,,chips ,,from ,a ,,german ,,workshop ,,by ,f4 ,,max ,m,,ller1 ,m4 ,a41 ,,foreign ,,member ,,of ,,the ,,french ,,institute1 ,,etc4 ,,volume ,v4 ,,miscellaneous ,,later ,,essays4 ,,new ,,york3 ,,charles ,,scribner',s ,,sons4 #ahha4 ,,contents ,i4 ,on ,freedom ,,ii4 ,on ,the ,philosophy ,of ,mythology4 ,,iii4 ,on ,false ,analogies ,in ,comparative ,theology4 ,,iv4 ,on ,spelling4 ,v4 ,on ,sanskrit ,texts ,discovered ,in ,japan4 ,index4 ,footnotes ,i4 ,,on ,,freedom4 ,presidential ,address ,delivered ,before ,the ,birmingham ,midland ,institute1 ,october #bj1 #ahgi4 ,not more than twenty years have passed since ,john ,stuart ,mill sent forth his plea for ,liberty47#a7 ,if there is one among the leaders of thought in ,england who1 by the elevation of his character and the calm composure of his mind1 deserved the so often misplaced title of ,serene ,highness1 it was1 ,i think1 ,john ,stuart ,mill4 ,but in his ,essay 8,on ,liberty10 ,mill for once becomes passionate4 ,in presenting his ,bill of ,rights1 in stepping forward as the champion of individual liberty1 he seems to be possessed by a new spirit4 ,he speaks like a martyr1 or the defender of martyrs4 ,the individual human soul1 with its unfathomable endowments1 and its capacity of growing to something undreamt of in our philosophy1 becomes in his eyes a sacred thing1 and every encroachment on its world-wide domain is treated as sacrilege4 ,society1 the arch-enemy of the rights of individuality1 is represented like an evil spirit1 whom it behooves every true man to resist with might and main1 and whose demands1 as they cannot be altogether ignored1 must be reduced at all hazards to the lowest level4 ,i doubt whether any of the principles for which ,mill pleaded so warmly and strenuously in his ,essay 8,on ,liberty0 would at the present day be challenged or resisted1 even by the most illiberal of philosophers1 or the most conservative of politicians4 ,mill's demands sound very humble to our ears4 ,they amount to no more than this1 8that the individual is not accountable to society for his actions so far as they concern the interests of no person but himself1 and that he may be subjected to social or legal punishments for such actions only as are prejudicial to the interests of others40 ,is there any one here present who doubts the justice of that principle1 or who would wish to reduce the freedom of the individual to a smaller measure8 ,whatever social tyranny may have existed twenty years ago1 when it wrung that fiery protest from the lips of ,john ,stuart ,mill1 can we imagine a state of society1 not totally ,utopian1 in which the individual man need be less ashamed of his social fetters1 in which he could more freely utter all his honest convictions1 more boldly propound all his theories1 more fearlessly agitate for their speedy realization2 in which1 in fact1 each man can be so entirely himself as the society of ,england1 such as it now is1 such as generations of hard-thinking and hard-working ,englishmen have made it1 and left it as the most sacred inheritance to their sons and daughters8 ,look through the whole of history1 not excepting the brightest days of republican freedom at ,athens and ,rome1 and you will not find one single period in which the measure of liberty accorded to each individual was larger than it is at present1 at least in ,england4 ,and if you wish to realize the full blessings of the time in which we live1 compare ,mill's plea for ,liberty with another written not much more than two hundred years ago1 and by a thinker not inferior either in power or boldness to ,mill himself4 ,according to ,hobbes1 the only freedom which an individual in his ideal state has a right to claim is what he calls 8freedom of thought10 and that freedom of thought consists in our being able to think what we like--so long as we keep it to ourselves4 ,surely1 such freedom of thought existed even in the days of the ,inquisition1 and we should never call thought free1 if it had to be kept a prisoner in solitary and silent confinement4 ,by freedom of thought we mean freedom of speech1 freedom of the press1 freedom of action1 whether individual or associated1 and of that freedom the present generation1 as compared with all former generations1 the ,english nation1 as compared with all other nations1 enjoys1 there can be no doubt1 a good measure1 pressed down1 and shaken together1 and sometimes running over4 ,it may be said that some dogmas still remain in politics1 in religion1 and in morality2 but those who defend them claim no longer any infallibility1 and those who attack them1 however small their minority1 need fear no violence1 nay1 may reckon on an impartial and even sympathetic hearing1 as soon as people discover in their pleadings the true ring of honest conviction and the warmth inspired by an unselfish love of truth4 ,it has seemed strange1 therefore1 to many readers of ,mill1 particularly on the ,continent1 that this plea for liberty1 this demand for freedom for every individual to be what he is1 and to develop all the germs of his nature1 should have come from what is known as the freest of all countries1 ,england4 ,we might well understand such a cry of indignation if it had reached us from ,russia2 but why should ,english philosophers1 of all others1 have to protest against the tyranny of society8 ,it is true1 nevertheless1 that in countries governed despotically1 the individual1 unless he is obnoxious to the ,government1 enjoys far greater freedom1 or rather license1 than in a country like ,england1 which governs itself4 ,russian society1 for instance1 is extremely indulgent4 ,it tolerates in its rulers and statesmen a haughty defiance of the simplest rules of social propriety1 and it seems amused rather than astonished or indignant at the vagaries1 the frenzies1 and outrages of those who in brilliant drawing-rooms or lecture-rooms preach the doctrines of what is called ,nihilism or ,individualism17#b7--viz41 8that society must be regenerated by a struggle for existence and the survival of the strongest1 processes which ,nature has sanctioned1 and which have proved successful among wild animals40 ,if there is danger in these doctrines the ,government is expected to see to it4 ,it may place watchmen at the doors of every house and at the corner of every street1 but it must not count on the better classes coming forward to enrol themselves as special constables1 or even on the coperation of public opinion which in ,england would annihilate that kind of ,nihilism with one glance of scorn and pity4 ,in a self-governed country like ,england1 the resistance which society1 if it likes1 can oppose to the individual in the assertion of his rights1 is far more compact and powerful than in ,russia1 or even in ,germany4 ,even where it does not employ the arm of the law1 society knows how to use that quieter1 but more crushing pressure1 that calm1 ,gorgon-like look which only the bravest and stoutest hearts know how to resist4 ,it is against that indirect repression which a well-organized society exercises1 both through its male and female representatives1 that ,mill's demand for liberty seems directed4 ,he does not stand up for unlimited individualism2 on the contrary1 he would have been the most strenuous defender of that balance of power between the weak and the strong on which all social life depends4 ,but he resents those smaller penalties which society will always inflict on those who disturb its dignified peace and comfort3--avoidance1 exclusion1 a cold look1 a stinging remark4 ,had ,mill any right to complain of these social penalties8 ,would it not rather amount to an interference with individual liberty to deprive any individual or any number of individuals of those weapons of self-defence8 ,those who themselves think and speak freely1 have hardly a right to complain1 if others claim the same privilege4 ,mill himself called the ,conservative party the stupid party par excellence1 and he took great pains to explain that it was so not by accident1 but by necessity4 ,need he wonder if those whom he whipped and scourged used their own whips and scourges against so merciless a critic8 ,freethinkers--and ,i use that name as a title of honor for all who1 like ,mill1 claim for every individual the fullest freedom in thought1 word1 or deed1 compatible with the freedom of others--are apt to make one mistake4 ,conscious of their own honest intentions1 they cannot bear to be misjudged or slighted4 ,they expect society to submit to their often very painful operations as a patient submits to the knife of the surgeon4 ,this is not in human nature4 ,the enemy of abuses is always abused by his enemies4 ,society will never yield one inch without resistance1 and few reformers live long enough to receive the thanks of those whom they have reformed4 ,mill's unsolicited election to ,parliament was a triumph not often shared by social reformers2 it was as exceptional as ,bright's admission to a seat in the ,cabinet1 or ,stanley's appointment as ,dean of ,westminster4 ,such anomalies will happen in a country fortunately so full of anomalies as ,england2 but1 as a rule1 a political reformer must not be angry if he passes through life without the title of ,right ,honorable2 nor should a man1 if he will always speak the truth1 the whole truth1 and nothing but the truth1 be disappointed if he dies a martyr rather than a ,bishop4 ,but even granting that in ,mill's time there existed some traces of social tyranny1 where are they now8 ,look at the newspapers and the journals4 ,is there any theory too wild1 any reform too violent1 to be openly defended8 ,look at the drawing-rooms or the meetings of learned societies4 ,are not the most eccentric talkers the spoiled children of the fashionable world8 ,when young lords begin to discuss the propriety of limiting the rights of inheritance1 and young tutors are not afraid to propose curtailing the long vacation1 surely we need not complain of the intolerance of ,english society4 ,whenever ,i state these facts to my ,german and ,french and ,italian friends1 who from reading ,mill's ,essay 8,on ,liberty0 have derived the impression that1 however large an amount of political liberty ,england may enjoy1 it enjoys but little of intellectual freedom1 they are generally willing to be converted so far as ,london1 or other great cities are concerned4 ,but look at your ,universities1 they say1 the nurseries of ,english thought6 ,compare their medival spirit1 their monastic institutions1 their scholastic philosophy1 with the freshness and freedom of the ,continental ,universities6 ,strong as these prejudices about ,oxford and ,cambridge have long been1 they have become still more intense since ,professor ,helmholtz1 in an inaugural address which he delivered at his installation as ,rector of the ,university of ,berlin1 lent to them the authority of his great name4 8,the tutors10 he says17#c7 8in the ,english ,universities cannot deviate by a hair's-breadth from the dogmatic system of the ,english ,church1 without exposing themselves to the censure of their ,archbishops and losing their pupils40 ,in ,german ,universities1 on the contrary1 we are told that the extreme conclusions of materialistic metaphysics1 the boldest speculations within the sphere of ,darwin's theory of evolution1 may be propounded without let or hindrance1 quite as much as the highest apotheosis of ,papal infallibility4 ,here the facts on which ,professor ,helmholtz relies are entirely wrong1 and the writings of some of our most eminent tutors supply a more than sufficient refutation of his statements4 ,archbishops have no official position whatsoever in ,english ,universities1 and their censure of an ,oxford tutor would be resented as impertinent by the whole ,university4 ,nor does the ,university1 as such1 exercise any very strict control over the tutors1 even when they lecture not to their own ,college only4 ,each ,master of ,arts at ,oxford claims now the right to lecture 7venia docendi71 and ,i doubt whether they would submit to those restrictions which1 in ,germany1 the ,faculty imposes on every ,privat-docent4 ,privat-docents in ,german ,universities have been rejected by the ,faculty for incompetence1 and silenced for insubordination4 ,i know of no such cases at ,oxford during my residence of more than thirty years1 nor can ,i think it likely that they should ever occur4 ,as to the extreme conclusions of materialistic metaphysics1 there are ,oxford tutors who have grappled with the systems of such giants as ,hobbes1 ,locke1 or ,hume1 and who are not likely to be frightened by ,bchner and ,vogt4 ,i know comparisons are odious1 and ,i should be the last man to draw comparisons between ,english and ,german ,universities unfavorable to the latter4 ,but with regard to freedom of thought1 of speech1 and action1 ,professor ,helmholtz1 if he would spend but a few weeks at ,oxford1 would find that we enjoy it in fuller measure here than the ,professors and ,privat-docents in any ,continental ,university4 ,the publications of some of our professors and tutors ought at least to have convinced him that if there is less of brave words and turbulent talk in their writings1 they display throughout a determination to speak the truth1 which may be matched1 but could not easily be excelled1 by the leaders of thought in ,france1 ,germany1 or ,italy4 ,the real difference between ,english and ,continental ,universities is that the former govern themselves1 the latter are governed4 ,self-government entails responsibilities1 sometimes restraints and reticences4 ,i may here be allowed to quote the words of another eminent ,professor of the ,university of ,berlin1 ,du ,bois ,reymond1 who1 in addressing his colleagues1 ventured to tell them17#d7 8,we have still to learn from the ,english how the greatest independence of the individual is compatible with willing submission to salutary1 though irksome1 statutes40 ,that is particularly true when the statutes are self-imposed4 ,in ,germany1 as ,professor ,helmholtz tells us himself1 the last decision in almost all the more important affairs of the ,universities rests with the ,government1 and he does not deny that in times of political and ecclesiastical tension1 a most ill-advised use has been made of that power4 ,there are1 besides1 the less important matters1 such as raising of salaries1 leave of absence1 scientific missions1 even titles and decorations1 all of which enable a clever ,minister of ,instruction to assert his personal influence among the less independent members of the ,university4 ,in ,oxford the ,university does not know the ,ministry1 nor the ,ministry the ,university4 ,the acts of the ,government1 be it ,liberal or ,conservative1 are freely discussed1 and often powerfully resisted by the academic constituencies1 and the personal dislike of a ,minister or ,ministerial ,councillor could as little injure a professor or tutor as his favor could add one penny to his salary4 ,but these are minor matters4 ,what gives their own peculiar character to the ,english ,universities is a sense of power and responsibility3 power1 because they are the most respected among the numerous corporations in the country2 responsibility1 because the higher education of the whole country has been committed to their charge4 ,their only master is public opinion as represented in ,parliament1 their only incentive their own sense of duty4 ,there is no country in ,europe where ,universities hold so exalted a position1 and where those who have the honour to belong to them may say with greater truth ,noblesse oblige4 ,i know the dangers of self-government1 particularly where higher and more ideal interests are concerned1 and there are probably few who wish for a real reform in schools and ,universities who have not occasionally yielded to the desire for a ,dictator1 of a ,bismarck or a ,falk4 ,but such a desire springs only from a momentary weakness and despondency2 and no one who knows the difference between being governed and governing one's self1 would ever wish to descend from that higher though dangerous position to a lower one1 however safe and comfortable it might seem4 ,no one who has tasted the old wine of freedom would ever really wish to exchange it for the new wine of external rule4 ,public opinion is sometimes a hard master1 and majorities can be great tyrants to those who want to be honest to their own convictions4 ,but in the struggle of all against all1 each individual feels that he has his rightful place1 and that he may exercise his rightful influence4 ,if he is beaten1 he is beaten in fair fight2 if he conquers1 he has no one else to thank4 ,no doubt1 despotic ,governments have often exercised the most beneficial patronage in encouraging and rewarding poets1 artists1 and men of science4 ,but men of genius who have conquered the love and admiration of a whole nation are greater than those who have gained the favor of the most brilliant ,courts2 and we know how some of the fairest reputations have been wrecked on the patronage which they had to accept at the hands of powerful ,ministers or ambitious ,sovereigns4 ,but to return to ,mill and his plea for ,liberty4 ,though ,i can hardly believe that1 were he still among us1 he would claim a larger measure of freedom for the individual than is now accorded to every one of us in the society in which we move1 yet the chief cause on which he founded his plea for ,liberty1 the chief evil which he thought could be remedied only if society would allow more elbow-room to individual genius1 exists in the same degree as in his time--aye1 even in a higher degree4 ,the principle of individuality has suffered more at present than perhaps at any former period of history4 ,the world is becoming more and more gregarious1 and what the ,french call our nature moutonnire1 our tendency to leap where the sheep in front of us has leapt1 becomes more and more prevalent in politics1 in religion1 in art1 and even in science4 ,m4 de ,tocqueville expressed his surprise how much more ,frenchmen of the present day resemble one another than did those of the last generation4 ,the same remark1 adds ,john ,stuart ,mill1 might be made of ,england in a greater degree4 8,the modern rgime of public opinion10 he writes1 8is in an unorganized form what the ,chinese educational and political systems are in an organized2 and unless individuality shall be able successfully to assert itself against this yoke1 ,europe1 notwithstanding its noble antecedents and its professed ,christianity1 will tend to become another ,china40 ,i fully agree with ,mill in recognizing the dangers of uniformity1 but ,i doubt whether what he calls the rgime of public opinion is alone1 or even chiefly1 answerable for it4 ,no doubt there are some people in whose eyes uniformity seems an advantage rather than a disadvantage4 ,if all were equally strong1 equally educated1 equally honest1 equally rich1 equally tall1 or equally small1 society would seem to them to have reached the highest ideal4 ,the same people admire an old ,french garden1 with its clipped yew-trees1 forming artificial walls and towers and pyramids1 far more than the giant yews which1 like large serpents1 clasp the soil with their coiling roofs1 and overshadow with their dark green branches the white chalk cliffs of the ,thames4 ,but those ,french gardens1 unless they are constantly clipped and prevented from growing1 soon fall into decay4 ,as in nature1 so in society1 uniformity means but too often stagnation1 while variety is the surest sign of health and vigor4 ,the deepest secret of nature is its love of continued novelty4 ,its tendency1 if unrestrained1 is towards constantly creating new varieties1 which1 if they fulfil their purpose1 become fixed for a time1 or1 it may be1 forever2 while others1 after they have fulfilled their purpose1 vanish to make room for new and stronger types4 ,the same is the secret of human society4 ,it consists and lives in individuals1 each meant to be different from all the others1 and to contribute his own peculiar share to the common wealth4 ,as no tree is like any other tree1 and no leaf on the same tree like any other leaf1 no human being is1 or is meant to be1 exactly like any other human being4 ,it is in this endless1 and to us inconceivable1 variety of human souls that the deepest purpose of human life is to be realized2 and the more society fulfils that purpose1 the more its allows free scope for the development of every individual germ1 the richer will be the harvest in no distant future4 ,such is the mystery of individuality that ,i do not wonder if even those philosophers who1 like ,mill1 confine the use of the word sacred within the very smallest compass1 see in each individual soul something sacred1 something to be revered1 even where we cannot understand it1 something to be protected against all vulgar violence4 ,where ,i differ from ,mill and his school is on the question as to the quarter from whence the epidemic of uniformity springs which threatens the free development of modern society4 ,mill points to the society in which we move2 to those who are in front of us1 to our contemporaries4 ,i feel convinced that our real enemies are at our back1 and that the heaviest chains which are fastened on us are those made1 not by the present1 but by past generations--by our ancestors1 not by our contemporaries4 ,it is on this point1 on the trammels of individual freedom with which we may almost be said to be born into the world1 and on the means by which we may shake off these old chains1 or at all events learn to carry them more lightly and gracefully1 that ,i wish to speak to you this evening4 ,you need not be afraid that ,i am going to enter upon the much discussed subject of heredity1 whether in its physiological or psychological aspects4 ,it is a favorite subject just now1 and the most curious facts have been brought together of late to illustrate the working of what is called heredity4 ,but the more we know of these facts1 the less we seem able to comprehend the underlying principle4 ,inheritance is one of those numerous words which by their very simplicity and clearness are so apt to darken our counsel4 ,if a father has blue eyes and the son has blue eyes1 what can be clearer than that he inherited them8 ,if the father stammers and the son stammers1 who can doubt but that it came by inheritance8 ,if the father is a musician and the son a musician1 we say very glibly that the talent was inherited4 ,but what does inherited mean8 ,in no case does it mean what inherited usually means--something external1 like money1 collected by a father1 and1 after his death1 secured by law to his son4 ,whatever else inherited may mean1 it does not mean that4 ,but unfortunately the word is there1 it seems almost pedantic to challenge its meaning1 and people are always grateful if an easy word saves them the trouble of hard thought4 ,another apparent advantage of the theory of heredity is that it never fails4 ,if the son has blue1 and the father black1 eyes1 all is right again1 for either the mother1 or the grandmother1 or some historic or prehistoric ancestor1 may have had blue eyes1 and atavism1 we know1 will assert itself after hundreds and thousands of years4 ,do not suppose that ,i deny the broad facts of what is called by the name of heredity4 ,what ,i deny is that the name of heredity offers any scientific solution of a most difficult problem4 ,it is a name1 a metaphor1 quite as bad as the old metaphor of innate ideas2 for there is hardly a single point of similarity between the process by which a son may share the black eyes1 the stammering1 or the musical talent of his father1 and that by which1 after his father's death1 the law secures to the son the possession of the pounds1 shillings1 and pence which his father held in the ,funds4 ,but whatever the true meaning of heredity may be1 certain it is that every individual comes into the world heavy-laden4 ,nowhere has the consciousness of the burden which rests on each generation as it enters on its journey through life found stronger expression than among the ,buddhists4 ,what other people call by various names1 8fate or providence10 8tradition or inheritance10 8circumstances or environment10 they call ,karman1 deed--what has been done1 whether by ourselves or by others1 the accumulated work of all who have come before us1 the consequences of which we have to bear1 both for good and for evil4 ,originally this ,karman seems to have been conceived as personal1 as the work which we ourselves have done in our former existences4 ,but1 as personally we are not conscious of having done such work in former ages1 that kind of ,karman1 too1 might be said to be impersonal4 ,to the question how ,karman began1 what was the nucleus of that accumulation which forms the condition of present existence1 ,buddhism has no answer to give1 any more than any other system of religion or philosophy4 ,the ,buddhists say it began with avidy1 and avidy means ignorance47#e7 ,they are much more deeply interested in the question how ,karman may be annihilated1 how each man may free himself from the influence of ,karman1 and ,nirvna1 the highest object of all their dreams1 is often defined by ,buddhist philosophers as 8freedom from ,karman407#f7 ,what the ,buddhists call by the general name of ,karman1 comprehends all influences which the past exercises on the present1 whether physical or mental47#g7 ,it is not my object to examine or even to name all these influences1 though ,i confess nothing is more interesting than to look upon the surface of our modern life as we look on a geological map1 and to see the most ancient formations cropping out everywhere under our feet4 ,difficult as it is to color a geological map of ,england1 it would be still more difficult to find a sufficient variety of colors to mark the different ingredients of the intellectual condition of her people4 ,that all of us1 whether we speak ,english or ,german1 or ,french or ,russian1 are really speaking an ancient ,oriental tongue1 incredible as it would have sounded a hundred years ago1 is now recognized by everybody4 ,though the various dialects now spoken in ,europe have been separated many thousands of years from the ,sanskrit1 the ancient classical language of ,india1 yet so close is the bond that holds the ,west and ,east together1 that in many cases an intelligent ,englishman might still guess the meaning of a ,sanskrit word4 ,how little difference is there between ,sanskrit snu and ,english son1 between ,sanskrit duhitar and ,english daughter1 between ,sanskrit vid1 to know1 and ,english to wit1 between ,sanskrit vaksh1 to grow1 and ,english to wax6 ,think how we value a ,saxon urn1 or a ,roman coin1 or a ,keltic weapon6 how we dig for them1 clean them1 label them1 and carefully deposit them in our museums6 ,yet what is their antiquity compared with the antiquity of such words as son or daughter1 father and mother8 ,there are no monuments older than those collected in the handy volumes which we call ,dictionaries1 and those who know how to interpret those ,english antiquities--as you may see them interpreted1 for instance1 in ,grimm's ,dictionary of the ,german1 in ,littr's ,dictionary of the ,french1 or in ,professor ,skeats' ,etymological ,dictionary of the ,english ,language--will learn more of the real growth of the human mind than by studying many volumes on logic and psychology4 ,and as by our language we belong to the ,aryan stratum1 we belong through our letters to the ,hamitic4 ,we still write ,english in hieroglyphics2 and in spite of all the vicissitudes through which the ancient hieroglyphics have passed in their journey from ,egypt to ,phnicia1 from ,phnicia to ,greece1 from ,greece to ,italy1 and from ,italy to ,england1 when we write a capital ,f ,cursive ,f1 when we draw the top line and the smaller line through the middle of the letter1 we really draw the two horns of the cerastes1 the horned serpent1 which the ancient ,egyptians used for representing the sound of f4 ,they write the name of the king whom the ,greeks called ,cheops1 and they themselves ,chu-fu1 like this37#h7-- ,three ,egyptian signs4 ,here the first sign1 the sieve1 is to be pronounced chu2 the second1 the horned serpent1 fu1 and the little bird1 again1 u4 ,in the more cursive or ,hieratic writing the horned serpent appears as ,egyptian character2 in the later ,demotic as ,egyptian character and ,egyptian character4 ,the ,phnicians1 who borrowed their letters from the ,hieratic ,egyptian1 wrote ,phoenician character and ,phoenician character4 ,the ,greeks1 who took their letters from the ,phnicians1 wrote ,greek character4 ,when the ,greeks1 instead of writing1 like the ,phnicians1 from right to left1 began to write from left to right1 they turned each letter1 and as ,phoenician character became ,greek character1 our k1 so ,phoenician character1 vau1 became ,f1 the ,greek so-called ,digamma1 ,greek character1 the ,latin ,f4 ,the first letter in ,chu-fu1 too1 still exists in our alphabet1 and in the transverse line of our ,h we may recognize the last remnant of the lines which divide the sieve4 ,the sieve appears in ,hieratic as ,egyptian character1 in ,phnician as ,phoenician character1 in ancient ,greek as ,greek character1 which occurs on an inscription found at ,mycen and elsewhere as the sign of the spiritus asper1 while in ,latin it is known to us as the letter ,h47#i7 ,in the same manner the undulating line of our capital ,l ,cursive ,l still recalls very strikingly the bent back of the crouching lion1 ,egyptian character1 which in the later hieroglyphic inscriptions represents the sound of ,l4 ,if thus in our language we are ,aryan1 in our letters ,egyptian1 we have only to look at our watches to see that we are ,babylonian4 ,why is our hour divided into sixty minutes1 our minute into sixty seconds8 ,would not a division of the hour into ten1 or fifty1 or a hundred minutes have been more natural8 ,we have sixty divisions on the dials of our watches simply because the ,greek astronomer ,hipparchus1 who lived in the second century ,b4 ,c41 accepted the ,babylonian system of reckoning time1 that system being sexagesimal4 ,the ,babylonians knew the decimal system1 but for practical purposes they counted by sossi and sari1 the sossos representing #fj1 the saros #fj #fj1 or #c1fjj4 ,from ,hipparchus that system found its way into the works of ,ptolemy1 about #aej ,a4 ,d41 and thence it was carried down the stream of civilization1 finding its last resting-place on the dial-plates of our clocks4 ,and why are there twenty shillings to our sovereign8 ,again the real reason lies in ,babylon4 ,the ,greeks learnt from the ,babylonians the art of dividing gold and silver for the purpose of trade4 ,it has been proved that the current gold piece of ,western ,asia was exactly the sixtieth part of a ,babylonian mn1 or mina4 ,it was nearly equal to our sovereign4 ,the difficult problem of the relative value of gold and silver in a bi-metallic currency had been solved to a certain extent in the ancient ,mesopotamian kingdom1 the proportion between gold and silver being fixed at #a to #ac-a_/c4 ,the silver shekel current in ,babylon was heavier than the gold shekel in the proportion of #ac-a_/c to #aj1 and had therefore the value of one tenth of a gold shekel2 and the half silver shekel1 called by the ,greeks a drachma1 was worth one twentieth of a gold shekel4 ,the drachma1 or half silver shekel1 may therefore be looked upon as the most ancient type of our own silver shilling in its relation of one twentieth of our gold sovereign47#aj7 ,i shall mention only one more of the most essential tools of our mental life--namely1 our figures1 which we call ,arabic1 because we received them from the ,arabs1 but which the ,arabs called ,indian1 because they received them from the ,indians--in order to show you how this nineteenth century of ours is under the sway of centuries long past and forgotten2 how we are what we are1 not by ourselves1 but by those who came before us1 and how the intellectual ground on which we stand is made up of the detritus of thoughts which were first thought1 not on these isles nor in ,europe1 but on the shores of the ,oxus1 the ,nile1 the ,euphrates1 and the ,indus4 ,now you may well ask1 ,quorsum hc omnia8 ,what has all this to do with freedom and with the free development of individuality8 ,because a man is born the heir of all the ages1 can it be said that he is not free to grow and to expand1 and to develop all the faculties of his mind8 ,are those who came before him1 and who left him this goodly inheritance1 to be called his enemies8 ,is that chain of tradition which connects him with the past really a galling fetter1 and not rather the leading-strings without which he would never learn to walk straight8 ,let us look at the matter more closely4 ,no one would venture to say that every individual should begin life as a young savage1 and be left to form his own language1 and invent his own letters1 numerals1 and coins4 ,on the contrary1 if we comprehend all this and a great deal more1 such as religion1 morality1 and secular knowledge1 under the general name of education1 even the most advanced defenders of individualism would hold that no child should enter society without submitting1 or rather without being submitted1 to education4 ,most of us would even go farther1 and make it criminal for parents or even for communities to allow children to grow up uneducated4 ,the excuse of worthless parents that they are at liberty to do with their children as they like1 has at last been blown to the winds1 and among the principal advocates of compulsory education1 and of the necessity of curtailing the freedom of savage parents of savage children1 have been ,mill and his friends1 the apostles of liberty and individualism47#aa7 ,i remember the time when pseudo-,liberals were not ashamed to say that1 whatever other nations1 such as the ,germans1 might do1 ,england would never submit to compulsory education2 but that faint-hearted and mischievous cry has at last been silenced4 ,a new era may be said to date in the history of every nation from the day on which 8compulsory education0 becomes part of its statute-book2 and ,i may congratulate the most ,liberal town in ,england on having proved itself the most inexorable tyrant in carrying it into effect4 ,but do not let us imagine that compulsory education is without its dangers4 ,like a powerful engine1 it must be carefully watched1 if it is not to produce1 what all compulsion will produce1 a slavish receptivity1 and1 what all machines do produce1 monotonous uniformity4 ,we know that all education must in the beginning be purely dogmatic4 ,children are taught language1 religion1 morality1 patriotism1 and afterwards1 at school1 history1 literature1 mathematics1 and all the rest1 long before they are able to question1 to judge1 or choose for themselves1 and there is hardly anything that a child will not believe1 if it comes from those in whom the child believes4 ,reading1 writing1 and arithmetic1 no doubt1 must be taught dogmatically1 and they take up an enormous amount of time1 particularly in ,english schools4 ,english spelling is a national misfortune1 and in the keen international race among all the countries of ,europe1 it handicaps the ,english child to a degree that seems incredible till we look at statistics4 ,i know the difficulties of a ,spelling ,reform1 ,i know what people mean when they call it impossible2 but ,i also know that personal and national virtue consists in doing so-called impossible things1 and that no nation has done1 and has still to do1 so many impossible things as the ,english4 ,but1 granted that reading1 writing1 and arithmetic occupy nearly the whole school time and absorb the best powers of the pupils1 cannot something be done in play-hours8 ,is there not some work that can be turned into play1 and some play that can be turned into work8 ,cannot the powers of observation be called out in a child while collecting flowers1 or stones1 or butterflies8 ,cannot his judgment be strengthened either in gymnastic exercises1 or in measuring the area of a field or the height of a tower8 ,might not all this be done without a view to examinations or payment by results1 simply for the sake of filling the little dull minds with one sunbeam of joy1 such sunbeams being more likely hereafter to call hidden precious germs into life than the deadening weight of such lessons as1 for instance1 that th-ough is though1 thr-ough is through1 en-ough is enough4 ,a child who believes that will hereafter believe anything4 ,those who wish to see ,natural ,science introduced into elementary schools frighten school-masters by the very name of ,natural ,science4 ,but surely every school-master who is worth his salt should be able to teach children a love of ,nature1 a wondering at ,nature1 a curiosity to pry into the secrets of ,nature1 an acquisitiveness for some of the treasures of ,nature1 and all this acquired in the fresh air of the field and the forest1 where1 better than in frowzy lecture-rooms1 the edge of the senses can be sharpened1 the chest widened1 and that freedom of thought fostered which made ,england what it was even before the days of compulsory education4 ,but in addressing you here to-night1 it was my intention to speak of higher rather than of elementary education4 ,all education--as it now exists in most countries of ,europe--may be divided into three stages--elementary1 scholastic1 and academical2 or call it primary1 secondary1 and tertiary4 ,elementary education has at last been made compulsory in most civilized countries4 ,unfortunately1 however1 it seems impossible to include under compulsory education anything beyond the very elements of knowledge--at least for the present2 though ,i know from experience that1 with proper management1 a well-conducted elementary school can afford to provide instruction in extra subjects--such as natural science1 modern languages1 and political economy--and yet1 with the present system of government grants1 be self-supporting47#ab7 ,the next stage above the elementary is scholastic education1 as it is supplied in grammar schools1 whether public or private4 ,according as the pupils are intended either to go on to a university1 or to enter at once on leaving school on the practical work of life1 these schools are divided into two classes4 ,in the one class1 which in ,germany are called ,realschulen1 less ,latin is taught1 and no ,greek1 but more of mathematics1 modern languages1 and physical science2 in the other1 called ,gymnasia on the ,continent1 classics form the chief staple of instruction4 ,it is during this stage that education1 whether at private or public schools1 exercises its strongest levelling influence4 ,little attention can be paid at large schools to individual tastes or talents4 ,in ,germany--even more1 perhaps1 than in ,england--it is the chief object of a good and conscientious master to have his class as uniform as possible at the end of the year2 and he receives far more credit from the official examiner if his whole class marches well and keeps pace together1 than if he can parade a few brilliant and forward boys1 followed by a number of straggling laggards4 ,and as to the character of the teaching at school1 how can it be otherwise than authoritative or dogmatic8 ,the ,sokratic method is very good if we can find the viri ,socratici and leisure for discussion4 ,but at school1 which now may seem to be called almost in mockery 1 or leisure1 the true method is1 after all1 that patronized by the great educators of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries4 ,boys at school must turn their mind into a row of pigeon-holes1 filling as many as they can with useful notes1 and never forgetting how many are empty4 ,there is an immense amount of positive knowledge to be acquired between the ages of ten and eighteen--rules of grammar1 strings of vocables1 dates1 names of towns1 rivers1 and mountains1 mathematical formulas1 etc4 ,all depends here on the receptive and retentive powers of the mind4 ,the memory has to be strengthened1 without being overtaxed1 till it acts almost mechanically4 ,learning by heart1 ,i believe1 cannot be too assiduously practised during the years spent at school4 ,there may have been too much of it when1 as the ,rev4 ,h4 ,c4 ,adams informs us in his 8,wykehamica0 7p4 #ceg71 boys used to say by heart #ac1jjj and #ad1jjj lines1 when one repeated the whole of ,virgil1 nay1 when another was able to say the whole of the ,english ,bible by rote3 8,put him on where you would1 he would go fluently on1 as long as any one would listen40 ,no intellectual investment1 ,i feel certain1 bears such ample and such regular interest as gems of ,english1 ,latin1 or ,greek literature deposited in the memory during childhood and youth1 and taken up from time to time in the happy hours of solitude4 ,one fault ,i have to find with most schools1 both in ,england and on the ,continent4 ,boys do not read enough of the ,greek and ,roman classics4 ,the majority of our masters are scholars by profession1 and they are apt to lay undue stress on what they call accurate and minute scholarship1 and to neglect wide and cursory reading4 ,i know the arguments for minute accuracy1 but ,i also know the mischief that is done by an exclusive devotion to critical scholarship before we have acquired a real familiarity with the principal works of classical literature4 ,the time spent in our schools in learning the rules of grammar and syntax1 writing exercises1 and composing verses1 is too large4 ,look only at our ,greek and ,latin grammars1 with all their rules and exceptions1 and exceptions on exceptions6 ,it is too heavy a weight for any boy to carry2 and no wonder that when one of the thousand small rules which they have learnt by heart is really wanted1 it is seldom forthcoming4 ,the end of classical teaching at school should be to make our boys acquainted1 not only with the language1 but with the literature and history1 the ancient thought of the ancient world4 ,rules of grammar1 syntax1 or metre1 are but means towards that end2 they must never be mistaken for the end itself4 ,a young man of eighteen1 who has probably spent on an average ten years in learning ,greek and ,latin1 ought to be able to read any of the ordinary ,greek or ,latin classics without much difficulty2 nay1 with a certain amount of pleasure4 ,he might have to consult his dictionary now and then1 or guess the meaning of certain words2 he might also feel doubtful sometime whether certain forms came from 1 ,i send1 or 1 ,i go1 or 1 ,i am1 particularly if preceded by prepositions4 ,in these matters the best scholars are least inclined to be pharisaical2 and whenever ,i meet in the controversies of classical scholars the favorite phrase1 8,every school-boy knows1 or ought to know1 this10 ,i generally say to myself1 8,no1 he ought not40 ,anyhow1 those who wish to see the study of ,greek and ,latin retained in our public schools ought to feel convinced that it will certainly not be retained much longer1 if it can be said with any truth that young men who leave school at eighteen are in many cases unable to read or to enjoy a classical text1 unless they have seen it before4 ,classical teaching1 and all purely scholastic teaching1 ought to be finished at school4 ,when a young man goes to a ,university1 unless he means to make scholarship his profession1 he ought to be free to enter upon a new career4 ,if he has not learnt by that time so much of ,greek and ,latin as is absolutely necessary in after-life for a lawyer1 or a student of physical science1 or even a clergyman1 either he or his school is to blame4 ,i do not mean to say that it would not be most desirable for every one during his ,university career to attend some lectures on classical literature1 on ancient history1 philosophy1 or art4 ,what is to be deprecated is1 that the ,university should have to do the work which belongs properly to the school4 ,the best colleges at ,oxford and ,cambridge have shown by their matriculation examinations what the standard of classical knowledge ought to be at eighteen or nineteen4 ,that standard can be reached by boys while still at school1 as has been proved both by the so-called local examinations1 and by the examinations of schools held under the ,delegates appointed by the ,universities4 ,if1 therefore1 the ,university would reassert her old right1 and make the first examination1 called at ,oxford ,responsions1 a general matriculation examination for admission to the ,university1 not only would the public schools be stimulated to greater efforts1 but the teaching of the ,university might assume1 from the very beginning1 that academic character which ought to distinguish it from mere school-boy work4 ,academic teaching ought to be not merely a continuation1 but in one sense a correction of scholastic teaching4 ,while at school instruction must be chiefly dogmatic1 at the ,university is it to be ,sokratic8 for ,i find no better name for that method which is to set a man free from the burden of purely traditional knowledge2 to make him feel that the words which he uses are often empty1 that the concepts he employs are1 for the most part1 mere bundles picked up at random2 that even where he knows facts he does not know the evidence for them2 and where he expresses opinions1 they are mostly mere dogmas1 adopted by him without examination4 ,but for the ,universities1 ,i should indeed fear that ,mill's prophecies might come true1 and that the intellect of ,europe might drift into dreary monotony4 ,the ,universities always have been1 and1 unless they are diverted from their original purpose1 always will be1 the guardians of the freedom of thought1 the protectors of individual spontaneity2 and it was owing1 ,i believe1 to ,mill's want of acquaintance with true academic teaching that he took so desponding a view of the generation growing up under his eyes4 ,when we leave school1 our heads are naturally brimful of dogma--that is1 of knowledge and opinions at second-hand4 ,such dead knowledge is extremely dangerous1 unless it is sooner or later revived by the spirit of free inquiry4 ,it does not matter whether our scholastic dogmas be true or false4 ,the danger is the same4 ,and why8 ,because to place either truth or error above the reach of argument is certain to weaken truth and to strengthen error4 ,secondly1 because to hold as true on the authority of others anything which concerns us deeply1 and which we could prove ourselves1 produces feebleness1 if not dishonesty4 ,and1 thirdly1 because to feel unwilling or unable to meet objections by argument is generally the first step towards violence and persecution4 ,i do not think of religious dogmas only4 ,they are generally the first to rouse inquiry1 even during our school-boy days1 and they are by no means the most difficult to deal with4 ,dogma often rages where we least expect it4 ,among scientific men the theory of evolution is at present becoming1 or has become1 a dogma4 ,what is the result8 ,no objections are listened to1 no difficulties recognized1 and a man like ,virchow1 himself the strongest supporter of evolution1 who has the moral courage to say that the descent of man from any ape whatsoever is1 as yet1 before the tribunal of scientific zology1 8not proven10 is howled down in ,germany in a manner worthy of ,ephesians and ,galatians4 ,but at present ,i am thinking not so much of any special dogmas1 but rather of that dogmatic state of mind which is the almost inevitable result of the teaching at school4 ,i think of the whole intellect1 what has been called the intellectus sibi permissus1 and ,i maintain it is the object of academic teaching to rouse that intellect out of its slumber by questions not less startling than when ,galileo asked the world whether the sun was really moving and the earth stood still2 or when ,kant asked whether time and space were objects1 or necessary forms of our sensuous intuition4 ,till our opinions have thus been tested and stood the test1 we can hardly call them our own4 ,how true this is with regard to religion has been boldly expressed by ,bishop ,beveridge4 8,being conscious to myself10 he writes in his 8,private ,thoughts on ,religion10 8how great an ascendant ,christianity holds over me beyond the rest1 as being that religion whereinto ,i was born and baptized2 that which the supreme authority has enjoined and my parents educated me in2 that which every one ,i meet withal highly approves of1 and which ,i myself have1 by a long-continued profession1 made almost natural to me3 ,i am resolved to be more jealous and suspicious of this religion than of the rest1 and be sure not to entertain it any longer without being convinced1 by solid and substantial arguments1 of the truth and certainty of it40 ,this is bold and manly language from a ,bishop1 nearly two hundred years ago1 and ,i certainly think that the time has come when some of the divinity lecturers at ,oxford and ,cambridge might well be employed in placing a knowledge of the sacred books of other religions within the reach of undergraduates4 ,many of the difficulties--most of them of our own making--with regard to the origin1 the handing down1 the later corruptions and misinterpretations of sacred texts1 would find their natural solution1 if it was shown how exactly the same difficulties arose and had to be dealt with by theologians of other creeds4 ,if some--aye1 if many--of the doctrines of ,christianity were met with in other religions also1 surely that would not affect their value1 or diminish their truth2 while nothing1 ,i feel certain1 would more effectually secure to the pure and simple teaching of ,christ its true place in the historical development of the human mind than to place it side by side with the other religions of the world4 ,in the series of translations of the 8,sacred ,books of the ,east10 of which the first three volumes have just appeared17#ac7 ,i wished myself to include a new translation of the ,old and ,new ,testaments2 and when that series is finished it will1 ,i believe1 be admitted that nowhere would these two books have had a grander setting1 or have shone with a brighter light1 than surrounded by the ,veda1 the ,zendavesta1 the ,buddhist ,tripitaka1 and the ,qurn4 ,but as ,i said before1 ,i was not thinking of religious dogmas only1 or even chiefly1 when ,i maintained that the character of academic teaching must be ,sokratic1 not dogmatic4 ,the evil of dogmatic teaching lies much deeper1 and spreads much farther4 ,think only of language1 the work of other people1 not of ourselves1 which we pick up at random in our race through life4 ,does not every word we use require careful examination and revision8 ,it is not enough to say that language assists our thoughts or colors them1 or possibly obscures them4 ,no language and thought are indivisible4 ,it was not from poverty of expression that the ,greeks called reason and language by the same word1 4 ,it was because they knew that1 though we may distinguish between thought and speech1 as we distinguish between force and function1 it is as impossible to tear the one by violence away from the other as it is to separate the concave side of a lens from its convex side4 ,this is something to learn and to understand1 for1 if1 properly understood1 will it supply the key to most of our intellectual puzzles1 and serve as the safest thread through the whole labyrinth of philosophy4 8,it is evident10 as ,hobbes remarks17#ad7 8that truth and falsity have no place but amongst such living creatures as use speech4 ,for though some brute creatures1 looking upon the image of a man in a glass1 may be affected with it1 as if it were the man himself1 and for this reason fear it or fawn upon it in vain2 yet they do not apprehend it as true or false1 but only as like2 and in this they are not deceived4 ,wherefore1 as men owe all their true ratiocination to the right understanding of speech1 so also they owe their errors to the misunderstanding of the same2 and as all the ornaments of philosophy proceed only from man1 so from man also is derived the ugly absurdity of false opinion4 ,for speech has something in it like to a spider's web 7as it was said of old of ,solon's laws71 for by contexture of words tender and delicate wits are ensnared or stopped1 but