,transcrib]'s ,note3 ,engli% translit]ations h be5 provid$ = ! ,greek & ,hebrew words4 ,a few o!r sub/itutions h also be5 us$ 9 ?is v]sion ( ! text4 ,!y are z foll[s3 surr\nd+ a v[el indicates t x is a long v[el ) a macron 7da%7 above x4 h4 indicates t ?is is an h ) a dot "u x4 ,! use ( tildes 77 ar\nd a ^w signifies t ! orig9al 0 spac$ out l i k e t h i s4 indicates an inv]t$ apo/rophe1 :i* 9 ?is book is us$ to repres5t ! gutt]al ay9 f\nd 9 ,hebrew & ,arabic4 ,a ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,m$iaeval ,,jewi% ,,philosophy ,,by ,,isaac ,,husik1 ,a4,m41 ,,ph4,d4 ,,assi/ant ,,pr(essor ,,( ,,philosophy ,,9 ,,! ,,univ]sity ,,( ,,p5nsylvania ,new ,york ,,! ,,macmillan ,,company #aiaf ,all rights res]v$ ,,copyright1 #aiaf ,,by ,,! ,,macmillan ,,company ,set up & electrotyp$4 ,publi%$ ,octob]1 #aiaf4 ,?is book is issu$ by ! ,macmillan ,company 9 conjunction ) ! ,jewi% ,publication ,society ( ,am]ica4 ,,to ,,solomon ,,solis ,,coh51 ,m4,d4 ,,z ,a ,,tok5 ,,( ,,gratitude ,,& ,,e/eem ,,preface ,no excuse is ne$$ = pres5t+ to ! ,engli% read] a ,hi/ory ( ,m$ival ,jewi% ,philosophy4 ,! ,engli% language1 poor en\gh 9 books on ,jewi% hi/ory & lit]ature1 c boa/ ( sc>cely any?+ at all 9 ! doma9 ( ,jewi% ,philosophy4 ,! ,jewi% ,encyclop$ia has no article on ,jewi% ,philosophy1 & nei!r has ! elev5? edition ( ! ,encyclop$ia ,britannica4 ,ha/+s' ,encyclop$ia ( ,religion & ,e?ics w h a brief article on ! subject f ! consci5ti\s & able p5 ( ,dr4 ,h5ry ,malt]1 b ( books !re is none4 ,b :ile ?is is due to sev]al causes1 *ief among !m p]haps be+ t ,engli% speak+ p 9 g5]al & ,am]icans 9 p>ticul> are m int]e/$ 9 positive facts ?an 9 t5tative speculations1 9 concrete rese>*es ?an 9 ab/ract !oriz+--!re are ample signs t "h too a *ange is com+1 & 9 _m sph]es we are call$ ^u to exam9e our f\ndations ) a view to mak+ our sup]/ructure deep & secure z well z broad & compreh5sive4 ,& ?is is no?+ else ?an philosophy4 ,philosophical /udies are happily on ! increase 9 ?is c\ntry & m ?an "o bran* ( lit]>y endeavor is beg9n+ to feel its influ5ce4 ,& ) ! increase ( books & rese>*es 9 ! hi/ory ( ! ,jews is com+ an awak5+ to ! fact t ! philosophical & rationali/ic movem5t among ! ,jews 9 ! middle ages is well wor? /udy1 influ5tial z x 0 9 =m+ ,judaism z a religion & z a !ological & e?ical sy/em4 ,b x is n m]ely ! ,engli% language t is /ill want+ 9 a g5]al hi/ory ( ,m$ival ,jewi% ,philosophy1 ! ,g]man1 ,fr5* & ,italian languages are no bett] (f 9 ?is reg>d4 ,= :ile x is true t outside ( ! ,hebrew & ,arabic s\rces1 ,g]man books & monographs are ! s9e qua non ( ! /ud5t :o wi%es to inve/igate ! philosophical movem5t 9 m$ival ,jewry1 & ! pres5t writ] owes v mu* to ! rese>*es ( su* m5 z ,joel1 ,guttmann1 ,kaufmann & o!rs1 x nev]!less rema9s true t !re is z yet no complete hi/ory ( ! subject = ! /ud5t or ! g5]al read]4 ,! ,g]man writ]s h done ?or\gh & di/+ui%$ "w 9 exp\nd+ individual ?9k]s & problems1 !y h ga!r$ a complete & detail$ bibliography ( ,jewi% philosophical writ+s 9 pr9t & 9 manuscript1 !y h edit$ & translat$ & annotat$ ! mo/ important philosophical texts4 ,france has also _h an important %>e 9 ^! fundam5tal und]tak+s1 b = "s reason nei!r ! "o nor ! o!r has s f> und]tak5 to pres5t to ! g5]al /ud5t & non-te*nical read] ! results ( _! rese>*es4 ,:at 0 omitt$ by ! ,g]man1 ,fr5* & ,engli% speak+ writ]s 0 accompli%$ by a s*ol> :o wrote 9 ,hebrew4 ,dr4 ,s4 ,b]nfeld has writt5 9 ,hebrew "u ! title ,daat ,elohim 7,! ,k ( ,god7 a readable sket* ( ,jewi% ,religi\s philosophy f ,biblical times d[n to ,ahad ,haam4 ,a ,g]man s*ol> 7n[ 9 ,am]ica71 ,dr4 ,david ,neum>k ( ,c9c9nati1 has und]tak5 on a v l>ge scale a ,hi/ory ( ,jewi% ,philosophy 9 ! ,middle ,ages1 ( :i* only a beg9n+ has be5 made 9 ! two volumes s f> issu$4 ,! pres5t writ] at ! sugge/ion ( ! ,publication ,committee ( ! ,jewi% ,publication ,society ( ,am]ica has und]tak5 to write a hi/ory ( m$ival ,jewi% rationali/ic philosophy 9 "o volume--a hi/ory t w appeal alike to ! s*ol> & ! intellig5t non-te*nical read]4 ,treat+ only ( ! rationali/ic s*ool1 ,i did n include any?+ t has to d ) my/icism or ,kabbala4 ,9 my attempt to please ! s*ol> & ! layman1 ,i fe> ,i %all h succe$$ 9 satisfy+ nei!r4 ,! pr(essional /ud5t w miss le>n$ notes & quotations ( orig9al passages 9 ! language ( _! au?ors4 ,! g5]al read] w (t5 be we>i$ by ! s*ola/ic tone ( ! problems z well z ( ! mann] ( ! discussion & argum5t4 ,& yet ,i _c b feel t x w d bo? classes good--! "o to get less1 ! o!r m ?an he wants4 ,! latt] w f9d oases 9 ! des]t :]e he c refre% himself & take a re/1 & ! =m] w f9d 9 ! notes & bibliography ref]5ces to s\rces & te*nical articles :]e m c be _h aft] 8 own he>t4 ,!re is n mu* room = orig9ality 9 a hi/orical & expository "w ( ?is k9d1 p>ticul>ly z ,i believe 9 writ+ hi/ory objectively4 ,i h n attempt$ to read into ! m$ival ?9k]s mod]n ideas t 7 =eign to !m4 ,i endeavor$ to int]pret _! ideas f _! own po9t ( view z det]m9$ by _! hi/ory & environm5t & ! lit]>y s\rces1 religi\s & philosophical1 "u ! influ5ce ( :i* !y came4 ,i bas$ my book on a /udy ( ! orig9al s\rces :]e !y 7 available--& ?is applies to all ! au?ors treat$ ) ! exception ( ! two ,k>aites1 ,joseph al ,basir & ,je%ua b5 ,judah1 :]e ,i _h to cont5t myself ) second>y s\rces & a few fragm5ts ( ! orig9al texts4 ,= ! re/ ,i tri$ to tell my /ory z simply z ,i knew h[1 & ,i hope ! read] w accept ! book 9 ! _s 9 :i* x is (f]$--z an objective & n too critical exposition ( ,jewi% rationali/ic ?\ght 9 ! middle ages4 ,my task w\ld n be done 7 ,i n to express my obligations to ! ,publication ,committee ( ! ,jewi% ,publication ,society ( ,am]ica to ^: enc\ragem5t ,i owe ! impulse b = :i* ! book w\ld n h be5 writt51 & ^: mat]ial assi/ance enabl$ ! publi%]s to br+ out a book typographically s attractive4 ,,isaac ,,husik4 ,,philadelphia1 ,july1 #aiaf4 ,,table ,,( ,,cont5ts ,,page ,,preface vii ,,introduction xiii ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,isaac ,,israeli #a ,,ii4 ,,david ,,b5 ,,m]wan ,,al ,,mukammas #ag ,,iii4 ,,saadia ,,b5 ,,joseph ,,al-,,fayyumi #bc ,,iv4 ,,joseph ,,al-,,basir ,,& ,,je%ua ,,b5 ,,judah #dh ,v4 ,,solomon ,,ibn ,,gabirol #ei ,,vi4 ,,bahya ,,ibn ,,pakuda #hj ,,vii4 ,,pseudo-,,bahya #ajf ,,viii4 ,,abraham ,,b> ,,hiyya #aad ,,ix4 ,,joseph ,,ibn ,,zaddik #abe ,x4 ,,judah ,,halevi #aej ,,xi4 ,,moses ,,& ,,abraham ,,ibn ,,ezra #ahd ,,xii4 ,,abraham ,,ibn ,,daud #aig ,,xiii4 ,,moses ,,maimonides #bcf ,,xiv4 ,,hillel ,,b5 ,,samuel #cab ,,xv4 ,,levi ,,b5 ,,g]son #cbh ,,xvi4 ,,a>on ,,b5 ,,elijah ,,( ,,nicom$ia #cfb ,,xvii4 ,,hasdai ,,b5 ,,abraham ,,crescas #chh ,,xviii4 ,,joseph ,,albo #djf ,,conclusion #dbh ,,bibliography #dcc ,,notes #dci ,,li/ ,,( ,,biblical ,,& ,,rabb9ic ,,passages #ddi ,,index #dea ,,introduction ,! philosophical movem5t 9 m$ival ,jewry 0 ! result ( ! desire & ! necessity1 felt by ! lead]s ( ,jewi% ?\ght1 ( reconcil+ two app>5tly indep5d5t s\rces ( tru?4 ,9 ! middle ages1 among ,jews z well z among ,*ri/ians & ,mohamm$ans1 ! two s\rces ( k or tru? :i* 7 cle>ly pres5t to ! m9ds ( ?9k+ p1 ea* claim+ recognition1 7 religi\s op9ions z embodi$ 9 reveal$ docum5ts on ! "o h&1 & philosophical & sci5tific judgm5ts & argum5ts1 ! results ( indep5d5t rational reflection1 on ! o!r4 ,revelation & reason1 religion & philosophy1 fai? & k1 au?ority & indep5d5t reflection are ! v>i\s expressions = ! dualism 9 m$ival ?\ght1 :i* ! philosoph]s & !ologians ( ! "t endeavor$ to r$uce to a monism or a unity4 ,let u exam9e m intimately ! "* & cont5t ( ! two elem5ts 9 ! intellectual horizon ( m$ival ,jewry4 ,on ! side ( revelation1 religion1 au?ority1 we h ! ,bible1 ! ,mi%na1 ! ,talmud4 ,! ,bible 0 ! writt5 law1 & repres5t$ lit]ally ! ^w ( ,god z reveal$ to lawgiv] & prophet2 ! ,talmud 7includ+ ! ,mi%na7 0 ! oral law1 embody+ ! unwritt5 comm5t>y on ! words ( ! ,law1 equally au!ntic ) ! latt]1 contemporane\s ) x 9 revelation1 ?\gh n committ$ to writ+ until _m ages subsequ5tly & until !n h&$ d[n by ^w ( m\?2 h5ce dep5d+ ^u tradition & fai? 9 tradition = its validity & acceptance4 ,au?ority !re=e = ! ,rabbanites 0 two-fold1 ! au?ority ( ! direct ^w ( ,god :i* 0 writt5 d[n z soon z communicat$1 & ab\t :i* !re c\ld !re=e be no mann] ( d\bt2 & ! au?ority ( ! indirect ^w ( ,god z transmitt$ orally = _m g5]ations be=e x 0 writt5 d[n1 requir+ belief 9 tradition4 ,by ! ,k>aites tradition 0 reject$1 & !re rema9$ only belief 9 ! words ( ! ,bible4 ,on ! side ( reason 0 urg$ fir/ ! claim ( ! te/imony ( ! s5ses1 & second ! validity ( logical inf]5ce z det]m9$ by demon/ration & syllogi/ic pro(4 ,?is does n mean t ! ,jewi% ?9k]s ( ! middle ages develop$ unaid$ f )\t a sy/em ( ?\ght & a ,weltans*auung1 bas$ solely ^u _! own obs]vation & ratioc9ation1 & !n f\nd t ! view ( ! _w ?us acquir$ /ood 9 opposition to ! religion ( ! ,bible & ! ,talmud1 ! two ?us requir+ adju/m5t & reconciliation4 ,no6 ,! s-call$ dem&s ( ! reason 7 n ( _! own mak+1 & on ! o!r h& ! relation betwe5 philosophy & religion 0 n altoge!r "o ( opposition4 ,to discuss ! latt] po9t fir/1 ! tea*+s ( ! ,bible & ! ,talmud 7 n altoge!r cle> on a great _m que/ions4 ,passages c\ld be cit$ f ! religi\s docum5ts ( ,judaism 9 ref]5ce to a giv5 problem bo? pro & con4 ,?us 9 ! matt] ( fre$om ( ! w "o c\ld argue on ! "o h& t man mu/ be free to det]m9e 8 conduct s9ce if he 7 n !re w\ld h be5 no use 9 giv+ him comm&m5ts & prohibitions4 ,& "o c\ld quote besides 9 favor ( fre$om ! direct /atem5t 9 ,deut]onomy #cj1 #ai1 ,i call heav5 & e>? to witness aga9/ y ?is day1 t ,i h set be=e !e life & dea?1 ! bless+ & ! curse3 !re=e *oose life1 t ?\ maye/ live1 ?\ & ?y se$4 ,b on ! o!r h& x 0 j z possible to f9d ,biblical /atem5ts indicat+ cle>ly t ,god preorda9s h[ a p]son %all behave 9 a giv5 case4 ,?us ,ph>aoh's he>t 0 h>d5$ t he %\ld n let ! *ildr5 ( ,israel g out ( ,egypt1 z we read 9 ,exodus #g1 #c3 ,& ,i w h>d5 ,ph>aoh's he>t1 & multiply my signs & my wond]s 9 ! l& ( ,egypt4 ,b ,ph>aoh w n he>k5 unto y1 & ,i w lay my h& ^u ,egypt1 & br+ =? my ho/s1 my p1 ! *ildr5 ( ,israel1 out ( ! l& ( ,egypt by great judgm5ts4 ,simil>ly 9 ! case ( ,sihon k+ ( ,he%bon we read 9 ,deut]onomy #b1 #cj3 ,b ,sihon k+ ( ,he%bon w\ld n let u pass by him3 = ! ,"l ?y ,god h>d5$ 8 _s1 & made 8 he>t ob/9ate1 t he might deliv] him into ?y h&1 z at ?is day4 ,& ?is is true n m]ely ( hea!n k+s1 ,ahab k+ ( ,israel 0 simil>ly entic$ by a div9e in/igation accord+ to ,i ,k+s #bb1 #bj3 ,& ! ,"l said1 ,:o %all entice ,ahab1 t he may g up & fall at ,ramo?-,gilead8 ,! fact ( ! matt] is ! ,bible is n a sy/ematic book1 & pr9ciples & problems are n cle>ly & /rictly =mulat$ ev5 9 ! doma9 ( e?ics :i* is its /rong po9t4 ,x 0 n !re=e a "q "h ( opposition betwe5 ! ,bible & philosophy1 or au?ority & reason4 ,:at 0 requir$ 0 r a rational analysis ( ! problem on its own m]its & !n an endeavor to %[ t ! conflict+ passages 9 ! ,scriptures are capable ( int]pretation s z to h>monize ) ea* o!r & ) ! results ( rational speculation4 ,to be sure1 x 0 felt t ! doctr9e ( fre$om is fundam5tal to ! _s ( ,judaism1 & ! philosophic analyses l$ to ! same result ?\gh 9 diff]+ =m1 sometimes dang]\sly approa*+ a ?or\gh det]m9ism1 z 9 ,hasdai ,crescas4#a ,if su* d\bt 0 possible 9 an e?ical problem :]e "o w\ld suppose ! ,bible w\ld be outspok51 ! unc]ta9ty 0 /ill great] 9 purely metaphysical que/ions :i* z su* 7 really =eign to its purpose z a book ( religion & e?ics4 ,:ile x 0 cle> t ! ,bible tea*es ! exi/5ce ( ,god z ! creator ( ! univ]se1 & ( man z end[$ ) a s\l1 x is manife/ly difficult to extract f x a rigid & detail$ !ory z to ! nature ( ,god1 ! mann] 9 :i* ! _w 0 creat$1 ! nature ( ! s\l & its relation to man & to ,god4 ,z long z ! ,jews 7 self-c5t]$ & did n come 9 close contact ) an ali5 civilization ( a philosophic m\ld1 ! ne$ = a c>efully ?\ght out & consi/5t !ory on all ! que/ions sugge/$ 0 n felt4 ,& ?us we h 9 ! ,talmudic lit]ature q a good deal ( speculation conc]n+ ,god & man4 ,b x c sc>cely lay claim to be+ rationali/ic or philosophic1 mu* less to be+ consi/5t4 ,nay1 we h 9 ! ,bible itself at lea/ two books :i* attempt an anti-dogmatic treatm5t ( e?ical problems4 ,9 ,job is rais$ ! "q :e!r a man's =tunes on e>? be> any relation to 8 conduct moral & spiritual4 ,ecclesia/es _c make up 8 m9d :e!r life is wor? liv+1 & h[ to make ! be/ ( x once "o f9ds himself alive1 :e!r by seek+ wisdom or by pursu+ pleasure4 ,b "h too ,job is a long poem1 & ! argum5t does n progress v rapidly or v f>4 ,ecclesia/es is rambl+ r ?an analytic1 & on ! :ole mo/ly negative4 ,! ,talmudi/s 7 visibly puzzl$ 9 _! attitude to bo? books1 wond]$ :e!r ,job really exi/$ or 0 only a fancy1 & s]i\sly ?\ght ( exclud+ ,ecclesia/es f ! canon4 ,b ^! attempts at que/ion+ ! mean+ ( life _h no fur!r results4 ,!y did n lead1 z 9 ! case ( ! ,greek ,sophi/s1 to a ,socrates1 a ,plato or an ,ari/otle4 ,philo 9 ,alex&ria & ,maimonides 9 ,fo/at 7 ! products n ( ! ,bible & ! ,talmud alone1 b ( a comb9ation ( ,hebraism & ,hell5ism1 pure 9 ! case ( ,philo1 mix$ ) ! _s ( ,islam 9 ,maimonides4 ,& ?is leads u to consid] ! second po9t m5tion$ above1 ! nature & cont5t ( :at 0 attribut$ 9 ! middle ages to ! cr$it ( reason4 ,x 0 9 reality once m a set ( docum5ts4 ,! ,bible & ,talmud 7 ! docum5ts ( revelation1 ,ari/otle 0 ! docum5t ( reason4 ,ea* 0 supreme 9 its sph]e1 & all ef=ts mu/ be b5t to make !m agree1 = z revelation _c be d\bt$1 s nei!r c ! assur$ results ( reason4 ,b n all :i* pret5ds to be ! conclusion ( reason is necess>ily s 9 tru?1 z on ! o!r h& ! docum5ts ( fai? are subject to int]pretation & may mean some?+ o!r ?an appe>s on ! surface4 ,t ! ,bible has an esot]ic mean+ besides ! lit]al has its s\rce 9 ! ,talmud itself4 ,ref]5ce is f\nd !re to a my/ic doctr9e ( creation kn[n z ,maase ,b]e%it & a doctr9e ( ! div9e *>iot call$ ,maase ,m]kaba4#b ,! exact nature ( ^! tea*+s is n kn[n s9ce ! ,talmud itself prohibits ! imp>t+ ( ?is my/ic lore to any b ! initiat$1 i4 e41 to ^? %[+ !mselves wor?y2 & nev] to m ?an "o or two at a "t4#c ,b x is cle> f ! names ( ^! doctr9es t !y c5t]$ ab\t ! creation /ory 9 ,g5esis & ! acc\nt ( ! div9e *>iot 9 ,ezekiel1 *apt]s "o & t54 ,besides ! ,halaka & ,agada are full ( int]pretations ( ,biblical texts :i* are v f> f ! lit]al & h little to d ) ! context4 ,moreov]1 ! beliefs curr5t among ! ,jews 9 ,alex&ria 9 ! fir/ c5tury ,b4,c4 f\nd _! way into m$ival ,jewry1 t ! philosophic lit]ature ( ! ,greeks 0 orig9ally borr[$ or /ol5 f ! ,hebrews1 :o lo/ x 9 times ( /orm & /ress4#d ,?is be+ ! case1 x 0 believ$ t ! ,bible itself _c be )\t "s allusions to philosophic doctr9es4 ,t ! ,bible does n cle>ly tea* philosophy is due to ! fact t x 0 int5d$ = ! salvation ( all m51 ! simple z well z ! wise1 wom5 & *ildr5 z well z male adults4 ,= ^! x is suffici5t t !y "k c]ta9 religi\s tru?s )9 _! grasp & conduct !mselves accord+ to ! laws ( goodness & righte\sness4 ,a /rictly philosophic book w\ld h be5 beyond _! k5 & !y w\ld h be5 left )\t a guide 9 life4 ,b ! m intellectual & ! m ambiti\s are n m]ely p]mitt$1 nay !y are obligat$ to se>* ! ,scriptures = ! deep] tru?s f\nd !re91 tru?s ak9 to ! philosophic doctr9es f\nd 9 ,greek lit]ature2 & ! latt] w help !m 9 und]/&+ ! ,bible aright4 ,x ?us became a duty to /udy philosophy & ! sci5ces prep>atory !reto1 logic1 ma!matics & physics2 & ?us equipp$ to approa* ! ,scriptures & int]pret !m 9 a philosophical mann]4 ,! /udy ( m$ival ,jewi% rationalism has !re=e two sides to x1 ! analysis ( metaphysical1 e?ical & psy*ological problems1 & ! application ( ^! /udies to an int]pretation ( ,scripture4 ,n[ let u take a clos] glance at ! rationali/ic or philosophic lit]ature to :i* ! ,jews 9 ! middle ages fell heirs4 ,9 #ebi ,a4,d4 ! ,greek s*ools ( philosophy 9 ,a!ns 7 clos$ by ord] ( ,emp]or ,ju/9ian4 ,?is did n1 h[ev]1 lead to ! ext9ction ( ,greek ?\ght z an influ5ce 9 ! _w4 ,= ?\gh ! ,we/ 0 gradually decl9+ intellectually on acc\nt ( ! fall ( ,rome & ! b>b>ian invasions :i* foll[$ 9 its tra91 !re 7 signs ( progress 9 ! ,ea/ :i*1 feeble at fir/1 0 de/9$ 9 ! c\rse ( sev]al c5turies to illum9e ! :ole ( ,europe ) its enlight5+ rays4 ,long be=e #ebi1 ! date ( ! clos+ ( ! ,greek s*ools1 ,greek influ5ce 0 introduc$ 9 ! ,ea/ 9 ,asia & ,africa4#e ,! :ole movem5t goes back to ! days ( ,alex&] ! ,great & ! victories he ga9$ 9 ! ,ori5t4 ,f t "t on ,greeks settl$ 9 ,asia & ,africa & br\ght along ) !m ,greek mann]s1 ! ,greek language1 & ! ,greek arts & sci5ces4 ,alex&ria1 ! capital ( ! ,ptolemies 9 ,egypt aft] ! dea? ( ,alex&]1 & ,antio*1 ! capital ( ,syria "u ! empire ( ! ,seleucid1 7 well-kn[n c5tres ( ,greek le>n+4 ,:5 ,syria *ang$ ma/]s 9 #fd ,b4,c4 & became a ,roman prov9ce1 its =m ( civilization did n *ange1 & ! introduction ( ,*ri/ianity _h ! effect ( spread+ ! influ5ce ( ! ,greeks & _! language into ,mesopotamia beyond ! ,euphrates4 ,! ,*ri/ians 9 ,syria _h to /udy ,greek 9 ord] to und]/& ! ,scriptures ( ! ,old & ! ,new ,te/am5ts1 ! decrees & canons ( ! ecclesia/ical c\ncils1 & ! writ+s ( ! ,*ur* ,fa!rs4 ,besides religion & ! ,*ur*1 ! lib]al arts & sci5ces1 = :i* ! ,greeks 7 s fam\s1 attract$ ! int]e/s ( ! ,syrian ,*ri/ians1 & s*ools 7 e/abli%$ 9 ! ecclesia/ical c5tres :]e philosophy1 ma!matics & m$ic9e 7 /udi$4 ,^! bran*es ( k 7 repres5t$ 9 ,greek lit]ature1 & h5ce ! works treat+ ( ^! subjects _h to be translat$ into ,syriac = ! b5efit ( ^? :o did n "k ,greek4 ,ari/otle 0 ! au?ority 9 philosophy1 ,hippocrates & ,gal5 9 m$ic9e4 ,! olde/ ( ^! s*ools 0 9 ,edessa 9 ,mesopotamia1 f\nd$ 9 ! ye> #cfc by ,/4 ,ephrem ( ,nisibis4 ,x 0 clos$ 9 #dhi & ! tea*]s migrat$ to ,p]sia :]e two o!r s*ools became fam\s1 "o at ,nisibis & ! o!r at ,g&isapora4 ,a ?ird s*ool ( philosophy among ! ,jacobite or ,monophysite ,*ri/ians 0 t connect$ ) ! conv5t ( ,k9nesr9 on ! left bank ( ! ,euphrates1 :i* became fam\s z a seat ( ,greek le>n+ 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! sev5? c5tury4 ,*ri/ianity 0 succe$$ 9 ! ,ori5t by ,mohamm$anism1 & ?is *ange l$ to ev5 great] cultivation ( ,greek /udies on ! "p ( ! ,syrians4 ,! ,mohamm$an ,caliphs employ$ ! ,syrians z physicians4 ,?is 0 especially true ( ! ,abbasid dyna/y1 :o came into p[] 9 #gej4 ,:5 !y succe$$ to ! ,caliphate !y rais$ ,ne/orian ,syrians to (fices ( importance1 & ! latt] "u ! patronage ( _! ma/]s cont9u$ _! /udies ( ,greek sci5ce & philosophy & translat$ ^? writ+s into ,syriac & ,arabic4 ,among ! au?ors translat$ 71 ,hippocrates & ,gal5 9 m$ic9e1 ,euclid1 ,ar*im$es & ,ptolemy 9 ma!matics & a/ronomy1 & ,ari/otle1 ,!ophra/us & ,alex&] ( ,aphrodisias 9 philosophy4 ,9 _m cases ! ,greek writ+s 7 n turn$ directly into ,arabic b z ! translators 7 ,syrians1 ! v]sions 7 made fir/ into ,syriac1 & !n f ! ,syriac into ,arabic4 ,! ,syrian ,*ri/ians 7 ?us ! m$iators betwe5 ! ,greeks & ! ,arabs4 ,! latt]1 h[ev]1 9 ! c\rse ( "t f> surpass$ _! ,syrian tea*]s1 develop$ important s*ools ( philosophy1 became ! tea*]s ( ! ,jews1 & ) ! help ( ! latt] introduc$ ,greek philosophy z well z _! own developm5t !re( into ,*ri/ian ,europe 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! ?irte5? c5tury4 ,we see n[ t ! impulse to philosophiz+ came f ! ,greeks1--& n m]ely ! impulse b ! mat]ial1 ! matt] z well z ! me?od & ! t]m9ology4 ,9 ! ,ari/otelian writ+s we f9d develop$ an entire sy/em ( ?\ght4 ,!re is n a bran* ( k deal+ ) fundam5tal pr9ciples :i* is n !re repres5t$4 ,fir/ ( all ,ari/otle /&s alone z ! discov]] ( ! organon ( ?\ght1 ! tool :i* we all employ 9 our reason+ & reflection2 he is ! fir/ =mulator ( ! sci5ce & art ( logic4 ,he treats besides ( ! pr9ciples ( nature & natural ph5om5a 9 ! ,physics & ! treatise on ! ,heav5s4 ,he discusses ! nature ( ! s\l1 ! s5ses & ! intellect 9 8 ,psy*ology4 ,9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,animals & o!r m9or works we h a treatm5t ( biology4 ,9 ! ,nikoma*ean & ,eudemian ,e?ics he analyzes ! mean+ ( virtue1 gives a li/ & classification ( ! virtues & discusses ! summum bonum or ! aim ( human life4 ,f9ally 9 ! ,metaphysics we h an analysis ( ! fundam5tal notions ( be+1 ( ! nature ( reality & ( ,god4 ,! ,jews did n get all ?is 9 its purity = v>i\s reasons4 ,9 ! fir/ place x 0 only gradually t ! ,jews became acqua9t$ ) ! weal? ( ,ari/otelian mat]ial4 ,we are sure t ,abraham ,ibn ,daud1 ! =]unn] ( ,maimonides1 _h a ?or\gh famili>ity ) ! ideas ( ,ari/otle2 & ^? :o came aft] him1 = example ,maimonides1 ,g]sonides1 ,hasdai ,crescas1 %[ cle>ly t !y 7 deep /ud5ts ( ! ideas repres5t$ 9 ! writ+s ( ! ,/agirite4 ,b !re is n ! same evid5ce 9 ! e>li] writ+s ( ,isaac ,israeli1 ,saadia1 ,joseph ,ibn ,zaddik1 ,gabirol1 ,bahya ,ibn ,pakuda1 ,judah ,halevi4 ,!y _h pick$ up ,ari/otelian ideas & pr9ciples1 b !y _h also absorb$ ideas & concepts f o!r s*ools1 ,greek z well z ,arabian1 & unconsci\sly comb9$ ! two4 ,ano!r explanation = ! r>ity ( ! complete & unadult]at$ ,ari/otle among ! ,jewi% ?9k]s ( ! middle ages is t p 9 ^? days 7 v uncritical 9 ! matt] ( hi/orical facts & relations4 ,hi/orical & lit]>y criticism 0 altoge!r unkn[n1 & a numb] ( works 7 ascrib$ to ,ari/otle :i* did n belong to him1 & :i* 7 =eign 9 _s to 8 mode ( ?9k+4 ,!y emanat$ f a diff]5t s*ool ( ?\ght ) diff]5t presuppositions4 ,i am ref]r+ to ! treatise call$ ! ,!ology ( ,ari/otle1#f & t kn[n z ! ,lib] de ,causis4#g ,bo? 7 attribut$ to ,ari/otle 9 ! middle ages by ,jews & ,arabs alike1 b x has be5 %[n rec5tly#h t ! =m] repres5ts extracts f ! works ( ,plot9us1 ! head ( ! ,neo-,platonic s*ool ( philosophy1 :ile ! latt] is d]iv$ f a treatise ( ,proclus1 a ,neo-,platoni/ ( lat] date4 ,f9ally a ?ird reason = ! ph5om5on 9 "q is t ! ,jews 7 ! pupils ( ! ,arabs & foll[$ _! lead 9 adapt+ ,greek ?\ght to _! own intellectual & spiritual ne$s4 ,x s happ5s !re=e t ev5 9 ! case ( ,abraham ,ibn ,daud1 ,maimonides & ,g]sonides1 :o 7 )\t d\bt well v]s$ 9 ,ari/otelian ?\ght & ent]ta9$ n m]ely admiration b rev]5ce = ! philosoph] ( ,/agira1 we notice t in/ead ( read+ ! works ( ,ari/otle himself1 !y pref]r$1 or 7 oblig$ z ! case may be1 to g to ! writ+s ( ,alf>abi1 ,avic5na & ,av]roes = _! in=mation on ! views ( ! philosoph]4 ,9 ! case ( ,g]sonides ?is is easily expla9$4 ,x seems he c\ld read nei!r ,lat9 nor ,arabic#i & !re 0 no ,hebrew translation ( ! text ( ,ari/otle4 ,av]roes _h tak5 9 ! f\rte5? c5tury ! place ( ! ,greek philosoph] & in/ead ( read+ ,ari/otle all /ud5ts read ! works ( ! ,comm5tator1 z ,av]roes 0 call$4 ,( c\rse ! v abs5ce ( a ,hebrew translation ( ,ari/otle's text proves t ev5 among ^? :o read ,arabic ! dem& = ! text ( ,ari/otle 0 n great1 & pref]5ce 0 %[n = ! works ( ! int]pret]s1 comp5di/s & comm5tators1 l ,alf>abi & ,avic5na4 ,& ?is helps u to und]/& :y x is t ,ibn ,daud & ,maimonides :o n only read ,arabic b wrote _! philosophical works 9 ,arabic %[$ ! same pref]5ce = ! secondh& ,ari/otle4 ,"o reason may h be5 ! lack ( hi/orical & lit]>y criticism spok5 ( above1 & ! o!r ! difficulty ( ! ,arabic translations ( ,ari/otle4 ,ari/otle is h>d to translate into any language by reason ( 8 peculi> te*nical t]m9ology2 & ! difficulty 0 consid]ably enhanc$ by ! fact t ! ,syriac 9 _m cases /ood betwe5 ! orig9al ,greek & ! ,arabic1 & 9 ! second place by ! great dissimil>ity betwe5 ! ,semitic language & its ,indo-,european orig9al4 ,?is may h made ! copies ( ,ari/otle's text r>e1 & gradually l$ to _! disuse4 ,! great au?ority :i* names l ,alf>abi1 ,avic5na & ,av]roes acquir$ /ill fur!r s]v$ to /amp !m z ! approv$ expositors ( ! ,ari/otelian doctr9e4 ,among ! ,arabs ! e>lie/ division bas$ ^u a !oretical "q 0 t ( ! p>ties kn[n z ! ,kad>iya & ! ,jab>iya4#aj ,! problem :i* 0 ! cause ( ! diff]5ce 0 t ( free w & det]m9ism4 ,or?odox ,islam favor$ ! idea t man is completely dep5d5t ^u ! div9e w1 & t n only 8 de/9y b also 8 conduct is det]m9$1 & 8 own w does n c\nt4 ,?is 0 ! popul> feel+1 ?\gh z f> z ! ,koran is conc]n$ ! "q _c be decid$ "o way or ! o!r1 z x is n consi/5t 9 its /&1 & argum5ts c be drawn 9 pl5ty 9 favor ( ei!r op9ion4 ,! idea ( det]m9ism1 h[ev]1 seem$ repugnant to _m m9ds1 :o c\ld n reconcile ?is ) _! idea ( rew>d & puni%m5t & ! ju/ice ( ,god4 ,h[ is x possible t a righte\s ,god w\ld =ce a man to act 9 a c]ta9 mann] & !n puni% him = x8 ,h5ce ! sect ( ! ,kad>iya1 :o 7 9 favor ( fre$om ( ! w4 ,! ,jab>iya 7 ! det]m9i/s4 ,?is division goes back to a v e>ly p]iod be=e ! introduction ( ! ,ari/otelian philosophy among ! ,arabs1 & h5ce owes its inception n to reason z oppos$ to religi\s dogma1 b to a pi\s endeavor to und]/& cle>ly ! religi\s view ^u s important a "q4 ,f ! ,kad>iya1 & 9 opposition to ! ,ari/otelian movem5t :i* _h 9 ! meantime ga9$ gr\nd1 develop$ ! s*ool ( !ologians kn[n z ! ,mutakallimun4 ,!y 7 ! fir/ among ! ,arabs :o delib]ately laid d[n ! reason z a s\rce ( k 9 addition to ! au?ority ( ! ,koran & ! ,sunna or tradition4 ,!y 7 n free?9k]s1 & _! object 0 n to oppose or?odoxy z su*4 ,on ! contr>y1 _! purpose 0 to purify ! fai? by free+ x f su* elem5ts z obscur$ 9 _! m9ds ! purity ( ! mono!i/ic t5et & ! ju/ice ( ,god4 ,!y />t$ :]e ! ,kad>iya left (f & w5t fur!r4 ,z a s*ool ( opposition _! ef=ts 7 direct$ to prove ! creation ( ! _w1 individual provid5ce1 ! reality ( miracles1 z aga9/ ! philosoph]s1 i4 e41 ! ,ari/otelians1 :o held to ! et]nity ( motion1 d5i$ ,god's k ( p>ticul>s1 & insi/$ on ! un*ang+ "* ( natural law4 ,= ?is purpose !y plac$ at ! basis ( _! speculations n ! ,ari/otelian concepts ( matt] & =m1 ! =m] uncreat$ & cont9u\s1 b adopt$ ! atomi/ic !ory ( ,democritus1 d5i$ ! necessity ( cause & effect & ! validity ( natural law1 & made ,god directly responsible = ev]y?+ t happ5$ e mom5t 9 life4 ,god1 !y said1 creates cont9ually1 & he is n hamp]$ by any su* ?+ z natural law1 :i* is m]ely our "n = t :i* we are accu/om$ to see4 ,:5ev] x ra9s we are accu/om$ to see ! gr\nd wet1 & we conclude t !re is a necess>y connection ( cause & effect betwe5 ! ra9 & ! wetness ( ! gr\nd4 ,no?+ ( ! k9d1 say ! ,mutakallimun1 or ! ,mutazila1 ! olde/ sect ( ! s*ool4 ,x ra9s because ,god will$ t x %\ld ra91 & ! gr\nd is wet because ,god wills x %all be wet4 ,if ,god will$ t ! gr\nd %\ld be dry foll[+ a ra91 x w\ld be dry2 & ! "o is no m & no less natural ?an ! o!r4 ,miracles cease to be miracles on ?is conception ( natural processes4 ,simil>ly ! dogma ( creation is easily v9dicat$ on ?is !ory z aga9/ ! ,ari/otelian doctr9e ( et]nity ( ! _w1 :i* foll[s f 8 doctr9e ( matt] & =m1 z we %all h occasion to see lat]4 ,! ,mutazila 71 h[ev]1 *iefly kn[n n = _! pr9ciples ( physics b = _! doctr9es ( ! unity ( ,god & 8 ju/ice4 ,x 0 ?is :i* gave !m _! "n ( ! ,m5 ( ,unity & ,ju/ice1 i4 e41 ! m5 :o v9dicate aga9/ ! un5light5$ views ( popul> or?odoxy ! unity ( ,god & 8 ju/ice4 ,! discussion ( ! unity c5t]$ ab\t ! prop] int]pretation ( ! an?ropomorphic passages 9 ! ,koran & ! doctr9e ( ! div9e attributes4 ,:5 ! ,koran speaks ( ,god's eyes1 e>s1 h&s1 feet2 ( 8 see+1 he>+1 sitt+1 /&+1 walk+1 be+ angry1 smil+1 & s on1 mu/ ^? phrases be und]/ood lit]ally8 ,if s ,god is simil> to man1 corporeal l him1 & sway$ by passions4 ,?is seem$ to ! ,mutazila an unwor?y conception ( ,god4 ,to v9dicate 8 spirituality ! an?ropomorphic passages 9 ! ,koran mu/ be und]/ood metaphorically4 ,! o!r m difficult "q 0 9 :at s5se c attributes be ascrib$ to ,god at all8 ,x is n "h a "q ( an?ropomorphism4 ,if ,i say t ,god is omnisci5t1 omnipot5t & a liv+ ,god1 ,i attribute to ,god life1 p[]1 k4 ,are ^! attributes ! same ) ,god's ess5ce or are !y diff]5t8 ,if diff]5t 7& !y mu/ be et]nal s9ce ,god 0 nev] )\t !m71 !n we h m ?an "o et]nal be+1 & ,god is dep5d5t ^u o!rs4 ,if !y are n diff]5t f ,god's ess5ce1 !n 8 ess5ce is n a /rict unity1 s9ce x is compos$ ( life1 p[]1 k2 = life is n p[]1 & p[] is n k4 ,! only way to def5d ! unity ( ,god 9 its absolute purity is to say t ,god has no attributes1 i4 e41 ,god is omnisci5t b n ?r\gh k z 8 attribute2 ,god is omnipot5t b n ?r\gh p[] z 8 attribute1 & s on4 ,god is absolutely "o1 & !re is no di/9ction betwe5 k1 p[]1 & life 9 him4 ,!y are all "o1 & are 8 ess5ce4 ,?is seem$ 9 opposition to ! words ( ! ,koran1 :i* frequ5tly speaks ( ,god's k1 p[]1 & s on1 & 0 accord+ly condemn$ z h]etical by ! or?odox4 ,9 ! t5? c5tury a new sect arose nam$ ! ,a%>iya aft] ,al-,a%>i1 its f\nd]4 ,?is 0 a p>ty ( mod]ation1 & t5d$ to conciliate or?odoxy by n go+ too f> 9 ! direction ( rationali/ic ?9k+4 ,!y solv$ ! problem by say+1 ,god kn[s ?r\gh a k :i* is n diff]5t f 8 ess5ce4 ,! o!r problem to :i* ! ,mutazila devot$ _! att5tion 0 t ( ! ju/ice ( ,god4 ,?is 0 9 l9e ) ! ef=ts ( ! ,kad>iya be=e !m4 ,x conc]n$ itself ) ! doctr9e ( free w4 ,!y def5d$ man's absolute fre$om ( action1 & insi/$ on ju/ice z ! only motive ( ,god's deal+s ) m54 ,god mu/ be j & _c act o!rwise ?an 9 accordance ) ju/ice4 ,9 ref]5ce to ! "q ( ! nature ( good & evil1 ! or?odox position 0 t good is t :i* ,god comm&s1 evil t :i* ,god =bids4 ,9 o!r words1 no?+ is 9 itself good or evil1 ! e?ical "* ( an act is purely relative to ,god's attitude to x4 ,if ,god 7 to comm& cannibalism1 x w\ld be a good act4 ,! ,mutazila 7 oppos$ to ?is4 ,!y believ$ 9 ! absolute "* ( good & evil4 ,:at makes an act good or bad is reason1 & x is because an act is good t ,god comm&s x1 & n ! rev]se4 ,! =ego+ acc\nt gives u an idea ( ! nature ( ! ,mutazilite discussions ( ! two problems ( ,god's unity & ,god's ju/ice4 ,_! works 7 all arrang$ 9 ! same way4 ,!y 7 divid$ into two p>ts1 "o deal+ ) ! "q ( ! unity1 & ! o!r ) t ( ju/ice4 ,! pro(s ( ! unity 7 prec$$ by ! pro(s ( ,god's exi/5ce1 & ! latt] 7 bas$ ^u a demon/ration t ! _w is n et]nal1 b be>s traces ( hav+ come to be 9 "t4 ,^! are ! e>m>ks by :i* a ,mutazilite book c\ld be recogniz$1 & ! respect = !m on ! "p ( ! philosoph]s1 i4 e41 ! ,ari/otelians1 0 n great4 ,! latt] did n consid] !m wor?y combatants 9 a philosophical fight1 claim+ t !y came ) preconceiv$ notions & arrang$ _! conceptions ( nature to suit ! religi\s beliefs :i* !y desir$ to def5d4 ,maimonides expresses a simil> judgm5t conc]n+ _! wor?lessness z philosophical ?9k]s4#aa ,?is s*ool ( ! ,mutakallimun1 or ( ! m important "p ( x kn[n z ! ,mutazila1 is ( great int]e/ = ! hi/ory ( ,jewi% rationalism4 ,9 ! fir/ place _! influ5ce on ! e>ly ,jewi% philosoph]s 0 great & unmi/akable4 ,x is no discov]y ( a late day b is well kn[n to ,maimonides :o is himself1 z has j be5 said & z w appe> ) great] detail lat]1 a /rong oppon5t ( ^! to him unphilosophical ?9k]s4 ,9 ! sev5ty-fir/ *apt] ( 8 ,guide ( ! ,p]plex$1 he says1 ,y w f9d t 9 ! few works compos$ by ! ,geonim & ! ,k>aites on ! unity ( ,god & on su* matt] z is connect$ ) ?is doctr9e1 !y foll[$ ! lead ( ! ,mohamm$an ,mutakallimun4444 ,x also happ5$1 t at ! "t :5 ! ,mohamm$ans adopt$ ?is me?od ( ! ,kalam1 !re arose among !m a c]ta9 sect1 call$ ,mutazila4 ,9 c]ta9 ?+s our s*ol>s foll[$ ! !ory & ! me?od ( ^! ,mutazila4 ,?anks to ! rese>*es ( mod]n ,jewi% & non-,jewi% s*ol>s we "k n[ t ! ,rabbanite ?9k] ,saadia & ! ,k>aite writ]s1 l ,joseph ,al ,basir & ,je%uah b5 ,judah1 are indebt$ f> m to ! ,mohamm$an ,mutazilites ?an w\ld appe> f ,maimonides's /atem5t j quot$4 ,! ,rabbanites be+ /aun* adh]5ts ( ! ,talmud1 to ! influ5ce ( :i* !y ow$ a national & religi\s self-consci\sness mu* /rong] ?an t ( ! ,k>aites1 :o reject$ ! au?ority ( tradition1 did n all[ !mselves to be c>ri$ away s f> by ! ideas ( ! ,mohamm$an rationali/s z to become _! slavi% foll[]s4 ,! ,k>aites are less scrupul\s2 & z !y 7 ! fir/ among ! ,jews to imitate ! ,mutazila 9 ! endeavor to rationalize ,jewi% doctr9e1 !y adopt$ _! views 9 all details1 & x is sometimes impossible to tell f ! cont5ts ( a ,k>aite ,mutazilite "w :e!r x 0 writt5 by a ,jew or a ,mohamm$an4 ,! arrangem5t ( ! "w 9 ! two divisions ( ,unity & ,ju/ice1 ! discussion ( sub/ance & accid5t1 ( ! creation ( ! _w1 ( ! exi/5ce1 unity & incorporeality ( ,god1 ( 8 attributes1 ( 8 ju/ice1 & ( human free w1 are s simil> 9 ! two t x is ext]nal evid5ce alone to :i* we owe ! k ( c]ta9 ,k>aite works z ,jewi%4 ,!re are no m$ival ,jewi% works treat+ ( religi\s & !ological problems 9 :i* !re is s mu* alo(ness1 su* abs5ce ( !ological prepossession & religi\s feel+ z 9 "s ,k>aite writ+s ( ,mutazilite /amp4 ,cold & unr$eem$ logic gives ! tone to ! entire composition4 ,ano!r reason = ! importance ( ! ,mutazilite s*ool = ! hi/ory ( ,jewi% ?\ght is ( rec5t discov]y4 ,s*re9] has sugge/$#ab t ! orig9 ( ! ,mutazilite movem5t 0 due to ! influ5ce ( le>n$ ,jews ) :om ! ,mohamm$ans came 9 contact1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! city ( ,basra1 an important c5tre ( ! s*ool4 ,! read] w recall t ! two ma9 doctr9es ( ! ,mutazila 7 ! unity ( ,god & 8 ju/ice4 ,! latt] really signifi$ ! fre$om ( ! w4 ,t ^! are good ,jewi% views w\ld ( c\rse prove no?+ = ! orig9 ( simil> op9ions among ! ,mohamm$ans4 ,= x is n "h a "q simply ( ! dogmatic belief 9 ,mono!ism z oppos$ to poly!ism4 ,mohamm$anism is z a religion ,mono!i/ic & we "k t ,mohamm$ 0 indebt$ v mu* to ,jews & ,judaism4 ,we are "h conc]n$ ) ! orig9 ( a rationali/ic movem5t :i* endeavors to def5d a spiritual conception ( ,god aga9/ a crude an?ropomorphism1 to v9dicate a conception ( 8 absolute unity aga9/ ! ?reat5$ multiplication ( 8 ess5ce by ! assumption ( et]nal attributes1 & :i* puts /ress ^u ,god's ju/ice r ?an ^u 8 omnipot5ce s z to save human fre$om4 ,ano!r doctr9e ( ! ,mutazila 0 t ! ,koran 0 n et]nal z ! or?odox believ$1 b t x 0 creat$4 ,n[ we c f9d p>allels = mo/ ( ^! doctr9es4 ,an?ropomorphism 0 avoid$ 9 ! ,aramaic translations ( ! ,p5tateu*1 also 9 c]ta9 *anges 9 ! ,hebrew text :i* are record$ 9 ,rabb9ical lit]ature1 & kn[n z ,tikkune ,s(]im1 or corrections ( ! ,scribes4#ac ,conc]n = ma9ta9+ ! unity ( ,god 9 its absolute purity is se5 9 ! c>e ) :i* ! m5 ( ! ,agada =bid any pray] :i* may h a semblance1 h[ev] remote1 ( dualism4#ad ,! fre$om ( ! w is cle>ly /at$ 9 ! ,rabb9ic expression1 ,all is 9 ! h&s ( ,god except ! fe> ( ,heav54#ae ,& an app>5tly det]m9i/ic passage 9 ,job #bc1 #ac1 ,b he is "o & :o c turn him1 & :at 8 s\l desire?1 ev5 t he doe?1 is expla9$ by ,rabbi ,akiba 9 ! foll[+ mann]1 ,x is n possible to answ] ! words ( him :o ) 8 ^w creat$ ! _w1 = he rules all ?+s ) tru? & ) righte\sness4#af ,& we f9d a p>allel also = ! creation ( ! ,koran 9 ! ,midra%ic /atem5t t ! ,torah is "o ( ! six or sev5 ?+s creat$ be=e ! _w4#ag ,^! p>allels alone w\ld n be ( mu* weight1 b !y are /r5g!n$ by o!r consid]ations4 ,! ,mutazilite movem5t seems to h develop$ among ! ascetic sects1 ) ! lead]s ( :om its f\nd]s 7 9 close relation4#ah ,! ascetic lit]ature be>s unmi/akable traces ( hav+ be5 influ5c$ by ! ,halaka & ! ,agada4#ai ,moreov]1 !re is a ,mohamm$an tradition or two to ! effect t ! doctr9e ( ! creation ( ! ,koran & also ( ! rejection ( an?ropomorphism goes back to a ,jew1 ,lebid-ibn ,al-,asam4#bj ,m rec5tly /ill,a ,c4 ,h4 ,beck] prov$ f a /udy ( c]ta9 ,patri/ic writ+s t ! polemical lit]ature ( ! ,*ri/ians play$ an important rle 9 ! =mation ( ,mohamm$an dogma1 & he %[s conclusively t ! =m 9 :i* ! problem ( fre$om 0 discuss$ among ! ,mohamm$ans 0 tak5 f ,*ri/ianity4 ,! "q ( ! creation or et]nity ( ! ,koran or ^w ( ,allah1 is simil>ly relat$ to ! ,*ri/ian idea ( ! et]nal ,logos1 :o is on ! "o h& ! ,^w & ! ,wisdom1 & is on ! o!r id5tifi$ ) ,jesus ,*ri/4 ,& ! same ?+ holds ( ! doctr9e ( attributes4 ,x play$ a great] rle 9 ,*ri/ian dogma ?an x ev] did 9 ,judaism prior to ! philosophic era 9 ! middle ages4 ,to be sure1 ! ,patri/ic writ]s 7 mu* indebt$ to ,philo1 9 ^: writ+s ! g]m ( ! m$ival doctr9e ( attributes is pla9ly evid5t4 ,b ! ,mohamm$an s*ools did n read ,philo4 ,x w\ld seem1 !re=e1 t ,s*re9]'s view mu/ be consid]ably modifi$1 if n entirely reject$1 9 view ( ! lat] evid5ce adduc$ by ,beck]4 ,a ,cf4 ,zeits*rift fr ,assyriologie1 #aiab1 #age ff4 ,! m extreme doctr9es1 h[ev]1 ( ! m or?odox ,a%>iya1 su* z ! d5ial ( natural law & ! necessity ( cause & effect1 likewise ! d5ial ( man's ability to det]m9e 8 actions1 none ( ! ,jews accept$4 ,"h we h aga9 ! te/imony ( ,maimonides1 :o1 h[ev]1 is n incl9$ to cr$it ?is circum/ance to ! intellig5ce & judgm5t ( 8 pr$ecessors1 b to *ance4 ,8 words are1 ,al?\gh ano!r sect1 ! ,a%>iya1 ) _! own peculi> views1 0 subsequ5tly e/abli%$ among ! ,mohamm$ans1 y w n f9d any ( ^! views 9 ! writ+s ( our au?ors2 n because ^! au?ors pref]r$ ! op9ions ( ! fir/ nam$ sect to ^? ( ! latt]1 b because !y *anc$ fir/ to become acqua9t$ ) ! !ory ( ! ,mutazila1 :i* !y adopt$ & treat$ z demon/rat$ tru?4#ba ,! influ5ce ( ! ,kalam is pres5t 9 great] or less degree 9 ! philosoph]s up to ,abraham ,ibn ,daud & ,maimonides4 ,! latt] gave ?is sy/em its dea? bl[ 9 8 ?or\ghgo+ criticism1#bb & !nce=? ,ari/otelianism 0 9 possession ( ! field until t too 0 attack$ by ,hasdai ,crescas4 ,ano!r sect ( ! ,mohamm$ans :i* _h consid]able influ5ce on "s ( ! ,jewi% philosophical & e?ical writ]s are ! ascetics & ! ,sufis :o are relat$ to !m4 ,! latt] develop$ _! mode ( life & _! doctr9es "u ! influ5ce ( ! ,*ri/ian monks1 & are likewise indebt$ to ,indian & ,p]sian ideas4#bc ,9 _! mode ( life !y belong to ! class ( ascetics & prea* ab/95ce1 indiff]5ce to human praise & blame1 love ( ,god & absolute tru/ 9 him ev5 to ! ext5t ( refra9+ f all ef=t 9 "o's own behalf1 & 9 extreme cases go+ s f> z to c\rt dang]4 ,9 !oretical tea*+ !y adopt$ ! emanati/ic doctr9e ( ! ,neo-,platonic ,s*ool4 ,?is has be5 call$ dynamic ,pan!ism4 ,x is ,pan!ism because 9 its la/ analysis x id5tifies ,god ) ! univ]se4 ,at ! same "t x does n br+ ,god directly 9 contact ) ! _w1 b only indirectly ?r\gh ! p[]s or ,greek3 dynameis1 h5ce dynamic ,pan!ism4 ,^! p[]s emanate successively f ! highe/ "o1 =m+ a *a9 ( int]m$iate p[]s m$iat+ betwe5 ,god & ! _w ( matt]1 ! l9ks ( ! *a9 gr[+ dimm] & less pure z !y are fur!r remov$ f _! orig91 :ile ! latt] loses no?+ 9 ! process4 ,?is latt] condition saves ! ,neo-,platonic conception f be+ a pure sy/em ( emanation l "s ,indian doctr9es4 ,9 ! latt] ! fir/ cause actually gives away some?+ ( itself & loses !reby f its fulness4 ,! process 9 bo? sy/ems is expla9$ by use ( analogies1 ^? ( ! radiation ( light f a lum9\s body1 & ( ! ov]fl[+ ( a f\nta9 be+ ! mo/ common4 ,! *ief expon5t ( ! e?ics ( ! ,sufis 9 m$ival ,jewi% lit]ature is ,bahya ,ibn ,pakuda4 ,9 8 e?ical "w ,! ,duties ( ! ,he>ts1 he lays ! same /ress on int5tion & inw>dness 9 religi\s life & practice z aga9/ outw>d p]=mance ) ! limbs on ! "o h& & dry s*ola/icism on ! o!r1 z d ! ,sufis4 ,9 matt]s ( detail too he is v mu* indebt$ to ?is ,arab sect f ^: writ+s he quotes abundantly ) z well z )\t ackn[l$gm5t ( 8 s\rces except 9 a g5]al way z ! wise m54 ,to be sure1 he does n foll[ !m slavi%ly & rejects ! extremes ( asceticism & unworldly cynicism :i* a great _m ( ! ,sufis prea*$ & practic$4 ,he is also n 9 sympa?y ) _! my/icism4 ,he adopts _! tea*+s only :]e he c support !m ) analog\s views z express$ 9 ! ,rabb9ical writ+s1 :i* inde$ play$ an important rle 9 ,mohamm$an ascetic lit]ature1 be+ ! s\rce ( _m ( ! say+s f\nd 9 ! latt]4#bd ,! sy/ems ( ?\ght :i* _h ! greate/ influ5ce ^u ,jewi% z well z ,mohamm$an !ology1 7 ! great sy/ems ( ,plato 7especially z develop$ 9 ,neo-,platonism7 & ,ari/otle4 ,^! two philosophies n m]ely affect$ ! ?9k+ ( ,jew & ,mohamm$an b really trans=m$ x f religi\s & e?ical discussions into metaphysical sy/ems4 ,9 ! ,bible & simil>ly 9 ! ,koran we h a purely p]sonal view ( ,god & ! _w4 ,god is a p]son1 he creates ! _w--out ( no?+ to be sure--b nev]!less he is ?\ght ( do+ x 9 ! mann] 9 :i* a p]son does su* ?+s ) a w & a purpose 9 "t & place4 ,he puts a s\l into man & communicates to him laws & prohibitions4 ,man mu/ obey ^! laws because !y are ! w ( ,god & are good1 & he w be rew>d$ & puni%$ accord+ to 8 attitude 9 ob$i5ce & disob$i5ce4 ,! "* ( ! entire po9t ( view is p]sonal1 human1 teleological1 e?ical4 ,!re is no attempt made at an imp]sonal & objective analysis ( ! common aspects ( all exi/+ ?+s1 ! elem5ts und]ly+ all nature4 ,nor is !re any consci\s ef=t at a critical classification ( ! v>i\s k9ds ( ?+s exi/+ 9 nature beyond ! ord9>y & evid5t classification f\nd 9 ,g5esis--heav5 & e>?2 9 heav51 sun1 moon & />s2 on e>?1 grass1 fruit trees1 insects1 wat] animals1 birds1 quadrup$s1 man4 ,!n light & d>kness1 ! seasons ( ! ye>1 dry l& & wat]4 ,9 ,greek philosophy = ! fir/ "t we f9d speculations conc]n+ ! common elem5t or elem5ts out ( :i* ! _w is made--! mat]ial cause z ,ari/otle lat] call$ x4 ,! ,sophi/s & ,socrates gave ! fir/ impulse to a logical analysis ( :at is involv$ 9 description or def9ition4 ,! concept z d5ot+ ! ess5ce ( a ?+ is ! important contribution ,socrates made to k4 ,plato objectifi$ ! concept1 or r he posit$ an object z ! basis ( ! concept1 & rais$ x out ( ?is _w ( %ad[s to an intelligible _w ( realities on :i* ! _w ( p>ticul>s dep5ds4 ,b x 0 ,ari/otle :o made a ?or\ghgo+ analysis ( ?+ z well z ?\ght1 & he 0 ! ma/] ( k ?r\gh ! middle ages alike = ,jew1 ,*ri/ian & ,mohamm$an4 ,fir/ ( all he classifi$ all objects ( our exp]i5ce & f\nd t !y c be gr\p$ 9 t5 classes or categories z he call$ !m4 ,?9k ( any ?+ y please & y w f9d t x is ei!r an object 9 ! /rict s5se1 i4 e41 "s ?+ t exi/s indep5d5tly ( any?+ else1 & is ! recipi5t ( qualities1 z = example a man1 a m\nta91 a *air4 ,or x is a quantity1 l f\r1 or cubit2 or a quality1 l good1 black1 /raight2 or a relation l long1 d\ble1 ma/]1 slave2 & s on ?r\gh\t ! t5 categories4 ,?is classification applies to words & ?\ghts z well z to ?+s4 ,z an analysis ( ! fir/ two x l$ him to m important inve/igations ( spee* & ?9k+ & argu+1 & result$ 9 8 sy/em ( logic1 :i* is ! mo/ mom5t\s discov]y ( a s+le m9d record$ 9 hi/ory4 ,z appli$ to ?+s x 0 foll[$ by a m fundam5tal analysis ( all real objects 9 our _w into ! two elem5ts ( matt] & =m4 ,he argu$ z foll[s3 no?+ 9 ! mat]ial _w is p]man5t z an individual ?+4 ,x *anges its /ate f mom5t to mom5t & f9ally ceases to be ! ?+ x 04 ,an acorn passes a numb] ( /ages be=e x is ripe1 & :5 x is plac$ 9 ! gr\nd x aga9 *anges its =m cont9ually & !n comes out z an oak4 ,9 artificial products man 9 a measure imitates nature4 ,he takes a block ( m>ble & makes a /atue out ( x4 ,he =ms a log into a b$4 ,s an ignorant man becomes civiliz$ & le>n$4 ,all ^! examples illu/rate *ange4 ,:at !n is *ange8 ,is !re any simil>ity 9 all ! cases cit$8 ,c we express ! process ( *ange 9 a =mula :i* w apply to all in/ances ( *ange8 ,if s1 we %all h ga9$ an insight into a process ( nature :i* is all-embrac+ & univ]sal 9 our exp]i5ce4 ,yes1 we c1 says ,ari/otle4 ,*ange is a play ( two elem5ts 9 ! *ang+ ?+4 ,:5 a ?+ affect$ ) "o quality *anges into a ?+ ) ! opposite quality1 !re mu/ be ! ?+ itself )\t ei!r ( ! opposite qualities1 :i* is *ang+4 ,?us :5 a :ite f5ce becomes black1 ! f5ce itself or t :i* und]goes ! *ange is some?+ nei!r :ite nor black4 ,x is ! uncolor$ matt] :i* fir/ _h ! =m ( :ite & n[ lo/ t & took on ! =m ( black4 ,?is is typical ( all *ange4 ,!re is 9 all *ange ultimately an un*ang+ sub/ratum always ! same1 :i* takes on "o quality aft] ano!r1 or z ,ari/otle w\ld say1 "o =m aft] ano!r4 ,?is sub/ratum is matt]1 :i* 9 its purity is n affect$ ) any quality or =m1 ( :i* x is ! seat & resid5ce4 ,! =ms on ! o!r h& come & g4 ,=m does n *ange any m ?an matt]4 ,! *ang+ ?+ is ! composite ( matt] & =m1 & *ange means sep>ation ( ! actual compon5ts ( :i* "o1 ! =m1 disappe>s & makes room = its opposite4 ,9 a giv5 case1 say1 :5 a /atue is made out ( a block ( m>ble1 ! matt] is ! m>ble :i* lo/ its orig9al =m & assum$ ! =m ( a /atue4 ,9 ?is case ! m>ble1 if y take away bo? ! previ\s =m & ! pres5t1 w /ill h "s =m if x is /ill m>ble1 = m>ble mu/ h c]ta9 qualities if x is to be m>ble4 ,9 t case !n ! matt] und]ly+ ! *ange 9 "q is n pure matt]1 x is already end[$ ) "s primitive =m & is composite4 ,b m>ble is ultimately r$ucible to ! f\r elem5ts1 fire1 air1 wat]1 e>?1 :i* are simpl]2 & !oretically1 ?\gh n 9 practice1 we c ?9k away all =m1 & we h left only t :i* takes =ms b is itself n any =m4 ,?is is matt]4 ,"h ! read] w ask1 :at k9d ( ?+ is x t has no =m :atsoev]1 is x n no?+ at all8 ,h[ c any?+ exi/ )\t be+ a p>ticul> k9d ( ?+1 & ! mom5t x is t x is no long] pure matt]4 ,ari/otle's answ] is t x is true t pure matt] is nev] f\nd z an objective exi/5ce4 ,po9t to any real object & x is compos$ ( matt] & =m4 ,& yet x is n true t matt] is a pure figm5t ( ! imag9ation2 x has an exi/5ce ( its own1 a pot5tial exi/5ce4 ,& ?is leads u to ano!r important conception 9 ! ,ari/otelian philosophy4 ,pot5tiality & actuality are correlative t]ms correspond+ to matt] & =m4 ,matt] is ! pot5tial1 =m is ! actual4 ,:atev] pot5tialities an object has x owes to its matt]4 ,its actual ess5ce is due to its =m4 ,a ?+ free f matt] w\ld be all t x is at once4 ,x w\ld n be liable to *ange ( any k9d1 :e!r progress or retrogression4 ,all ! objects ( our exp]i5ce 9 ! sublun> _w are n ( ?is k9d4 ,!y realize !mselves gradually1 & are nev] at any giv5 mom5t all t !y are capable ( becom+4 ,?is is due to _! matt]4 ,on ! o!r h&1 pure matt] is actually no?+4 ,x is j capacity = be+ any?+1 & ! mom5t x is any?+ x is affect$ ) =m4 ,x is cle> f ?is acc\nt t matt] & =m are ! bases ( sublun> life & exi/5ce4 ,no *ange1 no motion )\t matt] & =m4 ,= motion is presuppos$ 9 all k9ds ( *ange4 ,if !n all processes ( life & dea? & *ange ( all k9ds presuppose matt] & =m1 ! latt] _c !mselves be liable to g5esis & decay & *ange1 = t w\ld mean t matt] is compos$ ( matt] & =m1 :i* is absurd4 ,we ?us see h[ ,ari/otle is l$ to believe 9 ! et]nity ( matt] & motion1 9 o!r words1 ! et]nity ( ! _w processes z we "k !m4 ,motion is ! realization ( ! pot5tial qua pot5tial4 ,?is is an ,ari/otelian def9ition & applies n m]ely to motion 9 ! /rict s5se1 i4 e41 movem5t 9 place1 or motion ( translation1 b embraces all k9ds ( *ange4 ,take z an example ! w>m+ ( ! air 9 a cold room4 ,! process ( heat+ ! room is a k9d ( motion2 ! air passes f a /ate ( be+ cold to a /ate ( be+ w>m4 ,9 its orig9al /ate z cold x is pot5tially w>m1 i4 e41 x is actually n w>m1 b has ! capacity ( becom+ w>m4 ,at ! end ( ! process x is actually w>m4 ,h5ce ! process itself is ! actualization ( ! pot5tial4 ,t :i* is pot5tial _c make itself actual1 = to make itself actual x mu/ be actual1 :i* is contr>y to ! hypo!sis ( its be+ pot5tial4 ,pot5tiality & actuality are contradictory /ates & _c exi/ side by side 9 ! same ?+ at ! same "t 9 ! same relation4 ,!re mu/ !re=e be an ext]nal ag5t1 itself actual1 to actualize a pot5tial4 ,?us1 9 ! above illu/ration1 a cold room _c make itself w>m4 ,!re mu/ be "s ag5cy itself actually w>m to cause ! air 9 ! room to pass f cold to w>m4 ,?is is true also ( motion 9 place1 t a ?+ _c move itself & mu/ be mov$ by some?+ else4 ,b t some?+ else if itself 9 motion mu/ aga9 be mov$ by some?+ else4 ,?is process w\ld lead u to inf9ity4 ,9 ord] t a giv5 ?+ %all be 9 motion1 x w\ld be necess>y = an inf9ite numb] ( ?+s to be 9 motion4 ,?is is impossible1 because !re _c be an inf9ite numb] ( ?+s all "h & n[4 ,x is a contradiction 9 t]ms4 ,h5ce if any?+ is to move at all1 !re mu/ be at ! end ( ! f9ite *a9 a l9k :i* :ile caus+ ! next l9k to move1 is itself unmov$4 ,h5ce ! motion exi/+ 9 ! _w mu/ be due ultimately to ! exi/5ce ( an unmov$ mov]4 ,if ?is be+ causes motion )\t be+ itself 9 motion x does n act ^u ! bodies x moves z "o body acts ^u ano!r1 = a body c move ano!r body only by be+ itself 9 motion4 ,! mann] 9 :i* ! unmov$ mov] moves ! _w is r to be conceiv$ on ! analogy ( a lov$ object mov+ ! lov+ object )\t itself be+ mov$4 ,! p]son 9 love /rives to approa* & unite ) ! object ( 8 love )\t ! latt] necess>ily be+ mov$ 9 turn4 ,?is is ! way 9 :i* ,ari/otle conceives ( ! cause ( ! _w's motion4 ,!re is no room "h = ! creation ( ! _w4 ,matt] is et]nal1 motion is et]nal1 & !re is an et]nal m9d = ! love ( :i* all motions h be5 go+ on1 et]nally4 ,! unmov$ mov]1 or ,god1 is ?us n body1 = no body c move ano!r body )\t be+ itself 9 motion at ! same "t4 ,besides1 all body is f9ite1 i4 e41 x has a f9ite magnitude4 ,a body ( inf9ite magnitude is an impossibility1 z ! v ess5ce ( body is t x mu/ be b\nd$ by surfaces4 ,a f9ite body _c h an inf9ite p[]1 z ,ari/otle proves1 ?\gh we ne$ n at pres5t g into ! details ( 8 pro(4 ,b a be+ :i* causes et]nal motion 9 ! _w mu/ h an inf9ite p[] to d ?is4 ,h5ce ano!r pro( t ,god is n corporeal4 ,if ,god is n subject to motion1 he is n subject to *ange ( any k9d1 = *ange involves motion4 ,z matt] is at ! basis ( all *ange ,god is )\t matt]1 h5ce he is pure =m1 i4 e41 pure actuality )\t ! lea/ pot5tiality4 ,?is means t he is :at he is :olly all ! "t2 he has no capacities ( be+ :at he is at any "t n4 ,b if he is n corporeal1 ! nature ( 8 actuality or activity mu/ be ,?\ght1 pure ?9k+4 ,& ! cont5t ( 8 ?\ght _c v>y f topic to topic1 = ?is w\ld be *ange1 :i* is =eign to him4 ,he mu/ be et]nally ?9k+ ! same ?\ght2 & ! highe/ ?\ght x mu/ be4 ,b ! highe/ ?\ght is himself2 h5ce ,god is pure ?\ght ?9k+ himself1 ?\ght ?9k+ ?\ght4 ,! univ]se is 9 ! %ape ( a sph]e ) ! e>? /ation>y 9 ! c5tre & ! heav5s revolv+ ar\nd x exactly z appe>s to u4 ,! elem5t e>? is ! heavie/1 h5ce its place is bel[ or1 :i* is ! same ?+1 9 ! c5tre4 ,?is is its natural place2 & its natural motion :5 away f ! c5tre is 9 a /raight l9e t[>d ! c5tre4 ,wat] is ! next heavie/ elem5t & its natural place is j above e>?2 h5ce ! wat] 9 ! _w occupies a position sph]ical 9 %ape r\nd ab\t ! e>?1 i4 e41 x =ms a holl[ sph]e conc5tric ) ! e>?4 ,next comes ! holl[ sph]e ( air conc5tric ) ! o!r two4 ,its natural motion :5 away f its place 9 ! direction ( ! e>? is 9 a /raight l9e t[>d ! circumf]5ce ( ! _w1 n h[ev] go+ beyond ! sph]e ( ! lighte/ elem5t ( all1 namely1 fire4 ,?is has its natural place outside ( ! o!r elem5ts1 also 9 ! =m ( a holl[ sph]e conc5tric ) ! o!r ?ree4 ,its natural motion is 9 a /raight l9e away f ! c5tre ( ! _w & 9 ! direction ( ! circumf]5ce4 ,our e>?1 wat]1 air & fire are n really ! elem5ts 9 _! purity4 ,ea* "o has 9 x also mixtures ( ! o!r ?ree elem5ts1 ! "o :i* gives x ! "n pr$om9at+4 ,all m9]als1 plants & animals are =m$ f ^! f\r elem5ts by v>i\s comb9ations1 all toge!r =m+ ! sublun> _w1 or ! _w ( g5]ation & decay4 ,no individual ?+ 9 ?is _w is p]man5t4 ,all are subject to *ange & to ultimate de/ruction1 ?\gh ! de/ruction ( "o ?+ is ! g5esis ( ano!r4 ,!re is no annihilation4 ,! causes ( ! v>i\s comb9ations ( ! elem5ts & ! g5]ation & de/ruction ( m9]al1 plant & animal result+ !refrom1 are ! motions ( ! heav5ly bodies4 ,^! are made ( a pur] sub/ance ?an t ( ! f\r elem5ts1 ! e!r4 ,?is is prov5 by ! fact t ! heav5ly bodies are n subject to *ange or de/ruction4 ,!y are all p]man5t & ! only *ange visible 9 !m is *ange ( place4 ,b ev5 _! motions are diff]5t f ^? ( ! f\r elem5ts4 ,! latt] are 9 a /raight l9e t[>d ! c5tre or away f x1 :]eas ! heav5ly bodies move 9 a circle et]nally ar\nd ! c5tre4 ,?is is ano!r pro( t !y are n compos$ ( ! same mat]ial z sublun> bodies4 ,! heav5s consi/ ( transp>5t sph]es1 & ! />s z well z ! planets are set 9 !m & rema9 fix$4 ,! motions ( ! heav5ly bodies are due to ! revolutions ( ! sph]es 9 :i* !y are set4 ,^! sph]es are holl[ & conc5tric4 ,! out]mo/ sph]e =m+ ! out] limit ( ! univ]se 7! _w is f9ite accord+ to ,ari/otle7 is /udd$ ) ! fix$ />s & moves f ea/ to we/1 mak+ a complete revolution 9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs4 ,?is motion is transmitt$ to ! o!r sph]es :i* c>ry ! planets4 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 we notice 9 ! sun1 moon & ! o!r planet>y bodies motions 9 ! contr>y direction 9 addition to t f ea/ to we/1 !re mu/ be o!r sph]es hav+ ! motions app>5t to u 9 ! positions ( ! planets borne by !m4 ,?us a giv5 body l ! sun or moon is set 9 m ?an "o sph]e1 ea* ( :i* has its own prop] motion1 & ! />'s app>5t motion is ! resultant ( ! sev]al motions ( its sph]es4 ,)\t ent]+ into fur!r details conc]n+ ^! motions1 x w be suffici5t = u to "k t ,ari/otle c\nt$ 9 all fifty-five sph]es4 ,fir/ came ! sph]e ( ! fix$ />s1 !n 9 ord] ! sph]es ( ,saturn1 ,jupit]1 ,m>s1 ,m]cury1 ,v5us1 ,sun1 ,moon4 ,god himself sets ! out] sph]e 9 motion1 or r is ! et]nal cause ( its motion1 z ! object ( its desire2 & 9 ! same way ea* ( ! o!r motions has also its prop] mov]1 likewise a pure =m or _s1 :i* moves its sph]e 9 ! same incorporeal & unmov$ mann] z ,god4 ,?us we h 9 ! supra-lun> _w pure =ms )\t matt] 9 ,god & ! spirits ( ! sph]es1 :]eas 9 ! sublun> _w matt] & =m are insep>able4 ,nei!r is f\nd sep>ately )\t ! o!r4 ,9 man's s\l1 h[ev]1 or r 9 8 intellect we f9d a =m :i* comb9es 9 itself ! peculi>ities ( sublun> z well z cele/ial =ms4 ,:5 9 contact ) ! human body x p>takes ( ! nature ( o!r sublun> =ms exhibit+ its activity ?r\gh matt] & be+ insep>able f x4 ,b x is n de/roy$ ) ! dea? ( ! body4 ,x cont9ues z a sep>ate =m aft] dea?4 ,! s\l1 ,ari/otle def9es z ! fir/ entele*y ( ! body4 ,! t]m entele*y :i* s\nds outl&i% to u may be replac$ by ! ^w realization or actualization & is v close 9 mean+ to ! ,ari/otelian use ( ! ^w =m4 ,! s\l !n1 accord+ to ,ari/otle1 is ! realization or actualization or =m ( ! body4 ,! body takes ! place ( matt] 9 ! human composite4 ,x has ! composition & ! /ructure :i* give x ! capacity = p]=m+ ! functions ( a human be+1 z 9 any o!r composite1 say an axe1 ! /eel is ! matt] :i* has ! pot5tiality or capacity ( be+ made into a cutt+ in/rum5t4 ,its cutt+ function is ! =m ( ! axe--we might almo/ say ! s\l ( ! axe1 if x 7 n = ! circum/ance t x _c d its own cutt+2 x mu/ be wield$ by someone else4 ,s f> !n ! human s\l =ms an insep>able unit ) ! body :i* x in=ms4 ,z we d n ?9k ( ! cutt+ function ( an axe exi/+ ap>t f ! axe1 s nei!r c we conceive ( s5sation1 emotion or memory z exi/+ )\t a body4 ,9 s f> z ! s\l is ?is x is a mat]ial =m l ! re/1 & ceases ) ! dissolution ( ! body4 ,b ! s\l is m ?an ?is4 ,x is also a ?9k+ faculty4 ,z su* x is n 9 its ess5ce dep5d5t ^u ! body or any corporeal organ4 ,x comes f )\t1 hav+ exi/$ be=e ! body1 & x w cont9ue to exi/ aft] ! body is no m4 ,t x is diff]5t f ! s5sitive s\l is prov5 by ! fact t ! latt] is inh]5t 9 ! physical organ ?r\gh :i* x acts1 be+ ! =m ( ! body1 z we h se54 ,& h5ce :5 an unusually viol5t /imulus1 say a v bright light or a v l\d s\nd1 imp+es ^u ! s5se organ1 ! faculty ( sight or he>+ is injur$ to su* an ext5t t x _c !reaft] p]ceive an ord9>y sight or s\nd4 ,b 9 ! rational faculty ?is is n ! case4 ,! m int5se ! ?\ght occupy+ ! ?9k+ s\l1 ! m capable x becomes ( ?9k+ less] ?\ghts4 ,to be sure1 ! reason seems to weak5 9 old age1 b ?is is due to ! weak5+ ( ! body ) :i* ! s\l is connect$ dur+ life2 ! s\l itself is j z active z ev]4 ,we mu/1 h[ev]1 di/+ui% betwe5 two aspects ( ! rational s\l1 to "o ( :i* alone ! above /atem5ts apply4 ,?\ght diff]s f s5sation 9 t ! latt] p]ceives ! p>ticul> =m ( ! individual ?+1 :]eas ! =m] appreh5ds ! ess5tial nature ( ! object1 t :i* con/itutes x a memb] ( a c]ta9 class4 ,! s5se ( sight p]ceives a giv5 individual man2 ?\ght or reason und]/&s :at x is to be a memb] ( ! human species4 ,reason !re=e deals ) pure =m4 ,9 man we obs]ve ! reason gradually develop+ f a pot5tial to an actual /ate4 ,! objects ( ! s5se ) ! help ( ! faculties ( s5sation1 memory & imag9ation act ^u ! pot5tial intellect ( ! *ild1 :i* )\t !m w\ld =ev] rema9 a m]e capacity )\t ev] be+ realiz$4 ,?is aspect ( ! reason !n 9 man1 namely1 ! passive aspect :i* receives ideas1 gr[s & dies ) ! body4 ,b !re is ano!r aspect ( ! reason1 ! active reason :i* has no?+ to d ) ! body1 ?\gh x is 9 "s mann] resid5t 9 x dur+ ! life ( ! latt]4 ,?is x is :i* enables ! passive intellect to become realiz$4 ,= ! ext]nal objects z su* are insuffici5t to end[ ! rational capacity ( ! individual ) actual ideas1 any m ?an a surface c end[ ! s5se ( sight ) ! s5sation ( color :5 !re is no light4 ,x is ! active intellect :i* develops ! human capacity = ?9k+ & makes x active ?\ght4 ,?is alone1 ! active intellect1 is ! immortal "p ( man4 ,?is v imp]fect sket* ( ,ari/otle's mode ( approa* to ! ev]-liv+ problems ( ,god1 ! univ]se & man %[s u ! wide div]sity ( 8 me?od f t ) :i* ! ,jews ( ,biblical & ,rabb9ic tradition 7 id5tifi$4 ,greek philosophy mu/ h seem$ a revelation to !m1 & we d n wond] t !y became su* en?usia/ic foll[]s ( ! ,/agirite1 feel+ z !y mu/ h done t 8 me?od z well z 8 results 7 calculat$ to enri* _! intellectual & spiritual life4 ,h5ce ! curr5t belief ( an orig9al ,jewi% philosophy borr[$ or /ol5 by ! ,greeks1 & /ill betray+ its traces 9 ! ,bible & ,talmud 0 m ?an welcome to ! enlight5$ spirits ( ! "t4 ,& !y work$ ?is unhi/orical belief to its break+ po9t 9 _! ,biblical exegesis4 ,ari/otle1 h[ev]1 0 n _! only ma/]1 ?\gh !y did n "k x4 ,plot9us 9 ,ari/otelian disguise contribut$ n a little to _! conception ( ,god & 8 relation to ! univ]se4 ,! s-call$ ,!ology ( ,ari/otle#be is a ,plot9ian "w1 & its ,pan!i/ic po9t ( view is 9 reality =eign to ,ari/otle's dualism4 ,b ! middle ages 7 n aw>e ( ! orig9 ( ?is treatise1 & s !y attribut$ x to ! ,/agirite philosoph] & proce$$ to h>monize x ) ! re/ ( 8 sy/em z !y knew x4 ,ari/otle's sy/em may be call$ !i/ic & duali/ic2 ,plot9us's is pan!i/ic & moni/ic4 ,9 ,ari/otle matt] is n creat$ by or d]iv$ f ,god1 :o is ext]nal to ! univ]se4 ,plot9us d]ives ev]y?+ f ,god1 :o ?r\gh 8 p[]s or activities p]vades all4 ,! diff]5t gradations ( be+ are /atic 9 ,ari/otle1 dynamic 9 ,plot9us4 ,plot9us assumes an absolute cause1 :i* he calls ! ,"o & ! ,good4 ,?is is ! highe/ & is at ! top ( ! scale ( exi/5ce4 ,x is sup]ior to ,be+ z well z to ,?\ght1 = ! latt] imply a duality :]eas unity is prior to & above all plurality4 ,h5ce we c "k no?+ z to ! nature ( ! ,highe/4 ,we c "k only t ,he is1 n :at he is4 ,f ?is highe/ ,be+ proce$s by a physical necessity1 z light f a lum9\s body or wat] f an ov]fl[+ spr+1 a second hypo/asis or sub/ance1 ! n\s or ,reason4 ,?is is a duality1 con/itut+ ,be+ & ,k4 ,?us ,?\ght & ,be+ hold a second place 9 ! univ]se4 ,9 a simil> way f ,reason proce$s ! ?ird hypo/asis or ! ,_w-,s\l4 ,?is /&s midway betwe5 ! intelligible _w1 ( :i* x is ! la/1 & ! ph5om5al _w1 ( :i* x is ! fir/4 ,! ,s\l has a dual aspect1 ! "o spiritual & p]ta9+ to ! intelligible _w1 ! o!r1 call$ ,nature1 resid+ 9 ! l[] _w4 ,?is is ! mat]ial _w ( *ange & decay4 ,matt] is responsible = all *ange & evil1 & yet matt]1 too1 is a product ( ! p[]s above x1 & is ultimately a d]ivative ( ! ,absolute ,cause1 ?\gh indirectly4 ,matt] is two-fold1 intelligible & s5sible4 ,! matt] ( ! l[] _w is ! non-exi/5t & ! cause ( evil4 ,matt] 9 a m g5]al s5se is ! indet]m9ate1 ! indef9ite & ! pot5tial4 ,matt] ( ?is nature is f\nd also 9 ! intelligible _w4 ,! ,reason z ! second hypo/asis1 be+ an activity1 passes f pot5tiality to actuality1 its indet]m9at5ess be+ made det]m9ate by ! ,"o or ! ,good4 ,?is pot5tiality & indet]m9at5ess is matt]1 b x is n to be confus$ ) ! o!r matt] ( ! ph5om5al _w4 ,man p>takes ( ! intelligible1 z well z ( ! s5sible _w4 ,8 body is mat]ial1 & 9 s f> =? p>takes ( ! evil ( matt]4 ,b 8 s\l is d]iv$ f ! univ]sal s\l1 & if x conducts itself prop]ly 9 ?is _w1 :i!r x came f )\t1 & holds itself alo( f bodily contam9ation1 x w return to ! intelligible _w :]e is its home4 ,we see "h a numb] ( ideas =eign to ,ari/otle1 :i* are f\nd fir/ 9 ,philo ! ,jew & appe> lat] 9 m$ival philosophy4 ,?us ,god z a ,be+ absolutely unkn[able1 ( :om negations alone are true j because he is ! acme ( p]fection & be>s no analogy to ! imp]fect ?+s ( our _w2 matt] 9 our _w z ! orig9 ( evil1 & ! exi/5ce ( matt] 9 ! intelligible _w--all ^! ideas w meet u aga9 9 ,ibn ,gabirol1 9 ,ibn ,daud1 9 ,maimonides1 "s 9 "o1 "s 9 ! o!r4 ,alike 9 respect to ,ari/otle z 9 ref]5ce to ,plot9us1 ! ,jewi% philosoph]s f\nd _! models 9 ,islamic writ]s4 ,! ,!ology ( ,ari/otle :i*1 z we h se51 is really ,plot9ian r ?an ,ari/otelian1 0 translat$ into ,arabic 9 ! n9? c5tury & ex]t$ its influ5ce on ! ,bre?r5 ( ,purity1 a ,mohamm$an secret ord] ( ! t5? c5tury4 ,^! m5 compos$ an encyclopdia ( fifty-"o treatises 9 :i* is comb9$ ,ari/otelian logic & physics ) ,neo-,platonic metaphysics & !ology4 ,9 turn su* ,jewi% writ]s z ,ibn ,gabirol1 ,bahya1 ,ibn ,zaddik1 ,judah ,halevi1 ,moses & ,abraham ,ibn ,ezra1 7 mu* indebt$ to ! ,bre?r5 ( ,purity4 ,?is repres5ts ! ,neo-,platonic influ5ce 9 ,jewi% philosophy4 ,! ,arab ,ari/otelians1 ,al ,k9di1 ,al ,f>abi1 ,avic5na & ,av]roes1 :ile 9 ! ma9 disciples ( ! ,/agirite1 7 none ! less unable to /e] cle> ( ,neo-,platonic color+ ( _! ma/]'s doctr9e1 & !y 7 ! tea*]s ( ! ,jewi% ,ari/otelians1 ,abraham ,ibn ,daud1 ,moses b5 ,maimon1 ,levi b5 ,g]son4 ,"o o!r phase mu/ be m5tion$ to complete ! p>allelism ( ,islamic & ,jewi% philosophy1 & t is ! anti-philosophic attitude adopt$ by ,judah ,halevi & ,hasdai ,crescas4 ,x 0 n a dogmatic & unreason$ opposition bas$ simply ^u ! un-,jewi% s\rce ( ! doctr9es 9 "q & _! incompatibility ) ,jewi% belief & tradition1 su* z exhibit$ itself 9 ! controv]sies t rag$ ar\nd ! ,guide ( ,maimonides4 ,"h we h r a fight+ ( ! philosoph]s ) _! own weapons4 ,especially d we f9d ?is to be ! case 9 ,crescas :o opposes ,ari/otle on philosophic gr\nds4 ,9 ,judah ,halevi simil>ly1 ?\gh ) less rigor & little te*nical discussion1 we h nev]!less a man tra9$ 9 philosophic lit]ature1 :o f\nd ! philosophic attitude unsympa!tic & unsatisfy+ because cold & imp]sonal1 fail+ to d ju/ice to ! w>m ye>n+ aft] ,god ( ! religi\s s\l4 ,he c\ld n abide ! philosophic exclusion f _! natural !ology ( all t 0 racial & national & hi/oric 9 religion1 :i* 0 to him its v he>t & inn]mo/ ess5ce4 ,9 ?is attitude1 too1 we f9d an ,arab prototype 9 ! p]son ( ,al ,gazali1 :o simil>ly attack$ ! philosoph]s on _! own gr\nd & f\nd 8 consolation 9 ! asceticism & my/icism ( ! ,sufis4 ,we h n[ spok5 9 a g5]al way ( ! pr9cipal motives ( m$ival ,jewi% philosophy1 ( ! *ief s\rces1 philosophical & dogmatic1 & h classifi$ ! ,jewi% ?9k]s accord+ly z ,mutakallimun1 ,neo-,platoni/s & ,ari/otelians4 ,we also sket*$ briefly ! s*ools ( philosophy :i* influ5c$ ! ,jewi% writ]s & det]m9$ _! po9t ( view z ,kalami/ic1 ,neo-,platonic or ,ari/otelian4 ,!re /ill rema9s z ! conclud+ "p ( ! introductory *apt]1 & be=e we take up ! detail$ exposition ( ! individual philosoph]s1 to give a brief & comp5di\s *>act]ization ( ! cont5t ( m$ival ,jewi% philosophy4 ,we %all />t ) ! !ory ( k4 ,we h already ref]r$ to ! attitude g5]ally adopt$ by ! m$ival ,jewi% ?9k]s on ! relation betwe5 religion & philosophy4 ,) ! exception ( ,judah ,halevi & ,hasdai ,crescas ! commonly accept$ view 0 t philosophy & religion 7 at bottom id5tical 9 cont5t1 ?\gh _! me?ods 7 diff]5t2 philosophy taught by means ( rational demon/ration1 religion by dogmatic ass]tion bas$ ^u div9e revelation4 ,s f> z ! actual philosophical views ( an ,ari/otle 7 conc]n$1 !y might be errone\s 9 "s ( _! details1 z 0 inde$ ! case 9 respect to ! orig9 ( ! _w & ! "q ( ,provid5ce4 ,b ap>t f 8 errors he 0 an important guide1 & philosophy g5]ally is an indisp5sable adjunct to religi\s belief because x makes ! latt] intellig5t4 ,x expla9s ! :y's & ! :]e=e's ( religi\s traditions & dogmas4 ,into detail$ discussions conc]n+ ! orig9 ( our k !y did n z a rule g4 ,^! /rictly sci5tific que/ions did n conc]n1 except 9 a v g5]al way1 ! ma9 object ( _! philosophiz+1 :i* 0 to ga9 true k ( ,god & 8 attributes & 8 relation to man4 ,accord+ly we f9d = ! mo/ "p a simple classification ( ! s\rces ( k or tru? z consi/+ ( ! s5ses & ! reason4 ,! latt] conta9s "s tru?s :i* may be call$ innate or imm$iate1 su* z require no exp]i5ce = _! recognition1 l ! logical laws ( ?\ght1 & tru?s :i* are ! result ( inf]5ce f a fact ( s5sation or an imm$iate tru? ( ! m9d4 ,to ^! human s\rces 0 add$ tradition or ! te/imony ( ! reveal$ ^w ( ,god 9 ! writt5 & oral law4 ,:5 ,ari/otle began to be /udi$ 9 8 l>g] treatises & ! details ( ! psy*ology & ! metaphysics became kn[n especially ?r\gh ,av]roes1 we f9d among ! ,jews also an int]e/ 9 ! f9] po9ts ( ! problem ( k4 ,! motives ( ,plato's idealism & ,ari/otle's conceptualism 7if ?is inexact description may be all[$ = want ( a m precise t]m7 are discuss$ ) fulness & detail by ,levi b5 ,g]son4 ,he realizes ! difficulty involv$ 9 ! problem4 ,k mu/ be ( ! real & ! p]man5t4 ,b ! p>ticul> is n p]man5t1 & ! univ]sal1 :i* is p]man5t1 is n real4 ,h5ce ei!r !re is no k or !re is a reality correspond+ to ! univ]sal concept4 ,?is latt] 0 ! view adopt$ by ,plato4 ,g]sonides f9ds ! reality 9 ! ?\ghts ( ! ,active ,intellect1 agree+ 9 ?is ) ! views ( ,philo & ,augu/9e1 sub/itut+ only ! ,active ,intellect = _! ,logos4 ,maimonides does n discuss ! "q1 b x is cle> f a casual /atem5t t l ,ari/otle he does n believe 9 ! indep5d5t reality ( ! univ]sal 7,guide ,,iii1 #ah74 ,9 !oretical physics ! ,arabian ,mutakallimun1 we h se5 7p4 xxii71 laid great /ress on ! !ory ( atom & accid5t z oppos$ to ! concepts ( matt] & =m by :i* ,ari/otle 0 l$ to believe 9 ! et]nity ( ! _w4 ,accord+ly e ,mutakallim laid d[n 8 physical !ory & bas$ on x 8 pro( ( creation4 ,?is me?od 0 foll[$ also by ! e>ly ,jewi% ?9k]s4 ,! ,k>aites be=e ,maimonides adopt$ ! atomic !ory )\t "q4 ,& ,a>on b5 ,elijah1 :o _h ,maimonides's ,guide be=e him1 0 nev]!less suffici5tly loyal to 8 ,k>aite pr$ecessors to discuss _! views side by side ) ^? ( ! ,ari/otelians & to def5d !m aga9/ ! /rictures ( ,maimonides4 ,saadia1 ! fir/ ,rabbanite philosoph]1 discusses no less ?an ?irte5 errone\s views conc]n+ ! orig9 & nature ( ! _w1 b he does n lay d[n any pr9ciples ( !oretical physics explicitly4 ,he does n seem to favor ! atomic !ory1 b he devotes no special treatm5t to ! subject1 & 9 8 argum5ts = creation z oppos$ to et]nity he makes use ( ! ,kalami/ic concepts ( sub/ance & accid5t & composition & division4 ,! same is true ( ,bahya ,ibn ,pakuda4 ,joseph ,ibn ,zaddik is ! fir/ :o f9ds x necess>y to give an indep5d5t treatm5t ( ! sci5ces be=e proce$+ to con/ruct 8 religi\s philosophy1 & 9 s do+ he exp\nds ! concepts ( matt] & =m1 sub/ance & accid5t1 g5esis & de/ruction1 ! f\r elem5ts & _! natures & s on--all ^! ,ari/otelian concepts4 ,ibn ,daud foll[s 9 ! pa? ( ,ibn ,zaddik & discusses ! relevant concepts ( pot5tiality & actuality & ! nature ( motion & inf9ity1 ^u :i* 8 pro( is bas$ ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god4 ,maimonides cle>s ! gr\nd fir/ by a ?or\gh criticism & refutation ( ! ,kalami/ic physics1 b he does n ?9k x necess>y to exp\nd ! ,ari/otelian views :i* he adopts4 ,he ref]s ! read] to ! orig9al s\rces 9 ! ,physics & ,metaphysics ( ,ari/otle1 & cont5ts himself ) giv+ a li/ ( pr9ciples :i* he reg>ds z e/abli%$4 ,ari/otle is n[ ! ma/] ( all ^? :o "k4 ,& he reigns supreme = ov] a c5tury until ! appe>ance ( ! ,or ,adonai ( ,hasdai ,crescas1 :o v5tur$ to d5y "s ( ! propositions ^u :i* ,maimonides bas$ 8 pro( ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god--su*1 = example1 z ! impossibility ( an inf9ite magnitude1 ! non-exi/5ce ( an inf9ite fulness or vacuum outside ( ! limits ( our _w1 ! f9it5ess ( our _w & its unity1 & s on4 ,^! discussions ( ! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( physics 7 appli$ ultimately to prove ! exi/5ce ( ,god4 ,b !re 0 a diff]5ce 9 ! mann] ( ! application4 ,dur+ ! e>li] p]iod be=e ! ,emunah ,ramah ( ,abraham ,ibn ,daud 0 writt51 ! me?od employ$ 0 t ( ! ,arabian ,mutakallimun4 ,t is1 ! pr9ciples ( physics 7 us$ to prove ! creation ( ! _w 9 "t1 & f creation inf]5ce 0 made to ! exi/5ce ( a ,creator1 s9ce no?+ c create itself4 ,! creation itself 9 "t z oppos$ to et]nity 0 prov$ f ! fact ( ! composite "* ( ! _w4 ,composition1 x 0 said1 implies ! prior exi/5ce ( ! con/itu5t elem5ts1 & ! elem5ts _c be et]nal1 = an inf9ite pa/ "t is un?9kable4 ,?is me?od is common to ,saadia1 ,bahya1 ,joseph ,ibn ,zaddik1 & o!rs4 ,) ! appe>ance ( ,ibn ,daud's ma/]piece1 :i* exhibits a m direct famili>ity ) ! fundam5tal ideas ( ,ari/otle1 ! me?od *ang$4 ,! exi/5ce ( ,god is prov$ directly f physics )\t ! m$iation ( ! doctr9e ( creation4 ,motion proves a mov]1 & to avoid an inf9ite regress we mu/ posit an unmov$ mov]1 t is1 a fir/ mov] :o is n himself mov$ at ! same "t4 ,an unmov$ mov] _c be corporeal1 h5ce he is ! spiritual be+ :om we call ,god4 ,ibn ,daud does n make use ( creation to prove ! exi/5ce ( ,god1 b nei!r does he posit et]nal motion z ,ari/otle does4 ,& ! result is t he has no valid pro( t ?is unmov$ mov] is a pure _s n 9 any way relat$ to body4 ,?is defect 0 made good by ,maimonides4 ,let u frankly adopt t5tatively1 he says1 ! ,ari/otelian idea ( ! et]nity ( ! _w1 i4 e41 ! et]nity ( matt] & motion4 ,we c !n prove ! exi/5ce ( an unmov$ mov] :o is pure _s1 = none b a pure _s c h an inf9ite =ce su* z is manife/$ 9 ! et]nal motion ( ! _w4 ,creation _c be demon/rat$ ) sci5tific rigor1 h5ce x is n safe to build s important a /ructure z ! exi/5ce ( ,god ^u an insecure f\ndation4 ,%[ t et]nity ( ! _w leads to ,god1 & y are safe no matt] :at ! ultimate tru? turns out to be conc]n+ ! orig9 ( ! _w4 ,= if ! _w orig9at$ 9 "t !re is no d\bt t ,god made x4 ,?us ,maimonides accept$ provisionally ! et]nity ( matt] & motion1 b provisionally only4 ,no soon] did he prove 8 po9t1 ?an he takes up ! "q ( ! _w's orig9 & argues t :ile /rict demon/ration !re is z yet none ei!r = or aga9/ creation1 ! bett] reasons are on ! side ( creation4 ,g]sonides1 on ! o!r h&1 0 a tru] ,ari/otelian ?an ,maimonides & he decid$ 9 favor ( ! et]nity ( matt]1 ?\gh n ( ?is our _w4 ,! ,jewi% ,mutakallimun1 z we h se51 prov$ ! exi/5ce ( ,god f ! fact t a creat$ _w implies a creator4 ,! next /ep 0 to %[ t !re is only "o ,god1 & t ?is "o ,god is simple & n composite1 & t he is incorporeal4 ,! unity 9 ! s5se ( uniqu5ess 0 %[n by po9t+ out t dualism or pluralism is incompatible ) omnipot5ce & p]fection--attributes ! possession ( :i* by ,god 0 n consid]$ to require pro(4 ,maimonides1 inde$1 po9t$ out1 9 8 opposition to ! ,mutakallimun1 t if !re is a plurality ( worlds1 a plurality ( ,gods w\ld n necess>ily be 9 conflict ) ! omnipot5ce & p]fection ( ea* ,god 9 8 own sph]e 7,guide ,i1 #ge71 & he inf]r$ ! unity ( ,god f 8 spirituality4 ,! simplicity ( ,god 0 prov$ by argu+ t if he is composite1 8 p>ts are prior to him1 & he is nei!r ! fir/1 nor is he et]nal1 & h5ce n ,god2 & ! incorporeality foll[$ f 8 simplicity1 = all body is composite4 ,maimonides prov$ ) "o /roke ,god's exi/5ce1 unity & incorporeality4 ,= 8 argum5t f motion leads him to conceive ( ! fir/ mov] z a sep>ate =m or intellect4 ,?is cle>ly d5otes incorporeality1 = body is compos$ ( matt] & =m4 ,b x also d5otes unity1 = ! immat]ial is n subject to num]ical di/9ction unless ! "o be ! cause & ! o!r ! effect4 ,b 9 t case ! cause alone is ,god4 ,next 9 importance to ! pro( ( ,god's exi/5ce1 unity & incorporeality1 is ! doctr9e ( attributes4 ,we h se5 7p4 xxiii7 h[ mu* emphasis ! ,arabian ,mutakallimun plac$ ^u ! problem ( attributes4 ,x 0 important to ,jew1 ,*ri/ian & ,mohamm$an alike = a numb] ( reasons4 ,! crude an?ropomorphism ( _m expressions 9 ! ,bible z well z ! ,koran (f5d$ ! m sophi/icat$ ?9k]s ev] s9ce ,alex&rian days4 ,h5ce x 0 necess>y to deal ) ?is "q1 & ! unanim\s view 0 t ! ,biblical expressions 9 "q are to be und]/ood z figures ( spee*4 ,! m difficult problem 0 h[ any pr$icates at all c be appli$ to ,god )\t endang]+ 8 unity4 ,if ,god is ! possessor ( _m qualities1 ev5 ?\gh !y be purely spiritual1 su* z ju/ice1 wisdom1 p[]1 he is composite & n simple4 ,! ,*ri/ian !ologians f\nd inde$ 9 ?is problem ( attributes a philosophical support = ! doctr9e ( ! ,tr9ity4 ,s9ce ,god _c be devoid ( p[]1 reason & life1 he is tr9it>ian1 ?\gh he is "o4 ,! difficulty 0 ( c\rse t ! mom5t y admit di/9ctions )9 ! ,godhead1 !re is no reason = /opp+ at ?ree4 ,& ! ,jewi% critics 7 n sl[ to recognize ?is weakness 9 ! sy/em ( _! oppon5ts4 ,at ! same "t !y f\nd x necess>y to take up a positive attitude t[>d ! "q ( attributes s z to h>monize ! latt] ) ,god's absolute unity4 ,& ! ess5ce ( ! solution ( ! problem 0 to expla9 away ! attributes4 ,saadia says t ! ascription ( life1 p[] & k to ,god does n involve plurality 9 8 ess5ce4 ,! di/9ction ( ?ree attributes is due to our limit$ m9d & inadequate p[]s ( expression4 ,9 reality ! ess5ce ( :i* we pr$icate ^! attributes is "o & simple4 ,?is solution did n seem ?or\ghgo+ en\gh to ,saadia's successors1 & e "o ( ! ,jewi% philosoph]s tri$ 8 h& at ! problem4 ,all agre$ t ! attributes _c apply to ,god 9 ! same signification z !y h :5 we use !m 9 our own exp]i5ce4 ,! mean+ ( ! t]m attribute 0 inve/igat$ & ! attributes 7 divid$ into classes1 until f9ally 9 ! sy/em ( ,maimonides ?is "q too receiv$ its classical solution4 ,god is conceiv$ z absolutely transc5d5t & unkn[able4 ,no positive pr$icate c apply to him s z to indicate 8 ess5ce4 ,we c say only :at he is n1 we _c say :at he is4 ,!re is n ! fa9te/ resemblance betwe5 him & 8 creatures4 ,& yet he is ! cause ( ! _w & ( all its happ5+s4 ,positive attributes signify only t ,god is ! cause ( ! exp]i5ces d5ot$ by ! attributes 9 "q4 ,:5 we say ,god is j we mean t he is n unju/1 & t he is ! cause ( all ju/ice 9 ! _w4 ,h5ce ,maimonides says !re are no ess5tial attributes1 mean+ attributes expressive ( ,god's ess5ce1 & ! only pr$icates hav+ application are negative & su* z designate effects ( ,god's causal activity 9 ! _w4 ,g]sonides 0 oppos$ to ,maimonides's radical agno/icism 9 respect ( ! nature ( ,god1 & def5d$ a m human view4 ,if ,god is pure ?\ght1 he is ( ! nature ( our ?\ght1 ?\gh ( c\rse inf9itely great] & p]fect1 b to d5y any relation :atsoev] betwe5 ,god's ?\ght & ours1 z ,maimonides does1 is absurd4 ,f ,god we pass to man4 ,& ! important "p ( man is 8 s\l4 ,x is prov$ t man has a s\l1 t ! s\l is n mat]ial or corporeal1 t x is a sub/antial entity & n a m]e quality or accid5t ( ! body4 ,bo? ,plato & ,ari/otle are laid "u contribution 9 ! v>i\s classifications ( ! s\l t are f\nd 9 ,saadia1 9 ,joseph ,ibn ,zaddik1 9 ,judah ,halevi1 9 ,abraham ,ibn ,daud1 9 ,maimonides4 ,! commone/ is ! ?ree-fold division into vegetative1 animal & rational4 ,we also f9d ! ,platonic division into appetitive1 spirit$ & rational4 ,fur!r psy*ological details & descriptions ( ! s5ses1 ext]nal & int]nal1 ! latt] embrac+ ! common s5se1 memory1 imag9ation & judgm5t1 are ultimately bas$ ^u ,ari/otle & are f\nd 9 ,judah ,halevi1 ,abraham ,ibn ,daud & ,maimonides1 :o d]iv$ !m f ,avic5na & ,alf>abi4 ,9 ! ,neo-,platonic writ]s1 su* z ,isaac ,israeli1 ,solomon ,ibn ,gabirol1 ,joseph ,ibn ,zaddik1 ,moses ,ibn ,ezra1 ,pseudo-,bahya1 ,abraham ,b> ,hiyya1 & s on1 we also f9d ref]5ce to ! ,_w ,s\l & its emanation f ,intellig5ce4 ,9 ! conception ( ! human s\l ! ,jewi% philosoph]s v>y f ! ,platonic view1 relat$ to ! ,biblical1 t ! s\l is a di/9ct entity com+ into ! body f a spiritual _w1 & act+ 9 ! body by us+ ! latt] z its in/rum5t1 to ! ,ari/otelian view t at lea/ s f> z ! l[] faculties ( s5se1 memory & imag9ation are conc]n$1 ! s\l is ! =m ( ! body1 & disappe>s ) ! dea? ( ! latt]4 ,! human unit1 accord+ to ?is op9ion1 is body-&-m9d1 & ! human activities are psy*o-physical & n purely psy*ical z !y are accord+ to ,plato4 ,"s writ]s occupy+ int]m$iate positions comb9e unwitt+ly ! ,platonic & ,ari/otelian views1 or r !y use ,ari/otelian expressions & int]pret !m ,platonically 7,saadia1 ,joseph ,ibn ,zaddik1 ,hillel b5 ,samuel74 ,z ! influ5ce ( ! ,arab ,ari/otelians1 ,alf>abi1 ,avic5na & especially ,av]roes1 began to make itself felt1 ! discussions ab\t ! ,active ,intellect & its relation to ! high] ,intellig5ces on ! "o h& & to ! human intellect on ! o!r f\nd _! way also among ! ,jews & _h _! effect on ! conception ( prophecy4 ,ari/otle's di/9ction ( an active & a passive intellect 9 man1 & 8 ideas ab\t ! sph]al spirits z pure ,intellig5ces end[+ ! heav5ly sph]es ) _! motions1 7 comb9$ by ! ,arabian ,ari/otelians ) ! ,neo-,platonic !ory ( emanation4 ,! result 0 t !y adopt$ z ,ari/otelian ! view t f ,god emanat$ 9 succession t5 ,intellig5ces & _! sph]es4 ,?us ! fir/ emanation 0 ! fir/ ,intellig5ce4 ,f ?is emanat$ ! sph]e ( ! fix$ />s mov$ by x & ! second ,intellig5ce4 ,f ?is emanat$ 9 turn ! sph]e ( ,saturn & ! ?ird ,intellig5ce1 & s on ?r\gh ! sev5 planets to ! moon4 ,f ! ,intellig5ce ( ! lun> sph]e emanat$ ! ,active ,intellect & ! sublun> sph]es ( ! f\r elem5ts4 ,^! ,intellig5ces 7 id5tifi$ ) ! angels ( ,scripture4 ,) "s modifications ?is !ory 0 adopt$ by ! ,jewi% ,ari/otelians1 ,abraham ,ibn ,daud1 ,maimonides1 ,levi b5 ,g]son4 ,! ,active ,intellect 0 ?us plac$ among ! univ]sal ,intellig5ces ^: function x is to control ! motions ( ! sublun> _w1 & 9 p>ticul> to develop ! human faculty ( reason :i* is 9 ! infant a m]e capacity--a mat]ial intellect4 ,s5sation & exp]i5ce alone are n suffici5t to develop ! !oretical reason 9 man1 = !y pres5t concrete1 individual mat]ial objects1 :]eas ! reason is conc]n$ ) univ]sal tru?4 ,! conv]sion ( s5se exp]i5ce into immat]ial concepts is accompli%$ ?r\gh ! aid ( ! ,active ,intellect4 ,& at ! end ( ! process a new intellect is produc$ 9 man1 ! ,acquir$ ,intellect4 ,?is alone is ! immortal "p ( man & !oretical /udy creates x4 ,av]roes believ$ t ?is ,acquir$ ,intellect exi/s sep>ately 9 e individual s long only z ! individual is alive4 ,z soon z ! individual man dies1 8 acquir$ intellect loses its individuality 7!re be+ no mat]ial body to individuate x7 & !re is only "o acquir$ intellect = ! entire human species1 :i* 9 turn is absorb$ into ! ,active ,intellect4 ,!re is ?us no individual immortality4 ,maimonides1 x w\ld seem1 ?\gh he does n discuss ! "q 9 8 ,guide1 %>$ ! same view4 ,g]sonides devotes an entire book ( 8 ,milhamot ,adonai to ?is problem1 b he def5ds individuation ( ! acquir$ intellect z su* & ?us saves p]sonal immortality4 ,! practical "p ( philosophy1 e?ics1 ! ,mutakallimun among ! ,arabians discuss$ 9 connection ) ! ju/ice ( ,god4 ,9 opposition to ! ,jab>iya & ! ,a%>iya :o advocat$ a fatali/ic det]m9ism d5y+ man's ability to det]m9e 8 own actions1 "s go+ s f> z to say t "r & wrong1 good & evil1 are entirely relative to ,god's w1 ! ,mutazila insi/$ t man is free1 t good & evil are absolute & t ,god is j because ju/ice is inh]5tly "r1 inju/ice inh]5tly wrong4 ,h5ce rew>d & puni%m5t w\ld be unju/ if man _h n ! fre$om to w & to act4 ,! ,k>aites ,joseph ,al ,basir & ,je%ua b5 ,judah discuss ! problem ( ! nature ( good & evil & v9dicate _! absolute "*4 ,god desires ! good because x is good1 & x is n true t a ?+ is good because ,god has comm&$ x4 ,fre$om ( man is a coroll>y ( ! goodness ( ,god4 ,! ,rabbanites take x = grant$ t good is good inh]5tly1 & ,god desires & comm&s x because x is id5tical ) 8 wisdom & 8 w4 ,fre$om ( man does foll[ z a coroll>y f ! ju/ice ( ,god & x is also taught 9 ! ,bible & ! ,talmud4 ,! v fact ( ! exi/5ce ( a div9e law & comm&m5ts %[s t man has fre$om4 ,& ^? passages 9 ,scripture :i* seem to sugge/ t ,god sometimes int]f]es ) man's fre$om are expla9$ away by int]pretations ad hoc4 ,our own consci\sness ( p[] to det]m9e our acts also is a /rong argum5t 9 favor ( fre$om4 ,nev]!less ! subject is felt to h its difficulties & ! argum5ts aga9/ free w tak5 f ! causal sequ5ces ( natural ev5ts & ! influ5ce ( h]$ity1 environm5t & motive on ! individual w are n ignor$4 ,judah ,halevi z well z ,abraham ,ibn ,daud discuss ^! argum5ts 9 detail4 ,b fre$om comes out triumphant4 ,x is ev5 s\ght to reconcile ! ant9omy ( fre$om vs4 ,god's =ekn[l$ge4 ,god kn[s be=eh& f all et]nity h[ a giv5 man w act at a giv5 mom5t1 b 8 k is m]ely a mirror ( man's actual decision & n ! det]m9+ cause !re(4 ,?is is ,judah ,halevi's view4 ,abraham ,ibn ,daud ) bett] insight realizes t ! cont+5t1 :i* has no cause1 & ! free act1 :i* is undet]m9$1 are z su* unpr$ictable4 ,he !re=e sacrifices ,god's k ( ! cont+5t & ! free s z to save man's fre$om4 ,x is no defect1 he argues1 n to be able to pr$ict :at is 9 ! nature ( ! case unpr$ictable4 ,maimonides _c admit any ignorance 9 ,god1 & takes refuge 9 ! transc5d5t "* ( ,god's k4 ,:at is unpr$ictable = u is n necess>ily s = ,god4 ,z he is ! cause ( ev]y?+1 he mu/ "k ev]y?+4 ,g]sonides :o1 z we h se51 is unwill+ to admit ,maimonides's agno/icism & transc5d5talism1 solves ! problem 9 ! same way z ,ibn ,daud4 ,god kn[s ev5ts 9 s f> z !y are det]m9$1 he does n "k !m 9 s f> z !y are cont+5t4 ,!re is /ill ano!r possibility & t is t ,god kn[s 9 advance e man's acts because no act is absolutely free4 ,& !re is an advocate ( ?is op9ion also4 ,hasdai ,crescas frankly adopts ! det]m9i/ position on ! basis ( ,god's k1 :i* _c be d5i$1 z well z ( reason & exp]i5ce1 :i* recognizes ! det]m9+ "* ( temp]am5t & motive4 ,b rew>d & puni%m5t are natural & necess>y consequ5ces1 & are no m unju/ ?an is ! burn+ ( ! f+] :5 put into ! fire4 ,9 respect to ! details ( e?ical doctr9e & ! classification ( ! virtues1 we f9d at fir/ ! ,platonic virtues & _! relation to ! p>ts ( ! s\l1 9 ,saadia1 ,pseudo-,bahya1 ,joseph ,ibn ,zaddik & ev5 ,abraham ,ibn ,daud4 ,9 comb9ation ) ?is ,platonic basis expression is giv5 also to ! ,ari/otelian doctr9e ( ! mean4 ,maimonides1 z 9 o!r ?+s1 s "h also1 adopts ! ,ari/otelian views almo/ 9 _! entirety1 bo? 9 ! def9ition ( virtue1 9 ! division ( practical & intellectual virtues1 & ! li/ ( ! virtues & vices 9 connection ) ! doctr9e ( ! mean4 ,z is to be expect$1 ! ultimate sanction ( e?ics is !i/ic & ,biblical1 & ! c]emonial laws also are br\ght into relation ) e?ical motives4 ,9 ?is rationalization ( ! c]emonial prescriptions ( ,scripture ,maimonides1 z 9 o!r ?+s1 surpasses all 8 pr$ecessors 9 8 boldness1 sci5tific me?od & complet5ess4 ,he goes s f> z to sugge/ t ! in/itution ( sacrifice has no inh]5t value1 b 0 9 ! nature ( a concession to ! crude notions ( ! p :o1 9 agreem5t ) _! environm5t1 imag9$ t ,god's favor is obta9$ by ! slaught] ( animals4 ,among ! peculi> ph5om5a ( religion1 & 9 p>ticul> ( ,judaism1 ! "o t occupies a fundam5tal position is ! revelation ( ,god's w to man & 8 ann\ncem5t ( ! future ?r\gh prophetic visions4 ,dreams & div9ation _h already be5 inve/igat$ by ,ari/otle & expla9$ psy*ologically4 ,! ,arabs made use ( ?is sugge/ion & endeavor$ to br+ ! ph5om5on ( prophecy "u ! same head4 ,! ,jewi% philosoph]s1 ) ! exception ( ,judah ,halevi & ,hasdai ,crescas1 foll[$ suit4 ,! sugge/ion t prophecy is a psy*ological ph5om5on relat$ to true dreams is f\nd z e>ly z ,isaac ,israeli4 ,judah ,halevi m5tions x ) prote/4 ,abraham ,ibn ,daud adopts x1 & ,maimonides gives x its f9al =m 9 ,jewi% rationali/ic philosophy4 ,levi b5 ,g]son discusses ! f9] details ( ! process1 orig9 & nature ( prophetic visions4 ,9 %ort ! g5]ally accept$ view is t ! ,active ,intellect is ! *ief ag5t 9 communicat+ true visions ( future ev5ts to ^? wor?y ( ! gift4 ,& to become wor?y a comb9ation ( innate & acquir$ p[]s is necess>y toge!r ) ! grace ( ,god4 ,! faculties *iefly conc]n$ are reason & imag9ation4 ,moral excell5ce is also an indisp5sable pr]equisite 9 aid+ ! developm5t ( ! !oretical p[]s4 ,proce$+ to ! m dogmatic elem5ts ( ,judaism1 ,maimonides 0 ! fir/ to r$uce ! #fac comm&m5ts ( ,rabb9ic ,judaism to ?irte5 articles ( fai?4 ,hasdai ,crescas criticis$ ,maimonides's pr9ciple ( selection z well z ! li/ ( dogmas1 :i* he r$uc$ to six4 ,& ,joseph ,albo w5t /ill fur!r & laid d[n ?ree fundam5tal dogmas f :i* ! re/ are d]iv$4 ,!y are ! exi/5ce ( ,god1 revelation ( ! ,torah & future rew>d & puni%m5t4 ,! law ( ,moses is unanim\sly accept$ z div9ely reveal$4 ,& 9 opposition to ! claims ( ,*ri/ianity & ,mohamm$anism an endeavor is made to prove by reason z well z ! explicit /atem5t ( ,scripture t a div9e law once giv5 is n subject to repeal4 ,! laws are divid$ into two classes1 rational & traditional2 ! =m] compris+ ^? t ! reason approves on purely rational & e?ical gr\nds1 :ile ! latt] consi/ ( su* c]emonial laws z )\t specific comm&m5t w\ld n be dictat$ by man's own reason4 ,& 9 _m ( ^! comm&m5ts no reason is assign$4 ,nev]!less an endeavor is made to rationalize ^! also4 ,bahya introduc$ ano!r di/9ction1 viz41 ! duties ( ! he>t1 z he calls !m1 9 contradi/9ction to ! duties ( ! limbs4 ,he lays /ress on int5tion & motive z di/+ui%$ f ! m]e ext]nal obs]vance ( a duty or comm&m5t4 ,f9ally1 "s consid]ation is giv5 9 ! works ( ! majority ( ! writ]s to es*atological matt]s1 su* z ! de/9y ( ! s\l aft] dea?1 ! nature ( future rew>d & puni%m5t1 ! resurrection ( ! body & ! ,messianic p]iod1 & its relation to ! o!r _w4 ,?is brief sket* w suffice z an introduction to ! detail$ treatm5t ( ! individual philosoph]s 9 ! foll[+ *apt]s4 ,a ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,m$i,,val ,,jewi% ,,philosophy ,,m$i,,val ,,jewi% ,,philosophy ,,*apt] ,i ,,isaac ,,israeli ,we "k next to no?+ ab\t ! condition ( ! ,jews 9 ,mohamm$an ,egypt 9 ! n9? & t5? c5turies4 ,b ! fact t ! two fir/ ,jewi% writ]s :o busi$ !mselves ) philosophical problems came f ,egypt w\ld indicate t ! g5]al level ( intellectual culture among ! ,jews at t "t 0 n s l[ z ! abs5ce ( lit]>y monum5ts w\ld lead u to believe4 ,e "o kn[s ( ,saadia1 ! fir/ ,hebrew gramm>ian1 ! fir/ ,hebrew lexicograph]1 ! fir/ ,bible translator & exegete1 ! fir/ ,jewi% philosoph] ( m$ival ,jewry4 ,he 0 born 9 ,egypt & f !re 0 call$ to ! ,gaonate ( ,sura 9 ,babylonia4 ,b n s well kn[n is 8 e>li] contempor>y1 ,isaac b5 ,solomon ,israeli1 :o also 0 born 9 ,egypt & f !re w5t lat] to ,kairuan1 :]e he 0 c\rt physician to sev]al ( ! ,fatimide ,califs4 ,! dates ( 8 bir? & dea? are n kn[n ) c]ta9ty1 b he is said to h liv$ to ! age ( "o hundr$ ye>s1 & to h surviv$ ! ?ird ,fatimide ,calif ,al-,mansur1 :o di$ 9 #iec4 ,accord+ly we may assume ! ye>s ( 8 bir? & dea? z #hee & #iee respectively4 ,8 fame re/s on 8 "w 9 !ory & practice z a physician2 & z su* he is m5tion$ by ! ,arab annali/s & hi/orians ( m$ic9e4#bf ,to ! ,*ri/ian s*ola/ics ( m$ival ,europe he is kn[n z ! ,jewi% physician & philosoph] next 9 importance to ,maimonides4#bg ,?is is due to ! accid5t ( 8 works hav+ be5 translat$ into ,lat9 by ,con/ant9us ,af]1#bh & ?us made accessible to m5 l ,alb]tus ,magnus1 ,v9c5t ( ,beauvais1 ,?omas ,aqu9as & o!rs4 ,= 8 intr9sic m]its z a philosoph]1 & p>ticul>ly z a ,jewi% philosoph]1 d n by any means entitle him to be c\pl$ ) ,maimonides4 ,! latt]1 inde$1 9 a lett] :i* he wrote to ,samuel ,ibn ,tibbon1 ! translator ( ! ,guide ( ! ,p]plex$1 expresses himself 9 t]ms little flatt]+ conc]n+ ,israeli's wor? z a philosoph]4#bi ,he is a m]e physician1 ,maimonides says1 & 8 treatises on ! ,elem5ts1 & on ,def9itions consi/ ( w9dy imag9+s & empty talk4 ,we ne$ n be q z sev]e 9 our judgm5t1 b ! fact rema9s t ,israeli is little m ?an a compil] &1 :at is m to ! purpose1 he takes no attitude 9 8 philosophical writ+s to ,judaism z a !ological doctr9e or to ! ,bible z its s\rce4 ,! ma9 problem1 !re=e1 ( ,jewi% philosophy is n t\*$ ^u 9 ,israeli's works1 & no wond] ,maimonides _h no use = !m4 ,= ! purely sci5tific que/ions treat$ by ,israeli c\ld 9 ,maimonides's day be /udi$ to mu* bett] advantage 9 ! works ( ! great ,arabian ,ari/otelians1 ,al ,f>abi & ,avic5na1 comp>$ to :om ,israeli 0 m$iocre4 ,we are n to judge him1 h[ev]1 f ,maimonides's po9t ( view4 ,9 8 own day & g5]ation he 0 surpass$ by none z a physician2 & ,saadia alone f> out/rips him z a ,jewi% writ]1 & p]haps also ,david ,al ,mukammas1 ( :om we %all speak lat]4 ,:atev] may be said ( ! intr9sic value ( ! cont5t ( 8 philosophical "w1 none c take away f him ! m]it ( hav+ be5 ! fir/ ,jew1 s f> z we "k1 to devote himself to philosophical & sci5tific discussions1 ?\gh n ) ! av[$ aim ( s]v+ ,judaism4 ,! re/ 0 b\nd to come lat] z a result ( ! impulse fir/ giv5 by him4 ,! two works ( ,israeli :i* come 9 consid]ation = our purpose are ^? m5tion$ by ,maimonides 9 8 lett] to ,samuel ,ibn ,tibbon spok5 ( above1 namely1 ! ,book ( ! ,elem5ts1#cj & ! ,book ( ,def9itions4#ca ,l all sci5tific & philosophic works by ,jews betwe5 ! n9? & ?irte5? c5turies ) few exceptions1 ^! 7 writt5 9 ,arabic4 ,un=tunately1 ) ! exception ( a fragm5t rec5tly discov]$ ( ! ,book ( ,def9itions1 ! orig9als are lo/1 & we owe our k ( _! cont5ts to ,hebrew & ,lat9 translations1 :i* are extant & h be5 publi%$4#cb ,we see f ^! t ,israeli 0 a compil] f v>i\s s\rces1 & t he _h a special pr$ilection = ,gal5 & ,hippocrates1 ) ^: writ+s he %[s great famili>ity4 ,he makes use besides ( ,ari/otelian notions1 & is influ5c$ by ! ,neo-,platonic treatise1 kn[n z ! ,lib] de ,causis1 & d]iv$ f a "w ( ,proclus4 ,x is = ?is reason difficult to *>act]ize 8 /&po9t1 b we %all n g f> wrong if we call him a ,neo-,platoni/1 = reasons :i* w appe> 9 ! sequel4 ,x w\ld be useless = u "h to reproduce ! cont5ts ( ,israeli's two treatises1 :i* w\ld be m appropriate = a hi/ory ( m$ival sci5ce4 ,a brief rsum w %[ ! correctness ( ?is view4 ,9 8 ,book ( ! ,elem5ts ,israeli is prim>ily conc]n$ ) a def9ite physical problem1 ! def9ition ( an elem5t1 & ! numb] & "* ( ! elem5ts out ( :i* ! sublun> _w is made4 ,he beg9s ) an ,ari/otelian def9ition ( elem5t1 analyzes x into its p>ts & comes to ! conclusion t ! elem5ts are ! f\r well-kn[n ones1 fire1 air1 wat]1 e>?4 ,incid5tally he seizes opportunities n[ & !n1 sometimes by =ce1 to discuss po9ts 9 logic1 physics1 physiology & psy*ology4 ,?us ! composition ( ! human body1 ! v>i\s modes 9 :i* a ?+ may come into be+1 t ! yell[ & black galls & ! phlegm are resid5t 9 ! blood1 ! purpose ( phlebotomy1 ! sub/antial "* ( prime =m1 t ! s\l is n an accid5t1 ! two k9ds ( blood 9 ! body1 ! v>i\s k9ds ( accid5t1 ! nature ( a prop]ty & ! mann] 9 :i* x is caus$--all ^! topics are discuss$ 9 ! c\rse ( pro( t ! f\r elem5ts are fire1 air1 wat]1 e>?1 & n se$ or ! qualities ( heat1 cold1 dryness & moi/ure4 ,he !n quotes ! def9itions ( ,gal5 & ,hippocrates & insi/s t ?\gh ! word+ is diff]5t ! mean+ is ! same z t ( ,ari/otle1 & h5ce !y all agree ab\t ! id5tity ( ! elem5ts4 ,"h aga9 he takes occasion to combat ! atomic !ory ( ! ,mutazila & ,democritus1 & proves t a l9e is n compos$ ( po9ts4 ,9 ! la/ "p ( ! treatise he refutes contr>y op9ions conc]n+ ! numb] & id5tity ( ! elem5ts1 su* z t !re is only "o elem5t :i* is movable or immovable1 f9ite or inf9ite1 namely1 ! p[] ( ,god1 or species1 or fire1 or air1 or wat]1 or e>?2 or t ! numb] is two1 matt] & ,god2 or ?ree1 matt]1 =m & motion2 or six1 viz41 ! f\r :i* he himself adopts1 & composition & sep>ation2 or ! numb] t51 :i* is ! end & completion ( numb]4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ?is discussion he takes occasion to def9e pa9 & pleasure1 ! nature ( species1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 elem5t & pr9ciple4 ,& ?us ! book draws to a close4 ,n v promis+ mat]ial ?is1 x w\ld seem1 = ! ideas ( :i* we are 9 se>*4 ,! o!r book1 t deal+ ) def9itions ( ?+s1 is m promis+4 ,= :ile !re too we d n f9d any connect$ acc\nt ( ,god1 ( ! _w & ( man1 ,israeli's g5]al attitude c be ga!r$ f ! mann] 9 :i* he expla9s "s important concepts4 ,! book1 z its title indicates1 consi/s ( a s]ies ( def9itions or descriptions ( c]ta9 t]ms & ideas made use ( by philosoph]s 9 _! con/ruction ( _! s*eme ( ! _w--su* ideas & t]ms z ,intellig5ce1 sci5ce1 philosophy1 s\l1 sph]e1 _s1 nature1 & s on4 ,f ^! we may glean "s in=mation ( ! s*ool to :i* ,israeli belongs4 ,& 9 ! ,book ( ! ,elem5ts1 too1 "s ( ! episodic discussions are ( value = our purpose4 ,philosophy1 ,israeli tells u1 is self-k & keep+ f> f evil4 ,:5 a man kn[s himself truly--8 spiritual z well z 8 corporeal aspects--he kn[s ev]y?+4 ,= 9 man are comb9$ ! corporeal & ! spiritual4 ,spiritual is ! s\l & ! reason1 corporeal is ! body ) its ?ree dim5sions4 ,9 8 qualities & attributes--accid5ts 9 ! t]m9ology ( ,israeli--we simil>ly f9d ! spiritual z well z ! corporeal4 ,humility1 wisdom & o!r simil> qualities borne by ! s\l are spiritual2 complexion1 /ature1 & s on are corporeal4 ,see+ t man ?us =ms an epitome1 z x 71 ( ! univ]se 7= spiritual & corporeal sub/ance & accid5t exhau/s ! classes ( exi/5ce 9 ! _w71 a k ( self means a k ( ev]y?+1 & a man :o kn[s all ?is is wor?y ( be+ call$ a philosoph]4 ,b philosophy is m ?an k2 x involves also action4 ,! =mula :i* reveals ! nature & aim ( philosophy is to become l unto ,god z f> z is possible = man4 ,?is means to imitate ! activities ( ,god 9 kn[+ ! realities ( ?+s & do+ :at ! tru? requires4 ,to "k ! realities ( ?+s "o mu/ /udy sci5ce s z to "k ! v>i\s causes & purposes exi/+ 9 ! _w4 ,! mo/ important ( ^! is ! purpose ( ! union 9 man ( body & s\l4 ,?is is 9 ord] t man may "k reality & tru?1 & di/+ui% betwe5 good & evil1 s z to d :at is true & j & upright1 to sanctify & praise ! ,creator & to keep f impure de$s ( ! animal nature4 ,a man :o does ?is w receive rew>d f ! ,creator1 :i* consi/s 9 cleav+ to ! upp] s\l1 9 receiv+ light f ! light ( k1 & ! beauty ( spl5dor & wisdom4 ,:5 a man rea*es ?is degree1 he becomes spiritual by cleav+ to ! creat$ light :i* comes directly f ,god1 & prais+ ! ,creator4 ,?is is 8 p>adise & 8 rew>d & p]fection4 ,h5ce ,plato said t philosophy is ! /r5g!n+ & ! help ( dea?4 ,he meant by ?is t philosophy helps to dead5 all animal desires & pleasures4 ,= by be+ ?us deliv]$ f !m1 a man w rea* excell5ce & ! high] spl5dor1 & w ent] ! h\se ( tru?4 ,b if he indulges 8 animal pleasures & desires & !y become /r5g!n$1 he w become subject to ag5cies :i* w lead him a/ray f ! duties he owes to ,god1 f fe> ( him & f pray] at ! prescrib$ "t4 ,we look 9 va9 9 ,israeli's two treatises = a discussion ( ! exi/5ce & nature ( ,god4 ,conc]n+ creation he tells u t :5 ,god want$ to %[ 8 wisdom & br+ ev]y?+ f pot5tiality to actuality1 he creat$ ! _w out ( no?+1 n aft] a model 7?is 9 opposition to ,plato & ,philo71 nor = ! purpose ( d]iv+ any b5efit f x or to obviate h>m1 b solely on acc\nt ( 8 goodness4 ,b h[ did ! creation proce$8 ,a fragm5t f ! treatise ( ,israeli entitl$ ,! ,book ( ,_s & ,s\l#cc w give u 9 summ>y fa%ion an idea ( ! mann] 9 :i* ,israeli conceiv$ ( ! ord] & connection ( ?+s 9 ! _w4 ,9 ! "n ( ! anci5ts he gives ! foll[+ acc\nt4 ,god creat$ a spl5dor4 ,?is hav+ come to a /&/ill & real p]man5ce1 a sp>k ( light proce$$ f x1 f :i* arose ! p[] ( ! rational s\l4 ,?is is less bright ?an ! spl5dor ( ! ,intellig5ce & is affect$ ) %ad[ & d>kness by reason ( its great] di/ance f its orig91 & ! int]v5+ ,intellig5ce4 ,! rational s\l aga9 becom+ p]man5t & fix$1 !re issu$ f x likewise a sp>k1 giv+ rise to ! animal s\l4 ,?is latt] is end[$ ) a cogitative & imag9ative faculty1 b is n p]man5t 9 its exi/5ce1 because ( ! two int]v5+ natures betwe5 x & ! pure light ( ,god4 ,f ! animal s\l !re likewise issu$ a spl5dor1 :i* produc$ ! vegetative s\l4 ,?is s\l1 be+ s f> remov$ f ! orig9al light1 & sep>at$ f x by ! ,intellig5ce & ! o!r two s\ls1 has its spl5dor dimm$ & made co>se1 & is end[$ only ) ! motions ( gr[? & n\ri%m5t1 b is n capable ( *ange ( place4 ,f ! vegetative s\l proce$s aga9 a spl5dor1 f :i* is made ! sph]e 7! heav574 ,?is becomes ?ick5$ & mat]ializ$ s t x is accessible to ! sight4 ,motion be+ ! nature ( ! sph]e1 "o "p ( x pu%es ! o!r1 & f ?is motion results fire4 ,f fire proce$s air2 f air1 wat]2 f wat]1 e>?4 ,& f ^! elem5ts arise m9]als1 plants & animals4 ,"h we recognize ! ,neo-,platonic s*eme ( emanation z we saw x 9 ,plot9us1 a gradual & successive emanation ( ! l[] f ! high] 9 ! mann] ( a ray ( light radiat+ f a lum9\s body1 ! successive radiations dim9i%+ 9 brightness & spirituality until :5 we rea* ! ,sph]e ! process ( obscuration has gone s f> z to make ! product mat]ial & visible to ! physical s5se4 ,! ,intellig5ce & ! ?ree ,s\ls proce$+ f x 9 ord] are cle>ly n individual b cosmic1 j z 9 ,plot9us4 ,! relation betwe5 ^! cosmic hypo/ases1 to use a ,neo-,platonic t]m1 & ! rational & psy*ic faculties 9 man ,israeli n[h]e expla9s1 b we mu/ no d\bt conceive ( ! latt] z someh[ conta9$ 9 ! =m] & tempor>ily individualiz$1 return+ aga9 to _! s\rce aft] ! dissolution ( ! body4 ,let u foll[ ,israeli fur!r 9 8 acc\nt ( ! nature ( ^! sub/ances4 ,! ,intellig5ce is t :i* proce$s imm$iately f ! div9e light )\t any imm$iate ag5cy4 ,x repres5ts ! p]man5t ideas & pr9ciples--species 9 ,israeli's t]m9ology--:i* are n subject to *ange or dissolution4 ,! ,intellig5ce conta9s !m all 9 h]self et]nally & imm$iately1 & requires no se>*+ or reflection to rea* !m4 ,:5 ! ,intellig5ce wi%es to "k any?+ %e returns into h]self & f9ds x !re )\t requir+ ?\ght or reflection4 ,we c illu/rate ?is1 he cont9ues1 9 ! case ( a skilful artisan :o1 :5 he wi%es to make any?+1 retires into himself & f9ds x !re4 ,!re is a diff]5ce1 h[ev]1 9 ! two cases1 because ,intellig5ce always kn[s its ideas )\t ?\ght or reflection1 = x exi/s always & its ideas are n subject to *ange or addition or dim9ution2 :]eas 9 ! smi? a difficulty may arise1 & !n 8 s\l is divid$ & he requires se>*+ & ?9k+ & discrim9ation be=e he c realize :at he desires4 ,:at has be5 said s f> applies v well to ! cosmic ,intellig5ce1 ! ,greek3 n\s ( ! ,neo-,platoni/s4 ,x repres5ts ?\ght z embrac+ ! highe/ & mo/ fundam5tal pr9ciples ( exi/5ce1 ^u :i* all m$iate & discursive & inf]5tial ?9k+ dep5ds4 ,its cont5t corresponds to ! ,ideas ( ,plato4 ,b ! fur!r acc\nt ( ! ,intellig5ce mu/ at lea/ 9 a "p ( x ref] to ! individual human faculty ( t "n1 ?\gh ,israeli gives u no indication :]e ! "o /ops & :]e ! o!r beg9s4 ,he appeals to ! au?ority ( ,ari/otle = 8 division ( ,intellig5ce into ?ree k9ds4 ,fir/1 ! ,intellig5ce :i* is always actual4 ,?is is :at has j be5 describ$4 ,second1 ! ,intellig5ce :i* is 9 ! s\l pot5tially be=e x becomes actual1 l ! k ( ! *ild :i* is at fir/ pot5tial1 & :5 ! *ild gr[s up & le>ns & acquires k1 becomes actual4 ,?ird1 t :i* is describ$ z ! second ,intellig5ce4 ,x repres5ts t /ate ( ! s\l 9 :i* x receives ?+s f ! s5ses4 ,! s5ses impress ! =ms ( objects ^u ! imag9ation 7,greek3 phantasia7 :i* is 9 ! front "p ( ! head4 ,! imag9ation1 or phantasy1 takes !m to ! rational s\l4 ,:5 ! latt] kn[s !m1 %e becomes id5tical ) !m spiritually & n corporeally4 ,we h se5 above ! ,ari/otelian di/9ction betwe5 ! active intellect & ! passive4 ,! acc\nt j giv5 is evid5tly bas$ ^u x1 ?\gh x modifies ,ari/otle's analysis1 or r x enl>ges ^u x4 ,! fir/ & second divisions 9 ,israeli's acc\nt correspond to ,ari/otle's active & passive intellects respectively4 ,! ?ird class 9 ,israeli repres5ts ! process ( realization ( ! pot5tial or passive intellect ?r\gh ! s5se /imuli on ! "o h& & ! influ5ce ( ! active intellect on ! o!r4 ,ari/otle seems to h left ?is int]m$iate /ate betwe5 ! pot5tial & ! et]nally actual unnam$4 ,we %all see1 h[ev]1 9 our fur!r /udy ( ?is v difficult & complicat$ subject h[ ! classification ( ! v>i\s intellects becomes m & m involv$ f ,ari/otle ?r\gh ,alex&] & ,!mi/ius d[n to ,av]roes & ,levi b5 ,g]son4 ,x is suffici5t = u to see "h h[ ,israeli comb9es ,ari/otelian psy*ology1 z lat] ,ari/otelian logic & physics1 ) ,neo-,platonic metaphysics & ! !i/ic doctr9e ( creation4 ,b m ( ?is h]eaft]4 ,f ! ,intellig5ce1 z we h se51 proce$s ! rational s\l4 ,9 8 discussion ( ! g5]al nature ( ! ?ree-fold s\l 7rational1 animal & vegetative7 ,israeli makes ! unhi/oric b ?or\ghly m$ival attempt to reconcile ,ari/otle's def9ition ( ! s\l1 :i* we discuss$ above 7p4 xxxv71 ) t ( ,plato4 ,! two conceptions are 9 reality diametrically oppos$4 ,plato's is an an?ropological dualism1 ,ari/otle's1 a monism4 ,= ,plato ! s\l is 9 its orig9 n ( ?is _w & n 9 ess5tial unity ) ! body1 :i* x controls z a sailor 8 boat4 ,ari/otle conceives ( ! relation betwe5 s\l & body z "o ( =m & matt]2 & !re is no union m p]fect ?an t ( ^! two con/itu5t elem5ts ( all natural sub/ances4 ,decomposition is impossible4 ,a giv5 =m may disappe>1 b ano!r =m imm$iately takes its place4 ,! comb9ation ( matt] & =m is ! ess5tial condition ( sublun> exi/5ce1 h5ce !re c be no "q ( ! s\l ent]+ or leav+ ! body1 or ( its activity ap>t f ! body4 ,b ,israeli does n seem to h grasp$ ,ari/otle's mean+1 & ascribes to him ! notion t ! s\l is a sep>ate sub/ance p]fect+ ! natural body1 :i* has life pot5tially1 mean+ by ?is t bodies h life pot5tially be=e ! s\l appreh5ds !m2 & :5 ! s\l does appreh5d !m1 x makes !m p]fect & liv+ actually4 ,to be sure1 he adds 9 ! imm$iate sequel t he does n mean temporal be=e & aft]1 = ?+s are always j z !y 7 creat$2 & t 8 mode ( expression is due to ! impossibility ( convey+ spiritual ideas 9 corporeal t]ms 9 any o!r way4 ,?is m]ely signifies t ! human body & its s\l come into be+ simultane\sly4 ,b he /ill reg>ds !m z di/9ct sub/ances =m+ only a pass+ comb9ation4 ,& ) ?is pret5d$ ,ari/otelian notion he seeks to h>monize t ( ,plato1 :i* he und]/&s to mean n t ! s\l ent]s ! body1 be+ clo!d ) x z ) a g>m5t1 & !n leaves x1 b t ! s\l appreh5ds bodies by clo?+ !m ) its light & spl5dor1 & ?us makes !m liv+ & mov+1 z ! sun clo!s ! _w ) its light & illum9ates x s t sight c p]ceive x4 ,! diff]5ce is t ! light ( ! sun is corporeal1 & sight p]ceives x 9 ! air by :i* x is borne2 :]eas ! light ( ! s\l is spiritual1 & intellig5ce alone c p]ceive x1 n ! physical s5se4 ,among ! conceptual t]ms 9 ! ,ari/otelian logic few play a m important "p ?an ^? ( sub/ance & accid5t4 ,sub/ance is t :i* does n reside 9 any?+ else b is its own subject4 ,x is an indep5d5t exi/5ce & is ! subject ( accid5ts4 ,! latt] h no exi/5ce indep5d5t ( ! sub/ance 9 :i* !y inh]e4 ,?us ( ! t5 categories1 9 :i* ,ari/otle embraces all exi/+ ?+s1 ! fir/ includes all sub/ances1 z = example1 man1 city1 /one4 ,! o!r n9e come "u ! g5us accid5t4 ,quantity1 quality1 relation1 "t1 place1 position1 possession1 action1 passion--all ^! repres5t attributes :i* mu/ h a sub/antial be+ to reside 94 ,!re is no l5g? or bread?1 or color1 or be=e or aft]1 or "h or !re1 & s on except 9 a real object or ?+4 ,?is !n is ! mean+ ( accid5t z a logical or ontological t]m1 & 9 ?is signification x has no?+ to d ) ! idea ( *ance4 ,cle>ly sub/ance repres5ts ! high] category1 & accid5t is inf]ior1 because dep5d5t & v>iable4 ,?us x becomes important to "k 9 ref]5ce to any object ( inve/igation :at is its /atus 9 ?is respect1 :e!r x is sub/ance or accid5t4 ,! nature ( ! s\l has be5 a puzzle to ?9k]s & philosoph]s f "t immemorial4 ,"s ?\ght x 0 a mat]ial sub/ance1 "s reg>d$ x z spiritual4 ,x 0 id5tifi$ ) ! ess5ce ( numb] by ! ,py?agoreans4 ,& !re h n be5 want+ ^? :o1 argu+ f its dep5d5ce ^u body1 said x 0 an accid5t & n a sub/ance4 ,/range to say ! ,mutakallimun1 def5d]s ( religion & fai?1 held to ?is v op9ion4 ,b x is really no /rang] ?an ! ma9t5ance ( ! s\l's mat]iality equally def5d$ by o!r religioni/s1 l ,t]tullian = example1 & ! opposition to ,maimonides's spiritualism on ! "p ( ,abraham b5 ,david ( ,posquires4 ,! ,mutakallimun 7 l$ to _! idea by ! atomic !ory1 :i* !y f\nd x politic to adopt z m am5able to !ological treatm5t ?an ,ari/otle's ,matt] & ,=m4 ,x foll[$ !n accord+ to "s ( !m t ! fundam5tal unit 0 ! mat]ial atom :i* is )\t quality1 & any p[] or activity 9 any atom or gr\p ( atoms is a direct creation ( ,god1 :i* mu/ be re-creat$ e mom5t 9 ord] to exi/4 ,?is is ! nature ( accid5t1 & x makes m manife/ ! ev] pres5t activity ( ,god 9 ! _w4 ,?us ! sub/antial or accid5tal "* ( ! s\l is "o t is t\*$ on by mo/ ,jewi% writ]s on ! subject4 ,& ,israeli also ref]s to ! matt] incid5tally 9 ! ,book ( ! ,elem5ts4#cd ,l ! o!r ,jewi% philosoph]s he def5ds its sub/antiality4 ,! fact ( its sep>ability f ! body1 he says1 is no pro( ( its be+ an accid5t4 ,= x is n ! sep>ability ( an accid5t f its sub/ance t makes x an accid5t1 b its de/ruction1 :5 sep>at$4 ,?us :5 a :ite sub/ance turns gre51 ! :ite color is n m]ely sep>at$ f its sub/ance b ceases to exi/4 ,! s\l is n de/roy$ :5 x leaves ! body4 ,ano!r argum5t to prove ! s\l a sub/ance is ?is4 ,if ! s\l 7 an accid5t x %\ld be possible = x to pass f ! animal body to some?+ else1 z blackness is f\nd 9 ! ,e?iopian's sk91 9 ebony wood & 9 pit*4 ,b ! s\l exi/s only 9 liv+ be+s4 ,we f9d1 besides1 t ! activity ( ! s\l ext5ds f> beyond ! body1 & acts ^u di/ant ?+s )\t be+ de/roy$4 ,h5ce x foll[s t ! s\l itself1 ! ag5t ( ! activity1 keeps on exi/+ )\t ! body1 & is a sub/ance4 ,hav+ made cle> ! conception ( s\l g5]ally & its relation to ! body1 he next proce$s to treat ( ! ?ree k9ds ( s\l4 ,! highe/ ( ^! is ! rational s\l1 :i* is 9 ! horizon ( ! ,intellig5ce & arises f its %ad[4 ,x is 9 virtue ( ?is s\l t man is a rational be+1 discrim9at+1 receptive ( wisdom1 di/+ui%+ betwe5 good & evil1 betwe5 ?+s desirable & undesirable1 approa*+ ! m]itori\s & dep>t+ f wrong4 ,= ?is he receives rew>d & puni%m5t1 because he kn[s :at he is do+ & t retribution foll[s ^u 8 conduct4 ,next to ! rational s\l is ! animal s\l1 :i* arises f ! %ad[ ( ! =m]4 ,be+ f> remov$ f ! light ( ,intellig5ce1 ! animal s\l is d>k & obscure4 ,%e has no k or discrim9ation1 b only a dim notion ( tru?1 & judges by appe>ance only & n accord+ to reality4 ,( its prop]ties are s5se p]ception1 motion & *ange 9 place4 ,= ?is reason ! animals are fi]ce & viol5t1 endeavor+ to rule1 b )\t cle> k & discrim9ation1 l ! lion :o wants to rule ov] ! o!r bea/s1 )\t hav+ a cle> consci\sness ( :at he is do+4 ,a pro( t ! animals h only dim notions ( ?+s is t a ?ir/y ass com+ to ! riv] w fly f 8 own %ad[ 9 ! wat]1 ?\gh he ne$s ! latt] = pres]v+ 8 life1 :]eas he w n hesitate to approa* a lion1 :o w dev\r him4 ,!re=e ! animals receive no rew>d or puni%m5t 7?is 9 opposition to ! ,mutakallimun7 because !y d n "k :at to d s z to be rew>d$1 or :at to avoid1 9 ord] n to be puni%$4 ,! vegetative s\l proce$s f ! %ad[ ( ! animal s\l4 ,%e is /ill fur!r remov$ f ! light ( ,intellig5ce1 & /ill m weigh$ d[n ) %ad[4 ,%e has no s5se p]ception or motion4 ,%e is next to e>? & is *>act]iz$ by ! p[]s ( reproduction1 gr[?1 nutrition1 & ! production ( buds & fl[]s1 odors & ta/es4 ,next to ! s\l comes ! ,sph]e 7! heav571 :i* arises 9 ! horizon & %ad[ ( ! vegetative s\l4 ,! ,sph]e is sup]ior to corporeal sub/ances1 be+ itself n body1 b ! matt] ( body4 ,unlike ! mat]ial elem5ts1 :i* suff] *ange & dim9ution ?r\gh ! ?+s :i* arise out ( !m z well z ?r\gh ! return ( ! bodies ( plants & animals back to !m z _! elem5ts1 ! spiritual sub/ances 7& also ! sph]e7 d n suff] any increase or dim9ution ?r\gh ! production ( ?+s out ( !m4 ,= plants & animals are produc$ f ! elem5ts ?r\gh a cele/ial p[] :i* ,god plac$ 9 nature effect+ g5]ation & decay 9 ord] t ?is _w ( g5esis & dissolution %\ld exi/4 ,b ! spl5dor ( ! high] sub/ances1 viz41 ! ?ree s\ls1 suff]s no *ange on acc\nt ( ! ?+s com+ f !m because t :i* is produc$ by !m issues f ! %ad[ ( _! spl5dor & n f ! ess5ce ( ! spl5dor itself4 ,& x is cle> t ! spl5dor ( a ?+ 9 its ess5ce is bright] ?an ! spl5dor ( its %ad[1 viz41 t :i* comes f x4 ,h5ce ! spl5dor ( ! vegetative s\l is und\bt$ly bright] ?an t ( ! sph]e1 :i* comes f its %ad[4 ,! latt] becomes rigid & assumes a cov]+1 ?ickness & corporeality s t x c be p]ceiv$ by sight4 ,b no o!r ( ! s5ses c p]ceive x because1 al?\gh corporeal1 x is ne> to ! high] sub/ances 9 =m & nobility1 & is mov$ by a p]fect & complete motion1 motion 9 a circle1 :i* is m p]fect ?an o!r motions & n subject to influ5ce & *ange4 ,h5ce !re is no increase or dim9ution 9 x1 no beg9n+ or end1 & ?is on acc\nt ( ! simplicity1 spirituality & p]man5ce ( t :i* moves x4 ,! ,intellig5ce p\rs ( h] spl5dor ^u x1 & ( ! light ( h] k1 & ! sph]e becomes intellig5t & rational1 & kn[s1 )\t inve/igation or reflection1 ! lord%ip ( its ,creator1 & t he %\ld be prais$ & glorifi$ )\t int]mission4 ,= ?is reason ! ,creator assign$ to ! ,sph]e a high degree f :i* x _c be remov$1 & gave x *>ge ( ! production ( "t & ! f\r seasons ( ! ye>1 & ! mon? & ! day & ! h\r1 & made x rul] ( ! production ( p]i%able ?+s 9 ?is _w ( g5]ation & dissolution1 s t ! upp] s\ls may f9d bodies to appreh5d1 to clo! ) _! light1 & to make visible 9 !m _! activities accord+ to ! det]m9ation ( ,god4 ,! ,sph]e by its motion produces ! f\r elem5ts1 fire1 air1 wat]1 e>?2 & ! comb9ations ( ^! 9 v>i\s proportions give rise to ! m9]als1 plants & animals ( ?is _w1 ! highe/ ( :om is man4 ,t ! elem5ts are ^? m5tion$ above & no?+ else is prov$ by ! def9ition ( elem5t & its di/9ction f pr9ciple4 ,a pr9ciple is some?+ :i*1 :ile be+ ! cause ( *ange1 & ev5 possibly at ! basis ( *ange1 is n itself subject to *ange4 ,?us ,god is und\bt$ly ! cause ( ev]y?+ t happ5s 9 ! _w4 ,he may !re=e be call$ a pr9ciple ( ! _w1 b he does n ent] ) 8 ess5ce ! *ang+ ?+s4 ,h5ce x is absurd to speak ( ,god z an elem5t ( ! sublun> _w4 ,matt]1 i4 e41 prim>y =mless matt]1 does ent] all *ang+ ?+s & is at ! basis ( all *ange2 b x does n itself *ange4 ,h5ce matt] also is a pr9ciple b n an elem5t4 ,an elem5t is some?+ :i* is itself a composite ( matt] & =m1 & *anges its =m to become some?+ else 9 :i*1 h[ev]1 x is conta9$ pot5tially1 n actually4 ,! product ultimately goes back to ! elem5t or elem5ts f :i* x 0 made4 ,:5 we foll[ ?is resolution ( a giv5 composite into its elem5ts back z f> z we c until we rea* a fir/ :i* is no long] produc$ out ( any?+ 9 ! same way z ?+s 7 produc$ f x1 we h ! elem5t4 ,su* is ! nature ( fire1 air1 wat]1 e>?4 ,all ?+s are made f !m 9 ! mann] above indicat$4 ,b !re is no?+ prior to !m :i* *anges its =m to become fire1 cont9ues to reside pot5tially 9 fire & returns to its orig9al /ate by ! resolution ( fire4 ,! same applies to ! o!r ?ree4 ,! matt] is n[ cle>4 ,! elem5ts /& at ! head ( physical *ange & take "p 9 x4 ,prior to ! elem5ts are inde$ matt] & =m1 b z logical pr9ciples1 n z physical & indep5d5t entities4 ,h5ce x w\ld seem1 accord+ to ,israeli1 t matt] & =m are side-track$ 9 ! gradual evolution ( ! l[] f ! high]4 ,= ! elem5ts1 he tells u1 come f ! motion ( ! ,sph]e1 ! ,sph]e f ! %ad[ ( ! ,s\l1 ! ,s\l f ! %ad[ ( ! ,intellig5ce1 ! ,intellig5ce is creat$ by ,god4 ,to be sure he tells u t ! ,sph]e is n body1 b ! matt] ( body4 ,yet ! ,sph]e _c take ! place ( prime matt] surely1 = x is und\bt$ly end[$ ) =m1 nay is rational & intellig5t1 z we h se54 ,:5 ,israeli says t prior to ! f\r elem5ts !re is no?+ b ! ,omnipot5ce ( ,god1 he means t ! sublun> process ( *ange & becom+ /ops ) ! elem5ts z its upp] limit4 ,:at is above ! elem5ts belongs to ! intelligible _w2 & ! mann] ( _! production "o f ! o!r is a spiritual "o1 emanation4 ,! ,sph]e /&s on ! bord] l9e betwe5 ! corporeal & ! intelligible1 itself a product ( emanation1 ?\gh produc+ ! elem5ts by its motion--a process app>5tly nei!r l emanation nor l sublun> becom+ & *ange4 ,creation 9 ,israeli seems to be ! same z emanation1 = on ! "o h& he tells u t s\ls are creat$1 t no?+ prec$es ! f\r elem5ts except ! ,omnipot5ce ( ,god1 & on ! o!r t ! elem5ts come f ! motion ( ! ,sph]e1 & ! s\ls issue f ! %ad[ ( ! ,intellig5ce4 ,= matt] & =m !re seems to be no room at all except z logical pr9ciples4 ,?is is evid5tly due to ! fact t ,israeli is unwitt+ly comb9+ ,ari/otelian physics ) ,neo-,platonic emanationism4 ,= ,ari/otle matt] & =m /& at ! head ( sublun> *ange & are ultimate4 ,!re is no d]ivation ( matt] or =m f any?+4 ,! cele/ial _w has a matt] ( its own1 & is n ! cause ( ! be+ ( ?is "o except z influ5c+ its *anges4 ,god is ! mov] ( ! ,sph]es1 b n _! ,creator1 h5ce he /&s outside ( ! _w4 ,?is is ,!ism4 ,9 ,israeli !re is a cont9uity ( ,god1 ! intelligible _w & ! corporeal1 all be+ ultimately ! same ?+1 ?\gh ! processes 9 ! two worlds are diff]5t4 ,& yet he obviates ,pan!ism by decl>+ t ,god is a pr9ciple n an elem5t4 ,we said be=e t ,israeli takes no av[$ attitude to ,jewi% dogma or ! ,bible4 ,he nev] quotes any ,jewi% works1 & !re is no?+ 9 8 writ+s to indicate t he is a ,jew & is mak+ an ef=t to h>monize ,judaism ) philosophy & sci5ce4 ,9 words he ref]s to creation ex nihilo1 :i* is n necess>ily ,jewi%1 x might be j z well ,mohamm$an or ,*ri/ian4 ,b 9 reality1 z we h se51 8 ideas ( ! cosmic process are f> en\gh remov$ f ! or?odox doctr9e ( creation z x appe>s 9 ,bible & ,talmud4 ,incid5tally we le>n also some?+ ( ,israeli's ideas ( ,god's relation to mank9d1 ( 8 comm&m5ts1 & ( prophecy4 ,god creat$ ! _w1 he tells u1 because ( 8 goodness4 ,he want$ to b5efit 8 creatures4 ,?is c\ld n be )\t _! kn[+ ! w ( ,god & p]=m+ x4 ,! w ( ,god c\ld n be reveal$ directly to ev]ybody because ! div9e wisdom c speak only to ^? 9 :om ! rational s\l is mi/ress & is enlight5$ by ! ,intellig5ce4 ,b p are n all ( ?is k9d2 = "s h ! animal s\l pr$om9at+ 9 !m1 be+ on t acc\nt ignorant1 confus$1 =w>d1 bold1 murd]\s1 v5geful1 un*a/e l animals2 o!rs are ma/]$ by ! vegetative s\l1 i4 e41 ! appetitive1 & are ?us /upid & dull1 & giv5 ov] to _! appetites l plants4 ,9 o!rs aga9 _! s\ls are v>i\sly comb9$1 giv+ to _! life & conduct a composite "*4 ,on ?is acc\nt x 0 necess>y = ,god to select a p]son 9 :om ! rational s\l is sep>at$1 & illum9$ by ! ,intellig5ce--a man :o is spiritual 9 8 nature & eag] to imitate ! angels z f> z x is possible = a man to d ?is4 ,?is man he made a mess5g] to mank9d4 ,he gave him 8 book :i* conta9s two k9ds ( tea*+4 ,"o k9d is spiritual 9 its nature1 & ne$s no fur!r comm5t>y or int]pretation4 ,?is is meant = ! intellectual & discrim9at+4 ,! o!r k9d is corporeal1 & requires spiritual int]pretation4 ,?is is int5d$ = ! v>i\s grades ( ^? :o _c und]/& directly ! spiritual mean+1 b :o c grasp ! corporeal tea*+1 by :i* !y are gradually tra9$ & prep>$ = ! reception ( high] tru?s4 ,^! p !re=e ne$ in/ructors & guides because a book alone is n suffici5t = ! purposes ( ^? :o _c und]/&4 ,dreams & prophecy are closely relat$1 h5ce an explanation ( ! =m] w also ?r[ light on ! latt]4 ,a dream is caus$ by ! influ5ce ( ! ,intellig5ce on ! s\l 9 sleep4 ,! ,intellig5ce receives its k directly f ,god1 & s]ves z a m$iator betwe5 him & ! s\l1 l a prophet :o m$iates betwe5 ,god & 8 creatures4 ,9 communicat+ to ! s\l ! spiritual =ms :i* x receiv$ f ,god1 ! ,intellig5ce translates !m into =ms int]m$iate betwe5 corporeality & spirituality 9 ord] t !y may be quickly impress$ ^u ! common s5se1 :i* is ! fir/ to receive !m4 ,! common s5se /&s midway betwe5 ! corporeal s5se ( sight & ! imag9ation1 :i* is 9 ! ant]ior *amb] ( ! bra91 & is kn[n z phantasy 7,ari/otelian ,greek3 phantasia74 ,t ! =ms ?us impress$ on ! common s5se 9 sleep are int]m$iate betwe5 corporeal & spiritual is prov$ by ! fact t !y are diff]5t f ! corporeal =ms ( ?+s se5 9 ! wak+ /ate4 ,! latt] are obscure & cov]$ up1 :]eas ^? se5 9 sleep are f9]1 m spiritual & bright]4 ,pro( ( ?is is t a p]son sees himself 9 sleep end[$ ) w+s & fly+ betwe5 heav5 & e>?4 ,he sees ! heav5s op5+ & someone speak+ to him out ( ! heav51 & s on4 ,!re w\ld be no s5se 9 all ?is if ^! ph5om5a _h no spiritual mean+1 = !y are contr>y to nature4 ,b we "k t !y h real significance if int]pret$ by a really ?\ghtful p]son4 ,! prophets also 9 wi%+ to sep>ate !mselves f mank9d & impress ! latt] ) _! qualities1 %[$ !m spiritual =ms ( simil> k9d1 :i* 7 pret]natural4 ,h5ce all :o believe 9 prophecy admit t dreams are a "p ( prophecy4 ,n[ ^! int]m$iate =ms :i* are impress$ ^u ! common s5se 9 sleep are turn$ ov] by x to ! phantasy & by ! latt] to ! memory4 ,:5 ! p]son awakes1 he recov]s ! =ms f ! memory j z !y 7 deposit$ !re by ! phantasy4 ,he !n consults 8 ?9k+ p[]2 & if ?is is spiritual & pure1 ! ,intellig5ce end[s him ) its light & spl5dor & reveals to him ! spiritual =ms signifi$ by ! visions se5 9 sleep4 ,he is !n able to int]pret ! dream correctly4 ,b if 8 p[]s ( ?\ght are n s good & are obscur$ by cov]+s1 he _c prop]ly remove ! husk f ! k]nel 9 ! =ms se5 9 sleep1 is n able to p5etrate to ! true spirituality b5ea?1 & 8 int]pretation is errone\s4 ,?is explanation does n really expla91 b x is notewor?y z ! fir/ ,jewi% attempt to r$uce prophecy to a psy*ological ph5om5on1 :i* 0 c>ri$ fur!r by subsequ5t writ]s until x receiv$ its def9itive =m = ! middle ages 9 ,maimonides & ,levi b5 ,g]son4 ,to sum up1 ,israeli is an eclectic4 ,!re is no sy/em ( ,jewi% philosophy to be f\nd 9 8 writ+s4 ,he _h no su* ambitions4 ,he comb9es ,ari/otelian logic1 physics & psy*ology ) ,neo-,platonic metaphysics1 & puts on ! surface a v5e] ( !i/ic creationism4 ,8 m]it is *iefly t ( a pione] 9 direct+ ! att5tion ( ,jews to ! sci5ce & philosophy ( ! ,greeks1 albeit 9 ,arab dress4 ,!re is no trace yet ( ! ,kalam 9 8 writ+s except 9 8 allusions to ! atomic !ory & ! d5ial ( rew>d & puni%m5t ( animals4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,david ,,b5 ,,m]wan ,,al ,,mukammas ,no?+ 0 kn[n ( ,al ,mukammas until rec5tly :5 fragm5ts ( 8 philosophical "w 7 f\nd 9 ,judah b5 ,b>zilai's comm5t>y on ! ,sef] ,yezirah4#ce ,! latt] tells u t ,david ,al ,mukammas is said to h associat$ ) ,saadia1 :o le>n$ a good deal f him1 b ! matt] is n c]ta94 ,if ?is acc\nt be true we h a second ,jewi% philosoph] :o prec$$ ,saadia4 ,8 *ief "w is kn[n by ! title ( ,tw5ty ,*apt]s1 fifte5 ( :i* 7 discov]$ 9 ! orig9al ,arabic 9 #ahih by ,abraham ,h>kavy ( ,/4 ,pet]sburg4#cf ,un=tunately !y h n yet be5 publi%$1 & h5ce our acc\nt w h to be incomplete1 bas$ z x is on ! ,hebrew fragm5ts 9 ! ,yezirah comm5t>y above m5tion$4 ,^! fragm5ts are suffici5t to %[ u t unlike ,israeli1 :o %[s little k ( ! ,mutazilite discussions1 ,al ,mukammas is a real ,mutazilite & moves 9 ! pa? laid out by ^! ,mohamm$an rationali/s4 ,:e!r ?is diff]5ce is due to _! places ( resid5ce 7,israeli hav+ liv$ 9 ,egypt & ,kairuan1 :ile ,al ,mukammas 0 9 ,babylon71 or to _! p]sonal pr$ilections = ,neo-,platonism & ! ,kalam respectively1 is n c]ta94 ,saadia kn[s ! ,kalam2 b ?\gh com+ orig9ally f ,egypt1 he sp5t 8 mo/ fruitful ye>s 9 ,babylonia1 9 ! city ( ,sura1 :]e he 0 gaon4 ,! c5tres ( ,arabian rationalism 71 z we "k1 ! cities ( ,bagdad & ,basra1 ne>] to ,babylon & ,mesopotamia ?an to ,egypt or ,kairuan4 ,! fir/ quotation 9 ,judah b5 ,b>zilai has ref]5ce to sci5ce & philosophy1 _! def9ition & classification4 ,sci5ce is ! k ( ! reality ( exi/+ ?+s4 ,x is divid$ into two p>ts1 !oretical & practical4 ,!oretical sci5ce aims at k = its own sake2 practical seeks an end beyond k1 viz41 ! production ( some?+4 ,we call x !n art4 ,?us geometry is a sci5ce 9 s f> z "o desires to "k ! nature & relations to ea* o!r ( solid1 surface1 l9e1 po9t1 squ>e1 triangle1 circle4 ,b if 8 purpose is to "k h[ to build a squ>e or circul> h\se1 or to con/ruct a mill1 or dig a well1 or measure l&1 he becomes an artisan4 ,!oretical sci5ce is ?ree-fold4 ,fir/ & =emo/ /&s !ology1 :i* inve/igates ! unity ( ,god & 8 laws & comm&m5ts4 ,?is is ! highe/ & mo/ important ( all ! sci5ces4 ,next comes logic & e?ics1 :i* help m5 9 =m+ op9ions & guide !m 9 ! pa? ( und]/&+4 ,! la/ is physics1 ! k ( creat$ ?+s4 ,9 ! n9? & t5? *apt]s ( 8 book ,al ,mukammas discusses ! div9e attributes4 ,?is 0 a v important problem 9 ! ,mutazilite s*ools1 z we saw 9 ! ,introduction1 & 0 treat$ 9 ,mutazilite works 9 ! fir/ division1 :i* w5t by ! title ( ,bab al ,tauhid1 ! *apt] on ! unity4 ,god is "o--s ,al ,mukammas sums up ! results ( 8 previ\s discussions--n 9 ! s5se 9 :i* a g5us is said to be "o1 nor 9 t 9 :i* a species is "o1 nor z ! numb] "o is "o1 nor z an individual creature is "o1 b z a simple unity 9 :i* !re is no di/9ction or composition4 ,he is "o & !re is no second l him4 ,he is fir/ )\t beg9n+1 & la/ )\t end4 ,he is ! cause & gr\nd ( ev]y?+ caus$ & effect$4 ,! "q ( ,god's ess5ce is difficult4 ,"s say x is n p]mitt$ to ask :at ,god is4 ,= to answ] ! "q :at a ?+ is is to limit x1 & ! limit$ is ! creat$4 ,o!rs aga9 say t x is p]mitt$ to make ?is inquiry1 because we c use 9 our answ] ! expressions to :i* ,god himself te/ifies 9 8 reveal$ book4 ,& ?is w\ld n be limit+ or def9+ 8 glory because 8 be+ is diff]5t f any o!r1 & !re is no?+ t be>s any resemblance to him4 ,accord+ly we %\ld answ] ! "q :at ,god is1 by say+1 he is ! fir/ & ! la/1 & ! visible & ! hidd51 )\t beg9n+ or end4 ,he is liv+1 b n ?r\gh life acquir$ f )\t4 ,8 life is n su/a9$ & prolong$ by food4 ,he is wise1 b n ?r\gh acquir$ wisdom4 ,he he>s )\t e>s1 sees )\t eyes1 is und]/&+ 9 all 8 works1 & a true judge 9 all 8 judgm5ts4 ,su* w\ld be our answ] 9 accordance ) ,god's own te/imony ( himself4 ,we mu/ on no acc\nt suppose t ! expressions liv+1 wise1 see+1 he>+1 & s on1 :5 appli$ to ,god mean ! same ?+ z :5 we ascribe !m to ourselves4 ,:5 we say ,god is liv+ we d n mean t !re 0 a "t :5 he 0 n liv+1 or t !re w be a "t :5 he w n be liv+4 ,?is is true ( u b n ( ,god4 ,8 life has no beg9n+ or end4 ,! same ?+ applies to 8 wisdom4 ,x is n acquir$ l ours1 x has no beg9n+ or end1 & is n subject to error1 =getfulness1 addition or dim9ution4 ,x is n /range t 8 attributes %\ld be s unlike ours1 = x is fitt+ t ! ,creator %\ld be diff]5t f ! ?+ creat$1 & ! ,mak] f ! ?+ made4 ,we mu/1 h[ev]1 analyze ! matt] ( div9e attributes m closely4 ,:5 we say ,god is liv+1 we may mean he is liv+ ) life z 8 attribute1 i4 e41 t !re is an attribute life :i* makes him liv+1 or we may d5y t !re is any su* attribute 9 him z life1 b t he is liv+ ?r\gh himself & n ?r\gh life z an attribute4 ,to make ?is subtle di/9ction cle> we w inve/igate fur!r :at is involv$ 9 ! fir/ /atem5t t ,god is liv+ ) life4 ,x may mean t !re 0 a "t :5 ,god 0 n liv+ & !n he acquir$ life & became liv+4 ,?is is cle>ly a wrong & unwor?y conception4 ,we mu/ !re=e adopt ! o!r alt]native1 t ! life :i* makes him liv+ is et]nal l him1 & h5ce he 0 always liv+ f et]nity & w cont9ue to be liv+ to et]nity4 ,b ! matt] is n yet settl$4 ,! "q /ill rema9s1 ,is ?is life ?r\gh :i* he lives id5tical ) 8 be+1 or is x di/9ct f 8 be+1 or is x a "p ( x8 ,if we say x is di/9ct f 8 be+1 we are guilty ( introduc+ o!r et]nal be+s beside ,god1 :i* de/roys 8 unity4 ,! ,*ri/ians are guilty ( ?is v ?+ :5 !y say t ,god's et]nal life is ! ,holy ,gho/1 & 8 et]nal ,wisdom is ! ,son4 ,if we say t 8 life is a "p ( 8 be+1 we d injury to ! o!r aspect ( 8 unity1 namely1 8 simplicity4 ,= to h p>ts 9 "o's be+ implies composition4 ,we are =c$ !re=e to conclude t ,god's life is id5tical ) 8 be+4 ,b ?is is really tantam\nt to say+ t !re is no attribute life :i* makes him liv+1 or t he is liv+ n ?r\gh life4 ,! diff]5ce is only 9 expression4 ,we may make ?is conception cle>] by illu/rations f o!r sph]es1 inadequate ?\gh !y be4 ,! s\l is ! cause ( life to ! body1 i4 e41 ! body lives ?r\gh ! s\l1 & :5 ! latt] leaves x1 ! body loses its life & dies4 ,b ! s\l itself does n live ?r\gh any?+ else1 say ?r\gh ano!r s\l4 ,= if ?is 7 ! case ?is o!r s\l w\ld ne$ aga9 ano!r s\l to make x live & ?is aga9 ano!r1 & s on ad inf9itum1 :i* is absurd4 ,! s\l lives ?r\gh itself4 ,! same ?+ applies to angels4 ,!y live ?r\gh _! own be+2 & t is :y s\ls & angels are call$ 9 ! ,sacr$ ,scriptures spirits4 ,a _s is some?+ t is f9e & light & incomposite4 ,h5ce _! life _c be due to any?+ di/9ct f _! be+1 = ?is w\ld make !m composite4 ,?is /atem5t1 h[ev]1 t s\ls & angels are liv+ ?r\gh _! own be+ mu/ n be und]/ood z mean+ t !y h no creator :o gave !m be+ & life4 ,! mean+ m]ely is t ! be+ :i* ,god gave !m is diff]5t f ! be+ he gave to bodies4 ,bodies ne$ a s\l to become liv+1 ! s\l is itself liv+4 ,s 9 mat]ial ?+s1 also1 ! sun %9es ) its own light & n ) light acquir$4 ,! odor ( myrrh is fragrant ?r\gh itself1 n ?r\gh any?+ else4 ,! eye sees ) its own p[]1 :]eas man sees ) ! eye4 ,! tongue does n speak ) ano!r tongue1 man speaks ) a tongue1 & s on4 ,s we say ( ,god1 ?\gh 9 a mann] a ?\s&-fold m sublime1 t he is liv+1 b n ) a life :i* is di/9ct f 8 be+2 & s ( ! o!r attributes1 he>+1 see+1 & s on1 t we f9d 9 ! ,scriptural praises ( him4 ,x is necess>y to add t z on ! "o h& we h se5 t ,god's attributes are id5tical ) 8 be+1 s x foll[s on ! o!r t ! v>i\s attributes1 su* z wise1 see+1 he>+1 kn[+1 & s on1 are n diff]5t f ea* o!r 9 mean+1 ?\gh di/9ct 9 expression4 ,o!rwise x w\ld make ,god composite4 ,! reason we employ a numb] ( di/9ct expressions is 9 ord] to remove f ,god ! sev]al opposites ( ! t]ms us$4 ,?us :5 we say ,god is liv+ we mean to indicate t he is n dead4 ,! attribute wise excludes folly & ignorance2 he>+ & see+ remove deafness & bl9dness4 ,! philosoph] ,ari/otle says t x is tru] & m appropriate to apply negative attributes to ,god ?an positive4 ,o!rs h said t we mu/ n speak ( ! ,creator 9 positive t]ms = !re is dang] ( end[+ him ) =m & resemblance to o!r ?+s4 ,speak+ ( him negatively we imply ! positive )\t risk+ (f5ce4 ,9 ! sequel ,al ,mukammas refutes ! views ( ! duali/s1 ( ! ,*ri/ians & ^? :o ma9ta9 t ,god has =m4 ,we _c af=d to l+] ov] ^! argum5ts1 int]e/+ ?\gh !y be1 & mu/ hurry on to say a ^w ab\t ! sixte5? *apt]1 :i* deals ) rew>d & puni%m5t4 ,?is no d\bt =ms "p ( ! second ,mutazilite division1 namely1 ! ,bab al ,adl1 or section conc]n+ ,god's ju/ice4 ,he def9es rew>d z ! s\l's tranquillity & inf9ite joy 9 ! _w to come 9 comp5sation = ! soj\rn 9 ?is _w :i* %e endur$ & ! self-control %e practic$ 9 ab/a9+ f ! pleasures ( ! _w4 ,puni%m5t1 on ! o!r h&1 is ! s\l's disquietude & sorr[ to ! end ( days z retribution = indulg+ 9 ! _w's evil pleasures4 ,bo? are impos$ by ,god ) ju/ice & fairness4 ,x is fitt+ t ! promises ( rew>d & ?reats ( puni%m5t consequ5t ^u ob$i5ce & disob$i5ce %\ld be specifi$ 9 connection ) ! comm&m5ts & prohibitions 9 ! ,scriptures1 because ?is is ! only way to tra9 ! s\l to practice self-control4 ,a *ild :o does n fe> 8 tea*]'s puni%m5t1 or has no confid5ce 9 8 good w w n be am5able to in/ruction4 ,! same is true ( ! majority ( ^? :o s]ve k+s4 ,x is fe> alone :i* induces !m to obey ! w ( _! ma/]s4 ,s ,god 9 comm&+ u to d :at is wor?y & prohibit+ :at is unwor?y saw fit 9 8 wisdom to specify ! accompany+ rew>ds & puni%m5ts t he :o obs]ves may f9d pleasure & joy 9 8 ob$i5ce1 & ! unobs]vant may be affect$ ) sorr[ & fe>4 ,z ! _w to come has no end1 s x is prop] t ! rew>d ( ! righte\s z well z ! puni%m5t ( ! wick$ %\ld be )\t end4 ,argum5ts h be5 advanc$ to %[ t unlike rew>d :i* is prop]ly inf9ite z is becom+ to ,god's goodness1 puni%m5t %\ld h a limit1 = ,god is m]ciful4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x is claim$ on ! basis ( ! f9it5ess ( human action t bo? rew>d & puni%m5t %\ld be f9ite4 ,b 9 reality x c be %[n 9 _m ways t rew>d & puni%m5t %\ld be inf9ite4 ,)\t nam+ all ! argum5ts--z _m z t5 h be5 advanc$--9 favor ( ?is view1 we may urge "s ( ! m important4 ,x 0 ,god's own goodness t prompt$ him to b5efit mank9d by giv+ !m laws = _! guidance1 & n any prior m]its on _! "p :i* gave !m a claim on ,god's protection4 ,god himself is n 9 any way b5efit$ by man's ob$i5ce or injur$ by 8 disob$i5ce4 ,man kn[s t x is = 8 own good t he is ?us admoni%$2 & if he 7 ask$ :at rew>d he w\ld l to h = 8 good de$s he w\ld select no less ?an inf9ite happ9ess4 ,ju/ice dem&s t puni%m5t be comm5surate ) rew>d4 ,! great] ! rew>d & ! puni%m5t ! m effective are ! laws likely to be4 ,besides 9 violat+ ,god's law a p]son virtually d5ies ! et]nity ( him :o gave x1 & is guilty ( contempt2 = he hides himself f m51 fe>+ _! displeasure1 :]eas ! omnipres5ce ( ,god has no det]r+ effect ^u him4 ,= su* (f5ce inf9ite puni%m5t is ! only fit retribution4 ,! "q :e!r ! s\l alone is rew>d$ or ! body alone or bo? has be5 answ]$ v>i\sly4 ,9 favor ( ! s\l alone z ! subject ( rew>d & puni%m5t x has be5 urg$ t rew>d raises man to ! grade ( angels1 :o are pure spirits4 ,h[ !n c ! body take "p8 ,& puni%m5t mu/ be ( ! same nature z rew>d4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x is claim$ t ! ,bible says no?