition z lime/one4 ,! ma9 uses ( *alk are z a fill] 9 rubb]1 & z a compon5t ( pa9t & putty4 ,x is also us$ = poli%+4 ,! pr9cipal produc]s ( ?is commodity are ,engl&1 ,d5m>k1 & ,france1 & ! *ief consum] is ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates dep5ds ^u imports = its supply ( *alk = ! manufacture ( :it+4 ,be=e ! w> two-?irds came f ,engl& & a ?ird f ,france4 ,dur+ ! w> importation 0 conf9$ to ,engl&1 ) a small tonnage f ,d5m>k4 ,no deposits ( dome/ic *alk h be5 exploit$ comm]cially4 ,a some:at inf]ior :it+1 b "o capable ( be+ sub/itut$ = *alk 9 mo/ cases1 is manufactur$ f ! wa/e f9e mat]ial ( lime/one & m>ble qu>ries4 ,,m>ble ,m>ble is lime/one :i* has be5 co>sely recry/alliz$ by metamorphism4 ,! m>ble ( comm]ce includes a small quantity ( s]p5t9e z qu>ri$ & sold 9 ,massa*usetts1 ,cali=nia1 ,m>yl&1 ,p5nsylvania1 & ,v]mont1 & also a small am\nt ( s-call$ onyx m>ble or trav]t9e obta9$ f caves & o!r deposits 9 ,k5tucky & o!r /ates4 ,! pr9cipal uses ( m>ble are = build+ & monum5tal /ones4 ,( ! tw5ty-two /ates produc+ m>ble1 ! lead]s are ,v]mont1 ,georgia1 & ,t5nessee4 ,a small am\nt ( m>ble ( special beauty1 adapt$ to ornam5tal purposes1 is import$ f ,european c\ntries1 especially f ,italy4 ,m>ble imports f ,italy con/itute ab\t two-?irds1 bo? 9 tonnage & value1 ( all /one import$ into ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,,s&1 ,,s&/one1 ,,qu>tzite 7,,& ,,qu>tz7 ,s& is compos$ ma9ly ( p>ticles ( qu>tz or silica1 ?\gh sometimes feldsp> & o!r m9]als are pres5t4 ,s&/ones are p>tially cem5t$ s&s4 ,qu>tzites are completely cem5t$ s&s4 ,to "s ext5t ^! sub/ances are us$ int]*angeably = ! same purposes4 ,! pr9cipal uses ( s& 9 ord] ( comm]cial totals are = build+ purposes--= mort>1 concrete1 s&-lime brick1 etc41--z mold+ s& 9 f\ndries1 z a con/itu5t ( glass1 9 gr9d+ & poli%+1 9 pav+1 z eng9e s&1 z fire or furnace s&1 9 ! manufacture ( f]rosilicon 7a /eel alloy71 & 9 filt]s4 ,ref]5ce is made to s& z an abrasive & 9 ! manufacture ( /eel 9 ,*apt]s ,,xiii & ,,ix4 ,almo/ e /ate produces "s s&1 b = "s ( ! m specializ$ uses1 su* z glass s&1 mold+ s&1 & fire or furnace s&1 ! di/ribution is m or less limit$4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates ,geological ,survey has collect$ in=mation conc]n+ ! di/ribution ( v>i\s k9ds ( s& & gravel1 & s]ves a v useful function 9 furni%+ data z to supplies ( mat]ial = p>ticul> purposes4 ,f9e mold+ s&s h be5 import$ f ,france1 b dur+ ! w> dome/ic s\rces 9 ,new ,york & ,ohio 7 develop$ suffici5tly to meet any requirem5ts4 ,! s&/one ( comm]ce includes ! qu>tzites ( ,m9nesota1 ,s\? ,dakota1 & ,wiscons91 & ! f9e-gra9$ s&/ones ( ,new ,york1 ,p5nsylvania1 & else:]e1 kn[n to ! trade z blue/one4 ,9 ,k5tucky mo/ ( ! s&/one qu>ri$ is kn[n locally z free/one4 ,! pr9cipal uses ( s&/one are = build+ /one1 cru%$ /one1 & gani/] 7= silica brick & furnace-l9+s74 ,o!r uses are = pav+ blocks1 curb+1 flagg+1 riprap1 rubble1 gr9d/ones1 :et/ones1 & pulp/ones 7see also ,*apt] ,,xiii74 ,s&/one is sometimes cru%$ into s& & is us$ 9 ! manufacture ( glass & z mold+-s&4 ,mo/ ( ! /ates ( ! union produce s&/one1 ! pr9cipal produc]s be+ ,p5nsylvania1 ,ohio1 & ,new ,york4 ,,s& ,,& ,,gravel ,:]e s& is co>se & impure & mix$ ) pebbles1 x is ,ord9>ily ref]r$ to z s& & gravel4 ,= s& & gravel ! pr9cipal uses are = railroad balla/1 = road build+1 & = concrete4 ,s& & gravel are produc$ 9 almo/ e /ate 9 ! union1 ! l>ge/ produc]s be+ ,p5nsylvania1 ,ohio1 ,ill9ois1 ,new ,j]sey1 & ,nor? ,c>ol9a4 ,,clay1 ,,%ale1 ,,slate ,%ale is consolidat$ clay1 usually ) a f9e lam9ation due to b$d+4 ,slate is a m d5se & cry/all9e rock1 produc$ usually by ! anamorphism ( clay or %ale "u pressure1 & *>act]iz$ by a f9e cleavage :i* is usually incl9$ to ! s$im5t>y b$d+4 ,clays are us$ pr9cipally = build+ & pav+ brick & tile1 sew]-pipe1 railroad balla/1 road mat]ial1 puddle1 ,portl& cem5t1 & pott]y4 ,clay is m9$ 9 almo/ e /ate4 ,ohio1 ,p5nsylvania1 ,new ,j]sey1 & ,ill9ois h ! l>ge/ production4 ,!re has be5 a consid]able importation ( high-grade clays1 pr9cipally f ,engl&1 = special purposes--su* z ! fill+ & coat+ ( pap]2 ! manufacture ( *9a1 ( porcela9 = electrical purposes1 & ( crucibles2 & = use 9 ultram>9e pigm5ts1 9 sanit>y w>e1 9 oilclo?1 & z fill]s 9 cotton blea*]ies4 ,w> exp]i5ce %[$ ! possibility ( sub/itution ( dome/ic clays = mo/ ( ^! uses2 b results 7 n 9 all cases satisfactory1 & ! ,unit$ ,/ates w d\btless cont9ue to use import$ clays = "s ( ^! special purposes4 ,%ales1 because ( _! ?9ly b$d$ "* & s(tness1 are ( no value z build+ /ones1 b are us$ 9 ! manufacture ( brick1 tile1 pott]y1 & ,portl& cem5t4 ,slates owe _! comm]cial value prim>ily to _! cleavage1 :i* gives well-def9$ planes ( splitt+4 ,! pr9cipal uses are = ro(+ &1 9 ! =m ( s-call$ mill /ock = sanit>y1 /ructural1 & electrical purposes4 ,small am\nts are us$ = tomb/ones1 roads1 slate granules = pat5t ro(+1 s*ool slates1 blackbo>d mat]ial1 billi>d table mat]ial1 etc4 ,! color1 f95ess ( ! cleavage1 & size ( ! flakes are ! pr9cipal features det]m9+ ! use ( any p>ticul> slate4 ,t5 /ates produce slate1 ! pr9cipal production com+ f ,p5nsylvania & ,v]mont4 ,,! ,,feldsp>s ,feldsp>s are m9]als1 n rocks1 b m5tion ( !m is made "h because1 ) qu>tz1 !y make up su* an ov]:elm+ p]c5tage ( e>? mat]ials4 ,x is e/imat$ t ! feldsp>s make up #ej p] c5t ( all ! igne\s rocks & #af p] c5t ( ! s$im5t>y rocks4 ,z ! igne\s rocks are s mu* m abundant ?an ! s$im5t>y rocks1 ! p]c5tage ( feldsp>s 9 ! e>? approa*es ! =m] r ?an ! latt] figure4 ,9 mo/ rocks feldsp> is 9 too small gra9s & is too intimately associat$ ) o!r m9]als to be ( comm]cial importance2 9 only "o type ( rock1 pegmatite1 :i* is an igne\s rock ( extremely co>se & irregul> texture1 are ! feldsp> cry/als suffici5tly l>ge & conc5trat$ to be comm]cially available4 ,feldsp> is us$ pr9cipally 9 ! manufacture ( pott]y1 *9a w>e1 porcela91 enamel w>e1 & enamel brick & tile4 ,9 ! body ( ^! products x is us$ to l[] ! fus+ po9t ( ! o!r +r$i5ts & to =m a firm bond betwe5 _! p>ticles4 ,its use 9 =m+ ! glaze ( c]amic products is also due to its l[ melt+ po9t4 ,a less widespread use ( feldsp> is z an abrasive 7,*apt] ,,xiii74 ,"o ( ! v>ieties ( feldsp> c>ries ab\t #ae p] c5t ( pota%1 & because ( ! abundance ( ! m9]al !re has be5 mu* exp]im5tal "w to asc]ta9 ! possibility ( sep>at+ pota% = f]tiliz] purposes2 b1 because ( co/1 ?is s\rce ( pota% is n likely = a long "t to compete ) ! pota% salts already conc5trat$ by nature4 ,feldsp> is m9$ 9 elev5 /ates1 b ! important production comes f ,nor? ,c>ol9a & ,ma9e4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates also imports "s feldsp> f ,canada4 ,,hydraulic ,,cem5t 7includ+ ,portl&1 natural1 & ,puzzolan cem5ts7 ,cem5t is a manufactur$ product made f lime/one 7or m>l7 & clay 7or %ale74 ,sometimes ^! two k9ds ( sub/ances are s comb9$ 9 nature 7z 9 c]ta9 clayey lime/ones7 t !y are available = cem5t manufacture )\t artificial mix+4 ,x is n our purpose 9 ?is volume to discuss manufactur$ products2 b ! cem5t indu/ry involves su* a simple trans=mation ( raw mat]ials1 & is s closely localiz$ by ! di/ribution ( ! raw mat]ials1 t a m5tion ( "s ( its out/&+ features seems desirable4 ,hydraulic cem5t is us$ almo/ exclusively z a /ructural mat]ial4 ,x is an ess5tial +r$i5t ( concrete4 ,orig9ally us$ *iefly = ! bond+ ( brick & /one masonry & = f\ndation "w1 its uses h gr[n rapidly1 especially ) ! introduction ( re9=c$ concrete4 ,x is be+ us$ 9 ! con/ruction ( roads1 & its late/ use is 9 %ip con/ruction4 ,) ! exception ( satisfactory fuels1 ! raw mat]ials requir$ = ! manufacture ( cem5t are f\nd q g5]ally ?r\gh\t ! _w4 ,:ile practically all c\ntries produce "s cem5t1 mu* ( x ( natural grade1 only ! l>ge/ produc]s make en\gh = _! own requirem5ts & z a result !re is a l>ge _w movem5t ( ?is commodity4 ,! _w trade is *iefly 9 ,portl& cem5t4 ,next to ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ! produc+ c\ntries hav+ ! l>ge/ exportable surplus ( cem5t 9 normal times are ,g]many & ,great ,brita94 ,france & ,belgium 7 bo? l>ge produc]s & export]s be=e ! w>1 b ! w> greatly r$uc$ _! capacity to produce = ! "t be+4 ,sw$51 ,d5m>k1 ,au/ria1 ,japan1 & ,switz]l& all produce less ext5sively b h consid]able surplus available = export4 ,italy & ,spa9 h l>ge productions1 :i* are ab\t suffici5t = _! own requirem5ts4 ,holl& & ,russia import l>ge am\nts f ! o!r ,european c\ntries4 ,! f> ea/]n trade absorbs ! excess production ( ,japan4 ,9 ,s\? ,africa & ,au/ralasia1 production ne>ly equals dem&4 ,9 ,canada1 al?\gh ! indu/ry has be5 gr[+ v rapidly1 ! dem& /ill exce$s production4 ,9 ,s\? & ,c5tral ,am]ica1 ,mexico & ! ,we/ ,indies1 ! dem& is consid]able & w probably increase2 production has ?us f> be5 insuffici5t4 ,sev]al mod]n mills are ei!r rec5tly complet$ or "u con/ruction 9 ^! c\ntries1 & concessions h be5 grant$ = sev]al o!rs4 ,^! new mills are l>gely f9anc$ by ,am]ican capital4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates is ! l>ge/ s+le produc] ( cem5t 9 ! _w1 its annual production be+ ab\t #de p] c5t ( ! _w's total4 ,dome/ic consumption has always be5 ne>ly z great z ! production1 & exports h usually n exce$$ #d p] c5t ( ! total %ipm5ts f ! mills4 ,s\? & ,c5tral ,am]ica (f] fields = exportation ( cem5t f ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,,geologic ,,features ,,( ,,! ,,common ,,rocks ,to describe ! geologic features ( ! common rocks us$ 9 comm]ce w\ld require a full treatise on ! subject ( geology4 ,^! are ! bulk mat]ials ( ! e>? & 9 !m we read ! geologic hi/ory ( ! e>?4 ,9 prec$+ *apt]s a brief outl9e has be5 giv5 ( ! relative abundance ( ! common e>? mat]ials & ( ! processes produc+ !m4 ,9 comp>ison1 ! metallif]\s deposits are ! m]e/ incid5ts 9 ! developm5t ( ?is great gr\p ( m9]al res\rces4 ,9 ?is section ref]5ce w be made only to a few ( ! rock qualities & o!r geologic features :i* require fir/ att5tion 9 det]m9+ ! availability ( a common rock = comm]cial use4 ,! li/ is v fragm5t>y1 = ! reason t ! uses are s _m & s v>i$ t to describe all ! geologic features :i* are important f ! /&po9t ( all uses w\ld v soon br+ ! discussion f> beyond ! conf9es ( a book ( ?is scope4#ac ,,build+ ,,/one ,= build+ /ones1 ! pr9cipal geologic features requir+ att5tion are /ructure1 durability1 beauty1 & color+4 ,! /ructures ( a rock include jo9t+1 s$im5t>y /ratification1 & second>y cleavage4 ,ne>ly all rocks are jo9t$4 ,! jo9ts may be op5 & conspicu\s1 or clos$ & almo/ imp]ceptible4 ,! clos$ jo9ts or incipi5t jo9ts cause planes ( weakness1 kn[n v>i\sly z rift1 gra91 etc41 :i* l>gely det]m9e ! %apes ( ! blocks :i* may be extract$ f a qu>ry4 ,:]e prop]ly di/ribut$1 !y may facilitate ! qu>ry+ ( ! /one4 ,9 o!r cases !y may be injuri\s1 9 t !y limit ! size ( ! blocks :i* c be extract$ & af=d *annels = wea!r+ ag5ts4 ,"s rocks ( o!rwise good qualities are s cut by jo9ts t !y are useless = any?+ b cru%$ /one4 ,! b$d+ planes or /ratification ( s$im5t>y rocks ex]cise influ5ces simil> to jo9ts1 & l jo9ts may be useful or disadvantage\s1 dep5d+ on _! spac+4 ,! second>y cleavage ( "s rocks1 notably slates1 enables !m to be split into flat slabs & ?us makes !m useful = c]ta9 purposes4 ,prop] me?ods ( extraction & use ( a rock may m9imize ! disadvantage\s effects ( its /ructural features4 ,! use ( *annell+ ma*9es in/ead ( explosives means less %att]+ ( ! rock4 ,by prop] dress+ ( ! surface ! op5+ ( small crevices may be avoid$4 ,/ratifi$ rocks set on b$1 s t ! b$d+ planes are horizontal1 la/ long] ?an if set on edge4 ,! durability ( a rock may dep5d on its p]vi\sness to wat] :i* may ent] along planes ( b$d+ or incipi5t fracture planes1 or along ! m9ute pore spaces betwe5 ! m9]al p>ticles4 ,! wat] may cause disa/r\s *emical *anges 9 ! m9]als & by its freez+ & ?aw+ may cause splitt+4 ,= ?is reason1 ! less p]vi\s rocks h 9 g5]al great] durability ?an ! m p]vi\s4 ,highly p]vi\s rocks us$ 9 a dry position or 9 a dry climate w la/ long] ?an else:]e4 ,durability is det]m9$ also by ! diff]5t coeffici5ts ( expansion ( ! con/itu5t m9]als ( ! rock4 ,:]e ! m9]als are het]og5e\s 9 ?is reg>d1 diff]5tial /resses are m likely to be set up ?an :]e ! m9]als are homog5e\s4 ,likewise a co>se-textur$ rock is 9 g5]al less durable ?an a f9e-textur$ "o4 ,expansion & contraction ( a /one "u ord9>y temp]ature *anges1 & also "u fire & freez+1 mu/ necess>ily be kn[n = _m k9ds ( con/ruction4 ,m9]als resi/ wea!r+ to diff]5t degrees1 !re=e ! m9]al composition ( a rock is ano!r consid]able factor 9 det]m9+ its durability4 ,:]e pyrite is pres5t 9 abundance x easily wea!rs out1 leav+ iron-/a9$ pits & releas+ sulphuric acid :i* decomposes ! rock4 ,abundance ( mica1 especially :]e segregat$ along ! /ratification planes1 p]mits easy splitt+ ( ! rock "u wea!r+4 ,likewise ! mica (t5 wea!rs m quickly ?an ! surr\nd+ m9]als1 giv+ a pitt$ appe>ance2 9 m>bles & lime/ones its irregul> occurr5ce may spoil ! appe>ance4 ,fl9t or *]t 9 abundance is delet]i\s to lime/ones & m>bles1 because1 be+ m resi/ant1 x /&s out 9 relief on ! wea!r$ surface1 int]f]es ) smoo? cutt+ & poli%+1 & (t5 causes ! rock to split along ! l9es ( ! fl9t concretions4 ,abundance ( tremolite may also be disadvantage\s to lime/ones & m>bles1 because x wea!rs to a gre5i%-yell[ clay & leaves a pitt$ surface4 ,! cru%+ /r5g? ( a rock has an obvi\s relation to its /ructural uses4 ,! rock mu/ be /rong en\gh = ! specifi$ load4 ,mo/ h>d rocks ord9>ily consid]$ = build+ purposes are /rong en\gh = ! loads to :i* subject$1 & ?is factor is p]haps ord9>ily less important ?an ! /ructural & m9]al features already m5tion$4 ,x is (t5 necess>y to "k ! modulus ( ela/icity & o!r me*anical con/ants ( a rock1 z 9 cases :]e x is to be comb9$ ) metal or o!r masonry or to be subject$ to exceptional %ock4 ,! beauty & color+ ( a rock are its e/hetic r ?an its utilit>ian features4 ,!y are p>ticul>ly important 9 ! con/ruction ( build+s & monum5ts = public or ornam5tal purposes4 ,,cru%$ ,,/one ,! l>ge/ use ( rock or /one is 9 ! cru%$ =m = road build+1 railway embankm5ts1 & concrete1 & ! prospect is = l>gely increas$ dem&s = su* uses 9 ! future4 ,= ! purpose ( road build+1 x is necess>y to consid] a /one's resi/ance to abrasion1 h>dness1 t\ghness1 cem5t+ value1 absorption1 & specific gravity4 ,lime/one cem5ts well1 b 9 o!r qualities x is n desirable = heavy traffic4 ,%ales are s(t & clayey1 & gr9d d[n to a mass :i* is dry & p[d]y1 & muddy 9 wet wea!r4 ,basalt & relat$ rocks resi/ abrasion1 & cem5t well4 ,granites & o!r co>se-gra9$ igne\s rocks d n cem5t well & are n resi/ant to abrasion4 ,_m s&/ones are v h>d & brittle & resi/ abrasion1 b d n cem5t4 ,! application ( geology on a l>ge scale to ! /udy ( s\rces & qualities ( cru%$ /one is n[ be+ requir$ 9 connection ) ! great /ate & national projects ( highway build+4 ,?is "w is by no means conf9$ to a m]e te/+ ( ! physical qualities ( road-build+ mat]ials f\nd along ! propos$ r\te1 b includes a c>eful /udy ( _! geologic occurr5ce1 di/ribution1 & probable am\nts4 ,9 c]ta9 ( ! nor!rn /ates speciali/s 9 glacial geology are pref]r$ = ?is purpose4 ,,/one ,,= ,,metallurgical ,,purposes ,! use ( lime/one & o!r rock = metallurgical fluxes is dep5d5t v l>gely on *emical composition4 ,comp>atively few lime/ones are suffici5tly pure = ?is purpose4 ,= furnace l9+s1 ! qu>tzite or gani/] mu/ be exceptionally pure4 ,! field se>* = rocks ( ! necess>y composition has requir$ geologic s]vice4 ,,clay ,= a v>iety ( uses to :i* clay is put1 x is necess>y to "k its degree ( pla/icity1 t5sile /r5g?1 %r9kage 7bo? "u air & fire71 fusibility1 color1 specific gravity1 & *emical prop]ties4 ,! te/+ ( clay = its v>i\s possible uses is a highly specializ$ job1 usually beyond ! range ( a geologi/1 al?\gh c]ta9 geologi/s h be5 lead]s 9 ?is type ( inve/igation4 ,m commonly )9 ! range ( a geologi/ are que/ions conc]n+ orig91 field classification1 di/ribution1 quantities1 & o!r geologic conditions affect+ quality & production4 ,clay orig9ates f ! wea!r+ ( common rocks conta9+ silicates1 by pretty well und]/ood wea!r+ processes 7see ,*apt] ,,ii74 ,x may rema9 9 place above ! p>5t rock1 or may be transport$ & r$eposit$1 ei!r on l& or "u wat]1 by ! ag5cies ( air1 wat]1 & ice4 ,! k9d ( p>5t rock1 ! climatic conditions & nature ( ! wea!r+1 & ! degree ( sort+ dur+ transportation1 all det]m9e ! composition & texture ( ! result+ clay1--) ! result t a classification on ! basis ( orig9 may indicate ! broad gr\p *>act]i/ics :i* x is desirable to "k = comm]cial purposes4 ,= in/ance1 residual clays f ! wea!r+ ( granite may be broadly contra/$ ) residual clays =m$ by ! wea!r+ ( lime/one1 & bo? diff] 9 gr\p *>act]i/ics f clays 9 glacial deposits4 ,classification accord+ to orig9 also may be useful 9 indicat+ g5]al features ( dep?1 quantity1 & di/ribution4 ,h[ev]1 a g5etic classification ( clays is (t5 n suffici5t to indicate ! precise *>act]i/ics :i* x is necess>y to "k 9 det]m9+ _! availability = n>r[ & special te*nical requirem5ts4 ,fur!rmore1 clays suitable = c]ta9 comm]cial requirem5ts may be =m$ 9 sev]al diff]5t ways1 & classification bas$ on specific qualities may !re=e n correspond at all to geologic classification bas$ on orig94 ,geologi/s h be5 especially int]e/$ 9 ! causes ( pla/icity ( clay & 9 its mann] ( h>d5+ :5 dri$4 ,9 g5]al ^! ph5om5a h be5 f\nd to be due to cont5t ( colloidal sub/ances ( a clayey nature1 :i* s]ve n only to hold ! sub/ance toge!r dur+ pla/ic fl[ b to b9d x dur+ dry+4 ,! "p play$ by colloids 9 ! =mation ( clays1 z well z ( _m o!r m9]al products1 is n[ a "q :i* is receiv+ int5sive /udy4 ,! same processes :i* produce clay also produce1 "u special conditions1 iron ores1 bauxites1 ! oxide zones ( _m sulphide ore bodies1 & soils1 all ( :i* are ref]r$ to on o!r pages4 ,,limitations ,,( ,,geologic ,,field ,,9 ,,comm]cial ,,inve/igation ,,( ,,common ,,rocks ,9 g5]al ! qualities ( ! e>? mat]ials :i* det]m9e _! availability = use are only to a m9or ext5t ! qualities :i* ! geologi/ ord9>ily consid]s = mapp+ & descriptive purposes4 ,! usual geological map & report on a di/rict indicate ! di/ribution & g5]al nature ( ! common rocks1 & also ! ext5t to :i* !y are be+ us$ z m9]al res\rces4 ,seldom1 h[ev]1 is !re add$ a suffici5tly precise description1 = in/ance ( a clay1 to enable ! read] to det]m9e :i*1 if any1 ( ! _m diff]5t uses ! mat]ial might be put to4 ,! v>iety ( uses is s great1 & ! te*nical requirem5ts = diff]5t purposes are s v>i$ & s v>iable1 t x is almo/ impossible to make a description :i* is suffici5tly compreh5sive1 & at ! same "t suffici5tly exact1 to give all ! in=mation desir$ = economic purposes4 ,if ! geologi/ is int]e/$ 9 disclos+ ! comm]cial possibilities 9 ! raw mat]ials ( an area1 he may select "s ( ! m promis+ features & subject !m to ! te*nical analysis necess>y to det]m9e _! availability = special uses4 ,9 ?is phase ( 8 "w he may f9d x necess>y to enli/ ! coop]ation ( skill$ te*nicians & laboratories 9 ! v>i\s special fields4 ,! problem is simplifi$ if ! geologi/ is hunt+ = a p>ticul> mat]ial = a specific purpose1 = !n he =tifies himself ) a k ( ! p>ticul> qualities ne$$ & directs 8 field & laboratory /udy accord+ly4 ,too (t5 ! geologi/ fails to recognize ! complexity & def9it5ess ( ! qualities requir$1 & makes /atem5ts & recomm5dations on ! use ( raw mat]ials bas$ on some:at g5]al geologic obs]vations4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! eng9e]1 or ! manufactur]1 or ! build] (t5 goes wrong & sp5ds money ne$lessly1 by fail+ to take into consid]ation g5]al geologic features :i* may be v helpful 9 det]m9+ ! di/ribution1 am\nt1 & g5]al *>act]s ( ! raw mat]ials ne$$4 ,x is difficult to draw ! l9e betwe5 ! prop] fields ( ! geologi/ & ^? ( ! eng9e]1 ! metallurgi/1 & o!r te*nicians4 ,x is highly desirable t ! speciali/ 9 any "o ( ^! fields "k at lea/ ( ! exi/5ce ( ! o!r fields & some?+ ( _! g5]al nature4 ,too (t5 8 actions indicate he is n acutely consci\s ev5 ( ! exi/5ce ( ^! relat$ bran*es ( k4 ,! ext5t & detail to :i* ! geologi/ w famili>ize himself ) ^! o!r fields w ( c\rse v>y ) 8 tra9+ & ! circum/ances ( 8 "w4 ,:atev] 8 limit is1 x %\ld be def9itely recogniz$2 8 "w %\ld be ?or\gh up to ?is limit & 8 ef=ts %\ld n be wa/$ 9 fields :i* he is n be/ qualifi$ to inve/igate4 ,^! rem>ks apply r g5]ally to m9]al res\rces1 b !y are p>ticul>ly p]t95t 9 relation to ! common rock mat]ials :i* ! geologi/ is daily h&l+1--= he is likely to assume t he kn[s all ab\t !m & t he is qualifi$ to give pr(essional advice to indu/ries us+ !m4 ,9 connection ) metallic res\rces1 ! metallurgical & o!r te*nical requirem5ts are likely to be m def9itely recogniz$ & ! l9es m %>ply drawn1 ) ! result t ! geologi/ is p]haps n s likely to v5ture into problems :i* he is n qualifi$ to h&le4 ,! limits to geologic "w "h discuss$ are n necess>ily limits sep>at+ sci5tific f non-sci5tific "w4 ,! /udy & det]m9ation ( ! qualities ( rocks necess>y = comm]cial purposes is fully z sci5tific z a /udy ( ! qualities commonly consid]$ 9 purely geologic "w1 & ! results ( te*nical comm]cial inve/igations may be highly illum9at+ f a purely geological /&po9t4 ,:5 a field ( sci5tific endeavor has be5 e/abli%$ by cu/om1 any excursion beyond traditional limits is almo/ sure to be reg>d$ by cons]vatives 9 ! field z non-sci5tific1 & to be lightly reg>d$4 ,! writ] is fully consci\s ( ! exi/5ce ( limits & ! necessity = _! recognition2 b he w\ld expla9 8 caution 9 exce$+ ^! limits on ! gr\nd ( tra9+ & effectiv5ess1 r ?an on fe> t he is becom+ ta9t$ ) non-sci5tific matt]s ! mom5t he /eps beyond ! b\nd>ies ( 8 traditional field4 ,,soils ,,z ,a ,,m9]al ,,res\rce ,soils are n ord9>ily li/$ z m9]al res\rces2 b z wea!r$ & alt]$ rock ( great economic value1 !y belong ne>ly at ! head ( ! li/ ( m9]al products4 ,,orig9 ,,( ,,soils ,soil orig9ate f rocks1 igne\s1 s$im5t>y1 & metamorphic by processes ( wea!r+1 & by ! mix+ ( ! alt]$ m9]al products ) decay$ plant rema9s or humus4 ,! humus av]ages p]haps #c or #d p] c5t ( ! soil mass & sometimes con/itutes z mu* z #ge p] c5t4 ,n all wea!r$ rock is soil 9 ! agricultural s5se4 ,= ?is purpose ! t]m is ma9ly re/rict$ to ! upp] few in*es or feet p5etrat$ by plant roots4 ,! g5]al process ( soil =mation con/itutes "o ( ! mo/ important phases ( katamorphism--! de/ructive side ( ! metamorphic cycle1 describ$ 9 ,*apt] ,,ii4 ,processes ( katamorphism or wea!r+1 usually accompani$ by ! =mation ( soils1 affect ! surface rocks ov] practically all ! cont95tal areas4 ,! wea!r+ ( a highly acid igne\s rock ) mu* qu>tz produces a residual soil ) mu* qu>tz4 ,! wea!r+ ( a basic igne\s rock )\t qu>tz produces a clay soil )\t qu>tz1 :i* may be high 9 iron4 ,:]e dis9tegration has be5 important ! soil conta9s an abundance ( ! orig9al silicates ( ! rock1 & less ( ! alt]$ m9]als4 ,! production ( soil f s$im5t>y rocks involves ! same processes z alt] igne\s rocks2 b1 />t+ f rocks ( diff]5t composition1 ! result is ( c\rse diff]5t 9 "s respects4 ,s&/ones by wea!r+ yield only a s&y soil4 ,lime/ones lose _! calcium c>bonate by solution1 leav+ only clay ) fragm5ts ( qu>tz or *]t z impurities4 ,a foot ( soil may repres5t ! wea!r+ ( a hundr$ feet ( lime/one4 ,%ales may wea!r into products m ne>ly l ^? ( ! wea!r+ ( igne\s rocks4 ,silicates 9 ! %ales are brok5 d[n to =m clay1 :i* is mix$ ) ! iron oxide & qu>tz4 ,9 "s localities ! soil may accumulate to a consid]able dep?1 all[+ ! processes ( wea!r+ to g to an extreme2 9 o!rs ! processes may be int]rupt$ by erosion1 :i* sweeps (f ! wea!r$ products at int]m$iate /ages ( decomposition & may leave a v ?9 & little decompos$ soil4 ,soils =m$ by wea!r+ may rema9 9 place z residual soils1 or !y may be transport$1 sort$1 & r$eposit$1 ei!r on l& or "u wat]4 ,x is e/imat$ by ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,bureau ( ,soils#ad t upw>d ( #ij p] c5t ( ! soils ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates :i* h be5 ?us f> mapp$ owe _! occurr5ce & di/ribution to transportation by mov+ wat]1 air1 & ice 7glaci]s71 & t less ?an #aj p] c5t h rema9$ 9 place above _! p>5t rock4 ,glaci]s may move ! wea!r$ rock products1 or !y may gr9d ! fre% rocks into a p[d] call$ rock fl\r1 & ?us =m soils hav+ m ne>ly ! *emical composition ( ! unalt]$ rocks4 ,glacial soils are ord9>ily r poorly sort$1 :ile w9d & wat]-borne soils are m likely to %[ a high degree ( sort+4 ,! "* ( a transport$ soil is less closely relat$ to ! p>5t rock ?an is t ( a residual soil1 because ! processes ( sort+ & mixture ( mat]ials f diff]5t s\rces int]v5e to develop deposits ( a nature q diff]5t f residual soils2 b ev5 transport$ soil may sometimes be trac$ to a kn[n rock p>5tage4 ,:]e deposit$ "u wat]1 soil mat]ials may be br\ght above ! wat] by physiographic *anges1 & expos$ at ! surface 9 condition = imm$iate use4 ,or1 !y may become buri$ by o!r s$im5ts & n be expos$ aga9 until aft] !y h be5 pretty well h>d5$ & cem5t$1--9 :i* case !y mu/ aga9 und]go ! s(t5+ processes ( wea!r+ be=e !y become available = use4 ,:]e soils become buri$ "u o!r rocks & become h>d5$1 !y are class$ z s$im5t>y rocks & =m a "p ( ! geologic record4 ,_m residual & transport$ soils are to be recogniz$ 9 ! geologic column2 9 fact a l>ge numb] ( ! s$im5t>y rocks ord9>ily dealt ) 9 /ratigraphic geology are really transport$ soils4 ,! developm5t ( soils by wea!r+ %\ld n be reg>d$ z a special process ( rock alt]ation1 unrelat$ to processes produc+ o!r m9]al products4 ,exactly ! same processes t produce soils may yield important deposits ( iron ore1 bauxite1 & clay1 & !y cause also second>y enri*m5t ( _m metallic m9]al deposits4 ,= in/ance ! wea!r+ ( a sy5ite rock conta9+ no qu>tz1 "u c]ta9 conditions1 z 9 ,arkansas1 results 9 great bauxite deposits :i* are truly soils & are useful z su*1--b :i* happ5 to be m valuable because ( _! cont5t ( bauxite4 ,! wea!r+ ( a basic igne\s rock1 z 9 ,cuba1 may produce important residual iron ore deposits1 :i* are also us$ z soils4 ,wea!r+ ( f]rug9\s lime/one may produce residual iron & manganese ores 9 clay soils4 ,,composition ,,( ,,soils ,,& ,,plant ,,gr[? ,! m9]al +r$i5ts 9 soils :i* are ess5tial = plant gr[? include wat]1 pota%1 lime1 magnesia1 nitrates1 sulphur1 & phosphoric acid--all ( :i* are subord9ate 9 am\nt to ! common products ( wea!r+ 7pp4 #bj-bb1 #bc-bd74 ,( ^! con/itu5ts magnesia is almo/ inv>iably pres5t 9 suffici5t quantity2 :ile pota%1 nitrates1 lime1 sulphur1 & phosphoric acid1 al?\gh (t5 suffici5tly abundant 9 virg9 soil1 :5 extract$ f ! soils by plant gr[? are liable to exhau/ion "u ord9>y me?ods ( cultivation1 & may ne$ to be repl5i%$ by f]tiliz]s 7,*apt] ,,vii74 ,"s soils may be s excessively high 9 silica1 iron1 or o!r con/itu5ts1 t ! rema9+ con/itu5ts are 9 too small am\nts = successful plant gr[?4 ,ev5 :]e soils orig9ally h en\gh ( all ! necess>y *emical elem5ts1 "o soil may support plant gr[? & ano!r may n1 = ! reason t ! necess>y con/itu5ts are soluble & h5ce available to ! plant roots 9 "o case & are n soluble 9 ! o!r4 ,pla9ly ! m9]al comb9ations 9 :i* ! v>i\s elem5ts occur are important factors 9 mak+ !m available = plant use4 ,simil>ly a soil ( a c]ta9 *emical & m9]alogical composition may be fruitful "u "o set ( climatic conditions & a soil ( l composition may be b>r5 at ano!r locality--indicat+ t availability ( con/itu5ts is also det]m9$ by climatic & o!r conditions ( wea!r+4 ,ev5 ) ! same *emical composition & ! same climatic conditions1 !re may be su* diff]5ces 9 texture betwe5 v>i\s soils z to make !m widely diff]5t 9 yield4 ,! unit ( soil classification is ! soil type1 :i* is a soil hav+ agricultural unity1 z det]m9$ by texture1 *emical "*1 topography1 & climate4 ,! types commonly nam$ are clay1 clay loam1 silt loam1 loam1 f9e s&y loam1 s&y loam1 f9e s&1 & s&4 ,9 g5]al ! soil mat]ials are s het]og5e\s & s remote f specific rock orig91 t 9 su* classification ! geologic factor ( orig9 is n tak5 into acc\nt4 ,m broadly1 soils may be classifi$ into prov9ces on ! basis ( geography1 simil> physiographic conditions1 & simil>ity ( p>5t rocks2 = in/ance1 ! soils ( ! ,pi$mont plateau prov9ce1 ( ! arid s\?we/ region1 ( ! glacial & loessal prov9ce1 etc4 ,9 su* classification ! geologic factors are m important4 ,soils )9 a prov9ce may be subdivid$ into soil s]ies on ! basis ( common types ( sub-soils1 relief1 dra9age1 & orig94 ,,use ,,( ,,geology ,,9 ,,soil ,,/udy ,:ile ! desirability ( p>ticul> soils is relat$ 9 a broad way to ! "* ( ! p>5t rocks1 & :ile by geologic k c]ta9 t]ritories c be pr$icat$ 9 advance z be+ m favorable ?an o!rs to ! developm5t ( good soils1 s _m o!r factors ent] into ! "q t ! geologic factor may be a subord9ate "o4 ,a soil exp]t f9ds a k ( geology useful z a basis = a broad /udy ( 8 subject2 b 9 foll[+ up its intricacies he gives att5tion ma9ly to o!r factors1 su* z ! availability ( common con/itu5ts = plant use1 ! exi/5ce & availability ( m9ute quantities ( mat]ials n ord9>ily reg>d$ z important by ! geologi/1 ! climatic conditions1 & ! texture4 ,z ! geologic factors are _m ( !m comp>atively simple1 mu* ( ! exp]t "w on soils requires only elem5t>y & empirical k ( geology4 ,! geologi/1 al?\gh he may und]/& fully ! orig9 ( soils & may indicate c]ta9 broad features1 mu/ acquire a va/ te*nique n closely relat$ to geology be=e he becomes effective 9 soil survey "w & diagnosis4 ,= ^! reasons ! mapp+ & classification ( soils1 :ile (t5 />t$ by geologi/s ( /ate or f$]al surveys1 h 9 _! te*nical developm5t & application n[ pass$ l>gely into ! h&s ( soil exp]ts 9 ! special soil surveys affiliat$ ) ! ,u4 ,s4 ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture & ) agricultural colleges4 ,,footnotes3 #ac ,a good summ>y ( ?is subject may be f\nd 9 ,eng9e]+ ,geology1 by ,h4 ,ries & ,t4 ,l4 ,watson1 ,wiley & ,sons1 #b;d ed41 #aiae4 #ad ,m>but1 ,curtis ,f41 ,soils ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates3 ,bull4 #if1 ,bureau ( ,soils1 #aiac1 p4 #aj4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,! ,,f]tiliz] ,,gr\p ,,( ,,m9]als ,,g5]al ,,comm5ts ,soils are wea!r$ rock m or less mix$ ) organic mat]ial4 ,! wea!r+ processes =m+ soils are 9 ! field ( geologic inve/igation1 b ! /udy ( soils 9 relation to agriculture requires att5tion to texture & to sev]al ( _! v m9or con/itu5ts :i* h little geologic significance4 ,soil /udy has !re=e become a highly specializ$ & te*nicaliz$ subject1--= :i* a geological backgr\nd is ess5tial1 b :i* is usually beyond ! range ( ! geologi/4 ,to supply sub/ances :i* are defici5t 9 soils1 h[ev]1 requires ! m9+1 qu>ry+1 or extraction ( important m9]al res\rces1 & 9 ?is "p ( ! soil problem ! geologi/ is especially int]e/$4 ,soils may be orig9ally defici5t 9 nitrates1 phosphates1 or pota%2 or ! cont9u$ cropp+ ( soils may take out ^! mat]ials fa/] ?an ! natural processes ( nature supply !m4 ,9 "s soils !re are suffici5t phosphates & pota% to supply all plant ne$s indef9itely2 b ! wea!r+ & alt]ation processes1 ?r\gh :i* ^! mat]ials are r5d]$ soluble & available = plant life1 9 mo/ cases are unable to keep up ) ! depletion caus$ by cropp+4 ,a ton ( :eat takes out ( ! soil on an av]age #dg p\nds ( nitrog51 #ah p\nds ( phosphoric acid1 #ab p\nds ( pota%4 ,on old] soils 9 ,europe x has be5 f\nd necess>y to use on an av]age #bjj p\nds ( mix$ m9]al f]tiliz]s annually p] acre4 ,on ! new] soils ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! av]age ?us f> us$ has be5 less ?an "o-sev5? ( ?is am\nt4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates has ?us f> be5 us+ up ! orig9al mat]ials /or$ 9 ! soil by nature1 b ^! h n be5 suffici5t to yield any?+ l ! crop output p] acre ( ! m highly f]tiliz$ soils ( ,europe4 ,9 addition to ! nitrates1 phosphates1 & potassium salts1 important am\nts ( lime & sulphuric acid1 & "s gypsum1 are us$ 9 connection ) soils4 ,lime is d]iv$ f cru%$ lime/one 7pp4 #hb-hc71 & is us$ prim>ily to c\nt]act acidity or s\rness ( ! soil2 x is1 !re=e1 only indirectly relat$ to f]tiliz]s4 ,sulphuric acid is us$ to treat rock phosphates to make !m m soluble & available to plant life4 ,x requires ! m9+ ( pyrite & sulphur4 ,gypsum1 "u ! "n ( l&-pla/]1 is appli$ to soils :i* are defici5t 9 ! sulphur requir$ = plant life2 increase 9 its use 9 ! future seems probable4 ,!re are also consid]able am\nts ( in]t m9]al sub/ances :i* are us$ z fill]s 9 f]tiliz]s to give bulk to ! product1 b :i* h no agricultural value4 ,! proportions ( ! f]tiliz] sub/ances us$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates are r\ghly summ>iz$ 9 ,figure #d4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates possesses abundant supplies ( two ( ! *ief m9]al sub/ances ent]+ into comm]cial f]tiliz]s1--phosphate rock & ! sulphur-be>+ mat]ials necess>y to treat x4 ,= pota% ! ,unit$ ,/ates is dep5d5t on ,europe1 unless ! dome/ic indu/ry is v greatly fo/]$ "u protective t>iff4 ,= ! m9]al nitrates ! ,unit$ ,/ates has be5 dep5d5t on ,*ile1 & because ( ! *eapness ( ! supply w d\btless cont9ue to draw heavily f ?is s\rce4 ,h[ev]1 because ( ! dome/ic developm5t ( plants = ! fixation ( nitrog5 f ! air1 ! recov]y ( nitrog5 f coal 9 ! by-product processes1 & ! use ( nitrog5\s plants1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates is likely to require progressively less ( ! m9]al nitrates f ,*ile4 ,! f]tiliz] indu/ry ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates is yet 9 its infancy & is likely to h a l>ge gr[?4 ,fur!rmore mu* rema9s to be le>n$ ab\t ! mix+ ( f]tiliz]s & ! am\nts & k9ds ( mat]ials to be us$4 ,! importance ( sulphur z a plant food has be5 realiz$ comp>atively rec5tly4 ,! use ( f]tiliz]s 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates has come p>tly ?r\gh education & ! activity ( agricultural s*ools & p>tly ?r\gh adv]tis+ by f]tiliz] companies4 ,! increas$ use ( pota% has be5 due l>gely to ! propag&a ( ! ,g]man sales ag5ts4 ,an exam9ation ( a map %[+ di/ribution ( ! use ( f]tiliz]s ov] ! c\ntry indicates v cle>ly ! erratic di/ribution ( ! effects ( ^! v>i\s activities4 ,"o locality may use l>ge am\nts1 :ile adjac5t t]ritory ( simil> physical conditions uses little4 ,! sudd5 )drawal ( f]tiliz]s = a p]iod ( ?ree or f\r ye>s dur+ ! w> _h v delet]i\s effects 9 "s localities1 b 0 n s disa/r\s z expect$ 9 o!rs1--emphasiz+ ! fact t ! use ( f]tiliz]s has be5 p>tly =tuit\s & n nicely adju/$ to specific ne$s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,,f]tiliz] ,,situation ,,9 ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates4 ,,smi?sonian ,,in/itution--,,unit$ ,,/ates ,,national ,,museum ,,nitrates ,,economic ,,features ,!re are sev]al s\rces ( nitrog5 = f]tiliz] purposes3 m9]al nitrates1 nitrog5 tak5 f ! air by c]ta9 plants ) ! aid ( bact]ia & pl[$ into ! soil1 nitrog5 tak5 directly f ! air by comb9+ nitrog5 & oxyg5 atoms 9 an electric arc1 or by comb9+ nitrog5 & hydrog5 to =m ammonia1 nitrog5 tak5 f ! air to make a comp\nd ( calcium1 c>bon1 & nitrog5 7cyanamid71 nitrog5 sav$ f coal 9 ! =m ( ammonia z a by-product ( coke-manufacture1 & nitrog5 f v>i\s organic wa/es4 ,nitrog5 9 ! =m ( ammonia is also "o ( ! pot5tial products ( oil-%ales 7p4 #aej74 ,:ile ! pr9cipal use ( nitrog5\s mat]ials is z f]tiliz]s1 additional important quantities are us$ 9 ammonia = refrig]at+ plants1 & 9 ! =m ( nitric acid 9 a l>ge numb] ( *emical indu/ries4 ,dur+ ! w> ! use ( nitrates 0 l>gely div]t$ to explosives manufacture4 ,! geologi/ is int]e/$ pr9cipally 9 ! m9]al nitrates z a m9]al res\rce1 b ! o!r s\rces ( nitrog51 p>ticul>ly its recov]y f coal1 also t\* 8 field4 ,almo/ ! s+le s\rce ( m9]al nitrates = ! _w at pres5t is ,*ile1 :]e !re are deposits ( sodium nitrate or ,*ile saltpet]1 conta9+ m9or am\nts ( potassium nitrate4 ,ab\t two-?irds ( ! ,*ilean mat]ial normally goes to ,europe & ab\t "o-f\r? to ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! supply has be5 comm]cially controll$ *iefly by ,great ,brita9 & by ,*ilean companies back$ by ,briti% & ,g]man capital4 ,! dep5d5ce ( ! _w on ,*ile became pa9fully app>5t dur+ ! w>4 ,g]many 0 ! only nation :i* _h develop$ o!r s\rces ( nitrog5\s mat]ial to any great ext5t4 ,! o!r nations 7 dep5d5t 9 a v l>ge degree on ! m9]al nitrates1 bo? = f]tiliz] & munition purposes4 ,total dem&s f> exce$$ ! total output f ,*ile1 requir+ int]national agreem5t z to ! division ( ! output among ! nations4 ,! /ream ( sev]al hundr$ %ips c>ry+ nitrates f ,*ile 0 "o ( ! vital w> art]ies4 ,?is situation l$ to /r5u\s ef=ts 9 ! bellig]5t c\ntries t[>d ! developm5t ( o!r s\rces ( nitrog54 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates1 "u gov]nm5tal appropriation1 began ! build+ ( ext5sive plants = ! fixation ( nitrog5 f ! air1 & ! build+ ( by-product coke ov5s 9 ! place ( ! old wa/eful beehive ov5s 0 accel]at$4 ,g]many be=e ! w> _h already gone f> 9 bo? ( ^! directions1 n only )9 h] own b\nd>ies1 b 9 ! build+ ( fixation plants 9 ,sc&9avia & ,switz]l&4 ,w> conditions requir$ fur!r developm5t ( ^! processes 9 ,g]many1 ) ! result t ?is c\ntry 0 soon entirely self-support+ 9 ?is reg>d4 ,"o ( ! effects 0 ! almo/ complete elim9ation 9 ,g]many ( any?+ b ! by-product process ( cok+ coal4 ,w>-"t developm5t ( ! nitrog5 indu/ry 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates = munition purposes br\ght ! dome/ic production almo/ up to ! pre-w> requirem5ts = f]tiliz]s alone4 ,) ! increas+ dem& = f]tiliz]s & ) ! *eapness ( ! ,*ilean supply ( natural nitrates1 x is likely t ! ,unit$ ,/ates w cont9ue = a good _m ye>s to import consid]able am\nts ( ,*ilean nitrates4 ,x may be not$ t1 al?\gh ?is c\ntry normally consumes ab\t "o-f\r? ( ! ,*ilean product1 ,am]ican int]e/s comm]cially control less ?an "o-tw5tie? ( ! output4 ,presumably1 if = no o!r purpose ?an future protection1 ef=t w be made to develop ! dome/ic indu/ry to a po9t :]e 9 a crisis ! ,unit$ ,/ates c\ld be indep5d5t ( ,*ile4 ,p>ticul>ly may an increase 9 ! output ( by-product ammonia f coke manufacture be look$ = 7see also pp4 #aah-aai71 s9ce nitrog5\s mat]ial ?us produc$ ne$ be> no fix$ "p ( ! co/ ( production1 & requires no protective t>iff4 ,! res]ves ( ,*ilean nitrate are kn[n to be suffici5t = _w requirem5ts = an indef9itely long future4 ,,geologic ,,features ,m9]al nitrates 9 g5]al1 & p>ticul>ly ^? ( soda & pota%1 are readily soluble at ord9>y temp]atures4 ,m9]al nitrate deposits are !re=e v r>e1 & are f\nd only 9 arid regions or o!r places :]e !y are protect$ f ra9 & gr\nd-wat]4 ,! only l>ge deposits kn[n are ^? ( nor!rn ,*ile & "s ext5sions 9 adjac5t p>ts ( ,p]u & ,bolivia4 ,^! are locat$ on high des]t plateaus1 :]e !re is almo/ a total abs5ce ( ra91 & =m blankets ( "o to six feet 9 ?ickness ne> ! surface4 ,! mo/ important m9]al1 ! sodium nitrate or ,*ile saltpet]1 is m+l$ ) v>i\s o!r soluble salts1 includ+ common salt1 borax m9]als1 & potassium nitrate1 & ) loose clay1 s&1 & gravel4 ,! nitrate deposits occur l>gely ar\nd & j above slight bas9-l depressions 9 ! des]t :i* conta9 an abundance ( common salt4 ,! highe/ grade mat]ial conta9s #dj to #ej p] c5t ( sodium nitrate1 & mat]ial to be ( %ipp+ grade mu/ run at lea/ #ab to #ae p] c5t4 ,! orig9 ( ! nitrate b$s is commonly believ$ to be simil> to t ( b$s ( rock salt 7pp4 #bie-bih71 borax1 & o!r sal9e residues4 ,! s\rce ( ! nitrog5 0 probably organic matt] 9 ! soil1 su* z =m] deposits ( bird guano1 bones 7:i* are actually f\nd 9 ! same des]t bas971 & anci5t vegetable matt]4 ,by ! action ( nitrify+ bact]ia on ?is organic matt]1 nitrate salts are believ$ to h =m$ :i* 7 lea*$ out by surface & gr\nd wat]s1 & probably c>ri$ 9 solution to enclos$ bodies ( wat]4 ,"h !y became m+l$ ) v>i\s o!r salts1 & all 7 precipitat$ out z ! wat]s ( ! bas9s evaporat$4 ,deliquesc5ce & lat] migration ( ! m soluble nitrates result$ 9 _! accumulation ar\nd ! edges ( ! bas9s4 ,! nitrate b$s are ?us ess5tially a product ( desiccation4 ,:ile ! orig9 j set =? is r g5]ally accept$1 sev]al o!r !ories h be5 advanc$4 ,x has be5 sugge/$ t ! deposits 7 n =m$ 9 wat] bas9s1 b t gr\nd wat] c>ry+ nitrates 9 solution has be5 & is ris+ to ! surface1--:]e1 "u ! extremely arid conditions1 x evaporates rapidly1 leav+ ! nitrates mix$ ) ! surface clays4 ,"o gr\p ( writ]s acc\nts = ! deposits by ! fixation ( atmosph]ic nitrog5 ?r\gh electrical ph5om5a4 ,/ill o!rs note ! frequ5t pres5ce ( nitrog5 9 volcanic exhalations & ! association ( ! ,*ilean nitrate b$s ) surface volcanic rocks2 !y sugge/ t ^! rocks 7 ! s\rce ( ! nitrog51 :i* "u unusual climatic conditions 0 lea*$ out & !n deposit$ by evaporation4 ,,phosphates ,,economic ,,features ,! pr9cipal use ( natural phosphates is 9 ! manufacture ( f]tiliz]s4 ,!y are also us$ 9 ! manufacture ( phosphorus1 phosphoric acid1 & o!r phosphorus comp\nds1 = mat*es1 = c]ta9 metallurgical op]ations1 & = gases us$ 9 milit>y op]ations4 ,! mat]ial m9$ is ma9ly a phosphate ( lime 7tricalcium phosphate74 ,to make x available = plant use1 x is treat$ ) sulphuric acid to =m a soluble sup]phosphate2 h5ce ! importance ( sulphuric acid1 & its m9]al s\rces pyrite & sulphur1 9 ! f]tiliz] indu/ry4 ,a small p]c5tage ( ! phosphate is also gr\nd up & appli$ directly to ! soil 9 ! raw =m4 ,o!r phosphatic mat]ials are ! basic slag f phosphatic iron ores made into ,?omas-process /eel1 guano f ! ,pacific isl&s1 & bone & refuse 7tankage7 f ! cattle rais+ & pack+ c\ntries4 ,^! mat]ials are us$ = ! same purposes z ! natural phosphates4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates is ! l>ge/ factor 9 ! _w's phosphate indu/ry1 ) ref]5ce bo? to production & res]ves4 ,! l>ge/ & mo/ available ( ! ,european s\rces are 9 ,tunis & ,alg]ia1 "u ,fr5* control1 & 9 ,egypt1 "u ,engli% control4 ,belgium & nor!rn ,france h be5 consid]able produc]s ( phosphates1 b1 ) ! developm5t ( high] grade deposits 9 o!r c\ntries1 _! production has fall5 to a v small fraction ( ! _w's total4 ,!re also has be5 v small & insignificant production 9 ,spa9 & ,great ,brita94 ,russia has l>ge res]ves :i* are practically unm9$4 ,:ile !re is comp>atively little phosphate rock 9 we/]n ,europe1 a consid]able am\nt ( ! phosphate supply is obta9$ z a by-product f ,?omas slag1 d]iv$ f phosphatic iron ores4 ,^! ores are *iefly f ,lorra9e & ,sw$51 b ,engli% & ,russian ores c be simil>ly us$4 ,outside ( ,europe & ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 !re are small] phosphate supplies 9 ,canada1 ! ,dut* ,we/ ,indies1 ,v5ezuela1 ,*ile1 ,s\? ,au/ralia1 ,new ,zeal&1 & sev]al isl&s ( ! ,indian & ,s\? ,pacific ,oceans4 ,none ( ^! has yet contribut$ l>gely to _w production1 & _! di/ance f ! pr9cipal consum+ c\ntries bord]+ ! ,nor? ,atlantic bas9 is s great t !re is n likely to be any great movem5t to ?is "p ( ! _w4 ,on ! o!r h&1 "s ( ! ,s\? ,sea isl&s h l>ge res]ves ( exceptionally high grade guano & bone phosphates1 :i* w d\btless be us$ 9 increas+ am\nts = export to ,japan1 ,new ,zeal&1 & o!r ne>by c\ntries4 ,! mo/ important ( ^! isl&s are n[ controll$ by ,great ,brita91 ,japan1 & ,france4 ,a /rik+ feature ( ! situation is t ! c5tral ,european c\ntries1 :i* h be5 l>ge consum]s ( phosphate mat]ial1 h lo/ n only ! ,pacific isl& phosphates b ! ,lorra9e phosphatic iron ores1 & are n[ almo/ completely dep5d5t on ,briti%1 ,fr5*1 & ,unit$ ,/ates phosphate4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 res]ves ( phosphate are v l>ge4 ,!y are m9$ pr9cipally 9 ,florida1 ,t5nessee1 & ,s\? ,c>ol9a2 b great res]ves1 ?\gh ( l[] grade1 are kn[n 9 ,arkansas1 ,montana1 ,idaho1 ,wyom+1 & ,utah4 ,!re are possibilities = ! developm5t ( local phosphate indu/ries 9 ! we/1 9 connection ) ! manufacture ( sulphuric acid f wa/e smelt+ gases at ne>by m9+ c5t]s4 ,! ,anaconda ,copp] ,m9+ ,company has tak5 up ! manufacture ( sup]phosphate z a means ( us+ sulphuric acid made 9 relation to its smelt+ op]ations4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates is indep5d5t 9 phosphate supplies & has a surplus = export4 ,?is c\ntry1 ,engl&1 & ,france ex]cise control ( ! great] "p ( ! _w's supply ( phosphatic mat]ial4 ,9 competition = _w trade1 ! ,florida & ,c>ol9a phosphates are favorably situat$ = export1 b !re is /rong competition 9 ,europe f ! imm5se fields 9 ,fr5* ,nor? ,africa1 :i* are ab\t equally well situat$4 ,,geologic ,,features ,small am\nts ( phosphorus are common 9 igne\s rocks1 9 ! =m ( ! m9]al apatite 7calcium phosphate ) calcium *loride or fluoride74 ,apatite is especially abundant 9 "s pegmatites4 ,9 a few places1 z 9 ! ,adirondacks :]e magnetic conc5tration ( iron ores leaves a residue conta9+ mu* apatite1 & 9 ,canada & ,spa9 :]e ve9s ( apatite h be5 m9$1 ?is mat]ial is us$ z a s\rce ( phosphate f]tiliz]4 ,! great bulk ( ! _w's phosphate1 h[ev]1 is obta9$ f o!r s\rces--s$im5t>y & residual b$s describ$ bel[4 ,phosphorus 9 ! rocks is dissolv$ 9 "o =m or ano!r by ! gr\nd-wat]s2 a "p ( x is tak5 up by l& plants & animals = ! build+ ( _! tissues1 & ano!r "p goes 9 solution to ! sea to be tak5 up by sea plants & animals4 ,9 places :]e ! bones & excrem5ts ( l& animals or ! %ells & dropp+s ( sea animals accumulate1 deposits ( phosphatic mat]ial may be built up4 ,9 c]ta9 places :]e great numb]s ( sea birds congregate1 z on des]t coa/s & oceanic isl&s1 guano deposits h be5 =m$4 ,"s ( !m1 l ! work$-out deposits ( ,p]u & ,*ile1 are 9 arid climates & h be5 well pres]v$4 ,o!rs1 l ^? ( ! ,we/ ,indies & ,oceania1 are subject$ to ! action ( occasional ra9s2 & to a l>ge ext5t ! phosphates h be5 lea*$ out1 c>ri$ d[n1 & reprecipitat$1 p]meat+ & p>tially replac+ ! und]ly+ lime/ones4 ,9 ?is way deposits h be5 =m$ conta9+ z high z #he p] c5t calcium phosphate4 ,ev5 m important bodies ( phosphates h be5 produc$ by ! accumulation ( m>9e animal rema9s1 probably ) ! aid ( jo9t *emical1 bact]ial1 & me*anical precipitation4 ,^! processes h =m$ ! *ief productive deposits ( ! _w1 includ+ ^? ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 nor!rn ,africa1 & ,russia1 & also ! phosphatic iron ores ( ,engl& & c5tral ,europe4 ,! s$im5t>y features ( _m phosphate rocks1 p>ticul>ly _! oolitic textures1 %[ a m>k$ simil>ity to ! features ( ! ,cl9ton type ( iron ores 7pp4 #aff-afg74 ,! m>9e phosphate b$s orig9ally consi/ pr9cipally ( calcium phosphate & calcium c>bonate 9 v>y+ proportions4 ,dep5d+ on ! am\nt ( second>y enri*m5t1 !y =m two ma9 types ( deposits4 ,! ext5sive b$s ( ! we/]n ,unit$ ,/ates 79 ! upp] ,c>bonif]\s7 are h>d1 & v little enri*m5t by wea!r+ has tak5 place2 !y c>ry 9 _! ri*] portions #gj to #hj p] c5t calcium phosphate1 & l>ge sections range only f ab\t #cj to #ej p] c5t4 ,9 ! s\!a/]n deposits 7,silurian & ,devonian 9 ,t5nessee & ,t]ti>y 9 ! ,c>ol9as & ,florida71 !re has be5 consid]able enri*m5t1 ! rock is s(t]1 & ! g5]al grade ranges f #fe to #hj p] c5t4 ,bo? calcium c>bonate & calcium phosphate are soluble 9 ord9>y gr\nd wat]s1 b ! c>bonate is ! m soluble ( ! two4 ,?us ! c>bonate has be5 dissolv$ out m rapidly1 & 9 addition desc5d+ wat]s c>ry+ ! phosphate h frequ5tly deposit$ x to pick up ! c>bonate4 ,^! enri*+ processes1 sometimes aid$ by me*anical conc5tration1 h =m$ high-grade deposits bo? 9 ! orig9ally phosphatic b$s & 9 v>i\s und]ly+ /rata4 ,concretion>y & nodul> textures are common4 ,! pebble deposits ( ,florida consi/ ( ! phosphatic mat]ials brok5 up & work$ ov] by riv] wat]s & advanc+ %all[ seas4 ,,pyrite ,,economic ,,features ,! pr9cipal use ( pyrite is 9 ! manufacture ( sulphuric acid4 ,l>ge quantities ( acid are us$ 9 ! manufacture ( f]tiliz]s f phosphate rock1 & dur+ w> times 9 ! manufacture ( munitions4 ,sulphuric acid conv]ts ! phosphate rock into sup]phosphate1 :i* is soluble & available = plant use4 ,o!r uses ( ! acid are ref]r$ to 9 connection ) sulphur4 ,pyrite is also us$ 9 ,europe = ! manufacture ( pap] f wood-pulp1 b 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates native sulphur has ?us f> be5 exclusively us$ = ?is purpose4 ,! residue f ! roa/+ ( pyrite is a high-grade iron ore mat]ial frequ5tly v l[ 9 phosphorus1 :i* is desirable 9 mak+ up mixtures = iron bla/ furnaces4 ,mo/ ( ! c\ntries ( ,europe are produc]s ( pyrite1 & important am\nts are also produc$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,canada4 ,! ,european production is m>ket$ ma9ly on t cont95t1 b consid]able am\nts come to ! ,unit$ ,/ates f ,spa94 ,be=e ! w> dome/ic s\rces suppli$ a f\r? to a ?ird ( ! dome/ic dem& = pyrite4 ,imports came ma9ly f ,spa9 & ,portugal to consum+ c5t]s on ! ,atlantic seabo>d4 ,! curtailm5t ( ov]seas imports ( pyrite dur+ ! w> increas$ dome/ic production by ab\t a ?ird & result$ also 9 draw+ m heavily on ,canadian supplies1 b ! total 0 n suffici5t to meet ! dem&4 ,! dem& 0 met by ! increas$ use ( sulphur f dome/ic deposits 7p4 #aji74 ,at ! close ( ! w> supplies ( pyrite _h be5 accumulat$ to su* an ext5t t1 ) ! prospect ( reop5+ ( ,spani% importation1 pyrite production 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates practically ceas$4 ,w> exp]i5ce has demon/rat$ ! possibility ( sub/itution ( sulphur1 :i* ! ,unit$ ,/ates has 9 l>ge & *eaply m9$ quantities4 ,! future ( ! pyrite indu/ry 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates !re=e looks cl\dy1 except = supplies us$ locally1 z 9 ! t]ritory tribut>y to ! ,great ,lakes1 & except = small am\nts locally recov]$ z by-products 9 ! m9+ ( coal or f ores ( z9c1 lead1 & copp]4 ,pyrite production 9 ! pa/ has be5 *iefly 9 ! ,appala*ian region1 p>ticul>ly 9 ,virg9ia & ,new ,york1 & 9 ,cali=nia4 ,,geologic ,,features ,pyrite1 ! yell[ iron sulphide1 is ! commone/ & mo/ abundant ( ! metallic sulphides4 ,x is =m$ "u a l>ge v>iety ( conditions & associations4 ,m>casite & pyrrhotite1 o!r iron sulphide m9]als1 are frequ5tly f\nd ) pyrite & are us$ = ! same purposes4 ,! great deposits ( ,rio ,t9to1 ,spa91 :i* produce ab\t half ( ! _w's pyrite1 7 =m$ by replacem5t ( slates by heat$ solutions f ne>by igne\s rocks4 ,! ores are 9 l5ticul> bodies1 & consi/ ( almo/ massive pyrite ) a small am\nt ( qu>tz & scatt]$ gra9s & ?reads ( *alcopyrite 7copp]-iron sulphide74 ,!y c>ry ab\t #ej p] c5t ( sulphur1 & ! l>g] "p c>ries ab\t #b p] c5t ( copp] :i* is also recov]$4 ,simil> occurr5ces ( pyrite on a small] scale are kn[n 9 _m places4 ,pyrite is v commonly f\nd 9 ve9 & replacem5t deposits ( gold1 silv]1 copp]1 lead1 & z9c4 ,9 ! ,mississippi valley x is extract$ z a by-product f ! lead & z9c ores1 & 9 ! ,cordill]an region l>ge quantities ( by-product pyrite c\ld easily be produc$ if !re 7 a local dem&4 ,! pyrite deposits ( ! ,appala*ian region are *iefly l5ses 9 s*i/s2 !y are ( unc]ta9 orig9 ?\gh "s are believ$ to h be5 =m$ by replacem5t ( metamorphos$ lime/ones & s*i/s4 ,"u wea!r+ conditions pyrite oxidizes1 ! sulphur =m+ sulphuric acid1--an important ag5t 9 ! second>y enri*m5t ( copp] & o!r sulphides1--& ! iron =m+ ! m9]als hematite & limonite 9 ! %ape ( a gossan or iron-cap4 ,pyrite is likewise frequ5tly f\nd 9 s$im5ts1 app>5tly be+ =m$ ma9ly by ! r$uc+ action ( organic matt] on iron salts 9 solution4 ,9 ,ill9ois & adjac5t /ates x is obta9$ z a by-product ( coal m9+4 ,,sulphur ,,economic ,,features ,sulphur is us$ = _m ( ! same purposes z pyrite4 ,"u pre-w> conditions1 ! l>ge/ use 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates 0 9 ! manufacture ( pap] pulp by ! sulphite process4 ,m9or uses 7 9 agriculture z a fungicide & insecticide1 9 vulcaniz+ rubb]1 & 9 ! manufacture ( gunp[d]4 ,ab\t #e p] c5t ( ! sulphur ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 0 us$ 9 ! manufacture ( sulphuric acid4 ,dur+ ! w> ?is use 0 greatly increas$ because ( ! %ortage ( pyrite & ! l>ge quantities ( sulphuric acid necess>y = ! manufacture ( explosives4 ,! replacem5t ( pyrite by sulphur 9 ! manufacture ( sulphuric acid has cont9u$ s9ce ! w>1 & 9 ! future is likely to cont9ue to play an important "p4 ,sulphuric acid is an ess5tial mat]ial = a great range ( manufactur+ processes4 ,"s ( its m important applications are3 9 ! manufacture ( sup]phosphate f]tiliz] f phosphate rock2 9 ! ref9+ ( petroleum products2 9 ! iron1 /eel1 & coke indu/ries2 9 ! manufacture ( nitroglyc]9 & o!r explosives2 & 9 g5]al metallurgical & *emical practice4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates is ! _w's l>ge/ sulphur produc]4 ,! pr9cipal =eign c\ntries produc+ important am\nts ( sulphur are ,italy1 ,japan1 ,spa91 & ,*ile4 ,europe is ! *ief m>ket = ! ,italian sulphur4 ,9 spite ( increas$ dem&s 9 ,europe ! ,italian production has decreas$ z ! result ( unfavorable labor1 m9+1 & transportation conditions1 & ! deficit has _h to be met f ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,japan's sulphur production has be5 increas+4 ,normally ab\t half ( ! mat]ial export$ comes to ! ,unit$ ,/ates to supply ! ne$s ( ! pap] indu/ry 9 ! ,pacific /ates1 & half goes to ,au/ralia & o!r ,briti% colonies4 ,spa9's production is relatively small & has be5 increas+ sl[ly2 mo/ ( x is consum$ locally4 ,*ile's small production is ma9ly consum$ at home & l>ge additional am\nts are import$4 ,! sulphur output ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 :i* 9 #aiac-ad 0 second to ,italy1 n[ am\nts to ?ree-f\r?s ( ! entire output ( ! _w1 & ! ,unit$ ,/ates has become a l>ge export] ( sulphur4 ,supplies are ample & production increas+1 ) ! result t ! ,unit$ ,/ates c n only meet its own dem&s1 b c use ?is commodity ext5sively 9 _w trade4 ,small am\nts ( sulphur are m9$ 9 "s ( ! we/]n /ates1 b ov] #ih p] c5t ( ! production comes f ,l\isiana & ,texas4 ,,geologic ,,features ,native sulphur is f\nd pr9cipally 9 s$im5t>y b$s1 :]e x is associat$ ) gypsum & usually ) organic matt]4 ,deposits ( ?is type are kn[n 9 _m places1 ! mo/ important be+ ^? ( ,sicily & ( ! ,gulf ,coa/ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,9 ! latt] region b$s ( lime/one c>ry l5ses ( sulphur & gypsum :i* are app>5tly localiz$ 9 dome-l upb[+s ( ! /rata4 ,! deposits are ov]la9 by sev]al hundr$ feet ( loose1 wat]-be>+ s&s1 ?r\gh :i* x is difficult to s9k a %aft4 ,an +5i\s & effici5t process ( m9+ is us$ :]eby sup]heat$ wat] is pump$ d[n to melt ! sulphur1 :i* is !n =c$ to ! surface by compress$ air & all[$ to consolidate 9 l>ge b9s4 ,! ,sicilian deposits are simil> l5ses 9 clayey lime/ones conta9+ #bj to #be p] c5t ( sulphur1 associat$ ) gypsum & bitum9\s m>l2 !y are m9$ by %afts4 ,conc]n+ ! orig9 ( ^! deposits sev]al !ories h be5 advanc$4 ,x has be5 ?\ght t ! mat]ials = ! deposits 7 precipitat$ at ! same "t z ! enclos+ s$im5ts2 & t ! sulphur may h be5 =m$ by ! oxidation ( hydrog5 sulphide 9 ! precipitat+ wat]s ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( air or ( sulphur-secret+ bact]ia1 or t x may h be5 produc$ by ! r$uction ( gypsum by organic matt] or bact]ia4 ,o!rs h sugge/$ t hot wat]s ris+ f igne\s rocks may h br\ght 9 bo? ! sulphur & ! gypsum1 :i* 9 cry/alliz+ caus$ ! upb[+ ( ! /rata :i* is se5 9 ! ,gulf fields 7see also p4 #bih74 ,native sulphur is also f\nd 9 m9]al spr+s f :i* hydrog5 sulphide issues1 :]e x is produc$ by ! oxidation ( ! hydrog5 sulphide4 ,x likewise occurs 9 fissures ( lava & ar\nd volcanic v5ts1 :]e x has probably be5 =m$ by reactions betwe5 ! volcanic gases & ! air4 ,! ,japanese & ,*ilean deposits are ( ! volcanic type4 ,,pota% ,,economic ,,features ,pota% is us$ pr9cipally z a compon5t ( f]tiliz]s 9 agriculture4 ,x is also us$ 9 ! manufacture ( soap1 c]ta9 k9ds ( glass1 mat*es1 c]ta9 explosives1 & *emical reag5ts4 ,= a long "t pota% production 0 ess5tially a ,g]man monopoly4 ,! pr9cipal deposits are 9 ! vic9ity ( ,/assfurt 9 nor? c5tral ,g]many 7ab\t ! ,h>z ,m\nta9s74 ,/assfurt salts are und\bt$ly ample to supply ! _w's ne$s ( pota% = an indef9ite future4 ,h[ev]1 o!r deposits1 discov]$ 9 ! ,rh9e ,valley 9 ,alsace 9 #aijd1 h be5 prov$ to be ( great ext5t2 & ?\gh ! production has hi!rto be5 limit$ by re/rictions impos$ by ! ,g]man ,gov]nm5t1 x has nev]!less become consid]able4#ae ,! grade 7#ah p] c5t ,k#b,o7 is sup]ior to ! g5]al run ( mat]ial tak5 f ! ma9 ,g]man deposits1 & ! deposits h a regul>ity ( /ructure & uni=mity ( mat]ial favorable to *eap] m9+ & ref9+ ?an obta9s 9 ! ,/assfurt deposits4 ,o!r c\ntries h also develop$ supplies ( pota%1 "s ( :i* w probably cont9ue to produce ev5 9 competition ) ! deposits ( recogniz$ importance ref]r$ to above4 ,notewor?y among ! new] developm5ts are ^? 9 ,spa94#af ,^! h n yet produc$ on any l>ge scale1 b _! future production may be consid]able4 ,less important deposits are kn[n 9 ,galicia1 ,tunis1 ,russia1 & ea/]n ,abyss9ia1 & ! nitrate deposits ( ,*ile conta9 a small p]c5tage ( pota% :i* is be+ recov]$ 9 "s ( ! op]ations4 ,prior to ! w> ! ,unit$ ,/ates obta9$ its pota% f ,g]many4 ,! ,g]man pota% indu/ry 0 well organiz$ & protect$ by ! ,g]man ,gov]nm5t1 :i* made e ef=t to ma9ta9 a _w monopoly4 ,dur+ ! w> ! pota% exports f ,g]many 7 cut (f1 except+ exports to ! neutrals imm$iately adjo9+ ,g]man t]ritory4 ,! result 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates 0 t ! price ( pota% rose s f> z to greatly dim9i% its use z f]tiliz]4 ,! consequ5t ef=ts to increase pota% production 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates met ) consid]able success1 b ! maximum production atta9$ 0 only ab\t "o-f\r? ( ! ord9>y pre-w> requirem5ts4 ,! pr9cipal ,am]ican s\rces are alkal9e b$s & br9es 9 ,nebraska1 ,utah1 & ,cali=nia1 & especially at ,se>les ,lake1 ,cali=nia4 ,^! furni%$ #ge p] c5t ( ! total output4 ,m9or am\nts h be5 extract$ 9 ,utah f ! m9]al alunite 7a sulphate ( potassium & alum9um71 9 ,wyom+ f leucite 7a potassium-alum9um silicate71 9 ,cali=nia f kelp or seawe$1 & 9 v>i\s localities f cem5t-mill & bla/-furnace du/s1 f wood a%es1 f wool wa%+s1 f ! wa/e residues ( di/ill]ies & beet-sug> ref9]ies1 & f miscellane\s indu/rial wa/es4 ,at ! close ( ! w>1 suffici5t progress _h be5 made 9 ! pota% indu/ry to indicate t ! ,unit$ ,/ates might become self-support+ 9 ! future1 ?\gh at high co/4 ,! r5ewal ( importation ( *eap pota% f ,g]many1 ) probable fur!r (f]+s f ,alsace & ,spa91 makes x impossible = ! ,unit$ ,/ates pota% production to cont9ue2 except1 p]haps1 = ! recov]y ( by-products :i* w g on 9 connection ) o!r indu/ries4 ,dem& = a protective t>iff has be5 ! inevitable result 7see ,*apt]s ,,xvii & ,,xviii74 ,,geologic ,,features ,potassium is "o ( ! eight mo/ abundant elem5ts 9 ! e>?4 ,x occurs z a prim>y con/itu5t ( mo/ igne\s rocks1 "s ( :i* c>ry p]c5tages z high z ^? 9 comm]cial pota% salts us$ = f]tiliz]s4 ,x is pres5t 9 "s s$im5ts & likewise occurs 9 _m s*i/s & gneisses4 ,v>i\s potassium silicates--leucite1 feldsp>1 s]icite1 & glauconite--& ! potassium sulphate1 alunite1 h receiv$ att5tion & c]ta9 ( !m h be5 utiliz$ to a small ext5t1 b none ( !m are normally able to compete on ! m>ket4 ,pot5tial supplies are ?us practically unlimit$ 9 am\nt & di/ribution4 ,deposits f :i* ! pota% c be extract$ at a reasonable co/1 h[ev]1 are kn[n 9 only a few places1 :]e !y h be5 =m$ z sal9e s$im5ts4 ,9 ! decomposition ( rocks ! pota%1 l ! soda1 is readily soluble1 b 9 l>ge "p x is absorb$ & held by clayey mat]ials & is n c>ri$ (f4 ,pota% is !re=e m sp>+ly pres5t 9 riv] & ocean wat]s ?an is soda1 & deposits ( pota% salts are mu* r>] ?an ^? ( rock salt & o!r sodium comp\nds4 ,! l>ge deposits 9 ! ,p]mian b$s ( ,/assfurt1 z well z ^? 9 ! ,t]ti>y ( ,alsace & ,spa91 h be5 =m$ by ! evaporation ( v l>ge quantities ( salt wat]1 presumably sea wat]4 ,!y consi/ ( potassium salts1 pr9cipally ! *loride1 mix$ & int]cry/alliz$ ) *lorides & sulphates ( magnesium1 sodium1 & calcium4 ,9 ! ,/assfurt deposits ! potassium-magnesium salts occupy a relatively ?9 horizon at ! top ( ab\t #ejj feet ( rock salt b$s1 ! :ole und]ly+ an area ab\t #bjj miles long & #adj miles wide4 ,! pr9cipal m9]als 9 ! pota% horizon are c>nallite 7hydr\s potassium-magnesium *loride71 kies]ite 7hydr\s magnesium sulphate71 sylvite 7potassium *loride71 ka9ite 7a hydr\s d\ble salt ( potassium *loride & magnesium sulphate71 & common salt 7sodium *loride74 ,! pota% b$s repres5t ! la/ /age 9 ! evaporation ( ! wat]s ( a great clos$ bas91 & ! peculi> climatic & topographic conditions :i* caus$ _! =mation h be5 ! subject ( mu* speculation4 ,?is subject is fur!r treat$ 9 ! discussion ( common salt b$s 7pp4 #bie-bih74 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! deposits at ,se>les ,lake1 ,cali=nia1 h be5 produc$ by ! same processes on a small] scale4 ,9 ?is case evaporation has n be5 c>ri$ to completion1 b ! cry/allization & sep>ation out ( o!r salts has conc5trat$ ! potassium 7) ! magnesium7 9 ! residual br9e or "m liquor4 ,! deposits ( ?is lake or m>% also conta9 borax 7see p4 #bgf71 & diff] 9 proportions ( salts f ! ,/assfurt deposits4 ,?is is due to ! fact t !y 7 probably d]iv$1 n f ocean wat]s1 b f ! lea*+ ( mat]ials f ! rocks ( surr\nd+ upl&s1 transportation ( ^! mat]ials 9 solution by riv]s & gr\nd wat]s1 & conc5tration 9 ! des]t bas9 by evaporation4 ,! alkali lakes ( ,nebraska are believ$ to be ( v rec5t geologic orig94 ,!y lie 9 depressions 9 a =m] s& dune area1 & conta9 l>ge quantities ( pota% suppos$ly accumulat$ by lea*+ ( ! a%es result+ f repeat$ burn+s ( ! grass 9 ! adjac5t c\ntry4 ,( o!r natural m9]al s\rces1 alunite is ! mo/ important4 ,! pr9cipal deposits work$ are at ,m>ysville1 ,utah1 b ! m9]al is a r common "o 9 ! we/]n "p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 associat$ ) gold deposits1 z at ,goldfield1 ,nevada4 ,alunite occurs z ve9s & replacem5t deposits1 (t5 9 igne\s associations1 & is suppos$ to be ( igne\s s\rce4 ,its orig9 is ref]r$ to 9 connection ) ! ,goldfield ores 7p4 #bcj74 ,,footnotes3 #ae ,gale1 ,hoyt ,s41 ,! pota% deposits ( ,alsace3 ,bull4 #gae-;,b1 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,survey1 #aibj1 pp4 #ag-ee4 #af ,gale1 ,hoyt ,s41 ,pota% deposits 9 ,spa93 ,bull4 #gae-;,a1 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,survey1 #aibj1 pp4 #a-af4 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,! ,,en]gy ,,res\rces--,,coal1 ,,oil1 ,,gas 7,,& ,,asphalt7 ,,coal ,,economic ,,features ,coal ov]%ad[s all o!r m9]al res\rces1 except wat]1 9 production1 value1 & dem&4 ,x is ! greate/ ( ! en]gy s\rces--coal1 petroleum1 gas1 & wat] p[]4 ,r\ghly two-?irds ( ! _w's coal is us$ = p[]1 "o-six? = smelt+ & metallurgical indu/ries1 & "o-six? = heat+ purposes4 ,coal con/itutes ov] "o-?ird ( ! railroad tonnage ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates & is ! l>ge/ s+le tonnage factor 9 int]national trade2 #gj p] c5t ( ! pre-w> tonnage ( outgo+ c>goes f ,engl& 0 coal4 ,_w production & trade4 ,! great coal-produc+ c\ntries ( ! _w bord] ! ,nor? ,atlantic bas94 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates produces ab\t #dj p] c5t ( ! _w's total1 ,great ,brita9 ab\t #bj p] c5t1 & ,g]many ab\t #bj p] c5t4 ,o!r c\ntries produc+ coal /& 9 ab\t ! foll[+ ord]3 ,au/ria-,hung>y1 ,france1 ,russia1 ,belgium1 ,japan1 ,*9a1 ,india1 ,canada1 & ,new ,s\? ,wales4 ,!re is simil>ity 9 ! major features ( ! di/ribution ( coal production & ( iron ore production4 ,! great c5t]s ( coal production--! ,p5nsylvania & ,ill9ois fields ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ! ,midl&s di/rict ( ,engl&1 & ! l[] ,rh9e or ,we/phalian fields ( ,g]many--are also ! great c5t]s ( ! iron & /eel indu/ries ( ^! c\ntries4 ,z 9 ! case ( iron ore1 !re is r a /rik+ abs5ce ( important coal production 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e & 9 ,asia4 ,a significant item 9 ! _w's di/ribution ( coal supplies is ,engl&'s _w-wide sy/em ( coal+ /ations = %ipp+4 ,! pr9cipal coal-produc+ c\ntries all h l>ge res]ves ( coal4 ,outside ( ^! c\ntries ! _w's mo/ important res]ves are 9 ,*9a1 :i* may be look$ to = great future developm5t4 ,= ! mo/ "p1 except = ! probable ,*9ese developm5t1 x is likely t c\ntries n[ produc+ mo/ ( ! coal w cont9ue to d s 9 ! future1 & t outly+ p>ts ( ! _w w cont9ue to be suppli$ ma9ly f ^! c\ntries4 ,! quantity & di/ribution ( ! coal res]ves ( ! _w h be5 e/imat$ ) p]haps a great] degree ( accuracy ?an ^? ( any o!r m9]al res\rce4 ,f ^! e/imates x appe>s t ! ,nor? ,am]ican cont95t conta9s ab\t half ( ! _w res]ves 7pr9cipally 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ) less] am\nts 9 ,canada7 & ,asia ab\t "o-f\r? 7pr9cipally 9 ,*9a1 ) "s 9 ,india74 ,europe conta9s only "o-six? ( ! _w total1 *iefly 9 ! area ( ! =m] ,g]man ,empire & 9 ,great ,brita91 ) small] quantities 9 ,russia1 ,au/ria-,hung>y1 ,france1 & ,belgium4 ,au/ralasia 7,new ,s\? ,wales71 ,africa 7,briti% ,s\? ,africa71 & ,s\? ,am]ica 7,*ile1 ,brazil1 ,p]u1 & ,colombia71 toge!r conta9 less ?an a t5? ( ! total res]ves4 ,coal be+ "o ( ! great bases = mod]n indu/rialism1 ! l>ge res]ves ( high grade-coals 9 ,*9a h l$ to ! belief t ,*9a may "s day develop into a great manufactur+ nation4 ,simil>ly1 ! defici5cy 9 coal ( mo/ ( ! ,s\? ,am]ican & ,african c\ntries seems to preclude _! develop+ any v l>ge manufactur+ indu/ries1 except :]e wat] p[] is available4 ,coal res]ves & ! cons]vation ( coal are fur!r discuss$ 9 ,*apt] ,,xvii4 ,! w> result$ 9 consid]able di/urbances 9 coal production & di/ribution4 ,!re has n yet be5 a return to normal conditions1 & "s ( ! *anges are probably p]man5t4 ,! great ov]seas movem5t ( coal f ,g]many 0 /opp$ & t f ,engl& curtail$4 ,to "s ext5t ! defici5cy 0 suppli$ by coal exports f ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 p>ticul>ly to ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,! %utt+ (f ( ! normal ,g]man export to ,france & ,m$it]ranean c\ntries1 ! occupation ( ! ,fr5* & ,belgian coal fields by ! ,g]mans1 & ! p>tial re/riction ( ,g]man exports to ,sc&9avian c\ntries1 result$ 9 ,europe's absorb+ mo/ ( ! ,briti% coal available = export1 & 9 addition requir+ coal f ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! /ress 9 ! _w's coal indu/ry to meet ! en]gy requirem5ts ( w> is too rec5t & vivid to require m ?an m5tion4 ,! _w 0 made to realize almo/ = ! fir/ "t ! utt]ly vital & ess5tial nature ( ?is indu/ry4 ,s9ce ! w>1 !re has be5 a gradual resumption ( ,engl&'s export ( coal along old l9es ( int]national trade4 ,! ,g]man ov]seas export trade has n be5 ree/abli%$1 & _c be = a long "t to come if ,g]many fulfills ! t]ms ( ! ,peace ,treaty4 ,inde$1 because ( sl[ recov]y 9 output ( ,g]man coal1 !re is yet consid]able lag 9 ! supply available = ,european c\ntries4 ,! t]ms ( ! ,peace ,treaty less5$ ! t]ritory ( ,g]man coal res]ves & requir$ consid]able additional contributions ( coal to be deliv]$ to ,france1 ,belgium1 ,luxemburg1 & ,italy4 ,! increas$ export ( coal f ! ,unit$ ,/ates dur+ ! w> is likely to be 9 "p cont9u$ 9 ! future1 al?\gh ! great bulk ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates production w 9 ! future1 z 9 ! pa/1 be absorb$ locally4 ,mo/ ( ! coal 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates available = export is high] 9 volatile matt] ?an ! ,briti% & ,g]man export coal4 ,?is quality w 9 "s degree be a limit+ factor 9 exportation4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x may result 9 wid] introduction ( briquett+1 cok+1 & o!r processes1 :i* w t5d to improve ! local indu/ry & be cons]vational 9 _! effect4 ,japan w d\btless hold "s ( ! ,asiatic coal m>ket ga9$ dur+ ! w>4 ,int]national coal relations are fur!r discuss$ 9 ,*apt] ,,xviii4#ag ,production 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! ma9 features ( ! di/ribution ( coal supplies 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates are3 7#a7 ,localization ( ! an?racite production & res]ves 9 a limit$ area 9 ! ,lawton region ( ,p5nsylvania4 ,l[-grade an?racite coal also occurs 9 ,rhode ,isl&1 ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 ,colorado1 & ,idaho4 7#b7 ,localization ( ! bitum9\s production 9 ! ea/]n & int]ior /ates ( ,p5nsylvania1 ,we/ ,virg9ia1 ,ohio1 ,indiana1 ,ill9ois1 & ,k5tucky4 ,! pr9cipal res]ves ( bitum9\s coal occur 9 ! same prov9ces1 b important additional res]ves are kn[n 9 ,texas1 9 ,nor? & ,s\? ,c>ol9a1 & 9 ! ,rocky ,m\nta9 & ,pacific ,coa/ prov9ces4 7#c7 ,! exi/5ce ( l>ge tonnages ( subbitum9\s coal 9 ! we/1 :i* h n be5 m9$ to any ext5t4 7#d7 ,! exi/5ce ( l>ge fields ( lignite 9 ! ,gulf ,coa/ region1 & 9 ! ,nor!rn ,pla9s region1 :i* h n be5 m9$4 ,coke4 ,ab\t "o-six? ( ! bitum9\s coal m9$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates is made into coke1 t is1 x is subject$ to heat 9 ov5s f :i* oxyg5 is exclud$ 9 ord] to drive (f ! volatile gases 7*iefly hydroc>bons & wat]7 :i* con/itute ab\t #dj p] c5t ( ! weight ( ! coal4 ,! residual product1 ! coke1 is a light1 por\s mass ) a consid]ably high] p]c5tage ( fix$ c>bon ?an bitum9\s coal4 ,9 reg>d to composition1 cok+ accompli%es artificially some:at ! same result rea*$ by nature 9 its sl[ developm5t ( high-grade coals1 b ! texture ( coke is f> diff]5t f t ( coal4 ,n all bitum9\s coals are suitable = coke manufacture2 & su* coals are frequ5tly divid$ into two classes1 kn[n z cok+ & non-cok+ coals4 ,coke is us$ pr9cipally = smelt+ purposes4 ,because ( its spongy1 por\s texture1 x burns m rapidly & int5sely ?an coal4 ,! gases elim9at$ 9 cok+ are wa/$ 9 ! old-fa%ion$ beehive ov5s1 b 9 mod]n by-product coke ov5s ^! gases by prop] treatm5t yield valuable coal t> products & ammonia4 ,x is e/imat$ t ! sum ( ! value ( ! products ?us recov]$ f a ton ( coal multiplies ! value ( ! ton ( coal at ! m9e by at lea/ ?irte5 times4 ,! importance ( ?is fact f ! cons]vational /&po9t _c be too mu* emphasiz$4 ,at pres5t ov] half ( ! total coke produc$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates comes f by-product ov5s1 & ?is proportion w d\btless increase 9 ! future4 ,,balance ,,%eet ,,%[+ ,,contra/ ,,betwe5 ,,value ,,( #a ,,ton ,,( ,,bitum9\s ,,coal ,,at ,,m9e ,,& ,,value ,,( ,,products ,,:i* ,,x ,,conta9s1 ,,bas$ ,,on ,,conditions ,,prevail+ ,,9 #aiae4a ,value at ,value at po9t ( m9e #aiae ,quantity production1 #aiae ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- #a ton 7#b1jjj p\nds7 7#a1ejj p\nds smokeless fuel #e4jjb bitum9\s coal 7#aj1jjj cubic feet gas1 at conta9s #a4ac #ij;c4 p] #a1jjj #i4jjc 7#bb p\nds ammonium sulphate at #b4h;c4 4#fa 7#b-a_/b gallons b5zol1 at #cj;c4 4#ged 7#i gallons t>1 at #b4f;c4 4#bcd ,total #a4ace #ae4ei ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- #a3 ,gilb]t1 ,*e/] ,g41 & ,pogue1 ,joseph ,e41 ,! en]gy res\rces ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates--,a field = recon/ruction3 ,bull4 #ajb1 ,u4 ,s4 ,national ,museum1 vol4 #a1 #aiai1 p4 #aa4 #b3 ,figure bas$ ^u approximate sell+ price ( an?racite4 #c3 ,figure bas$ ^u av]age price ( city gas4 #d3 ,^! figures w\ld be mu* high] if an adequate coal products indu/ry 7 9 exi/5ce4 #e3 ,?is figure %[s cle>ly t l[]+ ! co/ ( production _c be expect$ to l[] ! price ( coal4 ,ev5 if ! co/ ( production 7 elim9at$1 ! price ( coal w\ld m]ely be a doll> less4 ,classification ( coals4 ,! accurate nam+ & classification ( diff]5t v>ieties ( coal is n an easy matt]4 ,! ?ree ma9 classes1--an?racite1 bitum9\s1 & lignite1--h gr\p *>act]i/ics det]m9$ by _! composition1 color1 texture1 orig91 & uses1 & = g5]al purposes ^! names h reasonably def9ite significance4 ,h[ev]1 !re is complete gradation 9 coal mat]ials f peat ?r\gh lignite to bitum9\s & an?racite coals2 _m v>ieties fall ne> ! bord] l9es ( ! ma9 gr\ps1 & _! specific nam+ !n becomes difficult4 ,9 addition1 coal is made up ( sev]al sub/ances :i* v>y unequally 9 _! proportions4 ,x is difficult to arrange all ( ^! v>iables 9 a grad$ s]ies 9 su* a fa%ion z to p]mit ( precise nam+ ( ! coal4 ,fur!rmore1 ! sci5tific nam+ ( a coal may n s]ve ! purpose ( discrim9at+ coals us$ = diff]5t comm]cial purposes4 ,ev5 ! comm]cial names v>y among !mselves1 dep5d+ on ! use = :i* ! coal is be+ consid]$4 ,?us x is t ! nam+ & classification ( coals is a p]5nial s\rce ( difficulty & controv]sy4 ,! e>lie/ & mo/ widely us$ classification is bas$ on ! ratio betwe5 fix$ 7or non-volatile7 c>bon & volatile con/itu5ts1 call$ ! fuel ratio4 ,= ?is purpose proximate analyses ( coal are made1 9 t]ms ( fix$ c>bon1 volatile matt]1 moi/ure1 a%1 & sulphur4 ,an?racite has a high] fuel ratio ?an bitum9\s coal2 t is1 x has m fix$ c>bon 9 relation to volatile matt]4 ,simil>ly bitum9\s coal has a high] fuel ratio ?an lignite4 ,! fuel ratio measures r\ghly ! heat or calorific p[] ( ! coal1 9 o!r words1 its fuel value4 ,h[ev]1 "s bitum9\s coals h a high] calorific p[] ?an "s an?racites1 because a l>ge "p ( _! volatile matt] is combu/ible & yields m heat ?an ! correspond+ weight ( fix$ c>bon 9 ! an?racite4 ,! fuel ratio pretty well discrim9ates coals ( ! high] ranks1 & gives a classification correspond+ r\ghly ) _! comm]cial uses4 ,= ! l[] ranks ( coal x is n s satisfactory1 because ! volatile con/itu5ts ( su* coals conta9 l>ge & v>y+ p]c5tages ( non-combu/ible hydrog51 oxyg51 & nitrog54 ,also su* coals conta9 l>g] & m v>iable am\nts ( moi/ure1 :i* is in]t to combu/ion & requires heat = its evaporation4 ,two coals ( ! l[] ranks ) ! same fuel ratio may h v diff]5t fuel qualities & diff]5t comm]cial uses1 because ( _! diff]5t am\nts ( in]t volatile matt] & ( wat]4 ,= ^! coals x is sometimes desirable to supplem5t ! *emical classification by physical crit]ia4 ,= in/ance1 subbitum9\s coal may be di/+ui%$ f lignite1 n by its fuel ratio alone1 b by its %9y1 black appe>ance z contra/$ ) ! dull1 woody appe>ance ( lignite4 ,bitum9\s may be di/+ui%$ f subbitum9\s by ! mann] ( wea!r+4 ,o!r classifications h attempt$ to recognize ^! difficulties & /ill ma9ta9 a purely *emical basis by consid]+ sep>ately ! combu/ible & non-combu/ible volatile con/itu5ts4 ,= ?is purpose1 x is necess>y to h n m]ely approximate analyses1 b ! ultimate analyses 9 t]ms ( elem5ts4 ,def9itions ( ! pr9cipal k9ds ( coal by ,campbell1#ah ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,geological ,survey1 are z foll[s3 ,an?racite4 ,an?racite is g5]ally well kn[n & may be def9$ z a h>d coal hav+ a fuel ratio 7fix$ c>bon divid$ by ! volatile matt]7 ( n m ?an #ej or #fj & n less ?an #aj4 ,semian?racite4 ,semian?racite is also a h>d coal1 b x is n s h>d z true an?racite4 ,x is high 9 fix$ c>bon1 b n s high z an?racite4 ,x may be def9$ z a h>d coal hav+ a fuel ratio rang+ f #f to #aj4 ,! l[] limit is unc]ta91 z x is difficult to say :]e ! l9e %\ld be drawn to sep>ate h>d f s(t coal & at ! same "t to divide ! two ranks accord+ to _! fuel ratio4 ,semibitum9\s4 ,! "n semibitum9\s is exce$+ly un=tunate1 z lit]ally x implies t ?is coal is half ! rank ( bitum9\s1 :]eas x is appli$ to a k9d ( coal t is ( high] rank ?an bitum9\s--really sup]bitum9\s4 ,semibitum9\s coal may be def9$ z coal hav+ a fuel ratio rang+ f #c to #g4 ,its relatively high p]c5tage ( fix$ c>bon makes x ne>ly smokeless :5 x is burn$ prop]ly1 & consequ5tly mo/ ( ^! coals g into ! m>ket z smokeless coals4 ,bitum9\s4 ,! t]m bitum9\s1 z g5]ally und]/ood1 is appli$ to a gr\p ( coals hav+ a maximum fuel ratio ( ab\t #c1 & h5ce x is a k9d ( coal 9 :i* ! volatile matt] & ! fix$ c>bon are ne>ly equal2 b ?is crit]ion _c be us$ )\t qualification1 = ! same /atem5t might be made ( subbitum9\s coal & lignite4 ,z not$ be=e1 ! di/+ui%+ feature :i* s]ves to sep>ate bitum9\s coal f coals ( l[] rank is ! mann] 9 :i* x is affect$ by wea!r+4 ,subbitum9\s4 ,! t]m subbitum9\s is adopt$ by ! ,geological ,survey = :at has g5]ally be5 call$ black lignite1 a t]m t is objectionable because ! coal is n lignitic 9 ! s5se ( be+ di/9ctly woody1 & because ! use ( ! t]m seems to imply t ?is coal is little bett] ?an ! br[n1 woody lignite ( ,nor? ,dakota1 :]eas _m coals ( ?is rank approa* 9 excell5ce ! l[e/ grade ( bitum9\s coal4 ,subbitum9\s coal is g5]ally di/+ui%able f lignite by its black color & its app>5t fre$om f di/9ctly woody texture & /ructure1 & f bitum9\s coal by its loss ( moi/ure & ! consequ5t break+ d[n ( slack+ t x und]goes :5 subject$ to alt]nate wett+ & dry+4 ,lignite4 ,! t]m lignite1 z us$ by ! ,geological ,survey1 is re/rict$ to ^? coals :i* are di/9ctly br[n & ei!r m>k$ly woody or claylike 9 _! appe>ance4 ,!y are int]m$iate 9 quality & 9 developm5t betwe5 peat & subbitum9\s coal4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,diagrams %[+ ! *emical composition & heat effici5cy ( ! sev]al ranks ( coal4 ,upp] diagram3 ,comp>ative heat value ( ! samples ( coal repres5t$ 9 ! l[] diagram1 comput$ on ! a%-free basis4 ,l[] diagram3 ,v>iation 9 ! fix$ c>bon1 volatile matt]1 & moi/ure ( coals ( diff]5t ranks1 f lignite to an?racite1 comput$ on samples z receiv$1 on ! a%-free basis4 ,aft] ,campbell4 ,,geologic ,,features ,geologic features ( coal may be conv5i5tly describ$ 9 t]ms ( orig9 or g5esis4 ,coal has ess5tial features 9 common ) asphalt1 oil1 & gas4 ,!y are all compos$ ( c>bon1 hydrog51 & oxyg51 ) m9or quantities ( o!r mat]ials1 comb9$ 9 v>i\s proportions4 ,!y are all organic products :i* owe _! orig9 to ! decay ( ! tissues ( plants & p]haps animals4 ,!y h all be5 buri$ ) o!r rocks b5ea? ! surface4 ,! common geologic processes affect+ all rocks h 9 ! ma9 det]m9$ ! evolution ( ^! organic products & ! =ms 9 :i* we n[ f9d !m4 ,orig9at+ at ! surface1 !y h p>ticipat$ 9 ! con/ructive or anamorphic *anges ( ! metamorphic cycle1 :i* occur b5ea? ! surface1 & "u ^! influ5ces h und]gone v>i\s /ages ( cond5sation1 ref9em5t1 di/illation1 & h>d5+4 ,all /ages 9 ! developm5t ( coal h be5 trac$4 ,9 brief1 ! /ory is ?is3 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,orig9 & developm5t ( coal4 ,aft] ,gilb]t4 ,?is exhibit %[s ! successive *emical /ages 9 ! evolution ( coal4 ,! /rik+ qualities ( ! orig9al are lo/ 9 ! reproduction ?r\gh ! use ( designs 9 ! place ( reali/ic color+1 b ! effect is reta9$ suffici5tly to indicate ! nature ( ! sequ5ce & ! directness ) :i* x leads back to an orig9 9 vegetal accumulations4 ,! evolution>y process is se5 to take ! =m ( increas+ d5sity ?r\gh ! progressive expulsion ( volatilizable matt]s 9 ! c\rse ( geologic "t4 ,?is inf]5ce is sub/antiat$ beyond reasonable "q by ! actual pres5ce ( organic rema9s 9 coal b$s4 ,grasses1 trees1 & o!r plants gr[+ 9 swamps & bogs decay & =m a vegetable mold 9 ! nature ( peat4 ,a peat bog f ! top d[nw>d consi/s ( 7#a7 liv+ plants1 7#b7 dead plants1 & 7#c7 a d5se br[ni%-black mass1 ( decay$ & cond5s$ vegetable mat]ial1 9 :i* ! vegetable /ructure is m or less indi/9ct4 ,peat consi/s *iefly ( fix$ c>bon & volatile matt]1 also ( sulphur1 moi/ure1 & a%4 ,! volatile matt] consi/s ma9ly ( v>i\s comb9ations ( hydrog5 & c>bon1 call$ hydroc>bons2 x goes (f 9 gas or smoke :5 ! peat is heat$ to a r$ heat4 ,! fix$ c>bon is ! c>bon left aft] ! volatile matt] has be5 driv5 (f4 ,! a% repres5ts ! m incombu/ible m9]al matt]1 usually ( ! nature ( clay or slate4 ,! moi/ure 9 peat may be z high z #ij p] c5t4 ,! ess5tial condition = ?ick accumulation ( peat seems to be abundance ( moi/ure1 :i* favors luxuriant gr[? & protects ! plant rema9s f complete oxidation or decay4 ,)\t moi/ure ! vegetable mat]ial w\ld completely oxidize1 leav+ practically no residue1 z x does 9 dry climates4 ,= ! =mation ( ?ick peat b$s1 !re seems to be impli$ "s sort ( a balance betwe5 ! sl[ build+ up ( organic accumulations & ! settl+ ( ! area to keep x ne> ! elevation ( ! wat] table4 ,pres5t day bog deposits are kn[n 9 "s cases to h a ?ickness ( =ty feet4 ,?is ?ickness is n en\gh to acc\nt = "s ( ! great coal seams )9 ! e>?2 b !re seems to be no escape f ! conclusion t ! same sort ( deposits1 =m$ on a l>g] scale 9 ! pa/1 7 ! fir/ /ep 9 ! =mation ( ! coal seams4 ,flat1 swampy coa/al pla9s are believ$ to furni% ! be/ conditions = ?ick accumulation ( peat4 ,!re is good evid5ce t mo/ ( ! deposits accumulate ess5tially 9 place1 )\t appreciable transportation4 ,9 "t ^! surface accumulations ( vegetable mat]ial may subside & be buri$ "u clay1 s&1 or o!r rock mat]ials4 ,! processes ( cond5sation begun 9 ! peat bog are !n c>ri$ fur!r4 ,!y result 9 ! second /age ( coal =mation1 t ( lignite or br[n coal4 ,?is is br[n1 woody 9 texture1 & has a br[n /reak4 ,x has a high] p]c5tage ( fix$ c>bon1 & less volatile matt] & wat]1 ?an peat4 ,cont9uation ( ! processes ( induration produces subbitum9\s coal1 or black lignite1 :i* is usually black & sometimes has a fairly bright lu/]4 ,x is sometimes di/+ui%$ f bitum9\s coal1 :]e wea!r$ or dri$1 by ! mann] 9 :i* x *ecks irregul>ly or splits p>allel to ! b$d+1--! *>act]i/ic feature ( bitum9\s coal be+ column> fracture4 ,! next /age 9 coal =mation is bitum9\s coal4 ,x has great] d5sity ?an ! lignites or subbitum9\s coals1 is black1 m brittle1 & breaks ) a cubical or con*oidal fracture4 ,x is high] 9 fix$ c>bon1 l[] 9 volatile matt] & wat]4 ,a v>iety ( bitum9\s coal1 call$ cannel coal1 is *>act]iz$ by an unusually high p]c5tage ( volatile matt]1 :i* causes x to ignite easily4 ,?is mat]ial has a dull lu/] & a con*oidal fracture4 ,x is compos$ almo/ entirely ( ! spores & spore cases1 :i* are res9\s or waxy products1 ( su* plants z liv$ 9 ! p>5t coal swamp4 ,!re are gradations f bitum9\s coal into an?racite coal4 ,semibitum9\s & semian?racite are names us$ to "s ext5t = ^! int]m$iate v>ieties4 ,! f9al /age ( coal =mation is an?racite1--h>d1 brittle1 black1 ) high lu/] & con*oidal fracture4 ,x has a high] p]c5tage ( fix$ c>bon & correspond+ly less ( ! volatile con/itu5ts1 ?an any ( ! o!r coals4 ,! coals =m a completely grad$ s]ies f peat to ! h>d an?racite4 ,comp>ison ( ! compositions ( ! coal mat]ials at diff]5t /ages %[s cle>ly :at has happ5$4 ,moi/ure has dim9i%$1 c]ta9 volatile hydroc>bons h be5 elim9at$ z gases1 & oxyg5 has decreas$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! residual fix$ c>bon1 sulphur1 & usually a%1 h rema9$ 9 high] p]c5tage4 ,?is *ange 9 composition is graphically repres5t$ 9 ,figure #f4 ,dur+ ?is process volume has be5 progressively r$uc$ & d5sity increas$4 ,five feet ( wood or plant may produce ab\t "o foot ( bitum9\s coal1 or six-t5?s ( a foot ( an?racite4 ,! exact physical conditions 9 ! e>? :i* det]m9e ! progressive *anges 9 coals1 above outl9$1 _c be fully specifi$4 ,"t is "o ( ! factors--! long] ! "t1 ! great] ! opportunity = accompli%+ ^! results4 ,ano!r factor is und\bt$ly pressure1 due to ! weight ( ov]ly+ s$im5ts1 or to e>? movem5ts4 ,9 peat cond5sational *anges ( ?is nature are accompli%$ artificially by ! pressure ( briquett+ ma*9es4 ,ano!r factor is believ$ to be ! heat develop$ by e>? movem5ts & vulcanism1 :i* presumably facilitates ! elim9ation ( volatile mat]ials1 & ?us accel]ates ! gradational *anges above describ$4 ,?is is sugge/$ by ! fact t 9 places :]e hot volcanic lavas h gone ?r\gh coal b$s !y h locally produc$ coals ( an?racitic & coke-l v>ieties4 ,9 g5]al1 h[ev]1 x has n be5 possible to det]m9e ! degree to :i* heat has be5 responsible = ! *anges4 ,coals :i* h be5 develop$ 9 diff]5t localities1 "u :at seem to be mu* ! same heat conditions1 may %[ q diff]5t degrees ( progress t[>d ! an?racite /age4 ,ano!r factor t has be5 sugge/$ z possibly contribut+ to ! *ange1 is ! degree ( p]meability ( ! rocks ov]ly+ ! coal to ! volatile mat]ials :i* escape f ! coal dur+ its ref9em5t4 ,x is argu$ t 9 areas ( fold+ or ( brittle rock :]e ! cov] is crack$1 volatile gases h a bett] *ance to escape1 & t ! *ange t[>d an?racite is likely to advance fur!r "h ?an else:]e4 ,bact]ial action is an important factor 9 ! e>li] /ages1 9 ! p>tial decay ( vegetable matt] to =m peat2 accumulation ( wa/e products f ?is action1 h[ev]1 appe>s to inhibit fur!r bact]ial activity4 ,coal deposits h ! prim>y %apes ( s$im5t>y b$s4 ,!y are ord9>ily ?9 & tabul>1 & broadly l5ticul>1--on true scale be+ l %eets ( ?9 pap]4 ,at a maximum !y seldom run ov] #ajj feet 9 ?ickness1 & !y av]age less ?an #aj feet4 ,seldom is a workable coal b$ entirely alone2 !re are likely to be sev]al sup]pos$ & ov]lapp+ seams ( coal1 sep>at$ by s&/ones1 %ales1 or o!r rocks4 ,9 ,ill9ois & ,indiana !re are n9e workable coal seams1 9 ,p5nsylvania 9 "s places ab\t tw5ty1 & 9 ,wales !re are ov] "o hundr$1 _m ( :i* are work$4 ,"s ( ! seams are ( v limit$ ext5t2 o!rs are rem>kably p]si/5t1 "o seam 9 ,p5nsylvania hav+ an av]age ?ickness ( #f to #aj feet ov] ab\t #f1jjj squ>e miles ( its area4 ,only #b p] c5t ( ! coal-be>+ measures ( ! ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates is actually coal4 ,ev5 :]e n subsequ5tly di/urb$ by de=mation1 coal b$s are n free f /ructural irregul>ity4 ,!y are orig9ally deposit$ 9 v>iable ?icknesses on irregul> surfaces4 ,dur+ _! consolidation !re is a great r$uction ( volume1 result+ 9 m9or faults & folds4 ,subsequ5t de=mation by e>? =ces may develop fur!r faults & folds1 ) ! result t ! convolutions ( a coal b$ may be v complex4 ,! b$s ( a coal-be>+ s]ies are usually ( diff]+ ?ickness & compet5cy1 & z a consequ5ce !y d n take ! same =ms "u fold+4 ,%e>+ betwe5 ! b$s may result 9 an intricate outl9e = "o b$1 :ile ! b$s above & bel[ may h mu* m simple outl9es4 ,9 %ort1 ! foll[+ ( a coal seam requires at almo/ e /age ! application ( pr9ciples ( /ructural geology4 ,x is obvi\s1 also1 t ! id5tification & location ( s$im5t>y geologic horizons are ess5tial1 & h5ce ! application ( pr9ciples ( /ratigraphy4 ,! folios ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,geological ,survey on coal-be>+ areas pres5t highly develop$ me?ods ( mapp+ & repres5t+ ! geologic features ( coal b$s4 ,on ! surface map are indicat$ ! topography1 ! geologic horizons1 & ! l9es ( outcrop ( ! coal seams4 ,9 addition1 !re are indicat$ ! sub-surface cont\rs ( "o or m ( ! coal seams :i* are select$ z datum horizons4 ,! sub-surface /ructure1 ev5 ?\gh complex1 c be readily read f "o ( ^! surface maps4 ,) ! addition ( suitable cross sections & comp>ative column> sections1 ! /ory is made complete4 ,9 ! /udy ( ! occurr5ce ( coal seams1 ! read] _c d bett] ?an famili>ize himself ) "o or m ( ! ,geological ,survey folios4 ,! high-grade coals ( ! ea/]n & c5tral ,unit$ ,/ates are f\nd 9 rocks ( ,c>bonif]\s age4 ,! v "n ,c>bonif]\s orig9at$ 9 ! fact t ! rocks ( ?is geologic p]iod conta9 productive coal b$s 9 s _m p>ts ( ! _w4 ,! coal measures ( ,great ,brita91 ( ,g]many1 ,belgium1 & nor!rn ,france1 ( ,russia1 & ! l>ge/ coal b$s ( ,*9a are all ( ,c>bonif]\s age4 ,deposits ( ?is p]iod include ! bulk ( ! _w's an?racite & high-grade bitum9\s coal4 ,coal deposits ( m rec5t age are num]\s1 b 9 g5]al !y h _h less "t 9 :i* to und]go ! processes ( cond5sation & ref9em5t1 & h5ce _! g5]al grade is l[]4 ,9 ! we/]n ,unit$ ,/ates !re are great quantities ( subbitum9\s coal ( ,cretace\s age1 & ( ,t]ti>y lignites :i* h locally be5 conv]t$ by m\nta9 upbuild+ into bitum9\s & semibitum9\s coals4 ,jurassic coals are kn[n 9 _m p>ts ( ! _w outside ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 & lignites ( ,t]ti>y age are widely di/ribut$ ?r\gh ,asia & ,europe4 ,,petroleum ,,economic ,,features ,petroleum is second only to coal z an en]gy res\rce4 ,! rapid accel]ation 9 dem& f ! automobile indu/ry & 9 ! use ( fuel oil = p[] seems to be limit$ only by ! am\nts ( raw mat]ial available4 ,production & res]ves4 ,! di/ribution by c\ntries ( ! pres5t annual production ( petroleum1 ! pa/ total production1 & ! e/imat$ res]ves1 is indicat$ 9 t]ms ( p]c5tages ( ! _w's total 9 ! table#ai on ! opposite page4 ,?is table indicates ! great dom9ance ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates bo? 9 pres5t & pa/ production ( petroleum1 z well z ! conc5tration ( ! indu/ry 9 a few c\ntries4 ,9 addition ! ,unit$ ,/ates controls mu* ( ! ,mexican production z well z production 9 o!r p>ts ( ! _w1 mak+ its total control ( production at lea/ #gj p] c5t4 ( ! _w's total4 ,not)/&+ its l>ge dome/ic production1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates has rec5tly consum$ m oil ?an x produces4 ,imports ( crude oil are ab\t balanc$ by exports ( k]os5e1 fuel oils1 lubricants1 etc4 ,! p] capita consumption ( petroleum 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates is said to be tw5ty times great] ?an 9 ,engl&4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! rema9+ pr9cipal produc]s consume f> less ?an !y produce1 ! excess be+ export$4 ,! oil f ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,russia1 ! ,dut* ,ea/ ,indies1 ,india1 ,r\mania1 & ,galicia is = ! mo/ "p treat$ at ref9]ies ne> ! s\rce ( supply or at tidewat]1 & exports consi/ ( ref9$ products4 ,! ,mexican oil is l>gely export$ 9 crude =m to ! ,unit$ ,/ates ?\gh increas+ quantities are be+ ref9$ )9 ,mexico4 ,! figures %[n 9 ! table = oil res]ves are ( c\rse ! r\ghe/ approximations1 p>ticul>ly = "s ( ! less explor$ c\ntries4 ,h[ev]1 !y are compil$ f ! be/ available s\rces & may s]ve at lea/ to %[ ! app>5t relative positions ( ! diff]5t c\ntries at ?is "t4 ,fur!r exploration is likely to *ange ! p]c5tages & add v greatly to ! totals4 ,! significant feature ( ^! figures is ! contra/ :i* !y indicate betwe5 di/ribution ( res]ves & di/ribution ( pa/ production4 ,p>ticul>ly d !y %[ t ! res]ves ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 :i* are m closely e/imat$ ?an ^? ( any o!r c\ntry1 are 9 a f> l[] ratio to pa/ production ?an are ! res]ves 9 o!r c\ntries4 ,x 0 e/imat$ 9 #aibj t ab\t #dj p] c5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates res]ves are exhau/$4#bj ,,pres5t ,,& ,,pa/ ,,production ,,& ,,res]ves ,,( ,,oil1 ,,by ,,c\ntries1 ,,9 ,,t]ms ,,( ,,p]c5tage ,,( ,,_w',s ,,total ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,p] c5t ,p] c5t ,c\ntry ,p] c5t ( ( total ( total production1 production1 oil #aiah #aheg-aiah res\rces ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,unit$ ,/ates & ,alaska #fi4ae #fa4db #af4bf ,mexico #ab4dj #c4hj #aj4ea ,russia 7s\!a/]n ,russia1 s\?we/]n ,sib]ia1 region ( ! ,caucasus1 nor!rn ,russia1 & ,saghali57 #g4hf #bd4if #ae4fi ,ea/ ,indies #b4eh #b4ea #g4jj ,r\mania1 ,galicia1 & we/]n ,europe #b4gi #d4jg #b4fd ,india #a4ee #a4da #b4ca ,p]sia & ,mesopotamia #a4dj 4#ai #ac4eb ,japan & ,=mosa 4#dh 4#ea #b4hg ,egypt & ,alg]ia 4#dj 4#jg #b4ae ,g]many 4#ad 4#bb -- ,canada 4#jf 4#cc #b4ca ,nor!rn ,s\? ,am]ica1 includ+ ,p]u1 ,tr9idad & ,v5ezuela 4#ic 4#dc #ac4ca ,s\!rn ,s\? ,am]ica1 includ+ ,bolivia & ,arg5t9a 4#bf 4#jf #h4bd ,*9a -- -- #c4ai ,italy ,cuba 4#jb ,o!r c\ntries ------ ------ ------ ,_w total #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,look+ =w>d to ! future1 x is cle> t !re w be consid]able %ifts 9 ! c5t]s ( pr9cipal production ( petroleum 9 ! directions indicat$ by ! res]ve figures4 ,9 p>ticul>1 conspicu\s developm5t ( production may be expect$ 9 ! imm$iate future 9 ! c\ntries bord]+ ! ,c>ibbean ,sea & ! ,gulf ( ,mexico4 ,9 ! ea/]n hemisph]e production is rapidly increas+ 9 ,p]sia & ,mesopotamia2 & ,russia1 ) ! /abilization ( political conditions1 may become ultimately ! _w's lead+ oil produc]4 ,at ! n[ indicat$ rate ( production1 _w res]ves n[ e/imat$ w\ld be exhau/$ 9 eighty-six ye>s & ! peak ( production w\ld be pass$ e>li]4 ,) cont9u+ accel]ation ( production1 total res]ves w\ld be exhau/$ 9 consid]ably less "t1--provid+ physical conditions w\ld all[ ! oil to be pump$ f ! gr\nd at ! necess>y spe$1 :i* !y probably w n4 ,^! figures tak5 at face value are al>m+2 b ! e>? (f]s su* huge possibilities = fur!r discov]ies t ! life ( oil res]ves above indicat$ is likely to be consid]ably ext5d$4 ,at _m times 9 ! hi/ory ( ! m9]al indu/ry ! end has app>5tly be5 9 sight = c]ta9 products2 b ) ! increas$ dem& = ^! products has come increas$ activity 9 exploration1 ) ! result t z yet no def9ite end has be5 approa*$ = any "o ( !m4 ,! m imm$iate problems ( ! petroleum indu/ry seem to ! writ] to be ( r diff]5t nature3 fir/1 :e!r ! discov]y & w9n+ ( ! oil c be made to keep pace ) ! enorm\s accel]ation ( dem&2 & second1 ! adju/m5t ( political & f9ancial control ( oil res\rces1 ! possession ( :i* is becom+ s increas+ly vital to national prosp]ity4 ,9 reg>d to ! fir/ "q1 x is a mu* m difficult problem today to locate & develop a supply ( oil to replace ! annual _w production 7rec5tly half a billion b>rels71 ?an x 0 tw5ty ye>s ago1 :5 x 0 necess>y = ?is purpose to f9d only "o-fif? ?is am\nt2 & if ! dem& is un*eck$1 x w be /ill m difficult to replace ! ?ree-qu>t]s ( a billion b>rels ( oil :i* w d\btless be requir$ 9 a v few ye>s4 ,reg>dless ( ! am\nt ( oil actually 9 ! gr\nd1 x is entirely possible t physical limitations on its rate ( discov]y & recov]y w prev5t its be+ made available z fa/ z necess>y to meet ! increas+ dem&4 ,?is fact is likely to make itself felt ?r\gh increase ( price4 ,o!r natural results %\ld be ! developm5t ( sub/itutes1 su* z alcohol or b5zol = gasol9e2 ! l>g] recov]y ( oil f oil %ales2 & ! g5]al spe$+ up ( cons]vational measures ( v>i\s k9ds4 ,^! are all palliatives & n ess5tial rem$ies4 ,to make en\gh alcohol to sub/itute = ! gasol9e n[ com+ f oil w\ld use a v consid]able fraction ( ! _w's food supply4 ,to make en\gh b5zol 7a by-product ( coke7 to replace gasol9e w\ld necessitate ! manufacture ( _m times ! am\nt ( coke n[ requir$ by ! _w's indu/ries4 ,to develop ! oil %ale indu/ry to a po9t :]e x c\ld supply any?