strong wits break easily through them40 ,let me illustrate my meaning by at least one instance4 ,among the words which have proved spider's webs1 ensnaring even the greatest intellects of the world from ,aristotle down to ,leibniz1 the terms genus1 species1 and individual occupy a very prominent place4 ,the opposition of ,aristotle to ,plato1 of the ,nominalists to the ,realists1 of ,leibniz to ,locke1 of ,herbart to ,hegel1 turns on the true meaning of these words4 ,at school1 of course1 all we can do is to teach the received meaning of genus and species2 and if a boy can trace these terms back to ,aristotle's and 1 and show in what sense that philosopher used them1 every examiner would be satisfied4 ,but the time comes when we have to act as our own examiners1 and when we have to give an account to ourselves of such words as genus and species4 ,some people write1 indeed1 as if they had seen a species and a genus walking about in broad daylight2 but a little consideration will show us that these words express subjective concepts1 and that1 if the whole world were silent1 there would never have been a thought of a genus or a species4 ,there are languages in which we look in vain for corresponding words2 and if we had been born in the atmosphere of such a language1 these terms and thoughts would not exist for us4 ,they came to us1 directly or indirectly1 from ,aristotle4 ,but ,aristotle did not invent them1 he only defined them in his own way1 so that1 for instance1 according to him1 all living beings would constitute a genus1 men a species1 and ,sokrates an individual4 ,no one would say that ,aristotle had not a perfect right to define these terms1 if those who use them in his sense would only always remember that they are thinking the thoughts of ,aristotle1 and not their own4 ,the true way to shake off the fetters of old words1 and to learn to think our own thoughts1 is to follow them up from century to century1 to watch their development1 and in the end to bring ourselves face to face with those who first found and framed both words and thoughts4 ,if we do this with genus and species1 we shall find that the words which ,aristotle defined--viz41 and --had originally a very different and far more useful application than that which he gave to them4 1 genus1 meant generation1 and comprehended such living beings only as were believed to have a common origin1 however they might differ in outward appearance1 as1 for instance1 the spaniel and the bloodhound1 or1 according to ,darwin1 the ape and the man4 1 or species1 on the contrary1 meant appearance1 and comprehended all such things as had the same form or appearance1 whether they had a common origin or not1 as if we were to speak of a species of four-footed1 two-footed1 horned1 winged1 or blue animals4 ,that two such concepts1 as we have here explained1 had a natural justification we may best learn from the fact that exactly the same thoughts found expression in ,sanskrit4 ,there1 too1 we find gti1 generation1 used in the sense of genus1 and opposed to kriti1 appearance1 used in the sense of species4 ,so long as these two words or thoughts were used independently 7much as we now speak of a genealogical as independent of a morphological classification7 no harm could accrue4 ,a family1 for instance1 might be called a 1 the gens or clan was a 1 the nation 7gnatio7 was a 1 the whole human kith and kin was a 2 in fact1 all that was descended from common ancestors was a true 4 ,there is no obscurity of thought in this4 ,on the other side1 taking or species in its original sense1 one man might be said to be like another in his or appearance4 ,an ape1 too1 might quite truly be said to have the same or species or appearance as a man1 without any prejudice as to their common origin4 ,people might also speak of different or forms or classes of things1 such as different kinds of metals1 or tools1 or armor1 without committing themselves in the least to any opinion as to their common descent4 ,often it would happen that things belonging to the same 1 such as the white man and the negro1 differed in their or appearance2 often also that things belonged to the same 1 such as eatables1 differed in their 1 as1 for instance1 meat and vegetables4 ,all this is clear and simple4 ,the confusion began when these two terms1 instead of being cordinate1 were subordinated to each other by the philosophers of ,greece1 so that what from one point of view was called a genus1 might from another be called a species1 and vice vers4 ,human beings1 for instance1 were now called a species1 all living beings a genus1 which may be true in logic1 but is utterly false in what is older than logic--viz41 language1 thought1 or fact4 ,according to language1 according to reason1 and according to nature1 all human beings constitute a 1 or generation1 so long as they are supposed to have common ancestors2 but with regard to all living beings we can only say that they form an --that is1 agree in certain appearances1 until it has been proved that even ,mr4 ,darwin was too modest in admitting at least four or five different ancestors for the whole animal world47#ae7 ,in tracing the history of these two words1 and 1 you may see passing before your eyes almost the whole panorama of philosophy1 from ,plato's ideas down to ,hegel's ,idee4 ,the question of genera1 their origin and subdivision1 occupied chiefly the attention of natural philosophers1 who1 after long controversies about the origin and classification of genera and species1 seem at last1 thanks to the clear sight of ,darwin1 to have arrived at the old truth which was prefigured in language--namely1 that ,nature knows nothing but genera1 or generations1 to be traced back to a limited number of ancestors1 and that the so-called species are only genera1 whose genealogical descent is as yet more or less obscure4 ,but the question as to the nature of the became a vital question in every system of philosophy4 ,granting1 for instance1 that women in every clime and country formed one species1 it was soon asked what constituted a species8 ,if all women shared a common form1 what was that form8 ,where was it8 ,so long as it was supposed that all women descended from ,eve1 the difficulty might be slurred over by the name of heredity4 ,but the more thoughtful would ask even then how it was that1 while all individual women came and went and vanished1 the form in which they were cast remained the same8 ,here you see how philosophical mythology springs up4 ,the very question what or species or form was1 and where these things were kept1 changed those words from predicates into subjects4 was conceived as something independent and substantial1 something within or above the individuals participating in it1 something unchangeable and eternal4 ,soon there arose as many or forms or types as there were general concepts4 ,they were considered the only true realities of which the phenomenal world is only as a shadow that soon passeth away4 ,here we have1 in fact1 the origin of ,plato's ideas1 and of the various systems of idealism which followed his lead1 while the opposite opinion that ideas have no independent existence1 and that the one is nowhere found except in the many 7 71 was strenuously defended by ,aristotle and his followers47#af7 ,the same red thread runs through the whole philosophy of the ,middle ,ages4 ,men were cited before councils and condemned as heretics because they declared that animal1 man1 or woman were mere names1 and that they could not bring themselves to believe in an ideal animal1 an ideal man1 an ideal woman as the invisible1 supernatural1 or metaphysical types of the ordinary animal1 the individual man1 the single woman4 ,those philosophers1 called ,nominalists1 in opposition to the ,realists1 declared that all general terms were names only1 and that nothing could claim reality but the individual4 ,we cannot follow this controversy farther1 as it turns up again between ,locke and ,leibniz1 between ,herbart and ,hegel4 ,suffice it to say that the knot1 as it was tied by language1 can be untied by the science of language alone1 which teaches us that there is and can be no such thing as 8a name only40 ,that phrase ought to be banished from all works on philosophy4 ,a name is and always has been the subjective side of our knowledge1 but that subjective side is as impossible without an objective side as a key is without a lock4 ,it is useless to ask which of the two is the more real1 for they are real only by being1 not two1 but one4 ,realism is as one-sided as ,nominalism4 ,but there is a higher ,nominalism1 which might better be called the ,science of ,language1 and which teaches us that1 apart from sensuous perception1 all human knowledge is by names and by names only1 and that the object of names is always the general4 ,this is but one out of hundreds and thousands of cases to show how names and concepts which come to us by tradition must be submitted to very careful snuffing before they will yield a pure light4 ,what ,i mean by academic teaching and academic study is exactly this process of snuffing1 this changing of traditional words into living words1 this tracing of modern thought back to ancient primitive thought1 this living1 as it were1 once more1 so far as it concerns us1 the whole history of human thought ourselves1 till we are as little afraid to differ from ,plato or ,aristotle as from ,comte or ,darwin4 ,plato and ,aristotle are1 no doubt1 great names2 every school-boy is awed by them1 even though he may have read very little of their writings4 ,this1 too1 is a kind of dogmatism that requires correction4 ,now1 at his ,university1 a young student might chance to hear the following1 by no means respectful1 remarks about ,aristotle1 which ,i copy from one of the greatest ,english scholars and philosophers3 8,there is nothing so absurd that the old philosophers1 as ,cicero saith1 who was one of them1 have not some of them maintained2 and ,i believe that scarce anything can be more absurdly said in natural philosophy than that which now is called ,aristotle's ,metaphysics2 or more repugnant to government than much of that he hath said in his ,politics2 nor more ignorantly than a great part of his ,ethics40 ,i am far from approving this judgment1 but ,i think that the shock which a young scholar receives on seeing his idols so mercilessly broken is salutary4 ,it throws him back on his own resources2 it makes him honest to himself4 ,if he thinks the criticism thus passed on ,aristotle unfair1 he will begin to read his works with new eyes4 ,he will not only construe his words1 but try to reconstruct in his own mind the thoughts so carefully elaborated by that ancient philosopher4 ,he will judge of their truth without being swayed by the authority of a great name1 and probably in the end value what is valuable in ,aristotle1 or ,plato1 or any other great philosopher far more highly and honestly than if he had never seen them trodden under foot4 ,do not suppose that ,i look upon the ,universities as purely iconoclastic1 as chiefly intended to teach us how to break the idols of the schools4 ,far from it6 ,but ,i do look upon them as meant to supply a fresher atmosphere than we breathed at school1 and to shake our mind to its very roots1 as a storm shakes the young oaks1 not to throw them down1 but to make them grasp all the more firmly the hard soil of fact and truth6 8,stand upright on thy feet0 ought to be written over the gate of every college1 if the epidemic of uniformity and sequacity which ,mill saw approaching from ,china1 and which since his time has made such rapid progress ,westward1 is ever to be stayed4 ,academic freedom is not without its dangers2 but there are dangers which it is safer to face than to avoid4 ,in ,germany--so far as my own experience goes--students are often left too much to themselves1 and it is only the cleverest among them1 or those who are personally recommended1 who receive from the professors that individual guidance and encouragement which should and could be easily extended to all4 ,there is too much time spent in the ,german ,universities in mere lecturing1 and often in simply retailing to a class what each student might read in books in a far more perfect form4 ,lectures are useful if they teach us how to teach ourselves2 if they stimulate2 if they excite sympathy and curiosity2 if they give advice that springs from personal experience2 if they warn against wrong roads2 if1 in fact1 they have less the character of a show-window than of a workshop4 ,half an hour's conversation with a tutor or a professor often does more than a whole course of lectures in giving the right direction and the right spirit to a young man's studies4 ,here ,i may quote the words of ,professor ,helmholtz1 in full agreement with him4 8,when ,i recall the memory of my own ,university life10 he writes1 8and the impression which a man like ,johannes ,mller1 the professor of physiology1 made on us1 ,i must set the highest value on the personal intercourse with teachers from whom one learns how thought works in independent heads4 ,whoever has come in contact but once with one or several first-class men will find his intellectual standard changed for life40 ,in ,english ,universities1 on the contrary1 there is too little of academic freedom4 ,there is not only guidance1 but far too much of constant personal control4 ,it is often thought that ,english undergraduates could not be trusted with that amount of academic freedom which is granted to ,german students1 and that most of them1 if left to choose their own work1 their own time1 their own books1 and their own teachers1 would simply do nothing4 ,this seems to me unfair and untrue4 ,most horses1 if you take them to the water1 will drink2 and the best way to make them drink is to leave them alone4 ,i have lived long enough in ,english and in ,german ,universities to know that the intellectual fibre is as strong and sound in the ,english as in the ,german youth4 ,but if you supply a man1 who wishes to learn swimming1 with bladders--nay1 if you insist on his using them--he will use them1 but he will probably never learn to swim4 ,take them away1 on the contrary1 and depend on it1 after a few aimless strokes and a few painful gulps1 he will use his arms and his legs1 and he will swim4 ,if young men do not learn to use their arms1 their legs1 their muscles1 their senses1 their brain1 and their heart too1 during the bright years of their ,university life1 when are they to learn it8 ,true1 there are thousands who never learn it1 and who float happily on through life buoyed up on mere bladders4 ,the worst that can happen to them is that some day the bladders may burst1 and they may be left stranded or drowned4 ,but these are not the men whom ,england wants to fight her battles4 ,it has often been pointed out of late that many of those who during this century have borne the brunt of the battle in the intellectual warfare in ,england1 have not been trained at our ,universities1 while others who have been at ,oxford and ,cambridge1 and have distinguished themselves in after life1 have openly declared that they attended hardly any lectures in college1 or that they derived no benefit from them4 ,what can be the ground of that8 ,not that there is less work done at ,oxford than at ,leipzig1 but that the work is done in a different spirit4 ,it is free in ,germany2 it has now become almost compulsory in ,england4 ,though an old professor myself1 ,i like to attend1 when ,i can1 some of the professorial lectures in ,germany2 for it is a real pleasure to see hundreds of young faces listening to a teacher on the history of art1 on modern history1 on the science of language1 or on philosophy1 without any view to examinations1 simply from love of the subject or of the teacher4 ,no one who knows what the real joy of learning is1 how it lightens all drudgery and draws away the mind from mean pursuits1 can see without indignation that what ought to be the freest and happiest years in a man's life should often be spent between cramming and examinations4 ,and here ,i have at last mentioned the word1 which to many friends of academic freedom1 to many who dread the baneful increase of uniformity1 may seem the cause of all mischief1 the most powerful engine for intellectual levelling--,examination4 ,there is a strong feeling springing up everywhere against the tyranny of examinations1 against the cramping and withering influence which they are supposed to exercise on the youth of ,england4 ,i cannot join in that outcry4 ,i well remember that the first letters which ,i ventured to address to the ,times1 in very imperfect ,english1 were in favor of examinations4 ,they were signed ,la ,carrire ouverte1 and were written before the days of the ,civil ,service ,commission6 ,i well remember1 too1 that the first time ,i ventured to speak1 or rather to stammer1 in public1 was in favor of examinations4 ,that was in #aheg1 at ,exeter1 when the first experiment was made1 under the auspices of ,sir ,t4 ,acland1 in the direction of what has since developed into the ,oxford and ,cambridge ,local ,examinations4 ,i have been an examiner myself for many years1 ,i have watched the growth of that system in ,england from year to year1 and1 in spite of all that has been said and written of late against it1 ,i confess ,i do not see how it would be possible to abolish it1 and return to the old system of appointment by patronage4 ,but though ,i have not lost my faith in examinations1 ,i cannot conceal the fact that ,i am frightened by the manner in which they are conducted1 and by the results which they produce4 ,as you are interested yourselves at this ,midland ,institute in the successful working of examinations1 you will perhaps allow me in conclusion to add a few remarks on the safeguards necessary for the efficient working of examinations4 ,all examinations are a means to ascertain how pupils have been taught2 they ought never to be allowed to become the end for which pupils are taught4 ,teaching with a view to them lowers the teacher in the eyes of his pupils2 learning with a view to them is apt to produce shallowness and dishonesty4 ,whatever attractions learning possesses in itself1 and whatever efforts were formerly made by boys at school from a sense of duty1 all this is lost if they once imagine that the highest object of all learning is to gain marks in a competition4 ,in order to maintain the proper relation between teacher and pupil1 all pupils should be made to look to their teachers as their natural examiners and fairest judges1 and therefore in every examination the report of the teacher ought to carry the greatest weight4 ,this is the principle followed abroad in examining candidates at public schools2 and even in their examination on leaving school1 which gives them the right to enter the ,university1 they know that their success depends far more on the work which they have done during the years at school1 than on the work done on the few days of their examination4 ,there are outside examiners appointed by ,government to check the work done at schools and during the examinations2 but the cases in which they have to modify or reverse the award of the master are extremely rare1 and they are felt to reflect seriously on the competency or impartiality of the school authorities4 ,to leave examinations entirely to strangers reduces them to the level of lotteries1 and fosters a cleverness in teachers and taught often akin to dishonesty4 ,an examiner may find out what a candidate knows not1 he can hardly ever find out all he knows2 and even if he succeeds in finding out how much a candidate knows1 he can seldom find out how he knows it4 ,on these points the opinion of the masters who have watched their pupils for years is indispensable for the sake of the examiner1 for the sake of the pupils1 and for the sake of their teachers4 ,i know ,i shall be told that it would be impossible to trust the masters1 and to be guided by their opinion1 because they are interested parties4 ,now1 first of all1 there are far more honest men in the world than dishonest1 and it does not answer to legislate as if all school-masters were rogues4 ,it is enough that they should know that their reports would be scrutinized1 to keep even the most reprobate of teachers from bearing false witness in favor of their pupils4 ,secondly1 ,i believe that unnecessary temptation is now being placed before all parties concerned in examinations4 ,the proper reward for a good examination should be honor1 not pounds1 shillings1 and pence4 ,the mischief done by pecuniary rewards offered in the shape of scholarships and exhibitions at school and ,university1 begins to be recognized very widely4 ,to train a boy of twelve for a race against all ,england is generally to overstrain his faculties1 and often to impair his usefulness in later life2 but to make him feel that by his failure he will entail on his father the loss of a hundred a year1 and on his teacher the loss of pupils1 is simply cruel at that early age4 ,it is said that these scholarships and exhibitions enable the sons of poor parents to enjoy the privilege of the best education in ,england1 from which they would otherwise be debarred by the excessive costliness of our public schools4 ,but even this argument1 strong as it seems1 can hardly stand1 for ,i believe it could be shown that the majority of those who are successful in obtaining scholarships and exhibitions at school or at the ,university are boys whose parents have been able to pay the highest price for their children's previous education4 ,if all these prizes were abolished1 and the funds thus set free used to lessen the price of education at school and in college1 ,i believe that the sons of poor parents would be far more benefited than by the present system4 ,it might also be desirable to lower the school fees in the case of the sons of poor parents1 who were doing well at school from year to year2 and1 in order to guard against favoritism1 an examination1 particularly viv voce1 before all the masters of a school1 possibly even with some outside examiner1 might be useful4 ,but the present system bids fair to degenerate into mere horse-racing1 and ,i shall not wonder if1 sooner or later1 the two-year olds entered for the race have to be watched by their trainer that they may not be overfed or drugged against the day of the race4 ,it has come to this1 that schools are bidding for clever boys in order to run them in the races1 and in ,france1 ,i read1 that parents actually extort money from schools by threatening to take away the young racers that are likely to win the ,derby47#ag7 ,if we turn from the schools to the ,universities we find here1 too1 the same complaints against over-examination4 ,now it seems to me that every ,university1 in order to maintain its position1 has a perfect right to demand two examinations1 but no more3 one for admission1 the other for a degree4 ,various attempts have been made in ,germany1 in ,russia1 in ,france1 and in ,england to change and improve the old academic tradition1 but in the end the original1 and1 as it would seem1 the natural system1 has generally proved its wisdom and reasserted its right4 ,if a ,university surrenders the right of examining those who wish to be admitted1 the tutors will often have to do the work of school-masters1 and the professors can never know how high or how low they should aim in their public lectures2 and the result will be a lowering of the standard at the ,universities1 and consequently at the public schools4 ,some ,universities1 on the contrary1 like over-anxious mothers1 have multiplied examinations so as to make quite sure1 at the end of each term or each year1 that the pupils confided to them have done at least some work4 ,this kind of forced labor may do some good to the incorrigibly idle1 but it does the greatest harm to all the rest4 ,if there is an examination at the end of each year1 there can be no freedom left for any independent work4 ,both teachers and taught will be guided by the same pole-star--examinations2 no deviation from the beaten track will be considered safe1 and all the pleasure derived from work done for its own sake1 and all the just pride and joy1 which those only know who have ever ventured out by themselves on the open sea of knowledge1 must be lost4 ,we must not allow ourselves to be deceived by the brilliant show of examination papers4 ,it is certainly marvellous what an amount of knowledge candidates will produce before their examiners2 but those who have been both examined and examiners know best how fleeting that knowledge often is1 and how different from that other knowledge which has been acquired slowly and quietly1 for its own sake1 for our own sake1 without a thought as to whether it would ever pay at examinations or not4 ,a candidate1 after giving most glibly the dates and the titles of the principal works of ,cobbett1 ,gibbon1 ,burke1 ,adam ,smith1 and ,david ,hume1 was asked whether he had ever seen any of their writings1 and he had to answer1 ,no4 ,another who was asked which of the works of ,pheidias he had seen1 replied that he had only read the first two books4 ,this is the kind of dishonest knowledge which is fostered by too frequent examinations4 ,there are two kinds of knowledge1 the one that enters into our very blood1 the other which we carry about in our pockets4 ,those who read for examinations have generally their pockets cram full2 those who work on quietly and have their whole heart in their work are often discouraged at the small amount of their knowledge1 at the little life-blood they have made4 ,but what they have learnt has really become their own1 has invigorated their whole frame1 and in the end they have often proved the strongest and happiest men in the battle of life4 ,omniscience is at present the bane of all our knowledge4 ,from the day he leaves school and enters the ,university a man ought to make up his mind that in many things he must either remain altogether ignorant1 or be satisfied with knowledge at second-hand4 ,thus only can he clear the decks for action4 ,and the sooner he finds out what his own work is to be1 the more useful and delightful will be his life at the ,university and later4 ,there are few men who have a passion for all knowledge2 there is hardly one who has not a hobby of his own4 ,those so-called hobbies ought to be utilized1 and not1 as they are now1 discouraged1 if we wish our ,universities to produce more men like ,faraday1 ,carlyle1 ,grote1 or ,darwin4 ,i do not say that in an examination for a ,university degree a minimum of what is now called general culture should not be insisted on2 but in addition to that1 far more freedom ought to be given to the examiner to let each candidate produce his own individual work4 ,this is done to a far greater extent in ,continental than in ,english ,universities1 and the examinations are therefore mostly confided to the members of the ,senatus ,academicus1 consisting of the most experienced teachers1 and the most eminent representatives of the different branches of knowledge in the ,university4 ,their object is not to find out how many marks each candidate may gain by answering a larger or smaller number of questions1 and then to place them in order before the world like so many organ pipes4 ,they want to find out whether a man1 by the work he has done during his three or four ,university years1 has acquired that vigor of thought1 that maturity of judgment1 and that special knowledge1 which fairly entitle him to an academic degree1 with or without special honors4 ,such a degree confers no material advantages27#ah7 it does not entitle its holder to any employment in ,church or ,state2 it does not vouch even for his being a fit person to be made an ,archbishop or ,prime ,minister4 ,all this is left to the later struggle for life2 and in that struggle it seems as if those who1 after having surveyed the vast field of human knowledge1 have settled on a few acres of their own and cultivated them as they were never cultivated before1 who have worked hard and have tasted the true joy and happiness of hard work1 who have gladly listened to others1 but always depended on themselves1 were1 after all1 the men whom great nations delighted to follow as their royal leaders in the onward march towards greater enlightenment1 greater happiness1 and greater freedom4 ,to sum up1 no one can read ,mill's ,essay 8,on ,liberty0 at the present moment without feeling that even during the short period of the last twenty years the cause which he advocated so strongly and passionately1 the cause of individual freedom1 has made rapid progress--aye1 has carried the day4 ,in no country may a man be so entirely himself1 so true to himself1 and yet loyal to society1 as in ,england4 ,but1 although the enemy whose encroachments ,mill feared most and resented most has been driven back and forced to keep within his own bounds--though such names as ,dissenter and ,nonconformist1 which were formerly used in society as fatal darts1 seem to have lost all the poison which they once contained--,mill's principal fears have nevertheless not been belied1 and the blight of uniformity which he saw approaching with its attendant evils of feebleness1 indifference1 and sequacity1 has been spreading more widely than ever4 ,it has ever been maintained that the very freedom which every individual now enjoys has been detrimental to the growth of individuality2 that you must have an ,inquisition if you want to see martyrs1 that you must have despotism and tyranny to call forth heroes4 ,the very measures which the friends of individual development advocated so warmly1 compulsory education and competitive examinations1 are pointed out as having chiefly contributed to produce that large array of pass-men1 that dead level of uninteresting excellence1 which is the beau idal of a ,chinese ,mandarin1 while it frightened and disheartened such men as ,humboldt1 ,tocqueville1 and ,john ,stuart ,mill himself4 ,there may be some truth in all this1 but it is certainly not the whole truth4 ,education1 as it has to be carried on1 whether in elementary or in public schools1 is no doubt a heavy weight which might well press down the most independent spirit2 it is1 in fact1 neither more nor less than placing1 in a systematized form1 on the shoulders of every generation the ever-increasing mass of knowledge1 experience1 custom1 and tradition that has been accumulated by former generations4 ,we need not wonder1 therefore1 if in some schools all spring1 all vigor1 all joyousness of work is crushed out under that load of names and dates1 of anomalous verbs and syntactic rules1 of mathematical formulas and geometrical theories which boys are expected to bring up for competitive examinations4 ,but a remedy has been provided1 and we are ourselves to blame if we do not avail ourselves of it to the fullest extent4 ,europe erected its ,universities1 and called them the homes of the ,liberal ,arts1 and determined that between the mental slavery of the school and the physical slavery of busy life every man should have at least three years of freedom4 ,what ,sokrates and his great pupil ,plato had done for the youth of ,greece17#ai7 these new academies were to do for the youth of ,italy1 ,france1 ,england1 ,spain1 and ,germany2 and1 though with varying success1 they have done it4 ,the medival and modern ,universities have been from century to century the homes of free thought4 ,here the most eminent men have spent their lives1 not in retailing traditional knowledge1 as at school1 but in extending the frontiers of science in all directions4 ,here1 in close intercourse with their teachers1 or under their immediate guidance1 generation after generation of boys fresh from school have grown up into men during the three years of their academic life4 ,here1 for the first time1 each man has been encouraged to dare to be himself1 to follow his own tastes1 to depend on his own judgment1 to try the wings of his mind1 and1 lo1 like young eagles thrown out of their nest1 they could fly4 ,here the old knowledge accumulated at school was tested1 and new knowledge acquired straight from the fountain-head4 ,here knowledge ceased to be a mere burden1 and became a power invigorating the whole mind1 like snow which during winter lies cold and heavy on the meadows1 but when it is touched by the sun of spring melts away1 and fertilizes the ground for a rich harvest4 ,that was the original purpose of the ,universities2 and the more they continue to fulfil that purpose1 the more will they secure to us that real freedom from tradition1 from custom1 from mere opinion and superstition1 which can be gained by independent study only2 the more will they foster that 8human development in its richest diversity0 which ,mill1 like ,humboldt1 considered as the highest object of all society4 ,such academic teaching need not be confined to the old ,universities4 ,there is many a great ,university that sprang from smaller beginnings than your ,midland ,institute4 ,nor is it necessary1 in order to secure the real benefits of academic teaching1 to have all the paraphernalia of a ,university1 its colleges and fellowships1 its caps and gowns4 ,what is really wanted is the presence of men who1 having done good work in their life1 are willing to teach others how to work for themselves1 how to think for themselves1 how to judge for themselves4 ,that is the true academic stage in every man's life1 when he learns to work1 not to please others1 be they schoolmasters or examiners1 but to please himself1 when he works from sheer love of work1 and for the highest of all purposes1 the quest of truth4 ,those only who have passed through that stage know the real blessings of work4 ,to the world at large they may seem mere drudges--but the world does not know the triumphant joy with which the true mountaineer1 high above clouds and mountain walls that once seemed unsurpassable1 drinks in the fresh air of the ,high ,alps1 and away from the fumes1 the dust1 and the noises of the city1 revels alone1 in freedom of thought1 in freedom of feeling1 and in the freedom of the highest faith4 ,,ii4 ,,on ,,the ,,philosophy ,,of ,,mythology4 ,a ,lecture ,delivered ,at ,the ,royal ,institution ,in #ahga4 ,what can be in our days the interest of mythology8 ,what is it to us that ,kronos was the son of ,uranos and ,gaia1 and that he swallowed his children1 ,hestia1 ,demeter1 ,hera1 ,pluton1 and ,poseidon1 as soon as they were born8 ,what have we to do with the stories of ,rhea1 the wife of ,kronos1 who1 in order to save her youngest son from being swallowed by his father1 gave her husband a stone to swallow instead8 ,and why should we be asked to admire the exploits of this youngest son1 who1 when he had grown up1 made his father drink a draught1 and thus helped to deliver the stone and his five brothers and sisters from their paternal prison8 ,what shall we think if we read in the most admired of classic poets that these escaped prisoners became afterwards the great gods of ,greece1 gods believed in by ,homer1 worshipped by ,sokrates1 immortalized by ,pheidias8 ,why should we listen to such horrors as that ,tantalos killed his own son1 boiled him1 and placed him before the gods to eat8 or that the gods collected his limbs1 threw them into a cauldron1 and thus restored ,pelops to life1 minus1 however1 his shoulder1 which ,demeter had eaten in a fit of absence1 and which had therefore to be replaced by a shoulder made of ivory8 ,can we imagine anything more silly1 more savage1 more senseless1 anything more unworthy to engage our thoughts1 even for a single moment8 ,we may pity our children that1 in order to know how to construe and understand the master-works of ,homer and ,virgil1 they have to fill their memory with such idle tales2 but we might justly suppose that men who have serious work to do in this world would banish such subjects forever from their thoughts4 ,and yet1 how strange1 from the very childhood of philosophy1 from the first faintly-whispered ,why8 to our own time of matured thought and fearless inquiry1 mythology has been the ever-recurrent subject of anxious wonder and careful study4 ,the ancient philosophers1 who could pass by the petrified shells on mountain-tops and the fossil trees buried in their quarries without ever asking the question how they came to be there1 or what they signified1 were ever ready with doubts and surmises when they came to listen to ancient stories of their gods and heroes4 ,and1 more curious still1 even modern philosophers cannot resist the attraction of these ancient problems4 ,that stream of philosophic thought which1 springing from ,descartes 7#aeif-afej71 rolled on through the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in two beds--the idealistic1 marked by the names of ,malebranche 7#afch-agae71 ,spinoza 7#afcb-afgg71 and ,leibniz 7#afdf-agaf72 and the sensualistic1 marked by the names of ,locke 7#afcb-agjd71 ,david ,hume 7#agaa-aggf71 and ,condillac 7#agae-aghj71 till the two arms united again in ,kant 7#agbd-ahjd71 and the full stream was carried on by ,schelling 7#agge-ahed71 and ,hegel 7#aggj-ahca71--this stream of modern philosophic thought has ended where ancient philosophy began--in a ,philosophy of ,mythology1 which1 as you know1 forms the most important part of ,schelling's final system1 of what he called himself his ,positive ,philosophy1 given to the world after the death of that great thinker and poet1 in the year #ahed4 ,i do not mean to say that ,schelling and ,aristotle looked upon mythology in the same light1 or that they found in it exactly the same problems2 yet there is this common feature in all who have thought or written on mythology1 that they look upon it as something which1 whatever it may mean1 does certainly not mean what it seems to mean2 as something that requires an explanation1 whether it be a system of religion1 or a phase in the development of the human mind1 or an inevitable catastrophe in the life of language4 ,according to some1 mythology is history changed into fable2 according to others1 fable changed into history4 ,some discover in it the precepts of moral philosophy enunciated in the poetical language of antiquity2 others see in it a picture of the great forms and forces of nature1 particularly the sun1 the moon1 and the stars1 the changes of day and night1 the succession of the seasons1 the return of the years--all this reflected by the vivid imagination of ancient poets and sages4 ,epicharmos1 for instance1 the pupil of ,pythagoras1 declared that the gods of ,greece were not what1 from the poems of ,homer1 we might suppose them to be--personal beings1 endowed with superhuman powers1 but liable to many of the passions and frailties of human nature4 ,he maintained that these gods were really the ,wind1 the ,water1 the ,earth1 the ,sun1 the ,fire1 and the ,stars4 ,not long after his time1 another philosopher1 ,empedokles1 holding that the whole of nature consisted in the mixture and separation of the four elements1 declared that ,zeus was the element of ,fire1 ,here the element of ,air1 ,aidoneus or ,pluton the element of ,earth1 and ,nestis the element of ,water4 ,in fact1 whatever the free thinkers of ,greece discovered successively as the first principles of ,being and ,thought1 whether the air of ,anaximenes1 or the fire of ,herakleitos1 or the ,nous or ,mind of ,anaxagoras1 was readily identified with ,zeus and the other divine persons of ,olympian mythology4 ,metrodoros1 the contemporary of ,anaxagoras1 went even farther4 ,while ,anaxagoras would have been satisfied with looking upon ,zeus as but another name of his ,nous1 the highest intellect1 the mover1 the disposer1 the governor of all things1 ,metrodoros resolved not only the persons of ,zeus1 ,here1 and ,athene1 but likewise those of human kings and heroes--such as ,agamemnon1 ,achilles1 and ,hektor--into various combinations and physical agencies1 and treated the adventures ascribed to them as natural facts hidden under a thin veil of allegory4 ,sokrates1 it is well known1 looked upon such attempts at explaining all fables allegorically as too arduous and unprofitable3 yet he1 too1 as well as ,plato1 pointed frequently to what they called the hypnoia1 the under-current1 or1 if ,i may say so1 the under-meaning of ancient mythology4 ,aristotle speaks more explicitly3-- 8,it has been handed down10 he says1 8by early and very ancient people1 and left to those who came after1 in the form of myths1 that these 7the first principles of the world7 are the gods1 and that the divine embraces the whole of nature4 ,the rest has been added mythically1 in order to persuade the many1 and in order to be used in support of laws and other interests4 ,thus they say that the gods have a human form1 and that they are like to some of the other living beings1 and other things consequent on this1 and similar to what has been said4 ,if one separated out of these fables1 and took only that first point1 namely1 that they believed the first essences to be gods1 one would think that it had been divinely said1 and that while every art and every philosophy was probably invented ever so many times and lost again1 these opinions had1 like fragments of them1 been preserved until now4 ,so far only is the opinion of our fathers1 and that received from our first ancestors1 clear to us40 ,i have quoted the opinions of these ,greek philosophers1 to which many more might have been added1 partly in order to show how many of the most distinguished minds of ancient ,greece agreed in demanding an interpretation1 whether physical or metaphysical1 of ,greek mythology1 partly in order to satisfy those classical scholars1 who1 forgetful of their own classics1 forgetful of their own ,plato and ,aristotle1 seem to imagine that the idea of seeing in the gods and heroes of ,greece anything beyond what they appear to be in the songs of ,homer1 was a mere fancy and invention of the students of ,comparative ,mythology4 ,there were1 no doubt1 ,greeks1 and eminent ,greeks too1 who took the legends of their gods and heroes in their literal sense4 ,but what do these say of ,homer and ,hesiod8 ,xenophanes1 the contemporary of ,pythagoras1 holds ,homer and ,hesiod responsible for the popular superstitions of ,greece4 ,in this he agrees with ,herodotus1 when he declares that these two poets made the theogony for the ,greeks1 and gave to the gods their names1 and assigned to them their honors and their arts1 and described their appearances4 ,but he then continues in a very different strain from the pious historian47#bj7 8,homer10 he says17#ba7 8and ,hesiod ascribed to the gods whatever is disgraceful and scandalous among men1 yea1 they declared that the gods had committed nearly all unlawful acts1 such as theft1 adultery1 and fraud40 8,men seem to have created their gods1 and to have given to them their own mind1 voice1 and figure4 ,the ,ethiopians made their gods black and flat-nosed2 the ,thracians red-haired and blue-eyed40 ,this was spoken about #ejj ,b4 ,c4 ,herakleitos1 about #dfj ,b4 ,c41 one of the boldest thinkers of ancient ,greece1 declared that ,homer deserved to be ejected from public assemblies and flogged2 and a story is told that ,pythagoras 7about #edj ,b4 ,c47 saw the soul of ,homer in ,hades1 hanging on a tree and surrounded by serpents1 as a punishment for what he had said of the gods4 ,and what can be stronger than the condemnation passed on ,homer by ,plato8 ,i shall read an extract from the 8,republic10 from the excellent translation lately published by ,professor ,jowett3-- 8,but what fault do you find with ,homer and ,hesiod1 and the other great story-tellers of mankind80 8,a fault which is most serious10 ,i said3 8the fault of telling a lie1 and a bad lie40 8,but when is this fault committed80 8,whenever an erroneous representation is made of the nature of gods and heroes--like the drawing of a limner which has not the shadow of a likeness to the truth40 8 #8,yes1' he said1 #8that sort of thing is certainly very blamable2 but what are the stories which you mean8' 0 8 #8,first of all1' ,i said1 #8there was that greatest of all lies in high places1 which the poet told about ,uranos1 and which was an immoral lie too--,i mean what ,hesiod says that ,uranos did1 and what ,kronos did to him4 ,the fact is that the doings of ,kronos1 and the sufferings which his son inflicted upon him1 even if they were true1 ought not to be lightly told to young and simple persons2 if possible1 they had better be buried in silence4 ,but if there is an absolute necessity for their mention1 a very few might hear them in a mystery1 and then let them sacrifice not a common 7,eleusinian7 pig1 but some huge and unprocurable victim2 this would have the effect of very greatly reducing the number of the hearers4' 0 8 #8,why1 yes1' said he1 #8these stories are certainly objectionable4' 0 8 #8,yes1 ,adeimantos1 they are stories not to be narrated in our state2 the young man should not be told that in committing the worst of crimes he is far from doing anything outrageous1 and that he may chastise his father when he does wrong in any manner that he likes1 and in this will only be following the example of the first and greatest of the gods4' 0 8 #8,i quite agree with you1' he said2 #8in my opinion those stories are not fit to be repeated4' #8,neither1 if we mean our future guardians to regard the habit of quarrelling as dishonorable1 should anything be said of the wars in heaven1 and of the plots and fightings of the gods against one another1 which are quite untrue4 ,far be it from us to tell them of the battles of the giants1 and embroider them on garments2 or of all the innumerable other quarrels of gods and heroes with their friends and relations4 ,if they would only believe us1 we would tell them that quarrelling is unholy1 and that never up to this time has there been any quarrel between citizens2 this is what old men and old women should begin by telling children1 and the same when they grow up4 ,and these are the sort of fictions which the poets should be required to compose4 ,but the narrative of ,hephaestos binding ,here his mother1 or how1 on another occasion1 ,zeus sent him flying for taking her part when she was being beaten--such tales must not be admitted in our state1 whether they are supposed to have an allegorical meaning or not4 ,for the young man cannot judge what is allegorical and what is literal1 and anything that he receives into his mind at that age is apt to become indelible and unalterable2 and therefore the tales which they first hear should be models of virtuous thoughts4' 0 ,to those who look upon mythology as an ancient form of religion1 such freedom of language as is here used by ,xenophanes and ,plato1 must seem startling4 ,if the ,iliad were really the ,bible of the ,greeks1 as it has not infrequently been called1 such violent invectives would have been impossible4 ,for let us bear in mind that ,xenophanes1 though he boldly denied the existence of all the mythological deities1 and declared his belief in ,one ,god1 8neither in form nor in thought like unto mortals107#bb7 was not therefore considered a heretic4 ,he never suffered for uttering his honest convictions3 on the contrary1 as far as we know1 he was honored by the people among whom he lived and taught4 ,nor was ,plato ever punished on account of his unbelief1 and though he1 as well as his master1 ,sokrates1 became obnoxious to the dominant party at ,athens1 this was due to political far more than to theological motives4 ,at all events1 ,plato1 the pupil1 the friend1 the apologist of ,sokrates1 was allowed to teach at ,athens to the end of his life1 and few men commanded greater respect in the best ranks of ,greek society4 ,but1 although mythology was not religion in our sense of the word1 and although the ,iliad certainly never enjoyed among ,greeks the authority either of the ,bible1 or even of the ,veda among the ,brahmans1 or the ,zend ,avesta among the ,parsis1 yet ,i would not deny altogether that in a certain sense the mythology of the ,greeks belonged to their religion4 ,we must only be on our guard1 here as everywhere else1 against the misleading influence of words4 ,the word ,religion has1 like most words1 had its history2 it has grown and changed with each century1 and it cannot1 therefore1 have meant with the ,greeks and ,brahmans what it means with us4 ,religions have sometimes been divided into national or traditional1 as distinguished from individual or statutable religion4 ,the former are1 like languages1 home-grown1 autochthonic1 without an historical beginning1 generally without any recognized founder1 or even an authorized code2 the latter have been founded by historical persons1 generally in antagonism to traditional systems1 and they always rest on the authority of a written code4 ,i do not consider this division as very useful7#bc7 for a scientific study of religion1 because in many cases it is extremely difficult1 and sometimes impossible1 to draw a sharp line of demarcation1 and to determine whether a given religion should be considered as the work of one man1 or as the combined work of those who came before him1 who lived with him1 nay1 even of those who came after him4 ,for our present purpose1 however1 for showing at once the salient difference between what the ,greeks and what we ourselves should mean by ,religion1 this division is very serviceable4 ,the ,greek religion was clearly a national and traditional religion1 and1 as such1 it shared both the advantages and disadvantages of this form of religious belief2 the ,christian religion is an historical and1 to a great extent1 an individual religion1 and it possesses the advantage of an authorized code and of a settled system of faith4 ,let it not be supposed1 however1 that between traditional and individual religions the advantages are all on one1 the disadvantages on the other side4 ,as long as the immemorial religions of the different branches of the human race remained in their natural state1 and were not pressed into the service of political parties or an ambitious priesthood1 they allowed great freedom of thought and a healthy growth of real piety1 and they were seldom disgraced by an intolerant or persecuting spirit4 ,they were generally either honestly believed1 or1 as we have just seen1 honestly attacked1 and a high tone of intellectual morality was preserved1 untainted by hypocrisy1 equivocation1 or unreasoning dogmatism4 ,the marvellous development of philosophy in ,greece1 particularly in ancient ,greece1 was chiefly due1 ,i believe1 to the absence of an established religion and an influential priesthood2 and it is impossible to overrate the blessing which the fresh1 pure1 invigorating1 and elevating air of that ancient ,greek philosophy has conferred on all ages1 not excepting our own4 ,i shudder at the thought of what the world would have been without ,plato and ,aristotle1 and ,i tremble at the idea that the youth of the future should ever be deprived of the teaching and the example of these true prophets of the absolute freedom of thought4 ,unfortunately1 we know but little of the earliest fathers of ,greek philosophy2 we have but fragments1 and those not always trustworthy1 nor easily intelligible1 of what they taught on the highest questions that can stir the heart of man4 ,we have been accustomed to call the oracular sayings of men like ,thales1 ,pythagoros1 ,xenophanes1 or ,herakleitos1 philosophy1 but there was in them as much of religion as in the songs of ,homer and ,hesiod4 ,homer and ,hesiod were great powers1 but their poems were not the only feeders of the religious life of ,greece4 ,the stream of ancient wisdom and philosophy flowed parallel with the stream of legend and poetry2 and both were meant to support the religious cravings of the soul4 ,we have only to attend without prejudice to the utterances of these ancient prophets1 such as ,xenophanes and ,herakleitos1 in order to convince ourselves that these men spoke with authority to the people17#bd7 that they considered themselves the equals of ,homer and ,hesiod1 nay1 their betters1 and in no way fettered by the popular legends about gods and goddesses4 ,while modern religions assume in general a hostile attitude towards philosophy1 ancient religions have either included philosophy as an integral