+ ( man be+ rais$ to ! /atus ( angels1 & we "k 9 ?is _w ( physical rew>d & puni%m5t only4 ,! ,g>d5 ( ,ed5 ( :i* ! ,bible speaks is n peopl$ ) angels1 & t is :]e ! righte\s g aft] dea?4 ,! true solution is t z man is compos$ ( body & s\l1 & bo? %>e 9 8 conduct1 rew>d & puni%m5t mu/ atta* to bo?4 ,z we d n und]/& ! nature ( spiritual retribution s ! composite is equally inconceivable to u4 ,b ev]yone :o believes 9 ! resurrection ( ! dead has no difficulty 9 hold+ t ! body has a %>e 9 future rew>d & puni%m5t4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,saadia ,,b5 ,,joseph ,,al-,,fayyumi 7#hib-idb7 ,saadia 0 ! fir/ important ,jewi% philosoph]4 ,philo ( ,alex&ria does n come )9 our purview z he 0 n m$ival4 ,besides 8 "w is n sy/ematic1 be+ 9 ! nature ( a comm5t>y on ,holy ,writ4 ,?\gh ,philo 0 a good & loyal ,jew1 he /ood1 s to speak1 ap>t f ! real c5tre ( ,jewi% intellectual & spiritual developm5t4 ,he 0 on ! "o h& too closely dep5d5t on ,greek ?\ght & on ! o!r _h only a limit$ k ( ,jewi% ?\ght & tradition4 ,! ,bible he knew only 9 ! ,greek translation1 n 9 ! orig9al ,hebrew2 & ( ! ,halaka1 :i* 0 /ill 9 ! mak+ 9 ,pale/9e1 he knew /ill less4 ,x 0 diff]5t ) ,saadia4 ,9 ! t5? c5tury ! ,mi%na & ! ,talmud _h be5 long complet$ & =m$ !oretically z well z practically ! cont5t ( ! ,jew's life & ?\ght4 ,sura 9 ,babylonia1 :]e ,saadia 0 ! head ( ! academy1 0 ! *ief c5tre ( ,jewi% le>n+1 & ,saadia 0 ! heir 9 ! ma9 l9e ( ,jewi% developm5t z x pass$ ?r\gh ! h&s ( lawgiv] & prophet1 scribe & ,ph>isee1 ,tanna & ,amora1 ,saburai & ,gaon4 ,z ! head ( ! ,sura academy he 0 ! intellectual repres5tative ( ! ,jewry & ,judaism ( 8 day4 ,8 "t 0 a p]iod ( agitation & /rife1 n only 9 ,judaism b also 9 ,islam1 9 ^: l&s ! ,jews liv$ & to ^: temporal rul]s !y ow$ allegiance 9 ! ,ea/ z well z 9 ,spa94 ,9 ,islam we saw 9 ! introduction h[ ! v>i\s s*ools ( ! ,kad>iya1 ! ,mutazila & ! ,a%>iya arose 9 ob$i5ce to ! dem& ( cl>ify+ ! *ief problems ( fai?1 sci5ce & life4 ,9 ,judaism !re 0 9 addition to ?is m g5]al dem& ! m local & int]nal conflict ( ,k>aite & ,rabbanite :i* c5tr$ ab\t ! problem ( tradition4 ,saadia f\nd himself 9 ! mid/ ( all ?is & prov$ equal to ! occasion4 ,we are n "h conc]n$ ) ! vicissitudes ( ,saadia's p]sonal life or ( 8 lit]>y c>e] z oppon5t ( ! ,k>aite sect4 ,nor c we af=d m ?an m]ely to /ate t ,jewi% sci5ce 9 ! l>g] s5se beg9s ) ,saadia4 ,hebrew gramm> & lexicography did n exi/ be=e him4 ,! ,bible _h be5 translat$ into sev]al languages be=e ,saadia's day1 b he 0 ! fir/ to translate x into ,arabic1 & ! fir/ to write a comm5t>y on x4 ,b ! greate/ "w ( ,saadia1 t :i* did ! mo/ important s]vice to ! !ory ( ,judaism1 & by :i* he w be be/ rememb]$1 is 8 endeavor to "w out a sy/em ( doctr9e :i* %\ld be 9 h>mony ) ! traditions ( ,judaism on ! "o h& & ) ! mo/ au?oritative sci5tific & philosophic op9ion ( ! "t on ! o!r4 ,israeli1 we h se51 0 int]e/$ 9 sci5ce be=e ,saadia4 ,z a physician he 0 probably m at home 9 purely physical discussions ?an ,saadia4 ,b !re is no evid5ce t he _h ! l>g] int]e/ ( ! ,gaon ( ,sura1 namely1 to con/ruct a sy/em ( ,judaism ^u ! basis ( sci5tific doctr9e4 ,possibly ! example ( ,islam 0 lack+ 9 ,israeli's environm5t1 z he does n seem to be acqua9t$ ) ! !ories & discussions ( ! ,mutakallimun1 & draws 8 in=mation f ,ari/otelian & ,neo-,platonic s\rces4 ,saadia 0 9 ! v mid/ ( ,arab speculation z is evid5t f ! composition ( 8 *ef d'oeuvre1 ,emunot ve-,deot1 ,beliefs & ,op9ions4#cg ,! "w is arrang$ on ! ,mutazilite model4 ,! two ma9 divisions 9 works ( ?is "* are ,unity & ,ju/ice4 ,! fir/ beg9s ) "s prelim9>y consid]ations on ! nature & s\rces ( k4 ,x proce$s !n to prove ! exi/5ce ( ,god by %[+ t ! _w _c h exi/$ f et]nity & mu/ h be5 creat$ 9 "t4 ,creation implies a creator4 ,?is is foll[$ by argum5ts %[+ t ,god is "o & incorporeal4 ,! re/ is devot$ to a discussion ( ! div9e attributes ) ! purpose ( %[+ t ,god's unity & simplicity are n affect$ by !m4 ,! section on unity closes ) a refutation ( oppos+ views1 su* z ^? ( ! duali/s or ,tr9it>ians or infidels4 ,! section on ,ju/ice c5tres ab\t ! doctr9e ( free w4 ,h5ce psy*ology & e?ics are treat$ 9 ?is "p ( ! "w4 ,to ?is may be add$ problems ( a m dogmatic nature1 es*atological & o!rwise4 ,we %all see 9 ! sequel t ,saadia's ma/]piece is model$ on ! same plan4 ,b n m]ely ! plan & arrangem5t ( 8 "w give evid5ce ( ! influ5ce ^u ,saadia ( ,islamic s*ools1 _m ( 8 argum5ts1 ^? = example on ! exi/5ce ( ,god & ! creation ( ! _w1 are tak5 directly f !m4 ,maimonides1 :o 0 a /rong oppon5t ( ! ,mutakallimun1 gives an outl9e ( _! fundam5tal pr9ciples & _! argum5ts = ! exi/5ce1 unity & incorporeality ( ,god4#ch ,"s ( ^! are id5tical ) ^? ( ,saadia4 ,saadia1 h[ev]1 is n int]e/$ 9 pure metaphysics z su*4 ,8 purpose is decid$ly apologetic 9 ! def5ce ( ,judaism & ,jewi% dogma4 ,h5ce we look 9 va9 9 8 book = def9ite views on ! con/itution ( exi/+ sub/ances1 on ! nature ( motion1 on ! mean+ ( cause1 & s on4 ,we get a glimpse ( 8 attitude to "s ( ^! que/ions 9 an incid5tal way4 ,! ,mutakallimun 7 oppos$ to ! ,ari/otelian !ory ( matt] & =m1 & sub/itut$ = x ! atomic !ory4 ,god creat$ atoms )\t magnitude or quality1 & he likewise creat$ qualities to inh]e 9 gr\ps ( atoms4 ,^! qualities !y call$ accid5ts1 & "o ( _! important discussions 0 :e!r an accid5t c la/ m ?an a mom5t ( "t4 ,! op9ions 7 v>i\s & ! accid5ts 7 classifi$ accord+ to _! p[]s ( duration4 ,t is1 !re 7 "s accid5ts :i* once creat$ cont9u$ to exi/ ( _! own accord "s l5g? ( "t1 & !re 7 o!rs :i* _h to be re-creat$ anew e mom5t 9 ord] to cont9ue to exi/4 ,saadia does n speak ( matt] & =m z con/itut+ ! ess5ce ( exi/+ ?+s2 he does speak ( sub/ance & accid5t1#ci :i* might lead u to believe t he held to ! atomic !ory1 s9ce he speaks ( ! accid5ts z com+ & go+ "o aft] ! o!r1 :i* sugge/s ! con/ant creation spok5 ( by ! ,mutakallimun4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :5 he answ]s an objection aga9/ motion1 :i* is z old z ,z5o1 namely1 h[ c we trav]se an inf9itely divisible di/ance1 s9ce x is necess>y to pass an inf9ite numb] ( p>ts1 he tells u t x is n necess>y to h rec\rse to ! atomic !ory or o!r !ories adopt$ by "s ,mutazilites to meet ?is objection4 ,we may believe 9 ! cont9uity & inf9ite divisibility ( matt]1 b z long z ?is divisibility is only pot5tially inf9ite1 actually always f9ite1 our ability to trav]se ! space (f]s no difficulty4#dj ,f9ally1 9 refut+ ! second !ory ( creation1 :i* comb9es ,platonism ) atomism1 he argues aga9/ an atomic !ory prim>ily because ( its implications ( et]nity ( ! atoms1 b p>tly also on o!r gr\nds1 :i* w\ld also affect ! ,kalami/ic conceptions ( ! atoms4#da ,^! po9ts are n treat$ by ,saadia expressly b are only m5tion$ incid5tally 9 ! elucidation ( o!r problems deal+ ) ! creation ( ! _w & ! exi/5ce ( ,god4 ,l ,israeli ,saadia %[s consid]able famili>ity ) ,ari/otelian notions z f\nd 9 ! ,logic1 ! ,physics & ! ,psy*ology4 ,x is d\btful1 h[ev]1 :e!r he really knew ,ari/otle's m important treatises at fir/ h& & 9 detail4 ,! ,categories1 a small treatise =m+ ! fir/ book ( ,ari/otle's logic1 he no d\bt knew1 b ! o!r ,ari/otelian concepts he probably d]iv$ f second>y s\rces4 ,= :ile he passes 9 review all ! t5 categories %[+ t none ( !m is applicable to ,god1#db we sc>cely f9d any m5tion ( su* important & fundam5tal ,ari/otelian conceptions z matt] & =m1 pot5tiality & actuality1 ! f\r causes1 =mal1 mat]ial1 effici5t & f9al--concepts :i* z soon z ,ari/otle began to be /udi$ by ,al ,f>abi & ,avic5na became famili> to all :o wrote any?+ at all be>+ on philosophy1 !ology1 or ,biblical exegesis4 ,nay1 ! v concepts :i* he does employ seem to indicate 9 ! way he uses !m t he 0 n famili> ) ! context 9 :i* !y are f\nd 9 ! ,ari/otelian treatises1 or ) ! relation !y be> to o!r views ( ,ari/otle4 ,?us no "o :o knew ,ari/otle at fir/ h& c\ld make ! mi/ake ( reg>d+ 8 def9ition ( ! s\l z mak+ ! latt] an accid5t4#dc ,:5 ,saadia speaks ( six k9ds ( motion #dd in/ead ( ?ree1 he %[s cle>ly t 8 k ( ! ,ari/otelian !ory ( motion 0 limit$ to ! little ( x t is conta9$ 9 ! ,categories4 ,we are ?us ju/ifi$ 9 say+1 t ,saadia's s\rces are ,jewi% lit]ature & tradition1 ! works ( ! ,mutakallimun1 p>ticul>ly ! ,mutazilites1 & ,ari/otle1 ^: book on ! ,categories he knew at fir/ h&4 ,saadia tells u he 0 induc$ to write 8 book because he f\nd t ! beliefs & op9ions ( m5 7 9 an unsatisfactory /ate4 ,:ile !re are "s p]sons :o are =tunate en\gh to possess ! tru? & to "k t !y h x & rejoice !reat1 ?is is n true ( all4 ,= !re are o!rs :o :5 !y h ! tru? "k x n1 & h5ce let x slip2 o!rs are /ill less =tunate & adopt false & errone\s op9ions1 :i* !y reg>d z true2 :ile /ill o!rs vacillate cont9ually1 go+ f "o op9ion & belief to ano!r4 ,?is gave him pa9 & he ?\ght x 8 duty to make use ( 8 limit$ k to help !m4 ,a consci5ti\s /udy ( 8 book w t5d to remove d\bt & w sub/itute belief ?r\gh k = belief ?r\gh tradition4 ,ano!r result ( su* /udy1 n less important1 w be improvem5t ( "* & disposition1 :i* w affect = ! bett] a man's life 9 e respect1 9 relation to ,god z well z to 8 fell[m54#de ,"o may ask :y x is t "o enc\nt]s s _m d\bts & difficulties be=e arriv+ at true k4 ,! answ] is1 a human be+ is a creature1 i4 e41 a be+ dep5d5t ^u ano!r = its exi/5ce1 & x is 9 ! nature ( a creature z su* t x mu/ labor = ! tru? ) ! sweat ( its br[4 ,= :atev] a man does or has to d ) is subject to "t2 ea* "w mu/ be accompli%$ gradually1 /ep by /ep1 "p by "p1 9 successive portions ( "t4 ,& z ! task be=e him is at ! beg9n+ complex1 he has to analyze & simplify x4 ,?is takes "t2 :ile c]ta9ty & k _c come until ! task is accompli%$4 ,be=e t po9t is rea*$ he is naturally 9 d\bt4#df ,! s\rces ( tru? are ?ree4 ,fir/ is t to :i* ! s5ses te/ify4 ,if our normal s5se p]ceives "u normal conditions :i* are free f illusion1 we are c]ta9 ( t p]ception4 ,! judgm5t is ano!r s\rce ( tru?4 ,!re are c]ta9 tru?s ( :i* we are c]ta94 ,?is applies especially to su* judgm5ts ( value1 z t tru? is good & falsehood is bad4 ,9 addition to ^! two s\rces ( imm$iate k1 !re is a ?ird s\rce bas$ ^u ^! two4 ,?is is logical inf]5ce4 ,we are l$ to believe :at we h n directly p]ceiv$ or a matt] conc]n+ :i* we h no imm$iate k ( ! second k9d1 because we inf] x f some?+ else :i* we h p]ceiv$ or ( :i* we h imm$iate c]ta9ty4 ,?us we believe man has a s\l ?\gh we h nev] se5 x because we inf] its pres5ce f its activity1 :i* we d see4 ,^! ?ree s\rces are univ]sal4 ,!y are n peculi> to a giv5 race or religi\s d5om9ation1 ?\gh !re are "s p]sons :o d5y ! validity ( "s or all ( !m4 ,we ,jews believe 9 !m & 9 /ill ano!r s\rce ( tru?1 namely1 au!ntic tradition4#dg ,"s ?9k t a ,jew is =bidd5 to speculate or philosophize ab\t ! tru?s ( religion4 ,?is is n s4 ,g5u9e & s9c]e reflection & speculation is n prohibit$4 ,:at is =bidd5 is to leave ! sacr$ writ+s aside & rely on any op9ions t occur to "o conc]n+ ! beg9n+s ( "t & space4 ,= "o may f9d ! tru? or "o may miss x4 ,9 any case until a p]son f9ds x1 he is )\t a religi\s guide2 & if he does f9d :at seems to him ! tru? & bases 8 belief & conduct ^u x1 he is nev] sure t he may n lat] be assail$ by d\bts1 :i* w lead him to drop 8 adopt$ belief4 ,b if we hold fa/ to ! comm&m5ts ( ! ,bible1 our own ratioc9ation on ! tru?s ( religion w be ( great b5efit to u4#dh ,our inve/igation ( ! facts ( our religion w give u a reason$ & sci5tific k ( ^? ?+s :i* ! ,prophets taught u dogmatically1 & w enable u to answ] ! argum5ts & criticisms ( our oppon5ts direct$ aga9/ our fai?4 ,h5ce x is n m]ely our privilege b our duty to confirm ! tru?s ( religion by reason4#di ,"h a "q pres5ts itself4 ,if ! reason c discov] by itself ! tru?s communicat$ to u by div9e revelation1 :y 0 x necess>y to h rec\rse to ! latt]8 ,:y 0 x n left to ! reason alone to guide u 9 our belief & 9 our conduct8 ,! answ] is1 z 0 sugge/$ be=e1 t human reason proce$s gradually & does n rea* its aim until ! end ( ! process4 ,9 ! meantime "o is left )\t a guide4 ,besides n ev]ybody's reason is adequate to discov] tru?4 ,"s are altoge!r incapable ( ?is difficult task1 & _m m are expos$ to h>ass+ d\bts & p]plexities :i* h9d] _! progress4 ,h5ce ! necessity ( revelation1 because 9 ! witness ( ! s5ses all are equally at home1 m5 & wom51 "y & old4#ej ,! mo/ important fact ( religion is ! exi/5ce ( ,god4 ,we "k x f ! ,bible1 & we mu/ n[ prove x by reason4 ,! pro( is necess>ily indirect because no "o ( u has se5 ,god1 nor h we an imm$iate c]ta9ty ( 8 exi/5ce4 ,we mu/ prove x !n by ! me?od ( inf]5ce4 ,we mu/ />t ) some?+ we d "k ) c]ta9ty & proce$ f x ?r\gh z _m /eps ( logical inf]5ce z may be necess>y until we rea* ! object ( our se>*4#ea ,! _w & ! ?+s 9 x are directly accessible to our s5ses & our judgm5t4 ,h[ long has ! _w be5 9 exi/5ce & h[ did x come to be8 ,! answ]s to ^! que/ions also we d n "k ?r\gh our s5ses1 & we mu/ prove !m by a *a9 ( reason+4 ,!re are sev]al possibilities4 ,! _w j z x is may h exi/$ f et]nity4 ,if s nobody made x2 x j exi/$1 & we h no pro( ( ,god4 ,! _w 9 its pres5t =m might h proce$$ f a primitive matt]4 ,?is hypo!sis only removes ! problem fur!r back4 ,=1 leav+ aside ! "q h[ did ?is prime matt] develop into ! complex _w ( our exp]i5ce1 we direct our att5tion to ! prime matt] itself1 & ask1 ,has x exi/$ f et]nity or did x come to be8 ,if x exi/$ f et]nity1 !n nobody made x1 & we h no pro( ( a ,god1 = by ,god we mean an intellig5t be+ act+ ) purpose & design1 & ! cause ( ! exi/5ce ( ev]y?+ 9 creation4 ,! ?ird alt]native is t :e!r ! _w 0 develop$ out ( a primitive matt] or n1 x at any rate1 or ! primitive matt]1 z ! case may be1 0 made 9 "t1 t is1 x 0 creat$ out ( no?+4 ,if s !re mu/ h be5 someone :o creat$ x1 z no?+ c create itself4 ,"h we h pro( ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god4 ,x foll[s !re=e t we mu/ fir/ %[ t ! _w is n et]nal1 t x came to be 9 "t1 & ?is is :at ,saadia does4 ,"h are "s ( 8 pro(s4 ,! _w is f9ite 9 magnitude4 ,= ! _w consi/s ( ! e>?1 :i* is 9 ! c5tre1 & ! heav5s surr\nd+ x on all sides4 ,?is %[s t ! e>? is f9ite1 = an inf9ite body _c be surr\nd$4 ,b ! heav5s are f9ite too1 = !y make a complete revolution 9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs4 ,if !y 7 inf9ite x w\ld take an inf9ite "t to complete a revolution4 ,a f9ite body _c h an inf9ite p[]4 ,?is ,saadia reg>ds z self-evid5t1 ?\gh ,ari/otle1 f :om ?is /atem5t is d]iv$1 gives ! pro(4 ,h5ce ! =ce or p[] )9 ! _w :i* keeps x go+ is f9ite & mu/ "o day be exhau/$4 ,b ?is %[s also t x c\ld n h gone on f et]nity4 ,h5ce ! _w came to be 9 "t4#eb ,ano!r pro( is bas$ on ! composite "* ( all ?+s 9 heav5 & e>?4 ,m9]als1 plants & animals are made up ( p>ts & elem5ts4 ,! heav5s consi/ ( sph]es1 "o )9 ! o!r4 ,! sph]es are /udd$ ) />s4 ,b composition implies a "t :5 ! composition took place4 ,9 o!r words1 ! p>ts mu/ h be5 !re fir/ & somebody put !m toge!r4 ,h5ce ! _w z we see x n[ is n et]nal4#ec ,a special =m ( composition1 :i* is univ]sal1 is t ( sub/ance & accid5t4 ,plants & animals are born 7or spr\t71 gr[ & decay4 ,^! manife/ations are ! accid5ts ( ! plant or animal's sub/ance4 ,! heav5ly bodies h v>i\s motions1 lights & colors z _! accid5ts4 ,b ^! accid5ts are n et]nal1 s9ce !y come & g4 ,h5ce ! sub/ances be>+ ! accid5ts1 )\t :i* !y _c exi/1 are also temporal l !m4 ,h5ce our _w is n et]nal4#ed ,f9ally1 pa/ "t itself _c be et]nal4 ,= ?is w\ld mean t an inf9ite "t has actually elaps$ d[n to our day4 ,b ?is is a contradiction 9 t]ms4 ,:at is already accompli%$ _c be inf9ite4 ,inf9ity is possible only z a pot5tiality1 = example1 we may speak ( a giv5 l5g? z inf9itely divisible4 ,?is m]ely means t "o may m5tally cont9ue divid+ x =ev]1 b we c nev] say t "o has actually made an inf9ite numb] ( divisions4 ,!re=e n m]ely ! _w1 b ev5 "t mu/ h begun to be4#ee ,x w be se5 t ! fir/ ?ree argum5ts prove only t ! _w 9 ! =m :i* x has n[ is n et]nal4 ,! possibility is n yet exclud$ ( an et]nal matt] out ( :i* ! _w proce$$ or 0 made4 ,! f\r? argum5t proves a great deal4 ,x %[s t no?+ :i* is subject to "t c be et]nal1 h5ce n ev5 prime matt]4 ,god c be et]nal because he is n subject to "t4 ,"t1 z we %all see lat]1 _c exi/ )\t motion & mov+ ?+s1 h5ce be=e ! _w !re 0 no "t1 & ! f\r? argum5t does n apply to premundane exi/5ce4 ,to complete ! fir/ ?ree argum5ts ,saadia !re=e proce$s to %[ t ! _w1 :i* we n[ "k came to be 9 "t1 mu/ h be5 made by someone 7s9ce no?+ c make itself71 & t too out ( no?+1 & n out ( a pre-exi/+ et]nal matt]4 ,if an et]nal matt] exi/$ be=e ! _w1 ! explanation ( ! orig9 ( ! _w is op5 to two possibilities4 ,"o is t !re is no?+ outside ( ?is matt] & ! _w :i* came f x4 ,?is is absurd1 = x w\ld mean t an un9tellig5t dead ?+ is ! cause ( intellig5ce & life 9 ! univ]se4 ,we mu/ !re=e h rec\rse to ! o!r alt]native t someone1 an intellig5t be+1 made ! _w out ( ! primitive1 et]nal matt]4 ,?is is also impossible4 ,= if ! matt] is et]nal l ! mak] ( ! _w1 x is indep5d5t ( him1 & w\ld n be ob$i5t to 8 w to adapt itself to 8 purpose4 ,he c\ld !re=e n make ! _w out ( x4 ,! only alt]native left n[ is t ! au?or ( ! univ]se is an intellig5t be+1 & t no?+ outside ( him is et]nal4 ,he alone is responsible = ! exi/5ce ( ! _w1 :i* 0 at "o "t no?+4 ,:e!r he fir/ creat$ a matt] & !n f x ! univ]se1 or :e!r he made ! _w outright1 is ( second>y importance4#ef ,!re is /ill a possibility t in/ead ( mak+ ! _w out ( no?+1 ,god made x out ( himself1 i4 e41 t x emanat$ f him z light f ! sun4 ,?is1 z we "k1 is ! op9ion ( ! ,neo-,platoni/s2 & ,israeli comes v close to x z we saw be=e 7p4 #f74 ,saadia is /rongly oppos$ to any su* doctr9e4 ,x is unlikely1 he says1 t an et]nal sub/ance hav+ nei!r =m1 condition1 measure1 place or "t1 %\ld *ange into a body or bodies hav+ ^? accid5ts2 or t a wise be+1 n subject to *ange or influ5ce1 or compreh5sibility %\ld *oose to make himself into a body subject to all ( ^!4 ,:at c\ld h induc$ a j be+ :o does no wrong to decree t "s ( 8 p>ts %\ld be subject to su* evils z matt] & mat]ial be+s are afflict$ )8 ,x is conceivable only 9 "o ( two ways4 ,ei!r !y des]v$ x = hav+ done wrong1 or !y did n des]ve x1 & x 0 an act ( viol5ce t 0 committ$ aga9/ !m4 ,bo? suppositions are absurd4 ,! fact ( ! matt] is t ! au?ors ( ?is op9ion to avoid ! !ory ( creation ex nihilo w5t f ! fry+ pan into ! fire4 ,to be sure1 creation out ( no?+ is difficult to conceive1 b ?is is ! reason :y we ascribe ?is p[] to ,god alone4 ,to dem& t we %[ h[ ?is c be done is to dem& t we ourselves become creators4#eg ,! "q :at exi/$ 9 place ( ! e>? be=e x 0 creat$ ev9ces ignorance ( ! idea ( place4 ,by place is meant simply ! contact ( two bodies 9 :i* ! "o is ! place ( ! o!r4 ,:5 !re is no e>? & no bodies !re is no su* ?+ z place4 ,! same ?+ applies to "t4 ,"t means ! p]si/5ce ( exi/+ ?+s 9 heav5 & e>? "u *ang+ conditions4 ,:]e !re is no _w1 !re is no "t4 ,?is answ]s ! objection rais$ by "s1 namely1 h[ is x possible t be=e all ^! bodies 7 made "t exi/$ void ( objects8 ,or ! o!r difficulty :i* is closely relat$1 viz41 ,:y did n ,god create ! _w be=e he did8 ,! answ] to bo? is1 !re 0 no be=e & !re 0 no "t1 :5 ! _w 0 n4 ,! foll[+ "q is a legitimate "o1 ,:y did ,god create all ?+s8 ,& our answ] is1 !re 0 no cause :i* made him create !m1 & yet !y 7 n made 9 va94 ,god wi%$ to exhibit 8 wisdom2 & 8 goodness prompt$ him to b5efit 8 creatures by enabl+ !m to wor%ip him4#eh ,we h n[ prov$ ! exi/5ce ( ,god z ! cause ( ! exi/5ce ( all ?+s4 ,we mu/ n[ try to arrive at "s notion ( :at ,god is z f> z ?is is 9 our p[]4 ,god _c be corporeal or body1 = 9 our pro( ( 8 exi/5ce we began ) ! _w :i* is body & arriv$ at ! notion ( ,god z ! cause ( all corporeal exi/5ce4 ,if ,god himself is corporeal our se>* is n at an end1 = we %\ld /ill want to "k ! cause ( him4 ,be+ ! cause ( all body1 he is n body & h5ce is = our k ultimate1 we _c g beyond him4 ,b if ,god is n corporeal1 he is n subject to motion or re/ or ang] or favor1 = to d5y ! corporeality ( ,god & /ill look = ^! accid5ts 9 him is to *ange ! expression & reta9 ! idea4 ,bodily accid5ts involve body4#ei ,! incorporeality ( ,god proves also 8 unity4 ,= :at is n body _c h ! corporeal attributes ( quantity or numb]1 h5ce ,god _c be m ?an "o4#fj ,& !re are _m p[]ful argum5ts besides aga9/ a duali/ic !ory4 ,a unit>y effect _c be ! result ( two indep5d5t causes4 ,= if "o is responsible = ! :ole1 !re is no?+ left = ! o!r1 & ! assumption ( 8 exi/5ce is gratuit\s4 ,if ! effect consi/s ( two p>ts ( :i* ea* does "o1 we h really two effects4 ,b ! univ]se is "o & its p>ts _c be sep>at$4#fa ,aga91 if "o ( !m wi%es to create a ?+ & _c )\t ! help ( ! o!r1 nei!r is all-p[]ful1 :i* is inconsi/5t ) ! "* ( deity4 ,if he c compel ! o!r to help him1 !y are bo? "u necessity4 ,& if !y are free & indep5d5t1 !n if "o %\ld desire to keep a body alive & ! o!r to kill x1 ! body w\ld h to be at ! same "t alive & dead1 :i* is absurd4 ,aga91 if ea* "o c conceal aught f ! o!r1 nei!r is all-kn[+4 ,if !y _c1 !y are n all-p[]ful4#fb ,hav+ prov$ ,god's exi/5ce1 unity & incorporeality1 he proce$s to discuss 8 mo/ ess5tial attributes1 :i* are1 ,life1 ,omnipot5ce1 & ,omnisci5ce4 ,^! easily foll[ f :at 0 said be=e4 ,we _c conceive a creator ex nihilo unless he is all-p[]ful2 p[] implies life2 & ! ?+ made _c be p]fect unless its mak] kn[s :at x is go+ to be be=e he makes x4 ,^! ?ree concepts our reason discov]s ) "o act ( its ?9k+ ef=t1 = !y are all involv$ 9 ! concept1 ,mak]4 ,!re is no gradual inf]5ce f "o to ! o!r4 ,! reason we are =c$ to use ?ree expressions is because ( ! limitations ( language4 ,h5ce x mu/ n be ?\ght t !y involve plurality 9 ,god4 ,!y are simply ! implications ( ! "o expression1 ,mak]1 & z t does n sugge/ plurality 9 ,god's ess5ce1 b signifies only t !re is a ?+ made by ! mak]1 s ! ?ree d]ivative t]ms1 ,liv+1 ,omnipot5t1 ,omnisci5t1 imply no m4 ,! ,*ri/ians err$ 9 ?is matt] 9 mak+ ,god a tr9ity4 ,!y say "o _c create unless he is liv+ & wise1 h5ce !y reg>d 8 life & 8 wisdom z two o!r ?+s outside ( 8 ess5ce4 ,b ?is is a mi/ake4 ,= 9 say+ !re are sev]al attributes 9 him di/9ct "o f ! o!r1 !y say 9 effect t he is corporeal--an error :i* we h already refut$4 ,besides !y d n und]/& :at con/itutes pro(3 ,9 man we say t 8 life & 8 k are n 8 ess5ce because we see t he sometimes has !m & sometimes n4 ,9 ,god ?is is n ! case4 ,aga91 :y only ?ree8 ,!y say ess5ce1 life1 wisdom2 :y d !y n add p[]1 or he>+ & see+8 ,if !y ?9k t p[] is impli$ 9 life1 & he>+ & see+ 9 wisdom1 s is life impli$ 9 wisdom4 ,!y quote ,scripture 9 _! support1 = example1 ! v]se 9 ,,ii ,samuel 7#bc1 #b71 ,! ,_s ( ! ,"l spoke ?r\gh me1 & 8 ,^w 0 ^u my tongue4 ,^w d5otes1 !y say1 8 attribute ( wisdom1 & ,_s 8 life1 z di/9ct p]sons4 ,b !y are mi/ak54 ,! expressions 9 "q d5ote ! words :i* ,god puts into ! m\? ( 8 prophets4 ,!re are o!r simil> in/ances :i* !y cite1 & 9 _! ignorance ( ,hebrew take metaphorical expressions lit]ally4 ,if !y are consi/5t1 !y %\ld add _m m p]sons 9 ! ,godhead1 9 accordance ) ! _m phrases ( ! ,bible conc]n+ ! h& ( ,god1 ! eye ( ,god1 ! glory ( ,god1 ! ang] ( ,god1 ! m]cy ( ,god1 & s on4#fc ,! above discussion1 z also t ( ,al-,mukammas 7p4 #ai71 %[s cle>ly ! orig9 ( ! doctr9e ( attributes z well z its motive4 ,bo? ,al-,mukammas & ,saadia & ! lat] ,jewi% philosoph]s ow$ _! int]e/ 9 ?is problem prim>ily to ! ,mohamm$an s*ools 9 :i* we "k x play$ an important rle 7see ,introduction1 pp4 xxiii1 xxvi74 ,b !re is no d\bt t ! problem orig9at$ 9 ! ,*ri/ian s*ools 9 ! ,ori5t1 :o made use ( x to rationalize ! dogma ( ! ,tr9ity4 ,!re is extant a confession ( fai? attribut$ to ,jacob ,b>adu 7six? c5tury71 ! f\nd] ( ! ,syrian ,*ur* ( ! ,monophysites or ,jacobites1 9 :i* ! phrase occurs t ! ,fa!r is ! ,intellect1 ! ,son is ! ,^w & ! ,holy ,gho/ is ,life4 ,9 ! works ( ,elias ( ,nisibis ( ! ,ne/orian ,*ur*1 :o liv$ %ortly aft] ,saadia 7#ige-ajdi71 we also f9d a passage 9 :i* ! ?ree expressions ess5ce1 life & wisdom are appli$ to ! ?ree p]sons ( ! ,tr9ity4 ,! passage is wor? quot+4 ,x reads z foll[s3 ,z ! ess5ce ( ,god _c receive accid5ts1 8 life & 8 wisdom _c be accid5ts4 ,b :atev] is n accid5t is ei!r sub/ance or p]son4 ,h5ce z ! ess5ce ( ! ,creator & 8 life & 8 wisdom are n ?ree sub/ances or ?ree accid5ts1 x is prov$ t !y are ?ree p]sons4#fd ,mono!ism 0 a fundam5tal dogma ( ! ,mohamm$an fai?4 ,h5ce x 0 necess>y = _! rationaliz+ !ologians to meet ! ,tr9it>ians ) _! own weapons & %[ t ! multiplicity ( ! div9e attributes :i* !y c\ld n d5y1 s9ce ! ,koran 0 au?ority = x1 does 9 no way affect ,god's unity4 ,! problem 0 q z important = ,judaism z x 0 = ,islam1 & = ! same reason4 ,h5ce ,saadia's insi/5ce t inadequacy ( language is alone responsible = our express+ ,god's ess5tial attributes 9 ! ?ree words1 ,liv+1 ,omnipot5t1 ,omnisci5t2 t 9 reality !y are no m ?an int]pretations ( ! expression ,mak]4 ,we h n[ %[n t ,god is "o 9 ! two important s5ses ( ! ^w4 ,he is "o 9 ! s5se t !re is no second ,god beside him2 & he is "o 9 8 own ess5ce1 i4 e41 he is simple & n compos$ ( p>ts4 ,8 ,life & 8 ,p[] & 8 ,wisdom are n di/9ct "o f ! o!r & f 8 ess5ce4 ,!y are all "o4 ,we h also prov$ ,god's incorporeality4 ,nev]!less ,saadia is n satisfi$ until he has %[n 9 detail t ,god _c be comp>$ to man 9 any s5se1 & t ! an?ropomorphic expressions 9 ! ,bible mu/ n be tak5 lit]ally4 ,9 ref]5ce to ,biblical int]pretation ,saadia makes ! g5]al rem>k t :5ev] a v]se ( ,scripture app>5tly contradicts ! tru?s ( reason1 !re is no d\bt t x is figurative1 & a p]son :o successfully int]prets x s z to reconcile x ) ! data ( s5se or reason w be rew>d$ = x4 ,= n ! ,bible alone is ! s\rce ( ,judaism1 ,reason is ano!r s\rce prec$+ ! ,bible1 & ,tradition is a ?ird s\rce com+ aft] ! ,bible4#fe ,9 ord] to %[ t ,god is n to be comp>$ to any o!r ?+ 9 creation ,saadia f9ds x conv5i5t to use ,ari/otle's classification ( all exi/+ ?+s "u ! t5 categories4#ff ,ev]y?+ t exi/s is ei!r a sub/ance1 or x is an accid5t1 i4 e41 an attribute or quality ( a sub/ance4 ,sub/ance is !re=e ! fir/ & mo/ important ( ! categories & is exemplifi$ by su* t]ms z man1 horse1 city4 ,ev]y?+ t is n sub/ance is accid5t1 b !re are n9e classes ( accid5t1 & ) sub/ance !y make up ! t5 categories4 ,! ord] ( ! categories z ,ari/otle gives !m 9 8 treatise ( ! same "n is1 sub/ance1 quantity1 quality1 relation1 place1 "t1 position1 possession1 action1 passion4 ,if ^! categories include all exi/+ ?+s & we c prove t ,god is n any ( !m1 our object is accompli%$4 ,! "o g5]al argum5t is "o ) :i* we are already famili>4 ,x is t ,god is ! cause ( all sub/ance & accid5t1 h5ce he is himself nei!r ! "o nor ! o!r4 ,scripture supports our view1 z 9 ,deut]onomy #d1 #ae3 ,take ye !re=e good he$ ( y\rselves2 = ye saw no mann] ( =m on ! day t ! ,"l spake unto y 9 ,horeb out ( ! mid/ ( ! fire3 le/ ye corrupt y\rselves1 & make y a grav5 image 9 ! =m ( any figure1 ! lik5ess ( male or female1 ! lik5ess ( any bea/ t is on ! e>?1 ! lik5ess ( any w+$ f[l t flie? 9 ! heav52 ! lik5ess ( any?+ t creepe? on ! gr\nd1 ! lik5ess ( any fi% t is 9 ! wat] "u ! e>?3 & le/ ?\ lift up ?9e eyes unto heav51 & :5 ?\ see/ ! sun & ! moon & ! />s1 ev5 all ! ho/ ( heav51 ?\ be drawn away1 etc4 ,& tradition is equally emphatic 9 ?is reg>d4 ,our sages1 :o 7 ! disciples ( ! prophets1 r5d] ! an?ropomorphic passages 9 ! ,bible s z to avoid an objectionable und]/&+4 ,?is is p>ticul>ly true ( ! ,aramaic translation ( ! ,t>gum4 ,su* t]ms z head1 eye1 e>1 m\?1 lip1 face1 h&1 he>t1 b[els1 foot1 :i* are us$ 9 relation to ,god 9 ! ,bible1 are figurative4 ,= x is ! cu/om ( language to apply su* t]ms metaphorically to c]ta9 ideas l elevation1 provid5ce1 acceptance1 decl>ation1 comm&1 favor1 ang]1 p[]1 wisdom1 m]cy1 dom9ion4 ,language w\ld be a v inadequate in/rum5t if x conf9$ itself to ! lit]al mean+ ( ! words x uses2 & 9 ! case ( ,god we %\ld be limit$ to ! /atem5t t he is4 ,:at 0 said ( ! n\ns above m5tion$ applies also to o!r p>ts ( spee*1 su* z v]bs attribut+ human activity to ,god4 ,su* phrases z incl9e ?9e e>1 op5 ?9e eyes1 he saw1 he he>d1 he spoke are figurative4 ,s ! expression1 ! ,"l smell$1 :i* s\nds especially objectionable1 d5otes acceptance4 ,! !ophanies 9 ! ,bible1 :]e ,god is repres5t$ "u a c]ta9 =m1 z 9 ,ezekiel1 ,isaiah & ,k+s1 d n argue aga9/ our view1 = !re are meant specially creat$ =ms = ! b5efit & honor ( ! prophet4 ,?is is :at is meant by ! ,glory ( ! ,"l1 & ,%ek9ah4 ,sometimes x is simply a creat$ light )\t an individual =m4 ,:5 ,moses ask$ to see ,god1 he meant ! creat$ light4 ,god _c be se5 ) ! eye nor c he be grasp$ 9 ?\ght or imag9ation4 ,h5ce ,moses c\ld n h meant to see ,god1 b ! creat$ light4 ,8 face 0 cov]$ s t he %\ld n be dazzl$ by ! exce$+ spl5dor ( ! beg9n+ ( ! light1 :i* is too mu* = a mortal to endure2 b lat] :5 ! brighte/ "p pass$ by1 ! cov]+ 0 tak5 (f & ,moses saw ! la/ "p ( ! light4 ,?is is ! mean+ ( ! expression 9 ,exodus #cc1 #bc1 ,& ,i w take away m9e h&1 & ?\ %alt see my back3 b my face %all n be se54 ,hav+ treat$ ( ,god z ! creator ( ! _w & hav+ le>n$ some?+ ab\t 8 attributes1 we mu/ n[ proce$ to ! /udy ( man1 or :i* is ! same ?+1 to an inve/igation ( ,god's relations to ! rational "p ( 8 creation 9 ! sublun> _w4 ,t man is end[$ ) a s\l _c be d\bt$1 = ! activities ( man's s\l are directly visible4 ,! problem :i* is difficult is conc]n+ ! nature ( ! s\l4#fg ,"h op9ions diff]1 & "s reg>d ! s\l z an accid5t ( ! body1 "s ?9k x is a corporeal sub/ance l air or fire1 :ile o!rs believe !re is m ?an "o s\l 9 man4 ,x w be our task to v9dicate our own view aga9/ ^! errone\s ideas4 ,! s\l is too important 9 its functions to be an accid5t4 ,x is nei!r air nor fire because x has n ! prop]ties ( ^! bodies4 ,& if ! s\l consi/$ ( two or m di/9ct p>ts1 ! p]ceptions ( s5se w\ld n rea* ! reason1 & !re w\ld be no co-op]ation betwe5 ^! two p[]s4 ,! true view is !re=e t ! s\l ( man is a sub/ance creat$ by ,god at ! "t :5 ! human body is complet$4 ,! s\l has no et]nal exi/5ce be=e ! body z ,plato ?\ght1 = no?+ is et]nal outside ( ,god1 z we saw be=e4 ,nor does x ent] ! s\l f ! outside1 b is creat$ ) & 9 ! body4 ,its sub/ance is z pure z t ( ! cele/ial sph]es1 receiv+ its light l !m1 b is mu* f9] ?an ! sub/ance ( ! sph]es1 = ! latt] are n rational1 :]eas ! s\l is4 ,! s\l is n dep5d5t = its k ^u ! body1 :i* )\t ! latt] has nei!r life nor k1 b x uses ! body z an in/rum5t = its functions4 ,:5 connect$ ) ! body ! s\l has ?ree faculties1 reason1 _s & desire4 ,b we mu/ n ?9k ) ,plato t ^! p[]s =m s _m divisions or p>ts ( ! s\l1 resid+ 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! body4 ,all ! ?ree faculties belong to ! "o s\l ^: seat is 9 ! he>t2 = f ! he>t issue ! art]ies1 :i* give ! body s5se & motion4 ,! s\l 0 put 9 ! body because f its nature x _c act by itself2 x mu/ h ! body z its in/rum5t 9 ord] !reby to atta9 to p]fect happ9ess1 = ! s\l's functions ei!r purify or defile x4 ,:5 ! s\l leaves ! body %e c no long] rep5t2 all ?is mu/ be done :ile %e is 9 ! body4 ,be+ plac$ 9 ! body is !re=e a good = ! s\l4 ,if %e 7 left alone1 !re w\ld be no use 9 h] exi/5ce or 9 t ( ! body1 & h5ce ! entire creation w\ld be 9 va91 :i* 0 made = ! sake ( man4 ,to ask :y 0 n ! s\l made s z to be indep5d5t ( ! body is fooli% & tantam\nt to say+ :y 0 n ! s\l made some?+ else ?an s\l4 ,! s\l is n 9 any way h>m$ by be+ ) ! body1 = ! injury ( s9 is due to h] own free w & n to ! body4 ,moreov]1 ! body is n unclean1 nor are ! fluids ( ! body unclean :ile 9 ! body2 "s ( !m are decl>$ 9 ! ,bible to cause uncleanness :5 !y leave ! body1 b ?is is "o ( ^? ord9ances :i*1 z we %all see lat]1 are n dem&$ by ! reason = _! own sake1 b are specially comm&$ = a diff]5t purpose4 ,z = ! suff]+s :i* ! s\l und]goes by reason ( h] connection ) ! body1 "s are due to h] own neglig5ce1 su* z cold1 heat1 & s on1 o!rs are inflict$ by ,god = ! s\l's own good s t %e may be lat] rew>d$4 ,we see "h1 & we %all le>n m def9itely lat]1 t ,saadia is oppos$ to ! view ( ! ascetics--a view ,neo-,platonic 9 its orig9--t matt] & body z su* are evil1 & t ! con/ant ef=t ( man mu/ be to free ! s\l f ! ta9t ( ! body 9 :i* x is imprison$1 & by :i* x is dragg$ d[n f its pri/9e nobility & purity4 ,saadia's opposition to ! belief 9 ! pre-exi/5ce ( ! s\l at once does away ) ! ,neo-,platonic view t ! s\l 0 plac$ 9 ! body z a puni%m5t = wrongdo+4 ,! s\l 0 creat$ at ! same "t ) ! body1 & ! two =m a natural unit4 ,h5ce complete life involves bo? body & s\l4 ,we h se5 t ,god's creation ( ! _w is due to 8 goodness4 ,8 fir/ act ( k9dness 0 t he gave be+ to ! ?+s ( ! _w4 ,he %[$ himself especially b5efic5t to man 9 enabl+ him to atta9 p]fect happ9ess by means ( ! comm&m5ts & prohibitions :i* 7 impos$ ^u him4 ,! rew>d consequ5t ^u ob$i5ce 0 ! real purpose ( ! comm&m5ts4#fh ,! laws :i* ,god gave u ?r\gh ! prophets consi/ ( two gr\ps4 ,! fir/ embraces su* acts z our reason recognizes to be "r or wrong1 good or bad1 ?r\gh a feel+ ( approval or disapproval :i* ,god plant$ 9 our m9ds4 ,?us reason dem&s t a b5efactor %\ld receive 9 return = 8 goodness ei!r a k9d rew>d if he ne$s x1 or ?anks if he ne$s no rew>d4 ,z ?is is a g5]al dem& ( ! reason1 ,god c\ld n h neglect$ x 9 8 own case1 & h5ce ! comm&m5ts t we %\ld s]ve him1 t we %\ld n (f5d or revile him & ! o!r laws be>+ on ! same subject4 ,x is likewise a dem& ( ! reason t "o %\ld prev5t ! creatures f s9n+ aga9/ "o ano!r 9 any way4 ,murd] is prohibit$ because x w\ld lead to ! de/ruction ( ! race & ! consequ5t fru/ration ( ,god's purpose 9 creat+ ! _w4 ,promiscu\s association ( ! sexes is prohibit$ 9 ord] t man may be diff]5t f ! l[] animals1 & %all "k 8 fa!r & o!r relatives t he may %[ !m honor & k9dness4 ,univ]sal /eal+ w\ld lead to indol5ce1 & 9 ! end w\ld de/roy itself :5 !re is no?+ m to /eal4 ,9 a simil> way we c expla9 all laws relat+ to social deal+s among mank9d4 ,! second gr\p ( laws has ref]5ce to acts :i* are inh]5tly nei!r "r nor wrong1 b are made s by ! act ( ,god's comm&m5t or prohibition4 ,?is class may be call$ ,traditional 9 contra/ to ! fir/1 :i* we %all "n ,rational4 ,! traditional laws are impos$ ^u u prim>ily s t we may be rew>d$ = obey+ !m4 ,at ! same "t we %all f9d on c>eful exam9ation ( ^! laws t !y also h a rational signification1 & are n purely arbitr>y4 ,?us ! purpose ( sanctify+ c]ta9 days ( ! ye>1 l ,sabba?s & holy days1 is t by re/+ f labor we may devote ourselves to pray]1 to ! acquisition ( wisdom1 & to conv]se ) our fell[s 9 ! int]e/ ( religion4 ,laws ( c]emonial purity h = _! purpose to tea* man humility1 & to make pray] & ! visitation ( holy places m preci\s 9 8 eyes aft] hav+ be5 deb>r$ f 8 privileges dur+ ! p]iod ( 8 uncleanness4 ,x is cle> t we %\ld n "k h[ to p]=m ! traditional comm&m5ts )\t div9e revelation s9ce our own reason w\ld n h sugge/$ !m4 ,b ev5 9 ! case ( ! rational laws ! g5]al pr9ciples alone are kn[n to u f our own reason b n ! details4 ,we "k 9 g5]al t !ft1 un*a/ity1 & s on1 are wrong1 b ! details ( ^! matt]s w\ld lead to disagreem5t among mank9d1 & h5ce x 0 necess>y t ! rational laws also be directly communicat$ to u by div9e mess5g]s4 ,! div9e mess5g]s are ! prophets4#fi ,!y knew t _! revelations came f ,god ?r\gh a sign :i* appe>$ at ! beg9n+ ( ! communication & la/$ to ! end4 ,! sign 0 a pill> ( cl\d or ( fire1 or an extraord9>y bright light1 z we le>n 9 ! case ( ,moses4 ,! g5u95ess ( a prophet's message is te/$ fir/ ( all by ! nature ( ! cont5t1 & !n by 8 ability to p]=m miracles4 ,! ,israelites w\ld n h believ$ ,moses1 not)/&+ 8 miracles1 if he _h comm&$ !m to commit murd] or adult]y4 ,x is because 8 tea*+ 0 f\nd acceptable to ! reason t ! miracles accompany+ x 7 reg>d$ z a confirmation ( ,moses's div9e mission4 ,! ,jewi% ,law#gj conta9s ?ree elem5ts1 all ( :i* are necess>y = effective tea*+4 ,fir/1 ! comm&m5ts & prohibitions1 or ! laws prop]2 second1 ! rew>d & puni%m5t consequ5t ^u ob$i5ce & disob$i5ce2 & ?ird1 examples ( hi/orical *>act]s 9 :i* ! laws & _! consequ5ces are illu/rat$4 ,b ! writt5 law w\ld n accompli% its purpose )\t belief 9 tradition4 ,?is is fundam5tal1 = )\t x no individual or society c exi/4 ,no "o c live by :at he p]ceives ) 8 own s5ses alone4 ,he mu/ dep5d ^u ! in=mation he receives f o!rs4 ,& :ile ?is in=mation is liable to error ei!r by reason ( ! in=mant be+ mi/ak5 or 8 possible purpose to deceive1 ^! two possibilities are elim9at$ 9 case ! tradition is v\*$ = n by an individual1 b by a :ole nation1 z 9 ! case ( ! ,jewi% revelation4 ,z ,saadia's emphasis on tradition1 ap>t f its intr9sic importance = ,judaism1 has its additional motive 9 refut+ ,k>aism1 s ! foll[+ discussion aga9/ ! possibility ( ! ,law be+ abrogat$ is direct$ no d\bt aga9/ ! claims ( ! two si/] religions1 ,*ri/ianity & ,mohamm$anism4#ga ,abrogation ( ! law1 ,saadia says1 is impossible4 ,= 9 ! fir/ place tradition has unanim\sly held to ?is view1 & 9 ! second place ! ,law itself assures u ( its p]man5t validity1 ,moses comm&$ u a law1 an inh]itance = ! assembly ( ,jacob 7,deut4 #cc1 #d74 ,! law con/itutes ! national exi/5ce ( our p2 h5ce z we are assur$ by ! ,prophets t ! ,jewi% nation is et]nal1 ! ,law mu/ be likewise4 ,we mu/ n ev5 accept ! evid5ce ( miracles 9 favor ( a new law abrogat+ ! old4 ,= z we saw be=e1 x 0 n prim>ily ,moses's miracles t s]v$ to au!nticate 8 tea*+1 b ! "* ( ! tea*+ itself4 ,n[ t ! law ( ,moses /ood ! te/ ( int]nal acceptability & ext]nal confirmation by ! p]=mance ( miracles1 its decl>ation ( p]man5t validity _c be upset by any new evid5ce ev5 if x be miracul\s4 ,man#gb alone ( all creat$ ?+s 0 giv5 comm&m5ts & prohibitions1 because he is sup]ior to all o!r creatures by reason ( ! rational faculty :i* he possesses1 & ! _w 0 creat$ = him4 ,man's body is small1 b 8 m9d is great & compreh5sive4 ,8 life is %ort1 b x 0 giv5 him to assi/ him to ! et]nal life aft] dea?4 ,! diseases & o!r dang]s to :i* he is subject are int5d$ to keep him humble & ,god-fe>+4 ,! appetites & passions h _! uses 9 ! ma9t5ance ( ! individual & ! race4 ,if x is true t ,god gave man comm&m5ts & t he rew>ds & puni%es him accord+ to 8 conduct1 x foll[s t unless we attribute inju/ice to ,god he mu/ h giv5 man ! p[] to d & to refra9 9 ! matt]s :i* =m ! subject ( ! comm&m5ts4 ,?is is actually ! case & c be prov5 9 _m ways4 ,ev]yone is consci\s ( fre$om 9 8 actions1 & is n aw>e ( any =ce prev5t+ him 9 8 volunt>y acts4 ,! ,bible te/ifies to ?is :5 x says 7,deut4 #cj1 #ai71 ,i h set be=e y life & dea? 444 !re=e *oose ?\ life1 or 7,mala*i #a1 #i71 ,f y\r h& has ?is ?+ come4 ,tradition is equally explicit 9 ! /atem5t ( ! ,rabbis 7,b]akot #cc;b71 ,ev]y?+ is 9 ! h&s ( ,god except ! fe> ( ,god4 ,to be sure ,god is omnisci5t & kn[s h[ a giv5 individual w act 9 a giv5 case1 b ?is does n take away f ! fre$om ( ! individual to det]m9e 8 own conduct4 ,= ,god's k is n ! cause ( a man's act1 or 9 g5]al ( a ?+'s be+4 ,if t 7 s1 all ?+s w\ld be et]nal s9ce ,god kn[s all ?+s f et]nity4 ,god simply kn[s t man w *oose ( 8 own free w to d c]ta9 ?+s4 ,man z a matt] ( fact nev] acts contr>y to ,god's k1 b ?is is n because ,god's k det]m9es 8 act1 b only because ,god kn[s ! f9al outcome ( a man's free delib]ation4 ,s9ce x is n[ cle> f e po9t ( view t ,god does n int]f]e ) a man's fre$om ( action1 any passages 9 ! ,bible :i* seem to indicate ! contr>y are n prop]ly und]/ood1 & mu/ ne$s be int]pret$ 9 accordance ) ! evid5ce we h adduc$ f v>i\s s\rces includ+ ! ,bible itself4 ,?us :5 ,god says 7,exod4 #g1 #c7 ,i w h>d5 ! he>t ( ,ph>aoh1 x does n mean1 z _m ?9k1 t ,god =c$ ,ph>aoh to refuse to let ,israel g4 ,! mean+ r is t he gave ,ph>aoh /r5g? to )/& ! plagues )\t succumb+ to !m1 z _m ( ! ,egyptians did4 ,! same me?od %\ld be foll[$ ) all ! o!r expressions 9 ! ,bible :i* appe> to tea* det]m9ism4 ,a man's conduct has an influ5ce ^u ! s\l1 mak+ x pure or impure z ! case may be4#gc ,?\gh man _c see ?is effect1 s9ce ! s\l is an intellectual sub/ance1 ,god kn[s x4 ,he also keeps a record ( our de$s1 & deals out rew>d & puni%m5t 9 ! _w to come4 ,?is "t w n come until he has creat$ ! numb] ( s\ls :i* 8 wisdom dictates4 ,at ! same "t !re are also rew>ds & puni%m5ts 9 ?is _w z an e>ne/ ( :at is to come 9 ! h]eaft]4 ,a man is call$ righte\s or wick$ accord+ z 8 good or bad de$s pr$om9ate4 ,& ! recomp5se 9 ! next _w is giv5 = ?is pr$om9at+ elem5t 9 8 "*4 ,a righte\s man is puni%$ = 8 few bad de$s 9 ?is _w1 & rew>d$ = 8 _m good de$s 9 ! _w to come4 ,simil>ly ! wick$ man is paid = 8 good de$s 9 ?is _w1 :ile ! puni%m5t = 8 wick$ness is res]v$4 ,?is answ]s ! old problem ( ! prosp]ity ( ! wick$ & ! mis]y ( ! righte\s 9 ?is _w4 ,!re are also suff]+s ( ! righte\s :i* are n 9 ! nature ( puni%m5t = pa/ conduct1 b 9 view ( ! future s z to increase _! rew>d 9 ! _w to come = ! trials !y endur$ )\t murmur+4 ,! suff]+s ( little *ildr5 come "u ?is head4 ,on ! o!r h&1 a s9n] is sometimes well treat$ & 8 life prolong$ = "o ( ! foll[+ reasons3 ,to give him "t to rep5t1 z 9 ! case ( ,manasseh2 t he may beget a righte\s son1 l ,ahaz1 ! fa!r ( ,hezekiah2 to use him z ,god's tool to puni% o!rs m wick$ ?an he--witness ! rle ( ,assyria z ,isaiah describes x 9 *apt] t5 ( 8 prophecies2 = ! sake ( ! righte\s :o is closely relat$ to him1 z ,lot 0 sav$ = ! sake ( ,abraham2 or 9 ord] to make ! puni%m5t m sev]e lat]1 z 9 ! case ( ,ph>aoh4 ,t !re is ano!r _w aft] ?is "o 9 :i* man is rew>d$ & puni%$ c be prov$ f reason1 f ,scripture & f tradition4#gd ,x is n likely f :at we "k ( ,god's wisdom & goodness t ! measure ( happ9ess int5d$ = ! s\l is :at x gets 9 ?is _w4 ,= e good "h is mix$ ) evil1 ! latt] ev5 pr$om9at+4 ,no "o is really cont5t & at peace 9 ?is _w ev5 if he has rea*$ ! top ( ! ladd] ( prosp]ity & honor4 ,!re mu/ be a reason = ?is1 :i* is t ! s\l has an intuitional long+ = ! o!r _w :i* is de/9$ = x4 ,!re are _m ?+s f :i* ! s\l is bidd5 to ab/a91 su* z !ft1 adult]y1 & s on1 :i* x desires1 & ab/5tion f :i* causes x pa94 ,surely !re mu/ be rew>d await+ ! s\l = ?is suff]+4 ,(t5 ! s\l suff]s hatr$1 p]secution & ev5 dea? = pursu+ ju/ice z %e is bidd5 to d4 ,surely %e w be rew>d$4 ,ev5 :5 a p]son is puni%$ ) dea? = a crime committ$ 9 ?is _w1 ! same dea? is inflict$ = "o crime z = t5 crimes4 ,h5ce !re mu/ be ano!r _w :]e all inequalities are adju/$4 ,x is also evid5t t ! m5 ( ! ,bible believ$ 9 a h]eaft]4 ,else :y %\ld ,isaac h cons5t$ to be sacrific$1 or :y %\ld ,god h expect$ x8 ,! same applies to ,hananiah1 ,mi%ael1 & ,az>iah1 :o pref]r$ to be ?r[n into ! fi]y furnace r ?an fall d[n 9 wor%ip be=e ! gold5 image ( ,nebu*adnezz>2 & to ,daniel :o 0 ?r[n into ! d5 ( lions = disobey+ ! ord] ( ! k+ & pray+ to ,god4 ,!y w\ld n h done ?is if !y did n believe 9 ano!r _w1 :]e !y w\ld be rew>d$ = _! suff]+s 9 ?is "o4 ,tradition & ! ,rabb9ical lit]ature are fill$ ) ref]5ce to a future _w4 ,we ne$ m5tion only "o or two4 ,9 ! ,e?ics ( ! ,fa!rs 7*4 #d7 we read t ?is _w is l ! ve/ibule to ! o!r _w4 ,ano!r /atem5t 9 ! ,talmudic treatise ,b]akot 7p4 #ag;a7 reads t 9 ! _w to come !re is no eat+ & dr9k+1 nor giv+ 9 m>riage1 nor buy+ & sell+1 b ! righte\s sit ) _! cr[ns on _! heads & enjoy ! spl5dor ( ! ,%ek9ah4 ,) reg>d to ! condition ( ! s\l aft] dea? & ! nature ( rew>d & puni%m5t 9 ! next _w1 !re is a v>iety ( op9ions4 ,^? :o hold t ! s\l is corporeal or t x is an accid5t ( ! body believe x is de/roy$ ) ! dea? ( ! body4 ,we h already refut$ _! op9ion4 ,o!rs1 l ! ,platoni/s1 ! ,duali/s & ! ,pan!i/s1 :o believe 9 ! pre-exi/5ce ( ! s\l ei!r z a sep>ate entity or z a "p ( ,god1 hold t aft] ! dea? ( ! body ! s\l returns to its orig9al condition4 ,our belief z /at$ above 7p4 #cg7 is oppos$ to ?is4 ,b !re are "s call+ !mselves ,jews :o believe 9 metempsy*osis1 t ! s\l migrates f "o p]son to ano!r & ev5 f man to bea/1 & t 9 ?is way x is puni%$ = its s9s & purg$4 ,!y see a confirmation ( _! view 9 ! fact t "s p]sons exhibit qualities :i* are *>act]i/ic ( l[] animals4 ,b ?is is absurd4 ,! s\l & ! body =m a natural unit1 ! "o be+ adapt$ to ! o!r4 ,a human body _c unite ) ! s\l ( an animal1 nor an animal body ) a human s\l4 ,!y try to acc\nt by _! !ory = ! suff]+ ( little *ildr51 :o c\ld n h s9n$ 9 _! own p]son4 ,b we h already expla9$ t ! suff]+ ( *ildr5 is n 9 ! nature ( puni%m5t1 b ) a view to subsequ5t rew>d1 & !y mu/ admit t ! fir/ plac+ ( ! s\l 9 ! body & giv+ x comm&m5ts is n 9 ! nature ( comp5sation = any pa/ m]it1 b ) a view to lat] rew>d4 ,:y n !n expla9 ! suff]+ ( *ildr5 9 ! same way8#ge ,z ! body & ! s\l =m a natural unit dur+ life & a man's conduct is ! comb9$ ef=t ( ! two con/itu5t p>ts ( 8 be+1 x /&s to reason t future rew>d & puni%m5t %\ld be impos$ ^u body & s\l 9 comb9ation4 ,h5ce ! doctr9e ( ! resurrection ( ! body1 :i* is allud$ to 9 ! ,bible & made into a religi\s dogma by ! ,rabbis1 has support also 9 ! reason4#gf ,_m objections h be5 advanc$ aga9/ x1 b !y c be easily answ]$4 ,! /ronge/ objection might seem to be t :i* attempts to %[ t resurrection is a logical contradiction4 ,! argum5t is t ! elem5ts mak+ up a giv5 body dur+ life f9d _! way aft] ! dea? ( ! p]son into ! body ( ano!r1 to :i* !y are assimilat$ & ( :i* !y =m a "p4 ,h5ce x is impossible to resurrect two bodies out ( ! mat]ial common to bo?4 ,b ?is argum5t is untrue to fact4 ,e human body has its own matt]1 :i* nev] ent]s into ! composition ( any o!r body4 ,:5 ! p]son dies & ! body decomposes1 ea* elem5t returns to its place 9 nature1 :]e x is kept until ! resurrection4 ,b !re is ano!r ev5t :i* w happ5 to ,israel be=e ! "t ( ! resurrection4 ,9 accordance ) ! promises ( ! ,prophets we believe t ,israel w be deliv]$ f exile by ! ,messiah4#gg ,reason also supports ?is belief1 = ,god is righte\s1 & s9ce he has plac$ u 9 exile p>tly z a puni%m5t = wrongdo+1 p>tly = ! purpose ( try+ u1 !re mu/ be a limit to bo?4 ,messiah ! son ( ,david w come1 w deliv] ,j]usalem f ! enemy & settle !re ) 8 p4 ,:5 all ! believ+ ,israelites h be5 ga!r$ f all ! nations to ! l& ( ,pale/9e1 !n w come ! resurrection4 ,! ,temple w be rebuilt1 ! light ( ! ,%ek9ah w re/ ^u x1 & ! _s ( prophecy w be v\*saf$ to all ,israel1 "y & old1 ma/] & s]vant4 ,?is bless$ p]iod w la/ until ! end ( "t1 i4 e41 until ?is _w w give place to ! next1 :i* is ! place ( rew>d & puni%m5t4 ,we describe ! future habitation & /atus ( ! s\l z ,g>d5 ( ,ed5 7,p>adise7 & ,geh5na4#gh ,! =m] expression is int5d$ to sugge/ happ9ess1 !re be+ no?+ pleasant] 9 ! _w ?an a g>d54 ,! t]m ,geh5na is associat$ 9 ! ,bible ) ,t(teh1 :i* 0 a place ( impurity n f> f ! ,temple4 ,9 reality1 h[ev]1 ,god w create a sub/ance :i* w comb9e light & heat 9 su* a way t ! righte\s w enjoy ! light only1 :ile ! wick$ w be tortur$ by ! heat4 ,all ?is ,saadia inf]s f ,biblical passages4 ,!re w be no eat+ & dr9k+ 9 ! next _w1 & h5ce no ne$ ( a heav5 & an e>? l ours1 b !re w be place & "t1 s9ce creatures _c d )\t x4 ,!re w be no succession ( day & night1 = ^! are ( use only = our pres5t life & occupations1 b w be unnecess>y !re4 ,!re w1 h[ev]1 be a special p]iod = wor%ip4 ,rew>d & puni%m5t 9 ! next _w w bo? be et]nal4 ,x /&s to reason t ,god %\ld promise et]nal rew>d & puni%m5t s z to inspire mank9d ) ! highe/ possible degree ( hope & fe>1 t !y may h no excuse = n he$+ ! comm&m5ts s =cibly impress$ ^u !m4 ,hav+ made ! promise1 8 ju/ice prompts him to fulfil x1 & ^? :o suff] h !mselves to blame4 ,we h n[ complet$ 9 outl9e ,saadia's sy/em ( ,judaism4 ,!re are _m details :i* we necess>ily _h to leave out1 especially 9 ! m dogmatic "p ( 8 "w1 t deal+ ) specific ,jewi% doctr9es1 :i* he con/ructs on ! basis ( ,rabb9ical lit]ature & ,biblical allusions int]pret$ s z to h>monize ) ! /atem5ts ( ! ,rabbis4 ,_m que/ions specifically !ological & es*atological assum$ importance 9 8 m9d by reason ( 8 surr\nd+s4 ,i mean ! ,mohamm$an s*ools & sects1 & ! ,k>aite discussions :i* 7 closely modell$ aft] !m4 ,! mo/ important "p ( 8 sy/em philosophically is t :i* deals ) creation & ! attributes ( ,god4 ,8 discussions ( ! s\l & ( free w are less ?or\gh1 & ! details ( 8 doctr9es ( resurrection1 future rew>d & puni%m5t1 ! r$emption ( ,israel & ! ,messiah are almo/ purely dogmatic4 ,= a sci5tific e?ic !re is no room at all 9 ! body ( 8 "w4 ,a man's conduct is prescrib$ = him 9 ! div9e comm&m5ts1 ?\gh 9 a g5]al way ! reason sees ! "r & ! wrong ( ! s-call$ rational gr\p ( laws4 ,/ill z an aft] ?\ght ,saadia add$ a *apt] to ! ,emunot ve-,deot 9 :i* he attempts to give a psy*ological basis = human conduct4 ,not+ ! v>i\s t5d5cies ( individuals & sects 9 8 environm5t to extremes 9 human behavior1 "s to asceticism1 "s to self-indulg5ce1 be x ! lu/ ( love or ( p[]1 he lays emphasis on ! inadequacy ( any "o pursuit = ! dem&s ( man's complex nature1 & recomm5ds a h>moni\s bl5d+ ( all ?+s = :i* m5 /rive4#gi ,god alone1 he says1 is a real unity1 ev]y?+ else is by ! v reason ( its be+ a creature ess5tially n "o & simple1 b composite & complex4 ,s man has a love & desire = _m ?+s1 & also av]sion = _m ?+s4 ,& z 9 o!r objects 9 nature x takes a comb9ation ( sev]al elem5ts to con/itute a giv5 ?+1 s 9 man x is by a prop] sy/ematization ( 8 likes & dislikes t he c rea* p]fection ( "* & morals4 ,x _c be t ,god int5d$ man to pursue "o object all 8 life to ! exclusion ( all o!rs1 = 9 t case he w\ld h implant$ only "o desire 9 man in/ead ( _m4 ,y _c build a h\se ( /ones alone nei!r c y develop a p]fect "* by "o pursuit & "o int]e/4 ,pursuit ( "o ?+ is likely to result 9 h>m1 = example1 ov]-indulg5ce 9 eat+ br+s on disease4 ,wisdom is !re=e ne$$ 9 regulat+ "o's conduct4 ,! pr9ciple "h is control ( "o's likes & dislikes4 ,( ! ?ree faculties ( ! s\l1 reason1 _s & desire1 reason mu/ be ! ma/] ( ! o!r two4 ,if any matt] occurs to a p]son's imag9ation1 he mu/ try x ) 8 reason to see :e!r x is likely to b5efit or injure him1 & pursue or avoid x accord+ly4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 he all[s ! l[] p>ts ( 8 s\l to rule 8 reason1 he is n a moral man4 ,! read] w recognize ,plato 9 ! la/ /atem5t4 ,! division ( ! s\l into ! ?ree faculties ( reason1 _s & desire is ,platonic1 z we h already se51 & ! attempt to base an e?ic on ! prop] relation betwe5 ! p[]s ( ! s\l also goes back to ,plato4 ,b ,saadia tries to %[ t ! ,bible too favors ?is conception4 ,:5 ,ecclesia/es tells u 7#a1 #ad71 ,i h se5 all ! works t are done "u ! sun2 &1 behold1 all is vanity & a /riv+ aft] w9d1 he does n mean t !re is no?+ wor? /riv+ aft]1 = he w\ld !n be condemn+ ! objects ( ,god's creation4 ,8 mean+ is t x is va9 to pursue any "o ?+ to ! exclusion ( e o!r4 ,he !n proce$s to "n ?ree prom95t objects ( pursuit1 wisdom1 pleasure & worldly ga9--all is va9 :5 tak5 by itself4 ,a prop] comb9ation ( all is to be recomm5d$ z is delicately h9t$ 9 ! same book 7#b1 #c71 ,i se>*$ 9 m9e he>t h[ to *e] my fle% ) w9e1 m9e he>t yet guid+ me ) wisdom1 & h[ to lay hold on folly4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,joseph ,,al-,,basir ,,& ,,je%ua ,,b5 ,,judah ,i4 ,joseph ,al-,basir 7#aa? c5tury7#hj ,joseph b5 ,abraham1 euphemi/ically surnam$ on acc\nt ( 8 bl9dness1 al-,basir 7! se]71 0 a ,k>aite & liv$ 9 ,babylonia or ,p]sia 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! elev5? c5tury4 ,8 philosophical "w is closely modell$ on ! writ+s ( ! ,arabian ,mutakallimun1 ! ,mutazilites4 ,unlike ,saadia1 :o tacitly accepts "s ( _! me?ods & views1 al-,basir is an av[$ foll[] ( ! ,kalam & treats only ( ^? que/ions :i* are common to ,jew & ,mohamm$an1 avoid+1 = example1 s important an issue z :e!r x is possible t ! law ( ,god may be abrogat$--a "q :i* meant s mu* to ,saadia4 ,! division ( 8 inve/igation into ! two p>ts1 ,unity & ,ju/ice1 is a s]i\s matt] ) him2 & he f9ds x necess>y to tell u 9 sev]al in/ances :y he *ose to treat a giv5 topic "u ! "o or ! o!r head+4 ,9 _s & temp]am5t he is a ?or\ghgo+ rationali/4 ,brief & succ9ct to ! po9t ( obscurity1 he betrays nei!r p>tiality nor emotion1 b fe>lessly pu%es ! argum5t to its la/ conclusion & r$uces x to its l[e/ t]ms4 ,saadia 7above p4 #bh7 puts revelation z a f\r? s\rce ( tru? p>allel to s5se1 judgm5t & logical inf]5ce4 ,to be sure he1 9 "o in/ance 7p4 #ce71 speaks ( ! reason z prec$+ ! ,bible ev5 z tradition foll[s x1 b ?is is only a pass+ obs]vation1 & is prop]ly correct$ by ! view express$ else:]e 7p4 #bh7 t :ile a ,jew is n =bidd5 to speculate1 he mu/ n set ! ,bible aside & adopt op9ions z !y occur to him4 ,al-,basir does n leave ! matt] 9 ?is unsettl$ condition4 ,he def9itely gives priority--logical priority1 to reason4 ,k1 he says1 mu/ prec$e revelation4 ,! prophet z ! mess5g] ( ,god _c be believ$ on 8 ^w1 = ! oppon5t may h ! same claim4 ,n only mu/ ! prophet au!nticate 8 mission by ! p]=mance ( a miracle :i* _c be expla9$ by natural means1 b we mu/ "k besides t he :o s5t him has our good at he>t & w\ld n deceive u4 ,a k ( ! exi/5ce1 p[] & wisdom ( ! creator mu/ !re=e prec$e our belief 9 ! prophet's mission4 ,to take ^! tru?s f ! words ( ! prophet & !n give him cr$5ce because ,god s5t him w\ld be reason+ 9 a circle4 ,! m9imum ( k !re=e :i* is indisp5sable be=e we c make any appeal to ! words ( ! prophet is rational pro( ( ! exi/5ce1 p[] & wisdom ( ,god4 ,hav+ ?is m9imum ! p]son :o is n practic$ 9 speculative inve/igation may rely = ! re/ ( ! cre$1 = example1 ! unity ( ,god & 8 o!r attributes1 ^u ! words ( ! ,bible4 ,= if we "k indep5d5tly t ,god is ,omnipot5t & ,omnisci5t1 & ! prophet c sub/antiate 8 claim to be a div9e mess5g] by ! p]=mance ( g5u9e miracles1 8 reliability is e/abli%$ & we are safe 9 accept+ all t he has to say )\t pro(2 b ! fundam5tal ?+ to d is to e/abli% ! prophet's reliability1 & = ?is an indep5d5t s\rce ( evid5ce is necess>y4 ,?is is ! reason4 ,our problem !re=e is to prove ! p[] & wisdom ( ,god1 :i* w imply 8 exi/5ce4 ,we _c d ?is directly1 = we _c see ,god4 ,h5ce ! only me?od is to prove ! exi/5ce ( a p[]ful & wise creator ?r\gh 8 creation4 ,we mu/ prove 8 p[] 9 do+ ?+s :i* we _c d1 su* z ! ability to create our bodies4 ,b = ?is x is necess>y to %[ t our bodies--& ! same w apply to ! o!r bodies ( ! _w1 & h5ce to ! _w z a :ole--7 creat$1 i4 e41 t !re 0 a "t :5 !y 7 n4 ,?is leads u to an analysis ( ! con/itu5ts ( body4 ,all bodies consi/ ( atoms & _! accid5ts1 or conditions & qualities4 ,! prim>y accid5ts1 :i* are presuppos$ by all ! re/1 are ! foll[+ f\r1 comb9ation1 sep>ation1 motion & re/4 ,)\t ^! no body c exi/1 = body is ! result ( a comb9ation & sep>ation ( atoms at re/ or 9 motion4 ,b comb9ation & sep>ation are ! acts ( a comb9] & sep>at]1 z we c inf] f ! analogy ( our own acts4 ,our acts h ourselves z _! creators1 h5ce ! acts visible 9 ! comb9ations & sep>ations ( atoms to =m bodies mu/ also h _! creator4 ,! attributes ( ! creator we inf] f ! nature ( 8 "w4 ,s we call ,god ,p[]ful1 mean+ t he _h ! p[] to create ! _w4 ,z creation d5otes p[]1 s ! success & h>mony ( ! product argues wisdom2 & ?is p[] & wisdom ?us e/abli%$ are n disprov$ by an occasional production or ev5t :i* is n p]fect1 a mon/rosity = example1 or disease & suff]+4 ,we say 9 ref]5ce to ^! t ,god mu/ h a deep] object 9 view1 to inspire mank9d ) ! fe> ( ,god1 & 9 ord] to increase _! rew>d 9 ! next _w4 ,! attribute ( ,life foll[s f ! o!r two1 = life d5otes ! possession or capacity ( p[] & k4 ,?us al-,basir has ! same ?ree ess5tial attributes z ,saadia4 ,8 pro( ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god is also id5tical ) "o ( ! pro(s ( ,saadia4 ,b he %[s himself a m loyal foll[] ( ! ,kalam by frankly adopt+ ! atomic !ory1 :]eas ,saadia opposes x 7p4 #be74 ,o!r pr$icates ( ,god are p]ception1 w1 unity1 incorporeality & et]nity4 ,p]ception is "o ( ! mo/ important expressions ( life1 b x mu/ n be confus$ ) k or wisdom4 ,! latt] embraces ! non-exi/5t z well z ! exi/5t1 ! =m] ! exi/5t only4 ,x is 9 virtue ( ! =m] attribute t we speak ( ,god z he>+ & see+4 ,will+ is ano!r attribute ( ,god1 & ^? are wrong :o id5tify ,god's w ) 8 k1 & def9e ,god's will+ to mean t 8 works take place 9 accordance ) 8 k4 ,god's w mu/ be a special attribute s9ce we see 9 creation traces ( free w4 ,to be ! w ( ,god x mu/ n reside 9 any?+ diff]5t f ,god1 & yet x _c inh]e 9 ,god z ! subject1 = only body is capable ( be+ ! subject ( accid5ts4 ,! only solution1 !re=e1 is t ,god ex]cises 8 volunt>y activity ?r\gh a w :i* he creates1 a w n resid+ 9 any subject4 ,?is discussion ( ! nature ( ,god's w seems a case ( hair splitt+ ) a v5geance1 & al-,basir is n ! au?or ( x4 ,z 9 8 o!r doctr9es s 9 ?is also he is a fai?ful foll[] ( ! ,mutazila1 & we %all see m ( ?is me?od 9 8 discussion ( ! unity ( ,god despite ! plurality ( 8 attributes4 ,b we %all fir/ take up ! attributes ( incorporeality & et]nity1 :i* c be dismiss$ 9 a few words4 ,god is et]nal because ! only o!r alt]native is t he is creat$4 ,b if s !re is a creator1 & if ! latt] is aga9 creat$1 he mu/ likewise h a creator1 & s we are l$ to inf9ity1 :i* _c be1 ! inf9ite regress be+ 9 all cases an impossibility accord+ to an axiom ( ! ,kalam4 ,we mu/1 !re=e1 h an et]nal creator some:]e1 & he is ,god4 ,f ,god's et]nity foll[s 8 incorporeality1 = we h %[n be=e t all body is creat$1 s9ce x presupposes comb9ation & sep>ation1 & ! latt] a comb9] & sep>at]4 ,:5 we speak ( ! unity ( ,god we mean fir/ t !re is no second ,god1 & !n t 8 own ess5ce has no composition or plurality 9 x4 ,two ,gods is an absurdity1 = ! "o might desire :at ! o!r does n1 & he ^: w pr$om9ates is ! real ,god4 ,x is no objection to say t 9 _! wisdom !y w\ld nev] disagree1 because ! possibility is !re1 & ?is makes ! above argum5t valid4 ,aga91 if !re 7 two ,gods !y w\ld h to be completely alike 9 _! ess5tial attributes1 & z space _c hold !m ap>t1 s9ce !y are n bodies1 :at is !re to con/itute !m two8 ,! o!r problem1 ( ,god's simplicity1 is m difficult4 ,does n ! multiplicity ( attributes make ,god's ess5ce multiple & composite8 ,! =m :i* ?is "q took 0 ?is4 ,%all we say t ,god is omnipot5t ?r\gh ,p[]1 omnisci5t ?r\gh ,k1 & s on8 ,if s1 ?is ,p[]1 ,k1 etc41 are creat$ or et]nal4 ,if ! ,p[]1 say1 is creat$1 !n ,god mu/ h _h p[] 9 ord] to create x1 h5ce 0 p[]ful n ?r\gh ,p[]4 ,if ! ,p[] is et]nal1 we h m ?an "o ,god1 & ,p[] z an et]nal w\ld also be ,wise & ,liv+1 etc42 ,wisdom w\ld also be p[]ful1 liv+1 etc41 & s on ) ! o!r attributes1 a doctr9e closely bord]+ on ,*ri/ianity & rem9d+ "o ( ,augu/9e4 ,! pr9ciple ( mono!ism c\ld n all[ su* a conception z ?is4 ,if ,p[] is nei!r creat$ nor et]nal1 x foll[s t ,god is omnipot5t n ?r\gh ,p[] z an ext]nal cause or a di/9ct entity1 b ?r\gh 8 own ess5ce4 ,! attributes ,p[]1 ,wisdom1 ,life1 are n any?+ di/+ui%able f ea* o!r & f ,god's ess5ce4 ,!y are modes or conditions ( ,god's ess5ce1 & are kn[n along ) x4 ,! same consid]ations :i* prompt$ u to conceive ,god z "o & simple1 make impossible ! belief 9 ! et]nity ( ,god's ^w4 ,?is 0 a po9t mu* discuss$ 9 ! ,mohamm$an s*ools1 & 0 evid5tly direct$ aga9/ ,*ri/ianity1 :]e ! ,^w or ,logos 0 id5tifi$ ) ! second p]son 9 ! ,tr9ity4 ,et]nity1 ,al-,basir says1 is incompatible ) ! idea & purpose ( spee*4 ,god speaks ) a ^w :i* he creates4 ,?is adds no new pr$icate to ,god1 b is impli$ 9 8 ,p[]4 ,! attribute omnipot5t implies t :5 he wills he c make himself und]/ood by u z we d ?r\gh spee*4 ,we notice t ,al-,basir is m elaborate 9 8 discussion ( ! attributes ?an ,saadia1 & l ,al-,mukammas he makes use ( ! =mul ( ! ,kalam1 omnipot5t n ) ,p[]1 omnisci5t n ) ,wisdom4 ,saadia does n foll[ ! ,kalam s closely1 b is j z emphatic 9 8 endeavor to %[ t ! ?ree ess5tial attributes are only v]bally ?ree2 conceptually & really !y are "o4 ,! doctr9e ( ! attributes br+s to a close ! section on unity1 & ! second division ( ! inve/igation is entitl$ ,ju/ice & ,fairness4 ,! ma9 problems "h are ! nature ( good & evil & ! relation ( ,god to !m1 ! "q ( free w & o!r subord9ate topics1 !ological & es*atological4 ,) reg>d to ! fir/ "q two extreme positions are possible1 :i* 7 actually held by ,mohamm$an s*ools ( ,al-,basir's day4 ,"o is t no?+ is good or bad 9 itself1 our reason n recogniz+ x z su*2 t ! div9e comm& or prohibition makes ! ?+ good or bad4 ,h5ce1 ! repres5tatives ( ?is op9ion say1 ,god1 :o /&s above 8 comm&s & prohibitions1 is n b\nd by !m4 ,good & bad hold = ! subject1 n = ! au?or4 ,! acts ( ,god d n come )9 ! classification1 & h5ce x is possible t ,god may d :at we reg>d z inju/ice4 ,"s1 9 _! endeavor to be consi/5t & to c>ry ! argum5t to its la/ conclusion1 did n ev5 %r9k f ! r$uctio ad absurdum t x is possible ,god may lie2 =1 said !y1 if ,i promise a boy sweetmeats & fail to keep my promise1 x is no worse ?an if ,i beat him4 ,= ?is s*ool !re is no problem ( evil1 because e?ical di/9ctions d n apply to ,god's do+s4 ,:atev] ,god does is good4 ,! o!r s*ool came "u ! influ5ce ( ,greek ?\ght & id5tifi$ ! idea ( ,god ) ! idea ( ! ,good4 ,!y ma9ta9$ t f ! nature ( ,god's ess5ce x 0 n only 8 duty to d ! good1 b t x 0 impossible = him to d any?+ else4 ,do+ good is a necessity ( 8 nature1 & our good & evil are also 8 good & evil4 ,e?ical values are absolute & n relative4 ,nei!r ( ^! radical views c be ma9ta9$4 ,! fir/ is refut$ by its own consequ5ces :i* only v few ( its advocates 7 bold en\gh to adopt4 ,! possibility ( ,god tell+ a falsehood1 :i* is impli$ 9 ! purely human validity ( good & evil1 is subv]sive ( all religion4 ,god w\ld !n cease to be tru/wor?y1 & !re w\ld be no reason = giv+ him ob$i5ce4 ,besides1 if revelation alone det]m9es "r & wrong1 x w\ld foll[ t if ,god *ose to rev]se 8 ord]s1 our moral judgm5ts w\ld be turn$ ! o!r way ar\nd1 good w\ld be evil1 & evil good4 ,f9ally1 if good & bad are det]m9$ by ! w ( ,god only1 ^? :o d n believe 9 revelation w\ld be )\t an idea ( "r & wrong1 b ?is is manife/ly n true4 ,b ! o!r op9ion1 t ,god is compell$ by ! necessity ( 8 nature to d ! good1 is also errone\s4 ,9 ! fir/ place x detracts f ,god's omnipot5ce to say he _c d wrong4 ,besides1 if he is compell$ by an inn] necessity to d ! good1 he mu/ always h done ?is1 & ! _w w\ld h exi/$ f et]nity4 ,x is j z wrong to say t x is ! duty ( ,god to d :at is good & useful = man4 ,= ?is is due to a confusion ( ! good or g5]\s ) ! obligatory4 ,any de$ to :i* no blame atta*es may be call$ good4 ,if no praise atta*es to x ei!r1 x is indiff]5t4 ,if x is des]v+ ( praise & its omission does n call =? blame1 x is a g5]\s act4 ,a duty is an act ! omission ( :i* des]ves blame4 ,n[ ! tru? 9 ! "q "u discussion is midway betwe5 ! two extremes4 ,god is able to d good z well z evil1 & is "u no necessity4 ,! notions ( "r & wrong are absolute & n m]ely relative4 ,god nev] does wrong because evil has no attractive p[] p] se4 ,wrong is committ$ always z a means to an end1 namely1 to ga9 an advantage or avoid an injury4 ,god is n dep5d5t ^u any?+2 he ne$s no advantages & fe>s no injuries4 ,h5ce !re is no?+ to prompt him to d wrong4 ,! good on ! o!r h& attracts u by its inh]5t goodness1 n = an ult]ior end4 ,if ! good 7 done only = ! sake ( d]iv+ "s b5efit ext]nal to ! good itself1 ,god1 :o is self-suffici5t1 w\ld n d any?+ ei!r good or evil4 ,god does ! good always & n ! bad1 because 9 8 wisdom he sees ! diff]5ce betwe5 !m4 ,x 0 a de$ ( g5]osity 9 ,god to h creat$ ! _w & giv5 life to 8 creatures1 b x 0 n a duty4 ,?is conception ( ! nature ( good & evil leaves on our h&s ! problem ( evil4 ,:y does a good ,god p]mit disease & suff]+ to exi/ 9 ! _w8 ,9 p>ticul>1 h[ expla9 ! suff]+ & dea? ( innoc5t *ildr5 & h>mless animals8 ,! answ] ( ,al-,basir is t infliction ( pa9 may "u c]ta9 circum/ances be a good in/ead ( an evil4 ,9 human relations a p]son is p]mitt$ to inflict pa9 on ano!r 9 self-def5ce1 or to prev5t ! pa9 f becom+ worse1 z1 = example1 :5 a f+] is amputat$ to save ! h&4 ,! infliction ( pa9 is n only p]mitt$1 x becomes a duty 9 case ( retribution1 z 9 a c\rt ( ju/ice2 & f9ally x is p]mitt$ to inflict tempor>y pa9 if x w result 9 a great] advantage 9 ! future4 ,! la/ two cases apply also to ,god's treatm5t ( 8 creatures4 ,disease & suff]+ are ei!r puni%m5t = (f5ces committ$1 or are impos$ ) a view to lat] rew>d4 ,9 ! case ( *ildr5 ! la/ explanation alone is applicable4 ,!y w be rew>d$ 9 ! next _w4 ,at ! same "t ! p>5ts are admoni%$ to rep5tance & good conduct4 ,! mo/ difficult "q ( ! section on ju/ice is t ( free w & =ekn[l$ge4 ,is man ma/] ( 8 actions8 ,if s1 h[ c we reconcile ?is ) ,god's omnisci5ce1 :o kn[s be=eh& h[ ! p]son w act at a giv5 mom5t8 ,is man free to decide at ! la/ mom5t 9 a mann] contr>y to ,god's k8 ,if s1 we def5d fre$om at ! exp5se ( ,god's omnisci5ce4 ,if man is b\nd to act z ,god =eknew he w\ld act1 div9e k is sav$1 man's fre$om lo/4 ,al-,basir has no d\bt man is free4 ,our own consci\sness te/ifies to ?is4 ,:5 we cut (f our f+] bitt5 by a snake1 we "k t we ourselves did x = a purpose1 & di/+ui% x f a case ( our f+] be+ cut (f by ord] ( an (ficial1 be=e :om we h be5 accus$ or malign$4 ,"o & ! same act c h only "o au?or & n two1 & we "k t we are ! au?ors ( our acts4 ,!re is a mu* clos] connection betwe5 an ag5t & 8 act ?an betwe5 a kn[] & 8 k1 :i* may be ! common prop]ty ( _m1 & no "o d\bts t a man's k is 8 own4 ,! dilemma above m5tion$ ) its two horns1 ( :i* "o d5ies ,god's k1 ! o!r man's fre$om1 is puzzl+ en\gh1 to be sure4 ,b we are n b\nd to answ] x s9ce x is purely hypo!tical4 ,we d n "k ( a real in/ance 9 :i* a man's decision t5d$ to be contr>y to ,god's =ekn[l$ge ( its outcome4 ,j z we %\ld refuse to answ] ! "q :e!r an actual case ( inju/ice on ! "p ( ,god w\ld prove 8 ignorance or dep5d5ce1 because we "k ?r\gh irrefutable pro(s t ,god is wise & )\t ne$2 s "h we say man has fre$om ?\gh ,god kn[s he w act ?us & s1 & refuse to say :e!r 9 case ! unbeliev] turn$ believ] x w\ld prove ,god's ignorance or *ange 9 8 k4 ,god's creation 0 a pure act ( grace4 ,b once hav+ done ?is & communicat$ to u a k ( himself & 8 w1 x is n[ 8 duty to guide u 9 ! "r pa?1 by s5d+ u 8 prophets4 ,! comm&m5ts & prohibitions mu/ nev] be contr>y to ! k ( reason4 ,we mu/ see 9 ! comm&m5ts means ( guidance1 9 ! prohibitions a protection aga9/ de/ructive influ5ces4 ,if !y _h n ?is rational basis1 we d n see :y ,god %\ld h impos$ !m ^u u4 ,hav+ giv5 u reason to "k 8 be+1 & hav+ ann\nc$ 8 tru? ?r\gh ! prophets1 x is 8 duty to rew>d ^? :o knew him & 7 ob$i5t1 et]nally 9 ! next _w1 & to puni% et]nally ! unbeliev]4 ,if "o has m]its & s9s1 !y are balanc$ aga9/ ea* o!r4 ,if ! s9n] rep5ts ( 8 evil de$s1 x is ! duty ( ,god to accept 8 rep5tance & remit 8 puni%m5t4 #b4 ,je%ua b5 ,judah#ha ,je%ua b5 ,judah or1 z he is kn[n by 8 ,arabic "n1 ,abu al-,f>aj ,furkan ibn ,asad1 0 likewise a ,k>aite1 a pupil ( ,joseph ,al-,basir1 & fl\ri%$ 9 ,pale/9e 9 ! second half ( ! elev5? c5tury4 ,8 po9t ( view is ess5tially ! same z t ( 8 tea*]1 ,al-,basir4 ,he is also a foll[] ( ! ,mutazilite ,kalam & z /rong a rationali/ z 8 ma/]4 ,he agrees ) ,al-,basir t we _c get c]ta9 k ( ! creation ( ! _w & ! exi/5ce ( ,god f ! ,bible4 ,?is in=mation mu/ come orig9ally f rational speculation4 ,x %\ld !n be appli$ to ! miracles ( ! prophets s z to prove ! au!nticity ( _! mission & ! tru? ( _! ann\ncem5ts4 ,he adopts ! atomic !ory1 ?\gh he is oppos$ to ! view t atoms are creat$ ev] anew by ,god f mom5t to mom5t1 & t !re is no natural & necess>y sequ5ce or cont9uity 9 ! ph5om5a ( ! _w or qualities ( bodies1 all be+ due to habit1 & cu/om induc$ 9 u by ,god's un9t]rupt$ creations4 ,z 9 8 philosophical discussions he is a foll[] ( ! ,kalam1 s 9 8 legali/ic works he is indebt$ to ! ,mohamm$an s*ools ( religi\s law4 ,l ,al-,basir1 ,je%ua b5 ,judah reg>ds z ! corn] /one ( 8 religi\s philosophy ! pro( t ! _w 0 creat$1 i4 e41 t x is n et]nal4 ,8 argum5ts are 9 ess5ce ! same1 ?\gh diff]5tly =mulat$4 ,9 _! simple/ =m !y are some:at z foll[s4 ,! _w & its bodies consi/ ( atoms & _! accid5ts4 ,tak+ a giv5 atom = ! sake ( argum5t we "k t x is immat]ial to x1 s f> z its own ess5ce is conc]n$1 :e!r x occupy "o place or ano!r4 ,z a fact1 h[ev]1 x does occupy a def9ite place at a giv5 mom5t4 ,?is mu/ be due to a cause4 ,& z ! atom 9 "q 9 ! c\rse ( "t *anges its place1 ?is %[s t ! cause :i* kept x 9 ! =m] place has disappe>$ & giv5 way to a new cause1 & s on4 ,9 o!r words1 ! successive causes :i* det]m9e ! positions & motions ( ! atoms are n p]man5t1 h5ce n et]nal b creat$4 ,! necess>y inf]5ce is t ! atoms or ! bodies1 :i* _c exi/ )\t ^! creat$ causes 7else !y c\ld n occupy "o place r ?an ano!r71 mu/ also be creat$4 ,ano!r =m ( ! argum5t = creation is ?is4 ,! et]nal has no cause4 ,x exi/s by virtue ( its own ess5ce1 & is n dep5d5t on any?+ else4 ,if n[ ! atoms 7 et]nal1 !y w\ld h to p]si/ 9 ! same condition all ! "t2 = any *ange w\ld imply a cause ^u :i* ! atom is dep5d5t1 & ?is is fatal to its et]nity4 ,b ! atoms d con/antly *ange _! condition & place4 ,h5ce !y are creat$4 ,if ! ?+s ( ! _w are creat$1 someone mu/ h creat$ !m4 ,?is is cle>4 ,b !re may be room = ! supposition t ?is creative ag5cy is a cause1 i4 e41 an imp]sonal entity1 :i* by necessity produces o!r ?+s f itself4 ,h5ce we mu/ ha/5 to say t ?is conception ( ! ,creator is impossible because incompatible ) our results s f>4 ,a necess>ily produc+ cause _c be )\t creat+1 h5ce an et]nal cause implies an et]nal effect--:i* contradicts our idea ( a creat$ _w prov$ above4 ,we say1 !re=e1 t ! ,creator is n a cause b an ag5t1 i4 e41 "o act+ ) w & *oice4 ,god is incorporeal because body consi/s ( atoms1 & atoms1 we h %[n1 are creat$4 ,besides1 if he 7 corporeal1 he c\ld n create bodies any m ?an we c4 ,he w\ld fur!rmore be limit$ to a def9ite place1 & ! same argum5ts cit$ above to prove t atoms are dep5d5t on a cause w\ld apply to him4 ,f9ally we z corporeal be+s _c ex]t an influ5ce on objects except by com+ 9 contact ) !m4 ,god causes ! se$ to gr[ )\t be+ 9 contact ) x4 ,h5ce he is n body1 & ! scriptural passages app>5tly tea*+ ! contr>y mu/ be expla9$ o!rwise4 ,je%ua b5 ,judah likewise agrees ) ,al-,basir 9 reg>d+ ! nature ( good & evil z absolute1 n relative4 ,l 8 ma/] he opposes ^? :o make ,god's comm& & prohibition ! sole creators ( good & evil respectively1 z on ! o!r h& he refuses to agree ) ! view t ,god is b\nd by necessity to d ! good4 ,our reason di/+ui%es betwe5 good & evil z our s5ses betwe5 :ite & black4 ,among o!r argum5ts 9 favor ( ! absolute "* ( "r & wrong1 :i* we h already f\nd 9 ,al-,basir1 appe>s ! foll[+4 ,if good & evil mean simply t :i* ,god comm&s & prohibits respectively1 & ! di/9ction holds only = u b n = ,god1 x foll[s t ,god may d :at we ?9k is evil4 ,if ?is be s1 we h no gr\nd = believ+ 9 ! good fai? ( ! prophet--,god might h s5t him to deceive u--& ! alleg$ basis ( "r & wrong is remov$4 ,we conclude !re=e t good & evil are absolute & are b9d+ ^u ,god z well4 ,god c d evil z well z good1 b be+ omnipot5t he c accompli% 8 purpose j z easily by do+ good z by do+ evil1 & h5ce surely pref]s to d good4 ,besides1 all evil do+ is ! result ( "s ne$1 b ,god has no ne$s1 be+ self-suffici5t1 h5ce he does n d evil4 ,x foll[s f ! above t ,god _h a purpose 9 creat+ ! _w4 ,= an act )\t a purpose is va9 & h5ce bad4 ,?is purpose _c h be5 egoi/ic1 s9ce ,god is )\t ne$1 be+ above pleasure & pa94 ,! purpose mu/ !re=e h be5 ! well-be+ ( 8 creatures4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,solomon ,,ibn ,,gabirol ,) ,gabirol ! sc5e ( ,jewi% intellectual activity *anges f ! ea/ to ! we/4 ,prior to ! middle ( ! t5? c5tury ! c5tre ( ,jewi% le>n+ 0 9 ,babylonia4 ,! succession ( ,geonim 9 ! ,talmudical s*ools ( ,sura & ,pumbadita1 & p>ticul>ly ! great fame ( ,saadia1 made all ! o!r ,jewi% communities ( ! _w look to ,babylonia z ! spiritual c5tre4 ,!y consid]$ x a privilege to contribute to ! support ( ! great ea/]n academies & appeal$ to _! spiritual heads 9 cases ( d\bt 9 religi\s matt]s4 ,"s ( ?is glory 0 reflect$ also ^u ! neighbor+ c\ntries "u ,mohamm$an dom9ation1 ,pale/9e1 ,egypt1 & ,kairuan or nor!rn ,africa to ! we/ ( ,egypt4 ,?us all ! m51 ,rabbanites z well z ,k>aites1 :om we treat$ s f> liv$ & fl\ri%$ 9 ! ea/ 9 "o ( ! f\r c\ntries m5tion$4 ,*ri/ian ,europe 0 intellectually on a l[ level1 & z f> z sci5tific /udies 7 conc]n$1 ! ,jews "u ,*ri/ian rule 7 no bett] ?an _! temporal rul]s4 ,b a new era dawn$ = ,jewi% lit]ature ) ! accession to p[] ( ! ,umayyad caliph ,abd al ,rahman ,,iii1 z head ( ,mohamm$an ,spa9 or ,&alusia4 ,he 0 a lib]al man & a patron ( le>n+4 ,hasdai ibn ,%aprut1 a cultur$ & high-m9d$ ,jew1 0 8 tru/$ advis]1 & l 8 royal patron he protect$ & enc\rag$ ,jewi% le>n+1 ,talmudical z well z sci5tific4 ,:5 ,moses b5 ,eno*1 a le>n$ emiss>y f ! ,babylonian ,academy1 0 ransom$ by ! ,jewi% community ( ,cordova & made ! head ( a ,talmudical s*ool 9 t city1 ! beg9n+ ( ! end ( ,babylonian ,jewi% supremacy 0 at h&4 ,moses b5 ,eno* ! ,talmudi/1 ,m5ahem b5 ,s>uk1 ! gramm>ian & lexicograph]1 & ,duna% b5 ,labrat1 ! poet--all ?ree "u ! di/+ui%$ patronage ( ,hasdai ibn ,%aprut--inaugurat$ ! long l9e ( ,spani% ,jewi% wor?ies1 :i* cont9u$ almo/ five c5turies1 con/itut+ ! gold5 era ( ,jewi% lit]ature & mak+ ( ,spa9 ! intellectual c5tre ( all ,jewry4 ,solomon ibn ,gabirol 0 n m]ely ! fir/ ,jewi% philosoph] 9 ,spa91 he 0 ! fir/ ,spani% philosoph]1 t is1 he 0 ! fir/ philosophical writ] 9 ,&alusia4 ,ibn ,badja1 ! fir/ ,mohamm$an philosoph] 9 ,spa91 0 born at lea/ a half c5tury aft] ,gabirol4 ,! bir? ( ,gabirol is g5]ally plac$ 9 #ajba & 8 dea? 9 #ajeh1 ?\gh "s h put x z late z #ajgj4 ,! fate ( ,gabirol 9 ! hi/ory ( ,jewi% lit]ature 0 a peculi> "o4 ,highly celebrat$ z a synagogal poet 9 ! ,seph>dic z well z ,a%k5azic community1 8 fame z a great philosoph] 0 e>ly ov]%ad[$ by 8 successors1 & 8 *ief "w1 ! ,f\nta9 ( ,life1 0 9 ! c\rse ( "t q =gott54 ,! ,arabic orig9al 0 lo/ & !re 0 no ,hebrew translation4 ,! ,tibbonides1 ,judah1 ,samuel & ,moses1 :o translat$ ev]y?+ wor? :ile 9 ,jewi% philology1 sci5ce & philosophy f ,arabic into ,hebrew1 ei!r did n "k ( ,gabirol's ma/]piece or did n ?9k x important en\gh to translate4 ,to judge f ! extant fragm5ts ( ! correspond5ce betwe5 ,samuel ibn ,tibbon & ,maimonides1 x w\ld seem t bo? 7 true2 t is t ,samuel ibn ,tibbon _h no access to ,gabirol's ,fons ,vit1 & t if he _h _h su* access1 ,maimonides w\ld h dissuad$ him f translat+ x4 ,maimonides actually tells 8 translator#hb t ! only books wor? /udy+ are ^? ( ,ari/otle & 8 true comm5tators1 ,alex&] ( ,aphrodisias1 ,!mi/ius1 ,av]roes4 ,alf>abi & ,avic5na are also important1 b o!r writ+s1 su* z ^? ( ,emp$ocles1 ,py?agoras1 ,h]mes1 ,porphyry1 repres5t a pre-,ari/otelian philosophy :i* is obsolete1 & are a wa/e ( "t4 ,! books ( ,isaac ,israeli on ! ,elem5ts & on ,def9itions1 are no bett]1 see+ t ,israeli 0 only a physician & no philosoph]4 ,he is n famili> ) ! ,microcosmus ( ,joseph ibn ,zaddik1 b inf]s f a k ( ! man t 8 "w is bas$ ^u ! writ+s ( ! ,bro!rs ( ,purity2 & h5ce1 we may add1 n /rictly ,ari/otelian1 & n p>ticul>ly important4 ,n a ^w is "h said ab\t ,gabirol1 app>5tly because ,samuel ibn ,tibbon _h n inquir$ ab\t him4 ,b f ,maimonides's judgm5t conc]n+ ! works ( ,emp$ocles1 we may legitimately inf] t he w\ld h be5 no m favorable to ,gabirol2 =1 z we %all see1 ,gabirol's sy/em is also bas$ ^u a po9t ( view simil> to t ( ! s-call$ ,emp$ocles4 ,:at ! ,tibbonides left undone 01 h[ev]1 p>tially accompli%$ ab\t a half c5tury lat] by ! comm5tator & critic ,%em ,tob ,falaqu]a 7#abbe-abij74 ,app>5tly 9 agreem5t ) ,abraham ibn ,daud t ,gabirol's pr(us5ess 9 8 philosophic ma/]piece made x possible to r$uce x to a t5? "p ( its size1 ,falaqu]a did n f9d x necess>y to translate ! :ole ( ! ,mekor ,hayim into ,hebrew1 giv+ u in/ead a translation ( select$ p>ts1 :i* 9 8 e/imation conta9$ ! gi/ ( ,gabirol's tea*+4 ,! abs5ce ( a complete ,hebrew translation ( ,gabirol's philosophical "w meant ( c\rse t no "o :o did n "k ,arabic c\ld h access to ,gabirol's ,mekor ,hayim1 & ?is practically exclud$ ! majority ( le>n$ ,jews aft] ! fir/ half ( ! ?irte5? c5tury4 ,b ! selections ( ,falaqu]a did n seem to f9d _m read]s ei!r1 z may be inf]r$ f ! fact t s f> only "o s+le manuscript ( ?is translation is kn[n4 ,en revan*e1 z ! ,fr5* w\ld say1 ! ,*ri/ian ,s*ola/ics ( ! ?irte5? c5tury made ,gabirol _! own & /udi$ him dilig5tly4 ,8 fundam5tal !sis ( a univ]sal matt] und]ly+ all exi/5ce outside ( ,god 0 made a bone ( cont5tion betwe5 ! two dom9ant s*ools2 ! ,dom9icans1 l$ by ,?omas ,aqu9as1 oppos+ ?is un-,ari/otelian pr9ciple1 ! ,franciscans ) ,duns ,scotus at _! head1 adopt+ x z _! own4 ,ego autem r$eo ad s5t5tiam ,avicembronis1 is a =mula 9 ,duns ,scotus's discussion ( ! pr9ciple ( matt]4#hc ,! translation ( ,gabirol's philosophy into an accessible language1 :i* 0 n consid]$ desirable by ,jews1 0 actually accompli%$ by ,*ri/ians4 ,ab\t a c5tury be=e ,falaqu]a a complete translation into ,lat9 0 made 9 ,tol$o ( ,gabirol's ,f\nta9 ( ,life1 "u ! title ,fons ,vit4 ,?is translation 0 made at ! in/ance ( ,raymond1 ,ar*bi%op ( ,tol$o 9 ! middle ( ! twelf? c5tury1 by ,dom9icus ,gundissal9us1 ar*deacon ( ,segovia1 ) ! assi/ance ( a conv]t$ ,jewi% physician1 ,ibn ,daud 7,av5dehut1 ,av5dea?71 ^: "n aft] conv]sion became ,johannes ,hispanus or ,hispal5sis4 ,unlike ! ,hebrew epitome ( ,falaqu]a ?is translation 0 n neglect$1 z is cle> f ! rle ,gabirol's philosophy plays 9 ! disputations ( ! s*ools1 & f ! fact t !re are /ill extant f\r manuscripts ( ! complete translation1 "o ( an epitome !re(1 & !re is evid5ce t a fif? manuscript exi/$ 9 #acge 9 ! ,papal libr>y4#hd ,z ,ibn ,s9a 0 corrupt$ by ! ,lat9 writ]s into ,avic5na1 & ,ibn ,ro%d into ,av]roes1 s ,ibn ,gabirol became 9 turn1 ,av5cebrol1 ,avicembron1 ,avicebron2 & ! ,s*ola/ics :o f\ght ab\t 8 philosophy _h no idea he 0 a ,jew & celebrat$ z a writ] ( religi\s hymns us$ 9 ! synagogue4 ,he 0 reg>d$ n[ z a ,mohamm$an1 n[ z a ,*ri/ian4 ,?is peculi> circum/ance w help u to get an inkl+ ( ! reason = ! neglect ( ,gabirol's philosophy 9 ! ,jewi% community4 ,x is cle> t a "w :i*1 l ! ,fons ,vit1 made x possible = its au?or to be reg>d$ z a ,mohamm$an or ev5 a ,*ri/ian1 _c h _h ! ,jewi% impr9t v deeply /amp$ ^u its face4 ,nay m1 :ile ! k ( its hav+ be5 translat$ f ! ,arabic may h be5 suffici5t 9 itself to /amp ! au?or z a ,mohamm$an1 !re mu/ h be5 additional indications = 8 ,s*ola/ic admir]s to make !m reg>d him z a ,*ri/ian4 ,an exam9ation ( ! "w l5ds "s semblance ( tru? to ^! consid]ations4 ,gabirol n[h]e betrays 8 ,jewi%ness 9 ! ,fons ,vit4 ,he nev] quotes a ,biblical v]se or a ,talmudic dictum4 ,he does n make any ov]t attempt to reconcile 8 philosophical views ) religi\s fai?4 ,! treatise is purely speculative z if religi\s dogma n[h]e exi/$ to block "o's way or direct "o's se>*4 ,abraham ,ibn ,daud1 ! au?or ( ! philosophical treatise ,emunah ,ramah 7,! ,exalt$ ,fai?71 & ! pr$ecessor ( ,maimonides1 criticises ,gabirol v sev]ely1 & t n m]ely because he disagrees ) him 9 ! conception ( matt] & f9ds ,gabirol's reason+ devoid ( cog5cy & logical =ce--_m bad argum5ts1 he says1 seem 9 ! m9d ( ,gabirol to be equival5t to "o good "o--b pr9cipally because ,gabirol fail$ to take a ,jewi% attitude 9 8 philosophiz+1 & actually1 z ,ibn ,daud tells u1 ma9ta9s views dang]\s to ,judaism 7bel[1 p4 #aih74 ,?is w easily acc\nt = ! fact t ,gabirol1 celebrat$ z he 0 z a poet1 0 lo/ sight ( g5]ally z a philosoph]4 ,! matt] is made cle>] /ill if we add t 8 /yle 9 ! ,mekor ,hayim is aga9/ him4 ,x is devoid ( all m]it :e!r ( lit]>y beauty or ( logical concis5ess & brevity4 ,x is diffuse to a degree & frequ5tly v we>isome & t$i\s4 ,"o has to wade ?r\gh pages ^u pages ( b>e syllogisms1 "o m flimsy ?an ano!r4 ,f9ally1 ! po9t ( view ( ,gabirol 0 t ( a philosophy t 0 rapidly becom+ obsolete1 & ,maimonides1 ! gr\nd hav+ be5 made ready by ,ibn ,daud1 gave ?is philosophy its dea?-bl[ by sub/itut+ = x ! philosophy ( ,ari/otle4 ,we n[ und]/& :y x is t1 ) few exceptions "h & !re1 ,gabirol's philosophical "w 0 9 ! c\rse ( "t =gott5 among ! ,jews1 ?\gh 8 "n ,avicebron z well z "s ( 8 *ief doctr9es 7 well kn[n to ! ,s*ola/ic writ]s4 ,to be sure1 ev5 /ud5ts ( ,s*ola/ic lit]ature _h no direct access to ,gabirol's treatise z x 0 nev] pr9t$ & no "o knew :e!r !re 7 /ill any manuscripts ( x extant or n4 ,! only s\rces ( in=mation conc]n+ ,avicebron's philosophy 7 ,aqu9as's refutations1 & ,duns ,scotus's def5ce1 & o!r second-h& ref]5ces 9 ! writ+s ( ! ,s*ola/ics4 ,:o ,avicebron 0 no "o knew4 ,x 0 n until #ahai t ,amable ,j\rda91#he 9 trac+ ! hi/ory ( ! ,lat9 translations ( ,ari/otle1 came to ! conclusion t m mu/ be kn[n ab\t ! philosophy ( ,avicebron's ,fons ,vit if we int5d$ to und]/& ! ,s*ola/ics4 ,9 #ahde ,solomon ,munk discov]$ 9 ! national libr>y at ,p>is ! epitome ( ,falaqu]a m5tion$ above1 & comp>+ x ) ! views ( ,avicebron z f\nd 9 ! discussions ( ! ,s*ola/ics1 made ! important discov]y t ! my/]i\s ,avicebron 0 nei!r a ,mohamm$an nor a ,*ri/ian b a ,jew1 & none o!r ?an ! fam\s poet ,solomon ibn ,gabirol4 ,!n began a se>* = copies ( a ,lat9 translation1 :i* 0 rew>d$ amply4 ,bo? ,munk & ,sey]l5 discov]$ manuscript copies ( ! ,fons ,vit1 & n[ bo? ! ,hebrew epitome ( ,falaqu]a & ! ,lat9 translation ( ,gundissal9us are accessible 9 pr9t4#hf ,s mu* = ! int]e/+ hi/ory ( ,gabirol4 ,n[ a ^w z to 8 views4 ,%em ,tob ibn ,falaqu]a1 9 ! brief introduction :i* he app5ds to 8 epitome ( ! ,mekor ,hayim says1 ,x seems to me t ,solomon ibn ,gabirol foll[s 9 8 book ! views ( ! anci5t philosoph]s z we f9d !m 9 a book compos$ by ,emp$ocles conc]n+ ! ',five ,sub/ances4'#hg ,?is book is bas$ ^u ! pr9ciple t all spiritual sub/ances h a spiritual matt]2 t ! =m comes f above & ! matt] receives x f bel[1 i4 e41 t ! matt] is a sub/ratum & be>s ! =m ^u x4 ,he !n adds t ,ari/otle attributes a simil> view to 8 pr$ecessors1 b t ?is view is inconsi/5t ) ,ari/otle's own ?9k+4 ,= 9 8 op9ion :at is mat]ial is composite & possess$ ( pot5tiality4 ,h5ce only ^? ?+s h matt] :i* are subject to g5]ation & decay1 & 9 g5]al *ange f "o /ate to ano!r4 ,)\t go+ into detail z to ! nature ( ?is "w ( ,emp$ocles nam$ by ,falaqu]a z ! s\rce ( ,gabirol's views--expositions ( ^! s-call$ ,emp$oclean views & fragm5ts f ,emp$ocles's book h be5 f\nd 9 ,arabian & ,hebrew writ]s#hh--;x is suffici5t = u to "k t x has no?+ to d ) ! real ,emp$ocles1 ! anci5t ,greek philosoph]2 t x 0 ano!r ( ! _m spuri\s writ+s :i* circulat$ 9 ! middle ages "u fam\s names ( antiquity2 & t l ! ,!ology ( ,ari/otle1 & ! ,lib] de ,causis1 m5tion$ 9 ! ,introduction 7p4 xx71 x 0 ,neo-,platonic 9 "*4 ,?us ,gabirol 0 a ,neo-,platoni/4 ,?is does n mean t he did n adopt _m important ,ari/otelian conceptions4 ,neo-,platonism itself c\ld n h aris5 )\t ,ari/otle4 ,! ideas ( matt] & =m1 & pot5tiality & actuality1 & ! categories1 & s on1 _h become ! fix$ elem5ts ( philosophical ?9k+1 & no new sy/em c\ld d )\t !m4 ,9 ?is s5se ,plot9us himself1 ! f\nd] ( ,neo-,platonism1 is an ,ari/otelian4 ,:5 we speak ( ,gabirol z a ,neo-,platoni/1 we mean t ! ess5ce ( 8 sy/em is ,neo-,platonic4 ,he is n a duali/1 b a moni/4 ,god & matt] are n oppos$ z two ultimate pr9ciples1 z !y are 9 ,ari/otle4 ,matt] 9 ,gabirol is ultimately id5tifi$ ) ,god4 ,9 ?is he goes ev5 beyond ,plot9us4 ,= :]eas 9 ,plot9us matt] occupies ! l[e/ scale 9 ! gradation ( be+ z x fl[s f ! ,"o or ! ,good 7cf4 ,introduction1 p4 xxxviii71 & becomes equival5t to ! non-exi/5t1 & is ! cause ( evil1 9 ,gabirol matt] is ! und]ly+ sub/ance = all be+ f ! highe/ to ! l[e/1 ) ! "o exception ( ! ,creator himself4#hi ,x emanates f ! ess5ce ( ! ,creator1 =m+ ! basis ( all subsequ5t emanations4#ij ,h5ce ! spiritual sub/ances ( ! cele/ial _w1 or1 to use a m te*nical & m precise t]m--s9ce _s is n locat$ 9 heav5 or any:]e spatially--! intelligible _w1 h matt] und]ly+ _! =m4#ia ,9 fact1 matt] itself is intelligible or spiritual1 n corporeal4#ib ,corporeality & mat]iality are two diff]5t ?+s4 ,!re are v>i\s gradations ( matt]1 to be sure2 = ! prime matt] z x em]ges f ! ess5ce ( ! ,creator p]vades all exi/5ce f highe/ to l[e/1 & ! fur!r x ext5ds f its orig9 ! less spiritual & ! m corporeal x becomes until 9 ! sublun> _w we h 9 ! matt]s ( its p>ticul> objects1 corporeal matt]1 i4 e41 matt] affect$ ) quantity & magnitude & figure & color4#ic ,l ,plot9us1 ,gabirol conceives ( ! univ]se z a process ( a gradually desc5d+ s]ies ( exi/5ces or worlds1 z ! ,kabbali/ic writ]s t]m !m2 ^! cosmic exi/5ces radiat+ or fl[+ out ( ! sup]abundant light & goodness ( ! ,creator4 ,! two extremes ( ?is grad$ univ]se are ,god at ! "o end1 & ! corporeal _w at ! o!r4 ,int]m$iate betwe5 ^! are ! spiritual sub/ances1 ,intellig5ce1 ,s\l & ,nature4#id ,man z a microcosm1 a univ]se 9 little1 p>takes ( bo? ! corporeal & int]m$iate worlds1 & h5ce may s]ve z a model ( ! con/itution ( ! macrocosm1 or great univ]se4 ,8 body is typical ( ! corporeal _w1 :i* consi/s ( ! l[e/ matt]1 viz41 t :i* has no o!r =m except t ( corporeality1 or ext5sion1 & ! =ms ( figure1 color1 & s on1 borne on top ( ! ext5sion4#ie ,body z su* is at re/ & is n capable ( action4 ,to act x ne$s an ag5t4 ,h5ce x ne$s an ag5cy to compose its p>ts & hold !m toge!r4 ,we call ?is ag5cy ,nature4 ,man's body also gr[s1 is n\ri%$ & propagates its k9d z d plants4 ,?is likewise mu/ h its non-corporeal cause4 ,?is we call vegetative s\l4 ,man has also s5se p]ception & local motion l ! animals4 ,! pr9ciple or sub/ance caus+ ?is is ! animal s\l4 ,man also ?9ks & reasons & reflects4 ,?is is br\ght ab\t by ! rational s\l4 ,f9ally1 man has a /ill high] function ?an discursive ?\ght4 ,! latt] has to se>* & to pass f premise to conclusion1 :]eas ! appreh5sion ( ! intellig5ce takes place )\t seek+1 )\t ef=t1 & )\t any o!r cause except its own ess5ce1 because x is full ( p]fection4 ,9 o!r words1 x is imm$iate intellectual intuition ( :i* ,gabirol speaks "h4 ,! ,intellig5ce is capable ( ?is because x has 9 itself1 con/itut+ its ess5ce1 all ! =ms ( exi/5ce1 & k means possession ( ! =ms ( ! ?+s kn[n4 ,z man is typical ( ! univ]se1 x foll[s t !re are cosmic exi/5ces correspond+ to ! pr9ciples or p[]s j enum]at$ 9 man1 & ! relation ( ! latt] to ! =m] is t ( ! p>ticul> to ! g5]al4 ,h5ce !re is a cosmic ,intellig5ce1 a cosmic s\l embrac+ ! rational1 ! animal & ! vegetative p>ts1 & a cosmic nature4 ,( ^! ! m p]fect is ! cause ( ! less p]fect2 h5ce ! ord] 9 :i* we nam$ !m repres5ts ! ord] ( causation or ( emanation f ! prime s\rce4 ,! l[e/ ( ^! emanations is ! matt] :i* su/a9s ext5sion or magnitude1 & ) x ! process ceases4 ,?is matt] is no long] ! s\rce ( an additional =m ( exi/5ce4 ,! v>i\s qualities & attributes :i* inh]e 9 ?is corporeal matt] are caus$ by ! spiritual sub/ances above4 ,= l ! prototype ( all g5]osity & goodness ! ,fir/ ,ess5ce or ,god1 e "o ( ! spiritual sub/ances proce$+ f him has ! same t5d5cy ( imp>t+ its =m or =ms to ! sub/ance next bel[ x4 ,b ! =ms ?us be/[$ are no long] ! same z !y are 9 ! ess5ce ( ! be/[+ sub/ance1 z x dep5ds ^u ! recipi5t :at sort ( =m x w receive4 ,an inf]ior receiv+ sub/ance w receive a sup]ior =m 9 an inf]ior way4 ,t is1 ! =m :i* 9 ! sub/ance above ! "o 9 "q is conta9$ 9 a spiritual & unit>y mann]1 w be trans=m$ 9 ! sub/ance bel[ x into some?+ less spiritual1 less unifi$1 & m ne>ly corporeal1 i4 e41 visible & tangible4 ,h5ce ! visible & tangible1 & 9 g5]al ! s5sible qualities ( p>ticul> ?+s 9 ! sublun> _w1 are 9 reality desc5d$ f a l9e ( spiritual ance/ors 9 ! =ms ( ! simple sub/ances1 ,intellig5ce1 ,s\l & ,nature4 ,b x is _! di/ance f ! prime s\rce1 :i* increases ) e transmission ( influ5ce1 toge!r ) ! crud] nature ( ! receiv+ sub/ance1 t makes ! result+ =ms corporeal & s5sible4 ,! matt] may be made cle> if we use ! analogy ( light1 :i* is invisible z long z x is 9 air because x p5etrates x1 b becomes visible :5 x comes 9 contact ) a gross body :i* x _c p5etrate4 ,x !n rema9s on ! surface cond5s$1 & becomes visible to ! s5ses4 ,we ?us see t ! high] sub/ance acts ^u ! l[] & conta9s all t is f\nd 9 ! latt]1 ?\gh 9 a m p]fect & simple mann]4 ,! l[] sub/ances fl[ f ! high] & yet ! latt] are n dim9i%$ 9 _! ess5ce & p[]4#if ,t ord9>y mat]ial objects are compos$ ( matt] & =m is admitt$ & we ne$ n n[ prove x1 z we h already discuss$ ! subject 9 ! ,introduction1 :]e we gave an outl9e ( ! ,ari/otelian philosophy4 ,! pr9ciple peculi> to ,gabirol is t n m]ely ! mat]ial objects ( ! sublun> _w1 b t ! intelligible or spiritual sub/ances also are compos$ ( matt] & =m4#ig ,:5ev] two ?+s h some?+ 9 common & some?+ 9 :i* !y diff]1 t :i* !y h 9 common is ! matt]1 t 9 :i* !y diff] is ! =m4 ,two ?+s absolutely simple mu/ be prime to ea* o!r1 i4 e41 !y mu/ h no?+ 9 common1 = if !y h any?+ 9 common !y h ev]y?+ 9 common1 & !y are no long] two ?+s b "o4 ,h5ce a spiritual sub/ance mu/ be composite1 = x mu/ h some?+ by :i* x diff]s f a corporeal sub/ance1 & some?+1 viz41 sub/antiality1 :i* x has 9 common ) x4 ,9 ! same way ! intelligible sub/ances1 ,intellig5ce & ,s\l1 h _! sub/antiality 9 common1 & !y diff] 9 =m4 ,h5ce !y are compos$ ( matt] & =m1 & ! matt] mu/ be ! same 9 all ! intelligible sub/ances2 = _! diff]5ces are due to _! =ms1 h5ce if _! matt]s also diff]$1 !y w\ld h to diff] 9 =m1 b matt] z su* has no =m4 ,h5ce matt] 9 itself is ev]y:]e ! same4 ,z ! ,intellig5ce is ! highe/ exi/5ce next to ,god1 & is compos$ ( matt] & =m1 ^! are respectively ! univ]sal matt] & univ]sal =m1 embrac+ all subsequ5t matt]s & =ms4#ih ,h5ce ! ,intellig5ce 9 kn[+ itself kn[s ev]y?+1 z ev]y?+ is conta9$ 9 x4 ,& z x is prior to ev]y?+ & ! cause ( ev]y?+ x has an imm$iate k ( all ?+s )\t ef=t or se>*+4 ,b :at is ! orig9 ( univ]sal matt] & univ]sal =m :i*1 9 con/itut+ ,intellig5ce1 are ! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( all exi/5ce8#ii ,! answ] is !y come f ! ,fir/ ,ess5ce1 ,god4 ,unity comes be=e duality or plurality1 & !re is no true unity except 9 ,god4 ,:atev] issues f him is ipso facto1 z a product :i* is n ,god1 affect$ ) duality4 ,matt] & ,=m is ?is duality4 ,_! union is necess>y & real1 & x is only 9 ?\ght t we c keep !m ap>t4 ,9 reality !y =m a unit1 _! union v>y+ 9 p]fection accord+ z !y are ne>] or fur!r away f _! orig94 ,h5ce ! union is close/ 9 ,intellig5ce1 ! fir/ div9e emanation1 & lea/ close 9 corporeal objects ( ! sublun> _w1 :]e plurality is ! ord] ( ! day4 ,?is process by :i* univ]sal matt] & =m issue f ,god may be call$ creation4#ajj ,b we mu/ conceive ( x on ! analogy ( wat] fl[+ f a f\nta9 9 cont9u$ & un9t]rupt$ succession4 ,! only diff]5ce is t ! emanation f ,god takes place )\t motion & )\t "t4 ,! union ( univ]sal =m & univ]sal matt] mu/ be ?\ght ( z a /amp+ ( ! =m ^u ! matt]4 ,matt] has 9 itself no actual or def9able exi/5ce4 ,x s]ves m]ely z a tabula rasa1 z a pot5tial backgr\nd1 z an empty receptacle1 z a reflect+ mirror = =m to be writt51 fill$ out1 impress$ or reflect$ !re9 or ^u4 ,h5ce we may view ,god z ! spectator1 univ]sal matt] z ! mirror1 & univ]sal =m z ! reflection ( ! spectator 9 ! glass4 ,god himself does n ent] ! glass1 only 8 reflection is outl9$ !re94 ,& z matt] & =m are really ! :ole _w1 x w\ld foll[ t ! univ]se is a reflection ( ,god1 ?\gh ,god rema9s 9 himself & does n ent] ! _w ) 8 ess5ce4 ,we may also picture to ourselves ?is impression ( =m ^u matt] on ! analogy ( spee*4 ,! speak]'s words impress ideas ^u ! s\l ( ! li/5]4 ,s ,god speaks & 8 ,^w or ,w impresses =m ^u matt]4 ,! _w is creat$ by ! ,^w or ! ,w#aja ( ,god4 ,9 all ^! similes matt] appe>s z some?+ ext]nal to ,god1 ^u :i* he impresses =m4 ,b ?is is n /rictly true1 s9ce matt] has no real exi/5ce )\t =m1 & has nev] s exi/$4 ,! exi/5ce ( matt] & =m is simultane\s1 & bo? come f ,god1 matt] f 8 ess5ce1 =m f 8 attribute1 or 8 ,wisdom1 or 8 ,^w1 or 8 ,w4 ,& yet 9 ,god1 :o is a p]fect unity1 ess5ce & attribute are "o4 ,x is ! ,w ( ,god1 n ,god himself1 t mu/ be reg>d$ z ! spectator1 ^: outl9e is reflect$ 9 ! mirror ( matt] 9 ! above simile4 ,x is ! ,w ( ,god t writes =m ^u ! *>t ( matt]1 & !reby produces a _w4 ,x is 9 virtue ( ! ,w t ,god is said to be 9 ev]y?+4 ,b :at is ?is w ( ,god z di/+ui%$ f ,god himself1 s9ce 9 ,god !re c be no duality ( any k9d8 ,gabirol's answ] is n cle> or satisfactory4 ,! w1 he says1 is id5tical ) ,god if we consid] x ap>t f its activity2 consid]$ z active x is diff]5t f ! div9e ess5ce4 ,exactly to describe x is impossible1 b ! foll[+ is an approximation4 ,x is a div9e p[] produc+ matt] & =m1 b9d+ !m toge!r1 p]vad+ !m ?r\gh\t _! ext5t above & bel[1 z ! s\l p]vades ! body1 & mov+ & ord]+ ev]y?+4 ,god himself1 or ! ,fir/ ,ess5ce1 c be kn[n only ?r\gh ! ,w z p]vad+ ev]y?+1 i4 e41 ?r\gh 8 effects 9 ! _w4 ,& 9 ?is way too only 8 exi/5ce c be kn[n b n 8 ess5ce z he is 9 himself1 because ,god is above ev]y?+ & inf9ite4 ,! s\l may "k ,intellig5ce because ?\gh ! latt] is above ! s\l !re is "s simil>ity betwe5 !m4 ,b ! ,fir/ ,ess5ce has no simil>ity to ,intellig5ce1 !re=e no intellig5ce c "k x4 ,!re is a k9d ( my/ic k by :i* man may come 9 t\* ) ! spiritual sub/ances & rise ev5 to univ]sal matt]1 :i* is above ,intellig5ce4 ,if y wi% to =m a picture ( ^! sub/ances1 ! ma/] says to ! disciple 9 ! ,fons ,vit1 y mu/ raise y\r intellect to ! la/ intelligible1 y mu/ purify x f all sordid s5sibility1 free x f ! captivity ( nature & approa* ) ! =ce ( y\r intellig5ce to ! la/ limit ( intelligible sub/ance t x is possible = y to compreh5d1 until y are entirely divorc$ f s5sible sub/ance & lose all k !re(4 ,!n y w embrace1 s to speak1 ! :ole corporeal _w 9 y\r be+1 & w place x 9 "o corn] ( y\r s\l4 ,:5 y h done ?is y w und]/& ! insignificance ( ! s5sible 9 comp>ison ) ! greatness ( ! intelligible4 ,!n ! spiritual sub/ances w be be=e y\r eyes1 compreh5d+ y & sup]ior to y1 & y w see y\r own be+ z ?\gh y 7 ^? sub/ances4 ,sometimes x w seem to y t y are a "p ( !m by reason ( y\r connection ) corporeal sub/ance2 & sometimes y w ?9k y are all ( !m1 & t !re is no diff]5ce betwe5 y & !m1 on acc\nt ( ! union ( y\r be+ ) _! be+1 & ! atta*m5t ( y\r =m to _! =ms4 ,! pupil assures ! tea*] t he has foll[$ ?is advice & se5 ! :ole corporeal _w float+ 9 ! spiritual sub/ances z a small boat 9 ! sea1 or a bird 9 ! air4 ,:5 y h rais$ y\rself to ! fir/ univ]sal matt]1 replies ! tea*]1 & illum9$ its %ad[1 y w see !re ! wond] ( wond]s4 ,pursue ?is !re=e dilig5tly & ) love1 because ?is is ! purpose ( ! exi/5ce ( ! human s\l1 & 9 ?is is great delight & extreme happ9ess4#ajb ,b ,gabirol does n promise a k ( ! ,mo/ ,high ev5 ?r\gh ?is royal road ( ec/asy1 unless we suppose t 9 ! promise ( see+ 9 univ]sal matt] ! wond] ( all wond]s !re may be a cov]t allusion to a glimpse ( ! deepe/ secret ( all1 ! ess5ce ( ,god4 ,all k is accord+ to ,gabirol embrac$ 9 ! foll[+ ?ree topics1 7#a7 ,matt] & ,=m1 7#b7 ! ,active ,^w or ,w1 7#c7 ! ,fir/ ,ess5ce or ,god4 ,by f> ! l>g] "p ( ! ,fons ,vit is devot$ to ! fir/ subject4 ,only brief h9ts are giv5 ( ! second & ?ird1 & ,gabirol ref]s u to a special "w ( 8 on ! ,w1 :i* he says he wrote4 ,!re is no trace ( any su* treatise4 ,at any rate x is cle> f ! little t is conta9$ on ! ,div9e ,w 9 ! ,fons ,vit t ! ,w =ms an important elem5t 9 ,gabirol's philosophy4 ,?is is ! m rem>kable because x is n an ess5tial elem5t 9 ,neo-,platonism1 ^u :i* ,gabirol's sy/em is bas$4 ,nay1 ! doctr9e ( a div9e w sc>cely has any place 9 ! =m ( emanation taught by ,plot9us4 ,! cosmic process is conceiv$ !re z necess>y & imp]sonal4 ,& b = ! introduction ( ! ,w 9 ! ,fons ,vit we %\ld be =c$ to und]/& ,gabirol 9 ! same way4 ,! difficulty 9 ,neo-,platonism is t ,god is at ! same "t transc5d5t &1 ?r\gh 8 p[]s or emanations1 imman5t 9 ! _w4 ,god is above all be+ & at ! same "t is ! cause ( & p]vades all exi/5ce4 ,gabirol mu/ h felt n m]ely ?is purely philosophical difficulty1 b z a ,jew1 ,pan!ism z well z imp]sonalism mu/ h be5 objectionable to him4 ,h5ce he mitigates bo? by introduc+ ! div9e w z m$iat+ betwe5 ,god & ! _w4 ,?is br+s ,god 9 clos] & m p]sonal t\* ) 8 creation4 ,! cosmic process is n a necess>y & imp]sonal fl[ or radiation b a volunt>y activity hav+ a purpose4 ,! solution is unsatisfactory1 z all su* solutions are b\nd to be1 because x introduces z _m difficulties z x solves4 ,! nature ( ?is div9e ,w is ambigu\s4 ,if x is ,god's w1 & ,god is ! ,"o 9 :om !re c be no di/9ctions1 we h only a new ^w1 & no?+ is solv$4 ,if on human analogy we are incl9$ to take ! w s]i\sly1 we are endang]+ ,god's unity4 ,?is dilemma ,gabirol does n succe$ 9 remov+4 ,8 sy/em /ill has a /rong flavor ( ,pan!ism1 & moreov] 8 id5tification ( ! ,w ( ,god ) ! ,wisdom & ! ,^w ( ,god1 & 8 hypo/atization ( ! latt] z 9 a s5se a be+ di/9ct f ,god1 rem9ds u /rongly ( ,philo's ,logos1 :i* became ! ,logos ( ,*ri/ianity1 ! second p]son 9 ! ,tr9ity4 ,?is is ! reason :y ,william ( ,auv]gne1 bi%op ( ,p>is 9 ! ?irte5? c5tury1 reg>d$ ,avicebron z a ,*ri/ian4 ,& ^! same reasons 7 no d\bt adequate to e/range ,jewi% read]s1 z ,abraham ibn ,daud expressly tells u ab\t himself1 ?\gh 8 t]ms are g5]al 7see above1 p4 #fb74 ,gabirol is also ! au?or ( an e?ical "w :i* he compos$ 9 #ajde4 ,?\gh ( little importance philosophically1 or p]haps because ( ?is1 ! ,tikkun ,middot ha-,nefe% 7,improvem5t ( ! ,qualities ( ! ,s\l7 f>$ mu* bett] ?an its m important companion1 ! ,mekor ,hayim4 ,n only did x h ! privilege ( a ,hebrew translation at ! h&s ( ! fa!r ( translators1 ,judah ibn ,tibbon1 b ! orig9al ,arabic itself is /ill extant & 0 rec5tly publi%$ ) an ,engli% translation by ,/eph5 ,s4 ,wise 7#aija74ajc ,! ,hebrew translation also _h ! good =tune ( be+ repr9t$ sev]al times4 ,?is is due to ! fact t ! ,tikkun ,middot ha-,nefe% is a popul> "w1 deal+ ) morals1 & does n g into metaphysical que/ions4 ,x is full ( ,biblical citations1 :i* /amps x z ,jewi%2 & !re are also 9 x quotations f ,arabic writ]s s]v+ to illu/rate ! argum5t & l5d+ v>iety & int]e/ to ! /yle4 ,! l>g] "q ( ! aim ( human life is t\*$ on 9 ! ,fons ,vit4 ,we are told !re t ! ultimate aim ( man's exi/5ce is t ! s\l %\ld unite ) ! upp] _w to :i* x belongs4#ajd ,! p>ticul> human s\l is accord+ to ,gabirol a "p1 ?\gh n 9 a physical s5se1 ( ! cosmic s\l1 :i* is "o ( ! univ]sal spiritual sub/ances 7see above1 p4 #ff74 ,h5ce its own real exi/5ce is spiritual & et]nal1 & indep5d5t ( ! body4 ,its entrance into ! body obscures its spiritual vision1 ?\gh x does n lose all t\* ) ! high] _w f :i* x came4 ,! s5ses & ! data ( s5se p]ception are n an end 9 !mselves2 !y are only a means = ! s\l ?r\gh !m to recall ! high] k :i* 0 its own 9 its spiritual exi/5ce1 & !reby w9 its return to ! intelligible _w4 ,man's duty !re=e 9 ?is _w is to /rive to atta9 ?is high] life = 8 s\l4 ,?is is br\ght ab\t by means ( k & practice4 ,?is k has to d ) kn[+ all ?+s z !y really are1 & p>ticul>ly ! intelligible sub/ances & ! ,prime ,ess5ce4 ,practice signifies to keep away z f> z possible f ?+s ( s5se1 :i* are =eign to ! s\l & might injure x4 ,:at m p>ticul>ly ! ?+s are :i* are b5eficial to ! s\l1 & :at are injuri\s1 we le>n f ,gabirol's e?ical treatise4 ,man's s\l has a high] & a l[] nature4 ,! high] p[] is ! reason or rational s\l1 ! l[] is ! animal or vegetative s\l2 & man's bus9ess is to see t ! reason rules ov] ! l[] nature4 ,gabirol does n give u any te/ by :i* we c tell :e!r a giv5 act or feel+ belongs to ! l[] or high] nature except to say t ! appetites are diseases ( ! body :i* mu/ be cur$2 t !y d n belong to ! rational s\l1 & to satisfy !m is n ! atta9m5t ( a good4 ,gabirol's me?od ( treat+ virtue & vice1 or r ! virtues & ! vices1 is to relate !m to ! five s5ses & ! f\r humors 9 man1 :i* 9 turn correspond to ! f\r elem5ts1 fire1 air1 wat]1 e>?1 & ! f\r primitive qualities1 hot1 cold1 moi/1 dry4 ,?is division ( ! elem5ts1 ! humors1 ! qualities & ! s5ses 0 a commonplace ( ! physiological & m$ical sci5ce ( ! "t4 ,we h met x 9 ,isaac ,israeli 7see above1 p4 #c71 & x goes back to ,ari/otle & ,gal5 & ,hippocrates4 ,! orig9ality1 ?\gh a que] "o to be sure1 ( ,gabirol is to br+ ! e?ical qualities ( man into relation ) all ^!4 ,! approximations are =c$ 9 e in/ance & (t5 ludicr\s4 ,in/ead ( attempt+ to give a psy*ological analysis ( ! qualities 9 "q1 he lays /ress on _! physical basis 9 "o ( ! five s5ses1 z we %all see pres5tly4 ,! great _w1 we are told1 0 creat$ out ( ! f\r elem5ts1 & simil>ly man1 ! microcosm1 also consi/s ( f\r natures correspond+ to ! elem5ts4 ,?us ! f\r humors1 ^u ! h>moni\s comb9ation ( :i* ! heal? ( man's body dep5ds1 viz41 blood1 phlegm1 black gall1 & r$ gall1 correspond respectively to air1 wat]1 e>?1 fire4 ,man is end[$ besides ) five s5ses4 ,if he is wise he w use 8 s5ses prop]ly & 9 ! "r measure1 l a skilful physician :o calculates c>efully :at proportion ( ea* drug %\ld be prescrib$4 ,! s5se ( sight is ! noble/ ( ! s5ses1 & is relat$ to ! body z ! sun to ! _w4 ,! philosoph]s h a wond]ful say+ conc]n+ ! eye t !re are spiritual t9ts 9 ! s\l :i* are visible 9 ! movem5ts ( ! eyelids--pride & haught9ess1 humility & meekness4 ,accord+ly ! e?ical qualities due to ! s5se ( sight are pride1 meekness1 mode/y & impud5ce1 besides ! subord9ate qualities d]iv$ f ^!4 ,pride is common 9 a p]son ( a w>m disposition 9 :om ! r$ gall pr$om9ates4 ,_m wise m5 exhibit ?is quality out ( place1 fools adopt x until !y are ma/]$ by x1 & x is preval5t 9 y\?4 ,x may be useful :5 x keeps a man away f vice & unwor?y ?+s1 inspir+ him to rise to nobility ( "* & ! s]vice ( ,god4 ,b g5]ally x is useless & leads to _m evils1 especially if x causes "o to be self-op9ionat$1 refus+ to seek ! advice ( anyone4 ,:5 a man sees ?is quality ga9+ ma/]y ov] him1 he %\ld consid] ! orig9 & end ( exi/+ ?+s4 ,:5 he sees t all ?+s are de/9$ to pass away1 & himself likewise1 8 pride w *ange to humility4 ,meekness is clos] to virtue ?an ! quality m5tion$ be=e1 because he :o possesses x )holds 8 desire f seek+ gratification4 ,x is a quality manife/$ by ! prophets & leads to honor4 ,! fruits ( l[l9ess1 a philosoph] has said1 are love & tranquillity4 ,cont5tm5t is ( a k9d ) meekness4 ,! greate/ ri*es are cont5tm5t & pati5ce4 ,he :o e/eems 8 rank b lightly enhances man's e/imation ( 8 dignity4 ,a wise man has said1 ,be humble )\t cr++1 & manly )\t be+ arrogant4 ,arrogance is a wild]ness & haught9ess a tak+ refuge !re91 & altoge!r a go+ a/ray4 ,mode/y is connect$ ) humility b is sup]ior to x1 = x is a si/] ( reason1 & reason1 z ev]ybody kn[s1 is ! mo/ important quality1 :i* sep>ates man f bea/ & br+s him ne> to ! angels4 ,y nev] see a mode/ p]son )\t s5se1 or a p]son ( good s5se :o is n mode/4 ,a man mu/ be mode/ n only be=e o!rs b also to himself4 ,mode/y & fai?fulness1 x is said1 are closely relat$1 & ! "o _c be _h truly )\t ! o!r4 ,! impud5t man is dislik$ by ,god & by man1 ev5 if he be wise & le>n$4 ,if "o has ?is quality x is ! duty ( 8 fri5d & associate to break him ( x by reprov+ him4 ,x is ( value only :5 us$ 9 def5ce ( ! ,torah & 9 behalf ( ,god & ! tru?4 ,space w n p]mit u to treat 9 detail ( ! o!r s5ses & ! virtues & vices dep5d+ ^u !m1 b we %all indicate briefly ,gabirol's me?od ( relat+ ! e?ical qualities to ! physical s5ses4 ,?us ! s5se ( he>+1 :i* is next 9 importance to sight has z its qualities hate1 love1 m]cy & cruelty4 ,x takes "s f9e insight1 he says1 to see ! connection ( ^! qualities ) ! s5se ( he>+1 b ! intellig5t & disc]n+ read] w f9d ?is h9t suffici5t4 ,i hope he w n blame me1 ,gabirol cont9ues1 if ,i d n br+ toge!r all ! reasons & ! scriptural passages to prove ?is1 = human fle% is weak1 especially 9 my case on acc\nt ( my vexati\s exp]i5ces & disappo9tm5ts4 ,we f9d 9 ! ,bible love associat$ ) he>+3 ,he>1 ,o ,israel 444 & ?\ %alt love ! ,"l ?y ,god 7,deut4 #f1 #d74 ,hate foll[s he>+ 9 ! phrase3 ,:5 ,esau he>d ! words ( 8 fa!r 444 & ,esau hat$ ,jacob 7,g54 #bg1 #cd-da74 ,m]cy is relat$ to he>+ 9 ,exod4 7#bb1 #bf71 ,& ,i w he> = ,i am m]ciful4 ,f9ally cruelty is to refuse to li/51 z we f9d 9 ! case ( ,ph>aoh 7,ex4 #i1 #ab71 ,& ! ,"l h>d5$ ! he>t ( ,ph>aoh1 & he he>k5$ n unto !m4 ,9 a simil> mann] ,gabirol proves t ! s5se ( smell has f\r qualities1 ang]1 favor1 envy1 wide-awak5ess2 ! s5se ( ta/e1 ! f\r qualities1 joy1 sorr[1 regret1 calmness2 :ile lib]ality1 nigg>dl9ess1 c\rage & c[>dice are relat$ to ! s5se ( t\*4 ,! relation ( ! e?ical qualities to ! s5ses1 humors1 elem5ts & primitive physical qualities is exhibit$ 9 ! foll[+ table1 z x appe>s 9 ! ,arabic text ( ! ,aslah al-,ahlak1 ! orig9al title ( ,gabirol's e?ical "w4 ,illu/ration ,among ,gabirol's religi\s poems !re is "o :i* int]e/s u p>ticul>ly because x be>s traces ( ! philosophy ( ! ,fons ,vit4 ,x is ! mo/ important ( 8 hymns & is f\nd 9 ! pray]-book ( ! ,seph>dic ritual = ! ,day ( ,atonem5t4 ,! ,royal ,cr[n1 z ! poem is entitl$1 is an appeal to ,god = m]cy & =giv5ess1 & is bas$ ^u ! contra/ betwe5 ! greatness ( ,god & ! insignificance ( man4 ,! fir/ "p is !re=e devot$ to a poetical description ( ,god's attributes & ! wond]s ( ! cosmic sy/em1 z conceiv$ 9 ! a/ronomical sci5ce ( ! day4 ,a few quotations w give u an idea ( ! /yle & "* ( ! hymn & its relation to ! ,fons ,vit4 ,?9e are ! my/]ies1 :i* nei!r fancy nor imag9ation c compreh5d2 & ! life1 ov] :i* dissolution ha? no p[]4 ,?9e is ! ,?rone exalt$ above all height2 & ! habitation conceal$ 9 ! em95ce ( its recess4 ,?9e is ! exi/5ce1 f ! %ad[ ( ^: light sprung e exi/+ ?+2 ( :i* we said1 "u its protect+ %ad[ %all we live4444 ,?\ art ,"o1 ! fir/ ( e numb]1 & ! f\ndation ( all /ructure4 ,?\ art ,"o1 & 9 ! my/]y ( ! ,unity all ! wise 9 he>t are a/oni%$2 = !y _c def9e x4 ,?\ art ,"o1 & ?y ,unity c nei!r be less5$ nor augm5t$2 = no?+ is !re want+ or sup]flu\s4 ,?\ art ,"o1 b n su* a "o z is e/imat$ or numb]$2 = nei!r plurality1 nor *ange1 =m1 nor physical attribute1 nor "n expressive ( ?y quality1 c rea* !e4444 ,9 ! same way he treats ,god's o!r attributes1 exi/5t1 liv+1 great1 mighty4 ,!n he cont9ues3 ,?\ art light1 & ! eyes ( e pure s\l %all see !e2 = ! cl\ds ( iniquity alone hide !e f h] sight4444 ,?\ art mo/ high1 & ! eye ( ! intellect desire? & longe? = !e2 b x c only see a "p1 x _c see ! :ole ( ?y greatness4444 ,?\ art ,god1 :o by ?y ,div9ity supporte/ all ?+s =m$2 & upholde/ all creatures by ?y ,unity4 ,?\ art ,god1 & !re is no di/9ction betwe5 ?y godhead1 unity1 et]nity or exi/5ce2 = all is "o my/]y2 & al?\gh ea* ( ^! attributes is v>i\sly nam$1 yet ! :ole po9t to "o end4 ,?\ art wise1 & wisdom1 :i* is ! f\nta9 ( life1 fl[e? f !e2 & comp>$ ) ?y wisdom1 ! k ( all mank9d is folly4 ,?\ art wise2 & did/ exi/ prior to all ! mo/ anci5t ?+s2 & wisdom 0 re>$ by !e4 ,?\ art wise2 & ha/ n le>n$ aught f ano!r1 nor acquir$ ?y wisdom f anyone else4 ,?\ art wise2 & f ?y wisdom ?\ did/ cause to emanate a ready w1 an ag5t & arti/ z x 71 to draw exi/5ce out ( non-exi/5ce1 z light proce$s f ! eye4 ,?\ drawe/ f ! s\rce ( light )\t a vessel1 & produce/ ev]y?+ )\t a tool4 ,!n foll[s a description ( ! con/itution ( ! sublun> _w1 ! t]re/rial sph]e consi/+ ( "p e>?1 "p wat]1 & be+ surr\nd$ by ! successive sph]es ( air & fire4 ,!n foll[ 9 ord] ! sph]es ( ! ,moon1 ,m]cury1 ,v5us1 ,sun1 ,m>s1 ,jupit]1 ,saturn1 ! sph]es ( ! fix$ />s1 & ! out]mo/ sph]e embrac+ all & giv+ to ! entire heav5 ! diurnal motion f ea/ to we/4 ,he !n cont9ues3 ,:o c und]/& ?y trem5d\s my/]ies1 :5 ?\ did/ exalt above ! n9? orb1 ! sph]e ( ! ,intellig5ce2 t is ! inn] temple2 = ! t5? %all be holy to ! ,"l4 ,?is is ! sph]e :i* is exalt$ above all ! highe/1 & :i* no imag9ation c rea*2 & !re is ! hid+-place1 :]e9 is ! canopy = ?y glory4444 ,o ,"l6 :o c come ne> ?y und]/&+1 :5 ?\ did/ place on high above ! sph]e ( ! ,intellig5ce ! ,?rone ( ?y glory1 :]e is ! glori\s dwell+ ( ! hid+-place2 !re also is ! my/]y & ! f\ndation 7matt]72 s f> ! intellect may rea* & no fur!r2 = above ?is art ?\ greatly exalt$ ^u ?y mighty ?rone1 :]e no man may come up to !e4444 ,:o c compreh5d ?y p[]1 :5 ?\ did/ create f ! spl5dor ( ?y glory a pure lu/re8 ,f ! rock ( rocks 0 x hewn1 & dug f ! holl[ ( ! cave4 ,?\ also did/ be/[ on x ! _s ( wisdom1 & did/ call x s\l4 ,?\ did/ =m x hewn f ! flames ( intellectual fire1 s t its _s burne? z fire )9 x4 ,?\ did/ s5d x =? to ! body to s]ve & gu>d x2 x is z fire 9 ! mid/ ( x1 & yet do? n consume x2 = f ! fire ( ! s\l ! body 0 creat$1 & call$ into exi/5ce f no?+1 because ! ,"l desc5d$ !reto 9 fire4 ,"h we see ! ,intellig5ce spok5 ( z /&+ above ! heav5ly sph]es4 ,?is cle>ly repres5ts ! cosmic ,intellig5ce z a creation ( ,god1 :i* is exalt$ above all ! highe/1 h5ce ! fir/ product ( ,god's light4 ,& yet ! ,?rone ( ,glory is said to be plac$ ev5 above ! sph]e ( ! ,intellig5ce4 ,he speaks ( x z ! my/]y & ! f\ndation 7,yesod71 beyond :i* ! intellect _c rea*4 ,?is is app>5tly a contradiction1 b becomes cle> :5 we le>n :at is meant by ! ,?rone ( ,glory1 & by f\ndation4 ,9 ! ,fons ,vit ,gabirol tells u t matt] receives =m f ! ,fir/ ,ess5ce ?r\gh ! m$ium ( ! ,w1 :i* latt] !re=e1 z x be/[s =m ^u matt]1 sits 9 x & re/s ^u x4 ,& h5ce1 he says1 matt] is z x 7 ! /ool 7ca!dra7 ( ! ,"o4 ,! ^w yesod 7f\ndation7 :i* ,gabirol applies 9 ! ,ket] ,malkut 7,royal ,cr[n7 to ! ,?rone ( ,glory is ! same t ,falaqu]a uses = matt] ?r\gh\t 9 8 epitome ( ! ,mekor ,hayim4 ,h5ce x is cle> t ! ,?rone ( ,glory :i* is above ! ,intellig5ce is no?+ else ?an ,gabirol's matt]4 ,& we "k f ! ,fons ,vit t matt] is really prior to ,intellig5ce z x exi/s 9 ! k ( ,god1 b t 9 reality x nev] 01 z a creation1 )\t =m2 & t ) =m x con/itutes ! ,intellig5ce4 ,f9ally !re is also a ref]5ce 9 ! poem to ! w z emanat+ f ,god's wisdom1 & l an ag5t & arti/ draw+ exi/5ce out ( non-exi/5ce z light proce$s f ! eye4 ,! process ( creation is ?us comp>$ ) ! radiation ( light 9 ! s5t5ce j quot$1 & likewise 9 ! foll[+3 ,?\ drawe/ f ! s\rce ( light )\t a vessel1 & produce/ ev]y?+ )\t a tool4 ,we d n "k :e!r ,gabirol wrote any comm5t>ies on ! ,bible--none are extant1 nor are !re any ref]5ces to su* works--b f 8 exegetical attempts 9 8 e?ical "w discuss$ above 7p4 #ga ff47 & f citations by ,abraham ibn ,ezra ( ,gabirol's explanations ( c]ta9 passages 9 ,scripture1 we ga!r t l ,philo ( ,alex&ria be=e him & ,maimonides & a ho/ ( philosophical comm5tators aft] him1 he us$ ! allegorical me?od to reconcile 8 philosophical views ) ! ,bible1 & read ! =m] into ! latt]4#aje ,?us we are told t ,ed5 repres5ts ! pres5ce ( ,god1 ! g>d5 plant$ 9 ,ed5 /&s = ! angelic be+s or1 accord+ to ano!r int]pretation1 = ! _w ( s5se4 ,by ! riv] :i* fl[s out ( ,ed5 is meant prime matt] :i* issues f ! ess5ce ( ,god accord+ to ! ,fons ,vit4 ,! f\r divisions ( ! riv] are ! f\r elem5ts2 ,adam is ! rational s\l1 ,eve1 z ! ,hebrew "n indicates1 ! animal s\l1 & ! s]p5t is ! vegetative or appetitive s\l4 ,! s]p5t entices ,adam to eat ( ! =bidd5 tree4 ,?is means t :5 ! l[] s\l succe$s 9 controll+ ! reason1 ! result is evil & s91 & man is driv5 out ( ! ,g>d51 i4 e41 is exclud$ f 8 angelic purity & becomes a corporeal be+4 ,x is cle> f all ?is t ,gabirol's omission ( all ref]5ce to ,jewi% dogma 9 ! ,fons ,vit 0 purely me?odological4 ,philosophy1 & religion or !ology %\ld be kept ap>t 9 a purely philosophical "w4 ,apologetics or h>monization has its rights1 b x is a diff]5t dep>tm5t ( /udy1 & %\ld be treat$ by itself1 or 9 connection ) exegesis ( ! ,bible4 ,:ile x is true t ,gabirol's influ5ce on subsequ5t ,jewi% philosophy is slight--at mo/ we f9d x 9 ,moses & ,abraham ibn ,ezra1 ,abraham ibn ,daud & ,joseph ibn ,zaddik--traces ( 8 ideas are met ) 9 ! my/icism ( ! ,kabbala4 ,gabirol's ,fons ,vit is a peculi> comb9ation ( logical =malism ) my/ic obscurity1 or pr(undity1 accord+ to "o's po9t ( view4 ,! latt] did n appeal to pure rationali/s l ,ibn ,daud or ,maimonides1 & ! =m] seem$ unconv9c+1 z x 0 employ$ 9 a lo/ cause4 ,= ,neo-,platonism 0 giv+ way to ,ari/otelianism1 :i* 0 adopt$ by ,maimonides & made ! au?oritative & /&>d philosophy4 ,x 0 diff]5t ) ! ,kabbala4 ,^? :o 7 responsible = its spread 9 ! ?irte5? c5tury mu/ h be5 attract$ by ! seem+ly esot]ic "* ( a philosophy :i* sees ! invisible 9 ! visible1 ! spiritual 9 ! corporeal1 & ! reflection ( ! unkn[able ,god 9 ev]y?+4 ,!re are c]ta9 details also :i* are common to bo?1 su* z ! analogies ( irradiation ( light or fl[+ ( wat] us$ to repres5t ! process ( creation1 ! position ( ! ,w1 ! exi/5ce ( matt] 9 spiritual be+s1 & s on1 ?\gh "s ( ^! ideas are common to all ,neo-,platonic sy/ems1 & ! ,kabbala may h _h access to ! same s\rces z ,gabirol4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,bahya ,,ibn ,,pakuda ,all t is kn[n ( ! life ( ,bahya b5 ,joseph ibn ,pakuda is t he liv$ 9 ,spa9 & _h ! (fice ( ,dayyan1 or judge ( ! ,jewi% community4 ,n ev5 ! exact "t 9 :i* he liv$ is yet det]m9$1 ?\gh ! mo/ reliable rec5t inve/igations make x probable t he liv$ aft] ,gabirol & 0 indebt$ to ! latt] = "s ( 8 views 9 philosophy z well z 9 ,e?ics4#ajf ,s f> z traditional data are conc]n$ we h equally reliable1 or r equally unreliable /atem5ts = reg>d+ ,bahya z an old] contempor>y ( ,gabirol 7elev5? c5tury71 or ( ,abraham ibn ,ezra 7#ajhh-aafg74 ,nei!r ( ^! two data be+ v\*$ = by any b _! respective au?ors1 :o liv$ a long "t aft] ,bahya1 we are left to su* indirect evid5ce z may be ga!r$ f ! cont5t ( ,bahya's e?ical "w1 ! ,duties ( ! ,he>ts4 ,& "h ! rec5t inve/igations ( ,yahuda1 ! late/ au?ority on ?is subject & ! editor ( ! ,arabic text ( ,bahya's ma/]piece 7#aiab71 =ce ^u u ! conclusion t ,bahya wrote aft] ,gabirol4 ,yahuda has %[n t _m passages 9 ! ,duties ( ! ,he>ts are practically id5tical 9 cont5t & expression ) simil> ideas f\nd 9 a "w ( ! ,arab philosoph] ,gazali 7#ajei-aaaa74 ,?is leaves v little d\bt t ,bahya borr[$ f ,gazali & h5ce c\ld n h writt5 be=e ! twelf? c5tury4 ,to be sure1 !re are argum5ts on ! o!r side1 :i* w\ld give *ronological priority to ,bahya ov] ,gabirol1#ajg b )\t go+ into ! details ( ?is m9ute & difficult discussion1 x may be said g5]ally t _m ( ! simil>ities 9 ?\ght & expression betwe5 ! two e?ical works ( ,gabirol & ,bahya r po9t 9 favor ( ! view "h adopt$1 namely1 t ,bahya borr[$ f ,gabirol1 :ile ! re/ prove no?+ = ei!r side4 ,9 s f> z a read] ( ! ,duties ( ! ,he>ts recognizes "h & !re an idea met ) 9 ,gabirol's ,fons ,vit1 !re c sc>cely be any d\bt t ! latt] is ! m orig9al ( ! two4 ,gabirol did n borr[ 8 philosophy or any "p !re( f ,bahya4 ,despite its ,neo-,platonic "* ! ,fons ,vit ( ,gabirol is ! mo/ indep5d5t & orig9al ( ,jewi% m$ival productions4 ,! ,duties ( ! ,he>ts owes :at orig9ality x has to its e?ics1 :i* is ! *ief aim ( ! "w1 & n at all to ! introductory philosophical *apt]4 ,z we %all see lat]1 ! entire *apt] on ! exi/5ce & unity ( ,god1 :i* introduces ! e?ical tea*+s ( ,bahya1 moves 9 ! famili> l9es ( ,saadia1 ,al ,mukammas1 ,joseph al ,basir & ! o!r ,jewi% ,mutakallimun4 ,!re is besides a t\* ( ,neo-,platonism 9 ,bahya1 :i* may be due to ,gabirol z well z to ,arabic s\rces4 ,t ,bahya did n borr[ m f ! ,fons ,vit ?an he did is due no d\bt to ! diff]5ce 9 temp]am5t betwe5 ! two m54 ,bahya is n a my/ic4 ,fill$ z he is ) ! _s ( piety & w>m? ( he>t--an attitude reflect$ 9 8 /yle1 :i* help$ to make 8 "w ! mo/ popul> moral-religi\s book 9 ,jewi% lit]ature--!re is no trace ( pan!ism or metaphysical my/icism 9 8 nature4 ,8 ideas are sane & rational1 & _! expression cle> & transp>5t4 ,gabirol's high flights 9 ! ,fons ,vit h little 9 common ) ,bahya's mode/ & brief outl9e ( ! famili> doctr9es ( ! exi/5ce1 unity & attributes ( ,god1 = :i* he claims no orig9ality1 & :i* s]ve m]ely z ! backgr\nd = 8 contribution to religi\s e?ics4 ,t ,bahya %\ld h tak5 a few lead+ notions f ! ,fons ,vit1 su* z did n antagonize 8 temp]am5t & mode ( ?9k+1 is q possible1 & we %all be/ expla9 su* resemblances 9 ?is mann]4 ,z ,abraham ibn ,ezra 9 #aaef makes m5tion ( ,bahya & 8 views1#ajh we are safe 9 conclud+ t ! ,duties ( ! ,he>ts 0 writt5 betwe5 #aajj & #aaef4 ,z ! title ( ! "w indicates1 ,bahya saw ! great significance ( a di/9ction made by ,mohamm$an !ologians & famili> 9 _! ascetic lit]ature1 betwe5 outw>d c]emonial or obs]vance1 kn[n z visible wisdom & duties ( ! limbs1 & inw>d int5tion1 attitude & feel+1 call$ hidd5 wisdom & duties ( ! he>ts4#aji ,! prophet ,isaiah compla9s t ! p are dilig5t 9 br++ sacrifices1 celebrat+ ! fe/ivals & (f]+ pray] :ile _! h&s are full ( blood4 ,he in=ms !m t su* conduct is an abom9ation to ! ,"l1 & admoni%es !m to wa% !mselves1 to make !mselves clean1 to put away ! evil ( _! de$s f be=e ,god's eyes2 to cease to d evil2 to le>n to d well1 to seek = ju/ice1 to relieve ! oppress$1 to d ju/ice to ! fa!rless1 to plead = ! wid[ 7,isa4 #a1 #aa-ag74 ,?is is a di/9ction betwe5 duties to ,god & duties to "o's fell[ man1 betwe5 religi\s c]emony & e?ical practice4 ,saadia makes a fur!r di/9ction--also f\nd 9 ,arabic !ology be=e him--betwe5 ^? comm&m5ts & prohibitions 9 ! ,bible :i* ! reason itself approves z "r or condemns z wrong--! rational comm&m5ts--& ^? :i* to ! reason seem indiff]5t1 & :i* revelation alone *>act]izes z obligatory1 p]mitt$ or =bidd5--! s-call$ traditional comm&m5ts4 ,bahya's division is id5tical ) nei!r ! "o nor ! o!r4 ,e?ical practice may be purely ext]nal & a matt] ( ! limbs1 q z mu* z sacrifice & c]emonial ritual4 ,on ! o!r h&1 "o may feel pr(\ndly mov$ ) ! _s ( true piety1 love ( ,god & loyalty to 8 comm&m5ts 9 ! p]=mance ( a s-call$ traditional comm&m5t1 l ! fa/5+ ( a mezuzah to ! door-po/4 ,bahya f9ds room = ,saadia's classification b x is ) him ( subord9ate importance1 & is applicable only to ! duties ( ! limbs4 ,among ^! alone are !re "s :i* ! reason unaid$ by revelation w\ld n h prescrib$4 ,! duties ( ! he>t are all rational4 ,l all precepts !y are bo? positive & negative4 ,examples ( positive duties ( ! he>t are1 belief 9 a creator :o made ! _w out ( no?+2 belief 9 8 unity & incomp>ability2 ! duty to s]ve him ) all our he>t1 to tru/ 9 him1 to submit to him1 to fe> him1 to feel t he is wat*+ our op5 & secret actions1 to long = 8 favor & direct our actions = 8 "n's sake2 to love ^? :o love him s z to be ne> unto him1 & to hate ^? :o hate him4 ,negative precepts ( ?is class are ! opposites ( ^? m5tion$1 & o!rs besides1 su* z t we %\ld n covet1 or be> a grudge1 or ?9k ( =bidd5 ?+s1 or desire !m or cons5t to d !m4 ,! common *>act]i/ic ( all duties ( ! he>t is t !y are n visible to o!rs4 ,god alone c judge :e!r a p]son's feel+ & motives are pure or ! rev]se4 ,t ^! duties are incumb5t ^u u is cle> f e po9t ( view4 ,l ,saadia ,bahya f9ds ! s\rces ( k1 p>ticul>ly ( ! k ( ,god's law & religion1 9 s5se1 reason1 writt5 law & tradition4 ,leav+ out ! s5ses :i* are n compet5t 9 ?is p>ticul> case1 ! obligatory "* ( ! duties ( ! he>t is v\*$ = by ! o!r ?ree1 reason1 law1 tradition4 ,f reason we "k t man is compos$ ( s\l & body1 & t bo? are due to ,god's goodness4 ,"o is visible1 ! o!r is n4 ,h5ce we are oblig$ to wor%ip ,god 9 a two-fold mann]2 ) visible wor%ip & invisible4 ,visible wor%ip repres5ts ! duties ( ! limbs1 su* z pray]1 fa/+1 *>ity1 & s on1 :i* are c>ri$ out by ! visible organs4 ,! hidd5 wor%ip includes ! duties ( ! he>t1 = example1 to ?9k ( ,god's unity1 to believe 9 him & 8 ,law1 to accept 8 wor%ip1 etc41 all ( :i* are accompli%$ by ! ?\ght ( ! m9d1 )\t ! assi/ance ( ! visible limbs4 ,besides1 ! duties ( ! limbs1 ! obligation ( :i* no "o d\bts1 are incomplete )\t ! w ( ! he>t to d !m4 ,h5ce x foll[s t !re is a duty ^u our s\ls to wor%ip ,god to ! ext5t ( our p[]s4 ,! ,bible is j z emphatic 9 tea*+ ^! duties z ! reason4 ,! love ( ,god & ! fe> ( ,god are con/antly inculcat$2 & 9 ! sph]e ( negative precepts we h su* prohibitions z1 ,?\ %alt n covet 7,exod4 #bj1 #ag72 ,?\ %alt n take v5geance1 nor be> any grudge 7,lev4 #ai1 #ah72 ,?\ %alt n hate ?y bro!r 9 ?y he>t 7ib4 #ag72 ,y %alt n g a/ray aft] y\r own he>t 7,num4 #ae1 #ci72 ,?\ %alt n h>d5 ?y he>t nor %ut ?y h& f ?y ne$y bro!r 7,deut4 #ae1 #g71 & _m o!rs4 ,rabb9ical lit]ature is j z full ( su* precepts z ! ,bible1 & is if possible ev5 m emphatic 9 _! inculcation4 ,witness su* say+s z ! foll[+3 ,heav5 reg>ds ! int5tion 7,sanh4 #ajf;b73 ,! he>t & ! eye are two procur]s ( s9 7,j]4 ,b]ak4 #a71 & _m o!rs1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! treatise ,abot4 ,! great importance ( ^! duties is also made manife/ by ! fact t ! puni%m5t 9 ! ,bible = un9t5tional misde$s is m l5i5t ?an = int5tional1 prov+ t = puni%m5t ! m9d mu/ %>e ) ! body 9 ! p]=mance ( ! de$4 ,! same is true ( rew>d1 t none is receiv$ = p]=m+ a good de$ if x is n done 9 ! "n ( heav54 ,!y are ev5 m important ?an ! duties ( ! limbs1 = unlike ! latt] ! obligation ( ! duties ( ! he>t is always 9 =ce1 & is indep5d5t ( p]iods or circum/ances4 ,_! numb]1 too1 is inf9ite1 & n limit$1 z are ! duties ( ! limbs1 to six hundr$ & ?irte54 ,& yet1 ,bahya compla9s1 despite ! great importance ( ^! duties1 v few are ! m5 :o obs]v$ !m ev5 9 ! g5]ations prec$+ ours1 n to speak ( our own days :5 ev5 ! ext]nal c]emonies are neglect$1 mu* m s ! class ( precepts "u discussion4 ,! majority ( /ud5ts ( ! ,torah are actuat$ by desire = fame & honor1 & devote _! "t to ! intricacies ( legali/ic discussion 9 ,rabb9ic lit]ature1 & matt]s uness5tial1 :i* are ( no acc\nt 9 ! improvem5t ( ! s\l2 b !y neglect su* important subjects ( /udy z ! unity ( ,god1 :i* we ought to und]/& & di/+ui% f o!r unities1 & n m]ely receive p>rot fa%ion f tradition4 ,we are expressly comm&$ 7,deut4 #d1 #ci71 ,"k !re=e ?is day1 & reflect 9 ?y he>t1 t ! ,et]nal is ! ,god 9 ! heav5s above1 & ^u ! e>? b5ea?3 !re is none else4 ,only he is exempt f /udy+ ^! matt]s ^: p[]s are n adequate to grasp !m1 su* z wom51 *ildr5 & simpletons4 ,moreov] ,bahya is ! fir/1 he tells u1 among ! po/-,talmudical writ]s1 to treat sy/ematically & ex pr(esso ?is bran* ( our religi\s duties4 ,:5 ,i look$1 he says1 into ! works compos$ by ! e>ly writ]s aft] ! ,talmud on ! comm&m5ts1 ,i f\nd t _! writ+s c be classifi$ "u ?ree heads4 ,fir/1 exposition ( ! ,torah & ! ,prophets1 l ! grammatical & lexicographical treatises ( ,ibn ,janah1 or ! exegetical works ( ,saadia4 ,second1 brief compilations ( precepts1 l ! works ( ,hefez b5 ,yazliah & ! responsa ( "s geonim4 ,?ird1 works ( a philosophico-apologetic "*1 l ^? ( ,saadia1 ,al ,mukammas & o!rs1 ^: purpose x 0 to pres5t 9 an acceptable mann] ! doctr9es ( ! ,torah1 to prove !m by logical demon/ration1 & to refute ! criticisms & errone\s views ( unbeliev]s4 ,b ,i h n se5 any book deal+ ) ! hidd5 wisdom4#aaj ,"h we see cle>ly ! purpose ( ,bahya4 ,x is n ! rationalization ( ,jewi% dogma t he is int]e/$ 91 nor ! reconciliation ( religion & philosophy4 ,x is ! purification ( religion itself f )9 :i* he seeks to accompli%4 ,s9c]ity & consi/5cy 9 our words & our ?\ghts1 s f> z ! s]vice ( ,god is conc]n$1 is ! fundam5tal requirem5t & ess5tial value ( ! duties ( ! he>t4 ,to be sure ?is _c be atta9$ )\t intellig5ce4 ,! k ( ,god & ( 8 unity is a pr]equisite = a prop] und]/&+ & an adequate appreciation ( our religi\s duties4 ,philosophy !re=e becomes a necessity 9 ! int]e/ ( a pur] & tru] religion1 )\t ref]5ce to ! dang]s ?reat5+ x f )\t4 ,hav+ f\nd1 he cont9ues 9 ! introduction to ! ,duties ( ! ,he>ts1 t all ! ?ree s\rces1 reason1 ,bible & tradition1 comm& ?is bran* ( our religi\s duties1 ,i tri$ to ?9k ab\t !m & to le>n !m1 be+ l$ f "o topic to ano!r until ! subject became s l>ge t ,i fe>$ ,i c\ld n conta9 x all 9 my memory4 ,i !n det]m9$ to write ! subject d[n sy/ematically 9 a book = my own b5efit z well z = ! b5efit ( o!rs4 ,b ,i hesitat$ ab\t writ+ x on acc\nt ( my limitations1 ! difficulty ( ! subject & my limit$ k ( ,arabic1 ! language 9 :i* ,i int5d$ writ+ x because ! majority ( our p are be/ famili> ) x4 ,b ,i ?\ght bett] ( x & realiz$ t x 0 my duty to d :at ,i c\ld ev5 if x 0 n p]fect2 t ,i mu/ n yield to ! argum5t spr++ f a love ( ease & dis9cl9ation to ef=t2 = if ev]yone 7 to ab/a9 f do+ a small good because he _c d z mu* z he w\ld l1 no?+ w\ld ev] be done at all4 ,hav+ decid$ to compose ! "w1 he cont9ues1 ,i divid$ ! subject into t5 fundam5tal pr9ciples1 & devot$ a section ( ! book to ea* pr9ciple4 ,i endeavor$ to write 9 a pla9 & easy /yle1 omitt+ difficult expressions1 te*nical t]ms & demon/rations 9 ! mann] ( ! dialecticians4 ,i _h to make an exception 9 ! fir/ section deal+ ) ! exi/5ce & unity ( ,god1 :]e ! sublet ( ! subject requir$ ! employm5t ( logical & ma!matical pro(s4 ,= ! re/ ,i made use ( comp>isons or similes1 adduc$ support f ! ,bible & tradition1 & also quot$ ! sages ( o!r nations4#aaa ,we h already se5 9 ! introduction t ,bahya 0 indebt$ = 8 ideas to ! ascetic & ,sufic lit]ature ( ! ,arabs1 & ,yahuda1 :o is ! au?ority 9 ?is matt] ( ,bahya's s\rces1 has %[n rec5tly t among ! quotations ( ! wise m5 ( o!r nations 9 ,bahya's "w are su* z are attribut$ by ! ,arabs to ,jesus & ! gospels1 to ,mohamm$ & 8 companions1 to ! e>ly caliphs1 9 p>ticul> ! caliph ,ali1 to ,mohamm$an ascetics & ,sufis4#aab ,9 select+ ! t5 g5]al & inclusive pr9ciples1 ,bahya lays d[n z ! fir/ & mo/ fundam5tal ! doctr9e ( ! deity1 or z x is call$ 9 ! works ( ! ,kalam1 ! ,unity4 ,z ,god is a true unity1 be+ nei!r sub/ance nor accid5t1 & our ?\ght _c grasp any?+ except sub/ance or accid5t1 x foll[s t we _c "k ,god z he is 9 himself1 & t we c get a conception ( him & ( 8 exi/5ce f 8 creatures only4 ,! second section is !re=e devot$ to an exam9ation ( creation4 ,!n foll[ 9 ord] sections treat+ ( ! s]vice ( ,god1 tru/ 9 ,god1 action = ! sake ( ,god alone1 submission to ,god1 rep5tance1 self-exam9ation1 sep>ation f ! pleasures ( ! _w1 love ( ,god4 ,9 8 discussion ( ! unity ( ,god1 ,bahya foll[s ! same me?od z ,saadia1 & ! ,kalam g5]ally1 i4 e41 he fir/ proves t ! _w mu/ h be5 creat$2 h5ce !re mu/ be a creator1 & ?is is foll[$ by a demon/ration ( ,god's unity4 ,! p>ticul> argum5ts1 too1 are = ! mo/ "p ! same1 z we %all see1 ?\gh diff]5tly express$ & 9 a diff]5t ord]4 ,! important addition 9 ,bahya is 8 di/9ction betwe5 ,god's unity & o!r unities1 :i* is n f\nd s /rictly =mulat$ 9 any ( 8 pr$ecessors1 & goes back to ,pseudo-,py?agorean s\rces 9 ,arabian lit]ature ( ,neo-,platonic orig94 ,9 ord] to prove t !re is a creator :o creat$ ! _w out ( no?+ we assume ?ree pr9ciples4 ,fir/1 no?