+ l ! am\nt ( oil n[ d]iv$ f oil pools w\ld mean ! build+ ( great plants1 includ+ t[ns1 railroads1 & o!r equipm5t1 equival5t to ! plants ( ! coal m9+ indu/ry4 ,to apply any "o ( ! v>i\s cons]vational measures discuss$ on lat] pages w\ld only tempor>ily alleviate ! situation4 ,! "q ( political & f9ancial control ( oil supplies may be illu/rat$ by p>ticul> ref]5ce to ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,on pres5t figures x appe>s t )9 ?ree to five ye>s ! peak ( production 9 ?is c\ntry w be pass$2 & at ! pres5t rate ( production ! life ( ! res]ves may n be ov] sev5te5 to tw5ty ye>s4 ,( c\rse production c\ld n cont9ue to ! end at ?is rate1 & ! actual life w necess>ily be long]4 ,aga9 ! d\btful factor is ! possibility = fur!r discov]ies4 ,_m favorable /ructures h be5 mapp$ :i* h n yet be5 drill$1 & !re are consid]able unexplor$ areas :]e ! outcrops are s few t !re is no clue at ! surface to ! location ( favorable /ructures4 ,! future is likely to see a consid]able am\nt ( %all[ drill+ = ! sole purpose ( geological reconnaissance4 ,= upw>ds ( t5 ye>s important p>ts ( ! public doma9 h n be5 available = exploration1 b ,congress has n[ enact$ legislation :i* op5s up va/ t]ritories = ?is purpose4 ,ev5 ) l>ge all[ance = ^! possibilities1 x seems unlikely t production 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates c increase v long at ! accel]at+ rate ( ! dome/ic dem&1 :i* is already 9 excess ( dome/ic production4 ,! supplies ( ,mexico are 9 a l>ge "p controll$ by ,am]ican capital & are ?us made available to ! ,unit$ ,/ates 7subject1 ( c\rse1 to political conditions72 b ev5 ) ^! add$1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates is 9 a some:at unfavorable situation z comp>$ ) c]ta9 o!r c\ntries4 ,?is situation is direct+ att5tion to ! possibility ( curtailm5t ( oil exports1 & to ! possibility ( acquir+ additional oil supplies 9 =eign c\ntries4 ,9 ?is que/ ! ,unit$ ,/ates is peculi>ly h&icapp$ 9 t mo/ =eign c\ntries1 9 recognition ( ! vital national importance ( ! oil res\rce1 h impos$ sev]e re/rictions on exploration by outsid]s4 ,nationals ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates are exclud$ f acquir+ oil concessions1 or p]mitt$ to d s only "u conditions :i* invalidate control1 9 ! ,briti% ,empire1 ,france1 ,japan1 ,ne!rl&s1 & else:]e1 & ! curr5t is /ill mov+ /rong 9 ! direction ( fur!r exclusion4 ,z ! ,unit$ ,/ates fields are yet op5 to all com]s1 x has be5 sugge/$ t "s re/riction by ! ,unit$ ,/ates might be necess>y = purposes ( self-protection1 or z an aid 9 secur+ access to =eign fields4 ,! activity ( ,engl& dur+ & s9ce ! w> has increas$ ! am\nt ( oil controll$ by t c\ntry f an insignificant quantity to pot5tially ov] half ( ! _w's oil res]ves4 ,! problem ( future oil supplies = ! ,unit$ ,/ates pres5ts an acute phase ( ! g5]al "q ( gov]nm5t coop]ation or p>ticipation 9 m9]al indu/ries1 :i* is fur!r discuss$ 9 ,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,! foll[+ table summ>izes ! di/ribution ( ! oil production 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 toge!r ) ! sali5t features ( its geologic di/ribution & "*4 ,?is table1 9 conjunction ) ,fig4 #h bel[1 %[s cle>ly t ! bulk ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates production ( oil comes f two great s\rces--! ,p5nsylvanian s&/ones ( ! ,mid-,cont95t field 9 ,kansas & ,oklahoma1 & ! ,cretace\s & ,t]ti>y s$im5ts ( ! s\!rn half ( ,cali=nia4 ,ph5om5al developm5t ( ! ,c5tral & ,nor? ,texas field 9 #aiai increas$ its yield to ab\t "o-six? ( ! c\ntry's total4 ,! old] ,appala*ian oil field1 ext5d+ f ,new ,york to ,we/ ,virg9ia & ,t5nessee1 0 ! e>lie/ area discov]$2 x is /ill "o ( ! m productive fields1 ?\gh x has long s9ce pass$ its maximum production4 ,! o!r pr9cipal s\rces ( oil are ! ,gulf ,coa/ field 9 ,l\isiana & ,texas1 ! ,nor? ,l\isiana field1 ! s\!rn ,ill9ois field1 & ! ,rocky ,m\nta9 region4 ,?is la/ region1 conta9+ l>ge am\nts ( gov]nm5t l& rec5tly op5$ to exploration1 bids fair to produce increas+ quantities ( oil = "s "t4 ,,pa/ ,,production ,,( ,,petroleum ,,9 ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates4 7,,figures ,,f ,u4 ,s4 ,,geological ,,survey7 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,total ,age ( ,production production conta9+ = #aiah includ+ #aiah ,/ate rocks ,base 7b>rels7 7b>rels7 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,alaska ,ea/-,l[4 ,p>aff9 7a7 7a7 ,t]ti>y ,we/-,jurassic ,cali=nia ,cretace\s3 ,t]ti>y ,asphalt #ig1eca1iig #a1aaj1bbf1egf ,colorado ,pi]re-,cretace\s,p>aff9 #adc1bhf #aa1cai1cgj ,ill9ois ,mississippian- ,p>aff9 #ac1cfe1igd #bih1bbe1chj ,p5nsylvanian ,indiana ,ea/-,ordovician ,p>aff9 #hgg1eeh #ajf1aje1ehd 7,tr5ton7 ,we/- ,p5nsylvanian ,kansas ,p5nsylvanian ,p>4-,asph4 #de1dea1jag #adh1dej1bih ,k5tucky1 ,mississippian ,p>aff9 #d1cgf1cdb #ah1bac1ahh ,t5nessee ,l\isiana ,cretace\s-,quat4 ,p>aff9 #af1jdb1fjj #aej1gfi1iaa ,cretace\s- ,eoc5e ,mi*igan1 ,c>bonif]\s ,p>aff9 7a7 7a7 ,miss\ri ,montana -- -- #fi1cbc #bac1fci ,new ,mexico ,c>bonif]\s- -- 7a7 7a7 ,cretace\s ,new ,york1 ,devonian- ,p>aff9 #h1baf1fee #ghh1bjb1gag ,p5nsylvania ,c>bonif]\s ,ohio1 ,ea/ ,ordovician- ,p>aff9 #g1bhe1jje #dfc1cfg1chf & ,we/ ,c>bonif]\s ,oklahoma ,p5nsylvanian ,p>aff9 #ajc1cdg1jgj #hea1cbj1deg ,texas ,p5nsylvanian1 ,asph4-,p>4 #ch1gej1jca #cbg1eej1jje ,cretace\s-,quat4 ,utah -- -- 7b7 7b7 ,we/ ,devonian- -- #g1hff1fbh #bid1dgd1gaj ,virg9ia ,c>bonif]\s ,wyom+ ,c>bonif]\s- ,asph4-,p>4 #ab1eif1bhg #dj1jai1egc ,cretace\s ,o!r -- -- #g1idc #aab1ibe ----------- ------------- #cee1ibg1gaf #d1fjh1ega1gai ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- 7a7 ,includ$ 9 ,o!r4 7b7 ,includ$ 9 ,wyom+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,*>t %[+ ! pres5t t5d5cy ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 respect to its unm9$ res]ve ( petroleum4 ,data f ,u4,s4 ,geological ,survey4 ,aft] ,gilb]t & ,pogue4 ,me?ods ( e/imat+ res]ves4 ,x may be ( int]e/ to inquire into ! basis on :i* pr$ictions are made ( ! life ( an oil pool4 ,! process is ess5tially a matt] ( platt+ curves ( production1 & ( project+ !m into ! future ) ! approximate slopes exhibit$ 9 di/ricts :i* are already approa*+ exhau/ion4#ba ,:ile no two wells or two di/ricts act exactly alike1 ^! curves h gr\p *>act]i/ics :i* are us$ z a r\gh basis = int]pret+ ! future4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,! annual output ( ! pr9cipal oil fields ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates = ! la/ tw5ty ye>s4 ,data f ,u4,s4 ,geological ,survey4 ,a less reliable me?od is to calculate f geologic data ! volume & porosity ( ! oil-be>+ res]voirs1 & to e/imate ! p]c5tage ( recov]y on ! basis ( curr5t practices & conditions4 ,complete data = ?is me?od are (t5 n available2 b 9 ! e>ly ye>s ( a field1 be=e production curves are e/abli%$1 ?is me?od may s]ve = a r\gh approximation4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,curve %[+ ! usual decl9e 9 oil field production aft] ! p]iod ( maximum output is rea*$4 ,aft] ,ralph ,arnold4 ,! ,petroleum ,res\rces ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,smi?sonian report = #aiaf1 p4 #bhc4 ,comp>e ?is !oretical curve ( f9al decrease ) ! production curve %[n 9 ,fig4 #h4 ,classes ( oils4 ,:5 crude petroleum is di/ill$1 x gives (f 9 succession v>i\s sub/ances & gradually ?ick5s until x leaves a solid residue1 :i* may be l>gely ei!r p>aff9 wax or asphalt4 ,! two ma9 classes ( oils are det]m9$ by ! nature ( ?is solid residual4 ,! products giv5 (f are natural gas & !n liquid hydroc>bons ( v>i\s k9ds1 :i* evaporate 9 ! ord] ( _! lightness4 ,petroleum is ?us a mixture or mutual solution ( diff]5t liquids1 gases1 & solids4 ,ne>ly "o-fif? ( ! dome/ic consumption ( crude petroleum is burn$ directly z fuel1 & f\r-fif?s are ref9$4 ,! sev]al pr9cipal prim>y products ( ref9em5t are gasol9e1 k]os5e1 fuel oil1 & lubricat+ oil2 b ^! may be brok5 up into o!r sub/ances1 ea* ! />t+ po9t ( fur!r ref9em5ts1 ) ! result t pres5t comm]cial practice yields sev]al hundr$ sub/ances ( comm]cial value4 ,) increas+ *emical & te*nical k ^! products are be+ multipli$4 ,! rapidly increas+ dem& = gasol9e has l$ to ! use ( processes :i* extract a l>ge proportion ( ?is sub/ance f ! raw mat]ial1 by crack+ or break+ up o!r sub/ances2 b :ile1 "u ! /ress ( necessity1 !re is possibility ( slight modification ( ! proportions ( pr9cipal sub/ances extract$ f ! crude oil1 x is n possible to *ange ^! proportions ess5tially4 ,x is1 !re=e1 a problem to adju/ relative dem&s to supplies ( ! diff]5t products4 ,! dome/ic dem& = gasol9e is great] ?an ! supply4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! dem& = k]os5e1 :i* mu/ be produc$ at ! same "t1 is mu* less ?an ! dome/ic supply4 ,h5ce ! importance ( ma9ta9+ export m>kets = k]os5e4 ,! nature or grade ( ! oil ( v>i\s fields is an important matt] 9 consid]+ res]ves = ! future4 ,p]haps half ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates res]ves consi/ ( ! asphalt-base oils ( ! ,cali=nia & c]ta9 ( ! ,gulf fields1 :i* yield comp>atively small am\nts ( gasol9e & o!r valuable light products1 ?\gh !y are v satisfactory = fuel purposes4 ,simil>ly ! l>ge res]ve tonnages ( oil 9 ,mexico & ! ,c>ibbean c\ntries1 9 ,p]u1 & probably 9 ,russia1 are ess5tially ( ! heavi]1 l[] grade oils4 ,! oils ( ! ,mid-,cont95tal & ea/]n fields ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ( ,ont>io1 ( ! ,dut* ,ea/ ,indies1 ( ,burma1 & ( ,p]sia & ,mesopotamia are report$ to be l>gely ( ! p>aff9 base type1 :i*1 because ( its l>g] yield ( gasol9e & light oils1 is at pres5t consid]ably m valuable4 ,^! g5]alizations are ( c\rse subject to qualifications1 9 t ! oils ( a giv5 region may v>y consid]ably1 & t "s oils are int]m$iate 9 "*1 conta9+ bo? asphalt & p>aff9 wax4 ,cons]vation ( oil4 ,! rapid increase 9 dem& = oil z comp>$ ) discov]y ( new s\rces is lead+ naturally to a m int5sive /udy ( ! cons]vational aspects ( ! indu/ry4 ,?is is a complex & difficult subject :i* we %all n take up 9 detail1 b we may po9t out "s ( ! phases ( ! problem :i* are receiv+ especial att5tion4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,*>t %[+ ! relative values ( ! pr9cipal petroleum products manufactur$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates f #ahii to #aiad4 ,aft] ,gilb]t & ,pogue4 ,note ! decreas+ importance ( k]os5e 9 su/a9+ ! co/ ( ref9+1 & ! necessity ( exports = ma9ta9+ a balanc$ outlet ( products4 ,data f ,/ory ,b4 ,ladd1 ,petroleum ,ref9+4 ,c5sus ( ,manufactures3 #aiad1 ,bureau ( ,c5sus1 ,wa%+ton1 #aiag1 p4 #aj4 ,ab\t #ej p] c5t ( ! oil 9 ! por\s /rata1 ( oil pools is ord9>ily n recov]$1 because x cl+s to ! rock4 ,ef=ts are be+ made along v>i\s l9es to increase ! p]c5tage ( recov]y1--z1 = in/ance1 9 prev5t+ infiltration ( wat] to ! oil b$s & 9 ! use ( artificial pressures & bett] pump+4 ,cas+-head gasol9e is be+ recov]$ to an increas+ ext5t f ! natural gas :i* 0 =m]ly all[$ to dissipate 9 ! air4 ,m9ute division ( ! own]%ip ( a pool1 ) consequ5t multiplication ( wells & unre/rict$ competition1 t5ds to gross ov]-production & highly wa/eful me?ods4 ,! m rapid exhau/ion ( "o well ?an ! o!rs may result 9 ! flood+ ( ! oil s&s by salt wat]s com+ 9 f bel[4 ,v>i\s ef=ts h be5 made t[>d a m sy/ematic & coord9at$ developm5t ( oil fields4 ,9 g5]al1 ! organization & te*nique involv$ 9 ! developm5t ( an oil field are improv+ 9 ! direction ( extract+ a great] p]c5tage ( ! total available oil4 ,bett] me?ods ( ref9+ ! oil1 & ! ref9+ ( a l>g] p]c5tage ( ! crude oil1 make ! oil m available = a great] v>iety ( purposes & !re=e m valuable4 ,great advances h be5 made along ^! l9es1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! application ( ! crack+ me?od = a great] recov]y ( ! m valuable light oils at ! exp5se ( ! less valuable heavy oils4 ,simil>ly1 modifications ( int]nal combu/ion eng9es w probably p]mit ! use1 9 an increas+ numb] ( cases1 ( products ( l[] volatility ?an gasol9e4 ,"o ( ! cons]vational advances 9 com+ ye>s w probably be a re/riction 9 ! am\nt ( crude oil us$ directly = fuel & road purposes )\t ref9+4 ,^! crude uses cut d[n ! output ( mu* desir$ products f ! di/illation ( ! oil4 ,v>i\s o!r re/rictions 9 ! use ( oil h be5 propos$1 su* z ! curtailm5t ( ! use ( gasol9e 9 pleasure c>s4 ,! gasless ,sundays dur+ ! w> repres5t$ an attempt ( ?is k9d4 ,9 g5]al1 x seems likely t su* re/rictions w come ma9ly ?r\gh increase 9 ! price ( oil products4 ,! sub/itution ( oil f oil %ales1 & ( alcohol = gasol5e1 already m5tion$1 w be cons]vational s f> z ! oil is conc]n$1 ?\gh p]haps n s 9 reg>d to o!r elem5ts ( ! problem4 ,,geologic ,,features ,organic !ory ( orig94 ,accord+ to ?is !ory1 accumulations ( organic mat]ials 9 s$im5t>y b$s1 usually muds or m>ls1 h be5 sl[ly alt]$ & di/ill$ dur+ geologic ages2 ! products ( di/illation h migrat$ *iefly upw>d to por\s /rata l s&/ones or cav]n\s lime/ones1 :]e1 "u suitable conditions1 !y h become trapp$4 ,! orig9al organic mat]ial is believ$ to h be5 plants ( l[ ord] & animal organisms 7su* z =am9if]a7 :i* 7 deposit$ z organic detritus ) mud & m>l 9 ! bottoms ( ponds1 lakes1 e/u>ies1 & on ! sea bottom1--9 bo? salt & fre% wat]s4 ,bact]ia are suppos$ to h play$ a "p 9 ! e>ly /age ( alt]ation1 sometimes call$ ! bio*emical /age4 ,:5 ! organic matt] 0 buri$ "u lat] s$im5ts & subject$ to pressure1 physical conditions 7 responsible = fur!r volatilization or di/illation4 ,?is /age is call$ ! geo*emical /age4 ,!re is mu* 9 common z to orig9 betwe5 coal1 oil %ales1 & petroleum4 ,accord+ to ,:ite1#bb :e!r ! +r$i5t organic matt]1 be x plant or animal1 w be 9 "p trans=m$ to coal ( ! ord9>y type1 to cannel1 to oil %ale1 to ! organic residues 9 s-call$ bitum9\s %ales & c>bonace\s %ales1 or to petroleum & natural gas1 is dep5d5t ^u ! composition ( ! +r$i5t organic debris1 ! conditions ( its accumulation or deposition1 & ! ext5t ( ! microbian action4 ,:ite has fur!r develop$ ! important pr9ciple t1 9 ! geo*emical /age ( developm5t1 bo? coal & oil react to physical influ5ces 9 mu* ! same way2 & t !re=e :5 bo? are f\nd 9 ! same geologic s]ies1 ! degree ( conc5tration ( ! coal1 measur$ by its p]c5tage ( c>bon1 may be an indication ( ! /age ( developm5t ( ! oil4 ,m specifically :]e ! coal conta9s m ?an #fe to #gj p] c5t ( fix$ c>bon1 *ances = f9d+ oil 9 ! vic9ity are n good 7?\gh comm]cial gaspools may be f\nd71 probably = ! reason t ! geo*emical processes ( di/illation h gone s f> z to volatilize ! oils1 leav+ ! solid residues 9 ! rock4 ,:ite also f9ds t ! l[e/ rank oils1 ) consid]able asphalt1 are f\nd 9 regions & =mations :]e ! coal deposits are ! lea/ alt]$1 & ! light]1 high] rank oils1 on ! :ole1 :]e ! coal has be5 br\ght to ! correspond+ly high] ranks2 9 o!r words1 up to ! po9t ( complete elim9ation ( ! oil1 improvem5t 9 quality ( ! oil accompanies increas$ c>bonization ( ! coal4 ,! pr9ciple1 !re=e1 becomes useful 9 exploration 9 geologic s]ies :]e oil is associat$ ) coal4 ,:]e ! coal is 9 "o s]ies & ! oil 9 ano!r1 sep>at$ by uncon=mity 7indicat+ diff]5t conditions ( developm5t71 ! pr9ciple may n hold1 ev5 ?\gh !re is close geographical association4 ,! oil & gas di/illates migrate upw>d "u gas pressure & "u pressure ( ! gr\nd-wat]4 ,if !re are no ov]ly+ imp]vi\s b$s to furni% suitable trapp+ conditions1 or conditions to ret>d ! fl[1 ! oil may be lo/4 ,! conditions favorable = trapp+ are ov]ly+ imp]vi\s b$s b[$ into anticl9es1 or o!r /ructural irregul>ities1 due ei!r to second>y de=mation or to orig9al deposition1 :i* may arre/ ! oil 9 its upw>d c\rse4 ,a dome-l /ructure or anticl9e may be due to /resses :i* h buckl$ up ! b$s1 or to unequal settl+ ( s$im5ts v>y+ 9 "* or ?ickness2 ?us "s ( ! anticl9al /ructures ( ! ,mid-,cont95t field may be due to settl+ ( %aley s$im5ts ar\nd less compressible l5ses ( s&/one :i* may act z oil res]voirs1 or ar\nd isl&s :i* /ood above ! seas 9 :i* ! oil-be>+ s$im5ts 7 deposit$ & on ! %ores ( :i* s&s capable ( act+ z oil res]voirs 7 laid d[n4 ,favorable conditions = trapp+ ! oil may be furni%$ by imp]vi\s clay g\ges along fault planes1 or by dikes ( igne\s rock4 ,favorable conditions may also be m]ely diff]5ces 9 porosity ( b$s 9 irregul> zones1 det]m9$ by diff]5ces ei!r 9 orig9al deposition or 9 lat] cem5tation4 ,! ?ickness ( oil-produc+ /rata may v>y betwe5 #b or #c feet & #bjj feet4 ,! porosity v>ies betwe5 #e & #ej p] c5t4 ,9 s&/ones ! av]age is f #e to #ae p] c5t4 ,9 %ales & clays1 :i* are commonly ! imp]vi\s cap-rocks1 porosity may be equally high1 b ! pores are too small & discont9u\s to p]mit movem5t4 ,:5 ! imp]vi\s capp+ is punctur$ by a drill hole1 gas is likely to be fir/ enc\nt]$1 !n oil1 & !n wat]1 :i* is usually salty4 ,! gas pressure is (t5 releas$ ) almo/ explosive viol5ce1 :i* has sugge/$ t ?is is an important cause ( ! und]gr\nd pressures4 ,x has be5 suppos$ also t ! pressures are p>tly ^? ( artesian fl[s4 ,! v]tical arrangem5t ( oil1 gas1 & wat] "u ! imp]vi\s capp+ is ! result ( ! light] mat]ials ris+ to ! top4 ,9 c]ta9 fields1 oil & gas h be5 f\nd 9 ! tops ( anticl9es 9 wat]-saturat$ rocks1 & f>!r d[n ! flanks ( folds or 9 syncl9es 9 unsaturat$ rocks4 ,! localization ( oil pools is evid5tly det]m9$ p>tly by orig9al organic deposition1 (t5 9 alignm5t ) old %ore l9es1 & p>tly by ! /ructural1 textural1 & o!r conditions :i* trap ! oil 9 its migration f ! s\rce4 ,effect ( diff]5tial pressures & fold+ on oil g5esis & migration4 ,ano!r organic hypo!sis propos$ some:at rec5tly#bc is t oil is =m$ by diff]5tial movem5t or %e>+ 9 bitum9\s %ales1 :i* are (t5 9 close relation%ip ) ! produc+ s& ( an oil field1 & t ! movem5t ( oil to ! adjac5t s&s is accompli%$ by capill>y pressure ( wat] & n by ord9>y free circulation ( wat] "u gravity4 ,! capill>y =ces h be5 %[n to be /rong en\gh to hold ! oil 9 ! l>g] pores aga9/ ! influ5ce ( gravity & circulation4 ,! accumulation ( ! oil into comm]cial pools is suppos$ to take place 9 local areas :]e ! oil-soak$ %ale1 due to jo9t+ or fault+1 is 9 direct contact ) ! wat] ( ! res]voir rock4 ,?is sugge/s lack ( wide migration4 ,?is hypo!sis is bas$ on exp]im5tal "w ) bitum9\s %ales4 ,! g5]al association ( oil pools ) anticl9al areas is expla9$ on ! assumption t anticl9es on ! :ole are areas ( maximum diff]5tial movem5t1 result+ 9 oil di/illation1 & t !y are ord9>ily accompani$ by t5sion jo9ts or faults1 af=d+ ! conditions = oil migration4 ,data are insuffici5t1 h[ev]1 to indicate ! ext5t to :i* ! anticl9al areas are really areas ( maximum %e>+4 ,z reg>ds ! exact nature ( ! process1 x is n cle> to :at ext5t diff]5tial movem5t may involve increase 9 temp]ature :i* may be ! controll+ factor 9 di/illation1--al?\gh 9 ,mc,coy's exp]im5t oil 0 =m$ :5 no appreciable am\nt ( heat 0 g5]at$4 ,! developm5t ( petroleum by pressure alone act+ on unalt]$ %ale1 z %[n by ^! exp]im5ts1 has be5 tak5 by ,:ite#bd to h a significant be>+ on ! geo*emical processes ( oil =mation4 ,"u diff]5tial /resses act+ on f9e-gra9$ c>bonace\s /rata "u suffici5t load1 !re is consid]able molecul> re>rangem5t1 z well z actual movem5t ( ! rock gra9s1--?us promot+ ! di/illation ( oil & gas f ! organic matt] 9 ! rocks1 & ! squeez+ out ( ! oil1 gas1 & wat] into adjac5t rocks1 su* z co>se r\nd-gra9$ s&/ones & por\s lime/ones1 :i* are m resi/ant to *ange ( volume "u pressure4 ,migration1 conc5tration & segregation ( ! oil1 gas1 & wat] is suppos$ to be br\ght ab\t1 p>tly ?r\gh ! effect ( capill>y =ces--! wat]1 by reason ( its great] capill>y t5sion1 t5d+ to seize & hold ! small] voids1 & ?us driv+ ! oil & gas into ! l>g] ones--& p>tly ?r\gh ! action ( gravity4 ,:ite also sugge/s t ! process may g fur!r :]e ! p>5t c>bonace\s /rata are ( su* ?ickness & "u su* load ( ov]ly+ rocks t !y und]go consid]able int]ior adju/m5t & volume *ange be=e yield+ to /ress by anticl9al buckl+1--?an :]e ! /rata yield quickly4 ,x is n cle> to ! writ] t ! int]ior adju/m5t assum$ "u ?is hypo!sis is necess>ily sl[$ up or /opp$ by anticl9al buckl+4 ,int]ior /resses are inh]5t 9 any s$im5t>y =mation1 :5 settl+ & consolidat+ & recry/alliz+ "u gravity1 & ^! may be indep5d5t ( regional ?ru/s f )\t4 ,! fir/ oils evolv$ by pressure f ! organic "m sub/ance are probably heavy1 ! lat] oils light]1 & ! oils f =mations & regions :]e ! alt]ation is approa*+ ! c>bonization limit are *>act]i/ically ( ! highe/ grade4 ,?is is ! rev]se ( ! ord] ( products obta9$ by heat di/illation4 ,:e!r !re is also a natural fractionation & improvem5t ( ! fir/ heavy oils z !y und]go repeat$ migrations is n kn[n4 ,inorganic !ory ( orig94 ,ano!r !ory ( ! s\rce ( oil has _h "s support]s1 al?\gh !y are mu* 9 ! m9ority4 ,?is is ! s-call$ inorganic !ory1 t oil comes f magmas & volcanic exhalations4 ,9 support ( ?is !ory att5tion is call$ to ! fact t igne\s rocks & ! gases associat$ ) !m frequ5tly c>ry c>bides or hydroc>bons2 t _m oil fields h a sugge/ive geographic relation%ip ) volcanic rocks2 & t c]ta9 ( ! oil domes1 z = in/ance 9 ,mexico1 are caus$ by plugs ( igne\s rocks f bel[4 ,x has be5 sugge/$ t deep )9 ! e>? c>bon is comb9$ ) iron 9 ! =m ( an iron c>bide1 & t f ! iron c>bide are g5]at$ ! hydroc>bons ( ! oil1 ei!r by or )\t ! ag5cy ( wat]4 ,iron c>bide is magnetic1 & significance has be5 atta*$ to ! g5]al correspond5ce betwe5 ! locations ( oil 9 ! we/]n ,unit$ ,/ates & regions ( magnetic di/urbance4 ,x seems n unlikely t "s inorganic !ory ( ?is sort is necess>y to expla9 ! ultimate s\rce ( oil or ( ! sub/ances :i* become oil1 b ! evid5ce is ov]:elm+ t organic ag5cies h be5 ma9ly responsible = ! pr9cipal oil pools n[ kn[n4 ,oil exploration4 ,a simple geographic basis = oil exploration is ! fact t ! major oil fields ( ! _w are situat$ betwe5 #bj deg4 & #ej deg4 nor? latitude1 & t ?us f> !re are no major oil areas )9 ! tropics or )9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e4 ,?is broad g5]alization may h little value :5 exploration is c>ri$ fur!r4 ,x has also be5 sugge/$ t ! geographic di/ribution ( oil corresponds r\ghly ) ! av]age annual temp]atures1 or iso!rms1 betwe5 #dj deg4 & #gj4 deg4#be ,x is ?\ght t ?is pres5t di/ribution ( temp]atures may indicate r\ghly ! temp]atures ( ! pa/ :5 ! oil 0 accumulat$2 & ! inf]5ce is drawn t !re 0 "s sort ( limitation ( areal deposition )9 ^! temp]ature limits4 ,if ?is be true1 ! only reasons :y ! s\!rn hemisph]e is n productive are ! relatively small size ( ! l& areas & ! lack ( exploration to date4 ,9 approa*+ broadly ! problem ( oil exploration1 ! geologi/ consid]s 9 a g5]al way ! k9ds & conditions ( rocks :i* are likely to be petrolif]\s or non-petrolif]\s4 ,s*u*]t#bf summ>izes ^! conditions = ,nor? ,am]ica z foll[s3 #a4 ,! impossible areas = petrolif]\s rocks4 7a7 ,! m ext5sive areas ( igne\s rocks & especially ^? ( ! anci5t %ields2 exception1 ! small] dikes4 7b7 ,all pre-,cambrian /rata4 7c7 ,all decid$ly fold$ m\nta9\s tracts old] ?an ! ,cretace\s2 exceptions1 dom$ & block-fault$ m\nta9s4 7d7 ,all regionally metamorphos$ /rata4 7e7 ,practically all cont95tal or fre%-wat] deposits2 relic seas1 s long z !y are p>tly salty1 & sal9e lakes are exclud$ f ?is classification4 7f7 ,practically all m>9e =mations t are ?ick & uni=m 9 rock "* & t are devoid ( int]b$d$ d>k %ales1 ?9-b$d$ d>k impure lime/ones1 d>k m>ls1 or ?9-b$d$ limy & fossilif]\s s&/ones4 7g7 ,practically all oceanic abyssal deposits2 ^!1 h[ev]1 are b r>ely pres5t on ! cont95ts4 #b4 ,possible petrolif]\s areas4 7a7 ,highly fold$ m>9e & bracki% wat] /rata y\ng] ?an ! ,jurassic1 b m especially ^? ( ,c5ozoic "t4 7b7 ,cambrian & ,ordovician unfold$ /rata4 7c7 ,lake deposits =m$ "u arid climates t cause ! wat]s to become sal9e2 x appe>s t only 9 salty wat]s 7n ov] #d p] c5t87 are ! bitum9\s mat]ials made & pres]v$ 9 ! =m ( k]og51 ! s\rce ( petroleum2 "s ( ! ,gre5 ,riv] 7,eoc5e7 cont95tal deposits 7! oil %ales ( ,utah & ,colorado7 may be ( sal9e lakes4 #c4 ,petrolif]\s areas4 7a7 ,all m>9e & bracki% wat] /rata y\ng] ?an ! ,ordovician & b slightly w>p$1 fault$1 or fold$2 "h are includ$ also ! m>9e & bracki% deposits ( relic seas l ! ,caspian1 =m$ dur+ ! lat] ,c5ozoic4 ,! m c]ta9 oil-be>+ /rata are ! por\s ?9-b$d$ s&/ones1 lime/ones1 & dolomites t are int]b$d$ ) black1 br[n1 blue1 or gre5 %ales4 ,coal-be>+ /rata ( fre%-wat] orig9 are exclud$4 ,s]ies ( /rata ) discon=mities may also be petrolif]\s1 because b5ea? =m] erosional surfaces ! top /rata h induc$ porosity & !re=e are possible res]voir rocks4 7b7 ,all m>9e /rata t are1 r\ghly1 )9 #ajj miles ( =m] l&s2 "h are m apt to occur ! alt]nat+ s]ies ( ?9 & ?ick-b$d$ s&/ones & lime/ones int]b$d$ ) %ale zones4 ,! ext5t to :i* m>9e or bracki% wat] conditions ( s$im5tation are requisite to ! lat] =mation ( oil1 z is sugge/$ 9 ! above quotation1 has long be5 a debatable "q4 ,x may be not$ t c]ta9 oil %ales =m$ 9 fre% wat] bas9s conta9 abundant organic matt] :i* is und\bt$ly suitable = ! g5]ation ( oil & gas1 & t ^! %ales on di/illation yield oil ess5tially l t obta9$ f oil %ales ( m>9e orig92 t c]ta9 important oil-be>+ s&s ( ! y\ng] ,appala*ian =mations 7 laid d[n 9 wat]s :i* are believ$ to h be5 only slightly sal9e2 t natural gas is pres5t 9 fre% wat] bas9s2 & t x has n be5 demon/rat$ t salt 9 appreciable am\nts is necess>y = ! geologic1 any m ?an = ! artificial1 di/illation ( oil4 ,mo/ ( ! great oil fields h be5 9 regions ( m>9e or o!r sal9e wat] deposits1 b x has n be5 prov$ t ?is is a necess>y condition4 ,:ite#bg says3 ,at ! pres5t /age ( our k1 fre%-wat] bas9s appe>+ o!rwise to meet ! requirem5ts %\ld be wildcatt$ )\t prejudice4 ,! pr9cipal oil-be>+ horizons 9 any locality are comp>atively few1 & x is ord9>ily easy to det]m9e by /ratigraphic me?ods ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( a favorable geologic horizon4 ,by kn[+ ! succession & ?icknesses ( ! b$s 9 a giv5 region x is possible to inf] f surface outcrops ! approximate dep? bel[ ! surface at :i* ! desir$ horizon c be f\nd4 ,to d ?is1 h[ev]1 ! conditions ( s$im5tation1 ! initial irregul>ities ( ! b$s1 ! /ructural conditions1 includ+ uncon=mities1 & o!r factors mu/ be /udi$4 ,9 exploration = oil ! det]m9ation ( ! exi/5ce & location ( ! prop] horizon is b an initial /ep4 ,= in/ance1 ! oil ( ! ,midcont95t field ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates is 9 ! b$s ( ! ,p5nsylvanian1 :i* are kn[n to occupy an enorm\s area ext5d+ f ,ill9ois & ,wyom+ s\? to ! ,gulf ( ,mexico4 ,?is in=mation is cle>ly n suffici5tly specific to limit ! location ( drill holes4 ,sometimes seepages ( oil or %[+s ( gas ne> ! surface are suffici5t basis = localiz+ ! drill holes4#bh ,commonly1 h[ev]1 x is necess>y to f9d "s /ructural feature 9 ! nature ( a dome or anticl9e :i* sugge/s prop] trapp+ conditions = an oil pool4 ,?is is accompli%$ by geologic & topographic mapp+ ( ! surface4 ,levels & cont\rs are run & outcrops are platt$4 ,z ! outcrops are usually ( diff]5t geologic horizons1 x is necess>y to select "s "o or m id5tifiable b$s z horizon m>k]s1 & to map _! elevations at diff]5t po9ts z a means ( det]m9+ ! /ructural cont\rs ( ! b$s4 ,:5 sev]al key horizons are ?us us$1 _! elevations mu/ be r$uc$ to ! elevations ( "o common horizon by ! addition or subtraction ( ! int]vals betwe5 !m4 ,= in/ance1 kn[+ ! succession1 an outcrop ( a c]ta9 s&/one may indicate t ! m>k+ horizon is #bjj feet bel[1 & ! /ructural cont\r is !n drawn accord+ly4 ,obs]vations ( /rike & dip at ! surface are helpful2 b :]e ! b$s are b slightly flex$1 small irregul>ities 9 deposition may make /rike & dip obs]vations useless 9 det]m9+ major /ructures4 ,x is !n necess>y to h rec\rse to ! elevations ( ! m>k+ horizons4 ,9 ! selection ( key horizons1 k ( ! conditions ( s$im5tation is v important4 ,= example1 "s ( ! oil fields occur 9 great delta deposits1 :]e successive advances & retreats ( ! sea h result$ 9 ! int]leav+ ( m>9e & l& deposits4 ,! l&-deposit$ s$im5ts usually %[ great v>iations 9 "* & ?ickness lat]ally & v]tically2 & a giv5 b$ is likely to ?9 out & disappe> :5 trac$ = a %ort di/ance1 r5d]+ futile its use z a m>k]4 ,! m>9e s$im5ts1 on ! ei!r h&1 %[ a mu* great] degree ( uni=mity & cont9uity1 & a b$ ( m>9e lime/one may ext5d ov] a l>ge area & be v useful z a key horizon4 ,ov] l>ge areas outcrops & records ( previ\sly drill$ wat] & oil wells may n be suffici5t to give an indication ( /ructure2 x !n becomes necess>y to secure cross sections by drill+ %all[ holes to "s id5tifiable b$1 & to det]m9e ! /ructure f ^! cross sections1 9 advance ( deep] drill+ ?r\gh a favorable /ructure ?us locat$4 ,! coop]ative ef=t ( ! ,ill9ois ,/ate ,survey & private int]e/s1 cit$ on page #cjf1 is a good illu/ration ( ?is proc$ure4 ,?is me?od is only 9 its infancy1 because well-drill+ has n yet exhau/$ ! possibilities ( /ructures locat$ f surface outcrops4 ,! s-call$ anticl9al /ructures1 :i* h be5 f\nd by exp]i5ce to be s favorable to ! accumulation ( oil1 are by no means symmetrical 9 %ape or uni=m 9 size4 ,!y may be elongat$ ar*es ) equal dip on ! two sides1 or "o side may dip & ! o!r be ne>ly flat4 ,9 a t]ritory ) a g5]al dip 9 "o direction1 a slight *ange 9 ! angle1 ?\gh n 9 ! direction ( dip1 sometimes call$ an arre/$ dip1 may cause suffici5t irregul>ity to produce ! necess>y trapp+ conditions4 ,9 o!r cases ! anticl9e may be ( ne>ly equidim5sional dome =m4 ,! l>ge/ anticl9es :i* h be5 f\nd to act z specific res]voirs are r>ely m ?an a few miles 9 ext5t1 & 9 _m cases only a mile or two4 ,! closure ( an anticl9e is ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! height ( a giv5 /ratum at ! highe/ po9t & at ! edges ( ! /ructure4 ,a consid]able numb] ( productive anticl9es are kn[n 9 :i* ! b$s dip s g5tly z to give a closure ( #bj feet or less4 ,aft] ! /ructural outl9es ( b$s ne> ! surface h be5 det]m9$1 all possible in=mation %\ld be us$ 9 project+ ^! /ructures d[nw>d to ! oil-produc+ horizons4 ,:]e a numb] ( wells h be5 previ\sly drill$ 9 ! vic9ity1 exam9ation ( _! records may indicate c]ta9 lat]al v>iations 9 ! ?ickness ( ! b$s betwe5 ! horizon :i* has be5 mapp$ & ! produc+ horizon4 ,! effect ( su* lat]al v>iations may be ei!r to acc5tuate ! surface /ructure1 or to cause x to disappe> entirely & ?us to indicate lack ( favorable trapp+ conditions4 ,! possibility ( sev]al oil-produc+ b$s1 at diff]5t dep?s--a n uncommon condition 9 _m fields--%\ld also be kept 9 m9d4 ,z already indicat$1 anticl9es are n always ess5tial to make ! necess>y trapp+ conditions4 ,9 ! ,beaumont field ( ,texas1 = in/ance1 x has be5 %[n t irregul> prim>y deposition ( s$im5ts diff]+ 9 porosity bo? v]tically & horizontally all[$ ! oil to migrate upw>d irregul>ly along ! por\s b$s & p>ts ( b$s1 & to be trapp$ betwe5 ! m imp]vi\s portions ( ! b$s4 ,fur!r que/ions to be consid]$ 9 ! exploration ( an area are ! cont5t ( organic matt] 9 ! s$im5ts :i* may h s]v$ z a s\rce ( oil1 ! pres5ce ( imp]vi\s cap-rocks or ( v>iations 9 porosity suffici5t to reta9 ! oil1 ! ?ickness ( s$im5ts & ! ext5t to :i* !y h und]gone diff]5tial /resses1 ! am\nt ( erosion & ! possibilities t oil1 if =m$1 has escap$ f ! erod$ edges ( por\s /rata1 &1 :]e c>bonace\s b$s are pres5t1 _! degree ( c>bonization1 & _m o!r simil> matt]s4 ,ea* field 9 fact has its own habit1 det]m9$ by ! int]action ( sev]al geologic factors4 ,?is habit may be le>n$ empirically4 ,geologi/s h (t5 gone wrong 9 apply+ to a new di/rict c]ta9 pr9ciples det]m9$ else:]e1 )\t suffici5t consid]ation ( ! complexity & relative importance ( ! sundry geologic factors :i* 9 ! aggregate det]m9e ! local habit ( oil occurr5ce4 ,geographically associat$ fields *>act]iz$ by simil>ity ( oil occurr5ce1 age1 & orig91 are kn[n z petrolif]\s prov9ces4 ,! factors ent]+ into ! classification ( fields are s num]\s t m precise def9ition ( a petrolif]\s prov9ce is h>dly yet agre$ ^u4 ,! "p play$ by ! economic geologi/ 9 oil exploration & developm5t is a l>ge "o = ! obvi\s reasons giv5 above4 ,probably no o!r s+le division ( economic geology n[ employs s l>ge a numb] ( geologi/s4 ,practically no l>ge oil company1 or l>ge piece ( oil exploration & developm5t1 is n[ h&l$ )\t geologic advice4 ,quot+ f ,arnold3#bi ,x ought to be z obvi\s t exploration ) ! drill %\ld be prec$$ by c>eful geologic /udies z x is t railroad con/ruction %\ld be bas$ on surveys4 ,^! /udies %\ld include su* subjects z topography1 /ratigraphy1 /ructure1 & surface evid5ce ( petroleum 9 ! regions to be te/$4 ,! "w divides itself into two /ages--prelim9>y reconnaissances & detail$ surveys4 ,! prelim9>y reconnaissance %\ld consi/ 9 procur+ all ! available publi%$ & he>say evid5ce reg>d+ ! occurr5ce ( oil or gas seepages or hydroc>bon deposits 9 ! region2 9 mak+ prelim9>y geologic surveys to det]m9e f :i* =mations ! oil is to come & ! areal di/ribution ( ^! =mations2 9 det]m9+ ^? g5]al regions 9 :i* ! surface evid5ce is suppos$ to be mo/ favorable = ! accumulation ( hydroc>bons2 & 9 det]m9+ ! be/ r\tes & me?ods ( transportation4 ,! second /age includes detail$ geologic surveys ( ^? regions :]e ! surface evid5ce indicates t petroleum is mo/ likely to be f\nd & ! location ( te/ holes at favorable po9ts4 ,by work+ out ! surface di/ribution & /ructure ( ! =mations x is usually possible to select ! areas (f]+ ! be/ *ances ( success4 ,geology %\ld always be ! dom9ant factor 9 det]m9+ ! location ( te/ holes1 al?\gh modifications to meet natural conditions mu/ sometimes be made4 ,,oil ,,%ales ,"o ( ! s\rces ( oil :i* is likely to become important 9 ! future is oil %ales1--t is1 %ales f :i* oil product c be extract$ by di/illation4 ,^! h already be5 ref]r$ to on previ\s pages4 ,su* %ales are n[ m9$ only 9 ,scotl& & 9 ,france to a relatively small ext5t1 b !re are imm5se res]ves ( ^! %ales 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! _w :i* are likely to be drawn ^u :5 comm]cial conditions require x4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates alone x is e/imat$ t ! oil %ales are a pot5tial s\rce ( oil 9 am\nts f> great] ?an all ! natural petroleum ( ?is hemisph]e4#cj ,! solution ( ! problem ( extraction ( oil f %ales is fairly well advanc$ te*nically1 & ! problem has n[ become pr9cipally "o ( co/4 ,9 ord] to recov] any l>ge am\nt ( oil f ?is s\rce1 op]ations ( /up5d\s magnitude1 approximately on ! scale ( ! coal indu/ry1 mu/ be e/abli%$4 ,z long z !re are suffici5t supplies ( oil conc5trat$ by nature to be drawn ^u1 x is unlikely t oil %ale w furni% any consid]able p]c5tage ( ! _w's oil requirem5ts4 ,) ! great increase 9 _w dem& = oil1 h[ev]1 :i* may v possibly out/rip ! available annual supply 9 ! future1 & p>ticul>ly ) ! increase 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates dem& relative to dome/ic supplies1 exhau/ive surveys ( ! situation are be+ made ) a view to developm5t ( oil %ales :5 w>rant$ by m>ket conditions4 ,oil %ales are s$im5t>y /rata conta9+ decompos$ products ( plants & animals4 ,locally !y grade into cannel coal1 ) :i* !y are g5etically relat$4 ,!y may be reg>d$ z repres5t+ ! k9ds ( s$im5ts f :i* ! oil ( oil pools has 9 ! ma9 orig9at$4 ,! mo/ ext5sive ( ! oil %ales ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates are f\nd 9 ! ,eoc5e b$s ( nor?we/]n ,colorado1 nor!a/]n ,utah1 & s\?we/]n ,wyom+1 & 9 ! ,mioc5e b$s ( nor!rn ,nevada4 ,! l>ge/ kn[n =eign deposits occur 9 ,brazil & ,russia4 ,,natural ,,gas ,,economic ,,features ,natural gas is us$ bo? = light+ & = fuel purposes4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates x has become ! basis ( a great indu/ry1 ! value ( ! product rang+ above t ( lead & z9c4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates is ! l>ge/ produc] ( natural gas4 ,o!r produc]s are ,canada1 ,dut* ,ea/ ,indies1 ,mexico1 ,hung>y1 ,japan1 & ,italy4 ,ne>ly all produc+ oil fields furni% also "s natural gas4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ne>ly #dj p] c5t ( ! total production ( natural gas comes f ,we/ ,virg9ia1 ab\t #ag p] c5t f ,p5nsylvania1 ab\t #ag p] c5t f ,oklahoma1 & less ?an #aj p] c5t f ea* ( ,ohio1 ,cali=nia1 ,l\isiana1 ,kansas1 ,texas1 & sev]al o!r /ates4 ,"o ( ! rec5t int]e/+ developm5ts 9 ?is indu/ry is ! recov]y ( gasol9e f ! natural gas4 ,?is is obta9$ by compression & cond5sation ( ! cas+-head gas f oil wells1 & also1 m rec5tly1 by an absorption process :i* is appli$ n only to wet gas f oil wells b also to s-call$ dry gas occurr+ indep5d5tly ( oil4 ,x is a high-grade product :i* 9 rec5t ye>s has am\nt$ to ab\t #aj p] c5t ( ! total output ( gasol9e = ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,,geologic ,,features ,natural gas1 l oil1 orig9ates 9 ! di/illation ( organic sub/ances 9 s$im5ts1 & migrates to res]voirs capp$ by imp]vi\s /rata4 ,x is commonly1 ?\gh n always1 associat$ ) oil & coal4 ,! geologic features ( its occurr5ce h s mu* 9 common ) oil t a description w\ld ess5tially duplicate ! above acc\nt ( ! geologic features ( oil4 ,,asphalt ,,& ,,bitum5 ,,economic ,,features ,asphalt & bitum5 are n us$ z en]gy res\rces1 b !y h s mu* 9 common ) oil 9 occurr5ce & orig9 t !y are includ$ 9 ?is *apt]4 ,asphalt & bitum5 f9d _! ma9 use 9 pav+4 ,o!r important uses are 9 pa9ts & v>ni%es1 9 ! manufacture ( prep>$ ro(+1 = v>i\s insulat+ purposes1 & 9 sub/itutes = rubb]4 ,ne>ly ! entire _w's supply ( natural asphalt comes f ! ,briti% ,isl& ( ,tr9idad & f ,v5ezuela4 ,bo? ( ^! deposits are "u ,unit$ ,/ates comm]cial control probably affiliat$ ) ,dut*-,engli% int]e/s4 ,prior to ! w> ab\t half ! product w5t to ,europe & half to ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,l>ge am\nts ( asphaltic & bitum9\s rock1 us$ ma9ly 9 pav+1 are normally produc$ 9 ,alsace1 ,france1 & 9 ,italy4 ,prior to ! w> bo? ! ,alsatian & ,italian deposits 7 "u ,g]man comm]cial control4 ,_! output is practically all consum$ 9 ,europe4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates takes a l>ge "p 9 ! _w's trade 9 natural asphalt1 by importation f ,tr9idad & ,v5ezuela1 & by "s reexportation *iefly to ,canada & ,mexico4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates also produces "s natural asphalt & bitum9\s rock = dome/ic consumption4 ,deposits ( natural asphaltic mat]ial are widely di/ribut$ ?r\gh ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 b comm]cial production is limit$ to a few localities 9 ,k5tucky1 ,texas1 ,utah1 ,colorado1 ,oklahoma1 & ,cali=nia4 ,! asphalt manufactur$ f petroleum con/itutes a mu* l>g] tonnage ?an natural asphalt ?\gh x does n ent] s l>gely into _w trade4 ,! manufactur$ product is l>gely b n exclusively 9 ,am]ican control4 ,l>ge am\nts are made 9 ?is c\ntry & w no d\bt be made = ! next decade1 f oil produc$ 9 ! s\?we/]n /ates & 9 ,mexico4 ,at ! pres5t "t z mu* or m asphalt is made 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates f ,mexican z f dome/ic crude oil4 ,! ref9]ies are locat$ ne> ! ,gulf coa/ s t exports c avoid ov]l& %ipm5ts4 ,! relative m]its ( natural asphalt & asphalt manufactur$ f oil may be subject to "s discussion2 b x is p]fectly cle> t ! manufactur$ mat]ial is suffici5t1 bo? 9 quantity & v>iety1 to make ! ,unit$ ,/ates entirely indep5d5t & h an exportable surplus4 ,,geologic ,,features ,natural asphalt & simil> products are 9 ! ma9 m]ely ! residuals ( oil & gas di/illation accumulat$ by nature "u c]ta9 conditions already describ$ 9 connection ) oil 7pp4 #adj-add74 ,9 "s cases ! asphaltic mat]ial is f\nd z impregnations ( s$im5ts1 & appe>s to h rema9$ 9 place :ile ! light] organic mat]ials 7 volatiliz$ & migrat$ upw>d4 ,9 o!r cases x occurs 9 di/9ct fissure ve9s2 ! fissures & cavities app>5tly 7 once fill$ ) liquid petroleum1 :i* has subsequ5tly und]gone fur!r di/illation4 ,! orig9al liquid "* ( "s ( ^! bitum5s is %[n by occasional fragm5ts ( unworn c\ntry rock imb$d$ 9 ! ve9s4 ,! effect ( surface wat]s1 c>ry+ oxidiz+ mat]ials & sulphuric acid1 is believ$ to h contribut$ to ! dry+ out & h>d5+ ( ^! ve9s or dikes4 ,asphalts & bitum5s include a wide v>iety ( hydroc>bon mat]ials1 su* z gilsonite1 grahamite1 elat]ite1 ozok]ite1 etc41 :i* are us$ = some:at diff]5t purposes4 ,! deposits ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates %[ mu* v>iety 9 =m1 composition1 age1 & geologic associations4 ,! important ,k5tucky deposits occur z impregnations ( ,c>bonif]\s s&/ones at ! base ( ! ,coal ,measures ( t /ate4 ,! ,tr9idad asphalt comes f ! fam\s pit* lake1 :i* is a ne>ly circul> deposit cov]+ ab\t a hundr$ acres #aej feet above sea level1 & :i* is believ$ to fill ! crat] ( an old mud volcano4 ,! s-call$ pit* consi/s ( a mixture ( bitum51 wat]1 m9]al & vegetable matt]1 ! :ole inflat$ ) gas1 :i* escapes to "s ext5t & keeps ! mass 9 a /ate ( con/ant ebullition4 ,! surface ( ! lake is h>d1 & yet ! mass z a :ole is pla/ic & t5ds to refill ! excavations4 ,! lake is believ$ to be on ! outcrop ( a petroleum-be>+ /ratum1 & ! pit* to repres5t ! unevaporat$ residue ( millions ( tons ( petroleum :i* h exud$ f ! oil-s&s4 ,! pit* is ref9$ by melt+1--! heat expell+ ! wat]1 ! wood & o!r light impurities ris+1 & ! heavy m9]al matt] s9k+ to ! bottom4 ,! asphalt ( ,v5ezuela is simil> 9 nature1 b ! pit* lake is "h cov]$ ) vegetation & ! s(t pit* wells up at c]ta9 po9ts z if f subt]ranean spr+s4 ,,footnotes3 #ag ,= m detail$ treatm5t ( int]national coal movem5ts be=e ! w> & ( coal movem5ts )9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 see ! ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey's ,_w ,atlas ( ,comm]cial ,geology1 ,pt4 #a1 #aiba1 pp4 #aa-af4 #ah ,campbell1 ,m>ius ,r41 ,! coal fields ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates3 ,pr(4 ,pap] #ajj-;,a1 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,survey1 #aiag1 pp4 #e1 #f1 #g4 #ai ,compil$ f tables quot$ by ,:ite1 ,david1 ,! petroleum res\rces ( ! _w3 ,annals ,am4 ,acad4 ,social & ,political ,sci41 vol4 #hi1 #aibj1 pp4 #abc & #abf4 #bj ,:ite1 ,david1 loc4 cit41 p4 #aac4 #ba ,see ,arnold1 ,ralph1 ,petroleum res\rces ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates3 ,econ4 ,geol41 vol4 #aj1 #aiae1 p4 #gjg4 #bb ,:ite1 ,david1 ,late !ories reg>d+ ! orig9 ( oil3 ,bull4 ,geol4 ,soc4 ,am41 vol4 #bh1 #aiag1 p4 #gcb4 #bc ,mc,coy1 ,a4 ,w41 ,notes on pr9ciples ( oil accumulation3 ,j\r4 ,geol41 vol4 #bg1 #aiai1 pp4 #beb-bfb4 #bd ,:ite1 ,david1 ,g5etic problems affect+ se>* = new oil regions3 ,m9+ & ,metallurgy1 ,am4 ,in/4 ( ,m94 ,engrs41 ,no4 #aeh1 ,sec4 #ba1 ,feb41 #aibj4 #be ,mehl1 ,m4 ,g41 ,"s factors 9 ! geographic di/ribution ( petroleum3 ,bull4 ,sci4 ,lab41 ,d5ison ,univ41 vol4 #ai1 #aiai1 pp4 #ee-fc4 #bf ,s*u*]t1 ,*>les1 ,petrolif]\s prov9ces3 ,bull4 #aee1 ,am4 ,in/4 ,m9+ & ,metallurgical ,engrs41 #aiai1 pp4 #cjei-cjfj4 #bg ,loc4 cit41 p4 #bj4 #bh ,seepages or residual bitum9\s matt] ne> ! surface may be due to upw>d escape ( oil mat]ial ?r\gh jo9ts 9 ! rocks capp+ a res]voir1 & productive pools may be f\nd directly bel[ su* %[+s4 ,9 o!r regions simil> surface indications may mean t ! /ratum 9 ! outcrop ( :i* !y are f\nd is oil-be>+2 b accumulations ( oil1 if pres5t1 may be sev]al miles d[n ! dip1 at places :]e ! /ructural conditions h be5 favorable4 ,9 /ill o!r cases ! seepage may h be5 9 exi/5ce = su* a long "t z to exhau/ ! res]voir4 ,x mu/ also be rememb]$ t gas seeps are common 9 sl\ghs & m>%es :]e vegetation is decay+1 & may be ( no significance 9 ! se>* = petroleum4 #bi ,arnold1 ,ralph1 ,cons]vation ( ! oil & gas res\rces ( ! ,am]icas3 ,econ4 ,geol41 vol4 #aa1 #aiaf1 pp4 #cba-cbb4 #cj ,oil %ales may also be made to yield l>ge quantities ( fuel & illum9at+ gas1 & ( ammonia 7see pp4 #aja-ajb74 ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,m9]als ,,us$ ,,9 ,,! ,,production ,,( ,,iron ,,& ,,/eel 7,,! ,,f]ro-,,alloy ,,gr\p7 ,,g5]al ,,features ,iron & /eel & _! alloys are ! mo/ g5]ally us$ ( ! metals4 ,! raw mat]ials necess>y = _! manufacture include a wide v>iety ( m9]als4 ,iron is ! pr9cipal elem5t 9 ?is gr\p2 b 9 ! manufacture ( iron & /eel1 manganese1 *romium1 nickel1 tung/51 molybd5um1 vanadium1 zirconium1 titanium1 alum9um1 uranium1 magnesium1 fluor9e1 silicon1 & o!r sub/ances play important p>ts1 ei!r z accessories 9 ! furnace reactions or z +r$i5ts introduc$ to give c]ta9 qualities to ! products4 ,ne>ly all p>ts ( ! _w are pl5tifully suppli$ ) iron ores = an indef9ite p]iod 9 ! future1 b _! abundant use has ?us f> be5 conf9$ ma9ly to ! c\ntries bord]+ ! ,nor? ,atlantic1--! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,g]many1 & ,engl&1--:i*1 possess+ ample coal supplies1 h _h ! initiative to develop great iron & /eel indu/ries4 ,*9a has abundant coal1 mod]ate quantities ( iron ore1 & a l>ge population1 b a l[ p] capita consumption ( iron & /eel products4 ,developm5t ( its iron & /eel indu/ry is j beg9n+4 ,japan has nei!r coal nor iron 9 suffici5t quantities1 & h5ce ! ,japanese ef=t 9 rec5t ye>s to control ! m9]al res\rces ( ,*9a & o!r c\ntries4 ,z a result ( ! w> ,g]many has be5 l>gely depriv$ ( its iron ores1 & ,france may assume some:at ! rank 9 iron ore production once held by ,g]many4 ,sw$5 & ,spa9 h be5 consid]able produc]s ( iron ore1 b bo? lack coal1 ) ! result t _! ores h be5 l>gely export$ to ,engl& & ,g]many4 ,) increase ( p] capita consumption 9 outly+ p>ts ( ! _w1 iron & /eel indu/ries are beg9n+ to develop locally on a small scale1 z 9 ,india1 ,s\? ,africa1 & ,au/ralia4 ,russia has _h suffici5t supplies ( coal & iron1 b ! /age ( indu/rial developm5t 9 t c\ntry has n call$ = great expansion ( its iron & /eel indu/ry4 ,!re has be5 a t5d5cy = iron & /eel manufacture to become conc5trat$ at a comp>atively few places on ! globe favor$ by ! prop] comb9ations ( coal1 iron1 transportation1 proximity to consum+ populations1 initiative & capacity to take advantage ( a situation1 & o!r factors4 ,ev5 ?\gh on pap] conditions may seem to be favorable 9 outly+ t]ritories = ! developm5t ( additional plants1 ?is developm5t is (t5 held back by competition f ! e/abli%$ c5t]s4 ,on ! we/ coa/ ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 !re are raw mat]ials = an iron & /eel indu/ry & !re has be5 discussion = ye>s z to ! possibilities ( />t+ a successful l>ge scale /eel indu/ry4 ,! consum+ p[] ( ! local population = all k9ds ( iron & /eel w\ld seem to be great en\gh to w>rant su* action4 ,h[ev]1 ! dem& is = an extremely v>i$ assortm5t ( iron & /eel products2 & to />t an indu/ry1 mak+ only a few ( ! crud] products su* z pig iron & semi-f9i%$ =ms1 w\ld n meet ?is dem&4 ,all v>ieties ( f9i%+ plants & associat$ factories w\ld also ne$ to be />t$ 9 ord] to meet ! situation4 ,?is w\ld require l>ge capital4 ,fur!rmore ! local dem& = "s ( ! accessory f9i%$ products might n w>rant ! e/abli%m5t ( ! accessory plants4 ,?r\gh\t ! hi/ory ( ! iron & /eel bus9ess !re has be5 a m>k$ t5d5cy = ! iron ore to move to regions ( coal production r ?an = ! coal to move to ! iron ore regions4 ,! coal or en]gy factor seems ultimately to control4 ,?is is due 9 consid]able "p to ! fact t coal furni%es ! basis ( a great v>iety ( indu/ries = :i* iron ore is only "o ( ! fe$]s1 & :i* are s int]relat$ t x is n always easy to move ! iron & /eel indu/ry to a spot ne> ! s\rces ( iron ore :]e iron & /eel alone c\ld be produc$4 ,9 reg>d to iron ore supplies ( prop] grade & quantity1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates is m ne>ly self-suffic+ ?an any ( its competitors4 ,x imports m9or am\nts ( ore f ,cuba & ,canada1 & ev5 f ,*ile & ,sw$51 to bord] po9ts1 9 ! ma9 m]ely because ^! import$ ores c compete on a price basis ) ! dome/ic ores4 ,! entire exclusion ( ^! ores1 h[ev]1 w\ld make comp>atively little diff]5ce 9 ! total volume ( our iron & /eel indu/ry2 ?\gh x w\ld probably make "s diff]5ce 9 di/ribution1 to ! disadvantage ( plants along ! coa/4 ,!re is only "o k9d ( iron ore 9 :i* ! ,unit$ ,/ates has any?+ approa*+ defici5cy1 & t is ore extremely l[ 9 phosphorus1 adapt$ to mak+ ! s-call$ l[-phosphorus pig :i* is ne$$ = c]ta9 special /eels4 ,ordnance requirem5ts dur+ ! w> put a premium on ^! /eels4 ,:ile "s ( ^! extremely l[-phosphorus ores are m9$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 additional quantities h be5 requir$ f ,spa9 & ,canada & to a less] ext5t f ,nor? ,africa & ,sw$54 ,also ! ,spani% pyrite1 import$ ord9>ily = its sulphur cont5t1 on roa/+ leaves a residue ( iron oxide extremely l[ 9 phosphorus :i* is simil>ly us$4 ,! elim9ation ( pyrite imports f ,spa9 dur+ ! w>1 !re=e1 0 a consid]able contribut+ factor to ! /r+5cy 9 l[-phosphorus iron ores4 ,w> exp]i5ce %[$ t ! ,unit$ ,/ates 0 dep5d5t on =eign s\rces = #dj p] c5t or upw>ds ( its ne$s 9 ?is reg>d4 ,c]ta9 developm5ts 9 progress1 notably ! project = conc5tration ( silice\s ea/]n ,mesabi ,range ores1 make x likely t future dome/ic production w m ne>ly be able to meet ! requirem5ts4 ,! equival5t ( #ae p] c5t ( ! iron ore m9$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates is export$ z ore to ,canadian ports on ! ,great ,lakes & 9 ! =m ( crude iron & /eel products to _m p>ts ( ! _w4 ,engl& & ,g]many are almo/ ! sole competitors 9 ! export trade4 ,:5 we turn to ! m9]als us$ = mak+ ! alloys ( iron & z accessories 9 ! manufacture ( iron1 x appe>s t no "o ( ! pr9cipal iron & /eel produc+ c\ntries ( ! _w is self-support+1 b t ^! sweet5]s mu/ be drawn 9 f ! f> corn]s ( ! e>?4 ,! importance ( ^! m9or con/itu5ts is altoge!r out ( proportion to _! volume4 ,= in/ance1 only f\rte5 p\nds ( manganese are necess>y 9 ! mak+ ( a ton ( /eel1 yet a ton ( /eel _c be made )\t manganese4 ,! increas+ specialization 9 iron & /eel products1 & ! rapidly wid5+ k ( ! qualities ( ! diff]5t alloys1 are con/antly %ift+ ! dem& f "o to ! o!r ( ! f]ro-alloy m9]als4 ,ea* "o ( ! f]ro-alloy m9]als may be reg>d$ z be+ 9 ! nature ( a key m9]al = ! iron & /eel indu/ry1 & ! control ( deposits ( ^! m9]als is a matt] ( int]national conc]n4 ,control is n a difficult matt]1 9 view ( ! fact t ! pr9cipal supplies ( practically e "o ( ! alloy m9]als are conc5trat$ 9 comp>atively few spots on ! globe1--z indicat$ on succe$+ pages4 ,nature has n end[$ ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 nor 9 fact ! ,nor? ,am]ican cont95t1 ) adequate high-grade supplies ( ! pr9cipal f]ro-alloy m9]als1--) ! exception ( molybd5um1 & ) ! exception ( silica1 magnesite1 & fluorsp>1 :i* are us$ z accessories 9 ! process ( /eel mak+4 ,) pl5ty ( iron ore & coal1 & ) an iron & /eel capacity am\nt+ to ov] #ej p] c5t ( ! _w's total1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates is v l>gely dep5d5t on o!r c\ntries = its supplies ( ! f]ro-alloy m9]als4 ,! w> br\ght ?is fact home4 ,) ! clos+ ( =eign s\rces ( supplies1 x look$ at "o "t z if our /eel indu/ry 0 to be v greatly hamp]$2 & extraord9>y ef=ts 7 made to keep *annels ( importation op5 until some?+ c\ld be done 9 ! way ( developm5t1 ev5 at excessive co/1 ( dome/ic supplies4 ,! result ( w> ef=ts 0 a v l>ge developm5t ( dome/ic supplies ( practically all ! f]ro-alloy m9]als2 b 9 no case1 ) ! exceptions not$ above1 did ^! prove suffici5t to meet ! total requirem5ts4 ,?is developm5t 0 at great co/ & at "s sacrifice to metallurgical effici5cy1 due to ! l[ & v>iable grades ( ! raw mat]ials4 ,) ! po/-w> reop5+ ( importation mu* ( ! dome/ic production has necess>ily ceas$1 & l>ge am\nts ( money patriotically sp5t 9 ! ef=t to meet ! dome/ic requirem5ts h be5 lo/4 ,^! circum/ances h result$ 9 ! dem& 9 ,congress f produc]s = direct f9ancial relief & 9 dem& = protective t>iffs1 9 ord] to enable ! new /ruggl+ indu/ries to exi/1 & to p]mit ( developm5t ( adequate home supplies4 ,su* t>iffs might be b5eficial to ^! p>ticul> dome/ic indu/ries if wisely plann$2 b also1 9 view ( ! limit$ am\nts ( ^! p>ticul> ores 9 ?is c\ntry1 _! g5]al l[ grade1 & ! high co/ ( m9+1 t>iffs might v probably ha/5 exhau/ion ( our limit$ supplies & might h&icap our metallurgical indu/ries bo? 9 effici5cy & co/ 7see pp4 #cfe-cff1 #cic-cid74 ,,iron ,,ores ,,economic ,,features ,te*nical & comm]cial factors det]m9+ use ( iron ore m9]als4 ,popul>ly1 an iron ore is an iron ore1 & !re is little realization ( its really great complexity ( composition & ! difficulty ( det]m9+ :at is or is n a comm]cial ore4 ,p]c5tage ( iron is ( c\rse an important factor2 b an ore 9 :i* ! iron is 9 ! m9]al hematite is m valuable ?an "o ) an equival5t p]c5tage ( iron :i* is 9 ! =m ( magnetite4 ,sub/ances pres5t 9 ! ore 9 m9or quantities1 su* z phosphorus1 sulphur1 & titanium1 h a t5d5cy to make ! iron product brittle1 ei!r :5 x is cold or :5 x is be+ made1 s t excessive am\nts ( ^! sub/ances may disqualify an ore4 ,excessive quantities ( silica1 lime1 or magnesia may make ! ore undesirable4 ,:]e an acid sub/ance1 l silica1 is balanc$ by basic con/itu5ts l lime & magnesia1 consid]able am\nts ( bo? may be us$4 ,excessive moi/ure cont5t may spoil an ore because ( ! am\nt ( heat necess>y to elim9ate x 9 smelt+4 ,! metallurgical processes ( ! iron & /eel indu/ry are ess5tially adapt$ to ! pr9cipal grades ( ore available4 ,! *eape/ ( ! /eel-mak+ processes1 call$ ! acid ,bessem] process1 requires a v l[-phosphorus ore 7usually bel[ 4#jej p] c5t 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates & bel[ 4#jcj p] c5t 9 ,engl&47 ,! basic op5-he>? processes1 mak+ two-?irds ( ! /eel 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 all[ high] p]c5tages ( phosphorus1 b n unlimit$ am\nts4 ,! basic ,bessem] 7,?omas7 process1 us$ = ! m9ette ores ( we/]n ,europe & ! ,sw$i% magnetites1 may use an ore ) any am\nt ( phosphorus ov] #a4e p] c5t4 ,! phosphatic slag f ?is process is us$ z f]tiliz]4 ,! supply ( l[-phosphorus ,bessem] ore 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates is at pres5t limit$ z comp>$ ) t ( ! non-,bessem] ores1 ) ! result t /eel-plant con/ruction = _m ye>s pa/ has be5 l>gely op5-he>?4 ,! op5-he>? process is favor$ also because x all[s clos] control ( phosphorus cont5t 9 ! /eel4 ,small b increas+ am\nts ( /eel are also made 9 ! electric furnace2 = ! mo/ "p1 h[ev]1 ?is process is m exp5sive ?an ! o!rs1 & x is us$ pr9cipally = special alloy /eels4 ,iron ores are seldom s uni=m 9 quality t !y c be %ipp$ )\t c>eful att5tion to sampl+ & grade4 ,9 ! ,lake ,sup]ior region ! ores are sampl$ daily z m9$1 & ! utmo/ c>e is tak5 to mix & load ! ore 9 su* a way t ! desir$ grades c be obta9$4 ,ord9>ily a s+le deposit produces sev]al grades ( ore4 ,:5 ores are put into ! furnace = smelt+ ! mixtures are select$ ) great c>e = ! p>ticul> purpose = :i* ! product is to be us$4 ,! mixture is comp\nd$ z c>efully z a druggi/'s prescription4 ,an ore salesman1 aft] asc]ta9+ ! nature ( ! iron & /eel products ( a plant1 has to use great skill 9 (f]+ p>ticul> ores = sale :i* n only w meet ! desir$ grade 9 reg>d to all elem5ts1 b also w meet competition 9 price4 ,9 "s respects1 ! m>ket+ ( diff]5t grades ( iron ore is z complex z ! m>ket+ ( a miscellane\s /ock ( m]*&ise4 ,) ores1 z ) m]*&ise1 cu/om & s5tim5t play _! "p1--) ! result t two ores ( id5tical grade m9]alogically & *emically may h q a diff]5t vogue & price1 simply because ( ! fact t furnace m5 are us$ to "o & n to ! o!r & are n will+ to exp]im5t4 ,! geologi/ is ord9>ily conc]n$ m]ely ) f9d+ an ore ( z good a g5]al grade z possible2 b he (t5 f9ds to 8 surprise t 8 ef=ts h be5 direct$ t[>d ! discov]y ( some?+ :i*1 due to "s m9or defect 9 texture1 9 m9]alogical composition1 or 9 *emical composition1 is difficult to introduce on ! m>ket4 ,!re is "h a promis+ field1 int]m$iate betwe5 geology 7or m9]alogy7 & metallurgy1 = ! application ( pr9ciples ( *emi/ry1 metallurgy1 & m9]alogy1 :i* is occupi$ at ! pres5t "t ma9ly by ! ore salesman4 ,bo? ! m9]alogi/ & metallurgi/ t\* ! problem b !y d n cov] x4 ,) increas+ly precise & rapidly *ang+ metallurgical requirem5ts1 ?is field calls = sci5tific developm5t4 ,geographic di/ribution ( iron ore production4 ,iron ores are widely di/ribut$ ov] ! _w1 b are produc$ & smelt$ on a l>ge scale only 9 a few places :]e !re is a =tunate conjunction ( high grades1 l>ge quantity1 proximity ( coal1 *eap transportation to m>kets1 & manufactur+ ent]prise4 ,ov] #ij p] c5t ( ! iron ore production ( ! _w is 9 c\ntries bord]+ ! ,nor? ,atlantic bas94 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates produces ab\t #dj p] c5t1 ,france ab\t #ab p] c5t1 ,engl& ab\t #aj p] c5t1 ,g]many be=e ! w> #ae to #bj p] c5t1 & ,spa91 ,russia1 & ,sw$5 ea* ab\t #e p] c5t4 ,less] produc+ c\ntries are ,luxemburg1 ,au/ria-,hung>y1 ,cuba1 ,newf\ndl&1 & ,alg]ia2 & insignificant am\nts are produc$ 9 _m o!r p>ts ( ! _w4 ,( ! _w's iron & /eel manufactur+ capacity1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates has ab\t #ec p] c5t1 ,g]many #af p] c5t1 ,engl& #ad p] c5t1 ,france #aj p] c5t1 ! rema9d] ( ,europe 7*iefly ,russia1 ,au/ria-,hung>y1 & ,belgium7 #g p] c5t4 ,! abs5ce ( important iron ore production & ( iron & /eel manufacture ei!r 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e or 9 any ( ! c\ntries bord]+ ! ,pacific is a significant feature1 :5 we rememb] :at "p iron plays 9 mod]n civilization4 ,japan1 h[ev]1 is beg9n+ to develop a consid]able iron & /eel indu/ry1 :i* promises to use a l>ge am\nt ( ore f ,*9a1 ,man*uria1 & ,korea1 & possibly to compete 9 ,am]ican ,pacific ,coa/ m>kets4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ab\t #he p] c5t ( ! production1 or "o-?ird ( ! _w's production1 comes f ! ,lake ,sup]ior region1 a l>ge "p ( ! rema9d] f ! ,birm+ham di/rict1 ,alabama1 & small] quantities f ! ,adirondacks4 ,= ! re/ ( ! ,nor? ,am]ican cont95t1 ! only l>gely produc+ deposit is t at ,belle ,isle1 ,newf\ndl&1 :i* is ! basis ( ! iron indu/ry ( ea/]n ,canada4 ,cuba supplies "s ore to ! ea/ coa/ ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,9 ,europe !re are only ?ree l>ge s\rces ( high-grade iron ore :i* h h]et(ore be5 drawn on l>gely1--! magnetite deposits ( nor!rn ,sw$51 ! hematites & sid]ites ( ! ,bilbao & adjac5t di/ricts ( nor!rn ,spa91 & ! magnetite-hematite deposits ( s\!rn ,russia4 ,! fir/ two ( ^! ores h be5 us$ to raise ! p]c5tage ( iron 9 ! l[-grade ores :i* are ! pr9cipal reliance ( we/]n ,europe4 ,! ,sw$i% ores h also be5 necess>y 9 ord] to raise ! p]c5tage ( phosphorus & ?us make ! ores suitable = ! ,?omas process2 on ! o!r h& ! ,spani% ores & a small "p ( ! ,sw$i% mat]ial h be5 desir$ because ( _! l[ phosphorus cont5t1 adapt$ to ! acid ,bessem] process & to ! manufacture ( l[-phosphorus pig4 ,! ,russian ores h l>gely be5 smelt$ 9 t c\ntry4 ,! l>ge/ ( ! we/]n ,european l[-grade deposits is a geographic & geologic unit spread+ ov] p>ts ( ,lorra9e1 ,luxemburg1 & ! imm$iately adjac5t ,briey1 ,longwy1 & ,nancy di/ricts ( ,france4 ,! ores ( ?is region are call$ m9ette ores4 ,?is unit produces ab\t a f\r? ( ! _w's iron ore4 ,l[-grade deposits ( a some:at simil> nature 9 ! ,clevel&1 ,l9coln%ire1 & adjac5t di/ricts ( ,engl& =m ! ma9 basis = ! ,briti% indu/ry4 ,!re is m9or production ( iron ores 9 o!r p>ts ( ,france & ,g]many1 9 ,au/ria-,hung>y1 & 9 ,nor? ,africa 7^! la/ be+ important because ( _! l[ phosphorus cont5t74 ,comp>ison ( figures ( consumption & production ( iron ores indicates t ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,france1 ,russia1 & ,au/ria-,hung>y are self-support+ s f> z quantity ( mat]ials is conc]n$4 ,c]ta9 ores ( special grades1 & ores ( o!r m9]als ( ! f]ro-alloy gr\p requir$ 9 /eel mak+1 h[ev]1 mu/ be import$ f =eign s\rces2 ?is matt] has be5 discuss$ above4 ,great ,brita9 & ,g]many appe> to be dep5d5t on =eign s\rces1 ev5 "u pre-w> conditions1 = "p ( ! mat]ial = _! furnaces4 ,dur+ ! w> !re 0 consid]able developm5t ( ! l[-grade ,engli% ores1 b ?is does n elim9ate ! necessity = import+ high-grade ores = mixture4 ,belgium produces a v small p]c5tage ( h] ore requirem5ts & is practically dep5d5t on ! ,lorra9e-,luxemburg field4 ,! pr9cipal effect ( ! w> on iron ore production 0 ! occupation ( ! great ,fr5* m9+ & smelt+ field by ! ,g]mans1 !reby depriv+ ! ,fr5* ( _! l>ge/ s\rce ( iron ore4 ,s9ce ! w> ! situation has be5 rev]s$1 ,france n[ possess+ ! ,lorra9e field1 :i* =m]ly suppli$ ,g]many ) #gj p] c5t ( its iron ore4 ,z ! ,g]man indu/rial life is l>gely bas$ on iron & /eel manufacture1 ! problem ( ore supplies = ,g]many is n[ a critical "o4 ,x has l$ to ,g]man activity 9 ,*ile & may lead to ,g]man developm5ts 9 ea/]n ,europe & we/]n ,asia1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! l>ge & favorably locat$ res]ves ( s\!rn ,russia4 ,x seems likely1 h[ev]1 t arrangem5ts w also be made to cont9ue ! export ( ore f ! ,lorra9e field d[n ! ,rh9e to ! pr9cipal ,g]man smelt+ c5t]s4 ,france ne$s ! ,g]man coal = cok+ z badly z ,g]many ne$s ! ,fr5* iron ore4 ,! ,rh9e valley is ! connect+ *annel = a balanc$ movem5t ( commodities det]m9$ by ! natural conditions4 ,^! basic conditions are likely 9 ! long run to ov]ride political consid]ations4 ,! ,lake ,sup]ior deposits1 ! ,sw$i% magnetites1 ! ,spani% hematites1 & ! ,russian ores c>ry #ej to #fe p] c5t ( metallic iron4 ,! ,birm+ham deposits ( s\!a/]n ,unit$ ,/ates1 ! ma9 ,briti% supplies1 & ! ma9 ,fr5* & ,g]man supplies conta9 ab\t #ce p] c5t or less4 ,x is only :]e ores are =tunately locat$ ) ref]5ce to consum+ c5t]s t ! l[-grade deposits c be us$4 ,= outly+ t]ritories only ! high]-grade deposits are likely to be develop$1 & ev5 !re _m high-grade deposits are kn[n :i* are n m9$4 ,! l>ge/ s+le gr\p n yet drawn on is 9 ,brazil4 ,o!rs 9 a v e>ly /age ( developm5t are 9 ,nor? ,africa & ,*ile4 ,_w res]ves & future production ( iron ore4 ,! av]age rate ( consumption ( iron ore = ! _w 9 rec5t ye>s has be5 ab\t #agj million tons p] ye>4 ,at ?is rate ! prov$ ore res]ves w\ld la/ ab\t #ahj ye>s4 ,if x be assum$ t consumption 9 ! future w increase at ab\t ! same rate z x has 9 ! pa/1 ! total measur$ res]ve w\ld /ill la/ ab\t a c5tury4 ,^! calculations ( life1 h[ev]1 are bas$ only on ! kn[n res]ves2 & :5 pot5tial res]ves are includ$ ! life is greatly increas$4 ,& ?is is n all2 = beyond ! total report$ res]ves 7bo? actual & pot5tial71 !re are kn[n additional l>ge quantities ( l[]-grade ores1 at pres5t n comm]cially available1 b :i* w be available 9 ! future1--to say no?+ ( expect$ future discov]ies ( ores ( all grades 9 unexplor$ t]ritories4 ,bo? geological inf]5ce & ! hi/ory ( iron ore exploration seem to make su* future discov]ies practically c]ta94 ,iron ore con/itutes ab\t #d p] c5t ( ! e>?'s %ell & x %[s all /ages ( conc5tration up to #gj p] c5t4 ,only ^? rocks are call$ iron ores :i* h a suffici5tly high p]c5tage ( iron to be adapt$ to pres5t processes = ! extraction ( iron4 ,:5 economic conditions dem& x1 x may be assum$ t iron-be>+ rocks n n[ ord9>ily reg>d$ z ores may be us$ to comm]cial advantage1 & !re=e w become ores4 ,n only is an indef9itely long life assur$ = iron ore res]ves z a :ole1 b ! same is true ( _m ( ! pr9cipal gr\ps ( deposits4 ,! "q ( practical conc]n to u1 !re=e1 is n "o ( total iron ore res]ves1 b "o ( degrees ( availability ( diff]5t ores to ! m>kets :i* focus our requirem5ts = iron4 ,! annual production ( ore f a giv5 di/rict is r\ghly a measure ( t ore's ability to meet ! competitive m>ket1 & !re=e1 ( its actual imm$iate or pa/ availability4 ,annual production is ! net result ( ! int]action ( all ( ! factors be>+ on availability4 ,x may be argu$ t !re are ores kn[n & n yet m9$ :i* are also imm$iately available4 ,on ! :ole1 !y seem to be less available ?an ores actually be+ produc$2 o!rwise g5]al economic pressure w\ld require _! use & actual production4 ,9 consid]+ ! future availability ( iron ores1 x is obvi\s t tables ( pa/ production af=d only a p>tial basis = pr$iction4 ,presumably di/ricts :i* h produc$ l>gely 9 ! pa/ may be expect$ to cont9ue z important factors4 ,9 ^! cases production has demon/rat$ availability4 ,cont9u$ heavy production may ?us be expect$ f ! ores ( ! ,lake ,sup]ior region1 f ! ,cl9ton hematites ( ,alabama1 f ! ores ( ! ,lorra9e-,luxemburg-,briey di/rict1 f ! ,clevel& ores ( ,engl&1 f ! ,bilbao ores ( ,spa91 f ! high-grade magnetites ( nor!rn ,sw$51 & 7assum+ political /ability7 f ! ores ( s\!rn ,russia4 ,simil>ly1 also1 rec5t increases 9 production f c]ta9 di/ricts are probably significant ( increas$ use ( su* ores 9 ! future4 ,among ^! developm5ts are ! increas+ production ( ,sw$i% ores & _! importation into ,engl& & ,g]many1 & ! increas+ use ( ,cl9ton hematites & ,adirondack magnetites 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,l[-grade ores f ! great res]ves ( ,cuba are be+ m9$ & br\ght to ! ea/ coa/ ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 increas+ am\nts1 & x is highly probable t !y w take a l>g] %>e ( ! m>ket4 ,a simil> project 9 ,*ile1 :i* lay dormant dur+ ! w> because ( re/rict$ %ipp+ facilities1 is expect$ 9 ! ne> future to yield important %ipm5ts to ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,9 none ( ^! cases w production be limit$ 9 ! ne> future by ore res]ves4 ,increas$ production & use ( iron ores are also to be look$ = 9 ,newf\ndl&1 ,nor? ,africa1 ,*9a1 ,india1 ,au/ralia1 & ,s\? ,africa4 ,on ! comm]cial horizon are ores ( /ill new] di/ricts1 ! availability ( :i* may n be read f tables ( production4 ,_! availability mu/ be det]m9$ by analysis & measurem5t ( ! factors ent]+ into availability4 ,availability ( iron ore is det]m9$ by p]c5tage ( iron1 p]c5tages ( impurities1 p]c5tages ( advantage\s or delet]i\s m9or con/itu5ts1 physical texture1 conditions = pr(itable m9+1 adaptability to pres5t furnace practice1 di/ance f consum+ c5t]s1 conditions & co/s ( transportation1 geographical & transportational relation to ! coal & fluxes necess>y = smelt+1 trade relations1 t>iffs & taxes1 in]tia ( inve/$ capital1 & o!r consid]ations4 ,all ( ^! factors are v>iable4 ,a comp>ison ( ores on ! basis ( any "o ( ^! factors or ( any two or ?ree ( !m is likely to be mislead+4 ,a comp>ison bas$ on ! quantitative consid]ation ( all ( ! sev]al factors seems to be made practically impossible by ! difficulty ( asc]ta9+ accurately ! quantitative range & importance ( ea* factor1 & by ! difficulty ( integrat+ all ( ! factors ev5 if !y %\ld be det]m9$4 ,h[ev]1 _! comb9$ effect is express$ 9 ! co/ ( br++ ! product to m>ket2 & comp>ison ( co/s furni%es a means ( comp>+ availability ( ores4 ,a high-grade ore1 *eaply m9$ & favorably locat$ ) ref]5ce to ! po9ts ( dem&1 w comm& a relatively high price at ! po9t ( production4 ,! same ore s locat$ t its transportation co/s are high] w comm& a l[] price2 or x may be s locat$ t ! co/s ( m9+ & br++ x to places :]e x c be us$ are s high t !re is no pr(it 9 ! op]ation4 ,!re are kn[n high-grade iron ores :i*1 because ( co/1 are n available "u pres5t conditions4 ,! availability ( an ore1 !n1 dep5ds on its relation to a m>ket1--:e!r1 aft] meet+ ! co/ ( transportation1 x c be sold at prevail+ m>ket prices at ! consum+ c5t]s1 & c /ill leave a fair m>g9 ( pr(it = ! m9+ op]ation4 ,! price equilibrium betwe5 consum+ c5t]s af=ds a reasonably uni=m basis aga9/ :i* to measure availability ( ores4 ,figures ( co/ are obta9able z a basis = comp>ison ( availability ( iron ores ( c]ta9 ( ! di/ricts1 b n en\gh are at h& = comp>ison ( ! ores ( all di/ricts4 ,c>eful /udy ( co/s has demon/rat$ ! availability 9 ! ne> future ( ! ,brazilian high-grade ,bessem] hematites2 & projects :i* are n[ "u way = exportation to ,engl& & ! ,unit$ ,/ates w d\btless make ?is enorm\s res]ve play an important "p 9 ! iron indu/ry4 ,iron ore is kn[n b n yet m9$ 9 _m p>ts ( ! we/]n ,unit$ ,/ates & we/]n ,canada4 ,) ! increas+ population along ! we/ coa/ ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 projects = smelt+ ! ore !re are becom+ m def9ite4 ,e/abli%m5t ( smelt]s on ! we/ coa/ w\ld make available a l>ge res]ve ( ore 7see also1 h[ev]1 p4 #aee74 ,! li/ ( *anges n[ "u way or highly probable = ! future might be l>gely ext5d$4 ,! use ( iron & /eel is rapidly spread+ ?r\gh popul\s p>ts ( ! _w :i* h h]et(ore dem&$ little ( ^! products4 ,?is increas$ use is favor+ ! developm5t ( local c5t]s ( smelt+1 :i* w make available o!r l>ge res]ves ( iron ore4 ,! gr[? ( smelt+ 9 ,india1 ,*9a & ,au/ralia illu/rates ?is t5d5cy4 ,iron ore res]ves are s l>ge1 s v>i$1 & s widely di/ribut$ ov] ! globe1 t !y w supply dem&s ^u !m to ! remote future4 ,res]ves become available & valuable only by ! exp5diture ( ef=t & money4 ,ores are ! multiplic& & man ! multipli] 9 ! product :i* repres5ts value or availability4 ,iron ore c be made available1 :5 ne$$1 almo/ to any ext5t1 b at highly v>y+ co/ & degree ( ef=t4 ,! highe/ grade ores1 requir+ m9imum exp5diture to make !m available1 are di/9ctly limit$ z comp>$ to total res]ves4 ,any wa/e 9 _! utilization w lead m quickly to ! use ( less available ores at high] co/4 ,"o ( ! significant consequ5ces ( ! exhau/ion ( ! highe/ grade res]ves w be an increas$ draft ^u fuel res\rces = ! smelt+ ( ! l[] grade ores4 ,availability ( iron ores is limit$1 n by total res]ves1 b by economic conditions4 ,,geologic ,,features ,iron r>ely exi/s 9 nature z a sep>ate elem5t4 ,x occurs ma9ly 9 m9]als :i* repres5t comb9ations ( iron1 oxyg51 & wat]1 ! sub/ances :i* make up iron ru/4 ,v broadly1 mo/ ( ! iron ores might be crudely classifi$ z iron ru/4 ,9 detail ?is gr\p is repres5t$ by sev]al m9]al v>ieties1 pr9cipal among :i* are hematite 7,fe#b,o#c71 magnetite 7,fe#c,o#d71 & limonite 7hydrat$ f]ric oxide74 ,iron likewise comb9es ) a consid]able v>iety ( sub/ances o!r ?an oxyg52 & "s ( ^! comp\nds1 z = in/ance iron c>bonate 7sid]ite71 iron silicate 7*amosite1 glauconite1 etc471 & iron sulphide 7pyrite71 are locally m9$ z iron ores4 ,:ile an ore ( iron may consi/ dom9antly ( "s "o ( ! iron m9]als1 9 few cases does x consi/ exclusively ( "o m9]al4 ,mo/ ores are mixtures ( iron m9]als4 ,fully n9e-t5?s ( ! iron production ( ! _w comes f ! s-call$ hematite ores1 mean+ ores 9 :i* hematite is ! dom9ant m9]al1 ?\gh mo/ ( !m conta9 o!r iron m9]als 9 small] quantities4 ,ab\t #e p] c5t ( ! _w's iron ores are magnetites1 & ! rema9d] are limonites & iron c>bonates4 ,iron ores are repres5t$ 9 ne>ly all phases ( ! metamorphic cycle1 b ! pr9cipal comm]cial values h be5 produc$ by processes ( wea!r+ & s$im5tation at & ne> ! surface4 ,s$im5t>y iron ores4 ,ov] #ij p] c5t ( ! _w's production ( iron ore is f s$im5t>y rocks4 ,! deposits consi/ 9 ! ma9 ei!r ( b$s ( iron ore :i* 7 orig9ally deposit$ z su* & h und]gone little subsequ5t alt]ation1 or ( ^? alt]$ portions ( lean f]rug9\s b$s :i* s9ce _! deposition h be5 enri*$ or conc5trat$ suffici5tly to =m ores4 ,a m9or class ( iron ores 9 s$im5ts consi/s ( deposits =m$ by second>y replacem5t ( lime/ones by surface wat]s c>ry+ iron 9 solution4 #a4 ,deposits ( ! fir/ class1--orig9ally laid d[n 9 mu* _! pres5t =m1--are usually ei!r oolitic1 i4 e41 conta9+ great numb]s ( flat r\nd$ gra9s ( iron m9]als l flaxse$s1 or consi/ 9 l>ge "p ( fossil fragm5ts ( sea %ells1 replac$ by iron m9]als4 ,! ,cl9ton ores ( ! ,birm+ham di/rict1 ! ,wabana ores ( ,newf\ndl&1 ! m9ette ores ( ! ,lorra9e di/rict 9 c5tral ,europe1 & ! oolitic ores ( nor!rn ,engl& are all ( ^! types4 ,_! pr9cipal iron m9]al is hematite1 al?\gh ! ,engli% ores also conta9 consid]able iron c>bonate or sid]ite4 ,! cem5t+ or gangue mat]ials are *iefly calcite & qu>tz1 9 v>iable proportions4 ,! l>ge res]ves ( high-grade hematite 9 ! ,m9as ,g]aes di/rict ( ,brazil are also orig9al s$im5ts1 b lack ! oolitic texture4 ,an insignificant proportion ( ! _w's iron is obta9$ f bog ores1 :i* are s$im5t>y deposits ( hydrat$ iron oxide 9 swamps & lakes4 ,^! ores h be5 us$ only on a small scale & *iefly 9 relatively undevelop$ c\ntries4 ,!y are ( p>ticul> int]e/ f a g5etic /&po9t 9 t !y %[ ! nature ( "s ( ! processes ( iron ore deposition z x is actually go+ on today4 ,none ( ! ores ( ?is class1 ) ! exception ( ! iron c>bonates1 h und]gone any consid]able surface enri*m5t s9ce _! prim>y deposition4 ,nei!r1 ) ! exception ( ! ,brazilian ores1 h !y und]gone any deep-seat$ metamorphism4 ,! %apes1 sizes1 & di/ribution ( ! deposits may be trac$ back to ! conditions ( orig9al deposition4 ,9 ,engl& & we/]n ,europe ! pr9cipal deposits h be5 only slightly tilt$ by fold+4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! ,cl9ton ores h p>tak5 9 ! ,appala*ian fold+4 ,9 ,brazil1 ! ores h und]gone close fold+ & anamorphism4 #b4 ,deposits ( ! second class1 :i* owe mu* ( _! value to fur!r enri*m5t s9ce deposition1 are repres5t$ by ! hematite ores ( ! ,lake ,sup]ior di/rict4 ,^! may be ?\ght ( z ! locally ru/$ & lea*$ portions ( ext5sive iron =mations1 9 :i* oxidation ( ! iron1 & ! lea*+ ( silica & o!r sub/ances by circulat+ wat]s1 h left ! less soluble iron m9]als conc5trat$ z ores4 ,! ,lake ,sup]ior iron =mations n[ consi/ ne> ! surface ma9ly ( int]b&$ qu>tz 7or *]t7 & hematite1 call$ jasp] or f]rug9\s *]t or taconite4 ,^! are simil> 9 composition to ! lean] iron ores ( ,brazil1 call$ itabirite1 b diff] 9 t ! silica is 9 ! =m ( *emically deposit$ *]t1 r ?an fragm5tal qu>tz gra9s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,alt]ation ( ,lake ,sup]ior iron =mation to iron ore by ! lea*+ ( silica4 ,:5 orig9ally deposit$ ! iron 0 p>tly hematite 7p]haps "s magnetite7 & l>gely 9 ! =m ( iron c>bonate 7sid]ite7 & iron silicate 7gre5alite71 int]b&$ ) *]t4 ,! orig9al condition is indicat$ by ! facts t deep bel[ ! surface1 9 zones protect$ f wea!r+ solutions1 sid]ite & gre5alite are abundant1 & t !y %[ complete gradation to hematite 9 approa*+ ! surface4 ,! ore has be5 conc5trat$ 9 ! iron =mation almo/ solely by ! process ( lea*+ ( silica by surface or meteoric wat]s1 leav+ ! hematite 9 a por\s mass4 ,figure #aa illu/rates ?is *ange z calculat$ f analyses & measurem5ts ( pore space4 ,dur+ ?is process a v m9or am\nt ( iron has be5 transport$ & r$eposit$4 ,9 %ort1 ! ,lake ,sup]ior iron ores are residual deposits =m$ by exactly ! same wea!r+ processes z cause ! accumulation ( clays1 bauxites1 & ! oxide zones ( sulphide deposits4 ,! developm5t ( an iron ore r ?an ( o!r mat]ials z an end-product is due m]ely to ! peculi> composition ( ! p>5t rock4 ,! solution ( silica on su* an imm5se scale z is indicat$ by ^! deposits has sometimes be5 que/ion$ on ! g5]al gr\nd t silica m9]als are insoluble4 ,h[ev]1 !re is pl5ty ( evid5ce t su* m9]als are soluble 9 nature2 & ! assumption ( insolubility1 s (t5 made 9 geologic discussions1 is bas$ on ! fact t mo/ o!r m9]als are m soluble ?an silica m9]als1 & t 9 ! end-products ( wea!r+ silica m9]als !re=e usually rema9 z important con/itu5ts4 ,iron oxide1 on ! o!r h&1 is less soluble ev5 ?an silica1--) ! result t :5 ! two occur toge!r1 ! evid5ce ( lea*+ ( silica f ! mixture becomes conspicu\s4 ,! fact t ^! deposits are almo/ exclusively residual deposits =m$ by ! lea*+ ( silica has an important be>+ on exploration4 ,if !y h be5 =m$ by ! transportation & deposition ( iron f ! surr\nd+ rocks1 !re is no reason :y !y %\ld n occasionally be f\nd 9 ve9s & dikes outside ( ! iron =mation4 ,z a matt] ( fact !y d n transgress a foot beyond ! limits ( ! iron =mation4 ,failure to recognize ! true nature ( ! conc5tration ( ^! ores has sometimes l$ to _! errone\s classification z ores d]iv$ f ! lea*+ & r$eposition ( iron f ! surr\nd+ rocks4 ,! di/ribution & %apes ( ore deposits ( ?is class are f> m irregul> & caprici\s ?an ^? ( ! prim>y s$im5ts1 z w\ld be expect$ f ! fact t _! conc5tration has tak5 place ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( p]colat+ wat]s f ! surface1 :i* work$ along devi\s *annels det]m9$ by a va/ v>iety ( /ructural & li?ological conditions4 ,! work+ out ( ! /ructural conditions = ! diff]5t m9es & di/ricts con/itutes "o ( ! pr9cipal geologic problems 9 exploration4 ,^! conditions h be5 fully discuss$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,geological ,survey reports1 & are s v>i\s t no attempt w be made to summ>ize !m "h4 ,"o ( ! int]e/+ features ( ! conc5tration ( ,lake ,sup]ior iron ores is ! fact t x took place long ago 9 ! ,kewe5awan p]iod1 prec$+ ! deposition ( ! flat-ly+ ,cambrian =mations1 at a "t :5 ! topography 0 m\nta9\s & ! climate 0 arid or semi-arid4 ,^! conditions made x possible = ! oxidiz+ & lea*+ solutions to p5etrate v deeply1 h[ deeply is n yet kn[n1 b c]ta9ly to a dep? bel[ ! pres5t surface ( #b1ejj feet4 ,at pres5t ! wat] level is ord9>ily )9 #ajj feet ( ! surface1 & oxidiz+ solutions are n go+ mu* bel[ ?is dep?4 ,?is region1 !re=e1 furni%es a good illu/ration ( ! int]mitt5t & cyclic "* ( ore conc5tration :i* is n[ com+ to be recogniz$ 9 _m ore deposits4 ,subsequ5t *anges f> b5ea? ! surface h fold$1 fault$1 & metamorphos$ "s ( ! ,lake ,sup]ior iron ores b h n enri*$ !m4 ,! same processes h recry/alliz$ & lock$ toge!r ! m9]als ( "s ( ! lean iron =mations1 mak+ !m h>d & resi/ant1 s t subsequ5t exposure & wea!r+ h _h little effect 9 enri*+ !m to =m comm]cial ores4 ,! wea!r+ ( lime/ones conta9+ m9or p]c5tages ( iron m9]als orig9ally deposit$ ) ! lime/ones may result 9 ! residual conc5tration ( bodies ( limonite or br[n ores associat$ ) clays ne> ! surface4 ,?is process is simil> 9 all ess5tial respects to ! conc5tration ( ! ,lake ,sup]ior ores4 ,su* limonitic ores are f\nd r widely di/ribut$ ?r\gh ! ,appala*ian region & 9 _m o!r p>ts ( ! _w4 ,because ( ! ease ) :i* !y c be m9$ & smelt$ on a small scale !y h be5 us$ s9ce e>ly times1 b h furni%$ only a v small fraction ( ! _w's iron4 #c4 ,9 a ?ird class ( s$im5t>y ores1 ! iron m9]als are suppos$ to h be5 introduc$ z replacem5ts ( lime/ones subsequ5t to s$im5tation4 ,su* ores are n always easy to discrim9ate f ores result+ prim>ily f s$im5tation4 ,?is class is repres5t$ by ! high-grade deposits ( ,bilbao1 ,spa91 ,au/rian deposits1 & by small] deposits 9 o!r c\ntries4 ,! ,bilbao ores consi/ ma9ly ( sid]ite1 :i* ne> ! surface has alt]$ to l>ge bodies ( oxide m9]als4 ,!y occur 9 lime/ones & %ales & are n associat$ ) igne\s rocks4 ,! deposits are believ$ to h be5 =m$ by ord9>y surface wat]s c>ry+ iron 9 solution1 & deposit+ x 9 ! =m ( iron c>bonate z replacem5ts ( ! lime/ones4 ,! orig9al s\rce ( ! iron is believ$ to h be5 small quantities ( iron m9]als dissem9at$ ?r\gh ! ord9>y c\ntry rocks ( ! di/rict4 ,! action ( surface wat]s1 9 ?us conc5trat+ ! iron 9 c]ta9 localities :i* are favorable = precipitation1 is simil> to ! =mation ( ! lead & z9c ores ( ! ,mississippi valley1 ref]r$ to 9 ! next *apt]4 ,deposits =m$ 9 ?is mann] may be r\ghly tabul> & resemble b$d$ deposits1 or !y may be ( v irregul> %apes4 ,! s$im5t>y iron ores 9 g5]al evid5tly repres5t an advanc$ /age ( katamorphism1 & illu/rate ! t5d5cy ( ?is phase ( ! metamorphic cycle t[>d simplification & segregation ( c]ta9 mat]ials4 ,! exact conditions ( orig9al s$im5tation pres5t "o ( ! great unsolv$ problems ( geology1 ref]r$ to 9 ,*apt] ,,iii4 ,iron ores associat$ ) igne\s rocks4 ,ab\t five p] c5t ( ! _w's production ( iron ore is f bodies ( magnetite =m$ 9 association ) igne\s rocks4 ,^! are d5se1 highly cry/all9e ores1 9 :i* ! iron m9]als are tightly lock$ up ) silicates1 qu>tz1 & o!r m9]als1 sugge/ive ( high temp]ature orig94 ,! l>ge/ ( ^! deposits is at ,kiruna 9 nor!rn ,sw$52 9 fact ?is is ! l>ge/ s+le deposit ( high-grade ore ( any k9d yet kn[n 9 ! _w4 ,"h ! magnetite =ms a great tabul> v]tical body ly+ betwe5 porphyry & sy5ite4 ,9 ! ,adirondack ,m\nta9s ( ,new ,york & 9 ! highl&s ( ,new ,j]sey1 magnetites are int]b$d$ & infold$ ) gneisses1 granites1 & metamorphic lime/ones4 ,9 ! we/]n ,unit$ ,/ates !re are _m magnetite deposits1 n yet m9$1 at contacts betwe5 igne\s intrusives & s$im5t>y rocks1 p>ticul>ly lime/ones 7s-call$ contact-metamorphic deposits74 ,! ores ( ! ,cornwall di/rict ( ,p5nsylvania & "s ( ! ,*ilean1 ,*9ese1 & ,japanese ores are ( ! same type4 ,magnetites conta9+ titanium1 :i* prev5ts _! use at ! pres5t "t1 are kn[n 9 _m p>ts ( ! _w z segregations 9 basic igne\s rocks4 ,!y are actually p>ts ( ! igne\s rock itself 7p4 #cd74 ,among ! l>ge deposits ( ?is nature are c]ta9 titanif]\s ores ( ! ,adirondacks1 ( ,wyom+1 & ( ! ,sc&9avian p59sula4 ,9 all ( ^! cases1 x is cle> t ! orig9 ( ! ores is 9 "s way relat$ to igne\s processes1 & presumably mo/ ( ! ores are deposit$ f ! prim>y hot solutions accompany+ & foll[+ ! intrusion ( ! igne\s rocks2 b ?us f> x has be5 difficult to f9d def9ite & positive evid5ce z to ! precise processes involv$4 ,none ( ^! deposits h und]gone any important second>y enri*m5t at ! surface4 ,_! sizes1 %apes1 & di/ribution are gov]n$ by conditions ( igne\s intrusion1 m or less modifi$1 z 9 ! ,adirondacks1 by lat] de=mation4 ,iron ores due to wea!r+ ( igne\s rocks4 ,a small "p ( ! _w's iron ores1 less ?an #a p] c5t ( ! total production1 are ! result ( surface alt]ation ( s]p5t9e rocks4 ,^! ores are m9$ pr9cipally 9 ,cuba 7,fig4 #ab74 ,"h !y h be5 develop$ on a plateau-l area on :i* erosion is sluggi%4 ,! process ( =mation has be5 "o ( oxidation ( ! iron m9]als & lea*+ ( mo/ ( ! o!r con/itu5ts1 leav+ ! iron conc5trat$ ne> ! surface 9 blanket-l deposits4 ,! m9]als ( ! orig9al rock conta9$ alum9a1 :i*1 l ! iron1 is insoluble "u wea!r+ conditions1 & h5ce ! ,cuban iron ores are high 9 alum9a4 ,!y also conta9 small quantities ( nickel & *romium :i* h be5 conc5trat$ ) ! iron4 ,a l>ge "p ( ! iron m9]als1 especially :]e close to ! surface1 h be5 ga!r$ into small %ot-l nodules call$ pisolites4 ,x is ?\ght t ! solution & r$eposition ( ! iron by organic acids f plant roots may be at lea/ a contribut+ cause 9 ! =mation ( ?is pisolitic texture4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,repres5t+ 9 t]ms ( weight ! m9]alogical *anges 9 ! katamorphism ( s]p5t9e rock to iron ore1 on ! assumption t alum9a has rema9$ con/ant1 ea/]n ,cuba4 ,! ,cuban iron ores are simil> 9 _! orig9 to lat]ites1 :i* are surface accumulations ( clay1 bauxite1 & iron oxide m9]als1 result+ f ! wea!r+ ( iron-be>+1 commonly igne\s1 rocks4 ,! typical lat]ites c>ry m clay & bauxite ?an ! ,cuban iron ores1 b ?is is due m]ely to ! fact t ! orig9al rocks commonly c>ry m mat]ials :i* wea!r to clay4 ,9 fact ! ,cuban iron ores are !mselves1 broadly speak+1 lat]ites4 ,iron ores due to wea!r+ ( sulphide ores4 ,a relatively m9ute portion ( ! _w's iron ore comes f ! gossans or iron caps ov] deposits ( iron sulphides4 ,! gossans are =m$ by oxidation & lea*+ ( o!r m9]als f ! deposits1 leav+ limonite or hematite 9 conc5trat$ masses 7see pp4 #df-dg74 ,,manganese ,,ores ,,economic ,,features ,manganese ores are us$ ma9ly 9 ! manufacture ( /eel1 ! alloys spiegeleis5 & f]romanganese be+ add$ to ! molt5 /eel aft] treatm5t 9 ! ,bessem] conv]t] & op5-he>? furnace 9 ord] to rec>burize & purify ! metal4 ,! alloy f]romanganese is also us$ 9 ! production ( special manganese /eels4 ,manganese ore is us$ 9 relatively small am\nts 9 dry batt]ies1 9 ! manufacture ( manganese *emicals1 9 glass mak+1 & 9 pigm5ts4 ,/eel uses #ie p] c5t ( ! total manganese consum$1 batt]ies & *emicals #e p] c5t4 ,on an av]age ea* ton ( /eel 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates requires #ad p\nds ( metallic manganese1 equival5t to #dj p\nds ( manganese ore4 ,) manganese ores1 z ) iron ores1 ! p]c5tage ( m9or con/itu5ts1--phosphorus1 silica1 sulphur1 etc41--det]m9es to a l>ge ext5t ! mann] ( use4 ,l[-grade manganese ores1 rang+ f #aj to #ce p] c5t 9 manganese1 #bj to #ce p] c5t 9 iron1 & conta9+ less ?an #bj p] c5t ( silica1 are us$ ma9ly 9 ! production ( ! l[-grade iron-manganese alloy call$ spiegeleis5 or spiegel 7#af to #cb p] c5t manganese74 ,! high]-grade ores1 rang+ f #ce to #ee p] c5t 9 manganese1 are us$ ma9ly 9 ! production ( ! high-grade alloy call$ f]romanganese or f]ro1 9 :i* ! manganese con/itutes #fe to #hj p] c5t ( ! total4 ,to a v limit$ ext5t manganese is smelt$ directly ) iron ores1 ?us less5+ ! am\nt to be introduc$ 9 ! =m ( alloys2 ?is1 h[ev]1 is reg>d$ z wa/eful use ( manganese1 s9ce its effectiv5ess z s us$ is n v great4 ,/eel mak]s usually pref] to introduce manganese 9 ! =m ( f]romanganese r ?an z spiegel4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! ores ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates z a :ole are bett] adapt$ to ! manufacture ( spiegel4 ,) ! %utt+ (f ( =eign high-grade supplies dur+ ! w>1 result+ 9 ! increas$ use ( local ores1 x became necess>y to use l>g] am\nts ( ! spiegel :i* c\ld be made f ^! ores4 ,metallurgi/s /at$ t x 0 !oretically possible to sub/itute spiegel = ! high] grade alloy up to #gj p] c5t ( ! total manganese requirem5t1 b 9 actual practice ?is sub/itution did n get mu* beyond #ah p] c5t4 ,! pr9cipal manganese ore-produc+ c\ntries 9 normal times are ,russia1 ,india1 & ,brazil4 ,relatively little ore is us$ 9 ^! c\ntries1 mo/ ( x be+ s5t to ! consum+ c\ntries ( ,europe & to ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! ,indian ore has be5 us$ l>gely by ,briti% /eel plants1 b mu* ( x also has gone to ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,belgium1 ,france1 & ,g]many4 ,! ,russian ore has be5 us$ by all five ( ^! c\ntries1 ,g]many hav+ a consid]able degree ( comm]cial control & receiv+ ! l>ge/ "p2 a small quantity is also us$ 9 ,russia4 ,brazilian ore has gone ma9ly to ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & 9 "p to ,france1 ,g]many1 & ,engl&4 ,small] am\nts ( manganese ore h be5 produc$ 9 ,g]many1 ,au/ria-,hung>y1 ,spa91 & ,japan4 ,?is production has _h little effect on ! _w situation4 ,t produc$ 9 ,au/ria-,hung>y & ,g]many is us$ 9 ! dome/ic indu/ry4 ,t f ,spa9 & ,japan is 9 l>ge "p export$4 ,! highe/ grade ( manganese ore comes f ! ,russian m9es1 especially ^? 9 ! ,caucasus region4 ,mo/ ( ! ore us$ = ! manufacture ( dry batt]ies & 9 ! *emical indu/ry1 :]e high-grade ores are requir$1 has come f ,russia4 ,by f> ! l>g] "p ( ! ,russian production1 h[ev]1 has gone into /eel manufacture4 ,indian & ,brazilian ores h likewise be5 us$ ma9ly 9 ! /eel indu/ry4 ,"s ,japanese ore also is ( high grade & is us$ = *emical & batt]y purposes4 ,nature has n end[$ ! ,unit$ ,/ates v abundantly ) manganese ores1 & su* z are kn[n are widely scatt]$1 ( relatively small tonnage1 & ( a wide range ( grade4 ,! pr9cipal produc+ di/ricts are ! ,philipsburg di/rict ( ,montana & ! ,cuyuna ,range ( ,m9nesota2 !re are also scatt]+ supplies 9 ,virg9ia1 ,arizona1 ,cali=nia1 & _m o!r /ates4 ,! use ( dome/ic ores has sometimes be5 unsatisfactory1 because ( frequ5t failure ( dome/ic produc]s to deliv] am\nts & grades contract$ =4 ,x has be51 on ! :ole1 *eap]1 easi]1 & m satisfactory = ! l>ge consum]s to pur*ase ! import$ ore1 :i* is deliv]$ 9 any desir$ am\nt & 9 uni=m grades1 r ?an to try to assemble usable mixtures f v>i\s p>ts ( ! c\ntry4 ,be=e ! ,european ,w>1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates produc$ only #a to #b p] c5t ( its ne$$ supply ( manganese1 ! re/ be+ import$ ma9ly f ,india1 ,russia1 & ,brazil1 9 ! =m ( ore1 & f ,engl& 9 ! =m ( f]romanganese 7ab\t half ( ! total requirem5t74 ,! p>tial clos+ ( ! fir/ two & ! f\r? ( ^! s\rces ( supply "u w> conditions made x necess>y to turn = ore to ,brazil & also to ,cuba1 :]e ,am]ican int]e/s develop$ a consid]able indu/ry 9 m$ium-grade ores4 ,at ! same "t /eps 7 tak5 to develop dome/ic res\rces2 & ) ! high prices impos$ by w> conditions1 ! dome/ic production1 bo? ( high- & l[-grade ore1 0 increas$ l>gely1 b /ill 0 able to supply only #ce p] c5t ( ! total requirem5ts ( manganese4 ,at ! close ( ! w> suffici5t progress _h be5 made--9 ! discov]y ( _m new deposits 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ! use ( l[-grade dome/ic ores1 :i* be=e _h n be5 able to compete ) import$ ores1 & 9 ! increas$ use ( spiegel1 all[+ wid] use ( l[-grade ores1--to demon/rate t1 if absolutely necess>y1 & at high co/1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 ano!r ye> or two c\ld h be5 ne>ly self-suffic+ 9 reg>d to its manganese requirem5ts4 ,! release ( %ipp+ f w> dem&s result$ imm$iately 9 l>g] (f]+s ( =eign manganese ore & ( f]romanganese f ,engl&1 at prices :i* w\ld n all[ ( competition f mu* ( ! dome/ic or ,cuban ore production or f ! dome/ic manufacture ( alloys4 ,! result 0 a r dramatic clos+ d[n ( ! manganese indu/ry1 ) mu* f9ancial loss1 ! passage ( a bill = reimbursem5t ( produc]s1 & a dem& on ! "p ( ! produc]s1 ?