part1 or they have at least tolerated its growth in the very precincts of their temples4 ,after we have thus seen what limitations we must place on the meaning of the word ,religion1 if we call mythology the religion of the ancient world1 we may now advance another step4 ,we have glanced at the principal interpretations which have been proposed by the ancients themselves of the original purpose and meaning of mythology4 ,but there is one question which none1 either of the ancient or of the modern interpreters of mythology1 has answered1 or even asked1 and on which1 nevertheless1 the whole problem of mythology seems to turn4 ,if mythology is history changed into fable1 why was it so changed8 ,if it is fable represented as history1 why were such fables invented8 ,if it contains precepts of moral philosophy1 whence their immoral disguise8 ,if it is a picture of the great forms and forces of nature1 the same question still returns1 why were these forms and forces represented as heroes and heroines1 as nymphs and shepherds1 as gods and goddesses8 ,it is easy enough to call the sun a god1 or the dawn a goddess1 after these predicates have once been framed4 ,but how were these predicates framed8 ,how did people come to know of gods and goddesses1 heroes and nymphs1 and what meaning did they originally connect with these terms8 ,in fact1 the real question which a philosophy of mythology has to answer is this--,is the whole of mythology an invention1 the fanciful poetry of a ,homer or ,hesiod1 or is it a growth8 ,or1 to speak more definitely1 ,was mythology a mere accident1 or was it inevitable8 ,was it only a false step1 or was it a step that could not have been left out in the historical progress of the human mind8 ,the study of the history of language1 which is only a part of the study of the history of thought1 has enabled us to give a decisive answer to this question4 ,mythology is inevitable1 it is natural1 it is an inherent necessity of language1 if we recognize in language the outward form and manifestation of thought3 it is1 in fact1 the dark shadow which language throws on thought1 and which can never disappear till language becomes altogether commensurate with thought1 which it never will4 ,mythology1 no doubt1 breaks out more fiercely during the early periods of the history of human thought1 but it never disappears altogether4 ,depend upon it1 there is mythology now as there was in the time of ,homer1 only we do not perceive it1 because we ourselves live in the very shadow of it1 and because we all shrink from the full meridian light of truth4 ,we are ready enough to see that if the ancients called their kings and heroes 1 sprung of ,zeus1 that expression1 intended originally to convey the highest praise which man can bestow on man1 was apt to lapse into mythology4 ,we easily perceive how such a conception1 compatible in its origin with the highest reverence for the gods1 led almost inevitably to the growth of fables1 which transferred to divine beings the incidents of human paternity and sonship4 ,but we are not so ready to see that it is our fate1 too1 to move in allegories which illustrate things intellectual by visions exhibited to the fancy4 ,in our religion1 too1 the conceptions of paternity and sonship have not always been free from all that is human1 nor are we always aware that nearly every note that belongs to human paternity and sonship must be taken out of these terms1 before they can be pronounced safe against mythological infection4 ,papal decisions on immaculate conception are of no avail against that mythology4 ,the mind must become immaculate and rise superior to itself2 or it must close its eyes and shut its lips in the presence of the ,divine4 ,if then we want to understand mythology1 in the ordinary and restricted sense of the word1 we must discover the larger circle of mental phenomena to which it belongs4 ,greek mythology1 is but a small segment of mythology2 the religious mythologies of all the races of mankind are again but a small segment of mythology4 ,mythology1 in the highest sense1 is the power exercised by language on thought in every possible sphere of mental activity2 and ,i do not hesitate to call the whole history of philosophy1 from ,thales down to ,hegel1 an uninterrupted battle against mythology1 a constant protest of thought against language4 ,this will require some explanation4 ,ever since the time of ,wilhelm von ,humboldt1 all who have seriously grappled with the highest problems of the ,science of ,language have come to the conviction that thought and language are inseparable1 that language is as impossible without thought as thought is without language2 that they stand to each other somewhat like soul and body1 like power and function1 like substance and form4 ,the objections which have been raised against this view arise generally from a mere misunderstanding4 ,if we speak of language as the outward realization of thought1 we do not mean language as deposited in a dictionary1 or sketched in a grammar2 we mean language as an act1 language as being spoken1 language as living and dying with every word that is uttered4 ,we might perhaps call this speech1 as distinguished from language4 ,secondly1 though if we speak of language1 we mean chiefly phonetic articulate language1 we do not exclude the less perfect symbols of thought1 such as gestures1 signs1 or pictures4 ,they1 too1 are language in a certain sense1 and they must be included in language before we are justified in saying that discursive thought can be realized in language only4 ,one instance will make this clear4 ,we hold that we cannot think without language4 ,but can we not count without language8 ,we certainly can4 ,we can form the conception of three without any spoken word1 by simply holding up three fingers4 ,in the same manner1 the hand might stand for five1 both hands for ten1 hands and feet for twenty47#be7 ,this is how people who possessed no organs of speech would speak2 this is how the deaf and dumb do speak4 ,three fingers are as good as three strokes1 three strokes are as good as three clicks of the tongue1 three clicks of the tongue are as good as the sound three1 or trois1 or drei1 or shalosh in ,hebrew1 or san in ,chinese4 ,all these are signs1 more or less perfect1 but being signs1 they fall under the category of language2 and all we maintain is1 that without some kind of sign1 discursive thought is impossible1 and that in that sense1 language1 or 1 is the only possible realization of human thought4 ,another very common misunderstanding is this3 people imagine that1 if it be impossible to think1 except in language1 language and thought must be one and the same thing4 ,but a true philosophy of language leads to the very opposite result4 ,every philosopher would say that matter cannot exist without form1 nor form without matter1 but no philosopher would say that therefore it is impossible to distinguish between form and matter4 ,in the same way1 though we maintain that thought cannot exist without language nor language without thought1 we do distinguish between thought and language1 between the inward and the outward 1 between the substance and the form4 ,nay1 we go a step beyond4 ,we admit that language necessarily reacts on thought1 and we see in this reaction1 in this refraction of the rays of language1 the real solution of the old riddle of mythology4 ,you will now see why these somewhat abstruse disquisitions were necessary for our immediate purpose1 and ,i can promise those who have hitherto followed me on this rather barren and rugged track1 that they will now be able to rest1 and command1 from the point of view which we have reached1 the whole panorama of the mythology of the human mind4 ,we saw just now that the names of numbers may most easily be replaced by signs4 ,numbers are simple analytical conceptions1 and for that very reason they are not liable to mythology3 name and conception being here commensurate1 no misunderstanding is possible4 ,but as soon as we leave this department of thought1 mythology begins4 ,i shall try by at least one example to show how mythology not only pervades the sphere of religion or religious tradition1 but infects more or less the whole realm of thought4 ,when man wished for the first time to grasp and express a distinction between the body and something else within him distinct from the body1 an easy name that suggested itself was breath4 ,the breath seemed something immaterial and almost invisible1 and it was connected with the life that pervaded the body1 for as soon as the breath ceased1 the life of the body became extinct4 ,hence the ,greek name 17#bf7 which originally meant breath1 was chosen to express at first the principle of life1 as distinguished from the decaying body1 afterwards the incorporeal1 the immaterial1 the undecaying1 the immortal part of man--his soul1 his mind1 his ,self4 ,all this was very natural4 ,when a person dies1 we too say that he has given up the ghost1 and ghost1 too1 meant originally spirit1 and spirit meant breath4 ,a very instructive analogous case is quoted by ,mr4 ,e4 ,b4 ,tylor from a compendium of the theology of the ,indians of ,nicaragua1 the record of question and answer in an inquest held by ,father ,francisco de ,bobadilla in the early days of the ,spanish conquest4 ,asked1 among other things1 concerning death1 the ,indians said3 8,those who die in their houses go underground1 but those who are killed in war go to serve the gods 7teotes74 ,when men die1 there comes forth from their mouth something which resembles a person1 and is called julio 7,aztec yuli1 #8to live'74 ,this being is like a person1 but does not die1 and the corpse remains here40 ,the ,spanish ecclesiastics inquired whether those who go on high keep the same body1 features1 and limbs as here below2 to which the ,indians answered1 8,no1 there is only the heart40 8,but10 said the ,spaniards1 8as the hearts are torn out0 7they meant in the case of warriors who fell into the hands of the enemy71 8what happens then80 ,hereupon the ,indians replied3 8,it is not precisely the heart1 but that which is in them1 and makes them live1 and which quits the body when they die20 and again they said1 8,it is not their heart which goes up on high1 but that which makes them live1 that is1 the breath coming out from their mouth1 which is called julio40 8,then10 asked the ,spaniards1 8does this heart1 julio1 or soul1 die with the body80 8,when the deceased has lived well10 replied the ,indians1 8the julio goes up on high with our gods2 but when he has lived ill1 the julio perishes with the body1 and there is an end of it40 ,the ,greeks expressed the same idea by saying that the had left the body17#bg7 had fled through the mouth1 or even through a bleeding wound17#bh7 and had gone into ,hades1 which meant literally no more than the place of the ,invisible 774 ,that the breath had become invisible was matter of fact2 that it had gone to the house of ,hades1 was mythology springing spontaneously from the fertile soil of language4 ,the primitive mythology was by no means necessarily religious4 ,in the very case which we have chosen1 philosophical mythology sprang up by the side of religious mythology4 ,the religious mythology consisted in speaking of the spirits of the departed as ghosts1 as mere breath and air1 as fluttering about the gates of ,hades1 or ferried across the ,styx in the boat of ,charon47#bi7 ,the philosophical mythology1 however1 that sprang from this name was much more important4 ,we saw that ,psyche1 meaning originally the breathing of the body1 was gradually used in the sense of vital breath1 and as something independent of the body2 and that at last1 when it had assumed the meaning of the immortal part of man1 it retained that character of something independent of the body1 thus giving rise to the conception of a soul1 not only as a being without a body1 but in its very nature opposed to body4 ,as soon as that opposition had been established in language and thought1 philosophy began its work in order to explain how two such heterogeneous powers could act on each other--how the soul could influence the body1 and how the body could determine the soul4 ,spiritualistic and materialistic systems of philosophy arose1 and all this in order to remove a self-created difficulty1 in order to join together again what language had severed1 the living body and the living soul4 ,the question whether there is a soul or spirit1 whether there is in man something different from the mere body1 is not at all affected by this mythological phraseology4 ,we certainly can distinguish between body and soul1 but as long as we keep within the limits of human knowledge1 we have no right to speak of the living soul as a breath1 or of spirits and ghosts as fluttering about like birds or fairies4 ,the poet of the nineteenth century says3-- 8,the spirit does but mean the breath1 ,i know no more40 ,and the same thought was expressed by ,cicero two thousand years ago3 8,whether the soul is air or fire1 ,i do not know40 ,as men1 we only know of embodied spirits1 however ethereal their bodies may be conceived to be1 but of spirits1 separate from body1 without form or frame1 we know as little as we know of thought without language1 or of the ,dawn as a goddess1 or of the ,night as the mother of the ,day4 ,though breath1 or spirit1 or ghost are the most common names that were assigned through the metaphorical nature of language to the vital1 and afterwards to the intellectual1 principle in man1 they were by no means the only possible names4 ,we speak1 for instance1 of the shades of the departed1 which meant originally their shadows4 ,those who first introduced this expression--and we find it in the most distant parts of the world7#cj7--;evidently took the shadow as the nearest approach to what they wished to express2 something that should be incorporeal1 yet closely connected with the body4 ,the ,greek 1 too1 is not much more than the shadow1 while the ,latin manes meant probably in the beginning no more than the ,little ,ones1 the ,small ,folk47#ca7 ,but the curious part1 as showing again the influence of language on thought1 an influence more powerful even than the evidence of the senses1 is this1 that people who speak of the life or soul as the shadow of the body1 have brought themselves to believe that a dead body casts no shadow1 because the shadow has departed from it2 that it becomes1 in fact1 a kind of ,peter ,schlemihl47#cb7 ,let us now return to mythology in the narrower sense of the word4 ,one of the earliest objects that would strike and stir the mind of man1 and for which a sign or a name would soon be wanted1 is surely the ,sun4 ,it is very hard for us to realize the feelings with which the first dwellers on the earth looked upon the sun1 or to understand fully what they meant by a morning prayer1 or a morning sacrifice4 ,perhaps there are few people here present who have watched a sunrise more than once or twice in their lives2 few people who have ever known the true meaning of a morning prayer1 or a morning sacrifice4 ,but think of man at the very dawn of time3 forget for a moment1 if you can1 after having read the fascinating pages of ,mr4 ,darwin1 forget what man is supposed to have been before he was man2 forget it1 because it does not concern us here whether his bodily form and frame were developed once for all in the mind of a ,creator1 or gradually in the creation itself1 which from the first monad or protoplasm to the last of the primates1 or man1 is not1 ,i suppose1 to be looked on as altogether causeless1 meaningless1 purposeless2 think of him only as man 7and man means the thinker71 with his mind yet lying fallow1 though full of germs--germs of which ,i hold as strongly as ever no trace has ever1 no trace will ever1 be discovered anywhere but in man2 think of the ,sun awakening the eyes of man from sleep1 and his mind from slumber6 ,was not the ,sunrise to him the first wonder1 the first beginning of all reflection1 all thought1 all philosophy8 was it not to him the first revelation1 the first beginning of all trust1 of all religion8 ,to us that wonder of wonders has ceased to exist1 and few men now would even venture to speak of the sun as ,sir ,john ,herschel has spoken1 calling him 8the ,almoner of the ,almighty1 the delegated dispenser to us of light and warmth1 as well as the centre of attraction1 and as such1 the immediate source of all our comforts1 and1 indeed1 of the very possibility of our existence on earth407#cc7 ,man is a creature of habit1 and wherever we can watch him1 we find that before a few generations have passed he has lost the power of admiring what is regular1 and that he can see signs and wonders only in what is irregular4 ,few nations only have preserved in their ancient poetry some remnants of the natural awe with which the earliest dwellers on the earth saw that brilliant being slowly rising from out the darkness of the night1 raising itself by its own might higher and higher1 till it stood triumphant on the arch of heaven1 and then descended and sank down in its fiery glory into the dark abyss of the heaving and hissing sea4 ,in the hymns of the ,veda the poet still wonders whether the sun will rise again2 he asks how he can climb the vault of heaven8 why he does not fall back8 why there is no dust on his path8 ,and when the rays of the morning rouse him from sleep and call him back to new life2 when he sees the sun1 as he says1 stretching out his golden arms to bless the world and rescue it from the terrors of darkness1 he exclaims1 8,arise1 our life1 our spirit has come back6 the darkness is gone1 the light approaches60 ,for so prominent an object in the primeval picture-gallery of the human mind1 a sign or a name must have been wanted at a very early period4 ,but how was this to be achieved8 ,as a mere sign1 a circle would have been sufficient1 such as we find in the hieroglyphics of ,egypt1 in the graphic system of ,china1 or even in our own astronomical tables4 ,if such a sign was fixed upon1 we have a beginning of language in the widest sense of the word1 for we have brought the ,sun under the general concept of roundness1 and we have found a sign for this concept which is made up of a large number of single sensuous impressions4 ,with such definite signs mythology has little chance2 yet the mere fact that the sun was represented as a circle would favor the idea that the sun was round2 or1 as ancient people1 who had no adjective as yet for round or rotundus17#cd7 would say1 that the sun was a wheel1 a rota4 ,if1 on the contrary1 the round sign reminded the people of an eye1 then the sign of the sun would soon become the eye of heaven1 and germs of mythology would spring up even from the barren soil of such hieroglyphic language4 ,but now1 suppose that a real name was wanted for the sun1 how could that be achieved8 ,we know that all words are derived from roots1 that these roots express general concepts1 and that1 with few exceptions1 every name is founded on a general concept under which the object that has to be named can be ranged4 ,how these roots came to be1 is a question into which we need not enter at present4 ,their origin and growth form a problem of psychology rather than of philology1 and each science must keep within its proper bounds4 ,if a name was wanted for snow1 the early framers of language singled out one of the general predicates of snow1 its whiteness1 its coldness1 or its liquidity1 and called the snow the white1 the cold1 or the liquid1 by means of roots conveying the general idea of whiteness1 coldness1 or liquidity4 ,not only ,nix1 nivis1 but ,niobe7#ce7 too1 was a name of the snow1 and meant the melting2 the death of her beautiful children by the arrows of ,apollon and ,artemis represents the destruction of winter by the rays of the sun4 ,if the sun itself was to be named1 it might be called the brilliant1 the awakener1 the runner1 the ruler1 the father1 the giver of warmth1 of fertility1 of life1 the scorcher1 the destroyer1 the messenger of death1 and many other names2 but there was no possibility of naming it1 except by laying hold of one of its characteristic features1 and expressing that feature by means of one of the conceptual or predicative roots4 ,let us trace the history of at least one of these names4 ,before the ,aryan nations separated1 before there was a ,latin1 a ,greek1 or a ,sanskrit language1 there existed a root svar or sval1 which meant to beam1 to glitter1 to warm4 ,it exists in ,greek1 1 splendor2 1 moon2 in ,anglo-,saxon1 as swlan1 to burn1 to sweal2 in modern ,german1 schwl1 oppressively hot4 ,from it we have in ,sanskrit the noun svar1 meaning sometimes the sky1 sometimes the sun2 and exactly the same word has been preserved in ,latin1 as sol2 in ,gothic as sauil2 in ,anglo-,saxon1 as sol4 ,a secondary form of svar is the ,sanskrit srya for svrya1 the sun1 which is the same word as the ,greek 4 ,all these names were originally mere predicates2 they meant bright1 brilliant1 warm4 ,but as soon as the name svar or srya was formed1 it became1 through the irresistible influence of language1 the name1 not only of a living1 but of a male being4 ,every noun in ,sanskrit must be either a masculine or a feminine 7for the neuter gender was originally confined to the nominative case71 and as srya had been formed as a masculine1 language stamped it once for all as the sign of a male being1 as much as if it had been the name of a warrior or a king4 ,in other languages where the name for sun is a feminine1 and the sun is accordingly conceived as a woman1 as a queen1 as the bride of the moon1 the whole mythology of the love-making of the heavenly bodies is changed4 ,you may say that all this shows1 not so much the influence of language on thought1 as of thought on language2 and that the sexual character of all words reflects only the peculiarities of a child's mind1 which can conceive of nothing except as living1 as male or female4 ,if a child hurts itself against a chair1 it beats and scolds the chair4 ,the chair is looked upon not as it1 but as he2 it is the naughty chair1 quite as much as a boy is a naughty boy4 ,there is some truth in this1 but it only serves to confirm the right view of the influence of language on thought2 for this tendency1 though in its origin intentional1 and therefore the result of thought1 became soon a mere rule of tradition in language1 and it then reacted on the mind with irresistible power4 ,as soon1 in fact1 as sryas or appears as a masculine1 we are in the very thick of mythology4 ,we have not yet arrived at ,helios as a god--that is a much later stage of thought1 which we might describe almost in the words of ,plato at the beginning of the seventh book of the 8,republic10 8,and after this1 he will reason that the sun is he who gives the seasons and the years1 and is the guardian of all that is in the visible world1 and in a certain way the cause of all things which he and his fellows have been accustomed to behold40 ,we have not yet advanced so far1 but we have reached at least the first germs of a myth4 ,in the ,homeric hymn to ,helios1 ,helios is not yet called an immortal1 but only 1 like unto immortals1 yet he is called the child of ,euryphaessa1 the son of ,hyperion1 the grandson of ,uranos and ,ga47#cf7 ,all this is mythology2 it is ancient language going beyond its first intention4 ,nor is there much difficulty in interpreting this myth4 ,helios1 the sun1 is called the son of ,hyperon1 sometimes ,hyperon himself4 ,this name ,hyperon is derived from the preposition 1 the ,latin super1 which means above4 ,it is derived by means of the suffix -1 which originally was not a patronymic1 but simply expressed belonging to4 ,so if ,helios was called ,hyperion1 this simply meant he who dwells on high1 and corresponds to ,latin ,summanus or ,superior1 or ,excelsior4 ,if1 on the contrary1 ,helios is called ,hyperionides1 this1 too1 which meant originally no more than he who comes from1 or belongs to those who dwell on high17#cg7 led to the myth that he was the descendant of ,hyperion2 so that in this case1 as in the case of ,zeus ,kronon1 the son really led to the conception of his father4 ,zeus ,kronon meant originally no more than ,zeus the eternal1 the god of ages1 the ancient of days2 but - becoming usual as a patronymic suffix1 ,kronion was supposed to mean the son of ,kronos4 ,kronos1 the father1 was created in order to account for the existence of the name ,kronion4 ,if ,hyperon is called the son of ,euryphaessa1 the wide-shining1 this requires no commentary2 for even at present a poet might say that the sun is born of the wide-shining dawn4 ,you see the spontaneous generation of mythology with every new name that is formed4 ,as not only the sun1 but also the moon and the dawn could be called dwellers on high1 they1 too1 took the name of ,hyperionis or ,hyperionides2 and hence ,homer called ,selene1 the ,moon1 and ,eos1 the ,dawn1 sisters of ,helios1 and daughters of ,hyperion and ,euryphaessa1 the ,dawn doing service twice1 both as mother1 ,euryphaessa1 and as daughter1 ,eos4 ,nay1 according to ,homer1 ,euryphaessa1 the ,dawn1 is not only the wife1 but also the sister of ,helios4 ,all this is perfectly intelligible1 if we watch the growth of language and mythology2 but it leads1 of course1 to the most tragic catastrophes as soon as it is all taken in a literal sense4 ,helios is called 1 the never-tiring2 1 the all-seeing2 1 the shining2 and also 1 the brilliant4 ,this last epithet has grown into an independent deity ,phbus1 and it is particularly known as a name of ,apollon1 ,phoibos ,apollon2 thus showing what is also known from other sources1 that in ,apollo1 too1 we have one of the many mythic disguises of the sun4 ,so far all is clear1 because all the names which we have to deal with are intelligible1 or1 at all events1 yield to the softest etymological pressure4 ,but now if we hear the story of ,phoibos ,apollon falling in love with ,daphne1 and ,daphne praying to her mother1 the ,earth1 to save her from ,phoibos2 and if we read how either the earth received her in her lap1 and then a laurel tree sprang up where she had disappeared1 or how she herself was changed into a laurel tree1 what shall we think of this8 ,it is a mere story1 it might be said1 and why should there be any meaning in it8 ,my answer is1 because people do not tell such stories of their gods and heroes1 unless there is some sense in them4 ,besides1 if ,phoibos means the sun1 why should not ,daphne have a meaning too8 ,before1 therefore1 we can decide whether the story of ,phoibos and ,daphne is a mere invention1 we must try to find out what can have been the meaning of the word ,daphne4 ,in ,greek it means a laurel17#ch7 and this would explain the purely ,greek legend that ,daphne was changed into a laurel tree4 ,but who was ,daphne8 ,in order to answer this question1 we must have recourse to etymology1 or1 in other words1 we must examine the history of the word4 ,etymology1 as you know1 is no longer what it used to be2 and though there may still be a classical scholar here and there who crosses himself at the idea of a ,greek word being explained by a reference to ,sanskrit1 we naturally look to ,sanskrit as the master-key to many a lock which no ,greek key will open4 ,now ,daphne1 as ,i have shown1 can be traced back to ,sanskrit ,ahan1 and ,ahan in ,sanskrit means the dawn4 ,as soon as we know this1 everything becomes clear4 ,the story of ,phoibos and ,daphne is no more than a description of what every one may see every day2 first1 the appearance of the ,dawn in the eastern sky1 then the rising of the ,sun as if hurrying after his bride1 then the gradual fading away of the bright ,dawn at the touch of the fiery rays of the sun1 and at last her death or disappearance in the lap of her mother1 the ,earth4 ,all this seems to me as clear as daylight1 and the only objection that could be raised against this reading of the ancient myth would be1 if it could be proved1 that ,ahan does not mean ,dawn1 and that ,daphne cannot be traced back to ,ahan1 or that ,helios does not mean the ,sun4 ,i know there is another objection1 but it seems to me so groundless as hardly to deserve an answer4 ,why1 it is asked1 should the ancient nations have told these endless stories about the ,sun and the ,dawn1 and why should they have preserved them in their mythology8 ,we might as well ask why the ancient nations should have invented so many irregular verbs1 and why they should have preserved them in their grammar4 ,a fact does not cease to be a fact1 because we cannot at once explain it4 ,as far as our knowledge goes at present1 we are justified in stating that the ,aryan nations preserved not only their grammatical structure1 and a large portion of their dictionary1 from the time which preceded their separation1 but that they likewise retained the names of some of their deities1 some legends about their gods1 some popular sayings and proverbs1 and in these1 it may be1 the seeds of parables1 as part of their common ,aryan heirloom4 ,their mythological lore fills1 in fact1 a period in the history of ,aryan thought1 half-way between the period of language and the period of literature1 and it is this discovery which gives to mythology its importance in the eyes of the student of the most ancient history and psychology of mankind4 ,and do not suppose that the ,greeks1 or the ,hindus1 or the ,aryan nations in general1 were the only people who possessed such tales4 ,wherever we look1 in every part of the world1 among uncivilized as well as a civilized people1 we find the same kind of stories1 the same traditions1 the same myths4 ,i shall give one story from the extreme ,north1 another from the extreme ,south4 ,among the ,esquimaux of ,repulse ,bay1 on the west side of ,hudson's ,bay1 on the ,arctic ,circle1 ,mr4 ,john ,rae picked up the following story3-- 8,many years ago1 a great ,esquimaux ,conqueror gained so much power that he was able to rise unto the heavens1 taking with him on one occasion a sister1 a very beautiful girl1 and some fire4 ,he added much fuel to the fire1 and thus formed the ,sun4 ,for some time he and his sister lived in great harmony1 but after a time he became very cruel1 and ill-treated his sister in many ways4 ,she bore it at first with great patience1 until at last he threw fire at her1 and scorched one side of her face4 ,this spoiling of her beauty was beyond endurance2 she therefore ran away from him1 and formed the ,moon4 ,her brother then began1 and still continues to chase her2 but although he sometimes got near1 he has not yet overtaken her1 nor ever will4 8,when it is ,new ,moon1 the burnt side of the face is towards us2 at ,full ,moon it is the reverse40 ,there are dialectic varieties in the ,mythology of the ,esquimaux as of the ,greeks and ,hindus1 and1 with a change of gender between ,sun and ,moon1 the same story occurs among other tribes in the following form3-- 8,there was a girl at a party1 and some one told his love for her by shaking her shoulders1 after the manner of the country4 ,she could not see who it was in the dark hut1 so she smeared her hands with soot1 and when he came back she blackened his cheek with her hand4 ,when a light was brought she saw that it was her brother and fled4 ,he ran after her1 followed her1 and as she came to the end of the earth1 he sprang out into the sky4 ,then she became the sun1 and he the moon1 and this is why the moon is always chasing the sun through the heavens1 and why the moon is sometimes dark as he turns his blackened cheek towards the earth407#ci7 ,we now turn to the ,south1 and here1 among the lowest of the low1 among the ,hottentots1 who are despised even by their black neighbors1 the ,zulus1 we find the following gem of a fable1 beaming with mingled rays of religion and philosophy3-- 8,the ,moon1 it is said1 sent once an insect to men1 saying1 #8,go thou to men1 and tell them1 ,as ,i die1 and dying live1 so ye shall also die1 and dying live4' ,the insect started with the message1 but whilst on his way was overtaken by the hare1 who asked3 #8,on what errand art thou bound8' ,the insect answered1 #8,i am sent by the ,moon to men1 to tell them that as she dies and dying lives1 they also shall die and dying live4' ,the hare said1 #8,as thou art an awkward runner1 let me go' 7to take the message74 ,with these words he ran off1 and when he reached men1 he said1 #8,i am sent by the ,moon to tell you1 ,as ,i die1 and dying perish1 in the same manner ye also shall die and come wholly to an end4' ,then the hare returned to the ,moon1 and told her what he had said to men4 ,the ,moon reproached him angrily1 saying1 #8,darest thou tell the people a thing which ,i have not said8' ,with these words she took up a piece of wood1 and struck him on the nose4 ,since that day the hare's nose is slit40 ,of this story1 too1 there are various versions and in one of them the end is as follows3-- 8,the hare1 having returned to the ,moon1 was questioned as to the message delivered1 and the ,moon1 having heard the true state of the case1 became so enraged with him that she took up a hatchet to split his head2 falling short1 however1 of that1 the hatchet fell upon the upper lip of the hare1 and cut it severely4 ,hence it is that we see the #8hare-lip4' ,the hare1 being duly incensed at having received such treatment1 raised his claws1 and scratched the ,moon's face2 and the dark parts which we now see on the surface of the ,moon are the scars which she received on that occasion407#dj7 ,the ,finns1 ,lapps1 and ,esthonians do not seem a very poetical race1 yet there is poetry even in their smoky huts1 poetry surrounded with all the splendor of an arctic night1 and fragrant with the perfume of moss and wild flowers4 ,here is one of their legends3-- 8,wanna ,issi had two servants1 ,koit and mmarik1 and he gave them a torch which ,koit should light every morning1 and mmarik should extinguish in the evening4 ,in order to reward their faithful services1 ,wanna ,issi told them they might be man and wife1 but they asked ,wanna ,issi that he would allow them to remain forever bride and bridegroom4 ,wanna ,issi assented1 and henceforth ,koit handed the torch every evening to mmarik1 and mmarik took it and extinguished it4 ,only during four weeks in summer they remain together at midnight2 ,koit hands the dying torch to mmarik1 but mmarik does not let it die1 but lights it again with her breath4 ,then their hands are stretched out1 and their lips meet1 and the blush of the face of mmarik colors the midnight sky40 ,this myth requires hardly any commentary2 yet as long as it is impossible to explain the names1 ,wanna ,issi1 ,koit1 and mmarik1 it might be said that the story was but a love story1 invented by an idle ,lapp1 or ,finn1 or ,esthonian4 ,but what if ,wanna ,issi in ,esthonian means the ,old ,father1 and if ,koit means the ,dawn8 ,can we then doubt any longer that mmarik7#da7 must be the ,gloaming and that their meeting in the summer reflects those summer evenings when1 particularly in the ,north1 the torch of the sun seems never to die1 and when the ,gloaming is seen kissing the ,dawn8 ,i wish ,i could tell you some more of these stories which have been gathered from all parts of the world1 and which1 though they may be pronounced childish and tedious by some critics1 seem to me to glitter with the brightest dew of nature's own poetry1 and to contain those very touches that make us feel akin1 not only with ,homer or ,shakespeare1 but even with ,lapps1 and ,finns1 and ,kaffirs4 ,i cannot resist1 however1 the temptation of inserting here a poetical rendering of the story of ,koit and mmarik1 sent to me from the ,new ,world1 remarking only that instead of ,lapland1 ,esthonia is really the country that may claim the original story4 ,a ,,legend ,,of ,,lapland4 8,two servants were in ,wanna ,issi's pay2 ,a blazing torch their care2 ,each morning ,koit must light it till its ray ,flamed through the air2 8,and every evening mmarik's fair hand ,must quench the waning light2 ,then over all the weary1 waiting land ,fell the still night4 8,so passed the time2 then ,wanna ,issi said1 8,for faithful service done1 ,lo1 here reward6 ,to-morrow shall ye wed1 ,and so be one40 8 #8,not so1' said ,koit2 #8for sweeter far to me ,the joy that neareth still2 ,then grant us ever fast betrothed to be40 ,they had their will4 8,and now the blazing lustre to transfer ,himself1 is all his claim2 ,warm from her lover's hand it comes to her1 ,to quench the flame4 8,only for four times seven lengthening days1 ,at midnight1 do they stand ,together1 while ,koit gives the dying blaze ,to mmarik's hand4 8,o wonder then6 ,she lets it not expire1 ,but lights it with her breath-- ,the breath of love1 that1 warm with quickening fire1 ,wakes life from death4 8,then hands stretch out1 and touch1 and clasp on high1 ,then lip to lip is pressed1 ,and mmarik's blushes tinge the midnight sky ,from east to west40 ,,anna ,c4 ,,brackett4 ,if people cannot bring themselves to believe in solar and celestial myths among the ,hindus and ,greeks1 let them study the folk-lore of the ,semitic and ,turanian races4 ,i know there is1 on the part of some of our most distinguished scholars1 the same objection against comparing ,aryan to non-,aryan myths1 as there is against any attempt to explain the features of ,sanskrit or ,greek by a reference to ,finnish or ,bask4 ,in one sense that objection is well founded1 for nothing would create greater confusion than to ignore the genealogical principle as the only safe one in a scientific classification of languages1 of myths1 and even of customs4 ,we must first classify our myths and legends1 as we classify our languages and dialects4 ,we must first of all endeavor to explain what wants explanation in one member of a family by a reference to other members of the same family1 before we allow ourselves to glance beyond4 ,but there is in a comparative study of languages and myths not only a philological1 but also a philosophical1 and1 more particularly1 a psychological interest1 and though even in this more general study of mankind the frontiers of language and race ought never to disappear1 yet they can no longer be allowed to narrow or intercept our view4 ,how much the student of ,aryan mythology and ethnology may gain for his own progress by allowing himself a wider survey over the traditions and customs of the whole human race1 is best known to those who have studied the works of ,klemm1 ,waitz1 ,bastian1 ,sir ,john ,lubbock1 ,mr4 ,tylor1 and ,dr4 ,callaway4 ,what is prehistoric in language among the ,aryan nations1 is frequently found as still historic among ,turanian races4 ,the same applies with regard to religions1 myths1 legends1 and customs4 ,among ,finns and ,lapps1 among ,zulus and ,maoris1 among ,khonds and ,karens1 we sometimes find the most startling analogies to ,aryan traditions1 and we certainly learn1 again and again1 this one important lesson1 that as in language1 so in mythology1 there is nothing which had not originally a meaning1 that every name of the gods and heroes had a beginning1 a purpose1 and a history4 ,jupiter was no more called ,jupiter by accident1 than the ,polynesian ,maui1 the ,samoyede ,num1 or the ,chinese ,tien47#db7 ,if we can discover the original meaning of these names1 we have reached the first ground of their later growth4 ,i do not say that1 if we can explain the first purpose of the mythological names1 we have solved the whole riddle of mythology1 but ,i maintain that we have gained firm ground4 ,i maintain that every true etymology gives us an historical fact1 because the first giving of a name was an historical fact1 and an historical fact of the greatest importance for the later development of ancient ideas4 ,think only of this one fact1 which no one would now venture to doubt1 that the supreme deity of the ,greeks1 the ,romans1 the ,germans1 is called by the same name as the supreme deity of the earliest ,aryan settlers in ,india4 ,does not this one fact draw away the curtain from the dark ages of antiquity1 and open before our eyes an horizon which we can hardly measure by years8 ,the ,greek ,zeus is the same word as the ,latin ,ju in ,jupiter1 as the ,german ,tiu2 and all these were merely dialectic varieties of the ,vedic ,dyaus47#dc7 ,now dyaus in ,sanskrit is the name of the sky1 if used as a feminine2 if used as a masculine1 as it is still in the ,veda1 it is the sky as a man or as a god--it is ,zeus1 the father of gods and men4 ,you know1 of course1 that the whole language of ancient ,india is but a sister dialect of ,greek1 ,latin1 of ,german1 ,keltic1 and ,slavonic1 and that if the ,greek says es-ti1 he is1 if the ,roman says est1 the ,german ist1 the ,slave yest1 the ,hindu1 three thousand years ago1 said as-ti1 he is4 ,this as-ti is a compound of a root as1 to be1 and the pronoun ti4 ,the root meant originally to breathe1 and dwindled down after a time to the meaning of to be4 ,all this must have happened before a single ,greek or ,german reached the shores of ,europe1 and before a single ,brahman descended into the plains of ,india4 ,at that distant time we must place the gradual growth of language and ideas1 of a language which we are still speaking1 of ideas which we are still thinking2 and at the same time only can we explain the framing of those names which were the first attempts at grasping supernatural powers1 which became in time the names of the deities of the ancient world1 the heroes of mythology1 the chief actors in many a legend1 nay1 some of which have survived in the nursery tales of our own time47#dd7 ,my time1 ,i see1 is nearly over1 but before ,i finish1 ,i feel that ,i have a duty to perform from which ,i ought not to shrink4 ,some of those who have honored me with their presence to-night may recollect that about a year ago a lecture was delivered in this very room by ,professor ,blackie1 in which he tried to throw discredit on the scientific method of the interpretation of popular myths1 or on what ,i call ,comparative ,mythology4 ,had he confined his remarks to the subject itself1 ,i should have felt most grateful for his criticisms1 little minding the manner in which they were conveyed--for a student of language knows what words are made of4 ,nor1 had his personal reflections concerned myself alone1 should ,i have felt called upon to reply to them thus publicly1 for it has always seemed to me that unless we protest against unmerited praise1 we have no right to protest against unmerited abuse4 ,i believe ,i can appeal to all here present1 that during the many years ,i have had the honor to lecture in this ,institution1 ,i have not once allowed myself to indulge in any personal remarks1 or attacked those who1 being absent1 cannot defend themselves4 ,even when ,i had to answer objections1 or to refute false theories1 ,i have always most carefully avoided mentioning the names of living writers4 ,but as ,professor ,blackie has directed his random blows1 not against myself1 but against a friend of mine1 ,mr4 ,cox1 the author of a work on ,aryan ,mythology1 ,i feel that ,i must for once try to get angry1 and return blow for blow4 ,professor ,blackie speaks of ,mr4 ,cox as if he had done nothing beyond repeating what ,i had said before4 ,nothing can be more unfair4 ,my own work in ,comparative ,mythology has consisted chiefly in laying down some of the general principles of that science1 and in the etymological interpretation of some of the ancient names of gods1 goddesses1 and heroes4 ,in fact1 ,i have made it a rule never to interpret or to compare the legends of ,india1 ,greece1 ,italy1 or ,germany1 except in cases where it was possible1 first of all1 to show an identity or similarity in the ,sanskrit1 ,greek1 ,latin1 or ,german names of the principal actors4 ,mr4 ,cox having convinced himself that the method which ,i have followed in mythology rests on sound and truly scientific principles1 has adopted most1 though by no means all1 of my etymological interpretations4 ,professor ,blackie1 on the contrary1 without attempting any explanation of the identity of mythological names in ,greek and ,sanskrit which must be either disproved or explained1 thunders forth the following sentence of condemnation3 8,even under the scientific guidance of a ,bopp1 a ,bott1 a ,grimm1 and a ,mller1 a sober man may sometimes1 even in the full blaze of the new sun of comparative philology1 allow himself to drink deep draughts1 if not of maundering madness1 at least of manifest hallucination40 ,if such words are thrown at my head1 ,i pick them up chiefly as etymological curiosities1 and as striking illustrations of what ,mr4 ,tylor calls 8survivals in culture10 showing how the most primitive implements of warfare1 rude stones and unpolished flints1 which an ethnologist would suppose to be confined to prehistoric races1 to the red ,indians of ,america or the wild ,picts of ,caledonia1 turn up again most unexpectedly at the present day in the very centre of civilized life4 ,all ,i can say is1 that if1 as a student of ,comparative ,mythology1 ,i have been drinking deep draughts of maundering madness1 ,i have been drinking in good company4 ,in this respect ,mr4 ,cox has certainly given me far more credit than ,i deserve4 ,i am but one out of many laborers in this rich field of scientific research1 and he ought to have given far greater prominence to the labors of ,grimm1 ,burnouf1 ,bopp1 and1 before all1 of my learned friend1 ,professor ,kuhn4 ,but while1 with regard to etymology1 ,mr4 ,cox contents himself with reporting the results of other scholars1 he stands quite independent in his own treatment of ,comparative ,mythology4 ,of this ,professor ,blackie seems to have no suspicion whatever4 ,the plan which ,mr4 ,cox follows is to collect the coincidences in the legends themselves1 and to show how in different myths the same story with slight variations is told again and again of different gods and heroes4 ,in this respect his work is entirely original and very useful2 for although these coincidences may be explained in different ways1 and do not afford a proof of a common historical origin of the mythologies of ,india1 ,greece1 ,italy1 and ,germany1 they are all the more interesting from a purely psychological point of view1 and supply important material for further researches4 ,mr4 ,tylor has lately worked with great success in the same rich mine2 extending the limits of mythological research far beyond the precincts of the ,aryan world1 and showing that there are solar myths wherever the sun shines4 ,i differ from ,mr4 ,cox on many points1 as he differs from me4 ,i shall certainly keep to my own method of never attempting an interpretation or a comparison1 except where the ground has first been cleared of all uncertainty by etymological research1 and where the names of different gods and heroes have been traced back to a common source4 ,i call this the nominalistic as opposed to the realistic method of ,comparative ,mythology1 and it is the former only that concerns the student of the ,science of ,language4 ,i gratefully acknowledge1 however1 the help which ,i have received from ,mr4 ,cox's work1 particularly as suggesting new clusters of myths that might be disentangled by etymological analysis4 ,but not only has ,professor ,blackie failed to perceive the real character of ,mr4 ,cox's researches1 but he has actually charged him with holding opinions which both ,mr4 ,cox and myself have repeatedly disavowed1 and most strenuously opposed4 ,again and again have we warned the students of ,comparative ,mythology that they must not expect to be able to explain everything4 ,again and again have we pointed out that there are irrational elements in mythology1 and that we must be prepared to find grains of local history on which1 as ,i said17#de7 the sharpest tools of ,comparative ,mythology must bend or break4 ,again and again have we shown that historical persons7#df7--not only ,cyrus and ,charlemagne1 but ,frederick ,barbarossa and even ,frederick the ,great--have been drawn into the vortex of popular mythology4 ,yet these are the words of ,professor ,blackie3 8,the cool way in which ,max ,mller and his ,english disciple1 ,mr4 ,cox1 assume that there are no human figures and historical characters in the whole gallery of heroes and demi-gods in the ,greek ,mythology1 is something very remarkable40 ,i readily admit that some of the etymologies which ,i have proposed of mythological names are open to criticism2 and if1 like other scholars1 ,professor ,blackie had pointed out to me any cases where ,i might seem to him to have offended against ,grimm's law or other phonetic rules1 ,i should have felt most grateful2 but if he tells me that the ,greek ,erinys should not be derived from the ,sanskrit ,sarany1 but from the ,greek verb 1 to be angry1 he might as well derive critic from to criticise27#dg7 and if he maintains that a name may have two or three legitimate etymologies1 ,i can only answer that we might as well say that a child could have two or three legitimate mothers4 ,i have most reluctantly entered upon these somewhat personal explanations1 and ,i should not have done so if ,i alone had been concerned in ,professor ,blackie's onslaught4 ,i hope1 however1 that ,i have avoided anything that could give just offence to ,professor ,blackie1 even if he should be present here tonight4 ,though he abuses me as a ,german1 and laughs at the instinctive aversion to external facts and the extravagant passion for self-evolved ideas as national failings of all ,germans 7,i only wonder that the story of the camel and the inner consciousness did not come in71 yet ,i know that for many years ,german poetry and ,german scholarship have had few more ardent admirers1 and ,german scholars few more trusty friends1 than ,professor ,blackie4 ,nationality1 it seems to me1 has as little to do with scholarship as with logic4 ,on the contrary1 in every nation he that will work hard and reason honestly may be sure to discover some grains of truth4 ,national jealousies and animosities have no place in the republic of letters1 which is1 and ,i trust always will be1 the true international republic of all friends of work1 of order1 and of truth4 ,,iii4 ,,on ,,false ,,analogies ,,in ,,comparative ,,theology4 ,very different from the real similarities that can be discovered in nearly all the religions of the world1 and which1 owing to their deeply human character1 in no way necessitate the admission that one religion borrowed from the other1 are those minute coincidences between the ,jewish and the ,pagan religions which have so often been discussed by learned theologians1 and which were intended by them as proof positive1 either that the ,pagans borrowed their religious ideas direct from the ,old ,testament1 or that some fragments of a primeval revelation1 granted to the ancestors of the whole race of mankind1 had been preserved in the temples of ,greece and ,italy4 ,bochart1 in his 8,geographia ,sacra10 considered the identity of ,noah and ,saturn so firmly established as hardly to admit of the possibility of a doubt4 ,the three sons of ,saturn--,jupiter1 ,neptune1 and ,pluto--he represented as having been originally the three sons of ,noah3 ,jupiter being ,ham2 ,neptune1 ,japhet2 and ,shem1 ,pluto4 ,even in the third generation the two families were proved to have been one1 for ,phut1 the son of ,ham1 or of ,jupiter ,hammon1 could be no other than ,apollo ,pythius2 ,canaan no other than ,mercury2 and ,nimrod no other than ,bacchus1 whose original name was supposed to have been ,bar-chus1 the son of ,cush4 ,g4 ,j4 ,vossius1 in his learned work1 8,de ,origine et ,progressu ,idolatri0 7#afhh71 identified ,saturn with ,adam1 ,janus with ,noah1 ,pluto with ,ham1 ,neptune with ,japhet1 ,minerva with ,naamah1 ,vulcan with ,tubal ,cain1 ,typhon with ,og4 ,huet1 the friend of ,bochart1 and the colleague of ,bossuet1 went still farther2 and in his classical work1 the 8,demonstratio ,evangelica10 he attempted to prove that the whole theology of the heathen nations was borrowed from ,moses1 whom he identified not only with ancient law-givers1 like ,zoroaster and ,orpheus1 but with gods and demi-gods1 such as ,apollo1 ,vulcan1 ,faunus1 and ,priapus4 ,all this happened not more than two hundred years ago2 and even a hundred years ago1 nay1 even after the discovery of ,sanskrit