+ c make itself4 ,second1 pr9ciples are f9ite 9 numb]1 h5ce !re mu/ be a fir/ be=e :i* !re is no o!r4 ,?ird1 e composite is new1 i4 e41 came to be 9 "t1 & did n exi/ f et]nity4 ,mak+ use ( ^! pr9ciples1 :i* w be prov$ lat]1 we proce$ z foll[s3 ,! _w is composite 9 all its p>ts4 ,sky1 e>?1 />s & man =m a sort ( h\se :i* ! latt] manages4 ,plants & animals are compos$ ( ! f\r elem5ts1 fire1 air1 wat]1 e>?4 ,! elem5ts aga9 are compos$ ( matt] & =m1 or sub/ance & accid5t4 ,_! matt] is ! primitive hyle1 & _! =m is ! primitive =m1 :i* is ! root ( all =ms1 ess5tial z well z accid5tal4 ,x is cle> !re=e t ! _w is composite1 & h5ce1 accord+ to ! ?ird pr9ciple1 _h its orig9 9 "t4 ,z1 accord+ to ! fir/ pr9ciple1 a ?+ _c make itself1 x mu/ h be5 made by "s "o4 ,b z1 9 accordance ) ! second pr9ciple1 ! numb] ( causes _c be inf9ite1 we mu/ f9ally rea* a fir/ cause ( ! _w be=e :i* !re is no o!r1 & ?is fir/ made ! _w out ( no?+4 ,be=e criticis+ ?is pro(1 f :i* ,bahya inf]s m ?an is legitimate1 we mu/ prove ! ?ree orig9al assumptions4 ,! pro( ( ! fir/ pr9ciple t a ?+ _c make itself is id5tical 9 ,bahya ) ! second ( ! ?ree demon/rations employ$ by ,saadia = ! same purpose4 ,x is t ! ?+ mu/ ei!r h made itself be=e x exi/$ or aft] x exi/$4 ,b bo? are impossible4 ,be=e x exi/$ x 0 n !re to make itself2 aft] x exi/$ !re 0 no long] any?+ to make4 ,h5ce ! fir/ proposition is prov$ t a ?+ _c make itself4 ,! pro( ( ! second proposition t ! numb] ( causes _c be inf9ite is also bas$ ^u ! same pr9ciple z ! f\r? pro( 9 ,saadia = ! creation ( ! _w4 ,! pr9ciple is ?is4 ,:atev] has no limit 9 ! direction ( ! pa/1 i4 e41 _h no beg9n+1 b is et]nal a p>te ante1 _c h any /opp+ po9t any:]e else4 ,9 o!r words1 we z ! spectators c\ld n po9t to any def9ite spot or l9k 9 ?is et]nally inf9ite *a91 because ! *a9 mu/ h trav]s$ inf9ite "t to rea* u1 b ! inf9ite c nev] be trav]s$4 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 z a matt] ( fact we c & d direct our att5tion to p>ts ( ! *ang+ _w1 ?is %[s t ! _w mu/ h _h a beg9n+4 ,a second pro( ( ! same pr9ciple is n f\nd 9 ,saadia4 ,x is z foll[s3 ,if we imag9e an actual inf9ite & take away a "p1 ! rema9d] is less ?an be=e4 ,n[ if ?is rema9d] is /ill inf9ite1 we h "o inf9ite l>g] ?an ano!r1 :i* is impossible4 ,if we say ! rema9d] is f9ite1 !n by add+ to x ! f9ite "p :i* 0 tak5 away1 ! result mu/ be f9ite2 b ?is is contr>y to hypo!sis1 = we assum$ x inf9ite at ! />t4 ,h5ce x foll[s t ! inf9ite _c h a "p4 ,b we c sep>ate 9 ?\ght out ( all ! g5]ations ( m5 f ! beg9n+ ^? t liv$ betwe5 ! "t ( ,noah & t ( ,moses4 ,?is w be a f9ite numb] & a "p ( all ! m5 9 ! _w4 ,h5ce1 z ! inf9ite c h no "p1 ?is %[s t ! :ole numb] ( m5 is f9ite1 & h5ce t ! _w _h a beg9n+4 ,?is pro( is n 9 ,saadia1 b we le>n f ,maimonides 7,guide ( ! ,p]plex$1 ,i1 *4 #ge7 t x 0 "o ( ! pro(s us$ by ! ,mutakallimun to prove ! absurdity ( ! belief 9 ! et]nity ( ! _w4 ,! ?ird pr9ciple is t ! composite is new4 ,?is is prov$ simply by po9t+ out t ! elem5ts =m+ ! composite are prior to x by nature1 & h5ce ! latt] _c be et]nal1 = no?+ is prior to ! et]nal4 ,?is pr9ciple also is f\nd 9 ,saadia z ! second ( ! f\r pro(s 9 favor ( creation4#aac ,we h n[ ju/ifi$ our assumptions & h5ce h prov$--:at8 ,cle>ly we h only prov$ t ?is composite _w _c h exi/$ z su* f et]nity2 b t x mu/ h be5 compos$ ( its elem5ts at "s po9t 9 "t pa/1 & t h5ce !re mu/ be a cause or ag5cy :i* did ! compos+4 ,b !re is no?+ 9 ! pr9ciples or 9 ! demon/ration bas$ ^u !m :i* gives u a "r to g back ( ! composite _w & say ( ! elem5ts1 ! simple elem5ts at ! basis ( all composition1 viz41 matt] & =m1 t !y too mu/ h come to be 9 "t1 & h5ce 7 creat$ out ( no?+4 ,x is only ! composite t argues an act ( composition & elem5ts prec$+ 9 "t & by nature ! object compos$ ( !m4 ,! simple ne$s n to be made1 h5ce ! "q ( its hav+ made itself does n arise4 ,x 0 n made at all1 we may say1 x j exi/$ f et]nity4 ,! only way to solve ?is difficulty f ,bahya's premises is by say+ t if we suppose matt] 7or matt] & =m z sep>ate entities7 to h exi/$ f et]nity1 we are liable to ! difficulty involv$ 9 ! idea ( any?+ hav+ trav]s$ inf9ite "t & rea*$ u2 ?\gh x is d\btful :e!r un=m$ matt] w\ld l5d itself to ! exp]im5t ( ab/ract+ a "p z 9 g5]ations ( m54 ,be ?is z x may1 x is int]e/+ to "k t ,saadia hav+ arriv$ z f> z ,bahya 9 8 argum5t 0 n yet satisfi$ t he prov$ creation ex nihilo1 & add$ special argum5ts = ?is purpose4 ,be=e proce$+ to prove ! unity ( ,god1 ,bahya takes occasion to dismiss briefly a notion :i* sc>cely des]ves consid]ation 9 8 eyes4 ,t ! _w c\ld h come by accid5t1 he says1 is too absurd to speak (1 9 view ( ! evid5ce ( h>mony & plan & wisdom :i* we see 9 nature4 ,z well imag9e ink spill$ by accid5t =m+ itself into a writt5 book4#aad ,saadia also discusses ?is view z ! n9? ( ! twelve !ories ( creation treat$ by him1 & refutes x m elaborately ?an ,bahya1 ^: "o argum5t is ! la/ ( ,saadia's eight4 ,9 ! treatm5t ( creation ,saadia is decid$ly ri*] & m compreh5sive 9 discussion1 review & argum5tation4 ,?is 0 to be expect$ s9ce su* problems are ! prime purpose ( ! ,emunot ve-,deot1 :]eas !y are only prep>atory1 ?\gh none ! less fundam5tal1 9 ! ,hobot ha-,lebabot1 & ,bahya mu/ h felt t ! subject _h be5 adequately treat$ by 8 di/+ui%$ pr$ecessor4 ,x is ! m surpris+ !re=e to f9d t 9 ! treatm5t ( ! unity ( ,god ,bahya is m elaborate1 & (f]s a great] v>iety ( argum5ts = unity z su*4 ,moreov]1 z has already be5 said be=e1 he takes great] c>e ?an anyone be=e him to gu>d aga9/ ! id5tification ( ,god's unity ) any ( ! unities1 !oretical or actual1 9 our exp]i5ce4 ,!re is no d\bt t ?is emphasis is due to ,neo-,platonic influ5ce1 "s ( :i* may h come to ,bahya f ,gabirol1 ! re/ probably f _! common s\rces4 ,we see1 ,bahya beg9s 8 discussion ( ! unity ( ,god1 t ! causes are few] ?an _! effects1 ! causes ( ! causes /ill few]1 & s on1 until :5 we rea* ! top !re is only "o4 ,?us1 ! numb] ( individuals is inf9ite1 ! numb] ( species is f9ite2 ! numb] ( g5]a is less ?an ! numb] ( species1 until we get to ! highe/ g5]a1 :i* accord+ to ,ari/otle are t5 7! t5 categories74 ,aga91 ! causes ( ! individuals "u ! categories are five1 motion & ! f\r elem5ts4 ,! causes ( ! elem5ts are two1 matt] & =m4 ,! cause ( ^! mu/ !re=e be "o1 ! w ( ,god4 7,! w ( ,god z imm$iately prec$+ univ]sal matt] & =m s\nds l a rem9isc5ce ( ! ,fons ,vit47 ,god's unity is moreov] se5 9 ! unity ( plan & wisdom t is evid5t 9 ! _w4 ,ev]y?+ is relat$ to1 connect$ ) & dep5d5t ^u ev]y?+ else1 %[+ t !re is a unit>y pr9ciple at ! basis4 ,if anyone ma9ta9s t !re is m ?an "o ,god1 ! burd5 ( pro( lies ^u him4 ,our obs]vation ( ! _w has %[n u t !re is a ,god :o made x2 h5ce "o1 s9ce we _c conceive ( less ?an "o2 b :y m ?an "o1 unless !re are special reasons to prove x8 ,euclid def9es unity z t 9 virtue ( :i* we call a ?+ "o4 ,?is means to signify t unity prec$es ! unit>y ?+ by nature1 j z heat prec$es ! hot object4 ,plurality is ! sum ( ones1 h5ce plurality _c be prior to unity1 f :i* x proce$s4 ,h5ce :atev] plurality we f9d 9 our m9ds we "k t unity prec$es x2 & ev5 if x occurs to anyone t !re is m ?an "o creator1 unity mu/ aft] all prec$e !m all4 ,h5ce ,god is "o4 ,?is argum5t is /rictly ,neo-,platonic & is bas$ ^u ! idealism ( ,plato1 ! notion t :atev] reality or attributes p>ticul> ?+s 9 our _w ( s5se possess !y owe to ! real & et]nal types ( ^! realities & attributes 9 a high] & intelligible 7us+ ! t]m 9 contradi/9ction to s5sible7 _w 9 :i* !y p>ticipate4 ,9 s f> z ?is conception is appli$ to ! ess5ces ( ?+s1 x leads to ! hypo/atization ( ! class concepts or univ]sals4 ,n ! p>ticul> individual :om we p]ceive is ! real man1 b ! typical man1 ! ideal man z ! m9d conceives him4 ,he is n a concept b a real exi/5t 9 ! intelligible _w4 ,if we apply x also to qualities ( ?+s1 we hypo/atize ! ab/ract quality4 ,heat becomes really di/9ct f ! hot object1 exi/5ce f ! exi/5t ?+1 goodness f ! good p]son1 unity f ! "o object4 ,& a ?+ is exi/5t & "o & good1 because x p>ticipates 9 ,exi/5ce1 ,unity & ,goodness4 ,^! are real entities1 intelligible & n s5sible1 & !y give to our _w :at reality x possesses4 ,plot9us improv$ ^u ,plato1 & in/ead ( leav+ ^! ,ideas z di/9ct & ultimate entities1 he adopt$ ! sugge/ion ( ,philo & ga!r$ up all ^! intelligible exi/5ces 9 ! lap ( ! univ]sal ,reason1 z 8 ideas or ?\ghts4 ,?is univ]sal ,reason is 9 ,philo ! ,logos1 ^: mode ( exi/5ce is /ill ambigu\s1 & is r to be und]/ood z ! div9e m9d4 ,9 ,plot9us x is ! fir/ /age 9 ! unfoldm5t ( ! ,godhead1 & is a di/9ct hypo/asis1 ?\gh n a p]son4 ,9 ,*ri/ianity x is ! second p]son 9 ! ,tr9ity1 inc>nat$ 9 ,jesus4 ,9 ,israeli1 ,gabirol & ! o!r ,jewi% ,neo-,platoni/s1 x occupies ! same place z ! ,n\s 9 ,plot9us4 ,9 ,bahya1 ^: ta9t ( ,neo-,platonism is n ev5 sk9 deep1 !re is no univ]sal ,reason spok5 (4 ,b we d n really "k :at 8 ideas may h be5 on ! subject1 z he does n develop !m 9 ?is direction4 ,to return to ,bahya's argum5ts 9 favor ( ! unity ( ,god1 we proce$ to %[ t dualism w\ld lead to absurd conclusions4 ,?us if !re is m ?an "o creator1 !y are ei!r ( ! same sub/ance or !y are n4 ,if !y are1 !n ! common sub/ance is ! real creator1 & we h unity once m4 ,if _! sub/ances are diff]5t1 !y are di/9ct1 h5ce limit$1 f9ite1 composite1 & h5ce n et]nal1 :i* is absurd4 ,besides1 plurality is an attribute ( sub/ance1 & belongs to ! category ( quantity4 ,b ! creator is nei!r sub/ance nor accid5t 7attribute71 h5ce plurality _c p]ta9 to him4 ,b if he _c be describ$ z multiple1 he mu/ be "o4 ,if ! creator is m ?an "o1 x foll[s t ei!r ea* "o ( !m c\ld create ! _w alone1 or he c\ld n except ) ! help ( ! o!r4 ,if we adopt ! fir/ alt]native1 !re is no ne$ ( m ?an "o creator4 ,if we adopt ! second1 x foll[s t ! creator is limit$ 9 8 p[]1 h5ce1 z above1 composite1 & n et]nal1 :i* is impossible4 ,besides1 if !re 7 m ?an "o creator1 x is possible t a dispute might arise betwe5 !m 9 ref]5ce to ! creation4 ,b all ?is "t no su* ?+ has happ5$1 nature be+ always ! same4 ,h5ce ,god is "o4 ,ari/otle also agrees ) u1 = he applies 9 ?is connection ! ,hom]ic expression1 ,x is n good to h _m rul]s1 let ! rul] be "o 7,iliad1 ,,ii1 #bjd2 ,ari/41 ,metaphysics1 ,,xii1 *4 #aj1 p4 #ajgf;a #d74aae ,s f> z ,bahya proves ! unity ( ,god he does n g beyond ,saadia1 "s ( ^: argum5ts are reproduc$ by him1 & "o or two ( a ,neo-,platonic "* add$ besides4 ,b !re is a decid$ advance 9 ! analysis :i* foll[s1 9 :i* ,bahya %[s t !re are v>i\s k9ds ( unity 9 our exp]i5ce1 & t ! unity ( ,god is unique4 ,we apply ! t]m "o to a class1 a g5us1 a species1 or an individual4 ,9 all ( ^! ! multiplicity ( p>ts is visible4 ,! g5us animal conta9s _m animals2 ! species man embraces a great _m individual m52 & ! individual man consi/s ( _m p>ts & organs & faculties4 ,?+s ( ?is sort are "o 9 a s5se & _m 9 a s5se4 ,we also apply ! t]m "o to an object 9 :i* ! multiplicity ( p>ts is n z readily visible z 9 ! previ\s case4 ,take = example a body ( wat] :i* is homog5e\s ?r\gh\t & "o "p is l ano!r4 ,?is too is 9 reality compos$ ( p>ts1 matt] & =m1 sub/ance & accid5t4 ,x is 9 virtue ( ?is composition t x is subject to g5esis & decay1 composition & division1 union & sep>ation1 motion & *ange4 ,b all ?is implies plurality4 ,h5ce 9 bo? ! above cases ! unity is n ess5tial b accid5tal4 ,x is because ( a c]ta9 appe>ance or simil>ity t we call a ?+ or a class "o1 :i* is 9 reality _m4 ,ano!r application ( ! t]m "o is :5 we designate by x ! basis ( numb]1 ! num]ical "o4 ,?is is a true "o1 ess5tial z di/+ui%$ f ! accid5tal ref]r$ to above4 ,b x is m5tal & n actual4 ,x is a symbol ( a beg9n+ :i* has no o!r be=e x4 ,f9ally !re is ! real & actual "o4 ,?is is some?+ t does n *ange or multiply2 t _c be describ$ by any mat]ial attribute1 t is n subject to g5]ation & decay2 t does n move & is n simil> to any?+4 ,x is "o 9 all respects & ! cause ( multiplicity4 ,x has no beg9n+ or end1 = t :i* has is subject to *ange1 & *ange is oppos$ to unity1 ! ?+ be+ diff]5t be=e & aft] ! *ange4 ,= ! same reason ! real "o does n resemble any?+1 = resemblance is an accid5t 9 ! resembl+ ?+1 & to be possess$ ( accid5ts is to be multiple4 ,h5ce ! true "o resembles no?+4 ,its on5ess is no accid5t 9 x1 = x is a purely negative t]m 9 ?is application4 ,x means n multiple4#aaf ,we h n[ %[n t !re is a creator :o is "o1 & on ! o!r h& we h analyz$ ! v>i\s mean+s ( ! t]m "o1 ! la/ ( :i* is ! mo/ real & ! pure/4 ,x rema9s n[ to %[ t ?is pure "o is id5tical ) ! "o creator4 ,?is c be prov$ 9 ! foll[+ way4 ,! _w be+ ev]y:]e composite conta9s ! "o z well z ! _m--unity ( composition1 plurality ( ! p>ts compos$4 ,z unity is prior by nature to plurality1 & causes d n run on to inf9ity 7see above1 p4 #hg71 ! causes ( ! _w's unity & multiplicity _c be aga9 unity & multiplicity ( ! same k9d =ev]4 ,h5ce z multiplicity _c be ! fir/1 x mu/ be unity--! absolute & true unity be=e :i* !re is no o!r1 & 9 :i* !re is no mann] ( multiplicity4 ,b ,god is ! "o cause ( ! univ]se1 z we h %[n1 h5ce ,god & ?is true unity are ! same4 ,we c %[ ?is also 9 ano!r way4 ,:atev] is an accid5tal attribute 9 "o ?+ is an ess5tial elem5t 9 "s o!r ?+4 ,?us heat is an accid5tal attribute 9 hot wat]4 ,= wat] may lose its heat & rema9 wat] z be=e4 ,x is diff]5t ) fire4 ,fire _c lose its heat )\t ceas+ to be fire4 ,h5ce heat 9 fire is an ess5tial elem5t2 & x is f fire t hot wat] & all o!r hot ?+s receive _! heat4 ,! same ?+ applies to ! attribute ( unity4 ,x is accid5tal 9 all creatures4 ,!y are call$ "o because !y comb9e a numb] ( elem5ts 9 "o gr\p or concept4 ,b !y are really multiple s9ce !y are liable to *ange & division & motion1 & s on4 ,h5ce !re mu/ be some?+ 9 :i* unity is ess5tial1 & :i* is ! cause ( :atsoev] unity all o!r ?+s possess4 ,b ,god is ! cause ( ! univ]se1 h5ce he is ?is true & absolute unity1 & all *ange & accid5t & multiplicity are =eign to him4#aag ,?is unity ( ,god is n 9 any way d]ogat$ f by ! ascription to him ( attributes4 ,= ! latt] are ( two k9ds1 ess5tial & active4 ,we call ! fir/ ess5tial because !y are p]man5t attributes ( ,god1 :i* he _h be=e creation & w cont9ue to h :5 ! _w has ceas$ to be4 ,^! attributes are ?ree 9 numb]1 ,exi/+1 ,"o1 ,et]nal4 ,we h already prov$ e "o ( !m4 ,n[ ^! attributes d n imply *ange 9 ! ess5ce ( ,god4 ,!y are to be und]/ood 9 ! s5se ( d5y+ _! opposites1 i4 e41 t he is n multiple1 non-exi/5t or newly come into be+4 ,!y also imply ea* o!r z c easily be %[n1 i4 e41 e "o ( ! ?ree implies ! o!r two4 ,we mu/ und]/& !re=e t !y are really "o 9 idea1 & if we c\ld f9d "o t]m to express ! ?\ght fully1 we %\ld n use ?ree4 ,b ! ?ree d n imply multiplicity 9 ,god4 ,! active are ^? attributes :i* are ascrib$ to ,god by reason ( 8 actions or effects on u4 ,we are p]mitt$ to apply !m to him because ( ! necessity :i* compels u to get to "k ( 8 exi/5ce s t we may wor%ip him4 ,! ,biblical writ]s use !m v frequ5tly4 ,we may divide ^! into two k9ds3 ,fir/1 ^? :i* ascribe to ,god a corporeal =m1 su* z 7,g54 #a1 #bg71 ,& ,god creat$ man 9 8 image1 & o!rs ( ! same "*4 ,second1 ^? attributes :i* ref] to corporeal movem5ts & actions4 ,^! h be5 s int]pret$ by our anci5t sages z to remove ! corporeality f ,god by sub/itut+ ! ,glory ( ,god = ,god z ! subject ( ! movem5t or act 9 "q4 ,?us1 7,g54 #bh1 #ac7 ,& behold ! ,"l /ood above x1 is r5d]$ by ! ,aramaic translator1 & behold ! glory ( ,god 0 pres5t above x4 ,saadia deals ) ?is matt] at l5g? 9 8 ,emunot ve-,deot1 9 8 comm5t>y on ,g5esis1 & on ! book ,yezirah4 ,s !re is no ne$ ( go+ into detail "h4 ,we are all agre$ t necessity compels u to speak ( ,god 9 corporeal t]ms s t all may be made to "k ( ,god's exi/5ce4 ,?is !y c\ld n d if ! prophets _h spok5 9 metaphysical t]ms1 = n ev]yone c foll[ su* pr(\nd matt]s4 ,b hav+ come to ! k ( ,god 9 ?is simpl] ?\gh imp]fect way1 we c !n advance to a m p]fect k ( him4 ,! intellig5t & philosophical read] w lose no?+ by ! an?ropomorphic =m ( ! ,bible1 = he c remove ! husk & p5etrate to ! k]nel4 ,b ! simple read] w\ld miss a v great deal inde$ if ! ,bible 7 writt5 9 ! language ( philosophy1 z he w\ld n und]/& x & w\ld rema9 )\t a k ( ,god4 ,despite its pr$om9ant an?ropomorphism1 h[ev]1 ! ,bible does give u h9ts ( ,god's spirituality s t ! ?\ghtful read] may also h food = 8 ?\ght4 ,= example1 su* expressions z 7,deut4 #d1 #ae71 ,take ye !re=e good he$ unto y\rselves2 = ye saw no mann] ( =m on ! day t ! ,"l spake unto y 9 ,horeb out ( ! mid/ ( ! fire1 & _m o!rs are meant to spur on ! discrim9at+ read] to fur!r ?\ght4 ,! same applies to all ^? passages 9 :i* ! ^w "n is ins]t$ be=e ! ^w ,god z ! object ( praise to indicate t we d n "k ,god 9 8 ess5ce4 ,an example ( ?is is1 ,& !y %all bless ! "n ( ?y glory 7,neh4 #i1 #e74 ,= ! same reason ! "n ( ,god is jo9$ 9 ! ,bible to heav51 e>?1 ! ,patri>*s1 9 su* phrases z ! ,god ( ! heav5s1 ! ,god ( ,abraham1 & s on1 to %[ t we d n "k ,god's ess5ce b only 8 revelation 9 nature & 9 hi/ory4 ,?is is ! reason :y aft] say+ to ,moses1 ,i am s5t me unto y 7,ex4 #c1 #ad71 he adds 7ib4 #ae71 tell !m1 ! ,god ( y\r fa!rs1 ! ,god ( ,abraham1 ! ,god ( ,isaac & ! ,god ( ,jacob s5t me unto y4 ,! mean+ is1 if !y _c und]/& ,god ) _! reason1 let !m "k me f hi/ory & tradition4#aah ,9 ,bahya's treatm5t ( ! div9e attributes we already h 9 brief ! ma9 elem5ts :i* ,maimonides almo/ a c5tury lat] made classic1 namely1 ! di/9ction betwe5 ess5tial & active attributes1 & ! idea t ! =m] are to be und]/ood z d5y+ _! opposites1 i4 e41 z be+ 9 _! nature n positive b negative4 ,! outcome !re=e is t only two k9ds ( attributes are applicable to ,god1 negative & ^? :i* are transf]r$ or project$ f ! effects ( ,god's activity z !y are visible 9 nature4 ,saadia _h already made ! di/9ction betwe5 ess5tial & active attributes1 b x 0 q incid5tal ) him1 & n laid d[n at ! basis ( 8 discussion1 b casually ref]r$ to 9 a diff]5t connection4 ,al ,mukammas speaks ( negative attributes z be+ m applicable to ,god ?an positive1 z ,philo _h already said long be=e4 ,b ! comb9ation ( ^! two1 negative & active1 z ! only k9ds ( div9e attributes is n f\nd 9 ,jewi% lit]ature be=e ,bahya4 ,x is wor? not+ also t ,bahya does n lay d[n ! ?ree attributes1 ,p[]1 ,wisdom & ,life z fundam5tal or ess5tial 9 ! mann] ( ! ,*ri/ians1 ! ,arab ,mutakallimun1 & ! ,jewi% ,saadia4 ,bahya1 z we h se51 reg>ds z ,god's ess5tial attributes1 exi/5ce1 unity1 et]nity4 ,h]e91 too1 he seems to anticipate ,maimonides :o insi/s aga9/ ! believ]s 9 ess5tial attributes t ! attributes1 liv+1 omnipot5t1 omnisci5t1 hav+ a w1 are no m ess5tial ?an any o!r1 b l ! re/ ( ! qualities ascrib$ to ,god h ref]5ce to 8 activity 9 nature4#aai ,we h n[ gone ?r\gh ,bahya's philosophical *apt] giv+ u ! metaphysical basis ( 8 e?ico-religi\s views4 ,t 8 purpose is practical & n !oretical is cle> f 8 def9ition ( :at he calls ! ackn[l$gm5t ( ! unity ( ,god ) full he>t1 n to speak ( ! title ( ! book itself1 ! mean+ ( :i* we expla9$ at ! beg9n+ ( ?is section1 & ! n9e *apt]s 9 ,bahya's "w foll[+ ^u ! fir/1 :i* con/itute its real ess5ce & purpose4 ,to ackn[l$ge ! unity ( ,god ) full he>t means1 he tells u1 t "o mu/ fir/ "k h[ to prove ! exi/5ce & unity ( ,god1 to di/+ui% ,god's unity f e o!r1 & !n to make 8 he>t & 8 tongue unite 9 ?is conception4#abj ,x is n a matt] ( ! intellect m]ely1 b ( ! he>t z affect+ "o's practical conduct4 ,! adequacy ( ! conception is de/roy$ n m]ely by ?9k+ ( ,god z multiple1 or by wor%ip+ images1 sun1 moon & />s2 x is made null & void likewise by hypocrisy & pret5ce1 z :5 "o affects piety be=e o!rs to ga9 _! favor or acquire a reputation4 ,! same disa/r\s result is br\ght ab\t by indulg+ ! l[ physical appetites4 ,"h ! wor%ip ( ! appetites is br\ght into competition & rivalry ) devotion to ! "o ,god4#aba ,our object be+ to trace ! philosophical conceptions 9 m$ival ,jewi% lit]ature1 we _c l+] long 9 ! /udy ( ! re/ ( ,bahya's ma/]piece1 :i* is homiletical & practical r ?an !oretic1 & mu/ cont5t ourselves ) a v brief rsum ( its pr9cipal cont5ts4 ,9 /udy+ ! nature & attributes ( ,god we rea*$ ! conclusion t :ile a k ( him is absolutely necess>y = a prop] mode ( life1 we _c =m an idea ( him z he is 9 himself1 & are left to su* evid5ce z we c ga!r f ! _w ( :i* he is ! au?or4 ,x becomes our duty1 !re=e1 to /udy nature1 z a :ole & 9 its p>ts1 consci5ti\sly & m9utely1 9 ord] to realize cle>ly ! goodness & wisdom ( ,god z exhibit$ !re94 ,= v>i\s reasons we are apt to neglect ?is /udy & miss ! insight & b5efits aris+ !refrom4 ,*ief among ^! h9d]+ circum/ances are our excessive occupations ) ! pleasures ( ?is _w1 & ! accid5ts & mis=tunes to :i* mortal is heir1 :i* bl9d him to 8 real good1 & prev5t him f see+ ! bless+ 9 disguise lurk+ 9 ^! v mis=tunes4 ,b x is cle> t man has a duty to /udy ! div9e goodness & wisdom z exhibit$ 9 nature1 else ( :at use is 8 faculty ( reason & intellig5ce1 :i* raises him above ! bea/4 ,if he neglects x1 he places himself bel[ ! latt]1 :i* realizes all ! functions ( :i* x is capable4 ,bible & ,talmud are equally emphatic 9 urg+ u to /udy ! wond]s ( nature4 ,! v>iety ( natural ph5om5a & ! laws !y exhibit give evid5ce ( ! p]sonality ( ,god & ! exi/5ce ( 8 w4 ,a be+ )\t w1 act+ by necessity ( nature1 acts ) unsw]v+ uni=mity4 ,heav5 & e>?1 plant & animal1 all creatures great & small1 be> witness1 9 _! /ructure & relations1 9 _! functions & mutual s]vice & helpfulness1 to ! wisdom & goodness ( ,god4 ,above all is ?is visible 9 man1 ! highe/ ( e>?ly be+s1 ! microcosm1 ! rational creature1 ! discov]] & inv5tor ( arts & sci5ces4 ,9 ! laws & /atutes :i* 7 giv5 to him = ! s]vice ( ,god1 & 9 ! cu/oms ( o!r nations :i* take ! place ( our div9e law1 we see ,god's k9dness to man 9 secur+ 8 com=t 9 ?is _w & rew>d 9 ! next4 ,pride is ! great enemy ( man1 because x prev5ts him f appreciat+ :at he owes to ,god's goodness4 ,pride makes him feel t he des]ves m ?an he gets1 & bl9ds him to ! tru?4#abb ,we all recognize ! duty ( gratitude to a fell[ man :o has done u a favor1 al?\gh all su* cases ( b5efit & s]vice betwe5 man & man1 n except+ ev5 ! k9dness ( a fa!r to 8 *ild1 w be f\nd on exam9ation to be ( a selfi% nature4 ,! b5efit to self may n 9 all cases be consci\s1 b x is always !re4 ,x is a fa!r's nature to love 8 *ild z "p ( himself4 ,moreov]1 ^! human favors are n con/ant1 & ! p]son b5efit$ /&s comp>atively on ! same level ( exi/5ce & wor? z 8 b5efactor4 ,h[ mu* great] !n is ! duty incumb5t ^u u to appreciate ,god's favors :i* are n selfi%1 :i* are con/ant1 & :i* are be/[$ by ! greate/ ( all be+s ^u ! smalle/ ( all 9 respect ( physical /r5g?4 ,! only way 9 :i* man c repay ,god = 8 k9dness1 & %[ an appreciation !re( is by submitt+ to him & do+ ^? ?+s :i* w br+ him ne>] to ,god4 ,9 ord] to realize ?is x is necess>y to ab&on ! bad qualities1 :i* are 9 pr9ciple two1 love ( pleasure & love ( p[]4 ,! means enabl+ "o to obta9 ?is fre$om are to ab/a9 f too mu* eat+1 dr9k+1 idl+1 & s on1 = ! fir/1 & f too mu* gossip1 social int]c\rse1 & love ( glory = ! second4 ,x may be difficult to d ?is1 b "o mu/ make up "o's m9d to x1 l ! invalid :o is ready to lose a limb 9 ord] to save 8 life4 ,! problem ( free w is p]plex+ inde$ & int]f]es ) ! prop] attitude t[>d ,god & 8 wor%ip4 ,! be/ way out ( ! difficulty is to act z if we 7 free1 & on ! o!r h& to h confid5ce 9 ,god z ! au?or ( ev]y?+4 ,we h se5 t ! reason bids u recognize our duty to ,god 9 return = 8 goodness to u4 ,at ! same "t we are n left to ! sugge/ions & prompt+s ( ! reason alone4 ,we h a positive law prescrib+ our conduct & ! mann] & measure ( express+ our gratitude to ,god4 ,?is is made necess>y by ! con/itution ( man's nature4 ,he is a composite ( body & _s4 ,! =m] is at home 9 ?is l[] _w & is end[$ ) p[]s & qualities :i* t5d to /r5g!n x at ! exp5se ( ! _s1 a /rang] 9 ?is _w4 ,h5ce ! necessity ( a positive law to cure ! _s f ! ills ( ! body by =bidd+ c]ta9 k9ds ( food1 clo?+1 sexual indulg5ce1 & s on1 :i* /r5g!n ! appetites1 & comm&+ su* actions z pray]1 fa/+1 *>ity1 b5evol5ce1 :i* h ! opposite t5d5cy ( /r5g!n+ ! reason4 ,! positive law is necess>y & useful besides because x prescribes ! middle way1 disc\rag+ equally ! extremes ( asceticism & ( self-indulg5ce4 ,x regulates & def9es conduct1 & makes x uni=m = old & "y1 intellig5t & un9tellig5t4 ,x in/itutes new occasions ( wor%ip & ?anksgiv+ z hi/ory reveals new b5efactions ( ,god to 8 p 9 v>i\s g5]ations4 ,! law also conta9s matt]s :i* ! reason alone w\ld n dictate1 & ( :i* x does n und]/& ! mean+4 ,su* are ! traditional comm&m5ts4 ,! reason :y ! law prescribes also "s ( ! pr9ciples ( ! rational comm&m5ts is because at t "t ! p 7 s sunk 9 _! animal desires t _! m9ds 7 weak5$1 & !re 0 ne$ ( putt+ bo? classes ( comm&m5ts on ! same level ( positive prescription4 ,b n[ ! intellig5t p]son obs]ves !m 9 accordance ) _! di/9ct orig91 :]eas ! masses simply foll[ ! law 9 bo?4 ,! admonition ( ! positive law s]ves z an introduction to ! sugge/ions ( our own reason & prep>es ! way = ! latt]4 ,! fir/ is absolutely necess>y = ! "y1 ! wom5 & ^? ( weak intellectual p[]4 ,to wor%ip ,god n m]ely because ! law prescribes x1 b because reason itself dem&s x d5otes a spiritual advance1 & puts "o 9 ! grade ( prophets & pi\s m5 *os5 ( ,god4 ,9 ?is _w _! rew>d is ! joy !y feel 9 ! sweetness ( div9e s]vice2 9 ! next _w !y atta9 to ! spiritual light :i* we _c decl>e or imag9e4#abc ,"o ( ! duties ( ! he>t is to tru/ 9 ,god4 ,ap>t f ! ,bible :i* comm&s u to h tru/ 9 ,god1 we c come to ! same conclusion z a result ( our own reflection4 ,= 9 ,god alone are comb9$ all ! conditions necess>y to confid5ce4 ,he has ! p[] to protect & help u1 & ! k ( our ne$s4 ,he is k9d & g5]\s & has a love = u & an int]e/ 9 our welf>e1 z we h %[n 9 a previ\s discussion4 ,tru/ 9 ,god is ( advantage religi\sly 9 giv+ a p]son peace ( m9d1 indep5d5ce & fre$om to devote himself to ! s]vice ( ,god )\t be+ worri$ by ! c>es ( ! _w4 ,he is l ! al*emi/ :o *anges lead into silv]1 & silv] into gold4 ,if he has money he c make good use ( x 9 fulfill+ 8 duties to ,god & man4 ,if he has n1 he is grateful = ! fre$om f c>e :i* ?is gives him4 ,he is secure aga9/ mat]ial worries4 ,he does n h to g to di/ant l&s to look = support1 or to engage 9 h>d & fatigu+ labor1 or to exploit o!r p4 ,he *ooses ! "w t is 9 consonance ) 8 mode ( life1 & gives him leisure & /r5g? to d 8 duty to ,god & man4 ,! suff]+ ( ! good & ! prosp]ity ( ! bad1 :i* app>5tly contradicts our conclusion1 is a problem z old z ! _w1 & is discuss$ 9 ! ,bible4 ,!re is no "o explanation to cov] all cases1 h5ce no solution is giv5 9 ! ,bible4 ,b sev]al reasons may be br\ght =w>d = ?is anomaly4 ,! righte\s man may suff] by way ( puni%m5t = a s9 he has committ$4 ,he may suff] 9 ?is _w 9 ord] t he may be rew>d$ 9 ! next4 ,8 suff]+ may be an example ( pati5ce & goodness to o!r p2 especially 9 a bad g5]ation1 to %[ (f _! wick$ness by contra/ ) 8 goodness4 ,or f9ally ! good man may be puni%$ = n rebuk+ 8 g5]ation ( evil do]s4 ,9 a simil> way we may expla9 ! prosp]ity ( ! wick$4 ,tru/ 9 ,god does n signify t "o %\ld neglect "o's "w1 be c>eless ( "o's life1 heal? & well-be+1 or ab&on "o's ef=t to provide = "o's family & dep5d5ts4 ,no1 "o mu/ d all ^! ?+s consci5ti\sly1 at ! same "t feel+ t if n = ! help ( ,god all ef=t w\ld be 9 va94 ,9 ! matt] ( do+ "o's duty & obs]v+ ! comm&m5ts1 :e!r ( ! limbs or ! he>t1 tru/ 9 ,god c apply only to ! la/ /ep 9 ! process1 namely1 ! realization 9 practice4 ,he mu/ tru/ t ,god w put out ( ! way all ob/acles & h9drances :i* may prev5t him f c>ry+ out 8 resolutions4 ,! *oice & cons5t mu/ come f a man's own w1 :i* is free4 ,! mo/ he may d is to tru/ t ,god may remove temptations4 ,:ile x is true t good de$s are rew>d$ 9 ?is _w z well z 9 ! next1 a man mu/ n tru/ 9 8 de$s1 b 9 ,god4 ,x may seem /range t !re is no ref]5ce 9 ! ,bible to rew>d 9 ! h]eaft]4 ,! reasons may be ! foll[+4 ,n kn[+ :at ! /ate ( ! s\l is )\t ! body1 we c\ld n und]/& ! nature ( future rew>d1 & ! /atem5t ( x 9 ! ,bible w\ld n h be5 a suffici5t inducem5t = ! p ( t "t to foll[ ! comm&m5ts4 ,or x is possible t ! p knew by tradition ( rew>d aft] dea?1 h5ce x 0 n necess>y to specify x4 ,z k ( nature & ( ,god leads to tru/ 9 him1 s ignorance leads away f x4 ,x is z ) a *ild1 :o develops 9 8 mann] ( tru/+ 9 ?+s2 beg9n+ ) 8 "m's brea/ & ris+ gradually z he gr[s old] & kn[s m1 until he embraces o!r p]sons & atta9s to tru/ 9 ,god4#abd ,we said be=e 7p4 #hc7 t ! duties ( ! limbs are imp]fect unless accompani$ by ! int5tion ( ! he>t4 ,a man's motive mu/ be s9c]e4 ,x mu/ n be 8 aim to ga9 ! favor ( 8 fell[m5 or to acquire honor & fame4 ,! obs]vance ( ! prescrib$ laws mu/ be motiv$ by ! sole reg>d = ,god & 8 s]vice4 ,?is we call ! unity ( conduct4 ,! mean+ is t a man's act & int5tion mu/ co9cide 9 aim+ at ! fulfilm5t ( ,god's w4 ,9 ord] to realize ?is prop]ly "o mu/ h an adequate & s9c]e conception ( ,god's unity z %[n above2 he mu/ h an appreciation ( ,god's goodness z exhibit$ 9 nature2 he mu/ submit to ,god's s]vice2 he mu/ h tru/ 9 ,god alone z ! sole au?or ( good & evil2 & correspond+ly he mu/ ab/a9 f flatt]+ mank9d1 & mu/ be indiff]5t to _! praise & blame2 he mu/ fe> ,god1 & h respect & awe = him4 ,:5 he is 9 ! act ( fulfill+ 8 spiritual obligations1 he mu/ n be preoccupi$ ) ! affairs ( ?is _w2 & f9ally he mu/ always consult 8 reason1 & make x control 8 desires & incl9ations4#abe ,humility & l[l9ess is an important elem5t conducive to unity ( conduct4 ,by ?is is n meant t g5]al helplessness 9 ! face ( conditions1 dang]s & injuries because ( ignorance ( ! me?ods ( av]t+ !m4 ,?is is n humility b weakness4 ,nor d we mean t timidity & loss ( c\nt5ance :i* "o suff]s be=e a sup]ior 9 physical p[] or weal?4 ,! true humility ) :i* we are "h conc]n$ is t :i* "o feels con/antly be=e ,god1 ?\gh x %[s itself also 9 su* a p]son's conduct 9 ! pres5ce ( o!rs1 9 s(t spee*1 l[ voice1 & mode/ behavior g5]ally1 9 prosp]ity z well z adv]sity4 ,! truly humble man practices pati5ce & =giv5ess2 he does good to mank9d & judges !m favorably2 he is cont5t$ ) little 9 respect to food & dr9k & ! ne$s ( ! body g5]ally2 he endures mis=tune ) resignation2 is n spoil$ by praise1 nor irritat$ by blame1 b realizes h[ f> he is f p]fection 9 ! "o case1 & appreciates ! tru? ( ! criticism 9 ! o!r4 ,he is n spoil$ by prosp]ity & success1 & always holds himself "u /rict acc\nt4 ,god kn[s x1 ev5 if 8 fell[m5 d n4 ,humility1 z we h describ$ x1 is n1 h[ev]1 incompatible ) a c]ta9 k9d ( pride2 n t =m ( x :i* boa/s ( physical excell5ce1 nor t arrogance :i* leads a man to look d[n ^u o!rs & belittle _! a*ievem5ts4 ,^! =ms ( pride are bad & diametrically oppos$ to true humility4 ,legitimate m5tal pride is t :i* leads a p]son bless$ ) intellectual gifts to feel grateful to ,god = 8 favor1 & to /rive to improve 8 tal5ts & %>e _! b5efits ) o!rs4#abf ,humility is a necess>y =]unn] ( rep5tance & we mu/ treat ( ?is duty ( ! he>t next4 ,x is cle> f reason z well z f ! ,law t man does n d all t is incumb5t ^u him 9 ! s]vice ( ,god4 ,= man is compos$ ( opposite pr9ciples w>r+ ) ea* o!r1 & is subject to *ange on acc\nt ( ! *ange ( 8 m5tal qualities4 ,= ?is reason he ne$s a law & traditional cu/om to keep him f go+ a/ray4 ,! ,bible also tells u t ! imag9ation ( ! he>t ( man is evil f 8 y\? 7,g54 #h1 #ba74 ,!re=e ,god 0 graci\s & gave man ! ability & opportunity to correct 8 mi/akes4 ,?is is rep5tance4 ,true rep5tance means return to ,god's s]vice aft] hav+ succe$$ 9 mak+ ! reason ! ma/] ( ! desires4 ,! elem5ts 9 rep5tance are1 7#a7 regret2 7#b7 discont9uance ( ! wrong act2 7#c7 confession & reque/ = p>don2 7#d7 promise n to repeat ! (f5ce4 ,9 respect to gravity ( (f5ce1 s9s may be divid$ into ?ree classes3 7#a7 ,violation ( a positive comm&m5t 9 ! ,bible :i* is n puni%$ by cutt+ (f f ! community4 ,= example1 dwell+ 9 boo?s1 we>+ fr+es1 & %ak+ ! palm bran*4 7#b7 ,violation ( a negative comm&m5t n s puni%$4 7#c7 ,violation ( a negative comm&m5t ! p5alty = :i* is dea? at ! h&s ( ! c\rt1 & be+ cut (f by div9e ag5cy2 = example1 pr(anation ( ! div9e "n or false oa?4 ,9 cases ( ! fir/ class a p5it5t is z good z "o :o nev] s9n$4 ,9 ! second class he is ev5 sup]ior1 because ! latt] has n ! same prophylactic aga9/ pride4 ,9 ! ?ird class ! p5it5t is inf]ior to ! "o :o nev] s9n$4 ,ano!r classification ( (f5ces is 9 two divisions accord+ to ! subject aga9/ :om ! (f5ce is committ$4 ,?is may be a human be+1 & ! crime is social2 or x may be ,god1 & we h s9 9 ! prop] s5se ( ! t]m4 ,p5it5ce is suffici5t = =giv5ess 9 ! latt] class1 b n 9 ! =m]4 ,:5 "o robs ano!r or insults him1 he mu/ make re/oration or secure ! p>don ( ! (f5d$ p>ty be=e 8 rep5tance c be accept$4 ,& if ! p]son _c be f\nd1 or if he di$1 or is alive b refuses to =give 8 (f5d]1 or if ! s9n] lo/ ! money :i* he took1 or if he does n "k :om he robb$1 or h[ mu*1 x may be impossible = him to atone = ! evil he has done4 ,/ill if he is really s9c]e 9 8 rep5tance1 ,god w help him to make rep>ation to ! p]son wrong$4#abg ,self-exam9ation is conducive to rep5tance4 ,by ?is t]m is meant tak+ /ock ( "o's spiritual condition s z to "k ! m]its "o has z well ! duties "o owes4 ,9 ord] to d ?is consci5ti\sly a man mu/ reflect on ! unity ( ,god1 on 8 wisdom & goodness1 on ! ob$i5ce :i* all nature pays to ! laws impos$ ^u x1 disreg>d ( :i* w\ld result 9 ! annihilation ( all ?+s1 includ+ himself4 ,a man %\ld review 8 pa/ conduct1 & provide = 8 future life1 z "o provides = a long j\rney1 be>+ 9 m9d t life is %ort1 & t he is a /rang] 9 ?is _w ) no "o to help him except ! goodness & grace ( 8 mak]4 ,he %\ld cultivate ! habit ( be+ alone & n seek ! society ( idl]s1 = t leads to gossip & sl&]1 to s9 & wrong1 to vanity & neglect ( ,god4 ,?is does n apply to ! company ( ! pi\s & ! le>n$1 :i* %\ld be s\ght4 ,he %\ld be hone/ & helpful to 8 fri5ds1 & he w get along well 9 ?is _w4 ,all ! evils & compla9ts ( life are due to ! fact t p are n consid]ate ( "o ano!r1 & ev]yone grabs = himself all t he c1 m ?an he ne$s4 ,"o %\ld exam9e anew ! ideas "o has f *ildhood to be sure t he und]/&s !m 9 ! light ( 8 rip] intellect4 ,he %\ld also /udy aga9 ! books ( ! ,bible & ! pray]s :i* he le>n$ z a *ild1 = he w\ld see !m n[ 9 a diff]5t light4 ,he mu/ try to make 8 s\l control 8 body1 /r5g!n+ x ) intellectual & spiritual food = ! _w to come4 ,^! ef=ts & reflections & _m o!rs ( a simil> k9d t5d to p]fect ! s\l & prep>e x to atta9 to ! highe/ degree ( purity1 :]e ! evil desire c h no p[] ov] h]4#abh ,9 self-exam9ation temp]ance or ab/emi\sness plays an important rle4 ,let u exam9e ?is concept m closely4 ,by ab/emi\sness 9 ! special s5se 9 :i* we use x "h we d n mean t g5]al temp]ance or mod]ation :i* we practice to keep our body 9 good ord]1 or su* z physicians prescribe = ! heal?y & ! sick1 bidd+ !m ab/a9 f c]ta9 articles ( food1 dr9k1 & s on4 ,we mean r a m /r+5t ab/emi\sness1 :i* may be call$ sep>ation f ! _w1 or asceticism4 ,we may def9e ?is to mean ab/5tion f all corporeal satisfactions except su* z are indisp5sable = ! ma9t5ance ( life4 ,n ev]yone is requir$ to practice ?is special =m ( temp]ance1 nor is x desirable t he %\ld1 = x w\ld lead to ext9ction ( ! human race4 ,at ! same "t x is prop] t !re %all be a few select individuals1 ascetic 9 _! habits ( life1 & completely sep>at$ f ! _w1 to s]ve z an example = ! g5]ality ( mank9d1 9 ord] t temp]ance ( ! m g5]al k9d %all be ! habit ( ! _m4 ,! object ( ,god 9 creat+ man 0 to try ! s\l 9 ord] to purify x & make x l ! angels4 ,x is tri$ by be+ put 9 an e>?y body1 :i* gr[s & becomes l>g] by means ( food4 ,h5ce ,god put into ! s\l ! desire = food1 & ! desire = sexual union to p]petuate ! species2 & he made ! rew>d = ! satisfaction ( ^! desires ! pleasure :i* !y give4 ,he also appo9t$ ! evil incl9ation to incite to all ^! bodily pleasures4 ,n[ if ?is evil incl9ation gets ! upp] h& ( ! reason1 ! result is excess & ru94 ,h5ce ! ne$ ( g5]al ab/emi\sness4 ,& ! ascetic class s]ve ! purpose ( re9=c+ g5]al temp]ance by _! example4 ,b 9 ! asceticism ( ! few !re is also a limit beyond :i* "o %\ld n g4 ,"h too ! middle way is ! be/4 ,^? extremi/s :o leave ! _w entirely & live ! life ( a recluse 9 ! des]t1 subsi/+ on grass & h]bs1 are f>!/ f ! middle way1 & ! ,bible does n approve ( _! mode ( life1 z we read 9 ,isaiah 7#de1 #ah7 ,! ,god t =m$ ! e>? & made x2 he t ha? e/abli%$ x1--n 9 va9 did he create x1 he =m$ x to be inhabit$4 ,^? are mu* bett] :o )\t leav+ = ! des]t pass solit>y lives 9 _! homes1 n associat+ ) o!r p1 & ab/a9+ f sup]fluities ( all k9ds4 ,b ! be/ ( all are ^? :o adopt ! milde/ =m ( asceticism1 :o sep>ate f ! _w inw>dly :ile tak+ "p 9 x outw>dly1 & assi/+ 9 ! ord9>y occupations ( mank9d4 ,^! are comm5d$ 9 ! ,bible4 ,witness ! pray] ( ,jacob 7,g54 #bh1 #bj71 ! fa/+ ( ,moses =ty days & =ty nights on ! m\nt1 ! fa/+ ( ,elijah1 ! laws ( ! ,nazirite1 ,jonadab b5 ,re*ab1 ,eli%a1 prescriptions ( fa/+ on v>i\s occasions1 & s on4#abi ,! highe/ /age a man c rea* spiritually is ! love ( ,god1 & all t prec$$ has ?is z its aim4 ,true love ( ,god is t felt t[>d him = 8 own sake because ( 8 greatness & exaltation1 & n = any ult]ior purpose4 ,! s\l is a simple spiritual sub/ance :i* incl9es to t :i* is l x1 & dep>ts f :at is mat]ial & corporeal4 ,b :5 ,god put ! s\l into ! body1 he implant$ 9 x ! desire to ma9ta9 x1 & x 0 ?us affect$ by ! feel+s & desires :i* conc]n ! heal? & gr[? ( ! body1 ?us becom+ e/rang$ f ! spiritual4 ,9 ord] t ! s\l %all atta9 to ! true love ( ,god1 ! reason mu/ get ! upp] h& ( ! desires1 all ! topics treat$ 9 ! prec$+ sections mu/ be tak5 to he>t & s9c]ely & consci5ti\sly act$ ^u4 ,!n ! eyes ( ! s\l w be op5$1 & x w be fill$ ) ! fe> & ! love ( ,god4#acj ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,pseudo-,,bahya ,x _h be5 kn[n = a numb] ( ye>s t !re 0 a manuscript treatise 9 ,arabic on ! s\l1 :i* 0 attribut$ on ! title page to ,bahya4 ,9 #ahif ,isaac ,broyd publi%$ a ,hebrew translation ( ?is "w "u ! title ,torot ha-,nefe%1 7,reflections on ! ,s\l74#aca ,! orig9al ,arabic 0 edit$ by ,goldzih] 9 #aijg4acb ,! ,arabic title is ,maani al-,nafs1 & %\ld be translat$ ,concepts ( ! s\l1 or ,attributes ( ! s\l4 ,!re seems little d\bt n[ t despite ! ascription on ! title page ( ! manuscript1 ! treatise is n a "w ( ,bahya4 ,x is v unlikely t any?+ writt5 by s di/+ui%$ an au?or z ,bahya1 ^: ,duties ( ! ,he>ts 0 ! mo/ popul> book 9 ! middle ages1 %\ld h be5 s ?or\ghly =gott5 z to h left no trace 9 ,jewi% lit]ature4 ,bahya z well z ! anonym\s au?or ref]1 9 ! introductions to _! respective works1 to _! s\rces or to _! own previ\s writ+s4 ,b !re is no ref]5ce ei!r 9 ! ,duties ( ! ,he>ts to ! ,attributes ( ! ,s\l1 or 9 ! latt] to ! =m]4 ,a /ill /rong] argum5t aga9/ ,bahya z ! au?or ( our treatise is t d]iv$ f ! cont5t ( ! "w1 :i* moves 9 a diff]5t circle ( ideas f ! ,duties ( ! ,he>ts4 ,our anonym\s au?or is an outspok5 ,neo-,platoni/4 ,he believes 9 ! doctr9e ( emanation1 & arranges ! creat$ univ]se1 spiritual & mat]ial1 9 a desc5d+ s]ies ( su* emanations1 t5 9 numb]4 ,! ,mutakallimun he opposes z be+ foll[]s ( ! ,naturali/s1 :o disagree ) ! philosoph]s z well z ! ,bible4 ,bahya1 on ! o!r h&1 is a /rict foll[] ( ! ,kalam 9 8 *apt] on ! ,unity1 z we h se5 7p4 #hf71 & ! ,neo-,platonic influ5ce is v slight4 ,!re is no trace ( a grad$ s]ies ( emanations 9 ! ,duties ( ! ,he>ts4#acc ,! s\rces ( ! ,attributes ( ! ,s\l are no d\bt ! v>i\s ,neo-,platonic writ+s curr5t among ! ,arabs 9 ! t5? & elev5? c5turies1 ( :i* we spoke 9 ! ,introduction 7p4 xx7 & 9 ! *apt] on ,gabirol 7p4 #fc f474 ,gabirol himself c sc>cely h _h mu* influ5ce on our au?or1 z ! di/9ctive doctr9e ( ! ,fons ,vit is abs5t 9 our treatise4 ,! read] w rememb] t matt] & =m1 accord+ to ,gabirol1 are at ! basis n m]ely ( ! corporeal _w1 b t !y con/itute ! ess5ce ( ! spiritual _w z well1 ! v fir/ emanation1 ! ,univ]sal ,intellig5ce1 be+ compos$ ( univ]sal matt] & univ]sal =m4 ,z we %all see ?is is n ! view ( ! ,attributes ( ! ,s\l4 ,matt] "h occupies ! position :i* x has 9 ,plot9us & 9 ! encyclopdia ( ! ,bre?r5 ( ,purity4 ,x is ! f\r? 9 ord] ( emanations1 & ! composition ( matt] & =m beg9s ) ! cele/ial sph]e1 :i* is ! fif? 9 ord]4 ,ev]y?+ t prec$es matt] is absolutely simple4 ,at ! same "t x seems cle> t he 0 famili> ) ,gabirol's doctr9e ( ! w4 ,= 9 at lea/ two passages 9 ! ,attributes ( ! ,s\l 7*s4 #aa & #ac7acd we h ! s]ies1 vegetative s\l1 sph]al impression1 psy*ic p[]--omitt$ 9 *4 #ac1 univ]sal s\l1 intellect1 w4 ,! ,categories ( ,ari/otle is also cle>ly evid5t 9 ! ,attributes ( ! ,s\l4 ,x is ! ultimate s\rce ( ! def9ition ( accid5t z t :i* resides 9 sub/ance )\t be+ a "p ( x1 b yet 9 su* a way t )\t sub/ance x _c exi/4#ace ,! numb] ( ! species ( motion z six#acf po9ts 9 ! same direction4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 does n prove t ! au?or read ! ,categories4 ,he might h d]iv$ ^! notions1 z well z ! li/ ( ! t5 categories1 f ! writ+s ( ! ,bre?r5 ( ,purity4 ,! same ?+ applies to ! /atem5t t a spiritual sub/ance is di/+ui%$ f a corporeal 9 its capacity ( receiv+ its qualities or accid5ts )\t limits4#acg ,?is probably goes back to ! ,de ,anima ( ,ari/otle :]e a simil> contra/ betwe5 ! s5ses & ! reason is us$ z an argum5t = ! sep>ate "* ( ! latt]4 ,! doctr9e ( ! mean 9 conduct#ach comes f ! e?ics ( ,ari/otle4 ,! doctr9e ( ! f\r virtues & ! mann] ( _! d]ivation is ,platonic1#aci & s is ! doctr9e ( rem9isc5ce1 viz41 t ! s\l recalls ! k x _h 9 its previ\s life4#adj ,ibn ,s9a is "o ( ! late/ au?ors m5tion$ 9 our "w2 h5ce x c\ld n h be5 writt5 mu* be=e #ajcg1 ! date ( ,ibn ,s9a's dea?4 ,! t]m9us ad quem _c be det]m9$4 ,z ! title indicates1 ! anonym\s treatise is conc]n$ prim>ily ) ! nature ( ! s\l4 ,:atev] o!r topics are f\nd !re9 are introduc$ = ! be>+ !y h on ! c5tral problem4 ,a /udy ( ! s\l means psy*ology z well z e?ics1 = a complete det]m9ation ( ! nature ( ! s\l necess>ily mu/ ?r[ light n only ^u ! orig9 & activity ( ! s\l1 b also ^u its purpose & de/9y4 ,! fir/ error1 we are told1 t we mu/ remove conc]n+ ! s\l1 is ! doctr9e ( ! naturali/s1 ) :om ! ,mutazilites among ! ,arabs & ! ,k>aites among ! ,jews are 9 agreem5t1 t ! s\l is n an indep5d5t & self-subsi/5t entity1 b only an accid5t ( ! body4 ,_! view is t z ! s\l is a corporeal quality x is dep5d5t = its exi/5ce ^u ! body & disappe>s ) ! latt]4 ,^? ( ! ,mutazilites :o believe 9 ,mahad 7return ( ! s\l to its orig971 hold t at ! "t ( ! resurrection ,god w br+ ! p>ts ( ! body toge!r ) its accid5t1 ! s\l1 & w rew>d & puni% !m4 ,b ! resurrection is a di/9ct problem1 & has no?+ to d ) ! nature ( ! s\l & its qualities4 ,! true op9ion1 :i* is t ( ! ,bible & ! true philosoph]s1 is t ! s\l is a spiritual sub/ance indep5d5t ( ! body2 t x exi/$ be=e ! body & w cont9ue to exi/ aft] ! dissolution ( ! latt]4 ,! exi/5ce ( a spiritual sub/ance is prov$ f ! pres5ce ( su* qualities z k & ignorance4 ,^! are oppos$ to ea* o!r1 & _c be ! qualities ( body z su*1 = body _c conta9 two opposite =ms at ! same "t4 ,moreov]1 ! sub/ance1 :atev] x be1 :i* be>s ! attributes ( k & ignorance1 c receive !m )\t limit4 ,! m k a p]son has1 ! m capable he is ( acquir+ m4 ,no corporeal sub/ance behaves 9 ?is way4 ,!re is always a limit to a body's p[] ( receiv+ a giv5 accid5t4 ,we legitimately conclude1 !re=e1 t ! sub/ance :i* be>s ! attributes ( k & ignorance is n corporeal b spiritual4#ada ,to und]/& ! position ( ! s\l & its relation to ! body1 we mu/ h an idea ( ! /ructure & orig9 ( ! univ]se4 ,! entire _w1 upp] z well z l[]1 is divid$ into two p>ts1 simple & composite4 ,! simple ess5ces1 :i* are pure & bright1 are ne>] to _! ,creator ?an ! less simple sub/ances :i* come aft]4 ,!re are t5 su* creations ) v>y+ simplicity1 foll[+ ea* o!r 9 ord] accord+ to ! arrangem5t dictat$ by ,god's wisdom4 ,z numb]s are simple up to t51 & !n !y beg9 to be comp\nd1 s 9 ! univ]se ! t5 simple sub/ances are foll[$ by composite4 ,! fir/ ( ^! simple creations1 :i* is ne>e/ to ,god1 is call$ 9 ,hebrew ,%ek9ah4 ,! ,torah & ! ,prophets call x ,"n 7,exod4 #bc1 #ba71 also ,kabod1 ,glory 7,is4 #ei1 #ai74 ,god gave 8 "n to ! ne>e/ & fir/ ( 8 creations1 :i* is ! fir/ light1 & int]pret] & s]vant ne>e/ to him4 ,solomon calls x ,wisdom 7,prov4 #h1 #bb72 ! ,greeks1 ,active ,intellect4 ,! second creation is call$ by ! ,prophets1 ! ,glory ( ! ,god ( ,israel 7,ezek4 #h1 #i72 by ! ,greeks1 ,univ]sal ,s\l1 = x moves ! sph]es ?r\gh a natural p[] z ! individual s\l moves ! body4 ,! s\l p>takes ( ! ,intellig5ce or ,intellect on ! side :i* is ne> to x2 x p>takes ( ,nature on ! side adjo9+ ! latt]4 ,nature is ! ?ird creation4 ,x also is an angel1 be+ ! fir/ ( ! p[]s ( ! univ]sal s\l1 & con/itut+ ! life ( ?is _w & its motion4 ,^! ?ree are simple ess5ces 9 ! highe/ s5se ( ! ^w4 ,!y are ob$i5t to _! ,creator1 & transmit 9 ord] 8 emanation & ! w1 & ! laws ( 8 wisdom to all ! worlds4 ,! f\r? creation is an ess5ce :i* has no activity or life or motion orig9ally1 b only a p[] ( receiv+ :atev] is =m$ & creat$ out ( x4 ,?is is ! ,matt] ( ! _w4 ,f x come ! bodies :i* possess accid5ts4 ,9 be+ =m$ "s ( its non-exi/5ce is dim9i%$1 & its matt] moves4 ,x is call$ hyle1 & is ! same z ! d>kness ( ! fir/ *apt] 9 ,g5esis4 ,= x is a mi/ake to suppose t by d>kness 9 ! second v]se ( ! fir/ *apt] is meant ! abs5ce ( ! light ( ! sun4 ,?is is accid5tal d>kness1 :]eas 9 ! creation /ory ! ^w d>kness signifies some?+ elem5tal at ! basis ( corporeal ?+s4 ,?is is :at is kn[n z matt]1 :i* on acc\nt ( its d>kness1 i4 e41 its imp]fection & motionlessness1 is ! cause ( all ! blemi%es & evils 9 ! _w4 ,9 receiv+ =ms1 h[ev]1 x acquires motion2 its d>kness is some:at dim9i%$1 & x appe>s to ! eye ?r\gh ! =ms :i* x receives4 ,! fif? creation is ! cele/ial ,sph]e1 :]e = ! fir/ "t we h motion 9 its revolutions4 ,"h too we h ! fir/ composition ( matt] & =m2 & ! beg9n+ ( "t z ! measure ( ! ,sph]e's motion2 & place4 ,! six? creation is repres5t$ by ! bodies ( ! />s1 :i* are mov$ by ! sph]es 9 :i* !y are set4 ,!y are bright & lum9\s because !y are ne> ! fir/ simple bodies1 :i* 7 produc$ be=e "t & place4 ,! la/ f\r ( ! t5 creations are ! f\r elem5ts1 fire1 air1 wat]1 e>?4 ,! elem5t e>? is ! end ( creation4 ,:at foll[s !reaft] is =mation & composition4 ,by creation is meant t :i* results ?r\gh ! w ( ,god f 8 emanation alone1 & n out ( any?+1 or 9 "t or place4 ,x applies 9 ! /ricte/ s5se to ! fir/ ?ree only4 ,! fif?1 namely ! ,sph]e1 already comes f matt] & =m1 & is 9 "t & place4 ,! f\r?1 too1 ent]s into ! fif? & all subsequ5t creations & =mations4 ,/ill1 ! t]m creation is applicable to ! fir/ t51 ?\gh 9 v>y+ degrees1 until :5 we rea* ! elem5t e>?1 creation prop] is at an end4 ,?is is :y 9 ! fir/ v]se 9 ,g5esis1 :i* speaks ( heav5 & e>?1 ! t]m us$ is b>a 7creat$71 & n any ( ! o!r t]ms1 su* z yaz>1 asah1 kanah1 paal1 & s on1 :i* d5ote =mation4 ,f e>? & ! o!r elem5ts 7 =m$ all k9ds ( m9]als1 l rocks1 m\nta9s1 /ones1 & s on4 ,!n plants & animals1 & f9ally man4 ,man :o 0 =m$ la/ be>s traces ( all t prec$$ him4 ,he is =m$ ( ! f\r elem5ts1 ( ! motions ( ! sph]es1 ( ! mixtures ( ! />s & _! rays1 ( ,nature1 ( ! ,univ]sal ,s\l1 ! "m ( all1 ( ! ,intellect1 ! fa!r ( all1 & f9ally ( ! w ( ,god4 ,b ! ord] 9 man is rev]s$4 ,! fir/ two creations1 ,intellect & ,s\l1 appe> 9 man la/4 ,! s\l ( man1 embrac+ reason & intellect1 is ?us se5 to be a div9e emanation1 be+ relat$ to ! univ]sal s\l & ,intellect4 ,on its way f ,god to man x passes ?r\gh all sph]es1 & e "o leaves an impression ^u h]1 & cov]s h] ) a wrapp]1 s to speak4 ,! brightness ( ! /> det]m9es ! ornam5t or wrapp] :i* ! s\l gets f x4 ,?is is kn[n to ! ,creator1 :o det]m9es ! measure ( influ5ce & ! accid5ts atta*+ to ! s\l until %e rea*es ! body de/9$ = h] by 8 w4 ,! long] ! /ay 9 a giv5 sph]e ! /rong] ! influ5ce ( ! sph]e 9 "q2 & h5ce ! v>i\s temp]am5ts we obs]ve 9 p]sons1 :i* det]m9e _! "* & conduct4 ,= at bottom ! s\l is ! same 9 ess5ce & un*angeable 9 all m51 because %e is an emanation f ! ,un*angeable4 ,all individual diff]5ces are due to ! sph]al impressions4 ,^! impressions1 h[ev]1 d n take away f ! s\l its fre$om ( w4#adb ,9 ! re/ ( 8 psy*ology & e?ics ! anonym\s au?or foll[s ,platonic !ories1 modifi$ n[ & !n 9 ! mann] ( ,ari/otle4 ,?us we are told t ! s\l consi/s ( ?ree p[]s1 or ?ree s\ls1 ! vegetative1 ! animal & ! rational4 ,we le>n ( ! exi/5ce ( ! vegetative s\l f ! n\ri%m5t1 gr[? & reproduction evid5c$ by ! individual4 ,! animal s\l %[s its pres5ce 9 ! motions ( ! body4 ,! exi/5ce ( ! rational s\l we h already %[n f ! attributes ( k & ignorance4 ,! vegetative s\l comes f c]ta9 sph]al influ5ces1 !mselves due to ! univ]sal s\l1 & ultimately to ! w ( ,god4 ,x is ! fir/ ( ! ?ree to make its appe>ance 9 ! body4 ,x is already f\nd 9 ! embryo1 to :i* x gives ! p[] ( motion 9 its own place l ! motion ( a plant or tree4 ,its seat is 9 ! liv]1 :]e ! gr[? ( ! embryo beg9s4 ,its function ceases ab\t ! tw5tie? ye>1 :5 ! gr[? ( ! body rea*es its limit4 ,! animal s\l spr+s f ! he>t4 ,its function+ appe>s aft] bir? :5 ! *ild beg9s to crawl1 & cont9ues until ! p]son loses ! p[] ( locomotion 9 old age4 ,! rational s\l resides 9 ! middle ( ! bra94 ,%e kn[s all ?+s be=e jo9+ ! body1 b h] k is obscur$ on acc\nt ( ! mat]ial cov]+s :i* %e receives on h] way d[n f h] div9e s\rce4#adc ,! virtue ( ! vegetative s\l is temp]ance2 ( ! animal s\l1 c\rage2 ( ! rational s\l1 wisdom4 ,:5 ^! are h>moni\sly comb9$ 9 ! individual1 & ! two l[] s\ls are controll$ by ! high]1 !re results ! f\r? virtue1 :i* is ju/ice1 & :i* gives its possessor ! privilege ( be+ a tea*] & a lead] ( 8 p4 ,9 ,moses all ^! qualities 7 exemplifi$1 & ,isaiah 7#aa1 #a-d7 9 describ+ ! qualities ( ! ,messianic ,k+ also enum]ates ^! f\r c>d9al virtues4 ,! _s ( wisdom & und]/&+ repres5ts wisdom1 ! _s ( c\nsel & /r5g? /&s = c\rage2 ! _s ( k & fe> ( ! ,"l d5otes temp]ance2 & ju/ice is repres5t$ 9 ! phrase1 & he w judge ! poor ) righte\sness4#add ,virtue is a mean betwe5 ! two extremes ( excess & defect1 ea* ( :i* is a vice4 ,?us an excess ( wisdom becomes %rewdness & cunn+ & deceit2 :ile a defect means ignorance4 ,! true wisdom consi/s 9 ! middle way betwe5 ! two extremes4 ,simil>ly c\rage is a mean betwe5 foolh>d9ess & ra%ness on ! side ( excess1 & c[>dice on ! side ( defect4 ,temp]ance is a mean betwe5 excessive indulg5ce ( ! appetites on "o side & utt] ins5sibility on ! o!r4 ,! mean ( ju/ice is ! result ( ! h>moni\s comb9ation ( ! means ( ! la/ ?ree4 ,if ! rational s\l has wisdom & ! two o!r s\ls are ob$i5t to x ?r\gh mode/y & c\rage1 _! sub/ance *anges into ! sub/ance ( ! rational s\l1 i4 e41 _! bad qualities are trans=m$ into ! f\r virtues j m5tion$4 ,!n ! two l[] s\ls unite ) ! rational s\l & enjoy et]nal happ9ess ) x4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if ! rational s\l foll[s ! s5ses1 its wisdom *anges into _! folly1 its virtues into _! vices1 & x p]i%es ) !m4#ade ,! immortality ( ! s\l is prov$ z foll[s4 ,?+s compos$ ( elem5ts return back to _! elem5ts1 h5ce ! s\l also returns to its own orig94 ,! s\l is indep5d5t ( ! body1 = its qualities1 ?\ght & k1 are n bodily qualities1 h5ce !y become cle>] & m c]ta9 aft] ! s\l is sep>at$ f ! body ?an be=e1 :5 ! body obscur$ its vision l a curta94 ,! fact t a p]son's m9d is affect$ :5 8 body is ill does n %[ t ! s\l is dep5d5t 9 its nature ^u ! body2 b t act+ z x does 9 ! body by means ( corporeal organs1 x _c p]=m its functions prop]ly :5 ^! organs are injur$4 ,s9ce dea? is a decree ( ,god1 x is cle> t he has a purpose 9 *ang+ ! relations ( body & s\l4 ,b if ! s\l comes to an end1 ?is *ange w\ld be a va9 piece ( "w ( :i* he _c be guilty4 ,h5ce x foll[s t ! de/ruction ( ! body is 9 ord] t we may exi/ 9 ano!r simil> =m1 simil> to ! angels4#adf ,! purpose ( ! s\l's com+ into ?is _w is 9 ord] t %e may purify ! two l[] s\ls2 also t %e may "k ! value ( h] own _w 9 comp>ison ) ?is "o1 & 9 griev+ = hav+ left x may obs]ve ,god's comm&m5ts1 & ?us a*ieve h] return to h] own _w4 ,9 ! matt] ( return+ to _! own _w aft] sep>ation f ! body1 s\ls are grad$ accord+ to ! measure ( _! k & ! value ( _! conduct4 ,^! two conditions1 e?ical & spiritual or intellectual1 are requisite ( fulfilm5t be=e ! s\l c rega9 its orig9al home4 ,! s\l on leav+ ?is _w is l a clean1 :ite g>m5t soak$ 9 wat]4 ,if ! wat] is clean1 x is easy to dry ! g>m5t1 & x becomes ev5 clean] ?an x 0 be=e4 ,b if ! wat] is dirty1 no am\nt ( dry+ w make ! g>m5t clean4 ,^? s\ls :i* in/ead ( elevat+ ! two l[] s\ls1 vegetative & animal1 7 misl$ by !m1 w p]i% ) ! latt]4 ,betwe5 ! two extremes ( p]fection & wick$ness !re are int]m$iate /ages1 & ! s\ls are treat$ accord+ly4 ,^? ( ! pr\d w rise 9 ! air & fly+ hi!r & ?i!r w n f9d a re/+ place4 ,^? :i* h k1 b no good de$s1 w rise to ! sph]e ( ! e!r1 b w be prev5t$ f ris+ high] by ! weight ( _! evil de$s1 & ! pure angels w ra9 d[n ^u !m arr[s ( fire1 ?us caus+ !m to return bel[ 9 %ame & disgrace4 ,! s\ls ( ! di%one/ w be driv5 f place to place )\t f9d+ any re/4 ,o!r bad s\ls w be puni%$ 9 v>i\s ways4 ,^? s\ls :i* h good de$s b no k w be plac$ 9 ! t]re/rial p>adise until _! s\ls recall ! k !y _h 9 _! orig9al /ate1 & !y w !n return to ! ,g>d5 ( ,ed5 among ! angels4#adg ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,abraham ,,b> ,,hiyya ,abraham b> ,hiyya1 ! ,pr9ce1 z he is call$1 liv$ 9 ,spa9 9 ! fir/ half ( ! twelf? c5tury4 ,he also seems to h /ay$ "s "t 9 s\!rn ,france1 ?\gh we d n "k :5 or h[ long4 ,8 greate/ m]it lies n 9 8 philosophical a*ievem5t :i*1 if we may judge f ! only "w ( a philosophical "* t has come d[n to u1 is n v great4 ,he is be/ kn[n z a writ] on ma!matics1 a/ronomy & ! cal5d>2 ?\gh !re1 too1 8 mo/ important s]vice lay n s mu* 9 ! orig9al ideas he prop\nd$1 z 9 ! fact t he 0 among ! fir/1 if n ! fir/1 to introduce ! sci5tific ?\ght curr5t 9 ! ,ori5t & 9 ,moori% ,spa9 into ,*ri/ian ,europe1 & especially among ! ,jews ( ,france & ,g]many1 :o devot$ all _! en]gies to ! ,rabb9ical lit]ature1 & to :om ! ,arabic works ( _! ,spani% bre?r5 7 a seal$ book4 ,s we f9d ,abraham b> ,hiyya1 or ,abraham ,savasorda 7a corruption ( ! ,arabic title ,sahib al-,%orta71 associat$ ) ,plato ( ,tivoli 9 ! translation into ,lat9 ( ,arabic sci5tific works4 ,& he himself wrote a numb] ( books on ma!matics & a/ronomy 9 ,hebrew at ! reque/ ( 8 fri5ds 9 ,france :o c\ld n read ,arabic4 ,abraham b> ,hiyya is ! fir/ ( ! writ]s we h treat$ s f> :o compos$ a sci5tific "w 9 ! ,hebrew language4 ,all ! o!rs1 ) ! exception ( ,abraham ibn ,ezra1 wrote 9 ,arabic1 z !y cont9u$ to d until & includ+ ,maimonides4 ,! only "o ( 8 extant works :i* is philosophical 9 cont5t is ! small treatise ,hegyon ha-,nefe%1 ,m$itation ( ! ,s\l4#adh ,x is a popul> "w1 writt5 ) a practical purpose1 e?ical & homiletic 9 tone & /yle4 ,! idea ( rep5tance plays an important rle 9 ! book1 & :at !oretical philosophy f9ds place !re9 is introduc$ m]ely z a backgr\nd & basis = ! e?ical & religi\s consid]ations :i* foll[4 ,x may be call$ a m9iature ,duties ( ! ,he>ts4 ,z 9 all homiletical compositions 9 ,jewi% lit]ature1 exegesis ( ,biblical passages takes up a good deal ( ! discussions1 & = ! hi/ory ( ! philosophic movem5t 9 m$ival ,judaism ! me?ods ( read+ metaphysical & e?ical ideas into ! ,bible are q z important z ^! ideas !mselves4 ,! g5]al philosophical /&po9t ( ,abraham b> ,hiyya may be *>act]iz$ z an unc]ta9 ,neo-,platonism1 or a comb9ation ( fundam5tal ,ari/otelian ideas ) a ,neo-,platonic color+4 ,?us matt] & =m are ! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( ! _w4 ,!y exi/$ pot5tially ap>t 9 ! wisdom ( ,god be=e !y 7 comb9$ & ?us realiz$ 9 actuality4#adi ,"t be+ a measure ( motion1 came into be+ toge!r ) ! motion :i* foll[$ ^u ?is comb9ation4 ,h5ce nei!r ! _w nor "t is et]nal4 ,?is is ,platonic1 n ,ari/otelian1 :o believes 9 ! et]nity ( motion z well z ( "t4 ,abraham b> ,hiyya also speaks ( ! pure/ =m z light & z look+ at & illum9at+ ! =m inf]ior to x & ?us giv+ rise to ! heav5s1 m9]als & plants4#aej ,?is is all ,neo-,platonic4 ,& yet ! mo/ di/9ctive doctr9e ( ,plot9us & ! lat] ,neo-,platoni/s among ! ,arabs1 ! s]ies ( emanat+ hypo/ases1 ,intellect1 ,univ]sal ,s\l1 ,nature1 ,matt]1 & s on1 is want+ 9 ! ,hegyon ha-,nefe%4#aea ,=m is ! highe/ ?+ he kn[s outside ( ,god2 & ! pure/ =m1 :i* is too exalt$ to comb9e ) matt]1 embraces angels1 s]aphim1 s\ls1 & all =ms relat$ to ! upp] _w4#aeb ,) ! exception ( ! names angel1 s]aphim1 s\ls1 ?is is good ,ari/otelian doctr9e1 :o also believes 9 ! mov]s ( ! sph]es & ! active intellect 9 man z be+ pure =ms4 ,to proce$ n[ to give a brief acc\nt ( ,abraham b> ,hiyya's tea*+1 he ?9ks x is ! duty ( rational man to "k h[ x is t man :o is s insignificant 0 giv5 control ( ! o!r animals1 & end[$ ) ! p[] ( wisdom & k4 ,9 ord] to ga9 ?is k we mu/ inve/igate ! orig9s & pr9ciples ( exi/+ ?+s1 s t we may arrive at an und]/&+ ( ?+s z !y are4 ,?is ! wise m5 ( o!r nations h realiz$1 ?\gh !y 7 n privileg$ to receive a div9e ,torah1 & h busi$ !mselves ) philosophical inve/igations4 ,our ,bible recomm5ds to u ! same me?od 9 ! words ( ,deut]onomy 7#d1 #ci71 ,"k !re=e ?is day1 & reflect 9 ?y he>t1 t ! ,"l is ,god 9 ! heav5s above1 & ^u ! e>? b5ea?3 !re is none else4 ,?is means t if y und]/& ?or\ghly ! ord] ( ?+s 9 heav5 above & ! e>? b5ea?1 y w at once see t ,god made x 9 8 wisdom1 & t he is ! only "o & !re is no "o beside him4 ,! book ( ,job tea*es ! same ?+1 :5 x says 7#ai1 #bf7 ,& f my fle% ,i %all behold ,god4 ,?is signifies t f ! /ructure ( ! body & ! =m ( its memb]s we c und]/& ! wisdom ( ! ,creator4 ,we ne$ n hesitate !re=e to /udy ! works ( ! anci5ts & ! wise m5 ( o!r nations 9 ord] to le>n f !m ! nature ( exi/5ce4 ,we h ! p]mission & recomm5dation ( ,scripture4#aec ,/>t+ f a consid]ation ( man we see t he is ! la/ ( creat$ ?+s because we f9d 9 him additional composition ov] & above t f\nd 9 o!r creatures4 ,man is a rational animal4 ,animal means a body t gr[s & moves & at la/ is dissolv$4 ,rational ref]s to ! p[] ( k1 ( inf]r+ "o ?+ f ano!r1 & discrim9at+ betwe5 good & evil4 ,9 ?is man diff]s f o!r animals4 ,desc5d+ 9 ! scale ( exi/5ce we f9d t ! plant also gr[s & dies l ! animal1 b x does n move4 ,/ones1 metals & o!r inanimate bodies on ! e>?1 *ange _! =ms & %apes1 b unlike plants !y h no p[] ( gr[+ or increas+4 ,!y are ! simple/ ( ! ?+s on ! e>?4 ,!y diff] f ! heav5ly bodies 9 t ! latt] nev] *ange _! =ms4 ,proce$+ fur!r 9 our analysis1 we f9d t body1 ! simple/ ?+ s f>1 means l5g?1 bread? & dep? atta*$ to some?+ capable ( be+ measur$4 ,?is def9ition %[s t body is also compos$ ( two elem5ts1 :i* are !oretically di/9ct until ,god's w jo9s !m toge!r4 ,^! are hyle 7matt]7--:at has no lik5ess or =m1 b has ! capacity ( receiv+ =m--& =m1 :i* is def9$ z t :i* has p[] to clo! ! hyle ) any =m4 ,matt] alone is too weak to su/a9 itself1 unless =m comes to its aid4 ,=m1 on ! o!r h&1 is n p]ceptible to s5se unless x clo!s matt]1 :i* be>s x4 ,"o ne$s ! o!r4 ,matt] _c exi/ )\t =m2 =m _c be se5 )\t matt]4 ,=m is sup]ior to matt]1 because x ne$s ! latt] only to be se5 b c exi/ by itself ?\gh n se52 :]eas matt] _c exi/ )\t =m4 ,^! two1 matt] & =m1 7 hidd5 9 ,god1 :]e !y exi/$ pot5tially until ! "t came to produce !m & realize !m 9 actu4 ,matt] is fur!r divid$ into two k9ds4 ,!re is pure matt]1 :i* ent]s into ! composition ( ! heav5s1 & impure matt]1 =m+ ! sub/ance ( t]re/rial bodies4 ,simil>ly =m may be divid$ at fir/ into two k9ds2 clos$ & seal$ =m1 too pure & holy to be comb9$ ) matt]2 & op5 & p5etrable =m1 :i* is fit to unite ) matt]4 ,! pure1 self-subsi/5t =m gazes at & illum9ates ! p5etrable =m1 & helps x to clo! matt] ) all ! =ms ( :i* ! latt] is capable4 ,n[ :5 ,god det]m9$ to realize matt] & =m 9 actu1 he caus$ ! pure =m to be clo!d ) its spl5dor1 :i* no hyle c t\*4 ,?is gave rise to angels1 s]aphim1 s\ls1 & all o!r =ms ( ! upp] _w4 ,n all m5 c see ^! =ms or conceive !m 9 ! m9d1 because !y d n unite ) any?+ :i* ! eye c p]ceive1 & ! majority ( p _c und]/& :at !y _c p]ceive ) _! corporeal s5ses4 ,only ^? :o are giv5 to pr(\nd sci5tific inve/igations c und]/& ! ess5ce ( ^! =ms4 ,! light ( ?is pure =m !n emanat$ ^u ! second =m1 & by ! ^w ( ,god ! latt] unit$ ) ! pure matt] firmly & p]man5tly1 s t !re is nev] a *ange z long z !y are unit$4 ,?is union gave rise to ! bodies ( ! heav5s 7sph]es & fix$ />s7 :i* nev] *ange _! =ms4 ,!n ! =m unit$ ) ! impure matt]1 & ?is gave rise to all ! bodies 9 ! sublun> _w1 :i* *ange _! =ms4 ,^! are ! f\r elem5ts1 & ! products ( _! composition1 includ+ plants4#aed ,s f> we h bodies :i* d n *ange _! places4 ,!n a light emanat$ f ! self-subsi/+ =m by ! ord] ( ,god1 ! spl5dor ( :i* spread ^u ! heav51 mov+ f po9t to po9t1 & caus$ ! mat]ial =m 7i4 e41 ! inf]ior1 s-call$ p5etrable =m7 to *ange its place4 ,?is produc$ ! />s :i* *ange _! position b n _! =ms 7planets74 ,f ?is light ext5d+ ov] ! heav5 emanat$ ano!r spl5dor :i* rea*$ ! body ) *ang+ =m1 giv+ rise to ! ?ree species ( liv+ be+s1 aquatic1 a]ial & t]re/ial animals1 correspond+ to ! ?ree elem5ts1 wat]1 air1 e>?2 z !re is no animal life 9 fire4 ,we h s f> !re=e ?ree k9ds ( =ms4 7#a7 ,! pure self-subsi/5t =m :i* nev] comb9es ) matt]4 ,?is embraces all ! =ms ( ! spiritual _w4 7#b7 ,=m :i* unites ) body firmly & insep>ably4 ,^! are ! =ms ( ! heav5s & ! />s4 7#c7 ,=m :i* unites ) body tempor>ily4 ,su* are ! =ms ( ! bodies on ! e>?4 ,! =ms ( ! second & ?ird classes _c exi/ )\t bodies4 ,! =m ( class numb] "o _c exi/ ) body4 ,to make ! s*eme complete1 !re ought to be a f\r? k9d ( =m :i* c exi/ ) z well z )\t body4 ,9 o!r words1 a =m :i* unites ) body = a "t & !n returns to its orig9al /ate & cont9ues to exi/ )\t body4 ,reason dem&s t ! classification %\ld be complete1 h5ce !re mu/ be su* a =m1 & ! only "o wor?y ( ?is condition is ! s\l ( man4 ,we ?us h a pro( ( ! immortality ( ! s\l4#aee ,^! are ! ideas ( ! anci5t sages1 & we %all f9d t !y are drawn f ! ,torah4 ,?us matt] & =m are indicat$ 9 ! second v]se ( ,g5esis1 ,& ! e>? 0 )\t =m 7,heb4 ,tohu7 & void 7,heb4 ,bohu74 ,tohu is matt]2 ,bohu ,hebrew3 ,bohu ,bo hu signifies t ?r\gh :i* matt] ga9s exi/5ce1 h5ce =m4 ,wat] 7,heb4 ,mayim7 is also a g5]al ^w = any ( ! v>i\s =ms1 :]eas light 7,heb4 ,or7 /&s = ! pure subsi/5t =m4 ,by firmam5t 7,heb4 ,rakia7 is meant ! second k9d ( =m :i* unites ) ! pure matt] 9 a p]man5t & un*angeable mann]4 ,let !re be a firman5t 9 ! mid/ ( ! wat]s 7,g54 #a1 #f7 indicates t ! firmam5t is embrac$ by ! bright light ( ! fir/ day1 t is ! univ]sal =m1 f :i* all ! o!r =ms come4 ,& let x divide betwe5 wat] & wat] 7ib47 signifies t ! firmam5t /&s betwe5 ! self-subsi/5t =m & ! ?ird k9d ( =m above m5tion$1 namely1 t :i* unites ) body & gives rise to sub/ances *ang+ _! =ms1 l m9]als & plants4 ,! lum9>ies 7,heb4 ,meorot7 correspond to ! second light m5tion$ above4 ,we %all f9d also t ! ord] ( creation z giv5 9 ,g5esis co9cides ) ! acc\nt giv5 above 9 ! "n ( ! anci5t sages4#aef ,x w\ld seem z if ! self-subsi/+ =m & ! two lights emanat+ f x are meant to repres5t ! ,intellect1 ,s\l & ,nature ( ! ,neo-,platonic tr9ity respectively1 & t ,abraham b> ,hiyya purposely *ang$ ! names & p>tly _! functions 9 ord] to make ! philosophical acc\nt agree ) ! /ory ( creation 9 ,g5esis4 ,) reg>d to ! intellectual & e?ical condition ( ! s\l & its de/9y1 ! speculative ?9k]s ( o!r nations1 argu+ f reason alone & hav+ no div9e revelation to guide or confirm _! speculations1 are agre$ t ! only way 9 :i* ! s\l1 :i* belongs to a high] _w1 c be fre$ f ?is _w ( body & *ange is ?r\gh intellectual excell5ce & "r conduct4 ,accord+ly !y classify s\ls into f\r k9ds4 ,! s\l1 !y say1 may h heal?1 sickness1 life1 dea?4 ,heal? signifies wisdom or k2 sickness d5otes ignorance4 ,life means ! fe> ( ,god & "r conduct2 dea? is neglect ( ,god & evil practice4 ,e p]son comb9es 9 himself "o ( ! two intellectual qualities ) "o ( ! two e?ical qualities4 ,?us we h f\r classes ( p]sons4 ,a man may be wise & pi\s1 wise & wick$1 ignorant & pi\s1 ignorant & wick$4 ,& 8 de/9y aft] dea? is det]m9$ by ! class to :i* he belongs4 ,?us :5 a man :o is wise & pi\s dep>ts ?is _w1 8 s\l by reason ( its wisdom sep>ates f ! body & exi/s 9 its own =m z be=e4 ,ow+ to its piety x w rise to ! upp] _w until x rea*es ! pure1 et]nal =m1 ) :i* x w unite = ev]4 ,if ! man is wise & wick$1 ! wisdom ( ! s\l w enable x to exi/ )\t body2 b on acc\nt ( its wick$ness & indulg5ce 9 ! desires ( ?is _w1 x _c become completely free f ! creatures ( ?is _w1 & ! be/ x c d is to rise above ! sublun> _w ( *ange to ! _w ( ! planets :]e ! =ms d n *ange1 & move ab\t b5ea? ! light ( ! sun1 ! heat ( :i* w seem to x l a fire burn+ x cont9ually1 & prev5t+ x f ris+ to ! upp] light4 ,if ! man is ignorant & pi\s1 8 s\l w be sav$ f body 9 ord] t x may exi/ by itself1 b 8 ignorance w prev5t 8 s\l f leav+ ! atmosph]e ( ! l[] _w4 ,h5ce ! s\l w h to be unit$ ) body a second1 & a ?ird "t1 if necess>y1 until x f9ally acquires k & wisdom1 :i* w enable x to rise above ! l[] _w1 its degree & /ation dep5d+ ^u ! measure ( intellect & virtue x possesses at ! "t ( ! la/ sep>ation f ! body4 ,! s\l ( ! man :o is bo? ignorant & wick$ _c be sav$ f ! body entirely1 & dies l a bea/4 ,^! are ! views ( speculative ?9k]s :i* we may adopt1 b !y _c tell u :at is ! cont5t ( ! t]ms wisdom & "r conduct4 ,n hav+ be5 privileg$ to receive ! sacr$ ,law1 :i* is ! s\rce ( all wisdom & ! orig9 ( rectitude1 !y _c tell u 9 concrete fa%ion j :at a man mu/ "k & :at he mu/ d 9 ord] to raise 8 s\l to ! highe/ degree possible = x to atta94 ,& if !y 7 to tell u :at !y und]/& by wisdom & "r conduct1 we %\ld n li/5 to !m4 ,our au?ority is ! ,bible1 & we mu/ te/ ! views ( ! philosoph]s by ! tea*+ ( ! ,bible4 ,if we d ?is we f9d au?ority 9 ,scripture also = belief 9 ! immortality ( ! s\l4 ,?us if we /udy c>efully ! expressions us$ ( ! v>i\s creations 9 ! fir/ *apt] ( ,g5esis1 we notice t 9 "s cases ! div9e comm& is express$ by ! phrase1 ,let !re be4441 foll[$ by ! "n ( ! ?+ to be creat$2 & ! execution ( ! comm& is express$ by ! words1 ,& !re 04441 ! "n ( ! creat$ object be+ repeat$2 or ! phrase may be simply1 ,& x 0 s1 )\t nam+ ! object4 ,9 o!r cases ! expression ,let !re be is n us$1 nor ! correspond+ ,& !re 04 ,?is v>iation 9 expression is n accid5tal4 ,x is delib]ate & mu/ be und]/ood4 ,^u a c>eful exam9ation we _c fail to see t :]e ! expression ,let !re be is us$1 ! object s creat$ exi/s 9 ?is _w p]man5tly & )\t *ange4 ,?us1 ,let !re be light 7,g54 i1 #c74 ,if 9 addition we h ! correspond+ expression1 ,& !re 01 9 connection ) ! same object & foll[$ by its "n1 x means t ! object w cont9ue its ev]la/+ exi/5ce 9 ! next _w also4 ,h5ce1 ,& !re 0 light 7ib474 ,9 ! creation ( ! firmam5t & ! lum9>ies we h ! expression1 ,let !re be2 ! correspond+ expression at ! end is 9 ea* case n1 ,& !re 04441 b1 ,& x 0 s4 ,?is signifies t 9 ?is _w1 z long z x la/s1 ! firmam5t & lum9>ies are p]man5t & )\t *ange2 b !y w h no cont9uance 9 ! next _w4 ,9 ! creation ( ! sublun> _w we d n f9d ! phrase1 ,let !re be1 at all1 b su* expressions z1 ,let ! wat]s be ga!r$ toge!r 7ib4 #i71 ,let ! e>? produce grass 7ib4 #aa71 & s on4 ,?is means t ^! ?+s *ange _! =ms & h no p]man5t exi/5ce 9 ?is _w4 ,! phrase1 ,& x 0 s1 record+ ! realization ( ! div9e comm&1 signifies t !y d n exi/ at all 9 ! next _w4 ,! case is diff]5t 9 man4 ,we d n f9d ! expression1 ,let !re be1 9 ! comm& introduc+ 8 =mation2 h5ce he has no p]man5ce 9 ?is _w4 ,b we d f9d ! expression1 ,& ! man became 7lit4 07 a liv+ s\l 7ib4 #b1 #g71 :i* means t he w h p]man5t exi/5ce 9 ! next _w4 ,! article be=e ! ^w man 9 ! v]se j quot$ indicates t n e man lives =ev] 9 ! next _w1 b only ! good4 ,:at mann] ( man he mu/ be 9 ord] to h ?is privilege1 i4 e41 ( :at nation he mu/ be a memb]1 we %all see lat]4 ,?is phase ( ! "q ! speculative ?9k]s _c und]/&1 h5ce !y did n inve/igate x4 ,reason alone _c decide ?is "q2 x ne$s ! guidance ( ! ,torah1 :i* is div9e4 ,consult+ ! ,torah on ?is problem1 we notice t man is di/+ui%$ above o!r animals 9 ! mann] ( 8 creation 9 ?ree respects4 7#a7 ,all o!r liv+ be+s 7 creat$ by means ( some?+ else4 ,! wat] or ! e>? 0 ord]$ to produce !m4 ,man alone 0 made directly by ,god4 7#b7 ,!re are ?ree expressions us$ = ! creation ( liv+ ?+s1 create 7,heb4 b>a71 =m 7,heb4 yaz>71 & make 7,heb4 asah74 ,! wat] animals h only ! fir/ 7ib4 #a1 #ba71 z be+ ! l[e/ 9 ! scale ( animal life4 ,l& animals h ! second & ! ?ird1 =m$ & made 7ib4 #a1 #be2 #b1 #ai74 ,man1 :o is sup]ior to all ! o!rs1 has all ! ?ree expressions 7ib4 #bf1 #bg2 #b1 #g74 7#c7 ,man 0 giv5 dom9ion ov] ! o!r animals 7ib4 #a1 #bh74 ,z man is di/+ui%$ above ! o!r animals1 s is "o nation di/+ui%$ above o!r m54 ,9 ,isaiah 7#dc1 #g7 we read3 ,e "o t is call$ by my "n1 & :om ,i h creat$ = my glory2 ,i h =m$ him2 yea1 ,i h made him4 ,! ?ree t]ms1 creat$1 =m$1 made1 signify t ! ref]5ce is to man2 & we le>n f ?is v]se t ^? m5 7 creat$ = 8 glory :o are call$ by 8 "n4 ,b if we inquire 9 ! ,bible we f9d t ! nation call$ by ,god's "n is ,israel1 z we read 7ib4 #a71 ,?us said ! ,"l t creat$ !e1 ,o ,israel1 ,fe> n2 = ,i h r$eem$ !e1 ,i h call$ !e by ?y "n2 ?\ art m9e1 & 9 _m o!r passages besides4 ,! reason = ?is is _! belief 9 ! unity ( ,god & _! reception ( ! ,law4 ,at ! same "t o!rs :o are n ,israelites are n exclud$ f rea*+ ! same degree ?r\gh rep5tance4#aeg ,!re is no sy/em ( e?ics 9 ,abraham b> ,hiyya1 & we %all 9 ! sequel select "s ( 8 rem>ks be>+ on e?ics & pick out ! e?ical k]nel f its homiletical & exegetical husk4 ,man alone1 he tells u1 ( all animal creation receives rew>d & puni%m5t4 ,! o!r animals h nei!r m]it nor guilt4 ,to be sure1 _! =tune 9 life dep5ds ^u ! mann] 9 :i* !y respond to _! environm5t1 b ?is is n 9 ! way ( rew>d & puni%m5t1 b a natural consequ5ce ( _! natural con/itution4 ,) man x is diff]5t1 & ?is is because ( ! responsible position man occupies1 hav+ be5 giv5 ! privilege & ! ability to control all animal creation4#aeh ,! psy*ological basis ( virtue 9 ,abraham b> ,hiyya is ,platonic 9 orig91 z x is 9 ,pseudo-,bahya1 ?\gh we d n f9d ! f\r c>d9al virtues & ! d]ivation ( ju/ice f a h>moni\s comb9ation ( ! o!r ?ree z 9 ! ,republic ( ,plato1 to :i* ,pseudo-,bahya is ultimately indebt$4 ,man has ?ree p[]s1 we are told1 :i* "s call ?ree s\ls4 ,"o is ! p[] by :i* he gr[s & multiplies l ! plants ( ! field4 ,! second is t by :i* he moves f place to place4 ,^! two p[]s he has 9 common ) ! animal4 ,! ?ird is t by :i* he di/+ui%es betwe5 good & evil1 betwe5 tru? & falsehood1 betwe5 a ?+ & its opposite1 & by :i* he acquires wisdom & k4 ,?is is ! s\l :i* di/+ui%es him f ! o!r animals4 ,if ?is s\l prevails ov] ! l[] two p[]s1 ! man is call$ m]itori\s & p]fect4 ,if on ! o!r h& ! latt] prevail ov] ! s\l1 ! man is acc\nt$ l a bea/1 & is call$ wick$ & an evil do]4 ,god gives m]it to ! animal s\l = ! sake ( ! rational s\l if ! =m] is ob$i5t to ! latt]2 & on ! o!r h& imputes guilt to ! rational s\l & puni%es h] = ! guilt ( ! animal s\l because %e did n succe$ 9 ov]com+ ! latt]4#aei ,! "q ( ! relative sup]iority ( ! naturally good :o feels no temptation to d wrong1 & ! temp]am5tal p]son :o has to su/a9 a con/ant /ruggle ) 8 passions & desires 9 ord] to ov]come !m is decid$ by ,abraham b> ,hiyya 9 favor ( ! =m] on ! gr\nd t ! latt] is nev] free f evil ?\ght1 :]eas ! =m] is4 ,& he quotes ! ,rabbis ( ! ,talmud1 accord+ to :om ! rew>d 9 ! future _w is n ! same = ! two types ( m54 ,he :o mu/ ov]come temptation be=e he c subject 8 l[] nature to 8 reason is rew>d$ 9 ! next _w 9 a mann] be>+ resemblance to ! goods & pleasures ( ?is _w1 & describ$ z preci\s /ones & tables ( gold lad5 ) good ?+s to eat4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! rew>d ( ! naturally p]fect :o is free f temptation is purely spiritual1 & be>s no e>?ly traces4 ,^! m5 are repres5t$ z sitt+ "u ! ,?rone ( ,glory ) _! cr[ns on _! heads & delight+ 9 ! spl5dor ( ! ,%ek9ah4#afj ,8 !odicy (f]s no?+ rem>kable4 ,he cites & opposes a solution frequ5tly giv5 9 ! middle ages ( ! problem ( evil4 ,?is is bas$ on ! assumption t ,god _c be ! cause ( evil4 ,h[ !n expla9 ! pres5ce ( evil 9 ! _w8 ,!re is no analysis or classification or def9ition ( :at is meant by evil4 ,app>5tly x is physical evil :i* ,abraham b> ,hiyya has 9 m9d4 ,:y d "s p suff] :o d n seem to des]ve x8 is ! aspect ( ! problem :i* int]e/s him4 ,"o solution t is (f]$1 he tells u1 is t evil is n any?+ positive or sub/antial4 ,x is some?+ negative1 abs5ce ( ! good1 z bl9dness is abs5ce ( vision2 deafness1 abs5ce ( he>+2 nak$ness1 abs5ce ( clo?+4 ,h5ce x has no cause4 ,god produces ! positive =ms :i* are good1 & det]m9es !m to /ay a def9ite l5g? ( "t4 ,:5 ?is "t comes to an end1 ! =ms disappe> & _! negatives take _! place automatically )\t ! necessity ( any cause4 ,abraham b> ,hiyya is oppos$ to ?is solution ( ! problem1 ?\gh he gives u no philosophic reason = x4 ,8 argum5ts are ,biblical4 ,god is ! cause ( evil z well z good1 & ?is is ! mean+ ( ! ^w judgm5t 7,heb4 ,mi%pat7 t occurs s (t5 9 ! ,bible 9 connection ) ,god's attributes4 ,! same idea is express$ 9 ,j]emiah 7#i1 #bc7 ,i am ! ,"l :i* ex]cise lov+ k9dness1 judgm5t & righte\sness 9 ! e>?4 ,lov+ k9dness ref]s to ! creation ( ! _w1 :i* 0 an act ( pure grace on ! "p ( ,god4 ,x 0 n a necessity4 ,8 purpose 0 purely to d k9dness to 8 creatures & to %[ !m 8 wisdom & p[]4 ,righte\sness ref]s to ! k9dness ( ,god1 8 *>ity s to speak1 :i* e "o ne$s :5 he dies & wi%es to be admitt$ to ! next _w4 ,= ! majority ( m5 h m guilt ?an m]it4 ,judgm5t d5otes ! good & evil di/ribut$ 9 ! _w accord+ to ! law ( ju/ice4 ,?us he rew>ds ! righte\s 9 ! next _w1 & makes !m suff] sometimes 9 ?is _w 9 ord] to try !m & to d\ble _! ultimate rew>d4 ,he puni%es ! wick$ 9 ?is _w = _! evil de$s1 & sometimes he gives !m weal? & prosp]ity t !y may h no claim or def5ce 9 ! next _w4 ,?us evil 9 ?is _w is n always ! result ( misconduct :i* x puni%es2 x may be inflict$ z a trial1 z 9 ! case ( ,job4 ,abraham b> ,hiyya's solution is !re=e t !re is no reason :y ,god %\ld n be ! au?or ( physical evil1 s9ce ev]y?+ is done 9 accordance ) ! law ( ju/ice4#afa ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,joseph ,,ibn ,,zaddik ,little is kn[n ( ! life ( ,joseph b5 ,jacob ibn ,zaddik4 ,he liv$ 9 ,cordova2 he 0 appo9t$ ,dayyan1 or ,judge ( ! ,jewi% community ( t city 9 #aach2 & he di$ 9 #aadi4 ,he is prais$ z a ,talmudic s*ol> by 8 c\ntryman ,moses ibn ,ezra1 & z a poet by ,abraham ibn ,daud & ,h>izi1 ?\gh we h no ,talmudic composition f 8 p51 & b few poems1 :e!r liturgical or o!rwise4#afb ,8 fame re/s on 8 philosophical "w1 & x is ?is phase ( 8 c>e] 9 :i* we are int]e/$ "h4 ,olam ,katon or ,microcosm is ! ,hebrew "n ( ! philosophical treatise :i* he wrote 9 ,arabic1 b :i* we no long] possess 9 ! orig9al1 be+ indebt$ = our k ( x to a ,hebrew translation ( unkn[n au?or%ip4#afc ,maimonides knew ,joseph ibn ,zaddik favorably1 b he 0 n famili> ) ! ,microcosm4 ,9 a lett] to ,samuel ,ibn ,tibbon1 ! translator ( 8 ,guide ( ! ,p]plex$1 ,maimonides tells u t ?\gh he has n se5 ! ,olam ,katon ( ,ibn ,zaddik1 he kn[s t its t5d5cy is ! same z t ( ! ,bro!rs ( ,purity 7cf4 above1 p4 #fj74afd ,?is signifies t its tr5d ( ?\ght is ,neo-,platonic1 :i* comb9es ,ari/otelian physics ) ,platonic & ,plot9ian metaphysics1 e?ics & psy*ology4 ,an exam9ation ( ! book itself confirms ,maimonides's judgm5t4 ,9 accordance ) ! tr5d ( ! times !re is noticeable 9 ,ibn ,zaddik an increase ( ,ari/otelian influ5ce1 ?\gh ( a turbid k9d2 a decid$ decrease1 if n a complete ab&onm5t1 ( ! ideas ( ! ,kalam1 & a /rong saturation ( ,neo-,platonic doctr9e & po9t ( view4 ,x 0 ! fa%ion to set ! ,kalam ov] aga9/ ! philosoph]s to ! disadvantage ( ! =m]1 z be+ defici5t 9 logical k & prejudic$ by !ological prepossessions4 ,?is is atte/$ by ! attitude t[>ds ! ,mutakallimun ( ,judah ,halevi1 ,maimonides1 ,av]roes4 ,& ,ibn ,zaddik =ms no exception to ! rule4 ,! circum/ance t x 0 mo/ likely f ,k>aite writ+s1 :i* f\nd _! way into ,spa91 t ,ibn ,zaddik ga9$ 8 k ( ,kalami/ic ideas1 0 n exactly calculat$ to prepossess him1 a ,rabbanite1 9 _! favor4 ,& ?us :ile we see him 9 ! mann] ( ,saadia & ,bahya foll[ ! good old me?od1 cr$it$ by ,maimonides to ! ,mutakallimun1 ( />t+ 8 metaphysics ) pro(s ( ! _w's creation1 & bas+ ! exi/5ce ( ,god1 8 unity1 incorporeality & o!r attributes on ! creation ( ! _w z a f\ndation1 he turns into an uncompromis+ oppon5t ( ^! mu* despis$ apologetes :5 he comes to discuss ! nature ( ,god's attributes1 ( ! div9e w1 & ( ! nature ( evil4 ,& 9 all ^! cases ! t>get ( 8 attack seems to be _! ,k>aite repres5tative ,joseph al-,basir1 ^: acqua9tance we made be=e 7p4 #dh ff474 ,he laid "u contribution 8 pr$ecessors & contempor>ies1 ,saadia1 ,bahya1 ,pseudo-,bahya1 ,gabirol2 & 8 sympa?ies cle>ly lay ) ! g5]al po9t ( view repres5t$ by ! la/1 & 8 ,mohamm$an s\rces2 ?\gh he 0 en\gh ( an eclectic to refuse to foll[ ,gabirol1 or ! ,bre?r5 ( ,purity & ! o!r ,neo-,platonic writ+s1 9 all ! details ( _! doctr9e2 & !re is evid5ce ( an attempt on 8 "p to tone d[n ! extremes ( ,neo-,platonic t5d5cy & create a k9d ( level 9 :i* ,ari/otelianism & ,platonism meet by compromis+4 ,?us he believes ) ,gabirol t all ?+s corporeal z well z spiritual are compos$ ( matt] & =m2#afe b :5 x comes to def9+ :at ! matt] ( spiritual ?+s may be1 he tells u t we may speak ( ! g5us z ! matt] ( ! species--a doctr9e :i* is n s ,neo-,platonic aft] all4 ,= we d n h to g beyond ,ari/otle to he> t 9 ! def9ition ( an object1 :i* repres5ts its intelligible 7oppos$ to s5sible7 ess5ce1 ! g5us is l ! matt]1 ! diff]5ce l ! =m4 ,( ! univ]sal & prime matt] und]ly+ all creat$ ?+s outside ( ,god1 ( :i* ,gabirol says t x is ! imm$iate emanation ( ,god's ess5ce & con/itutes ) univ]sal =m ! ,univ]sal ,intellig5ce1 ,ibn ,zaddik kn[s no?+4 ,nor d we f9d any outspok5 s*eme ( emanation1 su* z we see 9 ,plot9us or ) a slight modification 9 ! cyclopo$ia ( ! ,bre?r5 ( ,purity1 or z x is presuppos$ 9 ! ,fons ,vit ( ,gabirol4 ,ibn ,zaddik does ref] to ! doctr9e ( ! div9e ,w1 :i* plays su* an important rle 9 ! philosophy ( ,gabirol & ( ! ,pseudo-,emp$oclean writ+s1 :i* are suppos$ to h be5 ,gabirol's s\rce4#aff ,b "h1 too1 ! negative side ( ,ibn ,zaddik's doctr9e is develop$ at l5g?1 :ile ! positive side is b>ely allud$ to 9 a h9t4 ,he takes pa9s to %[ ! absurdity ( ! view t ! div9e w is a mom5t>y entity creat$ f "t to "t to make possible ! com+ into be+ ( ! ?+s & processes ( our _w--a view held by ! ,mutakallimun z repres5t$ by _! spokesman al-,basir1 b :5 x comes to expla9+ 8 own view ( ! nature ( ! div9e w1 & :e!r x is id5tical ) ,god or n1 he sudd5ly becomes retic5t1 ref]s u to ! writ+s ( ,emp$ocles1 & intimates t ! matt] is involv$ 9 my/]y1 & x is n safe to talk ab\t x too pla9ly & op5ly4 ,evid5tly ,ibn ,zaddik 0 n ready to g all ! l5g? ( ,gabirol's emanationism & ,neo-,platonic my/icism4 ,! ,ari/otelian ideas1 ( :i* !re are _m 9 ! ,microcosm1 are probably n d]iv$ f a /udy ( ,ari/otle's works1 b f second>y s\rces4 ,?is we may safely inf] f ! way 9 :i* he uses or int]prets !m4 ,an ,ari/otelian def9ition is a highly te*nical proposition 9 :i* e ^w c\nts1 & requires a def9ition 9 turn to be und]/ood4 ,9 ! ,ari/otelian context ! read] sees ! me?odical d]ivation ( ! concept2 & ! sev]al te*nical t]ms mak+ up ! def9ition are made cle> by illu/rative examples4 ,aside f ! context ! proposition is obscure ev5 9 ! orig9al ,greek4 ,n[ conceive an ,arabic translation ( an ,ari/otelian def9ition tak5 out ( its context1 & y d n wond] t x is misund]/ood2 p>ticul>ly :5 ! int]pret]'s po9t ( view is tak5 f a s*ool ( ?\ght at v>iance ) t ( ,ari/otle4 ,?is is exactly :at happ5s to ,ibn ,zaddik4 ,he quotes approv+ly ,ari/otle's def9ition ( ! s\l1 & proce$s to int]pret x 9 a mann] n int5d$ by ! au?or ( ! ,de ,anima4#afg ,if he _h read ! context he c\ld n h misund]/ood ! def9ition z he did4 ,unlike 8 pr$ecessors1 ,ibn ,zaddik did n conf9e himself to a special topic 9 philosophy or to ! metaphysical aspects ( ,judaism4 ,isaac ,israeli & ,gabirol discuss special que/ions 9 ,physics & ,metaphysics )\t br++ !m into relation ) ,judaism or ! text ( ! ,bible4 ,saadia takes cognizance ( philosophical doctr9e solely ) a view to e/abli%+ & rationaliz+ ,jewi% dogma1 & only 9 s f> z x may ?us be utiliz$4 ,bahya & ,abraham b> ,hiyya conf9e _! philosophical outlook )9 /ill n>r[] limits1 hav+ ,jewi% e?ics z _! prim>y conc]n4 ,all ( ! latt] make a feature ( ,biblical int]pretation1 :i* l5ds to _! "w ! ,jewi% /amp & to _! /yle ! elem5t ( homel9ess & v>iety4 ,to ?is !y owe 9 a measure _! popul>ity1 :i*1 h[ev]1 _c be said = ,abraham b> ,hiyya1 ^: ,hegyon ha-,nefe% 0 n pr9t$ until ! second half ( la/ c5tury4 ,! ,microcosm ( ,ibn ,zaddik is ! fir/ comp5dium ( sci5ce1 philosophy & !ology 9 ,jewi% lit]ature4 ,& yet x is a small book2 = ,ibn ,zaddik does n ent] into l5g?y discussions1 nor does he adorn 8 /yle ) rhetorical fl\ri%es or copi\s quotations f ,bible & ,talmud4 ,! ,olam ,katon is cle>ly meant = beg9n]s1 :o require a summ>y & comp5di\s view ( s mu* ( physics1 psy*ology1 metaphysics & e?ics z w give !m an idea ( ! position ( man 9 ! _w1 & 8 duties1 !oretical & practical1 9 ?is life1 t he may fulfil 8 de/9y = :i* he 0 creat$4 ,x is v possible t ,ibn ,zaddik modell$ 8 "w on ! ,encyclopdia ( ! ,bre?r5 ( ,purity1 leav+ out all t he reg>d$ z uness5tial or objectional & abridg+ ! re/4 ,accord+ly1 ! ,microcosm is divid$ into f\r p>ts4 ,! fir/ "p treats ( :at is call$ 9 ! ,ari/otelian classification ( ! sci5ces ,physics1 i4 e41 ! pr9ciples & con/itution ( ! corporeal _w & its processes4 ,! second treats ( man1 includ+ an?ropology & psy*ology4 ,! ?ird is devot$ to a discussion ( ! exi/5ce1 unity1 incorporeality & o!r attributes ( ,god1 bas$ ^u ! doctr9e ( ! creation ( ! _w4 ,?is be>s ! /amp ( ! ,kalam1 & is indebt$ to ! writ+s ( ,saadia1 ,bahya & ,joseph al-,basir4 ,x cov]s ! topics usually treat$ by ! ,mutakallimun 9 ! division ( _! works1 kn[n by ! "n ( ,bab al ,tauhid1 treatise on ,unity4 ,! f\r? "p corresponds to ! ,bab al ,adi ( ! ,kalam1 i4 e41 ! second division ( ,kalami/ic works devot$ to !odicy1 or v9dication ( ,god's ju/ice 9 8 deal+s ) mank9d4 ,h5ce x includes !ological que/ions ( an e?ical nature1 l fre$om ( ! w1 reasons = div9e wor%ip1 ! nature ( rew>d & puni%m5t1 & s on4 ,! book 0 writt51 ,ibn ,zaddik tells u1 9 answ] to ! "q ( a pupil conc]n+ ! mean+ ( su* t]ms z p]fection & p]man5t good1 us$ by philosoph]s4 ,!y are n ( ?is _w ^! m5 say1 & yet e man ( intellig5ce %\ld seek !m4 ,?is is a v difficult subject1 made m s by ! small numb] ( p]sons engag$ 9 its /udy4 ,p>ticul>ly 9 our own g5]ation is ?is true1 t ! value ( k & inve/igation is n recogniz$4 ,p are ,jews 9 "n only1 & m5 only 9 outw>d appe>ance4 ,=m] ages 7 mu* sup]ior 9 ?is reg>d4 ,two fundam5tal requisites are necess>y = ! k ( our subject4 ,!y are ! k ( ,god1 & p]=mance ( 8 w4 ,= ?is purpose we mu/ und]/& ! works ( ! philosoph]s4 ,b ^! 9 turn require a k ( ! prelim9>y sci5ces ( ari?metic1 geometry1 music1 a/ronomy1 & logic4 ,?is takes a long "t & is likely to we>y ! /ud5t1 especially ! beg9n]4 ,i h !re=e made x my purpose to %[ h[ a man c "k himself1 = f a k ( self he w come to a k ( all4 ,man is call$ ,microcosm1 a _w 9 m9iature1 because he has 9 him repres5t$ all ! elem5ts ( ! univ]se4 ,8 body resembles ! corporeal _w2 8 rational s\l ! spiritual _w4 ,h5ce ! importance ( kn[+ himself1 & h5ce ! def9ition ( philosophy z a man's k ( himself4 ,philosophy is ! sci5ce ( sci5ces & ! end !re(1 because x is ! pa? to a k ( ! ,creator4#afh ,"h we see at ! outset ,ibn ,zaddik's ,neo-,platonic t5d5cy to make a %ort cut to k ?r\gh ! /udy ( man in/ead ( ! pa9ful & labori\s ma/]y ( ! prelim9>y sci5ces4 ,& s x 0 t ! ,neo-,platoni/s add$ little to ,ari/otle's /udy ( nature1 conc5trat+ _! att5tion ^u ! intelligible or spiritual _w4 ,! fir/ ?+ we mu/ d !n is to %[ t ! human body is simil> to ! corporeal _w4 ,?is w require an analysis ( ! /ructure ( ! latt]4 ,b be=e exam9+ ! objects ( k1 we mu/ say a ^w ab\t ! process ( kn[+4 ,man p]ceives ?+s 9 two ways--?r\gh s5se & ?r\gh intellect4 ,8 s5ses give him ! accid5ts ( ?+s1 ! %ell or husk1 s to speak4 ,he p]ceives color ?r\gh sight1 s\nd ?r\gh he>+1 odor ?r\gh smell1 & s on4 ,x takes reason to p5etrate to ! ess5ce ( an object4 ,take z an example a book4 ,! s5se ( sight p]ceives its color1 & ?r\gh ! color its =m4 ,?is is !n appreh5d$ by ! p[] ( imag9ation or repres5tation4 ,! latt] 9 turn h&s x ov] to ! cogitative p[] ( ! rational s\l1 f ! reflection ( :i* results ! spiritual reality ( ! object1 :i* is its k4 ,s we see t ! reason kn[s ! ess5ce & reality ( a ?+1 :]eas ! s5ses "k only its husk & its accid5ts4 ,?is same ?+ is /at$ by ! philosoph] 9 ano!r =m4 ,! s5ses1 he says1 "k only ! p>ticul>1 ! univ]sal c be kn[n by ! intellect only4 ,?is is because ! s\l is f9e & p5etrat+1 :ile ! body is gross1 & c rea* ! surface only4 ,we may also classify k f ano!r po9t ( view z necess>y 7or imm$iate71 & demon/rat$ 7or m$iate74 ,necess>y k is t :i* no sane man c d5y4 ,su* k may be ( ! s5ses1 z ! sight ( ! sun or ! s\nd ( ?und]2 or x may be ( ! reason1 su* z t ! :ole is great] ?an its p>ts4 ,we may !n enum]ate f\r k9ds ( ?+s kn[n directly )\t ! help ( o!r k1 7#a7 ,! p]cepts ( ! s5ses4 7#b7 ,tru?s g5]ally admitt$ by reason ( _! self-evid5ce4 7#c7 ,traditional tru?s1 i4 e41 tru?s h&$ d[n by a reliable & wise man1 or by a community wor?y ( cr$5ce4 7#d7 ,fir/ pr9ciples or axioms4 ,^! f\r c be easily r$uc$ to two2 = traditional tru?s ultimately g back to ! te/imony ( ! s5ses2 :ile fir/ pr9ciples or axioms are includ$ 9 self-evid5t propositions4 ,we ?us h two k9ds ( necess>y or imm$iate k1 ! data ( s5se1 & self-evid5t propositions4 ,! latt] k9d is sup]ior to ! =m]1 because man %>es s5se k ) ! l[] animals2 :]eas rational propositions are peculi> to him alone4 ,demon/rat$ k is built ^u necess>y k1 & is d]iv$ f x by means ( logical inf]5ce4#afi ,we may n[ proce$ to discuss ! pr9ciples ( ! corporeal _w4 ,matt] is ! f\ndation & pr9ciple ( a ?+4 ,all ?+s1 natural z well z artificial1 are compos$ ( matt] & =m4 ,wood is ! common matt] ( *air & b$4 ,_! =ms are diff]5t4 ,s ! common matt] ( ! f\r elem5ts is ! prime matt] end[$ ) ! =m ( corporeality1 i4 e41 ) ! capacity ( fill+ place4 ,?is =m ( corporeality makes ! prime matt] corporeal sub/ance4 ,matt] is relative to =m1 =m is relative to matt]4 ,spiritual ?+s also h matt] & =m4 ,9 corporeal artificial ?+s l r+ or bracelet1 ! matt] is gold1 ! =m is ! =m ( r+ or bracelet1 ! effici5t cause is ! art ( ! goldsmi?1 ! f9al cause or purpose is ! adornm5t4 ,9 spiritual ?+s we may comp>e g5us to matt]1 species to =m1 specific diff]5ce to effici5t cause1 ! individual to ! f9al cause4 ,ev]y?+ exi/s ei!r by itself 7p] se7 or 9 some?+ else4 ,matt] exi/s by itself1 =m exi/s 9 some?+ else1 9 matt]4 ,matt] is pot5tially sub/ance2 aft] x assumes a =m x becomes actual sub/ance4 ,9 reality !re is no matt] )\t =m1 b 9 ?\ght we c remove ! =m & leave ! matt]4 ,sub/ance may be describ$ z t :i* be>s opposite & *ang+ qualities4 ,no sub/ance c be ! opposite ( ano!r sub/ance ?r\gh its sub/antiality1 b ?r\gh its accid5ts2 = opposition resides 9 quality4 ,matt] receiv+ =m is sub/ance4 ,absolute sub/ance is simple & spiritual1 = x _c be p]ceiv$ ?r\gh ! five s5ses4 ,:5 ! philosoph]s say t all body is sub/ance1 & t ! individual is a sub/ance1 !y use sub/ance 9 contradi/9ction to accid5t1 mean+ t ! individual exi/s by itself1 & ne$s n ano!r = its exi/5ce1 unlike accid5ts1 :i* mu/ h some?+ to exi/ 94 ,?is absolute sub/ance1 :i* is simple & spiritual1 seems to be id5tical ) ,gabirol's sub/antia qu su/9et decem prdicam5ta1 ! sub/ance :i* supports ! t5 categories4 ,gabirol means by x t :i* rema9s ( a corporeal sub/ance :5 we take away f x ev]y?+ t qualifies x z be+ "h or !re1 ( a p>ticul> nature or size1 9 a giv5 relation1 & s on4 ,! expression corporeal _w includes ! cele/ial sph]es & all :i* is "u !m4 ,to be sure1 ! body ( ! sph]e is diff]5t f ! o!r bodies 9 matt] & =m & qualities4 ,x consi/s ( a fif? nature1 diff]5t f ! f\r elem5ts4 ,x is n cold1 or x w\ld move d[nw>d l e>? & wat]4 ,x is n w>m1 or x w\ld move upw>d l air & fire4 ,x is n wet1 = x w\ld !n roll l ! waves ( ! sea4 ,nor is x dry1 = x w\ld cond5se & n move at all4 ,n be+ any "o ( ^! qualities1 :i* con/itute our f\r elem5ts1 ! sph]e is n a composite ( !m ei!r2 = ! simple is prior to ! composite1 & we _c reg>d ! elem5ts ( ! sublun> _w z prior & sup]ior to ! sph]es4 ,! sph]e is nei!r light nor heavy4 ,= light & heavy are relative t]ms4 ,an object is heavy :5 out ( its natural place1 light :5 9 its natural place4 ,?us a /one is heavy :5 x is away f ! e>?1 :i* is its natural place1 b is light :5 x comes to re/ :]e x belongs4 ,! sph]e is nev] out ( its place or 9 its place1 z x moves con/antly 9 a circle4 ,h5ce x is nei!r light nor heavy4 ,ibn ,zaddik's def9ition ( light & heavy z be+ relative1 & dep5d5t on ! relation ( ! object to its natural place is peculi>1 & w\ld lead him to say t fire & air are also heavy :5 out ( _! natural place1 :i* is outside (1 & above e>? & wat]4 ,b ?is does n seem 9 consonance ) ! ,ari/otelian use ( ^! t]ms4 ,accord+ to ,ari/otle an object is heavy if its t5d5cy is to move to ! c5tre ( ! _w2 x is light if x moves away f ! c5tre to ! circumf]5ce4 ,h5ce e>? & wat] are heavy1 fire & air are light4 ,! natural place ( a body or elem5t is t to :i* x has a t5d5cy to move1 or 9 :i* x has a t5d5cy to re/1 :5 left to itself4 ,h5ce a body w always move to its natural place :5 away f x & "u no re/riction2 & its heav9ess or lightness does n *ange ) its position4 ,to cont9ue1 ! sph]e moves 9 a circle1 ! mo/ p]fect ( all motions1 hav+ nei!r beg9n+ nor end4 ,x is m p]fect ?an all bodies1 & ! k ( ,god is n hidd5 f x z x is hidd5 f u4 ,:atev] moves 9 a circle mu/ move ar\nd a body at re/2 = if x moves ar\nd ano!r mov+ body1 ?is second body mu/ h ano!r body ar\nd :i* x moves1 & ?is ?ird body ano!r1 & s on ad inf9itum1 :i* is impossible4 ,h5ce ! sph]e moves ar\nd a body at re/4 ,?is is ! e>?4 ,! f\r elem5ts ( ! sublun> _w are1 fire1 air1 wat]1 e>?4 ,9 _! purity ^! elem5ts h nei!r color nor ta/e1 nor odor nor any o!r s5sible prop]ty4 ,= ! elem5ts are simple bodies1 :]eas ! s5sible qualities are ! result ( ! composition ( ! elem5ts4 ,if air _h color1 we %\ld see x z we see all color$ ?+s2 & all o!r ?+s w\ld appe> to u 9 ! color ( air1 z is ! case :5 we look ?r\gh a color$ glass4 ,! same argum5t applies to wat]4 ,! elem5ts *ange into ea* o!r4 ,we see wat] *ang+ "u ! effect ( heat into vapor1 & ! vapor cond5ses aga9 "u ! influ5ce ( cold & *anges back to wat]1 namely1 ra94 ,air *anges into fire :5 fl9t /rikes iron4 ,fire _c exi/ "h unless x has some?+ to take hold (2 o!rwise x *anges into air4 ,e>? & wat] *ange into ea* o!r v sl[ly1 because e>? is h>d to *ange4 ,! basis ( ! f\r elem5ts is a sub/ance fill+ place z a result ( its assum+ ! =m ( corporeality1 i4 e41 ext5sion 9 ?ree directions4 ,fill+ place1 x moves2 mov+1 x becomes w>m4 ,:5 its motion is complet$1 x necess>ily comes to re/ & becomes cold4 ,heat & cold are ! active p[]s1 wet & dry are ! passive qualities1 wet be+ associat$ ) heat1 dry ) cold4 ,! mixture ( ^! qualities ) ! corporeal basis results 9 ! f\r elem5ts4 ,! ?ree natures1 m9]al1 plant1 animal are compos$ ( ! f\r elem5ts4 ,:5 a se$ is put 9 ! gr\nd x _c gr[ )\t wat]1 & sun%9e & air4 ,^! =m its food1 & food is assimilat$ to ! ?+ f$4 ,our bodies are compos$ ( ! f\r elem5ts1 because !y are n\ri%$ by plants4 ,! g5]al process ( ! sublun> _w is t ( g5esis & dissolution4 ,! g5esis ( "o ?+ is ! dissolution ( ano!r4 ,! dissolution ( ! egg is ! g5esis ( ! *ick52 ! dissolution ( ! *ick5 is ! g5esis ( ! f\r elem5ts2 = 9 ! liv+ be+ ! elem5ts are pot5tial1 & !y become actual :5 ! animal dies4 ,?is cont9u\s process ( g5esis & dissolution proves t ?is _w is n p]man5t1 = ! basis ( its processes is *ange4#agj ,! human body corresponds to ! corporeal _w1 & is simil> to x 9 its nature & matt]4 ,man's body is subject to g5esis & decay l o!r objects4 ,x is compos$ ( ! elem5ts & returns to !m4 ,x has 9 x ! nature ( m9]als1 plants & animals4 ,x has ! p[] ( gr[?1 su/5ance & reproduction l plants4 ,man is l animal 9 hav+ motion & s5sation4 ,he has ! spirit$ p[] & ! appetitive l o!r animals4 ,8 body is p]fect because x has resemblances to all k9ds ( plants & animals4 ,8 body z a :ole resembles great trees1 8 hair is l grass & %rubs4 ,animals h v>i\s qualities accord+ to ! relation ( ! animal s\l to ! body4 ,?us ! lion has /r5g?1 ! lamb meekness1 ! fox %rewdness1 & s on4 ,mank9d includes all ( ^! qualities4 ,9 ! same way v>i\s animals h v>i\s in/9cts resembl+ arts1 su* z ! weav+ ( ! spid]1 ! build+ ( ! bird & ! bee1 & s on4 ,!y also subsi/ on v>i\s foods4 ,man alone comb9es all arts & all k9ds ( food4 ,! human body has ?ree dim5sions l inanimate bodies4 ,x is also simil> to ! bodies ( plants & animals1 & at ! same "t is di/+ui%$ alone among animals by its erect position4 ,?is is due to ! fact t man's nature is proportionate1 & 8 body is pur] & f9] ?an o!r bodies4 ,?us we see :5 oil is pure1 its flame rises 9 a /raight l9e2 :5 ! oil is impure ! flame is n /raight4 ,ano!r ?+ prov+ t man's nature is sup]ior to t ( o!r animals is t ! latt] live 9 t elem5t :i* is ak9 to _! con/itution--fi% 9 wat]1 birds 9 air1 quadrup$s on l&4 ,man alone c inhabit all ?ree4 ,ano!r reason = man's erect position is t he is a plant orig9at+ 9 heav54 ,h5ce 8 head1 :i* is ! root1 faces heav54#aga ,man has ?ree s\ls1 a plant s\l1 an animal s\l & a rational s\l4 ,he mu/ h a plant s\l to acc\nt = ! fact t man gr[s l o!r plants & dies l !m4 ,= if he c gr[ )\t a plant s\l1 plants c d ! same4 ,& if ?is too is grant$1 !n !re is no reason :y m\nta9s & /ones %\ld n gr[ also4 ,aga91 if man c gr[ )\t a plant s\l1 he c live )\t an animal s\l1 & "k )\t a rational s\l1 :i* is absurd4 ,! faculty ( ! vegetative s\l is ! appetitive p[]1 ^: seat is 9 ! liv]4 ,its subord9ate p[]s are ^? ( nutrition & gr[?4 ,?r\gh x man feels ! ne$ ( food & o!r natural desires4 ,he has ?is 9 common ) ! l[] animals4 ,x is ! fir/ p[] t appe>s 9 man :ile he is /ill 9 8 "m's womb4 ,fir/ comes ! p[] :i* =ms ! comb9$ se$ ( ! male & ! female into a human be+ 9 its prop] =m & nature4 ,9 do+ ?is x requires ! assi/ance ( ! gr[+ p[]1 :i* beg9s its activity z soon z ! fir/ memb] is =m$1 & cont9ues until ! p]iod ( y\? is complet$4 ,?is p[] 9 turn ne$s ! assi/ance ( ! n\ri%+ p[]1 :i* accompanies ! o!r two f ! beg9n+ ( _! activity to ! end ( ! p]son's life4 ,all ?is con/itutes ! plant s\l1 & x mu/ n be suppos$ t ^! p[]s are sep>at$ f "o ano!r1 & t "o is 9 "o place & ano!r 9 ano!r place4 ,!y are all spiritual p[]s d]iv$ f ! univ]sal p[]s 9 ! upp] _w4 ,:5 ! =m ( ! be+ is complete1 ! animal s\l makes its appe>ance4 ,?is s\l is c>ri$ 9 ! _s ( ! animal or man1 :i* is f\nd 9 ! pure blood ( ! art]ies4 ,!re are two membranes 9 e art]y1 mak+ two passages1 "o = blood & ! o!r = ! _s or w9d4 ,! seat ( ! animal s\l is 9 ! he>t1 & x is borne 9 ! pure r$ blood4 ,?is is :y we see 9 ! he>t two receptacles2 9 "o is _s1 9 ! o!r1 blood4 ,h5ce aft] dea? we f9d congeal$ blood 9 ! "o1 :ile ! o!r is empty4 ,dea? happ5s on acc\nt ( ! defective mixture ( ! he>t4 ,?is means t ! f\r humors ( :i* ! body is compos$1 namely1 blood1 yell[ & black gall & phlegm1 lose ! prop] proportionality 9 _! composition1 & "o or o!r ( !m pr$om9ates4 ,an animal does n die unless ! mixture ( ! he>t is injur$1 or ! he>t is w\nd$ s]i\sly4 ,dea? is also caus$ by disease or injury ( ! bra94 ,= ! bra9 is ! orig9 ( ! n]ves :i* control ! volunt>y activities by means ( contraction & expansion4 ,if ! *e/ does n contract1 ! w>m air does n come out2 if x does n exp&1 ! cold air does n come 92 & if ! air does n come 9 or out1 ! he>t loses its proportionality1 & ! animal dies4 ,! functions ( ! animal s\l are s5sation & motion4 ,?is motion may be active z well z passive4 ,! active motions are ^? ( ! art]ies1 & ! expansion & contraction ( ! *e/ :i* results 9 respiration4 ,! passive motions give rise to ! emotions ( ang]1 fe>1 %ame1 joy1 sorr[4 ,ang] is ! motion ( ! _s )9 ! body t[>d ! outside1 toge!r ) ! blood & ! humors4 ,?is is f\nd 9 animals also4 ,fe> is ! entrance ( ! s\l )91 leav+ ! surface ( ! body1 & caus+ ! extremities to become cold4 ,%ame is a motion inw>d1 & =?) aga9 outw>d4 ,sorr[ is caus$ 9 ! same way z fe>1 except t fe> is sudd51 :ile sorr[ is gradual4 ,?is is :y fe> sometimes kills :5 ! body is weak4 ,joy is motion outw>d4 ,joy may kill too1 :5 x is v great1 & ! p]son is weak & )\t control4 ,joy is ( ! nature ( pleasure1 except t pleasure is gradual1 :ile joy is sudd54 ,pa9 is t feel+ we h :5 we are tak5 out ( our natural /ate & put into an unnatural4 ,pleasure is felt :5 we are re/or$ to ! natural4 ,take1 = example1 ! heat ( ! sun4 ,:5 a p]son is expos$ to x1 ! sun takes him out ( 8 natural /ate4 ,heat is !n pa9ful1 & pleasure is produc$ by ! ?+ :i* re/ores him to 8 natural /ate2 9 ?is case a cold spr+ & a dr9k ( cold wat]4 ,simil>ly a p]son walk+ 9 ! sn[ & cold air feels pa9 by reason ( ! cold tak+ him out ( 8 natural /ate4 ,heat !n gives him pleasure by re/or+ him4 ,! same ?+ applies to hung] & ?ir/1 sleep+ & wak+1 & o!r ?+s :i* give u pleasure & pa94 ,)\t pa9 !re is no pleasure1 & ! pleasure v>ies 9 accordance ) ! antec$5t pa94 ,life is ! effect ( ! animal s\l4 ,! disappe>ance ( ! effect does n necess>ily involve ! disappe>ance ( ! cause1 z ! disappe>ance ( ! smoke does n require ! cessation ( ! fire4 ,dea? means simply ! sep>ation ( ! s\l1 n ! de/ruction !re(4 ,x does n foll[ because ! human s\l rema9s aft] ! dea? ( ! body1 t ! s\l ( ! ox & ! ass cont9ues likewise1 = ! two s\ls are diff]5t4 ,animals 7 creat$ = ! sake ( man1 :]eas man exi/s = 8 own sake4 ,moreov]1 man's life is ultimately d]iv$ f 8 rational s\l4 ,= if ! animal s\l ( man 7 ! ultimate s\rce ( life1 ! rational s\l too w\ld be dep5d5t = its life ^u ! =m]1 & h5ce w\ld be inf]ior to x1 :i* is absurd4 ,x rema9s !n t ! rational s\l gives exi/5ce to ! animal s\l 9 man4 ,sleep is ! re/ ( ! s5ses1 z dea? is _! entire cessation4 ,! purpose ( sleep is to give ! bra9 re/ s t ! _s ( ! s\l %\ld n be dissolv$ & ! mixture ( ! body injur$ sudd5ly & cause dea?4 ,! he>t re/s cont9ually betwe5 contraction & expansion1 h5ce x ne$s no special re/ at night4 ,wak+ is ! activity ( ! s5ses & ! ex]cise ( _! functions to satisfy ! desires ( ! body4 ,! motions ( ! s\l 9 ! wak+ /ate are 9 ! int]e/ ( ! ne$s ( ! body4 ,dur+ sleep ! s\l looks out = itself1 = its bett] _w1 be+ !n free f ! bus9ess ( ! body4 ,if x is pure & bright1 & ! body is free f ! remnant ( food1 & ! ?\ght is n depress$ by sorr[ & grief--!n ! s\l is ar\s$ 9 its desire = ! future1 & beholds wond]ful ?+s4#agb ,no "o c d5y t man has a rational s\l because spee* is an attribute :i* man has above all o!r animals4 ,! s\l is n a corporeal ?+1 = if x 7 x w\ld h to occupy place l body1 & w\ld h color & =m & o!r qualities l body4 ,moreov]1 x w\ld require some?+ else to give x life l body4 ,9 o!r words1 ! s\l w\ld require ano!r s\l1 & t s\l ano!r s\l1 & s on ad inf9itum1 :i* is impossible4 ,h5ce ! s\l is n a corporeal ?+4 ,nor c we say t ! s\l is 9 ! body4 ,= if x 71 x w\ld itself be body2 s9ce only body c fill ! empty place 9 ano!r body1 z wat] fills a j>4 ,! s\l is a sub/ance & n an accid5t4 ,an accid5t is a quality :i* makes its appe>ance 9 some?+ else1 & has no p]man5ce4 ,if !n ! rational s\l is an accid5t ( ! body1 x has no p]man5ce1 & man is sometimes rational & sometimes n4 ,?is is absurd1 = 9 t case !re c\ld be no purpose 9 giv+ him comm&m5ts & /atutes4 ,!re are insep>able accid5ts to be sure1 l ! color ( ! ,e?iopian's sk94 ,b 9 t case we "k ! color is an accid5t despite its insep>ability1 f ! fact t 9 o!r ?+s color is an accid5t & may be remov$4 ,?is w n apply to ! reason4 ,= we d n f9d any?+ 9 :i* reason is a removable accid5t4 ,! mom5t y remove reason1 y remove man1 = reason is ess5tial to man4 ,! fact t z a result ( an injury a man may lose 8 reason is no argum5t aga9/ u1 = ?is happ5s only :5 an injury is inflict$ on ! bra91 :i* is ! reason's in/rum5t4 ,?is acc\nts = ! fact1 too1 t m5 9 good heal? if giv5 h5bane to dr9k lose _! reason1 because ! dr9k affects ! bra94 ,on ! o!r h&1 we see t ^? afflict$ ) a c]ta9 disease ( ! inte/9es1 :i* causes _! dea?1 are m rational & bright] at ! "t ( dea? ?an ev] be=e1 %[+ t ! s\l _c be an accid5t dep5d+ ^u ! mixture ( ! body4 ,to reg>d ! s\l z an accid5t1 :ile ! body is a sub/ance1 w\ld make ! s\l inf]ior to ! body4 ,?is is absurd4 ,= we h ! body 9 common ) ! bea/s2 :]eas x is 9 virtue ( ! reason t we are giv5 comm&m5ts1 & rew>d & puni%m5t 9 ! _w to come4 ,if ! s\l is nei!r a corporeal ?+ nor an accid5t ( body1 x mu/ be a spiritual sub/ance4 ,& ! be/ def9ition ( ! s\l is t ( ,ari/otle1 :o says x is a sub/ance giv+ p]fection to a natural organic body1 :i* has life pot5tially4 ,e phrase 9 ?is def9ition tells4 ,sub/ance excludes ! view t ! s\l is an accid5t4 ,giv+ p]fection signifies t ! s\l is t :i* makes man p]fect1 br++ him to ! next _w1 & be+ ! purpose n m]ely ( 8 creation & ! composition ( 8 body1 b ( ! creation ( matt] z well4 ,natural organic body indicates t ! body is an organon1 or in/rum5t 9 ! function ( ! s\l1 ! latt] us+ ! body to c>ry out its own purposes4 ,! rational s\l is l a k+2 ! animal s\l is l an (ficial be=e ! k+1 rebuk+ ! appetitive s\l4 ,9 ! discussion ( ! la/ p>agraph we h a good example ( ! uncritical attitude ( ,ibn ,zaddik t[>d ! v>i\s s*ools ( philosophical ?\ght1 p>ticul>ly ^? repres5t$ by ,plato & ,ari/otle4 ,?is attitude is typical ( ! middle ages1 :i* appeal$ to au?ority 9 philosophy z well z 9 !ology1 & h5ce develop$ a h>moni/ic attitude 9 ! pres5ce ( conflict+ au?orities4 ,aid$ by _! defective k ( ! complete sy/ems ( ! anci5t ,greek philosoph]s1 by ! difficulties & obscurities incid5t to translations f an ali5 tongue1 & by ! spuri\s writ+s circulat+ 9 ! "n ( an anci5t ,greek philosoph]1 ! precise dem>cation ( s*ools & t5d5cies became m & m confus$1 & x 0 possible to prove t ,plato & ,ari/otle 7 9 entire agreem5t4 ,?us ,ibn ,zaddik has no scruple 9 comb9+ 7unconsci\sly1 to be sure7 ,platonic & ,neo-,platonic psy*ology ) ! ,ari/otelian def9ition repres5t+ q a diff]5t po9t ( view4 ,! "o is an?ropological dualism1 reg>d+ ! s\l z a di/9ct entity :i* comes to ! body f )\t4 ,! o!r is a biological monism1 9 :i* ! s\l is ! reality ( ! body1 ! ess5ce ( its function+1 :i* makes ! pot5tially liv+ body an actually liv+ body4 ,we _c ent] "h into a criticism ( ! elem5ts ( ! ,ari/otelian def9ition ( ! s\l z r5d]$ & int]pret$ by ,ibn ,zaddik1 b w m]ely say t x misses completely ! mean+ ( ,ari/otle1 & %[s t ,ibn ,zaddik did n take x f ! ,de ,anima ( ,ari/otle1 b f\nd x )\t its context 9 "s ,arabic "w4 ,to return f our digression1 ! ?ree s\ls1 ,ibn ,zaddik tells u1 are spiritual p[]s2 e "o ( !m is a sub/ance by itself ( b5efit to ! body4 ,! rational s\l gets ! "n s\l prim>ily1 & ! o!rs get x f ! rational s\l4 ,! ,intellect is call$ s\l because ! rational s\l & ! ,intellect h a common matt]4 ,& h5ce :5 ! s\l is p]fect$ x becomes intellect4 ,?is is :y ! rational s\l is call$ pot5tial intellect4 ,! only diff]5ce betwe5 !m is "o ( degree & excell5ce4 ,! _w ( ,intellect is sup]ior1 & its matt] is ! pure light1 ,intellect 9 :i* !re is no ignorance1 because x comes f ,god )\t any int]m$iate ag5cy4 ,"h we see j a t\* ( ! ,neo-,platonic doctr9e ( emanation1 ( :i* ! ,univ]sal ,intellect is ! fir/4 ,b x is consid]ably ton$ d[n & n cont9u$ d[n ! s]ies z 9 ,plot9us or ! ,bre?r5 ( ,purity4 ,! accid5ts ( ! s\l are spiritual l ! s\l itself4 ,!y are1 k1 k9dness1 goodness1 ju/ice1 & o!r simil> qualities4 ,ignorance1 wrong1 evil1 & s on1 are n ! opposites ( ^? m5tion$ above1 & 7 n creat$ ) ! s\l l ! o!rs4 ,!y are m]ely ! abs5ce ( ! positive qualities m5tion$ be=e1 z d>kness is ! abs5ce ( light4 ,god did n create any defect1 nor did he desire x4 ,evil is simply ! result ( ! incapacity ( a giv5 ?+ to receive a p>ticul> good4 ,if all ?+s 7 capable ( receiv+ goods equally1 all ?+s w\ld be "o ?+1 & ! ,creator & 8 creatures w\ld be likewise "o4 ,?is 0 n ,god's purpose4 ,!re is a tacit opposition to ! ,mutakallimun 9 ,ibn ,zaddik's argum5ts aga9/ ! view t ! s\l is an accid5t1 z well z 9 8 /atem5t 9 ! prec$+ p>agraph t ! bad qualities & evil g5]ally are n opposites ( ! good qualities & good respectively1 b t !y are m]ely privations1 abs5ces1 & h5ce n creat$ by ,god4 ,?is is a ,neo-,platonic doctr9e4 ,pseudo-,bahya1 we h se5 7p4 #ajh f471 & ,abraham b> ,hiyya 7p4 #abc f47 adopt ! ,kalami/ic view 9 ! latt] po9t1 & solve ! problem ( evil diff]5tly4 ,! function ( ! rational s\l is k4 ,! rational s\l inve/igates ! unkn[n & compreh5ds x4 ,x d]ives g5]al rules1 makes premises & inf]s "o ?+ f ano!r4 ,man alone has ?is privilege4 ,x is 9 virtue ( ! rational s\l t we h be5 giv5 comm&m5ts & prohibitions1 & become liable to rew>d & puni%m5t4 ,brute animals h no comm&m5ts1 because !y h no reason4 ,! s\l has reason only pot5tially1 & man makes x actual by /udy4 ,if ! reason 7 actual orig9ally 9 ! s\l1 !re w\ld be no diff]5ce betwe5 ! s\l's condition 9 its own _w & 9 ?is "o2 & ! purpose ( man1 :i* is t he may le>n 9 ord] to *oose ! "r way & w9 salvation1 w\ld h no mean+4 ,! exi/5ce ( _m individual s\ls1 all ( :i* h ! s\l "* 9 common1 %[s t !re is a univ]sal s\l by virtue ( :i* all ! p>ticul> s\ls exi/4 ,?is division ( ! univ]sal s\l into _m individual s\ls is n really a division ( ! =m] 9 its ess5ce1 :i* rema9s "o & indivisible4 ,x is ! bodies :i* receive ! influ5ce ( ! univ]sal s\l1 z vessels 9 ! sun receive its light accord+ to _! purity4 ,h5ce ! exi/5ce ( ju/ice & evil1 righte\sness & wrong4 ,?is does n1 h[ev]1 mean to say t ! reception ( ^! qualities is indep5d5t ( a man's *oice4 ,man is free to *oose1 & h5ce he des]ves praise & blame1 rew>d & puni%m5t4 ,! rational s\l is de/9$ = ! spiritual _w1 :i* is a pure & p]fect _w1 made by ,god directly )\t an int]m$iate ag5cy4 ,x is n subject to *ange or defect or ne$4 ,god alone creat$ ?is spiritual _w to %[ 8 goodness & p[]1 & n because he ne$$ x4 ,! _w is n l ,god1 ?\gh ,god is its cause4 ,x is n et]nal a p>te ante1 hav+ be5 made out ( no?+ by ,god2 b x w cont9ue to exi/ =ev]1 = x _c be m p]fect ?an x is4 ,x is simple & spiritual4 ,?is applies also to ! heav5ly sph]es & _! />s4 ,man is oblig$ to reason & inve/igate1 z all nations d accord+ to ! measure ( _! capacities4 ,no animal reasons because x has n ! requisite faculty4 ,b if man %\ld neglect to ex]cise ! p[] giv5 him1 he w\ld lose ! b5efit com+ !refrom & ! purpose ( 8 exi/5ce4 ,!re w\ld !n be no diff]5ce betwe5 him & ! bea/4 ,! fir/ requisite = /udy & inve/igation is to dead5 ! animal desires4 ,!n ) ! reason z a guide & 8 body z a model1 man acquires ! k ( ! corporeal _w4 ,f 8 rational s\l he comes to ! k ( ! exi/5ce ( a spiritual _w4 ,f9ally he w le>n to "k ! ,creator1 :o is ! only real exi/5t1 = no?+ c be said truly to exi/1 :i* at "o "t did n exi/1 or :i* at "s "t w cease to exi/4 ,:5 a man neglects ?is privilege :i* is 8 ( us+ 8 reason1 he =feits ! "n man1 & desc5ds bel[ ! /ation ( ! bea/1 = ! latt] nev] falls bel[ its animal nature4 ,x is v important to /udy ! k ( ,god1 = x is ! highe/ k & ! cause ( human p]fection4 ,! prophets are full ( recomm5dations 9 ?is reg>d4 ,j]emiah says 7#ca1 #cc71 ,!y %all all "k me1 f ! lea/ ( !m ev5 unto _! greate/4 ,amos 7#e1 #f7 bids u ,seek = ! ,"l & y %all live4 ,hosea likewise 7#f1 #c7 recomm5ds t ,we may feel x1 & /rive to "k ! ,"l4#agc ,! fir/ loss a man suff]s :o does n /udy & inve/igate is t he does n und]/& ! real exi/5ce ( ,god1 & imag9es he is wor%ipp+ a body4 ,"s ?9k ,god is light4 ,b ?is is z bad z to reg>d him body4 ,= light is an accid5t 9 a %9+ body1 z is prov$ by ! fact t ! air receives ! light ( ! sun1 & lat] x receives ! %ad[ & becomes d>k4 ,& yet ^! p are n ! wor/ by any means1 = !re are o!rs :o d n tr\ble to conc5trate _! m9ds on ,god1 & occupy _! ?\ghts solely ) ! bus9ess & ! pleasures ( ?is _w4 ,^! p we d n discuss at all4 ,we are argu+ aga9/ ^? :o imag9e !y are wise m5 & /ud5ts ( ! ,kalam4 ,9 fact !y are ignorant p]sons1 & d n "k :at logic is & h[ x is to be us$4 ,be=e giv+ our own views ( ! nature & exi/5ce ( ,god1 we mu/ refute ! objectionable doctr9es ( ^! p4 ,joseph al-,basir 9 a "w ( 8 call$ ,mansuri ca/s x up to ! ,rabbanites t 9 believ+ t ,god desc5ds & asc5ds !y are n true wor%ipp]s ( ,god4 ,b he =gets t 8 own doctr9es are no bett]4 ,anyone :o believes t ,god creat$ ) a newly creat$ w & rejects by means ( a newly creat$ rejection has nev] truly s]v$ ,god or kn[n him4 ,j z objectionable is _! view t ,god is liv+ b n ) life resid+ 9 a subject1 p[]ful b n ) p[]1 & s on4 ,we %all take up ea* ( ^! 9 turn4 ,! ,mutakallimun refuse to believe t ,god's w is et]nal1 = fe> ( hav+ a second et]nal beside ,god4 ,& s !y say t :5ev] ,god wills1 he creates a w = ! purpose1 & :5ev] he rejects any?+ he creates a rejection ) :i* ! objectionable ?+ is reject$4 ,b ?is leads !m to a worse pr$icam5t ?an ! "o f :i* !y wi% to escape1 z we %all see4 ,if ,god _c create any?+ )\t hav+ a w z ! in/rum5t 9 creat+1 & = ?is reason mu/ fir/ create a w = ! purpose--h[ did he create ?is w8 ,he mu/ h _h ano!r w to create ?is w1 & a ?ird w to create ! second1 & s on ad inf9itum1 :i* is absurd4 ,if he creat$ ! fir/ w )\t ! help ( ano!r w1 :y n create ! ?+s he want$ outright )\t any w8 ,besides1 9 mak+ ,god w at a giv5 "t aft] a /ate ( n will+1 !y introduce *ange 9 ,god4 ,z = ! o!r dictum1 t ,god is liv+ b n ) life1 p[]ful b n ) p[]1 kn[+ b n ) k1 & s on2 :at d !y mean by ?is circumlocution8 ,if !y say liv+ to indicate t he is n dead1 & add b n ) life1 s z to prev5t a comp>ison ( him ) o!r liv+ ?+s1 :y n say also1 ,he is body1 b n l o!r bodies8 ,if ! objection to call+ him body is t body is composite1 & :at is composite mu/ h be5 compos$ by someone & is n et]nal1 ! same objection applies to liv+4 ,= liv+ implies brea?+ & possess$ ( s5sation1 h5ce also composite & creat$4 ,if !y reply1 we mean life peculi> to him1 we say :y n also body peculi> to him8 ,y see ^! p entangle !mselves 9 _! own sophisms1 because !y d n "k :at demon/ration means4#agd ,hav+ dispos$ ( ! errors ( ! ,mutakallimun1 we mu/ n[ pres5t our own me?od ( inve/igation into ! nature ( ,god4 ,to "k a ?+1 we inve/igate its f\r causes--mat]ial1 =mal1 effici5t & f9al4 ,:at has no cause b is ! cause ( all ?+s1 _c be kn[n 9 ?is way4 ,/ill x is n altoge!r unkn[able = ?is reason4 ,its ess5ce _c be kn[n1 b x may be kn[n ?r\gh its activities1 or r effects1 :i* sugge/ attributes4 ,we _c !re=e "k conc]n+ ,god :at he is1 nor h[ he is1 nor on acc\nt ( :at1 nor ( :at k9d1 nor :]e1 nor :54 ,= ^! c apply only to a creat$ ?+ hav+ a cause4 ,b we c ask conc]n+ him1 :e!r he is2 & ?is c be/ be kn[n f 8 de$s4 ,we obs]ve ! ?+s ( ! _w & f9d t !y are all compos$ ( sub/ance & accid5t1 z we saw be=e 7p4 #aca74 ,^! are correlative1 & "o _c exi/ )\t ! o!r4 ,h5ce nei!r prec$es ! o!r4 ,b accid5t is new 7i4 e41 n et]nal71 h5ce s is sub/ance4 ,t accid5t is new is prov$ f ! fact t re/ succe$s motion & motion succe$s re/1 h5ce accid5ts con/antly come & g & are newly creat$4 ,n[ if sub/ance & accid5t are bo? new !re mu/ be some?+ t br\ght !m into be+ unless !y br+ !mselves into be+4 ,b ! latt] is impossible1 = ! ag5t mu/ ei!r exi/ :5 x br+s itself into be+1 or n4 ,if x exi/s x is already !re2 if x does n exi/1 x is no?+1 & no?+ _c d any?+4 ,h5ce !re mu/ be a be+ t br\ght ! _w into exi/5ce4 ,?is is ,god4 ,god is "o1 = ! cause ( ! _m mu/ be ! "o4 ,if ! cause ( ! _m is ! _m1 !n ! cause ( ! second _m is a ?ird _m1 & s on ad inf9itum2 h5ce we mu/ /op ) ! "o4 ,god is to ! _w z unity is to numb]4 ,unity is ! basis ( numb] )\t be+ includ$ 9 numb]1 & x embraces numb] on all sides4 ,x is ! f\ndation ( numb]2 = if y remove unity1 y remove numb]2 b ! removal ( numb] does n remove unity4 ,! "o surr\nds numb] on all sides2 = ! beg9n+ ( numb] is ! "o1 & x is also ! middle ( numb] & ! end !re(4 ,= numb] is no?+ b an aggregate ( ones4 ,besides1 numb] is compos$ ( odds & ev5s1 & "o is ! cause ( odd z well z ev54 ,if !re 7 two et]nal be+s1 !y w\ld ei!r co9cide 9 all respects1 & !y w\ld be "o & n two4 ,or !y w\ld diff]4 ,9 ! latt] case1 ! _w is ei!r ! "w ( bo? or ( "o only4 ,if ( bo?1 !y are n omnipot5t1 & h5ce n et]nal4 ,if ( "o only1 !n ! o!r does n c\nt1 s9ce he is n et]nal1 & !re is only "o4 ,by say+ ,god is "o we d n mean t he comes "u ! category ( quantity1 = quantity is an accid5t resid+ 9 a sub/ance1 & all sub/ance is new4 ,:at we mean is t ! ess5ce ( ,god is true unity1 n num]ical unity4 ,= num]ical unity is also 9 a s5se multiplicity1 & is capable ( multiplication & division4 ,god's unity is alone sep>ate & "o 9 all respects4 ,god is n l any ( 8 creatures4 ,= if he 71 he w\ld be possess$ ( quality1 s9ce x is 9 virtue ( quality t a ?+ is said to be l ano!r1 & quality is an accid5t conta9$ 9 a sub/ance4 ,god is self-suffici5t & n 9 ne$ ( any?+4 ,= if he ne$$ any?+ at all1 x w\ld be fir/ ( all ! "o :o creat$ him & made him an exi/5t ?+4 ,b ?is is absurd1 s9ce ,god is et]nal4 ,we might suppose t he ne$s ! _w1 :i* he creat$ = "s purpose1 z we sometimes make ?+s to assi/ u4 ,b ?is1 too1 is impossible4 ,= if he 7 dep5d5t ^u ! _w = any?+1 he c\ld n create x4 ,x is diff]5t ) u4 ,we d n create ?+s2 we only modify matt] already exi/+4 ,aga91 if ,god creat$ ! _w = 8 own b5efit1 !n ei!r he 0 always 9 ne$ ( ! _w1 or ! ne$ arose at ! "t ( creat+4 ,if he 0 always 9 ne$ ( ! _w1 x w\ld h exi/$ ) him f et]nity1 b we h already prov$ t ! _w is n et]nal4 ,if ! ne$ arose 9 him at ! "t ( creation1 z heat arises 9 a body aft] cold1 or motion aft] re/1 !n he is l creat$ ?+s1 & is himself new & n et]nal4 ,to say ! ne$ 0 always !re1 & yet he did n create x until ! "t he did w\ld be to ascribe inability to ,god ( creat+ ! _w be=e he did1 :i* is absurd4 ,= "o :o is unable at any giv5 "t1 _c create at all4 ,x rema9s !n t he does n ne$ any?+1 & t he creat$ ! _w by reason ( 8 goodness & g5]osity & no?+ else4 ,! "q ( ,god's w is difficult4 ,! problem is ?is4 ,if ,god's w is et]nal & un*ang+1 & he creat$ ! _w ) 8 w1 ! _w is et]nal4 ,if we say1 z we mu/1 t he creat$ ! _w aft] a condition ( non-creation1 we introduce a *ange 9 ,god1 a some?+ newly creat$ 9 him1 namely1 ! w to create1 :i* did n exi/ be=e4 ,?is is a dilemma4 ,my own view is t s9ce ,god's creat+ activity is 8 ess5ce1 & 8 ess5ce is inf9ite & et]nal1 we _c say he creat$ aft] a condition ( non-creation1 or t he will$ aft] a condition ( non-will+1 or t he 0 =m]ly n able4 ,& yet we d n mean t ! _w is et]nal4 ,x 0 creat$ a def9ite l5g? ( "t be=e our "t4 ,! solution ( ! problem is t "t itself 0 creat$ ) ! _w2 = "t is ! measure ( motion ( ! cele/ial sph]e1 & if !re are no sph]es !re is no "t1 & no be=e & aft]4 ,h5ce x does n foll[ because ! _w is n et]nal t be=e its creation ,god did n create4 ,!re is no be=e :5 ! _w is n4 ,we object$ to ! view ( ! ,mutakallimun 7p4 #adb71 :o speak ( ,god creat+ a w on ! gr\nd t if he c create a w directly he c create ! _w in/ead4 ,our op9ion is !re=e t ,god's w is et]nal & n newly creat$1 = ! latt] view introduces creation 9 ,god4 ,!re is /ill ! difficulty ( ! precise relation ( ! w to ,god4 ,if x is diff]5t f ,god we h two et]nals1 & if x is ! same z ,god 9 all respects1 he *anges :5 he creates4 ,my answ] is1 x is n diff]5t f ,god 9 any s5se1 & !re is no *ang+ attribute 9 ,god4 ,b !re is a subtle my/]y 9 ?is matt]1 :i* x is n prop] to reveal1 & ?is is n ! place to expla9 x4 ,! int]e/$ read] is ref]r$ to ! book ( ,emp$ocles & o!r works ( ! wise m5 treat+ ( ?is subject 7cf4 above1 p4 #fd74 ,god creat$ ! _w out ( no?+1 & n out ( a pre-exi/5t matt]4 ,= if ! matt] ( ! _w is et]nal l ,god1 !re is no m reason = suppos+ t ,god =m$ a _w out ( x ?an t x =m$ a _w out ( ,god4 ,! _w is p]fect4 ,= we h repeat$ly %[n t its creation is due entirely to ,god's goodness4 ,if !n x 7 n p]fect1 ?is w\ld argue 9 ,god ei!r ignorance or nigg>dl9ess or weakness4#age ,mo/ ( ! anci5ts avoid$ giv+ ,god attributes = fe> ( mak+ him ! be>] ( qualities1 :i* w\ld introduce plurality & composition 9 8 ess5ce4 ,! prop] view1 h[ev]1 is ?is4 ,z ,god's ess5ce is diff]5t f all o!r ess5ces1 s are 8 attributes diff]5t f all o!r attributes4 ,8 attributes are n diff]5t f him2 8 k & 8 tru? & 8 p[] are 8 ess5ce4 ,! way man arrives at ! div9e attributes is ?is4 ,m5 h exam9$ 8 works & le>n$ f !m ,god's exi/5ce4 ,!y !n reflect$ on ?is exi/5t & f\nd t he 0 n weak2 s !y call$ him /rong4 ,!y f\nd 8 works p]fect1 & !y call$ him wise4 ,!y p]ceiv$ t he 0 self-suffici5t1 )\t ne$ ( any?+1 & h5ce )\t any motives = do+ wrong4 ,h5ce !y call$ him righte\s4 ,& s on ) ! o!r attributes4 ,all ?is !y did 9 ord] t p may le>n f him & imitate 8 ways4 ,b we mu/ n =get t all ^! expressions ( ,god's attributes are figurative4 ,no "o mu/ suppose t if we d n say he has life1 x means he is dead4 ,:at we mean is t we _c apply ! t]m liv+ to ,god lit]ally1 9 ! s5se 9 :i* we apply x to o!r liv+ ?+s4 ,:5 ! ,bible does speak ( ,god z alive & liv+1 ! mean+ is t he exi/s =ev]4 ,! philosoph] is "r :5 he says t x is m prop] to apply negative attributes to ,god ?an positive4#agf ,tak+ a glance at ,ibn ,zaddik's !ology j discuss$ 9 its ess5tial outl9es1 we notice t :ile he opposes vigor\sly c]ta9 aspects ( ,kalami/ic ?\ght1 z he f\nd !m 9 al-,basir1 ! ,k>aite1 8 own me?od & doctr9e are n f> remov$ f ! ,kalam4 ,8 pro( ( ! creation ( ! _w f its composite "* 7sub/ance & accid5t7 is ! same z "o ( ,saadia1 :i* ,maimonides cites z a ,kalami/ic pro(4 ,we h already spok5 ( ! fact t ! me?od ( bas+ "o's !ology ^u ! creation ( ! _w is "o t is di/9ctive ( ! ,kalam1 z ,maimonides himself tells u4 ,& ?is me?od is common to ,saadia1 ,bahya & ,ibn ,zaddik4 ,9 8 discussion ( ! attributes ,ibn ,zaddik (f]s little if any?+ t is new4 ,8 attitude is t 9 ! lit]al & positive s5se no attribute c be appli$ to ,god4 ,we c speak ( ,god negatively )\t runn+ ! risk ( misund]/&+4 ,b ! mom5t we say any?+ positive we d become ?us liable to comp>+ ,god ) o!r ?+s2 & su* circumlocutions z ! ,kalami/ic ,liv+ )\t life1 & s on1 d n help matt]s1 = !y are contradictory1 & take away ) "o h& :at !y give ) ! o!r4 ,! ,biblical expressions mu/ be tak5 figuratively2 & ! mo/ important po9t to rememb] is t ,god's ess5ce _c be kn[n at all4 ,! mann] 9 :i* we arrive at ! div9e attributes is by transf]r+ !m f ,god's effects 9 nature to 8 own ess5ce4 ,all ?is we h already f\nd 9 ,bahya mu* bett] express$1 & ,bahya is also )\t d\bt ! s\rce ( ,ibn ,zaddik's discussion ( ,god's unity4 ,we mu/ n[ review briefly ! practical "p ( ,ibn ,zaddik's philosophy z x is f\nd 9 ! f\r? "p ( ! ,microcosm4 ,9 ! mann] ( ,bahya he po9ts out ! importance ( div9e s]vice & ob$i5ce to ! comm&m5ts ( ,god1 view+ man's duties to 8 mak] z an expression ( gratitude1 :i* ev]yone owes to 8 b5efactor4 ,l ,bahya he comp>es ,god's b5efactions ) ^? ( "o man to ano!r to %[ ! inf9ite sup]iority ( ! =m]1 & ! great] duty :i* foll[s !refrom4 ,! comm&m5ts :i* ,god gave u l ! act ( our creation are = our own good1 t we may enjoy true happ9ess 9 ! _w to come4 ,z x w\ld n be prop] to rew>d a p]son = :at he has n done1 ,god gave man comm&m5ts4 ,! righte\s z well z ! wick$ are free to det]m9e _! own conduct1 h5ce rew>d & puni%m5t are j4 ,l ,saadia & ,bahya be=e him1 ,ibn ,zaddik makes use ( ! di/9ction 7or r takes x = grant$7 betwe5 rational & traditional comm&m5ts2 po9t+ out t ! latt] also h a cause & explanation 9 ! m9d ( ,god ev5 ?\gh we may n "k x4 ,9 "s cases we c see ! explanation ourselves4 ,take = in/ance ! obs]vance ( ! ,sabba?4 ,its rational signification is two-fold4 ,x tea*es u t ! _w 0 creat$1 & h5ce has a ,creator :om we wor%ip4 ,& 9 ! second place ! ,sabba? symbolizes ! future _w4 ,z "o has no?+ to eat on ! ,sabba? day unless he has prep>$ food ! day be=e1 s ! enjoym5t ( ! future _w dep5ds ^u spiritual prep>ation 9 ?is _w4 ,9 8 conduct a man mu/ imitate ,god's actions by do+ good & m]cy & k9dness4 ,)\t ! k ( ,god a p]son's good de$s are ( no acc\nt & no bett] ?an ! "w ( idolat]s4 ,9 fact x is n possible to d good de$s )\t a k ( ,god1 = he is ! s\rce ( all good1 & !re is no true good )\t him4 ,:5 a fool is se5 ) good qualities su* z m]cy & b5evol5ce1 !y are due to ! weakness ( 8 animal s\l1 ! spirit$ "p ( 8 nature4 ,simil>ly if ?is fool ab/a9s f pleasures1 x is because ( ! weakness ( 8 appetitive s\l4 ,?us we see t k comes fir/ 9 importance2 = k leads to practice1 & practice br+s rew>d 9 ! _w to come4 ,z ! purpose ( man's creation is t he may enjoy ! future life1 wisdom or k is ! fir/ requisite to ?is great end4 ,! f\r pr9cipal qualities con/itut+ goodness or virtue are 7#a7 k ( ,god's attributes2 7#b7 righte\sness or ju/ice2 7#c7 hope2 7#d7 humility4 ,all o!r good qualities are d]iv$ f ^!4 ,j]emiah names "s ( !m :5 he says 7#i1 #bc71 ,i am ! ,"l :o ex]cise k9dness1 ju/ice & righte\sness on ! e>?2 = 9 ^! ?+s ,i delight1 sai? ! ,"l4 ,simil>ly ,zephaniah 7#b1 #c7 bids u1 ,seek ye ! ,"l1 all ye meek ( ! e>?1 :o h fulfill$ 8 ord9ances2 seek righte\sness1 seek meekness4 ,! f\r qualities ( wisdom or k1 righte\sness1 hope & humility are )\t d\bt modifi$ desc5dants ( ! f\r ,platonic virtues1 wisdom1 c\rage1 temp]ance & ju/ice1 :i* we /ill f9d 9 _! orig9al =m & 9 _! ,platonic d]ivation & psy*ological orig9 9 ,pseudo-,bahya 7cf4 above p4 #aaa74 ,rew>d & puni%m5t ( ! real k9d1 ,ibn ,zaddik ?9ks1 are n 9 ?is _w b 9 ! next4 ,9 ?is way he acc\nts = ! fact ( ! prosp]ity ( ! wick$ & ! suff]+s ( ! righte\s4 ,ano!r pro( t ?is _w _c be ! place ( f9al rew>d & puni%m5t is t pleasure 9 ?is _w is n a real good1 b only a tempor>y respite f disease4 ,pa9 & pleasure are correlative1 z we saw be=e 7p4 #acf74 ,9 fact pleasure is n a good at all2 = if x 71 !n ! great] ! pleasure1 ! great] ! good1 :i* is n true4 ,rew>d 9 ! next _w is n a corporeal pleasure at all4 ,! evil :i* happ5s to ! righte\s 9 ?is _w is (t5 a natural occurr5ce )\t ref]5ce to rew>d & puni%m5t1 & may be comp>$ to ! natural pleasures :i* m5 d]ive f ! s5se ( sight & ! o!r s5ses1 & :i* h no?+ to d ) rew>d & puni%m5t4 ,sometimes1 too1 ?is evil is inflict$ ^u ! good man to =give 8 s9s4 ,real rew>d & puni%m5t are 9 ! future life1 & z t life is spiritual1 ! rew>d z well z ! puni%m5t is timeless4 ,! ,mutakallimun ?9k t animals & little *ildr5 are also rew>d$ 9 ! next _w = ill treatm5t1 suff]+ & dea? :i* are inflict$ ^u !m 9 ?is _w4 ,s we f9d 9 ,joseph al ,basir's ,mansuri4 ,b ?is is absurd4 ,if ! kill+ ( animals is a wrong1 ,god w\ld n h comm&$ u to d x1 any m ?an he ord]$ u to kill human be+s 9 ord] t he may rew>d !m lat]4 ,moreov]1 we %\ld !n des]ve puni%m5t = kill+ animals if t is wrong1 & !re w\ld foll[ ! absurdity t ,god comm&$ u to d t = :i* we des]ve puni%m5t4 ,besides1 if ! animals des]ve rew>d & puni%m5t1 !y %\ld h be5 giv5 comm&m5ts & laws l ourselves4 ,if ?is 0 n done because animals are n rational1 rew>d & puni%m5t are equally out ( place = ! same reason4 ,:5 ! s\l leaves ! body 9 dea?1 if %e ex]cis$ h] reason 9 ! pursuit ( k1 %e w cont9ue h] exi/5ce =ev] 9 ! upp] _w4 ,?is is h] happ9ess1 h] rew>d & h] p>adise1 namely1 to cleave to h] own _w1 & to %9e ) ! true light emanat+ f ,god directly4 ,?is is ! end ( ! human s\l4 ,b if %e did n ex]cise h] reason & did n pursue "r conduct1 %e w n be able to return to ! spiritual _w1 = %e w h lo/ h] own spirituality4 ,%e w be simil> to ! body1 desir+ ?is _w & its pleasures4 ,h] fate w be to revolve =ev] ) ! sph]e 9 ! _w ( fire1 )\t be+ able to return to h] _w4 ,?us %e w be =ev] 9 pa91 & homeless4 ,:5 ! ,messiah comes1 ! pi\s m5 ( our nation1 ! ,prophets1 ! ,patri>*s & ^? :o di$ = ! sanctification ( ! "n1 i4 e41 ! m>tyrs1 w be br\ght back to life 9 ! body1 & w nev] die aga94 ,!re w be no eat+ & dr9k+1 b !y w live l ,moses on ! m\nta9 bask+ 9 ! div9e light4 ,! wick$ w also be jo9$ to _! bodies & burn$ ) fire4#agg ,,*apt] ,x ,,judah ,,halevi ,9 ,judah ,halevi ! poet got ! bett] ( ! rationali/4 ,n t ,judah ,halevi 0 n famili> ) philosophical ?9k+ & did n absorb ! curr5t philosophical t]m9ology z well z ! ideas conta9$ !re94 ,q ! contr>y4 ,he %[s a bett] k ( ,ari/otelian ideas ?an 8 pr$ecessors1 & is well v]s$ 9 ,neo-,platonism4 ,:ile he attacks all ^? views ( philosoph]s :i* are inconsi/5t to 8 m9d ) ! religion ( ,judaism1 he speaks 9 o!r respects ! philosophic language1 & ev5 makes concessions to ! philosoph]s4 ,if ! reason %\ld really dem& x1 he tells u1 "o might adopt ! doctr9e ( ! et]nity ( matt] )\t do+ any h>m to ! ess5ce ( ,judaism4#agh ,z = ! claims ( reason to rule our beliefs1 he simil>ly admits t t :i* is really prov$ 9 ! same absolute mann] z ! propositions 9 ma!matics & logic _c be controv]t$4 ,b ?is op9ion ne$ cause "o no difficulty z !re is no?