\gh n ( consum]s1 = a protective t>iff4 ,9 ! que/ions ?us rais$ x is desirable t geologi/s & eng9e]s pr(essionally connect$ ) ! indu/ry ?or\ghly und]/& ! basic facts2 = !y are liable to be call$ ^u = advice1 n only on que/ions relat+ to dome/ic supplies affect$ by possible future =eign policies1 b on ! =mulation ( ! policies !mselves4 ,cons]vation1 *eap] /eel1 & future trade relations ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates all require consid]ation1 be=e action is tak5 to protect ?is "o ( sev]al simil>ly situat$ m9]al indu/ries1 9 ! ef=t to make ! c\ntry self-support+4 ,^! que/ions are fur!r dealt ) 9 ,*apt]s ,,xvii & ,,xviii4 ,manganese production 0 also develop$ dur+ ! w> 9 ! ,gold ,coa/ ( ,we/ ,africa1 9 ,co/a ,rica1 9 ,panama1 9 ,java1 & else:]e2 b ) ! possible exception ( ,java & ,*ile1 none ( ^! s\rces are likely to be factors 9 ! _w situation4 ,! w>-develop$ manganese production ( ,italy1 ,france1 ,sw$51 & ,unit$ ,k+dom is also unlikely to cont9ue on any important scale4 ,,geologic ,,features ,l iron ores1 manganese ores consi/ pr9cipally ( ! oxides ( manganese 7pyrolusite1 psilomelane1 manganite1 wad1 & o!rs71 & r>ely ! c>bonate ( manganese 7rhodo*rosite74 ,!y are simil> 9 _! geologic occurr5ce to _m ( ! iron ores & are (t5 mix$ ) iron ores z manganif]\s iron ores & f]rug9\s manganese ores4 ,! high] grade manganese ores are ( two g5]al types4 ,^? ( ! ,caucasus di/rict 9 ,russia are s$im5t>y b$s1 oolitic 9 texture1 :i* 7 orig9ally deposit$ z r pure manganese oxides1 & :i* h und]gone little second>y conc5tration4 ,!y are m9$ 9 _m places 9 mu* ! same mann] z coal4 ,^? ( ,india & ,brazil are *iefly surface conc5trations ( ! manganese oxides1 =m$ by ! wea!r+ ( und]ly+ rocks :i* conta9 manganese c>bonates & silicates4 ,! orig9 ( ! prim>y manganese m9]als 9 ! ,indian & 9 "s ( ! ,brazilian deposits is obscure4 ,9 o!rs ( ! ,brazilian ores1 ! manganese 0 deposit$ 9 s$im5t>y lay]s int]b$d$ ) silice\s iron =mations1 & ! :ole s]ies has subsequ5tly be5 alt]$ & recry/alliz$4 ,! manganese ores ( ,philipsburg1 ,montana1 ! pr9cipal l>ge high-grade deposits m9$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 7 d]iv$ by surface wea!r+ f manganese c>bonates :i* =m replacem5ts 9 lime/one ne> ! contact ) a great ba?oli? ( granodiorite4 ,! prim>y manganese m9]als probably owe _! orig9 to hot magmatic solutions1 z sugge/$ by ! close association ( ! ores ) ! igne\s rock1 ! pres5ce ( m9]als conta9+ *lor9e1 fluor9e1 & boron1 & ! developm5t 9 ! lime/one ( d5se silicates & m9]al associations *>act]i/ic ( hot-wat] alt]ation4 ,! manganese ores are m9$ pr9cipally 9 ! oxidiz$ zone4 ,ri* silv] ores are f\nd bel[ ! wat] table1 b ma9ly 9 ve9s indep5d5t ( ! manganese deposits4 ,at ,butte1 ,montana1 a little high-grade manganese mat]ial has be5 obta9$ f ! unoxidiz$ p9k manganese c>bonate1 :i* is a common m9]al 9 "s ( ! ve9s4 ,x is associat$ ) qu>tz & metallic sulphides & is simil> 9 orig9 to ! copp] ores ( ! same di/rict 7pp4 #bja-bjb74 ,! l[]-grade & ! m f]rug9\s manganese ores are ( a some:at simil> orig9 to ! pr9cipal high-grade ores1 9 t !y repres5t surface conc5trations ( ! oxides f small] p]c5tages ( ! c>bonates & silicates 9 ! rocks bel[4 ,deposits ( ?is nature h be5 d]iv$ f a wide v>iety ( p>5t rocks--f contact zones ar\nd igne\s intrusions1 f fissure ve9s ( v>i\s orig9s1 f calc>e\s & clayey s$im5ts1 & f slates & s*i/s4 ,! manganese & manganif]\s iron ores ( ! ,cuyuna di/rict ( ,m9nesota1 ! l>ge/ s\rce ( l[-grade ores 9 ?is c\ntry1 7 =m$ by ! action ( wea!r+ processes on s$im5t>y b$s ( manganese & iron c>bonates con/itut+ iron =mations4 ,! process is ! same z ! conc5tration ( ,lake ,sup]ior iron ores describ$ else:]e4 ,manganese1 l iron1 is less soluble ?an mo/ ( ! rock con/itu5ts1 & t5ds to rema9 9 ! outcrop "u wea!r+ conditions4 ,to "s ext5t also x is dissolv$ & reprecipitat$1 & is ?us ga!r$ into concretions & irregul> nodul> deposits 9 ! residual clays4 ,9 "s cases x is closely associat$ ) iron m9]als2 9 o!rs1 due to its slightly great] solubility1 x has be5 sep>at$ f ! iron & segregat$ into relatively pure masses4 ,) manganese1 z ) iron1 katamorphic processes are responsible = ! conc5tration ( mo/ ( ! ores4 ,! ores are 9 g5]al surface products1 & r>ely ext5d to dep?s ( ov] a hundr$ feet4 ,,*rome 7,,or ,,*romite7 ,,ores ,,economic ,,features ,! pr9cipal use ( *rome ores is 9 ! mak+ ( ! alloy f]ro*rome 7#fj to #gj p] c5t *romium71 us$ = ! manufacture ( *rome1 *rome-nickel1 & o!r /eels4 ,^! /eels h great t\ghness & h>dness1 & are us$ = armor-plate1 projectiles1 high-spe$ cutt+ tools1 automobile frames1 safe-deposit vaults1 & o!r purposes4 ,*rome ore is us$ also bo? 9 ! crude =m & 9 ! =m ( bricks = refractory l9+s 9 furnaces1 *iefly op5-he>? /eel furnaces2 & z ! raw mat]ial = bi*romates & o!r *emicals1 :i* are us$ 9 pa9ts & 9 tann+ ( lea!r4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 normal times ab\t #ce p] c5t ( ! total *romite consum$ is us$ 9 ! manufacture ( f]ro*rome1 & ab\t #ce p] c5t = bi*romate manufacture1 leav+ #cj p] c5t = refractory & o!r purposes4 ,9 ! high] comm]cial grades ( *rome ore ! p]c5tage ( *romic oxide is #de to #ee p] c5t1 b "u w> conditions ore z l[ z #cj p] c5t 9 ,cr#b,o#c 0 m9$4 ,recov]y ( *rome f slags result+ f ! smelt+ ( *romif]\s iron ores 0 "o ( ! w>-"t developm5ts4 ,! pr9cipal *romite-produc+ c\ntries 9 normal times are ,new ,cal$onia1 & ,rhodesia 7controll$ by ,fr5* & ,briti% int]e/s71 & to a some:at less] ext5t ,russia & ,turkey 7,asia ,m9or74 ,small am\nts ( *romite are m9$ 9 ,greece1 ,india1 ,japan1 & o!r c\ntries4 ,! ,indian deposits 9 p>ticul> are l>ge & high-grade b h be5 h&icapp$ by inadequate transportation4 ,! production ( *rome ore 9 ,new ,cal$onia1 ,rhodesia1 ,russia1 & ,turkey has usually am\nt$ to m ?an #ij p] c5t ( ! total _w's production4 ,! ore f ,new ,cal$onia has be5 us$ by ,france1 ,g]many1 ,engl&1 & to "s ext5t by ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,rhodesian ore has be5 us$ by ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ! pr9cipal ,european consum]s4 ,latt]ly m ,rhodesian ore has gone to ,europe & m ,cal$onian ore to ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! ,russian ore has be5 9 "p us$ 9 ,russia & 9 "p export$1 probably go+ ma9ly to ,france & ,g]many4 ,! ,turki% ore has be5 export$ to ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,engl&1 & ,g]many2 x probably suppli$ mo/ ( ,g]many's *romite requirem5ts dur+ ! w>4 ,dur+ ! w> ! ,unit$ ,/ates 0 tempor>ily an important produc]1 z 7 also ,canada1 ,brazil1 ,cuba1 & to a m9or degree ,guatemala4 ,! ri*e/ *rome ore m9$ at pres5t comes f ,guatemala1 b ! m9es are relatively inaccessible4 ,! ,new ,cal$onian1 ,rhodesian1 ,russian1 ,turki%1 & ,indian ores are also ( high grade4 ,! ores m9$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,canada1 ,brazil1 ,cuba1 ,greece1 & ,japan are ( l[] grade4 ,! use ( dome/ic *romite supplies 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates pres5ts mu* ! same problem z does manganese4 ,! ore bodies are small1 scatt]$1 & ( a g5]ally law grade4 ,w>-"t exp]i5ce %[$ t !y c\ld be made to meet a l>ge "p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates requirem5ts1 b at high co/ & at ! risk ( e>ly exhau/ion ( res]ves4 ,cali=nia & ,oregon are ! pr9cipal s\rces1 & incid5tal am\nts h be5 produc$ 9 ,wa%+ton1 ,wyom+1 & "s ( ! ,atlantic /ates4 ,) ! resumption ( competition f =eign high-grade ores at ! close ( ! w>1 ! dome/ic m9+ indu/ry 0 practically wip$ out2 ! consequ5ces be+ f9ancial di/ress1 p>tial direct relief f ,congress1 & consid]ation ( ! possibilities ( a protective t>iff1--:i* 9 ?is case w\ld h to be a l>ge "o to accompli% ! desir$ results 7see ,*apt]s ,,xvii & ,,xviii74 ,,geologic ,,features ,! pr9cipal *rome m9]al is *romite1 an oxide ( *romium & iron4 ,*romite is a common m9or con/itu5t ( basic igne\s rocks ( ! p]idotite & pyrox5ite type4 ,9 ^! rocks x occurs bo? z dissem9at$ gra9s1 & z /r+]s1 & l>ge irregul> masses :i* probably repres5t magmatic segregations4 ,alt]ation1 & wea!r+ ( ! p>5t rock1 =m+ fir/ s]p5t9e & !n residual clays1 make ! *romite bodies progressively ri*] & m available1 by lea*+ out ! soluble con/itu5ts ( ! rock leav+ ! *romite z residual conc5trates4 ,all ! important *romite deposits ( ! _w are associat$ 9 some:at ?is mann] ) s]p5t9e or relat$ rocks4 ,!y are =m$ 9 ! same way z ! lat]itic iron ores ( ,cuba1 & f ! same sort ( rocks 7pp4 #aga-agc74 ,*romite is v insoluble1 & ! me*anical break+ d[n ( deposits & transportation by /reams frequ5tly =ms plac]s ( *rome s&s & gravels4 ,su* plac]s h n be5 work$ to any ext5t4 ,katamorphic processes give ! important values to *romite deposits4 ,,nickel ,,ores ,,economic ,,features ,! pr9cipal use ( nickel is 9 ! manufacture ( nickel /eel1 ! mo/ important ( all alloy /eels4 ,ord9>y nickel /eels c>ry ab\t #c-a_/b p] c5t nickel4 ,nickel is us$ 9 all gun & armor-plate /eels1 & 9 practically all o!r good /eels except tool /eels4 ,x is also ext5sively alloy$ ) o!r metals1 p>ticul>ly ) copp] to =m ! /rong non-corrosive metal 7monel metal7 us$ = %ip propell]s & l purposes4 ,nickel is also us$ = electroplat+1 = nickel co9s1 = *emicals1 etc4 ,( ! total production ab\t #fj p] c5t is us$ 9 /eels1 #bj p] c5t 9 non-f]r\s alloys & #bj p] c5t 9 miscellane\s uses4 ,! ores m9$ range f #b to #f p] c5t 9 metallic nickel4 ,canada 7,sudbury1 ,ont>io7 produces ov] ?ree-f\r?s ( ! _w's nickel & is likely to h an ev5 great] %>e ( ! future production4 ,! ,fr5* supply f ,new ,cal$onia is second 9 importance1 & m9or am\nts are produc$ 9 ,norway & 9 sev]al o!r c\ntries4 ,! control & movem5t ( ! ,canadian & ,new ,cal$onian supplies are ! sali5t features ( ! _w nickel situation4 ,nickel leaves ! produc+ c\ntries mo/ly z matte4 ,canadian matte has be5 ref9$ ma9ly 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 b ! t5d5cy is t[>d ref9+ a l>g] proportion 9 ,canada4 ,9 ,europe !re are ref9]ies 9 ,france1 ,engl&1 ,belgium1 ,g]many1 & ,norway1 :i* normally treat ! bulk ( ! ,new ,cal$onian & "s ( ! ,canadian production4 ,small quantities ( ,new ,cal$onian matte or ore are also ref9$ 9 ,japan1 & dur+ ! w> consid]able am\nts came to ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates n[ produces p]haps #aj p] c5t ( its normal requirem5ts ( nickel f dome/ic s\rces1 pr9cipally z a by-product ( copp] ref9+4 ,h[ev]1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates has a l>ge f9ancial int]e/ 9 ! ,canadian deposits1 & ref9es mo/ ( ! matte produc$ f ,sudbury ores 9 a ,new ,j]sey ref9]y4 ,%ipm5ts to ,europe ( ,canadian nickel ref9$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates h be5 a feature ( ! _w's trade 9 ! pa/4 ,! nickel-be>+ iron ores ( ,cuba1 consum$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 con/itute a pot5tial nickel supply ( "s importance1 if processes ( prep>ation become comm]cially p]fect$4 ,kn[n supplies ( nickel 9 ,canada & ,new ,cal$onia are ample = a consid]able future1 & geologic conditions promise additional discov]ies at lea/ 9 ! =m] field4 ,! probable res]ves ( ! ,sudbury di/rict h be5 e/imat$ to be fully #ajj1jjj1jjj tons1 :i* w\ld supply ! _w's normal pre-w> requirem5ts = ab\t a hundr$ ye>s4 ,9 rec5t ye>s ! ,briti% & ,canadian gov]nm5ts h tak5 an active int]e/ 9 ! nickel indu/ry4 ,!y organiz$ a jo9t commission = its inve/igation1 ! report#ca ( :i* furni%es ! mo/ compreh5sive view ( ! _w nickel situation yet available4 ,! ,briti% gov]nm5t has directly inve/$ 9 %>es ( ! ,briti%-,am]ican ,nickel ,company1 & has negotiat$ ,european contracts = sale ( nickel = ?is company4 ,! ,canadian gov]nm5t has ex]t$ "s pressure t[>d l>g] ref9+ ( nickel matte 9 ,canada4 ,,geologic ,,features ,! pr9cipal ore m9]als are ! nickel sulphides & ars5ides 7p>ticul>ly p5tl&ite1 b also mill]ite1 niccolite1 & o!rs71 :i* are f\nd at ,sudbury int]gr[n ) ! iron & copp] sulphides1 pyrrhotite & *alcopyrite2 & ! hydrat$ nickel-magnesium silicates 7g>ni]ite & g5?ite71 :i* are products ( wea!r+4 ,! ri*] ores ( ,canada conta9 ab\t #e or #f p] c5t ( nickel1 ! ,new ,cal$onian ores less ?an #b p] c5t4 ,! ,sudbury ores c>ry also an av]age ( ab\t #a4e p] c5t ( copp]4 ,nickel1 :ile pres5t 9 ! av]age igne\s rock 9 great] am\nts ?an copp]1 lead1 or z9c1 is app>5tly n s readily conc5trat$ 9 nature z ! o!r metals & is r>ely f\nd 9 workable deposits4 ,! few ore bodies kn[n h be5 =m$ z ! result ( unusual segregation ( ! nickel 9 highly magnesian igne\s rock ( ! norite or gabbro type1 at ! "t ( its solidification or soon aft]2 & 9 "s cases1 9 ord] to produce ! nickel ore1 /ill fur!r conc5tration by ! ag5cy ( wea!r+ has be5 necess>y4 ,?us !re are two ma9 types ( deposits4 ,! fir/1 ! sulphide type1 is repres5t$ by ! great ore bodies ( ! ,sudbury di/rict4 ,^! are situat$ 9 ! basal portions ( a great norite intrusive1 & are ascrib$ to segregation ( ! sulphides z ! rock solidifi$4 ,to "s ext5t ! segregation 0 aid$ by m9]aliz+ solutions foll[+ ! cry/allization ( ! magma1 b 9 g5]al !re is little evid5ce t ! ores 7 deposit$ f vagrant solutions ( ?is k9d 7see pp4 #cd-ce74 ,^! ores owe _! value to prim>y conc5tration2 second>y transportation & reprecipitation by surface wat]s has n be5 important4 ,a small am\nt ( ! gre5 ars5ate1 annab]gite or nickel bloom1 has be5 develop$ by oxidation at ! surface4 ,! second1 ! g>ni]ite or lat]itic type ( nickel ores1 is some:at m common & is repres5t$ by ! deposits ( ,new ,cal$onia4 ,9 ?is locality ! orig9al rock is a p]idotite1 relatively l[ 9 nickel1 :i* has be5 alt]$ to s]p5t9e4 ,wea!r+ has conc5trat$ ! m resi/ant nickel at ! exp5se ( ! m soluble m9]als1 & has produc$ ext5sive blanket deposits ( clay1 :i* 9 _! l[] portions conta9 nickel 9 pr(itable am\nts4 ,simil> processes1 work+ on mat]ial ( a some:at diff]5t orig9al composition1 h produc$ ! nickel-be>+ & *rome-be>+ iron ores ( ,cuba 7pp4 #aga-agc74 ,,tung/5 7,,wolfram7 ,,ores ,,economic ,,features ,! pr9cipal use ( tung/5 is 9 ! mak+ ( high spe$ tool /eels4 ,x is add$ ei!r z ! p[d]$ metal or 9 ! =m ( f]rotung/51 an alloy conta9+ #gj to #ij p] c5t ( tung/54 ,tung/5 is also us$ = filam5ts 9 inc&esc5t lamps1 & 9 contacts = int]nal combu/ion eng9es1 be+ a sub/itute = plat9um 9 ! latt] use4 ,( late ye>s tung/5 alloys h also be5 us$ 9 valves ( airplane & automobile eng9es4 ,! av]age grade ( tung/5 ores m9$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates is less ?an #c p] c5t ( ! metal2 be=e smelt+ !y are conc5trat$ to an av]age grade ( #fj p] c5t tung/5 oxide4 ,g]many ?r\gh its smelt+ int]e/s controll$ ! =eign tung/5 situation prior to ! w>2 two-?irds ( its excess output ( f]rotung/5 0 consum$ by ,engl& & ! balance pr9cipally by ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,france4 ,o!r consum]s 9 ! ma9 satisfi$ _! requirem5ts by imports ( tool /eel f ^! f\r c\ntries4 ,! bulk ( ! tung/5 ore consum$ 9 ,europe prior to #aiad came f ,briti% possessions2 ^! 7 pr9cipally ! ,f$]at$ ,malay ,/ates1 ,burma1 ,au/ralia1 & ,new ,zeal&4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,portugal1 ,bolivia1 ,japan1 ,siam1 ,arg5t9a1 & ,p]u 7 also produc]s4 ,! great dem& = tung/5 creat$ by ! w> add$ ,*9a to ! li/ ( important produc]s & greatly increas$ ! production f ,burma & ,bolivia4 ,smelt+ works 7 e/abli%$ 9 ,engl& & ^? ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,france 7 greatly enl>g$4 ,engl& is at pres5t 9 a position to dom9ate ! _w tung/5 situation4 ,! "q ( control ( ! ores obta9able 9 ,*9a1 ,korea1 ,siam1 ,portugal1 & we/]n ,s\? ,am]ica is likely to be an important "o = ! future4 ,( ! annual pre-w> _w production1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates us$ ab\t "o-fif?4 ,?ree-f\r?s ( ?is requirem5t 0 met by dome/ic production4 ,! balance 0 obta9$ by importation1 *iefly f ,g]many1 f ,portugal & ,spa91 & f ,engl&1 bo? ( conc5trates & ( f]rotung/54 ,to ! consid]able dem& = high spe$ tool /eels occasion$ by munitions manufacture1 production 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates respond$ quickly4 ,supplies ( tung/5 came *iefly f ,cali=nia1 ,colorado1 ,arizona1 ,nevada1 & ,s\? ,dakota4 ,at ! same "t importation l>gely increas$1 *iefly f ! we/ coa/ ( ,s\? ,am]ica & ! ,ori5t4 ,consumption rea*$ a half ( ! _w's total4 ,consid]able am\nts ( f]rotung/5 7 export$ to ! ,allies4 ,! end ( ! w> creat$ a possible tung/5 %ortage 9 ?is c\ntry into a tung/5 surplus4 ,9 s f> z actual dome/ic consumption is conc]n$ !re has be5 a return to some?+ l pre-w> conditions1 z ! only kn[n new use to :i* tung/5 may be put--! manufacture ( die /eel--does n involve ! use ( any l>ge am\nt ( f]rotung/54 ,! ri*] m9es ( ! two *ief tung/5-produc+ di/ricts 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates h %[n impov]i%m5t & at pres5t no important new deposits are kn[n4 ,! grade ( ! produc+ deposits is on an av]age l[4 ,! dome/ic production ( tung/5 ore w d\btless decrease1 ow+ to ! importation ( *eap] =eign ores1 unless a high t>iff wall is erect$4 ,importation f ! ,ori5t & ! we/ coa/ ( ,s\? ,am]ica %\ld cont9ue 9 r$uc$ am\nts1 dep5d+ ^u ! ability ( dome/ic manufactur]s to obta9 & hold =eign m>kets = f]rotung/5 & high spe$ tool /eel4 ,9 ! comm]cial control ( tung/5 ores ! ,unit$ ,/ates has at pres5t a /rong position1 second only to t ( ,engl&4 ,,geologic ,,features ,tung/5 ores conta9 tung/5 pr9cipally 9 ! =m ( ! m9]als s*eelite 7calcium tung/ate71 f]b]ite 7iron tung/ate71 huebn]ite 7manganese tung/ate71 & wolframite 7iron-manganese tung/ate74 ,all ^! m9]als are relatively insoluble & h high specific gravity1 & z a consequ5ce !y are frequ5tly accumulat$ 9 plac]s1 along ) cassit]ite & o!r /able1 heavy m9]als4 ,a l>ge "p ( ! _w's tung/5 production 9 ! pa/ has be5 won f su* deposits4 ,plac]s are /ill important produc]s 9 ,*9a1 ,siam1 & ,bolivia1 al?\gh 9 ^! c\ntries ve9 deposits are also work$4 ,) ! exhau/ion ( ! m easily work$ plac] deposits1 increas+ am\nts ( tung/5 are be+ obta9$ f ! prim>y or fix$ deposits4 ,^! are f\nd almo/ exclusively 9 association ) granitic rocks1 & h a v>iety ( =ms4 ,! mo/ productive deposits are 9 ! =m ( ve9s1 cutt+ ! granites & ! surr\nd+ rocks into :i* ! granites 7 intrud$1 & conta9+ qu>tz1 metallic sulphides1 & 9 "s cases m9]als ( t91 gold1 & silv]4 ,! deposits ( ! two mo/ important di/ricts 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,b\ld] ,c\nty1 ,colorado1 & at ,atolia1 ,cali=nia1 are ( ?is g5]al nature4 ,! close association ( su* deposits ) plutonic igne\s rocks1 & ! *>act]i/ic m9]al associations 7see pp4 #cg-da7 sugge/ /rongly t ! deposits 7 =m$ by hot solutions d]iv+ _! mat]ial f a magmatic s\rce4 ,o!r tung/5 deposits1 :i* only rec5tly became ( importance1 are ( ! contact-metamorphic type--9 lime/ones :i* h be5 invad$ by hot aque\s & gase\s solutions ne> ! bord]s ( granitic intrusions4 ,9 ^! occurr5ces ! tung/5 m9]al is almo/ inv>iably s*eelite1 & is associat$ ) calcite1 g>net1 pyrox5e1 & o!r silicates4 ,a magmatic orig9 ( ! tung/5 is probable4 ,"s ( ! deposits ( ! ,great ,bas9 area & ( ,japan are ( ?is nature1 & x is believ$ t important deposits ( ?is type may be discov]$ 9 _m o!r c\ntries4 ,tung/5 is likewise f\nd 9 orig9al segregations 9 igne\s rocks & 9 pegmatite dikes1 b ^! deposits are ( comp>atively small comm]cial importance4 ,9 "s tung/5 deposits a hydrat$ oxide call$ tung/ite has be5 =m$ z a can>y-yell[ coat+ at ! surface4 ,on ! :ole1 h[ev]1 tung/5 m9]als are v resi/ant to wea!r+1 & 9 all _! deposits second>y conc5tration by *emical action at ! surface has n play$ any appreciable "p4 ,! disappe>ance ( tung/5 m9]als f alluvial mat]ials :i* are und]go+ lat]ization1 :i* has be5 describ$ 9 ,burma1#cb seems to indicate t ! tung/5 is dissolv$ 9 surface wat]s to "s ext5t2 b 9 ! ma9 x is probably c>ri$ completely out ( ! vic9ity & n reprecipitat$ bel[4 ,,molybd5um ,,ores ,,economic ,,features ,! ma9 use ( molybd5um is 9 ! manufacture ( high-spe$ tool /eels1 9 :i* x has be5 us$ z a p>tial or complete sub/itute = tung/54 ,its /eel-h>d5+ qualities are m effective ?an ^? ( tung/51 b x is m difficult to control metallurgically4 ,x has be5 us$ 9 pi/on rods & crank %afts = ,am]ican airplanes4 ,its use 9 tool /eel is ma9ly conf9$ to ,europe1 :]e its metallurgical application is 9 a m advanc$ /age ?an 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,molybd5um is add$ to /eel ei!r z p[d]$ molybd5um or 9 ! =m ( f]romolybd5um1 an alloy conta9+ #fj to #gj p] c5t ( ! metal4 ,molybd5um *emicals are ess5tial reag5ts 9 iron & /eel analysis & o!r analytical "w2 !y are also us$ z pigm5ts4 ,molybd5um metal has be5 us$ to a small ext5t 9 inc&esc5t lamps & z a sub/itute = plat9um 9 electric contacts & resi/ances4 ,molybd5um ores range f consid]ably less ?an #a p] c5t to ab\t #e p] c5t 9 molybd5um4 ,! _w's pr9cipal s\rces ( molybd5um ores 9 approximate ord] ( importance are ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,canada1 ,norway1 ,au/ralia1 ,korea1 ,au/ria1 ,p]u1 & ,mexico4 ,ab\t half ( ! _w's supply is produc$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,production ( molybd5um 9 ?is c\ntry practically began 9 #aiad4 ,mo/ ( ! production has come f ,colorado & ,arizona4 ,x is believ$ t ! ,unit$ ,/ates conta9s res]ves m ?an suffici5t to meet any possible future dem&4 ,?us f> ! dem& has n kept up ) capacity = production4 ,! pr9cipal consum+ c\ntries are ,engl&1 ,france1 & ,g]many4 ,,geologic ,,features ,! *ief ore m9]als are molybd5ite 7molybd5um sulphide7 & wulf5ite 7lead molybdate74 ,! l>g] "p ( ! _w's production is f ! molybd5ite ores4 ,molybd5ite occurs pr9cipally 9 association ) granitic rocks1--9 pegmatite dikes1 9 ve9s1 & 9 contact-metamorphic deposits1--9 all ( :i* associations its orig9 is trac$ to hot solutions f ! magma4 ,x is frequ5tly pres5t z an accessory m9]al 9 sulphide deposits conta9+ ores ( gold1 copp]1 silv]1 lead1 & z9c4 ,at ,empire1 ,colorado1 "o ( ! pr9cipal produc+ localities1 x is f\nd 9 ve9s1 associat$ ) pyrite1 & fill+ ! int]/ices betwe5 brecciat$ fragm5ts ( a wall rock compos$ ( alaskite 7an acid igne\s rock74 ,9 molybd5ite deposits second>y conc5tration has n be5 important4 ,wulf5ite is r common 9 ! upp] oxidiz$ zone ( deposits :i* conta9 lead m9]als & molybd5ite4 ,x is probably always second>y4 ,deposits ( wulf5ite h be5 work$ on a small scale 9 ,arizona4 ,,vanadium ,,ores ,,economic ,,features ,vanadium is us$ ma9ly 9 /eel1 to :i* x gives great t\ghness & torsional /r5g?4 ,vanadium /eels are us$ 9 locomotive tires1 frames1 & spr+s1 9 ^? p>ts ( automobiles t mu/ )/& special b5d+ /ra9s1 9 transmission %afts1 & 9 g5]al 9 =g+s :i* mu/ /& heavy we> & te>4 ,vanadium is also us$ 9 high-spe$ tool /eels1 its use mat]ially r$uc+ ! am\nt ( tung/5 necess>y4 ,x is add$ 9 ! =m ( f]rovanadium1 c>ry+ #ce to #dj p] c5t ( vanadium4 ,ano!r use ( vanadium is 9 *rome-vanadium /eels = armor-plate & automobiles4 ,m9or am\nts are us$ 9 mak+ bronzes1 9 m$ic9e1 & 9 dye+4 ,! l[-grade ores ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates range f #a to #h p] c5t ( vanadium oxide1 ! g5]al mean be+ ne>] ! l[] figure4 ,! high-grade ores ( ,p]u conta9 f ab\t #aj to z high z #ej p] c5t ( ! oxide2 ! roa/$ ore z %ipp$ av]ages ab\t #ce to #dj p] c5t4 ,two-?irds ( ! _w's supply ( vanadium comes f ,p]u1 :]e ! m9es are "u ,am]ican control4 ,! conc5trates are all %ipp$ to ! ,unit$ ,/ates & "s ( ! f]rovanadium is export$ f ?is c\ntry to ,europe4 ,! ,g]mans dur+ ! w> suppli$ _! ne$s = vanadium f ! m9ette iron ores 9 ! ,briey di/rict 9 ,france1 & presumably ! ,fr5* w 9 ! future utilize ?is s\rce4 ,an unrecord$ b small quantity is obta9$ by ! ,engli% f lead-vanadate m9es 9 ,s\? ,africa4 ,!re are "s fairly l>ge deposits ( vanadium m9]als 9 ,asiatic ,russia1 :i* may ultimately become an important s\rce4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates supplies less ?an "o-half ( its normal ne$s ( vanadium1 f s\?we/]n ,colorado & s\!a/]n ,utah4 ,! grade ( ^! deposits is l[ & ! quantity 9 sight does n seem to promise a long future4 ,?r\gh its comm]cial control ( ! ,p]uvian deposits1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates dom9ates ! _w's vanadium situation4 ,,geologic ,,features ,! ,m9asragra vanadium deposit ( ,p]u conta9s patronite 7vanadium sulphide7 associat$ ) a peculi> nickel-be>+ sulphide & a black c>bonace\s m9]al call$ quisqueite1 9 a l5s-%ap$ body ( unkn[n dep?1 enclos$ by r$ %ales & porphyry dikes4 ,! orig9 is unkn[n4 ,! patronite has alt]$ at ! surface to r$ & br[n hydrat$ vanadium oxides4 ,! deposits ( ,colorado & ,utah are l>ge l5s-%ap$ bodies conta9+ roscoelite 7a vanadium-be>+ mica7 9 fissures & brecciat$ zones & replac+ ! cem5t+ mat]ials ( flat-ly+ s&/ones4 ,locally ! s&/ones conta9 z mu* z #bj p] c5t ( ! roscoelite4 ,! deposits conta9 small am\nts ( fossil wood :i* may h be5 an ag5t 9 ! precipitation ( ! vanadium4 ,!re is consid]able d\bt z to _! orig91 b x is g5]ally suppos$ t !y repres5t conc5trations by surface wat]s ( m9ute quantities ( mat]ial orig9ally scatt]$ ?r\gh ! surr\nd+ s$im5ts2 x has also be5 sugge/$ t c]ta9 igne\s dikes 9 ?is region may h _h "s connection ) ! m9]alization4 ,deposits ( c>notite1 a potassium-uranium vanadate1 :i* h be5 work$ = _! cont5t ( uranium & radium & f :i* vanadium has be5 obta9$ z a by-product1 are f\nd z impregnations ( ! s&/one 9 ^! same localities 7p4 #bfe74 ,!re are o!r deposits conta9+ small am\nts ( vanadium :i* are n at pres5t available z ores4 ,vanad9ite1 a lead-vanadate1 & descloizite1 a vanadate ( copp] or lead1 are f\nd 9 ! oxide zones ( a numb] ( lead & copp] deposits 9 ! s\?we/]n ,unit$ ,/ates & ,mexico4 ,titanif]\s iron ores1 ext5sive deposits ( :i* are kn[n 9 _m places1 usually conta9 a small p]c5tage ( vanadium4 ,outside ( ! ,p]uvian deposit1 ! affiliations ( :i* are d\btful1 ! vanadium deposits ( economic importance owe _! positions & values ma9ly to ! action ( surface processes1 r ?an to igne\s activity4 ,,zirconium ,,ores ,,economic ,,features ,! oxides ( zirconium h high refractory prop]ties :i* make !m useful = refractory bricks & %apes = furnace l9+s1 = *emical w>e1 & = o!r heat1 acid1 & alkali resi/+ articles4 ,= ^! purposes !y f9d a limit$ m>ket4 ,exp]im5tal "w seems to %[ possibilities ( a v consid]able use ( zirconium z a /eel alloy2 inde$1 results are s sugge/ive t dur+ ! w> ! gov]nm5t conduct$ an active campaign ( inve/igation ) a view to us+ x 9 ordnance & armor /eel4 ,= su* purposes ! alloy f]rozirconium is us$1 :i* c>ries #be to #ce p] c5t zirconium metal4 ,! pr9cipal kn[n deposits ( zirconium ores1 9 ord] ( comm]cial importance1 are 9 ,brazil1 9 ,india1 & 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates 7,pablo ,bea*1 ,florida74 ,! ,brazilian & ,indian deposits are also ! pr9cipal s\rces ( monazite 7pp4 #bhh-bhi74 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates controls "o ( ! important ,brazilian deposits4 ,g]many be=e ! w> controll$ ! ,indian deposits1 & is report$ to h tak5 mu* int]e/ 9 ! developm5t ( zirconium /eels4 ,dur+ ! w> ,g]man influ5ce 9 ,india 0 effectively brok5 up4 ,! use ( zirconium has be5 9 an exp]im5tal /ate1 & kn[n s\rces ( supply h be5 ample = all requirem5ts4 ,,geologic ,,features ,! zirconium silicate1 zircon1 is a fairly common accessory con/itu5t ( granitic rocks & pegmatite ve9s4 ,f ^! rocks x is sep>at$ by wea!r+1 dis9tegration1 & /ream transportation1 &1 hav+ a high specific gravity1 x becomes conc5trat$ 9 plac]s4 ,! deposits ( s\!rn ,india1 ( ! coa/ ( ,brazil1 & ( ,pablo ,bea*1 ,florida1 all conta9 zircon along ) ilm5ite1 g>net1 rutile1 monazite1 & o!r insoluble1 heavy m9]als1 9 ! s&s ( ! ocean bea*es4 ,small] deposits ( zircon-be>+ s&s exi/ 9 riv]s & bea*es 9 o!r p>ts ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates & 9 o!r c\ntries1 b none ( ^! deposits has ?us f> prov$ to be ( comm]cial importance4 ,! l>ge/ & mo/ important zirconium deposits are on a m\nta9\s plateau 9 ea/]n ,brazil & are ( a unique type1 entirely diff]5t f ^? j describ$4 ,!y conta9 ! natural zirconium oxide1 baddeleyite or brazilite1 mix$ ) ! silicate1 ! ore z produc$ c>ry+ ab\t #hj p] c5t zirconia 7,zr,o#b74 ,! ores consi/ bo? ( alluvial pebbles & ( ext5sive deposits 9 place4 ,! latt] are associat$ ) phonolite 7igne\s7 rocks1 & seem to owe _! orig9 to ! ag5cy ( hot m9]aliz+ solutions f ! igne\s rocks4 ,,titanium ,,ores ,,economic ,,features ,titanium is sometimes us$ 9 /eel manufacture to take out occlud$ gases & ?us to increase ! /r5g? & we>+ qualities4 ,its effect is to cure c]ta9 evils 9 ! h>d5+ ( ! molt5 /eel1 & x is n ord9>ily add$ 9 am\nts suffici5t to =m a def9ite /eel alloy4 ,alum9um is frequ5tly us$ 9 place ( titanium4 ,titanium is add$ 9 ! =m ( f]rotitanium1 conta9+ ei!r ab\t #ae p] c5t titanium & #f to #h p] c5t c>bon1 or ab\t #be p] c5t titanium & no c>bon4 ,titanium comp\nds are also us$ 9 pigm5ts1 z electrodes = arc-lights1 & by ! army & navy = mak+ smoke-cl\ds4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates has dome/ic supplies ( titanium suffici5t = all requirem5ts4 ,production has come *iefly f ,virg9ia4 ,additional quantities h be5 import$ f ,canada & ,norway4 ,! rec5tly develop$ deposits ( ,pablo ,bea*1 ,florida1 may produce important am\nts ( titanium m9]als along ) ! output ( zircon & monazite4 ,,geologic ,,features ,! pr9cipal titanium m9]als are rutile 7titanium oxide7 & ilm5ite 7iron titanate74 ,^! m9]als are =m$ ma9ly "u high temp]atures1 ei!r dur+ ! orig9al solidification ( igne\s rocks1 or z con/itu5ts ( ! pegmatites :i* foll[ ! cry/allization ( ! ma9 igne\s masses4 ,! ,virg9ia production comes f pegmatite dikes cutt+ ?r\gh gabbros1 sy5ites1 & gneisses4 ,! deposits conta9 rutile 9 am\nts z high z #cj p] c5t ( ! mass1 b av]ag+ #d or #e p] c5t1 9 addition to v>y+ am\nts ( ilm5ite4 ,titanif]\s magnetites1 =m$ 9 _m basic igne\s rocks by ! segregation ( c]ta9 iron-be>+ mat]ials into irregul> masses1 conta9 l>ge quantities ( ilm5ite :i* are n comm]cially available "u pres5t metallurgical processes4 ,rutile & ilm5ite bo? h high specific gravity & are little affect$ by wea!r+4 ,consequ5tly !y are n decompos$ at ! surface1 b :5 c>ri$ away & subject$ to ! sort+ action ( /reams & waves1 !y =m plac] deposits4 ,bo? ( ^! m9]als are recov]$ f ! s&s at ,pablo ,bea*1 ,florida4 ,,magnesite ,,economic ,,features ,! mo/ important use ( magnesite is z a refractory mat]ial = l9+ furnaces & conv]t]s4 ,x is also us$ 9 ! manufacture ( ,sorel cem5t = /ucco & floor+1 9 mak+ pap]1 9 fire-resi/+ pa9t1 9 heat insulation1 & z a s\rce = c>bon dioxide4 ,small am\nts are us$ 9 ,epsom salts & o!r *emicals4 ,z tak5 f ! gr\nd ! ore consi/s pr9cipally ( ! m9]al magnesite or magnesium c>bonate1 ) m9or impurities 7#a to #ab p] c5t7 ( lime1 iron1 silica1 & alum9a4 ,9 mak+ magnesite bricks1 x is calc9$ or dead-burn$ to drive out ! c>bon dioxide4 ,au/ria-,hung>y & ,greece are ! l>ge ,european produc]s ( magnesite & ,scotl& supplies a little4 ,mo/ ( ! ,european production is consum$ 9 ,engl& & ! ,c5tral ,european c\ntries1 b "p has be5 s5t to ,am]ica4 ,outside ! ,unit$ ,/ates !re are ,am]ican supplies 9 ,canada1 & rec5t developm5ts 9 ,v5ezuela & ,mexico 7,l[] ,cali=nia74 ,magnesite is produc$ 9 consid]able quantities 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,cali=nia & ,wa%+ton4 ,"s mat]ial is import$ f ,canada1 & a small am\nt comes f ,scotl& z return c>go = balla/ purposes4 ,be=e ! w> only ab\t #e p] c5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates requirem5ts ( magnesite 7 met by dome/ic production4 ,! c\ntry 0 practically dep5d5t on imports f v>i\s ,european c\ntries2 *iefly f ,au/ria-,hung>y & ,greece ,! ,au/rian magnesite 7controll$ 9 l>ge "p by ,am]ican capital7 0 consid]$ especially desirable = l9+ op5-he>? /eel furnaces1 because ( ! pres5ce ( a small p]c5tage ( iron :i* made ! mat]ial slightly m fusible ?an ! pure m9]al4 ,:5 ! %ipm5ts f ?is s\rce 7 discont9u$ dur+ ! w> & prices rose to a high figure1 exp]im5ts 7 made ) ,am]ican magnesite1 & ! deposits on ! ,pacific ,coa/ 7 develop$ on a l>ge scale4 ,a process ( treatm5t 0 p]fect$ by :i* ! ,wa%+ton magnesite 0 made z desirable = l9+ furnaces z ! ,au/rian mat]ial4 ,at ! same "t l>ge am\nts 7 import$ f ,canada & ,v5ezuela & less] am\nts f ,l[] ,cali=nia4 ,"u ! high prices :i* prevail$ dur+ ! w>1 dolomite 0 to "s ext5t sub/itut$ = magnesite4 ,dolomite1 :i* may be ?\ght ( z a magnesite rock high 9 lime1 occurs 9 l>ge quantities close to _m po9ts ( consumption4 ,x is *eap] b less satisfactory ?an magnesite1 & is n likely to be us$ on any l>ge scale4 ,:ile ! ,unit$ ,/ates has und\bt$ly suffici5t res]ves ( magnesite to supply ! dome/ic dem&s = _m ye>s1 ! m9es are f> f ! c5t]s ( consumption & x is exp5sive to transport ! mat]ial4 ,s9ce ! w>1 magnesite %ipp$ f ,canada & ov]seas has aga9 replac$ ! ,am]ican product 9 ! ea/]n m>ket to "s ext5t4 ,! ,canadian magnesite is ( l[] grade ?an ! dome/ic & ,european magnesite & is consequ5tly less desirable4 ,deposits 9 ,v5ezuela are also expect$ to furni% "s mat]ial = ! ea/]n furnaces1 9 competition ) ^? ( ,au/ria & ,greece4 ,au/rian magnesite1 h[ev]1 w be likely to dom9ate ! m>ket 9 ! future if deliv]$ at any?+ l pre-w> prices4 ,?is situation has l$ to agitation = a protective t>iff on magnesite4 ,,geologic ,,features ,magnesite1 z not$ above1 is ! "n ( a m9]al1 ! composition ( :i* is magnesium c>bonate4 ,! pr9cipal magnesite deposits are ( two types1 ( diff]5t modes ( orig9 & ( some:at diff]5t physical *>act]i/ics4 ,! l>ge magnesite deposits ( ,au/ria & ( ,wa%+ton1 z well z ^? ( ,quebec1 occur z l5ses 9 b$s ( dolomite 7calcium-magnesium c>bonate74 ,!y are 9 fairly close proximity to igne\s rocks1 & magnesia-be>+ solutions issu+ f ^! rocks are believ$ to h dissolv$ out ! calcium c>bonate ( ! dolomite & replac$ x ) magnesium c>bonate4 ,9 ^! deposits ! mat]ial is co>sely cry/all9e & =ms fairly l>ge1 cont9u\s bodies1 :i* are work$ by qu>ry+4 ,! ,wa%+ton deposits closely resemble m>ble1 & _h sometimes be5 mi/ak5 = t rock until w>-"t ne$s result$ 9 _! m ?or\gh inve/igation4 ,! common] type ( magnesite deposits is repres5t$ by ^? ( ,greece1 ,cali=nia1 ,v5ezuela1 & _m o!r c\ntries4 ,^! consi/ ( ve9s & replacem5ts 9 s]p5t9e4 ,! orig9al rock 0 a highly magnesian igne\s rock ( ! p]idotite type1 :i* is v un/able "u wea!r+ conditions1 & rapidly alt]s to s]p5t9e4 ,magnesite is =m$ bo? by ?is process & by ! fur!r break+ d[n ( ! s]p5t9e itself4 ,! processes are ^? ( katamorphism4 ,"u ^! circum/ances ! magnesite is *>act]i/ically f9e-gra9$ or massive1 & occurs 9 ve9s1 l5ses1 & irregul> bodies 9 cavities & fractur$ zones4 ,x is usually work$ by op5 cuts4 ,magnesite is also report$ to occur 9 s$im5t>y b$s 9 :i* x 0 prim>ily deposit$ 9 its pres5t =m & has n und]gone lat] alt]ation4 ,su* deposits are n important comm]cially4 ,,fluorsp> ,,economic ,,features ,! *ief use ( fluorsp> is z a flux 9 ! manufacture ( op5-he>? /eel4 ,m9or uses are 9 *emical & enamel+ indu/ries1 9 ! smelt+ ( copp]1 lead1 & iron1 & 9 ! manufacture ( ! f]ro-alloys 9 ! electric furnace4 ,9 ord] to be us$ 9 /eel-mak+1 ! fluorsp> aft] be+ conc5trat$ %\ld conta9 at lea/ #he p] c5t calcium fluoride & less ?an #d p] c5t silica4 ,*emical & enamel+ indu/ries require mat]ial ) #ie to #ih p] c5t calcium fluoride & less ?an #a p] c5t silica4 ,! *ief =eign produc] ( fluorsp> is ,great ,brita91 & mu* ( ?is product comes to ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,canada produces a small am\nt1 "s ( :i* also comes to ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,sev]al ?\s& tons are produc$ ye>ly 9 ,g]many & ,france1 & are l>gely consum$ !re4 ,! production ( fluorsp> 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates is sev]al times t ( any o!r c\ntry4 ,! ore m9$ comes pr9cipally f ! s\!rn ,ill9ois & we/]n ,k5tucky field1 & is us$ l>gely = flux+ purposes 9 op5-he>? /eel furnaces4 ,m9or am\nts are produc$ 9 ,colorado1 ,new ,mexico1 & o!r /ates4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates has suffici5t supplies ( fluorsp> to meet all its own dem&s = ?is mat]ial4 ,small am\nts1 h[ev]1 are import$ = use 9 ea/]n furnaces because ! mat]ial c be br\ght ov] f ,engl& v *eaply4 ,! dome/ic fluorsp> is suitable = practically all purposes = :i* fluorsp> is us$ except = l5ses 9 optical in/rum5ts4 ,= ?is use v small quantities ( mat]ial import$ f ,japan h be5 us$1 b rec5tly fluorsp> ( a grade suitable = optical purposes has be5 f\nd 9 ,ill9ois1 ,k5tucky1 ,new ,hamp%ire1 & o!r /ates4 ,= flux+ purposes dome/ic fluorsp> is sup]ior to ! =eign product4 ,,geologic ,,features ,fluorsp> is ! trade "n = ! m9]al fluorite1 :i* is compos$ ( calcium fluoride4 ,?is is a common m9]al 9 ve9s & replacem5ts :i* c>ry ores ( z9c1 lead1 silv]1 gold1 copp]1 & t94 ,x is =m$ "u a v>iety ( conditions1 b is always ascrib$ to solutions com+ f ne>by igne\s rocks4 ,! l>ge fluorsp> deposits ( ,ill9ois & ,k5tucky conta9 fluorite ) calcite1 b>ite1 & metallic sulphides1 9 wide ve9s fill+ fissures 9 lime/ones & s&/ones & replac+ ! fissure walls4 ,into ^! s$im5ts !re are intrud$ c]ta9 p]idotite dikes4 ,! fluorite & associat$ m9]als 7 probably deposit$ by hot solutions br++ ! mat]ial f "s l>ge und]ly+ igne\s mass ( :i* ! dikes are (f-%oots4 ,9 ! we/]n ,unit$ ,/ates _m metallif]\s deposits c>ry l>ge am\nts ( fluorite1 :i* is treat$ z a gangue or wa/e m9]al1 b :i* c\ld be pr(itably extract$ if !re 7 local m>kets4 ,9 ,engl&1 fluorite is obta9$ 9 ?is mann] z a by-product f lead & z9c m9es4 ,,silica ,,economic ,,features ,silicon & its oxide1 silica1 f9d important applications 9 ! manufacture ( iron & /eel4 ,silicon1 l manganese1 is an important con/itu5t ( _m /eels1 ! alloy f]rosilicon be+ add$ to deoxidize & purify ! metal & ?us to increase its t5sile /r5g?4 ,l titanium1 x is add$ *iefly = its curative effect r ?an z a useful +r$i5t4 ,on an av]age #d p\nds ( #ej to #ee p] c5t f]rosilicon are us$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates = ea* ton ( /eel produc$4 ,a high] grade ( f]rosilicon 7#hj to #he p] c5t7 is us$ = c]ta9 special /eels1 & dur+ ! w> consid]able quantities 7 us$ 9 mak+ hydrog5 gas = balloons4 ,l[] grades 7#aj to #ae p] c5t silicon7 are practically a high silicon pig iron4 ,silica has an important use 9 ! =m ( silica brick or gani/] = l9+ furnaces & conv]t]s 9 :i* acid slags are =m$4 ,= ?is purpose silice\s rocks1 *iefly qu>tzites & s&/ones1 are gr\nd up1 mix$ ) lime z a b9d]1 & fus$ & press$ into bricks & %apes4 ,= ! mo/ satisfactory results ! rock %\ld conta9 #if p] c5t or m ( silica1 & v little ( ! alkali mat]ials1 :i* increase ! fusibility4 ,9 addition to its applications to ! iron & /eel indu/ry1 silica f9ds an almo/ univ]sal use 9 a wide v>iety ( /ructural & manufactur+ op]ations4 ,! ext5sive use ( s& & gravel--compos$ *iefly ( silica--= road mat]ials & railway balla/ is well kn[n4 ,9 con/ruction "w silica is us$ 9 ! =m ( /one1 s&-lime brick1 cem5t1 mort>1 concrete1 etc4 ,l>ge quantities ( s&1 or silica1 are us$ = molds 9 f\ndries1 = abrasives1 = ! manufacture ( glass1 = filt]s1 & = a great v>iety ( o!r purposes :i* readily sugge/ !mselves 7see pp4 #hd1 #bfg74 ,= mo/ uses ( silica !re are local supplies available4 ,= c]ta9 purposes requir+ mat]ial ( a p>ticul> *emical composition or texture1 h[ev]1 satisfactory deposits are kn[n 9 only a few places4 ,= example1 ! mat]ial = silica refractories is obta9$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates *iefly f c]ta9 regions 9 ,p5nsylvania1 ,miss\ri1 & ,wiscons94 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates has ample dome/ic supplies ( silica = practically all requirem5ts4 ,f]rosilicon ( ! high] grades is manufactur$ pr9cipally 9 electric furnaces at ,niag>a ,falls4 ,! capacity is ample to meet all dem&s1 b *eap f]rosilicon f ,canada also ent]s ,unit$ ,/ates m>kets4 ,,geologic ,,features ,silicon & oxyg51 mak+ up ! comp\nd silica1 are ! two mo/ abundant elem5ts 9 ! e>?'s cru/1 & qu>tz 7,si,o#b7 is a v abundant m9]al4 ,! processes ( wea!r+ & transportation ev]y:]e op]ative on ! surface ( ! e>? t5d to sep>ate qu>tz f o!r mat]ials1 & to conc5trate x into deposits ( s&4 ,katamorphism is prim>ily responsible = mo/ ( ! deposits ( silica :i* are comm]cially us$4 ,anamorphism--cem5t+ & h>d5+ ! s&s into s&/ones & qu>tzites--has creat$ additional value = c]ta9 uses1 z 9 refractories1 build+ /ones1 & abrasives 7see pp4 #hd1 #bfg74 ,,footnotes3 #ca ,report ( ! ,royal ,ont>io ,nickel ,commission4 ,pr9t$ by ord] ( ! ,legislative ,assembly ( ,ont>io1 ,toronto1 #aiag4 #cb ,campbell1 ,j4 ,morr[1 ,tung/5 deposits ( ,burma & _! orig91 ,econ4 ,geol41 vol4 #ae1 #aibj1 p4 #eaa4 ,,*apt] ,x ,,copp]1 ,,lead1 ,,& ,,z9c ,,m9]als ,,copp] ,,ores ,,economic ,,features ,! electrical indu/ry is ! l>ge/ consum] ( copp]4 ,! manufacture ( brass1 bronze1 & o!r copp] alloys con/itutes ano!r *ief use = ! metal4 ,consid]able quantities ( copp] %eets1 tubes1 & o!r w>es are us$ outside ( ! electrical indu/ry1 z = in/ance 9 ro(+1 plumb+1 & %ip bottoms4 ,copp] is also us$ 9 co9age1 p>ticul>ly 9 ,*9a1 :]e x is ! money /&>d ( ! work+ population4 ,! av]age grade ( all copp] ores m9$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 rec5t ye>s has be5 ab\t #a4g p] c5t metallic copp]4 ,ores conta9+ z l[ z #j4f p] c5t h be5 m9$ 9 ! ,lake ,sup]ior c\ntry1 & bonanza deposits conta9+ #bj to #fj p] c5t h be5 f\nd & work$ 9 "s places1 notably 9 ,alaska & ,wyom+4 ,! l[]-grade ores1 c>ry+ #a to #c p] c5t copp]1 are usually conc5trat$ be=e smelt+1 :ile ! ri*] ores1 c>ry+ #c to #e p] c5t or m1 are g5]ally smelt$ direct4 ,_m ( ! ores conta9 values 9 gold & silv]1 & also 9 lead & z9c4 ,an av]age ( ab\t #dj;c4 wor? ( gold & silv] p] ton is obta9$ f all ! copp] ores ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,9 o!r c\ntries ! av]age grade ( copp] ores m9$ is some:at high] ?an 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1--:]e l>ge scale op]ations1 p>ticul>ly ! use ( /eam-%ovel me?ods on ext5sive bodies ( dissem9at$ or porphyry copp] ores1 z well z improvem5ts 9 conc5trat+ & metallurgical processes1 h made possible ! use ( l[-grade ore4 ,! pr9cipal s\rces ( copp] are ! ,nor? ,am]ican cont95t1 ,*ile & ,p]u1 ,japan1 s\? & c5tral ,africa1 ,au/ralia1 & ,spa9 & ,portugal4 ,small] quantities are produc$ 9 ,russia1 ,g]many1 ,norway1 ,cuba1 ,s]bia1 & a numb] ( o!r c\ntries4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates normally produces ne>ly two-?irds ( ! _w's copp] & consumes only ab\t "o-?ird4 ,9 addition ! great bulk ( ! ,s\? ,am]ican1 ,mexican1 & ,canadian crude copp] comes to ! ,unit$ ,/ates = ref9+4 ,?r\gh f9ancial int]e/s abroad & by means ( ref9+ facilities1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates controls a quantity ( =eign production :i*1 toge!r ) ! dome/ic production1 gives x control ( ab\t #gj p] c5t ( ! _w's copp]4 ,no o!r c\ntry produces "o-six? z mu* copp] z ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,engl&1 because ( production 9 ! ,briti% ,empire 7ma9ly ,africa & ,au/ralia7 & ,briti% f9ancial control ( production 9 v>i\s =eign c\ntries1 is n dep5d5t ^u ! ,unit$ ,/ates = supplies ( raw copp]4 ,japan1 ,spa91 ,portugal1 & ,norway are able to produce f local m9es en\gh copp] = _! own ne$s & = export4 ,b ,france1 ,italy1 ,russia1 ,g]many1 & ! re/ ( ,europe normally are dep5d5t ^u =eign s\rces1 *iefly ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,s\? ,am]ica1 ,mexico1 ,canada1 ,africa1 & ,au/ralia are export]s ( copp]4 ,! control ( ^! c\ntries ov] _! production 9 ea* case is political & n f9ancial1 except 9 ! case ( ,canada1 :]e ab\t half ! f9ancial control is also ,canadian4 ,x is 9 ^! c\ntries & 9 ,spa9 t ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,engl& h f9ancial control ( a l>ge copp] supply4 ,be=e ! w> ,g]man int]e/s _h a consid]able control ov] ! ,am]ican copp] indu/ry ?r\gh close work+ arrangem5ts ) electrolytic ref9]ies4 ,g]many 0 ! l>ge/ =eign consum] ( copp]1 & ,g]man companies b\ght l>ge quantities ( ! raw copp] 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,canada1 ,mexico1 & ,s\? ,am]ica1 _h x ref9$1 & sold ! f9i%$ mat]ial 9 bo? ! ,am]ican & =eign m>kets4 ,dur+ ! w> ?is control 0 brok5 up4 ,9 view ( ! importance ( copp] metal z a raw mat]ial1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! electrical indu/ry1 ! /r5g? ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 copp] z a key res\rce ranks ev5 above its control ( petroleum4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 rec5t ye>s ab\t #dj p] c5t ( ! annual production ( copp] has come f ,arizona1 *iefly f ! ,bisbee1 ,globe1 ,ray-,miami1 ,j]ome1 & ,mor5ci-,metcalf di/ricts2 ab\t #ah p] c5t has come f ! ,butte di/rict ( ,montana2 ab\t #ab to #ae p] c5t f ,kewe5aw ,po9t1 ,mi*igan2 & ab\t #ab p] c5t f ,b+ham1 ,utah4 ,f #c to #e p] c5t ( ! c\ntry's output comes f ea* ( ! /ates ( ,new ,mexico1 ,nevada1 ,alaska1 & ,cali=nia4 ,all o!r /ates toge!r produce only a little ov] #b p] c5t ( ! total4 ,! s-call$ porphyry copp]s 9 ,utah1 ,arizona1 ,nevada1 & ,new ,mexico1 describ$ bel[1 are ! s\rce ( ab\t #ce p] c5t ( ! pres5t production ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! deep m9es ( ,butte & ,mi*igan are responsible = ab\t #cj p] c5t ( ! production1 & ! ore bodies ( ,arizona 7o!r ?an porphyry7 & ( ,alaska produce ab\t #be p] c5t4 ,res]ves ( copp] ore are su* z to give no imm$iate conc]n ab\t %ortage1 nor to indicate any l>ge %ift 9 ! di/ribution ( production 9 ! ne> future4 ,developm5t is on ! :ole consid]ably 9 advance ( pres5t dem&s4 ,! pr9cipal measur$ res]ves are 9 ! s-call$ porphyry copp]s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,*ile4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! life ( ^! res]ves n[ e/imat$ is approximately #be ye>s4 ,! res]ves ( ! ,*ile ,copp] ,company are ! l>ge/ ( any kn[n copp] deposit 9 ! _w1 & ! ,brad5 copp] res]ve 7also 9 ,*ile7 is among ! l>ge/4 ,= ! deep m9es ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ! develop$ res]ves h a life ( p]haps only five ye>s1 b = mo/ ( ^! m9es ! life w be greatly ext5d$ by fur!r & deep] developm5t4 ,! porphyry copp]s1 because ( _! occurr5ce ne> ! surface & ! ease ) :i* !y may be explor$ by drill+1 disclose _! res]ves f> 9 advance4 ,! deep m9es are ord9>ily develop$ = only a few ye>s 9 advance ( production4 ,,geologic ,,features ,! pr9cipal copp] m9]als may be classifi$ into ! sulphide gr\p1 ! oxide gr\p1 & native copp]4 ,native copp]1 m9$ 9 ! ,lake ,sup]ior region1 is ! s\rce ( #h to #aj p] c5t ( ! _w's copp] supply4 ,! oxide gr\p ( m9]als--includ+ ! copp] c>bonates1 azurite & mala*ite2 ! silicate1 *rysocolla2 ! oxide1 cuprite2 ! sulphates1 *alcan?ite & bro*antite2 & "s native copp] associat$ ) ^! m9]als--probably supplies ano!r #e p] c5t4 ,! rema9+ #he p] c5t is d]iv$ f ! sulphide gr\p4 ,( ! sulphide gr\p by f> ! mo/ important m9]al is *alcocite 7cupr\s sulphide71 :i* supplies ! bulk ( ! values 9 ! majority ( ! m9+ camps ( ! we/]n hemisph]e4 ,locally1 z at ,butte1 en>gite 7copp]-ars5ic sulphide7 is ( great value4 ,o!r m9]als ( consid]able importance 9 "s di/ricts are *alcopyrite & bornite 7copp]-iron sulphides71 tetrah$rite 7copp]-antimony sulphide71 & covellite 7cupric sulphide74 ,v commonly ! copp] sulphides are associat$ ) l>ge quantities ( ! iron sulphide1 pyrite1 z well z ) v>y+ am\nts ( lead & z9c sulphides & gold & silv] m9]als4 ,! pr9cipal copp] ores orig9ate 9 ! e>li] /ages ( ! metamorphic cycle1 9 close association ) igne\s activity4 ,katamorphism or wea!r+1 9 place1 has play$ an important "p 9 enri*+ !m4 ,! processes ( transportation & s$im5t>y deposition1 :i* h done s mu* t[>d mak+ valuable iron ore deposits1 h contribut$ little to ! =mation ( copp] ores4 ,copp] deposits associat$ ) igne\s fl[s4 ,! copp] ores ( ! ,lake ,sup]ior di/rict1 & ( a few small deposits 9 ! ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates1 conta9 small p]c5tages ( native copp] 9 pre-,cambrian volcanic fl[s or 9 s$im5ts betwe5 ! fl[s4 ,! ore bodies h ! =m ( long %eets p>allel to ! b$d+1 ! copp] & associat$ m9]als fill+ amygdaloidal op5+s & small fissures 9 ! fl[s1 & replac+ conglom]atic s$im5ts :i* lie betwe5 ! fl[s4 ,! copp] 0 probably deposit$ by hot solutions relat$ to ! igne\s rocks1 ei!r issu+ f ! magmas or d]iv+ heat & dissolv$ mat]ial f !m4 ,second>y conc5tration has n be5 important4 ,!re is practically none ( x ne> ! pres5t erosion surface2 b x appe>s 9 "o "p ( ! di/rict ne> an old] erosion surface cov]$ by ,cambrian s$im5ts1 sugge/+ a diff]5t climatic condition at t "t4 ,! ,k5necott copp] deposits ( ,alaska h a numb] ( resemblances to ! ,lake ,sup]ior copp] deposits1 sugge/+ simil>ity 9 orig94 ,! ,k5necott deposits occur exclusively 9 lime/one1 :i* re/s con=mably on a tilt$ surface ( igne\s fl[s 7gre5/ones7 n unlike ^? ( ,lake ,sup]ior4 ,! fl[s c>ry native copp] & copp] sulphides 9 m9utely dissem9at$ =m & 9 amygdules1 b app>5tly n 9 quantities suffici5tly conc5trat$ to m9e4 ,! fl[s are suppos$ to be ! orig9al s\rce ( ! copp] n[ 9 ! lime/one4 ,! prim>y copp] m9]al 9 ! lime/one is *alcocite1 9 exceptionally ri* & solid masses1 %[+ no evid5ce ( hav+ replac$ e>li] sulphides4 ,x is reg>d$ z a product ( prim>y deposition1 "u ! influ5ce ( hot solutions relat$ 9 "s way to ! igne\s fl[s2 b :e!r ! solutions 7 magmatic1 orig9at+ 9 ! lavas or bel[1 or :e!r !y 7 meteoric wat]s r5d]$ hot by contact ) ! extrusives1 & !reby made effective 9 lea*+ copp] f !m1 is n cle>4 ,! oxidation ( ! ,k5necott copp] ores is n ext5sive4 ,x pres5ts an int]e/+ feature1 9 t s9ce glacial "t ! gr\nd has be5 froz5 & ! moi/ure is n[ pres5t 9 ! =m ( ice4 ,! oxidation cle>ly took place be=e glacial "t4 ,abundant fragm5ts ( bo? ! oxide & ! sulphide ores are m9$ f ! lat]al mora9e ( a ne>by glaci]4 ,?is is a good illu/ration ( ! cyclic nature ( second>y conc5tration :i* is com+ to be recogniz$ 9 s _m camps4 ,! ,boleo copp] deposits ( ,l[] ,cali=nia occur 9 volcanic tuffs & associat$ conglom]ates ( ,t]ti>y age4 ,!y h c]ta9 peculi> m9]alogic associations--! ores conta9+ l>ge quantities ( all ! common copp] oxide m9]als1 & a numb] ( r>e oxide m9]als ( copp]1 lead1 silv]1 & cobalt1 toge!r ) gypsum1 sulphur1 & mu* iron & manganese oxide4 ,! copp] oxides & c>bonates are 9 places ga!r$ into r\nd$ concretions call$ boleos 7balls74 ,sulphides are pres5t 9 ! l[e/ b$s & may repres5t ! =m 9 :i* ! copp] 0 orig9ally deposit$4 ,! copp]-be>+ b$s h be5 mu* silicifi$1 & x has be5 sugge/$ t m9]alization 0 accompli%$ by hot-spr+ wat]s1 probably ( igne\s orig94 ,^! deposits h a few m>k$ simil>ities to ! ,lake ,sup]ior copp] ores4 ,copp] ve9s 9 igne\s rocks4 ,a second gr\p ( copp] ores 9 igne\s rocks is made up ( deposits 9 di/9ct fissure ve9s & z replacem5ts along su* ve9s4 ,! *ief deposits ( ?is type are at ,butte1 ,montana--:i* is1 f ! /&po9t ( bo? pa/ & pres5t production1 ! greate/ s+le copp] di/rict 9 ! _w4 ,"h a l>ge ba?oli? ( ,t]ti>y granite 0 intrud$ by porphyry dikes2 & fault+1 accompany+ & foll[+ ! intrusions ( ! dikes1 develop$ num]\s fissures4 ,! fissures 7 m9]aliz$ ) copp] sulphides & ars5ides1 iron sulphides1 & locally ) z9c sulphide & manganese c>bonate1--all 9 a matrix ( qu>tz4 ,at ! same "t ! wall rocks 7 ext5sively m9]aliz$ & alt]$2 ! fissure ve9s grade (f into ! wall rock1 & 9 fact ! l>g] "p ( ! ore is simply alt]$ granite ) dissem9at$ sulphides4 ,! solutions :i* deposit$ ! ores are inf]r$ to h be5 hot f ! nature ( ! wall-rock alt]ations1 f ! pres5ce ( hot-wat] m9]als l fluorite1 cassit]ite1 & o!rs1 & f ! g5]al association ( ! ores 9 "t & place ) ! porphyry intrusions4 ,! solutions are believ$ to h orig9at$ f ! porphyry & possibly f o!r intrusives4 ,9 ! ,butte di/rict1 & 9 ! great majority ( copp] sulphide ve9 ores ?r\gh\t ! _w1 second>y conc5tration by surface wat]s has play$ a consid]able "p 9 develop+ ores ( comm]cial value4 ,ne> ! surface ! copp] is lea*$ out & c>ri$ d[n by wat]s conta9+ v>i\s solv5ts1 p>ticul>ly sulphuric acid f ! oxidation ( pyrite4 ,a lea*$ zone is =m$ conta9+ ! ord9>y products ( rock wea!r+1--ru/y qu>tz & clay1 sometimes black ) manganese oxides4 ,a small "p ( ! copp] rema9s 9 ?is zone z oxides1 c>bonates1 & silicates4 ,bel[ ! oxidiz$ & lea*$ zone !re is evid5ce ( deposition ( a l>ge am\nt ( second>y copp] sulphide 9 ! =m ( *alcocite4 ,?is is suppos$ to h be5 =m$ by ! lea*+ ( copp] f above z soluble copp] sulphate1 & its precipitation bel[ by iron & o!r sulphide m9]als :i* ! solutions meet on _! d[nw>d c\rse--a reaction :i* has be5 demon/rat$ exp]im5tally4 ,x 0 =m]ly suppos$ t mo/ ( ! *alcocite 0 ( ?is orig92 b z *alcocite is f\nd 9 important am\nts ) en>gite & *alcopyrite to great dep?s 7n[ #c1ejj feet71 :]e ! ve9s are /ill ri* & /rong1 x beg9s to appe> t mu* ( ! *alcocite is ( prim>y orig94 ,! fissures along :i* ! ,butte ores occur are 9 ?ree ma9 sets1 :i* 9 ord] ( age /rike r\ghly ea/-we/1 nor?we/-s\!a/1 & nor!a/-s\?we/4 ,two-?irds ( ! ore is 9 ! fir/ set1 ab\t #cj p] c5t 9 ! second1 & ! rema9d] 9 ! ?ird4 ,! m9]alization ( ! sev]al ve9 sy/ems _c be discrim9at$1 & x is ?\ght t x 0 accompli%$ z a m or less cont9u\s & progressive process4 ,!re is "s evid5ce1 also1 t ! fractur+ 9 ! sev]al fracture sy/ems 0 likewise a ne>ly cont9u\s progressive process1 contemporane\s ) ! ore deposition1 & p]haps develop+ "u a s+le great %e> :i* caus$ m or less simultane\s & ov]lapp+ sy/ems ( fractures 9 ! v>i\s directions4 ,porphyry copp]s4 ,ano!r type ( copp] deposits 9 igne\s rocks is ! dissem9at$ or porphyry deposits4 ,! t]m porphyry z commonly us$ includes true porphyries1 monzonites1 granites1 & o!r igne\s rocks4 ,ores ( ?is type are repres5t$ by ! great deposits ( ,b+ham1 ,utah2 ,ray1 ,miami1 & ! ,new ,cornelia m9e ( ,arizona2 ,ely1 ,nevada2 ,santa ,rita1 ,new ,mexico2 ,cananea1 ,sonora1 ,mexico2 nor!rn ,*ile2 & _m o!r di/ricts ( importance4 ,!y =m ! greate/ kn[n res]ves ( copp] ore4 ,^! deposits conta9 copp] m9]als1 usually 9 ! m>g9al portions ( acid porphyries1 9 _m irregul>1 closely spac$ ve9s1 & 9 m9ute seams & spots dissem9at$ ?r\gh ! mass ( ! rock4 ,9 ! ,ray & ,miami & o!r di/ricts ! m9]alization has spread l>gely ?r\gh adjac5t s*i/s1 b ^! deposits are includ$ ) ! porphyry copp] deposits 9 comm]cial p>lance4 ,! porphyry deposits are ( an undulat+ blanket =m ( consid]able areal ext5t & %all[ dep?4 ,at ! surface is a lea*$ & wea!r$ zone1 (t5 conta9+ m or less ( ! oxides1 c>bonates1 & silicates ( copp]1 rang+ 9 ?ickness up to #a1jjj feet1 b av]ag+ #bjj feet or less4 ,bel[ ?is is a zone c>ry+ copp] 9 ! =m ( *alcopyrite1 enri*$ by *alcocite deposition f above1 rang+ 9 ?ickness up to #djj feet4 ,! ore 9 ?is zone v>ies f "o-half ( #a p] c5t to #f p] c5t ( copp] & ord9>ily av]ages betwe5 #a & #b p] c5t4 ,! use ( ore ( ?is grade is made possible by ! l>ge quantities & by ! *eap & effici5t m9+ & metallurgical practices4 ,! ore body grades bel[ into a zone *>act]iz$ by lean *alcopyrite1 :i* is suppos$ to repres5t orig9al or prim>y deposition f hot wat]s associat$ ) ! porphyry intrusion4 ,?is prim>y ore1 or protore1 0 cle>ly =m$ aft] ! solidification ( ! igne\s rocks1 ?\gh soon aft]1 by solutions f igne\s s\rces :i* foll[$ fractur$ & %att]$ zones4 ,copp] 9 lime/one ne> igne\s contacts4 ,ano!r great gr\p ( copp] deposits occurs z replacem5ts ( lime/one adjac5t to porphyry or granitic intrusives4 ,?is type is illu/rat$ by "s ( ! deposits at ,b+ham1 ,utah1 & at ,bisbee1 ,arizona4 ,! prim>y deposition 0 ( *alcopyrite & o!r copp] sulphides1 toge!r ) g>net1 diopside1 & o!r m9]als kn[n to h requir$ high temp]ature 9 _! =mation4 ,! ore fills fissures & replaces ext5sive masses ( ! lime/one4 ,x is likely to %[ a fairly %>p contact on ! side t[>d ! intrusive1 & to grade (f into ! c\ntry rock on ! o!r side ) num]\s embaym5ts & irregul>ities4 ,^! deposits h be5 enri*$ by wea!r+ 9 ! same mann] z indicat$ above = ! porphyry copp]s1 b to highly v>y+ degrees4 ,9 ! ,bisbee deposits l>ge values 7 f\nd 9 ! wea!r$ zone1 & second>y sulphide enri*m5t bel[ ?is zone is also important4 ,9 ! ,b+ham camp1 on ! o!r h&1 ! wea!r$ zone is insignificant & mo/ ( ! ore b5ea? is prim>y4 ,! wea!r+ ( ! silicat$ lime/one gangue results 9 great masses ( clay :i* are *>act]i/ic features ( ! oxide zones ( ^! deposits4 ,copp] deposits 9 s*i/s4 ,o!r copp] deposits1 z at ,j]ome1 ,arizona1 9 ! ,foo?ill & ,%a/a ,c\nty di/ricts ( ,cali=nia1 at ,duckt[n1 ,t5nessee1 etc41 are irregul> l5ticul> bodies 9 s*i/s & o!r rocks1 b all %[ relation%ip to igne\s rocks4 ,! ,rio ,t9to ores ( ,spa9 & ,portugal1 :i* belong 9 ?is gr\p1 h be5 ref]r$ to on page #ajh4 ,9 ! ,j]ome or ,v]de di/rict ( c5tral ,arizona1 fold$ pre-,cambrian gre5/ones & s$im5ts 7 invad$ by masses ( qu>tz-porphyry1 & aft] fur!r de=mation1 r5d]+ _m ( ! rocks s*i/ose1 7 intrud$ by an augite-diorite4 ,contact metamorphism along bo? ! qu>tz-porphyry & ! diorite contacts 0 practically lack+4 ,! ore bodies 7 =m$ z irregul> pipe-l replacem5ts ( ! s*i/s1 be+ localiz$ 9 "o case by a /eeply pit*+ inv]t$ tr\gh ( imp]vi\s diorite1 & 9 o!r cases by %e> zones :i* favor$ vigor\s circulation4 ,a lat] s]ies ( small diorite or &esite dikes cut ! ore bodies4 ,! prim>y ores consi/ ( pyrite1 *alcopyrite1 & o!r sulphides1 ) l>ge am\nts ( jasp]y qu>tz & "s calcite & dolomite4 ,!y 7 cle>ly =m$ by replacem5t ( ! s*i/s p>ticle by p>ticle1 z %[n by ! frequ5t pres]vation ( ! s*i/ /ructure 9 a b&+ ( ! sulphide m9]als1 ! residual %r$s ( unreplac$ s*i/ mat]ial 9 ! ores1 & ! usual gradual transition f unreplac$ s*i/s to ^? completely replac$ by massive sulphides4 ,! localization ( ! mo/ important m9]alization 9 an inv]t$ tr\gh is good evid5ce t ! solutions came f bel[1 & ! nature ( ! m9]al associations sugge/s an orig9 ?r\gh ! "w ( hot wat]s associat$ ) igne\s intrusives4 ,! diorite1 be+ mo/ closely relat$ 9 "t & space ) ! ore bodies1 seems ! mo/ logical s\rce ( ! ore mat]ials4 ,second>y conc5tration ( ! ,j]ome ores has proce$$ along ! g5]al l9es previ\sly outl9$ 7pp4 #df-ej1 #bjb74 ,"h aga9 ! evid5ce is cle> t ! ores 7 conc5trat$ 9 an e>li] p]iod1 9 ?is case 9 pre-,cambrian times1 probably dur+ ! long int]val requir$ = ! base-level+ ( ! pre-,cambrian m\nta9s4 ,s9ce ,cambrian times ! deposits h be5 = ! mo/ "p buri$ by lat] s$im5ts4 ,"s ( ! deposits are /ill protect$ by ?is ov]ly+ blanket & m9+ has n yet rea*$ ! zone ( altoge!r prim>y sulphides4 ,o!rs h be5 fault$ up & aga9 expos$ by erosion2 b s9ce be+ uncov]$1 /eep slopes & rapid erosion h app>5tly favor$ ! scatt]+ ( ! copp] r ?an its conc5tration & enri*m5t4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,v]de ,m9e1 oxidiz+ conditions at pres5t prevail to ! bottom ( ! *alcocite zone4 ,! v l>ge res]ves ( ! ,katanga copp] belt ( ! ,belgian ,congo are 9 ! =m ( tabul> masses 9 s*i/ose & highly metamorphos$ ,paleozoic s$im5ts4 ,! ore bodies are r\ghly p>allel to ! b$d+1 b 9 in/ances foll[ ! s*i/osity :i* cuts across ! b$d+4 ,!y consi/ dom9antly ( ! oxide m9]als1 ?\gh 9 sev]al ore bodies sulphides h be5 %[n by diamond-drill+4 ,! ores h a high cont5t ( cobalt & also c>ry preci\s metals4 ,! orig9 ( ! deposits is n kn[n1 b has be5 ascrib$ to granitic masses intrusive into ! s*i/s4 ,s$im5t>y copp] deposits4 ,9 ! lat] phases ( ! metamorphic cycle1 ! ag5cies ( transportation 79 solution7 & s$im5t>y deposition h result$ 9 "s l[-grade deposits ( copp] sulphides 9 s$im5t>y rocks4 ,deposits ( ?is type are f\nd 9 ! ,rocky ,m\nta9 region1 :]e !y are ref]r$ to z ! ,r$ ,b$s copp]s1 b are ( no comm]cial importance4 ,simil> deposits 9 ,g]many1 ! ,mansfield copp]-be>+ %ales1 h be5 work$ = "s "t1 & dur+ ! w> 7 ,g]many's ma9 s\rce ( copp]4 ,on ,kewe5aw ,po9t1 ,mi*igan1 deposits ( native copp] =m$ 9 ?is mann] 9 ! ,nonesu* b$s h be5 work$ on a comm]cial scale4 ,o!r copp] ores on ,kewe5aw ,po9t are replacem5ts ( conglom]ate b$s betwe5 igne\s fl[s1 & are ( a diff]5t orig9 already describ$ 7p4 #bjj74 ,:ile mu* ( ! copp] ( s$im5t>y b$s gives evid5ce t x 0 deposit$ f solution 9 cracks & z replacem5ts ( ! wall rocks1 (t5 ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( abundant organic mat]ial 9 ! b$s1 & :ile also comp>atively little ( ?is copp] c be id5tifi$ z hav+ be5 deposit$ 9 detrital flakes or fragm5ts along ) ! o!r m9]al fragm5ts1 !re is1 nev]!less1 consid]able evid5ce t "s ( ^! deposits 7 =m$ ess5tially dur+ ! s$im5tation ( ! enclos+ b$s & z incid5ts to ?is process4 ,su* evid5ce consi/s ( a close limitation ( ! copp] to c]ta9 b$s1 its wide & uni=m di/ribution )9 ^! b$s1 its abs5ce 9 simil> b$s ne> at h&1 ! abs5ce ( evid5ce ( fe$+ & escape *annels ( ! k9d :i* w\ld be necess>y 9 case ! solutions 7 introduc$ long aft]w>d1 & (t5 a m9ute p>ticipation ( ! copp] m9]als 9 ! m9or /ructures ( b$d+1 false-b$d+1 & ripple-m>ks1 :i* w\ld be difficult to expla9 z due to second>y conc5tration4 ,! ,corocoro copp] deposits ( ,bolivia occur 9 b$s ( s&/one ) no igne\s rocks 9 ! vic9ity4 ,h[ev]1 !y are all closely associat$ ) a fault plane1 igne\s rocks occur at di/ances ( a few miles1 & ! g5]al m9]alization is coext5sive ) ! belt ( igne\s rocks2 ! deposits are !re=e ascrib$ to a magmatic s\rce r ?an to s$im5t>y processes4 ,t[>d ! surface ! copp] is 9 "p 9 ! =m ( sulphides1 some:at alt]$ to oxide m9]als1 & f>!r d[n x is entirely native copp]1 associat$ ) gypsum4 ,?is is ! only di/rict outside ( ,lake ,sup]ior :]e native copp] has be5 m9$ on an important scale4 ,g5]al comm5ts4 ,9 g5]al1 ! comm]cially prom95t copp] deposits %[ a close relation%ip to igne\s rocks 9 place1 "t1 & orig94 ,seldom d ! ores ext5d m ?an #a1jjj feet away f ! igne\s rock4 ,! common d[nw>d ord] 9 sulphide deposits is3 fir/1 a wea!r$ zone1 orig9ally =m$ ma9ly above ! wat] table1 consi/+ above ( a lea*$ portion & bel[ ( oxides & c>bonates ( copp] 9 a gangue ( qu>tz or clay2 second1 a zone ( second>y sulphide enri*m5t1 *>act]iz$ by *alcocite coat+s1 *alcopyrite1 & pyrite1 ) a gangue ( qu>tz & igne\s rock or lime/one2 & ?ird1 a zone ( prim>y deposition ) simil> gangue1 *>act]iz$ by *alcopyrite1 & at ,butte by en>gite & *alcocite4 ,! oxide zone z a :ole may be ri* or lean 9 values1 dep5d+ on ! nature ( ! associat$ gangue mat]ial & c\ntry rock4 ,:5 ^! are m soluble ?an ! copp]--z is commonly ! case 9 lime/one--! copp] may be residually conc5trat$1 not)/&+ ! fact t mu* copp] orig9ally pres5t has be5 c>ri$ (f 9 solution4 ,:5 ! associat$ gangue & c\ntry rock are less soluble ?an ! copp]--z is common ) qu>tz & igne\s rocks--! oxide zone is likely to be deplet$ ( values4 ,! zones =m$ by wea!r+ & second>y enri*m5t are extremely irregul>1 bo? 9 di/ribution & dep?1 9 any "o deposit1 & !y ov]lap & grade into "o ano!r 9 a v complex fa%ion4 ,9 _m places ! prim>y zone is too lean to be m9$ to comm]cial advantage2 b 9 o!r places1 z at ,butte1 & 9 ! lime/one deposits ( ,b+ham1 ! prim>y ores are ( consid]able importance4 ,:5 evid5ce ( second>y sulphide enri*m5t 0 fir/ recogniz$ !re 0 a t5d5cy to magnify its effectiv5ess1 & to assume t 9 mo/ cases ! values 7 due to ?is process2 t ! prim>y zones w\ld be f\nd to be valueless4 ,9 rec5t ye>s ! emphasis is be+ some:at *ang$ because ( ! recogniz+ 9 _m camps ( ri* prim>y zones4 ,:ile "s *alcocite is cle>ly ! result ( second>y enri*m5t f above1 o!r *alcocite seems to h be5 relat$ closely to ! prim>y deposition4 ,! quantitative discrim9ation ( ! two is a matt] ( great difficulty4 ,x has come to be recogniz$ t ! zonal arrangem5t caus$ by enri*m5t f ! surface has be5 impos$ usually on a zonal arrangem5t caus$ by ! prim>y hot solutions & n relat$ to ! surface b to ! s\rce ( ! solutions4 ,9 "s di/ricts1 z illu/rat$ by ,butte & ,b+ham1 ! copp]-be>+ m9]als seem to h be5 deposit$ ne>e/ ! igne\s s\rce1 :ile ! lead1 z9c1 gold1 & silv] m9]als h be5 deposit$ f>!r away1--sugge/+ ! cool+ ( ! solutions ) increas+ di/ance f ! igne\s s\rce4 ,! fur!r inve/igation ( ?is prim>y zonal arrangem5t promises int]e/+ results ) a practical be>+ on exploration & developm5t4 ,"o ( ! new] features ( ! inve/igation ( copp] deposits has be5 ! recognition ( ! cyclic nature ( ! second>y conc5tration4 ,?is process has be5 relat$ n only to ! pres5t erosion surface1 b to old] surfaces n[ p>tly buri$ "u lat] rocks4 ,ransome's#cc summ>y ( conditions at ! ,ray-,miami camp has a some:at g5]al application4 ,sup]g5e enri*m5t has g5]ally be5 treat$ z a cont9u\sly progressive process4 ,!re is consid]able probability1 h[ev]1 t x is ess5tially cyclic1 al?\gh ! cyclic "* may n be pat5t 9 all deposits4 ,a full developm5t ( ! cycle c take place only "u a c]ta9 equilibrium ( a numb] ( factors1 includ+ climate1 erosion1 topography1 & "* ( rock4 ,! ess5tial fact appe>s to be t z enri*m5t progresses & *alcocite increases ! process ( enri*m5t becomes sl[] 9 action1 & erosion may1 9 "s circum/ances1 ov]take x4 ,) ! removal ( "s ( ! protect+ zone ( *alcocite ! protore is aga9 expos$ to oxidation & a second cycle ( enri*m5t beg9s4 ,al?\gh mu* ( ! enri*$ ore is n[ bel[ gr\nd-wat] level1 x probably 0 once above t level1 & enri*m5t is believ$ to h tak5 place ma9ly 9 ! zone ( rock above any g5]al wat] table4 ,:]e ! old erosion surface r\ghly co9cides ) ! pres5t erosion surface1 ! deposits foll[ m or less ! topography4 ,:]e ! old erosion surface pit*es bel[ lat] s$im5ts1 ! ores pit* ) x1 & !re=e d n foll[ ! pres5t topography4 ,! recognition ( ! cyclic nature ( second>y conc5tration is obvi\sly ( great significance 9 exploration & developm5t4 ,al?\gh a va/ am\nt ( /udy has be5 devot$ to ! orig9 & enri*m5t ( copp] deposits1 & al?\gh ! g5]al conditions & processes are pretty well und]/ood1 ! results ?us f> h be5 l>gely qualitative r ?an quantitative4 ,,lead ,,ores ,,economic ,,features ,! mo/ prom95t uses ( lead are 9 ! manufacture ( alloys1 su* z type-metal1 be>+ metal1 %ot1 sold]1 & ca/+ metal2 z ! oxide1 r$ lead1 & ! basic c>bonate1 :ite lead1 9 pa9ts2 = lead pipe1 cable cov]+s1 & conta9]s ( acid active mat]ial2 & 9 lead comp\nds = v>i\s *emical & m$ical uses4 ,( ! lead consum$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates be=e ! w> ab\t #ch p] c5t 0 utiliz$ 9 pigm5ts1 #cj p] c5t 9 alloys o!r ?an %ot1 #ae p] c5t 9 pipe1 #aj p] c5t 9 %ot1 & #g p] c5t 9 all o!r uses4 ,dur+ ! w> mu* l>g] quantities 7 us$ 9 munitions1 su* z %ot & %rapnel4 ,! lead cont5t ( comm]cial ores v>ies widely4 ,x ranges f z l[ z 4#be p] c5t 9 ! ,jopl9 di/rict ( ,miss\ri1 to ab\t #ae p] c5t 9 ! ,brok5 ,hill deposits ( ,au/ralia1 & ov] #bj p] c5t 9 ! ,bawdw9 m9es ( ,burma4 ,9 ! ,coeur d',al5e di/rict ( ,idaho & ! s\!a/]n di/rict ( ,miss\ri1 ! two greate/ lead produc]s 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ! av]age grades are ab\t #aj p] c5t & ab\t #c-a_/b p] c5t respectively4 ,! grade ( ore :i* may be pr(itably work$ dep5ds n only ^u ! economic factors1--su* z ne>ness to consum+ c5t]s1 & ! price ( lead1--b also ^u ! am5ability ( ! ore to conc5tration1 ! cont5t ( o!r valuable metals1 & ! fact t lead is v useful 9 smelt+ z a collector ( gold & silv]4 ,mo/ lead ores conta9 m or less z9c1 & lead is obta9$ z a by-product ( mo/ z9c ores4 ,arg5tif]\s lead ores =m "o ( ! pr9cipal s\rces ( silv]1 & also yield "s gold4 ,lead & copp] are produc$ toge!r f c]ta9 ores4 ,?us ! sep>ation ( _m ores into h>d & fa/ classes1 z lead1 or z9c1 or copp]1 or silv]1 or gold ores1 _c be made2 9 "s ( ! m9]al res\rce reports ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,geological ,survey ! /ati/ics ( ^! five metals are publi%$ toge!r4 ,! ma9 s\rces ( lead ore1 nam$ 9 ord] ( _! importance1 are ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,au/ralia1 ,spa91 ,g]many1 & ,mexico1 :i* acc\nt = ov] #hj p] c5t ( ! _w's production4 ,mo/ ( ! c\ntries ( ,europe outside ( ,spa9 & ,g]many produce small am\nts ( lead1 b are l>gely dep5d5t on imports4 ,spa9 exports arg5tif]\s lead & pig lead ma9ly to ,engl& & ,france1 ) m9or quantities to o!r c\ntries ( ,europe & to ,arg5t9a4 ,be=e ! w> ,g]many1 :i* 0 ! l>ge/ ,european consum]1 utiliz$ all its own production ( lead ores & import$ an additional #aj p] c5t ( ! _w's ores = smelt+1 z well z consid]able am\nts ( pig lead4 ,its pr9cipal deposits 7 ^? ( ,silesia2 "u ! ,peace ,treaty !y may possibly be lo/ to ,pol&1 leav+ ,g]man smelt]s l>gely dep5d5t on imports4 ,au/ralia be=e ! w> normally %ipp$ lead conc5trates & pig lead to ,engl& & also to ,belgium1 ,g]many1 & ,japan4 ,engl&1 ! second l>ge/ ,european consum]1 be=e ! w> _h insuffici5t smelt+ capacity )9 ! ,briti% ,empire & 0 p>tly dep5d5t on =eign-smelt$ lead4 ,dur+ ! w>1 h[ev]1 ,engl& contract$ = ! entire ,au/ralian output1 & enl>g$ its smelt+ capacity accord+ly4 ,?is may mean p]man5t loss to ,belgium1 :i* _h dep5d$ ma9ly on ! ,au/ralian ores = its smelt+ indu/ry be=e ! w>4 ,9 ,nor? ,africa !re is a small b /eady production ( lead1 mo/ ( :i* goes to ,france4 ,rec5t developm5ts 9 ,burma h %[n l>ge res]ves ( high-grade lead-z9c-silv]-copp] ores1 & ?is region may be expect$ to become an important produc]4 ,!re are also l>ge res]ves ( lead 9 ! ,altai ,m\nta9s ( s\?we/]n ,sib]ia & 9 ! ,&es ,m\nta9s ( ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,engl&1 ?r\gh control ( ,au/ralian & ,burman lead m9es & smelt]s1 dome/ic smelt+ facilities1 & "s f9ancial control 9 ,spa91 ,mexico1 & else:]e1 & ,france1 ?r\gh f9ancial control ( ,spani% & ,nor? ,african m9es & ,spani%1 ,belgian1 & dome/ic smelt]s1 h adequate supplies ( lead4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates produces ab\t a ?ird ( ! _w's lead & twice z mu* z any o!r c\ntry4 ,normally ! dome/ic production is almo/ entirely consum$ 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,mexico s5ds l>ge quantities ( bullion & ore to ! ,unit$ ,/ates to be smelt$ & ref9$ 9 bond4 ,mexican lead ref9$ & export$ by ! ,unit$ ,/ates equals 9 am\nt "o-six? ( ! dome/ic production4 ,small quantities ( ore or bullion f ,canada1 ,africa1 & ,s\? ,am]ica are also br\ght into ! ,unit$ ,/ates = treatm5t4 ,?r\gh dome/ic production1 smelt+ facilities = ,mexican ore1 & comm]cial own]%ip 9 ,mexico & else:]e1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates controls ov] #de p] c5t ( ! _w's lead production4 ,be=e ! w> ,g]many1 ?r\gh ! ,lead ,conv5tion or ,int]national ,sales ,association1 & ?r\gh smelt+ & sell+ contracts ) l>ge produc+ m9es1 practically controll$ ! ,european lead m>ket z well z exports f ,mexico & ! ,unit$ ,/ates & f ,au/ralia4 ,dur+ ! w> ,g]man =eign influ5ce 0 practically de/roy$4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ab\t a ?ird ( ! production ( lead comes f s\!a/]n ,miss\ri & ab\t a f\r? f ! ,coeur d',al5e di/rict ( ,idaho4 ,! five /ates1 ,miss\ri1 ,idaho1 ,utah1 ,colorado & ,oklahoma1 produce ab\t n9e-t5?s ( ! c\ntry's total output4 ,res]ves ( lead ore are n l>ge 9 proportion to dem&1 contra/+ 9 ?is reg>d ) z9c ore4 ,,geologic ,,features ,! pr9cipal lead m9]al is ! sulphide1 gal5a1 f :i* ! great bulk ( ! _w's lead is d]iv$4 ,c]ussite 7lead c>bonate7 & anglesite 7lead sulphate7 are m9$ 9 "s places 9 ! upp] "p ( sulphide deposits1 & supply a small fraction ( ! _w's output4 ,! ores ( lead are ( two g5]al classes3 ,! fir/ class1 ! s-call$ s(t lead ores1 ne>ly free f copp] & preci\s metals1 & commonly associat$ ) z9c ores1 are f\nd 9 s$im5t>y b$s indep5d5t ( igne\s intrusion4 ,!y are ( _w-wide di/ribution1 7 ! fir/ to be ext5sively exploit$1 7 at "o "t ! dom9ant factor 9 _w production ( lead1 & at pres5t produce ab\t #cj p] c5t ( ! _w's total4 ,!y are repres5t$ by ! deposits ( ! ,mississippi ,valley1 ( ,silesia1 & "s ( ! ,spani% deposits4 ,! g5]al description ( ! orig9 ( ! z9c ores ( ! ,mississippi ,valley on pp4 #baf-bah applies to ?is class ( lead ores4 ,x %\ld be not$1 h[ev]1 t 9 ! pr9cipal ,unit$ ,/ates lead-produc+ di/rict1 t ( s\!a/]n ,miss\ri1 ! lead ores occur almo/ to ! exclusion ( ! z9c ores1 & are m dissem9at$ ?r\gh ! lime/one ?an is *>act]i/ic ( ! z9c ores4 ,ores ( ?is type h be5 f\nd ext5d+ only to %all[ dep?s 7n ov] a few hundr$ feet71 & because ( ! abs5ce ( preci\s metals _! treatm5t is comp>atively simple4 ,! second class consi/s ( ores m complex 9 nature1 :i* are f\nd 9 association ) igne\s rocks1 & :i* usually conta9 "s or all ( ! metals1 z9c1 silv]1 gold1 copp]1 iron1 manganese1 antimony1 bismu?1 & r>e metals1 ) v>i\s gangue m9]als among :i* qu>tz1 sid]ite1 & silicates are important4 ,today ^! ores are ! s\rce ( ab\t #gj p] c5t ( ! _w's lead4 ,!y are repres5t$ by ! lead deposits ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9 region 7,coeur d',al5e1 ,idaho2 ,leadville1 ,colorado2 ,b+ham1 ,utah2 etc472 ( ,brok5 ,hill1 ,new ,s\? ,wales2 ( ,burma2 & ( _m o!r places4 ,!y are all relat$ to ! e>li] /ages ( ! metamorphic cycle & occur 9 close g5etic association ) igne\s activity4 ,!y include deposits 9 ! body ( igne\s rocks1--9 ! =m ( well-def9$ ve9s1 replacem5ts along zones ( fissur+ & %e>+1 & dissem9at$ masses1--z well z ve9s & replacem5ts 9 ! rocks1 p>ticul>ly 9 lime/ones1 adjo9+ igne\s intrusions4 ,! deposits pres5t a wide v>iety ( %apes dep5d+ on ! c\rses ( ! solutions by :i* !y 7 =m$4 ,! mat]ials ( ! ore m9]als are believ$ to h be5 d]iv$ f ! igne\s rocks & to h be5 deposit$ by hot solutions4 ,! s\rce ( ! solutions--:e!r magmatic or meteoric--pres5ts ! same problems :i* h be5 discuss$ else:]e 7pp4 #da-db74 ,! ores are frequ5tly m9$ to great dep?s4 ,because ( _! complexity !y require involv$ processes ( treatm5t to sep>ate out ! values4 ,ores ( ?is nature h already be5 ref]r$ to 9 ! discussion ( ! copp] ores ( ,b+ham & ,butte1 & w be ref]r$ to 9 connection ) ! z9c-lead-silv] ores ( ,leadville1 ,colorado4 ,special ref]5ce may be made "h to ! ,coeur d',al5e di/rict ( ,idaho1 :i* is ! second l>ge/ produc] ( lead 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! ,coeur d',al5e deposits are almo/ unique 9 t !y conta9 gal5a z ve9-fill+s & replacem5ts 9 qu>tzite1 ) a gangue ( sid]ite 7iron c>bonate74 ,qu>tzite 7in/ead ( lime/one7 is an unusual locus ( replacem5t ores1 & sid]ite is an unusual gangue4 ,^! ores are believ$ to owe _! orig9 to acid igne\s intrusives1 because ( ! close association ( ! ores ) "s ( ^! intrusives1 & because ( ! cont5t ( high-temp]ature m9]als4 ,"s ( ! ore bodies are f\nd f> f intrusives1 b x is suppos$ t 9 su* cases fur!r und]gr\nd developm5t may disclose ! intrusives bel[ ! surface4 ,second>y conc5tration has be5 insignificant4 ,9 g5]al1 wea!r+ ( lead ores at ! surface & second>y sulphide enri*m5t bel[ are n s ext5sive z 9 ! case ( copp] & z9c4 ,gal5a is fairly /able 9 ! oxide zone1 & ev5 9 moi/ climates x is f\nd 9 ! outcrop ( _m ve9s4 ,wea!r+ removes ! m soluble mat]ials & conc5trates ! lead sulphide ) ! residual clay & o!r gangue4 ,9 "s di/ricts c]ussite & a little anglesite are also f\nd 9 ! oxide zone4 ,! c>ry+ d[n ( lead 9 solution & its deposition bel[ ! wat] table z a second>y sulphide is n prov$ on any ext5sive scale4 ,9 ?is respect x contra/s ) z9c2 & :5 ! two m9]als occur toge!r1 lead is likely to be m abundant 9 ! oxide zone1 & z9c 9 ! sulphide zone bel[4 ,su* a *ange 9 composition ) dep? is also f\nd 9 "s cases z ! result ( prim>y v]tical v>iations 9 ! m9]alization4 ,,z9c ,,ores ,,economic ,,features ,z9c metal has commonly gone "u ! "n ( spelt]4 ,brass & galvaniz$ iron conta9 z9c z an ess5tial +r$i5t4 ,( ! total ,unit$ ,/ates z9c consumption 9 normal times1 ab\t #fj p] c5t is us$ 9 galvaniz+ iron & /eel objects to protect !m f ru/1 #bj p] c5t is us$ 9 ! manufacture ( brass & o!r alloys1 #aa p] c5t goes into ! =m ( roll$ %eets = ro(+1 plumb+1 etc41 #a p] c5t is employ$ 9 desilv]iz+ lead bullion1 & ! rema9+ #h p] c5t is us$ = pigm5ts1 electrodes1 & o!r miscellane\s purposes4 ,dur+ ! w> ! use 9 brass-mak+ 0 greatly increas$4 ,! z9c cont5t ( ! ores m9$ today ranges f a little ov] #a-a_/b p] c5t 9 ! ,jopl9 di/rict ( ,miss\ri1 to #be p] c5t & high] 9 "s ( ! deposits ( ! ,coeur d',al5e & o!r we/]n camps1 & ov] #dj p] c5t 9 c]ta9 bonanzas 9 ,briti% ,columbia & ,russia4 ,! ores usually conta9 bo? z9c & lead 9 v>y+ proportions1 & sometimes gold1 silv]1 & copp] are pres5t4 ,( ! z9c produc$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ab\t #gc p] c5t is obta9$ f ores conta9+ z9c z ! pr9cipal elem5t ( value1 ab\t #be p] c5t f z9c-lead ores1 & #b p] c5t f copp]-z9c & o!r ores4 ,! av]age grade ( ! /raight z9c ores is ab\t #b-a_/b p] c5t4 ,( ! _w's z9c ore1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates produces 9 normal times ab\t "o-?ird1 ,g]many ab\t "o-fif?1 ,au/ralia ab\t #ae p] c5t1 ,italy1 ,nor? ,africa & ,spa9 ea* ab\t #e p] c5t4 ,! rema9+ #ae to #bj p] c5t comes f a l>ge numb] ( scatt]$ s\rces1 includ+ ,japan1 ,ea/ ,asia1 ,norway & ,sw$51 ,canada1 ,mexico1 ,au/ria1 ,france1 ,greece1 ,sib]ia1 & ,russia4 ,9 ! ne> future ! ,bawdw9 m9es ( ,burma w probably be increas+ly important produc]s4 ,l>ge res]ves ( z9c also exi/ 9 ! ,altai ,m\nta9s ( s\?we/]n ,sib]ia1 & 9 ! ,cordill]an region ( ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,9 %ort1 z9c is "o ( ! mo/ widely di/ribut$ ( metallic res\rces2 !re is consequ5tly less necessity = great int]national movem5ts ?an 9 ! case ( _m o!r commodities4 ,! smelt+ ( z9c conc5trates is 9 g5]al c>ri$ on close to ! po9ts ( consumption & :]e skill$ labor is available1 r ?an at ! m9es1--al?\gh smelt]s to h&le "p ( ! output h rec5tly be5 built 9 ,au/ralia & 9 ,burma4 ,9 ,europe ! great smelt+ c\ntries h be5 ,g]many & ,belgium1 & to a less] ext5t ,engl& & ,france4 ,be=e ! w> ^! f\r c\ntries ) ! ,unit$ ,/ates produc$ ov] n9e-t5?s ( ! _w's spelt]4 ,belgium did pr9cipally a cu/om bus9ess1 & a l>ge "p ( its exports w5t to ,engl&4 ,au/ralian & ,tasmanian z9c ores 7 ! basis ( ! ,belgian & ,engli% smelt+ indu/ries1 & also suppli$ ab\t "o-?ird ( ! ,g]man requirem5ts4 ,s9ce ! w> ,engl& has contract$ to take practically ! entire ,au/ralian output4 ,?is fact1 9 connection ) w>-"t de/ruction ( ,belgian smelt]s1 leaves ! future ( ! ,belgian z9c indu/ry 9 "s d\bt4 ,g]many may possibly lose to ,pol& its ri*e/ z9c m9es1 ^? ( ,silesia4 ,g]man activity 9 ! ri* deposits ( ,mexico is to be expect$4 ,france controls ! deposits ( ,nor? ,africa & satisfies a consid]able "p ( its requirem5ts f t s\rce4 ,small] movem5ts ( z9c include exports f ,italy to ,engl&1 & a complex int]*ange among ! less] produc]s ( ,europe4 ,engli% & ,fr5* z9c-smelt+ capacity 0 exp&$ dur+ ! w>1 & ! indu/ry 9 ^! c\ntries is 9 a /rong position4 ,japan also develop$ a consid]able smelt+ indu/ry dur+ ! w>1 import+ ores f ea/]n ,asia & ,au/ralia4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates normally smelts & consumes all its l>ge production ( z9c ores & does n ent] =eign m>kets to any ext5t4 ,small am\nts ( z9c conc5trates are br\ght 9 f ,mexico & ,canada to be smelt$ 9 bond4 ,dur+ ! w>1--:5 ! ,allies 7 cut (f by enemy op]ations f ! cu/om>y ,belgian & ,g]man supplies ( spelt]1 & by %ortage ( %ips f ,au/ralian z9c ores1--,au/ralian1 ,spani%1 ,italian1 & o!r ores 7 import$ into ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & l>ge quantities ( spelt] 7 export$ f ?is c\ntry to ,europe4 ,m9e & smelt] capacities 7 greatly increas$1 ov]-production ensu$1 & ) ! cessation ( ho/ilities _m plants 7 oblig$ to curtail or cease op]ations4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates has n[ ab\t #dj p] c5t ( ! z9c-smelt+ capacity ( ! _w4 ,= ! pres5t at lea/ ! capacity is f> 9 excess ( ! dome/ic requirem5ts4 ,be=e ! w> ,g]man control ( ! int]national z9c m>ket 0 ev5 /rong] ?an 9 ! case ( lead4 ,! ,g]man ,z9c ,syndicate1 ?r\gh its affiliations1 jo9t %>e-hold+s1 own]%ip ( m9es & smelt]s1 & especially ?r\gh smelt+ & sell+ contracts1 controll$ directly "o-half ( ! _w's output ( z9c & ?ree-f\r?s ( ! ,european production4 ,x regulat$ ! ,au/ralian exports by means ( long-t]m contracts1 & _h consid]able influ5ce 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,to "s ext5t x 0 able to s manipulate ! m>ket t z9c outside ! syndicate 0 also indirectly controll$4 ,dur+ ! w> political jurisdiction 0 us$ by ! ,alli$ c\ntries to de/roy ?is ,g]man influ5ce4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! pr9cipal z9c-produc+ regions are ! ,jopl9 & adjac5t di/ricts ( ,miss\ri1 ,oklahoma1 ,kansas1 & ,arkansas1 furni%+ ab\t "o-?ird ( ! c\ntry's output2 ! ,frankl9 ,furnace di/rict ( ,new ,j]sey1 & ! ,butte di/rict ( ,montana1 ea* yield+ ab\t "o-six? ( ! total supply2 & ! ,upp] ,mississippi ,valley di/rict ( ,wiscons91 ,i[a1 & ,ill9ois1 ! ,leadville di/rict ( ,colorado1 & ! ,coeur d',al5e di/rict ( ,idaho1 ea* produc+ betwe5 "o-t5? & "o-tw5tie? ( ! total4 ,small] quantities are produc$ 9 ,t5nessee1 ,new ,mexico1 ,nevada1 & sev]al o!r /ates4 ,res]ves ( z9c are ample = ! future4 ,!y are n[ develop$ consid]ably 9 advance ( probable requirem5ts1 a fact :i* causes ke5 competition = m>kets & r5d]s z9c-m9+ m or less s5sitive to m>ket *anges4 ,,geologic ,,features ,! mo/ important m9]al ( z9c is ! sulphide1 sphal]ite or z9c bl5de4 ,! m9]als ( ! oxide zone are smi?sonite 7z9c c>bonate7 & calam9e 7hydr\s z9c silicate71 :i* yield m9or am\nts ( z9c & are especially productive at ,leadville1 ,colorado4 ,z9cite 7z9c oxide7 & willemite 7z9c silicate7 are ! important m9]als 9 ! deposits ( ,frankl9 ,furnace1 ,new ,j]sey4 ,! association ( mo/ deposits ( z9c ) m or less lead has be5 not$4 ,! ores ( z9c are ( two g5]al classes1 correspond+ to ! two classes ( lead ores 7pp4 #baa-bab74 ,z9c ores ( ! fir/ type are 9 ve9s & replacem5ts 9 s$im5t>y rocks at %all[ dep?s1 indep5d5t ( igne\s association1 & are suppos$ to h be5 =m$ by cold solutions4 ,!y are f\nd 9 ! ,mississippi ,valley1 9 ,silesia1 & 9 _m ( ! small] ,european deposits4 ,!y 7 =m]ly ! lead+ z9c-produc]s1 & n[ produce ab\t #de p] c5t ( ! _w's total4 ,z9c ores ( ! second type consi/ ( ve9s & replacem5ts relat$ to intrusive rocks1 sometimes ext5d+ to consid]able dep?s1 & ( m complex composition4 ,!y include mo/ ( ! deposits ( ! ,am]ican ,cordill]an region 7,butte1 ,coeur d',al5e1 ,leadville1 etc471 ( ,frankl9 ,furnace1 ( ,au/ralia1 ( ,burma1 & ( _m o!r places4 ,! z9c-lead ores ( ! type f\nd 9 ! ,mississippi ,valley are ( special int]e/1 9 t !y are sulphide ores ( an orig9 app>5tly indep5d5t ( igne\s ag5cies4 ,^! ores occur z fissure-fill+s & replacem5ts1 ma9ly 9 ne>ly flat-ly+ ,paleozoic lime/ones & dolomites--! ,bonne ,t]re dolomitic lime/one ( s\!a/]n ,miss\ri1 ! ,boone =mation ( s\?we/]n ,miss\ri & ,oklahoma1 ! ,gal5a dolomite ( ,wiscons9 & ,ill9ois4 ,!y are v>i\sly associat$ ) a gangue ( dolomite1 calcite1 qu>tz1 iron pyrite1 b>ite1 & *]t4 ,n infrequ5tly !y are spread out bo? 9 %eets & 9 dissem9at$ =m along c>bonace\s lay]s )9 or at ! base ( ! lime/one4 ,! s\rce ( ! prim>y sulphides has be5 a subject ( mu* discussion4 ,all are agre$ t !y 7 fir/ deposit$ ) ! s$im5ts 9 m9utely disp]s$ =m1 ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( ! organic cont5ts ( ! s$im5ts1 & t su* deposition 0 some:at g5]ally localiz$ by e/u>9e conditions :i* favor$ ! accumulation ( organic rema9s4 ,_m ye>s ago1 be=e ! evid5ce ( e/u>9e deposition 0 recogniz$1 ,*amb]l9 sugge/$ an +5i\s hypo!sis = ! nor!rn ,mississippi ,valley1--t ! organic mat]ial _h be5 localiz$ by ocean's curr5ts =m+ some?+ 9 ! nature ( a ,s>gasso sea4 ,diff]5ces ( op9ion become acute1 h[ev]1 :5 ! attempt is made to "n ! precise s$im5t>y horizon1 out ( sev]al available horizons1 9 :i* = ! mo/ "p ?is prim>y conc5tration occurr$4 ,judg+ f ! organic cont5ts ( ! sev]al b$s1 ! prim>y s\rce may h be5 bel[1 )91 or above ! pres5t ore-be>+ horizons4 ,if ! ore came f ! l[] horizons1 x 0 introduc$ into its pres5t situation by an artesian circulation1 = :i* ! /ructural conditions are favorable4 ,if ! ore 0 d]iv$ f ov]ly+ horizons1 d[nw>d mov+ solutions accompany+ erosion did ! "w4 ,if ! prim>y s\rce 0 )9 ! horizon ( pres5t occurr5ce ( ! ores1 bo? upw>d & d[nw>d mov+ wat]s may h modifi$ & transport$ !m locally4 ,= ea* ( ^! hypo!ses a plausible case c be made2 b mu* ( ! evid5ce c be us$ int]*angeably = any "o ( !m4 ,9 spite ( ! weal? ( data available1 x is a/oni%+ly difficult to arrive at a conclusion :i* is exclusive ( o!r possibilities4 ,)\t attempt+ to argue ! matt] 9 detail ! writ] m]ely records 8 view1 bas$ on "s famili>ity ) ^! di/ricts1 t1 on ! :ole1 ! evid5ce favors ! accumulation ( ^! deposits by d[nw>d mov+ meteoric solutions dur+ ! wea!r+ ( ov]ly+ /rata2 b t x is by no means c]ta9 t a "p ( ! ores has n be5 d]iv$ f l[] horizons4 ,! great area ( ! produc+ di/ricts 9 comp>ison ) _! dep?1 ! uni=m association ( ! ore-be>+ zone ) ! surface reg>dless ( geologic horizon uncov]$ by erosion1 ! failure ( ! ores to ext5d 9 quantity "u capp+s ( lat] =mations1 & ! kn[n efficacy ( oxidiz+ wat]s 9 local d[nw>d transf]s ( z9c & lead1 seem to sugge/ conc5trat+ ag5cies :i* are cle>ly relat$ to surface conditions4 ,x is ( int]e/ to note t 9 _m places 9 ! lime/ones ( ,miss\ri & ,virg9ia1 & else:]e 9 ! ,paleozoic rocks1 !re are s9ks ( limonite & clay ne> ! surface1 :i* are likewise believ$ to h orig9at$ ?r\gh d[nw>d movem5t ( wat]s d]iv+ _! m9]al cont5ts f ! erosion & /ripp+ ( ov]ly+ s$im5ts4 ,/ill fur!r1 ! prim>y deposition ( ,cl9ton iron ores 9 _m p>ts ( ! ,mississippi ,valley & ea/w>d to ! ,appala*ians took place 9 /ratigraphic horizons n f> remov$ f ! horizons ( lead & z9c deposition4 ,:5 ! peculi> conditions controll+ ! deposition ( ! ,cl9ton ores are und]/ood 7see pp4 #eb-ec7 x is entirely possible t !y may ?r[ "s light on ! g5esis ( ! lead & z9c ores4 ,s9ce ! ores 7 introduc$ into ess5tially _! pres5t locations1 second>y conc5tration has produc$ an oxide zone ( clay1 *]t1 & iron oxide1 ) v>y+ am\nts ( z9c c>bonate1 z9c silicate1 lead sulphide1 & r>ely lead c>bonate4 ,?is zone is obvi\sly develop$ above wat] level1 & is seldom z mu* z #ajj feet ?ick4 ,z9c1 & to a less ext5t lead1 h be5 tak5 into solution z sulphates1 ) ! aid ( sulphuric acid result+ f ! oxidation ( ! associat$ pyrite4 ,z9c has be5 c>ri$ away f ! wea!r$ zone 9 solution fa/] ?an lead1 leav+ ! lead m or less conc5trat$ ne> ! surface4 ,"s ( ! z9c c>ri$ d[n has be5 r$eposit$ second>ily z z9c sulphide4 ,evid5ces ( ?is second>y sulphide enri*m5t c be se5 9 _m places2 yet c]ta9 broad quantitative consid]ations raise a d\bt z to :e!r ?is process has be5 responsible = ! ma9 portion ( ! values ( ! sulphide zone4 ,if d[nw>d second>y enri*m5t _h be5 a dom9ant process1 x might be expect$ t ! ores w\ld be ri*] 9 places :]e erosion _h cut away m ?an half ! lime/one =mation c>ry+ ! ore1 ?an 9 places :]e x _h b>ely cut into ! =mation4 ,?is is n ! fact1--:i* sugge/s t erosion 9 its d[nw>d progress has c>ri$ a l>ge "p ( ! z9c completely out ( ! vic9ity4 ,z9c ores ( ?is same g5]al "* are also f\nd 9 ,paleozoic rocks 7,knox dolomite7 9 ,virg9ia & ,t5nessee4 ,_! mann] ( occurr5ce sugge/s ! same problem ( orig9 z 9 ,miss\ri & ,wiscons91 b no decisive evid5ce ( _! s\rce has be5 discov]$4 ,( ! z9c ores associat$ ) igne\s intrusions1 ^? ( ! ,butte & ,coeur d',al5e di/ricts are describ$ 9 connection ) copp] & lead ores on pp4 #bja-bjc1 #bjh1 & #bab-bac4 ,z9c con/itutes ab\t #ge p] c5t by weight ( ! recov]able metals ( ! ,leadville di/rict ( ,colorado4 ,ab\t two-?irds ( ! z9c occurs z ! sulphide & ab\t "o-?ird z ! c>bonate result+ f wea!r+ ( ! sulphide4 ,! z9c sulphide is associat$ ) lead1 iron1 & copp] sulphides & gold & silv] m9]als4 ,9 ! oxide zone ! z9c c>bonate is associat$ ) oxides & c>bonates ( v>i\s metals1 includ+ ^? ( lead1 copp]1 iron1 & manganese4 ,! iron & manganese oxides are m9$ 9 consid]able tonnage z a flux4 ,x is an int]e/+ fact t1 al?\gh m9+ has be5 c>ri$ on 9 ?is di/rict = upw>ds ( =ty ye>s1 only )9 ! la/ decade has ! exi/5ce ( z9c ores 9 ! oxide zone be5 recogniz$4 ,?is has be5 due l>gely to ! fact t ! iron & manganese oxides effectively /a9 & mask ! z9c c>bonate4 ,! ,leadville ores occur z replacem5ts & ve9-fill+s 9 a g5tly fault$ & fold$ ,c>bonif]\s lime/one1 9 deposits ( a g5]al tabul> %ape1 p>allel to ! b$d+ b ) v irregul> l[] surfaces4 ,! lime/one is intrud$ by num]\s %eets ( porphyry1 ma9ly p>allel to ! b$d+ b sometimes cutt+ across x1 aga9/ ! "u sides ( :i* mo/ ( ! ore occurs4 ,! prim>y sulphides are believ$ to be g5etically relat$ 9 "s fa%ion to ^! porphyries4 ,! old] view 0 t ! ag5ts ( deposition 7 aque\s solutions f ! surface above1 :i* d]iv$ _! m9]al cont5t *iefly f ! porphyries4 ,lat] views favor solutions com+ directly f ! porphyries or deep] igne\s s\rces4 ,:ile 9 =m & association ^! ores are *>act]i/ic igne\s contact deposits1 !y lack ! high-temp]ature silicates :i* are s di/9ctive ( _m ores ( ?is type4 ,! z9c ores ( ,frankl9 ,furnace1 ,new ,j]sey1 belong 9 ! gr\p associat$ ) igne\s ag5cies1 b h c]ta9 unique features4 ,!y consi/ ( willemite & z9cite1 toge!r ) l>ge am\nts ( frankl9ite 7an iron-manganese oxide7 & silicates1 9 a pre-,cambrian :ite cry/all9e lime/one ne> its contact ) a co>se-gra9$ granite-gneiss4 ,! orig9 ( ! ores is obscur$ by lat] %e>+ & metamorphism1 b x seems be/ expla9$ by replacem5t ( ! lime/one by heat$ solutions com+ f ! granitic mass4 ,! view has also be5 advanc$ t ! ores orig9at$ 9 ! lime/one be=e ! adv5t ( ! igne\s rocks4 ,second>y conc5tration is n app>5t4 ,,footnotes3 #cc ,ransome1 ,fr$]ick ,leslie1 ,! copp] deposits ( ,ray & ,miami1 ,arizona3 ,pr(4 ,pap] #aae1 ,u4,s4 ,geol4 ,survey1 #aiai1 pp4 #ab-ac4 ,,*apt] ,,xi ,,gold1 ,,silv]1 ,,& ,,plat9um ,,m9]als ,,gold ,,ores ,,economic ,,features ,! pr9cipal & mo/ ess5tial use ( gold is z a /&>d ( value & a m$ium ( ex*ange4 ,gold has be5 priz$ s9ce ! e>lie/ times because ( its lu/]1 color1 malleability1 & inde/ructibility1 & has long be5 us$ z a trad+ m$ium4 ,at pres5t little ( ! metal is actually circulat$ f h& to h&4 ,/ocks ( gold1 h[ev]1 accumulat$ by gov]nm5ts & bank+ int]e/s1 =m ! ess5tial f\ndation ( pap] curr5cy & ( ! va/ mod]n sy/em ( cr$it relations4 ,9 ! settlem5t ( int]national trade balances consid]able quantities ( gold frequ5tly move f debtor to cr$itor nations4 ,al?\gh ! am\nts ?us %ipp$ are frequ5tly great 9 value1 !y are v small 9 volume4 ,x is int]e/+ to note t ! entire accumulat$ gold /ocks ( ! _w's gov]nm5ts--ab\t n9e billion doll>s--ca/ 9 a solid block1 ) ! horizontal dim5sions ( ! ,wa%+ton monum5t1 w\ld be only ab\t #ab feet high4 ,o!r uses ( gold are 9 d5ti/ry1 & 9 ! arts = jewelry1 gild+1 & o!r =ms ( ornam5tation4 ,consumption = ^! purposes has be5 increas+ ( late ye>s & n[ takes a ?ird or m ( ! _w's annual production4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 be=e w>-"t re/rictions 7 adopt$1 ! consumption = jewelry & simil> uses exce$$ ! consumption 9 co9age4 ,s9ce ! w> x has exce$$ ! total dome/ic production ( gold4 ,an int]e/+ problem = ! future is h[ an adequate supply ( gold is to be di/ribut$ betwe5 monet>y uses & ! arts4 ,! curve ( increase 9 ! requirem5ts ( ! arts indicates t1 unless !re is greatly increas$ production1 all ! _w's gold w be necess>y = ! arts 9 a comp>atively few ye>s4 ,to reta9 x = monet>y purposes w\ld require gov]nm5t re/rictions4 ,( all ! m9]al commodities1 gold has play$ p]haps ! mo/ important & c]ta9ly ! mo/ romantic "p 9 ! _w's hi/ory4 ,! lure ( gold has tak5 m5 to ! remote/ corn]s ( ! globe4 ,x has be5 ! mov+ =ce 9 ! settlem5t & colonization ( new c\ntries1 9 num]\s w>s1 & 9 _m o!r /r5u\s activities ( ! human race4 ,ab\t two-?irds ( ! annual gold production ( ! _w comes f ! ,briti% ,empire--f ,s\? & ,we/ ,africa1 ,au/ralasia1 ,canada1 & ,india4 ,a s+le colony1 ! ,transvaal1 produces ab\t #dj p] c5t ( ! _w's total4 ,briti% capital1 :i* seems to h a p>ticul> aff9ity = inve/m5ts 9 gold m9es1 controls n only ! l>g] "p ( ! output f ! colonies1 b also important m9es 9 ,sib]ia1 ,mexico1 ,s\? ,am]ica1 & ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,russia1 ,mexico1 & ,japan h small gold production4 ,! *ief deposits ( ,russia are ^? ( ,sib]ia1 :i* h _h an important output & h app>5t great possibilities ( increase4 ,o!r =eign di/ricts are num]\s & widely scatt]$1 b1 ) ! exception ( ,colombia & ,korea1 no "o ( !m yields #a p] c5t ( ! _w's gold4 ,fr5* int]e/s control ab\t a t5? ( ! production ( ! ,transvaal1 & m9or supplies 9 ,mexico & ,s\? ,am]ica--9 all ab\t #f p] c5t ( ! _w's production4 ,g]many & ,au/ria control less ?an #a p] c5t ( ! total gold production4 ,g]man int]e/s =m]ly _h ext5sive hold+s 9 ,s\? ,africa & ,au/ralia1 b dur+ ! w> ?is control 0 elim9at$4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ! second l>ge/ gold-produc+ c\ntry1 supplies ab\t #bj p] c5t ( ! _w's total4 ,comm]cially x controls production ( ano!r #e p] c5t 9 =eign c\ntries1 *iefly 9 ,canada1 ,mexico1 ,s\? ,am]ica1 & ,korea4 ,ab\t "o-f\r? ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates production comes f ,cali=nia4 ,o!r produc+ /ates 9 ord] ( importance are ,colorado1 ,alaska1 ,s\? ,dakota1 ,nevada1 ,arizona1 ,montana1 & ,utah4 ,^! eight /ates supply #ie p] c5t ( ! c\ntry's output1 & mo/ ( ! rema9d] is obta9$ f o!r we/]n /ates4 ,int]national movem5ts ( gold dep5d *iefly ^u its use 9 ! settlem5t ( trade balances1 & are n gov]n$ by ! consid]ations :i* control ord9>y m9]al commodities4 ,imports & exports v>y ) *ang+ =eign trade balances4 ,l>ge am\nts ( gold normally g to ,london1 because ,great ,brita9 requires all gold produc$ 9 ! colonies to be s5t to ,engl&2 b s9ce ,engl& ord9>ily has an unfavorable balance ( trade1 mu* ( ?is gold is reexport$4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates up to a few ye>s ago 0 also a debtor nation1 & m gold 0 export$ ?an 0 import$4 ,dur+ ! w>1 h[ev]1 ?is c\ntry became ! greate/ ( ! cr$itor nations & imports ( gold1 *iefly f ,europe1 7 sev]al times ! exports4 ,! total _w's gold production up to #aibj has be5 upw>ds ( #ai billions ( doll>s1 ( :i* ab\t #aj billions h gone into ! arts or be5 hidd5 & lo/1 leav+ #i billions 9 monet>y res]ve4 ,at ! pres5t writ+ ! ,unit$ ,/ates gov]nm5t holds an unusually l>ge fraction ( ! _w's gold res]ve1 ab\t #bh p] c5t or #b billion doll>s1--an am\nt equal to two-?irds ( ! aggregate production ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates to date4 ,o!r l>ge /ocks ( gold are held1 9 ord]1 by ,great ,brita91 ,france1 & ,russia1 ^! ?ree ) ! ,unit$ ,/ates hold+ ov] a half ( ! _w's total gold res]ve4 ,g]many has ab\t #a-a_/b p] c5t ( ! total res]ve1 &1 ) its trem5d\s debt & no s\rces ( new production1 is ( c\rse 9 a p>ticul>ly unfavorable position4 ,! total am\nt ( gold n[ 7#aibj7 acc\nt$ = by gov]nm5ts z money is n m ?an #aj p] c5t ( ! value ( ! notes & curr5cy issu$ aga9/ ?is gold4 ,be=e ! w> x 0 #fj p] c5t4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! pre-w> p]c5tage 0 #ii-a_/b p] c5t4 ,s9ce ! w> x has be5 #de p] c5t4 ,! ratio ( gold to curr5cy is n[ s small t ! gold /&>d is h>dly a physical fact1 b is to be reg>d$ r m z a pr(ession ( fai?4 ,not)/&+ ! rec5t fall+ (f 9 gold production1 an increm5t ( approximately #cej million doll>s is pot5tially available ea* ye> to be add$ to ! gold res]ves4 ,:e!r ?is increm5t1 or a l>g] increm5t :i* may come f new discov]ies1 is suffici5t to ma9ta9 a reasonable proportion betwe5 gold /ocks & ! necess>y normal increase 9 pap] curr5cy1 has be51 & d\btless w cont9ue to be1 a subject ( vigor\s discussion & speculation4 ,dur+ & imm$iately foll[+ ! w>1 ! gold production ( ! _w %[$ r an al>m+ progressive decrease4 ,ab\t #aiae ! gr\p ( ?ree greate/ produc]s--,s\? ,africa1 ,unit$ ,/ates1 & ,au/ralia1--rea*$ ! acme ( its production1 & output !n fell (f4 ,simultane\sly !re 0 a m>k$ decrease ( production 9 _m ( ! less important di/ricts4 ,?is g5]al decl9e 0 due 9 consid]able "p to ! fact t dur+ ! w> ! price ( gold 0 fix$ & its use re/rict$ to monet>y purposes4 ,! price ( gold1 :i* is itself ! /&>d ( value1 c\ld n rise to (fset gr[+ m9+ co/s & to ma9ta9 pr(its1 z 0 ! case ) iron1 copp]1 & ! o!r metals1--) ! result t ! m>g9 ( pr(it 9 gold m9+ became s small z mat]ially to affect exploration & production4 ,ano!r important cause ( decreas$ production 0 ! actual exhau/ion ( c]ta9 m9es1 & ! l[]+ ( ! grades ( ore available 9 _m o!rs4 ,new discov]ies did n supply ^! defici5cies4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 = in/ance1 physical conditions ( "o k9d or ano!r 7 responsible = less5+ ( production f ,alaska1 ,cripple ,creek1 & ,cali=nia4 ,m9or causes includ$ conflicts 9 ,cali=nia betwe5 agricultural & m9+ int]e/s ov] wat] rights1 & a succession ( dry seasons :i* did n af=d en\gh wat] = ! work+ ( plac]s2 & 9 ,alaska difficulties due to litigation ov] ! oil-flotation process ( recov]+ gold f its ores4 ,z a result ( all ^! conditions1 _m ( ! small] m9es 7 clos$ d[n1 o!rs cont9u$ op]ations only by curtail+ exploration & by m9+ solely ! ri*e/ & mo/ accessible ore bodies1 & !re 0 a g5]al disc\ragem5t & lack ( inducem5t to engage 9 gold m9+4 ,! gold situation has become a matt] ( great conc]n to ! v>i\s gov]nm5ts1 s9ce national f9ancial /ability & ! confid5ce ( ! public 9 ! national cr$it are bas$ l>gely ^u ! acquirem5t ( an adequate gold res]ve4 ,bo? 9 ,engl& & 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 committees ( exp]ts h be5 appo9t$ to make exhau/ive inve/igations & pres5t recomm5dations = measures to /imulate production4 ,! report ( ! jo9t committee f ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,bureau ( ,m9es & ,geological ,survey gives a compreh5sive review ( ! conditions 9 ! gold-m9+ indu/ry4#cd ,dur+ ! w> !re 0 vigor\s dem& by gold m9]s bo? 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,s\? ,africa = a bonus on gold4 ,^! dem&s receiv$ s]i\s consid]ation on ! "p ( ! gov]nm5ts1 b 7 d5i$ on ! g5]al gr\nd ( ! d\btful adequacy ( su* a measure to meet ! situation1 & ! dang] ( upsett+ ! gold /&>d ( value4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 = in/ance1 a bonus ( #aj p] ounce 0 ask$ =4 ,x did n appe> likely t ?is c\ld increase ! annual production f ! ,unit$ ,/ates by m ?an #aj p] c5t1 9 face ( ! physical conditions be+ met 9 gold m9+4 ,! bonus w\ld h _h to be paid on all ! gold m9$1 :i* w\ld make ! increm5t ( production v exp5sive2 to secure an add$ production ( t5 million doll>s w\ld h co/ 9 ! neighborhood ( =ty millions4 ,t5 millions is only "o-?ird ( #a p] c5t ( ! gold res]ve already held by ?is c\ntry1 & x w\ld obvi\sly h tak5 a long "t = ?is small increase 9 annual production to make itself felt 9 ! size ( ! gold res]ves4 ,s9ce ! w> gold has gone to a consid]able premium 9 ,engl&1 due to ! action ( ! ,briti% gov]nm5t 9 e/abli%+ a free m>ket1--t is1 ab&on+ ! re/riction t gold m>ket$ 9 ,london %\ld be (f]$ to ! gov]nm5t or ! ,bank ( ,engl& at ! fix$ /atutory price = monet>y purposes4 ,) ! p\nd /]l+ at a consid]able disc\nt outside ( ,engl&1 o!r c\ntries c\ld af=d to bid1 9 t]ms ( ,briti% curr5cy1 f> above ! ,briti% m9t price4 ,! result is t ! ,s\? ,african m9] ( gold receives a premium due to depreciation ( /]l+ ex*ange1 :ile ! ,am]ican m9] /ill receives ! regul> m9t price4 ,! agitation = a bonus !re=e cont9ues 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,h[ev]1 ) ! removal ( w>-"t re/rictions gold has be5 all[$ to g to ! arts1 ! dem& f :i* is already equal to "o-?ird ( ! _w's gold production1 is rapidly increas+1 & is tempor>ily acute due to ! accumulation ( requirem5ts result+ f w> re/rictions4 ,?is situation has a g5]al t5d5cy to improve ! position ( ! gold m9]1 ?\gh ! outlook is /ill f> f bright4 ,x is an int]e/+ fact t ,india is absorb+ a good half ( ! free gold4 ,india1 9 reg>d to its dem& = preci\s metals & /ones1 has be5 describ$ z an abyss f :i* !re is no return4 ,?is is an important contribut+ cause ( ! %ortage ( gold 9 ! re/ ( ! _w4 ,look+ =w>d to ! future1 x seems t increas$ exploration1 :i* is result+ f ! pres5t premium on gold1 is likely to br+ 9 new res]ves to increase production4 ,because ( lack ( important discov]ies 9 rec5t ye>s1 !re is pessimism 9 "s qu>t]s z to ! possibilities ( l>ge increase ( production2 b1 consid]+ ! hi/ory ( gold discov]ies1 & ! am\nt ( gr\nd /ill to be explor$ bo? areally & v]tically1 ?is pessimism does n seem to be :olly ju/ifi$ f ! geologic /&po9t4 ,curves repres5t+ ! _w's gold production 9 pa/ ye>s %[ p]iods ( increas+ annual production z new fields are discov]$1 foll[$ by p]iods ( decreas+ production :5 no new ore bodies are com+ 9 to replace dw9dl+ res]ves4 ,x is entirely possible t 9 rec5t ye>s ! gold-m9+ indu/ry has be5 m]ely 9 "o ( ^! tempor>y /agnant p]iods4 ,!re are _m regions1 bo? 9 ! vic9ity ( work$-out lodes & 9 unsettl$ & poorly explor$ c\ntries1 :]e gold may /ill be discov]$2 !re may be f> great] res\rces ( ?is metal /ill cov]$ up ?an all ^? :i* man has ?us f> uncov]$4 ,a s+le new deposit or di/rict may make a great diff]5ce 9 ! _w's production1 z sugge/$ by ! exp]i5ce ( ! pa/4 ,regions :i* are especially attractive = exploration & ! discov]y ( new deposits are 9 ,sib]ia & ,s\? ,am]ica1 :i* 9 ! op9ion ( _m eng9e]s may ev5tually rival ,s\? ,africa4 ,mexico1 ) ! e/abli%m5t ( a /able gov]nm5t1 %\ld also h a greatly increas$ production4 ,,geologic ,,features ,! pr9cipal gold m9]al is native or metallic gold4 ,?is occurs 9 nature 9 small scales1 cry/als1 & irregul> masses1 & also 9 microscopic p>ticles me*anically mix$ ) pyrite & o!r sulphides4 ,*emically1 gold is v inactive & comb9es ) b few o!r elem5ts4 ,a small "p ( ! _w's supply is obta9$ f ! gold-silv] tellurides--calav]ite1 sylvanite1 kr5n]ite1 & petzite4 ,gold deposits are ( two g5]al classes--plac]s1 & ve9s or lodes4 ,plac]s1 :i* are 9 g5]al ! m easily discov]$ & m easily work$ deposits1 h 9 ! pa/ be5 ! *ief s\rce ( ! _w's gold supply4 ,x is e/imat$ t 9 ! fir/ tw5ty-sev5 ye>s ( ! mod]n era ( gold-m9+1 beg9n+ ) ! discov]y ( gold 9 ,cali=nia 9 #ahdh1 #hg p] c5t ( ! _w's production 0 obta9$ f plac]s4 ,at pres5t ! plac]s ( rec5t geologic age supply a t5? to a fif? ( ! gold1 & anci5t or fossil plac]s 9 ! ,transvaal supply ano!r two-fif?s4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ab\t a f\r? ( ! gold production comes f plac]s1 ma9ly f ,cali=nia & ,alaska4 ,plac]s are detrital or fragm5tal s$im5ts conta9+ ! ore 9 me*anical fragm5ts1 :i* are d]iv$ f ! erosion & transportation ( solid-rock ve9s or lodes1 sometimes call$ ! "m lode4 ,dur+ ! process ( transportation & deposition !re is m or less sort+1 because ( diff]+ d5sity ( ! m9]al fragm5ts1 result+ 9 ! segregation or conc5tration ( ! ore m9]als 9 c]ta9 lay]s or *annels4 ,gold1 because ( its weight1 t5ds to "w d[n t[>d b$rock1 or into sc\r$ or excavat$ portions ( /ream *annels4 ,9 a few cases x is c>ri$ 9 "s quantity to ! sea & conc5trat$ 9 bea* s&s4 ,! processes are n unlike ! me*anical conc5tration ( ores by cru%+ & wat] sort+4 ,seldom1 h[ev]1 d ! processes g f> en\gh 9 nature to produce an ore :i* c be us$ directly )\t "s fur!r me*anical sort+4 ,ore m9]als conc5trat$ 9 plac]s are ^? :i* resi/ abrasion & *emical solution dur+ ! processes ( wea!r+ & transportation1 & :i* h a d5sity suffici5tly high s t !y are p>tially sort$ out & conc5trat$ f ! accompany+ qu>tz & o!r m9]als4 ,to w>rant _! recov]y !y mu/ also be ( su* high intr9sic value t x pays to m9e small quantities4 ,! mo/ important ( su* m9]als are gold1 t91 plat9um1 & ! preci\s /ones4 ,iron1 copp]1 lead1 & z9c m9]als are (t5 some:at conc5trat$ z plac]s1 b _! intr9sic value is n high en\gh to w>rant ! attempt to recov] !m 9 ! l>ge am\nts necess>y to make !m comm]cially available4 ,plac]s are =m+ n[ & h =m$ at all /ages ( ! e>?'s hi/ory4 ,e>ly plac]s may be rework$ & fur!r conc5trat$ by r5ewal ( ! prop] erosional & transportational conditions4 ,old plac]s may be buri$ b5ea? y\ng] rocks1 cem5t$1 & m or less recry/alliz$4 ,fossil plac]s ( ?is k9d are be/ repres5t$ by deposits 9 ! ,black ,hills ( ,s\? ,dakota & probably by ! ,s\? ,african gold deposits4 ,9 ! ,witwat]sr& deposits ( ,s\? ,africa1 ! gold is conc5trat$ 9 ! l[] p>ts ( l>ge conglom]ate & qu>tz s& lay]s ( great areal ext5t4 ,pebbles ( ! conglom]ate are ma9ly qu>tz & qu>tzite4 ,! gold1 9 p>ticles h>dly visible to ! eye1 is 9 a s&y matrix & is associat$ ) *loritoid1 s]icite1 calcite1 graphite1 & o!r m9]als4 ,! orig9 ( ! gold deposits ( ?is di/rict is n entirely agre$ on1 b ! evid5ce seems on ! :ole to favor _! plac] orig94 ,"s inve/igators ( ^! ores believe !m to h be5 introduc$ into ! conglom]ate & s& by lat] solutions1 possibly by hot solutions relat$ to c]ta9 diabase intrusions t cut ! b$s4 ,9 ! ve9 or lode or h>d-rock deposits1 ! gold is ma9ly metallic gold1 & to a m9or ext5t is 9 ! =m ( gold tellurides4 ,x is usually closely associat$ ) iron pyrite 9 a matrix or gangue ( qu>tz4 ,seldom is a gold deposit free f important values 9 o!r m9]als4 ,ab\t #hd p] c5t ( ! gold m9$ 9 ve9 or lode deposits ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates is associat$ ) silv] m9]als1 ! comb9$ value av]ag+ ab\t #f p] ton2 ab\t #ac p] c5t comes f copp] ores :i* h an av]age yield ( gold & silv] ( #ej;c4 p] ton2 & #c p] c5t comes f z9c & lead ores1 ) an av]age gold & silv] yield rang+ f #a to #f p] ton4 ,! geologic occurr5ce ( gold 9 ! copp]1 lead1 & z9c ores has already be5 ref]r$ to 9 ! discussions ( ^! ores4 ,ref]5ce w be made "h only to ! ve9 deposits 9 :i* gold1 ) silv]1 con/itutes ! pr9cipal values4 ,because ( _! common gangue ( qu>tz ^! are (t5 call$ dry or silice\s ores4 ,_! pr9cipal occurr5ce is 9 di/9ct fissure ve9s 9 igne\s rocks1 ) m or less replacem5t ( ! wall rock4 ,! igne\s rocks are commonly acid intrusives ( a granite or porphyry type1 less commonly intrusives ( gabbro & diabase & surface lavas ( rhyolite & basalt4 ,9 a few cases ! ores are contact-metamorphic deposits ( ! type describ$ "u copp] ores4 ,9 /ill r>] cases !y are 9 pegmatites4 ,gold is commonly associat$ ) m9]als & wall-rock alt]ations indicat+ deposition by hot solutions1 :i* are inf]r$ to h come f ! igne\s rocks4 ,because ( ! resi/ant nature bo? ( ore m9]als & gangue1 wea!r+ & second>y conc5tration h _h little effect 9 enri*+ gold deposits4 ,s f> z !re has be5 any noticeable effect on ! gold cont5t ( ! ores1 x has be5 due to ! lea*+ out ( o!r con/itu5ts1 pr9cipally pyrite & o!r sulphides1 leav+ ! gold pres5t 9 slightly l>g] proportions4 ,locally !re is evid5ce ( solution ( gold 9 wea!r$ zones & its deposition 9 ! sulphide zones bel[4 ,solution is believ$ to be accompli%$ by *loride solutions1 & is favor$ by ! pres5ce ( manganese :i* delays precipitation4 ,! precipitat+ ag5t bel[ may be f]r\s sulphate1 v>i\s sulphides1 native metals1 or organic matt]4 ,( ! ve9 or lode gold ores 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates "s ( ! mo/ productive & be/ kn[n h ! foll[+ geologic features3 ,! ,cali=nia gold belt ext5ds nor? & s\? along ! we/ slope ( ! ,si]ra ,nevada ,m\nta9s4 ,! ore is 9 a s]ies ( p>allel & ov]lapp+ ve9s /rik+ ) ! tr5d ( ! range1 associat$ ) granodiorite intrusives 9 s*i/ & slate4 ,!re is no pron\nc$ second>y conc5tration4 ,^! deposits are ! s\rce ( mo/ ( ! great plac] deposits ( ,cali=nia1 h5ce ! "n ,"m ,lode appli$ to a "p ( !m4 ,! pr9cipal ore deposits are some:at remov$ f ! ma9 mass ( intrusive :i* =ms ! cre/ ( ! ,si]ra ,nevada range1 & are m closely relat$ to ! small] simil> intrusive masses f>!r d[n ! slope4 ,! gangue is ma9ly qu>tz4 ,at ,juneau1 ,alaska1 great dikes ( albite-diorite intrude gre5/ones & s*i/s1 & l[-grade gold ores occur 9 %att]$ portions ( ! diorite4 ,^! ores 7 m9$ on a great scale at ! ,treadwell ,m9e4 ,ano!r fam\s l[-grade deposit is ! ,home/ake ,m9e 9 ! ,black ,hills ( ,s\? ,dakota1 :]e pre-,cambrian slates & s*i/s ( s$im5t>y orig9 are impregnat$ ) gold1 associat$ ) qu>tz1 dolomite1 calcite1 pyrite1 & o!r m9]als4 ,! orig9 is suppos$ to h "s connection ) intrusives into ! s*i/s2 b ! relations ( ! ores to intrusives1 bo? 9 age & 9 place1 pres5t _m puzzl+ que/ions :i* make conclusion z to orig9 v difficult4 ,9 ! ,cripple ,creek di/rict ( ,colorado1 a volcanic neck two or ?ree miles 9 diamet] breaks ?r\gh pre-,cambrian granites1 gneisses1 & s*i/s4 ,! volcanic rocks consi/ ma9ly ( tuffs & breccias cut by basic dikes4 ,! ore bodies are 9 fissures & %eet$ zones1 pr9cipally 9 ! granitic rocks1 b associat$ ) ^! dikes4 ,! ore is ma9ly gold telluride1 9 a gangue ( qu>tz toge!r ) pyrite & a v>iety ( m9]als *>act]i/ic ( hot-wat] solutions4 ,also ! wall rocks h ! *>act]i/ic hot-wat] alt]ations4 ,!re is slight enri*m5t ne> ! surface4 ,at ,goldfield1 ,nevada1 native gold is f\nd 9 surface igne\s fl[s ( a dacite type1 :i* h und]gone ext5sive hydro!rmal alt]ations *>act]iz$ by ! developm5t ( alunite 7a potassium-alum9um sulphate71 qu>tz1 & pyrite4 ,! ore fills fissures to "s ext5t1 b is ma9ly a replacem5t ( ! wall rock4 ,association ) typical hot-wat] m9]als & hydro!rmal alt]ations ( ! wall rock are aga9 believ$ to indicate ! orig9 ( ! ores ?r\gh asc5d+ hot solutions f a deep s\rce4 ,"o ( ! int]e/+ features ( ?is occurr5ce is ! abundance ( alunite4 ,sulphate m9]als are commonly =m$ by oxidiz+ solutions4 ,! abundant pres5ce1 !re=e1 ( a sulphate m9]al ) m9]als ( a prim>y deep-seat$ s\rce has l$ to mu* discussion ( orig94 ,! hypo!sis 0 develop$ t ^! m9]als result f ! int]action ( deep-seat$ sulphide-be>+ solutions ) surface oxidiz+ solutions4#ce ,x may be not$ t 9 rec5t ye>s o!r sulphate m9]als h be5 occasionally reg>d$ z prim>y1 includ+ gypsum1 anhydrite1 b>ite1 & o!rs4 ,x has be5 sugge/$ t if igne\s emanations conta9 free oxyg5 & sulphur1 or sulphur dioxide1 x w\ld be expect$ t z !y become cool sulphur trioxide w\ld be =m$ :i* w\ld result 9 ! sulphate at suitable temp]ature4#cf ,o!r deposits conta9+ gold are discuss$ 9 connection ) silv] on foll[+ pages4 ,,silv] ,,ores ,,economic ,,features ,silv] has two important uses--9 money & 9 ! arts4 ,z money1 x is us$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,europe = subsidi>y co9age1--silv] co9s normally circulat+ at m ?an _! intr9sic value1--b its greate/ monet>y use is 9 ,india & ,*9a1 :]e x has be5 ! basis = ! settlem5t ( =eign ex*ange balances4 ,9 ,*9a also x is ! money /&>d ( ! c\ntry4 ,9 ! arts1 silv] is employ$ *iefly 9 ! mak+ ( articles ( luxury1 su* z jewelry & tablew>e4 ,9 ! ,ori5t ?is use is closely relat$ to its use z money1 s9ce ! natives inve/ _! sav+s bo? 9 silv] jewelry & silv] co9s4 ,!re is "s consumption ( silv] by c]ta9 *emical indu/ries1 & quantities ( increas+ importance are us$ 9 ! =m ( silv] salts by ! photographic & mov+ picture indu/ries4 ,x has be5 e/imat$ t be=e #aiad ab\t two-?irds ( ! new silv] produc$ w5t into ! arts & "o-?ird into money4 ,dur+ ! w>1 h[ev]1 increas+ am\nts 7 us$ 9 co9age1 & less ?an "o-fif? ( ! output 0 us$ 9 ! arts4 ,dem&s = silv] = monet>y purposes w probably cont9ue to take ! l>g] "p ( ! _w's production = "s "t4 ,9 ?is connection x may be not$ t ,india has adopt$ a gold /&>d1 b t ! cons]vative habits ( ! population w d\btless cont9ue to call = l>ge am\nts ( silv]4 ,ab\t half ( ! silv] production ( ! _w comes f ! dry or silice\s silv] ores1 :i* are m9$ solely = t metal & ! associat$ gold2 & ab\t half ( ! production is obta9$ z a by-product 9 ! m9+ ( o!r metals1 pr9cipally copp] & lead4 ,! av]age grades ( ^! ores1 9 comb9$ values ( gold & silv]1 7 ref]r$ to on p4 #bbh4 ,:ile ! aggregate am\nt ( silv] obta9$ z a by-product ( o!r ores is l>ge1 ! p]c5tage ( silv] 9 ! copp] or lead 9 any m9e is ord9>ily v small4 ,consequ5tly ! _w output ( silv] dep5ds to a consid]able ext5t ^u conditions 9 ! copp]- & lead-m9+ indu/ries4 ,( ! total _w output ( silv]1 normally ab\t #ge p] c5t comes f ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,( ?is ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,mexico ea* produce ab\t two-fif?s & ,canada "o-fif?1 & m9or am\nts are produc$ 9 ,c5tral ,am]ica4 ,9 late ye>s1 political di/urbances 9 ,mexico r$uc$ t c\ntry's production to less ?an half ! normal figure1 & ! ,unit$ ,/ates took ! place :i* ,mexico _h held = _m ye>s z ! lead+ silv] produc]4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,mexican supply is obta9$ f ! ,rocky ,m\nta9 belt1 & ! ,canadian production comes *iefly f ! ,cobalt1 ,ont>io1 di/rict4 ,outside ( ,nor? ,am]ica ! pr9cipal produc+ areas are ,au/ralia1 ,s\? ,am]ica 7,p]u & to a less ext5t ,bolivia & ,*ile71 ,europe 7*iefly f ,spa91 ,g]many1 & ,au/ria-,hung>y1 b ) small] am\nts f all ! o!r c\ntries71 & ,japan4 ,?us1 :ile !re are s\rces ( silv] 9 _m places1 ! great bulk ( ! _w's output comes f ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,9 ! f9ancial own]%ip ( m9es1 includ+ own]%ip 9 o!r c\ntries1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates controls ov] half ! _w's silv]1 ,great ,brita9 ab\t a ?ird1 & ,g]many ab\t a t5? 7pr9cipally 9 ,mexico74 ,all ! silv] m9$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates is smelt$ & ref9$ by dome/ic plants2 & 9 addition mu* ( ! ,canadian1 ,mexican1 & ,s\? & ,c5tral ,am]ican silv] is export$ to ! ,unit$ ,/ates z ore & base bullion1 to be treat$ 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates is !re=e ! great silv]-sell+ c\ntry ( ! _w4 ,! great silv]-consum+ c\ntries are ,india & ,*9a1 & normally ab\t a half ( ! _w's output goes to ^! two c\ntries4 ,?is major movem5t ( silv]1 f ,am]ica to ! ,f> ,ea/1 takes place ?r\gh ! ,london m>ket1 s9ce ,engl& has be5 ! *ief nation trad+ 9 ! ,ori5t4 ,! balance ( ! _w's silv] consumption is widely di/ribut$ among ! c\ntries ( ,europe & ,s\? ,am]ica & ! ,unit$ ,/ates 7:i* consumes ab\t "o-t5? ( ! total74 ,= ! ,european trade mo/ ( ! silv] also goes ?r\gh ,london1 :i* is ! great cle>+-h\se & ! m>ket :]e prices are fix$4 ,9 ! lat] ye>s ( ! w> & imm$iately aft]1 ! dem&s = silv] 7 probably twice ! _w's output4 ,! result+ rise 9 price 0 unprec$5t$4 ,silv] actually became wor? m z bullion ?an z curr5cy1 & 9 ,europe mu* tr\ble 0 exp]i5c$ because ( its )drawal f curr5cy to be melt$ up4 ,?is condition 0 lat] foll[$ by an equally /rik+ drop 9 price z supply caught up ) dem&4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 z 9 _m o!r c\ntries1 x 0 desir$ dur+ ! w> to accumulate l>ge /ocks ( gold z a basis ( cr$it = ! flotation ( gov]nm5t loans1 & ! export ( gold 0 prohibit$4 ,consequ5tly 9 ! settlem5t ( =eign trade balances1 p>ticul>ly ) ! nations ( ! ,ori5t1 v l>ge am\nts ( silv] bullion _h to be us$4 ,curr5t production prov$ inadequate1 & x 0 necess>y to utilize ! /ocks ( silv] doll>s 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,treasury4 ,to ?is end ! ,pittman ,silv] ,act1 pass$ 9 ,april1 #aiah1 au?oriz$ ! melt+ d[n & conv]sion into bullion ( #cej1jjj1jjj doll>s out ( ! ,treasury /ock1 & ! retirem5t ( a correspond+ numb] ( silv] c]tificates & ! issue ( ,f$]al ,res]ve bank notes4 ,9 ?is mann] old /ocks ( silv]1 ,manila doll>s1 etc41 7 call$ into s]vice--?\gh ! /age 0 n rea*$1 z x 0 9 ,g]many1 :]e x became necess>y to melt d[n silv] plate & ornam5ts4 ,! silv] us$ = ex*ange & export 0 to be replac$ by ! pur*ase ( bullion f ,am]ican produc]s at #a p] ounce1 & its co9+ into new doll>s4 ,a m9imum price ( #a p] ounce 0 ?us e/abli%$ = silv] bullion4 ,! imm$iate result 0 to increase ! price ( silv] at ! m9e2 b ) ! cont9u$ rise 9 dem&s = silv]1 ! price 9 ! op5 m>ket w5t f> above ?is figure1 ! maximum be+ rea*$ 9 #aibj :5 ! price ( silv] w5t to #a4ci p] ounce4 ,naturally1 b little silv] 0 !n (f]$ to ! gov]nm5t at ! fix$ price ( #a "u ! ,pittman ,act4 ,) ! m rec5t slump 9 ! g5]al m>ket = silv] to a price bel[ #a1 (f]s to ! gov]nm5t "u ! ,pittman ,act h be5 r5ew$4 ,t "p ( ! silv] production :i* is a by-product ( copp] production has be5 l[ s9ce ! w>1 because ( ! /agnation 9 ! copp] indu/ry4 ,! production f lead ores1 on ! o!r h&1 0 n h&icapp$ by lack ( dem& = lead4 ,) ! re/oration ( ord] 9 ,mexico1 a presumption ( l>ge silv] production 9 t c\ntry may be expect$4 ,increases may probably be expect$ also f new m9es 9 ,burma & f ,bolivia4 ,on ! :ole1 no l>ge increase 9 _w production c be assum$ f pres5t kn[n res\rces4 ,new discov]ies w be necess>y to make any consid]able *ange4 ,( ! m9e production ( silv] 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ab\t two-?irds ( ! total comes f ! /ates ( ,montana1 ,utah1 ,idaho1 & ,nevada4 ,o!r consid]able produc]s are ,colorado1 ,arizona1 ,cali=nia1 ,alaska1 & ,new ,mexico4 ,all ! o!r /ates toge!r produce less ?an #e p] c5t ( ! total4 ,! mo/ important s+le di/ricts are ! ,butte di/rict ( ,montana1 ! ,coeur d',al5e di/rict ( ,idaho1 & ! ,tonopah di/rict ( ,nevada1 supply+ respectively ab\t "o-fif?1 "o-eigh?1 & "o-t5? ( ! c\ntry's total silv] output4 ,,geologic ,,features ,! mo/ important m9]al ( silv] is ! sulphide1 arg5tite or silv] glance4 ,o!r m9]als :i* yield a m9or p]c5tage ( ! total silv] produc$ are ! silv]-antimony sulphides1 pyr>gyrite or ruby silv]1 /ephanite or black silv]1 & polybasite2 ! silv]-ars5ic sulphides1 pr\/ite or light ruby silv] & pe>cite2 & ! silv] antimonide1 dyscrasite4 ,9 ! oxide zone ! mo/ abundant m9]als are c]>gyrite 7silv] *loride7 & native or horn silv]4 ,9 addition to ^! def9ite m9]al =ms1 silv] is pres5t 9 _m ores 9 an undet]m9$ =m 9 o!r sulphides1 notably 9 gal5a1 sphal]ite1 & pyrite4 ,silv] diff]s f gold 9 t x is *emically active & =ms _m /able comp\nds1 ( :i* only ! m important h be5 m5tion$4 ,! fact t half ! _w's silv] is obta9$ z a by-product 9 ! m9+ ( o!r metals has be5 ref]r$ to4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ab\t a ?ird ( ! production comes f dry or silice\s ores1 ov] a ?ird f lead & z9c ores1 & a f\r? to a ?ird f copp] ores4 ,a fraction ( #a p] c5t ( ! total is obta9$ z a by-product ( gold plac]s1 & all ! rema9d] is won f lode or h>d-rock deposits4 ,! g5]al geologic features ( ! silv]-be>+ copp] & lead ores1 & ( ! dry or silice\s gold & silv] ores1 h be5 describ$ on previ\s pages4 ,! ,philipsburg di/rict has be5 ref]r$ to 9 connection ) manganese ores1 & ! ,bolivian t9-silv] ores w be describ$ 9 connection ) t94 ,we %all consid] "h only a few ( ! m prom95t di/ricts :i* h be5 prim>ily silv] produc]s4 ,! ,cobalt di/rict ( nor!rn ,ont>io is ! mo/ productive silv] di/rict 9 ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,! ores are f\nd 9 num]\s %ort1 n>r[ ve9s1 pr9cipally 9 pre-,cambrian s$im5ts ne> a ?ick qu>tz-diabase sill4 ,locally !y p5etrate ! sill4 ,native silv] & v>i\s silv] sulphides1 ars5ides1 & antimonides are associat$ ) m9]als ( cobalt1 nickel1 bismu?1 lead1 & z9c1 9 a gangue ( calcite & "s qu>tz4 ,! ore is ( v high grade4 ,! ore m9]als are believ$ to h be5 deposit$ by hot solutions emanat+ f deep magmatic s\rces aft] ! intrusion ( ! diabase4 ,! pres5t oxidiz$ zone is v %all[1 b may h be5 deep] be=e be+ /ripp$ (f by glaciation2 x is *>act]iz$ by native silv] & ars5ates ( nickel & cobalt 9 ! =m ( ! gre5 nickel bloom & ! p9k cobalt bloom4 ,! silv] m9]als are di/9ctly lat] 9 orig9 ?an ! cobalt & nickel 9 ! unoxidiz$ zone1 z evid5c$ by ! relations ( ! m9]al individuals :5 se5 "u ! microscope4 ,?is fact1 toge!r ) ! abundance ( native silv] 9 ! oxide zone1 has sugge/$ d[nw>d conc5tration ( ! silv] by surface wat]s2 b rec5t /udies h indicat$ ! probability t "s ( ! silv] at lea/ 0 deposit$ by ! lat] asc5d+ solutions ( magmatic orig94 ,9 ! ,t9tic di/rict ( c5tral ,utah1 ,paleozoic lime/ones h be5 intrud$ by monzonite 7an acid granitic or porphyritic igne\s rock71 & cov]$ by surface fl[s1 ! fl[s = ! mo/ "p hav+ be5 remov$ by subsequ5t erosion4 ,! s$im5ts h be5 mu* fold$ & fault$1 & ! ore bodies occur z fissure ve9s :i* locally wid5 into *imneys or pipes 9 fracture zones1 accompani$ by mu* replacem5t ( lime/one4 ,!re is a r\gh zonal arrangem5t ( ! ore m9]als ar\nd ! intrusive1 gold & copp] m9]als 7*iefly en>gite & *alcopyrite7 be+ m prom95t ne> ! intrusive1 & arg5tif]\s gal5a & z9c bl5de ri*] at great] di/ances4 ,silv] con/itutes ! pr9cipal value4 ,! gangue is ma9ly f9e-gra9$ qu>tz or jasp]oid1 & b>ite4 ,! wat] table is at unusually great dep?s 7#b1djj feet7 & !re is a correspond+ly deep oxidiz$ zone1 :i* is *>act]iz$ by lead & z9c oxide m9]als mu* z at ,leadville 7p4 #bai74 ,! ,com/ock ,lode at ,virg9ia ,city1 ,nevada1 on ! ea/ slope ( ! ,si]ra ,nevadas1 0 "o ( ! mo/ fam\s bonanza deposits ( gold & silv] 9 ! _w4 ,:ile ! ri*] ore has all be5 extract$1 l[]-grade mat]ial is /ill be+ m9$ & ! fissure is /ill be+ foll[$1 9 ! hope ( "s day /rik+ ano!r fabul\sly ri* ore body4 ,! lode occupies a fault fissure p>allel to ! tr5d ( ! range & dipp+ ab\t #dj degrees to ! ea/1 :i* c be trac$ ab\t two & a half miles along ! /rike1 ) igne\s rocks =m+ bo? hang+ & foot walls4 ,!re are no s$im5t>y rocks 9 ! di/rict4 ,! high-grade "p ( ! ve9 is sev]al hundr$ feet 9 ?ickness1 ) _m irregul> bran*es2 ! great ?ickness has be5 ?\ght to be at lea/ 9 "p due to ! trem5d\s pressure ex]t$ by gr[+ qu>tz cry/als4 ,! wall rocks h und]gone a propylitic alt]ation1 ) developm5t ( *lorite1 epidote1 & probably s]icite1 mu* z at ,butte4 ,! ore conta9s ri* silv] sulphide m9]als & native gold1 9 a gangue compos$ almo/ entirely ( qu>tz4 ,! ore 0 d\btless =m$ by hot solutions1 b ! exact nature ( ^! solutions1 :e!r magmatic or meteoric1 has n be5 prov54 ,! hypo!sis 0 e>ly develop$ t ! ores 7 deposit$ by surface wat]s1--:i* are suppos$ to h fall5 on ! summits ( ! ,si]ra ,nevadas1 to h sunk to great dep?s :]e !y 7 heat$1 enabl+ !m to pick up metallic con/itu5ts f ! diabase =m+ "o wall ( ! ore body1 & to h ris5 "u artesian pressure along ! fault plane1 :]e loss ( heat & pressure result$ 9 deposition4 ,lat] /udies h emphasiz$ ! simil>ity ( ! ore-deposit+ conditions ) ^? 9 o!r di/ricts :]e ! ores are believ$ to h come directly f magmatic s\rces1 & ?is orig9 is n[ g5]ally favor$ = ! ,com/ock ,lode4 ,h[ev]1 ! e>li] !ory has n be5 disprov$4 ,! ,tonopah1 ,nevada1 di/rict is v simil> to ! ,goldfield di/rict 7p4 #bcj74 ,silv] & gold are f\nd 9 ve9s & replacem5ts 9 a s]ies ( ,t]ti>y volcanic fl[s & tuffs1 all ( :i* h be5 complexly fault$4 ,silv] is ! dom9ant con/itu5t ( value4 ,! =mation ( fissures & faults accompany+ & caus$ by ! intrusion & cool+ ( lavas 0 fir/ cle>ly %[n 9 ?is di/rict4 ,evid5ces ( orig9 ?r\gh ! "w ( hot solutions1 probably magmatic1 are ! close association ( ! ores 9 place & 9 "t ) ! igne\s rocks--ore deposition 9 mo/ ( ! fl[s hav+ tak5 place be=e ! next ov]ly+ fl[s 7 put d[n1--! pres5ce ( fluor9e1 ! nature ( ! wall-rock alt]ations1 ! fact t bo? hot & cold spr+s are f\nd close toge!r und]gr\nd 7indicat+ unusual s\rces = ! hot spr+s71 ! contra/ 9 composition betwe5 ! ores & ! c\ntry rock1 & ! g5]al relation ( ^! ores to a l>ge numb] ( simil> occurr5ces 9 ,t]ti>y lavas 9 ! same g5]al area4 ,"u wea!r+ conditions1 ! silv] sulphide m9]als 9 g5]al are oxidiz$ to =m native silv] & c]>gyrite1 :i* are relatively insoluble & rema9 = ! mo/ "p 9 ! oxide zone4 ,silv] is less soluble ?an copp] & z9c1 b m soluble ?an gold2 & to "s ext5t x is remov$ 9 solution1 p>ticul>ly :]e ! oxidation ( pyrite =ms f]ric sulphate4 ,f>!r d[n x may be reprecipitat$ z native silv]1 arg5tite1 & ! sulpho-salts1 by organic matt] or by v>i\s sulphides4 ,! second>ily enri*$ ores are 9 a few di/ricts1 z at ,philipsburg1 ,montana1 ! mo/ valuable portions ( ! deposits4 ,9 o!r cases1 sulphide enri*m5t does n appe> to h contribut$ greatly to ! values4 ,! zones ( oxide ores1 second>y sulphide ores1 & prim>y or protores are 9 mo/ silv] deposits mu* less regul> & mu* less def9itely m>k$ ?an 9 ! case ( copp] ores4 ,,plat9um ,,ores ,,economic ,,features ,! pr9cipal uses ( plat9um are3 z a catalytic ag5t 9 ! contact process = ! manufacture ( sulphuric acid1 & 9 ! mak+ ( nitric acid f ammonia2 = *emical laboratory ut5sils t mu/ be resi/ant to heat & acids2 = electrical contacts = c]ta9 telephone1 telegraph1 & electrical control in/rum5ts1 & = int]nal combu/ion eng9es2 9 d5tal "w2 & = jewelry4 ,9 normal times be=e ! w>1 x is e/imat$ t 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! jewelry & d5tal indu/ries us$ #ge p] c5t ( ! plat9um metals consum$1 ! electrical indu/ry #bj p] c5t1 & ! *emical indu/ry #e p] c5t4 ,dur+ ! w>1 ) ! extraord9>y expansion ( sulphuric & nitric acid plants1 ^! proportions 7 rev]s$ & ! *emical & electrical indu/ries consum$ ab\t two-?irds ( ! plat9um4 ,sub/itutes h be5 develop$1 p>ticul>ly = ! electrical uses1 & ! dem& f ?is qu>t] may be expect$ to decrease4 ,ab\t #ij p] c5t ( ! _w's crude plat9um produc$ annually comes f ! ,ural ,m\nta9s 9 ,russia4 ,! deposits next 9 importance are ^? ( ,colombia4 ,small am\nts are produc$ 9 ,new ,s\? ,wales1 ,tasmania1 ,new ,zeal&1 ,borneo1 ,briti% ,columbia1 ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,india1 & ,spa92 & z a by-product 9 ! electrolytic ref9+ ( ! ,sudbury1 ,canada1 nickel ores4 ,! ext5sion ( ?is me?od ( ref9+ to all ( ! ,sudbury ores w\ld create an important supply ( plat9um4 ,! ,colombian output has be5 increas+ rapidly s9ce #aiaa4 ,mean:ile ! ,russian production has decl9$2 & f ! be/ in=mation available1 x is n likely t ,russia w be able to ma9ta9 production = _m m ye>s4 ,e/imates ( ! life ( ! ,russian fields are f #ab to #bj ye>s at ! pre-w> rate ( production4 ,! plat9um situation is comm]cially controll$ by buy+ & m9e-op]at+ ag5cies1--! ,fr5* hav+1 be=e ! w>1 practically dom9at$ ! ,russian indu/ry1 :ile ,am]ican int]e/s controll$ 9 ,colombia4 ,! situation is fur!r influ5c$ by f\r l>ge ref9]ies1 9 ,engl&1 ,g]many1 ,unit$ ,/ates1 & ,france4 ,be=e ! w> ! ,unit$ ,/ates produc$ less ?an #a p] c5t ( ! new plat9um x consum$ annually4 ,production comes pr9cipally f ,cali=nia1 ) small] am\nts f ,oregon1 ,alaska1 & ,nevada4 ,! _m ef=ts :i* h be5 made to develop an adequate dome/ic supply ( ?is metal d n indicate t ! ,unit$ ,/ates c ev] hope to become indep5d5t ( =eign s\rces = its future supplies ( plat9um4 ,!re is little reason to d\bt t ! ,colombia field1 comm]cially dom9at$ by ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 holds great promise = ! future4 ,! output has come l>gely f native h& labor1 & ) ! in/allation ( dr$ges c probably be greatly increas$4 ,dur+ ! w>1 ! ne$ = plat9um = w> manufactures 0 s urg5t & ! production s r$uc$1 t re/rictions aga9/ its use 9 jewelry 7 put into =ce 9 all ! alli$ c\ntries4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates gov]nm5t secur$ quantities ( plat9um :i* w\ld h be5 suffici5t = sev]al ye>s' use if w> _h cont9u$4 ,) ! cessation ( ho/ilities re/rictions on ! use ( plat9um 7 remov$1 & ! accumulat$ metal 0 releas$ by ! gov]nm5t f "t to "t 9 small quantities2 b ! dem&s = plat9um 9 ! arts 7 s great t prices = a "t t5d$ to ev5 high] levels ?an dur+ ! w>4 ,m rec5tly supply is aga9 approa*+ dem&4 ,,geologic ,,features ,plat9um1 l gold1 occurs *iefly z ! native metal4 ,?is is usually f\nd alloy$ ) iron & ) o!r metals ( ! plat9um gr\p1 especially iridium1 rhodium1 & palladium4 ,mo/ ( ! plat9um z us$ 9 jewelry & = electrical purposes conta9s iridium1 :i* s]ves to h>d5 x4 ,paladium-gold alloys are a sub/itute = plat9um1 *iefly 9 d5tal uses4 ,! orig9al home ( plat9um is 9 basic igne\s rocks1 su* z p]idotites1 pyrox5ites1 & dunites1 :]e x has be5 f\nd 9 small1 scatt]$ cry/als int]gr[n ) oliv9e1 pyrox5e1 & *romite4 ,plat9um is v d5se & highly resi/ant to oxidation & solution4 ,9 ! break+ up & wa%+ away ( ! rocks1 !re=e1 x is conc5trat$ 9 small gra9s & scales 9 /ream & bea* plac]s4 ,( ! _w production ( plat9um ov] #ii p] c5t has be5 d]iv$ f plac]s4 ,! ,ural ,m\nta9 deposits ( ,russia are gold- & plat9um-be>+ plac]s1 9 /reams :i* dra9 areas ( dunite rock conta9+ m9ute quantities ( native plat9um4 ,! deposits ( ,colombia & ,au/ralasia are plac]s ( a simil> "*4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates small quantities ( plat9um are recov]$ f ! gold-be>+ gravels ( ,cali=nia & ,oregon1 :]e ! /reams h come f areas ( s]p5t9e & p]idotite4 ,a plat9um ars5ide1 call$ sp]rylite1 is sometimes f\nd associat$ ) sulphide m9]als 9 basic igne\s rocks4 ,at ,sudbury1 ,ont>io1 ?is m9]al1 toge!r ) palladium ars5ide1 is f\nd 9 ! nickel ores1 especially 9 ! wea!r$ zone :]e x is conc5trat$ by removal ( m soluble mat]ials4 ,x has also be5 f\nd 9 ! copp] m9es ( ,rambl]1 ,wyom+4 ,9 ! ,yell[ ,p9e di/rict ( s\!rn ,nevada1 metallic gold-plat9um-palladium ore %oots are f\nd 9 association ) copp] & lead ores1 9 a f9e-gra9$ qu>tz mass :i* replaces b$s ( lime/one ne> a granitic dike4 ,no basic intrusives are kn[n 9 ! di/rict4 ,! deposit is unusual 9 t x has a comp>atively high cont5t ( plat9um 7ne>ly an ounce to ! ton71 & is probably g5etically relat$ to acid intrusives4 ,f all ^! deposits1 only small quantities ( plat9um are m9$4 ,,footnotes3 #cd ,report ( a jo9t committee appo9t$ f ! ,bureau ( ,m9es & ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,geological ,survey by ! ,secret>y ( ! ,int]ior to /udy ! gold situation3 ,bull4 #add1 ,u4 ,s4 ,bureau ( ,m9es1 #aiai4 ,see also ,report ( ,special ,gold ,committee to ,secret>y ( ! ,treasury1 ,febru>y #aa1 #aiai4 #ce ,ransome1 ,f4 ,l41 ,! geology & ore deposits ( ,goldfield1 ,nevada3 ,pr(4 ,pap] #ff1 ,u4,s4 ,geol4 ,survey1 #aiji1 p4 #aic4 #cf ,butl]1 ,b4 ,s41 ,l\ghl91 ,g4 ,f41 ,heikes1 ,v4 ,c41 & o!rs1 ,! ore deposits ( ,utah3 ,pr(4 ,pap] #aaa1 ,u4,s4 ,geol4 ,survey1 #aibj1 p4 #aie4 ,,*apt] ,,xii ,,miscellane\s ,,metallic ,,m9]als ,,alum9um ,,ores ,,economic ,,features ,bauxite 7hydrat$ alum9um oxide7 is ! pr9cipal ore ( alum9um4 ,ov] ?ree-f\r?s ( ! _w's bauxite production & #fe p] c5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates production is us$ = ! manufacture ( alum9um4 ,on an av]age six tons ( bauxite are requir$ to make "o ton ( metallic alum9um4 ,o!r important uses ( bauxite are 9 ! manufacture ( artificial abrasives 9 ! electric furnace1 & 9 ! prep>ation ( alum1 alum9um sulphate1 & o!r *emicals :i* are us$ = wat]-purification1 tann+1 & dye+4 ,relatively small b increas+ly important quantities are us$ 9 mak+ bauxite brick or high alum9a refractories = furnace-l9+s4 ,alum9um is us$ pr9cipally 9 ca/+s & drawn & press$ w>e1 = purposes 9 :i* lightness1 malleability1 & unalt]ability "u ord9>y *emical reag5ts are desir$4 ,?us x is us$ 9 p>ts ( airplane & automobile eng9es1 9 h\sehold ut5sils1 & rec5tly 9 ! framework ( airplanes4 ,alum9um wire has be5 us$ z a sub/itute = copp] wire z an electrical conductor4 ,alum9um is us$ 9 metallurgy to remove oxyg5 f iron & /eel1 & also 9 ! manufacture ( alloys4 ,p[d]$ alum9um is us$ = ! production ( high temp]atures 9 ! ,!rmite process1 & is a con/itu5t ( ! explosive1 ammonal1 & ( alum9um pa9ts4 ,deposits ( bauxite usually conta9 z impurities silica 79 ! =m ( kaol9 or hydr\s alum9um silicate71 iron oxide1 & titanium m9]als1 9 v>y+ proportions4 ,bauxites to be ( comm]cial grade %\ld c>ry at lea/ #ej p] c5t alum9a1 & = ! mak+ ( alum9um %\ld be l[ 9 silica ?\gh ! cont5t ( iron may be fairly high4 ,= alum9um *emicals mat]ials l[ 9 iron & titanium are pref]r$2 & = refractories :i* mu/ )/& high temp]atures1 l[ iron cont5t seems to be necess>y4 ,! abrasive trade 9 g5]al uses l[-silica high-iron bauxites4 ,! only l>ge produc]s ( bauxite are ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,france1 :i* suppli$ 9 normal times be=e ! w> ov] #ie p] c5t ( ! _w's total4 ,small am\nts are produc$ 9 ,irel&1 ,italy1 ,india1 & ,briti% ,guiana4 ,dur+ ! w> a great deal ( l[-grade bauxite 0 m9$ 9 ,au/ria-,hung>y & possibly 9 ,g]many2 b on acc\nt ( ! l>ge res]ves ( high-grade mat]ial 9 o!r p>ts ( ! _w1 x is d\btful :e!r ^! deposits w be utiliz$ 9 ! future4 ,bauxites ( good grade h be5 report$ f ,africa1 ,au/ralia1 & _m localities 9 ,india4 ,f geologic consid]ations x is practically c]ta9 t !re are v l>ge quantities available = ! future 9 "s ( ^! regions4 ,! int]national movem5ts & ! consumption ( bauxite are l>gely det]m9$ by ! manufacture ( alum9um1 & to a less] ext5t by ! manufacture ( abrasives & *emicals4 ,! pr9cipal =eign produc]s ( alum9um are ,france1 ,switz]l& 7works p>tly ,g]man-own$71 ,norway 7works controll$ by ,engli% & ,fr5* capital71 ,engl&1 ,canada1 ,italy1 ,g]many1 & ,au/ria4 ,fr5* bauxite has normally suppli$ ! entire ,european dem&s1--) ! exceptions t ,italy procures "p ( h] requirem5ts at home1 & t ! ,iri% deposits furni% a small fraction ( ! ,engli% dem&4 ,! deposits ( s\!rn ,france1 controll$ l>gely by ,fr5* b 9 "p by ,briti% capital1 h l>ge res]ves & w probably cont9ue to meet ! bulk ( ,european requirem5ts4 ,france also has important res]ves ( bauxite 9 ,fr5* ,guiana4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates produces ab\t half ( ! alum9um ( ! _w1 & is ! l>ge/ manufactur] ( artificial abrasives & probably ( alum9um *emicals4 ,mo/ ( ^! are made f dome/ic bauxite4 ,prior to ! w>1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates import$ ab\t #aj p] c5t ( ! bauxite consum$1 b ^! imports 7 ma9ly high-grade ,fr5* bauxite :i* c]ta9 mak]s ( *emicals pref]r$ to ! dome/ic mat]ial4 ,! small production ( ,guiana is also import$ into ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,bauxite is export$ to ,canadian mak]s ( alum9um & abrasives4 ,dur+ ! w> p]iod dome/ic deposits 7 entirely capable ( supply+ all ! dome/ic z well z ,canadian dem&s = bauxite1 al?\gh ^! dem&s increas$ to two & "o-half times _! previ\s figure4 ,at ! same "t consid]able am\nts ( manufactur$ alum9um products 7 export$ to ,europe1 :]eas alum9um _h previ\sly be5 import$ f sev]al ,european c\ntries4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates production ( bauxite comes ma9ly f ,arkansas1 ) small] am\nts f ,t5nessee1 ,alabama1 & ,georgia4 ,! res]ves are l>ge b are n inexhau/ible4 ,mo/ ( ! important deposits are controll$ by ! l>ge consum]s ( bauxite1 pr9cipally ! ,alum9um ,company ( ,am]ica & its subsidi>ies1 ?\gh c]ta9 *emical & abrasive companies own "s deposits4 ,! ,alum9um ,company ( ,am]ica also controls imm5se deposits ( high-grade bauxite 9 ,dut* & ,briti% ,guiana1 & fur!r exploration by ,am]ican int]e/s is "u way4 ,) ! return to normal conditions s9ce ! w>1 "s ( ! dome/ic bauxite deposits probably c n be work$ at a pr(it1 a situation :i* is likely to require ! developm5t ( ! tropical ,am]ican deposits4 ,,geologic ,,features ,alum9um is ! ?ird mo/ abundant elem5t 9 ! common rocks & is an important con/itu5t ( mo/ rock m9]als2 b 9 its usual occurr5ce x is s closely lock$ up 9 *emical comb9ations t ! metal _c be extract$ on a comm]cial scale4 ,9 ! cry/all9e =m alum9um oxide con/itutes "s ( ! mo/ valuable gem /ones4 ,_m ord9>y clays & %ales conta9 #be to #ce p] c5t alum9a 7,al#b,o#c71 & ! p]fection ( a process = _! utilization w\ld make available almo/ unlimit$ alum9um supplies4 ,! pr9cipal m9]als f :i* alum9um is recov]$ today are hydr\s alum9um oxides1 ! mo/ prom95t ( :i* are bauxite1 gibbsite1 & diaspore--! aggregate ( all ^! m9]als go+ comm]cially "u ! "n ( bauxite4 ,prior to ! discov]y ( bauxite ores1 cryolite1 a sodium-alum9um fluoride obta9$ f pegmatites 9 ,gre5l&1 0 ! *ief s\rce ( alum9um4 ,x is only )9 ab\t ! la/ ?irty-five ye>s t bauxite has be5 us$ & t alum9um has become an important mat]ial ( mod]n indu/ry4 ,cryolite is us$ today to =m a molt5 ba? 9 :i* ! bauxite is electrolytically r$uc$ to alum9um4 ,bauxite deposits 9 g5]al are =m$ by ! ord9>y katamorphic processes ( surface wea!r+1 :5 act+ on ! "r k9d ( rocks & c>ri$ to an extreme4 ,9 ! wea!r+ ( ord9>y rocks ! bases are lea*$ out & c>ri$ away1 leav+ a por\s mass ( clay 7hydr\s alum9um silicates71 qu>tz1 & iron oxide4 ,9 ! wea!r+ ( rocks high 9 alum9a1 & l[ 9 iron m9]als & qu>tz1 deposits ( residual clay or kaol9 ne>ly free f iron oxide & qu>tz are =m$4 ,"u ord9>y wea!r+ conditions ! kaol9 is /able2 b "u favorable conditions1 su* z obta9 9 ! wea!r$ zones ( tropical climates1 x is brok5 up1 ! silica is tak5 into solution & c>ri$ away1 & hydr\s alum9um oxides rema9 z bauxite ores4 ,?is extreme type ( wea!r+ is sometimes call$ lat]itic alt]ation 7see pp4 #agb-agc74 ,impurities ( ! bauxite ores are ! small quantities ( iron & titanium pres5t 9 ! orig9al rocks1 toge!r ) ! kaol9 :i* has n be5 brok5 up4 ,! deposits usually =m %all[ blankets ov] consid]able areas1 ) irregul> l[] surfaces det]m9$ by ! action ( surface wat]s--:i* "w mo/ effectively :]e jo9ts or o!r conditions favor ! maximum circulation & alt]ation4 ,a c]ta9 degree ( porosity 9 ! orig9al rock is also kn[n to favor ! alt]ation4 ,a complete gradation f ! unalt]$ rock ?r\gh clay to ! high-grade bauxite1 ) progressive decrease 9 bases & silica1 conc5tration ( alum9a & iron oxide1 & increase ( moi/ure & pore space1 is frequ5tly evid5t 7see ,fig4 #ac74 ,! bauxite is e>?y1 & usually %[s a concretion>y or pisolitic /ructure simil> to t obs]v$ 9 residual iron ores 7p4 #agb74 ,ne> ! surface !re may be an increase 9 silica1--probably due to a rev]sal ( ! usual conditions by a slight lea*+ ( alum9a1 ?us conc5trat+ ! d5s] masses ( kaol9 :i* h n be5 decompos$4 ,! ,arkansas bauxite deposits1 ! mo/ important 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 are surface deposits ov]ly+ nephel9e-sy5ite1 an igne\s rock ) a high ratio ( alum9a to iron cont5t4 ,! mo/ valuable deposits are residual1 & "s p>ts h pres]v$ ! texture ( ! orig9al rock1 ?\gh ) great increase 9 pore space2 mo/ ( ! ore1 h[ev]1 has ! typical pisolitic /ructure4 ,ne> ! surface ! pisolites are sometimes loos5$ by wea!r+1 yield+ a gravel ore1 & "s ( ! mat]ial has be5 transport$ a %ort di/ance to =m detrital ores int]/ratifi$ ) s&s & gravels4 ,! complete gradation f sy5ite to bauxite has be5 %[n4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,diagram %[+ gradation f sy5ite to bauxite 9 t]ms ( volume4 ,! columns repres5t a s]ies ( samples f a s+le locality 9 ,arkansas4 ,aft] ,mead4 ,9 ! ,appala*ian region ( ,t5nessee1 ,alabama1 & ,georgia1 bauxite occurs z pockets 9 residual clays above s$im5t>y rocks1 *iefly above %ales & dolomites4 ,its orig9 has probably be5 simil> to t describ$4 ,! bauxite deposits ( s\!rn ,france occur 9 fold$ lime/ones1 & h be5 ascrib$ by ,fr5* writ]s to ! "w ( asc5d+ hot wat]s c>ry+ alum9um sulphate4 ,!y pres5t "s unusual features1 & evid5ce z to _! orig9 is n conclusive4 ,at ! pres5t "t bauxite is d\btless =m+ 9 tropical climates1 :]e conditions are favorable = deep & extreme wea!r+ ( ! lat]itic type4 ,! break+ up ( kaol9 accompani$ by ! removal ( silica is n *>act]i/ic ( temp]ate climates1 ?\gh _m clays 9 ^! climates %[ "s bauxite4 ,x is possible t1 at ! "t :5 ! bauxite deposits ( ,arkansas & o!r temp]ate regions 7 =m$1 ! climate ( ^! places 0 w>m] ?an x is today4 ,9 /udy+ ! orig9 ( bauxites1 x %\ld n be ov]look$ t !y h mu* 9 common ) clays1 c]ta9 iron ores1 & _m o!r deposits =m$ by wea!r+4 ,,antimony ,,ores ,,economic ,,features ,antimony is us$ ma9ly = alloy+ ) o!r metals4 ,ov] "o-?ird ( ! antimony consum$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates is alloy$ ) t9 & copp] 9 ! manufacture ( babbitt or be>+-metal4 ,o!r important alloys include type-metal 7lead1 antimony1 & t971 :i* has ! prop]ty ( exp&+ on solidification2 h>d lead1 a lead-antimony alloy us$ 9 mak+ acid-resi/+ valves2 ,britannia or :ite metal 7antimony1 t91 copp]1 z9c71 utiliz$ = *eap dome/ic tablew>e2 & "s brasses & bronzes1 sold]s1 alum9um alloys1 patt]n metals1 & mat]ials = batt]y plates & cable cov]+s4 ,antimony f9ds a v l>ge use 9 w> times 9 ! mak+ ( %rapnel bullets f antimonial lead4 ,antimony oxides are us$ 9 :ite enamel+ ( metal surfaces1 z color+ ag5ts 9 ! manufacture ( glass1 & z pa9t pigm5ts2 ! r$ sulphides are us$ 9 vulcaniz+ & color+ rubb]1 z pa9t pigm5ts1 9 p]cussion caps1 & 9 safety mat*es2 & o!r salts f9d a wide v>iety ( m9or uses 9 *emical indu/ries & 9 m$ic9e4 ,antimony ores v>y greatly 9 grade1 ! ,*9ese ores c>ry+ f #bj to #fd p] c5t ( ! metal4 ,! pres5ce ( ars5ic & copp] 9 ! ores is undesirable4 ,sev]al ( ! m important antimony di/ricts owe _! economical production ( t metal to ! pres5ce ( recov]able values 9 gold4 ,"s lead-silv] ores conta9 small quantities ( antimony1 & antimonial lead1 conta9+ #ab to #ah p] c5t antimony1 is recov]$ 9 _! smelt+4 ,*9a is by f> ! mo/ important antimony-produc+ c\ntry 9 ! _w1 & normally supplies ov] half ! _w's total4 ,*9ese antimony is export$ 9 "p z antimony crude 7lumps ( ne$le-l antimony sulphide71 & 9 "p z antimony regulus1 :i* is ab\t #ii p] c5t pure metal4 ,france 0 ! only o!r important s\rce ( antimony be=e ! w> 7#be to #cj p] c5t ( ! _w production71 & ,mexico & ,hung>y produc$ small am\nts4 ,! l>ge dem& = antimony occasion$ by ! w>1 besides /imulat+ production 9 ^! c\ntries1 br\ght =? important am\nts ( antimony ore f ,alg]ia 7,fr5* control7 & f ,bolivia & ,au/ralia 7,briti% control71 z well z small] quantities f sev]al o!r c\ntries4 ,( ! w>-develop$ s\rces1 only ,alg]ia & p]haps ,au/ralia are expect$ to cont9ue production "u normal conditions4 ,be=e ! w>1 antimony 0 smelt$ *iefly 9 ,*9a1 ,engl&1 & ,france1 & to a less] ext5t 9 ,g]many4 ,briti% & ,fr5* comm]cial & smelt+ int]e/s dom9at$ to a consid]able ext5t ! _w situation1 & ,london 0 ! pr9cipal antimony m>ket ( ! _w4 ,dur+ ! w> ,*9ese antimony int]e/s 7 greatly /r5g!n$1 & facilities = treat+ ! ore 9 t c\ntry 7 increas$4 ,japan also became important z a smelt] & m>ket] ( ,*9ese ore1 & increas+ quantities ( antimony 7 export$ f ,*9a & ,japan directly to ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,engli% exports ceas$ entirely & 7 replac$ 9 ?is c\ntry by ,*9ese & ,japanese br&s4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates normally consumes ab\t "o-?ird ( ! _w's antimony4 ,be=e ! w> ! entire am\nt 0 secur$ by importation1 two-?irds f ,great ,brita9 & ! re/ f ! ,ori5t1 ,france1 & o!r ,european c\ntries4 ,dome/ic production ( ore & smelt+ ( =eign ores 7 negligible4 7,^! /atem5ts ref] only to ! pur] =ms ( antimony2 ! ,unit$ ,/ates normally produces consid]able am\nts ( antimonial lead1 equival5t to some:at less ?an #e p] c5t ( ! c\ntry's total lead production1 b ?is mat]ial _c be sub/itut$ = antimony regulus 9 mo/ ( its uses47 ,dur+ ! w>1 "u ! /imulus ( ris+ prices1 m9+ ( antimony 0 und]tak5 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates & sev]al ?\s& tons ( metal 7 produc$--pr9cipally f ,nevada1 ) small] am\nts f ,alaska1 ,cali=nia1 & o!r we/]n /ates4 ,! great dem&s = antimony1 h[ev]1 7 met *iefly by increas$ importation4 ,imports 7 ma9ly ( regulus f ,*9ese & ,japanese smelt]s ( ,*9ese antimony2 b ab\t a ?ird 0 conta9$ 9 ores1 includ+ mo/ ( ! production ( ,mexico :i* _h =m]ly gone to ,engl&1 & ab\t #ae p] c5t ( ! ,bolivian output4 ,antimony smelt]s 7 develop$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates to h&le ^! ores4 ,at ! close ( ho/ilities !re _h accumulat$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates l>ge surplus /ocks ( antimony & antimonial mat]ials4 ,) a v dull m>ket & l[ prices1 dome/ic m9es & smelt]s 7 oblig$ to close d[n4 ,! dep5d5ce ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates on =eign s\rces ( antimony & ! importance ( ! metal = w> purposes l$ to "s agitation = a protective t>iff--9 addition to ! pres5t import duty ( #aj p] c5t on antimony metal--9 ord] to enc\rage home production 7see pp4 #cfe-cff1 #cic-cid74 ,9 summ>y1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates is almo/ entirely dep5d5t ^u outside s\rces = its antimony1 al?\gh !re are inadequately kn[n res]ves 9 ?is c\ntry :i* might be exploit$ if prices 7 ma9ta9$ at a high level4 ,! future ( ,unit$ ,/ates smelt]s is problematical4 ,*9a1 ! _w's *ief s\rce ( antimony1 at pres5t dom9ates ! m>ket 9 ?is c\ntry1 l>gely due to ! l[ co/ ( production & favorable ,japanese freight rates4 ,,geologic ,,features ,! antimony sulphide1 /ibnite1 is ! s\rce ( mo/ ( ! _w's production ( ?is metal4 ,antimony oxides1 includ+ s5>montite1 c]vantite1 & o!rs1 are =m$ ne> ! surface1 & 9 "s ( ! deposits ( ,mexico & ,alg]ia !y supply a l>ge "p ( ! values recov]$4 ,jamesonite1 b\rnonite1 & tetrah$rite 7sulphantimonides ( lead & copp]71 :5 f\nd 9 lead-silv] deposits1 are to "s ext5t a s\rce ( antimony 9 ! =m ( antimonial lead4 ,/ibnite is f\nd 9 a v>iety ( associations & is pres5t 9 small quantities 9 _m types ( deposits4 ,9 ! comm]cial antimony deposits1 x is 9 mo/ cases accompani$ by m9or quantities ( o!r metallic sulphides--pyrite1 c9nab>1 sphal]ite1 gal5a1 ars5opyrite1 etc4--9 a gangue ( qu>tz & sometimes calcite4 ,_m ( ! deposits conta9 recov]able am\nts ( gold & silv]4 ,! deposits ( ! ,hunan ,prov9ce ( s\!rn ,*9a occur z seams1 pockets1 & bun*es ( /ibnite ore 9 g5tly undulat+ b$s ( fault$ & fissur$ dolomitic lime/one4 ,9 ! vic9ity ( ! mo/ important m9es no igne\s rocks h be5 obs]v$1 & ! orig9 ( ! ores has n be5 work$ out4 ,9 ! ,c5tral ,plateau ( ,france ! num]\s antimony deposits are /ibnite ve9s cutt+ granites & ! surr\nd+ s*i/s & s$im5ts4 ,an orig9 relat$ 9 "s way to hot asc5d+ solutions seems probable4 ,! deposits ( ! ,national di/rict ( we/]n ,nevada1 ! mo/ important w>-develop$ antimony deposits ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 consi/ ( /ibnite ve9s ) a gangue ( f9e-gra9$ drusy qu>tz1 cutt+ ?r\gh fl[s ( rhyolite & basalt4 ,!y are intimately relat$ to c]ta9 gold- & silv]-be>+ ve9s1 & all are closely associat$ ) dikes ( rhyolite1 :i* 7 ! fe$]s to ! late/ extrusion 9 ! di/rict4 ,! wall rocks h und]gone alt]ation ( ! propylitic type4 ,^! relations1 & ! pres5ce ( ! m]cury sulphide1 c9nab>1 9 "s ( ! ores 7see pp4 #beh-bei71 sugge/ an orig9 ?r\gh ! "w ( asc5d+ hot wat]s or hot spr+s4 ,^! wat]s probably d]iv$ _! dissolv$ matt] f a magmatic s\rce1 & work$ up along v5ts ne> ! rhyolite dikes soon aft] ! eruption ( ?is rock4 ,9 ! wea!r+ ( antimony deposits1 ! /ibnite usually alt]s to =m insoluble :ite or yell[i% oxides1 :i* are sometimes call$ antimony o*]4 ,^! t5d to accumulate 9 ! oxide zone ?r\gh ! removal ( ! m soluble accompany+ m9]als4 ,second>y sulphide enri*m5t ( antimony deposits1 if x occurs at all1 is negligible4 ,,ars5ic ,,ores ,,economic ,,features ,ab\t two-?irds ( ! ars5ic consum$ 9 rec5t ye>s has be5 us$ 9 agriculture1 :]e v>i\s ars5ic comp\nds--ars5ic trioxide or :ite ars5ic1 ,p>is gre51 lead ars5ate1 etc4--are us$ z insecticides & we$ kill]s4 ,ars5ic comp\nds are also us$ 9 cattle-dips = kill+ v]m94 ,! only o!r l>ge use ( ars5ic is 9 ! glass indu/ry1 ars5ic trioxide be+ add$ to ! molt5 glass to purify & decolorize ! product4 ,small quantities ( ars5ic comp\nds are us$ 9 ! prep>ation ( drugs & dye+ mat]ials1 & metallic ars5ic is us$ = h>d5+ lead 9 %ot-mak+4 ,! pr9cipal ars5ic-produc+ c\ntries are ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,g]many1 ,france1 ,great ,brita91 ,canada1 & ,mexico4 ,spa91 ,portugal1 ,japan1 & ,*9a are also produc]s1 & rec5t tr\ble ) ! prickly-pe> pe/ 9 ,que5sl&1 ,au/ralia1 has l$ to local developm5t ( ars5ic m9+ 9 t c\ntry4 ,= ! mo/ "p1 ,european production has be5 us$ 9 ,europe & ,am]ican production 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,ars5ic is recov]$ almo/ :olly z a by-product ( smelt+ ores = ! metals4 ,! pot5tial supply is ample 9 mo/ c\ntries :]e smelt+ is conduct$1 b ow+ to ! elaborate plant requir$ to recov] ! ars5ic1 app>atus is n usually in/all$ mu* 9 advance ( ! dem& = production4 ,rapid expansion is n possible4 ,be=e ! w> ! ars5ic ne$s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 7*iefly agricultural7 7 suppli$ by a few recov]y plants 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,mexico1 & ,canada4 ,sev]al l>ge smelt]s _h n f\nd x pr(itable to in/all recov]y plants1 z ! m>ket might h be5 ov]suppli$ & prices 7 l[4 ,dur+ ! w>1 ) ! ext5sive dem& = insecticides = g>d5+1 !re 0 a consid]able defici5cy ( ars5ic supplies4 ,) ris+ prices production 0 /imulat$1 b 0 /ill unable to meet ! increas$ dem&4 ,?is situation result$ 9 regulation ( ! prices ( :ite ars5ic by ! ,food ,adm9i/ration4 ,production ( ars5ic 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates comes *iefly f smelt]s 9 ,colorado1 ,wa%+ton1 ,utah1 ,montana1 & ,new ,j]sey4 ,small am\nts are produc$ by ars5ic m9es 9 ,virg9ia & ,new ,york4 ,a ,mexican plant at ,mapimi has be5 %ipp+ important quantities to ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! plant at ,anaconda1 ,montana1 is expect$ to produce an ample supply 9 ! future4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates is entirely indep5d5t 9 ars5ic supplies & w probably soon h an exportable surplus4 ,export trade1 aft] ! recon/ruction p]iod1 w probably meet competition f ,france & ,g]many :]e production 0 =m]ly l>ge4 ,,geologic ,,features ,ars5ic-be>+ m9]als are num]\s & r widely di/ribut$1 b only a few ( !m are m9$ prim>ily = _! cont5t ( ars5ic4 ,ars5opyrite or mispickle 7iron-ars5ic sulphide7 has be5 us$ int]mitt5tly z a s\rce ( :ite ars5ic 9 v>i\s places1--notably at ,br9ton1 ,virg9ia1 & ne> ,c>mel1 ,new ,york4 ,! =m] deposits conta9 ars5opyrite & copp]-be>+ pyrite impregnat+ a mica-qu>tz-s*i/1 adjac5t to & 9 app>5t g5etic relation ) aplite or pegmatite intrusives4 ,9 ! latt] locality ars5opyrite is f\nd associat$ ) pyrite 9 a gangue ( qu>tz1 =m+ a s]ies ( p>allel /r+]s 9 gneiss close to a basic dike4 ,! orange-r$ sulphides ( ars5ic1 orpim5t & realg>1 are =m$ bo? z prim>y m9]als ( igne\s s\rce & z second>y products ( wea!r+4 ,!y are r *>act]i/ic ( ! oxide zones ( c]ta9 ars5ical metallic ores1 & are believ$ 9 _m cases to h =m$ f ars5opyrite4 ,!y are m9$ on a comm]cial scale 9 ,*9a4 ,! great bulk ( ! _w's ars5ic1 z previ\sly /at$1 is obta9$ z a by-product ( smelt+ op]ations4 ,! en>gite ( ! ,butte copp] ores 7pp4 #bja-bjc7 conta9s a consid]able am\nt ( ars5ic1 a l>ge "p ( :i* w be recov]$ f ! smelt] fumes by new processes :i* are be+ in/all$4 ,! gold-silv] ores ( ! ,t9tic di/rict 7pp4 #bce7 also yield important am\nts1 ! ars5ic-be>+ m9]als be+ en>gite & t5nantite 7copp]-ars5ic sulphides7 & o!rs4 ,! silv] ores ( ! ,cobalt di/rict ( ,ont>io 7pp4 #bcd-bce71 conta9+ nickel & cobalt ars5ides1 produce consid]able ars5ic4 ,_m o!r metallic ores conta9 notable am\nts ( ars5ic1 :i* are at pres5t all[$ to escape ?r\gh smelt] flues1 b :i* c\ld be recov]$ "u m>ket conditions :i* w\ld repay ! co/ ( in/all+ ! necess>y app>atus4 ,,bismu? ,,ores ,,economic ,,features ,bismu? metal is us$ 9 alloys1 to :i* x gives l[ fusibility comb9$ ) h>dness & %>p def9ition4 ,bismu? alloys are employ$ 9 automatic fire spr9kl]s1 9 safety plugs = boil]s1 9 electric fuses1 9 sold]s & d5tal amalgams1 & 9 "s type & be>+ metals4 ,bismu? salts f9d a consid]able application = ph>maceutical purposes1 especially 9 connection ) inte/9al disord]s1 & ! be/ grades ( bismu? mat]ials are us$ = ?is purpose4 ,! salts are also us$ 9 porcela9 pa9t+ & enamel+ & 9 /a9+ glass4 ,bolivia is ! mo/ important produc] ( bismu? ore4 ,! output is controll$ entirely by ,briti% smelt+ int]e/s4 ,an important deposit exi/s 9 ,p]u1 ! output ( :i* is limit$ by ! same ,briti% syndicate4 ,consid]able bismu? is produc$ 9 ,au/ralia1 ,tasmania1 & ,new ,zeal&1 all ( :i* likewise goes to ,engl&4 ,g]many be=e ! w> _h ?ree smelt]s :i* produc$ bismu? f native ores 9 ,saxony2 bismu? 0 "o ( ! few metals ( :i* ,g]many _h an adequate dome/ic supply4 ,rec5tly s\!rn ,*9a is report$ to be m9+ increas+ am\nts ( bismu?4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates produces ! l>g] "p ( its bismu? requirem5ts1 *iefly f plants in/all$ at two lead ref9]ies4 ,a fur!r in/allation w\ld make ?is c\ntry entirely indep5d5t ( =eign supplies if occasion requir$4 ,imports1 f ,engl& & ,s\? ,am]ica1 h be5 /eadily decl9+1 b dur+ ! w> 7 some:at increas$4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates does n export bismu? s f> z kn[n4 ,,geologic ,,features ,! pr9cipal m9]als ( bismu? are bismu?9ite 7bismu? sulphide71 bismutite 7hydrat$ c>bonate71 bismite or bismu? o*] 7hydrat$ oxide71 & native bismu?4 ,! native metal & ! sulphide are believ$ to be =m$ ma9ly z prim>y m9]als ( igne\s orig94 ,9 ! deposits ( ,new ,s\? ,wales !y are f\nd associat$ ) molybd5ite 9 qu>tz gangue1 9 pipe-l deposits 9 granite4 ,! oxide & ! c>bonate are probably products ( surface wea!r+4 ,! ,bolivian deposits conta9 ! native metal1 ! oxide1 & ! c>bonate1 associat$ ) gold1 silv]1 & t9 m9]als1 9 "o locality 9 slates & 9 ano!r locality 9 porphyry4 ,! orig9 is n well kn[n4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ! sulphide1 bismu?9ite1 is f\nd 9 ! silice\s ores ( ,goldfield1 ,nevada 7p4 #bcj71 & 9 m9or am\nts 9 a great numb] ( ! sulphide ores ( ! ,cordill]an region4 ,! ores ( ! ,leadville & ,t9tic di/ricts 7pp4 #bai & #bce7 yield ! l>g] "p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates production1 ! bismu? be+ recov]$ z by-product f ! electrolytic ref9+ ( ! lead bullion4 ,l>ge am\nts ( bismu? pass out ( ! /acks ( smelt]s treat+ o!r we/]n ores1 & :ile x w\ld n be *eap nor easy to save ! bismu? ?us lo/1 x c\ld probably be done 9 case ( necessity4 ,,cadmium ,,ores ,,economic ,,features ,cadmium is us$ 9 l[ melt+-po9t alloys--z1 = example1 ^? employ$ 9 automatic fire-ext+ui%]s & electric fuses1--9 ! manufacture ( silv]w>e1 & 9 d5tal amalgams4 ,dur+ ! w> ! critical sc>city ( t9 l$ to exp]im5ts 9 ! sub/itution ( cadmium = t9 9 sold]s & anti-friction metals4 ,results ( "s ( ^! exp]im5ts 7 promis+1 b ! w> ceas$ & dem&s = t9 decreas$ be=e ! cadmium mat]ials became widely us$4 ,future developm5ts 9 ?is direction seem n unlikely4 ,cadmium comp\nds are us$ z pigm5ts1 p>ticul>ly z ! sulphide cadmium yell[1 & to give color & lu/] to glass & porcela94 ,cadmium salts are also v>i\sly us$ 9 ! arts1 9 m$ic9e1 & 9 electroplat+4 ,practically ! entire cadmium output ( ! _w comes f ,g]many & ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,9 addition1 ,engl& produces a v small quantity4 ,be=e ! w> ,g]many produc$ ab\t two-?irds ( ! _w's total1 & suppli$ ! ,european z well z a consid]able "p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates consumption4 ,dur+ ! w> ! ,unit$ ,/ates production increas$ ?ree to f\r fold1 imports ceas$1 & consid]able quantities 7 export$ to ! alli$ nations 9 ,europe & to ,japan4 ,at pres5t ! ,unit$ ,/ates is entirely indep5d5t z reg>ds cadmium supplies4 ,production is suffici5t to supply all ! home dem& & to p]mit exports ( "o-?ird ( ! total output4 ,a consid]able numb] ( possible cadmium s\rces are n be+ us$1 & ! production is capable ( ext5sion %\ld ! ne$ arise4 ,,geologic ,,features ,ne>ly ! only cadmium m9]al kn[n is ! sulphide1 gre5ockite1 b no deposits ( ?is m9]al h be5 f\nd ( suffici5t volume to be call$ cadmium ores4 ,sphal]ite almo/ always conta9s a little cadmium1 probably z ! sulphide2 & 9 z9c deposits cry/als ( sphal]ite 9 cavities are frequ5tly cov]$ ) a gre5i%-yell[ film or coat+ ( gre5ockite4 ,^! coat+s h probably be5 =m$ by ! decomposition ( cadmium-be>+ z9c sulphide 9 ! oxide zone1 ! c>ry+ d[n ( ! cadmium 9 solution1 & its precipitation z second>y cadmium sulphide4 ,! z9c oxide m9]als 9 ! surficial zone also are sometimes color$ yell[ by small am\nts ( gre5ockite4 ,9 ! z9c ores ( ! ,jopl9 di/rict ( ,miss\ri1 cadmium is pres5t 9 am\nts rang+ f a trace to #a p] c5t & av]ag+ #j4c p] c5t4 ,g]many's cadmium is produc$ by fractional di/illation ( ! ,silesian z9c ores1 :i* conta9 at mo/ #j4c p] c5t cadmium4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates !re are l>ge pot5tial s\rces 9 ! z9c ores ( ! ,mississippi valley1 & consid]able cadmium is recov]$ 9 roa/+ !m4 ,mu* ( ! ,am]ican cadmium is also obta9$ f bag-h\se du/s at lead smelt]s4 ,! g5]al geologic conditions ( ! cadmium-be>+ ores are indicat$ 9 ! discussion ( lead & z9c deposits 9 an e>li] *apt]4 ,,cobalt ,,ores ,,economic ,,features ,cobalt f9ds its l>ge/ use 9 ! =m ( cobalt salts1 employ$ 9 color+ pott]y & glass & 9 insect poisons4 ,cobalt is also us$ 9 "s ( ! be/ high-spe$ tool /eels4 ,/ellite1 :i* is us$ to a limit$ ext5t 9 non-ru/+ tools ( v>i\s sorts1 & 9 consid]able quantity to replace high-spe$ tool /eels1 is an alloy ( cobalt1 *romium1 & small quantities ( o!r metals4 ,consid]able exp]im5tal "w has be5 done on ! prop]ties & uses ( cobalt alloys1 & _! consumption is rapidly on ! increase4 ,cobalt is an item ( comm]ce ( insignificant tonnage4 ,!re are only two c\ntries1 ,canada 7,ont>io7 & ! ,belgian ,congo1 :i* produce notewor?y am\nts4 ,! ,katanga di/rict 9 ! ,congo produces bli/] copp] t conta9s z mu* z #d p] c5t ( cobalt1 ?\gh usually less ?an #b p] c5t4 ,?is product =m]ly w5t to ,g]many1 & n[ goes entirely to ,great ,brita94 ,j h[ mu* cobalt is sav$ is unkn[n1 b probably sev]al hundr$ tons annually4 ,x is probable t mo/ ( ! cobalt 9 ^! ores w be lo/ on ! in/allation ( a lea*+ process = recov]y ( ! copp]4 ,canada exports mo/ ( its product to ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ?\gh ! am\nt is small4 ,dome/ic production 9 ?is c\ntry has be5 too small to record4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates has be5 dep5d5t on imports f ,canada4 ,,geologic ,,features ,! pr9cipal cobalt m9]als are smaltite 7cobalt ars5ide71 cobaltite 7cobalt-ars5ic sulphide71 & l9naeite 7cobalt-nickel sulphide74 ,"u wea!r+ conditions ^! m9]als oxidize readily to =m asbolite1 a mixture ( cobalt & manganese oxides1 & ! p9k ars5ate1 ery?rite or cobalt bloom4 ,cobalt m9]als are f\nd pr9cipally 9 small quantities dissem9at$ ?r\gh ores ( silv]1 nickel1 & copp]4 ,! production ( ,canada is obta9$ ma9ly z a by-product ( ! silv] ores ( ! ,cobalt di/rict 7describ$ on pp4 #bcd-bce71 & small] am\nts are recov]$ f ! ,sudbury nickel ores 7pp4 #ahj-ahb74 ,! cobalt ( ,belgian ,congo is obta9$ f ri* oxidiz$ copp] ores :i* impregnate fold$ s$im5ts 7p4 #bje74 ,,m]cury 7,,quicksilv]7 ,,ores ,,economic ,,features ,uses ( m]cury are *>act]iz$ by _! wide v>iety & _! application to v _m diff]5t phases ( mod]n indu/ry2 !y w be nam$ "h 9 g5]al ord] ( decreas+ importance4 ,ab\t "o-?ird ( ! m]cury consum$ 9 ?is c\ntry goes into ! manufacture ( drugs & *emicals1 su* z corrosive sublimate1 calomel1 & glacial acetic acid4 ,m]cury fulm9ate is us$ z a detonator = high explosives & to "s ext5t = small-arms ammunition--a use :i* 0 exce$+ly important dur+ ! w>1 b is probably ( m9or consequ5ce 9 normal times4 ,m]curic sulphide =ms ! brilliant r$ pigm5t1 v]milion1 & m]curic oxide is becom+ increas+ly important 9 anti-f\l+ m>9e pa9t = %ip-bottoms4 ,ei!r z ! metal or ! oxide1 m]cury is employ$ 9 ! manufacture ( electrical app>atus 7batt]ies1 electrolyz]s1 rectifi]s1 etc471 & 9 ! mak+ ( !rmo/ats1 gas gov]nors1 automatic spr9kl]s1 & o!r me*anical appliances4 ,m]curic nitrate is us$ 9 ! fabrication ( felt hats f rabbits' fur4 ,9 ! extraction ( gold & silv] f _! ores by amalgamation1 l>ge am\nts ( metallic m]cury h be5 utiliz$1 b ( late ye>s ! wide application ( ! cyanide process has decreas$ ?is use4 ,m9or uses include ! mak+ ( c]ta9 comp\nds = prev5t+ boil]-scale1 ( cosmetics1 & ( d5tal amalgam4 ,! ores ( m]cury v>y greatly 9 grade4 ,spani% ores yield an av]age 9 ! neighborhood ( #g p] c5t1 ,italian ores #j4i p] c5t1 & ,au/rian ores #j4fe p] c5t ( metallic m]cury4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! ores ( ,cali=nia yield ab\t #j4d p] c5t & ^? ( ,texas range f ab\t #j4e to #d p] c5t4 ,9 almo/ all cases ! ores are treat$ 9 ! imm$iate vic9ity ( ! m9es1 & fairly pure metal is obta9$ by a process ( sublimation & cond5sation4 ,?is is usually m>ket$ 9 iron bottles or flasks conta9+ #ge p\nds ea*4 ,! l>ge produc]s ( m]cury are1 9 ord] ( normal importance1 ,spa91 ,italy1 ,au/ria1 & ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,mexico1 ,russia1 & all o!r c\ntries produce some:at less ?an #e p] c5t ( ! _w's total4 ,! l>ge/ quicksilv] m9es ( ! _w are ^? ( ,almad5 9 c5tral ,spa91 :i* are own$ & op]at$ by ! ,spani% gov]nm5t4 ,?is gov]nm5t1 aft] res]v+ a small am\nt = dome/ic use1 sells all ! balance ( ! production ?r\gh ! ,ro?s*ilds ( ,london4 ,9 addition ,briti% capital controls "s small] m9es 9 nor!rn ,spa94 ,engl& ?us l>gely controls ! ,european comm]cial situation 9 ?is commodity1 & ,london is ! _w's great quicksilv] m>ket1 :]e prices are fix$ & :5ce supplies g to all corn]s ( ! globe4 ,res]ves ( ! ,almad5 ore bodies are v l>ge4 ,suffici5t ore is report$ to h be5 develop$ to insure a future production ( at lea/ #dj1jjj metric tons--an am\nt equival5t to ! entire _w requirem5ts at pre-w> rates ( consumption = #ajj ye>s4 ,! m]cury deposits ( ! ,monte ,amiata di/rict ( c5tral ,italy 7 9 l>ge "p dom9at$ by ,g]man capital1 b dur+ ! w> 7 seiz$ by ! ,italian gov]nm5t4 ,! m9es ( ,idria1 ,au/ria-,hung>y1 7 own$ by ! ,au/rian gov]nm5t & _! ultimate control is at pres5t unc]ta94 ,res]ves are v l>ge1 be+ e/imat$ at ab\t "o-half ^? ( ,almad54 ,al?\gh ,engl& has _h a consid]able control ov] ! prices & ! m>ket = m]cury1 ! ,italian & ,au/rian deposits h provid$ a suffici5t am\nt to prev5t any absolute monopoly4 ,engli% int]e/s h n[ secur$ control ( ! ,italian production1 & x is expect$ t !y w also control ! ,au/rian production--?us giv+ ,engl& control ( some?+ ov] ?ree-f\r?s ( ! _w's m]cury4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ab\t two-?irds ( ! m]cury is produc$ 9 ! ,coa/ ,range di/rict ( ,cali=nia1 & mo/ ( ! rema9d] 9 ! ,t]l+ua di/rict ( ,texas4 ,small] quantities come f ,nevada1 ,oregon1 & a few o!r /ates4 ,! output be=e ! w> 0 normally slightly 9 excess ( dome/ic dem& & "s m]cury 0 export$ to v>i\s c\ntries4 ,due to ! exhau/ion ( ! ri*] & m easily work$ deposits1 h[ev]1 production 0 decl9+4 ,dur+ ! w>1 ) increas$ dem&s & high] prices1 production 0 /imulat$1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates became ! l>ge/ m]cury-produc+ c\ntry 9 ! _w1 & l>ge quantities 7 export$ to help meet ! milit>y ne$s ( ,engl& & ,france4 ,) ! end ( w> prices & ) high co/s ( labor & supplies1 production 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates has aga9 decl9$4 ,_m ( ! m9es h pass$ _! greate/ yield1 & ?\gh discov]y ( new ore bodies might revive ! indu/ry1 production is probably on ! d[n grade4 ,future ne$s ( ?is c\ntry w probably 9 "s "p be met by imports f ,spa91 ,italy1 & ,au/ria1 :]e ! deposits are ri*] & labor is *eap]4 ,?is situation has caus$ mu* agitation = a t>iff on imports4 ,! pres5t t>iff ( #aj p] c5t is n suffici5t to keep out =eign m]cury4 ,outside ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates l>ge *anges 9 di/ribution ( production ( quicksilv] are n expect$ = "s "t4 ,! res]ves ( ! ,european produc]s are all l>ge & are ample to su/a9 pres5t output = a consid]able numb] ( ye>s4 ,x is report$ t !re w be a resumption ( m9+ 9 ! once v productive ,huancavelica ,di/rict ( ,p]u & 9 ,asia ,m9or1 & ) re/oration ( political ord] !re may be an increase 9 output f ,mexico & ,russia1--b ^! di/ricts w be subord9ate factors 9 ! _w situation4 ,on geologic gr\nds1 new areas ( m]cury ores may be look$ = 9 regions ( rec5t volcanic activity1 su* z ! ea/ coa/ ( ,asia1 "s isl&s ( ,oceania1 ! %ores ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 & ! ,cordill]as ( ,nor? & ,s\? ,am]ica1--b no su* areas :i* are likely to be produc]s on a l>ge scale are n[ kn[n4 ,,geologic ,,features ,! *ief m9]al ( m]cury1 f :i* probably ov] #ie p] c5t ( ! _w's m]cury comes1 is ! brilliant r$ sulphide1 c9nab>4 ,m9or s\rces include ! black or gray sulphide1 metac9nab>1 ! native metal1 & ! :ite m]cur\s *loride1 calomel4 ,! ores are commonly associat$ ) m or less iron sulphide1 & frequ5tly ) ! sulphides ( antimony & ars5ic1 9 a gangue consi/+ l>gely ( qu>tz & c>bonates 7( calcium1 magnesium1 & iron74 ,! preci\s metals & ! sulphides ( ! base metals are r>e4 ,m]cury deposits are 9 g5]al relat$ to igne\s rocks1 & h associations :i* indicate a p>ticul> type ( igne\s activity4 ,!y are n f\nd 9 magmatic segregations1 9 pegmatites1 nor 9 ve9s :i* h be5 =m$ at great dep?s & "u v high temp]atures4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! occurr5ce ( _m deposits 9 rec5t fl[s :i* h n be5 erod$1 _! g5]al %all[ dep? 7l>ge numb]s ext5d+ d[n only a few hundr$ feet71 & ! association ( "s deposits ) active hot spr+s n[ c>ry+ m]cury 9 solution1 sugge/ an orig9 ?r\gh ! "w ( asc5d+ hot wat]s ne> ! surface4 ,! m]cury m9]als are believ$ to h be5 c>ri$ 9 alkal9e sulphide solutions4 ,precipitation f su* solutions may be effect$ by oxidation1 by dilution1 by cool+1 or by ! pres5ce ( organic matt]4 ,be+ ne> ! surface1 x is a natural assumption t ! wat]s do+ ! "w 7 n int5sely hot4 ,at ,sulphur ,bank ,spr+s1 9 ! ,cali=nia quicksilv] belt1 deposition ( c9nab> by mod]ately hot wat]s is actually tak+ place at pres5t2 also ^! wat]s are blea*+ ! rock 9 a mann] (t5 obs]v$ ab\t m]cury deposits4 ,! ,coa/ ,ranges ( ,cali=nia conta9 a great numb] ( m]cury deposits ext5d+ ov] a belt ab\t #djj miles long4 ,! ore bodies are 9 fissur$ zones 9 s]p5t9e & ,jurassic s$im5ts1 & are relat$ 9 g5]al to rec5t volcanic fl[s4 ,a consid]able am\nt ( bitum9\s matt] is f\nd 9 ! ores1 & is believ$ to h be5 an ag5t 9 _! precipitation4 ,! ,t]l+ua ores ( ,texas are f\nd 9 simil> fractur$ zones 9 ,cretace\s %ales & lime/ones associat$ ) surface igne\s fl[s4 ,! occurr5ce ( a few ore bodies 9 v]tical %oots 9 lime/one1 app>5tly t]m9at+ upw>d at ! base ( an imp]vi\s %ale1 furni%es an additional argum5t = _! =mation by asc5d+ wat]s4 ,9 ! few deposits 7e4 g41 ^? ( ,almad51 ,spa91 & ( ! deep m9es ( ,new ,almad5 & ,new ,idria1 ,cali=nia17 :]e !re is no su* cle> relation to volcanic rocks z g5]ally obs]v$1 b :]e ! ores conta9 ! same *>act]i/ic set ( m9]als1 x is conclud$ t practically ! same processes outl9$ above h be5 active 9 _! =mation2 & t ! volcanic s\rce ( ! hot solutions ei!r fail$ to rea* ! surface or has be5 remov$ by erosion4 ,! same l9e ( reason+ is c>ri$ a /ep fur!r1 & 9 _m gold-qu>tz ve9s 9 volcanic rocks1 :]e c9nab> & its associat$ m9]als are pres5t1 x is believ$ t wat]s ( a hot-spr+ nature h aga9 be5 effective4 ,?us c9nab>1 :5 tak5 ) its cu/om>y associations1 is reg>d$ z a sort ( geologic !rmomet]4 ,9 ! wea!r+ ( m]cury deposits1 c9nab> behaves some:at l ! correspond+ silv] sulphide1 arg5tite4 ,9 ! oxide zone1 native m]cury & ! *loride1 calomel1 are =m$4 ,9 ! ,texas deposits a r$ oxide & a numb] ( oxy*lorides are also pres5t4 ,! c>ry+ d[n ( ! m]cury & its precipitation z second>y sulphide may h tak5 place 9 "s deposits1 b ?is process is unimportant 9 =m+ values4 ,,t9 ,,ores ,,economic ,,features ,! l>ge/ use ( t9 is 9 ! manufacture ( t9-plate1 :i* is employ$ 9 conta9]s = food1 oil1 & o!r mat]ials4 ,next 9 importance is its use 9 ! mak+ ( sold] & ( babbitt or be>+ metal4 ,t9 is also a con/itu5t ( c]ta9 k9ds ( brass1 bronze1 & o!r alloys1 su* z :ite metal & type metal4 ,m9or uses include ! mak+ ( t9foil1 collapsible tubes1 wire1 rubb]1 & v>i\s *emicals4 ,t9 oxide is us$ to "s ext5t 9 :ite enamel+ ( metal surfaces4 ,r\ghly a ?ird ( ! t9 consum$ )9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates goes into t9-plate1 a ?ird into sold] & babbitt metal1 & a ?ird into miscellane\s uses4 ,! ores ( t9 9 g5]al conta9 only small quantities ( ! metal4 ,t9 has suffici5t value to w>rant ! work+ ( c]ta9 plac]s conta9+ only a half-p\nd to ! cubic y>d1 al?\gh ! usual run is some:at high]4 ,! t9 cont5t ( ! ve9 deposits ranges f ab\t #a p] c5t to #dj p] c5t1 & ! av]age grade is mu* clos] to ! l[] figure4 ,great ,brita9 has long controll$ ! _w's t9 ores1 produc+ ab\t half ( ! total & controll+ additional supplies 9 o!r c\ntries4 ,! production is 9 small "p 9 ,cornwall1 b l>gely 9 sev]al ,briti% colonies--! ,malay ,/ates1 c5tral & s\? ,africa1 ,au/ralia1 & o!rs4 ,! ,malay ,/ates furni% ab\t a ?ird ( ! _w's total4 ,ano!r ?ird is produc$ 9 imm$iately adjac5t di/ricts ( ! ,dut* ,ea/ ,indies1 ,siam 7,briti% control71 & ,*9a1 & "s ( ! conc5trates ( ^! c\ntries are h&l$ by ,briti% smelt]s1 especially at ,s+apore4 ,t9 is easily r$uc$ f its ores & mo/ ( ! t9 is smelt$ close to ! s\rces ( production4 ,consid]able quantities1 h[ev]1 h gone to ,engl& = treatm5t4 ,london has be5 ! *ief t9 m>ket ( ! _w1 & be=e ! w> ! l>g] portion ( ! t9 ent]+ int]national trade w5t ?r\gh ?is port4 ,dur+ ! w> a good deal ( ! export t9 f ,/raits ,settlem5ts 0 %ipp$ direct to consum]s r ?an via ,london1 b x is n c]ta9 h[ future %ipm5ts may be made4 ,significant features ( ! t9 situation 9 rec5t ye>s h be5 a decl9e ( production 9 ! ,malay ,/ates1 & a l>ge & gr[+ production 9 ,bolivia4 ,malayan output has decreas$ because ( ! exhau/ion ( "s ( ! ri*] & m accessible deposits2 c]ta9 gov]nm5tal measures h also _h a re/rictive effect4 ,bolivian production n[ am\nts to ov] a fif? ( ! _w's total & bids fair to increase4 ,ab\t half ! output is controll$ by ,*ilean1 & small am\nts by ,am]ican1 ,fr5*1 & ,g]man int]e/s4 ,a l>ge portion ( ! ,bolivian conc5trates =m]ly w5t to ,g]many = smelt+1 b dur+ ! w> ,am]ican smelt]s 7 develop$ to h&le "p ( ?is mat]ial2 l>ge quantities are also smelt$ 9 ,engl&4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates produces a small fraction ( #a p] c5t ( ! _w's t91 & consumes a ?ird to a half ( ! total4 ,! production is ma9ly f ! ,sew>d ,p59sula ( nor?we/]n ,alaska4 ,= ,am]ican t9 smelt]s1 ,bolivia is ab\t ! only available s\rce ( supplies2 metallic t9 c be obta9$ f ,briti% possessions1 b no ore1 except by pay+ a #cc-a_/c p] c5t export tax4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates exports t9-plate 9 l>ge am\nts1 & 9 ?is trade has met /rong competition f ,engli% & ,g]man t9-plate mak]s4 ,a _w %ortage ( t9 dur+ ! w> requir$ a division ( available supplies ?r\gh a c5tral int]national committee4 ,some:at lat]1 ) ! removal ( c]ta9 re/rictions on ! di/ribution ( t91 consid]able quantities :i* _h accumulat$ 9 ! ,ori5t f\nd _! way into ,europe & precipitat$ a s5sational slump 9 ! t9 m>ket4 ,,geologic ,,features ,! pr9cipal m9]al ( t9 is cassit]ite 7t9 oxide74 ,/annite1 a sulphide ( copp]1 iron1 & t91 is f\nd 9 "s ( ! ,bolivian deposits b is r>e else:]e4 ,ab\t two-?irds ( ! _w's t9 is obta9$ f plac]s & "o-?ird f ve9 or lode deposits4 ,ov] #ij p] c5t ( ! t9 ( s\!a/]n ,asia & ,oceania is obta9$ f plac]s4 ,t9 plac]s1 l plac]s ( gold1 plat9um1 & tung/51 repres5t conc5trations 9 /ream b$s & ocean bea*es ( heavy1 insoluble m9]als--9 ?is case *iefly cassit]ite--:i* 7 pres5t 9 ! p>5t rocks 9 mu* small] quantities1 b :i* h be5 sort$ out by ! classify+ action ( runn+ wat]4 ,! orig9al home ( cassit]ite is 9 ve9s closely relat$ to granitic rocks4 ,x is occasionally f\nd 9 pegmatites1 z 9 c]ta9 small deposits ( ! ,s\!rn ,appala*ians & ! ,black ,hills ( ,s\? ,dakota1 or is pres5t 9 a typical contact-metamorphic silicat$ zone 9 lime/one1 z 9 "s ( ! deposits ( ! ,sew>d ,p59sula ( ,alaska4 ,9 g5]al1 h[ev]1 x is f\nd 9 well-def9$ fissure ve9s 9 ! out] p>ts ( granitic intrusions & ext5d+ out into ! surr\nd+ rocks4 ,) ! cassit]ite are (t5 f\nd m9]als ( tung/51 molybd5um1 & bismu?1 z well z sulphides ( iron1 copp]1 lead1 & z9c1 & 9 "s cases !re is evid5ce ( a r\gh zonal arrangem5t4 ,! deposits ( ,cornwall & ( ,saxony %[ transitions f cassit]ite ve9s close to ! intrusions into lead-silv] ve9s at a great] di/ance4 ,! gangue is usually qu>tz1 conta9+ small] am\nts ( a numb] ( less common m9]als--includ+ li?ium mica1 fluorite1 topaz1 t\rmal9e1 & apatite4 ,! wall rocks are usually /rongly alt]$ & 9 "p are replac$ by "s ( ! above m9]als1 =m+ co>se-gra9$ rocks :i* are call$ greis54 ,! orig9 ( cassit]ite ve9s1 9 view ( _! univ]sal association ) granitic rocks1 is evid5tly relat$ to igne\s intrusions4 ,! occurr5ce ( ! ve9s 9 di/9ct fissures 9 ! granite & 9 ! surr\nd+ contact-metamorphic zone indicates t ! granite _h consolidat$ be=e _! =mation1 & t !y repres5t a late /age 9 ! cool+4 ,! association ) m9]als conta9+ fluor9e & boron1 & ! int5se alt]ation ( ! wall rocks1 indicate t ! temp]ature mu/ h be5 v high4 ,x is probable t ! temp]ature 0 s high z to cause ! solutions to be gase\s r ?an liquid1 & t :at h be5 call$ pneumatolytic conditions prevail$2 b evid5ce to decide ?is "q is n at pres5t available4 ,! mo/ important deposits ( t9 9 ve9s are ^? ( ,bolivia1 "s ( :i* are exceptionally ri*4 ,^! are f\nd 9 granitic rocks =m+ ! core ( ! high ,cordill]a ,real & 9 ! adjac5t intrud$ s$im5ts1 9 n>r[ fissure ve9s & broad] brecciat$ zones conta9+ ! typical ore & gangue m9]als describ$ above1 & also1 9 _m cases1 silv]-be>+ sulphides 7*iefly tetrah$rite74 ,!re appe> to be all gradations 9 type f silv]-free t9 ores to t9-free silv] ores1 al?\gh ! extremes are n[ believ$ to be r>e4 ,9 ! ma9 ! t9 ores1 ) abundant t\rmal9e1 appe> to be m closely relat$ to ! co>se-gra9$ granites1 & to indicate int5se conditions ( heat & pressure1 :ile ! m arg5tif]\s ores1 ) v little or no t\rmal9e1 are f\nd 9 relation to f9]-gra9$ qu>tz porphyries & ev5 rhyolites1 & seem to indicate less int5se conditions at ! "t ( deposition4 ,! ores ( ! :ole area1 :i* is a few hundr$ miles long1 h be5 suppos$ to repres5t a s+le g5etic unit1 & ! sundry v>iations are believ$ to be local facies ( a g5]al m9]alization4 ,processes ( second>y enri*m5t h 9 places yield$ l>ge quantities ( oxidiz$ silv] m9]als & wood t9 ne> ! surface1 ) accumulations ( ruby silv] ores at great] dep?s4 ,! only o!r ve9 deposits :i* are at pres5t ( consequ5ce are ^? ( ,cornwall4 ,"h ba?oli?s ( granite h be5 intrud$ into ,paleozoic slates & s&/ones1 & t9 ores occur 9 fissures & /ockworks 9 ! m>g9al zones4 ,) ! exhau/ion ( ! m easily m9$ plac]s1 ! lode deposits w d\btless be ( increas+ importance4 ,cassit]ite is practically insoluble & is v resi/ant to decomposition by wea!r+4 ,oxide zones ( t9 deposits are !re=e enri*$ by removal ( ! m soluble m9]als4 ,/annite probably alt]s to wood t91 a fibr\s v>iety ( cassit]ite4 ,second>y enri*m5t ( t9 deposits by r$eposition ( t9 m9]als is negligible4 ,,uranium ,,& ,,radium ,,ores ,,economic ,,features ,radium salts are us$ 9 v>i\s m$ical treatm5ts--especially = canc]1 int]nal tumors1 lupus1 & bir? m>ks--& 9 lum9\s pa9ts4 ,dur+ ! latt] "p ( ! w> x is e/imat$ t ov] n9e-t5?s ( ! radium produc$ 0 us$ 9 lum9\s pa9ts = ! dials ( wat*es & o!r in/rum5ts4 ,9 addition "p ( ! mat]ial own$ by physicians 0 devot$ to ?is purpose1 & x is probable t ! accumulat$ /ocks held by ! m$ical pr(ession 7 9 ?is way r$uc$ by "o-half4 ,! greatly ext5d$ use ( radium1 toge!r ) ! di/9ctly limit$ "* ( ! _w's kn[n radium supplies1 has l$ to "s conc]n2 & consid]able inve/igation has be5 made ( ! possibilities ( meso?orium z a sub/itute = radium 9 lum9\s pa9ts4 ,l[-grade radium residues are us$ to "s ext5t z f]tiliz]s4 ,uranium has be5 us$ z a /eel alloy1 b has n z yet ga9$ wide favor4 ,uranium salts h a limit$ use z yell[ color+ ag5ts 9 pott]y & glass4 ,! pr9cipal use ( uranium1 h[ev]1 is z a s\rce ( radium1 ) :i* x is always associat$4 ,european c\ntries fir/ develop$ ! processes ( r$uction ( radium salts f _! ores4 ,mo/ ( ! ,european ores are obta9$ f ,au/ria1 :]e ! m9es are own$ & op]at$ by ! ,au/rian gov]nm5t1 & small quantities are m9$ 9 ,cornwall1 ,engl&1 & 9 ,g]many4 ,production is decreas+4 ,! ,european hospitals & municipalities h acquir$ ne>ly all ( ! production4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates has ! l>ge/ res]ves ( radium ore 9 ! _w1 & ! ,am]ican m>ket has 9 rec5t ye>s be5 suppli$ f dome/ic plants4 ,be=e ! w>1 radium ores 7 %ipp$ to ,europe = treatm5t 9 ,g]many1 ,france1 & ,engl&1 & radium salts 7 import$ f ^! c\ntries4 ,!re are n[ radium plants 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates capable ( produc+ annually f dome/ic ores an am\nt sev]al times z l>ge z ! entire production ( ! re/ ( ! _w4 ,practically all ! production has come f ,colorado & ,utah4 ,kn[n res]ves are n believ$ to be suffici5t = m ?an a comp>atively few ye>s' production1 b x is n unlikely t additional deposits w be f\nd 9 ! same area4 ,,geologic ,,features ,uranium is "o ( ! r>] metals4 ,radium is f\nd only 9 uranium ores & only 9 exce$+ly small quantities4 ,! maximum am\nt :i* c be pres5t 9 a /ate ( equilibrium is ab\t "o "p ( radium 9 #c1jjj1jjj p>ts ( uranium4 ,! pr9cipal s\rces ( uranium & radium are ! m9]als c>notite 7hydr\s potassium-uranium vanadate7 & pit*bl5de or uran9ite 7uranium oxide74 ,! deposits ( ,joa*im/hal1 ,bohemia1 conta9 pit*bl5de1 along ) silv]1 nickel1 & cobalt m9]als & o!r metallic sulphides1 9 ve9s associat$ ) igne\s intrusions4 ,! important comm]cial deposits ( ,colorado & ,utah conta9 c>notite1 toge!r ) roscoelite 7a vanadium mica7 & small am\nts ( *romium1 copp]1 & molybd5um m9]als1 z impregnations ( flat-ly+ ,jurassic s&/ones4 ,! ores c>ry up to #ce p] c5t uranium oxide 7?\gh l>gely bel[ #b p] c5t71 & f "o-?ird z mu* to an equal am\nt ( vanadium oxide4 ,! ore m9]als are suppos$ to h be5 d]iv$ f a ?ick s]ies ( clays & impure s&/ones a few hundr$ feet above1 conta9+ uranium & vanadium m9]als widely dissem9at$1 & to h be5 c>ri$ d[nw>d by surface wat]s conta9+ sulphates4 ,! ore bodies v>y f v small pockets to deposits yield+ a ?\s& tons or s1 & are f\nd irregul>ly ?r\gh\t c]ta9 p>ticul> b$s )\t any special relation to pres5t topography or to faults4 ,! association ( _m ( ! deposits ) fossil wood & o!r c>bonace\s mat]ial sugge/s t organic matt] 0 an ag5t 9 _! precipitation1 b ! exact nature ( ! process is n cle>4 ,9 a few places 9 ,utah ! b$s dip at /eep angles1 & ! c>notite appe>s 9 spots along ! outcrops & g5]ally disappe>s z ! outcrops are foll[$ into ! hillsides2 ?is sugge/s t ! c>notite may be locally r$issolv$ & c>ri$ to ! surface by capill>y action1 =m+ ri* effloresc5ces4 ,because ( ! nature ( ! deposits no l>ge am\nt ( ore is develop$ 9 advance ( actual m9+2 b e/imates bas$ on pa/ exp]i5ce indicate great pot5tialities ( ?is region = future production4 ,9 ea/]n ,wyom+ is a unique deposit ( uranium ore 9 a qu>tzite :i* lies betwe5 mica-s*i/ & granite4 ,! pr9cipal ore m9]al is uranophane1 a hydrat$ calcium-uranium silicate1 :i* is believ$ to be an oxidation product ( pit*bl5de4 ,"s ( ! ore runs z high z #d p] c5t uranium oxide1 & ! ore c>ries appreciable am\nts ( copp] b v little vanadium4 ,v rec5tly radium ores h be5 discov]$ 9 ! ,:ite ,signal m9+ di/rict ( ,new ,mexico1 :i* 0 =m]ly work$ = gold1 silv]1 copp]1 & lead4 ,! radium-be>+ m9]als are torb]nite & autunite 7hydr\s copp]-uranium & calcium-uranium phosphates71 & are f\nd 9 d>k felsite dikes ne> _! int]sections ) ea/-we/ gold-silv]-qu>tz ve9s4 ,! possibilities ( ?is di/rict h n yet be5 det]m9$4 ,pit*bl5de has be5 f\nd 9 gold-be>+ ve9s 9 ,gilp9 ,c\nty1 ea/]n ,colorado1 & 9 pegmatite dikes 9 ! ,appala*ians1 b ^! deposits are ( no comm]cial importance4 ,pit*bl5de is grayi%-black1 opaque1 & s lack+ 9 di/9ctive *>act]i/ics t x may readily be ov]look$2 h5ce future discov]ies 9 v>i\s regions w\ld n be surpris+4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii ,,miscellane\s ,,non-,,metallic ,,m9]als ,,natural ,,abrasives ,,economic ,,features ,natural abrasives are less important comm]cially 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ?an artificial abrasives1 b a consid]able indu/ry is bas$ on ! natural abrasives4 ,silica or qu>tz 9 its v>i\s cry/all9e =ms con/itutes ov] ?ree-f\r?s ( ! tonnage ( natural abrasives us$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,x is ! *ief +r$i5t ( s&1 s&/one1 qu>tzite1 *]t1 diatomace\s e>?1 & tripoli4 ,f ! s& & s&/one are made mill/ones1 buhr/ones1 gr9d/ones1 pulp/ones1 hones1 oil/ones1 & :et/ones4 ,s&1 s&/one1 & qu>tzite are also gr\nd up & us$ 9 s&-bla/s1 s&pap]1 & = o!r abrasive purposes4 ,*]t or fl9t con/itutes gr9d+ pebbles & tube-mill l9+s1 & is also gr\nd up = abrasives4 ,diatomace\s 7infusorial7 e>? is us$ z a poli%+ ag5t & also z a filt]+ m$ium1 an absorb5t1 & = heat insulation4 ,tripoli 7& rott5/one7 are us$ 9 poli%+ p[d]s & sc\r+ soaps z well z = filt] blocks & _m o!r purposes4 ,o!r important abrasives are em]y & corundum1 g>net1 pumice1 diamond du/ & bort1 & feldsp>4 ,imports ( abrasive mat]ials into ! ,unit$ ,/ates h ab\t "o-?ird ( ! value ( ^? locally produc$4 ,:ile all ( ! v>i\s abrasives are repres5t$ 9 ^! imports1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates is dep5d5t on =eign s\rces = important p>ts ( its ne$s only ( em]y & corundum1 g>net1 pumice1 diamond du/ & bort1 & gr9d+ pebbles4 ,em]y & corundum are us$ 9 v>i\s =ms = ! gr9d+ & poli%+ ( h>d mat]ials--/eel1 glass1 /one1 etc4 ,! pr9cipal =eign s\rces ( em]y h be5 ,turkey 7,smyrna7 & ,greece 7,naxos7 :]e res]ves are l>ge & production *eap4 ,production ( corundum has come f ,canada1 ,s\? ,africa1 ,madagasc>1 & ,india4 ,! dome/ic production ( em]y is ma9ly f ,new ,york & ,virg9ia1 & corundum comes f ,nor? ,c>ol9a4 ,dome/ic supplies are insuffici5t to meet requirem5ts1 & _c be sub/itut$ = ! =eign mat]ial = ! poli%+ ( f9e glass & o!r special purposes4 ,curtailm5t ( imports dur+ ! w> greatly /imulat$ ! developm5t ( artificial abrasives & _! sub/itution = em]y & corundum4 ,g>net is us$ *iefly 9 ! =m ( g>net pap] = work+ lea!r1 wood1 & brass4 ,g>net is produc$ ma9ly 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,spa94 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates is ! only c\ntry us+ l>ge am\nts ( ?is m9]al & imports mo/ ( ! ,spani% output4 ,! dome/ic supply comes ma9ly f ,new ,york1 ,new ,hamp%ire1 & ,nor? ,c>ol9a4 ,pumice is us$ 9 f9e f9i%+ & poli%+ ( v>ni%$ & enamel$ surfaces1 & 9 clean+ p[d]s4 ,! _w's pr9cipal s\rce = pumice is ! ,lip>i ,isl&s1 ,italy4 ,!re is a l>ge dome/ic supply ( some:at l[]-grade mat]ial 7volcanic a%7 9 ! ,great ,pla9s region1 & !re are high-grade mat]ials 9 ,cali=nia & ,arizona4 ,"u w> conditions ^! supplies 7 drawn on1 b normally ! high-quality ,italian pumice c be plac$ 9 ,am]ican m>kets m *eaply4 ,diamond du/ is us$ = cutt+ gem /ones & o!r v h>d mat]ials1 & borts or c>bonadoes 7black diamonds7 = diamond-drill+ 9 exploration4 ,mo/ ( ! black diamonds come f ,brazil1 & diamond du/ comes f ,s\? ,africa1 ,brazil1 ,borneo1 & ,india4 ,*]t or fl9t pebbles = tube-mills are suppli$ ma9ly f ! ext5sive deposits on ! ,fr5* & ,dani% coa/s4 ,! dome/ic production has be5 small1 consi/+ pr9cipally ( fl9t pebbles f ! ,cali=nia bea*es1 & artificial pebbles made f rhyolite 9 ,nevada & qu>tzite 9 ,i[a4 ,w> exp]i5ce demon/rat$ ! possibility ( us+ ! dome/ic supply 9 l>g] proportion1 b ! grade is su* t 9 normal times ?is supply w n compete ) importations4 ,feldsp> z an abrasive is us$ ma9ly 9 sc\r+ soaps & w9d[-wa%4 ,dome/ic supplies are ample4 ,! pr9cipal use ( feldsp> is 9 ! c]amic indu/ry & ! m9]al is discuss$ at great] l5g? 9 ! *apt] on common rocks 7p4 #hf74 ,= ! l>ge numb] ( abrasives produc$ f silica1 outside ( fl9t pebbles1 dome/ic s\rces ( production are ample4 ,silice\s rocks are available almo/ ev]y:]e4 ,= p>ticul> purposes1 h[ev]1 rocks possess+ ! exact comb9ations ( qualities :i* make !m mo/ suitable are 9 _m cases di/9ctly localiz$4 ,mill/ones & buhr/ones1 us$ = gr9d+ c]eals1 pa9t ores1 cem5t rock1 f]tiliz]s1 etc41 are produc$ *iefly 9 ,new ,york & ,virg9ia2 p>tly because ( trade prejudice & tradition1 ab\t a ?ird ( ! ,am]ican requirem5ts are import$ f ,france1 ,belgium1 & ,g]many4 ,gr9d/ones & pulp/ones1 us$ = %>p5+ tools1 gr9d+ wood-pulp1 etc41 come ma9ly f ,ohio & to a less] ext5t f ,mi*igan & ,we/ ,virg9ia2 ab\t #e p] c5t ( ! consumption is import$ f ,canada & ,great ,brita94 ,hones1 oil/ones1 & :et/ones are produc$ l>gely f a rock call$ novaculite 9 ,arkansas1 & also 9 ,indiana1 ,ohio1 & ,new ,engl&2 imports are negligible4 ,fl9t l9+s = tube-mills 7 =m]ly import$ f ,belgium1 b ,am]ican products1 develop$ dur+ ! w> 9 ,p5nsylvania1 ,t5nessee1 & ,i[a1 appe> to be :olly satisfactory sub/itutes4 ,diatomace\s e>? is produc$ 9 ,cali=nia1 ,nevada1 ,connecticut1 & ,m>yl&1 & tripoli & rott5/one 9 ,ill9ois1 ,miss\ri1 & ,oklahoma2 dome/ic s\rces are suffici5t = all ne$s1 b due to que/ions ( back-haul & co/ ( rail transportation !re has be5 "s importation f ,engl& & ,g]many4 ,,geologic ,,features ,! geologic features ( silica 7qu>tz71 feldsp>1 & diamonds are suffici5tly indicat$ else:]e 7,*apt] ,,ii2 pp4 #hd1 #aif1 #hf1 #bia-bib74 ,diatomace\s e>? is made up ( rema9s ( m9ute aquatic plants4 ,x may be loose & p[d]y1 or coh]5t l *alk4 ,x is ( s$im5t>y orig91 accumulat$ orig9ally at ! bottoms ( ponds1 lakes1 & 9 ! sea4 ,tripoli & rott5/one are light1 por\s1 silice\s rocks :i* h result$ f ! lea*+ ( calc>e\s mat]ials f v>i\s silice\s lime/ones or calc>e\s *]ts 9 ! process ( wea!r+4 ,gr9d+ pebbles are d]iv$ f ! erosion ( lime/one or *alk =mations :i* conta9 concretions ( extremely f9e-gra9$ & d5se *]t4 ,"u /ream & wave action !y are r\nd$ & poli%$4 ,! pr9cipal s\rces are ocean bea*es4 ,corundum z an abrasive is ! m9]al ( ?is "n--made up ( anhydr\s alum9um oxide4 ,em]y is an intimate me*anical mixture ( corundum1 magnetite1 & sometimes sp9el4 ,corundum is a product ( contact metamorphism & also a result ( direct cry/allization f molt5 magma4 ,canadian corundum occurs z a con/itu5t ( sy5ite & nephel9e-sy5ite 9 ,l[] ,ont>io4 ,9 ,nor? ,c>ol9a & ,georgia1 ! corundum occurs 9 ve9-l bodies at ! contact ( p]idotite ) gneisses & s*i/s1 & also 9 "p 9 ! p]idotite itself4 ,9 ,new ,york ! em]y deposits are segregations ( alum9um & iron oxides 9 norite 7a basic igne\s rock74 ,! em]y ( ,greece & ,turkey occurs z l5ses or pockets 9 cry/all9e lime/ones1 & is ! result ( contact metamorphism by intrusive granites4 ,g>nets result ma9ly f contact metamorphism1 & commonly occur ei!r 9 s*i/s & gneisses or 9 m>ble4 ,! pr9cipal ,am]ican occurr5ces are ( ?is type4 ,be+ heavy & resi/ant to wea!r+1 !y are also conc5trat$ 9 plac]s4 ,! ,spani% g>nets are report$ to be obta9$ by wa%+ ! s&s ( c]ta9 /reams4 ,pumice is solidifi$ rock fro? =m$ by escape ( gases f molt5 igne\s rocks at ! surface4 ,x is (t5 closely associat$ ) volcanic a%1 :i* is also us$ = abrasive purposes4 ,9 g5]al1 ! geologic processes ent]+ into ! =mation ( abrasives cov] almo/ ! full range f prim>y igne\s processes to surface alt]ations & s$im5tation4 ,,asbe/os ,,economic ,,features ,! pr9cipal uses ( asbe/os are 9 high-pressure pack+ 9 heat eng9es1 9 !rmal & electrical insulation1 9 fire-pro(+1 & 9 brake-b& l9+s4 ,! l>ge/ produc]s ( asbe/os are ,canada 7,quebec7 &1 to a consid]ably less ext5t1 ,russia4 ,unit$ ,/ates int]e/s h f9ancial control ( ab\t a f\r? ( ! ,canadian production1 & practically ! entire export trade ( ,canada goes to ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,russia exports ne>ly all h] product to ,g]many1 ,au/ria1 ,unit$ ,k+dom1 ,belgium1 & ! ,ne!rl&s4 ,previ\s to ! w> ! output 0 l>gely controll$ by a ,g]man syndicate4 ,!re is a consid]able rec5t production 9 ,s\? ,africa1 :i* is tak5 by ,engl& & ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & small am\nts are produc$ 9 ,italy1 ,cyprus1 & ,au/ralia4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates has be5 a l>ge import] ( asbe/os1 f ,canada & "s o!r s\rces4 ,dome/ic production is relatively insignificant1 & exports dep5d *iefly on an excess ( import4 ,georgia is ! pr9cipal local s\rce4 ,arizona & ,cali=nia are also produc]s1 _! product be+ ( a high] grade4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates is ! l>ge/ manufactur] ( asbe/os goods1 & exports g to ne>ly all p>ts ( ! _w4 ,s long z ! abundant ,canadian mat]ial is accessible on reasonable conditions1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates is ab\t z well situat$ z if indep5d5t4 ,"s ,canadian proposals ( re/riction dur+ ! w> l$ to a /udy ( o!r supplies & %[$ t sev]al deposits1 su* z ^? 