and the rise of ,comparative ,philology1 the troublesome ghost of ,huet was by no means laid at once4 ,on the contrary1 as soon as the ancient language and religion of ,india became known in ,europe1 they were received by many people in the same spirit4 ,sanskrit1 like all other languages1 was to be derived from ,hebrew1 the ancient religion of the ,brahmans from the ,old ,testament4 ,there was at that time an enthusiasm among ,oriental scholars1 particularly at ,calcutta1 and an interest for ,oriental antiquities in the public at large1 of which we in these days of apathy for ,eastern literature can hardly form an adequate idea4 ,everybody wished to be first in the field1 and to bring to light some of the treasures which were supposed to be hidden in the sacred literature of the ,brahmans4 ,sir ,william ,jones1 the founder of the ,asiatic ,society at ,calcutta1 published in the first volume of the 8,asiatic ,researches0 his famous essay1 8,on the ,gods of ,greece1 ,italy1 and ,india20 and he took particular care to state that his essay1 though published only in #aghh1 had been written in #aghd4 ,in that essay he endeavored to show that there existed an intimate connection1 not only between the mythology of ,india and that of ,greece and ,italy1 but likewise between the legendary stories of the ,brahmans and the accounts of certain historical events as recorded in the ,old ,testament4 ,no doubt1 the temptation was great4 ,no one could look down for a moment into the rich mine of religious and mythological lore that was suddenly opened before the eyes of scholars and theologians1 without being struck by a host of similarities1 not only in the languages1 but also in the ancient traditions of the ,hindus1 the ,greeks1 and the ,romans2 and if at that time the ,greeks and ,romans were still supposed to have borrowed their language and their religion from ,jewish quarters1 the same conclusion could hardly be avoided with regard to the language and the religion of the ,brahmans of ,india4 ,the first impulse to look in the ancient religion of ,india for reminiscences of revealed truth seems to have come from missionaries rather than from scholars4 ,it arose from a motive1 in itself most excellent1 of finding some common ground for those who wished to convert and those who were to be converted4 ,only1 instead of looking for that common ground where it really was to be found--namely1 in the broad foundations on which all religions are built up3 the belief in a divine power1 the acknowledgment of sin1 the habit of prayer1 the desire to offer sacrifice1 and the hope of a future life--the students of ,pagan religion as well as ,christian missionaries were bent on discovering more striking and more startling coincidences1 in order to use them in confirmation of their favorite theory that some rays of a primeval revelation1 or some reflection of the ,jewish religion1 had reached the uttermost ends of the world4 ,this was a dangerous proceeding--dangerous because superficial1 dangerous because undertaken with a foregone conclusion2 and very soon the same arguments that had been used on one side in order to prove that all religious truth had been derived from the ,old ,testament were turned against ,christian scholars and ,christian missionaries1 in order to show that it was not ,brahmanism and ,buddhism which had borrowed from the ,old and ,new ,testament1 but that the ,old and the ,new ,testament had borrowed from the more ancient religions of the ,brahmans and ,buddhists4 ,this argument was carried out1 for instance1 in ,holwell's 8,original ,principles of the ,ancient ,brahmans10 published in ,london as early as #aggi1 in which the author maintains that 8the ,brahmanic religion is the first and purest product of supernatural revelation10 and 8that the ,hindu scriptures contain to a moral certainty the original doctrines and terms of restoration delivered from ,god himself1 by the mouth of his first created ,birmah1 to mankind1 at his first creation in the form of man40 ,sir ,william ,jones7#dh7 tells us that one or two missionaries in ,india had been absurd enough1 in their zeal for the conversion of the ,gentiles1 to urge 8that the ,hindus were even now almost ,christians1 because their ,brahma1 ,vishnu1 and ,mahesa were no other than the ,christian ,trinity20 a sentence in which1 he adds1 we can only doubt whether folly1 ignorance1 or impiety predominates4 ,sir ,william ,jones himself was not likely to fall into that error4 ,he speaks against it most emphatically4 8,either10 he says1 8the first eleven chapters of ,genesis--all due allowance being made for a figurative ,eastern style--are true1 or the whole fabric of our national religion is false2 a conclusion which none of us1 ,i trust1 would wish to be drawn4 ,but it is not the truth of our national religion as such that ,i have at heart2 it is truth itself2 and if any cool1 unbiassed reasoner will clearly convince me that ,moses drew his narrative through ,egyptian conduits from the primeval fountains of ,indian literature1 ,i shall esteem him as a friend for having weeded my mind from a capital error1 and promise to stand amongst the foremost in assisting to circulate the truth which he has ascertained40 ,but though he speaks so strongly against the uncritical proceedings of those who would derive anything that is found in the ,old ,testament from ,indian sources1 ,sir ,william ,jones himself was really guilty of the same want of critical caution in his own attempts to identify the gods and heroes of ,greece and ,rome with the gods and heroes of ,india4 ,he begins his essay17#di7 8,on the ,gods of ,greece1 ,italy1 and ,india10 with the following remarks3-- 8,we cannot justly conclude1 by arguments preceding the proof of facts1 that one idolatrous people must have borrowed their deities1 rites1 and tenets from another1 since gods of all shapes and dimensions may be framed by the boundless powers of imagination1 or by the frauds and follies of men1 in countries never connected2 but when features of resemblance1 too strong to have been accidental1 are observable in different systems of polytheism1 without fancy or prejudice to color them and improve the likeness1 we can scarce help believing that some connection has immemorially subsisted between the several nations who have adopted them4 ,it is my design in this essay to point out such a resemblance between the popular worship of the old ,greeks and ,italians and that of the ,hindus2 nor can there be any room to doubt of a great similarity between their strange religions and that of ,egypt1 ,china1 ,persia1 ,phrygia1 ,phnice1 and ,syria2 to which1 perhaps1 we may safely add some of the southern kingdoms1 and even islands of ,america2 while the ,gothic system which prevailed in the northern regions of ,europe was not merely similar to those of ,greece and ,italy1 but almost the same in another dress1 with an embroidery of images apparently ,asiatic4 ,from all this1 if it be satisfactorily proved1 we may infer a general union or affinity between the most distinguished inhabitants of the primitive world at the time when they deviated1 as they did too early deviate1 from the rational adoration of the only true ,god40 ,here1 then1 in an essay written nearly a hundred years ago by ,sir ,w4 ,jones1 one of the most celebrated ,oriental scholars in ,england1 it might seem as if we should find the first outlines of that science which is looked upon as but of to-day or yesterday--the outlines of ,comparative ,mythology4 ,but in such an expectation we are disappointed4 ,what we find is merely a superficial comparison of the mythology of ,india and that of other nations1 both ,aryan and ,semitic1 without any scientific value1 because carried out without any of those critical tests which alone keep ,comparative ,mythology from running riot4 ,this is not intended as casting a slur on ,sir ,w4 ,jones4 ,at his time the principles which have now been established by the students of the science of language were not yet known1 and as with words1 so with the names of deities1 similarity of sound1 the most treacherous of all sirens1 was the only guide in such researches4 ,it is not pleasant to have to find fault with a man possessed of such genius1 taste1 and learning as ,sir ,w4 ,jones1 but no one who is acquainted with the history of these researches will be surprised at my words4 ,it is the fate of all pioneers1 not only to be left behind in the assault which they had planned1 but to find that many of their approaches were made in a false direction1 and had to be abandoned4 ,but as the authority of their names continues to sway the public at large1 and is apt to mislead even painstaking students and to entail upon them repeated disappointments1 it is necessary that those who know should speak out1 even at the risk of being considered harsh or presumptuous4 ,a few instances will suffice to show how utterly baseless the comparisons are which ,sir ,w4 ,jones instituted between the gods of ,india1 ,greece1 and ,italy4 ,he compares the ,latin ,janus with the ,sanskrit deity ,ganesa4 ,it is well known that ,janus is connected with the same root that has yielded the names of ,jupiter1 ,zeus1 and ,dyaus1 while ,ganesa is a compound1 meaning lord of hosts1 lord of the companies of gods4 ,saturnus is supposed to have been the same as ,noah1 and is then identified by ,sir ,w4 ,jones with the ,indian ,manu ,satyavrata1 who escaped from the flood4 ,ceres is compared with the goddess ,sri1 ,jupiter or ,diespiter with ,indra or ,divaspati2 and though etymology is called a weak basis for historical inquiries1 the three syllables ,jov in ,jovis1 ,zeu in ,zeus1 and ,siv in ,siva are placed side by side1 as possibly containing the same root1 only differently pronounced4 ,now the s of ,siva is a palatal s1 and no scholar who has once looked into a book on ,comparative ,philology need be told that such an s could never correspond to a ,greek ,zeta or a ,latin ,j4 ,in ,krishna1 the lovely shepherd-god1 ,sir ,w4 ,jones recognizes the features of ,apollo ,nomius1 who fed the herds of ,admetus1 and slew the dragon ,python2 and he leaves it to etymologists to determine whether ,gopla--i4 e41 the cow-herd--may not be the same word as ,apollo4 ,we are also assured1 on the authority of ,colonel ,vallancey1 that ,krishna in ,irish means the sun1 and that the goddess ,kl1 to whom human sacrifices were offered1 as enjoined in the ,vedas 787 was the same as ,hekate4 ,in conclusion1 ,sir ,w4 ,jones remarks1 8,i strongly incline to believe that ,egyptian priests have actually come from the ,nile to the ,gang and ,yamun1 and that they visited the ,sarmans of ,india1 as the sages of ,greece visited them1 rather to acquire than to impart knowledge40 ,the interest that had been excited by ,sir ,william ,jones's researches did not subside1 though he himself did not return to the subject1 but devoted his great powers to more useful labors4 ,scholars1 both in ,india and in ,europe1 wanted to know more of the ancient religion of ,india4 ,if ,jupiter1 ,apollo1 and ,janus had once been found in the ancient pantheon of the ,brahmans2 if the account of ,noah and the deluge could be traced back to the story of ,manu ,satyavrata1 who escaped from the flood1 more discoveries might be expected in this newly-opened mine1 and people rushed to it with all the eagerness of gold-diggers4 ,the idea that everything in ,india was of extreme antiquity had at that time taken a firm hold on the minds of all students of ,sanskrit2 and1 as there was no one to check their enthusiasm1 everything that came to light in ,sanskrit literature was readily accepted as more ancient than ,homer1 or even than the ,old ,testament4 ,it was under these influences that ,lieutenant ,wilford1 a contemporary of ,sir ,william ,jones at ,calcutta1 took up the thread which ,sir ,william ,jones had dropped1 and determined at all hazards to solve the question which at that time had excited a worldwide interest4 ,convinced that the ,brahmans possessed in their ancient literature the originals1 not only of ,greek and ,roman mythology1 but likewise of the ,old ,testament history1 he tried every possible means to overcome their reserve and reticence4 ,he related to them1 as well as he could1 the principal stories of classical mythology1 and the leading events in the history of the ,old ,testament2 he assured them that they would find the same things in their ancient books1 if they would but look for them2 he held out the hopes of ample rewards for any extracts from their sacred literature containing the histories of ,adam and ,eve1 of ,deukalion and ,prometheus2 and at last he succeeded4 ,the coyness of the ,pandits yielded2 the incessant demand created a supply2 and for several years essay after essay appeared in the 8,asiatic ,researches10 with extracts from ,sanskrit ,,mss41 containing not only the names of ,deukalion1 ,prometheus1 and other heroes and deities of ,greece1 but likewise the names of ,adam and ,eve1 of ,abraham and ,sarah1 and all the rest4 ,great was the surprise1 still greater the joy1 not only in ,calcutta1 but in ,london1 at ,paris1 and all the universities of ,germany4 ,the ,sanskrit ,,mss4 from which ,lieutenant ,wilford quoted1 and on which his theories were based1 had been submitted to ,sir ,w4 ,jones and other scholars2 and though many persons were surprised1 and for a time even incredulous1 yet the fact could not be denied that all was found in these ,sanskrit ,,mss4 as stated by ,lieutenant ,wilford4 ,sir ,w4 ,jones1 then ,president of the ,asiatic ,society1 printed the following declaration at the end of the third volume of the 8,asiatic ,researches03-- 8,since ,i am persuaded that the learned essay on ,egypt and the ,nile has afforded you equal delight with that which ,i have myself received from it1 ,i cannot refrain from endeavoring to increase your satisfaction by confessing openly that ,i have at length abandoned the greatest part of the natural distrust1 and incredulity which had taken possession of my mind before ,i had examined the sources from which our excellent associate1 ,lieutenant ,wilford1 has drawn so great a variety of new and interesting opinions4 ,having lately read again and again1 both alone and with a ,pandit1 the numerous original passages in the ,purnas1 and other ,sanskrit books1 which the writer of the dissertation adduces in support of his assertions1 ,i am happy in bearing testimony to his perfect good faith and general accuracy1 both in his extracts and in the translation of them40 ,sir ,w4 ,jones then proceeds himself to give a translation of some of these passages4 8,the following translation10 he writes1 8of an extract from the ,padma-purna is minutely exact03-- 8#a4 ,to ,satyavarman1 the sovereign of the whole earth1 were born three sons2 the eldest1 ,sherma2 then ,charma2 and thirdly1 ,jyapeti4 8#b4 ,they were all men of good morals1 excellent in virtue and virtuous deeds1 skilled in the use of weapons to strike with1 or to be thrown1 brave men1 eager for victory in battle4 8#c4 ,but ,satyavarman1 being continually delighted with devout meditation1 and seeing his sons fit for dominion1 laid upon them the burden of government1 8#d4 ,whilst he remained honoring and satisfying the gods1 and priests1 and kine4 ,one day1 by the act of destiny1 the king1 having drunk mead1 8#e4 ,became senseless1 and lay asleep naked2 then was he seen by ,charma1 and by him were his two brothers called4 8#f4 ,to whom he said3 ,what now has befallen8 ,in what state is this our sire8 ,by those two was he hidden with clothes1 and called to his senses again and again4 8#g4 ,having recovered his intellect1 and perfectly knowing what had passed1 he cursed ,charma1 saying1 ,thou shalt be the servant of servants3 8#h4 ,and since thou wast a laugher in their presence1 from laughter shalt thou acquire a name4 ,then he gave to ,sherma the wide domain on the south of the snowy mountains4 8#i4 ,and to ,jyapeti he gave all on the north of the snowy mountains2 but he1 by the power of religious contemplation1 obtained supreme bliss40 ,after this testimony from ,sir ,w4 ,jones--wrung from him1 as it would seem1 against his own wish and will--,lieutenant ,wilford's essays became more numerous and more startling every year4 ,at last1 however1 the coincidences became too great4 ,the ,,mss4 were again carefully examined2 and then it was found that a clever forgery had been committed1 that leaves had been inserted in ancient ,,mss41 and that on these leaves the ,pandits1 urged by ,lieutenant ,wilford to disclose their ancient mysteries and traditions1 had rendered in correct ,sanskrit verse all that they had heard about ,adam and ,abraham from their inquisitive master4 ,lieutenant 7then ,colonel7 ,wilford did not hesitate for one moment to confess publicly that he had been imposed upon2 but in the meantime the mischief had been done1 his essays had been read all over ,europe1 they retained their place in the volumes of the 8,asiatic ,researches10 and to the present day some of his statements and theories continue to be quoted authoritatively by writers on ancient religion4 ,such accidents1 and1 one might almost say1 such misfortunes1 will happen1 and it would be extremely unfair were we to use unnecessarily harsh language with regard to those to whom they have happened4 ,it is perfectly true that at present1 after the progress that has been made in an accurate and critical study of ,sanskrit1 it would be unpardonable if any ,sanskrit scholar accepted such passages as those translated by ,sir ,w4 ,jones as genuine4 ,yet it is by no means certain that a further study of ,sanskrit will not lead to similar disenchantments1 and deprive many a book in ,sanskrit literature which now is considered as very ancient of its claims to any high antiquity4 ,certain portions of the ,veda even1 which1 as far as our knowledge goes at present1 we are perfectly justified in referring to the tenth or twelfth century before our era1 may some day or other dwindle down from their high estate1 and those who have believed in their extreme antiquity will then be held up to blame or ridicule1 like ,sir ,w4 ,jones or ,colonel ,wilford4 ,this cannot be avoided1 for science is progressive1 and does not acknowledge1 even in the most distinguished scholars1 any claims to infallibility4 ,one lesson only may we learn from the disappointment that befell ,colonel ,wilford1 and that is to be on our guard against anything which in ordinary language would be called 8too good to be true40 ,comparative ,philology has taught us again and again that when we find a word exactly the same in ,greek and ,sanskrit1 we may be certain that it cannot be the same word2 and the same applies to ,comparative ,mythology4 ,the same god or the same hero cannot have exactly the same name in ,sanskrit and ,greek1 for the simple reason that ,sanskrit and ,greek have deviated from each other1 have both followed their own way1 have both suffered their own phonetic corruptions2 and hence1 if they do possess the same word1 they can only possess it either in its ,greek or its ,sanskrit disguise4 ,and if that caution applies to ,sanskrit and ,greek1 members of the same family of language1 how much more strongly must it apply to ,sanskrit and ,hebrew6 ,if the first man were called in ,sanskrit dima1 and in ,hebrew ,adam1 and if the two were really the same word1 then ,hebrew and ,sanskrit could not be members of two different families of speech1 or we should be driven to admit that ,adam was borrowed by the ,jews from the ,hindus for it is in ,sanskrit only that dima means the first1 whereas in ,hebrew it has no such meaning4 ,the same remark applies to a curious coincidence pointed out many years ago by ,mr4 ,ellis in his 8,polynesian ,researches0 7,london1 #ahbi1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ch74 ,we there read3-- 8,a very generally received ,tahitian tradition is that the first human pair were made by ,taaroa1 the principal deity formerly acknowledged by the nation4 ,on more than one occasion ,i have listened to the details of the people respecting his work of creation4 ,they say that1 after ,taaroa had formed the world1 he created man out of araea1 red earth1 which was also the food of man until bread first was made4 ,in connection with this some relate that ,taaroa one day called for the man by name4 ,when he came1 he caused him to fall asleep1 and1 while he slept1 he took out one of his ivi1 or bones1 and with it made a woman1 whom he gave to the man as his wife1 and they became the progenitors of mankind4 ,this10 ,mr4 ,ellis continues1 8always appeared to me a mere recital of the ,mosaic account of creation1 which they had heard from some ,european1 and ,i never placed any reliance on it1 although they have repeatedly told me it was a tradition among them before any foreigners arrived4 ,some have also stated that the woman's name was ,ivi1 which would be by them pronounced as if written ,eve4 ,ivi is an aboriginal word1 and not only signifies a bone1 but also a widow1 and a victim slain in war4 ,notwithstanding the assertion of the natives1 ,i am disposed to think that ,ivi1 or ,eve1 is the only aboriginal part of the story1 as far as it respects the mother of the human race4 ,should more careful and minute inquiry confirm the truth of this declaration1 and prove that their account was in existence among them prior to their intercourse with ,europeans1 it will be the most remarkable and valuable oral tradition of the origin of the human race yet known40 ,in this case1 ,i believe the probability is that the story of the creation of the first woman from the bone of a man7#ej7 existed among the ,tahitians before their intercourse with ,christians1 but ,i need hardly add that the similarity between the ,polynesian name for bone1 ivi1 even when it was used as the name of the first woman1 and the ,english corruption of the ,hebrew 1 ,chvah1 ,eve1 could be the result of accident only4 ,whatever ,chvah meant in ,hebrew1 whether life or living or anything else1 it never meant bone1 while the ,tahitian ivi1 the ,maori wheva17#ea7 meant bone1 and bone only4 ,these principles and these cautions were hardly thought of in the days of ,sir ,william ,jones and ,colonel ,wilford1 but they ought to be thought of at present4 ,thus1 before ,bopp had laid down his code of phonetic laws1 and before ,burnouf had written his works on ,buddhism1 one cannot be very much surprised that ,buddha should have been identified with ,minos and ,lamech2 nay1 that even the ,babylonian deity ,belus1 and the ,teutonic deity ,wodan or ,odin1 should have been supposed to be connected with the founder of ,buddhism in ,india4 ,as ,burnouf said in his 8,introduction a l',histoire du ,buddhisme10 p4 #gj3 8,on avait mme fait du ,buddha une plante2 et je ne sais pas si quelques savants ne se plaisent pas encore aujourd'hui retrouver ce sage paisible sous les traits du belliqueux ,odin40 ,but we did not expect that we should have to read again1 in a book published in #ahfi1 such statements as these37#eb7-- 8,there is certainly a much greater similarity between the ,buddhism of the ,topes and the ,scandinavian mythology than between it and the ,buddhism of the books2 but still the gulf between the two is immense2 and if any traces of the doctrines of the gentle ascetic 7,buddha7 ever existed in the bosom of ,odin or his followers1 while dwelling near the roots of the ,caucasus1 all that can be said is1 that they suffered fearful shipwreck among the rocks of the savage superstitions of the ,north1 and sank1 never again to appear on the surface of ,scandinavian mythology4 ,if the two religions come anywhere in contact1 it is at their base1 for underlying both there existed a strange substratum of ,tree and ,serpent ,worship2 on this the two structures seem to have been raised1 though they afterwards diverged into forms so strangely dissimilar0 7p4 #cd74 ,or again 7p4 #cb73-- 8,we shall probably not err far if we regard these traces of serpent worship as indicating the presence in the ,northeast of ,scotland of the head of that column of migration1 or of propagandism1 which1 under the myth of ,wodenism1 we endeavored in a previous chapter to trace from the ,caucasus to ,scandinavia40 8,the arbors under which two of the couples are seated are curious instances of that sort of summer-house which may be found adorning tea-gardens in the neighborhood of ,london to the present day4 ,it is scenes like these that make us hesitate before asserting that there could not possibly be any connection between ,buddhism and ,wodenism0 7p4 #adj74 8,one of the most tempting nominal similarities connected with this subject is suggested by the name of ,my4 ,the mother of ,buddha was called ,my4 ,the mother of ,mercury was also ,maia1 the daughter of ,atlas4 ,the ,romans always called ,wodin1 ,mercury1 and dies ,mercurii and ,wodensday alike designated the fourth day of the week4444 ,these and other similarities have been frequently pointed out and insisted upon1 and they are too numerous and too distinct not to have some foundation in reality0 7p4 #ahf1 note74 ,statements like these cannot be allowed to pass unnoticed or uncontradicted1 particularly if supported by the authority of a great name2 and after having spoken so freely of the unscientific character of the mythological comparisons instituted by scholars like ,sir ,william ,jones and ,lieutenant ,wilford1 who can no longer defend themselves1 it would be mere cowardice to shrink from performing the same unpleasant duty in the case of a living writer1 who has shown that he knows how to wield the weapons both of defence and attack4 ,it is perfectly true that the mother of ,buddha was called ,my1 but it is equally true that the ,sanskrit ,my cannot be the ,greek ,mai4 ,it is quite true1 also1 that the fourth day of the week is called dies ,mercurii in ,latin1 and ,wednesday in ,english2 nay1 that in ,sanskrit the same day is called ,budha-dina or ,budha-vra4 ,but the origin of all these names falls within perfectly historical times1 and can throw no light whatever on the early growth of mythology and religion4 ,first of all1 we have to distinguish between ,budha and ,buddha4 ,the two names1 though so like each other1 and therefore constantly mistaken one for the other1 have nothing in common but their root4 ,buddha with two d's1 is the participle of budh1 and means awakened1 enlightened47#ec7 ,it is the name given to those who have reached the highest stage of human wisdom1 and it is known most generally as the title of ,gotama1 ,skya-muni1 the founder of ,buddhism1 whose traditional era dates from #edc ,b4 ,c4 ,budha1 on the contrary1 with one d1 means simply knowing1 and it became in later times1 when the ,hindus received from the ,greeks a knowledge of the planets1 the name of the planet ,mercury4 ,it is well known that the names of the seven days of the week are derived from the names of the planets17#ed7 and it is equally well known that in ,europe the system of weeks and week-days is comparatively of very modern origin4 ,it was not a ,greek1 nor a ,roman1 nor a ,hindu1 but a ,jewish or ,babylonian invention4 ,the ,sabbath 7,sabbata7 was known and kept at ,rome in the first century ,b4 ,c4 with many superstitious practices4 ,it is mentioned by ,horace1 ,ovid1 ,tibullus 7dies ,saturni71 ,persius1 ,juvenal4 ,ovid calls it a day 8rebus minus apta gerendis40 ,augustus 7,suet4 8,aug40 c4 #gf7 evidently imagined that the ,jews fasted on their ,sabbath1 for he said1 8,not even a ,jew keeps the fast of the ,sabbath so strictly as ,i have kept this day40 ,in fact1 ,josephus 78,contra ,apion40 ii4 #ci7 was able to say that there was no town1 ,greek or not ,greek1 where the custom observing the seventh day had not spread47#ee7 ,it is curious that we find the seventh day1 the ,sabbath1 even under its new ,pagan name1 as dies ,saturni or ,kronike1 mentioned by ,roman and ,greek writers1 before the names of the other days of the week made their appearance4 ,tibullus speaks of the day of ,saturn1 dies ,saturni2 ,julius ,frontinus 7under ,nerva1 #if-ih7 says that ,vespasian attacked the ,jews on the day of ,saturn1 dies ,saturni2 and ,justin ,martyr 7died #afe7 states that ,christ was crucified the day before the day of ,kronos1 and appeared to his disciples the day after the day of ,kronos4 ,he does not use the names of ,friday and ,sunday4 ,sunday1 as dies ,solis1 is mentioned by ,justin ,martyr 78,apolog40 i4 #fg71 and by ,tertullian 7died #bbj71 the usual name of that day amongst ,christians being the ,lord's-day1 1 dominica or dominicus4 ,clemens of ,alexandria 7died #bbj7 seems to have been the first who used the names of ,wednesday and ,friday1 4 ,it is generally stated1 on the authority of ,cassius ,dio1 that the system of counting by weeks and weekdays was first introduced in ,egypt1 and that at his time1 early in the third century1 the ,romans had adopted it1 though but recently4 ,be this as it may1 it would seem that1 if ,tibullus could use the name of dies ,saturni for ,saturday1 the whole system of weekdays must have been settled and known at ,rome in his time4 ,cassius ,dio tells us that the names were assigned to each day 1 by fours2 or by giving the first hour of the week to ,saturn1 then giving one hour to each planet in succession1 till the twenty-fifth hour became again the first of the next day4 ,both systems lead to the same result1 as will be seen from the following table3-- ,planets4 ,latin4 ,french4 ,sanskrit4 #a ,saturn #a ,dies ,saturni ,samedi 7dies ,saui-vra sabbati7 #b ,jupiter #f ,dies ,solis ,dimanche ,ravi-vra 7dominicus7 #c ,mars #d ,dies ,lun ,lundi ,soma-vra #d ,sun #b ,dies ,martis ,mardi ,bhauma-vra #e ,venus #g ,dies ,mercurii ,mercredi ,brihaspati-vra #g ,moon #c ,dies ,veneris ,vendredi ,sukra-vra ,planets4 ,old ,norse4 ,anglo-,saxon4 ,english4 #a ,saturn #a laugardagr stres dg ,saturday 7washing day7 #b ,jupiter #f sunnadagr sunnan dg ,sunday #c ,mars #d mnadagr monan dg ,monday #d ,sun #b tysdagr tives dg ,tuesday #e ,venus #g odhinsdagr vdenes dg ,wednesday #f ,mercury #e thrsdagr thunores dg ,thursday #g ,moon #c friadagr frige dg ,friday ,planets4 ,old-,high ,middle-,high ,german4 ,german4 ,german4 #a ,saturn #a sambaztag 7sunnn samztac 7sunnen ,samstag band7 bent7 7,sonnabend7 #b ,jupiter #f sunnn dag sunnen tac ,sonntag #c ,mars #c mnin tac 787 mn tac ,montag #d ,sun #b ziuwes tac 7cies zies tac 7zies ,dienstag dac7 tac7 #e ,venus #g wuotanes tac 787 mittwoch ,mittwoch 7mittawecha7 #f ,mercury #e donares tac donres tac ,donnerstag #g ,moon #c fria dag frtac ,freitag ,after the names of the week-days had once been settled1 we have no difficulty in tracing their migration towards the ,east and towards the ,west4 ,the ,hindus had their own peculiar system of reckoning days and months1 but they adopted at a later time the foreign system of counting by weeks of seven days1 and assigning a presiding planetary deity to each of the seven days1 according to the system described above4 ,as the ,indian name of the planet ,mercury was ,budha1 the dies ,mercurii was naturally called ,budha-vra but never ,buddha-vra2 and the fact that the mother of ,mercury was called ,maia1 and the mother of ,buddha ,my1 could1 therefore1 have had no bearing whatever on the name assigned to the ,indian ,wednesday47#ef7 ,the very ,buddhists1 in ,ceylon1 distinguish between buddha1 the enlightened1 and budha1 wise1 and call ,wednesday the day of ,budha1 not of ,buddha47#eg7 ,whether the names of the planets were formed in ,india independently1 or after ,greek models1 is difficult to settle4 ,the name of ,budha1 the knowing or the clever1 given to the planet ,mercury1 seems1 however1 inexplicable except on the latter hypothesis4 ,having traced the origin of the ,sanskrit name of the dies ,mercurii1 ,budha-vra1 let us now see why the ,teutonic nations1 though perfectly ignorant of ,buddhism1 called the same day the day of ,wodan4 ,that the ,teutonic nations received the names of the week-days from their ,greek and ,roman neighbors admits of no doubt4 ,for commercial and military arrangements between ,romans and ,germans some kind of lingua franca must soon have sprung up1 and in it the names of the week-days must have found their place4 ,there would have been little difficulty in explaining the meaning of ,sun-day and ,mon-day to the ,germans1 but in order to make them understand the meaning of the other names1 some explanations must have been given on the nature of the different deities1 in order to enable the ,germans to find corresponding names in their own language4 ,a ,roman would tell his ,german friend that dies ,veneris meant the day of a goddess who represented beauty and love1 and on hearing this the ,german would at once have thought of his own goddess of love1 ,freyja1 and have called the dies ,veneris the day of ,freyja or ,friday47#eh7 ,if ,jupiter was described as the god who wields the thunderbolt1 his natural representative in ,german would be ,donar17#ei7 the ,anglo-,saxon ,thunar1 the ,old ,norse ,thor2 and hence the dies ,jovis would be called the day of ,thor1 or ,thursday4 ,if the fact that ,jupiter was the king of the gods had been mentioned1 his proper representative in ,german would1 no doubt1 have been ,wuotan or ,odin47#fj7 ,as it was1 ,wuotan or ,odin was chosen as the nearest approach to ,mercury1 the character which they share in common1 and which led to their identification1 being most likely their love of travelling through the air17#fa7 also their granting wealth and fulfilling the wishes of their worshippers1 in which capacity ,wuotan is known by the name of ,wunsch7#fb7 or ,wish4 ,we can thus understand how it happened that father and son changed places1 for while ,mercurius is the son of ,jupiter1 ,wuotan is the father of ,donar4 ,mars1 the god of war1 was identified with the ,german ,tiu or ,ziu1 a name which1 though originally the same as ,zeus in ,greek or ,dyaus in ,sanskrit1 took a peculiarly national character among the ,germans1 and became their god of war47#fc7 ,there remained thus only the dies ,saturni1 the day of ,saturn1 and whether this was called so in imitation of the ,latin name1 or after an old ,german deity of a similar name and character1 is a point which for the present we must leave unsettled4 ,what1 however1 is not unsettled is this1 that if the ,germans1 in interpreting these names of ,roman deities as well as they could1 called the dies ,mercurii1 the same day which the ,hindus had called the day of ,budha 7with one d71 their day of ,wuotan1 this was not because 8the doctrines of the gentle ascetic existed in the bosom of ,odin or his followers1 while dwelling near the roots of the ,caucasus10 but for very different and much more tangible reasons4 ,but1 apart from all this1 by what possible process could ,buddha and ,odin have ever been brought together in the flesh8 ,in the history of ancient religions1 ,odin belongs to the same stratum of mythological thought as ,dyaus in ,india1 ,zeus in ,greece1 ,jupiter in ,italy4 ,he was worshipped as the supreme deity during a period long anterior to the age of the ,veda and of ,homer4 ,his travels in ,greece1 and even in ,tyrkland17#fd7 and his half-historical character as a mere hero and a leader of his people1 are the result of the latest ,euhemerism4 ,buddha1 on the contrary1 is not a mythological1 but a personal and historical character1 and to think of a meeting of ,buddha and ,odin1 or even of their respective descendants1 at the roots of ,mount ,caucasus1 would be like imagining an interview between ,cyrus and ,odin1 between ,mohammed and ,aphrodite4 ,a comparative study of ancient religions and mythologies1 as will be seen from these instances1 is not a subject to be taken up lightly4 ,it requires not only an accurate acquaintance with the minutest details of comparative philology1 but a knowledge of the history of religions which can hardly be gained without a study of original documents4 ,as long1 however1 as researches of this kind are carried on for their own sake1 and from a mere desire of discovering truth1 without any ulterior objects1 they deserve no blame1 though1 for a time1 they may lead to erroneous results4 ,but when coincidences between different religions and mythologies are searched out simply in support of preconceived theories1 whether by the friends or enemies of religion1 the sense of truth1 the very life of all science1 is sacrificed1 and serious mischief will follow without fail4 ,here we have a right1 not only to protest1 but to blame4 ,there is on this account a great difference between the books we have hitherto examined1 and a work lately published in ,paris by ,m4 ,jacolliot1 under the sensational title of 8,la ,bible dans l',inde1 ,vie de ,jeseus ,christna40 ,if this book had been written with the pure enthusiasm of ,lieutenant ,wilford1 it might have been passed by as a mere anachronism4 ,but when one sees how its author shuts his eyes against all evidence that would tell against him1 and brings together1 without any critical scruples1 whatever seems to support his theory that ,christianity is a mere copy of the ancient religion of ,india1 mere silence would not be a sufficient answer4 ,besides1 the book has lately been translated into ,english1 and will be read1 no doubt1 by many people who cannot test the evidence on which it professes to be founded4 ,we learn that ,m4 ,jacolliot was some years ago appointed ,president of the ,court of ,justice at ,chandernagore1 and that he devoted the leisure left him from the duties of his position to studying ,sanskrit and the holy books of the ,hindus4 ,he is said to have put himself in communication with the ,brahmans1 who had obtained access to a great number of ,,mss4 carefully stored up in the depths of the pagodas4 8,the purport of his book is0 7,i quote from a friendly critic71 8that our civilization1 our religion1 our legends1 our gods1 have come to us from ,india1 after passing in succession through ,egypt1 ,persia1 ,judea1 ,greece1 and ,italy40 ,this statement1 we are told1 is not confined to ,m4 ,jacolliot1 but has been admitted by almost all ,oriental scholars4 ,the ,old and ,new ,testaments are found again in the ,vedas1 and the texts quoted by ,m4 ,jacolliot in support of his theory are said to leave it without doubt4 ,brahma created ,adima 7in ,sanskrit1 the first man7 and gave him for companion ,heva 7in ,sanskrit1 that which completes life74 ,he appointed the island of ,ceylon for their residence4 ,what follows afterwards is so beautifully described that ,i may be pardoned for quoting it4 ,only ,i must warn my readers1 lest the extract should leave too deep an impression on their memory1 that what ,m4 ,jacolliot calls a simple translation from ,sanskrit is1 as far as ,i can judge1 a simple invention of some slightly mischievous ,brahman1 who1 like the ,pandits of ,lieutenant ,wilford1 took advantage of the zeal and credulity of a ,french judge3-- 8,having created the ,man and the ,woman 7simultaneously1 not one after the other71 and animated them with the divine afflatus--the ,lord said unto them3 #8,behold1 your mission is to people this beautiful ,island ,ceylon1 where ,i have gathered together everything pleasant and needful for your subsistence--the rest of the ,earth is as yet uninhabitable1 but should your progeny so increase as to render the bounds of paradise too narrow a habitation1 let them inquire of me by sacrifice and ,i will make known my will4' 8,and thus saying1 the ,lord disappeared4444 8,then ,adam and ,eve dwelt together for a time in perfect happiness2 but ere long a vague disquietude began to creep upon them4444 ,the ,spirit of ,evil1 jealous of their felicity and of the work of ,brahma1 inspired them with disturbing thoughts2--#8,let us wander through the ,island1' said ,adam to his companion1 #8and see if we may not find some part even more beautiful than this4' 444 8,and ,eve followed her husband 444 wandering for days and for months2 444 but as they advanced the woman was seized with strange and inexplicable terrors3 #8,adam1' said she1 #8let us go no farther3 it seems to me that we are disobeying the ,lord2 have we not already quitted the place which he assigned us for a dwelling and forbade us to leave8' 8 #8,fear not1' replied ,adam2 #8this is not that fearful wilderness of which he spake to us4' 4444 8,and they wandered on4444 8,arriving at last at the extremity of the ,island1 they beheld a smooth and narrow arm of the sea1 and beyond it a vast and apparently boundless country1 connected with their ,island only by a narrow and rocky pathway arising from the bosom of the waters4 8,the wanderers stood amazed3 the country before them was covered with stately trees1 birds of a thousand colors flitting amidst their foliage4 8444 #8,behold1 what beautiful things6' cried ,adam1 #8and what good fruit such trees must produce2 444 let us go and taste them1 and if that country is better than this1 we will dwell there4' 8,eve1 trembling1 besought ,adam to do nothing that might irritate the ,lord against them4 #8,are we not well here8 ,have we not pure water and delicious fruits8 ,wherefore seek other things8' 8 #8,true1' replied ,adam1 #8but we will return2 what harm can it be to visit this unknown country that presents itself to our view8' 4444 ,and as he approached the rocks1 ,eve1 trembling1 followed4 8,placing his wife upon his shoulders1 he proceeded to cross the space that separated him from the object of his desires1 but no sooner did he touch the shore than trees1 flowers1 fruits1 birds1 all that they had perceived from the opposite side1 in an instant vanished amidst terrific clamor2 444 the rocks by which they had crossed sunk beneath the waters1 a few sharp peaks alone remaining above the surface1 to indicate the place of the bridge which had been destroyed by ,divine displeasure4 8,the vegetation which they had seen from the opposite shore was but a delusive mirage raised by the ,spirit of ,evil to tempt them to disobedience4 8,adam fell1 weeping1 upon the naked sands1 444 but ,eve throwing herself into his arms1 besought him not to despair2 444 #8let us rather pray to the ,author of all things to pardon us4' 4444 8,and as she spake there came a voice from the clouds1 saying1 8 #8,woman6 thou hast only sinned from love to thy husband1 whom ,i commanded thee to love1 and thou hast hoped in me4 8 #8,i therefore pardon thee--and ,i pardon him also for thy sake3 444 but ye may no more return to paradise1 which ,i had created for your happiness2 444 through your disobedience to my commands the ,spirit of ,evil has obtained possession of the ,earth4444 ,your children reduced to labor and to suffer by your fault will become corrupt and forget me4444 8 #8,but ,i will send ,vishnu1 who will be born of a woman1 and who will bring to all the hope of a reward in another life1 and the means by prayer of softening their sufferings4' 0 ,the translator from whom ,i have quoted exclaims at the end1 as well he might3-- 8,what grandeur and what simplicity is this ,hindu legend6 and at the same time how simply logical6444 ,behold here the veritable ,eve--the true woman40 ,but much more extraordinary things are quoted by ,m4 ,jacolliot1 from the ,vedas and the commentaries4 ,on p4 #fc we read that ,manu1 ,minos1 and ,manes1 had the same name as ,moses2 on p4 #gc1 the ,brahmans who invaded ,india are represented as the successors of a great reformer called ,christna4 ,the name of ,zoroaster is derived from the ,sanskrit ,sryastara 7p4 #aaj71 meaning 8he who spreads the worship of the ,sun40 ,after it has been laid down 7p4 #aaf7 that ,hebrew was derived from ,sanskrit1 we are assured that there is little difficulty in deriving ,jehovah from ,zeus47#fe7 ,zeus1 ,jezeus1 ,jesus1 and ,isis are all declared to be the same name1 and later on 7p4 #acj7 we learn that 8at present the ,brahmans who officiate in the pagodas and temples give this title of ,jeseus--i4 e4 the pure essence1 the divine emanation--to ,christna only1 who alone is recognized as the ,word1 the truly incarnated1 by the worshippers of ,vishnu and the freethinkers among the ,brahmans40 ,we are assured that the ,apostles1 the poor fishermen of ,galilee1 were able to read the ,veda 7p4 #cef72 and it was their greatest merit that they did not reject the miraculous accounts of the ,vedic period1 because the world was not yet ripe for freedom of thought4 ,kristna1 or ,christna1 we read on p4 #cfj1 signified in ,sanskrit1 sent by ,god1 promised by ,god1 holy2 and as the name of ,christ or ,christos is not ,hebrew1 whence could it have been taken except from ,krishna1 the son of ,devak1 or1 as ,m4 ,jacolliot writes1 ,devanaguy8 ,it is difficult1 nay1 almost impossible1 to criticise or refute such statements1 and yet it is necessary to do so2 for such is the interest1 or ,i should rather say the feverish curiosity1 excited by anything that bears on ancient religion1 that ,m4 ,jacolliot's book has produced a very wide and very deep impression4 ,it has been remarked with some surprise that ,vedic scholars in ,europe had failed to discover these important passages in the ,veda which he has pointed out1 or1 still worse1 that they had never brought them to the knowledge of the public4 ,in fact1 if anything was wanting to show that a general knowledge of the history of ancient religion ought to form part of our education1 it was the panic created by ,m4 ,jacolliot's book4 ,it is simply the story of ,lieutenant ,wilford over again1 only far less excusable now than a hundred years ago4 ,many of the words which ,m4 ,jacolliot quotes as ,sanskrit are not ,sanskrit at all2 others never have the meaning which he assigns to them2 and as to the passages from the ,vedas 7including our old friend the ,bhagaveda-gta71 they are not from the ,veda1 they are not from any old ,sanskrit writer--they simply belong to the second half of the nineteenth century4 ,what happened to ,lieutenant ,wilford has happened again to ,m4 ,jacolliot4 ,he tells us the secret himself3-- 8,one day10 he says 7p4 #bhj71 8when we were reading the translation of ,manu1 by ,sir ,w4 ,jones1 a note led us to consult the ,indian commentator1 ,kullka ,bhatta1 when we found an allusion to the sacrifice of a son by his father prevented by ,god himself after he had commanded it4 ,we then had only one ide fixe--namely1 to find again in the dark mass of the religious books of the ,hindu1 the original account of that event4 ,we should never have succeeded but for #8the complaisance' of a ,brahman with whom we were reading ,sanskrit1 and who1 yielding to our request1 brought us from the library of his pagoda the works of the theologian ,ramatsariar1 which have yielded us such precious assistance in this volume40 ,as to the story of the son offered as a sacrifice by his father1 and released at the command of the gods1 ,m4 ,jacolliot might have found the original account of it from the ,veda1 both text and translation1 in my 8,history of ,ancient ,sanskrit ,literature40 ,he would soon have seen that the story of ,sunahsepa being sold by his father in order to be sacrificed in the place of an ,indian prince1 has very little in common with the intended sacrifice of ,isaac by ,abraham4 ,m4 ,jacolliot has1 no doubt1 found out by this time that he has been imposed upon2 and if so1 he ought to follow the example of ,colonel ,wilford1 and publicly state what has happened4 ,even then1 ,i doubt not that his statements will continue to be quoted for a long time1 and that ,adima and ,heva1 thus brought to life again1 will make their appearance in many a book and many a lecture-room4 ,lest it be supposed that such accidents happen to ,sanskrit scholars only1 or that this fever is bred only in the jungles of ,indian mythology1 ,i shall mention at least one other case which will show that this disease is of a more general character1 and that want of caution will produce it in every climate4 ,before the discovery of ,sanskrit1 ,china had stood for a long time in the place which was afterwards occupied by ,india4 ,when the ancient literature and civilization of ,china became first known to the scholars of ,europe1 the ,celestial ,empire had its admirers and prophets as full of enthusiasm as ,sir ,w4 ,jones and ,lieutenant ,wilford1 and there was nothing1 whether ,greek philosophy or ,christian morality1 that was not supposed to have had its first origin among the sages of ,china4 ,the proceedings of the ,jesuit missionaries in ,china were most extraordinary4 ,they had themselves admitted the antiquity of the writings of ,confucius and ,lao-tse1 both of whom lived in the sixth century ,b4 ,c47#ff7 ,but in their zeal to show that the sacred books of the ,chinese contained numerous passages borrowed from the ,bible1 nay1 even some of the dogmas of the later ,church1 they hardly perceived that1 taking into account the respective dates of these books1 they were really proving that a kind of anticipated ,christianity had been accorded to the ancient sages of the ,celestial ,empire4 ,the most learned advocate of this school was ,father ,prmare4 ,another supporter of the same view1 ,montucci17#fg7 speaking of ,lao-tse's ,tao-te-king1 says3-- 8,we find in it so many sayings clearly referring to the triune ,god1 that no one who has read this book can doubt that the mystery of the most holy ,trinity was revealed to the ,chinese more than five centuries before the advent of ,christ4 ,everybody1 therefore1 who knows the strong feeling of the ,chinese for their own teachers1 will admit that nothing more efficient could be found in order to fix the dogmas of the ,christian religion in the mind of the ,chinese than the demonstration that these dogmas agree with their own books4 ,the study1 therefore1 and the translation of this singular book 7the ,tao-te-king7 would prove most useful to the missionaries1 in order to bring to a happy issue the desired gathering in of the ,apostolic harvest40 ,what followed is so extraordinary that1 though it has often been related1 it deserves to be related again1 more particularly as the whole problem which was supposed to have been solved once for all by ,m4 ,stanislas ,julien1 has of late been opened again by ,dr4 von ,strauss1 in the 8,journal of the ,german ,oriental ,society10 #ahfi4 ,there is a passage at the beginning of the fourteenth chapter of the ,tao-te-king in which ,father ,amyot felt certain that the three ,persons of the ,trinity could be recognized4 ,he translated it3-- 8,he who is as it were visible but cannot be seen is called ,khi4 8,he whom we cannot hear1 and who does not speak to our ear1 is called ,hi4 8,he who is as it were tangible1 but cannot be touched1 is called ,wei40 ,few readers1 ,i believe1 would have been much startled by this passage1 or would have seen in it what ,father ,amyot saw4 ,but more startling revelations were in store4 ,the most celebrated ,chinese scholar of his time1 ,abel ,rmusat1 took up the subject2 and after showing that the first of the three names had to be pronounced1 not ,khi1 but ,i1 he maintained that the three syllables ,i ,hi ,wei1 were meant for ,je-ho-vah4 ,according to him1 the three characters employed in this name have no meaning in ,chinese2 they are only signs of sounds foreign to the ,chinese language2 and they were intended to render the ,greek 1 the name which1 according to ,diodorus ,siculus1 the ,jews gave to their ,god4 ,rmusat goes on to remark that ,lao-tse had really rendered this ,hebrew name more accurately than the ,greeks1 because he had preserved the aspiration of the second syllable1 which was lost in ,greek4 ,in fact1 he entertained no doubt that this word1 occurring in the work of ,lao-tse1 proves an intellectual communication between the ,west and ,china1 in the sixth century ,b4 ,c4 ,fortunately1 the panic created by this discovery did not last long4 ,m4 ,stanislas ,julien published in #ahdb a complete translation of this difficult book2 and here all traces of the name of ,jehovah have disappeared4 8,the three syllables1 he writes1 8which ,abel ,rmusat considered as purely phonetic and foreign to the ,chinese language1 have a very clear and intelligible meaning1 and have been fully explained by ,chinese commentators4 ,the first syllable1 ,i1 means without color2 the second1 ,hi1 without sound or voice2 the third1 ,wei1 without body4 ,the proper translation therefore is3--0 8,you look 7for the ,tao1 the law7 and you see it not3 it is colorless4 8,you listen and you hear it not3 it is voiceless4 8,you wish to touch it and you reach it not3 it is without body40 ,until1 therefore1 some other traces can be discovered in ,chinese literature proving an intercourse between ,china and ,juda in the sixth century ,b4 ,c41 we can hardly be called upon to believe that the ,jews should have communicated this one name1 which they hardly trusted themselves to pronounce at home1 to a ,chinese philosopher2 and we must treat the apparent similarity between ,i-,hi-,wei and ,jehovah as an accident1 which ought to serve as a useful warning1 though it need in no way discourage a careful and honest study of ,comparative ,theology4 ,,iv4 ,,on ,,spelling4 ,the remarks which ,i venture to offer in these pages on the corrupt state of the present spelling of ,english1 and on the advantages and disadvantages connected with a reform of ,english orthography1 were written in fulfillment of a promise of very long standing4 ,ever since the publication of the ,second ,volume of my 8,lectures on the ,science of ,language10 in #ahfc1 where ,i had expressed my sincere admiration for the courage and perseverance with which ,mr4 ,isaac ,pitman and some of his friends 7particularly ,mr4 ,a4 ,j4 ,ellis1 for six years his most active associate7 had fought the battle of a reform in ,english spelling1 ,mr4 ,pitman had been requesting me to state more explicitly than ,i had done in my 8,lectures0 my general approval of his life-long endeavors4 ,he wished more particularly that ,i should explain why ,i1 though by profession an etymologist1 was not frightened by the specter of phonetic spelling1 while such high authorities as ,archbishop ,trench and ,dean ,alford had declared that phonetic spelling would necessarily destroy the historical and etymological character of the ,english language4 ,if ,i ask myself why ,i put off the fulfillment of my promise from year to year1 the principal reason ,i find is1 that really ,i had nothing more to say than what1 though in few words1 ,i had said before4 ,every thing that can be said on this subject has been said1 and well said1 not only by ,mr4 ,pitman1 but by a host of writers and lecturers1 among whom ,i might mention ,mr4 ,alexander ,j4 ,ellis1 ,dr4 ,latham1 ,professors ,haldeman1 ,whitney1 and ,hadley1 ,mr4 ,withers1 ,mr4 ,e4 ,jones1 ,dr4 ,j4 ,h4 ,gladstone1 and many others4 ,the whole matter is no longer a matter for argument2 and the older ,i grow1 the more ,i feel convinced that nothing vexes people so much1 and hardens them in their unbelief and in their dogged resistance to reforms1 as undeniable facts and unanswerable arguments4 ,reforms are carried by ,time1 and what generally prevails in the end1 are not logical deductions1 but some haphazard and frequently irrational motives4 ,i do not say1 therefore1 with ,dean ,swift1 that 8there is a degree of corruption wherein some nations1 as bad as the world is1 will proceed to an amendment2 till which time particular men should be quiet40 ,on the contrary1 ,i feel convinced that practical reformers1 like ,mr4 ,pitman1 should never slumber nor sleep4 ,they should keep their grievances before the public in season and out of season4 ,they should have their lamps burning1 to be ready whenever the right time comes4 ,they should repeat the same thing over and over again1 undismayed by indifference1 ridicule1 contempt1 and all the other weapons which the lazy world knows so well how to employ against those who venture to disturb its peace4 ,i myself1 however1 am not a practical reformer2 least of all in a matter which concerns ,englishmen only--namely1 the spelling of the ,english language4 ,i should much rather1 therefore1 have left the fight to others1 content with being merely a looker-on4 ,but when ,i was on the point of leaving ,england my conscience smote me4 ,though ,i had not actually given a pledge1 ,i remembered how1 again and again1 ,i had said to ,mr4 ,pitman that ,i would much rather keep than make a promise2 and though overwhelmed with other work at the time1 ,i felt that before my departure ,i ought1 if possible1 to satisfy ,mr4 ,pitman's demands4 ,the article was written2 and though my own plans have since been changed1 and ,i remain at ,oxford1 it may as well be published in discharge of a debt which has been for some time heavy on my conscience4 ,what ,i wish most strongly to impress on my readers is that ,i do not write as an advocate4 ,i am not an agitator for phonetic reform in ,england4 ,my interest in the matter is1 and always has been1 purely theoretical and scientific4 ,spelling and the reform of spelling are problems which concern every student of the science of language4 ,it does not matter whether the language be ,english1 ,german1 or ,dutch4 ,in every written language the problem of reforming its antiquated spelling must sooner or later arise2 and we must form some clear notion whether any thing can be done to remove or alleviate a complaint inherent in the very life of language4 ,if my friends tell me that the idea of a reform of spelling is entirely ,quixotic1 that it is a mere waste of time to try to influence a whole nation to surrender its historical orthography and to write phonetically1 ,i bow to their superior wisdom as men of the world4 ,but as ,i am not a man of the world1 but rather an observer of the world1 my interest in the subject1 my convictions as to what is right and wrong1 remain just the same4 ,it is the duty of scholars and philosophers not to shrink from holding and expressing what men of the world call ,quixotic opinions2 for1 if ,i read the history of the world rightly1 the victory of reason over unreason1 and the whole progress of our race1 have generally been achieved by such fools as ourselves 8rushing in where angels fear to tread10 till1 after a time1 the track becomes beaten1 and even angels are no longer afraid4 ,i hold1 and have confessed1 much more ,quixotic theories on language than this belief--that what has been done before by ,spaniards and ,dutchmen--what is at this very moment being done by ,germans1 namely1 to reform their corrupt spelling--may be achieved even by ,englishmen and ,americans4 ,i have expressed my belief that the time will come when not only the various alphabets and systems of spelling1 but many of the languages themselves which are now spoken in ,europe1 to say nothing of the rest of the world1 will have to be improved away from the face of the earth and abolished4 ,knowing that nothing rouses the ire of a ,welshman or a ,gael so much as to assert the expediency1 nay1 necessity1 of suppressing the teaching of their languages at school1 it seems madness to hint that it would be a blessing to every child born in ,holland1 in ,portugal1 or in ,denmark--nay1 in ,sweden and even in ,russia--if1 instead of learning a language which is for life a barrier between them and the rest of mankind1 they were at once to learn one of the great historical languages which confer intellectual and social fellowship with the whole world4 ,if1 as a first step in the right direction1 four languages only1 namely1 ,english1 ,french1 ,german1 ,italian 7or possibly ,spanish7 were taught at school1 the saving of time--and what is more precious than time8--would be infinitely greater than what has been effected by railways and telegraphs4 ,but ,i know that no name in any of the doomed languages would be too strong to stigmatize such folly4 ,we should be told that a ,japanese only could conceive such an idea2 that for a people deliberately to give up its language was a thing never heard of before2 that a nation would cease to be a nation if it changed its language2 that it would1 in fact1 commit 8the happy despatch10 la ,japonaise4 ,all this may be true1 but ,i hold that language is meant to be an instrument of communication1 and that in the struggle for life1 the most efficient instrument of communication must certainly carry the day1 as long as natural selection1 or1 as we formerly called it1 reason1 rules the world4 ,the following figures may be of use in forming an opinion as to the fates of the great languages of ,europe37#fh7-- ,portuguese is spoken in ,portugal1 by #c1ihj1jjj ,brazil1 by #aj1jjj1jjj ,total3 #ac1ihj1jjj ,italian1 by #bg1ebd1bch ,french1 in ,france1 ,belgium1 ,switzerland1 etc41 by #dj1ahh1jjj ,spanish1 in ,spain1 by #af1cja1jjj ,south ,america1 by #bg1djh1jhb ,total3 #dc1gji1jhb ,russian1 by #ea1cgj1jjj ,german1 by #ee1ghi1jjj ,english1 in ,europe1 by #ca1jjj1jjj ,america1 by #de1jjj1jjj ,australia1 etc41 by #b1jjj1jjj the ,colonies1 by #a1jej1jjj ,total3 #gi1jej1jjj ,according to ,de ,candolle1 the population doubles in ,england1 in #ef years ,america1 among the ,german races1 in #be years ,italy1 in #ace years ,russia1 in #ajj years ,spain1 in #aab years ,south ,america1 in #bg- years ,germany1 in #ajj years ,france1 in #adj years ,therefore1 in #bjj years 7barring accidents7 ,italian will be spoken by #ec1cgj1jjj ,french will be spoken by #gb1ega1jjj ,german will be spoken by #aeg1dhj1jjj ,spanish will be spoken in ,europe1 by #cf1ich1cch ,south ,america1 by #dfh1cdg1ijd ,total3 #eje1bhf1bdb ,english will be spoken in ,europe1 by #agh1hdf1aec ,united ,states1 and ,british ,dependencies1 by #a1feh1ddj1jjj ,total3 #a1hcg1bhf1aec ,but ,i shall say no more on this1 for as it is1 ,i know ,i shall never hear the end of it1 and shall go down to posterity1 if for nothing else1 at least for this the most suicidal folly in a student of languages2 a folly comparable only to that of ,leibniz1 who actually conceived the possibility of one universal language4 ,to return1 however1 to the problem to the solution of which ,mr4 ,pitman has devoted the whole of his active life1 let me say again that my interest in it is purely philological2 or1 if you like1 historical4 ,the problem which has to be solved in ,england and the ,united ,states of ,america is not a new one1 nor an isolated one4 ,it occurs again and again in the history of language2 in fact1 it must occur4 ,when languages are reduced to writing1 they are at first written phonetically1 though always in a very rough-and-ready manner4 ,one dialect1 that of the dominant1 the literary1 or priestly character1 is generally selected2 and the spelling1 once adopted1 becomes in a very short time traditional and authoritative4 ,what took place thousands of years ago1 we can see taking place1 if we like1 at the present moment4 ,a missionary from the island of ,mangaia1 the ,rev4 ,w4 ,gill1 first introduced the art of writing among his converts4 ,he learned their language1 at least one dialect of it1 he translated part of the ,bible into it1 and adopted1 of necessity1 a phonetic spelling4 ,that dialect is gradually becoming the recognized literary language of the whole island1 and his spelling is taught at school4 ,other dialects1 however1 continue to be spoken1 and they may in time influence the literary dialect4 ,for the present1 however1 the missionary dialect1 as it is called by the natives themselves1 and the missionary spelling1 rule supreme1 and it will be some time before a spelling reform is wanted out there4 ,among the more ancient nations of ,europe1 not only does the pronunciation of language maintain its inherent dialectic variety1 and fluctuate through the prevalence of provincial speakers1 but the whole body of a language changes1 while yet the spelling1 once adopted in public documents1 and taught to children1 remains for a long time the same4 ,in early times1 when literature was in its infancy1 when copies of books could easily be counted1 and when the norma scribendi was in the hands of a few persons1 the difficulty of adapting the writing to the ever-varying pronunciation of a language was comparatively small4 ,we see it when we compare the ,latin of early ,roman inscriptions with the ,latin of ,cicero4 ,we know from ,cicero himself that when he settled among the patricians of ,rome1 he had on some small points to change both his pronunciation and his spelling of ,latin4 ,the reform of spelling was a favorite subject with ,roman scholars1 and even emperors were not too proud to dabble in inventing new letters and diacritical signs4 ,the difficulty1 however1 never assumes serious proportions4 ,the small minority of people who were able to read and write1 pleased themselves as best they could2 and1 by timely concessions1 prevented a complete estrangement between the written and the spoken language4 ,then came the time when ,latin ceased to be ,latin1 and the vulgar dialects1 such as ,italian1 ,french1 and ,spanish took its place4 ,at that time the spelling was again phonetic1 though here and there tinged by reminiscences of ,latin spelling4 ,there was much variety1 but considering how limited the literary intercourse must have been between different parts of ,france1 ,spain1 or ,italy1 it is surprising that on the whole there should have been so much uniformity in the spelling of these modern dialects4 ,a certain local and individual freedom of spelling1 however1 was retained2 and we can easily detect in medival ,,mss4 the spelling of literate and illiterate writers1 the hand of the learned cleric1 the professional clerk1 and the layman4 ,a style of spelling will now be introduced which has received the name of ,semiphonotypy4 ,it requires no new letter3 8,d p0 for the vowel in but1 son1 are made from 8,d p0 by a pen-knife4 ,the short vowels1 diphthongs1 and consonants are all written phonetically1 except an occasional 8n0 8n0 before k and g1 and 8th0 both 8t0 and 8dh0 leaving only the long vowels in the old spelling4 ,six syllables out of seven are thus written as in full phonotypy4 ,the italic and script forms of 8,p italic form 0 are 8p italic form 0 7a turned italic 8a07 and ,p p script form 4 ,the great event hwich formz a deseisiv epok in the histori ov speling iz the introdpkshon ov printing4 ,with printed buks1 and partikiularli with printed ,beibelz1 skaterd over the kpntri1 the speling of wprdz bekame rijid1 and universali beinding4 ,spm langwejez1 spch az ,italian1 wer more fortiunate than ptherz in having a more rashonal sistem ov speling tu start with4 ,spm1 agen1 leik ,jerman1 wer abel tu make teimli konseshonz1 hweil ptherz1 spch az ,spanish1 ,dpch1 and ,french1 had ,akademiz tu help them at kritikal periodz ov their histori4 ,the most pnfortiunate in all theze respekts woz ,inglish4 ,it started with a ,latin alfabet1 the pronpnsiashon ov hwich woz pnseteld1 and hwich had tu be apleid tu a ,tiutonik langwej4 ,after this ferst fonetik kompromeiz it had tu pas through a konfizd sistem ov speling1 half ,sakson1 half ,norman2 half fonetik1 half tradishonal4 ,the histori ov the speling1 and even ov the pronpnsiashon1 ov ,inglish1 in its pasej from ,anglo-,sakson tu midel and modern ,inglish1 haz lateli been stpdid with great spkses bei ,mr4 ,ellis and ,mr4 ,sweet4 ,ei mpst refer tu their buks 8,on ,erli ,inglish ,pronpnsiashon10 and 8,on the ,histori ov ,inglish ,soundz10 hwich kontain a welth ov ilpstrashon1 almost bewildering4 ,and even after ,inglish reachez the period ov printing1 the konfiuzhon iz bei no meanz terminated2 on the kontrari1 for a teim it iz greater than ever4 ,hou this kame tu pas haz been wel ilpstrated bei ,mr4 ,marsh in hiz ekselent 8,lektiurz on the ,inglish ,langwej10 p4 #fhg1 seq47#fi7 ,hwot we nou kall the establisht sistem ov ,inglish orthografi may1 in the main1 be trast bak tu ,jonson'z ,dikshonari1 and tu the stil more kaprishus sway ekserseizd bei larj printing ofisez and ppblisherz4 ,it iz true that the evil ov printing karid tu a serten ekstent its own remedi4 ,if the speling bekame pnchanjabel1 the langwej itself1 too1 woz1 bei meanz ov a printed literatiur1 chekt konsiderabli in its natiural growth and its dealektik vareieti4 ,nevertheles ,inglish haz chanjed sins the invenshon ov printing2 ,inglish iz chanjing1 though bei imperseptibel degreez1 even nou2 and if we kompare ,inglish az spoken with ,inglish az riten1 they seem almost leik two diferent langwejez2 az diferent az ,latin iz from ,italian4 ,this1 no dout1 iz a nashonal misfortiun1 but it iz inevitabel4 ,litel az we perseive it1 langwej iz1 and alwayz mpst be1 in a state ov fermentashon2 and hwether within hundredz or thouzandz ov yearz1 all living langwejez mpst be prepared tu enkounter the difikplti hwich in ,ingland starez us in the fase at prezent4 8,hwot shal we do80 ask our frendz4 8,ther iz our hole nashonal literatiur10 they say1 8our leibrariz aktiuali bprsting with buks and nuizpaperz4 ,ar all theze tu be thrown away8 ,ar all valiuabel buks tu be reprinted8 ,ar we ourselvz tu pnlern hwot we hav lernd with so much trpbel1 and hwot we hav taught tu our children with greater trpbel stil8 ,ar we tu sakrifeiz all that iz historikal in our langwej1 and sink doun tu the low level ov the ,fonetik ,nuz80 ,ei kud go on mpltipleiing theze kwestionz til even thoze men ov the wprld who nou hav onli a shrug ov the shoulder for the reformerz ov speling shud say1 8,we had no eidea hou strong our pozishon reali iz40 ,but with all that1 the problem remainz pnsolvd4 ,hwot ar peopel tu do hwen langwej and pronpnsiashon chanje1 hweil their speling iz deklared tu be pnchanjabel8 ,it iz1 ei believ1 hardli nesesari that ei shud prove hou korppt1 efete1 and pterli irrashonal the prezent sistem ov speling iz1 for nowpn seemz inkleind tu denei all tht4 ,ei shal onli kwote1 therefor1 the jpjment ov wpn man1 the late ,bishop ,thirlwall1 a man who never uzed ekzajerated langwej4 8,ei luk10 he sez 8ppon the establisht sistem1 if an aksidental kpstom may be so kalld1 az a mas ov anomaliz1 the growth ov ignorans and chans1 ekwali reppgnant tu gud taste and tu komon sens4 ,bpt ei am aware that the ppblik kling tu theze anomaliz with a tenasiti proporshond tu their absprditi1 and ar jelps ov all enkroachment on ground konsekrated tu the free play ov bleind kaprise40 ,it may be useful1 houever1 tu kwote the testimonialz ov a fiu praktikal men in order tu show that this sistem ov speling haz reali bekpm wpn ov the greatest nashonal misfortiunz1 swolowing pp milionz ov mpni everi year and bleiting all atempts at nashonal ediukashon4 ,mr4 ,edward ,jones1 a skoolmaster ov great eksperiens1 having then siuperintendens ov the ,heibernian ,skoolz1 ,liverpool1 rote1 in the year #ahfh3 8,the ,gpvernment haz for the last twenti yearz taken ediukashon pnder its kare4 ,they diveided the subjekts ov instrpkshon intu siks gradez4 ,the heiest point that woz atempted in the ,gpvernment ,skoolz woz that a piupil shud be abel tu read with tolerabel eaze and ekspreshon a pasej from a niuzpaper1 and tu spel the same with a tolerabel amount ov akiurasi40 ,let ps luk at the rezplts az they apear in the report ov the ,komti ov ,kounsil on ,ediukashon for #ahgj-ga3 ,skoolz or ,departments pnder separate hed teacherz in ,ingland and ,walez inspekted diuring the year #cast ,august1 #ahgj1 #ae1bhg ,sertifikated asistant1 and piupil teacherz emploid in theze skoolz1 #bh1jcc ,skolarz in daili averej atendans throughout the year1 #a1afh1iha ,skolarz prezent on the day ov inspekshon1 #a1dgc1hhc ,skolarz prezented for ekzaminashon3 ,pnder ten yearz ov aje1 #dgc1ddd ,over ten yearz ov aje1 #bib1add ,total3 #gfe1ehh ,skolarz prezented for ,standard ,,vi43 ,pnder ten yearz ov aje1 #bbg ,over ten yearz ov aje1 #cb1iec ,total3 #cc1ahj ,skolarz who past in ,standard ,,vi43 #a4 ,reading a short paragraf from a niuzpaper1 #cj1ihe #b4 ,reiting the same from diktashon1 #bg1ihi #c4 ,arithmetik1 #bb1hci ,therfor1 les than wpn skolar for each teacher1 and les than two skolarz for each skool inspekted1 reacht ,standard ,,vi4 ,in #ahgc the state ov thingz1 akording tu the ofishal retprnz ov the ,ediukashon ,department1 woz mpch the same4 ,ferst ov all1 ther ought tu hav been at skool #d1fjj1jjj children between the ajez ov three and therteen4 ,the number ov children on the rejister ov inspekted skoolz woz #b1bah1eih4 ,out ov tht number1 about #bjj1jjj leav skool aniuali1 their ediukashon beng supozed tu be finisht4 ,out ov theze #bjj1jjj1 neinti per sent4 leav without reaching the #fth ,standard1 eighti per sent4 without reaching the #eth1 and siksti per sent4 without reaching the #dth ,standard4 ,the report for #ahgd-ge showz an inkreas ov children on the buks1 bpt the proporshon ov children pasing in the varips standardz iz spbstanshali the same4 7,see 8,popiular ,ediukashon10 bei ,e4 ,jones1 ,b4,a41 an eks-skoolmaster1 #ahge47 ,it iz kalkiulated that for such rezults az theze the kpntri1 hwether bei taksashon or bei voluntari kontribiushonz1 payz nearli #c1ejj1jjj aniuali4 ,akording tu the same authoriti1 ,mr4 ,e4 ,jones1 it nou takes from siks tu seven yearz tu lern the arts ov reading and speling with a fair degree ov intelijens--tht iz1 about #b1jjj ourz2 and tu meni meindz the difikpltiz ov orthografi ar insprmountabel4 ,the bulk ov the children pas through the ,gpvernment skoolz without having akweird the abiliti tu read with eaze and intelijens4 8,an averej cheild10 sez anuthcr skoolmaster1 8begining skool at seven1 ought tu be abel tu read the ,niu ,testament fluentli at eleven or twelv yearz ov aje1 and at therteen or fourteen ought tu be abel tu read a gud leading artikel with eaze and ekspreshon40 ,that iz1 with seven ourz a week for forti weeks for feiv yearz1 a cheild rekweirz #a1djj ourz' wprk1 tu be abel tu read the ,niu ,testament4 ,after a kareful ekzaminashon ov ypng men and wimen from therteen tu twenti yearz ov aje in the faktoriz ov ,birmingham1 it woz proved that onli #d- per sent4 wer abel tu read a simpel sentens from an ordinari skool-buk with intelijens and akiurasi4 ,this apleiz tu the lower klasez4 ,bpt with regard tu the heier klasez the kase seemz almost wprs2 for ,dr4 ,morell1 in hiz 8,maniual ov ,speling10 aserts that out ov #a1igb failiurz in the ,sivil ,servis ,ekzaminashonz #a1hff kandidates wer plpkt for speling4 ,so much for the piupilz4 ,ampng the teacherz themselvz it woz found in ,amerika that out ov wpn hpndred komon wprdz the best speler ampng the eighti or neinti teacherz ekzamind faild in wpn1 spm preiz-takerz faild in four or feiv1 and spm ptherz mist over forti4 ,the ,depiuti ,state ,siuperintendent deklared that on an averej the teacherz ov the ,state wud fail in speling tu the ekstent ov #be per sent4 ,hwot1 houever1 iz even more serips than all this iz not the great waste ov teim in lerning tu read1 and the almost komplete failiur in nashonal ediukashon1 but the aktiual mischef dpn bei spbjekting ypng meindz tu the illojikal and tedips drpjeri ov lerning tu read ,inglish az speld at prezent4 ,everithing they hav tu lern in reading 7or pronpnsiashon7 and speling iz irrashonal2 wpn rule kontradikts the pther1 and each statement haz tu be aksepted simpli on authoriti1 and with a komplete disregard ov all thoze rashonal instinkts which lei dormant in the cheild1 and ought tu be awakend bei everi keind ov helthi ekserseiz4 ,ei n ther ar personz who kan defend enithing1 and who hold that it iz diu tu this veri disiplin that the ,inglish karakter iz hwot it iz2 that it retainz respekt for authoriti2 that it dpz not rekweir a reazon for everithing2 and that it duz not admit that hwot iz inkonseivabel iz therefor imposibel4 ,even ,inglish orthodoksi haz been trast bak tu tht hiden sourse1 bekauz a cheild akustomd tu believe that t-h-o-u-g-h iz tho1 and that t-h-r-o-u-g-h iz throo1 wpd afterwardz believe enithing4 ,it may be so2 stil ei dout hwether even such objekts wud justifei spch meanz4 ,lord ,lytton sez1 8,a more leiing1 round-about1 ppzel-heded deluzhon than tht bei hwich we konfiz the klear instinkts ov truth in our akprsed sistem ov speling woz never konkokted bei the father ov folshud4444 ,hou kan a sistem ov ediukashon flprish that beginz bei so monstrps a folshud1 hwich the sens ov hearing spfeisez tu kontradikt80 ,though it may seem a wprk ov siupererogashon tu bring forward stil more fakts in spport ov the jeneral kondemnashon past on ,inglish speling1 a fiu ekstrakts from a pamflet bei ,mr4 ,meiklejohn1 late ,asistant-,komishoner ov the ,endoud ,skoolz ,komishon for ,skotland1 may here feind a plase4 8,ther ar therteen diferent wayz ov reprezenting the sound ov long o3--note1 boat1 toe1 yeoman1 soul1 row1 sew1 hautboy1 beau1 owe1 floor1 oh61 ,o60 ,and agen 7p4 #af71 8,double-you-aitch-eye-see-aitch is which ,tea-are-you-tea-aitch is truth ,bee-o-you-gee-aitch is bough ,see-are-eh-bee is crab ,bee-ee-eh-see-aitch is beach ,oh-you-gee-aitch-tee is ought ,oh-enn-see-ee is once 8,or1 tu sum up the hole indeitment agenst the kulprit3 #a4 ,out ov the twenti-siks leterz1 onli eight ar true1 fikst1 and permanent kwolitiz--tht iz1 are true both tu e and ear4 #b4 ,ther ar therti-eight distinkt soundz in our spoken langwej2 and ther ar about #djj distinkt simbolz 7simpel and kompound7 tu reprezent theze therti-eight soundz4 ,in pther wurdz1 ther ar #djj servants tu do the wprk ov therti-eight4 #c4 ,ov the twenti-siks leterz1 fifteen hav akweird a habit ov heiding themselvz4 ,they ar riten and printed2 bpt the ear haz no akount ov them2 such ar w in wrong1 and gh in right4 #d4 ,the vouel soundz ar printed in diferent wayz2 a long o1 for ekzampel1 haz therteen printed simbolz tu reprezent it4 #e4 ,fourteen vouel soundz hav #aij printed simbolz atcht tu their servis4 #f4 ,the singel vouel e haz feiv diferent funkshonz2 it ought onli tu hav wpn4 #g4 ,ther ar at least #a1cjj wprdz in hwich the simbol and the sound ar at varians--in hwich the wprd iz not sounded az it iz printed4 #h4 ,ov theze #a1cjj1 #hjj ar monosilabelz--the komonest wprdz1 and sppozed tu be eazier for children4 #i4 ,the hole langwej ov kpntri children leiz within theze wprdz2 and meni agrikultiural laborerz go from the kradel tu the grave with a stok ov no more than #ejj wprdz40 ,the kwestion1 then1 that wil hav tu be anserd sooner or later iz this3--,kan this unsistematik sistem ov speling ,inglish be aloud tu go on for ever8 ,iz everi ,inglish cheild1 az kompared with pther children1 tu be mplkted in two or three yearz ov hiz leif in order tu lern it8 ,ar the lower klasez tu go through skool without lerning tu read and reit their own langwej intelijentli8 ,and iz the kuntri tu pay milionz everi year for this pter failiur ov nashonal ediukashon8 ,ei do not believ that spch a state ov thingz wil be aloud tu kontiniu for ever1 partikiularli az a remedi iz at hand--a remidi that haz nou been tested for twenti or therti yearz1 and that haz anserd ekstremli wel4 ,ei mean ,mr4 ,pitman'z sistem ov fonetik reiting1 az apleid tu ,inglish4 ,ei shal not enter here intu eni minit diskpshon ov fonetiks1 or re-open the kontroversi hwich haz arizen between the advokets ov diferent sistemz ov fonetik reiting4 ,ov kourse1 ther ar diferent degreez ov ekselens in diferent sistemz ov fonetik speling2 but even the wprst ov theze sistemz iz infinitli siuperior tu the tradishonal speling4 ,ei giv ,mr4 ,pitman'z alfabet1 hwich komprehendz the therti-siks broad tipikal soundz ov the ,inglish langwej1 and aseinz tu each a definit sein4 ,with theze therti-siks seinz1 ,inglish kan be riten rashonali and red eazili2 and1 hwot iz most important1 it haz been proved bei an eksperiens ov meni yearz1 bei niumerps ppblikashonz1 and bei praktikal eksperiments in teaching both children and adplts1 that such a sistem az ,mr4 ,pitman'z iz perfektli praktikal4 ,,the ,,phonetic ,,alphabet4 ,the phonetic letters in the first column are pronounced like the italic letters in the words that follow4 ,the last column contains the names of the letters4 ,,consonants4 ,mutes4 ,p p rope pi ,b b robe bi ,t t fate ti ,d d fade di ,ch ch etch che ,j j edge je ,k k leek ke ,g g league ge ,continuants4 ,f f safe ef ,v v save vi ,t t wreath it ,dh dh wreathe dhi ,s s hiss es ,z z his zi ,sh sh vicious ish ,z ,z vision zi ,nasals4 ,m m seem em ,n n seen en ,n n sing in ,liquids4 ,l l fall el ,r r rare ar ,coalescents4 ,w w wet we ,y y yet ye ,aspirate4 ,h h hay ech ,,vowels4 ,guttural4 ,a a am at ,a a alms a ,e e ell et ,e e ale e ,i i ill it ,i i eel i ,labial4 ,o o on ot ,w w all w ,u u up ut ,o o ope o ,u u full ut ,ue ue food ue ,,diphthongs3 ,ei ei1 ,,iu iu1 ,,ou ou1 ,,ai ai1 ,,oi oi1 as heard in by1 new1 now1 ,kaiser1 boy4 ,in the next fourteen pages1 five of the new letters will be employed1 viz41 a1 u1 t1 z1 n1 for the sounds represented by the italic letters in father1 son1 but1 thin1 vision1 sing4 ,nou ei ask eni intelijent reader who duz not tink that everitin niu and stranje iz1 ipso facto1 ridikiulus and absurd1 hwether after a fiu dayz' praktis1 he or she wud not read and reit ,inglish1 akordin tu ,mr4 ,pitman'z sistem1 with perfekt eaze8 ,ov kourse it takes more than feiv minits tu master it1 and more than feiv minits tu form an opinion ov its merits4 ,but admitin even that peopel ov a serten aje shud feind this niu alfabet trubelsum1 we must not forget that no reform kan be karid out without a jenerashon or two ov marterz2 and hwot true reformerz hav tu tink ov iz not themselvz1 but thoze who kum after them--thoze1 in fakt1 who ar nou growin up tu inherit hereafter1 hwether they leik it or not1 all the gud and all the evil hwich we chooz tu leav tu them4 ,it meit be sed1 houever1 that ,mr4 ,pitman'z sistem1 bein enteirli fonetik1 iz too radikal a reform1 and that meni and the wurst irregiularitiz in ,inglish spelin kud be removed without gon kweit so far4 ,the prinsipel that haf a loaf iz beter than no bred iz not without sum trut1 and in meni kasez we n that a polisi ov kompromeiz haz been produktiv ov veri gud rezults4 ,but1 on the uther hand1 this haf-harted polisi haz often retarded a real and komplete reform ov ekzistin abisez2 and in the kase ov a reform ov spelin1 ei almost dout hwether the difikultiz inherent in haf-mezurz ar not az great az the difikultiz ov kariin a komplete reform4 ,if the wurld iz not redi for reform1 let us wait4 ,it seemz far beter1 and at all events far more onest1 tu wait til it iz redi than tu kari the reluktant wurld with you a litel way1 and then tu feind that all the impulsiv forse iz spent1 and the greater part ov the abisez establisht on fermer ground than ever4 ,mr4 ,jones17#gj7 who reprezents the konsiliatori reformerz ov spelin1 wud be satisfeid with a moderet skeme ov spelin reform1 in hwich1 bei obzervin analoji and folowin presedent in olterin a komparativli small number ov wurdz1 it wud be posibel tu simplifei ortografi tu a konsiderabel ekstent without apleiin eni niu prinsipel1 or introdisin niu leterz1 and yet tu redis the teim and labor in teachin readin and spelin bei at least wun-haf4 ,it meit at all events be posibel tu setel the spelin ov thoze two or three touzand wurdz hwich at prezent ar speld diferentli bei diferent autoritiz4 ,this skeme1 advokated bei ,mr4 ,jones1 iz sertenli veri klever2 and if it had a chans ov sukses1 ei meiself shud konsider it a great step in advns4 ,mei onli dout iz hwether1 in a kase leik this1 a small mezur ov reform wud be karid more eazili than a komplete reform4 ,it iz diferent in ,jerman1 hwere the diseaz haz not spred so far4 ,here the ,komti apointed bei ,guvernment tu konsider the kwestion ov a reform ov spelin haz deklared in favor ov sum such moderet prinsipelz az ,mr4 ,jones advokates for ,inglish4 ,in ,inglish1 houever1 the difikuti leiz in chanjin enitin2 and if the prinsipel ov eni chanje iz wuns admited1 it wud reali be eazier1 ei believ1 tu begin de novo than tu chanje sumtin1 and leav the rest unchanjed4 ,let us nou see hou ,mr4 ,pitman'z or eni similar sistem ov fonetik reitin haz wurkt hwere it haz been put tu the test4 ,mr4 ,william ,white reits3 8,ei speak from eksperiens4 ,ei hav taught poor children in ,glasgow tu read the ,sermon on the ,mount after a kourse ov ekserseizez ekstendin over no more than siks ourz40 ,the folowin iz an ekstrakt from a leter riten sum teim ago bei the late ,mr4 ,william ,colbourne1 manajer ov the ,dorset ,bank at ,sturminster1 tu a frend ov hiz a skoolmaster4 ,he sez3-- 8,mei litel ,sidney1 who iz nou a fiu munts more than four yearz old1 wil read eni fonetik buk without the sleitest hezitashon2 the hardest namez or the longest wurdz in the ,old or ,niu ,testament form no obstakel tu him4 ,and hou lon do you tink it tuk me 7for ei am hiz teacher7 tu impart tu him this pouer8 ,hwei sumtin les than eight ourz6 ,you may believ it or not1 az you leik1 but ei am konfident that not more than that amount ov teim woz spent on him1 and that woz in snachez ov feiv minits at a teim1 hweil tea woz getin redi4 ,ei no you wil be inkleind tu say1 #8,all that iz veri wel1 but hwot iz the use ov readin fonetik buks8 he iz stil az far of1 and may be farther1 from readin romanik buks4' ,but in this you ar mistaken4 ,take anuther ekzampel4 ,hiz nekst elder bruther1 a boi ov siks yearz1 haz had a fonetik ediukashon so far4 ,hwot iz the konsekwens8 ,hwei1 readin in the ferst staje woz so deleitful and eazi a tin tu him that he taught himself tu read romanikali1 and it wud be a difikult mater tu feind wun boi in twenti1 ov a korespondin aje1 that kud read haf so wel az he kan in eni buk4 ,agen1 mei oldest boi haz riten more fonetik shorthand and lonhand1 perhaps1 than eni boi ov hiz aje 7eleven yearz7 in the kindom2 and nowun ei daresay haz had les tu do with that absurditi ov absurditiz1 the spelin-buk6 ,he iz nou at a ferst-rate skool in ,wiltshire1 and in the haf-year presedin ,kristmas1 he karid of the preiz for ortografi in a kontest with boiz sum ov them hiz seniorz bei yearz60 ,bei the adopshon ov the fonetik alfabet1 the difikultiz that lei in the way ov forenerz lernin ,inglish1 also wud be dun away with4 ,the ,rev4 ,newman ,hall reits1 8,ei met with a ,danish jentelman the uther day who heili preizd the ,inglish fonotipik ,niu ,testament4 ,it had been ov great use tu him1 and enabeld him tu read buks in the komon spelin without an instrukter1 removin the greatest obstakel in akweirin ,inglish1 the monstrus anomaliz ov pronunsiashon40 ,ekzampelz leik theze go a lon way4 ,mr4 ,a4 ,j4 ,ellis1 than whom nowun haz labord more devotidli for a reform ov spelin1 az a ferst step in a reform ov nashonal ediukashon1 and who haz himself elaborated several most injenius sistemz ov fonetik reitin1 givz us the folowin az the rezultz ov hiz praktikal eksperiens3 8,with the fonetik sistem ov spelin1 the ,primer iz masterd within tree munts at most4 ,the children then proseed tu praktis this fonetik readin for sum teim1 til they kan read with fluensi from the jeneral luk ov the wurd1 and not from konsiderin the pouerz ov its leterz4 ,tree munts more1 at most1 ar rekweird for this staje4 8,hwen this pouer ov fluent readin in fonetik print iz akweird1 buks in the ordinari print1 suited tu their kapasitiz1 ar tu be put intu the children'z handz and they ar told tu read them4 ,each wurd hwich they fail tu ges iz told them immedietli2 but it iz found that children ar mostli abel tu read the ordinari print without eni further instrukshon4 ,the teim nesesari for kompletin this step may be taken1 at the longest1 az two munts1 so that the hole teim ov lernin tu read in the ordinari print1 on the ,readin ,reform sistem1 may be rekond az feiv ourz a week for eight munts4 ,the hole task haz1 in meni kasez1 been akomplisht in les teim1 even in tree munts4 ,on the uther hand1 in wun skool hwere it iz uzed1 eleven munts ar okupeid1 az the master feindz it advantajus in uther respekts tu keep the piupil longer at fonetik readin ,but onli wun our a day iz rekweired40 ,mr4 ,ellis sumz up az folowz3 8,kareful eksperiments in teachin children ov varius ajez and ranks1 and even pauperz and kriminal adults1 hav establisht-- 8#a4 ,that piupilz may be taught tu read buks in fonetik print1 slowli but shureli1 in from ten tu forti ourz1 and will atain konsiderabel fluensi after a fiu weeks' praktis4 8#b4 ,that hwen the piupilz hav ataind fluensi in readin from fonetik print1 a veri fiu ourz wil sufeis tu giv them the same fluensi in readin ordinari print4 8#c4 ,that the hole teim nesesari for impartin a nolej ov bot fonetik and ordinari readin duz not ekseed eight munts for children ov averaj intelijens1 between four and feiv yearz ov aje1 taught in klas1 at skool1 not more than haf-an-our tu an our each day2 and that in this teim an abiliti tu read iz akweird siuperior tu that uzuali ataind in two or tree teimz the period on the old plan2 hweil the pronunsiashion ov the piupil iz much improved1 hiz interest in hiz studiz iz kept aleiv1 and a lojikal trainin ov endiurin valiu iz given tu hiz meind bei the habitual analisis and sintensis ov spoken soundz4 8#d4 ,that thoze taught tu read in this maner akweir the art ov ordinari spelin more redili than thoze instrukted on the old metod40 ,tu all who no ,mr4 ,a4 ,j4 ,ellis1 this evidens wil be be sufishent az tu the praktikal usefulnes ov the ,fonetik ,sistem ov spelin4 ,tu thoze who wish for more evidens ei rekomend a pamflet bei ,mr4 ,g4 ,withers1 8,the ,inglish ,langwej ,speld az ,pronounst10 #ahgd2 and wun bei ,dr4 ,j4 ,w4 ,martin1 8,the ,gordian ,not ,kut10 #ahge1 hwere they wil feind the konkurent testimoni ov praktikal teacherz in ,ingland1 ,skotland1 ,eirland1 and ,amerika1 all agreein that1 bot az a praktikal and a lojikal trainin1 the ,fonetik ,sistem haz proved the greatest sukses4 ,ther remainz1 therefor1 this wun objekshon onli1 that hwotever the praktikal1 and hwotever the teoretikal advantejez ov the fonetik sistem may be1 it wud uterli destroi the historikal or etimolojikal karakter ov the ,inglish langwej4 ,supoze it did2 hwot then8 ,the ,reformashon iz supozed tu hav destroid the historikal karakter ov the ,inglish ,church1 and that sentimental grievans iz stil felt bei sum stiudents ov ekleziastikal antikwitiz4 ,but did ,ingland1 did all the reali progresiv nashonz ov ,europe1 alou this sentimental grievans tu outweigh the praktikal and teoretikal advantejez ov ,protestant ,reform8 ,langwej iz not made for skolarz and etimolojists2 and if the hole rase ov ,inglish etimolojists wer reali tu be swept away bei the introdukshon ov a ,spelin ,reform1 ei hope they wud be the ferst tu rejois in sakrifeizin themselvz in so gud a kauz4 ,but iz it reali the kase that the historikal kontiniiti ov the ,inglish langwej wud bei broken bei the adopshon ov fonetik spelin1 and that the profeshon ov the etimolojist wud be gon for ever8 ,ei say ,no1 most emfatikali1 tu bot propozishonz4 ,if the seiens ov langwej haz proved enitin1 it haz proved that all langwejez chanje akordin tu law1 and with konsiderabel uniformiti4 ,if1 therefor1 the reitin folowd pari passu1 on the chanjez in pronunsiashon1 hwot iz kalld the etimolojikal konshusnes ov the speakerz and the readerz--ei speak1 ov kourse1 ov ediukated peopel onli--wud not sufer in the least4 ,if we retain the feelin ov an etimolojikal konekshon between gentlemanly and gentlemanlike1 we shud shureli retain it hwether we reit gentlemanly or gentelmanli4 ,if we feel that think and thought1 bring and brought1 buy and bought1 freight and fraught1 belon tugether1 shud we feel it les if we rote twt1 brwt1 bwt1 frwt8 ,if1 in speakin1 thoze who no ,latin retain the feelin that wurdz endin in -ation korespond tu ,latin wurdz in -atio1 wud they looz the feelin if they saw the same wurdz speld with eshon1 or even 8-eshun80 ,do they not rekogneiz ,latin -itia1 in -ice2 or -ilis in -le1 az in -able 7,latin abilis78 ,if the skolar noz1 at wuns1 that such wurdz az barbarous1 anxious1 circus1 genius1 ar ov ,latin orijin1 wud he hezitate if the last silabel in all ov them wer uniformli riten 8us80 ,nay1 iz not the prezent spelin ov barbarous and anxious enteirli misleadin1 bei konfoundin wurdz endin in -osus1 such az famous 7famosus7 with wurdz endin in -us1 leik barbarous1 anxious1 ets48 ,bekauz the ,italianz reit filosofo1 ar they les aware than the ,inglish1 who reit philosopher1 and the ,french1 who reit philosophe1 that they hav before them the ,latin philosophus1 the ,greek 8 ,if we reit f in fansi1 hwei not in phantom8 ,if in frenzy and frantic1 hwei not in phrenology8 ,a langwej hwich tolerates vial for phial1 need not shiver at filosofer4 ,everi eidiukated speaker nz that such wurdz az honour1 ardour1 colour1 odour1 labour1 vigour1 error1 emperor1 hav past from ,latin tu ,french1 and from ,french tu ,inglish4 ,wud he n it les if all wer speld aleik1 such az onor 7onorable71 ardor1 vigor 7vigorous71 labor 7laborious71 or even 8onur1 ardur1 vigur80 ,the old spelin ov emperor1 doctor1 governor1 and error1 woz emperour1 doctour1 governour1 and errour4 ,if theze kud be chanjed1 hwei not the rest8 ,spenser haz neibor for neighbor1 and it iz difikult tu say hwot woz gaind bei chanjin -bor intu -bour in such piurli ,sakson wurdz az neighbor1 harbor4 ,no dout if we see laugh riten with gh at the end1 thoze who n ,jerman ar at wuns remeinded ov its etimolojikal konekshon with the ,jerman lachen2 but we shud soon n the same bei analoji1 if we found not onli 8laf10 but 8kof0 for cough 7,jerman1 keuchen71 enuf for enough 7,jerman1 genug71 ets4 ,in 8draft10 fonetik spelin haz nearli suplanted the so-kalld historikal spelin draught2 in 8dwarf0 7dwergh1 thweorh7 and in 8ruff0 7rough71 altugether4 ,hwot peopel kall the etimolojikal konshusnes ov the speaker iz striktli a mater ov oratorikal sentiment onli1 and it wud remain nearli az stron az it iz nou1 hwotever spelin be adopted4 ,but even if it shud sufer here and there1 we ought tu bear in meind that1 eksept for oratorikal purposez1 that konshusnes1 konfeind az it iz tu a veri fiu ediukated peopel1 iz ov veri small importans1 unles it haz ferst been korekted bei a strikt etimolojikal disiplin4 ,without that1 it often dejenerates intu hwot iz kalld 8popiular etimoloji10 and aktiuali tendz1 in sum kasez1 tu vishiate the korekt spelin ov wurdz4 ,ei hav frekwentli dwelt on this before1 in order tu show hou1 hwot iz nou kalld the etimolojikal or historikal spelin ov wurdz iz1 in meni kasez1 uterli unetimolojikal and unhistorikal4 ,we spel to delight1 and thus indis meni peopel tu believ that this wurd iz sumhou konekted with light lux1 or light levis2 hwereaz the old spelin woz to delyt or to delite 7,tyndale71 reprezentin the old ,french deleiter4 ,on the uther hand1 we feind for quite and smite1 the old spelin quight1 smight1 hwich may be old and historikal1 but iz deseidedli unetimolojikal4 ,sovereign and foreign ar speld az if they wer konekted with reign1 regnum2 the true etimoloji ov the former ben superanus1 ,old ,french1 sovrain1 ,old ,inglish1 soveraine2 hweil foreign iz the late ,latin foraneus2 ,old ,french forain2 ,old ,inglish forein4 ,and hwei du we reit to feign8 ,archbishop ,trench 78,inglish ,past and ,prezent10 p4 #bch7 tinks the g in feign iz elokwent tu the e2 but its elokwens iz misleadin4 ,feign iz not taken from ,latin fingo1 az litel az honour iz taken from ,latin honor4 ,feign kumz from the ,old ,french faindre2 it woz in ,old ,inglish faynen and feynen1 and it woz therefor a mere etimolojikal feint tu insert the g ov the ,latin fingo1 and the ,french feignant4 ,the ,old ,inglish shammfasst 7,orm471 formd leik stedefasst 7stedfast71 iz nou speld shamefaced1 az if it had sumtin tu do with a blushin fase4 ,aghast1 insted ov ,old ,inglish agast1 iz supozed tu luk more freitful bekauz it remeindz us ov ghost4 ,the ,french lanterne woz riten lant-horn1 az if it had been so kalld from the transparent sheets ov horn that enklozed the leit4 ,the s in island owez its orijin tu a mistaken belief that the wurd iz konekted with isle 7insula71 hwereaz it iz the ,anglo-,sakson eland 7,jerman eiland71 that iz1 water-land4 ,the spelin iland woz stil kurent in ,shakspere'z teim4 ,in aisle1 too1 the s iz unetimolojikal1 though it iz historikal1 az havin been taken over from the ,old ,french aisle4 ,this tendensi tu olter the spelin in order tu impart tu a wurd1 at all hazardz1 an etimolojikal karakter1 beginz even in ,latin1 hwere postumus1 a siuperlativ ov post1 woz sumteimz riten posthumus1 az if1 hwen apleid tu a late-born sun1 it woz dereivd from humus4 ,in ,inglish1 this fols spelin iz retaind in posthumous4 ,cena woz speld bei peopel who wonted tu show their nolej ov ,greek cna1 az if konekted with 1 hwich it iz not4 ,but nou let us luk more karefuli intu the far more important statement1 that the ,inglish langwej1 if riten fonetikali1 wud reali looz its historikal and etimolojikal karakter4 ,the ferst kwestion iz1 in hwot sens kan the prezent spelin ov ,inglish be kalld historikal8 ,we hav onli tu go bak a veri short way in order tu see the modern upstart karakter ov hwot iz kalld historikal spelin4 ,we nou reit pleasure1 measure1 and feather1 but not veri lon ago1 in ,spenser'z teim1 theze wurdz wer speld plesure1 mesure1 fether4 ,tyndale rote frute2 the i in fruit iz a mere restorashon ov the ,french spelin4 ,for debt1 on the kontrari1 we feind1 but tree or four hundred yearz ago1 dett4 ,this iz more historikal therefor than debt1 bekauz in ,french1 from hwich the wurd woz borowd1 the b had disapeard1 and it woz a piurli etimolojikal fansi tu restore it4 ,the b woz leikweiz re-introdist in doubt1 but the p woz not restored in tu kount 7,french compter1 ,latin computare71 hwere p had at least the same reit az b in doute4 ,thus receipt rezimz the ,latin p1 but deceit duz without it4 ,tu deign keeps the g1 tu disdain duz without it4 ,ther iz anuther b hwich haz a serten historikal air in sum ,inglish wurdz1 but hwich woz orijinali piurli fonetik1 and iz nou simpli siuprfluus4 ,the old wurd for member woz lim4 ,in such kompoundz az lim-lama1 lim7b7-lame2 lim-leas1 lim7b7-less2 it woz imposibel tu avoid the interkalashon ov a b in pronunsiashon4 ,in this maner the b krept in1 and we hav nou tu teach that in limb1 crumb 7crume71 thumb 7thuma71 the b must be riten1 but not prononst4 ,agen1 tung 7,jerman zunge71 yung 7,jerman jung71 az speld bei ,spenser1 hav a far more historikal aspekt than tongue and young4 ,if we wisht tu reit historikali1 we ought tu reit salm insted ov psalm1 for the inishal p1 ben lost in pronunsiashon1 woz dropt in reitin at a veri erli teim 7,anglo-,sakson sealm71 and woz re-introdist simpli tu pleaz sum ekleziastikal etimolojists2 also nevew 7,french neveu7 insted ov nephew1 hwich iz both unetimolojikal and unfonetik4 ,in hwot sens kan it be kalld historikal spelin if the old pluralz ov mouse and louse1 hwich wer mys and lys1 ar nou speld mice and lice8 ,the plural ov goose iz not speld geece but geese1 yet everibodi nz hou tu pronons it4 ,the same mistaken atempt at an okazhonal fonetik spelin haz separated dice from die1 and pence from pens1 tht iz1 penyes2 hweil in nurse1 hwere the spelin nurce wud hav been useful az remeindin us ov its true etimon nourrice1 the c haz been replast bei s4 ,ther ar1 in fakt1 meni spelinz hwich wud be at the same teim more historikal and more fonetik4 ,hwei reit little1 hwen nowun prononsez little1 and hwen the old spelin woz lytel8 ,hwei girdle1 hwen the old spelin woz girdel8 ,the same rule apleiz tu nearli all wurdz endin in le1 such az sickle1 ladle1 apple1 ets41 hwere the etimoloji iz kompleteli obskird bei the prezent ortografi4 ,hwei scent1 but dissent1 hwen even ,milton stil rote sent8 ,hwei ache1 insted ov the ,shaksperian ake8 ,hwei cat1 but kitten2 hwei cow1 but kine8 ,hwei accede1 precede1 secede1 but exceed1 proceed1 succeed8 ,hwei1 indeed1 eksept tu waste the preshus teim ov children8 ,and if it iz difikult tu say hwot konstitiuts historikal spelin1 it iz ekwali perpleksin tu defein the real meanin ov etimolojikal spelin4 ,for hwere ar we tu stop8 ,it wud be konsiderd veri unetimolojikal wer we tu reit nee insted ov knee1 now insted ov know1 night insted ov knight2 yet nowun komplainz about the los ov the inishal h1 the reprezentativ ov an orijinal k1 in loaf1 ,a4 ,s4 hlf 7cf4 71 in ring 7,a4 ,s4 hring72 in lade1 ladder1 neck1 ets4 ,if we ar tu reit etimolojikali1 then hwei not return tu loverd1 or hlaford1 insted ov lord8 tu nosethrill1 or nosethirle insted ov nostril2 tu swister insted ov sister2 hwich wud not be more trubelsum than sword4 ,wifmann shureli wud be beter than woman2 meadwife beter than midwife2 godspel beter than gospel1 ortyard beter than orchard1 puisne beter than puny4 ,frekwentli the prezent rekogneizd spelin luks etimolojikal1 but iz uterli unetimolojikal4 ,righteous luks leik an ajektiv in -eous1 such az plenteous1 but it iz reali a ,sakson wurd1 rightwis1 tht iz rightwise1 formd leik otherwise1 ets4 ,could iz riten with an l in analoji tu would1 but hweil the l iz justifeid in would from will1 and should from shall we feind the ,old ,inglish imperfekt ov can riten cuthe1 then couthe1 coude4 ,the l1 therefor1 iz neither fonetik nor etimolojikal4 ,nutin1 agen1 kan be more misleadin tu an etimolojist than the prezent spelin ov whole and hale4 ,both kum from the same sourse1 the ,gotik hail-s1 ,sanskrit kalya-s1 meanin orijinali1 fit1 redi2 then sound1 complete1 whole4 ,in ,anglo-,sakson we hav hl1 hole2 and hal1 helti1 without eni trase ov a w1 either before or after4 ,the ,old ,inglish halsum1 holesum1 iz the ,jerman hailsam4 ,whole1 therefor1 iz a mere mis-spelin the w havin probabli been aded in analoji tu who1 which1 ets4 ,from a piurli etimolojikal point ov viu1 the w iz ronli left out before h in hou2 for az ,anglo-,sakson hwy bekame why1 ,anglo-,sakson hwa shud hav bekum whow4 ,if we reali atempted tu reit etimolojikali1 we shud hav tu reit bridegroom without the r1 bekauz groom iz a mere korupshon ov guma1 man1 ,anglo-,sakson bryd-guma4 ,we shud hav tu reit burse insted ov purse1 az in disburse4 ,in fakt1 it iz difikult tu say hwere we shud stop4 ,hwei do we not reit metal insted ov mettle1 worthship insted ov worship1 chirurgeon insted ov surgeon1 furhlong 7tht iz1 furow lon7 insted ov furlong1 feordhing 7tht iz fourt part7 insted of farthing8 ,if we reit piuni puisne1 we meit az wel reit post-natus4 ,we meit spel koi1 quietus2 pert1 apertus2 priest1 presbyter2 master1 magister2 sekston1 sacristan2 alms1 eleemosyne1 ets4 ,if enibodi wil tel me at hwot date etimolojikal spelin iz tu begin1 hwether at #a1ejj ,a4 ,d4 or at #a1jjj ,a4 ,d41 or #ejj ,a4 ,d41 ei am wilin tu disks the kwestion4 ,til then1 ei beg leav tu say that etimolojikal spelin wud play greater havok in ,inglish than fonetik spelin1 even if we wer tu draw a lein not more than feiv hundred yearz ago4 ,the two strongest argiuments1 therefor1 agenst fonetik spelin1 nameli1 that it wud destroi the historikal and etimolojikal karakter ov the ,inglish langwej1 ar1 after all1 but veri parshali true4 ,here and there1 no dout1 the etimoloji and histori ov an ,inglish wurd meit be obskird bei fonetik spelin2 az if1 for instans1 we rote 8,yueop0 insted ov ,europe4 ,but even then analoji wud help us1 and teach thoze who n ,greek1 ov whom ther ar not meni1 that 8,yuer0 in such wurdz az ,europe1 ,eurydice1 reprezented the ,greek 4 ,the real anser1 houever1 iz1 that nowun kud onestli kall the prezent sistem ov spelin either historikal or etimolojikal2 and1 ei believ1 that1 taken az a hole1 the los okazond bei konsistent fonetik spelin wud not be greater than the gain4 ,anuther objekshon urjd agenst fonetik spelin1 nameli1 that with it it wud be imposibel tu distingwish homonimz1 must be met in the same way4 ,no dout it iz a serten advantej if in reitin we kan distingwish right1 rite1 write1 and wright4 ,but if1 in the huri ov konversashon1 ther iz hardli ever a dout hwich wurd iz ment1 shureli ther wud be much les danjer in the slow proses ov readin a kontiniuus sentens4 ,if varius spelinz ov the same wurd ar nesesari tu point out diferent meaninz1 we shud rekweir eight spelinz for box1 tu signifei a chest1 a ,kristmas gift1 a huntin seat1 a tree1 a slap1 tu sail round1 seats in a teater1 and the frunt seat on a koach2 and this prinsipel wud hav tu be apleid tu abuv #djj wurdz4 ,who wud undertake tu proveid all theze variashonz ov the prezent uniform spelin ov theze wurdz8 ,and we must not forget that1 after all1 in readin a paje we ar seldom in dout hwether sole meanz a fish1 or the sole ov a fut1 or iz uzed az an ajektiv4 ,if ther iz at eni teim eni real difikulti1 langwej proveidz its own remedi4 ,it either drops such wurdz az rite and sole1 replasin them bei seremony and only1 or it uzez a perifrastik ekspreshon1 such az the sole ov the fut1 or the sole and onli ground1 ets4 ,five other new letters1 representing the long vowels1 will now be introduced1 namely e1 i1 w1 o1 ue1 for the sounds heard in they1 field1 saw1 no1 do1 mate1 see1 call1 core1 true1 mare1 police1 ought1 coal1 poor4 ,thus far ei hav treid tu anser the riali important argiuments hwich hav bin brwt forward agenst fonetik spelin4 ,ei hav dun so with speshal referens tu the pouerful remonstransez ov ,archbishop ,trench1 and hiz most ebel plidin in fevor ov the establisht sistem ov ortografi4 ,az a mir skolar1 ei fuli sher hiz filinz1 and ei sinsirli admeir hiz elokwent advokasi4 ,ei difer from him bekwz ei due not tink1 az hi duz1 that the los enteld bei fonetik spelin wud bi so gret az wi imajin2 or that it wud bi wl on wun seid4 ,beseidz1 unles hi kan sho hou a reform ov spelin iz not onli for the prezent tu bi avoided1 but wltugether tu bi renderd unnesesari1 ei konsider that the suener it iz teken in hand the beter4 ,it simz tu mi that the ,archbishop luks on the introdukshon ov fonetik spelin az a mir krochet ov a fiu skolarz1 or az an atempt on the part ov sum haf-ediuketed personz1 wishin tu avoid the trubel ov lernin hou tu spel korektli4 ,if that wer so1 ei kweit agri with him that publik opinion wud never asim sufishent fors for kariin ther skim4 ,but ther iz a motiv pouer beheind thiz fenetik reformerz hwich the ,archbishop haz hardli teken intu akount4 ,ei min the mizeri endird bei milionz ov children at skiuel1 hue meit lern in wun yir1 and with rial advantej tu themselvz1 hwot the nou rekweir for or feiv yirz tu lern1 and seldom suksid in lernin after wl4 ,if the evidens ov such men az ,mr4 ,ellis iz tu bi depended on1 and ei beliv hi iz wilin tu submit tu eni test1 then shuerli the los ov sun historikal and etimolojikal souvenirs wud be litel agenst the hapines ov milionz ov children1 and the stil heier hapines ov milionz ov ,inglishmen and ,inglisewimen1 groin up az the erz tu wl the welt and strent ov ,inglish literatiur1 or unebel tu rid iven ther ,beibel4 ,hir it iz hwer ei ventiur tu difer from the ,archbishop1 not az biin sangwin az tu eni immidiet sukses1 but simpli az filin it a diuti tu help in a kwz hwich at prezent iz most unpopiular4 ,the ivil de me bi put of for a lon teim1 partikiularli if the wet ov such men az ,archbishop ,trench iz tren intu the uther skel4 ,but unles langwei sisez tu bi langwei1 and reitin sisez tu bi reitin1 the de wil shuerli kum hwen pis wil hav tu bi med betwin the te4 ,jermani haz apointed a ,guvernment ,komishon tu konsider hwot iz tu bi dun with ,jerman spelin ,in ,amerika1 tue1 sum lidin stetsmen sim inkleind tu tek up the reform ov spelin on nashonal groundz4 ,iz ther no stetsman in ,ingland sufishentli pruef agenst ridikiul tu kwl the atenshon ov ,parliment tu hwot iz a groin misfortiun8 ,much1 houever1 az ei difer from the ,archbishop on thiz groundz1 ei kanot but depreket the ton in hwich hiz pouerful opozishon hz bin met bei meni ov the upholderz ov fonetik spelin4 ,ne1 ei must go stil further1 and frankli konfs that tu wun ov hiz argiuments ei feind it difikult1 at prezent1 tu giv a satisfaktori anser4 8,it iz a mir asumpshon10 the ,archbishop remarks1 8that wl men pronons wl wurdz aleik2 or that hwenever the kum tu spel a wurd the wil ekzaktli agri az tu hwot the outlein ov its sound iz4 ,nou wi ar shuer men wil not due this1 from the fakt that1 befor ther woz eni fikst and seteld ortografi in our langwej1 hwen1 therfor1 everibodi woz mor or les a a fonografer1 sikin tu reit doun the wurd az it sounded tu him1--for hi had no uther lw tu geid him1--the verieshonz ov spelin ar infinit4 ,tek1 for instans1 the wurd sudden1 hwich duz not sim tu promis eni gret skop for vareieti4 ,ei hav meiself met with this wurd speld in no les than frtin wez amun our erli reiterz4 ,agen1 in hou meni wez woz ,raleigh'z nem speld1 or ,shakspere'z8 ,the sem iz evident from the spelin ov unediukated personz in our on d4e4 ,th,e hav no uther ruel but the sound tu geid them4 ,hou iz it that the due not wl spel aleik80 ,inglish1 ,past and ,prezent1 p4 #bjc4 ,leik most men hue plid with ther hart az wel az with ther hed1 the ,archbishop haz hir overlukt wun obvius anser tu hiz kwestion4 ,the due not spel aleik bekwz the hav bin brwt up with a sistem ov spelin in hwich the sem sound kan bi reprezented in ten diferent wez1 and in hwich hardli eni wun leter iz restrikted tu wun fonetik pouer onli4 ,if children wer brwt up with an alfabet in hwich ich leter had but wun sound1 and in hwich the sem sound woz wlwez reprezented bei the sem sein--and this iz the veri esens ov fonetik reitin--then it wud bi simpli imposibel that the shud drim ov reitin sudden in fortin1 or ,woburn in #adj1 diferent wez4 ,but for wl tht ther iz sum truet in the ,archbishop's remark2 and if wi komper the diferent wez in hwich the advokets ov fonetik spelin--men leik ,pitman1 ,bell1 ,ellis1 ,withers1 ,jones--reit the sem wurdz1 iven hwen yuezin the sem fonetik alfabet1 wi shal si that the difikulti pointed out bei the ,archbishop iz a rial wun4 ,everiwun noz hou diferentli the sem wurdz wlwez hav bin and stil ar prononst in diferent parts ov ,ingland4 ,and it iz not onli in tounz and kountiz that thiz pekiuliaritiz prevel2 ther ar serten wurdz hwich wun famili prononsez diferentli from anuther2 and ther ar beseidz the studid and unstudid pekiuliaritiz ov individiual spikerz4 ,tu konvns pipel that wun pronunsieshon iz reit and the uther ron1 simz uterli hoples4 ,ei hav herd a heili kultiveted man defendin hiz dropin the h at the beginin ov serten wurdz1 bei the unanserabel argiument that in the ples hwer hi woz brwt up1 nowun prononst thiz inishal hz4 ,hwot ,skochman wud admit that hiz pronunsieshon woz fwlti8 ,hwot ,eirishman wud submit tu lwz ov spelin past in ,lundon8 ,and hwot renderz argiument on eni neisetiz ov pronunsieshon stil mor difikult iz1 that bot the ir and the tun ar most trecherus witnesez4 ,ei hav herd ,amerikanz menten in gud ernest that ther woz much les of nezal twan in ,amerika than in ,ingland4 ,pipel ar not awer hou the pronons1 and hou diferentli the pronons wun and the sem wurd4 ,az a forener ei hav had ampel oportiunitiz for obzerveshon on this point4 ,sum frendz wud tel mi1 for instans1 that world woz prononst leik whirl'd1 father leik farther1 nor 7befor konsonants7 leik gnaw1 bud leik bird1 burst leik bust1 for leik fur1 birth leik berth2 that the vouelz had the sem sound in where and were1 in not and war1 in ,god and gaudy2 hweil utherz ashuerd mi that nowun but a forener kud tink so4 ,and the wurst iz that iven the sem person duz not wlwez pronons the sem wurd in ekzaktli the sem maner4 ,konstantli1 hwen ei askt a frend tu repit a wurd hwich hi had just prononst1 hi wud pronons it agen1 but with a sleit diferens4 ,the mir fakt ov hiz treiin tu pronons wel wud give tu hiz pronunsieshon a konshus and emfatik karakter4 ,the prepozishon of iz prononst bei most pipel or1 but if kros-ekzamind1 meni wil se that the pronons ov1 but the o not ekzaktli leik off4 ,the konfiuzon bekumz gretest hwen it iz atempted tu eidentifei the pronunsieshon1 se ov a vouel in ,jerman with a vouel in ,inglish4 ,no te ,inglishmen and no te ,jermanz simd tu bi ebel tu agri on hwot the herd with ther irz1 or hwot the sed with ther tunz2 and the rezult in the end iz that no vouel in ,jernran woz riali the sem az eni uther vouel in ,inglish4 ,tu tek wun or t instansez1 from ,mr4 ,ellis'z ki tu ,palioteip 7,paltype71 ei kan hir no diferens betwin the a in ,italian mano1 ,inglish father1 and ,jerman mahnen1 unles ei restrikt mei obzerveshonz tu the uterans ov serten individiualz2 hweraz ei due hir a veri deseided1 and jenerali adopted1 diferens betwin the vouelz in ,jerman bcke and ,french jeune4 ,mr4 ,ellis1 tuchin on the sem difikulti1 remarks1 8,mr4 ,bell's pronunsieshon1 in meni instansez1 diferz from tht hwich ei am akustomd tu giv1 espeshali in foren wurdz4 ,bot ov us me bi ron40 ,mr4 ,sweet remarks1 p4 #aj1 8,mr4 ,ellis insists stronli on the monoftongal karakter ov hiz on eez and ooz4 ,ei hir hiz ee and oo az distinkt diftonz1 not onli in hiz ,inglish pronunsieshon1 but wlso in hiz pronunsieshon ov ,french1 ,jerman1 and ,latin40 ,if fonetik reitin ment this minit fotografi ov spoken soundz1 in hwich ,mes4 ,bell and ,ellis eksl2 if eni atempt had ever bin med tu emploi this her-splitin mashineri for a praktikal reform ov ,inglish spelin1 the objekshonz rezd bei ,archbishop ,trench wud bi kweit unanserabel4 ,ther wud bi fifti diferent wez ov spelin ,inglish1 and the konfiuzon wud bi greter than it iz nou4 ,not iven ,mr4 ,bell'z terti-siks kategoriz ov vouel sound wud bi sufishent tu render everi pekiuliariti ov vouel kwoliti1 pich and kwontiti1 with perfekt akiurasi4 7,si ,h4 ,sweet1 8,histori ov ,inglish ,soundz10 pp4 #eh1 #fh47 ,but this woz never intended1 and hweil konsidin much tu the ,archbishop's argiuments1 ei must not konsid tue much4 ,hwot ei leik in ,mr4 ,pitman'z sistem ov spelin iz ekzaktli hwot ei n haz bin found fwlt with bei utherz nemli that hi duz not atempt tu refein tue much1 and tu ekspres in reitin thoz endles shedz ov pronunsieshon1 hwich me bi ov the gretest interest tu the stiudent ov akoustiks1 or ov fonetiks1 az apleid tu the studi ov livin deialekts1 but hwich1 for praktikal az well az for seientifik filolojikal purposez1 must bi enteirli ignord4 ,reitin woz never intended tu fotograf spoken langwejez3 it woz ment tu indiket1 not tu pent soundz4 ,if ,voltaire sez1 8,l'criture c'est la peinture de la voix10 hi iz reit2 but hwen hi goz on tu se1 8plus elle est ressemblante1 meilleur elle est10 ei am not serten that1 az in a piktiur ov a landskep1 so in a piktiur ov the vois1 pri-,reifeleit minitnes me not destroi the veri objekt ov the piktiur4 ,langwej dilz in brwd kulorz1 and reitin wt tu folo the ekzampel ov langwej1 hwich tho it alouz an endles vareiti ov pronunsieshon1 restrikts itself for its on purpos1 for the purpos ov ekspresin twt in wl its modifikeshonz1 tu a veri limited number ov tipikal vouelz and konsonants4 ,out ov the larj number ov soundz1 for instans1 hwich hav bin katalogd from the verius ,inglish deialekts1 thoz onli kan bi rekogneizd az konstitiuent elements ov the langwej hwich in1 and bei1 ther diferens from ich uther1 konve a diferens ov minin4 ,ov such pregnant and twt-konvein vouelz1 ,inglish pozsez no mor than twelv4 ,hwotever the meinor shedz ov vouel soundz in ,inglish deialekts me bi1 the due not enrich the langwej1 az such1 tht iz1 the due not enebel the spiker tu konve mor minit shedz ov twt than the twelv tipikal singel vouelz4 ,beseidz1 ther jenerali iz hwot the ,french meit kwl a fonetik solidariti in ich deialekt4 ,if wun vouel chenjez1 the utherz ar apt tu folo1 and the men objekt ov langwej remenz the sem trueout1 nemli1 tu prevent wun wurd from runin intu anuther1 and yet tu absten from tue1 minit fonetik distinkshonz1 hwich an ordinari ir meit feind it difikult tu grasp4 ,this prinsipel ov fonetik solidariti iz ov gret importans1 not onli in eksplenin the gradiual chenjez ov vouelz1 but wlso such jeneral chenjez ov konsonants az wi si1 for instans1 in the ,jerman ,lautverschiebung4 ,az suem az wun ples iz left vekant1 ther iz preshur tu fil it1 or so much ov it az iz left vekant1 but no mor4 ,ther ar1 in fakt1 te branchez1 or at wl events1 te kweit distinkt praktikal aplikeshonz ov the seiens ov ,fonetiks1 hwich for wont ov beter nemz1 ei designet az filolojikal and deialektikal4 ,ther iz hwot me bi kwld a filolojikal studi ov ,fonetiks1 hwich iz an esenshal part ov the ,seiens ov ,langwej1 and haz for its objekt tu giv a klir eidia ov the alfabet1 not az riten1 but az spoken4 ,it trits ov the matirialz out ov hwich1 the instruments with hwich1 and the proses bei hwich1 vouelz and konsonants ar formd2 and after eksplenin hou serten leterz agri1 and difer1 in ther matirial1 in the instruments with hwich1 and the proses bei hwich the ar prodist1 it enebelz us tu understand the kwzez and rezults ov hwot iz kwld ,fonetik ,chenj4 ,in meni respekts the most instruktiv tritment ov the jeneral tiori ov ,fonetiks iz tu bi found in the ,prtiskhyas2 partikiularli in the oldest 7#djj ,b4,k471 tht atacht tu the ,rig ,veda47#ga7 ,tho the number ov posibel soundz me sim infinit the number ov rial soundz yuezd in ,sanskrit or eni uther given langwej for the purpos ov ekspresin diferent shedz ov minin1 iz veri limited4 ,it iz with thiz brwd kategoriz ov sound alon that the ,prtiskhyas dil2 and it iz for a proper understandin ov thiz the ,seiens ov ,lanjgwej haz tu inklued within its sfir a kerful studi ov ,fonetiks4 ,the deialektikal studi ov ,fonetiks haz larjer objekts4 ,it wishez tu ekzwst wl posibel soundz hwich kan bi prodist bei the vokal organz1 litel konsernd az tu hwether thiz soundz okur in eni rial langwej or not4 ,it iz partikiularli yuesful for the purpos ov pentin1 with the utmost akiurasi1 the aktiual pronunsieshon ov individiualz1 and ov fiksin the fentest shedz ov deialektik vareieti4 ,the most marvelus achivment in this branch ov apleid fonetiks me bi sin in ,mr4 ,bell'z 8,vizibel ,spich40 ,thiz te branchez ov fonetik seiens1 houever1 shud bi kept kerfuli distinkt4 ,az the foundeshon ov a praktikal alfabet1 leikweiz az the onli sef foundeshon for the ,seiens ov ,langwej1 wi wont filolojikal or tioretik ,fonetiks4 ,wi wont an understandin ov thez jeneral prinsipelz and thez brwd kategoriz ov sound hwich ar trited in the ,prtiskhyas2 wi due not wont eni ov the minit deialektikal distinkshonz hwich hav no gramatikal purpos and ar therfor outseid the pel ov gramatikal seiens4 ,tue1 minit distinkshon prodiuesez konfiuzon1 and hwer it kan bi avoided1 without a sakrifeiz ov akiurasi1 it wt tu bi avoided4 ,hwer vegnes ekzists in rialiti1 and hwer netiur alouz a brwd marjin on either seid1 it wud bi ron tu ignor tht latitiud4 ,akiurasi itself wud hir bekum inakiurasi4 ,but hwen wi wont tu ekzwst wl posibel shedz ov sound1 hwen wi wont tu fotograf the pekiuliaritiz ov serten deialekts1 or mezur the divieshonz in the pronunsieshon ov individiualz bei the most minit degriz1 wi then must avel ourselvz ov tht ekskwizit artistik mashineri konstrukted bei ,mr4 ,bell1 and handeld with so much skil bei ,mr4 ,a4 ,j4 ,ellis1 the fiu onli wil bi ebel tu yuez it with rial sukses4 ,sum pipel sim tu imajin that the pouer ov distingwishin minit diferensez ov soundz iz a natiural gift1 and kanot bi akweird4 ,it me bi so in kweit eksepshonal kesez1 but ei no az a fakt that a cheild that had1 az pipel se1 no ir for miuzik1 and kud not sin 8,god sev the ,kwin10 gradiuali akweird the pouer ov distingwishin the ordinari nots1 and ov sinin a tiun4 ,spikin from mei on ekspiriens ei shud se that a gud ir kumz bei inheritans1 for1 az lon az ei kan remember1 a fols not1 or1 az wi yuest tu kwl it1 an impiur 7unrein7 not1 woz tu mi fizikali penful4 ,but this apleiz tu miuzik onli1 and it iz bei no minz jenerali true1 that pipel hue hav a gud miuzikal ir1 hav wlso a gud ir for langwej4 ,ei hav non pipel kweit unmiuzikal1 pozst ov a veri gud ir for langwej1 and vice vers4 ,the tue natiural gifts1 therfor1 if natiural gifts the ar1 ov distingwishin minit degriz ov pich and kwoliti ov sound du not sim tu bi the sem4 ,the rial difikulti1 houever1 hwich meks itself felt in disksin minit shedz ov sound1 areizez from the insufishensi ov our nomenklatiur1 from the wlmost irrezistibel influens ov imajineshon1 and in the end1 from the wont ov a fonometer4 ,a gud miuzishan kan distingwish betwin ,c sharp and ,d flat1 a gud fonetishan betwin a 8lo-bak-naro0 and a 8lo-mikst-naro0 vouel4 ,but the kanot wlwez translet ther sentiments intu definit langwej1 and if the trei bei aktiual eksperiment tu imitet thiz t soundz or vouelz1 the imperfekshonz ov the ir and tun1 bot in the spiker and the lisener1 frikwentli render wl atempts at a miutiual understandin imposibel4 ,wi shal never areiv at seientifik presizon til wi hav a fonometer for kwoliti ov sound1 nor due ei si hwei such an instrument shud bi imposibel4 ,ei wel remember ,wheatstone telin mi1 that hi wud undertek tu riprodis bei minz ov an instrument everi shed ov vouel in eni langwej ov the wurld1 and ei shud tink that ,willis'z and ,helmholtz'z eksperiments wud suplei the elements from hwich such a fonometer meit bi konstitiuted4 ,az surn az wi kan mezur1 defein1 and riprodis1 at plezur1 hwot at prezent wi kan onli deskreib in aproksimrt termz1 the seiens ov fonetiks wil bekum most fruetful1 and asim its lejitimet ples az a sine qu non tu the stiudent ov langwej4 ,ei hav sumteimz bin blemd for havin insisted on ,fonetiks biin rekogneizd az the foundeshon ov the ,seiens ov ,langwej4 ,prof4 ,benfey and uther skolarz protested agenst the chapter ei hav devoted tu ,fonetiks in the ,sekond ,siriz ov mei 8,lektiurz10 az an unnesesari inoveshon1 and thoz protests hav bekum stil stronger ov let4 ,but hir1 tue1 wi must distingwish betwin tue tinz4 ,filolojikal or jeneral ,fonetiks1 ar1 ei hold1 az stronli az ever1 an integral part ov the ,seiens ov ,langwej2 deialektik ,fonetiks me bi yuesful hir and ther1 but the shud bi kept within ther proper sfir2 utherweiz1 ei admit az redili az eniwun els1 the obskir rather than revil the brwd and masiv kulorz ov sound hwich langwej yuezez for its ordinari wurk4 ,if wi reflekt a litel1 wi shal si that the filolojikal konsepshon ov a vouel iz sumtin totali diferent from its piurli akoustik or deialektik konsepshon4 ,the former iz chifli konsernd with the sfir ov posibel verieshon1 and the later with the piurli fenomenal individiualiti ov ich vouel4 ,tu the filolojist1 the trji vouelz in septimus1 for instans1 hwotever ther ekzakt pronunsieshonz me hav bin at diferent teimz1 and in diferent provinsez ov the ,roman ,empeir1 ar potenshali wun and the sem4 ,wi luk on septimus and az on ,sanskrit saptamas1 and onli bei noin that e1 i1 and u in septimus ar wl reprezentativz ov a short a1 or that optimus standz for the mor enshent optumus and optomos1 due wi tek in at wun glans the hol histori and posibel verieshon ov thiz vouelz in diferent langwejez and deialekts4 ,iven hwer a vouel disapirz komplitli1 az in gigno for gigeno1 in for the mentl ei ov the filolojist disrnz and wez hwot no ir kan hir4 ,and hweil in thiz kesez the etimolojist1 disregardin the klirest vareieti ov pronunsieshon1 trits such vouelz az a1 e1 i1 o1 u az wun and the sem1 in utherz hwer te vouelz sim tu hav ekzaktli the sem sound tu the deialektishan1 the filolojist on hiz part persivz diferensez ov the gretest importans4 ,the i in fides and cliens me hav the sem sound az the i in gigno or septimus1 the u ov luo me not difer from the u in optumus or lubens1 but ther intrinsik valiu1 ther kepabilitiz ov grot and dek1 ar to totali diferent in ich4 ,wi shal never bi ebel tu spik with enitin leik rial seientifik akiurasi ov the pronunsieshon ov enshent langwejez1 but iven if wi luk tu ther riten apirans onli1 wi si agn and agn hou vouelz1 riten aleik1 ar historikali totali distinkt4 ,grimm introdist the distinkshon betwin i and a1 betwin u and a1 not bekwz it iz bei eni minz serten that the pronunsieshon ov thiz diftonz verid1 but bekwz hi wisht tu indiket that the antesidents ov i and u wer diferent from thoz ov a and a4 ,in ,gotik fahu1 7,sk4 pasu1 pecu71 a iz a shortend tu i1 and broken befor h tu i2 in ,gotik vit 7,sk4 veda1 71 ai1 iz radikal i strentend tu i4 ,in ,gotik dahtar 7,sk4 duhitar 71 a iz radikal u broken tu a2 in ahna uven 7,sk4 asna1 71 the au iz a1 darkend tu u1 and broken tu u2 hweil in ,gotik bug 771 u iz orijinal u strentend tu u4 ,hwen wi hir and in ,gotik wi si 1 just az wi si ,dorik beheind ,eionik 4 ,hwen wi hir c in canis1 wi si ,sanskrit s2 hwen wi hir c in cruor1 wi si ,sanskrit k4 ,hwen wi hir in 1 wi si ,arian g2 hwen wi hir in wi si ,arian z4 ,thiz fiu ilustreshonz wil eksplen1 ei hop the esenshal diferens in the aplikeshon ov fonetiks tu filoloji and deialektoloji1 and wil sho that in the former our brush must ov nesesiti be brwd1 hweil in the later it must bi fein4 ,it iz bei miksin up te separet leinz ov reserch1 ich heili important in itself1 that so much konfiuzon haz ov let bin okezond4 ,the valiu ov piurli fonetik obzerveshonz shud on no akount bi underreted2 but it iz nesesari1 for tht veri rizon1 that deialektikal az wel az filolojikal fonetiks shud bi konfeind tu ther proper sfir4 ,the filolojist haz much tu lern from the fonetishan1 but hi shud never forget that hir1 az elshwer1 hwot iz brwd and tipikal iz az important and az seientifikali akiuret az hwot iz minit and speshal4 ,hwot iz brwd and tipikal iz often mor akiuret iven than hwot iz minit and speshal4 ,it meit bi posibel1 for instans1 bei a fotografik proses1 tu reprezent the ekzakt pozishon ov the tun and the inseid wwlz ov the mout hweil wi pronons the ,italian vouel i4 ,but it wud bi the gretest mistek tu supoz that this imej givz us the onli we in hwich tht vouel iz1 and kan bi1 prononst4 ,tho ich individiual me hav hiz on we ov plesin the tun in prononsin i1 wi hav onli tu trei the experiment in order tu konvins ourselvz that1 with sum efort1 wi me veri that pozishon in meni wez and yet prodis the sound ov4 i4 ,hwen1 therfor1 in mei 8,lektiurz on the ,seiens ov ,langwej10 ei gev piktiurz ov the pozishonz ov the vokal organz rekweird for pronounsin the tipikal leterz ov the alfabet1 ei tuk gret ker tu mek them tipikal1 tht iz1 tu liv them ruf skechez rather than minit fotografs4 ,ei kanot beter ekspres hwot ei fil on this point than bei kwotin the wurdz ov ,hckel3-- 8,for didaktik purposez1 simpel skimatik figiurz ar far mor yuesful than piktiurz prezervin the gretest fetfulnes tu netiur and karid out with the gretest akiurasi40 78,ziele und ,wege10 p4 #cg47 ,the following three letters1 now introduced1 will complete the ,phonetic ,alphabet-- dh ch sh for the sounds heard in--then1 cheap1 she4 ,tu return1 after dhis digreshen1 tu ,mr4 ,pitman'z alfabet1 ei repit dhat it rekomendz itself tu mei meind bei hwot udherz kwl its inakiurasi4 ,it shez its rial and praktikal wizdom bei not atemptin tu fiks eni distinkshonz hwich ar not absoluetli nesesari4 ,if1 for instans1 wi tek dhe gutural teniuis1 wi feind that ,inglish rekogneizez wun k onli1 wldhe its pronunsieshon veriz konsiderabli4 ,it iz sumteimz prononst so az tu prodis wlmost a sharp krak2 sumteimz it haz a dip1 holo sound2 and sumteimz a soft1 lezi1 mouill karakter4 ,it veriz konsiderabli akordin tu dhe vouelz hwich folo it1 az enibodi me hir1 ne fil1 if hi prononsez in sukseshon1 kot1 kuel1 kar1 kat1 kit4 ,but az ,inglish duz not yuez dhiz diferent kz for the purpos ov distingwishin wurdz or gramatikal formz1 wun brwd kategori onli ov voisles gutural cheks haz tu bi admited in reitin ,inglish4 ,in dhe ,semitik langwejez dhe kes iz diferent2 not onli ar kaf and kof diferent in sound1 but dhis diforens iz yuezd tu distingwish diferent mininz4 ,or if wi tek dhe vouel a in its orijinal1 piur pronunsieshon1 leik ,italian a1 wi kan izili persiv dhat it haz diferent kulorz in diferent kountiz ov ,ingland4 ,yet in reitin it me bi trited az wun1 bekwz it haz but wun and dhe sem gramatikal intenshon1 and duz not konv a niu minin til it eksidz its weidest limits4 ,gud spikerz in ,ingland pronons dhe a in last leik dhe piur ,italian a2 widh udherz it bekumz brwd1 widh udherz tin4 ,but dhe it me dhus osilet konsiderabli1 it must not enkroch2 on dhe provins ov e1 hwich wud chenj its minin tu lest2 nor on dhe provins ov o1 hwkch wud chenj it tu lost2 nor on dhe provins ov u1 hwich wud chenj it tu lust4 ,dhe difikulti1 dherfor1 hwich ,archbishop ,trench haz pointed out iz riali restrikted tu dhoz kesez hwer dhe pronunsieshon ov vouelz--for it iz widh vouelz chifli dhat wi ar trubeld--veriz so much az tu overstep dhe brwdest limits ov wun ov dhe rekogneizd kategoriz ov sound1 and tu enkroch on anudher4 ,if wi tek dhe wurd fast1 hwich iz prononst veri diferentli iven bei ediuketed pipel1 dher wud bi no nesesiti for indiketin in reitin dhe diferent shedz ov pronunsieshon hwich lei betwin dhe sound ov dhe short ,italian a and dhe lon a herd in father4 ,but hwen dhe a in fast iz prononst leik dhe a in fat1 dhen dhe nesesiti ov a niu grafik eksponent wud areiz1 and ,archbishop ,trench wud bi reit in twitin fonetik reformerz widh sankshonin te spelinz for dhe sem wurd4 ,ei kud menshon dhe nemz ov tri bishops1 wun ov huem prononst dhe vouel in ,god leik ,gwd1 anudher leik rod1 a terd leik gad4 ,dhe last pronunsieshon wud probabli bi kondemd bei everibodi1 but dhe udher t wud remen sankshond bei dhe heiest wtoriti1 and dherfor retend in fonetik reitin4 ,so far1 dhen1 ei admit dhat ,archbishop ,trench haz pointed out a rial difikulti inhirent in fonetik reitin2 but hwot iz dhat wun difikulti komperd widh dhe difikultiz ov dhe prezent sistem ov ,inglish spelin8 ,it wud not bi onest tu trei tu eved hiz charj1 bei sein dhat dher iz but wun pronunsieshon rekogneizd bei dhe yuezej ov ediuketed pipel4 ,dht iz not so1 and dhoz hue no best dhe beioloji ov langwej1 no dhat it kanot bi so4 ,dhe veri leif ov langwej konsists in a konstant frishon betwin dhe sentripetal fors ov kustom and dhe sentrifiugal fors ov individiual fridom4 ,agenst dhat difikulti dherfor1 dher iz no remedi4 ,onli hir agen dhe ,archbishop simz tu hav overlukt dhe fakt dhat dhe difikulti belonz tu dhe prezent sistem ov spelin nirli az much az tu dhe fonetik sistem4 ,dher iz but wun rekogneizd we ov spelin1 but everibodi prononsez akordin tu hiz on idiosinkrasiz4 ,it wud bi dhe sem widh fonetik spelin4 ,wun pronunsieshon1 dhe best rekogneizd1 wud hav tu bi adopted az a standard in fonetik reitin1 livin tu everi ,inglishman hiz fridom tu pronons az simet gud tu him4 ,wi shud luez nutin ov hwot wi nou pozs1 and wl dhe advantejez ov fonetik reitin wud remen unimperd4 ,dhe rial stet ov dhe kes iz1 dherfor1 dhis--,nowun defendz dhe prezent sistem ov spelin2 everiwun admits dhe sirius injuri hwich it inflikts on nashonal ediukeshon4 ,everibodi admits dhe praktikal advantejez ov fonetik spelin1 but after dht1 wl eksklem dhat a reform ov spelin1 hwoder parshal or komplit1 iz imposibel4 ,hwedher it iz imposibel or not1 ei gladli liv tu men ov de wurld tu deseid4 ,az a skolar1 az a stiudent ov dhe histori ov langwej1 ei simpli menten dhat in everi riten langwej a reform ov spelin iz1 suenler or leter1 inevitabel4 ,no dout dhe ivil de me bi put of4 ,ei hav litel dout dhat it wil bi put of for meni jenereshonz1 and dhat a rial reform wil probabli not bi karid eksept konkurentli widh a veiolent soshal konvulshon4 ,onli let dhe kwestion bi argiud ferli4 ,let fakts hav sum wet1 and let it not bi supozd bei men ov dhe wurld dhat dhoz hue defend dhe prinsipelz ov dhe ,fonetik ,niuz ar onli titotalerz and vejeterianz1 hue hav never lernd hou tu spel4 ,if ei hav spoken stronli in suport ov ,mr4 ,pitman'z sistem1 it iz not bekwz on wl points ei konsider it siupirior tu dhe sistemz preperd bei udher reformerz1 hue ar deli inkrisin in number1 but chifli bekwz it haz bin tested so larjli1 and haz stud dhe test wel4 ,mr4 ,pitman'z ,fonetik ,jurnal haz nou #ahhj bin publisht terti-et yirz1 and if it iz non dhat it iz publisht wikli in #ab1jjj kopiz1 ich kopi reprezentin at list for or feiv riderz1 it me not sim so veri fuelish1 after wl1 if wi imajin dhat dher iz sum veital pouer in dht insiguifikant jerm4 ,v4 ,,on ,,sanskrit ,,texts ,,discovered ,,in ,,japan4 ,read ,at ,the ,meeting ,of ,the ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 ,february #af1 #ahhj4 ,it is probably in the recollection of some of the senior members of this ,society how wide and deep an interest was excited in the year #ahec by the publication of ,stanislas ,julien's translation of the 8,life and ,travels of ,hiouen-thsang40 ,the account given by an eye-witness of the religious1 social1 political1 and literary state of ,india at the beginning of the seventh century of our era was like a rocket1 carrying a rope to a whole crew of struggling scholars1 on the point of being drowned in the sea of ,indian chronology2 and the rope was eagerly grasped by all1 whether their special object was the history of ,indian religion1 or the history of ,indian literature1 architecture1 or politics4 ,while many books on ,indian literature1 published five-and-twenty years ago1 are now put aside and forgotten1 ,julien's three volumes of ,hiouen-thsang still maintain a fresh interest1 and supply new subjects for discussion1 as may be seen even in the last number of the ,journal of your ,society4 ,i had the honor and pleasure of working with ,stanislas ,julien1 when he was compiling those large lists of ,sanskrit and ,chinese words which formed the foundation of his translation of ,hiouen-thsang1 and enabled him in his classical work1 the 8,mthode pour dchiffrer et transcrire les noms ,sanskrits0 7#ahfa71 to solve a riddle which had puzzled ,oriental scholars for a long time--viz41 how it happened that the original ,sanskrit names had been so completely disguised and rendered almost unrecognizable in the ,chinese translations of ,sanskrit texts1 and how they could be restored to their original form4 ,i had likewise the honor and pleasure of working with your late ,president1 ,professor ,h4 ,h4 ,wilson1 when1 after reading ,julien's works1 he conceived the idea that some of the original ,sanskrit texts of which the ,chinese translations had been recovered might still be found in the monasteries of ,china4 ,his influential position as ,president of your ,society1 and his personal relations with ,sir ,john ,bowring1 then ,english ,resident in ,china1 enabled him to set in motion a powerful machinery for attaining his object2 and if you look back some five-and-twenty years1 you will find in your ,journal a full account of the correspondence that passed between ,professor ,wilson1 ,sir ,j4 ,bowring1 and ,dr4 ,edkins1 on the search after ,sanskrit ,,mss4 in the temples or monasteries of ,china4 ,on ,february #ae1 #ahed1 ,professor ,wilson writes from ,oxford to ,sir ,john ,bowring3-- 8,i send you herewith a list of the ,sanskrit works carried to ,china by ,hwen ,tsang in the middle of the seventh century1 and in great part translated by him1 or under his supervision1 into ,chinese4 ,if any of them1 especially the originals1 should be still in existence1 you would do good service to ,sanskrit literature and to the history of ,buddhism by procuring copies40 ,chinese ,translators of ,sanskrit ,texts4 ,it is a well-known fact that1 even long before the time of ,hiouen-thsang--that is1 long before the seventh century of our era--large numbers of ,sanskrit ,,mss4 had been exported to ,china4 ,these literary exportations began as early as the first century ,a4 ,d4 ,when we read for the first time of commissioners being sent to ,india by ,ming-ti1 the ,emperor of ,china1 the second sovereign of the ,eastern ,han dynasty1 about #fb or #fe ,a4 ,d41 we are told that they returned to ,china with a white horse1 carrying books and images47#gb7 ,and the account proceeds to state that 8these books still remain1 and are reverenced and worshipped40 ,from that time1 when ,buddhism was first officially recognized in ,china17#gc7 there is an almost unbroken succession of importers and translators of ,buddhist1 in some cases of ,brahmanic texts also1 till we come to the two famous expeditions1 the one undertaken by ,fa-hian in #djj-dae1 the other by ,hiouen-thsang1 #fbi-fde ,a4 ,d4 ,fa-hian's ,travels were translated into ,french by ,abel ,rmusat 7#ahcf71 into ,english by ,mr4 ,beal 7#ahfi74 ,hiouen-thsang's ,travels are well known through ,stanislas ,julien's admirable translation4 ,of ,hiouen-thsang we are told that he brought back from ,india no less than #ebj fasciculi1 or #feg separate works1 which had to be carried by twenty-two horses47#gd7 ,he translated1 or had translated1 #gdj works1 forming #a1cce fasciculi4 ,i say nothing of earlier traces of ,buddhism which are supposed to occur in ,chinese books4 ,whatever they may amount to1 we look in vain in them for evidence of any ,chinese translations of ,buddhist books before the time of the ,emperor ,ming-ti2 and what concerns us at present is1 not the existence or the spreading of ,buddhism towards the north and east long before the beginning of the ,christian era1 but the existence of ,buddhist books1 so far as it can be proved at that time by the existence of ,chinese translations the date of which can be fixed with sufficient certainty4 ,in the following remarks on the history of these translations ,i have had the great advantage of being able to use the ,annals of the ,sui ,dynasty 7#ehi-fah71 kindly translated for me by ,professor ,legge4 ,in ,china the history of each dynasty was written under the succeeding dynasty from documents which may be supposed to be contemporaneous with the events they relate4 ,the account given in the ,sui ,chronicles of the introduction of ,buddhism and ,buddhist works into ,china is said to be the best general account to be found in early ,chinese literature1 and the facts here stated may be looked upon as far more trustworthy than the notices hitherto relied upon1 and collected from ,chinese writers of different dates and different localities4 ,i have also had the assistance of ,mr4 ,bunyiu ,nanjio1 who compared the names of the translators mentioned in the ,sui ,annals with the names as given in the ,k'ai-yuen-shih-kiao-mu-lu 7,catalogue of the ,buddhist books compiled in the period ,k'ai-yuen ,a4 ,d4 #gac-gda72 and though there still remain some doubtful points1 we may rest assured that the dates assigned to the principal ,chinese translators and their works can be depended on as historically trustworthy4 ,with regard to the period anterior to ,ming-ti1 the ,sui ,chronicles tell us that after an investigation of the records1 it was known that ,buddhism had not been brought to ,china previously to the ,han dynasty 7began #bjf ,b4 ,c471 though some say that it had long been spread abroad1 but had disappeared again in the time of the ,khin7#ge7 7#bba-bjf ,b4 ,c474 ,afterwards1 however1 when ,kang-khien was sent on a mission to the regions of the ,west 7about #acj ,b4 ,c471 he is supposed to have become acquainted with the religion of ,buddha4 ,he was made prisoner by the ,hiungnu 7,huns717#gf7 and1 being kept by them for ten years1 he may well have acquired during his captivity some knowledge of ,buddhism1 which at a very early time had spread from ,cabul7#gg7 towards the north and the east4 ,in the time of the ,emperor i 7,b4 ,c4 #f-b7 we read that ,khin-king caused ,i-tsun to teach the ,buddhist ,stras orally1 but that the people gave no credence to them4 ,all this seems to rest on semi-historical evidence only4 ,the first official recognition of ,buddhism in ,china dates from the reign of the ,emperor ,ming-ti1 and the following account1 though not altogether free from a legendary coloring1 is generally accepted as authentic by ,chinese scholars3 8,the ,emperor ,ming-ti1 of the ,after ,han dynasty 7#eh-ge ,a4 ,d471 dreamt that a man of metal 7or golden color7 was flying and walking in a courtyard of the palace4 ,when he told his dream in the ,court1 ,fu- said that the figure was that of ,buddha4 ,on this the ,emperor sent the gentleman-usher ,tsi-yin and ,khin-king 7who must then have been growing old7 both to the country of the great ,yueh-ki7#gh7 and to ,india1 in order to seek for such an image40 ,an earlier account of the same event is to be found in the ,annals of the ,after 7or ,eastern7 ,han dynasty 7#be-abj ,a4 ,d474 ,these annals were compiled by ,fan-yeh1 who was afterwards condemned to death as a rebel 7#dde ,a4 ,d474 ,here we read7#gi7 7vol4 #hh1 fol4 #h a seq473 8,there is a tradition that the ,emperor ,ming-ti 7#eh-ge ,a4 ,d47 dreamt that there was a giant-like man of golden color17#hj7 whose head was refulgent4 ,the ,emperor wanted his retainers to interpret it4 ,then some said1 #8,there is a god 7or spirit7 in the ,west who is called ,fo1 whose height is sixteen feet1 and of golden color4' ,having heard this1 the ,emperor at once sent messengers to ,tien-ku 7i4 e4 ,india71 to inquire after the doctrine of ,buddha4 ,subsequently1 copies of the image of ,buddha were drawn in the middle country 7i4 e4 ,china740 ,the emissaries whom the ,emperor ,ming-ti had sent to ,india obtained a ,buddhist ,stra in forty-two sections1 and an image of ,buddha1 with which and the ,shmans ,ksyapa ,mtaga and ,k-fa-lan1 they returned to the ,east4 ,when ,tsi-yin approached 7the capital71 he caused the book to be borne on a white horse1 and on this account the monastery of the ,white ,horse was built on the west of the ,yung gate of the city of ,lo to lodge it4 ,the classic was tied up and placed in the stone house of the ,lan tower1 and1 moreover1 pictures of the image were drawn and kept in the ,khing-yan tower1 and at the top of the ,hsien-kieh hill4 ,here we seem to be on terra firma1 for some of the literary works by ,ksyapa ,mtaga and ,k-fa-lan are still in existence4 ,ksyapa ,mtaga 7or1 it may be1 ,ksya ,mtaga7#ha77 is clearly a ,sanskrit name4 ,mtaga1 though the name of a ,kandla or low-caste man1 might well be borne by a ,buddhist priest47#hb7 ,the name of ,k-fa-lan1 however1 is more difficult4 ,chinese scholars declare that it can only be a ,chinese name17#hc7 yet if ,k-fa-lan came from ,india with ,ksyapa1 we should expect that he too bore a ,sanskrit name4 ,in that case1 ,k might be taken as the last character of ,tien-k1 ,india1 which character is prefixed to the names of other ,indian priests living in ,china4 ,his name would be ,f-lan1 i4 e4 ,dharma x1 whatever lan may signify1 perhaps padma1 lotus47#hd7 ,m4 ,feer17#he7 calls him ,gobharana1 without1 however1 giving his authority for such a name4 ,the ,sutra of the forty-two sections exists in ,chinese1 but neither in ,sanskrit nor in ,pli1 and many difficulties would be removed if we admitted1 with ,m4 ,feer1 that this so-called ,stra of the forty-two sections was really the work of ,ksyapa and ,k-fa-lan1 who considered such an epitome of ,buddhist doctrines1 based chiefly on original texts1 useful for their new converts in ,china4 ,it is curious that the ,sui ,annals speak here of no other literary work due to ,ksyapa and ,k-fa-lan1 though they afterwards mention the ,shih-ku ,stra by ,k-fa-lan as a work almost unintelligible4 ,in the ,fan-i-ming-i-tsi 7vol4 iii4 fol4 #d b71 mention is made of five ,stras1 translated by ,k-fa-lan alone1 after ,ksyapa's death4 ,in the ,k'ai-yuen-shih-kiao-mu-lu catalogue of the ,buddhist books1 compiled in the period ,k'ai-yuen 7#gac-gda ,a4 ,d471 vol4 i4 fol4 #f1 four ,stras only are ascribed to ,k-fa-lan3-- #a4 ,the ,dasabhmi1 called the ,stra on the destruction of the causes of perplexity in the ten stations2 #gj ,a4 ,d4 ,this is the ,shi-k ,stra4 #b4 ,the ,stra of the treasure of the sea of the law 7,dharma-samudra-kosha874 #c4 ,the ,stra of the original conduct of ,buddha 7,fo-pen-hing-king72 #fh ,a4 ,d4 7taken by ,julien for a translation of the ,lalita-vistara74 #d4 ,the ,stra of the original birth of ,buddha 7,gtaka74 ,the compiler of the catalogue adds that these translations have long been lost4 ,the next patron of ,buddhism was ,ying1 the ,king of ,kh1 at the time of the ,emperor ,kang1 his father 7#gf-hh74 ,many ,shmans1 it is said1 came to ,china then from the ,western regions1 bringing ,buddhist ,stras4 ,some of these translations1 however1 proved unintelligible4 ,during the reign of the ,emperor ,hwan 7#adg-afg71 ,an-shi-kao 7usually called ,an-shing71 a ,shman of ,an-hsi17#hf7 brought classical books to ,lo1 and translated them4 ,this is evidently the same translator of whom ,mr4 ,beal 78,j4 ,r4 ,a4 ,s40 #ahef1 pp4 #cbg1 #ccb7 speaks as a native of ,eastern ,persia or ,parthia1 and whose name ,mr4 ,wylie wished to identify with ,arsak4 ,as ,an-shi-kao is reported to have been a royal prince1 who made himself a mendicant and travelled as far as ,china1 ,mr4 ,wylie supposes that he was the son of one of the ,arsacid1 ,kings of ,persia4 ,mr4 ,beal on the contrary1 takes the name to be a corruption of ,asvaka or ,assaka--i4 e4 47#hg7 ,under the ,emperor ,ling1 #afh-ahi ,a4 ,d41 ,ki-khan 7or ,ki-tsin71 a ,shman from the ,yueh-ki 7called ,ki-lau-kia-kuai by ,beal71 ,k-fo-soh 7,ta-fo-sa71 an ,indian ,shman1 and others1 worked together to produce a translation of the ,nirvna-stra1 in two sections4 ,the ,k'ai-yuen-lu ascribes twenty-three works to ,ki-khan1 and two ,stras to ,k-fo-soh4 ,towards the end of the ,han dynasty1 ,ku-yung1 the grand guardian1 was a follower of ,buddha4 ,in the time of the ,three ,kingdoms 7#bbj-bfd7 ,khang-sang-hui1 a ,shman of the ,western regions1 came to ,w7#hh7 with ,stras and translated them4 ,sun-khan1 the sovereign1 believed in ,buddhism4 ,about the same time ,khang-sang-khai translated the longer text of the ,sukhavatvyha4 ,in ,wei17#hi7 during the period ,hwang-khu 7#bbj-bbf7 the ,chinese first observed the ,buddhist precepts1 shaved their heads1 and became ,sang--i4 e4 monks4 ,even before this1 a ,shman of the ,western regions had come here and translated the ,hsio-pin ,stra--i4 e4 the ,stra of ,smaller ,matters 7,khudda-kanikya87--but the head and tail of it were contradictory1 so that it could not be understood4 ,in the period ,kan-l 7#bef-bei71 ,k-shi-hsing 7,chu-shuh-lan1 in ,beal's 8,catalogue07 went to the ,west as far as ,khoten1 and obtained a ,stra in ninety sections1 with which he came back to ,yh1 in the ,tsin period of ,yen-khang 7#bia-bii71 and translated it 7with ,dharmaraksha7 under the title of 8,light-emitting ,pragn-pramit ,stra407#ij7 ,in the period ,thai-shi 7#bfe-bgd71 under the ,western ,tsin 7#bfe-caf71 ,k-f-hu7#ia7 7,dharmaraksha71 a ,shman of the ,yeh-ki1 travelled through the various kingdoms of the ,west1 and brought a large collection of books home to ,lo1 where he translated them4 ,it is stated in the ,catalogue of the ,great ,kau1 an interlude in the dynasty of ,thang 7#fij-gje ,a4 ,d471 that in the seventh year of the period ,thai-khang 7#bhf7 he translated ,king-fa-hwa--i4 e4 the ,saddharma-pundarka 7,beal1 8,catalogue10 p4 #ad747ib7 ,about #cjj ,a4 ,d4 ,ki-kung-ming translated the ,wei-ma 7,vimala-krtti7 and ,fa-hwa 7,saddharma-pundarka747#ic7 ,in #cce the prince of the ,khau kingdom 7during the ,tsin dynasty7 permitted his subjects to become ,shmans1 influenced chiefly by ,buddhasimha47#id7 ,in the time of the rebel ,shih-leh1 #ccj-ccc1 during the ,tsin dynasty1 a ,shman ,wei-tao-an1 or ,tao-an1 of ,khang-shan1 studied ,buddhist literature under ,buddhasimha4 ,he produced a more correct translation of the ,vimala-krtti-stra 7and ,saddharma-pundarka71 and taught it widely2 but as he was not an original translator1 his name is not mentioned in the ,k'ai-yuen-lu4 ,on account of political troubles1 ,to-an led his disciples southward1 to ,hsin-ye1 and dispatched them to different quarters--,f-shang to ,yang-ku1 ,f-hwa to ,sh--while he himself1 with ,wei-yan1 went to ,hsiang-yang and ,khang-an4 ,here ,fu-khien1 the sovereign of the ,fs1 who about #cej had got possession of ,khang-an1 resisting the authority of the ,tsin1 and establishing the dynasty of the ,former ,khin1 received him with distinction4 ,it was at the wish of ,to-an that ,fu-khien invited ,kumragva to ,khang-an2 but when1 after a long delay1 ,kumragva arrived there1 in the second year of the period ,hung-shi 7#djj ,a4 ,d471 under ,yo-hsing1 who1 in #cid1 had succeeded ,yo-khang17#ie7 the founder of the ,after ,khin dynasty1 ,to-an had been dead already twenty years4 ,his corrected translations1 however1 were approved by ,kumragva4 ,this ,kumragva marks a new period of great activity in the translation of ,buddhist texts4 ,he is said to have come from ,ku-tsi1 in ,tibet1 where the ,emperor ,yo-hsing 7#cig-dae7 sent for him4 ,among his translations are mentioned the ,wei-ma or ,vima-la-krtti-stra 7,beal's 8,catalogue10 p4 #ag72 the ,saddharma-pundarka 7,beal's 8,catalogue10 p4 #ae72 the ,satyasiddha-vykarana sstra 7,beal's 8,catalogue10 p4 #hj74 ,he was a contemporary of the great traveller1 ,fa-hian1 who went from ,khang-an to ,india1 travelled through more than thirty states1 and came back to ,nanking in #dad1 to find the ,emperor ,yo-hsing overturned by the ,eastern ,tsin dynasty4 ,he was accompanied by the ,indian contemplationist1 ,buddha-bhadra47#if7 ,buddhabhadra translated the ,fa-yan-king1 the ,buddhvatamsaka-vaipulya-stra 7,beal's 8,catalogue10 p4 #i71 and he and ,fa-hian together1 the ,mo-ho-sang-ki-liu--i4 e4 the ,vinaya of the ,mahsaghika school 7,beal1 8,catalogue10 p4 #fh74 ,another ,shman who travelled to ,india about the same time was ,ki-mang1 of ,hsin-fang1 a district city of ,ko-khang4 ,in #dai1 in the period ,yan-hsi1 he went as far as ,ptali-putra1 where he obtained the ,nirvana-stra1 and the ,saghika1 a book of discipline47#ig7 ,after his return to ,ko-khang he translated the ,nirvna-stra in twenty sections4 ,afterwards the ,indian ,shman ,dharmaraksha ,,ii47#ih7 brought other copies of the foreign ,,mss4 to the ,west of the ,ho4 ,and ,ts-kh ,mung-sun1 the king of ,north ,liang1 sent messengers to ,ko-khang for the copy which ,ki-mang had brought1 wishing to compare the two47#ii7 ,when ,ki-mang's copy arrived17#ajj7 a translation was made of it in thirty sections4 ,dharmaraksha ,,ii4 translated the ,suvarna-prabhsa and the ,nirvna-,sutr1 #daf-dbc ,a4 ,d4 ,the ,k'ai-yuen-lu ascribes nineteen works to ,dharmalatsin in #aca fascicles4 ,buddhism from that time spread very rapidly in ,china1 and the translations became too numerous to be all mentioned4 ,the ,mahyna school was represented at that time chiefly by the following translations3-- ,translated by ,kumragva3 ,the ,vimalakrtti-stra 7,beal1 8,catalogue10 p4 #ag4 ,the ,saddharmapunndarika-stra 7,beal1 8,catalogue10 p4 #ae7 ,the ,satyasiddhavykarana-sstra 7,beal1 8,catalogue10 p4 #hj7 ,translated by ,dharmalatsin1 or ,dharmaraksha ,,ii43 ,the ,suvarnaprabhsa-stra 7,beal1 8,catalogue10 p4 #ae7 ,the ,nirvna-stra 7,beal1 8,catalogue40 p4 #ab7 ,the ,hnayna school was represented by-- ,the ,sarvstivda-vinaya by ,kumragva 7,beal1 8,catalogue10 pp4 #fg1 #fh74 ,the ,drghgama-stra1 by ,buddhayasas1 #daj ,a4 ,d4 7,beal1 8,catalogue10 p4 #cf74 ,the ,vinaya of the four ,parts1 by ,buddhayasas47#aja7 ,the ,ekottargama-stra 7,aguttara71 translated by ,dharmanandin1 of ,tukhra 7,fa-hsi74 ,the ,abhidharma disquisitions1 by ,dharmayasas17#ajb7 of ,kophene4 ,during the period of ,lung-an 7#cig-dja7 the ,ekottargama 7,anguttara7 and ,madhyamgama-stras7#ajc7 were translated by ,saghadeva of ,kophene4 ,this is probably the ,magghima ,nikya1 translated by ,gotama ,saghadeva1 under the ,eastern ,tsin dynasty1 #cag-dai4 ,in the period -hsi 7#dje-dah7 the ,shman ,ki-f-ling brought from ,khoten to ,nanking1 the southern capital1 the ,hw-yen ,stra in #cf1jjj gths1 and translated it4 ,this may be the ,buddhvatamsaka-stra1 called the ,ta-fang-kwang-fo-fa-yan-king 7,beal's 8,catalogue10 pp4 #i1 #aj74 ,this translator is not mentioned in the ,k'ai-yuen-lu4 ,in #dbj the ,tsin dynasty came to an end4 ,the ,emperor ,thai-wu 7#dbd-deb71 of the ,n4 ,wei dynasty1 persecuted the ,buddhists1 #ddf2 but from the year #deb they were tolerated4 ,this dynasty lasted from #chf to #ece1 when it was divided into two4 ,in #deh there was a conspiracy under ,buddhist influences1 and more stringent laws were enforced against them4 ,in #dfj five ,buddhists arrived in ,china from ,ceylon1 vi ,tibet4 ,two of them1 ,yashaita1 and ,vudanandi1 brought images47#ajd7 ,in #ejb a ,hindu translated ,mahyna books1 called ,fixed ,positions and ,ten ,positions47#aje7 ,during the dynasties of ,kh 7#dgi-ejb71 ,liang 7#ejb-eeg71 and ,khin 7#eeg-ehi71 many famous ,shmans came to ,china1 and translated books4 ,the ,emperor ,w of ,liang 7#ejb-edi7 paid great honor to ,buddhism4 ,he made a large collection of the ,buddhist canonical books1 amounting to #e1djj volumes1 in the ,hw-lin garden4 ,the ,shman ,pao-khang compiled the catalogue in fifty-four fascicles4 ,in the period ,yung-ping1 #ejh-eaa1 there was an ,indian ,shman ,bodhiruki1 who translated many books1 as ,kumragva had done4 ,among them were the ,earth-holding sstra 7bhmdhara sstra87 and the ,shi-ti-king-lun1 the ,dasabhmika sstra1 greatly valued by the followers of the ,mahyna47#ajf7 ,in #eaf1 during the period ,hs-phing1 the ,chinese ,shman ,wei-shang was sent to the ,west to collect ,stras and ,vinayas1 and brought back a collection of #agj books4 ,he is not1 however1 mentioned as a translator in the ,k'ai-yuen-lu4 ,in #eah ,sung-yun1 sent by the queen of the ,wei country from ,lo-yang to ,india1 returned after three years1 with #age volumes4 ,he lived to see ,bodhidharma in his coffin4 ,this ,bodhidharma1 the twenty-eighth patriarch1 had arrived in ,canton by sea in #ebh1 in the time of ,wu-ti1 the first ,emperor of the ,liang dynasty4 ,some ,sanskrit ,,mss4 that had belonged to him1 and other relics1 are still preserved in ,japan47#ajg7 ,in the time of the ,emperor ,w1 of the ,northern ,ku dynasty 7#efa-egg71 a ,shman1 ,wei-yan-sung1 accused the ,buddhist priests1 and the ,emperor persecuted them4 ,but in the first year of ,kao-tsu1 the founder of the ,sui dynasty1 in #ehi1 toleration was again proclaimed4 ,he ordered the people to pay a certain sum of money1 according to the number of the members of each family1 for the purpose of preparing ,stras 7the ,buddhist canon7 and images4 ,and the ,government caused copies of the whole ,buddhist canon to be made1 and placed them in certain temples or monasteries in the capital1 and in several other large cities1 in such provinces as ,ping-ku1 ,hsiang-ku1 ,lo-ku1 etc4 ,and the ,government caused also another copy to be made and to be deposited in the ,imperial ,library4 ,the ,buddhist sacred books among the people were found to be several hundred times more numerous than those on the six ,kings of ,confucius4 ,there were #a1iej distinct ,buddhist books translated4 ,in the period ,t-yeh 7#fje-faf7 the ,emperor ordered the ,shman ,ki-kwo to compose a catalogue of the ,buddhist books at the ,imperial ,buddhist chapel within the gate of the palace4 ,he then made some divisions and classifications1 which were as follows3-- ,the ,stras which contained what ,buddha had spoken were arranged under three divisions3-- #a4 ,the ,mahyna4 #b4 ,the ,hnayna4 #c4 ,the ,mixed ,stras4 ,other books1 that seemed to be the productions of later men1 who falsely ascribed their works to greater names1 were classed as ,doubtful ,books4 ,there were other works in which ,bodhisattvas and others went deeply into the explanation of the meaning1 and illustrated the principles of ,buddha4 ,these were called ,disquisitions1 or ,sstras4 ,then there were ,vinaya1 or compilations of precepts1 under each division as before1 ,mahyna1 ,hnayna1 ,mixed4 ,there were also ,records1 or accounts of the doings in their times of those who had been students of the system4 ,altogether there were eleven classes under which the books were arranged3-- #a4 ,stra4 ,mahyna #fag in #b1jgf chapters4 ,mixed #dhg in #heb chapters4 ,mixed and doubtful #agb in #ccf chapters4 #b4 ,vinaya4 ,mahyna #eb in #ia chapters4 ,hnayna #hj in #dgb chapters4 ,mixed #bg in #df chapters4 #c4 ,sstra4 ,mahyna #ce in #ada chapters4 ,hnayna #da in #efg chapters4 ,mixed #ea in #dcg chapters4 ,total #aifb in #f1aih chapters4 ,search for ,sanskrit ,,mss4 in ,china4 ,it was the publication of ,hiouen-thsang's ,travels which roused the hopes of ,professor ,wilson that some of the old ,sanskrit ,,mss4 which had been carried away from ,india might still be discovered in ,china47#ajh7 ,but though no pains were spared by ,sir ,john ,bowring to carry out ,professor ,wilson's wishes1 though he had catalogues sent to him from ,buddhist libraries1 and from cities where ,buddhist compositions might be expected to exist1 the results were disappointing1 at least so far as ,sanskrit texts were concerned4 ,a number of interesting ,chinese books1 translated from ,sanskrit by ,hiouen-thsang and others1 works also by native ,chinese ,buddhists1 were sent to the library of the ,east ,india ,house2 but what ,professor ,wilson and all ,sanskrit scholars with him most desired1 ,sanskrit ,,mss41 or copies of ,sanskrit ,,mss41 were not forthcoming4 ,professor ,wilson showed me1 indeed1 one copy of a ,sanskrit ,,ms4 that was sent to him from ,china1 and1 so far as ,i remember1 it was the ,kla-,kakra17#aji7 which we know as one of the books translated from ,sanskrit into ,chinese4 ,that ,,ms41 however1 is no longer to be found in the ,india ,office ,library1 though it certainly existed in the old ,east ,india ,house4 ,the disappointment at the failure of ,professor ,wilson's and ,sir ,j4 ,bowring's united efforts was felt all the more keenly because neither ,sanskrit nor ,chinese scholars could surrender the conviction that1 until a very short time ago1 ,indian ,,mss4 had existed in ,china4 ,they had been seen by ,europeans1 such as ,dr4 ,gutzlaff1 the hard-working missionary in ,china1 who in a paper1 written shortly before his death1 and addressed to ,colonel ,sykes 78,journal ,r4 ,a4 ,s40 #ahef1 p4 #gc71 stated that he himself had seen ,pli ,,mss4 preserved by ,buddhist priests in ,china4 ,whether these ,,mss4 were in ,pli or ,sanskrit would matter little1 supposing even that ,dr4 ,gutzlaff could not distinguish between the two4 ,he speaks with great contempt of the whole ,buddhist literature4 ,there was not a single priest1 he says1 capable of explaining the meaning of the ,pli texts1 though some were interlined with ,chinese4 8,a few works10 he writes1 8are found in a character originally used for writing the ,pli1 and may be considered as faithful transcripts of the earliest writings of ,buddhism4 ,they are looked upon as very sacred1 full of mysteries and deep significations1 and therefore as the most precious relics of the founder of their creed4 ,with the letters of this alphabet the priests perform incantations7#aaj7 to expel demons1 rescue souls from hell1 bring down rain on the earth1 remove calamities1 etc4 ,they turn and twist them in every shape1 and maintain that the very demons tremble at the recitation of them40 ,another clear proof of the existence of ,sanskrit ,,mss4 in ,china is found in the account of a 8,trip to ,ning-po and ,t'hen-t'hae10 by ,dr4 ,edkins4 ,after he had arrived at ,fang-kwang1 he ascended the ,hwa-ling hill1 and at the top of the hill he describes a small temple with a priest residing in it4 8,scattered over the hill10 he adds1 8there are various little temples where priests reside1 but the one at the top is the most celebrated1 as being the place where ,che-k'hae spent a portion of his time1 worshipping a ,sanskrit manuscript of a ,buddhist classic40 ,on his return he arrived at the pagoda erected to the memory of ,che-k'hae1 the founder of the ,then-t'hae system of ,buddhism1 in the ,chin dynasty 7about #ehj ,a4 ,d474 ,and a little farther on1 situated in a deep dell on the left1 was the monastery of ,kaon-ming-sze4 ,this is particularly celebrated for its possession of a ,sanskrit ,,ms41 written on the palm leaf1 once read and explained by ,che-k'hae1 but now unintelligible to any of the followers of ,buddhism in these parts4 ,the priests seemed to pay uncommon reverence to this ,,ms41 which is the only one of the kind to be found in the ,east of ,china1 and thus of great importance in a literary point of view4 ,it is more than #a1cjj years old1 but is in a state of perfect preservation1 in consequence of the palm leaves1 which are written on both sides1 having been carefully let into slips of wood1 which are fitted on the same central pin1 and the whole1 amounting to fifty leaves1 inclosed in a rosewood box4 ,this may account for the unwillingness of the priests to part with their old ,,mss41 whether ,sanskrit or ,pli1 but it proves at the same time that they still exist1 and naturally keeps up the hope that some day or other we may still get a sight of them4 ,materials on which ,sanskrit ,,mss4 were written4 ,of course1 it might be said that if ,,mss4 did not last very long in ,india1 neither would they do so in ,china4 ,but even then1 we might expect at least that as in ,india the old ,,mss4 were copied whenever they showed signs of decay1 so they would have been in ,china4 ,besides1 the climate of ,china is not so destructive as the heat and moisture of the climate of ,india4 ,in ,india1 ,,mss4 seldom last over a thousand years4 ,long before that time paper made of vegetable substances decays1 palm-leaves and birch-bark become brittle1 and white ants often destroy what might have escaped the ravages of the climate4 ,it was the duty1 therefore1 of ,indian ,rajahs to keep a staff of librarians1 who had to copy the old ,,mss4 whenever they began to seem unsafe1 a fact which accounts both for the modern date of most of our ,sanskrit ,,mss4 and for the large number of copies of the same text often met with in the same library4 ,the ,,mss4 carried off to ,china were in all likelihood not written on paper1 or whatever we like to call the material which ,nearchus describes 8as cotton well beaten together107#aaa7 but on the bark of the birch tree or on palm leaves4 ,the bark of trees is mentioned as a writing material used in ,india by ,curtius27#aab7 and in ,buddhist ,stras1 such as the ,karanda-vyha 7p4 #fi71 we actually read of bhrga1 birch1 msi1 ink1 and karama 7kalam71 as the common requisites for writing4 ,,mss4 written on that material have long been known in ,europe1 chiefly as curiosities 7,i had to write many years ago about one of them1 preserved in the ,library at ,all ,souls' ,college74 ,of late17#aac7 however1 they have attracted more serious attention1 particularly since ,dr4 ,bhler discovered in ,kashmir old ,,mss4 containing independent rescensions of ,vedic texts1 written on birch bark4 ,one of these1 containing the whole text of the ,rig-,veda ,samhit7#aad7 with accents1 was sent to me1 and though it had suffered a good deal1 particularly on the margins1 it shows that there was no difficulty in producing from the bark of the birch tree thousands and thousands of pages of the largest quarto or even folio size1 perfectly smooth and pure1 except for the small dark lines peculiar to the bark of that tree47#aae7 ,at the time of ,hiouen-thsang1 in the seventh century1 palm leaves seem to have been the chief material for writing4 ,he mentions a forest of palm-trees 7,borassus flabelliformis7 near ,konkanapura 7the ,western coast of the ,dekhan717#aaf7 which was much prized on account of its supplying material for writing 7vol4 i4 p4 #bjb1 and vol4 iii4 p4 #adh74 ,at a later time1 too1 in #ife1 we read of ,buddhist priests returning to ,china with ,sanskrit copies of ,buddhist books written on palm leaves 7peito747#aag7 ,if we could believe ,hiouen-thsang1 the palm leaf would have been used even so early as the first ,buddhist ,council17#aah7 for he says that ,ksyapa then wrote the ,pitakas on palm leaves 7tla71 and spread them over the whole of ,india4 ,in the ,pli ,gtakas1 panna is used in the sense of letter1 but originally parna meant a wing1 then a leaf of a tree1 then a leaf for writing4 ,patta1 also1 which is used in the sense of a sheet1 was originally pattra1 a wing1 a leaf of a tree4 ,suvanna-patta1 a golden leaf to write on1 still shows that the original writing material had been the leaves of trees1 most likely of palm-trees47#aai7 ,potthaka1 i4 e4 pustaka1 book1 likewise occurs in the ,pli ,gtakas47#abj7 ,such ,,mss41 written on palm leaves1 if preserved carefully and almost worshipped1 as they seem to have been in ,china1 might well have survived to the present day1 and they would certainly prove of immense value to the students of ,buddhism1 if they could still be recovered1 whether in the original or even in later copies4 ,it is true1 no doubt1 that1 like all other religions1 ,buddhism too had its periods of trial and persecution in ,china4 ,we know that during such periods--as1 for instance1 in #hde1 under the ,emperor ,wu-tsung--monasteries were destroyed1 images broken1 and books burnt4 ,but these persecutions seem never to have lasted long1 and when they were over1 monasteries1 temples1 and pagodas soon sprang up again1 images were restored1 and books collected in greater abundance than ever4 ,dr4 ,edkins tells us that 8in an account of the ,ko-t'sing monastery in the ,history of ,t'ian-t'ai-shan it is said that a single work was saved from a fire there several centuries ago1 which was written on the ,pei-to 7,pe-ta7 or palm leaf of ,india40 ,he also states that great pagodas were built on purpose as safe repositories of ,sanskrit ,,mss41 one being erected by the ,emperor for the preservation of the newly arrived ,sanskrit books at the request of ,hiouen-thsang1 lest they should be injured for want of care4 ,it was #ahj feet high1 had five stories with grains of ,she-li 7relics7 in the centre of each1 and contained monuments inscribed with the prefaces written by the ,emperor or ,prince ,royal to ,hiouen-thsang's translations4 ,search for ,sanskrit ,,mss4 in ,japan4 ,being myself convinced of the existence of old ,indian ,,mss4 in ,china1 ,i lost no opportunity1 during the last five-and-twenty years1 of asking any friends of mine who went to ,china to look out for these treasures1 but--with no result6 ,some years ago1 however1 ,dr4 ,edkins1 who had taken an active part in the search instituted by ,professor ,wilson and ,sir ,j4 ,bowring1 showed me a book which he had brought from ,japan1 and which contained a ,chinese vocabulary with ,sanskrit equivalents and a transliteration in ,japanese4 ,the ,sanskrit is written in that peculiar alphabet which we find in the old ,,mss4 of ,nepl1 and which in ,china has been further modified1 so as to give it an almost ,chinese appearance4 ,that ,,ms4 revived my hopes4 ,if such a book was published in ,japan1 ,i concluded that there must have been a time when such a book was useful there--that is to say1 when the ,buddhists in ,japan studied ,sanskrit4 ,dr4 ,edkins kindly left the book with me1 and though the ,sanskrit portion was full of blunders1 yet it enabled me to become accustomed to that peculiar alphabet in which the ,sanskrit words are written4 ,while ,i was looking forward to more information from ,japan1 good luck would have it that a young ,buddhist priest1 ,mr4 ,bunyiu ,nanjio1 came to me from ,japan1 in order to learn ,sanskrit and ,pli1 and thus to be able in time to read the sacred writings of the ,buddhists in their original language1 and to compare them with the ,chinese and ,japanese translations now current in his country4 ,after a time1 another ,buddhist priest1 ,mr4 ,kasawara1 came to me for the same purpose1 and both are now working very hard at learning ,sanskrit4 ,japan is supposed to contain #cd1chh1ejd inhabitants1 all of whom1 with the exception of about #a or #bjj1jjj followers of the ,shint religion17#aba7 are ,buddhists1 divided into ten principal sects1 the sect to which ,mr4 ,bunyiu ,nanjio belongs being that of the ,shinshiu4 ,one of the first questions which ,i asked ,mr4 ,bunyiu ,nanjio1 when he came to read ,sanskrit with me1 was about ,sanskrit ,,mss4 in ,japan4 ,i showed him the ,chinese-,sanskrit-,japanese ,vocabulary which ,dr4 ,edkins had left with me1 and he soon admitted that ,sanskrit texts in the same alphabet might be found in ,japan1 or at all events in ,china4 ,he wrote home to his friends1 and after waiting for some time1 he brought me in ,december last a book which a ,japanese scholar1 ,shuntai ,ishikawa1 had sent to me1 and which he wished me to correct1 and then to send back to him to ,japan4 ,i did not see at once the importance of the book4 ,but when ,i came to read the introductory formula1 ,evam may srutam1 8,thus by me it has been heard10 the typical beginning of the ,buddhist ,stras1 my eyes were opened4 ,here1 then1 was what ,i had so long been looking forward to--a ,sanskrit text1 carried from ,india to ,china1 from ,china to ,japan1 written in the peculiar ,nepalese alphabet1 with a ,chinese translation1 and a transliteration in ,japanese4 ,of course1 it is a copy only1 not an original ,,ms42 but copies presuppose originals at some time or other1 and1 such as it is1 it is a first instalment1 which tells us that we ought not to despair1 for where one of the long-sought-for literary treasures that were taken from ,india to ,china1 and afterwards from ,china to ,japan1 has been discovered1 others are sure to come to light4 ,we do not possess yet very authentic information on the ancient history of ,japan1 and on the introduction of ,buddhism into that island4 ,m4 ,lon de ,rosny7#abb7 and the ,marquis ,d',hervey de ,saint-,denys7#abc7 have given us some information on the subject1 and ,i hope that ,mr4 ,bunyiu ,nanjio will soon give us a trustworthy account of the ancient history of his country1 drawn from native authorities4 ,what is told us about the conversion of ,japan to ,buddhism has a somewhat legendary aspect1 and ,i shall only select a few of the more important facts1 as they have been communicated to me by my ,sanskrit pupil4 ,buddhism first reached ,japan1 not directly from ,china1 but from ,corea1 which had been converted to ,buddhism in the fourth century ,a4 ,d4 ,in the year #bjj ,a4 ,d4 ,corea had been conquered by the ,japanese ,empress ,zingu1 and the intercourse thus established between the two countries led to the importation of ,buddhist doctrines from ,corea to ,japan4 ,in the year #eeb ,a4 ,d4 one of the ,corean kings sent a bronze statue of ,buddha and many sacred books to the ,court of ,japan1 and after various vicissitudes1 ,buddhism became the established religion of the island about #fjj ,a4 ,d4 ,japanese students were sent to ,china to study ,buddhism1 and they brought back with them large numbers of ,buddhist books1 chiefly translations from ,sanskrit4 ,in the year #fdj ,a4 ,d4 we hear of a translation of the ,sukhavatvyhama-hyna-stra being read in ,japan4 ,this is the title of the ,sanskrit text now sent to me from ,japan4 ,the translation had been made by ,k-s-gai 7in ,chinese1 ,khang-sang-khai71 a native of ,tibet1 though living in ,india1 #beb ,a4 ,d41 and we are told that there had been eleven other translations of the same text47#abd7 ,among the teachers of these ,japanese students we find our old friend ,hiouen-thsang1 whom the ,japanese call ,genzi4 ,in the year #fec a ,japanese priest1 ,dosho by name1 studied under ,genzi1 adopted the views of the sect founded by him1--the ,hoss sect1--and brought back with him to ,japan a compilation of commentaries on the thirty verses of ,vasubandhu1 written by ,dharmapla1 and translated by ,genzi4 ,two other priests1 ,chits and ,chitatsu1 likewise became his pupils1 and introduced the famous ,abhidharma-kosha-sstra into ,japan1 which had been composed by ,vasubandhu1 and translated by ,genzi4 ,they seem to have favored the ,hnayna1 or the views of the ,small ,vehicle 7,kushashiu74 ,in the year #gcf we hear of a translation of the ,buddhvatamsaka-vaipulya-stra1 by ,buddhabhadra and others7#abe7 7#cag-dai ,a4 ,d471 being received in ,japan1 likewise of a translation of the ,saddharma-pundarka by ,kumaragva47#abf7 ,and1 what is more important still1 in the ninth century we are told that ,kukai 7died #hce71 the founder of the ,shingon sect in ,japan1 was not only a good ,chinese1 but a good ,sanskrit scholar also4 ,nay1 one of his disciples1 ,shinnyo1 in order to perfect his knowledge of ,buddhist literature1 undertook a journey1 not only to ,china1 but to ,india1 but died before he reached that country4 ,these short notices1 which ,i owe chiefly to ,mr4 ,bunyiu ,nanjio1 make it quite clear that we have every right to expect ,sanskrit ,,mss41 or1 at all events1 ,sanskrit texts1 in ,japan1 and the specimen which ,i have received encourages me to hope that some of these ,sanskrit texts may be older than any which exist at present in any part of ,india4 ,the ,sukhavat-vyha4 ,the text which was sent to me bears the title of ,sukhvat-vyha-mahyna-stra47#abg7 ,this is a title well known to all students of ,buddhist literature4 ,burnouf1 in his 8,introduction l',histoire du ,buddhisme0 7pp4 #ii-ajb717abh7 gave a short account of this ,stra1 which enables us to see that the scene of the dialogue was laid at ,rgagriha1 and that the two speakers were ,bhagavat and nanda4 ,we saw before1 in the historical account of ,buddhism in ,japan1 that no less than twelve ,chinese translations of a work bearing the same title were mentioned4 ,the ,chinese tell us at least of five translations which are still in existence47#abi7 ,those of the ,han and ,wu dynasties 7#be-bhj ,a4 ,d471 we are told1 were too diffuse1 and those of the later periods1 the ,t'ang and ,sung dynasties1 too literal4 ,the best is said to be that by ,k-s-gai1 a priest of ,tibetan descent1 which was made during the early ,wei dynasty1 about #beb ,a4 ,d4 ,this may be the same which was read in ,japan in #fdj ,a4 ,d4 ,the same ,stra exists also in a ,tibetan translation1 for there can be little doubt that the ,stra quoted by ,csoma ,krsi 78,as4 ,res40 vol4 xx4 p4 #djh7 under the name of ,amitbha-vyha is the same work4 ,it occupies1 as ,m4 ,lon ,feer informs me1 fifty-four leaves1 places the scene of the dialogue at ,rgagriha1 on the mountain ,gridhra-kta1 and introduces ,bhagavat and nanda as the principal speakers4 ,there are ,sanskrit ,,mss4 of the ,sukhavat-vyha in your own ,library1 in ,paris1 at ,cambridge1 and at ,oxford4 ,the following is a list of the ,,mss4 of the ,sukhavat-vyha1 hitherto known3-- #a4 ,,ms4 of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 ,london 7,hodgson ,collection71 ,no4 #bj4 ,sukhavatvyha-mahynastra1 sixty-five leaves4 ,dated ,samvat #icd ,a4 ,d4 #ahad4 ,it begins3 ,namo dasadiganantparyantalokadhtupratishtiteb hyah1 etc4 ,evam may srutam ekasmim samaye ,bhagavn ,rgagrihe viharati sma4 ,it ends3 ,sukhvatvyha-mahynastram samptam4 ,samvat #icd1 krttikasudi #d1 samprnam abht4 ,srsuvarnapanrimabnagare ,maitrprimahvihre ,srvkvagradsa vagrkryasya ,gaynandasya ka sarvrthasiddheh4 7,nepalese alphabet47 #b4 ,,ms4 of the ,bibliothque ,nationale1 ,paris 7,collection ,burnouf71 ,no4 #he2 sixty-four leaves4 ,it begins1 after a preamble of five lines1 ,evam may srutammekasmi samaya ,bhagavn ,rgagrihe viharati sma ,gridhrakute parvvate mahat ,bhikshusanghena srddham4 ,dvtrimsrat ,bhikshusahasraih4 ,it ends3 ,bhagavato mitbhasya gunaparikrttanam ,bodhisattvmavaivartyabhmipravesah4 ,amitbhavyuhaparivarttah4 ,sukhvatvyhah sampurnah4 ,iti ,sr ,amitbhasya ,sukhvatvyuha nma mahynastram samptam47#acj7 7,devangar alphabet47 #c4 ,,ms4 of the ,socit ,asiatique at ,paris 7,collection ,hodgson71 ,no4 #ag2 eighty-two leaves4 7,nepalese alphabet477#aca7 #d4 ,,ms4 of the ,university ,library at ,cambridge1 ,no4 #acfh2 thirty-five leaves4 ,it begins with some lines of prose and verse in praise of ,amitbha and ,sukhavat1 and then proceeds3 ,evam may srutam ekasmim samaye ,bhagavn ,rgagrihe nagare viharati sma1 ,gridhraktaparvate mahat ,bhikshusanghena srddha1 etc4 ,it ends3 iti srmad amitbhasya tathgatasya ,sukhvatvyha-mahynastram samptam4 7,nepalese alphabet1 modern47 #e4 ,,ms4 given by ,mr4 ,hodgson to the ,bodleian ,library ,oxford 7,hodgson #c74 ,it begins with3 ,om namo ratnatrayya4 ,om namah sarvabuddhabodhisattvebhyah1 etc4 ,then ,evam may srutam1 etc4 ,it ends with sukhavtvyhamahynastram samptam4 7,nepalese alphabet1 modern47 ,but when ,i came to compare these ,sanskrit ,,mss4 with the text sent to me from ,japan1 though the title was the same1 ,i soon perceived that their contents were different4 ,while the text1 as given in the ordinary ,devangari or ,nepalese ,,mss41 fills about fifty to sixty leaves1 the text of the ,stra that reached me from ,japan would hardly occupy more than eight or ten leaves4 ,i soon convinced myself that this ,,ms4 was not a text abbreviated in ,japan1 for this shorter text1 sent to me from ,japan1 correspond in every respect with the ,chinese ,stra translated by ,mr4 ,beal in his 8,catena10 pp4 #cgh-chc1 and published in your ,journal1 #ahff1 p4 #acf4 ,no doubt the ,chinese translation1 on which ,mr4 ,beal's translation is based1 is not only free1 but displays the misapprehensions peculiar to many ,chinese renderings of ,sanskrit texts1 due to a deficient knowledge either of ,sanskrit or of ,chinese on the part of the translators1 perhaps also to the different genius of those two languages4 ,yet1 such as it is1 there can be no doubt that it was meant to be a translation of the text now in my possession4 ,mr4 ,beal tells us that the translation he followed is that by ,kumragva1 the contemporary of ,fa-hian 7#djj ,a4 ,d471 and that this translator omitted repetitions and superfluities in the text47#acb7 ,mr4 ,edkins knows a translation1 s4 t4 ,wou-liang-sheu-king1 made under the ,han dynasty47#acc7 ,what is important is that in the ,chinese translation of the shorter text the scene is laid1 as in the ,japanese ,sanskrit text1 at ,srvast1 and the principal speakers are ,bhagavat and ,sriputra4 ,there is also a ,tibetan translation of the short text1 described by ,csoma ,krsi 78,as4 ,res40 vol4 xx4 p4 #dci74 ,here1 though the name of the scene is not mentioned1 the speakers are ,bhagavat and ,sriputra4 ,the whole work occupies seven leaves only1 and the names of the sixteen principal disciples agree with the ,japanese text4 ,the translators were ,pragnvarman1 ,srendra1 and the ,tibetan ,lotsava ,ya-shes-sde4 ,m4 ,feer informs me that there is at the ,national ,library a ,chinese text called ,o-mi-to-king1 i4 e4 ,amitbha-stra47#acd7 ,the scene is at ,srvast2 the speakers are ,bhagavat ,sriputra4 ,another text at the ,national ,library is called ,ta-o-mi-to-king1 i4 e4 ,mah ,amitbha-stra1 and here the scene is at ,rgagriha4 ,there is1 besides1 a third work1 called ,kwan-wou-liang-sheu-king by ,kiang-ling-ye-she1 i4 e4 ,klayasas1 a foreigner of the ,west1 who lived in ,china about #dbd ,a4 ,d4 ,we have1 therefore1 historical evidence of the existence of three ,stras1 describing ,sukhavat1 or the ,paradise of ,amitbha4 ,we know two of them in ,sanskrit1 ,chinese1 and ,tibetan--one long1 the other short4 ,the third is known as yet in ,chinese only4 ,of the two ,sanskrit texts1 the one from ,nepal1 the other from ,japan1 the latter seems certainly the earlier4 ,but even the fuller text must have existed at a very early time1 because it was translated by ,ki-lau-kia-khai1 under the ,eastern ,han dynasty 7#be-bbj ,a4 ,d47--i4 e4 at all events before #bbj ,a4 ,d4 ,the shorter text is first authenticated through the translation of ,kumragva1 about #djj ,a4 ,d42 but if the views generally entertained as to the relative position of the longer and shorter ,stras be correct1 we may safely claim for our short ,stra a date within the second century of our era4 ,what ,japan has sent us is1 therefore1 a ,sanskrit text1 of which we had no trace before1 which must have left ,india at least before #djj ,a4 ,d41 but probably before #bjj ,a4 ,d41 and which gives us the original of that description of ,amitbha's ,paradise1 which formerly we knew in a ,chinese translation only1 which was neither complete nor correct4 ,the book sent to me was first published in ,japan in #aggc1 by ,zimi1 a ,buddhist priest4 ,the ,sanskrit text is intelligible1 but full of inaccuracies1 showing clearly that the editor did not understand ,sanskrit1 but simply copied what he saw before him4 ,the same words occurring in the same line are written differently1 and the ,japanese transliteration simply repeats the blunders of the ,sanskrit transcript4 ,there are two other editions of the same text1 published in #agid ,a4 ,d4 by another ,japanese priest1 named ,hg4 ,these are in the possession of ,mr4 ,bunyiu ,nanjio1 and offered some help in correcting the text4 ,one of them contains the text and three ,chinese translations1 one being merely a literal rendering1 while the other two have more of a literary character and are ascribed to ,kumragva 7#djj ,a4 ,d471 and ,hiouen-thsang 7#fdh ,a4 ,d474 ,lastly1 there is another book by the same ,hg1 in four volumes1 in which an attempt is made to give a grammatical analysis of the text4 ,this1 however1 as ,mr4 ,bunyiu ,nanjio informs me1 is very imperfect4 ,i have to-day brought with me the ,japanese ,sanskrit text1 critically restored1 and a literal translation into ,english1 to which ,i have added a few notes4 ,,translation4 ,adoration to the ,omniscient4 ,this is what ,i have heard4 ,at one time the ,blessed 7,bhagavat1 i4 e4 ,buddha7 dwelt at ,srvast17#ace7 in the ,geta-grove1 in the garden of ,anthapindaka1 together with7#acf7 a large company of ,bhikshus 7mendicant friars71 viz4 with thirteen hundred ,bhikshus1 all of them acquainted with the five kinds of knowledge17#acg7 elders1 great disciples17#ach7 and ,arhats17#aci7 such as ,sriputra1 the elder1 ,mahmaudgalyyana1 ,mahksyapa1 ,mahkapphina1 ,mahktyyana1 ,mahkaushthila1 ,revata1 ,suddhipanthaka1 ,nanda1 nanda1 ,rhula1 ,gavmpati1 ,bharadvga1 ,klodayin1 ,vakkula1 and ,aniruddha4 ,he dwelt together with these and many other great disciples1 and together with many noble-minded ,bodhisattvas1 such as ,magusr1 the prince1 the ,bodhisattva ,agita1 the ,bodhisattva ,gandhahastin1 the ,bodhisattva ,nityodyukta1 the ,bodhisattva ,anikshiptadhura4 ,he dwelt together with them and many other noble-minded ,bodhisattvas1 and with ,sakra1 the ,indra or ,king7#adj7 of the ,devas1 and with ,brahman ,sahmpati4 ,with these and many other hundred thousands of ,nayutas7#ada7 of sons of the gods1 ,bhagavat dwelt at ,srvast4 ,then ,bhagavat addressed the honored ,sriputra and said3 ,o ,sriputra1 after you have passed from here over a hundred thousand ,kotis of ,buddha-countries there is in the ,western part of a ,buddha-country1 a world called ,sukhavat 7the happy country74 ,and there a ,tathgata1 called ,amityus1 an ,arhat1 fully enlightened1 dwells now1 and remains1 and supports himself1 and teaches the ,law47#adb7 ,now what do you think1 ,sriputra1 for what reason is that world called ,sukhavat 7the happy78 ,in that world ,sukhavat1 ,o ,sriputra1 there is neither bodily nor mental pain for living beings4 ,the sources of happiness are innumerable there4 ,for that reason is that world called ,sukhavat 7the happy74 ,and again1 ,o ,sriputra1 that world ,sukhavat is adorned with seven terraces1 with seven rows of palm-trees1 and with strings of bells47#adc7 ,it is inclosed on every side17#add7 beautiful1 brilliant with the four gems1 viz4 gold1 silver1 beryl1 and crystal4 ,with such arrays of excellences peculiar to a ,buddha-country is that ,buddha-country adorned4 ,and again1 ,o ,sriputra1 in that world ,sukhavat there are lotus lakes1 adorned with the seven gems1 viz4 gold1 silver1 beryl1 crystal1 red pearls1 diamonds1 and corals as the seventh4 ,they are full of water which possesses the eight good qualities17#ade7 their waters rise as high as the fords and bathing-places1 so that even crows7#adf7 may drink there2 they are full of golden sand1 and of vast extent4 ,and in these lotus lakes there are all around on the four sides four stairs1 beautiful and brilliant with the four gems1 viz4 gold1 silver1 beryl1 crystal4 ,and on every side of these lotus lakes gem trees are growing1 beautiful and brilliant with the seven gems1 viz4 gold1 silver1 beryl1 crystal1 red pearls1 diamonds1 and corals as the seventh4 ,and in those lotus lakes lotus flowers are growing1 blue1 blue-colored1 of blue splendor1 blue to behold2 yellow1 yellow-colored1 of yellow splendor1 yellow to behold2 red1 red-colored1 of red splendor1 red to behold2 white1 white-colored1 of white splendor1 white to behold2 beautiful1 beautifully-colored1 of beautiful splendor1 beautiful to behold1 and in circumference as large as the wheel of a chariot4 ,and again1 ,o ,sriputra1 in that ,buddha-country there are heavenly musical instruments always played on and the earth is lovely and of golden color4 ,and in that ,buddha-country a flower-rain of heavenly ,mndrava blossoms pours down three times every day1 and three times every night4 ,and the beings who are born there worship before their morning meal7#adg7 a hundred thousand ,kotis of ,buddhas by going to other worlds2 and having showered a hundred thousand of ,kotis of flowers upon each ,tathgata1 they return to their own world in time for the afternoon rest47#adh7 ,with such arrays of excellences peculiar to a ,buddha-country is that ,buddha-country adorned4 ,and again1 ,o ,sriputra1 there are in that ,buddha-country swans1 curlews17#adi7 and peacocks4 ,three times every night1 and three times every day1 they come together and perform a concert1 each uttering his own note4 ,and from them thus uttering proceeds a sound proclaiming the five virtues1 the five powers1 and the seven steps leading towards the highest knowledge47#aej7 ,when the men there hear that sound1 remembrance of ,buddha1 remembrance of the ,law1 remembrance of the ,assembly1 rises in their mind4 ,now1 do you think1 ,o ,sriputra1 that these are beings who have entered into the nature of animals 7birds1 etc478 ,this is not to be thought of4 ,the very name of hells is unknown in that ,buddha-country1 and likewise that of 7descent into7 animal natures and of the realm of ,yama 7the four apyas747#aea7 ,no1 these tribes of birds have been made on purpose by the ,tathgata ,amityus1 and they utter the sound of the ,law4 ,with such arrays of excellences1 etc4 ,and again1 ,o ,sriputra1 when those rows of palm-trees and strings of bells in that ,buddha-country are moved by the wind1 a sweet and enrapturing sound proceeds from them4 ,yes1 ,o ,sriputra1 as from a heavenly musical instrument consisting of a hundred thousand ,kotis of sounds1 when played by ryas1 a sweet and enrapturing sound proceeds1 a sweet and enrapturing sound proceeds from those rows of palm-trees and strings of bells moved by the wind4 ,and when the men hear that sound1 reflection on ,buddha arises in their body1 reflection on the ,law1 reflection on the ,assembly4 ,with such arrays of excellences1 etc4 ,now what do you think1 ,o ,sriputra1 for what reason is that ,tathgata called ,amityus8 ,the length of life 7yus71 ,o ,sriputra1 of that ,tathgata and of those men there is immeasurable 7amita74 ,therefore is that ,tathgata called ,amityus4 ,and ten ,kalpas have passed1 ,o ,sriputra1 since that ,tathgata awoke to perfect knowledge4 ,and what do you think1 ,o ,sriputra1 for what reason is that ,tathgata called ,amitbhs8 ,the splendor 7bhs71 ,o ,sriputra1 of that ,tathgata is unimpeded over all ,buddha-countries4 ,therefore is that ,tathgata called ,amitbhs4 ,and there is1 ,o ,sriputra1 an innumerable assembly of disciples with that ,tathgata1 purified and venerable persons1 whose number it is not easy to count4 ,with such arrays of excellences1 etc4 ,and again1 ,o ,sriputra1 of those beings also who are born in the ,buddha-country of the ,tathgata ,amityus as purified ,bodhisattvas1 never to return again and bound by one birth only1 of those ,bodhisattvas also1 ,o ,sriputra1 the number is not easy to count1 except they are reckoned as infinite in number47#aeb7 ,then again all beings1 ,o ,sriputra1 ought to make fervent prayer for that ,buddha-country4 ,and why8 ,because they come together there with such excellent men4 ,beings are not born in that ,buddha-country of the ,tathgata ,amityus as a reward and result of good works performed in this present life47#aec7 ,no1 whatever son or daughter of a family shall hear the name of the blessed ,amityus1 the ,tathgata1 and having heard it1 shall keep it in mind1 and with thoughts undisturbed shall keep it in mind for one1 two1 three1 four1 five1 six1 or seven nights1 that son or daughter of a family1 when he or she comes to die1 then that ,amityus1 the ,tathgata1 surrounded by an assembly of disciples and followed by a host of ,bodhisattvas1 will stand before them at their hour of death1 and they will depart this life with tranquil minds4 ,after their death they will be born in the world ,sukhavat1 in the ,buddha-country of the same ,amityus1 the ,tathgata4 ,therefore1 then1 ,o ,sriputra1 having perceived this cause and effect17#aed7 ,i with reverence say thus1 ,every son and every daughter of a family ought to make with their whole mind fervent prayer for that ,buddha-country4 ,and now1 ,o ,sriputra1 as ,i here at present glorify that world1 thus in the ,east1 ,o ,sriputra1 other blessed ,buddhas1 led by the ,tathgata ,akshobhya1 the ,tathgata ,merudhvaga1 the ,tathgata ,mahmeru1 the ,tathgata ,meruprabhsa1 and the ,tathgata ,magudhvaga1 equal in number to the sand of the river ,gang1 comprehend their own ,buddha-countries in their speech1 and then reveal them47#aee7 ,accept this repetition of the ,law1 called the 8,favor of all ,buddhas10 which magnifies their inconceivable excellences4 ,thus also in the ,south1 do other blessed ,buddhas1 led by the ,tathgata ,kandrasryapradpa1 the ,tathgata ,yasahprabha1 the ,tathgata ,mahrkiskandha1 the ,tathgata ,merupradpa1 the ,tathgata ,anantavrya1 equal in number to the sand of the river ,gang1 comprehend their own ,buddha-countries in their speech1 and then reveal them4 ,accept1 etc4 ,thus also in the ,west do other blessed ,buddhas1 led by the ,tathgata ,amityus1 the ,tathgata ,amitaskandha1 the ,tathgata ,amitadhvaga1 the ,tathgata ,mahprabha1 the ,tathgata ,mahratnaketu1 the ,tathagata ,suddharasmiprabha1 equal in number to the sand of the river ,gang1 comprehend1 etc4 ,thus also in the ,north do other blessed ,buddhas1 led by the ,tathgata ,mahrkiskandha1 the ,tathgata ,vaisvnaranirghosha1 the ,tathgata ,dundubhisvaranirghosha1 the ,tathgata ,dushpradharsha1 the ,tathgata dityasambhava1 the ,tathgata ,galeniprabha 7,gvalanaprabha871 the ,tathgata ,prabhkara1 equal in number to the sand1 etc4 ,thus also in the ,nadir do other blessed ,buddhas1 led by the ,tathgata ,simha1 the ,tathgata ,yasas1 the ,tathgata ,yasahprabhva1 the ,tathgata ,dharma1 the ,tathgata ,dharmadhara1 the ,tathgata ,dharmadhvaga1 equal in number to the sand1 etc4 ,thus also in the ,zenith do other blessed ,buddhas1 led by the ,tathgata ,brahmaghosha1 the ,tathgata ,nakshatrarga1 the ,tathgata ,indraketudhvagarga1 the ,tathgata ,gandhottama1 the ,tathgata ,gandhaprabhsa1 the ,tathgata ,mahrkiskandha1 the ,tathgata ,ratnakusumasampushpitagtra1 the ,tathgata ,slendrarga1 the ,tathgata ,ratnotpalasri1 the ,tathgata ,sarvdarsa1 the ,tathgata ,sumerukalpa1 equal in number to the sand1 etc47#aef7 ,now what do you think1 ,o ,sriputra1 for what reason is that repetition of the ,law called the ,favor of all ,buddhas8 ,every son or daughter of a family who shall hear the name of that repetition of the ,law and retain in their memory the names of those blessed ,buddhas1 will all be favored by the ,buddhas1 and will never return again1 being once in possession of the transcendent true knowledge4 ,therefore1 then1 ,o ,sriputra1 believe17#aeg7 accept1 and long for me and those blessed ,buddhas6 ,whatever sons or daughters of a family shall make mental prayer for the ,buddha-country of that blessed ,amityus1 the ,tathgata1 or are making it now or have made it formerly1 all these will never return again1 being once in possession of the transcendent true knowledge4 ,they will be born in that ,buddha-country1 have been born1 or are being born now4 ,therefore1 then1 ,o ,sriputra1 mental prayer is to be made for that ,buddha-country by faithful sons and daughters of a family4 ,and as ,i at present magnify here the inconceivable excellences of those blessed ,buddhas1 thus1 ,o ,sriputra1 do those blessed ,buddhas magnify my own inconceivable excellences4 ,a very difficult work has been done by ,skyamuni1 the sovereign of the ,skyas4 ,having obtained the transcendent true knowledge in this world ,saha1 he taught the ,law which all the world is reluctant to accept1 during this corruption of the present ,kalpa1 during this corruption of mankind1 during this corruption of belief1 during this corruption of life1 during this corruption of passions4 ,this is even for me1 ,o ,sriputra1 an extremely difficult work that1 having obtained the transcendent true knowledge in this world ,saha1 ,i taught the ,law which all the world is reluctant to accept1 during this corruption of mankind1 of belief1 of passion1 of life1 and of this present ,kalpa4 ,thus spoke ,bhagavat joyful in his mind4 ,and the honorable ,sriputra1 and the ,bhikshus and ,bodhisattvas1 and the whole world with the gods1 men1 evil spirits1 and genii1 applauded the speech of ,bhagavat47#aeh7 ,this is the ,mahynastra called ,sukhavatvyha4 ,this ,stra sounds to us1 no doubt1 very different from the original teaching of ,buddha4 ,and so it is4 ,nevertheless it is the most popular and most widely read ,stra in ,japan1 and the whole religion of the great mass of the people may be said to be founded on it4 8,repeat the name of ,amitbha as often as you can1 repeat it particularly in the hour of death1 and you will go straight to ,sukhavat and be happy forever20 this is what ,japanese ,buddhists are asked to believe3 this is what they are told was the teaching of ,buddha4 ,there is one passage in our ,stra which seems even to be pointedly directed against the original teaching of ,buddha4 ,buddha taught that as a man soweth so shall he reap1 and that by a stock of good works accumulated on earth the way is opened to higher knowledge and higher bliss4 ,our ,stra says ,no2 not by good works done on earth1 but by a mere repetition of the name of ,amitbha is an entrance gained into the land of bliss4 ,this is no better than what later ,brahmanism teaches1 viz4 8,repeat the name of ,hari or of ,krishna1 and you will be saved40 ,it is no better than what even some ,christian teachers are reported to teach4 ,it may be that in a lower stage of civilization even such teaching has produced some kind of good47#aei7 ,but ,japan is surely ripe for better things4 ,what the worship of ,amitbha may lead to we can learn from a description given by ,dr4 ,edkins in his 8,trip to ,ning-po and ,t'hen-t'hae40 8,the next thing10 he writes1 8shown to us was the prison1 in which about a dozen priests had allowed themselves to be shut up for a number of months or years1 during which they were to occupy themselves in repeating the name of ,amida ,buddha17#afj7 day and night1 without intermission4 ,during the day the whole number were to be thus engaged2 and during the night they took it by turns1 and divided themselves into watches1 so as to insure the keeping up of the work till morning4 ,we asked when they were to be let out4 ,to which it was replied1 that they might be liberated at their own request1 but not before they had spent several months in seclusion4 ,we inquired what could be the use of such an endless repetition of the name of ,buddha4 ,to which it was answered1 that the constant repetition of the sacred name had a tendency to purify the heart1 to deaden the affections towards the present world1 and to prepare them for the state of ,nirvna4 ,it was further asked whether ,buddha was likely to be pleased with such an endless repetition of his name4 ,to which it was answered1 that in the ,western world it was considered a mark of respect to repeat the name of any one whom we delighted to honor4 ,the recluses seemed most of them young men2 some of whom came out to the bars of their cage to look at the strangers1 but kept on repeating the name of ,buddha as they stood there4 ,it appeared to us that nothing was more calculated to produce idiocy than such a perpetual repetition of a single name1 and the stupid appearance of many of the priests whom we have seen seems to have been induced by some such process40 ,is it not high time that the millions who live in ,japan1 and profess a faith in ,buddha1 should be told that this doctrine of ,amitbha and all the ,mahyna doctrine is a secondary form of ,buddhism1 a corruption of the pure doctrine of the ,royal ,prince1 and that if they really mean to be ,buddhists1 they should return to the words of ,buddha1 as they are preserved to us in the old ,stras8 ,instead of depending1 as they now do1 on ,chinese translations1 not always accurate1 of degraded and degrading ,mahyna tracts1 why should they not have ,japanese translations of the best portions of ,buddha's real doctrine1 which would elevate their character1 and give them a religion of which they need not be ashamed8 ,there are ,chinese translations of some of the better portions of the ,sacred ,writings of ,buddhism4 ,they exist in ,japan too1 as may be seen in that magnificent collection of the ,buddhist ,tripitaka which was sent from ,japan as a present to the ,english ,government1 and of which ,mr4 ,beal has given us a very useful ,catalogue4 ,but they are evidently far less considered in ,japan than the silly and the mischievous stories of ,amitbha and his ,paradise1 and those which ,i know from translations are far from correct4 ,i hope that ,mr4 ,bunyiu ,nanjio and ,mr4 ,kasawara1 if they diligently continue their study of ,sanskrit and ,pli1 will be able to do a really great and good work1 after their return to ,japan4 ,and if more young ,buddhist priests are coming over1 ,i shall always1 so far as my other occupations allow it1 be glad to teach them1 and to help them in their unselfish work4 ,there is a great future in store1 ,i believe1 for those ,eastern ,islands1 which have been called prophetically 8the ,england of the ,east10 and to purify and reform their religion--that is1 to bring it back to its original form--is a work that must be done before anything else can be attempted4 ,in return1 ,i hope that they and their friends in ,japan1 and in ,corea and ,china too1 will do all they can to discover1 if possible1 some more of the ancient ,sanskrit texts1 and send them over to us4 ,a beginning1 at all events1 has been made1 and if the members of this ,society who have friends in ,china or in ,japan will help1 if ,h4 ,e4 the ,japanese ,minister1 ,mori ,arinori1 who has honored us by his presence today1 will lend us his powerful assistance1 ,i have little doubt that the dream which passed before the mind of your late ,president may still become a reality1 and that some of the ,,mss4 which1 beginning with the beginning of our era1 were carried from ,india to ,china1 ,corea1 and ,japan1 may return to us1 whether in the original or in copies1 like the one sent to me by ,mr4 ,shuntai ,ishikawa4 ,with the help of such ,,mss4 we shall be able all the better to show to those devoted students who from the extreme ,east have come to the extreme ,west in order to learn to read their sacred writings in the original ,sanskrit or ,pli1 what difference there is between the simple teaching of ,buddha and the later developments and corruptions of ,buddhism4 ,buddha himself1 ,i feel convinced1 never knew even the names of ,amitbha1 ,avalokitesvara1 or ,sukhavat4 ,then1 how can a nation call itself ,buddhist whose religion consists chiefly in a belief in a divine ,amitbha and his son ,avalokitesvara1 and in a hope of eternal life in the paradise of ,sukhavat8 ,,postscript3 ,oxford1 ,march #aj1 #ahhj4 ,the hope which ,i expressed in my paper on 8,sanskrit ,texts discovered in ,japan10 viz4 that other ,sanskrit texts might still come to light in ,japan or ,china1 has been fulfilled sooner than ,i expected4 ,mr4 ,a ,wylie wrote to me on ,march #c that he had brought a number of ,sanskrit-,chinese books from ,japan1 and he afterwards kindly sent them to me to examine4 ,they were of the same appearance and character as the dictionary which ,dr4 ,edkins had lent me1 and the ,sukhavat-vyha which ,i had received from ,japan4 ,but with the exception of a collection of invocations1 called the ,vagra-stra1 and the short ,prag-hridaya-stra1 they contained no continuous texts4 ,the books were intended to teach the ,sanskrit alphabet1 and every possible and impossible combination of the ,devangar letters1 and that was all4 ,still1 so large a number of books written to teach the ,sanskrit alphabet augurs well for the existence of ,sanskrit texts4 ,there was among ,mr4 ,wylie's books a second ,chinese-,sanskrit-,japanese vocabulary1 of which ,mr4 ,kasawara has given me the following account3 8,this vocabulary is called #8,a ,thousand ,sanskrit and ,chinese ,words' and it is said to have been arranged by ,i-tsing1 who left ,china for ,india in #fga1 about twenty-seven years after ,hiouen-thsang's return to ,china1 and who is best known as the author of a book called ,nanhae-ki-kwei-kou'en1 on the manners and customs of the ,indian ,buddhists at that time4 8,this vocabulary was brought from ,china to ,japan by ,zikaku1 a ,japanese priest1 who went to ,china in #hch and returned in #hdg4 ,it is stated at the end of the book1 that in the year #hhd a ,japanese priest of the name of ,rioyiu copied that vocabulary from a text belonging to another priest1 ,ykai4 ,the edition brought from ,japan by ,mr4 ,wylie was published there in the year #agbg by a priest called ,jakumio40 ,the following curious passage occurs in the preface of ,jakumio's edition3 8,this vocabulary is generally called #8,one ,thousand ,sanskrit and ,chinese ,words4' ,it is stated in ,annen's work1 that this was first brought 7from ,china7 by ,zikaku4 ,i have corrected several mistakes in this vocabulary1 comparing many copies2 yet the present edition is not free from blunders2 ,i hope the readers will correct them1 if they have better copies4 8,in the temple ,hriuji1 in ,yamato1 there are treasured ,pragpramithridayastram1 and ,son-shio-dhrani1 written on two palm leaves1 handed down from ,central ,india2 and1 at the end of these1 fourteen letters of the #8siddha' are written4 ,in the present edition of the vocabulary the alphabet is in imitation of that of the palm leaves1 except such forms of letters as cannot be distinguished from those prevalent among the scriveners at the present day4 8,hriuji is one of eleven temples founded by the prince ,umayado 7who died ,a4 ,d4 #fba74 ,this temple is at a town named ,tatsuta1 in the province ,yamato1 near ,kioto1 the western capital40 ,here1 then1 we have clear evidence that in the year #agbg palm leaves containing the text of ,sanskrit ,stras were still preserved in the temple of ,hriuji4 ,if that temple is still in existence1 might not some ,buddhist priest of ,kioto1 the western capital of ,japan1 be induced to go there to see whether the palm leaves are still there1 and1 if they are1 to make a copy and send it to ,oxford8 ,f4 ,m4 ,m4 ,,second ,,postscript3 ,oxford1 ,august #b1 #ahhj4 ,at the end of my paper on 8,sanskrit ,texts in ,japan0 ,i mentioned in a postscript 7,march #aj7 that ,i had received from ,mr4 ,wylie a copy of a vocabulary called 8,a ,thousand ,sanskrit and ,chinese ,words10 compiled by ,i-tsing1 about #gjj ,a4 ,d41 and brought to ,japan by ,zikaku1 a ,japanese priest1 in #hdg ,a4 ,d4 ,the edition of this vocabulary which ,mr4 ,wylie bought in ,japan was published by ,jakumio in #agbg1 and in the preface the editor says3 8,in the temple ,hriuji1 in ,yamato1 there are treasured ,pragpramithridaya-stram and ,sonshio-dhran1 written on two palm leaves1 handed down1 from ,central ,india40 ,hriuji is one of eleven temples founded by ,prince ,umayado1 who died in ,a4 ,d4 #fba4 ,this temple is in a town named ,tatsuta1 in the province ,yamato1 near ,kioto1 the western capital4 ,i ended my article with the following sentence3 8,here1 then1 we have clear evidence that in the year #agbg palm leaves containing the text of ,sanskrit ,stras were still preserved in the temple of ,hriuji4 ,if that temple is still in existence1 might not some ,buddhist priest of ,kioto1 the western capital of ,japan1 be induced to go there to see whether the palm leaves are still there1 and1 if they are1 to make a copy and send it to ,oxford80 ,sooner than expected this wish of mine has been fulfilled4 ,on ,april #bh ,mr4 ,shigefuyu ,kurihara1 of ,kioto1 a friend of one of my ,sanskrit pupils1 ,mr4 ,bunyiu ,nanjio1 who for some years had himself taken an interest in ,sanskrit1 went to the temple or monastery of ,hriuji to inquire whether any old ,sanskrit ,,mss4 were still preserved there4 ,he was told that the priests of the monastery had recently surrendered their valuables to the ,imperial ,government1 and that the ancient palm leaves had been presented to the emperor4 ,in a chronicle kept at the monastery of ,hriuji it is stated that these palm leaves and other valuables were brought by ,ono ,imoko1 a retainer of the ,mikado 7the ,empress ,suiko71 from ,china 7during the ,sui dynasty1 #ehi-fah7 to ,japan1 in the thirty-seventh year of the age of ,prince ,umayado--i4 e41 ,a4 ,d4 #fji4 ,the other valuable articles were3 #a4 ,ni1 i4 e41 a cymbal used in ,buddhist temples2 #b4 ,midzu-game1 a water vessel2 #c4 ,shaku-jio1 a staff1 the top of which is armed with metal rings1 as carried by ,buddhist priests2 #d4 ,kesa 7,kashya71 a scarf1 worn by ,buddhist priests across the shoulder1 which belonged to the famous ,bodhidharma2 #e4 ,haki1 a bowl1 given by the same ,bodhidharma4 ,these things and the ,sanskrit ,,mss4 are said to have belonged to some ,chinese priests1 named ,hwui-sz' 7,yeshi7 and ,nien-shan 7,nenzen71 and to four others successively1 who lived in a monastery on the mountain called ,nan-yo 7,nangak71 in the province of ,hng 7,k7 in ,china4 ,these palm-leaf ,,mss4 may1 therefore1 be supposed to date from at least the sixth century ,a4 ,d41 and be1 in fact1 the oldest ,sanskrit ,,mss4 now in existence47#afa7 ,may we not hope that ,his ,excellency ,mori ,arinori1 who expressed so warm an interest in this matter when he was present at the meeting of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 will now lend us his powerful aid1 and request the ,minister of the ,department of the ,imperial ,household to allow these ,,mss4 to be carefully copied or photographed8 ,,index4 ,academic freedom not without dangers1 #ci4 ,adams1 ,h4 ,c41 quoted1 #be4 ,alphabet1 phonetic1 table of1 #aej2 reading according to1 #aea sq4 ,amyot1 quoted1 #aca4 ,analogies1 false1 in comparative theology1 #ih sq4 ,anaxagoras1 quoted1 #ef4 ,anglo-,saxon names for the days of the week1 #aah4 ,apostles1 ,the1 read the ,veda1 #abg4 ,archbishops have no official position in ,english universities1 #h4 ,aristotle1 disrespectful remarks about1 #ch2 quoted1 #ef4 ,babylonian system of dividing gold and silver still found in the ,english sovereign1 #ai2 of reckoning time found on the dial-plates of our clocks1 #ai4 ,beveridge1 ,bishop1 quoted1 #cj4 ,bochart1 quoted1 #ih4 ,brackett1 ,a4 ,c41 quoted1 #hh4 ,budha1 day of1 #aba4 -- and ,buddha1 distinction between1 #aae1 #aai4 ,buddha1 a personal and historical character1 #abb2 repetition of his name meritorious1 #bce4 ,buddhism1 when recognized in ,china1 #aia sq42 ,japan converted to1 #bac2 and ,scandinavian mythology1 connection between1 #aac sq41 #abb4 ,buhler1 ,dr41 quoted1 #bjh4 ,burnouf1 quoted1 #aab4 ,cassius1 ,dio1 quoted1 #aah4 ,chinese translators of ,sanskrit texts1 #ahi4 ,christian religion1 historical and individual1 #fb4 ,cicero1 quoted1 #gb4 ,clement of ,alexandria1 quoted1 #eh1 #fa4 ,clodd1 ,e41 quoted1 #hd4 ,coincidences between ,jewish and ,pagan religious1 #ih sq4 ,colbourne1 ,wm41 quoted1 #aec4 ,counting possible without language1 #fg4 ,daphne1 meaning of1 #hb4 ,davids ,rhys1 quoted1 #af4 ,dictionaries1 value of1 #ag4 ,dogmatic teaching1 evil of1 #ca4 ,donar1 #abj4 ,du ,bois-,reymond1 quoted1 #i4 ,duhitar1 a ,sanskrit word for daughter1 #ag4 ,dyaus1 #aba4 ,edkins1 ,dr41 quoted1 #bje4 ,education1 academic1 #bh2 elementary1 #bc2 scholastic1 #bd2 in the beginning purely dogmatic1 #bb2 compulsory1 mark of a new era1 #ba2 dangers of compulsory1 #bb4 ,ellis1 quoted1 #aaa sq4 ,ellis1 ,a4 ,j41 quoted1 #aee sq4 ,empedokles1 quoted1 #ef1 #fe4 ,english1 society1 intolerance of1 #g4 -- universities described1 #aj2 too little of academic freedom in1 #dj4 -- names for the days of the week1 #aah4 -- written in hieroglyphics1 #ag sq4 -- spelling1 a national misfortune1 #bb4 -- present number of speaking1 #ach2 future number of speaking1 #ach4 ,epicharmos1 quoted1 #ee4 ,esquimaux1 tale among the1 quoted1 #hc sq4 ,esthonian tale1 quoted1 #hf sq4 ,examinations1 good1 to be rewarded by honor1 #dd2 a means to ascertain how pupils have been taught1 #dc2 strong feeling against1 #db sq4 ,fergusson1 ,jas41 quoted1 #aac sq4 ,figures1 our1 received from the ,arabs1 #bj4 ,forgeries in ,sanskrit ,,mss41 #aji4 ,freedom1 address on1 #a sq42 of thought1 meaning of1 #c4 ,freethinkers1 a title of honor1 #f4 ,french1 names for the days of the week1 #aah2 present number of speaking1 #acg2 future number of speaking1 #ach4 ,freyja1 day of1 #abj4 ,friday1 #abj4 ,genus and ,species1 meaning of1 #cb sq4 ,german names for the days of the week1 #aai4 -- ,middle-,high1 names for the days of the week1 #aai4 -- ,old-,high1 names for the days of the week1 #aai4 -- present number of speaking1 #ach2 future number of speaking1 #ach4 -- ,universities1 how much time spent in lecturing in1 #ci4 ,grammars1 ,latin and ,greek1 deficiencies of1 #bf4 ,greek and ,roman classics not read