+ 9 ! ,bible :i* opposes ! unequivocal dem&s ( ! reason4#agi ,he _c consi/5tly oppose all philosophy & sci5ce1 = he ma9ta9s t ! sci5ces 7 orig9ally 9 ! h&s ( ! ,jews1 & t x 0 f !m t ! ,*aldeans borr[$ !m & h&$ !m ov] to ! ,p]sians1 :o 9 turn transf]r$ !m to ,greece & ,rome1 _! orig9 be+ =gott54#ahj ,at ! same "t he insi/s t philosophy & reason are n adequate means = ! solution ( all problems1 & t ! actual solutions z f\nd 9 ! writ+s ( ! ,ari/otelians ( 8 day are 9 _m cases devoid ( all demon/rative value4 ,!n !re are c]ta9 matt]s 9 !ory z well z 9 practice :i* d n at all come )9 ! doma9 ( reason1 & ! philosoph]s are b\nd to be wrong because !y apply ! wrong me?od4 ,revelation alone c make u wise z to c]ta9 aspects ( ,god's nature & z to c]ta9 details 9 human conduct2 & 9 ^! philosophy mu/ fail because z philosophy x has no revelation4 ,) all due respect !re=e to ! philosoph]s1 :o are ! mo/ reliable guides 9 matt]s n conflict+ ) revelation1 we mu/ leave !m if we wi% to le>n ! tru? conc]n+ ^? matt]s 9 :i* !y are incompet5t to judge4 ,?is *>act]ization ( ,judah ,halevi's attitude is brief & inadequate4 ,b be=e proce$+ to elaborate x ) m detail & great] concret5ess1 x w be well to sket* v briefly ! little we "k ( 8 life4#aha ,judah ,halevi 0 born 9 ,tol$o 9 ! la/ qu>t] ( ! elev5? c5tury4 ,?is is ab\t ! "t :5 ! city 0 tak5 f ! ,mohamm$ans by ! emp]or ,alphonso ,,vi1 k+ ( ,leon1 ,ca/ile1 ,galicia & ,nav>re4 ,at ! same "t ,tol$o rema9$ ,arabic 9 culture & language = a long :ile aft] ?is1 & ev5 ex]t$ a great influ5ce ^u ! civilization ( ,*ri/5dom4 ,! ,jews 7 equally well treat$ 9 ,tol$o by ,mohamm$an emir & ,*ri/ian k+4 ,! y\? ( ,halevi 0 !re=e n embitt]$ or sadd5$ by ,jewi% p]secutions4 ,x seems t he 0 s5t to ,luc5a1 a ,jewi% c5tre1 :]e he /udi$ ! ,talmud ) ! fam\s ,alfasi1 & made fri5ds ) ,joseph ibn ,miga%1 ,alfasi's successor1 & ,b>uh ,albalia1 ! philosoph]4 ,a poet by nature1 he began to write ,hebrew v]ses e>ly1 & soon became fam\s z a poet ( ! fir/ ord] 9 no mann] inf]ior to ,gabirol4 ,8 liv+ he made n f 8 v]ses1 b l _m o!rs ( 8 day by practic+ ! art ( m$ic9e4 ,lat] 9 life he visit$ ,cordova1 already 9 its decl9e ?r\gh ! illib]al gov]nm5t ( ! ,almoravid dyna/y4 ,! rul]s 7 /rict religioni/s1 implicit foll[]s ( ! fukaha1 ! m5 devot$ to ! /udy ( ,mohamm$an religion & law2 & sci5tific le>n+ & philosophy 7 proscrib$ 9 _! doma9s4 ,m5 ( ano!r fai? 7 n 9 favor1 & ! ,jews :o1 unlike ! ,*ri/ians1 _h no p[]ful emp]or any:]e to take _! "p1 _h to buy _! lives & comp>ative fre$om ) _! h>d e>n$ weal?4 ,"h ,halevi sp5t "s "t z a physician4 ,he 0 admitt$ 9 c\rt circles1 b 8 p]sonal good =tune c\ld n reconcile him to ! suff]+s ( 8 bre?r51 & 8 lett]s give expression to 8 dissatisfaction4 ,he wrote a v>iety ( poems on subjects secul> & religi\s2 b :at made him fam\s above all else 0 8 /rong nationalism1 & ^? ( 8 poems w live longe/ :i* give expression to 8 int5se love = 8 p & ! l& :i* 0 once _! own4 ,t x 0 n m]e s5tim5t ) ,judah ,halevi he prov$ late 9 life :5 he decid$ to leave 8 _m fri5ds & 8 bir?place & g to ,pale/9e to end 8 life on ! soil ( 8 ance/ors4 ,x 0 aft] #aadj t he left ,spa9 = ! ,ea/4 ,unfavorable w9ds drove him out ( c\rse to ,egypt1 & he l&$ at ,alex&ria4 ,f !re he w5t to ,cairo at ! invitation ( 8 admir]s & fri5ds4 ,ev]y:]e he 0 receiv$ ) great honor1 8 fame prec$+ him1 & he 0 urg$ to rema9 9 ,egypt4 ,b no dissuasion c\ld keep him f 8 pi\s resolve4 ,we f9d him lat] 9 ,damietta2 we foll[ him to ,tyre & ,damascus1 b beyond ! la/ city all trace ( him is lo/4 ,we "k n :e!r he rea*$ ,j]usalem or n4 ,leg5d picks up ! ?read :]e hi/ory drops x1 & tells ( ,judah ,halevi meet+ 8 dea? at ! gates ( ! holy city z ) te>s he 0 s++ 8 fam\s ode to ,zion4 ,an ,arab horseman1 ! /ory goes1 pi]c$ him ?r\gh ) 8 spe>4 ,?is sket* ( ,halevi's life & "*1 brief & inadequate z x is1 w prep>e u to und]/& bett] 8 attitude to philosophy & to ,judaism4 ,8 0 n a critical intellect ^: curiosity is n satisfi$ until ! matt] 9 dispute is prov$ 9 logical =m4 ,reason is good en\gh 9 ma!matics & physics :]e ! objects ( our inve/igation are accessible to u & ! k ( _! nature exhau/s _! significance4 ,x is n s ) ! tru?s ( ,judaism & ! nature ( ,god4 ,^! _c be kn[n adequately by ! reason alone1 & m]e k is n en\gh4 ,god & ! ,jewi% religion are n simply facts to be kn[n & und]/ood l ! laws ( sci5ce4 ,!y are liv+ entities to be acqua9t$ )1 to be devot$ to1 to love4 ,h5ce q a diff]5t way ( approa* is necess>y4 ,& n ev]yone has access to ?is way4 ,! me?od ( acqua9tance is op5 only to ^? :o by bir? & tradition belong to ! family ( ! prophets1 :o _h a p]sonal k ( ,god1 & to ! l& ( ,pale/9e :]e ,god reveal$ himself4#ahb ,we see "h ! nationali/ speak+1 ! lov] ( 8 p & ( _! l& & language & in/itutions4 ,david ,kaufmann has %[n t ,judah ,halevi's anti-philosophical attitude has mu* 9 common ) t ( ! great ,arab writ] ,al ,gazali1 f :om !re is no d\bt t he borr[$ 8 inspiration4#ahc ,gazali began z a philosoph]1 !n lo/ confid5ce 9 ! logical me?od ( pro(1 po9t$ to ! contradictions ( ! philosoph]s1 to _! disagreem5ts among !mselves1 & w5t ov] to ! ,sufis1 ! pieti/s & my/ics ( ! ,mohamm$an fai?4 ,!re are a numb] ( resemblances betwe5 ,gazali & ,halevi z ,kaufmann has %[n1 & !re is no d\bt t skepticism 9 respect ( ! p[]s ( ! human reason on ! "o h&1 & a deep religi\s s5se on ! o!r are responsible = ! po9t ( view ( ,gazali z well z ,halevi4 ,b !re is ?is additional motive 9 ,halevi t he 0 def5d+ a p]secut$ race & a despis$ fai? aga9/ n m]ely ! philosoph]s b aga9/ ! m p[]ful & m =tunate pr(essors ( o!r religions4 ,he is ! loyal son ( 8 race & 8 religion1 & he w %[ t !y are above all criticism1 t !y are ! be/ & ! true/ !re are4 ,maimonides1 too1 f\nd x necess>y to def5d ,judaism aga9/ ! attacks ( philosophy4 ,b 9 8 case x 0 ! ,jew 9 him :o _h to be def5d$ aga9/ ! philosoph] 9 him4 ,x 0 no ext]nal enemy b an int]nal :o mu/ be made h>mless1 & ! me?od 0 "o ( reconciliation & h>monization4 ,x is /ill tru] to say t ) ,maimonides bo? ,judaism & philosophy 7 8 fri5ds1 nei!r 0 an enemy4 ,he 0 atta*$ to "o q z mu* z to ! o!r4 ,& x 0 8 privilege to reconcile _! diff]5ces1 to ! great ga91 z he ?\ght1 ( bo?4 ,judah ,halevi takes ! /& ( "o :o fights = 8 he>? & home aga9/ ! attacks ( =eign foes4 ,he w n yield an in* to ! adv]s>y4 ,he w ma9ta9 8 own4 ,! enemy _c approa*4 ,?us ,halevi beg9s 8 fam\s "w ,kus>i3 ,i 0 ask$ :at ,i h to say 9 answ] to ! argum5ts ( philosoph]s1 unbeliev]s & pr(essors ( o!r religions aga9/ our own4 ,in/ead ( work+ out 8 ideas sy/ematically1 he want$ to give 8 subject dramatic int]e/ by clo?+ x 9 dialogue =m4 ,& he 0 =tunate 9 f9d+ a hi/orical ev5t :i* suit$ 8 purpose admirably4 ,"s ?ree or f\r c5turies be=e 8 "t1 ! k+ ( ! ,*az>s1 a p ( ,turki% orig9 liv+ 9 ! ,caucasus1 toge!r ) 8 c\rti]s & _m ( 8 subjects embrac$ ,judaism4 ,hasdai ibn ,%aprut1 ! ,jewi% m9i/] & patron ( le>n+ ( ,cordova1 9 ! t5? c5tury correspond$ ) ! !n k+ ( ! ,*az>s1 & receiv$ an acc\nt ( ! circum/ances ( ! conv]sion4 ,9 brief x 0 t ! k+ wi%+ to "k :i* 0 ! true religion invit$ repres5tatives ( ! ?ree dom9ant cre$s1 ,judaism1 ,*ri/ianity & ,mohamm$anism1 & que/ion$ !m conc]n+ ! t5ets ( _! respective fai?s4 ,see+ t ! ,*ri/ian z well z ! ,mohamm$an appeal$ 9 _! argum5ts to ! tru? ( ! ,hebrew ,bible1 ! k+ conclud$ t ,judaism mu/ be ! true religion1 :i* he accord+ly adopt$4 ,?is /ory gave ,halevi ! backgr\nd & framework = 8 composition4 ,he works out 8 own ideas 9 ! =m ( a dialogue betwe5 ! ,jewi% ,rabbi & ! k+ ( ! ,*az>s1 9 :i* ! =m] expla9s to ! k+ ! ess5tials ( ! ,jewi% religion1 & answ]s ! k+'s que/ions & criticisms1 tak+ occasion to discuss a v>iety ( topics1 religi\s1 philosophical & sci5tific1 all t5d+ to %[ ! tru? ( ,judaism & its sup]iority to o!r religions1 to philosophy1 ,kalam1 & also to ,k>aism4 ,! /ory is1 ,halevi tells u1 9 ! introduction to 8 book1 t ! k+ ( ! ,*az>s _h repeat$ dreams 9 :i* an angel said to him1 ,y\r int5tions are acceptable to ,god1 b n y\r practice4 ,8 endeavors to be fai?ful to 8 religion1 & to take "p 9 ! s]vices & p]=m ! sacrifices 9 ! temple 9 p]son only l$ to ! repetition ( ! dream4 ,he !re=e consult$ a philosoph] ab\t 8 belief1 & ! latt] said to him1 ,9 ,god !re is nei!r favor nor hatr$1 = he is above all desire & purpose4 ,purpose & int5tion argue defect & want1 :i* ! fulfilm5t ( ! int5tion satisfies4 ,b ,god is free f want4 ,h5ce !re is no purpose or int5tion 9 8 nature4 ,god does n "k ! p>ticul> or individual1 = ! individual con/antly *anges1 :]eas ,god's k nev] *anges4 ,h5ce ,god does n "k ! individual man &1 ne$less to say1 he does n he> 8 pray]4 ,:5 ! philosoph]s say ,god creat$ man1 !y use ! ^w creat$ metaphorically1 9 ! s5se t ,god is ! cause ( all causes1 b n t he made man ) purpose & int5tion4 ,! _w is et]nal1 & s is ! exi/5ce ( man4 ,! "* & ability ( a p]son dep5d ^u ! causes antec$5t to him4 ,if ^! are ( ! "r sort1 we h a p]son :o has ! pot5tialities ( a philosoph]4 ,to realize !m he mu/ develop 8 intellect by /udy1 & 8 "* ?r\gh moral discipl9e4 ,!n he w receive ! influ5ce ( ! ',active ,intellect1' ) :i* he becomes id5tifi$ s t 8 limbs & faculties d only :at is "r1 & are :olly 9 ! s]vice ( ! active ,intellect4 ,?is union ) ! active ,intellect is ! highe/ goal ( man2 & he becomes l "o ( ! angels1 & jo9s ! ranks ( ,h]mes1 sculapius1 ,socrates1 ,plato1 ,ari/otle4 ,?is is ! mean+ ( ! expression 'favor ( ,god4' ,! important ?+ is to /udy ! sci5ces 9 ord] to "k ! tru?1 & to practice ! e?ical virtues4 ,if "o does ?is1 x matt]s n :at religion he pr(esses1 or :e!r he pr(esses any religion at all4 ,he c make 8 own religion 9 ord] to discipl9e himself 9 humility1 & to gov]n 8 relations to society & c\ntry4 ,or he c *oose "o ( ! philosophical religions4 ,purity ( he>t is ! important ?+1 & k ( ! sci5ces4 ,!n ! desir$ result w come1 namely1 union ) ! active intellect1 :i* may also result 9 ! p[] ( prophecy ?r\gh true dreams & visions4 ,! k+ 0 n satisfi$ ) ! /atem5t ( ! philosoph]1 :i* seem$ to him inadequate because he felt t he himself _h ! necess>y purity ( he>t1 & yet he 0 told t 8 practice 0 n satisfactory1 prov+ t !re is some?+ 9 practice z su* ap>t f int5tion4 ,besides1 ! great conflict betwe5 ,*ri/ianity & ,islam1 :o kill "o ano!r1 is due to ! diff]5ce 9 religi\s practice1 & n 9 purity ( he>t4 ,moreov]1 if ! view ( ! philosoph]s 7 true1 !re %\ld be prophecy among !m1 :]eas 9 reality prophecy is f\nd among ^? :o did n /udy ! sci5ces r ?an among ^? :o did4 ,! k+ !n said1 ,i w ask ! ,*ri/ians & ! ,mohamm$ans4 ,i ne$ n inquire ( ! ,jews1 = _! l[ condition is suffici5t pro( t ! tru? _c be ) !m4 ,s he s5t = a ,*ri/ian sage1 :o expla9$ to him ! ess5tials ( 8 belief1 say+ among o!r ?+s1 ,we believe 9 ! creation ( ! _w 9 six days1 9 ! desc5t ( all m5 f ,adam1 9 revelation & ,provid5ce1 9 %ort1 9 all t is f\nd 9 ! law ( ,moses & 9 ! o!r ,israeliti% ,scriptures1 :i* _c be d\bt$ because ( ! publicity :i* 0 giv5 to ! ev5ts record$ !re94 ,he also quot$ ! words ( ! gospel1 ,i did n come to de/roy any ( ! comm&m5ts ( ,israel & ( ,moses _! tea*]2 ,i came to confirm !m4 ,! k+ 0 n conv9c$ by ! ,*ri/ian belief1 & call$ a ,mohamm$an doctor1 :o 9 describ+ ! specific t5ets ( ,mohamm$anism also m5tion$ ! fact t 9 ! ,koran are quot$ ! ,p5tateu* & ,moses & ! o!r lead]s1 & ! wond]ful ?+s !y did4 ,^!1 he said1 _c be d5i$2 = !y are well kn[n4 ,see+ t bo? ,*ri/ian & ,mohamm$an ref]r$ to ! law ( ,moses z true1 & z evid5ce t ,god spoke to man1 ! k+ det]m9$ to call a ,jewi% sage also1 & he> :at he _h to say4 ,! ,jewi% ,hab]1 z ,judah ,halevi calls him1 began 8 disc\rse by say+1 ,we ,jews believe 9 ! ,god ( ,abraham1 ,isaac & ,jacob1 :o took ! *ildr5 ( ,israel out ( ,egypt1 support$ !m 9 ! wild]ness1 gave !m ! l& ( ,canaan1 & s on4 ,! k+ 0 disappo9t$ & said1 ,i _h det]m9$ n to consult ! ,jews 9 ?is matt] at all1 because _! abject condition 9 ! _w did n leave !m any good quality4 ,y %\ld h said1 he told ! ,jew1 t y believe 9 him :o creat$ ! _w & gov]ns x2 :o made man & provides = him4 ,e religioni/ def5ds 8 belief 9 ?is way4 ,! ,jew repli$1 ,! religion to :i* y ref] is a rational religion1 e/abli%$ by speculation & argum5t1 :i* are full ( d\bt1 & ab\t :i* !re is no agreem5t among philosoph]s1 because n all ! argum5ts are valid or ev5 plausible4 ,?is pleas$ ! k+1 & he express$ a wi% to cont9ue ! disc\rse4 ,! ,rabbi !n said1 ,! prop] way to def9e "o's religion is by ref]5ce to t :i* is m c]ta91 namely1 actual exp]i5ce4 ,jews h ?is actual exp]i5ce4 ,! ,god ( ,abraham1 ,isaac & ,jacob spoke to ,moses & deliv]$ ! ,israelites out ( ,egypt4 ,?is is well kn[n4 ,god gave ,israel ! ,torah4 ,to be sure1 all o!rs n ( ,israel :o accept ! ,law w be rew>d$1 b !y _c be equal to ,israel4 ,!re is a peculi> relation betwe5 ,god & ,israel 9 :i* ! o!r peoples d n %>e4 ,z ! plant is di/+ui%$ f ! m9]al1 ! animal f ! plant1 & man f ! irrational animal1 s is ! prophetic individual di/+ui%$ above o!r m54 ,he con/itutes a high] species4 ,x is ?r\gh him t ! masses became aw>e ( ,god's exi/5ce & c>e = !m4 ,x 0 he :o told !m ?+s unkn[n to !m2 :o gave !m an acc\nt ( ! _w's creation & its hi/ory4 ,we c\nt n[ =ty-five hundr$ ye>s f ! creation4 ,?is 0 h&$ d[n f ,adam ?r\gh ,se? & ,enos to ,noah1 to ,%em & ,eb]1 to ,abraham1 ,isaac & ,jacob1 to ,moses1 & f9ally to u4 ,moses came only f\r hundr$ ye>s aft] ,abraham 9 a _w :i* 0 full ( k ( heav5ly & e>?ly ?+s4 ,x is impossible t he %\ld h giv5 !m a false acc\nt ( ! division ( languages & ! relations ( nations )\t be+ f\nd out & expos$4 ,! philosoph]s1 x is true1 oppose u by ma9ta9+ t ! _w is et]nal4 ,b ! philosoph]s are ,greeks1 desc5d$ f ,japhe?1 :o did n inh]it ei!r wisdom or ,torah4 ,div9e wisdom is f\nd only 9 ! family ( ,%em4 ,! ,greeks _h philosophy among !m only dur+ ! %ort "t ( _! p[]4 ,!y borr[$ x f ! ,p]sians1 :o _h x 9 turn f ! ,*aldeans4 ,b nei!r be=e nor aft] did !y h any philosoph]s among !m4 ,ari/otle1 n hav+ any inh]it$ tradition conc]n+ ! orig9 ( ! _w1 endeavor$ to reason x all out ( 8 own head4 ,et]nity 0 j z h>d to believe 9 z creation4 ,b z he _h no true & reliable tradition1 8 argum5ts 9 favor ( et]nity seem$ to him to be ! /rong]4 ,_h he liv$ among a p :o _h reliable traditions on ! o!r side1 he w\ld h f\nd argum5ts 9 favor ( creation1 :i* is m plausible ?an et]nity4 ,real demon/ration _c be controv]t$2 & !re is no?+ 9 ! ,bible :i* opposes :at ! reason unequivocally dem&s4 ,b ! matt] ( et]nity or creation is v difficult4 ,! argum5ts on "o side are z good z ^? on ! o!r4 ,& tradition f ,adam to ,noah & ,moses1 :i* is bett] ?an argum5t1 l5ds its additional weight to ! doctr9e ( creation4 ,if ! believ] 9 ! ,torah 7 oblig$ to hold t !re is a primitive et]nal matt] f :i* ! _w 0 made1 & t !re 7 _m worlds be=e ?is "o1 !re w\ld be no great h>m1 z long z he believes t ?is _w is ( rec5t orig9 & ,adam 0 ! fir/ man4#ahd ,we see n[ ! /&po9t ( ,judah ,halevi1 = ! ,hab] is ( c\rse 8 spokesman4 ,philosophy & indep5d5t reason+ on su* difficult matt]s z ,god & creation are aft] all m or less guess "w1 & _c be made ! bases ( religion except = ^? :o h no?+ bett]4 ,! ,jews =tunately h a sur] f\ndation all _! own4 ,!y h a g5u9e & indisputable tradition4 ,hi/ory is ! only true sci5ce & ! s\rce ( tru?2 n speculation1 :i* is subjective1 & c be employ$ ) equal plausibility 9 favor ( opposite doctr9es4 ,true hi/ory & tradition 9 ! case ( ! ,jews goes back ultimately to fir/ h& k f ! v s\rce ( all tru?4 ,! prophets ( ,israel con/itute a high] species1 z mu* sup]ior to ! ord9>y man z ! ord9>y man is to ! l[] animal1 & ^! prophets receiv$ _! k direct f ,god4 ,9 pr9ciple ,judah ,halevi agrees ) ! o!r ,jewi% philosoph]s t true reason _c be controv]t$4 ,he diff]s ) !m 9 ! concrete application ( ?is ab/ract pr9ciple4 ,he has n ! same respect z ,maimonides = ! actual a*ievem5ts ( ! unaid$ human reason1 & an inf9itely great] respect = ! traditional beliefs ( ,judaism & ! ,biblical expressions tak5 9 _! obvi\s mean+4 ,h5ce he does n feel ! same necessity z ,maimonides to twi/ ! mean+ ( ,scriptural passages to make !m agree ) philosophical !ories4 ,accord+ to ?is view ,judah ,halevi does n f9d x necess>y ) ! philosoph]s & ! ,mutakallimun pa9fully to prove ! exi/5ce ( ,god4 ,! exi/5ce ( ! ,jewi% p & ! facts ( _! wond]ful hi/ory are m eloqu5t demon/rations ?an any t logic or metaphysics c mu/]4 ,b m ?an ?is4 ,! philosophical view ( ,god is inadequate 9 m ways ?an "o4 ,x is inaccurate 9 cont5t & incorrect 9 motive4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 !y lay a great deal ( /ress on nature z ! pr9ciple by :i* objects move4 ,if a /one naturally moves to ! c5tre ( ! _w1 !y say ?is is due to a cause call$ nature4 ,& ! t5d5cy is to attribute intellig5ce & creative p[] to ?is new entity z an associate ( ,god4 ,?is is mislead+4 ,! real ,intellig5ce is ,god alone4 ,x is true t ! elem5ts1 & ! sun & moon1 & ! />s ex]t c]ta9 influ5ces1 produc+ heat & cold1 & v>i\s o!r effects 9 ?+s mat]ial1 by virtue ( :i* ^! latt] are prep>$ = ! reception ( high] =ms4 ,& !re is no h>m 9 call+ ^! ag5cies ,nature4 ,b we mu/ reg>d ^! z devoid ( intellig5ce1 & z m]e effects ( ,god's wisdom & purpose4#ahe ,! philosoph] d5ies w 9 ,god on ! gr\nd t ?is w\ld argue defect & want4 ,?is r$uces ,god to an imp]sonal =ce4 ,we ,jews believe ,god has w4 ,! ^w we use does n matt]4 ,i ask ! philosoph] :at is x t makes ! heav5s revolve cont9ually1 & ! out] sph]e c>ry ev]y?+ 9 uni=m motion1 ! e>? /&+ immovable 9 ! c5tre8 ,call x :at y please1 w or comm&2 x is ! same ?+ t made ! air %ape itself to produce ! s\nds ( ! t5 comm&m5ts :i* 7 he>d1 & t caus$ ! *>act]s to =m on ! ,tables ( ,/one4#ahf ,! motive ( ! philosoph] is also diff]5t f t ( ! believ]4 ,! philosoph] seeks k only4 ,he desires to "k ,god z he desires to "k ! exact position & =m ( ! e>?4 ,ignorance 9 respect to ,god is no m h>mful 9 8 m9d ?an ignorance respect+ a fact 9 nature4 ,8 ma9 object is to h true k 9 ord] to become l unto ! ,active ,intellect & to be id5tifi$ ) x4 ,z long z he is a philosoph] x makes no diff]5ce to him :at he believes 9 o!r respects & :e!r he obs]ves ! practices ( religion or n4#ahg ,! true belief 9 ,god is diff]5t 9 scope & aim4 ,:at ,god is mu/ be und]/ood n by means ( rational pro(s1 b by prophetic & spiritual insight4 ,rational pro(s are mislead+1 & ! h]etics & unbeliev]s also use rational pro(s--^? = example :o believe 9 two orig9al causes1 9 ! et]nity ( ! _w1 or 9 ! div9ity ( ! sun & fire4 ,! mo/ subtle pro(s are ^? us$ by ! philosoph]s1 & !y ma9ta9 t ,god is n conc]n$ ab\t u1 & pays no att5tion to our pray]s & sacrifices2 t ! _w is et]nal4 ,x is diff]5t ) u1 :o he>d 8 words1 8 comm&s & prohibitions1 & felt 8 rew>d & 8 puni%m5t4 ,we h a prop] "n ( ,god1 ,jhvh1 repres5tative ( ! communications he made to u1 & we h a conviction t he creat$ ! _w4 ,! fir/ 0 ,adam1 :o knew ,god ?r\gh actual communication & ! creation ( ,eve f "o ( 8 ribs4 ,ca9 & ,abel came next1 !n ,noah & ,abraham1 ,isaac & ,jacob1 & s on to ,moses & ! ,prophets1 :o came aft] him4 ,all ^! call$ him ,jhvh by reason ( _! insight4 ,! p :o receiv$ ! tea*+ ( ! ,prophets1 9 :om !y believ$1 also call$ him ,jhvh1 because he 0 9 communication ) m52 & ! select among !m saw him ?r\gh an int]m$iate ag5cy1 call$ v>i\sly1 ,=m1 ,image1 ,cl\d1 ,fire1 ,k+dom1 ,%ek9ah1 ,glory1 ,ra9b[1 & s on1 prov+ t he spoke to !m4#ahh ,z ! sun's light p5etrates diff]5t objects 9 v>y+ degrees1 = example1 ruby & cry/al receive ! sun's light 9 ! highe/ degree2 cle> air & wat] come next1 !n bright /ones & poli%$ surfaces1 & la/ ( all opaque sub/ances l wood & e>?1 :i* ! light does n p5etrate at all2 s we may conceive ( diff]5t m9ds v>y+ 9 ! degree to :i* !y atta9 a k ( ,god4 ,"s arrive only z f> z ! k ( ,elohim1 :ile o!rs atta9 to a k ( ,jhvh1 :i* may be comp>$ to ! reception ( ! sun's light 9 ruby & cry/al4 ,^! are ! prophets 9 ! l& ( ,israel4 ,! conception involv$ 9 ! "n ,elohim no intellig5t man d5ies2 :]eas _m d5y ! conception ( ,jhvh1 because prophecy is an unusual occurr5ce ev5 among individuals1 n to speak ( a nation4 ,t is :y ,ph>aoh said 7,exod4 #e1 #b71 ,i "k n ,jhvh4 ,he knew ,elohim1 b n ,jhvh1 t is a ,god :o reveals himself to man4 ,elohim may be arriv$ at by reason+2 = ! reason tells u t ! _w has a rul]2 ?\gh ! v>i\s classes ( m5 diff] z to details1 ! mo/ plausible view be+ t ( ! philosoph]s4 ,b ! conception ( ,jhvh _c be arriv$ at by reason4 ,x requires t prophetic vision by :i* a p]son almo/ becomes a memb] ( a new species1 ak9 to angels4 ,!n ! d\bts he =m]ly _h ab\t ,elohim fall away1 & he laughs at ! argum5ts :i* l$ him to ! conception ( ,god & ( unity4 ,n[ he becomes a devotee1 :o loves ! object ( 8 devotion1 & is ready to give 8 life 9 8 love = him1 because ( ! great happ9ess he feels 9 be+ ne> to him1 & ! mis]y ( be+ away f him4 ,?is is diff]5t f ! philosoph]1 :o sees 9 ! wor%ip ( ,god only good e?ics & tru?1 because he is great] ?an all o!r exi/+ ?+s2 & 9 unbelief no?+ m ?an ! fault ( *oos+ ! untrue4#ahi ,"h !re is cle>ly a t\* ( religi\s poetry & my/icism1 :i* reveals to u ,halevi's real attitude1 & we h no difficulty 9 und]/&+ 8 lack ( sympa?y ) :at seem$ to him ! %all[ rationalism ( ! contemporane\s ,ari/otelian1 :o fanci$ 9 8 conceit t ) a few logical =mul he c\ld p5etrate ! my/]ies ( ! div9e1 :5 9 reality he 0 b>ely enabl$ to skim ! surface2 into ! sanctu>y he c\ld nev] ent]4 ,?\gh1 z we h j se51 ,halevi has a conception ( ,god z a p]sonal be+1 act+ ) purpose & w &1 z we %all see m cle>ly lat]1 /&+ 9 close p]sonal relation to ,israel & ! l& ( ,pale/9e1 /ill he is v f> f ?9k+ ( him an?ropomorphically4 ,9 8 discussion ( ! div9e attributes he yields to none 9 remov+ f ,god any positive quality ( ^? ascrib$ to him 9 ! ,bible4 ,! v>i\s names or appellatives appli$ to ,god 9 ,scripture1 except ! tetragrammaton1 he divides1 accord+ to _! signification1 into ?ree classes1 actional1 relative1 negative4 ,su* expressions z mak+ high1 mak+ l[1 mak+ poor1 almighty1 /rong1 jeal\s1 rev5geful1 graci\s1 m]ciful1 & s on1 d n d5ote1 he says1 feel+ or emotion 9 ,god4 ,!y are ascrib$ to him because ( 8 visible acts or effects 9 ! _w1 :i* we judge on ! analogy ( our own acts4 ,z a human be+ is prompt$ to remove ! mis]y ( a fell[man because he feels pity1 we ascribe all in/ances ( div9e removal ( mis]y f mank9d to a simil> feel+ 9 ,god1 & call him m]ciful4 ,b ?is is only a figure ( spee*4 ,god does remove mis]y1 b ! feel+ ( pity is =eign to him4 ,we call !re=e ! attribute m]ciful & o!rs l x actional1 mean+ t x is ,god's acts :i* sugge/ to u ^! appellations4 ,ano!r class ( attributes f\nd 9 ! ,bible embraces su* expressions z bless$1 exalt$1 holy1 prais$1 & s on4 ,^! are call$ relative1 because !y are d]iv$ f ! attitude ( man to ,god4 ,god is bless$ because m5 bless him1 & s ) ! re/4 ,!y d n d5ote any ess5tial quality 9 ,god4 ,& h5ce _! numb] does n necessitate plurality 9 ,god4 ,f9ally we h su* t]ms z liv+1 "o1 fir/1 la/1 & s on4 ,^! too d n d5ote ,god's positive ess5ce1 = 9 reality ,god _c be said to be ei!r liv+ or dead4 ,life z we und]/& x d5otes s5sation & motion1 :i* are n 9 ,god4 ,if we d apply to ,god ! t]m liv+1 we d s 9 ord] to exclude its negative1 dead4 ,liv+ means n dead2 "o means n _m2 fir/ means n hav+ any cause antec$5t to him2 la/ means nev] ceas+ to be4 ,h5ce we call ^! attributes negative4#aij ,we see t ,judah ,halevi is at "o ) ,bahya & ,joseph ibn ,zaddik 9 8 und]/&+ ( ! div9e attributes4 ,! slight diff]5ce 9 ! mode ( classification is n ess5tial4 ,?is ,god *ose ,israel & gave !m ! t5 comm&m5ts 9 ord] to conv9ce !m t ! ,law orig9at$ f ,god & n f ,moses4 ,= !y might h _h a d\bt 9 _! m9ds1 see+ t spee* is a mat]ial ?+1 & believe t ! orig9 ( a law or religion is 9 ! m9d ( a human be+1 :i* aft]w>ds comes to be believ$ 9 z div9e4 ,= ?is reason ,god comm&$ ! p to purify !mselves & be ready = ! ?ird day1 :5 !y all he>d ! ^w ( ,god1 & 7 conv9c$ t prophecy is n :at ! philosoph]s say x is--a natural result ( man's reason id5tify+ itself ) ! ,active ,intellect ?r\gh ! help ( ! imag9ation1 :i* pres5ts true visions 9 a dream--b a real communication f ,god4 ,n only did !y he> ! ^w ( ,god1 b !y saw ! writ+ ( ,god on ! ,tables ( ,/one4 ,?is does n mean t we believe 9 ! corporeality ( ,god2 ,heav5 =bid1 we d n ev5 ?9k ( ! s\l ( man z corporeal4 ,b we _c d5y ! ?+s record$1 :i* are well kn[n4 ,j z ,god creat$ heav5 & e>?1 n by means ( mat]ial tools z a man does1 b by 8 w1 s he might h will$ t ! air %\ld convey articulate s\nds to ! e> ( ,moses1 & t lett]s %\ld be =m$ on ! ,tables ( ,/one to convey to ! p ! ideas :i* he want$ !m to "k4 ,!y might h happ5$ 9 a /ill m wond]ful way ?an ,i h be5 able to conceive4 ,?is may seem l an unw>rant$ magnify+ ( ! virtues ( our p4 ,b 9 reality x is true t ! *a9 ( individuals f ,adam to ,moses & !reaft] 0 a rem>kable "o ( godly m54 ,adam 0 surely a godlike man s9ce he 0 made by ! h& ( ,god & 0 n dep5d5t on ! inh]it$ con/itution ( 8 p>5ts1 & on ! food & climate he enjoy$ 9 ! ye>s ( 8 gr[?4 ,he 0 made p]fect z 9 ! "t ( mature y\? :5 a p]son is at 8 be/1 & 0 end[$ ) ! be/ possible s\l = man4 ,abel 0 8 successor 9 excell5ce1 also a godly man1 & s d[n ! l9e ?r\gh ,se? & ,noah1 & s on4 ,!re 7 _m :o 7 unwor?y & !y 7 exclud$4 ,b !re 0 always "o 9 e g5]ation :o inh]it$ ! di/+ui%$ qualities ( ! ,adam l9e4 ,& ev5 :51 z 9 ! case ( ,t]ah1 ! individual 0 unwor?y 9 himself1 he 0 important z be+ de/9$ to give bir? to a wor?y son1 :o w\ld c>ry on ! tradition1 l ,abraham4 ,among ,noah's sons1 ,%em 0 ! select "o1 & he occupi$ ! temp]ate regions ( ,pale/9e1 :]eas ,japhe? w5t nor? & ,ham w5t s\?--regions n s favorable to ! developm5t ( wisdom4#aia ,! laws 7 all giv5 directly to ,moses ) all _! details s t !re is no d\bt ab\t any ( !m4 ,?is 0 absolutely necess>y1 = _h !re be5 any detail left out1 a d\bt might arise respect+ x :i* w\ld de/roy ! :ole spiritual /ructure ( ,judaism4 ,?is is n a matt] :i* philosophical reason+ c ?9k out = itself4 ,z 9 ! natural g5]ation ( plant & animal ! complexity ( elem5ts & conditions is s great t a slight tilt+ ( ! balance 9 ! wrong direction produces disease & dea?1 s 9 ! spiritual creation ( ,israel ! c]emonies & ! laws are all absolutely ess5tial to ! :ole1 :e!r we und]/& x or n1 & none c\ld be left to speculation4 ,all 7 giv5 to ,moses4 ,moses address$ himself to 8 own p only4 ,y say x w\ld h be5 bett] to call all mank9d to ! true religion4 ,x w\ld be bett] also p]haps t all animals %\ld be rational4 ,y h =gott5 :at ,i said ab\t ! select few t wor?ily succe$$ ,adam z ! he>t ( ! family to ! exclusion ( ! o!r memb]s1 :o are z ! peel1 until 9 ! sons ( ,jacob all twelve 7 wor?y1 & f !m ,israel is desc5d$4 ,^! rem>kable m5 _h div9e qualities :i* made !m a diff]5t species f ord9>y m54 ,!y 7 aim+ at ! degree ( ! prophet1 & _m ( !m rea*$ x by reason ( _! purity1 hol9ess & proximity to ! ,prophets4 ,= a prophet has a great influ5ce on ! "o :o associates ) him4 ,he conv]ts ! latt] by awak5+ 9 him spirituality & a desire to atta9 t high degree :i* br+s visible greatness & rew>d 9 ! _w to come1 :5 ! s\l is sep>at$ f ! s5ses & enjoys ! heav5ly light4 ,we d n exclude anyone f ! rew>d due him = 8 good works1 b we give pref]5ce to ^? :o are ne> to ,god1 & we measure _! rew>d 9 ! next _w by ?is /&>d4 ,our religion consi/s n m]ely 9 say+ c]ta9 words1 b 9 difficult practices & a l9e ( conduct :i* br+ u ne> to ,god4 ,outsid]s too may atta9 to ! grade ( wise & pi\s m51 b !y _c become equal to u & be prophets4#aib ,n only is ,israel a select nation to :om alone prophecy is giv5 z a gift1 b ,pale/9e is ! mo/ suitable place 9 ! _w = communion ) ,god1 z a c]ta9 spot may be be/ = plant+ c]ta9 ?+s & = produc+ p ( a p>ticul> "* & temp]am5t4 ,all ^? :o prophesi$ outside ( ,pale/9e did s ) ref]5ce to ,pale/9e4 ,abraham 0 n wor?y ( ! div9e cov5ant until he 0 9 ?is l&4 ,pale/9e 0 int5d$ to be a guide = ! :ole _w4 ,! reason ! second ,temple did n la/ long] ?an x did is because ! ,babylonian exiles did n suffici5tly love _! fa!rl& & did n all return :5 ! decree ( ,cyrus p]mitt$ !m to d s4#aic ,israel is ! he>t among ! nations4 ,! he>t is m s5sitive ?an ! re/ ( ! body 9 disease z 9 heal?4 ,x feels bo? m int5sely4 ,x is m liable to disease ?an ! o!r organs1 & on ! o!r h& x becomes aw>e soon] ( ag5cies dang]\s to its heal? & endeavors to reject !m or w>d !m (f4 ,s ,israel is among ! nations4 ,_! responsibility is great] ?an t ( o!r nations & !y are soon] puni%$4 ,only y h ,i lov$ out ( all ! families ( ! e>?1 says ,amos 7#c1 #b71 !re=e w ,i visit ^u y all y\r iniquities4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,god does n all[ our s9s to accumulate z he does ) ! o!r nations until !y des]ve de/ruction4 ,he p>dons ! iniquities ( 8 p by caus+ !m to pass away 9 due ord]4 ,z ! he>t is affect$ by ! o!r organs1 s ,israel suff]s on acc\nt ( _! assimilation to ! o!r nations4 ,israel suff]s :ile ! o!r nations are 9 peace4 ,z ! elem5ts are = ! sake ( ! m9]als1 ! m9]als = ! sake ( ! plants1 ! plants = ! sake ( ! animals1 ! animals = ! sake ( man1 s is man = ! sake ( ,israel1 & ,israel = ! sake ( ! ,prophets & ! pi\s m54 ,) ! purification ( ,israel ! _w w be improv$ & br\ght ne>] to ,god4#aid ,associat$ ) ,israel & ,pale/9e z a ?ird privilege & di/9ction is ! ,hebrew language4 ,?is is ! orig9al language :i* ,god spoke to ,adam4 ,! etymologies ( ,biblical names prove x4 ,x 0 ri*] =m]ly1 & has become impov]i%$ 9 ! c\rse ( "t l ! p us+ x4 ,nev]!less x /ill %[s evid5ce ( sup]iority to o!r languages 9 its sy/em ( acc5ts :i* %[s ! prop] expression 9 read+1 & 9 its wond]ful sy/em ( v[el *anges produc+ euphony 9 expression & v>iation 9 mean+4#aie ,! highe/ type ( man1 we h se51 is ! ,prophet1 = ^: sake ,israel & ! :ole ( humanity exi/s4 ,he is ! highe/ type because he alone has an imm$iate k ( ,jhvh z di/+ui%$ f ,elohim1 ! concept ( univ]sal cause & p[]1 :i* ! philosoph] also is able to atta94 ,jhvh signifies1 z we h se51 ! p]sonal ,god :o p]=ms miracles & reveals himself to mank9d ?r\gh ! prophet4 ,we wi% to "k !re=e h[ ,judah ,halevi conceives ( ! ess5ce & process ( prophetic inspiration4 ,we are already aw>e t he is oppos$ to ! philosoph]s :o reg>d ! p[] ( prophecy z a natural gift possess$ by ! man ( pure intellect & p]fect p[] ( imag9ation4 ,to ^! ,ari/otelians1 z we %all h occasion to see m cle>ly lat]1 ! human intellect is no?+ m ?an an individualiz$ reflection1 if we may s t]m x1 ( ! "o univ]sal intellect1 :i* is--n ,god1 b an intellectual sub/ance :olly immat]ial1 "s n9e or t5 degrees remov$ f ! ,godhead4 ,x is call$ ! ,active ,intellect1 & its bus9ess is to gov]n ! sublun> _w ( g5]ation & decay4 ,z pure ?\ght ! ,active ,intellect embraces z its cont5t ! entire sublun> _w 9 ess5ce4 ,9 fact x be/[s ! =ms 79 ! ,ari/otelian s5se7 ^u ! ?+s ( ?is _w1 & h5ce has a timeless k ( all ! _w & its happ5+s4 ,! individualiz$ reflection ( x 9 ! human s\l is held !re s long z ! p]son is alive1 some:at z a drop ( wat] may hold ! moon until x evaporates1 & ! reflection is reabsorb$ 9 ! "o real moon4 ,s x is ! ,active ,intellect :i* is ! cause ( all conceptual k 9 man ?r\gh its individualizations1 & into x e human intellect is reabsorb$ :5 ! individual dies4 ,"s m5 %>e m1 "s less 9 ! ,active ,intellect2 & x is 9 ev]yone's p[]1 )9 limits1 to increase & purify 8 p>ticipation 9 ! influ5ce ( ! ,active ,intellect by /udy & rigor\s e?ical discipl9e4 ,! prophet diff]s f ! ord9>y man & ! philosoph] 9 degree only1 n 9 k9d4 ,8 k comes f ! influ5ce ( ! ,active ,intellect z does ! k ( ! philosoph]4 ,! diff]5ce is t 9 ! prophet's case ! imag9ation plays an important rle & pres5ts concrete visions in/ead ( univ]sal propositions1 & ! id5tification ) ! ,active ,intellect is mu* clos]4 ,?is conception ( prophecy1 :i* 9 its ess5tials1 we %all see1 0 adopt$ by ,abraham ibn ,daud1 ,maimonides & ,g]sonides1 naturally w\ld n appeal to ,judah ,halevi4 ,prophecy is ! pr]ogative ( ,israel & ( ,pale/9e4 ,! philosoph]s h no?+ to d ) x4 ,a m]e philosoph] has no m *ance ( ent]+ ! k+dom ( prophecy ?an a camel ( pass+ ?r\gh ! eye ( a ne$le4,b ,h ! philosoph]s ev] produc$ prophets8 ,& yet1 if _! explanation is correct1 _! ranks %\ld ab\nd 9 !m4 ,prophecy is a sup]natural p[]1 & ! influ5ce comes f ,god4 ,! prophet is a high] species ( mortal4 ,he is end[$ ) an int]nal eye1 a hidd5 s5se1 :i* sees c]ta9 immat]ial objects1 z ! ext]nal s5se sees ! physical objects4 ,no "o else sees ^? =ms1 b !y are none ! less real1 = ! :ole species ( prophetic p]sons te/ify to _! exi/5ce4 ,9 ord9>y p]ception we tell a real object f an illusion by appeal+ to ! te/imony ( o!rs4 ,:at appe>s to a s+le individual only may be an illusion4 ,if all p]sons agree t ! object is !re1 we conclude x is real4 ,! same te/ holds ( ! prophetic visions4 ,all prophets see !m4 ,!n ! intellect ( ! prophet int]prets ! vision1 z our intellect int]prets ! data ( our s5ses4 ,! latt] give u n ! ess5ce ( ! s5sible object1 b ! sup]ficial accid5ts1 su* z color1 %ape1 & s on4 ,x is ! "w ( ! reason to ref] ^! qualities to ! ess5ce ( ! object1 z k+1 sun4 ,! same holds true ( ! prophet4 ,he sees a figure 9 ! =m ( a k+ or a judge 9 ! act ( giv+ ord]s2 & he kn[s t he has be=e him a be+ t is s]v$ & obey$4 ,or he sees ! =m 9 ! act ( c>ry+ baggage or gird$ = "w2 & he inf]s t he is deal+ ) a be+ t is meant = a s]vant4 ,:at ^! visions really 7 x is n 9 all cases possible to "k ) c]ta9ty4 ,!re is no d\bt t ! ,prophets actually saw ! ho/s ( heav51 ! spirits ( ! sph]es1 9 ! =m ( man4 ,! ^w angel 9 ! ,bible 7,heb4 ,malak7 means mess5g]4 ,:at ^! mess5g]s or angels 7 we _c tell ) c]ta9ty4 ,!y may h be5 specially creat$ f ! f9e elem5t>y bodies1 or !y belong$ to ! et]nal angels1 :o may be ! same z ! spiritual be+s ( :om ! philosoph]s speak4 ,we c nei!r reject _! view nor def9itely accept x4 ,simil>ly ! expression1 ,! ,glory ( ,jhvh1 may d5ote a f9e body foll[+ ! w ( ,god & =m$ e "t x has to appe> to a prophet1 or x may d5ote all ! angels & spiritual be+s1 ,?rone & ,*>iot & ,firmam5t1 & ,(annim & ,galgalim1 & o!r et]nal be+s con/itut+1 s to speak1 ! suite ( ,god4 ,b ,?is simile repres5ts ,halevi's ?\ght4 ,he does n use ?is expression4 ,ev5 su* phrases z1 ,!y saw ! ,god ( ,israel 7,exod4 #bd1 #aj71 ,he saw ! =m ( ,jhvh 7,num4 #ab1 #h71 ! ,rabb9ic expression ,maase ,m]kaba 7"w ( ! div9e *>iot1 cf4 above1 p4 xvi71 & ! lat] discussions conc]n+ ! ,measure ( ! div9e /ature 7,%iur ,komah71 mu/ n be reject$4 ,^! visual images repres5tative ( ,god are calculat$ to inspire fe> 9 ! human s\l1 :i* ! b>e conception ( ! ,"o1 ,omnipot5t1 & s on1 _c produce4#aif ,z ,judah ,halevi is unwill+ to yield to ! philosoph]s & expla9 away ! sup]naturalism ( prophecy1 ma9ta9+ r on ! contr>y t ! sup]natural "* ( ! prophetic vision is an evid5ce ( ! sup]ior nature ( ,israel z well z ( _! l& & _! language1 s he insi/s on ! inh]5t value ( ! c]emonial law1 includ+ sacrifices4 ,to ,saadia1 & especially to ,bahya & ,maimonides1 ! te/ ( value is rationality4 ,! important laws ( ! ,bible are ^? kn[n z ! rational comm&m5ts4 ,! o!r class1 ! s-call$ traditional comm&m5ts1 w\ld also turn out to be rational if we knew ! reason :y !y 7 comm&$4 ,& 9 default ( exact k x is ! bus9ess ( ! philosoph] to sugge/ reasons4 ,bahya lays ! greate/ /ress ^u ! comm&m5ts ( ! he>t1 i4 e41 ^u ! purity ( motive & int5tion1 ^u ^? laws :i* conc]n feel+ & belief r ?an outw>d practice4 ,judah ,halevi's attitude is diff]5t4 ,if ! only ?+ ( importance 9 religion 7 int5tion & motive & moral s5se1 :y %\ld ,*ri/ianity & ,islam fight to ! dea?1 %$d+ untold human blood 9 def5ce ( _! religion4 ,z f> z e?ical !ory & practice are conc]n$ !re is no diff]5ce betwe5 !m4 ,c]emonial practice is ! only ?+ t sep>ates !m4 ,& ! k+ ( ! ,*az>s 0 told repeat$ly 9 8 dreams t 8 int5tions 7 good b n 8 practice1 8 religi\s practice4 ,to be sure ! e?ical law is important 9 any religion1 b x is n peculi> to religion z su*4 ,x is a necess>y condition ( social life1 )\t :i* no association is possible1 n ev5 t ( a robb] b&4 ,!re is hone/y ev5 among ?ieves4 ,religion has its peculi> practices1 & x is n suffici5t = an ,israelite to obs]ve ! rational comm&m5ts alone4 ,:5 ! ,prophets inveigh aga9/ sacrifices2 :5 ,micah says 7#f1 #h71 ,he ha? %ew$ !e1 ,o man1 :at is good2 & :at do? ! ,"l require ( !e1 b to d ju/ly1 & to love m]cy1 & to walk humbly ) ?y ,god1 !y mean t ! c]emonies alone are n suffici5t2 b surely a man is n fully an ,israelite if he neglects ! c]emonial laws & obs]ves only ! rational comm&m5ts4 ,we may n und]/& ! value ( ! c]emonial laws1 ! mean+ ( ! in/itution ( sacrifices4 ,b nei!r d we und]/& :y ! rational s\l does n atta* itself to a body except :5 ! p>ts are arrang$ 9 a c]ta9 mann] & ! elem5ts are mix$ 9 a c]ta9 proportion1 ?\gh ! reason ne$s n food & dr9k = itself4 ,god has arrang$ x s1 t only "u c]ta9 conditions %all a body receive ! light ( reason4 ,s 9 ! matt] ( sacrifices ,god has orda9$ t only :5 ! details ( ! sacrificial & o!r c]emonies are m9utely obs]v$ %all ! nation enjoy 8 pres5ce & c>e4 ,9 "s cases ! significance ( c]ta9 obs]vances is cle>] ?an 9 o!rs4 ,?us ! v>i\s fe/ivals are also symbolic ( c]ta9 tru?s ( hi/ory & ! div9e gov]nm5t ( ! _w4 ,! ,sabba? leads to ! belief 9 ! exodus f ,egypt & ! creation ( ! _w2 & h5ce inculcates belief 9 ,god4#aig ,9 8 views ( e?ics ,judah ,halevi is m human ?an ,bahya1 be+ oppos$ to all mann] ( asceticism4 ,! law1 he says1 does n dem& excess 9 any direction4 ,e p[] & faculty mu/ be giv5 its due4 ,our law comm5ds fe>1 love & joy z means ( wor%ipp+ ,god2 s t fa/+ on a fa/ day does n br+ a man ne>] to ,god ?an eat+ & dr9k+ & rejoic+ on a fea/ day1 provid$ all is done ) a view to honor+ ,god4 ,a ,jewi% devotee is n "o :o sep>ates himself f ! _w4 ,on ! contr>y1 he loves ! _w & a long life because !reby he w9s a %>e 9 ! _w to come4 ,/ill 8 desire is to atta9 ! degree ( ,eno* or ,elijah1 & to be fit = ! association ( angels4 ,a man l ?is feels m at home :5 alone ?an 9 company ( o!r p2 = ! high] be+s are 8 company1 & he misses !m :5 p are ar\nd him4 ,philosoph]s also enjoy solitude 9 ord] to cl>ify _! ?\ghts1 & !y are eag] to meet disciples to discuss _! problems ) !m4 ,9 our days x is difficult to rea* ! position ( ^! r>e m54 ,9 =m] times :5 ! ,%ek9ah re/$ 9 ! ,holy ,l&1 & ! nation 0 fit = prophecy1 !re 7 p :o sep>at$ !mselves f _! neighbors & /udi$ ! law 9 purity & hol9ess 9 ! company ( m5 l !m4 ,^! 7 ! ,sons ( ! ,prophets4 ,n[adays :5 !re is nei!r prophecy nor wisdom1 a p]son :o attempt$ to d ?is1 ?\gh he be a pi\s man1 w\ld come to grief2 = he w\ld f9d nei!r prophets nor philosoph]s to keep him company2 nor en\gh to keep 8 m9d 9 t high /ate ( exaltation ne$$ = communion ) ,god4 ,pray] alone is n suffici5t1 & soon becomes a habit )\t any influ5ce on ! s\l4 ,he w\ld soon f9d t ! natural p[]s & desires ( ! s\l beg9 to ass]t !mselves & he w regret 8 sep>ation f mank9d1 ?us gett+ f>!r away f ,god in/ead ( com+ ne>] to him4 ,! "r practice ( ! pi\s man at ! pres5t day is to give all ! p>ts ( ! body _! due & no m1 )\t neglect+ any ( !m2 & to br+ ! l[] p[]s & desires "u ! dom9ion ( ! high]2 fe$+ ! s\l ) ?+s spiritual z ! body ) ?+s mat]ial4 ,he mu/ keep himself con/antly "u gu>d & control1 mak+ special use ( ! times ( pray] = self-exam9ation1 & /riv+ to reta9 ! influ5ce ( "o pray] until ! "t comes = ! next4 ,he mu/ also utilize ! ,sabba?s & ! fe/ivals & ! ,great ,fa/ to keep himself 9 good spiritual trim4 ,9 addition he mu/ obs]ve all ! comm&m5ts1 traditional1 rational1 & ^? ( ! he>t1 & reflect on _! mean+ & on ,god's goodness & c>e4#aih ,judah ,halevi has no d\bt ( ! immortality ( ! s\l & ( rew>d & puni%m5t aft] dea?1 ?\gh ! ,bible does n dwell ^u ^! matt]s ) any degree ( emphasis4 ,o!r religions1 he admits1 make great] promises ( rew>d aft] dea?1 :]eas ,judaism (f]s div9e ne>ness ?r\gh miracles & prophecy4 ,in/ead ( say+1 ,if y d ?us & s1 ,i w put y 9 g>d5s aft] dea? & give y pleasures1 our ,law says1 ,i w be y\r ,god & y w be my p4 ,"s ( y w /& be=e me & w g up to heav51 walk+ among ! angels2 & my angels w walk among y1 protect+ y 9 y\r l&1 :i* is ! holy l&1 n l ! o!r nations1 :i* are gov]n$ by nature4 ,surely1 he exclaims1 we :o c boa/ ( su* ?+s dur+ life are m c]ta9 ( ! future _w ?an ^? ^: sole reliance is on promises ( ! h]eaft]4 ,x w\ld n be correct1 ! ,rabbi says to ! k+ ( ! ,*az>s1 :o 0 tempt$ to despise ! ,jews z well z _! religion because ( _! mat]ial & political weakness1 to judge ( our de/9y aft] dea? by our condition dur+ life1 9 :i* we are inf]ior to all o!r p4 ,= ^! v p1 l ! ,*ri/ians & ,mohamm$ans1 glory 9 _! f\nd]s1 :o 7 p]secut$ & despis$1 & n 9 ! pres5t p[] & luxury ( ! great k+s4 ,! ,*ri/ians 9 p>ticul> wor%ip ! man :o said1 ,:osoev] smite? !e on ?y "r *eek1 turn to him ! o!r also4 ,& if a man 444 take away ?y coat1 let him h ?y cloak also 7,mat?4 #e1 #ci74 ,accord+ly our wor? is great] 9 ! sight ( ,god ?an if we 7 prosp]\s4 ,x is true t n all ( u accept our mis]able condition ) becom+ humility4 ,if we did1 ,god w\ld n keep u s long 9 mis]y4 ,b aft] all !re is rew>d await+ our p = be>+ ! yoke ( ! exile volunt>ily1 :5 x w\ld be an easy matt] = any "o ( u to become a bro!r to our oppressors by ! say+ ( "o ^w4 ,our wise m51 too1 h said a great deal ab\t ! pleasures & suff]+s await+ u 9 ! next _w1 & 9 ?is also !y surpass ! wise m5 ( o!r religions4 ,! ,bible1 x is true1 does n lay /ress on ?is aspect ( our belief2 b s mu* is cle> f ! ,bible also1 t ! _s returns to ,god4 ,!re are also allusions to ! immortality ( ! s\l 9 ! disappe>ance ( ,elijah1 :o did n die1 & 9 ! belief ( 8 second com+4 ,?is appe>s also f ! pray] ( ,balaam1 ,let me die ! dea? ( ! righte\s1 & may my la/ end be l 8 7,num4 #bc1 #aj71 & f ! call+ ( ,samuel f ! dead4 ,! idea ( p>adise 7,gan ,ed57 is tak5 f ! ,torah1 & ,geh5na is a ,hebrew ^w1 ! "n ( a valley ne> ,j]usalem1 :]e fire always burn$1 consum+ unclean bones1 c>cases1 & s on4 ,!re is no?+ new 9 ! lat] religions :i* is n already f\nd 9 ours4#aii ,an important e?ical problem :i* ,judah ,halevi discusses m ?or\ghly ?an any ( 8 pr$ecessors is t ( free w1 :i* he def5ds aga9/ fatali/ic det]m9ism1 & endeavors to reconcile ) div9e causality & =ekn[l$ge4 ,we h already se5 7p4 xxi7 t ?is 0 "o ( ! important !ses ( ! ,mutazilite ,kalam4 ,& !re is no d\bt t fatalism is oppos$ to ,judaism4 ,a fatali/ic det]m9i/ d5ies ! category ( ! cont+5t or possible4 ,he says n m]ely t an ev5t is det]m9$ by its proximate cause1 he goes fur!r & ma9ta9s t x is det]m9$ long 9 advance ( any ( its second>y causes by ! w ( ,god4 ,x w\ld foll[ !n t !re is no way ( prev5t+ an ev5t ?us pr$et]m9$4 ,if we take pa9s to avoid a mis=tune fat$ to come ^u u1 our v ef=ts may c>ry u t[>d x & l& u 9 its clut*es4 ,lit]ature is full ( /ories illu/rat+ ?is belief1 z = example ! /ory ( ,o,edipus4 ,aga9/ ?is =m ( belief ,judah ,halevi v9dicates ! reality ( ! cont+5t or possible z oppos$ to ! necess>y4 ,no "o except ! ob/9ate & p]v]se d5ies ! possible or cont+5t4 ,8 prep>ations to meet & avoid t :i* he hopes & fe>s prove t he believes ! ?+ am5able to pa9s & precautions4 ,if he _h n ?is belief1 he w\ld fold 8 h&s 9 resignation1 nev] tak+ ! tr\ble to supply himself ) arms to meet 8 enemy1 or ) wat] to qu5* 8 ?ir/4 ,to be sure1 we may argue t :e!r "o prep>e himself or omit to d s1 ! prep>ation or neglect is itself det]m9$4 ,b ?is is no long] ! same position z t ma9ta9$ at ! outset4 ,= we n[ admit t second>y causes d play a "p 9 det]m9+ ! result1 :]eas we d5i$ x at fir/4 ,! w is "o ( ^! second>y causes4 ,accord+ly ,judah ,halevi divides all acts or ev5ts into f\r classes1 div9e1 natural1 accid5tal & volunt>y4 ,/rictly div9e ev5ts are ! direct results ( ! div9e w )\t any int]m$iate cause4 ,!re is no way ( prep>+ = or avoid+ ^!2 n1 t is1 physically2 b x is possible to prep>e oneself m5tally & morally1 namely1 ?r\gh ! secrets ( ! ,torah to him :o kn[s !m4 ,natural ev5ts are produc$ by second>y causes1 :i* br+ ! objects ( nature to _! p]fection4 ,^! produce _! effects regul>ly & uni=mly1 provid$ !re is no h9drance on ! "p ( ! o!r ?ree causes4 ,an example ( natural ev5ts w\ld be ! gr[? ( a plant or animal "u favorable conditions4 ,accid5tal ev5ts are also produc$ by second>y causes1 b !y happ5 by *ance1 n regul>ly & n z a result ( purpose4 ,_! causes are n int5d$ = ! purpose ( br++ p]fection to _! *ance effects4 ,^! too may be h9d]$ by any "o ( ! o!r ?ree causes4 ,an example ( a *ance ev5t might be dea? 9 w>4 ,! second>y cause is ! battle1 b its purpose 0 n t ?is giv5 p]son might meet 8 dea? !re1 & n all m5 die 9 w>4 ,f9ally1 volunt>y acts are ^? caus$ by ! w ( man4 ,x is ^! t conc]n u mo/4 ,we h already intimat$ t ! human w is itself a second>y cause & has a rle 9 det]m9+ its effect4 ,x is true t ! w itself is caus$ by o!r high] causes until we get to ! fir/ cause1 b ?is does n =m a necess>y *a9 ( causation4 ,despite ! cont9u\s *a9 ( causes antec$5t to a giv5 volition ! s\l f9d+ itself 9 front ( a giv5 plan is free to *oose ei!r ( ! two alt]natives4 ,to say t a man's spee* is z necess>y z ! beat+ ( 8 pulse contradicts exp]i5ce4 ,we feel t we are ma/]s ( our spee* & our sil5ce4 ,! fact t we praise & blame & love & hate a p]son accord+ to 8 delib]ate conduct is ano!r pro( ( fre$om4 ,we d n blame a natural or accid5tal cause4 ,we d n blame a *ild or a p]son asleep :5 !y cause damage1 because !y did n d ! damage delib]ately & ) int5tion4 ,if ^? :o d5y fre$om are consi/5t1 !y mu/ ei!r refra9 f be+ angry ) a p]son :o injures !m delib]ately1 or !y mu/ say t ang] & praise & blame & love & hate are delusive p[]s put 9 our s\ls 9 va94 ,besides !re w\ld be no diff]5ce betwe5 ! pi\s & ! disob$i5t1 because bo? are do+ t :i* !y are by necessity b\nd to d4 ,b !re are c]ta9 /rong objections to ! doctr9e ( fre$om4 ,if man is absolutely free to d or =be>1 x foll[s t ! effects ( 8 conduct are remov$ f ,god's control4 ,! answ] to ?is is t !y are n absolutely remov$ f 8 control4 ,!y are /ill relat$ to him by a *a9 ( causes4 ,ano!r argum5t aga9/ free w is t x is irreconcilable ) ,god's k4 ,if man alone is ! ma/] ( 8 *oice1 ,god _c "k be=eh& :at he w *oose4 ,& if ,god does "k1 ! man _c b *oose z ,god =eknew he w\ld *oose1 & :at becomes ( 8 fre$om8 ,?is may be answ]$ by say+ t ! k ( a ?+ is n ! cause ( its be+4 ,we d n det]m9e a pa/ ev5t by ! fact t we "k x4 ,k is simply evid5ce t ! ?+ is4 ,s man *ooses by 8 own det]m9ation1 & yet ,god kn[s be=eh& :i* way he is go+ to *oose1 simply because he sees into ! future z we rememb] ! pa/4#bjj ,judah ,halevi's discussion ( ! problem ( fre$om is full] ?an any we h met s f> 9 our inve/igation4 ,b x is n satisfactory4 ,ap>t f 8 f\rfold classification ( ev5ts :i* is op5 to criticism1 !re is a weak spot 9 ! v c5tre ( 8 argum5t1 :i* sc>cely c\ld h escap$ him4 ,he admits t ! w is caus$ by high] causes end+ ultimately 9 ! w ( ,god1 & yet ma9ta9s 9 ! same brea? t ! w is n det]m9$4 ,z free ! w is remov$ f ,god's control1 & yet x is n completely remov$1 be+ relat$ to him by a *a9 ( causes4 ,?is is a pla9 contradiction1 unless we are told h[ f> x is det]m9$ & h[ f> x is n4 ,surely ! aspect 9 :i* x is n det]m9$ is absolutely remov$ f ,god's control & altoge!r uncaus$4 ,b ,judah ,halevi is unwill+ to grant ?is4 ,he j leaves u ) ! juxtaposition ( two incompatibles4 ,we %all see t ,hasdai ,crescas 0 m consi/5t1 & admitt$ det]m9ism4 ,we h n[ consid]$ ,judah ,halevi's tea*+s1 & h se5 t he has no sympa?y ) ! po9t ( view ( ^? p :o 7 call$ 9 8 day philosoph]s1 i4 e41 ^? :o adopt$ ! tea*+s ascrib$ to ,ari/otle4 ,at ! same "t he 0 int]e/$ 9 ma9ta9+ t all sci5ce really came orig9ally f ! ,jews2 & 9 ord] to prove ?is he und]takes a brief int]pretation ( ! ,sef] ,yezirah 7,book ( ,creation71 an e>ly my/ic "w ( unkn[n au?or%ip & date1 :i* ,judah ,halevi 9 common ) ! uncritical op9ion ( 8 day attribut$ to ,abraham4#bja ,n to lay himself op5 to ! *>ge ( inconsi/5cy1 he ?r[s out ! sugge/ion t ! ,sef] ,yezirah repres5t$ ,abraham's own speculations be=e he _h ! privilege ( a prophetic communication f ,god4 ,:5 t came he 0 ready to ab&on all 8 =m] rationali/ic lucubrations & abide by ! c]ta9ty ( reveal$ tru?4#bjb ,we may !re=e legitimately inf] t ,judah ,halevi's idea 0 t ! ,jews 7 ! orig9ators ( philosophy1 b t !y _h long disc>d$ x 9 favor ( some?+ mu* m valid & c]ta92 :]eas ! ,greeks & _! desc5dants1 hav+ no?+ bett]1 caught x up & are n[ p>ad+ x z _! own discov]y & ev5 sett+ x up z sup]ior to direct revelation4 ,natural sci5ce 9 s f> z x _h to d ) m or less v]ifiable data c\ld n be consid]$ h>mful1 & s we f9d ,judah ,halevi tak+ pa9s to %[ t ! sages ( ,rabb9ical lit]ature cultivat$ ! sci5ces1 a/ronomy 9 connection ) ! ,jewi% cal5d>2 anatomy1 biology & physiology 9 relation to ! laws ( slaught] & ! exam9ation ( animal meat 7laws ( ,t]efa74#bjc ,b s great 0 ! fasc9ation philosophy ex]t$ ^u ! m5 ( 8 g5]ation t ev5 ,judah ,halevi1 despite 8 ef=ts to %ake its au?ority & po9t out its inadequacy & evid5t inf]iority to revelation1 0 n able :olly to escape x4 ,& we f9d accord+ly t he deems x necess>y to devote a l>ge "p ( ! fif? book ( ! ,kus>i to ! pres5tation ( a bird's eye view ( ! curr5t philosophy ( ! day4 ,to be sure1 he does n give all ( x ! /amp ( 8 approval2 he repeat$ly attacks its f\ndations & lays b>e _! weakness4 ,at ! same "t he admits t n e man has fai? by nature & is pro( aga9/ ! errone\s argum5ts ( h]etics1 a/rolog]s1 philosoph]s & o!rs4 ,! ord9>y mortal is affect$ by !m1 & may ev5 be misl$ = a "t until he comes to see ! tru?4 ,x is !re=e well to "k ! pr9ciples ( religion accord+ to ^? :o def5d x by reason1 & ?is involves a k ( sci5ce & !ology4 ,b we mu/ n1 he says1 9 ! mann] ( ! ,k>aites1 advance all at once to ! high] /udy ( !ology4 ,"o mu/ fir/ und]/& ! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( physics1 psy*ology1 & s on1 su* z matt] & =m1 ! elem5ts1 nature1 ,s\l1 ,intellect1 ,div9e ,wisdom4 ,!n we c proce$ to ! m prop]ly !ological matt]s1 l ! future _w1 ,provid5ce1 & s on4 ,accord+ly ,judah ,halevi gives u 9 ! sequel a brief acc\nt su* z he has j outl9$4 ,x w n be wor? our :ile to reproduce x all "h1 z 9 ! fir/ place ,judah ,halevi does n give x z ! result ( 8 own inve/igation & conviction1 & secondly a good deal ( x is n new2 & we h already met x 9 m or less simil> =m be=e 9 ,joseph ibn ,zaddik1 ,abraham b> ,hiyyah1 & o!rs4 ,we mu/ po9t out1 h[ev]1 ! new features :i* we did n meet be=e1 expla9 _! orig9 & 9 p>ticul> indicate ,judah ,halevi's criticisms4 ,9 g5]al we may say t ,judah ,halevi has a bett] k ( ,ari/otelian doctr9es ?an any ( 8 pr$ecessors4 ,?us to take "o example1 :i* we us$ be=e 7p4 #ach71 ,ari/otle's fam\s def9ition ( ! s\l is quot$ by ,isaac ,israeli1 ,saadia1 ,joseph ibn ,zaddik z well z by ,judah ,halevi4 ,israeli does n discuss ! def9ition 9 detail4#bjd ,saadia & ,ibn ,zaddik %[ cle>ly t !y did n und]/& ! precise mean+ ( ! def9ition4 ,judah ,halevi is ! fir/ :o und]/&s correctly all ! elem5ts ( ! def9ition4 ,& yet x w\ld be decid$ly mi/ak5 to inf] f ?is t ,judah ,halevi /udi$ ! ,ari/otelian works directly4 ,by a =tunate discov]y ( ,s4 ,l&au]#bje we are enabl$ to foll[ ,judah ,halevi's s\rce ) ! c]ta9ty ( eyewitnesses4 ,! sket* :i* he gives ( ! ,ari/otelian psy*ology is tak5 bodily n f ,ari/otle's ,de ,anima1 b f a y\?ful "w ( ,ibn ,s9a4 ,judah ,halevi did n ev5 take ! tr\ble to pres5t ! subject 9 8 own words4 ,he simply took 8 model & abridg$ x1 by ?r[+ out all argum5tative1 illu/rative & amplificatory mat]ial4 ,ap>t f ?is abridgm5t he foll[s 8 au?ority almo/ ^w = ^w1 n to speak ( reproduc+ ! ideas 9 ! orig9al =m & ord]4 ,?is is a typical & extremely in/ructive in/ance2 & x %[s h[ c>eful we mu/ be be=e we decide t a m$ival writ] read a c]ta9 au?or ) ^: ideas he is famili> & :om he quotes4 ,9 ! sket* ( philosophical !ory ,judah ,halevi fir/ speaks ( ! hyle 7,greek3 hyl7 or =mless matt]1 :i* accord+ to ! philosoph]s 0 9 ! beg9n+ ( ?+s conta9$ )9 ! lun> sph]e4 ,! wat] 9 ! second v]se ( ,g5esis 7& ! _s ( ,god mov$ ^u ! face ( ! wat]7 is suppos$ by !m to d5ote ?is primitive matt]1 z ! d>kness 9 ! same v]se & ! *aos 7,tohu7 9 ! fir/ v]se signify ! abs5ce ( =m & composition 9 ! matt] 7! ,ari/otelian ,greek3 /]sis74 ,god !n will$ ! revolution ( ! out]mo/ sph]e1 kn[n z ! diurnal sph]e1 :i* caus$ all ! o!r sph]es to revolve ) x1 !reby produc+ *anges 9 ! hyle 9 accordance ) ! motions ( ! sph]e4 ,! fir/ *ange 0 ! heat+ ( t :i* 0 next to ! lun> sph]e & mak+ x into pure fire1 kn[n among ! philosoph]s z natural fire1 a pure1 f9e & light sub/ance1 )\t color or burn+ quality4 ,?is became ! sph]e ( fire4 ,! "p t 0 fur!r away *ang$ z a result ( ! same revolution into ! sph]e ( air1 !n came ! sph]e ( wat]1 & f9ally ! t]re/rial globe 9 ! c5tre1 heavy & ?ick by reason ( its di/ance f ! place ( motion4 ,f ^! f\r elem5ts come ! physical objects by composition4 ,! =ms 79 ! ,ari/otelian s5se7 ( ?+s are impos$ ^u _! matt]s by a div9e p[]1 ! ,intellect1 & ,giv] ( ,=ms2 :]eas ! matt]s come f ! hyle1 & ! accid5tal proximity ( diff]5t p>ts to ! revolv+ lun> sph]e expla9s :y "s p>ts became fire1 "s air1 & s on4 ,to ?is me*anical explanation ( ! =mation ( ! elem5ts ,judah ,halevi objects4 ,z long z ! orig9al motion ( ! diurnal sph]e is admitt$ly due n to *ance b to ! w ( ,god1 :at is ga9$ by ref]r+ ! =mation ( ! elem5ts to _! accid5tal proximity to ! mov+ sph]e1 & acc\nt+ = ! production ( m9]al1 plant & animal 9 ! same me*anical way by ! accid5tal composition ( ! f\r elem5ts 9 proportions v>y+ accord+ to ! diff]5t revolutions & positions ( ! heav5ly bodies8 ,besides if ! latt] explanation 7 true1 ! numb] ( species ( plants & animals %\ld be inf9ite l ! v>i\s positions & =mations ( ! heav5ly bodies1 :]eas !y are f9ite & con/ant4 ,! argum5t f ! design & purpose t is cle>ly visible 9 ! majority ( plants & animals fur!r refutes su* me*anical explanation z is attempt$ by ! philosoph]s4 ,design is also visible 9 ! violation ( ! natural law by :i* wat] %\ld always be above & ar\nd e>?2 :]eas 9 reality we see a great "p ( ! e>?'s surface above wat]4 ,?is is cle>ly a b5efic5t provision 9 ord] t animal life may su/a9 itself1 & ?is is ! significance ( ! words ( ! ,psalmi/ 7#acf1 #f71 ,to him t /ret*$ out ! e>? above ! wat]s4 ,! entire !ory ( ! f\r elem5ts & ! alleg$ composition ( all ?+s out ( !m is a pure assumption4 ,take ! idea ( ! _w ( fire1 ! upp] fire z !y call x1 :i* is colorless1 s z n to ob/ruct ! color ( ! heav5s & ! />s4 ,:oev] saw su* a fire8 ,! only fire we "k is an extremely hot object 9 ! %ape ( coal1 or z a flame 9 ! air1 or z boil+ wat]4 ,& :oev] saw a fi]y or ary body ent] ! matt] ( plant & animal s z to w>rant u 9 say+ t ! latt] are compos$ ( ! f\r elem5ts8 ,true1 we "k t wat] & e>? d ent] ! matt] ( plants1 & t !y are assi/$ by ! air & ! heat ( ! sun 9 caus+ ! plant to gr[ & develop1 b we nev] see a fi]y or ary body4 ,or :oev] saw plants resolv$ into ! f\r elem5ts8 ,if a "p *anges into e>?1 x is n real e>?1 b a%es2 & ! "p *ang$ to wat] is n real wat]1 b a k9d ( moi/ure1 poison\s or nutriti\s1 b n wat] fit = dr9k+4 ,simil>ly no "p ( ! plant *anges to real air fit = brea?+1 b to vapor or mi/4 ,grant$ t we h to admit ! w>m & ! cold1 & ! moi/ & ! dry z ! prim>y qualities )\t :i* no body c exi/2 & t ! reason resolves ! composite objects into ^! prim>y qualities1 & posits sub/ances z be>]s ( ^! qualities1 :i* x calls fire1 air1 wat] & e>?--?is is true conceptually & !oretically only4 ,x _c be t ! prim>y qualities really exi/$ 9 ! simple /ate extra animam1 & !n all exi/+ ?+s 7 made out ( !m4 ,h[ c ! philosoph]s ma9ta9 su* a ?+1 s9ce !y believe 9 ! et]nity ( ! _w1 t x always exi/$ z x does n[8 ,^! are ! criticisms ( _! !ory ( ! elem5ts4 ,accord+ to ! ,torah ,god creat$ ! _w j z x is1 ) its animals & plants already =m$4 ,!re is no ne$ ( assum+ int]m$iate p[]s or compositions4 ,! mom5t we admit t ! _w 0 creat$ out ( no?+ by ! w ( ,god 9 ! mann] 9 :i* he desir$1 all difficulties vani% ab\t ! orig9 ( bodies & _! association ) s\ls4 ,& !re is no reason :y we %\ld n accept ! firmam5t1 & ! wat]s above ! heav51 & ! demons m5tion$ by ! ,rabbis1 & ! acc\nt ( ! days ( ! ,messiah & ! resurrection & ! _w to come4#bjf ,ano!r !ory he criticizes is t develop$ by ,alf>abi & ,avic5na1 ! *ief ,ari/otelians ( ! ,arabs be=e ,av]roes4 ,x is a comb9ation ( ,ari/otelianism ) ! ,neo-,platonic doctr9e ( emanation1 ?\gh x 0 cr$it$ z a :ole to ,ari/otle 9 ! middle ages4 ,we h already se5 9 ! ,introduction 7p4 xxxiv7 t ,ari/otle conceiv$ ! _w z a s]ies ( conc5tric sph]es ) ! e>? 9 ! c5tre4 ,! pr9cipal sph]es are eight 9 numb]1 & !y c>ry 9 ord]1 beg9n+ ) ! ext]nal sph]e1 7#a7 ! fix$ />s1 7#b7 ,saturn1 7#c7 ,jupit]1 7#d7 ,m>s1 7#e7 ,m]cury1 7#f7 ,v5us1 7#g7 ,sun1 7#h7 ,moon4 ,to acc\nt = ! v>i\s motions ( ! sun & ! planets additional sph]es _h to be introduc$ am\nt+ 9 all to fifty-six4 ,b ! pr9cipal sph]es rema9$ ^? m5tion$4 ,ea* sph]e or gr\p ( sph]es ) ! /> x c>ries is mov$ by an incorporeal mov]1 a _s or ,intellig5ce1 & ov] !m all is ! fir/ unmov$ mov]1 ,god4 ,he sets 9 motion ! out] sph]e ( ! fix$ />s1 & s ! :ole _w moves4 ,!re is no?+ said 9 ?is ( ! orig9 ( ^! sph]es & _! intelligible mov]s4 ,on ! o!r h&1 9 ! ,neo-,platonic sy/em ( ,plot9us all exi/5ce & p>ticul>ly t ( ! intelligible or spiritual _w issues or emanates f ! ,"o or ! ,good4 ,intellect is ! fir/ emanation1 ,s\l ! second1 ,nature ! ?ird & ,matt] ! la/4 ,on acc\nt ( ! confusion :i* arose 9 ! middle ages1 z a result ( :i* ,neo-,platonic writ+s & doctr9es 7 attribut$ to ,ari/otle1 ,alf>abi & ,avic5na work$ out a s*eme :i* comb9$ ! motion !ory ( ,ari/otle ) ! doctr9e ( emanation ( ,plot9us4 ,! !ory is bas$ ^u a pr9ciple alleg$ to be ,ari/otle's t f a unit>y cause no?+ b a unit>y effect c foll[4 ,h5ce1 said ,avic5na1 ,god _c h produc$ directly all ! _w we see 9 its complexity4 ,he is ! direct cause ( ! fir/ ,intellig5ce only1 or fir/ angel z ,judah ,halevi calls him4 ,?is ,intellig5ce contemplates itself & x contemplates its cause4 ,! effect ( ! latt] act is ! emanation ( a second intellig5ce or angel2 ! effect ( ! =m] is a sph]e--t ( ! fix$ />s1 ( :i* ! fir/ ,intellig5ce is ! mov]4 ,! second ,intellig5ce aga9 produces a ?ird ,intellig5ce by its contemplation ( ! ,fir/ ,cause1 & by its self-contemplation x creates ! second sph]e1 ! sph]e ( ,saturn1 :i* is mov$ by x4 ,s ! process cont9ues until we rea* ! sph]e ( ! moon1 :i* is ! la/ ( ! cele/ial sph]es1 & ! ,active ,intellect1 ! la/ ( ! ,intellig5ces1 hav+ 9 *>ge ! sublun> _w4 ,?is fanciful & purely my?ological s*eme ar\ses ! antagonism ( ,judah ,halevi4 ,x is all pure conjecture1 he says1 & !re is n an iota ( pro( 9 x4 ,p believe x & ?9k x is conv9c+1 simply because x be>s ! "n ( a ,greek philosoph]4 ,z a matt] ( fact ?is !ory is less plausible ?an ^? ( ! ,sef] ,yezirah2 & !re is no agreem5t ev5 among ! philosoph]s !mselves except = ^? :o are ! foll[]s ( ! same ,greek au?ority1 ,emp$ocles1 or ,py?agoras1 or ,ari/otle1 or ,plato4 ,^! agree n because ! pro(s are conv9c+1 b simply because !y are memb]s ( a giv5 sect or s*ool4 ,! objections to ! !ory j outl9$ are manifold4 ,9 ! fir/ place :y %\ld ! s]ies ( emanations /op ) ! moon8 ,is x because ! p[] ( ! ,fir/ ,cause has giv5 out8 ,besides :y %\ld self-contemplation result 9 a sph]e & contemplation ( ! ,fir/ ,cause 9 an ,intellig5ce or angel8 ,x %\ld foll[ t :5 ,ari/otle contemplates himself he produces a sph]e1 & :5 he contemplates ! ,fir/ ,cause he gives rise to an angel4 ,grant+ ! tru? ( ! process1 "o does n see :y ! mov] ( ,saturn %\ld n produce two m emanations1 "o by contemplat+ ! ,intellig5ce imm$iately above x1 & ! o!r by contemplat+ ! fir/ ,intellig5ce1 ?us mak+ f\r emanations in/ead ( two4#bjg ,9 8 outl9e ( ! philosoph]s' psy*ology1 :i* z we h se5 7p4 #age7 is borr[$ v]bally f ,avic5na1 :at is new to u is ! exposition ( ! inn] s5ses & ! acc\nt ( ! rational faculty4 ,we mu/ !re=e reproduce x "h 9 outl9e toge!r ) ,judah ,halevi's criticism4 ,! ?ree k9ds ( s\l1 vegetative1 animal & rational1 we h already met be=e4 ,we h also ref]r$ to ! fact t ,judah ,halevi analyzes correctly ! well-kn[n ,ari/otelian def9ition ( ! s\l4 ,we mu/ n[ give a brief acc\nt ( ! inn] s5ses z ,judah ,halevi took x f ,avic5na4 ,! five ext]nal s5ses1 see+1 he>+1 t\*+1 smell+ & ta/+1 give u m]ely colors1 s\nds1 t\* s5sations1 odors & ta/es4 ,^! are comb9$ into an object by ! common s5se1 kn[n also z ! =m+ p[]4 ,?us :5 we see honey we associate ) its yell[ color a sweet ta/e4 ,?is c\ld n be done unless we _h a p[] :i* comb9es 9 x all ! five s5ses4 ,= ! s5se ( sight _c p]ceive ta/e1 nor c color be appreh5d$ by ! gu/atory s5se4 ,!re is ne$ !re=e ( a common s5se :i* compreh5ds all ! five ext]nal s5ses4 ,?is is ! fir/ int]nal s5se4 ,?is reta9s ! =ms ( s5sible objects j z ! ext]nal s5ses pres5t !m4 ,!n comes ! compos+ p[] or p[] ( imag9ation4 ,?is composes & divides ! mat]ial ( ! common s5se4 ,x may be true or false1 :]eas ! common s5se is always true4 ,bo? ( ^! give u m]ely =ms2 !y d n ex]cise any judgm5t4 ,! latt] function belongs to ! ?ird int]nal s5se1 ! p[] ( judgm5t4 ,?r\gh ?is an animal is enabl$ to decide t a giv5 object is to be s\ght or avoid$4 ,x also s]ves to rectify ! errors ( reproduction t may be f\nd 9 ! prec$+ faculty ( imag9ation4 ,love1 injury1 belief1 d5ial1 belong likewise to ! judg+ faculty toge!r ) su* judgm5ts z t ! wolf is an enemy1 ! *ild a fri5d4 ,! la/ ( ! int]nal s5ses is t ( factual memory1 ! p[] :i* reta9s ! judgm5ts made by ! faculty prec$+4 ,9 addition to ^! s5sory p[]s ! animal possesses motor faculties4 ,^! are two1 ! p[] ( desire1 :i* moves ! animal to seek ! agreeable2 & ! p[] ( ang]1 :i* causes x to reject or avoid ! disagreeable4 ,all ^! p[]s are dep5d5t ^u ! corporeal organs & disappe> ) ! de/ruction ( ! latt]4 ,! highe/ p[] ( ! s\l & ! exclusive possession ( man 7! faculties m5tion$ be=e are f\nd also 9 animals7 is ! rational s\l4 ,?is is at fir/ simply a pot5tiality4 ,actually x is a tabula rasa1 an empty slate1 a blank pap]4 ,b x has ! p[] 7or is ! p[]7 ( acquir+ g5]al ideas4 ,h5ce x is call$ hylic or mat]ial intellect1 because x is l matt] :i* 9 itself is no?+ actual b is pot5tially ev]y?+1 be+ capable ( receiv+ any =m & becom+ any real object4 ,z matt] receives s5sible =ms1 s ! mat]ial intellect acquires intelligible =ms1 i4 e41 ?\ghts1 ideas1 concepts4 ,:5 x has ^! ideas x is an actual intellect4 ,x is !n id5tical ) ! ideas x has1 i4 e41 ?9k] & ?\ght are ! same1 & h5ce ! /atem5t t ! actual intellect is intellig5t & intelligible at ! same "t4 ,z matt] is ! pr9ciple ( g5]ation & de/ruction ! rational s\l1 :i* is ?us %[n to be an immat]ial sub/ance1 is inde/ructible1 h5ce immortal4 ,& x is ! ideas x acquires :i* make x s4 ,:5 ! rational s\l is conc]n$ ) pure k x is call$ ! speculative or !oretical intellect4 ,:5 x is engag$ 9 controll+ ! animal p[]s1 its function is conduct1 & is call$ ! practical intellect4 ,! rational s\l1 i4 e41 ! speculative intellect1 is sep>able f ! body & ne$s x n1 ?\gh x uses x at fir/ to acquire "s ( its k4 ,?is is prov$ by ! fact t :]eas ! corporeal p[]s1 l ! s5ses1 are weak5$ by /rong /imuli1 ! reason is /r5g!n$ by h>d subjects ( ?\ght4 ,old age weak5s ! body1 b /r5g!ns ! m9d4 ,! activities ( ! body are f9ite2 ( ! m9d1 inf9ite4 ,we mu/ also %[ t :ile ! rational s\l makes use ( ! data ( s5se p]ception1 :i* are corporeal1 z ! occasions = ! =mation ( its g5]al ideas1 x is n :olly dep5d5t ^u !m1 & ! s5se data alone are inadequate to give ! s\l its intellectual tru?s4 ,empirical k is inductive1 & no induction c be m g5]al & m c]ta9 ?an ! p>ticul> facts f :i* x is d]iv$4 ,z all exp]i5ce1 h[ev] ri*1 is necess>ily f9ite1 empirical k is nev] univ]sally c]ta94 ,b ! s\l does possess univ]sally c]ta9 k1 z = example ! tru?s ( ma!matics & logic2 h5ce ! orig9 ( ^! tru?s c n be empirical4 ,h[ does ! s\l come to h su* k8 ,we mu/ assume t !re is a div9e emanation cleav+ to ! s\l1 :i* /&s to x 9 ! relation ( light to ! s5se ( sight4 ,x is to ! illum9ation ( ?is intellectual sub/ance & n to ! data ( s5se p]ception t ! s\l owes ! univ]sal c]ta9ty ( its k4 ,?is div9e sub/ance is ! ,active ,intellect4 ,z long z ! s\l is unit$ ) ! body1 p]fect union ) ! ,active ,intellect is impossible4 ,b z ! s\l becomes m & m p]fect ?r\gh ! acquisition ( k1 x cleaves m & m to ! ,active ,intellect1 & ?is union becomes complete aft] dea?4 ,?us ! immortality ( ! s\l is prov$ by reason4 ,x is bas$ ^u ! conviction t ! s\l is an immat]ial sub/ance & t its p]fection lies 9 its acquisition ( intellectual ideas4#bjh ,judah ,halevi _c help admitt+ ! fasc9ation su* speculation ex]cises ^u ! m9d ( ! /ud5t4 ,b he mu/ w>n him aga9/ be+ misl$ by ! fame ( su* names z ,plato & ,ari/otle1 & suppos+ t because 9 logic & ma!matics ! philosoph]s give u real pro(s1 !y are equally tru/wor?y 9 metaphysical speculation4 ,if ! s\l is1 z !y say1 an intellectual sub/ance n limit$ 9 place & = ?is reason n subject to g5esis & decay1 !re is no way to di/+ui% "o s\l f ano!r1 s9ce x is matt] :i* con/itutes individual exi/5ce4 ,h[ !n c my s\l be di/+ui%$ f y\rs1 or f ! ,active ,intellect & ! o!r ,intellig5ces1 or f ! ,fir/ ,cause itself8 ,! s\ls ( ,plato & ,ari/otle %\ld become "o s t ! "o %\ld "k ! secret ?\ghts ( ! o!r4 ,if ! s\l gets its ideas ?r\gh div9e illum9ation f ! ,active ,intellect1 h[ is x t philosoph]s d n intuit _! ideas at once l ,god & ! ,active ,intellect1 & h[ is x !y =get8 ,!n z to _! ideas ab\t immortality4 ,if immortality is a necess>y ph5om5on due to ! intellectual nature ( ! s\l & dep5d5t ^u ! degree ( intellectual k x possesses1 h[ mu* k mu/ a man h to be immortal8 ,if any am\nt is suffici5t1 !n e rational s\l is immortal1 = ev]ybody kn[s at lea/ ! axioms ( logic & ma!matics1 su* z t ?+s equal to ! same ?+ are equal to ea* o!r1 t a ?+ _c bo? be & n be1 & s on4 ,if a k ( ! t5 categories is necess>y1 & ( ! o!r univ]sal pr9ciples :i* embrace exi/5ce conceptually1 ?\gh n practically1 ?is k c be gott5 9 a day1 & x is n likely t a man c become an angel 9 a day4 ,if on ! o!r h& "o mu/ "k ev]y?+ n m]ely conceptually b 9 detail1 no "o c ev] acquire univ]sal k & no "o is immortal ,! philosoph]s may be excus$ because ?is is ! be/ !y c d ) ! help ( pure reason4 ,we may comm5d !m = _! mode ( life 9 accordance ) ! moral law & 9 fre$om f ! _w1 s9ce !y 7 n b\nd to accept our traditions4 ,b x is diff]5t ) u4 ,:y %\ld we seek peculi> pro(s & explanations = ! immortality ( ! s\l1 s9ce we h promises to t effect :e!r ! s\l be corporeal or spiritual8 ,if we dep5d ^u logical pro(1 our life w pass away )\t our com+ to any conclusion4#bji ,judah ,halevi takes issue also ) ! ,mutakallimun4 ,^!1 z we "k1 7 ,mohamm$an !ologians :o1 unlike ! philosoph]s1 7 n indiff]5t to religion4 ,on ! contr>y _! sole motive 9 philosophiz+ 0 to prove ! dogmas ( _! fai?4 ,!y _h no int]e/ 9 pure speculation z su*4 ,judah ,halevi has no m sympa?y ) !m ?an ) ! philosoph]s4 ,ow+ to ! fact t ! ,k>aites 7 implicit foll[]s ( ! ,kalam & = o!r reasons1 no d\bt1 m objective1 he ?9ks less ( !m ?an he does ( ! philosoph]s4 ,! only possible use1 he tells u1 ( _! me?ods is to af=d ex]cise 9 dialectics s z to be able to answ] ! argum5ts ( unbeliev]s4 ,to ! sup]ficial obs]v] ! ,mutakallim may seem to be sup]ior to ! prophet1 because he argues1 :]eas ! latt] affirms )\t prov+4 ,9 reality1 h[ev]1 ?is is n s4 ,! aim ( ! ,mutakallim is to acquire ! belief :i* ! prophet has by nature4 ,b 8 ,kalam may injure 8 belief in/ead ( confirm+ x1 by reason ( ! _m difficulties & d\bts x introduces4 ,! prophet1 :o has natural belief1 tea*es n by means ( dialectic discussion4 ,if "o has a sp>k ( ! true belief 9 8 nature1 ! prophet by 8 p]sonality w b5efit him by a slight h9t4 ,only he :o has no?+ ( true belief 9 8 nature mu/ h rec\rse to ,kalam1 :i* may b5efit him or injure4 ,judah ,halevi foll[s up ?is g5]al comm5t by a brief sket* ( ! sy/em ( ! ,kalam1 b we ne$ n ent] into ?is matt] z !re is little !re t we d n already "k1 & !re is no detail$ criticism on ! "p ( ,judah ,halevi4#baj ,! ,rabbi concludes 8 disc\rse ) ! k+ ( ! ,*az>s by decl>+ 8 int5tion to leave ! l& 9 ord] to g to ,j]usalem4 ,al?\gh ! visible ,%ek9ah is no long] 9 ,pale/9e1 ! invisible & spiritual pres5ce is ) e born ,israelite ( pure he>t & de$2 & ,pale/9e is ! fitte/ l& = ?is communion1 be+ conducive to purity ( he>t & m9d4#baa ,,*apt] ,,xi ,,moses ,,& ,,abraham ,,ibn ,,ezra #a4 ,moses ibn ,ezra ,among ! ,jewi% ,neo-,platoni/s mu/ be includ$ ! two ,ibn ,ezras1 ,moses & ,abraham4 ,!y 7 contempor>y & came f ,spa94 ,moses1 ! old] ( ! two1 0 born at ,granada ab\t #ajgj & di$ aft] #aach4 ,abraham1 :o travell$ all ov] ! _w1 0 born at ,tol$o 9 #ajib & di$ 9 #aafg4 ,nei!r is p>ticul>ly fam\s z a philosoph]4 ,moses's celebrity re/s on 8 poetic productions1 secul> z well z religi\s1 :i* are highly prais$ by ,h>izi1 above ev5 ^? ( ,halevi4 ,abraham is be/ kn[n z a gramm>ian & ,biblical comm5tator1 p>ticul>ly ! latt]1 ?\gh 8 v]satility is rem>kable4 ,besides gramm> & exegesis he wrote on ma!matics1 a/ronomy & a/rology1 on religi\s philosophy1 & 0 a poet ( no mean ord]2 ?\gh1 z ,zunz says1#bab fla%es ( ?\ght spr+ f 8 words1 b n pictures ( ! imag9ation4 ,all t is accessible 9 pr9t ( ,moses ,ibn ,ezra's philosophical treatise is a ,hebrew translation ( extracts "u ! title ,arugat ha-,bosem 7,b$ ( ,spices74#bac ,if we may judge ( ! re/ ( ! "w by ^! ,hebrew fragm5ts1 we %\ld say t philosophy 0 n ,ibn ,ezra's =te4 ,he dabbl$ 9 x z any poet ( t age did1 b :at caught 8 fancy 0 m ! my/]i\sly s\nd+ phrases ( celebrat$ au?orities l ,py?agoras1 ,emp$ocles1 ,socrates1 ,plato1 ,ari/otle1 ,h]mes 7:om he id5tifies ) ,eno*71 ?an a /rictly reason$ out argum5t4 ,accord+ly ! ,hebrew selections consi/ ( little m ?an a /r+ ( quotations on ! transc5d5ce & unkn[abl5ess ( ,god1 on ! mean+ ( philosophy1 on ! position ( man 9 ! univ]se1 on motion1 on nature & on intellect4 ,x is ( hi/orical int]e/ to u to "k t ,moses ibn ,ezra1 s fam\s z a poet1 0 int]e/$ 9 philosophy1 & t ! views :i* appeal$ to him 7 ^? ( ,ibn ,gabirol1 ^: ,f\nta9 ( ,life he knew1 & f :i* he quotes a celebrat$ my/ical passage4 ,a few details w suffice to make ?is cle>4 ,man is a microcosm1 a _w 9 m9iature1 & !re is no?+ above or bel[1 ! c\nt]p>t ( :i* is n f\nd 9 man4 ,!re is no sph]e1 or />1 or animal1 or plant1 or m9]al1 or p[]1 or nature1 b some?+ simil>1 mutatis mut&is1 is f\nd 9 man4 ,! t5 categories1 :i* accord+ to ! philosoph]s embrace all exi/5ce1 are also f\nd1 all ( !m1 9 man4 ,! p]fection ( man's creation po9ts to a wise ,creator4 ,man comes aft] multiplicity1 ,god is be=e multiplicity4 ,man is l ! great univ]se1 & 9 bo? ! spiritual _c come 9 direct contact ) ! corporeal1 b ne$s int]m$iat+ p[]s to br+ ! extremes toge!r4 ,9 man s\l & _s /& betwe5 intellect & body4 ,h5ce a man mu/ "k himself be=e he c "k ! univ]se1 else he is l a p]son :o fe$s o!r p :ile he is himself hungry4 ,to "k ! ,creator1 ! s\l mu/ fir/ "k h]self1 & ?is is "o ( ! def9itions ( philosophy1 to "k "o's own s\l4 ,he :o c /rip 8 s\l ( 8 corporeal s5ses & worldly desires1 & rise to ! sph]e w f9d !re 8 rew>d4 ,o!r simil>ly ascetic & my/ical expressions are quot$ f ,ari/otle7671 ,py?agoras1 & "o ( ! mod]n philosoph]s4 ,! la/ is none o!r ?an ,ibn ,gabirol1 & ! passage quot$ is ! same z t cit$ above1 7p4 #fi74 ,unity prec$es ! unit>y object z heat comes be=e ! hot object4 ,unity alone is self-subsi/5t4 ,num]ical unity is prior to two1 & is ! v root & ess5ce ( numb]4 ,god's unity is above all o!r unities1 h5ce x _c be describ$1 because x has no cause1 be+ ! cause ( ev]y?+ else4 ,z our eye _c see ! sun by reason ( its v brilliance1 s our intellect _c compreh5d ,god because ( ! extreme p]fection ( 8 exi/5ce4 ,! f9ite & imp]fect _c "k ! inf9ite & p]fect4 ,h5ce no names c apply to ,god except metaphorically4 ,:5 we say t ,god kn[s1 we mean t he is k itself1 n t k is an attribute :i* he possesses4 ,socrates767 said 9 8 pray]s1 ,?\ art n f> f me s t ,i %\ld raise my voice to !e1 nor art ,?\ ne> unto me t ,i %\ld cont5t myself ) a l[ :isp] & ! m$itation ( ! he>t2 nor art ,?\ on any side ( me s t ,i may turn t[>d ,!e2 = ne>ness & di/ance h measure1 b !re is no measure betwe5 me & ,!e4 ,?\ art unit$ ) me & embrace/ me m closely ?an my intellect & s\l4 ,he :o kn[s mo/ ( ! secret ( ! ,creator1 kn[s lea/2 & he :o kn[s lea/1 kn[s mo/4 ,z ! limbs ( ! body & ! s5ses _c "k ! intelligible ideas because ! latt] are sup]ior to !m1 s ! intellect _c "k ! ess5ce ( ! ,creator because he is above ! sph]e ( ! intellect4 ,al?\gh ! intellect is spiritual1 x _c compreh5d ! ,creator because he is above all intellectual p[]s1 & is inf9ite4 ,:at is inf9ite has no division or multiplication1 or "p or :ole4 ,! ,g5tiles make use ( ! an?ropomorphic expressions 9 ! ,bible to annoy u1 *>g+ u ) believ+ 9 a corporeal ,god4 ,w\ld t we _h /r5g? to sil5ce _! impud5ce by a cru%+ reply4 ,b alas6 _! tyranny prev5ts u f rais+ our voice4 ,b x is /ill m aggravat+ to he> m5 ( our own p1 h]etics1 repeat+ ! same *>ge aga9/ ! ,bible & ,talmud1 :5 !y ought to "k bett]1 s9ce ! expressions 9 "q are metaphorical4 ,saadia has made ?is suffici5tly cle>4 ,! ,active ,intellect is ! fir/ ( ,god's creations4 ,x is a p[] emanat+ f ! ,w4 ,x is a simple1 pure & transp>5t sub/ance1 be>+ 9 itself ! =ms ( all exi/+ ?+s4 ,! human intellect is kn[n z ! passive intellect4 ,! rational s\l is a pure sub/ance giv+ p]fection to a natural body1 etc4 ,x is inf]ior to ! intellect1 & ! animal s\l is inf]ior to ! rational4 ,! s\l is ! horseman1 ! body repres5ts ! soldi]s & ! arms4 ,z ! horseman mu/ take c>e ( 8 arms t he may n be put to dea?1 s ! s\l mu/ take c>e ( ! body t %e may n p]i%4 ,& ! s5ses mu/ be tak5 into acc\nt1 = ! p[]s ( ! s\l are dep5d5t ^u ! p[]s ( ! body4 ,if ! food ( ! body is 9 prop] proportion1 ! activity ( ! s\l is prop] & "r4 ,simil>ly if "o neglects mod]ation 9 food1 he is b\nd to suff] morally & spiritually4 ,! above selections1 :i* are repres5tative ( ! accessible portion ( ,moses ibn ,ezra's philosophical treatise1 except t su* recurr+ phrases h be5 omitt$ z ,& ! philosoph] said1 ,& !y say1 etc41 %[ t ! "w is no?+ b a compilation ( say+s on v>i\s philosophical topics1 )\t any attempt on ! au?or's "p to ?9k out ! subject or any "p !re(1 = himself4 #b4 ,abraham ibn ,ezra ,abraham ,ibn ,ezra did n write any special "w on philosophy1 & 8 importance lies *iefly 9 8 ,biblical comm5t>y1 :i* unlike t ( ,ra%i1 is bas$ ^u a sci5tific & philological f\ndation4 ,ibn ,ezra 0 ?or\ghly famili> ) ,arabic & well v]s$ 9 ! philological1 sci5tific & philosophical /udies cultivat$ by ,arabs & ,jews 9 8 native l&4 ,= reasons n kn[n to u--pov]ty 0 v likely "o ( !m--he left 8 native ,spa9 & w&]$ z f> z ,rome 9 ! ea/1 ,egypt & ,morocco 9 ! s\?1 & ,london 9 ! nor?4 ,ev]y:]e he 0 busy ) lit]>y activity1 & z he wrote 9 ,hebrew 8 purpose mu/ h be51 z ! result c]ta9ly prov$ to be1 ! enlight5m5t ( ! non-,arabic speak+ ,jews ( ,engl&1 ,france & ,italy1 by br++ be=e !m 9 a language t !y knew ! gramm> ( ,hayyuj1 ! ma!matics & a/ronomy ( ! ,greeks & ! ,arabs1 ! philosophy ( ,neo-,platonism1 & ! sci5tific & rationali/ic _s g5]ally1 z enlight5$ ,spa9 _h develop$ x 9 ,jew & ,arab alike4 ,we are int]e/$ "h m p>ticul>ly 9 ,ibn ,ezra's philosophical views4 ,^! are scatt]$ ?r\gh 8 ,biblical comm5t>ies & 9 a few o!r small works devot$ to an inve/igation ( ! laws ( ! ,p5tateu* & ! mean+ ( ! names ( ,god4#bad ,= ?\gh ,ibn ,ezra favors ! philological me?od z ! be/ way to arrive at ! true mean+ ( ,scripture1 & decries allegory z well z ,midra% :5 pu%$ too f>1 & ?\gh 8 comm5t>y is = ! mo/ "p bas$ ^u ! philological me?od ( int]pretation1 he 0 too mu* a *ild ( 8 age to be able to refra9 f f9d+ 9 ! ,bible views ak9 to ^? he le>n$ f ,gabirol1 ! ,bre?r5 ( ,purity & :at o!r philosophical lit]ature ( ! ,arabs he read & 0 influ5c$ by4 ,& s he1 too1 ! gramm>ian & philologi/1 succumb$ to ! allegorical & symbolical me?od he condemn$4 ,)\t d5y+ ! hi/orical reality ( ! ,g>d5 ( ,ed51 ! ,tree ( ,k & ! ,tree ( ,life1 he also sees 9 ^! expressions symbols ( cosmological1 psy*ological & e?ical ideas4 ,9 ! fa%ion ( ,philo he sees 9 ,ed5 a repres5tation ( ! high] _w ( ! div9ity1 9 ! ,g>d5 ! int]m$iate _w ( ! sph]es & ,intellig5ces1 9 ! riv] issu+ f ! ,g>d5 ! sub/ance ( ! sublun> _w1 9 ! f\r heads into :i* ! riv] divides ! f\r elem5ts1 & s on4 ,he speaks ( ^! symbolic mean+s z ! secrets1 & s we h ! secret ( ! ,g>d51 ( ! riv]s1 ( ! coats4 ,& 9 ! same way he speaks ( ! secret ( ! ,*]ubim1 ( ! ark & ! ,tab]nacle4 ,^! objects also symbolize metaphysical & cosmological tru?s4 ,he 0 a believ] 9 a/rology1 & laid ?is pseudo-sci5ce also "u contribution 9 ! int]pretation ( ,holy ,writ4 ,"h ! v>i\s numb]s f\nd 9 ! ,bible 9 connection ) ritual prescriptions1 ! con/ruction ( ! ,tab]nacle1 & s on1 7 ( great s]vice to ,ibn ,ezra 9 8 symbolizations4 ,l ,philo & ! ,neo-,py?agoreans he analyzes ! virtues & significances ( ! diff]5t numb]s1 & ?us f9ds a symbol 9 e numb] f\nd 9 ! ,bible4 ,writ+ z he did = ! ,jews ( c5tral ,europe1 :o 7 n tra9$ 9 secul> sci5ce & philosophy1 ,ibn ,ezra 0 n prep>$ to %ock ! s5sibilities ( 8 read]s by 8 novel &1 to !m1 h]etical views2 & h5ce he express$ himself 9 cryptic phrases & allusions1 :i* (t5 make 8 mean+ difficult if n impossible to deciph]4 ,?is1 tak5 toge!r ) ! fact t 8 views are n laid d[n any:]e sy/ematically & 9 connect$ fa%ion1 b are ?r[n out briefly1 (t5 enigmatically1 9 connection ) ! explanation ( ,biblical v]ses & phrases1 acc\nts = ! diff]5ce among critics conc]n+ ! precise doctr9es ( ,abraham ,ibn ,ezra4 ,( 8 pr$ecessors among ! ,jewi% philosoph]s ,ibn ,ezra %[s close/ relation to ,solomon ibn ,gabirol4 ,he does n quote ! ,f\nta9 ( ,life1 b he names its au?or z a great ?9k] & writ] ( poems1 & %[s famili>ity ) ,gabirol's doctr9es4 ,l ,gabirol he says t all except ,god consi/s ( sub/ance 7matt]7 & =m4 ,n only ! sublun> ?+s1 subject to g5]ation & decay1 b ! high] incorporeal ?+s1 also1 are 9 ess5ce two1 i4 e41 are compos$ ( two elem5ts1 subject & pr$icate4 ,god alone is ,"o2 he is subject only & n pr$icate4 ,& ,ibn ,ezra also has "s allusion to ! div9e ,w z taught by ,gabirol4 ,9 giv+ a connect$ sket* ( ,ibn ,ezra's philosophical ideas1 ! mo/ "o c d is to collect all ! say+s be>+ ^u our subject :i* are f\nd scatt]$ ?r\gh ,ibn ,ezra's writ+s1 & classify !m & comb9e !m into a connect$ :ole4 ,?is has be5 done be=e by ,nahman ,kro*mal#bae & by ,david ,ros91#baf & we %all foll[ ! latt] 9 our exposition "h4 ,god is ! ,"o4 ,he gives =ms to all ?+s1 & is himself all ?+s4 ,god alone is ! real exi/5t1 all else is an exi/5t by virtue ( him4 ,unity is ! symbol ( ,god because 9 numb] also ! unit is ! f\ndation ( all numb]1 & yet is n itself numb]4 ,x exi/s by virtue ( itself & ne$s n ! numb]s t come aft]4 ,at ! same "t ! unit is also all numb]1 because all numb] is made up ( ! unit4 ,god alone is "o1 because he alone is n compos$ ( matt] & =m1 z ev]y?+ else is4 ,god has nei!r lik5ess nor =m1 = he is ! creator ( all ?+s1 i4 e41 ( all lik5ess & =m4 ,he is !re=e incorporeal4 ,9 ,god ! subject kn[+ & ! object ( 8 k are "o & ! same ?+4 ,else he w\ld n be "o4 ,9 kn[+ himself1 !re=e1 he kn[s ! univ]se4 ,god z ! cause & creator ( all ?+s mu/ "k all ?+s1 ! univ]sal z well z ! p>ticul>1 ! _w s\l z well z ! v>i\s species1 & ev5 e s+le creature1 b he kn[s ! p>ticul> 9 a g5]al way4 ,= ,god kn[s only :at is p]man5t1 :]eas ! p>ticul> is con/antly *ang+1 h5ce he does n "k ! p>ticul> z su*1 b only z involv$ 9 ! g5]al & p]man5t4 ,z ,god is incorporeal he is n subject to corporeal accid5ts or human feel+s4 ,h5ce ! _m expressions 9 ! ,bible :i* ascribe su* accid5ts & feel+s to ,god mu/ be und]/ood z metaphors4 ,x is a psy*ological necessity = man wi%+ to communicate 8 ideas to o!r m5 to speak 9 human t]ms1 :e!r he speak ( be+s & ?+s inf]ior or sup]ior to him4 ,! result is t ! metaphor he f9ds x necess>y to employ ei!r raises or l[]s ! object to :i* x ref]s4 ,x elevates ! sub-human & l[]s ! sup]human to ! human4 ,?is is ! explanation ( su* phrases z ! m\? ( ! e>? ! h& ( ! ,jordan1 ! head ( ! du/ ( ! _w1 & s on1 9 :i* ! figure is t ( p]sonification4 ,& ! fundam5tal explanation is ! same 9 su* phrases z ,! ,"l rep5t$1 ,! ,"l re/$1 ,! ,"l rememb]$1 ,he t dwelle? 9 heav5 laughs1 & s on1 :]e ! process is ! rev]se ( p]sonification4 ,! motive common to bo? is to convey "s idea to ! read]4 ,! ,hebrew ^w b>a1 ord9>ily translat$ creat$1 :i* implies to mo/ p ! idea ( creatio ex nihilo1 ,ibn ,ezra r5d]s1 9 accordance ) its etymology1 to limit1 to def9e1 by draw+ or incis+ a l9e or b\nd>y4 ,hav+ said ?is1 ,ibn ,ezra1 9 8 wont$ my/]i\s mann]1 /ops %ort1 refus+ to say m & pref]r+ to my/ify ! read] by add+ ! tantaliz+ phrase1 ,! intellig5t w und]/&4 ,he means app>5tly to indicate t an et]nal matt] 0 end[$ ) =m4 ,9 fact he seems to favor ! idea ( et]nal creation & ma9t5ance ( ! univ]se1 ! relation ( :i* to ,god is z ! relation ( spee* to ! speak]1 :i* exi/s only s long z ! speak] speaks4 ,! mom5t he ceases speak+ ! s\nds cease to exi/4 ,! two ideas ( et]nal emanation ( ! _w f ,god aft] ! mann] ( ! ,neo-,platoni/s & ( an et]nal matt] :i* ,god end[s ) =ms1 are n really q consi/5t1 = ! latt] implies t matt] is indep5d5t ( ,god1 :]eas accord+ to ! =m] ev]y?+ owes its exi/5ce & cont9uance to ,god1 f :om x emanates4 ,b x is difficult f ! fragm5t>y & laconic say+s ( ,ibn ,ezra to extract a consi/5t & c]ta9 sy/em4 ,! _w consi/s ( ?ree p>ts1 ?ree worlds ,ibn ,ezra calls !m4 ,! highe/ _w consi/s ( ! sep>ate ,intellig5ces or angels1 includ+ ! _w-s\l ( :i* ! human s\l is a "p4 ,! int]m$iate _w consi/s ( ! sph]es1 planets & fix$ />s4 ,f9ally ! l[] _w conta9s ! f\r elem5ts & ! product ( _! v>i\s mixtures1 m9]als1 plants1 animals1 man4 ,^! ?ree worlds1 ,ibn ,ezra appe>s to intimate 9 8 oracul> mann]1 are symboliz$ by ! ?ree divisions ( ! ,tab]nacle1 ! holy ( holies typify+ ! _w ( spirits1 ! holy po9t+ to ! sph]es1 :ile ! out] c\rt repres5ts ! sublun> _w4 ,! highe/ _w1 ! _w ( ,intellig5ces & angels1 is et]nal1 ?\gh x too is dep5d5t ^u ,god = its exi/5ce4 ,! angels1 too1 are compos$ ( matt] & =m1 & _! function is to move ! bodies ( ! int]m$iate _w1 ! sph]es & _! />s4 ,?r\gh ! in/rum5tality ( ! heav5ly bodies1 ! angels =m ! l[] _w4 ,?is am\nts to say+ t ! corporeal _w is ! la/ /age 9 ! desc5d+ s]ies ( emanations f ! ,"o1 & is prec$$ by ! heav5ly bodies & ! ,intellig5ces4 ,! angels are also ! imm$iate ag5ts 9 prophetic inspiration4 ,n all m5tion ( angels 9 ! ,bible1 h[ev]1 mu/ be id5tifi$ ) a sep>ate ,intellig5ce or a sph]al s\l 7= ! latt] too is call$ angel by ,ibn ,ezra74 ,!re are in/ances ( ! expression angel :i* ref] to a mom5t>y1 special creation ( a light or air = ! special b5efit ( ! p4 ,?is expla9s a numb] ( !ophanies 9 ! ,bible1 su* z ! burn+ bu%1 ! glory ( ! ,"l1 ! cl\d 9 ! wild]ness1 & s on4 ,! int]m$iate _w ( sph]es is also et]nal & consi/s ( n9e sph]es1 t ( ! ,intellig5ces mak+ up ! p]fect numb] t54 ,! n9e sph]es are arrang$ z foll[s1 ! sph]es ( ! sev5 planets1 ! sph]e ( ! fix$ />s1 & ! diurnal sph]e )\t />s1 :i* gives ! motion f ea/ to we/ to ! :ole heav54 ,! l[] _w1 ! sublun> & corporeal _w ( g5]ation & decay1 0 creat$ 9 "t4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 does n mean t !re 0 "t be=e ?is creation1 = "t exi/s only ) motion & *ange4 ,creation "h signifies ! =mation ( ! *aotic matt]4 ,z ,god _c come 9 contact ) ! mat]ial & *angeable 7we h already se5 t he _c "k x z su*71 x foll[s t ?is l[] _w 0 n made directly by him1 b by ! angels1 h5ce ! ^w ,elohim is us$ 9 ! fir/ *apt] ( ,g5esis1 :i* means prim>ily ! angels1 & second>ily ,god z act+ ?r\gh ! angels4 ,9 ?is l[] _w man is ! noble/ creature4 ,by means ( 8 s\l he may atta9 et]nal life z an individual l ,god & ! angels 7i4 e41 ! ,intellig5ces71 :]eas all o!r creatures ( ! l[] _w are p]man5t 9 species only b n z individuals4 ,?is is ! mean+ ( ! expression 9 ,g5esis1 ,let u make man 9 our image1 9 ! image1 t is1 ( ,god & ! angels4 ,man is a microcosm1 a univ]se 9 little1 = l ! great univ]se he consi/s ( a body animat$ by a s\l4 ,z ! noble/ "p ( man is 8 s\l1 x becomes 8 duty to "k x4 ,he mu/ "k :e!r x is sub/ance or accid5t1 :e!r x w die :5 x is sep>at$ f ! body1 & = :at purpose x 0 br\ght into union ) ! body4 ,9 ord] to le>n all ?is "o mu/ fir/ /udy ! prep>atory bran*es1 gramm>1 logic1 ma!matics & physics4 ,9 ! /udy ( psy*ology we le>n t man has ?ree s\ls1 vegetative1 animal & rational1 & ! latt] alone is immortal4 ,x is a "p ( ! _w s\l1 hav+ exi/$ be=e x came into ! body1 & "u favorable conditions w return aga9 to ! _w s\l :5 sep>at$ f ! body4 ,! condition :i* mu/ be fulfill$ by ! s\l be=e x c return to ! _w s\l is ! acquisition ( wisdom1 = ?is is ! purpose = :i* x 0 put into ! body1 namely1 9 ord] t x may le>n ! "w ( its ma/] & obs]ve 8 comm&m5ts4 ,!re are _m sci5ces1 b !y are relat$ to ea* o!r1 all lead+ up to ! "o highe/ sci5ce1 ! k ( ,god & 8 goodness4 ,a p]son mu/ advance gradually 9 /udy+ ! "w ( ,god f ! k ( m9]als1 plants1 animals1 ! human body1 to ! k ( ! sph]es & heav5ly bodies1 ! causes ( eclipses1 etc41 & f ?is he w gradually come to "k ,god4 ,! comm&m5ts ( ! ,bible are also ( importance = ?is purpose4 ,to und]/& ! secret ( ! comm&m5ts is to ga9 et]nal life4 ,= wisdom is ! =m ( ! s\l1 & h5ce ! s\l does n die l a body4 ,! rew>d ( ! s\l is re-absorption 9 ! _w s\l ( :i* x is a "p1 & ! puni%m5t ( ! unwor?y s\l t neglect$ to acquire k is de/ruction4 ,:at ,ibn ,ezra means by ! ,hebrew ^w abad 7ord9>ily r5d]$ to p]i%1 to be de/roy$7 is n cle>4 ,x is h>d to see h[ a pre-exi/+ s\l c p]i% utt]ly4 ,ros9 sugge/s t ,ibn ,ezra is allud+ to transmigration1#bag b x is n cle>4 ,we h se5 t ,ibn ,ezra holds t ! ev5ts ( ! sublun> _w & ! de/9ies ( m5 are gov]n$ by ! positions & motions ( ! heav5ly bodies1 :i* 9 turn are det]m9$ by ! ,intellig5ces or angels4 ,! heav5ly bodies1 he tells u1 foll[ necess>y laws impos$ ^u !m1 & are n responsible = any good or evil :i* results to mank9d f !m1 s9ce ! effects are n ( _! int5tion1 & !y _c *ange !m if !y w\ld4 ,accord+ly x is fooli% to pray to ! heav5ly bodies 9 ord] to appease !m & prev5t evil1 z "s ( ! hea!n are accu/om$ to d4 ,! motions ( ! heav5ly bodies are det]m9$ & inv>iable1 & no pray] w *ange !m4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 does n mean to say t no "o c escape ! evil :i* is de/9$ = him 9 ! />s4 ,ord9>ily1 x is true1 ,god does n "k ! p>ticul> individual z su*4 ,he kn[s him only z impli$ 9 ! :ole1 & 8 de/9y is det]m9$ accord+ly4 ,b !re are exceptions :5 a p]son by develop+ 8 s\l & intellect1 z we saw above1 succe$s 9 8 lifetime 9 sep>at+ 8 s\l f ! corporeal & p>ticul>1 & br+s x into contact ) ! spiritual & univ]sal4 ,9 t case he attracts to himself ! special provid5ce ( ,god1 :i* enables him to evade ! evil ?reat5$ by 8 />1 )\t 9 any way *ang+ ! />'s natural c\rse or ord9>y effects4 ,h[ ?is is done1 ,ibn ,ezra illu/rates by an example4#bah ,suppose1 he says1 t x is fat$ accord+ to ! />s t a giv5 city %all be flood$ by a riv] & its inhabitants dr[n$4 ,a prophet comes & w>ns !m1 urg+ !m to rep5t ( _! evil ways be=e _! fate is seal$4 ,!y obey him1 return to ,god ) all _! he>t & leave ! city to (f] pray] to ,god4 ,! riv] rises 9 _! abs5ce1 z (t5 happ5s1 & floods ! city4 ,! wolf is satisfi$ & ! lamb is :ole4 ,! decree ( ! />s is n int]f]$ )1 & ! good man is deliv]$ f evil4 ,9 ?is way ,ibn ,ezra endeavors to reconcile natural law 7or a/rological fatalism7 ) ! e?ical purpose ( div9e provid5ce4 ,& he also v9dicates free w & responsibility4 ,! rational s\l ( man has p[]1 he says1 to c\nt]act 9 "p ! indications ( ! />s1 ?\gh x _c annul !m entirely4 ,! puni%m5t ( ! wick$ is t !y are left entirely to ! fates det]m9$ = !m by _! con/ellations4 ,! highe/ good ( man1 we h se51 is ! k ( ,god & 8 "w4 ,!re are two ways ( kn[+ ,god4 ,"o is ?r\gh a /udy ( nature1 ! "w ( ,god4 ,?is is describ$ 9 ! fir/ "p ( ! n9ete5? ,psalm1 ,! ,heav5s decl>e ! glory ( ,god2 & ! firmam5t %[e? 8 h&iwork4 ,b !re is a second &1 9 a s5se1 a bett] way ( kn[+ ,god4 ,?is is d]iv$ f 8 revelation 9 ! ,law4 ,z we are told 9 ! second "p ( ! above ,psalm 7v4 #g71 ,! law ( ! ,"l is p]fect1 re/or+ ! s\l4 ,! law ( ! ,"l re/ores ! s\l1 ,ibn ,ezra says1 by remov+ d\bt f x4 ,= ! fir/ me?od ( kn[+ ,god1 ) all its importance = ! man ( wisdom & reason1 is n fit = all p]sons2 & n ev]y?+ c be prov$ by reason4 ,revelation 9 ! ,law is necess>y = ! simple m9d$4 ,i am ! ,"l ?y ,god 7,exod4 #bj1 #b7 is a h9t to ! philosoph]1 :o ne$ n dep5d on he>say1 = real k is prov$ k4 ,b z n ev]yone is 9 a position to h su* k1 ! ,bible adds1 :i* br\ght !e out ( ! l& ( ,egypt4 ,?is all c und]/&1 ! simple m9d$ z well z ! philosoph]4 ,! ,law has also a practical purpose1 to /r5g!n ! rational s\l s z to prev5t ! body f ga9+ ! upp] h&4 ,god's mess5g]1 ?r\gh :om 8 w is made kn[n1 is ! prophet4 ,he seeks retirem5t s z to get 9 communion ) ,god1 & receives su* influ5ce z he is capable ( gett+4 ,moses 0 ! greate/ ( ! prophets4 ,he 0 able to communicate ) ,god :5ev] he *ose1 :]eas ! o!rs _h to wait until ! inspiration came4 ,! revelation ( ,god to ,moses 0 )\t an int]m$i>y1 & )\t visions & lik5esses4 ,moses saw ! ?+s pres5t$ to him 9 _! true =m4 ,! laws may be divid$ into #a4 ,innate or rational laws1 i4 e41 laws plant$ by ,god 9 ! m9d ( e rational be+4 ,!re are _m su* 9 ! ,torah4 ,all ! laws ( ! ,t5 ,comm&m5ts belong to ?is class1 ) ! exception ( ! ,sabba?4 ,h5ce all mank9d believe 9 !m1 & ,abraham obs]v$ !m all be=e ev] ! ,law 0 giv5 on ,s9ai4 #b4 ,hidd5 laws1 i4 e41 laws1 ! reason ( :i* is n giv54 ,we mu/ n suppose = a mom5t t !re is any law :i* is aga9/ reason1 ,heav5 =bid6 ,we mu/ obs]ve !m all1 :e!r we und]/& ! reason or n4 ,if we f9d a law t app>5tly is unreasonable1 we mu/ assume t x has "s hidd5 mean+ & is n to be tak5 9 its lit]al s5se4 ,x is our duty1 !n1 to look = ?is hidd5 mean+1 & if we _c f9d x1 we mu/ admit t we d n und]/& x4 ,! laws may also be classifi$ z #a4 ,comm&m5ts ( ! he>t1 #b4 ,comm&m5ts ( ! tongue1 & #c4 ,comm&m5ts ( action4 ,an example ( comm&m5ts ( ! he>t is1 ,?\ %alt love ! ,"l ?y ,god1 ,?\ %alt n hate ?y bro!r 9 ?y he>t1 & s on4 ,to ! comm&m5ts ( ! tongue belong ! read+ ( ! ,%ema1 grace aft] meals1 ! prie/ly b5$iction1 & s on4 ,! laws ( ! ?ird class are s num]\s t !re is no ne$ ( m5tion+ !m4 ,! laws ( ! he>t are ! mo/ important ( all4 ,! read] w recognize 9 ?is two-fold classification ,saadia's division ( ! laws into rational & traditional1 & ,bahya's classification ( duties ( ! he>t & duties ( ! limbs4 ,?is second class includes ,ibn ,ezra's second & ?ird classes1 tongue & action4#bai ,! problem ( evil ,ibn ,ezra solves by say+ t f ,god comes good only4 ,! _w z a :ole is good2 evil is due to ! defect ( ! object receiv+ high] influ5ce4 ,to argue t because ( ! small "p ( evil ! :ole _w1 :i* is good1 %\ld n h be5 creat$1 is fooli%4 ,! highe/ good ( man is to develop 8 reason4 ,z ! travell] & ! captive long to return to ! l& ( _! bir? & be ) _! family1 s ! rational s\l is eag] to rise to ! upp] _w :i* is n made ( clay4 ,?is x c d only if x purifies itself f ! uncleanness ( corporeal desire :i* drags x d[n1 & takes pa9s to "k its own nature & orig91 ) ! help ( ,wisdom ^: eyes are undimm$4 ,!n %e w "k ! tru?1 :i* w rema9 indelibly impress$ ^u h] :5 %e sep>ates f ! body1 :]e %e 0 put = h] own good4 ,! suff]+ %e und]w5t "h = a "t w give place to ev]la/+ re/ & joy4 ,all man's "w is va91 = man c nei!r create nor annihilate a sub/ance4 ,all 8 corporeal activity consi/s 9 comb9ation & sep>ation ( accid5ts4 ,! only ?+ ( value is ! fe> ( ,god4 ,b no man c rise to ?is /age until he has asc5d$ ! ladd] ( wisdom1 & has acquir$ und]/&+4#bbj ,m concretely ! way to purify ! s\l f ! body is by unit+ ! rational & spirit$ s\l1 z ,plato has x1 aga9/ ! appetitive1 & giv+ ! reason ! ma/]y ov] ! spirit$ s\l z well4 ,a mod]ate degree ( asceticism is to be recomm5d$ z favor+ ! emancipation ( ! s\l f ! tyranny ( ! body4 ,?is is ! mean+ ( ! in/itution ( ! ,nazirite2 & ! (f]+ he mu/ br+ aft] ! expiration ( 8 p]iod is to atone = ! s9 ( return+ to a life ( indulg5ce4 ,b "o %\ld n g to extremes4 ,too mu* pray+ & fa/+ results 9 /upefaction4 ,x is a mi/ake to develop "o side ( "o's nature at ! exp5se ( ano!r4 ,e "o ( ! ?ree s\ls 7! rational1 ! spirit$ & ! appetitive7 mu/ be giv5 its due4 ,b ! mo/ important activity ( man1 :i* leads to et]nal life & happ9ess1 is ! k ( ,god4 ,?is k _c be atta9$ at once4 ,x mu/ be prec$$ by a /udy ( "o's own s\l & ( ! natural sci5ces4 ,?r\gh a k ( oneself & nature1 "o arrives f9ally at a k ( ,god4 ,! s\l1 orig9ally a tabula rasa1 is gradually p]fect$ by ! ideas :i* !oretical speculation acquires4 ,^! ideas are id5tifi$ ) ! rational s\l1 & !re results ! acquir$ ,intellect1 :i*1 z absolutely immat]ial1 is immortal & becomes "o ) ! _w s\l ( :i* x is a "p4 ,dur+ life complete union ) ! spiritual _w is impossible4 ,ev5 ,moses c\ld only see ! re> "p ( ,god4 ,b :5 "o has dur+ life kept z f> z possible away f ! s5su\s & corporeal1 !n at ! "t ( dea?1 :5 ! s\l is sep>at$ f ! body1 he w be completely absorb$ 9 ! _w s\l & possess ! k ( ,god4 ,,*apt] ,,xii ,,abraham ,,ibn ,,daud ,:at 0 poison to ,judah ,halevi is meat to ,abraham ,ibn ,daud4 ,we mu/1 he says1 inve/igate ! pr9ciples ( ! ,jewi% religion & seek to h>monize !m ) true philosophy4 ,& 9 ord] to d ^! ?+s prop]ly a prelim9>y /udy ( sci5ce is necess>y4 ,n[adays all ?is is neglect$ & ! result is confusion 9 fundam5tal pr9ciples1 = a sup]ficial & lit]al read+ ( ! ,bible leads to contradictory views1 n to speak ( an?ropomorphic conceptions ( ,god :i* _c be ! tru?4 ,_m ( our day ?9k t ! /udy ( philosophy is injuri\s4 ,?is is because x frequ5tly happ5s 9 our "t t a p]son :o takes up ! /udy ( philosophy neglects religion4 ,9 anci5t times also ?is happ5$ 9 ! p]son ( ,eli%a b5 ,abuya1 kn[n by ! "n ( ,ah]4 ,nev]!less sci5ce 0 dilig5tly /udi$ 9 ,rabb9ic times4 ,witness :at 0 said conc]n+ ,rabbi ,yohanan b5 ,zakkai1 ,samuel & ! ,synh$r94#bba ,x _c be t ,god meant u to ab/a9 f philosophical /udy1 = _m /atem5ts 9 ! ,bible1 su* z ^? relat+ to fre$om ( ! w1 to ! nature ( ,god & ! div9e attributes1 to ! creation ( ! _w1 & s on1 are a direct /imulus to su* inve/igation4 ,surely m5tal confusion _c be ! purpose ,god _h 9 m9d = u4 ,if he pref]r$ our ignorance he w\ld n h call$ our att5tion to ^! matt]s at all4#bbb ,?is1 z we see1 is decid$ly a diff]5t po9t ( view f t ( ,judah ,halevi4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 !m is n due to a diff]5ce 9 _! age & environm5t1 b solely to p]sonal ta/e & temp]am5t4 ,tol$o 0 ! bir?place ( ,ibn ,daud z x 0 ( ,halevi4 ,& ! p]iod 9 :i* !y liv$ 0 practically ! same4 ,judah ,halevi's bir? took place 9 ! la/ qu>t] ( ! elev5? c5tury1 :]eas ,ibn ,daud is suppos$ to h be5 born ab\t #aaaj1 a diff]5ce ( "s tw5ty-five or ?irty ye>s4 ,! philosoph] :om ,judah ,halevi pres5ts to u z ! typical repres5tative ( 8 "t is an ,ari/otelian ( ! type ( ,alf>abi & ,avic5na4 ,& x is ! same type ( philosophy t we meet 9 ! pages ( ! ,emunah ,ramah 7,exalt$ ,fai?71 ,ibn ,daud's philosophical "w4#bbc ,:]eas1 h[ev]1 ,judah ,halevi 0 a poet by ! grace ( ,god1 gl[+ ) love = 8 p1 _! religion1 _! language & _! hi/oric l&1 ,ibn ,daud leaves ^u u ! impression ( a precise ?9k]1 cold & analytical4 ,he exhibits no graces ( /yle1 eloqu5ce ( diction or dep?s ( en?usiasm & emotion4 ,he passes sy/ematically f "o po9t to ! next1 uses few words & te*nical1 & moves :olly 9 ! ,p]ipatetic philosophy ( ! day4 ,9 #aafa1 ! same ye> 9 :i* ! ,emunah ,ramah 0 compos$1 he also wrote a hi/orical "w1 ,sef] ,hakabala 7,book ( ,tradition71 :i* we h2 & 9 #aahj1 reg>d$ by "s z ! ye> ( 8 dea?1 he publi%$ an a/ronomical "w1 :i* is lo/4 ,?is gives an index ( 8 int]e/s :i* 7 sci5tific & philosophic4 ,my/icism1 :e!r ( ! poetic or ! philosophic k9d1 0 f> f 8 nature2 & ?is too may acc\nt = ! int5se opposition he %[s to ,solomon ,ibn ,gabirol4 ,on m ?an "o occasion he gives v5t to 8 impati5ce ) t poetic philosoph]1 & he blames him pr9cipally = two faults4 ,*oos+ to devote a :ole book to "o purely metaphysical topic1 9 itself n relat$ to ,judaism1 ,gabirol1 we are told by ,ibn ,daud1 gave expression to doctr9es extremely dang]\s to ! ,jewi% religion4 ,& ap>t f 8 het]odoxy1 he is philosophically incompet5t & 8 me?od is abom9able4 ,8 /yle is pr(use to ! po9t ( we>9ess1 & 8 logic c>ries no conviction4#bbd ,:ile ,abraham ,ibn ,daud is ?us expressly unsympa!tic to ,gabirol & tacitly 9 disagreem5t ) ,halevi 7he does n m5tion him71 he %[s ! close/ relation to ,maimonides1 ^: =]unn] he is4 ,we feel tempt$ to say t if n = ,ibn ,daud !re w\ld h be5 no ,maimonides4 ,& yet ! irony ( hi/ory has will$ t ! fame ( be+ ! greate/ ,jewi% philosoph] %all be ,maimonides's own1 :ile 8 ne>e/ pr$ecessor1 to ^: influ5ce he ow$ mo/1 %\ld be all b completely =gott54 ,! ,arabic orig9al ( ,ibn ,daud's treatise is lo/1 & ! ,hebrew translations 7!re are two7 lay buri$ 9 manuscript 9 ! ,european libr>ies until "o ( !m 0 publi%$ by ,simson ,weil 9 #aheb4bbe ,abraham ,ibn ,daud is ! fir/ ,jewi% philosoph] :o %[s an intimate k ( ! works ( ,ari/otle & makes a delib]ate ef=t to h>monize ! ,ari/otelian sy/em ) ,judaism4 ,to be sure1 he too owes 8 ,ari/otelian k to ! ,arabian expon5ts ( ! ,/agirite1 ,alf>abi & ,avic5na1 r ?an to ! works ( ,ari/otle himself4 ,b ?is peculi>ity 0 root$ 9 ! intellectual conditions ( 8 "t1 & mu/ n be *>g$ to 8 p]sonal neglect ( ! s\rces4 ,& ,maimonides does no?+ m ?an repeat ! ef=t ( ,ibn ,daud 9 a m brilliant & ma/]ly fa%ion4 ,! developm5t ( ! ?ree religi\s philosophies 9 ! middle ages1 ,jewi%1 ,*ri/ian & ,mohamm$an1 foll[$ a simil> l9e ( progression4 ,9 all ( !m x 0 n s mu* a developm5t f )91 ! unfold+ ( :at 0 implicit & pot5tial 9 ! orig9al g]m ( ! ?ree respective religions1 z a /imulus f )\t1 :i* !n comb9$1 z an integral factor1 ) ! orig9al mass1 & ! f9al outcome 0 a resultant ( ! two orig9ally disp>ate elem5ts4 ,we "k by ?is "t :at ^! two elem5ts 7 9 ea* case1 ,hell5ic speculation1 & ,semitic religion 9 ! %ape ( sacr$ & reveal$ docum5ts4 ,! second factor 0 9 e case complete :5 ! process ( fusion began4 ,n s ! fir/4 ,:at ,i mean is t n all ( ! writ+s ( ,greek antiquity 7 kn[n to ,jew1 ,*ri/ian & ,mohamm$an at ! beg9n+ ( _! philosophiz+ c>e]4 ,& ! progress 9 _! philosophical developm5t kept equal /ep ) ! successive accretion ( ,greek philosophical lit]ature1 9 p>ticul> ,ari/otle's physical1 psy*ological & metaphysical treatises1 & _! gradual purgation ( ,neo-,platonic adhesions4 ,! ,syrian ,*ri/ians1 :o 7 ! fir/ to adopt ,greek tea*+s1 seem nev] to h gone beyond ! ma!matical & m$ical works ( ! ,greeks & ! logic ( ,ari/otle4 ,! ,arabs began :]e _! ,syrian tea*]s end$1 & w5t beyond !m4 ,! ,mutakallimun 7 indebt$ to ! ,/oics1#bbf ! ,pure ,bre?r5 to ! ,neo-,platoni/s2 & x 0 only gradually t ,ari/otle became ! sole ma/] n m]ely 9 logic1 :i* he always _h be51 b also 9 physics1 metaphysics & psy*ology4 ,alf>abi1 ,avic5na & ,av]roes repres5t s _m /eps 9 ! ,ari/otelization ( ,arabic philosophy4 ,*ri/ian m$ival ?\ght1 :i* 0 really a cont9uation ( ! ,patri/ic p]iod1 likewise began ) ,eriug5a 9 ! n9? c5tury "u ,platonic & ,neo-,platonic influ5ces4 ,( ,ari/otle ! logic alone 0 kn[n1 & t too only 9 small "p4 ,"h also progress 0 due to ! increase ( ,ari/otelian k2 ?\gh 9 ?is case x 0 n gradual z ) ! ,arabs be=e !m1 b sudd54 ,9 ! latt] "p ( ! twelf? & ! e>ly "p ( ! ?irte5? c5tury1 ?r\gh ! ,crusades1 ?r\gh ! ,moori% civilization 9 ,spa91 ?r\gh ! ,s>ac5s 9 ,sicily1 ?r\gh ! ,jews z translators & m$iators1 ,ari/otle invad$ ,*ri/ian ,europe & trans=m$ ,*ri/ian philosophy4 ,alb]tus ,magnus1 ,?omas ,aqu9as1 ,duns ,scotus1 ,william ( ,occam are ! results ( ?is trans=mation4 ,! same ?+ holds true ( ! ,jews4 ,_! philosophiz+ c>e] /&s *ronologically betwe5 t ( _! ,arab tea*]s & _! ,*ri/ian disciples4 ,& ! l9e ( _! developm5t 0 simil>4 ,x 0 p>allel to t ( ! ,arabs4 ,fir/ came ,kalam 9 ,saadia1 ,mukammas1 ! ,k>aites ,al ,basir & ,je%ua b5 ,judah4 ,!n ,neo-,platonism & ,kalam comb9$1 or pure ,neo-,platonism1 9 ,bahya1 ,gabirol1 ,ibn ,zaddik & ! two ,ibn ,ezras1 ,abraham & ,moses4 ,9 ,judah ,halevi1 s f> z philosophy is repres5t$1 we h ,neo-,platonism & ,ari/otelianism4 ,f9ally 9 ,ibn ,daud & ,maimonides1 ,neo-,platonism is r$uc$ to ! vani%+ po9t1 & ,ari/otelianism is 9 full view & 9 possession ( ! field4 ,aft] ,maimonides ! only philosoph] :o deviates f ! prescrib$ pa? & endeavors to uproot ,ari/otelian au?ority 9 ,judaism is ,crescas4 ,all ! re/ /& by ,ari/otle & 8 major domo1 ,maimonides4 ,?is may seem l a purely =mal & ext]nal mode ( *>act]iz+ ! developm5t ( philosophical ?\ght4 ,b ! "* ( m$ival philosophy is responsible = ?is4 ,_! ideal ( tru? z well z goodness 0 9 ! pa/4 ,k 0 ?\ght to h be5 discov]$ or reveal$ 9 ! pa/1#bbg & ! task ( ! philosoph] 0 to acquire :at 0 already !re & to h>monize contradictory au?orities4 ,?us ! m ( ! pa/ lit]ature t came to !m1 ! great] ! trans=mation 9 _! own philosophy4 ,! above digression w make cle> to u ! position ( ,ibn ,daud & 8 relation to ,maimonides4 ,ibn ,daud began :at ,maimonides f9i%$--! la/ /age 9 ! ,ari/otelization ( ,jewi% ?\ght4 ,:y is x !n t s little 0 kn[n ab\t him1 & t 8 important treatise 0 neglect$ & practically =gott58 ,! answ] is to be f\nd p>tly 9 ! nature ( ! "w itself & p>tly 9 hi/orical circum/ances4 ,! greate/ & mo/ abid+ int]e/ 9 intellectual ,jewry 0 aft] all ! ,bible & ! ,talmud4 ,?is int]e/ nev] flagg$ ?r\gh adv]sity or ?r\gh success4 ,! devotion paid to ^! ,jewi% classics & sacr$ books may h be5 fruitful 9 orig9al rese>* & intellig5t application at "o "t & place & relatively b>r5 at ano!r4 ,great m5 devot$ to _! /udy ab\nd$ 9 "o c\ntry & 7 relatively few 9 ano!r4 ,! nature ( ! /udy appli$ to ^! books 0 affect$ v>i\sly by hi/orical conditions1 political & economic2 & ! cultivation or neglect ( ! sci5ces & philosophy 0 reflect$ 9 ! /yle ( ,biblical & ,talmudical int]pretation4 ,b at all times & 9 all c\ntries1 "u conditions ( comp>ative fre$om z well z 9 ! mid/ ( p]secution1 ! sacr$ h]itage ( ,israel 0 /udi$ & its precepts obs]v$ & practic$4 ,9 ?is field alone fame 0 sure & p]man5t4 ,all o!r /udy 0 honor$ accord+ to ! great] or less proximity to ?is p>am\nt int]e/4 ,9 times ( fre$om & ( great philosophic & sci5tific int]e/ l t ( ! gold5 era 9 ,spa91 philosophical /udies almo/ acquir$ indep5d5t value4 ,b ?is indep5d5ce1 nev] q absolute1 wan$ & wax$ ) ext]nal conditions1 & at la/ disappe>$ entirely4 ,if ,ibn ,daud _h made himself fam\s by a ,biblical comm5t>y or a halakic "w1 or if 8 philosophic treatise _h ! di/9ction ( be+ writt5 9 popul> & attractive /yle1 l ,bahya's ,duties ( ! ,he>ts1 or ,halevi's ,cus>i1 x might h f>$ bett]4 ,z x is1 x suff]s f its concis5ess & te*nical t]m9ology4 ,add to ?is t x 0 sup]s$$ by ! ,guide ( ! ,p]plex$ ( ,maimonides1 publi%$ n _m ye>s aft] ! ,emunah ,ramah1 & ! neglect ( ! latt] is completely expla9$4 ,abraham ibn ,daud tells u 9 ! introduction to 8 book t x 0 writt5 9 response to ! "q ( a fri5d conc]n+ ! problem ( free w4 ,! dilemma is ?is4 ,if human action is det]m9$ by ,god1 :y does he puni%1 :y does he admoni%1 & :y does he s5d prophets8 ,if man is free1 !n !re is some?+ 9 ! _w ov] :i* ,god has no control4 ,! problem is made m difficult by ! fact t ,biblical /atem5ts are inconsi/5t1 & passages may be cit$ 9 favor ( ei!r ( ! !ories 9 "q4 ,?is inconsi/5cy is to be expla9$1 h[ev]1 by ! circum/ance t n all ,biblical phrases are to be tak5 lit]ally--_! v contradiction is a pro( ( ?is4 ,n[ ! passages :i* require exegetic manipulation are 9 g5]al ^? :i* seem oppos$ to reason4 ,_m /atem5ts 9 ! ,bible are 9 fact int5d$ = ! common p1 & are express$ ) a view to _! compreh5sion1 & )\t ref]5ce to philosophic tru?4 ,9 ! pres5t in/ance ! objections to det]m9ism are mu* great] & m s]i\s ?an ^? to fre$om4 ,9 ord] to realize ?is1 h[ev]1 x is necess>y to inve/igate ! pr9ciples ( ! ,jewi% religion & seek to h>monize !m ) true philosophy4 ,?is 9 turn _c be done )\t a prelim9>y /udy ( sci5ce4 ,a "q l t ( det]m9ism & fre$om _c be decid$ )\t a k ( ! div9e attributes & ! consequ5ces fl[+ f !m4 ,b to und]/& ^! we mu/ h a k ( ! pr9ciples ( physics & metaphysics4#bbh ,accord+ly ,abraham ,ibn ,daud devotes ! entire fir/ "p ( ! ,emunah ,ramah to g5]al physics & metaphysics 9 ! ,ari/otelian conception ( ^! t]ms4 ,conc]n+ ! k9d ( p]sons = :om he wrote 8 book1 he says1 ,i advise ev]yone :o is p]fectly innoc5t1 :o is n int]e/$ 9 philosophical & e?ical que/ions l t ( det]m9ism & fre$om on ! gr\nd t man _c grasp !m2 & is entirely unconc]n$ ab\t 8 ignorance--,i advise su* a p]son to refra9 f op5+ ?is book or any o!r ( a simil> nature4 ,8 ignorance is 8 bliss1 = aft] all ! purpose ( philosophy is conduct4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ^? :o are le>n$ 9 ! pr9ciples ( religion & are also famili> ) philosophy ne$ n my book1 = !y "k m ?an ,i c tea* !m "h4 ,x is ! beg9n] 9 speculation :o c b5efit f ?is "w1 ! man :o has n yet be5 able to see ! rational necessity ( beliefs & practices :i* he kn[s f tradition4 ,t ! pr9ciples ( ! ,jewi% religion are bas$ ^u philosophic f\ndations is %[n 9 ,deut]onomy #d1 #f3 ,keep !re=e & d !m2 = ?is is y\r wisdom & y\r und]/&+ 9 ! sight ( ! peoples1 :i* %all he> all ^! /atutes1 & say1 surely ?is great nation is a wise & und]/&+ p4 ,?is _c ref] to ! c]emonial precepts1 ! s-call$ traditional comm&m5ts2 = !re is no?+ 9 !m to excite ! admiration ( a non-,jew4 ,nor c x ref] to ! political & moral regulations1 = "o ne$ n pr(ess ! ,jewi% or any o!r religion 9 ord] to practice !m2 !y are a matt] ( reason pure & simple4 ,! v]se quot$ c only mean t ! o!r nations w be seiz$ ) admiration & wond] :5 !y f9d t ! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( ! ,jewi% religion1 :i* we receiv$ by tradition & )\t ef=t1 are id5tical ) ^? philosophical pr9ciples at :i* !y arriv$ aft] a great deal ( labor ext5d+ ov] ?\s&s ( ye>s4#bbi ,ibn ,daud is n consi/5t 9 8 idea ( ! highe/ aim ( man4 ,we h j he>d him say t ! purpose ( philosophy is conduct4 ,?is is true to ! _s ( ,judaism :i*1 despite all ! ef=ts ( ! ,jewi% philosoph]s to ! contr>y1 is n a speculative !ology b a practical religion1 9 :i* works /& above fai?4 ,b z an ,ari/otelian1 ,ibn ,daud c\ld n consi/5tly /& by ! above /&po9t z ! la/ ^w 9 ?is "q4 ,accord+ly we f9d him else:]e 9 true ,ari/otelian fa%ion give priority to !oretical k4 ,judg+ f ! position ( man among ! o!r creatures ( ! sublun> _w1 we come to ! conclusion1 he tells u1 t t :i* di/+ui%es him above 8 surr\nd+s1 namely1 8 rational s\l1 is ! aim ( all ! re/2 & !y are means & prep>ations = x4 ,! rational s\l has two =ms ( activity4 ,x may face upw>d & receive wisdom f ! angels 7!oretical k74 ,or x may direct its att5tion d[nw>ds & judge ! o!r corporeal p[]s 7practical reason74 ,b x mu/ n devote itself unduly or )\t sy/em to any "o occupation4 ,! aim ( man is wisdom1 sci5ce4 ,( ! sci5ces ! highe/ & ! aim ( all ! re/ is ! k ( ,god4 ,! body ( man is 8 animal1 :i* leads him to ,god4 ,"s sp5d all _! "t 9 fe$+ ! animal1 "s 9 clo?+ x1 & "s 9 cur+ x ( its ills4 ,! latt] is n a bad occupation1 z x saves ! body f disease & dea?1 & s helps x to atta9 ! high] life4 ,b to ?9k ( ! /udy ( m$ic9e z ! aim ( life & devote all "o's "t to x is do+ injury to "o's s\l4 ,"s sp5d _! "t 9 matt]s ev5 less significant ?an ?is1 viz41 9 /udy+ gramm> & language2 o!rs aga9 9 ma!matics & 9 solv+ curi\s problems :i* are nev] likely to happ54 ,! only valuable "p "h is t :i* has relation to a/ronomy4 ,"s are exclusively occupi$ 9 twi/+ ?reads4 ,?is is an expression us$ by an ,arabian philosoph]1#bcj :o comp>es man's condition 9 ! _w to t ( a slave :o 0 promis$ fre$om & royalty besides if he made ! pilgrimage to ,mecca & celebrat$ !re4 ,if he made ! j\rney & 0 prev5t$ f rea*+ ! holy city1 he w\ld get fre$om only2 b if he did n und]take ! trip he w\ld get no?+4 ,! ?ree /eps 9 ! realization ( ! purpose are ?us3 mak+ ! prep>ations = ! j\rney1 gett+ on ! road & pass+ f /ation to /ation1 & f9ally w&]+ ab\t 9 ! place ( de/9ation4 ,"o small elem5t 9 ! prep>ation = ! j\rney is twi/+ ! ?reads = ! wat] bottle4 ,m$ic9e & law z means ( ga9+ a livelihood & a reputation repres5t ! /age ( prep>+ = ! j\rney4 ,!y are bo? int5d$ to improve ! ills ( life1 :e!r 9 ! relations ( man to man z 9 law2 or 9 ! treatm5t ( ! int]nal humors z 9 m$ic9e4 ,m$ic9e seems m important1 = on ! assumption ( mank9d be+ j1 !re w\ld be no ne$ ( law1 :]eas ! ne$ = m$ic9e w\ld rema94 ,to sp5d "o's :ole life 9 legal casui/ry & ! work+ out ( hypo!tical cases on ! pretext ( %>p5+ "o's wits1 is l be+ engag$ 9 twi/+ ?reads cont9ually--a little is necess>y1 b a great deal is a wa/e ( "t4 ,x w\ld be be/ if ! religi\s man w\ld fir/ le>n h[ to prove ! exi/5ce ( ,god1 ! mean+ ( prophecy1 ! nature ( rew>d & puni%m5t & ! future _w1 & h[ to def5d ^! matt]s be=e an unbeliev]4 ,!n if he has "t left1 he may devote x to legali/ic discussions1 & !re w\ld be no h>m4 ,self-exam9ation1 9 ord] to purify oneself f vices great & small1 repres5ts ! second /age ( gett+ on ! road & travell+ f /ation to /ation4 ,! f9al /age1 arriv+ 9 ! holy city & celebrat+ !re1 is to h a p]fect k ( ,god4 ,he :o atta9s ?is is ! be/ ( wise m51 hav+ ! be/ ( k1 :i* deals ) ! noble/ subject4 ,! read] mu/ n expect to f9d x all 9 ?is book4 ,if he reads ?is & does n /udy ! subject = himself1 he is l a man :o sp5t 8 "t 9 read+ ab\t m$ic9e & _c cure ! simple/ ailm5t4 ,! k ( ,god is a =m t is be/[$ f on high ^u ! rational s\l :5 %e is prep>$ by means ( moral p]fection & sci5tific /udy4 ,! prophet puts all ?ree functions ( ! s\l on ! same level1 & gives pref]5ce to k ( ,god4 ,?us sai? ! ,"l1 says ,j]emiah 7#i1 #bb71 ,let n ! wise man glory 9 8 wisdom rational s\l1 nei!r let ! mighty man glory 9 8 might spirit$ s\l1 let n ! ri* man glory 9 8 ri*es nutritive s\l3 b let him t glorie? glory 9 ?is1 t he und]/&e?1 & kn[e? me4444 ,j]emiah also recomm5ds 7ib47 kn[+ ,god ?r\gh 8 de$s--,t ,i am ! ,"l :i* ex]cise lov+-k9dness--9 ord] t man may imitate him4#bca ,we h n[ a g5]al idea ( ,ibn ,daud's attitude & po9t ( view2 & 9 pass+ to ! details ( 8 sy/em x w n be necess>y to rehe>se all ! p>ticul>s ( 8 ?\ght1 mu* ( x be+ common to all m$ival writ]s on ,jewi% philosophy4 ,we %all conf9e ourselves to ^? matt]s 9 :i* ,ibn ,daud contribut$ some?+ new1 n conta9$ 9 ! writ+s ( 8 pr$ecessors4 ,foll[+ ! ,ari/otelian sy/em1 he beg9s by describ+ sub/ance & accid5t & gives a li/ & *>act]ization ( ! t5 categories4 ,?is he foll[s up by %[+ t ! classification ( ! t5 categories lies at ! basis ( ! #aci? ,psalm4 ,x ne$s n our say+ t x mu/ be an extraord9>y mode ( exegesis t c f9d su* ?+s 9 su* unusual places4 ,b ! v /rang5ess ( ! ph5om5on be>s witness to ! rem>kable influ5ce ex]t$ by ! ,ari/otelian philosophy ^u ! ?9k+ ( ! ,spani% ,jews at t "t4#bcb ,f ! categories he passes to a discussion ( ! mo/ fundam5tal concepts 9 ! ,ari/otelian philosophy1 matt] & =m4 ,& "h 8 me?od ( prov+ ! exi/5ce ( matt] is ,ari/otelian & new4 ,x is bas$ ^u ! discussion 9 ,ari/otle's ,physics1 ?\gh n necess>ily d]iv$ f !re directly4 ,prim>y matt]1 he says1 is free f all =m4 ,!re mu/ be su*1 = 9 ! *ange ( "o ?+ to ano!r1 ( wat] to air = example1 x _c be ! =m ( wat] t receives ! =m ( air2 = ! =m ( wat] disappe>s1 :]eas t :i* receives ! new =m mu/ be !re4 ,reason !re=e leads u to assume a common sub/rate ( all ?+s t are subject to *ange4 ,?is is prim>y matt]1 free f all =m4 ,?is matt] be+ at ! basis ( all *ange & becom+1 c\ld n itself h come to be ?r\gh a simil> process1 or we %\ld require ano!r matt] prior to x1 & x w\ld n be ! prime matt] we suppos$ x to be4 ,?is la/ argum5t l$ ,ari/otle to ! concept ( an et]nal matt]1 ! basis ( becom+ = all else besides1 itself n subject to any su* process4 ,x is an ultimate1 to ask = ! orig9 ( :i* w\ld signify to misund]/& ! mean+ ( orig94 ,all ?+s ( ! sublun> _w orig9ate 9 matt]1 h5ce matt] itself is ! unorig9at$1 ! et]nal4 ,ibn ,daud z a ,jew c\ld n accept ?is solution1 & s he cut ! knot by say+ t :ile x is true t matt] _c orig9ate 9 ! way 9 :i* ! composite objects ( ! sublun> _w come to be1 x does n yet foll[ t x is absolutely ultimate & et]nal4 ,god alone is ! ultimate & et]nal2 no?+ else is4 ,matt] is a relative ultimate2 relative1 t is1 to ! composite & *angeable objects ( our _w2 b x is itself an effect ( ,god z ! univ]sal cause4 ,god creat$ x outright4 ,prime matt]1 !re=e1 repres5ts ! fir/ /age 9 creation4 ,! next /age is ! end[m5t ( ?is =mless matt] ) corporeality 9 ! ab/ract1 i4 e41 ) ext5sion4 ,!n come ! specific =ms ( ! f\r elem5ts1 !n _! comp\nds ?r\gh m9]al1 plant & animal to man4 ,?is is n new2 we h already met ) x 9 ,gabirol & ,ibn ,zaddik4 ,nor is ! foll[+ significant /atem5t altoge!r new1 ?\gh no "o be=e ,ibn ,daud express$ x s cle>ly & s def9itely4 ,x is t ! above analysis ( natural objects into matt]1 univ]sal body1 ! elem5ts1 & s on1 is n a physical division b a logical4 ,x does n mean t !re 0 a "t :5 prime matt] actually exi/$ z su* be=e x receiv$ ! =m ( corporeality1 & !n !re exi/$ actually an absolute body ( pure ext5sion until x receiv$ ! f\r elem5ts4 ,no1 no?+ has exi/5ce 9 actu :i* has n individuality1 includ+ n only =m1 b also accid5ts4 ,! above analysis is !oretical1 & ! ord] ( priority is logical n real4 ,9 reality only ! complete comp\nd ( matt] & =m 7! individual7 exi/s4 ,allusion to matt] & =m is also f\nd 9 ! ,bible 9 ,j]emiah 7#ah1 #a;ff471 ,arise & g d[n to ! pott]'s h\se4444 ,!n ,i w5t d[n to ! pott]'s h\se1 &1 behold1 he wr\ght 8 "w on ! :eels4444 ,behold z ! clay 9 ! pott]'s h&4444#bcc ,! next important topic analyz$ by ,ibn ,daud is t ( motion4 ,?is is ( especial importance to ,ibn ,daud because ^u x he bases a new pro( ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god1 n h]et(ore f\nd 9 ! works ( any ( 8 pr$ecessors4 ,x is tak5 f ,ari/otle's ,physics1 probably f ,avic5na's treatises on ! subject1 is !n adopt$ by ,maimonides1 & ?r\gh 8 example no d\bt is made use ( by ,?omas ,aqu9as1 ! great ,*ri/ian ,s*ola/ic ( ! ?irte5? c5tury1 :o gives x ! mo/ prom95t place 9 8 ,summa ,contra ,g5tiles4 ,ibn ,daud does n give ,ari/otle's g5]al def9ition ( motion z ! actualization ( ! pot5tial qua pot5tial 7cf4 above1 p4 xxxii71 b 8 o!r rem>ks conc]n+ x imply x4 ,motion1 he says1 is appli$ fir/ to movem5t 9 place1 & is !n transf]r$ to any *ange :i* is gradual1 su* z quantitative or qualitative *ange4 ,sudd5 *ange is n call$ motion4 ,z ! f\r elem5ts h all ! same matt] & yet possess diff]5t motions--e>? & wat] mov+ d[nw>d1 fire & air upw>d--x _c be ! matt] :i* is ! cause ( _! motions4 ,x mu/ !re=e be ! =ms1 :i* are diff]5t 9 diff]5t ?+s4 ,no?+ c move itself4 ,:ile x is true t ! =m ( a ?+ det]m9es ! k9d ( motion x %all h1 x _c 9 itself produce t motion1 :i* c be caus$ only by an effici5t cause f )\t4 ,! case ( animal motions may seem l a refutation ( ?is view1 b x is n really s4 ,! s\l & ! body are two di/9ct pr9ciples 9 ! animal2 & x is ! s\l t moves ! body4 ,! reason :y a ?+ _c move itself is because ! ?+ :i* is mov$ is pot5tial ) ref]5ce to t :i* ! motion is int5d$ to realize1 :]eas ! ?+ caus+ ! motion is actual ) respect to ! relation 9 "q4 ,if !n a ?+ mov$ itself1 x w\ld be actual & pot5tial at ! same "t & 9 ! same relation1 :i* is a contradiction4 ,! ,bible1 too1 h9ts at ! idea t e motion mu/ h a mov] by ! recurr+ que/ions conc]n+ ! orig9 ( prophetic visions1 ( ! exi/5ce ( ! e>?1 & s on4 ,su* are ! expressions 9 ,job 7#ch1 #cf1 #cg73 ,:o ha? put wisdom 9 ! inw>d p>ts8 ,:o c numb] ! cl\ds by wisdom8 ,9 ,prov]bs 7#cj1 #d73 ,:o ha? e/abli%$ all ! ends ( ! e>?8 & 9 _m passages besides4#bcd ,! "q ( inf9ity is ano!r topic ( importance = prov+ ! exi/5ce ( ,god4 ,we proce$ z foll[s3 ,an inf9ite l9e is an impossibility4 ,= let ! l9es a------------b be inf9ite 9 ! c-----------d e directions b1 d4 ,take away f cd a f9ite l5g? ce1 & pull up ! l9e ed s t e co9cides ) c4 ,n[ if ed is equal to ab1 & cd 0 also equal to ab by hypo!sis1 x foll[s t ed cd1 :i* is impossible1 = ed is a "p ( cd4 ,if x is %ort] ?an cd & yet is inf9ite1 "o inf9ite is %ort] ?an ano!r inf9ite1 :i* is also impossible4 ,! only alt]native left is !n t ed is f9ite4 ,if !n we add to x ! f9ite "p ce1 ! sum1 ce ed cd1 w be f9ite1 & cd be+ equal to ab by hypo!sis1 ab is also f9ite4 ,h5ce !re is no inf9ite l9e4 ,if !re is no inf9ite l9e1 !re is no inf9ite surface or inf9ite solid1 = we c\ld 9 t case draw 9 !m inf9ite l9es4 ,besides we c prove directly ! impossibility ( inf9ite surface & solid by ! same me?ods we employ$ 9 l9e4 ,we c prove simil>ly t an inf9ite s]ies ( objects is also an impossibility4 ,9 o!r words1 inf9ite numb] z an actuality is impossible because x is a contradiction 9 t]ms4 ,a numb] ( ?+s means a kn[n numb]2 inf9ite means hav+ no kn[n numb]4 ,a s]ies is some?+ t has beg9n+1 middle & end4 ,inf9ite means be+ all middle4 ,we h ?us prov$ t an actual inf9ite is impossible1 :e!r z ext5sion or numb]4 ,& ! ,bible also alludes to ! f9it5ess ( ! univ]se 9 ! words ( ,isaiah 7#dj1 #ab73 ,:o ha? measur$ ! wat]s 9 ! holl[ ( 8 h&4441 intimat+ t ! univ]se is capable ( be+ measur$4 ,we mu/ prove next t no f9ite body c h an inf9ite p[]4 ,= let ! l9e ae ------------- be a f9ite l9e hav+ an inf9ite a b c d e p[]4 ,divide into ! sev]al p>ts ab1 be1 cd1 de1 etc4 ,if e "o ( ! p>ts has an inf9ite p[]1 ab has an inf9ite p[]1 ac a great] inf9ite p[]1 ad a /ill great]1 ae a /ill great]1 & s on4 ,b ?is is absurd1 = !re _c be any?+ great] ?an ! inf9ite4 ,x foll[s !n t ea* ( ! p>ts has a f9ite p[]2 & z ! sum ( f9ites is f9ite1 ! l9e ae also has a f9ite p[]4 ,all ^! pr9ciples we mu/ keep 9 m9d1 = we %all by means ( !m prove lat] ! exi/5ce & incorporeality ( ,god4#bce ,z ! concepts ( physics are ess5tial = prov+ ! exi/5ce ( ,god1 s are ! pr9ciples ( psy*ology ( importance 9 %[+ t !re are int]m$iate be+s betwe5 ,god & ! corporeal sub/ances ( ! _w4 ,^! are call$ 9 ! ,bible angels4 ,! philosoph]s call !m second>y causes4 ,accord+ly ,ibn ,daud foll[s 8 physical doctr9es ) a discussion ( ! s\l4 ,!re is no?+ new 9 8 pro( t su* a ?+ z s\l exi/s4 ,x is id5tical ) ! d$uction ( ,joseph ,ibn ,zaddik 7supra1 p4 #acd74 ,/one & tree & horse & man are all bodies & yet ! la/ ?ree h p[]s & functions :i* ! /one has n1 viz41 nutrition1 gr[? & reproduction4 ,horse & man h 9 addition to ! ?ree p[]s above m5tion$1 :i* !y h 9 common ) tree1 ! p[]s ( s5sation & motion & imag9ation1 :i* plants h n4 ,f9ally man is di/+ui%$ above all ! re/ ( animal creation 9 possess+ ! faculty ( intellig5ce1 & ! k ( art & ( e?ical discrim9ation4 ,all ^! functions _c be body or ! result ( body1 = 9 t case all corporeal objects %\ld h all ( !m1 z !y are all bodies4 ,we mu/ !re=e attribute !m to an extra-corporeal pr9ciple2 & ?is we call s\l4 ,z an incorporeal ?+ ! s\l _c be /rictly def9$1 n be+ compos$ ( g5us & species2 b we c describe x 9 a r\ndab\t way 9 its relation to ! body4 ,he !n gives ! ,ari/otelian def9ition ( ! s\l z ! fir/ entele*y ( a natural body hav+ life pot5tially 7cf4 above1 p4 xxxv74 ,l _m ( 8 pr$ecessors :o treat$ ( ! s\l1 ,ibn ,daud also f9ds x necess>y to gu>d aga9/ ! mat]iali/ic !ory ( ! s\l :i* w\ld make x ! product ( ! elem5tal mixture 9 ! body1 if n itself body4 ,?is w\ld r$uce ! s\l to a ph5om5on ( ! body1 or 9 ,ari/otelian t]m9ology1 an accid5t ( ! body1 & w\ld deprive x ( all sub/antiality & indep5d5ce1 n to speak ( immortality4 ,h[ c t :i* is purely a resultant ( a comb9ation ( elem5ts rema9 :5 its basis is gone8 ,accord+ly ,ibn ,daud takes pa9s to refute ! mo/ important ( ^! ph5om5ali/ic !ories1 t ( ,hippocrates & ,gal54 ,_! !ory 9 brief is t ! functions :i* we attribute to ! s\l are 9 reality ! results ( ! v>i\s comb9ations ( ! f\r elem5t>y qualities1 hot1 cold1 moi/1 dry4 ,! m h>moni\s & equable ! proportion ( _! union1 ! high] is ! function result+ !refrom4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 man & bea/1 & betwe5 animal & plant is !n ! diff]5ce 9 ! proportionality ( ! elem5tal mixture4 ,!y prove ?is !ory ( !irs by ! obs]vation t z long z ! mixture is p]fect ! activities above m5tion$ proce$ prop]ly2 :]eas z soon z !re is a di/urbance 9 ! mixture1 ! animal becomes sick & _c p]=m 8 activities1 or dies altoge!r if ! di/urbance is v great4 ,! idea is v plausible & a great _m believe x1 b x is mi/ak5 z we %all prove4 ,8 refutation ( ! accid5t or mixture !ory ( ! s\l1 z well z ! subsequ5t discussion ( ! v>i\s functions1 s5su\s & rational1 ( ! trip>tite s\l1 are bas$ ^u ,ibn ,s9a's treatm5t ( ! same topic1 & we h already reproduc$ "s ( x 9 our exposition ( ,judah ,halevi4 ,we %all !re=e be brief "h & ref] only to su* aspects z are new 9 ,ibn ,daud1 or su* z we f\nd x advisable to omit 9 our previ\s expositions4 ,8 ma9 argum5t aga9/ ! mat]iali/ic or me*ani/ic !ory ( ! s\l is t :ile a numb] ( ph5om5a ( ! gr[+ animal body c be expla9$ by ref]5ce to ! =m ( ! mixture 9 ! elem5t>y qualities1 n all aspects c be ?us expla9$4 ,its gr[? & g5]al =mation may be ! result ( mat]ial & me*anical causes1 b n s ! design & purpose evid5t 9 ! simil>ity1 to ! smalle/ detail1 ( ! individuals ( a species1 ev5 :5 ! mixture is n id5tical4 ,!re is no d\bt t !re is wisdom "h work+ ) a purpose4 ,?is is s\l4 ,!re is ano!r argum5t bas$ ^u ! visible results ( o!r mixtures :i* exhibit prop]ties t _c be remotely comp>$ ) ! functions we attribute to ! s\l4 ,! animal & ! plant exhibit activities f> beyond any?+ pres5t 9 ! simple elem5ts ( ! mixture4 ,!re mu/ !re=e be 9 animals & plants some?+ additional to ! elem5ts ( ! mixture4 ,?is extra ?+ resides 9 ! composite ( :i* x =ms a "p1 = )\t x ! animal or plant is no long] :at x is4 ,h5ce z ! latt] is sub/ance1 t :i* =ms a "p ( x is also sub/ance2 = accid5t1 z ,ari/otle says1 is t :i* resides 9 a ?+ b n z =m+ a "p ( x4 ,we h n[ %[n t ! s\l is sub/ance & n accid5t4 ,we mu/ /ill make cle> 9 :i* ( ! f\r s5ses ( ! ,ari/otelian sub/ance ! s\l is to be reg>d$4 ,by ! !ory ( exclusion ,ibn ,daud decides t ! s\l is sub/ance 9 ! s5se 9 :i* we apply t t]m to =m4 ,! =m appe>s ^u ! common matt] & specifies x1 & makes x :at x is1 br++ x f pot5tiality to actuality4 ,x is also ! effici5t & f9al cause ( ! body4 ,! body exi/s = ! sake ( ! s\l1 9 ord] t ! s\l may atta9 its p]fection ?r\gh ! body4 ,z ! mo/ p]fect body 9 ! l[] _w is ! human body1 & x is = ! sake ( ! s\l1 x foll[s t ! exi/5ce ( ! sublun> _w is = ! sake ( ! human s\l1 t x may be purifi$ & made p]fect by sci5ce & moral conduct4 ,:ile we h prov$ t s\l is n mixture nor any?+ l x1 x is nev]!less true t ! k9d ( s\l be/[$ ^u a giv5 body dep5ds ^u ! /ate ( ! mixture 9 ! elem5t>y qualities ( t body4 ,?us we h ! ?ree k9ds ( s\l1 vegetative1 animal & human or rational4 ,we ne$ n foll[ ,ibn ,daud 9 8 detail$ descriptions ( ! functions ( ! sev]al k9ds ( s\l1 z !re is little t is new & t we h n already met 9 ,joseph ,ibn ,zaddik & ,judah ,halevi4 ,avic5na 7,ibn ,s9a7 is ! common s\rce = ,halevi & ,ibn ,daud1 & ! description ( ! inn] s5ses is practically id5tical 9 ! two1 ) ! slight diff]5ce t ,halevi attributes to ! common s5se ! two functions :i* are divid$ 9 ,ibn ,daud betwe5 ! common s5se & ! p[] ( repres5tation4 ,! s\l is n et]nal4 ,x 0 creat$ & be/[$ ^u body4 ,:5 a body comes into be+1 ! "* ( its mixture det]m9es t a s\l ( a c]ta9 k9d %all be connect$ ) x4 ,! o!r alt]natives are 7#a7 t ! s\l exi/$ indep5d5tly be=e ! body1 is !n connect$ ) ! body & dies ) ! dea? ( ! latt]2 or 7#b7 x rema9s aft] ! dea? ( ! body4 ,! fir/ alt]native is impossible2 because if ! s\l is connect$ ) ! body 9 ord] to die ) x1 its union is an injury to ! s\l1 = 9 its sep>ate exi/5ce x 0 free f ! defects ( matt]4 ,! second alt]native is equally impossible2 = if ! s\l 0 able to exi/ )\t ! body be=e ! appe>ance ( ! latt] & aft] its ext9ction1 ( :at use is its connection ) ! body8 ,f> f be+ ( any b5efit1 its union ) ! body is h>mful to ! s\l1 = x is oblig$ to %>e 9 ! corporeal accid5ts4 ,div9e wisdom nev] does any?+ )\t a purpose4 ,! tru? is t ! s\l does n exi/ be=e ! body4 ,x arises at ! same "t z1 & 9 connection ) body1 realiz+ & actualiz+ ! latt]4 ,se$ & sp]m h 9 !m ! possibility ( becom+ plant & animal respectively4 ,b !y ne$ an ag5t to br+ to actuality :at is 9 !m pot5tially4 ,?is ag5t--an angel or a sph]e1 or an angel us+ a sph]e z its in/rum5t--be/[s =ms ^u bodies1 :i* take ! places ( ! previ\s =ms ! bodies _h4 ,! sph]e or /> produces ^! =ms 7or s\ls7 by means ( its motions1 :i* motions ultimately g back to ! fir/ incorporeal mov]1 by ^: wisdom =ms are connect$ ) bodies 9 ord] to p]fect ! =m] by means ( ! latt]4 ,n[ ! human s\l has ! mo/ important p[] ( all o!r animals1 t ( grasp+ intelligibles or univ]sals4 ,x is also able to discrim9ate betwe5 good & evil 9 conduct1 moral1 political & economic4 ,! human s\l1 !re=e1 has1 x seems1 two p[]s1 !oretical & practical4 ,) ! =m] x und]/&s ! simple sub/ances1 kn[n z angels 9 ! ,bible & z second>y causes & sep>ate intellig5ces among ! philosoph]s4 ,by ?is means ! s\l rises gradually to its p]fection4 ,) ! practical reason x att5ds to noble & wor?y conduct4 ,all ! o!r p[]s ( ! s\l mu/ be ob$i5t to ! behe/s ( ! practical reason4 ,?is 9 turn is subs]vi5t to ! !oretical1 putt+ its good qualities at ! disposition ( ! speculative reason1 & ?us help+ x to come into clos] communion ) ! simple sub/ances1 ! angels & ,god4 ,?is is ! highe/ p[] !re is 9 ! _w ( nature4 ,we mu/ n[ %[ t ! rational p[] 9 man is nei!r itself body nor is x a p[] resid+ 9 a corporeal subject4 ,t x is n itself body is q evid5t1 = we h prov$ t ! l[] s\ls too1 ^? ( animals & plants1 are n corporeal4 ,b we mu/ %[ conc]n+ ! rational p[] t x is indep5d5t ( body 9 its activity4 ,?is we c prove 9 v>i\s ways4 ,"o is by consid]+ ! object & cont5t ( ! reason4 ,man has g5]al ideas or univ]sal propositions4 ,^! are n divisible4 ,an idea _c be divid$ into two halves or into p>ts4 ,reason 9 action consi/s ( ideas4 ,n[ if reason is a p[] resid+ 9 a corporeal subject1 x w\ld be divisible l ! latt]4 ,take heat z an example4 ,heat is a corporeal p[]1 i4 e41 a p[] resid+ 9 a body4 ,x ext5ds ?r\gh ! dim5sions ( ! body1 & z ! latt] is divid$ s is ! =m]4 ,b ?is is evid5tly n true ( g5]al ideas1 su* z t a ?+ _c bo? be & n be1 t ! :ole is great] ?an its "p1 & s on4 ,h5ce ! rational p[] is indep5d5t ( body4 ,ibn ,daud gives sev]al o!r pro(s1 tak5 f ,ari/otle & ,avic5na1 to %[ t reason is indep5d5t1 b we _c reproduce !m all "h4 ,we %all1 h[ev]1 "n "o m :i* is f\nd 9 ! ,de ,anima ( ,ari/otle & is bas$ on exp]i5ce4 ,if ! reason p]=m$ its ?9k+ by means ( a corporeal organ l ! ext]nal s5ses1 ! p[] ( kn[+ w\ld be weak5$ :5 confront$ ) a difficult subject1 & w\ld !reby be incapacitat$ f ex]cis+ its p[]s z be=e4 ,?is is ! case ) ! eye1 :i* is dazzl$ by a bright light & _c see at all1 or ! e>1 :i* _c he> at all :5 deaf5$ by a l\d noise4 ,b ! case ( k is cle>ly diff]5t4 ,! m difficult ! subject ! m is ! p[] ( ! reason develop$ 9 ex]cis+ itself !re94 ,& 9 old age1 :5 ! corporeal organs are weak5$1 ! p[] ( reason is /ronge/4 ,al?\gh x is ?us true t ! rational s\l is indep5d5t ( ! body1 nev]!less x did n exi/ be=e ! body any m ?an ! l[] s\ls4 ,= if x did1 x 0 ei!r "o s\l = all m51 or !re 7 z _m s\ls z !re are individual m54 ,! fir/ is impossible2 = ! same s\l w\ld !n be wise & ignorant1 good & bad1 :i* is impossible4 ,nor c\ld ! sep>ate s\ls be diff]5t1 = be+ all human s\ls !y _c diff] 9 ess5ce1 :i* is _! common humanity4 ,b nei!r c !y diff] 9 accid5tal qualities1 = simple sub/ances h no accid5ts4 ,!y _c !re=e be ei!r "o or _m1 i4 e41 !y _c be at all be=e body4 ,nor mu/ we suppose because ! reason ex]cises its ?\ght functions )\t ! use ( a corporeal organ t x appe>s full fl$g$ 9 actual p]fection 9 ! p]son ( ! infant4 ,exp]i5ce tea*es o!rwise4 ,! p]fections ( ! human s\l are 9 ! *ild pot5tial4 ,lat] on by div9e assi/ance he acquires ! fir/ pr9ciples ( k ab\t :i* !re is no dispute1 su* z t two ?+s equal to ! same ?+ are equal to ea* o!r1 t two contr>y pr$icates _c apply to ! same subject at ! same "t 9 ! same relation1 & s on4 ,"s ( ^! are ! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( ma!matics1 o!rs ( o!r sci5ces4 ,!n he progresses fur!r & le>ns to make premises & con/ruct syllogisms & argue f ! kn[n to ! unkn[n4 ,we h ?us ?ree /ages 9 ! developm5t ( ! reason4 ,! fir/ pot5tial /age is kn[n z ! hylic or pot5tial intellect4 ,! second is kn[n z ! actual intellect1 & ! ?ird is ! acquir$ intellect4 ,if n = ! body ! p]son c\ld n make ?is progress4 ,= )\t body !re are no s5ses1 & )\t s5ses he w\ld n see h[ ! w9e 9 ! b>rel f]m5ts & increases 9 volume1 :i* sugge/s t quantity is accid5t & body is sub/ance4 ,nor w\ld he le>n ! di/9ction betwe5 quality & sub/ance if he did n obs]ve a :ite g>m5t turn+ black1 or a hot body becom+ cold4 ,!re is ne$ !re=e ( ! body ) its s5ses to lead to a k ( ! univ]sals4 ,b ?is k once acquir$1 ! s\l ne$s n ! body = its subsequ5t exi/5ce2 & z ! s\l is n a corporeal p[]1 ! dea? ( ! body does n cause ! ext9ction ( ! s\l4 ,"s ?9k t because ! s\l is ! =m ( ! body x is dep5d5t ^u x & _c survive x1 z no o!r =m survives its sub/ance4 ,b ?is inf]5ce is n valid4 ,= if ! human s\l is includ$ 9 ! /atem5t t no =m survives its matt]1 we assume :at we want to prove1 & !re is no ne$ ( ! argum5t4 ,if x is n z a matt] ( fact includ$1 because x is ! "q at issue1 its comp>ison ) ! o!r obs]v$ cases is simply a matt] ( op9ion & n decisive4 ,! read] w see t ! problem ( ! rational s\l gave ,ibn ,daud mu* conc]n & tr\ble4 ,! pre-exi/5ce ( ! s\l z ,plato tea*es x did n appeal to him = _m reasons1 n ! lea/ among !m be+ ! /atem5t 9 ,g5esis 7#b1 #g71 ,& ,god brea!d into 8 no/rils ! brea? ( life1 :i* seems to favor ! idea ( ! s\l orig9at+ ) ! body2 ?\gh1 to be sure1 a h>mless v]se ( ?is k9d w\ld n h /ood 9 8 way1 _h he _h reason to favor ! doctr9e ( pre-exi/5ce4 ,immortality 0 also a dogma :i* he d>$ n d5y4 ,! argum5ts aga9/ x seem$ r /rong4 ,f ! doctr9e ( ! s\l's orig9 ) ! body & its be+ fitt$ to ! mat]ial composition ( ! latt]1 w\ld seem to foll[ ! s\l's ext9ction ) ! dea? ( ! body4 ,! same result 0 app>5tly dem&$ by ! obs]vation t ! intellect develops z ! body matures1 & t )\t ! s5ses & _! data !re w\ld be no intellect at all4 ,! fluctuation ( intellectual /r5g? ) ! /ate ( bodily heal? w\ld seem to t5d to ! same end1 aga9/ ! doctr9e ( immortality4 ,moreov]1 ! ,ari/otelian def9ition ( ! s\l z ! entele*y or =m ( ! body1 if x applies to ! rational faculty z well z to ! l[] p[]s1 implies necess>ily t x is a =m l o!r =ms & disappe>s ) ! dissolution ( its sub/ance4 ,to avoid all ^! pitfalls ,ibn ,daud insi/s ^u ! incorporeal "* ( ! reason's activity1 i4 e41 its indep5d5ce ( any corporeal organ1 & its increas+ p[] 9 old age despite ! gradual weak5+ ( ! body4 ,he admits t its developm5t is dep5d5t on ! data ( s5se p]ception1 b insi/s t ?is is n incompatible ) its fre$om f ! body :5 fully develop$ & p]fect$4 ,z = its be+ a =m ( body1 n all =ms are alike2 & x is n s c]ta9 t ! rational p[] is a =m ( body4 ,nei!r ! difficulties nor ! solution are ( ,ibn ,daud's mak+4 ,!y are z old z ,ari/otle1 & 8 successors grappl$ ) !m z be/ !y c\ld4 ,!re is /ill ! "q ( ! mann] ( ! s\l's survival4 ,! same reasons :i* ,ibn ,daud br+s =w>d aga9/ ! possibility ( ! exi/5ce ( _m s\ls be=e ! body1 apply ) equal cog5cy to _! survival aft] dea?4 ,if simple sub/ances hav+ a common ess5ce _c diff] ei!r 9 ess5ce or 9 accid5t1 ! human s\ls aft] ! dea? ( ! body mu/ exi/ z "o s\l1 & :at becomes ( individual immortality1 :i* religion promises8 ,ibn ,daud has n a ^w to say ab\t ?is1 & x is "o ( ! weak po9ts religi\sly 9 8 sy/em z well z 9 t ( ,maimonides1 :i* ! critics & oppon5ts ( ! latt] did n fail to obs]ve4 ,be=e leav+ ! problem ( ! s\l ,ibn ,daud devotes a ^w to %[+ t metempsy*osis is impossible4 ,! s\l ( man is suit$ to ! "* ( 8 elem5tal mixture1 :i* con/itutes ! individuality ( 8 body4 ,h5ce e individual's body has its own peculi> s\l4 ,a liv+ p]son _c !re=e h 9 him a s\l :i* =m]ly resid$ 9 a diff]5t body unless ! two bodies are id5tical 9 all respects4 ,b 9 t case x is n transmigration b ! re-appe>ance ( ! same p]son aft] he has ceas$ to be4 ,b ?is has nev] yet happ5$4 ,f9ally ,ibn ,daud f9ds x necess>y to def5d ! ,bible aga9/ ^? :o criticize ! ,jews on ! gr\nd t !re is no m5tion ( ! future _w & ! exi/5ce ( ! s\l aft] dea? 9 ! ,biblical writ+s4 ,all ! rew>ds & puni%m5ts spok5 ( 9 ! ,bible1 !y say1 ref] to ?is _w4 ,8 answ] (f]s no?+ new4 ,judah ,halevi _h already tri$ to acc\nt = ?is ph5om5on1 besides insi/+ t altoge!r devoid ( allusion to ! future _w ! ,bible is n4 ,ibn ,daud foll[s 9 ,halevi's foot/eps 7cf4 above1 p4 #agj74bcf ,abraham ,ibn ,daud closes ! fir/1 ! purely sci5tific "p ( 8 treatise1 by a discussion ( ! heav5ly sph]es & _! motions4 ,9 accordance ) ! view ( ,ari/otle1 :i* 0 %>$ by ! majority ( writ]s ?r\gh\t ! middle ages1 he reg>ds ! sph]es ) _! />s z liv+ be+s1 & _! motions z volunt>y1 ! result ( w & purpose1 & n simply natural1 i4 e41 due to an unconsci\s =ce )9 !m call$ nature4 ,"o ( 8 argum5ts to prove ?is is d]iv$ f ! sup]iority ( ! heav5ly bodies to our own4 ,_! size1 _! brightness & _! cont9u$ duration are all evid5ce ( corporeal sup]iority4 ,& x /&s to reason t z ! human body1 :i* is ! highe/ 9 ! sublun> _w1 has a s\l t is nobl] ?an t ( plant or animal1 s ! heav5ly bodies mu/ be end[$ ) s\ls z mu* sup]ior to ! human intellect z _! bodies are to ! human body4 ,! ,bible alludes to ?is tru? 9 ! n9ete5? ,psalm1 ,! heav5s decl>e ! glory ( ,god4444 ,!re is no spee* nor language4444 ,! la/ expression signifies t !y praise ,god ) ! intellect4 ,!re are o!r passages 9 ! ,bible besides1 & p>ticul>ly ! fir/ *apt] ( ,ezekiel1 :i* make x cle> t ! heav5ly bodies are liv+ & intellig5t be+s2 n1 to be sure1 9 ! s5se ( tak+ n\ri%m5t & gr[+ & reproduc+ _! k9d & mak+ use ( five s5ses1 b 9 ! s5se ( p]=m+ volunt>y motions & be+ end[$ ) intellect4#bcg ,we h n[ conclud$ our prelim9>y discussion ( ! sci5tific pr9ciples ly+ at ! basis ( ,judaism4 ,& our next task is to /udy ! fundam5tal doctr9es ( ,jewi% !ology :i* =m ! highe/ object ( k1 deal+ z !y d ) ,god & 8 attributes & 8 revelation4 ,! fir/ ?+ to prove !n is ! exi/5ce ( ,god1 s9ce we _c def9e him4 ,= def9ition means ! designation ( ! g5us or class to :i* ! ?+ def9$ belongs1 :]eas ,god _c be put 9 a class4 ,z ! ess5ce ( a ?+ is reveal$ by its def9ition1 we _c "k ,god's ess5ce & are limit$ to a k ( 8 exi/5ce4 ,! pr9ciples = ?is pro( we h already giv54 ,!y are t a ?+ _c move itself1 & t an actual inf9ite s]ies is impossible4 ,! argum5t !n proce$s z foll[s3 ,no?+ c move itself1 h5ce ev]y?+ t moves is mov$ by some?+ o!r ?an itself4 ,if ?is is also mov+1 x mu/ be mov$ by a ?ird1 & s on ad inf9itum4 ,b an actual inf9ite s]ies ( ?+s mov+ & be+ mov$ is impossible1 & unless we ultimately arrive at a fir/ l9k 9 ?is *a91 all motion is impossible4 ,h5ce !re mu/ be a fir/ to acc\nt = ! motion we obs]ve 9 ! _w4 ,?is fir/ mu/ n itself be subject to motion1 = x w\ld !n h to h ano!r be=e x to make x move1 & x w\ld n be ! fir/ we suppos$ x to be4 ,we h ?us prov$1 !re=e1 ! exi/5ce ( a primum mov5s immobile1 a fir/ unmov$ mov]4 ,we mu/ n[ %[ t ?is unmov$ mov] is incorporeal4 ,?is we c prove by means ( ano!r pr9ciple ( physics1 made cle> 9 ! fir/ "p4 ,we %[$ !re t a f9ite body _c h an inf9ite p[]4 ,b ,god is inf9ite4 ,=1 be+ immovable1 8 p[] is n affect$ by "t4 ,h5ce ,god _c be body4 ,?is pro(1 z we said be=e1 is new 9 ,jewi% philosophy4 ,9 ,bahya we f\nd a pro( :i* be>s a close resemblance to ?is "o 7cf4 above1 p4 #hg72 b ! diff]5ce is t ,bahya argues f be+1 ,ibn ,daud f motion4 ,bahya says if a ?+ is1 "s cause mu/ h made x to be1 = a ?+ _c make itself4 ,z we _c proce$ ad inf9itum1 !re mu/ be a fir/ :i* is ! cause ( ! exi/5ce ( ev]y?+ else4 ,! objection "h1 ( c\rse1 is t if a ?+ _c make itself1 h[ did ! fir/ come to be4 ,! ,ari/otelian pro( ( ,ibn ,daud kn[s no?+ ab\t ! orig9 ( be+4 ,z f> z ,ari/otle's own view is conc]n$ !re is no temporal beg9n+ ei!r ( be+ or ( motion4 ,bo? are et]nal1 & s is matt]1 ! basis ( all g5esis & *ange4 ,god is ! et]nal cause ( ! et]nal motion ( ! _w1 & h5ce ( ! et]nal g5esis & dissolution1 :i* con/itutes ! life ( ! sublun> _w4 ,h[ to reconcile ! idea ( et]nal "t & et]nal motion ) ! doctr9e t an actual inf9ite is impossible we %all see :5 we treat ,maimondes 7p4 #bea74 ,ibn ,daud does n adopt et]nity ( motion ev5 hypo!tically1 z ,maimonides does4 ,b ?is m]ely removes ! difficulty "o /ep4 ,= ! inf9ity :i* is reg>d$ impossible 9 ph5om5a is plac$ 9 ,god4 ,b ano!r m s]i\s objection is ! adoption ( an ,ari/otelian argum5t :]e x does n suit4 ,= ! argum5t f motion does n give u a creator b a fir/ mov]4 ,= ,ari/otle !re is no creator1 & 8 pro( is adequate4 ,b = ,ibn ,daud x is decid$ly inadequate4 ,we are s f> m9us a pro( t ,god is a creator ex nihilo4 ,ibn ,daud simply ass]ts t ,god creat$ matt]1 b ?is argum5t does n prove x4 ,z to ! incorporeality ( ,god ,ari/otle c prove x adequately f ! et]nity ( motion4 ,if a f9ite body 7& !re is no su* ?+ z an inf9ite body7 _c h an inf9ite p[]1 ,god1 ^: caus+ et]nal motion argues inf9ite p[]1 is n a body4 ,ibn ,daud's attempt to prove ,god's inf9ity )\t ! !ory ( inf9ite motion on ! gr\nd t "t _c affect :at is immovable1 is decid$ly less satisfactory4 ,on ! :ole !n ?is adoption ( ,ari/otle's argum5t f motion is n helpful1 z x leads to et]nity ( matt]1 & ,god z ! mov] r ?an ! ,creator4 ,g]sonides 0 frank en\gh & bold en\gh to recognize ?is consequ5ce & to adopt x4 ,we %all see ,maimonides's attitude :5 we come to treat ( 8 philosophy4 ,ibn ,daud may h be5 aw>e ( ! inadequacy ( 8 argum5t f motion1 & !re=e he adds ano!r1 bas$ ^u ! di/9ction betwe5 ! possible exi/5t & ! necess>y exi/5t--a di/9ction & an argum5t due to ,alf>abi & ,avic5na4 ,a possible exi/5t is a ?+ ^: exi/5ce dep5ds ^u ano!r1 & 0 prec$$ by non-exi/5ce4 ,x may exi/ or n1 dep5d+ ^u its cause2 h5ce ! "n possible exi/5t4 ,a necess>y exi/5t is "o ^: exi/5ce is 9 itself & n d]iv$ f else:]e4 ,x is a necess>y exi/5t because its own ess5ce _c be ?\ght )\t involv+ exi/5ce4 ,n[ ! "q is1 ,is !re su* a ?+ z a necess>y exi/5t1 or are all exi/5ts m]ely possible8 ,if all exi/5ts are possible1 we h an inf9ite s]ies1 e l9k ( :i* is dep5d5t = its exi/5ce ^u ! l9k prec$+ x2 & s long z !re is no fir/ !re is no?+ to expla9 ! exi/5ce ( any l9k 9 ! *a94 ,we mu/ !re=e assume a fir/1 :i* is itself n aga9 dep5d5t ^u a cause prior to x4 ,?is is by def9ition a necess>y exi/5t1 :i* is ! cause ( ! exi/5ce ( ev]y?+ else4 ,?is pro( is compatible ) ,god z a ,creator4 ,hav+ %[n ! exi/5ce & incorporeality ( ,god we mu/ n[ prove 8 unity4 ,we %all base ?is pro( ^u ! idea ( ! necess>y exi/5t4 ,su* an exi/5t _c h 9 x any multiplicity2 = if x has1 its own ess5ce w\ld n be able to keep ! elem5ts toge!r1 & !re w\ld be ne$ ( an ext]nal ag5t to d ?is4 ,b 9 ?is case ! object w\ld be dep5d5t ^u some?+ else1 :i* is incompatible ) ! idea ( a necess>y exi/5t4 ,nor is x possible !re %\ld be two necess>y exi/5ts2 = ! necess>y exi/5t1 we h j %[n1 mu/ be ( ! utmo/ simplicity1 & h5ce _c h any attribute add$ to its ess5ce4 ,n[ if !re is a second1 !re mu/ be some?+ by :i* ! fir/ diff]s f ! second1 or !y are id5tical4 ,ei!r ! fir/ or ! second !re=e w\ld n be completely simple1 & h5ce n a necess>y exi/5t4 ,we h ?us %[n t ,god is "o bo? 9 ! s5se ( simple & 9 ! s5se ( unique4 ,to h a cle> insight into ! nature ( 8 unity1 we mu/ n[ %[ t no?+ else outside ( ,god is really "o1 ?\gh we apply ! t]m "o to _m ?+s4 ,no "o w claim t a collective is "o2 b nei!r is an individual really "o1 = an individual man1 = example1 consi/s ( _m organs4 ,y might ?9k t a homog5e\s & cont9u\s elem5t>y mass l air or wat] is "o4 ,b ?is is n true ei!r1 = ev]y?+ t is corporeal is compos$ ( matt] & =m4 ,if !n we set aside corporeal objects & aim to f9d real unity 9 ma!matical entities l l9e & surface1 :i* are n corporeal1 we are met ) ! difficulty t l9e & surface are divisible1 & h5ce pot5tially multiple4 ,b nei!r are ! simple intellectual sub/ances1 l ! angels1 true ones2 = !y are compos$ ( _! own possible exi/5ce & ! necess>y exi/5ce !y acquire f ano!r4 ,! only be+ !re=e t may be a true "o is t :i* is n corporeal & n dep5d5t ^u ano!r = its exi/5ce4 ,consid]+ ! "q ( unity f a diff]5t aspect1 9 its relation1 namely1 to ! ?+ designat$ z "o1 we f9d t unity nev] =ms ! ess5ce ( any?+ call$ by t "n2 b is 9 e case an accid5t4 ,?us if x 7 ! ess5ce ( man z man t he is "o1 !re c\ld n on ! "o h& be _m m51 & on ! o!r !re c\ld n also at ! same "t be "o horse1 "o tree1 "o /one4 ,9 ,god 8 unity _c be an accid5t1 s9ce z simple he has no accid5ts4 ,h5ce 8 unity is 8 ess5ce4 ,& if we exam9e ! matt] c>efully we f9d t x is a negative concept4 ,x involves two ?+s4 ,fir/1 t e o!r unity involves plurality 9 "s =m or ano!r4 ,& second t be+ unlike any?+ else1 he _c be> hav+ o!r ?+s associat$ ) him to make ! result _m1 z we c 9 ! case ( man4 ,a1 = example1 is "o2 & ) ,b1 ,c1 & ,d he becomes _m4 ,?is is n applicable to ,god4#bch ,! div9e attributes =m ! next topic we mu/ consid]4 ,"h ,ibn ,daud (f]s little or no?+ t is ess5tially new4 ,he admits nei!r ess5tial nor accid5tal attributes1 = ei!r w\ld br+ plurality & composition 9 ! nature ( ,god4 ,! only attributes he admits are negative & relative4 ,:5 we speak ( ,god z cause we d n place any special entity 9 8 ess5ce1 b m]ely indicate ! dep5d5ce ( ?+s ^u him4 ,! true/ attributes are ! negative1 su* z t he is n body1 t 8 exi/5ce is n dep5d5t ^u ano!r1 & s on2 ! only difficulty be+ t negative attributes1 ?\gh remov+ _m d\bts1 d n give u any positive in=mation4 ,all ! an?ropomorphic attributes 9 ! ,bible end[+ ,god ) human functions l sleep+ & wak+1 or ascrib+ to him human limbs1 eyes1 e>s1 h&s1 feet1 etc41 mu/ be und]/ood metaphorically4 ,= ! ,bible itself w>ns u aga9/ corporealiz+ ,god1 ,take ye !re=e good he$ unto y\rselves2 = ye saw no mann] ( =m on ! day t ! ,"l spake unto y 9 ,horeb 7,deut4 #d1 #ae74 ,:5 ! ,bible speaks ( ,god's ang] & favor1 ! mean+ is t good de$s br+ man ne> to ,god & cause happ9ess :i* is kn[n z p>adise 7,gan ,ed571 & bad de$s remove f> away f ,god & lead to mis=tune1 call$ ,geh5na4 ,x is l ! app>5t motion ( ! trees & ! m\nta9s to ! travell]1 :5 9 reality x is he t is mov+4 ,s "h ,god is said to approa* & dep>t1 to be angry ) & favor1 :5 9 reality x is man :o by 8 de$s comes ne> to ,god or dep>ts f> f him4 ,:5 we assign _m attributes to ,god we d n mean t !re is any multiplicity 9 8 nature4 ,?is _c be4 ,x is l ! case ( a man ^: eyes are n prop]ly co-ord9at$4 ,he sees d\ble :5 !re is only "o4 ,s we too suff] f intellectual squ9t+1 :5 we seem to see _m attributes 9 ! "o ,god4 ,! mo/ common & mo/ important attributes are ! foll[+ eight3 ,"o1 exi/5t1 true1 et]nal1 liv+1 kn[+1 will+1 able4 ,x c be easily %[n 7& ,ibn ,daud does proce$ to %[1 ?\gh we %all n foll[ him 9 8 details7 t all ^! are at bottom negative4 ,unity means t !re is no?+ l him & t he is indivisible4 ,et]nal means he is n subject to *ange or motion4 ,true means he w nev] cease exi/+ & t 8 exi/5ce does n come f ano!r1 & s on ) ! re/4 ,he closes 8 discussion ( ! attributes by intimat+ t he has m to say on ?is topic1 b _h bett] be cont5t ) :at has be5 said s f>1 = a m ?or\gh discussion ( ^! matt]s 9 a book might d h>m to ^? :o d n und]/& & int]pret ! au?or's words incorrectly4 ,?is rem9ds u ( ,maimonides's adjuration ( ! read] to keep :at he f9ds 9 ! ,guide ( ! ,p]plex$ to himself & n to spread x abroad4 ,philosophy cle>ly 0 a delicate subject & n meant = intellectual babes1 ^: intellectual dige/ion might be s]i\sly di/urb$4#bci ,we h n[ conclud$ our !ory ( ,god & 8 attributes2 & 9 do+ s we made use ( pr9ciples ( physics1 su* z matt] & =m1 pot5tiality & actuality1 motion & inf9ity4 ,! next /ep is to prove ! exi/5ce & nature ( int]m$iate spiritual be+s betwe5 ,god & ! corporeal objects ( ! sup]lun> & sublun> worlds1 call$ angels 9 ! ,bible1 & second>y causes by ! philosoph]s4 ,= ?is purpose we %all h to apply ! pr9ciples we h prov$ conc]n+ ! s\l & ! motions ( ! heav5ly bodies4 ,we h prov$ above t ! human s\l is at fir/ 9 ! *ild intellig5t pot5tially & !n becomes intellig5t actually4 ,?is requires an ag5t1 9 :om ! end to :i* ! pot5tial is proce$+ is always actual4 ,z ! rational s\l is nei!r body nor a corporeal p[]1 ?is actual ag5t _c be ei!r ( ^!1 h5ce x is nei!r a sph]e nor ! s\l ( a sph]e1 b x mu/ be a simple sub/ance call$ ,active ,intellect4 ,! prophets call x ,holy ,_s 7,ruah ,ha-,kode%74 ,we ?us h a pro( ( ! exi/5ce ( at lea/ "o su* simple intellectual sub/ance1 or angel1 ! relation ( :i* to ! human s\l is z t ( light to vision4 ,)\t light vision is pot5tial1 light makes x actual4 ,s ! active intellect makes ! pot5tial s\l actual & gives x fir/ ! axioms1 :i* are univ]sally c]ta91 & h5ce c\ld n h orig9at$ by induction f exp]i5ce4 ,simil>ly we c prove ! exi/5ce ( o!r simple sub/ances f ! motions ( ! heav5ly sph]es4 ,we h already %[n t ! sph]es are liv+ be+s & end[$ ) s\ls4 ,b s\ls1 :ile caus+ motion 9 _! bodies are at ! same "t !mselves 9 a sort ( psy*ic motion4 ,?is mu/ be caus$ by unmov$ mov]s1 or intellects1 :o are also ! causes ( ! s\ls4 ,to make ?is difficult matt] some:at cle>] & m plausible1 we may in/ance an analogy f famili> exp]i5ce4 ,a %ip is made by ! %ipbuild]1 :o is its corporeal cause4 ,b !re is also an incorporeal cause1 likewise a %ip1 viz41 ! %ip 9 ! m9d ( ! %ipbuild]4 ,! analogy is imp]fect1 because ! incorporeal %ip 9 ! m9d ( ! build] _c produce an actual corporeal %ip )\t ! build] employ+ mat]ial1 su* z wood1 iron1 etc41 & 9 addition to t exp5d+ "t & physical ex]tion on ! mat]ial4 ,b if he _h ! p[] to give ! =m ( a %ip to ! mat]ial z soon z ! latt] 0 prep>$ = x )\t "t & physical manipulation1 we %\ld h an in/ance ( :at we want to prove1 namely1 ! exi/5ce ( simple immat]ial sub/ances caus+ =ms to emanate ^u corporeal exi/5ces4 ,?is is ! nature ( ! active intellect 9 its relation to ! s\l ( man1 & x is 9 ! same way t ! philosoph]s conceive ( ! motions ( ! heav5ly sph]es4 ,god is ! fir/ unmov$ mov]4 ,! angels or simple sub/ances /& next to him2 & !y1 too1 are always actual intellig5ces1 & move ! heav5ly bodies z ! object ( love & desire moves ! object lov+ x )\t itself be+ mov$4 ,! heav5ly bodies move !re=e because ( a desire to p]fect !mselves1 or to become l unto _! mov]s4 ,s f> ,ibn ,daud agrees ) ! philosoph]s1 because ! doctr9es s f> exp\nd$ are n incompatible ) ! ,bible4 ,b :5 ! philosoph]s raise ! "q1 ,h[ c ! _m orig9ate f ! ,"o1 ! manifold univ]se f ! "o ,god1 & attempt to answ] x by _! !ory ( successive emanations1 ,ibn ,daud calls a halt4 ,! human m9d is n really s all-compet5t z to be able to answ] all que/ions ( ! mo/ difficult nature4 ,! doctr9e ( successive emanations is t elaborat$ by ,alf>abi & ,avic5na1 :i* we h already se5 quot$ & criticiz$ by ,judah ,halevi 7cf4 above1 p4 #agh f474 ,x is slightly m complicat$ 9 ,ibn ,daud1 :o speaks ( ! treble nature ( ! emanations aft] ! fir/ ,intellig5ce--an intellig5ce1 a s\l & a sph]e--:]eas 9 ,halevi's acc\nt !re 7 only two elem5ts1 ! s\l n be+ m5tion$4#bdj ,we h s f> dealt ) ! m !oretical "p ( !ology & religion1 s mu* ( x z may be & is accept$ by nations & religions o!r ?an ,jews4 ,x rema9s n[ to approa* ! m practical & ! m specifically ,jewi% phases ( religion2 ?\gh 9 ! purely e?ical discussions & ^? relat+ to ,provid5ce we h once m a subject ( g5]al application1 & n exclusively ,jewi%4 ,z ! introduction to ?is second "p ( ! subject1 ,abraham ,ibn ,daud devotes a few words to ! !oretical def5ce ( tradition1 or r ( m$iate k4 ,he does s by analyz+ ! v>i\s k9ds ( k4 ,k1 he says1 is ei!r intelligible or s5sible4 ,s5sible k is ei!r directly p]ceiv$ by ! subject or receiv$ by him f ano!r :o p]ceiv$ x directly1 & :om he believes or n z ! case may be4 ,t is :y "s ?+s believ$ by "s p are n believ$ by o!rs4 ,! ignorant may ?9k t ?is weakness is inh]5t 9 matt]s receiv$ f o!rs4 ,z a matt] ( fact su* indirect k is at ! basis ( civilization & makes x possible4 ,if e man 7 to judge only by :at he sees ) 8 own eyes1 society c\ld nev] get along2 !re w\ld be no way ( obta9+ ju/ice 9 c\rt1 = ! judge w\ld n put cr$5ce 9 witnesses1 & ! p>ties w\ld h to fight out _! diff]5ces1 :i* w\ld lead to blood%$ & ! disruption ( social life4 ,! diff]5t attitude ( diff]5t p]sons to a giv5 matt] ( belief is due n necess>ily to ! unc]ta9ty ( ! ?+ itself1 b to ! mann] 9 :i* ! object ( ! belief came d[n to u4 ,if a ?+ re/s ^u ! te/imony ( "o man1 its w>rant is n v /rong4 ,b if a :ole nation witness$ an ev5t1 x is no long] d\btful1 unless we suppose t ! acc\nt itself is due to "o writ]1 & ! ev5t nev] happ5$4 ,we %all discuss ^! matt]s 9 ! sequel4#bda ,hav+ ju/ifi$ 9 a g5]al way ! k d]iv$ f ! te/imony ( o!rs by %[+ t society c\ld n exi/ )\t dep5d+ ^u su* k2 ?\gh admitt+ at ! same "t t caution %\ld be ex]cis$ & criticism 9 det]m9+ :at traditional te/imony is valid or n1 we n[ take up "o ( ^! traditional ph5om5a :i* plays p]haps ! mo/ important rle 9 ,jewi% !ology1 namely1 ! ph5om5on ( prophecy4 ,be=e discuss+ ! traditional aspect ( ?is in/itution & its purpose 9 ! hi/ory ( religion we mu/ consid] x f its natural & psy*ological aspect4 ,! explanation ( ,ibn ,daud--x 0 n orig9al ) him1 z we h already se5 ! non-religi\s philosoph] 9 ,halevi's ,cus>i giv+ utt]ance to ! same idea1 & 9 ,jewi% philosophy ,israeli t\*es on x--! explanation ( ,ibn ,daud is gr\nd$ 9 8 psy*ology1 ! ,ari/otelian psy*ology ( ,avic5na4 ,! fir/ degree ( prophecy1 he says1 is f\nd 9 true dreams1 :i* happ5 to _m p4 ,j z wak+ is a /ate ( ! body 9 :i* x uses ! ext]nal z well z ! int]nal s5ses1 s sleep+ is a /ate ( ! body 9 :i* ! s\l suppresses ! ext]nal s5ses by putt+ !m to sleep1 & ex]cises its natural p[]s only1 su* z ! beat+ ( ! he>t pulse1 respiration1 & s on4 ,! int]nal s5ses are also at "w dur+ sleep1 or at lea/ "s ( !m4 ,9 p>ticul> ! p[] ( imag9ation is active :5 ! ext]nal s5ses are at re/4 ,x !n makes v>i\s comb9ations & sep>ations & br+s !m to ! common s5se4 ,! result is a dream1 true or false4 ,:5 ! s5ses are weak = "o reason or ano!r ?is p[] becomes active &1 :5 n controll$ by ! reason1 produces a great _m errone\s visions & ideas1 z 9 ! delusions ( ! sick4 ,! ,deity & ! angels & ! ,active ,intellect h a k ( ! pa/1 pres5t & future1 & we already "k t ! s\l1 i4 e41 ! rational s\l1 receives influ5ce f ! ,active ,intellect z a natural ?+ 9 e p]son4 ,n[ j z x gets f x sci5ce & g5]al ideas1 s x may receive a k ( hidd5 ?+s if ! s\l is adequately prep>$4 ,! reason x _c receive in=mation ( hidd5 ?+s f ! ,active ,intellect 9 its wak+ /ate1 is because ! s\l is !n busy 9 acquir+ k ?r\gh ! s5ses4 ,9 sleep1 too1 x may be prev5t$ by ! ?ick vapors ris+ f ! food consum$ dur+ ! day1 or by anxiety due to want ( food or dr9k4 ,! imag9ation also sometimes h9d]s ?is process by ! con/ant pres5tation ( its fooli% comb9ations to ! common s5se4 ,b sometimes ?is p[] comes "u ! control ( ! reason1 & !n ! rational s\l is prep>$ to receive hidd5 ?+s f ! ,active ,intellect4 ,9 ^? cases ! imag9ation trans=ms ^! facts into images1 :i* are true dreams4 ,if !y conc]n an individual or a p>ticul> ev5t1 we d n call !m prophecy1 or at lea/ ! %>e ( prophecy !y may h is v small4 ,we call !m prophetic dreams :5 !y conc]n important matt]s & h ref]5ce to a :ole nation or nations1 & come to pass 9 ! di/ant future4 ,an example ( su* a dream is t record$ 9 ,daniel #g1 #a4 ,sometimes ! in=mation comes to ! prophet )\t ! aid ( an image1 :5 ! reason prevails ov] ! imag9ation1 l ! dream ( ,abraham at ! cov5ant ( ! pieces 7,g54 #ae1 #ab;ff474 ,sometimes1 also1 ! activity ( ! s5ses does n prev5t ! prophet f see+ ! hidd5 ?+s ( ! future1 & he receives prophetic inspirations :ile awake4 ,! prophet sometimes fa9ts z he is ov]come by ! unusual ph5om5on1 at o!r times he succe$s 9 endur+ x )\t swoon+4 ,all ^! cases c be illu/rat$ f ! ,bible1 & examples w readily occur to ! read] :o is famili> ) ! v>i\s in/ances & descriptions ( prophetic visions & activities 9 ,scripture4 ,! purpose ( prophecy is to guide ! p 9 ! "r way4 ,) ?is end 9 view ,god inspires a prop] man z a prophet & gives him sup]ior p[]s to p]=m miracles4 ,n e man is capable ( prophecy1 only "o :o has a pure s\l4 ,= ! mo/ "p ! prophetic gift is innate1 at ! same "t /udy & good associations help to develop ?is p[] 9 him :o has x4 ,witness ! company ( prophets1 ^: example inspir$ ,saul 7#a ,sam4 #ai1 #bj71 & ,eli%a z ! disciple ( ,elijah4 ,:ile we ?us see ,ibn ,daud1 unlike ,halevi1 adopt+ ! philosophical explanation ( prophecy1 :i* tries to br+ x )9 ! class ( natural psy*ological ph5om5a & relates x to dreams1 he c\ld n help recogniz+ t "o _c ignore ! sup]natural "* ( ,biblical prophecy )\t be+ untrue to ! ,bible4 ,he accord+ly adds to ! above naturali/ic explanation a numb] ( conditions :i* practically h ! effect ( tak+ ! bottom out ( ! psy*ological !ory4 ,if ,judah ,halevi insi/s t only ,israelites 9 ! l& ( ,pale/9e & at ! "t ( _! political indep5d5ce _h ! privilege ( ! prophetic gift1 we realize t su* a belief is ( ! w>p & wo( ( ,halevi's inn]mo/ s5tim5t & ?9k+1 :i* is radically oppos$ to ! %all[ rationalism & sup]ficial cosmopolitanism ( ! philosoph]s ( 8 day4 ,b :5 ! *ampion ( ,p]ipateticism1 ,abraham ,ibn ,daud1 aft] expla9+ t prophecy is ( ! nature ( true dreams1 & ?\gh 9 mo/ cases innate1 may be cultivat$ by a pure s\l ?r\gh /udy & prop] associations--repeats ) ,judah ,halevi t ! "t & ! place are ess5tial conditions & t ,israelites alone are privileg$ 9 ?is respect1 he is giv+ up1 x seems to u1 all t he previ\sly attempt$ to expla94 ,?is is only "o ( ! _m indications :i* po9t to ! ess5tial artificiality ( all ! m$ival attempts to h>monize a giv5 sy/em ( philosophy ) a sup]naturali/ic /&po9t1 su* z is t ( ! ,bible4 ,x is n 9 ?is way t ! ,bible is to be sav$ if x ne$s sav+4#bdb ,! next practical "q ,ibn ,daud felt call$ ^u to discuss 0 t ( ! possibility ( ! ,law be+ repeal$1 abrogat$ or alt]$4 ,?is he f\nd x necess>y to d 9 ord] to def5d ! ,jewi% /&po9t aga9/ t ( ,*ri/ianity 9 p>ticul>4 ,h[ he w answ] ?is "q is ( c\rse a =egone conclusion4 ,we are only int]e/$ 9 8 mann] ( argum5t4 ,he adopts a classification ( long /&+ ( ! ,biblical laws into rational & traditional4 ,! fir/1 he says1 are accept$ by all nations & c nev] be *ang$4 ,ev5 a b& ( ?ieves1 :o disreg>d all laws ( "r & wrong z !y relate to outsid]s1 mu/ obs]ve !m 9 _! own mid/ or !y _c exi/4 ,^! laws br+ p ( diff]5t nationalities & beliefs toge!r1 & h5ce !re c be no *ange 9 ^!4 ,nor c !re be any alt]ation 9 t "p ( ! ,law :i* is hi/orical 9 cont5t4 ,an ev5t ( ! pa/ _c be repeal$4 ,x only rema9s !re=e to see :e!r abrogation may possibly be compatible ) ! nature ( ! traditional or c]emonial laws4 ,)\t argu+ l ! philosoph]s t *ange ( a div9e law is incompatible ) ! nature ( ,god1 :i* is un*angeable1 our sages nev]!less h a me?od ( expla9+ su* phrases z1 ,& x rep5t$ ! ,"l t he _h made man 7,g54 #f1 #f71 s z to reconcile ! dem&s ( reason ) ^? ( tradition4 ,n[ if !re 7 laws ( ! traditional k9d /at$ 9 ! ,bible )\t any indication ( "t & )\t ! /atem5t t !y are et]nal1 & aft]w>ds o!r laws came to *ange !m1 we %\ld say t ! ,"l has a c]ta9 purpose 9 8 laws :i* we d n "k1 b :i* is reveal$ 9 ! new law tak+ ! place ( ! old4 ,b z a matt] ( fact ! ,bible /ates explicitly 9 _m cases t ! laws are n to be *ang$1 ,a /atute = ev] ?r\gh\t y\r g5]ations 7,num4 #aj1 #h1 & passim74 ,argum5ts f phrases l1 ,y\r new moons & y\r appo9t$ fea/s my s\l hate?1 etc4 7,is4 #a1 #ad71 h no validity1 = !re is no indication "h t sacrifices are aboli%$4 ,! mean+ ( ,isaiah is t sacrifices 9 conjunction ) wrong liv+ are undesirable4 ,our oppon5ts also argue t ,biblical expressions to ! effect t ! laws are et]nal prove no?+1 = we "k ( simil> in/ances 9 :i* promises h be5 )drawn z 9 ! prie/hood ( ,eli's family & ! royalty ( ! h\se ( ,david1 :]e likewise et]nity is m5tion$4 ,we answ] ^! by say+1 fir/1 t 9 ,david's case ! promise 0 )drawn only tempor>ily1 & w return aga91 z ! ,prophets tell u4 ,besides ! promise 0 made only conditionally1 z 0 t made to ,eli4 ,b !re is no /atem5t any:]e t ! ,law is giv5 to ,israel conditionally & t x w ev] be tak5 away f !m4 ,! claim ( ^? :o say t ! laws ( ! ,old ,te/am5t 7 true1 b t !y 7 repeal$ & ! ,new ,te/am5t took its place1 we meet by po9t+ to a cont9u\s tradition aga9/ _! view4 ,we h an un9t]rupt$ tradition dur+ two ?\s& f\r hundr$ & sev5ty-two ye>s t !re 0 a man ,moses :o gave a ,law accept$ by 8 p & held )\t any break = two ?\s& f\r hundr$ & sev5ty-two ye>s4 ,we d n h to prove he 0 a g5u9e prophet s9ce !y d n d5y x4 ,"s ( !m say t 9 ! captivity 9 ,babylon ! old ,law 0 =gott5 & ,ezra made a new law1 ! "o we h n[4 ,?is is absurd4 ,! law c\ld n h be5 =gott51 = ! p did n all g into captivity at "o "t4 ,!y 7 n all put to dea?2 !y 7 l$ into exile 9 a quiet fa%ion1 & !re 7 great m5 among !m l ,hananiah1 ,mi%ael1 ,az>iah1 ,daniel & o!rs :o surely c\ld n h =gott5 ! ,law4 ,besides ,ezra c\ld nev] h _h ! cons5t ( all ! p scatt]$ ev]y:]e if he _h made a law ( 8 own4 ,z a matt] ( fact ! ,law z we h x is ! same 9 all details ?r\gh\t ! _w4#bdc ,! next problem we mu/ consid] is ! p]5nial "o--! problem ( evil & ( fre$om4 ,x is ! purpose ( ! entire book1 z ,ibn ,daud tells u 9 8 introduction4 ,! fur!r a ?+ is remov$ f matt] ! m p]fect is its k4 ,=1 z we h already said1 x is matt] t h9d]s k4 ,all defect & evil is ! result ( ! pot5tial4 ,h5ce ! f>!r a ?+ is remov$ f pot5tiality ! m p]fect x is & ! fre] x is f defect4 ,god's ess5ce is ! mo/ p]fect ?+ !re is2 & z he kn[s 8 ess5ce1 8 is ! mo/ p]fect k4 ,god kn[s1 too1 t 8 p]fection is n /ation>y 9 him1 b t x ext5ds & communicates itself to all o!r ?+s 9 ord]4 ,& ! fur!r a ?+ is f him ! less is its p]fection & ! great] is its imp]fection4 ,we h ?us a graduat$ s]ies1 at "o end ! mo/ p]fect be+1 at ! o!r ! lea/ p]fect1 viz41 matt]4 ,n[ x is impossible f any po9t ( view1 ei!r accord+ to reason or ,bible or tradition1 t evil or defect %\ld come f ,god4 ,n by reason1 = two contradictories 9 ! same subject are impossible4 ,n[ if good & evil bo? came f ,god1 he w\ld h to be composite j l man1 :o c be ! cause ( good & evil1 ! "o com+ f 8 rational p[]1 ! o!r f ! spirit$ or appetitive4 ,b ,god is simple & if evil comes f him1 good _c d s1 :i* is absurd4 ,besides1 ! majority ( defects are privational 9 "* & n positive1 l = example d>kness1 pov]ty1 ignorance1 & s on1 :i* are n ?+s1 b ! negations ( light1 weal?1 wisdom1 respectively4 ,be+ negative1 n positive1 !y are n made by any body4 ,"o may argue t x is 9 ! nature ( man t he %\ld h und]/&+ & p]fection2 & if ,god deprives him ( x1 he does evil4 ,! answ] is t ! evil 9 ! _w is v small 9 comp>ison ) ! good4 ,= evil & defect are f\nd only 9 ?+s compos$ ( ! elem5ts1 :i* h a common matt]1 receiv+ =ms 9 accordance ) ! mixture ( ! elem5t>y qualities 9 ! matt]4 ,"h an ext]nal cause sometimes prev5ts ! =m f com+ to ! matt] 9 its p]fection4 ,! se$1 = example1 dep5ds ^u ! "* ( ! soil :i* x f9ds = its gr[?4 ,n[ x does n foll[ t ,god 0 b\nd to give ?+s ! highe/ p]fection possible4 ,= 9 t case all m9]als w\ld be plants1 all plants animals1 all animals m51 all m5 angels2 & !re w\ld be no _w1 b only ,god & a few ( ! highe/ angels4 ,9 ord] t !re %all be a _w1 x 0 necess>y to make a graduat$ s]ies z we actually h x4 ,& z a matt] ( fact ! v defects 9 ! mat]ial composites are a good :5 we h 9 view n ! p>ticul> ?+ b ! :ole4 ,?us if all m5 7 ( a highly intellectual type1 !re w\ld be no agriculture or manual labor4 ,n[ !re are m5 ^: temp]am5t is su* t !y _c di/+ui% betwe5 "r & wrong1 & !y foll[ _! incl9ations4 ,to c\nt]act ^! bad qualities ,god gave 8 comm&m5ts & w>n+s4 ,?is %[s t x is n impossible to oppose ^! evil t5d5cies1 = 9 t case ! comm&m5ts w\ld be useless4 ,! acts ( man come nei!r "u ! category ( ! necess>y1 nor "u t ( ! impossible1 b "u ! category ( ! possible4 ,!re are two s5ses 9 :i* we may und]/& ! t]m possible4 ,a ?+ may be possible subjectively1 i4 e41 9 relation to our ignorance1 ?\gh objectively x may be necess>y & det]m9$4 ,?us we 9 ,spa9 d n "k :e!r ! k+ ( ,babylon di$ to-day or n2 & s f> z we are conc]n$1 x is possible t he is dead or t he is alive4 ,9 reality x is n a "q ( possibility b ( necessity4 ,god kn[s :i* is true4 ,! same ?+ applies to ! occurr5ce ( an eclipse 9 ! future = ! man :o is ignorant ( a/ronomy4 ,su* possibility due to ignorance does n exi/ 9 ,god4 ,b !re is ano!r s5se ( ! ^w possible2 ! s5se 9 :i* an ev5t is objectively undet]m9$4 ,an ev5t is possible if !re is no?+ 9 ! previ\s *a9 ( causation to det]m9e ! ?+'s happ5+ 9 "o way r ?an ano!r4 ,! result is !n a matt] ( pure *ance or ( absolute free w4 ,n[ ,god may make a ?+ possible 9 ?is objective s5se1 & !n x is possible = him also4 ,if y ask1 b is ,god !n ignorant ( ! result8 ,we say1 ?is is n ignorance4 ,= to assume t x is1 & t ev]y?+ %\ld be det]m9$ l eclipses1 & t ,god _c create ?+s possible1 means to de/roy ! ord] ( ! _w1 ( ?is _w z well z ! next4 ,= :y %all man engage 9 v>i\s occupations or pursue def9ite l9es ( conduct s9ce 8 de/9y is already fix$8 ,! tru? ( ! matt] is t !re are sev]al ord]s ( causes4 ,"s are directly det]m9$ by ,god1 & !re is no way ( evad+ !m2 o!rs are entru/$ to nature1 & man is able to enjoy its b5efits & avoid its injuries by prop] managem5t4 ,a ?ird class conta9s ! ?+s ( *ance1 & "o may gu>d aga9/ ^! also4 ,s we are bidd5 9 ! ,bible to make a p>apet on ! ro(s ( our h\ses to gu>d aga9/ ! possibility ( fall+ d[n4 ,f9ally !re is ! f\r? class1 ^? ?+s :i* dep5d ^u ! free *oice ( ! individual4 ,"r & wrong conduct are matt]s ( *oice1 else !re w\ld be no use 9 prophets1 & no rew>d & puni%m5t4 ,:5 a p]son makes an ef=t to be good1 8 desire increases1 & he obta9s assi/ance f ! angels4 ,s9ce fre$om is support$ by reason1 ,scripture & tradition1 ! passages 9 ! ,bible :i* are 9 favor ( x %\ld be tak5 lit]ally1 & ^? aga9/ x %\ld be int]pret$ figuratively4 ,:5 ! ,bible says t ,god h>d5$ ,ph>aoh's he>t1 x means simply t ,ph>aoh 0 all[$ to proce$ z he began4 ,all ! anci5t sages ( our nation 7 9 favor ( fre$om4#bdd ,if we comp>e ! above discussion ( ! problem ( fre$om ) t ( ,judah ,halevi 7above1 p4 #aga71 we see t ,ibn ,daud is m consi/5t1 :atev] we may ?9k ( 8 success 9 solv+ ! insoluble problem4 ,he frankly insi/s on ! absolute fre$om ( ! w & on ! reality ( ! objectively cont+5t1 n %r9k+ be=e ! unavoidable conclusion t ! ev5ts :i* are ! results ( su* fre$om or *ance are no m kn[n be=eh& to ,god ?an !y are to man4 ,& he tries to avoid ! criticism ( attribut+ imp]fection to ,god by insi/+ t n to be able to =etell ! cont+5t is n ignorance1 & h5ce n an imp]fection4 ,! read] may ?9k :at he pleases ( ?is def5ce1 b !re seems to be a m s]i\s difficulty 9 :at ?is idea implies ?an 9 :at x explicitly says4 ,if ! cont+5t exi/s = ,god also1 x foll[s t he is n ! complete ma/] ( nature & ! _w4 ,to say z ,ibn ,daud does t ,god made ! cont+5t1 i4 e41 made x to be cont+5t1 s\nds l a contradiction1 & rem9ds "o ( ! "q :e!r ,god c make a /one s big t he _c lift x himself4 ,8 pro(s 9 favor ( fre$om & ! cont+5t are p>tially id5tical ) ^? ( ,judah ,halevi1 b 9 s f> z he does n explicitly admit t ! w may itself be influ5c$ by prior causes he evades1 to be sure1 ! /ronge/ argum5t aga9/ him1 b he does s at ! exp5se ( complet5ess 9 8 analysis4 ,halevi is less consi/5t & m ?or\gh1 ,ibn ,daud is m consi/5t1 because he fails to take acc\nt ( real difficulties4 ,9 ! f9al outcome ( _! respective analyses1 ,halevi ma9ta9s ,god's =ekn[l$ge at ! exp5se ( absolute fre$om1 or r he does n see t 8 admissions are fatal to ! cause he endeavors to def5d4 ,ibn ,daud ma9ta9s absolute fre$om & frankly sacrifices =ekn[l$ge2 ?\gh 8 def5ce ( fre$om is secur$ by bl9d+ himself to ! argum5t mo/ dang]\s to t doctr9e4 ,abraham ,ibn ,daud concludes 8 ,emunah ,ramah by a discussion ( e?ics & ! application ( ! pr9ciples ?us discov]$ to ! laws ( ! ,bible4 ,he entitles ?is f9al division ( 8 treatise1 ,m$ic9e ( ! ,s\l1 on ! gr\nd t virtue is ! heal? ( ! s\l z vice is its disease4 ,9 8 fundam5tal e?ical di/9ctions1 def9itions & classifications he comb9es ,plato's psy*ology & ! virtues bas$ !reon ) ! ,ari/otelian doctr9e ( ! mean1 :i* he also applies 9 detail4 ,he omits wisdom z "o ( ! ,platonic virtues &1 unlike ,plato = :om ju/ice consi/s 9 a h>mony ( ! o!r ?ree virtues & has no psy*ological seat peculi> to x1 ,ibn ,daud makes ju/ice ! virtue ( ! rational s\l4 ,! end ( practical philosophy is1 he says1 happ9ess4 ,?is is atta9$1 fir/1 by good morals2 second1 by prop] family life2 & ?ird1 by means ( correct social & political conduct4 ,! human s\l consi/s ( ?ree pr9cipal faculties1 vegetative1 animal1 rational4 ,correspond+ to ^! ! pr9cipal virtues & vices are also ?ree4 ,! vegetative p[]1 ^: functions are n\ri%m5t1 gr[? & reproduction1 is relat$ to appetite1 & is call$ ! appetitive s\l4 ,! animal p[] z be+ ! cause ( s5sation1 volunt>y motion1 cruelty1 rev5ge1 m]cy & k9dness1 is call$ ! spirit$ s\l1 because ^! qualities are dep5d5t ^u ! en]gy or weakness ( ! _s4 ,! rational p[] has two aspects4 ,"o is direct$ upw>ds & is ! means ( our le>n+ ! sci5ces & ! arts4 ,! o!r aspect is direct$ d[nw>ds1 & endeavors to control 7successfully or n z ! case may be71 ! two l[] p[]s ( ! s\l1 gu>d+ !m aga9/ excess & defect4 ,?is function we call conduct1 & virtue is ! mean betwe5 ! two extremes ( too mu* & too little4 ,! mean ( ! appetitive p[] is temp]ance2 ( ! spirit$ p[]1 brav]y & g5tl5ess2 ( ! rational s\l1 ju/ice4#bde ,ju/ice consi/s 9 giv+ ev]y?+ its due )\t excess or defect4 ,ju/ice is !re=e ! highe/ ( all qualities1 & is ( value n m]ely 9 a p]son's relations to 8 family & c\ntry1 b also 9 ! relations ( 8 p[]s "o to ano!r4 ,! rational p[] mu/ see to x t ! two l[] faculties ( ! s\l get :at is _! due1 no m & no less4 ,?is quality has an important application also 9 ! relations ( a man to 8 mak]4 ,x is j t a p]son %\ld requite 8 b5efactor z mu* z he receiv$ f him1 if possible4 ,if he _c d ?is1 he %\ld at lea/ ?ank him4 ,h5ce ! reason = div9e wor%ip1 ! fir/ ( comm&m5ts4 ,?is quality1 ! greate/ ( m5 possess$ 9 ! highe/ degree4 ,moses said to him t did ! wrong1 :]e=e smite/ ?\ ?y fell[8 7,ex4 #b1 #ac74 ,& :5 ! %eph]ds came & drove away ! daught]s ( ! prie/ ( ,midian1 ,moses /ood up & help$ !m1 & wat]$ _! flock 7ib4 #ag74 ,?is is ! reason :y ,god s5t him to deliv] ,israel4 ,god %[$ ! c>e he _h ( 8 nation by reveal+ himself to !m1 & ?us %[+ !m ! error ( ^? :o ?9k t ,god gave ov] ! rule ( ?is _w to ! />s1 & t he & ! angels h no fur!r int]e/ 9 x4 ,h5ce ! fir/ comm&m5t is ,i am ! ,"l ?y ,god1 :i* is foll[$ by ,y %all h no o!r gods1 ,?\ %alt n take ! "n ( ! ,"l ?y ,god 9 va9 7,ex4 #bj1 #b;ff474 ,rememb] ! ,sabba? day is = ! purpose ( condemn+ ! belief 9 ! et]nity ( ! _w1 z is evid5t f ! conclusion1 ,= 9 six days ! ,"l made heav5 & e>?1 ! sea1 & all t 9 !m is4444 7ib4 #aa74 ,honor ?y fa!r & ?y "m 7ib4 #ab7 is int5d$ to inculcate ! duty ( honor+ ! cause ( "o's be+1 includ+ ,god4 ,?us ! fir/ five comm&m5ts all aim to tea* ! revelation & ,provid5ce ( ,god4 ,! re/ deal ) social & political conduct1 especially ! la/ "o1 ,?\ %alt n covet1 :i* is important 9 ! pres]vation ( society4 ,! comm&m5t to love ,god involves ! k ( ,god1 = "o _c love :at "o does n "k4 ,a man mu/ "k !re=e ,god's attributes & actions4 ,he mu/ be conv9c$ likewise t no evil comes f ,god1 or he _c love him z he %\ld4 ,he may fe> him b n ) ! prop] fe>4 ,= !re are two k9ds ( fe>1 & ! "o t is comm&$ is fe> ( maje/y & awe1 n fe> ( puni%m5t4 ,div9e s]vice means n m]ely pray] ?ree times a day1 b con/ant ?\ght ( ,god4 ,to develop & tra9 ?is ?\ght ( ,god 9 u we are comm&$ to put on phylact]ies & fr+es1 & to fa/5 ! mezuzah to our door po/s4 ,= ! same reason we celebrate ! fe/ivals ( ,passov]1 ,tab]nacles1 ,hanukkah & ,purim1 z a remembrance ( ,god's b5efits to our p4 ,all ^! obs]vances are ultimately bas$ ^u ! duty ( ?ank+ our b5efactor1 :i* is "p ( ju/ice1 ! highe/ ( ! virtues4 ,among moral virtues we are also comm&$ to practice suppression ( ang]1 & its inculcation is emphasiz$ by mak+ x a div9e attribute1 ,! ,"l1 ! ,"l1 a ,god full ( compassion & graci\s4444 7,ex4 #cd1 #f74 ,o!r virtues ( ! same k9d are1 n to repay evil = evil1 n to be jeal\s1 to practice humility l ,moses1 & s on4 ,9 fact all ! virtues laid d[n by e?ical philosoph]s are f\nd bett] express$ 9 ! ,bible4 ,9 respect to family virtues1 we are bidd5 to c>e = & protect ! memb]s ( our family1 wife1 *ildr5 & slaves4 ,( social virtues we h love ( our neighbor1 hone/y 9 deal+1 j weights & measures1 prohibition ( int]e/ & ( tak+ a pl$ge f ! poor1 return+ a f9d to ! los]1 & a ho/ ( o!r tea*+s4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 "s ( ! traditional laws1 ! purpose ( :i* is n kn[n1 especially ! details ( sacrifices & ! l4 ,9 explanation ( ^! we mu/ say t ! law consi/s ( a rule ( life compos$ ( sev]al p>ts4 ,fir/ is belief2 second1 moral qualities2 ?ird1 family life2 f\r?1 social & political life2 fif?1 ! comm&m5ts above ref]r$ to1 :i* we %all *>act]ize z dictat$ by div9e wisdom1 ?\gh we d n und]/& !m4 ,n all ! p>ts ( ! ,law are ( ! same ord] ( value4 ,! fundam5tal portion & ! mo/ important is t deal+ ) belief4 ,next 9 importance are ! laws gov]n+ social & moral conduct1 )\t :i* society is impossible4 ,t is :y all nations agree ab\t ^!2 & !re is hone/y ev5 among ?ieves4 ,! la/ class ( comm&m5ts1 ^: purpose is n kn[n1 are ! lea/ 9 importance1 z is cle> also f /atem5ts 9 ! ,bible1 su* z1 ,i spake n unto y\r fa!rs1 nor comm&$ !m 9 ! day t ,i br\ght !m out ( ! l& ( ,egypt1 conc]n+ burnt (f]+s or sacrifices4444 7,j]4 #g1 #bb74 ,at ! same "t we _c d5y t !re are "s reasons = _! obs]vance4 ,?us sacrifice leads to rep5tance z a result ( reflection1 ev5 if ! p]son does n confess 8 s91 z he is bidd5 to d 9 c]ta9 cases4 ,9 fact !re is "o aspect :i* gives ?is class ( comm&m5ts ev5 great] importance ?an ! social duties4 ,x is ! pr9ciple ( implicit ob$i5ce ev5 :5 we d n see ! value ( ! comm&m5t4 ,i d n mean t a man %\ld n /udy sci5ce1 p>ticul>ly :at conc]ns ! k ( ,god4 ,?is is n to be recomm5d$4 ,b :5 a man is conv9c$ t !re is su* a ?+ z g5u9e prophecy1 %[+ ,god's provid5ce1 z we see 9 ! case ( ,moses :o deliv]$ 8 nation1 p]=m$ wond]s = !m & 0 always honor$ & believ$--he %\ld n balk at ! acceptance ( "s laws giv5 by su* a div9e man simply because he does n und]/& !m4 ,abraham is a good example4 ,= :5 ,god promis$ him t ,isaac w\ld become a great nation1 & !n comm&$ him to sacrifice 8 only *ild1 he did n ask any que/ions & 0 ready to d ,god's behe/4 ,8 example is meant to be foll[$ by all4 ,?is is ! purpose ( ^! subtle comm&m5ts1 :i* are made ) wisdom4 ,?r\gh !m we may see ! diff]5ce betwe5 belief & unbelief4#bdf ,! above discussion is extremely typical ( ! rationali/ic attitude ( ,ibn ,daud & 8 s*ool1 :i* includes su* m5 z ,maimonides1 ,g]sonides & o!rs4 ,reason1 !ory1 sci5ce1 explanation--^! are ! important consid]ations 9 ?+s philosophical1 z well z ?+s religi\s4 ,!ory is m important ?an practice1 & belief /&s high] ?an m]e conduct4 ,no wond] t ,maimonides 0 n satisfi$ until he elaborat$ a cre$ ) a def9ite numb] ( dogmas4 ,dogmas & fai? 9 reason g toge!r4 ,x is ! my/ic :o is impati5t ( prescrib$ g5]alities1 = he is con/antly refre%$ by ! liv+ & ev] fl[+ /ream ( individual exp]i5ce4 ,! rationali/ has a fix$ un*angeable ,idea or reason or me?od1 ^: reality & value consi/s 9 its unity1 p]man5ce & immutability4 ,9 favor ( ?is hypo/atis$ reason1 ! rationali/ ,ibn ,daud is ready to sacrifice s fundam5tal an in/itution z sacrifice 9 ! face ( ! entire book ( ,leviticus1 pret5d+ t a s+le v]se ( ,j]emiah entitles him to d s4 ,b ! ,jew ,ibn ,daud 9 ! end ass]t$ himself1 & he f9ds x necess>y to admit t 9 a s5se ^! non-rational laws may be ( ev5 great] importance ?an ! rational2 n1 h[ev]1 z a simple believ] might say1 because we mu/ n se>* ! wisdom ( ,god1 b = ! reason t unreason$ ob$i5ce is itself a virtue4 ,9 conclusion we rem9d ! read] t ,ibn ,daud 0 ! precursor ( ,maimonides1 t\*+ ^u1 & = ! mo/ "p answ]+ e "q treat$ by 8 m fam\s successor4 ,ibn ,daud 0 ! fir/ to adopt ,ari/otelianism = ! purpose ( weld+ x ) ,judaism4 ,he %[$ ! way to foll[4 ,maimonides took 8 cue f ,ibn ,daud & succe$$ 9 putt+ ! latt] 9 ! %ade4 ,hi/oric ju/ice dem&s t ,ibn ,daud be br\ght =w>d into ! light & giv5 ! cr$it :i* is des]v$ly 8 due4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii ,,moses ,,maimonides ,) ,maimonides we rea* ! high wat] m>k ( m$ival ,jewi% philosophy4 ,he 0 by f> ! mo/ compreh5sive m9d ( m$ival ,jewry1 & 8 philosophy 0 ! cop+ /one ( a complete sy/em ( ,judaism4 ,9 8 tra9+ & education he embrac$ all ,jewi% lit]ature1 ,biblical & ,rabb9ic1 z well z all ! sci5ce & philosophy ( 8 day4 ,& 8 lit]>y activity 0 fruitful 9 e important bran* ( /udy4 ,he 0 well kn[n z a practic+ physician1 hav+ be5 9 ! employ ( ! ,caliph's visi] at ,cairo 7,fo/at71 & he wrote on m$ical !ory & practice4 ,he 0 v]s$ 9 ma!matics & a/ronomy1 & 8 k ( ^! subjects s]v$ him 9 good /ead n m]ely z an introduction to !ology & metaphysics1 b 0 ( direct s]vice 9 8 /udies & writ+s on ! ,jewi% cal5d>4 ,x goes )\t say+ t he knew logic1 = ?is 0 ! basis ( all le>n+ 9 m$ival times2 b 9 ?is bran*1 too1 ,maimonides has left u a y\?ful treatise1#bdg :i* be>s witness to 8 e>ly int]e/ 9 sci5ce & 8 ef=ts to recomm5d its /udy z helpful to a bett] und]/&+ ( ,jewi% lit]ature4 ,b all ^! activities & productions 7 m or less side issues1 or prep>ations = a magnum opus1 or r magna op]a4 ,f 8 y\? we c trace ! evid5t purpose1 n f9ally complet$ until t[>d ! end ( 8 brilliant & useful c>e]1--! purpose to h>monize ,judaism ) philosophy1 to reconcile ! ,bible & ,talmud ) ,ari/otle4 ,he 0 ambiti\s to d ?is = ! good ( ,judaism1 & 9 ! int]e/ ( a rational & enlight5$ fai?4 ,?us 9 8 comm5t>y on ! ,mi%na1#bdh ! e>lie/ ( 8 l>g] works1 he _h already conceiv$ ! idea ( writ+ a composition ( a h>moniz+ nature1 viz41 to ga!r all ! homiletical disquisitions ( ! ,talmud 7! d]a%ot7 & expla9 !m 9 a rationali/ic mann] s z to remove :at appe>s on ! surface to be (f5sive to s\nd reason4 ,b in/ead ( proce$+ at once to ! p]=mance ( ?is *]i%$ object ( 8 philosophic ambition1 he kept x 9 8 bosom1 brood+ ov] x dur+ a life ( int5se lit]>y & practical activity1 until x 0 9 ! end matur$ & br\ght to fruition 9 a mann] q diff]5t f t at fir/ int5d$4 ,! book explanatory ( ! ,rabb9ic leg5ds 0 giv5 up = reasons :i* w appe> lat]4 ,b ! object t "w 0 to realize 0 c>ri$ out 9 a mu* m effective mann] because x 0 delay$1 & 0 publi%$ t[>d ! end ( 8 life z ! sy/ematic & au?oritative pron\ncem5t ( ! greate/ ,jew ( 8 "t4 ,! ,guide ( ! ,p]plex$ w\ld n h attract$ ! att5tion x did1 x w\ld n h rais$ ! /orm :i* divid$ ,jewry into two oppos$ camps1 if x _h n come z ! mature "w ( ! man :om all ,jewry recogniz$ z ! greate/ ,rabb9ic au?ority ( 8 "t4 ,o!rs _h writt5 on philosophy be=e ,maimonides4 ,we h 9 ^! pages foll[$ _! ideas--,saadia1 ,gabirol1 ,ibn ,zaddik1 ,abraham ,ibn ,daud4 ,! latt] 9 p>ticul> anticipat$ ,maimonides 9 almo/ all 8 ideas4 ,none _h ! effect ( upsett+ ! !ological equilibrium ( ,jewry4 ,ev]yone _h 8 admir]s1 no d\bt1 z well z 8 oppon5ts4 ,gabirol 0 =gott51 ,ibn ,zaddik & ,ibn ,daud 7 neglect$1 & ,jewi% le>n+ cont9u$ ! ev5 t5or ( its c\rse4 ,maimonides 0 ! fir/ to make a pr(\nd impression1 ! fir/ :o succe$$ 9 /irr+ to _! dep?s ! smoo?1 ?\gh "h & !re some:at turbid1 ,rabb9ic wat]s1 z !y fl[$ n m]ely 9 sci5tific ,spa9 & ,prov5ce1 or 9 ! ,ori5t1 b also 9 ! /rictly ,talmudic communities ( nor!rn ,france4 ,x 0 ! ,comm5t>y on ! ,mi%na & ! ,talmudic code kn[n z ! ,yad ha-,hazaka t 0 responsible = ! trem5d\s effect ( ! ,m ,nebukim 7,guide ( ! ,p]plex$74 ,9 ^! two ,rabb9ical treatises1 & p>ticul>ly 9 ! ,yad ha-,hazaka1 ! ,rabb9ic ,code1 ,maimonides %[$ himself ! ma/] ( ,rabb9ic lit]ature4 ,& all recogniz$ 9 him ! ma/] m9d4 ,hav+ be5 writt5 9 ,hebrew ! ,code soon p5etrat$ all ,jewi% communities ev]y:]e1 & ,maimonides's fame spread :]ev] !re 7 ,jews engag$ 9 ! /udy ( ! ,talmud4 ,8 fame z a c\rt physician 9 ,egypt & z ! (ficial head ( ,ori5tal ,jewry enhanc$ ! influ5ce ( 8 "n & 8 "w4 ,jeal\sy no d\bt _h its %>e 9 />t+ opposition to ! ,code itself ev5 be=e ! publication ( ! ,guide1 & dur+ ! lifetime ( its au?or4 ,:5 ! ,m ,nebukim 0 translat$ f ! orig9al ,arabic into ,hebrew1 s t all c\ld read x1 & ,maimonides 0 no long] among ! liv+1 ! zealots became embold5$ & ! /orm broke1 ! details ( :i*1 h[ev]1 x is n our prov9ce to relate4 ,= complet5ess' sake let u set d[n ! facts ( 8 life4 ,moses b5 ,maimon 0 born 9 ! city ( ,cordova on ! f\rte5? ( ,nissan 7#cj? ( ,m>*7 at "o o'clock 9 ! aft]noon1 on a ,sabba? :i* 0 ! day be=e ,passov]1 9 ! ye> #aace4 ,x is n (t5 t ! bir? ( a m$ival ,jewi% writ] is h&$ d[n ) su* m9ute detail4 ,usually we d n ev5 "k ! ye>1 to say no?+ ( ! day & ! h\r4 ,cordova _h long fall5 f its high e/ate4 ,x 0 no long] ! glori\s city ( ! days be=e ! ,almoravid conque/4 ,& x 0 de/9$ to desc5d l[] /ill :5 ! fanatical hordes ( ! ,almohades r5ew$ ! anci5t motto ( ! e>ly ,mohamm$an conqu]ors1 ,! ,koran or ! ,sword4 ,maimonides 0 b>ely ?irte5 :5 8 native city fell into ! h&s ( ! zealots f ,morocco1 & h5ce=? nei!r ,jew nor ,*ri/ian d>$ av[ 8 fai? op5ly 9 ,cordova4 ,adoption ( ,islam1 emigration or dea? 7 ! *oices held out to ! infidel4 ,_m ,jews adopt$ ! dom9ant fai? outw>dly--t 0 all t 0 dem&$ ( !m--:ile 9 ! secret ( _! homes !y obs]v$ ,judaism4 ,"s emigrat$1 & among !m 0 ! family ( ,moses' fa!r4 ,= a "t !y w&]$ ab\t f city to city 9 ,spa91 & !n cross$ ov] to ,fez 9 ,morocco4 ,?is seems to u l go+ f ! fry+ pan into ! fire1 = ,fez 0 ! lion's d5 itself4 ,! conqu]ors ( ,cordova came f ,morocco4 ,& !re seems to be "s evid5ce too t ! ,maimon family _h to appe> outw>dly z ,mohamm$ans4 ,be t z x may1 ,maimonides did n /ay long 9 ,fez4 ,on ! #ah? ( ,april1 #aafe1 ! family set sail = ,pale/9e1 & aft] a mon?'s /ormy voyage !y arriv$ 9 ,acco4 ,he visit$ ,j]usalem & ,hebron1 b did n f9d ,pale/9e a promis+ place = p]man5t resid5ce & decid$ to g to ,egypt4 ,he settl$ 9 ,old ,cairo 7,fo/at71 & ) 8 bro!r ,david engag$ 9 ! jewel trade4 ,8 fa!r di$ soon aft]1 & lat] 8 bro!r met an untimely dea? :5 ! %ip on :i* he 0 a pass5g] on "o ( 8 bus9ess trips 0 wreck$ 9 ! ,indian ,ocean4 ,!reaft] ,maimonides gave up ! jewel bus9ess & began to practice m$ic9e1 :i* at fir/ did n (f] him m ?an ! b>e/ necessities4 ,b 9 ! c\rse ( "t 8 fame spread & he 0 appo9t$ physician to ,salad9's gr& visi] ,alfadhil4 ,he 0 also made spiritual head,c ( ! ,jews ( ,egypt1 & :at ) 8 (ficial duties z c\rt physician1 lead] ( ! ,jewi% community1 practic+ physician among ! p1 & 8 lit]>y activities1 ,jewi% & secul>1 ,rabb9ical & sci5tific1 he 0 a busy man inde$2 s mu* s t he dissuades ,samuel ,ibn ,tibbon1 ! translator ( ! ,guide1 f pay+ him a visit on ! gr\nd t he w\ld sc>cely h "t to sp>e to see him1 mu* less to ent] into sci5tific discussions ) him4#bdi ,maimonides di$ on ,monday1 ,decemb] #ac 7#bj ,tebe?71 #abjd4 ,c ,n a paid po/4 ,! philosophy ( ,maimonides is conta9$ 9 ! ,guide ( ! ,p]plex$1 8 la/ great "w1 :i* 0 publi%$ 9 ,arabic 9 #aaij4bej ,"s philosophic & e?ical mat]ial is also f\nd 9 ! introductory *apt]s ( 8 comm5t>y on ! ,mi%naic treatise ,abot 7! s-call$ ,eight ,*apt]s--,%emonah ,p]akim71#bea 9 ! introduction to ! elev5? *apt] 7,helek7 ( ! ,talmudic treatise ,sanh$r91 & 9 ! introductory sections ( ! ,code 7,hilkot ,yesode ha-,torah & ,hilkot ,deot74 ,"h1 h[ev]1 ! treatm5t is popul> & elem5t>y1 & is int5d$ = popul> consumption4 ,he lays d[n results 9 _! simple/ =m )\t discuss+ _! orig9 or ! argum5ts pro & con4 ,! ,guide ( ! ,p]plex$1 on ! o!r h&1 is int5d$ = a special class ( p]sons1 = ! sophi/icat$2 = ^? :o are well tra9$ 9 sci5ce & philosophy1 n to speak ( ,bible & ,talmud1 & are z a result made uneasy by ! app>5t disagreem5t ( philosophical tea*+ ) ! ideas express$ 9 ! ,biblical & ,rabb9ic writ+s4 ,8 purpose is delib]ately apologetic & concordi/ic4 ,! "w is n a treatise ( sci5ce or philosophy4 ,! latt] are presuppos$4 ,he introduces philosophic pr9ciples1 ,ari/otelian or ,kalami/ic1 only ) a view to _! relation to ,jewi% !ology4 ,& he ei!r accepts !m1 provisionally or absolutely1 if he reg>ds !m z prov51 z true & useful2 or he refutes & rejects !m if unt5able4 ,9 ! =m] case he %[s by prop] int]pretation t simil> pr9ciples are taught 9 ,bible & ,talmud2 9 ! latt] he cont5ts himself by prov+ t ,ari/otle or ! ,mutakallimun1 z ! case may be1 did n prove _! po9t4 ,8 me?od1 9 g5]al1 ( quiet+ ! d\bts ( ! p]plex$ is ! old "o--z old z ,philo & beyond--( reg>d+ ,biblical phrases z metaphors & allegories1 conta9+ an esot]ic mean+ beside or oppos$ to ! lit]al4 ,accord+ly he lays ! greate/ /ress on ! explanation ( ,scriptural homonyms1 z he calls !m1 borr[+ an ,ari/otelian t]m4 ,a homonym is a ^w :i* has m ?an "o mean+2 a ^w :i* d5otes sev]al ?+s hav+ no?+ 9 common4 ,?us :5 ,i apply ! ^w dog to ! dome/ic animal we "k by t "n1 z well z to ,sirius1 kn[n z ! dog-/>1 ,i use dog z a homonym4 ,! /> & ! animal h no?+ 9 common4 ,s ! ^w m]ciful1 "o ( ! attributes ( ,god 9 ! ,bible1 is a homonym4 ,t is1 we d5ote by ! same ^w also a quality 9 a human be+2 b ?is quality & t :i* is d5ot$ by ! same ^w :5 appli$ to ,god h no?+ 9 common4 ,!y are n m]ely diff]5t 9 degree b 9 k9d4 ,9 fact1 z ,maimonides insi/s1 !re is really no?+ 9 ,god correspond+ to ! ^w m]ciful4 ,!re are besides c]ta9 passages 9 ! ,bible :i* :ile hav+ an acceptable mean+ :5 tak5 lit]ally1 conta9 besides a deep] signification :i* ! practic$ eye c detect4 ,?us 9 ! description ( ! h>lot 9 ! sev5? *apt] ( ,prov]bs !re is beside ! pla9 mean+ ( ! text1 ! doctr9e ( matt] z ! cause ( corporeal desires4 ,! h>lot1 nev] fai?ful to "o man1 leav+ "o & tak+ up ) ano!r1 repres5ts matt] :i*1 z ,ari/otle conceives x1 nev] is )\t =m & con/antly *anges "o =m = ano!r4 ,!re is really no?+ new 9 ?is1 & ,philo ap>t1 :om ,maimonides did n "k1 ,ibn ,daud anticipat$ ,maimonides "h also 9 mak+ use ( ! t]m homonym z ! basis ( ?is me?od ( int]pretation4#beb ,b :]eas ,ibn ,daud relegates ! *apt] treat+ ( ?is pr9ciple to a subord9ate place1 8 int]e/ be+ z he tells u prim>ily e?ical--to solve ! problem ( free w2 ,maimonides places x 9 ! v c5tre ( 8 sy/em4 ,! doctr9e ( attributes z lead+ to a true conception ( ,god1--( ,god z absolutely incorporeal & )\t any resemblance or relation :atsoev] to any?+ else--is ! v key/one ( ,maimonides's philosophical /ructure4 ,8 purpose is to tea* a spiritual conception ( ,god4 ,any?+ %ort ( ?is is worse ?an idolatry4 ,he _c reconcile ! ,bible to su* a view )\t ?is homonymic tool4 ,h5ce ! great importance ( ?is 9 8 sy/em2 & he actually devotes ! great] "p ( ! fir/ book ( ! ,guide to a sy/ematic & exhau/ive survey ( all t]ms 9 ! ,bible us$ z homonyms4#bec ,all ?is is prep>atory to 8 discussion ( ! div9e attributes4 ,?is consid]ation w acc\nt also = ! fact t1 sy/ematic & logical ?9k] z he 01 he p]petrates :at might appe> at fir/ sight z a logical blund]4 ,in/ead ( fir/ prov+ ! exi/5ce ( ,god & !n discuss+ 8 nature & attributes1 z ,saadia1 ,bahya1 ,ibn ,daud & o!rs did be=e him1 he treats exhau/ively ( ! div9e attributes 9 ! fir/ book1 :]eas ! pro( ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god does n appe> until ! second book4 ,?is inv]sion ( ! logical ord] is delib]ate4 ,maimonides's me?od is direct$ ad hom9em4 ,! ,jews = :om he wrote 8 ,guide did n d\bt ! exi/5ce ( ,god4 ,b a great _m ( !m _h an inadequate idea ( 8 spiritual nature4 ,& app>5tly ! ,bible c\nt5anc$ _! an?ropomorphism4 ,h5ce ,maimonides ca/ logical consid]ations to ! w9d1 & dealt fir/ ) t :i* 0 ne>e/ to 8 he>t4 ,! re/ c\ld wait1 ?is c\ld n4 ,i promis$ 9 my comm5t>y on ! ,mi%na1 he tells u 9 ! introduction to ! ,guide1 to expla9 ! allegories & ,midra%im 9 two works to be entitl$ ,! ,book ( ,reconciliation & ,! ,book ( ,prophecy4 ,b aft] reflect+ on ! matt] a numb] ( ye>s ,i decid$ to desi/ f ! attempt4 ,! reasons are ^!4 ,if ,i express$ my explanations obscurely1 ,i %\ld h accompli%$ no?+ by sub/itut+ "o un9telligible /atem5t = ano!r4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ,i 7 really to make cle> ! matt]s t require explanation1 ! result w\ld n be suitable = ! masses1 = :om ^? treatises 7 int5d$4 ,besides1 ^? ,midra%im :5 read by an ignorant man are h>mless because to su* a p]son no?+ is impossible4 ,& if !y are read by a p]son :o is le>n$ & wor?y1 "o ( two ?+s is likely to happ54 ,ei!r he w take !m lit]ally & suspect ! au?or ( ignorance1 :i* is n a s]i\s (f5ce2 or he w reg>d ! leg5d>y /atem5ts z conta9+ an esot]ic mean+ & ?9k well ( ! au?or--:i* is a good ?+1 :e!r he cat* ! mean+ int5d$ or n4 ,accord+ly ,i gave up ! idea ( writ+ ! books m5tion$4 ,9 ?is "w ,i am address+ myself to ^? :o h be5 philosophiz+2 :o are believ]s 9 ! ,bible & at ! same "t "k sci5ce2 & are p]plex$ 9 _! ideas on acc\nt ( ! homonym\s t]ms4 ,hav+ made cle> ,maimonides's *ief int]e/ & purpose 9 8 ma/]piece we ne$ n foll[ 8 own me?od ( treatm5t1 :i* (t5 gives ! impression ( a /udi$ attempt to conceal 8 inn]mo/ ideas f all b ! initiat$4 ,at lea/ he is n will+ t anyone :o has n tak5 ! tr\ble c>efully to /udy & scrut9ize e *apt] & comp>e x ) :at prec$es & foll[s1 %\ld by a sup]ficial br[s+ "h & !re arrive at an und]/&+ ( ! pr(\nd problems treat$ 9 ! "w4 ,he believes t ! my/]i\s doctr9es pass+ by ! "n ( ,maase ,b]e%it & ,maase ,m]kaba 9 ! ,talmud 7cf4 ,introduction1 p4 xvi7 d5ote respectively ,physics & ,metaphysics--! v sci5ces ( :i* he treats 9 ! ,guide4 ,accord+ly he tells u t foll[+ ! in/ructions ( ! ,rabbis he mu/ n be expect$ to give m ?an b>e allusions4 ,& ev5 ^! are n arrang$ 9 ord] 9 ! book1 b scatt]$ & mix$ up ) o!r subjects :i* he desires to expla94 ,=1 z he says1 ,i d n want to oppose ! div9e int5tion1 :i* conceal$ ! tru?s ( 8 be+ f ! masses4 ,y mu/ n suppose1 he cont9ues1 t ^! my/]ies are kn[n to anybody completely4 ,by no means4 ,b sometimes ! tru? fla%es ^u u & x is day2 & !n aga9 our natural con/itution & habits %ut !m out1 & we are aga9 9 d>kness4 ,! relative proportion ( light & d>kness :i* a p]son enjoys 9 ^! matt]s1 makes ! diff]5ce 9 ! grade ( p]fection ( great m5 & prophets4 ,! greate/ ( ! prophets _h comp>atively little if any d>kness4 ,) ^? :o nev] see light at all1 namely ! masses ( ! p1 we h no?+ to d 9 ?is book4 ,f9ally he adjures ! read] n to expla9 to anyone else ! novel ideas f\nd 9 8 "w1 :i* are n conta9$ 9 ! writ+s ( 8 pr$ecessors4 ,heav5 kn[s1 he exclaims1 ,i hesitat$ long be=e writ+ ?is book1 because x conta9s unkn[n matt]s1 nev] be=e treat$ by any ,jewi% writ] 9 ! ,galut4 ,b ,i reli$ on two ,rabb9ic pr9ciples4 ,"o is t :5 x is a "q ( do+ some?+ = a great cause 9 a critical "t1 x is p]mitt$ to transgress a law4 ,! o!r is ! consci\sness t my motives are pure & unselfi%4 ,9 %ort1 he concludes1 ,i am ! man :o1 :5 he f9ds himself 9 a critical position & _c tea* tru? except by suit+ "o wor?y p]son & sc&aliz+ t5 ?\s& fools1 *ooses to say ! tru? = ! b5efit ( ! "o )\t reg>d = ! abuse ( ! great majority4 ,z we are n b\nd by ,maimonides's pr9ciple ( esot]ism & my/]y1 nor are we 9 fe> ( be+ an (f5ce & a /umbl+ block to ! fools1 we %all proce$ m directly 9 our exposition ( 8 philosophy2 & %all beg9 ) ,maimonides's g5]al ideas on ! ne$ ( sci5ce = intellig5t fai? & ! relation !reto ( ,jewi% hi/ory & lit]ature4 ,! highe/ subject ( /udy is metaphysics or !ology1 ! k ( ,god 7cf4 bel[1 p4 #bhe74 ,?is is n m]ely n =bidd5 9 ! ,bible1 b x is directly comm&$4 ,:5 ,moses says1 ,t ,i may "k !e1 to ! end t ,i may f9d grace 9 ?y sight 7,exod4 #cc1 #ac71 he intimates t only he f9ds favor ) ,god :o kn[s him1 & n m]ely :o fa/s & prays4#bed ,besides1 ! comm&m5t1 ,?\ %alt love ! ,"l ?y ,god1 _c be fulfill$ )\t a /udy & und]/&+ ( ! :ole ( nature4#bee ,?us1 z we %all see1 x is only by a /udy ( physics t we come to und]/& t affection is a defect & mu/ !re=e be remov$ f ! conception ( ,god4 ,! same ?+ applies to ! ideas ( pot5tiality & actuality4 ,we %\ld n "k :at !y signify )\t a /udy ( physics1 nor %\ld we und]/& t pot5tiality is a defect & h5ce n to be f\nd 9 ,god4 ,x is !re=e a duty to /udy bo? physics & metaphysics = a true k ( ,god4#bef ,at ! same "t we mu/ recognize t human reason has a limit & t !re are matt]s :i* are beyond its k54 ,n to realize ?is & to d5y :at has n be5 prov$ impossible is dang]\s1 & may lead a man a/ray aft] ! imag9ation & ! evil desires :i* qu5* ! light ( ! intellect4 ,& x is ?is ! ,bible & ! ,rabbis _h 9 m9d 9 su* passages z1 ,ha/ ?\ f\nd honey8 eat s mu* z is suffici5t = !e2 le/ ?\ be fill$ !re)1 & vomit x 7,prov4 #be1 #af72 or 9 ! foll[+ f ! ,mi%na1 ,:oev] pries into f\r ?+s1 _h bett] n come into ! _w1 viz41 :at is above & :at is bel[1 :at 0 be=e & :at w be aft] 7,hagigah1 *4 #b74 ,! mean+ is n1 z "s fools ?9k1 t ! ,rabbis =bid ! use ( ! reason entirely to rea* :at is 9 its p[]4 ,x is abuse ( ! reason t !y prohibit1 & neglect ( ! tru? t ! human reason has a limit4#beg ,accord+ly :ile ! /udy ( metaphysics & ! explanation ( ! allegories ( ,scripture are ?us %[n to be a necessity ( intellig5t belief1 x is n prop] to beg9 ) ^! difficult subjects4 ,"o mu/ fir/ be mature intellectually & possess$ ( ! prelim9>y sci5ces4 ,o!rwise ! /udy ( metaphysics is likely n m]ely to confuse ! m9d 9 its belief1 b to de/roy belief entirely4 ,x is l fe$+ an infant on :eat bread & meat & w9e4 ,^! are n bad 9 !mselves1 b ! infant is n prep>$ to dige/ !m4 ,t is :y ^! matt]s are giv5 9 ! ,bible 9 ! =m ( allegories1 because ! ,bible is int5d$ = all--m51 wom5 & *ildr5--n because metaphysical ideas are injuri\s 9 !mselves1 z "s fools imag9e1 :o believe !y are wise m54 ,= beg9n]s x is suffici5t t !y h ! "r view by tradition & "k ! exi/5ce ( c]ta9 be+s1 )\t be+ able to prove ! op9ions !y hold1 or to und]/& ! ess5ce ( ! be+ 9 ! exi/5ce ( :i* !y believe4 ,?is !y w acquire gradually if !y are capable4#beh ,!re are five causes prev5t+ ! /udy ( metaphysics on ! "p ( ! g5]al masses4 ,fir/1 ! difficulty ( ! subject itself4 ,second1 ! limitations ( all p's m9ds at ! beg9n+4 ,?ird1 ! great am\nt ( prep>atory tra9+ t is necess>y1 & :i* ev]ybody is n ready to und]take1 h[ev] eag] he may be to "k ! results4 ,& to /udy metaphysics )\t prelim9>y tra9+ is worse ?an n to /udy x at all4 ,= !re is no?+ 9 exi/5ce except ,god & 8 creation4 ,to "k ,god's exi/5ce & :at is & is n prop] to ascribe to him we mu/ exam9e 8 creation2 & ?us ari?metic1 ! nature ( numb]1 & ! prop]ties ( geometrical figures help u a great deal 9 det]m9+ :at attributes are inapplicable to ,god4 ,ev5 mu* m important = metaphysics is ! /udy ( sph]ical a/ronomy & physics1 :i* ?r[ light on ! relation ( ,god to ! _w4 ,!n !re are "s !oretical topics :i*1 :ile n directly ( help 9 metaphysics1 are useful 9 tra9+ ! m9d & enabl+ x to "k :at is true demon/ration4 ,"o :o wi%es !re=e to und]take ! /udy ( metaphysics1 mu/ fir/ /udy logic1 !n ! ma!matical sci5ces 9 ord]1 !n physics1 & n until he has ma/]$ all ^! introductory bran*es %\ld he take up metaphysics4 ,?is is too mu* = mo/ p1 :o w\ld die 9 ! mid/ ( _! prep>atory /udies1 & if n = tradition w\ld nev] "k :e!r !re is a ,god or n1 n to speak ( kn[+ :at attributes are applicable to him & :at are n4 ,! f\r? cause :i* keeps p away f ! /udy ( metaphysics is _! natural disposition4 ,= x has be5 %[n t intellectual qualities are dep5d5t ^u moral2 & ! =m] _c be p]fect unless ! latt] are4 ,n[ "s p]sons are temp]am5tally incapable ( "r ?9k+ by reason ( _! passionate nature2 & x is fooli% to attempt to tea* !m1 = x is n m$ic9e or geometry1 & n ev]ybody is prep>$ = x4 ,?is is ! reason1 too1 :y "y m5 _c /udy x1 because ( ! passions :i* are /ill /rong 9 !m4 ,f9ally z a fif? reason1 ! necessities ( ! body & its luxuries1 too1 /& 9 ! way ( a p]son's devot+ en\gh "t & att5tion to ?is subject4#bei ,l _m o!rs be=e him1 ,*ri/ians z well z ,jews1 ,maimonides also believ$ t 9 anci5t times ! ,jews dilig5tly cultivat$ ! sci5ces1 :i* 7 gradually =gott5 on acc\nt ( =eign dom9ation4 ,maimonides adds ano!r reason = _! disappe>ance1 namely1 t !y 7 n dissem9at$ abroad4 ,!y 7 conf9$ to a select few & 7 n put d[n 9 writ+ b h&$ d[n by ^w ( m\?4 ,z a result only a few h9ts are f\nd 9 ! ,talmud & ,midra%im1 :]e ! k]nel is small & ! husk l>ge1 s t p mi/ake ! husk = ! k]nel4#bfj ,he !n traces ! hi/ory ( philosophical ?9k+ 9 ,jewi% m$ival lit]ature f ! "t ( ! ,geonim1 & tells u t ! little t is f\nd ( ! ,kalam conc]n+ ! ,unity ( ,god & relat$ topics 9 ! works ( "s ( ! ,geonim & ! ,k>aites 9 ! ,ea/ is borr[$ f ! ,mutakallimun ( ! ,mohamm$ans & con/itutes a small fraction ( ! writ+s ( ! latt] on ?is subject4 ,! fir/ attempt 9 ?is direction among ! ,moslems 0 t ( ! p>ty kn[n z ! ,mutazila1 :om our p foll[$4 ,lat] came ! p>ty ( ! ,a%>iya ) diff]5t op9ions :i*1 h[ev]1 7 n adopt$ by any ( our p4 ,?is 0 n due1 he tells u1 to a delib]ate decision 9 favor ( ! ,mutazila1 b solely to ! hi/orical accid5t ( _! *ronological priority4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! ,spani% ,jews ( ,&alusia adopt$ ! views ( ! philosoph]s1 i4 e41 ! ,ari/otelians1 s f> z !y are n 9 conflict ) our religion4 ,!y d n foll[ ! ,mutakallimun1 & h5ce :at little ( ! subject is f\nd 9 ! works ( ! lat] writ]s ( ?is class resembles our own me?od & views4#bfa ,!re seems no d\bt t :atev] o!r ,spani% writ]s ,maimonides _h 9 m9d1 ^: works are n extant1 8 *>act]ization fits admirably ! ,emunah ,ramah ( ,abraham ,ibn ,daud 7cf4 above1 p4 #bag71 & 9 a less degree x is also true ( ,ibn ,gabirol1 ,bahya1 ,judah ,halevi1 ,moses & ,abraham ,ibn ,ezra4 ,bahya z we saw above 7p4 #hf7 /ill reta9s a good deal ( ,kalami/ic mat]ial & s does ,ibn ,zaddik 7p4 #abf74 ,z = ,mukammas1 ,saadia & ! two ,k>aites ,al ,basir & ,je%ua b5 ,judah1 we h se5 7pp4 #ag1 #bd1 #dh1 #ef7 t !y move :olly 9 ! ideas ( ! ,mutakallimun4 ,x becomes ( great int]e/ = u !re=e to see :at ,maimonides ?9ks ( ^! ,islamic !ologians1 ( _! orig9s1 ( _! me?ods & ( _! philosophical value4 ,maimonides's exposition & criticism ( ! pr9ciples ( ! ,mutakallimun is ( especial int]e/1 too1 because up to rec5t times 8 sket* ( ! t5ets ( ?is s*ool 0 ! only ext5sive acc\nt kn[n2 & x has n lo/ its value ev5 yet4 ,we %all1 h[ev]1 be oblig$ to abridge 8 detail$ exposition 9 ord] n to enl>ge our volume beyond due limits4 ,besides1 !re is no occasion = repeat+ :at we h already said ( ! ,kalam 9 our ,introduction 7p4 xxi ff472 ?\gh ! acc\nt !re giv5 0 n tak5 f ,maimonides & does n foll[ 8 ord]4 ,maimonides is aw>e t ! ,arabs are indebt$ to ! ,*ri/ians1 ,greeks z well z ,syrians4 ,! ,mutazila & ,a%>iya1 he says1 base _! op9ions ^u premises & pr9ciples borr[$ f ,greek & ,syrian ,*ri/ians1 :o endeavor$ to refute ! op9ions ( ! philosoph]s z dang]\s to ! ,*ri/ian religion4 ,!re 0 ?us a ,*ri/ian ,kalam prior to ! ,mohamm$an4#bfb ,_! me?od 0 to lay d[n premises favorable to _! religion1 & by means ( ^! to refute ! op9ions oppos$ to !m4 ,:5 ! ,mohamm$ans came ^u ! sc5e & translat$ ! works ( ! philosoph]s1 !y includ$ 9 _! "w ( translation ! refutations compos$ by ! ,*ri/ians4 ,9 ?is way !y f\nd ! works ( ,philoponus1 ,yahya b5 ,adi & o!rs2 & adopt$ also ! op9ions ( ! pre-,socratic philosoph]s1 :i* !y ?\ght w\ld be ( help to !m1 ?\gh ^! _h already be5 refut$ by ,ari/otle1 :o came aft]4 ,su* are ! atomic !ory ( matt] & ! belief 9 ! exi/5ce ( a vacuum4 ,^! op9ions !y c>ri$ to consequ5ces n at all contemplat$ by _! au?orities1 :o 7 clos] to ! philosoph]s4 ,to *>act]ize briefly ! me?ods ( ! ,mutakallimun1 ,maimonides cont9ues1 ,i w\ld say t ! fir/ among !m1 ! ,greeks & ! ,mohamm$ans1 did n foll[ reality1 b adopt$ pr9ciples :i* 7 calculat$ to help !m 9 def5d+ _! religi\s !ses1 & !n int]pret$ reality to suit _! preconceiv$ notions4 ,! lat] memb]s ( ! s*ool no long] saw ?r\gh ! motives ( _! pr$ecessors & imag9$ _! pr9ciples & argum5ts 7 bona fide refutations ( philosophical op9ions4 ,on exam9ation ( _! works ,i f\nd1 he cont9ues1 t ) slight diff]5ces !y are all alike4 ,!y d n put any tru/ 9 reality & nature4 ,=1 !y say1 ! s-call$ laws ( nature are no?+ m ?an ! ord] ( ev5ts to :i* we are accu/om$4 ,!re is no k9d ( necessity 9 !m1 & x is conceivable !y might be diff]5t4 ,9 _m cases ! ,mutakallimun foll[ ! imag9ation & call x reason4 ,_! me?od ( proc$ure is z foll[s4 ,!y fir/ /ate _! prelim9>y pr9ciples1 !n !y prove t ! _w is new1 i4 e41 creat$ 9 "t4 ,!n !y argue t ! _w mu/ h _h an orig9ator1 & t he is "o & incorporeal4 ,all ! ,mutakallimun foll[ ?is me?od1 & !y are imitat$ by ^? ( our own p :o foll[ 9 _! foot/eps4 ,to ?is me?od ,i h s]i\s objections1 cont9ues ,maimonides1 = _! argum5ts 9 favor ( ! creation ( ! _w are n conv9c+ unless "o does n "k a real demon/ration f a dialectical or sophi/ic4 ,! mo/ "o c d 9 ?is l9e is to invalidate ! argum5ts = et]nity4 ,b ! decision ( ! "q is by no means easy1 z is %[n by ! fact t ! controv]sy is ?ree ?\s& ye>s old & n yet settl$4 ,h5ce x is a risky policy to build ! argum5t = ! exi/5ce ( ,god on s %aky a f\ndation z ! newness ( ! _w4 ,! be/ way !n1 x seems to me1 is to prove ,god's exi/5ce1 unity & incorporeality by ! me?ods ( ! philosoph]s1 :i* are bas$ ^u ! et]nity ( ! _w4 ,n t ,i believe 9 et]nity or t ,i accept x1 b because on ?is hypo!sis ! ?ree fundam5tal doctr9es are validly demon/rat$4 ,hav+ prov$ ^! doctr9es we w !n return to ! problem ( ! orig9 ( ! _w & say :at c be said 9 favor ( creation4#bfc ,?is is a new contribution ( ,maimonides4 ,all ! ,jewi% writ]s be=e ,halevi foll[$ 9 _! pro(s ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god ! me?od designat$ by ,maimonides z t ( ! ,kalam4 ,judah ,halevi criticis$ ! ,mutakallimun z well z ! philosoph]s 9 ! int]e/ ( a po9t ( view all 8 own 7pp4 #agf ff41 #ahb74 ,ibn ,daud tacitly ignor$ ! ,kalam & bas$ 8 pro( ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god ^u ! pr9ciples ( motion z exhibit$ 9 ! ,ari/otelian ,physics1 )\t1 h[ev]1 f9d+ x necess>y to assume ev5 provisionally ! et]nity ( motion & ! _w 7p4 #bag ff474 ,8 pro( ( ! incorporeality ( ,god is1 z we h se5 7ibid471 weak1 j because he does n admit ! et]nity ( motion1 :i* alone implies inf9ity ( p[] 9 ,god & h5ce incorporeality4 ,maimonides is ! fir/ :o takes delib]ate acc\nt ( ! ,mutakallimun1 gives an adequate outl9e ( ! ess5tials ( _! tea*+ & adm9i/]s a cru%+ bl[ to _! pr9ciples z well z _! me?od4 ,he !n foll[s up 8 de/ructive criticism ) a con/ructive me?od1 9 :i* he frankly admits t 9 ord] to e/abli% ! exi/5ce1 unity & incorporeality ( ,god--! ?ree fundam5tal dogmas ( ,judaism--beyond ! possibility ( cavil1 we mu/ make common cause ) ! philosoph]s ev5 ?\gh x be only = a mom5t1 until !y h done our "w = u1 & !n we may fairly turn on our b5efactors & tak+ advantage ( _! weakness1 /rike !m d[n1 & ^u _! lifeless argum5ts = ! et]nity ( ! _w e/abli% our own m plausible !ory ( creation4 ,! attitude ( ,maimonides is 9 brief ?is4 ,if we 7 c]ta9 ( creation1 we %\ld n h to bo!r ) ! philosoph]s4 ,creation implies ! exi/5ce ( ,god4 ,b ! "q _c be /rictly demon/rat$ ei!r way4 ,h5ce let u prove ! exi/5ce ( ,god on ! lea/ promis+ hypo!sis1 namely1 t ( et]nity1 & we are q secure aga9/ all possible criticism4 ,( ! twelve propositions ( ! ,mutakallimun enum]at$ by ,maimonides z ! basis ( _! doctr9e ( ,god1 we %all select a few ( ! mo/ important4#bfd #a4 ,! ,!ory ( ,atoms4 ,! entire univ]se is made up ( indivisible bodies hav+ no magnitude4 ,_! comb9ation produces magnitude & corporeality4 ,!y are all alike4 ,g5esis & dissolution means simply ! comb9ation or r aggregation ( atoms & _! sep>ation4 ,^! atoms are n et]nal1 z ,epicurus believ$ !m to be1 b creat$4 #b4 ,?is atomic !ory !y ext5d f magnitude to "t4 ,"t also accord+ to !m is compos$ ( mom5ts or atomic units ( "t4 ,nei!r magnitude1 nor matt]1 nor "t is cont9u\s or inf9itely divisible4 #c4 ,apply+ ^! ideas to motion !y say t motion is ! passage ( an atom ( matt] f "o atom ( place to ! next 9 an atom ( "t4 ,x foll[s f ?is t "o motion is z fa/ z ano!r2 & !y expla9 ! app>5t v>iation 9 spe$ ( diff]5t motions1 z = example :5 two bodies cov] unequal di/ances 9 ! same "t1 by say+ t ! body cov]+ ! small] di/ance _h m re/s 9 ! int]vals betwe5 ! motions4 ,! same ?+ is true 9 ! flight ( an arr[1 t !re are re/s ev5 ?\gh ! s5ses d n reveal !m4 ,= ! s5ses _c be tru/$4 ,we mu/ foll[ ! reason4 ,maimonides's criticism ( ! atomic !ory ( matt] & motion j describ$ is t x und]m9es ! bases ( geometry4 ,! diagonal ( a squ>e w\ld be ! same l5g? z its side4 ,! prop]ties ( comm5surability & incomm5surability 9 l9es & surfaces1 ( rational & irrational l9es w\ld cease to h any mean+4 ,9 fact all t is conta9$ 9 ! t5? book ( ,euclid w\ld lose its f\ndation4 #d4 ,! atom is made complete by ! accid5ts1 )\t :i* x _c be4 ,e atom creat$ by ,god1 !y say1 mu/ h accid5ts1 su* z color1 odor1 motion1 & s on1 except quantity or magnitude1 :i* accord+ to !m is n accid5t4 ,if a sub/ance has an accid5t1 ! latt] is n attribut$ to ! body z a :ole1 b is ascrib$ to e atom ( :i* ! body is compos$4 ,?us 9 a :ite body e atom is :ite1 9 a mov+ body e atom is 9 motion1 9 a liv+ body e atom is alive1 & e atom is possess$ ( s5se p]ception2 = life & s5se & reason & wisdom are accid5ts 9 _! op9ion l :it5ess & blackness4 #f4 ,accid5t does n la/ m ?an "o mom5t ( "t4 ,:5 ,god creates an atom he creates at ! same "t an accid5t ) x4 ,atom )\t accid5t is impossible4 ,! accid5t disappe>s at ! end ( ! mom5t unless ,god creates ano!r ( ! same k9d1 & !n ano!r1 & s on1 z long z he wants ! accid5t ( t k9d to cont9ue4 ,if he ceases to create ano!r accid5t1 ! sub/ance too disappe>s4 ,_! motive 9 lay+ d[n ?is !ory ( accid5ts is 9 ord] to de/roy ! conception t ev]y?+ has a peculi> nature1 ( :i* its qualities & functions are ! results4 ,!y attribute ev]y?+ directly to ,god4 ,god creat$ a p>ticul> accid5t at ?is mom5t1 & ?is is ! explanation ( its be+4 ,if ,god ceases to create x anew ! next mom5t1 x w cease to be4 #g4 ,all t is n atom is accid5t1 & !re is no diff]5ce betwe5 "o k9d ( accid5t & ano!r 9 ref]5ce to ess5tiality4 ,all bodies are compos$ ( simil> atoms1 :i* diff] only 9 accid5ts2 & animality & humanity & s5sation & reason are all accid5ts4 ,h5ce ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! individuals ( ! same species is ! same z t betwe5 individuals ( diff]5t species4 ,! philosoph]s di/+ui% betwe5 ess5tial =ms ( ?+s & accid5tal prop]ties4 ,9 ?is way !y w\ld expla91 = example1 :y iron is h>d & black1 :ile butt] is s(t & :ite4 ,! ,mutakallimun d5y any su* di/9ction4 ,all =ms are accid5ts4 ,h5ce x w\ld foll[ t !re is no intr9sic reason :y man r ?an ! bat %\ld be a rational creature4 ,ev]y?+ t is conceivable is possible1 except :at involves a logical contradiction2 & ,god alone det]m9es at e in/ant :at accid5t %all comb9e ) a giv5 atom or gr\p ( atoms4 #h4 ,x foll[s f ! above also t man has no p[] ( ag5cy at all4 ,:5 we ?9k we are dye+ a g>m5t r$1 x is n we :o are do+ x at all4 ,god creates ! r$ color 9 ! g>m5t at ! "t :5 we apply ! r$ dye to x4 ,! r$ dye does n ent] ! g>m5t1 z we ?9k1 = an accid5t is only mom5t>y1 & _c pass beyond ! sub/ance 9 :i* x is4 ,:at appe>s to u z ! con/ancy & regul>ity ( nature is no?+ m ?an ! w ( ,god4 ,nor is our k ( to-day ! same z t ( ye/]day4 ,ye/]day's is gone & to-day's is creat$ anew4 ,s :5 a man moves a p51 x is n he :o moves x4 ,god creates motion 9 ! h&1 & at ! same "t 9 ! p54 ,! h& is n ! cause ( ! motion ( ! p54 ,9 %ort !y d5y causation4 ,god is ! sole cause4 ,9 respect to human conduct !y are divid$4 ,! majority1 & ! ,a%>iya among !m1 say t :5 a p]son moves a p51 ,god creates f\r accid5ts1 no "o ( :i* is ! cause ( ! o!r4 ,!y m]ely exi/ 9 succession1 b no m4 ,! fir/ accid5t is ! man's w to move ! p52 ! second1 8 ability to move x2 ! ?ird1 ! motion ( ! h&2 ! f\r?1 ! motion ( ! p54 ,x foll[s f ?is t :5 a p]son does any?+1 ,god creates 9 him a w1 ! ability & ! act itself1 b ! act is n ! effect ( ! ability4 ,! ,mutazila hold t ! ability is ! cause ( ! effect4 #i4 ,impossibility ( ! ,inf9ite4 ,!y hold t ! inf9ite is impossible 9 any s5se1 :e!r actual or pot5tial or accid5tal4 ,t an actual inf9ite is impossible is a matt] ( pro(4 ,s x c be & has be5 prov$ t ! pot5tial inf9ite is possible4 ,= example ext5sion is inf9itely divisible1 i4 e41 pot5tially4 ,z to ! accid5tal inf9ite1 i4 e41 an inf9ity ( p>ts ( :i* ea* ceases to be z soon z ! next appe>s1 ?is is d\btful4 ,^? :o boa/ ( hav+ prov$ ! et]nity ( ! _w say t "t is inf9ite1 & def5d _! view aga9/ criticism by ! claim t ! successive p>ts ( "t disappe>4 ,9 ! same way ^! p reg>d x z possible t an inf9ite numb] ( accid5ts h succe$$ ea* o!r on ! univ]sal matt]1 because "h too !y are n all pres5t n[1 ! previ\s hav+ disappe>$ be=e ! succe$+ ones came4 ,! ,mutakallimun d n admit ( any k9d ( inf9ite4 ,!y prove x 9 ?is way4 ,if pa/ "t & ! _w are inf9ite1 !n ! numb] ( m5 :o di$ up to a giv5 po9t 9 ! pa/ is inf9ite4 ,! numb] ( m5 :o di$ up to a po9t "o ?\s& ye>s be=e ! =m] is also inf9ite4 ,b ?is numb] is less ?an ! o!r by ! numb] ( m5 :o di$ dur+ ! ?\s& ye>s betwe5 ! two />t+ po9ts4 ,h5ce ! inf9ite is l>g] ?an ! inf9ite1 :i* is absurd4 ,if ! accid5tal inf9ite 7 really impossible ! !ory ( ! et]nity ( ! _w w\ld be refut$ at once4 ,b ,alf>abi has %[n t ! argum5ts aga9/ accid5tal inf9ity are invalid4 #aj4 ,di/ru/ ( ! ,s5ses4 ,! s5ses1 !y say1 _c be reg>d$ z crit]ia ( tru? & falsehood2 = _m ?+s ! s5ses _c see at all1 ei!r because ! objects are s f9e1 or because !y are f> away4 ,9 o!r cases ! s5ses are deceptive1 z :5 ! l>ge appe>s small at a di/ance1 ! small appe>s great 9 ! wat]1 & ! /raight appe>s brok5 :5 p>tly 9 wat] & p>tly )\t4 ,s a man ) ! jaundice sees ev]y?+ yell[1 & "o ) r$ bile on 8 tongue ta/es ev]y?+ bitt]4 ,!re is me?od 9 _! madness4 ,! motive = ?is sceptical pr9ciple is to evade criticism4 ,if ! s5ses te/ify 9 opposition to _! !ories1 !y reply t ! s5ses _c be tru/$1 z !y did 9 _! explanation ( motion & 9 _! !ory ( ! succession ( creat$ accid5ts4 ,^! are all anci5t !ories ( ! ,sophi/s1 z is cle> f ,gal54#bfe ,hav+ giv5 an outl9e ( ! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( ! ,mutakallimun & criticis$ !m1 ,maimonides next gives _! argum5ts bas$ ^u ^! pr9ciples 9 favor ( creation 9 "t & aga9/ et]nity4 ,x w n be wor? our :ile to reproduce !m "h z !y are n adopt$ by ,maimonides1 & we h already met "s ( !m ?\gh 9 a some:at modifi$ =m be=e 7cf4 above1 pp4 #bi ff474#bff ,! ,kalami/ic pro(s = ! unity ( ,god are simil>ly id5tical = ! mo/ "p ) ^? f\nd 9 ,saadia1 ,bahya & o!rs1 & we ne$ only m5tion ,maimonides's criticism t !y are inadequate unless we assume ) ! ,mutakallimun t all atoms 9 ! univ]se are ( ! same k9d4 ,if1 h[ev]1 we adopt ,ari/otle's !ory1 :i* is m plausible1 t ! matt] ( ! heav5ly bodies is diff]5t f t ( ! sublun> _w1 we may def5d dualism by suppos+ t "o ,god controls ! heav5s & ! o!r ! e>?4 ,! inability ( ! "o to gov]n ! doma9 ( ! o!r w\ld n necess>ily argue imp]fection1 any m ?an we :o believe 9 ! unity ( ,god reg>d x z a defect 9 ,god t he _c make a ?+ bo? be & n be4 ,?is belongs to ! category ( ! impossible2 & we %\ld likewise class 9 ! same category ! control ( a sph]e t is indep5d5t ( "o & belongs to ano!r4 ,?is is purely an argum5tum ad hom9em1 = ,maimonides does n reg>d ! sublun> & sup]lun> worlds z indep5d5t ( ea* o!r4 ,he recognizes ! unity ( ! univ]se4#bfg ,maimonides closes 8 discussion ( ! ,kalami/ic sy/em by cit+ _! argum5ts = incorporeality1 :i* he likewise f9ds inadequate1 bo? because !y are bas$ ^u ,god's unity1 :i* !y did n succe$ 9 prov+ 7,saadia1 9 s f> z he relates ! two1 bases unity ^u incorporeality71 & because ( inh]5t weakness4#bfh ,hav+ dispos$ ( ! argum5ts ( ! ,mutakallimun1 ,maimonides proce$s to prove ! exi/5ce1 unity & incorporeality ( ,god by ! me?ods ( ! philosoph]s1 i4 e41 ^? :o1 l ,alf>abi & ,avic5na1 take _! argum5ts f ,ari/otle4 ,! *ief pro(#bfi is bas$ ^u ! ,ari/otelian pr9ciples ( motion & is f\nd 9 ! eigh? book ( ,ari/otle's ,physics4 ,we h already met ?is pro( 9 ,ibn ,daud 7cf4 above1 p4 #bag71 & ! me?od 9 ,maimonides diff]s only 9 =m & complet5ess1 b n 9 ess5ce4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 ?is v important diff]5ce t ,ibn ,daud fights %y ( ,ari/otle's !ory ( ! et]nity ( motion & "t1 ?us los+ 8 /ronge/ argum5t = ,god's inf9ite p[] & incorporeality 7cf4 p4 #bah72 :]eas ,maimonides frankly bases 8 entire argum5t f motion 7provisionally to be sure7 ^u ! ,ari/otelian !ory1 includ+ et]nity ( motion4 ,) ?is important deviation !re is n mu* 9 ?is "p ( ! ,maimonidean discussion :i* is n already conta9$1 ?\gh less completely1 9 ! ,emunah ,ramah ( ,abraham ,ibn ,daud4 ,we %\ld be tempt$ to omit ^! te*nical argum5ts entirely if x 7 n = ! fact t x is 9 ! =m :i* ,maimonides gave !m t !y became classic 9 ,jewi% philosophy1 & n 9 t ( ,ibn ,daud4 ,! second pro( ( ,god's exi/5ce1 unity & incorporeality1 t bas$ ^u ! di/9ction betwe5 possible & necess>y exi/5t1#bgj :i* has its orig9 9 ,alf>abi & ,avic5na1 is also f\nd 9 ,ibn ,daud4#bga ,! o!r two pro(s#bgb are ,maimonides's own1 i4 e41 !y are n f\nd 9 ! works ( 8 ,jewi% pr$ecessors4 ,z 9 ! exposition ( ! !ory ( ! ,mutakallimun ,maimonides began ) _! fundam5tal pr9ciples1 s "h he lays d[n tw5ty-six propositions cull$ f ! ,physics & ,metaphysics ( ,ari/otle & 8 ,arabian comm5tators1 & applies !m lat] to prove 8 po9ts4 ,he does n attempt to demon/rate !m1 expect+ ! read] to take !m = grant$1 or to be famili> ) !m f a /udy ( ! philosophical s\rces4 ,ibn ,daud presuppos$ less f 8 read]s1 hav+ writt5 z he said1 = beg9n]s2 h5ce he proves _m ( ! propositions :i* ,maimonides lays d[n dogmatically4 ,possibly ,maimonides expect$ 8 read]s to be famili> ) ! "w ( 8 imm$iate ,jewi% pr$ecessor4 ,! tw5ty-six propositions ( ! philosoph]s are z foll[s3 #a4 ,!re c be no inf9ite object possess+ magnitude4 #b4 ,!re _c be an inf9ite numb] ( bodies possess+ magnitude1 all at ! same "t4 #c4 ,!re _c be an inf9ite *a9 ( cause & effect1 ev5 if ^! l9ks are n possess$ ( magnitude1 = example1 intellects4 #d4 ,*ange is f\nd 9 f\r categories4 ,9 sub/ance--g5esis & decay4 ,9 quantity--gr[? & dim9ution4 ,9 quality--qualitative *ange4 ,9 place--motion ( translation4 #e4 ,all motion is *ange1 & is ! realization ( ! pot5tial4 #f4 ,motion may be p] se1 p] accid5s1 =cible1 p>tial1 ! latt] com+ "u p] accid5s4 ,an example ( motion p] se is ! motion ( a body f "o place to ! next2 ( motion p] accid5s1 :5 ! blackness ( an object is said to move f "o place to ano!r4 ,=cible motion is t ( ! /one :5 x is =c$ upw>d4 ,p>tial motion is t ( a nail ( a %ip :5 ! %ip moves4 #g4 ,e *angeable ?+ is divisible2 h5ce e movable ?+ is divisible1 i4 e41 e body is divisible4 ,:at is n divisible is n movable1 & h5ce _c be body4 #h4 ,t :i* is mov$ p] accid5s is necess>ily at re/ because its motion is n 9 itself4 ,h5ce x _c h t accid5tal motion =ev]4 #i4 ,a body mov+ ano!r mu/ itself be 9 motion at ! same "t4 #aj4 ,be+ 9 a body means "o ( two ?+s3 be+ 9 x z an accid5t1 or z con/itut+ ! ess5ce ( ! body1 l a natural =m4 ,bo? are corporeal p[]s4 #aa4 ,"s ?+s :i* are 9 a body are divid$ ) ! division ( ! body4 ,!y are !n divid$ p] accid5s1 l colors & o!r p[]s ext5d+ ?r\gh\t ! body4 ,"s ( ! ?+s :i* con/itute ! body are n divisible at all1 l s\l & intellect4 #ab4 ,e p[] :i* ext5ds ?r\gh\t a body is f9ite1 because all body is f9ite4 #ac4 ,none ( ! k9ds ( *ange m5tion$ 9 #d is cont9u\s except motion ( translation2 & ( ?is only circul> motion4 #ad4 ,motion ( translation is ! fir/ by nature ( ! motions4 ,= g5esis & decay presuppose qualitative *ange2 & qualitative *ange presupposes ! approa* ( ! ag5t caus+ ! *ange to ! ?+ und]go+ ! *ange4 ,& !re is no gr[? or dim9ution )\t antec$5t g5esis & decay4 #ae4 ,"t is an accid5t foll[+ motion & connect$ ) x4 ,! "o _c exi/ )\t ! o!r4 ,no motion except 9 "t1 & "t _c be conceiv$ except ) motion4 ,:atev] has no motion does n come "u "t4 #af4 ,:atev] is incorporeal _c be subject to numb]1 unless x is a corporeal p[]2 9 :i* case ! individual p[]s are numb]$ ) _! matt]s or be>]s4 ,h5ce ! sep>ate =ms or ,intellig5ces1 :i* are nei!r bodies nor corporeal p[]s1 _c h ! conception ( numb] connect$ ) !m1 except :5 !y are relat$ to "o ano!r z cause & effect4 #ag4 ,ev]y?+ t moves1 necess>ily has a mov]1 ei!r outside1 l ! h& mov+ ! /one1 or inside l ! animal body1 :i* consi/s ( a mov]1 ! s\l1 & a mov$1 ! body prop]4 ,e mobile ( ! la/ k9d is call$ a self-mov+ ?+4 ,?is means t ! motor elem5t 9 ! ?+ is "p ( ! :ole ?+ 9 motion4 #ah4 ,if any?+ passes f pot5tiality to actuality1 ! ag5t t caus$ ?is mu/ be outside ! ?+4 ,= if x 7 inside & !re 0 no ob/ruction1 ! ?+ w\ld nev] be pot5tial1 b always actual2 & if !re 0 an ob/ruction1 :i* 0 remov$1 ! ag5cy :i* remov$ ! ob/ruction is ! cause :i* caus$ ! ?+ to pass f pot5tiality to actuality4 #ai4 ,:atev] has a cause = its exi/5ce is a possible exi/5t 9 s f> z itself is conc]n$4 ,if ! cause is !re1 ! ?+ exi/s2 if n1 x does n4 ,possible "h means n necess>y4 #bj4 ,:atev] is a necess>y exi/5t 9 itself1 has no cause = its exi/5ce4 #ba4 ,e composite has ! cause ( its exi/5ce 9 ! composition4 ,h5ce x is n 9 itself a necess>y exi/5t2 = its exi/5ce is dep5d5t ^u ! exi/5ce ( its con/itu5t p>ts & ^u _! composition4 #bb4 ,all body is compos$ necess>ily ( two ?+s1 matt] & =m2 & x necess>ily has accid5ts1 viz41 quantity1 figure1 situation4 #bc4 ,:atev] is pot5tial & has 9 x a possibility may at "s "t n exi/ z an actuality4 #bd4 ,:atev] is pot5tial is necess>ily possess$ ( matt]1 = possibility is always 9 matt]4 #be4 ,! pr9ciples ( an individual comp\nd sub/ance are matt] & =m2 & !re mu/ be an ag5t1 i4 e41 a mov] :i* moves ! object or ! und]ly+ matt] until x prep>es x to receive ! =m4 ,?is ne$ n be ! ultimate mov]1 b a proximate "o hav+ a p>ticul> function4 ,! idea ( ,ari/otle is t matt] _c move itself4 ,?is is ! great pr9ciple :i* leads u to inve/igate into ! exi/5ce ( ! fir/ mov]4 ,( ^! tw5ty-five propositions1 ,maimonides cont9ues1 "s are cle> aft] a little reflection1 "s aga9 require _m premises & pro(s1 b !y are all prov$ 9 ! ,physics & ,metaphysics ( ,ari/otle & 8 comm5tators4 ,my purpose "h is1 z ,i said1 n to reproduce ! writ+s ( ! philosoph]s4 ,i w simply m5tion ^? pr9ciples :i* we mu/ h = our purpose4 ,i mu/ add1 h[ev]1 "o m proposition1 :i* ,ari/otle ?9ks is true & m des]v+ ( belief ?an any?+ else4 ,we w grant him ?is by way ( hypo!sis until we expla9 :at we int5d to prove4 ,! proposition is3 #bf4 ,"t & motion are et]nal & actual4 ,h5ce !re mu/ be a body mov+ et]nally & exi/+ actually4 ,?is is ! matt] con/itut+ ! sub/ance ( ! heav5ly bodies4 ,h5ce ! heav5s are n subject to g5esis & decay1 = _! motion is et]nal4 ,?is presupposes ! possibility ( accid5tal inf9ity 7cf4 above1 p4 #bea74 ,ari/otle reg>ds ?is z true1 ?\gh x does n seem to me t he claims he has prov$ x4 ,8 foll[]s & comm5tators ma9ta9 t x is a necess>y proposition & demon/rat$4 ,! ,mutakallimun1 on ! o!r h&1 ?9k x is impossible t !re %\ld be an inf9ite numb] ( /ates 9 succession 7cf4 ibid474 ,x seems to me x is nei!r necess>y nor impossible1 b possible4 ,?is is1 h[ev]1 n ! place to discuss x4#bgc ,n[ foll[s ! classical pro( ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god f motion4 ,x is 9 ess5ce ! same z t giv5 by ,ibn ,daud1 b mu* m elaborate4 ,we %all try to simplify x z mu* z possible4 ,! numb]s 9 p>5!ses 9 ! sequel ref] to ! prelim9>y propositions above giv54 ,we />t ) some?+ t is kn[n1 namely1 ! motion we see 9 ! sublun> _w1 ! motion :i* is involv$ 9 all ! processes ( g5esis & decay & *ange g5]ally4 ,?is motion mu/ h a mov] 7#be74 ,?is mov] mu/ h ano!r mov] to move x1 & ?is w\ld lead u to inf9ity1 :i* is impossible 7#c74 ,we f9d1 h[ev]1 t all motion "h bel[ ends ) ! motion ( ! heav54 ,let u take an example4 ,! w9d is bl[+ ?r\gh an op5+ 9 ! wall4 ,i take a /one & /op up ! hole4 ,"h ! /one is mov$ by ! h&1 ! h& by ! t5dons1 ! t5dons by ! n]ves1 ! n]ves by ! ve9s1 ! ve9s by ! natural heat1 ! natural heat by ! animal s\l1 ! animal s\l by a purpose1 namely1 to /op ! hole f :i* ! w9d comes1 ! purpose by ! w9d1 ! w9d by ! motion ( ! heav5ly sph]e4 ,b ?is is n ! end4 ,! sph]e mu/ also h a mov] 7#ag74 ,?is mov] is ei!r outside ! sph]e x moves or )9 x4 ,if x is some?+ outside1 x is ei!r aga9 a body l ! sph]e1 or an incorporeal ?+1 a ,sep>ate ,intellig5ce4 ,if ! mov] ( ! sph]e is some?+ )9 ! sph]e1 two alt]natives are aga9 possible4 ,! int]nal mov+ p[] ( ! sph]e may be a corporeal =ce ext5d$ ?r\gh\t ! body ( ! sph]e & divisible ) x l heat1 or an indivisible p[] l s\l or intellect 7#aj1 #aa74 ,we ?us h f\r possibilities 9 all4 ,! mov] ( ! heav5ly sph]e may be 7a7 a body ext]nal to ! sph]e2 7b7 a sep>ate incorporeal sub/ance2 7c7 an int]nal corporeal p[] divisible ) ! division ( ! sph]e2 7d7 an int]nal indivisible p[]4 ,( ^! f\r1 7a7 is impossible4 ,= if ! mov] ( ! sph]e is ano!r body1 x is likewise 9 motion 7#i7 & mu/ h ano!r to move x1 :i*1 if a body1 mu/ h ano!r1 & s on ad inf9itum1 :i* is impossible 7#b74 ,! ?ird hypo!sis1 7c71 is likewise impossible4 ,= z ! sph]e is a body x is f9ite 7#a71 & its p[] is also f9ite 7#ab71 s9ce x is divisible ) ! body ( ! sph]e 7#aa74 ,h5ce x _c move inf9itely 7#bf74 ,nor c we adopt ! la/ alt]native1 7d74 ,= a s\l resid+ )9 ! sph]e c\ld n alone be ! cause ( cont9u\s motion4 ,= a s\l t moves its body is itself 9 motion p] accid5s 7#f72 & :atev] moves p] accid5s mu/ necess>ily sometime /op 7#h71 & ) x ! ?+ set 9 motion by x w /op also4 ,!re is ?us only "o alt]native left1 7b71 viz41 t ! cause ( ! motion ( ! sph]e is a sep>ate 7i4 e41 incorporeal7 p[]1 :i* is itself n subject to motion ei!r p] se or p] accid5s2 h5ce x is indivisible & un*angeable 7#g1 #e74 ,?is is ,god4 ,he _c be two or m1 = sep>ate ess5ces :i* are n body are n subject to numb] unless "o is cause & ! o!r effect 7#af74 ,x foll[s1 too1 t he is n subject to "t1 = !re is no "t )\t motion 7#ae74 ,we h ?us prov$ ) "o /roke ,god's exi/5ce z well z 8 unity & incorporeality4 ,b1 x w be obs]v$1 if n = ! tw5ty-six? proposition conc]n+ ! et]nity ( motion1 :i* implies an inf9ite p[]1 we %\ld n h be5 =c$ to ! alt]native 7b71 & c\ld h adopt$ 7c7 z well z 7d74 ,t is1 we might h conclud$ t ,god is ! s\l ( ! heav5ly sph]e resid5t )9 x1 or ev5 t he is a corporeal =ce p]vad+ ! ext5sion ( ! sph]e z heat p]vades an ord9>y body4 ,b we mu/ admit t 9 ?is way we prove only ! exi/5ce ( a ,god :o is ! cause ( ! heav5ly motions1 & ?r\gh ^! ( ! processes ( g5esis & decay1 h5ce ( all ! life ( our sublun> _w4 ,?is is n ! ,god ( ,jewi% tradition1 :o creates out ( no?+1 :o is ! cause ( ! be+ ( ! univ]se z well z ( its life processes4 ,maimonides 0 aw>e ( ?is defect 9 ! ,ari/otelian view1 & he lat] repudiates ! ,/agirite's !ory ( et]nal motion on philosophical z well z religi\s gr\nds4 ,be=e1 h[ev]1 we speak ( ,maimonides's attitude 9 ?is matt]1 we mu/ = complet5ess' sake briefly m5tion ?ree o!r pro(s = ! exi/5ce ( ,god z giv5 by ,maimonides4 ,!y are n /rictly ,ari/otelian1 ?\gh !y are bas$ ^u ,p]ipatetic pr9ciples cit$ above & due to ! ,arabian comm5tators ( ,ari/otle4 ,! second pro( is z foll[s4 ,if we f9d a ?+ compos$ ( two elem5ts1 & "o ( ^! elem5ts is also f\nd sep>ately1 x foll[s t ! o!r elem5t is f\nd sep>ately also4 ,n[ we frequ5tly f9d ! two elem5ts ( caus+ motion & be+ mov$ comb9$ 9 ! same object4 ,& we also f9d ?+s :i* are mov$ only1 b d n cause motion1 z = example matt]1 or ! /one 9 ! la/ pro(4 ,x /&s to reason !re=e t !re is some?+ t causes motion )\t be+ itself subject to motion4 ,n be+ subject to motion1 x is indivisible1 incorporeal & n subject to "t1 z above4 ,! ?ird pro( is bas$ ^u ! idea ( necess>y exi/5ce4 ,!re is no d\bt t !re are exi/+ ?+s1 = example ! ?+s we p]ceive ) our s5ses4 ,n[ ei!r all ?+s are incapable ( decay1 or all are subject to g5esis & decay1 or "s are & "s are n4 ,! fir/ is evid5tly untrue = we see ?+s com+ into1 & pass+ out1 ( be+4 ,! second hypo!sis is likewise untrue4 ,= if all ?+s are subject to g5esis & decay1 !re is a possibility t at "s "t all ?+s might cease to be & no?+ %\ld exi/ at all4 ,b z ! com+ & go+ ( individuals 9 ! v>i\s species 9 ! _w has be5 go+ on f et]nity1 ! possibility j spok5 ( mu/ h be5 realiz$--a possibility t is nev] realiz$ is n a possibility--& no?+ exi/$ at all at t mom5t4 ,b 9 t case h[ c\ld !y ev] h come into be+1 s9ce !re 0 no?+ to br+ !m into be+8 ,& yet !y d exi/1 z ourselves = example & ev]y?+ else4 ,!re is only "o alt]native left1 !re=e1 & t is t beside ! great majority ( ?+s subject to g5esis & decay1 !re is a be+ n subject to *ange1 a necess>y exi/5t1 & ultimately "o t exi/s by virtue ( its own necessity 7#ai74 ,:atev] is necess>y p] se c h no cause = its exi/5ce 7#bj7 & c h no multiplicity 9 itself 7#ba72 h5ce x is nei!r a body nor a corporeal p[] 7#ab74 ,we c also prove easily t !re _c be two necess>y exi/5ts p] se4 ,= 9 t case ! elem5t ( necess>y exi/5ce w\ld be some?+ add$ to ! ess5ce ( ea*1 & nei!r w\ld !n be necess>y p] se1 b p] t elem5t ( necess>y exi/5ce :i* is common to bo?4 ,! la/ argum5t aga9/ dualism may also be =mulat$ z foll[s4 ,if !re are two ,gods1 !y mu/ h some?+ 9 common--t 9 virtue ( :i* !y are ,gods--& some?+ 9 :i* !y diff]1 :i* makes !m two & n "o4 ,if ea* ( !m has 9 addition to div9ity a diff]5tial elem5t1 !y are bo? composite1 & nei!r is ! fir/ cause or ! necess>y exi/5t 7#ai74 ,if "o ( !m only has ?is diff]5tia1 !n ?is "o is composite & is n ! fir/ cause4 ,! f\r? pro( is v mu* l ! fir/1 b is bas$ ^u ! ideas ( pot5tiality & actuality in/ead ( motion4 ,b :5 we consid] t ,ari/otle def9es motion 9 t]ms ( pot5tiality & actuality1 ! f\r? pro( is id5tical ) ! fir/4 ,x reads 9 ,maimonides z foll[s3 ,we see con/antly ?+s exi/+ pot5tially & com+ into actuality4 ,e su* ?+ mu/ h an ag5t outside 7#ah74 ,x is cle>1 too1 t ?is ag5t 0 fir/ an ag5t pot5tially & !n became "o actually4 ,?is pot5tiality 0 due ei!r to an ob/acle 9 ! ag5t himself or to ! abs5ce ( a c]ta9 relation betwe5 ! ag5t & its effect4 ,9 ord] t ! pot5tial ag5t may become an actual ag5t1 !re is ne$ ( ano!r ag5t to remove ! ob/acle or to br+ ab\t ! ne$$ relation betwe5 ! ag5t & ! ?+ to be act$ ^u4 ,?is ag5t requires ano!r ag5t1 & s x goes ad inf9itum4 ,z ?is is impossible1 we mu/ /op some:]e ) an ag5t t is always actual & 9 "o condition4 ,?is ag5t _c be mat]ial1 b mu/ be a sep>ate 7#bd74 ,b ! sep>ate 9 :i* !re is no k9d ( pot5tiality & :i* exi/s p] se1 is ,god4 ,z we h already prov$ him incorporeal1 he is "o 7#af74bgd ,we mu/ n[ analyze ! expressions incorporeal & "o1 & see :at 9 /rictness !y imply1 & h[ our logical d$uctions agree ) ,scripture4 ,_m p]sons1 misl$ by ! metaphorical expressions 9 ! ,bible1 ?9k ( ,god z hav+ a body ) organs & s5ses on ! analogy ( ours4 ,o!rs are n s crude z to ?9k ( ,god 9 an?ropomorphic t]ms1 nor are !y poly!i/s1 & yet = ! same reason1 namely1 misund]/&+ ( ,scriptural expressions1 ascribe a plurality ( ess5tial attributes to ,god4 ,we mu/ !re=e insi/ on ! absolute incorporeality ( ,god & expla9 ! purpose ( ,scripture 9 express+ itself 9 an?ropomorphic t]ms1 & on ! o!r h& emphasize ! absolute unity ( ,god aga9/ ! believ]s 9 ess5tial attributes4 ,belief 9 ,god z body or z liable to suff] affection is worse ?an idolatry4 ,= ! idolat] does n d5y ! exi/5ce ( ,god2 he m]ely makes ! mi/ake ( suppos+ t ! image ( 8 own con/ruction resembles a be+ :i* m$iates betwe5 him & ,god4 ,& yet because ?is leads to errone\s belief on ! "p ( ! p1 :o are incl9$ to wor%ip ! image itself in/ead ( ,god 7= ! p _c discrim9ate betwe5 ! outw>d act & its idea71 ! ,bible puni%es idolatry ) dea?1 & calls ! idolat] a man :o ang]s ,god4 ,h[ mu* m s]i\s is ! error ( him :o ?9ks ,god is body6 ,he ent]ta9s an error reg>d+ ! nature ( ,god directly1 & surely causes ! ang] ( ,god to burn4 ,habit & cu/om & ! evid5ce ( ! lit]al und]/&+ ( ! ,biblical text are no m an excuse = ?is errone\s belief ?an !y are = idolatry2 = ! idolat]1 too1 has be5 br\ght up 9 8 wrong ideas & is confirm$ 9 !m by "s false notions4 ,if a man is n himself able to reason out ! tru?1 !re is no excuse = 8 refus+ to li/5 to "o :o has reason$ x out4 ,a p]son is n an unbeliev] = n be+ able to prove ! incorporeality ( ,god4 ,he is an unbeliev] if he ?9ks ,god is corporeal4#bge ,! expressions 9 ! ,bible :i* h l$ _m to err s griev\sly 9 _! conceptions ( ,god are due to a desire on ! "p ( _! au?ors to %[ all p1 ! masses includ+ wom5 & *ildr51 t ,god exi/s & is possess$ ( all p]fection1 t he is exi/5t1 liv+1 wise1 p[]ful1 & active4 ,h5ce x 0 necess>y to speak ( him z body1 = ?is is ! only ?+ t sugge/s real exi/5ce to ! masses4 ,x 0 necess>y to end[ him ) motion1 z ?is alone d5otes life2 to ascribe to him see+1 he>+1 & s on1 9 ord] to indicate t he und]/&s2 to repres5t him z speak+1 9 ord] to %[ t he communicates ) prophets1 because to ! m9ds ( common p ?is is ! only way 9 :i* ideas are communicat$ f "o p]son to ano!r4 ,z we are active by our s5se ( t\*1 ,god1 too1 is describ$ z do+4 ,he is giv5 a s\l1 to d5ote t he is alive4 ,!n z all ^! activities are among u done by means ( organs1 ^! also are ascrib$ to ,god1 z feet1 h&s1 e>1 eye1 nose1 m\?1 tongue1 voice1 f+]s1 palm1 arm4 ,9 o!r words1 to %[ t ,god has all p]fections1 c]ta9 s5ses are ascrib$ to him2 & to indicate ^! s5ses ! respective organs are relat$ to !m1 organs ( motion to d5ote life1 ( s5sation to d5ote und]/&+1 ( t\* to d5ote activity1 ( spee* to d5ote revelation4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 h[ev]1 s9ce all ^! organs & p]ceptions & p[]s 9 man & animals are due to imp]fection & are = ! purpose ( satisfy+ v>i\s wants = ! pres]vation ( ! individual or ! species1 & ,god has no wants ( any k9d1 he has no su* p[]s or organs4#bgf ,hav+ dispos$ ( crude an?ropomorphism we mu/ n[ take up ! problem ( attributes1 :i* endang]s ! unity4 ,x is a self-evid5t tru? t an attribute is some?+ diff]5t f ! ess5ce ( a ?+4 ,x is an accid5t add$ to ! ess5ce4 ,o!rwise x is ! ?+ ov] aga91 or x is ! def9ition ( ! ?+ & ! explanation ( ! "n1 & signifies t ! ?+ is compos$ ( ^! elem5ts4 ,if we say ,god has _m attributes1 x w foll[ t !re are _m et]nals4 ,! only belief 9 true unity is to ?9k t ,god is "o simple sub/ance )\t composition or multiplicity ( elem5ts1 b "o 9 all respects & aspects4 ,"s g s f> z to say t ! div9e attributes are nei!r ,god's ess5ce nor any?+ outside ( 8 ess5ce4 ,?is is absurd4 ,x is say+ words :i* h no?+ correspond+ to !m 9 fact4 ,a ?+ is ei!r ! same z ano!r1 or x is n ! same4 ,!re is no o!r alt]native4 ,! imag9ation is responsible = ?is error4 ,because bodies z we "k !m always h attributes1 !y ?\ght t ,god1 too1 is made up ( _m ess5tial elem5ts or attributes4 ,attributes may be ( five k9ds3 #a4 ,! attributes ( a ?+ may be its def9ition1 :i* d5otes its ess5ce z det]m9$ by its causes4 ,?is ev]yone w admit _c be 9 ,god1 = ,god has no cause1 h5ce _c be def9$4 #b4 ,an attribute may consi/ ( a "p ( a def9ition1 z :5 we say1 man is rational1 :]e ! attribute rational is "p ( ! def9ition ( man1 rational animal be+ ! :ole def9ition4 ,?is c apply to ,god no m ?an ! fir/2 = if !re is a "p 9 ,god's ess5ce1 he is composite4 #c4 ,an attribute may be an expression :i* *>act]izes n ! ess5ce ( ! ?+ b its quality4 ,quality is "o ( ! n9e categories ( accid5t1 & ,god has no accid5ts4 #d4 ,an attribute may indicate relation1 su* z fa!r1 ma/]1 son1 slave4 ,at fir/ sight x might seem z if ?is k9d ( attribute may be applicable to ,god2 b aft] reflection we f9d t x is n4 ,!re c be no relation ( "t betwe5 ,god & any?+ else2 because "t is ! measure ( motion1 & motion is an accid5t ( body4 ,god is n corporeal4 ,9 ! same way x is cle> t !re _c be a relation ( place betwe5 ,god & o!r ?+s4 ,b nei!r c !re be any o!r k9d ( relation betwe5 ,god & 8 creation4 ,= ,god is a necess>y exi/5t1 :ile ev]y?+ else is a possible exi/5t4 ,a relation exi/s only betwe5 ?+s ( ! same proximate species1 z betwe5 :ite & black4 ,if ! ?+s h only a common g5us1 & /ill m s if !y belong to two diff]5t g5]a1 !re is no relation betwe5 !m4 ,if !re 7 a relation betwe5 ,god & o!r ?+s1 he w\ld h ! accid5t ( relation1 ?\gh relation is ! lea/ s]i\s ( attributes1 s9ce x does n necessitate a multiplicity ( et]nals1 nor *ange 9 ,god's ess5ce ow+ to *ange 9 ! relat$ ?+s4 #e4 ,an attribute may *>act]ize a ?+ by ref]5ce to its effects or works1 n 9 ! s5se t ! ?+ or au?or ( ! effect has acquir$ a "* by reason ( ! product1 l c>p5t]1 pa9t]1 blacksmi?1 b m]ely 9 ! s5se t he is ! "o :o made a p>ticul> ?+4 ,an attribute ( ?is k9d is f> remov$ f ! ess5ce ( ! ?+ s *>act]iz$ by x2 & h5ce we may apply x to ,god1 provid$ we rememb] t ! v>i$ effects ne$ n be produc$ by diff]5t elem5ts 9 ! ag5t1 b are all done by ! "o ess5ce4 ,^? :o believe 9 attributes divide !m into two classes1 & numb] ! foll[+ f\r z ess5tial attributes1 n d]iv$ f ,god's effects l creator1 :i* d5otes ,god's relation to 8 "w1 s9ce ,god did n create himself4 ,! f\r ess5tial attributes ab\t :i* all agree are1 liv+1 p[]ful1 wise1 possess$ ( w4 ,n[ if by wise is meant ,god's k ( himself1 !re might be "s reason = call+ x an ess5tial attribute2 ?\gh 9 t case x implies liv+1 & !re is no ne$ ( two4 ,b !y ref] ! attribute wise to ,god's k ( ! _w1 & !n !re is no reason = call+ x an ess5tial attribute any m ?an ! ^w creator1 = example4 ,9 ! same way p[]ful & hav+ w _c ref] to himself1 b to 8 actions4 ,we !re=e hold t j z we d n say t !re is some?+ additional 9 8 ess5ce by :i* he creat$ ! heav5s1 some?+ else ) :i* he creat$ ! elem5ts1 & a ?ird ) :i* he creat$ ! ,intellig5ces1 s we d n say t he has "o attribute ) :i* he ex]cises p[]1 ano!r ) :i* he wills1 a ?ird ) :i* he kn[s1 & s on1 b 8 ess5ce is simple & "o4#bgg ,f\r ?+s mu/ be remov$ f ,god3 7#a7 corporeality1 7#b7 affection1 7#c7 pot5tiality1 7#d7 resemblance to 8 creatures4 ,! fir/ we h already prov$4 ,! second implies *ange1 & ! au?or ( ! *ange _c be ! same z he :o suff]s ! *ange & feels ! affection4 ,if !n ,god 7 subject to affection1 !re w\ld be ano!r :o w\ld cause ! *ange 9 him4 ,s all want mu/ be remov$ f him2 = he :o is 9 want ( some?+ is pot5tial1 & 9 ord] to pass into actuality requires an ag5t hav+ t quality 9 actu4 ,! f\r? is also evid5t2 = resemblance involves relation4 ,z !re is no relation betwe5 ,god & ourselves1 !re is no resemblance4 ,resemblance c exi/ only betwe5 ?+s ( ! same species4 ,all ! expressions includ+ exi/5t are appli$ to ,god & to ourselves 9 a homonym\s s5se 7cf4 above1 p4 #bdj74 ,! use is n ev5 analogical2 = 9 analogy !re mu/ be "s resemblance betwe5 ! ?+s hav+ ! same "n1 b n s "h4 ,exi/5ce 9 ?+s :i* are det]m9$ by causes 7& ?is includes all t is n ,god71 is n id5tical ) ! ess5ce ( ^? ?+s4 ,! ess5ce is t :i* is express$ 9 ! def9ition1 :]eas ! exi/5ce or non-exi/5ce ( ! ?+ s def9$ is n "p ( ! def9ition4 ,x is an accid5t add$ to ! ess5ce4 ,9 ,god ! case is diff]5t4 ,8 exi/5ce has no cause1 s9ce he is a necess>y exi/5t2 h5ce 8 exi/5ce is id5tical ) 8 ess5ce4 ,s we say ,god exi/s1 b n ) exi/5ce1 z we d4 ,simil>ly he is liv+1 b n ) life2 kn[+1 b n ) k2 p[]ful1 b n ) p[]2 wise1 b n ) wisdom4 ,unity & plurality are also accid5ts ( ?+s :i* are "o or _m z ! case may be4 ,!y are accid5ts ( ! category ( quantity4 ,god1 :o is a necess>y exi/5t & simple _c be "o any m ?an _m4 ,he is "o1 b n ) unity4 ,language is inadequate to express our ideas ( ,god4 ,wi%+ to say he is n _m1 we h to say he is "o2 ?\gh "o z well z _m p]ta9s to ! accid5ts ( quantity4 ,to correct ! inexactness ( ! expression1 we add1 b n ) unity4 ,s we say et]nal to indicate t he is n new1 ?\gh 9 reality et]nal is an accid5t ( "t1 :i* 9 turn is an accid5t ( motion1 ! latt] be+ dep5d5t ^u body4 ,9 reality nei!r et]nal nor new is applicable to ,god4 ,:5 we say "o1 we mean m]ely t !re is none o!r l him2 & :5 ,scripture speaks ( him z ! fir/ & ! la/1 ! mean+ is t he does n *ange4 ,! only true attributes ( ,god are ! negative ones4 ,negative attributes1 too1 by exclud+ ! "p ( ! field 9 :i* ! ?+ to be designat$ is n conta9$1 br+ u ne>] to ! ?+ itself2 ?\gh unlike positive attributes !y d n designate any "p ( ! ?+ itself4 ,god _c h positive attributes because he has no ess5ce diff]5t f 8 exi/5ce = ! attributes to designate1 & surely no accid5ts4 ,negative attributes are ( value 9 lead+ u to a k ( ,god1 because 9 negation no plurality is involv$4 ,s :5 we h prov$ t !re is a be+ beside ^! s5sible & intelligible ?+s1 & we say he is exi/5t1 we mean t 8 non-exi/5ce is un?9kable4 ,9 ! same way liv+ means n dead2 incorporeal is negative2 et]nal signifies n caus$2 p[]ful means n weak2 wise--n ignorant2 will+ d5otes t creation proce$s f him n by natural necessity l heat f fire or light f ! sun1 b ) purpose & design & me?od4 ,all attributes !re=e are ei!r d]iv$ f ,god's effects or1 if !y h ref]5ce to himself1 are meant to exclude _! opposites1 i4 e41 are really negatives4 ,?is does n mean1 h[ev]1 t ,god is devoid ( a quality :i* he might h1 b 9 ! s5se 9 :i* we say a /one does n see1 mean+ t x does n p]ta9 to ! nature ( ! /one to see4#bgh ,all ! names ( ,god except ! tetragrammaton designate 8 activities 9 ! _w4 ,jhvh alone is ! real "n ( ,god1 :i* belongs to him alone & is n d]iv$ f any?+ else4 ,its mean+ is unkn[n4 ,x d5otes p]haps ! idea ( necess>y exi/5ce4 ,all ! o!r s-call$ div9e names us$ by ! writ]s ( talismans & *>ms are q mean+less & absurd4 ,! wond]ful claims ^! p bespeak = !m are n to be believ$ by any intellig5t man4#bgi ,! above acc\nt ( ,maimonides's doctr9e ( attributes %[s u t he foll[$ ! same l9e ( ?\ght z 8 pr$ecessors4 ,8 treatm5t is m ?or\gh & elaborate1 & 8 requirem5ts ( ! religioni/ m /r+5t4 ,he does n ev5 all[ attributes ( relation1 :i* 7 admitt$ by ,ibn ,daud4 ,negative attributes & ^? tak5 f ,god's effects are ! only expressions t may be appli$ to ,god4 ,?is is decid$ly n a ,jewi% mode ( conceiv+ ( ,god1 b x is n ev5 ,ari/otelian4 ,ari/otle has v little to say ab\t ,god's attributes1 x is true1 b !re seems no w>rant 9 ! little he does say = su* an absolutely transc5d5tal & agno/ic conception z we f9d 9 ,maimonides4 ,to ,ari/otle ,god is pure =m1 ?\ght ?9k+ itself4 ,9 s f> z he is ?\ght we may suppose him to be simil> 9 k9d1 ?\gh n 9 degree1 to human ?\ght4 ,! only s\rce ( ,maimonides's ideas is to be s\ght 9 ,neo-,platonism1 9 ! s-call$ ,!ology ( ,ari/otle :i*1 h[ev]1 ,maimonides nev] quotes4 ,he ne$ n h us$ x himself4 ,he 0 a desc5dant ( a long l9e ( ?9k]s1 ,*ri/ian1 ,mohamm$an & ,jewi%1 9 :i* ?is problem 0 look$ at f a ,neo-,platonic po9t ( view2 & ! ,!ology ( ,ari/otle _h its %>e 9 =m+ ! views ( 8 pr$ecessors4 ,! idea ( mak+ ,god transc5d5t appeal$ to ,maimonides1 & he c>ri$ x to ! limit4 ,h[ he c\ld comb9e su* transc5d5ce ) ,jewi% pray] & c]emony x is h>d to tell2 b x w\ld be a mi/ake to suppose t 8 philosophical d$uctions repres5t$ 8 la/ ^w on ! subject4 ,z 9 ,philo s 9 ,maimonides1 8 negative !ology 0 only a means to a positive4 ,its purpose 0 to emphasize ,god's p]fection4 ,& 9 ! admission1 nay ma9t5ance1 ( man's inability to und]/& ,god lies ! solution ( ! problem we rais$ above4 ,pray] is answ]$1 man is protect$ by div9e ,provid5ce2 & if we _c und]/& h[1 x is because ! matt] is beyond our limit$ intellect4 ,hav+ discuss$ ! exi/5ce & nature ( ,god1 our next problem is ! exi/5ce ( angels & _! relation to ! ,sep>ate ,intellig5ces ( ! philosoph]s4 ,9 ?is matt]1 too1 ,ibn ,daud anticipat$ ,maimonides1 ?\gh ! latt] is m elaborate 9 8 exposition z well z criticism ( ! extreme philosophic view4 ,he adopts z mu* ( ,ari/otelian 7or :at he ?\ght 0 ,ari/otelian7 doctr9e z is compatible 9 8 m9d ) ! ,bible & subject to rigor\s demon/ration1 & rejects ! re/ on philosophic z well z religi\s gr\nds4 ,! exi/5ce ( sep>ate intellig5ces he proves 9 ! same way z ,ibn ,daud f ! motions ( ! cele/ial sph]es4 ,^! motions _c be purely natural1 i4 e41 unconsci\s & involunt>y l ! rectil9e> motions ( ! elem5ts1 fire1 air1 wat] & e>?1 because 9 t case !y w\ld /op z soon z !y came to _! natural place1 z is true ( ! elem5ts 7cf4 above1 p4 xxxiii72 :]eas ! sph]es actually move 9 a circle & nev] /op4 ,we mu/ !re=e assume t !y are end[$ ) a s\l1 & _! motions are consci\s & volunt>y4 ,b x is n suffici5t to reg>d !m z irrational creatures1 = on ?is hypo!sis also _! motions w\ld h to cease z soon z !y atta9$ ! object ( _! desire1 or escap$ ! ?+ !y wi% to avoid4 ,nei!r object c be accompli%$ by circul> motion1 = "o approa*es 9 ?is way ! ?+ f :i* "o flees1 & flees ! object :i* "o approa*es4 ,! only way to acc\nt = cont9u\s circul> motion is by suppos+ t ! sph]e is end[$ ) reason or intellect1 & t its motion is due to a desire on its "p to atta9 a c]ta9 conception4 ,god is ! object ( ! conception ( ! sph]e1 & x is ! love ( ,god1 to :om ! sph]e desires to become simil>1 t is ! cause ( ! sph]e's motion4 ,s f> z ! sph]e is a body1 x c accompli% ?is only by circul> motion2 = ?is is ! only cont9u\s act possible = a body1 & x is ! simple/ ( bodily motions4 ,see+1 h[ev]1 t !re are _m sph]es hav+ diff]5t k9ds ( motions1 v>y+ 9 spe$ & direction1 ,ari/otle ?\ght t ?is diff]5ce mu/ be due to ! diff]5ce 9 ! objects ( _! conceptions4 ,h5ce he posit$ z _m sep>ate ,intellig5ces z !re are sph]es4 ,t is1 he ?\ght t int]m$iate betwe5 ,god & ! rational sph]es !re are pure incorporeal intellig5ces1 ea* "o mov+ its own sph]e z a lov$ object moves ! ?+ t loves x4 ,z ! numb] ( sph]es 7 9 8 day ?\ght to be fifty1 he assum$ !re 7 fifty sep>ate ,intellig5ces4 ,! ma!matical sci5ces 9 ,ari/otle's day 7 imp]fect1 & ! a/ronom]s ?\ght t = e motion visible 9 ! sky !re mu/ be a sph]e1 n kn[+ t ! incl9ation ( "o sph]e may be ! cause ( a numb] ( app>5t motions4 ,lat] writ]s mak+ use ( ! m advanc$ /ate ( a/ronomical sci5ce1 r$uc$ ! numb] ( ,intellig5ces to t51 correspond+ to ! t5 sph]es z foll[s3 ! sev5 planet>y sph]es1 ! sph]e ( ! fix$ />s1 ! diurnal sph]e embrac+ !m all & giv+ all ( !m ! motion f ea/ to we/1 & ! sph]e ( ! elem5ts surr\nd+ ! e>?4 ,ea* "o ( ^! is 9 *>ge ( an ,intellig5ce4 ,! la/ sep>ate ,intellig5ce is ! ,active ,intellect1 :i* is ! cause ( our m9d's pass+ f pot5tiality to actuality1 & ( ! v>i\s processes ( sublun> life g5]ally4 ,^! are ! views ( ,ari/otle & 8 foll[]s conc]n+ ! sep>ate ,intellig5ces4 ,& 9 a g5]al way 8 views1 says ,maimonides1 are n incompatible ) ! ,bible4 ,:at he calls ,intellig5ces ! ,scriptures call angels4 ,bo? are pure =ms & incorporeal4 ,_! rationality is indicat$ 9 ! n9ete5? ,psalm1 ,! heav5s decl>e ! glory ( ,god4 ,t ,god rules ! _w ?r\gh !m is evid5t f a numb] ( passages 9 ,bible & ,talmud4 ,! plural numb] 9 ,let u make man 9 our image 7,g54 #a1 #bf71 ,come1 let u g d[n & confuse _! spee* 7ib4 #aa1 #g7 is expla9$ by ! ,rabbis 9 ! /atem5t t ,god nev] does any?+ )\t fir/ look+ at ! cele/ial 'familia4' 7,bab4 ,talm4 ,sanh$r9 #ch;b47 ,! ^w look+ 7,mi/akkel7 is /rik+2#bhj = x is ! v expression ,plato uses :5 he says t ,god looks into ! _w ( ,ideas & produces ! univ]se4#bha ,= once ,maimonides 9 ! la/ ,rabb9ic quotation actually hit ^u a passage :i* owes its cont5t to ,alex&rian & possibly ,philonian influ5ce4 ,hav+ no idea ( ! ,alex&rian ,s*ool & ( ! works ( ,philo & 8 relation to "s !osophic passages 9 ! ,haggadah1 he made no di/9ction betwe5 ,midra% & ,bible1 & read ,plato & ,ari/otle 9 bo? alike1 z we %all see m p>ticul>ly lat]4 ,maimonides's detail$ criticism ( ,ari/otle we %all see lat]4 ,= ! pres5t he agrees t ! philosophic conception ( sep>ate ,intellig5ces is ! same z ! ,biblical idea ( angels ) ?is exception t accord+ to ,ari/otle ^! ,intellig5ces & p[]s are all et]nal & proce$ f ,god by natural necessity1 :]eas ! ,jewi% view is t !y are creat$4 ,god creat$ ! sep>ate ,intellig5ces2 he likewise creat$ ! sph]es z rational be+s & implant$ 9 !m a desire = ! ,intellig5ces :i* acc\nts = _! v>i\s motions4 ,n[ ,maimonides has prep>$ ! gr\nd & is ready to take up ! "q ( ! orig9 ( ! _w1 :i* 0 left op5 above4 ,he enum]ates ?ree views conc]n+ ?is important matt]4 #a4 ,! ,biblical ,view4 ,god creat$ ev]y?+ out ( no?+4 ,"t itself is a creation1 :i* did n exi/ :5 !re 0 no _w4 ,= "t is a measure ( motion1 & motion _c be )\t a mov+ ?+4 ,h5ce no motion & no "t )\t a _w4 #b4 ,! ,platonic ,view4 ,! _w z we see x n[ is subject to g5esis & decay2 h5ce x orig9at$ 9 "t4 ,b ,god did n make x out ( no?+4 ,t a composite ( matt] & =m %\ld be made out ( no?+ or %\ld be r$uc$ to no?+ is to ! ,platoni/s an impossibility l t ( a ?+ be+ & n be+ at ! same "t1 or ! diagonal ( a squ>e be+ equal to its side4 ,!re=e to say t ,god _c d x argues no defect 9 him4 ,!y believe !re=e t !re is an et]nal matt]1 ! effect ( ,god to be sure1 b co-et]nal ) him1 :i* he uses z ! pott] does ! clay4 #c4 ,! ,ari/otelian ,view4 ,"t & motion are et]nal4 ,! heav5s & ! sph]es are n subject to g5esis & decay1 h5ce !y 7 always z !y are n[4 ,& ! processes ( *ange 9 ! l[] _w exi/$ f et]nity z !y exi/ n[4 ,matt] is n subject to g5esis & decay2 x simply takes on =ms "o aft] ! o!r1 & ?is has be5 go+ on f et]nity4 ,x results also f 8 /atem5ts1 ?\gh he does n say x 9 s _m words1 t x is impossible !re %\ld be a *ange 9 ,god's w4 ,he is ! cause ( ! univ]se1 :i* he br\ght into be+ by 8 w1 & z 8 w does n *ange1 ! univ]se has exi/$ ?is way f et]nity4 ,! argum5ts ( ,ari/otle & 8 foll[]s by :i* !y def5d _! view ( ! et]nity ( ! _w are bas$ p>tly ^u ! nature ( ! _w1 & p>tly ^u ! nature ( ,god4 ,"s ( ^! argum5ts are z foll[s3 ,motion is n subject to beg9n+ & end4 ,= ev]y?+ t comes into be+ aft] a /ate ( non-exi/5ce requires motion to prec$e x1 namely1 ! actualization f non-be+4 ,h5ce if motion came into be+1 !re 0 motion be=e motion1 :i* is a contradiction4 ,z motion & "t g toge!r1 "t also is et]nal4 ,aga91 ! prime matt] common to ! f\r elem5ts is n subject to g5esis & decay4 ,= all g5esis is ! comb9ation ( a pre-exi/+ matt] ) a new =m1 namely1 ! =m ( ! g5]at$ ?+4 ,if !re=e ! prime matt] itself came into be+1 !re mu/ be a previ\s matt] f :i* x came1 & ! ?+ t result$ mu/ be end[$ ) =m4 ,b ?is is impossible1 s9ce ! prime matt] has no matt] be=e x & is n end[$ ) =m4 ,among ! pro(s d]iv$ f ! nature ( ,god are ! foll[+3 ,if ,god br\ght =? ! _w f non-exi/5ce1 !n be=e he creat$ x he 0 a creator pot5tially & !n became a creator actually4 ,!re is !n pot5tiality 9 ! creator1 & !re mu/ be a cause :i* *ang$ him f a pot5tial to an actual creator4 ,aga91 an ag5t acts at a p>ticul> "t & n at ano!r because ( reasons & circum/ances prev5t+ or induc+ action4 ,9 ,god !re are no accid5ts or h9drances4 ,h5ce he acts always4 ,aga91 h[ is x possible t ,god 0 idle an et]nity & only ye/]day made ! _w8 ,= ?\s&s ( ye>s & ?\s&s ( worlds be=e ?is "o are aft] all z ye/]day 9 comp>ison ) ,god's et]nity4 ,^! argum5ts ,maimonides answ]s fir/ by ma9ta9+ t ,ari/otle himself1 z c be inf]r$ f 8 mann]1 does n reg>d 8 discussions favor+ ! et]nity ( ! _w z sci5tific demon/rations4 ,besides1 !re is a fundam5tal flaw 9 ,ari/otle's entire attitude to ! "q ( ! ultimate pr9ciples & beg9n+s ( ?+s4 ,all 8 argum5ts 9 favor ( et]nity ( motion & ( ! _w are bas$ ^u ! errone\s assumption t ! _w z a :ole mu/ h come into be+ 9 ! same way z its p>ts appe> n[ aft] ! _w is "h4 ,accord+ to ?is supposition x is easy to prove t motion mu/ be et]nal1 t matt] is n subject to g5esis1 & s on4 ,our cont5tion is t at ! beg9n+1 :5 ,god creat$ ! _w1 !re 7 n ^! laws2 t he creat$ matt] out ( no?+1 & !n made x ! basis ( all g5]ation & de/ruction4 ,we c also answ] ! argum5ts 9 favor ( et]nity tak5 f ! nature ( ,god4 ,! fir/ is t ,god w\ld be pass+ f pot5tiality to actuality if he made ! _w at a p>ticul> "t & n be=e1 & !re w\ld be ne$ ( a cause produc+ ?is passage4 ,our answ] is t ?is applies only to mat]ial ?+s b n to immat]ial1 :i* are always active :e!r !y produce visible results or n4 ,! t]m action is a homonym 7cf4 above1 p4 #bdj71 & ! conditions apply+ to x 9 ! ord9>y usage d n hold :5 we speak ( ,god4 ,nor is ! second argum5t conclusive4 ,an ag5t ^: w is det]m9$ by a purpose ext]nal to himself is subject to influ5ces positive & negative1 :i* n[ induce1 n[ h9d] 8 activity4 ,a p]son desires to h a h\se & does n build x by reason ( ob/acles ( v>i\s sorts4 ,:5 ^! are remov$1 he builds ! h\se4 ,9 ! case ( an ag5t ^: w has no object ext]nal to itself ?is does n hold4 ,if he does n act always1 x is because x is ! nature ( w sometimes to w & sometimes n4 ,h5ce ?is does n argue *ange4#bhb ,s f> our results h be5 negative4 ,we h n prov$ t ,god did create ! _w 9 "t2 we h only tak5 ! edge (f ! ,ari/otelian argum5ts & !reby %[n t ! doctr9e ( creation is n impossible4 ,we mu/ n[ proce$ to %[ t !re are positive reasons :i* make creation a m plausible !ory ?an et]nity4 ,! gi/ ( ,maimonides's argum5ts "h is t ! diff]5ce betwe5 et]nity & creation resolves itself into a m fundam5tal diff]5ce betwe5 an imp]sonal me*anical law z ! explanation ( ! univ]se & an intellig5t p]sonality act+ ) w1 purpose & design4 ,ari/otle endeavors to expla9 all motions 9 ! _w above ! moon z well z bel[ 9 t]ms ( me*anics4 ,he succe$s pretty well z f> z ! sublun> _w is conc]n$1 & no "o :o is free f prejudice c fail to see ! cog5cy ( 8 reason+4 ,if he 7 j z conv9c+ 9 8 explanation ( cele/ial ph5om5a on ! me*anical pr9ciple z he is 9 8 int]pretation ( sublun> ev5ts1 et]nity ( ! _w w\ld be a necess>y consequ5ce4 ,uni=mity & absolute necessity ( natural law are m compatible ) an et]nal _w ?an ) a creat$ "o4 ,b ,ari/otle's me?od breaks d[n ! mom5t he leaves ! sublun> sph]e4 ,!re are too _m ph5om5a unacc\nt$ = 9 8 sy/em4 ,ari/otle tries to f9d a reason :y ! heav5s move f ea/ to we/ & n 9 ! opposite direction2 & 8 explanation = ! diff]5ce 9 spe$ ( ! motions ( ! v>i\s sph]es is t x is due to _! relative proximity to ! out] sph]e1 :i* is ! cause ( ?is motion & :i* x communicates to all ! o!r sph]es "u x4 ,b 8 reasons are inadequate1 = "s ( ! swift mov+ sph]es are bel[ ! sl[ mov+ & "s are above4 ,:5 he says t ! reason ! sph]e ( ! fix$ />s moves s sl[ly f we/ to ea/ is because x is s ne> to ! diurnal sph]e 7! out] sph]e71 :i* moves f ea/ to we/1 8 explanation is wond]fully clev]4#bhc ,b :5 he inf]s f ?is t ! f>!r a sph]e is f ! fix$ />s ! m rapid is its motion f we/ to ea/1 8 conclusion is n true to fact4 ,or let u consid] ! exi/5ce ( ! />s 9 ! sph]es4 ,! matt] ( ! />s mu/ be diff]5t f t ( ! sph]es1 = ! latt] move1 :]eas ! />s are always /ation>y4 ,n[ :at has put ^! two diff]5t matt]s toge!r8 ,/rang] /ill is ! exi/5ce & di/ribution ( ! fix$ />s 9 ! eigh? sph]e4 ,"s p>ts are ?ickly /udd$ ) />s1 o!rs are v ?94 ,9 ! planet>y sph]es :at is ! reason 7s9ce ! sph]e is simple & uni=m ?r\gh\t7 t ! /> occupies ! p>ticul> place t x does8 ,?is c sc>cely be a matt] ( necessity4 ,x w n d to say t ! diff]5ces 9 ! motions ( ! sph]es are due to ! sep>ate ,intellig5ces = :i* ! respective sph]es h a desire4 ,= ! ,intellig5ces are n bodies1 & h5ce d n occupy any position relative to ! sph]es4 ,!re mu/ !re=e be a be+ :o det]m9es _! v>i\s motions4 ,fur!r1 x is argu$ on ! philosophical side t f a simple cause only a simple effect c foll[2 & t if ! cause is composite1 z _m effects w foll[ z !re are simple elem5ts 9 ! cause4 ,h5ce f ,god directly c come only "o simple ,intellig5ce4 ,?is fir/ ,intellig5ce produces ! second1 ! second produces ! ?ird1 & s on 7cf4 above1 p4 #agh74 ,n[ accord+ to ?is idea1 no matt] h[ _m ,intellig5ces are produc$ 9 ?is successive mann]1 ! la/1 ev5 if he be ! ?\s&?1 w\ld h to be simple4 ,:]e !n does composition arise8 ,ev5 if we grant t ! f>!r ! ,intellig5ces are remov$ f ! fir/ cause ! m composite !y become by reason ( ! composite nature ( _! ideas or ?\ghts1 h[ c we expla9 ! emanation ( a sph]e f an ,intellig5ce1 see+ t ! "o is body1 ! o!r ,intellect8 ,grant+ aga9 ?is also on ! gr\nd t ! ,intellig5ce produc+ ! sph]e is composite 7s9ce x ?9ks itself & ano!r71 & h5ce "o ( its p>ts produces ! next l[] ,intellig5ce & ! o!r ! sph]e1 !re is /ill ?is difficulty t ! "p ( ! ,intellig5ce produc+ ! sph]e is simple1 :]eas ! sph]e has f\r elem5ts--! matt] & ! =m ( ! sph]e1 & ! matt] & ! =m ( ! /> fix$ 9 ! sph]e4 ,all ^! are difficulties aris+ f ! ,ari/otelian !ory ( me*anical causation1 necessity ( natural law & et]nity ( ! _w4 ,& !y are all remov$ at a /roke :5 we sub/itute intellig5t cause work+ ) purpose1 w & design4 ,to be sure1 by f9d+ difficulties atta*+ to a !ory we d n disprove x1 mu* less d we prove our own4 ,b we %\ld foll[ ! view ( ,alex&]1 :o says t :]e a !ory is n prov$ "o %\ld adopt ! view :i* has ! lea/ numb] ( objections4 ,?is1 we %all %[1 is ! case 9 ! doctr9e ( creation4 ,we h already po9t$ out a numb] ( difficulties atta*+ to ! ,ari/otelian view1 :i* are solv$ if we adopt creation4 ,& !re are o!rs besides4 ,x is impossible to expla9 ! heav5ly motions z a necess>y me*anical sy/em4 ,! hypo!ses made by ,ptolemy to acc\nt = ! app>5t motions conflict ) ! pr9ciples ( ! ,ari/otelian ,physics4 ,accord+ to ^! pr9ciples !re is no motion ( translation1 i4 e41 !re is no *ange ( place1 9 ! heav5ly sph]es4 ,also !re are ?ree k9ds ( motion 9 ! _w1 t[>d ! c5tre 7wat]1 e>?71 away f ! c5tre 7air1 fire7 & ar\nd ! c5tre 7! cele/ial sph]es74 ,also motion 9 a circle mu/ be ar\nd a fix$ c5tre4 ,all ^! pr9ciples are violat$ 9 ! !ories ( ! epicycle & ecc5tric1 especially ! fir/4 ,= ! epicycle is a sph]e :i* *anges place 9 ! circumf]5ce ( ! l>ge sph]e4 ,f9ally1 an important objection to ! doctr9e ( et]nity z taught by ,ari/otle1 involv+ z x does necessity & absolute *angelessness ( natural ph5om5a1 is t x subv]ts ! f\ndations ( religion1 & does away ) miracles & signs4 ,! ,platonic view 7cf4 above1 p4 #bfi7 is n s bad & does n necessitate ! d5ial ( miracles2 b !re is no ne$ ( =c+ ! ,biblical texts to t op9ion s long z x has n be5 prov$4 ,z long z we believe 9 creation all possible que/ions conc]n+ ! reasons = v>i\s ph5om5a su* z prophecy1 ! v>i\s laws1 ! selection ( ,israel1 & s on1 c be answ]$ by ref]5ce to ! w ( ,god1 :i* we d n und]/&4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! _w is a me*anical necessity1 all ^! que/ions arise & dem& an answ]4#bhd ,x w be se5 t ,maimonides's objections to et]nity & me*anical necessity 7= ^! two are necess>ily connect$ 9 8 m9d71 are tw(old1 philosophic & religi\s4 ,! latt] objection we may conceive ,maimonides to insi/ ^u if he 7 liv+ to-day4 ,me*anical necessity z a univ]sal explanation ( ph5om5a w\ld exclude free w & ! efficacy ( pray] z ord9>ily und]/ood1 ?\gh n necess>ily miracles1 if we mean by miracle simply an extraord9>y ph5om5on n explicable by ! laws ( nature z we "k !m1 & happ5+ only on r>e occasions4 ,b 9 reality ?is is n :at we mean by miracle4 ,a miracle is a discont9uity 9 ! laws ( nature br\ght to pass on a special occasion by a p]sonal be+ 9 response to a pray] or 9 ord] to realize a giv5 purpose4 ,9 ?is s5se miracles are incompatible ) ! doctr9e ( necessity1 & ,maimonides's objections hold to-day1 except = ^? to :om religion is indep5d5t ( ! ,bible1 tradition or any ext]nal au?ority4 ,z conc]ns ! sci5tific objections1 ! case is diff]5t4 ,we may all[ ,maimonides's negative criticism ( ! ,ari/otelian argum5ts1 namely1 t !y are n conv9c+4 ,8 positive criticism t ,ari/otle's int]pretation ( ph5om5a on ! me*anical pr9ciple does n expla9 all ! facts is n valid4 ,ari/otle may be wrong 9 8 actual explanations ( p>ticul> ph5om5a & yet be correct 9 8 me?od4 ,mod]n sci5ce1 9 fact1 has adopt$ ! me*anical me?od ( int]pret+ ph5om5a1 assum+ t ?is is ! only way 9 :i* sci5ce c exi/ at all4 ,& if !re is any doma9 9 :i* me*anical causation is /ill d5i$1 x is n ! cele/ial regions ab\t :i* ,maimonides 0 s mu* conc]n$--! motions ( ! heav5ly bodies h be5 r$uc$ to uni=mity 9 accordance ) natural law q z def9itely z1 & 9 "s cases m def9itely ?an1 "s t]re/rial ph5om5a--b ! regions ( life1 m9d & w4 ,9 ^! doma9s ! discussion )9 ! sci5tific & philosophic folds is /ill go+ on4 ,b 9 inanimate nature mod]n sci5ce has succe$$ 9 ju/ify+ its me?od by ! ev] increas+ numb] ( ph5om5a t yield to its treatm5t4 ,maimonides f\ght an obsolete philosophy & obsolete sci5tific pr9ciples4 ,x is possible t he might h f\nd mu* to object to 9 mod]n sci5ce z well1 on ! gr\nd t mu* is yet unexpla9$4 ,b an objection ( ?is sort is capti\s1 p>ticul>ly if we consid] :at ,maimonides desires to place 9 sci5ce's /ead4 ,sci5ce is do+ its be/ to classify all natural ph5om5a & to discov] ! uni=mities und]ly+ _! behavior4 ,x has succe$$ admirably & is cont9ually wid5+ its sph]e ( activity4 ,x has be5 able to pr$ict z a result ( its me?od4 ,! pr9ciple ( uni=mity & me*anical necessity is becom+ m & m g5]ally v]ifi$ ) e new sci5tific discov]y & inv5tion4 ,& :at does ,maimonides (f] u 9 its /ead8 ,! pr9ciple ( intellig5t purpose & design4 ,?is1 he says1 is n op5 to ! objections :i* apply to ! ,ari/otelian pr9ciples & me?ods4 ,x is z if "o said ! c[>d is a bett] man ?an ! brave w>rior1 because ! latt] is op5 to ! dang] ( be+ captur$1 w\nd$ or kill$1 :]eas ! =m] is n s liable4 ,! answ] obvi\sly w\ld be t ! only way ! c[>d escapes ! dang]s m5tion$ is by runn+ away1 by refus+ to fight4 ,maimonides's sub/itution is tantam\nt to a refusal to fight1 x is equival5t to flight f ! field ( battle4 ,ari/otle tries to expla9 ! v>iation 9 spe$ ( ! diff]5t cele/ial motions1 & succe$s indiff]5tly4 ,ano!r man com+ aft] ,ari/otle & foll[+ ! same me?od may succe$ bett]4 ,?is has actually be5 ! case4 ,lev]ri] )\t ev] look+ into a telescope discov]$ ,neptune1 & told ! obs]v]s 9 :at "p ( ! heav5s !y %\ld look = ! new planet4 ,sub/itute ,maimonides's pr9ciple1 & dea? to sci5ce6 ,:y d ! heav5ly bodies move z !y d8 ,maimonides replies 9 effect1 because s ,god's wisdom has det]m9$ & 8 wisdom is transc5d5t4 ,!re is no fur!r impulse to inve/igation 9 su* an answ]4 ,x is ! reply ( ! obscuranti/1 & x is v surpris+ t ,maimonides ! rationali/ %\ld s f> h =gott5 8 own ideal ( reason & enlight5m5t4 ,he is "h play+ into ! h&s ( ^? v ,mutakallimun :om he s sev]ely criticises4 ,!y 7 m consi/5t4 ,di/ru/ful ( ! irreligi\s consequ5ces ( ! philosophical !ories ( ,ari/otle & 8 ,arabian foll[]s1 !y delib]ately d5i$ causation & natural law1 & sub/itut$ ! w ( ,god z int]f]+ cont9u\sly 9 ! ph5om5a ( nature4 ,a r$ object cont9ues r$ because & z long z ,god creates ! accid5t r$ & atta*es x to ! atoms ( :i* ! object is compos$4 ,fire tak+ hold ( wood burns x & r$uces x to a%es because ,god wills at ! p>ticul> mom5t t ?is %all be ! result4 ,! next mom5t ,god may w o!rwise & ! fire & ! wood w lie d[n 9 peace toge!r & no h>m done4 ,?is makes miracles possible & easy4 ,maimonides w\ld n ?9k ( go+ s f>2 he has no names h>% en\gh to describe ?is unsci5tific1 unphilosophic1 illogical1 irrational1 purely imag9>y proc$ure4 ,b we f9d t he is himself guilty ( ! same lack ( sci5tific insight :5 he rejects a me?od because x is n completely successful1 & sub/itutes some?