9 ,russia & ,africa1 might compete ) ! ,canadian asbe/os4 ,,geologic ,,features ,asbe/os consi/s mo/ly ( magnesium silicate m9]als--*rysotile1 an?ophyllite1 & crocidolite4 ,! t]m asbe/os cov]s all fibr\s m9]als ) "s t5sile /r5g? :i* are poor conductors & c be us$ = heat-protection4 ,l talc1 !y are d]iv$ pr9cipally f ! alt]ation ( oliv9e1 pyrox5e1 & amphibole1--or m commonly f s]p5t9e1 :i* itself results f ! alt]ation ( ^! m9]als4 ,*rysotile is ! mo/ common1 & because ( ! l5g?1 f95ess1 & flexibility ( its fib]s1 enabl+ x to be spun into asbe/os ropes & fabrics1 x is ! mo/ valuable4 ,an?ophyllite fib]s1 on ! o!r h&1 are %ort1 co>se1 & brittle1 & c be us$ only = l[]-grade purposes4 ,crocidolite or blue asbe/os is simil> to *rysotile b some:at inf]ior 9 fire-resi/+ qualities4 ,asbe/os deposits occur *iefly z ve9lets 9 s]p5t9e rock1 :i* is itself ! alt]ation ( "s e>li] rock l p]idotite4 ,!y are cle>ly =m$ 9 cracks & fissures ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( wat]1 b :e!r ! wat]s are hot or cold is n app>5t4 ,! ve9lets h sometimes be5 int]pret$ z fill+s ( contraction cracks1 b m probably are due to recry/allization ( ! s]p5t9e1 proce$+ inw>d f ! cracks4 ,9 ,quebec ! *rysotile asbe/os 7:i* is p>tly ( sp9n+ & p>tly ( non-sp9n+ grade7 =ms irregul> ve9s ( ?is nature 9 s]p5t9e1 ! fib] mak+ up #b to #f p] c5t ( ! rock4 ,9 ,georgia ! asbe/os1 :i* is an?ophyllite1 occurs 9 l5ticul> masses 9 p]idotite associat$ ) gneiss4 ,x is suppos$ to h =m$ by ! alt]ation ( oliv9e & pyrox5e 9 ! igne\s rocks4 ,9 ,arizona *rysotile is f\nd 9 ve9s 9 *]ty lime/one1 associat$ ) diabase intrusives4 ,"h x is believ$ to be an alt]ation product ( diopside 7lime-magnesia pyrox5e7 9 a contact-metamorphic silicat$ zone4 ,crocidolite is m9$ on a comm]cial scale only 9 ,cape ,colony1 ,s\? ,africa4 ,! deposits occur 9 ?9 s$im5t>y lay]s int]b$d$ ) jasp]s & iron/ones4 ,_! orig9 has n be5 work$ out 9 detail4 ,! deposits ( ,russia1 ! ,transvaal1 ,rhodesia1 & ,au/ralia are ( high-grade *rysotile1 probably simil> 9 orig9 to ! ,quebec deposits4 ,! asbe/os ( ,italy & ,cyprus is an?ophyllite1 m l ! ,georgia mat]ial4 ,,b>ite 7,,b>ytes7 ,,economic ,,features ,b>ite is us$ *iefly z a mat]ial = pa9ts4 ,= ?is purpose x is employ$ bo? 9 ! gr\nd =m & 9 ! manufacture ( li?opone1 a widely us$ :ite pa9t consi/+ ( b>ium sulphate & z9c sulphide4 ,gr\nd b>ite is also us$ 9 c]ta9 k9ds ( rubb] goods & 9 ! mak+ ( heavy glaz$ pap]4 ,less] am\nts g into ! manufacture ( b>ium *emicals1 :i* are us$ 9 ! prep>ation ( hydrog5 p]oxide1 9 s(t5+ wat]1 9 tann+ lea!r1 & 9 a wide v>iety ( o!r applications4 ,g]many is ! _w's pr9cipal produc] ( b>ite & has l>ge res]ves ( high grade4 ,great ,brita9 also has ext5sive deposits & produces p]haps "o-f\r? z mu* z ,g]many4 ,france1 ,italy1 ,belgium1 ,au/ria-,hung>y1 & ,spa9 produce small] b significant am\nts4 ,be=e ! w> ! ,unit$ ,/ates import$ f ,g]many ne>ly half ! b>ite consum$ 9 ?is c\ntry1 & produc$ ! rema9d]4 ,"u ! necessities ( w> times1 adequate dome/ic supplies 7 develop$ & took c>e ( ne>ly all ! greatly increas$ dem&s4 ,production has come f f\rte5 /ates1 ! l>ge produc]s be+ ,georgia1 ,miss\ri1 & ,t5nessee4 ,dur+ ! w>1 also1 an important movem5t ( b>ite-consum+ indu/ries to ! middle we/ took place1 9 ord] to utilize m readily & *eaply ! dome/ic product4 ,= ?is reason x is n expect$ t ,g]man b>ite w play z important a "p z =m]ly 9 ,am]ican m>kets1--al?\gh x c und\bt$ly be put d[n on ! ,atlantic seabo>d mu* m *eaply ?an dome/ic b>ite1 :i* requires long rail hauls f s\!rn & middle-we/]n /ates4 ,,geologic ,,features ,! m9]al b>ite is a heavy :ite sulphate ( b>ium1 frequ5tly call$ b>ytes or heavy sp>4 ,)]ite1 ! b>ium c>bonate1 is a mu* r>] m9]al b is f\nd ) b>ite 9 "s ve9s4 ,all igne\s rocks conta9 at lea/ a trace ( b>ium1 :i* is probably pres5t 9 ! silicates1 & ^! small quantities are ! ultimate s\rce ( ! m conc5trat$ deposits4 ,b>ite itself is n f\nd z an orig9al con/itu5t ( igne\s rocks or pegmatites1 b is app>5tly always =m$ by deposition f aque\s solutions4 ,x is a common gangue m9]al 9 _m deposits ( metallic sulphides1 bo? ^? =m$ 9 relation to igne\s activity & ^? :i* are indep5d5t ( su* activity1 b 9 ^! occurr5ces x is ( little or no comm]cial importance4 ,! pr9cipal deposits ( b>ite are f\nd 9 s$im5t>y rocks1 & especially 9 lime/ones & dolomites4 ,9 ^! rocks x occurs 9 ve9s & l5ses v simil> 9 nature to ! lead & z9c deposits ( ! ,mississippi valley 7p4 #baa et seq471 &1 l !m1 probably deposit$ by cold solutions :i* ga!r$ toge!r small quantities ( mat]ial f ! ov]ly+ or surr\nd+ rocks4 ,! ,miss\ri deposits are f\nd 9 lime/ones 9 a region n f> f ! great s\!a/]n ,miss\ri lead di/rict1 & v>y f ! lead deposits 9 relative proportions r ?an 9 k9d ( m9]als2 ! ve9s consi/ *iefly ( b>ite1 ) m9or quantities ( silica1 iron sulphide1 gal5a1 & sphal]ite4 ,! deposits ( ! s\!rn ,appala*ians occur z l5ses 9 lime/ones & s*i/s4 ,b>ite is little affect$ by surface wea!r+1 & t5ds to rema9 beh9d :ile ! m soluble m9]als ( ! associat$ rock are dissolv$ out & c>ri$ away4 ,a limit$ am\nt ( solution & r$eposition ( ! b>ite takes place1 h[ev]1 result+ 9 its segregation into nodules 9 ! residual clays4 ,mo/ ( ! b>ite actually m9$ comes f ^! residual deposits1 :i* owe _! pres5t positions & values to katamorphic processes4 ,! accompany+ clay & iron oxide are remov$ by wa%+ & me*anical conc5tration4 ,c]ta9 inve/igators ( ! deposits ( ! ,mississippi valley are extremely reluctant to accept ! idea t ! ores are =m$ by surface wat]s ( ord9>y temp]atures1 & are incl9$ to appeal to heat$ wat]s f a hypo!tical und]ly+ magmatic s\rce4 ,! fact t b>ite is a *>act]i/ic m9]al ( _m igne\s ve9s1 & ! fact t 9 ?is same g5]al region x is f\nd 9 ! ,k5tucky-,ill9ois fluorsp> deposits1--:]e a magmatic s\rce is g5]ally accept$1--toge!r ) d\bts z to ! !oretical efficacy ( meteoric wat]s to transport ! m9]als f\nd 9 ! b>ite deposits1 h l$ c]ta9 writ]s to ascribe to ^! b>ite deposits a magmatic orig94 ,! magmatic !ory has n be5 disprov$2 b on ! :ole ! balance ( evid5ce seems /rongly to indicate t ! b>ite deposits z well z ! lead & z9c ores1 :i* are ess5tially ! same 9 nature ?\gh diff]+ 9 m9]al proportions1 h be5 conc5trat$ f ! adjac5t s$im5ts by ord9>y surface wat]s4 ,,borax ,,economic ,,features ,borax-be>+ m9]als are us$ almo/ entirely 9 ! manufacture ( borax & boric acid4 ,fully a ?ird ( ! borax consum$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates is us$ 9 ! manufacture ( enamels or porcela9-l coat+s = su* objects z ba?tubs1 kit*5 s9ks1 & cook+ ut5sils4 ,o!r uses ( borax or ( boric acid are z a flux 9 ! melt+ & purification ( ! preci\s metals1 9 decompos+ *romite1 9 mak+ glass1 z a pres]vative1 z an antiseptic1 & z a cleans+ ag5t4 ,rec5t developm5ts indicate t ! metal1 boron1 may play an important "p 9 ! metallurgy ( v>i\s metals4 ,x has be5 us$ 9 mak+ v pure copp] ca/+s = electrical purposes1 9 alum9um bronzes1 & 9 h>d5+ alum9um ca/+s2 & an alloy1 f]roboron1 has be5 %[n exp]im5tally to act on /eel some:at l f]rovanadium4 ,! bulk ( ! _w's borax comes f ! ,we/]n ,hemisph]e1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,*ile be+ ! two pr9cipal produc]s4 ,!re are additional l>ge deposits 9 nor!rn ,arg5t9a1 s\!rn ,p]u1 & s\!rn ,bolivia1 :i* h ?us f> be5 little drawn on because ( _! inaccessibility4 ,engli% f9ancial int]e/s control mo/ ( ^! ,s\? ,am]ican deposits4 ,! only l>ge ,european produc] ( borax is ,turkey4 ,italy & ,g]many produce small am\nts4 ,!re has also be5 small production ( borax 9 ,?ibet1 br\ght out f ! m\nta9s on %eep-back4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates supplies ( borax are suffici5t = all dome/ic requirem5ts & probably = export4 ,small quantities ( boric acid are import$1 b no borax 9 rec5t ye>s4 ,! dome/ic production comes entirely f ,cali=nia1 ?\gh 9 ! pa/ deposits 9 ,nevada & ,oregon h also be5 work$4 ,,geologic ,,features ,! elem5t boron is pres5t 9 v>i\s complex boro-silicates1 su* z datolite & t\rmal9e1 ! latt] ( :i* is us$ z a preci\s /one 7pp4 #bij1 #bic74 ,none ( ^! are comm]cial s\rces ( borax4 ,! pr9cipal boron m9]als are borax or t9cal 7hydrat$ sodium borate71 colemanite 7hydrat$ calcium borate71 ulexite 7hydrat$ calcium-sodium borate71 & boracite 7magnesium *loro-borate74 ,comm]cially ! t]m borax is sometimes appli$ to all ^! mat]ials4 ,^! m9]als appe> 9 nature "u r widely diff]+ modes ( orig94 ,! borax production ( ,italy is obta9$ f ! fam\s s(fioni or fum>oles ( ,tuscany4 ,^! are volcanic exhalations1 9 :i* jets ( /eam c>ry+ boric acid & v>i\s borates1 toge!r ) ammonium comp\nds1 em]ge f v5ts 9 ! gr\nd4 ,! boric acid mat]ial is recov]$ by a process ( cond5sation4 ,borates1 pr9cipally 9 ! =m ( borax1 occur 9 hot spr+s & 9 lakes ( volcanic regions4 ,! ,?ibet deposits1 & ^? =m]ly work$ at ,borax ,lake1 ,cali=nia1 are ( ?is type4 ,c]ta9 ( ! hot-spr+ wat]s ( ! ,cali=nia coa/ ranges & ( ,nevada c>ry consid]able quantities ( boron1 toge!r ) ammoniacal salts1 & 9 "s places !y deposit borax along ) sulphur & c9nab>4 ,x seems probable 7see p4 #dj7 t ^! wat]s may come f an igne\s s\rce n f> b5ea?4 ,mo/ ( ! borax deposits ( ,cali=nia1 ,nevada1 & ,oregon1 ?\gh n at pres5t ! l>gely produc+ ones1 & probably mo/ ( ! ,*ilean & adjac5t ,s\? ,am]ican deposits1 are =m$ by ! evaporation ( des]t lakes4 ,!y are products ( desiccation1 & 9 ,*ile are associat$ ) ! great nitrate deposits 7pp4 #ajb-ajd71 :i* are ( simil> orig94 ,! salts conta9$ 9 ^! deposits are ma9ly borax1 ulexite1 & colemanite4 ,! s\rces ( ^! mat]ials are p]haps deposits ( ! type m5tion$ 9 ! la/ p>agraph1 or1 9 ,cali=nia1 c]ta9 ,t]ti>y borate deposits describ$ bel[4 ,:atev] _! s\rce1 ! borates are c>ri$ 9 solution by ! wat]s ( occasional ra9s to %all[ bas9s1 :i* become cov]$ ) tempor>y ?9 %eets ( wat] or playa lakes4 ,evaporation ( ^! lakes leaves broad flats cov]$ ) ! :ite salts4 ,^! may subsequ5tly be cov]$ ) drift+ s&s & capill>y action may cause ! borates to "w up ?r\gh ! s&s1 becom+ mix$ ) !m & effloresc+ at ! surface4 ,"o ( ! l>ge/ ( ! ,cali=nia deposits ( ?is g5]al class is t at ,se>les ,lake1 f :i* x has be5 propos$ to recov] borax along ) ! pota% 7pp4 #aac-aad74 ,! deposits :i* at pres5t con/itute ! pr9cipal s\rce ( dome/ic borax are n ! playa deposits j describ$1 b are masses ( colemanite 9 ,t]ti>y clays & lime/ones ) int]b$d$ basaltic fl[s4 ,! pr9cipal deposits are 9 ,dea? ,valley & adjac5t p>ts ( ,cali=nia4 ,! colemanite occurs 9 irregul> milky-:ite lay]s or nodules1 m+l$ ) m or less gypsum4 ,! deposits are believ$ to be ( ! replacem5t type1 r ?an ones =m$ contemporane\sly ) ! s$im5ts4 ,:e!r !y are due to magmatic solutions c>ry+ boric acid f ! associat$ fl[s1 or to surface wat]s c>ry+ mat]ials lea*$ f o!r s$im5ts1 is n cle>4 ,! crude colemanite z m9$ c>ries an av]age ( ab\t #be p] c5t ,b#b,o#c2 x is treat$ ) soda 9 ! manufacture ( borax1 or ) sulphuric acid 9 mak+ boric acid4 ,boron is pres5t 9 m9ute quantities 9 sea wat]4 ,:5 su* wat] evaporates1 x becomes conc5trat$1 along ) ! magnesium & potassium salts1 9 ! "m liquor2 & ^u complete evaporation1 x cry/allizes out z boracite & o!r r>] m9]als4 ,?us ! ,/assfurt salts ( ,g]many 7p4 #aac7 conta9 borates ( ?is type 9 ! c>nallite zone ( ! upp] "p ( ! deposits4 ,?is is ! only important case kn[n ( borate deposits ( m>9e orig94 ,,brom9e ,,economic ,,features ,brom9e f9ds a consid]able use 9 *emi/ry z an oxidiz+ ag5t1 9 sep>at+ gold f o!r metals1 & 9 manufactur+ dis9fectants1 brom9e salts1 & anil9e colors4 ,! be/ kn[n & mo/ widely us$ brom9e salts are ! silv] bromide1 us$ 9 photography1 & ! potassium bromide1 us$ 9 m$ic9e to depress ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,dur+ ! w>1 l>ge quantities ( brom9e 7 us$ 9 asphyxiat+ & la*rymat+ gases4 ,! *ief c5t] ( ! brom9e indu/ry 9 ,europe prior to #aiad 0 ,/assfurt1 ,g]many4 ,no o!r important comm]cial s\rce 9 =eign c\ntries is kn[n1 ?\gh small quantities h be5 obta9$ f ! "m liquors ( ,*ile saltpet] & f ! seawe$1 kelp1 9 v>i\s c\ntries4 ,india has be5 m5tion$ z a possible l>ge produc] 9 ! future4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates is indep5d5t ( =eign s\rces = brom9e4 ,! entire dome/ic tonnage is produc$ f br9es pump$ 9 ,mi*igan1 ,ohio1 ,we/ ,virg9ia1 & ,p5nsylvania4 ,a l>ge "p ( ! output is n actually m>ket$ z brom9e1 b 9 ! =m ( potassium & sodium bromides & o!r salts4 ,dur+ ! w> consid]able quantities ( brom9e mat]ials 7 export$ to ,great ,brita91 ,france1 & ,italy4 ,,geologic ,,features ,brom9e is v simil> *emically to *lor9e1 & is f\nd "u mu* ! same conditions1 ?\gh usually 9 small] quantities4 ,! natural silv] bromide 7bromyrite7 & ! comb9$ silv] *loride & bromide 7embolite7 are fairly common 9 ! oxide zones ( silv] ores1 b are n comm]cial s\rces ( brom9e4 ,brom9e occurs 9 sea wat] 9 appreciable am\nts1 z well z 9 "s spr+ wat]s & _m natural br9es4 ,:5 natural salt wat]s evaporate1 brom9e is "o ( ! la/ mat]ials to be precipitat$1 & ! residual "m liquors or bitt]ns frequ5tly %[ a consid]able conc5tration ( ! brom9e4 ,:]e complete evaporation takes place1 z 9 ! case ( ! ,/assfurt salt deposits 7p4 #aac71 ! brom9e salts are cry/alliz$ out 9 ! f9al /ages along ) ! salts ( sodium1 magnesium1 & potassium4 ,! l>g] "p ( ! _w's brom9e has come f ! "m liquor result+ f ! solution & fractional evaporation ( ^! ,/assfurt salts4 ,! brom9e obta9$ f salt deposits 9 ! ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates is d\btless ( a simil> orig94 ,x is produc$ z a by-product ( ! salt indu/ry1 ! natural or artificial br9es be+ pump$ f ! rocks 7p4 #bie71 & ! bromides be+ extract$ ei!r f ! "m liquors or directly f ! unconc5trat$ br9es4 ,,full]',s ,,e>? ,,economic ,,features ,full]'s e>? is us$ *iefly = blea*+1 cl>ify+1 or filt]+ m9]al & vegetable oils1 fats1 & greases4 ,! petroleum indu/ry is ! l>ge/ consum]4 ,m9or uses are 9 ! manufacture ( pigm5ts = pr9t+ wall pap]s1 9 detect+ color+ matt]s 9 c]ta9 food-products1 & z a sub/itute = talcum p[d]4 ,full]'s e>?s are 9 g5]al r widely di/ribut$4 ,! pr9cipal produc]s are ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,engl&1 & ! o!r l>ge consum+ c\ntries ( ,europe4 ,! only important int]national trade 9 ?is commodity consi/s ( exports f ! ,unit$ ,/ates to v>i\s c\ntries = treat+ m9]al oils1 & exports f ,engl& = treat+ vegetable oils4 ,!re is a l>ge surplus production 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( full]'s e>? ( a grade suitable = ref9+ m9]al oils1 b an inadequate production ( mat]ial = use 9 ref9+ edible oils1 at lea/ by me?ods & equipm5t n[ 9 mo/ g5]al use4 ,h[ev]1 ! imports ne$$ f ,engl& are m ?an (fset by our exports to ,europe ( dome/ic e>? p>ticul>ly adapt$ to ! petroleum indu/ry4 ,production 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates comes almo/ entirely f ! s\!rn /ates2 ,florida produces ov] ?ree-f\r?s ( ! total & o!r consid]able produc]s are ,texas1 ,georgia1 ,cali=nia1 & ,arkansas4 ,imports f ,engl& are normally equival5t to ab\t a ?ird ( ! dome/ic production4 ,,geologic ,,features ,full]'s e>? is ess5tially a v>iety ( clay hav+ a high absorptive p[] :i* makes x useful = decoloriz+ & purify+ purposes4 ,full]'s e>?s are 9 g5]al high] 9 wat] cont5t & h less pla/icity ?an mo/ clays1 b !y v>y widely 9 physical & *emical prop]ties4 ,*emical analyses are ( little value 9 det]m9+ :e!r a giv5 clay w s]ve z full]'s e>?1 & an actual te/ is ! only tru/wor?y crit]ion4 ,deposits ( full]'s e>? may occur "u ! same v>iety ( conditions z deposits ( o!r clays4 ,! deposits ( ,florida & ,georgia consi/ ( b$s 9 slightly consolidat$ flat-ly+ ,t]ti>y s$im5ts1 :i* are work$ by op5 cuts4 ,! ,arkansas deposits are residual clays d]iv$ f ! wea!r+ ( basic igne\s rocks1 & are work$ ?r\gh %afts4 ,,graphite 7,,plumbago7 ,,economic ,,features ,cry/all9e graphite is us$ pr9cipally 9 ! manufacture ( crucibles = ! melt+ ( brass1 bronze1 crucible /eel1 & alum9um4 ,ab\t #de p] c5t ( ! quantity & #gj p] c5t ( ! value ( all ! graphite consum$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates is employ$ 9 ?is mann]4 ,bo? cry/all9e & amorph\s graphite are us$ 9 lubricants1 p5cils1 f\ndry fac+s1 boil] mixtures1 /ove-poli%es & pa9t1 electrodes1 & fill]s or adult]ants = f]tiliz]s4 ,! mo/ important use ( amorph\s graphite is = f\ndry fac+s1 ?is application acc\nt+ = ab\t #be p] c5t ( ! total ,unit$ ,/ates consumption ( graphite ( all k9ds4 ,artificial graphite is n suitable = crucibles or p5cils b is adapt$ to meet o!r uses to :i* natural graphite is put4 ,x is p>ticul>ly adapt$ to ! manufacture ( electrodes4 ,! grade ( graphite deposits v>ies widely1 _! utilization be+ l>gely dep5d5t on ! size ( ! gra9s & ! ease ( conc5tration4 ,"s ( ! ri*e/ deposits1 ^? ( ,madagasc>1 conta9 #bj p] c5t or m ( graphite4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates deposits conta9 only #c to #aj p] c5t4 ,! graphite situation is complicat$ by ! diff]5ces 9 ! quality ( diff]5t supplies4 ,crucibles require co>sely cry/all9e graphite1 b p5cils1 lubricants1 & f\ndry fac+s may use amorph\s & f9ely cry/all9e mat]ial4 ,! l>ge/ production ( high-grade crucible graphite has come f ,ceylon1 "u ,briti% control1 & ab\t two-?irds ( ! output has come to ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! m9es are n[ work$ d[n to wat]-level & co/s are increas+4 ,9 lat] ye>s a rival supply has come f ! ,fr5* isl& ( ,madagasc>1 :]e conditions are m favorable to *eap production1 & :]e res]ves are v l>ge4 ,fr5*1 ,briti%1 & ,belgian int]e/s are conc]n$ 9 ! developm5t ( ^! deposits4 ,! quality ( graphite is diff]5t f ! ,ceylon product2 x has n f\nd favor 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates b is app>5tly satisfactory to crucible mak]s 9 ,europe4 ,mo/ ( ! output is export$ to ,great ,brita9 & ,france1 & small] am\nts to ,g]many & ,belgium4 ,less satisfactory supplies ( cry/all9e graphite are available 9 _m c\ntries1 includ+ ,bav>ia1 ,canada1 & ,japan4 ,l>ge deposits ( cry/all9e mat]ial h be5 report$ 9 ,gre5l&1 ,brazil1 & ,r\mania1 b z yet h assum$ no comm]cial importance4 ,amorph\s graphite is widely di/ribut$1 be+ produc$ 9 ab\t tw5ty c\ntries1--*iefly 9 ,au/ria1 ,italy1 ,korea1 & ,mexico4 ,c]ta9 deposits h be5 f\nd to be be/ = special uses1 b mo/ c\ntries c\ld get along ) ne>by supplies4 ,a l>ge "p ( ! _w's ne$s ( crucible graphite w probably cont9ue to be met f ,ceylon & ,madagasc>1 :ile a l>ge "p ( ! amorph\s graphite w come f ! f\r s\rces m5tion$4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates has be5 l>gely dep5d5t ^u importations f ,ceylon = crucible graphite4 ,dome/ic supplies are l>ge & capable ( fur!r developm5t1 b = ! mo/ "p ! flake is ( su* quality t x is n desir$ = crucible manufacture )\t l>ge admixture ( ! ,ceylon mat]ial4 ,re/rictions dur+ ! w> requir$ crucible mak]s to use at lea/ #bj p] c5t ( dome/ic or ,canadian graphite 9 _! mixtures1 ) #hj p] c5t ( =eign graphite4 ,?is creat$ a dem& = dome/ic graphite :i* caus$ an increas$ dome/ic output4 ,mo/ ( ! production 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates comes f ! ,appala*ians1 p>ticul>ly f ,alabama1 ,new ,york1 & ,p5nsylvania1 & small] am\nts are obta9$ f ,cali=nia1 ,montana1 & ,texas4 ,"o ( ! p]man5tly b5eficial effects ( ! w> 0 ! improvem5t ( conc5trat+ practice & ! /&>dization ( output1 to enable ! dome/ic product to compete m effectively ) ! well-/&>diz$ import$ grades4 ,:e!r ! dome/ic production w hold its own ) =eign competition "u peace conditions rema9s to be se54 ,dome/ic res]ves are l>ge b ( l[ grade4 ,! ,madagasc> graphite1 9 ! %ape & size ( ! flakes1 is m l ! ,am]ican dome/ic graphite ?an ! ,ceylon product4 ,small am\nts h be5 us$ 9 ?is c\ntry1 b ,am]ican consum]s appe> 9 g5]al to pref] ! ,ceylon graphite 9 spite ( its great] co/4 ,! ,madagasc> product c be produc$ & suppli$ to ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates m>kets mu* m *eaply ?an any o!r l>ge supply2 &1 9 view ( ! possible exhau/ion ( ! ,ceylon deposits1 x may be desirable = ,am]ican us]s to adapt crucible manufacture to ! use ( ,madagasc> mat]ial z has already app>5tly be5 done 9 ,europe4 ,expansion ( ! ,am]ican graphite indu/ry dur+ ! w>1 & its subsequ5t collapse1 h result$ 9 agitation = a duty on imports ( =eign graphite4 ,amorph\s graphite is produc$ f "s deposits 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates 7,colorado1 ,nevada1 & ,rhode ,isl&71 b ! high quality ( ,mexican graphite1 :i* is controll$ by a company 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 makes x likely t imports f ?is s\rce w cont9ue4 ,s9ce ! w> ! ,mexican mat]ial has practically replac$ ! ,au/rian graphite 9 ,am]ican m>kets4 ,! output ( ,korea is divid$ betwe5 ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,engl&4 ,artificial graphite1 9 am\nts ab\t equal to ! dome/ic production ( amorph\s graphite1 is produc$ f an?racite or petroleum coke at ,niag>a ,falls4 ,,geologic ,,features ,! m9]al graphite is a s(t1 /eel-gray1 cry/all9e =m ( c>bon4 ,ceylon graphite occurs 9 ve9s & l5ses cutt+ gneisses & lime/ones4 ,usually ! ve9s consi/ almo/ entirely ( graphite1 b sometimes o!r m9]als occur 9 important am\nts1 especially pyrite & qu>tz4 ,! association ( graphite ) ^! m9]als1 & also ) feldsp>1 pyrox5e1 apatite1 & o!r m9]als1 sugge/s t ! ve9s are ( igne\s orig91 l "s ( ! pegmatite ve9s 9 ! ,adirondacks ( ,new ,york4 ,! graphite is m9$ f op5 pits & %afts1 & sort$ by h& & me*anically4 ,! product consi/s ( angul> lumps or *ips ) a relatively small am\nt ( surface 9 proportion to _! volume4 ,9 ,madagasc> ! graphite is ma9ly dissem9at$ 9 a graphitic s*i/1 ?\gh to "s ext5t x is pres5t 9 ! =m ( ve9s & 9 gneiss4 ,mo/ ( ! graphite is m9$ f a wea!r$ zone ne> ! surface1 & ! mat]ial is !re=e s(t & easily conc5trat$4 ,! product is made up ( flakes or scales1 & 9 ! mak+ ( crucibles requires ! use ( l>g] am\nts ( clay b9d] ?an ! ,ceylon graphite4 ,! flake graphite ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 pr9cipally 9 ! ,appala*ian region1 occurs 9 cry/all9e graphitic s*i/s1 result+ f ! anamorphism ( s$im5t>y rocks conta9+ organic matt]4 ,c]ta9 b$s or zones ( comp>atively n>r[ wid? c>ry f #c to #aj p] c5t ( dissem9at$ graphite4 ,! graphite is recov]$ by me*anical processes ( sort+4 ,! graphite is believ$ to be ( organic orig91 ! *ange f organic c>bon to graphite hav+ be5 effect$ by heat & pressure accompany+ m\nta9-build+ /resses4 ,"s ( ! graphite also occurs 9 pegmatite intrusives & adjac5t wall rocks4 ,?is graphite is consid]$ to be ( inorganic orig91 =m$ by ! break+ up ( gase\s oxides ( c>bon 9 ! orig9al magma ( ! pegmatites4 ,! ,montana graphite is simil> 9 orig94 ,?is inorganic graphite 9 pegmatite ve9s resembles ,ceylon graphite1 9 break+ into l>ge lumps & *ips1 b supplies are v limit$4 ,amorph\s graphite is =m$ 9 _m places :]e coal & o!r c>bonace\s mat]ials h und]gone extreme metamorphism4 ,x repres5ts simply a cont9uation 9 ! processes by :i* high grade coals are =m$ f plant matt] 7pp4 #abc-abg74 ,! ,mexican deposits are ( ?is type1 & occur 9 b$s up to #bd feet 9 ?ickness int]b$d$ ) metamorphos$ s&/ones4 ,9 g5]al1 graphite is prim>ily conc5trat$ bo? by igne\s processes 9 dikes1 & by s$im5t>y processes 9 b$s4 ,9 ! latt] case anamorphism is necess>y to recry/allize ! c>bon into ! =m ( graphite4 ,,gypsum ,,economic ,,features ,! pr9cipal use ( gypsum is 9 /ructural mat]ials4 ,ab\t two-?irds ( ! gypsum produc$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates is us$ 9 ! manufacture ( v>i\s pla/]s--wall pla/]1 pla/] ( ,p>is1 & ,ke5e's cem5t 7= /atu>y & decorative purposes71--& ab\t a fif? is us$ z a ret>d] 9 ,portl& cem5t4 ,ano!r important /ructural use is 9 ! manufacture ( pla/] bo>ds1 blocks1 & tile = int]ior con/ruction4 ,gypsum is us$ z a f]tiliz] "u ! "n ( l& pla/]1 & ) ! gr[+ recognition ( ! lack ( sulphur 9 v>i\s soils an ext5sion ( its application is n unlikely4 ,m9or uses are 9 ! poli%+ ( plate glass1 9 ! manufacture ( d5tal pla/]1 9 :ite pigm5ts1 9 /eampipe cov]+s1 & z a fill] 9 cotton goods4 ,! _w's gypsum deposits are widely di/ribut$4 ,( =eign c\ntries1 ,france1 ,canada1 & ! ,unit$ ,k+dom are ! pr9cipal produc]s4 ,g]many1 ,alg]ia1 & ,india produce comp>atively meag] am\nts4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates is ! l>ge/ produc] ( gypsum 9 ! _w4 ,9 spite ( its l>ge production1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates normally imports quantities equival5t to betwe5 "o-fifte5? & "o-t5? ( ! dome/ic production1 ma9ly 9 ! crude =m f ,nova ,scotia & ,new ,brunswick = consumption by ! mills 9 ! vic9ity ( ,new ,york4 ,?is mat]ial is ( a bett] grade ?an ! ea/]n dome/ic supply1 & is *eap] ?an ! we/]n supply = ea/]n consumption4 ,dur+ ! w> ?is importation 0 practically /opp$ because ( gov]nm5tal requisition ( ! c>ry+ b>ges = ! coal-c>ry+ trade1 b ) ! return ( normal conditions x 0 resum$4 ,!re is no prospect ( importation ( any consid]able am\nt f any o!r s\rces4 ,! dome/ic supply is ample = all dem&s4 ,production ( gypsum 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates comes f eighte5 /ates4 ,f\r-fif?s ( ! total comes f ,new ,york1 ,i[a1 ,mi*igan1 ,ohio1 ,texas1 & ,oklahoma4 ,!re are ext5sive deposits 9 "s ( ! we/]n /ates1 ! kn[n res]ves 9 ,wyom+ alone be+ suffici5t = ! entire _w dem&s = _m decades4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates exports a small am\nt ( crude gypsum to ,canada1 pr9cipally = use 9 ,portl& cem5t manufacture4 ,?is exportation is due to geographic location4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates is ! l>ge/ manufactur] ( pla/] bo>ds1 insulat+ mat]ials1 & tile1 & exports l>ge quantities ( ^! products to ,cuba1 ,au/ralia1 ,japan1 & ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,,geologic ,,features ,gypsum is a hydrat$ calcium sulphate4 ,x is frequ5tly associat$ ) m9or quantities ( anhydrite1 :i* is calcium sulphate )\t wat]1 & "u ! prop] natural conditions ei!r ( ^! mat]ials may be *ang$ into ! o!r4 ,common impurities 9 gypsum deposits include clay & lime c>bonate1 & also magnesia1 silica1 & iron oxide4 ,9 ! mat]ial z extract$1 impurities may range f a trace to ab\t #be p] c5t4 ,gypsite1 or gypsum dirt1 is an impure mixture ( gypsum ) clay or s& f\nd 9 ,kansas & "s ( ! we/]n /ates2 x is believ$ to h be5 produc$ 9 ! soil or 9 %all[ lakes1 by spr+ wat]s c>ry+ calcium sulphate :i* 0 lea*$ f gypsum deposits or f o!r rocks4 ,gypsum deposits1 l deposits ( common salt1 occur 9 b$s :i* are ! result ( evaporation ( salt wat]4 ,calcium makes up a small p]c5tage ( ! dissolv$ mat]ial 9 ! sea1 & :5 sea wat]s are ab\t #cg p] c5t evaporat$ x beg9s to be precipitat$ z calcium sulphate4 ,conditions = precipitation are especially favorable 9 arid climates1 9 arms ( ! sea or 9 enclos$ bas9s :i* may or may n once h be5 connect$ ) ! sea4 ,simultane\sly ) ! deposition ( gypsum1 !re may be occasional inwa%+s ( clay & s&1 & ) slight *anges ( conditions organic mat]ials ( a limey nature may be deposit$4 ,fur!r evaporation ( ! wat]s may result 9 ! deposition ( common salt4 ,?us gypsum b$s are f\nd int]b$d$ ) %ales1 s&/ones1 & lime/ones1 & frequ5tly1 b n always1 !y are associat$ ) salt b$s4 ,! nature ( ^! processes is fur!r discuss$ "u ! head+ ( salt 7pp4 #bie-bih74 ,! anhydrite f\nd 9 gypsum deposits is =m$ bo? by direct precipitation f salt wat] & by subsequ5t alt]ation ( ! gypsum4 ,! latt] process involves a r$uction ( volume1 & consequ5tly a %r9kage & settl+ ( ! s$im5ts4 ,! hydration ( anhydrite to =m gypsum1 on ! o!r h&1 involves an increase ( volume & may result 9 ! dom+ up & %att]+ ( ! ov]ly+ s$im5ts4 ,gypsum is fairly soluble 9 gr\nd-wat]1 & s9k-holes & solution cavities are (t5 develop$ 9 gypsum deposits4 ,^! may all[ ! inwa% ( surface dirt & also may int]f]e ) ! m9+4 ,all ! important comm]cial gypsum deposits are believ$ to h be5 =m$ by evaporation ( salt wat] 9 ! mann] indicat$4 ,small quantities ( gypsum are =m$ also :5 pyrite & o!r sulphides oxidize to sulphuric acid & ?is acid acts on lime/one4 ,?us gypsum is f\nd 9 ! oxide zones ( "s ore bodies4 ,^! occurr5ces are ( no comm]cial significance4 ,,mica ,,economic ,,features ,! pr9cipal use ( %eet mica is = insulat+ purposes 9 ! manufacture ( a l>ge v>iety ( electrical equipm5t4 ,! highe/ grades are employ$ p>ticul>ly 9 mak+ cond5s]s = magnetos ( automobile & airplane eng9es & = radio equipm5t1 & 9 ! manufacture ( sp>k plugs = high t5sion gas eng9es4 ,%eet mica is also us$ 9 consid]able am\nts = glaz+1 = heat insulation1 & z phonograph diaphragms4 ,gr\nd mica is us$ 9 pipe & boil] cov]+s1 z an insulator1 9 pat5t ro(+1 & = lubricat+ & decorative purposes4 ,india1 ,canada1 & ! ,unit$ ,/ates are ! important %eet mica-produc+ c\ntries1 be=e ! w> acc\nt+ = #ih p] c5t ( ! _w's total4 ,india has long dom9at$ ! %eet mica m>kets ( ! _w1 & w probably cont9ue to supply ! /&>d ( quality = _m ye>s4 ,! bulk ( ! ,indian mica is consum$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,great ,brita91 & ,g]many4 ,! mica ( ,india & ! ,unit$ ,/ates is *iefly muscovite4 ,canada is ! *ief s\rce ( amb] mica 7phlogopite71 ?\gh o!r deposits ( pot5tial importance are kn[n 9 ,ceylon & ,s\? ,africa4 ,canadian mica is produc$ *iefly 9 ,quebec & ,ont>io1 & is export$ pr9cipally to ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,important deposits ( mica 7pr9cipally muscovite7 are also kn[n 9 ,brazil1 ,arg5t9a1 & ,g]man ,ea/ ,africa4 ,l>ge %ipm5ts 7 made f ! two =m] c\ntries dur+ ! w>1 bo? to ,europe & ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & ,brazil p>ticul>ly %\ld become ( increas+ importance z a produc] ( mica4 ,! deposits 9 ,g]man ,ea/ ,africa 7 be+ q ext5sively develop$ imm$iately be=e ! w> & l>ge %ipm5ts 7 made to ,g]many 9 #aiac4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates is ! l>ge/ consum] ( %eet mica & mica splitt+s1 absorb+ normally ne>ly "o-half ( ! _w's production4 ,approximately ?ree-fif?s ( ?is consumption is 9 ! =m ( mica splitt+s1 mo/ ( :i* are made f muscovite 9 ,india & "p f amb] mica 9 ,canada4 ,due to ! *eapness ( labor 9 ,india & ! am5ability ( ,indian mica to ! splitt+ process1 ,india splitt+s %\ld cont9ue to dom9ate ! m>ket 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,amb] mica is a v>iety peculi>ly adapt$ to c]ta9 electrical uses4 ,!re are no kn[n comm]cial deposits ( ?is mica 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 b ,am]ican int]e/s own ! l>ge/ produc+ m9es 9 ,canada4 ,%ipm5ts ( ,brazilian mica are n ( su* uni=mly high quality z ! ,indian mat]ial1 b promise to become ( increas+ importance 9 ,am]ican m>kets4 ,( ! %eet mica consum$ annually1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates normally produces ab\t "o-?ird4 ,w> conditions1 al?\gh /imulat+ ! production ( dome/ic mica v consid]ably1 did n mat]ially *ange ! situation 9 ?is c\ntry z reg>ds ! dep5d5ce ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates on =eign supplies = %eet mica4 ,ab\t #gj p] c5t ( ! dome/ic mica comes f ,nor? ,c>ol9a & #be p] c5t f ,new ,hamp%ire4 ,! deposits are small & irregul>1 & m9+ op]ations are small & scatt]$4 ,^! conditions are l>gely responsible = ! het]og5e\s nature ( ! ,am]ican product4 ,x is h>dly possible = any "o m9e to /&>dize & classify its product1 al?\gh progress 0 made 9 ?is direction dur+ ! w> by ! organization ( associations ( mica produc]s4 ,?is lack ( /&>dization & classification is a s]i\s h&icap 9 competition ) ! /&>d grades & sizes :i* are available 9 any desir$ am\nts f =eign s\rces4 ,= gr\nd mica1 ! dome/ic production exce$s 9 tonnage ! total _w production ( %eet mica1 & is adequate = all dem&s4 ,,geologic ,,features ,mica is a common rock m9]al1 b is available = comm]ce only 9 igne\s dikes ( a pegmatite nature1 :]e ! cry/allization is s co>se t ! mica cry/als are exceptionally l>ge4 ,muscovite mica occurs pr9cipally 9 ! granitic pegmatite dikes4 ,! phlogopite mica ( ,canada occurs 9 pyrox5ite dikes4 ,! di/ribution ( mica )9 ! dikes is v erratic1 mak+ pr$ictions z to res]ves haz>d\s4 ,! associat$ m9]als1 ma9ly qu>tz & feldsp>1 are ord9>ily pres5t 9 am\nts great] ?an ! mica4 ,also1 individual deposits are likely to be small4 ,= ^! reasons m9+ op]ations _c be organiz$ on a l>ge scale1 b are ord9>ily h&-to-m\? op]ations ne> ! surface4 ,a l>ge am\nt ( h& labor is involv$1 & ! ,indian deposits are favor$ by ! *eapness ( native labor4 ,! output ( a di/rict is f _m small m9es r ?an f any s+le l>ge "o4 ,pegmatites :i* h be5 subject$ to dynamic metamorphism are (t5 n available z a s\rce ( mica1 because ( ! di/ortion ( ! mica %eets4 ,! m9+ ( a mica is facilitat$ by wea!r+1 :i* s(t5s ! associat$ feldsp>1 mak+ x an easi] task to take out ! mica blocks4 ,on ! o!r h&1 iron /a9+ by surface solutions dur+ wea!r+ may make ! mica unfit = electrical & c]ta9 o!r uses4 ,scrap or gr\nd mica is obta9$ z a by-product ( %eet mica & f deposits :]e ! cry/als are n s well develop$4 ,black mica 7biotite7 & *lorite m9]als1 :i* are s(t & flexible b n ela/ic & are f\nd ext5sively develop$ 9 c]ta9 s*i/s1 h be5 us$ to a limit$ ext5t = ! same purposes4 ,,monazite 7,,?orium ,,& ,,c]ium ,,ores7 ,,economic ,,features ,! m9]al monazite is ! s\rce ( ! ?orium & c]ium comp\nds :i*1 gl[+ int5sely :5 heat$1 =m ! light-giv+ mat]ial ( inc&esc5t gas mantles4 ,welsba* mantles consi/ ( ab\t #ii p] c5t ?orium oxide & #a p] c5t c]ium oxide4 ,c]ium metal1 alloy$ ) iron & o!r metals1 =ms ! sp>k-produc+ alloys us$ 9 v>i\s =ms ( gas light]s & = light+ cig>s1 cig>ettes1 etc4 ,meso?orium1 a by-product ( ! manufacture ( ?orium nitrate = gas mantles1 is us$ z a sub/itute = radium 9 lum9\s pa9ts & = !rapeutic purposes4 ,! alloy f]roc]ium is us$ to a small ext5t 9 iron & /eel4 ,! _w's supply ( monazite is obta9$ ma9ly f ,brazilian & ,indian prop]ties4 ,be=e ! w> ,g]man comm]cial int]e/s controll$ mo/ ( ! production1 z well z ! manufacture ( ! ?orium products4 ,dur+ ! w> ,g]man control 0 brok5 up4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates has a supply ( dome/ic monazite ( l[] grade ?an ! imports1 b is dep5d5t "u normal conditions on supplies f ,brazil & ,india4 ,! ,am]ican deposits are *iefly 9 ,nor? & ,s\? ,c>ol9a1 & h be5 work$ only dur+ p]iods ( abnormally high prices or ( re/riction ( imports4 ,kn[n res]ves are small & ! deposits w probably nev] be important produc]s4 ,dur+ ! w>1 h[ev]1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates became ! l>ge/ manufactur] ( ?orium nitrate & gas mantles & export$ ^! products 9 consid]able quantity4 ,an ef=t is n[ be+ made to secure protective legislation aga9/ ,g]man ?orium products4 ,,geologic ,,features ,monazite is a m9]al consi/+ ( phosphates ( c]ium1 lan?anum1 ?orium1 & o!r r>e e>?s 9 v>y+ proportions4 ,! cont5t ( ?orium oxide v>ies f a trace up to #cj p] c5t1 & comm]cial monazite s&s are usually mix$ s z to br+ ! grade up to at lea/ #e p] c5t4 ,yell[i%-br[n cry/als ( monazite h be5 f\nd scatt]$ ?r\gh granites1 gneisses1 & pegmatites1 b 9 quantities ord9>ily too small to w>rant m9+4 ,9 g5]al ! m9]al is recov]$ on a comm]cial scale only f plac]s1 :]e x has be5 conc5trat$ along ) o!r d5se1 insoluble m9]als su* z zircon1 g>net1 ilm5ite1 & sometimes gold4 ,! ,indian & ,brazilian monazite is obta9$ pr9cipally f ! s&s ( ocean bea*es1 9 ! same localities f :i* zircon is recov]$ 7p4 #ahi74 ,! ,nor? & ,s\? ,c>ol9a monazite has be5 obta9$ *iefly f /ream b$s1 & to a slight ext5t by m9+ & wa%+ ! rott$ und]ly+ rock1 :i* is a pegmatiz$ gneiss4 ,monazite1 toge!r ) a small am\nt ( gold1 is also kn[n 9 ! /ream gravels ( ! ,boise ,bas91 ,idaho1 :]e a l>ge granitic ba?oli? evid5tly c>ries ! m9]al sp>sely di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t4 ,^! deposits h n be5 work$4 ,,preci\s ,,/ones ,,economic ,,features ,preci\s /ones range high 9 ! _w's annual production ( m9]al values4 ,a hundr$ or m m9]als are us$ to "s degree z preci\s /ones2 b ^? mo/ priz$1 repres5t+ upw>ds ( #ij p] c5t ( ! total production value1 are diamond1 pe>l1 ruby1 sapphire1 & em]ald4 ,9 total value ! diamonds h an ov]:elm+ dom9ance4 ,ov] a ton ( diamonds is m9$ annually4 ,diamonds come ma9ly f ,s\? ,africa1 :i* produces ov] #ii p] c5t ( ! total4 ,pe>ls come *iefly f ! ,indian & ,pacific oceans4 ,burma is ! pr9cipal s\rce ( f9e rubies4 ,siam is ! pr9cipal produc] ( sapphires4 ,colombia is ! pr9cipal s\rce ( f9e em]alds4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates produces small am\nts ( sapphires 79 ,montana7 & pe>ls 7f fre%-wat] molluscs74 ,diamonds1 rubies1 & em]alds are practically abs5t on a comm]cial scale4 ,( o!r preci\s & semi-preci\s gem /ones produc$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ! pr9cipal ones are qu>tz1 t\rmal9e1 & turquoise4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates absorbs by pur*ase ov] half ( ! _w's production ( preci\s /ones4 ,x is e/imat$ r\ghly t !re are n[ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ne>ly "o billion doll>s' wor? ( diamonds1 or ov] "o-half ( ! _w's accumulat$ /ock1 & probably ! proportions = ! o!r /ones are n f> diff]5t4 ,value atta*es to a preci\s /one because ( its qualities ( beauty1 c\pl$ ) endurance & r>ity1 or because ( "s comb9ation ( ^! features :i* has caught ! popul> fancy4 ,no "o ( ^! qualities is suffici5t to make a /one highly priz$2 nei!r does ! possession ( all ( !m insure value4 ,"s beautiful & endur+ /ones are s r>e t !y are kn[n only to collectors & h no /&>d m>ket value4 ,o!rs fail to cat* ! popul> fancy = reasons n obvi\s to ! layman4 ,:ile ! intr9sic qualities g f> 9 det]m9+ ! desirability ( a /one1 x is cle> t :im & *ance h be5 no small factors 9 det]m9+ ! dem& or lack ( dem& = "s /ones4 ,z 9 o!r m9]als1 value has bo? its intr9sic & extr9sic elem5ts4 ,= ! lead+ preci\s /ones above nam$1 ! values are m ne>ly /&>d ?r\gh\t ! _w ?an = any o!r m9]als1 ) ! exception ( gold & possibly plat9um4 ,highly priz$ ev]y:]e & easily transport$1 ! price levels %[ comp>atively little v>iation ov] ! _w :5 all[ance is made = ex*ange & taxes4 ,! valuation ( preci\s /ones is a highly specializ$ art1 involv+ ! appraisal n only ( intr9sic qualities1 b ( ! appeal :i* ! /one w make to ! buy+ public4 ,9 m>k+ a sale price = "s exceptional /one n commonly h&l$ 9 ! trade1 exp]ts 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! _w (t5 rea* an almo/ uncanny uni=mity ( op9ion4 ,x is e/imat$ t ! _w /ock ( preci\s /ones approximates ?ree billion doll>s1 or a ?ird ( ! _w's monet>y gold res]ve4 ,because ( small bulk & /&>d value1 ?is weal? may be easily secret$1 c>ri$1 & ex*ang$4 ,:5 ! economic fabric ( civilization is di/urb$ by w> or o!r conditions1 preci\s /ones become a m$ium ( transf] & ex*ange ( weal? ( no inconsid]able importance4 ,! beauty ( a /one may arise f its color or lack ( color1 f its transluc5cy or opaqu5ess1 f its high refraction ( light1 & f ! mann] ( cutt+ & poli%+ to br+ out ^! qualities4 ,h>dness & durability are desirable qualities4 ,! diamond is ! h>de/ kn[n m9]al & ! sapphire1 ruby1 & em]ald rank high 9 ?is reg>d4 ,on ! o!r h& ! pe>l is s(t & fragile & yet highly priz$4 ,,geologic ,,features ,! pr9cipal preci\s /ones above nam$ are ( simple composition4 ,diamond is made ( c>bon2 ! pe>l is calcium c>bonate2 ruby & sapphire are alum9um oxide--v>ieties ( ! m9]al corundum2 ! em]ald is silica & alum9a1 ) a m9or am\nt ( b]yllia4 ,m9ute p]c5tages ( *romite1 iron1 manganese1 & o!r sub/ances are (t5 responsible = ! colors 9 ^! /ones4 ,c>bon also con/itutes graphite & is ! pr9cipal elem5t 9 coal4 ,lime c>bonate is ! pr9cipal con/itu5t ( lime/one & m>ble4 ,alum9a is ! pr9cipal con/itu5t ( bauxite1 ! ore ( alum9um1 & ( ! natural abrasives1 em]y & corundum4 ,silica1 ! sub/ance ( common qu>tz1 also con/itutes gem qu>tz1 ame?y/1 opal1 agate1 onyx1 etc4 ,mo/ ( ! _w's diamonds come f ! ,kimb]ley & ,transvaal fields ( ,s\? ,africa1 :]e !y are f\nd 9 a mu* decompos$ volcanic rock call$ blue gr\nd4 ,?is is a rock ( dull1 greasy appe>ance consi/+ l>gely ( s]p5t9e4 ,x 0 orig9ally p]idotite1 occurr+ 9 necks or plugs ( old volcanoes p5etrat+ c>bonace\s s$im5ts4 ,:5 ! rock is m9$ & spread at ! surface1 x decomposes 9 ! c\rse ( six mon?s or a ye>1 all[+ x to be wa%$ & me*anically sort$ = its diamond cont5t4 ,! am\nt ( gr\nd treat$ 9 "o ( ! l>ge m9es is ab\t equal to t h&l$ 9 op]at+ ! huge porphyry copp] deposit ( ,b+ham1 ,utah2 ! annual production ( diamonds f ! same m9e c\ld be c>ri$ 9 a l>ge suit-case4 ,! diamonds 7 cle>ly =m$ at high temp]atures & pressures )9 ! igne\s rocks4 ,x has be5 sugge/$ t ! igne\s magma may h secur$ ! c>bon by ! melt+ ( c>bonace\s s$im5ts ?r\gh :i* x p5etrat$1 b pro( ( ?is is difficult to obta94 ,artificial diamonds ( small size h be5 made 9 ! electric furnace "u high-pressure conditions n unlike ^? assum$ to h be5 pres5t 9 nature4 ,wea!r+ & transportation ( rocks conta9+ diamonds h result$ 9 ! developm5t ( diamond-be>+ plac]s4 ,! ,s\? ,african diamonds 7 fir/ f\nd 9 /ream plac]s1 lead+ to a se>* = _! s\rce & its ultimate discov]y "u a blanket ( soil :i* completely cov]$ ! p>5t rock4 ,! proportion ( diamonds n[ m9$ f plac]s is v small4 ,! diamonds ( ,brazil come f plac] deposits4 ,?is is ! pr9cipal s\rce ( ! black diamond s l>gely us$ 9 diamond-drill+4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates produces no diamonds on a comm]cial scale4 ,small diamonds h be5 f\nd 9 p]idotite masses 9 ,pike ,c\nty1 ,arkansas1 b ^! are ( v little comm]cial value4 ,a few diamonds h be5 f\nd 9 ! glacial drift ( ,wiscons9 & adjac5t /ates1 indicat+ a possible diamond-be>+ s\rce some:]e to ! nor? :i* has n yet be5 locat$ 7p4 #cag74 ,pe>ls are concretions ( lime c>bonate ( organic orig91 & are f\nd 9 ! %ells ( c]ta9 species ( molluscs4 ,_! color or lu/] is giv5 by organic mat]ial or by ! int]ior %ell surface aga9/ :i* ! pe>l is =m$4 ,! pr9cipal supply comes f ! ,indian & ,pacific ,oceans1 b "s are f\nd 9 ! fre% wat] mussels ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 9 ! ,c>ibbean1 & on ! we/]n coa/ ( ,mexico & ,c5tral ,am]ica4 ,f ! beg9n+ ( hi/ory ! pr9cipal s\rce ( rubies has be5 upp] ,burma1 :]e ! /ones are f\nd 9 lime/one or m>ble ne> ! contact ) igne\s rocks1 associat$ ) high-temp]ature m9]als4 ,! wea!r+ ( ! rock has develop$ plac]s f :i* mo/ ( ! rubies are recov]$4 ,siam is also an important produc]4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates rubies h be5 f\nd 9 pegmatites 9 ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 b ^! gems are ( little comm]cial importance4 ,sapphires are ( ! same composition z rubies & are f\nd 9 mu* ! same localities4 ,mo/ ( ! sapphires ( ! be/ quality come f ,siam1 :]e !y are f\nd 9 s&y clay ( plac] orig94 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates sapphires are recov]$ f alluvial deposits along ! ,miss\ri ,riv] ne> ,hel5a1 ,montana1 :]e !y are suppos$ to h be5 d]iv$ f dikes ( &esite rocks4 ,9 ,f]gus ,c\nty1 ,montana1 !y are m9$ f decompos$ dikes ( lamprophyre 7a basic igne\s rock74 ,9 ,nor? ,c>ol9a sapphire has be5 f\nd 9 pegmatite dikes4 ,! pr9cipal s\rce ( f9e em]alds is 9 ! ,&es 9 ,colombia4 ,_! occurr5ce "h is 9 calcite ve9s 9 a bitum9\s lime/one1 b little seems to be kn[n ( _! orig94 ,! only o!r em]ald locality ( comm]cial importance is 9 ! ,ural ,m\nta9s ( ,sib]ia4 ,em]alds h be5 f\nd 9 pegmatite dikes 9 ,nor? ,c>ol9a & ,new ,engl&1 b ! production is insignificant4 ,t\rmal9e is a complex hydr\s silicate ( alum9um & boron1 ) v>y+ am\nts ( magnesium1 iron1 & alkalies4 ,x is a r common m9]al 9 silicat$ zones 9 lime/ones ne> igne\s contacts1 b gem t\rmal9es are f\nd pr9cipally 9 pegmatite dikes4 ,!y h a wide v>iety ( colors1 ! r$ & gre5 gems be+ ! mo/ priz$4 ,ma9e1 ,cali=nia1 & ,connecticut are ! pr9cipal ,am]ican produc]s4 ,turquoise is a hydrat$ copp]-alum9um phosphate4 ,x is f\nd 9 ve9lets ne> ! surface 9 alt]$ granites & o!r igne\s rocks4 ,x is usually associat$ ) kaol9 & frequ5tly ) qu>tz1 & is believ$ to h be5 =m$ by surface alt]ations4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates x is produc$ *iefly 9 ,nevada1 ,arizona1 & ,colorado4 ,9 g5]al ! pr9cipal gem m9]als1 except pe>l & turquoise1 occur z orig9al con/itu5ts 9 igne\s intrusives1 usually ( a pegmatite or p]idotite nature4 ,sapphire1 ruby1 em]ald1 & t\rmal9e result also f contact metamorphism ( s$im5ts 9 ! vic9ity ( igne\s rocks4 ,wea!r+ s(t5s ! prim>y rocks1 mak+ x possible to sep>ate ! gem /ones f ! matrix4 ,:5 erod$ & transport$ ! gems are conc5trat$ 9 plac]s4 ,,salt ,,economic ,,features ,! pr9cipal uses ( salt are 9 ! pres]v+ & season+ ( foods & 9 *emical indu/ries4 ,*emical indu/ries require salt = ! manufacture ( _m sodium comp\nds1 & also z a s\rce ( hydro*loric acid & *lor9e4 ,a m9or use ( salt is 9 ! mak+ ( glazes & enamel on pott]y & h>dw>e4 ,because ( ! wide di/ribution ( salt 9 cont95tal deposits & because ( ! availability ( ocean & salt-lake br9es z o!r s\rces1 mo/ c\ntries ( ! _w ei!r possess dome/ic supplies ( salt adequate = ! bulk ( _! ne$s1 or are able to obta9 supplies f ne>by =eign c\ntries4 ,c]ta9 sea salts pref]r$ by fi% pack]s & o!r us]s are1 h[ev]1 %ipp$ to di/ant po9ts4 ,ab\t a fif? ( all ! salt consum$ 9 ! _w annually is produc$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & o!r l>ge produc]s are ,great ,brita91 ,g]many1 ,russia1 ,*9a1 ,india1 & ,france4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates produces almo/ its entire consumption ( salt1 :i* is increas+ at a v rapid rate4 ,salt is produc$ 9 f\rte5 /ates1 b ov] #he p] c5t ( ! total output comes f ,mi*igan1 ,new ,york1 ,ohio1 & ,kansas4 ,res]ves are practically inexhau/ible4 ,exports & imports ( salt =m a v m9or "p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates indu/ry1 ea* be+ equival5t to less ?an #e p] c5t ( ! dome/ic production4 ,a l>ge "p ( ! import$ mat]ial is co>se sol>-evaporat$ sea salt1 :i* is believ$ by fi% & pork pack]s to be almo/ ess5tial to _! indu/ry4 ,imports ( ?is salt come f ,spa91 ,italy1 ,portugal1 & ! ,briti% & ,dut* ,we/ ,indies2 dur+ ! w>1 on acc\nt ( %ip %ortage1 !y 7 conf9$ *iefly to ! ,we/ ,indies4 ,a consid]able tonnage ( specially prep>$ kiln-dri$ salt1 desir$ by butt]-mak]s1 is import$ f ,liv]pool1 ,engl&4 ,!re are also "s small imports f ,canada1 probably because ( geographic location4 ,exports ( dome/ic salt g *iefly to ,canada1 ,cuba1 & ,new ,zeal&1 ) small] am\nts to practically all p>ts ( ! _w4 ,salt is recov]$ f salt b$s 9 two ways4 ,ab\t a f\r? ( ! salt produc$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates is m9$ ?r\gh %afts 9 ! same mann] z coal1 ! lumps ( salt be+ brok5 & siz$ j z coal is prep>$ = ! m>ket4 ,! l>g] "p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates production1 h[ev]1 is d]iv$ by pump+ wat] d[n to ! b$s to dissolve ! salt1 & pump+ ! result+ br9e to ! surface :]e x is !n evaporat$4 ,a consid]able am\nt ( salt1 also1 is recov]$ f natural br9es--:i* repres5t ! solution ( rock salt by gr\nd-wat]s--& f ! wat]s ( salt lakes & ! ocean4 ,,geologic ,,features ,common salt con/itutes ! m9]al halite1 ! composition ( :i* is sodium *loride4 ,x is r>ely f\nd p]fectly pure 9 nature1 b is commonly mix$ ) o!r sal9e mat]ials1 su* z gypsum & anhydrite1 & occasionally ) salts ( potassium & magnesium4 ,! g5]al grade ( rock-salt deposits1 :]e n admix$ ) clay1 is p]haps #if to #ii p] c5t ( sodium *loride4 ,! ultimate s\rce ( salt deposits is ! sodium & *lor9e ( igne\s rocks4 ,9 ! wea!r+ ( ^! rocks ! soda1 be+ "o ( ! m soluble mat]ials1 is lea*$ out & c>ri$ (f by gr\nd-wat]s1 & 9 ! end a l>ge "p ( x rea*es ! sea4 ,! *lor9e foll[s a simil> c\rse2 h[ev]1 ! am\nt ( *lor9e 9 ord9>y igne\s rocks is s extremely small t1 9 ord] to expla9 ! am\nt ( *lor9e pres5t 9 ! sea1 x has be5 ?\ght necess>y to appeal to volcanic emanations or to "s simil> ag5cy4 ,ocean wat] conta9s ab\t #c4e p] c5t by weight ( dissolv$ matt]1 ov] ?ree-f\r?s ( :i* consi/s ( ! con/itu5ts ( common salt4 ,*ief among ! o!r dissolv$ mat]ials are magnesium1 calcium1 potassium1 & ,,s#d 7! sulphuric acid radical74 ,:5 sea wat] evaporates x becomes saturat$ ) v>i\s salts1 accord+ to ! am\nts ( ^! salts pres5t & _! relative solubilities4 ,9 a g5]al way1 aft] #cg p] c5t ( ! wat] has evaporat$ gypsum beg9s to sep>ate out1 & aft] #ic p] c5t has evaporat$ common salt beg9s to be deposit$4 ,aft] a l>ge "p ( ! common salt has be5 precipitat$1 ! residual liquid1 call$ a bitt]n or "m liquid1 conta9s *iefly a conc5tration ( ! salts ( magnesium & potassium4 ,/ill fur!r evaporation w result 9 _! deposition1 ma9ly z complex salts l ^? f\nd 9 ! ,/assfurt deposit 7p4 #aac74 ,! actual processes ( conc5tration & precipitation 9 sea wat] or o!r salt wat]s are mu* m complex ?an is indicat$ by ! above simple outl9e4 ,! solubility ( ea* ( ! v>i\s salts pres5t1 & consequ5tly ! rate at :i* ea* w cry/allize out z evaporation proce$s1 dep5ds ^u ! k9ds & conc5trations ( all ! o!r salts 9 ! solution4 ,temp]ature1 pressure1 mass-action1 & ! cry/allization ( d\ble salts are all factors :i* influ5ce ! nature & rate ( ! processes & add to _! complexity4 ,dur+ a l>ge "p ( ! g5]al process1 sev]al diff]5t salts may be cry/alliz+ out simultane\sly4 ,x is evid5t t gypsum may be precipitat$ 9 "s quantity1 & t ext]nal conditions may !n *ange1 s t evaporation ceases or s t ! wat]s are fre%5$1 be=e any common salt is cry/alliz$ out4 ,?is fact may expla9 9 "p :y gypsum b$s are m widely di/ribut$ ?an b$s ( common salt4 ,at ! same "t ! mu* great] am\nt ( sodium *loride ?an ( calcium sulphate 9 sea wat] may expla9 ! great] ?ickness ( _m individual salt b$s4 ,! evaporation ( salt wat]s1 ei!r f ! ocean or f o!r bodies ( wat]1 is believ$ to h be5 responsible = ne>ly all ( ! important deposits ( common salt4 ,?is process has be5 go+ on f ,cambrian "t d[n ?r\gh all ! int]v5+ geologic ages1 & c be obs]v$ to be actually op]ative today 9 v>i\s localities4 ,! b$s ( salt s =m$ are f\nd int]/ratifi$ ) %ales1 s&/ones1 & lime/ones1 & are frequ5tly associat$ ) gypsum4 ,on a broad scale1 !y are always l5s-%ap$1 ?\gh !y v>y greatly 9 ext5t & ?ickness4 ,! necess>y conditions = ! =mation ( ext5sive salt b$s include arid climate & bodies ( wat] :i* are ess5tially enclos$--ei!r z lakes1 z lagoons1 or z arms ( ! sea ) re/rict$ outlets1--:]e evaporation exce$s ! contributions ( fre% wat] f riv]s1 & :]e circulation f ! sea is insuffici5t to dilute ! wat] & keep x at ! same composition z ! sea wat]4 ,"u su* conditions ! dissolv$ salts 9 ! enclos$ body become conc5trat$1 & precipitation may occur4 ,a *ange ( conditions s t mud or s& is wa%$ 9 or s t calc>e\s mat]ials are deposit$1 foll[$ by a recurr5ce ( salt-precipitation1 results 9 ! int]/ratification ( salt b$s ) %ales1 s&/ones1 & lime/ones4 ,= ! =mation ( v ?ick b$s ( salt1 & especially ( ?ick b$s ( fairly pure composition1 h[ev]1 ?is simple explanation ( conditions is insuffici5t4 ,! deposits ( ,mi*igan & ,new ,york occur 9 b$s z mu* z #ba feet 9 ?ickness1 ) a consid]able numb] ( sep>ate b$s 9 a section a few hundr$ feet ?ick4 ,b5ea? ! pota% salt deposits ( ,/assfurt1 b$s ( common salt #cjj to #ejj feet 9 ?ickness are f\nd1 & b$s ev5 ?ick] are kn[n 9 o!r localities4 ,:5 we come to inve/igate ! volume ( salts deposit$ f a giv5 volume ( sea wat]1 we f9d x to be s small t = ! =mation ( #ejj feet ( salt ov] a giv5 area1 an equival5t area ( wat] #be1jjj feet deep w\ld be requir$4 ,x has !re=e be5 "o ( ! puzzl+ problems ( geology to det]m9e ! exact physical conditions "u :i* deposition ( ^! b$s took place4 ,"o ( ! mo/ prom95t !ories1 ! b> !ory1 sugge/s t deposition may h tak5 place 9 a bay sep>at$ f ! sea by a b>4 ,sea wat] is suppos$ to h be5 able to fl[ 9 ov] ! b> or ?r\gh a n>r[ *annel1 s t evaporation 9 ! bay 0 ab\t balanc$ by infl[ ( sea wat]4 ,?us ! salts ( a v l>ge quantity ( sea wat] may h accumulat$ 9 a small bay4 ,z ! process w5t on1 ! salts w\ld become progressively m conc5trat$1 & w\ld be precipitat$ 9 great ?ickness4 ,a f9al complete sep>ation ( ! bas9 f ! sea1 = in/ance by ! relative elevation ( ! l&1 might result 9 complete desiccation1 & deposition ( potassium-magnesium salts su* z ^? f\nd at ,/assfurt 7p4 #aac74 ,ano!r sugge/ion to expla9 ! ?ickness ( "s salt b$s is t ! salts 9 a v l>ge bas9 ( wat] may1 z ! wat] evaporat$ & ! bas9 %rank1 h be5 deposit$ 9 great ?ickness 9 a few small depressions ( ! bas94 ,o!r writ]s believe t c]ta9 ?ick salt deposits 7 =m$ 9 des]t bas9s 7) no necess>y connection ) ! sea71 ?r\gh ! ext5sive lea*+ ( small quantities ( salt f previ\s s$im5ts1 & its transportation by wat] to des]t lakes1 :]e x 0 precipitat$ z ! lakes evaporat$4 ,ov] a long p]iod ( "t l>ge am\nts ( salt c\ld accumulate 9 ! lakes1 & ?ick deposits c\ld result4 ,su* hypo!ses also expla9 ^? cases :]e common salt b$s are unaccompani$ by gypsum1 s9ce l& /reams c easily be conceiv$ to h be5 c>ry+ sodium *loride )\t appreciable calcium sulphate2 9 ocean wat]s1 on ! o!r h&1 s f> z kn[n bo? calcium sulphate & sodium *loride are always pres5t1 & gypsum w\ld be expect$ to accompany ! common salt4 ,a p>tial explanation ( "s great ?icknesses f\nd 9 salt b$s is t ^! b$s1 especially :5 soak$ ) wat]1 are highly pla/ic & incompet5t "u pressure4 ,9 ! de=mation ( ! enclos+ rocks1 ! salt b$s w fl[ some:at l visc\s liquids1 & w become ?9n$ on ! limbs ( ! folds & correspond+ly ?ick5$ on ! cre/s & tr\ghs4 ,! salt deposits ( ! ,gulf ,coa/ ( ,texas & ,l\isiana %\ld be ref]r$ to because ( _! exceptional features4 ,!y occur 9 l[ domes 9 ,t]ti>y & m rec5t s&s1 lime/ones1 & clays4 ,v]tical ?icknesses ( a few ?\s& feet ( salt h be5 f\nd1 b ! /ructure is kn[n only f drill+4 ,9 "s ( ^! domes are also f\nd petroleum1 gypsum1 & sulphur 7p4 #aaj74 ,no igne\s rocks are kn[n 9 ! vic9ity4 ,x has be5 ?\ght by "s t ! deposits 7 =m$ by hot wat]s asc5d+ along fissures f und]ly+ igne\s rocks1 & ! upb[+ ( ! rocks has be5 v>i\sly expla9$ z due to ! exp&+ =ce ( gr[+ cry/als1 to hydro/atic pressure ( ! solutions1 & to laccoli?ic intrusions4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! uni=m association ( o!r salt & gypsum deposits ) s$im5t>y rocks1 & ! abs5ce ( igne\s rocks1 sugge/ t ^! deposits may h _h ess5tially a s$im5t>y orig91 & t !y h be5 modifi$ by subsequ5t de=mation & alt]ation4 ,! orig9 is /ill unc]ta94 ,o!r m9]al deposits =m$ "u mu* ! same conditions z salt are gypsum1 pota%1 borax1 nitrates1 & m9]als ( brom9e2 & 9 a /udy ( ! orig9 ( salt deposits ^! m9]als %\ld also be consid]$4 ,,talc ,,& ,,soap/one ,,economic ,,features ,soap/one is a rock compos$ ma9ly ( ! m9]al talc4 ,popul>ly ! t]ms talc & soap/one are (t5 us$ synonym\sly4 ,! s(tness1 greasy feel1 ease ( %ap+1 & resi/ance to heat & acids ( ?is mat]ial make x useful = _m purposes4 ,soap/one is cut into slabs = laundry tubs1 laboratory table tops1 & o!r /ructural purposes4 ,f9] grades are cut into slate p5cils & acetyl5e burn]s4 ,gr\nd talc or soap/one is us$ z a fill] = pap]1 pa9t1 & rubb] goods1 & 9 electrical insulation4 ,f9e grades are us$ = toilet p[d]4 ,pyrophyllite 7hydrat$ alum9um silicate7 resembles talc 9 "s ( its prop]ties & is us$ 9 mu* ! same way4 ,f9e ,engli% clays 7p4 #he7 are sometimes us$ int]*angeably ) talc z pap] fill]4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates produces ne>ly two-?irds ( ! _w's talc4 ,! o!r l>ge produc]s are ,france1 ,italy1 ,au/ria1 & ,canada 7,ont>io74 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates is indep5d5t ( =eign m>kets = ! bulk ( its talc consumption1 b "s c>efully prep>$ talc ( high quality is import$ f ,canada1 ,italy1 & ,france4 ,italy is our *ief s\rce ( talc = ph>maceutical purposes1 ?\gh rec5tly ^! ne$s h be5 l>gely suppli$ by high-grade talc f ,cali=nia4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,v]mont & ,new ,york are ! lead+ produc]s ( talc & ,virg9ia ( soap/one slabs4 ,res]ves are l>ge4 ,,geologic ,,features ,talc is hydrat$ magnesium silicate1 z is also s]p5t9e1 a m9]al ) :i* talc is closely associat$4 ,bo? are common alt]ation products ( magnesian silicate m9]als su* z oliv9e1 pyrox5e1 & amphibole4 ,talc is also d]iv$ f ! recry/allization ( magnesian c>bonates4 ,talc deposits consi/ ( l5ses & b&s 9 metamorphic lime/ones1 s*i/s1 & gneisses ( anci5t age4 ,! talc itself is usually s*i/ose l ! wall rocks1 & is l>gely a product ( me*anical ma%+4 ,9 "s cases1 also1 talc results f ! alt]ation ( igne\s rocks )\t ma%+--z 9 ! case ( ! l>ge talc & soap/one deposits ( ,virg9ia1 :i* are ! result ( r complete alt]ation ( basic igne\s rocks su* z p]idotites & pyrox5ites4 ,talc is kn[n to result f ! wea!r+ ( magnesian silicates "u surface conditions1 b ! common occurr5ce ( ! pr9cipal deposits1 9 highly cry/all9e rocks :i* h und]gone ext5sive deep-seat$ metamorphism1 is an indication t processes o!r ?an wea!r+ h be5 effective4 ,x has be5 sugge/$ t hot asc5d+ solutions h be5 responsible = ! "w1 b )\t mu* pro(4 ,a m plausible explanation = _m deposits is t ! talc results f ! dynamic metamorphism or %e>+ ( impure magnesian c>bonates 7z 9 highly magnesian lime/ones71 ! process result+ 9 elim9ation ( ! c>bon dioxide & recry/allization ( ! residue4 ,c]ta9 talc deposits1 su* z ^? ( ,ont>io1 %[ cle>ly traces ( ! orig9al b$d+ planes ( lime/one cross+ ! cleavage ( ! talc1 & ! rock be>s all ! evid5ce ( hav+ =m$ 9 ! same mann] z a common slate4 ,talc & slate are almo/ ! only m9]al products :i* owe _! value pr9cipally to dynamic metamorphism4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv ,,exploration ,,& ,,developm5t ,,! ,,g5]al ,,relations ,,( ,,! ,,geologi/ ,,to ,,exploration ,,& ,,developm5t ,! economic geologi/ is m vitally conc]n$ ) exploration & developm5t ?an ) any o!r phase ( 8 "w4 ,?is comes close/ to be+ 8 special field4 ,"h is a fasc9at+ elem5t ( adv5ture & *ance4 ,"h is ! opportunity to conv]ge all 8 k ( geology & economics to a practical end4 ,! outcome is likely to be def9ite "o way or ! o!r1 ?us giv+ a quantitative measure ( ! accuracy ( sci5tific ?9k+ :i* puts a ke5 edge on 8 ef=ts4 ,x is n en\gh m]ely to pres5t plausible g5]alizations2 sci5tific conclusions are foll[$ swiftly ei!r by pro( or dispro(4 ,) ?is *eck always 9 m9d1 ! sci5ti/ feels ! necessity = ! mo/ rigid v]ification ( 8 data1 me?ods1 & pr9ciples4 ,! g5]al success ( ! application ( geology to exploration & developm5t is indicat$ by ! rapid increase 9 dem& = su* s]vice 9 rec5t ye>s1 & by ! l>ge "p x plays 9 ne>ly all sy/ematic & l>ge-scale op]ations4 ,! argum5t is sometimes made t _m m9]al deposits h be5 f\nd )\t geologic assi/ance1 & t !re=e ! geologi/ is sup]flu\s4 ,! answ] to ?is argum5t is t !re are (t5 hundr$s ( practical explor]s 9 ! field to "o geologi/1 & t 9 proportion to numb]s ! /ory is q a diff]5t "o4 ,! v fact t _m l>ge m9+ organizations1 z a result ( _! exp]i5ce1 n[ leave ^! matt]s ( exploration & developm5t l>gely 9 ! h&s ( geologi/s1 is a tribute to ! usefulness ( ! sci5ce4 ,also1 x is to be rememb]$ t n all applications ( geology are made by geologi/s4 ,x is h>d to f9d a prospector or explor] :o has n absorb$ empirically "s ( ! elem5ts ( geology1 & locally ?is may be en\gh4 ,v (t5 m5 :o take pride 9 ! title ( practical prospectors are ! ones ) ! l>ge/ /ock ( self-made geological !ories4 ,dur+ a prospect+ boom x is n uncommon = speculators & promot]s to attempt to disc\nt geologic consid]ations :]e ^! run c\nt] to _! plans4 ,! cat*+ phrase bet aga9/ ! geologi/ has a broad appeal to an in/9ctive pref]5ce = ! practical z oppos$ to ! !oretical4 ,if ! public w\ld /op to note ! "* ( ! support beh9d ! geologi/1 includ+ z x does ! l>g] & m successful op]ators1 x w\ld n be s ready to accept ?is implication4 ,ano!r aspect ( ?is "q might be m5tion$4 ,!re is sc>cely an oil field or m9+ camp 9 ! _w )\t a *]i%$ tradition to ! effect t1 prior to discov]y1 ! m9]al possibilities _h be5 report$ on unfavorably by ! geologi/s1--aga9 imply+ t success has be5 due to ! h>d common s5se ( ! horny-h&$ prospector4 ,^! traditions p]si/ 9 ! face ( favorable geological reports publi%$ be=e discov]y2 !y are natural expressions ( ! in/9ctive di/ru/ ( any k :i* is beyond ! field ( empirical exp]i5ce4 ,9 _m cases ! discov]ies 7 made long be=e geologi/s appe>$ on ! sc5e4 ,9 o!rs1 possibly "o or two geologic reports 7 unfavorable1 :ile _m 7 favorable4 ,9 ! aggregate1 !re c be no "q t1 9 proportion to ! scale ( its use1 geological advice has _h m ?an its proportion ( success4 ,ev5 "u ! mo/ favorable conditions1 ! *ances aga9/ ! success ( an individual drill hole or und]gr\nd developm5t are likely to be great] ?an ! *ances = x4 ,! geologi/ may n *ange ?is major balance2 b if he c r$uce ! adv]se *ances by only a few p] c5t1 8 employm5t is ju/ifi$ on purely comm]cial gr\nds4 ,! above comm5ts ref] to s\nd geological "w by compet5t sci5ti/s4 ,! geologic pr(ession1 l _m o!rs1 is h&icapp$ by numb]s ( ill-tra9$ m5 & by _m :o h assum$ ! title ( geologi/ )\t any real claim :atev]1--:o may d mu* to discr$it ! pr(ession4 ,! v newness ( ! field makes x difficult to draw a %>p l9e betwe5 qualifi$ & unqualifi$ m54 ,) ! fur!r developm5t ( ! pr(ession ?is condition is likely to be improv$ 7see pp4 #dbg-dbh74 ,s new is ! l>ge-scale application ( geology to exploration & developm5t1 & s div]se are ! sci5tific me?ods ( approa*1 t x is difficult to lay out a specific c\rse = a /ud5t :i* w prep>e him = all ! opportunities he may h lat]4 ,9 ! writ]'s exp]i5ce1 bo? 9 tea*+ & practice1 ! only safe c\rse = ! /ud5t is to prep>e broadly on purely sci5tific l9es4 ,) ?is backgr\nd he w be able lat] to adapt himself to mo/ ( ! special conditions met 9 field practice4 ,,p>tly ,,explor$ ,,v]sus ,,virg9 ,,t]ritories ,9 select+ an area to "w1 ! geologic explor] w naturally consid] v>i\s factors m5tion$ 9 succe$+ p>agraphs2 b ! natural fir/ impulse is to />t = "s place :]e no "o else has be51 & to keep away f ! old] pr9cipal m9+ camps1--on ! assumption t su* gr\nds h be5 ?or\ghly explor$ & t _! geological conditions be>+ on exploration are fully und]/ood4 ,x is safe to say t v few m9]al di/ricts are ?or\ghly und]/ood & explor$4 ,num]\s important discov]ies ( rec5t ye>s h be5 9 ! ext5sions ( old m9es & old di/ricts2 & :5 "o consid]s ! scale ( ev5 ! mo/ ext5sive m9e op5+s 9 comp>ison ) ! va/ body ( rock available = exploration1 x is cle> t ?is w cont9ue to be ! situation f> into ! future4 ,x is ! writ]'s belief t ! economic geologi/ /&s at lea/ z good a *ance ( success 9 exploration 9 ! old] di/ricts z he does 9 new fields4 ,nature is exce$+ly erratic & economical 9 provid+ places favorable = m9]al production2 9 a produc+ di/rict ! geologic conditions h be5 prov$ to be "r1 & ! explor] />ts "h ) ?is g5]al pragmatic advantage4 ,! explor] "h has ano!r great advantage1 t mu* ess5tial in=mation has be5 ga!r$ :i* c be built into 8 plan ( op]ations4 ,he c />t1 sci5tifically & practically1 :]e ! o!r man left (f4 ,"o ( ! be/-kn[n economic geologi/s has ma9ta9$ t ! m previ\s "w done1 ! bett]1 because x furni%$ him m tools to "w )4 ,!re is no su* ?+ z skimm+ ! cream f a geologic problem2 !re is no end 9 sight 9 ! se>* = m k4 ,?is attitude t[>d ! problem ( exploration has also prov$ advantage\s on ! bus9ess or f9ancial side4 ,a successful back] ( m9]al ent]prises once rem>k$ t 8 be/ prospect+ 0 done f ! re> plat=m ( a private c>1--mean+ t ?is mode ( transportation _h c>ri$ him to ! c5t] ( important m9+ activities1 :]e ! *ances = l>ge f9ancial success %[$ a bett] p]c5tage ?an 9 m g5]al & miscellane\s exploration4 ,,! ,,use ,,( ,,all ,,available ,,in=mation ,effective sci5tific exploration requires ! use ( all available in=mation apply+ to ! specific area4 ,?is might seem to be too obvi\s to require m5tion1 yet obs]vance ( ! me?ods ( explor]s seems to call = w>n+ aga9/ ! r common t5d5cy to g into a field unprep>$ ) a ?or\gh k ( prec$+ "w4 ,x is easy to =get or ov]look "s inve/igation made _m ye>s previ\sly2 or to assume t su* "w is out ( date1 & ( no special consequ5ce 9 ! application ( new ?\ght & me?od :i* is ! basis ( ! fai? & confid5ce ( ea* new geologic explor]4 ,a /udy ( ! reports on an old camp %[s h[ (t5 ! y\ng] g5]ations h ignor$ ! results ( ! old]4 ,_m ( ! same elem5t>y tru?s are r$iscov]$ by successive g5]ations1 aft] l>ge ef=ts :i* c\ld h be5 sav$ by means ( prop] c>e & inve/igation ( ! previ\s lit]ature & mapp+4 ,9 outly+ p>ts ( ! _w1 ! exi/+ in=mation be>+ on exploration may be at a m9imum4 ,9 _m ( ! old] m9+ camps & ?r\gh\t mo/ civiliz$ c\ntries1 h[ev]1 c>eful inve/igation w usually disclose a consid]able range ( useful in=mation be>+ on ! t]ritory to be explor$4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! natural c\rse to be pursu$ is to hunt c>efully ?r\gh ! reports ( ! ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey1 ! ,bureau ( ,m9es1 v>i\s /ate surveys1 univ]sities1 & private organizations 7s f> z ^! reports are available71 & ?r\gh ! te*nical j\rnals & ! reports ( te*nical societies1 = some?+ be>+ on ! di/rict to be explor$4 ,ev5 if no specific report or map is to be f\nd1 x is usually possible to locate g5]al maps or acc\nts :i* are likely to be ( use4 ,,coop]ation ,,9 ,,exploration ,competition 9 exploration (t5 develops an atmosph]e ( suspicion & furtiv5ess :i* is highly unfavorable to coop]ative ef=ts4 ,individuals & companies may h&icap !mselves greatly by a desire to play a lone h&1 & by failure to take advantage ( an ex*ange ( in=mation4 ,?is action may be bas$1 p>ticul>ly on ! "p ( /rong m9+ companies1 on ! assumption t !y "k all t is necess>y ab\t ! problem1 & t an outsid] has no?+ to contribute4 ,f9ancial & o!r conditions may require ?is attitude2 b 9 l>ge "p x is a result ( temp]am5t1 z cle>ly indicat$ by ! diff]5ce 9 me?ods foll[$ by diff]5t gr\ps & 9 diff]5t m9+ di/ricts4 ,f ! sci5tific po9t ( view ?is attitude c h>dly be ju/ifi$1 9 view ( ! extremely n>r[ limits ( human k z comp>$ ) ! sci5tific field to be explor$4 ,! sum total ( k f all s\rces is only a small fraction ( t necess>y = ! mo/ effective results4 ,! mutual ex*ange ( in=mation & discussion is usually ju/ifi$ on ! basis ( self-int]e/ alone1 to say no?+ ( ! l>g] int]e/ to ! m9]al di/rict1 to ! c\ntry1 or to sci5ce4 ,national & /ate survey organizations ex]cise consid]able ef=t to secure records ( drill+4 ,9 "s cases !y h ! legal p[] to comm& ?is in=mation1 p>ticul>ly 9 relation to appraisals = taxation & blue sky laws4 ,9 a l>g] numb] ( cases drill records are secur$ ?r\gh volunt>y coop]ation ) explor]s4 ,a consid]able numb] ( records are nev]!less n fil$ ) public ag5cies & "s ( ^! are p]man5tly lo/4 ,ev5 :]e ! records are turn$ 9 to a public organization1 !y are 9 mo/ cases n directly available to explor]s4 ,public regi/ration ( all drill+ records is a highly desirable proc$ure 9 ! int]e/s ( ! developm5t ( ! m9]al indu/ry z a :ole4 ,a va/ am\nt ( unnecess>y duplication c ?us be avoid$4 ,! record ( a drill hole1 ev5 ?\gh b>r51 may be ( va/ significance 9 ! int]pretation ( future developm5ts & %\ld be record$ z c>efully z an ab/ract ( l& title4 ,! prop]ty "r ( ! explor] 9 su* in=mation c be & usually is protect$ by )hold+ ! record f public inspection until suffici5t "t has elaps$ to give him full opportunity to use ! in=mation to 8 own be/ advantage4 ,! opportunities = coop]ation ) speciali/s ( public organizations are almo/ unlimit$4 ,^! organizations are likely to h an accumulation ( data & exp]i5ce ext5d+ ?r\gh long p]iods & ov] l>ge areas1 :i* ! private explor] ord9>ily _c hope to duplicate4 ,) prop] re/rictions ?is in=mation may be available = public use4 ,a good illu/ration ( curr5t coop]ative ef=t ( ?is k9d is 9 ! deep exploration = oil 9 ! ,tr5ton lime/one ( ,ill9ois4 ,outcrops & o!r specific indications are n suffici5t to localize ?is drill+2 b ! in=mation along broad geologic & /ructural l9es :i* has be5 collect$ previ\sly by ! ,ill9ois ,survey is suffici5t s t1 ) a comp>atively small am\nt ( %all[ drill+1 ! locus ( ! m favorable /ructural conditions may be det]m9$4 ,9 ?is case ! ,survey is direct+ ! initial exploration1 :i* is f9anc$ by private capital4 ,,economic ,,factors ,,9 ,,exploration ,! approa* to ! problem ( exploration is v (t5 det]m9$ by local requirem5ts & conditions2 b if "o 7 to come at ! problem f a di/ance & to keep matt]s 9 broad p]spective1 ! fir/ /ep w\ld be a consid]ation ( :at might be call$ ! economic factors4 ,let u suppose t ! geologi/ is free to *oose 8 field ( exploration4 ,an obvi\s prelim9>y /ep is to elim9ate f consid]ation m9]al commodities :i* are n 9 /eady or l>ge dem& & are mu* at ! m]cy ( m>ket conditions1 or :i* are o!rwise n well situat$ comm]cially4 ,! und]ly+ factors are _m & complex4 ,!y include ! pres5t nature & future possibilities ( =eign competition1 ! dome/ic competition1 ! grades necess>y to meet competition1 ! co/ ( transportation1 ! co/ ( m9+ "u local conditions--includ+ consid]ations ( labor & climatic & topographic conditions1--! probability ( increase or decrease 9 dem& = ! product1 ! possible *anges 9 metallurgical or conc5trat+ practice 7su* z ^? :i* made possible ! m9+ ( l[-grade porphyry copp] ores71 ! size ( already available res]ves1 & ! m9+ laws 9 relation to own]%ip & regulation4 ,mo/ ( ^! factors are discuss$ at "s l5g? on o!r pages4 ,aft] look+ into ! economic conditions limit+ ! *romite1 nickel1 or t9 developm5ts 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ! explor] might hesitate to proce$ 9 ^! directions1--= he w\ld f9d t pa/ exp]i5ce %[s little promise ( quantities & grades equival5t to ^? available 9 o!r c\ntries1 & t !re is little likelihood ( t>iffs or o!r artificial measures to improve ! dome/ic situation4 ,be=e & dur+ ! w>1 comm]cial conditions might h %[n ! desirability ( hunt+ = pyrite1 b m rec5t developm5ts 9 ! situation ca/ "s d\bt on ?is proc$ure4 ,to g ahead bl9dly 9 su* a case1 on ! assumption t ! pyrite m>ket w\ld 9 "s fa%ion readju/ itself1 w\ld n be reason$ exploration4 ,aga91 9 consid]+ exploration = copp]1 acc\nt %\ld be tak5 9 ?is c\ntry ( ! already l>ge res]ves develop$ f> 9 advance ( probable dem&1 :i* require t any new discov]ies be v favorably situat$ = competition4 ,9 oil1 on ! o!r h&1 a v brief survey ( ! economic factors ( ! situation indicates ! desirability ( exploration4 ,! comp>ative %ortage ( lead supplies at ! pres5t "t sugge/s ano!r favorable field = exploration4 ,9 %ort1 be=e actual field exploration is begun1 intellig5t consid]ation ( ! economic factors may g f> t[>d n>r[+ ! field & t[>d conv]g+ ef=ts along pr(itable l9es4 ,look$ at broadly1 ?is result is usually accompli%$ by ! natural work+ ( g5]al laws ( supply & dem&2 b !re are _m individual cases ( misdirect$ ef=t1 "u ! spell ( prov9cial conditions1 :i* might easily be avoid$ by a broad] approa* to ! problem4 ,,geologic ,,factors ,,9 ,,exploration ,com+ to ! geological aspects ( exploration1 ! proc$ure 9 its e>ly /ages is aga9 "o ( elim9ation4 ,oil & coal1 = in/ance1 are f\nd 9 c]ta9 s$im5ts ( c]ta9 ages1 & "o w\ld n look = !m 9 an area ( granite4 ,= e m9]al res\rce !re are broad geologic conditions ( ?is sort1 p>ticul>ly ! g5etic1 /ructural1 & metamorphic conditions1 :i* make x possible to elim9ate va/ areas f consid]ation & to conc5trate on relatively small areas4 ,aft] ! elim9ation ( unfavorable areas1 !re comes ! hunt = positively favorable geologic conditions--= a def9ite k9d ( s$im5t or igne\s rock1 = a def9ite /ructure1 = ! "r k9d ( m9]alogic & metamorphic conditions1 or = ! "r comb9ation ( ^! & o!r geologic elem5ts4 ,! geologic consid]ations us$ 9 exploration = ! v>i\s m9]al deposits are s _m & s div]se1 & !y require s mu* adju/m5t & int]pretation 9 _! local application1 t "o w\ld be ra% inde$ to attempt any?+ 9 ! nature ( an exhau/ive discussion4 ,x is h>dly practicable to d m ?an to outl9e1 = illu/rative purposes1 a few ( ! geologic factors mo/ commonly us$ 9 exploration4 ,,m9]al ,,prov9ces ,,& ,,epo*s ,m9]al deposits may be simil> 9 _! m9]alogic & geologic *>act]s & relations ov] a consid]able area4 ,!y may give evid5ce ( hav+ develop$ "u ! same g5]al conditions ( orig92 p]haps !y may ev5 be ( ! same geologic age4 ,! gold-silv] deposits ( ,goldfield1 ( ,tonopah1 ! ,com/ock ,lode ( ,virg9ia ,city1 & _m o!r deposits ?r\gh ! ,great ,bas9 area ( ! s\?we/]n ,unit$ ,/ates & ,mexico h gr\p *>act]i/ics :i* h l$ geologi/s to ref] to ?is area z a metallog5ic or metallographic prov9ce4 ,! gold-silv] ores on ! we/ slope ( ! ,si]ra ,nevadas1 = ne>ly ! entire l5g? ( ,cali=nia1 likewise con/itute a metallog5ic prov9ce4 ,! ,lake ,sup]ior copp] ores on ! s\? %ore ( ,lake ,sup]ior1 ! silv] ores on ! nor? %ore1 miscellane\s small deposits ( copp]1 silv]1 & gold ores to ! ea/ ( ,lake ,sup]ior1 ! nickel ores ( ,sudbury1 & ! silv]-nickel-cobalt ores ( ! ,cobalt di/rict are all *>act]iz$ by simil> gr\ps ( m9]als 7?\gh 9 highly diff]+ proportions71 by simil> geologic associations1 by simil> age1 & probably by simil> conditions ( orig94 ,?is area is a metallog5ic prov9ce4 ,! lead & z9c ores ( ! ,mississippi ,valley con/itute ano!r su* prov9ce4 ,! oil pools ( ! pr9cipal fields are *>act]iz$ by common geologic conditions ov] great areas 7p4 #adi71 :i* may likewise be consid]$ z =m+ m9]al prov9ces2 = !m ! t]m petrolif]\s prov9ces has be5 us$4 ,! li/ might be ext5d$ indef9itely4 ,k ( su* gr\p di/ributions ( m9]als is a valuable asset to ! explor]1 9 t x t5ds to localize & direct se>* = c]ta9 classes ( ores 9 c]ta9 prov9ces2 also1 )9 a prov9ce1 x tells ! explor] :at is to be normally expect$ z reg>ds k9ds & occurr5ces ( m9]al deposits4 ,9 se>*+ = m9]als ( s$im5t>y orig91 ! explor] w use /ratigraphic me?ods 9 foll[+ def9ite s$im5t>y horizons4 ,9 se>*+ = ores relat$ to igne\s intrusions he w naturally hunt = ! intrusions1 & !n foll[ ! p]iph]y ( ! intrusions = evid5ces ( m9]alization1 tak+ into acc\nt possible features ( zonal arrangem5t ( m9]als ab\t ! intrusives 7see pp4 #db-dd71 & ! pref]5ce ( ! ores = c]ta9 easily replac$ horizons l lime/ones1 or = c]ta9 planes or zones ( fractur+4 ,j z m9]als may be gr\p$ by prov9ces1 !y may be gr\p$ by geologic ages4 ,su* gr\p+s are especially useful 9 ! case ( m9]als :i* are closely relat$ to c]ta9 /ratigraphic horizons1 su* z coal1 oil1 & iron4 ,! great] numb] ( ! productive coal deposits ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates are ( ,c>bonif]\s age1 & ! di/ribution ( s$im5ts ( ?is age is pretty well und]/ood f g5]al geologic mapp+4 ,! ,cl9ton iron ores all foll[ "o g5]al horizon 9 ! l[]-middle ,paleozoic4 ,! ,lake ,sup]ior iron ores are pre-,cambrian1 & ov] ?ree-f\r?s ( !m occur at "o horizon 9 ! pre-,cambrian4 ,gold deposits ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 7 =m$ ma9ly 9 ! pre-,cambrian1 ! e>ly ,cretace\s1 & ! ,t]ti>y4 ,copp] deposits ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 7 =m$ *iefly 9 pre-,cambrian1 ,cretace\s1 & ,t]ti>y "t4 ,:ile !re are _m exceptions & modifications to g5]al classifications ( ?is sort1 !y seem to express ess5tial geologic facts :i* c be made v useful 9 localiz+ exploration4 ,,classification ,,( ,,m9]al ,,l&s ,9 rec5t ye>s !re has be5 consid]able developm5t ( ! practice ( classify+ m9]al l&s 9 giv5 areas = purposes ( exploration & valuation1 or = purposes ( =mulation & adm9i/ration ( gov]nm5t laws4 ,?is has be5 done bo? by private int]e/s & by ! gov]nm5t4 ,^! classifications take into acc\nt all ( ! geologic & economic factors asc]ta9able4 ,! classes ( m9]al l& designat$ v>y ) ! m9]al1 ! di/rict1 & ! purpose = :i* ! classification is made4 ,common proc$ure = comm]cial exploration purposes is to divide ! l&s ( a giv5 t]ritory into ?ree gr\ps--7#a7 l&s :i* are def9itely promis+ = m9]al exploration1 7#b7 l&s ( d\btful possibilities1 & 7#c7 l&s 9 :i* ! m9]al possibilities are s slight t !y may be exclud$ f practical consid]ation4 ,ea* ( ^! classes may be subdivid$ = special purposes4 ,ano!r commonly us$ classification is1 7#a7 prov$ m9]al l&s1 7#b7 probable m9]al l&s1 usually adjac5t to produc+ m9es1 7#c7 possible m9]al l&s1 & 7#d7 comm]cially unpromis+ m9]al l&s4 ,! classification ( ! public m9]al l&s by gov]nm5t ag5cies is fully discuss$ by ,george ,otis ,smi? & o!rs 9 a bullet9 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,geological ,survey4#cg ,! purposes1 me?ods1 & results ( ?is classification %\ld be famili> to e explor]4 ,n[h]e else is !re available su* a va/ body ( in=mation ( practical value4 ,quot+ f ?is report3 ,a /udy ( ! l& laws %[s ! absolute necessity ( "s =m ( segregation ( ! l&s into classes z a pr]equisite to _! disposition4 ,agricultural entry may n be made on l&s conta9+ valuable m9]als1 nor coal entry on l&s conta9+ gold1 silv]1 or copp]2 l&s includ$ 9 des]t entries or select$ "u ! ,c>ey ,act mu/ be des]t l&s2 enl>g$-home/ead l&s mu/ n be susceptible ( successful irrigation2 plac] claims mu/ n be tak5 = _! timb] value or _! control ( wat]c\rses2 & l&s includ$ 9 build+-/one1 petroleum1 or salt plac]s mu/ be m valuable = ^? m9]als ?an = any o!r purpose4 ,s ?r\gh ! :ole s*eme ( ,am]ican l& laws runs ! necessity = det]m9+ ! use = :i* ea* tract is be/ fitt$4 ,= ?is purpose ! ,geological ,survey has made ext5sive classification ( coal l&s1 oil & gas l&s1 phosphate l&s1 l&s be>+ pota% & relat$ sal9es1 metallif]\s m9]al l&s1 miscellane\s non-metallif]\s m9]al l&s1 & wat] res\rces4 ,! scope ( ! "w may be indicat$ by ! factors consid]$4 ,= in/ance coal is inve/igat$ 9 relation to its "* & heat-giv+ qualities 7:5ce comes its value71 quantity1 ?ickness1 dep?1 & o!r conditions t effect ! co/ ( its extraction4 ,metallif]\s m9]al l&s are consid]$ 9 relation to g5]al geology1 c\ntry rock1 intrusions & metamorphism1 /ructure1 outcrops & float ( lodes1 prospects & m9es1 samples1 & hi/ory ( ! region4 ,classifications ( ?is k9d h (t5 prov$ useful to l>ge hold]s ( l& z a basis = intellig5t h&l+ ( problems ( sale1 taxation1 & ! grant+ ( rights to explor]s4 ,because ( ! lack ( ?is elem5t>y in=mation1 !re has be5 9 "s qu>t]s timidity ab\t deal+ ) l>ge hold+s1 = fe> ( p>t+ ) possible future m9]al weal?1--) ! result t su* tracts are c>ri$ at l>ge exp5se & practically remov$ f ! field ( exploration4 ,to ! same cause may be attribut$ "s ( ! long delays on ! "p ( ! gov]nm5t 9 op5+ l&s = m9]al entry or 9 issu+ pat5ts on l& grants4 ,,outcrops ,,( ,,m9]al ,,deposits ,_m m9]al deposits h be5 f\nd because !y outcrop at ! surface2 ! discov]ies may h be5 by accid5t or !y may h be5 aid$ by consid]ation ( geologic factors4 ,!re are /ill va/ unexplor$ areas 9 :i* m9]al deposits are likely to be f\nd /&+ out at ! surface4 ,= mu* ( ! _w1 h[ev]1 ! surface has be5 s ?or\ghly exam9$ t ! easy surface discov]ies h be5 made1 & ! future is likely to see a l>g] application ( sci5tific me?ods to gr\nd :]e ! outcrops d n tell an obvi\s /ory4 ,m9]al deposits may fail to outcrop because ( cov]+ by wea!r$ rock or soil1 by glacial deposits1 or by y\ng] =mations 7surface igne\s fl[s or s$im5ts71 or ! outcrop ( a deposit may be s alt]$ by wea!r+ z to give little clue to ! un9itiat$ z to :at is b5ea?4 ,m9]al deposits =m$ 9 old] geologic p]iods h 9 mo/ cases be5 deeply cov]$ by lat] s$im5ts & igne\s rocks4 ,su* deposits are 9 rea* ( exploration f ! surface only 9 places :]e erosion has p>tly or :olly remov$ ! lat] cov]+4 ,an illu/ration ( ?is condition is furni%$ 9 ! ,great ,bas9 di/rict ( ,nevada1 :]e ore bodies h be5 cov]$ by lat] lava fl[s4 ,! ore-be>+ di/ricts are m]ely isl&s expos$ by erosion 9 a va/ sea ( lava & surface s$im5ts4 ,beyond reasonable d\bt _m m deposits are s cov]$ ?an are expos$1 & x is no exagg]ation to say t by f> ! great] "p ( ! m9]al weal? ( ! e>? may nev] be f\nd4 ,:]e a m9]al-be>+ horizon is expos$ by erosion at ! surface1 und]gr\nd op]ations may foll[ ?is horizon a long way bel[ ! capp+ rocks2 b1 aft] all1 su* op]ations are geographically small z comp>$ ) ! va/ areas ov] :i* ! cov]+ rocks give no clue z to :at is b5ea?4 ,"o ( ! pr9cipal problems ( economic geology = ! future is to develop means = exploration 9 t]ritories ( ?is sort4 ,a beg9n+ has be5 made 9 v>i\s di/ricts by ! use ( reconnaissance drill+1 comb9$ ) int]pretation ( all ! geologic & /ructural features4 ,! discov]y ( "o ( ! l>ge/ nickel deposits 9 ! ,sudbury di/rict ( ,canada 0 made by reconnaissance drill+ to asc]ta9 ! g5]al geologic features1 9 an area s deeply cov]$ z to give little sugge/ion z to ! prop] location = attack4 ,,"s ,,illu/rative ,,cases ,! use ( outcrops 9 oil exploration has be5 not$ on o!r pages 7pp4 #adf-adg74 ,outcrops ( coal seams may be f\nd 9 fold$ or deeply erod$ areas4 ,= ! mo/ "p1 h[ev]1 & especially 9 areas ( flat-ly+ rocks1 ! pres5ce ( coal is inf]r$ f /ratigraphic evid5ce & f ! g5]al nature ( ! geologic section--:i* has be5 det]m9$ by outcrops ( associat$ rocks or by in=mation available at "s di/ant po9t4 ,! /ructural mapp+ ( coal b$s on ! basis ( outcrops & drill holes has be5 ref]r$ to 7pp4 #abf-abg74 ,iron ores are v resi/ant to solution4 ,:]e h>d & compact !y t5d to =m conspicu\s outcrops1 & :]e s(t !y may be pretty well cov]$ by clay & soil4 ,9 glaciat$ areas1 l ! ,lake ,sup]ior region1 outcrops ( iron ore are mu* less num]\s because ( ! drift cov]+4 ,c]ta9 ( ! h>d] iron ores ( ! ,m>quette1 ,gogebic & ,m5om9ee di/ricts ( ,mi*igan & ( ! ,v]milion di/rict ( ,m9nesota project 9 places ?r\gh ! glacial drift1 & ^! ores 7 ! fir/ & mo/ easily f\nd4 ,mu* ! great] numb] ( iron ore deposits ( ,lake ,sup]ior1 includ+ ! great s(t deposits ( ! ,mesabi range ( ,m9nesota1 fail to outcrop4 ,on ! o!r h& ! iron =mation1 or "m rock ( ! ore1 is h>d & resi/ant & outcrops are num]\s4 ,! hematite ores ( ,brazil h _m features 9 common ) ! ,lake ,sup]ior ores 9 age & occurr5ce1 b !y h n be5 cov]$ ) glacial deposits4 ,outcrops ( ! iron ore are l>ge & conspicu\s1 & ! surface 9 ?is t]ritory gives "o "s idea ( :at ! ,lake ,sup]ior region may h look$ l be=e ! glaci]s came along4 ,c]ta9 ( ! s(t iron ores ( ! lat]itic type1 z 9 ,cuba1 outcrop ov] great areas :]e _! topographic situation is su* t erosion has n swept !m (f4 ,on erosion slopes !y are seldom f\nd4 ,! ,cl9ton iron ores ( ! s\!a/]n ,unit$ ,/ates outcrop freely4 ,"s ( ! lead & z9c deposits ( ! ,mississippi ,valley outcrop at ! grass roots z v>y+ mixtures ( iron oxide1 gal5a1 *]t1 & clay1 ?\gh !y seldom project above ! g5]al surface4 ,! old lead ranges ( ,wiscons9 & ,ill9ois1 f\nd at ! surface a c5tury ago by ! e>ly explor]s & trad]s1 h s]v$ z />t+ po9ts = deep] exploration :i* has locat$ ! z9c deposits4 ,erosion *annels h freely expos$ ^! ore bodies1 & 9 ! ,wiscons9-,ill9ois deposits mo/ ( ! ores ?us f> f\nd are conf9$ to ! vic9ity ( ^! *annels4 ,! great] numb] ( ! lead & z9c deposits ( ! ,mississippi ,valley1 h[ev]1 are cov]$ ) wea!r$ mat]ial or ) outli]s ( ov]ly+ s$im5ts1 ) ! result t und]gr\nd exploration is necess>y to locate !m4 ,sulphide deposits 9 g5]al1 includ+ ^? c>ry+ gold1 silv]1 copp]1 lead1 z9c1 & o!r metals1 h _m common features ( outcrop4 ,! iron sulphide commonly pres5t 9 ^! ore bodies is oxidiz$ to limonite at ! surface1 ) ! result t prospectors look = iron-/a9$ rocks4 ,^! iron-/a9$ rocks are v>i\sly call$ ! gossan1 ! iron capp+1 ! colorado1 or ! eis]n] ,hut 7iron hat74 ,! gossan is likely to resi/ erosion & to be conspicu\s at ! surface1--?\gh ?is dep5ds l>gely on ! relative resi/ance ( ! wall rocks1 & on :e!r ! gangue is a h>d mat]ial l qu>tz1 or "s mat]ial :i* wea!rs m rapidly l lime/one or igne\s rock4 ,! gossan does n (t5 c>ry mu* value1 ?\gh x may %[ traces ( m9]als :i* sugge/ :at may be f\nd bel[4 ,gold1 silv]1 & lead are n easily lea*$ out ( ! surface outcrops4 ,copp] & z9c are mu* m readily lea*$1 & 9 ! outcrop may disclose _! exi/5ce only by traces ( /a9+4 ,x happ5s n infrequ5tly1 !re=e1 t copp] & z9c deposits are f\nd ?r\gh ! d[nw>d exploitation ( oxidiz$ gold1 silv]1 & lead ores4 ,! ve9s at ,butte 7 fir/ work$ = silv]1 & ! ore bodies at ,b+ham1 ,utah1 & ,j]ome1 ,arizona1 7 fir/ m9$ = gold4 ,exceptionally1 copp] ore 9 enri*$1 oxidiz$ =m outcrops1 z at ,bisbee1 ,arizona4 ,x is n always true t valuable sulphide deposits h an iron-/a9$ outcrop1 = 9 "s ( !m iron sulphide or pyrite is s sc>ce t ! surface outcrops may be light-color$ clayey & silice\s rocks4 ,silv] is (t5 repres5t$ 9 ! outcrop by silv] *loride or c]>gyrite1 :i* may be easily id5tifi$4 ,! prospect+ = su* surface ores is sometimes call$ *lorid+4 ,! pres5ce 9 ! outcrop ( d>k manganese oxides associat$ ) ve9 qu>tz sometimes indicates ! pres5ce bel[ ( copp] & z9c & o!r m9]als1 z at ,butte4 ,ext5sive alt]ations ( ! c\ntry rock 9 ! way ( silicification & s]icitization1 & ! pres5ce ( m9]als l g>net1 t\rmal9e1 diopside1 & o!rs1 kn[n to be commonly deposit$ by ! same hot solutions :i* make _m ore deposits1 may furni% a clue = exploration bel[4 ,^! *>act]i/ics ( ! c\ntry rock1 h[ev]1 are likely to be mask$ at ! outcrop by lat] wea!r+1 :i* sup]poses a kaol9ic or clayey alt]ation4 ,,topography ,,& ,,climate ,,z ,,aids ,,9 ,,se>*+ ,,= ,,m9]al ,,outcrops ,! topographic expression ( a m9]al deposit dep5ds ^u its h>dness & resi/ance to erosion z comp>$ ) ! adjac5t rocks4 ,if m resi/ant x w /& out at ! surface2 if less resi/ant1 x w =m a depression4 ,! conditions det]m9+ resi/ance are exce$+ly v>iable1 & no broad g5]alization c be made2 b )9 a local prov9ce a giv5 gr\p ( m9]al deposits may *>act]i/ically =m depressions or ridges1 & ?us topographic crit]ia may be v useful 9 exploration4 ,ev5 ) su* limitations1 ! v>iations ( ! topographic factor may be s great z to require mu* c>e 9 its use4 ,sulphide ores 9 qu>tzites are likely to develop depressions "u erosion4 ,9 lime/ones !y are m likely to /& out 9 relief1 because ( ! s(t] "* ( ! lime/one1 ?