enough1 #be4 ,greek philosophy1 its development chiefly due to the absence of an established religion and influential priesthood1 #fc2 religion1 national and traditional1 #fb4 ,gutzlaff1 quoted1 #bje4 ,haekel1 quoted1 #ahb4 ,hall1 ,newman1 quoted1 #aed4 ,helios1 meaning of1 #hj4 ,helmholtz1 quoted1 #g1 #dj4 ,herakleitos1 quoted1 #eh4 ,heredity1 meaning of1 #ad sq4 ,herodotus1 quoted1 #eh4 ,herschel1 ,sir ,john1 quoted1 #gd sq4 ,herzen1 quoted1 #d4 ,hillebrand1 quoted1 #i4 ,hipparchus1 a ,greek astronomer1 #ai4 ,hobbes1 referred to1 #c1 #cb4 ,holwell1 quoted1 #ajb4 ,homer1 quoted1 #ga1 #gi2 condemned by ,plato1 #ei2 his soul hanging in ,hades on a tree1 #eh4 ,hottentot fables quoted1 #he sq4 ,huet1 quoted1 #ii4 ,indians of ,nicaragua1 quotation from a compendium of the theology of1 #gj4 ,individualism1 what8 #d4 ,individuality1 principle of1 suffering more now than before1 #aa4 ,italian1 present number of speaking1 #acg2 future number of speaking1 #ach4 ,jacolliott1 quoted and criticised1 #abc sq4 ,japan converted to ,buddhism1 legend about1 #bac4 ,jehovah1 name of1 found in ,chinese literature1 #aca1 #acb4 ,jones1 ,sir4 ,w41 quoted1 #ajj1 #aja sq41 #ajg sq4 -- ,eduard1 quoted1 #add sq4 ,josephus1 quoted1 #aaf sq4 ,jovis dies1 #abj4 ,julien1 ,st41 quoted1 #acb4 ,jupiter1 the name1 no mere accident1 #ij sq42 the thunderer1 #abj4 ,justin ,martyr1 quoted1 #aag4 ,karman1 meaning of1 #ae sq4 ,knowledge1 dead1 dangerous1 #bh4 ,k-fa-lan1 works ascribed to him1 #aid4 ,kukai1 founder of a sect in ,japan1 #bad4 ,language and thought inseparable1 #fg2 its influence on thought1 #gi4 ,lapland1 legend of1 quoted1 #hh4 ,latin names for the days of the week1 #aah4 ,mars1 the god of war1 #aba4 ,meiklejohn1 quoted1 #adg4 ,mercurii dies1 #aai1 #aba4 ,metrodorus1 quoted1 #ef4 ,mill1 ,j4 ,s41 quoted1 #a1 #ab1 #ba2 his plea for liberty decried1 #d1 without reason1 #e2 his election to ,parliament a triumph1 #f4 ,milligan1 quoted1 #gf4 ,montucci1 quoted1 #acj4 ,mosaic account of creation found among the ,tahitians1 #aaa4 ,mller's1 ,m41 rejoinder to ,prof4 ,blackie1 #ia sq4 ,mythology1 meaning of1 #ee1 #fd sq41 #ff2 interest of1 in our days1 #ec2 religion of the ,greeks1 #fa2 now as there was in time of ,homer1 #fe2 pervades the sphere of religion and of thought1 #fi2 philosophy of1 lecture on1 #ec sq4 ,names to be submitted to very careful snuffing1 #cg4 ,nihilism1 defined1 #d2 dangers of1 #e4 ,nirvana1 definition of1 #af4 ,nominalism1 higher1 or ,science of ,language1 #cg4 ,odin1 #abj1 #aba1 #abb4 ,old-,norse names for the days of the week1 #aah4 ,omniscience to be avoided1 #dg4 ,oriental tongue1 now spoken in ,europe1 #af sq4 ,over-examinations1 complaints against1 #df4 ,paradise4 ,see ,sukhavati4 ,phoibos1 meaning of1 #ha2 and ,daphne1 story of1 #ha sq4 ,phonetic alphabet1 table of1 #aej2 reading according to1 #aea sq4 ,pioneer 7an ,indian paper71 quoted1 #aac4 ,planets1 their names1 #aah2 used for the names of the days of the week1 #aaf4 ,plato1 quoted1 #ei sq41 #gi4 ,population1 table of supposed number of years required for doubling the1 in different countries1 #ach4 ,portuguese1 number of speaking1 #acg4 ,power and ,responsibility of ,english ,universities1 #aj4 ,psyche1 meaning of1 #fi1 #gb4 ,public opinion1 #aa1 #ab4 ,religions1 division of1 #fb4 ,remusat quoted1 #aca4 ,russian1 number of speaking1 #ach2 society described1 #d4 ,sabbath mentioned by ,roman and ,greek writers1 #aag sq4 ,sanskrit names for the days of the week1 #aah4 -- ,,mss41 materials on which they were written1 #bjf sq42 searched for in ,china1 #bjc sq42 in ,japan1 #baj2 texts discovered in ,japan1 #aha sq42 translated by ,chinese1 #ahi sq4 ,saturni dies1 #aaf sq41 #aba4 ,scandinavian mythology and ,buddhism1 connection between1 #aac sq41 #abb4 ,schools in ,england and on the ,continent1 shortcomings of1 #be sq4 ,self-government1 dangers of1 #aj4 ,semiphonotopy1 name for a style of spelling1 #ada2 reading according to1 #aia sq4 ,sextus ,empiricus1 quoted1 #eh4 ,snow1 name for1 #gg4 ,society1 human1 secret of1 #ac4 ,sokrates1 quoted1 #ef4 ,sokratic method1 #bd4 ,spanish1 present number of speaking1 #acg2 future number of speaking1 #ach4 ,species and ,genus1 meaning of1 #cb sq4 ,spelling1 reform of1 #acc sq41 #ace sq42 favorite subject with ,roman scholars1 #adj4 ,stahl1 quoted1 #fi4 ,sueton1 quoted1 #aaf4 ,sukhavati-vyha1 a title of a ,buddhist ,sutra1 #bad2 list of ,,mss4 of1 now extant1 #baf sq42 translation of1 #bbj sq4 ,sukhavati1 or ,paradise1 described1 #bbc sq4 ,sun1 sign or name for1 #ge sq41 #gh4 ,sunrise1 feelings at the1 #gd4 ,swift1 ,dean1 quoted1 #acd4 ,table of the names of the days of the week in-- ,anglo-,saxon1 #aah4 ,english1 #aah4 ,french1 #aah4 ,german1 #aai4 -- ,middle-,high1 #aai4 -- ,old-,high1 #aai4 ,latin1 #aah4 ,old ,norse1 #aah4 ,sanskrit1 #aah4 ,table of the names of the ,planets1 #aah1 #aai4 ,tacitus1 quoted1 #aba4 ,teachers to be natural examiners1 #dc4 ,testament1 the ,old1 accounts of1 found in the literature of the ,brahmans1 #ajj1 #ajf4 -- ,old and ,new1 found in the ,vedas41 #abc2 borrowed from ,brahmans and ,buddhists1 #aja sq4 ,theology1 on false analogies in comparative1 #ih sq4 ,thirlwall1 ,bishop1 quoted1 #adc4 ,thought and language inseparable1 #fg4 ,thor1 #abj4 ,thunar1 #abj4 ,thursday1 #abj4 ,tiu1 #abj4 ,tocqueville1 ,de1 referred to1 #ab4 ,trench1 quoted1 #afi sq4 ,tylor1 ,e4 ,b41 quoted1 #gj4 ,uniformity1 dangers of1 #ab sq4 ,universities1 ,english and ,german1 compared1 #g sq42 differences between1 #i sq42 guardians of freedom of thought1 #bh2 medival and modern1 home of free thought1 #ea4 ,vaksh1 ,sanskrit word for to grow1 like the ,english to wax1 #ag4 ,veneris dies1 #abj4 ,vid1 ,sanskrit word for to know1 like the ,english to wit1 #ag4 ,virgil quoted1 #ga4 ,vosisus1 ,s4 ,j41 quoted1 #ii4 ,week1 names of the seven days of the1 received from the names of the planets1 #aaf4 ,weeks and week-days1 system of counting1 first introduced in ,egypt1 #aah4 ,wilford1 quoted1 #ajf4 ,wilson1 quoted1 #ahh4 ,wodan1 day of1 #abj1 #aba4 ,wunsch or ,wish1 name of ,wuotan1 #aba4 ,wuotan1 #abj4 ,xenophanes1 on ,homer and ,hesiod1 #eg sq4 ,zeus ,kronon1 meaning of1 #hj1 #aba4 ,ziu1 #aba4 ,,footnotes #a ,mill tells us that his ,essay ,on ,liberty was planned and written down in #ahed4 ,it was in mounting the steps of the ,capitol in ,january1 #ahee1 that the thought first arose of converting it into a volume1 and it was not published till #ahei4 ,the author1 who in his ,autobiography speaks with exquisite modesty of all his literary performances1 allows himself one single exception when speaking of his ,essay ,on ,liberty4 8,none of my writings10 he says1 8have been either so carefully composed or so sedulously corrected as this40 ,its final revision was to have been the work of the winter of #aheh to #ahei1 which he and his wife had arranged to pass in the ,south of ,europe1 a hope which was frustrated by his wife's death4 8,the ,liberty10 he writes1 8is likely to survive longer than anything else that ,i have written 7with the possible exception of the ,logic71 because the conjunction of her mind with mine has rendered it a kind of philosophic text-book of a single truth1 which the changes progressively taking place in modern society tend to bring out into strong relief3 the importance to man and society1 of a large variety of character1 and of giving full freedom to human nature to expand itself in innumerable and conflicting directions40 #b ,herzen defined ,nihilism as 8the most perfect freedom from all settled concepts1 from all inherited restraints and impediments which hamper the progress of the ,occidental intellect with the historical drag tied to its foot40 #c ,ueber die ,akademische ,freiheit der ,deutschen ,universitten1 ,rede beim ,antritt des ,rectorats an der ,friedrich-,wilhelms-,universitt in ,berlin1 am ,october #ae1 #ahgg1 gehalten von ,dr4 ,h4 ,helmholtz4 #d ,ueber eine ,akademie der ,deutschen ,sprache1 p4 #cd4 ,another keen observer of ,english life1 ,dr4 ,k4 ,hillebrand1 in an article in the ,october number of the ,nineteenth ,century1 remarks3 8,nowhere is there greater individual liberty than in ,england1 and nowhere do people renounce it more readily of their own accord40 #e ,spencer ,hardy1 ,manual of ,buddhism1 p4 #cia4 #f ,spencer ,hardy1 ,manual of ,buddhism1 p4 #ci4 #g 8,as one generation dies and gives way to another1 the heir of the consequences of all its virtues and all its vices1 the exact result of prexistent causes1 so each individual1 in the long chain of life1 inherits all1 of good or evil1 which all its predecessors have done or been1 and takes up the struggle towards enlightenment precisely where they left it40 ,rhys ,davids1 ,buddhism1 p4 #ajd4 #h ,bunsen1 ,egypt1 ii4 pp4 #gg1 #aej4 #i ,mmoire sur l',origine ,egyptienne de l',alphabet ,phnicien1 par ,e4 de ,roug1 ,paris1 #ahgd4 #aj ,see ,brandis1 ,das ,mnzwesen4 #aa 8,is it not almost a self-evident axiom1 that the ,state should require and compel the education1 up to a certain standard1 of every human being who is born its citizen8 ,yet who is there that is not afraid to recognize and assert this truth80 ,on ,liberty1 p4 #ahh4 #ab ,times1 ,january #be1 #ahgi4 #ac ,sacred ,books of the ,east1 edited by ,m4 ,m41 vols4 i4 to ix42 ,clarendon ,press1 ,oxford1 #ahgi and #ahhj4 #ad ,computation or ,logic1 t4 iii41 viii41 p4 #cf4 #ae ,lectures on ,mr4 ,darwin's 8,philosophy of ,language10 ,fraser's ,magazine1 ,june1 #ahgc1 p4 #bf4 #af ,prantl1 ,geschichte der ,logik1 vol4 i4 p4 #aba4 #ag ,l4 ,noir1 ,pdagogisches ,skizzenbuch1 p4 #aeg2 8,todtes ,wissen40 #ah ,mill ,on ,liberty1 p4 #aic4 #ai ,zeller1 ,ueber den wissenschaftlichen ,unterricht bei den ,griechen1 #ahgh1 p4 #i4 #bj ,her4 ii4 #ec1 1 1 4 #ba 4 1 4 ,sext4 ,emp4 adv4 ,math4 #abhi2 ix4 #aic4 4-- 1 1 1 4 ,clem4 ,alex4 ,strom4 v4 p4 #fja1 c4 1 4 ,clem4 ,alex4 ,strom4 vii4 p4 #gaa1 ,b4 ,historia ,philosophies1 ed4 ,ritter et ,preller1 cap4 iii4 #bb 1 4 ,clem4 ,alex4 ,strom4 v4 p4 #fja1 c4 #bc ,see ,introduction to the ,science of ,religion1 p4 #aci4 #bd ,empedokles1 ,carmina1 v4 #daa 7,fragm4 ,philos4 ,grc4 vol4 i4 p4 #ab73-- 1 2 4 #be ,daily ,life and ,origin of the ,tasmanians1 by ,j4 ,bonwick1 #ahgj1 p4 #adc4 #bf ,the word is clearly connected in ,greek with 1 which meant originally blowing1 and was used either in the sense of cooling by blowing1 or breathing by blowing4 ,in the former acceptation it produced 1 coldness2 1 cold2 1 ,i cool2 in the latter 1 breath1 then life1 then soul4 ,so far the purely ,greek growth of words derived from is clear4 ,but itself is difficult4 ,it seems to point to a root spu1 meaning to blow out1 to spit2 ,lat4 spuo1 and spuma1 foam2 ,goth1 speivan2 ,gr4 1 supposed to stand for 4 ,hesychius mentions 1 4 7,pott1 ,etym4 ,forsch4 ,no4 #cee47 ,curtius connects this root with ,gr4 1 in 1 blowing1 bellows1 1 to blow1 1 to snort1 -1 to blow1 and with ,lat4 spirare 7i4e4 spoisare74 ,see ,e4 ,b4 ,tylor1 8,the ,religion of ,savages10 ,fortnightly ,review1 #ahff1 p4 #gc4 ,stahl1 who rejected the division of life and mind adopted by ,bacon1 and returned to the ,aristotelian doctrine1 falls back on ,plato's etymology of as 1 from or 1 ,crat4 #djj ,b4 ,in a passage of his ,theoria ,medica ,vera 7,hal1 #agjh71 pointed out to me by ,dr4 ,rolleston1 ,stahl says3 8,invenio in lexico grco antiquiore post alios1 et ,budum imprimis1 iterum iterumque reviso1 nomenclaturam nimis quam fugitive allegatam2 1 poetice1 pro 4 ,incidit animo suspicari1 an non verum primum nomen anim antiquissimis ,grcis fuerit hoc 1 quasi 1 e cuius vocis pronunciatione deflectente1 uti vere familiariter solet vocalium1 inprimis sub accentibus1 fugitiva enunciatione1 sensim natum sit - 1 denique ad faciliorem pronunciationem in locum 1 4 ,quam suspicionem fovere mihi videtur illud1 quod vocabuli 1 pro anima1 nulla idonea analogia in lingua grca occurrat2 nam qu a ducitur1 cum verus huius et directus significatus notorie sit refrigero1 indirectus autem magis1 spiro1 nihil certe hc ad animam puto40 7,p4 #dd47 #bg 1 1 4 ,il4 ix4 #djh4 #bh 2 4 ,il4 xiv4 #eag4 #bi 8,ter frustra compressa manu effugit imago1 ,par levibus ventis volucrique simillima somno40 ,virg4 n4 ii4 #gib4 #cj ,see ,e4 ,b4 ,tylor1 ,fortnightly ,review1 #ahff1 p4 #gd4 #ca ,im-manis1 originally 8not small10 came to mean enormous or monstrous4 ,see ,preller1 ,rmische ,mythologie1 p4 #gb seq4 #cb ,unkulunkulu2 or the ,tradition of ,creation as existing among the ,amazulu and other ,tribes of ,south ,africa1 by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,callaway1 ,m4 ,d4 ,natal1 #ahfh4 ,part ,i4 p4 #ia4 #cc ,see ,j4 ,samuelson1 ,views of the ,deity1 ,traditional and ,scientific1 p4 #add4 ,williams ,norgate1 #ahga4 #cd 8,it has already been implied that the ,aborigines of ,tasmania had acquired very limited powers of abstraction or generalization4 ,they possessed no words representing abstract ideas2 for each variety of gum-tree and wattle-tree1 etc41 etc41 they had a name1 but they had no equivalent for the expression1 #8a tree2' neither could they express abstract qualities1 such as hard1 soft1 warm1 cold1 long1 short1 round1 etc42 for #8hard' they would say #8like a stone2' for #8tall' they would say #8long legs1' etc42 for #8round' they said #8like a ball1' #8like the moon1' and so on1 usually suiting the action to the word1 and confirming by some sign the meaning to be understood40 ,milligan1 ,vocabulary of the ,dialects of some of the ,aboriginal ,tribes of ,tasmania1 p4 #cd4 ,hobart ,town1 #ahff4 #ce ,if ,signer ,ascoli blames me for deriving ,niobe with other names for snow from the root snu1 instead of from the root snigh1 this can only be due to an oversight4 ,i am responsible for the derivation of ,niobe1 and for the admission of a secondary root snyu or nyu1 and so far ,i may be either right or wrong4 ,but ,signer ,ascoli ought to have known that the derivation of ,gothic sniv-s1 ,old ,high-,german sno1 or sn1 gen4 snw-s1 ,lithuanian snga-s1 ,slav1 snjeg1 ,hib4 sneachd1 from the root snu1 rests on the authority of ,bopp 7,glossarium1 #ahdg1 s4 v4 snu2 see also ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,grammatik1 ii4 p4 #gjj74 ,he ought likewise to have known that in #aheb ,professor ,schweizer-,siedler1 in his review of ,btticher's ,arica 7,kuhn's ,zeitschrift1 i4 p4 #dgi71 had pointed out that snigh may be considered as a secondary root by the side of snu and sn 7cf4 1 2 1 2 1 74 ,the real relation of snu to snigh had been explained as early as #ahdb by ,benfey1 ,wurzellexicon1 ii4 p4 #ed2 and ,signor ,ascoli was no doubt aware of what ,professor ,curtius had written on the relation of snigh to snu 7,grundzge der ,greichischen ,etymologie1 p4 #big74 ,signor ,ascoli has certainly shown with greater minuteness than his predecessors that not only ,zend snizh and ,lithuanian snga-s1 but likewise ,gothic snaiv-s1 ,greek 1 ,latin nix1 nv-is1 and ninguis1 may be derived from snigh2 but if from snigh1 a secondary development of the root snu1 we can arrive at - and at 1 the other steps that lead on to ,niobe will remain just the same4 #cf ,at the end of the hymn the poet says3-- 1 1 2 1 4 ,this would seem to imply that the poet looked upon ,helios as a half-god1 almost as a hero1 who had once lived on earth4 #cg ,corssen1 ,ueber ,steigerungsendungen1 ,kuhn's ,zeitschrift1 iii4 p4 #bii4 #ch ,see ,selected ,essays1 vol4 i4 p4 #cii4 #ci ,the ,childhood of the ,world1 by ,e4 ,clodd1 p4 #fb4 #dj ,reynard the ,fox in ,south ,africa1 or ,hottentot ,fables and ,tales1 by ,w4 ,h4 ,i4 ,bleek1 #ahfd1 p4 #fi4 ,dr4 ,theophilus ,hahn1 ,die ,sprache der ,nama1 #ahgj1 p4 #ei4 ,as a curious coincidence1 it may be mentioned that in ,sanskrit1 too1 the ,moon is called sasanka1 i4 e4 8having the marks of a hare10 the black marks in the moon being taken for the likeness of the hare4 ,another coincidence is that the ,namaqua ,hottentots will not touch hare's flesh 7see ,sir ,james ,e4 ,alexander's ,expedition of ,discovery into the ,interior of ,africa1 vol4 i4 p4 #bfi71 because the hare deceived men1 while the ,jews abstain from it1 because the hare is supposed to chew the cud 7,lev4 xi4 #f74 ,a similar tradition on the meaning of death occurs among the ,zulus1 but as they do not know of the ,moon as a deity1 the message that men are not to die1 or that they are to die1 is sent there by ,unkulunkulu1 the ancestor of the human race1 and thus the whole story loses its point4 ,see ,dr4 ,callaway1 ,unkulunkulu1 p4 #d2 and ,gray1 ,polynesian ,mythology1 pp4 #af-eh4 #da ,according to a letter just received from an ,esthonian lady1 mmarik does mean the gloaming in the language of the common people of ,esthonia4 ,bertram 7,ilmatar1 ,dorpat1 #ahgj1 p4 #bfe7 remarks that ,koit is the dawn1 ,koido tht1 the morning-star1 also called eha tht4 marik1 the ordinary name for the dawn1 is used as the name for the evening twilight1 or the gloaming in the well-known story1 published by ,fhlmann 7,verhandlungen der gelehrten ,estnischen ,gesellschaft zu ,dorpat1 vol4 i47 ,in ,finnish hmra is twilight in general4 #db ,see ,lectures on the ,science of ,religion1 pp4 #aid1 #bjj4 #dc ,see my ,lectures on the ,science of ,language 7#ajth ed471 vol4 ii4 p #dfh4 #dd ,see a most interesting essay1 ,le ,petit ,poucet 7,tom ,thumb71 by ,gaston ,paris4 #de ,selected ,essays1 vol4 i4 p4 #dgh3 8,here then we see that mythology does not always create its own heroes1 but that it lays hold of real history1 and coils itself round it so closely that it is difficult1 nay1 almost impossible1 to separate the ivy from the oak1 the lichen from the granite to which it clings4 ,and here is a lesson which comparative mythologists ought not to neglect4 ,they are naturally bent on explaining everything that can be explained2 but they should bear in mind that there may be elements in every mythological riddle which resist etymological analysis1 for the simple reason that their origin was not etymological1 but historical40 #df ,lectures on the ,science of ,language1 vol4 ii4 p4 #eha4 #dg ,professor ,blackie quotes ,pausanias in support of this etymology4 ,he says3 8,the account of ,pausanias 7viii4 #be1 #bf71 according to which the terrible impersonation of conscience1 or the violated moral law1 is derived from 1 an old ,greek verb originally signifying to be angry1 has sufficient probability1 not to mention the obvious analogy of 1 another name sometimes given to the awful maids 771 from 1 an imprecation40 ,if ,professor ,blackie will refer to ,pausanias himself1 he will find that the ,arcadians assigned a very different cause to the anger of ,demeter1 which is supposed to have led to the formation of her new name ,erinys4 #dh ,asiatic ,researches1 i4 p4 #bgb2 ,life of ,sir ,w4 ,jones1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bdj seq4 #di ,asiatic ,researches1 i4 p4 #bba4 #ej ,see ,introduction to the ,science of ,religion1 p4 #dh4 #ea ,the ,rev4 ,w4 ,w4 ,gill tells me that the ,maori word for bone is iwi1 but he suspects a foreign origin for the fable founded on it4 #eb ,tree and ,serpent ,worship1 by ,james ,fergusson4 ,london1 #ahfh4 ,very similar opinions had been advocated by ,rajendralal ,mitra1 in a paper published in #aheh in the ,journal of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 8,buddhism and ,odinism1 illustrated by extracts from ,professor ,holmboe's ,memoir on the ,traces du ,buddhisme en ,norvge40 ,how much mischief is done by opinions of this kind when they once find their way into the general public1 and are supported by names which carry weight1 may be seen by the following extracts from the ,pioneer 7,july #cj1 #ahgh71 a native paper published in ,india4 ,here we read that the views of ,holmboe1 ,rajendralal ,mitra1 and ,fergusson1 as to a possible connection between ,buddha and ,wodan1 between ,buddhism and ,wodenism1 have been adopted and preached by an ,english bishop1 in order to convince his hearers1 who were chiefly ,buddhists1 that the religion of the gentle ascetic came originally1 if not from the ,northeast of ,scotland1 at all events from the ,saxons4 8,gotama ,buddha10 he maintained1 8was a ,saxon10 coming from 8a ,saxon family which had penetrated into ,india40 ,and again3 8,the most convincing proof to us ,anglo-,indians lies in the fact that the ,purnas named ,varada and ,matsy distinctly assert that the ,white ,island in the ,west--meaning ,england--was known in ,india as ,sacana1 having been conquered at a very early period by the ,sacas or ,saks40 ,after this the bishop takes courage1 and says3 8,let me call your attention to the ,pli word ,nibban1 called in ,sanskirt ,nirvna4 ,in the ,anglo-,saxon you have the identical word--,nabban1 meaning #8not to have1' or #8to be without a thing4' 0 #ec ,see ,buddhaghosha's ,parables1 translated by ,captain ,rogers1 with an ,introduction containing ,buddha's ,dhammapada1 translated from ,pli1 by ,m4 ,m41 #ahgj1 p4 #aaj1 note4 #ed ,hare1 8,on the ,names of the ,days of the ,week0 7,philol4 ,museum1 ,nov4 #ahca72 ,ideler1 ,handbuch der ,chronologie1 p4 #agg2 ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1 p4 #aaa4 #ee ,a writer in the ,index objects to my representation of what ,josephus said with regard to the observance of the seventh day in ,greek and barbarian towns4 ,he writes3-- ,,washington1 ,nov4 #i1 #ahgb4 8,the article by ,max ,mller in the ,index of this week contains1 ,i think1 one error1 caused doubtless by his taking a false translation of a passage from ,josephus instead of the original4 #8,in fact1' says ,professor ,mller1 #8,josephus 7,contra ,apion4 ii4 #ci7 was able to say that there was no town1 ,greek or not ,greek1 where the custom of observing the seventh day had not spread4' ,mr4 ,wm4 ,b4 ,taylor1 in a discussion of the ,sabbath question with the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,brown1 of ,philadelphia1 in #ahec 7,obligation of the ,sabbath1 p4 #abj71 gives this rendering of the passage3 #8,nor is there anywhere any city of the ,greeks1 nor a single barbarian nation1 whither the institution of the ,hebdomade 7which we mark by resting7 has not travelled2' then in a note ,mr4 ,taylor gives the original ,greek of part of the passage1 and adds3 #8,josephus does not say that the ,greek and barbarian rested1 but that we the ,jews observe it by rest4' 8,the corrected translation only adds strength to ,max ,mller's position in regard to the very limited extent of ,sabbath observance in ancient times2 and ,mr4 ,taylor brings very strong historical proof to maintain the assertion 7p4 #bd7 that #8throughout all history we discover no trace of a ,sabbath among the nations of antiquity4' 0 ,it seems to me that if we read the whole of ,josephus's work1 ,on the ,antiquity of the ,jews1 we cannot fail to perceive that what ,josephus wished to show towards the end of the second book was that other nations had copied or were trying to copy the ,jewish customs4 ,he says3 1 4 ,he then says that the early ,greek philosophers1 though apparently original in their theoretic speculations1 followed the ,jewish laws with regard to practical and moral precepts4 ,then follows this sentence3 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 1 444 ,standing where it stands1 the sentence about the can only mean that 8there is no town of ,greeks nor of barbarians1 nor one single people1 where the custom of the seventh day1 on which we rest1 has not spread1 and where fastings1 and lighting of lamps1 and much of what is forbidden to us with regard to food are not observed4 ,they try to imitate our mutual concord also1 etc40 ,hebdomas1 which originally meant the week1 is here clearly used in the sense of the seventh day1 and though ,josephus may exaggerate1 what he says is certainty 8that there was no town1 ,greek or not ,greek1 where the custom of observing the seventh day had not spread40 #ef ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1 p4 #aah1 note4 #eg ,in ,singalese ,wednesday is ,bad1 in ,tamil ,budau4 ,see ,kennet1 in ,indian ,antiquary1 #ahgd1 p4 #ij2 ,d',alwis1 ,journal of ,ceylon ,branch of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 #ahgj1 p4 #ag4 #eh ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1 p4 #bgf4 #ei ,ibid4 p4 #aea4 #fj ,ibid4 p4 #abj4 #fa ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1 pp4 #acg-adh4 #fb ,ibid4 p4 #abf4 ,oski in ,icelandic1 the god ,wish1 one of the names of the highest god4 #fc ,tacit4 ,hist4 iv4 #fd3 8,communibus ,diis et prcipuo ,deorum ,marti grates agimus40 #fd ,grimm1 l4 c4 p4 #adh4 #fe ,p4 #abe4 8,pour quiconque s'est occup d'tudes philologiques1 ,jhova driv de ,zeus est facile admettre40 #ff ,stanislas ,julien1 ,le ,livre de la ,voie et de la ,vertu4 ,paris1 #ahdb1 p4 iv4 #fg ,montucci1 ,de studiis sinicis4 ,berolini1 #ahjh4 #fh ,see ,w4 ,e4 ,a4 ,axon's 8,the ,future of the ,english ,language10 the 8,almanach de ,gotha10 and ,de ,candolle's 8,histoire des ,sciences10 #ahgc4 #fi ,the pronoun it woz speld in eight diferent wayz bei ,tyndale thps1 hyt1 hytt1 hit1 hitt1 it1 itt1 yt1 ytt4 ,another author speld tongue in the folowing wayz3 tung1 tong1 tunge1 tonge1 tounge4 ,the wprd head woz variopsli speld hed1 heede1 hede1 hefode4 ,the spelingz obay1 survay1 pray1 vail1 vain1 ar often uzed for obey1 survey1 prey1 veil1 vein4 #gj ,popular ,education--,a ,revision of ,english ,spelling a ,national ,necessity4 ,by ,e4 ,jones1 ,b4,a4 ,london1 #ahge4 #ga 8,rig-,veda-,prtiskhya1 ,das lteste ,lehrbuch der ,vedischen ,phonetik1 ,sanskrit ,text1 mit bersetzung und ,anmerkungen1 herausgegeben10 von ,f4 ,max ,mller1 ,leipzig1 #ahfi4 #gb ,beal1 ,travels of ,buddhist ,pilgrims1 ,introd4 p4 xxi42 ,chinese ,repository1 vol4 x4 ,no4 #c1 ,march1 #ahda4 #gc ,see an account of the ,introduction of ,buddhism into ,china1 in ,journal ,asiatique1 #ahef1 ,august1 p4 #aje4 ,recherches sur l'origine des ordres religieux dans l'empire chinois1 par ,bazin4 #gd ,stan4 ,julien1 ,plerins ,bouddhistes1 vol4 i4 p4 #bif4 #ge ,dr4 ,edkins in his ,notices of ,buddhism in ,china 7which unfortunately are not paged7 says that ,indians arrived at the capital of ,china in ,shensi in #bag ,b4 ,c4 to propagate their religion4 #gf ,dr4 ,edkins1 l4 c41 states that ,kang-khien1 on his return from the country of the ,get1 informed the ,emperor ,wu-ti that he had seen articles of traffic from ,shindo4 ,the commentator adds that the name is pronounced ,kando and ,tindo1 and that it is the country of the barbarians called ,buddha 7sic74 #gg ,kabul or ,ko-fu is1 in the ,eastern ,han annals1 called a state of the ,yeh-ki4 #gh ,generally identified with the ,get1 but without sufficient proof4 #gi ,translated by ,mr4 ,bunyiu ,nanjio4 #hj ,the golden color or suvarnavarnat is one of the thirty-two marks of a ,buddha1 recognized both in the ,southern and ,northern schools 7,burnouf1 ,lotus1 #egi74 #ha ,this name is written in various ways1 ,ka-shio-ma-t-giya1 ,ka-shio-ma-t1 ,shio-ma-t1 ,ka-t1 ,ma-t4 ,in the ,fan-i-ming-i-tsi 7vol4 iii4 fol4 #d a71 it is said 8that ,k4 was a native of ,central ,india1 and a ,brhman by caste4 ,having been invited by the ,chinese envoy1 ,tsi-yin1 he came to ,china1 saw the ,emperor1 and died in ,lo-yang1 the capital40 ,of ,k-fa-lan it is said 7l4 c4 vol4 iii4 fol4 #d7 that he was a native of ,central ,india1 well versed in ,vinaya4 ,when invited to go to ,china1 the ,king would not let him depart4 ,he left secretly1 and arrived in ,china after ,ksyapa4 ,they translated the ,stra in forty-two sections together4 ,after ,ksyapa died1 ,k-fa-lan translated five ,stras4 #hb ,see ,vasala-sutta 7in ,nipta-sutta71 v4 #bb4 #hc ,fa is the ,buddhist equivalent for friar4 #hd ,mr4 ,b4 ,nanjio informs me that both in ,china and ,japan ,buddhist priests adopt either ,k1 the last character of ,tien-k1 ,india1 or ,shih1 the first character of ,shih-kia--i4 e4 ,skya--as their surname4 #he ,l4 ,feer1 ,sutra en #db articles1 p4 xxvii4 ,le ,dhammapada par ,f4 ,h1 suivi du ,sutra en #db articles1 par ,lon ,feer1 #ahgh1 p4 xxiv4 #hf ,in ,beal's ,catalogue this name is spelt ,an-shi-ko1 ,an-shi-kao1 and ,ngan-shai-ko4 #hg ,his translations occur in ,beal's ,catalogue1 pp4 #ca1 #ce1 #cg1 #ch1 #dj 7bis71 #da 7bis71 #db 7bis71 #dc1 #de1 #df1 #dg1 #di1 #ej1 #ea 7ter71 #eb 7bis71 #ed1 #gj1 #hh1 #ie 7bis74 ,in the ,k'ai-yuen-lu it is stated that he translated #ii works in #aae fascicles4 #hh ,w1 comprising ,keh-kiang and other parts1 with its capital in what is now ,s-kau1 was the southern one of the ,three ,kingdoms4 ,sun-khan was its first sovereign4 #hi ,the northern of the ,three ,kingdoms1 with its capital latterly in ,lo-yang4 #ij ,see ,beal1 ,catalogue1 p4 #e4 #ia ,this name1 ,k-f-hu1 is generally re-translated as ,dharmaraksha4 ,k is the second character in ,tien-k1 the name of ,india1 and this character was used as their surname by many ,indian priests while living in ,china4 ,in that case their ,sanskrit names were mostly translated into two ,chinese characters3 as ,f1 7law dharma71 hu 7protection raksha74--,b4 ,n4 #ib ,according to ,mr4 ,beal 7,fahian1 p4 xxiii471 this ,k-f-hu1 with the help of other ,shmans1 translated no less than #afe texts1 and among them the ,lalita-vistara 7,pou-yao-king71 the ,nirvna ,stra1 and the ,suvarna-prabhsa-,stra 7#bfe-cjh74 ,the ,k'ai-yuen-lu assigns to him #bge works1 in #ced fascicles4 #ic ,edkins1 l4 c4 ,beal1 ,catalogue1 p4 #ag2 #ad4 #id ,edkins1 l4 c4 #ie ,the ,yos subdued the ,fs1 and ruled as the dynasty of the ,after ,khin4 #if ,see p4 #bjh4 ,he is sometimes called ,balasan1 or1 according to ,edkins1 ,palat'sanga1 ,baddala1 or ,dabadara4 ,in the ,fan-i-ming-i-tsi 7vol4 iii4 fol4 #f7 the following account of ,buddhabhadra is given3 8,buddhabhadra met ,kumragiva in ,china1 and whenever the latter found any doubts1 the former was always asked for an explanation4 ,in the fourteenth year of -hsi 7#dah ,a4 ,d47 ,buddhabhadra translated the ,fa-yan-king in sixty volumes40 ,this ,stra is the ,ta-fang-kwang-fo-fa-yan-king1 ,buddhvatamsaka-vai-pulya-stra 7,beal's ,catalogue1 p4 #i74 ,this translation was brought to ,japan in #gcf4 #ig ,the ,sang-ki-liu1 rules of priesthood2 i4 e4 the ,vinaya of the ,mahsaghika school4 #ih ,i call him ,dharmaraksha ,,ii41 in order to prevent a confusion which has been produced by identifying two ,shmans who lived at a distance of nearly #bjj years--the one #bej ,a4 ,d41 the other #dbj ,a4 ,d4 ,the first is called ,k-f-hu1 which can be rendered ,dharmaraksha2 the second is called ,f-fng 7law-prosperity71 but1 if transliterated1 he is best known by the names ,t#8on-mo-la-tsin1 ,t#8an-mo-tsin1 or ,dharmalatsin4 ,he was a native of ,central ,india1 and arrived in ,china in the first year of the period ,hiouen-shi of the ,ts-khu family of the ,northern ,liang1 #dad ,a4 ,d4 ,he was the contemporary of ,ki-mang1 whom ,mr4 ,beal places about #bej ,a4 ,d41 in order to make him a contemporary of ,dharmaraksha ,i4 #ii ,mung-sun died #dcb1 and was succeeded by his heir1 who lost his kingdom in #dci4 ,yo-khang's kingdom1 however1 was destroyed by the ,eastern ,tsin1 at the time of his second successor1 #dag1 not by ,mung-sun4 #ajj ,it is said in the tenth year of the period ,hung-shi of ,yo-khang 7better hsing71 the copy arrived at ,khang-an4 ,but this cannot be1 if ,ki-mang went to ,india in #dai4 ,there must be something wrong in these dates4 #aja ,the four ,nikyas or gamas2 cf4 ,vinayapitaka1 vol4 i4 p4 xl4 #ajb ,sriputrbhidharma-sstra2 cf4 ,beal1 ,catalogue1 p4 #hj4 #ajc ,beal1 ,catalogue1 p4 #cf4 #ajd ,edkins1 l4 c4 #aje ,ibid4 #ajf ,beal1 ,catalogue1 p4 #gg2 on p4 #bj a translation of the ,lankvatra is mentioned4 #ajg ,see ,athenum1 ,august #g1 #ahhj2 and infra1 p4 #cgj4 #ajh ,a long list of ,sanskrit texts translated into ,chinese may be found in the ,journal ,asiatique1 #ahdi1 p4 #cec seq41 s4 t4 8,concordance ,sinico-,samskrite d'un nombre considrable de titres d'ouvrages ,bouddhiques1 recueillie dans un ,catalogue ,chinois de l'an #acjf1 par ,m4 ,stanislas ,julien40 #aji ,csoma ,krsi1 ,as4 ,res4 vol4 xx4 p4 #dah4 ,journal ,asiatique1 #ahdi1 p4 #cef4 #aaj ,cf4 ,beal1 ,catalogue1 p4 #ff4 #aaa ,the modern paper in ,nepal is said to date from #ejj years ago 7,hodgson1 ,essays74 #aab ,m4 ,m41 ,history of ,ancient ,sanskrit ,literature1 p4 #eaf4 #aac ,burnell1 ,south ,indian ,palography1 #b;d ed4 p4 #hd seq4 #aad ,see ,sacred ,books of the ,east1 vol4 i41 ,upanishads1 ,introduction1 p4 lxxviii4 #aae ,dr4 ,bhler 7,journal of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 ,bombay1 #ahgg1 p4 #bi7 has the following interesting remarks3 8,the ,bhrga ,,mss4 are written on specially-prepared thin sheets of the inner bark of the ,himalayan birch 7,btula ,bhojpatr4 ,wallich71 and invariably in ,srad characters4 ,the lines run always parallel to the narrow side of the leaf1 and the ,,mss4 present1 therefore1 the appearance of ,european books1 not of ,indian ,,mss41 which owe their form to an imitation of the ,tlapatras4 ,the ,himlaya seems to contain an inexhaustible supply of birch bark1 which in ,kasmr and other hill countries is used both instead of paper by the shopkeepers in the bazaars1 and for lining the roofs of houses in order to make them water-tight4 ,it is also exported to ,india1 where in many places it is likewise used for wrapping up parcels1 and plays an important part in the manufacture of the flexible pipe-stems used by huk smokers4 ,to give an idea of the quantities which are brought into ,srnagar1 ,i may mention that on one single day ,i counted fourteen large barges with birch bark on the river4444 ,the use of birch bark for literary purposes is attested by the earliest classical ,sanskrit writers4 ,klidsa mentions it in his dramas and epics2 ,sustuta1 ,varhamihira 7circa #ejj-eej ,a4 ,d47 know it likewise4 ,as is the case with nearly all old customs1 the use of birch bark for writing still survives in ,india1 though the fact is little known4 ,mantras1 which are worn as amulets1 are written on pieces of ,bhrga with ashtau gandbh1 a mixture of eight odoriferous substances--e4 g4 camphor1 sandal1 tumeric--which vary according to the deity to which the writing is dedicated4 ,the custom prevails in ,bengal as well as in ,gujart4 ,birch-bark ,,mss4 occur in ,orissa4 ,the ,petersburg ,dictionary refers to a passage in the ,kthaka1 the redaction of the ,yajurveda formerly current in ,kasmr1 where the word ,bhrga occurs1 though it is not clear if it is mentioned there too as material for writing on4 ,the ,kasmirian ,pandits assert1 and apparently with good reason1 that in ,kasmr all books were written on bhrgapattras from the earliest times until after the conquest of the ,valley by ,akbar1 about #bjj-bej years ago4 ,akbar introduced the manufacture of paper1 and thus created an industry for which ,kasmr is now famous in ,india40 #aaf ,dr4 ,burnell1 ,indian ,antiquary1 #ahhj1 p4 #bcd1 shows that ,kokanapura is ,kokanahlli in the ,mysore territory4 #aag ,beal's ,travels of ,buddhist ,pilgrims1 ,introd4 p4 xlvi4 #aah ,pterins ,buuddhistes1 vol4 i4 p4 #aeh4 #aai ,fausbll1 ,dasaratha-jtaka1 p4 #be4 #abj ,see1 also1 ,albiruni1 as quoted by ,reinaud1 ,memoir sur l',inde1 p4 #cje4 #aba ,see ,letter to the ,times1 8,on the ,religions of ,japan10 ,oct4 #bj1 #ahhj4 #abb 8,le ,bouddhisme dans l'extrme ,orient10 ,revue ,scientifique1 ,dcembre1 #ahgi4 #abc ,journal ,asiatique1 #ahga1 p4 #chf seq4 #abd ,five of these translations were introduced into ,japan2 the others seem to have been lost in ,china4 ,the translations are spoken of as 8the five in existence and the seven missing40 #abe ,see p4 #aib4 #abf ,see p4 #aib4 #abg ,the ,,mss4 vary between ,sukhavat and ,sukhvat4 #abh ,see1 also1 ,lotus de la bonne ,loi1 p4 #bfg4 #abi ,journal of the ,r4 ,a4 ,s4 #ahef1 p4 #cai4 #acj ,i owe this information to the kindness of ,m4 ,lon ,feer at ,paris4 #aca ,see ,journal ,asiatique1 #c;d series1 vol4 iii4 p4 #caf2 vol4 iv4 p4 #bif-bih4 #acb ,j4 ,r4 ,a4 ,s4 #ahff1 p4 #acf4 #acc ,j4 ,r4 ,a4 ,s4 #ahff1 p4 #acf4 #acd ,beal1 ,catalogue1 p4 #bc4 ,j4 ,r4 ,a4 ,s4 #ahef1 p4 #cai4 ,beal1 ,catalogue1 p4 #gg1 mentions also an ,amitbha-stra-upadesa-sstra1 by ,vasubandhu1 translated by ,bodhiruki 7,wou-liang-sheu-king-yeou-po-ti-she74 ,there is an ,amitbha-stra1 translated by ,chi-hien of the ,wu period--i4 e4 #bbb-bhj ,a4 ,d4--mentioned in ,mr4 ,beal's ,catalogue of the ,buddhist ,tripitaka1 p4 #f4 ,the next ,stra1 which he calls the ,stra of measureless years1 is no doubt the ,amityus-stra1 ,amityus being another name for ,amitbha 7,fu-shwo-wou-liang-sheu-king1 p4 #f74 ,see1 also1 ,catalogue1 pp4 #ii1 #ajb4 ,dr4 ,edkins also1 in his ,notices of ,buddhism in ,china1 speaks of a translation of 8the ,stra of boundless age10 by ,fa-t'ian-pun1 a native of ,magadha1 who was assisted in his translation by a native of ,china familiar with ,sanskrit1 about #ajjj ,a4 ,d4 #ace ,srvast1 capital of the ,northern ,kosalas1 residence of ,king ,prasenagit4 ,it was in ruins when visited by ,fa-hian 7init4 ,v4 ,sc472 not far from the modern ,fizabad4 ,cf4 ,burnouf1 ,introduction1 p4 #bb4 #acf ,srdha1 with1 the ,pli saddhim4 ,did not the frequent mention of #a1bjj and a half 7i4 e4 #a1bej71 #a1cjj and a half 7i4 e4 #a1cej71 persons accompanying ,buddha arise from a misunderstanding of srdha1 meaning originally 8with a half08 #acg ,abhignbhigtaih4 ,the ,japanese text reads abhigtbhgtaih--i4 e4 abhigtbhigtaih4 ,if this were known to be the correct reading1 we should translate it by 8known by known people10 notus a viris notis--i4 e4 well-known1 famous4 ,abhigta in the sense of known1 famous1 occurs in ,lalita-,vistara1 p4 #be1 and the ,chinese translators adopted that meaning here4 ,again1 if we preferred the reading abhignbhigtaih1 this1 too1 would admit of an intelligible rendering--viz4 known or distinguished by the marks or characteristics1 the good qualities1 that ought to belong to a ,bhikshu4 ,but the technical meaning is 8possessed of a knowledge of the five abhigs40 ,it would be better in that case to write abhigtbhignaih1 but no ,,mss4 seem to support that reading4 ,the five abhigs or abhignas which an ,arhat ought to possess are the divine sight1 the divine hearing1 the knowledge of the thoughts of others1 the remembrance of former existences1 and magic power4 ,see ,burnouf1 ,lotus1 ,appendice1 ,no4 xiv4 ,the larger text of the ,sukhavatvyha has abhignbhigaih1 and afterwards abhigtbhigaih4 ,the position of the participle as the uttara-pada in such compounds as abhignbhigtaih is common in ,buddhist ,sanskrit4 ,mr4 ,bendall has called my attention to the ,pli abhita-abhita 7,vinaya-pitaka1 ed4 ,oldenberg1 vol4 i4 p4 #dc71 which favors the ,chinese acceptation of the term4 #ach ,mahsrvaka1 the great disciples2 sometimes the eighty principal disciples4 #aci ,arhadbhih4 ,i have left the correct ,sanskrit form1 because the ,japanese text gives the termination adbhih4 ,hg's text has the more usual form arhantaih4 ,the change of the old classical arhat into the ,pli arahan1 and then back into ,sanskrit arhanta1 arahanta1 and at last arihanta1 with the meaning of 8destroyer of the enemies0--i4 e4 the passions--shows very clearly the different stages through which ,sanskrit words passed in the different phases of ,buddhist literature4 ,in ,tibet1 in ,mongolia1 and in ,china1 ,arhat is translated by 8destroyer of the enemy40 ,see ,burnouf1 ,lotus1 p4 #bhg2 ,introduction1 p4 #bie4 ,arhat is the title of the ,bhikshu on reaching the fourth degree of perfection4 ,cf4 ,stra of the #db ,sections1 cap4 #b4 ,clemens of ,alexandria 7d4 #bbj7 speaks of the who worshipped a pyramid erected over the relics of a god4 ,is this a translation of ,arhat1 as ,lassen 78,de nom4 ,ind4 philosoph40 in ,rhein4 ,museum1 vol4 i4 p4 #ahg7 and ,burnouf 7,introduction1 p4 #bie7 supposed1 or a transliteration of ,samana8 ,clemens also speaks of 7,stromat4 p4 #eci1 ,potter74 #adj ,indra1 the old ,vedic god1 has come to mean simply lord1 and in the ,kanda ,paritta 7,journal ,asiatique1 #ahga1 p4 #bbj7 we actually find ,asurinda1 the ,indra or ,lord of the ,asuras4 #ada ,the numbers in ,buddhist literature1 if they once exceed a ,koti or ,kot--i4 e4 ten millions--become very vague1 nor is their value always the same4 ,ayuta1 i4 e4 a hundred ,kotis2 ,niyuta1 i4 e4 a hundred ,ayutas2 and ,nayuta1 i4 e4 #a with #bb zeros1 are often confounded2 nor does it matter much so far as any definite idea is concerned which such numerals convey to our mind4 #adb ,tishthati dhriyate ypayati dharmam ka desayati4 ,this is evidently an idiomatic phrase1 for it occurs again and again in the ,nepalese text of the ,sukhavatvyha 7,,ms4 #bf b1 l4 #a4 #b2 #ee a1 l4 #b1 etc474 ,it seems to mean1 he stands there1 holds himself1 supports himself1 and teaches the law4 ,burnouf translates the same phrase by1 8ils se trouvent1 vivent existent0 7,lotus1 p4 #ced74 ,on ypeti in ,pli1 see ,fausbll1 ,dasaratha-jtaka1 pp4 #bf1 #bh2 and ypana in ,sanskrit4 #adc ,kikingla4 ,the texts read kakangalais ka and kakangalais ka1 and again later kakangalunm 7also l7 and kakangalnm4 ,mr4 ,beal translates from ,chinese 8seven rows of exquisite curtains10 and again 8gemmous curtains40 ,first of all1 it seems clear that we must read gla1 net1 web1 instead of gala4 ,secondly1 kakana1 bracelet1 gives no sense1 for what could be the meaning of nets or string of bracelets8 ,i prefer to read kikingla1 nets or strings or rows of bells4 ,such rows of bells served for ornamenting a garden1 and it may be said of them that1 if moved by the wind1 they give forth certain sounds4 ,in the commentary on ,dhammapada #cj1 p4 #aia1 we meet with kikinikagla1 from which likewise the music proceeds2 see ,childers1 s4 v4 gla4 ,in the ,,mss4 of the ,nepalese ,sukhavatvyha 7,r4 ,a4 ,s471 p4 #ci a1 l4 #d1 ,i likewise find svarnaratnakikinglni1 which settles the matter1 and shows how little confidence we can place in the ,japanese texts4 #add ,anuparikshipta1 inclosed2 see parikkhepo in ,childers' ,dict4 #ade ,the eight good qualities of water are limpidity and purity1 refreshing coolness1 sweetness1 softness1 fertilizing qualities1 calmness1 power of preventing famine1 productiveness4 ,see ,beal1 ,catena1 p4 #cgi4 #adf ,kkpeya4 ,one text reads ,kkapeya1 the other ,kkpeya4 ,it is difficult to choose4 ,the more usual word is kkapeya1 which is explained by ,pnini1 ii4 #a1 #cc4 ,it is uncertain1 however1 whether kkapeya is meant as a laudatory or as a depreciatory term4 ,boehtlingk takes it in the latter sense1 and translates nad kkapey1 by a shallow river that could be drunk up by a crow4 ,trntha takes it in the former sense1 and translates nad kkapey1 as a river so full of water that a crow can drink it without bending its neck 7kkair anatakandharaih pyate2 prnodakatvena prasasye kkaih peye nadydau74 ,in our passage kkapeya must be a term of praise1 and we therefore could only render it by 8ponds so full of water that crows could drink from them40 ,but why should so well known a word as kkapeya have been spelt kkpeya1 unless it was done intentionally8 ,and if intentionally1 what was it intended for8 ,we must remember that ,pnini1 ii4 #a1 #db schol41 teaches us how to form the word trthakka1 a crow at a trtha1 which means a person in a wrong place4 ,it would seem1 therefore1 that crows were considered out of place at a trtha or bathing-place1 either because they were birds of ill omen1 or because they defiled the water4 ,from that point of view1 kkpeya would mean a pond not visited by crows1 free from crows4 ,professor ,pischel has called my attention to ,mahparinibbna ,sutta 7,j4 ,r4 ,a4 ,s4 #ahge1 p4 #fg1 p4 #ba71 where kkapey clearly refers to a full river4 ,samatiika1 if this is the right reading1 occurs in the same place as an epithet of a river1 by the side of kkapeya1 and ,i think it most likely that it means rising to a level with the trthas1 the fords or bathing-places4 ,mr4 ,rhys ,davids informs me that the commentary explains the two words by samatittik ti samaharit1 kkapeyy ti yatthatatthaki tre thitena kkena sakk patum ti4 #adg ,purobhaktena4 ,the text is difficult to read1 but it can hardly be doubtful that purobhaktena corresponds to ,pli purebhattam 7i4 e4 before the morning meal71 opposed to pakkhbhattam1 after the noonday meal 7i4 e4 in the afternoon74 ,see ,childers1 s4 v4 ,prvabhaktik would be the first repast1 as ,professor ,cowell informs me4 #adh ,div vihrya1 for the noonday rest1 the siesta4 ,see ,childers1 s4 v4 vihra4 #adi ,kraukh4 ,snipe1 curlew4 ,is it meant for ,kuravka1 or ,karavka1 a fine-voiced bird 7according to ,kern1 the ,sk4 karyik71 or for ,kalavika-,pli ,kalavka8 ,see ,childers1 s4 v4 opaptiko2 ,burnouf1 ,lotus1 p4 #eff4 ,i see1 however1 the same birds mentioned together elsewhere1 as hamsakraukamayrasukaslikakokila1 etc4 ,on mayra see ,mahv4 ,introd4 p4 xxxix42 ,rv4 ,i4 #aia1 #ad4 #aej ,indriyabalabodhyagasabda4 ,these are technical terms1 but their meaning is not quite clear4 ,spence ,hardy1 in his ,manual1 p4 #dih1 enumerates the five indrayas1 viz4 7#a7 sardhwa1 purity 7probably sraddh1 faith71 7#b7 wiraya1 persevering exertion 7vrya71 7#c7 sati or smirti1 the ascertainment of truth 7smriti71 7#d7 samdhi1 tranquillity1 7#e7 pragnwa1 wisdom 7prag74 ,the five balayas 7bala71 he adds1 are the same as the five indrayas4 ,the seven bowdynga 7bodhyaga7 are1 according to him3 7#a7 sihi or smirti1 the ascertainment of the truth by mental application1 7#b7 dharmmawicha1 the investigation of causes4 7#c7 wraya1 persevering exertion1 7#d7 prti1 joy1 7#e7 passadhi1 or prasrabdhi1 tranquillity1 7#f7 samdhi1 tranquillity in a higher degree1 including freedom from all that disturbs either body or mind1 7#g7 upeksh1 equanimity4 ,it will be seen from this that some of these qualities or excellences occur both as indriyas and bodhyagas1 while balas are throughout identical with indriyas4 ,burnouf1 however1 in his ,lotus1 gives a list of five balas 7from the ,vocabulaire ,pentaglotte7 which correspond with the five indriyas of ,spence ,hardy3 viz4 sraddh-bala1 power of faith1 vrya-bala1 power of vigor1 smriti-bala1 power of memory1 samdhi-bala1 power of meditation1 prag-bala1 power of knowledge4 ,they precede the seven bodhyagas both in the ,lotus1 the ,vocabulaire ,pentaglotte1 and the ,lalita-,vistara4 ,to these seven bodhyagas ,burnouf has assigned a special treatise 7,appendix xii4 p4 #gif74 ,they occur both in ,sanskrit and ,pli4 #aea ,niraya1 the hells1 also called ,naraka4 ,yamaloka1 the realm of ,yama1 the judge of the dead1 is explained as the four ,apyas--i4 e4 ,naraka1 hell1 ,tiryagyoni1 birth as animals1 ,pretaloka1 realm of the dead1 ,asuraloka1 realm of evil spirits4 ,the three terms which are here used together occur likewise in a passage translated by ,burnouf1 ,introduction1 p4 #edd4 #aeb ,iti sankhym gakkhanti1 they are called2 cf4 ,childers1 s4 v4 sankhy4 ,asankhyeya1 even more than aprameya1 is the recognized term for infinity4 ,burnouf1 ,lotus1 p4 #heb4 #aec ,avaramtraka4 ,this is the ,pli oramattako1 8belonging merely to the present life10 and the intention of the writer seems to be to inculcate the doctrine of the ,mahyna1 that salvation can be obtained by mere repetitions of the name of ,amitbha1 in direct opposition to the original doctrine of ,buddha1 that as a man soweth1 so he reapeth4 ,buddha would have taught that the kusalamla1 the root or the stock of good works performed in this world 7avaramtraka71 will bear fruit in the next1 while here 8vain repetitions0 seems all that is enjoined4 ,the ,chinese translators take a different view of this passage1 and ,i am not myself quite certain that ,i have understood it rightly4 ,but from the end of this section1 where we read kulaputrena v kuladuhitr v tatra buddhakshetre kittaprnidhnam kartavyam1 it seems clear that the locative 7buddhakshetre7 forms the object of the pranidhna1 the fervent prayer or longing4 ,the ,satpurushas already in the ,buddhakshetra would be the innumerable men 7manushys7 and ,boddhisattvas mentioned before4 #aed ,arthavasa1 lit4 the power of the thing2 cf4 ,dhammapada1 p4 #chh1 v4 #bhi4 #aee ,i am not quite certain as to the meaning of this passage1 but if we enter into the bold metaphor of the text1 viz41 that the ,buddhas cover the ,buddha-countries with the organ of their tongue and then unroll it1 what is intended can hardly be anything but that they first try to find words for the excellences of those countries1 and then reveal or proclaim them4 ,burnouf1 however 7,lotus1 p4 #dag71 takes the expression in a literal sense1 though he is shocked by its grotesqueness4 ,on these ,buddhas and their countries1 see ,burnouf1 ,lotus1 p4 #aac4 #aef ,it should be remarked that the ,tathgatas here assigned to the ten quarters differ entirely from those assigned to them in the ,lalita-vistara1 book xx4 ,not even ,amitbha is mentioned there4 #aeg ,pratyatha4 ,the texts give again and again pattyatha1 evidently the ,pli form1 instead of pratyata4 ,i have left tha1 the ,pli termination of the #b p4 pl4 in the imperative1 instead of ta1 because that form was clearly intended1 while pa for pra may be an accident4 ,yet ,i have little doubt that patyatha was in the original text4 ,that it is meant for the imperative1 we see from sraddadhdhvam1 etc41 farther on4 ,other traces of the influence of ,pli or ,prakrit on the ,sanskrit of our ,stra appear in arhantaih1 the various reading for arhadbhih1 which ,i preferred2 sambahula for bahula2 dhriyate ypayati2 purobhaktena2 anyatra2 sakhym gakkhanti2 avaramtraka2 vethana instead of veshtana1 in nirvethana2 dharmaparyya 7,corp4 ,inscript4 plate ,,xv471 etc4 #aeh ,the ,sukhavatvyha1 even in its shortest text1 is called a ,mahyna-stra1 nor is there any reason why a ,mahyna-stra should not be short4 ,the meaning of ,mahyna-stra is simply a ,stra belonging to the ,mahyna school1 the school of the ,great ,boat4 ,it was ,burnouf who1 in his ,introduction to the ,history of ,buddhism1 tried very hard to establish a distinction between the ,vaipulya or developed ,stras1 and what he calls the simple ,stras4 ,now1 the ,vaipulya ,stras may all belong to the ,mahyna school1 but that would not prove that all the ,stras of the ,mahyna school are ,vaipulya or developed ,stras4 ,the name of simple ,stra1 in opposition to the ,vaipulya or developed ,stras1 is not recognized by the ,buddhists themselves2 it is really an invention of ,burnouf's4 ,no doubt there is a great difference between a ,vaipulya ,stra1 such as the ,lotus of the ,good ,law1 translated by ,burnouf1 and the ,stras which ,burnouf translated from the ,divyvadna4 ,but what ,burnouf considers as the distinguishing mark of a ,vaipulya ,stra1 viz4 the occurrence of ,bodhisattvas1 as followers of the ,buddha ,skyamuni1 would no longer seem to be tenable 78,les prsence des ,bodhisattvas ou leur absence intresse done le fonds mme des livres o on la remarque1 et il est bien vident que ce seul point trace une ligno de dmarcation profonde entre les ,stras ordinaires et les ,stras dvelopps40 ,burnouf4 ,introduction1 p4 #aab471 unless we classed our short ,sukhavat-vyha as a ,vaipulya or developed ,stra4 ,for this there is no authority4 ,our ,stra is called a ,mahyna ,sutra1 never a ,vaipulya ,stra1 and yet among the followers of ,buddha1 the ,bodhisattvas constitute a very considerable portion4 ,but more than that1 ,amitbha1 the ,buddha of ,sukhavat1 another personage whom ,burnouf looks upon as peculiar to the ,vaipulya ,stras1 who is1 in fact1 one of the ,dhyni-buddhas1 though not called by that name in our ,stra1 forms the chief object of its teaching1 and is represented as coeval with ,buddha ,skyamuni4 78,l'ide d'un ou de plusieurs ,buddhas surhumains1 celle de ,bodhisattvas crs par eux1 sont des conceptions aussi trangres ces livres 7les ,stras simples7 que celle d'un ,adibuddha ou d'un ,dieu40--,burnouf1 ,introduction1 p4 #abj47 ,the larger text of the ,sukhavatvyha would certainly1 according to ,burnouf's definition1 seem to fall into the category of the ,vaipulya ,stras4 ,but it is not so called in the ,,mss4 which ,i have seen1 and ,burnouf himself gives an analysis of that ,stra 7,introduction1 p4 #ii7 as a specimen of a ,mahyna1 but not of a ,vaipulya ,stra4 #aei ,see ,h4 ,yule1 ,marco ,polo1 #b;d ed4 vol4 i4 pp4 #dda-ddc4 #afj ,in ,china1 as ,dr4 ,edkins states1 the doctrine of ,amitbha is represented by the so-called ,lotus school 7,lian-tsung7 or ,pure ,land 7,tsing-tu74 ,the founder of this school in ,china was ,hwei-yuan of the ,tsin dynasty 7fourth century74 ,the second patriarch 7tsu7 of this school was ,kwang-ming 7seventh century74 #afa ,see page #aia4