+ else :i* w always be successful because x w nev] tell u any?+ at all & w /ifle all inve/igation4 ,7 ,maimonides liv+ 9 our day1 we may suppose he w\ld be m favorably incl9$ to ! me*anical pr9ciple z a sci5tific me?od4 ,hav+ laid ! philosophical f\ndations ( religion 9 prov+ ! exi/5ce1 unity & incorporeality ( ,god1 & purposeful creation 9 "t1 ,maimonides proce$s to ! m prop]ly religi\s doctr9es ( ,judaism1 & beg9s ) ! ph5om5on ( prophecy4 ,"h also he foll[s ,ari/otelian ideas z express$ 9 ! writ+s ( ! ,arabs ,alf>abi & ,avic5na1 & 0 anticipat$ among ! ,jews by ,ibn ,daud4 ,8 di/9ction "h z else:]e is t he w5t fur!r ?an 8 model 9 ! mann] ( 8 elaboration ( ! doctr9e4 ,he cites ?ree op9ions conc]n+ prophecy3 #a4 ,! ,op9ion ( ! ,masses4 ,god *ooses any p]son he desires1 be he "y or old1 wise or ignorant1 & inspires him ) ! prophetic _s4 #b4 ,! ,op9ion ( ! ,philosoph]s4 ,prophecy is a human gift & requires natural aptitude & h>d prep>ation & /udy4 ,b giv5 ^! qualifications1 & prophecy is sure to come4 #c4 ,! ,op9ion ( ,judaism4 ,?is is v mu* l t ( ! philosoph]s1 ! only diff]5ce be+ t a man may h all ! qualifications & yet be prev5t$ f prophesy+ if ,god1 by way ( puni%m5t1 does n desire t he %\ld4 ,prophecy is an inspiration f ,god1 :i* passes ?r\gh ! m$iation ( ! ,active ,intellect to ! rational p[] fir/ & !n to ! faculty ( ! imag9ation4 ,x is ! highe/ /age a man c atta9 & is n op5 to ev]yone4 ,x requires p]fection 9 !oretical wisdom & 9 morals1 & p]fect developm5t ( ! imag9ative p[]4 ,?is latt] does its "w :5 ! s5ses are at re/1 giv+ rise to true dreams1 & produc+ also prophetic visions4 ,dream & prophecy diff] 9 degree1 n 9 k9d4 ,:at a man ?9ks h>d 9 8 wak+ /ate1 t ! imag9ation works ov] 9 sleep4 ,n[ if a p]son has a p]fect bra92 develops 8 m9d z f> z a man c2 is pure morally2 is eag] to "k ! my/]ies ( exi/5ce1 its causes & ! ,fir/ ,cause2 is n susceptible to ! purely animal desires1 or to ^? ( ! spirit$ s\l ambiti\s = dom9ion & honor--if a man has all ^! qualifications1 he )\t d\bt receives ?r\gh 8 imag9ation f ! ,active ,intellect div9e ideas4 ,! diff]5ce 9 ! grade ( prophets is due to ! diff]5ce 9 ^! ?ree requirem5ts--p]fection ( ! reason1 p]fection ( ! imag9ation & p]fection ( moral "*4 ,accord+ to ! "* & developm5t ( _! reasons & imag9ations m5 may be divid$ into ?ree classes4 #a4 ,^? ^: rational faculties are highly develop$ & receive influ5ces f ! ,active ,intellect1 b ^: imag9ation is defective con/itutionally1 or is n "u ! influ5ce ( ! ,active ,intellect4 ,^! are wise m5 & philosoph]s4 #b4 ,:5 ! imag9ation also is p]fect 9 con/itution & well develop$ "u ! influ5ce ( ! ,active ,intellect1 we h ! class ( prophets4 #c4 ,:5 ! imag9ation alone is 9 good condition1 b ! intellect is defective1 we h /atesm51 lawgiv]s1 magicians1 dream]s ( true dreams & occult arti/s4 ,^! m5 are s confus$ sometimes by visions & rev]ies t !y ?9k !y h ! gift ( prophecy4 ,ea* ( ! fir/ two classes may be fur!r divid$ into two accord+ z ! influ5ce f above is j suffici5t = ! p]fection ( ! individual himself1 or is s abundant z to cause ! recipi5t to seek to imp>t x to o!rs4 ,we h !n au?ors & tea*]s 9 ! fir/ class1 & prea*+ prophets 9 ! second4 ,among ! p[]s we h 9 v>y+ degrees are ^? ( c\rage & div9ation4 ,^! are innate & c be p]fect$ if "o has !m 9 any degree4 ,by means ( ! p[] ( div9ation we sometimes guess :at a p]son said or did "u c]ta9 conditions1 & guess truly4 ,! result really foll[s f a numb] ( premises1 b ! m9d passes ov] ^! s rapidly t x seems ! guess 0 made in/antane\sly4 ,! prophet mu/ h ^! two faculties 9 a high degree4 ,witness ,moses brav+ ! wra? ( a great k+4 ,"s prophets also h _! rational p[]s m highly develop$ ?an ^? ( an ord9>y p]son :o p]fects 8 reason by !oretical /udy4 ,! same inspiration :i* r5d]s ! activity ( ! imag9ation s vivid t x seems to x its p]ceptions are real & due to ! ext]nal s5ses--?is same inspiration acts also ^u ! rational p[]1 & makes its ideas z c]ta9 z if !y 7 d]iv$ by intellectual ef=t4 ,! prophetic vision 7,heb4 ,m>ah7 is a /ate ( agitation com+ ^u ! prophet 9 8 wak+ /ate1 z is cle> f ! words ( ,daniel1 ,& ,i saw ?is great vision1 & !re rema9$ no /r5g? 9 me3 = my comel9ess 0 turn$ 9 me into corruption1 & ,i reta9$ no /r5g? 7,dan4 #aj1 #h74 ,9 vision also ! s5ses cease _! functions1 & ! process is ! same z 9 sleep4 ,:5ev] ! ,bible speaks ( prophecy com+ to anyone1 x is always ?r\gh an angel & 9 a dream or vision1 :e!r ?is is specifically /at$ or n4 ,! expression1 ,& ,god came to 444 9 a dream ( ! night1 does n d5ote prophecy at all4 ,x is m]ely a dream t comes to a p]son w>n+ him ( dang]4 ,laban & ,abimele* _h su* dreams1 b no "o w\ld cr$it ^! hea!ns ) ! prophetic p[]4 ,:5ev] an angel is met 9 ,scripture speak+ or communicat+ ) a p]son1 x is always 9 a dream or vision4 ,examples are1 ,abraham & ! ?ree m51 ,jacob wre/l+ ) ! angel1 ,balaam & ! ass1 ,jo%ua & ! angel at ,j]i*o2--all ^! 7 9 a dream or vision4 ,sometimes !re is no angel at all1 b m]ely a voice t is he>d by su* z are n des]v+ ( prophecy1 = example ,hag>1 & ,manoah & 8 wife4 ,! prophets see images 9 _! visions4 ,^! images are sometimes int]pret$ 9 ! vision itself2 sometimes ! int]pretation does n appe> until ! prophet wakes up4 ,sometimes ! prophet sees a lik5ess1 sometimes he sees ,god speak+ to him1 or an angel2 or he he>s an angel speak+ to him1 or sees a man speak+ to him1 or sees no?+ at all b only he>s a voice4 ,9 ?is way we di/+ui% elev5 grades ( prophecy4 ,! fir/ two are only prep>atory1 n yet con/itut+ "o :o has !m a prophet4 #a4 ,:5 "o is end[$ by ,god ) a great desire to save a community or a fam\s individual1 & he und]takes to br+ x ab\t1 we h ! fir/ grade kn[n z ! ,_s ( ,god4 ,?is 0 ! position ( ! ,judges4 ,moses always _h ?is desire f ! mom5t he c\ld be call$ a man1 h5ce he kill$ ! ,egyptian & *id$ ! two qu>rel+ m51 & deliv]$ ! daught]s ( ,je?ro f ! %eph]ds1 & s on4 ,! same is true ( ,david4 ,n ev]yone1 h[ev]1 :o has ?is desire is a prophet until he succe$s 9 do+ a v great ?+4 #b4 ,:5 a p]son feels some?+ come ^u him & beg9s to speak--words ( wisdom & praise or ( w>n+1 or relat+ to social or religi\s conduct--all ?is :ile 9 a wak+ /ate & ) full consci\sness1 we h ! second /age call$ ! ,holy ,_s4 ,?is is ! inspiration :i* dictat$ ! ,psalms1 ! ,prov]bs1 ,ecclesia/es1 ,song ( ,songs1 ,daniel1 ,job1 ,*ronicles & ! o!r sacr$ writ+s 7,hagiographa74 ,balaam's disc\rses also belong to ?is class4 ,david1 ,solomon & ,daniel belong "h1 & are n 9 ! same class ) ,isaiah1 ,j]emiah1 ,na?an1 ,ahiah1 & s on4 ,god spoke to ,solomon ?r\gh ,ahiah ! ,%ilonite2 at o!r times he spoke to him 9 a dream1 & :5 ,solomon woke up1 he knew x 0 a dream & n a prophecy4 ,daniel's visions 7 also 9 dreams4 ,?is is :y 8 book is class$ 9 ! ?ird division ( ! ,biblical writ+s 7,hagiographa71 & n 9 ! second 7,prophets74 #c4 ,?is is ! fir/ grade ( real prophecy1 i4 e41 :5 a prophet sees a picture 9 a dream "u ! prop] conditions1 & ! picture is expla9$ to him 9 ! dream itself4 ,mo/ ( ! dreams ( ,ze*>iah are ( ?is nature4 #d4 ,:5 he he>s spee* 9 a prophetic dream1 b does n see ! speak]1 z happ5$ to ,samuel 9 ! beg9n+ ( 8 c>e]4 #e4 ,:5 a man speaks to him 9 a dream1 z we f9d 9 "s ( ! prophecies ( ,ezekiel1 ,& ! man said unto me1 son ( man4444 #f4 ,:5 an angel speaks to him 9 a dream4 ,?is is ! condition ( mo/ prophets1 z is indicat$ 9 ! expression1 ,& an angel ( ,god said to me 9 a dream4 #g4 ,:5 x seems to him 9 a prophetic dream z if ,god is speak+ to him2 z we f9d 9 ,isaiah1 ,i saw ! ,"l 444 & he said1 :om %all ,i s5d & :o w g = u 7,isa4 #f1 #a1 #h74 #h4 ,:5 a vision appe>s to him & he sees pictures1 l ,abraham at ! cov5ant ( ! pieces 7,g54 #ae74 #i4 ,:5 he he>s words 9 a vision1 z 9 ! case ( ,abraham1 ,&1 behold1 ! ^w ( ! ,"l came unto him say+1 ,?is man %all n be ?9e heir 7,g54 #ae1 #d74 #aj4 ,:5 he sees a man speak+ to him 9 a prophetic vision4 ,examples1 ,abraham 9 ! pla9 ( ,mamre1 ,jo%ua 9 ,j]i*o4 #aa4 ,:5 he sees an angel speak+ to him 9 a vision1 l ,abraham 9 ! sacrifice ( ,isaac4 ,?is is ! highe/ degree ( prophecy1 except+ ,moses4 ,! next high] /age w\ld be t a prophet %\ld see ,god speak+ to him 9 a vision4 ,b ?is seems impossible1 z x is too mu* = ! imag9ative faculty4 ,9 fact x is possible t 9 a vision spee* is nev] he>d at all1 b only lik5esses are se54 ,9 t case ! elev5 grades are r$uc$ to eight4 ,all ! details ( actions & travels t are describ$ 9 prophetic visions mu/ n be und]/ood z hav+ actually tak5 place1 z = example ,hosea's m>ry+ a h>lot4 ,!y appe> only 9 ! prophet's vision or dream4 ,_m expressions 9 ! prophets are hyp]bolical or metaphorical1 & mu/ n be tak5 lit]ally4 ,moses 0 ! greate/ ( ! prophets4 ,he alone receiv$ 8 communications direct f ,god4 ,all ! o!rs got _! div9e messages ?r\gh an angel4 ,moses p]=m$ 8 miracles be=e ! :ole p z no "o else did4 ,! /&+ /ill ( ! sun produc$ by ,jo%ua 0 n 9 ! pres5ce ( all ! p4 ,besides x may be ! mean+ is t t day seem$ to ! p ! longe/ ( any !y exp]i5c$ 9 ^? regions4 ,moses alone1 by reason ( 8 sup]iority to all o!r prophets be=e or aft]1 call$ ! p to ! ,law4 ,no "o be=e him did ?is1 ?\gh !re 7 _m prophets be=e ,moses4 ,abraham taught a few p1 & s did o!rs4 ,b no "o l ,moses said to ! p1 ,! ,"l s5t me to y t y may d ?us & s4 ,aft] ,moses all ! prophets urge ^u ! p ob$i5ce to ! law ( ,moses4 ,?is %[s t ! law ( ,moses w nev] *ange4 ,= x is p]fect1 & any *ange 9 any direction w\ld be = ! worse4#bhe ,f ! !oretical "p ( philosophy we pass to ! practical4 ,?is includes e?ics & o!r topics relat$ !reto1 !odicy1 provid5ce1 free w & its compatibility ) ,god's omnisci5ce4 ,to give 8 e?ical doctr9e a sci5tific "*1 ,maimonides bases x ^u a metaphysical & psy*ological f\ndation4 ,! doctr9e ( matt] & =m gives him a conv5i5t =mula und]ly+ 8 e?ical discussion4 ,s9 & vice are due to matt]1 virtue & goodness to =m4 ,= s5su\s desires1 :i* are due to matt]1 are at ! basis ( vice2 :]eas intellectual pursuits1 :i* con/itute ! noble/ activity ( ! s\l1 ! =m ( ! liv+ body1 lead to virtue4 ,we may !re=e /ate man's e?ical duty 9 broad philosophical t]ms z foll[s3 ,despise matt]1 & h to d ) x only s f> z is absolutely necess>y4#bhf ,?is is too g5]al to be enlight5+1 & x is necess>y to h rec\rse to psy*ology4 ,e?ics has = its subject-matt] ! improvem5t & p]fection ( "*4 ,mak+ use ( a m$ical analogy we may say t z x is ! bus9ess ( ! physician to cure ! body1 s x is ! aim ( ! moral tea*] to cure ! s\l4 ,we may c>ry ?is figure fur!r & conclude t z ! physician mu/ "k ! anatomy & physiology ( ! body be=e he c und]take to cure x ( its ills1 s ! morali/ mu/ "k ! nature ( ! s\l & its p[]s or faculties4 ,9 ! details ( 8 psy*ology ,maimonides foll[s ,alf>abi in/ead ( ,avic5na :o 0 ! model ( ,judah ,halevi & ,ibn ,daud 7pp4 #age1 #baa74 ,! s\l consi/s ( five p>ts or faculties3 ! nutritive1 ! s5sitive1 ! imag9ative1 ! appetitive & ! rational4 ,! fur!r description ( ! nutritive s\l p]ta9s to m$ic9e & does n conc]n u "h4 ,! s5sitive s\l conta9s ! well kn[n five s5ses4 ,! imag9ative faculty is ! p[] :i* reta9s ! =ms ( s5sible objects :5 !y are no long] pres5t to ! ext]nal s5ses4 ,x also has ! function ( orig9al comb9ation ( s5se elem5ts into composite objects hav+ no real exi/5ce 9 ! outside _w4 ,?is makes ! imag9ation an unreliable guide 9 matt]s intellectual4 ,! appetitive faculty is ! p[] ( ! s\l by :i* a p]son desires a ?+ or rejects x4 ,acts result+ f x are ! pursuit ( an object & its avoidance2 also ! feel+s ( ang]1 favor1 fe>1 c\rage1 cruelty1 pity1 love1 hate1 & s on4 ,! organs ( ^! p[]s1 feel+s & activities are ! memb]s ( ! body1 l ! h&1 :i* takes hold ( an object2 ! foot1 :i* goes t[>d a ?+ or away f x2 ! eye1 :i* looks2 ! he>t1 :i* takes c\rage or is /rick5 ) fe>2 & s ) ! re/4 ,! rational faculty is ! p[] ( ! s\l by :i* a p]son reflects1 acquires k1 discrim9ates betwe5 a praisewor?y act & a blamewor?y4 ,! functions ( ! rational s\l are practical & !oretical4 ,! practical activity ( ! reason has to d ) ! arts directly1 z 9 le>n+ c>p5try1 agriculture1 m$ic9e1 seaman%ip2 or x is conc]n$ ) reflect+ ^u ! me?ods & pr9ciples ( a giv5 art4 ,! !oretical reason has = its subject-matt] ! p]man5t & un*angeable1 :at is kn[n z sci5ce 9 ! true s5se ( ! t]m4#bhg ,n[ z f> z ! comm&m5ts1 m&atory & prohibitive1 ( ! ,bible are conc]n$1 ! only p>ts ( ! s\l :i* are involv$ are ! s5sitive & ! appetitive4 ,= ^! are ! only p[]s subject to control4 ,! nutritive & ! imag9ative p[]s function 9 sleep z well 9 wak+1 h5ce a p]son _c be held responsible = _! activities1 :i* are involunt>y4 ,!re is "s d\bt ab\t ! rational faculty1 b x seems t "h too a p]son is responsible = ! op9ions he holds1 ?\gh no practical acts are involv$4 ,virtues are divid$ into e?ical & intellectual 7dianoetic72 & s are ! contr>y vices4 ,! intellectual virtues are ! excell5cies ( ! reason4 ,su* are sci5ce1 :i* consi/s 9 ! k ( proximate & remote causes ( ?+s2 pure reason1 hav+ to d ) su* innate pr9ciples z ! axioms2 ! acquir$ reason1 :i* we _c discuss "h2 cle>ness ( p]ception & quick insight4 ,! intellectual vices are ! opposites or ! contr>ies ( ^!4 ,! e?ical virtues are resid5t 9 ! appetitive faculty4 ,! s5sitive s\l is auxili>y to ! appetitive4 ,! numb] ( ^! virtues is l>ge4 ,examples are2 temp]ance1 g5]osity1 ju/ice1 mode/y1 humility1 cont5tm5t1 c\rage1 & s on4 ,! vices ( ?is class are ! above qualities c>ri$ to excess1 or n practic$ to ! requir$ ext5t4 ,! faculties ( nutrition & imag9ation h nei!r virtues nor vices4 ,we say a p]son's dige/ion is good or x is poor2 8 imag9ation is correct or x is defective1 b we d n atta* ! idea ( virtue or vice to ^! conditions4 ,virtue is a p]man5t & endur+ quality ( ! s\l occupy+ an int]m$iate position betwe5 ! two opposite extremes ea* ( :i* is a vice1 s9n+ by exce$+ ! prop] measure ( ! gold5 mean or by fall+ %ort ( x4 ,a good act is t =m ( conduct :i* foll[s f a virtu\s disposition z j def9$4 ,a bad act is ! result ( a t5d5cy ( ! s\l to ei!r ( ! two extremes1 ( excess or defect4 ,?us temp]ance or mod]ation is a virtue4 ,x is ! mean betwe5 ov]-indulg5ce 9 ! direction ( excess1 & ins5sibility or indiff]5ce 9 ! direction ( defect4 ,! la/ two are vices4 ,simil>ly g5]osity is a mean betwe5 nigg>dl9ess & extravagance2 c\rage is a mean betwe5 foolh>d9ess & c[>dice2 dignity is a mean betwe5 haught9ess & l\ti%ness2 humility is a mean betwe5 arrogance & self-abasem5t2 cont5tm5t is a mean betwe5 av>ice & slo?ful indiff]5ce2 k9dness is a mean betwe5 bas5ess & excessive self-d5ial2 g5tl5ess is a mean betwe5 irascibility & ins5sibility to insult2 mode/y is a mean betwe5 impud5ce & %amefac$ness4 ,p are (t5 mi/ak5 & reg>d "o ( ! extremes z a virtue4 ,?us ! reckless & ! foolh>dy is (t5 prais$ z ! brave2 ! man ( no backbone is call$ g5tle2 ! indol5t is mi/ak5 = ! cont5t$2 ! ins5sible = ! temp]ate1 ! extravagant = ! g5]\s4 ,?is is an error4 ,! mean alone is wor?y ( comm5dation4 ,! e?ical virtues & vices are acquir$ z a result ( repeat$ practice dur+ a long "t ( ! correspond+ acts until !y become a confirm$ habit & a second nature4 ,a p]son is n born virtu\s or vici\s4 ,:at he w turn out to be dep5ds ^u ! way he is tra9$ f *ildhood4 ,if 8 tra9+ has be5 wrong & he has acquir$ a vici\s disposition 9 a p>ticul> t5d5cy1 he may be cur$4 ,& "h we may borr[ a leaf f ! book ( m$ic9e4 ,z 9 bodily disease ! physician's endeavor is to re/ore ! di/urb$ equilibrium 9 ! mixture ( ! humors by increas+ ! elem5t t is defici5t1 s 9 diseases ( ! s\l1 if a p]son has a decid$ t5d5cy to "o ( ! vici\s extremes1 he mu/ z a curative measure1 = a c]ta9 l5g? ( "t1 be direct$ to practice ! opposite extreme until he has be5 cur$4 ,!n he may g back to ! virtu\s mean4 ,?us if a p]son has ! vice ( nigg>dl9ess1 ! practice ( lib]ality is n suffici5t to cure him4 ,z a h]oic measure he mu/ practice extravagance until ! =m] t5d5cy has left him4 ,!n he may return to ! lib]al mean4 ,! same ?+ applies to ! o!r virtues1 except t x is necess>y to use prop] judgm5t 9 ! am\nt ( practice ( a vici\s extreme necess>y to br+ ab\t a satisfactory result4 ,too great deviation & too long cont9u$ f ! mean w\ld 9 "s cases be dang]\s1 z likely to develop ! opposite vice4 ,?us x is comp>atively safe to indulge 9 extravagance z a cure = nigg>dl9ess2 ! rev]se process mu/ be us$ ) caution4 ,c>e %\ld likewise be tak5 9 try+ to wean a p]son away f a habit ( ins5sibility to pleasure by means ( a rgime ( indulg5ce4 ,if x is n discont9u$ 9 "t1 he may become a pleasure seek]1 :i* is ev5 worse ?an total indiff]5ce4 ,x is 9 ?is way t we mu/ expla9 ! conduct ( c]ta9 pi\s m5 & sa9ts :o 7 n cont5t ) foll[+ ! middle way1 & incl9$ to "o extreme1 ! extreme ( asceticism & self-abasem5t4 ,!y did ?is z a measure ( cure1 or because ( ! wick$ness ( _! g5]ation1 ^: example !y fe>$ w\ld contam9ate !m by its contagion4 ,h5ce !y liv$ a retir$ & solit>y life1 ! life ( a recluse4 ,x 0 n meant z ! normal mode ( conduct1 :i* w\ld be z un:olesome to ! s\l z an invalid's drugs w\ld be dang]\s if tak5 regul>ly by a p]son ( s\nd heal?4 ,! w ( ,god is t we %\ld foll[ ! middle way & eat & dr9k & enjoy ourselves 9 mod]ation4 ,to be sure1 we mu/ be always on our gu>d aga9/ slipp+ into ! =bidd5 extreme1 b x is n necess>y = ?is purpose to inflict additional burd5s ^u ourselves or to practice mortification ( ! fle% & ab/5tion f food & dr9k beyond :at is prescrib$ 9 ! ,law4 ,= _m ( ! regulations 9 ! ,p5tateu* h be5 laid d[n = ?is v purpose4 ,! diet>y laws1 ! laws ( =bidd5 m>riages1 ! laws ( ti!s1 ! laws prescrib+ t ! corn] ( ! field1 ! dropp$ & =gott5 e>s & ! glean+s ( ! v9tage %\ld be left to ! poor1 ! laws ( ! sabbatical ye>1 ! ,jubilee1 & ! regulations gov]n+ *>ity--all ^! are int5d$ to gu>d u aga9/ av>ice & selfi%ness4 ,o!r laws & precepts are = ! purpose ( mod]at+ our t5d5cy to ang] & rage1 & s ) all ! o!r virtues & vices4 ,h5ce x is folly & ov]scrupul\sness to add re/rictions ( "o's own accord except 9 critical in/ances1 z indicat$ above4 ,! purpose ( all human life & activity is to "k ,god z f> z x is possible = man4 ,h5ce all 8 activities %\ld be direct$ to t "o end4 ,8 eat+ & dr9k+ & sleep+ & wak+ & motion & re/ & pleasure %\ld h = _! object ! ma9t5ance ( good heal? & *e]ful spirits1 n z an end 9 !mselves1 b z a means to intellectual peace & fre$om f worry & c>e 9 ord] t he may h leisure & ability to /udy & reflect ^u ! highe/ tru?s ( ,god4 ,good music1 beautiful sc5]y1 works ( art1 spl5did ar*itecture & f9e clo?+ %\ld n be pursu$ = _! own sake1 b only s f> z !y may be necess>y to relieve ! t$ium & monotony ( toil & labor1 or z a curative measure to dispel gloom & l[ spirits or a t5d5cy to melan*oly4 ,! same ?+ applies to ! arts & sci5ces4 ,m$ic9e is ( assi/ance 9 ma9ta9+ bodily heal? & cur+ x ( its ills4 ,! logical1 ma!matical & physical sci5ces are ei!r directly helpful to speculative !ology1 & _! value is evid5t2 or !y s]ve to tra9 ! m9d 9 d$uction & analysis1 & are ?us indirectly ( b5efit = ! k ( ,god4#bhh ,! e?ical qualities simil>ly conduce to intellectual p]fection1 & ! diff]5ce betwe5 "o prophet & ano!r is 9 l>ge measure dep5d5t ^u relative e?ical sup]iority4 ,?us :5 ! ,rabbis say t ,moses saw ,god ?r\gh a lum9\s mirror1 & ! o!r prophets ?r\gh a non-lum9\s1 ! mean+ is t ,moses _h intellectual & moral p]fection1 s f> z a human be+ is capable ( hav+ !m1 & ! only p>tition sep>at+ him f a complete vision ( ,god 0 8 humanity4 ,! o!r prophets _h o!r defects besides1 con/itut+ s _m additional p>titions obscur+ ! div9e view4#bhi ,"s fooli% a/rolog]s are ( ! op9ion t a man's "* is det]m9$ 9 advance by ! position ( ! />s at ! "t ( 8 bir?4 ,?is is a grave error1 z c be %[n f reason z well z tradition4 ,! ,bible z well z ! ,greek philosoph]s are agre$ t a man's acts are "u 8 own control1 & t he himself & no "o else is responsible = 8 virtues z well z 8 vices4 ,x is true t a p]son's temp]am5t1 :i* is con/itutional & ov] :i* he has no control1 plays an important rle 9 8 conduct4 ,!re is no d5y+ t m5 are born ) c]ta9 t5d5cies4 ,"s are born phlegmatic1 "s are passionate & hot-blood$4 ,"o man has a t5d5cy to fe>lessness & brav]y1 ano!r is timid & backw>d4 ,b :ile x is true t x is m difficult = ! hot-blood$ to develop ! virtue ( temp]ance & mod]ation ?an x is = ! phlegmatic1 t x is easi] = ! w>m-temp]$ to le>n c\rage ?an x is = ! cold-temp]$--^! are n impossible4 ,virtue1 we h se5 be=e1 is n a natural /ate1 b an acquir$ possession due to long cont9u$ discipl9e & practice4 ,"o man may require long] & m assidu\s practice ?an ano!r to acquire a c]ta9 virtue1 b no matt] :at 8 inh]it$ temp]am5t1 he c acquire x if he und]takes to d s1 or if prop]ly tra9$4 ,if man's "* & conduct 7 det]m9$1 all ! comm&m5ts & prohibitions 9 ! ,bible w\ld be 9 va91 = )\t fre$om comm& has no effect4 ,simil>ly !re w\ld be no use 9 a p]son's endeavor+ to le>n any trade or pr(ession2 = if x is det]m9$ be=eh& t a giv5 individual %all be a physician or a c>p5t]1 he is b\nd to be "o :e!r he /udies or n4 ,?is w\ld make all rew>d & puni%m5t wrong & unju/ :e!r adm9i/]$ by man or by ,god4 ,= ! p]son s rew>d$ or puni%$ c\ld n help do+ :at he did1 & is !re=e n responsible4 ,all our plans & prep>ations w\ld on ?is supposition be useless & )\t mean+1 su* z build+ h\ses1 acquir+ food1 avoid+ dang]1 & s on4 ,all ?is is absurd & oppos$ to reason z well z to s5se4 ,x und]m9es ! f\ndation ( religion & imputes wrong to ,god4 ,! ,bible says di/9ctly1 ,see1 ,i h set be=e !e ?is day life & ! good1 dea? & ! evil 444 !re=e *oose ?\ life4444 7,deut4 #cj1 #ae1 #ai47 ,!re are "s passages 9 ! ,bible :i* app>5tly l5d color to ! idea t a p]son's acts are det]m9$ f on high4 ,su* are ! expressions us$ 9 relation to ,ph>aoh's conduct t[>d ! ,israelites 9 refus+ to let !m g out ( ,egypt4 ,we are told !re t ,god h>d5$ ! he>t ( ,ph>aoh t he %\ld n let ! ,israelites g4 ,& he did ?is 9 ord] to puni% ! ,egyptians4 ,! criticism "h is tw(old4 ,fir/1 ^! expressions indicate t a p]son is n always free2 & second1 x seems sc>cely j to =ce a man to act 9 a c]ta9 way & !n to puni% him = x4 ,! explanation ,maimonides gives to ?is passage is z foll[s3 ,he admits t 9 ,ph>aoh's case !re 0 a re/riction ( ,ph>aoh's fre$om4 ,b ?is 0 a p5al measure & exceptional4 ,normally a man is free1 b he may =feit ?is fre$om if he abuses x4 ,s ,ph>aoh's prim>y (f5ce 0 n t he w\ld n let ! *ildr5 ( ,israel g out ( ,egypt4 ,8 s9 consi/$ 9 8 tyrannical treatm5t ( ,israel 9 ! pa/1 :i* he did ( 8 own accord & z a result ( free *oice4 ,8 loss ( fre$om 9 comply+ ) ,moses's reque/ to let ! ,israelites g 0 already 9 ! nature ( a puni%m5t1 & its object 0 to let all ! _w "k t a p]son may =feit 8 fre$om ( action z a puni%m5t = abus+ 8 human privilege4 ,to be sure ,god does n always puni% s9 s sev]ely1 b x is n = u to se>* 8 motives & ask :y he puni%es "o man 9 "o way & ano!r 9 ano!r4 ,we mu/ leave ?is to 8 wisdom4 ,ano!r argum5t aga9/ free w is t x is incompatible ) ! k ( ,god4 ,if ,god is omnisci5t & kn[s ! future z well z ! pa/ & ! pres5t1 he kn[s h[ a giv5 p]son w act at a giv5 mom5t4 ,b s9ce ,god's k is c]ta9 & n liable to error1 ! p]son 9 "q _c help act+ z ,god long =eknew he w\ld act1 & h5ce 8 act is n ! result ( 8 free w4 ,maimonides's answ] to ?is objection is virtually an admission ( ignorance4 ,he takes refuge 9 ! transc5d5ce ( ,god's k1 ^u :i* he dwelt s insi/5tly 9 ! e>li] "p ( 8 "w 7p4 #bfj ff474 ,god is n qualifi$ by attributes z we 8 creatures are4 ,z he does n live by means ( life1 s he does n "k by means ( k4 ,he kn[s ?r\gh 8 own ess5ce4 ,he & 8 exi/5ce & 8 k are id5tical4 ,h5ce z we _c "k 8 ess5ce1 we _c h any conception ( 8 k4 ,x is mi/ak5 !re=e to argue t because we _c "k a future ev5t unless x is already det]m9$ 9 ! pres5t1 ,god _c d s4 ,8 k is ( a diff]5t k9d f ours1 & he c d :at we _c4 #bij ,! next problem ,maimonides takes up is ! doctr9e ( evil4 ,! pres5ce ( evil 9 ! _w1 physical z well z moral1 0 a /umbl+ block to all religi\s ?9k]s 9 ! middle ages4 ,! difficulty seems to f9d its orig9 9 ,neo-,platonism1 or1 f>!r back /ill1 9 ,philo ( ,alex&ria1 :o id5tifi$ ,god ) ! ,good4 ,if he is ! ,good1 evil _c come f him4 ,h[ !n acc\nt = ! evil 9 ! _w8 ,! answ] t 0 giv5 0 extremely unsatisfactory4 ,x 0 f\nd$ on a metaphysical di/9ction :i* is z old z ,plato1 namely1 ( matt] z ! non-exi/5t4 ,matt] 0 consid]$ a pr9ciple )\t any def9ite nature or actual be+1 & ?is 0 made ! basis ( all imp]fection1 dea?1 s94 ,evil p>takes ( ! non-exi/5ce ( matt]1 x is no?+ positive1 b only a negation or privation ( good z d>kness is ! abs5ce ( light2 h5ce x ne$s no creator1 x has no effici5t cause1 b only a defici5t cause4 ,9 ?is way physical evil 0 acc\nt$ =4 ,moral evil z ! result ( man's inhumanity to man c\ld easily be expla9$ by lay+ x to ! *>ge ( man's free w or ev5 to ! free w ( ! fall5 angels z ,orig5 conceives x4 ,?is removes f ,god all responsibility = evil4 ,we %all f9d t ,maimonides has no?+ ess5tially new to contribute to ! solution ( ! problem4 ,/rictly speak+1 he says1 only a positive ?+ c be made1 negation or privation _c4 ,we may speak loosely ( ! negative be+ produc$ :5 "o removes ! positive4 ,s if a man puts out a light1 we say he made d>kness1 ?\gh d>kness is a negation4 ,evil is no?+ b ! negation ( ! positive1 :i* is good4 ,all positive ?+s are good4 ,h5ce ,god _c be said to produce evil4 ,! positive ?+ :i* he produces is good2 ! evil is due to defect 9 ! ?+4 ,matt] also is good s f> z x is positive1 i4 e41 s f> z x causes cont9u$ exi/5ce ( "o ?+ aft] ano!r4 ,! evil 9 matt] is due to its negative or privative aspect z ! =mless1 :i* makes x ! cause ( defect & evil4 ,all evil t m5 d to ea* o!r is also due to negation1 namely1 abs5ce ( wisdom & k4 ,_m p ?9k !re is m evil 9 ! _w ?an good4 ,_! mi/ake is due to ! fact t !y make ! exp]i5ce ( ! individual man ! arbit] 9 ?is "q1 ?9k+ t ! univ]se 0 made = 8 sake4 ,!y =get t man is only a small fraction ( ! _w1 :i* is made by ! w ( ,god4 ,ev5 s man %\ld be grateful = ! great am\nt ( good he receives f ,god1 = _m ( ! evils ( man are self-inflict$4 ,9 fact ! evils befall+ man come "u ?ree categories4 #a4 ,! evil t is incid5t to man's nature z subject to g5esis & decay1 i4 e41 z compos$ ( matt]4 ,h5ce arise ! v>i\s accid5ts to :i* man is liable on acc\nt ( bad air & o!r natural causes4 ,^! are inevitable1 & insep>able f matt]1 & f ! g5]ation ( individuals 9 a species4 ,to dem& t a p]son ( fle% & blood %all n be subject to impressions is a contradiction 9 t]ms4 ,& ) all ?is ! evils ( ?is class are comp>atively few4 #b4 ,!y are ! evils inflict$ by "o man ^u ! o!r4 ,^! are m frequ5t ?an ! prec$+4 ,_! causes are v>i\s4 ,& yet ^! too are n v frequ5t4 #c4 ,^! are ! mo/ common4 ,!y are ! evils man br+s ^u himself by self-indulg5ce & ! =mation ( bad habits4 ,he injures ! body by excess1 & he injures ! m9d ?r\gh ! body by p]v]t+ & weak5+ x1 & by enslav+ x to luxuries to :i* !re is no end4 ,if a p]son is satisfi$ ) t :i* is necess>y1 he w easily h :at he ne$s2 = ! necess>ies are n h>d to get4 ,god's ju/ice is evid5t 9 af=d+ ! necess>ies to all 8 creatures & 9 mak+ all ! individuals ( ! same species simil> 9 p[] & ability4#bia ,! next problem ,maimonides discusses is really !oretical & %\ld h its place 9 ! discussion ( ! div9e attributes1 = x deals ) ! "* ( ,god's k4 ,! reason = tak+ x up "h is because1 accord+ to ,maimonides1 x 0 an e?ical "q t 0 ! motive = ! =mulation ( ! view ( ! oppon5ts4 ,accord+ly ! problem is semi-e?ical1 semi-metaphysical1 & is closely relat$ to ! "q ( ,provid5ce4 ,obs]v+ t ! good are (t5 wret*$ & ! bad prosp]\s1 ! philosoph]s came to ! conclusion t ,god does n "k individual ?+s4 ,= if he kn[s & does n ord] !m z is prop]1 ?is mu/ be due ei!r to inability or to jeal\sy1 bo? ( :i* are impossible 9 ,god4 ,hav+ come to ?is conclusion 9 ! way indicat$1 !y !n bol/]$ x up ) argum5ts to ju/ify x positively4 ,su* are t ! individual is kn[n ?r\gh s5se & ,god has no s5sation2 t ! numb] ( individual ?+s is inf9ite1 & ! inf9ite _c be compreh5d$1 h5ce _c be kn[n2 t k ( ! p>ticul> is subject to *ange z ! object *anges1 :]eas ,god's k is un*angeable4 ,aga9/ u ,jews !y argue t to suppose ,god kn[s ?+s be=e !y are connects k ) ! non-exi/5t2 & besides !re w\ld be two k9ds ( k 9 ,god1 "o k ( pot5tial ?+s1 & ano!r ( actual ?+s4 ,s !y came to ! conclusion t ,god kn[s only species b n individuals4 ,o!rs say t ,god kn[s no?+ except 8 own ess5ce1 else !re w\ld be multiplicity 9 8 nature4 ,z ! entire difficulty1 accord+ to ,maimonides1 arose f ! suppos$ impropriety 9 ! gov]nm5t ( individual de/9ies1 he fir/ discusses ! "q ( ,provid5ce & comes back lat] to ! problem ( ,god's k4#bib ,he enum]ates five op9ions conc]n+ ,provid5ce4 #a4 ,! ,op9ion ( ,epicurus4 ,!re is no ,provid5ce at all2 ev]y?+ is ! result ( accid5t & concurr5ce ( atoms4 ,ari/otle has refut$ ?is idea4 #b4 ,! ,op9ion ( ,ari/otle4 ,"s ?+s are subject to ,provid5ce1 o!rs are gov]n$ by accid5t4 ,god provides = ! cele/ial sph]es1 h5ce !y are p]man5t individually2 b1 z ,alex&] says 9 8 "n1 ,provid5ce ceases ) ! sph]e ( ! moon4 ,ari/otle's doctr9e conc]n+ ,provid5ce is relat$ to 8 belief 9 ! et]nity ( ! _w4 ,provid5ce corresponds to ! nature ( ! object 9 "q4 ,z ! individual sph]es are p]man5t1 x %[s t !re is special ,provid5ce :i* pres]ves ! sph]es individually4 ,z1 aga91 !re proce$ f !m o!r be+s :i* are n p]man5t individually b only z species1 namely1 ! species ( our _w1 x is cle> t ) ref]5ce to ! sublun> _w !re is s mu* ,provid5tial influ5ce z to br+ ab\t ! p]man5ce ( ! species1 b n ( ! individual4 ,to be sure1 ! individuals too are n completely neglect$4 ,!re are v>i\s p[]s giv5 to !m 9 accordance ) ! quality ( _! matt]s2 :i* p[]s det]m9e ! l5g? ( _! duration1 _! motion1 p]ception1 purposive exi/5ce4 ,b ! o!r incid5ts & motions 9 individual human z well z animal life are pure accid5t4 ,:5 a /orm scatt]s ! leaves ( trees1 ca/s d[n "s trunks & dr[ns a %ip ) its pass5g]s1 ! incid5t is z accid5tal ) ! m5 dr[n$ z ) ! scatt]$ leaves4 ,t :i* foll[s inv>iable laws ,ari/otle reg>ds z ,provid5tial1 :at happ5s r>ely & )\t rule is accid5tal4 #c4 ,! ,view ( ! ,a%>iya4 ,?is is ! v opposite ( ! prec$+ op9ion4 ,! ,a%>iya d5y all accid5t4 ,ev]y?+ is done by ! w ( ,god1 :e!r x be ! fall ( a leaf or ! dea? ( a man4 ,ev]y?+ is det]m9$1 & a p]son _c ( himself d or =be>4 ,x foll[s f ?is view t ! category ( ! possible is rul$ out4 ,ev]y?+ is ei!r necess>y or impossible4 ,x foll[s also t all laws are useless1 = man is helpless1 & rew>d & puni%m5t are det]m9$ solely by ! w ( ,god1 to :om ! concepts ( "r & wrong d n apply4 #d4 ,! ,op9ion ( ! ,mutazila4 ,!y v9dicate man's p[] to d & =be>1 ?us ju/ify+ ! comm&s & prohibitions1 & ! rew>ds & puni%m5ts ( ! laws4 ,god does n d wrong4 ,!y also believe t ,god kn[s ( ! fall ( a leaf1 & provides = all ?+s4 ,?is op9ion1 too1 is op5 to criticism4 ,if a p]son is born ) a defect1 !y say ?is is due to ,god's wisdom1 & x is bett] = ! man to be ?us4 ,if a pi\s man is put to dea?1 x is to increase 8 rew>d 9 ! next _w4 ,!y ext5d ?is to l[] animals also1 & say t ! m\se kill$ by ! cat w be rew>d$ 9 ! next _w4 ,! la/ ?ree op9ions all h _! motives4 ,ari/otle foll[$ ! data ( nature4 ,! ,a%>iya refus$ to impute ignorance to ,god4 ,! ,mutazila object to imput+ to him wrong1 or to d5y+ reason1 :i* holds t to cause a p]son pa9 = no (f5ce is wrong4 ,_! op9ion leads to a contradiction1 = !y say ,god kn[s ev]y?+ & at ! same "t man is free4 #e4 ,! ,op9ion ( our ,law4 ,a fundam5tal pr9ciple ( ! law ( ,moses is t man has absolute fre$om 9 8 conduct1 & s has an irrational animal4 ,no "o ( our religion disputes ?is4 ,ano!r fundam5tal pr9ciple is t ,god does no wrong1 & h5ce all rew>d & puni%m5t is ju/ly giv54 ,!re is only "o exception m5tion$ by ! ,rabbis1 :at !y call suff]+ = love1 i4 e41 mis=tunes :i* are n 9 ! nature ( puni%m5t = s9s committ$1 b 9 ord] to increase rew>d4 ,!re is no support1 h[ev]1 = ?is view 9 ! ,bible4 ,all ?is applies only to man4 ,no?+ is said 9 ! ,bible or 9 ! ,talmud ( rew>d & puni%m5t ( animals4 ,x 0 adopt$ by "s ( ! lat] ,geonim f ! ,mutazila4 ,aft] cit+ ^! five op9ions on ! nature ( ,provid5ce1 ,maimonides =mulates 8 own to ! foll[+ effect3 ,my own belief 9 ! matt]1 n z a result ( demon/ration1 b bas$ ^u :at seems to me to be ! mean+ ( ,scripture is t 9 ! sublun> _w man alone enjoys individual ,provid5ce4 ,all o!r individual ?+s besides are rul$ by *ance1 z ,ari/otle says4 ,div9e ,provid5ce corresponds to div9e influ5ce or emanation4 ,! m "o has ( div9e influ5ce1 ! m "o has ( ,provid5ce4 ,?us 9 plants & animals div9e ,provid5ce ext5ds only to ! species4 ,:5 ! ,rabbis tell u t cruelty to animals is =bidd5 9 ! ,torah1 ! mean+ is t we mu/ n be cruel to animals = our own good1 9 ord] n to develop habits ( cruelty4 ,to ask :y ,god does n provide = ! l[] animals 9 ! same way z he does = man1 is ! same z to ask :y he did n end[ ! animals ) reason4 ,! answ] w\ld be1 s he will$1 s 8 wisdom decre$4 ,my op9ion is n t ,god is ignorant ( any?+ or is incapable ( do+ c]ta9 ?+s1 b t ,provid5ce is closely relat$ to reason4 ,"o has z mu* ( ,provid5ce z he has ( ! influ5ce ( ! div9e reason4 ,x foll[s f ?is t ,provid5ce is n ! same = all individuals ( ! human species1 b v>ies ) ! p]son's "* & a*ievem5ts4 ,! prophets enjoy a special ,provid5ce2 ! pi\s & wise m5 come next2 :]eas a p]son :o is ignorant & disob$i5t is neglect$ & treat$ l a l[] animal1 be+ left to ! gov]nm5t ( *ance4#bic ,hav+ dispos$ ( ! "q ( ,provid5ce1 we may n[ resume ! discussion und]tak5 above 7p4 #bhi7 ( ! nature ( ,god's k4 ,! idea t ,god does n "k ! p>ticul> ?+s 9 our _w bel[ is an old "o & is ref]r$ to 9 ! ,bible (t54 ,?us1 to quote "o in/ance f ! ,psalms1 ! idea is cle>ly enunciat$ 9 ! foll[+ passage1 ,& !y say sc4 ! wick$1 ,h[ do? ,god "k8 ,& is !re k 9 ! mo/ ,high8 ,behold1 ^! are ! wick$2 &1 be+ alway at ease1 !y increase 9 ri*es4 ,surely 9 va9 h ,i cleans$ my he>t1 & wa%$ my h&s 9 innoc5cy4444 7#gc1 #aa-ac74 ,! orig9 ( ?is notion is 9 human exp]i5ce1 :i* sees ! adv]sity ( ! good & ! prosp]ity ( ! wick$1 ?\gh _m ( ! tr\bles are ( a man's own do+1 :o is a free ag5t4 ,b ?is view is wrong4 ,= ignorance ( any k9d is a defect1 & ,god is p]fect4 ,david po9t$ out ?is :5 he said1 ,he t plant$ ! e> %all he n he>8 ,he t =m$ ! eye %all he n see8 7#id1 #i74 ,?is means t unless ,god kn[s :at ! s5ses are1 he c\ld n h made ! s5se organs to p]ceive4 ,we mu/ n[ answ] ! o!r metaphysical argum5ts aga9/ ,god's k ( p>ticul>s4 ,x is agre$ t no new k c come to ,god :i* he did n h be=e1 nor c he h _m kn[l$ges4 ,we say !re=e 7we :o are believ]s 9 ! ,torah7 t ) "o k ,god kn[s _m ?+s1 & 8 k does n *ange z ! objects *ange4 ,we say also t he kn[s all ?+s be=e !y come into be+1 & kn[s !m always2 h5ce 8 k nev] *anges z ! objects appe> & disappe>4 ,x foll[s f ?is t 8 k relates to ! non-exi/5t & embraces ! inf9ite4 ,we believe ?is & say t only ! absolutely non-exi/5t _c be kn[n2 b ! non-exi/5t ^: exi/5ce is 9 ,god's k & :i* he c br+ into reality c be kn[n4 ,z to compreh5d+ ! inf9ite1 we say ) "s ?9k]s t k relates prim>ily to ! species & ext5ds indirectly to ! individuals includ$ 9 ! species4 ,& ! species are f9ite4 ,! philosoph]s1 h[ev]1 decide t !re _c be k ( ! non-exi/5t1 & ! inf9ite _c be compreh5d$4 ,god1 !re=e1 z he _c h new & *ang+ k kn[s only ! p]man5t ?+s1 ! species1 & n ! *ang+ & tempor>y individuals4 ,o!rs g /ill fur!r & ma9ta9 t ,god _c ev5 "k ! p]man5t ?+s1 because k ( _m ?+s involves _m kn[l$ges1 h5ce multiplicity 9 ,god's ess5ce4 ,!y insi/ !re=e t ,god kn[s only himself4 ,my view is1 says ,maimonides1 t ! error ( all ^! p is t !y assume !re is a relation ( resemblance betwe5 our k & ,god's k4 ,& x is surpris+ t ! philosoph]s %\ld be guilty ( su* an error1 ! v m5 :o prov$ t ,god's k is id5tical ) 8 ess5ce1 & t our reason _c "k ,god's ess5ce4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 our k & ,god's k is t we get our k f ! data ( exp]i5ce1 ^u :i* x dep5ds4 ,ea* new datum adds to our k1 :i* _c run ahead ( t :i* produces x4 ,x is diff]5t 9 ! case ( ,god4 ,he is ! cause ( ! data ( exp]i5ce4 ,! latt] foll[ 8 k1 & n vice v]sa4 ,h5ce by kn[+ himself he kn[s ev]y?+ else be=e x comes into be+4 ,we _c conceive ( 8 k1 = to d ?is w\ld be to h x ourselves4#bid ,! la/ topic ,maimonides consid]s 9 8 philosophical "w is ! reason & purpose ( ! comm&m5ts ( ! ,bible1 p>ticul>ly ! c]emonial precepts :i* app>5tly h no rational mean+4 ,9 fact !re are ^? :o ma9ta9 t x is va9 to se>* = reasons ( ! laws :]e none are giv5 9 ! ,bible itself2 t ! sole reason 9 ^? cases is ! w ( ,god4 ,^! p labor "u ! absurd impression t to discov] a rational purpose 9 ! c]emonial laws w\ld dim9i% _! value & r$uce !m to human in/itutions4 ,_! div9e "* & orig9 is atte/$ 9 ! m9ds ( ^! p by _! irrationality1 by ! fact t !y h no human mean+4 ,?is is cle>ly absurd1 says ,maimonides ! rationali/4 ,x is tantam\nt to say+ t man is sup]ior to ,god2 & t :]eas a man w comm& only t :i* is ( b5efit1 ,god gives ord]s :i* h no e>?ly use4 ,! tru? is q ! rev]se1 & all ! laws are = our b5efit4#bie ,accord+ly ,maimonides und]takes to acc\nt = all ! laws ( ! ,bible4 ,! ,law1 he says1 has two purposes1 ! improvem5t ( ! body & ! improvem5t ( ! s\l or ! m9d4 ,! improvem5t ( ! s\l is br\ght ab\t by /udy & reflection1 & ! result ( ?is is !oretical k4 ,b 9 ord] to be able to realize ?is p]fectly a necess>y pr]equisite is ! improvem5t ( ! body4 ,?is is inf]ior 9 value to p]fection ( ! s\l1 b comes naturally & *ronologically fir/ z a means to an end4 ,= bodily p]fection "o mu/ h heal? & /r5g? z f> z "o's con/itution p]mits1 & = ?is purpose a p]son mu/ h 8 ne$s at all times4 ,social life is necess>y = ! supply ( ! individuals' ne$s1 & to make social life possible !re mu/ be rules ( "r & wrong to be obs]v$4#bif ,apply+ :at has j be5 said to ! ,law1 we may divide its cont5ts broadly into f\r classes1 7#a7 ,precepts inculcat+ true beliefs & ideas1 su* z ! exi/5ce ( ,god1 8 unity1 k1 p[]1 w1 et]nity4 7#b7 ,legal & moral precepts1 su* z ! inculcation ( ju/ice & a b5evol5t disposition = ! good ( society4 7#c7 ,! n>ratives & g5ealogies ( ! ,law4 7#d7 ,! c]emonial prescriptions4 ,( ^! ! purpose ( ! fir/ two divisions is p]fectly cle> & admitt$ by all4 ,true beliefs & ideas reg>d+ ,god & 8 gov]nm5t ( ! _w are directly conducive to ! highe/ end ( man1 k & p]fection ( ! s\l4 ,honorable & virtu\s conduct is a prelim9>y requisite to intellectual p]fection4 ,! g5ealogies & n>ratives ( ! ,bible are also n )\t a purpose4 ,!y are int5d$ to inculcate a !oretical doctr9e or a moral1 & to emphasize ! "o or ! o!r1 :i* _c be done s well by a b>e /atem5t or comm&m5t4 ,?us1 to take a few examples1 ! creation ( ! _w is impress$ ^u ! read] beyond ! possibility ( a d\bt by a circum/antial n>rative ( ! v>i\s /eps 9 ! process1 ! gradual peopl+ ( ! e>? by ! multiplication ( ! human race desc5d$ f ! fir/ pair1 & s on4 ,! /ory ( ! flood & ( ! de/ruction ( ,sodom & ,gomorrah has = its purpose to emphasize ! tru? t ,god is a j judge1 :o rew>ds ! pi\s & puni%es ! wick$4 ,! g5ealogy ( ! k+s ( ,edom 9 ,g5esis 7#cf1 #ca7 is int5d$ z a w>n+ to ,israel 9 ! appo9tm5t ( k+s4 ,^! k+s ( ! ,edomites 7 all ( !m =eign]s n ( ,edom1 & x is probable t ! hi/ory ( _! tyrannical rule & oppression ( _! ,edomite subjects 0 well kn[n to ! p 9 ,moses's "t4 ,h5ce ! po9t ( ! enum]ation ( ! li/ ( k+s & _! orig9 is to s]ve z a det]r+ example to ! ,israelites nev] to appo9t z k+ ( ,israel a man :o came f ano!r nation1 9 accordance ) ! precept 9 ,deut]onomy 7#ag1ae71 ,?\ maye/ n put a =eign] ov] !e1 :i* is n ?y bro!r4#big ,!re rema9s ! division ( ! c]emonial laws1 :i* are ! subject ( dispute4 ,! purpose 9 ^! precepts is n evid5t1 & op9ions are divid$ z to :e!r !y h any purpose4 ,i w endeavor to %[1 says ,maimonides1 t ^! also h "o or m ( ! foll[+ objects3 to tea* true beliefs & op9ions1 to remove inju/ice & to inculcate good qualities4 ,abraham grew up among ! ,sabeans1 :o 7 /> wor%ipp]s & believ]s 9 ! et]nity ( ! _w4 ,! object ( ! law is to keep m5 away f ! errone\s views ( ! ,sabeans1 :i* 7 preval5t 9 ^? days4 ,! ,sabeans believ$ t ! wor%ip ( ! />s helps 9 ! cultivation ( ! gr\nd to make x fruitful4 ,= ?is reason !y ?9k highly ( ! husb&m5 & labor]s on ! l&4 ,!y also respect cattle & prohibit slaught]+ !m because !y are ( b5efit 9 ! cultivation ( ! l&4 ,9 ! int]e/ ( agriculture !y in/itut$ ! wor%ip ( ! />s1 :i* !y believ$ w\ld cause ! ra9 to fall & ! e>? to yield its f]tility4 ,on ?is acc\nt we f9d ! rev]se ( ?is 9 ! ,bible1 tell+ u t wor%ip ( ! />s w result 9 lack ( ra9 & inf]tility4 ,9 ! life ( nature we see h[ "o ?+ s]ves ano!r1 & c]ta9 objects are n br\ght ab\t except ?r\gh c]ta9 o!rs1 & developm5t is gradual4 ,s1 = example1 a "y infant _c be f$ on meat & solid food1 & nature provides milk 9 ! "m's brea/4 ,simil>ly 9 gov]n+ ! p ( ,israel1 :o 7 liv+ 9 a c]ta9 environm5t1 ,god c\ld n at once te> !m away f ! habits ( ?\ght to :i* !y 7 accu/om$1 b he l$ !m gradually4 ,h5ce z !y 7 accu/om$ to sacrific+ to ! />s1 ,god ord]$ !m to sacrifice to him1 ! object be+ to wean !m away f ! idols 9 ! easie/ way possible4 ,?is is :y ! prophets d n lay /ress on ! sacrifices4 ,to be sure1 x 0 n impossible = ,god to =m _! m9ds s t !y w\ld n require ?is =m ( tra9+1 & w\ld see at once t ,god does n ne$ sacrifices1 b ?is w\ld h be5 a miracle4 ,& :ile ,god does p]=m miracles sometimes = c]ta9 purposes1 he does n *ange ! nature ( man2 n because he _c1 b because he desires man to be free & responsible4 ,o!rwise !re w\ld be no s5se 9 laws & prophets4 ,among ! purposes ( ! law are ab/5tion f self-indulg5ce 9 ! physical appetites1 l eat+ & dr9k+ & s5su\s pleasure1 because ^! ?+s prev5t ! ultimate p]fection ( man1 & are likewise injuri\s to civil & social life1 multiply+ z !y d sorr[ & tr\ble & /rife & jeal\sy & hate & w>f>e4 ,ano!r purpose is to inculcate g5tl5ess & polit5ess & docility4 ,ano!r is purity & hol9ess4 ,ext]nal cleanl9ess is also recomm5d$1 b n z a sub/itute = int]nal4 ,! important ?+ is int]nal purity1 ext]nal takes a second>y place4 ,maimonides ends ! discussion ( ! ,p5tateu*al laws by divid+ !m into f\rte5 classes 7foll[+ 9 ?is ! divisions 9 8 great legal code1 ! ,yad ,ha-,hazakah7 & expla9+ ! purposes ( ea* class4 ,x w be useful briefly to reproduce ! division "h4 #a4 ,^? laws t conc]n fundam5tal ideas ( religion & !ology1 includ+ ! duty ( le>n+ & tea*+1 & ! in/itutions ( rep5tance & fa/+4 ,! purpose "h is cle>4 ,intellectual p]fection is ! greate/ good ( man1 & ?is _c be atta9$ )\t le>n+ & tea*+2 & )\t wisdom !re is nei!r good practice nor true op9ion4 ,simil>ly honor+ ! wise1 swe>+ by ,god's "n1 & n to swe> falsely--all ^! lead to a firm belief 9 ,god's greatness4 ,rep5tance is useful to gu>d aga9/ despair & cont9uance 9 evil do+ on ! "p ( ! s9n]4 #b4 ,! precepts & prohibitions relat+ to idolatry4 ,"h are includ$ also ! prohibition to mix div]s k9ds ( se$s 9 plant+1 ! prohibition aga9/ eat+ ! fruit ( a tree dur+ ! fir/ ?ree ye>s ( its gr[?1 & aga9/ we>+ a g>m5t made ( a mixture ( wool & flax4 ,! prohibition ( idolatry is evid5t 9 its purpose1 :i* is to tea* true ideas ab\t ,god4 ,! o!r matt]s above m5tion$ are connect$ ) idolatry4 ,magic is a species ( idolatry because x is bas$ on a belief 9 ! direct influ5ce ( ! />s4 ,all practices done to produce a c]ta9 effect1 :i* are n ju/ifi$ by a reason or at lea/ are n v]ifi$ by exp]i5ce1 are =bidd5 z be+ sup]/iti\s & a species ( magic4 ,cutt+ ! be>d & ! e>locks is =bidd5 on a simil> gr\nd because x 0 a cu/om ( ! idolatr\s prie/s4 ,! same ?+ applies to mix+ ( cotton & flax1 to m5 we>+ wom5's g>m5ts & vice v]sa1 ?\gh "h !re is ! additional reason1 to prev5t1 namely1 laxness 9 sexual morality4 #c4 ,! precepts relat+ to e?ical & moral conduct4 ,"h ! purpose is cle>1 namely1 to improve social life4 #d4 ,! rules relat+ to *>ity1 loans1 gifts1 & s on4 ,! purpose is to tea* k9dness to ! poor1 & ! b5efit is mutual1 = ! ri* man to-day may be poor to-morr[4 #e4 ,laws relat+ to injury & damages4 ,! purpose is to remove wrong & inju/ice4 #f4 ,laws relat+ to !ft1 robb]y1 false witnesses4 ,! purpose is to prev5t injury by puni%+ ! (f5d]4 #g4 ,! regulation ( bus9ess int]c\rse1 l loan1 hire1 deposits1 buy+ & sell+1 inh]itance1 & s on4 ,! purpose "h is social ju/ice to make life 9 society possible4 #h4 ,laws relat+ to special p]iods1 su* z ! ,sabba? & ! fe/ivals4 ,! purpose is /at$ 9 ea* case 9 ! ,law itself1 & x is ei!r to inculcate a true idea l ! creation 9 ! case ( ! ,sabba?1 or to enable mank9d to re/ f _! labors1 or = bo? comb9$4 #i4 ,! o!r practical obs]vances l pray]1 ! read+ ( ,%ema1 & s on4 ,^! are all modes ( s]v+ ,god1 :i* lead to true op9ions conc]n+ him1 & to fe> & love4 #aj4 ,! regulations be>+ ^u ! temple & its s]vice4 ,! purpose ( ^! 0 expla9$ above 9 connection ) ! in/itution ( sacrifice1 namely t x 0 a concession to ! primitive ideas & cu/oms ( ! p ( ^? times = ! purpose ( gradually wean+ !m away f idolatry4 #aa4 ,laws relat+ to sacrifices4 ,! purpose 0 /at$ above & "u #aj4 #ab4 ,laws ( cleanness & uncleanness4 ,! purpose is to gu>d aga9/ too great famili>ity ) ! ,temple 9 ord] to ma9ta9 respect = x4 ,h5ce ! regulations prescrib+ ! times :5 "o may1 & ! occasions :5 "o may n1 approa* or ent] ! ,temple4 #ac4 ,! diet>y laws4 ,un:olesome food is =bidd51 also unclean animals4 ,! purpose 9 "s cases is to gu>d aga9/ excess & self-indulg5ce4 ,"s regulations l ! laws ( slaught] & o!rs are humanit>ian 9 _! nature4 #ad4 ,=bidd5 m>riages1 & circumcision4 ,! purpose is to gu>d aga9/ excess 9 sexual indulg5ce1 & aga9/ mak+ x an end 9 itself4#bih ,to sum up1 !re are f\r k9ds ( human accompli%m5ts or excell5cies1 7#a7 ,acquisition ( weal?1 7#b7 ,physical p]fection1 /r5g?1 beauty1 etc41 7#c7 ,moral p]fection1 7#d7 ,intellectual & spiritual p]fection4 ,! la/ is ! mo/ important4 ,! fir/ is purely ext]nal2 ! second is common to ! l[] animals2 ! ?ird is = ! sake ( "o's fell[m51 9 ! int]e/ ( society1 & w\ld n exi/ = a solit>y p]son4 ,! la/ alone conc]ns ! individual himself4 ,j]emiah expresses ?is tru? 9 8 /atem5t1 ,?us sai? ! ,"l1 ,let n ! wise man glory 9 8 wisdom1 nei!r let ! mighty man glory 9 8 might1 let n ! ri* man glory 9 8 ri*es3 b let him t glorie? glory 9 ?is1 t he und]/&e?1 & kn[e? me1 t ,i am ! ,"l :i* ex]cise lov+ k9dness1 judgm5t & righte\sness 9 ! e>? 7,j]4 #i1 #bb74 ,wise man 9 ! above quotation means ! man ( good morals4 ,! important ?+1 ,j]emiah says1 is to "k ,god ?r\gh 8 actions & to imitate him4#bii ,maimonides's e?ics z well z 8 int]pretation ( ! ,p5tateu*al laws is intellectuali/ic1 z ! =ego+ acc\nt %[s4 ,& x is natural t x %\ld be4 ,! prevail+ tr5d ( ?\ght 9 ! middle ages1 alike among ! ,arabs1 ,jews & ,*ri/ians1 0 ( ?is "*4 ,ari/otle 0 ! ma/] ( sci5ce1 & to him intellectual contemplation is ! highe/ good ( man4 ,! di/9ction ( man is 8 rational faculty1 h5ce ! excell5ce & p]fection ( ?is faculty is ! prop] function ( man & ! realization ( 8 be+4 ,?is alone leads to t eudaimonia or happ9ess = :i* man /rives4 ,to be sure complete happ9ess is impossible )\t ! complete developm5t ( all "o's p[]s1 b ?is is because ! reason 9 man is n isolat$ f ! re/ ( 8 individual & social life2 & p]fection ( m9d requires z its auxili>ies & prep>ation complete liv+ 9 fre$om & com=t4 ,b ! aim is aft] all ! life ( ! intellect1 & ! dianoetic virtues are sup]ior to ! practical4 ,!oretic contemplation /&s f> high] ?an practical activity4 ,add to ?is t ,ari/otle's ,god is pure ?\ght ?9k+ et]nally itself1 ! univ]sal mov]1 himself et]nally unmov$1 & attract+ ! cele/ial sph]es z ! object ( love attracts ! lov]1 )\t itself necess>ily be+ affect$1 & ! intellectualism ( ,ari/otle /&s out cle>ly4 ,maimonides is an ,ari/otelian1 & he endeavors to h>monize ! intellectualism & !orism ( ! ,/agirite ) ! diametrically oppos$ e?ics & religion ( ! ,hebrew ,bible4 ,& he is app>5tly unaw>e ( ! yawn+ gulf ext5d+ betwe5 !m4 ,! e?ics ( ! ,bible is no?+ if n practical4 ,no /ress is laid ^u k & !oretical speculation z su*4 ,! wisdom & ! wise man ( ! book ( ,prov]bs no m mean ! !oretical philosoph] ?an ! fool & ! scorn] 9 ! same book d5ote ! "o ignorant 9 !oretical speculation4 ,! beg9n+ ( wisdom is ! fe> ( ! ,"l4 ,?is is ! keynote ( ! book ( ,prov]bs1 & its precepts & exhortations are practical & no?+ else4 ,t ! ,p5tateu*al law is solely conc]n$ ) practical conduct1 religi\s1 c]emonial & moral1 ne$s n say+4 ,x is s absolutely cle> & evid5t t "o wond]s h[ s cle>-sight$ a ?9k] l ,maimonides c\ld h be5 misl$ by ! au?ority ( ,ari/otle & ! intellectual atmosph]e ( ! day to imag9e o!rwise4 ,! v passage f ,j]emiah :i* he quotes z summ+ up 8 idea ( ! summum bonum1 speaks aga9/ him1 & he only succe$s 9 manipulat+ x 9 8 favor by mis9t]pret+ ! ^w wise4 ,:atev] ! wise man may d5ote 9 ! book ( ,prov]bs1 "h 9 ,j]emiah he is cle>ly contra/$ ) ! p]son :o 9 imitation ( ,god practices k9dness1 judgm5t & righte\sness4 ,! ^w does n d5ote ! !oretical philosoph]1 to be sure1 b x approximates x m closely ?an ! expression describ+ ! ideal man ( ,j]emiah's comm5dation4 ,x is 9 l9e ) ,maimonides's g5]al rationali/ic & intellectuali/ic po9t ( view :5 he und]takes to f9d a reason = e comm&m5t1 :]e no reason is giv5 9 ! ,law4 ,he %[s himself 9 ?is an oppon5t ( all my/icism1 s5tim5tality & arbitr>9ess4 ,reason is p>am\nt4 ,! intellect det]m9es ! w1 & n ev5 ,god's w may be arbitr>y4 ,8 w is id5tical ) 8 reason1 h5ce !re is a reason 9 ev]y?+ t he wills4 ,we may n 9 e case succe$ 9 f9d+ ! reason :]e he himself did n *oose to tell u1 b a reason !re always is1 & ! endeavor on our "p to discov] x %\ld be comm5d$ r ?an condemn$4 ,! details ( 8 motivation ( ! c]emonial laws are v int]e/+1 & 9 _m cases !y anticipat$1 ?\gh 9 a crud] =m1 ! m sci5tific !ories ( mod]n critics4 ,take 8 int]pretation ( ! in/itution ( sacrifices4 ,take away ! p]sonal mann] ( expression1 :i* might seem to imply t ,god spoke to ,moses 9 "s su* fa%ion z ?is3 ,y & ,i "k t sacrifices h no inh]5t mean+ or value4 ,!y r smack ( sup]/ition & idolatry4 ,b :at c we d8 ,we _c1 i4 e41 we mu/ n1 *ange ! nature ( ^! p4 ,we mu/ tra9 !m gradually to see ! tru? = !mselves4 ,!y are n[ on ! level ( _! environm5t1 & believe 9 ! efficacy ( kill+ %eep & ox5 to ! />s & ! gods4 ,we w use a true p$agogical me?od if we humor !m 9 ?is _! crudity = ! purpose ( transf]r+ _! allegiance f ! false gods to ! "o true ,god4 ,let u !n in/itute a sy/em ( sacrifices ) all ! details & m9utiae ( ! sacrificial sy/ems ( ! hea!ns & /> wor%ipp]s4 ,we %all impose ?is sy/em ^u our p = ! "t be+1 & 9 ! end z !y gr[ wis] !y w outgr[ x--take away ?is mode ( expression 9 ,maimonides's int]pretation1 :i* is n ess5tial1 & ! ess5ce may be r5d]$ 9 m mod]n t]ms ?us4 ,man's religion is subject to *ange & developm5t & progress l all 8 o!r in/itutions4 ,! =ms !y successively take 9 ! c\rse ( _! developm5t are det]m9$ by ! /ate ( g5]al intellig5ce & positive k t ! giv5 race or nation possesses4 ,! same ?+ holds ( religi\s developm5t4 ,! in/itution ( sacrifices is preval5t 9 all religi\s communities at a c]ta9 /age 9 _! c>e]4 ,x />ts ) human sacrifice1 :i* is lat] disc>d$ & replac$ by sacrifices ( animals4 ,& ?is is aga9 9 ! c\rse ( "t discont9u$1 leav+ its traces only 9 ! pray] book1 :i* 9 ,judaism has (ficially tak5 ! place ( ! ,temple s]vice4 ,:ile ! m]it ( ,maimonides 9 =e%ad[+ ?is mod]n und]/&+ ( anci5t religion _c be ov]e/imat$1 x is cle> t 9 "s ( 8 o!r int]pretations ( ,jewi% c]emonial1 he is wide ( ! m>k4 ,8 rationalism c\ld n take ! place ( a k ( hi/ory4 ,8 motivation ( ! diet>y laws on ! score ( hygi5e or ( mod]ation & self-re/ra9t is probably n true4 ,nor is ! prohibition aga9/ mix+ div]s se$s1 or we>+ g>m5ts ( wool & flax mix$1 or %av+ ! corn] ( ! be>d1 & s on1 due to ! fact t ^! 7 ! cu/oms ( ! idolat]s & _! prie/s4 ,if ,maimonides 0 bold en\gh to pull ! sacrificial sy/em d[n f its glori\s p$e/al 9 ,jewi% tradition & admit t be+ inh]5tly no?+ b a sup]/ition1 x 0 nev]!less in/itut$ ) su* great pomp & c]emony1 ) a prie/ly family1 a levitical tribe & a ho/ ( prescriptions & regulations1 m]ely z a concession to ! habits & prejudices ( ! p1 :y c\ld he n apply ! same me?od ( explanation to ! few prohibitions m5tion$ above8 ,:y n say ! anci5t ,hebrews 7 =bidd5 to mix div]s se$s because !y _h be5 f "t immemorial taught to believe t !re 0 some?+ s9ful 9 jo9+ toge!r :at ,god has kept asund]2 & 9 ord] n to %ock _! s5sibilities too rudely ! new religion let !m h ^! h>mless notions 9 ord] by means ( ^! to inculcate real tru?s8 ,be=e conclud+ our sket* ( ,maimonides we mu/ say a ^w ab\t 8 ,bible exegesis4 ,?\gh ! t5d5cy to read philosophy into ! ,bible is z old z ,philo1 f :om x 0 borr[$ by ,clem5t ( ,alex&ria & ,orig5 & by !m h&$ d[n to ! o!r ,patri/ic writ]s1 & ?\gh 9 ! ,jewi% middle ages too1 f ,saadia d[n1 ! v]ses ( ! ,bible 7 employ$ to confirm views adopt$ f o!r consid]ations2 ?\gh f9ally ,abraham ,ibn ,daud 9 ! matt] ( exegesis1 too1 anticipat$ ,maimonides 9 f9d+ ! ,ari/otelian metaphysic 9 ! sacr$ scriptures1 /ill ,maimonides z 9 ev]y?+ else p]ta9+ to ,jewi% belief & practice1 s 9 ! int]pretation ( ! ,bible also obta9$ ! position ( a lead]1 ( ! f\nd] ( a s*ool & ! mo/ brilliant & mo/ au?oritative expon5t !re(1 putt+ 9 ! %ade ev]yone :o prec$$ him & e endeavor 9 ! same direction to :i* ,maimonides himself ow$ 8 inspiration4 ,maimonides's treatm5t ( ! ,bible texts & _! application to 8 philosophical disquisitions is s mu* m compreh5sive & ma/]ly ?an any?+ 9 ! same l9e done be=e him1 t x made ev]y?+ else sup]flu\s & set ! pace = manifold imitation by ! successors ( ,maimonides1 small & great4 ,read+ ! ,bible ?r\gh ,ari/otelian spectacles became ! fa%ion ( ! day aft] ,maimonides4 ,joseph ,ibn ,akn91 ,samuel ,ibn ,tibbon1 ,jacob ,anatoli1 ,joseph ,ibn ,caspi1 ,levi ,b5 ,g]son & a ho/ ( o!rs tri$ _! h& at ,biblical exegesis1 & ! ,maimonidean /amp is ^u _! "w4 ,we h already spok5 ( ,maimonides's g5]al attitude t[>d ! an?ropomorphisms 9 ! ,bible & ! mann] 9 :i* he acc\nts = ! /yle & mode ( expression ( ! ,biblical writ]s4 ,he wrote no special exegetical "w1 he compos$ no comm5t>ies on ! ,bible4 ,b 8 ,guide ( ! ,p]plex$ is full ( quotations f ! ,biblical books1 & c]ta9 sections 9 x are devot$ to a sy/ematic int]pretation ( ^? ,biblical *apt]s & books :i* l5d !mselves mo/ easily &1 z ,maimonides ?\ght1 imp]atively to metaphysical int]pretation4 ,x is impossible "h to ent] into details1 b x is prop] briefly to po9t out 8 g5]al me?od ( treat+ ! ,biblical passages 9 "q1 & to /ate :at ^! passages are4 ,we h already ref]r$ m ?an once to ! ,talmudic expressions ,maase ,b]e%it 7,"w ( ,creation7 & ,maase ,m]kaba 7,"w ( ! ,*>iot74 ,maimonides says def9itely t ! =m] d5otes ! sci5ce ( physics1 i4 e41 ! fundam5tal notions ( nature z treat$ 9 ,ari/otle's ,physics1 & ! latt] signifies metaphysics or !ology1 z repres5t$ 9 ,ari/otle's ,metaphysics4 ,! creation *apt]s 9 ,g5esis conta9 b5ea? _! simple ext]ior ( a g5]ally intelligible n>rative1 appeal+ to "y & old alike1 wom5 z well z *ildr51 a treatm5t ( philosophical physics4 ,& simil>ly 9 ! obscure phraseology ( ! vision ( ,ezekiel 9 ! fir/ & t5? *apt]s ( t prophet's book1 are conta9$ allusions to ! mo/ pr(\nd ideas ( metaphysics & !ology1 conc]n+ ,god & ! sep>ate ,intellig5ces & ! cele/ial sph]es4 ,z ! ,rabbis =bid tea*+ ^! pr(\nd doctr9es except to "o or two wor?y p]sons at a "t1 & z ! au?ors ( ^? *apt]s 9 ! ,bible cle>ly int5d$ to conceal ! esot]ic cont5ts f ! gaze ( ! vulg>1 ,maimonides ) all 8 eag]ness to spread abroad ! light ( reason & k hesitates to violate ! _s ( ,bible & ,talmud4 ,8 int]pretations ( ^! my/ic passages are !re=e express$ 9 allusions & half-conceal$ revelations4 ,! dilig5t /ud5t ( ! ,guide1 :o is famili> ) ! philosophy ( ,ari/otle z taught by ! ,arabs ,alf>abi & ,avic5na w be able )\t mu* difficulty to solve ,maimonides's allusions1 ! casual read] w n4 ,)\t go+ into details x w suffice = our purpose to say t 9 ! creation /ory ,maimonides f9ds ! ,ari/otelian doctr9es ( matt] & =m1 ( ! f\r elem5ts1 ( pot5tiality & actuality1 ( ! diff]5t p[]s ( ! s\l1 ( logical & e?ical di/9ctions 7! true & ! false on "o h&1 ! good & ! bad on ! o!r71 & s on4#cjj ,9 ! ,vision ( ,ezekiel he sees ! ,p]ipatetic ideas ( ! cele/ial sph]es1 ( _! v>i\s motions1 ( _! s\ls1 _! intellects & ! sep>ate ,intellig5ces1 ( ! ,active ,intellect1 ( ! influ5ce ( ! heav5ly bodies on ! *anges 9 ! sublun> _w1 ( ! fif? elem5t 7! e!r7 & s on4#cja ,don ,isaac ,ab>banel has already criticiz$ ?is attempt ( ,maimonides by ju/ly argu+ t if ! mean+ ( ! my/]i\s vision ( ,ezekiel is :at ,maimonides ?9ks x is1 !re 0 no occasion to wrap x 9 su* obscurity1 s9ce ! matt] is pla9ly taught 9 all s*ools ( philosophy4#cjb ,we might1 h[ev]1 reply t no less a man ?an ,plato expresses himself 9 ! ,timu 9 simil>ly obscure t]ms conc]n+ ! orig9 & =mation ( ! _w4 ,be ?is z x may1 ,munk is c]ta9ly "r :5 he says t if1 z is n improbable1 ,ezekiel's vision does conta9 cosmological speculations1 !y h no?+ to d ) ! ,ari/otelian cosmology1 b mu/ be relat$ to ,babylonian !ories4#cjc ,ano!r favorite book ( ! ,bible = ! exegesis ( philosoph]s 0 ! book ( ,job4 ,9 ?is ,maimonides sees reflect$ ! sev]al views conc]n+ ,provid5ce1 div9e k & human fre$om1 :i* he enum]ates 7p4 #bij ff474#cjd ,! influ5ce ( ,maimonides ^u 8 contempor>ies & imm$iate successors 0 inde$ v great1 & x 0 n conf9$ to ,judaism4 ,*ri/ian ,s*ola/ics & ,mohamm$an !ologians /udi$ & us$ ! ,guide ( ! ,p]plex$4 ,maimonides himself1 x seems1 ?\gh he wrote 8 ,guide 9 ! ,arabic language1 did n desire to make x accessible to ! ,mohamm$ans1 fe>+ possibly t "s ( 8 doctr9es conc]n+ prophecy might be (f5sive to !m4 ,h5ce he is said to h in/ruct$ 8 fri5ds & disciples n to translit]ate ! ,hebrew *>act]s1 :i* he 9 accordance ) g5]al ,jewi% usage employ$ 9 writ+ ,arabic1 into ,arabic *>act]s4 ,b he 0 p[]less to en=ce 8 desire & !re is no d\bt t su* transcriptions 7 9 use4 ,samuel ,tibbon himself1 ! ,hebrew translator ( ! ,guide1 made use ( manuscript copies writt5 9 ,arabic lett]s4 ,we are told t 9 ! ,mohamm$an s*ools 9 ! city ( ,fez 9 ,morocco1 ,jews 7 appo9t$ to tea* ,maimonides's philosophy1 & !re is extant 9 ,hebrew translation a comm5t>y by a ,mohamm$an !ologian on ! tw5ty-five philosophical propositions laid d[n by ,maimonides z ! basis ( 8 pro( ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god 7p4 #bed74cje ,! influ5ce ( ,maimonides on ,*ri/ian s*ola/icism is /ill great]4 ,we h already said 7p4 #aii f47 t ! philosophical r5aissance 9 ,lat9 ,europe dur+ ! ?irte5? c5tury 0 due to ! introduction ( ! complete works ( ,ari/otle 9 ,lat9 translation4 ,^! translations 7 made p>tly f ! ,arabic v]sions ( ! ,mohamm$ans1 p>tly f ! ,greek orig9als1 :i* became accessible aft] ! capture ( ,con/ant9ople by ! ,crusad]s 9 #abjg4cjf ,be=e ?is "t ! scope ( philosophical rese>* & inve/igation 9 ,*ri/ian ,europe 0 limit$1 & its basis 0 ! ,platonism ( ,/4 ,augu/9e & fragm5ts ( ,ari/otle's logic4 ,9 g5]al ,platonism 0 favorable to ,*ri/ian dogma4 ,plato accord+ to ,augu/9e came ne>e/ to ,*ri/ianity ( all ! anci5t ,greek philosoph]s4#cjg ,& ! dang]s to ,*ur* doctr9e :i* lurk$ 9 philosophical discussion be=e ! ?irte5? c5tury 7 a t5d5cy to ,pan!ism on ! "p ( ?9k]s imbu$ ) ! ,neo-,platonic mode ( ?\ght1 & an undue emphasis ei!r on ! unity ( ,god z oppos$ to ! ,tr9ity 7,abl>d71 or on ! ,tr9ity at ! exp5se ( ! unity 7,roscell9us ( ,compigne7--conclusions result+ f ! attitudes ( ! ?9k]s 9 "q on ! nature ( univ]sals4 ,9 ! e>ly "p ( ! ?irte5? c5tury = ! fir/ "t1 ! horizon ( ! ,lat9 s*oolm5 0 sudd5ly enl>g$ & brilliantly illum9$ by ! adv5t ( ! complete ,ari/otle 9 8 sev]e1 exact+ & rigor\s panoply4 ,all sci5ce & philosophy op5$ be=e ! impov]i%$ s*oolm51 fami%$ = want ( new ideas4 ,& !y ?rew !mselves ) zeal & en?usiasm into ! /udy ( ! new philosophy4 ,! ,*ur* took al>m because ! new ,ari/otle con/itut$ a dang] to accept$ dogma4 ,he taught ! et]nity ( ! _w1 ! uni=mity ( natural law1 ! unity ( ! human intellect1 d5y+ by implication ,provid5ce & fre$om & individual immortality4 ,"s ( ^! doctr9es 7 n precisely ^? ( ,ari/otle b !y c\ld be d]iv$ f ,ari/otelian pr9ciples if int]pret$ 9 a c]ta9 way2 & ! ,arab int]m$iators betwe5 ,ari/otle & 8 ,*ri/ian /ud5ts _h s int]pret$ him4 ,av]roes 9 p>ticul>1 :o ga9$ ! di/9ction ( be+ ! comm5tator p> excell5ce ( ,ari/otle1 0 responsible = ?is mode ( int]pretation2 & he _h 8 foll[]s among ! ,ma/]s ( ,arts 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,p>is4 ,^! & simil> t5d5cies ! ,*ur* 0 /riv+ to prev5t1 & x attempt$ to d ?is at fir/ crudely by prohibit+ ! /udy & tea*+ ( ! ,physical & ,metaphysical works ( ,ari/otle4 ,fail+ 9 ?is ! ,papacy commission$ ?ree repres5tatives ( ! ,dom9ican ord] to expurgate ,ari/otle 9 ord] to r5d] him h>mless4 ,y might z well ?9k ( expurgat+ a book on geometry6 ,! task 0 nev] c>ri$ out4 ,b in/ead some?+ m valuable = ! welf>e ( ! ,*ur* 0 accompli%$ 9 a diff]5t way4 ,alb]tus ,magnus & ,?omas ,aqu9as und]took ! /udy ( ,ari/otle & ! int]pretation ( 8 works ) a view to h>moniz+ 8 tea*+s ) ! dogmas ( ,*ri/ianity4 ,alb]tus ,magnus began ! task1 ,?omas ,aqu9as1 8 great] disciple1 ! ,maimonides ( ,*ri/ian philosophy1 complet$ x4 ,& 9 ?is und]tak+ ,maimonides 0 ,?omas ,aqu9as's model4#cjh ,! ,guide ( ! ,p]plex$ 0 translat$ into ,lat9 n long aft] its composition4#cji ,be=e ,alb]tus ,magnus1 ,alex&] ( ,hales1 ! ,franciscan lead]1 & ,william ( ,auv]gne1 ! ,bi%op ( ,p>is1 _h read & made use ( ,maimonides's philosophical ma/]piece4 ,alb]tus ,magnus 0 /ill m dilig5t 9 8 adoption ( ,maimonidean views1 or 9 tak+ acc\nt ( !m1 :]e he is oppos$ to _! adoption4 ,b x rema9$ = ,?omas ,aqu9as1 :o made ! mo/ sy/ematic attempt 9 ! m$ival s*ools to h>monize ! philosophy ( ,ari/otle ) ! doctr9e ( ! ,*ur*1 to use ,maimonides z 8 guide & model4 ,l ,maimonides he employs ,ari/otelian pro(s = ! exi/5ce ( ,god1 pro(s bas$ on ! et]nity ( motion2 & l him ,aqu9as argues t if motion is n et]nal & ! _w 0 made 9 "t1 ! exi/5ce ( ,god is /ill m readily evid5t4 ,9 8 discussion ( ! div9e attributes1 ( angels1 ( ,provid5ce1 ( ,prophecy1 ( free w1 ( ! c]emonial laws 9 ! ,p5tateu*1 ,?omas ,aqu9as con/antly takes acc\nt ( ,maimonides's views1 :e!r he agrees ) !m or n4 ,x is no d\bt an exagg]ation to say t !re w\ld h be5 no ,aqu9as if ,maimonides _h n prec$$ him4 ,= ,aqu9as _h access to ! works ( ,ari/otle & 8 ,arabian comm5tators1 ! =m] ( :om he /udi$ m dilig5tly ?an ,maimonides himself4 ,b !re is no d\bt t ! me?od ( h>moniz+ ,ari/otelian doctr9e ) traditional tea*+ s f> z ! common elem5ts ( ,judaism & ,*ri/ianity 7 conc]n$ 0 sugge/$ to ,aqu9as by 8 ,jewi% pr$ecessor4 ,x is n our prov9ce "h to g into details ( ! sy/em ( ,aqu9as to %[ :]e9 he agrees or disagrees ) ,maimonides1 nor is x possible to d m ?an m5tion ! fact t aft] ,aqu9as also1 ,duns ,scotus1 ! head ( ! ,franciscan s*ool1 _h ! ,guide be=e him1 & 9 comp>atively mod]n times1 su* celebrities z ,scalig] & ,leibnitz speak ( ! ,jewi% philosoph] ) admiration & respect4#caj ,t ,maimonides's influ5ce ^u ,jewi% !ology & ?\ght 0 deep & la/+ is a truism4 ,! attitude ( ! prom95t !ologians & philosoph]s :o succe$$ him w appe> 9 ! sequel 9 connection ) our treatm5t ( ! po/-,maimonidean writ]s4 ,"h a ^w mu/ be said ( ! g5]al effect ( ,maimonides's tea*+ ^u ,jews & ,judaism ?r\gh\t ! disp]sion4 ,8 fame z ! greate/ ,jew ( 8 "t--great z a ,talmudical au?ority1 :i* appeal$ to all classes ( ,jewi% /ud5ts1 great z a physician ) ! add$ glory ( be+ a favorite at c\rt1 great z ! head ( ! ,jewi% community 9 ! ,ea/1 & f9ally great z a philosoph] & sci5ti/--all ^! qualifications1 nev] be=e or aft] unit$ 9 ! same way 9 any o!r man1 s]v$ to make him ! cynosure ( all eyes & to make 8 ^w an object ( notice & att5tion ?r\gh\t ! ,jewi% diaspora4 ,:at he said or wrote c\ld n be ignor$ :e!r p lik$ x or n4 ,!y c\ld af=d to ignore a ,gabirol ev51 or an ,ibn ,daud4 ,b ,maimonides mu/ be reckon$ )4 ,! great] ! man1 ! great] ! al]tness ( less]1 ?\gh n less indep5d5t1 spirits1 to gu>d aga9/ ! enslavem5t ( all ,judaism to "o au?ority1 no matt] h[ great4 ,& 9 p>ticul> :]e ?is au?ority err$ 9 boldly adopt+ views 9 disagreem5t ) ,jewi% tradition1 z x seem$ to _m1 & 9 sett+ up a new s\rce ( tru? alongside (1 or ev5 above1 ! revelation ( ! ,torah & ! au?ority ( tradition1 to :i* ^! latt] mu/ be b5t :e!r !y w or no--8 errors mu/ be /r5u\sly oppos$ & condemn$ )\t fe> or favor4 ,?is 0 ! view ( ! traditionali/s1 ^: sole au?orities 9 all matt]s ( !ology & relat$ topics 7 ! words ( ,scripture & ,rabb9ic lit]ature z tradition _h int]pret$ !m4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! rationali/ic developm5t dur+ ! pa/ ?ree c5turies1 :i* we h trac$ ?us f>1 & ! climax ( t progress z capp$ by ,maimonides 0 n )\t its influ5ce on ano!r class ( ! ,jewi% community1 p>ticul>ly 9 ,spa9 & s\!rn ,france2 & ^! reg>d$ ,maimonides z ! greate/ tea*] t ev] liv$4 ,_! admiration 0 unb\nd$ = 8 p]sonality z well z 8 me?od & 8 conclusions4 ,8 oppon5ts 7 reg>d$ z obscuranti/s1 :o1 r ?an ! object ( _! attack1 7 endang]+ ,judaism4 ,all ,jewry 0 divid$ into two camps1 ! ,maimuni/s & ! anti-,maimuni/s2 & ! polemic & ! /ruggle betwe5 !m 0 long & bitt]4 ,ana!ma & c\nt] ana!ma1 excommunication & c\nt] excommunication 0 ! lea/ ( ! matt]4 ,! arm ( ! ,*ur* ,inquisition 0 invok$1 & ! alt> ( a ,p>isian ,*ur* furni%$ ! tor* :i* set on flame ! pages ( ,maimonides's ,guide 9 ! ,fr5* capital4 ,m tragic ev5 0 ! puni%m5t met$ out to ! ,jewi% in=m]s :o betray$ _! p to ! enemy4 ,! m5 responsible _h _! tongues cut out4 ,! details ( ! ,maimuni/ controv]sy belong to ! g5]al hi/orian4#caa ,our purpose "h is to indicate 9 brief outl9e ! g5]al effect :i* ! tea*+ ( ,maimonides _h ^u 8 & subsequ5t ages4 ,! ?irte5? c5tury produc$ no great m5 9 philosophy at all comp>able to ,moses ,b5 ,maimon or 8 fam\s pr$ecessors4 ,! p]secutions ( ! ,jews 9 ,spa9 l$ _m ( !m to emigrate to neighbor+ c\ntries1 :i* put an end to ! glori\s era inaugurat$ ?ree c5turies be=e by ,hasdai ,ibn ,%aprut4 ,! c5tre ( ,jewi% lib]al /udies 0 transf]r$ to s\? ,france1 b ! lit]>y activities !re 7 a pale %ad[ comp>$ ) ^? :i* made ,jewi% ,spa9 fam\s4 ,philosophical ?\ght _h rea*$ its p]igee 9 ,maimonides1 & :at foll[$ aft] 0 an attempt on ! "p ( 8 less] disciples & successors to foll[ 9 ! /eps ( _! ma/]1 to ext5d 8 tea*+s1 to make !m m widespread & m popul>4 ,) ! transf]5ce ( ! lit]>y c5tre f ,spa9 to ,prov5ce w5t ! gradual disuse ( ,arabic z ! m$ium ( philosophic & sci5tific culture1 & ! age ( translation made its appe>ance4 ,prior to1 & includ+1 ,maimonides all ! ,jewi% ?9k]s :om we h consid]$1 ) ! exception ( ,abraham ,b> ,hiyya & ,abraham ,ibn ,ezra1 wrote _! works 9 ,arabic4 ,aft] ,maimonides ,hebrew takes ! place ( ,arabic1 & 9 addition to ! new works compos$1 ! comm5t>ies on ! ,guide :i* 7 n[ writt5 9 pl5ty & ! philosophico-exegetical works on ! ,bible 9 ! ,maimonidean _s1 ! anci5t classics ( ,saadia1 ,bahya1 ,gabirol1 ,halevi1 ,ibn ,zaddik1 ,ibn ,daud & ,maimonides himself _h to be translat$ f ,arabic into ,hebrew4 ,9 addition to ^! religio-philosophical works1 x 0 necess>y to translate ^? writ+s :i* conta9$ ! purely sci5tific & philosophical bran*es t 7 prelim9>y to ! /udy ( religi\s philosophy4 ,?is includ$ logic1 ! v>i\s bran*es ( ma!matics & a/ronomy1 m$ical treatises & "s ( ! books ( ! ,ari/otelian corpus ) ! ,arabic comp5dia & comm5t>ies !reon4 ,! grammatical & lexical treatises ( ,hayyuj & ,ibn ,janah 7 also translat$4 ,! mo/ fam\s ( ! ho/ ( translators1 :i* ! ne$ ( ! times br\ght =?1 7 ! ?ree ,tibbonides1 ,judah 7#aabj-aaij71 ,samuel 7#aaej-abcj7 & ,moses 7fl4 #abdj-abhc71 ,jacob ,anatoli 7fl4 #aaid-abef71 ,%emtob ,falaqu]a 7#abbe-abij71 ,jacob ,b5 ,ma*ir 7#abcf-acjd71 ,moses ( ,n>bonne 7d4 aft] #acfb71 & o!rs4 ,"s ( ^! wrote orig9al works besides4 ,samuel ,ibn ,tibbon wrote a philosophical treatise1 ,maam> ,yikkawu ha-,mayim1#cab & comm5t>ies 9 ! ,maimonidean ve9 on ,ecclesia/es & ! ,song ( ,songs4 ,8 great] fame re/s on 8 translation ( ! ,guide ( ! ,p]plex$4 ,he translat$ besides ,maimonides's ,lett] on ,resurrection1 ! ,eight ,*apt]s1 & o!r ,arabic writ+s on sci5ce & philosophy4 ,moses ,ibn ,tibbon 0 prolific z an orig9al writ] z well z a translator4 ,joseph ,ibn ,akn9 7#aafj-abbf71 ! favorite pupil ( ,maimonides1 = :om ! latt] wrote 8 ,guide1 is ! au?or ( treatises on philosophical topics1 & ( exegetical works on c]ta9 books ( ! ,bible & on ! ,mi%nic treatise1 ! ,e?ics ( ! ,fa!rs4#cab;a ,jacob ,anatoli1 9 addition to translat+ ,ptolemy's ,almage/ & ,av]roes's comm5t>ies on ,ari/otle's logic1 wrote a "w1 ,malmad ha-,talmidim1 on philosophical homiletics 9 ! =m ( a comm5t>y on ! ,p5tateu*4#cac ,%emtob ,falaqu]a1 ! translator ( portions ( ,gabirol's ,fons ,vit1#cad is ! au?or ( a comm5t>y on ! ,guide1 entitl$ ,moreh ha-,moreh1#cae & ( a numb] ( e?ical & psy*ological works4#caf ,jacob ,b5 ,ma*ir translat$ a numb] ( sci5tific & philosophical works1 p>ticul>ly on a/ronomy1 & is likewise ! au?or ( two orig9al works on a/ronomy4 ,joseph ,ibn ,caspi 7#abig-acdj7 0 a v prolific writ]1 hav+ tw5ty-n9e works to 8 cr$it1 mo/ ( !m exegetical1 & among !m a comm5t>y on ! ,guide4#cag ,moses ( ,n>bonne wrote an important comm5t>y on ! ,guide1#cah & is likewise ! au?or ( a numb] ( works on ! philosophy ( ,av]roes1 ( :om he 0 a great admir]4 ,! translations ( ,judah ,ibn ,tibbon1 ! fa!r ( translators z he has be5 call$1 g back inde$ to ! latt] half ( ! twelf? c5tury1 & ,abraham ,ibn ,ezra translat$ an a/ronomical "w z e>ly z #aafj4 ,b ! bulk ( ! "w ( translation is ! product ( ! ?irte5? & f\rte5? c5turies4 ,! result ( ^! translations 0 t sci5tific & philosophical works became accessible to all ^? :o knew ,hebrew in/ead ( be+ conf9$ to ! l&s ( ,arabian culture4 ,ano!r effect 0 ! enl>gem5t ( ! ,hebrew language & ! developm5t ( a new ,hebrew dialect ) a philosophical & sci5tific t]m9ology4 ,^! translations s f> z !y relate to pure sci5ce & philosophy 7 neglect$ 9 ! clos+ c5turies ( ! middle ages1 :5 conditions among ! ,jews 7 su* z preclud$ !m f tak+ an int]e/ 9 any b purely religi\s /udies4 ,cont9u\s p]secutions1 ! e/abli%m5t ( ! ,ghettoes1 ! rise ( ! ,kabbala & ! opposition ( ! pieti/s & my/ics to ! rationalism ( ! philosoph]s all t5d$ to ! neglect ( sci5tific /udy & to ! conc5tration ( all att5tion ^u ! ,biblical1 ,rabb9ic & my/ical lit]ature4 ,! ,jews at ! close ( ! middle ages & ! beg9n+ ( mod]n times )drew into _! %ell1 & ! sci5ce & le>n+ ( ! outside _h little effect on !m4 ,h5ce1 & also = ! reason t ) ! beg9n+ ( mod]n times all t 0 m$ival 01 9 ! secul> _w1 relegat$1 figuratively speak+1 to ! a%-heap1 or lit]ally speak+ to ! m\ld]+ du/ ( ! libr>y %elves--= bo? ( ^! reasons ! v l>ge numb] ( ! translations above m5tion$ 7 nev] pr9t$1 & !y are /ill buri$ on ! %elves ( ! great ,european libr>ies1 notably ( ! ,briti% ,museum1 ! national libr>y ( ,p>is1 ! ,bodleian ( ,ox=d1 ! royal libr>y ( ,muni*1 & o!rs4 ,! read] :o wi%es to h an idea ( ! translat+ & comm5t+ activity ( ! ,jews 9 ! ?irte5? & foll[+ c5turies 9 ! doma9s ( logic1 philosophy1 ma!matics1 a/ronomy1 m$ic9e & folklore is ref]r$ to ! monum5tal "w ( ! late ,moritz ,/e9s*neid]1 ! pr9ce ( ,hebrew ,bibliograph]s1 ,die ,hebris*5 ,ueb]setzung5 des ,mittelalt]s und die ,jud5 als ,dolmets*]1 7,! ,hebrew translations ( ! middle ages1 & ! ,jews z dragom57 ,b]l91 #ahic1 conta9+ #ajgg pages ( lexicon octavo size devot$ to brief enum]ations & descriptions ( extant editions & manuscripts ( ! translations ref]r$ to4#cai ,,*apt] ,,xiv ,,hillel ,,b5 ,,samuel ,9 ! po/-,maimonidean age all philosophical ?9k+ is 9 ! nature ( a comm5t>y on ,maimonides :e!r av[$ly or n4 ,! circle ( speculation & reflection is complete4 ,x is fix$ by ! ,guide ( ! ,p]plex$1 & ! ef=ts ( ^? :o foll[$ ,maimonides are to elaborate 9 8 _s c]ta9 special topics :i* are treat$ 9 8 ma/]piece 9 a summ>y way4 ,9 ! case ( ! m indep5d5t ?9k]s l ,levi b5 ,g]son we f9d ! fur!r attempt to c>ry out m boldly ! implications ( ! philosophical po9t ( view1 :i*1 z ! latt] ?\ght1 ,maimonides left implicit by reason ( 8 pr$isposition 9 favor ( tradition4 ,hasdai ,crescas w5t /ill f>!r & entirely repudiat$ ! au?ority ( ,ari/otle1 sub/itut+ w & emotion = rationalism & logical inf]5ce4 ,n k ( ,god z logically demon/rat$ is ! highe/ aim ( man1 b love ( ,god4 ,b ev5 9 8 opposition ,crescas leans on ,maimonides's pr9ciples1 :i* he takes up "o by "o & refutes4 ,maimonides 0 ?us ! po9t ( dep>ture = 8 m rigor\s foll[]s z well z = 8 oppon5ts4 ,9 ! matt] ( ext]nal s\rces philosophical reflection aft] ,maimonides 0 enri*$ 9 respect to details by ! works ( ,av]roes on ! ,arabic side & ^? ( ! *ief ,*ri/ian s*ola/ics among ! ,lat9 writ]s4 ,alb]tus ,magnus & ,?omas ,aqu9as furni%$ "s mat]ial to m5 l ,hillel ( ,v]ona 9 ! ?irte5? c5tury & ,don ,isaac ,ab>banel 9 ! fifte5?4 ,maimonides 0 limit$ to ! ,ari/otelian expositions ( ,alf>abi & ,avic5na4 ,! works ( ,av]roes1 8 contempor>y1 he did n read until t[>d ! end ( 8 life4 ,aft] 8 dea? ,av]roes ga9$ 9 pre/ige & influ5ce until he succe$$ 9 putt+ into ! %ade 8 ,arabian pr$ecessors & 0 reg>d$ by ,jew & ,*ri/ian alike z ! ,comm5tator ( ,ari/otle p> excell5ce4 ,8 works 7 rapidly translat$ into ,hebrew & ,lat91 & ! ,jewi% writ]s le>n$ _! ,ari/otle f ,av]roes4 ,! k ( ! ,arabic language 0 gradually disappe>+ among ! ,jews ( ,europe1 & !y 7 indebt$ = _! k ( sci5ce & philosophy to ! works translat$4 ,philosophy 0 decl9+ among ! ,arabs !mselves ow+ to ! disfavor ( ! p[]s t be1 & _m ( ! sci5tific writ+s ( ! ,arabs owe _! survival to ! ,hebrew translations or transcriptions 9 ,hebrew *>act]s :i* escap$ ! proscription ( ! ,mohamm$an au?orities4 ,! "o problem t came to ! front z a result ( ,av]roes's tea*+1 & :i* by ! solution he gave x =m$ an important subject ( debate 9 ! ,p>isian s*ools ( ! ?irte5? c5tury1 0 t ( ! intellect 9 man1 :e!r e individual _h 8 own immortal m9d :i* w\ld cont9ue z an individual entity aft] ! dea? ( ! body1 or :e!r a p]son's individuality la/$ only z long z he 0 alive1 & ) 8 dea? ! "o human intellect alone surviv$4 ,?is 0 discuss$ 9 connection ) ! g5]al !ory ( ! intellect & ! ?ree k9ds ( intellect t 7 di/+ui%$ by ! ,arabian ,ari/otelians1 ! mat]ial1 ! acquir$ & ! active4 ,! problem goes back to ,ari/otle's psy*ology1 :o di/+ui%es two intellects 9 man1 passive & active 7above1 p4 xxxvi74 ,b ! treatm5t !re is s fragm5t>y & vague t x gave rise to widely v>y+ int]pretations by ! ,greek comm5tators ( ,ari/otle1 ,alex&] ( ,aphrodisias & ,!mi/ius1 z well z among ! ,arabs1 ,alf>abi1 ,avic5na & ,av]roes4 ,! latt] insi/$ on ! unity ( ! intellect = ! human race1 !reby de/roy+ individual immortality1 & ?is ,av]roi/ic doctr9e1 adopt$ by "s ,ma/]s ( ,arts at ! ,univ]sity ( ,p>is1 0 condemn$ among o!r h]esies1 & refut$ 9 ! writ+s ( ,alb]tus ,magnus & ,?omas ,aqu9as4 ,maimonides does n discuss ^! problems 9 detail 9 8 ,guide4 ,he drops a rem>k incid5tally "h & !re1 & x w\ld appe> t = him too1 z = ,av]roes1 ! intellect :5 9 sep>ation f ! body is n subject to individual di/9ction1 t !re _c be sev]al human intellects1 s9ce matt] is ! pr9ciple ( individuation & ! immat]ial _c embrace a numb] ( individuals ( ! same species4#cbj ,! problem ( immortality he does n treat ex pr(esso 9 ! ,guide4 ,h5ce ?is 0 a matt] tak5 up by 8 successors4 ,hillel b5 ,samuel z well z ,levi b5 ,g]son discuss ?is "q 9 detail4 ,hillel b5 ,samuel does n t[] z a giant 9 m$ival ,jewi% lit]ature4 ,8 importance is local1 z be+ ! fir/ devotee ( ,jewi% le>n+ & philosophy 9 ,italy 9 ! middle ( ! ?irte5? c5tury1 at ! close ( a p]iod ( comp>ative ignorance4 ,! ,italian ,jews be=e 8 "t contribut$ little to k & le>n+ despite _! ext]nal circum/ances1 :i* 7 m favorable ?an 9 "s o!r c\ntries4 ,hillel b5 ,samuel 7#abbj-abie7 0 a /rong admir] ( ,maimonides & und]took to comm5t on ! ,guide ( ! ,p]plex$4 ,he def5d$ ,maimonides aga9/ ! asp]sions ( 8 oppon5ts1 & 0 s confid5t 9 ! tru? ( 8 ma/]'s tea*+s t he propos$ a conf]5ce ( ! le>n$ m5 ( ,jewry to judge ! works & doctr9es ( ,maimonides & to decide :e!r ! ,guide %\ld be all[$ to live or %\ld be de/roy$4 ,ano!r int]e/ atta*+ to ,hillel b5 ,samuel is t he 0 among ! fir/1 if n ! fir/ ,jew :o by 8 k ( ,lat9 _h access to ! writ+s ( ! s*ola/ics1 to :om he ref]s 9 8 ,tagmule ha-,nefe% 7,! ,rew>ds ( ! ,s\l7 z ! wise m5 ( ! nations4 ,he 0 also active z a translator f ! ,lat94 ,8 *ief "w1 :i* entitles him to brief notice "h1 is ! ,tagmule ha-,nefe% j m5tion$4#cba ,he does n (f] u a sy/em ( philosophy1 b only a treatm5t ( c]ta9 que/ions relat+ to ! nature ( ! s\l1 its immortality & ! mann] ( its exi/5ce aft] ! dea? ( ! body1 que/ions :i* ,maimonides passes ov] lightly4 ,) ! exception ( ! discussion relat+ to ! ?ree k9ds ( intellect & ! "q ( ! unity ( ! acquir$ intellect = all mank9d1 !re is n mu* t is new or rem>kable 9 ! discussion1 & we c af=d to pass x by ) a brief notice4 ,m5 ( sci5ce "k1 he tells u 9 ! introduction1 t ! valuable possession ( man is ! s\l1 & ! happ9ess !re( is ! f9al purpose ( man's exi/5ce4 ,& yet ! numb] ( ^? :o take pa9s to inve/igate ! nature ( ! s\l is v small1 n ev5 "o 9 a hundr$4 ,& ev5 ! few :o d und]take to exam9e ?is subject are h9d]$ by v>i\s circum/ances f arriv+ at ! tru?4 ,! matt] itself is difficult & requires long prep>ation & prelim9>y k4 ,!n ! vicissitudes ( life & ! %ortness ( its duration1 c\pl$ ) ! natural indol5ce ( man :5 x comes to /udy1 completely acc\nt = ! lack ( true k on ?is mo/ important topic4 ,induc$ by ^! consid]ations ,hillel b5 ,samuel und]took to collect ! scatt]$ notices 9 ! ext5sive works ( ! philosoph]s & arrang$ & exp\nd$ !m briefly s z n to disc\rage ^? :o are 9 se>* ( wisdom4 ,8 purpose is ! k ( tru?1 :i* is an end 9 itself4 ,he desires to expla9 ! exi/5ce ( ! s\l1 its nature & rew>d4 ,! s\l is t :i* makes man man1 h5ce we %\ld "k ! nature ( t :i* makes u intellig5t creatures1 else we d n des]ve ! "n4 ,ano!r reason = ! importance ( kn[+ ! nature ( ! s\l is t error 9 ?is matt] may lead to m s]i\s mi/akes 9 o!r dep>tm5ts ( k & belief4 ,?us if a man :o calls himself pi\s assumes t ! s\l aft] p>t+ f ! body is subject to corporeal rew>d & puni%m5t1 z appe>s f a lit]al r5d]+ ( passages 9 ,bible & ,talmud1 he w be l$ to ?9k t ! s\l itself is corporeal4 ,& s9ce ! s\l1 x is believ$1 comes f on high1 ! upp] _w mu/ h bodies & def9ite places1 & h5ce ! angels too are bodies4 ,b s9ce ! angels are emanations f ! div9e spl5dor1 ,god too is body6 ,?us y see h[ s]i\s are ! consequ5ces ( a belief1 9 itself p]haps n s dang]\s1 z t ( ! corporeality ( ! s\l4#cbb ,we mu/ fir/ prove ! exi/5ce ( ! s\l4 ,?is c be %[n 9 v>i\s ways4 ,we see t ( natural bodies "s take food1 gr[1 propagate _! l1 :ile o!rs1 l /ones1 d n d ^! ?+s4 ,?is %[s t ! p[]s & functions m5tion$ _c be due to ! corporeal "p ( ! objects p]=m+ !m1 else /ones1 too1 w\ld h ^? p[]s1 z !y are also corporeal l ! re/4 ,!re mu/ !re=e be a diff]5t pr9ciple1 n body1 :i* is responsible = ^? activities4 ,we call x s\l4 ,z all exi/5ts are divid$ into sub/ance & accid5t1 ! s\l mu/ be ei!r ! "o or ! o!r4 ,n[ an accid5t1 accord+ to ,ari/otle1 is t :i* may be or n be )\t caus+ ! be+ or de/ruction ( ! object 9 :i* x is4 ,b ! body _c be a liv+ body )\t ! s\l4 ,h5ce ! s\l is n an accid5t2 x is !re=e a sub/ance4 ,sub/ance may be corporeal or incorporeal4 ,! s\l _c be a corporeal sub/ance1 = all body is divisible1 & subject to motion & *ange1 :]eas ! s\l1 z w be %[n lat]1 is n movable1 n *angeable & n divisible4 ,x might seem t ! s\l is subject to motion1 s9ce x desc5ds into ! body & rises aga9 :5 x leaves ! body4 ,b ?is is n s4 ,desc5t & asc5t :5 ?us appli$ to ! s\l are metaphorical4 ,! union ( s\l & body is n a spatial relation4 ,! upp] _w f :i* ! s\l comes is n corporeal1 h5ce !re is no su* ?+ z place !re1 nor any?+ limit$ by space4 ,h5ce ! com+ ( ! s\l f ! spiritual _w & its return ?i!r are n motions at all4 ,! relation ( ! s\l to ! body is z t ( =m to matt]1 z ,ari/otle says4 ,grant$ t ! s\l's union ) & sep>ation f ! body are n motions1 is n ! s\l subject to motion :ile 9 ! body8 ,hillel's answ] is t x is n1 & he proves 8 po9t 9 ! prescrib$ fa%ion by mak+ use ( ,ari/otle's classification ( motion into 7#a7 g5esis & 7#b7 decay1 7#c7 increase & 7#d7 dim9ution1 7#e7 qualitative *ange & 7#f7 motion prop]1 or motion ( translation4 ,he !n und]takes to %[ t ! s\l c h none ( ! k9ds ( motion "h enum]at$4 ,! argum5ts (f] no?+ /rik+ or int]e/+1 & we c af=d to omit !m4 ,x is wor? :ile1 h[ev]1 to ref] to 8 int]pretation ( emotion4 ,! passage ( ! s\l f joy to grief1 f ang] to favor1 might seem to be a k9d ( motion4 ,hillel answ]s ?is objection by say+ t ^! emotions d n p]ta9 to ! s\l z su*4 ,_! prim>y cause is ! /ate ( mixture ( ! humors 9 ! body1 :i* affects c]ta9 corporeal p[]s 9 c]ta9 ways2 & ! s\l %>es 9 ^! affections only s f> z x is unit$ ) ! body4 ,9 its own nature ! s\l has no emotions4 ,we c also prove t ! s\l is n divisible4 ,= a divisible ?+ mu/ h p>ts4 ,n[ if ! s\l is divid$ or divisible1 ?is means ei!r t e "p ( ! s\l1 no matt] h[ small1 has ! same p[]s z ! :ole1 or t ! p[]s ( ! s\l are ! resultant ( ! union ( ! p>ts4 ,! fir/ alt]native is impossible1 = x leads u to ! absurd conclusion t in/ead ( "o s\l e p]son has an inf9ite numb] ( s\ls1 or at lea/ a great numb] ( s\ls4 ,! second alt]native implies t :ile ! s\l is n actually divid$1 s9ce its p[]s are ! summation ( ! p>ts1 :i* =m a unit1 x is pot5tially divisible4 ,b ?is signifies t at "s "t ?is pot5tial divisibility w be realiz$ 7or pot5tiality w\ld be va9 & mean+less7 & we are br\ght back to ! absurdity ( a multiplicity ( s\ls 9 ! human body4 ,hav+ %[n t ! s\l is n movable1 *angeable or divisible1 we are c]ta9 ( its incorporeality1 & we are ready to give a def9ition ( ! s\l4 ,hillel accord+ly def9es ! s\l z a /age ( emanation1 consi/+ ( a =mal sub/ance1 :i* subsi/s ?r\gh its own p]fection1 & occupies ! f\r? place 9 ! emanatory process1 next to ! ,active ,intellect4 ,its ultimate s\rce is ,god himself1 :o is ! ultimate p]fection & ! ,good1 & x emanates f him indirectly ?r\gh ! m$iation ( ! sep>ate ,p[]s /&+ above x 9 ! scale ( emanation4 ,! s\l con/itutes ! fir/ entele*y ( a natural body4#cbc ,! above def9ition is int]e/+4 ,x %[s t ,hillel did n cle>ly di/+ui% ! ,ari/otelian /&po9t f ! ,neo-,platonic1 = 9 ! def9ition j quot$1 ! two po9ts ( view are comb9$4 ,t all m$ival ,ari/otelianism 0 t+$ ) ,neo-,platonism1 especially 9 ! doctr9e ( ! ,active ,intellect1 is well kn[n4 ,b 9 ,hillel's def9ition ( ! s\l we h an extreme =m ( ?is peculi> comb9ation1 & x repres5ts a /ep backw>d to ! /&po9t ( ,pseudo-,bahya & ,ibn ,zaddik4 ,! "w ( ,ibn ,daud & ,maimonides 9 ! int]e/ ( a pur] ,ari/otelianism seems n to h enlight5$ ,hillel4 ,! ,neo-,platonic emanation !ory is cle>ly enunciat$ 9 ,hillel's def9ition4 ,! s\l /&s f\r? 9 ! s]ies4 ,! ord] he has 9 m9d is probably 7#a7 ,god1 7#b7 ,sep>ate ,intellig5ces1 7#c7 ,active ,intellect1 7#d7 ,s\l4 ,we "k t ,hillel 0 a /ud5t ( ! ,neo-,platonic ,lib] de ,causis 7cf4 above1 p4 xx71 hav+ translat$ "s ( x into ,hebrew1 & he might h imbib$ 8 ,neo-,platonism f t ,proclean book4 ,cont9u+ ! description ( ! s\l 9 man1 he says t ! noble/ "p ( matt]1 viz41 ! human body1 is end[$ ) ! rational s\l1 & becomes ! subject ( ! p[]s ( ! latt]4 ,!reby x becomes a man1 i4 e41 a rational animal1 di/+ui%$ f all o!r animals1 & simil> to ! nature ( ! angels4 ,! ,active ,intellect causes its light to emanate ^u ! rational s\l1 ?us br++ its p[]s out into actuality4 ,! ,active ,intellect1 :i* is "o ( ! t5 degrees ( angels1 is relat$ to ! rational p[] 9 man z ! sun to ! p[] ( sight4 ,! sun gives light1 :i* *anges ! pot5tially see+ p[] into actually see+1 & ! pot5tially visible object into ! actually visible4 ,moreov]1 ?is same light enables ! sight to see ! sun itself1 :i* is ! cause ( ! actualization 9 ! sight4 ,s ! ,active ,intellect gives some?+ to ! rational p[] :i* is relat$ to x z light to ! sight2 & by means ( ?is some?+ ! rational s\l c see or und]/& ! ,active ,intellect itself4 ,also ! pot5tially intelligible objects become ?r\gh ?is influ5ce actually intelligible1 & ! man :o 0 pot5tially intellig5t becomes !reby actually intellig5t4 ,intellect 7sekel7 9 man is di/+ui%$ f wisdom 7hokmah74 ,by ! =m] p[] is meant an imm$iate und]/&+ ( ab/ract pr9ciples4 ,! latt] is m$iate und]/&+4 ,wisdom d5otes speculation ab\t univ]sals ?r\gh inf]5ce f p>ticul>s4 ,intellect applies directly to ! univ]sals & to _! influ5ce ^u ! p>ticul>s4#cbd ,hillel next discusses ! live topic ( ! day1 made popul> by ,av]roes1 namely1 :e!r !re are 9 ess5ce z _m individual s\ls z !re are human bodies1 or1 z ,av]roes ?\ght1 !re is only "o univ]sal s\l1 & t its individualizations 9 diff]5t m5 are only pass+ incid5ts1 due to ! association ( ! univ]sal s\l ) ! human body1 & disappe> :5 ! body dies4 ,! sages ( ! ,g5tiles1 ,hillel tells u1 reg>d ,av]roes's notion z h]etical1 & lead+ besides to ! absurd conclusion t ! same s\l is bo? rew>d$ & puni%$2 a view :i* upsets all religion4 ,av]roes employs a numb] ( argum5ts to prove 8 po9t1 among !m be+ ! foll[+4 ,if !re are _m s\ls1 !y are ei!r all exi/+ f et]nity or !y are creat$ ) ! body4 ,! fir/ is impossible1 = s9ce ! s\l is a =m ( ! body1 we %\ld h actually an inf9ite numb] ( =ms1 & ?is w\ld necessitate ! actual exi/5ce ( an inf9ite numb] ( bodies also2 else ! exi/5ce ( ^! s\ls = ! purpose ( jo9+ ! bodies w\ld be 9 va94 ,b x is absurd to suppose t !re has be5 f et]nity an inf9ite numb] ( bodies creat$ l ! numb] ( s\ls1 & yet !y h n become real bodies ) s\ls until n[4 ,! second alt]native is also impossible4 ,= if !re are _m s\ls :i* came into be+ ) ! bodies1 !y ei!r came f no?+ or f some?+4 ,f no?+ is impossible1 = no?+ comes f no?+ except by way ( creation1 :i* is a miracle2 & we d n believe 9 miracles unless we h to4 ,t !y came f some?+ is also impossible2 = ?is some?+ c be nei!r matt] nor =m4 ,x _c be matt]1 = =m1 ! actual & sup]ior1 _c come f ! pot5tial & inf]ior4 ,x _c be =m1 = !n =m w\ld proce$ f =m by way ( g5esis & dissolution1 :i* is n true4 ,matt] is ! cause ( g5]ation & dissolution1 n =m4 ,we are ?us =c$ to ! conclusion t ! s\l is "o & et]nal1 "o 9 sub/ance & numb]2 & t x becomes _m only p] accid5s1 by virtue ( ! multiplicity ( its receiv+ subjects1 comp>able to ! light ( ! "o sun1 :i* divides into _m rays4 ,! ,bible _c help u to decide ?is "q1 = its expressions c be int]pret$ ei!r way4 ,hillel !n und]takes to adjudicate betwe5 ! cont5d+ views by /rik+ a compromise4 ,he feels t he is contribut+ to ! solution ( an important problem by an orig9al sugge/ion1 :i* he says is to be f\nd n[h]e else express$ ) su* cle>ness & brevity4 ,"h aga9 ,hillel's ,neo-,platonic t5d5cies are 9 evid5ce4 ,= he assumes bo? a univ]sal s\l & a great numb] ( individual s\ls emanat+ f x 9 a desc5d+ s]ies4 ,! objection t =ms _c come f o!r =ms by way ( g5]ation & dissolution1 ,hillel says1 is n valid1 = no su* process is "h involv$4 ,g5]ation & dissolution is peculi> to ! action ( body ^u body1 :i* is by contact4 ,a spiritual =m acts ^u o!r =ms n ?r\gh contact1 because x is n limit$ by "t or place4 ,we "k conc]n+ ! ,intellig5ces t ea* comes f ! "o previ\s to x by way ( emanation1 & ! same ?+ applies to ! issue ( _m human s\ls f ! "o univ]sal s\l4 ,aft] dea? ! rational "p ( e s\l rema9s2 t "p :i* e s\l receives f ! ,active ,intellect ?r\gh ! help ( ! possible or mat]ial intellect1 & :i* becomes id5tifi$ ) ! ,active & sep>ate ,intellect4 ,?is is ! "p :i* receives rew>d & puni%m5t1 :]eas ! "o univ]sal s\l f :i* !y all emanate is a div9e emanation1 & is n rew>d$ or puni%$4#cbe ,we mu/ n[ discuss fur!r ! nature ( ! ?ree grades ( intellect4 ,= ?is x w be necess>y to lay d[n ?ree prelim9>y propositions4 #a4 ,!re mu/ be an intellect ^: relation to ! mat]ial intellect is ! same z t ( ! object ( s5se p]ception is to ! s5se4 ,?is means t j z !re mu/ be a real & actual object to ar\se ! s5se faculty to p]ceive1 s !re mu/ be an actual intelligible object to /ir ! rational p[] to compreh5d4 #b4 ,x foll[s f #a t z ! mat]ial s5se has ! p[] ( p]ceiv+ ! s5sible object1 s ! mat]ial intellect has ! p[] ( p]ceiv+ ?is o!r intellect4 #c4 ,if x has ?is p[]1 ?is mu/ at "s "t be realiz$ 9 actu4 ,!re=e at "s "t ! mat]ial intellect is id5tifi$ ) ! o!r intellect1 :i* is ! ,active ,intellect4 ,we mu/ n[ prove #a4 ,?is is done z foll[s3 ,we all "k t we are pot5tially intellig5t1 & x takes ef=t & pa9s & /udy to become actually intellig5t4 ,9 fact ! process ( intellection has to pass sev]al /ages f s5se p]ception ?r\gh imag9ation4 ,n[ our intellect _c make itself pass f pot5tiality to actuality4 ,h5ce !re mu/ be some?+ else z ag5t produc+ ?is *ange2 & ?is ag5t mu/ be actually :at x induces 9 u4 ,h5ce x is an active intellect4 ,! mat]ial intellect has c]ta9 aspects 9 common ) ! s5se faculty1 & 9 c]ta9 aspects x diff]s4 ,x is simil> to x 9 be+ receptive & n active4 ,b ! mode ( receptivity is diff]5t 9 ! two4 ,z ! intellect und]/&s all =ms1 x _c be a p[] resid+ 9 a body 9 ! s5se ( ext5d+ ?r\gh x & be+ divid$ ) ! division ( ! body1 z we see 9 "s ( ! p[]s ( s5se4 ,?is we c prove z foll[s3 #a4 ,if ! intellect 7 receptive 9 ! same mann] z ! s5ses1 x w\ld receive only a def9ite k9d ( =m1 z = example ! s5se ( sight does n receive ta/e4 #b4 ,if ! intellect 7 a p[] 9 body & _h a special =m1 x c\ld n receive t =m1 j z = example if ! eye 7 color$1 x c\ld n p]ceive colors4 #c4 ,if ! intellect 7 a corporeal p[]1 x w\ld be affect$ by its object & injur$ by a p[]ful /imulus1 z is ! case 9 ! s5ses ( sight & he>+4 ,a dazzl+ light injures ! eye1 a deaf5+ noise injures ! e>1 s t !reaft] nei!r s5se c p]=m its normal function prop]ly4 ,?is is n true ) ! intellect4 ,an unusually difficult subject ( ?\ght does n injure ! intellect4 #d4 ,if ! intellect 7 simil> 9 its activity to s5se p]ception1 x w\ld n be self-consci\s1 z ! s5se faculties _c p]ceive !mselves4 #e4 ,! intellect1 if x 7 l s5se1 w\ld n be able to compreh5d a ?+ & its opposite at ! same "t1 or x w\ld d s 9 a confus$ mann]1 z is ! case 9 ! p[]s ( s5se4 #f4 ,! intellect p]ceives univ]sals2 ! s5se1 p>ticul>s4 ,?is be+ ! case1 !re is a diff]5ce ( op9ion z to ! nature ( ! mat]ial intellect4 ,"s say t x has no def9ite nature 9 itself except t ( possibility & capacity1 ?\gh x is diff]5t f o!r possibilities 9 ?is respect t x is n resid5t 91 & dep5d5t ^u a mat]ial subject l ! o!rs4 ,t is :y ,ari/otle says t ! mat]ial intellect is n any?+ be=e x intellects2 t x is 9 its ess5ce pot5tial ) ref]5ce to ! intelligibilia1 & becomes actual :5 x und]/&s !m actually4 ,!mi/ius says x is n any ( ! exi/5ts actually1 b a pot5tial ess5ce receiv+ mat]ial =ms4 ,its nature is analog\s to t ( prime matt]2 h5ce x is call$ mat]ial intellect4 ,x is be/ to call x possible intellect4 ,be+ a pot5tial exi/5t x is n subject to g5]ation & dissolution any m ?an prime matt]4 ,alex&] ( ,aphrodisias ?9ks ! mat]ial intellect is only a capacity1 i4 e41 a p[] 9 ! s\l1 & appe>s :5 ! s\l ent]s ! body1 h5ce is n et]nal a p>te ante4 ,av]roes holds t ! possible intellect is a sep>ate sub/ance1 & t ! capacity is some?+ x has by virtue ( its be+ connect$ ) ! body z its subject4 ,h5ce ?is capacity is nei!r entirely di/9ct f x nor is x id5tical ) x4 ,accord+ to him ! possible intellect is n a "p ( ! s\l4 ,:i* ( ^! views is correct1 says ,hillel1 requires discussion1 b x is cle> t :i*ev] ( ^! we adopt !re is no reason oppos+ ! conjunction ( ! possible intellect ) ! ,active4 ,= if x is an et]nal sub/ance1 pot5tial 9 its nature1 l prim>y matt]1 !n x becomes actual :5 x und]/&s ! intelligible objects4 ,! same is true if x is a capacity resid+ 9 ! s\l4 ,hillel is ?us ( ! op9ion 9 ?is o!r "q debat$ 9 ^? days1 :e!r ! intellect ( man is capable ( conjunction dur+ life ) ! angelic ,active ,intellect1 t x is4 ,! ,active ,intellect1 he says1 9 actualiz+ ! mat]ial intellect influ5ces x n 9 ! mann] ( "o body act+ ^u ano!r1 i4 e41 9 ! mann] ( an effici5t or mat]ial cause1 b r z its =mal or f9al cause1 lead+ x to p]fection4 ,x is l ! influ5ce :i* ! sep>ate ,intellig5ces receive f "o ano!r1 ! influ5ce ( emanation1 & n a mat]ial influ5ce comp>able to g5]ation4 ,?is reception ( influ5ce f ! ,active ,intellect on ! "p ( ! pot5tial is itself conjunction4 ,x means t ! ag5t & ! ?+ act$ ^u become "o1 & ! same sub/ance & species4 ,! mat]ial intellect becomes a sep>ate sub/ance :5 x c und]/& itself4#cbf ,be=e tak+ up ! m !ological problem ( rew>d & puni%m5t1 he devotes ! la/ section ( ! !oretical "p ( 8 book to a discussion ( ! relation ( ! possible or mat]ial intellect to ! re/ ( ! human s\l4 ,?is problem also arose f ,av]roes's int]pretation ( ! ,ari/otelian psy*ology1 & is closely relat$ to ! o!r "o ( ! unity ( ! human intellect4 ,x is ne$less = u to ent] into ! te*nical details :i* are a we>9ess to ! fle% ( ! mod]n /ud5t1 b x is wor? :ile to /ate briefly ! motives und]ly+ ! oppos+ views4 ,av]roes1 :o _h no !ological scruples1 int]pret$ ,ari/otle to mean t ! "p ( ! s\l :i* 0 intimately associat$ ) ! body z its =m1 con/itut+ an indissoluble organism 9 conjunction ) x1 embrac$ its l[] faculties ( s5se1 imag9ation & ! m concrete types ( judgm5t4 ,^! are s intimately b\nd up ) ! life ( ! body t !y die ) its dea?4 ,! reason on ! o!r h&1 :i* has to d ) immat]ial ideas1 or intelligibles z !y call$ !m1 is et]nal & is n ! =m ( ! body4 ,x is a unit>y immat]ial sub/ance & is n affect$ by ! life or dea? ( ! body4 ,to be sure x comes 9 contact ) ! human s\l dur+ ! life ( ! body1 ?us br++ into exi/5ce an individualiz$ human reason z a pass+ episode4 ,b ?is individualiz$ phase ( ! intellect's life is dep5d5t ^u ! body & ceases :5 ! body dies1 or is reabsorb$ 9 ! univ]sal intellect4 ,! !ological implications ( ?is view 7 t if !re is any rew>d & puni%m5t aft] dea?1 x w\ld ei!r h to be adm9i/]$ to ! l[] faculties ( ! s\l1 :i* w\ld h to be made immortal = ! purpose1 or if ! rational s\l is ! subject ( retribution1 ?is _c affect ! individual1 z !re is no individual rational s\l4 ,h5ce ! ,*ri/ian oppon5ts ( ,av]roes1 l ,alb]tus ,magnus & ,?omas ,aqu9as 7,hillel speaks ( !m "h z ! ,religioni/s1 or ! ,sages :o believe 9 religion71 endeavor$ to v9dicate = ! ,ari/otelian def9ition ( ! s\l z ! =m ( ! body1 also ! rational "p1 ?us ma9ta9+ ! view t ! reason too has an individual exi/5ce bo? dur+ life & aft] dea?4 ,?omas ,aqu9as1 z a tru] int]pret] ( ,ari/otle1 goes s f> z to ma9ta9 t ! ,active ,intellect itself is also a "p ( ! human s\l1 & n "o ( ! angelic sep>ate ,intellig5ces4 ,nei!r ,maimonides nor ,hillel b5 ,samuel1 nor any o!r ,jewi% philosoph] 0 able to dep>t s widely f _! ,arabian ma/]s or to und]take an indep5d5t /udy ( ,ari/otle's text1 z to come to a simil> conclusion4 ,h5ce ! ,active ,intellect 9 ,jewi% ,philosophy is unanim\sly held to be ! la/ ( ! ,angelic sub/ances1 & ! proximate inspir] ( ! prophet4 ,! discussion !re=e 9 ,hillel's "w conc]ns ! possible intellect1 & "h he v5tures to disagree ) ,av]roes & decides 9 favor ( ! possible intellect z a "p ( ! s\l & ! subject ( rew>d & puni%m5t4#cbg ,conc]n+ ! nature ( rew>d & puni%m5t aft] dea? op9ions are divid$4 ,"s ?9k t bo? rew>d & puni%m5t are corporeal4 ,"s say rew>d is spiritual1 puni%m5t is corporeal2 :ile a small numb] are ( ! op9ion t bo? are spiritual4 ,hillel naturally agrees ) ! latt] & gives reasons = 8 op9ion4 ,if ! s\l1 z 0 %[n be=e1 is incorporeal1 immat]ial & a =mal sub/ance1 x _c be influ5c$ by corporeal treatm5t4 ,= corporeal influ5ce implies motion on ! "p ( ag5t & pati5t1 & ! p]vasion ( ! influ5ce ( ! =m] ?r\gh ! p>ts ( ! latt]2 :]eas a spiritual sub/ance has no p>ts4 ,besides1 if rew>d & puni%m5t are corporeal1 & ,p>adise is to be tak5 lit]ally1 !n :y sep>ate ! s\l f ! body1 :y n rew>d ! liv+ p]son ) et]nal life & give him ! enjoym5t ( p>adise :ile on e>?8 ,! effect w\ld be mu* great] ^u ! re/ ( mank9d1 :o w\ld see h[ ! righte\s f>e & ! wick$4 ,! objection t ?is w\ld make p m]c5>y does n hold1 = !y are m]c5>y 9 any case1 s9ce !y expect rew>d2 :e!r 9 ?is life or 9 ! next makes no diff]5ce4 ,rew>d mu/ !re=e be spiritual1 & s mu/ puni%m5t1 s9ce ! two g toge!r4#cbh ,:5 ,god 9 8 k9dness favor$ ! human race by giv+ !m a s\l1 :i* he unit$ ) ! body1 he also gave !m ! possibility ( atta9+ et]nal happ9ess4 ,= ?is purpose he arrang$ ?ree grades ( asc5t1 viz41 ! ?ree intellects spok5 ( above1 ! mat]ial or possible intellect1 ! acquir$ intellect 7?is is ! actual function+ ( ! possible intellect & ! result !re(7 & ! active intellect4 ,! second intellect is p>tly speculative or !oretical & p>tly practical4 ,! !oretical intellect /udies & contemplates all intelligible exi/5ts :i* are sep>ate f matt]4 ,!re is no?+ practical 9 ?is contemplation1 x is j ! k ( exi/5ts & _! causes4 ,?is is call$ ! sci5ce ( tru?1 & is ! mo/ important "p ( philosophy4 ,! practical intellect is aga9 divid$ into ! cogitative & ! te*nological4 ,! =m] decides :e!r a ?+ %\ld be done or n1 & discrim9ates betwe5 ! prop] & ! improp] 9 human actions & qualities4 ,x is important z a guide to ! happ9ess ( ! s\l because x in/ructs ! appetitive p[] 9 ref]5ce to ^? ?+s :i* are subject to ! w1 & directs x to aim at ! good & to reject ! evil4 ,! te*nological intellect is t by :i* man le>ns arts & trades4 ,! practical intellect is also !oretical 9 ! s5se t x has to ?9k 9 ord] to discrim9ate betwe5 ! prop] & ! improp]1 & betwe5 ! b5eficial & injuri\s 9 all ?+s p]ta9+ to practice4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! speculative & practical intellects is 9 ! respective objects ( _! compreh5sion1 & h5ce is accid5tal & n ess5tial4 ,! objects ( ! !oretical intellect are ! true & ! false2 ( ! practical1 ! good & ! bad4 ,! acquir$ intellect gives ^! intelligibles to ! s\l ?r\gh ! possible intellect1 & is int]m$iate betwe5 ! latt] & ! ,active ,intellect1 :i* is "o ( ! sep>ate ,intellig5ces above s\l4 ,! ,active ,intellect wat*es ov] ! rational animal t he may atta9 to ! happ9ess :i* 8 nature p]mits4 ,m5 diff] accord+ to _! temp]am5tal composition & _! human conduct4 ,?is leads to diff]5ces 9 ! p[] ( und]/&+ & 9 ! am\nt ( influ5ce receiv$ f ! ,active ,intellect4 ,hillel quotes ,maimonides 9 support ( 8 view t ! prophetic /age is an emanation ( glory f ,god ?r\gh ! m$ium ( ! ,active ,intellect1 :i* ex]ts its influ5ce ^u ! rational p[] & ^u ! imag9ation1 s t ! prophet sees 8 vision objectifi$ extra animam4 ,! ?ree conditions requisite = prophecy are p]fection 9 !ory1 p]fection 9 imag9ation & p]fection 9 morals4 ,! fir/ )\t ! second & ?ird produces a philosoph]2 ! second )\t ! fir/ & ?ird gives rise to a /atesman or magician4 ,x is important to "k1 he tells u1 t ! cultivation ( ! reason & imag9ation alone is n suffici5t4 ,practice ( ! comm&m5ts is v important4 ,h5ce a man mu/ guide prop]ly ! two p[]s ( s5se p]ception & desire1 :i* are in/rum5ts ( ! rational p[]4 ,=1 z ,maimonides says 9 8 comm5t>y on ,abo? 7cf4 p4 #bhb71 all obs]vance & violation ( ! comm&m5ts1 good & bad qualities dep5d ^u ^? two p[]s4 ,)\t a prop] tra9+ ( ^! ! influ5ce ( ! active intellect ^u ! reason & imag9ation may lead to evil4 ,beg9n+ ) s5se p]ception a man mu/ tra9 all 8 five s5ses to att5d only to :at is good & to turn away f evil4 ,:5 he satisfies 8 s5su\s desires1 he mu/ d ?is 9 ord] to pres]ve 8 body t he may be enabl$ to s]ve ,god 9 ! be/ possible way4 ,! same applies to ! p[] ( desire4 ,?is is ! p[] :i* directs "o to pursue ! agreeable & %un ! disagreeable4 ,f x proce$ also c\rage1 confid5ce1 ang]1 good w1 joy1 sorr[1 humility1 pride4 ,all ^! qualities mu/ be us$ 9 ! s]vice ( ,god4 ,if a man d ?is1 he w atta9 ! grade ( an angelic be+ ev5 dur+ life1 & w be able to p]=m miracles l ! prophets & ! sages ( ! ,talmud4 ,aft] dea? ! s\ls ( su* m5 rea* ev5 a high] degree ?an !y _h be=e ent]+ ! body1 z a rew>d = n all[+ !mselves to be degrad$ by _! corporeal desires1 b on ! contr>y direct+ ^! to high] aims4#cbi ,z = ! nature ( rew>d & puni%m5t m p>ticul>ly1 we may say t ! s\l ( ! wick$ loses all ! glory promis$ to h] & desc5ds to a position l[] ?an 0 h]s orig9ally4 ,%e is expell$ f ! l& ( life & rema9s 9 d>kness =ev]1 )\t return+ to h] orig9al /ation4 ,kn[+ :at %e has lo/1 %e w feel cont9u\s di/ress1 sorr[ & fe>1 = ! p[] ( imag9ation rema9s ) ! s\l aft] dea?4 ,b !re is no physical burn+ ) fire4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! s\l ( ! righte\s w return to ,god4 ,! doctr9e ( ! resurrection & ! explanation = x are a fur!r pro( t ! s\l aft] dea? is n puni%$ corporeally4 ,! motive ( ! resurrection is t ! s\l & body may receive _! comp5sation toge!r z 9 life4 ,if !n ! retribution ( ! s\l is corporeal1 !re is no ne$ ( resurrection4#ccj ,hillel !n proce$s to %[ t ! words ( ! ,rabbis :i* seem to speak = corporeal retribution are n to be tak5 lit]ally4 ,9 ?is connection x is wor? :ile to reproduce 8 classification ( ! cont5ts ( ! ,talmud & 8 attitude t[>d !m4 ,he enum]ates six classes4 #a4 ,passages 9 ! ,talmudic & ,midra%ic lit]ature :i* mu/ be tak5 lit]ally4 ,^! are ! discussions ( ! ,halaka 7! legal & c]emonial portions74 ,to p]v]t ^! f _! lit]al mean+1 or to ma9ta9 t ! int5tion ( ! law is ! important ?+ & n ! practice ( ! c]emony1 is h]esy & infidelity2 ?\gh x is m]itori\s to seek = an explanation ( e law1 z ! ,rabbis !mselves d 9 _m in/ances4 #b4 ,passages :i* %\ld be und]/ood z p>ables & allegories ) a deep] mean+4 ,^! are ! peculi> ,haggadahs1 or ! /range int]pretations ( ,biblical v]ses :]e no c]emonial precept is involv$4 #c4 ,/atem5ts simil> to ^? ( ! ,prophetical books ( ! ,bible1 :i* 7 ! result ( ! influ5ce ( ! ,active ,intellect & came to ! sages 9 a dream or 9 ! wak+ /ate1 speak+ ( ! future 9 an allegorical mann]4 ,^! are ! extraord9>y tales f\nd 9 ! ,talmud1 :i* _c be und]/ood lit]ally1 z !y involve a violation ( ! ord] ( nature2 & no miracle mu/ be believ$ unless = a v important reason4 #d4 ,! homilies address$ to ! p on ! occasion ( holidays = ! purpose ( exhort+ !m to div9e wor%ip & obs]vance ( ! ,law4 ,_m ( ^! are hyp]bolical 9 _! expression1 especially 9 ! promises conc]n+ ! future bless+s 9 /ore = ! p4 ,^! 7 9 ! nature ( enc\ragem5t to ! p to make _! burd5s easi] to be>4 ,"h belong also unusual int]pretations ( ,biblical v]ses1 explanations :i* d n give ! orig9al mean+ ( ! v]se 9 "q1 b are sugge/$ 9 ord] to int]e/ ! p4 ,we mu/ add1 too1 /ories ( ! good ?+s t came to pi\s p 9 return = _! piety4 ,^! mu/ be tak5 = ! mo/ "p lit]ally1 unless !y are cle>ly improbable4 #e4 ,jokes & je/s by way ( relief f ! /ra9 ( /udy4 ,hyp]boles belong "h4 #f4 ,n>ratives ( miracles done = pi\s p1 su* z reviv+ ! dead1 puni%+ ) dea? by means ( a ^w1 br++ d[n ra91 & s on4 ,all ^! mu/ be tak5 lit]ally4 ,to disbelieve is h]esy4 ,?is is true only :]e ! alleg$ miracles 7 done = a high purpose1 o!rwise we ne$ n believe !m4 ,! reason ! ,bible & ! ,talmud express !mselves 9 corporeal t]ms conc]n+ rew>d & puni%m5t is 9 ord] to fright5 ! p & to impress !m ) ! t]rible puni%m5t consequ5t ^u wrongdo+4 ,! p d n und]/& any rew>d & puni%m5t unless x is physical & corporeal4 ,9 reality spiritual exi/5ce is m real ?an physical4#cca ,,*apt] ,,xv ,,levi ,,b5 ,,g]son ,among ! m5 :o devot$ !mselves to philosophical inve/igation 9 ! c5tury & a half aft] ,maimonides's dea?1 ! greate/ & mo/ indep5d5t 0 )\t d\bt ,levi b5 ,g]son or ,g]sonides1 z he is also call$4 ,!re 7 o!rs :o 7 active z comm5tators1 translators & orig9al writ]s1 & :o a*iev$ a c]ta9 fame1 b _! "w 0 too little orig9al to m]it m ?an v brief notice 9 ^! pages4 ,isaac ,albalag#cca;a 7second half ( ?irte5? c5tury7 owes :at reputation he enjoys to ! boldness ) :i* he enunciat$ c]ta9 doctr9es1 su* z ! et]nity ( ! _w & p>ticul>ly ! notion1 well en\gh kn[n among ! ,av]roi/s ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,p>is at t "t & condemn$ by ! ,*ur*1 b nev] be=e ann\nc$ or def5d$ 9 ,jewi% philosophy--! s-call$ doctr9e ( ! tw(old tru?4 ,?is 0 an attitude assum$ 9 self-def5ce1 s9c]ely or n z ! case may be1 by a numb] ( s*ola/ic writ]s1 :o advanc$ philosophic views at v>iance ) ! dogma ( ! ,*ur*4 ,!y ma9ta9$ t a giv5 !sis might be true & false at ! same "t1 true = philosophy & false = !ology1 or vice v]sa4#ccb ,%em ,tob ,falaqu]a 7#abbe-abij7 is a m important man ?an ,albalag4 ,he 0 a ?or\gh /ud5t ( ! ,ari/otelian & o!r philosophy t 0 accessible to him ?r\gh 8 k ( ,arabic4 ,munk's success 9 id5tify+ ,avicebron ) ,gabirol 7p4 #fc7 0 made possible by ,falaqu]a's translation into ,hebrew ( extracts f ! ,fons ,vit4 ,( great importance also is ,falaqu]a's comm5t>y ( ,maimonides's ,guide1 :i*1 ) t ( ,moses ( ,n>bonne 7d4 aft] #acfb71 is bas$ ^u a k ( ,arabic & a ?or\gh famili>ity ) ! ,ari/otelian philosophy ( ! ,arabs1 & is sup]ior to ! bett] kn[n comm5t>ies ( ,%emtob1 ,ephodi1 & ,ab>banel4 ,falaqu]a also wrote orig9al works ( an e?ical & philosophical "*4 ,joseph ,ibn ,caspi 7#abig-acdj7 is likewise a m]itori\s figure z a comm5tator ( ,maimonides & z a philosophical exegete ( ,scripture4 ,b none ( ^! m5 /&s out z an indep5d5t ?9k] ) a /rong individuality1 c>ry+ =w>d 9 any important & au?oritative degree ! "w ( ! great ,maimonides4 ,great ,talmudic k1 :i* 0 a necess>y qualification = national recognition1 ^! m5 seem n to h _h2 & on ! o!r h& none ( !m felt call$ ^u or able to make a sy/ematic syn!sis ( philosophy & ,judaism 9 a l>ge way4 ,levi b5 ,g]son 7#abhh-acdd7 0 ! fir/ aft] ,maimonides :o c at all be comp>$ ) ! great sage ( ,fo/at4 ,he 0 a great ma!matician & a/ronom]2 he wrote sup]comm5t>ies on ! ,ari/otelian comm5t>ies ( ,av]roes1 :o 9 8 day _h become ! s\rce ( philosophical k = ! ,hebrew /ud5t2 he 0 ?or\ghly v]s$ 9 ! ,talmud z 8 comm5t>y on ! ,p5tateu* %[s2 & he is "o ( ! recogniz$ ,biblical exegetes ( ! middle ages4 ,f9ally 9 8 philosophical ma/]piece ,milhamot ,adonai 7,! ,w>s ( ! ,"l71#ccc he und]takes to solve 9 a ?or\ghly s*ola/ic mann] ^? problems 9 philosophy & !ology :i* ,maimonides _h ei!r n treat$ adequately or _h n solv$ to ,g]sonides's satisfaction4 ,t despite ! te*nical "* & /yle ( ! ,milhamot1 ,g]sonides a*iev$ su* great reputation %[s 9 :at e/eem 8 le>n+ & critical p[] 7 held by 8 contempor>ies4 ,8 works 7 all writt5 9 ,hebrew1 & if he _h any k ( ,arabic & ,lat9 x 0 v limit$1 too limit$ to enable him to make use ( ! important works writt5 9 ^? languages4#ccd ,8 fame ext5d$ beyond ! limits ( ,jewi% ?\ght1 z is %[n by ! fact t 8 sci5tific treatise deal+ ) ! a/ronomical in/rum5t he _h discov]$ 0 translat$ into ,lat9 9 #acgg by ord] ( ,pope ,clem5t ,,vi1 & 8 sup]comm5t>ies on ! e>ly books ( ! ,ari/otelian logic 7 incorporat$1 9 ,lat9 translation1 9 ! ,lat9 editions ( ,ari/otle & ,av]roes ( ! #af? c5tury4#cce ,levi b5 ,g]son's g5]al attitude to philosophical /udy & its relation to ! cont5t ( ,scripture is ! same z _h become common prop]ty ?r\gh ,maimonides & 8 pr$ecessors4 ,! happ9ess & p]fection ( man are ! purpose ( religion & k4 ,?is p]fection ( man1 or :i* is ! same ?+1 ! p]fection ( ! human s\l1 is br\ght ab\t ?r\gh p]fection 9 morals & 9 !oretical speculation1 z w appe> m cle>ly :5 we discuss ! nature ( ! human intellect & its immortality4 ,h5ce ! purpose ( ! ,bible is to lead man to p]fect himself 9 ^! two elem5ts--morals & sci5ce4 ,= ?is reason ! ,law consi/s ( ?ree p>ts4 ,! fir/ is ! legal portion ( ! ,law conta9+ ! #fac comm&m5ts1 m&atory & prohibitive1 conc]n+ belief & practice4 ,?is is prep>atory to ! second & ?ird divisions ( ! ,p5tateu*1 :i* deal respectively ) social & e?ical conduct1 & ! sci5ce ( exi/5ce4 ,z f> z e?ics is conc]n$ x 0 n practicable to lay d[n def9ite comm&m5ts & prohibitions because x is s extremely difficult to rea* p]fection 9 ?is aspect ( life4 ,?us if ! ,torah gave def9ite prescriptions = ex]cis+ & controll+ our ang]1 our joy1 our c\rage1 & s on1 ! results w\ld be v disc\rag+1 = ! majority ( m5 w\ld be con/antly disobey+ !m4 ,& ?is w\ld lead to ! neglect ( ! o!r comm&m5ts likewise4 ,h5ce ! pr9ciples ( social & e?ical conduct are inculcat$ indirectly by means ( n>ratives exemplify+ c]ta9 types ( "* 9 action & ! consequ5ces fl[+ f _! conduct4 ,! ?ird division1 z 0 said be=e1 conta9s c]ta9 tea*+s ( a metaphysical "* respect+ ! nature ( exi/5ce4 ,?is is ! mo/ important ( all1 & h5ce =ms ! beg9n+ ( ! ,p5tateu*4 ,! acc\nt ( creation is a /udy 9 ! pr9ciples ( philosophical physics4#ccf ,z to ! relations ( reason & belief or au?ority1 ,levi b5 ,g]son %>es 9 ! optimism ( ! ,maimonidean s*ool & ! philosophic middle age g5]ally1 t !re is no opposition betwe5 !m4 ,! priority %\ld be giv5 to reason :]e its dem&s are unequivocal1 = ! mean+ ( ! ,scriptures is n always cle> & is subject to int]pretation4#ccg ,on ! o!r h&1 aft] hav+ devot$ an entire book ( 8 ,milhamot to a m9ute inve/igation ( ! nature ( ! human intellect & ! conditions ( its immortality1 he dis>ms 9 advance all possible criticism ( 8 position f ! religi\s po9t ( view by say+ t he is ready to ab&on 8 doctr9e if x is %[n t x is 9 disagreem5t ) religi\s dogma4 ,he develop$ 8 views1 he tells u1 because he believes t !y are 9 agreem5t ) ! words ( ! ,torah4#cch ,?is app>5t contradiction is to be expla9$ by mak+ a di/9ction betwe5 ! ab/ract /atem5t ( ! pr9ciple & ! concrete application !re(4 ,9 g5]al ,levi b5 ,g]son is s conv9c$ ( man's pr]ogative z a rational be+ t he _c believe ! ,bible meant to =ce ^u him ! belief 9 ?+s :i* are oppos$ to reason4 ,h5ce1 s9ce ! ,bible is subject to int]pretation1 ! dem&s ( ! reason are p>am\nt :]e !y d n admit ( d\bt4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :]e ! traditional dogma ( ,judaism is cle> & outspok51 x is incumb5t ^u man to be mode/ & n to claim ! infallibility ( direct revelation = ! limit$ p[]s ( logical inf]5ce & d$uction4 ,we mu/ n[ give a brief acc\nt ( ! que/ions discuss$ 9 ! ,milhamot ,adonai4 ,& fir/ a ^w ab\t ,g]sonides's /yle & me?od4 ,"o is rem9d$1 9 read+ ! ,milhamot1 ( ,ari/otle z well z ,?omas ,aqu9as4 ,!re is no rhetoric & !re are no sup]flu\s words4 ,all is precise & te*nical1 & ! vocabul>y is small4 ,"o is surpris$ to see h[ 9 a brief c5tury or s ! ,hebrew language has become s flexible an in/rum5t 9 ! expression ( ,ari/otelian ideas4 ,levi b5 ,g]son does n labor 9 ! expression ( 8 ?\ght4 ,8 l+ui/ic in/rum5t is q adequate & yields naturally to ! manipulation ( ! au?or4 ,g]sonides1 ! m9ute logician & analy/1 has no use = rhetorical fl\ri%es & figures ( spee*4 ,! subject1 he says1 is difficult en\gh z x is1 )\t be+ made m s by rhetorical obscuration1 unless "o int5ds to hide ! confusion ( "o's ?\ght "u ! mask ( f9e writ+4#cci ,l ,ari/otle & ,?omas ,aqu9as1 he gives a hi/ory ( ! op9ions ( o!rs 9 ! topic "u discussion1 & enum]ates long li/s ( argum5ts pro & con ) rigor\s logical precision4 ,! effect ^u ! read] is monoton\s & we>isome4 ,ari/otle escapes ?is by ! fact t he is grop+ 8 way be=e u4 ,he has n all 8 ideas =mulat$ 9 prop] ord] & =m ready to deliv]4 ,he is prim>ily ! inve/igator1 n ! p$agogue1 & ! brevity & obscurity ( 8 /yle pique ! ambiti\s read] & spur him on to puzzle out ! mean+4 ,n s ,?omas ,aqu9as & ! s*ola/ics g5]ally4 ,z ! t]m s*ola/ic indicates1 !y develop$ _! me?od 9 ! s*ools4 ,!y 7 expositors ( :at 0 ready made1 r ?an se>*]s = ! new4 ,h5ce ! "q ( =m 0 an important "o & 0 det]m9$ by ! purpose ( pres5t+ "o's ideas z cle>ly z may be to ! /ud5t4 ,add to ?is t ! logic ( ,ari/otle & ! syllogism 0 ! univ]sal me?od ( pres5tation & ! monotony & we>isom5ess becomes evid5t4 ,levi b5 ,g]son is 9 ?is respect l ,aqu9as r ?an l ,ari/otle4 ,& he is ! fir/ ( 8 k9d 9 ,jewi% lit]ature4 ,s9ce ! l>g] views & problems 7 already common prop]ty1 ! ef=ts ( ,g]sonides 7 direct$ to a m m9ute discussion ( ! m te*nical details ( su* problems z ! human intellect1 prophecy1 ,provid5ce1 creation1 & s on4 ,= ?is reason1 too1 x w n be necess>y = u to d m ?an give a brief rsum ( ! results ( ,g]sonides's lucubrations )\t ent]+ into ! really bewild]+ & hair-splitt+ argum5ts & di/9ctions :i* make ! book s h>d on ! read]4 ,we h already _h occasion 9 ! ,introduction 7p4 xxxvi7 to ref] briefly to ,ari/otle's !ory ( ! intellect & ! di/9ction betwe5 ! passive & ! active intellects 9 man4 ,! ideas ( ! ,arabs 7 also ref]r$ to 9 our treatm5t ( ,judah ,halevi1 ,ibn ,daud & ,maimonides 7pp4 #ahj f41 #bac f41 #bhb74 ,hillel b5 ,samuel1 z we saw 7p4 #cag ff471 0 ! fir/ among ! ,jews :o und]took to discuss 9 great] detail ! ess5ce ( ! ?ree k9ds ( intellect1 mat]ial1 acquir$ & active1 z taught by ! ,mohamm$an & ,*ri/ian ,s*ola/ics1 & devot$ "s space to ! "q ( ! unity ( ! mat]ial intellect4 ,levi b5 ,g]son takes up ! same "q ( ! nature ( ! mat]ial intellect & discusses ! v>i\s views ) m rigor & m9ut5ess ?an any ( 8 ,jewi% pr$ecessors4 ,8 *ief s\rce 0 ,av]roes4 ,! pr9cipal views conc]n+ ! nature ( ! possible or mat]ial intellect 9 man 7 ^? attribut$ to ,alex&] ( ,aphrodisias1 ! mo/ important ,greek comm5tator ( ,ari/otle 7liv$ ab\t #bjj ( ! ,*ri/ian ,era71 ,!mi/ius1 ano!r ,ari/otelian ,greek comm5tator :o liv$ 9 ! "t ( ,emp]or ,julian1 & ,av]roes1 ! fam\s ,arabian philosoph] & contempor>y ( ,maimonides4 ,all ^! ?ree writ]s pret5d$ to exp\nd ,ari/otle's views ( ! passive intellect r ?an prop\nd _! own4 ,& ,levi b5 ,g]son discusses _! ideas be=e giv+ 8 own4 ,alex&]'s idea ( ! passive intellect 9 man is t x is simply a capacity resid+ 9 ! s\l = receiv+ ! univ]sal =ms ( mat]ial ?+s4 ,x has no sub/antiality ( its own1 & h5ce does n survive ! l[] functions ( ! s\l1 namely1 s5sation & imag9ation1 :i* die ) ! body4 ,?is passive intellect is actualiz$ ?r\gh ! ,active ,intellect1 :i* is n a "p ( man at all1 b is id5tifi$ by ,alex&] ) ,god4 ,! ,active ,intellect is ?us pure =m & actuality1 & enables ! mat]ial or possible intellect 9 man1 orig9ally a m]e pot5tiality1 to acquire g5]al ideas1 & ?us to become an intellect ) a cont5t4 ,?is is call$ ! actual or acquir$ intellect1 :i* ?\gh at fir/ dep5d5t on ! data ( s5se1 may succe$ lat] 9 cont9u+ its activity unaid$ by s5se p]ception4 ,& 9 s f> z ! acquir$ intellect ?9ks ( ! purely immat]ial ideas & ?+s :i* make up ! cont5t ( ! div9e intellect 7! ,active ,intellect71 x becomes id5tifi$ ) ! latt] & is immortal4 ,! reason = suppos+ t ! mat]ial intellect 9 man is a m]e capacity resid+ 9 ! s\l & n an indep5d5t sub/ance is because z hav+ ! capacity to receive all k9ds ( =ms x mu/ itself n be ( any =m4 ,?us 9 ord] t ! s5se ( sight may receive all colors z !y are1 x mu/ itself be free f color4 ,if ! sight _h a color ( its own1 ?is w\ld prev5t x f receiv+ o!r colors4 ,apply+ ?is pr9ciple to ! intellect we make ! same inf]5ce t x mu/ 9 itself be neutral1 n id5tifi$ ) any "o idea or =m1 else ?is w\ld color all else knock+ = admission1 & ! m9d w\ld n "k ?+s z !y are4 ,n[ a faculty :i* has no =m ( its own1 b is a m]e mirror s to speak ( all t may be reflect$ 9 x1 _c be a sub/ance1 & mu/ be simply a p[] inh]5t 9 a sub/ance & subject to ! same fate z t 9 :i* x inh]es4 ,?is expla9s ! motive ( ,alex&]'s view & is at ! same "t a criticism ( ! doctr9e ( ,!mi/ius4 ,?is comm5tator is ( ! op9ion t ! passive intellect ( :i* ,ari/otle speaks is n a m]e capacity inh]5t 9 some?+ else1 b a real spiritual entity or sub/ance indep5d5t ( ! l[] p>ts ( ! s\l1 ?\gh associat$ ) !m dur+ ! life ( ! body1 & h5ce is n subject to g5]ation & de/ruction1 b is et]nal4 ,9 support ( ?is view may be urg$ t if ! passive intellect 7 m]ely a capacity ( ! l[] p>ts ( ! s\l1 we %\ld expect x to gr[ weak] z ! p]son gr[s old] & 8 s5sitive & imag9ative p[]s are beg9n+ to decl9e2 :]eas ! contr>y is ! case4 ,! old] ! p]son ! ke5] is 8 intellect4 ,! difficulty1 h[ev]1 rema9s t if ! human intellect is a real sub/ance indep5d5t ( ! re/ ( ! s\l1 :y is x t at its fir/ appe>ance 9 ! human be+ x is extremely poor 9 cont5t1 be+ all b empty1 & gr[s z ! re/ ( ! body & ! s\l is develop$8 ,to obviate ^! difficulties1 ,av]roes 9 8 comm5t>y on ! ,de ,anima ( ,ari/otle practically id5tifies 7accord+ to ,levi b5 ,g]son's view ( ,av]roes7 ! mat]ial intellect ) ! ,active ,intellect4 ,! ,active ,intellect accord+ to him is nei!r id5tical ) ! div9e1 z ,alex&] ma9ta9s1 nor is x a "p ( man1 z ,!mi/ius & o!rs ?9k1 b is ! la/ ( ! sep>ate ,intellig5ces1 next to ! spiritual mov] ( ! lun> sph]e4 ,x is a pure actuality1 absolutely free f matt]1 & h5ce et]nal4 ,?is ,active ,intellect 9 "s my/]i\s mann] becomes associat$ ) man1 & ?is association results 9 a tempor>y phase repres5t$ by ! mat]ial intellect4 ,z a result ( ! s5se p]ceptions1 images ( ! ext]nal objects rema9 9 ! imag9ation1 & ! ,active ,intellect takes hold ( ^! images1 :i* are pot5tially univ]sal ideas1 & by its illum9ation produces out ( !m actual ideas & an intellect 9 :i* !y reside1 ! mat]ial intellect4 ,! mat]ial intellect is !re=e ! result ( ! comb9ation ( ! ,active ,intellect ) ! memory images1 kn[n z phantasmata 7,greek3 phantasmata71 9 ! human faculty ( imag9ation4 ,s long z ?is association exi/s1 ! mat]ial intellect receives ! intelligible =ms z d]iv$ f ! phantasmata1 & ^! =ms are repres5t$ by su* ideas z all animal is s5sitive1 all man is rational1 i4 e41 ideas conc]n+ ! objects ( ?is _w4 ,?is phase ( man's m9d ceases :5 ! body dies1 & ! ,active ,intellect alone rema9s1 ^: cont5t is free f mat]ial =ms4 ,! ,active ,intellect contemplates itself1 a pure intellig5ce4 ,at ! same "t x is possible = man to id5tify himself ) ! ,active ,intellect z he acquires k 9 ! mat]ial intellect1 = ! ,active ,intellect is l light :i* makes ! eye see4 ,9 see+1 ! eye n m]ely p]ceives ! =m ( ! ext]nal object1 b indirectly also receives ! light :i* made ! object visible4 ,9 ! same way ! human s\l 9 acquir+ k z implicit 9 its phantasmata1 at ! same "t gets a glimpse ( ! spiritual light :i* conv]t$ ! phantasma into an explicit idea 7cf4 above1 p4 #cbj74 ,:5 ! s\l 9 man p]fects itself ) all ! k ( ?is _w x becomes id5tifi$ ) ! ,active ,intellect1 :i* may be lik5$ to ! intellect or s\l ( ! corporeal _w4 ,9 ?is comb9ation ( ! views ( ,alex&] & ,!mi/ius ,av]roes succe$s 9 obviat+ ! criticisms levell$ at ! two =m]4 ,t ! p[] ( ! mat]ial intellect gr[s ke5] ) age ?\gh ! corporeal organs are weak]1 supports ,av]roes's doctr9e z aga9/ ,alex&]1 to :om x is a m]e capacity dep5d5t ^u ! mixture ( ! elem5ts 9 ! human body4 ,b nei!r is he subject to ! objection apply+ to ,!mi/ius's view1 t a real indep5d5t entity c\ld sc>cely be void ( all =ms & a m]e receptacle4 ,= ! mat]ial intellect z x really is 9 itself :5 n 9 comb9ation ) ! human body is n a m]e receptacle or empty pot5tiality4 ,x is ! ,active ,intellect1 :i* comb9es 9 itself all immat]ial =ms & ?9ks !m z x ?9ks itself4 ,x is only 9 its individualiz$ aspect t x becomes a pot5tial intellect ready to receive all mat]ial =ms4 ,b :at ,av]roes ga9s "h he loses else:]e4 ,!re are c]ta9 consid]ations :i* are fatal to 8 doctr9e4 ,?us x w\ld foll[ t !oretical /udies :i* h no practical aim are useless4 ,b ?is is impossible4 ,nature has put 9 u ! ability z well z ! desire to speculate )\t ref]5ce to practical results4 ,! pleasure we d]ive f !oretical /udies is mu* great] ?an t af=d$ by ! practical arts & trades4 ,& nature does no?+ 9 va94 ,!oretical /udies mu/ !re=e h "s value4 ,b 9 ,av]roes's !ory ( ! mat]ial intellect !y h none4 ,= all values may be divid$ into ^? :i* promote ! life ( ! body & ^? :i* lead to ! f9al happ9ess ( man4 ,! =m] is cle>ly n s]v$ by ^? !oretical speculations :i* h no practical aim4 ,on ! contr>y1 !y h9d] x4 ,deep /ud5ts ( ! !oretical sci5ces =ego all bodily pleasures1 & (t5 d )\t necessities4 ,b nei!r c !re be any advantage 9 !oretical speculation = ultimate human happ9ess4 ,= human happ9ess accord+ to ,av]roes 7& he is 9 a s5se "r1 z we %all see lat]7 consi/s 9 union ) ! ,active ,intellect4 ,b ?is union takes place z a matt] ( c\rse accord+ to 8 !ory at ! "t ( dea?1 :e!r a man be wise or a fool4 ,= ! ,active ,intellect !n absorbs ! mat]ial4 ,ano!r objection to ,av]roes's !ory is ! foll[+4 ,if ! mat]ial intellect is 9 ess5ce ! same z ! ,active ,intellect1 x is a sep>ate1 immat]ial sub/ance1 & h5ce is1 l ! ,active ,intellect1 "o4 ,= only t :i* has matt] z its sub/ratum c be quantitatively diff]5tiat$4 ,?us ,a is num]ically diff]5t f ,b1 ?\gh ,a & ,b are bo? m5 7i4 e41 qualitatively ! same71 because !y are corporeal be+s4 ,=ms z su* c be diff]5tiat$ qualitatively only4 ,horse is diff]5t f ass 9 quality4 ,horse z su* & horse z su* are ! same4 ,x foll[s f ?is t ! mat]ial intellect1 be+ l ! ,active ,intellect an immat]ial =m1 _c be num]ically multipli$1 & !re=e is "o only4 ,b if s1 no end ( absurdities foll[s4 ,= x means t all m5 h ! same intellect1 h5ce ! latt] is wise & ignorant at ! same "t 9 ref]5ce to ! same ?+1 9 s f> z ,a kn[s a giv5 ?+ & ,b does n "k x4 ,x w\ld also foll[ t ,a c make use ( ,b's s5se exp]i5ce & build 8 k ^u x4 ,all ^! inf]5ces are absurd1 & !y all foll[ f ! assumption t ! mat]ial intellect is 9 ess5ce ! same z ! ,active ,intellect4 ,h5ce ,av]roes's position is unt5able4#cdj ,g]sonides !n gives 8 own view ( ! mat]ial intellect1 :i* is simil> to t ( ,alex&]4 ,! mat]ial intellect is a capacity1 & ! prime matt] is ! ultimate subject 9 :i* x inh]es4 ,b !re are o!r p[]s or =ms inh]+ 9 matt] prior to ! mat]ial intellect4 ,prime matt] z su* is n end[$ ) intellect1 or all ?+s w\ld h human reason4 ,prime matt] :5 x rea*es ! /age ( developm5t ( ! imag9ative faculty is !n ready to receive ! mat]ial intellect4 ,we may say !n t ! s5sitive s\l1 ( :i* ! imag9ative faculty is a "p1 is ! subject 9 :i* ! mat]ial intellect inh]es4 ,! criticism direct$ aga9/ ,alex&]1 :i* applies "h also1 may be answ]$ z foll[s4 ,! mat]ial intellect is dep5d5t ^u its subject1 ! s5sitive s\l1 = its exi/5ce only1 n = ! mann] ( receiv+ its k4 ,h5ce ! weak5+ or /r5g!n+ ( its subject _c affect x directly at all4 ,indirectly !re is a relation betwe5 ! two1 & x works 9 ! rev]se direction4 ,:5 ! s5sitive p[]s are weak5$ & _! activities dim9i%1 !re is m opportunity = ! intellect to monopolize ! "o s\l = itself & increase its own activity1 :i* ! o!r p[]s h a t5d5cy to h9d]1 s9ce ! s\l is "o = all ^! cont5d+ p[]s4 ,x foll[s ( c\rse t ! mat]ial intellect 9 man is n immortal4 ,z a capacity ( ! s5sitive s\l1 x dies ) ! latt]4 ,:at "p ( ! human s\l x is t enjoys immortality & on :at conditions we %all see lat]4 ,b be=e we d ?is1 we mu/ try to und]/& ! nature ( ! ,active ,intellect4#cda ,we "k n[ t ! function ( ! ,active ,intellect is to actualize ! mat]ial intellect1 i4 e41 to develop ! capacity :i* ! latt] has ( extract+ g5]al ideas f ! p>ticul> memory images 7phantasmata7 9 ! faculty ( imag9ation1 s t ?is capacity1 orig9ally empty ( any cont5t1 receives ! ideas ?us produc$1 & is ?us con/itut$ into an actual intellect4 ,f ?is x foll[s t ! ,active ,intellect1 :i* enables ! mat]ial intellect to =m ideas1 mu/ itself h ! ideas x induces 9 ! latt]1 ?\gh n necess>ily 9 ! same =m4 ,?us an artisan1 :o imposes ! =m ( *air ^u a piece ( wood1 mu/ h ! =m ( *air 9 8 m9d1 ?\gh n ! same sort z he realizes 9 ! wood4 ,n[ z all ! ideas acquir$ by ! mat]ial intellect con/itute "o s+le activity s f> z ! end & purpose is conc]n$ 7= x all leads to ! p]fection ( ! p]son71 ! ag5t :i* is ! cause ( x all mu/ also be "o4 ,h5ce !re are n _m ,active ,intellects1 ea* responsible = c]ta9 ideas1 b "o ,intellect is ! cause ( all ! ideas realiz$ 9 ! mat]ial intellect4 ,moreov]1 z ?is ,active ,intellect gives ! mat]ial intellect n m]ely a k ( sep>ate ideas1 b also an und]/&+ ( _! relations to ea* o!r1 9 o!r words ( ! sy/ematic unity connect+ all ideas into "o :ole1 x foll[s t ! ,active ,intellect has a k ( ! ideas f _! unit>y aspect4 ,9 o!r words1 ! unity ( purpose & aim :i* is evid5t 9 ! developm5t ( nature f ! prime matt] ?r\gh ! =ms ( ! elem5ts1 ! plant s\l1 ! animal s\l & up to ! human reason1 :]e ! l[] is = ! sake ( ! high]1 mu/ reside z a unit>y conception 9 ! ,active ,intellect4 ,= ! ,active ,intellect has ano!r function besides develop+ ! rational capacity 9 man4 ,we c arrive at ?is insight by a consid]ation und]tak5 f a diff]5t po9t ( view4 ,if we consid] ! wond]ful & my/]i\s developm5t ( a se$1 :i* is only a piece ( matt]1 9 a purposive mann]1 pass+ ?r\gh v>i\s /ages & produc+ a highly complicat$ organism ) psy*ic p[]s1 we mu/ come to ! conclusion1 z ,ari/otle does1 t !re is an intellect op]at+ 9 ?is developm5t4 ,z all sublun> nature %[s a unity ( purpose1 ?is intellect mu/ be "o4 ,& z x _c be l "o ( its products1 x mu/ be et]nal & n subject to g5]ation & decay4 ,b ^! are ! attributes :i*1 on gr\nds tak5 f ! consid]ation ( ! intellectual activity 9 man1 we ascrib$ to ! ,active ,intellect4 ,h5ce x is ! ,active ,intellect4 ,& we h ?us %[n t x has two functions4 ,"o is to end[ sublun> nature ) ! intellig5ce & purpose visible 9 its processes & evolutions2 ! o!r is to enable ! rational p[] 9 man to rise f a tabula rasa to an actual intellect ) a cont5t4 ,f bo? ^! activities x is evid5t t ! ,active ,intellect has a k ( sublun> creation z a sy/ematic unity4 ,?is conception ( ! ,active ,intellect1 ,levi b5 ,g]son says1 w also answ] all ! difficulties by :i* o!r philosoph]s are tr\bl$ conc]n+ ! possibility ( k & ! nature ( def9ition4 ,! problems are briefly ^!4 ,k conc]ns itself ) ! p]man5t & univ]sal4 ,!re c be no real k ( ! p>ticul>1 = ! p>ticul> is nev] ! same1 x is con/antly *ang+ & 9 ! end disappe>s altoge!r4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! univ]sal has no real exi/5ce outside ( ! m9d1 = ! objectively real is ! p>ticul> ?+4 ,! only really exi/+ man is ,a or ,b or ,c2 man 9 g5]al1 man t is n a p>ticul> individual man1 has no objective extra-m5tal exi/5ce4 ,"h is a dilemma4 ,! only ?+ we c really "k is ! ?+ t is n real1 & ! only real ?+ is t :i* we _c "k4 ,! ,platoni/s solve ?is difficulty by boldly decl>+ t ! univ]sal ideas or =ms are ! real exi/5ts & ! models ( ! ?+s ( s5se4 ,?is is absurd4 ,ari/otle's solution 9 ! ,metaphysics is likewise unsatisfactory4 ,our conception1 h[ev]1 ( ! ,active ,intellect enables u to solve ?is problem satisfactorily4 ,! object ( k is n ! p>ticul> ?