\gh ?is does n always "w out4 ,cry/all9e magnetite & hematite are m resi/ant to erosion ?an almo/ any o!r type ( rock1 & /& out at ! surface ) proportional frequ5cy4 ,climatic conditions may det]m9e ! locus ( se>* = c]ta9 surface m9]als4 ,bauxite & lat]itic iron ores1 = in/ance1 are kn[n to favor tropical climates4 ,9 exploration = ^! m9]als1 ! climatic factor mu/ be appli$ 9 connection ) ! topographic consid]ations already m5tion$1 & bo?1 9 turn1 9 connection ) ! "* ( ! c\ntry rock z det]m9$ by g5]al geologic surveys4 ,a comb9ation ( climatic1 topographic1 & o!r physiographic conditions may be us$ also 9 exploration = c]ta9 types ( residual clays4 ,,size ,,& ,,dep? ,,( ,,ore ,,bodies ,,z ,,det]m9$ ,,f ,,outcrop ,:]e ! ore body is h>d] ?an ! surr\nd+ rock1 x /&s out 9 conspicu\s outcrops & is likely to %[ a n>r[+ bel[4 ,:]e x is s(t] ?an ! surr\nd+ rocks1 & outcrops 9 a topographic depression1 x is p]haps m likely to %[ wid5+ bel[4 ,^! features are due to ! g5]al facts t1 :]e ! ore body is h>d & resi/ant1 ! d[nw>d progress ( erosion is likely to be arre/$ :]e ! adjac5t rocks occupy ! l>g] "p ( ! surface1 t is1 :]e ! ore body is n>r[]4 ,?is pr9ciple is (t5 vaguely recogniz$ 9 ! assumption t an exceptionally l>ge outcrop ( an ore ve9 may be too good to la/4 ,aga91 su* a g5]alization mu/ be appli$ to a specific case ) mu* caution4 ,attempts to =eca/ ! dep? ( ve9s f _! ext5t at ! surface meet ) only p>tial success4 ,9 a v g5]al way great p]si/5ce horizontally sugge/s p]si/5ce 9 dep?1 on ! gr\nd t ! section expos$ on ! surface is z likely to be a section ( av]age dim5sions z "o along v]tical l9es4 ,fai? is ! fir/ article ( ! prospector's cre$1 & x is h>d to %ake 8 conviction t e ore outcrop mu/ wid5 & improve bel[4 ,z express$ by ! ,fr5*-,canadian prospector 9 ! ,cobalt di/rict1 ! ve9 calcite c't g up1 %e mu/ g d[n4 ,:ile ! sci5ti/ may h gr\nds to d\bt ?is reason+1 he is n (t5 9 a position to (f] def9ite negative evid5ce4 ,,! ,,use ,,( ,,plac]s ,,9 ,,trac+ ,,m9]al ,,outcrops ,outcrops ( ore-be>+ rock may occasionally be locat$ by trac+ a plac] deposit back to its s\rce1 or by foll[+ up ore fragm5ts 9 ! wa% on m\nta9 sides to ! place ( orig91 or by not+ ore fragm5ts 9 glacial deposits4 ,! pres5ce ( an ore m9]al 9 a plac] naturally raises ! "q z to :5ce x came4 ,if x is a rec5t plac]1 x may be comp>atively easy to foll[ up ! /ream *annels to ! head-wat] t]ritory :i* is deliv]+ ! ma9 mass ( s$im5t1 & !re to locate a ve9 9 place4 ,! problem is complicat$ by multiplicity ( tribut>ies & by l>ge size ( ! dra9age areas4 ,9 su* cases c>eful pann+ & te/+ ( ! gravels at frequ5t int]vals may %[ :i* ( sev]al tribut>ies are contribut+ mo/ ( ! values1 & ?us may fur!r localize ! area ( se>*4 ,_m important m9+ di/ricts1 includ+ ,butte1 ,bisbee1 ! ,"m ,lode region ( s\!rn ,cali=nia1 ! diamond fields ( ,africa1 & o!rs1 h be5 f\nd by trac+ up plac]s 9 ?is mann]4 ,9 ! case ( an old] plac] deposit1 :]e ! topography & dra9age h be5 mu* alt]$ s9ce its =mation1 or :]e ! deposit has be5 cov]$ by lat] s$im5ts1 ! problem is ( c\rse mu* m difficult4 ,mu* less ?an a comm]cially valuable plac] deposit 9 unconsolidat$ surface rocks may />t a se>* = ! "m lode4 ,a s+le fragm5t ( ore 9 ! wa% naturally directs att5tion up ! slope1 & ! repetition ( fragm5ts 9 a c]ta9 direction may lead un]r+ly to ! s\rce4 ,! fragm5ts may n ev5 9 !mselves c>ry value1 b may consi/ ( detrital mat]ial f ! lea*$ outcrop--su* z iron or manganese oxides1 :i*1 because ( _! r$ or black color1 /& out conspicu\sly 9 ! rock debris4 ,9 ! ,lake ,sup]ior region l>ge angul> fragm5ts ( iron ore or iron =mation 9 ! glacial drift imm$iately raise "q z to s\rce4 ,if ! fragm5ts are r\nd$ & small1 !y usually indicate a v di/ant s\rce4 ,! g5]al direction ( glacial movem5t is kn[n 9 mo/ places1 & by trac+ up ! fragm5ts 9 ?is direction ! outcrop may be f\nd2 or ! *a9 ( fragm5ts may be trac$ to a po9t :]e !y /op1 :i* po9t may s]ve to locate ! p>5t b$rock c>ry+ ! ore body1 ev5 ?\gh x does n outcrop4 ,an int]e/+ sugge/ion 0 made "s ye>s ago ) ref]5ce to ! diamonds f\nd sporadically 9 ! t]m9al mora9es 9 ,wiscons9 & o!r mid-we/ /ates4 ,! diamonds are ( su* size & quality z to indicate surely ! exi/5ce ( a real diamond field some:]e to ! nor?4 ,! locations ( ^! diamond f9ds 7 platt$ on a glacial map1 & l9es 7 project$ 9 a g5]al nor!rly direction along ! kn[n l9es ( ! glacial movem5t4 ,x 0 f\nd t ^! l9es conv]g$ at a po9t ne> ,hudson's ,bay4 ,! data 7 too meag] & ! base l9e too %ort = ?is long projection1 & ! indicat$ s\rce ( ! diamonds c be reg>d$ z ! m]e/ speculation4 ,h[ev]1 ) ! f9d+ ( additional diamonds 9 ! drift1 z seems v likely1 ! ref9em5t ( ?is me?od might conceivably br+ results 9 "t4 ,,! ,,use ,,( ,,magnetic ,,surveys ,,9 ,,trac+ ,,m9]al ,,l$ges ,magnetic surveys are (t5 useful 9 trac+ iron-be>+ rocks b5ea? ! surface1 9 ! discov]y ( outcrops ( su* rocks1 & 9 work+ out _! l9es ( connection4 ,?is me?od is 9 g5]al use = ! cry/all9e iron ores 9 ! ,lake ,sup]ior region1 ,canada1 ! ,adirondacks1 & else:]e 9 ! glaciat$ portions ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,x is n s useful = ! br[n ores & ! ,cl9ton ores ( ! s\!a/]n ,unit$ ,/ates1 :i* are only slightly magnetic & c be commonly locat$ by o!r me?ods4 ,:]e ! ore is /rongly magnetic1 & is associat$ ) o!r rocks :i* are non-magnetic1 ! nature ( ! magnetic field det]m9$ by a surface survey ) v]tical & horizontal ne$les may tell some?+ ab\t ! %ape & size ( ! ore body4 ,commonly1 h[ev]1 magnetic ores are associat$ ) lean] magnetic rocks1--) ! result t ! magnetic survey1 unless x happ5s to lead to an outcrop ( ore1 indicates only ! g5]al area ?r\gh :i* und]gr\nd exploration might be w>rant$4 ,9 ! hematitic iron ores ( ,lake ,sup]ior1 magnetism is less pron\nc$ ?an 9 ! magnetites2 & 9 ! s(t hydr\s hematites1 l ^? ( ! ,mesabi di/rict1 x may cause only slight di/urbance ( ! magnetic ne$le4 ,?is di/urbance is usually suffici5t to locate ! position ( ! iron-be>+ =mation1 ?\gh n ! position ( ! ore4 ,:]e ! iron =mation has be5 highly metamorphos$1 & r5d]$ resi/ant to wea!r+ & erosion s t x w n conc5trate into ore1 x is likely to h high] magnetic attraction ?an ! ri*] ores4 ,= ?is reason an area ( /rong magnetic attraction is ord9>ily reg>d$ z n p>ticul>ly favorable to ! f9d+ ( important hematite deposits4 ,h[ev]1 ?is attraction may be v useful 9 trac+ out ! =mation to a place :]e x is less metamorphic1 less resi/ant to erosion1 less likely to outcrop1 & yet m promis+ = ! discov]y ( iron ore4 ,= in/ance1 on ! ea/ end ( ! ,mesabi & on ! ea/ & we/ ends ( ! ,gogebic di/rict1 magnetic surveys trace ! iron =mation ) great ease to po9ts :]e ! attraction is l[ & ! conditions = exploration m favorable4 ,! magnetic ne$le has also be5 us$ 9 ! se>* = nickel ore 9 ! ,sudbury di/rict ( ,ont>io1 b )\t great success1 because ( ! v>iety ( rocks o!r ?an nickel :i* are m or less magnetic1 & because ( ! slight magnetic prop]ties ( ! nickel ore itself4 ,9 a l>ge-scale exploration ( ?is type1 conduct$ "s ye>s ago1 a favorable magnetic belt 0 discov]$1 & a pit 0 sunk to wat] level b n to b$rock4 ,ye>s lat]1 ! ext5sion ( ?is pit by only a few feet disclos$ "o ( ! great ore bodies ( ! di/rict4 ,exp]im5tal "w on ! use ( ! magnetic ne$le on copp] deposits has yield$ "s int]e/+ & sugge/ive results1 b ?is inve/igation is /ill "u way & ! results h n be5 publi%$4 ,,! ,,use ,,( ,,electrical ,,conductivity ,,& ,,o!r ,,qualities ,,( ,,rocks ,,9 ,,exploration ,9 addition to magnetism1 rocks & ores h o!r prop]ties susceptible to obs]vations made at a di/ance1 su* z electrical conductivity1 transp>5cy to ,x-rays1 specific induction1 ela/icity1 & d5sity4 ,all ^! qualities h be5 ( int]e/ to geologi/s 9 "s connection or ano!r1 b none ( !m h yet be5 us$ effectively 9 exploration = m9]al res\rces4 ,! only "o ( ^! prop]ties t has ?us f> seem$ to promise practical results is electrical conductivity4 ,! results yet obta9$ are slight1 & ?is k9d ( inve/igation has re/$ "u some?+ ( a cl\d1 due to extravagant claims ( inv5tors4 ,nev]!less1 !re has be5 a consid]able am\nt ( sci5tific "w by physici/s1 geologi/s1 & eng9e]s1 supplem5t$ by special w>-"t inve/igations ( rock & e>? conductivity 9 connection ) gr\nd telephones & ! tapp+ ( enemy conv]sations1 :i* seems to indicate a di/9ct possibility ( practical results 9 ! future1--p]haps n s mu* 9 locat+ specific ore bodies z 9 locat+ g5]al types ( =mation & /ructures1--:i* may s]ve to supplem5t o!r me?ods ( se>*4#ch ,! transmission & reflection ( s\nd waves 9 rocks h also be5 m or less inve/igat$ ) ref]5ce to _! possible milit>y use4 ,x seems n impossible t ^! ph5om5a may be ( "s geologic aid 9 ! future1 b exp]im5tal "w is yet 9 a v e>ly /age4 ,,! ,,use ,,( ,,/ructure ,,& ,,metamorphism ,,9 ,,exploration ,! necessity = c>eful use ( /ructural data 9 exploration sc>cely requires discussion4 ,ref]5ces h be5 made to /ructural features 9 connection ) coal1 oil1 iron ore1 & o!r m9]als4 ,?is phase ( /udy c sc>cely be too int5sively foll[$4 ,! trac+ ( a fold$ or fault$ ve91 9 a p>ticul>ly complex sy/em ( ve9s1 requires application ( all ( ! me?ods & pr9ciples ( /ructural geology4 ,simil>ly1 ! importance ( apply+ ! pr9ciples ( metamorphism1 embodi$ 9 ! metamorphic cycle 7pp4 #bg-bh7 is almo/ self-evid5t4 ,c]ta9 k9ds ( metamorphism are sugge/ive ( ! nature ( ! m9]al deposits ) :i* !y are associat$4 ,"o w\ld n look = m9]als kn[n to be caus$ ma9ly by surficial processes 9 rocks :i* h be5 alt]$ ma9ly by deep-seat$ processes4 ,! pres5ce ( metamorphism indicat+ high temp]atures & pressures to "s ext5t limits ! k9ds ( m9]als :i* "o may expect to f9d4 ,on ! o!r h&1 m9]als kn[n to be prim>ily =m$ at great dep?s1 provid+ !y are resi/ant to surface wea!r+1 may be f\nd 9 deposits :i* are ! result ( surficial alt]ations or katamorphic processes2 t is1 !y may become conc5trat$ z residual mat]ials 9 wea!r$ zones or z plac]s4 ,,drill+ ,,9 ,,exploration ,9 ! abs5ce ( di/9ctive outcrops1 z well z :5 outcrops are f\nd1 drill+ is a widely us$ me?od ( und]gr\nd exploration 9 advance ( ! s9k+ ( %afts or ! driv+ ( tunnels4 ,drill+ is m useful 9 ! locat+ & prov+ ( m9]al deposits ( l>ge bulk1 l deposits ( coal1 iron1 & oil1 ?an m9]al deposits ( small bulk & high value1 l gold & silv] deposits4 ,h[ev]1 x is n always us$ 9 ! exploration ( ! fir/ class ( deposits & is n always elim9at$ 9 ! exploration ( ! second class4 ,) ! developm5t ( bett] me*anical devices1 bett] me?ods ( controll+ & asc]ta9+ ! direction ( ! drill hole1 & m skillful int]pretation ( drill samples1 ! use ( drill+ is rapidly ext5d+ into m9]al fields :]e x 0 =m]ly ?\ght n applicable4 ,! geologi/ takes an active "p 9 drill+ op]ations by locat+ ! drill holes1 by det]m9+ ! angle ( ! holes1 by id5tify+ & int]pret+ ! samples1 by /udy+ b$d+1 cleavage1 & o!r /ructures z %[n 9 ! samples1 & det]m9+ ! attitude ( ^! /ructures 9 ! gr\nd1 by det]m9+ :5 ! horizon is rea*$ :i* is mo/ promis+ = m9]al1 & by det]m9+ :5 ! hole %all be /opp$4 ,) a giv5 set ( surface conditions1 ! problem ( locat+ & direct+ a drill hole to secure ! maximum possible results = ! am\nt exp5d$ requires ! c>eful consid]ation ( _m geologic factors1--&1 :at is m important1 _! arrangem5t 9 prop] p]spective & relation%ip4 ,faulty reason+ f any "o ( ! pr9cipal factors1 or ov]-emphasis on any "o ( !m1 or failure to develop an accurate ?ree-dim5sional conception ( ! und]gr\nd /ructural conditions1 may lead to failure or extra exp5se4 ,success or failure is swiftly & def9itely det]m9$4 ,! geologi/ is usually employ$ by ! company f9anc+ ! drill+2 b 9 recognition ( ! importance ( 8 "w1 "s ( ! l>ge contract+ drill companies n[ employ _! own geologi/s4 ,! te*nique ( ! geologic int]pretation & direction ( drill+ has become r complicat$ & =midable1 & has result$ 9 ! introduction ( special college c\rses 9 ^! subjects4 ,! desirability ( public regi/ration ( drill+ records is discuss$ on ano!r page 7pp4 #cje-cjf74 ,,quantitative ,,aspects ,,( ,,geologic ,,exploration ,9 rec5t ye>s !re has be5 a t5d5cy to r$uce ! geologic factors 9 exploration to "s k9d ( a quantitative basis4 ,:ile ^! factors may be v v>iable & v complex1 _! net effect frequ5tly may be express$ 9 t]ms ( quantitative av]ages4 ,9 v>i\s m9es & m9+ di/ricts :]e op]ations are ( wide ext5t1 local quantitative factors h be5 work$ out :i* are useful 9 pr$ict+ results f propos$ explorations 9 undevelop$ portions4 ,figures ( ?is sort may be useful & practical guides 9 plann+ any giv5 exploration1 its co/1 & its probable outcome4 ,quantitative me?ods are illu/rat$ 9 ! g5]al acc\nt ( ,lake ,sup]ior iron ore exploration 9 a lat] section4 ,curves ( production f oil wells & f oil di/ricts h be5 f\nd to h c]ta9 *>act]i/ic features 9 common :i* are (t5 us$ 9 pr$ict+ ! future output & life ( a giv5 well1 prop]ty1 or di/rict4 ,:]e associat$ ) coal1 ! p]c5tage ( fix$ c>bon 9 ! coal may be a guide to ! pres5ce & nature ( ! oil 7see ,*apt] ,,viii74 ,! geological /aff ( ! ,ne!rl&s ,ea/ ,indies e/imat$ ! t9 res]ves ( "o ( ^! isl&s by ! use ( a factor or coeffici5t1 bas$ on ! exp]i5ce ( ano!r isl&4 ,9 ! ,cobalt di/rict ( ,canada a factor = future discov]ies & output1 bas$ on pa/ exp]i5ce1 0 simil>ly develop$4 ,hoov]#ci made a /ati/ical /udy ( sev]al hundr$ metal m9es 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! _w1 & f\nd t n #f p] c5t ( ! m9es t yield$ pr(its ev] made !m f ore m9$ bel[ #b1jjj feet2 & t ( ! m9es t paid divid5ds1 #hj p] c5t did n yield pr(it bel[ #a1ejj feet1 & mo/ ( !m di$ above #ejj feet4 ,attempt has be5 made by a ,sw$i% geologi/ to e/imate ! iron ore res\rces ( cont95ts by ! use ( an iron coeffici5t4 ,?is coeffici5t 0 obta9$ by divid+ ! kn[n iron ore res\rces ( ! comp>atively well-inve/igat$ portions ( ! _w by ! numb] ( squ>e miles 9 :i* !y occurr$1 & 0 !n multipli$ into ! area ( ! cont95ts ^: res\rces 7 to be det]m9$4 ,! application ( quantitative me?ods ( ?is k9d has n yet become v g5]al1 nor is x possible to use !m 9 "s cases2 :]e appli$ _m ( !m h be5 v crude & o!rs h be5 p>tly disprov$ by exp]i5ce4 ,) increas+ k & exp]i5ce1 su* me?ods are becom+ m accurate & useful1 & are likely to h wid] use 9 ! future4 ,,orig9 ,,( ,,m9]al ,,deposits ,,z ,a ,,factor ,,9 ,,exploration ,9 exploration1 ! geologi/ is ke5 to asc]ta9 ! orig9 ( ! m9]al deposit4 ,?is is (t5 a s\rce ( wond] to ! layman or practical man1 & ! geologi/ may be *>g$ ) hav+ let 8 fondness = !ory run away ) him4 ,a widespread fatali/ic conception is express$ 9 ! ,corni%man's dictum on ore1 ,:]e x is1 !re x is4 ,yet an und]/&+ ( ! orig9 ( any p>ticul> ore1 ! :y ( x1 is com+ to be recogniz$ z ! mo/ effective means ( rea*+ s\nd practical conclusions4 ,by asc]ta9+ ! approximate orig9 ( ! ore1 x may be possible at once to inf] a :ole gr\p ( practical consid]ations bas$ on exp]i5ce ) ores ( l orig9 9 o!r localities4 ,! orig9 ( ! ore is ! geologi/'s prim>y int]e/1 & x is ?is :i* gives him 8 mo/ effective & di/9ctive tool 9 exploration4 ,_m o!r phases ( exploration "w may be pick$ up empirically by any "o famili> ) ! local conditions2 b :5 ! man )\t s\nd geologic tra9+ attempts to g into ?is p>ticul> field1 8 lack ( backgr\nd & p]spective (t5 leads to fanta/ic hypo!ses :i* may vitiate ! inf]5ces on :i* he plans 8 exploration4 ,! sci5tific inve/igator1 :ile n accept+ ! fanciful !ories ( ! local obs]v]1 w make a mi/ake if he fails to recognize ! residuum ( solid fact on :i* !y are built4 ,_m practical explor]s are %rewd obs]v]s ( empirical facts1 ev5 ?\gh _! explanations may %[ a lack ( compreh5sion ( ! processes involv$4 ,any assumption ( sup]iority1 intol]ance1 or lack ( sympa?y1 on ! "p ( ! geologi/1 t[>d ! inadequate explanations & descriptions giv5 him by ! practical man1 is likely to indicate a weakness or limitation 9 8 own m5tal processes4 ,! geologi/'s bus9ess is to sift out ! fact f ! inf]5ce1 & n to ?r[ ov] ! :ole /ructure because "s ( ! inf]5ces are faulty4 ,,lake ,,sup]ior ,,iron ,,ore ,,exploration ,,z ,,an ,,illu/ration ,to illu/rate ! application ( "s ( ! me?ods ( exploration ( ! k9ds describ$ 9 ?is *apt]1 ! writ] selects an example f 8 own exp]i5ce 9 ! ,lake ,sup]ior iron fields4#dj ,9 ?is region1 consid]ation ( ! economic aspects ( ! problem may elim9ate f ! be/ explorable field c]ta9 ,canadian portions :i* are f> f wat] transportation1 because ! conditions 9 ^! sections w\ld prev5t ! use ( any?+ b an exceptionally l>ge & ri* deposit4 ,economic conditions det]m9e 9 advance also t x is n wor? :ile look+ = ores ( c]ta9 grades1 ei!r because !y are n usable on acc\nt ( delet]i\s con/itu5ts or l[ cont5t ( iron1 or because ^! p>ticul> grades h already be5 develop$ 9 excess ( requirem5ts4 ,hav+ det]m9$ :at ore is desir$1 :e!r ,bessem] or non-,bessem]1 :e!r op5-he>? or f\ndry1 fur!r elim9ation ( area is possible on ! basis ( pa/ exp]i5ce4 ,com+ to ! geologic phases ( ! problem1 ! fir/ /ep is to elim9ate great areas ( rock :i* are kn[n nev] to conta9 iron ore1 l ! granite areas & ! qu>tzite & lime/one areas4 ,)9 ! rema9+ areas1 by exam9ation ( ! surface outcrops & ) ! aid ( magnetic surveys1 iron =mations are f\nd :i* are ! "m rock ( ! ores4 ,9 ,mi*igan1 x has be5 possible to use c]ta9 p]c5tage expectations 9 ! areal location ( iron =mations )9 c]ta9 s]ies ( rocks ext5d+ ov] wide areas4 ,su* p]c5tage coeffici5ts h be5 useful1 n only 9 exploration1 b also 9 ! valuation ( l&s :i* are s cov]$ ) drift t no "o kn[s :e!r !y c>ry an iron =mation or n4 ,exam9ation ( ! iron =mations results 9 elim9ation ( l>ge p>ts ( !m1 because _! metamorphic condition is n favorable to ore conc5tration4 ,9 ! rema9+ areas m int5sive me?ods are foll[$4 ,x is sc>cely possible to summ>ize briefly all ( ! /ructural & /ratigraphic me?ods us$ 9 locat+ ! ore bodies4 ,^! h (t5 be5 describ$ 9 pr9t4#da ,comp>atively rec5t advances 9 ?is phase ( exploration "w h be5 9 ! m detail$ application ( /ratigraphic me?ods to ! iron =mation4 ,! gr\p *>act]i/ics ( ! iron =mation are fairly uni=m & di/9ctive z comp>$ ) all o!r rocks2 yet )9 ! iron =mation !re are s _m diff]5t k9ds ( lay]s repres5t$ t x is possible to use ^! v>iations ) great effectiv5ess1 9 correlat+ favorable horizons = ore deposition1 9 int]pret+ drill records1 & 9 o!r ways4 ,ano!r me?od ( approa*1 employ$ *iefly on ! ,mesabi ,range1 relates to ! slump+ ( ! ore lay]s :i* results f ! lea*+ ( silica dur+ ! conc5tration ( ! ore4 ,?is slump+ c be measur$ quantitatively1 & has be5 us$ to mu* advantage 9 exploration1 9 correlation ( ore horizons1 9 prep>ation ( sections & ore e/imates1 etc4 ,e>ly geologic explorations 9 ! ,lake ,sup]ior c\ntry 7 bas$ on ! assumption t ! ores 7 conc5trat$ by wat]s work+ d[n f ! pres5t erosion surface2 b recognition ( ! fact t ! wat]s :i* did ! "w 7 relat$ to a f> old] & diff]5t erosion surface1 "u conditions :i* all[$ ( a f> deep] p5etration1 has modifi$ exploration plans = c]ta9 ( ! di/ricts l ! ,m>quette & ,gogebic4 ,not)/&+ ! complexity ( ! geologic factors involv$1 _! net result has be5 to conc5trate iron ores 9 a surpris+ly uni=m ratio to ! mass ( ! =mation 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! region1--) ! result t on an av]age x may be pr$ict$ = any di/rict1 9 an exploration ( suffici5t magnitude1 h[ mu* ore is likely to be cut 9 ei!r v]tical or horizontal dim5sion4 ,?irte5 p] c5t ( ! productive area ( ! ,mesabi iron =mation is iron ore4 ,= ! rema9d] ( ! ,lake ,sup]ior region five or six p] c5t is ! factor4 ,^! figures mean t1 if a p]son c\ld explore a broad en\gh area ( iron =mation1 any miscellane\s gr\p ( drill holes or und]gr\nd op5+s w\ld t5d to yield ^! p]c5tage results4 ,su* p]c5tages are amply suffici5t to pay a l>ge pr(it on ! exploration4 ,! "q may be rais$ :y ! application ( geology is requir$1 if su* av]age results c be secur$ f miscellane\s undirect$ "w4 ,! answ] is t seldom is x possible to conduct an exploration on a suffici5tly l>ge scale to be sure ( approximat+ ?is av]age1 & t geologic /udy has made x possible 9 _m cases to secure a bett] p]c5tage result4 ,if ! geologi/ is able to raise ! p]c5tage ev] s little1 ! exp5diture is amply ju/ifi$4 ,he is n expect$ to h #ajj p] c5t success2 b he is expect$ to bett] ! av]age returns1 & 9 ?is on ! :ole he has n fail$4 ,apply+ ?is me?od specifically to ! ,gogebic ,range1 x appe>s t up to ,janu>y #a1 #aiah1 exploration & developm5t _h cov]$ #c1fej acres ( iron =mation1 measur$ along ! dip 9 ! plane ( ! footwall1 )9 ! limits ( ! area 9 :i* ! =mation is 9 su* condition z to all[ conc5tration ( ! ore4 ,! total area ( ! footwall to a dep? ( #c1jjj feet is approximately #i1fej acres4 ,! range1 !re=e1 0 #ch p] c5t develop$ to ?is dep?4 ,9 ! develop$ area1 #afj1jjj1jjj tons ( ore _h be5 f\nd1 or approximately "o ton p] squ>e foot ( footwall area1 or #dc1hjj p] acre ( footwall explor$4 ,! total area ( ore measur$ on ! footwall 0 #ghe acres4 ,! ratio ( ore area to total explor$ area1 measur$ 9 ! plane ( ! footwall1 0 #ba-a_/b p] c5t4 ,?is may be tak5 9 a r\gh way to indicate ! av]age explor+ possibilities 9 new gr\nd1 :]e local conditions to ! contr>y d n exi/4 ,?is means t ov] ! :ole range ab\t "o drill hole or cross-cut 9 five w /rike ore on an av]age4 ,or1 look$ at 9 ano!r way1 ab\t #bjj feet ( drift+ 9 e #a1jjj on ! footwall w be 9 ore4 ,apply+ ?is factor to ! unexplor$ area1 am\nt+ to #f1jjj acres1 ! range _h an expectation on ,janu>y #a1 #aiah1 to a dep? ( #c1jjj feet1 ov] & above ores already discov]$1 ( approximately #bfb1hjj1jjj tons4 ,?is 0 suffici5t to ext5d ! life ( ! range by ab\t =ty-f\r ye>s4 ,kn[+ ! av]age co/ ( developm5t ( ore p] foot 9 ! pa/1 & kn[+ ! annual output & its rate ( accel]ation1 x is possible to figure ) "s accuracy h[ mu* exp5diture %\ld be plann$ = annually 9 ! future 9 ord] to ma9ta9 a safe m>g9 ( res]ves aga9/ output4 ,su* quantitative consid]ations 9 ! ,lake ,sup]ior region s]ve n only to guide ! g5]al conduct ( ! exploration & developm5t "w1 b 9 "s cases z a basis = valuation bo? = comm]cial & taxation purposes4 ,,developm5t ,,& ,,exploitation ,,( ,,m9]al ,,deposits ,! se>* = new ore bodies is closely relat$ to ! developm5t1 ext5sion1 & m9+ ( ore bodies already f\nd4 ,9 ?is field ! geologi/ f9ds wide application ( 8 sci5ce4 ,"h he may n be s mu* conc]n$ ) ! economic factors or ) ! broad] me?ods ( geologic elim9ation2 8 /udy is m likely to be bas$ ma9ly on ! local geologic conditions4 ,"s ( ! l>g] & m successful m9+ companies1 p]haps ! great] numb] ( !m ^! days1 h geologi/s ^: bus9ess x is to foll[ closely ! und]gr\nd op]ations1 ) a view to advis+ on ! conduct ( ! developm5t "w4 ,?is requires ! mo/ precise & int5sive /udy4 ,= in/ance1 ! ,anaconda ,copp] ,m9+ ,company has a /aff ( sev]al geologi/s1 :o foll[ ! und]gr\nd "w 9 ! utmo/ detail & ^: approval mu/ be obta9$ by ! op]at+ dep>tm5t 9 ! =mulation ( any developm5t plan4 ,! complexity & fault relations ( ! ve9s 9 ?is company's m9es are su* t ! application ( ^! me?ods has abundantly ju/ifi$ itself on ! co/ %eet4 ,too (t5 m9+ companies leave ! plann+ & execution ( ! und]gr\nd developm5t "w to ! local managem5t1 commonly to ! und]gr\nd m9+ capta91 )\t geologic consultation4 ,?is proc$ure does n elim9ate ! economic geologi/2 = :5 ! developm5t fails at any po9t1 or new & unexpect$ conditions are met1 ! geologi/ is likely to be call$ 94 ,9 su* cases ! practice ( a geologi/ is l t ( ! ord9>y m$ical practition]2 he is call$ 9 only :5 8 pati5ts are 9 tr\ble4 ,! use ( adequate geologic advice 9 ! plann+ /ages is ab\t z little advanc$ 9 "s localities z ! practice ( prev5tive m$ic9e4 ,! "w ( ! economic geologi/ may n be end$ by ! f9d+ & developm5t ( ! ore2 = ! mom5t ?is is accompli%$1 he %\ld aga9 consid] ! economic phases ( ! problem--! grade ( 8 ore1 its probable am\nt1 & o!r features1 9 relation to ! g5]al economic sett+4 ,9 8 en?usiasm = physical results1 he may be c>ri$ into exp5ditures n ju/ifi$ by ! economic factors 9 ! problem4 ,"s "o else may & usually does look out = ! economic elem5ts1 b ! prud5t geologi/ w at lea/ see to x t someone is on ! job4 ,,footnotes3 #cg ,smi?1 ,george ,otis1 & o!rs1 ,! classification ( ! public l&s3 ,bull4 #ecg1 ,u4,s4 ,geol4 ,survey1 #aiac4 #ch ,s*lumb]g]1 ,c41 ,/udy ( und]gr\nd electrical prospect+3 ,translat$ f ! ,fr5* by ,%]w9 ,f4 ,kelly1 ,p>is1 #aibj4 ,b]g/rom1 ,gunn>1 & ,b]gholm1 ,c>l1 ,teknisk ,tidskrift1 ,kemi o* ,b]gvet5skap1 #aiah1 ,book #ab4 #ci ,hoov]1 ,h]b]t ,c41 ,pr9ciples ( m9+3 ,mc,graw-,hill ,book ,co41 ,new ,york1 #aiji1 p4 #cb4 #dj ,lei?1 ,c4 ,k41 ,use ( geology 9 iron ore exploration3 ,econ4 ,geol41 vol4 #g1 #aiab1 pp4 #ffb-fge4 #da ,van ,hise1 ,c4 ,r41 & ,lei?1 ,c4 ,k41 ,geology ( ! ,lake ,sup]ior region3 ,mon4 #eb1 ,u4,s4 ,geol4 ,survey1 #aiaa4 ,,*apt] ,,xv ,,valuation ,,& ,,taxation ,,( ,,m9]al ,,res\rces ,,popul> ,,conception ,,( ,,m9]al ,,valuation ,! total returns f m9+ may n 9 ! aggregate be f> above ! exp5diture = exploration1 developm5t1 & extraction2 yet ! total m9]al weal? ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 on ! basis ( e>n+ p[] & aside f ! indu/ries bas$ on x1 _c be f> f sixty billions ( doll>s1 & ?is weal? has virtually come into exi/5ce s9ce ! #ahdi gold ru% to ,cali=nia4 ,! m9+ indu/ry supports a l>ge population4 ,^! facts are ! solid basis = ! widespread popul> int]e/ 9 m9]al inve/m5t--& m9]al speculation4 ,b !re are o!r reasons = ?is int]e/1--! gambl]'s *ance = quick returns1 ! lure ( gold1 ! possibility ( gett+ some?+ = no?+1 ! mu%room nature ( c]ta9 bran*es ( ! indu/ry1 ! elem5t ( my/]y relat$ to nature's secrets1 & ! conception ( m9]als z bonanzas ) ready-made value1 m]ely await+ discov]y & requir+ no ef=t to make !m valuable4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates a factor contribut+ to ! popul> int]e/ is ! l>ge fre$om all[$ by ! laws to discov] & acquire m9]als on ! public doma94 ,p]haps no o!r field ( indu/ry comes s ne> be+ common gr\nd = all classes ( p4 ,! m9]al indu/ry is a field 9 :i* x is easy to capitalize n only hone/ & skillful endeavor1 b hopes1 guesses1 & gre$4 ,x is n to be wond]$ at1 !re=e1 t 9 ! popul> m9d ! valuation ( a m9]al res\rce is little m ?an a guess1 & sometimes n ev5 an hone/ "o4 ,nev]!less1 ! m9]al indu/ry has become second only to agriculture 9 its capital value & 9 its e>n+ capacity4 ,9 ?is indu/ry x is h>dly possible to arrive at valuations z securely bas$ z 9 _m o!r indu/ries1 b ! elem5ts ( haz>d are n s hopeless ( measurem5t z might be suppos$4 ,! great m9]al & f9ancial organizations d n dep5d on m]e guesses1 b use well-tri$ me?ods4 ,if ! g5]al inve/or 7 to give m att5tion to ^! me?ods he w\ld d\btless save himself money1 & ! m9]al indu/ry w\ld be rid ( a great incumbrance ( p>asites :o live on ! cr$ulity ( ! public4 ,to anyone famili> ) ! m9]al field1 x is (t5 surpris+ to see ! ra%ness ) :i* a cons]vative bus9ess man1 :o w\ld n ?9k ( ent]+ ano!r indu/rial field )\t close /udy ( all ! factors 9 ! situation1 w inve/ 9 m9]als )\t us+ ord9>y me?ods ( analysis ( values4 ,9 ! foll[+ acc\nt ( valuation ( m9]als 9 ! gr\nd1 & ! closely relat$ subject1 taxation ( su* m9]als1 ! attempt is made to /ate "s ( ! pr9ciples briefly & simply ) a view to mak+ !m intelligible to ! layman4 ,values beyond ! m9e are conc]n$ ) s _m factors ( a non-geologic nature t !y are n "h discuss$4 ,,valuation ,,& ,,taxation ,,( ,,m9es ,,intr9sic ,,& ,,extr9sic ,,factors ,,9 ,,valuation ,x is ess5tial to recognize at ! outset t ! value ( a m9]al deposit1 l ! value ( any o!r comm]cial mat]ial1 comprises two ma9 elem5ts2 an intr9sic elem5t bas$ on ! qualities ( ! mat]ial itself1 & an extr9sic elem5t bas$ on its availability & ! nature ( ! dem&s = x4 ,! two elem5ts may n be %>ply sep>at$1 & nei!r exi/s )\t ! o!r4 ,a m9]al deposit 9 easy rea* ( a popul\s community1 :i* has suffici5tly advanc$ me?ods & requirem5ts to use x1 may h high value2 an exactly simil> deposit1 if f> remov$ f po9ts ( consumption1 h&icapp$ by transportation1 or available only to p )\t develop$ me?ods = its use1 may h little or no value4 ,intr9sically ! deposits are alike2 b extr9sically !y are f> diff]5t1 & _! values are correspond+ly unlike4 ,ev5 two adjac5t prop]ties1 diff]5tly manag$ & controll$1 & ) diff]5t relations to m>kets1 may h some:at diff]5t values dep5d+ on ! use made ( !m4 ,! value ( a deposit may v>y f ye> to ye> ) *anges 9 dem& = its output1 or ) *anges 9 metallurgical & o!r processes :i* make its use possible4 ,m9]als ( small bulk & high value1 z = in/ance gold1 plat9um1 & diamonds1 h a ne>ly /&>d value relat$ to _! intr9sic prop]ties1 because !y c be transport$ s easily to any "p ( ! _w4 ,on ! o!r h&1 mat]ials ( l>ge bulk & l[ unit value1 su* z coal1 iron ore1 & clay1 may h highly v>y+ values indep5d5tly ( _! physical *>act]i/ics1 because ( _! relative immobility4 ,b ! values ev5 ( gold & preci\s /ones repres5t a comb9ation ( intr9sic qualities & ( dem&4 ,a diamond is made ( c>bon b is m valuable ?an coal or graphite because x appeals to ! e/hetic ta/e4 ,x is only because man introduces an elem5t ( dem& t ! diamond takes on value4 ,9 %ort1 man is ! multipli] & ! m9]al sub/ance is ! multiplic& 9 ! product kn[n z value4 ,recognition ( ! two elem5ts ( value is vital to a cle> und]/&+ ( ! me?ods & problems ( valuation ( m9]als4 ,x is too (t5 assum$ t ! physical prop]ties con/itute ! sole factor4 ,look$ at 9 a l>ge way1 ! returns f ! m9]al indu/ry are comm5surate ) ! ef=t put into discov]y & developm5t ( m9]al res\rces1 ev5 ?\gh ! returns to lucky individuals h be5 excessive4 ,9 respect to ! importance ( ! human en]gy elem5t1 ! m9+ ( m9]als is n unlike ! cropp+ ( soils4 ,"s int]e/+ economic /udies h be5 made ( m9+ di/ricts to asc]ta9 :e!r ! total return has be5 equal to ! total inve/m5ts by bo? successful & unsuccessful p>ticipants4 ,! results %[ t1 ev5 9 "s ( ! mo/ successful di/ricts1 !re is n a l>ge social surplus1--t is1 a surplus ( receipts ov] total exp5ditures4 ,x is difficult to g5]alize f su* /udies ) any degree ( accuracy2 b x seems likely t if we c\ld measure ! va/ am\nt ( fruitless ef=t :i* has be5 exp5d$ 9 non-productive t]ritories1 ! result w\ld t5d to be> out ! g5]al conclusion t ! social surplus = ! m9]al indu/ry z a :ole is a mode/ "o1 if x exi/s at all4 ,( c\rse1 x is to be rememb]$ t ! total b5efits f m9]al res\rces are n to be measur$ 9 t]ms ( ga9 to ! produc]s1--b t _! measurem5t mu/ take into acc\nt ! satisfy+ ( all ! complex dem&s ( mod]n civilization4 ,,values ,,( ,,m9]al ,,deposits ,,n ,,(t5 ,,e/abli%$ ,,by ,,m>ket ,,transf]s ,:ile m9]als z extract$ & us$ may h /&>d m>ket values1 m9]al deposits 9 ! gr\nd are n b\ght & sold on ! op5 m>ket ) suffici5t frequ5cy to e/abli% /&>d m>ket values4 ,a sale may e/abli% a crit]ion ( value = ! p>ticul> deposit1 b n = ! class ( deposits1--= no two m9]al deposits are exactly alike4 ,/ock quotations may e/abli% a c]ta9 k9d ( m>ket value1 b ^! are (t5 vitiat$ by extrane\s consid]ations4 ,= ^! reasons ! valuation ( a m9]al deposit is 9 ea* case a special problem4 ,,! ,,ad ,,valorem ,,me?od ,,( ,,valuation ,! ord9>y comm]cial me?od ( valu+ m9]al deposits recognizes ! two ma9 elem5ts ( value above discuss$4 ,?is me?od is sometimes call$ ! rational or ad valorem me?od4 ,! pr(it p] ton 7or p] o!r unit7 ( ! product is e/abli%$1 on ! basis ei!r ( pa/ p]=mance ( ! prop]ty or ( exp]i5ce ) o!r simil> prop]ties4 ,?is pr(it is multipli$ by ! total tonnage e/imat$ 9 ! deposit1 ! e/imate includ+ kn[n res]ves1 probable res]ves1 & 9 "s cases possible & prospective res]ves4 ,! product ( ! pr(it p] ton & ! total tonnage gives ! total net am\nt :i* w be receiv$2 x does n1 h[ev]1 give ! pres5t value1 because ! commodity _c all be tak5 out & sold at once1 b mu/ be m9$ & absorb$ by ! m>ket ?r\gh a consid]able p]iod ( ye>s4 ,! returns receivable "s ye>s 9 ! future h obvi\sly a l[] proportionate pres5t wor? ?an am\nts to be receiv$ at once4 ,! int]e/ rate comes into play1 mak+ x necess>y to disc\nt ea* annual paym5t = ! numb] ( ye>s :i* w elapse be=e x is receiv$4 ,x is evid5t1 !re=e1 t an e/imate ( ! life ( ! prop]ty is necess>y1 involv+ n only k ( ! res]ves1 b also a =eca/ ( ! annual extraction or rate ( depletion4 ,z a simple case ( ad valorem valuation = illu/rative purposes1 a deposit conta9+ #a1jjj1jjj tons 9 res]ve has an e/imat$ output ( #ajj1jjj tons a ye> = t5 ye>s1 on :i* ! pr(it p] ton has 9 ! pa/ av]ag$ #a & is expect$ to av]age #a 9 ! future4 ,t5 annual in/alm5ts or divid5ds ( #ajj1jjj are to be receiv$4 ,! pres5t value ( ! total ( ^! in/alm5ts is figur$ by an annuity me?od4 ,x is ! value ^u :i* ! s]ies ( divid5ds w pay int]e/ at a pr$et]m9$ rate1 9 addition to pay+ to a s9k+ fund annual in/alm5ts :i*1 safely inve/$ ea* ye> at a l[ rate ( int]e/ 7usually #d71 w repay ! pres5t value at ! end ( ! t5 ye>s4 ,9 our hypo!tical case1 if an int]e/ rate ( #h be tak51 ! pres5t value ( #a1jjj1jjj1 to be receiv$ ?r\gh t5 ye>s 9 t5 equal in/alm5ts1 is #fab1jjj4 ,9 o!r words1 ! sum ( #fab1jjj w be replac$ by ! s9k+ fund at ! end ( t5 ye>s1 & w pay #h int]e/ dur+ ?is p]iod1--?is requir+ total receipts ( #a1jjj1jjj 9 t5 equal annual in/alm5ts4 ,if ! deposit "h cit$ z an illu/ration 7 to be work$ out 9 ?ree ye>s1 ?us yield+ ?ree annual in/alm5ts ( #ccc1jjj1 its value w\ld be #hcc1jjj4 ,ea* ( ! factors ent]+ into ?is me?od ( valuation cov]s a wide range ( v>iables1 any "o ( :i* may be difficult to det]m9e4 ,! pr(it p] ton = a giv5 deposit may h be5 extremely v>iable 9 ! pa/1 mak+ x difficult to det]m9e :e!r ! highe/ or l[e/ figure %\ld be project$ into ! future or :e!r "s av]age %\ld be tak52 & if an av]age1 :e!r ! "t cov]$ by ! av]age %\ld be long or %ort4 ,= a small1 %ort-liv$ deposit obvi\sly ! mo/ rec5t conditions w\ld be tak5 into acc\nt 9 e/imat+ future pr(its4 ,= a long-liv$ prop]ty !re w\ld be m t5d5cy to consid] ! long-"t av]age vicissitudes1 z reflect$ 9 ! av]age pr(its ( ! pa/4 ,= "s m9]al commodities !re are cycles ( prices1 co/s1 & pr(its1 ( m or less def9ite l5g?1 e/abli%$ dur+ ! long pa/ hi/ory ( ! indu/ry2 & 9 su* cases x is desirable 9 calculat+ av]ages to use a p]iod cov]+ "o or m ( ^! cycles1 r ?an "s %ort] or long] p]iod4 ,= _m m9]als1 h[ev]1 ^! cycles h be5 too irregul> to af=d a s\nd basis = future e/imates4 ,if ! exp]i5ce ( ! prop]ty itself is too %ort to af=d a suffici5t f\ndation = =eca/+ pr(its1 or if !re has be5 no previ\s "w on ! prop]ty1 !n x is necess>y to use av]ages bas$ on o!r prop]ties or o!r di/ricts2 or if !re are none /rictly comp>able1 to build up a hypo!tical figure f v>i\s e/imat$ co/s ( labor1 supplies1 & transportation1 sell+ prices1 etc4 ,9 ! e/imate ( ! pr(it factor1 ! geologi/ is n prim>ily conc]n$4 ,9 e/imat+ ! total res]ves 9 a m9e1 geological consid]ations ne>ly always play a l>ge "p4 ,an ore body may 9 "s few cases be completely block$ out by und]gr\nd "w or drill+1 elim9at+ ! necessity = inf]r+ conditions beyond ^? actually se52 b 9 ! huge majority ( m9]al deposits ! res]ves are n s def9itely kn[n1 & x becomes necess>y = ! geologi/1 ?r\gh k ( simil> occurr5ces1 ?r\gh /udy ( ! /ructural features ( ! deposit1 its orig91 & its hi/ory1 to arrive at "s sort ( an e/imate ( res]ves4 ,9 e/imat+ ! life ( a m9]al deposit x is necess>y to />t ) ! figure ( total res]ves1 & f a /udy ( conditions ( m9+ & ( m>kets to e/imate ! numb] ( ye>s necess>y to exhau/ ! deposit4 ,?is is a m ne>ly comm]cial phase ( ! problem1 9 :i* ! geologi/ takes only "p ( ! responsibility4 ,p]haps m e/imates ( value h gone wrong because ( misjudgm5t ( ?is factor ?an = any o!r cause4 ,if ! physical conditions are satisfactory1 x is easy to assume a rate ( extraction & life bas$ on hope1 :i* exp]i5ce w n sub/antiate4 ,! *oice ( ! int]e/ rate to be us$ 9 disc\nt+ future receipts to pres5t wor? likewise is a f9ancial & n a geologic matt]4 ,aga91 h[ev]1 ! geologi/ mu/ give consid]ation to ?is factor1 9 view ( ! fact t ! int]e/ rate mu/ be v>i$ to cov] ! diff]5t degrees ( haz>d & d\bt 9 ! geologic factors4 ,= in/ance1 to ! ext5t to :i* ! e/imate ( ore res]ves is d\btful1 x is necess>y to use a high rate ( int]e/ to all[ = ?is haz>d4 ,9 a l>ge1 well-develop$ m9]al deposit1 ) ! geological factors all well kn[n & ! dem& & m>ket well e/abli%$1 x is reasonable to use a l[] rate ( int]e/4 ,9 g5]al1 ! m9]al indu/ry is reg>d$ 9 f9ancial circles z be+ m haz>d\s ?an _m o!r indu/rial l9es2 & money is put into ! indu/ry ) ! expectation ( a high rate ( int]e/1 no matt] h[ safe ! inve/m5t may be4 ,9 actual practice int]e/ rates us$ 9 mak+ valuations v>y f #f to #ae or #bj p] c5t4 ,x is cle> t1 :]e a prop]ty has long life1 ! int]e/ w v mat]ially r$uce ! pres5t value ( ! ores to be m9$ f> 9 ! future4 ,res]ves to be m9$ m ?an ?irty ye>s h5ce h relatively little or no pres5t value4 ,beyond a c]ta9 po9t1 !re=e1 ! acquirem5t & hold+ ( res]ves = future use by private companies has little comm]cial ju/ification4 ,?is is a matt] :i* is too (t5 n suffici5tly well consid]$4 ,man's natural acquisitiv5ess (t5 leads him into inve/m5ts :i*1 because ( ! "t & int]e/ factor1 h little *ance ( successful outcome4 ,( c\rse a l>ge corporation1 anticipat+ an indef9itely long life1 or p]haps aim+ at monopoly1 may af=d to hold res]ves z a matt] ( g5]al insurance long] ?an a small company1--ev5 ?\gh1 because ( ! int]e/ rate1 ^! res]ves h no pres5t value on _! books4 ,x is likewise true t gov]nm5ts1 look+ =w>d to ! future ( ! nation1 & )\t ! necessity ( pay+ s mu* att5tion to int]e/ & taxes1 are n s limit$ by ?is consid]ation4 ,an illu/ration ( ! limit+ effect ( ! int]e/ rate on ! acquirem5t ( long-liv$ coal deposits by private int]e/s is discuss$ 9 ,*apt] ,,xvii on ,cons]vation4 ,inve/m5ts made _m ye>s ago h s augm5t$1 ev5 at l[ int]e/ rates1 z to make x practically impossible to c\nt on a return ( capital & int]e/2 or if ! return 7 to be exact$ f ! public x w\ld mean excessive *>ges1 :i* are n possible 9 competition ) o!r m9es n s burd5$4 ,9 ! comm]cial valuation ( oil wells & pools1 mu* ! same me?od is us$ z has be5 describ$ = m9]al res\rces 9 ! solid =m1 b ! e/imate ( res]ves or life is bas$ on consid]ation ( curves ( production ( ! sort m5tion$ on pages #acd-acf4 ,! ess5ce ( ! ad valorem me?od ( valuation above describ$ is income-produc+ capacity4 ,?is me?od recognizes ! fact t ! value ( ! m9]al deposit dep5ds1 n only on its physical con/itution1 b also on :at p]=mance c be expect$ f x4 ,/ock quotations on m9]al prop]ties 9 ! /&>d m>kets are bas$ sub/antially on e/imates ( income capacity1 m or less on ! ad valorem basis4 ,h[ev]1 ! quotations also reflect ! hopes & fe>s ( ! public1 (t5 result+ 9 valuations q diff]5t f ^? bas$ on /udies ( ! objective conditions4 ,! w> introduc$ new consid]ations into ! problems ( ad valorem valuation4 ,"u peace conditions !re is a t5d5cy t[>d ! e/abli%m5t ( normal co/s1 sell+ prices1 & m>kets1 :i* c be tak5 m or less = grant$ by anyone attempt+ to value m9]al deposits4 ,"u w> & po/-w> conditions1 few ( ^! elem5ts c be tak5 = grant$2 x becomes necess>y to consid] ! entire _w situation 9 reg>d to a m9]al commodity1 ! effects ( ! ,peace ,treaty 7:i* greatly conc]ns m9]als71 future int]national relations1 t>iffs1 & o!r matt]s ( a simil> sort4 ,if a p]son 7 today valu+ a manganese deposit accord+ to ! me?od above outl9$1 & 7 to conf9e himself solely to a n>r[ consid]ation ( pa/ m>kets & pr(its on individual prop]ties1 he w\ld be v likely to g wrong1--= ! _w manganese situation has an imm$iate & practical be>+ on ea* local problem 7see pp4 #agc-agf74 ,,o!r ,,me?ods ,,( ,,m9]al ,,valuation ,,& ,,taxation ,we h discuss$ ! ad valorem me?od ( valuation at "s l5g? because x is ! "o 9 wide/ comm]cial use1 & also because ! pr9ciples involv$ und]lie practically all o!r me?ods ( m9]al valuation4 ,! ad valorem me?od is us$ 9 appraisals = taxation 9 "s di/ricts & = "s commodities1 z1 = in/ance1 ! iron m9es ( ,mi*igan & ,wiscons94 ,its application1 h[ev]1 requires skill & judgm5t if equitable results are to be secur$4 ,= taxation purposes1 !re=e1 x is n uncommon to adopt purely arbitr>y or empirical me?ods :i* elim9ate ! elem5t ( judgm5t1 & :i* (t5 result 9 valuations q diff]5t f ^? us$ comm]cially4 ,! /ate ( ,m9nesota divides its iron ore deposits into a s]ies ( classes1 on ea* ( :i* a m or less arbitr>y flat value p] ton is plac$1 bas$ on ! spread betwe5 co/ & sell+ price4 ,! adju/m5ts ( flat values on ! sev]al classes ?r\gh a s]ies ( ye>s1 h[ev]1 z well z ! assign+ ( specific ores to ! diff]5t classes1 h be5 bas$ on ! same factors z are us$ 9 ad valorem valuations4 ,! /ate ( ,wiscons9 uses a s-call$ equat$ income me?od ( valuation & taxation = ! lead & z9c deposits ( ! s\?we/]n "p ( ! /ate4 ,"u ?is me?od ! /ate puts su* a tax on ! m9e incomes = ! prec$+ ye> z w yield approximately ! same total return z "u ! ad valorem me?od1--! :ole be+ bas$ on ! assumption t ea* deposit has ab\t ! av]age life figur$ = ! m9es ( ! entire di/rict4 ,s f> z individual ore deposits v>y f ?is av]age life1 ! value fix$ dep>ts f ! true or ad valorem value4 ,sev]al /ates impose specific taxes bas$ on ! op]ations ( ! m9es = ! prec$+ ye> or = "s comb9ation ( prec$+ ye>s1 z express$ 9 tonnage output or net pr(its or net proce$s1 reg>dless ( life or res]ves4 ,s f> z output or net proce$s = a ye> are proportional to ! real value ( ! prop]ty1 a r\gh approximation to equitable taxation z betwe5 m9es is accompli%$4 ,(t51 h[ev]1 ! valuation ?us obta9$ has little relation to ! true value1 because x does n take into acc\nt ! great diff]5ces betwe5 prop]ties 9 res]ves1 9 life1 & 9 capacity = future pr(it4 ,income taxes1 national & /ate1 are ( c\rse bas$ on ! pr(its ( ! prec$+ ye>2 b 9 ! collection ( ^! taxes f m9]al op]ations1 x is recogniz$ t m9]al deposits are wa/+ assets1 & !re=e a consid]able "p ( ! income may "u ! law be reg>d$ z a di/ribution ( capital assets1 & be d$uct$ f taxable income4 ,! am\nt to be d$uct$ obvi\sly dep5ds on ! size ( ! res]ves & ! life1--) ! result t progressive adju/m5t ( income tax valuations t5ds to take into consid]ation exactly ! same factors z are us$ 9 ! ad valorem me?od4 ,x is obvi\sly unju/1 = in/ance1 to collect ! same proportion ( tax f ! annual income ( a m9e :i* has a life ( only two ye>s z f a m9e :i* has a life ( fifty ye>s4 ,"u ! f$]al income tax a capital value is plac$ on ! m9]al deposit z ( ,m>* #a1 #aiac1 :i* total capital value may be increas$ ) subsequ5t discov]ies4 ,z ! ore is tak5 out ( ! gr\nd & sold1 income tax is paid only on ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! assign$ capital value p] unit & ! sell+ pr(it4 ,if1 = in/ance1 ! capital value z ( ,m>* #a1 #aiac1 is plac$ at #ej;c4 p] ton ( m9]al 9 ! gr\nd1 & t5 ye>s lat] a ton is sold = a pr(it ( #a1 income tax is paid on #ej;c4 ,! figure ( #ej;c4 p] ton z value 9 ! gr\nd is actually obta9$ by e/imat+ a pr(it1 :5 ! ore is ultimately m9$ & sold1 ( #a p] ton1 & disc\nt+ ?is doll> to pres5t wor? z ( ,m>* #a1 #aiac4 ,!re=e ! total am\nts on :i* taxes are paid dur+ ! life ( ! m9e %\ld repres5t approximately ! total accruals ( int]e/ f ,m>* #a1 #aiac4 ,9 ?is mann] ! proportion ( annual income to be tax$ becomes l>g] ) ! l5g? ( ! life p]iod4 ,) a deposit hav+ a life ( ?irty ye>s ! net result is t ab\t half ( ! aggregate income is tax$1 ?\gh ?is figure ( c\rse v>ies some:at ) ! int]e/ rate us$4 ,9 ! collection ( income taxes f coal m9es 9 ,engl&1 & 9 ! collection ( c]ta9 /ate income taxes 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 a consid]ably small] all[ance is made = ! retirem5t ( capital value 7or = depletion1 z ?is is commonly call$74 ,9 ^! cases ! d$uction all[$ is a small fix$ p]c5tage ( ! capital value1 reg>dless ( ! actual life ( ! prop]ty4 ,! treatm5t ( m9]al res\rces z wa/+ assets 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates income tax law meets "o consid]able practical difficulty--namely1 t ! law really requires physical or ad valorem valuation ( e m9]al prop]ty by ! gov]nm5t1 z a *eck on ! claims = depletion all[ance4 ,?is imm5se & exp5sive task is too mu* = ! tax collection ag5cies z n[ organiz$1 & x may be que/ionable :e!r x w ev] be desirable to exp& ^! ag5cies to ! ext5t requir$ = su* a purpose4 ,?is is ! pr9cipal argum5t = ! use ( arbitr>y depletion factors su* z ^? sometimes us$ abroad4 ,!re are _m advocates ( ! /raight tonnage tax on m9]al deposits1 on ! gr\nd t x is simple1 def9ite1 & easily appli$4 ,! pres5t t5d5cy is to ext5d ! application ( ?is =m ( tax4 ,x is cle>1 h[ev]1 t to assume ! same value p] ton = tax+ purposes on a prop]ty mak+ a l>ge pr(it1 & on ano!r prop]ty :i*1 because ( physical conditions1 is b>ely able to op]ate at a pr(it1 imposes a relative inju/ice4 ,to meet ?is difficulty1 x is sometimes propos$ t ! tonnage tax %\ld be grad$ 9 su* a mann] z to all[ = diff]5ces 9 physical conditions & 9 pr(it at diff]5t m9es4 ,:5 "o attempts to apply a grad$ tonnage tax1 h[ev]1 x soon becomes app>5t t1 9 ord] to make su* a valuation equitable z betwe5 prop]ties1 x is necess>y to use all ( ! factors ( ! ad valorem me?od = ea* ( ! prop]ties4 ,! wide appeal ( argum5ts = a flat tonnage tax is bas$ p>tly on popul> misconception ( ! complexity ( elem5ts ent]+ into m9]al valuations4 ,!re are _m =ms ( m or less indirect tax :i* are sub/itut$ 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! _w = direct taxes4 ,= in/ance1 c]ta9 /ates 9 ,s\? ,am]ica d n tax ores 9 ! gr\nd1 b collect ! rev5ue 9 ! =m ( m9+ lic5ses or export taxes4 ,,g5]al ,,comm5ts ,,on ,,taxation ,,( ,,m9]al ,,res\rces ,!re has be5 a noticeable t5d5cy 9 rec5t ye>s to reg>d m9]al res\rces z a h]itage ( ! p1 to be held 9 tru/1 r ?an z prop]ty to be acquir$ & manag$ solely = private int]e/4 ,?is t5d5cy has be5 indicat$ by ! adoption 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! _w ( laws affect+ rights to explore & acquire m9]als on ! public doma92 laws relat+ to ! "r ( em95t doma9 ov] m9]als already ali5at$ f ! gov]nm5t2 laws regulat+ ! exploitation ( m9]als 9 ! int]e/s ( cons]vation2 laws relat+ to t>iffs & o!r re/rictions on ! export ( m9]al commodities2 & laws relat+ to taxation4 ,! feel+ t m9]al res\rces really d n belong 9 private h&s has und\bt$ly be5 an und]ly+ factor 9 ! imposition ( heavy taxes4 ,contribut+ to ?is action also are ! popul> belief 9 ! intr9sic bonanza values 9 m9]al res\rces1 ! failure to recognize ! l>ge elem5t ( value :i* is put into su* res\rces by human ef=ts1 & ! failure to realize t ! social surplus 9 ! aggregate is small4 ,to "s tax (ficials an ore is an ore1 m or less reg>dless ( situation1 ( conditions ( m9+1 ( ! dem& = ! product1 & ( ! "t :5 ! dem& w all[ ! ore to be m9$1--9 %ort1 m or less reg>dless ( :at ! ore may be made to yield z a go+ bus9ess4 ,9 ?is way heavy taxes are sometimes impos$ on m9]al res]ves1 :i* are bas$ on unw>rantably high appraisals ( future possibilities1 & :i* _c be paid out ( e>n+s4 ,ultimately1 a tax mu/ be adju/$ to ! capacity ( ! m9e to pay out ( its e>n+s1 & ?is capacity 9 turn is det]m9$ bo? by ! physical *>act]s ( ! ore & by ! success ) :i* x may be made available = consumption4 ,?is view ( valuation = tax+ purposes is sometimes oppos$ by m9+ m5 on ! gr\nds t x taxes bra9s1 skill1 & initiative1 & t x puts a premium on %iftless managem5t4 ,! same argum5t might be appli$ to ! valu+ ( any bus9ess or pr(ession4 ,to ! writ] ! argum5t is n s\nd1 9 t x fails to recognize ! elem5t ( human en]gy 9 res\rce values4 ,if value 7 to be conf9$ solely to ! intr9sic "* ( ! ore itself1 !re w\ld be requir$ an almo/ impossible degree ( discrim9ation on ! "p ( tax+ (ficials to dissociate ?is value f o!r consid]ations2 & !re w\ld be requir$ fur!r ! diff]5tiation betwe5 effici5t & ineffici5t managem5t1 :i* involves s _m consid]ations t ! conclusion w\ld be wor?less4 ,9 ! application ( income taxes to m9+ op]ations1 !re is sometimes ano!r t5d5cy t[>d ov]-taxation 9 t ! income is reg>d$ z m or less p]man5t1 & insuffici5t all[ance is made = exhau/ion ( ! m9]al deposit4 ,"u ! ,unit$ ,/ates income tax1 m9]al deposits are def9itely recogniz$ z wa/+ assets & ?is factor is all[$ =2 b 9 /ate income taxes & 9 ,engl& & o!r p>ts ( ! _w1 all[ances = ?is purpose are small4 ,!re is wide belief t heavy taxation ( m9]al res\rces1 p>ticul>ly on ! ad valorem basis1 ret>ds exploration & prev5ts ! developm5t ( ! res]ves :i* are necess>y to /abilize ! m9]al indu/ry4 ,high taxes h und\bt$ly _h ?is effect 9 "s cases1 especially :]e taxes h be5 impos$ on res\rces long prior to developm5t2 b1 9 ! writ]'s view1 ?is t5d5cy 9 g5]al has n yet pass$ ! dang] po9t1 & is n likely to d s until taxes become positively confiscatory ( ! indu/ry4 ,to argue t increase ( taxes may ev5 h c]ta9 b5eficial results on ! m9]al indu/ry may lead to suspicion ( "o's m5tal s\ndness2 b x is h>d to escape ! conclusion t ! incid5ce ( high taxes has l$ to a mu* m c>eful /udy ( ! "q ( res]ves1 has elim9at$ 9 "s cases ! exp5diture ( money = developm5t ( excessive res]ves to be us$ f> 9 ! future1 & has t5d$ to prev5t ov]-production4 ,:]e m9]al res]ves are develop$ too f> ahead ( dem&1 ! int]e/ on ! inve/m5t piles up an economic loss to be *>g$ aga9/ ! indu/ry4 ,x may be assum$ t ! urge = exploration w cont9ue z long z !re is dem& = m9]al res\rces2 & t1 to keep ! indu/ry on a s\nd basis1 a c]ta9 am\nt %\ld be set aside & *>g$ to co/ = ! purpose ( keep+ up res]ves 9 a prop] ratio to production4 ,mu* rema9s to be le>n$ ab\t ! mo/ desirable ratio betwe5 res]ves & production4 ,9 _m camps1 be=e ! incid5ce ( high taxes1 ?is ratio 0 n prop]ly det]m9$2 & !re 0 a t5d5cy1 due to natural acquisitiv5ess & 9 ! abs5ce ( any?+ to h9d] x1 to build up res]ves indef9itely4 ,! fir/ effect ( high taxes 9 su* camps has frequ5tly be5 ! curtailm5t ( exploration & developm5t4 ,lat]1 z production has begun to approa* ! end ( ! res]ves1 exploration has be5 resum$1 b only on a scale necess>y to insure production = a limit$ p]iod 9 advance4 ,! argum5t t high taxes inhibit exploration is good only beyond ! po9t :]e ! indu/ry itself becomes no long] pr(itable4 ,if !re is suffici5t dem& = ! res\rce1 x is obvi\s t su* a condition _c long cont9ue2 =1 z production & ! developm5t ( res]ves fall (f1 ! result+ increase 9 ! price receiv$ = ! product is likely to (fset any effect ( taxes1 & to re/imulate production & exploration4 ,nev]!less1 9 ?is p]iod ( high taxes foll[+ ! w>1 !re is mu* disc\ragem5t 9 ! matt] ( exploration1 sugge/+ t ! dang] po9t is be+ approa*$4 ,"s relief has be5 af=d$ by rec5t special provisions ( ! f$]al income tax law1 recogniz+ m9]al res\rces z wa/+ assets1 all[+ rec5t discov]ies to be includ$ ) total assets = depletion purposes1 & recogniz+ special & peculi> circum/ances ) ref]5ce to ea* m9e4 ,also a c]ta9 am\nt ( exploration goes on ?r\gh ! mom5tum ga9$ f pa/ conditions1 )\t suffici5tly full recognition ( ! effect ( pres5t high taxes4 ,?is is n surpris+ :5 x is rememb]$ t ! p actively engag$ 9 field exploration (t5 d n ?9k suffici5tly fully ( ! tax situation1 until aft] a discov]y or developm5t has br\ght !m face to face ) x4 ,because ( ! vital importance ( ! res]ve factor 9 m9]al valuation1 geologic aid & advice are ext5sively s\ght by bo? public & private organizations4 ,m9+ geologi/s are play+ an important "p 9 ! application ( ! national income tax4 ,a l>g] numb] are act+ = private companies 9 appraisals requir$ by ?is tax4 ,_m geologi/s are us$ 9 mak+ valuations = /ate taxes1 & 9 two cases ! /ate geological surveys h complete *>ge ( appraisals4 ,^! appraisals include n only exam9ations ( specific prop]ties1 b g5]al surveys ( l>ge regions1 to asc]ta9 possible values ( undevelop$ l&s & to e/abli% broad pr9ciples ( valuation bas$ on a consid]ation ( all ! physical factors 9 ! situation4 ,,*apt] ,,xvi ,,laws ,,relat+ ,,to ,,m9]al ,,res\rces ,?is head+ is likely to sugge/ m9+ law & ! va/ lit]ature devot$ to x4 ,m9+ law has ma9ly to d ) que/ions ( ! own]%ip & leas+ ( m9]al deposits4 ,9 addition1 !re are laws relat+ to ! extraction ( m9]al products1 includ+ ^? hav+ to d ) me?ods ( m9+ & ) safety & welf>e measures4 ,!re are laws affect+ ! di/ribution ( m9]al products1 su* z ^? relat+ to t>iffs1 duties1 int]national trade agreem5ts1 & _m o!r matt]s4 ,!re are laws relat+ to und]gr\nd wat]1 to %ore l9es1 & to v>i\s geologic eng9e]+ fields4 ,9 ! =mulation ( ^! laws1 z well z 9 ! litigation gr[+ out ( _! infraction1 basic geologic pr9ciples are involv$2 & ?us x is t ! geologi/ f9ds mu* practice 9 ! application ( 8 sci5ce to legal que/ions4 ,x w be conv5i5t to consid] "s ( ! laws relat+ to m9]al res\rces "u ?ree head+s3 fir/1 own]%ip & control2 second1 extraction2 & ?ird1 di/ribution4 ,i ,,laws ,,relat+ ,,to ,,own]%ip ,,& ,,control ,,( ,,m9]al ,,res\rces ,l>ge use ( m9]al res\rces is ( comp>atively rec5t date4 ,"s ( ! m9]al indu/ries are n m ?an a decade or two old & ! great] numb] ( !m are sc>cely a c5tury old4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! m9]al indu/ry dates ma9ly f ! gold ru% to ,cali=nia 9 #ahdi4 ,! =mulation ( laws relat+ to ! own]%ip ( m9]als has on ! :ole foll[$ r ?an prec$$ ! developm5t ( ! m9]al indu/ries2 & h5ce m9+ laws relat+ to own]%ip are n ( great age1 al?\gh hi/orical prec$5t may be trac$ f> back4 ,,on ,,ali5at$ ,,l&s ,:]e l&s came into private own]%ip1 or 7 ali5at$ f ! gov]nm5ts be=e ! =mulation ( m9+ laws1 v>i$ proc$ures h be5 foll[$ 9 diff]5t c\ntries4 ,9 ,engl& & ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 "u ! old regime 9 ,russia1 & to a slight ext5t 9 o!r p>ts ( ! _w1 m9]al titles rema9 ) ! own] ( ! l& & ! gov]nm5t does n ex]cise ! "r ( em95t doma94 ,b ev5 9 ,engl&1 :]e private prop]ty rights h be5 held peculi>ly sacr$1 ! discov]y ( oil dur+ ! lat] ye>s ( ! w> l$ to an attempt to expropriate ! oil rights = ! gov]nm5t4 ,because ( ! objection ( l&[n]s ?is attempt has n rea*$ ! /atute books1 b ! movem5t is today an extremely live political "q 9 ,engl&4 ,a some:at simil> "q is involv$ also 9 ! movem5t to nationalize ! coal res\rces ( ,engl&1 n[ be+ s vigor\sly urg$ by ! labor p>ty4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 no s]i\s attempt has yet be5 made to take ov] m9]al res\rces f private own]%ip4 ,o!r c\ntries h gone f>!r 9 retroactive measures 9 reg>d to ali5at$ l&s4 ,"u ! lead]%ip ( ,france1 mo/ ( ! c\ntries ( we/]n ,europe h appropriat$ to _! gov]nm5ts ! undiscov]$ m9]al res\rces on private gr\nd1 p>ticul>ly ^? b5ea? ! surface1 except :]e previ\sly !y _h be5 specifically convey$ to ! private own]s1 or ) ! exception ( c]ta9 designat$ areas & m9]als :i* _h be5 convey$ to private own]%ip prior to c]ta9 dates4 ,"s m9]als occurr+ at ! surface1 v>i\sly specifi$ & def9$ 9 diff]5t c\ntries1 are all[$ to rema9 ) ! private own]s1 al?\gh (t5 subject to gov]nm5t regulation 9 reg>d to _! developm5t & use4 ,9 v>y+ degree ?is treatm5t ( m9]al res\rces on ali5at$ l&s is foll[$ 9 ! ,briti% colonial laws--9 ,s\? ,africa1 ,au/ralia1 ,new ,zeal&1 & ,canada--& 9 ! ,lat9-,am]ican laws4 ,! laws are usually bas$ on specifi$ classifications ( m9]als4 ,^? occurr+ at or ne> ! surface1 & call$ qu>ries1 plac] deposits1 non-m9es1 or surface deposits1 usually rema9 ) ! surface own]s4 ,^? b5ea? ! surface1 call$ sub-surface deposits or m9es1 9 g5]al belong to ! gov]nm5t4 ,9 "s ( ! c\ntries ( ,s\? ,am]ica ! /ate ex]cises em95t doma9 ev5 ov] ! surface deposits2 & 9 o!rs ev5 sub-surface m9]als rema9 9 private own]%ip1 :]e specifically grant$1 or :]e ! transf] ( prop]ty took place prior to c]ta9 dates4 ,:]e ! gov]nm5t has acquir$ m9]al own]%ip ( l&s previ\sly ali5at$1 ! res\rces are op5 = developm5t ei!r by ! own]s ( ! surface or by o!rs1 on a r5tal1 lease1 specific tax1 labor1 or concession basis4 ,! gov]nm5t holds ! title1 exacts tribute1 & m or less directs & controls ! op]ation4 ,exceptionally1 z 9 ,ont>io1 ,briti% ,columbia1 ,quebec1 & ,newf\ndl&1 ! gov]nm5t grants pat5ts1 t is1 x disposes ( its rights to pur*as]s4 ,,on ,,! ,,public ,,doma9 ,:]e ! developm5t ( m9]al res\rces began be=e ! l&s _h pass$ f gov]nm5tal own]%ip1 special m9+ laws 7 enact$4 ,look$ at broadly1 ^! laws may be reg>d$ z bas$ on two p>tly conflict+ consid]ations4 7#a7 ,! assumption t m9]al res\rces1 :i* are wa/+ assets1 accumulat$ ?r\gh long geologic p]iods1 are peculi>ly public prop]ty1--n to be all[$ to g into private own]%ip1 b to be treat$ z a h]itage = ! p z a :ole & to be transf]r$ to po/]ity 9 ! be/ possible condition4 ,"s ( ! e>ly m9]als to be develop$ 7 us$ ei!r = money or = w> purposes1 lead+ naturally to ! acceptance ( ! idea t ^! belong$ to ! gov]nm5t or to ! sov]eign4 7#b7 ,! assumption t ! discov]y & developm5t ( m9]al res\rces requires a free field = individual initiative1 & t ! fewe/ possible ob/acles are to be put 9 ! way ( private own]%ip4 ,gov]nm5ts h n z a rule be5 greatly int]e/$ nor p>ticul>ly successful 9 exploration4 ,!re=e1 9 fram+ laws ( own]%ip1 concessions h be5 made to enc\rage private initiative 9 exploration & developm5t4 ,9 ! case ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ?is idea 0 c\pl$ ) ! broad doctr9e t ! gov]nm5t held public l&s only 9 ! int]e/ ( ! p1 & t its p 7 entitl$ to secure ^! l&s = private own]%ip ) ! lea/ possible re/riction4 ,a survey ( ! m9+ laws affect+ ! public doma9 or non-ali5at$ l&s ( diff]5t p>ts ( ! _w1 z well z ! hi/ory ( *anges 9 ! m9+ laws1 indicates a wide range ( relative emphasis on ^! two und]ly+ consid]ations4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 at "o extreme1 ! laws h be5 su* z to give ! maximum possible fre$om to private initiative1 & to all[ easy acquirem5t ( m9]al res\rces f ! gov]nm5t4 ,at ! o!r extreme1 9 ,s\? ,africa1 ,au/ralia1 & ,s\? ,am]ica1 x is impossible = ! individual to secure title 9 fee simple f ! gov]nm5t2 he mu/ develop ! m9]al res\rces on :at am\nts to a lease or r5tal basis1 ! own]%ip rema9+ 9 ! gov]nm5t4 ,! tr5d ( ev5ts 9 m9]al laws is t[>d ! latt] proc$ure4 ,?is is evid5c$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates by ! )drawal ( l>ge areas ( public l&s f entry1 & by ! rec5t enactm5t sub/itut+ leas+ privileges = specifi$ m9]als = ! outright own]%ip :i* 0 all[$ "u ! f$]al law be=e ! l&s 7 )drawn f entry4 ,! )drawal ( oil l&s f public entry 9 o!r p>ts ( ! _w is ano!r illu/ration 7see pp4 #aca-acb74 ,,nationalization ,,( ,,m9]al ,,res\rces ,nationalization1 z ?is t]m is popul>ly und]/ood1 means f9ancial control & managem5t ( m9]al res\rces by ! gov]nm5t1 ei!r ?r\gh actual own]%ip or ?r\gh measures ( public control design$ to elim9ate private int]e/ f ! active direction ( ! res\rces4 ,9 a broad] s5se1 x may be us$ to include a consid]able v>iety ( re/rictive & co]cive measures adopt$ by ! gov]nm5t 9 ! propos$ int]e/s ( public welf>e1--z illu/rat$ by ! w>-"t measures in/itut$ by ! ,unit$ ,/ates & o!r gov]nm5ts relat+ to ! m9+ & di/ribution ( coal1 & to coal prices4 ,9 ?is broad] s5se v>i\s aspects ( nationalization are indicat$ "u o!r head+s 9 ?is & o!r *apt]s4 ,x is cle> t o!r c\ntries ( ! _w h gone f>!r 9 ! direction ( nationalization ( m9]al res\rces ?an ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! t5d5cy 0 manife/ be=e ! w>1 & has be5 /rongly emphasiz$ dur+ & s9ce ! w>4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 not)/&+ w>-"t measures1 ! subject has n yet come prom95tly =w>d1 at lea/ by "n4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !re has be5 gr[+ recognition ( ! dep5d5ce ( public welf>e on ! prop] h&l+ ( m9]al res\rces--p>ticul>ly ( ! en]gy res\rces1 coal & oil1--z evid5c$ by a v>iety ( proposals & measures "u consid]ation 9 legislative & adm9i/rative bran*es ( our national & /ate gov]nm5ts4 ,ev5 taxation1 bo? local & national1 has 9 effect rea*$ a /age :]e private int]e/ has become consid]ably m9imiz$ by ! increas+ burd5s laid on ! indu/ry by gov]nm5t requirem5ts4 ,! imm$iate purpose ( taxation is to raise money = ! ne$s ( ! gov]nm5t2 b 9 ! =mulation ( tax measures !re is cle>ly to be disc]n$ a gr[? ( und]ly+ s5tim5t t natural res\rces belong 9 "s fa%ion to ! public1 & t private control is to be reg>d$ n z a sacr$ prop]ty "r b z a tru/ held on suff]ance ( ! public4 ,9 view ( ! obvi\s tr5d t[>d nationalization 9 o!r p>ts ( ! _w & ! significant t5d5cies 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 x seems likely t ! subject ( nationalization ( m9]al res\rces w come prom95tly to ! front 9 ?is c\ntry 9 ! comp>atively ne> future4 ,if s1 x is "t t /ud5ts ( m9]al res\rces %\ld recognize ! compreh5siv5ess ( ?is problem1 & %\ld attempt to develop basic pr9ciples to s]ve z a guide 9 ! direction & =mulation ( ! num]\s & complex measures :i* are sure to be propos$4 ,at pres5t !re is no gov]nm5t or te*nical organization relat$ to ! indu/ry :i* is /udy+ ! problem 9 its broad] aspects & is 9 a position to advise wisely ) public (ficials int]e/$ 9 ?is problem4 ,x is beyond ! scope ( ?is book to discuss ! pro & con ( an economic "q ( ?is magnitude4 ,! writ] w\ld1 h[ev]1 record 8 belief1 :i* is impli$ also 9 discussions 9 o!r *apt]s1 t ! discov]y & intellig5t managem5t ( m9]al res\rces by _! v nature & inf9ite v>iety require private initiative1 & t ! hi/ory ( gov]nm5t ef=ts 9 ?is field 9 ?is & o!r c\ntries does n promise t nationalization c supply suffici5t advantages to c\nt]balance ! loss ( ?is elem5t4 ,) ?is view ! problem ( nationalization becomes "o ( det]m9+ :at /eps1 if any1 c be tak5 by a gov]nm5t to ! advantage ( public welf>e1 :i* w at ! same "t pres]ve & fo/] private initiative1 ex]cis$ ) ! hope ( rew>d1 :i* seems alone to be capable ( meet+ ! v>iable1 ela/ic1 & complex problems inh]5t 9 ! developm5t ( a natural res\rce4 ,a fir/ /ep t[>d a broad sci5tific attack on ?is problem w\ld be ! recognition ( ! fact t t>iffs1 taxes1 cons]vation1 int]national m9]al que/ions1 leas+ laws1 & v>i\s te*nical inve/igations ( m9]als are b p>ts ( a great unit problem4 ,) ?is recognition !re %\ld foll[ naturally an attempt to correlate & direct ! _m gov]nm5t ag5cies1 legislative & adm9i/rative1 n[ conc]n$ ) diff]5t aspects ( ! problem4 ,"u pres5t conditions1 ! v>i\s elem5ts ( ! problem are consid]$ by diff]5t gr\ps ( p]sons1 )\t suffici5t contacts or correlation to promise ! developm5t ( a broad1 und]ly+ policy4 ,,effect ,,( ,,own]%ip ,,laws ,,on ,,exploration ,! nature & ! progress ( exploration 7& developm5t7 9 diff]5t c\ntries h be5 m or less relat$ to ! "* ( ! m9+ laws4 ,:]e ! m9]al res\rce has pass$ f gov]nm5t control into private own]%ip1 exploration is a matt] ( comm]cial arrangem5t betwe5 ! explor] & ! own]4 ,!re is (t5 "s lag 9 exploration1 especially :]e ! l&s are held 9 consid]able blocks4 ,! own] is (t5 n incl9$1 or unable1 to in/itute effective exploration himself2 & ev5 ?\gh he is will+ to (f] favorable exploration t]ms to o!rs1 ! inducem5t is (t5 less attractive ?an on gov]nm5t l&s4 ,= in/ance1 x is /at$ t 9 ,engl&1 due to ! _m requirem5ts ( law & cu/om1 x takes on an av]age eight ye>s1 & 9 "s cases ev5 long]1 to close a coal lease aft] ! t]ms h be5 agre$ ^u4 ,! sl[ness ( exploration & developm5t on ! great l& grants 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & on ! tracts ( ! l>ge timb] companies1 also illu/rates ! ret>d+ effect ( private own]%ip4 ,x is p>tly ?is situation t is mak+ gov]nm5ts increas+ly c>eful ab\t p>t+ ) m9]al own]%ip1 & t is lead+ to ! introduction ( m or less co]cive measures1 ei!r to rega9 control or to make x easi] = ! public to explore & develop m9]als on privately own$ l&s4 ,"u ! great l& grants to railroads 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates x is becom+ increas+ly difficult to secure m9]al pat5ts f ! gov]nm5t2 & !re has be5 litigation betwe5 gov]nm5t & grantees1 z 9 ! case ( c]ta9 oil l&s ( ! ,s\!rn ,pacific ,railway4 ,! taxation 9 "s /ates ( m9]al rights :i* h be5 res]v$ by l>ge own]s is indirectly result+ 9 appraisal ( ^! rights by ! own]s & 9 ef=ts to utilize !m4 ,z long z m9]al rights 7 n tax$ indep5d5tly ( surface rights1 !y 7 (t5 res]v$ 9 sell+ surface rights on ! m]e *ance t m9]al might be f\nd 9 ! future1 & !reby g5]al exploration & developm5t 7 held back4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 m9]als on ! public doma9 h be5 op5 to exploration & acquirem5t ) m9imum re/rictions1 except = ! consid]able areas lat] )drawn f entry4 ,aft] long delay a "p ( ^! )drawn l&s are aga9 op5 to private exploration1 b n to fee own]%ip4 ,specifi$ m9]als--coal1 oil1 phosphates1 & pota%--may be explor$ =1 & may be leas$ "u c]ta9 re/rictions z to am\nt & "t ( developm5t4 ,! effect ( ?is act on exploration is yet to be prov$2 b s9ce _m ( ! l&s h n[ be5 %[n to be favorable = m9]als :i* are 9 great dem&1 !re is little d\bt t exploration w be resum$ on a l>ge scale4 ,on ! :ole1 "u ! f$]al m9+ laws ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! individual prospector has maximum leeway1--& f ! /&po9t ( developm5t ( res\rces ?is proc$ure probably has be5 ju/ifi$4 ,9 o!r c\ntries :]e ! m9]al res\rces are own$ by ! gov]nm5t1 !re is 9 mo/ cases consid]able re/riction1 ?r\gh lic5ses & o!r regulative measures1 ^u ! activities ( prospectors4 ,?is re/riction1 toge!r ) ! fact t x is usually n possible to secure title to ! l&1 b only to secure rights ?r\gh r5tal or leas+1 is to "s ext5t a det]r+ influ5ce on ! p5niless prospector4 ,x does n foll[ t "u ^! conditions exploration & developm5t are abs5t4 ,! *>ges impos$ are light1 & 9 ! e>ly /ages require comp>atively small contributions z evid5ce ( good fai?4 ,x is to be rememb]$ t exploration has become conc5trat$ m & m into ! h&s ( p]sons f9ancially able to meet su* conditions4 ,exploration is pass+ f ! highly haz>d\s /age ( individual ef=t into a sy/ematic bus9ess ) calculable returns4 ,,use ,,( ,,geology ,,9 ,,relation ,,to ,,own]%ip ,,laws ,! contacts betwe5 geology & laws relat+ to m9]al own]%ip are _m & v>i$2 a few illu/rative examples are (f]$4 ,_m difficulties arise f ! loose use ( m9]al names 9 ^! laws4 ,! laws gov]n+ location ( m9]al deposits 9 ,cuba are s fram$ t iron ores may be locat$ & claim$ f ! gov]nm5t ei!r z iron ores or z bog ores & yell[ o*]s4 ,"s ( ! important ores ( ea/]n ,cuba1 n[ be+ ext5sively us$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 came into litigation because rival claimants _h ov]lapp+ claims "u ! two classifications4 ,! word+ ( ! law is ( c\rse ambigu\s1 & sugge/s t geologi/s did n h a h& 9 its fram+4 ,to e/abli% title to ^! claims x 0 necess>y to %[ :e!r ^! ores _h be5 rightfully locat$ z iron ores1 or :e!r !y %\ld h be5 locat$ z bog ores & yell[ o*]s4 ,?is involv$ an analysis ( ! geological conditions1 to %[ t ! ores are ! result ( normal wea!r+ & conc5tration 9 place ( ! und]ly+ rocks--an orig9 common to _m iron ore deposits1--& t !y d n h ! *>act]i/ic orig9 ( bog ores4 ,9 %ort1 ! "q 0 settl$ on ! sci5tific pr9ciples ( orig9 ( ores & ( metamorphic geology4 ,! ef=ts ( our f$]al gov]nm5t to frame & apply m9+ laws to public l&s h involv$ ext5sive geological & m9+ surveys by ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,geological ,survey & ! ,bureau ( ,m9es4 ,! l& classification "w = ?is purpose by ! ,geological ,survey has be5 ( wide scope4 ,! rec5tly enact$ leas+ law1 :i* op5s up gov]nm5t l&s = exploration ( coal1 oil1 pota%1 & phosphate1 requires c>efully prep>$ geologic data = its prop] adm9i/ration4 ,/ate gov]nm5ts also h initiat$ surveys ( an explor+ nature = tax+ & o!r public purposes 7see pp4 #cjf1 #caa74 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates !re is a wide use ( geologi/s z witnesses 9 litigation affect+ extralat]al rights4 ,! f$]al m9+ law gives ! own] ( ! claim conta9+ ! apex or top ( a m9]al ve9 or lode ! "r to foll[ ! ve9 d[n ! dip1 ) c]ta9 limitations1 ev5 ?\gh ?is takes him on to adjac5t prop]ties "u o!r own]%ip4 ,:]e two bran*es ( a ve9 are foll[$ d[n f sep>ate claims1 ! own] ( ! olde/ claim is entitl$ to ! ve9 bel[ ! po9t ( junction4 ,! law 0 fram$ to validate a proc$ure m or less e/abli%$ by m9+ cu/om4 ,x 0 obvi\sly fram$ ) a v simple & precise conception 9 m9d--namely1 a simple ve9 def9itely & easily foll[$1 )\t mu* int]ruption or contortion4 ,9 nature1 h[ev]1 ve9s or lodes h a mo/ a/oni%+ v>iety ( =m & occurr5ce1 mak+ x difficult to frame a def9ition t is compreh5sive & at ! same "t suffici5tly precise = all cases4 ,a commonly us$ def9ition ( a ve9 or lode is a m9]aliz$ mass ( rock :i* is foll[$ = purposes ( f9d+ ore4 ,! m9]al matt] may be cont9u\s or discont9u\s4 ,!re may be "o def9ite wall1 or two walls1 or none at all4 ,!re may be associat$ g\ges & alt]$ or m9]aliz$ rock4 ,! ve9 may consi/ ( almo/ any comb9ation ( ! elem5ts ( m9]al matt]1 walls1 g\ges1 & m9]aliz$ rock4 ,in/ead ( be+ a simple tabul> %eet1 a ve9 may h almo/ any conceivable %ape2 x may consi/ ( multiple /r&s ( mo/ complex relations2 x may h bran*es & cross-ov] connections4 ,x may be a m or less m9]aliz$ s$im5t>y =mation ) limits det]m9$ by orig9al deposition4 ,x is v (t5 b5t or fold$1 & ev5 m (t5 fault$2 ! fault+ may be ( great complexity1 mak+ x extremely difficult to foll[ ! ve94 ,! ve9 may be cut by o!r ve9s ( diff]5t ages1 :i* 9 places may be h>d to di/+ui% "o f ano!r4 ,erosion work+ d[n on a complex ve9 displac$ by fault+ & fold+ may br+ sev]al p>ts ( ! same ve9 to ! surface1 develop+ :at seem to be sep>ate ve9 apices4 ,:]e !re are _m ve9s close toge!r1 x may be difficult to det]m9e :e!r ! entire mass %\ld be consid]$ a unit ve9 or lode 7a broad lode71 or :e!r ea* ve9 %\ld be consid]$ indep5d5tly "u ! law4 ,! geologic aspects ( ^! problems are obvi\s4 ,!re are few m9+ di/ricts :]e ! ve9 conditions are s simple t no geological problems are left to be solv$ ) relation to extralat]al rights4 ,9 ! e>ly /ages ( ! m9+1 sep>ate op]ations may be c>ri$ on = a consid]able "t 9 a di/rict )\t mutual int]f]5ce2 b z m9+ is c>ri$ d[n ! dip1 :at seem$ to be sep>ate ve9s may be f\nd to be p>ts ( ! same ve9 or p>ts ( a complex ve9 sy/em1 & sep>ate m9+ organizations are ?us br\ght into conflict4 ,x !n becomes necess>y ei!r to consolidate ! own]%ips or to g to ! c\rts to see :i* claim has ! extralat]al rights4 ,9 ei!r case1 ! geologi/ is call$ on to play a l>ge "p1--9 ! valuation ( rights = ! purpose ( comb9ation1 or 9 litigation to settle apex rights4 ,a geologic survey ( ! conditions is a pr]equisite4 ,9 ord] to get ! ne$$ in=mation = ! c\rtroom1 x may be necess>y to g fur!r1 & to conduct ext5sive und]gr\nd exploration "u geologic direction4 ,"s ( ! mo/ int5sive & complete geological surveys ( m9]al res\rces 9 exi/5ce h be5 done = litigation purposes4 ,! /udy 9 ^! cases is n empirical1 b goes into e conceivable sci5tific aspect ( ! situation :i* may ?r[ any light on ! und]gr\nd conditions--! s\rce ( ! ores1 ! nature & s\rce ( ! solutions :i* deposit$ !m1 _! pa?s ( travel1 ! /ructural & metamorphic conditions1 ! m9]alogical & *emical "* ( ! ores & rocks1 & ev5 broad] que/ions ( geologic age4 ,! _m volumes ( te/imony :i* h accumulat$ dur+ fam\s apex trials cov] almo/ e phase ( geology1 & are important prim>y s\rces = ! /ud5t ( economic geology4 ,x is (t5 argu$ t /rictly sci5tific1 imp>tial geologic "w is impossible 9 connection ) "o ( ^! trials1 because ! viewpo9t is w>p$ by ! desire to w94 ,! %>p contra/ 9 ! views ( exp]ts on ! two sides is cit$ 9 evid5ce4 ,!re is no d5y+ ! fact t ! conditions ( a trial t5d t[>d a c]ta9 w>p 9 sci5tific p]spective4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! v exi/5ce ( competitive & oppos+ int]e/s leads to ! mo/ int5sive detail$ /udy1 & to complete disclosure ( ! facts4 ,9 mo/ cases !re are no sub/antial diff]5ces 9 ! /atem5ts ( sci5tific fact by reputable exp]ts on ! two sides1 al?\gh !re may be wide diff]5ces 9 ! inf]5ces drawn f ^! facts4 ,! failure to note a fact1 or any di/ortion or mis/atem5t ( a fact1 is foll[$ s quickly by correction or criticism f ! o!r side1 t ! pr(essional witness usually takes ! utmo/ pa9s to make 8 /atem5t ( fact sci5tific & precise z f> z 8 ability goes4 ,few sci5tific treatises 9 geology conta9 any m accurate acc\nts ( m9]al deposits ?an te/imony 9 cases ( ?is sort4 ,if e /ud5t ( geology1 e>ly 9 8 c>e]1 c\ld h a day on ! witness /& on a geologic problem1 "u bo? direct & cross exam9ation1 he w\ld le>n once & = all ! necessity = close & accurate ?9k+1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 a fact & an inf]5ce1 & ! diff]5ce betwe5 inductive /udy ( facts & ! subjective approa* to a problem4 ,x is a common assumption t a witness call$ to te/ify on sci5tific matt]s is on a some:at diff]5t basis f ! eye-witness to an ev5t or transaction4 ,we are n sure t ?is assumption is ju/ifi$4 ,seldom is x possible 9 m9+ op]ations to disclose ! facts 9 ?ree dim5sions s completely t !y may be empirically obs]v$ & platt$ by ! layman4 ,! gr\p+ & pres5tation ( ! facts 9 adequate p]spective require an analysis ( ! orig9 ( ! ores & rocks1 ! rock alt]ations1 ! /ructural sy/ems1 & o!r facts4 ,no "o ev] saw ! ve9 or lode 9 ! process ( =mation4 ,! true nature ( ! ev5t & ( its physical results mu/ be inf]r$ inductively f circum/antial evid5ce4 ,if x be conc$$ t x is necess>y & "r to call an eye-witness to an ev5t involv$ 9 litigation1 x is equally necess>y :]e !re are no eye-witnesses to call ! p]sons be/ qualifi$ to int]pret ! circum/antial evid5ce4 ,x is to be rememb]$ t apex cases are only "o k9d ( a va/ v>iety ( cases affect+ m9]al res\rces4 ,at "o "t or ano!r1 & 9 "s connection or ano!r1 practically e geologi/ ( consid]able exp]i5ce has f\nd x necess>y to te/ify on geologic matt]s 9 c\rt4 ,! wide int]e/ atta*+ to c]ta9 spectacul> apex cases has l$ 9 "s qu>t]s to ha/y criticism ( ! p>ticipation ( geologi/s !re91 )\t app>5t recognition ( ! fact t ! criticism applies 9 pr9ciple to _m o!r k9ds ( litigation & to practically all economic geologi/s4 ,?is criticism also fails to take cognizance ( ! fact t1 = e case tri$1 !re are _m settl$ out ( c\rt ?r\gh ! advice & coop]ation ( geologi/s4 ,:ile !re may be 9 ! geologic pr(ession1 z 9 o!rs1 a v few m5 ^: te/imony c be b\ght outright1 9 g5]al x mu/ be assum$ t geologi/s w appe> on ! witness /& only :51 aft] c>eful exam9ation1 !y are satisfi$ t !re is a legitimate po9t ( view to be pres5t$4 ,geologi/s & eng9e]s und]/& m cle>ly ?an almo/ any o!r gr\p ! ext5t to :i* ! complexities ( nature v>y f ! conditions indicat$ 9 ! simple word+ ( ! law ( extralat]al rights4 ,almo/ to a man1 !y favor ei!r modification or repeal ( ! law4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! law has be5 9 =ce s9ce #ahgb1 x has be5 repeat$ly int]pret$ & confirm$ by ! c\rts1 & a va/ body ( prop]ty rights has be5 e/abli%$ "u x4 ,lawy]s see great legal difficulties 9 ! way ( its repeal or s]i\s modification4 ,m9+ m5 = ! mo/ "p are n prim>ily int]e/$ "o way or ano!r1 unless !re is pot5tial application ( ! extralat]al-rights provision to _! p>ticul> prop]ties4 ,( ^? :o are ?us int]e/$1 "s hope to ga9 & "s fe> !y may lose 9 ! application ( ! law4 ,! g5]al public naturally has little direct int]e/ 9 ! problem4 ,!re is ?us no effective public s5tim5t favor+ ! repeal or modification ( ! law4 ,x seems likely t = "s "t to come ! law1 9 spite ( its recogniz$ defects1 mu/ be appli$1 & ! be/ geological ef=t mu/ be direct$ t[>d rea*+ int]pretations :i* come mo/ ne> to meet+ its int5t4 ,to refuse to l5d geologic sci5ce to ! aid ( ju/ice because ! law 0 improp]ly fram$ is h>dly a def5sible position4 ,presumably x w nev] be possible to frame laws ) su* full k ( nature's facts z to elim9ate ! necessity = sci5tific advice 9 _! int]pretation4 ,x has be5 sugge/$ t ! c\rts1 & n ! litigants1 %\ld employ ! geologi/s4 ,! practical objection to ?is proposition lies 9 ! difficulty enc\nt]$ by ! judge 9 ! prop] selection ( geologi/s4 ,on ! assumption t ! judge w\ld select only m5 9 :om he _h confid5ce1 x is n likely t he w\ld ov]ride _! conclusions4 ,! outcome ( ! case1 !re=e1 w\ld be l>gely pr$et]m9$ at ! mom5t ! selection ( exp]ts 0 made4 ,x is to be d\bt$ :e!r c\rts c h ! k ( ! sci5tific field & ( ! requirem5ts ( ! situation necess>y to make ! wise/ selection ( m5 to int]pret ! giv5 condition4 ,! competitive elem5t w\ld be elim9at$4 ,f a judicial /&po9t1 !re seems to be an equally good *ance ( gett+ at ! be/ int]pretation ( ! facts by li/5+ to pres5tations f diff]5t /&po9ts1 ) ! accompany+ int]play ( criticism & que/ion+4 ,ano!r practical objection to appo9tm5t ( exp]ts by ! c\rt is ! limitation ( c\rt co/s1 :i* w\ld make x impossible to secure ! highe/ grade m54 ,s f> z ^! m5 are public employees1 su* z memb]s ( ! f$]al or /ate geological surveys1 ?is might be arrang$4 ,= o!rs1 x might be sugge/$ t !y %\ld be will+ to sacrifice _! en]gy & "t 9 ! int]e/s ( ju/ice2 b z long z human nature & conditions are :at !y are1 x is p]haps futile to argue ?is "q4 ,if x is "r to apply sci5ce to practical affairs1 9 o!r words1 if ! pr(ession ( economic geology is a legitimate "o1 x seems inevitable t ! application mu/ be 9 "s "p direct$ by ! geologi/ himself1 9 ord] to avoid mi/akes & confusion4 ,! cont5tion t ! sci5ti/ mu/ isolate himself 9 a r>ifi$ atmosph]e to avoid contam9ation f a non-sci5tific1 comm]cial1 or legal atmosph]e1 seems to ! writ] practically unt5able1 if we recognize any obligation on ! "p ( sci5ce to ! practical conduct ( human affairs4 ,! fact t ! geologi/ 9 mak+ ^! applications may occasionally f9d himself 9 a non-sci5tific atmosph]e may be deplor$ f ! /&po9t ( maximum creativ5ess 9 sci5ce1 & f ?is /&po9t !re may be reason = limitation ( "t giv5 to ?is k9d ( "w1--b to /ay out entirely on ?is gr\nd is to d5y 8 obligation to make 8 sci5ce helpful to 8 fell[s4 ,! problem _c be solv$ by /ay+ out4 ,x calls r = an especial ef=t on ! "p ( ! sci5ti/ to e/abli% & ma9ta9 8 /&>ds ( sci5ce & e?ics 9 ! appli$ fields4 ,"s d\btless fail 9 ?is ef=t4 ,o!rs are /r5g!n$ sci5tifically & e?ically1 & contribute important aid 9 rais+ g5]al /&>ds4 ,! pr9ciple ( non-p>ticipation 9 su* activities = fe> ( l[]+ sci5tific /&>ds may make ! geologi/'s problem easi]1 b at ! exp5se ( non-fulfillm5t ( duties4 ,su* a c\rse has = its logical consequ5ce an ab&onm5t ( ! application ( 8 sci5ce to untra9$ m5 )\t ! e?ical an*orage ( sci5tific a*ievem5t4 ,9 %ort1 !re may be legitimate criticism ( individual geologi/s = _! me?ods & e?ics 9 ! appli$ field1 & ?is is desirable z an aid to ma9ta9+ & improv+ /&>ds2 b x is n a logical /ep f ?is to ! conclusion t1 to avoid un=tunate incid5ts1 economic geologi/s mu/ cloi/] !mselves & ?us d5y ! v implication ( _! title4 ,,ii ,,laws ,,relat+ ,,to ,,extraction ,,( ,,m9]al ,,res\rces ,"u ?is head+ come a wide v>iety ( laws & regulations1--national1 /ate1 & local1--affect+ ! mann] 9 :i* m9]al res\rces %all be m9$ or qu>ri$4 ,su* laws may specify ! numb] ( %afts or outlets1 ! use ( safety & prev5tion devices1 m9]s' comp5sation & insurance1 & _m o!r features4 ,mo/ ( ^! laws are fram$ = ! purpose ( cons]v+ human life & en]gy1 b !y directly affect ! m9+ or extraction ( ! m9]al res\rces !mselves4 ,geology plays b little "p 9 relation to su* laws4 ,:]e ! gov]nm5t reta9s own]%ip & leases or r5ts ! res\rces1 !re are (t5 provisions reg>d+ ! mann] ( m9+ & ! quality & quantity ( ! mat]ial to be m9$1 9 ! int]e/s ( effici5t op]ation & cons]vation4 ,! geologi/ is (t5 call$ into consultation bo? 9 fram+ & 9 deal+ ) ! infraction ( su* provisions4 ,x may be not$ t ! control ?us ex]cis$ on ! op]ator by gov]nm5t own]%ip is v mu* ! same z t (t5 ex]cis$ by ! private fee own]4 ,x is n unusual = fee own]s ( m9]al rights to ma9ta9 a geological /aff 9 ord] to foll[ intellig5tly und]gr\nd developm5ts1 to see t ! be/ me?ods ( exploration & m9+ are foll[$1 & t ores are ei!r extract$ or left 9 accordance ) ! be/ cons]vational practice4 ,,iii ,,laws ,,relat+ ,,to ,,di/ribution ,,& ,,transportation ,,( ,,m9]al ,,res\rces ,"u ?is head+ come gov]nm5tal regulations affect+ directly or indirectly ! transportation & ! de/9ation ( m9]al products4 ,transportation rates1 t>iffs1 zon+1 duties1 & int]national trade agreem5ts ( all sorts h vital effects on di/ribution4 ,9 fram+ any ( ^! measures = a m9]al res\rce1 x is desirable to "k all ab\t ! "* ( ! raw mat]ial1 its physical occurr5ce & di/ribution1 & ! possibilities = future developm5t4 ,9 adju/+ ! sci5tific nam+ & classification ( m9]al mat]ials ) ! crude names & classifications us$ comm]cially--z 9 t>iffs1 9 import & export laws1 9 reports ( rev5ue collectors1 9 railway & %ip rates1 etc4--! geologic in=mation is likewise necess>y4 ,h]et(ore1 ! =mulation ( measures conc]n+ m9]al di/ribution has (t5 n be5 done on a sci5tific & imp>tial basis2 b 9 rec5t ye>s geologi/s h be5 call$ on m frequ5tly = aid & advice1 z a means ( *eck+ or v]ify+ ! special plead+s ( ! diff]5t indu/ries4 ,! rude di/urbance ( trade r\tes dur+ ! w> br\ght home ! necessity ( bas+ control ( di/ribution ( m9]al products on fundam5tal facts ( geology & geography2 ?us x 0 t geologi/s _h a consid]able voice 9 ! va/ numb] ( special measures tak5 = w> purposes by su* organizations z ! ,%ipp+ ,bo>d1 ! ,w> ,trade ,bo>d1 ! ,w> ,indu/ries ,bo>d1 & o!r public organizations4 ,! same 0 true 9 relation to ! m9]al res\rce que/ions at ! ,peace ,conf]5ce4 ,9 ! recon/ructive measures ( ! future1 a /ill l>g] use ( sci5tific consid]ations may be look$ =4 ,fur!r sugge/ions z to ! relation ( geology to laws affect+ di/ribution appe> 9 ! *apt] on ,int]national ,aspects 7,*apt] ,,xviii74 ,,iv ,,o!r ,,relations ,,( ,,geology ,,to ,,law ,x is (t5 assum$ t ! economic geologi/ is exclusively int]e/$ 9 m9]al res\rces4 ,h[ev]1 !re are v>i$ applications ( geology outside ( ! m9]al res\rce field1--to _m k9ds ( eng9e]+ & con/ruction op]ations1 to soils1 to wat] res\rces1 & to transportation1--any ( :i* may develop legal problems requir+ geologic s]vice4 ,a few illu/rative cases foll[4 ,! classification ( m9]al mat]ials 9 contracts pres5ts _m difficulties4 ,a contract = a railway cut1 = a canal1 or = any o!r k9d ( excavation may specify diff]5t prices = remov+ diff]5t m9]al mat]ials4 ,too (t5 ^! are /at$ 9 extremely crude & arbitr>y t]ms1 su* z rock1 h>d rock1 h>dpan1 e>?1 dirt1 etc41 )\t reg>d to ! actual v>iety ( mat]ials to be dealt )4 ,:51 !re=e1 9 ! case ( ! ,*icago dra9age canal1 ! contractor enc\nt]$ a s(t %ale & claim$ comp5sation = rock excavation1 geologi/s play$ a consid]able "p 9 ! ext5sive litigation t foll[$ 9 ! attempt to def9e ! facts ( nature 9 t]ms ( a contract :i* did n recognize !m4 ,9 a railway cut ?r\gh glacial drift or till1 a contractor came sudd5ly ^u a mass ( till :i* _h be5 s ?or\ghly cem5t$ 9 place z to h all ! resi/ance ( rock4 ,litigation 0 !n necess>y to decide :e!r ?is %\ld be classifi$ z dirt or rock4 ,rock & dirt slides ( all k9ds1 met ) 9 op5-pit m9+1 canals1 & o!r excavations1 pres5t eng9e]+ problems ) a geologic basis4 ,! k9ds ( rocks1 _! /r5g?1 porosity1 & moi/ure cont5t1 ! effects ( wea!r+1 & ! /ructural conditions mu/ be det]m9$ 9 ord] to asc]ta9 ! cause ( ! slides1 & are features :i* figure l>gely 9 litigation aris+ f tr\bles ( ?is sort4 ,bo? f$]al & /ate laws give ! "r to lat]al & v]tical support4 ,:51 !re=e1 adjac5t or und]ly+ excavations cause e>? movem5ts 9 a neighbor's prop]ty1 litigation is likely to ensue & ! geologi/ is likely to be call$ 94 ,! long-wall me?od ( coal m9+1 ext5sively practic$ 9 c]ta9 p>ts ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 is sl[ly )draw+ support f ! gr\nd ov]ly+ ! coal seams1 result+ 9 damages to surface /ructures & 9 "s cases to ov]ly+ m9]al deposits4 ,ext5sive litigation has be5 ! result1 & ! future seems to promise m ( x4 ,9 c]ta9 metal-m9+ camps1 :]e consid]able am\nts ( mat]ials h be5 m9$ to great dep?s1 caves & crack+ 9 ! surface are rea*+ ov] unexpect$ly wide areas1 aga9 ?reat5+ litigation4 ,! laws relat+ to ! use ( surface & und]gr\nd wat]s t\* ! geologic conditions 9 _m ways4 ,! p]man5t l[]+ or rais+ ( a wat] level ?r\gh m9+ or damm+ may require a c>eful geological analysis ( ! und]gr\nd conditions affect+ ! movem5ts ( gr\nd-wat]4 ,! use ( /reams = plac] m9+1 z 9 ,cali=nia1 has result$ 9 =mulation ( laws & 9 ext5sive litigation1 aga9 requir+ analysis ( geologic conditions4 ,9 fact geologi/s1 p]haps m ?an any o!r gr\p1 h come to realize h[ _m & h[ v>i$ are ! ways 9 :i* p get into conflict 9 us+ ! e>? on :i* !y live4 ,,*apt] ,,xvii ,,cons]vation ,,( ,,m9]al ,,res\rces ,,! ,,problem ,cons]vation ( m9]al res\rces may be def9$ z an ef=t to /rike a prop] balance betwe5 ! pres5t & ! future 9 ! use ( m9]al raw mat]ials4 ,m9]al res\rces h be5 us$ to "s ext5t z f> back z evid5ces ( man g1 b great drafts on our res\rces h come 9 comp>atively rec5t ye>s4 ,! use ( _m m9]als has />t$ )9 only a few ye>s1 & = o!rs ! accel]ation ( production )9 ! pa/ two or ?ree decades has be5 rapid 7see pp4 #fc-fd74 ,9 g5]al1 ! use ( m9]al res\rces on a l>ge scale may be said to h />t$ )9 ! lifetime ( m5 /ill active 9 bus9ess4 ,! wide use ( p[] necess>y to an indu/rial age1 ! developm5t ( metallurgy1 ! increas+ size & complexity ( dem&s = raw mat]ial1 mean t ! int5sive developm5t & use ( our m9]al res\rces is 9 its infancy1 & is 9 _m respects 9 an exp]im5tal /age4 ,z nations h awak5$ to _! ne$ ( m9]al raw mat]ials & to ! rec5t rapid depletion ( ^! mat]ials1 !y h be5 naturally l$ to inquire h[ long ! res]ves may la/1 & to consid] prev5tion ( wa/e & ! m effici5t use ( mat]ials1 ) a view to plann+ m prud5tly = future national supplies4 ,! fir/ inquiries seem$ to reveal su* %ortage ( m9]al supplies z to call = imm$iate & almo/ dra/ic /eps to prev5t wa/e1 & possibly ev5 to limit ! use ( c]ta9 m9]als 9 ! int]e/s ( po/]ity4 ,m c>eful /udy ( ! problem1 z might be expect$1 reveal$ new factors & great] complexity4 ,! cons]vational idea has a wide s5tim5tal appeal1 b ! =mulation & application ( specific plans meet _m difficulties4 ,9 its practical aspects ! problem is n[ a live "o1 ! solution ( :i* is requir+ ! att5tion ( m9+ m51 eng9e]s1 geologi/s1 economi/s1 & public (ficials4 ,x is a "q :i* is com+ m & m into ! field ( actual pr(essional practice ( ! economic geologi/4 ,x is our purpose to indicate ! g5]al nature ( ! cons]vation problem4 ,we may assume agreem5t to ! desirability ( prev5t+ wa/e1 ( mak+ a wise pres5t use ( m9]al products1 & ( /rik+ a prop] balance betwe5 ! pres5t & future 9 _! use4 ,nature has tak5 _m long geologic p]iods to build up ^! res]ves4 ,we1 ( ! pres5t g5]ation1 9 a s5se hold !m 9 tru/2 !y are entail$ to our successors4 ,) ?is g5]al ?\ght 9 m9d1 h[ %all we proce$ to =mulate def9ite plans = cons]vation8 ,an initial /ep is obvi\sly a c>eful tak+ ( /ock4 ,) increas+ k ( m9]al res\rces1 x is becom+ app>5t t e>ly e/imates ( supplies 7 too l[4 ,_m ( ^! e/imates fail$ to take into acc\nt m9+ to great dep?s1 & wide use ( l[-grade ores1 r5d]$ possible by improv$ me?ods2 & especially !y fail$ to put suffici5t emphasis on ! probabilities ( new discov]ies to replace exhau/$ supplies4 ,e>ly pr$ictions h already be5 upset 9 reg>d to a numb] ( m9]al res\rces4 ,! recognition ( ! g5]al fact t ! _w is f> f explor$ 9 two dim5sions1 to say no?+ ( ?ree1 ( ! fact t kn[n geologic conditions d n yet indicate def9ite limits to ! possibilities ( exploration = mo/ m9]al res\rces1 & ( ! consequ5t fact t = a long "t 9 ! future1 z 9 ! pa/1 discov]ies ( new m9]al deposits w be r\ghly proportional to ! ef=t & money sp5t 9 f9d+ !m1--:i* means1 also1 proportional to ! dem&1--makes x impossible1 = mo/ ( ! m9]al res\rces1 to set any def9ite limits on res]ves4 ,x is comp>atively easy to measure kn[n res]ves2 b a quantitative appraisal ( ! probable & possible res]ves = ! future is extremely difficult4 ,successive revisions ( e/imates h1 ) b few exceptions1 progressively increas$ ! total m9]al supplies available4 ,! result is t ! "t ( exhau/ion has be5 pu%$ f> into ! future = mo/ ( ! important m9]als1 ?us m9imiz+ ! urge = imm$iate & dra/ic cons]vational action1 :i* foll[$ naturally f e>ly e/imates ( v limit$ supplies4 ,= bo? coal & iron1 supplies are n[ kn[n = hundr$s or ev5 ?\s&s ( ye>s4 ,= oil & lead1 on ! o!r h&1 ! res]ves n[ kn[n h a life ( comp>atively few ye>s1 b ! possibilities = successful exploration make x probable t _! life w be greatly ext5d$4 ,not)/&+ ?is t5d5cy to l5g!n ! exhau/ion p]iod1 ! limits ( m9]al res\rce life are /ill small z comp>$ ) ! life ( ! nation or ( civilization1--& ! fundam5tal desirability ( cons]vation is n mat]ially affect$4 ,x is n easy to pr$ict ! rate ( production = ! future4 ,at ! pres5t rate ( coal production 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ! supplies to a dep? ( #f1jjj feet might la/ #f1jjj ye>s2 b if x be assum$ t ! rec5t accel]ation ( production w be cont9u$ indef9itely into ! future1 ! result w\ld be exhau/ion ( ^! supplies 9 less ?an #bjj ye>s4 ,x is g5]ally agre$ t exhau/ion w come soon] ?an #f1jjj ye>s1 b w require m "t ?an #bjj ye>s4 ,! range betwe5 ^! figures (f]s wide opportunity = guess+4 ,x is suppos$ t p] capita consumption may n increase z fa/ 9 ! future z 9 ! pa/1 t possibly an absorption po9t w be rea*$1 & t !re w be limits to transportation & di/ribution2 b h[ to evaluate ^! factors no "o kn[s4 ,9 ! case ( "s ( ! metallic res\rces1 su* z iron1 ! fact t ! _w's /ock on h& is con/antly increas+--losses due to ru/+1 %ip-wrecks1 etc41 be+ only a small fraction ( ! annual output--sugge/s t a po9t w be rea*$ :]e new production w cease to accel]ate at ! pres5t rate & may ev5 decl9e4 ,b aga91 ! factors are s complex & _m ( !m s little kn[n1 t no "o c say h[ soon ?is po9t w be rea*$4 ,= ! imm$iate future1 !re is little to be fe>$ f %ortage ( m9]al supplies 9 ! gr\nd4 ,! difficulties are m likely to arise f ! failure ( means to extract & di/ribute ^! supplies fa/ en\gh to keep up ) ! />tl+ accel]ation 9 future dem& indicat$ by ! figures ( rec5t ye>s4 ,! spe$ & magnitude ( rec5t mat]ial developm5ts 9 _m l9es _c b raise "q z to :e!r we h ! ability to und]/& & cood9ate ! _m huge1 v>iable1 & accel]at+ factors we h to deal )1 or :e!r "s ( ! l9es ( developm5t may n get s f> ahead ( o!rs z to cause s]i\s di/urbance ( ! :ole mat]ial /ructure ( civilization4 ,coal alone1 :i* n[ con/itutes a ?ird ( our railway tonnage1 may ) increas$ rate ( production require two-?irds ( pres5t railway capacity4 ,w railway developm5t keep up8 ,x may be not$ t national crises & failures 9 ! pa/ hi/ory ( ! _w h seldom1 if ev]1 be5 due to %ortage ( raw mat]ials1 or 9 fact to any failure ( ! mat]ial environm5t4 ,9 its e>ly /ages ! cons]vation movem5t 9 ?is c\ntry conc]n$ itself pr9cipally ) ! raw mat]ial4 ,lat] !re came ! recognition ( ! fact t cons]vation ( raw mat]ials is closely b\nd up ) ! "q ( cons]vation ( human en]gy4 ,! two elem5ts 9 ! problem are mu* l ! two major elem5ts 9 m9]al res\rce valuation 7see pages #cbi-ccj74 ,if 9 sav+ a doll>'s wor? ( raw mat]ial1 we sp5d two doll>s wor? ( en]gy1 x naturally raises "q z to ! wisdom ( our proc$ure4 ,x might be wis] 9 "s cases to wa/e a c]ta9 am\nt ( raw mat]ial because ( ! sav+ ( "t & ef=t4 ,x might be bett] = po/]ity to h ! product ( our en]gy multipli$ into raw mat]ial ?an to h ! raw mat]ial itself4 ,! valuation ( ^! two major elem5ts ( cons]vation is aga9 almo/ impossible ( quantitative solution4 ,we d n "k :at is ! be/ result to be aim$ =4 ,we _c =esee ! requirem5ts ( ! future nor ! end t[>d :i* civilization is mov+--or %\ld move4 ,! extravagance ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates is (t5 contra/$ unfavorably ) ! ?rift9ess ( ,europe4 ,:5 consid]$ 9 relation to raw mat]ials alone1 !re seems to be basis = ?is *>ge4 ,:5 consid]$ 9 relation to ! product ( human en]gy into raw mat]ials1 ! conclusion may be f> diff]5t2 = ! output p] man 9 ! indu/ries relat$ to m9]al res\rces is f> great] 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ?an 9 ,europe4 ,9 ! case ( iron1 x has be5 e/imat$ t ! output p] man 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates is two & "o-half times z great z 9 ! re/ ( ! _w4 ,:i* is be/ 9 ! true int]e/s ( cons]vation1 we are n yet able to see4 ,our view ( :at is desirable 9 ! way ( cons]vation dep5ds some:at on ! limitations impos$ by self-int]e/ or location4 ,by devot+ ourselves exclusively to "o m9]al res\rce1 we might "w out a cons]vation program v disadvantage\s to ! be/ use ( "s o!r m9]al commodity4 ,we might take /eps to cons]ve *romite 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates :i* w\ld h a disa/r\s effect on ! iron & /eel indu/ry4 ,we might cons]ve coal by ! sub/itution ( oil1 :5 ! proc$ure is h>dly w>rant$ by ! supplies ( oil available4 ,we might "w out a program = ! ,unit$ ,/ates :i* w\ld n be ! be/ cons]vational plan = ! _w z a :ole1 & :i* w\ld ultimately react to ! disadvantage ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! wise/ & mo/ intellig5t use ( m9]al res\rces seems to call unque/ionably = _! consid]ation 9 _! _w relations1 r ?an = a n>r[ int]pretation ( local requirem5ts4 ,,diff]5ces ,,betwe5 ,,private ,,& ,,public ,,ef=ts ,,9 ,,cons]vation ,x appe>s t a wide range ( effective cons]vational practices has result$ solely f ! ef=t to make m money ?r\gh m effici5t op]ations1 & ?is is likely to be true 9 ! future4 ,_m improvem5ts 9 m9+1 grad+1 sort+1 conc5tration1 & metallurgy ( m9]als1 to yield l>g] f9ancial returns1 are com+ naturally ?r\gh private initiative1 "u ! driv+ p[] ( self-int]e/4 ,ano!r consid]able gr\p ( cons]vational practices is possible only to gov]nm5ts or o!r public ag5cies4 ,?is gr\p ( practices on ! :ole requires "s sacrifice ( ! imm$iate f9ancial int]e/ ( ! individual1 9 ! int]e/s ( ! community z a :ole1 or 9 ! int]e/s ( po/]ity4 ,9 ?is gr\p may be m5tion$ ! compulsory use ( me?ods ( m9+1 sort+1 & metallurgy :i* t5d to cons]ve supplies b result 9 high] prices2 ! control ( prices2 ! elim9ation or l[]+ ( ! s-call$ res\rce or royalty value 7p4 #cge72 & ! removal ( re/rictions on private comb9ation or coop]ation1 lead+ to m effici5t me?ods1 less5+ ( co/1 & bett] di/ribution ( ! product2 or1 :at might am\nt to ! same ?+1 ! acquirem5t by ! gov]nm5t ( ! res\rces to be op]at$ on ?is l>g] scale4 ,! mo/ effective cons]vation measures yet 9 effect are ! ones dictat$ by self-int]e/ & in/itut$ by private initiative4 ,gov]nm5tal measures are n yet 9 effective op]ation4 ,illu/rations ( ^! two types ( cons]vational ef=t are cit$ 9 relation to coal on lat] pages4 ,,! ,,int]e/ ,,rate ,,z ,a ,,guide ,,9 ,,cons]vation ,9 /rik+ a balance betwe5 ! pres5t & ! future1 economi/s h emphasiz$ ! importance ( recogniz+ ! int]e/ rate z a guid+1 if n a controll+ consid]ation4 ,x is obvi\sly difficult = private capital to make inve/m5ts ( ef=t & money = ! purpose ( cons]vation :i* w n be return$ ) int]e/ "s "t 9 ! future4 ,= ! pres5t1 at lea/1 ?is consid]ation furni%es ! be/ guide to proc$ure 9 ! field ( private endeavor4 ,s f> z cons]vational measures1 su* z inve/m5t 9 an improv$ process ( conc5trat+ l[-grade ores1 promise return ( capital & an adequate int]e/ rate 9 ! future1 !y are likely to be und]tak54 ,x is cle> t gov]nm5ts are n s closely b\nd by ?is economic limitation4 ,!y c af=d to c>ry _! inve/m5ts 9 raw mat]ials & processes at a l[] int]e/ rate ?an ! private inve/or4 ,_! cr$it is bett]4 ,taxes d n figure s directly4 ,!y c balance losses 9 "o field aga9/ ga9s 9 ano!r4 ,z a matt] ( insurance = ! future ( ! nation1 a gov]nm5t may feel ju/ifi$ 9 inaugurat+ cons]vational measures = a p>ticul> res\rce )\t hope ( ! int]e/ return :i* w\ld be necess>y to ! private inve/or4 ,9 apprais+ ! iron ores ( ,lorra9e tak5 ov] by ,france f ,g]many at ! close ( ! w>1 ! actual comm]cial value ( ^! ores1 z figur$ by ! ord9>y ad valorem me?od1 0 only n9ety millions ( doll>s4 ,x is cle>1 h[ev]1 t to ,france z a nation ! res]ves 7 wor? m4 ,!y c\ld af=d to pay m = !m1 & c\ld af=d to sp5d m money on cons]vational practice ?an "u ord9>y comm]cial limitations1 because ( ! l>g] intangible & m or less s5tim5tal int]e/4 ,! valuation ( ?is l>g] int]e/1 z a means ( det]m9+ ! limit to :i* cons]vational inve/m5ts may be made1 lies 9 ! political field4 ,x may be sugge/$1 h[ev]1 t a desirable fir/ /ep 9 any gov]nm5tal program ( cons]vation is to asc]ta9 ! co/ & ! possibility ( an adequate return ( capital & int]e/4 ,^! det]m9ations at lea/ af=d a def9ite po9t ( dep>ture1 & a means = measur+ ! co/ to ! p ( measures :i* are n directly self-support+4 ,,anti-,,cons]vational ,,effects ,,( ,,w> ,exp]i5ce dur+ ! rec5t pa/ indicates t ! exploitation ( m9]al res\rces = w> purposes is on ! :ole anti-cons]vational4 ,x is true t ! va/ am\nt ( w>-"t exploration & developm5t1 z well z ! ?or\ghgo+ inve/igations ( ! utilization ( v>i\s m9]als1 h l$ to bett] k ( ! m9]al res\rces & _! possibilities4 ,x is also true t ! w> requir$ a mu* m exhau/ive c5sus ( m9]al possibilities ?an ev] be=e attempt$4 ,! imm$iate & direct effect ( ! w>1 h[ev]1 0 ! int5sive use ( m9]al res\rces )\t c>eful reg>d to co/1 grade1 or _m o!r factors :i* det]m9e _! use 9 peace times4 ,= in/ance1 9 ord9>y times consid]able quantities ( high-phosphorus iron ores are m9$2 b1 because ( ! fact t su* ores require m "t = conv]sion into /eel1 w>-"t practice conc5trat$ on ! high]-grade1 l[-phosphorus ores1 result+ 9 an unbalanc$ production :i* 9 "s cases am\nt$ almo/ to robb+ ( ore deposits4 ,9 ! case ( coal1 quantity 0 almo/ ! only consid]ation2 x 0 impossible to grade & di/ribute ! coal to meet ! specializ$ dem&s ( indu/ry4 ,! results 7 a g5]al l[]+ ( ! /&>ds ( metallurgical & o!r indu/rial practices1 & increas$ co/4 ,high-grade coals 7 us$ :]e l[]-grade coals 7 desirable = ! be/ results4 ,9 ! mak+ ( /eel1 x is ! cu/om to select ! coal & coke ) great c>e 9 reg>d to _! cont5t ( phosphorus1 sulphur1 a%1 & o!r con/itu5ts :i* affect ! composition ( ! /eel product2 b dur+ ! w> x became necess>y to accept almo/ any k9d ( coal1 ) a result+ net loss 9 quantity & 9 grade ( output4 ,= a consid]able numb] ( m9]al res\rces1 su* z ! f]ro-alloys1 =eign s\rces ( supply 7 cut (f dur+ ! w>1 requir+ ! developm5t & use1 at high co/1 ( l[-grade scatt]$ supplies 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,x 0 f\nd possible to produce en\gh *romite 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates = dome/ic requirem5ts1 b at two or ?ree times ! normal price ( import$ *romite4 ,! grade 0 l[ & ! loss 9 effici5cy to ! consum+ int]e/s 0 a high "o4 ,! extremely limit$ natural supplies 7 raid$ almo/ to ! po9t ( exhau/ion4 ,) ! po/-w> resumption ( importation ( m9]als ( ?is k9d1 produc]s naturally began a fight = a protective t>iff1 & ! "q is yet unsettl$4 ,! t>iff1 if enact$1 w\ld 9 mo/ cases h to be a high "o 9 ord] to p]mit ! use ( dome/ic supplies4 ,! results w\ld be a l>ge increase 9 co/ to o!r indu/ries1 decreas$ effici5cy1 & ! e>ly exhau/ion ( limit$ supplies 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,mo/ ( ! m9]al res\rces h be5 conc5trat$ by nature 9 a comp>atively few places 9 ! _w2 & :5 ! two elem5ts ( cons]vation are consid]$--! mat]ials !mselves & ! human en]gy exp5d$ 9 obta9+ & us+ !m--x is cle> t any measure :i* int]f]es ) ! natural di/ribution ( ! favor$ ores is anti-cons]vational f ! _w /&po9t4 ,,cons]vation ,,( ,,coal ,9 ! sections on m9]al res\rces1 !re are _m casual ref]5ces to cons]vation ( specific m9]als4 ,"h we %all n g fur!r ?an to introduce a brief discussion ( ! cons]vation ( coal z illu/rative ( ! g5]al problem ( cons]vation ( m9]al res\rces4 ,x has be5 e/imat$ t ! ,unit$ ,/ates possesses1 to a dep? ( #c1jjj feet1 9 b$s #ad in*es or ov]1 #c1ech1eed1jjj1jjj tons ( coal1 & an additional res]ve betwe5 #c1jjj & #f1jjj feet ( #fff1fjj1jjj1jjj tons4#db ,if all ! unm9$ coal to a dep? ( #c1jjj feet c\ld be plac$ 9 "o great cubic pile1 ! pile w\ld be #ah miles long1 #ah miles wide1 & #ah miles high4 ,( ! orig9al am\nt ( coal to ?is dep? only ab\t #j4d ( #a p] c5t has be5 m9$ or wa/$ 9 m9+4 ,! wa/age is e/imat$ at ab\t #ej p] c5t4 ,if ! annual production ( coal 7 to rema9 ! same z 9 rec5t ye>s1 ! total life ( ! coal res]ves 7to a dep? ( #c1jjj feet7 w\ld be betwe5 #d1jjj & #f1jjj ye>s2 b if ! accel]ation ( production ( rec5t ye>s 7 to be ma9ta9$ 9 ! future1 ! life w\ld be b little ov] #ajj ye>s1 & ! life ( ! highe/-grade coal n[ be+ m9$ might n be ov] #ej ye>s4 ,all agree t ! accel]ation ( production is n likely to cont9ue indef9itely1 :i* w mean t ! life ( coal res]ves to #c1jjj feet w be some:]e betwe5 ! two extremes nam$4 ,x seems cle> t actual %ortage ( coal w n be felt = "s hundr$s ( ye>s2 b ?is p]iod ( ye>s is %ort z comp>$ ) ! probable life ( ! race4 ,,measures ,,introduc$ ,,or ,,propos$ ,,to ,,cons]ve ,,coal ,! foll[+ li/ ( measures = cons]vation ( coal is tak5 f sev]al s\rces4 ,! exhau/ive report ( ! ,briti% ,coal ,commission1#dc publi%$ 9 #aije1 conta9s a consid]able numb] ( specific recomm5dations = cons]vation ( ! coal ( ,great ,brita94 ,! reports ( ! ,national ,cons]vation ,commission#dd ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 publi%$ 9 #aiji1 treat ( ! cons]vation ( ! coal ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates & naturally foll[ "s ( ! recomm5dations ( ! ,briti% report4 ,! coal section ( ! ,national ,cons]vation report 0 prep>$ by ,m4 ,r4 ,campbell & ,e4 ,w4 ,p>k] ( ! ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey1 & is conta9$ 9 ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey ,bullet9 #cid4 ,! recomm5dations !re giv5 are amplifi$ & develop$ by ,van ,hise#de 9 8 book on ,cons]vation1 publi%$ 9 #aiaj4 ,s9ce t "t ! subject has be5 discuss$ by ,smi?1 ,*ance1 ,burr[s1 ,haas1#df & o!rs1 & c]ta9 additional cons]vational me?ods h be5 propos$4 ,a consid]able numb] ( m5 h also discuss$ ! sociologic & economic aspects ( ! "q4 ,! report ( ! ,cons]vation ,commission ( ,canada1#dg publi%$ 9 #aiae1 treats r fully ( ! cons]vation ( m9]al res\rces4 ,x w suit our purpose1 & avoid "s repetition1 if we gr\p mo/ ( ^! recomm5dations )\t reg>d to au?or%ip4 ,9 g5]al1 ^! recomm5dations c be gr\p$ "u ! heads3 7,a7 ,me?ods ( m9+ & prep>ation ( coal2 7,b7 ,improvem5t ( labor & liv+ conditions at ! m9es2 7,c7 ,introduction or modification ( laws to regulate or to remove c]ta9 re/rictions on ! coal indu/ry2 7,d7 ,di/ribution & transportation ( coal2 7,e7 ,utilization ( coal2 7,f7 ,sub/itutes = coal z a s\rce ( p[]4 7,a7 ,m9+ & prep>ation ( coal4 ,"u ?is head+ may be includ$ a l>ge numb] ( proposals :i* conc]n prim>ily ! eng9e]+ treatm5t ( ! coal und]gr\nd & 9 ! m9e plants4 ,"s ( ! m important measures are3 #a4 ,introduction ( ! long-wall sy/em ( m9+ 9 places :]e ! conditions all[ x1 9 ord] to m9imize ! wa/e und]gr\nd4 #b4 ,modification ( ! room-&-pill> sy/em ( m9+1 by :i* l>g] pill>s are left :ile ! m9e advances1 & are recov]$ 9 ! retreat1--!reby recov]+ a l>g] p]c5tage ( coal ?an "u ! old sy/em1 :]e small1 ?9 pill>s 7 left1 :i* fail$ & 7 p]man5tly lo/4 ,x has be5 argu$ t ! great loss ( coal by leav+ x 9 pill>s c\ld be sav$ by us+ o!r mat]ial to support ! ro(2 b an elem5t>y calculation ( ! co/ ( ?is proc$ure %[s t x is *eap] to use ! coal4 ,*ance#dh says3 ,! coal left z pill>s to support ! ro( is ?us utiliz$ & p]=ms a necess>y & useful function1 yet ! pr9cipal "p 7p]haps two-?irds7 ( ! #bjj1jjj1jjj tons our fri5ds ! cons]vationi/s claim is wilfully & avoidably wa/$ e ye> is ?is coal t is left 9 pill>s to support ! ro(4 ,i ?9k we c safely claim t ?is is n wa/e1 b1 on ! contr>y1 is eng9e]+ effici5cy ( ! highe/ type1 9 t x utilizes ! *eape/ & lea/ valuable mat]ial available to support ! ro( & saves ! :ole labor co/ ( build+ supports ( o!r mat]ials4 ,inve/igation z to :at becomes ( t "p ( ! #bjj1jjj1jjj tons claim$ z wa/$1 :i* is n utiliz$ z pill>s to support ! ro(1 w disclose ! fact t a v l>ge portion is coal t is left 9 m9e work+s t are ab&on$ because ! ro( is unsafe & because a cont9uance ( op]ation w\ld result 9 injuries or loss ( life4 ,coal left 9 ! m9es 9 ord] to cons]ve human lives _c be class$ z avoidable wa/e4 ,a small "p ( ! #bjj1jjj1jjj tons is lo/ because x is intimately mix$ ) refuse & because ! labor co/ ( recov]+ x & sep>at+ x f ! refuse w\ld be great] ?an its value4 #c4 ,m9+ ( %all[ bitum9\s b$s by means ( ! /eam %ovel4 ,progress has be5 made along ?is l9e 9 ! la/ few ye>s1 & valuable deposits are ?us m9$ :i* c be m9$ pr(itably by no o!r me?od4 #d4 ,new me?ods ( fill+ m9$-out spaces ) s&1 & new me?ods ( m9e survey & design4 ,accord+ to ,haas#di ! greate/ advance 9 ! "q ( me?od 0 ! sy/em ( m9e survey & design p]fect$ 9 bo? ! an?racite & bitum9\s fields4 ,! relatively new me?od ( fill+ old spaces ) s&1 etc41 has also a*iev$ success4 #e4 ,use ( me?ods by :i* coal is n left 9 ! ro( = ! support :]e ! ro( is weak1 & by :i* coal ( inf]ior quality is n left 9 ! ro(4 #f4 ,wid] use ( coal-cutt+ ma*9es by :i* ! wa/+ ( ?9n] b$s may be avoid$4 #g4 ,:]e conditions all[ x1 ! work+ ( ! upp] b$s be=e ! l[]1 9 ord] n to de/roy ! upp] ones by cav+4 ,! m9+ ( a l[] coal seam has (t5 s brok5 up ! ov]ly+ /rata z to r5d] x impossible to recov] ! upp] coal seams conta9$ !re94 ,!re are c]ta9 difficulties1 h[ev]1 9 ! way ( ?is cons]vational measure4 ,9 "s localities ! seams are "u sep>ate own]%ip1 & !re is a result+ conflict ( int]e/s4 ,also1 if ! bett] coal seam happ5s to be bel[ & ! poor] seams above1 m>ket conditions may require t ! l[] seam be m9$ reg>dless ( ! de/ruction ( ! upp] ones4 #h4 ,elim9ation ( coal b>ri]s to m>k ! limits betwe5 prop]ties4 ,?is involves m coop]ation4 #i4 ,improvem5t ( m9+ ma*9]y1 p[] drills1 etc4 #aj4 ,c5tralization ( p[] /ations1 r ?an ! use ( _m small units4 #aa4 ,elim9ation ( ! wa/+ ( slack or f9e coal1 ?r\gh m c>eful me?ods ( m9+1 ?r\gh limitations on ! excessive use ( p[d] & l>g] use ( w$ges1 ?r\gh ! abolition ( laws = ! paym5t ( m9]s on a run-(-m9e basis1 & 9 ! case ( an?racite ?r\gh recov]y ( ! silt or du/ caus$ by m9+ & sort+4 ,x has be5 argu$ t ! excessive use ( p[d] 7%oot+ f ! solid7 means loss ( coal1 ow+ to ! fact t x %att]s ! coal & makes a relatively l>ge am\nt ( slack1 besides be+ accompani$ by increas$ dang] f fire & explosion & f weak5+ ( ! ro(4 ,al?\gh ! excessive use ( p[d] makes a l>ge am\nt ( slack1 x does n necess>ily result 9 wa/e1 = ?is f9e coal is c>efully sav$ & = c]ta9 purposes is z valuable z ! lump coal4 ,s f> z ! proc$ure endang]s life1 x is ( c\rse objectionable4 #ab4 ,bett] use ( f9e coal4 ,x has be5 recomm5d$ t infirm & f9ely brok5 coal be wa%$ & compress$1 ?us avoid+ ! wa/+ ( slack coal1 :i* 0 =m]ly ?r[n away or burn$4 ,h[ev]1 9 rec5t ye>s !re has be5 comp>atively little wa/e ( ?is k9d1 = slack coal 9 g5]al f9ds ne>ly z ready a m>ket z lump coal & ! use ( slack is increas+4 ,!re has be5 mu* discussion also ( ! possibilities ( us+ ! coal wa/e on ! gr\nd to make p[] = electric transmission4 #ac4 ,m c>eful att5tion to sort+ & siz+ ( all grades ( coal com+ f ! m9e & to prep>ation ( coals = special uses4 ,on ! o!r h&1 "s op]ators say t ! ends ( cons]vation w be be/ met by limit+ ! sort+ & siz+ n[ practic$4 ,! l>ge numb] ( sizes n[ put on ! m>ket greatly increases ! co/ ( production4 #ad4 ,wid] use ( ! l[]-grade fuels ( ! we/1 p>ticul>ly ) ! aid ( briquett+4 ,progress 9 above me?ods4 ,me?ods ( m9+ & prep>ation ( coal h be5 improv$4 ,campbell & ,p>k] /ate3#ej ,a mu* great] proportion ( ! product hoi/$ is n[ be+ s5t to m>ket 9 m]*antable condition4 ,"p ( ?is is due to bett] & m sy/ematic me?ods ( h&l+1 & "p to ! sav+ ( small sizes :i* =m]ly w5t to ! culm banks4 ,! high] prices ( coal & ! developm5t ( me?ods = us+ ^! small sizes h also made x possible1 ?r\gh wa%+ processes1 to rework ! small coal =m]ly ?r[n on ! culm banks1 & ^! are n[ furni%+ sev]al millions ( tons ( m>ketable coal annually4 ,9 g5]al !re is increase 9 ! p]c5tage ( recov]y ( coal4 ,:]eas 9 ! pa/ ! loss 9 m9+ 0 said by ,campbell & ,p>k]#ea to av]age #ej p] c5t1 n[ an extraction ( #gj to #ij p] c5t may be look$ =4 ,quot+ f ,smi? & ,le%]3#eb ,obs]vation ( ! advances made 9 m9+ me?ods 9 ! la/ decade or two af=ds slight w>rant = belief 9 any *>ge ( wa/eful op]ation4 ,z consum]s ( coal we might d well to imitate ! economy n[ en=c$ by ! produc]s 9 _! eng9e]+ practice4 ,9 ! nor!rn an?racite field ma*9e m9+ 9 extract+ coal f #bb- & #bd-;in* b$s1 & ?r\gh\t ! an?racite region ! av]age recov]y ( coal 9 m9+ is #fe p] c5t41 z aga9/ #dj p] c5t4 only tw5ty ye>s ago4 ,nor are ! bitum9\s op]ators any less progressive 9 _! cons]vation ( ! coal !y m9e4 ,9 an?racite m9+1 p[d]$ coal or silt has accumulat$ 9 /ockpiles & 9 /ream *annels to _m t5s ( millions ( tons4 ,x is e/imat$ t ?is con/itutes ne>ly #f p] c5t ( ! coal m9$4 ,significant progress has be5 made rec5tly 9 ! recov]y & use ( ?is silt z p[d]$ fuel = local p[] purposes4 ,h[ev]1 physical & comm]cial conditions d n 9 all cases all[ ( ! full application ( ^! new me?ods4 ,once a m9e has be5 op5$ up on a c]ta9 plan1 x is difficult to *ange x4 ,z a :ole ! long] & bett] organiz$ companies are bett] able to *ange ?an ! small] companies4 ,cons]vation measures ( ! above k9ds1 z s f> appli$1 h come ma9ly f private initiative bas$ on self-int]e/1--?\gh ! coop]ation ( ! gov]nm5t has be5 effective1 p>ticul>ly along educational & publicity l9es4 7,b7 ,improvem5t ( labor & liv+ conditions at ! m9es4 ,"u ?is head+ %\ld be m5tion$ ! improvem5t ( h\s+1 sanitation1 & liv+ conditions2 improvem5ts 9 ! effici5cy ( labor1 ?r\gh mak+ liv+ conditions su* z to attract a high]-grade labor supply & ?r\gh educational means2 ! introduction ( safety me?ods2 ! introduction ( workm5's comp5sation & insurance2 & o!r measures ( a simil> nature4 ,all ^! measures z a class are sometimes gr\p$ "u ! "n ( welf>e "w4 ,mu* ?\ght & discussion h be5 devot$ to ! possibilities ( improvem5t ( labor & liv+ conditions f ! /&po9t ( cons]vation ( human en]gy4 ,9 "s qu>t]s ?is subject has be5 treat$ z be+ indep5d5t ( ! physical cons]vation ( m9]al res\rces1 & x has be5 ! t5d5cy to assume t cons]vation ( human en]gy might be m or less inimical to cons]vation ( m9]al res\rces4 ,c]ta9 ( ! *anges already introduc$ h und\bt$ly increas$ ! co/ ( m9+2 &1 until !re 0 a g5]al increase 9 sell+ price1 ?is increas$ co/ may h _h ! effect ( elim9at+ c]ta9 practices ( m9]al cons]vation :i* might o!rwise h be5 possible4 ,= in/ance1 accord+ to ,smi? & ,le%]3#ec ,! increas$ safety 9 ! coal m9es t has come ?r\gh ! comb9$ ef=ts ( ! coal companies1 ! /ate inspectors1 & ! ,f$]al ,bureau ( ,m9es necess>ily involves "s increase 9 co/ ( op]ation1 b ! few c5ts p] ton ?us add$ to ! co/ is a small price to pay = ! satisfaction ( hav+ ! /a9 ( blood remov$ f ! coal we buy4 ,t =m ( social insurance :i* is n[ en=c$ ?r\gh ! workm5's comp5sation laws alone adds f #b to #e c5ts a ton to ! co/ ( coal4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !re c be no d\bt t l>ge advances h be5 made 9 welf>e movem5ts :i* 7 introduc$ = ! purpose ( insur+ a /eadi]1 bett]1 & l>g] supply ( labor1 & t ! g5]al ga9 9 effici5cy ( op]ation !reby obta9$ has absorb$ a l>ge "p ( ! increas$ co/4 ,9 g5]al1 cons]vation measures ( ?is class h be5 develop$ coop]atively by private & public ef=ts1 )\t important sacrifice ( private int]e/4 ,!re is obvi\sly room = mu* wid] application ( su* measures1 especially 9 "s ( ! bitum9\s fields :]e conditions are /ill f> f satisfactory4 7,c7 ,introduction or modification ( laws to regulate or to remove c]ta9 re/rictions on ! coal indu/ry4 ,x has be5 propos$3 #a4 ,to modify ! laws s z to take c>e ( situations :]e v]tically sup]pos$ b$s are own$ by diff]5t p>ties1 prev5t+ ! prop] m9+ ( ! coal by ei!r p>ty4 #b4 ,to modify ! laws s z to elim9ate conflict 9 m9+ practice 9 cases :]e ! coal is associat$ ) oil & gas pools4 #c4 ,to all[ l>g] own]%ip by companies utiliz+ ! coal 7n[ only #c p] c5t own$ by su* companies74 #d4 ,to place re/rictions on ov]-capitalization1 :i* leads to wa/eful m9+ 9 ord] to secure quick & l>ge returns on l>ge capital4 #e4 ,to remove re/rictions on conc5tration ( control4 ,?is means1 z a coroll>y proposition1 virtual re/riction ( competition4 ,conc5tration ( control into comp>atively few h&s has und\bt$ly favor$ cons]vation4 ,x is easy to see t ! /rong] f9ancial condition ( ! l>ge companies makes x possible = !m to take full] advantage ( mod]n me?ods ( extraction1 di/ribution1 & m>ket+4 ,?is proposal 0 especially urg$ = ! bitum9\s coal indu/ry be=e ! w> 9 ord] to avoid ov]-production & ov]-developm5t4 ,! v wide di/ribution ( ! bitum9\s coals1 _! enorm\s quantity1 & _! exce$+ly div]sifi$ own]%ip _h l$ to ov]-developm5t ( coal prop]ties4 ,quot+ f ,smi? & ,le%]3#ed ,9 e/imat+ ! aggregate losses incurr$ by society by reason ( ! l>ge numb] ( m9es n work+ at full capacity1 ! facts to be consid]$ are t ! capital inve/$ 9 m9e equipm5t asks a wage bas$ on a ye> ( #cfe days ( #bd h\rs1 :ile labor's ye> av]ag$ la/ ye> only #bcj days 9 ! an?racite m9es & only #bjc days 9 ! bitum9\s m9es1 ) only five to eight h\rs to ! day4 ,^! conditions prev5t$ 9 "s cases ev5 ! mo/ mode/ introduction ( bett] me?ods1 or ( *anges t w\ld enhance ! av]age pr(its ?r\gh a relatively %ort p]iod ( t5 or fifte5 ye>s at ! exp5se ( ! pres5t ye>4 ,x 0 necess>y to get at ! be/ ( ! coal available 9 ! *eape/ possible way1 reg>dless ( ! losses ( coal left 9 ! gr\nd4 ,to "s ext5t ! =ce ( ?is argum5t 0 m9imiz$ by w> & po/-w> conditions1 b ev5 yet developm5t ( coal m9es is ahead ( transportation & di/ribution4 #f4 ,to all[ coop]ation 9 ! limitation ( output1 9 ! avoidance ( cross freights1 9 gaug+ ! m>ket 9 advance1 & 9 division ( t]ritory1 all ( :i* w\ld all[ *eap] m9+ & ?us give l>g] leeway to cons]vational measures4 ,?is necess>ily w\ld be accompani$ by gov]nm5t regulation4 ,accord+ to ,van ,hise1#ee :o 0 active be=e ! w> 9 advocat+ ?is cons]vational measure1 su* a proc$ure is nei!r regulat$ competition1 nor regulat$ monopoly2 b ! ret5tion ( competition1 ! prohibition ( monopoly1 p]mission = coop]ation & regulation ( ! latt]4 ,9 ,*icago !re _c be "o sell+ ag5cy = ! diff]5t coal companies :i* op]ate 9 ,ill9ois1 b !re mu/ be _m sell+ ag5cies1 & ! coal ( ,pittsburgh mu/ come into ,ill9ois & ! ,ill9ois coal g t[>d ,pittsburgh2 e "o ( :i* ?+s makes unnecess>y co/s1 b all ( :i* are inevitable "u ! extreme competitive sy/em4 ,because ( ^! facts x is necess>y to wa/e ! coal4 ,if at ! v same prices ! diff]5t m9es c\ld coop]ate 9 ! limitation ( ! output1 avoidance ( cross freights1 gaug+ ! m>ket 9 advance1 & division ( t]ritory1 !y c\ld m9e _! coal m *eaply1 h a great] pr(it = !mselves & cons]ve our res\rces4 ,to "s ext5t ! plan "h advocat$ 0 put into effect dur+ ! w> by ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,coal ,adm9i/ration2 b ! conditions ( ?is trial 7 s complicat$ by special w> requirem5ts1 t ! cons]vational advantages ( unifi$ control 7 n demon/rat$4 #g4 ,to r$uce ! excessive royalties paid to fee own]s4 ,smi? & ,le%]#ef h rec5tly call$ att5tion to ! relatively high res\rce co/ 9 "s ( ! coal fields1 repres5t$ by ! paym5t ( royalties to fee own]s4 ,9 ! case ( an?racite ! paym5t av]ages #cb to #ce c5ts p] ton1 & exceptionally runs z high z a doll> p] ton4 ,= ! bitum9\s coal ! av]age res\rce co/ is probably n mu* ov] five c5ts a ton4 ,!y sugge/ ! possibility ( l[]+ ?is co/ by gov]nm5tal regulation2 & make an especially /rong argum5t = n all[+ ! gov]nm5t-own$ coal l&s to g to private own]s1 :o 9 ! future1 ) ! accumulation ( int]e/ on ! inve/m5t1 w feel ju/ifi$ 9 ask+ = a l>ge res\rce return 9 ! way ( royalty4 ,if ! res\rce co/ c\ld be l[]$1 fur!r introduction ( cons]vational me?ods by ! op]ators w\ld be possible )\t greatly increas+ ! co/ to ! public4 #h4 ,to require or all[1 by gov]nm5t regulation1 a rais+ ( ! price ( coal to ! consum]1 !reby all[+ wid] application ( cons]vational practices4 ,"s ( ! increas$ recov]ies ( coal above not$ h be5 made possible only by increase 9 ! m>ket price4 ,if coop]ation 7 p]mitt$ 9 ! mann] describ$ 9 p>agraph #f1 ! same results might be accompli%$ )\t increas+ ! price4 ,rec5t high prices caus$ by ! w> situation are reflect$ 9 ! introduction ( _m cons]vational *anges :i* 7 n be=e possible4 ,h[ev]1 9 "s cases ! dem& = quick results "u pres5t conditions has an opposite effect1 because ( ! desire to realize quick pr(its reg>dless ( cons]vation4 #i4 ,! local cons]vation ( coal at ! exp5se ( heavi] drafts on coal ( o!r p>ts ( ! _w1 by imposition ( export taxes & pref]5tial duties1 has be5 discuss$4 ,:ile ! effect ( su* a measure w\ld d\btless be cons]vational f ! /&po9t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 x is d\btful if x c\ld be s reg>d$ f ! broad] /&po9t ( _w civilization4 ,"u pres5t _w conditions su* a /ep w\ld be disa/r\s4 #aj4 ,gov]nm5t own]%ip has be5 propos$ z a means ( facilitat+ ! introduction ( cons]vation measures4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates !re is yet no major movem5t 9 ?is direction4 ,9 ,engl& ! "q ( nationalization ( coal m9es is an extremely live political problem 7see pp4 #cdc1 #cde-cdg74 ,little progress has be5 made 9 cons]vation measures :i* involve legal enactm5ts ( ! k9ds above li/$4 7,d7 ,di/ribution1 & transportation ( coal4 ,x has be5 argu$ t cons]vational results w\ld ensue f3 #a4 ,*eap] transportation4 #b4 ,l>g] use ( wat]ways4 #c4 ,improvem5t 9 di/ribution ( ! product by p>tition ( ! m>ket & by l>g] use ( local coals4 ,= effectiv5ess ?is proposition w\ld h to include control ( ! ag5cies ( di/ribution1 9 ord] to m9imize excessive pr(its ( middlem54 #d4 ,pur*as+ & /orage ( coal by consum]s dur+ ! spr+ & summ] mon?s 9 anticipation ( ! w9t] requirem5ts1 9 ord] to equalize ! pres5t highly fluctuat+ seasonal dem&s on ! m9es & railroads1 & to elim9ate ! recurr+ %ortages ( coal 9 ! w9t] mon?s4 ,?is 0 p>ticul>ly recomm5d$ by ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,bitum9\s ,coal ,commission 9 a rec5t report4#eg #e4 ,:]e conditions all[ x1 conv]sion ( coal into p[] at ! m9e & deliv]y ( p[] r ?an coal to consum+ c5t]s4 ,?is type ( cons]vation is be+ put into practice on a l>ge scale above ,:eel+1 on ! ,ohio ,riv]1 :]e !re has rec5tly be5 built a two hundr$ ?\s& kil[att in/allation = /eam-g5]at$ electric p[]4 ,"s ( ! p[] w be deliv]$ to ,canton1 ,ohio1 ov] fifty miles away4 ,?is plant uses local coal & ! co/ ( coal is figur$ at two mills p] kil[att-h\r4 ,"u ?is head+ ( di/ribution & transportation ( coal1 might be consid]$ c]ta9 int]national relations4 ,! int]national movem5ts ( coal are summ>iz$ 9 ano!r place 7pp4 #aae-aag74 ,any?+ 9 ! way ( t>iffs or trade agreem5ts :i* w\ld t5d to int]f]e ) or to limit ! great natural int]national movem5ts ( coal--:i* 9 a free field are bas$ on suitability ( grade1 co/1 location1 transportation1 etc4--w\ld be anti-cons]vational f ! _w's /&po9t1 al?\gh !y might be ( local & tempor>y advantage4 ,= in/ance1 ! coal export$ f ,engl&1 :i* has h]et(ore dom9at$ ! int]national trade ( ! _w1 is ( a high grade4 ,am]ican coal available = export is on ! :ole ( consid]ably l[] grade1 be+ high] 9 volatile matt]4 ,unless ?is coal is b5eficiat$ at home1 x c replace ! ,engli% coal 9 ! export field only at increas$ co/ ( transportation & l[] effici5cy 9 use4 ,! "t may come :5 x w be desirable to %ip l[]-grade coals long di/ances2 b :5 ! two factors ( cons]vation are consid]$--! intr9sic qualities ( ! coal1 & ! ef=ts necess>y to utilize x--x w\ld seem to be cons]vational at ?is /age to %ip to long di/ances only ! coal :i* nature seems specially to h prep>$ = ?is purpose4 7,e7 ,utilization ( coal4 ,cons]vational proposals ( ?is k9d are3 #a4 ,sub/itution ( retort coke-ov5s = beehive ov5s1 to save n only a l>g] quantity ( coke b also valuable by-products 7see pp4 #aah-aai74 ,additional improvem5ts 9 cok+ ov5s may make possible ! manufacture ( "s sort ( coke f a mu* wid] range ( bitum9\s coals ?an c be us$ at pres5t4 #b4 ,l>g] use ( smoke consum]s & me*anical /ok]s4 #c4 ,l>g] use ( c5tral heat+ plants1 ) high] effici5cy ?an _m local plants4 #d4 ,sub/itution ( gas eng9es = /eam eng9es1 & improvem5t ( ! /eam eng9e4 #e4 ,improvem5t 9 me?ods ( smelt+1 lead+ to l>g] output ( metal p] ton ( coke us$4 ,also ! developm5t ( electric smelt+ = c]ta9 metals4 #f4 ,m c>eful /udy & classification ( ! qualities ( coals1 9 ord] to avoid use ( high]-grade coals :]e inf]ior coals w\ld s]ve ! purpose4 #g4 ,m consumption at ! colli]ies4 #h4 ,l>g] use ( p[d]$ coal z fuel4 #i4 ,improvem5t ( =ce-draft furnaces4 #aj4 ,l>g] use ( gas1 a by-product ( coal m9+1 & extraction ( o!r by-products4 #aa4 ,m effici5t trans=mation ( peat & coal into p[] & light4 #ab4 ,! possible use ( oil flotation to elim9ate =eign m9]al matt]4 ,mo/ ( ! cons]vation measures above propos$ h already be5 appli$ ) good results1 & ) promise ( l>ge results = ! future4 ,! /imulus has come l>gely f self-int]e/4 ,w> conditions 9 "s ways aid$ & 9 o!rs h9d]$ ^! developm5ts4 ,"o ( ! conspicu\s ga9s 0 ! build+ ( _m by-product coke plants1 "u ! necessity ( secur+ ! nitrates & hydroc>bons = munition & o!r purposes4 7,f7 ,sub/itutes = coal z a s\rce ( p[]4 ,"s ( ! m prom95t measures along ?is l9e :i* h be5 discuss$ are3 #a4 ,l>g] use ( wat] p[]4 ,?is has sometimes be5 popul>ly assum$ to be1 at lea/ pot5tially1 a complete solution ( ! problem2 b nev]!less x has its di/9ct limitations4 ,wat] p[] has ! advantages t its s\rces are n exhau/$ by use1 & t ! relatively great] initial co/ ( a hydro-electric plant is frequ5tly m ?an comp5sat$ = by ! sav+ 9 man p[] requir$ & by ! l[] op]at+ exp5se4 ,h[ev]1 ! total am\nt ( wat] p[] :i* c be develop$ on a comm]cial basis is r closely limit$1 & mu* ( ! available p[] is s di/ribut$ geographically t x _c be economically suppli$ to ! indu/ries :i* ne$ x4 ,( ! total wat]-p[] res\rces ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates :i* h be5 e/imat$ by ! ,geological ,survey to be available = ultimate developm5t1 ov] #gj p] c5t is we/ ( ! ,mississippi1--:]eas ov] #gj p] c5t ( ! horse-p[] n[ in/all$ 9 prime mov]s is ea/ ( ! ,mississippi4 ,electric p[] _c at pres5t be economically transmitt$ m ?an a few hundr$ miles4 ,fur!rmore1 = _m uses ( coal1 z 9 metallurgical & *emical processes :i* require ! heat or r$uc+ action ( burn+ coal1 & 9 its use z fuel = %ips1 hydro-electric p[] _c be sub/itut$4 ,x seems cle> t :ile ! use ( wat] p[] w increase1 p>ticul>ly z ris+ prices ( coal make possible ! developm5t ( new sites1 x c nev] take ! place ( ! m9]al fuels 9 any l>ge proportion4 ,= ! imm$iate future1 measures :i* h be5 sugge/$ to ext5d ! use ( wat] p[] include3 ! m complete utilization ( wat] p[]s already 9 use ?r\gh m effici5t ma*9]y & me?ods2 a c]ta9 degree ( r$i/ribution ( indu/ries1 s t ^? requir+ l>ge am\nts ( p[] may be locat$ 9 areas :]e wat] p[] is *eap & abundant2 & ! int]connection ( hydro-electric plants s t _! full capacity may be us$4 ,"s wat] p[]s :i* h be5 develop$ are n be+ fully utiliz$ because ! plants are n connect$ ) di/ribution sy/ems l>ge en\gh to use all ! p[]4 ,dur+ ! w> ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,geological ,survey1 9 coop]ation ) ! ,fuel ,adm9i/ration & ! ,w> ,indu/ries ,bo>d1 collect$ ! in=mation requir$ to prep>e maps %[+ ! locations & relations ( p[] /ations & transmission l9es ?r\gh\t ! c\ntry4 ,?is survey ( ! situation %[$ _m possibilities1 :i* _h be=e be5 b vaguely realiz$1 ( int]connections :i* w\ld increase ! effici5cy ( ! plants4 #b4 ,sub/itution ( l[]-grade coals--( bitum9\s = an?racite1 & ( l[-grade bitum9\s = high-grade bitum9\s coals4 ,l>g] use ( l[-grade we/]n coals4 ,w> & po/-w> conditions h %[n ,g]many ! way to a wide & effective use ( its lignites4 ,?is has be5 accompli%$ by coop]ation ( ! gov]nm5t & private int]e/s4 ,?is va/ improvem5t 9 me?ods ( treatm5t & recov]y ( heat+ elem5ts & by-products w d\btless h a widespread effect on utilization ( lignites 9 o!r p>ts ( ! _w4 #c4 ,sub/itution ( alcohol & natural gas1 oil1 oil %ales1 peats1 etc41 z a s\rce ( p[]4 ,?is m]ely conc5trates ! cons]vation problem m l>gely on ^! m9]als1 9 "s ( :i*1 at lea/1 x is already consid]ably m acute ?an 9 ! case ( coal2 x is n a solution ( ! problem1 b m]ely a %ift+ ( emphasis4 ,bus9ess conditions h limit$ private ent]prise 9 ?is class ( measures1 b "s progress has be5 made4 ,m rapid introduction ( ^! measures w\ld require sacrifice ( private int]e/ & probably may be accompli%$ only by application ( public p[]4 ,,division ,,( ,,responsibility ,,betwe5 ,,gov]nm5t ,,& ,,private ,,int]e/s ,,9 ,,! ,,cons]vation ,,( ,,coal ,a review ( ! cons]vation measures above li/$ indicates t _m ( !m are already 9 op]ation1 & t ! initiative = su* measures has be5 l>gely suppli$ by private own]%ip endeavor+ to advance its own int]e/4 ,9 ?is category are to be includ$ mo/ ( ! improvem5ts 9 physical me?ods ( m9+1 prep>ation1 & utilization ( coal1 ! use ( sub/itutes = coal1 ! conc5tration ( control into l>g] gr\ps bett] able to introduce new me?ods1 & ! improvem5t ( labor & liv+ conditions2 also1 "u rec5t conditions1 ! increase 9 sell+ price1 all[+ = a wid] application ( ^! measures4 ,ano!r gr\p ( cons]vation proposals1 :i* h n yet be5 put into sub/antial effect1 are obvi\sly beyond ! p[] ( private int]e/s2 & mu/ be introduc$1 if at all1 by ! application ( gov]nm5t p[]4 ,^! include ! elim9ation ( res\rce or royalty co/s1 ! control ( ov]-capitalization1 ! removal ( re/rictions on conc5tration ( control1 ! grant+ ( p]mission = coop]ation among competitive units1 ! regulation ( sell+ price m9imums 9 ord] to insure dur+ normal times ! use ( bett] physical practices1 & ! control ( di/ribution4 ,9 %ort1 x appe>s t !re are two great sph]es ( cons]vational activity--"o )9 ! field ( private endeavor1 & ! o!r possible only by collective action ?r\gh ! gov]nm5t4 ,! pr9cipal advances ?us f> made h be5 9 ! field ( private endeavor4 ,! gov]nm5t has aid$ greatly 9 ! advancem5t ( cons]vation measures aris+ )9 ! field ( private endeavor4 ,"o ne$ only ref] to _m gov]nm5tal inve/igations1 to ! spread+ ( in=mation z to be/ me?ods1 & to local compulsory requirem5ts t ! be/ practices be made uni=m & t backw>d int]e/s !reby be br\ght into l9e4 ,recognition ( ! fact t !re is a l>ge body ( s\nd cons]vational practice 9 ! coal indu/ry :i* falls )9 ! range ( self-int]e/ seems ess5tial 9 plann+ fur!r *anges 9 ! direction ( cons]vation4 ,cons]vational measures d n all require sacrifice ( ! individual to ! public1 nor ( ! pres5t to ! future g5]ations4 ,an ex]cise ( public p[] is n 9 all cases ess5tial to ! advancem5t ( cons]vation4 ,! respective limits ( ! fields ( public & private endeavor are n %>ply def9$1 & v>y f place to place & "t to "t1 dep5d+ ^u local conditions & special requirem5ts4 ,9 g5]al1 ! sph]e ( private int]e/ includes measures :i* w br+ adequate comm]cial return4 ,! int]e/ rate is ! limit+ & controll+ factor4 ,:5 x is possible--by improvem5t ( me?ods ( m9+1 bett] plann+1 bett] prep>ation ( coal1 bett] transportation & di/ribution1 or bett] utilization--to secure a l>g] av]age return on ! inve/m5t1 or to insure return ?r\gh a long] p]iod ( ye>s1 self-int]e/ naturally requires ! introduction ( su* me?ods z rapidly z f9ancial conditions all[4 ,ev5 "s ( ! improvem5ts 9 labor & welf>e conditions h be5 introduc$ 9 ?is way1 ) a view to secur+ a m p]man5t & m effici5t labor supply1 & !reby aid+ ! ent]prise f ! comm]cial /&po9t4 ,)9 ! sph]e ( gov]nm5t activity lie ! removal ( unnecess>y re/rictions on private initiative1 & su* cons]vation measures z involve "s sacrifice ( individual returns--9 o!r words1 a r$uction ( ! normal int]e/ rate4 ,ex]cise ( gov]nm5t p[] may be directly helpful )9 ! field ( private endeavor )\t mat]ially sacrific+ private int]e/s2 b beyond ?is po9t !re are additional l>ge possibilities ( cons]vational activity :i* are cle>ly beyond ! control ( private int]e/s4 ,! introduction ( any ( ^! latt] *anges w\ld evid5tly be s f>-rea*+ 9 effect1 & w\ld require su* broad readju/m5ts n only )9 b )\t ! m9]al indu/ry1 t ! necessity or desirability is n 9 all cases s cle> z 9 ! case ( measures already introduc$ = private int]e/4 ,! mo/ obvi\sly helpful /ep possible to ! gov]nm5t 9 ! imm$iate future is to p]mit coop]ative arrangem5ts "u private own]%ip1--:i* w\ld make x possible to use common sell+ ag5cies1 !reby r$uc+ ! co/ ( sell+2 to divide ! t]ritory to be s]v$1 !reby avoid+ excessive cross freights2 & to allot ! output 9 proportion to ! dem& f v>i\s t]ritories1 ?us elim9at+ excessive competition & ov]-production4 ,all ( ^! measures c\ld be accompli%$ )\t detrim5t to ! public if prop]ly regulat$ by ! gov]nm5t4 ,! v l>ge sav+ possible by ?is means w\ld all[ ! introduction ( cons]vational me?ods at ! m9es )\t rais+ ! co/ to ! public4 ,w> conditions requir$ ev5 m imm$iate & sweep+ application ( gov]nm5t p[] ?an above indicat$1 b cons]vational purposes 7 q ov]%ad[$ by o!r consid]ations4 ,:]e ! m9]al res\rces are already own$ by ! gov]nm5t1 or c be acquir$ by ! gov]nm5t1 "s ( ! tr\blesome factors 9 ! problem are remov$4 ,9 su* cases x is possible to "w out an intellig5t plan = gov]nm5t control )\t ! difficulties :i* arise 9 deal+ ) private own]%ip1--al?\gh1 ( c\rse1 new difficulties are introduc$ 7see also pp4 #cde-cdg47 ,! fact t !re are cons]vational measures possible only to gov]nm5ts has be5 widely us$ z an argum5t = introduc+ gov]nm5t own]%ip or control4 ,rec5t vigor\s dem&s = ! nationalization ( natural res\rces 9 ,europe1 & ! increas+ discussion ( ! subject 9 ?is c\ntry1 may be reg>d$ z phases ( ! cons]vation problem4 ,x is n ! purpose "h to argue ei!r = or aga9/ ! dra/ic ex]cise ( gov]nm5t p[] 9 ! cons]vation ( natural res\rces1 b m]ely to call att5tion to ! measures :i* are be+ discuss$4 ,,cons]vation ,,( ,,m9]als ,,o!r ,,?an ,,coal ,! discussion ( cons]vation z appli$ to specific m9]als might be ext5d$ almo/ indef9itely2 b p]haps en\gh has be5 said to indicate ! g5]al nature ( ! field4 ,be=e ! w> c>eful e/imates ( _w supplies _h be5 made = comp>atively few m9]als1 al?\gh ^! includ$ "s ( ! mo/ important1 su* z coal1 oil1 & iron4 ,w> conditions requir$ a ha/y e/imate ( _w res]ves ( mo/ ( ! m9]al products4 ,! read] int]e/$ 9 ! problem w f9d an extremely int]e/+ body ( lit]ature issu$ by ! v>i\s gov]nm5ts on ?is subject4 ,( especial int]e/ to ! ,am]ican read] w be ! reports ( ! ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey & ( ! ,bureau ( ,m9es4 ,9 rec5t ye>s !re has be5 increas+ recognition ( ! possibilities ( cons]vational sav+ by conc5tration1 ref9em5t1 & ev5 manufacture ( m9]al commodities at or ne> ! po9t ( orig91--?us less5+ ! tonnage involv$ 9 transportation ( ! crude products4 ,limitations ( fuel & o!r conditions (t5 make ?is proc$ure difficult2 b consid]able progress is be+ made bo? ?r\gh private initiative &1 especially 9 int]national trade1 ?r\gh gov]nm5tal regulations ( great v>iety4 ,,footnotes3 #db ,campbell1 ,m4 ,r41 ,! coal fields ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates3 ,pr(4 ,pap] #ajj-;,a1 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,survey1 #aiag1 p4 #bd4 #dc ,f9al report ( ! ,royal ,commission on coal supplies3 ,h\se ( ,commons1 ,london1 vol4 #af1 #aije4 #dd ,report ( ! ,national ,cons]vation ,commission3 ,s5ate ,docum5t ,no4 #fgf1 #fj? ,congress1 #b;d session1 ,govt4 ,pr9t+ ,(fice1 ,wa%+ton1 #aiji4 #de ,van ,hise1 ,c4 ,r41 ,! cons]vation ( natural res\rces 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates3 ,macmillan ,co41 ,new ,york1 #aiaj4 #df ,haas1 ,frank1 ,! cons]vation ( coal ?r\gh ! employm5t ( bett] me?ods ( m9+3 ,ab/ract ( pap] pres5t$ to ,pan-,am]ican ,sci5tific ,congress1 ,wa%+ton1 ,dec41 #aiae-;,jan41 #aiaf4 #dg ,adams1 ,frank ,d41 ,our m9]al res\rces & ! problem ( _! prop] cons]vation3 #f? ,ann4 ,rept41 ,commission ( ,cons]vation1 ,canada1 #aiae1 pp4 #eb-fi4 #dh ,*ance1 ,h4 ,m41 ,address be=e ! m9e eng9e]+ class ( ! ,p5nsylvania ,/ate ,college1 ,quot$ by ,f4 ,w4 ,gray1 ,! cons]vation ( coal3 ,bull4 #dg1 ,c4 ,m9+ ,in/41 #aiaf1 p4 #bja4 #di ,loc4 cit4 #ej ,campbell1 ,m4 ,r41 & ,p>k]1 ,e4 ,w41 ,coal fields ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,pap]s on ! cons]vation ( m9]al res\rces3 ,bull4 #cid1 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,survey1 #aiji1 p4 #ab4 #ea ,loc4 cit4 p4 #ab4 #eb ,smi?1 ,george ,otis1 & ,le%]1 ,c4 ,e41 ,! co/ ( coal3 ,sci5ce1 vol4 #dd1 #aiaf1 p4 #gfh4 #ec ,loc cit41 pp4 #gfh-gfi4 #ed ,loc4 cit41 p4 #gga4 #ee ,van ,hise1 ,*>les ,r41 ,coop]ation 9 indu/ry1 pp4 #g-h1 ,address giv5 be=e annual meet+ ( ! ,national ,lumb] ,manufactur]s' ,association1 ,*icago1 ,ill9ois1 ,may #ca1 #aiaf4 #ef ,loc4 cit41 p4 #gfg4 #eg ,/abilization ( ! bitum9\s coal indu/ry1 ,extracts f ! aw>d & recomm5dations ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,bitum9\s ,coal ,commission1 ,gov]nm5t ,pr9t+ ,(fice1 ,wa%+ton1 #aibj4 ,,*apt] ,,xviii ,,int]national ,,aspects ,,( ,,m9]al ,,res\rces ,,_w ,,movem5t ,,( ,,m9]als ,( ! annual _w production ( m9]als ab\t two-?irds are us$ )9 ! c\ntries :]e ! m9]als are produc$ & "o-?ird is %ipp$ to o!r c\ntries4 ,9 ?is *apt] we are conc]n$ prim>ily ) ! "p :i* moves betwe5 c\ntries4 ,x may be assum$ t ! consumption )9 ! c\ntries ( orig9 is a matt] ( national r ?an int]national conc]n4 ,9 pre-w> times m9]als con/itut$ ab\t #cc p] c5t#eh ( ! value ( ! total =eign trade ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & #bh p] c5t ( ! =eign trade ( ,g]many4 ,figures are n available to %[ ! proportion ( m9]al tonnage to t ( o!r commodities4 ,"o ( ! sev]al int]e/+ facts 9 ?is _w movem5t ( m9]als is t ! movem5t ( mo/ ( !m %[s a r rem>kable conc5tration4 ,= in/ance1 manganese moves f ?ree pr9cipal s\rces to f\r or five consum+ c5t]s4 ,*romite moves f two pr9cipal s\rces2 tung/5 also f two4 ,ev5 = c]ta9 commodities :i* are widely di/ribut$ & move 9 l>ge am\nts1 ! conc5tration ( movem5t is r m>k$2 = in/ance1 ! _w movem5t ( coal is controll$ by ,engl&1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & ,g]many4 ,9 o!r words1 al?\gh ! _w movem5t ( m9]al commodities is widespread & exhibits _m complex features1 mo/ ( ! individual m9]als foll[ two or ?ree sali5t l9es ( movem5t4 ,?is means 9 g5]al t = ea* m9]al !re are c]ta9 s\rces ( limit$ geographic ext5t1 :i*1 because ( location1 grade1 relation to transportation1 co/--9 %ort1 all ! factors t ent] into availability--are drawn ^u heavily = ! _w's *ief dem&s4 ,! conv]g5ce ( ^! mat]ials t[>d a few consum+ c5t]s indicates g5]ally conc5tration ( coal production necess>y to smelt+1 high developm5t ( manufactur+1 l>ge p] capita use1 conc5tration ( facilities1 /rong f9ancial control1 &1 n lea/1 a l>ge elem5t ( ent]prise :i* has tak5 advantage ( m or less favorable conditions4 ,if a nation 7 fully suppli$ ) m9]al res\rces1 )\t excess1 ! m9]al problem might be almo/ exclusively dome/ic 9 its nature4 ,b no c\ntry is s situat$4 ,= mo/ ( ! m9]al products ! dom9ant supply is likely to be controll$ by "o or two nations1 ! o!r nations be+ correspond+ly defici5t & dep5d5t4 ,ev5 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 :i* is m ne>ly self-su/a9+ 9 m9]al res\rces ?an any o!r c\ntry1 is almo/ :olly dep5d5t on o!r c\ntries = c]ta9 m9]al supplies2 & 9 ! case ( m9]als ( :i* x has an excess x is dep5d5t on o!r c\ntries = m>kets4 ,! view t ! m9]al res\rce problem is solely a local & national "o1 ( no conc]n to outsid]s1 ignores ?is fundam5tal fact ( di/ribution ( raw mat]ials4 ,control ( smelt+ facilities makes x possible = c]ta9 c\ntries to ex]cise consid]able influ5ce ov] ! production & di/ribution ( m9]als 9 o!r c\ntries1 & ?us pres5ts _m difficult int]national que/ions4 ,ev5 m difficult are ! int]national problems creat$ by ! comm]cial own]%ip & control ( m9]als 9 ! gr\nd by nationals ( o!r c\ntries4 ,! national & int]national aspects ( m9]al res\rces are difficult to sep>ate1 s intimately d !y react on ea* o!r4 ,to "s ext5t !re may be conflict ( int]e/ betwe5 ! two1 b 9 ! ma9 ! int]national que/ions may be logically approa*$ f ! /&po9t ( national self-int]e/2 =1 9 ! conduct ( ! national indu/ry along broad & enlight5$ l9es1 _w conditions mu/ necess>ily be consid]$4 ,a cle>] compreh5sion ( ! _w m9]al relations1 & an und]/&+ ( our own opportunities & limitations 9 comp>ison ) ^? ( our neighbors1 _c b elim9ate "s ( ! unnecess>y h&icaps to ! be/ use ( ! _w m9]al res\rces1 & result 9 a less5+ ( causes ( int]national discord4 ,a brief survey ( ! m9]al conditions prec$+1 dur+1 & foll[+ ! w> may s]ve z a conv5i5t means ( approa* to a /udy ( ! pres5t int]national aspects ( ! m9]al problem4 ,,movem5t ,,( ,,m9]als ,,"u ,,pre-,,w> ,,conditions ,,( ,,int]national ,,trade ,if ! _w pre-w> movem5t ( m9]als is consid]$ broadly1 x may be reg>d$ z con=m+ ess5tially to normal trade conditions ( supply & dem&4 ,!re h be5 b>ri]s to ov]come1 su* z t>iffs & trade controls & monopolies ( v>i\s k9ds1 b ^! b>ri]s h n prev5t$ ! major movem5ts betwe5 ! be/ s\rces ( supply & ! pr9cipal consum+ c5t]s4 ,^! movem5ts may be reg>d$ z a m or less spontane\s int]nationalization ( m9]al res\rces by private ent]prise4 ,! aim ( free trade or unre/rict$ comm]ce 0 equality ( trade opportunities2 b su* conditions ( unre/rict$ competition t5d$ to conc5trate trade 9 ! h&s ( ! /ronge/ int]e/s & to prev5t equality ( opportunity4 ,! ef=ts made to promote or h9d] int]national m9]al movem5ts by t>iffs1 bonuses1 emb>goes1 subsidies1 transport control1 pat5ts1 gov]nm5t managem5t1 f9ancial pressure1 & o!r means h be5 incit$ ma9ly by national or imp]ial self-int]e/1 & h ?us be5 to "s ext5t inimical to an int]nationalization bas$ on ! pr9ciple ( ! greate/ good to ! greate/ numb]4 ,x may be suppos$ t1 9 any ef=t to atta9 sup]national or int]national control1 motives & measures bas$ on national self-int]e/ ( ! sort "h m5tion$ w cont9ue to play an important "p4 ,,*anges ,,dur+ ,,! ,,w> ,! w> wr\ght fundam5tal *anges 9 ! _w movem5t ( m9]als4 ,! "* & di/ribution ( ! dem&s *ang$4 ,cu/om>y s\rces ( supply 7 cut (f4 ,f9ancial di/urbances & %ip %ortage pr(\ndly modifi$ ! nature1 di/ribution1 & ext5t ( ! _w movem5t4 ,our dome/ic m9]al indu/ry 0 abruptly br\ght to a realization ( its vital relations ) int]national trade4 ,to illu/rate1 ! l>ge movem5t ( manganese f ,india & ,russia to ! ,unit$ ,/ates 0 abruptly /opp$1 & we _h to develop a s\rce ( supply 9 ,brazil4 ,! /oppage ( pyrite importations f ,spa9 z a means ( sav+ %ips requir$ ! developm5t ( pyrite & sulphur supplies 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! export ( oil f ! ,unit$ ,/ates to ,european c\ntries 0 greatly /imulat$1 & ! export to o!r c\ntries 0 correspond+ly decreas$4 ,! _w movem5ts ( coal 7 vitally affect$1 pr9cipally by ! limitation ( ! coal %ipm5ts f ,engl& & ! ,unit$ ,/ates to ,s\? ,am]ica & ! conc5tration ( %ipm5ts to ,european c\ntries4 ,! clos+ ( ,g]man coal supplies to ne>by c\ntries also _h f>-rea*+ consequ5ces4 ,! cutt+ (f ( ! ,g]man pota% left ! _w = ! "t be+ almo/ unsuppli$ ) ?is vital f]tiliz+ +r$i5t4 ,! ,*ilean nitrates1 on :i* ! _w _h reli$ = f]tiliz] purposes1 7 div]t$ almo/ exclusively to ! manufacture ( p[d]4 ,! total annual imports ( m9]al commodities into ! ,unit$ ,/ates 7 r$uc$ by #a1bjj1jjj tons4 ,our exports1 ?\gh !y cont9u$ 9 l>ge volume1 7 ma9ly conc5trat$ 9 ,europe4 ,! /ory ( ^! di/urbances 9 ! _w movem5t ( m9]als1 ?\gh highly int]e/+1 is too long to be told "h4 ,out ( ^! sweep+ & rapid *anges 9 ! _w movem5t ( m9]al commodities !re arose1 p>tly z cause & p>tly z effect1 int]national agreem5ts = ! allocation ( m9]als1 z a means ( insur+ ! prop] proportions ( supplies to ! diff]5t c\ntries = ! mo/ effective prosecution ( ! w>4 ,int]-,alli$ pur*as+ committees 9 ,london & 9 ,p>is f\nd x necess>y to make an int]-,alli$ allocation ( ! output ( ,*ilean nitrate1 because ! sum ( ! dem&s exce$$ ! total supply by a consid]able fraction1 & to agree on ! di/ribution & prices ( ! _w's supplies ( t91 tung/51 & plat9um4 ,= _m o!r commodities agreem5ts ( v>i\s sorts 7 made4 ,= in/ance1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ent]$ into an agreem5t ) ,engl& & ,france = ! pur*ase ( iron ore & molybd5um f ,sc&9avia to keep x out ( ,g]many4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,engl& agre$ z to supply+ ,canada ) f]romanganese4 ,new problems ( _w allocation came up almo/ daily4 ,ano!r w> *ange 9 m9]al conditions1 ( a m p]man5t nature1 0 ! liquidation ( ,g]man own]%ip & control ( m9]als 9 alli$ c\ntries1 & 9 "s cases ev5 9 neutral c\ntries4 ,,po/-,,w> ,,condition ,,( ,,! ,,m9]al ,,trade ,! m9]al indu/ry has by no means rev]t$ to its pre-w> condition4 ,! old movem5ts h be5 only p>tially resum$1 & new elem5ts h ent]$4 ,%ipp+ is /ill di/urb$4 ,gov]nm5ts h be5 coop]at+ 9 v>i\s ways 9 ! liquidation ( gov]nm5t /ocks ( m9]als4 ,! ,g]man comm]cial control ( m9]als outside ( its b\nd>ies1 z not$ above1 has be5 mu* weak5$4 ,! ,rep>ations ,committee creat$ by ! ,peace ,treaty has enorm\s p[]s ov] ! use & di/ribution ( ! m9]al res\rces ( ,g]many1 :i* directly & indirectly affect ! m9]al supplies ( ,europe & all ! _w4 ,! t]ms ( ! ,peace ,treaty *ang$ 9 fundam5tal ways ! int]national *annels ( m9]al movem5t4 ,! m9]al situation ( ,europe is 9 su* a /ate ( *aos t ! comb9$ ef=ts ( gov]nm5ts w be necess>y = _m ye>s to br+ ord]4 ,?is w be accompli%$ p>tly ?r\gh ! ,rep>ations ,committee1 b may require o!r =ms ( coop]ation4 ,an int]national coal commission has already be5 =m$ to look aft] ! di/ribution ( coal ?r\gh ,europe4 ,int]national coop]ation 9 m9]al di/ribution is n m]ely a !oretical possibility = ! future1--x is n[ ! out/&+ fact ) ref]5ce to ! ,european situation4 ,! recognition ( _! dep5d5ce on neighbors = important m9]al res\rces has l$ to e>ne/ ef=ts on ! "p ( nations to supply defici5cies4 ,! great activity ( ! ,briti% gov]nm5t 9 acquir+ oil is "o example4 ,! fall+ (f ( gold production ! _w ov]1 toge!r ) ! increas$ disp>ity betwe5 gold res]ves & ! curr5cy issu$ aga9/ !m1 is caus+ s]i\s consid]ation ( gov]nm5t action to enc\rage ! gold indu/ry by f9ancial measures t5d+ to increase ! pr(it ( ! m9]s 7see pp4 #bbd-bbe74 ,be=e & s9ce ! w> mo/ c\ntries ( ! globe1 outside ( ,engl& & ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 h gone f> 9 ! ex]cise ( ! "r ( em95t doma9 ov] m9]al res\rces )9 _! own b\nd>ies4 ,ev5 9 ,engl& ! rec5t movem5t to nationalize ! coal & oil res\rces is an indication ( ! g5]al t5d5cy4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! movem5t has manife/$ itself ?us f> only 9 ! increas+ reluctance on ! "p ( ! gov]nm5t to "p ) m9]al res\rces on ! public doma91--z is cle> f ! t]ms ( its new leas+ law to cov] oil1 coal1 gas1 pota%1 & phosphates on public l&s4 ,be=e ! w> only ! ,g]man gov]nm5t 0 cle>ly id5tifi$ ) private int]e/s 9 int]national trade & 9 ! acquirem5t ( m9]al res]ves4 ,s9ce ! w> all gov]nm5ts except t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates are tak+ an active "p 9 ^! fields1 bo? directly & 9 coop]ation ) private capital4 ,! ,briti% gov]nm5t has tak5 a direct f9ancial int]e/ 9 c]ta9 companies1 su* = in/ance z ! ,anglo-,p]sian & ,%ell ,oil ,companies1 & 9 "s cases is actively int]e/$ 9 ! acquirem5t ( sell+ contracts4 ,9 ,engl& !re is a wid] use ( vot+ tru/s 9 controll+ private companies1 ) ! purpose ( prev5t+ ! control f fall+ into ali5 h&s4 ,gov]nm5t control ( %ipp+ 9 c]ta9 c\ntries is involv+ v>i\s degrees ( control ( m9]al movem5ts4 ,also1 ?r\gh loans & bonds1 m9]al res\rces 9 c]ta9 c\ntries h be5 ti$ up by ! loan+ gov]nm5ts4 ,!re has be5 wide ext5sion ( gov]nm5t control ( m9]als 9 m&atory t]ritories & else:]e ?r\gh _m new loans & regulations4 ,^! /eps are 9 effect clos+ important p>ts ( ! _w to private initiative1 & p>ticul>ly to nationals ( o!r c\ntries4 ,:e!r ^! activities ( gov]nm5ts are economically desirable or n1 !y are ! actual conditions1 n !ories4 ,if ?is situation cont9ues1 x raises ! "q :e!r our gov]nm5t w n be =c$1 9 protection ( its own m9]al indu/ries1 also to take a direct "p2 = "u pres5t conditions1 our import]s & export]s f9d !mselves deal+ s+le-h&$ ) gov]nm5ts or ) private gr\ps s closely id5tifi$ ) gov]nm5ts z to h mu* ! same p[]4 ,9 matt]s ( %ipp+1 cr$its1 ex*ange1 t>iffs1 emb>goes1 & opportunity to acquire =eign res]ves1 ! actual & pot5tial disadvantage to ,am]ican int]e/s is obvi\s4 ,,t5d5cies ,,t[>d ,,int]national ,,coop]ation ,,& ,,possibility ,,( ,,int]national ,,control#ei ,,( ,,m9]als ,"u ! pre-w> conditions1 unre/rict$ competition 9 _w trade by private ent]prise _h l$ to a c]ta9 k9d ( int]nationalization ( m9]al deposits bas$ on natural conditions ( availability4 ,!re is a natural t5d5cy to "w back z quickly z possible to ?is condition1 b new elem5ts h ent]$ :i* seem to make x difficult = gov]nm5ts to keep _! h&s (f4 ,! p>ticipation ( gov]nm5ts 9 _w m9]al trade1 :5 n modifi$ by int]national coop]ation or "s o!r high] =m ( control1 seems to be hav+ a t5d5cy 9 ! opposite direction--to be clos+ ! doors ( equal opportunity & prev5t+ ! natural _w use ( ! _w's res\rces4 ,^! new conditions1 toge!r ) o!rs outl9$ 9 ! prec$+ section1 h made x necess>y to pay m att5tion to ! possibilities ( int]national coop]ation ?an ev] be=e1--n z a re/rictive measure1 except tempor>ily 9 reg>d to ! ,c5tral ,european p[]s1--b z a means ( insur+ op5 *annels ( movem5t = raw mat]ials1 & ( insur+ equal economic opportunities to all4 ,_m ( our m9]al indu/ries h already appeal$ to our gov]nm5t = coop]ation & aid 9 _! int]national deal+s4 ,fur!r1 m9]al indu/ries 9 private h&s 9 ! v>i\s ,alli$ c\ntries h attempt$ to get toge!r to arrange = private coop]ation1 & appeal$ to ! ,peace ,conf]5ce = au?ority to d s4 ,9 c]ta9 cases ! necessity = coop]ative action became s app>5t t pressure 0 br\ght to be> on ! ,peace ,conf]5ce = ! =m+ ( "s sort ( int]national economic body :i* w\ld make possible "s ( ^! /eps4 ,^! movem5ts 7 all dictat$ by consid]ations ( self-int]e/1 b self-int]e/ broad5$ & educat$ by a k ( ! _w's situation4 ,j z ! increas+ size ( ! units engag$ 9 ! m9]al trade )9 national b\nd>ies has l$ to discussion ( ! possibilities ( gov]nm5t control 9 ! int]e/ ( ! public1 s ! increas+ size ( ! units 9 ! int]national m9]al trade1 ! units 9 _m cases be+ gov]nm5ts1 is lead+ to discussion ( ! possibility ( "s int]national or sup]national control 9 ! int]e/ ( ! _w good4 ,j z national int]e/ is ! l5g!n$ %ad[ ( individual int]e/1 s int]national int]e/ may be reg>d$ 9 "s aspects z ! l5g!n$ %ad[ ( national int]e/4 ,! g5]al purpose ( ! sugge/$ control is to m9imize int]national friction2 b m specifically x has be5 sugge/$ t "s sort ( int]national coop]ation is necess>y 9 ord] to insure equality ( opportunity among nations1 bo? 9 supplies & 9 m>kets1 & !reby to prev5t ! cr[d+ ( ! weak] by ! /rong] nations4 ,?is is ! gi/ ( "o ( ! fam\s f\rte5 po9ts4 ,! purpose might be accompli%$ by direct allocation ( supplies or by control ( t>iffs & ex*ange4 ,"o ( ! conditions :i* seems to require int]national coop]ation is ! exploitation ( m9]al deposits 9 backw>d c\ntries4 ,unre/rict$ competition among nations 9 su* exploitation has be5 an important cause ( int]national controv]sy4 ,x 0 plann$ at ,peace ,conf]5ce t ! m9]al res\rces 9 c\ntries tak5 ov] by ! great p[]s "u m&atories %\ld be develop$ & us$ 9 ! int]e/ ( ! gr\p ( nations1 r ?an = ! special int]e/ ( ! nation tak+ ! m&atory4 ,"o ( ! natural functions ( any int]national or sup]national organization w\ld be ! adju/m5t & settlem5t ( difficulties aris+ f ?is provision4 ,?is topic br+s up ! "q z to ! "r ( any nation or gr\p ( nations to ex]t any =ce on weak] nations 9 ! exploitation ( m9]al res\rces4 ,on ! pr9cipal ( self-det]m9ation & ( ! complete fre$om ( action ( nations1 ?is proc$ure seems unju/ifi$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :e!r rightly or wrongly1 civilization has creat$ great mat]ial dem&s :i* mu/ be satisfi$4 ,! individuals1 companies1 & gov]nm5ts :i* use =ce to exploit res\rces 9 weak] c\ntries are m]ely ! ag5ts 9 supply+ ! dem& creat$ by all ( u4 ,:ile _! me?ods are (t5 indef5sible1 ! exploit]s _c be reg>d$ m]ely z irresponsible buccane]s :o are project+ !mselves unnecess>ily into somebody else's bus9ess4 ,:atev] ! s5tim5tal & e?ical aspects ( ! "q1 x seems almo/ inevitable t ! dem&s ( civilization w cont9ue to require ! exploitation ( weak] c\ntries2 & 9 proportion z ^! c\ntries are backw>d 9 coop]at+1 !y mu/ feel ! _w pressure4 ,an agreem5t = int]national coop]ation 9 su* matt]s1 !re=e1 is n to be reg>d$ z m]ely a cold-blood$ attempt to rob weak] nations1--b r z a means ( improv+ me?ods 9 satisfy+ ! actually exi/+ mat]ial dem&s ( civilization4 ,= illu/ration1 ! criticism ( ,engl&'s attempt to develop ! oil indu/ry ( ,mesopotamia & ,p]sia has to a l>ge ext5t confus$ ! me?ods ) ! aim s\ght =4 ,x is ! writ]'s view t developm5t ( ^! res\rces is inevitable1 & t criticism %\ld n be direct$ t[>d nations & gr\ps attempt+ to atta9 ^! results1 b r to ! me?ods appli$4 ,= ! purposes ( ?is discussion1 x is n necess>y to g beyond ! acceptance ( ! fact ( dem&1 nor to argue ! "q z to :e!r ! mat]ial dem&s ( civilization %\ld be curb$ & progress re/rict$ to matt]s ( m9d & human happ9ess4 ,,me?ods ,,( ,,int]national ,,coop]ation ,! fir/ /ep 9 int]national consid]ation ( m9]als is obvi\sly "o ( fact-f9d+4 ,?is became pa9fully evid5t dur+ ! great w>1 :5 ! sudd5 cutt+ (f ( outside supplies & m>kets br\ght home ! fact t ! m9]al "q is only 9 "p a dome/ic "o4 ,! av]age m9+ man _h come to take ! e/abli%$ m>ket+ & comm]cial conditions m or less = grant$1 & _h n look$ into ! und]ly+ factors4 ,!re _h be5 a t5d5cy to assume t a k9d ,provid5ce 0 9 "s mann] look+ aft] ^! elem5ts 9 ! situation4 ,! ne>e/ approa* to ,provid5ce1 z a matt] ( fact1 0 a small gr\p ( import]s & export]s1 possess+ special k ( ! int]national movem5ts ( c]ta9 commodities1--:i* k 0 ( unsuspect$ importance to ! m9]al indu/ry4 ,w> conditions %[$ t nei!r ! g5]al public nor ! m9]al indu/ry z a :ole1 mu* less ! gov]nm5t1 _h ev5 an elem5t>y grasp ( ! important elem5ts ( ! _w m9]al situation4 ,! mobiliz+ ( ?is in=mation "u high pressure1 ?r\gh ! coop]ation ( gov]nm5t & private ag5cies1 0 an int]e/+ & important feature 9 ! complex activities back ( ! fir+ l9e4 ,x is va/ly to ! cr$it ( ! m5 int]e/$ 9 ! m9]al indu/ry 9 ?is c\ntry1 & presumably also 9 o!r c\ntries1 t almo/ )\t exception !y contribut$ _! bits ( k to ! common pool1 ev5 ?\gh ^! bits _h be5 9 a s5se _! private capital4 ,c]ta9 import]s1 :o by _! k ( int]national phases ( ! m9]al situation _h be5 able to ex]cise a pr(\nd influ5ce on dome/ic m>kets1 volunt>ily sacrific$ _! own int]e/ = ! common cause & po9t$ out ways 9 :i* r$uctions ( imports c\ld be made4 ,! problems ( ! ,peace ,conf]5ce1 & ( o!r int]national agreem5ts n[ p5d+1 h requir$ a /ill fur!r sy/ematiz+ ( int]national in=mation4 ,"o ( ! results has be5 ! e/abli%m5t ( organizations ( an int]national fact-f9d+ "* 9 our own & 9 c]ta9 o!r gov]nm5ts4 ,9 ! *apt]s on ! sev]al m9]als 9 ?is book1 are summ>iz$ "s ( ! sali5t features ( ! int]national situation develop$ by /udy ( ! k9d indicat$4 ,k ( ! physical facts ( ! _w m9]al situation is only a fir/ /ep4 ,_! int]pretation & correlation1 ! /udy ( ! und]ly+ pr9ciples1 ! =mulation ( ! necess>y int]national agreem5ts & regulations1 con/itute ev5 m difficult problems1 :i* are f> f solv$4 ,!re always has be5 "s coop]ation ( gov]nm5ts 9 ! m9]al trade ?r\gh ! ord9>y diplomatic *annels4 ,! "q is n[ prom95t :e!r1 9 view ( ! new conditions1 x may n be necess>y to develop bett] ma*9]y--9 ! =m ( "s int]national or sup]national organization1 possibly patt]n$ on w> proc$ure--9 ord] to exp$ite ! negotiations & to m9imize possibilities ( friction4 ,dur+ ! w>1 :5 ! _w dem& exce$$ ! total _w supply ( c]ta9 commodities1 su* z nitrate & t91 int]national commissions 7 =m$ 9 ord] to make an equitable di/ribution ( ^! m9]als & prev5t favor$ /rong nations f tak+ too l>ge a proportion ( ! total4 ,?is proc$ure pres5t$ no insurm\ntable difficulties4 ,a canvass ( ! total supplies available & ( ! dem&s ( ! v>i\s c\ntries ord9>ily l$ to volunt>y compromise 9 ! allocation ( supplies4 ,mo/ ( ! regulations ( ^! commissions 7 appli$ to m9]al indu/ries :i* 7 unable to meet ! total dem&4 ,!y 7 n tri$ out 9 cases :]e !re 7 excess supplies2 ?is process obvi\sly w\ld h be5 mu* m difficult1 ?\gh p]haps n impossible4 ,! g5]al success ( int]national attempts to allocate m9]al supplies dur+ ! w> sugge/s ! l9es along :i* results might be accompli%$ dur+ peace4 ,! process is ess5tially a matt] ( gett+ at ! facts1 & !n discuss+ ! situation ar\nd a table1--?us elim9at+ ! long delays & misund]/&+s aris+ f ! proc$ure ?r\gh ! old] e/abli%$ diplomatic *annels4 ,h[ f> su* a proc$ure might be possible )\t ! compell+ common int]e/ ( w> is debatable4 ,! great p[]s ( ! ,rep>ations ,committee1 previ\sly not$1 & ( ! rec5tly =m$ ,european coal commission1 already indicate ! g5]al nature ( ! ma*9]y = int]national control :i* might be ex]cis$ ?r\gh a league ( nations4 ,x is n our purpose to argue = int]national control or = any specific plan ( control1 b r to outl9e ! problem4 ,! "q is n an academic "o4 ,v>i\s k9ds ( int]national control are pres5t facts1 & ! problem relates to ! possibilities ( m effective organization ( exi/+ ag5cies4 ,,cons]vation ,,9 ,,its ,,int]national ,,relations ,! int]e/s ( cons]vation1 consid]+ bo? its physical & its human en]gy phases 7p4 #cfb71 seem to call = an int]national und]/&+ 9 ! use ( m9]al res\rces :i* w result 9 ! m9imum h9drance to _! free movem5ts along natural *annels ( trade4 ,! ess5tial fact ( ! conc5tration ( m9]al supplies 9 comp>atively few _w localities1 & ! fact t no nation is suppli$ ) en\gh ( all v>ieties ( m9]als1 mean t artificial b>ri]s to _! di/ribution _c b impose unnecess>y h&icaps on c]ta9 localities1 :i* may be anti-cons]vational f a _w /&po9t4 ,if ! few c\ntries possess+ adequate supplies ( high-grade f]ro-alloy m9]als1 = in/ance1 7 to re/rict _! di/ribution by t>iffs or o!r measures1 ! result+ co/ to civilization ?r\gh ! h&icapp+ ( ! /eel indu/ry w\ld be a l>ge "o4 ,or if1 = ! g5]al purpose ( mak+ ! ,unit$ ,/ates entirely self-support+ 9 reg>d to m9]al supplies1 suffici5tly high import t>iffs 7 impos$ on ^! m9]als to p]mit ! use ( ! l[-grade deposits 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 e>li] exhau/ion ( ! limit$ dome/ic supplies w\ld foll[1 & 9 ! meantime ! co/ to ! dome/ic /eel indu/ry w\ld be s]i\s4 ,co/ may be tak5 to repres5t ! net result ( human en]gy multipli$ into raw mat]ial4 ,! movem5t w\ld !re=e be anti-cons]vational4 ,if ea* /ate 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates 7 to />t out to become entirely self-su/a9+ 9 reg>d to m9]als1 & by v>i\s regulations 7 able to prohibit ! use ( m9]als br\ght 9 f )\t1 or ! export ( its excess ( m9]als1 ! wa/e 9 ef=t & mat]ials w\ld be obvi\s4 ,nature has cle>ly m>k$ out fields ( specialization = diff]5t localities1 & ! effective use ( m9]al supplies is j z mu* a matt] ( specialization z ! effective use ( man's tal5ts4 ,if ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 because ( its va/ copp] deposits1 is 9 a position to specialize 9 ?is l9e & to aid ! _w !reby1 ?is %\ld involve recognition ( ! fact t o!r c\ntries are bett] able to specialize 9 o!r commodities1--!reby =m+ a basis = mutual ex*ange1 :i* is desirable & necess>y = _w developm5t4 ,?is cons]vational argum5t aga9/ artificial b>ri]s does n necess>ily imply complete elim9ation ( t>iffs or o!r re/rict+ or fo/]+ measures4 ,)9 limits ^! may be necess>y or desirable 9 ord] to ma9ta9 diff]5ces 9 ! /&>d ( liv+1 or 9 ord] to p]mit ! gr[? ( infant indu/ries2 b to c>ry ^! measures to a po9t :]e !y int]f]e ) ess5tial m9]al movem5ts det]m9$ by nature is obvi\sly anti-cons]vational4 ,= "s m9]al commodities1 int]national coop]ation may prev5t duplication 9 ef=ts & ! developm5t ( excessive supplies 9 advance ( ! capacity ( ! _w to use !m4 ,p>tly because ( lack ( su* coop]ation1 c]ta9 m9]al commodities h be5 develop$ 9 su* l>ge quantities 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! _w t x may be _m ye>s be=e dem& cat*es up ) developm5t4 ,9 ! meantime1 l>ge & unnecess>y int]e/ *>ges are pil+ up4 ,?is f9ancial loss measures ! loss 9 effectiv5ess ( collective human ef=t4 ,9 ! above discussion1 little ref]5ce has be5 made to %ortage ( total _w supplies z an argum5t = int]national coop]ation4 ,?is is an argum5t (t5 cit$1 & ) "s effectiv5ess dur+ ! w>4 ,x is ! writ]'s view t ?is phase ( ! problem has be5 mu* exagg]at$4 ,except = c]ta9 p]iods dur+ ! w>1 9 consid]+ ! _w z a :ole adequate supplies ( all m9]al commodities h be5 available at all times4 ,!y h be5 develop$ z rapidly z ne$$1 9 "s cases m rapidly2 & geological conditions seem to indicate t ?is condition w cont9ue = "s "t 9 ! future1 ?r\gh national & individual ef=t4 ,comb9$ ef=ts ( gov]nm5ts seem h>dly necess>y z yet to accompli% ?is purpose4 ,9 fact1 !re is r m dang] ( ov]-developm5t1 )\t due reg>d to ! work+ ( ! int]e/ rate1 :i* might be prev5t$ by int]national coop]ation4 ,! ma9 problem n[ is n "o ( total supplies1 b ( _! effective & equitable di/ribution4 ,,exploration ,,9 ,,its ,,int]national ,,relations ,:5 an explor] or prospector leaves 8 own c\ntry to discov] & acquire m9]als 9 o!r c\ntries1 ) a view to exportation1 x is reasonably obvi\s t he mu/ fir/ acquire a s\nd k ( at lea/ "s ( ! elem5ts ( int]national trade 9 m9]als1--su* z %ipp+ facilities1 rates1 t>iffs1 attitude ( ! gov]nm5t t[>d own]%ip1 t[>d export1 etc4 ,= example1 ! prospector = oil 9 =eign c\ntries w n get v f> )\t consid]+ ! rec5t /eps tak5 by =eign gov]nm5ts1 & m5tion$ on pp4 #aca-acb4 ,! necessity ( /udy ( ! int]national situation 9 conduct+ dome/ic exploration is n s g5]ally recogniz$2 & yet anyone today :o conf9es 8 att5tion solely to ! local physical facts ( ! situation1 & :o ignores int]national consid]ations1 may f9d himself 9 difficulties4 ,! inve/igation ( int]national que/ions is n m]ely desirable f ! /&po9t ( g5]al in=mation1 b may be vital to ! bus9ess or pr(essional success ( ! explor]4 ,= in/ance1 he might take up ! exploration & developm5t 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( f]tiliz]s & f]ro-alloy m9]als :i* are ord9>ily import$2 & )\t und]/&+ ! sev]e limitations impos$ by ! =eign situation1 he might f9d himself ) a prop]ty1 s\nd f a physical /&po9t1 b f9ancially a failure4 ,x is comp>atively easy1 by runn+ ov] ! long li/ ( m9]al commodities us$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 to elim9ate1 on int]national gr\nds1 a consid]able numb] f ! field invit+ f9ancial success1 & to conc5trate on o!rs ^: economic relations are s\nd4 ,9 ! rapid *anges dur+ & s9ce ! w>1 ! necessity = consid]ation ( _w conditions has be5 br\ght home at heavy exp5se to _m bus9ess & pr(essional m5 engag$ 9 ! m9]al indu/ry4 ,,valuation ,,9 ,,its ,,int]national ,,relations ,= m9]al commodities ( limit$ supply & /eady dem&1 m>ket conditions may be m or less tak5 = grant$1 & valuation may be bas$ on local consid]ations4 ,= a l>ge numb] ( m9]al res\rces1 h[ev]1 ! competitive m>ket conditions are any?+ b /able1 because ( =eign competition4 ,x is necess>y n only to "k ! basis = ?is competition1 b also to be able to foll[ intellig5tly its v>i\s *anges4 ,! value ( _m ( our m9]al deposits 9 rec5t ye>s has v>i$ widely ) *anges 9 ! =eign situation4 ,,relative ,,position ,,( ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates ,,9 ,,reg>d ,,to ,,supplies ,,( ,,m9]als ,! ,unit$ ,/ates is m ne>ly self-su/a9+ 9 reg>d to m9]al commodities z a :ole ?an any o!r c\ntry on ! globe4 ,! foll[+ /atem5t summ>izes qualitatively our position3 #a4 ,m9]als ( :i* our exportable surplus dom9ates ! _w situation3 ,copp]4 ,petroleum has belong$ 9 ?is class until rec5tly4 ,9 ! future imports w be requir$ 7see #e foll[+74 #b4 ,m9]als ( :i* our exportable surplus con/itutes an important b n a dom9ant factor 9 ! _w trade3 ,cem5t4 ,coal4 ,iron & /eel4 ,phosphates4 ,silv]4 ,sulphur4 ,uranium & radium4 #c4 ,m9]als ( :i* our exportable surplus is n an important factor 9 _w trade4 ,small am\nts ( mo/ ( ^! m9]als h be5 & w d\btless cont9ue to be import$ because ( special grades1 back-haul1 or *eap] s\rces ( =eign supply1 b ^! imports are = ! mo/ "p n ess5tial z a s\rce ( supply3 ,alum9um & bauxite4 ,ars5ic4 ,artificial abrasives & em]y 7except ,naxos em]y74 ,asphalt & bitum54 ,b>ite4 ,bismu?4 ,borax4 ,brom9e4 ,build+ /one 7except ,italian m>ble74 ,cadmium4 ,feldsp>4 ,fluorsp>4 ,full]'s e>?4 ,gold4 ,gypsum4 ,lead4 ,lime4 ,magnesite4 ,m9]al pa9ts 7except umb]1 si5na1 & o*] f ,france & ,spa974 ,molybd5um4 ,pyrite4 ,salt 7except special classes74 ,talc4 ,titanium4 ,tripoli & diatomace\s e>?4 ,z9c4 #d4 ,m9]als = :i* ! ,unit$ ,/ates mu/ dep5d almo/ entirely on o!r c\ntries3 ,cobalt4 ,nickel4 ,plat9um & metals ( ! plat9um gr\p4 ,t94 #e4 ,m9]als = :i* ! ,unit$ ,/ates w dep5d on =eign s\rces = a consid]able fraction ( ! supply3 ,antimony4 ,asbe/os4 ,ball clay & kaol94 ,*alk4 ,*romite4 ,corundum4 ,diamond du/ & bort4 ,g>net4 ,graphite4 ,gr9d+ pebbles4 ,manganese4 ,m]cury4 ,mica4 ,monazite4 ,naxos em]y4 ,nitrates4 ,petroleum 7see bel[74 ,pota%4 ,preci\s /ones4 ,pumice4 ,tung/54 ,vanadium4 ,zirconium4 ,9 ! pa/ ! production ( petroleum 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates has dom9at$ ! _w petroleum situation2 b dome/ic consumption has n[ ov]tak5 production1 & unless discov]ies ( oil come along at a rapid rate ! dome/ic defici5cy seems likely to increase1 ) correspond+ increase 9 our dep5d5ce on =eign s\rces 7see pp4 #abh-acb74 ,"s ( ! m9]als ( ?is la/ class1 su* z pota%1 manganese1 & *romite 7 develop$ "u w> conditions 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates to su* an ext5t z to mat]ially less5 ! dem& = importation2 b 9 normal times dome/ic s\rces c supply a consid]able fraction ( ! dem& only at high co/ & ) ! aid ( a protective t>iff4 ,no attempt w be made "h to pres5t ! detail$ figures on :i* ! above g5]alizations are bas$4 ,9 view ( ! pres5t di/urb$ conditions ( production & consumption1 any judgm5t z to future dem&s or available surplus mu/ take into acc\nt sev]al factors :i* _c be accurately measur$1--su* z f9ancial control 9 =eign c\ntries1 possible t>iffs1 & =eign competition4 ,= ?is reason ! above /atem5t %\ld be reg>d$ z only t5tative1 ?\gh x is ! result ( a r exhau/ive /udy ( conditions 9 relation to ! _w control ( %ipp+4 ,! classes nam$ ov]lap to "s ext5t1 & x is to be expect$ t "s ( ! commodities plac$ 9 "o class may 9 ! ne> future be transf]r$ to ano!r4 ,9 t]ms ( value1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates has a pot5tial export surplus ( m9]als ab\t twice z l>ge z t ( all ! re/ ( ! _w put toge!r4 ,c\ntries :i* 7 neutral dur+ ! w> h ! rema9+ export surplus4 ,great ,brita91 ,france1 & ,italy h net import requirem5ts consid]ably 9 excess ( _! exports4 ,g]many has almo/ z l>ge a deficit ( m9]als z ! ,unit$ ,/ates has a surplus4 ,f ! above facts x is cle> t1 9 any s*eme ( int]national control or coop]ation1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates w\ld h by f> ! heavie/ /ake1 & p]haps ! mo/ to lose by re/riction4 ,x seems equally cle> t ! prepond]ance ( exportable surplus ( m9]als ov] necess>y imports ju/ifies ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 tak+ a broad & lib]al view ( ! importation ( ne$$ m9]als4 ,! w>-"t necessity ( mak+ our c\ntry z ne>ly self-su/a9+ z possible does n seem to obta9 9 peace times4 ,to c>ry t pr9ciple to an extreme means n only ! exp5sive use ( l[-grade dome/ic supplies1 b ! elim9ation ( ! imports :i* are s necess>y to balance our export trade4 ,^! facts also raise ! "q z to h[ f> ! ,unit$ ,/ates is ju/ifi$ 9 exploit+ ! re/ ( ! _w to add to its already great prepond]ance ( control1--z1 = in/ance1 9 copp]4 ,any fur!r aggr&izem5t ( our position 9 reg>d to su* m9]als may be directly at ! exp5se ( neighbors :o are already f> less well suppli$ ?an ourselves1 & is to be ju/ifi$ only on ! basis ( add+ to ! _w's supply = common use1 & ( l5d+ our exp]t assi/ance to neighbors to make !m m ne>ly self-support+4 ,to c>ry out our campaign 9 ^! cases )\t reg>d to ! ne$s ( o!r c\ntries w obvi\sly n ha/5 ! ideal ( a democratic _w ) equal opportunity = all4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! great fre$om all[$ by our laws 9 reg>d to =eign comm]cial control ( our m9]als1 z comp>$ to ! re/riction on su* control 9 o!r c\ntries1 sugge/s ! desirability ( ex]t+ our pressure = ! op5 door policy 9 all p>ts ( ! _w1 9 ! int]e/ ( desirable reciprocal relations4 ,9 ?is connection !re has be5 a t5d5cy to criticise ,engl&'s po/-w> activity 9 secur+ oil res]ves = ! future4 ,self-int]e/ has cle>ly dictat$ ! necessity = improv+ ,engl&'s weak position 9 reg>d to ?is vital en]gy res\rce4 ,! success ( ?is movem5t obvi\sly means a less5+ ( ! future prepond]ance ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 ! oil indu/ry1 & calls = increas$ activity on ! "p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 ma9ta9+ ! desirable lead+ position x has long held4 ,f ! writ]'s viewpo9t1 h[ev]1 ! fair success ( a rival does n call = criticism ( motives4 ,if !re is any j criticism1 x applies to me?ods 7see pp4 #cij-cia74 ,:atev] action may be tak5 by ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 reg>d to int]national m9]al que/ions1 x is cle> t ! w> has br\ght ?is c\ntry into su* _w relations t x has become imp]ative = u to /udy & und]/& ! _w m9]al situation mu* m compreh5sively ?an be=e1--9 ! int]e/ n only ( intellig5t managem5t ( our own indu/ries1 b ( f>-sight$ h&l+ ( int]national relations4 ,"u ! /ress ( w> ! gov]nm5t1 especially ?r\gh ! ,geological ,survey1 ! ,bureau ( ,m9es1 & ! sev]al w> bo>ds1 f\nd x necess>y to use extraord9>y ef=ts to obta9 ev5 elem5t>y in=mation on ! int]national features ( m9]al trade4 ,mu* progress has be5 made1 b only a />t4 ,! geologi/ or eng9e] :o fails to foll[ ^! inve/igations may be caught napp+ 9 ! economic phases ( 8 "w4 ,,! ,,coal ,,& ,,iron ,,situation ,,( ,,we/]n ,,europe ,,"u ,,! ,,t]ms ,,( ,,! ,,peace ,,treaty ,a m9]al problem ( special int]national importance at ! pres5t "t relates to ! disposition ( ! coal & iron res\rces ( ,g]many4 ,g]many's coal & iron h be5 ! basis = its comm&+ position 9 indu/ry & comm]ce4 ,9 fact1 its developm5t ( ^! res\rces has be5 probably ! mo/ vital elem5t 9 ! ,european economic situation4 ,! t]ms ( ! ,peace ,treaty 9 reg>d to ^! commodities h f>-rea*+ consequ5ces1 n only = ,g]many b = all ,europe1 & indirectly1 = ! _w4 ,g]many 7,we/phalia7 outclasses all o!r ,european s\rces 9 grades ( metallurgical coal1 9 quantities produc$1 & 9 *eapness ( production4 ,bo? ,france & ,belgium mu/ cont9ue to be dep5d5t on ?is s\rce = important p>ts ( ! cok+ coal = metallurgical purposes1 not)/&+ ,france's acquisition ( ! ,sa> ,bas91 :i* produces ma9ly non-cok+ coal1 & ! developm5t ( new res]ves 9 ,belgium4 ,g]many's comm& ( coal is wreck$ 9 sev]al ways4 ,! ,fr5* take ov] full & absolute possession ( ! coal ( ! ,sa> ,bas91 ?\gh ,g]many has ! "r to repur*ase x at ! end ( fifte5 ye>s1 9 case ?is t]ritory !n elects = union ) ,g]many4 ,! coal ( ,upp] ,silesia1 ) a production ( ab\t #bc p] c5t ( ! total ( all ,g]man h>d coal1 is to be c$$ to ,pol&1 subject1 h[ev]1 to plebiscite4 ,g]many und]takes to deliv] to ,france ea* ye>1 = n to exce$ t5 ye>s1 an am\nt ( coal equal to ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! annual pre-w> production ( ! ,fr5* coal m9es de/roy$ z a result ( ! w>1 & ! production ( ! m9es ( ! same area dur+ ! ye>s 9 "q1--su* deliv]y n to exce$ #bj1jjj1jjj tons 9 any "o ye> ( ! fir/ five1 nor #h1jjj1jjj 9 any "o ye> ( ! succe$+ five ye>s4 ,9 addition1 ,g]many agrees to deliv] coal1 or its equival5t 9 coke1 z foll[s3 to ,france #g1jjj1jjj tons annually = t5 ye>s2 to ,belgium #h1jjj1jjj tons annually = t5 ye>s2 to ,italy an annual quantity ris+ by annual increm5ts f #d1ejj1jjj tons 9 #aiai-bj to #h1ejj1jjj tons 9 ea* ( ! six ye>s #aibc-bd to #aibh-bi2 & to ,luxemburg1 if requir$1 a quantity ( coal equal to ! pre-w> annual consumption ( ,g]man coal 9 ,luxemburg4 ,! total pre-w> coal production ( ,g]many 9 #aiac 0 #aia1ejj1jjj tons4 ,! dim9ution ( production due to loss ( t]ritory 9 ,alsace-,lorra9e1 9 ! ,sa> ,bas91 & 9 ,upp] ,silesia am\nts to ab\t #fa1jjj1jjj tons4 ,! fur!r requir$ annual di/ribution ( coal to ,france1 ,italy1 ,belgium1 & ,luxemburg am\nts to ab\t #dj1jjj1jjj tons4 ,?is leaves ab\t #ij1jjj1jjj tons = ,g]many's dome/ic use1 z comp>$ ) a pre-w> dome/ic use ( #aci1jjj1jjj tons4 ,ev5 !n1 ^! calculations make no all[ance = coal to be us$ 9 export trade to neutrals or o!r c\ntries1 "s "p ( :i* seems vital to ,g]many's trade4 ,!y make no all[ance = ! det]ioration ( plant & ma*9]y 9 ! m9es1 :i* w delay resumption ( coal production4 ,!y make no all[ance = ! dim9ution 9 work+ h\rs & ! lack ( transportation4 ,9 %ort1 unless !re is a miracul\s recov]y & developm5t ( ,g]many's coal indu/ry1 impossible conditions h be5 impos$4 ,"s recognition ( ?is fact appe>s 9 ! great p[]s to adju/ t]ms :i* h be5 ve/$ 9 ! ,rep>ations ,committee4 ,successive revisions ( requirem5ts by ! ,rep>ations ,committee h already r$uc$ ! direct contributions ( coal f ,g]many ne>ly fifty p] c5t4 ,! entire ,european coal situation is 9 a /ate ( *aos4 ,x 0 f\nd necess>y 9 #aiah to appo9t a ,coal ,commission "u int]national control1 to attempt to allocate & di/ribute supplies4 ,x seems inevitable t ! physical facts ( ! situation w prevail1 & t ! control ( ! ,allies w resolve itself into ef=ts to di/ribute & coord9ate supplies s z to keep ! ,european ma*9]y go+1 m or less reg>dless ( ! t]ms ( ! ,peace ,treaty4 ,"o ( ! important outcomes ( ?is situation has be5 ! rec5t rapid developm5t ( ,g]man lignite production1 bas$ on newly work$-out me?ods ( treatm5t & utilization4 ,by tak+ ov] ,alsace-,lorra9e1 ,france acquires ab\t #gj p] c5t ( ! iron ore res]ves & annual production ( ,g]many4 ,?is production 0 9 m9or "p smelt$ locally1--! l>g] "p mov+ d[n ! ,rh9e to ! vic9ity ( ! ,ruhr coal fields1 & ,ruhr coal com+ back = ! smelt+ 9 ,lorra9e4 ,?is great *annel ( balanc$ ex*ange ( commodities has be5 det]m9$ by nature1 & is n likely to be p]man5tly affect$ by political *anges4 ,= ! "t be+1 h[ev]1 ! draw+ ( a political b\nd>y across ?is trade r\te h9d]s ! full resumption ( ! trade4 ,self-int]e/ w require bo? ,g]many & ,france to keep ^! r\tes op54 ,france requires ,g]man coal to supply ! local smelt]s ne> ! iron fields1 & ,g]man m>kets = ! excess production ( iron ore4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,g]many's great smelt+ di/rict 9 ! ,ruhr ,bas9 is l>gely dep5d5t on ! ,lorra9e iron ore1 & ! movem5t ( ?is iron ore requires coal f d[n ! ,rh9e z a balance4 ,! intellig5t h&l+ ( ?is great coal & iron problem is ( f>-rea*+ consequ5ce to ! m9]al indu/ries ( ! _w4 ,,conclusion ,9 ! =ego+ discussion x is n our purpose to argue = any specific national or int]national plan or proc$ure1 b r to %[ some?+ ( ! nature ( ! problem1--& p>ticul>ly to %[ t intellig5t & broad5$ self-int]e/ requires a def9ite national policy 9 reg>d to _w m9]al que/ions4 ,realization ( ?is fact is a long /ep t[>d ! solution ( ! int]national problems4 ,no geologi/1 eng9e]1 or bus9ess man is safe1 9 ! normal conduct ( 8 affairs1 )\t "s att5tion to ^! matt]s4 ,x is our purpose fur!r to br+ home ! fact t int]national coop]ation 9 ! m9]al field is n m]ely an academic possibility1 b t 9 _m important ways x is actually 9 exi/5ce4 ,! t]ms ( ! ,peace ,treaty alone h f>-rea*+ consequ5ces to ! explor] or m9+ man 9 all p>ts ( ! _w4 ,! modifications ( ^! t]ms1 :i* are inevitable 9 ! future1 w n be ( less consequ5ce4 ,x is necess>y n only to "k :at ^! are1 b to aid 9 _! intellig5t =mulation4 ,,lit]ature ,a va/ new lit]ature on ! subject ( int]national m9]al relations has sprung into exi/5ce dur+ & foll[+ ! w>1 & anyone may easily famili>ize himself ) ! ess5tials ( ! situation4 ,"s ( ! int]national features are not$ 9 ! discussion ( m9]al res\rces 9 ?is book4 ,= full] discussion1 ! read] is especially ref]r$ to ! foll[+ s\rces3 ,! reports ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,geological ,survey4 ,note especially ,_w ,atlas ( ,comm]cial ,geology1 #aiba4 ,! reports ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,bureau ( ,m9es4 ,political & comm]cial geology1 edit$ by ,j4 ,e4 ,spurr1 ,mc,graw-,hill ,book ,co41 ,new ,york1 #aibj4 ,/rategy ( m9]als1 edit$ by ,george ,otis ,smi?1 ,d4 ,appleton & ,co41 ,new ,york1 #aiai4 ,coal1 iron & w>1 by ,e4 ,c4 ,eckel1 ,h5ry ,holt & ,company1 ,new ,york1 #aibj4 ,! iron & associat$ indu/ries ( ,lorra9e1 ! ,s>re di/rict1 ,luxemburg1 & ,belgium1 by ,alfr$ ,h4 ,brooks & ,morris ,f4 ,la,croix1 ,bull4 #gjc ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey1 #aibj4 ,! ,lorra9e iron field & ! w>1 by ,alfr$ ,h4 ,brooks1 ,eng4 & ,m94 ,j\rn41 vol4 #aji1 #aibj1 pp4 #ajfe-ajfi4 ,munitions ,res\rces ,commission ( ,canada1 f9al report1 #aibj4 ,,footnotes3 #eh ,umpleby1 ,joseph ,b41 ,/rategy ( m9]als--,! position ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates among ! nations3 ,d4 ,appleton & ,co41 ,new ,york1 #aiai1 p4 #bhf4 #ei ,control is "h us$ 9 a v g5]al s5se to cov] activities rang+ f regulation to managem5t & own]%ip4 ,! context w indicate 9 mo/ cases t ! ^w is us$ 9 ! s5se ( regulation :5 ref]r+ to gov]nm5tal relation%ips4 ,,*apt] ,,xix ,,geology ,,& ,,w> ,,geology ,,beh9d ,,! ,,front ,! exp]i5ce ( ! great w> disclos$ _m milit>y applications ( geology4 ,! acquirem5t & mobilization ( m9]al res\rces = milit>y purposes 0 a vital necessity4 ,9 view ( ! _m ref]5ces to ?is application ( geology 9 o!r p>ts ( ?is volume1 we %all g into ! subject 9 ?is *apt] no fur!r ?an to summ>ize "s ( ! l>g] results4 ,z a consequ5ce ( ! w>-"t breakd[n 9 int]national comm]cial ex*ange1 ! actual & pot5tial m9]al res]ves ( nations 7 m int5sively /udi$ & apprais$ ?an ev] be=e1 ) ! view ( mak+ nations & bellig]5t gr\ps self-su/a9+4 ,?is "w involv$ a compreh5sive inve/igation ( ! requirem5ts & uses = m9]als1 & ?us l$ to a cle>] und]/&+ ( ! human relations ( m9]al res\rces4 ,x requir$ also1 almo/ = ! fir/ "t1 a recognition ( ! nature & magnitude ( int]national movem5ts ( m9]als1 ( ! und]ly+ reasons = su* movem5ts1 & ( ! vital int]-relation betwe5 dome/ic & =eign m9]al production4 ,! dome/ic m9]al indu/ries le>n$ t m>ket requirem5ts are bas$ on asc]ta9able factors & t !y d n j happ54 ,l>ge new m9]al res]ves 7 develop$4 ,metallurgical practices 7 adapt$ to dome/ic supplies1 ?us add+ to available res\rces4 ,bett] ways 7 f\nd to use ! products4 ,"s ( ^! developm5ts ceas$ at ! end ( ! w>1 b important advances _h be5 made :i* 7 n lo/4 ,"o ( ! advances ( p]man5t value 0 ! increas$ att5tion to bett] sampl+ & /&>dization ( m9]al products1 z a means ( competition ) /&>diz$ =eign products4 ,= in/ance1 ! organization ( ! ,s\!rn ,graphite ,association made x possible to gu>antee mu* m uni=m supplies f ?is field1 & !reby to insure a broad] & m /able m>ket4 ,su* movem5ts all[ ! use ( het]og5e\s m9]al supplies 9 a mann] :i* is di/9ctly cons]vational1 bo? 9 reg>d to m9]al res]ves & to ! human en]gy factors involv$4 ,9 ano!r w> ! possibilities & me?ods ( meet+ requirem5ts = w> m9]als w be bett] und]/ood4 ,9 ^! activities1 geologi/s _h a n inconsid]able "p4 ,! ,u4 ,s4 ,bureau ( ,m9es1 ! ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey1 /ate geological surveys1 & _m o!r te*nical organizations1 public & private1 turn$ _! att5tion to ^! que/ions4 ,"o ( ! special developm5ts 0 ! organization by ! ,%ipp+ ,bo>d ( a geologic & eng9e]+ committee ^: duty x 0 to /udy & recomm5d *anges 9 ! imports & exports ( m9]al commodities1 ) a view to releas+ mu*-ne$$ %ip tonnage4 ,?is committee 0 also (ficially connect$ ) ! ,w> ,indu/ries ,bo>d & ! ,w> ,trade ,bo>d4 ,x utiliz$ ! exi/+ gov]nm5t & /ate m9]al organizations 9 collect+ its in=mation4 ,ov] a million tons ( m9]al %ipp+ n necess>y = w> purposes 7 elim9at$4 ,?is "w involv$ also a close /udy ( ! possibilities ( dome/ic production to supply ! defici5cies caus$ by r$uction ( =eign imports4 ,o!r special geological committees 7 creat$ = a v>iety ( w> purposes4 ,9 ! e>ly /ages ( ! w> a ,w> ,m9]als ,committee1 made up ( repres5tatives ( gov]nm5t & /ate organizations & ( ! ,am]ican ,in/itute ( ,m9+ ,eng9e]s1 made an excell5t prelim9>y survey ( m9]al conditions4 ,a ,jo9t ,m9]al ,in=mation ,bo>d#fj 0 creat$ at ,wa%+ton1 compos$ ( repres5tatives ( m ?an tw5ty gov]nm5t dep>tm5ts :i* 7 9 "o way or ano!r conc]n$ ) m9]als4 ,x 0 surpris+1 ev5 to ^? m or less famili> ) ! situation1 to f9d h[ widely m9]al que/ions ramifi$ ?r\gh gov]nm5t dep>tm5ts4 ,= in/ance1 ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture _h m5 specially engag$ 9 relation to m9]al f]tiliz]s & ars5ic4 ,sulphur & o!r m9]al supplies 7 occupy+ ! att5tion ( ! ,w> ,dep>tm5t4 ,mica & o!r m9]als receiv$ special att5tion f ! ,navy ,dep>tm5t4 ,! ,t>iff ,bo>d1 ! ,f$]al ,trade ,commission1 ! ,comm]ce ,dep>tm5t1 ev5 ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,/ate1 _h m5 :o 7 specializ+ on c]ta9 m9]al que/ions4 ,all ^! dep>tm5ts _h delegates on ! ,jo9t ,m9]al ,in=mation ,bo>d1 9 :i* connection !y met weekly to ex*ange in=mation = ! purpose ( gett+ bett] coord9ation & less duplication4 ,! ,national ,academy ( ,sci5ces e/abli%$ a geologic committee1 ) repres5tatives f ! ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey1 ! /ate geological surveys1 ! ,geological ,society ( ,am]ica1 & o!r organizations4 ,?is committee did useful "w 9 correlat+ geological activities1 ma9ly outside ( ,wa%+ton1 & 9 coop]ation ) ! ,w> ,dep>tm5t kept 9 t\* ) ! geologic "w be+ done at ! front4 ,:ile ! activities ( geologi/s = gov]nm5t1 /ate1 & private organizations 7 = ! mo/ "p 9 relation to m9]al res\rce que/ions1 ?is 0 by no means ! total contribution4 ,! ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey & o!r organizations1 9 coop]ation ) ! ,w> ,dep>tm5t1 did a l>ge am\nt ( topographic & geologic mapp+ ( ! ea/]n areas = coa/-def5se purposes4 ,?is "w involv$ consid]ation ( ! topography = /rategic purposes1 z well z ! /ock-tak+ ( m9]al res\rces--includ+ road mat]ials & wat] supplies4 ,! revision ( ,geological ,survey folios1 ) ^! requirem5ts 9 m9d1 br\ght results :i* %\ld be ( practical use 9 peace "t4 ,/udies 7 likewise made ( cantonm5t areas1 ) ref]5ce to wat] supplies & to surface & sub-surface conditions4 ,_m geologi/s 7 engag$ 9 ! milit>y camps at home & abroad1 & 9 connection ) ! ,/ud5t ,army ,tra9+ ,corps at ! univ]sities1 9 tea*+ ! elem5ts ( map mak+1 map int]pretation1 wat] supply1 rock & soil conditions 9 relation to tr5*+1 & o!r phases ( geology 9 _! relation to milit>y op]ations4 ,! textbook on ,milit>y ,geology1#fa prep>$ 9 coop]ation by a doz5 or m geologi/s = use 9 ! c\rses ( ! ,/ud5t ,army ,tra9+ ,corps1 is an admirable text on sev]al phases ( appli$ geology4 ,! "n ( ! book is p]haps n[ un=tunate1 because mo/ ( x is q z well adapt$ to peace conditions z to ^? ( w>4 ,!re is no textbook ( appli$ geology :i* cov]s c]ta9 phases ( ! "w 9 a m effective & mod]n way4 ,! topics treat$ 9 ?is book are rocks1 rock wea!r+1 /reams1 lakes & swamps1 wat] supply1 l& =ms1 map read+ & map int]pretation1 & economic relations & economic uses ( m9]als4 ,ano!r book1#fb on l& =ms 9 ,france1 prep>$ f a physiographic /&po9t1 0 a highly useful g5]al survey ( topographic features & 0 widely us$ by (fic]s & o!rs4 ,,geology ,,at ,,! ,,front#fc ,p]haps ! mo/ spectacul> & ! be/ kn[n use ( geology 9 ! w> 0 at & ne> ! front4 ,?is use rea*$ its e>lie/ & highe/ developm5t 9 ! ,g]man army1 b lat] 0 appli$ effectively by ! ,briti% & ,briti% ,colonial armies1 & by ! ,am]ican ,exp$ition>y ,=ce4 ,"o ( ! fir/ intimations to ! ,am]ican public ( ! use ( geology at ! front appe>$ 9 ! publication ( ,g]man c5sor%ip rules 9 #aiah1--:51 among ! prohibitions1 !re 0 "o =bidd+ public ref]5ce to ! use ( e>? sci5ces 9 milit>y op]ations4 ,a lead+ ,am]ican pap] not$ ?is item & speculat$ at "s l5g? editorially z to :at x meant4 ,x 0 discov]$ t geologi/s to ! numb] ( p]haps a hundr$ & fifty 7 us$ by ! ,g]mans to prep>e & int]pret maps ( ! front = ! use ( (fic]s4 ,features repres5t$ on ^! maps includ$ topography2 ! k9ds ( rocks & _! di/ribution2 _! usefulness z road & cem5t mat]ials2 _! adaptability = tr5* digg+1 & ! k9ds & %apes ( tr5*es possible 9 ! diff]5t rocks2 ! mann] 9 :i* mat]ial ?r[n out 9 tr5*+ w\ld lie "u wea!r+2 ! gr\nd-wat] conditions1 & p>ticul>ly ! dep? bel[ ! surface ( ! wat] table at diff]5t times ( ! ye> & 9 diff]5t rocks & soils2 ! relation ( ! gr\nd-wat] to possibilities ( tr5* digg+2 wat] supplies = dr9k+ purposes2 ! behavior ( ! rocks "u explosives1 & ! resi/ance ( ! gr\nd to %ell-p5etration2 ! und]gr\nd geological conditions be>+ on tunnell+ & und]gr\nd m9es2 & ! electrical conductivity ( rocks ( diff]5t types1 presumably 9 connection ) s\nd-detection devices & gr\nd+s ( electric circuits4 ,"s ( ! captur$ ,g]man maps 7 models ( appli$ geology4 ,!y conta9$ cond5s$ summ>ies ( mo/ ( ! features above nam$1 toge!r ) appropriate sket*es & sections4 ,dur+ ! ,argonne (f5sive by ! ,am]ican army ! captur$ ,g]man l9es disclos$ geologic /ations at frequ5t int]vals1 ea* ) a full equipm5t ( maps relat+ to t "p ( ! front4 ,f ^! /ations s*ools ( in/ruction _h be5 conduct$ = ! (fic]s 9 ! adjac5t p>ts ( ! front4 ,! ,briti% ef=ts 7 along simil> l9es1 al?\gh !y came late 9 ! w>1 "u ! lead]%ip ( an ,au/ralian geologi/4 ,_! ef=ts 7 especially useful 9 connection ) ! l>ge am\nt ( tunnell+ & m9+ done on ! ,briti% front4 ,among ! _m unexpect$ & special uses ( geology might be cit$ ! microscopical id5tification ( raw mat]ials us$ 9 ! ,g]man cem5t4 ,x became necess>y = c]ta9 purposes to "k :]e ^! came f4 ,! microscope disclos$ a c]ta9 volcanic rock kn[n to be f\nd 9 only "o locality4 ,9 ! ,pale/9e campaign1 ! k ( s\rces ( road mat]ial & wat] supply bas$ on geologic data 0 an important elem5t 9 ! advance ov] ?is arid region4 ,wells 7 drill$ & wat] pipes laid 9 accordance ) pre>rang$ plans4 ,9 spite ( ! fact t ! usefulness ( geology _h be5 cle>ly indicat$ by ! exp]i5ce ( ! ,g]man & ,briti% armies1 ! ,am]ican ,exp$ition>y ,=ce 0 sl[ to avail itself 9 l>ge measure ( ?is tool2 b aft] "s delay a geologic s]vice 0 />t$ on some:at simil> l9es "u ! effici5t lead]%ip ( ,lieut5ant-,colonel ,alfr$ ,h4 ,brooks1 ,director ( ! ,division ( ,alaskan ,res\rces 9 ! ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey4 ,! "w 0 organiz$ 9 ,septemb]1 #aiag1 & dur+ ! succe$+ t5 mon?s includ$ only two (fic]s & "o cl]k4 ,= ! la/ two mon?s prec$+ ! armi/ice !re 0 an av]age ( f\r geologic (fic]s on ! ,g5]al ,/aff1 9 addition to geologi/s atta*$ to eng9e]+ units engag$ 9 road build+ & cem5t mak+1 & plans _h be5 approv$ = a consid]able enl>gem5t ( ! geologic =ce4 ,! "w 0 devot$ to ! collection & pres5tation ( geologic data relat+ to 7#a7 field works2 7#b7 wat] supply2 & 7#c7 road mat]ial4 ,( ^! ! fir/ two receiv$ ! mo/ att5tion4 ,maps 7 prep>$1 bas$ some:at on ! ,g]man model1 = ! ,fr5* def5ses ( ! ,vosges & ,lorra9e sectors1 & = ! ,g]man def5ses ( ! ,/4 ,mihiel1 ,pont-a-,m\sson1 & ,vosges sectors4 ,wat] supply reports cov]$ ne>ly #ae1jjj squ>e kilomet]s4 ,! foll[+ description ( ! =mations1 tak5 f ! leg5d ( "o ( ! geologic maps1 %[s ! nature ( ! data collect$3 ,silt1 clay & mud1 ) "s lime/one gravel1 usually m or less saturat$1 except dur+ dry season 7,june to ,septemb]71 9 _m places subject to flood+4 ,surface usually s(t except dur+ ,summ]4 ,^! deposits are #a_/b to #b met]s ?ick 9 ! small valleys1 & #b to #c met]s 9 ! ---- ,valleys4 ,unfavorable to all field works on acc\nt ( gr\nd-wat] & floods1 & n ?ick en\gh = cave %elt]s4 ,silts ) "s clay & f9e s&s & locally "s f9e gravel & rock debris4 ,^! deposits occur pr9cipally on summits & slopes1 & are probably f #a to #b met]s ?ick4 ,ev5 dur+ dry season 7,june to ,septemb]7 !y reta9 moi/ure & af=d r s(t gr\nd4 ,9 wet season ! =mation is v s(t & (t5 muddy4 ,9 _m places wat] occurs along bottom ( ^! deposits4 ,favorable = tr5*es1 b :i* require complete revetm5t1 & ample provision = dra9age1 n ?ick en\gh = cave %elt]s2 cut & cov] mo/ practical type ( %elt]4 ,clay at surface ) clay %ales bel[4 ,?is deposit occurs 9 flats & is usually saturat$ = a dep? ( #a to #b-a_/b met]s1 dur+ wet season1 = mo/ ( ! ye> ! surface is s(t1 b 9 "p dries out 9 ,summ]4 ,deep tr5*es usually impossible1 & ev5 %all[ tr5*es likely to be fill$ ) wat]2 def5sive works w be pr9cipally p>apets revett$ on bo? sides4 ,cave %elt] con/ruction usually impracticable1 unless means be provid$ = s9k+ ?r\gh saturat$ surface zone into ! dry gr\nd und]nea?4 ,cut & cov] usually ! mo/ practical type ( %elt] 9 ?is =mation4 ,clay at surface ) calc>e\s clay %ale & "s ?9 lime/one lay]s bel[4 ,?is =mation occurs 9 l[ r\nd$ hills2 surface saturat$ dur+ wet wea!r1 b t]ra9 p]mits ( natural dra9age1 & dries out dur+ ,summ]2 dur+ wet season 7,octob] to ,may7 ! surface zone is m or less saturat$1 & gr\nd may be muddy to a dep? ( a met] or m1 gr\nd-wat] level usually )9 two or ?ree met]s ( surface4 ,tr5* con/ruction easy1 b requires complete revetm5t1 & ample provision = surface dra9age4 ,cave %elt]s c be con/ruct$ 9 ?is =mation :]e ! slope is suffici5t to p]mit ( dra9age tunnels4 ,! dep? to gr\nd-wat] level %\ld always be det]m9$ by te/ %afts or bore holes 9 advance ( dug\t con/ruction4 ,surface =mation usually clay #a to #b met]s 9 dep?2 bel[ ?is is s(t clay %ales or s(t lime/one4 ,surface usually fairly well dra9$1 & fairly h>d gr\nd4 ,9 g5]al1 favorable = tr5*es & locally favorable = cave %elt]s4 ,9 "s localities und]gr\nd wat] prev5ts cave %elt] con/ruction4 ,! pres5ce or abs5ce ( und]gr\nd wat] %\ld always be det]m9$ by te/ %afts or bore holes 9 advance ( dug\t con/ruction4 ,surface =mation consi/+ ( wea!r$ zone #a_/b to #a-a_/b met]s ?ick1 made up ( clay ) lime/one fragm5ts & brok5 rock4 ,bel[ is compact lime/one =mation4 ,! surface ( ?is =mation is usually fairly h>d1 & well dra9$ except 9 wette/ season4 ,tr5*es built 9 x require little revett+2 v favorable = cave %elt]s1 b requires h>d rock excavation4 ,"s ?9 b$s ( clay occur 9 "s ( ! lime/one1 & at ^! a wat] be>+ horizon w be f\nd4 ,:]e a lime/one =mation re/s on clay z ne> ---- a l9e ( spr+s or seepages is usually f\nd4 ,su* localities %\ld be avoid$1 or ! field works plac$ above ! l9e ( spr+s or seepages4 ,?is =mation is be/ develop$ 9 ! plateau we/ ( ----4 ,"h x is cov]$ by only a ?9 lay] ( soil1 h>d rock be+ close to ! surface4 ,! lime/ones af=d ! only rock )9 ! quadrangle :i* c be us$ = road metal4 ,qu>ries 79 "p ab&on$74 ,lime/one gravel pits4 ,locus ( spr+s & seepages4 ,^! %\ld be avoid$ z f> z possible 9 ! location ( field works1 especially ( dug\ts4 ,field works %\ld be plac$ above ! l9es ( spr+s4 ,! wat] supply maps ) accompany+ eng9e] field notes are models ( concise description ( wat] supply conditions1 ) specific directions = proc$ure "u diff]5t conditions4 ,a few p>agraphs tak5 f ^! notes are z foll[s3 ,gr\nd ov]ly+ rock1 su* z lime/one1 compact s&/one1 granites1 etc41 :i* are usually fractur$1 is f ! /&po9t ( und]gr\nd wat]1 mo/ favorable = sit+ ( field works4 ,clay %ales & clay hold bo? surface & und]gr\nd wat]1 & are1 !re=e1 unfavorable = field works4 ,! contact betwe5 h>d rocks re/+ on clay or clay %ales is almo/ inv>iably wat] be>+1 & %\ld be avoid$ 9 locat+ field works4 ,at localities :]e imp]vi\s =mations 7clay1 etc47 occur at or ne> ! surface1 !y hold ! wat] & =m a sup]ficial zone ( saturation4 ,?is condition makes tr5* con/ruction & ma9t5ance difficult1 & cave %elt]s c usually only be made by provid+ means ( s9k+ ?r\gh ! saturat$ zone4 ,! surface saturat$ zone (t5 dries out 9 summ]4 ,9 p]vi\s1 or almo/ p]vi\s rocks1 ! zone ( saturation1 or gr\nd-wat] level1 lies at mu* l[] dep?1 & may p]mit ( ! con/ruction ( field works z well z cave %elt]s above x4 ,und]gr\nd wat] be>+ horizons & wat] be>+ faults %\ld be avoid$ 9 locat+ field works4 ,:]ev] !re is any unc]ta9ty ab\t ! und]gr\nd wat] conditions1 te/ %afts or bore holes %\ld always be made 9 advance ( ! con/ruction ( ext5sive deep works4 ,,effect ,,( ,,! ,,w> ,,on ,,! ,,sci5ce ,,( ,,economic ,,geology ,9 g5]al1 ! w> requir$ an int5sive application ( geology along l9es already pretty well e/abli%$ "u peace conditions4 ,mu* 0 done to make ! application m direct & effective1 & a va/ am\nt ( geologic in=mation 0 mobiliz$4 ,! g5]al result 0 a quick5$ appreciation ( ! possibilities ( ! use ( geology = practical purposes4 ,p]haps ! mo/ important s+le result 0 a wid] recognition ( ! real relations ( m9]al res\rces to human activities1 & ( ! int]national phases ( ! problem4 ,m specifically1 !re 0 a mo/ c>eful /ock-tak+ ( m9]al res\rces & a consid]ation ( ! :y ( _! comm]cial use4 ,_m new res\rces 7 f\nd1 z well z new ways to utilize !m4 ,,footnotes3 #fj ,n[ kn[n z ,economic ,liaison ,committee4 #fa ,milit>y geology & topography1 ,h]b]t ,e4 ,gregory1 ,editor4 ,prep>$ & issu$ "u ! auspices ( ,division ( ,geology & ,geography1 ,national ,rese>* ,c\ncil1 ,yale ,univ4 ,press1 ,new ,hav51 #aiah4 #fb ,davis1 ,w4 ,m41 ,h&book ( ,nor!rn ,france1 ,h>v>d ,univ4 ,press1 ,cambridge1 #aiah4 #fc ,= m detail$ description ( ?is subject ! read] is ref]r$ to ,! use ( geology on ! ,we/]n ,front1 by ,alfr$ ,h4 ,brooks1 ,pr(4 ,pap] #abh-;,d1 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,survey1 #aibj4 ,,*apt] ,,xx ,,geology ,,& ,,eng9e]+ ,,con/ruction ,economic applications ( geology are by no means conf9$ to m9]al res\rces 7includ+ wat] & soils74 ,! e>? is us$ by ! human race 9 _m o!r ways4 ,human habitations & con/ructions re/ on x & p5etrate x4 ,x is ! basis = transportation1 bo? by l& & wat]4 ,its wat] p[]s are us$4 ,9 ^! v>i\s relations ! applications ( geology are too num]\s to classify1 mu* less to describe4 ,:ile only a few ( ^! activities h 9 ! pa/ requir$ ! p>ticipation ( geologi/s1 ! gr[+ size ( ! op]ations & increas+ effici5cy 9 _! plann+ & execution are multiply+ ! calls = geologic advice4 ,! nature ( su* applications ( geology may be briefly indicat$4#fd ,,f\ndations ,! f\ndations ( mod]n /ructures su* z heavy build+s1 especially 9 untri$ localities1 require mu* m c>eful consid]ation ( ! sub/rata ?an 0 necess>y = light] /ructures4 ,9 plann+ su* f\ndations1 x is necess>y to "k ! k9ds ( rocks to be excavat$1 _! support+ /r5g?1 _! /ructures1 ! difficulties :i* are likely to be caus$ by wat]1 & o!r geologic features4 ,failure to give prop] att5tion to ^! factors has l$ to "s disa/r\s results4 ,! plann+ ( f\ndations & abutm5ts ( bridges requires simil> geologic k4 ,9 addition1 !re mu/ be consid]$ c]ta9 physiographic factors affect+ ! nature & v>iation ( /ream fl[ & ! migration ( %ore l9es4 ,,surface ,,wat]s ,con/ruction ( great mod]n dams is prec$$ by a c>eful analysis ( sub-surface conditions1 9 reg>d to bo? ! rocks & ! wat]4 ,x is necess>y to "k ! support+ /r5g? ( ! rocks 9 relation to ! weight ( ! dam2 to "k :e!r ! rocks w all[ leakage ar\nd or b5ea? ! dam2 & to "k :e!r !re are any zones ( weakness 9 ! rocks :i* w all[ %e>+ ( f\ndations "u ! weight ( ! dam 9 comb9ation ) ! pressure ( ! pond$ wat]4 ,x is necess>y to "k :e!r ! valley is a rock valley or :e!r x is p>tially fill$ ) rock debris2 if ! latt]1 h[ deep ?is debris is1 & its behavior "u load & 9 a saturat$ condition4 ,"h aga9 physiographic factors are ( vital importance1 bo? 9 relation to ! hi/ory ( developm5t ( ! valley1 & to que/ions ( /ream fl[ & res]voir /orage4#fe ,con/ruction ( dams is only an item 9 ! long li/ ( eng9e]+ activities relat$ to surface wat]s4 ,riv] & h>bor improvem5ts ( a va/ range likewise involve geologic factors4 ,problems ( wave action1 %ore curr5ts1 %ift+ ( %ores1 erosion1 & s$im5tation1 :i* are ( great importance 9 su* op]ations1 h long occupi$ ! att5tion ( ! geologi/4 ,!y belong especially 9 ! bran* ( ! sci5ce kn[n z physiography4 ,geology 9 relation to und]gr\nd wat] supplies is discuss$ 9 ,*apt] ,v4 ,,tunnels ,! digg+ ( tunnels = transportation purposes1 = aqu$ucts1 & = sewage disposal requires c>eful analysis ( geologic conditions 9 reg>d to bo? ! rocks & ! und]gr\nd wat]4 ,k ( ^! conditions is necess>y 9 plann+ ! "w1 9 invit+ bids1 & 9 mak+ bids4 ,x is necess>y dur+ ! progress ( ! "w4 ,too (t5 9 ! pa/ disa/r\s consequ5ces1 bo? physical & f9ancial1 h result$ f lack ( consid]ation ( elem5tal geologic conditions4 ,! build+ ( ! great ,new ,york aqu$ucts & subways ?r\gh highly complex cry/all9e rocks has be5 "u ! close/ geological advice & sup]vision4 ,! detail$ /udy ( ! geology ( ,manhattan ,isl& ?r\gh a long s]ies ( ye>s has result$ 9 an und]/&+ ( ! rocks & _! /ructures :i* has be5 ( great practical use4 ,9 ! aqu$uct con/ruction ! k9ds ( rock to be enc\nt]$ 9 ! diff]5t sections1 _! wat] cont5t1 _! h>dness1 _! jo9ts & faults1 7 all platt$ & plann$ =1 & actual excavation prov$ ! accuracy ( ! =eca/s4 ,an int]e/+ phase ( ?is "w 0 ! tunnel+ "u ! ,hudson at po9ts :]e ! pre-glacial rock *annel 0 buri$ to a dep? ( ne>ly a ?\s& feet by glacial & riv] deposits1--?is "w requir+ a close /udy ( ! physiographic hi/ory ( ! riv]4 ,,slides ,slides ( e>? & rock mat]ials1 bo? ( ! creep+ & sudd5 types1 h (t5 be5 reg>d$ z acts ( ,provid5ce1--b /udies ( ! geologic factors h 9 _m cases disclos$ prev5table causes4 ,a consid]able geologic lit]ature has sprung up ) ref]5ce to rock slides1 :i* is ( practical use 9 excavation "w ( _m k9ds4 ,! cause ( su* movem5ts is gravity4 ,! s(t]1 unconsolidat$ rock mat]ials yield ( c\rse m readily ?an ! h>d] ones1 b ev5 /rong rocks are (t5 unable to )/& ! pull ( gravity4 ,! relative weakness ( rock masses on a l>ge scale 0 graphically %[n by ,*amb]l9 & ,salisbury1#ff 9 a calculation indicat+ t a mass ( av]age h>d rock a mile ?ick1 dom$ to ! curvature ( ! e>?1 c support a lay] ( only ab\t t5 feet ( its own mat]ial4 ,! /ructural geologi/1 ?r\gh 8 /udy ( folds1 faults1 & rock fl[age1 comes to reg>d rocks ess5tially z fail+ /ructures4 ,di/urbances ( equilibrium1 result+ 9 rock movem5ts "u gravity1 may be caus$ by local load+1 ei!r natural or artificial4 ,natural load+ may be due to unusual ra9fall1 or rais+ ( wat] level1 or increas$ b>ometric pressure4 ,artificial load+ may come f con/ruction ( heavy build+s or dams4 ,movem5t may also result f excavation1 :i* takes away lat]al support--& su* excavation aga9 may be caus$ by natural processes ( erosion or by artificial processes involv$ 9 con/ruction4 ,movem5t may be caus$ by m]e *ange 9 ! moi/ure cont5t ( rocks1 or by alt]ations ( _! m9]al & *emical "*1 affect+ _! resi/ance to gravity4 ,9 /ill o!r cases1 e>?quakes are ! initiat+ cause ( movem5t4 ,9 unconsolidat$ rocks1 a frequ5t cause ( movem5t is ! pres5ce ( wet & slipp]y clay lay]s4 ,! id5tification & dra9+ ( ^! clay lay]s may elim9ate ?is cause4 ,9 c]ta9 s&s1 on ! o!r h&1 wat] may actually act z a cem5t & t5d to increase ! /r5g? ( ! rock4 ,planes ( weakness 9 ! rock1 su* z b$d+1 jo9ts1 & cleavage1 are also likely to localize movem5t4 ,e>? mat]ials1 & ev5 fairly h>d rocks1 may creep "u gravity at an a/oni%+ly l[ angle4 ,! angle f ! horizontal at :i* loose mat]ial w /& on a horizontal base )\t slid+ is call$ ! angle ( re/ or repose4 ,x is (t5 betwe5 #cj deg4 & #ce deg41 b !re is wide v>iation f ?is figure1 dep5d+ on ! %apes & sizes ( ! p>ticles & on o!r conditions4 ,x has be5 sugge/$ t ev5 ! slight diff]5ces 9 elevation ( cont95ts & sea bottoms may1 dur+ long geologic eras1 h caus$ a creep ( cont95tal masses 9 a seaw>d direction4 ,9 problems relat+ to slides1 ! geologi/ is conc]n$ 9 det]m9+ ! k9ds ( rocks1 _! space relations1 _! /ructures & textures1 _! metamorphic *anges1 _! wat] cont5t & ! nature ( ! wat] movem5t1 _! /r5g?1 bo? "u t5sion & compression1 & o!r factors4 ,9 ! digg+ ( ! ,panama ,canal1 a geological /aff 0 employ$ 9 ! /udy ( ! rock & e>? =mations to be met4 ,h[ev]1 _h m att5tion be5 paid to geologic que/ions 9 ! plann+ /ages1 ?is great und]tak+1 s ?or\ghly work$ out f a purely eng9e]+ /&po9t1 w\ld h avoid$ c]ta9 mi/akes due to lack ( und]/&+ ( ! geological conditions4 ,x is a curi\s fact t 9 ^! e>ly /ages no /r5g? te/s ( rocks 7 made1 & t no ?or\gh detail$ /udy 0 made ( ! geologic factors affect+ slides & _! prev5tion4 ,x 0 only aft] ! slides _h become s]i\s t ! geological aspects ( ! subject 7 int5sively consid]$4 ,! results ( ! geologic /udy1 !re=e1 are useful only = prev5tive measures = ! future & = o!r und]tak+s4 ,"o ( ! int]e/+ features ( ?is inve/igation 0 ! discov]y t c]ta9 s(t rock =mations 7 r5d]$ weak] r ?an /rong] by ! dra9+ (f ( ! wat]4 ,x _h be5 m or less assum$ t ! wat] _h act$ z a lubricant r ?an z a cem5t4 ,,subsid5ce ,n ! lea/ important application ( geology to slides is 9 relation to deep m9+ op]ations4 ,:ile ! m9+ geologi/ has be5 pr9cipally engag$ 9 exploration & developm5t ( ores1 he is n[ beg9n+ to be call$ 9 to int]pret ! great e>? movem5ts caus$ by ! s9k+ ( ! gr\nd ov] m9+ op5+s4 ,= in/ance1 ! long-wall me?od ( coal m9+ has result$ 9 a sl[ progressive subsid5ce ( ! ov]ly+ rock1 affect+ ov]ly+ m9]al b$s & surface /ructures ov] great areas4 ,detail$ /udies h be5 made ( ?is movem5t1 9 ord] to asc]ta9 its relation to ! /r5g? & /ructure ( ! rocks1 its relation to ! nature ( ! excavation1 its spe$ ( transmission1 & ! possible me?ods ( prev5tion4 ,g]man sci5ti/s h p]haps gone fur!r ) ?is k9d ( /udy ?an anyone else4 ,9 an elaborate inve/igation ( subsid5ce ov] a coal m9e 9 ,ill9ois1#fg unusually complete data 7 obta9$ z to ! nature1 direction1 & spe$ ( ! transmission ( /ra9s ?r\gh l>ge rock masses1 & z to _! effect 9 produc+ second>y rock /ructures4 ,,railway ,,build+ ,9 railway build+1 ! plann+ & e/imation ( cuts & fills is n[ receiv+ geologic consid]ation1 9 ord] to make sure t no geologic condition has be5 ov]look$ :i* w affect co/s1 ! /ability ( ! road1 or ! accurate =mulation ( contracts4 ,! location ( be/ s\rces ( supply = balla/ is also a geologic problem 7see pp4 #ij-ia74 ,! physiographic phases ( geology also are f9d+ important applications to railroad build+4 ,! physiograph] /udies ! surface =ms ) a tra9$ eye1 :i* sees !m n z lawless or het]og5e\s units b z p>ts ( a topographic sy/em1 & he is able to elim9ate mu* unnecess>y "w 9 ! location ( trial r\tes4 ,fur!r /udy ( "s ( ! old] railroads f ?is /&po9t has l$ to consid]able improvem5ts4 ,physiographic /udy has also be5 appli$ to railway bridge con/ruction1 9 ! appraisal ( ! difficulties 9 surm\nt+ /ream b>ri]s4 ,a /ill broad] use ( physiography or geography1 n popul>ly und]/ood1 is illu/rat$ 9 ! case ( c]ta9 transcont95tal railroads1 9 ! /udy ( ! probable future developm5t ( ! t]ritory to be s]v$--_m features ( :i* c be pr$ict$ ) "s accuracy f a /udy ( ! rocks1 soils1 topography1 conditions ( transportation1 & natural conditions favor+ localization ( cities4 ,! location ( new t[ns 9 "s cases has be5 bas$ on ?is k9d ( prelim9>y /udy4 ,9 locat+ an ,alaskan railway close to ! end ( a mom5t>ily quiesc5t glaci]1 tr\bles 7 n long 9 appe>+1 due to ! fact t ! glaci] 0 really n z /able z x seem$ to ! layman4 ,a speciali/ on glaci]s1 kn[+ _! behavior1 _! relations to precipitation1 _! relations to e>?quakes1 ! spe$ ( _! movem5t1 & ! p]iodicity ( _! movem5t1 0 ultimately call$ into consultation on ! location ( ! railroad4 ,,road ,,build+ ,road build+ 9 rec5t ye>s has become a /up5d\s eng9e]+ und]tak+1 :i* is requir+ geologic aid to locate ne>by s\rces ( supply = road mat]ials4 ,a consid]able numb] ( geologi/s are n[ devot+ _! att5tion to ?is "w4 ,x relates n only to ! h>d-rock geology b to ! gravel & surface geology4 ,c]ta9 nor!rn /ates are us+ speciali/s 9 glacial geology to aid 9 locat+ prop] supplies ( s& & gravel4 ,,geology ,,9 ,,eng9e]+ ,,c\rses ,_m eng9e]+ c\rses include elem5t>y geologic /udies1 9 recognition ( ! close relation%ip betwe5 geology & eng9e]+4 ,m5 s tra9$1 ?\gh n geologi/s1 h be5 responsible = _m applications ( geology to eng9e]+4 ,) ! increas+ size & importance ( op]ations1 call+ = m specialization1 ! pr(essional geologi/ is n[ be+ call$ 9 to a l>g] ext5t ?an =m]ly4 ,a logical tr5d also is ! acquirem5t ( m eng9e]+ tra9+ on ! "p ( ! geologi/1 = ! purpose ( pursu+ ^! applications ( 8 sci5ce4 ,,footnotes3 #fd ,excell5t texts on ?is subject may be f\nd 9 ,milit>y ,geology & ,topography1 ,h]b]t ,e4 ,gregory1 ,editor1 prep>$ & issu$ "u ! auspices ( ,division ( ,geology & ,geography1 ,national ,rese>* ,c\ncil1 ,yale ,univ4 ,press1 ,new ,hav51 #aiah1 & ,eng9e]+ ,geology1 by ,h4 ,ries & ,t4 ,l4 ,watson1 ,wiley & ,sons1 ,new ,york1 #b;d ed41 #aiae4 #fe ,atwood1 ,w4 ,w41 ,relation ( l&slides & glacial deposits to res]voir sites 9 ! ,san ,juan m\nta9s1 ,colorado3 ,bull4 #fhe1 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,survey1 #aiah4 #ff ,*amb]l91 ,t4 ,c41 & ,salisbury1 ,r4 ,d41 ,geology1 vol4 #a1 #aijd1 pp4 #eee-eef4 #fg ,s*ultz1 ,rob]t ,s41 ,jr41 ,bull4 ,am4 ,in/4 ,m9+ & ,metallurgical ,engrs4 ,9 prep>ation4 ,,*apt] ,,xxi ,,! ,,tra9+1 ,,opportunities1 ,,& ,,e?ics ,,( ,,! ,,economic ,,geologi/ ,economic geology is n[ an e/abli%$ & well-recogniz$ pr(ession1 b !re is yet no?+ approa*+ a /&>diz$ c\rse ( /udy lead+ to a degree 9 economic geology4 ,!re are z _m diff]5t k9ds ( tra9+ z !re are in/itutions 9 :i* geology is taught4 ,)9 an in/itution1 also1 x is seldom t any two p]sons take exactly ! same gr\ps ( geologic /udies4 ,?is situation all[s wide latitude ( tra9+ to meet ev] *ang+ requirem5ts1 b 9 o!r respects x is n s desirable4 ,,pure ,,v]sus ,,appli$ ,,sci5ce ,9 no in/itution are all ! appli$ bran*es ( geology taught4 ,!re is con/ant pressure = ! introduction ( m appli$ c\rses2 ?is seems to be ! t5d5cy ( ! times4 ,! economic geologi/1 fre% f vivid exp]i5ces 9 8 special field1 is (t5 insi/5t t a new c\rse be introduc$ to cov] 8 p>ticul> specialty4 ,any attempt1 h[ev]1 to put into a college c\rse a consid]able fraction ( ! appli$ phases ( geology w\ld mean ! cr[d+ out ( m ess5tial basic /udies4 ,to yield :olly to su* pressure w\ld 9 fact soon develop an impossible situation2 =1 on ! basis ( "t alone1 x w\ld be q impossible to give c\rses on all ( ! appli$ subjects 9 a tra9+ p]iod ( reasonable l5g?4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! failure to introduce a fair proportion ( appli$ geology1 on ! gr\nd t ! function ( ! college is to tea* pure sci5ce & t 9 "s way economic applications are non-sci5tific1 seems to ! writ] an equally objectionable proc$ure1--because x does n take into acc\nt ! unavoidable human relations ( ! sci5ce1 :i* vivify & give po9t & direction to sci5tific "w4 ,! developm5t ( sci5ce 9 economic directions does n necess>ily mean incursion into less sci5tific or non-sci5tific fields4 ,x is true t _m ( ! economic applications ( geology are s new & s con/antly *ang+ t !y are n yet fully organiz$ on a sci5tific basis2 b ?is fact is m]ely an indication ( ! lag ( sci5ce1 & n ( ! abs5ce ( possibilities ( develop+ sci5ce 9 su* directions4 ,!re is today a consid]able t5d5cy among geologi/s ( an academic type1 ^: lives h be5 sp5t 9 purely sci5tific inve/igation & tea*+1 to assume t any?+ diff]5t f ! field ( _! activities is 9 "s mann] non-sci5tific1 & !re=e less wor?y4 ,_m economic geologi/s h be5 made to feel ?is criticism1 ev5 ?\gh seldom express$ op5ly4 ,= ! good ( geologic sci5ce1 ?is t5d5cy seems to ! writ] extremely un=tunate4 ,! "y man ent]+ ! field ( economic geology %\ld be made to und]/& t 8 is ! highe/ sci5tific opportunity2 & t if p>ts ( 8 field are n yet fully organiz$1 ! great] is 8 own opportunity to p>ticipate 9 ! con/ructive "w to be done4 ,"u w> requirem5ts _m geologi/s 7 call$ ^u to ext5d _! ef=ts to bord]+ fields ( endeavor4 ,9 "s qu>t]s ^! activities 7 reg>d$ z non-sci5tific1 & z subtract+ f effici5cy 9 purely geological "w1--& yet out ( ?is comb9$ ef=t came a wid] compreh5sion ( new sci5tific fields1 betwe5 ! e/abli%$ sci5ces & betwe5 sci5ces & human ne$s4 ,x is inevitable t 9 ! future ^! fields1 n[ imp]fectly *>t$1 w be occupi$ & develop$1 p]haps n by ! m5 :o are already well e/abli%$ 9 _! p>ticul> fields ( endeavor1 b by com+ sci5ti/s4 ,9 ?is light1 x 0 a privilege = geologi/s to p>ticipate 9 ! discov]y & *>t+ activities ( ! w>4 ,/ill ano!r attempt to discrim9ate betwe5 sci5tific & non-sci5tific phases ( geologic ef=t has be5 ! assumption by c]ta9 sci5tific organizations ) ref]5ce to /&>ds ( admission1--t "w done = practical purposes may be reg>d$ z sci5tific only if x leads to advancem5t ( ! sci5ce ?r\gh ! publication ( ! results4 ,!re is by no means any g5]al agreem5t z to ! validity ( ?is di/9ction4 ,on ?is basis1 "s ( ! mo/ effective sci5tific "w :i* is translat$ directly into use = ! b5efit ( civilization is rul$ out z sci5ce1 because x is express$ on a typewritt5 r ?an on a pr9t$ page4 ,:ile appli$ phases ( ! geologi/'s "w may be truly sci5tific 9 ! broad] s5se1 x is und\bt$ly easy 9 ?is field to drift into empirical me?ods1 & to emphasize facility & skill at ! exp5se ( orig9al sci5tific ?\ght4 ,! practice ( geology !n becomes an art r ?an a sci5ce4 ,?is rem>k is p]t95t also to mu* ( non-appli$ geologic "w 9 rec5t ye>s4 ,a consid]able proportion ( ?is empirical facility is desirable & necess>y 9 ! r\t9e collection ( data & 9 _! description2 b :]e1 z is (t5 ! case1 ! geologi/'s absorption 9 su* "w m9imizes ! use ( 8 con/ructive faculties1 x does n aid greatly 9 ! advancem5t ( sci5ce4 ,geology is by no means ! only sci5ce 9 :i* !re has be5 controv]sy z to ! relative m]its ( ! s-call$ pure & appli$ phases2 b z "o ( ! y\nge/ sci5ces1 :i* h]et(ore has be5 pursu$ ma9ly f ! /&po9t ( pure sci5ce1 x is n[1 p]haps m ?an any o!r sci5ce1 9 ! transition /age to a wid] viewpo9t4 ,9 ! pa/ !re 0 d\bt ab\t ! ext5sion ( *emi/ry t[>d ! fields ( physics & eng9e]+1 & ( physics t[>d ! fields ( *emi/ry & eng9e]+1 & ( bo? physics & *emi/ry t[>d purely economic applications2 b out ( ^! fields h gr[n ! great sci5ces ( physical *emi/ry1 *emical eng9e]+1 & o!rs1--& few w\ld be ra% en\gh to attempt to draw a l9e betwe5 ! pure & appli$ sci5ce1 or betwe5 ! sci5tific & non-sci5tific phases ( ?is "w4 ,?is g5]al t5d5cy means a broad5+ ( sci5ce & n its det]ioration4 ,,c\rse ,,( ,,/udy ,,sugge/$ ,!re are almo/ z _m op9ions on desirable tra9+ = economic geology z !re are geologi/s1 & ! writ]'s view _c be tak5 z repres5t+ any widely accept$ /&>d4 ,on ! basis ( 8 own exp]i5ce1 h[ev]1 bo? 9 tea*+ & 9 field practice1 he w\ld lay emphasis on ! fundam5tal bran*es bo? ( geology & ( ! alli$ sci5ces1--g5]al geology1 /ratigraphy1 paleontology1 physiography1 s$im5tation1 m9]alogy1 petrology1 /ructural & metamorphic geology1 physics1 *emi/ry1 ma!matics1 & biology4 ,aft] ^! are cov]$1 z mu* att5tion %\ld be giv5 to economic applications z "t p]mits4 ,! "t all[ance = tra9+1 at a maximum1 is n suffici5t to cov] bo? pure & appli$ sci5ce4 ,subsequ5t exp]i5ce w supply ! defici5cies 9 appli$ k1 b w n make up = lack ( /udy ( basic pr9ciples4 ,x is safe advice to a /ud5t wi%+ to prep>e = economic geology t !re is no royal road to success2 t 8 be/ *ance lies 9 ! ef=t to make himself a sci5ti/1 ev5 ?\gh he cov] only a n>r[ field2 t if he is successful 9 ?is1 opportunities = economic applications w almo/ inevitably foll[4 ,to devote att5tion f ! />t m]ely to practical & comm]cial features1 r ?an to sci5tific pr9ciples1 br+s ! /ud5t at once into competition ) m9+ eng9e]s1 bus9ess m51 acc\ntants1 & o!rs1 :o are (t5 able to h&le ! purely empirical features ( an economic or practical k9d bett] ?an ! geologi/4 ,9 ! long run ! economic geologi/ succe$s because he kn[s ! fundam5tals ( 8 sci5ce1 & n because he has m]e facility 9 ! empirical economic phases ( 8 "w4 ,( c\rse !re are exceptions to ?is /atem5t1--!re are m5 ) a highly develop$ bus9ess s5se :o are successful 9 spite ( inadequate sci5tific tra9+1 b su* success %\ld be reg>d$ z a bus9ess & n a pr(essional success4 ,geology is sometimes describ$ z ! application ( o!r sci5ces to ! e>?4 ,?is /atem5t might be made ev5 broad]1 & geology describ$ z ! application ( all k to ! e>?4 ,9 ! writ]'s exp]i5ce1 ! be/ results on ! :ole h be5 obta9$ f /ud5ts :o1 be=e ent]+ geology1 h _h a broad g5]al education or h foll[$ int5sively "s o!r l9e ( /udy4 ,:e!r ?is /udy has be5 ! anci5t languages1 law1 eng9e]+1 economics1 or o!r sci5ces1 ! results h usually be5 good if ! e>ly tra9+ has be5 s\nd4 ,to />t 9 geology )\t "s su* backgr\nd1 & )\t ! result+ p[] ( a well-tra9$ m9d1 is to />t ) a h&icap 9 ! long race to ! highe/ pr(essional success4 ,x foll[s1 !n1 t int5sive /udy ( geology %\ld 9 mo/ cases n beg9 until late 9 ! und]graduate c\rse1 & pref]ably n until ! graduate ye>s4 ,two or ?ree ye>s ( graduate "w may !n suffice to laun* ! geologi/ on 8 c>e]1 b s great is ! field1 & s rapid ! gr[? ( k )9 x1 t !re is no t]m9ation to 8 /udy4 ,x is n en\gh to settle back com=tably on empirical practice bas$ solely on previ\sly acquir$ k4 ,ea* problem develops new sci5tific aspects4 ,x is ?is ev] r5ew+ int]e/ :i* is "o ( ! great *>ms ( ! sci5ce4 ,h[ev]1 :e!r ! /ud5t has a g5]al tra9+ 9 geology1 a specializ$ k ( c]ta9 bran*es1 or takes x up incid5tally 9 connection ) eng9e]+ & o!r sci5ces1 he w f9d opportunities = economic applications4 ,! frequ5t success ( ! m9+ eng9e] 9 ! geological phases ( 8 "w is an indication t ev5 a comp>atively small am\nt ( geological k is useful4 ,! writ] is incl9$ to emphasize also ! desirability ( :at might be call$ ! quantitative approa* to ! subject1--t is1 ( tra9+ 9 ma!matics & laboratory practice1 :i* gives ! /ud5t facility 9 treat+ geologic problems concretely & 9 quantitative t]ms4 ,geology is pass+ f ! descriptive & qualitative /ages to a m precise basis4 ,= ?is reason ! comb9ation ( geology ) eng9e]+ (t5 proves a desirable "o4 ,x is n uncommon = ! /ud5t tra9$ solely 9 ! humanities & o!r non-quantitative subjects to h difficulty 9 acquir+ habits ( m9d :i* lead to suffici5t precision 9 ! application ( 8 sci5ce4 ,he may h a good grasp ( g5]al pr9ciples & be able to express himself well1 b he is h&icapp$ 9 secur+ def9ite results4 ,?is does n necess>ily mean t a l>ge am\nt ( "t %\ld be giv5 to /udy ( quantitative me?ods2 exact habit ( m9d is m important 9 ! e>ly /ages ?an exp]t facility ) me?ods4 ,! tea*] ( economic geology f9ds 8 data s volum9\s t x is difficult to pres5t all ! ess5tial facts & yet leave suffici5t "t = discussion ( g5]al pr9ciples or = drill 9 _! con/ructive application4 ,x is difficult to lay d[n any rule z a guide to ! prop] division ( ef=t2 b f ! writ]'s po9t ( view1 x is a mi/ake to attempt to cr[d into a c\rse too _m facts4 ,at be/ !y _c all be giv52 & 9 ! attempt to d s1 ! /ud5t is br\ght into a passive & receptive attitude1 requir+ maximum use ( 8 memory & m9imum use ( 8 reason+ p[]4 ,pres5tation ( a few fundam5tal facts1 comb9$ ) vigor\s discussion t5d+ to develop ! /ud5t's ability to use ^! facts1 & p>ticul>ly t5d+ to develop a con/ructive habit ( inve/igation1 seems to be ! mo/ pr(itable use ( "t dur+ ! c\rse ( tra9+4 ,! acquirem5t ( facts & details w come fa/ en\gh 9 actual practice4 ,! v>iety1 am\nt1 & complexity ( ! data available 9 geology t5d 9 !mselves t[>d g5]alizations 9 tea*+--t[>d ! d$uctive r ?an ! inductive me?od4 ,a c]ta9 am\nt ( g5]alization is desirable1 b its ov]-emphasis develops bad habits ( m9d on ! "p ( ! /ud5t1 & requires radical readju/m5t ( 8 ideas 9 subsequ5t field inve/igations4 ,to reta9 a prop] emphasis on inductive me?ods1 x is necess>y to limit ! am\nt ( data pres5t$4 ,good results h be5 obta9$ by us+ ! case sy/em1 n[ common 9 ! tea*+ ( law--t is1 by />t+ ) a specific fact or situation z a basis = develop+ pr9ciples4 ,ano!r advantage 9 ! re/riction ( data is ! opportunity ?us af=d$ = sp5d+ m "t 9 ! /udy ( orig9al reports r ?an ( ! %ort textbook summ>ies4 ,! /ud5t ?us le>ns :]e ! be/ prim>y s\rces ( in=mation are1 h[ to f9d !m1 & h[ to extract ess5tials f !m4 ,,field ,,"w ,field "w is an ess5tial "p ( any c\rse ( geologic tra9+4 ,n only %\ld x be tak5 at e opportunity dur+ ! regul> s*ool ye>1 b no summ] %\ld be all[$ to pass )\t geologic practice 9 ! field4 ,opportunities = su* "w are (f]$ 9 ! summ] field c\rses giv5 by v>i\s in/itutions4 ,9 rec5t ye>s x has usually be5 possible1 also1 = ! /ud5t ) elem5t>y tra9+ to take "p 9 summ] geological survey "w = /ate1 national1 or private organizations4 ,9 fact1 aft] two or ?ree ye>s ( geologic tra9+1 x is comp>atively easy = ! /ud5t to e>n at su* int]vals dur+ ! ye> a fair fraction ( 8 ye>'s exp5ses4 ,! ideal arrangem5t1 f ! writ]'s viewpo9t1 w\ld be ab\t an equal division ( "t betwe5 indoor & outdoor /udy4 ,! alt]nation f "o to ! o!r supplies a mu* ne$$ corrective to cle> ?9k+4 ,x is impossible to br+ all ! subject mat]ials into ! classroom & laboratory2 su* /udy mu/ inevitably be m or less d$uctive & g5]aliz$4 ,if ! /ud5t at frequ5t int]vals is n able to acquire & r5ew a m5tal picture ( field conditions1 !re is likely to be a faulty p]spective ev5 9 reg>d to pr9ciples1 & a consid]able gap betwe5 ! !oretical & appli$ phases ( 8 k4 ,x may be possible 9 ! classroom1 = in/ance1 to discuss faults 9 great detail ) ! aid ( maps1 diagrams1 & pictures2 & yet x is extremely difficult to get a real ?ree-dim5sional conception ( ! problems )\t actually /&+ on ! gr\nd4 ,,specialization ,,9 ,,/udies ,) ! increas+ size & effici5cy ( human op]ations has come an inevitable t5d5cy to specialization4 ,:]e1 9 ! pa/1 ! necess>y geologic "w might be passably done by ! m9+ eng9e]1 ! local sup]9t5d5t or op]ator1 x is n[ be+ intru/$ to speciali/s4 ,ev5 )9 ! m /rictly eng9e]+ phases ( ! m9+ eng9e]'s "w1 !re is ! same t5d5cy t[>d specialization2 8 "w is be+ divid$ up among ! electrical eng9e]s1 ! me*anical eng9e]s1 ! hydraulic eng9e]s1 & o!rs4 ,! opportunities = geologic "w1 !re=e1 are di/9ctly 9 ! direction ( specialization4 ,! /ud5t 9 det]m9+ ! field he %all ent] ne$s to take ?is fact into acc\nt & to prep>e accord+ly1 b n at ! sacrifice ( ! broad basal tra9+4 ,only a small "p ( ! specialization c be accompli%$ 9 college4 ,! rema9d] w come ) exp]i5ce4 ,9 ! future !re is likely to be increas+ specialization among ! diff]5t educational in/itutions 9 ! phases ( appli$ geology :i* are taught4 ,geographic location has a good deal to d ) ?is t5d5cy4 ,:]e an in/itution is locat$ ne> a coal or oil field1 x is likely1 z a matt] ( c\rse1 to specialize to "s ext5t 9 ! application ( geology to ^! res\rces4 ,or1 ! specialization may arise f ! fact t ! tea*]s h _h special tra9+ 9 c]ta9 phases ( appli$ geology1 & su* tra9+ naturally & prop]ly det]m9es ! emphasis to be plac$4 ,c\rses 9 eng9e]+ geology are f9d+ a natural developm5t 9 ! lead+ eng9e]+ colleges4 ,9 view ( ! fact t x is impossible = any "o in/itution to cov] all phases ( appli$ geology1 because ( lack ( "t1 & 9 view ( ! fact t ev5 if ?is 7 attempt$ ! results w\ld be v unequal1 because ( ! v>i$ exp]i5ce ( tea*]s or because ( geographic location1 x w\ld seem wise def9itely to recognize ^! limitations & = ea* in/itution to play up ! "w x c d be/4 ,) fre$om ( migration among univ]sities1 a /ud5t by mov+ f place to place c ?us secure any comb9ation ( specializ$ c\rses :i* be/ fits 8 requirem5ts4 ,a ,,degree ,,( ,,economic ,,geology ,!re has be5 "s agitation 9 rec5t ye>s = /&>dization ( c\rses 9 economic geology1 & = ! grant+ ( a special degree 9 evid5ce ( ! completion ( su* a c\rse4 ,! pr9cipal argum5t = ?is proc$ure is t x w\ld t5d to insure a bett] av]age ( tra9+ & w\ld draw a l9e betwe5 wor?y geologi/s & a ho/ ( ill-tra9$ pseudo-geologi/s4 ,! e>? is s accessible1 & its use s v>i$1 t geology is h&icapp$ p]haps m ?an any o!r sci5ce by p]sons :o really h no valid claim to a sci5tific title4 ,! writ] d\bts :e!r a special degree 9 economic geology w\ld g f> t[>d improv+ ?is situation4 ,ev5 if ! c\rses 7 ! same 9 diff]5t in/itutions1 ! mann] ( treatm5t & ! ability ( ! tea*]s w\ld be s v>i$ t 9 ! future1 z 9 ! pa/1 anyone inquir+ into ! real /&+ ( a geologi/ w\ld be likely to consid] 8 individual tra9+ r ?an ! degree atta*$ to 8 "n4 ,!re w\ld be no gu>antee t in/itutions n qualifi$ to give ! degree might n d s4 ,h[ev]1 ! pr9cipal objection 9 ! writ]'s m9d to a degree ( economic geology is ! assumption t x is possible = anybody1 9 ! pres5t /age ( k1 to =mulate a /&>diz$ c\rse adequate or be/ to meet ! v>i$ requirem5ts4 ,consid]+ ! bread? & ! v>iety ( ! field1 any su* attempt at /&>dization w\ld h to be highly arbitr>y4 ,once e/abli%$1 x w\ld be a h9drance to ! natural developm5t ( new c\rses to meet ! ev] *ang+ requirem5ts4 ,:51 if ev]1 ! sci5ce ( economic geology becomes fully organiz$1 a /&>diz$ c\rse may be possible4 ,9 ! pres5t /age ( ! sci5ce1 m ela/icity is requir$ ?an seems to be possible 9 any ( ! c\rses propos$4 ,"o ( ! purposes ( ! introduction ( a degree ( economic geology1 to sep>ate ! %eep f ! goats1 may be accompli%$ 9 ano!r way1--namely1 by ! e/abli%m5t & ma9t5ance ( high /&>ds ( admission & high aims on ! "p ( ! v>i\s pr(essional societies hav+ to d ) geology & m9+4 ,if ?is is done1 memb]%ip 9 su* societies may be reg>d$ z evid5ce ( s\nd tra9+ & a*ievem5t4 ,to "s ext5t ?is proc$ure may relieve ! pressure on univ]sities = uni=mity ( c\rses & degrees1 leav+ !m free to develop 9 su* mann] z seems be/4 ,sci5tific organizations1 ov]look+ ! entire field1 are 9 a position to take into acc\nt ! greate/ v>iety ( factors ( tra9+ & exp]i5ce 9 select+ _! memb]s4 ,failure ( any univ]sity c\rse to make m5 eligible = su* recognition w obvi\sly react on ! c\rse 9 a desirable way4 ,,! ,,opportunities ,,( ,,! ,,economic ,,geologi/ ,x has be5 ! aim 9 ?is book to pres5t a g5]al view ( ! fields ( activity ( ! economic geologi/2 & ! li/ ( *apt] head+s 9 itself summ>izes ! v>iety ( 8 opportunities4 ,! rapidly increas+ use ( e>? mat]ials promises f> great] calls = geologic aid 9 ! future ?an 9 ! pa/4 ,! pr(ession is 9 its infancy4 ,opportunities = employm5t are ord9>ily f\nd 9 ?ree ma9 directions--9 educational in/itutions1 9 ! f$]al & /ate geological surveys1 & 9 private organizations4 ,connection ) ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,geological ,survey excludes p>ticipation 9 private "w1 & 9 rec5t ye>s ev5 9 tea*+4 ,9 ! /ate surveys !re is ord9>ily m latitude 9 ?is reg>d4 ,9 ! educational in/itutions1 x is r ! common proc$ure = ! in/ructor to secure 8 field practice & exp]i5ce ?r\gh private ag5cies1 or ?r\gh "p "t connection ) /ate surveys1--an arrangem5t ) advantages to all conc]n$4 ,! educational in/itution secures ! b5efit ( ! field exp]i5ce :i* x _c af=d to provide1 & is enabl$ to hold geologi/s at sal>ies f> bel[ _! e>n+ capacity4 ,! geologi/ ga9s by ! opportunity to alt]nate betwe5 (fice & field /udy1 & to correct 8 p]spective by ! con/ant *eck+ ( !ory ) field conditions4 ,! comb9ation t5ds to keep ! cle>ly sci5tific & ! appli$ phases 9 a prop] relative proportion2 x m9imizes ! dang] ( drift+ into purely empirical field me?ods on ! "o h&1 & ( los+ t\* ) actualities on ! o!r4 ,geologi/s devot+ _! att5tion solely to field "w (t5 compla9 t !y d n h "t to dige/ & correlate _! results1 nor to keep up ) :at o!rs are do+4 ,on ! o!r h&1 geologi/s )\t curr5t field practice are likely to develop too /rongly along subjective1 d$uctive1 & !oretical l9es4 ,! tea*] ga9s 9 fre%ness & =ce 9 ! pres5tation ( 8 subject 9 ! classroom1 & ! v ef=t necess>y = pres5tation requires bett] analysis & coord9ation ( 8 field obs]vations4 ,! private or /ate organization ga9s 9 ?is comb9ation by draw+ on ! g5]al & v>i$ k :i* has necess>ily be5 accumulat$ = tea*+ & inve/igative purposes4 ,temp]am5t & circum/ances w det]m9e 9 :i* ( ^! directions ! /ud5t w turn4 ,h[ev]1 9 view ( ! pres5t natural t5d5cy to be attract$ by ! l>ge f9ancial rew>ds 9 ! comm]cial field1 x may n be out ( place to emphasize ! fact t ^! rew>ds are p]haps m likely to be ga9$ ?r\gh p]fect$ tra9+ & exp]i5ce 9 /ate & national surveys & 9 educational in/itutions1 ?an ?r\gh e>ly conc5tration 9 ! comm]cial field4 ,9 any case1 ! f9ancial side w take c>e ( itself :5 suffici5t k & pr(ici5cy h be5 atta9$ 9 any bran* ( ! sci5ce4 ,! _w is ! geologi/'s laboratory2 x is ! only limit to 8 activities4 ,! fronti]s are ne> at h&1 bo? physically & intellectually4 ,!re are few fields s attractive f ! sci5tific /&po9t4 ,!re are few 9 :i* ! successful prosecution ( ! sci5ce c be ( s mu* direct b5efit to civilization & c yield su* l>ge f9ancial rew>ds4 ,if1 9 addition1 ! opportunities = travel & adv5ture are tak5 into acc\nt1 :at pr(ession promises a m int]e/+ & useful life8 ,s f> we h discuss$ geology z a pr(ession4 ,x has prov$ its value also z a tra9+ = adm9i/rative & o!r public c>e]s4 ,! pr(ession contributes its full %>e ( m5 to ^! activities4 ,! practice ( geology deals ) a wide v>iety ( factors1 & requires ! con/ant ex]cise ( judgm5t 9 balanc+1 correlat+1 & integrat+ ^! factors 9 ord] to rea* s\nd conclusions4 ,?is objective treatm5t ( complex situations is valuable tra9+ = ! h&l+ ( human affairs4 ,,e?ics ,,( ,,! ,,economic ,,geologi/ ,e?ical que/ions involv$ 9 ! practice ( economic geology h call$ out mu* discussion1 &1 9 "s cases1 m>k$ diff]5ces ( op9ion among m5 equally desir\s ( do+ ! "r ?+4 ,9 ! pla9 *oice betwe5 "r & wrong1 !re is ( c\rse no diff]5ce ( op9ion4 ,un=tunately 9 _m ( ! que/ions :i* arise ! alt]natives are n s cle>ly label$4 ,! lure ( discov]y & quick returns always has1 & d\btless always w1 draw into ! field l>ge numb]s ( p]sons )\t s\nd e?ical an*orage or /&>ds4 ,=tunately1 ^! are n ! p]sons 9 control ( ! m9]al indu/ries2 !y are m]e incid5ts 9 ! great & /able bus9ess built up by legitimate dem&s = raw mat]ials4 ,! view is sometimes express$ t ! geologi/ %\ld hold himself alo( f ! bus9ess or appli$ phases ( 8 pr(ession1 because ( ! dang] ( be+ ta9t$ ) comm]cialism4 ,?is argum5t w\ld apply to ! eng9e] z well z to ! geologi/4 ,to c>ry su* a proc$ure ?r\gh to its logical conclusion w\ld mean sub/antially ! )drawal ( sci5tific aid f indu/ry1--:i*1 to ! writ]1 is h>dly a debatable "q4 ,circum/ances are tr5d+ inevitably to ! l>g] use ( geologic sci5ce 9 ! comm]cial field4 ,! problems ( e?ics _c be solv$ by /ay+ out4 ,! economic geologi/ is r call$ ^u to d 8 "p 9 rais+ ! /&>ds ( e?ics 9 t "p ( ! field 9 :i* he has influ5ce4 ,?is he c d by c>eful appraisal ( all ! conditions relat+ to a problem :i* he is ask$ to take up1 & by refus+ to act :]e que/ionable e?ical /&>ds are app>5t or suspect$4 ,he mu/ und]/& fully ! purposes = :i* 8 report is to be us$2 m]ely z a matt] ( pr(essional self-int]e/1 !re is no o!r c\rse op5 to him4 ,9 a field 9 :i* !re is s mu* dang] f loose e?ical conceptions1 ! premium on rigid hone/y & nice appreciation ( pr(essional e?ics is proportionately high]4 ,! extreme c>e tak5 9 ?is matt] by ackn[l$g$ lead]s 9 ! pr(ession ( economic geology %\ld be c>efully consid]$ by ! "y man ent]+ ! pr(ession4 ,!re is a reason4 ,9 o!r *apt]s ref]5ce is made to c]ta9 special e?ical que/ions1 su* z ! use ( geology 9 m9+ litigation 7pp4 #cdi-cee71 & ! necessity ( ! geologi/'s recogniz+ 8 own limitations 7pp4 #ib-id71 b no attempt has be5 made to cov] ! v>iety ( su* que/ions t may come up4 ,x is safe to assume t no special e?ical code c be made suffici5tly compreh5sive1 detail$1 & ela/ic to cov] all ! cont+5cies :i* are likely to be met 9 ! practice ( economic geology2 nor is x likely t any su* code1 if attempt$1 w\ld be any improvem5t on ! _s ( ! ,gold5 ,rule4 ,simple dec5cy & common s5se 9 _! broad] implications are ess5tial to ! practice ( ! pr(ession4 ,,index ,abrasives1 #bfg-bgj1 #cig ,abyss9ia1 pota%1 #aab ,adams1 ,frank ,d41 #cfg ,adirondacks1 ,new ,york1 graphite1 #bhb iron ores1 #afj1 #afb1 #afc1 #aga phosphate f magnetic ores1 #aje-ajf use ( magnetic surveys 9 trac+ iron rocks1 #cag ,ad valorem me?od ( valuation ( m9]al deposits1 #cca-cce ,africa1 bauxite1 #bdb coal1 #aaf cobalt1 #bee copp]1 #aig-aih1 #bje t91 #bfj ,see also ,s\? ,africa2 ,nor? ,africa2 ,ea/ ,africa2 ,we/ ,africa4 ,alabama1 bauxite1 #bdc1 #bde graphite1 #bha iron1 #eb-ec1 #afj1 #afb1 #afc1 #aff-afg ,alaska1 antimony1 #bdh copp]1 #cf1 #da1 #dg1 #di1 #aii1 #bjj-bja gold1 #bbb1 #bbd1 #bbi silv]1 #bcd t91 #bfa1 #bfb ,alg]ia1 antimony1 #bdg1 #bdh gypsum1 #bhc iron1 #aef1 #afj1 #afa1 #aid petroleum1 #abh phosphates1 #ajd1 #aje1 #ajf ,see also ,nor? ,africa4 ,almad51 ,spa91 m]cury ores1 #bef-beg1 #bei ,alsace1 pota%1 #aaa-aac ,alsace-,lorra9e1 coal & iron (1 "u ,peace ,treaty1 #dja-djb ,alum9um ,company ( ,am]ica1 #bdc ,alum9um ores1 #bda-bdf1 #cig ,see also ,bauxite4 ,alunite1 #ci1 #da-db1 #aab1 #aad1 #bcj ,anaconda1 ,montana1 ars5ic production1 #bej ,anaconda ,copp] ,m9+ ,company1 manufacture ( phosphate1 #aje use ( geology 9 developm5t & exploration1 #cbf-cbg ,anamorphism1 def9$1 #bg1 #eg ,anamorphism ( m9]al deposits1 #bf1 #eg-eh ,anhydrite1 occurr5ce 9 gypsum deposits1 #bhd-bhe ,anticl9es1 occurr5ce ( oil 91 #ada-adb1 #adg-adh ,antimonial lead1 #bdf ,antimony ores1 #bdf-bdi1 #cih ,apex law1 #cdi-cej1 #cec ,aplites1 #ce ,appala*ians1 b>ite1 #bgd bauxite1 #bde graphite1 #bhb-bhc petroleum1 #acb1 #ace pit*bl5de1 #bff pyrite1 #ajh t91 #bfb ,see also "u individual /ates4 ,arg5t9a1 borax1 #bge mica1 #bhf petroleum1 #abh tung/51 #ahc ,arizona1 asbe/os1 #bga1 #bgb copp]1 #cc1 #ch1 #da1 #dg1 #dh1 #aih-aii1 #bjc1 #bjd-bje1 #bjh1 #cad1 #caf gold1 #bbb manganese1 #age molybd5um1 #ahf1ahg silv]1 #bcd tung/51 #ahc turquoise1 #bic ,arkansas1 bauxite1 #if1 #bdc1 #bdd-bde1 #bdf diamonds1 #bib full]'s e>?1 #bgi hones1 oil/ones & :et/ones1 #bfi phosphates1 #aje z9c1 #bae ,arnold1 ,ralph1 #acd1 #acf1 #adi-aej ,ars5ic ores1 #bdi-bea1 #cig ,artesian wells1 #gc ,asbe/os1 #bgj-bgb1 #cih ,asphalt & bitum51 #ef1 #aea-aec1 #cig ,atolia1 ,cali=nia1 tung/5 ores1 #ahe ,atwood1 ,w4 ,w41 #dad ,au/ralasia1 cem5t1 #hg coal1 #aaf gold1 #bbb ,au/ralia1 antimony1 #bdg ars5ic1 #bej asbe/os1 #bga1 #bgb bauxite1 #bdb bismu?1 #beb coal1 #aae copp]1 #aig-aih gold1 #da1 #bbb1 #bbd iron1 #aed1 #afd1 #afe lead1 #baj-baa1 #bab molybd5um1 #ahf phosphates1 #aje silv]1 #bcb t91 #bfj tung/51 #ahc z9c1 #bad-bae1 #baf ,au/ralia1 laws relat+ to own]%ip ( m9]al res\rces1 #cdc1 #cde ,au/ria1 cem5t1 #hg graphite1 #bhj m]cury1 #bef1 #beg molybd5um1 #ahf talc1 #bii uranium & radium1 #bfd z9c1 #bad ,au/ria-,hung>y1 b>ite1 #bgb coal1 #aae1 #aaf iron1 #afj1 #afa magnesite1 #aia-aic manganese1 #agd silv]1 #bcb ,see also ,hung>y4 ,au/ria-,hung>y1 comm]cial & political control ( v>i\s m9]als1 #fd ,ball clay1 #he1 #cih ,b> !ory ( =mation ( ?ick salt b$s1 #big ,b>aboo1 ,wiscons91 qu>tzites (1 #hb ,b>ite1 #bgb-bgd1 #cig ,basalt1 #ag1 #ai1 #hb1 #ij ,bauxite1 #i1 #ej1 #if1 #bda-bdf1 #cig ,bav>ia1 graphite1 #bhj ,bawdw9 ,m9es1 ,burma1 lead & z9c1 #bji1 #bad ,beaumont ,field1 ,texas1 occurr5ce ( oil1 #adh ,belgian ,congo1 cobalt1 #bee copp]1 #bje ,belgium1 b>ite1 #bgb cem5t1 #hg coal1 #aae-aag1 #abg1 #dja fl9t l9+s1 #bfi iron1 #afj-afa lead1 #ed-ee1 #baj mill/ones & buhr/ones1 #bfi phosphates1 #ajd z9c1 #ed-ee1 #bad ,belgium1 comm]cial & political control ( v>i\s m9]als1 #fd1 #bhj ,belle ,isle1 ,newf\ndl&1 iron ores1 #eb-ec1 #afj1 #aff ,b]gholm1 ,c>l1 #cai ,b]g/rom1 ,gunn>1 #cai ,bessem] processes ( /eel mak+1 #aeh1 #afa ,bilbao1 ,spa92 iron ores1 #afj1 #agj ,bill+sley1 ,paul1 & ,grimes1 ,j4 ,a41 #dd ,b+ham1 ,utah1 copp] & lead ores1 #cg1 #db1 #dg1 #aii1 #bjc1 #bjd1 #bjg1 #bjh1 #bab1 #cad ,birm+ham1 ,alabama1 iron ores1 #afj1 #afb1 #afc1 #aff-afg ,see also ,cl9ton iron ores4 ,bisbee1 ,arizona1 copp] ores1 #dg1 #aih1 #bjd1 #cad1 #caf ,bismu? ores1 #beb-bec1 #cig ,bitum5 & asphalt1 #ef1 #aea-aec1 #cig ,black ,hills1 ,s\? ,dakota1 gold ores1 #bbh1 #bbi t9 ores1 #bfb ,blue gr\nd1 occurr5ce ( diamonds 91 #bia ,blue/one1 #hd ,bohemia1 uranium & radium ores1 #bfe ,boise ,bas91 ,idaho1 monazite deposits1 #bhi ,boleo1 ,l[] ,cali=nia1 copp] ores1 #bja ,bolivia1 antimony1 #bdg bismu?1 #beb1 #bec borax1 #bge copp]1 #bjf nitrates1 #ajc petroleum1 #abh silv]1 #bcb t91 #bfa1 #bfb-bfc tung/51 #ahc1 #ahd ,bolivia1 comm]cial & political control ( v>i\s m9]als1 #fd ,bonne ,t]re lime/one1 ,miss\ri1 z9c ores1 #bag ,boone =mation1 ,miss\ri1 z9c ores1 #bag ,borax1 #bgd-bgg1 #cig ,borax ,lake1 ,cali=nia1 borax deposits1 #bgf ,borneo1 diamond du/1 #bfh plat9um1 #bch ,bort1 #bfg1 #bfh1 #cih ,b\ld] ba?oli?1 ,montana1 ore-deposits (1 #dd ,b\ld] ,c\nty1 ,colorado1 tung/5 ores1 #ahd ,brad5 copp] ores1 ,*ile1 #aii ,brazil1 *romite1 #agi coal1 #aaf diamonds & diamond du/1 #bfh1 #bib graphite1 #bhj iron1 #eb-ec1 #afb1 #afe1 #afg1 #cac manganese1 #agd-age1 #agf mica1 #bhf monazite1 #bhh1 #bhi oil %ales1 #aea zirconium1 #ahi-aij ,brazil1 comm]cial & political control ( v>i\s m9]als1 #fd ,briey di/rict1 ,france1 iron ores1 #afa1 #afc vanadium1 #ahg ,br9ton1 ,virg9ia1 ars5ic ores1 #bea ,briti% ,coal ,commission1 #cfg ,briti% ,columbia1 laws relat+ to m9]al res\rces1 #cdd ,briti% ,empire4 ,see ,great ,brita94 ,briti% ,guiana1 bauxite1 #bdb1 #bdc ,briti% ,s\? ,africa1 coal1 #aaf ,brok5 ,hill1 ,new ,s\? ,wales1 lead & z9c ores1 #bji1 #bab ,brom9e1 #bgg-bgh1 #cig ,brooks1 ,alfr$ ,h41 #djd1 #djh ,brooks1 ,alfr$ ,h41 & ,la,croix1 ,morris ,f41 #djd ,buhr/ones1 #bfi ,build+ /one1 #hj-hd1 #hh-ij1 #cig ,bureau ( ,m9es1 #djc1 #djf ,burma1 lead1 #bji1 #baj1 #bab rubies1 #bhi1 #bib silv]1 #bcc tung/51 #ahc1 #ahe z9c1 #bad1 #baf ,burr[s1 ,j4 ,s41 #cfg ,butl]1 ,b4 ,s41 ,l\ghl91 ,g4 ,f41 & ,heikes1 ,v4 ,c41 #dd1 #ee1 #bcj ,butte1 ,montana1 ars5ic 9 copp] ores1 #bea copp] ores1 #dj1 #dg1 #di1 #aih-aii1 #bja-bjc1 #bjg1 #bjh manganese ores1 #agg1 #cad silv] ores1 #bcd1 #cad use ( plac]s 9 locat+ ores1 #caf z9c ores1 #bae-baf zonal arrangem5t ( m9]als1 #db1 #dd ,cadmium ores1 #bec-bed1 #cig ,cali=nia1 antimony1 #bdh asbe/os1 #bga asphalt & bitum51 #aeb basalt1 #hb borax1 #bge1 #bgf-bgg *romite1 #agi copp]1 #aii1 #bjd diatomace\s e>?1 #bfi full]'s e>?1 #bgi gold1 #bbb1 #bbd1 #bbg1 #bbi1 #cjh1 #caf1 #cdb granite1 #hb graphite1 #bha gr9d+ pebbles1 #bfh magnesite1 #aia-aic manganese1 #age m]cury1 #dj1 #bef1 #beg1 #bei natural gas1 #aea petroleum1 #acb1 #acc1 #ace1 #acg pota%1 #aab1 #aac-aad pyrite1 #ajh s]p5t9e1 #hc silv]1 #bcd1 #cjh t\rmal9e1 #bic tung/51 #ahc ,campbell1 ,j4 ,morr[1 #ahe ,campbell1 ,m4 ,r41 #aba1 #abb1 #cff ,campbell1 ,m4 ,r41 & ,p>k]1 ,e4 ,w41 #cfg1 #cgj-cga ,canada1 ars5ic1 #bej asbe/os1 #bgj-bga1 #bgb cem5t1 #hg *romite1 #agi coal1 #aae1 #aaf cobalt1 #bee copp]1 #aig-aih corundum1 #bfh1 #bgj feldsp>1 #hf fluorsp>1 #aic1 #aid gold1 #bbb graphite1 #bhj-bha gr9d/ones & pulp/ones1 #bfi gypsum1 #bhc-bhd iron1 #eb-ec1 #aee1 #aef1 #afj1 #afe magnesite1 #aia-aic mica1 #bhf1 #bhg molybd5um1 #ahf natural gas1 #aea nickel1 #ahj-ahb petroleum1 #abh phosphates1 #aje1 #ajf plat9um1 #bch pyrite1 #ajg-ajh salt1 #bid silv]1 #bcb1 #bcd-bce talc1 #bii1 #cjj titanium1 #aij z9c1 #bad1 #bae ,canada1 laws relat+ to own]%ip to m9]al res\rces1 #cdc use ( magnetic surveys 9 trac+ iron rocks1 #cag ,cananea1 ,sonora1 ,mexico1 copp] ores1 #bjc ,cannel coal1 #abe ,cape ,colony1 ,s\? ,africa1 asbe/os1 #bgb ,capill>ity1 effect on gr\nd-wat] level1 #gj effect on petroleum migration1 #adb-adc ,capital value ( m9]al res\rces1 #fd1 #cbh ,capp+1 ( copp] ores1 #dg ,c>bonado1 #bfh ,c>ey ,act1 classification ( public l&s "u1 #caj ,c>mel1 ,new ,york1 ars5ic ores1 #bea ,cas+-head gasol9e1 #aci1 #aea ,caucasus region1 ,russia1 manganese ores1 #agd1 #agf ,cem5t1 #hf-hh1 #cig ,cem5tation1 m9]al products result+ f1 #bd ,cem5t+ mat]ials1 s\rce (1 #be ,c5tral ,am]ica1 cem5t1 #hg1 #hh silv]1 #bcb ,see also ,co/a ,rica1 ,guatemala1 ,panama4 ,c5tral ,p[]s4 ,see ,g]many1 ,au/ria-,hung>y4 ,c]ium ores1 ,see ,monazite4 ,ceylon1 graphite1 #bhj-bhc mica1 #bhf ,*alk1 #hc1 #cih ,*amb]l91 ,t4 ,c41 #bag ,*amb]l91 ,t4 ,c41 & ,salisbury1 ,r4 ,d41 #dae ,*ance1 ,h4 ,m41 #cfg1 #cfh ,*]t1 use = abrasives1 #bfg1 #bfh1 #bgj ,*ile1 borax1 #bge1 #bgf brom9e1 #bgg coal1 #aaf copp]1 #aig-aii1 #bjc iron1 #aee1 #afa1 #afb1 #afd1 #aga manganese1 #agf nitrates1 #ajj1 #aja-ajd phosphates1 #aje1 #ajf pota%1 #aab silv]1 #bcb sulphur1 #aji-aaj ,*ile1 comm]cial & political control ( v>i\s m9]als1 #fd1 #bfa ,*9a1 antimony1 #bdg-bdh1 #bdi ars5ic1 #bej1 #bea bismu?1 #beb coal1 #aae1 #aaf1 #abg1 #aed iron1 #aed1 #afj1 #afd1 #afe1 #aga petroleum1 #abh salt1 #bid silv]1 #bcb t91 #bfj tung/51 #ahc1 #ahd ,*9a1 comm]cial & political control ( v>i\s m9]als1 #fd ,*lorid+ = silv] ores1 #cad ,*rome 7or *romite7 ores1 #agh-ahj1 #cjg1 #cfe-cff1 #cih ,cl>ke1 ,f4 ,w41 #ac1 #ag1 #ah ,classification ( m9]al deposits1 #bg-ei ( m9]al l&s1 #cji-caa ( m9]al mat]ials1 adju/m5t ( sci5tific to comm]cial names1 #cef ,clays1 #ah1 #he1 #ia-ib1 #cih ,cle ,elum1 ,wa%+ton1 iron ores1 #eh ,cleavage1 #bf ,clevel& di/rict1 ,engl&1 iron ores1 #afa ,clifton-,mor5ci di/rict1 ,arizona1 copp] ores1 #ch1 #aih ,climate1 z a factor 9 exploration1 #cae effect ( 9 =mation ( bauxites1 #bdf ,cl9ton iron ores1 #i1 #eb-ec1 #afc1 #aff-afg1 #bah1 #cac1 #cag ,coal1 cons]vation (1 #cfe1 #cff-chb ,european int]national situation1 #aaf-aag1 #chf1 #chg1 #cic1 #djj-djc g5]al economic & geologic features1 #ef1 #aae-abg1 #cji1 #cig res]ves1 #aaf1 #cfj-cfa1 #cff-cfg ,cobalt di/rict1 ,ont>io1 ars5ic1 #bea cobalt1 #bee silv] ores1 #bcb1 #bcd-bce1 #cjh1 #caf use ( coeffici5t to e/imate future output1 #cbb ,cobalt ores1 #bed-bee1 #cih ,coeur d',al5e di/rict1 ,idaho1 lead-silv] ores1 #ci1 #de1 #baa1 #bab-bac1 #baf1 #bcd ,coke1 #aah-aai ,colloids1 cont5t ( 9 clays1 #ib ,colombia1 coal1 #aaf em]alds1 #bhi1 #bic gold1 #bbb plat9um1 #bch ,colombia1 comm]cial & political control ( v>i\s m9]als1 #fd ,colorado1 #cac ,colorado1 ars5ic1 #bej asphalt & bitum51 #aeb bismu?1 #bec coal1 #aag fluorsp>1 #aid gold1 #bbb1 #bcj graphite1 #bha lead1 #baa1 #bab molybd5um1 #ahf oil %ales1 #aej petroleum1 #acc silv]1 #bcd tung/51 #ahc1 #ahd turquoise1 #bic uranium & radium1 #bfd-bfe1 #bff vanadium1 #ahg-ahh z9c1 #baf1 #bai-bbj ,comm]cial & political control ( m9]al res\rces1 #fe1 #chg1 #chh ,see also "u individual res\rces4 ,common rocks1 z m9]al res\rces1 #hj-id ,com/ock ,lode1 ,nevada1 silv] ores1 #bce-bcf1 #cjh ,congo4 ,see ,belgian ,congo ,connecticut1 basalt1 #hb diatomace\s e>?1 #bfi t\rmal9e1 #bic ,conov]1 ,julian ,d41 #ab ,cons]vation1 #cei-chb1 #cic-cie application ( economic geology to1 #a-b ( coal1 #cff-chb ( common rocks1 #ha ( human en]gy1 #cfb int]national aspects1 #cfb-cfc1 #cge1 #cgf-cgg1 #cic-cie ( petroleum1 #acg-aci ,cons]vation ,commission ( ,canada1 #cfg ,contact metamorphism1 #bj1 #bd1 #be-bg1 #cf-cg ,see also ,igne\s aft]-effects4 ,contracts1 classification ( e>? mat]ials 91 #cef-ceg ,copp] ores1 #i1 #cf-ej1 #ea-eb1 #ee1 #aig1 #bji1 #cjg1 #cjh-cji1 #cac-cad1 #cah1 #cif ,cornwall1 ,engl&1 t9 ores1 #db1 #bfj1 #bfb1 #bfc uranium & radium ores1 #bfd ,corocoro1 ,bolivia1 copp] ores1 #bjf ,corundum1 #bfg-bfh1 #bgj1 #cih ,co/a ,rica1 manganese1 #agf ,crack+ processes = ref9+ petroleum1 #acg1 #aci ,cripple ,creek di/rict1 ,colorado1 gold ores1 #bcj ,cuba1 *romite1 #agi copp]1 #aig iron1 #h-i1 #ej1 #eh1 #if1 #aee1 #afj1 #afc1 #aga-agc1 #cac1 #cdi manganese1 #age nickel1 #aha petroleum1 #abh ,cuyuna ,range1 ,m9nesota1 manganese ores1 #age1 #agg ,cycle1 erosion or topographic1 #f-g ,cyclic nature ( ore conc5tration1 #g-h1 #dg-dh1 #ef1 #afi1 #bja1 #bje1 #bjh1 #cbe ,cyprus1 asbe/os1 #bga1 #bgb ,dams1 geologic problems involv$ 9 con/ruction1 #dad ,davis1 ,w4 ,m41 #djh ,dea? ,valley1 ,cali=nia1 borax deposits1 #bgf ,degree ( economic geology1 #dbg-dbh ,d5m>k1 cem5t1 #hg *alk1 #hc gr9d+ pebbles1 #bfh ,depletion ( m9]al deposits1 z factor 9 valuation & taxation1 #cca1 #ccg1 #cci ,dep? z a factor 9 m9]al deposition1 #dc1 #di1 #eh-ei ,diamond du/1 #bfg1 #bfh1 #cih ,diamonds1 #bhi-bib1 #caf1 #cag ,diatomace\s e>?1 #bfg1 #bfi1 #cih ,diorite1 #hb ,dolomite1 #bc1 #aib ,domes1 occurr5ce ( oil 94 ,see ,anticl9es4 ,domes1 salt & sulphur1 ,gulf ,coa/1 #aaj1 #bih ,drill+1 exploration ( m9]al deposits by1 #cbj-cba ,drill+ records1 public regi/ration (1 #cje-cjf ,duckt[n1 ,t5nessee1 copp] ores1 #bjd ,dut* ,ea/ ,indies1 natural gas1 #aea petroleum1 #abh1 #abi t91 #bfj use ( coeffici5t to e/imate t9 res]ves1 #cbb ,dut* ,guiana1 bauxite1 #bdc ,dut* ,we/ ,indies1 phosphates1 #aje1 #ajf ,dynamic metamorphism1 #be-bf ,ea/ ,africa1 mica1 #bhf ,ea/ ,indies4 ,see ,dut* ,ea/ ,indies4 ,eckel1 ,e4 ,c41 #djd ,economic ,liaison ,committee1 #djf ,egypt1 petroleum1 #abh phosphates1 #ajd ,eis]n] ,hut1 #cac ,electrical conductivity1 use 9 exploration ( m9]al deposits1 #cai ,ely1 ,nevada1 copp] ores1 #da1 #bjc ,em]alds1 #bhi1 #bia1 #bic ,em]y1 #bfg-bfh1 #bgj1 #cig1 #cih ,emmons1 ,w4 ,h41 #dc ,empire1 ,colorado1 molybd5um ores1 #ahf ,en]gy res\rces1 #aae-aec accel]at+ production (1 #fd1 #acj-aca1 #cfa1 #cff-cfg ,eng9e]+1 application ( economic geology to1 #b1 #dac-dai ,engl&4 ,see ,great ,brita9 ,enri*m5t1 second>y1 #g-h1 #be1 #df-ej4 ,see also "u ,copp] ores1 silv] ores1 etc4 ,epig5etic ore deposits1 use ( t]m1 #cb1 #cf ,equat$ ,income me?od ( taxation1 #cce-ccf ,erosion1 relation to oxide zones1 #dg-dh ,erosion cycle1 description (1 #f-g ,e?ics1 que/ions (1 #dcj-dca ,europe1 coal & iron situation "u t]ms ( ,peace ,treaty1 #djj-djc ,exp]t witnesses1 use ( geologi/s z1 #cdi-cee1 #ceg-ceh ,exploitation ( m9]al deposits1 functions ( geologi/1 #cbf-cbg ,exploration ( m9]al deposits1 #cja-cbg effect ( own]%ip laws on1 #cdg-cdi effect ( taxation on1 #cci-cda quantitative aspects (1 #cba-cbb1 #cbd-cbf relation to int]national conditions1 #cie-cif ,extralat]al rights1 litigation affect+1 #cdi-cee ,extrusive rocks1 =mation (1 #ai ,f$]at$ ,malay ,/ates4 ,see ,malay ,/ates4 ,feldsp>1 #af1 #hf1 #bfh-bfi1 #cig ,f]ro-alloy m9]als1 #aef-aeh1 #agc-aif1 #cjg1 #cfb-cfc1 #cfe-cff1 #cic-cid1 #cig-cih ,f]roboron1 #bge ,f]roc]ium1 #bhh ,f]ro*rome1 #agh ,f]romanganese1 #agc-agd ,f]romolybd5um1 #ahf ,f]rosilicon1 #aie ,f]rotitanium1 #aij ,f]rotung/51 #ahb-ahc ,f]rovanadium1 #ahg ,f]rozirconium1 #ahi ,f]rug9\s *]t1 #afg ,f]tiliz] m9]als1 #ii-aad ,field "w = /ud5ts ( economic geology1 #dbe-dbf ,fl9t l9+s = tube mills1 #bfi ,florida1 full]'s e>?1 #bgi phosphates1 #aje1 #ajg titanium1 #aij1 #aia zirconium1 #ahi ,fl[age1 rock1 #be1 #bf ,fluorsp>1 #aic-aid1 #cig ,foo?ill di/rict1 ,cali=nia1 copp] ores1 #bjd ,=mosa1 petroleum1 #abh ,f\ndations1 application ( geology to1 #dac ,france1 antimony1 #bdg1 #bdi ars5ic1 #bej-bea asphalt & bitum51 #aeb b>ite1 #bgb bauxite1 #bdb1 #bde cem5t1 #hg *alk1 #hc coal1 #aae-aag1 #abg coal & iron situation "u ,peace ,treaty1 #djj-djc fluorsp>1 #aid gr9d+ pebbles1 #bfh gypsum1 #bhc iron1 #aed1 #afj-afb1 #afc1 #aff-afg1 #djb-djc manganese1 #agf mill/ones & buhr/ones1 #bfi mold+ s&1 #hd oil %ales1 #aej phosphates1 #ajd1 #aje pota%1 #aaa-aac salt1 #bid talc1 #bii vanadium1 #ahg z9c1 #bad ,france1 control ( v>i\s m9]als 9 o!r c\ntries1 #fd1 #ajd-aje1 #agh1 #ahj1 #baj1 #bae1 #bbb1 #bch1 #bdg1 #bfa1 #bhj laws relat+ to own]%ip ( m9]al res\rces1 #cdc relative position 9 reg>d to supplies ( m9]als1 #cii ,frankl9 ,furnace1 ,new ,j]sey1 z9c ores1 #bae-baf1 #bbj ,free/one1 #hd ,fr5* ,guiana1 bauxite1 #bdb ,fuel ratio ( coal1 def9$1 #abj ,full]'s e>?1 #bgh-bgi1 #cig ,gabbro1 #ai1 #hb ,gale1 ,hoyt ,s41 #aaa ,gal5a dolomite1 ,wiscons91 z9c ores1 #bag ,galicia1 petroleum1 #abh1 #abi pota%1 #aab ,gani/]1 #hd1 #ia1 #aie ,g>net1 #bfg1 #bfh1 #bgj1 #cih ,gas1 natural1 #eg1 #aea ,georgia1 asbe/os1 #bga1 #bgb b>ite1 #bgc bauxite1 #bdc1 #bde corundum1 #bgj full]'s e>?1 #bgi m>ble1 #hc ,georgia granite1 volume *ange 9 wea!r+ (1 #ba ,g]many1 ars5ic1 #bej-bea b>ite1 #bgb-bgc bismu?1 #beb borax1 #bge1 #bgg brom9e1 #bgg1 #bgh cadmium1 #bec1 #bed cem5t1 #hg coal1 #aae-aag1 #abg1 #djj-djc copp]1 #i1 #eb1 #aig-aih1 #bjf fluorsp>1 #aid gypsum1 #bhc iron1 #aed1 #afj-afb1 #djb-djc lead1 #ed-ee1 #baj-baa lignites1 #cgi1 #djb mill/ones & buhr/ones1 #bfi nitrates1 manufactur$1 #aja-ajb petroleum1 #abh pota%1 #aaa-aab salt1 #bid1 #big silv]1 #bcb tripoli & rott5/one1 #bfi uranium & radium1 #bfd z9c1 #ed-ee1 #bad-bae1 #baf zirconium1 #ahi ,g]many1 control ( v>i\s m9]als 9 o!r c\ntries1 #fd1 #agd1 #ahc1 #ahi1 #aih1 #baa1 #bae1 #bbb1 #bcb1 #beg1 #bfa1 #bga1 #bhh1 #chg p>ticipation ( gov]nm5t 9 m9]al trade1 #chh relative position 9 reg>d to supplies ( m9]als1 #cii ,geys]s1 #gb ,gilb]t1 ,*e/] ,g41 #abc ,gilb]t1 ,*e/] ,g41 & ,pogue1 ,joseph ,e41 #aai1 #acd1 #ach ,gilp9 ,c\nty1 ,colorado1 uranium ores1 #bff ,glacial geology1 application to railroad build+1 #dah application to road mat]ials1 #ia1 #dah ,glacial soils1 #ie ,globe1 ,arizona1 copp] ores1 #aih ,gneissic /ructure1 #bf ,gogebic di/rict1 ,mi*igan1 iron ores1 #cab1 #cah1 #cbe-cbf ,gold1 monet>y res]ves1 #bbc ,gold ,coa/1 ,we/ ,africa1 manganese1 #agf ,gold ores1 #cf-ej1 #ea1 #bba-bcj1 #cjh-cji1 #cac-cad1 #cig ,goldfield1 ,nevada1 alunite1 #da-db1 #aad bismu?1 #bec gold-silv] ores1 #cf1 #ci1 #bcj1 #cjh ,gossan1 #dg1 #aji1 #agc1 #cac ,gov]nm5t own]%ip & control4 ,see ,nationalization4 ,gov]nm5ts1 p>ticipation 9 m9]al own]%ip & int]national trade1 #chh-cij ,granite1 #ag1 #ai1 #hb1 #ij ,graphite1 #bgi-bhc1 #cih ,graphite ,association1 ,s\!rn1 #dje ,gravel1 s& &1 #hd-he ,gray1 ,f4 ,w41 #cfh ,great ,bas91 ,nevada1 cov]+ ( m9]al deposits by lavas1 #caa-cab gold-silv] ores1 occurr5ce 9 a metallog5ic prov9ce1 #cjh tung/5 ores1 #ahe ,great ,brita91 ars5ic1 #bej b>ite1 #bgb cadmium1 #bec cem5t1 #gh *alk1 #hc clay1 #he coal1 #aae-aag1 #abf1 #abg fluorsp>1 #aic-aid full]'s e>?1 #bgh-bgi gr9d/ones & pulp/ones1 #bfi gypsum1 #bhc iron1 #aed1 #afj-afa1 #afc manganese1 #agf salt1 #bid tripoli & rott5/one1 #bfi uranium & radium1 #bfd ,great ,brita91 control ( v>i\s m9]als outside ( ,briti% ,isles1 #fd1 #aja1 #ajd-aje1 #acb1 #aeb1 #afe1 #agh1 #aha1 #ahc1 #aih1 #baj1 #bad1 #bbb1 #bbe1 #bcb1 #bdb1 #bdg1 #beb1 #bef-beg1 #bfj1 #bge1 #bhj income taxes on m9]al prop]ties1 #ccg1 #cci laws relat+ to own]%ip ( m9]al res\rces1 #cdc p>ticipation ( gov]nm5t 9 m9]al trade1 #chh relative position1 9 reg>d to supplies ( m9]als1 #cii t5d5cies t[>d nationalization1 #cdf ,great ,pla9s1 lignite1 #aah pumice1 #bfh ,greece1 *romite1 #agh-agi em]y1 #bfh1 #bgj magnesite1 #aia-aic z9c1 #bad ,gre5l&1 graphite1 #bhj ,gregory1 ,h]b]t1 #djg1 #dac ,grimes1 ,j4 ,a41 & ,bill+sley1 ,paul1 #dd ,gr9d+ pebbles1 #bfg1 #bfh1 #bgj1 #cih ,gr9d/ones1 #bfi ,gr\nd-wat]s1 composition ( & relation to comm]cial use1 #gc-ge di/ribution & movem5t (1 #fh-gb influ5ce 9 deposition ( ore deposits1 #da-db relation to milit>y op]ations1 #gh-gi1 #djh1 #daj-daa relation to rock slides1 #gh1 #daf-dag s\rce (1 #fh ,gr\nd-wat] level1 description (1 #gj relation to oxide zone1 #dh relation to zone ( wea!r+1 #bb ,gr\nd-wat] supply1 relation ( geology to1 #ge-gf ,guano1 #ajd1 #ajf ,guatemala1 *romite1 #agi ,guiana1 bauxite1 #bdb-bdc ,gulf ,coa/ region1 lignite1 #aah petroleum1 #acb1 #ace1 #acg salt1 #bih sulphur1 #aaj ,see also ,l\isiana1 ,texas1 etc4 ,gypsum1 #ajj1 #bhc-bhe1 #cig ,haas1 ,frank1 #cfg1 #cfi ,head ( und]gr\nd wat]1 #ga-gc ,heikes1 ,v4 ,c41 ,butl]1 ,b4 ,s41 & ,l\ghl91 ,g4 ,f41 #dd1 #ee1 #bcj ,highway build+1 application ( geology to1 #ij-ia ,holl&1 cem5t1 #hg comm]cial & political control ( v>i\s m9]als1 #fd ,see also ,dut* ,ea/ ,indies1 etc4 ,home/ake ,m9e1 ,s\? ,dakota1 gold ores1 #bbi ,hones1 #bfi ,hoov]1 ,h]b]t ,c41 #cbb ,hot spr+s1 relation to ore-deposits1 #dj1 #beh-bei ,hot wat]s1 evid5ce ( =mation ( ores by1 #cg-da ,huancavelica di/rict1 ,p]u1 m]cury ores1 #beh ,hudson ,riv]1 physiographic problems 9 tunnel+ "u1 #dae ,hudson's ,bay1 possible diamond field1 #cag ,humus1 #id ,hunan ,prov9ce1 ,*9a1 antimony ores1 #bdi ,hung>y1 antimony1 #bdg natural gas1 #aea ,see also ,au/ria-,hung>y4 ,hydrosph]e1 #ah ,hypog5e ores1 use ( t]m1 #cb-cc ,idaho1 coal1 #aag lead1 #ci1 #de1 #bji1 #baa1 #bab-bac monazite1 #bhi phosphates1 #aje silv]1 #bcd z9c1 #bad1 #baf ,idria1 ,au/ria-,hung>y1 m]cury ores1 #beg ,igne\s aft]-effects1 ore-deposits =m$ z1 #ai-bj1 #cf-df ,igne\s rocks1 =mation (1 #ai m9]al deposits associat$ )1 #ai-bj1 #cd-df pr9cipal m9]als (1 #ad-af proportions ( pr9cipal types1 #ag relative abundance (1 #ag wea!r+ (1 #bj ,ill9ois1 clay1 #he coal1 #aae1 #aag1 #abf fluorsp>1 #aid lime/one1 #hc petroleum1 #acb1 #acc1 #ace pyrite1 #aji s& & gravel1 #he tripoli & rott5/one1 #bfi z9c1 #baf ,ill9ois ,geological ,survey1 coop]ative exploration = oil1 #adg1 #cjf ,income tax1 application to m9]al prop]ties1 #ccf-cci ,india1 bauxite1 #bdb ,india1 brom9e1 #bgg *romite1 #agh-agi coal1 #aae1 #aaf corundum1 #bfh diamond du/1 #bfh gypsum1 #bhc iron1 #aed1 #afd1 #afe manganese1 #agd-agf mica1 #bhf monazite1 #bhh1 #bhi petroleum1 #abh1 #abi plat9um1 #bch salt1 #bid zirconium1 #ahi ,indiana1 coal1 #aag1 #abf hones1 oil/ones & :et/ones1 #bfi lime/ones1 #hc petroleum1 #acc1 #ace ,int]e/ rate1 z a guide 9 cons]vation1 #cfd *oice ( = valuation purposes1 #bcc limit+ effect on acquirem5t ( res]ves1 #ccd ,int]national aspects ( m9]al res\rces1 #b1 #chc-djd ,int]national ,coal ,commission1 #chg1 #cic1 #djb ,int]national trade1 9 common rocks1 #hj 9 m9]als1 #chc-chh p>ticipation ( gov]nm5ts1 #chh-cij ,intrusive rocks1 =mation (1 #ai ,i[a1 fl9t l9+s1 #bfi gr9d+ pebbles1 #bfh gypsum1 #bhd z9c1 #baf ,irel&1 bauxite1 #bdb ,iron & coal1 situation ( we/]n ,europe "u t]ms ( ,peace ,treaty1 #djj-djc ,iron & /eel1 metallurgical processes1 #aeh-aei ,iron & /eel indu/ry1 possible e/abli%m5t on we/ coa/ ( ,unit$ ,/ates1 #aee1 #afe ,iron cap1 ( sulphide deposits1 #dg1 #aji1 #cac ,iron ores1 anti-cons]vational effect ( w>1 #cfe attempt to e/imate res]ves ( cont95ts1 #cbb exploration ( 9 ,lake ,sup]ior region1 #cbc-cbf g5]al geologic & economic features1 #h-i1 #bh1 #cd1 #cf1 #dg1 #ej1 #eb-ec1 #ee-ef1 #eh1 #if1 #aec-aef1 #aeh-agc1 #cig litigation conc]n+ ,cuban1 #cdi metallog5ic prov9ces & epo*s1 #cjh-cji outcrops1 #cab-cac taxation ( 9 ,lake ,sup]ior region1 #cce use ( magnetic surveys1 #cag-cah _w res]ves1 #afb-afe1 #cfj-cfa ,itabirite1 #afg ,italy1 asbe/os1 #bga1 #bgb asphalt & bitum51 #aeb b>ite1 #bgb bauxite1 #bdb borax1 #bge cem5t1 #hg graphite1 #bhj manganese1 #agf m>ble1 #hc m]cury1 #bef-beg natural gas1 #aea petroleum1 #abh pumice1 #bfh salt1 #bid sulphur1 #aji-aaj talc1 #bii z9c1 #bad-bae ,italy1 coal situation "u ,peace ,treaty1 #dja comm]cial & political control ( v>i\s m9]als1 #fd relative position 9 reg>d to supplies ( m9]als1 #cii ,japan1 ars5ic1 #bej cem5t1 #hg *romite1 #agh-agi coal1 #aae1 #aag copp]1 #aig-aih gold1 #bbb graphite1 #bhj iron1 #aed1 #afj manganese1 #agd natural gas1 #aea petroleum1 #abh silv]1 #bcb sulphur1 #aji-aaj tung/51 #ahc1 #ahe z9c1 #bad ,japan1 control ( v>i\s m9]als 9 o!r c\ntries1 #fd1 #aje1 #aed1 #bdg ,jasp]1 #afg ,java1 manganese1 #agf ,j]ome1 ,arizona1 copp] ores1 #da1 #dg1 #aih1 #bjd-bje1 #cad ,joa*im/hal1 ,bohemia1 uranium & radium ores1 #bfe ,jo9t ,m9]al ,in=mation ,bo>d1 #djf ,jopl9 di/rict1 ,miss\ri1 cadmium1 #bed lead & z9c ores1 #ed-ee1 #bji1 #baa1 #bad1 #bae1 #baf-bai ,juneau1 ,alaska1 gold ores1 #bbi ,kansas1 gypsite1 #bhd natural gas1 #aea petroleum1 #acb1 #acc1 #ace salt1 #bid z9c1 #bae ,kaol91 #he1 #cih ,katamorphism1 def9$1 #bg1 #eg ,katanga1 ,belgian ,congo1 cobalt1 #bee copp] ores1 #bje ,k5necott1 ,alaska1 copp] ores1 #cf1 #da1 #dg1 #di1 #bjj-bja ,k5tucky1 asphalt & bitum51 #aeb1 #aec coal1 #aag fluorsp>1 #aid m>ble1 #hc petroleum1 #acc s&/one1 #hd ,kimb]ley1 ,s\? ,africa1 diamonds1 #bia-bib ,knox dolomite1 ,t5nessee1 z9c ores1 #bai ,korea1 gold1 #bbb graphite1 #bhj1 #bhb iron1 #afj molybd5um1 #ahf tung/51 #ahc ,lacroix1 ,morris ,f41 & ,brooks1 ,alfr$ ,h41 #djd ,lake ,sup]ior copp] ores1 #cf1 #eb1 #bjj1 #bjf ,lake ,sup]ior copp]1 silv]1 gold ores1 occurr5ce 9 a metallog5ic prov9ce1 #cjh ,lake ,sup]ior iron ores1 #h1 #dg1 #ee-ef1 #afj1 #afb1 #afc1 #afg-agj1 #cji1 #cab-cac ,lake ,sup]ior region1 iron ore exploration 91 #cag-cah1 #cbc-cbf ,l& grants 9 ,unit$ ,/ates1 ret>d+ effect on exploration1 #cdi ,l&-pla/]1 #ajj ,lat]ites1 #agb-agc ,laws relat+ to m9]al res\rces1 #cdb-ceh ,lawton region1 ,p5nsylvania1 coal1 #aag ,lead & z9c1 ,wiscons91 equat$ income me?od ( taxation1 #cce-ccf ,lead ores1 #cf-ej1 #ed-ee1 #bji-bac1 #cjg1 #cjh1 #cac-cad1 #cfa1 #cig ,leadville1 ,colorado1 bismu?1 #bec lead & z9c ores1 #bab1 #baf1 #bai-bbj ,leas+ law1 on public l&s 9 we/]n ,unit$ ,/ates1 #cdh ,lei?1 ,c4 ,k41 #cbc ,lei?1 ,c4 ,k41 & ,mead1 ,w4 ,j41 #de ,lei?1 ,c4 ,k41 & ,van ,hise1 ,c4 ,r41 #ef1 #cbd ,le%]1 ,c4 ,e41 & ,smi?1 ,george ,otis1 #cga1 #cgb1 #cgc1 #cge ,lignite1 #aah1 #abj1 #abb1 #abd ,g]man developm5t (1 #cgi1 #djb ,lime1 #hb1 #ii-ajj1 #cig ,lime/one1 #ae1 #ag1 #bc1 #hb-hc1 #hi-ij1 #ia ,l9coln%ire di/rict1 ,engl&1 iron ores1 #afa ,l9dgr51 ,w41 #dc ,lip>i ,isl&s1 ,italy1 pumice1 #bfh ,li?osph]e1 pr9cipal elem5ts (1 #ac pr9cipal m9]als (1 #ad-af pr9cipal rocks (1 #af-ag ,litigation1 use ( geologi/s 91 #cdi-cee1 #ceg-ceh ,lode1 application ( legal t]m to div]se m9]al deposits1 #cej ,long-wall sy/em ( coal m9+1 cons]vational aspect1 #cfh subsid5ce ( ov]ly+ gr\nd & result+ litigation1 #ceg1 #dag ,longwy1 ,france1 iron ores1 #afa ,lorra9e1 iron ores1 #eb-ec1 #afa-afb1 #afc1 #aff1 #cfd1 #djb-djc phosphate f ,?omas slag1 #ajd ,l\ghl91 ,g4 ,f41 ,butl]1 ,b4 ,s41 & ,heikes1 ,v4 ,c41 #dd1 #ee1 #bcj ,l\isiana1 natural gas1 #aea petroleum1 #acb1 #acc1 #ace salt1 #bih sulphur1 #aaj ,l[] ,cali=nia1 copp]1 #bja magnesite1 #aia-aib ,luxemburg1 coal situation "u ,peace ,treaty1 #dja iron ores1 #afj-afb1 #afc ,see also "u ,lorra9e1 iron ores ,madagasc>1 corundum1 #bfh graphite1 #bhj-bhb ,magmatic segregation1 m9]al deposits ?us =m$1 #cd-ce1 #ei ,magmatic wat]s1 evid5ce ( =mation ( ores by1 #cg-da ,magnesite1 #aia-aic1 #cig ,magnetic surveys 9 trac+ m9]al l$ges1 #cag-cah ,magnetite deposits1 #cd1 #aga1 #aia1 #cag-cah ,ma9e1 feldsp>1 #hf granite1 #hb t\rmal9e1 #bic ,malay ,/ates1 t91 #bfj-bfa tung/51 #ahc ,man*uria1 iron1 #afj ,m&atory c\ntries1 exploitation ( m9]als 91 #cij-cia ,manganese ores1 #dg1 #ee1 #agc-agh1 #cad1 #chf1 #cih ,mansfield %ales1 ,g]many1 copp] ores1 #i1 #eb1 #bjf ,mantle rock1 #bb ,mapimi1 ,mexico1 ars5ic production1 #bej ,m>ble1 #hc1 #hi-ij ,m>but1 ,curtis ,f41 #ie ,m>l1 #hc ,m>quette di/rict1 ,mi*igan1 iron ore outcrops1 #cab ,m>yl&1 diatomace\s e>?1 #bfi s]p5t9e1 #hc ,m>ysville1 ,utah1 alunite deposits1 #aad ,ma%+1 #be-bf ,massa*usetts1 granite1 #hb s]p5t9e1 #hc ,mc,coy1 ,a4 ,w41 #adb ,mead1 ,daniel ,w41 #fi1 #gg-gh ,mead1 ,w4 ,j41 #bde ,mead1 ,w4 ,j41 & ,lei?1 ,c4 ,k41 #de ,mehl1 ,m4 ,g41 #add ,m5om9ee di/rict1 ,mi*igan1 iron ore outcrops1 #cab ,m]cury ores1 #dj1 #bee-bfj1 #cih ,mesabi di/rict1 ,m9nesota1 conc5tration ( silice\s iron ores1 #aef exploration = iron ores1 #cac1 #cah1 #cbd1 #cbe ,mesopotamia1 petroleum1 #abh-acj1 #acg1 #cia ,meso?orium1 #bhh ,metallog5ic prov9ces & epo*s1 #cjh-cji ,metamorphic cycle & its relation to classification ( m9]al deposits1 #bg-bh ,metamorphic rocks1 def9$1 #bg ,metamorphism1 relation to economic geology1 #aj use ( pr9ciples ( 9 exploration = m9]al deposits1 #cai-cbj ,see also ,katamorphism1 ,anamorphism1 ,contact metamorphism1 ,dynamic metamorphism1 ,wea!r+1 etc4 ,metasomatic replacem5t1 #bd ,metcalf-,mor5ci di/rict1 ,arizona1 copp] ores1 #ch1 #aih ,meteoric wat]s1 influ5ce ( 9 deposition ( ore deposits1 #be1 #da-db ,mexico1 antimony1 #bdg-bdh ars5ic1 #bej cem5t1 #hg copp]1 #aig-aih1 #bja1 #bjc gold1 #bbb graphite1 #bhj-bhb1 #bhc lead1 #baj-baa magnesite1 #aia-aib m]cury1 #bef1 #beh molybd5um1 #ahf natural gas1 #aea petroleum1 #abh1 #abi1 #acg1 #add silv]1 #bca-bcb1 #bcc vanadium1 #ahh z9c1 #bad-bae ,mexico1 comm]cial & political control ( v>i\s m9]als1 #fd ,miami1 ,arizona1 copp] ores1 #cc1 #dg1 #dh1 #aih1 #bjc1 #bjh ,mica1 #bhe-bhh1 #cih ,mi*igan1 brom9e1 #bgg copp]1 #aii gr9d/ones & pulp/ones1 #bfi gypsum1 #bhd iron4 ,see ,lake ,sup]ior iron ores1 ,gogebic di/rict1 etc4 lime/one1 #hc salt1 #bid1 #big ,mi*igan1 taxation ( iron ores1 #cce ,midcont95t field1 petroleum1 #acb1 #ace1 #acg1 #ada1 #adf ,milit>y geology1 prep>ation ( textbook1 #djg ,milit>y op]ations1 relation ( gr\nd-wat]s to1 #gh-gi ,mill/ones1 #bfi ,m9as ,g]aes1 ,brazil1 iron ores1 #eb-ec1 #afb1 #afe1 #afg1 #cac ,m9]al deposits1 classification & g5]al features ( orig91 #bg-ei exploration & developm5t1 #cja-cbg orig9 z a factor 9 economic problems1 #bi-ca1 #cbb-cbc outcrops1 #caa-cag second>y conc5tration1 #df-ej1 #ed-eg ,see also "u ,iron ores1 ,copp] ores1 etc4 zonal arrangem5t1 #db-de ,m9]al indu/ry1 basis = popul> int]e/ 91 #cbh social surplus (1 #ccj ,m9]al l&s1 classification1 #cji-caa ,m9]al pa9ts1 relative position ( ,unit$ ,/ates1 #cig ,m9]al prov9ces & epo*s1 #cjh-cji ,m9]al res\rces1 cons]vation1 #cei-chb g5]al quantitative consid]ations1 #fj-ff int]national aspects1 #chc-djd laws relat+ to1 #cdb-ceh nationalization1 #cde-cdg1 #cge-cgf1 #cgg-cgh1 #chb political & comm]cial control1 #fe relative position ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 reg>d to supplies1 #cif-djj valuation & taxation1 #cbh-cda _w movem5t1 #chc-chh _w res]ves1 #fe-ff ,m9]alogy1 relation to economic geology1 #c ,m9ette iron ores1 #aeh1 #afa1 #aff ,m9+ law1 #cdb-ceh ,m9+ me?ods1 control ( by gov]nm5t or own]s 9 int]e/s ( cons]vation1 #cee ,m9nesota1 granite1 #hb iron4 ,see ,lake ,sup]ior iron ores1 ,mesabi di/rict1 etc4 manganese1 #age1 #agg ,m9nesota1 taxation ( iron ores1 #cce ,mississippi ,valley1 cadmium1 #bed lead & z9c ores1 #ed-ee1 #ajh1 #baa-bab1 #bad1 #bae-bai1 #cjh1 #cac ,miss\ri1 b>ite1 #bgc-bgd cadmium1 #bed lead1 #bji1 #baa silica = refractories1 #aie tripoli & rott5/one1 #bfi z9c1 #bad1 #bae1 #bag-bah ,molybd5um ores1 #ahe-ahg1 #cig ,monazite1 #bhh-bhi1 #cih ,montana1 ars5ic1 #bej-bea copp]1 #dj1 #db1 #dg1 #di1 #aih-aii1 #bja-bjc1 #bjg1 #bjh gold1 #bbb graphite1 #bha1 #bhc manganese1 #age1 #agf-agg petroleum1 #acc phosphates1 #aje sapphires1 #bic silv]1 #db1 #bcd1 #bcg1 #cad z9c1 #db1 #baf1 #bai ,monte ,amiata di/rict1 ,italy1 m]cury ores1 #beg ,mor5ci-,metcalf di/rict1 ,arizona1 copp] ores1 #ch1 #aih ,"m ,lode di/rict1 ,cali=nia1 gold ores1 #bbi1 #cjh1 #caf ,munitions ,res\rces ,commission ( ,canada1 #djd ,nancy1 ,france1 iron ores1 #afa ,national ,academy ( ,sci5ces1 #djg ,national ,cons]vation ,commission1 #cfg ,national di/rict1 ,nevada1 antimony ores1 #bdi ,nationalization ( m9]al res\rces #cde-cdg1 #cge-cgf1 #cgg-cgh1 #chb1 #chh ,natural abrasives1 #bfg-bgj1 #cig ,natural gas1 #eg1 #aea ,nebraska1 pota%1 #aab1 #aad ,ne!rl&s4 ,see ,holl&1 ,dut* ,ea/ ,indies1 etc4 ,nevada1 alunite1 #ci1 #da-db1 #aad antimony1 #bdg1 #bdi bismu?1 #bec borax1 #bge1 #bgf copp]1 #da1 #aii1 #bjc diatomace\s e>?1 #bfi gold1 #cf1 #bbb1 #bcj1 #cjh1 #caa-cab graphite1 #bha gr9d+ pebbles1 #bfh m]cury1 #ceg oil %ales1 #aea plat9um1 #bci-bdj silv]1 #cf1 #ch1 #bcd1 #bce-bcg1 #cjh1 #caa-cab tung/51 #ahc turquoise1 #bic z9c1 #baf ,new ,almad51 ,cali=nia1 m]cury ores1 #bei ,new ,brunswick1 gypsum1 #bhc-bhd ,new ,cal$onia1 *romite1 #agh-agi nickel1 #ahj-ahb ,new ,cornelia1 ,arizona1 copp] ores1 #bjc ,newf\ndl&1 iron ores1 #eb-ec1 #afj1 #aff laws relat+ to own]%ip ( m9]al res\rces1 #cdd ,new ,hamp%ire1 fluorsp>1 #aid g>net1 #bfh mica1 #bhg ,new ,idria1 ,cali=nia1 m]cury ores1 #bei ,new ,j]sey1 ars5ic1 #bej basalt1 #hb clay1 #he iron1 #aga s& & gravel1 #he z9c1 #bae1 #bbj ,new ,mexico1 copp]1 #aii1 #bjc fluorsp>1 #aid silv]1 #bcd uranium & radium1 #bfe-bff z9c1 #baf ,new ,s\? ,wales1 ,au/ralia1 bismu?1 #beb-bec coal1 #aae1 #aaf lead1 #bji1 #baj1 #bab plat9um1 #bch z9c1 #bad1 #baf ,new ,york1 ars5ic1 #bej1 #bea em]y1 #bfh1 #bgj g>net1 #bfh graphite1 #bha1 #bhb gypsum1 #bhd iron1 #afj1 #afb1 #afc1 #aga lime/one1 #hc mill/ones & buhr/ones1 #bfi petroleum1 #acb1 #acc pyrite1 #ajh salt1 #bid1 #big s&/one1 #hd talc1 #bii ,new ,zeal&1 bismu?1 #beb phosphates1 #aje plat9um1 #bch tung/51 #ahc ,new ,zeal&1 laws relat+ to own]%ip ( m9]al res\rces1 #cdc ,nickel ores1 #cd-ce1 #ahj-ahb1 #cjg1 #cjh1 #cah1 #cih ,nitrates1 #ii-ajj1 #aja-ajd1 #chf1 #cib1 #cih ,nonesu* b$s1 ,mi*igan1 copp] ores1 #eb1 #bjf ,nor? ,africa1 iron1 #aef1 #afj1 #afa1 #afd lead1 #baj phosphates1 #ajd1 #aje1 #ajf pota%1 #aab z9c1 #bad-bae ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 coal1 #aag corundum1 #bfh1 #bgj em]alds1 #bic feldsp>1 #hf g>net1 #bfh granite1 #hb mica1 #bhg monazite1 #bhh1 #bhi rubies1 #bib s& & gravel1 #he sapphires1 #bic ,nor!rn ,pla9s1 coal1 #aah ,norway1 copp]1 #aig-aih molybd5um1 #ahf nickel1 #ahj titanium1 #aij z9c1 #bad ,see also ,sc&9avia4 ,nova ,scotia1 gypsum1 #bhc-bhd saddle-reef gold ores1 #da ,oceania1 m]cury1 #beh phosphates1 #aje1 #ajf t91 #bfa ,ohio1 brom9e1 #bgg clay1 #he coal1 #aag gr9d/ones & pulp/ones1 #bfi gypsum1 #bhd hones1 oil/ones & :et/ones1 #bfi lime/one1 #hc natural gas1 #aea petroleum1 #acc salt1 #bid s& & gravel1 #he s&/one1 #hd ,oil4 ,see ,petroleum4 ,oil %ales1 #ef1 #aci1 #aej-aea ,oil/ones1 #bfi ,oklahoma1 asphalt1 & bitum51 #aeb gypsum1 #bhd lead1 #baa natural gas1 #aea petroleum1 #acb1 #acc1 #ace tripoli & rott5/one1 #bfi z9c1 #bae ,ont>io1 ,canada1 ars5ic1 #bea cobalt1 #bee corundum1 #bgj mica1 #bhf nickel1 #cd-ce1 #ahj-ahb1 #cjh1 #cab1 #cah plat9um1 #bch1 #bci silv]1 #bcb1 #bcd-bce1 #cjh1 #caf talc1 #bii1 #cjj ,ont>io1 ,canada1 laws relat+ to own]%ip ( m9]al res\rces1 #cdd ,onyx m>ble1 #hc ,op5-he>? process ( /eel mak+1 #aeh-aei ,ore deposits4 ,see ,m9]al deposits4 ,oregon1 borax1 #bge1 #bgf *romite1 #agi m]cury1 #beg ,orig9 ( m9]al deposits1 z a factor 9 economic problems1 #bi-ca1 #cbb-cbc ,outcrops ( m9]al deposits1 #caa-caf ,own]%ip laws1 effect on exploration ( m9]al deposits1 #cdg-cdi relation ( geology to1 #cdi-cee ,oxide zones1 #bb1 #df-ej1 #cac-cad ,see also "u ,copp] ores1 ,silv] ores1 etc4 ,pablo ,bea*1 ,florida1 titanium ores1 #aij-aia zirconium ores1 #ahi ,pacific coa/1 possible e/abli%m5t ( iron & /eel indu/ry1 #aee1 #afe ,pacific coa/ prov9ce1 coal1 #aag ,palegeography1 relation to economic geology1 #d ,paleontology1 relation to economic geology1 #d ,pale/9e campaign1 use ( geologic data1 #dji ,panama1 manganese1 #agf ,panama ,canal1 slides1 #daf-dag ,p>k]1 ,e4 ,w41 & ,campbell1 ,m4 ,r41 #cfg1 #cgj-cga ,peace ,conf]5ce1 use ( geologi/s 9 advisory capacity1 #cef1 #djf ,peace ,treaty1 coal & iron situation ( we/]n ,europe "u t]ms (1 #aag1 #djj-djc effect ( t]ms on valuation problems1 #cce ,silesian lead & z9c ores1 #baj1 #bad ,pe>ls1 #bhi-bib ,peat1 =mation (1 #abc-abd ,pegmatites1 #ai-bj1 #ce1 #ci ,p5epla9s1 =mation (1 #f ,p5nsylvania1 basalt1 #hb clay1 #he coal1 #aae1 #aag1 #abf fl9t l9+s1 #bfi graphite1 #bha iron1 #aga lime/one1 #hc natural gas1 #aea petroleum1 #acc s& & gravel1 #he s&/one1 #hd s]p5t9e1 #hc silica = refractories1 #aie slate1 #he ,p]sia1 petroleum #abh-acj1 #acg1 #cia ,p]u1 bismu?1 #beb borax1 #bge coal1 #aaf copp]1 #aig-aih m]cury1 #beh molybd5um1 #ahf nitrates1 #ajc petroleum1 #abh1 #acg phosphates1 #ajf silv]1 #bcb tung/51 #ahc vanadium1 #ahg1 #ahh ,petroleum1 #eg1 #abg-aej1 #cjg1 #caj1 #chf1 #cif1 #cih ,petrolif]\s prov9ces1 #adi1 #cjh ,petrology1 relation to economic geology1 #c ,philipsburg1 ,montana1 manganese & silv] ores1 #cg1 #age1 #agf-agg1 #bcg ,phosphates1 #ii-ajj1 #ajd-ajg1 #cig ,physiography1 g5]al discussion & relations to economic geology1 #f-aj ,see also ,topography4 ,physiography1 relation to bridge build+1 #dac relation to ,hudson ,riv] tunnels1 #dae relation to railway con/ruction1 #dah relation to riv] & h>bor improvem5ts1 #dad ,pisolites1 #agb ,pit*4 ,see ,asphalt4 ,pittman ,silv] ,act1 #bcc ,plac]s1 =mation (1 #ea gold deposits 91 #bbg ,see also ,monazite1 ,plat9um1 ,t91 ,tung/51 & o!r m9]als4 use 9 trac+ m9]al outcrops1 #caf-cag ,pla/icity ( clay1 #ib ,plat9um ores1 #ea1 #bcg-bdj1 #chf1 #cih ,plumbago4 ,see ,graphite4 ,pogue1 ,joseph ,e41 #ajj ,pogue1 ,joseph ,e41 & ,gilb]t1 ,*e/] ,g41 #aai1 #acd1 #ach ,pol&1 lead & z9c1 #baj1 #bad ,political & comm]cial control ( m9]al res\rces1 #fe1 #chg-chh ,see also "u individual res\rces4 ,porosity ( rocks1 #fi1 #ada ,porphyry copp] ores1 #aig1 #aii1 #bjc ,portl& cem5t4 ,see ,cem5t4 ,portugal1 ars5ic1 #bej copp]1 #aig-aih1 #bjd pyrite1 #ajg-ajh salt1 #bid tung/51 #ahc ,pota%1 #hf1 #ii-ajj1 #aaa-aad1 #chf1 #cih ,preci\s /ones1 #bhi-bic1 #cih ,prim>y ore deposits1 use ( t]m1 #cb ,prim>y ores1 relation to dep?1 #di ,propylitic alt]ation1 #ci1 #bcf ,protore1 use ( t]m1 #cc1 #dh ,proximate analyses ( coal1 #abj ,public doma91 laws relat+ to own]%ip ( m9]al res\rces on1 #cdc-cdd ,pulp/ones1 #bfi ,pumice1 #bfg1 #bfh1 #bgj1 #cih ,puzzolan cem5t4 ,see ,cem5t4 ,pyrite1 #ajj1 #ajg-aji1 #cjg1 #chf1 #cig ,pyrophyllite1 #bii ,qu>tz1 z geologic !rmomet]1 #ch geologic occurr5ce1 #af1 #ch-ci1 #dc1 #de1 #dg1 #afh-afi1 #aif production & use1 #hd1 #bfg1 #bfi ,qu>tzite1 #hd1 #ia ,quebec1 ,canada1 asbe/os1 #bgj-bgb magnesite1 #aic mica1 #bhf ,quebec1 laws relat+ to own]%ip ( m9]al res\rces1 #cdd ,que5sl&1 ,au/ralia1 ars5ic1 #bej ,quicksilv] ores4 ,see ,m]cury ores4 ,radium ores1 #ee1 #bfc-bff1 #cig ,railway con/ruction1 application ( geology to1 #dag-dah ,rambl]1 ,wyom+1 occurr5ce ( plat9um1 #bci ,ransome1 ,f4 ,l41 #cc1 #bjh1 #bcj ,ray1 ,arizona1 copp] ores1 #cc1 #dg1 #dh1 #aih1 #bjc1 #bjh ,r$ ,b$s copp] ores1 #i1 #bjf ,regi/ration1 public1 ( drill+ records1 #cje-cjf ,regulus1 #bdg ,rep>ations ,committee1 #chg1 #cic1 #djb ,replacem5t1 metasomatic1 #bd ,res]ves ( m9]al res\rces1 #fe-ff1 #cei-cfc1 #cic-cie ,see also "u individual res\rces4 ,res\rce co/ ( coal1 r$uction ( 9 int]e/s ( cons]vation1 #ccd1 #cge ,rhode ,isl&1 coal1 #aag graphite1 #bha ,rhodesia1 asbe/os1 #bgb *romite1 #agh-agi ,ries1 ,h41 & ,watson1 ,t4 ,l41 #dac ,rio ,t9to1 ,spa91 copp] ores1 #bjd pyrite1 #ajh ,road build+1 application ( geology to1 #ij-ia1 #dah ,rock fl\r1 def9$1 #ie ,rock slides1 #gh1 #dae-dag ,rocks1 common1 z m9]al res\rces1 #hj-hd ,rocky ,m\nta9 region1 coal1 #aag petroleum1 #acb1 #ace ,room-&-pill> sy/em ( coal m9+1 modification = cons]vational purposes1 #cfh-cfi ,rott5/one1 #bfg1 #bfi ,r\mania1 graphite1 #bhj petroleum1 #abh1 #abi ,royal ,ont>io ,nickel ,commission1 #aha ,royalties on coal1 r$uction ( 9 int]e/s ( cons]vation1 #ccd1 #cge ,rubies1 #bhi1 #bia-bib ,russia1 asbe/os1 #bgj-bga1 #bgb cem5t1 #hg *romite1 #agh-agi coal1 #aae1 #abg copp]1 #aig-aih gold1 #bbb iron1 #aee1 #afj-afa1 #afc manganese1 #agd-agf m]cury1 #bef1 #beh oil %ales1 #aea petroleum1 #abh-abj1 #acg phosphates1 #ajd1 #ajf plat9um1 #bch1 #bci pota%1 #aab salt1 #bid z9c1 #bad ,russia1 comm]cial & political control ( v>i\s m9]als1 #fd laws relat+ to own]%ip ( m9]al res\rces1 #cdc ,russia1 ,asiatic1 vanadium1 #ahg ,see also ,sib]ia4 ,sa> ,bas91 coal (1 "u ,peace ,treaty1 #dja ,salisbury1 ,r4 ,d41 & ,*amb]l91 ,t4 ,c41 #dae ,salt1 #bid-bih1 #cig ,salt domes ( ,gulf ,coa/1 #bih ,s&1 #ae1 #hd1 #bfg ,s& & gravel1 #hd-he ,s&/one1 #ae1 #ag1 #bc1 #hd1 #ij1 #bfg1 #bfi ,santa ,rita1 ,new ,mexico1 copp] ores1 #bjc ,sapphires1 #bhi1 #bia1 #bic ,s>gasso ,sea !ory1 ( deposition ( lead & z9c sulphides1 #bag ,saxony1 bismu?1 #beb t91 #bfb ,sc&9avia1 molybd5um1 #chf nitrog5-fixation plants1 #ajb ,s*i/ose /ructure1 #bf ,s*lumb]g]1 ,c41 #cai ,s*u*]t1 ,*>les1 #add ,s*ultz1 ,rob]t ,s41 ,jr41 #dag ,scotl&1 magnesite1 #aia oil %ales1 #aej ,se>les ,lake ,cali=nia1 borax deposits1 #bgf pota% deposits1 #aab1 #aac-aad ,second>y enri*m5t1 #g-h1 #be1 #df-ej ,see also "u ,copp] ores1 ,silv] ores1 etc4 ,second>y ore deposits1 use ( t]m1 #cb ,s$ig5etic deposits1 use ( t]m1 #ea ,s$im5t>y m9]al deposits1 unsolv$ problems1 #i1 #ec1 #ef ,s$im5t>y rocks1 =mation (1 #bb-bd1 #if m9]al deposits associat$ )1 #bc1 #ea-eg pr9cipal m9]als (1 #ae-af proportions ( pr9cipal types1 #ag relative abundance (1 #af wea!r+ (1 #bc ,s$im5tation1 relation to economic geology1 #b ,segregation1 magmatic1 #cd-ce1 #ei ,s]icitic alt]ation1 #ci ,s]p5t9e1 #hc ,sew>d ,p59sula1 ,alaska1 t9 ores1 #bfa1 #bfb ,%ale1 #ae1 #ag1 #bc1 #he1 #ij ,%a/a ,c\nty1 ,cali=nia1 copp] ores1 #bjd ,%ipp+ ,bo>d1 #cef1 #djf ,siam1 sapphires1 #bhi1 #bic t91 #bfj tung/51 #ahc1 #ahd ,sib]ia1 em]alds1 #bic gold1 #bbb1 #bbf lead1 #baj vanadium1 #ahg z9c1 #bad ,silesia1 cadmium1 #bed coal1 "u ,peace ,treaty1 #dja lead & z9c ores1 #ed-ee1 #baj1 #baa-bab1 #bad-bae1 #baf-bah ,silica1 #aie-aif1 #bfg1 #bfi ,see also ,qu>tz1 ,qu>tzite1 ,s&1 ,s&/one1 etc4 ,silt 7f9e coal71 use (1 #cgj1 #cga ,silv] ores1 #cf-ej1 #ee1 #bca-bcg1 #cjh1 #cac-cad1 #cig ,silv] ,reef1 ,utah1 deposits1 #ee ,slate1 #he1 #hi ,slides1 e>? & rock1 #gh1 #ceg1 #dae-dag ,smelt+ capacity ( _w1 #fa ,smi?1 ,george ,otis1 #caj1 #cfg1 #djc ,smi?1 ,george ,otis & ,le%]1 ,c4 ,e41 #cga1 #cgc1 #cgc1 #cge ,smyrna1 ,turkey1 em]y1 #bfh ,soap/one1 #bii-cjj ,societies1 pr(essional1 /&>ds ( admission1 #dba-dbb1 #dbh ,soils1 classification1 #ig composition1 #if-ig1 #ii orig91 #id-if use ( f]tiliz] m9]als on1 #ii-aja use ( geology 9 /udy (1 #ie-ih ,s\nd waves1 possible use 9 exploration1 #cai ,s\? ,africa1 asbe/os1 #bga1 #bgb cem5t1 #hg coal1 #aaf cobalt1 #bee copp]1 #aig-aih1 #bje corundum1 #bfh diamond du/1 #bfh diamonds1 #bhi1 #bia-bib1 #caf gold1 #bbb-bbf1 #bbh iron1 #aed1afd mica1 #bhf t91 #bfj vanadium1 #ahg ,s\? ,africa1 laws relat+ to own]%ip ( m9]al res\rces1 #cdc1 #cde ,s\? ,am]ica1 cem5t1 #hg-hh coal1 #aaf lead1 #baj1 #baa m]cury1 #beh z9c1 #bad ,see also "u individual c\ntries4 ,s\? ,am]ica1 laws relat+ to own]%ip ( m9]al res\rces1 #cdc-cdd1 #cde ,s\? ,c>ol9a1 coal1 #aag monazite1 #bhh1 #bhi phosphates1 #aje1 #ajg ,s\? ,dakota1 gold1 #bbb1 #bbh1 #bbi qu>tzite1 #hd t91 #bfb tung/51 #ahc ,s\!rn ,graphite ,association1 #dje ,s\!rn ,pacific ,railway1 litigation 9 reg>d to oil l&s1 #cdh ,spa91 ars5ic1 #bej b>ite1 #bgb cem5t1 #hg copp]1 #aig-aih1 #bjd g>net1 #bfh1 #bgj iron1 #aed1 #aef1 #afj-afa1 #afb1 #afc lead1 #baj1 #baa-bab manganese1 #agd m]cury1 #bef-beg1 #bei phosphates1 #ajd1 #ajf plat9um1 #bch pota%1 #aaa-aac pyrite1 #ajg-ajh salt1 #bid silv]1 #bcb sulphur1 #aji-aaj z9c1 #bad-bae ,spa91 comm]cial & political control ( v>i\s m9]als1 #fd ,spiegeleis51 #agc-agd ,spr+s1 #gb ,spurr1 ,j4 ,e41 #dc1 #fd1 #djc ,/assfurt1 ,g]many1 borax1 #bgg brom9e1 #bgh pota%1 #aaa-aab1 #aac1 #bif-big salt1 common1 #bif-big ,/eel4 ,see ,iron & /eel ,/one4 ,see ,build+ /one1 ,common rocks4 ,/orage ( coal1 #cgf ,/ratigraphy1 relation to economic geology1 #d ,/ructural geology1 relation to economic geology1 #e use ( pr9ciples ( 9 exploration = m9]al deposits1 #cai-cbj ,/ructures ( rocks1 relation to e>? /resses1 #e relation to topography1 #g ,subsid5ce ( gr\nd ov] m9+ op]ations1 geologic /udy (1 #ceg1 #dag ,sudbury1 ,ont>io1 cobalt1 #bee nickel ores1 #cd-ce1 #ahj-ahb1 #cjh1 #cab1 #cah plat9um1 #bch1 #bci ,sulphide enri*m5t4 ,see ,second>y enri*m5t4 ,sulphur1 #ii-ajj1 #aji-aaa1 #cig ,sulphur ,bank ,spr+s1 ,cali=nia1 deposition ( m]cury by hot wat]s1 #bei ,sup]g5e ores1 use ( t]m1 #cb1 #cc1 #dh ,surface wat] supplies1 #gf-gh ,surface wat]s1 application ( geology to use (1 #dad relation to excavation & con/ruction1 #gh-gi ,sw$51 cem5t1 #hg iron1 #aed1 #aee1 #aef1 #aeh1 #afj1 #afb1 #afc1 #aga manganese1 #agf phosphate f ,?omas slag1 #ajd z9c1 #bad ,see also ,sc&9avia4 ,switz]l&1 cem5t1 #hg nitrog5 fixation plants1 #ajb ,syng5etic ore deposits1 use ( t]m1 #cb1 #cd1 #ea ,taconite1 #afg ,talc & soap/one1 #bii-cjj1 #cig ,tankage1 use ( phosphate cont5t1 #ajd ,t>iffs1 propos$1 on m9]al res\rces1 #age-agf1 #agi1 #ahd1 #aib1 #bdh1 #beg-beh ,t>iffs & duties1 anti-cons]vational effect (1 #cfb-cfc1 #cff1 #cge1 #cgf1 #cic-cid ,tasmania1 bismu?1 #beb plat9um1 #bch z9c1 #bad ,taxation ( m9]al res\rces1 #a1 #cce-cda ,t5nessee1 b>ite1 #bgc bauxite1 #bdc1 #bde copp]1 #bjd fl9t l9+s1 #bfi m>ble1 #hc petroleum1 #acb1 #acc phosphates1 #aje1 #ajg z9c1 #ed-ee1 #baf1 #bai ,t]l+ua di/rict1 ,texas1 m]cury1 #beg1 #bei ,texas1 asphalt & bitum51 #aeb coal1 #aag full]'s e>?1 #bgi graphite1 #bha gypsum1 #bhd m]cury1 #bef1 #beg1 #bei natural gas1 #aea petroleum1 #acb1 #acc1 #ace1 #adh salt1 #bih sulphur1 #aaj ,!rmal metamorphism4 ,see ,contact metamorphism4 ,!rmal wat]s1 #gb ,?ibet1 borax1 #bge1 #bgf ,?omas process ( /eel mak+1 #aeh1 #afa use ( slag = phosphate cont5t1 #ajd1 #ajf ,t9 ores1 #cf-ej1 #ea1 #bfj-bfc1 #cjg1 #cbb1 #chf1 #cib1 #cih ,t9tic1 ,utah1 silv] ores1 #ci1 #db1 #bce1 #bea1 #bec ,titanif]\s magnetites1 #cd1 #aga1 #aia ,titanium ores1 #aij-aia1 #cih ,tonopah1 ,nevada1 gold silv] ores1 #ch1 #bcd1 #bcf-bcg1 #cjh ,topographic cycle1 description (1 #f ,topography1 relation to m9]al deposits1 #g-i1 #cad-cae relation to rock /ructures1 #g ,t\rmal9e1 #bij1 #bic ,tra9+ 9 economic geology1 #dbj-dbh ,transvaal1 ,africa1 asbe/os1 #bgb diamonds1 #bia gold1 #bbb1 #bbc-bbe1 #bbh ,trap-rock1 #hb ,trav]t9e1 #hc ,treadwell ,m9e1 ,alaska1 gold ores1 #bbi ,tr5*es1 milit>y1 application ( geology to1 #djh1 #daj-daa ,tr9idad1 asphalt1 #aeb1 #aec petroleum1 #abh ,tripoli1 #bfg1 #bfi1 #cih ,tung/5 ores1 #ea1 #ahb-ahe1 #chf1 #cih ,tunis1 phosphates1 #ajd-ajf pota%1 #aab ,see also ,nor? ,africa4 ,tunnels1 application ( geology to con/ruction1 #dad-dae ,turkey1 borax1 #bge *romite1 #agh-agi em]y1 #bfh1 #bgj ,turquoise1 #bij1 #bic ,tuscany1 ,italy1 borax deposits1 #bge ,umpleby1 ,joseph ,b41 #chc ,und]gr\nd wat]s4 ,see ,gr\nd-wat]s4 ,unit$ ,k+dom4 ,see ,great ,brita94 ,unit$ ,/ates1 abrasives1 natural1 #bfg-bgj1 #cig1 #cih alum9um1 #bdb-bde1 #cig antimony1 #bdg-bdh1 #bdi1 #cih ars5ic1 #bej-bea1 #cig asbe/os1 #bgj-bgb1 #cih asphalt & bitum51 #aeb1 #cig b>ite1 #bgc-bgd1 #cig bauxite1 #bdb-bde1 #cig bismu?1 #beb-bec1 #cig borax1 #bge1 #bgf1 #cig brom9e1 #bgg1 #bgh1 #cig cadmium1 #bec-bed1 #cig cem5t1 #hg-hh1 #cig *alk1 #hc1 #cih *romite1 #agi1 #cih coal1 #aae-aah1 #abf1 #abg1 #cff-cfg1 #cig common rocks1 #hb-hh1 #cig copp]1 #aig-bjh1 #cif corundum1 #bfg-bfh1 #bgj1 #cih diatomace\s e>?1 #bfi1 #cih em]y1 #bfg-bfh1 #bgj1 #cig feldsp>1 #hf1 #cig f]ro-alloy m9]als1 g5]al1 #aed-aeh f]tiliz]s1 g5]al1 #ajj-aja fluorsp>1 #aid1 #cig full]'s e>?1 #bgh-bgi1 #cig g>net1 #bfh1 #bfj1 #cih gold1 #bbb-bcj1 #cig graphite1 #bgi-bhc1 #cih gr9d+ pebbles1 #bfh1 #cih gypsum1 #bhc-bhd1 #cig iron1 #aeh-afc1 #aff-aga1 #cig lead1 #bji-bac1 #cig lime1 #hb-hc1 #cig magnesite1 #aia-aic1 #cig manganese1 #agd-agg1 #cih m]cury1 #bef-bei1 #cih mica1 #bhf-bhg1 #cih m9]al pa9ts1 #cig molybd5um ores1 #ahf-ahg1 #cig monazite1 #bhh1 #bhi1 #cih natural abrasives1 #bfg-bgj1 #cig1 #cih natural gas1 #aea nickel1 #aha1 #cih nitrates1 #ajb1 #cih oil %ales1 #aej-aea petroleum1 #abh-aej1 #cif1 #cih phosphates1 #ajd-ajg1 #cig plat9um1 #bch-bdj1 #cih pota%1 #aab-aad1 #cih preci\s /ones1 #bij1 #bib-bic1 #cih pumice1 #bfh1 #cih pyrite1 #ajg-aji1 #cig salt1 #bid-bih1 #cig silica1 #aie-aif silv]1 #bca-bcg1 #cig /one1 #hb-hh1 #cig sulphur1 #aji-aaa1 #cig talc1 #bii1 #cjj1 #cig t91 #bfa1 #bfb1 #cih titanium1 #aij-aia1 #cih tripoli1 #bfi1 #cih tung/51 #ahc-ahe1 #cih uranium & radium1 #bfd-bff1 #cig vanadium1 #ah1 #ahh1 #cih z9c1 #bad-bbj1 #cih zirconium1 #ahi1 #cih ,unit$ ,/ates1 control ( v>i\s m9]als 9 o!r c\ntries1 #fd1 #ajb1 #abi1 #aeb1 #afc-afd1 #afe1 #age1 #ahj-aha1 #ahd1 #ahg1 #ahi1 #aia1 #aih1 #bbb1 #bcb1 #bch1 #bdc1 #bfa laws relat+ to own]%ip ( m9]al res\rces1 #cdc-cde quantitative feature ( m9]al production1 #fj-ff relative position 9 reg>d to supplies ( m9]als1 #cif-djj t5d5cies t[>d nationalization ( m9]al res\rces1 #cde-cdf ,unit$ ,/ates ,bitum9\s ,coal ,commission1 #cgf ,unit$ ,/ates ,bureau ( ,m9es1 activities 9 ! w>1 #djf lit]ature or int]national m9]al relations1 #djc ,unit$ ,/ates ,geological ,survey1 activities 9 ! w>1 #djf1 #djg classification ( m9]al l&s1 #caj-caa employm5t by1 #dbh lit]ature on int]national m9]al relations1 #djc ,unit$ ,/ates ,%ipp+ ,bo>d1 #cef1 #djf ,uranium ores1 #ee1 #bfc-bfd1 #cig ,utah1 ars5ic1 #bej1 #bea asphalt & bitum51 #aeb bismu?1 #bec copp]1 #cg1 #db1 #dg1 #ee1 #aii1 #bjc1 #bjd1 #bjg1 #bjh1 #cad gold1 #bbb1 #cad lead1 #db1 #baa1 #bab manganese1 #ee oil %ales1 #aea phosphates1 #aje pota%1 #aab1 #aad silv]1 #db1 #ee1 #bcd1 #bce uranium & radium1 #ee1 #bfd1 #bfe vanadium1 #ee1 #ahg-ahh ,utah1 ore deposits1 relation to intrusive /ocks1 #dd ,vadose zone1 #gj ,valuation ( ,lorra9e iron ores at ,peace ,conf]5ce1 #cfd ,valuation ( m9]al res\rces1 #ha1 #cbh-cda1 #cif ,value1 capital1 ( m9]al res\rces1 #fd1 #cbh ,value ( ,unit$ ,/ates m9]al production & imports1 #fb ,value ( _w m9]al production1 #fb-fc ,vanadium ores1 #ee1 #ahg-ahh1 #cih ,van ,hise1 ,c4 ,r41 #cfg1 #cgd ,van ,hise1 ,c4 ,r41 & ,lei?1 ,c4 ,k41 #ef1 #cbd ,ve91 application ( legal t]m to div]se m9]al deposits1 #cej ,v5ezuela1 asphalt1 #aeb1 #aec magnesite1 #aia-aic petroleum1 #abh phosphates1 #aje ,v]de di/rict1 ,arizona4 ,see ,j]ome di/rict4 ,v]milion di/rict1 ,m9nesota1 iron ore outcrops1 #cab ,v]mont1 granite1 #hb m>ble1 #hc s]p5t9e1 #hc slate1 #he talc1 #bii ,virg9ia1 ars5ic1 #bej1 #bea em]y1 #bfh manganese1 #age mill/ones & buhr/ones1 #bfi pyrite1 #ajh talc & soap/one1 #bii1 #cjj titanium1 #aij z9c1 #ed-ee1 #bai ,virg9ia ,city1 ,nevada4 ,see ,com/ock ,lode ,volcanic a%1 use z abrasive1 #bgj ,wabana1 ,newf\ndl&1 iron ores1 #eb-ec1 #afj1 #aff ,wales1 coal1 #abf ,w>1 anti-cons]vational effects (1 #cfe-cff application ( geology to1 #dje-dab effect on ad valorem valuations1 #cce ,w> ,indu/ries ,bo>d1 #cef1 #djf ,w> ,m9]als ,committee1 #djf ,w> ,trade ,bo>d1 #cef1 #djf ,wa%1 use 9 trac+ m9]al outcrops1 #caf-cag ,wa%+ton1 ars5ic1 #bej *romite1 #agi magnesite1 #aia-aic ,wat]1 applications ( economic geology to1 #fh z a m9]al res\rce1 #fa1 #fb1 #fg-gi g5]al geologic relations1 #fg-fh hygroscopic1 def9$1 #fh ( con/itution1 def9$1 #fh quantity absorb$ by soils & rocks1 #fi relative abundance (1 #ah s\rce (1 #fg use (1 litigation aris+ f1 #ceg-ceh ,see also ,gr\nd-wat]s1 ,surface wat]s1 ,hot wat]s1 ,meteoric wat]s1 ,magmatic wat]s4 ,wat] p[]1 possibilities ( sub/itut+ = coal1 #cgh-cgi ,wat] supplies1 #gb-gh ,wat] supply maps = milit>y use1 #daa-dab ,wat] table1 def9$1 #gj ,see also ,gr\nd-wat] level4 ,wat]s1 !rmal1 #gb ,watson1 ,t4 ,l41 & ,ries1 ,h41 #dac ,wea!r+1 ( igne\s rocks & ve9s1 #bj-bb ( igne\s rocks1 =mation ( m9]al deposits by1 #ej ( m9]al deposits1 #df-ej ( s$im5t>y rocks1 #bc-bd production ( clay by1 #ia production ( soils by1 #id-if zone (1 #gj ,welf>e "w1 9 int]e/s ( cons]vation1 #cgb-cgc ,wells1 #gb-gc ,we/ ,africa1 gold1 #bbb manganese1 #agf ,we/ ,indies1 cem5t1 #hg phosphates1 #aje1 #ajf salt1 #bid ,we/ ,virg9ia1 brom9e1 #bgg coal1 #aag gr9d/ones & pulp/ones1 #bfi natural gas1 #aea petroleum1 #acb1 #acc ,:et/ones1 #bfi ,:ite1 ,david1 #abh1 #abi1 #adj1 #adc1 #adf ,:ite ,signal di/rict1 ,new ,mexico1 uranium & radium ores1 #bfe-bff ,wiscons91 artesian wells1 #gc diamonds 9 glacial drift1 #bib1 #cag granite1 #hb iron4 ,see ,lake ,sup]ior iron ores1 ,gogebic di/rict1 etc4 qu>tzite1 #hb1 #hd1 #aie z9c1 #baf ,wiscons91 equat$ income me?od ( taxation1 #cce-ccf taxation ( iron ores1 #cce ,witwat]sr&1 ,s\? ,africa1 gold ores1 #bbh ,wolfram ores4 ,see ,tung/5 ores4 ,woodw>d1 ,h4 ,b41 #fi ,wyom+1 *romite1 #agi oil %ales1 #aea petroleum1 #acc phosphates1 #aje plat9um1 #bci pota%1 #aab uranium & radium ores1 #bfe ,yell[ ,p9e di/rict1 ,nevada1 plat9um ores1 #bci-bdj ,yell[/one ,p>k1 spr+s & geys]s (1 #gb ,z9c & lead ores1 ,wiscons91 equat$ income me?od ( taxation1 #cce-ccf ,z9c ores1 #cf-ej1 #ed-ee1 #bac-bbj1 #cjh1 #cac-cad1 #cih ,z9c ,syndicate1 ,g]man1 #bae ,zirconium ores1 #ahi-aij1 #cih 99-------------------------------------- ----------- ,transcrib]'s ,note ,"s inconsi/5t spell+ 9 ! text has be5 reta9$4 ,page #ae ,9 ! symbol ,fe,c,o#c ! #c is subscript4 ,page x ,,developmnet *ang$ to ,,developm5t ,page #hg ,unites *ang$ to ,unit$ ,page #hi het]og5\s *ang$ to het]og5e\s ,page #agi ,guatemela *ang$ to ,guatemala ,paqe #cbi famil> *ang$ to famili> ,page #dcc ,afrcia *ang$ to ,africa ,page #dcd ,w9cons9 *ang$ to ,wiscons9 ,page #ddd we/t]n *ang$ to we/]n ,page #dej ownn]%ip *ang$ to own]%ip 99-------------------------------------- -----------99