+ :i* is con/antly *ang+2 nor yet ! logical ab/raction :i* is only 9 ! m9d4 ,x is ! real unity ( sublun> nature z x exi/s 9 ! ,active ,intellect4 ,! problem ( ! def9ition is closely relat$ to t ( k4 ,! def9ition d5otes ! ess5ce ( e individual ( a giv5 species4 ,z ! individuals ( a giv5 species h all ! same def9ition1 & h5ce ! same ess5ce1 !y are all "o4 ,= :at is n 9 ! def9ition is n real4 ,our answ] is t ! def9ition repres5ts t unit>y aspect ( ! sublun> individuals :i* is 9 ! ,active ,intellect4 ,?is aspect is also 9 a c]ta9 s5se pres5t 9 e "o ( ! individual objects ( nature1 b n 9 ! same mann] z 9 ! ,active ,intellect4#cdb ,we are n[ ready to take up ! "q ( human immortality4 ,! mat]ial intellect z a capacity = acquir+ k is n immortal4 ,be+ inh]5t 9 ! s5sitive s\l & dep5d5t = its acquisition ( k ^u ! memory images 7phantasmata7 :i* appe> 9 ! imag9ation1 ! p[] to acquire k ceases ) ! cessation ( s5se & imag9ation4 ,b ! k already acquir$1 :i*1 we h %[n above1 is id5tical ) ! conceptions ( sublun> nature 9 ! ,active ,intellect1 is inde/ructible4 ,= ^! conceptions are absolutely immat]ial2 !y are really ! ,active ,intellect 9 a s5se1 & only ! mat]ial is subject to de/ruction4 ,! sum ( acquisition ( immat]ial ideas con/itutes ! acquir$ or actual intellect1 & ?is is ! immortal "p ( man4 ,fur!r ?an ?is man _c g4 ,! idea adopt$ by "s t ! human intellect may become id5tifi$ completely ) ! ,active ,intellect1 ,levi b5 ,g]son rejects4 ,9 ord] to accompli% ?is1 he says1 x w\ld be necess>y to h a complete & p]fect k ( all nature1 & t too a completely unifi$ & :olly immat]ial k j z x is 9 ! ,active ,intellect4 ,?is is cle>ly impossible4 ,b x is true t a man's happ9ess aft] dea? is dep5d5t ^u ! am\nt & p]fection ( 8 k4 ,= ev5 9 ?is life ! pleasure we d]ive f intellectual contemplation is great] ! m ne>ly we succe$ 9 completely conc5trat+ our m9d on ! subject ( /udy4 ,n[ aft] dea? !re w be no di/urb+ factors su* z are suppli$ 9 ?is _w by ! s5sitive & emotional p[]s4 ,to be sure ?is lack w also prev5t ! acquisition ( new k1 z 0 said be=e1 b ! am\nt acquir$ w be !re 9 ! s\l's p[] all at once & all ! "t4 ,! m k "o has succe$$ 9 obta9+ dur+ life1 ! m ne>ly he w resemble ! ,active ,intellect & ! great] w be 8 happ9ess4#cdc ,! next topic ,levi b5 ,g]son takes up is t ( progno/ication4 ,!re are ?ree ways 9 :i* c]ta9 p]sons come to "k ! future1 dreams1 div9ation & prophecy4 ,:at we wi% to d is to det]m9e ! k9d ( future ev5ts t may be ?us kn[n be=eh&1 ! ag5cy :i* produces 9 u ?is p[]1 & ! be>+ ?is ph5om5on has on ! nature ( ev5ts g5]ally1 & p>ticul>ly z conc]ns ! "q ( *ance & free w4 ,t !re is su* k ( future ev5ts is a fact & n a !ory4 ,exp]i5ce te/ifies to ! fact t !re are c]ta9 p :o are able to =etell ! future1 n z a matt] ( accid5t or ?r\gh a *ance co9cid5ce1 b z a regul> ?+4 ,div9]s ^! are call$1 or =tune tell]s4 ,?is p[] is ev5 bett] au!nticat$ 9 prophecy1 :i* no "o d5ies4 ,we c also cite _m in/ances ( dreams1 9 :i* a p]son sees a future ev5t ) all its p>ticul>s1 & ! dream comes true4 ,all ^! cases are too common to be cr$it$ to *ance4 ,n[ :at does ?is %[ z to ! nature ( ! ev5ts ?us =ese58 ,cle>ly x indicates t !y _c be *ance happ5+s1 = :at is by *ance _c be =ese54 ,! only conclusion !n to be drawn is t ^! ev5ts are det]m9$ by ! ord] ( nature4 ,b !re is ano!r implication 9 man's ability to =etell ! future1 namely1 t :at is ?us kn[n to man is fir/ kn[n to a high] intellect :i* communicates x to u4 ,! fir/ ( ^! two consequ5ces leads u into difficulties4 ,= if we exam9e ! data ( progno/ication1 :e!r x be ( dream1 div9ation or prophecy1 we f9d t !y conc]n almo/ exclusively su* p>ticul> human ev5ts z w\ld be class$ 9 ! category ( ! cont+5t r ?an 9 t ( ! necess>y4 ,=tune tell]s regul>ly tell p ab\t ! k9d ( *ildr5 !y w h1 ! sort ( ?+s !y w d1 & s on4 ,9 prophecy simil>ly ,s>ah 0 told %e w\ld h a son 7,g54 #ah1 #aj74 ,we also h examples ( progno/ication respect+ ! outcome ( a battle1 ann\ncem5t ( com+ ra91--ev5ts due to def9ite causes--z well z ! pr$iction ( ev5ts :i* are ! result ( free *oice or pure accid5t1 z :5 ,samuel tells ,eli%a t he w meet ?ree m5 on ! way1 :o w give him two loaves ( bread1 :i* he w accept2 or :5 ! prophet 9 ,sam>iah tells ! prophet 9 ,be!l t he w be kill$ by a lion4 ,! "q n[ is1 if ^! cont+5t ?+s c be kn[n 9 advance1 !y are n cont+5t2 & if ^! are n1 none are4 ,= ! uni=m ev5ts 9 nature are surely n cont+5t4 ,if !n ^? ev5ts usually class$ z cont+5t & volunt>y are n su*1 !re is no su* ?+ z *ance & free w at all1 :i* is impossible4 ,our answ] is t z a matt] ( fact ^? cont+5t happ5+s we call luck & ill luck d (t5 come frequ5tly to c]ta9 p]sons1 :om we call lucky or unlucky1 :i* %[s t !y are n ! result ( pure *ance1 & t !re is "s sort ( ord] det]m9+ !m4 ,moreov]1 we "k t ! high] 9 ! scale ( be+ a ?+ is1 ! m nature takes c>e to gu>d x4 ,h5ce z man is ! highe/ be+ "h bel[1 x /&s to reason t ! heav5ly bodies ord] 8 exi/5ce & 8 =tune4 ,& s ! sci5ce ( a/rology1 ) all its mi/akes on acc\nt ( ! imp]fect /ate ( our k1 does say a great _m ?+s :i* are true4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 does n de/roy fre$om & *ance4 ,= ! horoscope repres5ts only "o side ( ! "q4 ,man 0 also end[$ ) reason & purpose1 :i* enable him :5ev] he *ooses to c\nt]act ! ord] ( ! heav5ly bodies4 ,9 ! ma9 ! heav5ly bodies by _! positions & motions & ! consequ5t pr$om9ance ( c]ta9 elem5tal qualities 9 ! sublun> _w ov] o!rs affect ! temp]am5ts ( man 9 a mann] t5d+ to 8 welf>e4 ,! social ord] ) its diff]5tiation ( labor & occupation is work$ out wond]fully well--bett] ?an ! sy/em ( ,plato's ,republic--by ! positions & motions ( ! heav5ly bodies4 ,if n = ?is1 all m5 w\ld *oose ! m honorable trades & pr(essions1 !re w\ld be no "o to d ! m5ial "w1 & society w\ld be impossible4 ,at ! same "t !re are c]ta9 incid5tal evils inh]5t 9 ! rigid sy/em :i* w\ld t5d to de/roy c]ta9 individuals4 ,to c\nt]act ^! un9t5d$ defects1 ,god end[$ man ) reason & *oice enabl+ him to avoid ! dang]s ?reat5+ him 9 ! _w ( nature4 ,! solution ( our problem !n is ?is4 ,^! human ev5ts h a tw(old aspect4 ,!y are det]m9$ s f> z !y foll[ f ! ord] ( ! heav5ly bodies2 & 9 s f> !y c be =etold4 ,!y are undet]m9$ s f> z !y are ! result ( individual *oice1 & 9 s f> !y _c be kn[n be=eh&4 ,!re are also pure *ance ev5ts 9 inanimate nature1 be>+ no relation to human =tune4 ,^! _c be =etold4#cdd ,we said above t !re mu/ be an intellect :i* kn[s ^! cont+5t ev5ts pr$ict$ 9 dreams1 div9ation & prophecy & imp>ts a k ( !m to ^! m54 ,?is c be no o!r ?an ! ,active ,intellect1 ^: nature we discuss$ above4 ,= ! ,active ,intellect kn[s ! ord] ( sublun> ?+s1 & gives u a k ( !m 9 ! ideas ( ! mat]ial intellect4 ,moreov]1 he is ! ag5t produc+ !m ?r\gh ! in/rum5tality ( ! heav5ly bodies4 ,h5ce ! heav5ly bodies are also 8 in/rum5t 9 ord]+ ^? cont+5t ev5ts :i* are pr$ict$ 9 dreams & prophetic visions4 ,! purpose ( ?is in=mation is to protect man aga9/ ! evil de/9$ = him 9 ! ord] ( ! heav5ly bodies1 or 9 ord] t he may avail himself ( ! good 9 /ore = him if he kn[s ( x4 ,!re is a diff]5ce 9 k9d betwe5 prophecy on ! "o h& & div9ation & dream on ! o!r4 ,prophecy comes f ! ,active ,intellect directly act+ on ! mat]ial intellect4 ,h5ce only intellig5t m5 c be prophets4 ,div9ation & dream come f ! ,active ,intellect indirectly4 ,!y are caus$ by ! heav5ly bodies1 & ! action is on ! imag9ation4 ,! imag9ation is m easily isolat$ f ! o!r p>ts ( ! s\l 9 "y p & simpletons4 ,h5ce we f9d examples ( dreams & div9ation among !m4#cde ,9 discuss+ ! problem ( ,god's k1 ,g]sonides takes direct issue ) ,maimonides4 ,! read] w recall t ! "q turns ^u ! k ( p>ticul>s4 ,"s philosoph]s g s f> z to d5y to ,god any k ( ?+s o!r ?an 8 own ess5ce2 = ! kn[n is 9 a s5se id5tifi$ ) ! kn[]1 & to br+ 9 a multiplicity ( ideas 9 ,god's k w\ld endang] 8 unity4 ,o!rs1 h[ev]1 fell %ort ( ?is extreme op9ion & admitt$ ,god's k ( ?+s o!r ?an himself1 b ma9ta9$ t ,god _c "k p>ticul>s = v>i\s reasons4 ,! p>ticul> is p]ceiv$ by s5se1 a mat]ial faculty1 :]eas ,god is immat]ial4 ,p>ticul>s are inf9ite & _c be measur$ or embrac$1 :]eas k is a k9d ( measur+ or embrac+4 ,! p>ticul>s are n always exi/+1 & are subject to *ange4 ,h5ce ,god's k w\ld be subject to *ange & disappe>ance1 :i* is impossible4 ,if ,god kn[s p>ticul>s h[ is x t !re is (t5 a violation ( "r & ju/ice 9 ! de/9ies ( individual m58 ,?is w\ld argue 9 ,god ei!r inability or indiff]5ce1 bo? ( :i* are impossible4 ,maimonides insi/s on ,god's k ( all ?+s ( :i* he is ! creator1 includ+ p>ticul>s4 ,& he answ]s ! argum5ts ( ! philosoph]s by say+ t _! objections are valid only if we assume t ,god's k is simil> to ours1 & s9ce ) u x is impossible to "k ! mat]ial except ?r\gh a mat]ial organ1 x is n possible 9 ,god4 ,z we _c compreh5d ! inf9ite2 z we _c "k ! non-exi/5t1 nor ! *ang+ )\t a *ange 9 our k1 ,god _c d s4 ,b x is wrong to assume ?is4 ,god's k is id5tical ) 8 ess5ce1 :i* ^! same philosoph]s insi/ is unlike any?+ else1 & unkn[able4 ,surely x foll[s t 8 k is also )\t ! lea/ resemblance to our k & ! "n alone is :at !y h 9 common4 ,h5ce all ! objections ( ! philosoph]s fall away at "o /roke4 ,we _c 9 "o act ( kn[+ embrace a numb] ( ?+s diff]+ 9 species2 ,god c1 because 8 k is "o4 ,we _c "k ! non-exi/5t1 = our k dep5ds ^u ! ?+ kn[n4 ,god c4 ,we _c "k ! inf9ite1 = ! inf9ite _c be embrac$2 ,god c4 ,we _c "k ! outcome ( a future ev5t unless ! ev5t is necess>y & det]m9$4 ,if ! ev5t is cont+5t & undet]m9$ we c only h op9ion conc]n+ x1 :i* may or may n be true2 we are unc]ta9 & may be mi/ak54 ,god c "k ! outcome ( a cont+5t ev5t1 & yet ! ev5t is n det]m9$1 & may happ5 "o way or ! o!r4 ,our k ( a giv5 ?+ *anges z ! ?+ itself und]goes a *ange1 = if our k %\ld rema9 ! same :ile ! object *anges1 x w\ld n be k b error4 ,9 ,god ! two are compatible4 ,he kn[s 9 advance h[ a giv5 ?+ w *ange1 & 8 k nev] *anges1 ev5 ?\gh t :i* 0 at "o mom5t pot5tial & implicit becomes lat] actual & explicit4 ,at ?is po9t ,g]sonides /eps 9 9 def5ce ( human logic & sanity4 ,he accuses ,maimonides ( n be+ q hone/ ) himself4 ,maimonides1 he intimates1 did n *oose ?is position ( 8 own free w--a position sci5tifically q unt5able--he 0 =c$ to x by !ological exig5cies4#cdf ,he felt t he mu/ v9dicate1 by fair means or f\l1 ,god's k ( p>ticul>s4 ,& s ,g]sonides proce$s to demoli% ,maimonides's position by r$uc+ x ad absurdum4 ,:at does ,maimonides mean by say+ t ,god kn[s ! cont+5t8 ,if he means t ,god kn[s t ! cont+5t may z cont+5t happ5 o!rwise ?an z he kn[s x w happ51 we d n call ?is 9 u k1 b op9ion4 ,if he means t ,god kn[s x w happ5 9 a c]ta9 way1 & yet x may turn out t ! rev]se w actually take place1 !n we call ?is 9 our case error1 n k4 ,& if he means t ,god m]ely kn[s t x may happ5 "o way or ! o!r )\t kn[+ def9itely :i* w happ51 !n we call ?is 9 our exp]i5ce unc]ta9ty & p]plexity1 n k4 ,by insi/+ t all ?is is 9 ,god k because1 =soo?1 ,god's k is n l our k1 is tantam\nt to say+ t :at is 9 u op9ion1 unc]ta9ty1 error1 is 9 ,god k--a solution f> f complim5t>y to ,god's k4 ,besides1 ! entire pr9ciple ( ,maimonides t !re is no relation ( resemblance betwe5 ,god's attributes & ours1 t ! t]ms wise1 j1 & s on1 are pure homonyms1 is fundam5tally wrong4 ,we attribute k to ,god because we "k 9 our own case t an intellect is p]fect$ by k4 ,& s9ce we h come to ! conclusion on o!r gr\nds t ,god is a p]fect intellect1 we say he mu/ h k4 ,n[ if ?is k t we ascribe to ,god has no resemblance :atsoev] to :at we und]/& by k 9 our own case1 ! gr\nd is remov$ f our feet4 ,we might z well argue t man is rational because solid is cont9u\s4 ,if ! ^w k means a totally diff]5t ?+ 9 ,god f :at x means 9 u1 h[ d we "k t x is to be f\nd 9 ,god8 ,if we h absolutely no idea :at ! t]m means :5 appli$ to ,god1 :at reason h we = pref]r+ k z a div9e attribute to its opposite or negative8 ,if k does n mean k1 ignorance does n mean ignorance1 & x is j ! same :e!r we ascribe to ,god ! "o or ! o!r4 ,! tru? is t ! attributes we ascribe to ,god d h a resemblance to ! same attributes 9 ourselves2 only !y are prim>y 9 ,god1 second>y 9 ourselves1 i4 e41 !y exi/ 9 ,god 9 a m p]fect mann] ?an 9 u4 ,h5ce x is absurd to say t :at w\ld be 9 u error or unc]ta9ty is 9 ,god k4 ,our problem mu/ be solv$ m c&idly & diff]5tly4 ,!re are argum5ts 9 favor ( ,god's kn[+ p>ticul>s 7,maimonides gives "s71 & !re are ! argum5ts ( ! philosoph]s aga9/ ! !sis4 ,! tru? mu/ be betwe5 ! two1 t ,god kn[s !m f "o aspect & does n "k !m f ano!r4 ,hav+ %[n above t human ev5ts are 9 "p ord]$ & det]m9$ by ! heav5ly bodies1 & 9 "p undet]m9$ & dep5d5t ^u ! individual's *oice1 we c n[ make use ( ?is di/9ction = ! solution ( our problem4 ,god kn[s p>ticul>s 9 s f> z !y are ord]$1 he does n "k !m 9 s f> z !y are cont+5t4 ,he kn[s t !y are cont+5t1 & h5ce x foll[s t he does n "k :i* ( ! two possibilities w happ51 else !y w\ld n be cont+5t4 ,?is is no defect 9 ,god's nature1 = to "k a ?+ z x is is no imp]fection4 ,9 g5]al ,god does n "k p>ticul>s z p>ticul>s b z ord]$ by ! univ]sal laws ( nature4 ,he kn[s ! univ]sal ord]1 & he kn[s ! p>ticul>s 9 s f> z !y are unit$ 9 ! univ]sal ord]4 ,?is !ory meets all objections1 & moreov] x is 9 agreem5t ) ! views ( ! ,bible4 ,x is ! only "o by :i* we c h>monize ! app>5t contradictions 9 ! ,scriptures4 ,?us on ! "o h& we are told t ,god s5ds ,prophets & comm&s p to d & =be>4 ,?is implies t a p]son has fre$om to *oose1 & t ! cont+5t is a real category4 ,on ! o!r h&1 we f9d t ,god =etells ! com+ ( future ev5ts respect+ human de/9y1 :i* signifies det]m9ation4 ,& yet aga9 we f9d t ,god rep5ts1 & t he does n rep5t4 ,all ^! app>5t contradictions c be h>moniz$ on our !ory4 ,god =etells ! com+ ( ev5ts 9 s f> z !y are det]m9$ 9 ! univ]sal ord] ( nature4 ,b man's fre$om may succe$ 9 c\nt]act+ ?is ord]1 & ! ev5ts pr$ict$ may n come4 ,?is is signifi$ by ! expression t ,god rep5ts4#cdg ,levi b5 ,g]son's solution1 :atev] we may ?9k ( its sci5tific or philosophic value1 is surely v bold z !ology1 we might almo/ say x is a !ological mon/rosity4 ,x practically removes f ,god ! def9ite k ( ! outcome ( a giv5 ev5t s f> z t outcome is cont+5t4 ,g]sonides w n give up ! cont+5t1 = t w\ld de/roy fre$om4 ,he !re=e accepts free w ) its consequ5ces1 at ! risk ( limit+ ,god's k to ev5ts :i* are det]m9$ by ! laws ( nature4 ,maimonides 0 less consi/5t1 b _h ! tru] !ological s5se1 namely1 he kept to bo? horns ( ! dilemma4 ,god is omnisci5t & man is free4 ,he gave up ! solution by seek+ refuge 9 ! my/]i\sness ( ,god's k4 ,?is is ! true religi\s attitude4 ,! "q ( ,provid5ce is closely relat$ to t ( ,god's k4 ,= x is cle> t "o _c provide = ^? ?+s ( :i* he does n "k4 ,g]sonides's view 9 ?is problem is v simil> to t ( ,maimonides1 & l him he sees 9 ! discussions betwe5 ,job & 8 fri5ds ! repres5tative op9ions held by philosoph]s 9 ?is important problem4 ,!re are ?ree views1 he says1 conc]n+ ! nature ( ,provid5ce4 ,"o is t ,god's provid5ce ext5ds only to species & n to individuals4 ,! second op9ion is t ,god provides = e individual ( ! human race4 ,! ?ird view is t "s individuals are specially provid$ =1 b n all4 ,job held ! fir/ view1 :i* is t ( ,ari/otle4 ,! argum5ts 9 favor ( ?is op9ion are t ,god does n "k p>ticul>s1 h5ce _c provide = !m4 ,besides1 !re w\ld be m ju/ice 9 ! di/ribution ( goods & evils 9 ! _w if ,god conc]n$ himself ab\t e individual4 ,!n aga9 man is too insignificant = ,god's special c>e4 ,! second view is t ( ! majority ( our p4 ,!y argue t z ,god is ! au?or ( all1 he surely provides = !m4 ,& z a matt] ( fact exp]i5ce %[s x2 else !re w\ld be mu* m viol5ce & blood%$ ?an !re is4 ,! wick$ are actually puni%$ & ! good rew>d$4 ,?is class is divid$ into two p>ts4 ,"s ?9k t :ile ,god provides = all m51 n all t happ5s to a man is due to ,god2 !re are also o!r causes4 ,! o!rs ?9k t e happ5+ is due to ,god4 ,?is second class may aga9 be divid$ accord+ to ! mann] 9 :i* !y acc\nt = ^? facts 9 exp]i5ce :i* seem to militate aga9/ _! view4 ,ma9ta9+ t e incid5t is due to ,god1 !y h to expla9 ! app>5t deviation f ju/ice 9 ! prosp]ity ( ! wick$ & ! adv]sity ( ! righte\s4 ,"o p>ty expla9s ! ph5om5on by say+ t ! prosp]ity & ! adv]sity 9 ^! cases are only seem+ & n real2 t !y 9 fact are ! opposite ( :at !y seem1 or at lea/ lead to ! opposite4 ,! second p>ty answ]s ! objection on ! gr\nd t ^? we ?9k good may n really be su*1 & simil>ly ^? we ?9k bad may n really be bad4 ,= ! way to judge a p]son's "* is n m]ely by 8 de$s alone1 b by 8 de$s z relat$ to 8 temp]am5t & disposition1 :i* ,god alone kn[s4 ,eliphaz ! ,temanite belong$ to ^? :o ?9k t n all :i* happ5s is due to ,god2 t folly is responsible = a man's mis=tune4 ,bildad ! ,%u*ite believ$ t all ?+s are f ,god1 b n all t seems good & evil is really s4 ,zoph> ! ,naama?ite ?\ght we d n always judge "* correctly2 t temp]am5t & disposition mu/ be tak5 into acc\nt4 ,( ^! v>i\s op9ions ! fir/ "o1 t ( ,ari/otle1 _c be true4 ,dreams1 div9ation1 & especially prophecy contradict x flatly4 ,all ^! are giv5 to ! individual = 8 protection 7cf4 above1 p4 #cdb74 ,! second op9ion1 namely1 t ,god's provid5ce ext5ds to e individual1 is likewise disprov$ by reason1 by exp]i5ce & by ! ,bible4 ,we h already prov$ 7p4 #cde7 t ,god's k does n ext5d to p>ticul>s z su*4 ,he only kn[s ?+s z ord]$ by ! heav5ly bodies2 & kn[s at ! same "t t !y may fail to happ5 because ( man's free w4 ,n[ if ,god puni%es & rew>ds e man accord+ to 8 de$s1 "o ( two ?+s necess>ily foll[s4 ,ei!r he rew>ds & puni%es accord+ to ^? de$s :i* ! individual is det]m9$ to d by ! ord] ( ! heav5ly bodies1 or accord+ to ! de$s ! individual actually does4 ,9 ! fir/ case !re w\ld be (t5 inju/ice1 = ! p]son might n h act$ z ! ord] ( ! heav5ly bodies indicat$ he w\ld act1 = he is free to act z he w4 ,! second case is impossible1 = x w\ld mean t ,god kn[s p>ticul>s z p>ticul>s--a !sis we h already disprov$4 ,besides1 evil does n come f ,god directly1 s9ce he is pure =m & evil comes only f matt]4 ,h5ce x _c be said t he puni%es ! evil do] = 8 s94 ,exp]i5ce also te/ifies aga9/ ?is view1 = we see ! j suff] & ! wick$ prosp]4 ,! mann] 9 :i* ,eliphaz1 ,bildad & ,zoph> wi% to def5d ,god's ju/ice w n hold wat]4 ,man's own folly w acc\nt p]haps = "s evils befall+ ! righte\s & "s good com+ to ! wick$4 ,b x w n acc\nt = ! failure ( ! good man to get ! rew>d he des]ves1 & ( ! wick$ to receive ! puni%m5t :i* is 8 due4 ,! righte\s man (t5 has tr\bles all 8 life no matt] h[ c>eful he is to avoid !m1 & correspond+ly ! same is true ( ! wick$1 t he is prosp]\s1 despite 8 lack ( caution & good s5se4 ,to avoid ^! objections z ,eliphaz does by say+ t if ! wick$ man himself is n puni%$1 8 *ildr5 w be1 is to g f ! fry+ pan into ! fire4 ,= x is n j ei!r to omit to puni% ! "o des]v+ x1 or to puni% ano!r innoc5t man = him4 ,nor is ,zoph>'s def5ce any bett]4 ,= ! same man1 ) ! same temp]am5t & disposition1 (t5 suff]s m :5 he is incl9$ to d good1 & is prosp]\s :5 he is n s scrupul\s4 ,bildad is no m successful ?an ! o!r two4 ,! evils com+ to ! righte\s are (t5 real & p]man5t4 ,b nei!r does ! ,bible compel u to believe t ,god looks out = all individuals4 ,?is is especially true 9 ref]5ce to puni%m5t1 z c be ga!r$ f su* expressions z ,i w hide my face f !m1 & !y %all be giv5 to be dev\r$ 7,deut4 #ca1 #ag71 or ,z ?\ ha/ =gott5 ! law ( ?y ,god1 s w ,i myself also =get ?y *ildr5 7,hosea #d1 #f74 ,^! expressions indicate t ,god does n puni% ! individuals directly1 b t he leaves !m to ! fate t is de/9$ = !m by ! ord] ( ! heav5ly bodies4 ,true !re are o!r passages 9 ,scripture speak+ ( direct puni%m5t1 b !y may be int]pret$ s z n to conflict ) our conclusions4 ,hav+ se5 t nei!r ( ! two extreme views is correct1 x rema9s to adopt ! middle c\rse1 namely1 t "s individuals are provid$ = specially1 & o!rs n4 ,! ne>] a p]son is to ! ,active ,intellect1 ! m he receives div9e provid5ce & c>e4 ,^? p :o d n improve _! capabilities1 :i* !y possess z memb]s ( ! species1 are provid$ = only z memb]s ( ! species4 ,! matt] may be put 9 ano!r way also4 ,god kn[s all ideas4 ,man is pot5tially capable ( receiv+ !m 9 a c]ta9 mann]4 ,god1 :o is actual1 leads man f 8 pot5tiality to actuality4 ,:5 a man's pot5tialities are ?us realiz$1 he becomes simil> to ,god1 because :5 ideas are actualiz$ ! ag5t & ! ?+ act$ ^u are "o4 ,h5ce ! p]son enjoys div9e provid5ce at t "t4 ,! way 9 :i* ,god provides = su* m5 is by giv+ !m k ?r\gh dream1 div9ation or prophecy or intuition or 9 "s o!r unconsci\s mann] on ! individual's "p1 :i* k protects him f h>m4 ,?is view is n 9 conflict ) ! tru? t ,god does n "k p>ticul>s z su*4 ,= x is n to ! individual p]son z su* t provid5ce ext5ds z a consci\s act ( ,god4 ,! individualization is due to ! recipi5t & n to ! disp5s]4 ,"o may object t aft] all s9ce x is possible t bad m5 may h goods z ord]$ by ! heav5ly bodies1 & good m5 may h mis=tune z ?us ord]$1 :5 _! atta*m5t to ,god is loos5$ some:at1 !re is inju/ice 9 ,god if he c\ld h arrang$ ! heav5ly sph]es diff]5tly & did n1 or incapacity if he c\ld n4 ,! answ] is briefly t ! ord] ( ! sph]es does a great deal ( good 9 ma9ta9+ ! exi/5ce ( ?+s4 ,& if "s little evil comes also incid5tally1 ?is does n condemn ! :ole arrangem5t4 ,9 fact ! evils come f ! v ag5cies :i* are ! au?ors ( good4 ,! view ( provid5ce "h adopt$ is t ( ,elihu ! son ( ,b>a*el ! ,buzite 9 ! book ( ,job 7*4 #cb71 & x agrees also ) ! op9ion ( ,maimonides 9 ! ,guide ( ! ,p]plex$ 7cf4 above1 p4 #bib74cdh ,in/ead ( plac+ 8 cosmology at ! beg9n+ ( 8 sy/em & proce$+ f t z a basis to ! o!r p>ts ( 8 "w1 ! psy*ology & ! e?ics1 ,levi b5 ,g]son1 ^: ,milhamot ,ha%em is n s mu* a sy/ematic "w z an aggregation ( discussions1 rev]s$ ! process4 ,he beg9s z we h se5 ) a purely psy*ological analysis conc]n+ ! nature ( ! human reason & its relation to ! ,active ,intellect4 ,he foll[s up ?is discussion ) a treatm5t ( progno/ication z exhibit+ "s ( ! effects ( ! ,active ,intellect ^u ! reason & imag9ation ( man4 ,?is is aga9 foll[$ by a discussion ( ,god's k & provid5ce4 ,& n until all ^! psy*ological 7& 9 "p e?ical7 que/ions h be5 decid$1 does ,levi b5 ,g]son und]take to give u 8 views ( ! con/itution ( ! univ]se & ! nature & attributes ( ,god4 ,9 ?is discussion he takes occasion to express 8 dissatisfaction ) ,ari/otle's pro(s ( ! exi/5ce ( ! sph]al mov]s & ( ! unmov$ mov] or ,god1 z inadequate to be> ! /ructure :i* x is int5d$ to erect ^u !m4 ,x w be rememb]$ t ! innovation ( ,abraham ,ibn ,daud & ,maimonides 9 mak+ ,jewi% philosophy m /rictly ,ari/otelian ?an x _h be5 consi/$ 9 a great measure 9 j ?is introduction ( ! ,ari/otelian pro( ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god z d]iv$ f ! motions ( ! heav5ly bodies4 ,levi b5 ,g]son's pro(s are teleological r ?an me*anical4 ,ari/otle said a mov+ body mu/ h a mov] outside ( x1 :i* if x is aga9 a body is itself 9 motion & mu/ h a mov] 9 turn4 ,& z ?is process _c g on ad inf9itum1 !re mu/ be at ! end ( ! s]ies an unmov$ mov]4 ,z unmov$ ?is mov] _c be body2 & z produc+ motion et]nally1 x _c be a p[] resid+ 9 a body1 a physical or mat]ial p[]1 = no su* p[] c be inf9ite4 ,g]sonides is n satisfi$ ) ?is pro(4 ,he argues t s f> z ! motions ( ! heav5ly bodies are conc]n$ !re is no reason :y a physical p[] _c keep on mov+ !m et]nally4 ,! reason t motions caus$ by f9ite =ces 9 our _w come to a /op is because ! ?+ mov$ is subject to *ange1 :i* alt]s its relation to its mov]2 & secondly because ! =ce endeavors to move ! object 9 opposition to its own t5d5cy1 9 opposition to gravity4 ,9 ! case ( ! heav5ly bodies nei!r ( ^! conditions is pres5t4 ,! relation ( ! mov] to ! mov$ is always ! same1 s9ce ! heav5ly bodies are n subject to *ange2 & z !y are n made ( ! f\r t]re/rial elem5ts !y h no inh]5t t5d5cy to move 9 any direction1 h5ce !y (f] no opposition to ! =ce ex]t$ ^u !m by ! mov]4 ,a f9ite p[] might !re=e q conceivably cause et]nal motion4 ,simil>ly an unmov$ mov] _c be body1 to be sure1 b x may be a physical p[] l a s\l1 :i* 9 mov+ ! body is n itself mov$ by t motion4 ,ari/otle's pro(s !re=e are n suffici5t to produce ! conviction t ! mov]s ( ! sph]es & ,god himself are sep>ate ,intellig5ces4#cdi ,g]sonides accord+ly foll[s a diff]5t me?od4 ,he argues t if a sy/em ( ?+s & ev5ts exhibits p]fection n "h & !re & at r>e int]vals b regul>ly1 ! inf]5ce is ju/ifi$ t !re is an intellig5t ag5t :o _h a def9ite purpose & design 9 e/abli%+ ! sy/em4 ,! _w bel[ is su* a sy/em4 ,h5ce x has an intellig5t ag5t z its au?or4 ,?is ag5t may be a sep>ate & immat]ial intellig5ce1 or a corporeal p[] l a s\l4 ,he !n %[s t x _c be a corporeal p[]1 = x w\ld h to reside 9 ! animal sp]m :i* exhibits su* wond]ful & purposive developm5t1 or 9 ! p>5t animal f :i* ! sp]m came1 bo? ( :i*1 he argues1 are impossible4 ,x rema9s !n t ! cause ( ! teleological life ( ! sublun> _w is an immat]ial p[]1 a sep>ate intellect4 ,?is intellect1 he argues fur!r1 acts ^u matt] & end[s x ) =ms1 ! only m$iat+ p[] be+ ! natural heat :i* is f\nd 9 ! se$ & sp]m ( plants & animals4 ,moreov]1 x is aw>e ( ! ord] ( :at x produces4 ,x is ! ,active ,intellect ( :i* we spoke above 7p4 #ccg74 ,! =ms ( t]re/rial ?+s come f x directly1 ! heat resid+ 9 ! se$ comes f ! motions ( ! sph]es4 ,?is %[s t ! p]man5t motions ( ! heav5ly bodies are also intellig5t motions1 = !y t5d to produce p]fection 9 ! t]re/rial _w & nev] come to a /&/ill1 :i* w\ld be ! case if ! motions 7 natural l ^? ( ! elem5ts1 or induc$ aga9/ _! nature l t ( a /one mov+ upw>d4 ,we are ju/ifi$ 9 say+ !n t ! heav5ly bodies are end[$ ) intellects & h no mat]ial s\l4 ,h5ce _! mov]s are pure ,intellig5ces1 & !re are z _m ( !m z !re are sph]es1 i4 e41 =ty-eight1 or fifty-eight or sixty-f\r accord+ to "o's op9ion on ! a/ronomical "q ( ! numb] ( sph]es4 ,n[ z ! ,active ,intellect kn[s ! ord] ( sublun> exi/5ce 9 its unity1 & ! mov]s ( ! respective sph]es "k ! ord] ( _! effects ?r\gh ! motions ( ! heav5ly bodies1 x foll[s t z all ?+s 9 heav5 above & on ! e>? b5ea? are relat$ 9 a unit>y sy/em1 !re is a highe/ ag5t :o is ! cause ( all exi/5ce absolutely & has a k ( all exi/5ce z a unit>y sy/em4#cej ,! div9e attributes are d]iv$ by u f 8 actions1 & h5ce !y are n pure homonyms 7cf41 p4 #bdj74 ,god has a k ( ! complete ord] ( sublun> ?+s1 ( :i* ! sev]al mov]s h only a "p4 ,he kn[s x z "o1 & kn[s x et]nally )\t *ange4 ,8 joy & gladness are beyond conception1 = our joy also is v great 9 und]/&+4 ,8 is also ! p]fect ,life1 = und]/&+ is life4 ,he is ! mo/ real ,sub/ance & ,exi/5t1 & he is ,"o4 ,god is also ! mo/ real ,ag5t1 z mak+ ! o!r mov]s d _! "w1 & produc+ a complete & p]fect :ole out ( _! p>ts4 ,he is also prop]ly call$ ,be/[]1 ,b5efic5t1 ,graci\s1 ,/rong1 ,mighty1 ,upright1 ,j1 ,et]nal1 ,p]man5t4 ,all ^! attributes1 h[ev]1 d n d5ote multiplicity4#cea ,f ,god we n[ pass aga9 to 8 creation1 & take up ! problem :i* caus$ ,maimonides s mu* tr\ble1 namely1 ! "q ( ! orig9 ( ! _w4 ,x w be rememb]$ t dissatisfi$ ) ! pro(s = ! exi/5ce ( ,god advanc$ by ! ,mutakallimun1 ,maimonides1 9 ord] to h a firm f\ndation = ! c5tral idea ( religion1 t5tatively adopt$ ! ,ari/otelian notion ( ! et]nity ( motion & ! _w4 ,b no soon] does ,maimonides e/abli% 8 pro( ( ! exi/5ce1 unity & incorporeality ( ,god ?an he returns to ! attack ( ! ,ari/otelian view & po9ts out t ! problem is insoluble 9 a /rictly sci5tific mann]2 t ,ari/otle himself nev] int5d$ 8 argum5ts 9 favor ( et]nity to be reg>d$ z philosophically demon/rat$1 & t !y all labor "u ! fatal fallacy t because c]ta9 laws hold ( ! _w's ph5om5a once x is 9 exi/5ce1 ^! same laws mu/ h gov]n$ ! e/abli%m5t ( ! _w itself 9 its orig94 ,besides1 ! assumption ( ! _w's et]nity ) its coroll>y ( ! necessity & immutability ( its ph5om5a saps ! f\ndation ( all religion1 makes miracles impossible1 & r$uces ! _w to a ma*9e4 ,g]sonides is on ! :ole agre$ ) ,maimonides4 ,he admits t ,ari/otle's argum5ts are ! be/ yet advanc$ 9 ! problem1 b t !y are n conv9c+4 ,he also agrees ) ,maimonides 9 8 g5]al /ricture on ,ari/otle's me?od1 only modify+ & re/rict+ its g5]ality & sweep+ nature4 ,) all ?is1 h[ev]1 he f9ds x necess>y to take up ! entire "q anew & treats x 9 8 *>act]i/ic mann]1 ) detail & rigor1 & f9ally comes to a conclusion diff]5t f t ( ,maimonides1 namely1 t ! _w _h an orig9 9 "t1 to be sure1 b t x came n ex nihilo 9 ! absolute s5se ( ! ^w nihil1 b develop$ f an et]nal =mless matt]1 :i* ,god end[$ ) =m4 ,?is is ! s-call$ ,platonic view4 ,we _c ent] into all 8 details :i* are te*nical & fatigu+ 9 ! extreme1 b we mu/ give a g5]al idea ( 8 proc$ure 9 ! inve/igation ( ?is important topic4 ,! problem ( ! orig9 ( ! _w1 he says1 is v difficult4 ,fir/1 because 9 ord] to le>n f ! nature ( exi/+ ?+s :e!r !y 7 creat$ out ( a /ate ( non-exi/5ce or n1 we mu/ "k ! ess5ce ( exi/+ ?+s1 :i* is n easy4 ,secondly1 we mu/ "k ! nature ( ,god 9 ord] to det]m9e :e!r he c\ld h exi/$ fir/ )\t ! _w & !n h creat$ x1 or :e!r he _h to h ! _w ) him f et]nity4 ,! fact ( ! great diff]5ce ( op9ion on ?is "q among ?9k]s1 & ! te/imony ( ,maimonides t ,ari/otle himself _h no valid pro( 9 ?is matt] are additional indications ( ! great difficulty ( ! subject4 ,"s ?9k ! _w 0 made & de/roy$ an inf9ite numb] ( times4 ,o!rs say x 0 made once4 ,( ^! "s ma9ta9 x 0 made out ( some?+ 7,plato72 o!rs1 t x 0 made out ( absolute no?+ 7,philoponus1 ! ,mutakallimun1 ,maimonides & _m ( our ,jewi% writ]s74 ,"s on ! o!r h&1 namely1 ,ari/otle & 8 foll[]s1 hold ! _w to be et]nal4 ,!y all h _! def5d]s1 & !re is no ne$ to refute ! o!rs s9ce ,ari/otle has already done ?is4 ,8 argum5ts are ! be/ s f>1 & des]ve inve/igation4 ,! fundam5tal fallacy 9 all 8 pro(s is t he argues f ! laws ( g5esis & decay 9 ! p>ts ( ! _w to ! laws ( ^! processes 9 ! _w z a :ole4 ,?is might seem to be ! same criticism :i* ,maimonides advances1 b x is n really q ! same1 ,maimonides's ass]tion be+ m g5]al & sweep+4 ,maimonides says t ! orig9 ( ! _w z a :ole ne$ n be 9 any respect l ! processes go+ on )9 its p>ts2 :]eas ,g]sonides bases 8 argum5t on ! obs]v$ diff]5ce 9 ! _w betwe5 :oles & p>ts1 admitt+ t ! two may be alike 9 _m respects4 ,9 ord] to det]m9e :e!r ! _w is creat$ or n1 x is be/ to inve/igate fir/ ^? ?+s 9 ! _w :i* h ! appe>ance ( be+ et]nal1 su* z ! heav5ly bodies1 "t1 motion1 ! =m ( ! e>?1 & s on4 ,if ^! are prov5 to be et]nal1 ! _w is et]nal2 if n1 x is n4 ,a g5]al pr9ciple to help u di/+ui% a ?+ hav+ an orig9 f "o t has n is ! foll[+3 ,a ?+ :i* came into be+ 9 "t has a purpose4 ,an et]nal ?+ has no purpose4 ,apply+ ?is pr9ciple to ! heav5s we f9d t all ab\t !m is ) a purpose to ord]+ ! sublun> _w 9 ! be/ way possible4 ,_! motions1 _! di/ances1 _! positions1 _! numb]s1 & s on are all = ?is purpose4 ,h5ce !y _h a beg9n+4 ,ari/otle's attempts to expla9 ^! conditions f ! nature ( ! heav5s !mselves are n successful1 & he knew x4 ,aga91 z ! heav5ly bodies are all made ( ! same fif? elem5t 7! ,ari/otelian e!r71 ! _m v>ieties 9 _! =ms & motions require special explanation4 ,! only satisfactory explanation is t ! orig9 ( ! heav5ly bodies is n due to nature & necessity1 :i* w\ld favor et]nity1 b to w & fre$om1 & ! _m v>ieties are = a def9ite purpose4 ,h5ce !y are n et]nal4#ceb ,g]sonides !n analyzes "t & motion & proves t ,ari/otle to ! contr>y not)/&+1 !y are bo? f9ite & n inf9ite4 ,"t belongs to ! category ( quantity1 & !re is no inf9ite quantity4 ,z "t is dep5d5t on motion1 motion too is f9ite1 h5ce nei!r is et]nal4 ,ano!r argum5t = creation 9 "t is t if ! _w is et]nal & gov]n$ altoge!r by necessity1 ! e>? %\ld be surr\nd$ on all sides by wat] accord+ to ! nature ( ! light] elem5t to be above ! heavi]4 ,h5ce ! appe>ance ( p>ts ( ! e>?'s surface above ! wat] is an indication ( a break ( natural law = a special purpose1 namely1 9 ord] to produce ! v>i\s m9]al1 plant & animal species4 ,h5ce once m purpose argues design & orig9 9 "t4 ,f9ally if ! _w 7 et]nal1 ! /ate ( ! sci5ces w\ld be m advanc$ ?an x is4 ,a simil> argum5t may be drawn f language4 ,language is conv5tional2 :i* means t ! p exi/$ be=e ! language !y agre$ to speak4 ,b man be+ a social animal !y c\ld n h exi/$ an inf9ite "t )\t language4 ,h5ce mank9d is n et]nal4#cec ,we h j prov$ t ! _w came into be+1 b x does n necess>ily foll[ t x w be de/roy$4 ,nay1 !re are reasons to %[ t x w n be de/roy$4 ,= !re is no de/ruction except ?r\gh matt] & ! pr$om9ance ( ! passive p[]s ov] ! active4 ,h5ce ! be+ t is subject to de/ruction mu/ consi/ ( opposites4 ,b ! heav5ly bodies h no opposites1 n be+ composite2 h5ce !y _c be de/roy$4 ,& if s1 nei!r c ! sublun> ord] be de/roy$1 :i* is ! "w ( ! heav5ly bodies4 ,!re is ( c\rse ! ab/ract possibility ( _! be+ de/roy$ by _! mak]1 n naturally1 b by 8 w1 z !y 7 made2 b we c f9d no reason 9 ,god = wi%+ to de/roy !m1 all reasons exi/+ 9 man = de/roy+ ?+s be+ inapplicable to ,god4#ced ,t ! _w began 9 "t is n[ e/abli%$4 ,! "q /ill rema9s1 0 ! _w made out ( some?+ or out ( no?+8 ,bo? are impossible4 ,! fir/ is impossible1 = t some?+ out ( :i* ! _w 0 made mu/ h _h "s =m1 = matt] nev] is )\t =m1 & if s1 x mu/ h _h "s motion1 & we h a k9d ( _w already1 albeit an imp]fect "o4 ,! second supposition is also impossible2 = :ile =m may come out ( no?+1 body _c come f n-body4 ,we nev] see ! matt] ( any object arise out ( no?+1 ?\gh ! =m may4 ,nature z well z art produces "o corporeal ?+ out ( ano!r4 ,h5ce ! g5]ally accept$ pr9ciple1 ex nihilo nihil fit4 ,besides x w\ld foll[ on ?is supposition t be=e ! _w came into exi/5ce !re 0 a vacuum 9 its place1 :]eas x is prov$ 9 ! ,physics t a vacuum is impossible4 ,! only ?+ rema9+ !re=e is to say t ! _w 0 made p>tly out ( some?+1 p>tly out ( no?+1 i4 e41 out ( an absolutely =mless matt]4 ,x may be object$ t to assume ! exi/5ce ( a second et]nal ?+ beside ,god is equival5t to a belief 9 dualism1 9 two gods4 ,b ?is objection may be easily answ]$4 ,et]nity z su* does n con/itute div9ity4 ,if all ! _w 7 et]nal1 ,god w\ld /ill be ,god because he controls ev]y?+ & is ! au?or ( ! ord] obta9+ 9 ! _w4 ,9 g5]al x is ! qualitative ess5ce t makes ! div9e "* ( ,god1 8 wisdom & p[] z ! s\rce ( goodness & "r ord] 9 nature4 ,! et]nal matt] ( :i* we are speak+ is ! opposite ( all ?is4 ,z ,god is ! extreme ( p]fection s is matt] ! extreme ( imp]fection & defect4 ,z ,god is ! s\rce ( good1 s is matt] ! s\rce ( evil4 ,h[ !n c anyone suppose = a mom5t t an et]nal =mless matt] c 9 any way be id5tifi$ ) a div9e be+8 ,ano!r objection t may be (f]$ to our !ory is t x is an e/abli%$ fact t matt] _c exi/ at all )\t any =m1 :]eas our view assumes t an absolutely =mless matt] exi/$ an inf9ite l5g? ( "t be=e ! _w 0 made f x4 ,?is may be answ]$ by say+ t ! impossibility ( matt] exi/+ )\t =m applies only to ! actual objects ( nature4 ,god put 9 sublun> matt] ! nature & capacity ( receiv+ all =ms 9 a c]ta9 ord]4 ,! prim>y qualities1 ! hot & ! cold & ! wet & ! dry1 z ! =ms ( ! elem5ts1 enable ?is matt] to receive o!r high] =ms4 ,! v capacity ( receiv+ a giv5 =m argues a c]ta9 =m on ! "p ( ! matt] hav+ ?is capacity2 = if x _h no =m !re w\ld be no reason :y x %\ld receive "o =m r ?an ano!r2 :]eas we f9d t ! reception ( =ms is n at r&om1 b t a giv5 =m comes f a def9ite o!r =m4 ,man comes only f man4 ,b ?is does n apply to ! prime matt] ( :i* we are speak+4 ,x may h be5 )\t =m4 ,nay1 x is reasonable to suppose t z we f9d matt] & =m comb9$1 & we also f9d pure =ms )\t matt]1 viz41 9 ! sep>ate ,intellig5ces1--x is reasonable to suppose t !re is also matt] )\t =m4 ,f9ally "o may ask if ! _w has n exi/$ f et]nity1 :at det]m9$ ! au?or to w its exi/5ce at ! "t he did & n at ano!r8 ,we _c say t he acquir$ new k :i* he _h n be=e1 or t he ne$$ ! _w !n & n be=e1 or t !re 0 "s ob/acle :i* 0 remov$4 ,! answ] to ?is w\ld be t ! sole cause ( ! creation 0 ! w ( ,god to b5efit 8 creatures4 ,_! exi/5ce is !re=e due to ! div9e causality1 :i* nev] *anges4 ,_! orig9 9 "t is due to ! nature ( a mat]ial object z su*4 ,a mat]ial object z be+ caus$ by an ext]nal ag5t is incompatible ) et]nity4 ,x mu/ h a beg9n+1 & !re is no s5se 9 ask+ :y at ?is "t & n be=e or aft]1 = ! same "q w\ld apply to any o!r "t4 ,g]sonides cites o!r objections :i* he answ]s1 & !n he takes up "o by "o ! ,ari/otelian argum5ts 9 favor ( et]nity & refutes !m 9 detail4 ,we _c af=d to reproduce !m "h z ! discussions are te*nical1 l5g?y & intricate4#cee ,hav+ giv5 8 philosophical cosmology1 ,g]sonides !n und]takes to %[ 9 detail t ! ,biblical /ory ( creation tea*es ! same doctr9e4 ,nay1 he goes s f> z to say t x 0 ! ,biblical acc\nt t sugge/$ to him 8 philosophical !ory4 ,x w\ld be tru] to say t hav+ approa*$ ! ,bible ) ,ari/otelian spectacles1 & hav+ no suspicion t ! two attitudes are z f> ap>t z ! poles1 he did n scruple to twi/ ! expressions 9 ,g5esis out ( all semblance to _! natural mean+4 ,! ,biblical text _h be5 twi/$ & turn$ ev] s9ce ! days ( ,philo1 & ( ! ,mi%na & ,talmud & ,midra%1 9 ! int]e/ ( v>i\s s*ools & sects4 ,motives speculative1 religi\s1 !ological1 legal & e?ical 7 at ! basis ( ,biblical int]pretation ?r\gh\t its long hi/ory ( two mill5nia & m--! end is n yet--& ,g]sonides 0 swimm+ ) ! curr5t4 ,! ,bible is n a law1 he says1 :i* =ces u to believe absurdities & to practice useless ?+s1 z "s p ?9k4 ,on ! contr>y x is a law :i* leads u to our p]fection4 ,h5ce :at is prov$ by reason mu/ be f\nd 9 ! ,law1 by int]pretation if necess>y4 ,?is is :y ,maimonides took pa9s to int]pret all ,biblical passages 9 :i* ,god is spok5 ( z if he 7 corporeal4 ,h5ce also 8 /atem5t t if ! et]nity ( ! _w 7 /rictly demon/rat$1 x w\ld n be difficult to int]pret ! ,bible s z to agree4 ,b 9 ! matt] ( ! orig9 ( ! _w1 ,g]sonides cont9ues1 x 0 n necess>y = me to =ce ! ,biblical acc\nt4 ,q ! contr>y1 ! expressions 9 ! ,bible guid$ me to my view4#cef ,accord+ly he f9ds support = 8 doctr9e t ! _w 0 n creat$ ex nihilo1 9 ! fact t !re is n "o miracle 9 ! ,bible 9 :i* any?+ comes out ( no?+4 ,!y are all in/ances ( some?+ out ( a pre-exi/5t some?+4 ,! miracle ( ! oil 9 ! case ( ,eli%a is no exception4 ,! air *ang$ into oil z x ent]$ ! p>tly deplet$ vessel4 ,! six days ( creation mu/ n be tak5 lit]ally4 ,god's creation is timeless1 & ! six days indicate ! natural ord] & rank 9 exi/+ ?+s proce$+ f ! cause to ! effect & f ! l[] to ! high]4 ,?us ! mov]s ( ! heav5ly bodies come be=e ! sph]es :i* !y move z _! causes4 ,! sph]es come be=e ! t]re/rial elem5ts = ! same reason4 ,! elem5ts are foll[$ by ! ?+s compos$ ( !m4 ,& among ^! too !re is a c]ta9 ord]4 ,plants come be=e animals1 aquatic animals be=e a]ial1 a]ial be=e t]re/rial1 & ! la/ ( all is man1 z ! mo/ p]fect ( sublun> creatures4 ,all ?is he reads into ! acc\nt ( creation 9 ,g5esis4 ,?us ! light spok5 ( 9 ! fir/ day repres5ts ! angels or sep>ate ,intellig5ces or mov]s ( ! sph]es1 & !y are di/+ui%$ f ! d>kness !re1 :i* /&s = ! heav5ly bodies z ! matt]s ( _! mov]s1 ?\gh at ! same "t !y are gr\p$ toge!r z "o day1 because ! =m & its matt] con/itute a unit4 ,! wat]1 :i* 0 divid$ by ! firmam5t1 d5otes ! prime =mless matt]1 "p ( :i* 0 *ang$ into ! matt] ( ! heav5ly bodies1 & "p into ! f\r t]re/rial elem5ts4 ,=m & matt] are also designat$ by ! t]ms ,tohu & ,bohu 9 ! second v]se 9 ,g5esis1 r5d]$ 9 ! ,revis$ ,v]sion by )\t =m & void4 ,& s ,g]sonides cont9ues ?r\gh\t ! /ory ( creation1 into ! details ( :i* we ne$ n foll[ him4#ceg ,! conclud+ discussion 9 ! ,milhamot is devot$ to ! problem ( miracles & its relation to prophecy4 ,maimonides _h said t "o reason = oppos+ ! ,ari/otelian !ory ( ! et]nity ( ! _w is t miracles w\ld be an impossibility on t assumption4 ,h5ce ,maimonides insi/s on creation ex nihilo1 ?\gh he admits t ! ,platonic view ( a pre-exi/5t matt] may be reconcil$ ) ! ,torah4 ,g]sonides1 :o adopt$ ! doctr9e ( an et]nal matt]1 f9ds x necess>y to say by way ( introduction to 8 treatm5t ( miracles t !y d n prove creation ex nihilo4 ,= z 0 said be=e all miracles exhibit a production ( some?+ out ( some?+ & n out ( no?+4 ,to expla9 ! nature ( miracles1 he says1 & _! au?ors1 x is necess>y to "k :at miracles are4 ,= ?is we mu/ take ! ,biblical records z our data1 j z we take ! data ( our s5ses 9 det]m9+ o!r matt]s4 ,on exam9+ ! miracles ( ! ,bible we f9d t !y may be classifi$ into ^? :i* involve a *ange ( sub/ance & ^? 9 :i* ! sub/ance rema9s ! same & ! *ange is "o ( quality or quantity4 ,an example ( ! =m] is ! *ange ( ,moses's rod into a s]p5t & ( ! wat] ( ,egypt into blood2 ( ! latt]1 ,moses's h& becom+ lepr\s1 & ! )]+ ( ! h& ( ,j]oboam4 ,we may fur!r divide ! miracles into ^? 9 :i* ! prophet 0 told 9 advance1 z ,moses 0 ( ! t5 plagues1 & ^? 9 :i* he 0 n1 z = example ! reviv+ ( ! dead by ,elijah & _m o!r cases4 ,our exam9ation also %[s u t all miracles are p]=m$ by prophets or 9 relation to !m4 ,also t !y are done ) "s good & useful purpose1 namely1 to inculcate belief or to save f evil4 ,^! data w help u to decide :o is ! au?or ( miracles4 ,miracles _c be accid5tal1 z !y are p]=m$ ) a purpose2 & z !y involve a k ( ! sublun> ord]1 !y mu/ h z _! au?or "o :o has ?is k1 h5ce ei!r ,god or ! ,active ,intellect or man1 i4 e41 ! prophet himself4 ,n[ x is n reasonable to suppose t ,god is ! au?or ( miracles1 = miracles come only r>ely & are ( no value 9 !mselves b only z a means to a special end1 z we said be=e4 ,! laws ( nature1 h[ev]1 :i* control all regul> ev5ts all ! "t1 are ess5tially good & p]man5t4 ,h5ce x is n reasonable to suppose t ! ,active ,intellect :o1 z we "k1 ord]s ! sublun> _w1 has m important "w to d ?an ,god4 ,besides if ,god 7 ! au?or ( miracles1 ! prophet w\ld n "k ab\t !m1 = prophetic inspiration1 z we "k 7p4 #cdb71 is due to ! ,active ,intellect & n directly to ,god4 ,nor d we ne$ wa/e words 9 prov+ t man _c be ! au?or ( miracles1 = 9 t case ! k ( !m w\ld n come to him ?r\gh prophetic inspiration1 s9ce !y are due to 8 own w4 ,besides man1 z we h se51 _c h a complete k ( ! sublun> ord]1 & h5ce x is n likely t he c control its laws to ! ext5t ( *ang+ !m4 ,!re is !re=e only "o alt]native left1 namely1 t ! au?or ( miracles is ! same z ! inspir] ( ! prophets1 ! controll+ _s ( ! sublun> _w1 ^: intellect has z its cont5t ! unifi$ sy/em ( sublun> creation z an immat]ial idea1 namely1 ! ,active ,intellect1 ( :om we h spok5 s (t54 ,! prophet kn[s ( ! miracles because ! ,active ,intellect1 :o is ! au?or ( !m1 is also ! cause ( ! prophetic inspiration4 ,?is w acc\nt too = ! fact t all miracles h to d ) ev5ts 9 ! sublun> _w & are n f\nd 9 ! relations & motions ( ! heav5ly bodies4 ,! case ( ,jo%ua caus+ ! sun & moon to /& /ill is no exception4 ,!re 0 no /&+ /ill ( ! sun & moon 9 t case4 ,:at is meant by ! expressions 9 ,jo%ua #aj is t ! ,israelites conqu]$ ! enemy 9 ! %ort "t t ! sun occupi$ ! z5i?1 :ile its motion 0 n noticeable = ab\t an h\r1 z is usually ! case ab\t noon4 ,9 ! case ( ,isaiah mov+ ! sun t5 degrees back = ,hezekiah 7,isai4 #ch1 #h71 !re 0 likewise no *ange 9 ! motion ( ! sun1 b only 9 t ( ! cl\d caus+ ! %ad[4 ,miracles _c be ( regul> occurr5ce1 = if natural ph5om5a & laws 7 *ang$ by miracle z a regul> ?+1 x w\ld signify a defect 9 ! orig9al ord]4 ,miracles _c take place to violate ! pr9ciple ( contradiction1 h5ce !re c be no miracles 9 ref]5ce to ma!matical tru?s1 nor 9 matt]s relat+ to ! pa/4 ,?us a miracle _c make a ?+ black & :ite at ! same "t2 nor a plane triangle ^: angles are less ?an two "r angles2 nor is x possible by miracle n[ to make x n to h ra9$ 9 ,j]usalem ye/]day1 :5 z a matt] ( fact x did ra94 ,= all ^! involve a d5ial ( ! logical law ( contradiction t a ?+ _c be & n be at ! same "t4#ceh ,a prophet is te/$ 7#a7 by be+ able to =etell miracles be=e !y come1 & 7#b7 by ! realization ( 8 prophetic messages4 ,! "q is rais$ conc]n+ ! /atem5t ( ,j]emiah t "o may be a true prophet & yet an evil prophecy may rema9 unfulfill$ if ! p rep5t4 ,does ?is mean t a good prophecy mu/ always come true8 ,9 t case a good deal ( :at comes )9 ! category ( ! possible & cont+5t becomes det]m9$ & necess>y6 ,! answ] is t a good prophecy too sometimes fails ( realization1 z is illu/rat$ 9 ,jacob's fe> ( ,esau aft] he 0 promis$ protection by ,god4 ,b ?is happ5s m r>ely on acc\nt ( ! fact t a man endeavors naturally to see a good prophecy realiz$1 :]eas he does 8 be/ to c\nt]act an evil prophecy4#cei ,g]sonides's entire discussion ( miracles %[s a deep seat$ motive to m9imize _! ext5t & influ5ce4 ,! /udy ( sci5ce & philosophy _h ! effect ( plant+ 9 ! m9ds ( ! m$ival philosoph]s a great respect = reason on ! "o h& & natural law on ! o!r4 ,a /udy ( hi/ory1 ar*ology & lit]>y criticism has develop$ 9 mod]n times a _s ( scepticism reg>d+ writt5 records ( antiquity4 ,?is 0 =eign to m$ival !ologians g5]ally4 ,no "o d\bt$ = a mom5t ! accuracy ( ! ,biblical records z well z _! inspiration 9 e detail4 ,h5ce prophecy & miracles _h to be expla9$ or expla9$ away4 ,int]pretation held ! place ( criticism4 ,,*apt] ,,xvi ,,a>on ,,b5 ,,elijah ,,( ,,nicom$ia ,! *ronological treatm5t ( ,jewi% philosophy :i* we h foll[$ makes x necess>y at ?is po9t to take up a ,k>aite "w ( ! f\rte5? c5tury t is closely modell$ ^u ! ,guide ( ! ,p]plex$4 ,9 do+ ?is we necess>ily take a /ep backw>d z f> z ! philosophical developm5t is conc]n$4 ,= :ile x is true t ! e>ly ,rabbanite ?9k]s l ,saadia1 ,bahya1 ,ibn ,zaddik & o!rs mov$ 9 ! circle ( ideas ( ! ,mohamm$an ,mutakallimun1 t p]iod _h long s9ce be5 pass$4 ,judah ,halevi criticiz$ ! ,kalam1 ,ibn ,daud is a ?or\gh ,ari/otelian1 & ,maimonides gave ! ,kalam 9 ,jewi% lit]ature its dea?bl[4 ,no ,rabbanite aft] ,maimonides w\ld ?9k ( go+ back to ! old argum5ts made popul> by ! ,mutakallimun--! !ory ( atoms1 ( sub/ance & accid5t 9 ! ,kalami/ic s5se ( accid5t z a quality :i* ne$s cont9u\s creation to exi/ any l5g? ( "t1 ! d5ial ( law & natural causation1 ! argum5ts 9 favor ( creation & ! exi/5ce ( ,god bas$ ^u creation1 ! doctr9e ( ! div9e w z et]nal or creat$1 resid+ 9 a subject or exi/+ )\t a subject1 ! _w z due to ,god's w or to 8 wisdom1 ! nature ( "r & wrong z det]m9$ by ! "* & purpose ( ! act or solely by ! arbitr>y w ( ,god--^! & o!r topics1 :i* =m$ ! ma9 gr\nd ( discussion betwe5 ! ,mutazilites & ! ,a%>iya1 & 7 tak5 ov] by ! ,k>aites & to a less ext5t by ! e>ly ,rabbanites 9 ! t5? & elev5? c5turies1 _h long lo/ _! significance & _! int]e/ among ! ,rabbanite foll[]s ( ,maimonides4 ,ari/otelianism1 introduc$ by ,alf>abi1 ,avic5na & ,av]roes among ! ,arabs1 & ,ibn ,daud & ,maimonides among ! ,jews1 dom9at$ all speculative ?\ght1 & ! old ,kalam 0 obsolete & =gott54 ,g]sonides no long] reg>ds ! ,kalami/ic po9t ( view z a liv+ issue4 ,he ignores x entirely4 ,8 problems z we h se5 are ^? rais$ by ! ,av]roi/ic sy/em4 ,9 ?is respect !n a read+ ( ,a>on b5 ,elijah's ,ez ,hayim 7,tree ( ,life7#cfj affects u l a brea? f a =eign clime1 l ! odor ( a ?+ long buri$4 ,& yet ,a>on b5 ,elijah 0 a contempor>y ( ,levi b5 ,g]son4 ,he 0 born ab\t #acjj1 & di$ 9 #acfi4 ,he liv$ 9 ,nicom$ia1 ,cairo1 ,con/ant9ople4 ,! reason = ! antiquat$ appe>ance ( 8 "w lies 9 ! fact t he 0 a ,k>aite1 & ! ,k>aites nev] got beyond ! ,mutazilite po9t ( view4 ,k>aism 0 only a sect & nev] %[$ aft] ! days ( ,saadia any?+ l ! life & en?usia/ic activity ( ! great body ( ,rabbanite ,judaism1 :i* =m$ ! great majority ( ! ,jewi% p4 ,! ,k>aites _h _! important m5 9 ,halaka z well z 9 religi\s philosophy & ,biblical exegesis4 ,solomon b5 ,y]oham1 ,joseph ,ha-,maor 7,al-,kirkisani71 ,joseph ,al ,basir 7p4 #dh ff471 ,je%ua b5 ,judah 7p4 #ee ff471 ,yefet ,ha-,levi1 ,judah ,hadassi1 ,a>on b5 ,joseph--all ^! 7 prom95t 9 ,k>aitic lit]ature4 ,b !y _c be comp>$ to ! great m5 among ! ,rabbanites4 ,!re 0 no ,maimonides among !m4 ,& ,a>on b5 ,elijah *]i%$ ! ambition ( be+ to ! ,k>aites :at ,maimonides 0 to ! ,rabbanites4 ,accord+ly he und]took to compose ?ree works repres5t+ ! ?ree great divisions ( ,k>aitic ,judaism--a book ( ,laws1 a "w on ,biblical exegesis & a treatise on religi\s philosophy4 ,! la/ 0 writt5 fir/1 hav+ be5 compos$ 9 #acdf4 ,! ,sef] ,ha-,mizvot1 on ! religi\s comm&m5ts1 0 writt5 9 #aced1 & 8 exegetical "w1 kn[n z ,ket] ,torah 7,! ,cr[n ( ! ,law7 0 publi%$ 9 #acfb4 ,x is ! fir/ t int]e/s u1 ! ,ez ,hayim4 ,z 0 said be=e1 ?is book is closely modell$ ^u ! ,m ,nebukim1 ?\gh ! arrangem5t is diff]5t1 be+ m logical ?an t ( ! ,guide4 ,in/ead ( beg9n+1 z ,maimonides does1 ) int]pret+ ! an?ropomorphic expressions 9 ! ,bible1 :i* is foll[$ by a treatm5t ( ! div9e attributes1 long be=e ! exi/5ce ( ,god has be5 prov$ or ev5 ! fundam5tal pr9ciples laid d[n ^u :i* are bas$ ! pro(s ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god1 ,a>on b5 ,elijah m naturally beg9s ) ! basal doctr9es ( physics & metaphysics1 :i* he !n utilizes 9 discuss+ ! exi/5ce ( ,god4 ,z ,maimonides br\ght to a focus all ! speculation on philosophy & religion z x 0 h&$ d[n to him by ,arab & ,jew1 & gave x a h>moni\s & sy/ematic =m 9 8 ma/]piece2 s did ,a>on b5 ,elijah endeavor to sum up all ,k>aitic discussion 9 8 "w1 & 9 addition decl>e 8 attitude to ,maimonides4 ,! success ) :i* he c>ri$ out ?is plan is n equal4 ,z a s\rce ( in=mation on s*ools & op9ions ( ,arabs & ,k>aites1 ! ,ez ,hayim is ( great importance & int]e/4 ,b x _c 9 ! lea/ comp>e ) ! ,guide z a con/ructive "w ( religi\s philosophy4 ,x has n ! same orig9ality or any degree remotely approa*+ x4 ,! great] "p ( ! ,ari/otelian mat]ial seems bodily tak5 f ,maimonides1 & s is ! "p deal+ ) ! an?ropomorphic expressions 9 ! ,bible4 ,!re is a diff]5t po9t ( view 9 8 exposition ( ! ,mutazilite physics1 :i* he pres5ts 9 a m sy/ematic & favorable light ?an ,maimonides1 def5d+ x aga9/ ! /rictures ( ! latt]4 ,b ev]y:]e ,a>on b5 ,elijah lacks ! positiv5ess & comm&+ ma/]y ( ,maimonides4 ,he is n cle> :at side ( a "q to esp\se4 ,= ! mo/ "p he places side by side ! oppos$ po9ts ( view & only b>ely intimates 8 own attitude or pref]5ce4 ,"u ^! circum/ances x w n be necess>y = u to reproduce 8 ideas 9 ext5so4 ,x w be suffici5t if we indicate 8 relation to ,maimonides 9 ! problems common to bo?1 add+ a brief /atem5t ( ^? topics :i* ,a>on b5 ,elijah owes to 8 ,k>aite pr$ecessors1 & :i* ,maimonides omits4 ,8 g5]al attitude on ! relation ( religion or revelation to reason & philosophy is some:at inconsi/5t4 ,= :ile he endeavors to rationalize ,jewi% dogma & ,scriptural tea*+ l ,maimonides1 & 9 do+ s utilizes ,ari/otelian t]m9ology 9 matt]s physical1 metaphysical1 psy*ological1 e?ical & logical1 he nev]!less 9 ! beg9n+ ( 8 "w condemns philosophy z well z philosoph]s1 mean+ ( c\rse ! ,ari/otelians4#cfa ,he n[h]e expressly indicates ! mann] ( reconcil+ ?is app>5t contradiction4 ,b x w\ld seem z if he int5d$ to di/+ui% betwe5 ! philosophical me?od & ! actual tea*+s ( ! ,ari/otelians4 ,_! me?od he approves1 _! results he condemns4 ,! ,ari/otelians taught ! et]nity ( ! _w1 ! immutability ( natural law1 ,god's ignorance ( p>ticul>s & ! abs5ce ( special ,provid5ce4 ,^! doctr9es mu/ be condemn$4 ,maimonides too rejects ^! extreme tea*+s :ile prais+ ,ari/otle & ma9ta9+ t philosophy 0 orig9ally a possession ( ! ,israeliti% p1 :i* !y lo/ 9 ! exile4 ,a>on b5 ,elijah is n will+ to foll[ ! philosoph]s z f> z ,maimonides4 ,he admits positive attributes 9 ,god1 :i* ,maimonides rejects2 he admits an absolute w 9 ,god & n m]ely a relative l ,maimonides2 he ext5ds ,god's provid5ce to all individuals includ+ irrational creatures1 :]eas ,maimonides limits special provid5ce to ! individuals ( ! human species1 & s on4 ,& s he condemns ! philosoph]s1 ?\gh he _c help us+ _! me?od & ev5 _! fundam5tal doctr9es1 s f> z !y are purely !oretical & sci5tific4 ,he is will+ to g ! full l5g? ( ! ,ari/otelians only 9 ! unity & incorporeality ( ,god1 ?\gh "h too he v9dicates s5se p]ception to ,god1 i4 e41 ! k ( t :i* we get ?r\gh our s5se organs4 ,he too l ! philosoph]s insi/s on ! importance ( ! reason z ! in/rum5t ( tru? & k4 ,abraham 0 ! fir/1 he tells u1 :o prov$ ! exi/5ce ( ,god ) 8 intellect4 ,!n came ! law ( ,moses1 :i* /r5g!n$ ! same idea4 ,! ,g5tiles hat$ & envi$ ,israel = _! sup]iority & _! true op9ions2 h5ce !y endeavor$ to refute _! ideas & e/abli% o!rs 9 _! /ead4 ,?is 0 ! "w ( ! anci5t ,greek philosoph]s1 :o are call$ enemies 9 ! ,bible 7,psalms #aci1 #ba74 ,at ! "t ( ! second ,temple1 see+ t ! ,jewi% religion & its tea*+s 7 true1 !y took advantage ( ! adv5t ( ,jesus to adopt 8 false tea*+s1 ?us %[+ _! hatr$ & envy ( ,israel4 ,at ! same "t1 h[ev]1 !y 7 oblig$ to borr[ "s views & me?ods ( pro( f ,israel1 = religion z su* is oppos$ to philosophy4 ,/ill ! true nature ( ,god 0 unkn[n to !m4 ,!n came ! ,arabs1 :o imitat$ ! ,*ri/ians 9 adopt+ a belief diff]5t f ,judaism1 at ! same "t borr[+ views f ! ,bible4 ,^! are ! ,mutazila & ! ,a%>iya4 ,lat] :5 on acc\nt ( ! exile diff]5ces arose among ! ,jews1 !re 7 =m$ ! two p>ties ( ! ,k>aites & ! ,rabbanites4 ,! ,k>aites foll[$ ! ,mutazila1 & s did "s ( ! ,rabbanites1 because _! views co9cid$ ) ^? ( ! ,bible1 f :i* !y 7 borr[$4 ,! views ( ! philosoph]s z be+ oppos$ to ! ,bible !y naturally reject$4 ,nev]!less "s ,rabbanites adopt$ ! views ( ! philosoph]s1 ?\gh believ+ 9 ! ,bible4 ,?is is a mi/ake1 = ev5 ! ,*ri/ians reject$ ! views ( ! philosoph]s4#cfb ,"h we see cle>ly ! diff]5ce 9 g5]al attitude betwe5 ,a>on b5 ,elijah & ,maimonides4 ,! latt] has no use :atsoev] = ! ,mutazila4 ,he realizes ! immeasurable sup]iority ( ! ,ari/otelians 7?is is ! mean+ ( ! ^w philosoph]s 9 m$ival ,jewi% & ,arabic lit]ature74 ,8 task is !re=e to h>monize ! ,bible ) ,ari/otelian doctr9e :]ev] possible4 ,a>on b5 ,elijah is /ill1 9 ! f\rte5? c5tury1 a foll[] ( ! ,kalam1 & believes ! ,mutazila are clos] to ,scripture ?an ,ari/otle4 ,he is two c5turies beh9d ,maimonides philosophically1 & yet he has ! tru] insight because less debau*$ by ,ari/otelian le>n+4 ,z 0 said be=e1 ,a>on b5 ,elijah foll[s a m logical arrangem5t 9 ! disposition ( 8 "w ?an ,maimonides4 ,9 reality x is ! old arrangem5t ( ! ,kalami/ic works 7cf4 p4 #bd74 ,! purpose ( all ,jewi% inve/igators1 he says1 is ! same1 namely1 to prove ! exi/5ce & nature ( ,god1 b !re is a diff]5ce among !m 9 ! me?od ( prov+ ,god's exi/5ce4 ,"s base _! pro(s on ! assumption ( ! creation ( ! _w1 o!rs on t ( ! _w's et]nity4 ,! ,mutakallimun foll[ ! =m] me?od1 ! philosoph]s1 ! latt]4 ,_! respective views ( ! orig9 ( ! _w are det]m9$ by _! op9ions conc]n+ ! pr9ciples ( exi/5ce & ! exi/5t1 t is1 ! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( physics & metaphysics4 ,accord+ly ,a>on b5 ,elijah f9ds x necess>y to give a prelim9>y acc\nt ( ! ,kalami/ic z well z ! philosophic !ories1 z ,maimonides did be=e him 7p4 #bdi ff474 ,x is n necess>y = u to reproduce "h 8 sket* ( ! philosophical views1 z we "k !m suffici5tly f our /udies ( ,ibn ,daud & ,maimonides4 ,b x w be ( value to ref] to 8 acc\nt ( ! ,kalami/ic pr9ciples1 ?\gh we h already discuss$ !m 9 ! introduction 7p4 xxi7 & 9 our /udy ( ,maimonides 7p4 #bdi ff474 ,?is is due pr9cipally to ! fact t ,a>on b5 ,elijah endeavors to def5d ! ,mutakallimun aga9/ ,maimonides's *>ge t !y 7 influ5c$ by preconceiv$ notions & all[$ _! religi\s views to dictate to !m _! int]pretation ( nature1 in/ead ( lett+ ! latt] speak = itself4 ,?us ,maimonides specifically accuses !m ( hav+ adopt$ ! atomic !ory ( ! pre-,ari/otelian philosoph]s n because !y 7 really & indep5d5tly conv9c$ ( its sci5tific tru?--h[ c\ld t be s9ce ,ari/otle prov$ x impossible8--b because on ?is !ory !y c\ld prove ! creation ( ! _w1 :i* !y mu/ at all haz>ds ma9ta9 z a religi\s dogma fundam5tal 9 its nature1 s9ce ^u x is bas$ ! pro( ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god4 ,a>on b5 ,elijah d5ies ?is *>ge1 ma9ta9+ ! philosophical hone/y ( ! ,mutakallimun4 ,epicurus too1 he says1 believ$ 9 ! atomic !ory1 ?\gh he reg>d$ ! _w z et]nal4 ,h5ce !re is no necess>y connection betwe5 atoms & creation4#cfc ,! atomic !ory is def5sible on its own m]its1 & ! motives ( ! ,mutakallimun 9 adopt+ x are purely sci5tific1 z foll[s3 ,accord+ to ! ,mutakallimun !re are only body or sub/ance & its accid5ts or qualities4 ,?is is ! con/itution ( mat]ial objects4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 two k9ds ( qualities or attributes1 viz41 *>act]s1 & accid5ts4 ,*>act]s are su* attributes z are ess5tial to body & )\t :i* x _c exi/4 ,accid5ts may disappe>1 :ile body cont9ues4 ,s9ce1 !n1 body may exi/ ) or )\t accid5ts1 !re mu/ be a cause :i* is responsible = ! atta*m5t ( accid5ts to body :5 !y are s atta*$4 ,?is cause we call union4 ,:5 a body is unit$ ) accid5ts x owes ?is to ! exi/5ce ( a c]ta9 some?+1 a c]ta9 prop]ty1 let u say1 9 x :i* we h call$ union4 ,h5ce :5 ! body is sep>at$ f accid5ts1 :5 x is )\t accid5ts1 x is because !re is no union4 ,fur!r1 e body possess$ ( magnitude or ext5sion is divisible1 h5ce x mu/ h union to hold its p>ts toge!r4 ,b ?is union is n ess5tial to all exi/5ts2 = we h se5 t its function is to unite accid5ts ) body4 ,& z accid5ts are sep>able :ile body may cont9ue to exi/ )\t !m1 union disappe>s toge!r ) ! accid5ts4 ,bodies )\t union are !re=e possible & real4 ,b we h j se5 t all bodies possess+ magnitude h union4 ,x foll[s !re=e t if !re are union-less bodies1 !y are )\t magnitude1 & h5ce atoms4 ,?is is ! pro( ( ! atomic !ory & x has no?+ to d ) ! matt] ( ! orig9 ( ! _w4#cfd ,z a matt] ( fact ! ,mutakallimun believe t ! atoms 7 creat$ ex nihilo4 ,b ! creation ( ! _w c be prov$ :i*ev] view we adopt conc]n+ ! nature ( ! exi/5t1 :e!r x be ! atomic !ory ( ! ,mutakallimun or ! pr9ciples ( matt] & =m ( ! ,ari/otelians4 ,! important pr9ciple at ! basis ( ?is pro( is ! well-kn[n ,kalami/ic "o t if an object _c d )\t an attribute orig9at+ 9 "t1 ! object itself has its orig9 9 "t4 ,n[ on ei!r view ( ! con/itution ( ! exi/5t1 body mu/ h =m or accid5ts respectively1 & z ! latt] are con/antly *ang+1 body or matt] has its orig9 9 "t1 h5ce ! _w is n et]nal4 ,besides1 n to speak ( ! inconclusive "* ( ! philosophical argum5ts 9 favor ( et]nity & ! positive argum5ts = creation 7all or mo/ ( :i* we h already met 9 our previ\s /udies1 & ne$ n !re=e reproduce ,a>on b5 ,elijah's v]sion ( !m71 ! philosoph]s !mselves )\t kn[+ x are l$ to contradict !mselves 9 _! v argum5ts f ! assumption ( et]nity4 ,! doctr9e ( creation foll[s z a consequ5ce f _! own presuppositions4 ,?us on ! basis ( et]nity ( motion !y prove t ! heav5ly sph]es are end[$ ) s\l & intellect1 & _! motions are volunt>y & due to conceptions :i* !y endeavor to realize 7cf4 p4 #bfg74 ,?is makes ! sph]e a composite object1 conta9+ ! elem5ts1 sph]icity1 s\l1 intellect4 ,ev]y?+ composite is a possible exi/5t1 because its exi/5ce dep5ds ^u ! exi/5ce ( its p>ts4 ,:at is a possible exi/5t may also n exi/4 ,moreov]1 t :i* is possible mu/ at "s "t become actual4 ,h5ce ! sph]e mu/ at "s "t h be5 non-exi/5t1 & x requir$ an ag5t to br+ x into be+4 ,we are ?us l$ to contradict our hypo!sis ( et]nity f :i* we />t$4#cfe ,creation is ?us e/abli%$1 & ?is is ! be/ way to prove ! exi/5ce1 unity & incorporeality ( ,god4 ,maimonides attempts to prove creation f ! peculi>ities ( ! heav5ly motions1 :i* _c be well acc\nt$ = on ! !ory ( natural causes4 ,adopt+ ! latt] 9 ! ma91 he makes an exception 9 ! case ( ! sph]ical motions because ! philosoph]s _c adequately expla9 !m1 & jumps to ! conclusion t "h ! philosophical appeal to me*anical causation breaks d[n & we are deal+ ) teleology1 ) intellig5t design & purpose on ! "p ( an intellig5t ag5t4 ,?is leads to belief 9 creation4 ,b ?is argum5t ( ,maimonides is v weak & inconclusive4 ,ignorance ( causes 9 a special case1 due to ! limitations ( our reason1 proves no?+4 ,me*anical causes may be ! sole det]m9ants ( ! heav5ly motions ev5 ?\gh ! philosoph]s h n yet discov]$ :at !y are 7cf4 above1 p4 #bgj ff474#cff ,nor is ,maimonides to be imitat$1 :o bases 8 pro( ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god on ! !ory ( et]nity4 ,! ,bible is oppos$ to x4 ,! ,bible beg9s ) creation z an indication t ?is is ! basis ( our k ( ,god's exi/5ce1 revelation & provid5ce4 ,?is is ! me?od ,abraham foll[$ & ?is is :at he meant :5 he swore by ! mo/ high ,god1 ! creator ( heav5 & e>? 7,g54 #ad1 #bb74 ,abraham arriv$ at ?is belief ?r\gh ratioc9ation & endeavor$ to conv9ce o!rs4 ,! same ?+ is evid5t 9 ! words ( ,isaiah 7#dj1 #bf71 ,lift up y\r eyes on high & see :o creat$ ^!4 ,he 0 argu+ ) ! p :o believ$ 9 et]nity1 & prov$ to !m ! exi/5ce ( ,god by %[+ t ! _w is creat$4 ,all ^! indications 9 ! ,bible %[ t ! doctr9e ( creation is capable ( apodeictic pro(4#cfg ,! read] w see t all ?is is direct$ aga9/ ,maimonides1 ?\gh he is n m5tion$ by "n4 ,maimonides claim$ aga9/ ! ,mutakallimun t x is n safe to base ! exi/5ce ( ,god ^u ! !ory ( creation1 because ! latt] _c be /rictly demon/rat$4 ,& :ile he believ$ 9 x himself & gave reasons to %[ :y x is m plausible ?an et]nity1 he admitt$ t o!rs might ?9k diff]5tly2 & h5ce bas$ 8 pro(s ( ,god's exi/5ce on ! ,ari/otelian !ory ( et]nity 9 ord] to be on ! safe side4 ,x is nev] too late to prove ,god's exi/5ce if ! _w is creat$4 ,we mu/ be sure ( 8 exi/5ce1 no matt] :at ! fate ( our cosmological !ories might be4 ,?is did n appeal to ! ,k>aite & ,mutakallim1 ,a>on b5 ,elijah4 ,8 idea is t we mu/ nev] = a mom5t d\bt ! creation ( ! _w4 ,to foll[ ! proc$ure ( ,maimonides w\ld h ! t5d5cy ( mak+ p believe t ! _w may be et]nal aft] all1 z happ5$ 9 fact 9 ! case ( ,g]sonides4 ,a>on b5 ,elijah w n leave a way op5 to su* a h]esy4 ,9 ! doctr9e ( attributes ,a>on b5 ,elijah likewise ma9ta9s ! views ( ! ,mutazilite ,k>aites aga9/ ! philosoph]s1 & especially aga9/ ,maimonides4 ,! g5]al problem is suffici5tly famili> to u by ?is "t1 & we ne$ only pres5t ! sali5t po9ts 9 ! controv]sy4 ,! "q is :e!r !re are any positive attributes :i* may be appli$ to ,god z actually d5ot+ 8 ess5ce--h5ce positive ess5tial attributes4 ,maimonides d5i$ x1 ! ,k>aites affirm$ x4 ,! argum5ts = ,maimonides's d5ial we saw be=e 7p4 #bfb f474 ,& 8 conclusion is t ! only attributes t may be appli$ to ,god are ! negative1 & ^? positive ones :i* d n d5ote any def9ite ?+ correspond+ to !m 9 ,god's ess5ce1 b are d]iv$ f ! effects ( ,god's unit>y & simple be+ on ! life ( man & nature4 ,he is ! au?or ( ^! effects1 & we *>act]ize him 9 ! way 9 :i* we w\ld *>act]ize a human be+ :o w\ld d simil> ?+s2 b ?is mu/ n be done4 ,a>on b5 ,elijah insi/s t !re are positive ess5tial attributes1 :i* are ! foll[+ five3 ,omnipot5t1 ,omnisci5t1 ,act+ ) ,w1 ,liv+1 ,exi/5t4 ,he agrees ) ,maimonides t ^! ess5tial attributes mu/ be und]/ood 9 a mann] n to int]f]e ) ,god's simplicity & unity1 b is satisfi$ t ?is c be done4 ,= we mu/ n conceive ( !m z additions to ,god's ess5ce1 nor z s _m di/9ct elem5ts compos+ ,god's ess5ce1 b z repres5t+ ! multiplicity ( p[]s issu+ f him )\t detrim5t to 8 unity4 ,we call !m ess5tial attributes1 mean+ t !y are ! ess5ce ( ,god1 b n t !y are diff]5t f ea* o!r & ea* makes up "p ( ,god's ess5ce4 ,we d n "k ,god's ess5ce1 & ^! t]ms are simply transf]r$ f our human exp]i5ce1 & d n indicate t ,god's activity c be comp>$ to ours 9 any s5se4 ,! five attributes above nam$ are all id5tical ) ,god's simple ess5ce4 ,liv+ d5otes ability to p]ceive1 h5ce is id5tical ) ,omnisci5t4 ,act+ ) w likewise d5otes j & prop] action1 :i* 9 turn involves true insight4 ,h5ce id5tity ( w & k4 ,omnipot5t also 9 ! case ( an intellectual be+ d5otes ! act ( ! intellect p> excell5ce1 :i* is k4 ,& surely ,god's exi/5ce is n di/9ct f 8 ess5ce1 else 8 exi/5ce w\ld be caus$1 & he w\ld n be ! necess>y exi/5t all agree him to be4 ,x foll[s !n t ,god is "o1 & 8 ess5ce is nev]!less all ^! five attributes4 ,!re are all ! reasons 9 ! _w :y we %\ld apply attributes to ,god4 ,! same reason z we h = apply+ names to any?+ else exi/s = giv+ names to ,god4 ,9 fact x w\ld be correct to say t we %\ld h m names = ,god ?an = any?+ else1 s9ce 9 o!r ?+s we c avoid nam+ !m by po9t+ to !m1 z !y c be p]ceiv$ by ! s5ses4 ,n s ,god4 ,we are =c$ to use words 9 talk+ ab\t him4 ,god has giv5 himself names 9 ! ,bible1 h5ce we may d ! same4 ,maimonides & 8 s*ool endeavor to obviate ! criticisms ( ! philosoph]s1 :o are oppos$ to all attributes1 by exclud+ all b negative t]ms4 ,b ?is does n help ! matt] 9 ! lea/4 ,a negative attribute is 9 reality no diff]5t f a positive1 & 9 ! end leads to a positive4 ,?us if we say n m9]al1 n plant1 we cle>ly say animal4 ,! advocates ( negative attributes answ] ?is criticism by say+ t !y und]/& pure negation )\t any positive implications1 j z :5 we say a /one is n see+1 we d n imply t x is bl9d4 ,b ?is _c be1 = :5 !y say ,god is n ignorant1 !y d n mean t he is n kn[+ ei!r1 = !y insi/ t he is p[] & k & life1 & s on4 ,?is be+ ! case1 x is mu* m prop] to use positive attributes1 see+ t ! ,prophets d s4 ,:5 !y say t ! ,prophets meant only to exclude ! negative2 t by say+1 ,able1 ,kn[+1 !y meant to exclude weak ignorant1 !y ipso facto admit t by exclud+ ! latt] we posit ! =m]4 ,! argum5ts aga9/ positive ess5tial attributes we c easily answ]4 ,by say+ t c]ta9 attributes are ess5tial we d n claim to "k ,god's ess5ce4 ,all we "k is ,god's exi/5ce1 :i* we le>n f 8 effects1 & accord+ to ^! same effects we *>act]ize ,god's exi/5ce by means ( attributes ( :i* also we "k only ! exi/5ce1 n ! ess5ce4 ,= we d n mean to indicate t ^! t]ms d5ote ! same ?+ 9 ,god z !y d5ote 9 u4 ,!y are homonyms1 s9ce 9 ,god !y d5ote ess5ce1 :]eas 9 u !y are accid5ts4 ,! plurality ( attributes does n argue plurality 9 ,god1 = "o ess5ce may p]=m a great _m acts1 & h5ce we may *>act]ize ! ess5ce 9 accordance ) ^? acts4 ,! error ( composition arises only if we suppose t ! v>i\s acts po9t to v>i\s elem5ts 9 _! au?or4 ,( ! v>i\s k9ds ( t]ms ^? only are applicable to ,god :i* d5ote pure ess5ce or sub/ance l k1 p[]2 & ^? d5ot+ activity l creat+1 do+1 & s on4#cfh ,9 ref]5ce to ! w ( ,god ,a>on b5 ,elijah refuses to agree ) ! peculi> view ( ! ,mutakallimun2 b unlike ,maimonides1 :o c af=d to ignore _! discussions entirely & dismiss _! fanciful notion ) a ^w 7,guide1 ,i4 #ge1 pro( #c71 ,a>on b5 ,elijah takes up ! discussion s]i\sly4 ,! ,mutakallimun 7or ! ,a%>iya1 accord+ to ,a>on b5 ,elijah7 7 9 dread ( any?+ t might l5d "s semblance to et]nity ( ! _w4 ,h5ce !y argu$1 ,if ! w ( ,god is id5tical ) 8 ess5ce l ! o!r ess5tial attributes1 x foll[s t z 8 ess5ce is et]nal & un*angeable s is 8 w4 ,& if we grant ?is1 !n ! objects ( 8 w too mu/ be et]nal & un*angeable1 & we h ! mu* abhorr$ doctr9e ( ! et]nity ( ! _w4 ,to avoid ?is objectionable conclusion !y conceiv$ ( ,god's volunt>y acts z due to an ext]nal w4 ,b ?is ext]nal w also (f]$ difficulties4 ,x _c be a p[] or quality resid+ 9 ,god z its subject1 = ,god is n a mat]ial sub/ance be>+ accid5ts4 ,x _c be a quality inh]5t 9 ano!r subject1 = !n x w\ld n be ,god's w at all2 x w\ld be ! w ( ?is o!r be+1 & ,god's acts w\ld be det]m9$ by someone else4 ,!y 7 ?us =c$ to assume a subject-less w newly creat$ ) e act ( ,god4 ,?is notion ,a>on b5 ,elijah rejects on ! gr\nd t a subject-less w is an impossibility4 ,an accid5t mu/ h a subject1 & w implies life z its subject4 ,besides1 ! relation betwe5 ,god & ?is subject-less accid5t1 w1 w\ld be ! cause ( mu* logical difficulty4 ,a>on b5 ,elijah !re=e accepts ! ord9>y sane view t ! w ( ,god is id5tical ) 8 ess5ce2 t ,god wills ?r\gh 8 own ess5ce4 ,& he does n fe> t ?is w lead to et]nity ( ! _w4 ,he id5tifies ,god's w ) 8 wisdom1 & ,god's wisdom ) "r action4 ,z we d n "k ! ess5ce ( ,god's wisdom1 s we d n "k h[ x is t x prompts him to realize 8 w at "o "t & n at ano!r1 ?\gh 8 w is always ! same4#cfi ,a>on b5 ,elijah also foll[s 8 p>ty 9 attribut+ to ,god s5se p]ception1 n1 to be sure1 ! same k9d ( p]ception z we h1 acquir$ by means ( corporeal organs2 = ?is is impossible 9 ,god = _m reasons4 ,god is n corporeal1 & he _c be affect$ or *ang$ by a corporeal /imulus4 ,b x is cle> beyond a d\bt t no?+ c be m absurd ?an to suppose t ! creator ( ! s5se organs does n und]/& ! purpose :i* !y s]ve & ! objects :i* !y p]ceive4 ,:at we mean !n is t ! objects :i* we p]ceive ) our s5ses ,god also p]ceives1 ?\gh 9 an incorporeal mann]4 ,h5ce x does n foll[ t !re is any *ange 9 ,god due to ! ext]nal object he p]ceives1 nor t ! multiplicity ( objects involves plurality 9 ,god2 = ev5 our p[] ( p]ception is "o1 ?\gh x p]ceives _m ?+s & opposite4 ,we conclude !n t ,god has p]ception z well z intellig5ce1 b !y are n two di/9ct p[]s 9 him4 ,x is ! object p]ceiv$ t det]m9es ! p[] p]cipi5t4 ,h5ce "o & ! same p[] may be call$ p]ception :5 we are deal+ ) a s5sible object1 & intellig5ce :5 x has an intelligible z its object4#cgj ,9 8 discussion ( ! nature ( evil we once m are br\ght 9 contact ) ,kalami/ic views recall+ ! old ,k>aite works ( ! elev5? c5tury 7cf4 pp4 #eb1 #eg74 ,?us ! notion t good & bad are adjectives appli$ to acts n 9 view ( _! inh]5t "*1 :i* is p] se nei!r good nor bad1 b solely to indicate t !y h be5 comm&$ or =bidd52 ! idea t only ! dep5d5t subject c d wrong1 b n ! ma/]1 s9ce 8 w is ! s\rce ( all "r & wrong--^! views are frequ5tly discuss$ 9 ! ,mutazilite works ( ,arabs & ,k>aites4 ,! ,rabbanites sc>cely ev] m5tion !m4 ,a>on b5 ,elijah enum]ates six views on ! nature ( evil1 ) all ( :i* except ! la/ he disagrees4 ,! op9ion nam$ above t an act is made good or bad by be+ comm&$ or prohibit$1 he refutes z foll[s3 ,su* a view removes ! v f\ndation ( good & bad4 ,= if ! p]son 9 au?ority *ooses to rev]se 8 ord]1 ! good becomes bad1 & ! bad good1 & ! same ?+ is !n good & bad1 :i* is absurd4 ,besides1 if !re are two au?orities giv+ opposite ord]s1 ! same act is good & bad at ! same "t4 ,to say t ,god's comm& alone det]m9es ! "* ( an act is incorrect1 because z long z comm&+ & prohibit+ z su* det]m9e ! goodness or badness ( an act1 ! p]son issu+ ! comm& is immat]ial4 ,we d say q g5]ally t an act :i* ,god comm&s is good1 & "o :i* he prohibits is bad2 b we mean by ?is m]ely t ! comm& or prohibition is an indication to u1 :o are ignorant ( ! true nature ( acts4 ,aga91 on ?is !ory ( ! value ( acts1 :at w y d ) su* an act z ! inve/igation ( ! exi/5ce & nature ( ,god8 ,surely su* an important matt] _c be indiff]5t4 ,x mu/ be good or bad4 ,& yet we _c apply to x ! above te/ ( comm& & prohibition1 = ?is te/ implies ! exi/5ce ( ,god1 :i* ! act endeavors to prove4 ,x foll[s !re=e t ! value ( an act is inh]5t 9 x & n det]m9$ & creat$ by comm& & prohibition4 ,a>on b5 ,elijah is simil>ly dissatisfi$ ) ano!r view1 :i* reg>ds evil z a negation4 ,we h he>d ?is op9ion be=e & we "k t ,maimonides adopt$ x 7p4 #bhh74 ,its motive z we "k is to remove f ,god ! responsibility = evil4 ,if evil is no?+ positive x is n caus$ by ! activity ( an ag5t4 ,all ess5tial activity is good1 & all ! acts ( ,god are good4 ,evil consi/s 9 ! abs5ce ( good2 x is due to matt]1 & does n come f ,god4 ,a>on b5 ,elijah objects prop]ly t z good is a positive act1 a do+ ( some?+ positive1 s is evil1 ev5 on ! !ory ( its negative "*1 a removal ( some?+ positive1 h5ce a positive act4 ,besides1 grant+ all t ! oppon5t claims1 ! argum5t %\ld "w bo? ways1 & if ,god is n held responsible = ! evil 9 ! _w because x is m]e privation1 :y %\ld man be held responsible = do+ evil1 i4 e41 = remov+ ! positive8 ,he cl9*es 8 argum5t by quot+ ,isaiah 7#e1 #bj71 ,woe unto ^? :o say ( evil x is good1 & ( good x is evil 444 t put bitt] = sweet1 & sweet = bitt]4 ,good & evil are plac$ p>allel ) sweet & bitt]1 :i* are bo? positive4 ,h5ce ! ,bible is oppos$ to ! negative conception ( evil4 ,8 own view is t good & evil are qualities p]ta9+ to an act by reason ( its own nature1 b ^! are n absolute conceptions l true & false4 ,! good & ! bad are conv5tional con/ructs1 & ! value ( an act is relative to ! end or purpose x s]ves4 ,! purpose ( human conv5tion 9 reg>d+ c]ta9 acts z good & o!rs z bad is ! protection ( ! human race4 ,an act :i* conduces to human welf>e is good1 "o t militates aga9/ x is bad4 ,/ill !re are in/ances 9 :i* an act g5]ally reg>d$ z bad may assume a diff]5t "* :5 9 ! giv5 in/ance x s]ves a good purpose1 z = example :5 pa9 is inflict$ to obviate m s]i\s dang]4 ,! surgeon1 :o amputates a leg to save ! pati5t's life1 does good1 n evil4 ,! judge1 :o puni%es ! crim9al ) imprisonm5t or dea? = ! protection ( society & to realize ju/ice1 does good1 n evil4 ,9 ?is way we mu/ expla9 ! evil :i* ,god br+s ^u man4 ,god _c be ! cause ( evil4 ,= evil 9 man is due to want or ignorance4 ,nei!r is f\nd 9 ,god1 h5ce he has no motive to d wrong4 ,all ! evil ( :i* we compla9 is only app>5t4 ,9 reality x is good1 because x is ei!r br\ght ^u u to prev5t /ill great] evils1 or x is 9 ! nature ( j puni%m5t = wrongdo+4 ,9 ei!r case x is a good4#cga ,a>on b5 ,elijah's discussion ( ,provid5ce foll[s closely ! plan ( ! correspond+ argum5ts 9 ,maimonides4 ,! problem is treat$ by bo? 9 connection ) ,god's k1 & bo? ma9ta9 t ! real motive ( ^? :o d5i$ ,god's k ( p>ticul>s is _! obs]vation ( app>5t inju/ice 9 ! happ5+s ( ?is _w 7cf4 above1 p4 #bhi74 ,bo? aga9 preface _! own views ( ! "q ( ,provid5ce by a prelim9>y /atem5t ( ! v>i\s op9ions held by o!r sects4 ,"h too ! two acc\nts are 9 ! ma9 simil>1 except t ,a>on b5 ,elijah is some:at m detail$ & names a few sects n m5tion$ by ,maimonides1 among !m be+ ! ,mani*eans & ! foll[]s ( ! ,syrian ,gno/ic ,b>desanes4 ,9 _! own views1 h[ev]1 ,a>on b5 ,elijah & ,maimonides diff]2 ! latt] approa*+ ! view ( ,ari/otle1 ! =m] t ( ! ,mutazila4 ,maimonides z we "k 7p4 #bib7 d5ies special provid5ce = ! individuals ( ! sublun> _w ) ! exception ( man4 ,9 ! case ( ! l[] animals1 ! species alone are protect$ by div9e provid5ce1 h5ce !y w cont9ue =ev]1 :]eas ! individual animals are subject to *ance4 ,man1 z a rational animal1 is an exception4 ,he is a free & responsible ag5t1 h5ce he is "u div9e guidance & is rew>d$ & puni%$ = 8 conduct4 ,! ext5t ( ! div9e c>e dep5ds ^u ! degree to :i* ! individual develops 8 reason1 actualiz+ 8 pot5tial intellect4 ,a>on b5 ,elijah argues t ?is view is errone\s1 = x is n prop] to make a di/9ction betwe5 ,god's k & 8 provid5ce4 ,if x w\ld argue imp]fection 9 ,god n to "k c]ta9 ?+s1 ! same objection applies to limit+ 8 provid5ce1 & ! two %\ld be coext5sive4 ,to say t ,god's provid5ce ext5ds to sup]ior & important ?+s & ignores ! inf]ior is to make ,god guilty ( inju/ice4 ,a>on b5 ,elijah believes !re=e t ,provid5ce ext5ds to all individuals1 includ+ animals4 ,& he quotes ! ,bible 9 8 support1 ,! ,"l is good to all1 & 8 m]cies are ov] all 8 works1 7,ps4 #ade1 #i71 &1 ,?\ %alt n pl\gh ) an ox & an ass toge!r 7,deut4 #bb1 #aj74 ,maimonides1 he says1 0 l$ to 8 op9ion by 8 idea t dea? & suff]+ always involve s92 & n be+ able to apply ?is dictum to ! suff]+ ( animals t are slaught]$1 he remov$ ,provid5ce f _! individuals entirely4 ,:5 ! ,bible ord]s u to consid] ! feel+s ( ! animal1 he says ! object is to tra9 our own faculties 9 m]cy1 & prev5t ! =mation ( habits ( cruelty1 n = ! sake ( ! animal4 ,b he _c remove all difficulties 9 ?is way4 ,:at w he d ) ! case ( a p]son born crippl$1 & ! suff]+s ( little *ildr58 ,! idea t dea? & suff]+ 9 all cases involve s9 mu/ be giv5 up4 ,maimonides is also wrong :5 he says t rew>d is purely intellectual & is dep5d5t ^u ! developm5t ( ! acquir$ intellect4 ,x w\ld foll[ f ?is t "r conduct z su* is n rew>d$2 t x s]ves m]ely z a help to realiz+ ! acquir$ intellect4 ,all ?is is oppos$ to ,biblical tea*+4#cgb ,! prosp]ity ( ! wick$ & ! adv]sity ( ! righte\s ,a>on b5 ,elijah endeavors to expla9 z foll[s4 ,! prosp]ity ( ! wick$ may be due to =m] good de$s2 or by way ( puni%m5t1 t he may cont9ue 9 8 evil de$s & be puni%$ m sev]ely4 ,x may be 9 ord] t he may use ! good =tune he has 9 :atev] way he pleases1 = good or ill4 ,f9ally 8 good =tune may be giv5 him z a matt] ( grace1 l 8 creation4 ,correspond+ly we may expla9 ! adv]sity ( ! righte\s 9 a simil> mann]4 ,x may be due to =m] s9s4 ,if he has no s9s1 8 suff]+s may be int5d$ to te/ him 9 ord] to add to 8 rew>d4 ,if he dies )\t hav+ enjoy$ life1 he w be rew>d$ 9 ! next _w4 ,! pleasures ( ?is _w mu/ n be consid]$4 ,= s9ce !y are giv5 z a matt] ( grace1 !y may come or n )\t involv+ any inju/ice4 ,:5 a man has bo? good de$s & s9s1 he may be rew>d$ = 8 good de$s & puni%$ = 8 bad1 or he may be paid accord+ to ! elem5t :i* pr$om9ates4 ,^? :o are born crippl$ & ! suff]+s ( *ildr5 w be rew>d$ lat]4 ,9 ref]5ce to ! slaught] ( animals1 ,a>on b5 ,elijah does n agree ) ! ,mutazila t ! animals w be recomp5s$ = _! undes]v$ suff]+s4 ,!re is no immortal "p 9 animals1 h5ce no rew>d aft] dea?4 ,he c assign no reason = _! suff]+s except t m5 ne$ !m = food1 b he sees no?+ wrong 9 tak+ an animal's life = food1 = z ! life ( animals 0 giv5 to !m z a matt] ( grace1 !re is no wrong 9 tak+ x away4 ,h[ev]1 to inflict pa9 9 a way diff]5t f ! mann] p]mitt$ by ,god is wrong4#cgc ,a>on b5 ,elijah lays great /ress ^u :at he consid]s an important diff]5ce ( op9ion betwe5 ! ,rabbanites & ! ,k>aites conc]n+ ! nature & purpose ( div9e puni%m5t4 ,! ,rabbanites accord+ to him insi/ t !re is no dea? )\t s91 nor suff]+ )\t guilt1 :]eas ! ,k>aites admit t "s ( ! suff]+s ( ! righte\s are n 9 ! nature ( puni%m5t at all1 b are :at are kn[n z *a/isem5ts ( love4 ,_! purpose is to increase ! man's rew>d lat] 9 ! future _w1 & at ! same "t !y h a p$agogical value 9 !mselves 9 /r5g!n+ ! p]son spiritually4 ,accord+ly ,a>on b5 ,elijah1 :o 9 ! ma9 foll[s ! op9ions ( ! ,k>aites1 diff]s ) ! ,rabbanites & p>ticul>ly ,maimonides 9 ! int]pretation ( ! trials ( ,adam1 ,abraham1 ,job4 ,s f> z ,job is conc]n$1 we "k ! op9ions ( ,maimonides on ! subject4 ,9 8 ,guide ( ! ,p]plex$ he int]prets ! book ( ,job 9 connection ) 8 discussion ( ,provid5ce 7cf4 above1 p4 #cjd74 ,9 ! g5]al nature ( suff]+ ! idea ( *a/isem5t ( love is q famili> to ! ,rabbis1 ?\gh ,maimonides does n c>e to insi/ on x1 claim+ t !re is no support = x 9 ! ,bible4 ,! idea ( trial accord+ to him is nei!r t ,god may "k :at he did n "k be=e2 nor is x to make a man suff] t he may be rew>d$ lat]4 ,! purpose ( trial is t mank9d may "k :atev] x is desir$ to tea* !m 9 a giv5 case4 ,9 ! trial ( ,abraham :5 he 0 told to sacrifice ,isaac1 !re 0 a two-fold reason2 fir/1 t all may "k to :at ext5t ! love ( ,god may g 9 a pi\s man2 & second to %[ t a prophet is conv9c$ ( ! reality ( 8 visions z an ord9>y p]son is ( ! data ( 8 s5ses4#cgd ,! book ( ,job is to ,maimonides a treatise on ,provid5ce1 & ! five *>act]s 9 ! drama repres5t ! v>i\s op9ions on ! nature ( ,provid5ce z !y 7 held by diff]5t s*ools ( philosophy & !ology 9 ,maimonides's day4 ,job has ! ,ari/otelian view t ,god c>es no?+ = man4 ,eliphaz repres5ts ! correct ,jewi% view t ev]y?+ is rew>d or puni%m5t = m]it & dem]it4 ,bildad ma9ta9s ! ,mutazilite op9ion t _m mis=tunes are = ! purpose ( increas+ rew>d 9 ! _w to come4 ,zoph> /&s = ! view ( ! ,a%>iya t all is to be expla9$ by ref]5ce to ! w ( ,god1 & no que/ions %\ld be ask$4 ,elihu f9ally insi/s t ! individual man is ! object ( ! div9e c>e1 b t we mu/ n comp>e ,god's provid5ce ) our own int]e/ 91 & c>e = ?+s2 t !re is no relation at all betwe5 !m except 9 "n 7cf4 above1 p4 #cjd74 ,! ,rabbis1 :o d n make ( ,job a philosoph]1 naturally d n und]/& ! matt] z ,maimonides does1 b !y nev]!less agree ) him t ,job des]v$ ! puni%m5t he receiv$4 ,! ,k>aites on ! o!r h& class$ ,job's suff]+s ) *a/isem5ts ( love1 :i* w\ld mean t ,job 0 a p]fect man & did n des]ve any puni%m5t4 ,! sole motive = inflict+ pa9 & tribulation ^u him 0 to rew>d him ! m lat]4 ,a>on b5 ,elijah agrees 9 ! ma9 ) 8 ,k>aite pr$ecessors t ,job 0 n puni%$ = any fault he _h committ$4 ,he does n see 9 ! argum5ts ( ,job's fri5ds any diff]5ce ( op9ion on ! g5]al "q ( ,provid5ce1 & ,job 0 n an ,ari/otelian4 ,unlike ,ari/otle1 he did believe 9 ,god's c>e = man1 z is evid5t f su* /atem5ts z 7,job #aj1 #aj71 ,behold l milk did/ ?\ p\r me out1 & l *eese did/ ?\ curdle me4 ,! ,k>aites1 he holds1 are correct 9 _! ma9 cont5tion t ,job's suff]+s 7 n 9 ! nature ( puni%m5t = previ\s guilt & wrongdo+1 b !y are mi/ak5 9 suppos+ t ,job 0 altoge!r "r 9 8 conception ( ! mean+ & reason ( 8 suff]+s2 t !y _h no o!r purpose except to increase 8 rew>d 9 ! future4 ,a>on b5 ,elijah !n expla9s 8 own view ( trial4 ,man1 he says1 is compos$ ( body & s\l1 & mu/ !re=e endeavor to ga9 ?is _w & ! next4 ,if he is puni%$ = guilt or (f5ce1 ! puni%m5t corresponds to ! (f5ce4 ,corporeal guilt is foll[$ by corporeal puni%m5t1 spiritual guilt by spiritual puni%m5t4 ,adam (f5d$ spiritually & 0 puni%$ spiritually by be+ driv5 f ! ,g>d5 ( ,ed5 z w be expla9$ lat]4 ,abraham endeavor$ to d ju/ice to bo? ! con/itu5t p>ts ( 8 be+2 & h5ce ,god 9 8 k9dness1 wi%+ to /r5g!n ,abraham spiritually1 gave him ! opportunity 9 ! trial ( ,isaac4 ,at ! same "t ! physical suff]+ 0 comp5sat$ by ! promise to ,abraham ( ! cont9uity ( ,isaac's desc5dants4 ,job's suff]+s 7 ( ! same k9d1 except t !y came to him )\t 8 k & )\t 8 be+ told _! purpose4 ,& at fir/ he ?\ght !y 7 9 ord] to give him future rew>d1 b )\t any use 9 !mselves4 ,lat] he discov]$ t !y b5efit$ him directly by increas+ 8 spiritual /r5g?4#cge ,a>on b5 ,elijah diff]s also f ,maimonides 9 ref]5ce to ! purpose ( ! _w4 ,maimonides ma9ta9s t :ile !re is s5se 9 inquir+ = ! purpose ( ! p>ts ( ! _w1 ! "q ( ! ultimate purpose ( ! _w z a :ole is mean+less4 ,! purpose ( a giv5 ev5t or law ( nature lies 9 its relation to ! o!r ev5ts & laws1 h5ce !re is a relative purpose 9 p>ticul> ?+s2 ?us1 giv5 ! exi/5ce ( animals !y mu/ h food1 s5se p]ception1 & s on4 ,b if we ask :y ! univ]se z a :ole1 ! only answ] t c be giv5 is ,god's wisdom1 :i* we d n und]/&4 ,9 p>ticul> ,maimonides w n admit t ! _w is = ! sake ( man1 z ?is view cla%es ) exp]i5ce & makes x impossible to expla9 a great _m ph5om5a 9 nature1 :i* are di/9ctly ( no b5efit to man & take no cognizance ( 8 int]e/s4#cgf ,a>on b5 ,elijah agrees ) ,maimonides t ,god's wisdom r ?an 8 arbitr>y w1 z ! ,a%>iya ma9ta91 mu/ be appeal$ to 9 answ]+ ! "q ( ! purpose ( ! _w4 ,b he is incl9$ to reg>d man z ! purpose ( ! l[] _w1 admitt+ t we _c "k ! purpose ( ! high] worlds ( ! sph]es & ,intellig5ces1 z !y transc5d ! p[]s ( our compreh5sion4#cgg ,we c pass ov] ,a>on b5 ,elijah's discussion ( prophecy v briefly because !re is no new attitude or contribution 9 8 views4 ,)\t say+ x1 he reluctantly p]haps1 leans ^u ,maimonides1 & ) app>5t v>iations 9 =m really adopts ! classification ( ! ,guide 7p4 #bgg74 ,he gives no psy*ological explanation ( prophecy because he disagrees ) ! philosoph]s1 to :om prophecy is a purely natural gift :i* _c fail to manife/ itself :5 ! requisite conditions are !re1 namely1 p]fection 9 intellect & imag9ation4 ,9 fact :5 he gives ! diff]5t views on ! nature ( prophecy1 he refuses to id5tify :at seems to /& 9 8 book = ! view ( ,maimonides 7! f\r? view7 ) t ( ! foll[]s ( ! ,mosaic law4 ,:]eas ,maimonides foll[+ ! philosoph]s insi/s on ! two important elem5ts 9 prophecy1 namely1 intellect & imag9ation1 add+ !reto also moral p]fection1 ,a>on b5 ,elijah 9 giv+ ! op9ion ( ^? :o foll[ ! law ( ,moses1 says no?+ ( ! imag9ation4 ,he insi/s only on p]fection 9 intellect & 9 e?ical "*4 ,?is diff]5ce is1 h[ev]1 only app>5t2 & fur!r on he ref]s to ! imag9ation z an important elem5t1 :i* det]m9es1 9 its relation to ! reason1 ! "* ( a man z a prophet or a m]e /atesman or philosoph]--all 9 ! mann] ( ,maimonides4 ,8 idea ( ! purpose ( prophecy he develops1 z x seems1 ) an eye to ! criticism ( ! ,brahm9s ( ,india1 :om he quotes z d5y+ prophecy1 ?\gh admitt+ ,provid5ce1 on ! gr\nd t x c s]ve no purpose4 ,! reason alone1 !y say1 is suffici5t to decide :at is "r & :at is wrong4 ,accord+ly ,a>on b5 ,elijah meets _! objection z foll[s3 ,x is true t man might h gott5 along )\t prophecy ?r\gh ! laws :i* 8 own reason e/abli%$ = "r & wrong1 good & evil4 ,^? :o foll[$ ^! rational laws w\ld h atta9$ long life1 & ! o!rs w\ld h p]i%$4 ,b a good man liv+ 9 a bad environm5t w\ld h be5 involv$ 9 ! d[nfall ( ! majority1 :i* w\ld n be j4 ,h5ce x 0 necess>y t ,god %\ld w>n ! man1 t he might save himself4 ,?is is ! fir/ beg9n+ ( prophecy4 ,witness ,noah & ,lot4 ,abraham 0 a great advance on 8 pr$ecessors4 ,he endeavor$ to foll[ ,god's w 9 respect to bo? body & s\l4 ,h5ce ,god sav$ him f ! dang] to :i* he 0 expos$ 9 ,ur ( ! ,*aldees1 & want$ to b5efit 8 desc5dants also t !y %\ld p]fect _! bodies & _! s\ls4 ,?is is impossible = a :ole nation )\t special laws to guide !m4 ,?is is p>ticul>ly true ( ! traditional laws 7c]emonial71 :i* are n 9 !mselves good or bad1 b are discipl9>y 9 _! nature4 ,a prophet mu/ h bo? intellectual & e?ical p]fection4 ,= he mu/ und]/& ! nature ( ,god 9 ord] to communicate 8 w2 & ?is _c be _h )\t previ\s e?ical p]fection4 ,h5ce ! tw(old requirem5t4 ,?is is ! reason1 he says1 :y we d n believe 9 ! religions ( ,jesus & ,mohamm$1 because !y 7 n possess$ ( intellectual p]fection4 ,& besides !y t5d to ! ext9ction ( ! human species by reason ( _! mona/ic & celibate ideal4 ,!y 7 misl$ by ! asceticism ( ! prophets1 :o meant x m]ely z a prote/ aga9/ ! mat]ial self-indulg5ce ( ! "t1 & call$ att5tion to ! high] life4 ,b ^? p 9 _! endeavor to imitate ! prophets mi/ook ! means = ! end1 ) ! result t !y miss$ bo?1 p]fection ( s\l z well z ( body1 & m]ely mortifi$ ! fle%1 ?9k+ x ! w ( ,god4 ,h5ce1 ,a>on b5 ,elijah cont9ues1 we %all nev] accept a religion :i* does n prea* ! ma9t5ance ( ?is _w z well z ( ! next4 ,n ev5 miracles c au!nticate a religion :i* prea*es mona/icism & celibacy4 ,moses 0 sup]ior to ! o!r prophets4 ,all ! o!rs receiv$ _! messages 9 a vision or a dream1 ,moses _h 8 inspiration :ile awake4 ,! o!rs 7 inspir$ ?r\gh ! m$ium ( an angel1 i4 e41 ?r\gh ! imag9ation1 h5ce _! language ab\nds 9 allegories & p>ables4 ,moses did n use ! imag9ation1 h5ce ! pla9 "* ( 8 spee*4 ,! o!rs 7 ov]come by ! vision & physically exhau/$1 z we read 9 ,daniel 7#aj1 #ag71 ,!re rema9$ no /r5g? 9 me1 & no brea? 0 left 9 me4 ,moses 0 free f ?is weakness--,& ! ,"l spoke unto ,moses face to face1 z a man speake? unto 8 neighbor 7,exod4 #cc1 #aa74 ,! o!rs requir$ prep>ation1 ,moses did n4 ,moses's te/imony1 too1 0 /rong] ?an t ( all ! re/4 ,8 au?ority 9 ! end 0 made pla9 to all ! p directly & op5ly1 s t !re rema9$ n a %r$ ( a d\bt4 ,?is is :y we accept 8 law & no o!r1 because none is s well au!nticat$4 ,! ,law _c *ange )\t imply+ t ! /&>d ( p]fection has *ang$1 or ! _w has *ang$1 or ,god's k has *ang$4 ,all ?is is impossible4 ,! ,law says besides1 ,?\ %alt n add !reto1 & ?\ %alt n dim9i% !refrom 7,deut4 #ac1 #a74 ,!re=e1 concludes ,a>on b5 ,elijah ! ,k>aite1 we d n believe 9 ! oral or traditional law because ( ! additions to1 & subtractions f1 ! writt5 law :i* x conta9s4#cgh ,a>on b5 ,elijah agrees ) ,maimonides t all ! comm&m5ts ( ! ,bible1 includ+ ! c]emonial laws1 h a purpose & are n due to ! arbitr>y w ( ,god4 ,! c]emonial laws are = ! sake ( ! rational1 s]v+ a p$agogical & discipl9>y purpose1 & ! ,law z a :ole is = ! purpose ( tea*+ ! tru? & inculcat+ ! good4 ,he goes fur!r ?an ,maimonides 9 v9dicat+ ! rational & e?ical purpose ( all ! details ( ! v>i\s laws1 & n m]ely ( ! sev]al comm&m5ts z a :ole 7cf4 above1 p4 #bid74cgi ,a problem t occupi$ ! m9ds ( ! ,mutakallimun1 ,arabs z well z ,k>aites1 b :i* ,maimonides does n discuss1 is ! purpose ( ,god's giv+ comm&m5ts to ^? :o he knew w\ld rema9 unbeliev]s1 & refuse to obey4 ,t ,god's k & man's fre$om co-exi/ & nei!r de/roys ! o!r1 has already be5 %[n4#chj ,if !n ,god kn[s1 z we mu/ assume1 t a giv5 p]son w refuse to obey ! comm&m5ts1 :at is ! use ( giv+ !m to him8 ,& grant+ t = "s reason unkn[n to u !y h be5 giv51 is x j to puni% him = disob$i5ce :5 ! latt] might h be5 sp>$ by n giv+ ! man 9 "q any comm&m5ts8 ,a>on b5 ,elijah answ]s ^! que/ions by cit+ ! foll[+ p>allel4 ,a man prep>es a meal = two gue/s & "o does n come4 ,! abs5ce ( ! gue/ does n make ! prep>ation improp]1 = ! "* ( ! act does n dep5d ^u ! *oice ( ! gue/ to d or n to d ! desire ( ! ho/4 ,! invitation 0 prop] because ! ho/ meant ! gue/'s b5efit4 ,to be sure1 ! case is n q p>allel1 & to make x s we mu/ assume t ! ho/ expects t ! gue/ w n come4 ,8 int5tion be+ good1 ! invitation is prop]4 ,9 our problem k takes ! place ( expectation4 ,god does n m]ely expect1 he kn[s t ! man w n obey4 ,b z ,god's desire is to b5efit mank9d & ar\se !m to high] ?+s1 ! comm& is prop]1 no matt] :at ! p]son *ooses to d4 ,to puni% ! man = disob$i5ce is n unju/ because ,god int5d$ to b5efit him by ! comm&4 ,if he disobey$1 t is 8 look\t4 ,if ! b5efit c\ld h be5 _h )\t ! comm&1 !n ! puni%m5t w\ld be unju/1 b n o!rwise4 ,if only good m5 7 comm&$ & ! re/ ignor$1 ! dang] w\ld be t ! =m] be+ !reby assur$ ( rew>d1 might be tempt$ to d wrong2 & ! o!rs 9 despair might be worse ?an !y w\ld be "u ord9>y circum/ances4 ,god saw t man has evil t5d5cies1 & ne$s w>n+ & guidance f )\t4 ,& j z he gave m5 und]/&+ & ability to believe ?\gh he knew t a giv5 p]son w\ld n avail himself !re(1 s he gave all m5 comm&m5ts1 ?\gh he knew t "s w\ld n obey4#cha ,! re/ ( ! book is devot$ to su* que/ions z rew>d & puni%m5t aft] dea?1 immortality ( ! s\l1 ! problem ( ! s\l's pre-exi/5ce1 ! nature ( ! future life1 rep5tance--que/ions :i* ,maimonides left unt\*$ 9 ! ,guide on ! gr\nd t :atev] religion & tradition may say ab\t !m1 !y are n /rictly speak+ sci5tific que/ions1 & are n susceptible to philosophical demon/ration4 ,a>on b5 ,elijah proves t !re mu/ be rew>d & puni%m5t aft] dea?4 ,= z man is compos$ ( body & s\l1 !re mu/ be rew>d = ea* accord+ z man endeavors to ma9ta9 & p]fect !m4 ,?us if a man c>es = 8 body alone1 he w be rew>d$ 9 8 body1 i4 e41 9 ?is _w4 ,! o!r man :o looks out = bo? body & s\l mu/ h ! same rew>d 9 ?is _w z ! o!r1 s9ce _! physical ef=ts 7 simil>4 ,at ! same "t he mu/ h some?+ ov] & above ! o!r 9 ! nature ( comp5sation = 8 s\l1 & ?is mu/ be 9 ! next _w4 ,! prosp]ity ( ! wick$ & ! mis]y ( ! righte\s are also to be expla9$ 9 "p1 z we h se5 7p4 #cgf71 by ref]5ce to _! respective de/9ies 9 ! next _w1 :]e ! inequalities ( ?is _w w be adju/$4 ,f9ally1 mat]ial rew>d _c be ! consequ5ce ( intellectual & spiritual m]it2 x w\ld mean do+ ! great] = ! sake ( ! small]4 ,& besides ! s\l is n b5efit$ by physical goods & pleasures1 & w\ld rema9 )\t rew>d4 ,h5ce !re mu/ be ano!r k9d ( rew>d aft] dea?4 ,9 ord] to des]ve su* rew>d ! s\l mu/ become wise4 ,at ! same "t ! common p1 :o obs]ve ! c]emonial comm&m5ts1 are n exclud$ f a %>e 9 ! _w to come1 because ! purpose ( ^! laws is also intellectual & spiritual1 z we said be=e 7p4 #chb71 & h5ce _! obs]vance makes ! s\l wise1 & gives x immortality4 ,?is la/ comm5t is cle>ly direct$ aga9/ ! extreme intellectualism ( ,maimonides & ,g]sonides1 accord+ to :om rational activity alone conf]s immortality 7p4 #cci74chb ,! consid]ations j adduc$ imply ! immortality ( ! s\l1 to :i* !y l5d indirect pro(4 ,b ,a>on b5 ,elijah endeavors besides to furni% direct pro( ( ! s\l's cont9uance aft] ! dea? ( ! body4 ,& ! fir/ ?+ he does is to dis>m ! criticism ( ! philosoph]s1 :o d5y immortality on ! gr\nd t ! s\l be+ ! =m ( ! body1 x mu/ l o!r mat]ial =ms cease ) ! dissolution ( ! ?+s ( :i* !y are ! =ms4 ,he answ]s ?is by %[+ t ! s\l z ! cause ( k & wisdom--immat]ial faculties--is itself immat]ial4 ,be+ also ! cause ( ! body's motion1 x is n itself subject to motion1 h5ce n to "t1 & !re=e n de/ructible l a natural =m4 ,besides ! composition ( body & s\l is diff]5t f t ( matt] & =m 9 ! ord9>y s5se4 ,= 9 ! =m] case ea* ( ! con/itu5t p>ts is already a composite ( matt] & =m4 ,! body has bo? matt] & =m1 & ! s\l has likewise4 ,= ! acquir$ intellect is ! =m ( ! s\l1 :i* is ! matt]4 ,o!r pro(s are z foll[s3 ,! rational s\l p]=ms its functions )\t help f ! body1 h5ce x is indep5d5t 9 its exi/5ce4 ,! pro( ( ! la/ /atem5t is t ! p[] ( ! rational s\l is n limit$1 & does n become we>y1 z a corporeal p[] does4 ,h5ce x c exi/ )\t ! body4 ,aga91 z ! corporeal p[]s gr[ /rong]1 ! intellectual p[]s gr[ weak]1 & vice v]sa z ! corporeal p[]s gr[ weak] 9 old age1 ! intellect gr[s /rong]4 ,h5ce ! s\l is indep5d5t ( ! body1 & :5 ! physical p[]s cease entirely 9 dea?1 ! intellect is at its height4#chc ,! "q ( ! s\l's pre-exi/5ce be=e com+ 9 contact ) ! body1 ,a>on b5 ,elijah answ]s 9 ! affirmative1 ?\gh 8 argum5ts 9 favor ( ! opposite view are /rong]4 ,8 sole argum5t 9 favor ( its pre-exi/5ce is t ! s\l1 be+ a self-subsi/+ sub/ance & n an accid5t1 is n dep5d5t ^u ! body1 & mu/ h exi/$ be=e ! body4 ,! consequ5ce :i* "s h drawn f ?is supposition comb9$ ) ! s\l's immortality1 namely1 t ! s\l is et]nal1 he refuses to adopt4 ,! s\l exi/$ be=e ! body1 b l all ?+s :i* are n ,god x 0 creat$ 9 "t4 ,?\gh we h ?us se5 t ! s\l exi/$ be=e ! body1 x is mi/ak5 to suppose t x 0 completely develop$4 ,= ?\gh ! gradual progress 9 k & und]/&+ z ! individual matures proves no?+ = ! s\l's orig9al imp]fection1 z we may acc\nt = ?is progress by ! gradual adaptation ( ! physical elem5ts to ! functions ( ! s\l1 !re is a m valid objection4 ,if ! s\l 0 p]fectly develop$ be=e ent]+ ! body1 all s\ls %\ld be alike :5 !y leave x1 :i* is n ! case4 ,we come to ! conclusion !re=e t ! s\l does acquire k :ile 9 contact ) ! body4 ,! human s\l is a unit1 & f its connection ) ! body arise ! v>i\s p[]s1 su* z gr[?1 life1 reason4 ,:5 ! s\l is sep>at$ f ! body1 ^? p[]s :i* function$ ) ! aid ( ! body p]i%2 ! o!rs rema94#chd ,9 ! matt] ( es*atology ,a>on b5 ,elijah gives a numb] ( views )\t decl>+ himself def9itely = any ( !m4 ,! ma9 diff]5ce among ! ?ree po9ts ( view quot$ conc]ns ! possibility ( ! resurrection ( ! body1 & ! mean+ ( ! t]ms revival ( ! dead 7,tehiyat ha-metim7 & ! _w to come 7,olam ha-ba74 ,a>on b5 ,elijah seems to incl9e to ! fir/1 9 favor ( resurrection4 ,we mu/ endeavor1 he says1 to get "s notion ( f9al rew>d & puni%m5t4 ,= )\t any idea ( its nature a man's hope or fe> is tak5 away f him1 & he has no motive = "r conduct4 ,to be sure x is n possible to get a cle> und]/&+ ( ! matt]1 b "s idea we mu/ h4 ,! fir/ view :i* he seems to favor is t revival ( ! dead & _w to come are ! same ?+2 t ! end ( man is ! resurrection ( ! body & its reunion ) ! s\l4 ,?is is ! future life1 & ?is is meant by rew>d & puni%m5t4 ,!re is ,biblical support = ?is view 9 su* expressions z1 ,?y dead %all live1 ?y dead bodies %all arise 7,isa4 #bf1 #ai74 ,! ,"l kille?1 & make? alive2 he br+e? d[n to ! grave & br+e? up 7#a ,sam4 #b1 #f74 ,!re is no?+ to object 9 ?is1 he says1 = ! same ,god :o made man ( ! du/ c revive him aft] dea?4 ,besides1 !re seems to be a logical propriety 9 br++ s\l & body toge!r = rew>d & puni%m5t j z !y 7 dur+ conduct 9 life4 ,:5 ! s\l is once reunit$ ) ! body 9 ! resurrection1 x is nev] sep>at$ aga94 ,! expression g>d5 ( ,ed5 = p>adise is a figure ( spee* = et]nal life free f pa94 ,! second op9ion is express$ by ^? :o d n believe 9 bodily resurrection4 ,! end ( man accord+ to ^! is ! return ( ! s\l to ! _w ( s\ls4 ,?is is ! mean+ ( _w to come2 & revival ( ! dead means ! same ?+4 ,= x is n possible t ! s\l %\ld be reunit$ ) ! body1 :i* is tempor>y 9 its nature & subject to dissolution4 ,besides1 ! body has organs1 su* z ^? ( food & reproduction1 :i* w\ld be useless 9 ! future life4 ,! advocates ( ?is !ory also believe 9 transmigration ( s\ls z a puni%m5t4 ,a>on b5 ,elijah rejects metempsy*osis on ! gr\nd t !re is "s relation betwe5 a s\l & its body1 & n e body c receive e s\l4 ,a>on b5 ,elijah also quotes )\t comm5t ! classification1 already famili> to u 7p4 #aai71 ( human s\ls into 7#a7 dead1 7#b7 alive1 7#c7 heal?y1 & 7#d7 sick4 ,dea? d5otes evil de$s2 life1 good de$s2 heal?1 intellectual k2 disease1 ignorance4 ,?is classification is appli$ 9 det]m9+ ! de/9y ( ! s\l aft] dea?4 ,if "o is alive & heal?y1 i4 e41 has k & good de$s1 he has a %>e 9 ! _w to come4 ,if he is heal?y & dead 7k evil de$s71 ! s\l is kept 9 an int]m$iate _w =ev]4 ,if he is alive & sick 7good de$s ignorance71 ! s\l rises to ! upp] air1 :5ce x returns aga9 & aga9 to ! body until x acquires wisdom to be able to rise to ! _w ( angels4 ,if he is dead & sick 7evil de$s ignorance71 ! s\l dies l an animal4 ,f9ally1 ! ?ird op9ion is a comb9ation ( resurrection & future _w4 ,see+ t "s ( ! functions ( ! s\l are p]=m$ ) ! help ( ! body1 :ile o!rs are n1 ! advocates ( ?is view ma9ta9 t ! s\l w be rew>d$ 9 bo? conditions--) ! body1 9 resurrection1 )\t ! body1 9 ! _w to come4 ,if a man has m]its & dem]its1 8 good & evil de$s are balanc$ aga9/ ea* o!r1 & ! surplus det]m9es 8 rew>d or puni%m5t accord+ to its nature4#che ,,*apt] ,,xvii ,,hasdai ,,b5 ,,abraham ,,crescas 7#acdj-adaj7 ,! influ5ce ( ,ari/otle on ,jewi% ?\ght1 :i* began z e>ly z ,saadia & grew 9 int5sity z ! ,ari/otelian writ+s became bett] kn[n1 rea*$ its high wat] m>k 9 ,ibn ,daud1 ,maimonides & ,g]sonides4 ,to ,maimonides ,ari/otle 0 ! indisputable au?ority = all matt]s p]ta9+ to sublun> exi/5ce1 b he res]v$ ! "r to diff] ) ! ,/agirite :5 ! "q conc]n$ ! heav5ly sph]es & ! influ5ces d]iv$ f !m4 ,h5ce he d5i$ ! et]nity ( motion & ! fundam5tal pr9ciple at ! basis ( ?is ,ari/otelian idea1 t necessity rules all natural ph5om5a4 ,9 8 doctr9e ( creation 9 "t1 ,maimonides endeavor$ to def5d ,god's p]sonality & volunt>y & purposeful activity4 ,= ! same reason he def5d$ ! in/itution ( miracles4 ,g]sonides w5t fur!r 9 8 rationali/ic attitude1 c>ri$ ! ,ari/otelian pr9ciples to _! inevitable conclusions1 & did n %r9k f adopt+ to all int5ts & purposes ! et]nity ( ! _w 7/rictly speak+ ! et]nity ( matt]71 & ! limitation ( ,god's k to univ]sals4 ,ari/otle's au?ority 0 n[ supreme1 & ! ,bible _h to yield to ,ari/otelian int]pretations1 z we h se5 abundantly4 ,maimonides & ,g]sonides 7 ! great peaks t /ood out above ! re/2 b !re 0 any numb] ( less] lights1 "s :o wrote books & /ill m :o did n write1 tak+ ! great m5 z _! models & look+ at ,jewi% lit]ature & belief ?r\gh ,ari/otelian spectacles4 ,intellectualism is ! t]m t be/ describes ?is attitude4 ,x _h its basis 9 psy*ology1 & f !re succe$$ 9 e/abli%+ itself z ! rul+ pr9ciple 9 e?ics & metaphysics4 ,z reason & intellect is ! di/+ui%+ trait ( man--! "p ( man :i* raises him above ! bea/--& z ! s\l is ! =m ( ! liv+ body1 its ess5ce & actuat+ pr9ciple1 x 0 argu$ t ! mo/ important "p ( man is 8 rational s\l or intellect1 & immortality 0 made dep5d5t ^u !oretical ideas4 ,speculative /udy made ! s\l2 & an intellect ?us con/itut$ 0 immortal1 = x 0 immat]ial4 ,! heav5ly _w1 consi/+ ( ! sep>ate ,intellig5ces & culm9at+ 9 ,god1 0 also 9 its ess5ce reason & intellect4 ,h5ce ?\ght & k =m$ ! ess5ce ( ! univ]se4 ,by ?\ght is man sav$1 & ?r\gh ?\ght is he unit$ ) ! ,mo/ ,high4 ,all else t is n pure ?\ght acquires :at value x has f ! relation x be>s to ?\ght4 ,9 ?is way 7 judg$ ^? divisions ( ,judaism t conc]n$ c]emony & e?ical practice4 ,_! value consi/$ 9 _! function ( promot+ ! ends ( ! reason4 ,judah ,halevi1 influ5c$ by ,al ,gazali1 _h already be=e ,maimonides prote/$ aga9/ ?is intellectuali/ic attitude 9 ! "n ( a tru] ?\gh m naive und]/&+ ( ! ,bible & ,jewi% hi/ory4 ,b ,judah ,halevi's nationalism & ! expression ( 8 poetical & religi\s feel+s & ideas c\ld n vie ) ! dom9at+ p]sonality ( ,maimonides1 ^: rationali/ic & intellectuali/ic attitude swept ev]y?+ be=e x & became ! dom9ant mode ( ?9k+ = 8 own & succe$+ ages4 ,x rema9$ = ,hasdai ,crescas 7born 9 ,b>celona1 9 #acdj71 :o fl\ri%$ 9 ,*ri/ian ,spa9 two c5turies aft] ,maimonides & ov] a half c5tury aft] ,g]sonides1 to take up ! cudgels aga9 9 behalf ( a tru] ,judaism1 a ,judaism indep5d5t ( ,ari/otle1 & "o t is bas$ m ^u ! spiritual & emotional sides ( man & less ^u ! purely intellectual1 !oretical & speculative4 ,himself devoid ( ! lit]>y p[] & poetic feel+ ( ,judah ,halevi1 ,crescas _h ?is 9 common ) ! m$ival national poet t he res5t$ ! dom9ation ( ,jewi% belief & ?\ght by ! ali5 ,greek speculation4 ,9 a /yle free f rhetoric1 & *>act]iz$ r by a sev]e brevity & precision1 he und]takes to und]m9e ! ,ari/otelian position by us+ ! ,/agirite's own weapons1 logical analysis & pro(4 ,8 *ief "w is ! ,or ,adonai1 ,light ( ! ,"l4#chf ,agree+ ) all o!r ,jewi% writ]s t ! exi/5ce ( ,god is ! basis ( ,judaism1 he sees 9 ?is v fact a reason :y ?is pr9ciple _c be reg>d$ z "o ( ! six hundr$ & ?irte5 comm&m5ts4 ,= a comm&m5t implies ! exi/5ce ( "o :o comm&s4 ,h5ce to reg>d ! belief 9 ! exi/5ce ( ,god z a comm&m5t implies ! v ?+ :i* ! comm&m5t expresses4 ,! exi/5ce ( ,god !re=e z ! basis ( all comm&m5ts _c itself be a comm&m5t4 ,besides only ^? ?+s c =m ! objects ( a comm& :i* c be controll$ by ! w4 ,b a matt] ( belief l ! exi/5ce ( ,god is n subject to w1 x is a matt] ( fact & ( pro(4#chg ,maimonides1 z we "k1 bas$ 8 pro(s ( ! exi/5ce1 unity & incorporeality ( ,god ^u tw5ty-six philosophical propositions tak5 f ! works ( ,ari/otle & 8 ,arabian int]pret]s4 ,z he 0 n writ+ a book on g5]al philosophy1 ,maimonides simply enum]ates tw5ty-five propositions1 :i* he accepts z prov$ by ,ari/otle & 8 foll[]s4 ,to ^! he adds provisionally ano!r proposition1 numb] tw5ty-six1 conc]n+ ! et]nity ( motion1 ^u :i* he bases 8 pro( ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god 9 ord] to be safe f all criticism4 ,9 ! sequel he discusses ?is la/ proposition & %[s t unlike ! o!r tw5ty-five1 x is n susceptible ( rigid demon/ration1 & ! argum5ts 9 favor ( ! orig9 ( motion & ! _w 9 "t are m plausible4 ,crescas goes fur!r ?an ,maimonides1 & controv]ts mo/ ( ! o!r propositions z well1 ma9ta9+ 9 p>ticul> aga9/ ,ari/otle & ,maimonides t an inf9ite magnitude is possible & exi/s actually2 t !re is an inf9ite fulness or void outside ( ?is _w1 & h5ce !re may be _m worlds1 & x ne$ n foll[ t ! elem5ts w\ld p\r 9 f "o _w into ! next1 s t all e>? %\ld be toge!r 9 ! c5tre1 all fire toge!r 9 ! out] circumf]5ce1 & ! int]m$iate elem5ts1 air & wat]1 betwe5 ^! two4 ,! elem5ts may /ay 9 _! respective worlds 9 ! places assign$ to !m4 ,x w n be wor? our :ile to wade ?r\gh all ! te*nical & hair-splitt+ discussions ( ^! po9ts4 ,! results w be suffici5t = our purpose4 ,! pro( ( ! exi/5ce ( an unmov$ mov] 9 ,ari/otle & ,maimonides is bas$ ^u ! impossibility ( a regress to inf9ity4 ,if ,hasdai ,crescas admits ! inf9ite1 ! ,ari/otelian pro( fails4 ,simil>ly ,god's unity 9 ,maimonides is among o!r ?+s bas$ ^u ! f9it5ess ( ! _w & its unity4 ,if inf9ite space is possible outside ( ?is _w1 & !re may be _m worlds1 ?is pro( fails = ,god's unity4 ,s ,crescas takes up 9 detail all ! ,maimonidean pro(s ( ! exi/5ce1 unity & incorporeality ( ,god & po9ts out t !y are n valid because 9 ! fir/ place !y are bas$ ^u premises :i* ,crescas has refut$1 & secondly 7 ! premises grant$ ,maimonides's results d n foll[ f !m4#chh ,x rema9s !n = ,crescas to give 8 own views on ?is problem :i*1 he says1 ! philosoph]s are unable to solve satisfactorily1 & ! ,bible alone is to be reli$ ^u4 ,at ! same "t he does give a logical pro( :i* 9 reality is n diff]5t f "o ( ! pro(s giv5 by ,maimonides himself4 ,x is bas$ ^u ! di/9ction insi/$ ^u by ,alf>abi & ,avic5na betwe5 ! possible exi/5t & ! necess>y exi/5t4 ,:atev] is an effect ( a cause is 9 itself m]ely possible1 & owes ! necessity ( its exi/5ce to its cause4 ,n[1 argues ,crescas1 :e!r ! numb] ( causes & effects is f9ite or inf9ite1 !re mu/ be "o cause ( all ( !m :i* is n itself an effect4 ,= if all ?+s are effects !y are possible exi/5ts z reg>ds _! own nature1 & require a cause :i* w make !m exi/ r ?an n4 ,?is self-subsi/+ cause is ,god4#chi ,he !n endeavors to prove ! unity ( ,god 9 ! two s5ses ( ! t]m2 unity 9 ! s5se ( simplicity1 & unity 9 ! s5se ( uniqu5ess4 ,unity z oppos$ to composition--! =m] s5se ( ! t]m--is nei!r ! same z ! ess5ce ( a ?+1 nor is x an accid5t add$ to ! ess5ce4 ,x _c be ess5ce1 = 9 t case all ?+s call$ "o w\ld h ! same ess5ce4 ,nor is x accid5t1 = t :i* def9es & sep>ates ! exi/+ ?+ is truly call$ sub/ance r ?an accid5t2 & ?is is :at unity does4 ,accord+ly ,crescas def9es unity z some?+ ess5tial to ev]y?+ actually exi/+1 d5ot+ ! abs5ce ( plurality4 ,?is be+ true1 t exi/5t :i* is be=e all o!rs is mo/ truly call$ "o4 ,also t be+ :i* is mo/ sep>at$ f o!r ?+s is be/ call$ "o4#cij ,crescas disagrees ) ,maimonides's op9ion t no positive attributes c be appli$ to ,god1 su* z indicate relation to 8 creatures1 & s on4 ,8 argum5ts are t we _c avoid relation to creatures ev5 9 ! t]m cause1 :i* ,maimonides admits2 & 9 ! attributes ( action--! only k9d ( positive attributes all[$ by ,maimonides--x is impli$ t be=e a giv5 "t ,god did n d a p>ticul> ?+1 :i* he did lat]1 a condition 9 ,god :i* ,maimonides w n admit4 ,besides1 if !re are no positive attributes1 :at c\ld be ! mean+ ( ! tetragrammaton1 ab\t :i* ,maimonides has s mu* to say8 ,if x express$ a negative attribute1 :y 0 its mean+ kept s secret8 ,crescas's own view is t !re are positive attributes1 & t !re is a relation betwe5 ,god & 8 creatures1 ?\gh n a simil>ity1 z !y are f> ap>t1 ! "o be+ a necess>y exi/5t1 ! o!r a possible exi/5t2 "o be+ inf9ite1 ! o!r f9ite4#cia ,we mu/ n[ try to %[ t ,god is "o 9 ! s5se t !re are no o!r ,gods besides4 ,we may proce$ z foll[s3 ,if !re are two ,gods1 "o ( !m controls only "p ( ! _w or he does n control x at all4 ,! fir/ is impossible because ! unit>y _w mu/ be due to "o ag5t4 ,b !re may be m ?an "o _w & h5ce m ?an "o ag5t4 ,?is is1 h[ev]1 answ]$ by ! ?\ght t be+ inf9ite 9 p[] "o c\ld control !m all4 ,!re is /ill ano!r alt]native1 viz41 t "o ag5t controls ! :ole _w & ! o!r does no?+4 ,"h speculation c g no fur!r1 & we mu/ h rec\rse to ,scripture1 :i* says1 ,he>1 ,o ,israel1 ! ,"l our ,god1 ! ,"l is ,"o4#cib ,we see "h t ,crescas is int]e/$ 9 discr$it+ ! logic *opp+ ( ! philosoph]s4 ,no m]ely logical argum5t1 is 8 idea1 c give u absolute c]ta9ty ev5 9 s fundam5tal a doctr9e z ! unity ( ,god4 ,l ,judah ,halevi1 ,crescas took 8 inspiration f ,algazali1 ^: po9t ( view appeal$ to him m ?an t ( ,maimonides & ,g]sonides1 :o may be class$ ) ,alf>abi1 ,avic5na & ,av]roes4 ,hav+ discuss$ ! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( all religion & philosophy1 namely1 ! exi/5ce & nature ( ,god1 ,crescas next takes up ! foll[+ six fundam5tal dogmas ( ,judaism1 ,god's k ( exi/+ ?+s1 ,provid5ce1 ,p[]1 ,prophecy1 ,fre$om1 ,purpose4 ,!re are ?ree ?+s to be rememb]$ 9 ! matt] ( ,god's k4 ,he kn[s ! inf9ite1 = he kn[s p>ticul>s4 ,he kn[s ! non-exi/5t1 z he kn[s ! future2 & 8 k ( ! cont+5t does n remove its cont+5t "*4 ,maimonides & ,g]sonides _h difficulty ) ?is problem & we "k _! respective solutions4 ,g]sonides1 = reasons metaphysical z well z e?ical1 does n scruple to limit ,god's k to univ]sals4 ,maimonides endeavors to reconcile ! dilemma by ?r[+ ! blame ^u our limit$ und]/&+4 ,9 ,god's k :i* is toto coelo diff]5t f ours1 & ( :i* we h no conception1 all oppositions & contradictions f9d _! ultimate h>mony4 ,crescas1 z we might naturally expect1 agrees ) ,maimonides 9 ?is matt] r ?an ) ,g]sonides4 ,to limit ,god's k is oppos$ to ! ,bible1 & w\ld involve u 9 great] difficulties ?an ^? we endeavor to escape4#cic ,relat$ to ! "q ( ,god's k is ! problem ( ,provid5ce4 ,= ,god mu/ "k ! individual or ?+ = :i* he provides1 & if ,god has no k ( p>ticul>s1 !re c be no su* ?+ z special provid5ce4 ,?is latt] z we "k is virtually ! op9ion ( ,g]sonides 7cf4 p4 #cde74 ,crescas1 we h se51 def5ds ,god's k ( p>ticul>s1 h5ce he sees no difficulty 9 special provid5ce on ?is score4 ,he takes1 h[ev]1 ! t]m 9 a broad s5se4 ,all evid5ce ( design 9 nature1 all p[]s 9 plant & animal :i* guide _! gr[?1 reproduction & cons]vation are due to ,god's provid5ce4 ,provid5ce1 he says1 is sometimes ex]cis$ by ,god directly1 )\t an int]m$iate volunt>y ag5t1 sometimes ) su* m$iation4 ,god's relations to ,moses & to ! ,israelites 9 ,egypt at ! "t ( ! t5? plague 7 )\t int]m$iate ag5cy4 ,9 all o!r cases !re is m$iation ( angels1 or prophets1 or wise m51 or1 accord+ to "s1 ! heav5ly bodies1 :i* are liv+ & intellig5t be+s4 ,provid5ce itself is ( diff]5t k9ds4 ,!re is ! mo/ g5]al & natural exhibit$ 9 ! equipm5t ( ! v>i\s species ( plant & animal life = _! protection & gr[? & cons]vation4 ,!re are ! m special p[]s f\nd 9 ! human race4 ,^! =ms ( provid5ce h little to d ) ! p]son's des]ts4 ,!y are purely dep5d5t ^u ! con/itution & influ5ce ( ! />s4 ,!n !re is ! m special provid5ce ( ! ,jewi% nation1 !n ( ! male memb]s ( ?is nation1 & ( ! prie/s & ! levites4 ,f9ally comes ! special provid5ce ( ! individual1 :o is rew>d$ & puni%$ accord+ to 8 conduct4 ,! rew>d & puni%m5t ( ?is _w are n /rictly controll$ by conduct1 ! rew>d & puni%m5t ( ! next _w are4 ,9 ?is la/ rem>k ,crescas cuts ! knot :i* has be5 ! cause ( s mu* discussion 9 religi\s philosophy4 ,if ! real rew>d & puni%m5t are 9 ! next _w1 ! prosp]ity ( ! wick$ & ! adv]sity ( ! righte\s 9 ?is _w d n =m s great a problem4 ,at ! same "t an explanation ( ?is peculi> ph5om5on is /ill want+4 ,= surely ! righte\s man does n des]ve to suff] = 8 righte\sness1 ev5 ?\gh 8 good de$s w n g unrew>d$ 9 ! next _w4 ,9 ?is discussion also ,crescas takes issue ) ! intellectuali/ic po9t ( view ( ,maimonides & p>ticul>ly ,g]sonides4 ,! solution ( ^! m5 t evil does n come f ,god directly b by accid5t & by reason ( matt]1 & ! coroll>y drawn !refrom t ,god does n puni% ! wick$ directly1 t he m]ely neglects !m1 leav+ !m to ! accid5ts ( nature & *ance1 ,crescas does n approve4 ,nor is he m favorably incl9$ to ! !ory t ! good man is provid$ = because ! m he cultivates 8 m9d1 ! m closely he comes 9 contact ) ,god1 9 :om are conta9$ actually all ! ideas ( :i* man has "s pot5tially4 ,8 ma9 criticism is t ! !ory is oppos$ to cle> /atem5ts 9 ! ,bible1 :i* imply special & individual rew>d & puni%m5t 9 a miracul\s & sup]natural mann]1 :i* _c be due to intellectual p]fection1 nor to ! ord] ( ! heav5ly bodies4 ,besides1 if a man :o is highly intellectual did mu* wrong1 he %\ld be puni%$ 9 8 s\l1 b on ! intellectuali/ !ory su* a s\l is immortal & _c be de/roy$4 ,accord+ly ,crescas goes back to ! religi\s doctr9e ( rew>d & puni%m5t z ord9>ily und]/ood4 ,god rew>ds & puni%es because man obeys or disobeys 8 w & comm&4 ,! compla9t rais$ on acc\nt ( ! mis]y ( ! good & ! prosp]ity ( ! wick$ he answ]s by say+ t real rew>d & puni%m5t are 9 ! next _w4 ,! goods & evils ( ?is _w are also to be consid]$1 & he gives ! ord9>y excuses = ! app>5t deviation f :at ought to be1 su* z t evil is sometimes a good 9 disguise & vice v]sa2 t "o sometimes inh]its evil & good f "o's p>5ts2 t ! individual is sometimes involv$ 9 ! de/9ies ( ! majority1 & s on1 & s on4 ,evil 9 ! s5se ( moral evil1 i4 e41 wrong1 does n come f ,god1 x is true1 b puni%m5t does come f ,god1 & z its aim is ju/ice1 x is a good1 n an evil4 ,! provid5ce ext5d$ to ,israel is greate/4 ,!re is m ,provid5ce 9 ,pale/9e ?an else:]e1 n because !re is any diff]5ce 9 ! relation on ,god's side1 b !re is on ! side ( ! man enjoy+ ?is provid5ce4 ,8 "* & disposition *ange ) ! place1 & simil>ly ) ! "t & ! season4 ,h5ce c]ta9 seasons ( ! ye>1 l t ab\t ! "t ( ! ,day ( ,atonem5t1 are m propiti\s = receiv+ ,god's provid5ce4#cid ,ano!r fundam5tal doctr9e ( ,judaism is ,god's omnipot5ce4 ,weakness w\ld be a defect4 ,h5ce ,god c d ev]y?+ except ! contradictory4 ,8 p[] is inf9ite n m]ely 9 duration1 b also 9 int5sity4 ,f ,ari/otle's pro( ( ! necessity ( an immovable mov] z bas$ ^u ! et]nity ( motion 7p4 #bef f471 we ga!r only t ,god's p[] is inf9ite 9 duration2 :]eas our doctr9e ( creation ex nihilo %[s t !re is no relation at all betwe5 ,god's p[] & ! "w he does2 h5ce 8 p[] is inf9ite4 ,?is is %[n also 9 ! miracles1 "s ( :i* took place in/antane\sly1 z ! de/ruction ( ! fir/ born 9 ,egypt at midnight precisely4 ,crescas insi/s t ! ass ( ,balaam did speak1 & ref]s ) disapproval to ^? :o d\bt x & say x 0 9 a vision 7,g]sonides74#cie ,9 8 discussion ( ,prophecy ! int]e/ lies once m 9 8 anti-intellectuali/ic attitude4 ,maimonides agrees ) ! philosoph]s t ! prophetic p[] is a psy*ological process atta9able by ! man :o 9 addition to moral p]fection possesses a highly develop$ intellect & p[] ( imag9ation4 ,to anticipate ! objection t if ?is be s1 :y are !re no prophets among ! philosoph]s1 ,maimonides adds t div9e grace is necess>y besides1 & t if ?is is lack+1 "o may h all ! qualifications & yet n be a prophet4 ,crescas sees ! =c$ nature ( ?is explanation1 & once m frankly returns to ! pla9 int5t ( ,scripture & ,jewi% tradition t ! prophet is ! man *os5 by ,god because he is a /ud5t ( ! ,torah & foll[s its comm&m5ts1 & because he cleaves to ,god & loves him4 ,! prophet receives 8 inspiration f ,god directly or ?r\gh an int]m$iate ag5t1 & ! in=mation receiv$ may conc]n any topic :atsoev]4 ,x is n to be limit$ to c]ta9 topics to ! exclusion ( o!rs1 z ,g]sonides tries to make out2 & its purpose is to give guidance to ! prophet himself or to o!rs ?r\gh him4#cif ,! mo/ orig9al contribution ( ,crescas to philosophical !ory is 8 treatm5t ( ! ev] liv+ problem ( fre$om4 ,s fundam5tal has x seem$ = ,judaism to ma9ta9 ! fre$om ( ! w t no "o hi!rto _h v5tur$ to d\bt x4 ,maimonides no less ?an ,judah ,halevi1 & ) equal emphasis ,g]sonides1 insi/ t ! individual is n det]m9$ 9 8 conduct4 ,?is seem$ to be ! only way to v9dicate ,god's ju/ice 9 rew>d & puni%m5t4 ,b ! idea ( man's fre$om cla%$ ) ! doctr9e ( ,god's omnisci5ce4 ,if no?+ 9 ! pa/ det]m9es a man's w 9 a giv5 case1 !n up to ! mom5t ( ! act x is undet]m9$1 & no "o c "k :e!r a giv5 act w take place or its opposite4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if ,god does "k ev]y?+ 9 ! future z well z 9 ! pa/1 man is no long] free to act 9 a mann] contr>y to ,god's =ekn[l$ge4 ,?is difficulty 0 recogniz$ by ,maimonides z well z by ,g]sonides1 & !y solv$ x 9 diff]5t ways4 ,maimonides gives up nei!r ,god's omnisci5ce nor man's absolute fre$om1 & escapes ! dilemma by tak+ refuge 9 8 idea ( ,god's transc5d5ce4 ,human k is incompatible ) human fre$om2 ,god's k is n l human k1 & we h no conception :at x is4 ,b x is consi/5t ) human fre$om4 ,g]sonides1 :o objects to ,maimonides's treatm5t ( ! div9e attributes1 & insi/s t !y mu/ resemble 9 k9d ?\gh n 9 degree ! correspond+ human attributes1 c avoid ! difficulty only by a p>tial blunt+ ( ! %>p po9ts ( ei!r horn ( ! dilemma4 ,accord+ly he ma9ta9s fre$om 9 all its rigor1 & mitigates ! conception ( omnisci5ce4 ,god's omnisci5ce ext5ds only to ! univ]sal & its consequ5ces2 ! cont+5t p>ticul> is by def9ition n subject to =ekn[l$ge1 & h5ce x argues no defect 9 ,god's k if x does n ext5d to ! undet]m9$ decisions ( ! w4 ,crescas embraces ! o!r horn ( ! dilemma4 ,god's omnisci5ce mu/ be ma9ta9$ 9 all its rigor4 ,x is absurd to suppose t ! fir/ univ]sal & absolute cause %\ld be ignorant ( any?+ p]ta9+ to its effects4 ,is man !n n free8 ,has he no *oice at all1 no fre$om 9 ! det]m9ation ( 8 conduct8 ,if s h[ ju/ify ,god's rew>d & puni%m5t1 if rew>d & puni%m5t are relative to conduct & imply responsibility8 ,crescas's answ] is a compromise4 ,det]m9ism is n fatalism4 ,x does n mean t a giv5 p]son is preorda9$ f et]nity to act 9 a giv5 way1 no matt] :at ! circum/ances are4 ,x does n mean t comm& & advice & w>n+ & education & ef=t & endeavor are useless & )\t effect4 ,?is is contradict$ by exp]i5ce z well z by ! te/imony ( ,scripture4 ,b nei!r is x true on ! o!r h& t a p]son's w & its conduct are causeless & undet]m9$ until ! mom5t ( action4 ,?is idea is equally untrue to reason & exp]i5ce4 ,we "k t e effect has a cause & ! cause has a cause1 & ?is second cause has aga9 a cause1 until we rea* ! fir/ necess>y cause4 ,two individuals simil> 9 e respect w\ld h ! same w unless !re is a cause :i* makes !m diff]5t4 ,we h already intimat$ t ,god's =ekn[l$ge1 :i* we _c d5y1 is incompatible ) absolute fre$om1 & 9 ! ,bible we h in/ances ( ,god's kn[+ future ev5ts :i* are ! results ( individual *oice1 z 9 ! case ( ,ph>aoh4 ,! only solution !n is t ! act ( w is 9 a s5se cont+5t1 9 a s5se det]m9$4 ,x is cont+5t 9 respect to itself1 x is det]m9$ by its cause1 i4 e41 ! act is n fat$ to take place1 cause or no cause4 ,if x 7 possible to remove ! cause1 ! act w\ld n be2 b giv5 ! cause1 ! effect is necess>y4 ,ef=t is n 9 va91 = ef=t is itself a cause & det]m9es an effect4 ,comm&m5ts & prohibitions are n useless1 = ! same reason4 ,rew>d & puni%m5t are n unju/1 ev5 ?\gh antec$5t causes ov] :i* man has no control det]m9e 8 acts1 any m ?an x is unju/ t fire burns ! "o :o comes ne> x1 ?\gh he did s )\t int5tion4 ,rew>d & puni%m5t are a necess>y consequ5ce ( ob$i5ce & disob$i5ce4 ,?is is a bold /atem5t on ! "p ( ,crescas1 & ! analogy betwe5 a man's volunt>y act 9 e?ical & religi\s conduct & ! t5d5cy ( fire to burn irrespective ( ! p]son's responsibility 9 ! matt] c be valid only if we r$uce ! e?ical & religi\s _w to an imp]sonal =ce on a plane ) ! me*anism ( ! physical _w ord]4 ,?is seems a risky ?+ to d = a religioni/4 ,& ,crescas feels x1 say+ t to make ?is view public w\ld be dang]\s1 z ! p w\ld f9d 9 x an apology = evil do]s1 n und]/&+ t puni%m5t is a natural consequ5ce ( evil4 ,?is latt] /atem5t ,crescas does n wi% to be tak5 9 its lit]al /rictness1 nor %\ld ! analogy ) ! burn+ fire be press$ too f>4 ,= x w\ld !n foll[ ev5 if a p]son is physically compell$ to d evil t he w\ld be puni%$1 j z ! fire w\ld n refra9 f burn+ a p]son :o 0 ?r[n into x by =ce4 ,! det]m9ation ( ! w1 he says1 mu/ n be felt by ! ag5t z a con/ra9t & compulsion1 else ! act is n free & no puni%m5t %\ld foll[2 = comm& & prohibition c h no effect on a w con/ra9$4 ,rew>d & puni%m5t h a p$agogical value g5]ally1 ev5 if 9 a giv5 case !y are n des]v$4 ,ev5 ?\gh 9 reality e act is det]m9$1 /ill :]e !re is no ext]nal compulsion ! p]son is s id5tifi$ ) ! de$ t x is 9 a real s5se ! product ( 8 own s\l1 br++ ab\t a union )1 or sep>ation f ,god2 & h5ce rew>d & puni%m5t are necess>ily connect$ ) x4 ,:]e !re is ext]nal compulsion1 on ! o!r h&1 ! act is n 9 reality 8 own & h5ce no rew>d or puni%m5t4 ,! "q arises1 h[ev]1 :y %\ld !re be puni%m5t = errone\s belief & op9ion8 ,^! h no?+ to d ) ! w1 & are det]m9$ if any?+ is1 i4 e41 ! p]son hav+ !m is con/ra9$ to believe z he does by ! argum5ts1 ov] :i* he has no control4 ,?is matt] (f]s no difficulty to ^? :o1 l ,maimonides & ,g]sonides1 reg>d intellig5ce z ! ess5ce ( ! s\l1 & make immortality dep5d5t ^u intellectual ideas4 ,a s\l acquir+ true ideas1 !y say1 becomes ipso facto immortal4 ,x is n a "q ( "r & wrong or ( rew>d & puni%m5t4 ,b ?is is n ! ,biblical view1 & if x 7 true1 !re w\ld be no ne$ ( ! _m c]emonial regulations4 ,geometry w\ld play a great] rle 9 immortality ?an ! ,torah4 ,crescas's answ] is t rew>d & puni%m5t 9 ?is case are n = ! belief itself1 b r = ! pleasure "o f9ds 9 x & ! pa9s "o takes to exam9e x c>efully4 ,ev5 9 conduct "o is n rew>d$ or puni%$ = de$s directly1 b = ! int5tion & desire4 ,de$ )\t int5tion is n puni%$4 ,int5tion )\t de$ is2 ?\gh ! two toge!r call = ! greate/ puni%m5t or rew>d4 ,a burnt (f]+1 say ! ,rabbis1 atones = s9ful ?\ghts2 s9 committ$ ?r\gh compulsion is n puni%$4#cig ,x is ( int]e/ "h to "k t ,sp9oza1 z has be5 %[n by ,joel1#cih ow$ 8 idea ( man's fre$om to ,crescas4 ,he also l ,crescas d5ies ! absolute indet]m9ism ( a p]son's conduct t is insi/$ ^u by ! majority ( ! m$ival ,jewi% philosoph]s4 ,& ,joel %[s moreov] t ,sp9oza's f9al attitude to ?is "q z f\nd 9 8 ,e?ics 0 ! outcome ( a gradual developm5t1 & ! result ( read+ ,crescas4 ,9 "s ( 8 e>li] writ+s he insi/s t any?+ %ort ( absolute omnisci5ce 9 ,god is un?9kable4 ,he sees ! difficulty ( reconcil+ ?is ) man's fre$om1 b is n ready to sacrifice ei!r1 & l ,maimonides decides t we mu/ n d5y x simply because we _c und]/& x4 ,lat]1 h[ev]1 he ma9ta9s t ,god's omnisci5ce & man's fre$om are absolutely incompatible1 & solves ! difficulty 9 a mann] simil> to t ( ,crescas by curtail+ fre$om z =m]ly und]/ood4 ,! next topic ( :i* x is necess>y to h a cle> idea = a complete und]/&+ ( ,judaism1 is ! purpose ( ! ,law1 & 9 g5]al ! purpose ( man4 ,"h also appe>s cle>ly ! anti-intellectualism ( ,crescas & 8 disagreem5t ) ,maimonides & ,g]sonides4 ,! f9al purpose ( ! ,law is ( c\rse1 he says1 a good4 ,! ,bible tea*es u to p]fect our morals2 x inculcates true beliefs & op9ions2 & x promises by means ( ^! happ9ess ( body & happ9ess ( s\l4 ,:i* ( ^! f\r is ! ultimate end8 ,cle>ly x mu/ be ! be/ & mo/ wor?y4 ,& x seems z if ?is quality p]ta9s to ! et]nal happ9ess ( ! s\l1 to :i* z an end ! o!r ?ree t5d4 ,corporeal happ9ess is a means to ! p]fection ( ! s\l s9ce ! latt] acts ?r\gh ! means ( bodily organs4 ,simil>ly moral p]fection assi/s 9 purify+ ! s\l4 ,z = p]fection 9 ideas1 "s ?9k t x alone makes ! s\l immortal by creat+ ! acquir$ intellect1 :i* is immat]ial & sep>ate1 & enjoys happ9ess 9 ! next _w incomp>ably great] ?an ! joy we feel "h bel[ 9 ! acquisition ( k4 ,!re is a diff]5ce ( op9ion z to ! subject-matt] :i* be/[s immortality4 ,accord+ to "s x is all k1 :e!r ( sublun> ?+s or ( ! sep>ate sub/ances4 ,accord+ to o!rs x is only ! k ( ,god & ! angels t conf]s immortality4 ,all ^! views are wrong f ! ,scriptural z well z ! philosophical po9t ( view4 ,! ,bible makes x cle> repeat$ly t et]nal life is obta9$ by p]=mance ( ! comm&m5ts2 :]eas accord+ to ! o!rs practical obs]vance is only a means & a prep>ation to !ory1 )\t :i* practice alone is inadequate4 ,accord+ to ,scripture & tradition c]ta9 (f5ces are puni%$ ) exclusion f et]nal life1 & c]ta9 obs]vances conf] immortality1 :i* h no?+ to d ) !oretical tru?s4 ,b philosophically too _! views are unt5able4 ,= x w\ld foll[ f _! op9ions t ! purpose ( ! ,law is = some?+ o!r ?an man1 = ! acquir$ intellect is sep>ate1 & h5ce _c be ! =m ( man4 ,x is diff]5t 9 k9d f man1 = unlike him x is et]nal z an individual4 ,besides x is n true t ! acquir$ intellect is made z a sub/ance by its ideas1 :ile be+ sep>ate f ! mat]ial intellect2 = z immat]ial x has no matt] z its subject f :i* x c\ld come into be+4 ,x mu/ !re=e come into be+ ex nihilo1 :i* is absurd4 ,& !re are o!r reasons aga9/ _! view4 ,= if all k conf]s immortality1 "o may acquire x by /udy+ geometry1 :i* is absurd4 ,& if ?is privilege c be ga9$ only by a k ( ,god & ! sep>ate sub/ances1 ! objection is /ill great]2 =1 z ,maimonides has %[n1 ! only k t may be _h ( ^! is negative2 & x is n likely t su* imp]fect k %\ld make an et]nal intellect4 ,if !n !oretical k does n lead to immortality z !y ?\ght1 & ! o!r p]fections are prep>atory to !oretical1 x foll[s t ! ultimate purpose ( ! ,law & ( man is atta9$ prim>ily nei!r by !ory alone nor by practice alone1 b by some?+ else1 :i* is nei!r q ! "o nor ! o!r4 ,x is ! love & fe> ( ,god4 ,?is is dem&$ alike by ,scripture1 tradition & philosophy4 ,t x is ! view ( religion is cle> en\gh f ! _m passages 9 ! ,bible urg+ love ( ,god4 ,b x is also dem&$ by philosophy4 ,= ! s\l is a spiritual sub/ance1 h5ce x is capable ( sep>ation f ! body & ( exi/+ by itself =ev]1 :e!r x has !oretical k or n2 s9ce x is n subject to decay1 n be+ mat]ial4 ,fur!r1 ! p]fect loves ! good & ! p]fect2 & ! great] ! good & ! p]fection ! great] ! love & ! desire 9 ! p]fect be+4 ,h5ce ! p]fect s\l loves ,god ) ! greate/ love ( :i* x is capable4 ,simil>ly ,god's love = ! p]fect s\l1 ?\gh ! object z comp>$ ) him is l[ inde$1 is great1 because 8 ess5ce & p]fection are great4 ,n[ z love is ! cause ( unity ev5 9 natural ?+s1 ! love ( ,god 9 ! s\l br+s ab\t a unity betwe5 !m2 & unity ) ,god surely leads to happ9ess & immortality4 ,z love is diff]5t f intellectual appreh5sion1 ! ess5ce ( ! s\l is love r ?an intellig5ce4 ,!re are _m ,talmudical passages confirm+ ?is view logically d]iv$4 ,we are told t ! s\ls ( ! righte\s enjoy ! spl5dor ( ! ,%ek9ah1 & ! wick$ suff] correspond+ly4 ,?is agrees ) our conception ( immortality & n ) !irs4 ,= enjoym5t is impossible on _! %[+1 ?\gh !y try to make x plausible4 ,pleasure is diff]5t f appreh5sion2 & z ! ess5ce ( ! acquir$ intellect is appreh5sion1 !re is no room = ! pleasure1 ! intellect be+ simple4 ,accord+ to our view love is rew>d$ ) pleasure4 ,! pleasure we feel "h bel[ 9 intellectual "w 7,g]sonides1 p4 #cci7 proves no?+1 = x is due to ! ef=t & ! pass+ f pot5tial k to actual k1 i4 e41 to ! process ( le>n+4 ,pro( ( ?is is t we f9d no pleasure 9 axioms & fir/ pr9ciples1 :i* we "k )\t ef=t4 ,b ! acquir$ intellect aft] ! dea? ( ! body does n le>n any new tru?s1 h5ce c h no pleasure4 ,! ,rabbis also speak ( def9ite places ( rew>d & puni%m5t1 :i* _c apply to ! acquir$ intellect1 s9ce x is a sep>ate sub/ance & c h no place4 ,! s\l z we und]/& x c h a place1 j z x is connect$ ) ! body dur+ life4 ,! ,rabbis (t5 speak ( ! great rew>d de/9$ = s*ool *ildr54 ,b surely ! acquir$ intellect _c am\nt to mu* 9 *ildr54 ,! tru? is t ! s\l becomes mature & complete z soon z x acquires ! rational faculty 9 ! %ape ( ! fir/ pr9ciples or axioms4 ,!n x is prep>$ = immortality z a natural ?+ )\t reg>d to rew>d4 ,! purpose ( ! s\l z we %[$ is to love ,god4 ,?is object ! ,bible atta9s by ! comm&m5ts1 :i* may be classifi$ ) ref]5ce to _! significance 9 sev5 gr\ps4 ,!y exalt ,god2 !y %[ 8 great k9dness to u2 !y give u true ideas conc]n+ ! nature ( ,god2 !y call our att5tion to 8 provid5ce2 !y give u promises ( corporeal & spiritual rew>d2 !y call our att5tion to ,god's miracles 9 ord] to keep our att5tion f flagg+2 & f9ally !y comm& love ( ,god & union ) him z ! f9al aim ( man4#cii ,9 addition to ! six fundam5tal doctr9es ( ,judaism m5tion$ above 7p4 #cib71 !re are true beliefs :i* are ess5tial to ,judaism1 & ! d5ial ( :i* con/itutes h]esy2 ?\gh !y are n z fundam5tal z ! o!r six1 9 ! s5se t ! ,law w\ld cont9ue to exi/ )\t !m4 ,!y are 7#a7 ,creation1 7#b7 ,immortality1 7#c7 ,rew>d & ,puni%m5t1 7#d7 ,resurrection1 7#e7 ,et]nity ( ! ,law1 7#f7 ,! sup]iority ( ,moses to ! o!r prophets1 7#g7 ,! prie/'s le>n+ ! future ?r\gh ! ,urim & ,tumim1 7#h7 ,belief 9 ! ,messiah4 ,! li/ ( ?irte5 articles ( ! cre$ giv5 by ,maimonides 7cf4 bel[1 p4 #dji7 is op5 to criticism4 ,if he meant fundam5tal dogmas1 !re are n z _m z ?irte52 !re are no m ?an sev5 or eight--! six m5tion$ be=e 7p4 #cib71 &1 if "o *ooses1 ! exi/5ce ( ,god1 mak+ sev51 & revelation z ! eigh?4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if ,maimonides meant to include true beliefs1 !re are m ?an fifte51 ! six enum]at$ above 7p4 #cib71 exi/5ce ( ,god & revelation1 & ! eight true beliefs nam$ at ! head ( ?is section1 n c\nt+ a great _m specific comm&m5ts4#djj ,hav+ made ?is criticism ( ,maimonides's ?irte5 articles1 ,crescas proce$s to discuss e "o ( ! eight true beliefs nam$ at ! beg9n+ ( ! la/ p>agraph4 ,= our purpose x w n be necess>y to reproduce ! m9ute argum5ts "h4 ,we w select a few ( ! m important topics & /ate briefly ,crescas's attitude4 ,! doctr9e ( creation =m$ ! c5tral !me 9 ,maimonides & ,g]sonides4 ,x 0 "h1 z we h se51 t ,maimonides /opp$ %ort 9 8 devotion to ,ari/otle & took pa9s to %[ t ! argum5ts ( ! latt] 9 favor ( et]nity are n valid1 & t ,ari/otle knew x4 ,he endeavor$ to %[1 moreov]1 t ! doctr9e ( creation c be made m plausible ?an its opposite1 & h5ce s9ce creation is ess5tial to ,judaism1 x mu/ be reg>d$ z a fundam5tal dogma4 ,g]sonides c\ld n see 8 way cle> to accept+ creation ex nihilo1 among o!r ?+s because z matt] _c come f =m1 ! mat]ial _w _c come f ,god4 ,accord+ly he compromis$ by say+ t :ile ! pres5t _w z x is is n et]nal1 x came f a primitive hyle or matt]1 :i* 0 et]nal4 ,?us our _w is dep5d5t = its =ms ^u ,god1 = its matt] ^u ! prime & et]nal hyle4 ,"h ,crescas takes up ! problem & po9ts out t :e!r we accept or n an et]nal hyle1 ev]y?+ t exi/s mu/ be dep5d5t ^u ,god z ! only necess>y exi/5t4 ,ev]y?+ outside ( him1 be x et]nal matt] or n1 is only a possible exi/5t & owes its exi/5ce to ,god4 ,creation ex nihilo means no m4 ,to be sure1 if we assume t ! exi/5ce ( ! _w & its emanation f ,god is et]nal1 because 8 relation to 8 product is ! same at all times1 x w foll[ t ! emanation ( ! _w f ,god is a necess>y process4 ,b necessity 9 ?is case does n exclude w1 nay x implies x4 ,= ! only way 9 :i* any?+ c come f a rational cause is by way ( conception4 ,! rational cause =ms a conception ( ! _w ord] & ( himself z giv+ exi/5ce to ?is _w ord] z a :ole & 9 its p>ts4 ,w means no m ?an ?is4 ,?is w also solve ! old philosophic difficulty1 h[ c ! _m come f ! ,"o4 ,our answ] is t ! good ,god creat$ a good _w4 ,! goodness ( ! _w is its unity1 i4 e41 ! p>ts contribute to mak+ a :ole :i* is good4 ,on ! o!r h&1 an ag5t is p]fectly good :5 he acts ) w4 ,god's w also makes miracles possible4 ,moreov]1 et]nal creation is n inconsi/5t ) cont9u$ creation1 & we h creation ex nihilo e mom5t4 ,maimonides is wrong !re=e :5 he ?9ks t et]nity w\ld upset ,judaism & make miracles impossible4 ,creation 9 "t is !re=e n a fundam5tal dogma ) :i* ,judaism /&s & falls4 ,at ! same "t x is a true belief z taught 9 ! fir/ v]se ( ,g5esis4#dja ,ano!r ( ! true beliefs is rew>d & puni%m5t4 ,?is consi/s ( two k9ds1 corporeal & spiritual4 ,corporeal is spok5 ( 9 ! ,bible & is n oppos$ to reason4 ,= z ! purpose ( creation is to d man good & enable him to a*ieve p]fection1 x /&s to reason t ,god w\ld remove any ob/acles 9 ! way ( man's p]fect+ himself1 & ?is is ! k9d ( rew>d m5tion$ fir/1 ,all ! diseases :i* ,i put ^u ! ,egyptians ,i %all n put ^u !e1 = ,i ! ,"l am ?y heal] 7,exod4 #ae1 #bf74 ,puni%m5t is prim>ily = ! same purpose4 ,z = spiritual rew>d & puni%m5t1 !y are n m5tion$ specifically 9 ! ,bible1 b ! ,talmud is full ( x4 ,rationally !y c be expla9$ z foll[s4 ,z ! s\l is spiritual & intellectual1 x enjoys great pleasure f be+ 9 contact ) ! _w ( _s & appreh5d+ ( ! nature ( ,god :at x c\ld n appreh5d :ile 9 ! body4 ,on ! o!r h&1 be+ re/ra9$ f ! _w ( _s & kept 9 d>kness gives x pa92 & ?is may lead to its ultimate de/ruction4 ,! ess5ce ( ! s\l1 z 0 said above1 is n intellectuality1 b love & desire2 h5ce pa9 may de/roy x4 ,! reason spiritual rew>d & puni%m5t1 :i* is ! m important ( ! two1 is n m5tion$ 9 ! ,bible1 is because x 0 tak5 z a matt] ( fact4 ,corporeal rew>d & puni%m5t 0 n s reg>d$1 h5ce ! ne$ ( specify+ x4 ,a difficulty t pres5ts itself is1 ,h[ is x consi/5t ) ju/ice to puni% ! s\l by itself1 :5 x 0 ! composite ( body & s\l t s9n$8 ,?is may be answ]$ by say+ t ! s\l is ! =m ( ! body & does n *ange :5 sep>at$4 ,h5ce1 be+ ! m important ( ! two elem5ts compos+ man1 x receives ! m important puni%m5t1 namely1 spiritual4 ,besides1 x is true t ! composite also receives comp5sation4 ,& ?is is ! purpose ( resurrection4#djb ,resurrection ( ! body is n univ]sal1 b is res]v$ only = "s1 z is cle> f ! passage 9 ,daniel 7#ab1 #b71 ,& _m ( ^? t sleep 9 ! du/ ( ! e>? %all awake1 "s to ev]la/+ life1 & "s to disgrace & ev]la/+ abhorr5ce4 ,at ! same "t x is difficult to "k :o ^! "s are4 ,x _c be ! p]fect & ! good only1 s9ce "s ( ^? ris+ w g to disgrace & ev]la/+ abhorr5ce4 ,we c decide ?is bett] lat]1 :5 we h le>n$ m ( resurrection4 ,! v>iety ( op9ions conc]n+ ! "t ( ! resurrection ,crescas endeavors to reconcile by suppos+ t all agre$ x w\ld take place z soon z ! ,temple 0 built1 b t ! ,messiah w\ld prec$e ! build+ ( ! ,temple by "s l5g? ( "t4 ,! purpose ( ! resurrection is to /r5g!n belief 9 ^? :o h x & to impress x ^u ^? :o h x n4 ,at ! "t ( ! resurrection ^? :o come back to life w tell ! liv+ h[ !y f>$ :5 _! s\ls left _! bodies4 ,ano!r purpose ( resurrection is1 z m5tion$ above1 9 ord] to rew>d & puni% ! composite ( body & s\l :i* act$ dur+ life4 ,! dogma ( resurrection is reg>d$ s s]i\sly by ! ,rabbis1 :o exclude ! unbeliev] 9 x f a portion 9 ! _w to come1 because 9 ?is act is complet$ ! =m ( man2 & because !reby is realiz$ ! ju/ice ( ,god1 & ! fai? is /r5g!n$ 9 ! m9ds ( ! believ]s4 ,x seems at fir/ sight impossible t ! elem5ts ( ! body1 :i* 7 disp]s$ at ! "t ( ! body's dea? & =m$ "p ( o!r sub/ances1 c be ga!r$ toge!r aga94 ,b x is n really s /range1 = 9 ! fir/ place ,god may s arrange matt]s t ^! elem5ts may be 9 a position to return4 ,besides1 ?is is n really necess>y4 ,x is q suffici5t t ,god create a body exactly l ! fir/ 9 temp]am5t & =m1 & end[ x ) ! old s\l1 :i* w !n behave l ! old p]son2 & be+ end[$ ) memory besides1 ! id5tity ( p]sonality w be complete4 ,= ! purpose ( %[+ ,god's ju/ice & /r5g!n+ man's fai? x is suffici5t to resurrect ! p]fectly good & ! completely bad4 ,! int]m$iate classes d n des]ve ?is extraord9>y miracle1 & _! spiritual rew>d w be suffici5t4#djc ,,*apt] ,,xviii ,,joseph ,,albo 7#achj-addd7 ,( ! po/-,maimonidean philosoph]s ,crescas is ! la/ :o contributes orig9al views ( philosophical value4 ,joseph ,albo1 ( ,monreal 9 ,aragon1 is ( little importance z a philosoph]4 ,he reha%es ! problems :i* occupi$ a ,maimonides1 a ,g]sonides & a ,crescas1 & sides n[ ) "o1 n[ ) ! o!r4 ,he b5efit$ by ! writ+s ( 8 pr$ecessors1 p>ticul>ly ,maimonides1 ,crescas1 & ,simon ,duran2#djc;a & ! philosophical discussions 9 ! la/ ?ree sections ( 8 ,book ( ,roots 7,sef] ,ikk>im7 give ! impression ( an eclectic compilation 9 ! int]e/ ( a mod]ate cons]vatism4 ,! /yle is t ( ! popul>iz] & ! homili/2 & to ?is he owes 8 popul>ity1 :i* 0 d5i$ 8 m orig9al tea*]1 ,crescas4 ,b philosophy z su* 0 n ,albo's =te1 nor 0 x 8 *ief int]e/4 ,:ile x is true t all ! ,jewi% ?9k]s ( ! middle ages 7 = a great "p apologetes1 ?is did n prev5t a ,maimonides or a ,g]sonides f mak+ a really ?or\gh & dis9t]e/$ /udy ( sci5ce & philosophy2 & (t5 _! sci5tific & philosophic conviction 0 s /rong t ! apologia 0 pro philosophia sua r ?an pro ,judaismo4 ,! c5tral !me !re=e 9 ! majority ( ,albo's philosophical pr$ecessors 0 ! equally metaphysical & !ological1 ( ,god & 8 attributes4 ,^! 7 prov$ by reason & confirm$ by ,scripture & tradition4 ,judaism _h to be =mulat$ & def5d$ ) a view n s mu* to ! dang]s ?reat5+ f ,*ri/ianity & ,mohamm$anism z to ^? endang]+ all religions alike1 namely1 ! op9ions ( sci5ce & philosophy z taught especially by ! ,ari/otelians4 ,h5ce ,maimonides treat$ = ! mo/ "p ( ! same problems z ! ,mohamm$an ,mutakallimun be=e him1 & ,?omas ,aqu9as ! ,*ri/ian _h no scruple 9 mak+ ! ,jewi% philosoph]'s me?od 8 own :5 he und]took to def5d ! ,ca?olic fai? contra ,g5tiles4 ,diff]5t 7 ! circum/ances z well z ! attitude ( ,joseph ,albo4 ,! purely philosophic int]e/ 0 n /rong 9 8 day4 ,he 0 n confront$ by ! necessity ( prov+ ! exi/5ce & incorporeality ( ,god by reason4 ,no "o d\bt$ ^! ?+s & !y _h be5 abundantly writt5 ab\t 9 times gone by4 ,9 ! int]e/ ( complet5ess & = ! b5efit ( ^? :o 7 n tra9$ 9 te*nical philosophy1 ,albo f\nd x desirable to re/ate ! results ( previ\s discussions ( ^! topics 9 a /yle m accessible to ! read]s ( 8 day4 ,b ! c5tral int]e/ 9 8 age 0 %ift$4 ,x 0 a "t ( religi\s disputations & =c$ conv]sions4 ,albo himself _h tak5 "p 9 su* a disputation held at ,tortosa 9 #adac-ad1 & he _h to def5d ,judaism aga9/ ,*ri/ianity4 ,he _h to %[ 8 own p t ,judaism 0 ! true religion & ,*ri/ianity spuri\s4 ,h5ce x 0 religion z su* he _h to inve/igate1 9 ord] to f9d :at m>ks di/+ui%$ a div9e law f a human1 & a g5u9e div9e law f "o t pret5d$ to be su*4 ,to make ?is inve/igation logically complete he _h to %[ t !re mu/ be su* a ?+ z a div9e law1 & t no su* law c be conceiv$ )\t assum+ c]ta9 basal beliefs or dogmas4 ,a discussion ( religi\s dogma 0 ess5tial1 = ^u ! nature ( ^! fundam5tal beliefs dep5d$ "o's judgm5t ( a giv5 law & its "* z div9e or human1 g5u9e or spuri\s4 ,h5ce ! title ( ,albo's treatise1 ,book ( religi\s ,roots dogmas4 ,& :ile x is true t ,maimonides1 ! sy/ematiz] & codifi]1 c\ld n fail to put d[n 9 8 comm5t>y on ! ,mi%na a li/ ( articles ( ! ,jewi% cre$1 no?+ is said ( ?is 9 8 philosophical "w1 ! ,guide ( ! ,p]plex$4 ,) ,albo ! e/abli%m5t ( ! fundam5tal dogmas is ! c5tral !me4 ,at ! same "t ,albo 0 anticipat$ ev5 9 ?is1 8 m orig9al contribution4 ,crescas1 8 tea*]1 _h writt51 beside ! ,or ,adonai1 a "w aga9/ ,*ri/ianity4#djd ,& 9 ! ,or ,adonai itself he devotes consid]able space to ! "q ( ! fundam5tal dogmas ( ,judaism1 & takes occasion to criticize ,maimonides = 8 faulty me?od 9 ! selection ( ! ?irte5 articles1 on ! gr\nd t he did n di/+ui% betwe5 :at 0 fundam5tal & :at 0 d]ivative4 ,?is sugge/ion gave ,albo 8 cue1 :i* he develop$ 9 8 own way4#djd;a ,human happ9ess1 ,albo tells u1 dep5ds ^u !ory & practice1 z ,ari/otle says4 ,b ! human m9d is inadequate to "k by itself ! tru? t\*+ ^! two4 ,h5ce !re is ne$ ( some?+ sup]ior to ! human m9d :i* w def9e "r practice & ! true ideas4 ,?is c be only by div9e guidance4 ,h5ce ev]yone mu/ be able to tell ! div9e legislation f ^? :i* are n div9e4 ,= ?is x is necess>y to "k :at are ! pr9ciples )\t :i* a div9e law _c exi/4 ,?is is ! purpose ( ! book1 to expla9 ! ess5tial pr9ciples ( a div9e law4#dje ,a k ( ! pr9ciples ( religion w\ld seem easy1 = all p pr(ess "s religion or o!r1 & h5ce are presum$ to "k ^u :at _! religions are bas$4 ,b ?is "q has n be5 treat$ adequately be=e1 & !re is no agreem5t among previ\s writ]s ab\t ! numb] ( ! pr9ciples or _! id5tity4 ,"s say !re are ?irte5 7,maimonides71 "s say tw5ty-six1 "s six 7,crescas71 )\t inve/igat+ :at are ! pr9ciples ( div9e religion g5]ally4 ,= we mu/ di/+ui% betwe5 ! g5]al pr9ciples :i* p]ta9 to div9e legislation z su* & h5ce are common to all religions1 & special pr9ciples :i* are peculi> to a p>ticul> religion4 ,see+ ! importance ( ?is subject1 ,albo cont9ues1 ,i und]took ?is inve/igation4 ,i came to ! conclusion t !re are ?ree g5]al pr9ciples ( div9e religion1 exi/5ce ( ,god1 ,revelation1 & ,rew>d & ,puni%m5t aft] dea?4 ,!n !re are special pr9ciples peculi> to a p>ticul> religion4 ,f ! g5]al pr9ciples 7,ikk>im7 foll[ p>ticul> or d]ivative pr9ciples 7,%ora%im47#djf ,! inve/igation ( ! pr9ciples ( religion is a delicate matt] because "o is 9 dang] ( be+ reckon$ an infidel if he d5ies :at is consid]$ by o!rs a fundam5tal dogma4 ,?us accord+ to ,maimonides ! belief 9 ! ,messiah is fundam5tal1 & he :o d5ies x is a h]etic & has no %>e 9 ! _w to come4 ,& yet ,rabbi ,hillel 9 ! ,talmud 7,sanh$r91 #ii;a7 said1 ,israel ne$ expect no ,messiah1 = !y _h ! b5efit ( "o 9 ! days ( ,hezekiah1 ,k+ ( ,judah4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,maimonides does n reg>d creation ex nihilo z fundam5tal1 :]eas o!rs d2 & to _! m9d ,maimonides is op5 to ! *>ge ( unbelief4 ,! tru? is t only he is an unbeliev] :o delib]ately & kn[+ly contradicts ! ,bible4 ,a p]son :o believes 9 ! ,bible b is l$ mi/ak5ly to mis9t]pret x1 & d5ies real pr9ciples because he ?9ks ! ,bible does n require u to believe !m z pr9ciples1 or does n require u to believe !m at all1 is guilty ( error & 9 ne$ ( =giv5ess1 b is n a h]etic4#djg ,hav+ ?us def9$ 8 attitude & purpose1 ,albo proce$s to criticize ! li/ ( dogmas laid d[n by ,maimonides & modifi$ by ,crescas1 & !n def5ds 8 own view4 ,a fundam5tal pr9ciple 7,ikk>1 lit4 root7 is "o ^u :i* some?+ else dep5ds & )\t :i* ?is latt] _c exi/4 ,maimonides c\nts ?irte5 pr9ciples ( ,judaism z foll[s3 7#a7 ,exi/5ce ( ,god1 7#b7 ,unity1 7#c7 ,incorporeality1 7#d7 ,et]nity1 7#e7 ,he alone mu/ be wor%ipp$1 7#f7 ,prophecy1 7#g7 ,sup]iority ( ! prophecy ( ,moses1 7#h7 ,revelation1 7#i7 ,immutability ( ! ,law1 7#aj7 ,god's ,omnisci5ce1 7#aa7 ,rew>d & ,puni%m5t1 7#ab7 ,messiah1 7#ac7 ,resurrection4#djh ,?is li/ is op5 to criticism4 ,if ,maimonides int5d$ to admit /rict pr9ciples only )\t :i* ,judaism _c exi/1 we und]/& :y he nam$ 7#a71 7#f71 7#h71 7#aj71 7#aa71 :i* are g5]al pr9ciples ( any div9e religion1 & 7#g7 & 7#i7 z special pr9ciples ( ,judaism4 ,b we _c see :y he includ$ 7#b7 & 7#c74 ,= :ile !y are true1 & e ,jew %\ld believe !m1 ,judaism c be conceiv$ z exi/+ )\t !m4 ,x is /ill m /range t 7#e7 %\ld be c\nt$ z a pr9ciple4 ,to be sure1 x is "o ( ! t5 comm&m5ts1 ,?\ %alt h no o!r ,gods be=e me4444 ,?\ %alt n b[ ?yself d[n to !m1 nor s]ve !m 444 7,exod4 #bj1 #ce71 b ,judaism c be conceiv$ to exi/ ev5 ) ! belief 9 a m$iator4 ,simil>ly x is n cle> :y 7#ac7 %\ld be consid]$ z a fundam5tal dogma4 ,on ! o!r h&1 he omitt$ ,tradition & ,free ,w z beliefs ess5tial to any div9e religion4 ,if1 9 def5ce ( ,maimonides1 we say t he int5d$ to "n n only fundam5tal pr9ciples1 b also true beliefs1 :e!r fundam5tal or d]ivative1 !n !re are _m o!rs he might h m5tion$1 su* z creation ex nihilo1 belief 9 miracles1 t ,god re/s 9 ,israel ?r\gh ! ,torah1 & s on4 ,ano!r writ] c\nts tw5ty-six pr9ciples1 includ+ ev]y?+ t occurr$ to 8 m9d1 su* z ! attributes ( et]nity1 wisdom1 life1 p[]1 w & o!rs1 c\nt+ p>adise & hell z two1 & o!r absurd ideas4 ,o!rs aga91#dji criticiz+ ,maimonides's pr9ciples1 r$uce !m to six1 viz4 7#a7 ,god's k1 7#b7 ,provid5ce1 7#c7 ,p[]1 7#d7 ,prophecy1 7#e7 ,free ,w1 7#f7 ,purpose1 add+ !reto ! ?ree prov$ by ,maimonides1 ,god's exi/5ce1 unity & incorporeality4 ,! objection to ?is li/ is t x does n conta9 ! special dogmas ( ,judaism1 & does n give u a pr9ciple by :i* we c di/+ui% betwe5 ! g5u9e & spuri\s div9e religion4 ,= ! dogmas nam$ 9 ! above li/ give u ! necess>y requirem5ts = a div9e law1 b n ! suffici5t4 ,we may h all ^! pr9ciples & yet n h a div9e religion4 ,z to ,free ,w & ,purpose1 !y are ess5tial to div9e legislation to be sure1 b n qua div9e2 !y are also ess5tial to a conv5tional human law4 ,div9e religion has a special purpose peculi> to x4#daj ,hav+ laid b>e ! defects 9 ! attempts at a li/ ( fundam5tal dogmas ( ,judaism made by 8 pr$ecessors1 ,albo categorically lays d[n ! foll[+ ?ree pr9ciples z fundam5tal to div9e religion3 7#a7 ,exi/5ce ( ,god1 7#b7 ,provid5ce1 & rew>d & puni%m5t1 7#c7 ,revelation4 ,to ju/ify ?is /atem5t ,albo f9ds x necess>y to make cle> :at is meant by div9e law or religion1 & :at relation x be>s to o!r laws1 n div9e4 ,?is necessitates an explanation ( exi/+ laws & _! motives & causes4 ,animal life1 we are told1 may be divid$ into ?ree classes accord+ to ! mode ( liv+ adopt$ by ea*4 ,bea/s ( prey live sep>ately & n 9 gr\ps4 ,mank9d mu/ live 9 communities1 z "o individual is dep5d5t ^u ! "w ( ano!r1 & social life is ess5tial to _! exi/5ce4 ,int]m$iate betwe5 bea/ ( prey & man are ! greg>i\s animals1 :i* keep toge!r n z a matt] ( necessity1 z is ! case 9 man1 b = conv5i5ce1 = ! sake ( be+ toge!r4 ,man is social by nature2 & 9 ord] to make communal life possible1 !re mu/ be "s ord] 9 ! community :i* prohibits viol5ce1 robb]y1 & s on4 ,?is is kn[n z natural law4 ,9 addition to ?is !re are 9 _m places conv5tional laws1 made by k+s & emp]ors1 regulat+ m c>efully & ) great] detail ?an ! natural law ! affairs ( ! memb]s ( ! community4 ,b ?is is n all4 ,!re is /ill ano!r k9d ( law due directly to ,god's provid5ce4 ,! provid5ce ( ,god is se5 ev5 9 ! l[] animals1 9 ! con/itution ( _! bodies1 n m]ely 9 matt]s ess5tial to ! pres]vation ( ! animal1 b also 9 ! int]e/ ( com=t & conv5i5ce1 z = example ! duplication ( ! s5se organs4 ,x /&s to reason !re=e t !re is a div9e influ5ce :i* provides = man ev5 to a great] degree4 ,?is provid5ce may ext5d only to "o individual1 b ?is p]son br+s ab\t ! p]fection ( ! race2 j z 9 ! individual man ! he>t is in/rum5tal 9 giv+ life to all ! o!r limbs4 ,! law :i* is promulgat$ ?r\gh ?is p]son is a div9e law4 ,! t]m law 7,dat7 applies to any sy/em ( directions embrac+ a l>ge aggregate ( m51 :e!r x conta9s _m comm&s or "o4 ,!re are ?us ?ree k9ds ( law1 natural1 conv5tional & div9e4 ,natural law is ! same = all p]sons1 times & places4 ,conv5tional law is ord]$ by a wise man or m5 9 con=mity ) ! necessity ( ! p]sons1 times & places1 z ! reason dictates1 )\t special div9e sugge/ion4 ,div9e law is ord]$ by ,god ?r\gh a prophet4 ,! purpose ( natural law is to remove wrong & promote "r1 keep+ m5 f robb]y & !ft s t society may be able to exi/4 ,conv5tional law goes fur!r & t5ds to remove ! unseemly & to promote ! becom+4 ,div9e law has = its purpose to guide m5 to true happ9ess1 :i* is ! happ9ess ( ! s\l & its et]nal life4 ,x po9ts out ! way to foll[ to rea* ?is end1 %[+ :at is ! true good = man to pursue1 & :at is ! real evil :i* "o mu/ %un2 ?\gh x also lays d[n ! law ( "r & wrong l ! o!r two4#daa ,! conv5tional law is inf]ior to ! div9e 9 a numb] ( ways4 ,! conv5tional law only ord]s human conduct = ! purpose ( improv+ social life1 b does n conc]n itself ) p]fection 9 !oretical speculation & k1 :i* leads ! s\l to et]nal life4 ,! div9e law embraces bo? ! p>ts ^u :i* human p]fection dep5ds1 conduct & !ory4 ,x embraces ! becom+ & unbecom+ 7practice71 & ! true & untrue 7!ory74 ,z ! ,psalmi/ has x1 ,! ,law ( ! ,"l is p]fect1 re/or+ ! s\l 7,psal4 #ai1 #h74 ,! conv5tional law1 be+ human1 _c always decide ) c]ta9ty :at is becom+ & :at unbecom+4 ,x is liable to error4 ,?is is p>ticul>ly ! case 9 matt]s ( !ory1 su* z ! creation or et]nity ( ! _w4 ,! div9e law gives u c]ta9ty 9 all ?+s1 ,! te/imony ( ! ,"l is sure1 mak+ wise ! simple 7ib474 ,! p]son guid$ by ! conv5tional law is n sure t he is always guid$ aright2 h5ce he _c feel ! satisfaction & ! joy ( ! man ^: guide is ! div9e law1 mak+ him c]ta9 ( be+ "r--,! precepts ( ! ,"l are upright1 rejoic+ ! he>t 7ib4 #i74 ,! conv5tional law c give g5]al rules only1 b is unable to advise 9 a p>ticul> case4 ,s ,ari/otle 9 ! ,e?ics po9ts out t virtue is a mean1 b he _c det]m9e exactly ! prop] measure at a giv5 "t4 ,?is is ! function ( ! div9e law--,! comm&m5t ( ! ,"l is cle>1 enlight5+ ! eyes 7ib474 ,! conv5tional law is subject to *ange 9 ! c\rse ( "t4 ,witness ! m>riage ( si/]s 9 ! e>ly p]iod ( ,adam & ,abel4 ,! div9e law alone does n *ange--,! fe> ( ! ,"l is pure1 endur+ = ev] 7ib4 #aj74 ,! conv5tional law _c e/imate exactly ! m]it$ am\nt & k9d ( rew>d & puni%m5t2 :]eas1 ,! ord9ances ( ! ,"l are ! tru?2 !y are j altoge!r 7ib474#dab ,fre$om & ,purpose are pr9ciples ( conv5tional law4 ,)\t fre$om !re is no s5se 9 giv+ ord]s4 ,= ?is reason ,fre$om & ,purpose are n correctly giv5 z fundam5tal dogmas ( div9e law1 = :ile ! latt] _c get along )\t !m1 !y are n peculi> to div9e law z su*1 b are common also to conv5tional law4 ,?is is :y ,maimonides omitt$ ,fre$om 9 8 cre$4 ,! same is true ( ,purpose 9 g5]al4 ,! div9e law1 h[ev]1 has a special purpose1 p]fection & et]nal life1 h5ce ,maimonides did include x 9 8 li/4#dac ,! fundam5tal dogmas ( div9e law are1 z we said be=e1 ,exi/5ce ( ,god1 ,revelation1 ,rew>d & ,puni%m5t4 ,x is evid5t t !re _c be a div9e law )\t ! fir/ two4 ,! ?ird is also necess>y2 = ! purpose ( div9e law mu/ be a p]fection great] ?an ! conv5tional law c accompli%4 ,?is is et]nal life1 & is signifi$ by ,rew>d & ,puni%m5t4 ,z all agree t ! ,law ( ,moses is div9e1 x is prop] to use x z a /&>d 9 ord] to discov] :at a div9e law mu/ h4 ,accord+ly if we exam9e ! fir/ f\r *apt]s ( ,g5esis1 we f9d ! pr9ciple ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god 9 *apt] "o1 describ+ creation4 ,! second & ?ird *apt]s give evid5ce ( revelation1 or communication ( ,god ) man = ! purpose ( direct+ 8 conduct4 ,f9ally 9 ! ,ca9 incid5t 9 *apt] f\r is illu/rat$ ! ?ird dogma ( ,rew>d & ,puni%m5t4#dad ,creation ex nihilo is a true belief b n a fundam5tal pr9ciple4 ,= ?\gh ! ,ari/otelian view ( et]nity is h]etical1 z x takes away ! possibility ( miracles1 nay ev5 ! possibility ( ,moses & ! ,messiah 7= ^! c\ld exi/ only aft] ! lapse ( an inf9ite numb] ( individuals71 "o :o believes l ,plato 9 a primitive matt] is n necess>ily 9 contradiction ) ! ,biblical miracles1 = !y 7 n ex nihilo#dae 7cf4 above1 p4 #ceh74 ,x is n suffici5t to believe 9 ! ?ree pr9ciples m5tion$ to be consid]$ a believ] & to be entitl$ to a %>e 9 ! _w to come4 ,"o mu/ believe also 9 ! d]ivative pr9ciples foll[+ f !m4 ,?us f ! exi/5ce ( ,god foll[ 8 unity & incorporeality4 ,& if a man does n believe 9 incorporeality1 he disbelieves 9 ! real nature ( ,god1 & x is z if he d5i$ ! orig9al pr9ciple4 ,! d]ivative pr9ciples 7,%ora%im roots7 are z foll[s4 ,f exi/5ce ( ,god are d]iv$ f\r3 7#a7 ,unity1 7#b7 ,incorporeality1 7#c7 ,indep5d5ce ( "t1 7#d7 ,fre$om f defects4 ,f ,revelation are d]iv$ ?ree3 7#a7 ,god's k1 7#b7 ,prophecy1 7#c7 ,au!nticity ( ,god's mess5g]4 ,f ,rew>d & ,puni%m5t is d]iv$ "o--,provid5ce 9 ! s5se ( special ,provid5ce4 ,9 all !re are elev5 dogmas4#daf ,a p>ticul> comm&m5t ( ! ,law is n reckon$ ei!r z a fundam5tal pr9ciple or z a d]ivative4 ,he :o trangresses x is a s9n] & is puni%$ = 8 misde$1 b is n a h]etic :o loses 8 %>e 9 ! _w to come1 unless he d5ies t ! comm&m5t 9 "q is f ,god4 ,9 t case he comes 9 ! category ( ^? :o d5y revelation4 ,simil>ly ! belief 9 tradition is n a pr9ciple because x is a p>ticul> comm&m5t4 ,unity ( ,god is a pr9ciple ?\gh x is app>5tly a special comm&m5t1 because ! t]m unity conta9s two concepts2 fir/1 t ,god is "o & !re is n ano!r l him2 second1 t be+ "o & free f any multiplicity or composition1 he is ! cause ( all ! multiplicity 9 ! _w4 ,! latt] is n a p>ticul> comm&m5t1 b a pr9ciple d]iv$ f ! exi/5ce ( ,god4 ,! =m] is a p>ticul> comm&m5t4 ,if p>ticul> comm&m5ts 7 reg>d$ z pr9ciples1 we %\ld h z _m pr9ciples z !re are comm&m5ts 9 ! ,bible4#dag ,! above di/9ction betwe5 ! two s5ses ( ! t]m unity1 "o ( :i* is rationally d]iv$ f ! exi/5ce ( ,god1 :]eas ! o!r n be+ s d]ivable is n a pr9ciple1 & is giv5 9 ! ,bible z a special comm&m5t1 is cle>ly due to ,crescas1 :o aft] a few attempts at prov+ ! unity ( ,god 9 ! s5se ( exclud+ dualism1 gives x up z incapable ( pro( logically1 & falls back ^u ! te/imony ( ,scripture1 ,he>1 ,o ,israel1 ! ,"l our ,god1 ! ,"l is ,"o4 ,! o!r s5se ( ! ^w unity ,crescas proves by reason4 ,h5ce ,albo c\nts x among ! d]ivative pr9ciples 7cf4 above1 p4 #cib74 ,if a p>ticul> comm&m5t is n a pr9ciple1 :i* means t a fundam5tal or d]ivative dogma _c itself be a comm&m5t1 b mu/ lie at ! basis ( all comm&m5ts1 ! "q arises :5ce come ^! pr9ciples1 & :o is to w>rant _! tru?4 ,9 ! sci5ces we "k t ! basal pr9ciples ( a giv5 sci5ce are n prov$ 9 t sci5ce itself1 b are borr[$ f ano!r sci5ce 9 :i* !y are prov$4 ,?us physics takes ! concepts ( sub/ance & accid5t f metaphysics4 ,9 turn ! latt] takes ! idea ( a fir/ mov] f physics4 ,among ! laws1 too1 ! conv5tional law takes its pr9ciples1 fre$om & purpose1 f political philosophy4 ,:5ce does div9e law take its pr9ciples8 ,! exi/5ce ( ,god c be demon/rat$ philosophically f premises go+ back to axioms & fir/ pr9ciples4 ,b ?is is n true ( ,prophecy & ,provid5ce4 ,! answ] ,albo gives to ?is "q is t ( ,judah ,halevi & ,crescas4 ,! pr9ciples ( ! div9e law are kn[n empirically1 i4 e41 by exp]i5ce4 ,adam knew ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god1 ( prophecy & rew>d & puni%m5t f p]sonal exp]i5ce4 ,simil>ly ,noah & ,abraham4 ,n[adays we "k ! law by tradition1 b ! majority ( ! pr9ciples ?us kn[n are s c]ta9 t !re is nei!r diff]5ce ( op9ion nor d\bt ent]ta9$ by anyone conc]n+ !m4 ,su* is ! /atus = example ( ! pr9ciple ( ,revelation4 ,o!r pr9ciples aga91 l ! exi/5ce ( ,god1 are1 z 0 said be=e1 kn[n by !oretical speculation4#dah ,to f9d out :e!r a religion pr(ess+ to be ( div9e orig9 is really s or n1 x mu/ be exam9$ fir/ ) ref]5ce to ! ?ree fundam5tal1 & ! o!r d]ivative pr9ciples4 ,if x opposes !m1 x is spuri\s & n g5u9e4 ,if x is n oppos$ to ! pr9ciples 9 "q1 x mu/ be fur!r exam9$ ) a view to det]m9+ :e!r ! promulgator is a g5u9e mess5g] ( ,god or n4 ,& ! te/ "h mu/ be a direct "o4 ,miracles & signs are no conclusive pro( ( prophecy1 & /ill less d !y prove t ! p]son p]=m+ !m is a mess5g] s5t by ,god to ann\nce a law4 ,!y m]ely %[ t ! p]son is consid]$ wor?y ( hav+ miracles p]=m$ ?r\gh him1 provid$ ! miracles are g5u9e & n p]=m$ ?r\gh magic4 ,! te/ ( ! prophet & ! mess5g] ( ,god mu/ be z direct z x 0 9 ! case ( ,moses1 :]e ! p actually saw t he 0 address$ by ,god & commission$ ) a message = !m4#dai ,?is op9ion ( ,albo is cle>ly int5d$ z a def5ce ( ,judaism aga9/ ,*ri/ianity's claim t ,jesus p]=m$ miracles1 a claim :i* ! ,rabbis ( ! middle ages 7 incl9$ to recognize4 ,9 addition to ! ?ree fundam5tal & eight d]ivative pr9ciples ( div9e legislation1 !re are six dogmas1 :i* e foll[] ( ! ,mosaic law mu/ believe4 ,!y are 7#a7 ,creation ex nihilo1 7#b7 ,sup]iority ( ,moses to o!r prophets1 7#c7 ,immutability ( ! ,law1 7#d7 ,t human p]fection c be atta9$ by any "o ( ! comm&m5ts ( ! ,law1 7#e7 ,resurrection1 7#f7 ,messiah4 ,creation ex nihilo is nei!r a fundam5tal nor a d]ivative pr9ciple ( religion g5]ally or ( ,judaism specially because1 z we saw be=e 7p4 #dac71 !y c exi/ )\t ?is dogma4 ,at ! same "t x is a tru? :i* x behooves e religioni/ & p>ticul>ly e ,jew to believe4 ,x foll[s f ! pr9ciple ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god4 ,if ,god _c create ex nihilo1 !re is a defect 9 him4 ,= creation ex nihilo is admitt$ 9 a c]ta9 s5se ev5 by ^? :o hold t ! _w is et]nal4 ,!y admit t ,god is ! cause ( ev]y?+ else2 h5ce matt] is 8 effect ?r\gh ! m$iation ( ! sep>ate ,intellect4 ,b h[ c a sep>ate ,intellect be ! cause ( matt] if !re is no creation ex nihilo4 ,?is is ex nihilo z mu* z any?+ c be4 ,to say t we c f9d no reason :y he %\ld create at a p>ticul> "t r ?an at ano!r1 & h5ce ! _w mu/ be et]nal1 is no argum5t2 = ?is reason+ c apply only to action f necessity4 ,volunt>y action is j ( ?is k9d1 t x takes place at a p>ticul> "t4 ,9 ! above argum5t = creation ! read] w n fail to see rem9isc5ces ( ,maimonides z well z ,crescas 7cf4 pp4 #bga & #djc74 ,! sup]iority ( ,moses to o!r prophets is n ess5tial to ,judaism1 nev]!less x behooves e ,jew to believe x1 z x is includ$ 9 ! pr9ciple ( ,revelation1 & ! ,bible tells u1 ,& !re arose n a prophet s9ce !n 9 ,israel l unto ,moses 7,deut4 #cd1 #aj74 ,! ,immutability ( ! ,law w be treat$ 9 detail lat]4 ,"h x w suffice to say t :ile x is n a s9e qua non ( ,judaism1 e ,jew %\ld believe x1 z x is includ$ 9 ! d]ivative pr9ciple ( ! ,au!nticity ( ,god's mess5g]4 ,x /&s to reason t human p]fection c be atta9$ by ! p]=mance ( any "o ( ! comm&m5ts ( ! ,law4 ,= if x requires ! p]=mance ( all ! comm&m5ts = ?is purpose1 !n ! ,law ( ,moses makes x m difficult to rea* p]fection ?an ! previ\s laws1 :i* is n 9 consonance ) ! /atem5t ( ! ,rabbis t ,god gave ,israel s _m laws & comm&m5ts because he wi%$ to make !m m]itori\s 7,tal4 ,bab4 ,makkot1 #bc b74 ,resurrection w be treat$ m at l5g? lat]4 ,x mu/ be believ$ because x has be5 accept$ by ,israel & has come d[n to u by tradition4 ,! same ?+ applies to ! belief 9 ! ,messiah4 ,?is is also a traditional belief & is relat$ to ! pr9ciple ( ,rew>d & ,puni%m5t1 ?\gh x is n l ! latt] indisp5sable ei!r to religion 9 g5]al or to ,judaism 9 p>ticul>4#dbj ,! diff]5ce1 x w be se51 betwe5 ,albo & ,maimonides 9 ! "q ( ,jewi% dogmas is simply "o ( classification & grad+4 ,albo includes 9 8 enum]ation all ! ?irte5 dogmas ( ,maimonides ) ! exception ( ! fif?1 namely1 t ,god alone be wor%ipp$1 b in/ead ( plac+ !m all on ! same level ( importance z equally ess5tial to ! /ructure ( ,judaism1 z ,maimonides app>5tly int5d$1 ,albo divides !m into ?ree categories ( desc5d+ rank z foll[s3 fundam5tal pr9ciples1 d]iv$ pr9ciples1 true beliefs4 ,( ,maimonides's li/ ! la/ two1 ,messiah & ,resurrection1 belong to ! la/ category4 ,none ! less ,albo believ$ /rictly 9 bo? & held x incumb5t ^u e ,jew to believe 9 !m4 ,x 0 only a "q ( ! /atus ( a p]son :o mi/ak5ly d5ies ^! true beliefs4 ,accord+ to ,maimonides1 x w\ld seem1 he w\ld be call$ a h]etic & be exclud$ f a %>e 9 ! _w to come equally ) "o :o d5i$ ! exi/5ce ( ,god2 :]eas accord+ to ,albo a p]son s guilty is a s9n] & ne$s =giv5ess1 b is n a h]etic4 ,( ! o!r elev5 dogmas ( ,maimonides1 7#a71 7#h7 & 7#aa7 are plac$ by ,albo 9 8 fir/ class1 7#b71 7#c71 7#d71 7#f7 & 7#aj7 belong to ! second class1 :ile 7#g7 & 7#i7 come "u true beliefs along ) ,messiah & ,resurrection4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! fir/ & ! second class is purely logical & n practical4 ,z we saw be=e 7p4 #dac71 "o :o d5ies incorporeality 7a pr9ciple ( ! second class7 disbelieves 9 ! true nature ( ,god1 :i* is tantam\nt to d5y+ ! pr9ciple ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god4 ,be=e conclud+ ?is g5]al discussion ( ! fundam5tal dogmas ( religion & ,judaism1 ,albo und]takes to answ] two que/ions :i* mu/ h be5 ne> 8 he>t1 & :i* 7 on ! tongues no d\bt ( a great _m hone/ p 9 ^? days ( religi\s *all5ge & debate4 ,! fir/ "q is1 ,is x prop]1 or p]haps obligatory1 to analyze ! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( "o's religion1 to see if !y are true2 & if "o f9ds ano!r religion :i* seems to him bett]1 is "o p]mitt$ to adopt x 9 place ( 8 own8 ,albo sees argum5ts aga9/ bo? sides ( ! dilemma4 ,if a man is all[$ to analyze 8 religion & to *oose ! "o t seems be/ to him1 x w foll[ t a p]son is nev] /able 9 8 belief1 s9ce he is d\bt+ x1 z is %[n by 8 exam9ation4 ,& if s1 he does n des]ve rew>d = belief1 s9ce belief1 z ,albo def9es x else:]e 7,pt4 ,i1 *4 #ai71 means t "o _c conceive ( ! opposite be+ true4 ,aga91 if he f9ds ano!r religion :i* he ?9ks bett] & is all[$ to ex*ange 8 own religion = ! new "o1 he w nev] be sure ( any religion2 = he may f9d a ?ird /ill bett]1 & a f\r?1 & s on1 & z he _c exam9e all ! possible religions1 he w rema9 )\t any religi\s convictions4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if he is n all[$ to inve/igate ! f\ndations ( 8 belief1 x foll[s ei!r t all religions alike br+ _! believ] happ9ess1 no matt] h[ contradictory !y are1 :i* is absurd2 or ,god w\ld seem unfair if only "o religion leads its devotees to happ9ess & no "o is all[$ to *ange 8 religion = "o t seems to him ! true "o4 ,! answ] ( ,albo to ?is int]e/+ "q is *>act]i/ic4 ,x %[s t he armor$ himself 9 advance1 be=e he risk$ su* a delicate "q4 ,he makes x cle> t x really does n expose to any dang] ! religion ( ,judaism1 ! "m ( ! o!r two1 :i* !y came to sup]s$e4 ,if all religions 9 ! _w1 ,albo tells u1 7 oppos$ to "o ano!r1 & reg>d$ ea* o!r z untrue1 ! above difficulty w\ld be real4 ,b x is n s4 ,all religions agree 9 respect to "o ( !m t x is div9e2 b !y say t x is sup]s$$4 ,h5ce e religioni/ :o is n a ,jew mu/ inve/igate 8 religion to see if x is ju/ifi$ 9 oppos+ ! religion :i* is ackn[l$g$ to be div9e4 ,simil>ly ! pr(essor ( ! admitt$ly div9e religion %\ld inve/igate to see if 8 religion is tempor>y or et]nal4 ,9 ?is inve/igation he mu/ fir/ see if ! religion con=ms to ! pr9ciples ( div9e religion above m5tion$4 ,if x does ?is & 9 addition endeavors to ord] human affairs 9 accordance ) ju/ice1 & leads its devotees to human p]fection1 x is div9e4 ,x is /ill1 h[ev]1 possible t x is ! "w ( a wise man ( good "*4 ,x is !re=e necess>y to inve/igate ! "* ( ! promulgator1 to f9d out :e!r he is a g5u9e div9e mess5g] or n4 ,?is te/1 z 0 said above 7p4 #dae71 mu/ be a direct te/ & n an indirect4#dba ,! o!r "q is :e!r !re c be m ?an "o div9e religion4 ,app>5tly !re c be only "o1 s9ce ! giv] is "o1 & ! recipi5ts are ( "o species4 ,b 9 reality ! receiv]s v>y 9 temp]am5t accord+ to diff]5ce 9 inh]itance & environm5t4 ,h5ce !re may be a diff]5ce 9 ! law accord+ to ! "* ( ! p = :om x is int5d$4 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 ! diff]5ce is due to ! receiv] & n to ! giv]1 x mu/ reside 9 ^? elem5ts :i* are dep5d5t ^u ! receiv]1 i4 e41 9 p>ticul>s & details1 n 9 ! pr9ciples1 fundam5tal or d]iv$4 ,s ! ,noa*ite & ! ,mosaic laws diff] only 9 details1 n 9 fundam5tal pr9ciples4#dbb ,we h n[ complet$ ! exposition ( ! "p ( ,albo's tea*+ t may be call$ di/9ctly 8 own4 ,& x seems he 0 aw>e t he _h no?+ fur!r to tea* t 0 new1 & w\ld h be5 cont5t to end 8 book ) ! fir/ "p1 ( :i* we h j giv5 an acc\nt4 ,b 8 fri5ds1 he tells u 9 ! conclud+ rem>ks to ! fir/ "p ( ! ,ikk>im1#dbc urg$ him to proce$ fur!r & discuss 9 detail ! pr9ciples1 fundam5tal & d]iv$1 ! true beliefs & ! s-call$ bran*es1 :i* he b>ely enum]at$ 9 ! fir/ "p4 ,he 0 p]suad$ by _! advice & add$ ! o!r ?ree sections1 ea* devot$ to "o ( ! ?ree fundam5tal dogmas & ! coroll>ies foll[+ f x4 ,"h ,albo has no?+ new to tea*4 ,he foll[s ! beat5 track1 reviews ! classic views ( ,maimonides1 takes advantage ( ! criticisms ( ,g]sonides & ,crescas1 & settles ! problems sometimes "o way sometimes ano!r1 )\t ev] sugge/+ any?+ new4 ,accord+ly x w n be wor? our :ile to reproduce 8 discussions "h4 ,x w suffice briefly to indicate 8 position on ! m important problems4 ,! second section deals ) ! exi/5ce ( ,god & ! d]iv$ pr9ciples & bran*es gr[+ out f ?is root4 ,9 prov+ ! exi/5ce ( ,god he ref]s to ,maimonides's f\r pro(s 7cf4 p4 #beg ff471 & selects ! ?ird & f\r? z really valid & beyond dispute4 ,! fir/ & second are n conclusive2 ! "o because x is bas$ ^u ! et]nity ( motion1 :i* no ,jew accepts2 ! o!r because ! major premise is n true4 ,x does n foll[ if "o ( ! two elem5ts a1 b1 ( a composite a b is f\nd sep>ately1 t ! o!r mu/ be f\nd exi/+ sep>ately likewise4#dbd ,we h se5 t f ! pr9ciple ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god foll[ f\r d]ivative dogmas1 unity1 incorporeality1 indep5d5ce ( "t1 fre$om f defects4 ,we are n[ told t f ^! second>y roots issue a numb] ( bran*es4 ,f ,unity x foll[s t no attributes ei!r ess5tial or accid5tal c be appli$ to ,god1 su* z wisdom1 /r5g?1 g5]osity1 & s on1 = !y w\ld cause multiplicity4 ,f incorporeality we inf] t ,god is n subject to corporeal affections l fe>1 sorr[1 joy1 grudge1 & s on4 ,indep5d5ce ( "t implies inf9ite p[] & want ( resemblance to o!r ?+s4 ,fre$om f defect implies abs5ce ( su* qualities z ignorance1 weakness1 & s on4#dbe ,9 ! discussion ( ! div9e attributes ,albo has no?+ new to (f]1 b in/ead he argues =w>d & backw>d1 n[ ) ,maimonides1 n[ aga9/ him1 reproduc+ a good deal ( ,maimonides's classification1 embody+ "s mat]ial ( ,bahya on unity1 & aft] ?is rambl+ & n v consi/5t discussion1 he comes to ! conclusion t none b active & negative attributes are applicable to ,god2 & yet "s ess5tial attributes too mu/ be 81 b ^! mu/ be und]/ood z imply+ only ! aspect ( p]fection1 & n t o!r aspect ( attribute :i* is responsible = multiplicity4#dbf ,he asks ! "q s (t5 ask$ be=e1 ,h[ c multiplicity come f unity8 ,& aft] giv+ ,ibn ,s9a's s*eme ( ! emanation ( ! ,intellig5ces "o aft] ! o!r1 & criticiz+ x 9 ! mann] ( ,gazali & ,maimonides1 he gives 8 own solution t ! v>iety & multiplicity ( ! _w t5ds to "o end1 :i* is ! ord] ( ! _w4 ,& ?us are reconcil$ plurality & unity4 7cf4 ,g]sonides above1 p4 #cea74dbg ,he discusses ! "q ( angels or ,intellects1 gives ! views ( ! philosoph]s conc]n+ _! nature & numb]1 ea* be+ ! effect ( ! sup]ior & ! cause ( ! inf]ior1 & objects to _! idea on ! gr\nd t ^! _c be ! same z ! ,biblical angels1 :o are mess5g]s ( ,god to mank9d4 ,he !n gives 8 own view t ! numb] ( angels is inf9ite1 n z ! philosoph]s say t5 or fifty1 & t !y are n relat$ to ea* o!r z cause & effect1 b t ?\gh !y are immat]ial ,intellects !y are individuat$ & diff]5tiat$ accord+ to ! degree ( und]/&+ !y h ( ,god4#dbh ,9 discuss+ ! second fundam5tal pr9ciple1 ,revelation1 ,albo argues 9 ! good old fa%ion t man is ! noble/ creature ( ! sublun> _w1 & ! mo/ di/9ctive & noble/ "p ( man--8 =m & ess5ce--is ! !oretical reason4 ,h5ce ! purpose ( man mu/ be ! realization ( ! !oretical intellect4 ,at ! same "t1 & ) little consi/5cy1 ,albo takes ! "p ( ,judah ,halevi & ,crescas1 employ+ _! argum5ts1 )\t nam+ !m1 t ! philosoph]s & ! philosophiz+ !ologians are wrong :o make human immortality1 p]fection & happ9ess dep5d solely ^u intellectual activity4 ,he comes to ! conclusion1 !re=e1 t spiritual und]/&+1 :i* gives p]fection ( s\l :5 9 comb9ation ) practice1 is n acquisition ( ideas b ! int5tion ( do+ ! w ( ,god 9 ! p]=mance ( good de$s1 & n t ( pleasure or rew>d4#dbi ,?is be+ s1 x becomes an important "q :at are ! practices :i* t5d to human p]fection1 & :at are ^? :i* t5d ! o!r way4 ,9 g5]al we may conclude1 z l desires & rejoices 9 l1 t ^? de$s :i* give ! s\l pleasure be=e & aft] p]=mance are good & helpful1 :ile ^? :i* cause subsequ5t pa91 regret & sorr[ are bad1 & t5d away f ! s\l's p]fection4 ,b ! crit]ion ( pleasure & pa9 j sugge/$ is n suffici5t z a guide 9 conduct1 = a great deal dep5ds ^u a man's temp]am5t4 ,:at a hot-blood$ man may comm5d & f9d pleasure 91 ! phlegmatic temp]am5t w object to1 & w feel discom=t 9 do+4 ,besides1 z ! good de$ is always a mean betwe5 two extremes1 :i* x is h>d to measure precisely2 & z ! good de$ is t :i* pleases ,god1 & beyond g5]alities we _c tell :at does1 & :at does n please ,god1 s9ce we d n "k 8 ess5ce1 x 0 necess>y = man's sake t ,god %\ld reveal 8 w to mank9d ?r\gh a prophet4 ,?us ,revelation is prov$ by reason4#dcj ,?is leads to ! problem ( prophecy1 "o ( ! d]ivative pr9ciples ( ,revelation4 ,! div9e influ5ce f :i* man gets a k ( ! ?+s pleas+ & displeas+ to ,god1 he _c obta9 )\t ! div9e w4 ,in/ead ( magic1 div9ation1 & communication ) evil spirits & ! dead1 :i* ! anci5t hea!n employ$ 9 ord] to le>n ! future1 ,god s5t prophets to ,israel1 to tell ! p ( ! w ( ,god4 ,=etell+ ! future 0 only second>y ) !m4 ,prophecy is a sup]natural gift1 :e!r x takes place ) ! help ( ! imag9ation or n4 ,if x 7 a natural ph5om5on dep5d5t ^u ! intellectual p[] ( ! individual & 8 faculty ( imag9ation1 z ! philosoph]s & "s ,jewi% !ologians ?9k1 !re %\ld h be5 prophets among ! philosoph]s4 ,"h aga9 we see ,albo adopt ! view ( ,halevi & ,crescas aga9/ ! intellectualism ( ,maimonides & ,g]sonides4 ,8 fur!r classification ( ! grades ( prophecy is bas$ ^u ,maimonides1 ?\gh ,albo simplifies x4 ,in/ead ( elev5 ,albo recognizes f\r grades 9 all1 includ+ t ( ,moses4 ,! great majority ( mank9d1 he says1 /op ) ! ability to analyze1 su* z is exhibit$ 9 ! analysis ( ?+s into matt] & =m1 & s on1 ?\gh n all ( !m g s f>4 ,b !re are "s few :o g f>!r & are enabl$ to speak words ( wisdom & to s+ praises to ,god )\t be+ able to acc\nt = ! p[]4 ,?is is ! holy _s 7,ruah ha-,kode%74 ,"s g /ill f>!r1 & ?r\gh ! /r5g? ( _! reason & imag9ation !y dream true dreams & receive prophecies2 ?\gh1 ! imag9ation hav+ ! upp] h&1 !y /ruggle v h>d & tremble & fa9t1 almo/ los+ _! s\l4 ,?is is ! fir/ /age ( prophecy4 ,! second /age is :5 ! imag9ation & reason are equal4 ,9 t case !re is no /ruggle or fa9t+4 ,visions come to ! prophet at night 9 dreams1 or 9 a rev]y at daytime4 ,! =ms t appe> are n real1 b ! mean+s !y convey are4 ,su* are ! figures ( wom51 horses1 basket ( summ] fruit1 & s on1 9 ! visions ( ,ze*>iah & ,amos4 ,! ?ird /age is :5 ! reason gets ! bett] ( ! imag9ation & !re are no =ms or images1 b real ess5ces & ideas1 l ! visions ( ,ezekiel1 :i* repres5t real ?+s 9 ! secrets ( nature & div9ity4 ,! prophet 9 ?is /age also he>s an angel speak+ to him & giv+ him in=mation ( importance to himself or o!rs4 ,9 all ^! cases ! w ( ,god is ess5tial4 ,no prep>ation c replace x4 ,f9ally ! f\r? /age is rea*$ :5 ! imag9ation does n come into play at all4 ,9 ?is /age !re is no angel or =m1 & ! message comes to ! prophet at daytime :ile he is awake4 ,he he>s a voice tell+ him :at he desires to "k2 & :5ev] he *ooses he c summon ?is p[]4 ,moses alone atta9$ to ?is f9al /age4 ,outside ( ! prophets1 ! righte\s & ! pi\s h v>i\s degrees ( p[] accord+ to ! degree ( _! union ) ,god4 ,"s c 9 ?is way influ5ce ! p[]s ( nature to obey !m1 z a p]son c1 by ?9k+ ( food1 make 8 m\? wat]4 ,s !y c by tak+ ?\ght cause ra9 & /orm4 ,o!rs c br+ d[n fire f above & revive ! dead4 ,?r\gh ! influ5ce ( a prophet ! gift ( prophecy may sometimes re/ ^u individuals :o are !mselves unprep>$ & unwor?y4 ,witness ! revelation on ,s9ai :]e ! entire p1 six hundr$ ?\s& 9 numb]1 7 end[$ ) ! _s ( prophecy1 & t too ( ! highe/ degree1 l ,moses himself4 ,! prophetic m$ium reflects ! _s ( prophecy on o!rs z a smoo? surface reflects ! light ( ! sun ^u d>k bodies4 ,?is is :y prophecy is f\nd only 9 ,israel & 9 ,pale/9e1 because ! ark & ! ,tables ( ,/one1 ^u :i* ! ,%ek9ah re/s1 reflect ! div9e _s ^u ^? :o are wor?y & h 9 !m some?+ resembl+ ! cont5ts ( ! ark1 namely1 ! ,torah & ! comm&m5ts4#dca ,among ! true beliefs we h se5 7p4 #daf7 t ,immutability ( ! ,law is relat$ to ! pr9ciple ( ,revelation4 ,h5ce ?is is ! place to discuss ?is "q4 ,c a div9e religion *ange ) "t or n8 ,x w\ld seem at fir/ sight t x _c4 ,= ! giv] expresses 8 w 9 ! ,law1 & 8 w nev] *anges4 ,! receiv]s are ! same1 i4 e41 ! same nation1 & a nation does n *ange4 ,f9ally ! purpose ( ! ,law or religion is to give p true op9ions1 & ^! nev] *ange4 ,& yet on fur!r reflection !re seems no reason :y religion %\ld n *ange ) ! *ange ( ! recipi5t1 z ! physician *anges 8 prescription ) ! progress ( ! pati5t1 & z a matt] ( fact we f9d t ! comm&m5ts giv5 to ,adam 7 diff]5t f ^? giv5 to ,noah & to ,abraham & to ,moses4 ,adam 0 n all[$ to eat meat1 ,noah 04 ,abraham 0 comm&$ circumcision4 ,high places 7 at fir/ p]mitt$ & lat] =bidd54 ,maimonides makes ! immutability ( ! ,law a fundam5tal dogma1 rely+ ^u ! comm&m5t1 ,?\ %alt n add !reto1 & ?\ %alt n dim9i% !refrom 7,deut4 #ac1 #a74 ,b 9 ! fir/ place ! v]se ref]s to *anges 9 ! mode ( obs]v+ ! laws2 & besides1 x says no?+ ab\t ,god himself *ang+ ! ,law4 ,! phrases an et]nal /atute1 ?r\gh\t y\r g5]ations1 x is a sign = ev]1 are no pro( ( ! et]nity ( ! ,law2 = n all comm&m5ts h ^! expressions atta*$1 & ?is %[s r t ! o!rs are subject to *ange4 ,besides1 ! expressions1 = et]nity1 & s on1 are n to be tak5 absolutely4 ,!y are (t5 us$ to express f9ite p]iods ( "t4 ,aft] ! ,babylonian ,exile two *anges 7 made4 ,!y *ang$ ! *>act]s 9 :i* ! ,bible 0 writt51 & ! ord] & names ( ! mon?s1 beg9n+ ) ,ti%ri in/ead ( ,nisan4 ,!re is no reason1 !re=e1 :y o!r laws might n *ange1 too4 ,we ne$ n1 !n1 reg>d ,immutability ( ! ,law z a fundam5tal dogma ) ,maimonides4 ,hasdai ,crescas also classes x ) true beliefs & n ) fundam5tal pr9ciples4 ,albo resolves ! problem z foll[s3 ,a matt] t is reveal$ by ,god himself _c be *ang$ by a prophet unless x is *ang$ by ,god himself4 ,! fir/ two comm&m5ts1 ,i am ! ,"l ?y ,god1 c41 & ,?\ %alt n h o!r gods1 c41 7 he>d by ! p directly f ,god )\t ! int]v5tion ( ,moses1 h5ce !y _c be *ang$ by any prophet4 ,x foll[s !re=e t ! ?ree fundam5tal dogmas1 exi/5ce ( ,god1 ,revelation & ,rew>d & ,puni%m5t c nev] be *ang$ by a prophet1 = !y are impli$ 9 ! fir/ two comm&m5ts1 :i* 7 he>d f ,god himself4 ,! re/ ( ! comm&m5ts1 z !y 7 he>d f ,god ?r\gh ! int]pretation ( ,moses1 c be *ang$ by a prophet z a tempor>y measure4 ,! o!r laws :i* 7 giv5 by ,moses may be *ang$ by a lat] prophet ev5 p]man5tly4 ,b ! prophet mu/ be great] ?an ,moses1 & he mu/ %[ ?is by ! greatness1 numb]1 publicity & p]man5ce ( 8 miracles1 :i* mu/ excel ^? ( ,moses4 ,he mu/ likewise %[ t he 0 s5t by ,god to *ange ! ,law1 z cle>ly z ,moses prov$ t he 0 s5t to give x4 ,b x is unlikely t any su* prophet w come1 = ! ,torah says t !re nev] 0 or w be any prophet l ,moses4#dcb ,be=e discuss+ ! ?ird fundam5tal dogma1 ,albo f9ds x desirable to dispose fir/ ( a few o!r problems impli$ by ?is dogma1 "o ( :i*1 ,god's k1 0 po/pon$ to ?is place1 ?\gh x is connect$ ) ,revelation1 because x _c well be sep>at$ 9 discussion f ! problem ( ,fre$om4 ,provid5ce is ! o!r relat$ problem1 :i* is d]iv$ f ! dogma ( ,rew>d & ,puni%m5t4 ,!re is no?+ t is new 9 ,albo's treatm5t ( k & ,fre$om4 ,he insi/s l ,maimonides t ,god mu/ be omnisci5t1 & on ! o!r h& ! cont+5t _c be d5i$1 & nei!r c fre$om4 ,he gives ! /ock argum5ts1 :i* x is n necess>y to reproduce at ?is late h\r4 ,& 8 solution is t ( ,maimonides t 9 ,god human fre$om & div9e ,omnisci5ce are reconcilable because ,god's k is n our k4#dcc ,nor is !re any?+ orig9al 9 ,albo's discussion ( ! problem ( ,provid5ce4 ,he recognizes ) ,maimonides & o!rs t a /rong argum5t aga9/ special ,provid5ce is ! obs]v$ inequality betwe5 ! de/9ies ( m5 & _! app>5t m]its4 ,& he endeavors 9 ! well worn me?od to give reasons & explanations = ?is inequality :i* w n t\* unfavorably ,god's ju/ice or 8 special ,provid5ce4 ,! reasons are su* z we met be=e & we %all n repeat !m4 ,albo also gives a few positive argum5ts to prove ! reality ( special ,provid5ce = man4 ,he sees 9 v>i\s natural & human ph5om5a evid5ce ( deviation f ! m]ely natural z dem&$ by ! pr9ciples ( ,ari/otle's ,physics or ! laws ( uni=mity4 ,?is %[s special ,provid5ce4 ,?us ! exi/5ce ( dry e>?1 ! heavie/ elem5t1 above wat]1 _c be acc\nt$ = by ! laws ( ,physics4 ,! ph5om5on ( ra9 _c be r$uc$ to law1 h5ce x argues w & purpose & ,provid5ce4 ,admonition 9 dreams is direct evid5ce ( special ,provid5ce1 & x is sc>cely likely t man1 :o has special equipm5t above ! o!r animals 9 8 reason1 %\ld n also receive special c>e above t :i* ! l[] animals h4 ,n[ !y are protect$ 9 ! species1 h5ce man is provid$ = z an individual4#dcd ,hav+ dispos$ ( ! auxili>y dogmas1 ,albo takes up ! fundam5tal pr9ciple ( ,rew>d & ,puni%m5t4 ,he cites v>i\s op9ions on ! subject1 :i* are dep5d5t ^u ! idea "o ent]ta9s conc]n+ ! nature ( ! s\l4 ,?us if "o holds t ! human s\l is n diff]5t 9 k9d f ! animal s\l1 x foll[s t z !re is no rew>d & puni%m5t = ! animal1 !re is none = man4 ,& if "o reg>ds ! human s\l z m]ely a capacity or possibility ( intellig5ce he mu/ necess>ily conclude t ! s\l p]i%es ) ! body & !re is no spiritual rew>d & puni%m5t aft] dea?4 ,! only rew>d !re is mu/ !re=e be corporeal1 dur+ life4 ,on ! o!r h&1 our g5]al exp]i5ce1 :i* br+s be=e u _m cases ( good m5 suff]+ & bad m5 enjoy+ prosp]ity1 w\ld seem to argue aga9/ corporeal rew>d & puni%m5t 9 ?is _w4 ,?is tak5 toge!r ) ! philosophical op9ion t ! s\l is an immat]ial & inde/ructible sub/ance gives rise to ! ?ird view t ! only recomp5se is spiritual aft] dea?4 ,none ( ^! views is satisfactory to ,albo4 ,! fir/ two because !y are bas$ ^u an errone\s notion ( ! s\l4 ,all agree1 philosoph]s z well z !ologians1 t ! human s\l is diff]5t 9 k9d f ! s\l ( ! animal2 & x is likewise admitt$ t ! human s\l is immortal4 ,8 criticism ( ! ?ird view s f> z x is bas$ ^u ! intellectuali/ idea t ! ?+ ( highe/ value is intellectual ef=t1 & ! only rew>d is immortality :i* intellectual activity eng5d]s1 is simil> to t ( ,halevi & ,crescas 9 its endeavor to refute ?is notion & to sub/itute = x ! religi\s view t ! s\l is an indep5d5t sub/ance hav+ a capacity = intellig5ce 9 ,god's s]vice4 ,! degree 9 :i* a p]son realizes ?is s]vice det]m9es 8 rew>d & puni%m5t4 ,! argum5t f exp]i5ce ,albo does n answ] "h1 b we may suppose he reg>ds x z answ]$ by :at he said 9 8 discussion ( ,provid5ce1 :]e he tries to acc\nt = ! prosp]ity ( ! wick$ & ! adv]sity ( ! righte\s4 ,albo's own view accord+ly is t :i* he also attributes to ! ,bible t !re is a tw(old rew>d1 9 ?is _w & 9 ! next4 ,!re is /ill a diff]5ce ( op9ion conc]n+ ! nature ( ! true & ultimate rew>d1 :e!r x is giv5 to ! s\l alone1 or to body & s\l comb9$ 9 resurrection4 ,he quotes ,maimonides's op9ion1 ) :om he agrees1 t ! real rew>d is purely spiritual enjoy$ by ! s\l alone4 ,to be sure1 aft] ! com+ ( ! ,messiah ! bodies ( ! righte\s w be resurrect$ to make kn[n abroad ,god's wond]s1 or to give ^! p bodily pleasure = ! pa9 !y suff]$ dur+ life1 or to give !m additional opportunity to acquire p]fection s t !y may h a great] rew>d lat]4 ,b ?is /ate ( resurrect$ life w la/ only = a "t1 & !n all w die aga91 & ! s\ls w enjoy spiritual life =ev]4 ,! o!r op9ion1 held by ,na*manides1 is t ! real & ultimate rew>d is t ( body & s\l unit$ to ev]la/+ life4 ,albo is n satisfi$ ) ?is view1 8 objections be+ among o!rs t if only ! p]fect are resurrect$1 ! re/ w rema9 )\t any rew>d at all1 n to m5tion ! difficulty t x is n likely t ! human body--a p]i%able ?+--w *ange into a matt] t w la/ =ev]4 ,z to ! nature ( rew>d & puni%m5t aft] dea?1 ,albo tells u t rew>d w consi/ 9 ! s\l's realization t its endeavors 9 ?is _w 7 correct1 & 9 ! next _w x w be prep>$ to jo9 ! spiritual be+s1 :i* w give x great joy4 ,! err+ s\l w f9d itself 9 a position :]e x w /ill desire ! corporeal pleasures ( ?is _w1 b w n be able to h !m = want ( corporeal organs4 ,at ! same "t x w also ent]ta9 ! o!r m natural desire ( a spiritual sub/ance to jo9 ! o!r spiritual be+s 9 ! o!r _w4 ,?is feel+ too x w n be able to satisfy because ( its want ( p]fection4 ,?is division ( desires unsatisfi$ w cause ! s\l excruciat+ torture1 & ?is is its puni%m5t4#dce ,,conclusion ,our task is done4 ,we h n[ rea*$ ! limit we h assign$ ourselves4 ,we h trac$ objectively & ) great] or less detail ! rationali/ic movem5t 9 m$ival ,jewry f its beg9n+s 9 ! n9? & t5? c5turies 9 ,babylon among ! ,k>aites & ,rabbanites to its decl9e 9 ,spa9 & s\? ,france 9 ! fifte5? c5tury4 ,we h foll[$ its asc5d+ curve f ,saadia ?r\gh ,gabirol1 ,bahya & ,ibn ,daud to its highe/ po9t 9 ,maimonides1 & we likewise trac$ its desc5t ?r\gh ,g]sonides1 ,crescas & ,albo4 ,we took acc\nt ( its ess5tial nature z be+ a s]i\s & consci5ti\s attempt to def9e a ,jewi% ,weltans*auung 9 ! mid/ ( conflict+ claims ( religions & philosophies4 ,! ,jewi% sacr$ writ+s _h to be /udi$ & made consi/5t ) !mselves 9 reg>d to c]ta9 e?ical & metaphysical que/ions :i* =c$ !mselves ^u ! m9ds ( ?9k+ m54 ,9 ?is endeavor x 0 necess>y to h reg>d to ! sy/em ( doctr9e t 0 gr[+ up among _! ,mohamm$an neighbors & ma/]s--itself inh]it$ f ,greece--& adju/ its tea*+s to ^? ( ,judaism4 ,! adju/m5t took v>i\s =ms accord+ to ! temp]am5t ( ! adju/]4 ,x embrac$ ! extremes ( all b sacrific+ "o ( ! two sy/ems ( doctr9e to ! o!r1 & x c\nt$ among its vot>ies ^? :o hone/ly endeavor$ to give ea* claim its due4 ,! sy/em ( ,judaism 0 ! same = all ?r\gh\t ! p]iod ( our inve/igation1 except+ only ! diff]5ce betwe5 ,k>aites & ,rabbanites4 ,?is 0 n ! case ) ! sy/em ( philosophic doctr9e4 ,!re we c see a developm5t f ,kalam ?r\gh ,neo-,platonism to ,ari/otelianism1 & we accord+ly classifi$ ! ,jewi% ?9k]s z ,mutakallimun1 ,neo-,platoni/s or ,ari/otelians1 or comb9ations 9 v>y+ proportions ( any two ( ! ?ree sy/ems m5tion$4 ,x 0 n our prov9ce to treat ( ! my/ic movem5t 9 m$ival ,jewry z x develop$ 9 ! ,kabbali/ic works & ga9$ ! gr\nd yield$ 9 ! c\rse ( "t by ! heal?i] rationalism4 ,to complete ! picture x w suffice to say t z ! political & economic conditions ( ! ,jews 9 ! f\rte5? & fifte5? c5turies det]iorat$1 & fre$om & tol]ation 7 succe$$ by p]secution & expulsion1 ! ,jews became m zeal\s = _! own spiritual h]itage z di/+ui%$ f =eign importations2 philosophy & rationalism began to be reg>d$ askance1 p>ticul>ly z exp]i5ce %[$ t sci5tific tra9+ 0 n favorable to ,jewi% /eadfa/ness & loyalty4 ,9 suff]+ & p]secution ^? :o /uck to _! po/s 7 z a rule n ! s-call$ enlight5$ :o play$ ) =eign le>n+1 b ! simple folk :o believ$ 9 ,torah & tradition 9 ! good old /yle4 ,! philosophical & ! sci5tific devotees 7 ! fir/ to yield1 & _m ( !m ab&on$ ,judaism4#dcf ,?us x 0 t my/icism & obscurantism took ! place ( enlight5m5t z a measure ( self-def5ce4 ,! mat]ial walls ( ! ,ghetto & ! spiritual walls ( ! ,talmud & ! ,kabbala kept ! remnant f be+ ov]:elm$ & absorb$ by ! ho/ile environm5t ( ,*ri/ian & ,mohamm$an4 ,! second half ( ! f\rte5?1 & ! fifte5? c5tury 7 n favorable to philosophical /udies among ! ,jews1 & ! few "h & !re :o /ill %[ an int]e/ 9 sci5ce & philosophy comb9e ) x a belief 9 ,kabbala & are n ( any great influ5ce on ! developm5t ( ,judaism4 ,%emtob b5 ,joseph ibn ,%emtob 7ab4 #addj7 au?or ( a "w entitl$ ,emunot1#dcg is a /rong oppon5t ( ,greek sci5ce & philosophy4 ,he is n cont5t ) attack+ ! less] lights & extremi/s l ,albalag or ,g]sonides or ,abraham ibn ,ezra4 ,he goes to ! v f\nta9-head ( ,jewi% ,ari/otelianism & holds ,maimonides responsible = ! h]esies :i* invad$ ! ,jewi% camp4 ,he takes up "o doctr9e aft] ano!r ( ! great ,jewi% philosoph] & po9ts out h[ dang]\s x is to ! true ,jewi% fai?4 ,judah ,halevi & ,na*manides repres5t to him ! true ,jewi% attitude4 ,! my/]ies ( ! ,jewi% fai? are reveal$ n 9 philosophy b 9 ! ,kabbala1 :i* ,maimonides did n /udy1 & :i* he w\ld n h und]/ood if he _h /udi$ x1 = he _h no ,kabbali/ic tradition4 ,unlike ,%emtob1 8 son ,joseph b5 ,%emtob 7d4 #adhj7dch %[s great admiration = ,ari/otle & ,maimonides4 ,b he is enabl$ to d s by l5d+ cr$5ce to a leg5d t ,ari/otle 9 8 old age recant$ 8 h]etical doctr9es1 9 p>ticul> t ( ! et]nity ( ! _w4 ,joseph b5 ,%emtob made a special /udy ( ,ari/otle's ,e?ics1 to :i* he wrote a comm5t>y1 & endeavor$ to %[ t ! ,/agirite's e?ical doctr9es _h be5 misund]/ood2 t ! highe/ good ( man & 8 ultimate happ9ess are to be s\ght accord+ to ,ari/otle n 9 ?is _w b 9 ! next4 ,x 0 likewise a misund]/&+1 he ?9ks1 :5 ,maimonides & o!rs make ,ari/otle d5y special ,provid5ce4 ,true sci5ce is n really oppos$ to ,judaism4 ,at ! same "t he too l 8 fa!r realizes ! dang] ( too mu* sci5tific /udy1 & h5ce agrees ) ,solomon b5 ,adret t ! /udy ( philosophy %\ld be po/pon$ to ! age ( maturity :5 ! /ud5t is already imbu$ ) ,jewi% le>n+ & religi\s fai?4 ,! son ( ,joseph1 be>+ ! "n ( 8 gr&fa!r1 ,%emtob b5 ,joseph 7fl4 ab4 #adfa-hi71 foll[$ 9 8 fa!r's foot/eps1#dci & wrote a comm5t>y on ! ,guide ( ! ,p]plex$ ( ,maimonides1 :om he def5ds aga9/ ! attacks ( ,crescas4 ,isaac b5 ,moses ,arama 7#adbj-adid7ddj is ! au?or ( a philosophico-homiletical comm5t>y on ! ,p5tateu* entitl$1 ,ak$at ,yizhak1 & a small treatise on ! relations ( philosophy & !ology4 ,he 0 also int]e/$ 9 ,kabbala & plac$ ,jewi% revelation above philosophy4 ,don ,isaac ,ab>banel 7#adcg-aejh71dda ! di/+ui%$ ,jewi% /atesman :o w5t ) 8 bre?r5 into exile at ! "t ( ! expulsion ( ! ,jews f ,spa9 9 #adib1 0 a prolific writ] on ,biblical exegesis & religi\s philosophy4 ,?\gh a great admir] ( ,maimonides1 on ^: ,guide he wrote a comm5t>y1 & ^: ?irte5 articles ( ! cre$ he def5d$ aga9/ ! /rictures ( ,crescas & ,albo1 he 0 nev]!less an outspok5 oppon5t ( ! rationali/ic attitude & has no phrases /rong en\gh = su* m5 z ,albalag1 ,g]sonides1 ,moses ( ,n>bonne & o!rs1 :om he d5\nces z h]etics & tea*]s ( dang]\s doctr9es4 ,he does n ev5 sp>e ,maimonides himself :5 ! latt] attempts to id5tify ! traditional ,maase ,b]e%it & ,maase ,m]kaba ) ! ,ari/otelian ,physics & ,metaphysics 7cf4 above1 p4 #cjc f471 & adopts ,kabbali/ic views along ) philosophic doctr9es4 ,he is nei!r orig9al nor ?or\ghly consi/5t4 ,8 son ,judah ,leo ,ab>banel 7#adgj-aecj7ddb is ! au?or ( a philosophical "w 9 ,italian1 ,dialoghi di ,amore1 7,dialogues ( ,love71 :i* brea!s ! _s ( ! ,r5aissance ( ! fifte5? & sixte5? c5turies 9 ,italy4 ,x is "u ! influ5ce ( ,plato & ,plot9us & id5tifies ,god ) love1 :i* is reg>d$ z ! ess5tial pr9ciple ( all life & activity 9 ! _w1 includ+ ev5 ! inorganic natural processes4 ,!re is no attempt made to con/ruct a ,jewi% philosophy1 & ?\gh all evid5ce is aga9/ x1 "s h made x out t ,judah ,ab>banel 0 a conv]t to ,*ri/ianity4 ,9 ! same c\ntry1 9 ,italy1 ,judah b5 ,ye*iel ,mess] ,leon ( ,mantua#ddc 7#adej-adij7 made a "n = himself z a /ud5t ( ,cic]o & ( m$ival ,lat9 s*ola/icism4 ,he wrote a rhetoric 9 ,hebrew bas$ ^u ,cic]o & ,lactantius1 & compos$ logical works bas$ ^u ,ari/otle's ,lat9 text & ,av]roes4 ,z an orig9al /ud5t ( philosophy he is ( no importance4 ,two memb]s ( ! ,delm$igo family ( ,crete1 ,elijah 7#adfj-adih7 & ,joseph ,solomon1#ddd are well kn[n z /ud5ts ( philosophy & writ]s on philosophical & sci5tific subjects4 ,?us ! /ream ( philosophical ?\ght :i* rose among ! ,jews 9 ,babylonia & fl[$ on ?r\gh ! ages1 ev] wid5+ & deep5+ its *annel1 pass+ into ,spa9 & rea*+ its high wat] m>k 9 ! latt] half ( ! twelf? c5tury 9 ,maimonides1 began to n>r[ & ?9 out :ile spread+ into ,france & ,italy1 until at la/ x dri$ up entirely 9 t v l& :i* op5$ up a new _w ( ?\ght1 beauty & feel+ 9 ! fifte5? c5tury1 ! l& ( ! ,r5aissance4 ,jewi% philosophy nev] pass$ beyond ! s*ola/ic /age1 & ! fre$om & light :i* came to ! re/ ( ! _w 9 ! revival ( anci5t le>n+ & ! inv5tions & discov]ies ( ! mod]n era f\nd ! ,jews incapable ( b5efit+ by ! bless+s !y af=d$4 ,oppression & gloom caus$ ! ,jews to retire )9 _! %ell & !y s\ght consolation = ! fre$om d5i$ !m )\t 9 conc5trat+ _! int]e/s1 ideals & hopes ^u ! ,rabb9ic writ+s1 legal z well z my/ical4 ,!re h appe>$ philosoph]s among ! ,jews 9 succe$+ c5turies1 b !y ei!r philosophiz$ )\t reg>d to ,judaism & 9 opposition to its fundam5tal dogmas1 ?us incurr+ ! wra? & exclusion ( ! synagogue1 or !y s\ght to dissociate ,judaism f !oretical speculation on ! gr\nd t ! ,jewi% religion is n a philosophy b a rule ( conduct4 ,9 m rec5t times ,jewry has divid$ itself into sects & "u ! influ5ce ( mod]n individualism has lo/ its c5tral au?ority mak+ e gr\p ! arbit] ( its own belief & practice & n>r[+ ! religi\s influ5ce to matt]s ( c]emony & communal activity ( a practical "*4 ,!re are ,jews n[ & !re are philosoph]s1 b !re are no ,jewi% philosoph]s & !re is no ,jewi% philosophy4 ,,bibliography,d ,,g5]al ,,works ,,solomon ,,munk1 ,mlanges de ,philosophie ,juive et ,arabe1 ,p>is #ahei1 pp4 #dfa-eaa4 ,a brief hi/orical rsum ( philosophical au?ors & books4 ,g]man translation by ,be]1 ,philosophie und philosophis*e ,s*rift/ell] d] ,jud51 ,leipzig1 #aheb4 ,engli% translation by ,isidor ,kalis*1 ,philosophy & ,philosophical ,au?ors ( ! ,jews1 ,c9c9nati1 #ahha4 ,a4 ,,s*mi$l1 ,/udi5 b] jdis*e1 insond]s jdis*-arabis*e ,religionsphilosophie1 ,wi51 #ahfi4 ,,moritz ,,eisl]1 ,vorlesung5 b] die jdis*5 ,philosoph5 des ,mittelalt]s 7#c p>ts71 ,wi51 #ahgj-hd4 ,,david ,,kaufmann1 ,ges*i*te d] ,attribut5lehre 9 d] jdis*5 ,religionsphilosophie des ,mittelalt]s von ,saadia bis ,maimuni1 ,go?a1 #ahgg4 ,,simeon ,,b]nfeld1 ,hebrew3 ,da'at ,elohim1 ,toldot ,hafilos(iya ,hadatit ,b'yisrael1 ,w>saw1 #ahig4 ,s4 ,,horovitz1 ,die ,psy*ologie bei d5 jdis*5 ,religions-,philosoph5 des ,mittelalt]s1 von ,saadia bis ,maimuni1 ,breslau1 #ahih-aiab 7includes s f> ,saadia1 ,gabirol1 ,ibn ,zaddik1 ,abraham ibn ,daud74 ,j4 ,,pollak1 ,entwicklung d] arabis*5 und jdis*5 ,philosophie im ,mittelalt] 9 ,ar*iv fr ,ges*i*te d] ,philosophie1 vol4 ,,xvii 7#aijd71 pp4 #aif-bcf1 #dcc-dei4 ,,ueb]weg-,,baumg>tn]1 ,grundriss d] ,ges*i*te d] ,philosophie1 vol4 ,,ii1 #aj? ed41 ,b]l91 #aiae1 pp4 #che-djc4 ,,david ,,neum>k1 ,ges*i*te d] jdis*5 ,philosophie des ,mittelalt]s1 na* ,problem5 d>ge/ellt1 vol4 ,i1 ,b]l91 #aijg1 vol4 ,,ii1 "p ,i1 ,b]l91 #aiaj4 ,,ignaz ,,goldzih]1 ,die jdis*e ,philosophie 9 ,allgeme9e ,ges*i*te d] ,philosophie1 von ,w4 ,wundt1 etc4 7,die ,kultur d] ,geg5w>t ,i1 #e71 pp4 #gj-gg 7#bnd ed41 pp4 #cja-ccg74 ,,kalam ,,9 ,,jewi% ,,philosophy ,,m>t9 ,,s*re9]1 ,d] ,kalam 9 d] jdis*5 ,lit]atur1 ,b]l91 #ahie4 ,,isaac ,,israeli ,,jacob ,,guttmann1 ,die philosophis*5 ,lehr5 des ,isaak b5 ,salomon ,israeli1 ,mn/] i4 ,w4 #aiaa4 ,,al ,,mukammas ,,abraham ,,h>kavy1 9 ,russian p]iodical ,woskhod1 ,sept4 #ahih4 ,,saadia ,,jacob ,,guttmann1 ,die ,religionsphilosophie des ,saadia1 ,gtt+51 #ahhb4 ,d4,j4 ,,engelkemp]1 ,saadja ,gaon's religionsphilosophis*e ,lehre b] die heilige ,s*rift1 b]setzt und erklrt1 ,mn/]1 #aijc4 ,,joseph ,,al ,,basir ,p4 ,f4 ,,frankl1 ,e9 ,mutazilitis*] ,kalam aus dem #aj4 ,jahrhund]t1 ,wi51 #ahgb4 ,,miksa ,,kle91 ,jszuf ,al-,baszr1 ,al-,kitb ,al-,muh4tav1 ,budape/1 #aiac4 ,,ern ,,morg5/]n1 ,jszuf ,al-,baszr1 ,al ,kitb ,al ,muh4tav1 ,budape/1 #aiac4 ,,je%ua ,,b5 ,,judah ,,m>t9 ,,s*re9]1 ,/udi5 b] ,jes*ua b5 ,jehuda1 ,b]l91 #aijj4 ,,solomon ,,ibn ,,gabirol ,s4 ,,munk1 ,mlanges1 etc41 ,p>is1 #ahei1 pp4 #aea-cjf4 ,,sey]l51 9 ,zell]'s ,!ologis*e ,jahrb*]1 vols4 ,,xv & ,,xvi4 ,,jacob ,,guttmann1 ,die ,philosophie des ,salomon ibn ,gabirol1 ,gtt+51 #ahhi4 ,,david ,,kaufmann1 ,/udi5 b] ,salomon ibn ,gabirol1 ,budape/1 #ahii4 ,,bahya ,,ibn ,,pakuda ,,david ,,kaufmann1 ,die ,!ologie des ,ba*ja ,ibn ,pakuda1 9 ,gesammelte ,s*rift5 von ,david ,kaufmann 7ed4 ,brann71 vol4 ,,ii1 ,frankfurt a4 ,m41 #aiaj1 pp4 #a-ih4 ,j4 ,h4 ,,h]tz1 ,ba*ya1 ,! ,jewi% ,?omas ,kempis1 ,new ,york1 #ahih 79 ,six? ,bi5nial ,report ( ! ,jewi% ,!ological ,sem9>y ,association74 ,,pseudo-,,bahya ,,jacob ,,guttmann1 ,e9e bi%] unbekannte1 dem ,ba*ja ibn ,pakuda zugeignete ,s*rift1 ,monats*rift f4 ,g4 u4 ,w4 d4 ,j41 vol4 ,,xli 7#ahig71 p4 #bda ff4 ,,abraham ,,b> ,,hiyya ,,jacob ,,guttmann1 9 ,monats*rift f4 ,g4 u1 ,w4 d4 ,j41 #aijj4 ,,joseph ,,ibn ,,zaddik ,,max ,,doctor1 ,die ,philosophie des ,joseph ,ibn ,zaddik1 na* ihr5 ,quell51 insbesond]e na* ihr5 ,beziehung5 zu d5 ,laut]5 ,brd]n und zu ,gabirol unt]su*t1 ,mn/]1 #ahie4 ,,leopold ,,we9sb]g1 ,d] ,mikrokosmos1 e9 angebli* im #ab4 ,jahrhund]t von dem ,cordub5s] ,joseph ibn ,zaddik v]fas/es philosophis*es ,sy/em1 na* se9] ,e*!it unt]su*t1 ,breslau1 #ahhh4 ,,judah ,,halevi ,,ad4 ,,frankl-,,gr,n1 ,die ,e?ik des ,juda ,halevi1 ,bil91 s4 a4 ,,david ,,kaufmann1 ,jehuda ,halewi1 ,v]su* e9] ,*>akt]i/ik1 ,breslau1 #ahgg2 repr9t$ 9 ,gesammelte ,s*rift5 7ed4 ,brann71 ,frankfurt a4 ,m41 #aiaj1 vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #ii-aea4 ,,david ,,neum>k1 ,jehuda ,hallevi's ,philosophy 9 its ,pr9ciples1 ,c9c9nati1 #aijh4 ,,julius ,,guttmann1 ,das ,v]hltniss von ,religion und ,philosophie bei ,jehuda ,halewi1 9 ,israel ,lewy's ,fe/s*rift 7ed4 ,brann & ,elbog571 ,breslau1 #aiaa1 pp4 #cbg-ceh4 ,,abraham ,,ibn ,,ezra ,,na*man ,,kro*mal1 ,hebrew3 ,m ,nevo*ey ,hazman1 ,w>saw1 #ahid1 p4 #bff ff4 ,,david ,,ros91 ,die ,religionsphilosophie ,abraham ibn ,esras1 9 ,monats*rift f4 ,g4 u4 ,w4 d4 ,j4 vols4 ,,xlii 7#ahih7 & ,,xliii 7#ahii74 ,g4 ,,ors*ansky1 ,abraham ibn ,esra als ,philosoph1 ,breslau1 #aijj4 ,,abraham ,,ibn ,,daud ,,gug5heim]1 ,die ,religionsphilosophie des ,r4 ,abraham b5 ,david ha-,levi na* dess5 no* ung$ruckt] ,s*rift ,emuna ,rama 9 ihrem inn]5 und hi/oris*5 ,zusamm5hange entwickelt1 ,augsburg1 #ahej4 ,,jacob ,,guttmann1 ,die ,religionsphilosophie des ,abraham ibn ,daud aus ,tol$o1 ,gtt+51 #ahgi4 ,,maimonides ,m4 ,,joel1 ,die ,religionsphilosophie des ,mose b5 ,maimon1 ,breslau1 #ahgf4 ,,simon ,b4 ,,s*ey]1 ,das ,psy*ologis*e ,sy/em des ,maimonides1 ,frankfurt a4 ,m41 #ahde4 ,,david ,,ros91 ,die ,e?ik des ,maimonides1 ,breslau1 #ahgf4 ,,moses ,,b5 ,,maimon1 se9 ,leb51 se9e ,w]ke und se9 ,e9fluss1 h]aus-gegeb5 von d] ,gesells*aft zur ,frd]ung d] ,wiss5s*aft des ,jud5?ums1 ,b& ,i1 ,leipzig1 #aijh4 ,,l\is-,,g]ma9 ,,levy1 ,mamonide1 ,p>is1 #aiaa 7,les ,gr&s ,philosophes74 ,j4 ,m,,nz1 ,moses b5 ,maimon1 se9 ,leb5 und se9e ,w]ke1 ,frankfurt a4 ,m41 #aiab4 ,m4 ,,joel1 ,v]hltniss ,alb]t des ,gross5 zu ,moses ,maimonides1 ,breslau1 #ahgf4 ,,jacob ,,guttmann1 ,d] ,e9fluss d] ,maimonidis*5 ,philosophie auf das *ri/li*e ,ab5dl&1 9 ,moses b5 ,maimon 7see above71 pp4 #ace-bcj4 ,,david ,,kaufmann1 ,d] ,fhr] ,maimni's 9 d] ,weltlit]atur1 ,ar*iv fr ,ges*i*te d] ,philosophie1 vol4 ,,xi 7#ahih71 pp4 #cce-cgf2 repr9t$ 9 ,gesammelte ,s*rift5 7ed4 ,brann71 ,frankfurt a4 ,m41 #aiaj1 vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #aeb-ahi4 ,j4 ,p4 ,,wick]%am ,,craw=d1 ,! ,vision ,delectable ( ,alfonso de la ,torre & ,maimonides' ,guide ( ! ,p]plex$1 ,publications ( ! ,mod]n ,language ,association ( ,am]ica1 ,,xxviii1 #b 7#aiac71 pp4 #ahh-bab4 ,,isaac ,,husik1 ,an ,anonym\s ,m$ieval ,*ri/ian ,critic ( ,maimonides1 ,jewi% ,qu>t]ly ,review1 ,new ,s]ies1 vol4 ,,ii1 #aiaa1 pp4 #aei-aij4 ,,g]sonides ,m4 ,,joel1 ,lewi b5 ,g]son als ,religionsphilosoph1 ,breslau1 #ahfb4 ,isidore ,weil1 ,philosophie ,religieuse de ,levi b5 ,g]son1 ,p>is1 #ahfh4 ,,b5zion ,,kell]mann1 ,die ,kmpfe ,gottes von ,lewi b5 ,g]son1 ,ueb]setzung und ,erklrung des h&s*riftli* revidi]t5 ,textes1 ,er/] ,teil1 ,b]l91 #aiad4 ,conta9s ! ,g]man translation ( ! fir/ book ( ! ,milhamot ,adonai4 ,! translation is faulty 9 _m places1 z ! pres5t writ] has %[n 9 an article entitl$1 ,/udies 9 ,g]sonides1 :i* w appe> 9 ! ,jewi% ,qu>t]ly ,review1 ,new ,s]ies1 9 ! c\rse ( ! ye> #aiag4 ,,hasdai ,,crescas ,m4 ,joel1 ,don ,*asdai ,creskas' religionsphilosophis*e ,lehr5 9 ihrem ges*i*tli*5 ,e9flusse d>ge/ellt1 ,breslau1 #ahff4 ,,philipp ,,blo*1 ,die ,will5sfreiheit von ,*asdai ,kreskas1 ,mn*51 #ahgi4 ,,julius ,,wolfsohn1 ,d] ,e9fluss ,gazl's auf ,*isdai ,crescas1 ,frankfurt a4 ,m41 #aije4 ,,david ,,neum>k1 ,crescas & ,sp9oza1 9 ,commemoration ( ! ,fif? ,c5t5>y ( ! ,publication ( ! ,or ,adonai2 9 ,ye> ,book ( ! ,c5tral ,conf]5ce ( ,am]ican ,rabbis1 ,,xviii1 #aijh1 pp4 #bgg-cah4 ,,joseph ,,albo ,,samuel ,,back1 ,joseph ,albo's ,b$eutung 9 d] ,ges*i*te d] jdis*5 ,religionsphilosophie1 ,breslau1 #ahfi4 ,,jaulus1 9 ,monats*rift f4 ,g4 u4 ,w4 d4 ,j41 #ahgd1 p4 #dfb ff4 ,a4 ,t,,nz]1 ,die ,religionsphilosophie ,joseph ,albo's na* se9em ,w]ke ,ikk>im sy/ematis* d>ge/ellt und erlut]t1 ,frankfurt a4 ,m41 #ahif4 ,,biblical ,,exegesis ,w4 ,,back]1 ,die ,bibelexegese d] jdis*5 ,religionsphilosoph5 des ,mittelalt]s vor ,maimni1 ,budape/1 #ahib4 ,,id41 ,die ,jdis*e ,bibelexegese vom ,anfange des zehnt5 8 zum ,ende des fnfzehnt5 ,jahrhund]ts1 ,treves1 #ahib1 repr9t$ f ,w9t] und ,wns*e1 ,die ,jdis*e ,lit]atur seit ,abs*luss des ,kanons1 ,,ii1 #bci-cci1 :]e a full bibliography is giv54 ,,id41 ,jewi% ,encyclop$ia1 s4 v4 ,bible ,exegesis1 #ad-af4 ,,influ5ce ,,( ,,jewi% ,,philosophy ,,on ,,s*ola/icism ,! works ( ,joel1 ,guttmann1 ,kaufmann1 ,craw=d & ,husik m5tion$ above "u ,maimonides2 & besides ,,jacob ,,guttmann1 ,das ,v]hltniss des ,?omas von ,aqu9o zum ,jud5?um und zur jdis*5 ,litt]atur1 ,gtt+51 #ahia4 ,,id41 ,die ,s*ola/ik des dreizehnt5 ,jahrhund]ts 9 ihr5 ,beziehung5 zum ,jud5?um und zur jdis*5 ,lit]atur1 ,breslau1 #aijb4 ,= fur!r ref]5ces see ! notes4 ,d ,?is bibliography conta9s a selection ( ! m important works ( exposition4 ,= orig9al s\rces see ! notes4 ,,notes ,black figures d5ote ! page1 ! light figures ! notes xv1 #a4 ,see bel[1 p4 #cie ff4 xvi1 #b4 ,talm4 ,bab4 ,hagiga #aa;b4 #c4 ,ibid4 #d4 ,see ,zell]1 ,die ,philosophie d] ,grie*51 ,,iii1 #b1 #c;d ed4 p4 #cdg2 ,maimonides1 ,guide ( ! ,p]plex$1 ,i1 *4 #ga1 beg9n+4 xvii1 #e4 ,see ,w5ri*1 ,de ,auctorum ,graecorum ,v]sionibus et ,comm5t>iis ,syriacis1 ,arabicis1 ,arm5iacis ,p]sicisque1 ,leipzig1 #ahdb1 p4 #d ff2 ,de ,bo]1 ,ges*i*te d] ,philosophie im ,islam1 ,/uttg>t1 #aija1 p4 #ag ff 7,engli% translation by ,jones1 ,london1 #aijc1 pp4 #aa-cj74 ,duval1 ,la ,littrature ,syriaque #bnd ed41 ,p>is1 #aijj1 *4 ,,xiv1 #b1 p4 #bec ff4 xx1 #f4 ,see ,diet]ici1 ,die ,!ologie des ,ari/otles 7,arabic text71 ,leipzig1 #ahhb2 ,g]man translation by ! same1 ,leipzig1 #ahhc4 #g4 ,see ,b>d5hew]1 ,die ,pseudo>i/otelis*e ,s*rift b] das re9e ,gute1 bekannt unt] dem ,nam5 ,lib] de causis1 ,freiburg i4 ,br41 #ahhb4 #h4 ,see ,val5t9us ,rose1 ,deuts*e ,lit]aturzeitung1 #ahhc1 p4 #hdc4 #i4 ,see ,husik1 ,judah ,mess] ,leon's ,comm5t>y ^u ! ,vetus ,logica1 ,leyd51 #aijf1 p4 #aa1 #ig note4 xxi1 #aj4 ,= ! foll[+ sket* ( ! ,kalam see ,goldzih]1 ,vorlesung5 b] d5 ,islam1 ,heidelb]g1 #aiaj1 #ajj ff1 #abg f4 xxiv1 #aa4 ,see bel[1 p4 #bdg4 xxv1 #ab4 ,see ,s*re9]1 ,d] ,kalam 9 d] jdis*5 ,lit]atur1 ,b]l91 #ahie1 p4 #c2 ibid41 ,/udi5 b] ,jes*ua b5 ,jehuda1 ,b]l91 #aijj1 p4 #ab ff4 xxvi1 #ac4 ,see ,l4 ,g9zb]g1 9 ,jewi% ,encyclop$ia1 s4 v4 ,an?ropomorphism4 #ad4 ,see ,talm4 ,bab4 ,b]akot1 #cc;b4 ,hebrew3 ,modim ,modim ,ma%tik9 ,oto #ae4 ,see ,talm4 ,bab4 ,megillah1 #be;b4 ,hebrew3 ,hakol ,beyidei ,%amayim ,*utz ,mey]iat ,%amaim #af4 ,s*re9]1 ,/udi5 b] ,jes*ua b5 ,jehudah1 p4 #ae note #b4 #ag4 ,see ,bab4 ,talm4 ,pesakim1 #ed;a1 ,hebrew3 ,%iv'a ,dv>im ,nivreu ,kodem ,%5ivra ,ha'olam ,ve'eylu ,h5 ,torah4444 ,torah ,de*tiv 7,mi%ley ,khet7 ,ha%em ,kanani ,rey%it ,d>ko4 #ah4 ,s*re9] #a4 c4 p4 #ab4 #ai4 ,ibid4 #bj4 ,s*re9]1 ,d] ,kalam 9 d] jdis*5 ,lit]atur1 p4 #c1 #d4 xxvii1 #ba4 ,guide ( ! ,p]plex$1 ,i1 *4 #ga4 #bb4 ,see bel[1 p4 #bdf ff4 #bc4 ,see ,goldzih]1 ,vorlesung5 b] d5 ,islam1 p4 #aee ff4 xxviii1 #bd4 ,see ,yahuda1 ,al-,hidaja ,ila ,f>aid ,al-,qulub des ,ba*ja ibn ,joseph ,ibn ,paquda1 ,leyd51 #aiab1 p4 #ec ff4 xxxvii1 #be4 ,cf4 above1 note #f4 #a1 #bf4 ,see ,/e9s*neid]1 ,die ,hebris*5 ,ueb]setzung5 des ,mittelalt]s und die ,jud5 als ,dolmets*]1 ,b]l91 #ahic1 #dgi & notes4 #a1 #bg4 ,see ,guttmann1 ,die ,s*ola/ik des dreizehnt5 ,jahrhund]ts 9 ihr5 ,beziehung5 zum ,jud5?um und zur jdis*5 ,lit]atur1 ,breslau1 #aijb1 ,p4 #ee ff4 #bh4 ,omnia ,op]a ,ysaac1 ,lugduni1 7,lyons71 #aeae4 #b1 #bi4 ,see ,hebrew3 ,igrot ,h>ambam1 ed4 ,am/]dam1 p4 #ad;b4 #cj4 ,s4 ,fri$1 ,das ,bu* b] die ,elem5te 7,hebrew3 ,sef] ,hayesodot71 ,drohobycz1 #aijj4 #ca4 ,publi%$ by ,hirs*feld 9 ,fe/s*rift zum a*tzig/5 ,geburt/ag ,moritz ,/e9s*neid]s1 ,leipzig1 #ahif1 ,,pp4 #aca-ada2 cf4 also pp4 #bcc-d4 #cb4 ,see note #bh & ! two prec$+ notes4 #e1 #cc4 ,hebrew3 ,sef] ,h>ua* ,v'hanefe% publi%$ by ,/e9s*neid] 9 ! ,hebrew p]iodical ,hebrew3 ,hak>mel ,i1 pp4 #dja-dje4 cf4 ,guttmann1 ,die philosophis*5 ,lehr5 des ,isaak b5 ,salomon ,israeli1 ,mn/] i4 ,w41 #aiaa1 p4 #ca1 note #a4 #aj1 #cd4 ,fri$1 ,hebrew3 ,sef] ,hayesodot1 p4 #ab;f4 #ag1 #ce4 ,b]l91 #ahhe1 pp4 #fe1 #gg-hc1 #aea-aed4 #cf4 ,see ! ,russian pap] ,woskhod1 ,septemb]1 #ahih4 #bd1 #cg4 ,arabic text edit$ by ,s4 ,l&au]1 ,kitab al-,amanat wal-,itiqadat1 ,leyd5 #ahhj4 ,! ,hebrew translation ( ,judah ibn ,tibbon has be5 publi%$ 9 _m editions4 ,! ref]5ces 9 ! foll[+ notes are to ! ,yozefov edition4 #be1 #ch4 ,cf4 bel[1 p4 #bdi ff4 #ci4 ,pt4 ,i1 *4 #a1 ?ird argum5t1 p4 #eh ( ,yozefov edition4 #dj4 ,ibid41 f\r? argum5t1 p4 #ei4 #bf1 #da4 ,ibid41 *4 #c1 p4 #fc ff42 cf4 ,guttmann1 ,die ,religionsphilosophie des ,saadia1 ,gtt+51 #ahhb1 p4 #de f4 #db4 ,pt4 ,,ii1 *s4 #i-ab1 pp4 #ie-aja4 #dc4 ,pt4 ,,vi1 *4 #a1 p4 #adi4 #dd4 ,pt4 ,,ii1 *4 #b1 pp4 #hh-i4 #bg1 #de4 ,introduction1 pp4 #ch-ci4 #df4 ,ibid41 p4 #dj4 #bh1 #dg4 ,ibid41 pp4 #dc-dh4 #dh4 ,ibid41 p4 #dh4 #di4 p4 #di #ej4 p4 #ea4 #bi1 #ea4 ,pt4 ,i4 ,introduction1 p4 #ed f4 #eb4 ,ibid41 *4 #a1 p4 #ef4 #cj1 #ec4 ,ibid41 p4 #eg4 #ed4 ,ibid41 p4 #eh4 #ee4 ,ibid41 p4 #ei4 #ca1 #ef4 ,*4 #b1 p4 #fj ff4 #eg4 ,*4 #c1 ?ird op9ion1 p4 #ff ff4 #cb1 #eh4 ,*4 #d1 pp4 #hj-hb4 #ei4 ,pt4 ,,ii1 ,introduction1 p4 #hf4 #fj4 ,ibid41 *4 #a1 p4 #hh4 #cc1 #fa4 ,pt4 ,i1 *4 #c1 fif? op9ion1 p4 #fh4 #fb4 ,pt4 ,,ii1 *4 #b1 p4 #hi4 #cd1 #fc4 ,ibid41 *s4 #d-e1 pp4 #ia-ic4 #fd4 ,see ,graf1 ,die ,philosophie und ,gotteslehre des ,jahja ibn ,adi und spt]5 ,autor51 ,mn/]1 #aiaj1 p4 #cb1 note1 p4 #eb4 #ce1 #fe4 ,,iii1 *4 #aj1 p4 #abb2 ,v1 *4 #h1 p4 #adg2 ,,vii1 *4 #b1 p4 #afe4 #ff4 ,,ii1 *s4 #i-ab1 pp4 #ie-ajb4 #cg1 #fg4 ,,vi1 *s4 #a-d1 pp4 #adh-aef4 #ch1 #fh4 ,,iii *s4 #a-c1 pp4 #ajd-aaj4 #dj1 #fi4 ,ibid41 *s4 #d-e1 pp4 #aaj-aac4 #gj4 ,*4 #f1 pp4 #aac-aad4 #ga4 ,*s4 #g-i1 pp4 #aad-aba4 #da1 #gb4 ,,iv1 pp4 #abd-acf4 #db1 #gc4 ,v1 *s4 #a-c1 pp4 #acf-adj4 #dc1 #gd4 ,,ix1 *s4 #a-d1 pp4 #ahe-aij4 #dd1 #ge4 ,,vi1 *4 #h1 pp4 #afj-afb4 #de1 #gf4 ,,vii1 *s4 #a-i1 pp4 #afb-agd4 #gg4 ,,viii1 pp4 #age-ahe4 #gh4 ,,ix1 *s4 #e-aa1 pp4 #aij-aig4 #df1 #gi4 ,x1 pp4 #aig-bae4 #dh1 #hj4 ,! foll[+ sket* is bas$ ^u ,frankl1 ,e9 ,mutazilitis*] ,kalam aus dem #ajt5 ,jahrhund]t1 ,wi51 #ahgb4 #ee1 #ha4 ,! foll[+ sket* is bas$ ^u ,s*re9]1 ,/udi5 b] ,jes*ua b5 ,jehuda1 ,b]l91 #aijj4 #fj1 #hb4 ,hebrew3 ,igrot ,h>ambam 7,lett]s ( ,maimonides71 ed4 ,am/]dam1 p4 #ad;b4 #fa1 #hc4 ,see ,munk1 ,mlanges de ,philosophie ,juive et ,arabe1 ,p>is1 #ahei1 p4 #bia ff2 ,guttmann1 ,die ,s*ola/ik des ,dreizehnt5 ,jahrhund]ts1 ,breslau1 #aijb1 pp4 #fj-he4 ,id41 ,die ,philosophie des ,salomon ibn ,gabirol1 ,gtt+51 #ahhi1 p4 #ed ff4 ,?is la/ "w & t ( ,munk repres5t ! be/ exposition & criticism ( ,gabirol's philosophy & ( 8 s\rces & influ5ces4 #fb1 #hd4 ,cf4 ,baeumk]1 ,av5cebrolis ,fons ,vit1 ,mni/]1 #ahib-ie1 ,prolegom5a4 #fc1 #he4 ,j\rda91 ,a41 ,re*]*es ,critiques sur l'ge et l'orig9e des traductions ,lat9es d' ,ari/ote1 #b ed4 ,p>is1 #ahdc1 p4 #aig note4 #hf4 ,munk1 ,mlanges1 etc4 7see note #hc71 conta9s ! ,hebrew extracts ( ,falaqu]a4 ,! ,lat9 translation 0 publi%$ by ,clem5s ,baeumk] 9 ! ,beitrge zur ,ges*i*te d] ,philosophie des ,mittelalt]s1 vol4 ,i1 pts4 #b-d 7cf4 above note #hd74 ,see also ,sey]l5 9 ,!ologis*e ,jahrb*]1 edit$ by ,zell]1 ,,xv & ,,xvi4 #fd1 #hg4 ,cf4 ,munk1 ,le ,guide des g>s1 ,,ii1 p4 #be1 note #a1 end4 #hh4 ,see ,kaufmann1 ,/udi5 b] ,salomon ibn ,gabirol1 ,budape/1 #ahii4 #hi4 ,baeumk]1 ,fons ,vit1 ,v1 p4 #cac1 #f4 #fe1 #ij4 ,f4 ,v4 ,v1 #ccc-cce1 ,falaqu]a 9 ,munk's ,mlanges1 ,v1 #fg-fi4 #ia4 ,f4 ,v4 ,,iv1 #h ff41 ,falaqu]a ,,iv1 #a4 #ib4 ,f4 ,v4 ,v1 #bif1 #aj4 #ic4 ,f4 ,v4 ,,iv1 #bdc1 #aj4 #id4 ,f4 ,v4 ,,iii1 p4 #aif1 #e ff41 ,falaq4 ,,iii1 #aj4 #ie4 ,f4 ,v4 ,,iii1 #bjh1 #ae2 ,falaq4 ,,iii1 #dd4 #fg1 #if4 ,f4 ,v4 ,,iii1 #age1 #aj ff42 ,falaq4 ,,iii #bg ff4 #ig4 ,f4 ,v4 ,,iv1 #baa1 #i ff41 #bac1 #ag ff41 #bag1 ,,ii ff41 #bah1 #ah2 ,falaq4 ,,iv1 #a-d & ff4 #ih4 ,f4 ,v4 ,v1 #beh1 #ai2 #bei1 #a2 #bfh1 #h1 #ad1 #ae2 #cbb1 #ab2 ,falaq4 ,v1 #ee4 #fh1 #ii4 ,f4 ,v4 ,v1 #cjf1 #g ff42 ,falaq4 ,v1 #cd ff4 #ajj4 ,f4 ,v4 ,v1 #ccj1 #ae ff42 ,falaq4 ,v1 #fd ff4 #aja4 ,f4 ,v4 ,v1 #cbf1 #c ff42 ,falaq4 ,v1 #fj ff4 #gj1 #ajb4 ,f4 ,v4 ,,iii1 #bjd1 #ac ff42 ,falaq4 ,,iii1 #cg4 #ga1 #ajc4 ,s4 ,wise1 ,improvem5t ( ! ,moral ,qualities1 ,new ,york1 #aija4 7,columbia ,univ]sity ,ori5tal ,/udies1 vol4 #a47 #gb1 #ajd4 ,f4 ,v4 ,i1 #d1 #bd ff42 ,falaq4 ,i1 #b4 #gh1 #aje4 ,see ,munk1 ,mlanges1 #aff ff4 #hj1 #ajf4 ,yahuda1 ,prolegom5a zu e9] er/malig5 ,h]ausgabe des ,kitab ,al-,hidaja ,ila ,f>aid ,al-,qulub1 ,frankfurt a4 ,m41 #aijd1 #ab ff42 id41 ,al-,hidaja ,ila ,f>aid ,al-,qulub des ,ba*ja ibn ,joseph ibn ,paquda1 ,leyd51 #aiab1 #fc f4 #ajg4 ,neum>k1 ,ges*i*te d] jdis*5 ,philosophie des ,mittelalt]s1 ,i1 ,b]l91 #aijg1 #dhe-dic4 #ha1 #ajh4 ,9 8 comm5t>y on ,deut4 #cb1 #ci4 ,cf4 ,yahuda1 ,prolegom5a1 p4 #ab1 note #b1 :]e #ce %\ld be correct$ to #ci4 #aji4 ,yahuda1 ,al-,hidaja1 etc41 p4 #ig4 #he1 #aaj4 ,hebrew3 ,*ovat ,halevavot 7,duties ( ! ,he>ts7 ed4 ,w>saw1 #ahge1 ,introduction1 pp4 #i-bh4 #hf1 #aaa4 ,ibid41 ,introduction1 #bh-cg4 #aab4 ,yahuda1 ,al-,hidaja1 pp4 #ec-aab4 #hh1 #aac4 ,duties ( ! ,he>ts1 ,i1 *s4 #a-f1 pp4 #da-eh4 #hi1 #aad4 ,duties1 ,i1 *4 #f1 pp4 #eg-h4 #ib1 #aae4 ,ibid41 *4 #g1 pp4 #eh-fi4 #ic1 #aaf4 ,*4 #h1 pp4 #fi-gb4 #aag4 ,*4 #i1 pp4 #gb-gf4 #ie1 #aah4 ,*4 #aj1 pp4 #gf-hd4 #if1 #aai4 ,guide ( ! ,p]plex$ ,i1 *4 #ec4 #abj4 ,duties1 *4 #a1 p4 #dd4 #aba4 ,ibid41 *4 #aj1 end1 p4 #ib f4 #ig1 #abb4 ,duties1 ,,ii1 pp4 #ie-acg4 #ii1 #abc4 ,,iii1 pp4 #ach-aig4 #aja1 #abd4 ,,iv1 pp4 #aih-bef4 #abe4 ,duties1 #bnd volume1 "p ,v1 pp4 #c-ce4 #ajb1 #abf4 ,,vi1 pp4 #cf-eh4 #ajc1 #abg4 ,,vii1 pp4 #eh-hb4 #ajd1 #abh4 ,,viii1 pp4 #hb-abf4 #aje1 #abi4 ,,ix1 pp4 #abf-aej4 #acj4 ,x1 pp4 #aea-afh4 #ajf1 #aca4 ,broyd1 ,les ,reflexions sur l'me p> ,bahya b5 ,joseph ibn ,pak\da1 ,p>is1 #ahif2 ,hebrew title1 ,hebrew3 ,sef] ,torot ,hanefe%4 #acb4 ,goldzih]1 ,kitab ,maani al-,nafs1 ,b]l91 #aijg4 #acc4 ,see ,guttmann 9 ,monats*rift fr ,ges*i*te und ,wiss5s*aft des ,jud5?ums1 ,,xli 7#ahig71 #bda ff4 #ajg1 #acd4 ,arabic text1 p4 #da1 #ab & #df1 #b2 ,hebrew1 p4 #ee1 #a & #fa1 #e4 #ace4 ,*4 #b1 p4 #d1 #bi 7,heb4 p4 #e1 la/ l9e74 #acf4 ,ibid41 p4 #f1 #a 7,heb4 p4 #g1 #c74 #acg4 ,ibid41 p4 #e1 #af f4 7,heb4 #f1 #af f474 #ach4 ,ibid41 *4 #i1 p4 #cd1 #ac ff4 7,heb4 p4 #dd1 #aj74 #aci4 ,*4 #b1 p4 #f1 #f ff4 7,heb4 p4 #g1 #h f474 #adj4 ,*4 #ab1 p4 #db1 #bc 7,heb4 p4 #ef1 #bc74 #ajh1 #ada4 ,*s4 #a-b4 #aaa1 #adb4 ,*s4 #af-ag4 #adc4 ,*s4 #f & #aa-ab4 #aab1 #add4 ,*4 #b4 #ade4 ,*4 #i4 #aac1 #adf4 ,*4 #g4 #adg4 ,*s4 #ai & #ba4 #aad1 #adh4 ,hebrew3 ,sef] ,higayon ,hanefe%1 edit$ by ,freimann1 ,leipzig1 #ahfj4 ,g]man title1 ,sef] ,hegjon ha-,nefes*4 #aae1 #adi4 p4 #b;a4 #aej4 ,ibid41 also #d;b4 #aea4 ,see1 h[ev]1 bel[1 p4 #aai4 #aeb4 p4 #b;b4 #aaf1 #aec4 p4 #a4 #aag1 #aed4 pp4 #a-b4 #aah1 #aee4 pp4 #d;b-#e;a4 #aef4 pp4 #b;b-#d;a4 #abb1 #aeg4 pp4 #e;b-#h;a4 #aeh4 p4 #h;b ff4 #abc #aei4 p4 #aa;a4 #afj4 pp4 #aj-ab4 #abd1 #afa4 p4 #cj;b ff4 #abe1afb4 ,see ,doctor1 ,die ,philosophie des ,joseph ibn ,zaddik1 ,mn/]1 #ahie1 pp4 #a-c2 ,horovitz1 ,d] ,mikrokosmos des ,joseph ,ibn ,saddik1 ,breslau1 #aijc1 ,i-,,ii4 #afc4 ,horovitz1 ,mikrokosmos1 ,,xiii1 ff4 #afd4 ,lett]s ( ,maimonides1 ed4 ,am/]dam1 #ad;b4 #abf1 #afe4 ,horovitz1 ,mikrokosmos1 #g1 #bd-h1 #b4 #abg1 #aff4 ,ibid41 #dd-df2 #ec-ed2 cf4 bel[1 p4 #ade4 #afg4 ,ibid41 p4 #cg1 #b ff42 cf4 bel[1 p4 #ach4 #abi1 #afh4 pp4 #a-b4 #acj1 #afi4 pp4 #c-f4 #acc1 #agj4 pp4 #g-ai4 #acd1 #aga4 pp4 #ai-be4 #acg1 #agb4 pp4 #be-cc4 #ada1 #agc4 pp4 #cc-dc4 #adb1 #agd4 pp4 #dc-dg4 #ade1 #age4 pp4 #dg-eg #adf1 #agf4 pp4 #eg-eh4 #adi1 #agg4 pp4 #ei-gi4 #aej1 #agh4 ,al-,*az>i1 ,i1 #fg1 ed4 ,hirs*feld1 ,leipzig1 #ahhg1 p4 #bi1 #bd4 #agi4 ,ibid41 p4 #bi1 #ai-bj4 #ahj4 ,i1 #fc2 ,,ii1 #ff2 pp4 #bi & #abe4 #aea1 #aha4 ,see ,kaufmann1 ,jehuda ,halewi 9 ,gesammelte ,s*rift51 ,frankfurt a4 ,m41 #aiaj1 vol4 #b1 pp4 #ii-aea4 #aeb1 #ahb4 ,al-,*az>i ,,iv1 #ac1 #ae2 p4 #bec1 #ah ff41 #beg1 #f ff4 #aec1 #ahc4 ,kaufmann1 ,ges*i*te d] ,attribut5lehre 9 d] jdis*5 ,religionsphilosophie des ,mittelalt]s1 ,go?a1 #ahgg1 pp4 #aai-adj4 #aeg1 #ahd4 ,al-,*az>i ,i1 #a-fg1 pp4 #a-bi4 #aeh1 #ahe4 ,ibid41 #gj ff41 p4 #ca ff4 #aei1 #ahf4 ,,ii1 #f2 p4 #ge1 #bb ff4 #ahg4 ,,ix1 #ac2 p4 #bec1 #ah ff4 #afj1 #ahh4 ,,iv1 #c2 p4 #bbi1 #aj ff4 #ahi1 ,ibid41 #ae ff42 p4 #beg1 #f ff4 #afa1 #aij4 ,,ii1 #b-d2 pp4 #ga-ge4 #afc1 #aia4 ,i1 #hg ff42 p4 #ci ff4 #afd1 #aib4 ,i1 #ii ff42 p4 #ec ff4 #aic4 ,,ii1 #aj ff42 p4 #gg ff4 #aid4 ,ibid41 #cf ff42 p4 #ajc ff4 #afe1 #aie4 ,ibid41 #fh f42 p4 #abe f4 #afg1 #aif4 ,,iv1 #c ff42 p4 #bcg1 #i ff4 #afh1 #aig4 ,,ii1 #bf1 p4 #ie2 #dh1 p4 #ajg f4 #afi1 #aih4 ,ibid41 #ej1 p4 #aji1 #bd f42 ,,iii1 #a ff41 p4 #ada ff4 #agj1 #aii4 ,i1 #aji ff42 p4 #ei ff4 #agc1 #bjj4 ,v1 #bj ff41 p4 #ccg ff4 #bja4 ,,iv1 #be1 p4 #bfg ff4 #bjb4 ,ibid41 #bg1 p4 #bhc f4 #agd1 #bjc4 ,ibid41 #bi ff41 p4 #bhe ff4 #age1 #bjd4 ,see above1 p4 #h4 #bje4 ,zeits*rift d] deuts*5 morg5lndis*5 ,gesells*aft1 ,,xxix 7#ahge71 pp4 #cce-dah4 #agg1 #bjf4 ,v1 #a ff41 p4 #bie ff4 #agi1 #bjg4 ,,iv1 #be1 p4 #bha1 #bd ff4 #aha1 #bjh4 ,v1 #ab1 p4 #caa ff4 #ahb1 #bji4 ,ibid41 #ad1 p4 #cbc ff4 #ahc1 #baj4 ,ibid41 #af ff41 p4 #cca ff4 #baa4 ,ibid41 #bb ff41 p4 #ceg ff4 #ahd1 #bab4 ,quot$ by ,ba*] 9 ,jewi% ,encyclop$ia1 s4 v4 ,ibn ,ezra1 ,abraham4 #bac4 ,publi%$ by ,dukes 9 ,zion1 ,,ii1 ,frankfurt a4 ,m41 #ahdb1 pp4 #aag-abc1 #acd-acg1 #aeg-aei1 #age4 ,cf4 also ,lit]aturblatt des ,ori5ts1 ,x1 #gdh1 :]e ,dukes publi%es a brief passage f ! ,arugat ,habosem1 n f\nd 9 ,zion4 ,he d]iv$ x f a diff]5t manuscript4 #ahg1 #bad4 ,jesod ,mora1 publi%$ ) ,g]man translation by ,m4 ,creiz5a*1 ,frankfurt a4 ,m41 & ,leipzig1 #ahdj4 ,hebrew title ,hebrew3 ,yisod ,mora4 ,sef] ,ha-,s*em1 ed4 ,lippmann1 #ahcd4 ,cf41 ,ba*]1 ,jewi% ,encyclop$ia1 s4 v4 #ahi1 #bae4 ,hebrew3 ,m ,nevo*ey ,hazman1 ,w>saw1 #ahid1 *4 #ag 7,hebrew3 ,*o*mat ,hamisk571 pp4 #bff ff4 #baf4 ,die ,religionsphilosophie ,abraham ,ibn ,esra's1 9 ,monats*rift fr ,ges*i*te und ,wiss5s*aft des ,jud5?ums1 #db & #dc 7#ahih & #ahii74 #aib1 #bag4 ,ibid41 #db 7#ahih71 pp4 #ded-dee4 #aic1 #bah4 ,comm5t>y on ,exod4 #cc1 #ba1 t[>ds ! end ( ! long excursus4 #aie1 #bai4 ,comm5t>y on ,exod4 #bj1 #b4 #bbj4 ,introduction to 8 comm5t>y on ,ecclesia/es4 #aig1 #bba4 ,emunah ,ramah 7,heb4 title ,hebrew3 ,emunah ,ramah71 publi%$ ) ,g]man translation by ,simson ,weil1 ,frankfurt a4 ,m41 #aheb1 p4 #b 7,heb474 #bbb4 ,em4 ,ram41 p4 #hc4 #aih1 #bbc4 ,see note #bba4 #bbd4 ,em4 ,ram41 #b-c4 #bbe4 ,see note #bba4 #aii1 #bbf4 ,see ,horovitz1 ,ueb] d5 ,e9fluss d] grie*is*5 ,philosophie auf die ,entwicklung des ,kalam1 ,breslau1 #aiji4 #bjj1 #bbg4 ,b see bel[1 p4 #ced1 l4 #ca4 #bjb1 #bbh4 ,em4 ,ram41 p4 #a ff4 #bjc1 #bbi4 ,ibid41 #d4 #bjd1 #bcj4 ,al ,gazali4 ,cf4 ,guttmann1 ,die ,religionsphilosophie des ,abraham ibn ,daud aus ,tol$o1 ,gtt+51 #ahgi1 p4 #aag1 note4 #bje1 #bca4 ,em4 ,ram41 #dd-df4 #bcb4 ,ibid41 #d-h4 #bjg1 #bcc4 ,ibid41 #i-ac4 #bjh1 #bcd4 ,ibid41 #ac-ae4 #bji1 #bce4 ,ibid41 #ae-bj4 #baf1 #bcf4 ,em4 ,ram41 #bj-da4 #bcg4 ,ibid41 #da-dc4 #bbj1 #bch4 ,em4 ,ram41 #dd-ea4 #bba1 #bci4 ,ibid41 #ea-eg4 #bbc1 #bdj4 ,ibid41 #eg-fi4 #bbd1 #bda4 ,ibid41 #fi-gj4 #bbf1 #bdb4 ,ibid41 #gj-ge4 #bbh1 #bdc4 ,ibid41 #ge-ha4 #bcj1 #bdd4 ,ibid41 #ic-ih4 #bcb1 #bde4 ,see ,guttmann1 ,die ,religionsphilosophie des ,abraham ,ibn ,daud1 p4 #bbj1 note #b4 #bce1 #bdf4 ,ibid41 #ih-ajd4 #bcf1 #bdg4 ,hebrew3 ,be'oor ,milot ,ha'higayon1 ,breslau1 #ahbh4 ,= o!r editions & int]e/+ in=mation conc]n+ ?is treatise see ,/e9s*neid]1 ,die ,hebris*5 ,ueb]setzung5 des ,mittelalt]s1 ,b]l91 #ahic1 #bea1 & ,die ,arabis*e ,lit]atur d] ,jud51 ,frankfurt a4 ,m41 #aijb1 p4 #bjh1 #e4 #bdh4 ,introduction to ! elev5? *apt] 7*4 ,helek7 ( ! treatise ,sanh$r94 #bci1 #bdi4 ,lett]s ( ,maimonides1 ed4 ,am/]dam1 pp4 #ac;b-#ad4 #bej4 ,! ,arabic text 0 publi%$ ) a ,fr5* translation & extremely valuable notes by ,solomon ,munk1 "u ! title1 ,le ,guide des g>s1 #c volumes1 ,p>is1 #ahef-ff4 ,engli% translation by ,m4 ,fri$lnd] 9 #c vols41 ,london1 #ahha-ahhe1 re-issu$ 9 "o volume1 ) omission ( notes1 ,london1 #aiaj4 ,= o!r translations1 editions & comm5t>ies see ,kaufmann1 ,d] ',fhr]' ,maimnis 9 d] ,weltlit]atur1 ,ar*iv fr ,ges*i*te d] ,philosophie1 ,,xi 7#ahih71 pp4 #cce-cgf1 republi%$ 9 ,kaufmann's ,gesammelte ,s*rift5 ed4 ,brann1 vol4 #b1 ,frankfurt a4 ,m41 #aiaj1 pp4 #aeb-ahi4 ,see also ,fri$lnd]'s translation1 ,london1 #aiaj1 p4 ,,xxvii ff4 #bea4 ,! ,arabic text 0 publi%$ ) a ,g]man translation by ,m4 ,wolff "u ! title1 ,ms ,maimni's ,a*t ,kapitel1 #bnd edition1 ,leyd51 #aijc4 ,hebrew text ) ,engli% translation by ,joseph ,i4 ,gorf9kle1 ,! ,eight ,*apt]s ( ,maimonides on ,e?ics1 ,new ,york1 #aiab 7,columbia ,univ]sity ,ori5tal ,/udies1 vol4 ,,vii74 #bdj1 #beb4 ,emunah ,ramah1 p4 #ha ff4 #bda1 #bec4 ,guide1 ,i1 *s4 #a1 #c-af1 #ah-cj1 #cg-de1 #fd-fg1 #gj4 #bdc1 #bed4 ,ibid41 *4 #ed4 #bee4 ,,iii1 #bh4 #bef4 ,i1 #ee4 #bdd1 #beg4 ,i1 #cb4 #beh4 ,ibid41 *4 #cc4 #bde1 #bei4 ,*4 #cd4 #bfj4 ,*4 #ga4 #bdf1 #bfa4 ,ibid4 #bdg1 #bfb4 ,cf41 h[ev]1 above1 p4 xxv f4 7! view t ,kalam orig9at$ 9 ,judaism74 #bdh1 #bfc4 ,*4 #ga4 #bdi1 #bfd4 ,! foll[+ numb]s d n correspond to ^? ( ,maimonides4 #beb1 #bfe4 ,guide1 ,i1 #gc4 #bff4 ,ibid41 #gd4 #bec1 #bfg4 ,ibid41 #ge4 #bfh4 ,ibid41 #gf4 #bfi4 ,see bel[1 p4 #beg4 #bgj4 ,bel[1 p4 #bei4 #bga4 ,above1 p4 #bah4 #bgb4 ,bel[1 p4 #beh1 la/ l9e1 & #bfj4 #beg1 #bgc4 ,guide ,,ii1 ,introduction4 #bfj1 #bgd4 ,ibid41 *4 #a4 #bfa1 #bge4 ,*4 #cf4 #bfb1 #bgf4 ,*4 #df4 #bfd1 #bgg4 ,ibid41 *s4 #ea-ec4 #bfe1 #bgh4 ,*s4 #ee-eh4 #bgi4 ,*4 #fa4 #bfh1 #bhj4 ,see ,munk1 ,guide des g>s ,,ii1 p4 #fi1 note #a4 #bha4 ,guide ,,ii1 *s4 #c-f4 #bga1 #bhb4 ,*s4 #ac-ah4 #bgb1 #bhc4 ,munk und]/&s ! prec$+ s5t5ce diff]5tly4 ,see 8 edition1 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #aeg1 note #b4 #bgd1 #bhd4 ,guide ,,ii1 *s4 #ai-be4 #bha1 #bhe4 ,ibid41 *s4 #cb-dh4 #bhf4 ,,iii1 *4 #h4 #bhb1 #bhg4 ,eight ,*apt]s1 *4 #a4 #bhe1 #bhh4 ,ibid41 *s4 #b-e4 #bhi4 ,*4 #g4 #bhh1 #bij4 ,*4 #h4 #bhi1 #bia4 ,guide ,,iii1 *s4 #aj-ab4 #bij1 #bib4 ,ibid41 *4 #af4 #bib1 #bic4 ,ibid41 *s4 #ag-ah4 #bid1 #bid4 ,ibid41 *s4 #ai-ba4 #bie4 ,ibid41 *s4 #bf & #ca4 #bie1 #bif4 ,ibid41 *4 #bg4 #big1 ,ibid41 *4 #ej4 #bih1 #bih4 ,ibid41 *s4 #bi-ej4 #bii1 #bii4 ,ibid41 *4 #ed4 #cjd1 #cjj4 ,ibid41 ,,ii1 *4 #cj4 #cja4 ,ibid41 ,,iii1 *s4 #a-g4 #cjb4 ,see ,munk1 ,le ,guide des g>s1 ,,iii1 p4 #h1 note4 #cjc4 ,ibid4 #cjd4 ,guide ,,iii1 *s4 #bb-bc4 #cje1 #cje4 ,see ,kaufmann1 ,d] ,fhr] ,maimnis 9 d] ,weltlit]atur 9 ,ar*iv fr ,ges*i*te d] ,philosophie ,,xi 7#ahih7 p4 #cad f42 repr9t$ 9 ,kaufmann's ,gesammelte ,s*rift51 ed4 ,brann1 ,frankfurt a4 ,m41 #aiaj1 p4 #aeh f4 #cjf4 ,see ,j\rda91 ,re*]*es critiques sur l'ge et l'orig9e des traductions ,lat9es d',ari/ote1 #bnd ed41 ,p>is1 #ahdc4 ,g]man transl4 by ,/ahr1 ,halle1 #ahca4 #cje1 #cjg4 ,augu/9e1 ,de ,civitate ,dei1 ,book ,,viii1 *4 #e1 ,nulli nobis quam i/i sc41 ,platonici propius access]unt2 *4 #i1 ,platonem de ,deo i/a s5sisse1 quae multum congru]e v]itati no/rae religionis agnoscunt4 #cjf1 #cjh4 ,see ,m&onnet1 ,sig] de ,brabant et l',av]rosme ,lat9 au ,,xiiime ,sicle1 ,l\va91 #aiaa1 *s4 #a-b2 ,isaac ,husik1 ,an ,anonym\s ,m$ieval ,*ri/ian ,critic ( ,maimonides1 ,jewi% ,qu>t]ly ,review1 ,new ,s]ies1 vol4 ,,ii1 ,phila4 #aiaa1 p4 #aei ff4 #cji4 ,see ,j4 ,p]les1 ,die 9 e9] ,mn*5] ,h&s*rift aufgefund5e er/e late9is*e ,ueb]setzung des ,maimonidis*5 ,fhr]s1 9 ,monats*rift fr ,ges*i*te und ,wiss5s*aft des ,jud5?ums1 ,,xxiv 7#ahge71 p4 #i ff4 #cjg1 #caj4 ,see ,m4 ,joel1 ,v]hltniss ,alb]t des ,gross5 zu ,moses ,maimonides1 ,breslau1 #ahgf1 9 ,m4 ,joel1 ,beitrge zur ,ges*i*te d] ,philosophie1 ,breslau1 #ahgf4 ,j4 ,guttmann1 ,das ,v]hltniss des ,?omas von ,aqu9o zum ,jud5?um und zur jdis*5 ,lit]atur1 ,gtt+51 #ahia2 id41 ,die ,s*ola/ik des dreizehnt5 ,jahrhund]ts 9 ihr5 ,beziehung5 zum ,jud5?um und zur jdis*5 ,lit]atur1 ,breslau1 #aijb2 id41 ,d] ,e9fluss d] ,maimonidis*5 ,philosophie auf das *ri/li*e ,ab5dl&1 9 ,moses b5 ,maimon1 vol4 ,i1 ,leipzig1 #aijh4 #cjh1 #caa4 ,see ,graetz1 ,hi/ory ( ! ,jews1 index volume1 s4 v41 ,maimuni/ ,controv]sy4 #cji1 #cab4 ,publi%$ by ,m4 ,l4 ,bisli*es1 ,pressburg1 #ahcg4 #cab;a4 ,edit$ by ,w4 ,ba*] "u ! title ,sef] ,mus>1 ,b]l91 #aiaj4 #cac4 ,publi%$ by ! ,mekize ,nirdamim ,society1 ,lyck1 #ahff4 #caj1 #cad4 ,publi%$ by ,munk 9 ,mlanges de ,philosophie ,juive et ,arabe1 ,p>is1 #ahei4 #cae4 ,publi%$ by ,bisli*es1 ,pressburg1 #ahcg4 #caf4 ,see ,munk1 ,mlanges1 p4 #did1 note #a2 ,h4 ,malt]1 ,%em ,tob ,palqu]a1 9 ,jewi% ,qu>t]ly ,review1 new s]ies1 vol4 ,i1 pp4 #aea-aha1 #dea-eja4 #cag4 ,publi%$ by ,w]blun]1 ,josephi ,kaspi 444 ,comm5t>ia hebraica 9 ,r4 ,mosis ,maimonides ,tractatum ,dalalat al ,haiir91 ,frankfurt a4 ,m41 #ahdh4 #cah4 ,edit$ by ,gold5?al1 ,wi51 #aheb4 #caa1 #cai4 ,! ,engli% read] w also f9d a good deal ( mat]ial 9 ! pages ( ! ,jewi% ,encyclop$ia "u ! names ( ! translators & writ]s above m5tion$4 #cac1 #cbj4 ,guide ,i1 *4 #gd1 #g? pro(1 end4 #cad1 #cba4 ,publi%$ by ! ,mekize ,nirdamim1 ,lyck1 #ahgd4 #cae1 #cbb4 ,tagm4 ,hanef4 #a4 #cag1 #cbc4 ,ibid41 #a;b-#g;b4 ,! def9ition occurs1 p4 #g;b1 ll4 #bh ff4 #cah1 #cbd4 ,ibid41 #h;a4 #cai1 #cbe4 ,ibid41 #h;a-#aj;a4 #cbb1 #cbf4 ,ibid41 #aj;a-#ac;b4 #cbc1 #cbg4 ,ibid41 #ac;b-#ai;b4 #cbd1 #cbh4 ,ibid41 #bj;a-#ba;b4 #cbf1 #cbi4 ,ibid41 #ba;b-#bd;b4 #ccj4 ,ibid41 #bd4 #cbg1 #cca4 ,ibid41 #be;a-#cb4 #cbh1 #cca;a4 ,see ,heimann ,au]ba*1 ,albalag und se9e ,ueb]setzung des ,maksid al-,gazzalis1 ,breslau1 #aijf1 p4 vii f42 ,guttmann1 ,die ,/ellung des ,simon b5 ,zema* ,duran 9 d] ,ges*i*te d] jdis*5 ,religionsphilosophie 9 ,monats*rift fr ,ges*i*te und ,wiss5s*aft des ,jud5?ums1 vol4 ,,lvii 7#aiac71 p4 #ahd f4 #cbh1 #ccb4 ,see ,maywald1 ,die ,lehre von d] zweifa*5 ,wahrheit1 ,b]l91 #ahga2 ,m&onnet1 ,sig] de ,brabant et l',av]rosme ,lat9 au ,,xiiime ,sicle1 ,l\va91 #aiaa1 vol4 #a1 p4 #adh ff4 #cbi1 #ccc4 ,fir/ edition1 ,riva di ,tr5to1 #aefj2 mod]n edition1 ,leipzig1 #ahff4 ,! ref]5ces 9 ! sequel are to ! ,leipzig edition4 #ccd4 ,see ,husik1 ,judah ,mess] ,leon's ,comm5t>y on ! ,vetus ,logica1 ,leyd51 #aijf1 p4 #aa4 #cce4 ,see ,joel1 ,lewi b5 ,g]son als ,religionsphilosoph1 ,breslau1 #ahfb1 p4 #i;f4 79 ,m4 ,joel1 ,beitrge zur ,ges*i*te d] ,philosophie1 ,breslau1 #ahgf74 #ccj1 #ccf4 ,introduction to ,g]sonides' comm5t>y on ! ,p5tateu*4 #ccg4 ,introduction to ,milhamot ,adonai1 pp4 #f-g4 #cca1 #cch4 ,milhamot ,i1 *4 #ad1 p4 #ia4 #cci4 ,ibid41 ,introduction1 p4 #h4 #ccf1 #cdj4 ,i1 *s4 #a-d1 pp4 #ab-ce4 #ccg1 #cda4 ,ibid41 *4 #e1 pp4 #ce-cf4 #cci1 #cdb4 ,*4 #f1 pp4 #cf-dh4 #cdj1 #cdc4 ,ibid41 *s4 #aj-ab1 pp4 #fa-hh4 #cdb1 #cdd4 ,milhamot ,,ii1 *s4 #a-b1 pp4 #ib-ih4 #cde4 ,ibid41 *s4 #c1 #e & #f1 pp4 #ih f41 #ajd1 #aaa f4 #cdd1 #cdf4 ,milhamot ,,iii1 *4 #c1 p4 #acb4 #cde1 #cdg4 ,,iii1 *s4 #a-f1 pp4 #abj-aej4 #cdi1 #cdh4 ,,iv1 *s4 #a-g1 pp4 #aea-ahg4 #cej1 #cdi4 ,v1 #c1 *4 #f1 p4 #bfd f4 #cea1 #cej4 ,ibid41 *s4 #d-f1 pp4 #bdg-bfd4 #ceb1 #cea4 ,*4 #ab1 pp4 #bgh-bhe4 #ced1 #ceb4 ,,vi1 #a1 *s4 #a-i1 pp4 #bic-cbh4 #cec1 ,ibid41 *s4 #aj-ac1 pp4 #cbh-cec2 *4 #ae1 p4 #cef f4 #cee1 #ced4 ,*4 #af1 pp4 #cei-cfa4 #ceg1 #cee4 ,*s4 #ag-bh1 pp4 #cfb-daf4 #cef1 ,,vi1 #b1 *4 #a1 p4 #dai4 #ceh1 #ceg4 ,,vi1 #b1 *s4 #a-h1 pp4 #dah-dda4 #cfj1 #ceh4 ,ibid41 *s4 #i-ab1 pp4 #dda-dfj4 #cei4 ,*s4 #ac-ad1 pp4 #dfj-dfc4 #cfc1 #cfj4 ,publi%$ by ,delitzs* & ,/e9s*neid]1 ,leipzig1 #ahda4 #cfd1 #cfa4 ,ez ,hayim1 p4 #d4 #cff1 #cfb4 ,e4 ,h41 pp4 #c-e4 #cfg1 #cfc4 p4 #ae1 l4 #f f41 also p4 #ah1 l4 #aj f4 #cfd4 ,*4 #d1 pp4 #ab-ac1 l4 #bd4 #cfh1 #cfe4 ,*4 #i1 pp4 #bf-bg4 #cfi1 #cff4 p4 #ag1 l4 #af4 #cfg4 p4 #cc4 #cgb1 #cfh4 ,*s4 #ff-gb1 pp4 #hj-hi4 #cfi4 ,*4 #ge1 pp4 #ic-if4 #cgc1 #cgj4 ,*s4 #gf-gh1 pp4 #if-ii4 #cge1 #cga4 ,*s4 #gi-ha1 pp4 #ajj-ajg4 #cgf1 #cgb4 ,*s4 #hb-hi1 pp #ajg-acc4 #cgg1 #cgc4 ,*4 #hi1 pp4 #acc-acf4 #cgh1 #cgd4 ,guide ,,iii1 #bd4 #cgi1 #cge4 ,ez ,hayim1 *4 #ij1 pp4 #acf-add4 #cgf4 ,guide ,,iii1 *s4 #ab1 #ac1 #be end4 #chj1 #cgg4 ,ez ,hayim1 *4 #id1 pp4 #adi-aed4 #chb1 #cgh4 ,*s4 #if-ajj1 pp4 #afj-agf4 #cgi4 ,*s4 #aja-ajb1 pp4 #agg-aha4 #chj4 ,ez ,hayim1 pp4 #aaf-aag4 #chc1 #cha4 ,*4 #ajc1 pp4 #aha-ahe4 #chd1 #chb4 ,*s4 #ajd-aje1 pp4 #ahe-ahg4 #che1 #chc4 ,*4 #ajf1 p4 #ahg ff42 *4 #aji1 p4 #aid ff4 #chd4 ,*s4 #ajg-ajh4 #chg1 #che4 ,*s4 #aaj-aab4 #chi1 #chf4 ,ed4 ,f]>a1 #aeef 7no pag9ation74 #cij1 #chg4 ,or ,adonai1 ,introduction1 pp4 #f-g 7n numb]$74 #cia1 #chh4 ,book ,i1 sections #a-b4 #chi4 ,ibid41 section #c1 *4 #b4 #cij4 ,ibid41 *4 #c4 #cib1 #cia4 ,ibid4 #cib4 ,ibid41 *4 #d4 #cic1 #cic4 ,book ,,ii1 section ,i4 #cie1 #cid4 ,ibid41 section #b4 #cie4 ,section #c4 #cif4 ,section #d4 #cih1 #cig4 ,section #e4 #cih4 ,see ,m4 ,joel1 ,don ,*asdai ,creskas' religionsphilosophis*e ,lehr51 ,breslau1 #ahff 79 ,m4 ,joel1 ,beitrge zur ,ges*i*te d] ,philosophie1 ,breslau1 #ahgf71 p4 #ed f4 #djb1 #cii4 ,or ,adonai1 ,,ii1 section #f4 #djj4 ,ibid41 ,,iii1 introduction4 #djc1 #dja4 ,ibid41 section #a4 #djd1 #djb4 ,section #c4 #dje1 #djc4 ,section #d4 #djf1 #djc;a4 ,simon b5 ,zema* ,duran 7#acfa-addd74 ,he 0 a relative ( ,g]sonides1 a ,rabb9ical au?ority1 & ! au?or ( a sci5tific & philosophical "w1 entitl$ ,mag5 ,abot4 ,unlike 8 m di/+ui%$ relative1 ,simon ,duran 0 oppos$ to ! extreme views adopt$ by su* m5 z ,albalag1 ,moses ( ,n>bonne or ,g]sonides himself1 & favor$ a return to ! m mod]ate /&po9t ( ,maimonides4 ,)\t lay+ any claim to orig9ality 8 "w %[s wide read+ & famili>ity ) ! sci5tific & philosophic lit]ature ( ! "t4 ,see ,guttmann1 ,die ,/ellung des ,simon b5 ,zema* ,duran 9 d] ,ges*i*te d] jdis*5 ,religionsphilosophie1 9 ,monats*rift fr ,ges*i*te und ,wiss5s*aft des ,jud5?ums1 vol4 #eb 7#aijh71 pp4 #fda-fgb1 vol4 #ec 7#aiji71 pp4 #df-ig1 #aii-bbh4 ,f ,guttmann's inve/igations x appe>s t ,albo _c claim any orig9ality ev5 = ! r$uction ( ! fundam5tal dogmas ( ,judaism to ?ree4 ,! fir/ "p ( ! ,ikk>im turns out to be a compilation f ,crescas & ,duran1 & is no m orig9al ?an ! re/ ( ! book4 ,:5 we consid] t ?\gh he owes ! c5tral po9t ( 8 contribution to ,duran1 ,albo nev] m5tions him1 ! *>ge ( plagi>ism br\ght aga9/ him is n f> f ju/ifi$4 ,see bel[1 p4 #djg4 #djg1 #djd4 ,hebrew3 ,bitul ,ik>ei ,hanotzrim1 publi%$ by ,ephraim ,de9>d1 ,c>ney1 ,n4 ,j41 #aijd4 ,! "w 0 orig9ally compos$ 9 ,spani%1 & 0 translat$ into ,hebrew by ,joseph ,ibn ,%emtob4 #djd;a4 ,see also note #djc;a4 #djh1 #dje4 ,hebrew3 ,sef] ,ha'ik>im1 ed4 ,w>saw1 #ahgg1 pp4 #ac-ad4 #djf4 ,ibid41 pp4 #ad-ag4 #dji1 #djg4 pp4 #ba-be4 #djh4 ,9 ! introduction to 8 comm5t>y on ! elev5? *apt] ( ! ,mi%nic treatise ,sanh$r9 7*apt] ,helek74 #daj1 #dji4 ,crescas2 cf4 above1 p4 #cib4 #daj4 ,ikk>im1 ,i1 *4 #c1 pp4 #be-ca4 #daa1 #daa4 ,*s4 #d-g1 pp4 #ca-ci4 #dab1 #dab4 ,*4 #h1 pp4 #ci-df4 #dac4 ,*4 #i1 pp4 #df-dh4 #dac1 #dad4 ,*s4 #aj-aa1 pp4 #dh-eh4 #dae4 ,*4 #ab1 pp4 #eh-fj4 #daf4 ,*s4 #ac & #ae1 pp4 #fj-fa & #fd-fh4 #dad1 #dag4 ,*4 #ad1 pp4 #fa-fd4 #dae1 #dah4 ,*4 #ag1 pp4 #g-gf4 #dai4 ,*4 #ah1 pp4 #gf-gh4 #daf1 #dbj4 ,*4 #bc1 pp4 #hd-hf4 #dah1 #dba4 ,*4 #bd1 pp4 #hg-ij4 #dbb1 ,*4 #be1 pp4 #ij-ib4 #dai1 #dbc4 ,*4 #bf1 p4 #ic4 #dbd4 ,book ,,ii1 *s4 #d-e1 pp4 #ajg-aad4 #dbe4 ,ibid41 *4 #g1 pp4 #aag-aah4 #dbj1 #dbf4 ,*s4 #h-aj1 pp4 #aah-abe4 #dbg4 ,*s4 #aa-ac1 pp4 #abe-adj4 #dbh4 ,*4 #ab1 pp4 #abi-acc4 #dba1 #dbi4 ,book ,,iii1 *s4 #a-e1 pp4 #aig-bad4 #dcj4 ,*s4 #f-g1 pp4 #bad-bah4 #dbc1 #dca4 ,*s4 #h-aa1 pp4 #bah-bbh4 #dbd1 #dcb4 ,*s4 #ac-bj1 pp4 #bbi-bdf4 #dcc4 ,book ,,iv1 *s4 #a-f1 pp4 #bgi-bid4 #dbe1 #dcd4 ,*s4 #g-ae1 pp4 #bid-cac4 #dbg1 #dce4 ,*s4 #bi-ce1 pp4 #cch-cef4 #dbi1 #dcf4 ,see ,guttmann ,die ,familie ,s*emtob 9 ihr5 ,beziehung5 zur ,philosophie1 ,monats*rift fr ,ges*i*te und ,wiss5s*aft des ,jud5?ums1 vol4 #eg 7#aiac71 p4 #agg ff4 #dcg4 ,see ,guttmann z 9 prec$+ note4 #dch4 ,see prec$+ note4 #dcj1 #dci4 ,see note #dcf4 #ddj4 ,see ,jewi% ,encyclop$ia s4 v4 #dda4 ,j4 ,e4 s4 v4 #dca1 #ddb4 ,see ,zimmels1 ,leo ,hebraeus1 e9 jdis*] ,philosoph d] ,r5aissance1 ,leipzig1 #ahhf2 ,appel1 ,leone ,m$igos ,lehre vom ,weltall und ihr ,v]hltniss zu grie*is*5 und zeitg5ssis*5 ,ans*auung51 9 ,ar*iv fr ,ges*i*te d] ,philosophie1 vol4 ,,xx1 pp4 #chg-djj1 #dif-ebj2 ,munk1 ,mlanges1 pp4 #ebb-ebh4 #ddc4 ,husik1 ,judah ,mess] ,leon's ,comm5t>y on ! ,vetus ,logica1 ,leyd51 #aijf4 #ddd4 ,jewi% ,encyclop$ia1 s4 v4 ,,li/ ,,( ,,biblical ,,& ,,rabb9ic ,,quotations ,,bible ,,g5esis3 #a1 #a1 p4 #aaj2 #a1 #b1 p4 #aah2 #a1 #c1 p4 #abj2 #a1 #f1 p4 #aah2 #a1 #i1 p4 #aba2 #a1 #aa1 p4 #aba2 #a1 #ba1 p4 #aba2 #a1 #be1 p4 #aba2 #a1 #bf1 pp4 #aba1 #bfh2 #a1 #bg1 pp4 #id1 #aba2 #a1 #bh1 p4 #aba2 #b1 #g1 p4 #aba1 #bad2 #b1 #ai1 p4 #aba2 #f1 #f1 p4 #bbg2 #h1 #ba1 p4 #ajb2 #aa1 #g1 p4 #bfh2 #ad1 #bb1 p4 #cfi2 *4 #ae1 p4 #bhj2 #ae1 #d1 p4 #bhj2 #ae1 #ab ff41 p4 #bbe2 #ah1 #aj1 p4 #cdj2 #bg1 #cd-da1 p4 #gd2 #bh1 #ac1 p4 #id2 #bh1 #bj1 p4 #aje2 #cf1 #ca1 p4 #bie4 ,,exodus3 #b1 #ac1 p4 #bcb2 #b1 #ag1 p4 #bcb2 #c1 #ad1 p4 #ie2 #e1 #b1 p4 #afj2 #g1 #c1 pp4 xiv1 #db2 #i1 #ab1 p4 #gd2 #ae1 #bf1 p4 #djc2 #bj1 #b1 pp4 #aid1 #bcc2 #bj1 #aa-ab1 p4 #bcc2 #bj1 #ag1 p4 #hc2 #bj1 #ce1 p4 #dji2 #bb1 #bf1 p4 #gd2 #bc1 #ba1 p4 #aji2 #bd1 #aj1 p4 #afg2 #cc1 #aa1 p4 #cha2 #cc1 #ac1 p4 #bdc2 #cc1 #bc1 p4 #cg2 #cd1 #f1 p4 #bcc4 ,,leviticus3 #ai1 #ag1 p4 #hc2 #ai1 #ah1 p4 #hc4 ,,numb]s3 #aj1 #h1 p4 #bbg2 #ab1 #h1 p4 #afg2 #ae1 #ci1 p4 #hc2 #bc1 #aj1 p4 #agj4 ,,deut]onomy3 #b1 #cj1 p4 xiv2 #d1 #ae1 pp4 #ce1 #ie2 #d1 #ci1 pp4 #hd1 #aae1 #bbj2 #f1 #d1 p4 #gd2 #ac1 #a1 pp4 #chb1 #dbc2 #ae1 #g1 p4 #hc2 #ag1 #ae1 p4 #bie2 #cj1 #ae1 p4 #bhf2 #cj1 #ai1 pp4 xiv1 #da1 #bhf2 #ca1 #ag1 p4 #cdh2 #cc1 #d1 p4 #da2 #cd1 #aj1 p4 #daf4 ,,jo%ua3 *4 #aj1 p4 #cfj4 ,i4 ,,samuel3 #b1 #f1 p4 #chf2 #ai1 #bj1 p4 #bbf4 ,,ii4 ,,samuel3 #bc1 #b1 p4 #cd4 ,i4 ,,k+s3 #bb1 #bj1 p4 xiv4 ,,isaiah3 #a1 #ad1 p4 #bbg2 #a1 #aa-ag1 p4 #hb2 #e1 #bj1 p4 #cgd2 #f1 #a1 #h1 p4 #bhj2 #aa1 #a-d1 p4 #aab2 #bf1 #ai1 p4 #chf2 #dj1 #ab1 p4 #bjh2 #dj1 #bf1 p4 #cfi2 #dc1 #a1 p4 #abb2 #dc1 #g1 p4 #aba2 #de1 #ah1 p4 #ajd2 #ei1 #ai1 p4 #aji4 ,,j]emiah3 #g1 #bb1 p4 #bcd2 #i1 #bb-bc1 pp4 #abd1 #adh1 #bje1 #bii2 #ah1 #a ff41 p4 #bjg2 #ca1 #cc1 p4 #ada4 ,,ezekiel3 #h1 #i1 p4 #aji4 ,,hosea3 #d1 #f1 p4 #cdh2 #f1 #c1 p4 #ada4 ,,amos3 #c1 #b1 p4 #afd2 #e1 #f1 p4 #ada4 ,,micah3 #f1 #h1 p4 #afh4 ,,zephaniah3 #b1 #c1 p4 #adh4 ,,mala*i3 #a1 #i1 p4 #da4 ,,psalms3 #ai1 p4 #baf2 #ai1 #b1 p4 #aic2 #ai1 #g1 p4 #aic2 #ai1 #h1 p4 #daa2 #ai1 #i-aj1 p4 #dab2 #gc1 #aa-ac1 p4 #bic2 #id1 #i1 p4 #bic2 #acf1 #f1 p4 #agf2 #aci1 p4 #bje2 #ade1 #i1 p4 #cgf4 ,,prov]bs3 #h1 #bb1 p4 #aji2 #be1 #af1 p4 #bdd2 #cj1 #d1 p4 #bjh4 ,,job3 #aj1 #aj1 p4 #cgh2 #ai1 #bf1 p4 #aaf2 #bc1 #ac1 p4 xxvi2 *4 #cb1 p4 #cdi2 #ch1 #cf-cg1 p4 #bjh4 ,,ecclesia/es3 #a1 #ad1 p4 #dg2 #b1 #c1 p4 #dg4 ,,daniel3 #g1 #a1 p4 #bbe2 #aj1 #h1 p4 #bgh2 #aj1 #ag1 p4 #cha2 #ab1 #b1 p4 #djd4 ,,nehemiah3 #i1 #e1 p4 #ie4 ,,mi%na ,,& ,,talmud ,,b]akot 7,bab4 ,tal473 #ag a1 p4 #dd2 #cc b1 p4 xxvi1 note #ad1 p4 #da4 ,,b]akot 7,j]4 ,tal473 ,i1 p4 #hc4 ,,pesakim3 #ed a1 p4 xxvi1 note #ag4 ,,megillah3 #be b1 p4 xxvi1 note #ae4 ,,hagigah3 *4 #b1 p4 #bdd2 #aa b1 p4 xvi1 notes #b & #c4 ,,sanh$r93 #ch b1 p4 #bfh2 #ii a1 p4 #djh2 #ajf b1 p4 #hc4 ,,makkot3 #bc b1 p4 #daf4 ,,abot3 *4 #d1 p4 #dd4 ,,index ,a>on b5 ,elijah1 xli1 #cfb-chg2 relation to ,maimonides1 #cfc f42 to ! ,mutazila1 #cfd2 reason & fai?1 #cfd f42 physics1 #cff ff42 def5ds atomic !ory1 #cfg f42 creation1 ibid42 exi/5ce ( ,god1 #cfh f42 unity1 ibid42 incorporeality1 ibid42 attributes1 #cfi f42 w ( ,god1 #cgb2 problem ( evil1 #cgc f41 #cgf f42 ,provid5ce1 #cge f42 rew>d & puni%m5t1 #cgi1 #chc2 purpose ( ! _w & ( man1 #cgi f42 prophecy1 #chj f42 immutability ( ! ,law1 #chb2 reason ( ! comm&m5ts1 ibid42 immortality1 #chd2 resurrection1 #che f4 ,a>on b5 ,joseph1 #cfc ,ab>banel1 ,don ,isaac1 #cjd1 #cab1 #cbh1 #dcj ,ab>banel1 ,judah ,leo1 #dca ,abd ,al ,rahman ,,iii1 #ei ,abl>d1 #cje ,abraham b> ,hiyya1 xlvi1 #aad-abd2 /&po9t1 #aae2 physics1 #aaf f42 matt]1 ibid42 =m1 #aag ff42 intellect1 s\l & nature1 #aai2 e?ics1 #aai1 #abb f42 rew>d & puni%m5t1 #aai1 #abb ff42 immortality1 #abj f42 problem ( evil1 #abc f41 #abh1 #aci1 #age1 #cji1 #dce sculapius1 #aee ,af]1 ,con/ant9us1 #a ,ah]1 #aig ,akiba1 ,rabbi1 xxvi ,al-,a%>i1 xxiii ,albalag1 ,isaac1 #cbh1 #dbi1 #dcj1 #ddg1 note #djc;a ,albalia1 ,b>uh1 #aea ,al ,basir1 ,joseph1 xxv1 xlvii1 #dh-ee2 priority ( reason1 #dh2 atomic !ory1 #di2 exi/5ce ( ,god1 #di f42 creation1 ibid42 attributes1 #ej2 div9e w1 ibid42 et]nity1 #ea2 incorporeality1 unity1 simplicity1 ibid1 f42 ,god's ^w1 #eb2 e?ics1 ibid1 f42 problem ( evil1 #ed2 fre$om1 #ed f42 & =ekn[l$ge1 ibid42 rew>d & puni%m5t1 #ee1 #ef1 #eg1 #ha1 #abf1 #abg1 #abh1 #ada1 #adf1 #bjj1 #bdf1 #cfc1 #dcd ,alb]tus ,magnus1 #a1 #bjj1 #cjf1 #cab1 #cac1 #cbc ,albo1 ,joseph1 ,i1 #djf-dbg2 /&po9t1 #djf ff42 purpose ( 8 "w1 #djh2 pr9ciples ( religion1 ibid42 criticism ( ,maimonides's #ac articles1 #dji ff42 ,albo's own view1 #daj f42 div9e law di/+ui%$ f natural & conv5tional1 #djh ff42 fre$om1 a pr9ciple1 #dab2 creation1 #dac1 #dae2 exi/5ce ( ,god1 #dai f42 attributes1 #dbj2 angels1 ibid42 revelation1 #dbj f42 prophecy1 #dba2 immutability ( ! ,law1 #dbc2 ,god's k1 #dbd2 & human fre$om1 ibid42 ,provid5ce1 #dbe2 rew>d & puni%m5t1 #dbe f42 #dbh1 #dcj1 #dcf1 #ddg1 note #djc;a ,alex&] ( ,aphrodisias1 xviii1 #g1 #fj1 #bij1 #cac1 #cba1 #ccb1 #ccd1 #cce1 #ccf ,alex&] ! ,great1 xvii ,alex&] ( ,hales1 #cjf ,alfadhil1 #bci ,alf>abi1 xx1 xxi1 xxxix1 xlvi1 #b1 #bf1 #fj1 #agg1 #agh1 #aih1 #aii1 #bah1 #bbc1 #beb1 #bec1 #bgf1 #bha1 #cjb1 #cab1 #cac1 #cfb1 #cia1 #cib ,alfasi1 #aea ,algazali1 xxxix1 #hj1 #aeb1 #aec1 #chi1 #cib1 #dbj1 #ddc1 note #bcj ,ali1 #hf ,al-,kirkisani1 ,joseph ,ha-,maor1 #cfc ,almohades1 #bch ,alphonso ,,vi1 #aea ,al-,mansur1 #a ,almoravid1 #aea ,anatoli1 ,jacob1 #cjb1 #cji ,angels1 xlvi2 9 ,abraham ibn ,ezra1 #aij f42 9 ,ibn ,daud1 #bba f42 9 ,maimonides1 #bff f42 9 ,albo1 #dbj ,an?ropomorphism1 xxii1 xxvi1 xlv1 #ce1 #ie1 #ahf1 #bfj f4 ,appel1 #ddh1 note #ddb ,aqu9as1 ,?omas1 #a1 #fa1 #fc1 #bjj1 #bjg1 #cjf1 #cjg1 #cab1 #cac1 #cbc1 #cca1 #ccb1 #djf ,arama1 ,isaac1 #dcj ,ar*im$es1 xviii ,ari/otelians1 xl1 #aej1 #afe1 #bdf1 #cfd1 #cfe1 #cff1 #cfh1 #dbh ,ari/otle1 xvi1 xviii1 xix1 xx1 xxi1 xxix ff41 xxxvii1 xxxix1 xl1 xli1 xlii1 xlv1 xlvi1 #g1 #h1 #i1 #ac1 #bj1 #bf1 #fj1 #fb1 #fd1 #gb1 #hi1 #ib1 #ajg1 #aaa1 #abf1 #acb1 #ach1 #aci1 #aee1 #aeg1 #agc1 #age1 #agg1 #agh1 #agi1 #aha1 #ahb1 #ahd1 #ahe1 #aii1 #bjj1 #bjf1 #bjg1 #baj1 #bac1 #baf1 #bag1 #bah1 #bcf1 #bdj1 #bdg1 #beb1 #bec1 #bed1 #bef1 #beh1 #bff1 #bfg1 #bfh1 #bfi1 #bgj1 #bga1 #bgc1 #bgd1 #bge1 #bgf1 #bij1 #bia1 #bii1 #cjj1 #cjc1 #cje1 #cjf1 #cjg1 #cji1 #cab1 #cac1 #cae1 #caf1 #cba1 #cbi1 #cca1 #ccb1 #ccc1 #ccd1 #cch1 #cdf1 #cdg1 #cej1 #ceb1 #cec1 #ced1 #cff1 #cfg1 #cge1 #cgh1 #chh1 #chi1 #cij1 #cie1 #djb1 #djh1 #dab1 #dbe1 #dbi1 #dcj1 #dca ,arugat ,habosem1 #ahd ,a%>iya1 xxiii1 xxvii1 xlvii1 #bc1 #bdf1 #bea1 #bia1 #cfb1 #cfe1 #cgb1 #cgh1 #cgi ,atomic !ory1 9 ! ,kalam1 xxii1 #bdi f42 9 ,saadia1 #be2 9 ,al ,basir1 #di2 9 ,je%ua b5 ,judah1 #ef2 9 ,a>on b5 ,elijah1 #cfg f4 ,attributes1 doctr9e (1 9 ! ,kalam1 xxiii1 xxvii1 xl1 xliv2 9 ,saadia1 xliv1 #cc f42 9 ,mukammas1 #ah ff42 9 ,al ,basir1 #ej2 9 ,bahya1 #ic f42 9 ,ibn ,zaddik1 #ade f42 9 ,judah ,halevi1 #afa ff42 9 ,ibn ,daud1 #bbj f42 9 ,maimonides1 xlv1 #bfb ff42 9 ,levi b5 ,g]son1 xlv1 #cdd f41 #cea f42 9 ,a>on b5 ,elijah1 #cfi f42 9 ,crescas1 #cia f42 9 ,albo1 #dbj ,au]ba*1 ,heimann1 #dde1 note #cca;a ,augu/9e1 xli1 #ea1 #cje1 #dde1 note #cjg ,av]roes 7,ibn ,ro%d71 xx1 xxi1 xxxix1 xli1 xlvi1 xlvii1 #g1 #fj1 #fb1 #abe1 #agg1 #aii1 #cjf1 #cji1 #caj1 #cab1 #cac1 #cah1 #cba1 #cbb1 #cbc1 #cbi1 #ccb1 #ccd1 #cce1 #ccf1 #cfb1 #cib1 #dca ,avicebron1 see ,gabirol1 ,solomon ,ibn ,avic5na 7,ibn ,s9a71 xx1 xxi1 xxxix1 xlvi1 #b1 #bf1 #fj1 #fb1 #ajg1 #ajh1 #age1 #agg1 #agh1 #agi1 #aih1 #aii1 #bjg1 #baj1 #baa1 #bac1 #bah1 #bbc1 #bbd1 #bec1 #bgf1 #bha1 #cjb1 #cab1 #cac1 #cfb1 #cia1 #cib1 #dbj ,ba*]1 ,w41 #dcg1 #ddc1 notes #bab & #bad2 #dde1 note #cab;a ,back1 ,samuel1 #dcf ,baeumk]1 ,clem5s1 #ddj1 note #hd2 #dda1 notes #hf & #hi ,bahya1 ,ibn ,pakuda1 xix1 xxviii1 xxxix1 xlii1 #a1 #hj-aje2 duties ( ! limbs & duties ( ! he>t1 #hb f42 s\rces ( k1 #hc2 creation1 #hf ff42 unity1 #hi f42 attributes1 #ic f42 /udy ( nature1 #if f42 gratitude to ,god1 #ig f42 submission to ,god1 #ih2 fre$om1 ibid42 ! laws1 #ih f42 tru/ 9 ,god1 #ii f42 unity ( conduct1 #aja f42 humility1 ibid42 rep5tance1 #ajb2 self-exam9ation1 #ajc2 temp]ance1 #ajd2 asceticism1 ibid42 love ( ,god1 #aje2 #ajf1 #abf1 #abh1 #adf1 #adg1 #afb1 #afg1 #afh1 #aie1 #bjj1 #bja1 #bag1 #bda1 #bdf1 #beb1 #cji1 #cfb1 #dbh1 #dcd ,b>adu1 ,jacob1 #cd ,b>d5hew]1 #dci1 note #g ,b>desanes1 #cge ,beck]1 ,c4 ,h41 xxvi1 xxvii ,be]1 #dcc ,b]nfeld1 ,simon1 viii1 #dcc ,bisli*es1 ,m4 ,l41 #dde1 notes #cab & #cae ,blo*1 ,philipp1 #dcf ,brahm9s1 #chj ,bre?r5 ( ,purity1 xxxix1 #fj1 #ajg1 #abe1 #abf1 #abh1 #aci1 #ahg1 #aii ,broyd1 ,isaac1 #ajf1 #dda1 note #aca ,cic]o1 #dca ,clem5t ,,vi1 ,pope1 #cbi ,clem5t ( ,alex&ria1 #cjb ,*az>s1 #aec ,craw=d1 ,j4 ,p4 ,w41 #dcf ,creation1 9 ,kalam1 xxii1 xlii1 #bd1 #bdg1 #beb2 9 ,saadia1 xlii1 #bd2 9 ,israeli1 #e ff42 9 ,al ,basir1 #di f42 9 ,je%ua b5 ,judah1 #ef2 9 ,gabirol1 #fh2 9 ,bahya1 xlii1 #hf ff42 9 ,pseudo ,bahya1 #aaj2 9 ,abraham b> ,hiyya1 #aaf ff42 9 ,ibn ,zaddik1 xlii1 #adc2 9 ,judah ,halevi1 #aeg2 9 ,abraham ibn ,ezra1 #aij2 9 ,maimonides1 #bfi ff42 9 ,levi b5 ,g]son1 #ceb f42 9 ,a>on b5 ,elijah1 #cfg f42 9 ,albo1 #dac1 #dae ,cre$1 articles (1 l2 9 ,maimonides1 #dji f42 9 ,crescas1 #cib ff42 9 ,albo1 #daj f4 ,creiz5a*1 ,m41 #ddc1 note #bad ,crescas1 ,hasdai1 xv1 xix1 xxvii1 xxxix1 xl1 xlii1 xlix1 l1 #agc1 #bjj1 #cab1 #chh-dje2 /&po9t1 #chi2 exi/5ce ( ,god1 #chi f42 unity1 #cia f42 attributes1 ibid42 fundam5tal dogmas ( ,judaism1 #cib ff42 ,god's k1 #cib f42 ,provid5ce1 #cic f42 problem ( evil1 #cid2 prophecy1 #cie2 fre$om1 #cif f42 influ5ce on ,sp9oza1 #cih f42 purpose ( ! ,law1 #cii f42 immortality1 #djj2 creation1 #djb2 criticism ( ,maimonides's #ac articles ( ! cre$1 #djb1 #djd2 rew>d & puni%m5t1 #djc f42 resurrection1 #djd f41 #djf1 #djg1 #djh1 #dji1 #dad1 #daf1 #dai1 #dbj1 #dba1 #dbd1 #dbf1 #dbh1 #dcj1 #dcf1 #ddg1 notes #djc;a & #dji ,cus>i1 see ,kus>i ,daud1 ,abraham ,ibn1 xix1 xx1 xxvii1 xxxix1 xlii1 xliii1 xlv1 xlvi1 xlvii1 xlviii1 xlix1 #fa1 #fb1 #fc1 #ga1 #gi1 #abe1 #aff1 #aig-bce2 /&po9t1 #aig f42 ,ibn ,daud neglect$1 #bja2 purpose ( 8 book1 #bja f42 duty to /udy philosophy1 #bjb2 relative value ( ! sci5ces1 #bjc f42 categories1 #bje2 physics1 #bje ff42 matt] & =m1 ibid42 motion1 #bjg2 inf9ity1 #bjh2 psy*ology1 #bji ff42 rational s\l1 #bab ff42 ! ?ree k9ds ( intellect1 #bad2 immortality1 #bae2 metempsy*osis1 #bae f42 ! heav5ly sph]es1 #baf2 exi/5ce ( ,god1 #bag ff42 incorporeality1 #bag2 unity1 #bai f42 attributes1 #bbj f42 angels1 #bba f42 active intellect1 #bbb2 emanation ( ,intellig5ces1 #bbc2 tradition1 #bbc f42 prophecy1 #bbd f42 abrogation ( ! ,law1 #bbf f42 fre$om1 #bja f41 #bbi ff42 problem ( evil1 #bbh f42 & =ekn[l$ge1 #bbi f42 e?ics1 #bca ff42 virtues1 #bcb2 reason ( comm&m5ts1 #bcc f41 #bcg1 #bdj1 #bda1 #bdf1 #bdh1 #bec1 #bed1 #beg1 #bff1 #bfg1 #bgf1 #bha1 #cjb1 #cjg1 #cji1 #cag1 #ccb1 #cej1 #cfb1 #cff1 #chh1 #dbh1 #dce ,de ,bo]1 #dci1 note #e ,def9itions1 ,book (1 #b1 #d1 #fj ,de9>d1 ,e41 #ddg1 note #djd ,delitzs*1 #ddf1 note #cfj ,delm$igo1 ,elijah1 #dca ,delm$igo1 ,joseph ,solomon1 #dca ,democritus1 xxii1 #c ,diet]ici1 #dci1 note #f ,doctor1 ,max1 #dce1 #ddb1 note #afb ,dom9icus ,gundissal9us1 #fa1 #fc ,dukes1 #ddc1 note #bac ,duna% b5 ,labrat1 #ei ,duns ,scotus1 #fa1 #fc1 #bjj1 #cjg ,duran1 ,simon1 #djf1 #ddg1 note #djc;a ,duties ( ! ,he>ts1 #hj1 #ha ,duval1 #dci1 note #e ,eight ,*apt]s1 #bci ,eisl]1 ,moritz1 #dcc ,elem5ts1 ,book (1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #aj1 #fj ,elias ( ,nisibis1 #cd ,eli%a b5 ,abuya1 #aig ,emp$ocles1 #fj1 #fa1 #fd1 #abf1 #abg1 #ade1 #agi1 #ahd ,emunah ,ramah1 #aih ,emunot ve-,deot1 #bd ,engelkemp]1 ,d4 ,j41 #dcd ,entele*y1 xxxv1 #bji ,ephodi1 #cbh ,epicurus1 #bij1 #cfg ,eriug5a1 #bjj ,e?ics1 9 ,jewi% ,philosophy1 xlvii f42 9 ,saadia1 #df f42 9 ,al ,basir1 #eb f42 9 ,je%ua b5 ,judah1 #eg2 9 ,gabirol1 #ga ff42 9 ,abraham b> ,hiyya1 #aai ff42 9 ,ibn ,zaddik1 #adh2 9 ,judah ,halevi1 #afh2 9 ,abraham ibn ,ezra1 #aie2 9 ,ibn ,daud1 #bbh ff41 #bca ff42 9 ,maimonides1 #bha ff42 9 ,hillel b5 ,samuel1 #cbe4 ,see also ,virtue4 ,euclid1 xviii1 #ij ,evil1 ,problem (1 9 ,al ,basir1 #ed2 9 ,abraham b> ,hiyya1 #abc f42 9 ,ibn ,zaddik1 #adh2 9 ,abraham ibn ,ezra1 #aie2 9 ,ibn ,daud1 #bbh f42 9 ,maimonides1 #bhh f42 9 ,a>on b5 ,elijah1 #cgc f42 9 ,crescas1 #cid ,exegesis1 ,biblical1 xvi1 xxxvii2 9 ,saadia1 #ce2 9 ,gabirol1 #gh f42 9 ,abraham ibn ,ezra1 #ahg f42 9 ,maimonides1 #cjb ff42 9 ,levi b5 ,g]son1 #ceg f41 #dcg ,ez ,hayim1 #cfc ,ezekiel1 ,vision ( div9e *>iot1 xvii1 #cjc ,falaqu]a1 ,%em ,tob1 #fa1 #fc1 #fd1 #cji1 #cbh1 #dda1 note #hf ,fons ,vit1 #fj1 #fa1 #gb1 #hj1 etc4 ,f\nta9 ( ,life1 see ,fons ,vit ,frankl1 ,p4 ,f41 #dcd1 #ddj1 note #hj ,frankl-,grn1 ,ad41 #dce ,fre$om ( ! ,w1 xiv1 xlvii2 9 ,saadia1 #da f42 9 ,al ,basir1 #ed f42 9 ,bahya1 #ih2 9 ,judah ,halevi1 xlviii1 #aga ff42 9 ,abraham ibn ,ezra1 #aic2 9 ,ibn ,daud1 xlviii1 #bbi f42 9 ,maimonides1 xlviii1 #bhe ff42 9 ,crescas1 xlviii1 #cif ff42 9 ,albo1 #dab1 #dbd ,freimann1 #ddb1 note #adh ,fri$1 ,s41 #dci1 note #cj2 #ddj1 note #cd ,fri$lnd]1 ,m41 #ddd1 note #bej ,gabirol1 ,solomon ,ibn1 xix1 xxxix1 xlvi1 #ei-gi2 fate ( ,g4 9 ,jewi% ,lit]ature1 #fj f42 t5d5cy ( 8 "w1 #fc f42 ,g4 a ,neo-,platoni/1 #fd2 8 doctr9e1 #fd ff42 emanation1 #fe2 matt] 9 spiritual sub/ances1 #fe1 #fg2 man typical ( ! univ]se1 #fe2 ,intellig5ce1 ,s\l1 ,nature1 #ff2 matt]1 #ff f42 creation1 #fh2 w1 #fh f41 #gj2 my/ic k1 #fi f42 e?ics1 #ga ff42 ! virtues1 #gb f42 ! ,royal ,cr[n 7,ket] ,malkut71 #ge f42 ,biblical exegesis1 #gh f42 influ5ce on ,jewi% ,philosophy1 #gi2 on ,kabbala1 ibid41 #hj1 #ha1 #hi1 #ia1 #ajg1 #abf1 #abg1 #aca1 #aea1 #ahd1 #ahe1 #ahg1 #ahh1 #aih1 #bjj1 #bjf1 #bcg1 #bdf1 #cjg1 #cji1 #cbh1 #dbh1 #dcd ,gal51 xviii1 #b1 #c1 #gb1 #bji1 #beb ,g5esis1 creation /ory1 xvii1 xxix1 #cjc ,g]sonides1 see ,levi b5 ,g]son ,g9zb]g1 ,l41 #dci1 note #ac ,god1 9 ,ari/otle1 xxxiii2 exi/5ce ( ,g4 9 ,kalam1 xlii1 #bd1 #bdg2 9 ,saadia1 xlii1 #bh ff42 9 ,al ,basir1 #di f42 9 ,je%ua b5 ,judah1 #eg2 9 ,bahya1 xlii1 #hf ff42 9 ,ibn ,zaddik1 xlii1 #adc2 9 ,ibn ,daud1 xlii f41 #bag ff42 9 ,maimonides1 xliii1 #bdh1 #beg ff42 9 ,levi b5 ,g]son1 #cej f42 9 ,a>on b5 ,elijah1 #cfh f42 9 ,crescas1 #chi ff42 9 ,albo1 #dai f4 ,gold5?al1 #dde1 note #cah ,goldzih]1 ,ignaz1 #ajf1 #dcc1 #dci1 notes #aj & #bc2 #ddb1 note #acb ,gorf9kle1 ,joseph ,i41 #ddd1 note #bea ,graetz1 ,h41 #dde1 note #caa ,graf1 #ddj1 note #fd ,gug5heim]1 #dce ,guide ( ! ,p]plex$1 #bci ,guttmann1 ,jacob1 #dcd1 #dce1 #dcf1 #dci1 note #bg2 #ddj1 notes #cc1 #da & #hc2 #ddb1 note #acc2 #ddc1 notes #bcj & #bde2 #dde1 notes #caj & #cca;a2 #ddg1 notes #djc;a1 #dcf & #dcg ,guttmann1 ,julius1 #dce ,halevi1 ,judah1 xix1 xxxix1 xl1 xlv1 xlvi1 xlviii1 xlix1 #abe1 #aej-ahc2 8 /&po9t1 #aej1 #aeb1 #aeg f42 8 life1 #aea f42 philosophy & religion1 #aeb2 influ5ce ( ,algazali1 #aeb f42 ! ,kus>i1 #aec ff42 ! philosoph]'s cre$1 #aed f42 ! ,*ri/ian's1 #aee f42 ! ,mohamm$an's1 #aef2 ! ,jew's1 #aef ff42 creation1 #aeg2 exi/5ce ( ,god1 #aeh2 w1 #aei2 motives ( philosoph] & believ]1 #aei f42 mean+ ( ! "n ( ,jhvh1 #aei f41 #afe2 ( ,elohim1 #afj1 #afe2 my/icism 9 ,h41 #afj2 attributes1 #afa ff42 incorporeality1 #afb2 sup]iority ( ,israel1 #afb f42 ne$ ( revelation1 #afc2 sup]iority ( ,pale/9e1 #afd2 ,israel ! he>t among ! nations1 #afd2 sup]iority ( ! ,hebrew language1 #afd f42 prophecy1 #afe f42 ! active ,intellect1 #afe f42 ! c]emonial law1 #afg f42 e?ics1 #afh f42 immortality1 #afi f41 #aha f42 future _w & rew>d & puni%m5t1 #agj2 fre$om1 #aga ff42 & =ekn[l$ge1 #agb f42 int]pretation ( ,sef] ,yezirah1 #agc f42 ! ,rabbis knew ! sci5ces1 #agd2 exposition ( ! curr5t philosophy1 #agd ff42 ,h4 und]/&s ,ari/otle's def9ition ( ! s\l1 #age2 physics1 #age ff42 matt]1 #age2 criticism1 #agf f42 emanation ( ,intellig5ces1 #agh2 criticism1 #agh f42 psy*ology1 #agi f42 criticism1 #aha f41 #aig1 #aih1 #bjj1 #bja1 #baj1 #baa1 #baf1 #bbc1 #bbd1 #bbf1 #bcj1 #bca1 #bdf1 #bdh1 #bha1 #cji1 #ccb1 #cfb1 #chi1 #cib1 #cif1 #dad1 #dbj1 #dba1 #dbf1 #dbi1 #dce ,h>izi1 ,judah1 #abe1 #ahd ,h>kavy1 ,abraham1 #ag1 #dcc ,hasdai ,ibn ,%aprut1 #ei1 #aec1 #cjh ,hayyuj1 #ahg1 #cji ,hefez b5 ,yazliah1 #hd ,hegyon ha-,nefe%1 #aad ,h]mes1 #fj1 #aee1 #ahd ,h]tz1 ,j4 ,h41 #dcd ,hillel b5 ,samuel1 xlvi1 #cab-cbg2 /&po9t1 #cad2 ! s\l1 #cad ff42 def9ition ( s\l1 #cag2 active intellect1 #cag ff42 rew>d & puni%m5t1 #cbc ff42 prophecy1 #cbe2 e?ics1 ibid42 resurrection1 #cbf2 int]pretation ( ,rabb9ic writ+s1 #cbf f41 #ccb ,hippocrates1 xviii1 #b1 #c1 #gb1 #bji ,hirs*feld1 #ddj1 note #ca2 #ddb1 note #agh ,hobot ha-,lebabot1 see ,duties ( ! ,he>ts ,homonym1 #bdj1 #cea1 #cga ,horovitz1 ,s41 #dcc1 #ddb1 notes #afb1 #afc & #afe2 #ddc1 note #bbf ,husik1 ,isaac1 #dcf1 #dci1 note #i2 #dde1 note #cjh2 #ddf1 note #ccd2 #ddh1 note #ddc ,hypo/asis1 xxxviii1 #f1 #ia1 #aae ,ibn ,akn91 ,joseph1 #cjb ,ibn ,badja1 #fj ,ibn ,caspi1 ,joseph1 #cjb1 #caj1 #cbi ,ibn ,daud 7,av5 ,dea?71 #fa ,ibn ,daud1 ,abraham1 see ,daud1 ,abraham ,ibn ,ibn ,ezra1 ,abraham1 xxxix1 #gi1 #hj1 #ha1 #aad1 #ahd1 #ahg-aif2 ,biblical exegesis1 #ahg f42 unity ( ,god1 #ahi2 incorporeality1 ibid42 creation1 #aij2 matt]1 ibid42 ! univ]se1 #aij f42 ,intellig5ces1 ibid42 angels1 ibid42 s\l1 #aia f42 rew>d & puni%m5t1 #aib2 transmigration1 #aib2 fre$om1 #aic2 & =ekn[l$ge1 ibid42 k ( ,god1 #aic f42 prophecy1 #aid2 classification ( ! laws1 #aid2 problem ( evil1 #aie2 e?ics1 ibid41 #bjj1 #bdf1 #cji1 #caj1 #dbi1 #dce ,ibn ,ezra1 ,moses1 xxxix1 xlvi1 #gi1 #abe1 #ahd-ahg2 man a microcosm1 #ahe2 def9ition ( philosophy1 #ahe2 unity ( ,god1 ibid42 active intellect1 #ahf1 #bjj1 #bdf ,ibn ,miga%1 ,joseph1 #aea ,ibn ,janah1 #hd1 #cji ,ibn ,ro%d1 see ,av]roes ,ibn ,s9a1 see ,avic5na ,ibn ,zaddik1 ,joseph1 xix1 xxxix1 xlii1 xlv1 xlvi1 xlix1 #fj1 #gi1 #abe-adi2 /&po9t1 #abe f42 division ( 8 book1 #abh2 purpose1 #abi2 def9ition ( philosophy1 #abi2 process & s\rces ( k1 #abi f42 physics1 #acj ff42 matt] & =m1 ibid42 sub/ance1 #aca2 ! sph]e1 #aca f42 ! f\r elem5ts1 #acb f42 ! human body1 #acc f42 ! s\l1 #acd f42 ! ?ree s\ls1 ibid42 ! emotions1 ibid42 life1 #acf2 dea?1 ibid42 sleep & wak+1 ibid42 ! rational s\l1 #acg2 def9ition ( s\l1 #ach2 intellect1 #aci2 _w s\l1 #adj2 duty to use ! reason1 ibid42 criticism ( ! ,kalam1 #ada f42 creation1 #adc2 exi/5ce ( ,god1 ibid42 unity1 ibid42 self-suffici5cy1 #add2 w ( ,god1 ibid42 attributes1 #ade f42 comm&m5ts1 #adg2 rational & traditional1 ibid42 ! virtues1 #adh2 rew>d & puni%m5t1 #adh2 evil1 #adh f42 ,messiah1 #adi1 #afb1 #age1 #ahd1 #bjj1 #bjf1 #bji2 #baa1 #bcg1 #bdf1 #cji1 #cag1 #cfb1 #dce ,ikk>im1 #djf ,immortality1 9 ,pseudo-,bahya1 #aab f42 9 ,abraham b> ,hiyya1 #abj f42 9 ,judah ,halevi1 #afi f41 #aha f12 9 ,ibn ,daud1 #bae2 9 ,levi b5 ,g]son1 #cci ff42 9 ,a>on b5 ,elijah1 #chd2 9 ,crescas1 #djj ,incorporeality1 9 ,kalam1 xliv1 #bec2 9 ,saadia1 #cb2 9 ,al ,basir1 #ea2 9 ,je%ua b5 ,judah1 #eg2 9 ,judah ,halevi1 #afb2 9 ,abraham ibn ,ezra1 #ahi f42 9 ,ibn ,daud1 #bag2 9 ,maimonides1 xliv1 #beg ff41 #bfj ff42 9 ,a>on b5 ,elijah1 #cfh f4 ,inf9ity1 9 ,kalam1 #bea f42 9 ,saadia1 #be1 #cj2 9 ,bahya1 #hf1 #hg2 9 ,ibn ,daud1 #bjh2 9 ,maimonides1 #bea f41 #bed1 #bef f42 9 ,crescas1 #cij ,intellect1 active1 xli2 9 ,jewi% ,philosophy1 xlvi f42 acquir$ i41 xlvii2 active i4 9 prophecy1 xlix1 #aji2 9 ,ibn ,zaddik1 #aci2 9 ,judah ,halevi1 #aee1 #afb1 #afe1 #aha2 9 ,moses ibn ,ezra1 #ahf2 9 ,ibn ,daud1 #bbb2 9 ,maimonides1 #bfh1 #bgg2 9 ,hillel b5 ,samuel1 #cag ff42 9 ,levi b5 ,g]son1 #ccg ff4 ,see also ,intellig5ce1 ,s\l ,intellig5ce1 xlvi2 9 ,israeli1 #f f42 9 ,gabirol1 #fe1 #ff2 9 ,pseudo-,bahya1 #aji2 9 ,abraham b> ,hiyya1 #aai2 9 ,abraham ibn ,ezra1 #aij f42 9 ,maimonides1 #bff f4 ,israeli1 ,isaac1 xix1 xlvi1 xlix1 #a-af2 ,maimonides on ,i41 #a f42 8 works1 #b2 8 s\rces1 ibid42 !ory ( ! elem5ts1 #c1 #ab2 def9ition ( philosophy1 #d2 creation1 #e ff42 ,intellig5ce1 #f f42 ,s\l1 #h ff42 ?ree k9ds ( s\l1 #aj ff42 elem5t & pr9ciple1 #ab f42 prophecy1 #ae1 #ag1 #bd1 #ca1 #fj1 #gb1 #ia1 #abg1 #age1 #bbd1 #dcd ,jab>iya1 xxi1 xlvii ,jacob b5 ,ma*ir1 #cji1 #caj ,jacobites1 xviii1 #cd ,jaulus1 #dcg ,je%ua b5 ,judah1 xxv1 xlvii1 #ee-eh2 priority ( reason1 #ef2 atomic !ory1 ibid42 creation1 ibid42 exi/5ce ( ,god1 #eg2 incorporeality1 ibid42 good & evil1 ibid42 #bjj1 #bdf1 #cfc1 #dcd ,jesus1 xxvii1 #hf1 #ia ,job1 xv1 xxvi1 #cjd1 #cdf1 #cgg f4 ,joel1 ,m41 #cih1 #dce1 #dcf1 #dde1 note #caj2 #ddf1 notes #cce & #cih2 #ddg1 note #cih end ,johannes ,hispanus1 #fa ,joseph b5 ,%emtob1 #dbi1 #dcj1 #ddg1 note #djd ,joseph ibn ,zaddik1 see ,ibn ,zaddik1 ,joseph ,j\rda91 ,a41 #fc1 #dda1 note #he2 #dde1 note #cjf ,judah b5 ,b>zilai1 #ag ,judah ,hadassi1 #cfc ,judah ,halevi1 see ,halevi1 ,judah ,judah ,mess] ,leon1 #dca ,ju/9ian1 xvii ,kabbala1 #gi1 #dbi1 #dcj ,kad>iya1 xxi1 xxii1 xxiii1 #bc ,kalam1 xxiv1 xxvii1 #af1 #ag1 #dh1 #ej1 #eb1 #ee1 #hf1 #ajf1 #abe1 #abh1 #ada f41 #adf1 #aed1 #aga1 #ahc1 #bjj1 #bde1 #bdf ff41 #cfb1 #cff1 #dbh1 #dcc1 #dci1 note #aj ,kalis*1 ,isidor1 #dcc ,k>aites1 xiii1 xxiv1 xxv1 xli1 xlvii1 #bc1 #bd1 #dh1 #ee1 #ei1 #ajh1 #abe1 #abf1 #adf1 #aed1 #agd1 #ahc1 #bjj1 #bde1 #bdf1 #cfb1 #cfc1 #cfd1 #cfe1 #cgj1 #cgc1 #cgg1 #cgh1 #dbh ,kaufmann1 ,david1 #aeb1 #aec1 #dcc1 #dcd1 #dce1 #dcf1 #dda1 note #hh2 #ddb1 note #aha2 #ddd1 notes #bej & #cje ,kell]mann1 ,b5zion1 #dcf ,ket] ,malkut1 see ,royal ,cr[n ,k9di1 ,al1 xxxix ,kle91 ,miksa1 #dcd ,k1 s\rces (1 xl2 9 ,saadia1 #bg f42 9 ,bahya1 #hc2 9 ,ibn ,zaddik1 #abi f4 ,koran1 xxi1 xxii1 xxiii1 xxvi1 xxvii1 xxix1 xliv1 #cd1 #aef ,kro*mal1 ,nahman1 #ahi1 #dce ,kus>i1 #aec ,lactantius1 #dca ,l&au]1 ,s41 #age1 #ddj1 note #cg ,laws1 rational & traditional1 #a2 9 ,saadia1 #ch f42 9 ,ibn ,zaddik1 #adg2 9 ,abraham ibn ,ezra1 #aid2 9 ,ibn ,daud1 #bcc f42 9 ,maimonides1 #bid ff42 9 ,a>on b5 ,elijah1 #chb ,lebid-ibn ,al-,asam1 xxvi ,leibnitz1 #cjg ,lev]ri]1 #bge ,levi b5 ,g]son1 xix1 xx1 xxxix1 xli1 xliii1 xlvii1 xlix1 #g1 #af1 #aff1 #bag1 #bce1 #cjb1 #cab1 #cac1 #cbh-cfa2 /&po9t1 #cbi f42 reason & au?ority1 #ccj f42 8 /yle & me?od1 #cca2 ! passive intellect1 #ccb ff42 active intellect1 #ccg ff42 problem ( k1 #cch2 ( def9ition1 #cci2 immortality1 #cci f42 progno/ication & prophecy1 #cdj ff42 & ! cont+5t1 ibid42 ,god's k1 #cdb ff42 attributes1 #cdd f41 #cea f42 ,provid5ce1 #cdf ff42 exi/5ce ( ,god1 #cej f42 orig9 ( ! _w1 #ceb f42 et]nal matt]1 #cee f42 int]pretation ( creation /ory 9 ,g5esis1 #ceg2 miracles1 #ceh f41 #cfb1 #cfc1 #cfi1 #chd1 #chh1 #cib1 #cic1 #cid1 #cie1 #cif1 #cih1 #cii1 #dja1 #djb1 #djf1 #dai1 #dbj1 #dba1 #dbh1 #dbi1 #dcj1 #dcf1 #ddg1 note #djc;a ,levy1 ,l\is-,g]ma91 #dcf ,lib] de ,causis1 xx1 #b1 #fd1 #cag ,lippmann1 #ddc1 note #bad ,logos1 xxvii1 xli1 #eb1 #ga1 #ia ,maam> ,yikkawu ha-,mayim1 #cji ,maase ,b]e%it1 xvi1 #bdb1 #cjc1 #dcj ,maase ,m]kaba1 xvi1 #bdb1 #cjc1 #dcj ,maimonides1 ,moses1 xvi1 xix1 xx1 xxiv1 xxv1 xxvii1 xxxix1 xli1 xlii1 xliii1 xlv1 xlvi1 xlvii1 xlix1 l1 #a1 #b1 #af1 #be1 #fj1 #fb1 #fc1 #gi1 #hh1 #ie1 #if1 #aad1 #abe1 #abf1 #adf1 #aec1 #aeh1 #aff1 #afg1 #aih1 #aii1 #bjj1 #bja1 #bjg1 #bah1 #bba1 #bce1 #bcf-caa2 8 life1 #bch f42 8 *ef d'oeuvre1 #bci f42 8 me?od1 #bdj2 8 /&po9t1 #bdj ff42 importance ( sci5ce1 #bdc f42 difficulty ( metaphysics1 #bdd f42 sket* ( ,jewi% ,philosophy1 #bde f42 exposition ( ! ,kalam1 #bdf ff42 propositions ( ! philosoph]s1 #bed ff42 exi/5ce ( ,god1 #beg ff42 unity1 ibid42 incorporeality1 ibid41 #bfj ff42 attributes1 #bfb ff42 mean+ ( ,jhvh1 #bfe2 angels1 #bff f42 orig9 ( ! _w1 #bfi ff42 emanation ( ,intellig5ces1 #bgb f42 criticism ( ,ari/otle1 #bga ff42 psy*ology1 #bha ff42 virtue1 #bhb ff42 fre$om1 #bhe ff42 & =ekn[l$ge1 #bhg f42 problem ( evil1 #bhh ff42 ,god's k1 #bhi ff42 reason ( ! comm&m5ts1 #bid ff42 ,bible exegesis1 #cjb ff42 influ5ce ( ,m41 #cje ff42 on ,s*ola/icism1 #cje-cjg2 on ,judaism1 #cjg-caa1 #cab1 #cac1 #cad1 #cag1 #cbc1 #cbe1 #cbi1 #ccb1 #cdb1 #cdc1 #cdd1 #cde1 #cdf1 #cej1 #ceb1 #cec1 #ceg1 #ceh1 #cfb1 #cfc1 #cfd1 #cfe1 #cff1 #cfh1 #cfi1 #cgj1 #cga1 #cgb1 #cgd1 #cge1 #cgf1 #cgg1 #cgh1 #cgi1 #chj1 #chb1 #chc1 #chd1 #chh1 #chi1 #cij1 #cia1 #cib1 #cic1 #cid1 #cie1 #cif1 #cih1 #cii1 #djj1 #djb1 #djc1 #djf1 #djg1 #djh1 #dji1 #daj1 #dab1 #daf1 #dag1 #dai1 #dbj1 #dba1 #dbc1 #dbd1 #dbe1 #dbf1 #dbh1 #dbi1 #dcj1 #dca1 #dce1 #ddg1 note #djc;a ,malmad ,hatalmidim1 #cji ,malt]1 ,h41 vii1 #dde1 note #caf ,m&onnet1 ,p41 #dde1 note #cjh2 #ddf1 note #ccb ,mani*eans1 #cge ,matt]1 reject$ by ,mutakallimun1 xxii2 doctr9e (1 9 ,ari/otle1 xxix ff42 9 ,plot9us1 xxxviii2 z s\rce ( evil1 #ch2 9 ,gabirol1 #ff f42 9 ,pseudo-,bahya1 #aji2 9 ,abraham b> ,hiyya1 #aag2 9 ,ibn ,zaddik1 #acj ff42 9 ,judah ,halevi1 #age2 9 ,abraham ibn ,ezra1 #aij2 9 ,ibn ,daud1 #bje f42 9 ,maimonides1 #bef1 #bgj2 9 ,levi b5 ,g]son1 #cee f4 ,maywald1 #ddf1 note #ccb ,mekize ,nirdamim1 #dde1 notes #cac & #cba ,mekor ,hayim1 see ,fons ,vit ,m5ahem b5 ,s>uk1 #ei ,messiah1 9 ,saadia1 #de2 9 ,ibn ,zaddik1 #adi2 9 ,crescas1 #djb1 #djd2 9 ,albo1 #djh ,metempsy*osis1 see ,transmigration ,microcosmus1 #fj1 #abe ,milhamot ,adonai1 #cbi ,miracles1 9 ,levi b5 ,g]son1 #ceh f4 ,mohamm$1 xxv1 #hf ,monophysites1 xviii1 #cd ,m ,ha-moreh1 #caj ,m ,nebukim1 #bch ,morg5/]n1 ,ern1 #dcd ,moses b5 ,eno*1 #ei ,moses b5 ,maimon1 see ,maimonides ,moses ( ,n>bonne1 #cji1 #caj1 #cbh1 #dcj1 #ddg1 note #djc;a ,motion1 9 ,ari/otle1 xxvi2 9 ,ibn ,daud1 #bjg2 9 ,maimonides1 #bed1 #bfi ,mukammas1 ,david ,al1 #b1 #ag-bb2 def9ition ( sci5ce & philosophy1 #ag f42 attributes1 #ah ff42 unity1 #ah2 rew>d & puni%m5t1 #ba f41 #cd1 #eb1 #ha1 #hd1 #ie1 #bjj1 #bdf1 #dcd ,munk1 ,solomon1 #fc1 #cjd1 #cbh1 #dcc1 #dcd1 #ddj1 note #hc2 #dda1 notes #hf1 #hg & #aje2 #ddd1 notes #bej1 #bhj & #cjb2 #dde1 notes #cad & #caf2 #ddh1 note #ddb ,mnz1 ,j41 #dcf ,mutakallimun1 xxi f41 xl1 xli1 xlvii1 #i1 #aa1 #bd1 #be1 #bf1 #dh1 #ha1 #hh1 #if1 #ajf1 #abe1 #abf1 #abg1 #abh1 #aci1 #adb1 #ade1 #adi1 #aeh1 #ahb1 #ahc1 #aii1 #bdj1 #bdf-bec1 #bef1 #bge1 #ceb1 #cec1 #cfb1 #cff f41 #cfi1 #cgb1 #chb1 #djf1 #dbh ,mutazila1 xxii ff41 xxvii1 xlvii1 #c1 #ag1 #ba1 #bc1 #bd1 #bf1 #dh1 #ajh1 #aga1 #bdf1 #bea1 #bia1 #bib1 #cfb1 #cfe1 #cff1 #cge1 #cgg ,na*manides1 #dbf1 #dbi ,nature1 9 ,plot9us1 xxxviii2 9 ,gabirol1 #fe1 #ff2 9 ,pseudo-,bahya1 #aji2 9 ,abraham b> ,hiyya1 #aai ,neo-,platonic1 xx1 xxviii1 xxxix1 xlvi1 #b1 #f1 #ac1 #bd1 #ch1 #fd1 #gi1 #ha1 #hf1 #hi1 #ij1 #ib1 #ajf1 #ajg1 #aad1 #aae1 #abe1 #abf1 #abg1 #abi1 #ach1 #aci1 #agg1 #agh1 #aii1 #bjj1 #bff1 #cje1 #cag1 #cai ,neo-,platonism1 xxix1 #ag1 #fd1 #gj1 #gi1 #ia1 #aad1 #aej1 #ahg1 #bjj1 #bff1 #bhh1 #cag1 #dbh ,neo-,platoni/s1 xl1 #ca1 #fd1 #ia1 #ajf1 #ahd1 #aii ,neo-,py?agoreans1 #ahh ,ne/orians1 xviii1 #cd ,neum>k1 ,david1 viii1 #dcc1 #dce1 #dcf1 #dda1 note #ajg ,n\s1 xxxviii1 #g1 #ia ,olam ,katon1 see ,microcosmus ,or ,adonai1 #chi ,orig51 #bhh1 #cjb ,ors*ansky1 ,g41 #dce ,p]les1 ,j41 #dde1 note #cji ,philo1 xvi1 xxvii1 xxxviii1 xli1 #bc1 #ia1 #ie1 #ahh1 #bdj1 #bff1 #bfh1 #bhh1 #cjb ,philoponus1 #bdg1 #cec ,philosophy1 & religion1 xiii2 cont5t ( ,jewi% ,p41 xl-l2 def9$ by ,israeli1 #d2 by ,ibn ,zaddik1 #abi2 by ,moses ,ibn ,ezra1 #ahe ,physics1 9 ,kalam1 xxii1 xli2 9 ,ari/otle1 xxx2 9 ,israeli1 #c1 #e1 #ab2 9 ,saadia1 xli2 9 ,ibn ,zaddik1 xlii1 #acj ff42 9 ,judah ,halevi1 #age ff42 9 ,ibn ,daud1 xlii1 #bje ff42 9 ,maimonides1 xlii1 #bed ff41 #bfi ff42 9 ,levi b5 ,g]son1 #ceb f41 #cee f42 9 ,a>on b5 ,elijah1 xli1 #cff ff42 9 ,crescas1 xlii1 #chi ,plato1 xxix1 xli1 xlv1 #e1 #g1 #h1 #cg1 #dg1 #ij1 #ia1 #abb1 #ach1 #aee1 #agi1 #aha1 #ahb1 #ahd1 #aie1 #bca1 #bfh1 #bfi1 #bhh1 #cjd1 #cje1 #cec1 #dac1 #dca ,plato ( ,tivoli1 #aad ,plot9us1 xx1 xxxvii f41 xxxix1 #f1 #fd1 #fe1 #ia1 #ajg1 #aae1 #abf1 #aci1 #agh1 #dca ,pollak1 ,j41 #dcc ,porphyry1 #fj ,proclus1 xx1 #c ,prophecy1 xlvi1 xlix f42 9 ,israeli1 xlix1 #ae2 9 ,saadia1 #dj2 9 ,judah ,halevi1 xlix1 #afe2 9 ,abraham ibn ,ezra1 #aid2 9 ,ibn ,daud1 xlix1 #bbd ff42 9 ,maimonides1 xlix1 #bgf ff42 9 ,hillel b5 ,samuel1 #cbe2 9 ,levi b5 ,g]son1 xlix1 #cdj ff42 9 ,a>on b5 ,elijah1 #chj f42 9 ,crescas1 #cie2 9 ,albo1 #dba ,provid5ce1 xl2 9 ,maimonides1 #bij ff42 9 ,levi b5 ,g]son1 #cdf ff42 9 ,a>on b5 ,elijah1 #cge f42 9 ,crescas1 #cic f42 9 ,albo1 #dbe ,pseudo-,bahya1 xlvi1 xlix1 #ajf-aac2 /&po9t1 #ajf f42 ! s\l1 #ajh ff41 #aaa ff42 ,intellig5ce1 ,s\l1 ,nature1 #ajh f41 #aaj2 matt]1 #aji2 creation1 #aaj2 virtue1 #aab2 immortality1 #aab f42 rew>d & puni%m5t1 #aac1 #abb1 #abf1 #aci1 #adh1 #cag1 #dcd ,ptolemy1 xviii1 #bgc1 #cji ,py?agoras1 #fj1 #agi1 #ahd1 #ahe ,py?agoreans1 #i ,ra%i1 #ahg ,raymond1 ,bi%op ( ,tol$o1 #fa ,reason1 & au?ority1 xiii2 r4 9 ,ari/otle1 xxxvi2 active & passive1 xxxvi f42 9 ,plot9us1 xxxviii2 r4 z a s\rce ( k1 xl2 r4 & au?ority 9 ,levi b5 ,g]son1 #ccj f4 ,see also ,intellect1 ,s\l ,resurrection1 l2 9 ,saadia1 #dd f42 9 ,hillel b5 ,samuel1 #cbf2 9 ,a>on b5 ,elijah1 #che f42 9 ,crescas1 #djd ,rew>d & ,puni%m5t1 xlvii1 xlviii1 l2 9 ,mukammas1 #ba f42 9 ,saadia1 #db f42 9 ,al ,basir1 #ee2 9 ,pseudo-,bahya1 #aac2 9 ,abraham b> ,hiyya1 #aai ff42 9 ,ibn ,zaddik1 #adh2 9 ,judah ,halevi1 #agj2 9 ,abraham ,ibn ,ezra1 #aib2 9 ,hillel b5 ,samuel1 #cbc ff42 9 ,a>on b5 ,elijah1 #cgi1 #chc2 9 ,crescas1 #djc f42 9 ,albo1 #dbe f4 ,roscell9us ( ,compigne1 #cje ,rose1 ,val5t9us1 #dci1 note #h ,ros91 ,david1 #ahi1 #aib1 #dce ,royal ,cr[n1 !1 #ge f4 ,saadia1 xix1 xxv1 xli1 xlii1 xlv1 xlvi1 xlix1 #a1 #ag1 #bc-dg2 8 ,emunot ve-,deot1 #bd f42 modell$ on ! ,kalam1 ibid42 atomic !ory1 #be2 reason = writ+1 #bf f42 s\rces ( tru?1 #bg f42 speculation n =bidd51 #bh2 necessity ( revelation1 ibid42 exi/5ce ( ,god1 #bh ff42 incorporeality1 #cb2 unity1 #cb f42 attributes1 #cc f42 categories inapplicable to ,god1 #ce f42 !ophanies1 #cf2 s\l1 #cg f42 laws & comm&m5ts1 #ch f42 rational & traditional1 ibid42 prophecy1 #dj2 writt5 & oral law1 #dj2 abrogation ( ,law1 #dj f42 fre$om1 #da f42 & =ekn[l$ge1 ibid42 rew>d & puni%m5t1 #db f41 #df2 future _w1 #dc f42 resurrection1 #dd f42 e?ics1 #df f41 #dh1 #ej1 #eb1 #ei1 #ha1 #hb1 #hc1 #hd1 #hg1 #hh1 #hi1 #ib1 #id1 #ie1 #if1 #abf1 #abg1 #abh1 #adf1 #adg1 #afg1 #age1 #ahf1 #aie1 #bjj1 #bcg1 #bda1 #bdf1 #beb1 #bec1 #cjb1 #cji1 #cfb1 #cfc1 #chh1 #dbh1 #dcd ,sabeans1 #bif ,salad91 #bci ,samuel1 #aig ,scalig]1 #cjg ,s*ey]1 ,simon ,b41 #dce ,s*mi$l1 ,a41 #dcc ,s*re9]1 ,m41 xxv1 xxvii1 #dcc1 #dcd1 #dci1 notes #ab1 #af1 #ah & #bj2 #ddj1 note #ha ,sef] ,ha-,kabbala1 #aih ,sey]l51 #fc1 #dcd1 #dda1 note #hf ,%emtob b5 ,joseph1 #dcj ,%emtob b5 ,joseph ibn ,%emtob1 #dbi ,socrates1 xxix1 #aee1 #ahd1 #ahe ,solomon b5 ,adret1 #dcj ,solomon b5 ,y]oham1 #cfc ,sophi/s1 xxix ,s\l1 9 ,ari/otle1 xxxv2 _w s\l 9 ,plot9us1 xxxviii2 s4 9 ,jewi% philosophy1 xlv f42 _w-s\l 9 ,jewi% ,neo-,platoni/s1 xlvi2 s4 9 ,israeli1 #e1 #h ff42 9 ,saadia1 #cg f42 9 ,gabirol1 #fe1 #ff2 9 ,pseudo-,bahya1 #ajh ff42 9 ,abraham b> ,hiyya1 #aai2 9 ,ibn ,zaddik1 #acd f41 #acg f42 _w-s\l 9 ,ibn ,zaddik1 #adj2 s4 9 ,judah ,halevi1 #agi ff42 9 ,abraham ,ibn ,ezra1 #aia f42 9 ,ibn ,daud1 #bji ff42 9 ,maimonides1 #bha ff42 9 ,hillel b5 ,samuel1 #cad ff42 9 ,crescas1 #djj4 ,see also ,intellect1 ,reason ,sp9oza1 #cih f4 ,_s & ,s\l1 ,book (1 #e ,/e9s*neid]1 ,moritz1 #caa1 #dci1 note #bf2 #ddj1 notes #ca & #cc2 #ddc1 note #bdg2 #ddf1 note #cfj ,/4 ,ephrem ( ,nisibis1 xviii ,sufis1 xxvii f41 #hf1 #aec ,syrians1 xvii ff41 #aii1 #bdf ,tagmule ha-,nefe%1 #cad ,tnz]1 ,a41 #dcg ,!mi/ius1 #g1 #fj1 #cac1 #cba1 #ccb1 #ccc1 #ccd1 #cce ,!ology ( ,ari/otle1 xx1 xxxix1 #fd1 #bff ,!ophra/us1 xviii ,tibbon1 ,judah ,ibn1 #ga1 #cji1 #caj ,tibbon1 ,moses ,ibn1 #cji1 #ddj1 note #cg ,tibbon1 ,samuel ,ibn1 #b1 #fj1 #abe1 #bci1 #cjb1 #cji ,tikkun ,midot ha-,nefe%1 #ga ,torot ha-,nefe%1 #ajf ,tradition1 xiii1 xli1 #bh1 #bbc f4 ,transmigration1 9 ,saadia1 #dd2 9 ,abraham ibn ,ezra1 #aib2 9 ,ibn ,daud1 #bae f4 ,tr9ity1 xliv1 #cc1 #cd1 #ga1 #ia ,tru?1 tw(old1 #cbh ,tw5ty ,*apt]s1 #ag ,ueb]weg-,baumg>tn]1 #dcc ,unity ( ,god1 9 ,kalam1 xxii1 xliii f41 #beb2 9 ,mukammas1 #ah2 9 ,saadia1 #cb f42 9 ,al ,basir1 #ea2 9 ,bahya1 #hi f42 9 ,ibn ,zaddik1 #adc2 9 ,moses ibn ,ezra1 #ahe2 9 ,abraham ibn ,ezra1 #ahi2 9 ,ibn ,daud1 #bai f42 9 ,maimonides1 xliv1 #beg ff42 9 ,a>on b5 ,elijah1 #cfh f42 9 ,crescas1 #cia f4 ,v9c5t ( ,beauvais1 #a ,virtue1 xlix2 9 ,gabirol1 #gb f42 9 ,pseudo-,bahya1 #aab2 9 ,ibn ,zaddik1 #adh2 9 ,ibn ,daud1 #bcb2 9 ,maimonides1 #bhb ff4 ,weil1 ,isidore1 #dcf ,weil1 ,simson1 #aih1 #ddc1 note #bba ,we9sb]g1 ,leopold1 #dce ,w5ri*1 #dci1 note #e ,w]blun]1 #dde1 note #cag ,w ( ,god1 9 ,al ,basir1 #ej2 9 ,gabirol1 #fh f42 9 ,bahya1 #ij2 9 ,ibn ,zaddik1 #add2 9 ,a>on b5 ,elijah1 #cgb ,william ( ,auv]gne1 #ga1 #cjf ,william ( ,occam1 #bjj ,wise1 ,/eph5 ,s41 #ga1 #dda1 note #ajc ,wolff1 ,m41 #ddd1 note #bea ,wolfsohn1 ,julius1 #dcf ,yahuda1 #hj1 #hf1 #dci1 note #bd2 #dda1 notes #ajf1 #ajh1 #aji & #aab ,yahya b5 ,adi1 #bdg ,yefet ,ha-,levi1 #cfc ,yezirah1 ,sef] #ag1 #id1 #agc1 #agi ,yohanan b5 ,zakkai1 #aig ,zell]1 #dci1 note #d2 #dda1 note #hf ,z5o1 #be ,zimmels1 #ddh1 note #ddb ,zunz1 ,leopold1 #ahd ,pr9t$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica4