,transcriber's ,note3    ,the use of 's 
around a word signifies that the word   
was spaced   out in the original l i k e
  t h i s4     ,illustration3 ,,free    
,,academy1 ,,new ,,york4 ,see p4 #chf4  
,,popular ,,education3                  
,,for ,,the ,,use ,,of                  
,,parents ,,and ,,teachers1             
,,and ,,for               ,,young       
,,persons ,,of ,,both ,,sexes4          
,,prepared ,,and ,,published    ,,in    
,,accordance ,,with ,a ,,resolution ,,of
 ,,the ,,senate ,,and                   
,,house ,,of ,,representatives ,,of     
,,the                    ,state of      
,michigan4                    ,,by ,,ira
 ,,mayhew1 ,a4,m41        ,,late        
,,superintendent ,,of ,,public          
,,instruction4                          
,,new ,,york3             ,,harper      
,,brothers1 ,,publishers1               
#hb ,,cliff ,,street4                   
#ahej4      ,entered1 according to ,act 
of ,congress1 in the year one thousand  
eight  hundred and fifty1 by  ,,ira     

,,mayhew1  in the ,clerk's ,office of   
the ,district ,court of the ,united     
,states for the  ,district of ,michigan4
                       ,state of        
,michigan3                              
,,house ,,of ,,representatives1         
,lansing1 ,february #bgth #ahdi4        
,,hon4 ,,ira ,,mayhew1 ,superintendent  
of ,public ,instruction3     ,,sir3 ,i  
am instructed by the ,house of          
,representatives to transmit to you     
the following preamble and resolution1  
and to respectfully inform you   that   
the same were this day unanimously      
adopted by the ,house4       ,i am1 sir1
 very respectfully1 your obedient       
servant1        ,a4 ,w4 ,,hovey1 ,clerk 
of the ,house of ,representatives4      
,whereas1 ,in the opinion of this       
,house1 a ,manual on the subject of     
,popular ,education1 embracing such     
considerations as shall have a tendency 
to arouse the popular mind to a due     
appreciation of the importance--in a    
political1 social1 moral1 and religious 

point of view--of securing to every     
child in all our borders a good common  
school education1 together with such    
instructions to citizens and teachers as
 shall constitute a directory to the    
highest improvement of which our primary
 schools are susceptible1 is a          
desideratum2 therefore1  ,resolved1 by  
the ,house of ,representatives of the   
,state of ,michigan3 ,that the ,hon4    
,,ira ,,mayhew1 the present             
,superintendent of ,public ,instruction 
in this state1 be requested to prepare  
for publication1 in book form1 the      
various matters set forth in his public 
,lectures1 delivered by request of the  
,legislature1 in the ,hall of the       
,house1 during the present session1     
together with such other matter as1 in  
his judgment1 would tend to the further 
improvement of our system of public     
instruction2 to the end that the        
necessary information in regard to this 
subject may be diffused throughout the  
state and nation4    99 99 99 ,a        

,preamble and ,resolution similar to the
 preceding were likewise adopted by the 
,senate4     ,,preface4   ,who is       
sufficient for these things8 is a       
question which any one may well ask when
 sitting down to the preparation of a   
treatise on popular education4 ,the     
author of this work would have shrunk   
from the undertaking1 but from deference
 to the judgment of the honorable body  
that unanimously invited its            
preparation4 ,he has also been          
encouraged not a little by many kind    
friends1 one of whom1 distinguished for 
his labors in the department of public  
instruction1 writing from ,new ,england1
 says1 ,i rejoice at your good          
beginnings at the ,west4 ,you have a    
noble and inspiring field of action4    
',no pent-up ,utica contracts your      
powers4' ,i beseech you1 fail not to    
fill it with your glorious educational  
truth1 though you should pour out your  
spirit and your life to do so4  ,the    
duties required by law of the           

,superintendent of ,public ,instruction 
in the ,state of ,michigan are          
comparatively few4 ,the author1 however1
 five years ago1 and soon after entering
 upon the discharge of those duties1    
undertook voluntary labors for the      
purpose of awakening a deeper interest  
with all classes of the community in    
behalf of common schools1 and of        
inspiring confidence in their redeeming 
power1 when improved as they may be1    
constituting1 as they do1 the only      
reliable instrumentality for the proper 
training of the rising generation4      
,these labors1 which were hailed as     
promising great usefulness1 and which   
were prosecuted in every county of the  
state1 were every where received with   
unexpected favor1 and constitute the    
foundation of the present volume4 ,many 
of the subjects then discussed are here 
greatly amplified4  ,among the lectures 
referred to in the resolution under     
which this work has been undertaken1 was
 one on the ,michigan ,school ,system4  

,but as the ,convention for the revision
 of the ,constitution of this state is  
now in session1 it has been deemed      
advisable to omit1 in this connection1  
the extensive consideration of the      
details of that system4 ,this may       
constitute the theme of a small manual  
which shall hereafter appear4  ,in the  
present volume the author has endeavored
 so to present the subject of popular   
education1 which should have reference  
to the whole man--the body1 the mind1   
and the heart--and so to unfold its     
nature1 advantages1 and claims1 as to   
make it every where acceptable4 ,nay1   
more1 he would have a good common       
education considered as the inalienable 
right of every child in the community1  
and have it placed first among the      
necessaries of life4 ,for the better    
accomplishment of his object1 he has    
freely drawn from the writings of       
practical educators1 his aim being      
usefulness rather than originality4     
,this course has been adopted1 in some  

instances1 for the sole purpose of      
enforcing the sentiments inculcated by  
the authority of the names introduced4  
,acknowledgments have generally been    
made in the body of the work4 ,these may
 have been unintentionally omitted in   
some instances1 and especially in those 
portions of the work which were written 
several years ago1 and the sources      
whence information was drawn are now    
unknown4  ,an examination of the table  
of contents1 and especially of the index
 at the end of the volume1 will show the
 range of subjects considered1 and their
 adaptation to the wants and            
necessities1 ,i may say1 of the several 
classes of persons named in the         
title-page1 for whose use it was        
undertaken4 ,written1 as it has been1   
for ,parents and ,teachers1 and for     
,young ,persons of both sexes1 it is    
what its title implies--a treatise on   
,popular ,education--and is equally     
applicable to the wants of families and 
schools in every portion of our         

wide-spread country4  ,with all its     
imperfections1 of which no one can be   
more sensible than the author1 this     
volume is given to the public1 with the 
hope that it may contribute1 in some    
degree1 to advance the work of general  
education in the ,united ,states1 but   
more especially in the ,state of        
,michigan4                              
,,ira ,,mayhew4  ,monroe1 ,mich41 ,july 
#dth1 #ahej4     ,,contents4            
,,chapter ,i4  ,in what does a correct  
,education consist8            ,page #ac
   ,,chapter ,,ii4  ,the ,importance of 
,physical ,education                    
#bh   ,,chapter ,,iii4  ,physical       
,education--,the ,laws of ,health       
#dd   ,,chapter ,,iv4  ,the ,laws of    
,health--,philosophy of ,respiration    
#ha   ,,chapter ,v4  ,the ,nature of    
,intellectual and ,moral ,education     
#aaa   ,,chapter ,,vi4  ,the ,education 
of the ,five ,senses                    
#adf   ,,chapter ,,vii4  ,the ,necessity
 of ,moral and ,religious ,education    

#aic   ,,chapter ,,viii4  ,the          
,importance of ,popular ,education      
#bbd  ,education dissipates the ,evils  
of ,ignorance              #bbf         
,education increases the ,productiveness
 of ,labor          #bec  ,education    
diminishes ,pauperism and ,crime        
#bhf  ,education increases human        
,happiness                      #caa    
,,chapter ,,ix4  ,political ,necessity  
of ,national ,education                 
#cbe  ,the ,practicability of ,national 
,education                 #cec         
,,chapter ,x4  ,the ,means of ,universal
 ,education                         #cfb
  ,good ,school-houses should be        
provided                    #cgb        
,well-qualified ,teachers should be     
employed               #daj  ,schools   
should continue through the ,year       
#ddj  ,every ,child should attend       
,school                         #ddb    
,the redeeming ,power of ,common        
,schools                    #ded        
,,index4                                

#dfa     ,,national ,,popular           
,,education4     ,,chapter ,i4  ,,in    
,,what ,,does ,a ,,correct ,,education  
,,consist8      ,i call that education  
which embraces the culture of the whole 
man1     with all his                   
faculties--subjecting his senses1 his   
understanding1     and his passions to  
reason1 to conscience1 and to the       
evangelical     laws of the ,christian  
revelation4--,,de ,,fellenberg4   ,from 
the beginning of human records to the   
present time1 the inferior animals have 
changed as little as the herbage upon   
which they feed1 or the trees beneath   
which they find shelter4 ,in one        
generation1 they attain all the         
perfection of which their nature is     
susceptible4 ,that ,being without whose 
notice not even a sparrow falls to the  
ground1 has provided for the supply of  
their wants1 and has adapted each to the
 element in which it moves4 ,to birds he
 has given a clothing of feathers2 and  
to quadrupeds1 of furs1 adapted to their

 latitudes4 ,where art is requisite in  
providing food for future want1 or in   
constructing a needful habitation1 as in
 the case of the bee and the beaver1 a  
peculiar aptitude has been bestowed1    
which1 in all the inferior races of     
animals1 has been found adequate to     
their necessities4 ,the crocodile that  
issues from its egg in the warm sand1   
and never sees its parent1 becomes1 it  
has been well said1 as perfect and as   
knowing as any crocodile4  ,not so with 
man6 ,he comes into the world1 says an  
eloquent writer1 the most helpless and  
dependent of living beings1 long to     
continue so4 ,if deserted by parents at 
an early age1 so that he can learn only 
what the experience of one life may     
teach him--as to a few individuals has  
happened1 who yet have attained maturity
 in woods and deserts--he grows up in   
some respect inferior to the nobler     
brutes4 ,now1 as regards many regions of
 the earth1 history exhibits the early  
human inhabitants in states of ignorance

 and barbarism1 not far removed from    
this lowest possible grade1 which       
civilized men may shudder to            
contemplate4 ,but these countries1      
occupied formerly by straggling hordes  
of miserable savages1 who could scarcely
 defend themselves against the wild     
beasts that shared the woods with them1 
and the inclemencies of the weather1 and
 the consequences of want and fatigue2  
and who to each other were often more   
dangerous than any wild beasts1         
unceasingly warring among themselves1   
and destroying each other with every    
species of savage1 and even cannibal    
cruelty--countries so occupied formerly1
 are now become the abodes of myriads of
 peaceful1 civilized1 and friendly men1 
where the desert and impenetrable forest
 are changed into cultivated fields1    
rich gardens1 and magnificent cities4   
,it is the strong intellect of man1     
operating with the faculty of language  
as a means1 which has gradually worked  
this wonderful change4 ,by language1    

fathers communicated their gathered     
experience and reflections to their     
children1 and these to succeeding       
children1 with new accumulation2 and    
when1 after many generations1 the       
precious store had grown until memory   
could contain no more1 the arts of      
writing1 and then of printing1 arose1   
making language visible and permanent1  
and enlarging illimitably the           
repositories of knowledge4 ,language    
thus1 at the present moment of the      
world's existence1 may be said to bind  
the whole human race of uncounted       
millions into one gigantic rational     
being1 whose memory reaches to the      
beginnings of written records1 and      
retains imperishably the important      
events that have occurred2 whose        
judgment1 analyzing the treasures of    
memory1 has discovered many of the      
sublime and unchanging laws of nature1  
and has built on them all the arts of   
life1 and through them1 piercing far    
into futurity1 sees clearly many of the 

events that are to come2 and whose eyes1
 and ears1 and observing mind at this   
moment1 in every corner of the earth1   
are watching and recording new          
phenomena1 for the purpose of still     
better comprehending the magnificence   
and beautiful order of creation1 and of 
more worthily adoring its beneficent    
,author4  ,it might be very interesting 
to show here1 in minute detail1 how the 
arts of civilization have progressed in 
accordance with the gradual increase of 
man's knowledge of the universe2 but it 
would lead too far from the main        
subject4 ,the preceding sketch may      
remind us of the low condition of man in
 a state of ignorance and barbarism1 and
 of the high condition to which he may  
be brought by cultivation4 ,we possess a
 material and an immaterial part1       
mutually dependent on each other4 ,on   
one hand1 we may well say to corruption1
 ,thou art my father2 and to the worm1  
,thou art my mother and my sister4 ,on  
the other hand1 the ,psalmist says of   

man1 ,thou hast made him a little lower 
than the angels4  ,in the ,scriptures we
 learn the origin and history of        
man--the subject of education4 ,he was  
created in the image of his ,maker4 ,it 
was his delightful employment1 in       
innocency1 to dress the beautiful garden
 in which he dwelt4 ,presently we learn 
he transgressed4 ,his subsequent career 
becomes infelicitous4 ,in the earlier   
history of the human race1 the days of  
his pilgrimage were protracted several  
hundred years4 ,in process of time1     
because of the prevalence of sin1 a     
universal deluge swept away the entire  
family of man1 save one--a preacher of  
righteousness--and those of his         
household4 ,subsequently his days were  
shortened to three score years and ten4 
,much of this time is consumed in       
helpless infancy1 in sleep1 and in      
securing the necessary means of         
supporting animal life4 ,this1 it would 
seem1 is calamity enough2 but not so4   
,man finds himself beset with           

temptations on every side1 to deepen and
 perpetuate his degradation1 by giving  
reign to unbridled passion4  ,but a     
,light has shined upon his dark pathway1
 pointing him to a brighter country1 and
 beckoning him thither4 ,under these    
adverse circumstances1 it becomes the   
duty of the ,educator to unfold the     
opening energies of his youthful charge2
 to mold their plastic character1 and to
 assist their efforts in the recovery of
 that which was lost1 and in the        
attainment of immortality and eternal   
life4  ,these are strong views1 ,i am   
aware2 but nothing less would be        
adequate to the nature and wants of man4
 ,in these views ,i am fully sustained  
by nearly every writer of any           
distinction in ,europe and ,america4 ,in
 a volume of prize essays on the        
expediency and means of elevating the   
profession of the educator in society1  
published in ,london1 under the         
direction of the central society of     
education1 one of the writers1          

introducing a quotation from an         
,american author1 says1 ,i can not      
resist the pleasure of quoting a few of 
,alcott's brief sentences1 by way of    
conclusion to the present division of   
the argument4 ,the voice that has been  
sent athwart the ,atlantic may find an  
echo in some ,british bosoms4  ,these   
are its words3 ,education includes all  
those influences and disciplines by     
which the faculties of man are unfolded 
and perfected4 ,it is that agency that  
takes the helpless and pleading infant  
from the hands of its ,creator1 and1    
apprehending its entire nature1 tempts  
it forth1 now by austere1 and now by    
kindly influences and disciplines1 and  
thus molds it at last into the image of 
a perfect man2 armed at all points to   
use the body1 nature1 and life for its  
growth and renewal1 and to hold dominion
 over the fluctuating things of the     
outward4 ,it seeks to realize in the    
soul the image of the ,creator4 ,its end
 is a perfect man4 ,its aim1 through    

every stage of influence1 is            
self-renewal4 ,the body1 nature1 and    
life are its instruments and materials4 
,jesus is its worthiest                 
ideal--,christianity its purest organ4  
,the ,gospels are its fullest           
text-book--genius is its                
inspiration--holiness its               
law--temperance its                     
discipline--immortality its reward4     
,says ,dr4 ,howe1 in a lecture before   
the ,american ,institute of             
,instruction1 ,education should have for
 its aim the development and greatest   
possible perfection of the whole nature 
of man3 his moral1 intellectual1 and    
physical nature4 ,my beau ideal of human
 nature would be a being whose          
intellectual faculties were active and  
enlightened2 whose moral sentiments were
 dignified and firm2 whose physical     
formation was healthy and beautiful3    
whoever falls short of this1 in one     
particular--be it in but the least1     
beauty and vigor of body--falls short of

 the standard of perfection4 ,to this   
standard1 ,i believe1 man is            
approaching2 and ,i believe the time    
will soon be when specimens of it will  
not be rare4  ,the following thoughts   
are drawn from a treatise on the ,mental
 ,illumination and ,moral ,improvement  
of ,mankind1 by that very judicious and 
celebrated writer1 ,dr4 ,dick1 of       
,scotland4 ,the education of human      
beings1 considered in its most extensive
 sense1 comprehends every thing which is
 requisite to the cultivation and       
improvement of the faculties bestowed   
upon them by the ,creator4 ,it ought to 
embrace every thing that has a tendency 
to strengthen and invigorate the animal 
system2 to enlighten and expand the     
understanding2 to regulate the feelings 
and dispositions of the heart2 and1 in  
general1 to direct the moral powers in  
such a manner as to render those who are
 the subjects of instruction happy in   
themselves1 useful members of society1  
and qualified for entering upon the     

scenes and employments of a future and  
more glorious existence4  ,it is a very 
common but absurd notion1 and one that  
has been too long acted upon1 that the  
education of youth terminates1 or should
 terminate1 about the age of thirteen or
 fourteen years4 ,hence1 in an article  
on this subject in one of our           
encyclopedias1 education is defined to  
be that series of means by which the    
human understanding is gradually        
enlightened1 between infancy and the    
period when we consider ourselves as    
qualified to take a part in active life1
 and1 ceasing to direct our views to the
 acquisition of new knowledge or the    
formation of new habits1 are content to 
act upon the principles we have already 
acquired4  ,this definition1 though     
accordant with general opinion and      
practice1 is certainly a very limited   
and defective view of the subject4 ,in  
the ordinary mode of our scholastic     
instruction1 education1 so far from     
being finished at the age above stated1 

can scarcely be said to have commenced4 
,the key of knowledge has indeed been   
put into the hands of the young2 but    
they have never been taught to unlock   
the gates to the temple of science1 to  
enter within its portals1 to contemplate
 its treasures1 and to feast their minds
 on the entertainments there provided4  
,several moral maxims have been         
impressed on their memories2 but they   
have seldom been taught to appreciate   
them in all their bearings1 or to reduce
 them to practice in the various and    
minute ramifications of their conduct4  
,besides1 although every rational means 
were employed for training the youthful 
mind till the age above named1 no valid 
reason can be assigned why regular      
instruction should cease at this early  
period4  ,man is a progressive being2   
his faculties are capable of an         
indefinite expansion2 the objects to    
which these faculties may be directed   
are boundless and infinitely            
diversified2 he is moving onward to an  

eternal world1 and1 in the present      
state1 can never expect to grasp the    
universal system of created objects1 or 
to rise to the highest point of moral   
excellence4 ,his tuition1 therefore1 can
 not be supposed to terminate at any    
period of his terrestrial existence2 and
 the course of his life ought to be     
considered as nothing more than the     
course of his education4 ,when he closes
 his eyes in death1 and bids a last     
adieu to every thing here below1 he     
passes into a more permanent and        
expansive state of existence1 where his 
education will likewise be progressive1 
and where intelligences of a higher     
order may be his instructors2 and the   
education he received in this transitory
 scene1 if it was properly conducted1   
will found the ground-work of all his   
future progressions in knowledge and    
virtue throughout the succeeding periods
 of eternity4  ,there are two very      
glaring defects which appear in most of 
our treatises on education4 ,in the     

first place1 the moral tuition of       
youthful minds1 and the grand principles
 of religion which ought to direct their
 views and conduct1 are either entirely 
overlooked1 or treated of in so vague   
and general a manner1 as to induce a    
belief that they are considered matters 
of very inferior moment2 and1 in the    
business of teaching1 and the           
superintendence of the young1 the moral 
precepts of ,christianity are seldom    
made to bear with particularity upon    
every malignant affection that manifests
 itself1 and every minor delinquency    
that appears in their conduct1 or to    
direct the benevolent affections how to 
operate in every given circumstance1 and
 in all their intercourses and          
associations4 ,in the next place1 the   
idea that man is a being destined to an 
immortal existence1 is almost1 if not   
altogether overlooked4 ,volumes have    
been written on the best modes of       
training men for the profession of a    
soldier1 of a naval officer1 of a       

merchant1 of a physician1 of a lawyer1  
of a clergyman1 and of a statesman2 but 
,i know of no treatise on this subject  
which1 in connection with other         
subordinate aims1 has for its grand     
object to develop that train of         
instruction which is most appropriate   
for man considered as a candidate for   
immortality4 ,this is the more          
unaccountable1 since1 in the works      
alluded to1 the eternal destiny of human
 beings is not called in question1 and  
is sometimes referred to as a general   
position which can not be denied2 yet   
the means of instruction requisite to   
guide them in safety to their final     
destination1 and to prepare them for the
 employments of their everlasting abode1
 are either overlooked1 or referred to  
in general terms1 as if they were       
unworthy of particular consideration4   
,to admit the doctrine of the           
immortality of the human soul1 and yet  
to leave out the consideration of it1 in
 a system of mental instruction1 is both

 impious and preposterous1 and          
inconsistent with the principle on which
 we generally act in other cases1 which 
requires that affairs of the greatest   
moment should occupy our chief          
attention4 ,if man is only a transitory 
inhabitant of this lower world2 if he is
 journeying to another and more         
important scene of action and enjoyment2
 if his abode in this higher scene is to
 be permanent and eternal2 and if the   
course of instruction through which he  
now passes has an important bearing on  
his happiness in that state1 and his    
preparation for its enjoyments--if all  
this be true1 then surely every system  
of education must be glaringly defective
 which either overlooks or throws into  
the shade the immortal destination of   
human beings4  ,if these sentiments be  
admitted as just1 the education of the  
young becomes a subject of the highest  
importance4 ,there can not be an object 
more interesting to ,science1 to        
,religion1 and to general ,christian    

society1 than the forming of those      
arrangements1 and the establishing of   
those institutions1 which are calculated
 to train the minds of all to knowledge 
and moral rectitude1 and to guide their 
steps in the path which leads to a      
blessed immortality4 ,in this process   
there is no period in human life that   
aught to be overlooked4 ,we must        
commence the work of instruction when   
the first dawning of reason begins to   
appear1 and continue the process through
 all the succeeding periods of mortal   
existence1 till the spirit takes its    
flight to the world unknown4  ,while we 
would bring clearly into view the nature
 of that education which is needful for 
man1 considered as a candidate for      
immortality1 we would by no means       
overlook those subordinate aims which   
have reference to his present condition1
 and the relations he sustains in this  
life4 ,the two are so intimately        
connected1 and sustain such a reciprocal
 relation to each other1 that each is   

best secured by that system of training 
and in the use of those appliances by   
which the other is most successfully    
promoted4 ,in training the rising       
generation for the proper discharge of  
their duty to themselves and to one     
another--as children1 and subsequently  
as parents2 as members of society and   
citizens of free and independent        
states--we at the same time best promote
 their interests as candidates for      
immortality4 ,it is equally true that   
any system of education which omits to  
provide for man's highest and enduring  
wants as an immortal being1 in a        
proportionate degree falls short of     
providing for his dearest interests and 
best good in this life4  ,the system of 
education which we should promote       
comprehends whatever may have any good  
influence in developing the mind1 by    
giving direction to thought1 or bias the
 motives of action4 ,to lead infancy in 
the path of duty1 to give direction to  
an immortal spirit1 and to teach it to  

aspire by well-doing to the rewards of  
virtue1 is the first step of            
instruction4 ,to youth1 education       
imparts that knowledge whose ways are   
usefulness and honor1 and by due        
restraint and subordination1 makes      
individual to intwine with public good  
in a just observance of laws1           
comprehending the path of duty4 ,to     
manhood1 it leads him to reflect on the 
ties that unite him with friends1 with  
kindred1 and with the great family of   
mankind1 and makes his bosom glow with  
social tenderness2 it confirms the      
emotions of sympathy into habitual      
benevolence1 imparts to him the elating 
delight of rejoicing with those who     
rejoice1 and1 if his means are not      
always adequate to the suggestions of   
his charity1 soothes him at last with   
the melancholy pleasure of weeping with 
those who weep4 ,to age1 it gives       
consolation1 by remembrance of the past1
 and anticipation of the future4 ,wisdom
 is drawn from experience1 to give      

constancy to virtue2 and amid all the   
vicissitudes of life1 it enables him to 
repose unshaken confidence in that      
goodness which1 by the arrangement of   
the universe1 constantly incites him to 
perpetual progress in excellence and    
felicity4 ,education is the growth and  
improvement of the mind4 ,its great     
object is immediate and prospective     
happiness4 ,that1 then1 is the best     
education which secures to the          
individual and to the world the greatest
 amount of permanent happiness1 and that
 the best system which most effectually 
accomplishes this grand design4 ,how far
 this is accomplished by the present    
systems of education is not easily      
determined1 but that it fails in many   
important considerations can not admit  
of a doubt4  ,it is feared that1 by a   
great majority1 a wrong estimate is made
 of education4 ,is it not generally     
considered as a means which must be     
employed to accomplish some other       
purpose1 and consequently made          

subservient and secondary to the        
employments of life8 ,is it not         
considered as being contained in books1 
and a certain routine of studies1 which1
 when gone through with1 is believed to 
be accomplished1 and consequently laid  
by1 to be used as interest may suggest  
or convenience demand8 ,education       
comprehends all the improvements of the 
mind from the cradle to the grave4      
,every man is what education has made   
him1 whether he has drunk deep at the   
,pierian spring1 or sipped at the       
humblest fountain4 ,the philosopher1    
whose comprehensive mind can scan the   
universe1 and read and interpret the    
phenomena of nature2 whose              
heaven-aspiring spirit can soar beyond  
the boundaries of time1 indulge in the  
anticipation of immortality1 and discern
 in the past1 the present1 and the      
future the all-pervading spirit of      
benevolence1 is equally the child of    
education with him whose soul proud     
science never taught to feel its wants1 

and know how little may be known4  ,as  
we have already said1 man possesses a   
material and an immaterial part1        
mutually dependent on each other4 ,these
 are so intimately connected1 and       
sustain such a reciprocal relation to   
each other1 that neither can be         
neglected without detriment to both4    
,the body continually modifies the state
 of the mind1 and the mind ever varies  
the condition of the body4 ,mental and  
physical training should1 then1 go      
together4 ,that system of instruction   
which relates exclusively to either1 is 
a partial system1 and its fate must be  
that of a house divided against itself4 
,education has reference to the whole   
man4 ,it seeks to make him a complete   
creature after his kind1 giving to both 
mind and body all the power1 all the    
beauty1 and all the perfection of which 
they are capable4  ,our systems of      
education have hitherto fallen far short
 of this high and only true standard4   
,education1 in too many instances1 has  

been confined1 almost entirely1 to      
either the physical1 intellectual1 or   
moral energies of men4 ,with the greater
 part1 it has been limited to the       
physical powers4 ,no effort has been    
made to develop any but their bodily    
strength1 animal passions1 and          
instinctive feelings4 ,accordingly1 the 
great mass of mankind are raised but    
little above inferior animals4 ,they    
labor hard1 and boast of their strength2
 gratify their passions1 and glory in   
their shame2 eat and drink1 sleep and   
wake1 supposing to-morrow will be like  
the present4 ,they are scarcely aware of
 their rational1 intellectual powers1   
much less of their ever-expanding and   
never-dying spirits2 consequently they  
feel but imperfectly their              
responsibility1 and are governed        
principally by the fear of human        
authority4 ,they have been taught to    
fear or reverence nothing higher4 ,their
 education is confined to animal        
feeling--physical energies4 ,they have  

no conception of any thing beyond4 ,the 
whole intellectual world1 and all       
hereafter1 is narrowed down to the      
animal feeling of the present time4 ,how
 erroneous6 ,how badly educated6 ,and   
what are we to anticipate when only the 
physical energies of men generally are  
thus developed8 ,why1 surely1 what we   
are beginning to witness--namely1       
physical power1 trampling on all        
authority4  ,the education of others is 
confined principally to intellect4 ,not 
that their physical powers are not      
necessarily more or less developed1 but 
that their attention is directed almost 
exclusively to intellectual attainments4
 ,from the earliest infancy their minds 
are taxed1 though their bodies are      
neglected1 and their souls forgotten4   
,nor is it unfrequent that their        
physical strength gives way under the   
constant pressure of intellectual       
studies4 ,and thus they are subjected to
 all the evils of physical              
inability--the sufferings of living     

death1 in consequence of an erroneous   
education4 ,besides1 they are destitute 
of all those kinder feelings and        
sympathetic emotions which alone result 
from the cultivation of the moral       
susceptibilities1 and become insensible 
to the more delicate affections of the  
soul1 and elevating hopes of the truly  
virtuous4 ,they have nothing on which to
 rest for enjoyment but intellectual    
attainments4 ,and even these are small  
compared with what they might have been 
under a different course of education4  
,yet with what delight are the first    
developments of intellect discovered by 
the natural guardian of the infant mind6
 and with what anxious solicitude are   
they watched through advancing youth and
 manhood by those employed in their     
education4 ,in either stage the         
development of intellect alone seems    
worthy of an effort4 ,and yet1 when     
carried to the utmost1 what may we      
expect of one destitute of virtue1 and  
without strength of body8 ,little to    

benefit himself or others4 ,like        
,columbus1 ,franklin1 or ,la ,place1 he 
may employ his intellect in useful      
discoveries2 or1 like ,hume1 ,voltaire1 
and ,paine1 to curse the world4 ,in     
either case he may lead astray1 and     
should never be trusted implicitly4 ,as 
the bark on the ocean without compass or
 chart1 that rides out the storm or     
sinks to the bottom1 he may guide us in 
safety1 or ruin us forever6  ,the       
education of others1 again1 is confined 
mostly to their moral energies4 ,those  
of the body are almost forgotten1 only  
as nature forces their development upon 
the reluctant soul within4 ,and those of
 intellect are deemed unworthy of a     
thought1 except as necessary in the     
rudest stages of society2 while the     
moral susceptibilities are cultivated to
 the utmost4 ,they are brought into     
action in every situation4 ,they are    
employed in private1 in the social      
circle1 and around the public altar4    
,nor are those employing them ever      

satisfied4 ,they become                 
fanatics--religious enthusiasts4 ,they  
have zeal without knowledge1 and seem   
resolved on bringing all to their       
standard4 ,they enlist in the work all  
the sympathies of the soul--its         
tenderest sensibilities and most        
compassionate feelings4 ,without        
intellect to guide1 and physical        
strength to sustain them1 they sink     
under moral excitement1 and become      
deranged3 a result that might be        
anticipated from such an education2 and 
one that is often developed1 in some of 
its milder features1 among the reformers
 of the day4 ,nor may you reason with   
them4 ,reckless of consequences and     
regardless of authority1 they are not to
 be convinced or persuaded4 ,they are   
right1 and know they are right1 for the 
plain reason that they know nothing     
else1 and will not be diverted from     
their course4 ,what degradation6 ,who   
would not shrink from such an education8
 the development of the moral energies  

merely8 ,it never qualified men for the 
highest attainment--the utmost dignity  
of which they are susceptible4          
,diversified as are the developments of 
human character1 and dissimilar as they 
may appear to the careless observer1    
there are peculiar characteristics of   
men that render them similar to one     
another1 and unlike every other being4  
,in their natures1 original             
susceptibilities1 and ultimate          
destinies1 they are alike4 ,they are    
material1 intellectual1 and spiritual2  
animal1 rational1 and immortal4 ,on     
these uniform traits of character       
education should be based4 ,it should   
develop and strengthen the animal       
functions2 classify and improve the     
rational faculties2 and purify and      
elevate the spiritual affections in     
harmonious proportion and perfect       
symmetry4  ,the animal functions of the 
human system are to be developed and    
strengthened by education4 ,hitherto    
they have been assigned to the province 

of nature1 and deemed foreign to the    
objects of education4 ,but a more       
unphilosophical and dangerous theory has
 seldom been embraced1 as the melancholy
 results abundantly testify4 ,we shall  
therefore devote a chapter to physical  
education1 which seems to lie at the    
foundation of the great work of human   
improvement2 for1 as we have seen1 in   
the present state the mind can manifest 
itself only through the body2 after     
which we shall proceed to the           
consideration of the other grand        
divisions of the great work of          
education4     ,,chapter ,,ii4  ,,the   
,,importance ,,of ,,physical            
,,education4      ,the influence of the 
physical frame upon the intellect1      
morals1 and     happiness of a human    
being1 is now universally admitted4 ,the
 extent     of this influence will be   
thought greater in proportion to the    
accuracy with which the subject is      
examined4 ,bodily pain forms a     large
 proportion of the amount of human      

misery4 ,it is1 therefore1 of     the   
highest importance that a child should  
grow up sound and healthy     in body1  
with the utmost degree of muscular      
strength that education     can         
communicate4--,,lalor4   ,the importance
 of the department of the great work of 
education which we now approach has not 
hitherto been duly appreciated by       
parents and teachers generally4 ,i shall
 therefore devote more space to this    
subject than is usual in works on       
education1 but not more1 ,i trust1 than 
its relative importance demands4        
,physical1 intellectual1 and moral      
education are so intimately connected1  
that1 in order duly to appreciate the   
importance of either1 we must not view  
it separate and alone merely1 but in    
connection with both of the others4 ,and
 especially is this true of physical    
education4 ,however much value1 then1 we
 may attach to it on its own account1   
considering man as a corporeal being1 we
 shall have occasion greatly to magnify 

its importance when we come to direct   
our attention to his intellectual       
culture1 and still more when we view it 
in connection with his moral training4  
,then1 and not till then1 shall we be   
enabled1 in some degree1 properly to    
appreciate the importance of physical   
education4  ,it has been objected1 says 
,dr4 ,combe1#a that to teach any one how
 to take care of his own health1 is sure
 to do harm1 by making him constantly   
think of this and the other precaution1 
to the utter sacrifice of every noble   
and generous feeling1 and to the certain
 production of peevishness and          
discontent4 ,the result1 however1 he    
adds1 is exactly the reverse2 and it    
would be a singular anomaly in the      
constitution of the moral world were it 
otherwise4 ,he who is instructed in1 and
 is familiar with grammar and           
orthography1 writes and spells so easily
 and accurately as scarcely to be       
conscious of attending to the rules by  
which he is guided2 while he1 on the    

contrary1 who is not instructed in      
either1 and knows not how to arrange his
 sentences1 toils at the task1 and sighs
 at every line4 ,the same principle     
holds in regard to health4 ,he who is   
acquainted with the general constitution
 of the human body1 and with the laws   
which regulate its action1 sees at once 
his true position when exposed to the   
causes of disease1 decides what ought to
 be done1 and thereafter feels himself  
at liberty to devote his undivided      
attention to the calls of higher duties4
 ,but it is far otherwise with the      
person who is destitute of this         
information4 ,uncertain of the nature   
and extent of the danger1 he knows not  
to which hand to turn1 and either lives 
in the fear of mortal disease1 or1 in   
his ignorance1 resorts to irrational and
 hurtful precautions1 to the certain    
neglect of those which he ought to use4 
,it is ignorance1 therefore1 and not    
knowledge1 which renders an individual  
full of fancies and apprehensions1 and  

robs him of his usefulness4 ,it would be
 a stigma on the ,creator's wisdom if   
true knowledge weakened the             
understanding1 and led to injurious     
results4 ,those who have had the most   
extensive opportunities of forming an   
opinion on this subject from extensive  
experience1 bear unequivocal testimony  
to the advantages which knowledge       
confers in saving health and life1 time 
and anxiety4     #a ,principles of      
,physiology applied to the ,preservation
 of ,health4   ,if1 indeed1 ignorance   
were itself a preventive of the danger1 
or could provide a remedy when it       
approached1 then it might well be said  
that ignorance is bliss2 but as it gives
 only the kind of security which        
shutting the eyes affords against the   
dangers of a precipice1 and consequently
 leaves its victim doubly exposed1 it is
 high time to renounce its protection1  
and to seek those of a more powerful and
 beneficent ally4 ,every medical man can
 testify that1 natural character and    

other circumstances being alike1 those  
whose knowledge is the most limited are 
the fullest of whims and fancies2 the   
most credulous respecting the efficacy  
of every senseless and preposterous     
remedy2 the most impatient of restraint1
 and the most discontented at suffering4
  ,if any of my readers be still        
doubtful of the propriety or safety of  
communicating physiological knowledge to
 the public at large1 continues the     
author from whom we last quoted1 and    
think that ignorance is in all          
circumstances to be preferred1 ,i would 
beg leave to ask him whether it was     
knowledge or ignorance which induced the
 poorer classes in every country of     
,asia and ,europe to attempt to protect 
themselves from cholera by committing   
ravages on the medical attendants of the
 sick1 under the plea of their having   
poisoned the public fountains8 ,and     
whether it was ignorance or knowledge   
which prompted the more rational part of
 the community to seek safety in        

increased attention to proper food1     
warmth1 cleanliness1 and clothing8 ,in  
both cases1 the desire of safety and    
sense of danger were the same1 but the  
modes resorted to by each were as       
different in kind as in result1 the     
efficacy of the one having formed a     
glaring contrast to the failure of the  
other4  ,dr4 ,southwood ,smith1 the able
 author of a volume entitled ,the       
,philosophy of ,health1 says1 ,the      
obvious and peculiar advantages of this 
kind of knowledge are1 that it would    
enable its possessor to take a more     
rational care of his health2 to perceive
 why certain circumstances are          
beneficial or injurious2 to understand1 
in some degree1 the nature of disease1  
and the operation as well of the agents 
which produce it as of those which      
counteract it2 to observe the first     
beginnings of deranged function in his  
own person2 to give to his physician a  
more intelligible account of his train  
of morbid sensations1 as they arise2    

and1 above all1 to co-operate with him  
in removing the morbid state on which   
they depend1 instead of defeating1 as is
 now1 through ignorance1 constantly the 
case1 the best concerted plans for the  
renovation of health4 ,it would likewise
 lay the foundation for the attainment  
of a more just1 accurate1 and practical 
knowledge of our intellectual and moral 
nature4 ,there is a physiology of the   
mind as well as of the body1 and both   
are so intimately united that neither   
can be well understood without the study
 of the other4 ,the physiology of man   
comprehends both4 ,were even what is    
already known of this science and what  
might be easily communicated made a part
 of general education1 how many evils   
would be avoided6 how much light would  
be let in upon the understanding6 and   
how many aids would be afforded to the  
acquisition of a sound body and a       
vigorous mind6 prerequisites more       
important than are commonly supposed to 
the attainment of wisdom and the        

practice of virtue4  ,human physiology1 
says ,dr4 ,combe1 in his admirable      
treatise on that subject1 from which ,i 
have already quoted1 is as important in 
its practical consequences as it is     
attractive to rational curiosity4 ,in   
its widest sense1 it comprehends an     
exposition of the functions of the      
various organs of which the human frame 
is composed2 of the mechanism by which  
they are carried on2 of their relations 
to each other1 or the means of improving
 their development and action2 of the   
purposes to which they ought severally  
to be directed1 and of the manner in    
which exercise ought to be conducted1 so
 as to secure for the organ the best    
health1 and for the function the highest
 efficacy4 ,a true system of physiology 
comes thus to be the proper basis1 not  
only of a sound physical1 but of a sound
 moral and intellectual education1 and  
of a rational hygiene2 or1 in other     
words1 it is the basis of every thing   
having for its object the physical and  

mental health and improvement of man2   
for1 so long as life lasts1 the mental  
and moral powers with which he is       
endowed manifest themselves through the 
medium of organization1 and no plan     
which he can devise for their           
cultivation1 that is not in harmony with
 the laws which regulate that           
organization1 can possibly be           
successful4  ,let it not be said that   
knowledge of this description is        
superfluous to the unprofessional       
reader2 for society groans under the    
load of suffering inflicted by causes   
susceptible of removal1 but left in     
operation in consequence of our         
unacquaintance with our own structure1  
and of the relation of different parts  
of the system to each other and to      
external objects4 ,every medical man    
must have felt and lamented the         
ignorance so generally prevalent in     
regard to the simplest functions of the 
animal system1 and the consequent       
absence of the judicious co-operation of

 friends in the care and cure of the    
sick4 ,from ignorance of the commonest  
facts in physiology1 or from want of    
ability to appreciate their importance1 
men of much good sense in every other   
respect not only subject themselves     
unwittingly to the active causes of     
disease1 but give their sanction to laws
 and practices destructive equally to   
life and to morality1 and which1 if they
 saw them in their true light1 they     
would shrink from countenancing in the  
slightest degree4  ,were the intelligent
 classes of society better acquainted   
with the functions of the human body and
 the laws by which they are regulated1  
continues this judicious writer1 the    
sources of much suffering would be dried
 up1 and the happiness of the community 
at large would be essentially promoted4 
,medical men would no longer be         
consulted so exclusively for the cure of
 disease1 but would be called upon to   
advise regarding the best means of      
strengthening the constitution1 from an 

early period1 against any accidental or 
hereditary susceptibility which might be
 ascertained to exist4 ,more attention  
would be paid to the preservation of    
health than is at present practicable1  
and the medical man would then be able  
to advise with increased effect1 because
 he would be proportionally well        
understood1 and his counsel1 in so far1 
at least1 as it was based on accurate   
observation and a right application of  
principles1 would be perceived to be1   
not a mere human opinion1 but1 in       
reality1 an exposition of the will and  
intentions of a beneficent ,creator1 and
 would therefore be felt as carrying    
with it an authority to which1 as the   
mere dictum of a fallible               
fellow-creature1 it could never be      
considered as entitled4  ,it is true    
that1 as yet1 medicine has been turned  
to little account in the way of directly
 promoting the physical and mental      
welfare of man4 ,but the day is1        
perhaps1 not far distant1 when1 in      

consequence of the improvements both in 
professional and general education now  
in progress1 a degree of interest will  
be attached to this application of its  
doctrines far surpassing what those who 
have not reflected on the subject will  
be able to imagine as justly belonging  
to it1 but by no means exceeding that   
which it truly deserves4  ,every person 
should be acquainted with the           
organization1 structure1 and functions  
of his own body--the house in which he  
lives3 he should know the conditions of 
health1 and the causes of the numerous  
diseases that flesh is heir to1 in order
 to avoid them1 prolong his life1 and   
multiply his means of usefulness4 ,if   
these things are not otherwise learned1 
they should be taught--the elements of  
them at least--in our primary schools4  
,this instruction would come1 perhaps1  
most appropriately from the members of  
the medical profession4 ,but either     
society generally1 or physicians        
themselves1 or both1 have mistaken the  

true sphere of a physician's usefulness1
 and what ought to constitute the grand 
object of his profession1 namely1 the   
prevention of disease1 and the general  
improvement of the health1 and not the  
,,curing of diseases merely4 ,the       
physician1 like the clergyman in his    
parish1 should receive a salary2 and he 
should be occupied1 chiefly1 in teaching
 the laws of health to his employers2 in
 imparting to them instruction in       
relation to the means of avoiding the   
diseases to which they are more         
particularly exposed1 and in laying     
before them such information as shall be
 needful1 in order to the highest       
improvement of their physical           
organization1 and the transmission to   
posterity of unimpaired constitutions4  
,this he may do by public lectures1 at  
suitable seasons of the year2 and by    
visiting from house to house1 and       
imparting such information as may be    
particularly needed4 ,the physician     
should not allow any of his employers   

blindly to disregard the laws of health1
 or1 knowing them1 to violate them      
unreproved4 ,he should be accounted the 
best physician1 other things being      
equal1 whose employers have the least   
sickness1 and uniformly enjoy the best  
health4 ,when the relation existing     
between the members of the medical      
profession and the well-being of society
 generally comes to be better           
understood1 and physicians are employed 
in accordance with the principles just  
stated1 their greatest usefulness to the
 communities they serve will be found to
 consist in teaching well men and women 
how to retain and improve their health1 
and rear a healthy offspring1 and not in
 partially curing diseased persons who  
are constantly violating the laws of    
health4 ,these views will doubtless be  
new to many of my readers1 and seem to  
them very strange6 ,but let me inquire  
of such what they would think of the    
clergyman who should neglect to instruct
 his parishioners in the ennobling      

doctrines of morality and religion1 and 
should suffer them to go on in sin      
unrebuked1 until they become a burden to
 themselves8 who should wait until his  
counsels were solicited before he sounds
 the note of alarm1 and points the      
guilty sinner to the ,lamb of ,god which
 taketh away the sin of the world8 and  
who should confine his labors almost    
entirely to condemned criminals8 ,such  
conduct on the part of clergymen would  
doubtless be regarded by these very     
persons as passing strange6 ,the course 
commonly pursued in the employment of   
physicians is equally unphilosophical1  
and floods society with a legion of     
evils--physical and intellectual1 social
 and moral--three fourths of which might
 be avoided1 by the proper exercise of  
the medical profession1 in one          
generation2 and ultimately1 nineteen    
twentieths1 if not ninety-nine one      
hundredths of them4 ,as ,i have already 
said1 this instruction would come1      
perhaps1 most appropriately from the    

members of the medical profession4 ,but 
if these things are not taught          
elsewhere1 ,i repeat it1 they should be 
taught--the elements of them at         
least--in our primary schools4  ,i can  
not better enforce the importance of    
physical education than by quoting from 
a lecture on the education of the blind1
 by one of the most distinguished       
practical educators#b in this country4  
,that the proportion of the blind to the
 whole population might be diminished by
 wise social regulations1 and by the    
dissemination of knowledge of the       
organic laws of man1 there is not a     
doubt2 but whether the time has come1 or
 ever will come1 is another question4   
,at any rate1 to so enlightened a body#c
 as ,i have the honor of addressing1    
suggestions of methods by which the     
extent of blindness may be limited will 
neither be misapplied1 nor liable to    
offend a mawkish sensibility4 ,that the 
blindness of a large proportion of      
society is a social evil will not be    

denied1 nor will the right which society
 has to diminish that proportion be     
questioned4 ,but how8 in a very simple  
way2 by preventing the transmission of  
an hereditary blindness to another      
generation2 by preventing the marriage  
of those who are congenitally blind1 or 
who have lost their sight by reason of  
hereditary weakness of the visual       
organs1 which disqualifies them to      
resist the slightest inflammation or    
injury in childhood4     #b ,dr4 ,samuel
 ,g4 ,howe1 director of the ,new        
,england ,institution for the           
,education of the ,blind1 #ahcf4    #c  
,the ,american ,institute of            
,instruction4   ,i am aware that many   
people would condemn this proposition as
 cruel1 because it might add to the     
sadness of the sufferers2 and that the  
whole seven thousand five hundred blind 
in this country would rise up and scout 
it1 as barbarous and unnatural2 for ,i  
have experienced the effects of         
contradiction to the wills of individual

 blind persons in this respect4 ,but my 
rule is1 the good of the community      
before that of the individual2 the good 
of the race before that of the          
community4 ,to give you an instance3 the
 city of ,boston1 with a population of  
eighty thousand1 is represented in the  
,institution for the ,blind by two blind
 children only2 and ,i know of but four 
in the whole population2 while ,andover1
 with but five thousand1 is fully and   
ably represented by seven2#d and it has 
three more growing up4     #d ,this     
makes the ratio of representation in the
 institution from   ,andover fifty six  
times greater than from the city of     
,boston4   ,now how is this8 ,why1 the  
blind of ,andover are mostly from a     
common stock2 three of them are born of 
one mother1 who has had four blind      
children4 ,another of the pupils is     
cousin1 in the first degree1 to these   
three2 and two other pupils are cousins 
in a remote degree4 ,then1 from other   
places1 there are two brothers1 who have

 a third at home4 ,there is one blind   
girl1 who has two blind sisters at home4
 ,then there are two pairs of sisters4  
,in the immediate vicinity of ,boston1  
,i know of a family in which blindness  
is hereditary2 the last generation there
 were five4 ,of these five one is       
married1 and has four children1 not one 
of whom can see well enough to read2 and
 if the others marry1 they may increase 
the number to twelve or twenty4  ,now   
apply this state of things to the whole 
country1 and have you any difficulty in 
conceiving how it happens that there are
 seven thousand five hundred blind in   
the ,united ,states8 ,and can you doubt 
whether or not this great proportion of 
blind to the whole community might not  
be considerably diminished1 if men and  
women understood the organic laws of    
their nature8 understood that1 very     
often1 blindness is the punishment      
following an infringement of the natural
 laws of ,god2 and if they could be made
 to act upon the holy ,christian        

principles1 that we should deny         
ourselves any individual gratification1 
any selfish desire1 that may result in  
evil to the whole community8  ,i would  
that every individual whom ,i have the  
honor to address would assist in the    
education of the blind1 so far as to    
give them just and ,christian views of  
this subject4 ,i would that all should  
work for society2 not for society to-day
 alone1 but for the society of future   
ages2 not in any one narrow1 partial    
way1 but upon a broad scale1 and in     
every way in which they can be useful4  
,if a person congenitally blind1 or     
strongly predisposed to become so1 or   
one who marries a person so born or so  
disposed1 has blind offspring in        
consequence of it1 ,i ask1 is he not as 
responsible1 in a moral point of view1  
for the infirmity of his children as    
though he had put out their eyes with   
his own hands8  ,you may suppose1       
perhaps1 that the infirmity of blindness
 would incapacitate sufferers from      

winning the affections of seeing        
persons2 and that1 with respect to two  
blind persons1 the sense of incapacity  
to support a family would prevent them  
from uniting themselves4 ,in the first  
place1 ,i answer1 that seeing people do 
no better than the blind4 ,even a blind 
man may perceive that many marriages are
 mere matters of course1 resulting from 
juxtaposition of parties2 and rarely    
matters where the purer affections and  
higher moral sentiments are consulted4  
,and1 in the second place1 that         
incapacity of supporting a family will  
not weigh a feather in the balance with 
desire1 unless the intellectual and     
moral nature is enlightened and         
cultivated4 ,do we not see1 every day1  
cases of misery entailed upon whole     
families1 because one of the parties had
 overlooked or disregarded moral        
infirmity1 which ought to have been a   
greater objection than any physical     
defect--than even blindness or deafness8
  ,but no process of reasoning is       

required1 for there stand the facts4    
,the blind not only seek for partners in
 life1 but are sometimes sought by      
seeing persons2 and numerous instances  
have occurred within my knowledge4 ,it  
is true1 that despair of success in any 
other quarter1 or an equally unworthy   
motive1 may induce some to seek for     
partners among the blind1 or the blind  
to unite with the blind2 but still1     
there is the evil4  ,my observation     
induces me to think that the blind1 far 
more than seeing persons1 are fond of   
social relations1 and desirous of family
 endearments4 ,a moment's thought would 
induce one to conclude that this would  
naturally be the case2 a moment's       
observation convinces one that it is so4
 ,now ,i have found among them some of  
the most pious1 intelligent1 and        
disinterested beings ,i ever knew2 but  
hardly more than one who was prepared to
 forego the enjoyments of domestic      
relations4 ,and how can we expect them  
to be so1 more than seeing people8 ,the 

fact is1 but very few persons in the    
community give any attention to the laws
 of their organic nature1 and the       
tendency to hereditary transmission of  
infirmities4 ,very few consider that    
they owe more to society than to their  
individual selves2 that if we are to    
love our neighbor as ourself1 we must1  
of course1 love all our neighbors1      
collectively1 more than the single unit 
which each one calls ,i4  ,i would that 
considerations of this kind had more    
weight with the community generally4 ,i 
would that the subject were more        
attended to1 and that the violation of  
the laws of our organic nature were less
 frequent in our country4 ,there is one 
great and crying evil in our system of  
education2 it is1 that but part of man's
 nature is educated1 and that our       
colleges and schools doom young men for 
years to an uninterrupted and severe    
exercise of the intellectual faculties1 
to the comparative neglect of their     
moral1 and still more of their physical 

nature4 ,nay1 not only do they neglect  
their physical nature--they ,,abuse it2 
they sin against themselves and against 
,god2 and though they sin in ignorance1 
they do not escape the penalties of ,his
 violated laws4 ,hence you see them     
pale1 and wan1 and feeble2 hence you    
find them acknowledging1 when too late1 
the effects of severe application4 ,but 
do they acknowledge it humbly and       
repentingly1 as with a consciousness of 
sin8 ,no1 they often do it with a secret
 exultation1 with a lurking feeling that
 you will say or think1 ',poor fellow1  
his mind is too much for his body6'     
,nonsense6 his mind is too weak2 his    
knowledge too limited2 he is an         
imperfect man2 he knows not his own     
nature4 ,but if he has no               
conscientiousness1 no scruple about     
impairing his own health and sowing the 
seeds of disease1 he has less about     
entailing them upon others4 ,and a      
consumptive young man or woman--the son 
or daughter of consumptive              

parents--hesitates not to spread the    
evil in society1 and entail puny faces1 
weakness1 pain1 and early death upon    
several individuals1 and punish their   
children for their own sins4  ,is this  
picture too high-colored8 ,alas6 no4    
,and if ,i showed you satisfactorily    
that sin against the organic laws caused
 so great a proportion of blindness1 how
 much more readily will you grant that  
the same sin gives to so many of our    
population the narrow chest1 the hectic 
flush1 the hollow cough1 which makes the
 victim doomed1 by his parent1 to       
consumption and early death6 ,do you not
 see1 every ,sabbath1 at church1 the    
young man or woman1 upon whose fair and 
delicate structure the peculiar impress 
of the ,,early ,,doomed is stamped8 and 
as a slight but hollow cough comes upon 
your ear1 does it not recall the        
death-knell which rang in the same sad  
note before to the father or mother8    
,who of you has not followed some young 
friend to his long resting-place1 and   

found that the grass had not grown rank 
upon the grave of his brother8 that the 
row of white marbles1 beneath which     
slept his parents and sisters1 were yet 
glistering in freshness1 and that the   
letters which told their names and their
 early death seemed clear as if cut but 
yesterday8  ,they tell us that physical 
education is attended to in this        
country2 and yet1 where is the teacher1 
where is the clergyman even1 who dares  
to step forth in these cases1 and say to
 those who are doomed1 you must not and 
shall not marry8 and where are the young
 men and women who would listen to them 
if they did8 ,it is not that they are   
wanting in conscientiousness2 they may  
be conscientious and disinterested2 but 
they do not know that they are doing    
wrong1 because they are not acquainted  
with the organic laws of their nature4  
,all that is done in schools or colleges
 toward physical education is the mere  
strengthening of the muscular system by 
muscular exercise2 but this is not half 

enough4 ,these remarks may be deemed    
irrelevant to my subject1 but they can  
not be lost to an audience whose highest
 interest is the education of man2 and  
if ,i am mistaken in supposing that     
little attention has been paid to the   
subject1 its importance will guaranty   
its repetition4  ,before dismissing this
 subject1 ,i will introduce two         
additional quotations from ,american    
authors1 whose opinions are received by 
the medical profession in this country  
not only1 but throughout ,europe4 ,in   
both instances1 ,i copy from works      
published in ,great ,britain1 into which
 the opinions of these ,american writers
 have been quoted4 ,in regard to        
hereditary transmission1 ,dr4 ,caldwell 
observes3 ,every constitutional quality1
 whether good or bad1 may descend1 by   
inheritance1 from parent to child4 ,and 
a long-continued habit of drunkenness   
becomes as essentially constitutional as
 a predisposition to gout or pulmonary  
consumption4 ,this increases1 in a      

manifold degree1 the responsibility of  
parents in relation to temperance4 ,by  
habits of intemperance1 they not only   
degrade and ruin themselves1 but        
transmit the elements of like           
degradation and ruin to their posterity4
 ,this is no visionary conjecture1 the  
fruit of a favorite and long-cherished  
theory4 ,it is a settled belief         
resulting from observation--an inference
 derived from innumerable facts4 ,in    
hundreds and thousands of instances1    
parents1 having had children born to    
them while their habits were temperate1 
have become afterward intemperate1 and  
had other children subsequently born4   
,in such cases1 it is a matter of       
notoriety that the younger children have
 become addicted to the practice of     
intoxication much more frequently than  
the older1 in the proportion of five to 
one4 ,let me not be told that this is   
owing to the younger children being     
neglected1 and having corrupt and       
seducing examples constantly before     

them4 ,the same neglects and profligate 
examples have been extended to all1 yet 
all have not been equally injured by    
them4 ,the children of the earlier      
births have escaped1 while those of the 
subsequent ones have suffered4 ,the     
reason is plain4 ,the latter children   
had a deeper animal taint than the      
former4--,transylvania ,journal4        
,physiologists in general coincide in   
the belief that a vigorous and healthy  
physical and mental constitution in the 
parents communicates existence in the   
most perfect state to their offspring1  
while impaired constitutions1 from      
whatever cause1 are transmitted to      
posterity4 ,in this sense1 all who are  
competent to judge are agreed that the  
,giver of life is a jealous ,god1       
visiting the iniquity of the fathers    
upon the children unto the third and    
fourth generation of them that hate him 
or violate his laws4 ,strictly speaking1
 it is not disease which is transmitted1
 but organs of such imperfect structure 

that they are unable to perform their   
functions properly1 and so weak as to be
 easily put into a morbid state or      
abnormal condition by causes which      
unimpaired organs are able to resist4   
,my last quotation on this point is from
 a lecture delivered by ,dr4 ,warren    
before the ,american ,institute of      
,instruction1 copied into the           
,schoolmaster1 a work published in      
,london under the superintendence of the
 ,society for the ,diffusion of ,useful 
,knowledge3  ,let me conclude by        
entreating your attention to a revision 
of the existing plans of education in   
what relates to the preservation of     
health4 ,too much of the time of the    
better educated part of young persons   
is1 in my humble opinion1 devoted to    
literary pursuits and sedentary         
occupations1 and too little to the      
acquisition of the corporeal powers     
indispensable to make the former        
practically useful4 ,if the present     
system does not undergo some change1 ,i 

much apprehend we shall see a degenerate
 and sinking race1 such as came to exist
 among the higher classes in ,france    
before the ,revolution1 and such as now 
deforms a large part of the noblest     
families in ,spain2#e but if the spirit 
of improvement1 so happily awakened1    
continues--as ,i trust it will--to      
animate those concerned in the formation
 of the young members of society1 we    
shall soon be able1 ,i doubt not1 to    
exhibit an active1 beautiful1 and wise  
generation1 of which the age may be     
proud4     #e ,i am informed by a lady  
who passed a long time at the ,spanish  
court1   in a distinguished situation1  
that the grandees have deteriorated by  
their habits of living1 and the         
restriction of intermarriages to their  
own rank1 to a race of dwarfs2 and1     
though fine persons are sometimes   seen
 among them1 they1 when assembled at    
court1 appear to be a group of          
manikins4     ,,chapter ,,iii4          
,,physical ,,education4 ,,the ,,laws    

,,of ,,health4       ,if man is ever to 
be elevated to the highest and happiest 
condition     which his nature will     
permit1 it must be1 in no small degree1 
by the     improvement--,i might say1   
the redemption--of his physical powers4 
,but knowledge on any subject must      
precede improvement4--,,alcott4         
,physical and moral health are as nearly
 related as the body and the            
soul4--,,hufeland',s ,art of ,prolonging
 ,life4   ,if the reader is persuaded   
that the views presented in the last    
chapter on the importance of physical   
education are truthful--and they are    
concurred in by physiologists           
generally--he will naturally desire to  
become acquainted with the laws of      
health1 that1 by yielding obedience to  
them1 he may improve his physical       
condition1 and most successfully promote
 his intellectual and moral well-being4 
,i might1 then1 here refer to some of   
the many excellent treatises on this    
subject2 but ,i shall probably better   

accomplish the object for which this    
work has been undertaken by presenting1 
within as narrow limits as practicable1 
a summary of these laws4  ,in every     
department of nature1 waste is          
invariably the result of action4 ,in    
mechanics1 we seek to reduce the waste  
consequent upon action to the lowest    
possible degree2 but to prevent it      
entirely is beyond the power of man4    
,every breath of wind that passes over  
the surface of the earth1 modifies the  
bodies with which it comes in contact4  
,the great toe of the bronze statue of  
,saint ,peter at ,rome has been reduced1
 it is said1 to less than half its      
original size by the successive kisses  
of the faithful4  ,in dead or inanimate 
matter1 the destructive influence of    
action is constantly forced upon our    
attention by every thing passing around 
us1 and so much human ingenuity is      
exercised to counteract its effects that
 no reflecting person will dispute the  
universality of its operation4 ,but when

 we observe shrubs and trees waving in  
the wind1 and animals undergoing violent
 exertion1 year after year1 and         
continuing to increase in size1 we may  
be inclined1 on a superficial view1 to  
regard living bodies as constituting an 
exception to this rule4 ,on more careful
 examination1 however1 it will appear   
that waste goes on in living bodies not 
only without intermission1 but with a   
rapidity immeasurably beyond that which 
occurs in inanimate objects4  ,in the   
vegetable world1 for instance1 every    
leaf of a tree is incessantly pouring   
out some of its fluids1 and every flower
 forming its own fruit and seed1        
speedily to be separated from1 and lost 
to its parent stem2 thus causing in a   
few months an extent of waste many      
hundred times greater than what occurs  
in the same lapse of time after the tree
 is cut down1 and all its living        
operations are at a close4  ,the same   
thing holds true in the animal kingdom3 
so long as life continues1 a copious    

exhalation from the skin1 the lungs1 the
 bowels1 and the kidneys goes on without
 a moment's intermission1 and not a     
movement can be performed which does not
 in some degree increase the            
circulation1 and add to the general     
waste4 ,in this way1 during violent     
exertion1 several ounces of the fluids  
of the body are sometimes thrown out by 
perspiration in a very few minutes2     
whereas1 after life is extinguished1 all
 the excretions cease1 and waste is     
limited to that which results from      
ordinary chemical decomposition4#f      
#f ,for the views presented in the      
preceding paragraph 7as also in         
several that follow7 ,i would           
acknowledge my indebtedness to ,dr4     
,andrew   ,combe's treatise on the      
,physiology of ,digestion4 ,from the    
,principles   of ,physiology1 by the    
same author1 ,i have already quoted4    
,these   admirable works will prove an  
invaluable treasure to persons desirous 
of   becoming acquainted with the laws  

of health4   ,so far1 then1 the law that
 waste is attendant on action applies to
 both dead and living bodies2 but beyond
 this point a remarkable difference     
between them presents itself4 ,in the   
physical or inanimate world1 what is    
once lost or worn away is lost forever2 
but living bodies1 whether vegetable or 
animal1 possess the distinguishing      
characteristic of being able to repair  
their own waste and add to their own    
substance4 ,the possession of such a    
power is essential to their existence4  
,but there is a wide difference between 
them in other respects4 ,in surveying   
the respective modes of existence of    
vegetables and of animals1 we perceive  
the fixity of position of the one1 and  
the free locomotive power of the other4 
,the vegetable grows1 flourishes1 and   
dies1 fixed to the same spot of earth   
from which it sprang4 ,however much     
external circumstances change around it1
 it must remain and submit to their     
influence4 ,at all hours and at all     

seasons1 it is at home1 and in direct   
communication with the soil from which  
its nourishment is extracted4 ,but it is
 otherwise with animals3 these not only 
enjoy the privilege of locomotion1 but  
are compelled to use it1 and often to go
 a distance in search of food and       
shelter4 ,the necessity for a constant  
change of place being imposed on them1 a
 different arrangement became           
indispensable for their nutrition4 ,the 
method which the ,creator has provided  
is not less admirable than simple4 ,to  
enable animals to move about1 and at the
 same time to maintain a connection with
 their food1 they are provided with a   
stomach4 ,in this receptacle they can   
store up a supply of materials from     
which sustenance may be gradually       
elaborated during a period of time      
proportioned to their necessities and   
mode of life4 ,animals thus carry with  
them nourishment adequate to their      
wants2 and the small nutritive vessels  
imbibe their food from the internal     

surface of the stomach and bowels1 where
 it is stored up1 just as the roots or  
nutritive vessels of vegetables do from 
the soil in which they grow4 ,the       
possession of a stomach or receptacle   
for food is accordingly a distinguishing
 characteristic of the animal system4   
,the sole objects of nutrition being to 
repair waste and to admit of growth1 the
 ,creator has so arranged that within   
certain limits it is always most        
vigorous when growth or waste proceeds  
with the greatest rapidity4 ,even in    
vegetables this provision is distinctly 
observable4 ,it is also strikingly      
apparent in animals4 ,whenever growth is
 proceeding rapidly1 or the animal is   
undergoing much exertion and expenditure
 of material1 an increased quantity of  
food is invariably required4 ,on the    
other hand1 where no new substance is   
forming1 and where1 from bodily         
inactivity1 little loss is sustained1 a 
comparatively small supply will suffice4
 ,in endowing animals with the sense of 

appetite1 including the sensation of    
hunger and thirst1 the ,creator has     
effectually provided against any        
inconvenience which might otherwise     
exist1 and given to them a guide in     
relation to both the quality and        
quantity of food needful for them1 and  
the times of partaking of it1 with that 
beneficence which distinguishes all his 
works4 ,he has not only provided an     
effectual safeguard in the sensations of
 hunger and thirst1 but he has attached 
to their regulated indulgence a degree  
of pleasure which never fails to insure 
attention to their demands1 and which1  
in highly-civilized communities1 is apt 
to lead to excessive gratification4     
,their end is manifestly to proclaim    
that nourishment is required for the    
support of the system4 ,when the body is
 very actively exercised1 and a good    
deal of waste is effected by            
perspiration and exhalation from the    
lungs1 the appetite becomes keener1 and 
more urgent for immediate gratification2

 and if it is indulged1 we eat with a   
relish unknown on other occasions1 and  
afterward experience a sensation of     
internal comfort pervading the frame1 as
 if every individual part of the body   
were imbued with a feeling of           
contentment and satisfaction2 the very  
opposite of the restless discomfort and 
depression which come upon us1 and      
extend over the whole system1 when      
appetite is disappointed4 ,there is1 in 
short1 an obvious and active sympathy   
between the condition and bearing of the
 stomach1 and those of every part of the
 animal frame2 in virtue of which1      
hunger is felt very keenly when the     
general system stands in urgent need of 
repair1 and very moderately when no     
waste has been suffered4  ,we have seen 
that waste is every where attendant upon
 action1 and that the object of         
nutrition is to repair waste and admit  
of growth4 ,we come now to consider the 
,process of ,digestion4  ,all articles  
used for food necessarily undergo       

several changes before they are fitted  
to constitute a part of the body4 ,in   
the process of digestion1 four different
 changes should be noticed4 ,more might 
be specified4  #a4 ,,mastication4--,the 
first step in the preparation of food   
for imparting nourishment to the system 
consists in proper mastication1 or      
chewing4 ,food should be thoroughly     
masticated before it is taken into the  
stomach4 ,this is necessary in order to 
break it up and reduce it to a          
sufficient degree of fineness for the   
efficient action of the gastric juice4  
,besides1 the action of chewing and the 
presence of nutrient food constitute a  
healthful stimulus to the salivary      
glands1 situated in the mouth4 ,by this 
means1 also1 the food not only becomes  
well masticated1 but has blended with it
 a proper amount of saliva1 upon both of
 which conditions the healthy action of 
the stomach depends4 ,we have here      
another illustration of the beneficence 
of the ,creator1 who has kindly so      

arranged that the very act of           
mastication gratifies taste1 the mouth  
being the seat of this sensation4 ,but  
if we disregard these benevolent laws1  
and introduce unmasticated food into the
 stomach1 the gastric juice can act only
 upon its surface1 and changes of a     
purely chemical nature frequently       
commence in food thus swallowed before  
digestion can take place4 ,hence        
frequently arise--and especially in     
children and persons of delicate        
constitution--pains1 nausea1 and        
acidity1 consequent on the continued    
presence of undigested aliment in the   
stomach4  #b4 ,,chymification4--,as soon
 as food has been thoroughly masticated 
and impregnated with saliva1 it is ready
 for transmission to the stomach4 ,this 
interesting part of the process of      
digestion1 called deglutition or        
swallowing1 is most easily and          
pleasantly performed1 when the          
alimentary morsel has been well         
masticated and properly softened1 not by

 drink1 which should never be taken at  
this time1 but by saliva4 ,when the food
 reaches the stomach1 it is converted   
into a soft1 pulpy mass1 called chyme2  
and the process by which this change is 
effected is called chymification4 ,this 
is the second principal step in         
digestion1 and is effected immediately  
by the action of the gastric juice4     
,this powerful solvent is secreted by   
the gastric glands1 which are excited to
 action by the presence of food in the  
stomach4 ,in health1 the gastric        
secretion always bears a direct relation
 to the quantity of aliment required by 
the system4 ,if too much food is taken  
into the stomach1 indigestion is sure to
 follow1 for the sufficient reason that 
the gastric juice is unable to dissolve 
it4 ,this is true even when food has    
been well masticated2 but it becomes    
strikingly apparent when a full meal has
 been hastily swallowed1 both           
mastication and insalivation having been
 imperfectly performed4  ,the time      

usually occupied in the process of      
chymification1 when food has been       
properly masticated1 varies from three  
to four hours4 ,digestion is sometimes  
effected in less time1 as in the case of
 rice1 and pigs' feet soused2 but it    
more commonly requires a longer period1 
as in the case of salt pork and beef1   
and many other articles of food1 both   
animal and vegetable4  ,by the alternate
 contraction and relaxation of the      
muscular coat of the stomach1 which is  
excited to action by the presence of    
food1 a kind of churning motion is      
communicated to its contents that       
greatly promotes digestion2 for by this 
means every portion of food in turn is  
brought in contact with the gastric     
juice as it is discharged from the      
internal surface of the stomach4 ,this  
motion continues until the contents of  
the stomach are converted into chyme1   
and conveyed into the first intestine1  
where they undergo another important    
change4  #c4 ,,chylification4--,as fast 

as chyme is formed1 it is expelled by   
the contractile power of the stomach    
into the duodenum1 or first intestine4  
,it there meets with the bile from the  
liver1 and with the pancreatic juice4   
,by the action of these agents1 the     
chyme is converted into two distinct    
portions3 a milky white fluid1 called   
chyle1 and a thick yellow residue4 ,this
 process is called chylification1 or    
chyle-making4 ,the chyle is then taken  
up by the absorbent vessels1 which are  
extensively ramified over the inner     
membrane or lining of the bowels4 ,from 
the white color of the contents of these
 vessels1 they have been named lacteals 
or milk-bearers1 from lac1 which        
signifies milk4 ,these lacteals         
ultimately converge into one trunk1     
called the thoracic duct1 which         
terminates in the great vein under the  
clavicle or collar bone1 hence called   
the subclavian vein1 just before that   
vein reaches the right side of the      
heart4 ,here the chyle is poured into   

the general current of the venous blood1
 and1 mingling with it1 is exposed to   
the action of the air in the lungs      
during respiration4 ,by this process1   
both the chyle and the venous blood are 
converted into red1 arterial1 or        
nutritive blood1 which is afterward     
distributed by the heart through the    
arteries1 to supply nourishment and     
support to every part of the body4 ,the 
change which takes place in the lungs is
 called sanguification1 or blood-making4
 ,the chyle is not prepared to impart   
nourishment to the system until this    
change takes place4 ,respiration1 then1 
is1 in reality1 the completion of       
digestion4 ,this interesting and vital  
part of the process of digestion will be
 considered more fully in the following 
chapter4  ,before passing from this part
 of the subject1 a few remarks of a more
 general nature seem called for4 ,the   
nerves of the stomach have a direct     
relation to undigested but digestible   
substances4 ,when any body that can not 

be digested is introduced into the      
stomach1 distinct uneasiness is speedily
 excited1 and an effort is soon made to 
expel it1 either upward by the mouth or 
downward by the bowels4 ,it is in this  
way1 says ,dr4 ,combe1 that bile in the 
stomach excites nausea1 and that tartar 
emetic produces vomiting4 ,the nerves of
 the bowels1 on the other hand1 are     
constituted in relation to digested     
food2 and1 consequently1 when any thing 
escapes into them from the stomach in an
 undigested state1 it becomes a source  
of irritative excitement4 ,this accounts
 for the cholic pains and               
bowel-complaints which so commonly      
attend the passage through the          
intestinal canal of such indigestible   
substances as fat1 husks of fruits1     
berries1 and cherry-stones4  ,the       
process of digestion1 which commences in
 the stomach1 is completed in the       
intestines4 ,physiologists have hence   
sometimes called the former part of the 
process1 or chymification1 by the more  

simple term stomach digestion2 and the  
latter1 or chylification1 has been      
termed intestinal digestion4 ,the bowels
 have distinct coats corresponding with 
those of the stomach4 ,by the alternate 
contraction and relaxation of the       
muscular coat1 their contents are       
propelled in a downward direction1      
somewhat as motion is propagated from   
one end of a worm to the other4 ,it has 
hence been called vermicular1 or        
wormlike motion4 ,some medicines have   
the power of inverting the order of the 
muscular contractions4 ,emetics operate 
in this manner to produce vomiting4     
,other medicines1 again1 excite the     
natural action to a higher degree1 and  
induce a cathartic action of the bowels4
 ,when medicines become necessary to    
obviate that kind of costiveness which  
arises from imperfect intestinal        
contraction1 physicians usually         
administer rhubarb1 aloes1 and similar  
laxatives1 combined with tonics4 ,but   
when the muscular coat of the bowels is 

kept in a healthy condition by a natural
 mode of life1 and is aided by the      
action of the abdominal muscles1 it     
rarely becomes necessary to administer  
laxative medicines4  ,the inner or      
mucous coat of the stomach and bowels is
 generally regarded by physiologists as 
a continuation of the skin4 ,they       
greatly resemble each other in          
structure1 and they are well known to   
sympathize with each other4 ,eruptions  
of the skin are very generally the      
result of disorders of the digestive    
organs4 ,on the other hand1 bowel       
complaints are frequently produced by a 
chill on the surface4 ,the mucous coat  
and the skin are both charged with the  
double function of excretion and        
absorption4 ,by the exercise of the     
former function1 much of the waste      
matter of the system1 requiring to be   
removed1 is thrown into the intestines1 
and1 mingling with the indigestible     
portion of the food1 forms the common   
excrement2 while by the exercise of the 

latter function the nutritive portion of
 their contents is taken up1 and1 as we 
have seen1 passes into the general      
circulation1 and contributes either to  
promote growth or to repair waste4  #d4 
,,evacuation4--,this is the fourth and  
last principal step in the process of   
digestion4 ,after the chyle is separated
 from the chyme and passes into the     
circulation1 the indigestible and refuse
 portion of the food1 which is incapable
 of nourishing the system1 passes off   
through the intestinal canal4 ,in its   
course its bulk is considerably         
increased by the excretion of waste     
matter which has served its purposes in 
the system1 and which1 mingling with the
 innutritious and refuse part of the    
food1 is thrown out of the body in the  
form of excrement4 ,if the contents of  
the bowels are too long retained1       
uneasiness is produced4 ,hurtful matter1
 also1 which should pass off by         
evacuation1 is reabsorbed1 passes again 
into the general circulation1 and is    

ultimately thrown out of the system     
either by the lungs or through the pores
 of the skin4  ,this part of the process
 of digestion is very important1 for it 
is impossible to enjoy good health while
 this function is imperfectly performed4
 ,to secure full and natural action in  
the intestinal canal1 several principal 
conditions are necessary4 ,these are1   
first1 well-digested chyme and chyle2   
second1 a due quantity and quality of   
secretions from the mucous or lining    
membrane of the bowels2 third1 a free   
and full contractile power of the       
muscular coat1 and the unrestrained     
action of the abdominal and respiratory 
muscles2 and1 finally1 a due nervous    
sensibility to receive impressions and  
communicate the necessary stimulus4 ,the
 contractile power of the muscular coat1
 and the free passage of the intestinal 
contents from the stomach downward1 are 
greatly aided by the constant but gentle
 agitation which the whole digestive    
apparatus receives during the act of    

breathing1 and from exercise of every   
description4 ,by free and deep          
inhalations of air into the lungs1 the  
diaphragm is depressed and the bowels   
are pushed down4 ,but when the air is   
thrown out from the lungs1 the diaphragm
 rises into the chest1 and the bowels   
follow1 being pressed upward by the     
contractile power of the abdominal      
muscles4 ,during exercise1 breathing is 
deeper and more free1 which gives       
additional pressure to the bowels from  
above4 ,the abdominal muscular          
contraction is also1 in turn1 more      
vigorous and extensive1 and thus the    
motion is returned from below4 ,persons 
that take little or no exercise1 or who 
allow the chest and bowels to be        
confined by tight clothing1 lose this   
natural stimulus1 and frequently become 
subjects of immense suffering from      
habits of costiveness4 ,these should be 
removed if possible1 and they generally 
can be by a proper course of discipline4
 ,this should have reference to both    

diet and exercise4 ,such articles of    
food should be used as tend to keep open
 the bowels4 ,this should be combined   
with the free exercise of the lungs and 
the abdominal muscles4 ,in addition to  
these1 there should be a determination  
to secure a natural evacuation of the   
bowels at least once a day4 ,this is    
regarded by physiologists generally as  
essential to health4 ,efforts should be 
continued until the habit is            
established4 ,some definite period      
should be fixed upon for this purpose4  
,soon after breakfast is1 on many       
accounts1 generally preferable4  ,,time 
,,for ,,meals4--,before passing from the
 subject of digestion1 ,i will submit a 
few thoughts in relation to the times   
for eating4 ,it has already been        
observed that three or four hours are   
generally necessary for the digestion of
 a simple meal4 ,usually1 perhaps1 a    
greater length of time is required4 ,it 
is also an established doctrine1 based  
upon the results of careful examination 

and experiment1 that the stomach        
requires an interval of rest1 after the 
process of digestion is finished1 to    
enable it to recover its tone before it 
can again enter upon the vigorous       
performance of its function4 ,as a      
general rule1 then1 five or six hours   
should elapse between meals4 ,if the    
mode of life is indolent1 a greater time
 is required2 if active1 less time will 
suffice4 ,where the usages of society   
will allow the principal meal to be     
taken near the middle of the day1 the   
following time for meals is approved by 
physiologists generally3 breakfast at #g
 o'clock1 dinner at half past #ab1 and  
tea at #f4 ,luncheons and late suppers  
should be avoided2 for the former will  
always be found to interfere with the   
healthful performance of the function of
 digestion1 and the latter will induce  
restlessness1 unpleasant dreams1 and    
pain in the head4 ,a late supper1 says  
the author of the ,philosophy of        
,health1 generally occasions deranged   

and disturbed sleep2 there is an effort 
on the part of the nerves to be quiet1  
while the burdened stomach makes an     
effort to call them into action1 and    
between these two contending efforts    
there is disturbance--a sort of gastric 
riot--during the whole night4 ,this     
disturbance has sometimes terminated in 
a fit of apoplexy and in death4  ,,the  
,,skin4--,this membranous covering1     
which is spread over the surface of the 
body to shield the parts beneath1 serves
 also as an excreting and secreting     
organ4 ,by the great supply of blood    
which it receives1 it is admirably      
fitted for this purpose4 ,the whole     
animal system1 as we have seen1 is in a 
state of transition1 decay and          
renovation constantly succeeding each   
other4 ,while the stomach and alimentary
 canal take in new materials1 the skin  
forms one of the principal outlets by   
which particles that are useless to the 
system are thrown out of the body4      
,every one knows that the skin          

perspires1 and that checked perspiration
 is a powerful cause of disease and     
death2 but few have any just notion of  
the extent and influence of this        
exhalation4 ,when the body is overheated
 by exercise1 a copious sweat breaks    
out1 which1 by evaporation1 carries off 
the excess of heat1 and produces an     
agreeable feeling of coolness and       
refreshment4 ,the sagacity of ,franklin 
led him to the first discovery of the   
use of perspiration in reducing the heat
 of the body1 and to point out the      
analogy subsisting between this process 
and that of the evaporation of water    
from a rough porous surface1 so         
constantly resorted to in the ,east and 
,west ,indies1 and in other warm        
countries1 as an efficacious means of   
reducing the temperature of the air in  
rooms1 and of wine and other drinks1    
much below that of the surrounding      
atmosphere4 ,this is the higher and more
 obvious degree of the function of      
exhalation4 ,but in the ordinary state  

of the system1 the skin is constantly   
giving out a large quantity of waste    
materials by what is called insensible  
perspiration2 a process which is of     
great importance to the preservation of 
health1 and which is called insensible1 
because the exhalation1 being in the    
form of vapor1 and carried off by the   
surrounding air1 is invisible to the    
eye4 ,but its presence may often be made
 manifest1 even to the sight1 by the    
near approach of a dry cool mirror1 on  
the surface of which it will soon be    
condensed so as to become visible4 ,it  
is this which causes so copious deposits
 upon the windows of a crowded          
school-room in cold weather4 ,a portion 
of these exhalations1 however1 proceed  
from the lungs4  ,there is an experiment
 that may be easily tried1 which affords
 conclusive evidence that the amount of 
insensible perspiration is much greater 
than it is ordinarily supposed to be4   
,take a dry glass jar1 with a neck three
 or four inches in diameter1 and thrust 

the hand and a part of the fore-arm into
 it1 closing the space in the neck about
 the arm with a handkerchief4 ,after the
 lapse of a few minutes1 it will be     
seen1 by drawing the fingers across the 
inside of the jar1 that the insensible  
perspiration even from the hand is very 
considerable4 ,many attempts have been  
made to estimate accurately the amount  
of exhaled matter carried off through   
the skin2 but many difficulties stand in
 the way of obtaining precise results4  
,there is a great difference in         
different constitutions1 and even in the
 same person at different times1 in     
consequence of which we must be         
satisfied with an approximation to the  
truth4  ,although the precise amount of 
perspiration can not be ascertained1 it 
is generally agreed that the cutaneous  
exhalation is greater than the united   
excretions of both bowels and kidneys4  
,great attention has been given to this 
subject4 ,sanctorius1 a celebrated      
medical writer1 weighed himself1 his    

food1 and his excretions1 daily1 for    
thirty days4 ,he inferred from his      
experiments that five pounds of every   
eight1 of both food and drink1 taken    
into the system1 pass out through the   
skin4 ,all physiologists agree that from
 twenty to forty ounces pass off through
 the skin of an adult in usual health   
every twenty-four hours4 ,take the      
lowest estimate1 and we find the skin   
charged with the removal of twenty      
ounces of waste matter from the system  
every day4 ,we can thus see ample reason
 why checked perspiration proves so     
detrimental to health2 for every        
twenty-four hours during which such a   
state continues1 we must either have    
this amount of useless and hurtful      
matter accumulating in the system1 or   
some of the other organs of excretion   
must be greatly overtasked1 which       
obviously can not happen without        
disturbing their regularity and         
well-being4 ,it is generally known that 
continued exposure in a cold day        

produces either a bowel complaint or    
inflammation of some internal organ4    
,instead of expressing surprise at this1
 if people generally understood the     
structure and uses of their own bodies1 
they would rather wonder why one or the 
other of these effects is not always    
attendant upon so great a violation of  
the laws of health1 which are the laws  
of ,god4  ,the lungs also excrete a     
large proportion of waste matter from   
the system4 ,so far1 then1 their office 
is similar to that of the kidneys1 the  
liver1 and the bowels4 ,in consequence  
of this alliance with the skin1 these   
parts are more intimately connected with
 each other1 in both healthy and        
diseased action1 than with other organs4
 ,whenever an organ is unusually        
delicate1 it will be more easily        
affected by any cause of disease than   
those which are sound4 ,thus1 in one    
instance1 checked perspiration may      
produce a bowel complaint1 and in       
another1 inflammation of the lungs1 and 

so on4 ,hence the fitness1 in           
prescribing remedies1 of adapting them  
not only to the disease itself1 but of  
taking into the account the cause of the
 disease4 ,a bowel complaint1 for       
example1 may arise either from          
overeating or from a check to           
perspiration4 ,the thing to be cured is 
the same in both cases1 but the means of
 cure ought obviously to be different4  
,in one instance1 an emetic or laxative1
 to carry off the offending cause1 would
 be the most rational and efficacious   
remedy2 in the other1 a diaphoretic     
should be administered1 to open the skin
 and restore it to a healthy action4    
,facts like these expose the ignorance  
and impudence of the quack1 who         
undertakes to cure every form of disease
 by one remedy4  ,it has already been   
remarked that the skin is charged with  
the double function of excretion and    
absorption4 ,we have a striking         
illustration of the exercise of the     
latter function in the vaccination of   

children and others1 to protect them    
from small-pox4 ,a small quantity of    
cow-pox matter is inserted under the    
external layer of the skin1 where it is 
acted upon1 and in a short time taken   
into the system by the absorbent        
vessels4 ,in like manner1 when the      
perspiration is brought to the surface  
of the skin1 and confined there1 either 
by injudicious clothing or by want of   
cleanliness1 there is much reason to    
believe that its residual parts are     
again absorbed4 ,it is established by   
observation that concentrated animal    
effluvia form a very energetic poison4  
,we can1 then1 see why the absorption of
 the residual parts of perspiration     
produces fever1 inflammation1 and even  
death itself1 according to its quantity 
and degree of concentration4 ,this leads
 me to notice the importance of         
,,bathing4--,the exhalation from the    
skin being so constant and extensive1   
and the bad effects of it when confined 
being so great1 it becomes very         

important that we provide for its       
removal4 ,this can be most easily and   
effectually accomplished by frequently  
bathing the whole body4 ,this is a      
luxury within the reach of all1 but one 
which is unappreciated by those who have
 not enjoyed it4 ,an aged gentleman said
 to me recently1 that in early life he  
used to go a swimming frequently and    
enjoyed it much2 but1 he added1 ,i have 
not bathed or washed myself all over for
 the last thirty years6 ,this1 it is    
believed1 is an extreme case4 ,but it is
 to be feared there are not wanting     
instances in which persons do not bathe 
the entire person once a month1 or once 
a year even6 ,when the residual parts of
 the perspiration are not removed by    
washing or bathing1 they at last        
obstruct the pores and irritate the     
skin4 ,it is apparently for this reason 
that1 in the ,eastern and warmer        
countries1 where perspiration is very   
copious1 ablution and bathing have      
assumed the rank and importance of      

religious observances4 ,those who are in
 the habit of using the flesh-brush     
daily are at first surprised at the     
quantity of white dry scurf which it    
brings off2 and those who take a warm   
bath for half an hour at long intervals 
can not have failed to notice the great 
amount of impurities which it removes1  
and the grateful feeling of comfort     
which its use imparts4 ,it is remarked  
by an eminent physician1 that the warm1 
tepid1 cold1 or shower bath1 as a means 
of preserving health1 ought to be in as 
common use as a change of apparel1 for  
it is equally a measure of necessary    
cleanliness4 ,many1 no doubt1 neglect   
this1 and enjoy health notwithstanding2 
but many more suffer from its omission2 
and even the former would be greatly    
benefited by employing it4 ,cleanliness1
 then1 is as essential to health as to  
decency4 ,still more1 it promotes not   
only physical health1 but contributes   
largely to strengthen and invigorate the
 intellectual faculties1 and to elevate 

and purify the affections4 ,it comes1   
then1 to be ranked among the cardinal   
virtues4  ,to secure the benefits of    
bathing or ablution1 a great amount of  
apparatus is not necessary4 ,a          
shower-bath1 or plunge-bath1 may not be 
best for all4 ,every one can procure a  
wash-bowl and one or two quarts of      
water1 which are all that is necessary4 
,to prevent the reduction of heat in the
 system by evaporation1 and especially  
in cold weather1 it will usually be     
found best to bathe the body by         
sections4 ,it is generally agreed that  
the morning is the best time for        
bathing4 ,immediately on rising1 then1  
the clothing being removed1 let the     
head1 face1 and neck be washed as usual1
 and thoroughly dried by the use of a   
towel4 ,proceed to wash the chest and   
abdomen1 which may be dried as before1  
after which a coarse towel or a         
flesh-brush should be vigorously        
applied1 until the skin is perfectly    
dry1 and there is a pleasant glow upon  

the surface4 ,the back and limbs1 in    
turn1 should be washed1 dried1 and      
excited to a healthy and pleasant glow  
by friction4 ,this last is of the utmost
 importance4 ,if not easily secured1    
salt or vinegar may be added to the     
water1 both of which are excellent      
stimulants to the skin4#g ,when these   
are used1 and care is taken to excite in
 the surface1 by subsequent friction    
with a coarse towel1 flesh-brush1 or    
hair glove1 the healthful glow of       
reaction1 it will be found to contribute
 largely to both physical and mental    
comfort4 ,the beneficial results will be
 more apparent if1 while bathing and    
rubbing the chest and abdomen1 pains are
 taken to throw back the shoulders1     
expand the lungs1 and enlarge the chest4
     #g ,it will frequently be found    
more convenient1 and will be well-nigh  
as serviceable1 to wash in soft water as
 usual1 and excite a reaction in   the  
skin in the use of a towel that has been
 dipped in brine and dried4   ,by an act

 of the ,legislature of the commonwealth
 of ,massachusetts1 passed in ,april    
last1 it is required that physiology and
 hygiene shall hereafter be taught in   
the schools of that commonwealth1 in all
 cases in which the school committee    
shall deem it expedient4  ,when         
physiology is not made a study in       
school1 the teacher should not fail to  
give familiar and instructive lectures  
on the subject4 ,i know of instances    
where1 by this simple means1 the habits 
of a whole school1 composed of several  
hundred youth of both sexes1 have been  
radically changed2 and the practice of  
daily ablution has ceased to be the     
luxury of the few1 having become the    
necessity not only of teachers and      
scholars1 but of the families in which  
they reside4 ,there is the most         
satisfactory evidence that cleanliness  
is conducive to health4#h ,how important
 it is1 then1 that habits of cleanliness
 be formed at an early age4     #h ,the 
friends of educational reform may well  

take courage from the   increased       
attention which the subject of physical 
education is of late   receiving from   
the pulpit and the press1 those mighty  
conservators   of the public weal4      
,since the text was prepared for the    
press1 the   following remarks and      
pertinent inquiry have appeared in the  
,family   ,favorite for ,february1      
#ahej4 ,they are quoted from a          
,discourse by the   editor1 the ,rev4   
,james ,v4 ,watson1 on the ,first       
,sabbath of the ,new ,year3    ,the true
 interpretation of the providence of    
,god in ,asiatic cholera   perhaps has  
never yet fully been given4 ,is it not  
one of ,god's marked   modes of rebuking
 intemperance1 physical uncleanness1 and
 social   degradation--evils which      
result from perverted appetite1 wrong   
forms of   government1 and a want of    
,christian benevolence8 ,the reformer1  
the   philanthropist1 and the ,christian
 may learn a lesson here4   ,dr4 ,weiss1
 a distinguished ,german physician1 in  

his remarks on this subject1 says1 the  
best time1 undoubtedly1 for these       
ablutions1 is the morning4 ,they are to 
be performed immediately after rising   
from the bed1 when the temperature of   
the body is raised by the heat of the   
bed4 ,the sudden change favors in a     
great measure the reaction which ensues1
 and excites the skin1 rendered more    
sensitive by the perspiration during the
 night1 to renewed activity4 ,cold      
ablutions1 he adds1 are fitted for all  
constitutions2 they are best adapted for
 purifying and strengthening the body2  
for women1 weak subjects1 children1 and 
old age4 ,the room in which the ablution
 is performed may be slightly heated for
 debilitated patients in winter1 to     
prevent colds in consequence of too low 
a temperature of the apartment2 this    
exception is1 however1 only admissible  
for very weakly persons4 ,generally     
speaking1 ablutions may be performed in 
a cold room1 especially where persons   
get through the operation quickly1 and  

can immediately afterward take exercise 
in the open air4  ,it is the opinion of 
,dr4 ,combe that bathing is a safe and  
valuable preservative of health1 in     
ordinary circumstances1 and an active   
remedy in disease4 ,instead of being    
dangerous by causing liability to cold1 
it is1 he says1 when well managed1 so   
much the reverse1 that he has used it   
much and successfully for the express   
purpose of diminishing such liability1  
both in himself and in others in whom   
the chest is delicate4 ,in his own      
instance1 in particular1 he is conscious
 of having derived much advantage from  
its regular employment1 especially in   
the colder months of the year1 during   
which he has found himself most         
effectually strengthened against the    
impression of cold by repeating the bath
 at shorter intervals than usual4 ,i    
shall conclude my remarks on bathing by 
presenting a paragraph from this        
transatlantic author4  ,if the bath can 
not be had at all places1 soap and water

 may be obtained every where1 and leave 
no apology for neglecting the skin4 ,if 
the constitution be delicate1 water and 
vinegar1 or water and salt1 used daily1 
form an excellent and safe means of     
cleansing and gently stimulating the    
skin4 ,to the invalid they are highly   
beneficial1 when the nature of the      
indisposition does not render them      
improper4 ,a rough and rather coarse    
towel is a very useful auxiliary in such
 ablutions4 ,few of those who have      
steadiness to keep up the action of the 
skin by the above means1 and to avoid   
strong and exciting causes1 will ever   
suffer from colds1 sore throats1 or     
similar complaints2 while1 as a means of
 restoring health1 they are often       
incalculably serviceable4 ,if one tenth 
of the persevering attention and labor  
bestowed to so much purpose in rubbing  
down and currying the skins of horses   
were bestowed by the human race in      
keeping themselves in good condition1   
and a little attention were paid to diet

 and clothing1 colds1 nervous diseases1 
and stomach complaints would cease to   
form so large an item in the catalogue  
of human miseries4 ,man studies the     
nature of other animals1 and adapts his 
conduct to their constitution2 himself  
alone he continues ignorant of and      
neglects4 ,he considers himself a being 
of superior order1 and not subject to   
the laws of organization which regulate 
the functions of the lower animals2 but 
this conclusion is the result of        
ignorance and pride1 and not a just     
inference from the premises on which it 
is ostensibly founded4                  
,,clothing4--,the skin is very          
materially affected in the healthy      
performance of its functions by the     
nature and condition of the clothing4   
,it is a very commonly received opinion 
that one principal object in clothing is
 to impart heat to the body4 ,this1     
however1 is an erroneous idea2 the      
utmost that it can do is to prevent the 
escape of heat4 ,all articles of        

clothing are not alike in this respect4 
,some conduct the heat from the body    
readily1 and are hence much used in warm
 weather2 as linen1 for example4        
,others1 again1 have very little        
tendency to convey heat from the body1  
and are hence sought in cold weather4   
,of this nature are furs1 and cloths    
manufactured from wool4 ,i do not intend
 in this connection to speak of the     
merits of different kinds of clothing1  
but to remark simply upon the necessity 
of changing clothes often1 or at least  
of ventilating them frequently4 ,this   
remark applies particularly to all      
articles of clothing worn next to the   
skin1 and to beds4 ,clothes worn next to
 the skin during the day should be      
removed on going to bed1 and a fresh    
sleeping-gown should be put on4 ,the    
former should be hung up in a situation 
that will allow the accumulated         
perspiration of the day to pass off by  
evaporation4 ,by this means they will   
become sufficiently freshened and       

ventilated1 by morning1 to be worn      
another day1 when the night-clothes1 in 
turn1 should be ventilated4 ,beds also  
should be thrown open and exposed to    
fresh air with open doors1 or at least  
windows1 several hours before being     
made4 ,in our best-regulated boarding   
schools1 and literary and benevolent    
institutions of all kinds1 particular   
attention is now paid to this subject4  
,in some instances1 lodging rooms are   
furnished with frames for the express   
purpose of facilitating the ventilation 
of the bed-clothes4 ,immediately on     
rising in the morning1 the clothes are  
removed from the beds1 and exposed upon 
these frames to a current of fresh air  
for several hours1 the windows being    
opened for that purpose4                
,notwithstanding care be taken to       
promote personal cleanliness by daily   
ablutions1 if the ventilation of beds   
and clothing be neglected1 and          
perspiration be suffered to accumulate  
in them1 it may be reabsorbed1 and1     

passing again into the circulation1     
produce all the mischief of which ,i    
have before spoken4  ,,the ,,teeth4--,i 
have already spoken of the relation the 
teeth sustain to digestion4 ,their use  
in the proper mastication of food is    
essential to the healthy and vigorous   
performance of this important function4 
,the proper use of a good set of teeth  
contributes largely to both the physical
 comfort1 and the intellectual and moral
 well-being of their possessor2 but when
 neglected1 they very commonly decay and
 become useless2 nay1 more1 they are not
 unfrequently a source of great and     
almost constant discomfort for years4   
,in order to preserve the teeth1 they   
must be kept clean4 ,after every meal1  
they should be cleaned with a brush and 
water4 ,a tooth-pick will sometimes be  
found necessary in the removal of       
particles of food that are inaccessible 
to the brush4 ,metallic tooth-picks     
injure the enamel1 and should not be    
used4 ,those made of ivory1 or the      

common goose-quill1 are unobjectionable4
 ,the brush should be used1 not only    
after each meal1 but the last thing at  
night and the first thing in the        
morning4 ,this will prevent the         
accumulation of tartar1 which so        
commonly incrusts neglected teeth4 ,if  
suffered to remain1 it gradually        
accumulates1 presses upon the gums1 and 
destroys their health4 ,by this means   
the roots of the teeth become bare1 and 
thus deprived of their natural stimulus1
 they prematurely decay4 ,food or drink 
either very hot or very cold is         
exceedingly injurious to the teeth4     
,sour drops1 acidulated drinks1 and all 
articles of food that set the teeth on  
edge1 are injurious1 and should be      
carefully avoided4 ,should it become    
necessary to take sour drops as a       
medicine1 they should be given through a
 quill1 and every precaution should be  
taken to prevent their coming in contact
 with the teeth4 ,even then the mouth   
should be well rinsed immediately after 

they are swallowed4  ,disordered        
digestion is a great source of injury to
 the teeth both in childhood and in     
mature age4 ,when digestion is vigorous1
 there is less deposition of tartar1 and
 the teeth are naturally of a purer     
white4 ,especially is this true when the
 general health is good1 and the diet   
plain1 and contains a full proportion of
 vegetable matter4 ,this accounts for   
the fact that many rustics and savages  
possess teeth that would be envied in   
town4 ,tobacco is sometimes used as a   
preservative of the teeth4 ,it is1      
indeed1 occasionally prescribed as a    
curative by ignorant physicians1 and    
those who are willing to pander to the  
diseased appetites of their patients4   
,but there is the best medical testimony
 that the use of this filthy weed       
debilitates the vessels of the gums1    
turns the teeth yellow1 and renders the 
appearance of the mouth disagreeable4   
,dr4 ,rush informs us that he knew a man
 in ,philadelphia who lost all his teeth

 by smoking4 ,in speaking of the moral  
effects of this practice1 he adds1      
,smoking and chewing tobacco1 by        
rendering water and other simple liquors
 insipid to the taste1 dispose very much
 to the stronger stimulus of ardent     
spirits2 hence the practice of smoking  
cigars throughout our country has been  
followed by the use of brandy and water 
as a common drink4 ,a dentist of        
extensive and successful practice in the
 ,middle and ,western ,states1 after    
listening to the reading of this        
article1 said to me1 he had a patient1 a
 young lady1 two of whose front teeth   
had decayed through1 laterally1 in      
consequence of smoking4 ,on removing the
 caries1 he found it impossible to fill 
her teeth1 because the openings         
continued through them4 ,he thinks1 as  
do many others1 that the heat of the    
smoke is a principal cause of the       
injury4  ,among the conditions upon     
which the healthy action of the         
voluntary organs depends is a due degree

 of appropriate exercise4 ,this is a    
general law1 and holds with reference to
 the teeth as well as to any other organ
 or set of organs4 ,the proper          
mastication of healthful and nutritious 
food constitutes the appropriate        
exercise of the teeth1 and is a         
condition upon which their health1 and  
the healthy exercise of the function of 
digestion1 alike depend4 ,if from any   
cause the teeth of one jaw are removed1 
the corresponding teeth of the other    
jaw1 being thus deprived of that        
exercise which is essential to their    
health1 are pressed out of the jaw1     
appear to grow long1 become loose in    
their sockets1 and sometimes fall out4  
,hence the propriety and advantage of   
inserting artificial teeth where the    
natural ones fail2 an event which rarely
 happens when they are properly taken   
care of4 ,i need hardly add that nuts1  
and other hard substances that break the
 enamel1 are injurious to the teeth1 and
 should be avoided4  ,,the              

,,bones4--,the bones constitute the     
frame-work of the system4 ,they consist 
of two substances1 being formed of both 
animal and earthy matter4 ,to the former
 belongs every thing connected with     
their life and growth1 while the latter 
gives to them solidity and strength4    
,the proportions of the animal and      
earthy elements of which the bones are  
composed vary at different ages4 ,in    
childhood and early youth1 when but     
little strength is needed1 and great    
growth of bone is required1 the animal  
part preponderates4 ,as growth advances 
the animal part decreases1 and the      
earthy part increases4 ,in middle life1 
when growth is finished and the strength
 is greatest1 and when nutrition is     
required only to repair waste1 the      
proportions are changed1 and the solid  
or earthy part exceeds the vital or     
animal2 and in extreme old age1 the     
earthy part so predominates as to cause 
the bones to become very brittle4  ,the 
bones1 like other parts of the system1  

require exercise4 ,if properly used1    
they increase in size and strength4 ,but
 while a due degree of exercise is      
beneficial1 it ought to be remarked that
 severe and continued labor should not  
be required of children and youth2 for  
its tendency is to increase the         
deposition of earthy matter to a hurtful
 extent4 ,it is by this means that many 
children are made dwarfs for life1 their
 bones being consolidated by an undue   
amount of exercise and excessive labor  
before they have attained their full    
growth4 ,multitudes of children in our  
country1 from this and kindred causes1  
fail of attaining the size of their     
ancestors4 ,these remarks may be turned 
to a practical account in the family and
 in the school4 ,at birth1 many of the  
bones are scarcely more than cartilage2 
yet children are frequently urged to    
stand and walk long before the bones    
become sufficiently strong to sustain   
the pressure2 and1 as a consequence1    
their legs become crooked1 and they are 

perhaps other ways deformed for life4   
,children ought always1 when seated1 to 
be able to rest their feet upon the     
floor4 ,when they occupy a seat that is 
too high1 and especially when they are  
unable to reach their feet to the floor1
 the thigh bones very frequently become 
curved4 ,if1 in addition to high seats1 
the back is not supported1 children     
become round shouldered1 their chests   
contract1 their constitutions become    
permanently enfeebled1 and they become  
peculiarly susceptible to pulmonary     
disease4 ,the back to the seat should   
afford a pleasant and agreeable support 
to the small of the back1 but it ought  
not to reach to the shoulder blades4    
,parents and teachers should never      
forget that children are as susceptible 
to physical training as to intellectual 
or moral culture4 ,and here1 especially1
 they should be trained up in the way   
they should go4 ,physical uprightness is
 next to moral4 ,if children are allowed
 to contract bad physical habits1 they  

are liable not only to grow crooked1 but
 to become deformed in various ways4    
,but so great is the power of education1
 that by it even the physically crooked 
may be made straight2 the chest may be  
enlarged1 the general health may be     
improved1 and much may be done in many  
ways to fortify those who have inherited
 feeble constitutions against the       
attacks of disease4 ,the benefits       
resulting from maintaining an upright   
form1 and a free and open chest1 have   
already been considered1 and ,i shall   
have occasion to refer to them again4   
,the chest of most adults1 although     
incased with bone1 may be increased     
several inches by drawing the arms back 
in the use of nature's own              
shoulder-braces1 and at the same time   
taking deep inhalations of air1 and     
filling the lungs to their utmost       
capacity4 ,hundreds of individuals in   
different parts of the country have     
borne testimony to the efficacy of this 
treatment in the improvement of their   

health4 ,the good results of such       
discipline in childhood are still more  
manifest4  ,a stooping posture is       
frequently induced by sitting at tables 
and desks that are too low4 ,it has been
 erroneously maintained by some that the
 top of the desk should be on the same  
plane with the elbow when the arm hangs 
by the side4 ,when the desk is higher1  
it has been said the tendency is to     
elevate one shoulder1 to depress the    
other1 and to produce a permanent       
curvature of the spinal column4         
,although this may have been frequently 
the result of sitting at a high desk1   
yet it is not a necessary result4 ,to   
prevent the projection of one shoulder1 
and the consequent spinal curvature1    
both of the arms must be kept on the    
same level4 ,for this purpose1 there    
should be room to support them equally2 
and care should be taken to see that    
this support is regularly sought4 ,if   
this be not done1 the right arm will be 
apt to rise above the left1 from its    

more constant use and elevation4 ,a     
physician1 highly celebrated for the    
success that has attended his treatment 
for lung affections1 after dwelling upon
 the injury to the health that          
frequently results from sitting at too  
low desks1 remarks1 that every parent   
should go to the school-rooms1 and know 
for a certainty that the desks at which 
his children write or study are fully up
 to the arm-pits1 and in no case allow  
them to sit stooping1 or leaning the    
shoulders forward on the chest4 ,if     
fatigued by this posture1 they should be
 called to stand1 or go out of doors and
 run about4 ,the height of table ,i find
 most conducive to comfort for my own   
use is midway between the two2 that is1 
half way from the elbow 7as the arm     
hangs by the side7 to the arm-pit4 ,it  
is necessary1 however1 to rest both arms
 equally upon the table4 ,the secret of 
posture consists in avoiding all bad    
positions1 and in not continuing any one
 position too long4 ,the ordinary       

carriage of the body is an object worthy
 of the attention of every parent and   
instructor4 ,the more favorable         
impression which a man of erect and     
commanding attitude is sure to make1    
should not be overlooked4 ,but there is 
a greater good than this2 for he who    
walks erect1 enjoys better health1      
possesses increased powers of           
usefulness1 realizes more that he is a  
man1 and has more to call forth         
gratitude to a beneficent ,creator1 than
 he who adopts an oblique posture4 ,it  
was just remarked that physical         
uprightness is next to moral4 ,physical 
obliquity1 it may be added1 is akin to  
moral4 ,if they are not ,german-cousins1
 there can be little doubt but that1    
considered in all its bearings1 the     
tendency of the former is to induce the 
latter4  ,important as an erect posture 
and a well-developed chest are to       
gentlemen1 they are in some respects    
even more so to the fairer sex2 for1 in 
addition to the advantages already      

considered1 which both enjoy in common1 
these impart to them a peculiar charm1  
that to men of sense is far greater than
 pretty faces1 which ,nature has not    
given to all4 ,for a great number of    
years1 it has been the custom in ,france
 to give young females1 of the earliest 
age1 the habit of holding back the      
shoulders1 and thus expanding the chest4
 ,from the observations of anatomists   
lately made1 it appears that the        
clavicle or collar bone is actually     
longer in females of the ,french nation 
than in those of the ,english4 ,as the  
two nations are of the same race1 as    
there is no remarkable difference in    
their bones1 and this is peculiar to the
 sex1 it must be attributed1 as ,i      
believe1 to the habit above mentioned1  
which1 by the extension of the arms1 has
 gradually produced an elongation of    
this bone4 ,thus we see that habit may  
be employed to alter and improve the    
solid bones4 ,the ,french have succeeded
 in the development of a part in a way  

that adds to health and beauty1 and     
increases a characteristic that         
distinguishes the human being from the  
brute4#i     #i ,quoted into the        
,schoolmaster 7a work published in      
,london under the   superintendence of  
the ,society for the ,diffusion of      
,useful ,knowledge7   from a lecture    
delivered by ,dr4 ,j4 ,c4 ,warren before
 the ,american   ,institute of          
,instruction1 ,august1 #ahcj4   ,,the   
,,muscles4--,the muscles consist of     
compact bundles of fleshy fibers1 which 
are found in animals on removing the    
skin4 ,they constitute the red fleshy   
part of meat1 and give form and symmetry
 to the body4 ,in the limbs they        
surround and protect the bones1 while in
 the trunk they spread out and          
constitute a defensive wall for the     
protection of the vital parts beneath4  
,the muscles have been divided into     
three parts1 of which the middle and    
fleshy portion1 called the belly1 is    
most conspicuous4 ,the other two parts  

are the opposite ends1 and are commonly 
called the origin and insertion of the  
muscle4 ,the origin is usually fastened 
to one bone1 and the insertion is       
attached to another4 ,by the contraction
 of the belly of the muscle1 the        
insertion1 which is movable1 is drawn   
toward the origin1 which is fixed1 and  
brings with it the bone to which it is  
attached4 ,this any one can see         
illustrated in bending the arm4 ,the    
muscle which performs this function lies
 between the elbow and the shoulder4 ,it
 is attached to the shoulder by its     
origin1 and to one of the bones of the  
fore-arm1 just below the elbow1 by its  
insertion4 ,by grasping the arm midway  
between the shoulder and the elbow with 
the opposite hand1 and then bending the 
arm1 the enlargement of the belly of the
 muscle by the contraction will be at   
once perceived4 ,then1 by moving the    
hand down on the inside of the arm      
toward the elbow1 the lessening muscle  
may be readily traced until it          

terminates in a tendon1 of much less    
size than the muscle1 but of great      
strength1 which is inserted into the    
bone just below the elbow4 ,as the      
fore-arm is drawn up1 and especially if 
there be a weight in the hand1 the      
tendon may be felt just within the      
elbow-joint1 running toward the point of
 insertion4 ,extend the arm at the      
elbow1 and the muscle on the outside of 
the arm will swell and become firm1     
while the inside muscle1 and its tendon 
at the elbow1 will be relaxed4 ,this    
example well illustrates the principle  
on which all the joints of the system   
are moved4 ,those who are acquainted    
with mechanics will readily perceive    
that the action just described is an    
example of the third kind of lever1     
where the power is applied between the  
weight and the fulcrum4 ,the elbow is   
the fulcrum1 the hand contains the      
weight1 and the tendon1 inserted into   
the bone just below the elbow1 is the   
power4 ,this kind of lever requires the 

power to be greater than the weight1 and
 acts under what is called a mechanical 
disadvantage4 ,what is lost in power1   
however1 is compensated in increased    
velocity4  ,there are upward of four    
hundred muscles in the human body4 ,some
 of these are voluntary in their        
motions1 as those ,i have described1    
while others are involuntary1 as the    
action of the heart and the respiratory 
muscles4 ,had the action of these       
depended upon the will1 as does the     
action of the muscles of locomotion1 the
 circulation of the blood and the       
process of breathing would cease1 and   
life would become extinct whenever sleep
 or any other cause should overcome the 
attention4 ,here1 then1 we have another 
beautiful illustration of the wisdom and
 beneficence of the ,creator in so      
ordering that those muscles which are   
essential to the continuation of life   
shall perform their functions without   
the control or attention of the         
individual4  ,the study of the muscular 

system involves an exposition of the    
principles by which exercise should be  
regulated1 and can scarcely fail to     
excite the attention of the general     
reader1 and especially of those who1 as 
parents or teachers1 are interested in  
the education of the young4  ,the       
muscles enable us to move the frame-work
 of the system4 ,their chief purpose    
obviously is to enable us to carry into 
effect the various resolutions and      
designs which have been formed by the   
mind4 ,but1 while fulfilling this grand 
object1 their active exercise is1 at the
 same time1 highly conducive to the     
well-being of many other important      
functions4 ,by muscular contraction1 the
 blood is gently assisted in its course 
through the smaller vessels to the more 
distant parts of the body2 and by it the
 important processes of digestion1      
respiration1 secretion1 absorption1 and 
nutrition are promoted2 and by it the   
health of the whole body is immediately 
and greatly influenced4 ,the mind itself

 is exhilarated or depressed by the     
proper or improper use of muscular      
exercise4 ,it thus becomes a point of no
 slight importance to establish general 
principles by which that exercise may be
 regulated4  ,in every part of the      
animal economy1 the muscles are         
proportioned in size and structure to   
the efforts required of them4 ,whenever 
a muscle is called into frequent use1   
its fibers increase in thickness within 
certain limits1 and become capable of   
acting with greater force and readiness4
 ,on the other hand1 when a muscle is   
little used1 its volume and power       
decrease in a corresponding degree4  ,in
 order to secure the most beneficial    
results from exercise1 reference should 
be had to the time at which it is taken4
 ,those who are in perfect health may   
engage in it at almost any hour except  
immediately after a meal2 but those who 
are not robust ought to confine their   
hours of exercise within narrower       
limits4 ,to a person in full vigor1 a   

good walk1 or other brisk exercise      
before breakfast may be highly          
beneficial and exhilarating1 while to an
 invalid or delicate person it will be  
likely to prove detrimental4 ,in order  
to prove beneficial1 exercise must be   
resorted to only when the system is     
sufficiently vigorous to be able to meet
 it4 ,this is usually the case after a  
lapse of from two to four hours after a 
moderate meal4 ,the forenoon1 then1 will
 generally be found the best time for   
exercise for persons whose habits are   
sedentary4 ,if exercise be delayed till 
the system feels exhaustion from want of
 food1 its tendency will be to dissipate
 the strength that remains and impair   
digestion2 while1 if taken at the proper
 time1 it will invigorate the system and
 promote digestion4 ,the reasons are    
obvious2 for exercise of every kind     
causes increased action and waste in the
 organ1 and if there be not materials   
and vigor enough in the system to keep  
up that action and supply the waste1    

nothing but increased debility can      
reasonably be expected4  ,active        
exercise immediately before meals is    
injurious4 ,the reasons are apparent1   
for muscular exercise directs a flow of 
blood and nervous energy to the surface 
and extremities2 and it is an           
established law in physiology1 that     
energetic action can not be kept up in  
two distant parts of the system at the  
same time4 ,hence1 whenever a meal is   
taken immediately after vigorous        
exercise1 the stomach is taken at       
disadvantage1 and1 from want of the     
necessary action in its vessels and     
nerves1 is unable to carry on digestion 
with success4 ,this is very obviously   
the case where the exercise has been    
severe or protracted4  ,active exercise 
ought to be equally avoided immediately 
after a heavy meal1 for then the        
functions of the digestive organs are in
 the highest state of activity4 ,if the 
muscular system be called into vigorous 
action under such circumstances1 it will

 cause a withdrawal of the vital stimuli
 of the blood and nervous influence from
 the stomach to the extremities1 which  
can not fail greatly to retard the      
digestive process4 ,in accordance with  
this well-established fact1 there is a  
natural and marked aversion to active   
pursuits after a full meal4 ,a mere     
stroll1 which requires no exertion and  
does not fatigue1 will not be injurious 
before or after eating2 but exercise    
beyond this limit is at such times      
hurtful4 ,all1 therefore1 who would     
preserve and improve their health1 will 
find it to their advantage to observe   
faithfully this important law1 otherwise
 they will deprive themselves of most of
 the benefits that are usually attendant
 upon judicious exercise4 ,all1 then1   
who are forced to much exertion         
immediately after eating1 should satisfy
 themselves with partaking of a very    
moderate meal4 ,these remarks apply to  
both physical and mental exercise2 for  
if the intellect be intently occupied in

 profound and absorbing thought1 the    
nervous energy will be concentrated in  
the brain1 and any demands made on it by
 the stomach or muscles will be very    
imperfectly attended to4 ,so1 also1 if  
the stomach be actively engaged in      
digesting a full meal1 and some subject 
of thought be presented to the mind1    
considerable difficulty will be felt in 
pursuing it1 and most probably both     
thought and digestion will be disturbed4
  ,another law of the muscular system   
requires that relaxation and contraction
 should alternate2 or1 in other words1  
that rest should follow exercise4 ,in   
accordance with this law1 it is easier  
to walk than to stand2 and in standing1 
it is easier to change from one foot to 
the other than to stand still4 ,to      
require a child to extend his arm and   
hold a book in his hand1 or even to keep
 the arm extended but a short time1 is a
 violation of this law which should     
never be permitted4 ,akin to this is the
 very injudicious practice1 which is    

sometimes resorted to in schools1 of    
requiring a boy to stoop over1 and1     
placing his finger upon a nail in the   
floor1 hold it in4 ,teachers who are    
disposed to inflict punishments like    
these ought first to try the experiment 
themselves4 ,such protracted tension of 
the muscles enfeebles their action1 and 
ultimately destroys their power of      
contraction4  ,these remarks            
sufficiently explain why small children1
 after sitting a while in school1 become
 restless4 ,proper regard for this      
organic law requires that the smaller   
children in school be allowed a recess  
as often1 at least1 as once an hour2 and
 that all be allowed and encouraged     
frequently to change their position4 ,i 
fully concur in the opinion expressed by
 ,dr4 ,caldwell1 who says1 ,it would be 
infinitely wiser and better to employ   
suitable persons to superintend the     
exercises and amusements of children    
under seven years of age1 in the fields1
 orchards1 and meadows1 and point out to

 them the richer beauties of nature1    
than to have them immured in crowded    
school-rooms1 in a state of inaction1   
poring over torn books and primers1     
conning words of whose meaning they are 
ignorant1 and breathing foul air4  ,a   
change of position calls into action a  
different set of muscles1 and relieves  
those that are exhausted4 ,the object of
 exercise is to employ all the muscles  
of the body1 and especially to          
strengthen those that are weak4 ,it     
ought hence to be frequently varied1 and
 always adapted to the peculiarities of 
individuals4 ,different kinds of        
exercise will therefore be found to suit
 different constitutions4 ,sedentary    
persons best enjoy1 and will be most    
profited by1 that kind of exercise which
 brings into action the greatest number 
of muscles4  ,to give exercise its      
greatest value1 it should be taken at   
the same hour every day4 ,this is       
well-nigh as important as the rule that 
requires meals to be taken regularly4   

,if exercise be taken irregularly1 one  
day in the morning1 another day at noon1
 and another day at night1 if at all1 it
 is possible that good may result from  
it1 but its beneficial effects would be 
greatly increased if the same amount of 
exercise were taken every day at the    
same hours4 ,give the system an         
opportunity of establishing good habits 
in this respect1 and it will derive     
great advantage from them2 but it is    
difficult for it to derive any benefit  
from a habit of irregularity1 if such   
may be called a habit4 ,students1       
teachers1 and all persons who lead      
sedentary lives1 should have their      
regular times for exercise as well as   
for meals1 and if they find it necessary
 to do without one1 they will generally 
find it advantageous to dispense with   
the other also4  ,walking1 it has been  
said1 agrees with every body4 ,but as it
 brings into play chiefly the lower     
limbs and muscles of the loins1 and     
affords little scope for the play of the

 arms and muscles of the chest1 it is of
 itself insufficient to constitute      
adequate exercise4 ,to render it most   
beneficial1 the shoulders should be     
drawn back1 and the chest should be     
enlarged by taking deep inspirations of 
pure air4 ,the muscles of the chest1 and
 of every part of the body1 should be   
free to move and unconfined by tight    
clothing4 ,fencing1 shuttlecock1 and    
such other useful sports as combine with
 them free movements of the upper part  
of the body1 are doubly advantageous1   
for they not only exercise the muscles  
of the whole body1 but possess the      
additional advantage of animating the   
mind and increasing the nervous         
stimulus1 by which exercise is rendered 
easy1 pleasant1 and invigorating4 ,for  
the purpose of developing the chest1    
physiologists generally concur in       
recommending fencing as a good exercise 
for boys4 ,shuttlecock is a very        
beneficial exercise for females1 calling
 into play1 as it does1 the muscles of  

the chest1 trunk1 and arms4 ,it ought to
 be practiced in the open air4 ,when    
played with both hands1 as it may be    
after a little practice1 it is very     
useful in preventing curvature1 and in  
giving vigor to the spine4 ,it is an    
excellent plan to play with a battledore
 in each hand1 and to strike with them  
alternately4 ,the graces is another play
 well adapted for expanding the chest1  
and giving strength to the muscles of   
the back1 and has the advantage of being
 practicable in the open air4 ,it is    
very important that the muscles of the  
back be strengthened by due exercise1   
for their proper use contributes to both
 health and beauty4  ,when managed with 
due regard to the natural powers of the 
individual1 and so as to avoid effort   
and fatigue1 reading aloud becomes a    
very useful and invigorating exercise4  
,in forming and undulating the voice1   
not only the chest1 but also the        
diaphragm and abdominal muscles are in  
constant action1 and communicate to the 

stomach and bowels a healthy and        
agreeable stimulus4 ,where the voice is 
raised and the elocution is rapid1 the  
muscular effort becomes fatiguing2 but  
when care is taken not to carry reading 
aloud so far at one time as to excite a 
sensation of soreness or fatigue in the 
chest1 and the exercise is duly         
repeated1 it is extremely useful in     
developing and giving tone to the organs
 of respiration and to the general      
system4  ,vocal music is also very      
useful1 by its direct effect on the     
constitution4 ,it was the opinion of    
,dr4 ,rush1 that young ladies           
especially1 who1 by the custom of       
society1 are debarred from many kinds of
 salubrious exercise1 should cultivate  
singing1 not only as an accomplishment1 
but as a means of preserving health4 ,he
 particularly insists that it should    
never be neglected in the education of  
females2 and states that1 besides its   
salutary operation in enabling them to  
soothe the cares of domestic life1 and  

quiet sorrow by the united assistance of
 the sound and sentiment of a properly  
chosen song1 it has a still more direct 
and important effect4 ',i here introduce
 a fact1' he remarks1 'which has been   
suggested to me by my profession1 and   
that is1 that the exercise of the organs
 of the breast by singing contributes   
very much to defend them from those     
diseases to which the climate and other 
causes expose them4 ,the ,germans are   
seldom afflicted with consumption1 nor  
have ,i ever known but one instance of  
spitting blood among them4 ,this1 ,i    
believe1 is in part occasioned by the   
strength which their lungs acquire by   
exercising them frequently in vocal     
music1 for this constitutes an essential
 branch of their education4 ,the        
music-master of our academy has         
furnished me with an observation still  
more in favor of this opinion4 ,he      
informed me that he had known several   
instances of persons who were strongly  
disposed to consumption1 who were       

restored to health by the exercise of   
their lungs in singing4'#aj     #aj ,mr4
 ,woodbridge's lecture before the       
,american ,institute of   ,instruction1 
#ahcj4   ,bathing or ablution1 when     
conducted as recommended on pages #fj   
and #fa1 is not only a means of         
cleanliness and of exciting a healthy   
action in the skin1 but it constitutes1 
at the same time1 a most admirable      
exercise4 ,if a lodging-room has been   
properly ventilated by leaving open     
windows1 or otherwise1 so that the air  
is pure and healthful in the morning1   
ten or fifteen minutes spent in bathing 
and friction1 with a proper exercise of 
the muscles of the back and abdomen1    
will contribute more to invigorate the  
system and promote the general health   
than twice the amount of exercise taken 
at any other time or in any other way4  
,from the foregoing remarks1 it appears 
that the most perfect of all exercises  
are those which combine the free play of
 all the muscles of the body1 mental    

interest and excitement1 and the        
unrestrained use of the voice4          
,,chapter ,,iv4  ,,the ,,laws ,,of      
,,health4 ,,philosophy ,,of             
,,respiration4      ,we instinctively   
shun approach to the dirty1 the squalid1
 and the     diseased1 and use no       
garment that may have been worn by      
another4 ,we     open sewers for matters
 that offend the sight or the smell1 and
     contaminate the air4 ,we carefully 
remove impurities from what we eat      
and drink1 filter turbid water1 and     
fastidiously avoid drinking from     a  
cup that may have been pressed to the   
lips of a friend4 ,on the     other     
hand1 we resort to places of assembly1  
and draw into our     mouths air loaded 
with effluvia from the lungs1 skin1 and 
clothing     of every individual in the 
promiscuous crowd--exhalations          
offensive1     to a certain extent1 from
 the most healthy individuals2 but when 
arising from a living mass of skin and  
lungs in all stages of     evaporation1 

disease1 and putridity1 they are in the 
highest degree     deleterious and      
loathsome4--,,birnan4   ,respiration is 
usually defined as the process by which 
air is taken into the lungs and expelled
 from them4 ,it explains the changes    
that take place in these organs1 in the 
conversion of chyle and venous1 or      
worn-out blood1 into arterial or        
nutrient blood4 ,in order to be clearly 
understood1 ,i must premise a few       
observations on the circulation of the  
blood4#aa ,the blood circulating through
 the body is of two different kinds2 the
 one red or arterial1 and the other dark
 or venous blood4 ,the former alone is  
capable of affording nourishment and    
supporting life4 ,it is distributed from
 the left side of the heart all over the
 body by means of a great artery1 which 
subdivides in its course1 and ultimately
 terminates in myriads of very minute   
ramifications closely interwoven with1  
and in reality constituting a part of1  
the texture of every living part4 ,on   

reaching this extreme point of its      
course1 the blood passes into equally   
minute ramifications of the veins1 which
 in their turn gradually coalesce1 and  
form larger and larger trunks1 till they
 at last terminate in two large veins1  
by which the whole current of the venous
 blood is brought back in a direction   
contrary to that of the blood in the    
arteries1 and poured into the right side
 of the heart4 ,on examining the quality
 of the blood in the arteries and veins1
 it is found to have undergone a great  
change in its passage from the one to   
the other4 ,the florid hue which        
distinguished it in the arteries has    
disappeared1 and given place to the dark
 color characteristic of venous blood4  
,its properties1 too1 have changed1 and 
it is now no longer capable of          
sustaining life4     #aa ,taken1 with   
slight alterations1 from the description
 of ,dr4 ,a4   ,combe4   ,two conditions
 are essential to the reconversion of   
venous into arterial blood1 and to the  

restoration of its vital properties4    
,the first is an adequate provision of  
new materials from the food to supply   
the place of those which have been      
expended in nutrition1 and the second is
 the free exposure of the venous blood  
to the atmospheric air4 ,the first      
condition is fulfilled by the chyle1 or 
nutrient portion of the food1 being     
regularly poured into the venous blood  
just before it reaches the right side of
 the heart1 and the second by the       
important process of respiration1 which 
takes place in the air-cells of the     
lungs4 ,the venous blood1 having arrived
 at the right side of the heart1 is     
propelled by the contraction of that    
organ into a large artery1 leading      
directly1 by separate branches1 to the  
two lungs1 and hence called the         
pulmonary artery4 ,in the innumerable   
branches of this artery expanding       
themselves throughout the substance of  
the lungs1 the dark blood is subjected  
to the contact of the air inhaled in    

breathing1 and a change in the          
composition both of the blood and of the
 inhaled air takes place1 in consequence
 of which the former is found to have   
reassumed its florid or arterial hue1   
and to have regained its power of       
supporting life4 ,the blood then enters 
minute venous ramifications1 which      
gradually coalesce into larger branches1
 and at last terminate in four large    
trunks in the left side of the heart1   
whence the blood1 in its arterial form1 
is again distributed over the body1 to  
pursue the same course and undergo the  
same change as before4  ,it will be     
perceived that there are two distinct   
circulations1 each of which is carried  
on by its own system of vessels4 ,the   
one is from the left side of the heart  
to every part of the body1 and back to  
the right side of the heart4 ,the other 
is from the right side of the heart to  
the lungs1 and back to the left side of 
the heart4 ,the former has for its      
object nutrition and the maintenance of 

life2 and the latter1 the restoration of
 the deteriorated blood1 and the        
animalization or assimilation of the    
chyle from which the blood is formed4   
,this process has already been referred 
to as the completion of digestion2 for  
chyle is not fitted to nourish the      
system until1 by its exposure to the    
atmospheric air in the lungs1 it is     
converted into arterial blood4  ,as the 
food can not become a part of the living
 animal1 or the venous blood regain its 
lost properties until they have         
undergone the requisite changes in the  
air-cells of the lungs1 the function of 
respiration by which these are effected 
is one of pre-eminent importance in the 
animal economy1 and well deserves the   
most careful examination4 ,the term     
respiration is frequently restricted to 
the mere inhalation and expiration of   
air from the lungs1 but more generally  
it is employed to designate the whole   
series of phenomena which occur in these
 organs4 ,the term sanguification is    

occasionally used to denote that part of
 the process in which the blood1 by     
exposure to the action of the air1      
passes from the venous to the arterial  
state4 ,as the chyle does not become    
assimilated to the blood until it has   
passed through the lungs1 this term1    
which signifies blood-making1 is not    
unaptly used4  ,the quantity and quality
 of the blood have a most direct and    
material influence upon the condition of
 every part of the body4 ,if the        
quantity sent to the arm1 for example1  
be diminished by tying the artery       
through which it is conveyed1 the arm1  
being then imperfectly nourished1 wastes
 away1 and does not regain its plumpness
 till the full supply of blood be       
restored4 ,in like manner1 when the     
quality of that fluid is impaired by    
deficiency of food1 bad digestion1      
impure air1 or imperfect sanguification 
in the lungs1 the body and all its      
functions become more or less           
disordered4 ,thus1 in consumption1 death

 takes place chiefly in consequence of  
respiration not being sufficiently      
perfect to admit of the formation of    
proper blood in the lungs4 ,a knowledge 
of the structure and functions of the   
lungs1 and of the conditions favorable  
to their healthy action1 is therefore   
very important1 for on their welfare    
depends that of every organ of the body4
  ,the exposure of the blood to the     
action of the air seems to be           
indispensable to every variety of       
animated creatures4 ,in man and the more
 perfect of the lower animals1 it is    
carried on in the lungs1 the structure  
of which is admirably adapted for the   
purpose4 ,in many animals1 however1 the 
requisite action is effected without the
 intervention of lungs4 ,in fishes1 for 
example1 that live in water and do not  
breathe1 the blood circulates through   
the gills1 and in them is exposed to the
 air which the water contains4 ,so      
necessary is the atmospheric air to the 
vitality of the blood in all animals1   

that the want of it inevitably proves   
fatal4 ,a fish can no more live in water
 deprived of air1 than a man could in an
 atmosphere devoid of oxygen1 which is  
the element that unites with the blood  
in the lungs in sanguification4  ,in man
 the lungs are those large1 light1      
spongy bodies which1 along with the     
heart1 completely fill up the cavity of 
the chest4 ,they vary much in size in   
different persons2 and as the chest is  
formed for their protection1 it is      
either large and capacious1 or the      
reverse1 according to the size of the   
lungs4  ,the substance of the lungs     
consists of bronchial tubes1 air-cells1 
blood-vessels1 nerves1 and cellular     
membrane4 ,the bronchial tubes are      
merely continuations and subdivisions of
 the windpipe1 and serve to convey the  
external air to the air-cells of the    
lungs4 ,the air-cells constitute the    
chief part of the lungs1 and are the    
termination of the smaller branches of  
the bronchial tubes4 ,when fully        

distended1 they are so numerous as in   
appearance to constitute almost the     
whole lung4 ,they are of various sizes1 
from the twentieth to the hundredth of  
an inch in diameter1 and are lined with 
an exceedingly fine1 thin membrane1 on  
which the minute capillary branches of  
the pulmonary arteries and veins are    
copiously ramified4 ,it is while        
circulating in the small vessels of this
 membrane1 and there exposed to the air1
 that the blood undergoes the change    
from the venous to the arterial state4  
,so numerous are these air-cells1 that  
the aggregate extent of their lining    
membrane in man has been computed to    
exceed twenty thousand square inches1 or
 about ten times the surface of the     
human body4 ,some writers place the     
estimate considerably higher4  ,a       
copious exhalation of moisture takes    
place in breathing1 which presents a    
striking analogy to the exhalation from 
the surface of the skin already         
described4 ,in the former as in the     

latter instance1 the exhalation is      
carried on by the innumerable minute    
capillary vessels in which the small    
arterial branches terminate in the      
air-cells4 ,pulmonary exhalation is1 in 
fact1 one of the chief outlets of waste 
matter from the system2 and the air we  
breathe is thus vitiated1 not only by   
the subtraction of its oxygen and the   
addition of carbonic acid gas1 but also 
by animal effluvia1 with which it is    
loaded when returned from the lungs4 ,in
 some individuals this last source of   
impurity is so great as to render their 
vicinity offensive1 and even            
insupportable4 ,it is this which gives  
the disagreeable1 sickening smell to    
crowded rooms4 ,the air which is expired
 from the lungs is rendered offensive by
 various other causes4 ,when spirituous 
liquors are taken into the stomach1 for 
example1 they are absorbed by the veins 
and mixed with the venous blood1 in     
which they are carried to the lungs to  
be expelled from the body4 ,in some     

instances1 when persons have drank      
copiously of spirits1 their breath has  
been so saturated with them as actually 
to take fire and burn4 ,an instance of  
this kind has recently been communicated
 to me by several reliable witnesses1 in
 which the flame was extinguished by    
closing the mouth and nose1 thus        
excluding the pure air that supported   
the combustion1 until the unfortunate   
experimenter could remove the candle by 
which his breath had taken fire4 ,this  
illustration will explain how the odor  
of different substances is frequently   
perceptible in the breath long after the
 mouth is free from them4  ,the lungs   
not only exhale waste matter1 but       
absorption takes place from their lining
 membrane4 ,in both of these respects   
there is a striking analogy between the 
functions performed by the lungs and the
 skin4 ,when a person breathes an       
atmosphere loaded with the fumes of     
spirits1 tobacco1 turpentine1 or of any 
other volatile substance1 a portion of  

the fumes is taken up by the absorbing  
vessels of the lungs1 and carried into  
the system1 and there produces precisely
 the same effects as if introduced into 
the stomach4 ,dogs1 for example1 have   
been killed by being made to inhale the 
fumes of prussic acid for a few minutes4
 ,the lungs thus become a ready inlet to
 contagion1 miasmata1 and other         
poisonous influences diffused through   
the air we breathe4  ,from this general 
explanation of the structure and uses of
 the lungs1 it is obvious that several  
conditions which it is our interest to  
know and observe are essential to the   
healthy performance of the important    
function of respiration4 ,the first     
among these is a healthy original       
formation of the lungs4 ,no fact in     
medicine is better established1 says    
,dr4 ,combe1 than that which proves the 
hereditary transmission1 from parents to
 children1 of a constitutional liability
 to pulmonary disease1 and especially to
 consumption2 yet1 continues he1 no     

condition is less attended to in forming
 matrimonial engagements4  ,another     
requisite to the well-being of the      
lungs1 and to the free and salutary     
exercise of respiration1 is a due supply
 of rich and healthy blood4 ,when1 from 
defective food or impaired digestion1   
the blood is impoverished in quality1   
and rendered unfit for adequate         
nutrition1 the lungs speedily suffer1   
and that often to a fatal extent4 ,the  
free and easy expansion of the chest is 
also indispensable to the full play and 
dilation of the lungs4 ,whatever        
interferes with or impedes it1 either in
 dress or in position1 is obviously     
prejudicial to health4 ,on the other    
hand1 whatever favors the free expansion
 of the chest equally promotes the      
healthy action of the respiratory       
organs4 ,stays and corsets1 and tight   
vests and waistbands1 operate most      
injuriously1 compressing as they do the 
thoracic cavity1 and interfering with   
the healthy dilation of the lungs4  ,the

 admirable harmony established by the   
,creator between the various constituent
 parts of the animal frame1 renders it  
impossible to pay regard to the         
conditions required for the health of   
any one1 or to infringe the conditions  
required therefor1 without all the rest 
participating in the benefit or injury4 
,thus1 while cheerful exercise in the   
open air and in the society of equals is
 directly and eminently conducive to the
 well-being of the muscular system1 the 
advantage does not stop there1 the      
beneficent ,creator having kindly so    
ordered it that the same exercise shall 
be scarcely less advantageous to the    
important function of respiration4      
,active exercise calls the lungs into   
play1 favors their expansion1 promotes  
the circulation of the blood through    
their substance1 and leads to their     
complete and healthy development4 ,the  
same end is greatly facilitated by that 
free and vigorous exercise of the voice1
 which so uniformly accompanies and     

enlivens the sports of the young1 and   
which doubles the benefits derived from 
them considered as exercise4 ,the       
excitement of the social and moral      
feelings which children experience while
 engaged in play is another powerful    
tonic1 the influence of which on the    
general health ought not to be          
overlooked2 for the nervous influence is
 as indispensable to the right          
performance of respiration as it is to  
the action of the muscles or to the     
digestion of food4  ,the regular supply 
of pure fresh air is another essential  
condition of healthy respiration1       
without which the requisite changes in  
the constitution of the blood1 as it    
passes through the lungs1 can not be    
effected4 ,to enable the reader to      
appreciate this condition1 it is        
necessary to consider the nature of the 
changes alluded to4  ,it is ascertained 
by analysis that the air we breathe is  
composed chiefly of the two gases       
nitrogen and oxygen1 united in the ratio

 of four to one by volume1 with         
exceedingly small and variable          
quantities of carbonic acid and aqueous 
vapor4 ,no other mixture of these1 or of
 any other gases1 will sustain healthy  
respiration4 ,to be more                
specific--atmospheric air consists of   
about seventy-eight per cent4 of        
nitrogen1 twenty-one per cent4 of       
oxygen1 and not quite one per cent4 of  
carbonic acid4 ,such is its constitution
 when taken into the lungs in the act of
 breathing4 ,when it is expelled from   
them1 however1 its composition is found 
to be greatly altered4 ,the quantity of 
nitrogen remains nearly the same1 but   
eight or eight and a half per cent4 of  
the oxygen or vital air have            
disappeared1 and been replaced by an    
equal amount of carbonic acid4 ,in      
addition to these changes1 the expired  
air is loaded with moisture4            
,simultaneously with these occurrences1 
the blood collected from the veins1     
which enters the lungs of a dark color  

and unfit for the support of life1      
assumes a florid hue and acquires the   
power of supporting life4               
,physiologists are not fully agreed in  
explaining the processes by which these 
changes are effected in the lungs4 ,all1
 however1 agree that the change of the  
blood in the lungs is essentially       
dependent on the supply of oxygen       
contained in the air we breathe1 and    
that air is fit or unfit for respiration
 in exact proportion as its quantity of 
oxygen approaches to1 or differs from1  
that contained in pure air4 ,if we      
attempt to breathe nitrogen1 hydrogen1  
or any other gas that does not contain  
oxygen1 the result will be speedy       
suffocation4 ,if1 on the other hand1 we 
breathe air containing too great a      
proportion of oxygen1 the vital powers  
will speedily suffer from excess of     
stimulus4  ,the chief chemical          
properties of the atmosphere are owing  
to the presence of oxygen4 ,nitrogen1   
which constitutes about four fifths of  

its volume1 has been supposed to act as 
a mere diluent to the oxygen4 ,increase 
the proportion of oxygen in the         
atmosphere1 and1 as already stated1 the 
vital powers will speedily suffer from  
excess of stimulus1 the circulation and 
respiration become too rapid1 and the   
system generally becomes highly excited4
 ,diminish the proportion of oxygen1 and
 the circulation and respiration become 
too slow1 weakness and lassitude ensue1 
and a sense of heaviness and uneasiness 
pervades the entire system4 ,as has been
 observed1 air loses during each        
respiration a portion of its oxygen1 and
 gains an equal quantity of carbonic    
acid1 which is an active poison4 ,when  
mixed with atmospheric air in the ratio 
of one to four1 it extinguishes animal  
life4 ,it is this gas that is produced  
by burning charcoal in a confined       
portion of common air4 ,its effect upon 
the system is well known to every reader
 of our newspapers4 ,it causes dimness  
of sight1 weakness1 dullness1 a         

difficulty of breathing1 and ultimately 
apoplexy and death4#ab     #ab ,since   
the text was prepared for the press1 ,i 
have noticed from the   ,syracuse 7,new 
,york7 ,journal of ,january #c;d1 #ahej1
 mention of the death of   ,general     
,rensselaer ,van ,rensselaer1 of that   
city1 from breathing the   fumes of     
charcoal burned in a portable furnace4  
,this1 it should be   remembered1 is but
 one of the many instances that are     
constantly   occurring all over our     
country1 in which immediate death is the
 result   of breathing this destructive 
agent4   ,respiration produces the same 
effect upon air that the burning of     
charcoal does4 ,it converts its oxygen1 
which is the aliment of animal life1    
into carbonic acid1 which1 be it        
remembered1 is an active poison4 ,says  
,dr4 ,turner1 in his celebrated work on 
chemistry1 ,an animal can not live in   
air which is unable to support          
combustion4 ,says the same author again1
 ,an animal can not live in air which   

contains sufficient carbonic acid for   
extinguishing a candle4 ,it will        
presently be seen why these quotations  
are made4  ,it is stated in several     
medical works that the quantity of air  
that enters the lungs at each           
inspiration of an adult varies from     
thirty-two to forty cubic inches4 ,to   
establish more definitely some data upon
 which a calculation might safely be    
based1 ,i some years ago conducted an   
experiment whereby ,i ascertained the   
medium quantity of air that entered the 
lungs of myself and four young men was  
thirty-six cubic inches1 and that       
respiration is repeated once in three   
seconds1 or twenty times a minute4 ,i   
also ascertained that respired air will 
not support combustion4 ,this truth1    
taken in connection with the quotations 
just made1 establishes another and a    
more important truth1 viz41 that ,,air  
,,once ,,respired ,,will ,,not ,,further
 ,,sustain ,,animal ,,life4 ,that part  
of the experiment by which it was       

ascertained that respired air will not  
support combustion is very simple1 and  
,i here give it with the hope that it   
may be tried at least in every          
school-house1 if not in every family of 
our wide-spread country4 ,it was        
conducted as follows3  ,i introduced a  
lighted taper into an inverted receiver 
7glass jar7 which contained seven quarts
 of atmospheric air1 and placed the     
mouth of the receiver into a vessel of  
water4 ,the taper burned with its wonted
 brilliancy about a minute1 and1 growing
 dim gradually1 became extinct at the   
expiration of three minutes4 ,i then    
filled the receiver with water1 and     
inverting it1 placed its mouth beneath  
the surface of the same fluid in another
 vessel4 ,i next removed the water from 
the receiver by breathing into it4 ,this
 was done by filling the lungs with air1
 which1 after being retained a short    
time in the chest1 was exhaled through a
 siphon 7a bent lead tube7 into the     
receiver4 ,i then introduced the lighted

 taper into the receiver of respired    
air1 by which it was immediately        
extinguished4 ,several persons present  
then received a quantity of respired air
 into their lungs1 whereupon the        
premonitory symptoms of apoplexy1 as    
already given1 ensued4 ,the experiment  
was conducted with great care1 and      
several times repeated in the presence  
of respectable members of the medical   
profession1 a professor of chemistry1   
and several literary gentlemen1 to their
 entire satisfaction4  ,before          
proceeding further1 ,i will make a      
practical application of the principles 
already established4 ,within the last   
ten years ,i have visited half of the   
states of the ,union for the purpose of 
becoming acquainted with the actual     
condition of our common schools4 ,i have
 therefore noticed especially the       
condition of school-houses4 ,although   
there is a great variety in their       
dimensions1 yet there are comparatively 
few school-houses less than sixteen by  

eighteen feet on the ground1 and fewer  
still larger than twenty-four by thirty 
feet1 exclusive of our principal cities 
and villages4 ,from a large number of   
actual measurements1 not only in ,new   
,york and ,michigan1 but east of the    
,hudson ,river and west of the great    
lakes1 ,i conclude that1 exclusive of   
entry and closets1 when they are        
furnished with these appendages1        
school-houses are not usually larger    
than twenty by twenty-four feet on the  
ground1 and seven feet in height4 ,they 
are1 indeed1 more frequently smaller    
than larger4 ,school-houses of these    
dimensions have a capacity of #ccfj     
cubic feet1 and are usually occupied by 
at least forty-five scholars in the     
winter season4 ,not unfrequently sixty  
or seventy1 and occasionally more than a
 hundred scholars occupy a room of this 
size4  ,a simple arithmetical           
computation will abundantly satisfy any 
person who is acquainted with the       
composition of the atmosphere1 the      

influence of respiration upon its       
fitness to sustain animal life1 and the 
quantity of air that enters the lungs at
 each inspiration1 that a school-room of
 the preceding dimensions contains quite
 too little air to sustain the healthy  
respiration of even forty-five scholars 
three hours--the usual length of each   
session2 and frequently the school-house
 is imperfectly ventilated between the  
sessions at noon1 and sometimes for     
several days together4  ,mark the       
following particulars3 #a4 ,the quantity
 of air breathed by forty-five persons  
in three hours1 according to the data   
just given1 is #ccge cubic feet4 #b4    
,air once respired will not sustain     
animal life4 #c4 ,the school-room was   
estimated to possess a capacity of #ccfj
 cubic feet--fifteen feet less than is  
necessary to sustain healthy            
respiration4 #d4 ,were forty-five       
persons whose lungs possess the         
estimated capacity placed in an         
air-tight room of the preceding         

dimensions1 and could they breathe pure 
air till it was all once respired1 and  
then enter upon its second respiration1 
they would all die with the apoplexy    
before the expiration of a three hours' 
session4  ,from the nature of the case1 
these conditions can not conveniently be
 fulfilled4 ,but numerous instances of  
fearful approximation exist4 ,we have no
 air-tight houses4 ,but in our latitude1
 comfort requires that rooms which are  
to be occupied by children in the winter
 season1 be made very close4 ,the       
dimensions of rooms are1 moreover1      
frequently narrowed1 that the warm      
breath may lessen the amount of fuel    
necessary to preserve a comfortable     
temperature4 ,it is true1 on the other  
hand1 that the quantity of air which    
children breathe is somewhat less than  
,i have estimated4 ,but the derangement 
resulting from breathing impure air1 in 
their case1 is greater than in the case 
of adults whose constitutions are       
matured1 and who are hence less         

susceptible of injury4 ,it is also true 
in many schools that the number         
occupying a room of the dimensions      
supposed is considerably greater than ,i
 have estimated4 ,moreover1 in many     
instances1 a great proportion of the    
larger scholars will respire the        
estimated quantity of air4  ,again1 all 
the air in a room is not respired once  
before a portion of it is breathed the  
second1 or even the third and fourth    
time4 ,the atmosphere is not suddenly   
changed from purity to impurity--from a 
healthful to an infectious state4 ,were 
it so1 the change1 being more           
perceptible1 would be seen and felt too1
 and a remedy would be sought and       
applied4 ,but because the change is     
gradual1 it is not the less fearful in  
its consequences4 ,in a room occupied by
 forty-five persons1 ,,the ,,first      
,,minute1 thirty-two thousand four      
hundred cubic inches of air impart their
 entire vitality to sustain animal life1
 and1 mingling with the atmosphere of   

the room1 proportionately deteriorate   
the whole mass4 ,thus are abundantly    
sown in early life the fruitful seeds of
 disease and premature death4  ,this    
detail shows conclusively sufficient    
cause for that uneasy1 listless state of
 feeling which is so prevalent in       
crowded school-rooms4 ,it explains why  
children that are amiable at home are   
mischievous in school1 and why those    
that are troublesome at home are        
frequently well-nigh uncontrollable in  
school4 ,it discloses the true cause why
 so many teachers who are justly        
considered both pleasant and amiable in 
the ordinary domestic and social        
relations1 are obnoxious in the         
school-room1 being there habitually sour
 and fretful4 ,the ever-active children 
are disqualified for study1 and engage  
in mischief as their only alternative4  
,on the other hand1 the irritable       
teacher1 who can hardly look with       
complaisance upon good behavior1 is     
disposed to magnify the most trifling   

departure from the rules of propriety4  
,the scholars are continually becoming  
more ungovernable1 and the teacher more 
unfit to govern them4 ,week after week  
they become less and less attached to   
him1 and he1 in turn1 becomes less      
interested in them4  ,this detail       
explains1 also1 why so many children are
 unable to attend school at all1 or     
become unwell so soon after commencing  
to attend1 when their health is         
sufficient to engage in other pursuits4 
,the number of scholars answering this  
description is greater than most persons
 are aware of4 ,in one district that ,i 
visited a few years ago in the ,state of
 ,new ,york1 it was acknowledged by     
competent judges to be emphatically true
 in the case of not less than           
twenty-five scholars4 ,indeed1 in that  
same district1 the health of more than  
one hundred scholars was materially     
injured every year in consequence of    
occupying an old and partially-decayed  
house1 of too narrow dimensions1 with   

very limited facilities for ventilation4
 ,the evil1 even after the cause was    
made known1 was suffered to exist for   
years1 although the district was worth  
more than three hundred thousand        
dollars4 ,and what was true#ac of this  
school1 is now1 with a few variations1  
true in the case of scores1 if not      
hundreds of schools with which ,i am    
acquainted1 from far-famed ,new ,england
 to the ,valley of the ,mississippi4    
#ac ,in the district referred to there  
has since been erected a large   and    
commodious union school house1 which    
constitutes at once the pride   and     
ornament of a beautiful and flourishing 
village4   ,this detail likewise        
explains why the business of teaching   
has acquired1 and justly too1 the       
reputation of being unhealthy4 ,there   
is1 however1 no reason why the health of
 either teacher or pupils should sooner 
fail in a well-regulated school1 taught 
in a house properly constructed1 and    
suitably warmed and ventilated1 than in 

almost any other business4 ,if this     
statement were not true1 an unanswerable
 argument might be framed against the   
very existence of schools2 and it might 
clearly be shown that it is policy1 nay1
 ,,duty1 to close at once and forever   
the four thousand school-houses of      
,michigan1 and the hundred thousand of  
the nation1 and leave the rising        
generation to perish for lack of        
knowledge4 ,but our condition in this   
respect is not hopeless4 ,the evil in   
question may be effectually remedied by 
enlarging the house1 or1 which is       
easier1 cheaper1 and more effectual1 by 
frequent and thorough ventilation4 ,it  
would be well1 however1 to unite the two
 methods4  ,in the winter of #ahda-b1 ,i
 visited a school in which the magnitude
 of the evil under consideration was    
clearly developed4 ,five of the citizens
 of the district attended me in my visit
 to the school4 ,we arrived at the      
school-house about the middle of the    
afternoon4 ,it was a close1 new house1  

eighteen by twenty-four feet on the     
ground--two feet less in one of its     
dimensions than the house concerning    
which the preceding calculation is made4
 ,there were present forty-three        
scholars1 the teacher1 five patrons1 and
 myself1 making fifty in all4           
,immediately after entering the         
school-house1 one of the trustees       
remarked to me1 ,i believe our          
school-house is too tight to be healthy4
 ,i made no reply1 but secretly resolved
 that ,i would sacrifice my comfort for 
the remainder of the afternoon1 and     
hazard my health1 and my life even1 to  
test the accuracy of the opinions ,i had
 entertained on this important subject4 
,i marked the uneasiness and dullness of
 all present1 and especially of the     
patrons1 who had been accustomed to     
breathe a purer atmosphere4 ,school     
continued an hour and a half1 at the    
close of which ,i was invited to make   
some remarks4 ,i arose to do so1 but was
 unable to proceed till ,i opened the   

outer door1 and snuffed a few times the 
purer air without4 ,when ,i had         
partially recovered my wonted vigor1 ,i 
observed with delight the renovating    
influence of the current of air that    
entered the door1 mingling with and     
gradually displacing the fluid poison   
that filled the room1 and was about to  
do the work of death4 ,it seemed as     
though ,i was standing at the mouth of a
 huge sepulcher1 in which the dead were 
being restored to life4 ,after a short  
pause1 ,i proceeded with a few remarks1 
chiefly1 however1 on the subject of     
respiration and ventilation4 ,the       
trustees1 who had just tested their     
accuracy and bearing upon their comfort 
and health1 resolved immediately to     
provide for ventilation according to the
 suggestions in the article on          
school-houses in the last chapter of    
this work4  ,before leaving the house on
 that occasion1 ,i was informed an      
evening meeting had been attended there 
the preceding week1 which they were     

obliged to dismiss before the ordinary  
exercises were concluded1 because1 as   
they said1 ,we all got sick1 and the    
candles went almost out4 ,little did    
they realize1 probably1 that the light  
of life became just as nearly extinct as
 did the candles4 ,had they remained    
there a little longer1 both would have  
gone out together1 and there would have 
been reacted the memorable tragedy of   
the ,black ,hole in ,calcutta1 into     
which were thrust a garrison of one     
hundred and forty-six persons1 one      
hundred and twenty-three of whom        
perished miserably in a few hours1 being
 suffocated by the confined air4  ,what 
has been said in the preceding pages on 
the philosophy of respiration was first 
given to the public nearly ten years    
ago1 in a report of the author's in the 
,state of ,new ,york4 ,he has since seen
 the same sentiments inculcated by many 
of our most eminent practical educators1
 some of whom had written upon the      
subject at an earlier date4 ,allen and  

,pepy showed by experiment that air     
which has been once breathed contains   
eight and a half per cent4 of carbonic  
acid1 and that no continuance of the    
respiration of the same air could make  
it take up more than ten per cent4 ,air1
 then1 when once respired1 has taken up 
more than four fifths of the amount of  
this noxious gas that it can be made to 
by any number of breathings4  ,dr4      
,clark1 in his work on ,consumption1    
remarks as follows3 ,were ,i to select  
two circumstances which influence the   
health1 especially during the growth of 
the body1 more than others1 and         
concerning which the public1 ignorant at
 present1 ought to be well informed1    
they would be the proper adaptation of  
food to difference of age and           
constitution1 and the constant supply of
 pure air for respiration4 ,dr4 ,william
 ,a4 ,alcott1 who has given especial    
attention to this subject1 after quoting
 the preceding remark of ,dr4 ,clark1   
adds3 ,we believe this is the opinion of

 all medical men who have studied the   
constitution of man1 and its relation to
 outward objects4  ,a distinguished     
surgeon#ad of ,leeds1 ,england1 goes    
somewhat further in praising pure air   
than most of his contemporaries4 ,be it 
remembered1 says he1 that man subsists  
more upon air than upon his food and    
drink4 ,there is some novelty in this   
remark1 ,i admit3 but is it not         
truthful8 ,men have been known to live  
three weeks without eating4 ,but exclude
 the atmospheric air from the lungs for 
the space of three minutes1 and death   
generally ensues4 ,we thus see that life
 will continue with abstinence from food
 three thousand times as long as it is  
safe to protract an atmospheric fast4   
#ad ,dr4 ,thackrah1 author of a most    
valuable work on the ,effects of        
,employments on the ,health and         
,longevity of ,mankind4   ,let us take  
another view of the subject4 ,men       
usually eat three times in twenty-four  
hours4 ,this is all that is necessary   

to1 or compatible with1 the enjoyment of
 uninterrupted good health4 ,but we     
involuntarily breathe nearly thirty     
thousand times in the same length of    
time4 ,we need1 then1 fresh supplies of 
pure air ten thousand times as often as 
it is necessary to partake of meals4 ,is
 it not apparent1 then1 that man        
subsists more upon ,,air than upon his  
,,food and ,,drink8  ,the atmosphere    
which we so frequently inhale1 and upon 
which our well-being so much depends1   
surrounds the earth to the height of    
about forty-five miles4 ,the surface of 
the earth contains about two hundred    
millions of square miles1 and it is     
estimated that there dwell upon it eight
 hundred millions of inhabitants4 ,this 
gives to each individual about eleven   
cubic miles of air4 ,but the air is     
breathed by the inferior animals as well
 as by man4 ,it is also rendered impure 
by combustion4 ,if by both of these     
causes ten times as much air is consumed
 as by man1 there is still left one     

cubic mile of uncontaminated atmospheric
 air to every human being dwelling upon 
the surface of the earth4 ,this would   
allow him to live more than twice the   
age allotted to man1 without breathing  
any portion of the atmosphere a second  
time4 ,and still1 as if to avoid the    
possibility of evil to man on this      
account1 the beneficent ,creator has    
wisely so ordered1 that while we do not 
interfere with the laws of ,nature1     
there is not even the possibility of    
rebreathing respired air until it has   
been purified and restored to its       
natural and healthful state2 for        
carbonic acid1 the vitiating product of 
respiration1 although immediately fatal 
to animals1 constitutes the very life of
 vegetation4 ,when brought in contact   
with the upper surface of the green     
leaves of trees and plants1 and acted   
upon by the direct solar rays1 this gas 
is decomposed1 and its carbon is        
absorbed to sustain1 in part1 the life  
of the plant1 by affording it one       

element of its food1 while the oxygen is
 liberated and restored to the          
atmosphere4 ,vegetables and animals are 
thus perpetually interchanging kindly   
offices1 and each flourishes upon that  
which is fatal to the other4 ,it is in  
this way that the healthful state of the
 atmosphere is kept up4 ,its equilibrium
 seems never to be disturbed1 or1 if    
disturbed at all1 it is immediately     
restored by the mutual exchange of      
poison for aliment1 which is constantly 
going on between the animal and         
vegetable worlds4 ,this interchange of  
kindly offices is constantly going on   
all over the earth1 even in the highest 
latitudes1 and in the very depths of    
winter2 for air which has been respired 
is rarefied1 and1 when thrown from the  
lungs1 ascends1 and is thus not only out
 of our reach1 whereby we are protected 
from respiring it a second time1 but    
this 7to us7 deadly poison falls into   
the great aerial current which is       
constantly flowing from the polar to the

 tropical regions1 where it is converted
 into vegetable growth4 ,the oxygen     
which is exhaled in the processes of    
tropical vegetation1 heated and rarefied
 by the vertical rays of the sun1 mounts
 to the upper regions of the atmosphere1
 and1 falling into a returning current1 
in its appointed time revisits the      
higher latitudes4 ,so wisely has the    
,divine ,author ordered these processes1
 that air1 in its natural state#ae in   
any part of the world1 does not contain 
more than one half of one per cent4 of  
carbonic acid gas1 although1 as already 
stated1 air which has been once respired
 contains eight and a half per cent4 of 
this gas1 which is at least seventeen   
times its natural quantity4     #ae ,it 
would be difficult to say whether       
carbonic acid gas is in the   atmosphere
 constitutionally1 or accidentally1 or  
both4--,dr4 ,wm4 ,a4   ,alcott's ,health
 ,tracts4   ,there are other agencies   
than carbonic acid gas which in civic   
life render the atmosphere impure4 ,of  

this nature is carbureted hydrogen gas1 
which is produced in various ways4      
,this1 says ,dr4 ,comstock1 is          
immediately destructive to animal life1 
and will not support combustion4 ,it    
exists in stagnant water1 especially in 
warm weather1 and is generated by the   
decomposition of vegetable products4    
,dr4 ,arnott expresses the conviction   
that the immediate and chief cause of   
many of the diseases which impair the   
bodily and mental health of the people1 
and bring a considerable portion        
prematurely to the grave1 is the poison 
of atmospheric impurity1 arising from   
the accumulation in and around their    
dwellings of the decomposing remnants of
 the substances used for food and in    
their arts1 and of the impurities given 
out from their own bodies4 ,if you allow
 the sources of aerial impurity to exist
 in or around dwellings1 he continues1  
you are poisoning the people2 and while 
many die at early ages of fevers and    
other acute diseases1 the remainder will

 have their health impaired and their   
lives shortened4  ,there are many       
instances on record where the progress  
of an epidemic has been speedily        
arrested by ventilation4 ,a striking    
instance is given by the writer last    
quoted4 ,when ,i visited ,glasgow with  
,mr4 ,chadwick1 says he1 there was      
described to us one vast lodging-house1 
in connection with a manufactory there1 
in which formerly fever constantly      
prevailed1 but where1 by making an      
opening from the top of each room       
through a channel of communication to an
 air-pump common to all the channels1   
the disease had disappeared altogether4 
,the supply of pure air obtained by that
 mode of ventilation was sufficient to  
dilute the cause of the disease1 so that
 it became powerless4  ,sulphureted     
hydrogen gas is also exceedingly        
poisonous to the lungs and to every part
 of the system4 ,when pure1 this gas is 
described as instantly fatal to animal  
life4 ,even when diluted with fifteen   

hundred times its bulk of air1 it has   
been found so poisonous as to destroy a 
bird in a few seconds4 ,this gas1 says  
,dr4 ,dunglison1 in his ,elements of    
,hygiene1 is extremely deleterious4#af  
,when respired in a pure state it kills 
instantly2 and its deadly agency is     
rapidly exerted when put in contact with
 any of the tissues of the body1 through
 which it penetrates with astonishing   
rapidity4 ,even when mixed with a       
portion of air1 it has proved           
immediately destructive4 ,dr4 ,paris    
refers to the case of a chemist of his  
acquaintance1 who was suddenly deprived 
of sense as he stood over a pneumatic   
trough in which he was collecting this  
gas4 ,from the experiments of ,dupuytren
 and ,thenard1 air that contains a      
thousandth part of sulphureted hydrogen 
kills birds immediately4 ,a dog perished
 in air containing a hundredth part1 and
 a horse in air containing a fiftieth   
part of it4     #af ,sulphureted        
hydrogen gas is the deleterious agent   

exhaled from   privies or vaults1 which 
have been so fatal1 at times1 to night  
men1 who   have been employed to remove 
or cleanse them4--,dr4 ,dunglison4      
,the preceding are far from being all   
the causes of atmospheric impurity4     
,besides these1 there are numerous      
exhalations1 as well as gases1 that are 
poisonous4 ,some of these exhalations   
are more abundant in the night1 and     
about the time of the morning and       
evening twilight4 ,hence the importance1
 says a writer on health1 to those who  
are feeble1 of avoiding the air at all  
hours except when the sun is            
considerably above the horizon4         
,although the atmosphere1 in its natural
 state1 is not at all times perfectly   
pure1 still it is comparatively so1 and 
especially in the daytime4 ,all1        
therefore1 who would retain and improve 
their health1 should inhale the open air
 as much as possible1 even though they  
can not1 like ,franklin's               
,methusalem1#ag be always in it4 ,this  

remark is applicable to both sexes1 and 
to every age and condition of life4     
#ag ,dr4 ,franklin1 in his usual        
humorous manner1 but with his accustomed
   gravity1 relates1 in one of his      
essays1 the following anecdote1 for the 
purpose1 doubtless1 of showing the      
influence of pure air upon health1      
happiness1 and longevity4    ,it is     
recorded of ,methusalem1 who1 being the 
longest liver1 may be   supposed to have
 best preserved his health1 that he     
slept always in the   open air2 for when
 he had lived five hundred years1 an    
angel said to   him1 ,arise1            
,methusalem1 and build thee a house1 for
 thou shalt live yet   five hundred     
years longer4 ,but ,methusalem answered 
and said1 ,if ,i am to   live but five  
hundred years longer1 it is not worth   
while to build me a   house4 ,i will    
sleep in the air as ,i have been        
accustomed to do4   ,the following1 from
 the pen of an ,american author#ah who  
has written much and well on physical   

education1 is pertinent to the subject  
under consideration3 ,we breathe bad air
 principally as the production of our   
own bodies4 ,here is the source of a    
large share of human wo2 and to this    
point must his attention be particularly
 directed who would save himself from   
disease1 and promote1 in the highest    
possible degree1 his health and         
longevity4 ,we must avoid breathing over
 the carbonic acid gas contained in the 
tight or unventilated rooms in which we 
labor or remain for a long time1 whether
 parlors1 school-rooms1 counting-rooms1 
bed-rooms1 shops1 or factories4 ,the    
individual who lives most according to  
nature--who observes with most care the 
laws of life and health--must           
necessarily throw off much carbonic acid
 from his lungs1 if not from his skin4  
,it does not follow1 however1 that      
because this gas is formed we are       
obliged to inhale it4 ,we may change our
 position1 change our clothing1         
ventilate our rooms of all sorts1 shake 

up our bed-clothing often and air our   
bed1 and use clean1 loose1 and porous   
clothing by night and by day4 ,we may   
thus very effectually guard against     
injuries from a very injurious agent4   
#ah ,from ,dr4 ,william ,a4 ,alcott's   
,tract on ,breathing ,bad ,air4   ,one  
thing should be remembered in connection
 with this subject which is truly       
encouraging4 ,the more we accustom      
ourselves to pure air1 the more easily  
will our lungs and nasal organs detect  
its presence4 ,he who has redeemed his  
senses and restored his lungs to        
integrity1 like him who has redeemed a  
conscience once deadened1 is so alive to
 every bad impression made upon any of  
these1 that he can often detect impurity
 around or within him1 and thus learn to
 avoid it4 ,it will scarcely be possible
 for such a person long to breathe bad  
air1 or nauseous or unwholesome         
effluvia1 without knowing it1 and       
learning to avoid the causes which      
produce it4 ,such a person will not     

neglect long to remove the impurities   
which accumulate so readily on the      
surface of his body1 or suffer himself  
to use food or drink which induces      
flatulence1 and thus exposes either his 
intestines or his lungs1 or the lungs of
 others1 to that most extremely         
poisonous agent1 sulphureted hydrogen   
gas4 ,nor will he be likely to permit   
the accumulation of filth1 liquid or    
solid1 around or in his dwelling4 ,there
 are those whose senses will detect a   
very small quantity of stagnant water1  
or vinegar1 or other liquids1 or fruit1 
or changed food in the house1 or even   
the presence of those semi-putrid       
substances1 wine and cider4 ,but some   
will indeed say that such integrity of  
the senses would be an annoyance rather 
than a blessing4 ,on the same principle1
 however1 would a high degree of        
conscientiousness in regard to right and
 wrong in moral conduct be a curse to   
us4 ,if it be desirable to have our     
physical sense of right and wrong       

benumbed1 it is so to have our moral    
sense benumbed also4 ,yet what person of
 sense ever complained of too tender a  
conscience1 or too perfect a sense of   
right and wrong in morals8  ,,exercise  
,,of ,,the ,,lungs4--,judicious exercise
 of the lungs1 in the opinion of that   
eminent physiologist1 ,dr4 ,andrew      
,combe1 is one of the most efficacious  
means which can be employed for         
promoting their development and warding 
off their diseases4 ,in this respect the
 organs of respiration closely resemble 
the muscles and all other organized     
parts4 ,they are made to be used1 and if
 they are left in habitual inactivity1  
their strength and health are           
unavoidably impaired2 while1 if their   
exercise be ill-timed or excessive1     
disease will as certainly follow4  ,the 
lungs may be exercised directly by the  
use of the voice in speaking1 reading   
aloud1 or singing1 and indirectly by    
such kinds of bodily or muscular        
exertion as require quicker and deeper  

breathing4 ,in general1 both ought to be
 conjoined4 ,but where the chief object 
is to improve the lungs1 those kinds    
which have a tendency to expand the     
chest and call the organs of respiration
 into play ought to be especially       
preferred4 ,rowing a boat1 fencing1     
quoits1 shuttlecock1 the proper use of  
skipping the rope1 dumb-bells1 and      
gymnastics are of this description1 and 
have been recommended for this purpose4 
,all of them employ actively the muscles
 of the chest and trunk1 and excite the 
lungs themselves to freer and fuller    
expansion4 ,climbing up a hill is1 for  
the same reason1 an exercise of high    
utility in giving tone and freedom to   
the pulmonary functions4 ,where1 either 
from hereditary predisposition or       
accidental causes1 the chest is         
unusually weak1 every effort should be  
made1 from infancy upward1 to favor the 
growth and strength of the lungs1 by the
 habitual use of such of these exercises
 as can most easily be practiced4 ,the  

earlier they are resorted to1 and the   
more steadily they are pursued1 the more
 certainly will their beneficial results
 be experienced4  ,if the direct        
exercise of the lungs in practicing deep
 inspiration1 speaking1 reading aloud1  
and singing1 is properly managed and    
persevered in1 particularly before the  
frame has become consolidated1 it will  
exert a very beneficial influence in    
expanding the chest1 and giving tone and
 imparting health to the important      
organs contained in it4 ,as a preventive
 measure1 ,dr4 ,clark1 in his treatise  
on ,consumption and ,scrofula1          
recommends the full expansion of the    
chest in the following manner3 ,we      
desire the young person1 while standing1
 to throw his arms and shoulders back1  
and1 while in this position1 to inhale  
slowly as much air as he can1 and repeat
 this exercise at short intervals       
several times in succession4 ,when this 
can be done in the open air it is most  
desirable1 a double advantage being thus

 obtained from the practice4 ,some      
exercise of this kind should be adopted 
daily by all young persons1 more        
especially by those whose chests are    
narrow or deformed1 and should be slowly
 and gradually increased4  ,in this     
preventive measure recommended by ,dr4  
,clark1 some of our most eminent        
physiologists heartily concur4 ,they    
also express the opinion that1 for the  
same reason1 even the crying and sobbing
 of children1 when not caused by        
disease1 contribute to their future     
health4 ,dr4 ,combe says1 ,the loud     
laugh and noisy exclamations attending  
the sports of the young have an evident 
relation to the same beneficial end1 and
 ought1 therefore1 to be encouraged4    
,but beneficial as the direct exercise  
of the lungs is thus shown to be1 in    
expanding and strengthening the chest1  
its influence extends still further1    
and1 as we have already seen1           
contributes greatly to promote the      
important process of digestion4 ,if1    

therefore1 the lungs be rarely called   
into active exercise1 not only do they  
suffer1 but an important aid to         
digestion being withdrawn1 the stomach  
and bowels also become weakened1 and    
indigestion and costiveness ensue4  ,the
 exercise of what has not unaptly been  
called ,vocal ,gymnastics1 and the loud 
and distinct speaking enforced in many  
of our schools1 not only fortify the    
vocal organs against the attacks of     
disease1 but tend greatly to promote the
 general health4 ,for this purpose1     
also1 as well as for its social and     
moral influences1 vocal music should be 
introduced into all our schools4 ,that  
by these and like exercises deep        
inspirations and full expirations are   
encouraged1 any one may become convinced
 who will attend to what passes in his  
own body while reading aloud a single   
paragraph4  ,there is danger of         
exercising the lungs too much when      
disease exists in the chest4 ,at such   
times1 not only speaking1 reading aloud1

 and singing1 but ordinary muscular     
exertion1 ought to be refrained from1 or
 be regulated by professional advice4   
,when a joint is sore or inflamed1 we   
know that motion impedes its recovery4  
,when the eye is affected1 we1 for a    
similar reason1 shut out the light4 ,so1
 when the stomach is disordered1 we     
respect its condition1 and are more     
careful about diet4 ,the lungs demand a 
treatment founded on the same general   
principle4 ,when inflamed1 they should  
be exercised as little as possible4 ,all
 violent exercise ought1 therefore1 to  
be refrained from during at least the   
active stages of a cold2 but colds may  
often be entirely prevented at the time 
of exposure by a proper exercise of the 
lungs4  ,in conversing with an eminent  
physician recently on this subject1 he  
expressed the conviction that one of the
 most effectual methods of warding off a
 cold1 when exposed by wet feet or      
otherwise1 is to take frequent deep     
inhalations of air4 ,by this means the  

carbonic acid1 which the returning      
circulation deposits in the lungs1 is   
not only more effectually disengaged1   
but1 at the same time1 the greater      
amount of oxygen that enters the lungs  
and combines with the blood quickens the
 circulation1 and thus1 imparting       
increased vitality to the system1       
enables it more effectually to resist   
any attack that may be induced by       
unusual exposure4  ,a late medical      
writer1 who has become quite celebrated 
in this country for the successful      
treatment of pulmonary consumption1#ai  
expresses the opinion that1 to the      
consumptive1 air is a most excellent    
medicine1 and far more valuable than all
 other remedies4 ,he thinks it the grand
 agent in expanding the chest4 ,in      
urging the importance of habitually     
maintaining an erect position1 he       
expresses the conviction that practice  
will soon make sitting or standing      
perfectly erect vastly more agreeable   
and less fatiguing than a stooping      

posture4 ,to persons predisposed to     
consumption1 these hints1 he thinks1 are
 of the greatest importance4 ,while     
walking1 he says1 the chest should be   
carried proudly erect and straight1 the 
top of it pointing rather backward than 
forward4 ,to illustrate the advantages  
of habitually maintaining this position1
 he refers to the ,north ,american      
,indians1 who never had consumption1 and
 who are remarkable for their perfectly 
erect posture while walking4 ,next to   
this1 he adds1 it is of vast importance 
to the consumptive to breathe well4 ,he 
should make a practice of taking long   
breaths1 sucking in all the air he can1 
and holding it in the chest as long as  
possible4 ,he recommends the repetition 
of this a hundred times a day1 and      
especially with those who have a slight 
cold or symptoms of weak lungs4 ,when   
practiced in pure cold air1 its         
advantages are most apparent4 ,to       
increase the benefits resulting from    
this practice1 he recommends the use of 

the inhaling tube4 ,he thinks that      
inhaling tubes made of silver or gold   
are much better than those made of wood 
or ,india-rubber4 ,in this opinion ,i   
fully concur1 for ,i think with him that
 gold and silver tubes will not so      
readily contract any impure or poisonous
 matter4 ,but there is another and a    
stronger reason why ,i prefer silver1   
and especially ,,gold inhaling tubes1 to
 those made of wood or ,india-rubber4   
,they would be more highly prized and   
,,more ,,frequently ,,used4     #ai ,s4 
,s4 ,fitch1 ,m4,d41 author of           
,consumption ,cured4   ,the same writer 
entertains the belief that about one    
third of all the consumptions originate 
from weakness of the abdominal belts4   
,he hence1 in such cases1 recommends the
 use of the abdominal supporter4 ,in    
order to favor an erect posture and an  
open chest1 he also recommends the use  
of shoulder-braces4 ,he says the proper 
use of these1 with other remedies1 will 
entirely prevent the possibility of     

consumption1 from whatever cause4 ,the  
inhaling-tube1 together with the        
shoulder-braces and supporter when      
needed1 he says are perfect preventives1
 and should not be neglected2 for if the
 shoulders are kept off the chest1 and  
the abdomen is well supported1 and then 
an inhaling tube is faithfully used1 the
 lungs can never become diseased4 ,any  
person in this way1 who chooses to take 
the trouble1 can have a large chest and 
healthy lungs4  ,when persons have      
contracted disease they may require     
these artificial helps2 but it should be
 borne in mind that an all-wise and     
beneficent ,creator has kindly given to 
each of his creatures two inhaling      
tubes1 admirably adapted to their wants4
 ,he has also furnished them with a set 
of abdominal muscles which1 when        
properly used1 have generally been found
 to supersede the necessity of          
artificial supporters4 ,he has1         
moreover1 in the plenitude of his       
goodness1 furnished each member of the  

human family with a good pair of        
shoulder-braces4 ,it should also be     
borne in mind that ,nature's            
shoulder-braces improve by use1 while   
the artificial ones not only soon fail1 
but their very use generally impairs the
 healthy action of the natural ones2 for
 these1 like all other muscles1 improve 
by use and become enfeebled by disuse4  
,parents and teachers1 then1 and all who
 have the care of the young1 should     
encourage the correct use of ,nature's  
inhaling tubes1 shoulder-braces1 and    
abdominal supporters2 for in this way   
they have it in their power not only to 
supersede the necessity of resorting to 
artificial ones later in life1 but of   
preventing much of human misery1 and    
contributing to the permanent elevation 
of the race4     ,,chapter ,v4  ,,the   
,,nature ,,of ,,intellectual ,,and      
,,moral ,,education4      ,in the       
cultivation and expansion of the        
faculties of the mind1 we     act       
altogether upon organized matter--and   

this1 too1 of the most     delicate     
kind--which1 while it serves as the     
mediator between body     and spirit1   
partakes so largely of the nature1      
character1 and     essential attributes 
of the former1 that1 without its proper 
physical growth and development1 all the
 manifestations of the     latter sink  
into comparative insignificance2 so     
that1 without a     perfect organization
 of the brain1 the mental powers must be
     proportionally paralyzed2 without  
its maintaining a healthy     condition1
 they must be rendered proportionally   
weak and     inactive4#bj--;,,dr4 ,j4   
,l4 ,,peirce4   ,it has already been    
stated that there exists such an        
intimate connection between physical1   
intellectual1 and moral education1 that1
 in order duly to appreciate the        
importance of either1 we must not view  
it separate and alone merely1 but in    
connection with both of the others4     
,however much value1 then1 we may attach
 to physical education on its own       

account1 considering man as a corporeal 
being1 we shall have occasion greatly to
 magnify its importance as we direct our
 attention to the cultivation and       
development of his mental faculties4 ,we
 have no means of becoming acquainted   
with the laws which govern independent  
mind2 but that mind separate from body  
is1 from its very nature1 all-knowing   
and intelligent1 is an opinion that has 
obtained to a considerable extent4 ,be  
this as it may1 it does not immediately 
concern us in the present state4 ,this  
much we know1 that embodied mind        
acquires knowledge slowly1 and with a   
degree of perfection depending upon the 
condition of the brain and the bodily   
organs of sense1 through the medium of  
which mind communicates with the        
external world4 ,we do not even know    
whether education modifies the mind     
itself2 and1 if at all1 how it affects  
it in its disembodied state4 ,neither is
 it important that we should possess    
this knowledge4 ,there is1 however1 much

 reason for believing that the mind of  
man in the future state will be         
permanently affected by1 and enjoy the  
full benefit of1 the preparatory        
training it has received in this life2  
that then1 as now1 it will be           
progressive in its attainments2 and that
 the rapidity with which it will then   
acquire knowledge1 and the nature of its
 pursuits1 will depend upon the degree  
of cultivation1 and the habits and      
character formed in this life4     #bj  
,from an ,essay upon the ,physical and  
,intellectual ,education of   ,children1
 written by request of the ,managers of 
the ,pennsylvania ,lyceum4   ,from what 
we know of the beneficent and all-wise  
,creator1 as manifested in his word and 
works1 we have abundant reason for      
believing that our highest and enduring 
good will be best promoted by becoming  
acquainted with1 and yielding a cheerful
 obedience to1 the laws of organic mind4
 ,whatever the effect of education upon 
independent mind may be1 we may rest    

well assured that man's everlasting     
well-being in the future state will be  
most directly and certainly reached by a
 strict conformity to those laws which  
regulate mind in its present mode of    
being4 ,it should be borne in mind1     
also1 that just in proportion as man    
remains ignorant of those laws1 or1     
knowing them1 disregards them1 will he  
fail to secure his best good in this    
life not only1 but in that which is to  
come1 to an extent corresponding with   
the influence which education may exert 
upon independent mind4 ,in order1 then1 
most successfully to carry forward the  
great work of intellectual and moral    
culture1 and to secure to man the       
fullest benefits of education in the    
present life1 and in that higher mode of
 being which awaits him in the future1  
we have only to acquaint him with the   
laws by which embodied mind is governed1
 and to induce him to yield a ready1    
cheerful1 and uniform obedience to those
 laws4 ,we shall therefore devote the   

following pages to an inquiry into the  
laws which must be observed by embodied 
mind in order to render it the fittest  
possible instrument for discovering1    
applying1 and obeying the laws under    
which ,god has placed the universe1     
which constitutes the one great object  
of education1 when considered in its    
widest and true sense4  ,all            
physiologists and philosophers regard   
the brain as the organ of the mind4     
,although it is not befitting here to   
give a particular description of this   
complicated organ1 still it may be well 
further to premise that1 by nearly      
universal consent1 it is regarded as the
 immediate seat of the intellectual     
faculties not only1 but of the passions 
and moral feelings of our nature1 as    
well as of consciousness and every other
 mental act4 ,it is also well           
established that the brain is the       
principal source of that nervous        
influence which is essential to         
vitality1 and to the action of each and 

all of our bodily organs4 ,as1 then1 its
 functions are the highest and most     
important in the animal economy1 it     
becomes an object of paramount          
importance in education to discover the 
laws by which they are regulated1 that  
by yielding obedience to them we may    
avoid the evils consequent on their     
violation4  ,let no one suppose these   
evils are few or small2 for1 in the     
language of an eloquent writer1 the     
system of education which is generally  
pursued in the ,united ,states is       
unphilosophical in its elementary       
principles1 ill adapted to the condition
 of man1 practically mocks his          
necessities1 and is intrinsically       
absurd4 ,the high excellences of the    
present system1 in other respects1 are  
fully appreciated4 ,modern education has
 indeed achieved wonders4 ,it has       
substituted things for names1 experiment
 for hypothesis1 first principles for   
arbitrary rules4 ,it has simplified     
processes1 stripped knowledge of its    

abstraction and thrown it into          
visibility1 made practical results      
rather than mystery the standard by     
which to measure the value of           
attainment1 and facts rather than       
conjecture its circulating medium4#ba   
#ba ,report on ,manual ,labor1 by       
,theodore ,d4 ,weld1 #ahcc4   ,a sound  
original constitution may be regarded as
 the first condition of the healthy     
action of the brain2 for1 being a part  
of the animal economy1 it is subject to 
the same general laws that govern the   
other bodily organs4 ,when a healthy    
brain is transmitted to children1 and   
their treatment from infancy is         
judicious and rational1 its health      
becomes so firmly established that1 in  
after life1 its power of endurance will 
be greatly increased1 and it will be    
enabled most effectually to ward off the
 insidious attacks of disease4 ,on the  
other hand1 where this organ has either 
inherited deficiencies and              
imperfections1 or where they have been  

subsequently induced by early           
mismanagement1 it becomes peculiarly    
susceptible1 and frequently yields to   
the slightest attacks4 ,the most eminent
 physiologists of the age concur in the 
opinion that1 of all the causes which   
predispose to nervous and mental        
disease1 the transmission of hereditary 
tendency from parents to children is the
 most powerful1 producing1 as it does1  
in the children1 an unusual liability to
 those maladies under which their       
parents have labored4  ,when both       
parents are descended from tainted      
families1 their progeny1 as a matter of 
course1 will be more deeply affected    
than where one of them is from a pure   
stock4 ,this sufficiently accounts for  
the fact that hereditary predisposition 
is a more common cause of nervous       
disease in those circles that intermarry
 much with each other than where a wider
 choice is exercised4 ,fortunately1 such
 is the constitution of society in this 
country1 that there are fewer evils of  

this kind among us than are manifest in 
many of the ,european states1 where     
intermarriages are restricted to persons
 of the same rank1 as has already been  
illustrated by reference to the grandees
 of ,spain1 who have become a race of   
dwarfs intellectually as well as        
physically4 ,but even in this country   
there are painful illustrations of the  
truth of the popular belief that when   
cousins intermarry their offspring are  
liable to be idiotic4 ,the command of   
,god not to marry within certain degrees
 of consanguinity is1 then1 in          
accordance with the organic laws of our 
being1 and the wisdom of the prohibition
 is abundantly confirmed by observation4
  ,what was said of hereditary          
transmission in the second chapter of   
this work applies here with increased   
force4 ,it is of the highest possible   
importance that this subject should     
receive the especial attention of every 
parent1 and of all who may hereafter    
sustain the parental relation2 for      

posterity1 to the latest generations1   
will be affected by the laws of         
hereditary transmission1 whether those  
laws are understood and obeyed or not4  
,the importance of this subject1 already
 inconceivably vast1 becomes infinitely 
momentous in view of the probability    
that the evils under consideration are  
not confined to this life1 but must1    
from the nature of the case1 continue to
 be felt while mind endures4            
,unfortunately1 it is not merely as a   
cause of disease that hereditary        
predisposition is to be dreaded4 ,the   
obstacles which it throws in the way of 
permanent recovery are even more        
formidable1 and can never be entirely   
removed4 ,safety is to be found only in 
avoiding the perpetuation of the        
mischief4 ,when1 therefore1 two persons1
 each naturally of an excitable and     
delicate nervous temperament1 choose to 
unite for life1 they have themselves to 
blame for the concentrated influence of 
similar tendencies in destroying the    

health of their offspring1 and          
subjecting them to all the miseries of  
nervous disease1 melancholy1 or madness4
  ,there is another consideration that  
should be noticed here3 it is this4     
,even where no hereditary defect exists1
 the state of the mother during         
pregnancy has an influence on the mental
 character and health of the offspring1 
of which even few parents have any      
adequate conception4 ,it is often in the
 maternal womb that we are to look for  
the true cause not only of imbecility1  
but of the different kinds of mania4    
,during the agitated periods of the     
,french ,revolution1 many ladies then   
pregnant1 and whose minds were kept     
constantly on the stretch by the anxiety
 and alarm inseparable from the epoch in
 which they lived1 and whose nervous    
systems were thereby rendered irritable 
in the highest degree compatible with   
sanity1 were afterward delivered of     
infants whose brains and nervous systems
 had been affected to such a degree by  

the state of their parent1 that1 in     
future life1 as children they were      
subject to spasms1 convulsions1 and     
other nervous affections1 and in youth  
to imbecility or madness1 almost without
 any exciting cause4#bb     #bb ,the    
testimony of ,m4 ,esquirol1 whose       
talent1 general accuracy1 and           
extensive experience give great weight  
to all his well-considered   opinions1  
quoted1 also1 and confirmed by the      
,physician ,extraordinary to   the      
,queen in ,scotland1 and consulting     
,physician to the ,king and ,queen of   
the ,belgians4    ,the same eminent     
author has recorded the following fact1 
illustrating   the extent to which the  
temporary state of the mother1 during   
gestation1   may influence the whole    
future life of the child4 ,a pregnant   
woman1   otherwise healthy1 was greatly 
alarmed and terrified by the threats of 
her husband when in a state of          
intoxication4 ,she was afterward        
delivered1 at the proper time1 of a very

 delicate child1 which was so   much    
affected by its mother's agitation that1
 up to the age of eighteen1   it        
continued subject to panic terrors1 and 
then became completely   maniacal4      
,many illustrative instances might be   
quoted from medical writers in this     
and other countries4 ,the author might  
also refer to cases that have   fallen  
under his own observation4   ,dr4       
,caldwell1 too1 an able and             
philanthropic advocate of an improved   
system of physical1 intellectual1 and   
moral education in this country1 is very
 urgent in enforcing rational care1     
during the period of gestation1 on the  
part of every mother who values the     
future health and happiness of her      
offspring4 ,among other things1 he      
insists on mothers taking more active   
exercise in the open air than they      
usually do4 ,he also cautions them      
against allowing a feeling of false     
delicacy to keep them confined in their 
rooms for weeks and months together4 ,at

 such times especially the mind ought to
 be kept free from gloom or anxiety1 and
 in that state of cheerful activity     
which results from the proper exercise  
of the intellect1 and especially of the 
moral and social feelings4  ,but if     
seclusion and depression be hurtful to  
the unborn progeny1 surely thoughtless  
dissipation and late hours1 dancing and 
waltzing1 together with irritability of 
temper and peevishness of disposition1  
can not be less injurious4 ,every female
 that is about to become a mother should
 treasure up the remark of that sensible
 lady1 the ,margravine of ,anspach1 who 
says1 when a female is likely to become 
a mother1 she ought to be doubly careful
 of her temper1 and1 in particular1 to  
indulge no ideas that are not cheerful  
and no sentiments that are not kind4    
,such is the connection between the mind
 and the body1 that the features of the 
face are moulded commonly into an       
expression of the internal disposition2 
and is it not natural to think that an  

infant1 before it is born1 may be       
affected by the temper of its mother8   
,if these things are true--and they are 
as well authenticated as any            
physiological facts are or can be--then 
not only mothers1 but all with whom they
 associate1 and especially fathers1 are 
interested in knowing these important   
physiological laws2 and they should aim1
 from the very beginning1 so to observe 
them as to secure to posterity1         
physically and mentally1 the full       
benefits that are connected with        
cheerful obedience4  ,a due supply of   
properly oxygenated blood is another    
condition upon which the healthy action 
of the brain depends4 ,although it may  
not be easy to perceive the effects of  
slight differences in the quality of the
 blood1 still1 when these differences   
exist in a considerable degree1 the     
effects are too obvious to be           
overlooked4 ,withdraw entirely the      
stimulus of arterial blood1 and the     
brain ceases to act1 and sensibility and

 consciousness become extinct4 ,when    
carbonic acid gas is inhaled1 the blood 
circulating through the lungs does not  
undergo that process of oxygenation     
which is essential to life1 as has been 
explained in a preceding chapter4 ,as   
the venous blood in this unchanged state
 is unfit to excite or sustain the      
action of the brain1 the mental         
functions become impaired1 and death    
speedily ensues1 as in the case of a    
number of persons breathing a portion of
 confined air1 or inhaling the fumes of 
charcoal4 ,on the other hand1 if oxygen 
gas be inhaled instead of common air1   
the blood becomes too much oxygenated1  
and1 as a consequence1 the brain is     
unduly stimulated1 and an intensity of  
action bordering on inflammation takes  
place1 which also soon terminates in    
death4  ,these are extreme cases1 ,i    
admit2 but their consequences are       
equally remarkable and fatal4 ,the      
slighter variations in the state of the 
blood produce equally sure1 though less 

palpable effects4 ,whenever its vitality
 is impaired by breathing an atmosphere 
so vitiated as not to produce the proper
 degree of oxygenation1 the blood can   
only afford an imperfect stimulus to the
 brain4 ,as a necessary consequence1    
languor and inactivity of the mental and
 nervous functions ensue1 and a tendency
 to headache1 fainting1 or hysteria     
makes its appearance4 ,this is seen     
every day in the listlessness and apathy
 prevalent in crowded and ill-ventilated
 school-rooms1 and in the headaches and 
liability to fainting which are so sure 
to attack persons of a delicate habit1  
in the contaminated atmospheres of      
crowded theaters1 churches1 and         
assemblies of whatever kind4 ,the same  
effects1 although less strikingly       
apparent1 are perhaps more permanently  
felt by the inmates of cotton           
manufactories and public hospitals1 who 
are noted for being irritable and       
sensitive4 ,the languor and nervous     
debility consequent on confinement in   

ill-ventilated apartments1 or in air    
vitiated by the breath of many people1  
are neither more nor less than minor    
degrees of the process of poisoning1    
which was particularly explained in the 
preceding chapter1 while treating upon  
the philosophy of respiration4  ,that it
 is not real debility which produces    
these effects1 is apparent from the     
fact1 that egress to the open air almost
 instantly restores activity and vigor  
to both mind and body1 unless the       
exposure has been very long4 ,there is  
an interesting but fearful illustration 
of the truth of this statement at the   
#ifth page of this work1 to which ,i beg
 leave to refer4 ,where the exposure has
 been very long continued1 more time is 
of course required to re-establish the  
exhausted powers of the brain4 ,indeed1 
we may not1 in such cases1 hope for     
complete recovery2 for when persons     
remain several hours a day in a vitiated
 atmosphere1 for weeks and months       
together1 both mind and body become     

permanently diseased4 ,it is well known 
to every person who has given attention 
to the subject1 that hitherto this has  
been the condition of public schools1   
generally1 in every part of the ,united 
,states1 and throughout the civilized   
world4 ,this has1 perhaps1 tended more  
than all other causes combined1 to      
render the profession of teaching       
disreputable1 and to constitute the very
 name of schoolmaster1 or pedagogue1 a  
hissing and a by-word4 ,and why is this8
 ,i can account for it in but one way4  
,the school teacher is subject to the   
same organic laws as other men2 and1    
either on account of the ignorance or   
parsimony of his employers1 he has been 
shut up with their children several     
hours a day1 in narrow and              
ill-ventilated apartments1 where1       
whatever else they may have done1 their 
principal business has of necessity been
 to poison one another to death4 ,and1  
as if not satisfied with this1 when the 
teacher has ruined his health in our    

employment1 and become a mere wreck1    
physically and mentally1 we despise him4
 ,this is a double injustice1 and is    
adding insult to injury4 ,and the       
consequences are hardly less fatal to   
the children4 ,the situation of the     
majority of our schools1 when viewed in 
connection with the physiological laws  
already explained1 sufficiently accounts
 for that irritability1 listlessness1   
and languor which have been so often    
observed in both teachers and pupils4   
,both irritability of the nervous system
 and dullness of the intellect are      
unquestionably the direct and necessary 
result of a want of pure air4 ,the vital
 energies of the pupils are thus        
prostrated1 and they become not only    
restless and indisposed to study1 but   
absolutely incapable of studying4 ,their
 minds hence wander1 and they           
unavoidably seek relief in mischievous  
and disorderly conduct4 ,this doubly    
provokes the already exasperated        
teacher1 who can hardly look with       

complaisance upon good behavior1 and    
who1 from a like cause1 is in the same  
irritable condition of both body and    
mind with themselves4 ,he1 too1 must    
needs give vent to his irascible        
feelings some how4 ,and what way is more
 natural1 under such circumstances1 than
 to resort to the use of the ferule1 the
 rod1 and the strap6 ,we have already   
referred to a case1 in which formerly   
fever constantly prevailed1 but where   
disease disappeared altogether upon the 
introduction of pure air4 ,let the same 
prudential course be adopted in our     
schools1 in connection with other       
appropriate means1 and we shall readily 
see the superiority of the natural      
stimulus of oxygen over the artificial  
sedative of the rod4  ,the regular and  
systematic exercise of the functions of 
the brain is another condition upon     
which its healthy action depends4 ,the  
brain is an organized part1 and is      
subject to precisely the same laws of   
exercise that the other bodily organs   

are4 ,if it is doomed to inactivity1 its
 health decays1 and the mental          
operations and feelings1 as a necessary 
consequence1 become dull1 feeble1 and   
slow4 ,but let it be duly exercised     
after regular intervals of repose1 and  
the mind acquires activity and strength4
 ,too severe or too protracted exercise 
of the brain is as great a violation of 
the organic law just stated as          
inactivity is1 and is sometimes         
productive of the most fearful          
consequences4 ,by over-tasking this     
organ1 either in the force or duration  
of its activity1 its functions become   
impaired1 and irritability and disease  
take the place of health and vigor4  ,so
 important is the law under             
consideration1 and so essential to the  
health of the brain and to the welfare  
of man1 that ,i deem it advisable to    
explain more particularly the           
consequences of both inadequate and     
excessive exercise4  ,we have seen that 
by disuse the muscles become emaciated  

and the bones soften4 ,the              
blood-vessels1 in like manner1 become   
obliterated1 and the nerves lose their  
characteristic structure4 ,the brain is 
no exception to this general rule4 ,its 
tone is impaired by permanent           
inactivity1 and it becomes less fit to  
manifest the mental powers with         
readiness and energy4 ,nor will this    
surprise any reflecting person1 who     
considers that the brain1 as a part of  
the same animal system1 is nourished by 
the same blood1 and regulated by the    
same vital laws as the muscles1 bones1  
arteries1 and nerves4  ,it is the       
withdrawal of the stimulus necessary to 
the healthy exercise of the brain1 and  
the consequent weakening and depressing 
effect produced upon this organ1 that   
renders solitary confinement so severe a
 punishment even to the most daring     
minds4 ,it is a lower degree of the same
 cause that renders continuous seclusion
 from society so injurious to both      
mental and physical health4 ,this       

explains why persons who are cut off    
from social converse by some bodily     
infirmity so frequently become          
discontented and morose1 in spite of    
every resolution to the contrary4 ,the  
feelings and faculties of the mind1     
which had formerly full play in their   
intercourse with their fellow-creatures1
 have no longer scope for sufficient    
exercise1 and the almost inevitable     
result is irritability and weakness in  
the corresponding parts of the brain4   
,this fact is strikingly illustrated by 
reference to the deaf and blind1 who1 by
 the loss of one or more of the senses1 
are precluded from a full participation 
in all the varied sources of interest   
which their more favored brethren enjoy 
without abatement1 and in whom          
irritability1 weakness of mind1 and     
idiocy are known to be much more        
prevalent than among other classes of   
people4 ,the deaf and dumb1 says        
,andral1 presents1 in intelligence1     
character1 and the development of his   

passions1 certain modifications1 which  
depend on his state of isolation in the 
midst of society4 ,he remains habitually
 in a state of half childishness1 is    
very credulous1 but1 like the savage1   
remains free from many of the prejudices
 acquired in society4 ,in him the tender
 feelings are not deep2 he appears      
susceptible neither of strong attachment
 nor of lively gratitude2 pity moves him
 feebly2 he has little emulation1 few   
enjoyments1 and few desires4 ,this is   
what is commonly observed in the deaf   
and dumb2 but the picture is far from   
being of universal application2 some1   
more happily endowed1 are remarkable for
 the great development of their         
intellectual and moral nature2 but      
others1 on the contrary1 remain immersed
 in complete idiocy4  ,andral adds1 that
 we must not infer from this that the   
deaf and dumb are therefore             
constitutionally inferior in mind to    
other men4 ,their powers are not        
developed1 because they live isolated   

from society4 ,place them1 by some means
 or other1 in relation with their       
fellow-men1 and they will become their  
equals4 ,this is the cause of the rapid 
brightening up of both mind and         
features1 which is so often observed in 
blind or deaf children when transferred 
from home to public institutions1 and   
there taught the means of converse with 
their fellows4  ,i have myself witnessed
 several striking illustrations of the  
benefits resulting from mental culture  
in persons who have lost one or more of 
their senses4 ,among these ,i would     
especially instance the ,american       
,asylum at ,hartford for the education  
and instruction of the deaf and dumb1   
and the ,perkins ,institution and       
,massachusetts ,asylum for the ,blind1  
located at ,south ,boston1 to the       
accomplished principals and teachers of 
both of which institutions ,i would     
acknowledge my indebtedness for valuable
 reports and the information of various 
kinds which they obligingly communicated

 to me at the time of my visits during  
the past summer4  ,dr4 ,howe1 the       
accomplished director of the ,asylum for
 the ,blind1 after many years of        
experience and careful observation in   
this country and in ,europe1 expresses  
the conviction that the blind1 as a     
class1 are inferior to other persons in 
mental power and ability4 ,the opinions 
put forth in almost every report of the 
institutions for the blind in this      
country1 in almost all books on the     
subject1 and even the doctor's earlier  
writings1 may be brought to disprove    
this statement4 ,he is now1             
nevertheless1 fully convinced that it   
will be found true4 ,this erroneous     
conviction1 every where so prevalent1   
may be accounted for from the fact that 
none but intelligent parents of blind   
children could at first comprehend the  
possibility of their being educated1 and
 even they would not think of trying the
 experiment except upon a child of more 
than ordinary ability4 ,as soon1        

however1 as the experiment proved       
successful1 and institutions for the    
blind became generally known1 the blind1
 without distinction--the bright and the
 backward1 the bold and the             
timid--resorted to them1 which gave an  
opportunity of judging of the whole     
class4 ,the result is1 that now1 while  
the schools for the blind present a     
certain number of children who make more
 rapid progress in intellectual studies 
than the average of seeing children1    
they also present a much larger number  
who are decidedly inferior to them in   
both physical and mental vigor4  ,the   
loss of one sense makes us exercise the 
others so constantly and so effectually 
as to acquire a power quite unknown to  
common persons4 ,this goes far to       
compensate the blind man who is in the  
pursuit of knowledge1 and enables him to
 learn vastly more of some subjects than
 other men2 but there are capacities of 
his nature which can never be developed4
 ,perfect harmony in the exercise and   

development of his mental faculties he  
can never possess1 any more than he can 
exhibit perfect physical beauty and     
proportion4  ,the proposition that the  
blind1 as a class1 are inferior in      
mental power and ability to ordinary    
persons1 has been established beyond a  
doubt4 ,take an equal number of blind   
and seeing persons1 of as nearly the    
same age and situation in life as may   
be1 and it has been established by well 
authenticated data1 that when all the   
blind have died1 there will still be    
about half of the seeing ones alive4 ,in
 other words1 the chance of life among  
the blind is only about half what it is 
among the seeing4 ,the standard of      
bodily health and vigor1 then1 being so 
much lower among the blind1 the         
inevitable inference is that mental     
power and ability will be proportionably
 less also2 for such is the dependence  
of the mind upon the body1 that there   
can be no continuance of mental health  
and vigor without bodily health and     

vigor4  ,it is also true that the deaf  
and dumb1 as a class1 are inferior to   
other persons in mental power and       
ability4 ,the general reasons for this  
are the same as those already given in  
the case of blind persons1 and need not 
hence be repeated4 ,the truth of this   
proposition is established beyond a     
doubt by the concurrent testimony of    
those who have had the greatest         
experience with this unfortunate class  
of persons both in this country and in  
,europe4 ,the report of the directors of
 the ,american ,asylum for the year     
#ahde shows that two pupils had died    
during the year4 ,one of these had an   
affection of the lungs which terminated 
in consumption1 and the disease of the  
other was dropsy on the brain4 ,in a    
third1 hereditary consumption was       
rapidly developing itself4 ,others1     
still1 had been subject to more or less 
of bodily indisposition4  ,after        
speaking of the case of a young man in  
whom hereditary consumption had been    

rapidly developed1 the following        
statement is introduced3 ,this great    
destroyer of our race is found          
extensively in ,europe1 as well as in   
our own country1 to be a common disease 
among the deaf and dumb4 ,it is brought 
on by scrofula1 by fevers1 by violent   
colds1 and by various other causes2 and 
there is often1 no doubt1 a hereditary  
tendency to it in families connected by 
blood4 ,if this is the effect of the    
loss of one of the senses upon the      
bodily health1 keeping in view the      
principle already stated1 we shall      
naturally enough be led to inquire what 
the influence is upon the health of the 
mind4 ,a careful examination of the     
educational statistics of several states
 has convinced me that an unusually     
large proportion of the deaf and        
dumb--and perhaps an equally large      
proportion of the blind1 and especially 
those who have remained uneducated and  
unenlightened--have been visited with   
mental derangement1 and have lived and  

died insane4  ,this is easily accounted 
for4 ,uneducated persons1 who are       
deprived of one or more of the senses1  
are isolated from the world in which    
they live4 ,the book of nature is open  
before them1 but they are unable to     
peruse it4 ,the simplest operations     
constantly going on around them are     
locked in mystery4 ,they are an enigma  
to themselves4 ,even those who are      
endowed with inquisitive minds are      
perplexed with the existing state of    
things4 ,they know nothing of the       
physical organization of the planet we  
inhabit1 of its political and civil     
divisions1 and of the whole machinery of
 human society1 and are profoundly      
ignorant of the past history and future 
destiny of the race to which they       
belong4 ,it is not remarkable that mind 
so unnaturally and peculiarly           
circumstanced--with its usual inlets of 
knowledge so obstructed1 and deprived of
 external objects to act upon--should   
prey upon itself1 and thus superinduce  

insanity in its usual forms1 and more   
especially when unaided and undirected  
by education4  ,keeping the same        
principle in view1 we shall not be      
surprised to find that want of exercise 
of the brain and nervous system1 or1 in 
other words1 that inactivity of         
intellect and feeling1 is a very        
frequent predisposing cause of every    
form of nervous disease1 even with those
 who have not been deprived of any of   
their senses4 ,for demonstrative        
evidence of this position1 we have only 
to look at the numerous victims to be   
found among females of the middle and   
higher ranks1 who have no call to       
exertion in gaining the means of        
subsistence1 and no objects of interest 
on which to exercise their mental       
faculties1 and who consequently sink    
into a state of mental sloth and nervous
 weakness1 which not only deprives them 
of much enjoyment1 but subjects them to 
suffering1 both of body and mind1 from  
the slightest causes4  ,in looking      

abroad upon society1 we find innumerable
 examples of mental and nervous debility
 from this cause4 ,when a person of some
 mental capacity is confined for a long 
time to an unvarying round of           
employment1 which affords neither scope 
nor stimulus for one half of his        
faculties1 and1 from want of education  
or society1 has no external resources1  
his mental powers1 for want of exercise 
to keep up due vitality in their        
cerebral organs1 become blunted1 and his
 perceptions slow and dull4 ,unusual    
subjects of thought become to him       
disagreeable and painful4 ,the intellect
 and feelings not being provided with   
interests external to themselves1 must  
either become inactive and weak1 or work
 upon themselves and become diseased4   
,but let the situation of such persons  
be changed2 bring them1 for instance1   
from the listlessness of retirement to  
the business and bustle of a city2 give 
them a variety of imperative            
employments1 and place them in society  

so as to supply to their cerebral organs
 that extent of exercise which gives    
health and vivacity of action1 and in a 
few months the change produced will be  
surprising4 ,health1 animation1 and     
acuteness will take the place of former 
insipidity and dullness4 ,in such       
instances1 it would be absurd to suppose
 that it is the mind itself which       
becomes heavy and feeble1 and again     
revives into energy by these changes in 
external circumstances4 ,the effects    
arise entirely from changes in the state
 of the brain1 and the mental           
manifestations and the bodily health    
have been improved solely by the        
improvement of its condition4  ,the     
evils arising from excessive or         
ill-timed exercise of the brain1 or any 
of its parts1 are numerous1 and equally 
in accordance with the ordinary laws of 
physiology4 ,when we use the eye too    
long or in too bright a light1 it       
becomes bloodshot1 and the increased    
action of its vessels and nerves gives  

rise to a sensation of fatigue and pain 
requiring us to desist4 ,if we turn away
 and relieve the eye1 the irritation    
gradually subsides1 and the healthy     
state returns2 but if we continue to    
look intently1 or resume our employment 
before the eye has regained its natural 
state by repose1 the irritation at last 
becomes permanent1 and disease1 followed
 by weakness of sight1 or even          
blindness1 may ensue1 as often happens  
to glass-blowers1 smiths1 and others who
 are obliged to work in an intense      
light4  ,precisely analogous phenomena  
occur when1 from intense mental         
excitement1 the brain is kept long in a 
state of excessive activity4 ,the only  
difference is1 that we can always see   
what happens in the eye1 but rarely what
 takes place in the brain4              
,occasionally1 however1 cases of        
fracture of the skull occur1 in which1  
part of the bone being removed1 we can  
see the quickened circulation in the    
vessels of the brain as easily as in    

those of the eye4 ,sir ,astley ,cooper  
had a young gentleman brought to him who
 had lost a portion of his skull just   
above the eyebrow4 ,on examining the    
head1 says ,sir ,astley1 ,i distinctly  
saw that the pulsation of the brain was 
regular and slow2 but at this time he   
was agitated by some opposition to his  
wishes1 and directly the blood was sent 
with increased force to the brain1 and  
the pulsation became frequent and       
violent4 ,sir ,astley hence concludes   
that1 in the treatment of injuries of   
the brain1 if you omit to keep the mind 
free from agitation1 your other means   
will be unavailing4  ,a still more      
remarkable case is said to have occurred
 in the hospital of ,montpellier in     
#ahba4 ,the subject of it was a female  
who had lost a large portion of her     
scalp1 skull-bone1 and dura mater4 ,a   
corresponding portion of her brain was  
consequently bare1 and subject to       
inspection4 ,when she was in a dreamless
 sleep1 her brain was motionless1 and   

lay within the cranium2 but when her    
sleep was imperfect1 and she was        
agitated by dreams1 her brain moved and 
protruded without the cranium4 ,in vivid
 dreams the protrusion was considerable2
 and when she was awake and engaged in  
active thought or sprightly             
conversation1 it was still greater4  ,in
 alluding to this subject1 ,dr4         
,caldwell remarks1 that if it were      
possible1 without doing an injury to    
other parts1 to augment the constant    
afflux of healthy arterial blood to the 
brain1 the mental operations would be   
invigorated by it4 ,this position is    
illustrated by reference to the fact    
that when a public speaker is flushed   
and heated in debate1 his mind works    
more freely and powerfully than at any  
other time4 ,and why8 ,because his brain
 is in better tune4 ,what has thus      
suddenly improved its condition8 ,an    
increased current of blood into it1     
produced by the excitement of its own   
increased action4 ,that the blood does1 

on such occasions1 flow more copiously  
into the brain1 no one can doubt who is 
at all acquainted with the cerebral     
sensations which the orator himself     
experiences at the time1 or who         
witnesses the unusual fullness and flush
 of his countenance1 and the dewiness1  
flashing1 and protrusion of his eye4    
,indeed1 in many instances1 the         
increased circulation in the brain      
attendant on high mental excitement     
reveals itself by its effects when least
 expected1 and leaves traces after death
 which are but too legible4 ,many are   
the instances in which public men have  
been suddenly arrested in their career  
by the inordinate action of the brain   
induced by incessant toil1 and more     
numerous still are those whose mental   
power has been forever impaired by      
similar excess4  ,it is generally known 
that the eye1 when tasked beyond its    
strength1 becomes insensible to light1  
and ceases to convey impressions to the 
mind4 ,the brain1 in like manner1 when  

much exhausted1 becomes incapable of    
thought1 and consciousness is well-nigh 
lost in a feeling of utter confusion4   
,at any time in life1 excessive and     
continued mental exertion is hurtful2   
but in infancy and early youth1 when the
 structure of the brain is still        
immature and delicate1 permanent injury 
is more easily produced by injudicious  
treatment than at any subsequent period4
 ,in this respect1 the analogy is       
complete between the brain and the other
 parts of the body1 as we have already  
seen exemplified in the injurious       
effects of premature exercise of the    
bones and muscles4 ,scrofulous and      
rickety children are the most usual     
sufferers in this way4 ,they are        
generally remarkable for large heads1   
great precocity of understanding1 and   
small1 delicate bodies4 ,but in such    
instances1 the great size of the brain1 
and the acuteness of the mind1 are the  
results of morbid growth1 and even with 
the best management1 the child passes   

the first years of its life constantly  
on the brink of active disease4         
,instead1 however1 of trying to repress 
its mental activity1 as they should1 the
 fond parents1 misled by the promise of 
genius1 too often excite it still       
further by unceasing cultivation and the
 never-failing stimulus of praise2 and  
finding its progress1 for a time1 equal 
to their warmest wishes1 they look      
forward with ecstasy to the day when its
 talents will break forth and shed a    
luster on their name4 ,but in exact     
proportion as the picture becomes       
brighter to their fancy1 the probability
 of its becoming realized becomes less2 
for the brain1 worn out by premature    
exertion1 either becomes diseased or    
loses its tone1 leaving the mental      
powers feeble and depressed for the     
remainder of life4 ,the expected prodigy
 is thus1 in the end1 easily outstripped
 in the social race by many whose dull  
outset promised him an easy victory4    
,to him who takes for his guide the     

necessities of the constitution1 it will
 be obvious that the modes of treatment 
commonly resorted to should in such     
cases be reversed2 and that1 instead of 
straining to the utmost the already     
irritable powers of the precocious      
child1 leaving his dull competitors to  
ripen at leisure1 a systematic attempt  
ought to be made1 from early infancy1 to
 rouse to action the languid faculties  
of the latter1 while no pains should be 
spared to moderate and give tone to the 
activity of the former4 ,but instead of 
this1 the prematurely intelligent child 
is generally sent to school1 and tasked 
with lessons at an unusually early age1 
while the healthy but more backward boy1
 who requires to be stimulated1 is kept 
at home in idleness merely on account of
 his backwardness4 ,a double error is   
here committed1 and the consequences to 
the active-minded boy are not           
unfrequently the permanent loss both of 
health and of his envied superiority of 
intellect4  ,in speaking of children of 

this description1 ,dr4 ,brigham1 in an  
excellent little work on the influence  
of mental excitement on health1 remarks 
as follows3 ,dangerous forms of         
scrofulous disease among children have  
repeatedly fallen under my observation1 
for which ,i could not account in any   
other way than by supposing that the    
brain had been excited at the expense of
 the other parts of the system1 and at a
 time in life when nature is endeavoring
 to perfect all the organs of the body2 
and after the disease commenced1 ,i have
 seen1 with grief1 the influence of the 
same cause in retarding or preventing   
recovery4 ,i have seen several affecting
 and melancholy instances of children1  
five or six years of age1 lingering a   
while with diseases from which those    
less gifted readily recover1 and at last
 dying1 notwithstanding the utmost      
efforts to restore them4 ,during their  
sickness they constantly manifested a   
passion for books and mental excitement1
 and were admired for the maturity of   

their minds4 ,the chance for the        
recovery of such precocious children is1
 in my opinion1 small when attacked by  
disease2 and several medical men have   
informed me that their own observations 
had led them to form the same opinion1  
and have remarked that1 in two cases of 
sickness1 if one of the patients was a  
child of superior and highly-cultivated 
mental powers1 and the other one equally
 sick1 but whose mind had not been      
excited by study1 they should feel less 
confident of the recovery of the former 
than of the latter4 ,this mental        
precocity results from an unnatural     
development of one organ of the body at 
the expense of the constitution4  ,there
 can be little doubt but that ignorance 
on the part of parents and teachers is  
the principal cause that leads to the   
too early and excessive cultivation of  
the minds of children1 and especially of
 such as are precocious and delicate4   
,hence the necessity of imparting       
instruction on this subject to both     

parents and teachers1 and to all persons
 who are in any way charged with the    
care and education of the young4 ,this  
necessity becomes the more imperative   
from the fact that the cupidity of      
authors and publishers has led to the   
preparation of children's books1 many of
 which are announced as purposely       
prepared for children from two to three 
years old6 ,i might instance            
advertisements of ,infant ,manuals of   
,botany1 ,geometry1 and ,astronomy6  ,in
 not a few isolated families1 but in    
many neighborhoods1 villages1 and       
cities1 in various parts of the country1
 children under three years of age are  
not only required to commit to memory   
many verses1 texts of ,scripture1 and   
stories1 but are frequently sent to     
school for six hours a day4 ,few        
children are kept back later than the   
age of four1 unless they reside a great 
distance from school1 and some not even 
then4 ,at home1 too1 they are induced by
 all sorts of excitement to learn       

additional tasks1 or peruse juvenile    
books and magazines1 till the nervous   
system becomes enfeebled and the health 
broken4 ,i have myself1 says ,dr4       
,brigham1 seen many children who are    
supposed to possess almost miraculous   
mental powers1 experiencing these       
effects and sinking under them4 ,some of
 them died early1 when but six or eight 
years of age1 but manifested to the last
 a maturity of understanding1 which only
 increased the agony of separation4     
,their minds1 like some of the fairest  
flowers1 were 'no sooner blown than     
blasted2' others have grown up to       
manhood1 but with feeble bodies and     
disordered nervous system1 which        
subjected them to hypochondriasis1      
dyspepsy1 and all the ,protean forms of 
nervous disease2 others of the class of 
early prodigies exhibit in manhood but  
small mental powers1 and are the mere   
passive instruments of those who in     
early life were accounted far their     
inferiors4  ,this hot-bed system of     

education is not confined to the ,united
 ,states1 but is practiced less or more 
in all civilized countries4 ,dr4 ,combe1
 of ,scotland1 gives an account of one  
of these early prodigies whose fate he  
witnessed4 ,the circumstances were      
exactly such as those above described4  
,the prematurely developed intellect was
 admired1 and constantly stimulated by  
injudicious praise1 and by daily        
exhibition to every visitor who chanced 
to call4 ,entertaining books were thrown
 in its way1 reading by the fireside    
encouraged1 play and exercise neglected1
 the diet allowed to be full and        
heating1 and the appetite pampered by   
every delicacy4 ,the results were the   
speedy deterioration of a weak          
constitution1 a high degree of nervous  
sensibility1 deranged digestion1        
disordered bowels1 defective nutrition1 
and1 lastly1 death1 at the very time    
when the interest excited by the mental 
precocity was at its height4  ,such1    
however1 is the ignorance of the        

majority of parents and teachers on all 
physiological subjects1 that when one of
 these infant prodigies dies from       
erroneous treatment1 it is not unusual  
to publish a memoir of his life1 that   
other parents and teachers may see by   
what means such transcendent qualities  
were called forth4 ,dr4 ,brigham refers 
to a memoir of this kind1 in which the  
history of a child1 aged four years and 
eleven months1 is narrated as approved  
by several judicious persons1 ministers 
and others1 all of whom united in the   
request that it might be published1 and 
all agreed in the opinion that a        
knowledge of the manner in which the    
child was treated1 together with the    
results1 would be profitable to both    
parents and children1 and a benefit to  
the cause of education4 ,this infant    
philosopher was taught hymns before he  
could speak plainly2 reasoned with and  
constantly instructed until his last    
illness1 which1 without any assignable  
cause1 put on a violent and unexpected  

form1 and carried him off6  ,as a       
warning to others not to force education
 too soon or too fast1 this case may be 
truly profitable to both parents and    
children1 and a benefit to the cause of 
education2 but as an example to be      
followed1 it assuredly can not be too   
strongly or too loudly condemned4 ,while
 ,i speak thus strongly1 ,i am ready to 
admit that infant schools in which      
physical health and moral training are  
duly attended to are excellent          
institutions1 and are particularly      
advantageous where parents1 from want of
 leisure or from other causes1 are      
unable to bestow upon their children    
that attention which their tender years 
require4  ,in youth1 too1 much mischief 
is done by the long daily periods of    
attendance at school1 and the continued 
application of mind which the ordinary  
system of education requires4 ,the law  
of exercise already more than once      
repeated1 that long-sustained action    
exhausts the vital powers of an organ1  

applies as well to the brain as to the  
muscles4 ,hence the necessity of varying
 the occupations of the young1 and      
allowing frequent intervals of active   
exercise in the open air1 instead of    
enforcing the continued confinement now 
so common4 ,this exclusive attention to 
mental culture fails1 as might be       
expected1 even in its essential object2 
for all experience shows that1 with a   
rational distribution of employment and 
exercise1 a child will make greater     
progress in a given period than in      
double the time employed in continuous  
mental exertion4 ,if the human being    
were made up of nothing but a brain and 
nervous system1 we might do well to     
content ourselves with sedentary        
pursuits1 and to confine our attention  
entirely to the mind4 ,but when we learn
 from observation that we have numerous 
other important organs of motion1       
sanguification1 digestion1 circulation1 
and nutrition1 all demanding exercise in
 the open air1 as alike essential to    

their own health and to that of the     
nervous system1 it is worse than folly  
to shut our eyes to the truth1 and to   
act as if we could1 by denying it1 alter
 the constitution of nature1 and thereby
 escape the consequences of our own     
misconduct4  ,reason and experience     
being thus set at naught by both parents
 and teachers in the education of their 
children1 young people naturally grow up
 with the notion that no such influences
 as the laws of organization exist1 and 
that they may follow any course of life 
which inclination leads them to prefer  
without injury to health1 provided they 
avoid what is called dissipation4 ,it is
 owing to this ignorance that young men 
of a studious or literary habit enter   
heedlessly upon an amount of mental     
exertion1 unalleviated by bodily        
exercise or intervals of repose1 which  
is quite incompatible with the continued
 enjoyment of a sound mind in a sound   
body4 ,such1 however1 is the effect of  
the total neglect of all instruction in 

the laws of the organic frame during    
early education1 that it becomes almost 
impossible effectually to warn an ardent
 student against the dangers to which he
 is constantly exposing himself4        
,nothing but actual experience will     
convince him of the truth4  ,numerous   
are the instances in which young men of 
the first promise have almost totally   
disqualified themselves for future      
useful exertion in consequence of       
long-protracted and severe study1 who1  
under a more rational system of         
education1 might have attained that     
eminence1 the injudicious pursuit of    
which has defeated their own most       
cherished hopes1 and ruined their       
general health4 ,such persons might be  
saved to themselves and to society by   
early instruction in the nature and laws
 of the animal economy4 ,they mean well1
 but err from ignorance more than from  
headstrong zeal4  ,i shall conclude this
 chapter with a few rules relating to   
mental exercise1 and the development and

 culture of the mind and brain4 ,it is a
 law of the animal economy that two     
classes of functions can not be called  
into vigorous action at the same time   
without one or the other1 or both1      
sooner or later sustaining injury4      
,hence the important rule never to enter
 upon continued mental exertion or to   
rouse deep feeling immediately after a  
full meal1 otherwise the activity of the
 brain is sure to interfere with that of
 the stomach1 and disorder its          
functions4 ,even in a perfectly healthy 
person1 unwelcome news1 sudden anxiety1 
or mental excitement1 occurring after   
eating1 will put an entire stop to      
digestion1 and cause the stomach to     
loathe the sight of food4 ,in accordance
 with this rule1 we learn by experience 
that the very worst forms of indigestion
 and nervous depression are those which 
arise from excessive mental application1
 or turmoil of feeling and distraction  
of mind1 conjoined with unrestrained    
indulgence in the pleasures of the      

table4 ,in such circumstances1 the      
stomach and brain react upon and disturb
 each other1 till all the horrors of    
nervous disease make their unwelcome    
appearance1 and render life miserable4  
,the tendency to inactivity and sleep1  
which besets most animals after a full  
meal1 shows repose to be1 in such       
circumstances1 the evident intention of 
,nature4 ,the bad effects of violating  
this rule1 although not in all cases    
immediately apparent1 will most         
assuredly be manifest at a period less  
or more remote4  ,dr4 ,caldwell1 who has
 devoted much time and talent to the    
diffusion of sound physiological        
information and the general improvement 
of the race1 and whose opportunities of 
observation have been very extensive1   
expressly states1 that dyspepsy and     
madness prevail more extensively in the 
,united ,states than among the people of
 any other nation4 ,of the amount of our
 dyspeptics1 he says1 no estimate can be
 formed2 but it is immense4 ,whether we 

inquire in cities1 towns1 villages1 or  
country places2 among the rich1 the     
poor1 or those in moderate              
circumstances1 we find dyspepsy more or 
less prevalent throughout the land4     
,the early part of the day is the best  
time for severe mental exertion4 ,nature
 has allotted the darkness of night for 
repose1 and for the restoration by sleep
 of the exhausted energies of both body 
and mind4 ,if study or composition be   
ardently engaged in toward the close of 
the day1 and especially at a late hour  
of the evening1 sound and invigorating  
sleep may not be expected until the     
night is far spent1 for the increased   
action of the brain which always        
accompanies activity of mind requires a 
long time to subside4 ,persons who      
practice night study1 if they be at all 
of an irritable habit of body1 will be  
sleepless for hours after going to bed1 
and be tormented perhaps by unpleasant  
dreams1 which will render their sleep   
unrefreshing4 ,if this practice be long 

continued1 the want of refreshing repose
 will ultimately induce a state of      
morbid irritability of the nervous      
system bordering on insanity4 ,it is    
therefore of great advantage to engage  
in severer studies early in the day1 and
 to devote the after part of the day and
 the evening to less intense            
application4 ,it will be well to devote 
a portion of the evening1 and especially
 the latter part of it1 to light        
reading1 music1 or cheerful and amusing 
conversation4 ,the excitement induced in
 the brain by previous study will be    
soothed by these influences1 and will   
more readily subside1 and sound and     
refreshing sleep will be much more      
likely to follow4 ,this rule is of the  
utmost importance to those who are      
obliged to perform a great amount of    
mental labor4 ,it is only by conforming 
to it1 and devoting their mornings to   
study and their evenings to relaxation1 
that many of our most prolific writers  
have been enabled to preserve their     

health4 ,by neglecting this rule1 others
 of the fairest promise have been cut   
down in the midst of their usefulness4  
,regularity is of great importance in   
the development and culture of the moral
 and intellectual powers1 the tendency  
to resume the same mode of action at    
stated times being peculiarly the       
characteristic of the nervous system4   
,it is this principle of our nature     
which promotes the formation of what are
 called habits4 ,by repeating any kind  
of mental effort every day at the same  
hour1 we at length find ourselves       
entering upon it1 without premeditation1
 when the time approaches4 ,in like     
manner1 by arranging our studies in     
accordance with this law1 and taking up 
each regularly in the same order1 a     
natural aptitude is soon produced1 which
 renders application more easy than it  
would be were we to take up the subjects
 as accident might dictate4 ,the        
tendency to periodical and associated   
activity sometimes becomes so strong1   

that the faculties seem to go through   
their operations almost without         
conscious effort1 while their facility  
of action becomes so much increased as  
ultimately to give unerring certainty   
where at first great difficulty was     
experienced4 ,it is not so much the soul
 or abstract principle of mind which is 
thus changed1 as the organic medium     
through which mind is destined to act in
 the present mode of being4  ,the       
necessity of judicious repetition in    
mental and moral education is1 in fact1 
too little adverted to1 because the     
principle on which it is effectual has  
not hitherto been generally understood4 
,practice is as necessary to induce     
facility of action in the organs of the 
mind as in those of motion4 ,the idea or
 feeling must not only be communicated1 
but it must be represented and          
reproduced in different forms till all  
the faculties concerned in understanding
 it come to work efficiently together in
 the conception of it1 and until a      

sufficient impression is made upon the  
organ of mind to enable the latter to   
retain it4 ,servants and others are     
frequently blamed for not doing a thing 
at regular intervals when they have been
 but once told to do so4 ,we learn1     
however1 from the organic laws1 that it 
is presumptuous to expect the formation 
of a habit from a single act1 and that  
we must reproduce the associated        
activity of the requisite faculties many
 times before the result will certainly 
follow1 just as we must repeat the      
movement in dancing or skating many     
times before we become master of it4    
,we may understand a new subject by a   
single perusal1 but we can fully master 
it only by dwelling upon it again and   
again4 ,in order to make a durable      
impression on the mind1 repetition is   
necessary4 ,it follows1 hence1 that in  
learning a language or science1 six     
successive months of application will be
 more effectual in fixing it indelibly  
in the mind1 and making it a part of the

 mental furniture1 than double or even  
treble the time if the lessons are      
interrupted by long intervals4 ,the too 
common practice of beginning a study1   
and1 after pursuing it a little time1   
leaving it to be completed at a later   
period1 is unphilosophical and very     
injurious4 ,the fatigue of study is thus
 doubled1 and the success greatly       
diminished4 ,studies should not1 as a   
general thing1 be entered upon until the
 mind is sufficiently mature to         
understand them thoroughly1 and1 when   
begun1 they should not be discontinued  
until they are completely mastered4 ,by 
this means the mind becomes accustomed  
to sound and healthy action1 which alone
 can qualify the student for eminent    
usefulness in after life4 ,much of the  
want of success in the various          
departments of industry1 and many of the
 failures that are constantly occurring 
among business men1 are justly          
attributable to the fits of attention   
and the irregular modes of study they   

became habituated to in their school-boy
 days4 ,hence the mischief of long      
vacations1 and the evil of beginning    
studies before the age at which they may
 be understood4 ,parents and teachers   
should hence1 at an early period1       
impress indelibly upon the minds of     
their children and pupils the ever true 
and practical sentiment1 that what is   
worth doing at all is worth doing well4 
,although1 at first1 their progress may 
seem to be retarded thereby1 still1 in  
the end1 it will contribute greatly to  
accelerate their real advancement1 and  
in after life1 whether employed in      
literary or business pursuits1 will be a
 means of augmenting their happiness and
 increasing their prospect of success in
 whatever department of labor they may  
be engaged4  ,in physical education most
 persons seem well aware of the         
advantages of repetition4 ,they know1   
for instance1 that if practice in       
dancing1 fencing1 skating1 and riding is
 persevered in for a sufficient length  

of time to give the muscles the         
requisite promptitude and harmony of    
action1 the power will be ever afterward
 retained1 although rarely called into  
use4 ,but if we stop short of this      
point1 we may reiterate practice by fits
 and starts without any proportional    
advancement4 ,the same principle is     
equally applicable to the moral and     
intellectual powers which operate by    
means of material organs4  ,the         
impossibility of successfully playing   
the hypocrite for any considerable      
length of time1 and the necessity of    
being in private what we wish to appear 
in public1 spring from the same rule4   
,if we wish to be ourselves polite1     
just1 kind1 and sociable1 or to induce  
others to become so1 we must act        
habitually under the influence of the   
corresponding sentiments1 in the        
domestic circle1 in the school-room1 and
 in every-day life1 as well as in the   
company of strangers and on great       
occasions4 ,it is the private and daily 

practice of individuals that gives ready
 activity to the sentiments and marks   
the real character4 ,if parents or      
teachers indulge habitually in          
vulgarities of speech and behavior in   
the family or in the school1 and put on 
politeness occasionally for the         
reception and entertainment of          
strangers1 their true character will    
shine through the mask which is intended
 to conceal it4 ,the habitual           
association to which the organs and     
faculties have been accustomed can not  
thus be controlled4 ,parents hence1 in  
addition to correct personal influence  
in the family1 should provide for their 
children teachers whose habits and      
character are in all respects what they 
are willing their children should form4 
,if they neglect to do this1 the utmost 
they can reasonably expect is that their
 children will become what the teacher  
is4  ,the principle that repetition is  
necessary in order to make a durable    
impression on the organ of the mind1 and

 thus constitute a mental habit1        
explains how natural endowments are     
modified by external situation4 ,the    
extent to which this modification may be
 carried1 and is actually carried in    
every community1 is much greater than   
most persons are aware of4 ,take a      
child1 for example1 of average          
propensities1 sentiments1 and intellect1
 and place him among a class of people  
in whom the selfish faculties are       
exclusively exercised--a class who      
regard gain as the end of life1 and look
 upon cunning and cheating as legitimate
 means1 and who never express           
disapprobation or moral indignation     
against either crime or selfishness--and
 his lower faculties1 being exclusively 
exercised1 will increase in strength1   
while the higher ones1 remaining        
unemployed1 will become enfeebled4 ,a   
child thus situated will1 consequently1 
not only act as those around him do1 but
 insensibly grow up resembling them in  
disposition and character2 for1 by the  

law of repetition1 the organs of the    
selfish qualities will have acquired    
proportionally greater aptitude and     
vigor1 just as do the muscles of the    
fencer or dancer4 ,but suppose the same 
individual placed1 from infancy1 in the 
society of a superiorly endowed moral   
and intellectual people1 the moral      
faculties will then be habitually       
excited1 and their organs invigorated by
 repetition1 till a greater aptitude    
will be induced in them1 or1 in other   
words1 till a higher moral character    
will be formed4 ,the natural endowments 
of individuals set limits to these      
modifications of character2 but where   
original dispositions and tendencies are
 not strongly marked1 the range is very 
wide4  ,in the cultivation of the brain 
and mental faculties1 each organ should 
be exercised directly upon its own      
appropriate objects1 and not merely     
roused or addressed through the medium  
of another organ4 ,when we wish to teach
 the graceful and rapid evolutions of   

fencing1 we do not content ourselves    
with merely giving directions1 but our  
chief attention is employed in making   
the muscles themselves go through the   
evolutions1 till1 by frequent repetition
 and correction1 they acquire the       
requisite quickness and precision of    
action4 ,so1 when we wish to teach      
music1 we do not merely address the     
understanding and explain the qualities 
of sounds4 ,we train the ear to an      
attentive discrimination of these       
sounds1 and the hand or the vocal       
organs1 as the case may be1 to the      
reproduction of the motions which call  
them into existence4 ,we follow this    
plan1 because the laws of organization  
require the direct practice of the      
organs concerned1 and we feel           
instinctively that we can succeed only  
by obeying these laws4 ,the purely      
mental faculties are connected during   
life with material organs1 and are hence
 subjected to precisely the same laws4  
,if1 therefore1 we wish to improve these

 faculties--the reasoning powers1 for   
example--we must exercise them regularly
 in tracing the cause and relations of  
things4 ,in like manner1 if our aim is  
the development of the sentiments of    
attachment1 benevolence1 justice1 or    
respect1 we must exercise each of them  
directly and for its own sake1 otherwise
 neither it nor its organ will ever     
acquire promptitude or strength4  ,it is
 the brain1 or organ of the mind1 more  
than the abstract immaterial principle  
itself1 that requires cultivation1 or   
can1 indeed1 receive it in this life4   
,education hence operates invariably in 
subjection to the laws of organization4 
,in improving the external senses1 we   
admit this principle readily enough2 but
 when we come to the internal faculties 
of thought and feeling1 it is either    
denied or neglected4 ,that the superior 
quickness of touch1 sight1 and hearing1 
consequent upon judicious exercise1 is  
referable to increased facility of      
action in their appropriate organs1 is  

readily admitted4 ,but when we explain1 
on the same principle1 the superior     
development of the reasoning powers1 or 
the greater warmth of feeling produced  
by similar exercise in these and other  
internal faculties1 few are inclined to 
listen to our proposition1 or allow to  
it half the weight or attention its     
importance demands1 although every fact 
in philosophy and experience concurs in 
supporting it4 ,we see the mental powers
 of feeling and of thought unfolding    
themselves in infancy and youth in exact
 accordance with the progress of the    
organization4 ,we see them perverted or 
suspended by the sudden inroad of       
disease4 ,we sometimes observe every    
previous acquirement obliterated from   
the adult mind by fever or by accident1 
leaving education to be commenced anew1 
as if it had never been2 and yet1 with  
all these evidences of the organic      
influence1 the proposition that the     
established laws of physiology1 as      
applied to the brain1 should be         

considered our best and surest guide in 
education1 seems to many a novelty4     
,among the numerous treatises on        
education1 there are very few volumes in
 which it is even hinted that these laws
 have the slightest influence over      
either intellectual or moral            
improvement4  ,as ,god has given us     
bones and muscles1 and blood-vessels and
 nerves1 for the purpose of being used1 
let us not despise the gift1 but consent
 at once to turn them to account1 and to
 reap health and vigor as the reward    
which he has associated with moderate   
labor4 ,as he has given us lungs to     
breathe with and blood to circulate1 let
 us at once and forever abandon the     
folly of shutting ourselves up with     
little intermission1 whether engaged in 
study or other sedentary occupations1   
and consent to inhale1 copiously and    
freely1 that wholesome atmosphere which 
his benevolence has spread around us in 
such rich profusion4 ,as he has given us
 appetites and organs of digestion1 let 

us profit by his bounty1 and earn their 
enjoyment by healthful exercise in some 
department of productive industry4 ,as  
he has given us a moral and a social    
nature1 which is invigorated by         
activity1 and impaired by solitude and  
restraint1 let us cultivate good        
feelings1 and act toward each other on  
principles of kindness1 justice1        
forbearance1 and mutual assistance2 and 
as he has given us intellect1 let us    
exercise it in seeking a knowledge of   
his works and of his laws1 and in       
tracing out the relation in which we    
stand toward him1 toward our fellow-men1
 and toward the various objects of the  
external world4 ,in so doing1 we may be 
well assured we shall find a reward a   
thousand times more rich and pure1 yea1 
infinitely more delightful and enduring1
 than we can hope to experience in      
following our own blind devices1        
regardless of his will and benevolent   
intentions toward us4     ,,chapter     
,,vi4  ,,the ,,education ,,of ,,the     

,,five ,,senses4      ,if the eye be    
obstructed1 the ear opens wide its      
portals1 and hears     your very        
emotions in the varying tones of your   
voice2 if the ear be     stopped1 the   
quickened eye will almost read the words
 as they fall     from your lips2 and if
 both be close sealed up1 the whole body
     becomes like a sensitive plant--the
 quickened skin perceives the     very  
vibrations of the air1 and you may even 
write your thoughts     upon it1 and    
receive answers from the sentient soul  
within4--,,annual     ,,report of the   
,trustees of the ,perkins ,institution  
and ,massachusetts     ,asylum for the  
,blind1 #ahda4   ,he who formed man of  
the dust of the earth1 and breathed into
 his nostrils the breath of life1 has   
honored his material organs by          
associating them with the immaterial    
soul4 ,in this life the senses          
constitute the great conveyances of     
knowledge to the human mind4 ,it then   
becomes not only a legitimate object of 

inquiry1 but one which commends itself  
to every human being1 and especially to 
every parent and teacher1 ,can these    
senses be improved by human             
interference8 ,and if so1 how can that  
improvement be best effected8  ,the     
senses are the interpreters between the 
material universe without and the spirit
 within4 ,without the celestial         
machinery of sensation1 man must have   
ever remained what ,adam was before the 
,almighty breathed into his form of clay
 the awakening breath of life4 ,the     
dormant energies of the mind can be     
aroused1 and the soul can be put into   
mysterious communion with external      
nature only by the magical power of     
sensation4  ,the possession of all the  
corporeal senses1 and their systematic  
and judicious culture by all proper     
appliances1 are necessary in order to   
place man in such a relation to the     
material universe and its great         
,architect as most fully and            
successfully to cultivate the varied    

capabilities of his nature1 and best to 
subserve the purposes of his creation4  
,he who is deprived of the healthful    
exercise of one or more of his senses1  
or1 possessing them all unimpaired1 has 
neglected their proper culture1 is1 from
 the nature of the case1 in a           
proportionate degree cut off from a     
knowledge of ,god as manifested in his  
works1 and from that happiness which is 
the legitimate fruit of such knowledge4 
,much light has been thrown upon this   
subject within a few years by the       
judicious labors of that class of       
practical educators who have devoted    
their lives to the amelioration of the  
condition of persons deprived of one or 
more of the senses4 ,it is difficult to 
conceive the real condition of the minds
 of persons thus situated1 and          
especially while they remain uneducated4
 ,he who is deprived of the sense of    
sight has the windows of his soul       
closed1 and is effectually shut out from
 this world of light and beauty4 ,in    

like manner1 he who is deprived of the  
sense of hearing is excluded from the   
world of music and of speech4 ,what1    
then1 must be the condition of persons  
deprived of both of these senses8 ,how  
desolate and cheerless6 ,yet some such  
there are4  ,while on a visit to the    
,asylum for the ,blind1 in ,boston1 a   
few months ago1 ,i met two of this      
unfortunate class of persons--,laura    
,bridgman and ,oliver ,caswell4 ,laura  
has been several years connected with   
the institution4  ,,laura ,,bridgman1   
the ,deaf1 ,dumb1 and ,blind ,girl4--,so
 remarkable is the case of this         
interesting girl1 so full of interest1  
so replete with instruction1 and in     
every way so admirably adapted to       
illustrate the subject of this chapter1 
that ,i proceed to give to my readers a 
sketch of the method pursued in her     
instruction1 together with the results  
attendant upon it4 ,my information in   
relation to her is derived from both    
personal acquaintance and the reports of

 her case1 though principally from the  
latter source4  ,laura was born in      
,hanover1 ,new ,hampshire1 on the #bast 
of ,december1 #ahbi4 ,she is described  
as having been a very sprightly and     
pretty infant4 ,during the first years  
of her existence she held her life by   
the feeblest tenure1 being subject to   
severe fits1 which seemed to rack her   
frame almost beyond the power of        
endurance4 ,at the age of four years her
 bodily health seemed restored2 but what
 a situation was hers6 ,the darkness and
 silence of the tomb were around her4   
,no mother's smile called forth her     
answering smile4 ,no father's voice     
taught her to imitate his sounds4 ,to   
her1 brothers and sisters were but forms
 of matter which resisted her touch1 but
 which hardly differed from the         
furniture of the house save in warmth   
and in the power of locomotion1 and not 
even in these respects from the dog and 
the cat4 ,but the immortal spirit       
implanted within her could not die1 nor 

could it be maimed or mutilated2 and1   
though most of its avenues of           
communication with the world were cut   
off1 it began to manifest itself through
 the others4 ,as soon as she could walk1
 she began to explore the room1 and then
 the house4 ,she thus soon became       
familiar with the form1 density1 weight1
 and heat of every article she could lay
 her hands upon4 ,she followed her      
mother1 and felt of her hands and arms1 
as she was occupied about the house1 and
 her disposition to imitate led her to  
repeat every thing herself4 ,she even   
learned to sew a little and to knit4    
,her affections1 too1 began to expand1  
and seemed to be lavished upon the      
members of her family with peculiar     
force4 ,but the means of communication  
with her were very limited4 ,she could  
be told to go to a place only by being  
pushed1 or to come to one by a sign of  
drawing her4 ,patting her gently on the 
head signified approbation1 on the back 
disapprobation4 ,she showed every       

disposition to learn1 and manifestly    
began to use a natural language of her  
own4 ,she had a sign to express her idea
 of each member of the family1 as       
drawing her fingers down each side of   
her face to allude to the whiskers of   
one1 twirling her hand around in        
imitation of the motion of a            
spinning-wheel for another1 and so on4  
,but1 although ,laura received all the  
aid a kind mother could bestow1 she soon
 began to give proof of the importance  
of language in the development of human 
character4 ,by the time she was seven   
years old the moral effects of her      
privation began to appear1 for there was
 no way of controlling her will but by  
the absolute power of another1 and at   
this humanity revolts4  ,at this time1  
,dr4 ,samuel ,g4 ,howe1 the             
distinguished and successful director of
 the asylum1 learned of her situation1  
and hastened to see her4 ,he found her  
with a well-formed figure1 a            
strongly-marked nervous-sanguine        

temperament1 a large and beautifully    
shaped head1 and the whole system in    
healthy action4 ,here seemed a rare     
opportunity of trying a plan for the    
education of a deaf and blind person1   
which the doctor had formed on seeing   
,julia ,brace at ,hartford4 ,the parents
 readily consented to her going to the  
institution in ,boston1 where ,laura was
 received in ,october1 #ahcg1 just      
before she had completed her eighth     
year4 ,for a while she was much         
bewildered4 ,after waiting about two    
weeks1 and until she became acquainted  
with her new locality1 and somewhat     
familiar with the inmates1 the attempt  
was made to give her a knowledge of     
arbitrary signs1 by which she could     
interchange thoughts with others4 ,one  
of two methods was to be adopted4       
,either the language of signs1 on the   
basis of the natural language she had   
already commenced herself1 was to be    
built up1 or it remained to teach her   
the purely arbitrary language in common 

use4 ,the former would have been easy1  
but very ineffectual4 ,the latter1      
although very difficult1 if             
accomplished1 would prove vastly        
superior4 ,it was therefore determined  
upon4  ,the blind learn to read by means
 of raised letters1 which they gain a   
knowledge of by the sense of feeling4   
,the ends of the fingers1 resting upon  
the raised letters1 thus constitute1 in 
part1 the eyes of the blind4 ,this1     
although apparently difficult1 becomes  
comparatively easy when the blind person
 possesses the sense of hearing1 and is 
thus enabled to become acquainted with  
spoken language4 ,on the contrary1 the  
deaf1 and consequently dumb1 are unable 
to acquire a knowledge of spoken        
language so as to use it with any degree
 of success4 ,in their education1 hence1
 the language of signs1 which can be    
addressed to the eye1 is substituted for
 spoken language4 ,in communicating with
 one another1 by means of the manual    
alphabet1 they substitute positions of  

the hand1 which they can both make and  
see1 for letters and words1 which they  
can neither pronounce nor hear4  ,to be 
deprived of either sight or hearing was 
formerly regarded as an almost          
insuperable obstacle in the way of      
education4 ,persons deprived of both    
these senses have heretofore been       
considered by high legal authorities1#bc
 as well as by public opinion1 as       
occupying1 of necessity1 a state of     
irresponsible and irrecoverable idiocy4 
,by the education of the remaining      
senses1 however1 this formidable and    
heretofore insuperable barrier has been 
overleaped1 or1 rather1 the obstacle has
 been met and overcome4 ,the experiment 
has been successfully tried1 once and   
again1 in our own country4 ,the deaf and
 blind mute has not only acquired a     
knowledge of reading and writing1 and of
 the common branches of education1 but  
has been enabled successfully to        
prosecute the study of natural          
philosophy1 of mental science1 and of   

geometry4 ,the accomplishment of all    
this has resulted from the successful   
cultivation of the sense of touch or of 
feeling4 ,the raised letter of the blind
 has been used for written language1 and
 the manual language of the mute1 taken 
by the finger-eyes of the blind1 has    
been successfully substituted for spoken
 language4     #bc ,a man is not an     
idiot if he hath any glimmering of      
reason1 so that   he can tell his       
parents1 his age1 or the like matters4  
,but a man who is   born deaf1 dumb1 and
 blind1 is looked upon by the law as in 
the same   state with an idiot1 he being
 supposed incapable of any              
understanding1   as wanting all the     
senses which furnish the human mind with
   ideas4--,blackstone's ,commentaries1 
vol4 i41 p4 #cjd4   ,laura's mind dwelt 
in darkness and silence4 ,in order1     
therefore1 to communicate to her a      
knowledge of the arbitrary language in  
common use1 it was necessary to combine 
the methods of instructing the blind and

 the deaf4 ,the first experiments in    
instructing her were made by taking     
articles in common use1 such as knives1 
forks1 spoons1 keys1 etc41 and pasting  
upon them labels with their names       
printed in raised letters4 ,these she   
felt of very carefully1 and soon1 of    
course1 distinguished that the crooked  
lines spoon differed as much from the   
crooked lines key1 as the spoon differed
 from the key in form4 ,small detached  
labels1 with the same words printed upon
 them1 were then put into her hands1 and
 she soon observed that they were       
similar to those pasted on the articles4
 ,she showed her perception of this     
similarity by laying the label key upon 
the key1 and the label spoon upon the   
spoon4 ,when this was done she was      
encouraged by the natural sign of       
approbation--patting on the head4  ,the 
same process was then repeated with all 
the articles which she could handle1 and
 she very easily learned to place the   
proper labels upon them4 ,after a while1

 instead of labels1 the individual      
letters were given to her1 on detached  
bits of paper4 ,these were at first     
arranged side by side1 so as to spell   
book1 key1 c4 ,they were then mixed up1 
and a sign was made for her to arrange  
them herself1 so as to express the words
 book1 key1 etc41 and she did so4  ,the 
process of instruction1 hitherto1 had   
been mechanical1 and the success        
attending it about as great as that in  
teaching a very knowing dog a variety of
 tricks4 ,the poor child sat in mute    
amazement1 and patiently imitated every 
thing her teacher did4 ,presently the   
truth began to flash upon her2 her      
intellect began to work2 she perceived  
that here was a way by which she could  
herself make up a sign of any thing that
 was in her own mind1 and show it to    
another mind1 and at once her           
countenance lighted up with a human     
expression6 her immortal spirit eagerly 
seizing upon a new link of union with   
other spirits6 ,dr4 ,howe says he could 

almost fix upon the moment when this    
truth dawned upon her mind and spread   
its light to her countenance4 ,he saw at
 once that nothing but patient and      
persevering1 but judicious efforts were 
needed in her instruction1 and that     
these would most assuredly be crowned   
with success4  ,it is difficult to form 
a just conception of the amount of labor
 bestowed upon ,laura thus far4 ,in     
communicating with her1 spoken language 
could not be used1 for she was destitute
 of hearing4 ,neither are signs of any  
use when addressed to the eyes of the   
blind4 ,when1 therefore1 it was said    
that a sign was made1 we are to         
understand by it that the action was    
performed by her teacher1 she feeling of
 his hands1 and then imitating the      
motion4 ,the next step in the process of
 her instruction was to procure a set of
 metal types1 with the different letters
 of the alphabet cast upon their ends2  
also a board1 in which were square      
holes1 into which she could set the     

types so that the letters on the end    
could alone be felt above the surface4  
,then1 on any article being handed to   
her whose name she had learned--a pencil
 or a watch1 for instance--she would    
select the component letters and arrange
 them on her board1 and read them with  
apparent pleasure4  ,when she had been  
exercised in this way for several weeks1
 and until her knowledge of words had   
become considerably extensive1 the      
important step was taken of teaching her
 how to represent the different letters 
by the position of her fingers1 instead 
of the cumbrous apparatus of the board  
and types4 ,this she accomplished       
speedily and easily1 for her intellect  
had begun to work in aid of her teacher1
 and her progress was rapid4  ,six      
months after ,laura had left home her   
mother went to visit her4 ,the scene of 
their meeting was full of interest4 ,the
 mother stood some time gazing with     
overflowing eyes upon her unfortunate   
child1 who1 all unconscious of her      

presence1 was playing about the room4   
,presently ,laura ran against her1 and  
at once began feeling of her hands1     
examining her dress1 and trying to find 
out if she knew her2 but1 not succeeding
 in this1 she turned away as from a     
stranger1 and the poor woman could not  
conceal the pang she felt at finding her
 beloved child did not know her4 ,she   
then gave ,laura a string of beads which
 she used to wear at home4 ,these were  
at once recognized by the child1 who    
gave satisfactory indications that she  
understood they were from home4 ,the    
mother now tried to caress her2 but     
,laura repelled her1 preferring to be   
with her acquaintances4  ,other articles
 from home were then given to ,laura1   
and she began to look much interested2  
she examined the stranger much closer1  
and gave the doctor to understand she   
knew they came from ,hanover2 she now   
even endured her mother's caresses1 but 
would leave her with indifference at the
 slightest signal4 ,after a while1 on   

the mother taking hold of her again1 a  
vague idea seemed to flit across        
,laura's mind that this could not be a  
stranger2 she therefore felt of her     
hands very eagerly1 while her           
countenance assumed an expression of    
intense interest2 she became very pale1 
and then suddenly red2 hope seemed      
struggling with doubt and anxiety1 and  
never were contending emotions more     
strongly painted upon the human face4   
,at this moment of painful uncertainty1 
the mother drew ,laura close to her     
side1 and kissed her fondly1 when at    
once the truth flashed upon the child1  
and all distrust and anxiety disappeared
 from her face4 ,with an expression of  
exceeding joy1 ,laura nestled to the    
bosom of her parent1 and yielded herself
 to her fond embraces4 ,after this the  
beads were all unheeded1 and the        
playthings which were offered to her    
were utterly disregarded4 ,her          
playmates1 for whom she but a moment    
before left the stranger1 now vainly    

strove to pull her from her mother4 ,the
 meeting and subsequent parting showed  
alike the affection1 the intelligence1  
and the resolution of the child as well 
as of her mother4  ,the following facts 
are drawn from the report made of her   
case at the end of the year #ahci1 after
 she had been a little more than two    
years under instruction4 ,having        
mastered the manual alphabet of the deaf
 mutes1 and having learned to spell     
readily the names of every thing within 
her reach1 she was then taught words    
expressive of positive qualities1 as    
hardness and softness4 ,this was a very 
difficult process4 ,she was next taught 
those expressions of relation to place  
which she could understand4 ,a ring1 for
 example1 was taken and placed on a box2
 then the words were spelled to her1 and
 she repeated them from imitation4 ,the 
ring was afterward placed on a hat1     
desk1 etc4 ,in a similar manner she     
learned the use of in1 into1 etc4 ,she  
would illustrate the use of these and   

other words as follows3 ,she would spell
 on1 and then lay one hand on the other2
 then she would spell into1 and inclose 
one hand within the other4  ,laura very 
easily acquired a knowledge and use of  
active verbs1 especially those          
expressive of tangible action1 as to    
walk1 to run1 to sew1 to shake4 ,in     
acquiring a knowledge of language1 she  
used the words with which she had become
 acquainted in a general sense1 and     
according to the order of her sense of  
ideas4 ,thus1 in asking some one to give
 her bread1 she would first use the word
 expressive of the leading idea1 and    
say1 ,bread1 give1 ,laura4 ,if she      
wanted water1 she would say1 ,water1    
drink1 ,laura4  ,having acquired the use
 of substantives1 adjectives1 verbs1    
prepositions1 and conjunctions1 it was  
thought time to make the experiment of  
trying to teach her to write1 and to    
show her she might communicate her ideas
 to persons not in contact with her4 ,it
 was amusing to witness the mute        

amazement with which she submitted to   
the process2 the docility with which she
 imitated every motion1 and the         
perseverance with which she moved her   
pencil over and over again in the same  
track1 until she could form the letter4 
,but when at last the idea dawned upon  
her that by this mysterious process she 
could make other people understand what 
she thought1 her joy was boundless6     
,never did a child apply more eagerly   
and joyfully to any task than she did to
 this2 and in a few months she could    
make every letter distinctly1 and       
separate words from each other4  ,at    
this time ,laura actually wrote1        
unaided1 a legible letter to her mother1
 in which she expressed the idea of her 
being well1 and of her expectation of   
going home in a few weeks4 ,it was1     
indeed1 a very rude and imperfect       
letter1 couched in the language which a 
prattling infant would use4 ,still1 it  
shadowed forth and expressed to her     
mother the ideas that were passing in   

her own mind4 ,she had attained about   
the same command of language as common  
children three years of age4 ,but her   
power of expression was1 of course1 by  
no means equal to her power of          
conception2 for she had no words to     
express many of the perceptions and     
sensations which her mind doubtless     
experienced4 ,in the spring of #ahdj1   
when she had been under instruction     
about two and a half years1 returning   
fatigued from her journey home1 she     
complained of a pain in her side1 and on
 being asked what caused it1 she replied
 as follows3 ,laura did go to see       
mother1 ride did make ,laura side ache1 
horse was wrong1 did not run softly4    
,her improvement in the use of language 
was very rapid1 and she soon became1 in 
some respects1 quite a critic4 ,when one
 of the girls had the mumps1 ,laura     
learned the name of the disease2 soon   
after she had it herself1 but she had   
the swelling only on one side2 and some 
one saying to her1 ,you have got the    

mumps1 she replied quickly1 ,no1 no2 ,i 
have mump4  ,about this time ,laura     
learned the difference between the      
present and past tense of the verb4 ,and
 here her simplicity rebukes the clumsy 
irregularities of our language4 ,she    
learned jump1 jumped--walk1 walked1     
etc41 until she had an idea of the mode 
of forming the imperfect tense of       
regular verbs2 but when she came to the 
word see1 she insisted that it should be
 seed in the imperfect2 and upon going  
down to dinner1 she asked if it was eat1
 eated2 but being told it was eat1      
,,ate1 she seemed to try to express the 
idea that this transposition of the     
letters was not only wrong1 but         
ludicrous1 for she laughed heartily4    
,she continued this habit of forming    
words analogically4 ,when she had become
 acquainted with the meaning of the word
 restless1 she seemed to understand that
 less at the end of a word means        
without1 destitute of1 or wanting1 as   
rest-less1 fruit-less2 also that ful at 

the end of a word expresses abundance of
 what is implied by the primitive1 as   
bliss-ful1 play-ful4 ,this is clearly   
illustrated in the following            
expressions4 ,one day1 feeling weak1 she
 said1 ,i am very strongless4 ,being    
told this was not right1 she said1 ,why1
 you say restless when ,i do not sit    
still4 ,then she said1 ,i am very       
weakful4  ,my primary object in         
referring to ,laura has been to         
illustrate1 in a striking manner1 the   
practicability of the education of the  
senses to an extent not heretofore      
generally known4 ,to such an extent has 
the sense of touch been cultivated in   
her1 that her fingers serve as very good
 substitutes for both eyes and ears4 ,i 
will mention one or two instances which 
strikingly illustrate the acuteness of  
,laura's sense of touch4 ,when ,i was at
 the institution a few months ago1 she  
was told a person was present whom she  
had never met1 and who wished an        
introduction to her4 ,she reached her   

hand1 expecting to meet a stranger4 ,by 
mistake 7for her teachers design never  
to allow her to be deceived71 she took  
the hand of another gentleman1 whom she 
recognized immediately1 though she had  
never met him but twice before4 ,she    
recognizes her acquaintances in an      
instant by touching their hands or their
 dress1 and there are probably hundreds 
of individuals who1 if they were to     
stand in a row1 and hold out each a hand
 to her1 would be recognized by that    
alone4 ,the memory of these sensations  
is very vivid1 and she will readily     
recognize a person whom she has once    
thus touched4 ,many cases of this kind  
have been noticed2 such as a person     
shaking hands with her1 and making a    
peculiar pressure with one finger1 and  
repeating this on his second visit1     
after a lapse of many months1 being     
instantly known by her4 ,she has been   
known to recognize persons with whom she
 had thus simply shaken hands but once1 
after a lapse of six months4 ,but this  

is hardly more wonderful than that one  
should be able to recall impressions    
made upon the mind through the organ of 
sight1 as when we recognize a person of 
whom we have had but one glimpse a year 
before2 but it shows the exhaustless    
capacity of those organs which the      
,creator has bestowed1 as it were1 in   
reserve against accidents1 and which we 
too commonly allow to lie unused and    
unvalued4  ,,oliver ,,caswell4--,had ,i 
not devoted so much space to this       
subject already1 it would be interesting
 to consider the case of ,oliver1 who1  
like ,laura1 is deaf1 dumb1 and blind4  
,his experience is full of interest1    
though less striking than that already  
presented4 ,his progress in learning    
language1 and in acquiring intellectual 
knowledge1 is comparatively slow1       
because he has not that fineness of     
fiber and that activity of temperament  
which enable ,laura to struggle so      
successfully against the immense        
disadvantages under which they both     

labor4 ,oliver is a boy of rather       
unfavorable organization2 he had been   
deaf and blind from infancy2 he received
 no instruction until he was twelve     
years old1 and consequently lost the    
most precious years for learning2 he has
 nevertheless been taught to express his
 thoughts both by the finger language   
and by writing2 he has also become      
acquainted with the rudiments of the    
common branches of education1 and is    
intelligent and morally responsible4    
,his case proves1 therefore1 very       
clearly1 that the success of the attempt
 made to instruct ,laura ,bridgman was  
not owing solely to her uncommon        
capacity4  ,oliver's natural ability is 
small1 and his acquired knowledge very  
limited2 but his sense of right and     
wrong1 his obedience to moral           
obligations1 and his attachment to      
friends1 are very remarkable4#bd ,he    
never willfully violates the rights or  
injures the feelings of others1 and     
seldom shows any signs of temper when   

his own seem to be invaded4 ,he even    
bears the teasing of little boys with   
gentleness and patience4 ,he is very    
tractable1 and always obeys respectfully
 the requests of his teacher4 ,this     
shows the effect which kind and gentle  
treatment has had upon his character1   
for when he first went to the           
institution in ,boston he was sometimes 
very willful1 and showed occasional     
outbursts of temper which were fearfully
 violent4 ,it seems hardly possible1    
says ,dr4 ,howe1 that the gentle and    
affectionate youth1 who loves all the   
household and is beloved by all in      
return1 should be the same who a few    
years ago scratched and bit1 like a     
young savage1 those who attempted to    
control him4     #bd ,i have omitted    
much in the case of ,laura that ,i      
should have   retained but for want of  
room4 ,the moral qualities of her nature
 have   developed themselves most       
clearly4 ,she is honest to a proverb1   
having   never been known to take any   

thing belonging to another4 ,that she is
 a   ,christian there can be no doubt4  
,it is said in the report of her case   
for #ahdf1 that on the last occasion of 
her manifesting any impatience1   she   
said to ,miss ,wight1 her teacher1 ',i  
felt cross1 but in a minute ,i   thought
 of ,christ1 how good and gentle he was1
 and my bad feelings went   away4'   ,we
 regard it as a fact fully established  
that the sense of touch may be          
cultivated to a much greater extent than
 most persons are aware of4 ,the same   
remark will apply to the cultivation of 
all the senses4 ,we shall consider them 
separately4  ,,the ,,sense ,,of         
,,touch4--,the remarks already made     
apply chiefly to this sense4 ,the nerves
 that supply it proceed from the        
anterior half of the spinal cord4 ,this 
sense is most delicate where there are  
the greatest number of nervous          
filaments1 and those of the largest     
size4 ,the hands1 and especially the    
fingers1 have a most delicate and nice  

sense of touch1 though the sense is     
extended over the whole body1 in every  
part of which it is less or more acute4 
,in this respect1 then1 this sense is   
unlike the others1 which are confined to
 small spaces1 as we shall see when we  
come to consider them4 ,the action of   
the sensitive nerves depends upon the   
state of the brain1 and the condition of
 the system generally4 ,in sound and    
perfect sleep1 when the brain is        
inactive1 ordinary impressions made upon
 the skin are unobserved4 ,fear and     
grief diminish the impressibility of    
this tissue1 while hope and joy increase
 it4 ,the quantity and quality of the   
blood also influence sensation4 ,if this
 vital fluid becomes impure1 or its     
quantity is diminished1 the sensibility 
of the skin will be impaired thereby4   
,whatever affects the general health    
affects the healthy action of this      
sense4 ,it is also much affected by     
sudden changes in temperature4 ,if the  
skin is wounded while under the         

influence of cold1 the pain will be     
slight4 ,by carrying this chilling      
influence too far1 the surface becomes  
entirely destitute of sensation4 ,this  
is produced by the contraction of the   
blood-vessels upon the surface4 ,on the 
contrary1 when the chilled extremities  
are suddenly exposed to heat1 the rapid 
enlargement of the contracted           
blood-vessels excites the nerves unduly1
 which causes the pain experienced on   
such occasions4  ,the sensibility of the
 nerves depends much upon the habits of 
persons4 ,suppose two boys go out to    
play when the thermometer stands at the 
freezing point1 and that one of them has
 been accustomed to exercise in the open
 air1 and to practice daily ablution1   
while the other one has been confined   
most of the time to a warm room1 and has
 been accustomed to wash only his hands 
and face4 ,the skin of the former1 other
 things being equal1 will be active and 
healthy1 while that of the latter will  
be enfeebled and diseased4 ,the organs  

of touch diffused over the body at the  
surface will be very differently        
affected in these two boys1 and the     
perceptions of their minds will be alike
 dissimilar4 ,one will be roused to     
action1 and will feel just right for    
some animating game4 ,both body and mind
 will be elastic and joyous4 ,he will   
bound like the roe1 make the welkin ring
 with his merry shout1 and return to the
 bosom of his family with a gladdened   
heart1 ready to impart and receive      
pleasure1 while the other boy will be   
too keenly affected by the contact of   
the air1 and think it too cold to stay  
out of doors4 ,he will thrust his hands 
into his pockets1 and curl himself up   
like one decrepit with age4 ,his teeth  
will chatter and his whole frame        
tremble4 ,of course1 very different     
reflections will be awakened in his     
mind4 ,he will hurry back to the        
fireside1 thinking winter a very dismal 
season1 and will be apt to fret himself 
and all about him1 because of the       

confinement from which he has not the   
resolution to break out4  ,the          
sensibility of the cutaneous nerves in  
these two cases depends upon the habits 
of the persons4 ,if the latter would    
practice frequent ablutions1 and excite 
a healthy action in the skin by friction
 and exercise1 and conform to other laws
 of health1 he would experience all that
 gladness of heart1 and elasticity of   
body and mind1 which the other is       
supposed to enjoy4 ,hence the advantages
 resulting from a strict conformity to  
the laws of health in this particular as
 well as in others that are generally   
regarded as more important4  ,the       
general law that the exercise of a      
faculty increases its power is          
applicable to the senses4 ,we have      
referred to the blind1 who read as      
rapidly as seeing persons by passing    
their fingers over raised letters1 the  
sense of touch being substituted by them
 for that of vision4 ,nor is the        
education of this sense useful to the   

blind merely4 ,it may frequently be     
appealed to with great advantage by all 
who have cultivated it4 ,the miller1 for
 example1 can judge more accurately of  
the quality of flour and meal1 by       
passing some between his fingers than by
 the exercise of vision4 ,the           
cloth-dresser1 also1 by the aid of this 
sense1 not only marks the nicest shades 
of texture in examining cloths of       
different qualities1 but in many        
instances learns to distinguish colors  
by the sense of touch with perhaps      
greater accuracy than is common with    
seeing persons4  ,,the ,,sense ,,of     
,,taste4--,the sense of taste bears the 
greatest resemblance to the sense of    
feeling4 ,the upper surface of the      
tongue is the principal agent in        
tasting1 though the lips1 the palate1   
and the internal surface of the cheeks  
participate in this function1 as does   
the upper part of the oesophagus4 ,the  
multitude of points called papillae1    
scattered over the upper surface of the 

tongue1 constitute the more immediate   
seat of this sense4 ,it is in these     
sensitive papillae that the             
ramifications of the gustatory or       
tasting nerves terminate4 ,when fluids  
are taken into the mouth1 and especially
 those whose taste is pungent1 these    
papillae dilate and erect themselves1   
and the particular sensation produced is
 transmitted to the brain through the   
medium of the minute filaments of the   
gustatory nerves4  ,in order fully to   
gratify the taste in eating dry1 solid  
food1 it is necessary that the food be  
first reduced to a liquid state1 or1 at 
least1 that it be thoroughly moistened4 
,nature has made full provision for this
 in furnishing the mouth with salivary  
glands1 whose secretions are most       
abundant when engaged in masticating    
dry1 hard substances4 ,these quickened  
secretions contribute to gratify the    
taste and increase the pleasure of      
eating1 and1 at the same time1          
materially aid in the important         

processes of mastication and digestion4 
,nature1 also1 with her accustomed      
bounty1 has furnished man with a great  
variety of articles for food4 ,by this  
means the various tastes of different   
persons may be gratified1 although1 in  
many instances1 those articles of food  
which are most agreeable to some persons
 are extremely disagreeable to others4  
,many persons can not eat the most      
nourishing food1 as fruits1 butter1     
etc41 because to them the taste of these
 articles is disagreeable4 ,but this is 
very easily accounted for1 as in the    
mouth the food mixes with various fluids
 that differ in different persons1 and  
in the same person at different times4  
,these fluids1 and particularly the     
saliva1 assist in the formation and     
change of taste4 ,this accounts not only
 for the different tastes of different  
persons1 but also for the varying taste 
of the same persons1 and for that       
fickleness of taste which is so common  
in sickness1 when the fluids of the     

mouth1 in a disordered and deranged     
state1 mix with the food1 and produce   
the disagreeable taste so often         
complained of at such times1 and which1 
moreover1 occasionally create a         
permanent dislike for food that was     
previously much relished4  ,this sense  
was given to men and animals to guide   
them in the selection of their food1 and
 to enable them to guard against the use
 of articles that would be injurious if 
introduced into the stomach4 ,in the    
inferior animals1 the sense of taste    
still answers the original design of its
 bestowment2 but in man1 it has been    
abused and perverted by the use of      
artificial stimulants1 which have       
created an acquired taste that1 in most 
persons1 is very detrimental to health4 
,this sense is so modified by habit1    
that1 not unfrequently1 articles which  
were at first exceedingly offensive1    
become1 at length1 highly agreeable4 ,it
 is in this manner that many persons1   
whose sense of taste has been impaired  

or perverted1 have formed the disgusting
 and ruinous habits of smoking and      
chewing tobacco1 and of using           
stimulating and intoxicating drinks4    
,but these pernicious habits1 and all   
similar indulgences1 lessen the         
sensibility of the gustatory nerve1 and 
ultimately destroy the natural relish   
for healthful food and drink4 ,by this  
means1 also1 the digestive powers become
 disordered1 and the general health is  
materially impaired4 ,all persons1 then1
 should seek to preserve the natural    
integrity of this sense1 and to restore 
it immediately to healthy action when at
 all depraved1 for upon this depends    
much of health and longevity1 of        
happiness and usefulness4  ,this sense  
may be rendered very acute by           
cultivation1 as is illustrated by       
persons who are accustomed to taste     
medicines1 liquors1 teas1 etc4 ,it      
ought1 however1 to be chiefly exercised 
in partaking of those simple articles of
 food and drink which are most conducive

 to health4 ,in its natural state it    
prefers these1 and if depraved it will  
soon recover a healthy tone1 if not     
continually tempted by stimulating      
substances4 ,this is beautifully        
illustrated in thousands of instances   
all over our country by persons who were
 once accustomed to use strong drink1   
but who have substituted for it         
sparkling water1 a beverage prepared by 
,god himself to nourish and invigorate  
his creatures1 and beautify his         
footstool4  ,,the ,,sense ,,of          
,,smell4--,the sense of taste has       
received a faithful companion in that of
 smell4 ,the beneficent ,creator1 with  
that wisdom which characterizes all his 
works1 has very wisely placed the organ 
of this sense just above the mouth1 in  
order that the scent of many things that
 are hurtful may warn us from partaking 
of them before they reach the mouth4    
,the air-passages of the nose1 in which 
this sense is located1 are lined with a 
thin skin1 called the mucous membrane1  

which is continuous with the lining     
membrane of the parts of the throat and 
of the external skin4 ,upon this        
membrane the olfactory nerve ramifies4  
,the odoriferous particles of matter    
that float in the air come in contact   
with these fine and sensitive nerves as 
the air rushes through the nostrils1 and
 the impression is conveyed to the brain
 by the olfactory nerve4 ,the mucous    
membrane1 upon which this ramifies1 is  
of considerable extent in man4 ,in the  
lower animals it is less or more        
extensive1 according to the degree of   
acuteness of this sense4 ,this membrane 
is full of little glands that are       
continually giving off thick mucus1 and 
especially when the membrane is         
inflamed4 ,there is a small canal       
leading from the eyes to the nose1      
through which a fluid1 that also forms  
tears1 is constantly passing when the   
passage is clear4 ,it is the office of  
this fluid to moisten and thin the mucus
 of the nose4 ,when this mucous is too  

abundant1 as in some stages of a cold1  
and especially if it becomes dry from   
the closing of the canal leading from   
the eyes1 or from any other cause1 as   
fever1 the sense of smell will be       
greatly impaired1 if not entirely       
suspended4 ,it is1 indeed1 not          
unfrequently permanently injured in this
 way1 and sometimes is irrecoverably    
lost4  ,the sensation of smell1 it      
should be borne in mind1 is produced by 
a kind of odoriferous vapor1 very fine  
and invisible1 that flies off from      
nearly all bodies4 ,the air which       
contains this vapor is drawn into the   
nose1 and is in this way brought into   
contact with the very delicate nerves of
 smell that ramify the membrane which   
lines the air-passages of this organ4   
,it is only when the exceedingly small  
particles of which the odor of various  
bodies is composed come in contact with 
the minute ramifications of the         
olfactory nerve that this sensation is  
produced4 ,in order to protect these    

sensitive nerves1 as well as to prevent 
the introduction into the lungs of      
injurious substances1 the air-passages  
of the nose are furnished with hairy    
appendages1 which are less or more      
abundant according to the size of these 
passages4 ,these intercept any foreign  
substances that enter the nose1 and thus
 irritate the mucous membrane1 and cause
 a quick and powerful contraction of the
 diaphragm1 by which the offending      
matter is immediately expelled4 ,this   
phenomenon1 which is called sneezing1   
depends upon a connection of the        
olfactory with the respiratory nerves4  
,this sense not only comes in to the aid
 of taste in enabling man and the lower 
animals to select proper food1 and avoid
 that which is injurious1 but it also   
gives us positive and varied pleasure by
 the inhalation of agreeable odors1     
while1 at the same time1 it enables us  
to avoid an infectious atmosphere1 and  
all objects whose odors are offensive   
and hurtful4  ,it is true that man can  

accustom himself to nearly all kinds of 
odor1 even to those that at first are   
very disagreeable4 ,he indeed not       
unfrequently so vitiates the sense of   
smell as actually to prefer those scents
 which1 to persons who have preserved   
the integrity of this sense1 are        
regarded as exceedingly offensive1 and  
even filthy4 ,but why1 let me ask1 did  
the ,creator give us the sense of smell8
 ,was it to be thus perverted8 ,no1     
indeed3 it was1 without doubt1 that we  
might enjoy the refreshing fragrance of 
flowers and herbs1 of food and drink2   
and also that we might distinguish      
between air that is pure and healthful1 
and that which is impure and infectious4
 ,as most articles of food which are    
agreeable to the smell are wholesome1   
and as those which are disagreeable are 
generally unwholesome1 so1 also1 those  
states of the atmosphere which are      
grateful to this sense are salubrious1  
and those odors which are pleasant are  
healthful1 while air which is ungrateful

 will generally be found injurious to   
health1 as will also all those odors    
which are unpleasant to this sense when 
in a healthful state4 ,he who has had   
occasion to enter a crowded court-room1 
lecture-room1 church1 or assembly-room  
of whatever kind1 which has been        
occupied for a considerable time without
 adequate ventilation1 can not fail to  
remember the unwelcome impression made  
upon his nasal organs when first he     
inhaled the vitiated atmosphere within1 
though by degrees he might have become  
accustomed to it1 did he remain1 so as  
ultimately to become well-nigh          
insensible to its noisome influence4    
,but let such and all others be well    
assured that1 however offensive such a  
fetid atmosphere may be to the smell1 it
 is equally injurious to the health4    
,and let those who1 having returned from
 a morning walk or healthful exercise in
 a salubrious atmosphere1 have had      
occasion to revisit the small and       
unventilated lodging-room in which they 

spent a restless night without          
refreshing sleep1 perceive1 in the      
sickening smell1 a sufficient cause for 
all their pains and aches1 and wonder   
how they survived such a gross violation
 of the organic laws4  ,all of the      
senses may be improved by education4    
,the sense of smell constitutes no      
exception to this rule4 ,let none be    
discouraged1 then2 for the more we      
accustom our lungs and nasal organs to  
pure air1 the more will they require it1
 and the more readily will they detect  
the presence of the least impurity4     
,this sense becomes very acute in deaf  
persons1 and even more so in the case of
 those that are blind4 ,the reason is   
obvious2 for1 as they are led of        
necessity to rely upon it more than     
persons who have all the senses1 it     
becomes thereby developed1 and is       
enabled more accurately to judge of the 
properties of whatever is submitted to  
its scrutiny4 ,seeing persons rarely    
partake of any article of food1 and     

especially of any thing new1 without    
first smelling it1 and blind persons    
never2 for this is the only means by    
which they can judge of its             
wholesomeness or unwholesomeness without
 tasting it4  ,whatever stupefies the   
brain1 impairs the healthy action of the
 nerve of smell1 or thickens the        
membrane that lines the nasal cavities1 
and thus diminishes the sensibility of  
the nerves ramified upon it1 injures    
this sense4 ,all these effects are      
produced by the habitual use of snuff1  
which1 when introduced into the nose1   
diminishes the sensibility of the       
nerves1 and thickens the lining         
membrane4 ,by its use the air-passages  
through the nostrils sometimes become   
completely obstructed4 ,it is on this   
account that most habitual snuff-takers 
are compelled to open their mouths in   
order to breathe freely4 ,it has been   
well said1 that if ,nature had intended 
that the nose should be used as a       
snuff-hole1 she would doubtless have put

 it on the other end up4  ,,the ,,sense 
,,of ,,hearing4--,the external ear1     
although curiously shaped1 is not the   
most important part of the organ whose  
function it is to take cognizance of    
sounds4 ,in the transmission of sound to
 the brain1 the vibrations of the air   
produced by the sonorous body are       
collected by the external ear1 and      
conducted through the auditory canal to 
the drum of the ear1 which is so        
arranged that it may be relaxed or      
tightened like the head of an ordinary  
drum4 ,that its motion may be free1 the 
air contained within the drum has free  
communication with the external air by  
an open passage1 called the ,eustachian 
tube1 leading to the back of the mouth4 
,this tube is sometimes obstructed by   
wax1 when a degree of deafness ensues4  
,but when the obstruction is removed in 
the effort of sneezing or otherwise1 a  
crack or sudden noise is generally      
experienced1 accompanied usually with an
 immediate return of acute hearing4     

,the ear-drum performs a two-fold       
office2 for while it aids in the        
transmission of sound from without to   
the internal ear1 it at the same time   
modifies the intensity of sound4 ,this  
softening of the sound is effected by   
the relaxation of a muscle when sounds  
are so acute as to be painful2 but when 
listening to low sounds1 the drum is    
rendered tense by the contraction of    
this muscle1 and the sounds become1 by  
this means1 more audible4 ,the          
vibrations made on the drum are         
transmitted by the tympanum--an         
irregular bony cavity--to the internal  
ear1 which is filled with a watery      
fluid4 ,in this fluid the filaments of  
the auditory nerve terminate1 which     
receive and transmit the sound to the   
brain4  ,the ear has the power of       
judging of the direction from which     
sound comes1 as is strikingly           
exemplified in the fact that when horses
 or mules march in company at night1    
those in front direct their ears        

forward1 and those in the rear turn them
 backward1 while those in the center    
turn them laterally or across1 the whole
 troop seeming to be actuated by a      
feeling to watch the common safety4     
,this is also illustrated by four or six
 horse teams1 and is a fact with which  
coachmen are familiar4 ,it is further   
illustrated by the dog1 and many other  
animals4 ,the external ear of man is    
likewise furnished with muscles2 and    
savages are said to have the power of   
moving or directing their ears at       
pleasure1 like a horse1 to catch sounds 
as they come from different directions2 
but few men in civilized life retain    
this power4  ,the acuteness of this     
sense in men and animals1 other things  
being equal1 depends upon the size of   
the ear4 ,in timid animals1 as the hare 
and the rabbit1 the ear is very large4  
,they are thus apprized of the approach 
of an enemy in time to flee to a place  
of safety4  ,the ear-trumpet--which is a
 tube wide at one end1 where the sound  

enters1 and narrow at the other1 where  
the ear is applied--is constructed on   
this principle1 its sides being so      
curved that1 according to the law of    
reflection1 all the sound which enters  
it is brought to a focus in the narrow  
end4 ,it thus increases many fold the   
intensity of a sound which reaches the  
ear through it1 and enables a person who
 has become deaf to common conversation 
to mix again with pleasure in society4  
,the concave hand held behind the ear   
answers in some degree the purpose of an
 ear-trumpet4  ,the ,ear of ,dionysius1 
in the dungeons of ,syracuse1 was a     
notorious instance of a sound-collecting
 surface4 ,the roof of the prison was so
 formed as to collect the words1 and    
even whispers1 of the unhappy prisoners1
 and to direct them along a hidden      
conduit to where the tyrant sat         
listening4  ,acuteness of hearing       
requires the healthy action of the      
brain1 and particularly of that portion 
of it from which the auditory nerve     

proceeds1 combined with perfection in   
the structure and functions of the      
different parts of the ear4 ,the best   
method1 then1 of retaining and improving
 the hearing1 is to observe well the    
general laws of health1 and particularly
 to avoid every thing that will in the  
least impair the structure or healthy   
action of the parts immediately         
concerned in the exercise of this       
function4 ,inflammatory fevers1         
affections of the brain1 and injuries   
upon the head1 are among the more common
 causes of imperfect hearing4 ,hence the
 impropriety of striking children upon  
the head in correcting them1 whether in 
the family or in the school4 ,the       
instances are not few in which deafness1
 and the impairing of the mental        
faculties1 have resulted from that      
barbarous practice familiarly known as  
boxing the ears4 ,this inhuman practice 
is likely to result in injury to the    
drum of the ear1 either in thickening   
this membrane1 or in diminishing its    

vibratory character4 ,inflammation of   
the ear-drum1 either acute or chronic1  
is the common cause of its increased    
thickness4 ,how often this is produced  
by blows1 the reader may judge4         
,diminution of the vibratory character  
of the ear-drum may result from an      
accumulation of wax upon its outer      
surface4 ,in such cases chronic         
inflammation of the parts is not        
unfrequently the result of the          
injudicious practice of attempting its  
removal by introducing the heads of pins
 into the ear4  ,this wax1 it should be 
known1 is designed to subserve an       
important end2 for the tube leading from
 the external ear1 being1 like the nose1
 constantly open1 is liable to the      
entrance of foreign bodies1 such as     
dust1 insects1 and the like4 ,but1      
fortunately1 it is not left without the 
means of defense2 for on its inside     
there are numerous fine bristles1 which1
 interlacing each other1 interpose a    
barrier to the entrance of every thing  

but sound4 ,moreover1 between the roots 
of these hairs there are numerous little
 glands1 that secrete a nauseous1 bitter
 wax1 which1 by its offensiveness1      
either deters insects from entering1 or 
entangles them and prevents their       
advance in case they do enter4 ,this    
wax1 then1 is very serviceable4 ,but its
 usefulness does not stop here4 ,when   
the ear becomes dry from a deficiency of
 it1 the hearing becomes imperfect1 as  
also when it is thin and purulent4 ,this
 wax not unfrequently becomes hard and  
obstructs the tube1 causing less or more
 deafness4 ,but this form of deafness   
may be easily cured1 even though it has 
existed for years2 for1 having softened 
the accumulations of viscid wax by      
dropping animal oil into the ear1 they  
may be removed by the injection of warm 
soap-suds1 which is an effectual and    
safe remedy4  ,the sense of hearing is  
perhaps as susceptible of cultivation as
 any of the senses4 ,the ,indian in the 
forest1 who is accustomed to listen to  

the approach of his enemies or of his   
prey1 acquires such acuteness of hearing
 as to be able to detect sounds that    
would be inaudible to persons living    
amid the din of civilized life4 ,the    
blind1 also1 who of necessity are led to
 rely more upon this sense than seeing  
persons1 excel in the acuteness of their
 hearing4 ,they recognize their         
acquaintances by the exercise of this   
sense as readily as persons usually do  
by that of sight1 an attainment which   
very few seeing persons make1 and yet   
one that is perhaps within the reach of 
ninety-nine persons in every hundred4   
,the blind judge with great accuracy the
 distance of persons in conversation1 of
 carriages in motion1 and of all        
sonorous bodies whose vibrations reach  
their ears4 ,they even estimate with    
remarkable correctness the distance and 
height of buildings by the reflection or
 interception of sound4 ,it is in       
consequence of the acuteness of this    
sense1 acquired by careful cultivation1 

that the blind1 as a class1 have become 
so generally and justly distinguished   
for their pre-eminence in instrumental  
music4 ,this enables them also to       
cultivate vocal music with more than    
ordinary success4  ,the due cultivation 
of the sense of hearing will contribute 
vastly to promote our intellectual and  
moral well-being4 ,if it be true1 as we 
are told it is by those who have been   
engaged in teaching both the deaf and   
the blind1 that the absence of hearing  
is even a more formidable impediment to 
the communication of knowledge than that
 of sight1 we must infer that all       
imperfections of the organ of hearing   
itself1 or in the manner of using it1   
must correspondingly lessen the accuracy
 of the knowledge we receive through    
that organ4 ,the meaning of language    
very often is conveyed not so much by   
the words themselves as in the tones of 
voice in which the words are uttered4   
,if1 therefore1 the hearing be          
indistinct1 or there be no habit formed 

of careful attention to the inflections 
of sound1 the impressions received from 
what we hear must often be inaccurate4  
,our speech1 too1 will be far less      
agreeable1 and be inefficient1 even if  
it be not positively inarticulate4 ,we  
owe it to others1 no less than to       
ourselves1 then1 to cultivate the powers
 of the voice--the common instrument    
that ,god has given us for the          
interchange of thought1 sentiment1 and  
feeling1 and which1 though so common1 is
 the most perfect of all instruments for
 the transmission of sound4 ,yet how    
deplorably is it neglected6 how         
shamefully is it misused6 ,it can be    
fully developed and made what it is     
capable of being only through the       
influence of the ear4 ,if this organ be 
neglected1 the voice must needs be      
imperfect4 ,and the voices of many      
persons are through life imperfect and  
disagreeable1 because they were not     
carefully trained in early life to      
articulate distinctly1 much less to     

utter musical sounds4 ,the opinion is   
confidently expressed by those who are  
best qualified to decide the matter1    
that nearly all children might be taught
 to sing1 if proper attention were paid 
early enough to the use they make of    
their ears and their organs of sound4   
,the careful training of these should be
 considered an indispensable part of a  
school-teacher's as well as of a        
parent's duty4  ,the ear will find      
appropriate discipline in               
distinguishing1 without aid from the    
eye1 the causes of various sounds1 as   
the opening of a door1 the shutting of a
 knife1 the dropping of various coins1  
the moving of different articles of     
furniture1 etc4 ,it may also find       
appropriate exercise in determining the 
direction from which various sounds     
proceed2 in recognizing acquaintances by
 their natural voices1 and in detecting 
the counterfeit voices of companions2 in
 arranging and classifying the          
elementary sounds of the language1 and  

in determining all the different musical
 tones2 in judging of the genus and     
species of birds by their chirping1 of  
the distance and nature of sonorous     
bodies of various kinds1 etc41 etc4     
,these are some of the direct means of  
improving this sense3 others will       
suggest themselves to the thoughtful    
reader4  ,,the ,,sense ,,of             
,,sight4--,the sense of sight1 which is 
the most refined and admirable of all   
the senses1 still remains to be         
considered4 ,the senses generally serve 
as interpreters between the material    
universe without and the spirit within4 
,but it is more especially by the sense 
of sight that we are enabled to hold    
converse with the external world4       
,without it we should be deprived of a  
large portion of the pleasures of life  
not only1 but even of the means of      
maintaining our existence4 ,it is       
through the sense of vision that the    
wisdom1 power1 and benevolence of the   
,deity are chiefly manifested to us4  ,i

 shall describe the apparatus of vision 
only so far as is necessary in order to 
subserve my leading object1 which is the
 preservation and improvement of this   
sense1 and the means of rendering it    
tributary to intellectual and moral     
culture4 ,the eye1 which is the organ of
 vision1 is an optical instrument of the
 most perfect construction4 ,it is      
surrounded by coats1 which contain      
refracting mediums1 called humors4      
,there are three coats1 called the      
sclerotic1 the choroid1 and the retina2 
and three humors1 called the aqueous1   
the crystalline1 and the vitreous4  ,the
 sclerotic or outer coat1 called also   
the white of the eye1 is an opaque1     
fibrous membrane4 ,it has almost the    
firmness of leather1 possesses little   
sensibility1 and is rarely exposed to   
inflammation or other diseases4 ,it     
invests the eye on every side except the
 front1 and besides maintaining its     
globular form and preserving its        
internal and delicate structure1 serves 

for the attachment of those muscles     
which move this organ4 ,the opening in  
the fore part of this opaque coat is    
filled by the transparent cornea1 which 
resembles a watch crystal in shape1 and 
is received into a groove in the front  
part of the sclerotic coat in the same  
manner that a watch-glass is received   
into its case4 ,but for this arrangement
 light could not gain admission to the  
eye4  ,the choroid coat1 which          
constitutes the second investing        
membrane of the eye1 is of a dark brown 
color upon its outer surface1 and of a  
deep black within4 ,the internal surface
 of this membrane secretes a dark       
substance resembling black paint1 upon  
which the retina is spread out1 and     
which is of great importance in the     
function of vision1 as it seems to      
absorb the rays of light immediately    
after they have struck upon the sensible
 surface of the retina4  ,the retina1   
which is the third and innermost        
membrane of the eye1 is the expansion of

 the optic nerve1 and constitutes the   
immediate seat of vision4 ,such is the  
arrangement of the humors of the eye1   
and so perfectly are they adapted to the
 functions they are called upon to      
perform1 that in the healthy state of   
this organ1 the light entering the pupil
 is so refracted as to paint upon the   
retina an exact image of the objects    
from which it proceeds4 ,the optic      
nerve1 whose expansion forms the retina1
 receives this image and transmits it to
 the mind4  ,arnott has well remarked1  
that a whole printed sheet of a         
newspaper may be represented on the     
retina on less surface than that of a   
finger nail2 and yet not only shall     
every word and letter be separately     
perceivable1 but even any imperfection  
of a single letter4 ,or1 more wonderful 
still1 when at night an eye is turned up
 to the blue vault of heaven1 there is  
portrayed on the little concave of the  
retina the boundless concave of the sky1
 with every object in its just          

proportions4 ,there a moon in beautiful 
miniature may be sailing among her      
white-edged clouds1 and surrounded by a 
thousand twinkling stars1 so that to an 
animalcule supposed to be within and    
near the pupil1 the retina might appear 
another starry firmament with all its   
glory4  ,besides these three coats1 and 
the cornea which constitutes about one  
fifth of the anterior portion of the    
outer coat1 it is necessary to notice   
the iris1 so called from its variety of 
color in different persons1 and upon    
which alone the color of the eye        
depends4 ,the iris is a circular        
membrane situated just behind the       
cornea1 and is attached to one of the   
coats at its circumference4 ,in its     
center is a small round hole1 called the
 pupil2 and sometimes spoken of         
familiarly as the sight of the eye1 as  
no light can enter the eye except       
through it4 ,the iris possesses the     
power of dilating and contracting1 so as
 to admit more or less light1 as it may 

be needed4 ,this change in the size of  
the pupil is effected by two sets of    
muscular fibers4 ,the first set converge
 from the circumference of the iris to  
the circular margin of the pupil1 and   
constitute the radiated muscle4 ,the    
outer ends of these fibers are attached 
to the sclerotic coat1 which is         
unyielding2 hence1 when they contract1  
the pupil enlarges to receive more      
light4 ,the other set is composed of    
circular fibers1 which go round in the  
iris from the border to the pupil1 and  
constitute the orbicular muscle1 the    
contraction of which diminishes the size
 of the pupil4 ,when too much light     
enters the eye1 the excited and         
sensitive retina immediately gives      
warning of the danger1 and the nerves1  
which are plentifully distributed to the
 iris1 stimulate the orbicular muscle to
 contract1 and the radiated one to      
relax1 by which the size of the pupil is
 lessened4 ,but when the light which    
enters the pupil is insufficient to     

transmit a distinct image of objects to 
the brain1 the orbicular muscle relaxes1
 and the radiated one contracts1 so as  
to enlarge the pupil4 ,the contraction  
of the pupil is readily seen when a     
person passes from a darkened room into 
a bright sunlight1 or when a light is   
first brought into a room in the        
twilight of evening4 ,any person may    
notice this contraction in his own eye  
by beholding himself in a glass         
immediately after passing from a dark to
 a well-lighted room4 ,so1 also1 when a 
person looks at an object near the eye1 
the pupil contracts1 but when he looks  
at an object more remote1 it dilates4   
,the muscles of the iris are somewhat   
under the control of the will2 for most 
persons can contract or dilate the      
pupil1 in some degree1 at pleasure4     
,some persons possess this faculty to a 
great extent4  ,the three humors of the 
eye have been compared to the glasses of
 a telescope1 and the coats to the tube1
 which keeps them in their places4 ,the 

aqueous humor is situated in the fore   
part of the eye1 and is divided by the  
iris into what are called the anterior  
and posterior chambers of the eye4 ,the 
crystalline humor1 or lens1 is situated 
immediately behind the aqueous humor1 a 
short distance back of the pupil1 and is
 a perfectly transparent double convex  
lens1 closely resembling in shape the   
common burning glass4 ,this resemblance 
does not stop here2 for this lens1 like 
the burning glass1 possesses the        
property of converging the rays of light
 which fall upon it1 and bringing them  
to a focus4 ,when this lens becomes so  
opaque as to obstruct the passage of    
light1 either partially or entirely1 a  
person is said to have a cataract4 ,this
 can be cured only by a surgical        
operation4 ,the vitreous humor1 situated
 back of the other two1 forms the       
principal part of the globe of the eye4 
,it differs from the aqueous in one     
important particular4 ,when that is     
discharged in extracting the crystalline

 lens for cataract or otherwise1 it will
 be restored again in a few hours1 and  
the eye will continue to perform its    
function4 ,but if this be discharged by 
accident1 the eye is irrecoverably lost4
 ,this1 however1 does not often occur2  
for1 as we shall presently see1 the eye 
is admirably fortified4  ,the eye is a  
perfect optical instrument1 infinitely  
surpassing all specimens of human skill4
 ,this is true1 view it in what light we
 may4 ,it not only possesses the power  
of so adjusting its parts as to adapt it
 to the examination of objects at       
different distances1 and in light of    
different degrees of intensity1 but we  
are enabled to direct it at will to     
objects above1 beneath1 or around us4   
,the various motions of the eye are     
produced by six little muscles4 ,these  
are attached at one extremity to the    
immovable bones of the orbit1 while at  
the other extremity they are inserted   
into the sclerotic coat1 four of them   
near its junction with the cornea1 by   

broad1 thin tendons1 which give to the  
white of the eye its pearly appearance4 
,these muscles are so arranged by the   
matchless skill of the ,architect as to 
enable the beholder to direct the eye to
 any object he chooses1 and to hold it  
there for any length of time that is    
compatible with the laws by which       
muscular exercise should be regulated4  
,by the slight or intense action of four
 of these1 called the straight muscles1 
the eye is less or more compressed1 and 
the relative positions of its humors are
 by this means so nicely adjusted as to 
enable us to view objects near by or at 
a distance4 ,the other two are called   
oblique muscles1 one of which1 with its 
long tendon passing through a           
cartilaginous loop1 acts upon the       
principle of the fixed pulley1 and turns
 the eye in a direction contrary to its 
own action4 ,when the external muscle   
becomes too short1 the eye turns out2   
but if the internal muscle is unduly    
contracted1 the eye turns inward1 toward

 the nose4 ,one eye is sometimes turned 
up or down1 but this is of less frequent
 occurrence4  ,it would be interesting  
to notice the protecting organs of the  
eye1 consisting of the orbit1 which is a
 deep bony socket1 in which the eye     
securely rests2 of the eye-brows1 which 
are two projecting arches1 covered with 
hair1 and so arranged as to prevent the 
moisture that accumulates upon the      
forehead1 in free perspiration1 from    
flowing into the eye2 of the eye-lids1  
which are two movable curtains for the  
protection of the eye1 and which secrete
 a fluid that moistens and lubricates   
it2 of the lachrymal gland1 with its    
ducts1 which keeps the eye constantly   
moist1 and whose secretions go on while 
we wake and when we sleep1 etc41 etc42  
but the preceding must suffice4  ,with  
this brief description of the apparatus 
of vision1 we proceed to the            
consideration of the means of preserving
 and improving this sense1 and of       
rendering it tributary to intellectual  

and moral culture4  ,the rule requiring 
that action should alternate with rest1 
which has been so often stated1 and     
which applies to all the organs of both 
body and mind1 should be especially     
observed in relation to the eye4 ,this  
organ requires exercise1 and light is   
its appropriate stimulus2 but injury is 
the inevitable consequence of keeping it
 too constantly employed1 or too        
intently fixed for a long time on any   
object4 ,whenever the eye is fixed for  
any length of time upon an object which 
it distinguishes with difficulty1 it    
experiences a painful sensation1 which  
is a sure indication that it has been   
overtaxed4 ,the sight is also impaired  
when the eye is too little used1 or when
 its natural stimulus is shut out1 as is
 strikingly illustrated in the case of  
persons confined in dungeons4 ,a        
distinguished oculist has said that many
 men daily impair or destroy their eyes 
by immoderate use1 and that not a few   
have done the same by too little use of 

them4  ,the exposure of the eyes to     
sudden transitions from weak to strong  
light is very injurious4 ,this may be   
regarded as one of the must prolific    
causes of weakness of sight4 ,the injury
 is generally gradual1 it is true1 but  
it is none the less fatal on that       
account4 ,the immediate sensation of    
pain1 when a strong light is brought    
into a dark room1 should be a sufficient
 warning to avoid such sudden extremes4 
,the iris dilates and contracts1 and    
thus enlarges or diminishes the size of 
the pupil as the light that fails upon  
the eye is faint or strong2 but this    
dilation and contraction are not        
instantaneous4 ,there are numerous      
instances on record in which total      
blindness has resulted from a sudden    
transition from darkness to the         
brilliancy of day4 ,the habit of looking
 at a bright light of any kind1 and     
especially of watching flashes of       
lightning1 which is practiced by many1  
is exceedingly dangerous4 ,the practice 

which many students and others indulge  
in1 of resting their eyes as the        
twilight of evening advances1 and       
allowing the pupil to dilate until it is
 quite dark1 and then suddenly          
introducing a bright light1 is a        
palpable violation of this rule1 and one
 that is sure1 sooner or later1 sensibly
 to injure the eyes4 ,the exposure of   
the eyes suddenly to a strong light upon
 waking from sleep1 and all sudden      
changes of whatever kind from darkness  
to intense light1 should be carefully   
avoided by persons who would preserve   
their sight unimpaired4  ,the strength  
of light used should be regulated       
according to the powers of the eye4     
,this is a general1 though a very       
important rule4 ,both the amount and the
 distribution of light should be such as
 to produce no unpleasant sensations4   
,the eye possesses a certain degree of  
adaptation to light1 according as it is 
intense or feeble4 ,some eyes require a 
stronger light than others1 but all eyes

 are injured by being used in light that
 is too intense or too feeble4 ,reading 
by a strong sunlight1 and by moon or    
star light1 may be adduced as           
illustrations which are alike painful   
and injurious4  ,too little light is    
well-nigh as injurious as too much1 as  
he can not fail to have noticed who has 
had occasion to travel a difficult road 
in a dark night4 ,the injury1 in such   
cases1 is two-fold2 for while1 on the   
one hand1 the radiated muscle of the    
iris is unduly contracted for a length  
of time1 in order sufficiently to       
enlarge the pupil to render objects     
visible1 the sensitive retina1 on the   
other hand1 is overtaxed to gain a      
knowledge of them in too feeble light4  
,the pain which the strained eye thus   
experiences is only an indication and a 
warning to the individual of the        
permanent injury he is inflicting upon  
this delicate organ4  ,rooms should be  
well and evenly lighted4 ,the irregular 
and flickering light of common lamps and

 candles is very injurious1 and should  
be avoided in the study1 and in all     
mechanical pursuits where the eye is    
much taxed4 ,the best oculists concur in
 the opinion that reflected and         
concentrated light are highly injurious4
 ,several cases of actual blindness are 
recorded as having occurred within a few
 years from exposure to concentrated    
light1 and weakness of sight that has   
unfitted the individual for usefulness  
through life has often been thus        
produced4 ,the rays of the sun are      
considered as peculiarly injurious when 
reflected from an opposite building or  
wall1 or even when they pass through a  
window1 and1 descending to the floor1   
are thence reflected to the eyes4 ,what1
 then1 shall we say of the habit of     
constructing school-rooms in such a     
manner that perhaps a majority of the   
scholars are obliged to write and study 
at desks upon which the direct rays of  
the sun shine for a considerable portion
 of the day unbroken unless it be by a  

passing cloud6 ,and yet thousands of    
school-houses are situated in such a    
manner as to create this very necessity 
all over our country4 ,at a moderate    
estimate1 the eyes of one hundred       
thousand children are taxed in this     
manner in the schools of the ,united    
,states every passing year4 ,a vast     
amount of discomfort and unhappiness is 
produced in this way that might easily  
be avoided1 would parents and teachers  
take the trouble4 ,any exposure of this 
kind should be immediately obviated1    
either by blinds1 or by curtains of some
 soft color4 ,a few newspapers are much 
better than nothing4 ,the desks and     
furniture should be of such a color that
 the eye may repose upon them with      
agreeable sensations4 ,nature is clothed
 with drapery whose color is refreshing 
to the eye2 and it is false taste1 as   
well as false philosophy1 which attempts
 to dazzle in order to please it4  ,the 
use of side lights is injurious4 ,the   
eye will accommodate itself to light of 

different degrees of intensity within a 
limited range1 but both eyes should be  
exposed to an equal degree of light4    
,the sympathy between the eyes is so    
great1 that if the pupil of one eye is  
dilated by being kept in the shade1 as  
must1 of course1 be the case where the  
light is on one side1 the eye which is  
exposed can not contract itself         
sufficiently for protection1 and is     
almost inevitably injured4  ,when       
viewing objects1 we should avoid1 as far
 as possible1 all oblique positions of  
the eye4 ,by neglecting this rule1 an   
unnatural and permanent contraction of  
the muscle is liable to be produced1 as 
is illustrated in the numerous instances
 of strabismus1 or cross-eye1 which are 
every where too common4  ,we should     
accustom the eye to viewing objects at  
different distances4 ,the muscles upon  
which the form of the eye and the size  
of the pupil depend are subject to the  
general laws of muscular action4 ,their 
strength and flexibility1 which are     

increased by healthful exercise1 are    
impaired by disuse4 ,hence students who 
have neglected this rule1 and have      
accustomed themselves for a long time to
 view objects near by1 lose the power of
 adjusting the eye so as to view things 
at a distance4 ,as a consequence1 they  
become near-sighted1 and put on glasses1
 when1 by a proper use of the eye1 their
 vision might have been preserved       
unimpaired many long years4 ,i know some
 students upon whom this habit became so
 firmly fixed before they were twenty   
years of age1 that they felt compelled  
to put on glasses1 but who1 unwilling to
 contract so pernicious a habit in early
 life1 commenced a course of discipline 
in accordance with the suggestions here 
given4 ,by perseverance1 their eyes not 
only recovered their former healthful   
action1 but became so improved that they
 now possess the sense of vision        
unimpaired not only1 but in a very high 
state of cultivation4  ,persons become  
near or long sighted as the objects to  

which they are accustomed to direct the 
eye are near or remote4 ,this is        
illustrated in the case of students1    
watch-makers1 and engravers1 who are    
accustomed to examine minute objects    
near the eye1 and1 as a consequence1    
become near-sighted2 and of surveyors1  
hunters1 and sailors1 who1 being        
accustomed to view objects at a         
distance1 become long-sighted4 ,by a    
proper discipline of the eye1 persons   
may attain and retain the power of      
viewing objects near by and at a        
distance1 as is illustrated in the case 
of those gunsmiths who are accustomed to
 manufacture guns1 and to try them in   
shooting at a mark at a great distance4 
,the preceding principles being borne in
 mind in their various applications4 ,i 
need1 perhaps1 state but one more rule4 
,he who would secure clear and distinct 
vision1 must observe all those rules    
which are necessary to keep the body in 
health4 ,the sympathy of the eyes with  
all the other organs of the body is     

wonderful and intimate4 ,there is no    
other organ whose strength depends so   
much on the general vigor of the system4
 ,strict temperance in eating and       
drinking may be regarded as an          
indispensable requisite for the         
preservation of healthy eyes4 ,to this  
may be attributed the clear heads of the
 ancient philosophers1 who1 unlike most 
students of the present day1 exercised  
their bodies and limbs as well as their 
minds4 ,their works are not the         
production of congested brains1 for     
these were not oppressed with blood     
belonging to other parts of the body4   
,they studied and thought1 and exercised
 both body and mind in the open air1 and
 thus observed the laws of health4 ,but 
among the multitudes of close students  
of the present day1 who complain of     
weakness of the eyes1 the misfortune is 
generally attributable to an almost     
total neglect of the first principles of
 health4  ,while we reproach and loathe 
the man whose eyes are red and weeping  

with the effects of intemperate         
drinking1 we cordially pity purblind    
students1 as in some sense martyrs to   
the cause of learning4 ,dr4 ,reynolds1 a
 distinguished ,american oculist1       
administers a rebuke to such which we   
fear is too often merited3 ,a closer    
examination of their history presents a 
very different result4 ,our sympathy may
 grow cool if we regard them with a     
physiologic eye4 ,it is a love of the   
flesh1 more than a love of the spirit1  
that too often clouds their vision4 ,it 
is too much food1 crowding with         
unnecessary blood the tender vessels of 
the retina4 ,it is too little exercise1 
allowing these accumulated fluids to    
settle down into fatal congestion4 ,it  
is positions wholly at variance with the
 freedom of the circulation1 and various
 other imprudences1 which are the       
results of carelessness or unjustifiable
 ignorance4 ',the day laborer may eat   
what he will1 provided it is wholesome1 
and his eyes will not suffer4 ,but let  

the student1 who is called upon to      
devote not only his eyes1 but his brain1
 to severe labor1 live upon highly      
nutritious food1 and such as is         
difficult of digestion1 and we shall    
soon see how his vision will be         
impaired1 through the vehement and      
persevering determination of blood to   
the head1 which such a course must      
inevitably occasion4' ,so speaks ,beer1 
whose extensive opportunities of        
observation have perhaps never been     
exceeded4 ,the daily practice of every  
observing oculist is filled with        
coincident experience4  ,among the      
prevalent habits of students by which   
the eyes are injured1 the same writer   
mentions the irritation produced by     
rubbing them on awaking in the morning1 
a practice which has in some cases      
occasioned permanent and incurable      
disease2 reading while the body is in a 
recumbent position2 using the eyes too  
early after the system has been affected
 with serious disease2 exercising them  

too much in the examination of minute   
objects2 the popular plan of using green
 spectacles1 and the use of tobacco4    
,light which is sufficient for distinct 
vision1 and which falls over the        
shoulder in an oblique direction1 from  
above1 upon the book or study table1 is 
generally regarded1 and with great      
propriety1 as best suited to the eyes4  
,some oculists prefer to have the light 
fall over the left shoulder4  ,the      
acuteness of this sense and the extent  
of its cultivation are very much greater
 in some individuals and classes of men 
than in others4 ,this is a fact that has
 been remarked by observing persons4    
,its consequences should not be         
overlooked1 for they are neither few nor
 unimportant4 ,those persons who have   
been long accustomed1 either by the     
necessity of their situation1 the       
example of those about them1 or the     
judicious care of parents and teachers1 
to observe attentively the relations of 
parts1 the symmetry of forms1 or the    

shades of color1 have eyes that are     
perpetually soliciting their minds to   
notice some beautiful or grand          
perceptions4 ,wherever they turn1 they  
espy some new1 and1 therefore1 curious  
arrangement of the elements of shape1   
some striking combination of light and  
shade1 or some delicious peculiarity of 
coloring4 ,the multiplicity and variety 
of their perceptions must and do        
increase the number of their thoughts1  
or give to their thoughts greater       
compass and definiteness4 ,such persons 
are likely to become poets1 or painters1
 or sculptors1 or architects4 ,at any   
rate1 they will appreciate and enjoy the
 productions of others who have devoted 
themselves to these delightful arts4    
,and will not such persons be most      
readily awakened to descry and adore the
 power1 the skill1 and the beneficence  
of the ,great ,architect who reared the 
stupendous fabric of the universe1 who  
devised the infinite variety of forms   
which diversify creation1 and whose     

pencil has so profusely decked every    
work with myriads of mingling dyes1     
resulting all from a few parent colors8 
,to an unpracticed eye1 the beauties and
 wonders of creation are all lost4 ,the 
surface of the earth is a blank1 or1 at 
best1 but a confused and misty page4    
,such an eye passes over this scene of  
things1 and makes no communication to   
the mind that will awaken thought1 much 
less enkindle the spirit of devout      
adoration1 and fill the soul with love  
to ,him whose universal love smiles     
every where4  ,mr4 ,may speaks no less  
sensibly than eloquently when he says1  
,i may be extravagant in my estimation  
of the importance of the culture of the 
eye and the ear1 but so it is1 that     
while ,i have been reading the writings 
of the ,hebrew ,prophets1 and of those  
other gifted bards who communed so      
intently with nature and with nature's  
,god1 it has seemed to me impossible    
that any one could enter fully into all 
the tenderness1 beauty1 and sublimity of

 their language1 or receive into his    
heart all its peculiarity of meaning1   
unless his own eye had been used to     
trace the skill of that hand which      
framed and fashioned every thing that   
is1 and to descry the delicacy of that  
pencil which has painted all the flowers
 of the field1 nor unless his own ear   
has learned to perceive the melody and  
harmony of sounds4  ,we can discipline  
the sight directly1 and to a very great 
extent2 and we can have the satisfaction
 of perceiving the progressive          
improvement of the faculty4 ,for this   
purpose1 every school should be         
furnished with appropriate apparatus4 ,a
 set of measures is indispensable4 ,i   
will illustrate by an example4 ,for the 
benefit of the primary department       
connected with a seminary of learning   
that was formerly for several years     
under my supervision1 ,i constructed a  
set of rules for linear measurement4    
,their breadth and thickness were       
uniform1 each being an inch wide and    

half an inch thick4 ,the set consisted  
of nine rules1 whose lengths were as    
follows3 four were each one foot long2  
one1 a foot and a half long2 two1 two   
feet2 one1 two and a half feet2 and one1
 three feet4 ,every rule had a small    
hole bored through each end4 ,i had also
 a number of small pins turned just the 
right size to fit these holes4 ,i have  
since submitted to several hundred      
teachers1 in institutes and elsewhere1  
my mode of combining and using these    
measures2 and from the deep interest    
which a large number of intelligent     
parents and teachers in different       
localities have manifested in the       
subject1 ,i venture to refer to it in   
this connection4 ,i first tried the     
experiment ten years ago1 with a class  
of about twenty children from four to   
seven years of age4 ,several of these   
could not read1 and some of them had not
 learned the alphabet4 ,the children    
were first led to observe carefully the 
length of these several rules1 until    

they could determine at sight the length
 of each4 ,for several of the first     
lessons some of them would misjudge4    
,they would1 for instance1 call a two   
foot rule one and a half or two and a   
half feet long4 ,in such cases their    
judgments were immediately corrected by 
the application of two one foot rules4  
,they were then led to observe with     
care1 tables1 desks1 etc41 and to       
estimate their length1 and were         
afterward permitted to measure them1 and
 discover the degree of accuracy in     
their decisions4 ,after obtaining the   
opinions of the children in relation to 
the length or height of an object1 ,i   
would measure it myself in the presence 
of the class4 ,when the class became a  
little experienced1 we examined the     
length1 breadth1 and height of rooms1 of
 houses1 and of churches2 and then the  
distance of objects less or more remote1
 correcting or confirming their         
estimates by the application of the rule
 or measure1 which gave a permanent     

interest to the exercise4 ,by exercising
 the class in this manner1 not to exceed
 half an hour a day1 they would1 at the 
end of the first quarter1 judge of each 
other's height1 of the height of persons
 generally1 of the length of various    
objects1 of the size of buildings1 and  
of the dimensions of yards1 gardens1 and
 fields1 with greater accuracy than the 
average of adult persons1 as was tested 
by actual measurement in some instances 
where there was a disagreement in       
opinion4  ,by holding these rules in    
different positions1 the children       
readily became familiar with the meaning
 and practical application of the terms 
perpendicular1 horizontal1 and oblique4 
,they would also tell which term is     
applicable to the different parts of the
 stove-pipe2 to the different parts of  
the furniture of the school-room2 to the
 floor1 sides of the room1 roof1 etc42  
and to all objects with which they were 
familiar4  ,but the reader may inquire1 
what is the use of the holes and the    

pins8 ,by pinning two rules together1   
one resting upon the other1 and then    
turning one of them around1 the class   
will readily gain a correct idea of the 
use of the term angle2 also of the terms
 acute angle1 right angle1 and obtuse   
angle4 ,by pinning three of these rules 
together at their ends1 the children not
 only see1 but can handle the simplest  
form of geometrical figures4 ,when this 
figure is defined1 they are enabled     
permanently to possess themselves of the
 meaning of the word triangle1 by the   
simultaneous exercise of three senses4  
,by combining rules of the same and     
different lengths1 they become familiar 
with equilateral1 isosceles1 scalene1   
right1 and obtuse angled triangles4 ,by 
combining1 in this way1 such a set of   
rules as ,i have described1 the child   
readily becomes familiar with the names 
and many of the properties of more than 
half a score of geometrical figures1    
with less effort on the part of the     
teacher than would be required to teach 

the child the names of the same number  
of letters4 ,these exercises1 then1 may 
well precede the learning of the        
alphabet1 or1 at least1 proceed         
simultaneously with it4 ,by this means  
the child's interest in the school is   
increased2 his senses are cultivated2 he
 is enabled better to fix his attention2
 he progresses more rapidly and         
thoroughly in his juvenile studies1 and 
at the same time lays the foundation for
 future excellence in penmanship and    
drawing1 and other useful arts4  ,the   
child may also be taught to discriminate
 the varieties of green in leaves and   
other things2 of yellow1 red1 and blue1 
in flowers and paints2 and to           
distinguish not only the shades of all  
the colors1 but their respective        
proportions in mixtures of two or more4 
,many persons1 for want of such early   
culture1 have grown to years without the
 ability of distinguishing between      
colors1 as others have who have         
neglected the culture of the ear without

 the ability of distinguishing between  
tunes4  ,drawing1 whether of maps1 the  
shape of objects1 or of landscapes1 is  
admirably adapted to discipline the     
sight4 ,children should be encouraged   
carefully to survey and accurately to   
describe the prominent points of a      
landscape1 both in nature and in        
picture4 ,let them point out the        
elevations and depressions2 the mowing1 
the pasture1 the wood1 and the tillage  
land2 the trees1 the houses1 and the    
streams4 ,listen to their accounts of   
their plays1 walks1 and journeys1 and of
 any events of which they have been     
witnesses4 ,in these and all other      
exercises of the sight1 children should 
be encouraged to be strictly accurate2  
and whenever it is practicable1 the     
judgment they pronounce and the         
descriptions they give should1 if       
erroneous1 be corrected by the truth4   
,children can not fail to be interested 
in such exercises2 and even where they  
have been careless and inaccurate       

observers1 they will soon become more   
watchful and exact4  ,it is by the      
benign influences of education only that
 the senses can be improved4 ,and still 
their culture has been entirely         
neglected by perhaps the majority of    
parents and teachers1 who in other      
respects have manifested a commendable  
degree of interest in this subject4     
,that by judicious culture the senses   
may be educated to activity and         
accuracy1 and be made to send larger and
 purer streams of knowledge to the soul1
 has been unanswerably proved by an     
accumulation of unquestionable          
testimony4 ,most persons1 however1 allow
 the senses to remain uneducated1 except
 as they may be cultivated by fortuitous
 circumstances4 ,eyes have they1 but    
they see not2 ears have they1 but they  
hear not2 neither do they understand4   
,it is not impossible1 nor perhaps      
improbable1 that he who has these two   
senses properly cultivated will derive  
more unalloyed pleasure in spending a   

brief hour in gazing upon a beautiful   
landscape1 in examining for the same    
length of time a simple flower1 or in   
listening to the sweet melody of the    
linnet as it warbles its song of praise1
 than those who have neglected the      
cultivation of the senses experience    
during their whole lives6  ,this subject
 commends itself to all who regard their
 individual happiness1 or who desire to 
render their usefulness as extensive as 
possible4 ,upon parents1 teachers1 and  
clergymen1 who are more immediately     
concerned in the correct education of   
the rising generation1 its claims are   
imperative4 ,let them be met1 in        
connection with other appropriate means 
now in use and hereafter to be put in   
requisition1 and our schools can not    
fail to become increasingly attractive2 
truancy1 hence1 will be less frequent1  
and the benign influences resulting from
 the correct education of the whole man 
will inspire the benevolent and         
philanthropic to renewed and increased  

efforts to secure the right education of
 all men1 a condition upon which the    
maximum of human happiness depends4     
,,chapter ,,vii4  ,,the ,,necessity ,,of
 ,,moral ,,and ,,religious ,,education4 
,the exaltation of talent1 as it is     
called1 above virtue and     religion1  
is the curse of the age4 ,education is  
now chiefly a     stimulus to learning1 
and thus men acquire power without the  
principles which alone make it a good4  
,talent is worshiped2 but if            
divorced from rectitude1 it will prove  
more of a demon than a                  
god4--,,channing4      ,religion ought  
to be the basis of education1 according 
to     often-repeated writings and      
declamations4 ,the assertion is true4   
,christianity furnishes the true basis  
for raising up character2 but     the   
foundation must be laid in a very       
different manner from that     which is 
commonly practiced4 99 99 99 ,we can1   
indeed1 scarcely conceive     of the    
purity1 the self-denial1 and the power  

that might be given to     human        
character by systematic                 
development4--,,lalor4   ,we have now   
reached a department of our subject of  
surpassing importance1 for however      
judiciously physical and intellectual   
cultivation may have been conducted1 if 
we make a mistake here1 all is lost4    
,knowledge is power1 it is true2 but we 
should bear in mind that it is potent   
for evil as well as for good2 and that1 
whether its effects be good or ill1     
depends entirely upon the dispositions  
and sentiments by which it is impelled  
and guided4 ,numerous have been the     
instances illustrative of the fact that 
the greatest scourges of our race are   
men of gigantic cultivated intellect4   
,where knowledge but qualifies its      
possessor for inflicting misery1        
ignorance would indeed be bliss4  ,i    
find my views on this important subject 
so admirably expressed in the writings  
of some of the most eminent men of the  
age1 that ,i feel it both a privilege   

and a duty to enforce the sentiments ,i 
would inculcate by the introduction of  
their testimony4  ,dr4 ,humphrey        
observes1#be that it must strike every  
one who is capable of taking a just and 
comprehensive view of the subject1 that 
the common idea of a good education--of 
such an education as every child in the 
state ought to receive--is exceedingly  
narrow and defective4 ,most men leave   
out1 or regard as of very little        
importance1 some of the essential       
elements4 ,they seem to forget that the 
child has a conscience and a heart to be
 educated as well as an intellect4 ,if  
they do not lay too much stress on      
mental culture1 which1 indeed1 is hardly
 possible1 they lay by far too little   
upon that which is moral and religious4 
,they expect to elevate the child to his
 proper station in society1 to make him 
wise and happy1 an honest man1 a        
virtuous citizen1 and a good patriot1 by
 furnishing him with a comfortable      
school-house1 suitable class-books1     

competent teachers1 and1 if he is poor1 
paying his quarter bills1 while they    
greatly underrate1 if they do not       
entirely overlook1 that high moral      
training1 without which knowledge is the
 power of doing evil rather than good4  
,it may possibly nurture up a race of   
intellectual giants1 but1 like the sons 
of ,anak1 they will be far readier to   
trample down the ,lord's heritage than  
to protect and cultivate it4     #be ,in
 a lecture before the ,american         
,institute of ,instruction1 on the      
,moral and ,religious ,training of      
,children4   ,education is not a        
talismanic word1 but an art1 or rather a
 science2 and1 ,i may add1 the most     
important of all sciences4 ,it is the   
right1 the proper training of the whole 
man1 the thorough and symmetrical       
cultivation of all his noble faculties4 
,if he were endowed with a mere physical
 nature1 he would need1 he would receive
 none but a physical training4 ,on the  
other hand1 if he were a purely         

intellectual being1 intellectual culture
 would comprehend all that could be     
included in a perfect education4 ,and   
were it possible for a moral being to   
exist without either body or intellect1 
there would be nothing but the heart or 
affections to educate4 ,but man is a    
complex1 and not a simple being4 ,he is 
neither all body1 nor all mind1 nor all 
heart4 ,in popular language1 he has     
three natures1 a corporeal1 a rational1 
and a moral4 ,these three1 mysteriously 
united1 are essential to constitute a   
perfect man2 and as they all begin to   
expand in very early childhood1 the     
province of education is to watch1 and  
assist1 and shape the development2 to   
train1 and strengthen1 and discipline   
neither of them alone1 but each         
according to its intrinsic and relative 
importance4  ,when it is said that 'man 
is a religious being1' we should        
carefully inquire in what respects he is
 so4 ,in a guarded and limited sense the
 proposition is undoubtedly true4       

,terrible as was the shock which his    
moral nature received by 'the fall1' it 
was not wholly buried in the ruins4     
,though blackened and crushed to the    
effacing of that glorious image in which
 he was created1 his moral              
susceptibilities were not destroyed4    
,the capacity of being restored1 and of 
infinite improvement in knowledge and   
virtue1 was left4 ,in the lowest depths 
of ignorance and debasement1 the human  
soul feels that it must have some       
religion1 some support1 some refuge     
'when flesh and heart fail4' ,there is a
 natural dread of annihilation1 a       
longing after immortality1 a starting   
back from the last leap in the dark4    
,men1 if they have not true religion1   
will cling to the greatest absurdities  
as substitutes4 ,hence the pagan world  
is full of idols4 ,tribes and nations   
seemingly destitute of all moral sense1 
nevertheless have 'gods many and lords  
many4' ,if there are any cold-blooded1  
incorrigible atheists in the world1 you 

must look for them not in heathen lands4
 ,you must go where the altars of the   
true ,god have been thrown down4 ,in    
this view1 man is a religious being4 ,he
 has a moral nature4 ,he is susceptible 
of deep and controlling religious       
impressions4 ,he can1 at a very early   
period of life1 be made to see and feel 
the difference between right and        
wrong--between good and evil4 ,he can1  
while yet a child1 be influenced by hope
 and by fear--by reason1 by persuasion1 
and by the word of ,god2 and all this   
shows that religion was intended to be a
 prominent part of his education4 ,there
 can be no mistake in this4 ,it is      
plainly the will of ,god that the moral 
as well as the intellectual faculties   
should be cultivated4 ,every child1     
whether in the family or the school1 is 
to be treated by those who have the care
 of him as a moral and accountable      
being4 ,his religious susceptibilities  
invite to the most diligent culture1 and
 virtually enjoin it upon every teacher4

 ,the simple study of man's moral       
nature1 before we open the ,bible1      
unavoidably leads to the conclusion that
 any system of popular education must be
 extremely defective which does not make
 special prevision for this branch of   
public instruction4  ,even if there had 
been no fatal lapse of our race--if our 
children were not naturally depraved1   
nor inclined to evil in the slightest   
degree1 still they would need religious 
as well as physical and intellectual    
guidance and discipline4 ,it is true1   
the educator's task would be infinitely 
easier and pleasanter than it now is1   
but they would need instruction4 ,they  
would enter the world just as ignorant  
of their immortal destiny as of letters4
 ,they would have every thing to learn  
about the being and perfections of ,god2
 every thing about his rightful claims  
as their ,creator1 ,preserver1 and moral
 ,governor2 and every thing touching    
their duties and relations to their     
fellow-men4 ,moreover1 there is every   

reason to believe that moral and        
religious training would be necessary to
 strengthen the principle of virtue in  
the rising generation1 and confirm them 
in habits of obedience and benevolence4 
,as1 notwithstanding their bodies are   
perfect bodies1 and their minds perfect 
minds at their creation1 no member or   
faculty being wanting1 still they need  
all the helps of education2 so1 if they 
had a perfectly upright moral nature1   
they would need the same helps4 ,there  
is no more reason to think1 had sin     
never entered into the world1 every     
child would have grown up to the        
'fullness of the stature of a perfect   
man' in a religious sense1 without an   
appropriate education1 than that he     
would have become a scholar without it4 
,but the little beings that are all the 
while springing into life around us to  
be educated are the sinful offspring of 
apostate parents4 ,how deeply depraved1 
how strongly inclined to sin from the   
cradle1 this is not the place to        

inquire4 ,all agree that they show an   
early bias in the wrong direction2 and  
that1 left to grow up without moral     
culture and restraint1 the great        
majority would go far astray1 and become
 bad members of society4 ,this is       
sufficient for our present argument4    
,the evil bias must be counteracted4    
,for the safety of the state1 as well as
 for their own sakes1 all its children  
must be brought under the forming and   
sanative influence of religious         
education4 ,no adequate substitute was  
ever devised1 or ever can be4 ',train up
 a child in the way he should go1 and   
when he is old he will not depart from  
it4' ,this is divine2 and the opposite  
is equally true4 ,train up a child in   
the way he should not go1 or--which     
comes to about the same thing--leave him
 to take the wrong way of his own       
accord1 and when he is old he will not  
depart from that4 ,his tread will be    
heavier and heavier upon the broad and  
beaten track4 ',men do not gather grapes

 of thorns1 nor figs of thistles4' ',can
 the ,ethiopian change his skin1 or the 
leopard his spots8 ,then may those also 
do good who are accustomed to do evil4' 
,moral and religious training ought1    
undoubtedly1 to be commenced in every   
family much earlier than children are   
sent to school1 and no parent can throw 
off upon the schoolmaster the           
responsibility of bringing them up in   
the 'nurture and admonition of the      
,lord4' ,he must himself teach them the 
good way1 and lead them along in it by  
his own example4 ,but few parents1      
however1 have the leisure and ability to
 do all that is demanded in this vitally
 essential branch of education4 ,all are
 entitled to the aid of their pastors   
and religious teachers2 and every good  
shepherd will feel a tender concern for 
the lambs of his flock1 and will feed   
them with the sincere milk of the word  
both in the sanctuary and at the        
fireside4 ,but the work should not stop 
here4 ,there ought to be a co-operation 

of good influences in all the seminaries
 of learning1 and especially in the     
primary schools4 ,this co-operation     
would be necessary if moral and         
religious household instruction were    
universally given1 and if all the       
children of the state regularly attended
 public worship1 and enjoyed the        
benefits of catechetical and            
,sabbath-school teaching4 ,but those who
 would banish religion from our         
admirable systems of popular education  
by the plea that it belongs exclusively 
to the family and the ,church1 ought to 
remember what multitudes of children    
this exclusion would deprive of their   
birth-right as members of a ,christian  
community4 ,there are tens of thousands 
in our own heaven-blessed ,new ,england1
 and hundreds of thousands in these     
,united ,states1 who receive no         
religious instruction whatever at home1 
and whose parents are connected with no 
religious denomination4 ,what is to be  
done8 ,we can neither compel ignorant   

and graceless fathers and mothers to    
teach their children the fear of the    
,lord1 nor to send them to any place of 
worship or ,sabbath-school4 ,i ask      
again1 what is to be done8 ,these       
neglected children are in the midst of  
us4 ,our cities swarm with them4 ,they  
are scattered every where over our      
beautiful hills and valleys4 ,grow up   
they will among our own children1       
without principle and without morals1 to
 breathe mildew upon the young virtues  
which we have sown in our families1 and 
to prey upon the dearest interests of   
society1 unless somebody cares for their
 moral and religious education4 ,and    
where shall they receive this education1
 if not in the school-house8 ,you will  
find them there1 if in any place of     
instruction1 and multitudes of them you 
can reach nowhere else4  ,a more        
,utopian dream never visited the brain  
of a sensible man than that which       
promises to usher in a new golden age by
 the diffusion and thoroughness of what 

is commonly understood by popular       
education4 ,with all its funds1 and     
improved school-houses1 and able        
teachers1 and grammars1 and maps1 and   
black-boards1 such an education is      
essentially defective4 ,without moral   
principle at bottom to guide and control
 its energies1 education is a sharp     
sword in the hands of a practiced and   
reckless fencer4 ,i have no hesitation  
in saying1 that if we could have but    
one1 moral and religious culture is even
 more important than a knowledge of     
letters2 and that the former can not be 
excluded from any system of popular     
education without infinite hazard4      
,happily1 the two are so far from being 
hostile powers in the common domain1    
that they are natural allies1 moving on 
harmoniously in the same right line1 and
 mutually strengthening each other4 ,the
 more virtue you can infuse into the    
hearts of your pupils1 the better they  
will improve their time1 and the more   
rapid will be their proficiency in their

 common studies4 ,the most successful   
teachers have found the half hour       
devoted to moral and religious          
instruction more profitable to the      
scholar than any other half hour in the 
day2 and there are no teachers who      
govern their schools with so much ease  
as this class4 ,though punishment is    
sometimes necessary where moral         
influence has done its utmost1 the      
conscience is1 in all ordinary cases1 an
 infinitely better disciplinarian than  
the rod4 ,when you can get a school to  
obey and to study because it is right1  
and from a conviction of accountability 
to ,god1 you have gained a victory which
 is worth more than all the penal       
statutes in the world2 but you can never
 gain such a victory without laying     
great stress upon religious principle in
 your daily instructions4  ,there is1 ,i
 am aware1 in the minds of some warm and
 respectable friends of popular         
education1 an objection against         
incorporating religious instruction into

 the system as one of its essential     
elements4 ,it can not1 they think1 be   
done without bringing in along with it  
the evils of sectarianism4 ,if this     
objection could not be obviated1 it     
would1 ,i confess1 have great weight in 
my own mind4 ,it supposes that if any   
religious instruction is given1 the     
distinctive tenets of some particular   
denomination must be inculcated4 ,but is
 this at all necessary8 ,must we either 
exclude religion altogether from our    
common schools1 or teach some one of the
 many creeds which are embraced by as   
many different sects in the             
ecclesiastical calendar8 ,surely not4   
,there are certain great moral and      
religious principles in which all       
denominations are agreed2 such as the   
ten commandments1 our ,savior's golden  
rule--every thing1 in short1 which lies 
within the whole range of duty to ,god  
and duty to our fellow-men4 ,i should be
 glad to know what sectarianism there   
can be in a schoolmaster's teaching my  

children the first and second tables of 
the moral law2 to 'love the ,lord their 
,god with all their heart1 and their    
neighbor as themselves2' in teaching    
them to keep the ,sabbath holy1 to honor
 their parents1 not to swear1 nor drink1
 nor lie1 nor cheat1 nor steal1 nor     
covet4 ,verily1 if this is what any mean
 by sectarianism1 then the more we have 
of it in our common schools the better4 
',it is a lamentation1 and shall be for 
a lamentation1' that there is so little 
of it4 ,i have not the least hesitation 
in saying1 that no instructor1 whether  
male or female1 ought ever to be        
employed who is not both able and       
willing to teach morality and religion  
in the manner which ,i have just alluded
 to4 ,were this faithfully done in all  
the primary schools of the nation1 our  
civil and religious liberties1 and all  
our blessed institutions1 would be      
incomparably safer than they are now4   
,the parent who says1 ,i do not send my 
child to school to learn religion1 but  

to be taught reading1 and writing1 and  
grammar1 knows not 'what manner of      
spirit he is of4' ,it is very certain1  
that such a father will teach his       
children any thing but religion at home2
 and is it right that they should be    
left to grow up as heathens in a        
,christian land8 ,if he says to the     
schoolmaster1 ,i do not wish you to make
 my son an ,episcopalian1 a ,baptist1 a 
,presbyterian1 or a ,methodist1 very    
well4 ,that is not the schoolmaster's   
business4 ,he was not hired to teach    
sectarianism4 ,but if the parent means  
to say1 ,i do not send my child to      
school to have you teach him to fear    
,god and keep his commandments1 to be   
temperate1 honest1 and true1 to be a    
good son and a good man1 then the child 
is to be pitied for having such a       
father2 and with good reason might we   
tremble for all that we hold most dear1 
if such remonstrances were to be        
multiplied and to prevail4  ,in this    
connection ,i can not refrain from      

earnestly recommending the daily reading
 of the ,scriptures1 and prayer1#bf in  
all our schools1 as eminently calculated
 to exert a powerful moral influence    
upon the scholars4 ,it is melancholy to 
think what swarms of children are       
growing up even in ,massachusetts--and  
what multitudes of them in every one of 
these ,united ,states--who will seldom1 
if ever1 hear the voice of prayer if    
they do not hear it in the schools1 and 
to whom the ,bible will remain a sealed 
book if it be not opened there4 ,i would
 not insist that every primary teacher  
should be absolutely required to open or
 close the school daily with prayer4    
,great and good as ,i think the         
influence of such an arrangement would  
be1 it might be impossible1 at present1 
to find a sufficient number of          
instructors otherwise well qualified who
 are fitted to lead in this exercise4   
,the number1 however1 ,i believe is     
steadily increasing4 ,it is probably too
 late for me1 but ,i hope that some of  

you1 gentlemen1 may live to see the time
 when the voice of prayer1 and of praise
 too1 will be heard in every            
school-house of the land4 ,could ,i know
 that this would be the case1 it would  
give me a confidence in the perpetuity  
of our civil and religious liberties    
which ,i should exceedingly rejoice to  
cherish as ,i pass off from the stage4  
#bf ,i would not be understood to       
recommend that any person who does not  
love the ,bible1 and the doctrines which
 it inculcates1 and who does not   seek 
after that purity of heart which it     
every where enjoins1 should   conduct   
devotional exercises in school2 but ,i  
would respectfully inquire   whether any
 who do not delight in such exercises1  
and who do not   esteem it a privilege  
to lead the devotions of those under    
their   charge1 do not lack an essential
 qualification to teach school4 ,our    
laws generally require that the         
school-teacher be1 among other things1  
well qualified in respect to moral      

character ,,to ,,instruct a ,primary    
,school4   ,it would seem that these    
patriotic sentiments1 enforced by such  
persuasive eloquence by this venerable  
man1 can hardly fail to find a permanent
 lodgment in every truly ,american      
bosom4 ,the great principles of natural 
and revealed religion1 in which all are 
agreed1 ought to be inculcated in our   
common school-books1#bg just as every   
teacher ought orally to instill these   
principles into the minds of his pupils4
 ,that will be a happy day1 especially  
to the children of ignorant and vicious 
parents1 when they shall learn more of  
that fear of the ,lord which is the     
beginning of knowledge in the           
school-house than they have ever yet    
done4 ,nor is it discovered that the    
practice of teaching morals according to
 the ,christian code1 and using the     
,bible for that purpose1 the great      
majority adopting it1 is any            
infringement whatever on the religious  
rights and liberty of any individual4   

#bg ,the day of writing the above1 a    
lady mentioned to me the following      
gratifying illustration of my idea4 ,the
 subject of it is a little girl   only  
five years of age1 who has never        
attended school1 but has learned   to   
read at home1 under her mother's        
tuition4 ,after reading in the first    
number of one of our excellent series of
 reading books1 the story of   the      
honest boy who never told a lie1 for    
perhaps the twentieth time1   the little
 girl said to her mother1 ,mother1 ,i   
like to read this story1   for it always
 makes me feel very happy4 ,similar     
instances ,i have   witnessed scores of 
times1 in the family and in the school4 
,teachers may   almost invariably lead  
their scholars to admire and copy the   
examples of   good children about whom  
they read1 and to dislike and avoid     
those of   bad ones4 ,this power over   
children should always be exercised for 
good4   ,the anecdote of the ,indian    
touching this subject may arrest the    

attention of some reader who would      
otherwise peruse these paragraphs       
without profit1 and fix indelibly in his
 mind the sentiment ,i would inculcate1 
and ,i therefore insert it4 ,the ,indian
 inquires of the white man what religion
 he professes4 ,the white man replies1  
,not any4 ,not any8 says the ,indian1 in
 astonishment2 then you are just like my
 dog2 he's got no religion4 ,we have men
 enough like the ,indian's dog1 without 
teaching our children to be like him4   
,the ,french1 in the days of the        
,revolution1 voted ,god from his throne4
 ,they abolished the ,sabbath1 and      
declared that ,christianity was a       
nullity4 ,they set apart one day in ten1
 not for religion1 but for idleness and 
licentiousness4 ,history informs us that
 the goddess of ,reason1 personified by 
a naked prostitute1 was drawn in triumph
 through the streets of ,paris1 and that
 the municipal officers of the city1 and
 the members of the ,national           
,convention of ,france1 joined publicly 

in the impious parade4 ,we need not     
wonder1 then1 that even the forms of    
religion were destroyed1 and that       
licentiousness and profligacy walked    
forth unveiled4 ,how unlike this is the 
state of things in these ,united        
,states6 ,we are professedly a          
,christian nation4 ,we recognize the    
existence of a superior and             
superintending power in all our         
institutions4  ,the ,new ,world was     
early sought by a ,christian people1    
that fled from oppression in order to   
find a home where they might worship    
,god unmolested1 and bequeath to        
posterity the same inestimable privilege
 and inalienable right4 ,in the days of 
the ,revolution1 ,washington and his    
coadjutors were accustomed to invoke the
 blessing of the ,god of battles2 and   
without ,his favor1 they looked not for 
victory4 ,in the ,congress of this      
,great ,nation1 and in our ,state       
,legislatures1 we are accustomed to     
acknowledge our dependence upon ,god in 

employing chaplains with whom we unite  
in daily devotions4  ,the ,constitution 
of the ,united ,states requires that all
 legislative1 executive1 and judicial   
officers in the ,united ,states1 and in 
the several states1 shall be bound by   
oath or affirmation to support the      
,constitution4 ,the ,constitution of    
each of the several states requires a   
similar oath or affirmation2 and some of
 them further provide that1 in addition 
to the oath of office1 all persons      
appointed to places of profit or trust  
shall1 before entering upon the same1   
subscribe a declaration of their faith  
in the ,christian religion4  ,in our    
,penitentiaries even1 we employ         
chaplains for the social1 moral1 and    
religious improvement of criminals      
confined within them2 for our object is1
 not merely to deter others from vice by
 the punishment of offenders1 but1 if   
possible1 to reform the offenders       
themselves1 and1 bringing them back to  
virtue1 make them useful members both of

 ,christian and of civil society4       
,should we not1 then1 recognize ,god in 
our common schools--the primary         
training-places of our country's        
youth--by reading ,his word1 and        
familiarizing the juvenile mind of the  
nation with the precepts of the ,great  
,teacher1 whose code of morals is       
acknowledged1 even by infidels1 to be   
infinitely superior to any of human     
origin8 ,and should we not humbly invoke
 ,his aid in our efforts to learn and to
 do his will8 and ,his blessing to      
attend those efforts8 ,a ,paul may      
plant1 and ,apollos water2 but ,god     
giveth the increase4  ,the instruction  
in our common schools1 ,i repeat1 should
 be ,christian1 but not sectarian4      
,there is sufficient common ground which
 all true believers in ,christianity    
agree in1 to effect an incalculable     
amount of good1 if honestly and         
faithfully taught4 ,which of the various
 religious sects in our country would   
take exceptions to the inculcation of   

the following sentiments1 and kindred   
ones expressed in every part of the     
,scriptures8  ,thou shalt love the ,lord
 thy ,god with all thy heart1 and with  
all thy soul1 and with all thy mind4    
,this is the first and great            
commandment4 ,and the second is like    
unto it1 ,thou shalt love thy neighbor  
as thyself4 ,as ye would that men should
 do to you1 do ye also to them likewise4
 ,love your enemies1 bless them that    
curse you1 do good to them that hate    
you1 and pray for them which            
despitefully use you and persecute you4 
,if there is a single instance in which 
a sect of professing ,christians would  
take exceptions to the inculcation of   
these and kindred sentiments in all the 
schools of our land1 ,i have yet to     
learn it4 ,on the contrary1 ,i have     
received and accepted invitations from  
scores of clergymen1 representing not   
less than eight different denominations1
 to address their congregations on the  
subject of ,moral and ,religious        

,education in ,common ,schools2 and1    
having expressed the sentiments herein  
advocated1 ,i have1 in every instance1  
received letters of approval and        
encouragement2 and their hearty prayers 
and active co-operation have confirmed  
me in the belief that they are ready and
 willing to work together upon this     
common platform1 in advancing the       
interests of this glorious cause4  ,i   
have spoken of the ,christian religion  
as the most important branch of a common
 school education4 ,the cultivation of  
the intellectual faculties alone        
constitutes no sufficient guaranty that 
the subject of it will become either a  
virtuous man1 a good neighbor1 or a     
useful citizen4 ,but where physical     
education has been properly attended to1
 if we combine with the cultivation of  
the intellectual faculties of a child a 
good moral and religious education1 we  
have the highest and most unquestionable
 authority for believing that1 in after 
life1 he will do justly1 love mercy1 and

 walk humbly with ,god4  ,the ,bible1 in
 several expressive texts1 says ,dr4    
,stowe1#bh gives emphatic utterance to  
the true principle of all right         
education4 ,for example1 ',the fear of  
the ,lord is the beginning of wisdom1   
and a knowledge of the ,holy is         
understanding4' ,religion must be the   
basis of all right education2 and an    
education without religion is an        
education for perdition4 ,religion1 in  
its most general sense1 is the union of 
the soul to its ,creator2 a union of    
sympathy1 originating in affection1 and 
guided by intelligence4 ,the word is    
derived from the ,latin terms re and    
ligo1 and signifies to tie again1 or    
reunite4 ,the soul1 sundered from ,god  
by sin1 by grace is reunited to ,him2   
and this is religion4     #bh ,in a     
lecture before the ,american ,institute 
of ,instruction1 on the   ,religious    
,element in ,education4   ,i might      
present many and substantial reasons why
 instruction in the principles of       

religion should be given in our common  
schools and in all our institutions of  
learning1 and why those heaven-given    
principles should be exemplified        
wherever taught4  ,the nature of the    
human mind requires it1 as is clearly   
shown by the writer last quoted4 ,the   
mind is created1 and ,god is its        
creator4 ,every mind is conscious to    
itself that it is not self-existent or  
independent1 but that its existence is a
 derived one1 and its condition one of  
entire1 uniform1 unceasing dependence4  
,this feeling is as truly a part of the 
essential constitution of the mind as   
the desire for food is of the body1 and 
it never can be totally suppressed4 ,if 
it ever seems to be annihilated1 it is  
only for a very brief interval2 and any 
man who would persist in affirming      
himself to be self-existent and         
independent1 would be universally       
regarded as insane4 ,the sympathy which 
attracts the sexes toward each other is 
not more universal nor generally        

stronger than that inward want which    
makes the whole human race feel the need
 of ,god2 and1 indeed1 the feelings are1
 in many respects1 so analogous to each 
other1 that all ancient mysteries of    
mythology1 and the ,bible itself1 have  
selected this sympathy as the most      
expressive1 the most unvarying symbol of
 the relation between the soul and ,god4
  ,till men can be taught to live and be
 healthy and strong without food2 till  
some way is discovered in which the     
social state can be perpetuated and made
 happy1 with a total separation of the  
sexes2 till the time arrives when these 
things can be done1 we can not expect to
 relieve the human mind from having some
 kind of religious faith4 ,this being   
the fact1 a system of education which   
excludes attention from this part of the
 mental constitution is as essentially  
incomplete as a system of military      
tactics that has no reference to        
fighting battles2 a system of mechanics 
which teaches nothing respecting        

machinery2 a system of agriculture that 
has nothing to do with planting and     
harvesting2 a system of astronomy which 
never alludes to the stars2 a system of 
politics which gives no intimation on   
government2 or any thing else which     
professes to be a system1 and leaves out
 the very element most essential to its 
existence4 ,the history of all ages1 of 
all nations1 and of all communities is a
 continued illustration of this truth4  
,where did the nation ever exist        
untouched either by religion or         
superstition8 which never had either a  
theology or a mythology8 ,when you find 
a nation that exists without food of    
some sort1 then you may find a nation   
that subsists without religion of some  
sort2 and never1 never before4 ,how     
unphilosophical1 how absurd it is1 then1
 to pretend that a system of education  
may be complete1 and yet make no        
provision for this part of the mental   
constitution6 ,it is one of the grossest
 fooleries which the wickedness of man  

has ever led him to commit4 ,but it is  
not only unphilosophical and foolish1 it
 is also exceedingly mischievous2 for   
where religion is withheld1 the mind    
inevitably falls to superstition1 as    
certainly as when wholesome food is     
withheld the sufferer will seek to      
satisfy his cravings with the first     
deleterious substance which comes within
 his reach4 ,the only remedy against    
superstition is sound religious         
instruction4 ,the want exists in the    
soul4 ,it is no factitious1 no          
accidental or temporary want1 but an    
essential part of our nature4 ,it is an 
urgent1 imperious want2 it must and will
 seek the means of satisfaction1 and if 
a healthful supply be withheld1 a       
noxious one will be substituted4  ,,the 
,,bible ,,in ,,schools4--,having taken  
the liberty of recommending the         
devotional reading of the ,scriptures in
 all the public schools as eminently    
calculated to make them what they ought 
to be--nurseries of morality and        

religion as well as of good learning--,i
 am now prepared to express the strong  
conviction1 to adopt the language of    
,dr4 ,humphrey1 that the ,bible ought to
 be used in every primary school as a   
class-book4 ,i am not ignorant of the   
objections which even some good men are 
wont to urge against its introduction4  
,the ,bible1 it is said1 is too sacred a
 volume to be put on a level with common
 school-books1 and to be thumbed over   
and thrown about by dirty hands4 ,this  
objection supposes that if the ,bible is
 made a school-book1 it must needs be   
put into such rude hands2 and that it   
can not be daily read in the classes    
without diminishing the reverence with  
which it ought to be regarded as the    
book of ,god4 ,but ,i would have it used
 chiefly by the older scholars1 who1 if 
the teachers are not in the fault1 will 
rarely deface it4 ,a few words now and  
then1 reminding them of its sacred      
contents1 will be sufficient to protect 
it from rough and vulgar usage4  ,the   

objection that making the ,bible a      
common school-book would detract from   
its sacredness in the eyes of the       
children1 and thus blunt rather than    
quicken their moral susceptibilities1 is
 plausible2 but it will not1 ,i am      
confident1 bear the test of examination 
and experience4 ,what were the          
,scriptures given us for1 if not to be  
read by the old and the young1 the high 
and the low8 ,is the common use of any  
good thing which a kind ,providence     
intended for all1 calculated to make men
 underrate it8 ,the best of ,heaven's   
gifts1 it is true1 are liable to be     
perverted and abused2 but ought this to 
deter us from using them thankfully and 
properly8 ,we1 the descendants of the   
,puritans1 are so far from regarding the
 ,bible as too sacred for common use1   
that1 however we may differ among       
ourselves in other respects1 we         
cordially unite in efforts to put the   
sacred treasure in the hands of all the 
people4 ,it is one of our cardinal      

principles1 as ,protestants1 that the   
more they read the ,scriptures the      
better4 ,are we right or are we wrong   
here8 ,let us bring the question to the 
test of experience4 ,who are the most   
moral and well-principled class in the  
community8 those who have been          
accustomed from childhood to read the   
,bible1 till it has become the most     
familiar of all books1 or those who read
 it but little8 ,of two schools1 of     
equal advantages in other respects1     
which is best regulated and most easily 
governed8 which has most of the fear of 
,god in it1 the deepest reverence for   
his word1 that where the ,bible is read 
or from which it is excluded8 ,it is    
easy for ingenious men to reason        
plausibly1 and tell us that such and    
such injurious effects must follow from 
making sacred things too familiar to the
 youthful mind2 but who ever heard of   
such effects following from the use of  
the ,bible as a school-book8 ,it will be
 time enough to listen to this objection

 when a solitary example can be adduced 
to sustain it4  ,how do all other men   
out of the ,protestant communion1       
,papists1 ,mohammedans1 ,jews1 and      
,gentiles1 reason and act in the        
education of their children8 ,do they   
discard their sacred books from the     
schools as too holy for common and      
familiar use8 ,no4 ,they understand the 
influence of such reading far too well1 
and are too strongly attached to their  
respective religions to exclude it4 ,the
 ,romanists1 indeed1 forbid the use of  
the ,scriptures to the common people2   
but the ,missal and the ,breviary1 which
 they hold to be quite as sacred1 are   
their most familiar school-books4 ,a    
large portion of the children's time is 
taken up with reading the lessons and   
reciting the prayers2 and what are the  
effects8 ,do they become disgusted with 
the ,missal and ,breviary by this daily 
familiarity8 ,we all know the contrary4 
,the very opposite effect is produced4  
,it is astonishing to see with what     

tenacity children thus educated cling to
 the superstitions and absurdities of   
their fathers2 and it is because their  
religion is wrought into the very       
texture of their minds1 in the schools  
as well as in the churches4 ,go to      
,turkey1 to ,persia1 to all the lands   
scorched and blighted by the fiery train
 of the ,crescent1 and what school-books
 will you find but portions of the      
,koran8 ,pass to ,hindostan1 and there  
you will find the ,vedas and ,shasters  
wherever any thing like popular         
education is attempted4 ,enter the great
 empire of ,china1 and1 according to the
 best information we can obtain1 their  
sacred books are the school-books of    
that vast and teeming population4       
,inquire among the ,jews1 wherever in   
their various dispersions they have     
established schools1 and what will you  
find but the ,law and the ,prophets1 the
 ,targums and the ,talmud4  ,now when   
and where did ever ,protestant children 
grow up with a greater reverence for the

 ,bible1 a stronger attachment to their 
religion1 than ,jewish1 ,mohammedan1 and
 ,pagan children cherish for their      
school-books1 to the study of which they
 are almost exclusively confined1 in    
every stage of their education8 ,it is  
opposing theory1 then1 to great and     
undeniable facts1 to say that using the 
,christian ,scriptures in this manner   
would detract from their sacredness in  
the eyes of our children4 ,if this is   
ever the case1 it must be where the     
teacher himself is a ,gallio1 and lacks 
those moral qualifications which are    
essential to his profession4 ,another   
objection which is sometimes brought    
against the use of the ,bible is1 that  
considerable portions of it--though all 
true1 and important as a part of our    
great religious charter--are not        
suitable for common and promiscuous     
reading4 ,my answer is1 we do not       
suppose that any instructor would take  
all his classes through the whole       
,bible1 from ,genesis to ,revelation4   

,the genealogical tables1 and some other
 things1 he would omit of course1 but   
would always find lessons enough to     
which the most fastidious could make no 
objection4  ,the way is now prepared to 
take an affirmative attitude1 and offer 
some reasons in favor of using the      
,bible as a school-book4 ,in the first  
place1 it is the cheapest school-book in
 the world4 ,it furnishes more reading  
for fifty cents than can be obtained in 
common school-books for two dollars4    
,this difference of cost is1 to the     
poor1 an important consideration4 ,with 
large families on their hands1 they     
often find it extremely difficult to    
meet the demands of teachers and        
committees for new books4 ,were the     
,scriptures generally introduced1 they  
would take the place of many other      
reading-books which parents are now     
obliged to purchase at four-fold        
expense4 ,this would be a cogent        
argument on the score of economy1 even  
if the popular school-books of this year

 were sure of maintaining their ground  
the next4 ,but so busy is the press in  
bringing forward new claimants to public
 favor1 that they rapidly supplant each 
other1 and thus the burden is greatly   
increased4  ,in the next place1 the     
,bible furnishes a far greater variety  
of the finest reading-lessons than any  
other book whatever4 ,this is a point to
 which my attention has been turned for 
many years1 and the conviction grows    
upon me continually4 ,there is no book  
in which children a little advanced     
beyond the simplest monosyllabic lessons
 will learn to read faster1 or more     
readily catch the proprieties of        
inflection1 emphasis1 and cadence1 than 
the ,bible4 ,i would by no means put it 
into the hands of a child to spell out  
and blunder over the chapters before he 
has read any thing else4 ,the word of   
,god ought not to be so used by mere    
beginners4 ,but it contains lessons     
adapted to all classes of learners1     
after the first and simplest stage4 ,let

 any teacher who has never made the     
trial put a young class into the first  
chapter of ,john1 and he will be        
surprised to find how easy the reading  
is1 and with what pleasure and manifest 
improvement they may be carried through 
the whole ,gospel2 and as few are too   
young to read with advantage in the     
,bible1 so none are too old4 ,it is     
known to every body1 that the very best 
reading lessons in our most popular     
school-books for the higher classes are 
taken from the ,scriptures4 ,just open  
the ,sacred ,volume with reference to   
this single point1 and turn over its    
thousand pages4 ,as a history1 to       
interest1 instruct1 and improve the     
youthful mind1 what other book in the   
world can compare with it8 ,where else  
will you find such exquisitely finished 
pieces of biography8 such poetry8 such  
genuine and lofty eloquence8 such rich  
and varied specimens of tenderness1     
pathos1 beauty1 and sublimity8 ,i regret
 that ,i have not room for a few        

quotations4 ,i can only refer1 in very  
general terms1 to the history of the    
creation2 of ,joseph and the forty      
years' wandering in the wilderness2 to  
the book of ,job2 to the ,psalms of     
,david2 to ,isaiah2 to the ,gospels2 and
 to the visions of ,john in the ,isle of
 ,patmos4  ,now if the primary qualities
 of a good school-book are to teach the 
art of reading1 and to communicate      
instruction upon the most interesting   
and important subjects1 ,i have no      
hesitation in saying that the ,bible    
stands pre-eminently above every other4 
,if ,i were again to become a primary   
instructor1 or to teach the art of      
reading in any higher seminary than the 
common school-house1 ,i would take the  
,bible in preference to any twenty      
',orators' or ',english ,readers' that  
,i have ever seen4 ,indeed1 ,i would    
scarcely want any other4 ,milton and    
,shakspeare ,i would not reject1 but ,i 
would do very well without them1 for    
they are both surpassed by ,isaiah and  

,john4 ,let enlightened teachers1 and   
members of any of the learned           
professions1 read over aloud1 in their  
best manner1 such portions of ,scripture
 as they may easily select1 and see if  
they have ever found any thing better   
fitted to bring out and discipline the  
voice1 and to express all the emotions  
in which the soul of true eloquence is  
bodied forth4 ,why do the masters of    
oratory1 who charm great audiences with 
their recitations1 take so many of their
 themes from the ,bible8 ,the reason is 
obvious4 ,they can find none so well    
suited to their purpose4 ,and why should
 not the common schools1 in which are   
nurtured so many of the future orators1 
and rulers1 and teachers of the land1   
have the advantage of the best of all   
reading-lessons8 ,moreover1 since so    
much of the sense of ,scripture depends 
upon the manner in which it is read1 why
 should not the thousands of children be
 taught the art in school1 who will     
never learn it at home8 ,the more ,i    

study the ,bible1 the more does it      
appear to me to excel all other         
reading-books4 ,you may go on improving 
indefinitely1 without ever making       
yourself a perfect scriptural reader1   
just as you might1 with all the help you
 can command1 spend your whole life in  
the study of any one of its great truths
 without exhausting it4 ,let it not be  
said that we have but few instructors   
who are capable of entering into the    
spirit of the ,sacred ,volume1 so as to 
teach their scholars to read it with    
propriety4 ,then let more be educated4  
,it ought to be one of the daily        
exercises in our ,normal ,schools1 and  
other seminaries for raising up         
competent teachers1 to qualify them for 
this branch of instruction4  ,i remark  
again1 that were the ,bible made a      
school-book throughout the commonwealth 
and throughout the land1 an amount of   
scriptural knowledge would be insensibly
 treasured up1 which would be of        
inestimable value in after life4 ,every 

observing teacher must have been        
surprised to find how much the dullest  
scholar will learn by the ear1 without  
seeming to pay any attention to what    
others are reading or reciting4 ,the boy
 that sits half the time upon his little
 bench nodding or playing with his      
shoe-strings1 will1 in the course of a  
winter1 commit whole pages and chapters 
to memory from the books he hears read1 
when you can hardly beat any thing into 
him by dint of the most diligent        
instruction4 ,indeed1 ,i have sometimes 
thought that children in our common     
schools learn more by the ear1 without  
any effort1 than by the study of their  
own class-books2 and ,i am quite sure   
this is the case with the most of the   
younger scholars4 ,let any book be read 
for a series of years in the same       
school1 and half of the children will   
know most of it by heart4 ,wherever     
there are free schools--and the free    
school system is now becoming           
extensively adopted in every part of the

 ,united ,states--the great mass of the 
children are kept at school from four or
 five years of age1 to nine or ten1     
through the year2 and in the winter     
season1 from nine or ten to fifteen or  
sixteen4 ,the average of time thus      
devoted to their education is from eight
 to ten years4 ,now let the ,bible be   
read daily as a class-book during all   
this time1 in every school1 and how much
 of it will1 without effort1 and without
 interfering in the least with other    
studies1 be committed to memory4 ,and   
who can estimate the value of such an   
acquisition8 ,what pure morality2 what  
maxims of supreme wisdom for guidance   
along the slippery paths of youth1 and  
onward through every stage of life2 what
 bright examples of early piety1 and of 
its glorious rewards1 even in the       
present world2 what sublime revelations 
of the being and perfections of ,god2   
what incentives to love and serve him1  
and to discharge with fidelity all the  
duties which we owe to our fellow-men6  

and all these enforced by the highest   
sanctions of future accountability4 ,let
 any man tell1 if he can1 how much all  
this store of divine knowledge1 thus    
insensibly acquired1 would be worth to  
the millions of children who are growing
 up in these ,united ,states of         
,america4 ,they might not be at all     
sensible of its value at the time1 but  
how happily and safely would it         
contribute to shape their future        
opinions and characters1 both as men and
 as citizens4  ,another cogent reason   
for using the ,bible as a common        
school-book is1 that it is the firmest  
basis1 and1 indeed1 the only sure basis 
of our free institutions1 and1 as such1 
ought to be familiar to all the children
 in the state from their earliest years4
 ,while it recognizes the existence of  
civil governments1 and enjoins obedience
 to magistrates as ministers of ,god for
 the good of the people1 it regards all 
men as free and equal1 the children of  
one common ,father1 and entitled to the 

same civil and religious privileges4 ,i 
do not believe that any people could    
ever be enslaved who should be          
thoroughly and universally educated in  
the principles of the ,bible4  ,it was  
no less truly than eloquently said by   
,daniel ,webster1 in his ,bunker ,hill  
address1 that the ,american colonists   
brought with them from the ,old ,world a
 full portion of all the riches of the  
past in science and art1 and in morals1 
religion1 and literature4 ,the ,bible   
came with them4 ,and it is not to be    
doubted that to the free and universal  
use of the ,bible it is to be ascribed  
that in that age men were much indebted 
for right views of civil liberty4 ,the  
,bible is a book of faith and a book of 
doctrine2 but it is also a book which   
teaches man his individual              
responsibility1 his own dignity1 and    
equality with his fellow-men4  ,these   
sentiments of the great ,american       
statesman are worthy to be engraved in  
golden capitals upon the monument under 

whose shade they were uttered6 ,yes1 it 
was the free and universal use of the   
,bible which made our ,puritan fathers  
what they were2 and it is because1 in   
these degenerate times1 multitudes of   
children will be taught to read it      
nowhere else1 that ,i am so anxious to  
have it read as a school-book4 ,one     
other1 and the only additional reason   
which ,i shall suggest1 is that1 as the 
,bible is infinitely the best1 so it is 
the only decidedly religious book which 
can be introduced into our popular      
systems of early education4 ,so jealous 
are the different sects and             
denominations of each other1 that it    
would be hardly possible to write or    
compile a religious school-book with    
which all would be satisfied4 ,but here 
is a book prepared to our hands1 which  
we all receive as the inspired record of
 our faith1 and as containing the purest
 morality that has ever been taught in  
this lower world4 ,episcopalians can not
 object to it1 because they believe it  

teaches the doctrines and polity of     
their own church2 and this is just what 
they want4 ,neither ,congregationalists1
 ,presbyterians1 ,baptists1 ,methodists1
 ,universalists1 nor any other          
denomination1 can object to it for the  
same reason4 ,every denomination        
believes1 so far as it differs from the 
rest1 that the ,bible is on its side1   
and1 of course1 that the more it is read
 by all1 the better4  ,for me to object 
to having the ,bible read as a common   
school-book on account of any doctrine  
which those who differ from me suppose  
it to teach1 would be virtually to      
confess that ,i had not full confidence 
in my own creed1 and was afraid it would
 not bear a scriptural test4 ,it seems  
to me an infinite advantage1 for which  
we are bound devoutly to thank the      
,author of all good1 that he has given  
us a religious book of incomparable     
excellence1 which we may fearlessly put 
into the hands of all the children in   
the state1 with the assurance that it is

 able to make them wise unto salvation1 
and will certainly make them better     
children1 better friends1 and better    
members of society1 so far as it        
influences them at all4 ,but some       
persons who highly approve of daily     
scriptural reading in common schools are
 in favor of using selections rather    
than the whole ,bible4 ,i should        
certainly prefer this1 provided the     
selections are judiciously made1 to     
excluding the ,scriptures altogether2   
but ,i think there are weighty and      
obvious reasons why the whole ,bible    
should be taken rather than a part4 ,the
 whole is cheaper than half would be in 
a separate volume2 and when the whole is
 introduced1 without note or comment1   
there can be no possible ground for     
sectarian jealousy4  ,doctors of        
divinity not only1 but the most eminent 
statesmen in the country1 hold the views
 here presented4 ,the bold and noble    
stand taken by the ,legislature of ,new 
,york more than ten years ago 7#ahch71  

has revived the hopes and infused fresh 
courage into the minds of those who     
believe that the safety and welfare of  
our country are essentially dependent on
 the prevalence of a religious morality 
and a moral religion4 ,the              
representatives of this great state1    
whose system of education is becoming   
increasingly an object of imitation in  
all the rest1 at one and the same       
session doubled the amount of the public
 money for the purpose of improving the 
education given in the common           
schools--which1 to the praise of that   
state1 be it said1 are now free--and in 
reply to the petition of sundry persons1
 praying that all religious exercises   
and the use of the ,bible might be      
prohibited in the public schools1       
decided by a vote of one hundred and    
twenty-one to ,,one6 that the request of
 the petitioners be not granted4 ,for   
the purpose of corroborating the        
doctrines of this volume1 ,i will       
introduce a paragraph from the report of

 the ,hon4 ,daniel ,d4 ,barnard on the  
occasion referred to1 which was         
sustained by the noble1 unequivocal1 and
 almost unanimous testimony of the      
representatives of the most powerful    
member of the ,american states4  ,moral 
instruction is quite as important to the
 object had in view in popular education
 as intellectual instruction2 it is     
indispensable to that object4 ,but1 to  
make instruction effective1 it should be
 given according to the best code of    
morals known to the country and the age2
 and that code1 it is universally       
conceded1 is contained in the ,bible4   
,hence the ,bible1 as containing that   
code1 so far from being arbitrarily     
excluded from our schools1 ought to be  
in common use in them4 ,keeping all the 
while in view the object of popular     
education1 the fitting of the people by 
moral as well as by intellectual        
discipline for self-government1 no one  
can doubt that any system of instruction
 which overlooks the training and       

informing of the moral faculties must be
 wretchedly and fatally defective4      
,crime and intellectual cultivation     
merely1 so far from being dissociated in
 history and statistics1 are unhappily  
old acquaintances and tried friends4 ,to
 neglect the moral powers in education  
is to educate not quite half the man4   
,to cultivate the intellect only is to  
unhinge the mind and destroy the        
essential balance of the mental powers2 
it is to light up a recess only the     
better to see how dark it is4 ,and if   
this is all that is done in popular     
education1 then nothing1 literally      
nothing1 is done toward establishing    
popular virtue and forming a moral      
people4  ,this is but a specimen of an  
invaluable document1 which does honor to
 the heart and head of him who penned   
it1 and to the ,legislature of the      
commonwealth by which it was adopted by 
almost unparalleled unanimity4  ,the    
,hon4 ,samuel ,young1 the eminently     
distinguished superintendent of common  

schools in the same state1 in a report  
made in #ahdc1 inculcates sentiments    
which so well accord with my own views  
of the importance of weaving scriptural 
reading into the very warp and woof of  
popular education1 that ,i gladly add   
his testimony4 ,i regard the ,new       
,testament as in all respects a suitable
 book to be daily read in our common    
schools1 and ,i earnestly recommend its 
general introduction for this purpose4  
,as a mere reading-book1 intended to    
convey a practical knowledge of the     
,english language1 it is one of the best
 text-books in use2 but this1 although  
of great use to the pupils1 is of minor 
importance when the moral influences of 
the book are duly considered4 ,education
 consists of something more than mere   
instruction4 ,it is that training and   
discipline of all the faculties of the  
mind which shall symmetrically and      
harmoniously develop the future man for 
usefulness and for happiness in         
sustaining the various relations of     

life4 ,it must be based upon knowledge  
and virtue2 and its gradual advancement 
must be strictly subordinated to those  
cardinal and elementary principles of   
morality1 which are nowhere so          
distinctly and beautifully inculcated as
 in that book from whence we all derive 
our common faith4 ,the nursery and      
family fireside may accomplish much2 the
 institutions of religion may exert a   
pervading influence2 but what is        
commenced in the hallowed sanctuary of  
the domestic circle1 and periodically   
inculcated at the altar1 must be daily  
and hourly recognized in the common     
schools1 that it may exert an           
ever-present influence1 enter into and  
form a part of every act of life1 and   
become thoroughly incorporated with the 
rapidly expanding character4 ,the same  
incomparable standard of moral virtue   
and excellence1 which is expounded from 
the pulpit and the altar1 and which is  
daily held up to the admiration and     
imitation of the family circle1 should  

also be reverently kept before the mind 
and the heart in the daily exercises of 
the school4  ,i will add the testimony  
of another whom we all delight to honor4
 ,never were sentiments uttered more    
worthy to be remembered and repeated    
through all generations1 than those     
which fell from the ,father of his      
,country in his ,farewell ,address to   
the ,american people4 ,of all the       
dispositions and habits which lead to   
political prosperity1 religion and      
morality are indispensable supports4 ,in
 vain would that man claim the tribute  
of patriotism who should labor to       
subvert these great pillars of human    
happiness1 these firmest props of the   
duties of men and citizens4 ,the mere   
politician1 equally with the pious man1 
ought to respect and cherish them4 ,a   
volume could not trace all their        
connections with private and public     
felicity4 ,let it simply be asked4      
,where is the security for property1 for
 reputation1 for life1 if a sense of    

religious obligation desert the oaths   
which are the instruments of            
investigation in courts of justice8 ,and
 let us with caution indulge the        
supposition that morality can be        
maintained without religion4 ,whatever  
may be conceded to the influence of     
refined education on minds of peculiar  
structure1 reason and experience both   
forbid us to expect that national       
morality can prevail in exclusion of    
religious principles4 ,how noble1 how   
elevated1 how just these parting words4 
,washington was an enlightened          
,christian patriot1 as well as a great  
general and a wise statesman4 ,the      
oracles which he consulted in all his   
perils1 and in the perils of his        
country1 were the oracles of ,god4#bi   
,no one of the fathers of the           
,revolution knew better than he did that
 religion rests upon the ,bible as its  
main pillar1 and that as a knowledge and
 belief of the ,bible are essential to  
true religion1 so they are to private   

and public morality4 ,i can not doubt1  
says the venerable ,president of        
,amherst ,college1 that could the       
greatest among the great men of his day 
add a codicil to his invaluable legacy1 
it would be1 ,teach your children early 
to read and love the ,bible4 ,teach them
 to read it in your families2 teach them
 in your schools2 teach them everywhere1
 that the first moral lesson indelibly  
enstamped upon their hearts may be to   
'fear ,god and keep his commandments4'  
',the fear of the ,lord1 that is wisdom2
 and to depart from evil is             
understanding4'     #bi ,john ,quincy   
,adams1 during his long and eventful    
life1 was   accustomed to read daily    
portions of the ,scriptures in several  
languages4   ,how few are aware of what 
the ,bible has done for mankind1 and    
still less of what it is destined to    
accomplish4 ,quench its light1 and you  
blot out the brightest luminary from    
these lower heavens4 ,you bring back    
'chaos and old night' to reign over the 

earth1 and leave man1 with all his      
immortal energies and aspirations1 to   
'wander in the blackness of darkness    
forever4' ,it was by constantly reading 
it that our ,puritan fathers imbibed    
that unconquerable love of civil and    
religious liberty which sustained them  
through all the 'perils of the sea and  
perils of the wilderness4' ,it was from 
the ,bible they drew those free and     
admired principles of civil government  
that were so much in advance of the age 
in which they lived4 ,it was this book  
by which they 'resolved to go till they 
could find some better rule4'  ,the     
,bible has built all our churches1 and  
colleges1 and school-houses2 it has     
built our hospitals and retreats for the
 insane1 the deaf1 and the blind2 it has
 built the ,house of ,refuge1 the       
,sailors' ,home1 and the ,home for the  
,friendless4 ,to it we are indebted for 
our homes1 for our property1 and for all
 the safeguards of our domestic         
relations and happiness4 ,it is under   

its broad shield that we lie down in    
safety1 without bolts or bars to protect
 us4 ,it has given us our free          
constitutions of civil government1 and  
with them all the statutes and          
ordinances of a great and independent   
people1 whose territory extends from the
 ,atlantic to the ,pacific4 ,it is the  
industry1 sobriety1 and enterprise1     
which nothing but the ,bible could ever 
inspire and sustain1 that have dug our  
canals1 and built our thousand          
factories1 and clothed the hills with   
flocks1 and covered over the valleys    
with corn2 that have laid down our      
railways and established telegraph      
lines1 bringing the ,east into the      
neighborhood of the ,west1 and enabling 
the ,north to hold converse with the    
,south4 ,the ,bible has directly and    
indirectly done all this for us1 and    
infinitely more4 ,let not1 then1 the    
book which has given to us sweet homes1 
and happy families1 and systems of      
public instruction1 and has thus        

constituted us a great and prosperous   
people--the book which diminishes our   
sorrows and multiplies our joys1 and    
gives to those who obey its precepts a  
hope big with immortality--let not this 
book be excluded from the common schools
 of our country4 ,in the name of        
patriotism1 of philanthropy1 and of our 
common ,christianity1 let me1 in behalf 
of the millions of youth in our country 
who will otherwise remain ignorant of   
it1 ask that1 whatever else be excluded 
from our schools1 there be retained in  
them this ,book of books1 the ,,bible4  
,,chapter ,,viii4  ,,the ,,importance   
,,of ,,popular ,,education4             
,education1 as the means of improving   
the mural and intellectual              
faculties1 is1 under all circumstances1 
a subject of the most     imposing      
consideration4 ,to rescue man from that 
state of degradation     to which he is 
doomed unless redeemed by education2 to 
unfold his     physical1 intellectual1  
and moral powers1 and to fit him for    

those     high destinies which his      
,creator has prepared for him1 can not  
fail     to excite the most ardent      
sensibility of the philosopher and      
philanthropist4 ,a comparison of the    
savage that roams through the     forest
 with the enlightened inhabitant of a   
civilized country would     be a brief  
but impressive representation of the    
momentous importance     of             
education4--,report of ,school          
,commissioners1 ,new ,york1 #ahab4   ,he
 who has carefully perused the preceding
 chapters of this work is already aware 
that we regard the subject of popular   
education as one of paramount           
importance4 ,the object of devoting a   
chapter to the special consideration of 
this subject at this time is1 if        
possible1 to remove from the mind any   
remaining doubts in relation to it4 ,the
 reader will bear in mind that we regard
 education as having reference to the   
whole man--the body1 the mind1 and the  
heart2 and that its object1 and1 when   

rightly directed1 its effect1 is to make
 him a complete creature after his kind4
 ,to his frame it should give vigor1    
activity1 and beauty2 to his intellect1 
power and thoughtfulness2 and to his    
heart1 virtue and felicity4  ,we shall  
be the better prepared to appreciate the
 importance and necessity of a judicious
 system of training and instruction if  
we consider that1 in its absence1 every 
individual will be educated by          
circumstances4 ,let it be borne in mind1
 then1 that all the children in every   
community will be educated somewhere and
 somehow2 and that it devolves upon     
citizens and parents to determine       
whether the children of the present     
generation shall receive their training 
in the school-house or in the streets2  
and if in the former1 whether in good or
 poor schools4  ,in the discharge of my 
official duties in this state1 ,i had   
occasion to visit two counties in #ahdf 
in which there were no organized common 
schools4#cj ,they were not1 however1    

without places of instruction1 for in   
the shire town of each of those counties
 there were a billiard-room1 bar-rooms1 
and bowling-alleys4 ,i was forcibly     
impressed with the remark of an ,indian 
chief residing in one of those counties4
 ,as he was passing along the streets   
one day1 he discovered a second         
bowling-alley in process of erection4   
,he paused1 and1 surveying it           
attentively1 remarked to those at work  
upon it as follows3 ,you have here      
another long building going up rapidly2 
and1 he added1 is this the place where  
our children are to be educated8 ,such  
keen and well-merited rebuke rarely     
falls from human lips4 ,those two       
bowling-alleys1 with their              
bars--indispensable appendages--were    
thronged from six o'clock in the morning
 until past midnight1 six days in the   
week4 ,they were1 moreover1 the very    
places where many of the youth of that  
village were receiving their education4 
,and who were their teachers8 ,idlers1  

tipplers1 gamblers1 profane persons1    
,sabbath-breakers4 ,mark well this      
truth3 as is the teacher1 so will be the
 school4 ,those pupils will graduate1 it
 may be1 at our poor-houses1 at our     
county jails1 or at the state           
penitentiary4 ,these debasing and       
corrupting appendages of civilization   
spent not all their influence upon the  
white man2 and this is what gave        
pungency to the withering satire of the 
chief4 ,they were at once working the   
ruin of the red man and of his pale     
neighbor4     #cj ,common schools have  
since been organized in both of those   
counties4   ,the rudest nations or      
individuals can not be said to be wholly
 without education4 ,even the wildest   
savage is taught by his superiors not   
only the best mode of procuring food and
 shelter known to his race1 but also the
 most adroit manner of defending himself
 and destroying his enemy4 ,but we use  
the term in a higher1 broader1 and more 
capacious sense1 as having reference to 

the whole man1 and the whole duration of
 his being4 ,a volume might be filled in
 stating and illustrating the advantages
 of education4 ,we have only space to   
state and elucidate a few propositions4 
,we remark1 then1 first1 that           
,,education ,,dissipates ,,the ,,evils  
,,of ,,ignorance4       ,ignorance is   
one principal cause of the want of      
virtue1 and of the      immoralities    
which abound in the world4 ,were we to  
take a survey of      the moral state of
 the world as delineated in the history 
of      nations1 or as depicted by      
modern voyagers and travelers1 we should
      find abundant illustration of the 
truth of this remark4 ,we should        
find1 in almost every instance1 that    
ignorance of the character of      the  
true ,god1 and false conceptions of the 
nature of the worship      and service  
he requires1 have led1 not only to the  
most obscene      practices and immoral 
abominations1 but to the perpetration of
 the      most horrid cruelties4--,,dr4 

,,dick4  ,the evils of ignorance are not
 few in number nor small in magnitude4  
,the whole history of the world         
justifies the statement that ignorant   
and uncultivated mind is prone to       
sensuality and cruelty4 ,in what        
countries1 let me ask1 are the people   
most given to the lowest forms of animal
 gratification1 and most regardless of  
the lives and happiness of others8 ,is  
it not in pagan lands1 over which moral 
and intellectual darkness broods1 and   
where men are vile without shame1 and   
cruel without remorse8 ,and if from     
pagan we pass to ,christian countries1  
we shall find that those in which       
education is least prevalent are the    
very ones in which there is the most    
immorality1 and the greatest            
indifference to the sufferings of       
animated and sentient beings4 ,spain--in
 which1 until recently1 there was but   
one newspaper printed1 and in which only
 about one in thirty five of the people 
are instructed in schools--has a        

population about equal to that of       
,england and ,wales4 ,popular education 
in the latter countries1 although much  
behind several of the other ,european   
states1 is still greatly in advance of  
what it is in ,spain1 and there is an   
equally marked difference in the state  
of morals in the people of these        
countries4 ,in ,england and ,wales the  
whole number of convictions for murder  
in the year eighteen hundred and        
twenty-six was thirteen1 and the number 
convicted for wounding1 etc41 with      
intent to kill1 was fourteen2 while in  
,spain1 the number convicted during the 
same year was1 for murder1 twelve       
hundred and thirty-three6 and for       
maiming with intent to kill1 seventeen  
hundred and seventy-three6 or a more    
than one hundred fold greater number    
than in the former countries4 ,facts    
like these speak volumes in favor of the
 elevating influences of popular        
education1 while they show most         
conclusively the low and degraded       

condition to which people will sink in  
countries in which education is         
neglected4  ,spain affords an apt       
illustration of the truth of the        
statement just made1 that ignorant and  
uncultivated people are prone to        
sensuality and cruelty4 ,scenes of      
cruelty and blood constitute the        
favorite amusement of the ,spaniards1   
their greatest delight being in         
bull-fights4 ,an eye-witness describes  
the manner in which they conduct        
themselves during these appalling scenes
 in the following language4 ,the intense
 interest which they feel in this game  
is visible throughout1 and often loudly 
expressed4 ,an astounding shout always  
accompanies a critical moment4 ,whether 
it be the bull or man who is in danger1 
their joy is excessive2 but their       
greatest sympathy is given to the feats 
of the ,,bull6 ,if the picador receives 
the bull gallantly and forces him to    
retreat1 or if the matadore courageously
 faces and wounds the bull1 they applaud

 these acts of science and valor2 but if
 the bull overthrow the horse and his   
rider1 or if the matadore miss his aim  
and the bull seems ready to gore him1   
their delight knows no bounds4 ,and it  
is certainly a fine spectacle to see    
thousands of spectators rise            
simultaneously1 as they always do when  
the interest is intense4 ,the greatest  
and most crowded theater in ,europe     
presents nothing half so imposing as    
this4 ,but how barbarous1 how brutal is 
the whole exhibition6 ,could an ,english
 audience witness the scenes that are   
repeated every week in ,madrid1 a       
universal burst of 'shame6' would follow
 the spectacle of a horse gored and     
bleeding1 and actually treading upon his
 own entrails while he gallops round the
 arena4 ,even the appearance of the     
goaded bull could not be borne1 panting1
 covered with wounds and blood1         
lacerated by darts1 and yet brave and   
resolute to the end4  ,the spectacle    
continued two hours and a half1 and     

during that time there were seven bulls 
killed and six horses4 ,when the last   
bull was dispatched1 the people         
immediately rushed into the arena1 and  
the carcass was dragged out amid the    
most deafening shouts4--,spain in #ahcj1
 vol4 i41 p4 #aia4  ,the same writer1   
after describing another fight1 in which
 one bull had killed three horses and   
one man1 and remained master of the     
arena1 remarks1 that this was a time to 
observe the character of the people4    
,when the unfortunate picador was       
killed1 in place of a general           
exclamation of horror and loud          
expressions of pity1 the universal cry  
was ',que es bravo ese toro6 7',ah1 the 
admirable bull6'7 ,the whole scene      
produced the most unbounded delight2 the
 greater the horror1 the greater was the
 shouting1 and the more vehement the    
expressions of satisfaction4 ,i did not 
perceive a single female avert her head 
or betray the slightest symptom of      
wounded feeling4--,vol4 i41 p4 #aie4  ,a

 correct system of public instruction   
develops a character widely different   
from that here brought to light4        
,instead of a love for vicious          
excitement1 it cultivates a taste for   
simple and innocent pleasures1 and gives
 to its subjects a command over their   
passions1 and a disposition habitually  
to control them4 ,it acquaints them with
 their duty1 and enables them to find   
their highest pleasure in its discharge4
 ,they order their pursuits and choose  
their employments with reference to     
their own advantage1 it is true2 but    
still1 a higher1 and the controlling    
motive with them is1 the promotion of   
the best good of the community in which 
they live4 ,in short1 their supreme     
desire is to co-operate with the        
beneficent ,creator in advancing the    
permanent interests of the whole human  
family2 in themselves obeying1 and      
leading others to obey1 all the laws    
which ,god has ordained for the         
government and well-being of his        

creatures4  ,education1 we said1        
dissipates the evils of ignorance4 ,but 
in this country we hardly know what     
popular ignorance is4 ,the most         
illiterate among us have derived many   
and inestimable advantages from our     
systems of public instruction4          
,occasionally persons are found among us
 who can neither read nor write4 ,but   
even such persons insensibly imbibe     
ideas and moral influences from the more
 cultivated society about them which1 in
 countries less favored1 are denied to  
multitudes4 ,individuals who have had no
 early advantages for learning1 who have
 never even entered a school-house1 but 
have grown up amid a generally          
intelligent population1 trained by the  
institutions established by our fathers1
 have in many instances acquired a      
mental character and influence which1   
but for these fortuitous circumstances1 
they could not have attained4 ,the very 
excellence of our systems of education  
in many states of the ,union1 and the   

vital and pervading influence of the    
schools upon the public mind1 reaching  
as they do1 and improving even those    
that remain ignorant of letters1 do not 
allow us to see the full extent of our  
obligation to them4 ,this remark applies
 to all civilized countries where any   
systems of general education are        
adopted1 but perhaps not to so great an 
extent in any other country as in our   
own4  ,the evils which flow from        
ignorance are deplorable enough in the  
case of individuals1 although1 as we    
have seen1 the disastrous consequences  
are limited in the case of those who    
live surrounded by an intelligent       
community4 ,but the general ignorance of
 large numbers and entire classes of    
men1 unreached by the elevating         
influence of the educated1 acting under 
the unchastened stimulus of the         
passions1 and excited by the various    
causes of discontent which are          
constantly occurring in the progress of 
human affairs1 is not unfrequently      

productive of scenes1 the contemplation 
of which makes humanity shudder4 ,the   
following extract from a foreign journal
 affords a pertinent illustration of the
 evils which flow from popular          
ignorance4 ,it relates to the outrages  
committed by the peasantry in a part of 
,hungary in consequence of the ravages  
of the cholera in that region4  ,the    
suspicion that the cholera was caused by
 poisoning the wells was universal among
 the peasantry of the counties of ,zips 
and ,zemplin1 and every one was fully   
convinced of its truth4 ,the first      
commotion arose in ,klucknow1 where1 it 
is said1 some peasants died in          
consequence of taking the preservatives2
 whether by an immoderate use of        
medicine1 or whether they thought they  
were to take chloride of lime           
internally1 is not known4 ,this story1  
with a sudden and violent breaking out  
of the cholera at ,klucknow1 led the    
peasants to a notion of the poisoning of
 the wells1 which spread like lightning4

 ,in the sequel1 in the attack of the   
estate of ,count ,czaki1 a servant of   
the chief bailiff was on the point of   
being murdered1 when1 to save his life1 
he offered to disclose something        
important4 ,he said that he received    
from his master two pounds of poisonous 
powder1 with orders to throw it into the
 wells1 and1 with an ax over his head1  
took oath publicly1 in the church1 to   
the truth of his statement4 ,these      
statements1 and the fact that the       
peasants1 when they forcibly entered the
 houses of the land-owners1 every where 
found chloride of lime1 which they took 
for the poisonous powder1 confirmed     
their suspicions1 and drove the people  
to madness4 ,in this state of           
excitement1 they committed the most     
appalling excesses4 ,thus1 for instance1
 when a detachment of thirty soldiers1  
headed by an ensign1 attempted to       
restore order in ,klucknow1 the         
peasants1 who were ten times their      
number1 fell upon them2 the soldiers    

were released1 but the ensign was bound1
 tortured with scissors and knives1 then
 beheaded1 and his head fixed on a pike 
as a trophy4 ,a civil officer in company
 with the military was drowned1 his     
carriage broken1 and1 chloride of lime  
being found in the carriage1 one of the 
inmates was compelled to eat it till he 
vomited blood1 which again confirmed the
 notion of poison4 ,on the attack of the
 house of the lord at ,klucknow1 the    
countess saved her life by piteous      
entreaties3 but the chief bailiff1 in   
whose house chloride of lime was        
unhappily found1 was killed1 together   
with his son1 a little daughter1 a      
clerk1 a maid1 and two students who     
boarded with him4 ,so the bands went    
from village to village2 wherever a     
nobleman or a physician was found1 death
 was his lot2 and in a short time it was
 known that the high constable of the   
county of ,zemplin1 and several counts1 
nobles1 and parish priests1 had been    
murdered4 ,a clergyman was hanged       

because he refused to take an oath that 
he had thrown poison into a well2 the   
eyes of a countess were put out1 and    
innocent children cut to pieces4 ,count 
,czaki1 having first ascertained that   
his family was safe1 fled from his      
estate at the risk of his life2 but he  
was stopped at ,kirtchtrauf1 pelted with
 stones1 and wounded all over1 torn from
 his horse1 and only saved by a worthy  
merchant who fell on him1 crying1 ',now 
,i have got the rascal4' ,he drew the   
count into a neighboring convent1 where 
his wounds were dressed1 and a refuge   
afforded him4 ,his secretary was struck 
from his horse with an ax1 but saved in 
a similar manner1 and in the evening    
conveyed with his master to             
,leutschau4#ca     #ca ,quoted from an  
address delivered in ,boston by ,edward 
,everett4   ,a little knowledge on the  
part of the peasantry would have        
prevented these horrible scenes4 ,had   
they learned even the elements of       
physiology and chemistry1 they would    

have known that cleanliness is essential
 to health at all times1 and that during
 the prevalence of a malignant epidemic 
it is doubly needful4 ,they would have  
known1 also1 that chloride of lime is   
not a medicine to be taken internally1  
but that it is very useful for          
disinfecting offensive apartments1 and  
that its tendency1 when properly used1  
would be to counteract the cause of the 
disease which they so much dreaded4     
,among all nations1 and in all ages of  
the world1 ignorance has not only       
debarred mankind from many exquisite and
 sublime enjoyments1 but has created    
innumerable unfounded alarms1 which     
greatly increase the sum of human       
misery4 ,in the early ages of the world1
 a total eclipse of the sun or of the   
moon was regarded with the utmost       
consternation1 as if some unusual       
catastrophe had been about to befall the
 universe4 ,believing that the moon in  
an eclipse was sickening or dying1      
through the influence of enchanters1 the

 trembling spectators had recourse to   
the ringing of bells1 the sounding of   
trumpets1 the beating of brazen vessels1
 and to loud and horrid exclamations1 in
 order to break the enchantment1 and to 
drown the muttering of witches1 that the
 moon might not hear them4 ,nor are such
 foolish opinions and customs yet       
banished from the world4  ,comets1 too1 
with their blazing tails1 were long     
regarded1 and still are by many1 as     
harbingers of divine vengeance1         
presaging famines and inundations1 or   
the downfall of princes and the         
destruction of empires4 ,the northern   
lights have been frequently gazed at    
with similar apprehensions1 whole       
provinces having been thrown into       
consternation by the fantastic          
coruscations of these lambent meteors4  
,some pretend to see in these harmless  
lights armies mixing in fierce encounter
 and fields streaming with blood1 while 
others behold states overthrown1        
earthquakes1 inundations1 pestilences1  

and the most dreadful calamities4       
,because some one or other of these     
calamities formerly happened soon after 
the appearance of a comet or the blaze  
of an aurora1 therefore they are        
considered either as the causes or the  
prognostics of such events4  ,popular   
ignorance has given rise to the practice
 of judicial astrology2 an art which1   
with all its foolish notions so fatal to
 the peace of mankind1 has been         
practiced in every period of time4      
,under a belief that the characters and 
the fates of men are dependent on the   
various aspects of the stars and        
conjunctions of the planets1 the most   
unfounded apprehensions1 as well as the 
most delusive hopes1 have been excited  
by the professors of this fallacious    
science4 ,such impositions on the       
credulity of mankind are founded on the 
grossest absurdity and the most palpable
 ignorance of the nature of things2     
still1 in the midst of the light of     
science which the present century has   

shed upon the world1 the astrologer     
meets with a rich support#cb even in the
 metropolis of ,great ,britain2 and     
soothsayers1 if not astrologers1 get    
great gain by their craft in various    
portions of the ,united ,states4 ,the   
extensive annual sale of hundreds of    
thousands of copies of almanacs that    
abound in astrological predictions in   
the ,united ,stales and in ,great       
,britain1 and the extent to which they  
are consulted1 affords a striking proof 
of the belief which is still attached to
 the doctrines of this fallacious       
science1 and of the ignorance and       
credulity from which such a belief      
proceeds4     #cb ,see ,appendix to     
,dick's ,improvement of ,society1 p4    
#cch4   ,shooting stars1 fiery meteors1 
lunar rainbows1 and other atmospherical 
phenomena1 have likewise been considered
 by some as ominous of impending        
calamities1 but they are regarded in a  
very different light by scientific      
observers4 ,the most sublime phenomenon 

of shooting stars of which the world has
 furnished any record was witnessed     
throughout the ,united ,states on the   
morning of the #acth of ,november1      
#ahcc4 ,this astonishing exhibition     
covered no inconsiderable portion of the
 earth's surface4 ,the first appearance 
was every where that of fire-works of   
the most imposing grandeur1 covering the
 entire vault of heaven with myriads of 
fire-balls resembling sky-rockets2 but  
the most brilliant sky-rockets and      
fire-works of art bear less relation to 
the splendors of this celestial         
exhibition than the twinkling of the    
most tiny star to the broad glare of the
 noonday sun4 ,their coruscations were  
bright1 gleaming1 and incessant1 and    
they fell thick as the flakes in the    
early snows of ,december4 ,the whole    
heavens seemed in motion1 and suggested 
to some the awful grandeur of the image 
employed in the ,apocalypse upon the    
opening of the sixth seal1 when the     
stars of heaven fell unto the earth1    

even as a fig-tree casteth her untimely 
figs when she is shaken of a mighty     
wind4  ,while these scenes of grandeur  
were viewed with unspeakable delight by 
enlightened scientific observers1 the   
ignorant and superstitious were         
overpowered with horror and dismay4 ,the
 description which a gentleman of ,south
 ,carolina gave of the effect produced  
by this phenomenon upon his ignorant    
blacks will apply well to many hardly   
better informed white persons4 ,i was   
suddenly awakened1 said he1 by the most 
distressing cries that ever fell upon my
 ears4 ,shrieks of horror and cries of  
mercy ,i could hear from most of the    
negroes of three plantations1 amounting 
in all to about six or eight hundred4   
,while earnestly listening for the      
cause1 ,i heard a faint voice near the  
door calling my name3 ,i arose1 and1    
taking my sword1 stood at the door4 ,at 
this moment ,i heard the same voice     
still beseeching me to rise and saying1 
',o6 my ,god1 the world is on fire6' ,i 

then opened the door1 and it is         
difficult to say which excited me most1 
the awfulness of the scene or the       
distressed cries of the negroes4 ,upward
 of one hundred lay prostrate on the    
ground1 some speechless1 and some with  
the bitterest cries1 but most with their
 hands raised1 imploring ,god to save   
the world and them4 ,the scene was truly
 awful1 for never did rain fall much    
thicker than the meteors fell toward the
 earth2 east1 west1 north1 and south1 it
 was the same4  ,those harmless meteors1
 the ignes fatui1 which hover above     
moist and fenny places in the           
night-time1 emitting a glimmering light1
 have been regarded by the ignorant as  
malicious spirits endeavoring to deceive
 the bewildered traveler and lead him to
 destruction4 ,the plaintive note of the
 mourning dove1 the ticking noise of the
 little insect called the death-watch1  
the howling of a dog in the night-time1 
the meeting of a bitch with whelps1 or a
 snake lying in the road1 the breaking  

of a looking-glass1 and even the falling
 of salt from the table1 and the curling
 of a fiber of wick in a burning candle1
 together with many other equally       
harmless incidents1 have been regarded  
with apprehensions of terror1 being     
considered as unfailing signs of        
impending disasters or of approaching   
death4  ,dr4 ,dick remarks1 that in the 
,highlands of ,scotland--and it should  
be borne in mind that the ,scotch are1  
as a nation1 better instructed1 and more
 moral and religious in their habits1   
than any other people in ,europe--the   
motions and appearances of the clouds   
were1 not long ago1 considered ominous  
of disastrous events4 ,on the evening   
before new year's day1 if a black cloud 
appeared in any part of the horizon1 it 
was thought to prognosticate a plague1 a
 famine1 or the death of some great man 
in that part of the country over which  
it seemed to hang2 and in order to      
ascertain the place threatened by the   
omen1 the motions of the clouds were    

often watched through the whole night4  
,in the same country1 the inhabitants   
regard certain days as unlucky1 or      
ominous of bad fortune4 ,the day of the 
week on which the third of ,may falls is
 deemed unlucky throughout the year4    
,with a very slight change1 a part of   
this description would apply well to our
 own country1 even up to the present    
time4 ,how many thousands of days are   
lost annually in the ,united ,states in 
consequence of superstitious fears in   
relation to setting out upon a journey1 
entering upon a new pursuit of any kind1
 or even beginning to plant or plow on  
,friday1 the unlucky day of the         
,americans4 ,how many persons have had  
misfortunes attend them all their lives 
because they were born1 or christened1  
or married on ,friday6 ,how many houses 
have been burned because they were      
begun1 raised1 or moved into on ,friday6
 ,how many steamboats and vessels have  
been burned or wrecked because they were
 launched or sailed on ,friday6 ,and    

yet1 strange as it may seem1 this is the
 very day on which ,columbus set sail on
 a voyage that resulted in the discovery
 of the ,new ,world4  ,many people1 and 
in some instances whole communities1    
always commence plowing1 sowing1 and    
reaping on ,tuesday1 though by this rule
 the most favorable weather for these   
purposes is frequently lost4 ,others1   
again1 will not1 on any account1 perform
 certain kinds of labor on ,friday4 ,the
 age of the moon is also much attended  
to in many parts of the world4 ,among   
the vulgar ,highlanders1 an opinion     
prevails1 that if a house takes fire    
while the moon is in the decrease1 the  
family will from that time decline in   
its circumstances and sink into poverty4
 ,in this country1 equally unfounded and
 ridiculous opinions are entertained4   
,passing by the more commonly received  
opinions that if swine are killed in the
 old of the moon1 the pork will shrink  
in the pot2 that seed sown at this time 
will be less likely to do well1 etc41   

etc41 ,i will mention one or two        
instances of opinions which1 although   
equally well founded1 are less commonly 
received1 and which may therefore more  
forcibly impress the popular mind4 ,a   
few years ago1 ,i spent some months in a
 neighboring state1 in a community where
 the belief was commonly entertained    
that shingles should not be laid nor    
stakes driven in the old of the moon1   
because the former would be more likely 
to warp1 and the latter to be thrown by 
the frost4 ,the same and kindred        
opinions are extensively held in various
 portions of the ,united ,states4       
,these are a few1 and but a very few1 of
 the superstitious notions and vain     
fears by which the great majority of the
 human race1 in every age and country1  
have been enslaved1 as he who will take 
the pains to peruse ,dr4 ,dick's        
admirable treatise on the improvement of
 society by the diffusion of knowledge  
can not fail to be convinced4 ,that such
 absurd notions should ever have        

prevailed is a most grating and         
humiliating thought1 when we consider   
the noble faculties with which man is   
endowed4 ,that they still prevail to a  
great extent1 even in our own country1  
is a striking proof that as yet we are1 
as a people1 but just emerging from the 
gloom of intellectual darkness4 ,the    
prevalence of such opinions is to be    
regretted1 not only on account of the   
groundless alarms they create1 but      
chiefly on account of the false ideas   
they inspire with regard to the nature  
of the ,supreme ,ruler of the universe1 
and of his arrangements in the          
government of the world4 ,he whose mind 
is enlightened with true science        
perceives throughout all nature the most
 striking evidences of benevolent       
design1 and rejoices in the benignity of
 the ,great ,parent of the universe1    
discovering nothing in the arrangements 
of the ,creator1 in any department of   
his works1 which has a direct tendency  
to produce pain to any intelligent or   

sensitive being4 ,the superstitious man1
 on the contrary1 contemplates the sky1 
the air1 the waters1 and the earth as   
filled with malicious beings1 ever ready
 to haunt him with terror or to plot his
 destruction4 ,the former contemplates  
the ,deity directing the movements of   
the material world by fixed and         
invariable laws1 which none but himself 
can counteract or suspend4 ,the latter  
views these movements as continually    
liable to be controlled by capricious   
and malignant beings to gratify the most
 trivial passions4 ,how very different1 
of course1 must be their conceptions and
 feelings respecting the attributes and 
government of the ,supreme ,being6      
,while the one views him as the         
infinitely wise and benevolent ,father1 
whose paternal care and goodness inspire
 confidence and affection1 the other    
must regard him1 in a certain degree1 as
 a capricious being1 and offer up his   
adorations under the influence of fear4 
,these and like notions have also an    

evident tendency to habituate the mind  
to false principles and processes of    
reasoning which unfit it for legitimate 
conclusions in its researches after     
truth4 ,they manifestly chain down the  
understanding1 and unfit it for the     
appreciation of those noble and enlarged
 views which revelation and modern      
science exhibit of the order1 extent1   
and economy of the universe4 ,it is     
lamentable to reflect that so many      
thousands of beings endowed with the    
faculty of reason1 who can not by any   
means be persuaded of the motion of the 
earth1 and the distances and magnitudes 
of the heavenly bodies1 should swallow1 
without the least hesitation1 opinions  
ten thousand times more improbable4     
,notwithstanding the mathematical       
certainty of the truth of the           
,copernican system of astronomy1 ,i have
 never yet become extensively acquainted
 with any community in which ,i have not
 found many persons professing a        
respectable degree of intelligence1 and 

even official members of orthodox       
churches1 who entirely discredit its    
sublime teachings2 and yet some of these
 very persons find little difficulty in 
believing that an old woman can         
transform herself into a hare1 and wing 
her way through the air on a broomstick4
 ,what contracted notions such persons  
must have of the almightiness of the    
,deity1 and of the infinite depth of    
meaning of the following and like       
passages of ,scripture3 ,the heavens    
declare the glory of ,god1 and the      
firmament showeth his handy work4 ,day  
unto day uttereth speech1 and night unto
 night showeth knowledge4--,ps4 xix41   
#a-b4  ,it has been already remarked1   
that the whole history of the world     
justifies the statement that ignorant   
and uncultivated mind is prone to       
sensuality and cruelty4 ,spain and      
,hungary were referred to in            
illustration4 ,we are now prepared to   
remark1 what is worse still1 that where 
such superstitious notions as we have   

been considering are held1 even by      
persons who are somewhat educated1 they 
almost invariably lead to the           
perpetration of deeds of cruelty and    
injustice4 ,many of the barbarities     
committed in pagan countries1 both in   
their religious worship and their civil 
polity1 and most of the cruelties       
inflicted on the victims of the ,romish 
,inquisition1 have flowed from this     
source4#cc ,nor are the annals of ,great
 ,britain and the ,united ,states       
deficient in examples of this kind4     
,about the commencement of the last     
century1 the belief in witchcraft1 which
 was almost universal throughout        
,christendom1 was held in both of these 
countries4 ,the laws of ,england1 which 
admitted its existence and punished it  
with death1 were adopted by the         
,puritans of ,new ,england1 and in less 
than twenty years from the founding of  
the colony1 one individual was tried and
 executed for the supposed crime4 ,half 
a century later the delusion broke out  

in ,salem4 ,a minister1 whose daughter  
and niece were subject to convulsions   
accompanied by extraordinary symptoms1  
supposing they were bewitched1 cast his 
suspicions on an ,indian woman who lived
 in the house1 and who was whipped until
 she confessed herself a witch2 and the 
truth of the confession1 although       
obtained in this way1 was not doubted4  
,during the same year more than fifty   
persons were terrified into the         
confession of witchcraft1 twenty of whom
 were put to death4 ,neither age1 sex1  
nor station afforded any safeguard      
against a charge for this supposed      
crime4 ,women and children not only were
 its victims1 but magistrates were      
condemned1 and a clergyman of the       
highest respectability was among the    
executed4 ,so late as #agbb a woman was 
burned for witchcraft in ,scotland1     
which was among the last executions in  
that country4     #cc ,in the ,duchy of 
,lorraine1 nine hundred females were    
delivered over   to the flames for being

 witches1 by one inquisitor alone4      
,under this   accusation1 it is reckoned
 that upward of thirty thousand women   
have   perished by the hands of the     
,inquisition4--,quoted by ,dr4 ,dick    
from   ,inquisition ,unmasked4   ,it    
appears that these superstitious        
notions1 so far from being innocent and 
harmless speculations1 lead to the most 
deplorable results2 they ought1         
therefore1 to be undermined and         
thoroughly eradicated by all persons who
 wish to promote the happiness and      
well-being of general society4 ,this    
duty is especially incumbent upon       
parents and teachers1 and can be        
effected only by rendering correct early
 education universal4 ,ignorance of the 
laws and economy of nature is the one   
great source of these absurd opinions4  
,they have not only no foundation in    
nature or experience1 but are directly  
opposed to both4 ,in proportion1 then1  
as we advance in our researches into    
,nature's economy and laws1 shall we    

perceive their futility and absurdity4  
,as in other cases1 take away the cause1
 and the effect will be removed4        
,education will dissipate all these     
evils4 ,it is true that an acquaintance 
with a number of dead languages1 with   
,roman and ,grecian antiquities1 with   
the subtleties of metaphysics1 with     
pagan mythology1 and with politics and  
poetry1 may coexist with these          
superstitions1 as was true in the case  
of the late ,dr4 ,samuel ,johnson1 who  
believed in ghosts and in the second    
sight4 ,however important in other      
respects these departments of an        
extensive and varied education may be1  
they do not form an effectual barrier   
against the admission of superstitious  
opinions4 ,in order to do this1 the mind
 must be directed to the study of the   
material universe1 to contemplate the   
various appearances it presents1 and to 
mark well the uniform results of those  
invariable laws by which it is governed4
 ,in particular1 the attention should be

 directed to those discoveries which    
have been made by philosophers in the   
different departments of nature and art 
during the last two centuries4 ,for this
 purpose1 the study of natural history1 
as recording the various facts          
respecting the atmosphere1 the waters1  
the earth1 and animated beings1 combined
 with the study of natural philosophy   
and astronomy1 as explaining the causes 
of the phenomena of nature1 will have a 
happy tendency to eradicate from the    
mind superstitious and false notions1   
and at the same time will present to    
view objects of delightful              
contemplation4 ,let a person be once    
thoroughly convinced that nature is     
uniform in her operations1 and governed 
by regular laws impressed by an all-wise
 and benevolent ,being1 and he will soon
 be inspired with confidence1 and will  
not easily be alarmed at any occasional 
phenomena which at first sight might    
appear as exceptions to the general     
rule4  ,let persons be taught1 for      

example1 that eclipses are occasioned   
merely by the shadow of one opaque body 
falling upon another2 that they are the 
necessary result of the inclination of  
the moon's orbit to that of the earth2  
that1 if these orbits were in the same  
plane1 there would be an eclipse of the 
sun and of the moon every month1 the    
former occurring at the change1 and the 
latter at the full of the moon2 that the
 times when they do actually take place 
depend on the new or full moon happening
 at or near the points of intersection  
of the orbits of the earth and moon1 and
 that other planets which have moons    
experience eclipses of a similar nature4
 ,let them also be taught that the      
comets are regular bodies belonging to  
our system1 which finish their          
revolutions and appear and disappear in 
stated periods of time2 that the        
northern lights1 though seldom seen in  
southern climes1 are frequent in the    
regions of the ,north1 and supply the   
inhabitants with light in the absence of

 the sun1 and have probably a relation  
to the magnetic and electric fluids2    
that the ignes fatui are harmless       
lights1 formed by the ignition of a     
certain species of gas produced in the  
soils above which they hover2 and that  
the notes of the death-watch1 so far    
from being presages of death1 are       
ascertained to be the notes of love and 
presages of hymeneal intercourse among  
these little insects4  ,let rational    
information of this kind be imparted to 
people generally1 and they will learn to
 contemplate nature with tranquillity   
and composure4 ,a more beneficial effect
 than this will at the same time be     
produced1 for those very objects which  
were formerly beheld with alarm will now
 be converted into sources of enjoyment1
 and be contemplated with emotions of   
delight4  ,to remove the groundless     
apprehensions which arise from the fear 
of invisible and incorporeal beings1 let
 persons be instructed in the various   
optical illusions to which we are       

subject1 arising from the intervention  
of fogs1 and the indistinctness of      
vision in the night-time1 which makes us
 frequently mistake a bush that is near 
us for a large tree at a distance1 and  
let them be taught that under the       
influence of these illusions a timid    
imagination will transform the          
indistinct image of a cow or a horse    
into a terrific phantom of a monstrous  
size4 ,let them also be taught1 by a    
selection of well-authenticated facts1  
the powerful influence of the           
imagination in creating ideal forms1    
especially when under the dominion of   
fear2 the effects produced by the       
workings of conscience when harassed by 
guilt2 let them be taught the effects   
produced by lively dreams1 by strong    
doses of opium1 by drunkenness1 hysteric
 passions1 madness1 and other disorders 
that affect the mind4 ,let the          
experiments of optics1 and the striking 
phenomena produced by electricity1      
galvanism1 magnetism1 and the different 

gases1 be exhibited to their view1      
together with details of the results    
which have been produced by various     
mechanical contrivances4 ,in fine1 let  
their attention be directed to the      
foolish1 whimsical1 and extravagant     
notions attributed to apparitions1 and  
to their inconsistency with the wise and
 benevolent arrangements of the         
,governor of the universe4  ,there is no
 rational foundation for entertaining   
any doubts but that1 could such         
instructions as ,i have suggested be    
universally given1 the effect would be  
the banishment of superstitions of the  
nature contemplated from among mankind2 
for they have uniformly produced this   
effect on every mind which has been thus
 enlightened4 ,where is the man to be   
found whose mind is enlightened by the  
doctrines and discoveries of modern     
science1 and who yet remains the slave  
of superstitious notions and vain fears8
 ,of all the philosophers of ,america   
and ,europe1 is there one who is alarmed

 at an eclipse1 at a comet1 at an ignis 
fatuus1 or at the notes of a            
death-watch8 or who postpones his       
experiments on account of what is called
 an unlucky day8 ,who ever heard of a   
specter appearing to such a person1     
dragging him from bed at the dead hour  
of midnight1 to wander through the      
forest1 trembling with fear8 ,such      
beings appear only to the ignorant and  
illiterate1 at least to those who are   
unacquainted with natural science1 and  
we never hear of their appearing to any 
who did not previously believe in their 
existence4 ,but should philosophers be  
freed from such terrific visions1 if    
substantial knowledge has not the power 
of banishing them from the mind8 ,why   
should supernatural beings feel so shy  
in conversing with men of science8      
,these would1 indeed1 be the fittest    
persons to whom they might impart their 
secrets1 and communicate information    
respecting the invisible world2 but it  
never falls to their lot to be favored  

with such visits4 ,it may therefore be  
concluded that the diffusion of useful  
knowledge among mankind would infallibly
 dissipate those groundless fears which 
have banished much of happiness from the
 human family1 and particularly among   
the lower orders of society4#cd     #cd 
,dr4 ,dick1 to whom ,i have frequently  
referred1 and whose writings ,i   have  
freely consulted1 expresses in a note a 
sentiment in which ,i fully   concur4   
,it would be unfair1 says he1 to infer1 
from any expression   here used1 that   
the author denies the possibility of    
supernatural   visions and appearances4 
,we are assured from the records of     
sacred   history that beings of an order
 superior to the human race have 'at    
sundry times and in divers manners' made
 their appearance to men4 ,but   there  
is the most marked difference between   
vulgar apparitions and the   celestial  
messengers to which the records of      
revelation refer4 ,they   appeared not  
to old women and clowns1 but to         

patriarchs1 prophets1 and   apostles4   
,they appeared not to frighten the timid
 and to create   unnecessary alarm1 but 
to declare 'tidings of great joy4' ,they
 appeared   not to reveal such paltry   
secrets as the place where a pot of gold
 or   silver is concealed1 or where a   
lost ring may be found1 but to          
communicate intelligence worthy of a    
,god to reveal1 and of the utmost       
importance for man to receive4 ,in these
 and many other respects1 there   is the
 most striking contrast between popular 
ghosts and the   supernatural           
communications and appearances recorded 
in ,scripture4   ,i might1 perhaps1     
safely dismiss this subject1 and proceed
 to the consideration of other topics2  
but1 before doing so1 it may be well to 
state that many of the views here       
presented1 and all that come within the 
range of the subjects discussed by him1 
are fully sustained by ,dr4 ,lardner1   
whose popular lectures on science and   
art have been so well received both in  

,europe and ,america4 ,his publishers   
justly remark1 that probably no public  
lecturer ever continued1 for the same   
length of time1 to collect around him so
 numerous audiences4 ,the author himself
 states1 in the preface to his          
,lectures1#ce that from ,november1      
#ahda1 when he commenced his public     
lectures in the lecture-room of ,clinton
 ,hall1 in ,new ,york1 to the close of  
the year #ahdd1 when he concluded his   
public labors in this country1 he       
visited every considerable city and town
 of the ,union1 from ,boston to ,new    
,orleans1 and from ,new ,york to ,st4   
,louis4 ,most of the principal cities   
were twice visited1 and several courses 
were given in ,boston1 ,new ,york1 and  
,philadelphia4 ,nor did the appetite for
 this species of intellectual           
entertainment appear to flag by         
repetition4     #ce ,in two large       
volumes1 published by ,greeley and      
,mc,elrath1 ,new ,york4   ,i can not    
forbear making a few quotations from the

 preface to the work under              
consideration1 which are creditable to  
the comparative intelligence of the     
,american people1 and show the avidity  
with which they seek instruction and    
useful knowledge4 ,dr4 ,lardner         
observes1 that it was usual on each     
evening to deliver from two to four of  
the essays which compose the contents of
 the present volumes1 and the duration  
of the entertainment was from two to    
three hours4 ,on every occasion the most
 profound interest was evinced on the   
part of the audience1 and the most      
unremitting and silent attention was    
given4 ,these assemblies consisted of   
persons of both sexes1 of every age1    
from the elder classes of pupils in the 
schools to their grandfathers and       
grandmothers4 ,frequently the audiences 
amounted to twelve hundred1 and         
sometimes1 as at the ,philadelphia      
,museum1 they exceeded two thousand4    
,nor was the manifestation of this      
interest confined1 as might be imagined1

 to the northern ,atlantic cities1 where
 education is known to be attended to1  
and where1 as in ,new ,england1 the     
diffusion of useful knowledge is        
regarded as a paramount duty of the     
state4 ,the same crowded assemblies were
 collected1 for a long succession of    
nights1 in the largest theaters of each 
of the southern and western cities2 in  
the ,charleston ,theater2 the ,mobile   
,theater2 the ,st4 ,charles ,theater1   
,new ,orleans2 the ,vicksburg and       
,jackson ,theaters1 ,mississippi2 the   
,st4 ,louis ,theater1 ,missouri2 and in 
the theaters of ,cincinnati1 ,pittsburg1
 and other western and central cities4  
,it can not be denied that such facts   
are symptomatic of a very remarkable    
condition of the public mind1 more      
especially among a people who are       
admitted to be1 more than any other     
nation1 engrossed by money-getting and  
by the more material pursuits of life4  
,the less pretension to eloquence and   
the attractive graces of oratory the    

lecturer can offer1 the more surprising 
is the result1 and the more creditable  
to the intelligence of the ,american    
people4 ,it is certain that a similar   
intellectual entertainment1 clogged1 as 
it necessarily was1 with a pecuniary    
condition of admission1 would fail to   
attract an audience even in the most    
polished and enlightened cities of      
,europe4  ,while these statements are   
highly creditable to the ,american      
people1 the lectures themselves contain 
paragraphs which show that the popular  
mind even in our own country is not     
sufficiently enlightened to eradicate   
the superstitions just considered4      
,,the ,,moon ,,and ,,the                
,,weather4--,dr4 ,lardner1 in a lecture 
on the moon1 in answer to the question1 
,does the moon influence the weather8   
says1#cf ,it is asserted1 first1 that at
 the epochs of new and full moon1 and at
 the quarters1 there is generally a     
change of weather2 and1 secondly1 that  
the phases of the moon1 or1 in other    

words1 the relative position of the moon
 and sun in regard to the earth1 is the 
cause of these changes4 ,now these and  
kindred opinions are very extensively   
held in this country4 ,but the doctor   
refers to meteorological tables1        
constructed in various countries after  
the most extensive and careful          
observation1 and the result is that no  
correspondence exists between the       
condition of the weather and the phases 
of the moon4 ,he hence1 after a full    
examination1 comes to the conclusion    
that the condition of the weather as to 
change1 or in any other respect1 has1 as
 a matter of fact1 no correspondence    
whatever with the lunar phases4     #cf 
,see ,lectures on ,science and ,art1    
vol4 i41 p4 #cae4   ,in another lecture 
on the moon and the weather1 the        
following decisive opinion is expressed3
 ,from all that has been stated1 it     
follows then1 conclusively1 that the    
popular notions concerning the influence
 of the lunar phases on the weather have

 no foundation in the theory1 and no    
correspondence with observed facts4#cg  
#cg ,ibid41 p4 #dai-dbj4   ,,time ,,for 
,,felling ,,timber4--,in another lecture
 on lunar influences1 ,dr4 ,lardner     
observes that there is an opinion       
generally entertained that timber should
 be felled only during the decline of   
the moon2 for if it be cut down during  
its increase1 it will not be of a good  
or durable quality4 ,this impression    
prevails in various countries4 ,it is   
acted upon in ,england1 and is made the 
ground of legislation in ,france4 ,the  
forest laws of the latter country       
interdict the cutting of timber during  
the increase of the moon4 ,in the       
extensive forests of ,germany1 the same 
opinion is entertained and acted upon1  
with the most undoubting confidence in  
its truth4 ,sauer1 a superintendent of  
some of these districts1 assigns what he
 believes to be its physical cause4     
,according to him1 the increase of the  
moon causes the sap to ascend in the    

timber1 and1 on the other hand1 the     
decrease of the moon causes it to       
descend4 ,if the timber1 therefore1 be  
cut during the decrease of the moon1 it 
will be cut in a dry state1 the sap     
having retired1 and the wood1 therefore1
 will be compact1 solid1 and durable4   
,but if it be cut during the increase of
 the moon1 it will be felled with the   
sap in it1 and will therefore be more   
spongy1 more easily attacked by worms1  
more difficult to season1 and more      
readily split and warped by changes of  
temperature4  ,admitting for a moment   
the reality of this supposition         
concerning the motion of the sap1 it    
would follow that the proper time for   
felling the timber would be the new     
moon1 that being the epoch at which the 
descent of the sap would have been made1
 and the ascent not yet commenced4 ,but 
can there be imagined1 in the whole     
range of natural science1 a physical    
relation more extraordinary and         
unaccountable than this supposed        

correspondence between the movement of  
the sap and the phases of the moon8     
,assuredly theory affords not the       
slightest countenance to such a         
supposition2 but let us inquire as to   
the fact whether it be really the case  
that the quality of timber depends upon 
the state of the moon at the time it is 
felled4  ,m4 ,duhamel ,monceau1 a       
celebrated ,french agriculturist1 has   
made direct and positive experiments for
 the purpose of testing this question1  
and has clearly and conclusively shown  
that the qualities of timber felled in  
different parts of the lunar month are  
the same4 ,m4 ,duhamel felled a great   
many trees of the same age1 growing from
 the same soil1 and exposed to the same 
aspect1 and never found any difference  
in the quality of the timber1 when he   
compared those which were felled in the 
decline of the moon with those which    
were felled during its increase3 in     
general1 they have afforded timber of   
the same quality4 ,he adds1 however1    

that by a circumstance which was        
doubtless fortuitous1 a slight          
difference was manifested in favor of   
timber which had been felled between the
 new and full moon1 contrary to popular 
opinion4  ,,supposed ,,lunar            
,,influences4--,it is an aphorism       
received by all gardeners and           
agriculturists in ,europe1 remarks the  
same author1 that vegetables1 plants1   
and trees1 which are expected to        
flourish and grow with vigor1 should be 
planted1 grafted1 and pruned during the 
increase of the moon4 ,this opinion1    
however1 he thinks is altogether        
erroneous2 for the experiments and      
observations of several ,french         
agriculturists have clearly established 
the fact that the increase or decrease  
of the moon has no appreciable influence
 on the phenomena of vegetation4  ,this 
erroneous prejudice prevails also on the
 ,american continent4 ,a ,french author 
states that1 in ,brazil1 cultivators    
plant during the decline of the moon all

 vegetables whose roots are used as     
food1 and that1 on the contrary1 they   
plant during the increasing moon the    
sugar-cane1 maize1 rice1 beans1 etc41   
and those which bear the food upon their
 stocks and branches4 ,experiments1     
however1 were made and reported by ,m4  
de ,chauvalon1 at ,martinique1 on       
vegetables of both kinds1 planted at    
different times in the lunar month1 and 
no appreciable difference in their      
qualities was discovered4  ,there are   
some traces of a principle adopted by   
the ,south ,american agronomes          
7farmers71 according to which they treat
 the two classes of plants distinguished
 by the production of fruit on their    
roots or on their branches differently2 
but there are none in the ,european     
aphorisms4 ,the directions of ,pliny are
 still more specific3 he prescribes the 
time of the full moon for sowing beans1 
and that of the new moon for lentils4   
,truly1 says ,m4 ,arago1 we have need of
 a robust faith to admit1 without proof1

 that the moon1 at the distance of two  
hundred and forty thousand miles1 shall1
 in one position1 act advantageously    
upon the vegetation of beans1 and that  
in the opposite position1 and at the    
same distance1 she shall be propitious  
to lentils4  ,dr4 ,lardner gives        
numerous and extended illustrations of  
the supposed influence of the moon on   
the growth of grain1 on wine-making1#ch 
on the color of the complexion1 on      
putrefaction1 on the size of shell-fish1
 on the quantity of marrow in the bones 
of animals1 on the number of births1 on 
mental derangement1 and other human     
maladies1 etc41 etc4     #ch ,on this   
subject the prevailing opinions in      
different countries   disagree1 as they 
do also on some of the others4   ,the   
influence on the phenomena of human     
maladies imputed to the moon is very    
ancient4 ,hippocrates had so strong a   
faith in the influence of celestial     
objects upon animated beings1 that he   
expressly recommends no physician to be 

trusted who is ignorant of astronomy4   
,galen1 following ,hippocrates1         
maintained the same opinion1 especially 
of the influence of the moon4 ,the      
critical days1 or crises1 were the      
seventh1 fourteenth1 and twenty-first of
 the disease1 corresponding to the      
intervals between the moon's principal  
phases4 ,while the doctrine of          
alchemists prevailed1 the human body was
 considered as a microcosm1 or an       
epitome of the universe1 the heart      
representing the sun1 and the brain the 
moon4 ,the planets had each his proper  
influence3 ,jupiter presided over the   
lungs1 ,saturn over the spleen1 ,venus  
over the kidneys1 and ,mercury over the 
organs of generation4 ,the term lunacy1 
which still designates unsoundness of   
mind1 is a relic of these grotesque     
notions1 and is defined by ,dr4 ,webster
 as a species of insanity or madness1   
formerly supposed to be influenced by   
the moon1 or periodical in the month4   
,but even this term may now be said1 in 

some degree1 to be banished from the    
nomenclature of medicine2 it has1       
however1 taken refuge in that receptacle
 of all antiquated absurdities of       
phraseology--the law--lunatic being     
still the term for the subject who is   
incapable of managing his own affairs4  
,sanctorius1 whose name is celebrated in
 physics for the invention of the       
thermometer1 held it as a principle that
 a healthy man gained two pounds' weight
 at the beginning of every lunar month1 
which he lost toward its completion4    
,this opinion appears to have been      
founded on experiments made upon        
himself1 and affords another instance of
 a fortuitous coincidence hastily       
generalized4  ,for all the progress that
 has been made in this country toward   
the removal from the popular mind of the
 numerous corrupting and debasing       
absurdities which have hitherto enslaved
 it1 we are indebted to our enlightened 
and chastened systems of popular        
education2 and to these1 and to these   

only1 may we confidently look for entire
 freedom from the thraldom4             
,,education ,,increases ,,the           
,,productiveness ,,of ,,labor4          
,education has a power of ministering to
 our personal and material     wants    
beyond all other agencies1 whether      
excellence of climate1     spontaneity  
of production1 mineral resources1 or    
mines of silver and     gold4 ,every    
wise parent1 every wise community1      
desiring the     prosperity of its      
children even in the most worldly sense1
 will     spare no pains in giving them 
a generous education4--,,horace ,,mann4 
,the best educated are always the best  
paid4--,foreign ,report4   ,the         
desirableness of education is manifest1 
view it in what light we may1 and       
whether as affecting individuals or     
communities4 ,we have already seen that 
education1 and that alone1 will         
dissipate the evils of ignorance4 ,we   
now propose to discuss the equally      
tenable proposition that education      

increases the productiveness of labor4  
,that knowledge is power has become a   
proverb4 ,if it be asked why the labor  
of a man is more valuable than the same 
amount of physical effort put forth by a
 brute1 the ready answer is1 ,it is     
because man combines intelligence with  
his labor4 ,a single yoke of oxen will  
do more in one day at plowing than forty
 men2 yet the oxen may be had for fifty 
cents a day1 while each of the men can  
earn a dollar4 ,physical exertion in    
this case1 combined with ordinary skill1
 is eighty times more valuable than the 
same amount of brute force4 ,the        
strength of the ox is of no account     
without some one to guide and apply it1 
while the power of man is guided by     
intelligence within4  ,in proportion as 
man's intelligence increases is his     
labor more valuable4 ,a small           
compensation is the reward of mere      
physical power1 while skill1 combined   
with a moderate amount of strength1     
commands high wages4 ,the labor of an   

ignorant man is scarcely more valuable  
than the same amount of brute force2 but
 the services of an intelligent1        
skillful person are a hundred fold more 
productive4 ,i will pause and           
illustrate1 for ,i wish to have every   
person who arises from the perusal of   
these pages do so with the fullest      
conviction that mental culture is of the
 highest importance even in the ordinary
 departments of human industry4 ,it is1 
indeed1 hardly less important for the   
man of business1 the farmer1 or the     
mechanic1 than for statesmen1           
legislators1 and members of the         
so-called learned professions4  ,an     
intelligent farmer of my acquaintance   
having a piece of greensward to break   
up1 and having three work-horses1       
determined to employ them all4 ,he      
hence1 possessing some mechanical skill1
 himself constructed a three-horse      
whipple-tree1 by means of which he      
advantageously combined the strength of 
his horses4 ,a less intelligent         

neighbor1 pleased with the novel        
appearance of three horses working      
abreast1 resolved to try the experiment 
himself4 ,but not possessing the skill  
requisite to construct such a           
whipple-tree1 he waited till his        
better-informed and more expert neighbor
 had got through with his1 and then1    
borrowing it1 tried the experiment with 
his own team4 ,early one morning1 and   
full of expectation1 aided by his two   
sons and a hired man1 he harnessed his  
three horses to the plow4 ,but one of   
them1 for the first time1 refused to    
draw4 ,after several fruitless attempts 
to make the team work as first          
harnessed1 the relative position of the 
horses was changed1 when1 lo6 although  
this horse would draw as formerly1 one  
of the others would not4 ,by and by     
another change was made1 and the third  
horse1 in turn1 refused to draw4 ,the   
farmer could not understand it1 nor his 
sons1 nor his hired man4 ,his three     
horses1 for the first time1 were each   

fickle in turn4 ,and1 what was most     
surprising1 they would all work in      
either of two positions1 but in the     
third none of them would draw4 ,the     
honest farmer thought the age of        
witchcraft had not yet passed4 ,at the  
conclusion of the forenoon he gave up   
the undertaking in disgust1 and1        
carrying the whipple-tree home1 told the
 story of his unsuccessful and vexatious
 experiment4  ,and how did you harness  
the horses to the whipple-tree8 inquired
 the more intelligent farmer4 ,why1 one 
at the short end1 and two at the long   
end1 where there is the most room for   
them1 to be sure6 was the frank reply4  
,the power at the short end1 ,i need not
 say1 should be twice that at the long  
end2 whereas he had it reversed4 ,one   
horse drew against two with a double    
purchase4 ,he then would have to draw   
twice as much as both of them1 or four  
times as much as one of them4 ,the      
fickleness of the horses1 then1 instead 
of being the result of witchcraft1 as he

 was inclined to believe1 was chargeable
 solely to the ignorance of their hardly
 more intelligent master4 ,a knowledge  
of the first principles of mechanics1   
or1 in the absence of this1 an ordinary 
degree of active1 available common      
sense1 would teach the proper use of    
such a whipple-tree4 ,for want of this  
knowledge1 the farmer suffered much     
chagrin1 lost the time of four men1 and 
did great injury to his team4  ,after   
mentioning this circumstance on a       
certain occasion1 a gentleman present   
gave a parallel case1 that occurred     
under his immediate observation4 ,his   
neighbor had a yoke of oxen1 one of     
which was large1 strong1 and beautiful4 
,one day1 as the neighbor was passing   
the residence of the gentleman1 the     
latter remarked to him1 ,you have one   
very fine-looking ox4 ,yes1 replied the 
neighbor1 with apparent satisfaction1   
and a bonny fellow he is too4 ,he can   
carry the long end of the yoke1 and grow
 fat under it4 ,here1 again1 the weaker 

ox had to tax his strength doubly on    
account of the advantage which the      
ignorance of his kind master had        
unintentionally given to his superior   
yoke-fellow4  ,a farmer1 or laborer of  
any kind1 who possesses a knowledge of  
the merest elements of science1 and is  
accustomed to think and investigate1 can
 not only work more advantageously with 
his team1 but he can do more work       
himself1 and do it easier too1 than his 
neighbor of superior physical strength1 
though of inferior mental capacity4 ,the
 correctness of this statement may be   
satisfactorily proved and amply         
illustrated in loading timber1 in moving
 buildings1 in plowing1 and in almost   
every kind of work done on a farm or    
among men1 either on land or at sea4    
,the ignorant man will spend more time  
in running after help to do a supposed  
difficult job1 than it will require for 
a skillful one to do it alone4 ,this is 
true in carpentry1 and in all of the    
mechanic arts4 ,increase the practical  

and available education of the laborer1 
and you enable him to do more work1 and 
better work too1 than his less informed 
associate4 ,the following is a striking 
illustration4  ,a practical teacher     
employed some mechanics to build him a  
barn4 ,the day after the frame was      
raised1 the teacher discovered that it  
needed to be turned a few inches upon   
its foundation1 to range properly with  
other buildings4 ,while the mechanics   
went in several directions to procure   
what they regarded as necessary help1   
the teacher1 who was familiar with the  
various combinations of the lever1      
effected the work alone1 and before     
their return6 ,other equally striking   
illustrations might be cited4  ,but     
education increases the productiveness  
of labor in a wider and more extended   
sense4 ,by its omnipotent influence1 man
 is enabled to lay the elements under   
tribute4 ,the water and the wind1 by its
 mysterious power1 are made to propel   
his machinery for various purposes4 ,the

 utmost skill of the untutored savage   
enables him to construct a rude canoe   
which two can carry upon their shoulders
 by land1 which is barely capable of    
plying upon our rivers and coasting our 
inland seas1 and which can be propelled 
only by human muscles1 but the educated 
man erects a magnificent vessel1 a      
floating palace1 and1 spreading his     
canvas to the breeze1 aided by the      
mariner's compass1 can traverse unknown 
seas in safety4 ,to such perfection has 
he attained in the science and art of   
navigation1 that he contends            
successfully with wind and tide1 and    
makes headway against both1 even when he
 depends upon the former for his motive 
power4 ,yes1 education enables man even 
to tax the gentle breeze to urge a proud
 ship1 heavily laden1 up an inclined    
plane1 thousands of miles1 against the  
current of a mighty river4  ,i can not1 
perhaps1 so satisfactorily establish the
 proposition which ,i am now endeavoring
 to elucidate1 nor so well maintain the 

universality of its application1 as by  
referring to the writings of the most   
indefatigable and successful laborer in 
the department of popular education of  
which our country can boast4 ,i refer to
 the ,hon4 ,horace ,mann1#ci who1 a few 
years ago1 in his official capacity1    
opened a correspondence1 and availed    
himself of all opportunities to hold    
personal interviews with many of the    
most practical1 sagacious1 and          
intelligent business men in our country1
 who for many years had had large       
numbers of persons in their employment4 
,his object was to ascertain the        
difference in the productive ability1   
where natural capacities were equal1    
between the educated and the uneducated2
 between a man or a woman whose mind has
 been awakened to thought1 and supplied 
with the rudiments of knowledge by a    
good common school education1 and one   
whose faculties have never been         
developed1 or aided in emerging from    
their original darkness and torpor by   

such a privilege4 ,for this purpose he  
conferred and corresponded with         
manufacturers of all kinds--with        
machinists1 engineers1 rail-road        
contractors1 officers in the army1 etc42
 classes which have means of determining
 the effects of education on individuals
 equal in their natural abilities that  
other classes do not possess4     #ci   
,late ,secretary of the ,massachusetts  
,board of ,education4 ,reference   is   
here especially made to his ,fifth      
,annual ,report1 bearing date ,january  
#a1 #ahdb1 from which1 with his consent1
 what follows under this head has   been
 substantially drawn4   ,a farmer hiring
 a laborer for one season who has       
received a good common school education1
 and the ensuing season hiring another  
who has not enjoyed this advantage1     
although he may be personally convinced 
of the relative value or profitableness 
of their services1 yet he will rarely   
have any exact data or tests to refer to
 by which he can measure the superiority

 of the former over the latter4 ,they do
 not work side by side1 so that he can  
institute a comparison between the      
amounts of labor they perform4 ,they may
 cultivate different fields1 where the  
ease of tillage or the fertility of the 
soils may be different4 ,they may rear  
crops under the influence of different  
seasons1 so that he can not discriminate
 between what is referable to the bounty
 of nature and what to superiority in   
judgment or skill4  ,similar            
difficulties exist in estimating the    
amount and value of female labor in the 
household4 ,and as to the mechanic      
also--the carpenter1 the mason1 the     
blacksmith1 the tool-maker of any       
kind--there are a thousand              
circumstances1 which we call accidental1
 that mingle their influence in giving  
quality and durability to their work1   
and prevent us from making a precise    
estimate of the relative value of any   
two men's handicraft4 ,individual       
differences1 too1 in regard to a single 

article or a single days' work1 may be  
too minute to be noticed or appreciated1
 while the aggregate of these           
differences at the end of a few years   
may make all the difference between a   
poor man and a rich one4 ,no observing  
man can have failed to notice the       
difference between two workmen1 one of  
whom1 to use a proverbial expression1   
always hits the nail on the head1 while 
the other loses half his strength and   
destroys half his nails by the          
awkwardness of his blows2 but perhaps   
few men have thought of the difference  
in the results of two such men's labor  
at the end of twenty years4  ,but when  
hundreds of men or women work side by   
side in the same factory1 at the same   
machinery1 in making the same fabrics1  
and1 by a fixed rule of the             
establishment1 labor the same number of 
hours each day2 and when1 also1 the     
products of each operative can be       
counted in number1 weighed by the pound1
 or measured by the yard or cubic foot1 

then it is perfectly practicable to     
determine1 with arithmetical exactness1 
the productions of one individual and   
class as compared with those of another 
individual and class4  ,so1 where there 
are different kinds of labor1 some      
simple1 others complicated1 and of      
course requiring different degrees of   
intelligence and skill1 it is easy to   
observe what class of persons rise from 
a lower to a higher grade of employment4
  ,this1 too1 is not to be forgotten1   
that in a manufacturing or mechanical   
establishment1 or among a set of hands  
engaged in filling up a valley or       
cutting down a hill1 where scores of    
people are working together1 the absurd 
and adventitious distinctions of society
 do not intrude4 ,the capitalist and his
 agents are looking for the greatest    
amount of labor or the largest income in
 money from their investments1 and they 
do not promote a dunce to a station     
where he will destroy raw material or   
slacken industry because of his name1 or

 birth1 or family connections4 ,the     
obscurest and humblest person has a fair
 field for competition4 ,that he proves 
himself capable of earning more money   
for his employers is a testimonial      
better than a diploma from all the      
colleges4  ,now many of the most        
intelligent and valuable men in the     
community1 in compliance with ,mr4      
,mann's request1 examined their books   
for a series of years1 and ascertained  
both the quality and the amount of work 
performed by persons in their           
employment1 and the result of the       
investigation is a most astonishing     
superiority in productive power on the  
part of the educated over the uneducated
 laborer4 ,the hand is found to be      
another hand when guided by an          
intelligent mind4 ,processes are        
performed not only more rapidly1 but    
better1 when faculties which have been  
exercised in early life furnish their   
assistance4 ,individuals who1 without   
the aid of knowledge1 would have been   

condemned to perpetual inferiority of   
condition1 and subjected to all the     
evils of want and poverty1 rise to      
competence and independence by the      
uplifting power of education4 ,in great 
establishments1 and among large bodies  
of laboring men1 where all services are 
rated according to their pecuniary      
value2 where there are no extrinsic     
circumstances to bind a man down to a   
fixed position after he has shown a     
capacity to rise above it2 where1       
indeed1 men pass by each other1         
ascending or descending in their grades 
of labor just as easily and certainly as
 particles of water of different degrees
 of temperature glide by each           
other--under such circumstances it is   
found1 as an almost invariable fact1    
other things being equal1 that those who
 have been blessed with a good common   
school education rise to a higher and a 
higher point in the kinds of labor      
performed1 and also in the rate of wages
 received1 while the ignorant sink like 

dregs1 and are always found at the      
bottom4  ,james ,k4 ,mills1 ,esq41 of   
,boston1 who has been connected with a  
house that has had for the last ten     
years the principal direction of        
cotton-mills1 machine shops1 and        
calico-printing works1 in which are     
constantly employed about three thousand
 persons1 and whose opinions of the     
effects of a common school education    
upon a manufacturing population are the 
result of personal observation and      
inquiries1 and are confined to the      
testimony of the overseers and agents   
who are brought into immediate contact  
with the operatives1 expresses the      
conviction that the rudiments of a      
common school education are essential to
 the attainment of skill and expertness 
as laborers1 or to consideration and    
respect in the civil and social         
relations of life2 that very few who    
have not enjoyed the advantages of a    
common school education ever rise above 
the lowest class of operatives1 and that

 the labor of this class1 when it is    
employed in manufacturing operations    
which require even a very moderate      
degree of manual or mental dexterity1 is
 unproductive2 that a large majority of 
the overseers and others employed in    
situations which require a high degree  
of skill in particular branches--which  
oftentimes require a good general       
knowledge of business1 and always an    
unexceptionable moral character--have   
made their way up from the condition of 
common laborers1 with no other advantage
 over a large proportion of those they  
have left behind than that derived from 
a better education4  ,a statement made  
from the books of one of the            
manufacturing companies will show the   
relative number of the two classes1 and 
the earnings of each2 and this mill1 we 
are assured1 may be taken as a fair     
index of all the others4 ,the average   
number of operatives employed for the   
last three years is twelve hundred4 ,of 
this number there are forty-five unable 

to write their names1 or about three and
 three fourths per cent4 ,the average of
 women's wages1 in the departments      
requiring the most skill1 is two dollars
 and fifty cents per week1 exclusive of 
board4 ,the average wages of the lowest 
departments is one dollar and           
twenty-five cents per week4  ,of the    
forty-five who are unable to write1     
twenty-nine1 or about two thirds1 are   
employed in the lowest department4 ,the 
difference between the wages earned by  
the forty-five and the average wages of 
an equal number of the better-educated  
class is about twenty-seven per cent4 in
 favor of the latter4 ,the difference   
between the wages earned by twenty-nine 
of the lowest class and the same number 
in the higher is sixty-six per cent4 ,of
 seventeen persons filling the most     
responsible stations in the mills1 ten  
have grown up in the establishment from 
common laborers or apprentices4  ,this  
statement does not include an           
importation of sixty-three persons from 

,manchester1 in ,england1 in #ahci4     
,among these persons there was scarcely 
one who could read or write2 and        
although a part of them had been        
accustomed to work in cotton-mills1 yet1
 either from incapacity or idleness1    
they were unable to earn sufficient to  
pay for their subsistence1 and at the   
expiration of a few weeks not more than 
half a dozen remained in the employment 
of the company4  ,in some of the        
print-works a large proportion of the   
operatives are foreigners4 ,those who   
are employed in the branches which      
require a considerable degree of skill  
are as well educated as our people in   
similar situations4 ,but the common     
laborers1 as a class1 are without any   
education1 and their average earnings   
are about two thirds only of those of   
our lowest classes1 although the prices 
paid to each are the same for the same  
amount of work4  ,among the men and boys
 employed in the machine shops1 the want
 of education is quite rare4 ,mr4 ,mills

 does not know an instance of a person  
so employed who is unable to read and   
write2 and many have a good common      
school education4 ,to this1 he thinks1  
may be attributed the fact that a large 
proportion of persons who fill the      
higher and more responsible situations  
come from this class of workmen4 ,from  
these statements the reader will be able
 to form some estimate1 in dollars and  
cents1 at least1 of the advantages of   
even a little education to the          
operative2 and there is not the least   
doubt1 says the same authority1 that the
 employer is equally benefited4 ,he has 
the security for his property that      
intelligence1 good morals1 and a just   
appreciation of the regulations of his  
establishment always afford4 ,his       
machinery and mills1 which constitute a 
large part of his capital1 are in the   
hands of persons who1 by their skill1   
are enabled to use them to their utmost 
capacity1 and to prevent any unnecessary
 depreciation4  ,each operative in a    

cotton-mill1 according to the estimate  
of ,mr4 ,mills1 may be supposed to      
represent from one thousand to twelve   
hundred dollars of the capital invested 
in the mill and its machinery4 ,it is   
only from the most diligent and         
economical use of this capital that the 
proprietor can expect a profit4 ,a      
fraction less than one half of the cost 
of manufacturing common cotton goods    
when a mill is in full operation1 is    
made up of charges which are permanent4 
,if the product is reduced in the ratio 
of the capacity of the two classes of   
operatives mentioned in this statement1 
it will be seen that the cost will be   
increased in a compound ratio4 ,mr4     
,mills expresses the opinion that the   
best cotton-mill in ,new ,england1 with 
such operatives only as the forty-five  
mentioned above1 who are unable to write
 their names1 would never yield the     
proprietor a profit2 that the machinery 
would be soon worn out1 and he would be 
left1 in a short time1 with a population

 no better than that which is           
represented by the importation from     
,england4 ,i can not imagine any        
situation in life1 he continues1 where  
the want of a common school education   
would be more severely felt1 or be      
attended with worse consequences1 than  
in manufacturing villages2 nor1 on the  
other hand1 is there any where such     
advantages can be improved with greater 
benefit to all parties4 ,there is more  
excitement and activity in the minds of 
people living in masses1 and if this    
expends itself in any of the thousand   
vicious indulgences with which they are 
sure to be tempted1 the road to         
destruction is traveled over with a     
speed exactly corresponding to the power
 employed4  ,h4 ,bartlett1 ,esq41 of    
,lowell1 who has been engaged ten years 
in manufacturing1 and has had the       
constant charge of from four hundred to 
nine hundred persons during that time1  
has come in contact with a very great   
variety of character and disposition1   

and has seen mind applied to production 
in the mechanic and manufacturing arts  
possessing different degrees of         
intelligence1 from gross ignorance to a 
high degree of cultivation1 and he has  
no hesitation in affirming that he finds
 the best educated to be the most       
profitable help4 ,even those females who
 merely tend machinery give a result    
somewhat in proportion to the advantages
 enjoyed in early life for education1   
those who have a good common school     
education giving1 as a class1 invariably
 a better production than those brought 
up in ignorance4  ,in regard to the     
domestic and social habits of persons in
 his employ1 the same gentleman adds1 ,i
 have never considered mere knowledge1  
valuable as it is to the laborer1 as the
 only advantage derived from a good     
common school education4 ,i have        
uniformly found the better educated1 as 
a class1 possessing a higher and better 
state of morals1 more orderly and       
respectful in their deportment1 and more

 ready to comply with the wholesome and 
necessary regulations of an             
establishment4 ,and in times of         
agitation1 on account of some change in 
regulations or wages1 ,i have always    
looked to the most intelligent1 best    
educated1 and the most moral for        
support1 and have seldom been           
disappointed2 for1 while they are the   
last to submit to imposition1 they      
reason1 and if your requirements are    
reasonable1 they will generally         
acquiesce1 and exert a salutary         
influence upon their associates4 ,but   
the ignorant and uneducated ,i have     
generally found the most turbulent and  
troublesome1 acting under the influence 
of excited passion and jealousy4  ,the  
former appear to have an interest in    
sustaining good order1 while the latter 
seem more reckless of consequences4     
,and1 to my mind1 all this is perfectly 
natural4 ,the better educated have more 
and stronger attachments binding them to
 the place where they are4 ,they are    

generally neater in their persons1      
dress1 and houses2 surrounded with more 
comforts1 with fewer of 'the ills flesh 
is heir to4' ,in short1 ,i have found   
the educated1 as a class1 more cheerful 
and contented1 devoting a portion of    
their leisure time to reading and       
intellectual pursuits1 more with their  
families1 and less in scenes of         
dissipation4 ,the good effect of all    
this is seen in the more orderly and    
comfortable appearance of the whole     
household1 but nowhere more strikingly  
than in the children4 ,a mother who has 
a good common school education will     
rarely suffer her children to grow up in
 ignorance4 ,as ,i have said1 this class
 of persons are more quiet1 more        
orderly1 and1 ,i may add1 more regular  
in their attendance upon public worship1
 and more punctual in the performance of
 all their duties4  ,mr4 ,bartlett      
thinks it would be very difficult1 if   
not impossible1 for a young man1 who has
 not an education equal to a good common

 school education1 to rise from grade to
 grade until he should obtain the berth 
of an overseer1 and that1 in making     
promotions1 as a general thing1 it would
 be unnecessary to make inquiry as to   
the education of the young men from whom
 you would select4 ,very seldom indeed1 
he says1 would an uneducated young man  
rise to a better place and better pay4  
,young men who expect to resort to      
manufacturing establishments for        
employment1 can not prize too highly a  
good education4 ,it will give them      
standing among their associates1 and be 
the means of promotion among their      
employers4  ,the final remark of this   
gentleman1 in a lengthy letter1 showing 
the advantages of education in a        
pecuniary1 social1 and moral point of   
view1 is1 that those who possess the    
greatest share in the stock of worldly  
goods are deeply interested in this     
subject1 as one of mere insurance2 that 
the most effectual way of making        
insurance on their property would be to 

contribute from it enough to sustain an 
efficient system of common school       
education1 thereby educating the whole  
mass of mind1 and constituting it a     
police more effectual than peace        
officers and prisons4 ,by so doing he   
thinks they would bestow a benefaction  
upon those who1 from the accident of    
birth or parentage1 are subjected to the
 privations and temptations of poverty1 
and would do much to remove the         
prejudice and to strengthen the bands of
 union between the different and extreme
 portions of society4 ,he very justly   
regards it a wise provision of          
,providence which connects so           
intimately1 and1 as he thinks1 so       
indissolubly1 the greatest good of the  
many with the highest interest of the   
few2 or1 in other words1 which unites   
into one brotherhood all the members of 
the community1 and in the existing      
partnership connects inseparably the    
interests of ,labor and ,capital4#dj    
#dj ,the ,new ,york ,free ,school ,state

 ,convention1 held in ,syracuse the     
#ajth and #aath of ,july inst4 7#ahej71 
unanimously adopted an ,address to   the
 ,people of the ,state1 written by      
,horace ,greeley1 in which the          
following passage occurs1 inculcating   
the same sentiment3 ,property is        
deeply interested in the ,education of  
,all4 ,there is no farm1 no bank1 no    
mill1 no shop--unless it be a           
grog-shop--which is not more valuable   
and   more profitable to its owner if   
located among a well-educated than if   
surrounded by an ignorant population4   
,simply as a matter of interest1   we   
hold it to be the duty of ,property to  
itself to provide ,education for   ,all4
   ,john ,clark1 ,esq41 of ,lowell1 who 
has had under his superintendence for   
eight years about fifteen hundred       
persons of both sexes1 gives concurrent 
testimony4 ,he has found1 with very few 
exceptions1 the best educated among his 
hands to be the most capable1           
intelligent1 energetic1 industrious1    

economical1 and moral1 and that they    
produce the best work1 and the most of  
it1 with the least injury to the        
machinery4 ,they are1 in short1 in all  
respects the most useful1 profitable1   
and the safest operatives2 and as a     
class1 they are more thrifty1 and more  
apt to accumulate property for          
themselves4 ,i am very sure1 he remarks1
 that neither men of property nor       
society at large have any thing to fear 
from a more general diffusion of        
knowledge1 nor from the extension and   
improvement of our system of common     
schools4 ,on our pay-roll for the last  
month are borne the names of twelve     
hundred and twenty-nine female          
operatives1 forty of whom receipted for 
their pay by 'making their mark4'       
,twenty-six of these have been employed 
in job work2 that is1 they are paid     
according to the quantity of work turned
 off from their machines4 ,the average  
pay of these twenty-six falls eighteen  
and one half per cent4 below the general

 average of those engaged in the same   
departments4  ,again3 we have in our    
mills about one hundred and fifty       
females who have at some time been      
engaged in teaching schools4 ,many of   
them teach during the summer months1 and
 work in the mills in winter4 ,the      
average wages of these ex-teachers ,i   
find to be seventeen and three fourths  
per cent4 above the general average of  
our mills1 and about forty per cent4    
above the twenty-six who can not write  
their names4 ,it may be said they are   
generally employed in the higher        
departments1 where the pay is better4   
,this is true2 but this again may be1 in
 most cases1 fairly attributed to their 
better education1 which brings us to the
 same result4 ,if ,i had included in my 
calculations the remaining fourteen of  
the forty1 who were mostly sweepers and 
scrubbers1 and who are paid by the day1 
the contrast would have been still more 
striking2 but1 having no well-educated  
females in this department with whom to 

compare them1 ,i have omitted them      
altogether4 ,in arriving at the above   
results1 ,i have considered the net     
wages merely1 the price of board being  
in all cases the same4 ,i do not        
consider these results as either        
extraordinary or surprising1 but as a   
part only of the legitimate and proper  
fruits of a better cultivation1 and     
fuller development of the intellectual  
and moral powers4  ,mr4 ,mann gives the 
entire letters from which ,i have so    
freely drawn1 and also introduces into  
his report extracts from a letter of    
,jonathan ,crane1 ,esq41 who has been   
for many years a large rail-road        
contractor1 and has had several thousand
 men in his employment4 ,the testimony  
of this gentleman is corroborative of   
that already presented4 ,testimony      
similar to the preceding might be       
introduced from the proprietors and     
superintendents of the principal        
manufacturing establishments in ,america
 not only1 but from every part of the   

civilized world4 ,before concluding this
 chapter1 ,i shall1 for another purpose1
 refer to statements made by extensive  
manufacturers in ,england and           
,switzerland4  ,these are no more than a
 fair specimen of a mass of facts which 
,mr4 ,mann obtained from the most       
authentic sources4 ,they seem to prove  
incontestably that education is not only
 a moral renovator1 and a multiplier of 
intellectual power1 but that it is also 
the most prolific parent of material    
riches4 ,it has a right1 therefore1 not 
only to be included in the grand        
inventory of a nation's resources1 but  
to be placed at the very head of that   
inventory4 ,it is not only the most     
honest and honorable1 but the surest    
means of amassing property4 ,considering
 education1 then1 as a producer of      
wealth1 it follows that the more        
educated a people are1 the more will    
they abound in all those conveniences1  
comforts1 and satisfactions which money 
will buy2 and1 other things being equal1

 the increase of competency and the     
decline of pauperism will be measurable 
on this scale4  ,,education ,,and       
,,agriculture4--,the healthful and      
praiseworthy employment of agriculture  
requires knowledge for its successful   
prosecution4 ,in this department of     
industry we are in perpetual contact    
with the forces of nature4 ,we are      
constantly dependent upon them for the  
pecuniary returns and profits of our    
investments1 and hence the necessity of 
knowing what those forces are1 and under
 what circumstances they will operate   
most efficiently1 and will most         
bountifully reward our original outlay  
of money and time4  ,our country yields 
a great variety of agricultural         
productions1 and this brings into       
requisition all that chemical and       
experimental knowledge which pertains to
 the rotation of crops and the          
enrichment of soils4 ,if rotation be    
disregarded1 the repeated demands upon  
the same soil to produce the same crop  

will exhaust it of the elements on which
 that particular crop will best thrive4 
,if the chemical ingredients and        
affinities of the soil are not          
understood1 an attempt may be made to   
reenforce it by substances with which it
 is already surcharged1 instead of      
renovating it with those of which it has
 been exhausted by previous growths4    
,but for these arrangements and         
adaptations knowledge is the grand      
desideratum1 and the addition of a new  
fact to a farmer's mind will often      
increase the amount of his harvests more
 than the addition of acres to his      
estate4  ,why is it that1 if we except  
,egypt1 all the remaining territory of  
,africa1 containing nearly ten millions 
of square miles1 with a soil most of    
which is incomparably more fertile by   
nature1 produces less for the sustenance
 of man and beast than ,england1 whose  
territory is only fifty thousand square 
miles8 ,in the latter country1 knowledge
 has been a substitute for a genial     

climate and an exuberant soil2 while in 
the former1 it is hardly a figurative   
expression to say that all the maternal 
kindness of nature1 powerful and        
benignant as she is1 has been repulsed  
by the ignorance of her children4       
,doubtless industry as well as knowledge
 is indispensable to productiveness2 but
 knowledge must precede industry1 or the
 latter will work to so little effect as
 to become discouraged1 and to relapse  
into the slothfulness of savage life4   
,this is illustrated by the condition of
 the inhabitants of ,lower ,california1 
as described by an intelligent friend of
 the author1 who left this country a    
year ago4 ,he says this is a most       
beautiful country1 with the finest      
climate in the world4 ,but its          
inhabitants1 who are principally        
,spaniards and ,indians1 are in a state 
of semi-barbarism1 and consequently its 
resources are1 to a certain extent1     
undeveloped4 ,the land1 which is        
generally level and of the richest      

quality1 is divided into ranchos or     
plantations1 the largest of which are   
twenty miles square1 and feed twenty or 
thirty thousand head of wild cattle1    
with horses and mules in proportion4    
,but these are all4 ,the arts are in the
 lowest state imaginable4 ,their houses 
are mere pens1 without pen floors2 their
 plows are pointed logs2 their yokes are
 straight sticks1 which they tie to the 
horns of their oxen2 and every implement
 of industry shows an equal want of     
ingenuity and enterprise4 ,they are too 
indolent to raise much grain1 though the
 soil will yield1 ,i am told1 eighty    
bushels of wheat to an acre2            
consequently1 wheat is sold to the      
immigrants at three dollars per bushel1 
while the finest beef cattle in the     
world bring from eight to ten dollars   
per head4 ,butter1 cheese1 and even     
milk1 you can not obtain at all1 for    
they are too lazy to tame their cows4 ,a
 few ,americans1 who own large ranchos1 
have ,american plows1 and are doing     

better than the rest4 ,many ranchos have
 been abandoned1 and their owners have  
gone to the mines4 ,this state of things
 the energetic ,anglo-,saxon will soon  
change4 ,the immigration for the next   
few years will be immense1 and the whole
 community will yield to ,american      
customs4 ,the large ranchos will be cut 
up into farms1 and their products will  
supply the wants of a dense population4 
,property will rapidly change hands1 and
 it will be easy for the shrewd ,yankee 
to reap the benefit of the change4      
,but1 without further exposition1 it may
 be remarked generally1 that the spread 
of intelligence1 through the            
instrumentality of good books1 and the  
cultivation in our children of the      
faculties of observing1 comparing1 and  
reasoning1 through the medium of good   
schools1 would add millions to the      
agricultural products of nearly every   
state of the ,union1 without imposing   
upon the husbandman an additional hour  
of labor4  ,,education ,,and ,,the      

,,useful ,,arts4--,for the successful   
prosecution among us of the             
manufacturing and mechanic arts1 if not 
for their very existence1 there must be 
not only the exactness of science1 but  
also exactness or skill in the          
application of scientific principles    
throughout the whole processes1 either  
of constructing machinery1 or of        
transforming raw materials into finished
 fabrics4 ,this ability to make exact   
and skillful applications of science to 
an unlimited variety of materials1 and  
especially to the subtile but most      
energetic agencies of nature1 is one of 
the latest attainments of the human     
mind4 ,it is remarkable that astronomy1 
sculpture1 painting1 poetry1 oratory1   
and even ethical philosophy1 had made   
great progress thousands of years before
 the era of the manufacturing and       
mechanic arts4 ,this era1 indeed1 has   
but just commenced2 and already the     
abundance1 and1 what is of far greater  
importance1 the universality of the     

personal1 domestic1 and social comforts 
it has created1 constitute one of the   
most important epochs in the history of 
civilization4  ,the cultivation of these
 arts is conferring a thousand daily    
accommodations and pleasures upon the   
laborer in his cottage1 which1 only two 
or three centuries ago1 were luxuries in
 the palace of the monarch4 ,through    
circumstances incident to the           
introduction of all economical          
improvements1 there has hitherto been   
great inequality in the distribution of 
their advantages2 but their general     
tendency is greatly to ameliorate the   
condition of the mass of mankind4 ,it   
has been estimated that the products of 
machinery in ,great ,britain1 with a    
population of eighteen millions1 is     
equal to the labor of hundreds of       
millions of human hands4 ,this vast gain
 is effected without the conquest or    
partitioning of the territory of any    
neighboring nation1 and without rapine  
or the confiscation of property already 

accumulated by others4 ,it is an        
absolute creation of wealth--that is1 of
 those articles1 commodities1 and       
improvements which we appraise and set  
down as of a certain moneyed value alike
 in the inventory of a deceased man's   
estate and in the grand valuation of a  
nation's capital4 ,these contributions  
to human welfare have been derived from 
knowledge2 from knowing how to employ   
those natural agencies which from the   
beginning of the race had existed1 but  
had lain dormant or run uselessly away4 
,for mechanical purposes1 what is wind1 
or water1 or the force of steam worth1  
until the ingenuity of man comes in1 and
 places the wind-wheel1 the water-wheel1
 or the piston between these mighty     
agents and the work he wishes them to   
perform8 ,but after the intervention of 
machinery1 how powerful they become for 
all purposes of utility6 ,in a word1    
these great improvements1 which         
distinguish our age from all preceding  
ages1 have been obtained from ,nature by

 addressing her in the language of      
,science and ,art1 the only language she
 understands1 yet one of such           
all-pervading efficacy that she never   
refuses to comply to the letter with all
 petitions for wealth or physical power1
 if they are preferred to her in that   
dialect4  ,now it is easy to show1 from 
reasoning1 from history1 and from       
experience1 that an early awakening of  
the mind is a prerequisite to success in
 the useful arts4 ,but it must be an    
awakening to thought1 not to feeling    
merely4 ,in the first place1 a clearness
 of perception must be acquired1 or the 
power of taking a correct mental        
transcript1 copy1 or image of whatever  
is seen ,this1 however1 though          
indispensable1 is by no means           
sufficient4  ,the talent of improving   
upon the labors of others requires not  
only the capability of receiving an     
exact mental copy or imprint of all the 
objects of sense or reasoning2 it also  
requires the power of reviving or       

reproducing at will all the impressions 
or ideas before obtained1 and the power 
of changing their collocations1 of      
re-arranging them into new forms1 and of
 adding something to or removing        
something from the original perceptions1
 in order to make a more perfect plan or
 model4 ,if a ship-wright1 for instance1
 would improve upon all existing        
specimens of naval architecture1 he     
would first examine as great a number of
 ships as possible2 this done1 he would 
revive the image which each had         
imprinted upon his mind1 and1 with all  
the fleets which he had inspected       
present to his imagination1 he would    
compare each individual vessel with all 
others1 make a selection of one part    
from one1 and of another part from      
another1 apply his own knowledge of the 
laws of moving and of resisting forces  
to all1 and thus create1 in his own     
mind1 the complex idea or model of a    
ship more perfect than any of those he  
had seen4  ,now every recitation in a   

school1 if rightly conducted1 is a step 
toward the attainment of this wonderful 
power4 ,with a course of studies        
judiciously arranged and diligently     
pursued through the years of minority1  
all the great phenomena of external     
nature1 and the most important          
productions in all the useful arts1     
together with the principles on which   
they are evolved or fashioned1 would be 
successively brought before the         
understanding of the pupil4 ,he would   
thus become familiar with the substances
 of the material world1 and with their  
manifold properties and uses2 and he    
would learn the laws1 comparatively few1
 by which results infinitely diversified
 are produced4 ,when such a student goes
 out into life1 he carries1 as it were1 
a plan or model of the world in his own 
mind4 ,he can not1 therefore1 pass1     
either blindly or with the stupid gaze  
of the brute creation1 by the great     
objects and processes of nature2 but he 
has an intelligent discernment of their 

several existences and relations1 and   
their adaptation to the uses of mankind4
 ,neither can he fasten his eye upon any
 workmanship or contrivance of man      
without asking two questions3 first1    
,how is it8 and1 secondly1 ,how can it  
be improved8  ,hence it is that all the 
processes of nature and the contrivances
 of art are so many lessons or          
communications to an instructed man2 but
 an uninstructed one walks in the midst 
of them like a blind man among colors1  
or a deaf man among sounds4 ,the ,romans
 carried their aqueducts from hill-top  
to hill-top1 on lofty arches erected at 
immense expenditure of time and money4  
,one idea--that is1 a knowledge of the  
law of the equilibrium of fluids2 a     
knowledge of the fact that water in a   
tube will rise to the level of the      
fountain--would have enabled a single   
individual to do with ease what1 without
 that knowledge1 it required the wealth 
of an empire to accomplish4  ,it is in  
ways similar to this--that is1 by       

accomplishing greater results with less 
means2 by creating products at once     
cheaper1 better1 and by more expeditious
 methods2 and by doing a vast variety of
 things otherwise impossible--that the  
cultivation of mind may be truly said to
 yield the highest pecuniary requital4  
,intelligence is the great money-maker1 
not by extortion1 but by ,,production4  
,there are ten thousand things in every 
department of life which1 if done in    
season1 can be done in a minute1 but    
which1 if not seasonably done1 will     
require hours1 perhaps days or weeks for
 their performance4 ,an awakened mind   
will see and seize the critical         
juncture2 the perceptions of the        
sluggish one will come too late1 if they
 come at all4  ,a general culture of the
 faculties1 also1 gives versatility of  
talent1 so that1 if the customary       
business of the laborer is superseded by
 improvements1 he can readily betake    
himself to another kind of employment4  
,but an uncultivated mind is like an    

automaton1 which can do only the thing  
for which its wheels or springs were    
made4 ,brute force expends itself       
unproductively4 ,it is ignorant of the  
manner in which ,nature works1 and hence
 it can not avail itself of her mighty  
agencies4 ,often1 indeed1 it attempts to
 oppose ,nature4 ,it throws itself      
across the track where her resistless   
car is moving4 ,but knowledge enables   
its possessor to employ her agencies in 
his own service1 and he thereby obtains 
an amount of power1 without fee or      
reward1 which thousands of slaves could 
not give4  ,every man who consumes a    
single article in whose production or   
transportation the power of steam is    
used1 has it delivered to him cheaper   
than he could otherwise have obtained   
it4 ,every man who can avail himself of 
this power in traveling1 can perform the
 business of three days in one1 and so  
far add two hundred per cent4 to the    
length of his life as a business man4   
,what innumerable millions has the      

invention of the cotton-gin1 by         
,whitney1 added1 and will continue to   
add1 to the wealth of the world6 a part 
of which is already realized1 but vastly
 the greater part of which is yet to be 
received1 as each successive day draws  
for an installment which would exhaust  
the treasury of a nation4 ,the          
instructed and talented man enters the  
rich domains of ,nature not as an       
intruder1 but1 as it were1 a            
,,proprietor1 and makes her riches his  
own4  ,why is it that1 so far as the    
,united ,states are concerned1 four     
fifths of all the improvements1         
inventions1 and discoveries in regard to
 machinery1 to agricultural implements1 
to superior models in ship-building1 and
 to the manufacture of those refined    
instruments on which accuracy in        
scientific observations depends1 have   
originated in ,new ,england8 ,i believe 
no adequate reason can be assigned but  
the early awakening and training of the 
power of thought in her children4       

,improvements1 inventions1 and          
discoveries have been made in other     
states of the ,union to an extent       
commensurate with the progress they have
 made in perfecting their systems of    
public instruction1 and these           
improvements will ever keep pace with   
the attentions which a people bestow    
upon their common schools4  ,mr4 ,mann  
remarks that1 in conversing with a      
gentleman who had possessed most        
extensive opportunities for acquaintance
 with men of different countries and of 
all degrees of intellectual development1
 he observed that he could employ a     
common immigrant or a slave1 and1 if he 
chose1 could direct him to shovel a heap
 of sand from one spot to another1 and  
then back into its former place1 and so 
to and fro through the day2 but1 added  
he1 neither love nor money would prevail
 on a ,new ,englander to prosecute a    
piece of work of which he did not see   
the utility4  ,there is scarcely any    
kind of labor1 however simple1          

pertaining to the farm1 to the          
work-shop1 or to domestic employments1  
and whether performed by male or female1
 which can be so well done without      
knowledge in the workman or domestic as 
with it4 ,it is impossible for an       
overseer or employer at all times to    
supply mind to the laborer4 ,in giving  
directions for the shortest series or   
train of operations1 something will be  
omitted or misunderstood2 and without   
intelligence in the workman1 the        
omission or mistake will be repeated in 
the execution4  ,it is a fact of        
universal notoriety1 that the           
manufacturing population of ,england1 as
 a class1 work for half1 or less than   
half the wages of our own4 ,the cost of 
machinery there1 also1 is about half as 
much as the cost of the same articles   
with us2 while our capital1 when loaned1
 produces nearly double the rate of     
,english interest2 yet against these    
grand adverse circumstances our         
manufacturers1 with a small per centage 

of tariff1 successfully compete with    
,english capitalists in many branches of
 manufacturing business4 ,no explanation
 can be given of this extraordinary fact
 which does not take into the account   
the difference of education between the 
operatives in the two countries4  ,one  
of our most careful and successful      
manufacturers remarks that1 on          
substituting in one of his cotton-mills 
a better for a poorer educated class of 
operatives1 he was enabled to add twelve
 or fifteen per cent4 to the speed of   
his machinery1 without any increase of  
damage or danger from the acceleration4 
,how direct and demonstrative the       
bearing which facts like this have upon 
the wisdom of our laws respecting the   
education of children in manufacturing  
establishments4#da     #da ,in          
,connecticut the statutes provide that  
no child under the age   of fifteen     
years shall be employed to labor in any 
manufacturing   establishment1 or in any
 other business in the state1 unless    

such child   shall have attended some   
public or private day school where      
instruction   is given by a teacher     
qualified to instruct in orthography1   
reading1   writing1 ,english grammar1   
geography1 and arithmetic1 at least     
three   months of the twelve months next
 preceding any and every year in which  
such child shall be so employed4 ,and   
the owner1 agent1 or superintendent   of
 any manufacturing establishment who    
shall employ any child in such          
establishment contrary to the provisions
 of this act1 shall forfeit and   pay   
for each offense a penalty of           
twenty-five dollars to the treasurer    
of the state4 ,in ,massachusetts the    
forfeiture is fifty dollars4 ,similar   
provisions exist in other ,american1 and
 in several ,european states4   ,the    
number of females in the ,state of      
,massachusetts engaged in the various   
manufactures of cotton1 straw-platting1 
etc41 has been estimated at forty       
thousand1 and the annual value of their 

labor at one hundred dollars each on an 
average1 or four millions of dollars for
 the whole4 ,from the facts stated in   
the letters of ,messrs4 ,mills and      
,clark above cited1 it appears there is 
a difference of not less than fifty per 
cent4 between the earnings of the least 
educated and of the best educated       
operatives--between those who make their
 marks instead of writing their names1  
and those who have been acceptably      
employed in school-keeping4 ,now suppose
 the whole forty thousand females       
engaged in the various kinds of         
manufactures in that commonwealth to be 
degraded to the level of the lowest     
class1 it would follow that their       
aggregate earnings would fall at once to
 two millions of dollars4 ,but1 on the  
other hand1 suppose them all to be      
elevated by mental cultivation to the   
rank of the highest1 and their earnings 
would rise to the sum of six millions of
 dollars annually4  ,there can be no    
doubt but that education1 or the want of

 it1 affects the pecuniary value of     
female labor in the ordinary domestic   
employments of the sex not less than in 
manufactures4 ,if1 then1 the females of 
the thirty states of the ,union be      
estimated at eight millions--and the    
number sustaining the relations of      
daughters1 wives1 and mothers must      
exceed the supposition--the effect of   
giving them all an education equal to   
the best would at once raise their      
earnings1 annually1 two hundred millions
 of dollars6 ,but this is the lowest    
sense in which we can estimate the value
 of education1 even in the sterner sex4 
,this sum1 vast as it may seem1 is as   
dross to gold when compared with the    
refining and elevating influence which  
eight millions of educated females would
 exert upon the domestic and social     
institutions of our country1 in         
uplifting our national character and    
improving the condition of the race4    
,not more than thirty years ago it was  
uncommon for a glazier's apprentice1    

even after having served an             
apprenticeship of seven years1 to be    
able to cut glass with a diamond without
 spending much time and destroying much 
of the glass upon which he worked4 ,but 
the invention of a simple tool has put  
it into the power of the merest tyro in 
the trade to cut glass with facility1   
and without loss4 ,a man who had a mind1
 as well as fingers1 observed that there
 was one direction in which the diamond 
was almost incapable of abrasion or     
wearing by use4 ,the tool not only      
steadies the diamond1 but fastens it in 
that direction4  ,the operation of      
tanning leather consists in exposing a  
hide to the action of a chemical        
ingredient1 called tannin1 for a length 
of time sufficient to allow every       
particle of the hide to become saturated
 with the solution4 ,in making the best 
leather1 the hides used to lay in the   
pit for six1 twelve1 or eighteen months1
 and sometimes for two years1 the tanner
 being obliged to wait all this time for

 a return of his capital4 ,by the modern
 process1 the hides are placed in a     
close pit1 with a solution of the tannin
 matter1 and the air being exhausted1   
the liquid penetrates through every pore
 and fiber of the skin1 and the whole   
process is completed in a few days4     
,the bleaching of cloth1 which used to  
be effected in the open air1 and in     
exposed situations where temptation to  
theft was offered1 and in ,england      
hundreds and probably thousands of men  
have yielded and forfeited their lives1 
is now performed in an unexposed        
situation1 and in a manner so           
expeditious1 that cloth is bleached as  
much more rapidly than it formerly was  
as hides are tanned4  ,it is stated by  
,lord ,brougham1 in his beautiful       
,discourse on the ,advantages of        
,science1 that the inventor of the new  
mode of refining sugar made more money  
in a shorter time1 and with less risk   
and trouble1 than perhaps was ever      
realized from any previous invention4   

,intelligence also prevents loss as well
 as makes profits4 ,how much time and   
money have been squandered in repeated  
attempts to invent machinery1 after a   
principle had been once tested and had  
failed through some defect inherent and 
natural1 and therefore insuperable6     
,within thirty years not less than five 
patents have been taken out1 in ,england
 and the ,united ,states1 for a certain 
construction of paddle-wheels for a     
steamboat1 which construction was tested
 and condemned as early as #ahaj4db ,a  
case once came within my own knowledge1 
says ,mr4 ,mann1 of a person who spent a
 fortune in mining for coal1 when a work
 on geology1 which would have cost but a
 dollar1 and might have been read in a  
week1 would have informed him that the  
stratum where he began to excavate      
belonged to a formation lower down in   
the natural series than coal ever is1   
or1 according to the constitution of    
things1 ever can be found4 ,he therefore
 worked into a stratum which must have  

been formed before a particle of coal1  
or even a tree1 or a vegetable existed  
on the planet4 ,numerous similar and    
equally striking illustrations might be 
cited1 but this is not necessary4       
#db ,this statement was made eight years
 ago4 ,more such patents may have   been
 taken out within this time4   ,these   
are a few specimens1 on familiar        
subjects1 taken almost at random1 for   
the purpose of showing the inherent     
superiority of any association or       
community1 whether small or great1 where
 mind is a member of the partnership4   
,what is true of the above-mentioned    
cases is true of the whole circle of    
those arts by which human life is       
sustained and human existence comforted1
 elevated1 and embellished4 ,mind has   
been the improver1 for matter can not   
improve itself1 and improvement has     
advanced in proportion to the number and
 culture of the minds excited to        
activity and applied to the work4       
,similar advancements have been effected

 throughout the whole compass of human  
labor and research2 in the arts of      
,transportation and ,locomotion1 from   
the employment of the sheep and the goat
 as beasts of burden1 to the            
steam-engine and the rail-road car2 in  
the art of ,navigation1 from the canoe  
clinging timidly to the shore1 to       
steam-ships which boldly traverse the   
ocean2 in ,hydraulics1 from carrying    
water by hand in a vessel or in         
horizontal aqueducts1 to those vast     
conduits which supply the demands of a  
city1 and to steam fire-engines which   
throw a column of water to the top of   
the loftiest buildings2 in the arts of  
,spinning and ,rope-making1 from the    
hand distaff to the spinning-frame1 and 
to the machine which makes cordage or   
cables of any length1 in a space ten    
feet square2 in ,horology or            
,time-keeping1 from the sun-dial and the
 water-clock to the watch1 and to the   
chronometer1 by which the mariner is    
assisted in measuring his longitude1 and

 in saving property and life2 in the    
extraction1 forging1 and tempering of   
,iron and other ores having malleability
 to be wrought into all forms and used  
for all purposes1 and supplying1 instead
 of the stone hatchet or the fish-shell 
of the savage1 an almost infinite       
variety of instruments1 which have      
sharpness for cutting or solidity for   
striking2 in the art of ,vitrification  
or ,glass-making1 giving not only a     
multitude of commodious and ornamental  
utensils for the household1 but         
substituting the window for the         
unsightly orifice or open casement1 and 
winnowing light and warmth from the     
outward and the cold atmosphere2 in the 
arts of ,induration by ,heat1 from      
bricks dried in the sun to those which  
withstand the corrosion of our climate  
for centuries or resist the intensity of
 the furnace2 in the arts of            
,illumination1 from the torch cut from  
the fir or pine tree to the brilliant   
gas-light which gives almost a solar    

splendor to the nocturnal darkness of   
our cities2 in the arts of ,heating and 
,ventilation1 which at once supply      
warmth for comfort and pure air for     
health2 in the art of ,building1 from   
the hollowed trunk of a tree or the     
roof-shaped cabin1 to those commodious  
and lightsome dwellings which betoken   
the taste and competence of our villages
 and cities2 in the art of ,copying or  
,printing1 from the toilsome process of 
hand-copying1 where the transcription of
 a single book was the labor of months  
or years1 and sometimes almost of a     
life1 to the power printing-press1 which
 throws off sixty printed sheets in a   
minute2 in the art of ,paper-making1    
from the preparation of the inner bark  
of a tree1 cleft off and dried at       
immense labor1 to machinery from which  
there jets out an unbroken stream of    
paper with the velocity and             
continuousness of a current of water2 in
 the art of ,painting1 from the use of  
the crayon1 and artificial colors       

imperfectly blended1 requiring whole    
days to present an incomplete picture1  
to the production1 as by enchantment1 of
 perfect likenesses in nature's own     
penciling1 executed in a few seconds2 in
 the art of ,telegraphing1 from         
communicating information by signs which
 may be seen from one station to        
another1 to conveying intelligence to   
any given distance with the velocity of 
lightning2 and1 in addition to all      
these1 in the arts of ,moulding and     
,casting1 of ,designing and ,engraving1 
of ,preserving materials and of         
,changing their color1 of ,dividing and 
,uniting them1 etc41 etc41 an ample     
catalogue1 whose very names and         
processes would fill volumes4  ,now1 for
 the perfecting of all these operations1
 from the tedious and bungling process  
to the rapid and elegant2 for the change
 of an almost infinite variety of crude 
and worthless materials into useful and 
beautiful fabrics1 mind has been the    
agent4 ,succeeding generations have     

outstripped their predecessors just in  
proportion to the superiority of their  
mental cultivation4 ,when we compare    
different people or different           
generations with each other1 the        
diversity is so great that all must     
behold it4 ,but there is the same kind  
of difference between contemporaries1   
fellow-townsmen1 and fellow-laborers4   
,though the uninstructed man works side 
by side with the intelligent1 yet the   
mental difference between them places   
them in the same relation to each other 
that a past age bears to the present4   
,if the ignorant man knows no more      
respecting any particular art or branch 
of business than was generally known    
during the last century1 he belongs to  
the last century1 and he must consent to
 be outstripped by those who have the   
light and knowledge of the present4     
,though they are engaged in the same    
kind of work1 though they are supplied  
with the same tools or implements for   
carrying it on1 yet1 so long as one has 

only an arm1 but the other has an arm   
and a ,,mind1 their products will come  
out stamped and labeled all over with   
marks of contrast2 inferiority and      
superiority1 both as to quantity and    
quality1 will be legibly written on     
their respective labors4  ,it is related
 by travelers among savage tribes that  
when1 by the aid of an ingeniously      
devised instrument or apparatus1 they   
have performed some skillful manual     
operation1 the savages have purloined   
from them the instrument they had used1 
supposing there was some magic in the   
apparatus itself1 by which the seeming  
miracle had been performed2 but1 as they
 could not steal the art of the operator
 with the instrument which he employed1 
the theft was fruitless4 ,any person who
 expects to effect with less education  
what another is enabled to do with more1
 ought not to smile at the delusion of  
the savage or the simplicity of his     
reasoning4  ,on a cursory inspection of 
the great works of art--the             

steam-engine1 the printing-press1 the   
power-loom1 the mill1 the iron foundery1
 the ship1 the telescope1 etc41 etc4--we
 are apt to look upon them as having    
sprung into sudden existence1 and       
reached their present state of          
perfection by one1 or1 at most1 by a few
 mighty efforts of creative genius4 ,we 
do not reflect that they have required  
the lapse of centuries and the          
successive application of thousands of  
minds for the attainment of their       
present excellence2 that they have      
advanced from a less to a more perfect  
form by steps and gradations almost as  
imperceptible as the growth by which an 
infant expands to the stature of a man2 
and that1 as later discoverers and      
inventors had first to go over the      
ground of their predecessors1 so must   
future discoverers and inventors first  
master the attainments of the present   
age before they will be prepared to make
 those new achievements which are to    
carry still further onward the          

stupendous work of improvement4         
,,education ,,diminishes ,,pauperism    
,,and ,,crime4      ,education is to be 
regarded as one of the most important   
means of     eradicating the germs of   
pauperism from the rising generation1   
and     of securing in the minds and in 
the morals of the people the best       
protection for the institutions of      
society4--,,dr4 ,,james ,,phillips      
,,kay1     ,assistant ,poor-,law        
,commissioner1 and ,secretary to the    
,committee of     ,council on           
,education4#dc      ,the different      
countries of the world1 if arranged     
according to the     state of education 
in them1 will be found to be arranged   
also     according to ,,wealth1         
,,morals1 and ,,general ,,happiness2 at 
the same     time1 ,,the ,,condition    
,,of ,,the ,,people1 ,,and ,,the        
,,extent ,,of ,,crime ,,and             
,,violence ,,among ,,them1 ,,follow ,a  
,,like ,,order4--,,national ,,education1
 by     ,fred4 ,hill1 ,london4  ,that   

education increases the productiveness  
of labor has been already conclusively  
established4 ,it has also been          
incidentally shown that mere knowledge1 
valuable as it is to the laborer1 is not
 the only advantage derived from a good 
common school education1 but that the   
better educated1 as a class1 possess a  
higher and better state of morals1 and  
are more orderly and respectful in their
 deportment than the uninstructed2 and  
that for those who possess the greatest 
share in the stock of worldly goods1 the
 most effectual way of making insurance 
on their property would be1 to          
contribute from it enough to sustain an 
efficient system of common school       
education1 thereby educating the whole  
mass of mind1 and constituting it a     
police more effective than peace        
officers or prisons4 ,if1 then1 poverty 
is at once a cause and an effect of     
crime1 as is stated by a late writer1#dd
 who has made an extended survey of the 
relative state of instruction and social

 welfare in the leading nations of the  
world1 it is directly inferable that    
education will1 and1 from the nature of 
the case1 must act in a compound ratio  
in diminishing both pauperism and crime4
     #dc ,quoted from the ,report to the
 ,secretary of ,state for the ,home     
,department1 on the ,training of ,pauper
 ,children1 ,london1 #ahda4    #dd      
,fred4 ,hill1 author of ,national       
,education1 whose testimony is quoted   
at the head of this article4   ,this    
proposition is not received by a few    
individuals merely in comparatively     
unimportant communities3 it is one which
 is generally adopted by enlightened    
practical educators and by              
liberal-minded capitalists of both      
hemispheres4 ,the views of several of   
our principal ,american manufacturers   
have been already presented4 ,let us now
 direct our attention to the testimony  
of enlightened and liberal-minded       
capitalists residing in some of the     
transatlantic states4  ,william         

,fairbrain1 ,esq41 the sole proprietor  
of a manufactory in ,manchester1 and    
part owner of another establishment in  
,london1 and who has between eleven and 
twelve hundred persons in his employ1   
remarks in relation to the habits of the
 educated and uneducated as follows3    
,there is no doubt that the educated are
 more sober and less dissipated than the
 uneducated4 ,during the hours of       
recreation1 the younger portion of the  
educated workmen indulge more in reading
 and mental pleasures2 they attend more 
at reading-rooms1 and avail themselves  
of the facilities afforded by libraries1
 by scientific lectures1 and by lyceums4
 ,the older of the more educated workmen
 spend their time chiefly with their    
families1 reading and walking out with  
them4 ,the time of the uneducated       
classes is spent very differently1 and  
chiefly in the grosser sensual          
indulgences4 ,mr4 ,fairbrain has given  
his own time as president of a lyceum   
for the use of the working classes1     

which furnishes the means of instruction
 in arithmetic1 mathematics1 drawing1   
and mensuration1 and by lectures4 ,in   
these institutions liberal provision is 
very properly made1 not only for the    
occupation of the leisure hours of the  
laborers themselves1 and for their      
intellectual and social improvement1 but
 for that of their wives and families1  
in order to make the home comfortable1  
and to minister to the household        
recreation and amusement3 this is a     
point of view in which the education of 
the wives of laboring men is really of  
very great importance1 that they may be 
rational companions for men4#de     #de 
,see evidence taken by ,edwin ,chadwick1
 ,esq41 ,secretary to the   ,poor-,law  
,commissioners1 a quotation from whose  
report heads this   article4   ,albert  
,g4 ,escher1 ,esq41 one of the firm of  
,escher1 ,wyss1 and ,co41 of ,zurich1   
,switzerland1 remarks as follows3 ,we   
employ from six to eight hundred men in 
our machine-making establishment at     

,zurich3 we also employ about two       
hundred men in our cotton-mills there1  
and about five hundred men in our cotton
 manufactories in the ,tyrol and in     
,italy4 ,i have occasionally had the    
control of from five to six hundred men 
engaged in engineering operations as    
builders1 masons1 etc41 and men of the  
class called navigators in ,england4    
,after giving a list of the different   
countries from which his laborers are   
drawn1 classifying the workmen of       
various nations in respect to such      
natural intelligence as may be          
distinguished from any intelligence     
imparted by the labors of the           
schoolmaster1 and remarking in relation 
to the influence of education upon the  
value of labor--where his testimony     
corroborates that of manufacturers in   
,new ,england1 already quoted--the same 
gentleman makes a statement which is    
applicable to the subject under         
consideration4  ,the better educated    
workmen1 we find1 are distinguished by  

superior moral habits in every respect4 
,in the first place1 they are entirely  
sober2 they are discreet in their       
enjoyments1 which are of a more rational
 and refined kind2 they are more refined
 themselves1 and they have a taste for  
much better society1 which they approach
 respectfully1 and consequently find    
much readier admittance to it2 they     
cultivate music2 they read2 they enjoy  
the pleasures of scenery1 and make      
parties for excursions into the country2
 they are economical1 and their economy 
extends beyond their own purse to the   
stock of their master2 they are         
consequently honest and trustworthy4    
,scotland affords a very striking       
illustration of the power of education  
in diminishing pauperism and crime1 and 
in improving the morals and increasing  
the wealth of a country4 ,indeed1 it    
would be difficult to find another      
instance in the history of nations of a 
country which has made such rapid       
progress in the diminution of crime1 the

 increase of public wealth1 and the     
diffusion of comforts1 as ,scotland4    
,and this gratifying change--this       
remarkable instance of progress in the  
scale of being1 has been concurrent with
 increased and increasing attention to  
the education of the people4  ,at the   
beginning of the last century1 ,scotland
 swarmed with gipsies and other         
vagabonds1 who lived chiefly by         
stealing1 and who often committed       
violent robberies and murders4 ,of these
 pests to society it was estimated that 
there were not less than two hundred    
thousand4 ,besides these1 there were the
 more gentlemanly1 though less tolerable
 robbers1 such as the notorious ,rob    
,roy1 who made no more ado about seizing
 another man's cattle than a grazier    
does of driving from market a drove of  
oxen for which he has paid every        
shilling demanded4  ,but now1 the laying
 aside of a sum sufficient for the      
education of his children is an object  
which a ,scotchman seldom loses sight   

of1 both when he thinks of marrying and 
settling in life1 and at every future   
period2 and it is to this habit1 handed 
down from father to son1 that the       
,scotch owe their morality4 ,one of     
their own writers says1 we have scarcely
 any rural population who are not       
perfectly aware of the importance of    
education1 and not willing to make      
sacrifices to secure it to their        
children4  ,having seen something of the
 excellence of education in improving   
the social and moral habits of a        
community1 and in banishing pauperism   
and crime from among those who become   
the happy subjects of its uplifting     
power1 let us1 for the purpose of       
becoming more alive to its importance1  
consider the condition of a people where
 the masses are not brought under its   
benign influence4  ,spain1 which has    
been already referred to in illustration
 of the evils of ignorance1 affords a   
striking illustration for our present   
purpose4 ,until after the lapse of one  

third of the present century1 there was 
but ,,one newspaper published in this   
country6 ,yes1 one miserable government 
gazette was the sole channel through    
which twelve or fourteen millions of    
people1 spread over a vast territory1   
were to be supplied with information on 
the momentous affairs of their own      
country1 and of the whole external      
world4--,national ,education1 vol4 ii41 
p4 #acf4  ,the most authentic return of 
the number of children receiving        
education in ,spain was made in the year
 #ahjc1 and it is believed that but     
little change has taken place since that
 time4 ,according to the returns1 the   
number of children receiving education1 
exclusive of those brought up in        
convents and monasteries1 was only one  
in every three hundred and forty-six of 
the population6 ,m4 ,jonnes estimates   
the population at about fourteen        
millions and a half1 and assuming1 as he
 does1 that about the same fraction of  
the population is receiving education as

 in #ahjc1 he estimates the present     
number of children in school in the     
whole of ,spain at not more than about  
forty-three thousand2 and1 pursuing his 
calculations1 he shows that1 if his data
 be correct1 not more than one child in 
thirty-five ever goes to school4 ,he    
further states that the children thus   
favored are exclusively from the middle 
and upper classes4#df--,national        
,education1 vol4 ii41 p4 #acj-a4     #df
 ,the writer would here remark1 in      
reference to extracts made from         
various authors1 that1 for the sake of  
abridging1 he has often1 as in   this   
case1 left out parts of a paragraph1 but
 never so as to modify the   meaning4   
,some ideas1 not connected with the     
subject in hand1 are   omitted1 but none
 are changed4   ,how far the education  
given to the favored few is of a        
practical and useful kind1 may be       
conjectured from the following extract  
from ,m4 ,jonnes's work4 ,after speaking
 of the many libraries1 schools1        

colleges1 and universities1 the creation
 of past times1 but which still exist1  
he remarks1 that these institutions were
 intended for a state of society which  
had nothing in common with that of the  
present day4 ,the kind of instruction   
afforded in them1 confined as it is to  
prayer1 church discipline1 and the      
dogmas of theology1 has no connection   
with the interests and wants of the     
existing generation4  ,what every       
enlightened man in ,spain has long      
called for is a national1 popular1      
gratuitous education1 extending to all  
classes1 as well in the towns as in the 
rural districts4 ,up to the present     
time1 the people have received no other 
instruction than that offered by the    
clergy1 which has had scarcely any other
 object than the performance of         
religious ceremonies4  ,in addition to  
what has been already stated1 it may be 
remarked1 that even with those who know 
how to read1 books and study are almost 
out of the question1 because1 unless in 

the principal cities1 public libraries  
are nowhere to be found1 and private    
libraries are luxuries that few possess4
  ,if education is conducive to virtue1 
and ignorance fosters crime1 what must  
be the social and moral state of a      
country in which ignorance is so        
prevalent6 ,the amount of crime in      
,spain is appalling4 ,we have before us 
a return of convictions for the year    
#ahbf1 from which we shall make some    
extracts4 ,our reason for taking this   
year is simply because we are unable to 
procure any return for a later one4 ,the
 number of convictions for murder in    
,england and ,wales in the year #ahbf   
was thirteen1 and the number convicted  
of wounding1 etc41 with intent to kill1 
was fourteen4 ,these numbers are        
lamentably large4 ,that the horrible    
crime of murder should ever be          
perpetrated is a most melancholy fact2  
and that so many as thirteen murders    
should be committed in one year must    
fill the mind of every moral man and    

lover of his country with grief and     
shame4 ,but great as this number is     
absolutely1 it sinks into insignificance
 when compared with the number of       
murders perpetrated in ,spain2 for in   
that unhappy country1 in the single year
 of #ahbf1 the number of convictions for
 murder reached the frightful height of 
,,twelve ,,hundred ,,and                
,,thirty-,,three6 in addition to which1 
there were seventeen hundred and        
seventy-three convictions on charges of 
maiming with intent to kill1 and sixteen
 hundred and twenty persons were        
convicted of robbery under aggravated   
circumstances4 ,we doubt not for an     
instant ,,this ,,mass ,,of ,,crime ,,is 
,,the ,,offspring ,,of                  
,,ignorance4--,national ,education1 vol4
 ii41 p4 #add4  ,it has been well       
remarked that the truest proofs of a    
good government are just laws1 and that 
the best evidence of a well-organized   
government is to be found in the strict 
execution of these laws4 ,judging the   

,spanish government by these tests1 it  
will appear the worst and weakest       
government that ever held together4     
,justice of no kind has any existence2  
there is the most lamentable insecurity 
of person and property2 redress is never
 certain1 because both judgment and the 
execution of the laws are left to men so
 inadequately paid that they must depend
 for their subsistence upon bribery4    
,nothing is so difficult as to bring a  
man to trial who has any thing in his   
purse1 except to bring him to execution3
 this1 unless in ,madrid and ,catalonia1
 is impossible1 for money will always   
buy indemnity4  ,i can state1 upon      
certain information received in ,madrid1
 that the principal ,spanish diligences 
pay black mail to the banditti for their
 protection4 ,this arrangement was at   
first entered into with some difficulty2
 and from a gentleman who was present at
 the interview between the person       
employed to negotiate on behalf of the  
diligences and the representative of the

 banditti1 ,i learned a few particulars4
 ,the diligences in question were those 
between ,madrid and ,seville1 and the   
sum offered for their protection was not
 objected to1 but another difficulty was
 started4 ',i have nothing to say       
against the terms you offer1' said the  
negotiator for the banditti1 'and ,i    
will at once insure you against being   
molested by robbers of consequence6 but 
as for the small fry1 ,i can not be     
responsible6 we respect the engagements 
entered into by each other1 but there is
 nothing like honor among the petty     
thieves4' ,the proprietors of the       
diligences1 however1 were satisfied with
 the assurance of protection against the
 great robbers1 and the treaty was      
concluded2 but not long afterward one of
 the coaches was stopped and rifled by  
the petty thieves3 this led to an       
arrangement which has ever since proved 
effectual2 one of the chiefs accompanies
 the coach on its journey1 and overawes1
 by his name and reputation1 the robbers

 of inferior degree4--,spain in #ahcj1  
vol4 i41 p4 #b4  ,a volume might be     
filled with similar testimony1 showing  
the great insecurity of person and      
property in various parts of this       
unhappy country4 ,even a woman who dares
 prosecute the murderer of her husband  
speedily receives a private intimation  
that effectually silences her2 and it   
has not been uncommon for money to be   
put into the hands of an escrivano#dg   
previous to the commission of a murder1 
in order to insure the services and     
protection of a person so necessary to  
one who meditates crime4     #dg ,the   
escrivanos1 who figure so largely in    
,spain1 are the   representatives of the
 lowest class of attorneys4 ,nothing can
 be done   without them1 and they are   
not unfrequently almost the sole        
authority in   a place capable of       
reading and writing4 ,notwithstanding   
the miserable   state of the rural      
districts1 they contrive to make money1 
and many of   them rise from this humble

 office to much higher places in the    
state4   ,their wretched appointments   
are1 consequently1 objects of           
competition4 ,i   witnessed the         
execution of one at ,seville by         
accidentally entering the   ,plaza1     
where the ,capuchins were bawling out   
the last words for his   repetition1    
announcing to the crowd that they had   
done their duty1 and   he died in the   
true faith4 ,he had been superseded in  
some village in the   vicinity1 and     
assassinated his rival4--,cook's        
,sketches in ,spain1 vol4   i41 p4 #aig4
   ,spain abounds in poverty4 ,ignorance
 conduces to crime1 which1 as we have   
seen1 is at once a cause and an effect  
of poverty4 ,in view of what has already
 been said of the ignorance and         
immorality of the ,spaniards1 one would 
readily enough infer that poverty exists
 among them to a deplorable extent1 and 
it is even so4 ,in this country every   
thing1 indeed1 appears to have conspired
 to paralyze industry1 and to render of 

no avail the natural fertility of the   
soil4 ,the havoc of war2 the plunder    
committed by organized and powerful     
bodies of robbers2 the rapacity of      
government and of its army of officers2 
the exclusion of foreign goods1 and the 
consequent shutting up of the foreign   
market2 the ignorance of the people as  
to the best modes of agriculture2 and1  
last of all1 the want of capital--all   
these combine to produce squalid poverty
 in a land which ought to1 and1 with a  
good system of popular education1 most  
assuredly would1 ,,abound ,,in ,,wealth4
  ,scotland and ,spain have been        
referred to1 not to bring out a few     
facts in history merely1 but to         
illustrate an important truth4 ,where a 
good system of popular education is well
 administered in a country1 and1 as a   
consequence1 intelligence1 industry1 and
 morality become universal among its    
citizens1 they will eventually become a 
wealthy1 and a highly-prosperous and    
happy community1 even though they derive

 their subsistence from a naturally     
unfruitful soil2 but1 on the contrary1  
where popular education is neglected in 
a commonwealth1 and its future citizens1
 as a consequence1 grow up in ignorance1
 idleness1 and vice1 squalid poverty and
 flagrant crime will become prevalent   
throughout a wretched and degenerate    
community1 that is scarcely able to gain
 a mere subsistence from a naturally    
productive soil4  ,in further           
confirmation of the truth of the        
proposition that education diminishes   
crime1 ,i will introduce the following  
statistics1 gleaned from various        
official documents respecting prisons4  
,according to returns to the ,british   
,parliament1 the commitments for crimes 
in an average of nine years in          
proportion to population are as follows3
 ,in ,manchester1 the most infidel city 
in the nation1 #a in #adj2 in ,london1  
#a in #hjj2 in all ,ireland1 #a in      
#afjj2 and in ,scotland1 celebrated for 
learning and religion1 #a in #bj1jjj6   

,the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,forde1 for many years  
the ,ordinate of ,newgate1 ,london1     
represents ignorance as the first great 
cause1 and idleness as the second1 of   
all the crimes committed by the inmates 
of that celebrated prison4 ,sir ,richard
 ,phillips1 sheriff of ,london1 says    
that1 on the memorial addressed to the  
sheriffs by #aeb criminals in the same  
institution1 #be only signed their names
 in a fair hand1 #bf in an illegible    
scrawl1 and that #aja1 two thirds of the
 entire number1 were marksmen1 signing  
with a cross4 ,few of the prisoners     
could read with facility2 more than half
 of them could not read at all2 the most
 of them thought books were useless1 and
 were totally ignorant of the nature1   
object1 and end of religion4  ,the ,rev4
 ,mr4 ,clay1 chaplain to the ,house of  
,correction in ,lancashire1 represents  
that out of #aabi persons committed1    
#eed could not read2 #bbb were barely   
capable of reading2 #ch only could read 
well2 and only #h1 or #a in #ada1 could 

read and write well4 ,one half of the   
#aabi prisoners were quite ignorant of  
the simplest truths2 #cg of these1 #a in
 #bj of the entire number1 were         
occasional readers of the ,bible2 and   
only one out of this large number was   
familiar with the ,holy ,scriptures and 
conversant with the principles of       
religion4 ,among the #eaf represented as
 entirely ignorant1 #abe were incapable 
of repeating the ,lord's ,prayer4  ,in  
the ,new ,york ,state ,prisons1 as      
examined a few years ago1 more than     
three fourths of the convicts had either
 received no education or a very        
imperfect one4 ,out of #hdb at ,sing    
,sing1 #bhi could not read or write1 and
 only #db--less than #a in #bj--;had    
received a good common school education4
 ,auburn prison presents similar        
statistics4 ,out of #bbh prisoners1 only
 #ei could read1 write1 and cipher1 and 
#fj could do neither4  ,the chaplain of 
the ,ohio penitentiary remarks that not 
only in the prison of that state1 but in

 others1 depraved appetites and corrupt 
habits1 which have led to the commission
 of crime1 are usually found with the   
ignorant1 uninformed1 and duller part of
 mankind4 ,of #bgf at one time in that  
institution1 nearly all were below      
mediocrity1 and #age are represented as 
grossly ignorant1 and1 in point of      
education1 scarcely capable of          
transacting the ordinary business of    
life4  ,the preceding1 it is believed1  
is no more than a fair specimen of the  
criminal statistics of this country and 
of the civilized world4 ,i will conclude
 this dark catalogue by introducing a   
statement in relation to education and  
crime in a state which1 according to the
 last general census1 contained fewer   
persons in proportion to the whole      
population who were unable to read and  
write than any other state in the       
,union4 ,from this statement it appears 
that as a people become more generally  
intelligent and moral1 a greater        
proportion of their criminals will be   

found among the ignorant and neglected  
classes4  ,the chaplain of the          
,connecticut ,state ,prison states that1
 out of #aij prisoners1 not one was     
liberally educated1 or a member of      
either of the learned professions4 ,of  
the whole number1 #aji were natives of  
,connecticut2 and of these1 many of them
 could not understand the plainest      
sentences which they read1 and their    
moral culture had been more neglected   
than their intellectual4 ,from the      
investigations of this officer1 it      
appears that out of every #ajj prisoners
 only two could be found who could read1
 write1 and were temperate1 and only    
four who could read1 write1 and followed
 any regular trade4  ,it is evident1    
then1 that while education increases the
 wealth and general happiness of a      
community1 the want of it will reduce a 
people to a state of poverty and        
wretchedness2 or1 to repeat a sentiment 
placed at the head of this article1 the 
different countries of the world1 if    

arranged according to the state of      
education in them1 will be found to be  
arranged also according to wealth1      
morals1 and general happiness2 at the   
same time1 the condition of the people1 
and the extent of crime and violence    
among them1 follow a like order4  ,i    
might appropriately add under this head 
that a proper attention to the subject  
of education would greatly diminish the 
number of fatal accidents2 that it would
 save many lives1 prevent much of idiocy
 and insanity1 and a multitude of evils 
that ordinarily result from ignorance of
 the organic laws4  ,,fatal             
,,accidents4--,he who understands the   
laws of motion knows that a man jumping 
from a carriage at speed is in great    
danger of falling after his feet reach  
the ground1 for his body has the same   
forward velocity as if he had been      
running with the speed of the carriage1 
and unless he continues to advance his  
feet as in running to support his       
advancing body1 he must as certainly be 

dashed to the ground as a runner whose  
feet are suddenly arrested4 ,if1 then1  
there is danger in leaping from a       
carriage in motion1 how much greater is 
the hazard in jumping from a rail-road  
car under full headway4 ,and yet many do
 this1 jumping off side-wise1 so that it
 is impossible to advance2 and some even
 jump in the opposite direction from the
 motion of the car1 which increases the 
already imminent hazard4 ,from          
statistics recently collected1 it       
appears that the great majority of      
accidents on the rail-roads of this     
country have happened in this way1 a    
want of practical conformity to this one
 law of motion being the prevailing     
cause of fatality along these           
thoroughfares4 ,this is but a specimen  
of the fatal accidents that are         
continually occurring in the every-day  
transactions of life1 which might be    
prevented as easily as this by the      
practical application of a single       
scientific principle4  ,,loss ,,of      

,,life4--,in a single hospital at       
,dublin1 during four years1 #bidd       
children out of #gfej1 about #dj in     
#ajj1 died within a fortnight after     
their birth4 ,dr4 ,clark1 the attending 
physician1 suspecting a want of pure air
 to be the cause1 provided for the      
ventilation of all the apartments2 and  
by means of pipes six inches in         
diameter1 introduced into every room a  
current of fresh1 pure air1 which is    
essential to vitality1 and allowed that 
which was vitiated by respiration to    
escape4 ,the consequence was1 that      
during the three succeeding years only  
#afe out of #dbdc children died within  
the first two weeks1 or less than #d in 
#ajj4 ,as there was no other known cause
 of improvement in the health of these  
children1 it may be justly inferred     
that1 during the four years first       
mentioned1 #bfej children1 nine tenths  
of the whole number1 had perished for   
want of pure air4  ,it has been         
estimated that about #dj in every #ajj  

of the deaths annually occurring in     
,great ,britain and the ,united ,states 
are of children under five years of age4
 ,to avoid every possibility of         
exaggeration1 we will place the number  
in this country at #cj in #ajj4 ,at this
 rate we lose about #bjj1jjj children   
under five years of age every year4     
,now1 if nine tenths of the mortality   
among infants in the ,dublin ,hospital  
were caused by breathing bad air1 we may
 reasonably infer that at least one half
 of the deaths in the ,united ,states of
 children under the age of five years   
proceed from the same fatal cause4 ,and 
those who have noticed what pains are   
taken by excessively careful mothers#dh 
and ignorant nurses to exclude from the 
lungs of infants the free1 pure1        
unadulterated air of heaven1 and1 by    
means of many thicknesses of enveloping 
shawls and blankets1 require them to    
re-respire portions at least of their   
own breath1 until it becomes a virulent 
and deadly poison1 will think with me   

that this is a low estimate1 and wonder 
that the swaddling-cloths of more       
infants do not become their             
winding-sheets4 ,but1 even according to 
this estimate1 #ajj1jjj children in the 
,united ,states annually fall victims to
 the ignorance of their fond mothers4   
,many thousands more are subsequently   
sacrificed in consequence of occupying  
small and unventilated bed-rooms and    
school-rooms1 which1 by a practical     
knowledge of the principles of          
physiology1 might be saved4 ,perhaps as 
many more become sufferers for life from
 the same cause1 for a thousand forms of
 disease1 as it manifests itself in     
every stage of life1 either owe their   
existence or their severity to breathing
 bad air4 ,these1 then1 who drag out a  
miserable existence in consequence of   
this cruel treatment1 are to be more    
pitied than those who fall its ready    
victims4     #dh ,it would seem that the
 great majority of educated mothers do  
not   realize the necessity of supplying

 pure air to the new-born child4        
,before birth1 the blood of the fetus is
 purified in the maternal lungs2   after
 birth1 in the lungs of the child1 if at
 all2 and for this purpose   pure air is
 necessary4   ,if so many thousand      
deaths occur annually in the ,united    
,states from this one cause1 in addition
 to the vast amount of misery which is  
entailed upon the wretched survivors1   
how many hundred thousand precious lives
 might be saved1 and what untold        
wretchedness might be prevented1 by a   
strict conformity to those physiological
 laws of our being which might and      
should be generally taught in the common
 schools of the land4  ,,education ,,and
 ,,idiocy4#di--,the education of idiots 
has hitherto been regarded as           
paradoxical1 and still is by the mass of
 mankind2 but that it is possible to    
improve the condition of this most      
wretched and helpless class of persons  
none need longer doubt4 ,the experiment 
has succeeded in both ,europe and       

,america4 ,massachusetts has the honor  
of taking the lead in this country2 and 
it is meet that it should be so1 for she
 has long1 like a wise parent1 been     
accustomed to care for all her children4
 ,she had most readily and generously   
seconded the efforts of humane men for  
the relief of the insane1 the deaf      
mutes1 and the blind1 and made provision
 for their care and instruction4 ,she   
extended her maternal love to the bodies
 of those who were in hopeless idiocy1  
but as for minds1 they seemed to have   
none2 they were1 therefore1 kept out of 
sight of the public as much as possible 
until the year #ahdf1 when a board of   
commissioners were appointed to inquire 
into the condition of the idiots of the 
commonwealth1 to ascertain their number1
 and whether any thing can be done in   
their behalf4     #di ,the statements   
under this head are drawn from ,dr4     
,howe's ,report on   ,idiocy1 made in   
,february last1 and communicated by the 
governor to the   ,legislature of the   

,commonwealth of ,massachusetts4 ,the   
author visited the   ,institution in    
,south ,boston during the past summer1  
and derived much   information on the   
subject from personal observation and   
inquiry4   ,in their report the         
commissioners say that1 by diligent and 
careful inquiries in nearly one hundred 
towns in different parts of the state1  
we have ascertained the existence and   
examined the condition of five hundred  
and seventy-five human beings who are   
condemned to hopeless idiocy1 who are   
considered and treated as idiots by     
their neighbors1 and left to their own  
brutishness4 ,they are also idiotic in a
 legal sense2 that is1 they are regarded
 as incapable of entering into          
contracts1 and are irresponsible for    
their actions4  ,the commissioners      
conclude that1 if the other parts of the
 state contain the same proportion of   
idiots to their whole population1 the   
total number in the commonwealth is     
between fourteen and fifteen hundred6   

,now if we make the same estimate in    
proportion to the entire population1 it 
will appear that in the ,united ,states 
there are upward of thirty-five thousand
 persons in the most wretched and       
helpless condition of idiocy4  ,in view 
of the great number of idiots in the    
commonwealth1 the commissioners say1 it 
appeared to us certain that the         
existence of so many idiots in every    
generation must be the consequence of   
some violation of the natural laws2 that
 where there was so much suffering there
 must have been sin4 ,we resolved1      
therefore1 to seek for the sources of   
the evil1 as well as to gauge the depth 
and extent of the misery4  ,some of the 
causes of idiocy are set forth in the   
report1 two of which are as follows3    
first1 the low condition of the physical
 organization of one or both parents1   
induced often by intemperance2 second1  
the intermarriage of relatives4  ,the   
report states that out of #dbj cases of 
congenital idiocy which were examined1  

some information was gained respecting  
the condition of the progenitors of     
#cei4 ,now in all these cases1 save only
 four1 it was found that one or the     
other1 or both1 of the immediate        
progenitors of the unfortunate sufferer 
had in some way widely departed from the
 normal condition of health1 and        
violated the natural laws4 ,that is to  
say1 one or the other1 or both of them1 
had been very unhealthy or scrofulous2  
or hereditarily predisposed to          
affections of the brain1 causing        
occasional insanity2 or had intermarried
 with blood relatives2 or had been      
intemperate2 or had been guilty of      
sensual excesses which impair the       
constitution4#ej     #ej ,the subject of
 hereditary transmission of diseased    
tendency is of   vast importance1 but it
 is a difficult one to treat1 because a 
squeamish   delicacy makes people avoid 
it2 but if ever the race is to be       
relieved   of a tithe of the bodily ills
 which flesh is now heir to1 it must be 

by   a clear understanding of1 and a    
willing obedience to1 the law which     
makes the parents the blessing or the   
curse of the children2 the givers   of  
strength1 and vigor1 and beauty1 or the 
dispensers of debility1 and   disease1  
and deformity4 ,it is by the lever of   
enlightened parental love1   more than  
by any other power1 that mankind is to  
be raised to the   highest attainable   
point of bodily perfection4--,,dr4 ,s4  
,g4 ,,howe4   ,,intemperance ,,and      
,,idiocy4--,out of the three hundred and
 fifty-nine idiots1 the condition of    
whose progenitors was ascertained1      
ninety-nine were the children of        
drunkards4 ,but this does not tell the  
whole story by any means4 ,by drunkard  
is meant a person who is a notorious and
 habitual sot4 ,many persons who are    
habitually intemperate do not get this  
name even now2 much less would they have
 done so twenty-five or thirty years    
ago4 ,by a pretty careful inquiry1 with 
an especial view of ascertaining the    

number of idiots of the lowest class    
whose parents were known to be temperate
 persons1 it is found that not one      
quarter can be so considered4  ,from the
 pretty uniform action of a             
physiological law1 which is now becoming
 well understood1 it appears that       
idiots1 fools1 and simpletons1 either in
 the first or second generation1 are    
common among the progeny of intemperate 
persons1 and may be considered as an    
effect of the habitual use of alcohol1  
even in moderate quantities4 ,if1       
moreover1 one considers how many        
children of intemperate parents there   
are who1 without being idiots1 are      
deficient in bodily and mental energy1  
and predisposed by their very           
organization to have cravings for       
alcoholic stimulants1 it will be seen   
what an immense burden the drinkers of  
one generation throw upon the succeeding
 one4  ,,idiocy ,,and ,,the ,,marriage  
,,of ,,relatives4--,out of the three    
hundred and fifty-nine cases of         

congenital idiocy already referred to1  
in which the parentage was ascertained1 
seventeen were known to be the children 
of parents nearly related by blood2 but1
 as many of these cases were adults1 it 
was impossible to ascertain1 in some    
cases1 whether their parents1 who were  
dead1 were related or not before        
marriage4 ,from some collateral         
evidence1 we conclude that at least     
three more cases should be added to the 
seventeen4 ,this would show that more   
than one twentieth of the idiots        
examined are offspring of the marriage  
of relations4 ,now1 as marriages between
 near relations are by no means in the  
ratio of one to twenty1 nor even1       
perhaps1 as one to a thousand to the    
marriages between persons not related1  
it follows that the proportion of       
idiotic progeny is vastly greater in the
 former than in the latter case4 ,then  
it should be considered that idiocy is  
only one form in which ,nature manifests
 that she has been offended by such     

intermarriages4 ,it is probable that    
blindness1 deafness1 imbecility1 and    
other infirmities1 are more likely to be
 the lot of the children of parents     
related by blood than of others4 ,the   
probability1 therefore1 of unhealthy or 
infirm issue from such marriages becomes
 fearfully great1 and the existence of  
the law against them is made out as     
clearly as though it were written on    
tables of stone4  ,the statistics of the
 seventeen families1 the heads of which1
 being blood relatives1 intermarried1   
tells a fearful tale4 ,most of the      
parents were intemperate or scrofulous2 
some were both the one and the other2 of
 course1 there were other causes to     
increase chances of infirm offspring    
besides that of the intermarriage4      
,there were born unto them ninety-five  
children1 of whom forty-four were       
idiotic1 twelve others were scrofulous  
and puny1 one was deaf1 and one was a   
dwarf6 ,in some cases1 all the children 
were either idiotic1 or very scrofulous 

and puny4 ,in one family of eight       
children1 five were idiotic4            
,,condition ,,of ,,idiots4--,from what  
has been said of the character of       
parents to whom are born the greatest   
proportion of this most wretched and    
helpless class of persons1 their        
condition and treatment might be        
inferred4 ,to rear healthy children     
properly1 a knowledge of the principles 
of physiology and mental science is     
essentially necessary4 ,this knowledge  
is still more important in the treatment
 of idiots4 ,dr4 ,howe is of the opinion
 that it requires a rarer and higher    
kind of talent to teach an idiot than a 
youth of superior talent4 ,when the time
 comes that schools for idiots are      
established all over the country1 he    
thinks it will be found more difficult  
to get good teachers for them than to   
get good professors for our colleges4   
,after excepting five or six alms-houses
 in which the idiots are treated both   
kindly and wisely1 the commissioners    

say1 the general condition of those at  
the public charge is most deplorable4   
,they are filthy1 gluttonous1 lazy1 and 
given up to abominations of various     
kinds4 ,they not only do not improve1   
but they sink deeper and deeper into    
bodily depravity and mental degradation4
 ,bad1 however1 as is the condition of  
the idiots who are at public charge1 and
 gross as is the ignorance of those who 
take the charge of them about their real
 wants and capabilities1 we are         
constrained to say that the condition of
 those in private houses is1 generally  
speaking1 still worse1 and the ignorance
 of the relatives and friends who       
support them is still more profound4    
,this is not to be wondered at when we  
consider that idiots are generally born 
of a very poor stock--of persons who are
 subject to some disorders of the brain1
 or who are themselves scrofulous and   
puny to the last degree4 ,such persons  
are1 generally1 very feeble in          
intellect1 poor in purse1 and           

intemperate in habits4 ,a great many of 
them are hardly able to take care of    
themselves4 ,they are unfit to teach or 
train common children2 how much less to 
take the charge of idiots1 whose        
education is the most difficult of all6 
,the commissioners ascertained1 mainly  
by personal observation1 the condition  
of three hundred and fifty-five idiotic 
persons who are not town or state       
paupers4 ,of these there may be1 at the 
most1 five who are treated very         
judiciously2 who are taught by wise and 
discreet persons1 and whose faculties   
and capabilities are developed to their 
fullest extent2 but the remaining three 
hundred and fifty are generally in a    
most deplorable condition as it respects
 their bodily1 mental1 and moral        
treatment4#ea     #ea ,one would hardly 
be credited if he should put down half  
the   instances of gross ignorance      
manifested by parents in this           
enlightened   community the ,state of   
,massachusetts in the treatment of      

idiotic   children4 ,sometimes they find
 that the children seem to comprehend   
what   they hear1 but soon forget it2   
hence they conclude that the brain is   
soft1 and can not retain impressions1   
and then they cover the head with   cold
 poultices of oak-bark in order to tan  
or harden the fibers4 ,others1   finding
 that it is exceedingly difficult to    
make any impression upon the   mind1    
conclude that the brain is too hard1 and
 they torture the poor   child with hot 
and softening poultices of bread and    
milk2 or they   plaster tar over the    
whole skull1 and keep it on for a long  
time4 ,these   are innocent applications
 compared with some1 which doubtless    
render   weak-minded children perfectly 
idiotic4--,,dr4 ,s4 ,g4 ,,howe4    ,what
 a striking illustration have we here of
 the necessity of diffusing   correct   
physiological information more widely   
among the masses than has   yet been    
done even in enlightened ,massachusetts6
   ,the commissioners come to the       

unquestionable conclusion in their      
report that nothing can afford a        
stronger argument in favor of an        
institution for the proper training and 
teaching of idiots1 and the             
dissemination of information upon the   
subject1 than the striking difference   
manifested in the condition of the few  
children who are properly cared for and 
judiciously treated1 and those who are  
neglected or abused4 ,there are cases in
 our community of youths who are idiotic
 from birth1 but who1 under proper care 
and training1 have become cleanly in    
person1 quiet in deportment1 industrious
 in habits1 and who would almost pass in
 society for persons of common          
intelligence2 and yet their natural     
capacity was no greater than that of    
others1 who1 from ignorance or neglect  
of their parents1 have become filthy1   
gluttonous1 lazy1 vicious1 depraved1 and
 are rapidly sinking into driveling     
idiocy4 ,this fact alone should be      
enough to encourage the state to take   

measures at once for the establishment  
of a school or institution for teaching 
or training idiots1 if it were but a    
matter of experiment4  ,massachusetts is
 the only state in the ,union that as   
yet has attempted to do any thing for   
the education and training of this      
hitherto neglected class of persons4    
,the result of the first year's         
experiment has been most gratifying and 
encouraging4 ,of the whole number       
received1 there was not one who was in a
 situation where any great improvement  
in his condition was probable1 or hardly
 possible2 they were growing worse in   
habits1 and more confirmed in their     
idiocy4 ,but the process of             
deterioration in the pupils has been    
entirely stopped1 and that of           
improvement has commenced2 and though a 
year is a very short time in the        
instruction of such persons1 yet its    
effects are manifest in all of them4    
,they have improved in personal         
appearance and habits1 in general       

health1 in vigor1 and in activity of    
body4 ,some of them can control their   
appetites in a considerable degree2 they
 sit at the table with their teachers1  
and feed themselves decently4 ,almost   
all of them have improved in the        
understanding and the use of speech4    
,some of them have made considerable    
progress in the knowledge of language2  
they can select words printed on slips  
of paper1 and a few can read simple     
sentences4 ,but1 what is most important1
 ,,they ,,have ,,made ,a ,,start        
,,forward4  ,there is ground for        
confidence that the reasonable hopes of 
the friends of the experiment will be   
satisfied4 ,all that they promised has  
been accomplished1 so far as was        
possible in the period of a year4 ,it   
has been demonstrated that idiots are   
,,capable ,,of ,,improvement1 and that  
they can be raised from a state of low  
degradation to a ,,higher ,,condition4  
,how far they can be elevated1 and to   
what extent they may be educated1 can   

only be shown by the experience of the  
future4 ,the result of the past year's  
trial1 however1 gives confidence that   
each succeeding year will show even more
 progress than any preceding one4       
,,education ,,and ,,insanity4--,it is   
well established that a defective and   
faulty education through the period of  
infancy and childhood is one of the most
 prolific causes of insanity4 ,such an  
education1 or rather miseducation1      
causes a predisposition in many1 and    
excites one where it already exists1    
which ultimately renders the animal     
propensities of our nature              
uncontrollable4 ,appetites indulged and 
perverted1 passions unrestrained1       
propensities rendered vigorous by       
indulgence1 and subjected to no salutary
 restraint1 bring persons into a        
condition in which both moral and       
physical causes easily operate to       
produce insanity1 if they do not produce
 it themselves4  ,we must look to       
well-directed systems of popular        

education1 having for their object      
physical improvement1 no less than      
mental and moral culture1 to relieve us 
from many of the evils which flesh is   
heir to1 and nothing can so effectually 
secure us from this most formidable     
disease 7as well as from others not less
 appalling7 as that system of           
instruction which teaches us how to     
preserve the normal condition of the    
body and the mind2 to fortify the one   
against the catalogue of physical causes
 which every where assail us1 and to    
elevate the other above the influence of
 the trials and disappointments of life1
 so that the host of moral causes which 
affect the brain1 through the medium of 
the mind1 shall be inoperative and      
harmless4  ,those first principles of   
physical education which teach us how to
 avoid disease are all-important to all 
liable to insanity from hereditary      
predisposition4 ,the physical health    
must be attended to1 and the training of
 the faculties of the mind be such as to

 counteract the over-active propensities
 of our nature--correcting the bias of  
the mind to wrong currents and to too   
great activity by bringing into action  
the antagonizing powers1 and thus giving
 a sound body and a well-balanced mind4 
,neglect of this early training entails 
evils upon the young which are felt in  
all after life4  ,these positions are   
stated and amplified in the able reports
 of ,dr4 ,s4 ,b4 ,woodward1             
superintendent of the ,state ,lunatic   
,asylum1 ,worcester1 ,mass41 to which   
the reader is referred4 ,they are also  
corroborated by persons who have had the
 care of the insane in other            
institutions4 ,in the eighteenth annual 
report of the physician and             
superintendent of the ,connecticut      
,retreat for the ,insane1 ,dr4 ,brigham 
says1 a knowledge of the nature of the  
disease would frequently lead to its    
prevention4 ,insanity1 in most cases1   
arises from undue excitement and labor  
of the brain2 for even if a             

predisposition to it is inherited1 an   
exciting cause is essential to its      
development4 ,hence every thing likely  
to cause great excitement of the brain1 
especially in early life1 should be     
avoided4  ,the records of cases at this 
institution and my own observation      
justify me in saying that the neglect of
 moral discipline1 the too great        
indulgence of the passions and emotions 
in early life1 together with the        
excessive and premature exercise of the 
mental powers1 are among the most       
frequent causes that predispose to      
insanity4 ,but these causes are in no   
other way operative in producing        
insanity than by unduly exciting the    
brain4 ,by neglect of moral discipline1 
a character is formed subject to violent
 passions1 and to extreme emotions and  
anxiety from the unavoidable evils and  
disappointments of life1 and thus the   
brain1 by being often and violently     
agitated1 becomes diseased2 and by too  
early exercising and prematurely        

developing the mental powers1 this organ
 is rendered more susceptible and liable
 to disease4  ,i am confident there is  
too much mental labor imposed upon youth
 at our schools and colleges4 ,there    
have been several admissions of young   
ladies at this institution direct from  
boarding-schools1 and of young men from 
college1 where they had studied         
excessively4 ,should such intense       
exertion of the mind in youth not lead  
to insanity or immediate disease1 it    
predisposes to dyspepsy1 hysteria1      
hypochondriasis1 and affections allied  
to insanity1 and which are often its    
precursors4 ,should that portion of the 
community who now act most wisely in    
obtaining a knowledge of the functions  
of the digestive organs1 and in         
carefully guarding them from undue      
excitation1 be equally regardful of the 
brain1 they would do a very great       
service to society1 and1 in my opinion1 
do much toward arresting the alarming   
increase of insanity1 and all disorders 

of the nervous system4#eb     #eb ,in   
the education of many1 very many1 ,i    
fear1 the same mistake is   made as in  
the case of ,lord ,dudley1 thus         
described in a late number of   the     
,london ,quarterly ,review3 ,the        
irritable susceptibility of the brain   
was stimulated at the expense of bodily 
power and health4 ,his foolish   tutors 
took a pride in his precocious progress1
 which they ought to have   kept back4  
,they watered the forced plant with the 
blood of life2 they   encouraged the    
violation of ,nature's laws1 which are  
not to be broken in   vain2 they        
infringed the condition of conjoint     
moral and physical   existence2 they    
imprisoned him in a vicious circle1     
where the overworked   brain injured the
 stomach1 which reacted to the injury of
 the brain4   ,they watched the         
slightest deviation from the rules of   
logic1 and   neglected those of         
dietetics1 to which the former are a    
farce4 ,they   thought of no exercises  

but ,latin2 they gave him a ,gradus     
instead of a   cricket-bat1 until his   
mind became too keen for its mortal     
coil1 and the   foundation was laid for 
ill health1 derangement of stomach1     
moral   pusillanimity1 irresolution1    
lowness of spirits1 and all the ,protean
   miseries of nervous disorders1 by    
which his after life was haunted1 and   
which are sadly depicted in almost every
 letter before us4   ,,education        
,,increases ,,human ,,happiness4        
,what is a man     ,if his chief good   
and market of his time     ,be but to   
sleep and feed8 a beast1 no more4       
,sure ,he that made us with such large  
discourse1     ,looking before and      
after1 gave us not     ,that capability 
and godlike reason     ,to rust in us   
unused4--,,shakspeare4      ,all the    
happiness of man is derived from        
discovering1 applying1 or     obeying   
the laws of his ,creator2 and all his   
misery is the result of     ignorance or
 disobedience4--,,dr4 ,,wayland4  ,if   

the doctrines taught and the sentiments 
inculcated in the preceding chapters of 
this work1 but more especially in the   
preceding sections of this chapter1 are 
true2 if it is established that         
education dissipates the evils of       
ignorance2 that it increases the        
productiveness of labor2 that it        
diminishes pauperism and crime--if all  
this is true1 it may seem a work of     
supererogation to attempt the           
establishment of the proposition that   
education increases human happiness4 ,i 
admit this seeming impropriety2 for that
 the proposition is true may be         
legitimately inferred from what has gone
 before4 ,but ,i wish to amplify and    
extend this thought1 and to show that   
education has1 if possible1 still higher
 claims upon our attention than have yet
 been presented2 that it not only has   
the power of removing physical and moral
 evils1 and of multiplying and          
augmenting personal and social          
enjoyments1 but that1 when rightly      

understood1 it constitutes our chief    
good2 that to it1 and to it only1 we may
 safely look for man's highest and      
enduring joys1 and for the permanent    
elevation of the race4  ,,man ,,in      
,,ignorance4--,that we may be the better
 prepared to appreciate the advantages  
of education1 and its usefulness as a   
means of increasing human happiness1 let
 us consider the state and the          
enjoyments of the man whose mind is     
shrouded in ignorance4 ,he grows up to  
manhood like a vegetable1 or like one of
 the lower animals that are fed and     
nourished for the slaughter4 ,he exerts 
his physical powers because such        
exertion is necessary for his           
subsistence4 ,were it otherwise1 we     
should most frequently find him dozing  
over the fire with a gaze as dull and   
stupid as his ox1 regardless of every   
thing but the gratification of his      
appetites4 ,he has1 perhaps1 been taught
 the art of reading1 but has never      
applied it to the acquisition of        

knowledge4 ,his views are chiefly       
confined to the objects immediately     
around him1 and to the daily avocations 
in which he is employed4 ,his knowledge 
of society is circumscribed within the  
limits of his neighborhood1 and his     
views of the world are confined within  
the range of the country in which he    
resides1 or of the blue hills which     
skirt his horizon4  ,of the aspect of   
the globe in other countries1 of the    
various tribes with which these are     
peopled1 of the seas and rivers1        
continents and islands1 which diversify 
the landscape of the earth1 of the      
numerous orders of animated beings which
 people the ocean1 the atmosphere1 and  
the land1 of the revolutions of nations1
 and the events which have taken place  
in the history of the world1 he has     
almost as little conception as have the 
animals which range the forest4  ,in    
regard to the boundless regions that lie
 beyond him in the firmament1 and the   
bodies that roll there in magnificent   

grandeur1 he has the most confused and  
inaccurate ideas2 indeed1 he seldom     
troubles himself with inquiries in      
relation to such subjects4 ,whether the 
stars are great or small1 whether they  
are near us or at a distance1 and       
whether they move or stand still1 are to
 him matters of trivial importance4 ,if 
the sun gives him light by day and the  
moon by night1 and the clouds distil    
their watery treasures upon his parched 
fields1 he is contented1 and leaves all 
such inquiries and investigations to    
those who have leisure and inclination  
to engage in them4 ,he views the canopy 
of heaven as merely a ceiling to our    
earthly habitation1 and the starry orbs 
as only so many luminous tapers to      
diversify its aspect1 and to afford a   
glimmering light to the benighted       
traveler4  ,such a person has no idea of
 the manner in which the understanding  
may be enlightened and expanded by      
education2 he has no relish for         
intellectual pursuits1 and no conception

 of the pleasures they afford2 and he   
sets no value on knowledge but in so far
 as it may increase his riches and his  
sensual gratifications4 ,he has no      
desire for making improvements in his   
trade or domestic arrangements1 and     
gives no countenance to those useful    
inventions and public improvements which
 are devised by others4 ,he sets himself
 against every innovation1 whether      
religious1 political1 mechanical1 or    
agricultural1 and is determined to abide
 by the good old customs of his         
forefathers1 even though they compel him
 to carry his grist to mill in one end  
of a bag1 with a stone in the other to  
balance it4 ,were it dependent upon him1
 the moral world would stand still1 as  
the material world was supposed to in   
former times2 all useful inventions     
would cease2 existing evils would never 
be remedied2 ignorance and superstition 
would universally prevail2 the human    
mind would be arrested in its progress  
to perfection1 and man would never      

arrive at the true dignity of his       
intellectual nature4  ,it is evident    
that such an individual--and the world  
contains thousands and millions of such 
characters--can never have his mind     
elevated to those sublime objects and   
contemplations which enrapture the man  
of science1 nor feel those pure and     
exquisite pleasures which cultivated    
minds so frequently experience2 nor can 
he form those lofty and expansive       
conceptions of the ,deity which the     
grandeur and magnificence of his works  
are calculated to inspire4 ,he is left  
as a prey to all those foolish notions  
and vain alarms which are engendered by 
ignorance and superstition2 and he      
swallows1 without the least hesitation1 
all the absurdities and childish tales  
respecting witches1 hobgoblins1         
specters1 and apparitions1 which have   
been handed down to him by his          
forefathers4  ,while the ignorant man   
thus gorges his mind with fooleries and 
absurdities1 he spurns at the           

discoveries of science as impositions on
 the credulity of mankind1 and contrary 
to reason and common sense4 ,that the   
sun is a million of times larger than   
the earth2 that light flies from his    
body at the rate of a hundred thousand  
miles in the hundredth part of a second2
 and that the earth is whirling round   
its axis from day to day with a velocity
 of a thousand miles every hour1 are    
regarded by him as notions far more     
improbable and extravagant than the     
story of the ,wonderful ,lamp1 and all  
the other tales of the ,arabian ,night's
 ,entertainments4 ,in his hours of      
leisure from his daily avocations1 his  
thoughts either run wild among the most 
groveling objects1 or sink into         
sensuality and inanity2 and solitude and
 retirement present no charms to his    
vacant mind4  ,while human beings are   
thus immersed in ignorance1 destitute of
 rational ideas and of a solid          
substratum of thought1 they can never   
experience those pleasures and          

enjoyments which flow from the exercise 
of the understanding1 and which         
correspond to the dignity of a rational 
and immortal nature4  ,,an ,,enlightened
 ,,mind4--,on the other hand1 the man   
whose mind is irradiated with the light 
of substantial science has views1 and   
feelings1 and exquisite enjoyments to   
which the former is an entire stranger4 
,in consequence of the numerous and     
multifarious ideas he has acquired1 he  
is introduced1 as it were1 into a new   
world1 where he is entertained with     
scenes1 objects1 and movements1 of which
 the mind enveloped in ignorance can    
form no conception4 ,he can trace back  
the stream of time to its commencement1 
and1 gliding along its downward course1 
can survey the most memorable events    
which have happened in every part of its
 progress1 from the primeval ages to the
 present day2 the rise of empires1 the  
fall of kings1 the revolutions of       
nations1 the battles of warriors1 and   
the important events which have followed

 in their train2 the progress of        
civilization1 and of the arts and       
sciences2 the judgments which have been 
inflicted on wicked nations1 the        
dawnings of ,divine mercy toward our    
fallen race1 the manifestation of the   
,son of ,god in our nature1 the physical
 changes and revolutions which have     
taken place in the constitution of our  
globe2 in short1 the whole of the       
leading events in the chain of divine   
dispensation1 from the beginning of the 
world to the period in which we live4   
,with his mental eye the enlightened man
 can survey the terraqueous globe in all
 its variety of aspects2 he can         
contemplate the continents1 islands1 and
 oceans which surround its exterior2 the
 numerous rivers by which it is         
indented2 the lofty ranges of mountains 
which diversify its surface2 its winding
 caverns2 its forests1 lakes1 and sandy 
deserts2 its whirlpools1 boiling        
springs1 and glaciers2 its sulphurous   
mountains1 bituminous lakes1 and the    

states and empires into which it is     
distributed2 the tides and currents of  
the ocean2 the icebergs of the polar    
regions1 and the verdant scenes of the  
torrid zone4  ,sitting at his fireside  
during the blasts of winter1 the        
enlightened man can survey the numerous 
tribes of mankind scattered over the    
various climates of the earth1 and      
entertain himself with views of their   
manners1 customs1 religion1 laws1 trade1
 manufactures1 marriage ceremonies1     
civil and ecclesiastical governments1   
arts1 sciences1 cities1 towns1 and      
villages1 and the animals peculiar to   
every region4 ,in his rural walks he can
 not only appreciate the beneficence of 
,nature1 and the beauties and harmonies 
of the vegetable kingdom in their       
exterior aspect1 but he can also        
penetrate into the hidden processes     
which are going on in the roots1 trunks1
 and leaves of plants and flowers1 and  
contemplate the numerous vessels through
 which the sap is flowing from their    

roots through the trunks and branches2  
the millions of pores through which     
their odoriferous effluvia exhale2 their
 fine and delicate texture2 their       
microscopical beauties2 their orders1   
genera1 and species1 and their uses in  
the economy of nature4  ,even when      
shrouded in darkness and in solitude1   
where other minds could find no         
enjoyment1 the man of knowledge can     
entertain himself with the most sublime 
contemplations4 ,he can trace the huge  
earth we inhabit flying through the     
depths of space1 carrying along with it 
its vast population1 at the rate of     
sixty thousand miles every hour1 and1 by
 the inclination of its axis1 bringing  
about the alternate succession of summer
 and winter1 of seed-time and harvest4  
,by the aid of his telescope he can     
transport himself toward the moon1 and  
survey the circular plains1 the deep    
caverns1 the conical hills1 the lofty   
peaks1 and the rugged and romantic      
mountain scenery which diversify the    

surface of this orb of night4  ,by the  
help of the same instrument he can range
 through the planetary system1 wing his 
way through the regions of space along  
with the swiftest orbs1 and trace many  
of the physical aspects and revolutions 
which have a relation to distant worlds4
 ,he can transport himself to the planet
 ,saturn1 and behold a stupendous ring  
six hundred thousand miles in           
circumference1 revolving in majestic    
grandeur every ten hours around a globe 
nine hundred times larger than the      
earth1 while seven moons larger than    
ours1 along with an innumerable host of 
stars1 display their radiance to adorn  
the firmament of that magnificent world4
 ,he can wing his flight through the    
still more distant regions of the       
universe1 leaving the sun and all his   
planets behind him1 till they appear    
like a scarcely discernible speck in    
creation1 and contemplate thousands and 
millions of stars and starry systems    
beyond the range of the unassisted eye1 

and wander among the suns and worlds    
dispersed throughout the boundless      
dimensions of space4  ,in his           
imagination he can fill up those blanks 
which astronomy has never directly      
explored1 and conceive thousands of     
systems and ten thousands of worlds     
beyond all that is visible by the optic 
tube1 stretching out to infinity on     
every hand1 peopled with intelligences  
of various orders1 and all under the    
superintendence and government of the   
,king ,eternal1 ,immortal1 and          
,invisible1 whose power is omnipotent1  
and the limit of his dominions past     
finding out4  ,it is evident that a mind
 capable of such excursions and         
contemplations as ,i have now supposed  
must experience enjoyments infinitely   
superior to those of the individual     
whose soul is enveloped in intellectual 
darkness4 ,if substantial happiness is  
chiefly situated in the mind2 if it     
depends on the multiplicity of objects  
which lie within the range of its       

contemplation2 if it is augmented by the
 view of scenes of beauty and sublimity1
 and displays of infinite intelligence  
and power2 if it is connected with      
tranquillity of mind1 which generally   
accompanies intellectual pursuits1 and  
the subjugation of the pleasures of     
sense to the dictates of reason1 the    
enlightened mind must enjoy             
gratifications as far superior to those 
of the ignorant as man is superior in   
station and capacity to the worms of the
 dust4  ,in order to illustrate this    
topic a little further1 ,i shall select 
a few facts and deductions in relation  
to science1 which demonstrate the       
interesting nature and delightful       
tendency of scientific pursuits4  ,there
 are several recorded instances of the  
powerful effect which the study of      
astronomy has produced upon the human   
mind4 ,dr4 ,rittenhouse1 of             
,pennsylvania1 after he had calculated  
the transit of ,venus1 which was to     
happen ,june #c;d1 #agfi1 was appointed1

 at ,philadelphia1 with others1 to      
repair to the township of ,norriston1   
and there to observe this planet until  
its passage over the sun's disc should  
verify the correctness of his           
calculations4 ,this occurrence had never
 been witnessed but twice before by an  
inhabitant of our earth1 and was never  
to be again seen by any person then     
living4 ,a phenomenon so rare1 and so   
important in its bearings upon          
astronomical science1 was1 indeed1 well 
calculated to agitate the soul of one so
 alive as he was to the great truths of 
nature4 ,the day arrived1 and there was 
no cloud on the horizon4 ,the observers1
 in silence and trembling anxiety1      
awaited for the predicted moment of     
observation to arrive4 ,it came1 and in 
the instant of contact1 an emotion of   
joy so powerful was excited in the bosom
 of ,dr4 ,rittenhouse that he fainted4  
,sir ,isaac ,newton1 after he had       
advanced so far in his mathematical     
proof of one of his great astronomical  

doctrines as to see that the result was 
to be triumphant1 was so affected in    
view of the momentous truth he was about
 to demonstrate that he was unable to   
proceed1 and begged one of his          
companions in study to relieve him1 and 
carry out the calculation4 ,these are   
striking illustrations1 and the effect  
is perhaps heightened from their        
connection with a most sublime science1 
all of whose conclusions stand in open  
contradiction with those of superficial 
and vulgar observation4  ,but the       
discovery and contemplation of truths in
 philosophy1 chemistry1 and the         
mathematics have1 in numerous instances1
 awakened kindred emotions4 ,the        
enlightened man sees in every thing he  
beholds upon the surface of the earth1  
whether animal or vegetable1 and in the 
very elements themselves1 no less than  
when contemplating the wonders of       
astronomy1 instances innumerable        
illustrative of the wisdom and          
beneficence of the ,architect1 all of   

which has a direct tendency to increase 
his happiness4 ,in the invisible        
atmosphere which surrounds him1 where   
other minds discern nothing but an      
immense blank1 he beholds an assemblage 
of wonders1 and a striking scene of     
divine wisdom and omnipotence4 ,he views
 this invisible agent not only as a     
material1 but as a compound substance1  
composed of two opposite principles1 the
 one the source of flame and animal     
life1 and the other destructive to both4
 ,he perceives the atmosphere as the    
agent under the ,almighty which produces
 the germination and growth of plants1  
and all the beauties of the vegetable   
creation2 which preserves water in a    
liquid state1 supports fire and flame1  
and produces animal heat2 which sustains
 the clouds1 and gives buoyancy to the  
feathered tribes2 which is the cause of 
winds1 the vehicle of smells1 the medium
 of sounds1 the source of all the       
pleasures we derive from the harmonies  
of music1 the cause of the universal    

light and splendor which is diffused    
around us1 and of the advantages we     
derive from the morning and evening     
twilight4 ,he contemplates it as the    
prime mover in a variety of machines1 as
 impelling ships across the ocean1      
raising balloons to the region of the   
clouds1 blowing our furnaces1 raising   
water from the deepest pits1            
extinguishing fires1 and performing a   
thousand other beneficent agencies1     
without which our globe would cease to  
be habitable4 ,no one can doubt that all
 these views and contemplations have a  
direct tendency to enlarge the capacity 
of the mind1 to stimulate its faculties1
 and to produce rational enjoyment4     
,but there is another view of this      
subject which is perhaps still more     
impressive4 ,the atmosphere1 it has been
 stated1 is a compound substance4 ,a    
knowledge of its elementary principles1 
which chemistry teaches1 introduces its 
possessor to a new world of happiness4  
,the adaptation of air to respiration1  

and the influence of a change in the    
nature or proportion of its elements    
upon health and longevity1 have already 
been considered4#ec ,we have seen that  
carbonic acid1 the vitiating product of 
respiration1 although immediately fatal 
to animals1 constitutes the very life of
 vegetation2 that in the growth of      
plants the vitiated air is purified and 
fitted again for the sustenance of      
animal life2 and that1 by a beneficent  
provision of the ,creator1 animals and  
vegetables are thus perpetually         
interchanging kindly offices4 ,it will  
suffice for our present purpose simply  
to remind the reader that the atmosphere
 is composed of the two gases1 oxygen   
and nitrogen1 united in the ratio of one
 to four by volume4 ,oxygen is a        
supporter of combustion1 nitrogen is    
not4 ,increase the proportion of oxygen 
in the air1 and the same substances burn
 with increased brilliancy2 but diminish
 the proportion gradually1 and they will
 burn more and more dimly until they    

become extinct4 ,iron and steel1 as well
 as wood and the ordinary combustibles1 
will burn with great brilliancy in pure 
oxygen4     #ec ,see ,chapter ,,iv41    
especially from the #hith page to the   
#ajeth4   ,water1 ,i may add1 is        
composed of the two gases1 oxygen and   
hydrogen4 ,the former1 as we have seen1 
is a supporter of combustion1 and the   
latter is one of the most combustible   
substances known4 ,these two gases are  
nearly two thousand times more          
voluminous than their equivalent of     
water1 and1 when ignited1 they combine  
with explosive energy4 ,if1 then1 the   
,creator were to decompose the          
atmosphere that surrounds the earth to  
the height of forty-five miles1 and the 
water that rests upon its surface1      
either or both of them1 the oxygen1     
being specifically heavier than the     
nitrogen or hydrogen1 would settle      
immediately upon the earth1 and1 coming 
in contact with fires here and there1   
its whole surface would1 in an instant  

of time1 be enveloped in one general    
conflagration1 and the day of the ,lord1
 spoken of in the ,scriptures1 in which 
the heavens shall pass away with a great
 noise1 and the elements shall melt with
 fervent heat1 the earth also1 and the  
things therein shall be burned up1 would
 be speedily ushered in4 ,he who        
understands the first principles of     
chemical science can not fail to        
perceive how readily 7and in perfect    
accordance with laws well understood7   
such a general conflagration would take 
place were the great ,architect simply  
to resolve these two elements--air and  
water--into their constituent parts4    
,how full of meaning to such a one are  
the words of the ,psalmist1 ,the heavens
 declare the glory of ,god1 and the     
firmament showeth his handiwork4  ,one  
more illustration must suffice4 ,all    
fluids1 except water1 contract in volume
 as they become colder to the point of  
congelation4 ,but the point of greatest 
density in water is about eight degrees 

above freezing4 ,as the temperature of  
,,all fluids increases above this point1
 their volume increases4 ,as the        
temperature of all fluids1 with the     
single exception of ,,water1 decreases1 
the volume decreases down to the        
freezing point4 ,water increases in     
density as it becomes colder until it   
reaches the temperature of forty        
degrees--eight degrees above the        
freezing point--when it begins to       
expand4 ,this only exception to the     
general law of fluids is of greater     
importance in the economy of nature than
 most persons are conscious of4 ,as the 
cold season advances in the temperate   
and frigid zones1 the water in our lakes
 and rivers is reduced to the           
temperature of forty degrees2 but at    
this point1 by a beneficent provision of
 an ,all-wise ,providence1 the upper    
substratum becomes specifically lighter1
 and is converted into a covering of    
ice1 which1 resting upon the water      
beneath1 protects it from freezing4     

,moreover1 when water is converted into 
ice1 one hundred and forty degrees of   
heat are given out1 a part of which1    
entering into the water below1 retards  
the further formation of ice4#ed     #ed
 ,i may here add1 that exactly the      
reverse is true in the melting   of snow
 and ice4 ,it requires as much heat to  
convert these solids into   fluids1     
without at all increasing their         
temperature1 as it does to raise   the  
temperature of water from the freezing  
point1 one hundred and forty   degrees1 
or from thirty-two to one hundred and   
seventy-two degrees1 as   indicated by  
the thermometer4 ,this principle is of  
vast importance to   the world1 and     
particularly to the inhabitants of cold 
countries1 where   the ground is covered
 with snow and ice a part or the whole  
of the year4   ,the transition from the 
cold of winter to the heat of summer1 in
 some of   the northern climates1 takes 
place within a few days4 ,in these      
climates1   also1 there are vast        

accumulations of snow and ice1 which1   
but for this   principle1 would be      
converted into water as soon as the     
temperature of   the atmosphere becomes 
above thirty-two degrees1 which would   
produce a   flood sufficient to inundate
 and destroy the whole country4 ,but the
   uniform action of this law renders   
the melting of snow gradual1 and no     
such accident ensues4    ,a similar law 
is observed in the conversion of water  
into vapor1   which is of great use in  
enabling us to cool apartments by       
sprinkling   floors or hanging up       
moistened cloths4 ,the heat of even a   
whole city is   in like manner greatly  
moderated by frequently sprinkling the  
streets4   ,it is on this account that  
gentle showers in hot weather are so    
cooling   and refreshing4   ,if water1  
like other fluids1 continued to increase
 in density to the freezing point1 the  
cold air of winter would rob the water  
of our lakes and rivers of its heat1    
until the whole was reduced to the      

temperature of thirty-two degrees2 when1
 but for the circumstance to which we   
have just alluded1 it would be          
immediately converted into a solid mass 
of ice from top to bottom1 causing      
instant death to every animal living in 
it4 ,the lower strata of such a mass of 
ice would never again become liquefied4 
,this is a striking proof of the        
beneficence and design of the ,creator  
in forming water with such an exception 
to the ordinary laws of nature1 and a   
knowledge of it can hardly fail to exert
 a most salutary1 elevating1 and        
ennobling influence on the mind of its  
possessor4 ,the field of human          
happiness1 then1 with the virtuous1     
seems to enlarge in proportion as a     
knowledge of the works and laws of the  
beneficent ,creator is extended4 ,there 
is little ground for doubt as to what is
 ,,god',s ,,will in relation to the     
universal education of the family of    
man1 when he has connected with the     
exercise of mind in the study of his    

works superior enjoyments and heavenly  
aspirations4  ,the various propositions 
stated and elucidated in this chapter1  
we think1 are as fully established as   
any moral truths need be1 and1 we doubt 
not1 they commend themselves to the     
judgment and conscience of all who have 
carefully perused the preceding pages1  
if1 indeed1 they had not been duly      
considered and adopted before4 ,if1     
then1 a system of universal education1  
judiciously administered1 would         
dissipate the evils of ignorance1 which 
are legion2 if it would greatly increase
 the productiveness of labor2 if it     
would diminish--not to say              
exterminate--pauperism and crime2 if it 
would prevent the great majority of     
fatal accidents that are constantly     
occurring in every community2 if it     
would save the lives of a hundred       
thousand children in the ,united ,states
 every year1 and as many more puny      
survivors from dragging out a miserable 
existence in consequence of being the   

offspring of ignorant or vicious        
parents2 if it would prevent so much of 
idiocy1 and would humanize those who are
 born idiots only1 but have hitherto    
been permitted1 nay1 doomed to die      
,,brutes2 if it would prevent so much   
insanity1 and would save to society and 
their family and friends1 clothed and in
 their right mind1 multitudes of every  
generation who now dwell in mental      
darkness and gloom2 if it would increase
 the sum total of human happiness in    
proportion to its excellence1 and the   
number of persons who are brought under 
its benign influence and uplifting      
power2 if it would do all this--and that
 this is its legitimate tendency there  
can be no doubt--it would seem that no  
enlightened community could be found in 
any country1 and especially that there  
can be no state in this ,union1 that    
would not at once resolve upon          
maintaining a system of universal       
education by opening the doors of       
improved free schools to all her sons   

and daughters1 and1 if need be1         
employing agents1 vigilant and active1  
to go out into the highways and hedges1 
and compel them to come in4 ,if this is 
not done1 thousands and tens of         
thousands of every generation will      
continue to lead cheerless lives1 and   
will go down to their graves like the   
brute that perisheth1 without knowing   
that ,he who gave to man life has also1 
in his goodness1 which knows no bounds1 
provided that in the proper exercise of 
his faculties man shall find an         
inexhaustible source of happiness4#ee   
#ee ,in the annual report of the        
,trustees of the ,new ,england          
,institution   for the ,education of the
 ,blind for the year #ahcd1 this        
beautiful passage   occurs3 ,the        
expression of one of the pupils1 'that  
she had never   known1 before she began 
to learn1 that it was a happiness to be 
alive1'   may be applied to many4       
,,chapter ,,ix4  ,,political ,,necessity
 ,,of ,,national ,,education4      ,in  

proportion as the structure of a        
government gives force to public        
opinion1 it is essential that public    
opinion should be                       
enlightened4--,,washington4      ,i do  
not hesitate to affirm not only that a  
knowledge of the true     principles of 
government is important and useful to   
,americans1 but     that it is          
absolutely indispensable to carry on the
 government of     their choice1 and to 
transmit it to their posterity4--,,judge
 ,,story4   ,every succeeding section of
 the last chapter went to show more and 
more clearly that1 in proportion as the 
benign influences of a correct education
 are diffused among and enjoyed by the  
members of any community1 will existing 
evils of every kind be diminished1 and  
blessings be increased in number and    
degree4 ,the subject of popular         
education1 then1 claims1 and should     
receive1 the sympathy and active support
 of every philanthropist and ,christian1
 without regard to country or clime4 ,we

 come now to consider a topic in which  
every patriot1 and especially every true
 ,american1 as such1 must feel a lively 
interest4  ,every citizen of our        
wide-spread country should be fully     
persuaded that the education of the     
people is the only permanent basis of   
national prosperity not only1 but of    
national ,,safety4 ,this1 in theory1 is 
now conceded1 and the importance of     
education is very generally admitted    
among men1 especially in our own        
country4 ,it is evident1 however1 that  
the conviction of its importance is not 
so deeply inwrought into the mind of    
society as it ought to be1 for it does  
not manifest itself with all the power  
of earnest feeling in behalf of         
education which the subject1 in view of 
its acknowledged weightiness1 justly    
demands4  ,the objects and advantages of
 education heretofore considered apply  
equally to men of every nation and      
clime1 under whatever form of government
 they may chance to dwell4 ,it is       

otherwise in regard to the political    
necessity of popular education4 ,here a 
particular training is required to fit  
men for the government under which they 
are to live4 ,in despotic governments1  
the object of popular education is to   
make good subjects1 while upon us       
devolves the higher responsibility of so
 educating the people that they may     
become not only good subjects1 but good 
,,sovereigns--all power originating in  
and returning to the sovereign people4  
,only seventy-four years ago1 our       
fathers of the ever-memorable           
,revolution pledged fortune1 life1 and  
sacred honor to establish the           
independence of these ,united ,states4  
,under the fostering care of republican 
institutions1 the tide of population    
rolled rapidly inland1 crossing the     
,alleganies1 sweeping over the vast     
,valley of the ,mississippi1 nor resting
 in its onward course until it settled  
on the waters of the ,columbia and the  
shores of the ,pacific4 ,previous to the

 ,revolutionary war1 the ,english       
settlements were confined to the        
,atlantic coast2 now the tide of        
immigration seems to be to the shores of
 the ,pacific1 where states are         
multiplying and cities springing up as  
by magic4 ,in a little more than half a 
century1 the states of the ,union have  
increased in number from thirteen to    
thirty1 and in population in a ratio    
hitherto unprecedented1 from three      
millions to twenty-five millions of     
souls4  ,we stand in the same relation  
to posterity that our ancestors do to   
us4 ,each generation has duties of its  
own to perform2 and our duties1 though  
widely different from those of our      
forefathers1 are not less important in  
their character or less binding in their
 obligations4 ,it was their duty to     
found or establish our institutions1 and
 nobly did they perform it4 ,it is our  
especial and appropriate duty to perfect
 and perpetuate the institutions we have
 received at their hands4 ,the boon they

 would bequeath to the latest posterity 
can never reach and bless them except   
through our instrumentality4 ,upon each 
present generation rest the duty and the
 obligation of educating and qualifying 
for usefulness that which immediately   
succeeds1 upon which1 in turn1 will     
devolve a like responsibility4 ,each    
succeeding generation will1 in the main1
 be what the preceding has made it4     
,from this responsible agency there is1 
there can be1 no escape4  ,trusts1      
responsibilities1 and interests1 vaster 
in amount and more sacred in character  
than have ever1 in the providence of    
,god1 been committed to any people1 are 
now intrusted to us4 ,the great         
experiment of the capacity of man for   
self-government is being tried anew--an 
experiment which1 wherever it has been  
tried1 has failed1 through an incapacity
 in the people to enjoy liberty without 
abusing it4 ,we are1 ,i doubt not1 now  
educating the very generation during    
whose lifetime this great question will 

be decided4 ,the present generation     
will1 to a great extent1 be responsible 
for the result1 whatever it may be4 ,we 
are1 therefore1 called upon1 as         
,american citizens and ,christian       
philanthropists1 to do all that in us   
lies to secure to this experiment a     
successful issue2 to make this the      
leading nation of the earth1 and a model
 worthy of imitation by all others4     
,never before this has a nation been    
planted with so hopeful an opportunity  
for becoming the universal benefactor of
 the race4  ,if for the next fifty years
 the population of these ,american      
,states shall continue to increase as   
during the last fifty1 we shall exceed a
 hundred millions2 and in a century1    
allowing the same ratio of increase1 the
 population will equal that of the ,old 
,world4 ,here1 then1 is a continent to  
be filled with innumerable millions of  
human beings1 who may be happy through  
our wisdom1 but who must be miserable   
through our folly4 ,we may disregard    

such considerations1 but we can not     
escape the tremendous responsibilities  
rolling in upon us in view of the       
relations we sustain to the past and the
 future4 ,we delight to honor1 in words1
 those heroes and martyrs from whom we  
have received the rich boon of civil and
 religious liberty4 ,let us then1 in    
deeds1 imitate the examples we profess  
to admire1 and contribute our full      
quota1 as individuals and as a          
generation1 toward perfecting and       
perpetuating the institutions we have   
received1 that they may be enjoyed by   
those countless millions who are to     
succeed us in this broad empire4  ,in   
this exigency1 to adopt the language of 
an enlightened practical educator and   
eminent statesman1 we need far more of  
wisdom and rectitude than we possess4   
,preparations for our present condition 
have been so long neglected1 that we now
 have a double duty to perform4 ,we have
 not only to propitiate to our aid a    
host of good spirits1 but we have to    

exorcise a host of evil ones4 ,every    
aspect of our affairs1 public and       
private1 demonstrates that we need1 for 
their successful management1 a vast     
accession to the common stock of        
intelligence and virtue4 ,but           
intelligence and virtue are the product 
of cultivation and training4 ,they do   
not spring up spontaneously4 ,we need1  
therefore1 unexampled alacrity and      
energy in the application of all those  
influences and means which promise the  
surest and readiest returns of wisdom   
and probity1 both public and private4   
,when the ,declaration of ,independence 
was carried into effect1 and the        
,constitution of the ,united ,states was
 adopted1 the civil and political       
relations of the generation then living1
 and of all succeeding ones1 were       
changed4 ,men were no longer the same   
men1 but were clothed with new rights   
and responsibilities4 ,up to that       
period1 so far as government was        
concerned1 they might have been         

ignorant2 indeed1 it has generally been 
held that where a man's only duty is    
obedience1 it is better that he should  
be ignorant2 for why should a beast of  
burden be endowed with the sensibilities
 of a man6 ,up to that period1 so far as
 government was concerned1 a man might  
have been unprincipled and flagitious4  
,he had no access to the statute-book to
 alter or repeal its provisions1 so as  
to screen his own violations of the     
moral law from punishment1 or to        
legalize the impoverishment and ruin of 
his fellow-beings4 ,but with the new    
institutions1 there came new relations1 
and an immense accession of powers4 ,new
 trusts of inappreciable value were     
devolved upon the old agents and upon   
their successors1 irrevocably4  ,with   
the change in the organic structure of  
our government1 there should have been  
corresponding changes in all public     
measures and institutions4 ,for every   
dollar given by the wealthy or by the   
state to colleges to cultivate the      

higher branches of knowledge1 a hundred 
should have been given for primary      
education4 ,for every acre of land      
bestowed upon an academy1 a province    
should have been granted to common      
schools4 ,select schools for select     
children should have been discarded1 and
 universal education should have joined 
hands with universal suffrage4#ef       
#ef ,from an ,oration delivered before  
the ,authorities of the ,city of        
,boston1 ,july #dth1 #ahdb1 by ,horace  
,mann1 ,secretary of the ,massachusetts 
,board of ,education4   ,in the simplest
 form of civil government1 there must   
exist a legislative1 a judicial1 and an 
executive department4 ,but no expression
 of the national will in a system of    
laws can be sufficiently definite to    
supersede the necessity of a perpetual  
succession of ,legislatures to supply   
defects1 and to meet emergencies as they
 arise4 ,however well-informed men may  
be1 and however pure the motives by     
which they are actuated1 all experience 

hath shown that subjects will come up   
for consideration that will strike      
different minds in a variety of forms4  
,this1 in a popular government1 gives   
rise to opposing parties4 ,every man1   
then1 in casting his vote for members of
 the ,legislature1 needs to understand  
what important questions will be likely 
to come before that branch of the       
government for settlement1 to have      
examined them in their various bearings1
 and to have deliberately made up his   
opinion in relation to the interests    
involved1 in order to vote              
understandingly2 otherwise he will be as
 likely to oppose as to promote1 not    
only the welfare of the state1 but his  
own most cherished interests4  ,the same
 remark that has been made in relation  
to the legislative department will apply
 to both the judicial and executive1 and
 to the general government as well as to
 the several state governments4 ,when   
the appointed day arrives for deciding  
the various questions of state and      

national policy which divide men into   
opposing parties1 there can be no delay4
 ,these various and conflicting         
questions must be decided1 whether much 
or little preparation has been made1 or 
none at all4 ,and1 what is most         
extraordinary1 each voter helps to      
decide every question which agitates the
 community as much by not voting as by  
voting4 ,if the question is so vast or  
so complicated that any one has not time
 to examine and make up his mind in     
relation to it1 or if any one is too    
conscientious to act from conjecture in 
cases of magnitude1 and therefore stays 
from the polls1 another1 who has no     
scruples about acting ignorantly1 or    
from caprice1 or malevolence1 votes1    
and1 in the absence of the former1      
decides the question against the right4 
,however simple our government may be in
 theory1 it has proved1 in practice1 the
 most complex government on earth4 ,more
 questions for legislative              
interposition1 and for judicial         

exposition and construction1 have       
already arisen under it1 ten to one1    
than have arisen during the same length 
of time under any other form of         
government in ,christendom4 ,we are a   
,union of thirty states2 a great nation 
composed of thirty separate nations2 and
 even beyond these1 the confederacy is  
responsible for the fate of vast        
territories1 with their increasing      
population1 and of numerous ,indian     
tribes4 ,among the component states1    
there is the greatest variety of        
customs1 institutions1 and religions4   
,then we have the deeper inbred         
differences of language and ancestry    
among us1 our population being made up  
of the lineage of all nations4 ,our     
industrial pursuits1 also1 are various2 
and1 with a great natural diversity of  
soil and climate1 they must always      
continue to be so4 ,moreover1 across the
 very center of our territory a line is 
drawn1 on one side of which all labor is
 voluntary1 while on the opposite side a

 system of involuntary servitude        
prevails4  ,if1 then1 general           
intelligence and popular virtue are     
necessary for the successful            
administration of even the simplest     
forms of government1 and if these       
qualities are required in a higher and  
still higher degree in proportion to the
 complexity of a government1 then are   
both intelligence and virtue necessary  
in this government to an extent         
indefinitely beyond what has ever been  
required in any other4 ,and especially  
is this true when we consider that our  
government is representative as it      
regards the people1 and federative as it
 regards the states2 and that1 in this  
respect1 it has no precedent on the file
 of nations4 ,we hence require a double 
portion of general intelligence and     
practical wisdom4 ,but men are not born 
in the possession of these requisites to
 self-government1 neither are they      
necessarily developed in the growth from
 infancy to manhood4 ,they are the      

product of cultivation and training1 and
 can be secured only through good       
schools opened to and enjoyed by all our
 youth4 ,the stability of this          
government requires that universal      
education should precede universal      
suffrage4  ,under a free government1 the
 intelligence of the people1 coupled    
with their virtue1 will be found to be a
 sure index to a nation's prosperity1   
and to the individual and social        
well-being of all who enjoy its         
protection4 ,god is a being of infinite 
wisdom and goodness1 and no part of his 
government can be successfully          
administered except upon the principles 
of knowledge and virtue4 ,the success   
that attends a nation of freemen will   
depend upon the extent to which these   
are cultivated1 and the universality of 
their dissemination in the body politic4
 ,while the cultivation of these will   
increase the safety of the government1  
their neglect will hasten its downfall4 
,judge ,story1 in a lecture upon the    

importance of the science of government 
as a branch of popular education1 has   
well remarked1 that it is not to rulers 
and statesman alone that the science of 
government is important and useful4 ,it 
is equally indispensable for every      
,american citizen1 to enable him to     
exercise his own rights1 to protect his 
own interests1 and to secure the public 
liberties and the just operations of    
public authority4 ,a republic1 by the   
very constitution of its government1    
requires1 on the part of the people1    
more vigilance and constant exertion    
than any other form of government4 ,the 
,american ,republic1 above all others1  
demands from every citizen unceasing    
vigilance and exertion1 since we have   
deliberately dispensed with every guard 
against danger or ruin except the       
intelligence and virtue of the people   
themselves4 ,it is founded on the basis 
that the people have wisdom enough to   
frame their own system of government1   
and public spirit enough to preserve it2

 that they can not be cheated out of    
their liberties1 and they will not      
submit to have them taken from them by  
force4 ,we have silently assumed the    
fundamental truth that1 as it never can 
be the interest of the majority of the  
people to prostrate their own political 
equality and happiness1 so they never   
can be seduced by flattery or           
corruption1 by the intrigues of faction 
or the arts of ambition1 to adopt any   
measures which shall subvert them4 ,if  
this confidence in ourselves is         
justified--and who among ,americans does
 not feel a pride in endeavoring to     
maintain it8--let us never forget that  
it can be justified only by a           
watchfulness and zeal in proportion to  
our confidence4 ,let us never forget    
that we must prove ourselves wiser1     
better1 and purer than any other nation 
ever has yet been1 if we are to count   
upon success4 ,every other republic has 
fallen by the discords and treachery of 
its own citizens4 ,it has been said by  

one of our own departed statesmen1      
himself a devout admirer of popular     
government1 that power is perpetually   
stealing from the many to the few4  ,the
 institutions of a republic are         
endangered by the ignorance of the      
masses on the one hand1 and by          
intelligent1 but unprincipled and       
vicious aspirants to office and places  
of emolument on the other4 ,where these 
two classes coexist to any considerable 
extent1 the safety of the republic is   
jeoparded2 for they have a strong       
sympathy with each other1 and it is the 
constant policy of the latter to        
increase the number of the former4 ,they
 arouse their passions and stimulate    
their appetites1 and then lead them in a
 way they know not4 ,a barrel of whisky1
 or even of hard cider1 with a hurrah6  
will control ten to one more of this    
class of voters than will the soundest  
arguments of enlightened and honorable  
statesmen4 ,and yet one of these votes  
thus procured1 when deposited in the    

ballot-box1 counts the same as the vote 
of a ,washington or a ,franklin6  ,there
 is one remedy1 and but one1 for this   
alarming state of things1 which prevails
 to a less or greater extent in almost  
every community4 ,that remedy is simple4
 ,it consists in the establishment of   
schools for the education of the whole  
people4 ,these schools1 however1 should 
be of a more perfect character than the 
majority of those which have hitherto   
existed4 ,in them the principles of     
morality should be copiously            
intermingled with the principles of     
science4 ,cases of conscience should    
alternate with lessons in the rudiments4
 ,the rule requiring us to do to others 
as we would that they should do unto us1
 should be made as familiar as the      
multiplication table1 and our youth     
should become as familiar with the      
practical application of the one as of  
the other4 ,the lives of great and good 
men should be held up for admiration and
 example1 and especially the life and   

character of ,jesus ,christ1 as the     
sublimest pattern of benevolence1 of    
purity1 and of self-sacrifice ever      
exhibited to mortals4 ,in every course  
of studies1 all the practical and       
preceptive parts of the ,gospel should  
be sacredly inculcated1 and all         
dogmatical theology and sectarianism    
sacredly excluded4 ,in no school should 
the ,bible be opened to reveal the sword
 of the polemic1 but to unloose the dove
 of peace4  ,in connection with the     
preceding1 and in addition to the       
branches now commonly taught in our     
schools1 the study of politics1 which   
has been beautifully defined as the art 
of making a people happy1 should be     
generally introduced4 ,i am not aware1  
says an eminent jurist1#eg that there   
are any solid objections which can be   
urged against introducing the science of
 government into our common schools as a
 branch of popular education4 ,if it    
should be said that it will have a      
tendency to introduce party creeds and  

party dogmas into our schools1 the true 
answer is1 that the principles of       
government should be there taught1 and  
not the creeds or dogmas of any party4  
,the principles of the ,constitution    
under which we live2 the principles upon
 which republics generally are founded1 
by which they are sustained1 and through
 which they must be saved2 the          
principles of public policy1 by which   
national prosperity is secured1 and     
national ruin averted--these certainly  
are not party creeds or party dogmas1   
but are fit to be taught at all times   
and on all occasions1 if any thing which
 belongs to human life and our own      
condition is fit to be taught4 ,if we   
wait until we can guard ourselves       
against every possible chance of abuse  
before we introduce any system of       
instruction1 we shall wait until the    
current of time has flowed into the     
ocean of eternity4 ,there is nothing    
which ever has been or ever can be      
taught without some chance of abuse2    

nay1 without some absolute abuse4 ,even 
religion itself1 our truest and our only
 lasting hope and consolation1 has not  
escaped the common infirmity of our     
nature4 ,if it never had been taught    
until it could be taught with the       
purity1 simplicity1 and energy of the   
apostolic age1 we ourselves1 instead of 
being blessed with the bright and balmy 
influences of ,christianity1 should now 
have been groping our way in the        
darkness of heathenism1 or left to      
perish in the cold and cheerless        
labyrinths of skepticism4     #eg       
,joseph ,story1 before the ,american    
,institute of ,instruction4   ,lord     
,brougham1 one of the most powerful     
advocates of popular education in our   
day1 has made the following remarks1    
which can not be more fitly addressed to
 any people than to the citizens of the 
,american ,states4 ,a sound system of   
government1 says this transatlantic     
writer1 requires the people to read and 
inform themselves upon political        

subjects2 else they are the prey of     
every quack1 every impostor1 and every  
agitator who may practice his trade in  
the country4 ,if they do not read2 if   
they do not learn2 if they do not digest
 by discussion and reflection what they 
have read and learned2 if they do not   
qualify themselves to form opinions for 
themselves1 other men will form opinions
 for them1 not according to the truth   
and the interests of the people1 but    
according to their own individual and   
selfish interest1 which may1 and most   
probably will1 be contrary to that of   
the people at large4  ,two very         
important inquiries here naturally      
suggest themselves to us3 they are1     
first1 whether there is at present in   
this country a degree of intelligence   
sufficient for the wise administration  
of its affairs2 and secondly1 whether   
existing provisions for the education of
 our country's youth are adequate to the
 wants of a great and free people1 who  
are endeavoring to demonstrate to the   

world that great problem of nations--the
 capability of man for self-government4 
,we judge of the literary attainments of
 the citizens of a state or of a nation1
 as a whole1 by comparing all the       
individual members thereof with a given 
standard1 and of their arrangements for 
educating the rising generation by the  
character of their schools1 and the     
proportion of the population that       
receive instruction in them4 ,let us    
test the existing standard of education 
in various states of this ,union in both
 of these respects4  ,,degree ,,of      
,,popular ,,intelligence4--,according to
 the census of #ahdj1eh the total       
population of the ,united ,states was1  
in round numbers1 seventeen millions4   
,of this number1 five hundred and fifty 
thousand were whites over twenty years  
of age1 who could not read and write4   
,the proportion varies in different     
states1 from one in five hundred and    
eighty-nine in ,connecticut1 to one in  
eleven in ,north ,carolina4     #eh ,the

 census for #ahej is now being taken4   
,whether its results will   tell more   
favorably upon the general interests of 
education in the   ,united ,states than 
those of the last census1 remains to be 
seen4 ,some of   the states during the  
last ten years have done nobly2 others  
have   evidently retrograded4 ,we have  
also a tide of foreign immigration      
pouring in upon us hitherto             
unprecedented1 averaging a thousand a   
day   for the past year1 all of whom    
need to be ,americanized4   ,if we      
exclude1 in the estimate1 all colored   
persons1 and whites under twenty years  
of age1 the proportion will stand thus3 
in the ,united ,states1 one to every    
twelve is unable to read and write4 ,the
 proportion varies in the different     
states1 from one in two hundred and     
ninety-four in ,connecticut1 which      
stands the highest1 to one in three in  
,north ,carolina1 which stands the      
lowest4 ,in ,tennessee the proportion is
 one in four4 ,in ,kentucky1 ,virginia1 

,georgia1 ,south ,carolina1 and         
,arkansas1 each1 one in five4 ,in       
,delaware and ,alabama1 each1 one in    
six4 ,in ,indiana1 one in seven4 ,in    
,illinois and ,wisconsin1 each1 one in  
eight4  ,on the brighter end of the     
scale1 next to ,connecticut1 in which   
the proportion is one in two hundred and
 ninety-four1 is ,new ,hampshire1 in    
which the proportion is one in one      
hundred and fifty-nine4 ,in             
,massachusetts it is one in ninety4 ,in 
,maine1 one in seventy-two4 ,in         
,vermont1 one in sixty-three4 ,next in  
order comes ,michigan1 in which the     
proportion is one in thirty-nine4#ei    
#ei ,according to the last census1 there
 were twenty states below   ,michigan1  
and only five above her4 ,but even this 
estimate1 favorable as   it is in the   
scale of states1 does not allow         
,michigan an opportunity to   appear in 
her true light1 for it is well known    
that a great proportion   of the        
illiterate population of this state is  

confined to a few   counties4 ,in       
,mackinaw and ,chippewa counties there  
is one white person   over twenty years 
of age to every five of the entire      
population that is   unable to read and 
write4 ,in ,ottawa1 one in fourteen2 in 
,cass1 one in   twenty-two2 in ,wayne   
and ,saginaw1 each1 one in thirty-six4  
,on the other   hand1 there were eight  
organized counties in the state in      
which1   according to the census        
referred to1 there was not a single     
white   inhabitant over twenty years of 
age that was unable to read and write4  
,it is an interesting fact1 at least to 
persons residing in the   ,northwest1   
that in ,ohio also 7on the ,western     
,reserve7 there were seven   such       
counties1 making fifteen in these two   
states1 while in all ,new   ,england    
there were but two--,franklin in        
,massachusetts1 and ,essex in           
,vermont4   ,but these statements in    
relation to the number of persons in the
 ,united ,states who are unable to read 

and write1 although they give the       
fearful aggregate of five hundred and   
fifty thousand over twenty years of age 
who are destitute of these              
qualifications1 it is believed1 fail to 
discover much of gross ignorance that is
 cherished in various portions of the   
country2 for there is no state in the   
,union1 nor any section of a single     
state1 where men do not wish to be      
accounted able to read and write4 ,the  
deputy marshals who took the census     
received their compensation by the head1
 and not by the day1 for the work done4 
,they therefore traveled from house to  
house1 making the shortest practicable  
stay at each4 ,more was required of them
 than could be thoroughly and accurately
 performed in the time allowed4 ,their  
informants were subjected to no test4   
,in the absence of the heads of         
families1 whose information would have  
been more reliable1 the bare word of    
persons over sixteen years of age was   
accredited4 ,it is1 moreover1 well      

known1 that no inconsiderable number of 
persons gave false information when     
inquired of by the deputies4 ,from these
 and other reasons1 it is believed that 
numerous and important errors exist in  
the census2 and this opinion is         
corroborated by a mass of unquestionable
 testimony1 of which ,i will introduce a
 specimen4  ,the annual message of      
,governor ,campbell1 of ,virginia1 to   
the ,legislature of that state1 the year
 immediately preceding that in which the
 census was taken1 clearly shows that   
the capacity to read and write in       
persons over twenty years of age was    
greatly over-estimated in that state4   
,governor ,campbell1 after stating that 
the importance of an efficient system of
 education1 embracing in its            
comprehensive and benevolent design the 
whole people1 can not be too frequently 
recurred to1 goes on to remark as       
follows3  ,the statements furnished by  
the clerks of five city and borough     
courts1 and ninety-three of the county  

courts1 in reply to the inquiries       
addressed to them1 ascertain that1 of   
all those who applied for marriage      
licenses1 a large number were unable to 
write their names4 ,the years selected  
for this inquiry were those of #ahag1   
#ahbg1 and #ahcg4 ,the statements show  
that the applicants for marriage        
licenses for #ahag amounted to #dfhb1 of
 whom #aabg were unable to write2 #ejdh 
in #ahbg1 of whom the number unable to  
write was #aaff2 and in #ahcg the       
applicants were #dfad1 and of these the 
number of #ajdg were unable to write    
their names4 ,from which it appears     
there still exists a deplorable extent  
of ignorance1 and that1 in truth1 it is 
hardly less than it was twenty years    
ago1 when the school fund was created4  
,the statements1 it will be remembered1 
are partial1 not embracing quite all the
 counties1 and are1 moreover1 confined  
to one sex4 ,the education of females1  
it is to be feared1 is in a condition of
 much greater neglect4  ,there are now  

in the state two hundred thousand       
children between the ages of five and   
fifteen4 ,forty thousand of them are    
reported to be poor children1 and of    
them only one half to be attending      
schools4 ,it may be safely assumed that1
 of those possessing property adequate  
to the expenses of a plain education1 a 
large number are growing up in          
ignorance1 for want of schools within   
convenient distances4 ,of those at      
school1 many derive little or no        
instruction1 owing to the incapacity of 
the teachers1 as well as to their       
culpable negligence and inattention4    
,thus the number likely to remain       
uneducated1 and to grow up without just 
perceptions of their duties1 religious1 
social1 and political1 is really of     
appalling magnitude1 and such as to     
appeal with affecting earnestness to a  
parental ,legislature4  ,if there shall 
appear any want of agreement between    
these statements and the returns made by
 the deputy marshals1 no one need be in 

doubt in relation to which has the      
strongest claims for credence4 ,these   
statements were communicated by the     
governor of a proud state to the        
,legislature in his annual message4     
,unlike the statistics collected by the 
marshals1 each case was subjected to an 
infallible test2 for no man who could   
make a scrawl in the similitude of his  
name would submit to the mortification  
of making his mark1 and leaving it on   
record in a written application for a   
marriage license4 ,the requisition was  
made upon the officers of the courts1   
and the evidence1 which was of a        
documentary or judicial character1 is   
the highest known to the law4 ,the      
result was1 that almost one fourth of   
all the men applying for marriage       
licenses--more than thirty-three hundred
 in three years--were unable to write   
their names6 ,and ,governor ,campbell   
clearly intimates an opinion that the   
education of females is in a condition  
of much greater neglect6  ,in round     

numbers1 the free white population of   
,virginia over twenty years of age is   
three hundred and thirty thousand4 ,one 
fourth of this number is eighty-two and 
a half thousand1 which1 according to the
 evidence presented by ,governor        
,campbell1 is the lowest possible limit 
at which the minimum of adults unable to
 read and write can be stated4 ,but the 
census number is less than fifty-nine   
thousand1 making a difference of nearly 
twenty-four thousand1 or more than forty
 per cent4  ,there are several states of
 about the same rank as ,virginia in the
 educational scale4 ,kentucky1          
,tennessee1 and ,north ,carolina sink   
even below her4 ,the last-named state1  
with a free white population over twenty
 years of age of less than #baj1jjj1 has
 the appalling number1 even according to
 the census1 of #ef1fji who are unable  
to read and write4 ,in other words1     
forty-two hundred more than one fourth  
of the whole free population over twenty
 years of age are1 in the educational   

scale1 absolutely below zero4  ,now if  
to the five hundred and fifty thousand  
free white population in the ,united    
,states over the age of twenty years who
 are unable to read and write1 as shown 
by the census1 we add forty per cent4   
for its under-estimates1 as facts       
require us to do in the case of         
,virginia1 it would increase the total  
to seven hundred and seventy thousand4  
,suppose one fourth of these only are   
voters--that is1 deduct one half for    
females1 and allow that one half of the 
male moiety is made up of persons either
 between twenty and twenty-one years of 
age1 or of those who are unnaturalized1 
which is a most liberal allowance when  
we consider where the great mass of     
ignorance belongs1 and that the number  
of ignorant immigrants is much less at  
the ,south than at the ,north--and we   
have #aib1ejj voters in the ,united     
,states who are unable to read and      
write4  ,now1 at the presidential       
election for the same year that the     

census was taken1 when1 to use the      
graphic language of another1 every voter
 not absolutely in his winding sheet was
 carried to the polls1 when the harvest 
field was so thoroughly swept that      
neither stubble nor tares were left for 
the gleaner1 the majority for the       
successful candidate was #adf1jha1 more 
than #df1jjj less than the estimated    
number of legal voters at that time in  
the ,united ,states unable to read and  
write4 ,at this election a larger       
majority of the electoral votes was     
given for the successful candidate than 
was ever given to any other ,president  
of the ,united ,states1 with the        
exception of ,mr4 ,monroe in #ahbj1     
against whom there was but one vote4    
,general ,harrison's popular majority1  
also1 was undoubtedly the largest by    
which any ,president of the ,united     
,states has ever been elected1 with the 
exception above mentioned of ,mr4       
,monroe1 and perhaps that of ,general   
,washington at his second election4 ,and

 yet this majority1 large as it was1 was
 more than #df1jjj less than the        
estimated number of our legal voters    
who1 in the educational scale1 are      
absolutely below zero4  ,and then it    
should be borne in mind that hundreds of
 thousands who are barely able to read  
and write may never have acquired a     
knowledge of the true principles of     
government1 which1 in the language of   
,judge ,story1 at the head of this      
chapter1 is not only important and      
useful to ,americans1 but is absolutely 
indispensable to carry on the government
 of their choice1 and to transmit it to 
posterity4 ,it should also be borne in  
mind that popular virtue is not less    
essential to the stability of a free    
government than is general intelligence4
 ,nay1 more2 if the liberties of this   
republic are more endangered by any one 
class of people than by all others1 that
 class consists of intelligent but      
unprincipled political aspirants4 ,the  
connection between ignorance and vice   

has already been referred to1 and is    
well known among intelligent men2 but by
 none so well1 it may be1 as by the     
unprincipled aspirant1 who1 by pandering
 to the vicious appetites of the        
ignorant and the vile1 and then by base 
flattery pronouncing them highly        
intelligent1 enlightened1 and civilized1
 take advantage of their very want of   
qualification to manufacture political  
capital4 ,these are they to whom ,lord  
,brougham refers when he says1 other men
 will form opinions for them1 not       
according to truth and the interests of 
the people1 but according to their own  
individual and selfish interest1 which  
may1 and most probably will1 be contrary
 to that of the people at large4 ,we can
 not1 then1 avoid coming to the         
unwelcome and dread conclusion that     
there is not at present in this country 
a sufficient degree of intelligence and 
virtue for the wise1 or even the safe   
administration of its affairs4 ,it      
remains to consider whether existing    

provisions for the education of our     
country's youth are adequate to the     
wants of the ,american people4          
,,existing ,,provisions ,,for           
,,education4--,of the seventeen millions
 of persons in the ,united ,states1     
according to the last census1           
#c1gbf1jhj--one in five of the entire   
population--were free white children    
between the ages of five and fifteen    
years4 ,this is the lowest estimate ,i  
have ever known made of the ages between
 which children should regularly attend 
school4 ,the ages usually stated between
 which children generally should attend 
school at least ten months during the   
year1 are from four to sixteen1 or from 
four to eighteen years1 and sometimes   
from four to twenty or twenty-one years4
  ,but what is the actual attendance    
upon the primary and common schools of  
the country8 ,it is only #a1hde1bdd1 or1
 to vary the expression and give it more
 definiteness1 the total number of      
children in attendance upon all our     

schools1 any part of the year1 is twenty
 thousand less than one half of the     
free-born white children in the ,united 
,states between the ages of five and    
fifteen years6 ,and then it should be   
borne in mind that the same general     
motives which would lead to an          
under-statement in regard to the number 
of persons unable to read and write1    
would lead to an over-statement in      
regard to the number of those attending 
school4 ,the educational statistics of  
some of the states1 made out by         
competent and faithful school officers1 
show that the whole number of scholars  
that attended school any part of the    
time during the school year             
#ahdj-da--the year the census was       
taken--was several thousand less than   
the number according to the census4#fj  
#fj ,in ,massachusetts1 according to a  
statement made by the ,secretary of     
the ,board of ,education1 the whole     
number of scholars who were in all the  
public schools any part of the school   

year #ahdj-da was but #aee1jda1 and     
the average attendance was1 in the      
winter1 #aaf1cih1 and in the summer1    
#if1hjb2 while the number given in the  
census is #aeh1cea1 which is   greater  
by #ccaj than the entire number that    
attended school any part of   the year1 
according to the returns1 and #ee1gea   
more than the average   attendance for  
half of the year4   ,if we were to      
embrace in the estimate the whole number
 of students in attendance at the       
universities1 colleges1 academies1 and  
seminaries of learning of every grade1  
it would not materially vary the result1
 for all these taken together are less  
than one tenth part of the number in    
attendance upon the common schools4     
,that the number of children attending  
schools of any grade is less than might 
be inferred from the foregoing          
statements1 will be apparent when we    
consider the following facts4  ,in the  
,united ,states1 taken together as a    
whole1 only one person in ten of the    

population attends any school whatever  
any part of the year4 ,now it is well   
known that a large number of children   
under five years of age attend school in
 many parts of the country1 and a much  
greater number that are over fifteen    
years of age4 ,i have already said that 
the entire number of children in        
attendance upon all our schools is      
twenty thousand less than one half of   
the entire number of free-born white    
children in the ,united ,states between 
the ages of five and fifteen years4     
,this leaves two millions of children   
uninstructed4 ,we shall have a more just
 view of the scantiness of our          
provisions for adequate national        
education if to this number1 appalling  
as it is1 we add the total number of    
those attending under five and over     
fifteen in various portions of the      
country4  ,again3 no one supposes that  
in any part of the ,union adequate      
provisions are made for the education of
 the rising generation1 even in a single

 state4 ,but in the ,new ,england       
states1 and in ,new ,york and ,michigan1
 one fourth part of the entire          
population attend school some part of   
the year4 ,this is twice and a half the 
general average throughout the ,union1  
and more than five times the average    
attendance in the majority of the       
remaining states4  ,in round numbers1   
the proportion of the entire population 
that attend school in the different     
states of the ,union is1 according to   
the census1 in ,maine1 ,new ,hampshire1 
and ,vermont1 each1 one in three4 ,in   
,michigan1#fa ,massachusetts1           
,connecticut1 and ,new ,york1 the       
proportion is one in four4 ,in ,rhode   
,island1 it is one in five4 ,in ,ohio   
and ,new ,jersey1 each1 one in six4 ,in 
,pennsylvania1 one in eight4 ,in no     
other state is the proportion more than 
one in ten1 while in ten states it is   
less than one in twenty-five4     #fa   
,in determining the proportion for this 
state1 the census for #ahde   and the   

school returns for that year were the   
data used4 ,in the other   states ,i    
have been obliged to use the census     
returns of #ahdj4   ,in fixing this     
proportion1 the nearest whole number has
 been used4 ,in no state is the         
proportion in attendance upon the       
schools as high as one in three4        
,michigan heads the states in which the 
proportion is one in four4 ,in this     
state the proportion is somewhat greater
 than one in four2 it is1 however1      
nearer this than one in three4 ,in the  
other states the proportion is less than
 one in four4 ,the states are all       
arranged according to the size of the   
fraction1 there being less difference in
 the attendance in ,vermont and         
,michigan than in the latter state and  
,new ,york4  ,at the time the last      
census was taken1 ,michigan had recently
 been admitted into the ,union1 and the 
state government being but just         
organized1 the school system had only   
gone partially into operation4          

,according to the census of #ahdj1 the  
proportion in attendance upon the       
schools of this state was only one in   
seven4 ,during the interval from #ahdj  
to #ahde1 at which time the census of   
this state was again taken1 the         
population had increased from two       
hundred and twelve thousand to upward of
 three hundred thousand1 showing an     
increase of about fifty per cent42 the  
number of primary schools had increased 
from less than ten thousand to more than
 twenty thousand1 making an increase of 
more than one hundred per cent42 and the
 attendance upon these schools had      
advanced from thirty thousand to        
seventy-six thousand1 giving the very   
remarkable increase of one hundred and  
fifty per cent4 in five years1 when1 as 
already stated1 the proportion in       
attendance upon the common schools was  
more than one in four of the entire     
population4 ,and during the next two    
years the number of children in         
attendance upon the schools increased   

from seventy-six thousand to one hundred
 and eight thousand1 showing an advance 
of more than forty per cent4 from #ahde 
to #ahdg4  ,it is gratifying to know    
that this important interest1 which     
underlies all others1 is receiving      
increased attention in various portions 
of the ,united ,states4 ,among the most 
striking illustrations that ,i have     
noticed of these indications of national
 improvement1 ,i will instance two4#fb  
,the following interesting items of fact
 are gleaned from an address by the     
superintendent before the public schools
 of ,new ,orleans1 ,february #bb;d1     
#ahej--;a most befitting day for a      
school celebration4 ,these statistics   
strike us more forcibly when we consider
 that they relate to the metropolis of  
the ,south1 and to the capital of a     
state in which1 according to the last   
census1 only one person in one hundred  
received instruction in the primary and 
common schools of the state4 ,the public
 schools of the second municipality of  

,new ,orleans were established in #ahdb1
 comprising at that time less than three
 hundred pupils4 ,now the constant      
attendance is upward of three           
thousand--ten times what it was eight   
years ago4 ,but even this increase1     
large as it may seem1 is not sufficient 
to constitute the proportion in         
attendance upon the schools of the state
 even one in fifty of the entire        
population4     #fb ,my information is  
derived from the ,southern ,journal of  
,education   for ,may1 #ahej--;a monthly
 for the promotion of popular           
intelligence1   published from          
,knoxville1 ,tenn4--,samuel ,a4 ,jewett1
 ,editor and ,publisher4   ,this journal
 is ably conducted1 and has now reached 
its third volume4   ,this certainly is a
 very encouraging omen1 especially when 
we consider   that it has so long       
survived in a state where1 according to 
the last   census1 only one in          
thirty-three of the entire population   
attended   school4 ,may it long continue

 to do good service in this important   
cause4   ,kentucky furnishes the other  
indication of improvement which ,i      
propose to notice4 ,in this state1      
according to the last census1 only one  
in thirty-three of the entire population
 attended the common schools during any 
part of the year4 ,the number of        
children at the present time in that    
commonwealth1 as reported by the second 
auditor1 between the ages of five and   
sixteen1 leaving out the colored        
children1 is one hundred and            
ninety-three thousand4 ,the number      
provided with schools1 as reported in   
#ahdg1 was twenty-one thousand2 in      
#ahdh1 thirty-three thousand2 and in    
#ahdi1 eighty-seven thousand2 showing a 
clear advance in two years of sixty-six 
thousand4#fc ,but1 with all this        
improvement1 one hundred and five       
thousand children do not derive any     
personal benefit from the public school 
system4 ,in other words1 eighteen       
thousand more children in this state are

 still growing up without instruction   
than as yet attend the schools4 ,and the
 utter inadequacy of the common school  
privileges of even these will be        
apparent when it is understood that in  
the great majority of the districts more
 than nine tenths of the schools are    
taught but three months during the year4
     #fc ,this improvement well         
illustrates the advantages resulting to 
the   state from the able and faithful  
supervision of her public schools4 ,a   
correspondent of the ,baltimore         
,american speaks of the ,annual ,report 
of   ,,dr4 ,,robert ,,breckenridge1     
,superintendent of ,public ,instruction1
 to the   ,general ,assembly of         
,kentucky1 as follows3 ,it is the most  
important   document which has been     
submitted to that body during the       
present   session1 and reflects great   
credit upon the energy1 fidelity1 and   
comprehensive aims of the superintendent
 in the discharge of his high   duties4 
,it is now but two years since ,dr4     

,breckenridge was appointed to   the    
office1 and the great service he has    
rendered to the cause of   popular      
education in the state is strikingly    
exhibited in the contrast   between the 
present condition of the common schools1
 and that in which   he found them when 
he received his appointment from the    
,board of   ,education4   ,we have as   
yet only considered the great           
destitution of schools of any kind1 in  
which the moiety of the children that   
attend school at all receive            
instruction1 and the fact that very many
 of these are kept open but three months
 during the year4#fd ,the inadequacy of 
existing provisions for the proper      
education of the rising generation will 
be more strikingly apparent when we     
consider the incompetency of1 ,i may    
perhaps safely say1 the majority of     
persons who are put in charge of the    
public schools of the country4 ,it is   
readily conceded that1 in those states  
where education has received most       

attention1 there are many teachers who  
are thoroughly furnished unto all good  
works4 ,but it is far otherwise with the
 majority of teachers even in the more  
favored states4 ,the testimony of       
,governor ,campbell already quoted1 will
 apply to the teachers of many other    
states4 ,after speaking of the large    
number of children in ,virginia that are
 growing up in ignorance for want of    
schools within convenient distances1 he 
remarks1 that of those at school1 many  
derive little or no instruction1 owing  
to the incapacity of the teachers1 as   
well as to their culpable negligence and
 inattention4     #fd ,even in          
,massachusetts the average length of    
time the schools of the   state continue
 is less than eight months1 and the     
average continuance in   several of the 
counties is only five months4 ,the      
average attendance upon   the schools   
for the time they are kept open is      
sixty-two per cent4 of   the number     
between the ages of four and sixteen    

years2 but in some   instances only     
twenty-six per cent4 of the children in 
a town--about one   fourth of the number
 within the school ages--attend school4 
,president ,caldwell1 of the ,university
 of ,north ,carolina1 in a series of    
letters on popular education1 addressed 
to the people of that state a few years 
ago1 proposes a plan for the improvement
 of common education4 ,the first and    
greatest existing evil which he         
specifies is the want of qualified      
teachers4 ,any one who knows how to     
read1 and write1 and cipher1 it is said1
 is regarded as fit to be a             
schoolmaster4  ,is a man1 remarks       
,president ,caldwell1 constitutionally  
and habitually indolent1 a burden upon  
all from whom he can extract a support8 
,then there is one way of shaking him   
off2 let us make him a schoolmaster6 ,to
 teach a school is1 in the opinion of   
many1 little else than sitting still and
 doing nothing4 ,has any man wasted all 
his property1 or ended in debt by       

indiscretion and misconduct8 ,the       
business of school-keeping stands wide  
open for his reception2 and here he     
sinks to the bottom1 for want of        
capacity to support himself4 ,has any   
one ruined himself1 and done all he     
could to corrupt others by dissipation1 
drinking1 seduction1 and a course of    
irregularities8 ,nay1 has he returned   
from a prison1 after an ignominious     
atonement for some violation of the     
laws8 ,he is destitute of character1 and
 can not be trusted2 but presently he   
opens a school1 and the children are    
seen flocking to it2 for1 if he is      
willing to act in that capacity--we     
shall all admit that he can read1 write1
 and cipher to the square root--he will 
make an excellent schoolmaster4 ,in     
short1 it is no matter what the man is1 
or what his manners or principles2 if he
 has escaped with his life from the     
penal code1 we have the satisfaction to 
think that he can still have credit as a
 schoolmaster4  ,the ,georgia convention

 of teachers1 in a published address1   
after speaking of the importance of     
giving a more extended education to our 
youth as citizens1 and giving an outline
 of a liberal system of popular         
education1 go on to remark as follows3  
,alas6 how far should we be elevated    
above our present level if all of them  
were thus enlightened6 ,but how many    
sons and daughters of free-born         
,americans are unable to read their     
native language6 ,how many go to the    
polls who are unable to read the very   
charter of their liberties6 ,how many1  
by their votes1 elect men to legislate  
upon their dearest interests1 while they
 themselves are unable to read even the 
proceedings of those legislators whom   
they have empowered to act for them6    
,in accounting for this lamentable state
 of things1 the committee of the        
,convention say1 ,we seem to forget that
 first principles are1 in education1    
all-important principles2 that primary  
schools are the places where these      

principles are to be established1 and   
where such direction will1 in all       
probability1 be given to the minds of   
our children as will decide their future
 character in life4 ,hence the idle1 and
 the profane1 and the drunken1 and the  
ignorant are employed to impart to our  
children the first elements of          
knowledge--are set before them as       
examples of what literature and science 
can accomplish6 ,and hence the          
profession of schoolmaster1 which should
 be the most honorable1 is but too often
 a term of reproach4  ,that other most  
unwelcome and dread conclusion1 that    
existing provisions for popular         
education in the ,united ,slates are    
inadequate to the requirements of a free
 people1 is1 then1 in view of all these 
facts1 unavoidably forced upon us4  ,in 
the name of ,christian philanthropy1 in 
the name of patriotism1 then1 ,i inquire
 whether there is any ground for hope   
that our free institutions may be       
transmitted unimpaired to posterity4    

,with the heroes1 and sages1 and martyrs
 of the ,revolution1 to adopt the       
language of another1 ,i believe in the  
capability of man for self-government1  
my whole soul thereto most joyously     
assenting4 ,nay1 if there be any heresy 
among men1 or blasphemy against ,god1 at
 which the philosopher might be allowed 
to forget his equanimity1 and the       
,christian his charity1 it is the heresy
 and the blasphemy of believing and     
avowing that the infinitely good and    
all-wise ,author of the universe        
persists in creating and sustaining a   
race of beings who1 by a law of their   
nature1 are forever doomed to suffer all
 the atrocities and agonies of          
misgovernment1 either from the hands of 
others or from their own4 ,the doctrine 
of the inherent and necessary disability
 of mankind for self-government should  
be regarded not simply with denial1 but 
with abhorrence2 not with disproof only1
 but with execration4 ,to sweep so foul 
a creed from the precincts of truth1 and

 utterly to consume it1 rhetoric should 
become a whirlwind1 and logic fire4     
,indeed1 ,i have never known a man who  
desired the establishment of monarchical
 and aristocratical institutions among  
us1 who had not a mental reservation    
that1 in such case1 he and his family   
should belong to the privileged orders4 
,still1 if asked the broad question     
whether man is capable of               
self-government1 ,i must answer it      
conditionally4 ,if by man1 in the       
inquiry1 is meant the ,fejee ,islanders2
 or the convicts at ,botany ,bay2 or the
 people of ,mexico and of some of the   
,south ,american ,republics1 so called2 
or those as a class1 in our own country1
 who can neither read nor write2 or     
those who can read and write1 and who   
possess talents and an education by     
force of which they get treasury1 or    
post-office1 or bank appointments1 and  
then abscond with all the money they can
 steal1 ,i answer unhesitatingly that   
man1 or rather such men1 are not fit for

 self-government4  ,but if1 on the other
 hand1 the inquiry be whether mankind   
are not endowed with those germs of     
intelligence and those susceptibilities 
of goodness by which1 under a perfectly 
practicable system of cultivation and   
training1 they are able to avoid the    
evils of despotism and anarchy1 and also
 of those frequent changes in national  
policy which are but one remove from    
anarchy1 and to hold steadfastly on     
their way in an endless career of       
improvement1 then1 in the full rapture  
of that joy and triumph which springs   
from a belief in the goodness of ,god   
and the progressive happiness of man1 ,i
 answer1 ,,they ,,are ,,able4           
99       99       99       99       99  
,,practicability ,,of ,,national        
,,education4      ,the first duty of    
government1 and the surest evidence of  
good     government1 is the             
encouragement of education4 ,a general  
diffusion     of knowledge is the       
precursor and protector of republican   

institutions2 and in it we must confide1
 as the conservative power     that will
 watch our liberties1 and guard against 
fraud1 intrigue1     corruption1 and    
violence4--,,de ,,witt ,,clinton's      
,message to the ,new     ,york          
,legislature1 #ahbf4      ,if good is to
 be done1 we must bring our minds1 as   
soon as possible1     to the confession 
of the truth1 that the education of the 
people1 to     be effectual1 must here1 
as elsewhere1 to a great extent1 be the 
work of the state2 and that an expense1 
of which all should feel the            
necessity1 and all will share the       
benefit1 must1 in a just     proportion1
 be borne by all4--,,john ,,duer4  ,the 
desirableness of national or universal  
education is now generally admitted in  
all enlightened communities2 but there  
are some who1 honestly no doubt1        
question its practicability4 ,if they   
provide for the education of their own  
children1 they claim that they have done
 all that duty or interest requires them

 to do4 ,they even aver that there is   
absolute injustice in compelling them to
 contribute toward the education of the 
children of others4 ,now these very     
persons1 when called upon annually by   
the tax-gatherer to contribute their    
proportion for the support of           
paupers--made so by idleness1           
intemperance1 and other vices1 which1 as
 we have already seen1 result from      
ignorance--do so cheerfully and         
ungrudgingly1 and without complaining   
that they support themselves and their  
families1 and that neither duty nor     
interest requires them to aid in the    
maintenance of indigent persons in the  
community4  ,the ,poor ,laws of our     
country1 in the case of adults who are  
unable to support themselves1 require   
merely their maintenance4 ,but with     
reference to their children1 more1 from 
the very nature of the case1 is needed4 
,their situation imperatively demands   
not only a sustenance1 but an education 
that shall enable them in future years  

to provide for themselves4 ,the same    
humane reasons which lead civilized     
communities to provide for the          
maintenance of indigent adults by legal 
enactments1 bear even more strongly in  
the case of their children4 ,these      
require sustenance in common with their 
parents4 ,but their wants1 their        
necessities1 stop not here2 neither does
 the well-being of society with         
reference to them4 ,both alike require  
that such children1 in common with all  
others1 be so trained as to be enabled  
not only to provide for themselves when 
they arrive at mature years1 but as     
shall be necessary to qualify them for  
the discharge of the duties of          
citizenship4 ,then1 instead of taxing   
society for a support1 as their parents 
now do1 they will contribute to the     
elevation of all around1 even more      
largely than society has contributed to 
their elevation4  ,let the necessary    
provision be made for the education of  
the children of the poor1 in common with

 all others1 and successive generations 
of the sons of men will steadily        
progress in knowledge and virtue1 and in
 all that has a tendency to elevate and 
ennoble human kind4 ,but let their      
education be neglected1 and their rank  
in society will of necessity be lower1  
when compared with the better educated  
and more favored classes1 than it would 
have been only two or three centuries   
ago1 even since the invention of the art
 of printing in #addj4 ,the reasons are 
evident4 ,until after the invention of  
printing and the multiplication of      
books1 all ranks were1 in relation to   
education1 nearly upon a level4 ,but1 in
 the language of the adage1 ,knowledge  
is power2 and1 since knowledge has been 
increased1 those who possess it are     
elevated1 relatively and absolutely1    
while those who remain in the ignorance 
of former generations1 although their   
absolute condition in the scale of being
 is unchanged1 occupy1 nevertheless1    
relatively1 a lower place in society    

than they would have done had they lived
 in the midst of the ,dark ,ages4       
,wherever improved free schools have    
been maintained1 not only are the       
children of the poor in attendance upon 
them elevated in the scale of           
intellectual1 social1 and moral being1  
but1 through their irresistible         
influence1 their degraded and besotted  
parents have been reformed and become   
law-abiding subjects1 when all other    
means had failed to reach and influence 
them4 ,of the truth of this statement ,i
 am well persuaded from my own          
observation4 ,i have also in my         
possession an abundance of              
unquestionable testimony to this effect1
 gathered in cities1 towns1 and villages
 which have become celebrated for the   
maintenance of a high order of public   
schools4 ,the public1 then1 on many     
accounts1 are more interested in the    
right education of poor children than in
 the preservation of their lives6 ,the  
latter is carefully provided for4 ,but  

if this only is done2 if their bodies   
are fed and clothed1 without providing  
for the sustenance of their minds2 if we
 provide for their wants as helpless    
young animals merely1 but neglect to    
provide for their necessities as        
spiritual and immortal beings1 the      
probabilities are that such children    
will become a pest to society1 while1 in
 providing for their proper education1  
we are sure of making them good         
citizens1 of constituting them a        
blessing to the world that now is1 and  
of brightening their prospects for a    
blessed immortality in that which is to 
come4  ,bishop ,butler1 in a sermon     
preached in ,christ ,church1 ,london1 on
 charity schools1 ,may #ith1 #agde1     
recognizes the principle that the       
property of the state should educate the
 children of the state4 ,formerly1 says 
he1 not only the education of poor      
children1 but also their maintenance1   
with that of the other poor1 were left  
to voluntary charities4 ,but great      

changes of different sorts happening    
over the nation1 and charity becoming   
more cold1 or the poor more numerous1 it
 was found necessary to make some legal 
provision for them4 ,this might1 much   
more properly than charity schools1 be  
called a new scheme2#fe for1 without    
question1 the education of poor children
 was all along taken care of by         
voluntary charities1 more or less1 but  
obliging us by law to maintain the poor 
was new in the reign of ,queen          
,elizabeth4 ,yet1 because a change of   
circumstances made it necessary1 its    
novelty was no reason against it4 ,now1 
in that legal provision for the         
maintenance of the poor1 poor children  
must doubtless have had a part in common
 with grown people4 ,but this could     
never be sufficient for children1       
because their case always requires more 
than mere maintenance2 it requires that 
they be educated in some proper manner4 
,wherever there are poor who want to be 
maintained by charity1 there must be    

poor children1 who1 besides this1 want  
to be educated by charity2 and whenever 
there began to be need of legal         
provision for the maintenance of the    
poor1 there must immediately have been  
need also of some particular legal      
provision in behalf of poor children for
 their education1 this not being        
included in what we call their          
maintenance4     #fe ,bishop ,butler is 
here answering the objections of some   
people who   speak of charity schools as
 a new-invented scheme1 and therefore to
 be   looked upon with suspicion2       
whereas it is no otherwise new than as  
the   occasion for it is so4   ,not only
 is it the duty of society to provide   
food for the minds as well as sustenance
 for the bodies of poor children1 but   
their pecuniary interests equally       
require it2 for1 as ,butler remarks1 if 
they are not trained up in the way they 
should go1 they will certainly be       
trained up in the way they should not   
go1 and in all probability will         

persevere in it1 and become miserable   
themselves and mischievous to society1  
which1 in event1 is worse1 upon account 
of both1 than if they had been exposed  
to perish in their infancy4  ,i have    
already shown1 by unquestionable        
testimony1 that persons who possess the 
greatest share in the stock of worldly  
goods are deeply interested in the      
subject of popular education1 as one of 
mere insurance2 that the most effectual 
way of making insurance upon their      
property would be to contribute from it 
enough to sustain an efficient system of
 common school education1 thereby       
educating the whole mass of mind1 and   
constituting it a police more effective 
than peace officers or prisons4 ,i might
 elucidate this subject by              
illustrations4  ,it has been estimated  
that a quarter of a million of dollars  
has been expended in the county of      
,philadelphia since #ahcf for the       
suppression of riots occurring within   
its limits1 and in damages occasioned by

 their outrages and violence1 to say    
nothing of personal injuries and deaths 
arising from the same cause4 ,now it    
will be readily conceded by most persons
 that half of this sum judiciously      
expended in organizing and supporting a 
sufficient police1 and in giving the    
leaders and gangs engaged in those riots
 an early and suitable education1       
whereby they would have been taught to  
think1 and feel1 and act as rational1   
moral1 and accountable beings1 would    
have prevented the commission of such   
crimes1 together with the sufferings and
 losses resulting therefrom1 and the    
reproach thus brought upon public and   
individual character4  ,again3 ,the     
whole number of paupers relieved or     
supported by public charity in the      
single state of ,new ,york1 in the year 
#ahdi1 according to an authentic        
statement now before me1 was1 in round  
numbers1 one hundred thousand1 and the  
entire expense of their support during  
the year was eight hundred and seven    

thousand dollars1 a sum exceeding by    
three hundred and forty thousand dollars
 the amount paid on rate-bills for      
teacher's wages for educating the seven 
hundred thousand children of that great 
state6 ,of fifty thousand of these      
paupers1 the causes of whose destitution
 have been ascertained1 nearly twenty   
thousand are attributable1 directly or  
indirectly1 to intemperance1 profligacy1
 licentiousness1 and crime6 ,had even   
half the amount that is now expended    
from year to year in their support been 
judiciously bestowed upon their early   
mental and moral culture1 who can       
question that1 instead of now being a   
tax upon the communities in which they  
reside1 and a burden to themselves and a
 grief to their friends1 they would not 
only have provided for their own        
maintenance1 but would have contributed 
their due proportion to increase the    
general prosperity of the state4  ,great
 as is her poor-tax1 ,new ,york         
contributes annually an immensely       

greater sum for the support of her      
criminal police2 for the erection of    
court-houses1 and jails1 and            
penitentiaries1 and houses of           
correction2 for the arrest1 trial1      
conviction1 and punishment of criminals1
 and for their support in prison and at 
the various landing-places on their way 
to the gallows and to a premature and   
ignominious death4 ,now1 had one half of
 the money which this state has expended
 in these two ways been judiciously     
bestowed in the early education of these
 unfortunate persons1 who can question  
that the poor and criminal taxes of that
 state would have been reduced to less  
than one tenth of what they now are1 to 
say nothing of the fountains of tears   
that would be thus dried up1 and of the 
untold happiness that would be enjoyed  
by persons who1 in every generation1    
lead cheerless lives and die ignoble    
deaths4  ,lest some persons may labor   
under an erroneous impression in        
relation to this subject1 ,i will give  

the statistics of education and crime in
 ,new ,york1 as derived from official   
reports1 for the last few years4 ,of    
#aabb persons--the whole number reported
 by the sheriffs of the different       
counties of the state as under          
conviction and punishment for crime     
during the year #ahdg--bb only had a    
common education1 #aj only had a        
tolerably good education1 and only #f   
were well educated4 ,of the #acde       
criminals so returned in the several    
counties of the state for the year      
#ahdh1 #bc only had a common school     
education1 #ac only had a tolerably good
 education1 and only #aj were considered
 well educated6 ,the returns for other  
years give like results4 ,had the whole 
eleven or thirteen hundred of these     
convicts been well educated instead of  
only six or ten--and the moral and      
religious education of even these was   
defective--how many of them would       
society be called upon to support in    
prisons and penitentiaries8 ,in all     

probability1 as we shall hereafter1 ,i  
hope1 be able to show1 ,,not ,,one4 ,and
 what is true of the city and county of 
,philadelphia and of the ,state of ,new 
,york1 will apply to other cities1      
counties1 and states of this ,union4    
,once more1 and finally3 ,education1 as 
we have already seen1 enables men to    
subdue their passions1 and to improve   
themselves in the exercise of all the   
social virtues4 ,especially have we seen
 that the educated portions of          
community1 whose moral culture has been 
duly attended to1 are habitually        
temperate1 while the appetite of the    
uncultivated for intoxicating drinks is 
stronger1 and their power of resistance 
less4 ,cut off from the sources of      
enjoyment which are ever open to those  
whose minds and hearts are cultivated1  
no wonder they seek for happiness in the
 gratification of appetite6 ,no wonder  
that forty thousand of the citizens of  
the ,united ,states annually die        
drunkards1 when we consider that this is

 only one in twenty of the number who   
are unable to read and write6  ,the     
,hon4 ,edward ,everett has expressed the
 opinion that the expenses of the       
manufacture and traffic of intoxicating 
drinks in the ,united ,states exceed    
annually one hundred and fifty millions 
of dollars4 ,general ,cary1 in alluding 
to this statement1 says1 ,this1 it is   
believed1 is but an approximation to the
 cost of these trades to the people4    
,this estimate does not include the     
money paid by consumers1 which is worse 
than thrown away4 ,an ,english writer1  
well versed in statistics1 and having   
access to the most reliable sources of  
information1 says that 'the strong      
drinks consumed in ,england alone cost  
nearly four hundred millions of dollars 
annually4' ,the expenditure for these   
sources of all evil in the ,united      
,states must be equal1 at least1 to that
 of ,england4#ff ,now one half of this  
sum would maintain a system of common   
schools in every state of this ,union   

equal in expense and efficiency to that 
of ,massachusetts or ,new ,york4     #ff
 ,see ,tract on ,the ,liquor            
,manufacture and ,traffic1 prepared by  
request of the ,national ,division of   
the ,sons of ,temperance1 by ,s4 ,f4    
,cary1 ,most ,worthy ,patriarch4   ,but 
,i need not extend these observations4  
,enough1 ,i trust1 has been said to show
 that every thing connected with the    
good of man and the welfare of the race 
depends upon the attention we bestow in 
perfecting our systems of public        
instruction and rendering their         
blessings universal4 ,i will therefore  
close what ,i have to say upon this     
topic with a summary of the conclusions 
we have arrived at in the progress of   
the last two chapters4  ,we have seen   
that a good system of common school     
education--one that is sufficiently     
comprehensive to embrace all our        
country's youth in its benevolent       
design--would free us as a people from a
 host of evils growing out of popular   

ignorance2 that it would increase the   
productiveness of labor1 as the schools 
advance in excellence1 indefinitely2    
that it would save to society1 in       
diminishing the number of paupers and   
criminals1 a vast amount of means       
absorbed in the support of the former1  
and in bringing the latter to justice1 a
 tax which upon every present generation
 is more than sufficient for the        
education of the next succeeding one2   
that it would prevent the great majority
 of fatal accidents that are now        
depopulating communities wherever       
ignorance prevails2 that1 by imparting a
 knowledge of the organic laws1 the     
observance of which is essential to     
health and happiness1 it would save the 
lives of a hundred thousand children in 
the ,united ,states every year1 and that
 by promoting longevity1 in connection  
with the advantages already enumerated1 
it would tend more than all other means 
of state policy to increase at once the 
wealth and the population of our        

country2 that its legitimate tendency   
would be to diminish1 from generation to
 generation1 not only drunkenness and   
sensuality in all its ,protean forms1   
but idiocy and insanity1 which result   
from a violation of the laws of our     
being1 which are the laws of ,god2 that 
it would1 in innumerable ways1 tend to  
diminish the sufferings and mitigate the
 woes incident to human life1 while it  
would acquaint man with the will of the 
benevolent ,creator1 and lead him to    
cherish an habitual desire to yield     
obedience thereto2 and that it is the   
only possible means of perfecting and   
perpetuating the inestimable boon of    
civil and religious liberty to the      
latest generations1 and thus securing to
 the race the maximum of human          
happiness4 ,yes1 a system of popular    
education adequate to the requirements  
of the states of this ,union will do all
 this4 ,none1 then1 it would seem1 can  
fail to see that true state policy      
requires the maintenance of improved    

free schools1 good enough for the best1 
and cheap enough for the poorest1 which 
are a necessary means of universal      
education4     ,,chapter ,x4  ,,the     
,,means ,,of ,,universal ,,education4   
,i would recommend that each state      
should raise a school fund              
sufficient for the entire support of the
 schools2 that a suitable               
school-house and apparatus1 with a      
convenient dwelling-house for the       
teacher1 be furnished by the state for  
each district2 and that every           
school-house be supplied with a         
well-qualified teacher1 who shall       
receive from the state a suitable       
compensation4--,,john ,,duer4      ,let 
there be an educational department of   
the government1 and let     its details 
be managed by proper officers1          
accountable to the     representatives  
of the people4--,,dr4 ,,hawks4   ,we    
have already considered the nature of   
education1 which has reference to the   
whole man and to the whole duration of  

his being4 ,we have seen its importance 
to individuals and families1 to         
neighborhoods and communities1 to states
 and nations1 and that in proportion as 
it receives attention in any community1 
will that community become prosperous   
and happy4 ,we may then very properly   
inquire after the means to be put in    
requisition in order to render the      
blessings of education universal among  
us4 ,to the consideration of this       
subject we shall devote the remainder of
 this work4 ,my first remark is1 that   
,a correct public opinion should be     
formed4 ,in the language of ,bishop     
,potter1 ,our people have absolutely the
 control over the whole subject of      
education1 not only as it respects their
 own families1 but1 to a great extent1  
in schools and seminaries of learning4  
,if1 then1 the people were fully awake  
to its importance and true nature1 we   
should soon have a perfect system1 and  
we should witness results from it for   
which we now look in vain4  ,the        

formation of a correct public opinion is
 of the utmost importance1 for the      
primary cause of all the defects        
complained of in education1 and the     
source of all the evils that afflict the
 community in consequence of its        
neglect1 is popular indifference4 ,from 
this we have more to fear than from all 
other causes combined4 ,opposition      
elicits discussion2 and discussion1     
judiciously conducted1 evolves truth2   
and educational truths brought clearly  
before the mind of any community will   
ultimately induce right action4 ,men may
 at first be influenced by a            
comparatively low class of motives1 but 
one which they can appreciate4 ,as they 
witness the beneficial effects of       
reform1 their motives will gradually    
become more elevated1 and their efforts 
at improvement more constant2 but no    
important advance can be made without   
popular enlightenment4  ,when the       
majority of the individuals that compose
 any community come to value education  

as they ought2 when they duly estimate  
its importance in the various points of 
view already considered1 then will their
 public servants take more pains to     
co-operate with them in rendering its   
blessings universal4 ,good laws are     
important as a means of improving our   
systems of public instruction2 but good 
laws1 unsustained by a correct public   
opinion1 will be of no avail4 ,before   
any considerable advance can be made    
either in improving our schools or in   
causing the attendance upon them to     
become more general1 a good common      
education--one that shall give us sound 
minds in sound bodies2 one that bestows 
much attention upon intellectual        
culture1 but more upon the culture of   
the heart--must come to be ranked among 
the necessaries of life4  ,conventions  
of the friends of education have already
 done much to correct popular errors in 
relation to this subject1 and have      
contributed largely to the formation of 
sound and rational views in relation to 

its importance in the communities where 
they have been held4 ,in many instances1
 however1 they have been composed too   
exclusively of teachers4 ,these should1 
indeed1 be in attendance2 but to        
increase the usefulness of such         
conventions1 and heighten the effect    
they may be made to produce upon the    
popular mind1 there should also be in   
attendance members of the several       
learned professions1 statesmen1         
capitalists1 and all the leading minds  
of the communities in which they are    
held4 ,in some portions of the country  
this is now the case1 but such          
instances1 ,i regret to say1 are not yet
 very common among us4  ,fourth of ,july
 common school celebrations have1 within
 the past few years1 become quite common
 in several states of the ,union4 ,this 
seems peculiarly appropriate1 being a   
practical recognition of the importance 
of primary schools and universal        
education in a civil and political point
 of view4 ,one of the most befitting    

celebrations of this day which ,i have  
ever known was held in ,boston eight    
years ago1 when an oration was delivered
 before the authorities of that city by 
the ,secretary of the ,massachusetts    
,board of ,education4 ,the theme of the 
orator was the importance of national or
 universal education in a free          
government as the interest which        
underlies all others1 and as            
constituting the only means of          
perfecting and perpetuating to the      
latest generations the institutions we  
have received from our fathers1 and a   
demonstration that our existing means   
for the promotion of intelligence and   
virtue are wholly inadequate to the     
support of a republican government4     
,such celebrations should be held in    
every state of this ,union1 at every    
recurring anniversary of our national   
independence1 until there can not be    
found a single individual in all our    
borders who does not know both his      
duties and his privileges as a freeman1 

and who has not virtue enough faithfully
 to perform the one and temperately to  
enjoy the other4 ,this1 indeed1 seems to
 be in keeping with that most impressive
 passage of the celebrated ,ordinance of
 the ,american ,congress1 adopted ,july 
#acth1 #aghg1 which says1 ,,religion1   
,,morality1 ,,and ,,knowledge ,,being   
,,necessary ,,to ,,good ,,government    
,,and ,,the ,,happiness ,,of ,,mankind1 
,,schools ,,and ,,the ,,means ,,of      
,,education ,,shall ,,forever ,,be      
,,encouraged4  ,the twenty-second of    
,february has also been observed1 to    
some extent1 in several of the states1  
by holding such celebrations4 ,nothing  
can be more appropriate than these      
efforts to arouse the popular mind to   
renewed efforts to improve the common   
schools of the land1 when we consider   
the import of that portion of the       
,farewell ,address of him1 the          
anniversary of whose birth we celebrate1
 which relates to popular education4    
,promote1 as an object of primary       

importance1 institutions for the general
 diffusion of knowledge4 ,there can be  
no doubt that ,,washington here refers  
to the maintenance and improvement of   
common schools as the means of universal
 education4  ,the necessity of improving
 our common schools and of opening wide 
their doors to all our youth should not 
only be the theme at school             
celebrations1 at educational            
conventions1 and on the occasion of our 
national anniversaries1 but it should be
 frequently presented by the civilian   
and the divine1 as well as by the       
legislator and the journalist1 until men
 generally well understand the          
importance of education1 and are willing
 to make any sacrifices that may be     
necessary to secure its advantages to   
their own children not only1 but to all 
our youth4  ,,provisions ,,for ,,the    
,,support ,,of ,,schools4--,the         
provisions which have been made for the 
support of schools may be reduced to    
three kinds3 first1 by means of funds2  

second1 by taxation2 third1 by a        
combination of both of these methods4   
,connecticut1 which has a school fund of
 more than two millions of dollars1 long
 ago adopted the first plan named4 ,but 
the inefficiency of her system of public
 instruction1 until within a few years1 
is proverbial1 and affords conclusive   
evidence that a large school fund is of 
little or no avail in the absence of a  
correct public opinion and a due        
appreciation of the importance of       
education4 ,the improvements in the     
schools of that state during the last   
few years are not in consequence of any 
increase in her school fund1 but because
 the importance of the subject has been 
so frequently and impressively presented
 before the public mind1 by means of    
lectures1 public discussions1           
educational tracts1 school journals1 and
 in various other ways1 as to overcome  
that popular indifference which had     
well-nigh precluded all advance4 ,the   
late improvements in that state have    

taken place in spite of the school fund 
rather than because of any aid derived  
from it4 ,dr4 ,wayland has expressed the
 opinion that school funds are valuable 
as a condiment1 not as an aliment2 and  
that they should never be so large as to
 render any considerable degree of      
personal effort on the part of the      
parent unnecessary4 ,this is true only  
when a fund is so far relied upon as to 
slacken personal effort for the         
improvement of the schools1 and to      
induce parental and popular indifference
 in relation to them4  ,the second plan 
is by taxation1 and ,massachusetts      
furnishes an example of it4 ,in most of 
the counties of this state there are    
small local funds1 the avails of which  
are added to the amount raised by tax   
for the support of schools4 ,there are  
also still less amounts appropriated    
from the income of the surplus revenue  
for the purpose of increasing the       
educational advantages of the children2 
not to be subtracted from1 but to be    

added to1 what the towns would otherwise
 grant4 ,we may1 then1 consider the     
school fund of this state as embracing  
the entire taxable property of the      
state1 from which such a sum is annually
 raised by tax as is necessary for the  
support of the schools4 ,in ,vermont1   
,new ,hampshire1 and ,maine1 the schools
 are supported essentially as in        
,massachusetts1 the difference being    
chiefly in the mode of taxation4  ,dr4  
,wayland1 in a letter written some years
 ago1 makes the following remark in     
relation to the support of schools3 ,the
 best legislative provision with which  
,i am acquainted is that of ,maine4     
,they have no fund whatever1 but oblige 
every district to raise for education a 
sum proportioned to the number of its   
inhabitants or its property4 ,if a town 
or a district neglects to do this1 it is
 liable to a fine4  ,in those states    
whose systems of public instruction are 
best administered--which have the best  
schools1 and the greatest proportion of 

the population in attendance upon       
them--the schools are generally         
supported almost entirely by a direct   
tax1 the great principle that ,,the     
,,property ,,of ,,the ,,state ,,should  
,,educate ,,the ,,children ,,of ,,the   
,,state being practically recognized4   
,it not only appears1 then1 that large  
funds are not required for the          
successful administration of systems of 
public instruction1 but that actually   
the best schools1 and those which are   
doing most for the correct education of 
the rising generation1 may be found in  
those states that are destitute of      
funds1 and whose public schools are     
supported by a direct tax upon the      
property of the state4  ,the third plan 
of supporting schools is a combination  
of both of the others4 ,new ,york until 
within the last year1#fg ,rhode ,island1
 and ,michigan may be cited as examples 
of this plan4 ,where this plan has been 
adopted1 the districts or townships have
 generally been required to raise by tax

 an amount equal to or greater than what
 has been received from the school fund4
 ,where the expense of supporting the   
schools has exceeded the whole fund     
derived from both sources1 the balance  
of the expense has generally been made  
up by a rate-bill1 parents who are able 
being required to pay in proportion to  
the number of days their children have  
attended school4 ,this feature is       
objectionable even where provision is   
made for the children of poor parents to
 attend without charge1 for it offers a 
pecuniary inducement1 although the      
schools be nearly free1 to withdraw     
scholars from attendance upon them for  
the slightest causes4 ,this plan has    
obtained very generally in the states   
northwest of the ,ohio ,river1 which    
have received from the ,general         
,confederacy a grant of one section1 or 
six hundred and forty acres of land in  
each township for the support of        
schools4 ,in some of these states the   
additional tax is already sufficient1   

when joined with the avails of the      
school fund1 to render the schools      
entirely free4 ,if one plan is superior 
to both of the others1 this is1 perhaps1
 entitled to the pre-eminence4 ,the     
school fund lessens the amount which it 
is necessary to raise by a direct tax2  
and still the sum which is levied in    
this way has a tendency to beget and    
maintain a lively interest on the part  
of capitalists in the administration of 
the educational department1 and in the  
maintenance and improvement of the      
public schools4     #fg ,a year ago the 
schools of ,new ,york were made entirely
 free by law4   ,see the foot-note on   
the #bfgth page of this work4   ,without
 a correct public opinion and a due     
appreciation of the importance of       
education1 either of the three systems  
named1 or any other which may be adopted
 for the support of schools1 will1 and1 
from the very nature of the case1 must1 
be inadequate to meet the necessities of
 a free people4 ,but let the public be  

alive to the advantages of education1   
and rank it first among the necessaries 
of life1 and almost any system will be  
attended with eminent success4 ,if1     
then1 one system is superior to all     
others1 it is that which is best        
calculated to beget in the popular mind 
a realizing sense of the necessity of   
educating all our youth in good schools4
 ,if this can be done in a state which  
has a large school fund1 without        
diminishing the interest of the people  
in education1 or relaxing their efforts 
to maintain improved schools1 then may  
such a fund prove serviceable1 as it    
will lessen the general tax4 ,but if the
 citizens of any state can not be       
brought to realize the importance of    
maintaining an elevated standard of     
common school education1 and of         
rendering its blessings universal1      
without defraying the whole expense by a
 direct tax1 then will a school fund    
prove to them a curse1 and not a        
blessing4  ,where there is a will there 

is a way1 says the adage4 ,mr4 ,duer1 as
 quoted at the head of this chapter1    
says1 ,i would recommend that each state
 should raise a fund sufficient for the 
entire support of the schools2 that a   
suitable school-house and apparatus1    
with a convenient dwelling-house for the
 teacher1 be furnished by the state for 
each district2 and that every           
school-house be supplied with a         
well-qualified teacher1 who shall       
receive from the state a suitable       
compensation4 ,in this recommendation ,i
 fully concur4 ,but with me it is       
immaterial whether the state raises a   
separate fund1 set apart exclusively for
 the purposes of education1 or regards  
the entire taxable property of the      
commonwealth1 personal and real1 as a   
general fund from which there shall be  
drawn annually a sufficient per centage 
to provide for universal education in   
free schools4 ,this only do ,i insist   
upon1 that the people be brought so     
fully to realize the advantages of a    

good common education as to place it    
high on the list of indispensables2 then
 will they provide for rendering its    
blessings universal4 ,the mode of doing 
this in any one state may1 in view of   
the peculiar circumstances of a people1 
be different from that which it would be
 most advantageous ordinarily to adopt4 
,if there is no other sure way of       
meeting the expense of common schools1  
and of begetting and maintaining a deep 
and abiding interest in popular         
education1 then let the property of the 
state be regarded as a common fund from 
which there shall be annually drawn a   
sum sufficient for the maintenance of   
improved free schools1 in which every   
child may receive a generous education1 
as this is the interest first in        
importance to individuals and families1 
to neighborhoods and communities1 to    
states and nations4  ,the state should  
maintain an ,educational ,department4   
,the magnitude of the interests involved
 renders this of the utmost importance4 

,at the head of this department in every
 state there should be a minister of    
public instruction--whether he is called
 school superintendent1 school          
commissioner1 secretary of the board of 
education1 or superintendent of public  
instruction--and he should be allowed   
time to make himself familiar with all  
the leading writers on the subject of   
education1 in whatever age or language  
their works may have been written4 ,such
 an officer can not in any other way    
become qualified for the proper         
discharge of the duties which pertain to
 his profession4 ,he should also be     
allowed time to acquaint himself with   
the current literature belonging to his 
department as it emanates from the      
press2 to examine new school-books1 and 
new kinds of school apparatus which     
claim to possess advantages1 that he may
 be prepared to give to school teachers1
 school committee-men1 and others whose 
opportunities for examination and       
investigation are less extended1 and    

many of whom must be inexperienced1 such
 advice as shall enable them judiciously
 to expend their means for their        
personal improvement or the improvement 
of their schools4 ,he should likewise   
have time and opportunity to become so  
conversant with the practical operations
 of different school systems as to be   
qualified to give such suggestions in   
official reports as may be of service to
 the ,legislature in perfecting their   
own1 and to subordinate officers in its 
successful administration4 ,all this    
would be necessary were we only to      
consult the pecuniary interests of the  
state in the judicious expenditure of   
the means which are annually devoted to 
the support of common schools4 ,of how  
much greater importance is it that there
 should be such an officer in every     
state1 and that he should enjoy every   
possible means for increasing his       
usefulness1 when we consider that the   
successful bestowment of his labors will
 contribute greatly to increase         

individual and social happiness1 and the
 general prosperity of the state in all 
coming generations4  ,in the further    
consideration of the means of rendering 
the blessings of education universal1 we
 shall introduce leading topics in the  
order in which they naturally suggest   
themselves4                     99      
99       99       99       99   ,,good  
,,school ,,houses ,,should ,,be         
,,provided4      ,a school ought to be a
 noble asylum1 to which children will   
come1     and in which they will remain 
with pleasure2 to which their parents   
will send them with good                
will4--,,cousin4      ,if there is one  
house in the district more pleasantly   
located1 more     comfortably           
constructed1 better warmed1 more        
inviting in its general     appearance1 
and more elevating in its influence than
 any other1 that     house should be the
 school-house4--,michigan ,school       
,report1 #ahdg4  ,in considering the    
means of improving our schools1 the     

place where our country's youth receive 
their first instruction1 and where      
nineteen twentieths of them complete    
their scholastic training1 claims early 
attention4 ,it is1 then1 proper to      
consider the condition of this class of 
edifices1 as they have almost           
universally been in every part of the   
,united ,states until within a few years
 past1 and as they now generally are out
 of those states in which public        
attention has of late been more         
especially directed to improvements in  
education2 for1 before any people will  
attempt a reform in this particular1    
they must see and feel the need of it4  
,even in the more favored states1       
comparatively few in number1 the        
improvements in school architecture have
 been confined mostly to a few          
localities1 and are far from being      
adequate to the necessities of the case4
 ,did space allow1 ,i would present     
statements made by school officers in   
their reports from various states of the

 ,union3 for1 however wide the          
differences may be in common usage1 in  
other respects there has heretofore been
 a striking sameness in the appearance  
of school-houses in every part of the   
country4  ,,condition ,,of              
,,school-,,houses4--,in remarking upon  
the condition of this class of edifices1
 as they have heretofore been           
constructed1 and as they are now almost 
universally found wherever public       
sentiment has not been earnestly1       
perseveringly1 and judiciously called to
 their improvement1 ,i will present a   
few extracts from the official reports  
of ,massachusetts and ,new ,york1 where 
greater pains have been taken to        
ascertain existing defects in schools1  
with a view to providing the necessary  
remedies1 than in any other two states  
of this ,union4  ,school-houses in      
,massachusetts4--,the ,secretary of the 
,board of ,education of this state1 in  
his report for #ahdf1 remarks in        
reference to the condition of           

school-houses in the commonwealth as    
follows3 ,for years the condition of    
this class of edifices throughout the   
state1 taken as a whole1 had been       
growing worse and worse4 ,time and decay
 were always doing their work1 while    
only here and there1 with wide spaces   
between1 was any notice taken of their  
silent ravages2 and1 in still fewer     
instances1 were these ravages repaired4 
,hence1 notwithstanding the improved    
condition of all other classes of       
buildings1 general dilapidation was the 
fate of these4 ,industry1 and the       
increasing pecuniary ability which it   
creates1 had given comfort1 neatness1   
and even elegance to private dwellings4 
,public spirit had erected commodious   
and costly churches4 ,counties1 though  
largely taxed1 had yet uncomplainingly  
paid for handsome and spacious          
court-houses and public offices4        
,humanity had been at work1 and had made
 generous and noble provision for the   
pauper1 the blind1 the deaf and dumb1   

the insane4 ,even jails and houses of   
correction--the receptacles of felons   
and other offenders against the laws of 
,god and man--had in many instances been
 transformed1 by the more enlightened   
spirit of the age1 into comfortable and 
healthful residences4 ,the ,genius of   
,architecture1 as if she had made       
provision for all mankind1 extended her 
sheltering care over the brute creation4
 ,better stables were provided for      
cattle2 better folds for sheep2 and even
 the unclean beasts felt the improving  
hand of reform4 ,but1 in the mean while1
 the school-houses1 to which the        
children should have been wooed by every
 attraction1 were suffered to go where  
age and the elements would carry them4  
,in #ahcg1 not one third of the public  
school-houses in ,massachusetts would   
have been considered tenantable by any  
decent family out of the poor-house or  
in it4 ,as an inducement to neatness and
 decency1 children were sent to a house 
whose walls and floors were indeed      

painted1 but they were painted all too  
thickly by smoke and filth2 whose       
benches and doors were covered with     
carved work1 but they were the gross and
 obscene carvings of impure hands2 whose
 vestibule1 after the ,oriental fashion1
 was converted into a veranda1 but the  
metamorphosis which changed its         
architectural style consisted in laying 
it bare of its outer covering4 ,the     
modesty and chastity of the sexes1 at   
their tenderest age1 were to be         
cultivated and cherished in places which
 oftentimes were as destitute of all    
suitable accommodation as a camp or a   
caravan4 ,the brain was to be worked    
amid gases that stupefied it4 ,the      
virtues of generosity and forbearance   
were to be acquired where sharp         
discomfort and pain tempt each one to   
seize more than his own share of relief1
 and thus to strengthen every selfish   
propensity4  ,at the time referred to1  
the school-houses in ,massachusetts were
 an opprobrium to the state2 and if     

there be any one who thinks this        
expression too strong1 he may satisfy   
himself of its correctness by inspecting
 some of the few specimens of them which
 still remain4  ,the earliest effort at 
reform was directed to this class of    
buildings4 ,by presenting the idea of   
taxation1 this measure encountered the  
opposition of one of the strongest      
passions of the age4 ,not only the      
sordid and avaricious1 but even those   
whose virtue of frugality1 by the force 
of habit1 had been imperceptibly sliding
 into the vice of parsimony1 felt the   
alarm4 ,men of fortune without children1
 and men who had reared a family of     
children and borne the expenses of their
 education1 fancied they saw something  
of injustice in being called to pay for 
the education of others1 and too often  
their fancies started into specters of  
all imaginable oppression and wrong4    
,during the five years immediately      
succeeding the report made by the ,board
 of ,education to the ,legislature on   

the subject of school-houses1 the sums  
expended for the erection and repair of 
this class of buildings fell but little 
short of seven hundred thousand dollars4
 ,since that time1 from the best        
information obtained1 ,i suppose the sum
 expended on this one item to be about  
one hundred and fifty thousand dollars  
annually4 ,every year adds some new     
improvement to the construction and     
arrangement of these edifices4  ,in     
regard to this great change in          
school-houses--it would hardly be too   
much to call it a revolution--the school
 committees have done an excellent work1
 or1 rather1 they have begun it2 it is  
not yet done4 ,their annual reports1    
read in open town meeting1 or printed   
and circulated among the inhabitants1   
afterward embodied in the ,abstracts and
 distributed to the members of the      
government1 to all town and school      
committees1 have enlightened and        
convinced the state4  ,school-houses in 
,new ,york4--,about ten years ago1      

special visitors were appointed by the  
superintendent of common schools in each
 of the counties of this state1 who were
 requested to visit and inspect the     
schools1 and to report minutely in      
regard to their state and prospects4    
,the most respectable citizens1 without 
distinction of party1 were selected to  
discharge this duty2 and the result of  
their labors is contained in two        
reports1 made1 the one in ,april1 #ahdj1
 the other in ,february1 #ahda4 ,it may 
be remarked1 generally1 say the visitors
 of one of the oldest and most affluent 
towns of the southeastern section of the
 state1 that the school-houses are built
 in the old style1 are too small to be  
convenient1 and1 with one exception1 too
 near the public roads1 having generally
 no other play-ground4--,report1 #ahdj1 
p4 #dg4  ,say the visitors of another   
large and wealthy town in the central   
part of the state1 ,out of twenty       
schools visited1 ten of the             
school-houses were in bad repair1 and   

many of them not worth repairing4 ,in   
none were any means provided for the    
ventilation of the room4 ,in many of the
 districts1 the school-rooms are too    
small for the number of scholars4 ,the  
location of the school-houses is        
generally pleasant4 ,there are1 however1
 but few instances where play-grounds   
are attached1 and their condition as to 
privies is very bad4 ,the arrangement of
 seats and desks is generally very bad1 
and inconvenient to both scholars and   
teachers2 most of them are without      
backs4--,report1 #ahdj1 p4 #bh4  ,in    
another large and populous town in the  
northwestern part of the state1 it      
appears from the report of the visitors 
that only five out of twenty-two        
school-houses are respectable or        
comfortable2 none have any proper means 
of ventilation2 eight of them are built 
of logs1 and but one of them has a      
privy4  ,according to the report from   
another county1 where the evils already 
enumerated exist1 ,there is1 in general1

 too little attention to having good and
 dry wood provided1 or a good supply of 
any2 or to have a wood-house or shelter 
to keep it from the storm4 ,this neglect
 is very common4 ,another neglect1      
noticed by many of the visitors1 is the 
cold and comfortless state in which the 
children find the school-room1 owing to 
the late hour at which the fire is first
 made in the morning4  ,three years     
later--and after the appointment of     
county superintendents in each of the   
counties of that state1 who collected   
statistics with great care--the ,hon4   
,samuel ,young1 then state              
superintendent1 after making a minute   
statement of the number of school-houses
 constructed of stone1 brick1 wood1 and 
logs2 of their condition as to repair2  
of the destitution of privies1 suitable 
play-grounds1 etc41 remarked as follows3
  ,but #edd out of #icfh houses visited 
contained more than one room2 #gcac were
 destitute of any suitable play-ground2 
nearly #fjjj were unfurnished with      

convenient seats and desks2 nearly #hjjj
 destitute of the proper facilities for 
ventilation2 and upward of #fjjj without
 a privy of any sort2 while1 of the     
remainder1 but about #ajjj were provided
 with privies containing different      
apartments for male and female pupils6  
,and it is in these miserable abodes of 
accumulated dirt and filth1 deprived of 
wholesome air1 or exposed1 without      
adequate protection1 to the assaults of 
the elements2 with no facilities for    
necessary exercise or relaxation2 no    
convenience for prosecuting their       
studies2 crowded together on benches not
 admitting of a moment's rest in any    
position1 and debarred the possibility  
of yielding to the ordinary calls of    
nature without violent inroads upon     
modesty and shame1 that upward of two   
hundred thousand children1 scattered    
over various parts of the state1 are    
compelled to spend an average period of 
eight months during each year of their  
pupilage6 ,here the first lessons of    

human life1 the incipient principles of 
morality1 and the rules of social       
intercourse are to be impressed upon the
 plastic mind4 ,the boy is here to      
receive the model of his permanent      
character1 and to imbibe the elements of
 his future career2 and here the        
instinctive delicacy of the young       
female1 one of the characteristic       
ornaments of the sex1 is to be expanded 
into maturity by precept and example6   
,is it strange1 under such              
circumstances1 that an early and        
invincible repugnance to the acquisition
 of knowledge is imbibed by the youthful
 mind8 that the school-house is regarded
 with unconcealed aversion and disgust1 
and that parents who have any desire to 
preserve the health and the morals of   
their children exclude them from the    
district school1 and provide instruction
 for them elsewhere8  ,a volume might be
 filled with similar testimony2 but one 
more quotation from another state must  
suffice4 ,after noticing the common     

evils already referred to1 the          
superintendent remarks as follows3#fh   
,but this notice of ordinary            
deficiencies does not cover the whole   
ground of error in regard to the        
situation of school-houses4 ,in some    
cases they are brought into close       
connection with positive nuisances4 ,in 
a case which has fallen under the       
superintendent's own personal           
observation1 one side of the            
school-house forms part of the fence of 
a hog-yard1 into which1 during the      
summer1 the calves of an extensive dairy
 establishment have been thrown from    
time to time 7disgusting and revolting  
spectacle671 to be rent and devoured    
before the eyes of teacher and pupils1  
except such portions of the mutilated   
and mangled carcasses as were left by   
the animals to go to decay1 as they lay 
exposed to the sun and storm4 ,it is    
true1 the windows on the side of the    
building adjoining the yard were        
generally observed to be closed1 in     

order to shut out the almost            
insupportable stench which arose from   
the decomposing remains4 ,but this      
closure of the windows could1 in no     
great degree1 'abate the nuisance2' for 
not a breath of air could enter the     
house from any direction but it must    
come saturated with the disgusting and  
sickening odor that loaded the          
atmosphere around4 ,it needs no         
professional learning to tell the       
deleterious influence upon health which 
must be exerted by such an agency1      
operating for continuous hours4     #fh 
,first ,annual ,report of the ,state    
,superintendent 7,hon4 ,horace ,eaton7  
of ,common ,schools1 made to the        
,legislature of ,vermont1 ,october1     
#ahdf4   ,if such evils as have been    
considered have existed so generally1   
and still prevail to an alarming extent1
 even in the states where education has 
received the most attention1 what need  
must there be for the dissemination of  
information on this vitally important   

subject1 especially in those states     
where education has heretofore received 
less attention6 ,in remarking further   
upon this subject1 ,i shall consider    
several leading particulars in the order
 they naturally suggest themselves4 ,i  
will1 then1 commence with the           
,,location ,,of ,,school-,,houses4--,in 
comparatively few instances             
school-houses are favorably located1    
being situated on dry1 hard ground1 in a
 retired though central part of the     
district1 in the midst of a natural or  
artificial grove4 ,but they are almost  
universally badly located2 exposed to   
the noise1 dust1 and danger of the      
highway2 unattractive1 if not absolutely
 repulsive in their external appearance1
 and built at the least possible expense
 of material and labor4 ,they are       
generally on one corner of public roads1
 and sometimes adjacent to a cooper's   
shop1 or between a blacksmith's shop and
 a saw-mill4 ,they are not unfrequently 
placed on an acute angle1 where a road  

forks1 and sometimes in turning that    
angle1 the travel is chiefly behind the 
school-house1 leaving it on a small     
triangle bounded on all sides by public 
roads4  ,occasionally the school-house  
is situated on a low and worthless piece
 of ground1 with a sluggish stream of   
water in its vicinity1 which sometimes  
even passes under the house4 ,the       
comfort1 and health even1 of children   
are thus sacrificed to the parsimony of 
their parents4 ,scholars very generally 
step from the school-house directly into
 the highway4 ,indeed1 school-houses are
 frequently situated one half in the    
highway and the other half in the       
adjacent field1 as though they were     
unfit for either4 ,this is the case even
 in some of the principal villages of   
all the states ,i have ever visited1 or 
from which ,i have read full reports on 
the subject4  ,strange as it may seem1  
school-houses are sometimes situated in 
the middle of the highway1 a portion of 
the travel being on each side of them4  

,when the scholars are engaged in their 
recreations1 they are exposed to bleak  
winds and the inclemency of the weather 
one portion of the year1 and to the     
scorching rays of the meridian sun      
another portion4 ,moreover1 their       
recreations must be conducted in the    
street1 or they trespass upon their     
neighbors' premises4 ,we pursue a very  
different policy in locating a church1 a
 court-house1 or a dwelling2 and should 
we not pursue an equally wise and       
liberal policy in locating the district 
school-house8  ,in the states generally 
northwest of the ,river ,ohio1 six      
hundred and forty acres of land in every
 township are appropriated to the       
support of common schools4 ,suppose     
there are ten school districts in a     
township1 this would allow sixty-four   
acres to every district4 ,it would seem 
that when the general government has    
appropriated sixty-four acres to create 
a fund for the encouragement of the     
schools of a township1 that each        

district might set apart one acre as a  
site for a school-house4 ,once more3    
school districts usually contain not    
less than twenty-five hundred acres of  
land4 ,is it1 then1 asking too much to  
set apart one acre as a site for a      
school-house1 in which the minds of the 
children of the district shall be       
cultivated1 when twenty-four hundred and
 ninety-nine acres are appropriated to  
feeding and clothing their bodies8  ,i  
would respectfully suggest1 and even    
urge the propriety of locating the      
school-house on a piece of firm ground  
of liberal dimensions1 and of inclosing 
the same with a suitable fence4 ,the    
location should be dry1 quiet1 and      
pleasant1 and in every respect healthy4 
,the vicinity of places of idle and     
dissipated resort should by all means be
 avoided2 and1 if possible1 the site of 
the school-house should overlook a      
delightful country1 and be surrounded by
 picturesque scenery4 ,the school yard1 
at least1 should be inclosed not only1  

but set out with shade trees1 unless    
provided with those of ,nature's own    
planting4 ,it should also be ornamented 
with beautiful shrubbery1 and be made   
the park of the neighborhood--the       
pleasantest place for resort within the 
boundaries of the district4 ,this would 
contribute largely to the formation of a
 correct taste on the part of both      
children and parents4 ,it would also    
tend to the formation of virtuous habits
 and the cultivation of self-respect2   
for the scholars would then enjoy their 
pastime in a pleasant and healthful     
yard1 where they have a right to be1 and
 need no longer be hunted as trespassers
 upon their neighbors' premises1 as they
 now too frequently are4  ,,size ,,and  
,,construction4--,in treating upon the  
philosophy of respiration at the #ib;d  
page of this work1 it was stated that1  
exclusive of entry and closets1 where   
they are furnished with these           
appendages1 school-houses are not       
usually larger than twenty by           

twenty-four feet on the ground1 and     
seven feet in height4 ,the average      
attendance in houses of these dimensions
 was estimated at forty-five scholars in
 the winter4 ,it was also stated that   
the medium quantity of air that enters  
the lungs at each inspiration is        
thirty-six cubic inches1 and that       
respiration is repeated once in three   
seconds1 or twenty times a minute4 ,now1
 to say nothing of the inconvenience    
which so many persons must experience in
 occupying a house of so narrow         
dimensions1 and making no allowance for 
the space taken up by desks1 furniture1 
and the scholars themselves1 a simple   
arithmetical computation will show any  
one that such a room will not contain a 
sufficient amount of air for the support
 of life three hours4 ,but ,i will here 
simply refer the reader to the fourth   
chapter of this work1 and will not      
repeat what was there said4  ,in        
determining the size of school-houses1  
due regard should be had to several     

particulars4 ,there should be a separate
 entry or lobby for each sex1 which ,mr4
 ,barnard1 in his ,school               
,architecture1#fi very justly says      
should be furnished with a scraper1 mat1
 hooks or shelves--both are             
needed--sink1 basin1 and towels4 ,a     
separate entry thus furnished will      
prevent much confusion1 rudeness1 and   
impropriety1 and promote the health1    
refinement1 and orderly habits of the   
children4     #fi ,school ,architecture1
 or ,contributions to the ,improvement  
of   ,school-houses in the ,united      
,states1 by ,henry ,barnard1            
,commissioner of   ,public ,schools in  
,rhode ,island1 p4 #chc4 ,this excellent
 treatise embodies   a mass of most     
valuable information in relation to     
school-houses and   apparatus4 ,it      
contains the plans of a great number of 
the best   school-houses in various     
portions of the ,united ,states1 and    
should be   consulted by every committee
 before determining upon a plan for the 

construction of a valuable school-house4
   ,the principal room of the           
school-house1 and each such room where  
there are several departments1 should be
 large enough to allow each occupant a  
suitable quantity of pure air1 which    
should be at least twice the common     
amount1 or not less than one hundred and
 fifty cubic feet4 ,there should also be
 one or more rooms for recitation1      
apparatus1 library1 etc41 according to  
the size of the school and the number of
 scholars to be accommodated4  ,every   
school-room should be so constructed    
that each scholar may pass to and from  
his seat without disturbing or in the   
least incommoding any other one4 ,a     
house thus arranged will enable the     
teacher to pass at all times to any part
 of the room1 and to approach each      
scholar in his seat whenever it may be  
desirable to do so for purposes of      
instruction or otherwise4 ,such an      
arrangement is of the utmost importance2
 and without the fulfillment of this    

condition1 no teacher can most          
advantageously superintend the affairs  
of a whole school1 and especially of a  
large one4  ,in determining the details 
of construction and arrangement for a   
school-house1 due regard must be had to 
the varying circumstances of country and
 city1 as well as to the number of      
scholars that may be expected in        
attendance1 the number of teachers to be
 employed1 and the different grades of  
schools that may be established in a    
community4  ,,country ,,districts4--,in 
country districts1 as they have long    
been situated1 and still generally are1 
aside from separate entries and         
clothes-rooms for the sexes1 there will 
only be needed one principal            
school-room1 with a smaller room for    
recitations1 apparatus1 and other       
purposes4 ,in arranging and fitting up  
this room1 reference must be had to the 
requirements of the district2 for this  
one room is to be occupied by children  
of all ages1 for summer and winter      

schools1 and for the secular1 but more  
especially for the religious meetings of
 the neighborhood4 ,but in its          
construction primary reference should be
 had to the convenience of the scholars 
in school1 for it will be used by them  
more1 ten to one1 than for all other    
purposes4 ,every child1 then1 even the  
youngest in school1 should be furnished 
with a seat and desk1 at which he may   
sit with ease and comfort4 ,the seats   
should each be furnished with a back1   
and their height should be such as to   
allow the children to rest their feet   
comfortably upon the floor4 ,the        
necessity of this will be apparent by   
referring to what has been said on the  
laws of health in the third chapter of  
this work1 at the #fhth and following   
pages4  ,no one1 then1 can fail to see  
the advantages that would result to a   
densely-settled community from a union  
of two or more districts for the purpose
 of maintaining in each a school for the
 younger children1 and of establishing  

in the central part of the associated   
districts a school of a higher grade for
 the older and more advanced children of
 all the districts thus united4 ,if four
 districts should be united in this way1
 they might erect a central house1 ,c1  
for the larger and more advanced        
scholars1 and four smaller ones1 ,p ,p  
,p ,p1 for the younger children4 ,the   
central school might be taught by a male
 teacher1 with female assistants1 if    
needed2 but the primary schools1 with   
this arrangement1 could be more         
economically and successfully instructed
 by females4 ,in several of the states  
legal provisions are already made for   
such a consolidation of districts4 ,this
 would invite a more perfect            
classification of scholars1 and would   
allow the central school-house to be so 
constructed1 and to have the seats and  
desks of such a height as to be         
convenient for the larger grade of      
scholars1 and still be comfortable for  
other purposes for which it might       

occasionally be necessary to occupy it4 
,such an arrangement1 while it would    
obviate the almost insuperable          
difficulties which stand in the way of  
proper classification and the thorough  
government and instruction of schools1  
would at the same time offer greater    
inducements to the erection of more     
comfortable and attractive              
school-houses4   ---------------        
,p     ,p    ------,c------             
,p     ,p    ---------------   ,,cities 
,,and ,,villages4--,the plan suggested  
in the last paragraph may be perfected  
in cities and villages4 ,for this       
purpose1 where neither the distance nor 
the number of scholars is too great1    
some prefer to have all the schools of a
 district or corporation conducted under
 the same roof4 ,however this may be1 as
 there will be other places for public  
meetings of various kinds1 each room    
should be appropriated to a particular  
department1 and be fitted up exclusively
 for the accommodation of the grade of  

scholars that are to occupy it4 ,in     
cities1 and even in villages with a     
population of three or four thousand1 it
 is desirable to establish at least     
three grades of schools1 viz41 first1   
the primary1 for the smallest children2 
second1 the intermediate1 for those more
 advanced2 and1 third1 a central high   
school1 for scholars that have passed   
through the primary and intermediate    
schools4 ,while this arrangement is     
favorable to the better classification  
of the scholars of a village or city1   
and holds out an inducement to those of 
the lowest and middle grade of schools  
to perfect themselves in the various    
branches of study that are pursued in   
them respectively as the condition upon 
which they are permitted to enter a     
higher grade1 it also allows a more     
perfect adjustment of the seats and     
desks to the various requirements of the
 children in their passage through the  
grade of schools4  ,,new ,,york ,,free  
,,academy4--,in the public schools of   

the city of ,new ,york1 two hundred in  
number1 six hundred teachers are        
employed1 and one hundred thousand      
children annually receive instruction4  
,the ,free ,academy1 which is a public  
school of the highest grade1 and which  
is represented in our frontispiece1 was 
established by the ,board of ,education 
in #ahdg4 ,the expense of the building1 
without the furniture1 was #df1jjj1 and 
the annual expense for the salaries of  
professors and teachers is about        
#aj1jjj4 ,out of twenty-four thousand   
votes cast1 twenty thousand were for the
 establishment of this institution1 in  
which essentially a complete collegiate 
education may be obtained4 ,no students 
are admitted to it who have not attended
 the public schools of the city for at  
least one full year1 nor these until    
they have undergone a thorough          
examination and proved themselves       
worthy4 ,its influence is not confined  
to the one hundred or one hundred and   
fifty scholars who may graduate from it 

annually1 but leaches and stimulates the
 six hundred teachers1 and the hundred  
thousand children whom they instruct1   
and thus elevates the common schools of 
the city in reality not only1 but places
 them much more favorably before the    
public than they otherwise could be4    
,smaller cities1 and especially villages
 with a population of but a few         
thousand1 can not1 of course1 maintain  
so extended a system of public schools2 
but they can accomplish essentially the 
same thing more perfectly1 though on a  
smaller scale4 ,for the benefit of      
districts in the country and in         
villages1 ,i will here insert a few     
plans of school-houses4   ,illustration3
 ,plan of a ,school-house for fifty-six 
,scholars4  ,size1 #cj by #dj feet4     
,scale1 #aj feet to the inch4      ,d   
,d1 doors4 ,e ,e1 entries lighted over  
outer doors1 one for the boys     and   
the other for the girls4 ,t1 teacher's  
platform and desk4 ,r ,l1     room for  
recitation1 library1 and apparatus1     

which may be entered by     a single    
door1 as represented in the plan1 or by 
two1 as in the     following plan4 ,s   
,s1 stoves with air-tubes beneath4 ,k   
,k1 aisles four     feet wide--the      
remaining aisles are each two feet wide4
 c v1     chimneys and ventilators4 ,i  
,i1 recitation seats4 ,b ,b1            
black-board1     made by giving the wall
 a colored hard finish4 ,g ,h1 seats and
 desks1     four feet in length1        
constructed as represented on the next  
page4     ,the seat and desk may be made
 together1 and instead of being         
fastened permanently to the floor1      
attached in front by a strap     hinge1 
which will admit of their being turned  
forward while sweeping     under and    
behind them4   ,illustration3 ,primary  
and ,intermediate ,department1 on first 
floor4  ,size1 #cf by #fd feet4  ,scale1
 #ab feet to the inch4      ,a1 entrance
 for boys to the ,high ,school4 ,c1     
entrance for girls to     the ,high     
,school4 ,p1 entrance for boys to the   

,primary and     ,intermediate          
,departments4 ,q1 entrance for girls to 
the same4 ,d ,d1     doors4 ,w ,w1      
windows4 ,t1 teacher's platform and     
desk4 ,g ,h1 desk and     seat for two  
scholars1 a section of which is         
represented at ,x1 in     the ,primary  
,department4 ,i ,i1 recitation seats4 ,b
 ,b1 black-boards4 ,s     ,s1 stoves1   
with air-tubes beneath4 c v1 chimney and
 ventilator4 ,r1     room for recitation
 library1 apparatus1 and other purposes4
   ,illustration3 ,high ,school1 or     
,third ,department1 on second floor4    
,a1 entrance for the boys1 through the  
entry below4 ,c1 entrance for     the   
girls4 ,g ,h1 desk and seat3 aisles from
 two to three feet wide4 ,d     ,d1     
doors4 ,w ,w1 windows4 ,s ,s1 stoves4 c 
v1 chimney and ventilator4     ,t1      
teacher's platform4 ,r1 recitation-room4
 ,i ,i1 recitation seats in             
principal room4 ,b ,b1 black-board3 as a
 substitute for the common     painted  
board1 a portion of the wall1 covered   

with hard finish1 may     be painted    
black2 or1 what is better1 the hard     
finish itself may be     colored before 
it is put on1 by mixing with it         
lamp-black1 wet up     with alcohol or  
sour beer4   ,,ventilation ,,of         
,,school-,,houses4--,we have already    
seen that in a school-room occupied by  
forty-five persons1 thirty-two thousand 
four hundred cubic inches of air impart 
their entire vitality to support animal 
life the first minute1 and1 mingling    
with the atmosphere of the room1        
proportionably deteriorate the whole    
mass2 that the air of crowded           
school-rooms thus soon becomes entirely 
unfit for respiration1 and that1 as the 
necessary result1 the health of both    
teacher and scholars is endangered2 that
 the scholars gradually lose both the   
desire and the ability to study1 and    
become more inclined to be disorderly1  
while the teacher becomes continually   
more unfit either to teach or govern4   
,hence the necessity of frequent and    

thorough ventilation4  ,the ordinary    
facilities for ventilating school-rooms 
consist in opening a door and raising   
the lower sash of the windows4 ,the only
 ventilation which has been practiced in
 the great majority of schools has been 
entirely accidental1 and has consisted  
in opening and closing the outer door as
 the scholars enter and pass out of the 
school-house1 before school1 during the 
recesses1 and at noon4 ,ventilation1 as 
such1 ,i may safely say1 has not1 until 
within a few years1 been practiced in   
one school in fifty2 nor is it at the   
present time in many parts of the       
country4 ,it is true1 the door has at   
times been set open a few minutes1 and  
the windows have been occasionally      
raised1 but the object has been either  
to let the smoke pass out of the room1  
or to cool it when it has become too    
warm1 not to ventilate it4  ,ventilation
 by opening a door or raising the       
windows is imperfect1 and frequently    
injurious4 ,a more effectual and safer  

method of ventilation consists in       
lowering the upper sash of the window4  
,in very cold or stormy weather1 a      
ventilator in the ceiling may be opened1
 so as to allow the vitiated air to     
escape into the attic1 in which case    
there should be a free communication    
between the attic and the outer air by  
means of a lattice in the gable1 or     
otherwise4 ,a ventilator may also be    
constructed in connection with the      
chimney1 by carrying up a partition in  
the middle1 one half of the chimney     
being used for a smoke flue1 and the    
other half for a ventilator4  ,but it is
 often asked1 ,why is it not just as    
well to raise the lower sash of the     
windows as to lower the upper one8 ,in  
reply ,i would say1 first1 lowering the 
upper sash is a more effectual method of
 ventilation4 ,in a room which is warmed
 and occupied in cold weather1 the      
warmer and more vitiated portions of the
 air rise to the upper part of the room1
 while that which is colder and purer   

descends4 ,the reason for this may not  
be readily conceived1 especially when we
 consider that carbonic acid1 the       
vitiating product of respiration1 is    
specifically heavier than common air4   
,three considerations1 however1 will    
make it apparent4 #a4 ,gases of         
different specific gravity mix          
uniformly1 under favorable              
circumstances4 #b4 ,the carbonic acid   
which is exhaled from the lungs at about
 blood heat is hence rarefied1 and      
specifically lighter than the air in the
 room1 which inclines it to ascend4 #c4 
,the ingress of cold and heavier air    
from without is chiefly through         
apertures near the base of the room4    
,raising the lower sash of the windows  
allows a portion of the purer air of the
 room to pass off1 while the more       
vitiated air above is retained4         
,lowering the upper sash allows the     
impure air above to escape1 while the   
purer air below remains unchanged4      
,lowering the upper sash is also the    

safer method of ventilation4 ,it not    
only allows the impure air more readily 
to escape1 but provides also for the    
more uniform diffusion of the pure air  
from without1 which takes its place     
through the upper part of the room4 ,the
 renovated air will gradually settle    
upon the heads of the scholars1 giving  
them a purer air to breathe1 while the  
comfort of the body and lower           
extremities will remain undisturbed4    
,this is as it should be2 for warm feet 
and cool heads contribute alike to      
physical comfort and clearness of mind4 
,raising the lower sash of the windows  
endangers the health of scholars1       
exposing those who sit near them to     
colds1 catarrhs1 etc4 ,indeed1 when it  
is very cold or stormy1 it is unsafe to 
ventilate by lowering the upper sash of 
the windows4 ,at such times1 provision  
should be made for the escape of impure 
air at the upper part of the room1 and  
for the introduction of pure air at the 
lower part1 as will be shown while      

treating upon the means of warming4     
,,means ,,of ,,warming4--,next in       
importance to pure air in a school-room 
is the maintenance of an even           
temperature4 ,this is an indispensable  
condition of health1 comfort1 and       
successful labor4 ,it is one1 however1  
that is very generally disregarded2 or1 
perhaps ,i should say1 one that is not  
often enjoyed4 ,school-houses are       
generally warmed by means of stoves1    
some of which are in a good condition1  
and supplied with dry1 seasoned wood4   
,the instances1 however1 in which such  
facilities for warming exist1 are       
comparatively few4 ,it is much more     
common to see cracked and broken stoves1
 the doors without either hinges or     
latch1 with rusty pipe of various sizes4
 ,green wood1 also1 and that which is   
old and partially decayed1 either       
drenched with rain or covered with snow 
during inclement weather1 is much more  
frequently used for fuel than sound1    
seasoned wood1 protected from the       

weather by a suitable wood-house4 ,with 
this state of things1 it is exceedingly 
difficult to kindle a fire1 which burns 
poorly1 at best1 when built4 ,fires1    
moreover1 are frequently built so late1 
that the house does not become          
comfortably warm at the time appointed  
for commencing school4 ,these neglects  
are the fruitful source of much         
discomfort and disorder4 ,the           
temperature is fluctuating2 the room is 
filled with smoke a considerable part of
 the time1 especially in stormy weather2
 and the school is liable to frequent   
interruptions1 in fastening together and
 tying up stove-pipe1 etc41 etc4  ,this 
may seem a little like exaggeration4 ,i 
know full well there are many noble     
exceptions4 ,but in a large majority of 
instances some of these inconveniences  
exist2 and the most of them coexist much
 more frequently than persons generally 
are aware of4 ,i speak from the personal
 observation of several thousand schools
 in different states1 and from reliable 

information in relation to the subject  
from various portions of the country4 ,i
 have myself many times heard trustees  
and patrons1 who have visited their     
school with me for the first time in    
several years1 say1 ,we ought to have   
some dry wood to kindle with2 ,i didn't 
know as it was so smoky3 we must get    
some new pipe2 really1 our stove is     
getting dangerous1 etc4 ,and some of the
 boys have relieved the embarrassment of
 their parents by saying1 ,it don't     
smoke near so bad to-day as it does     
sometimes6  ,the principal reason why   
the stoves in our school-houses are so  
cracked and broken1 and why the pipes   
are so rusty and open1 lies in the      
circumstance that green wood1 or that   
which is partially decayed and saturated
 with moisture1 is used for fuel1       
instead of good seasoned wood1 protected
 from the inclemency of the weather by a
 suitable wood-house4 ,there are at     
least three reasons why this is poor    
policy4 #a4 ,it takes double the amount 

of wood4 ,a considerable portion of the 
otherwise sensible heat becomes latent1 
in the conversion of ice1 snow1 and     
moisture into steam4 #b4 ,the steam thus
 generated cracks the stove and rusts   
the pipe1 so that they will not last one
 half as long as though dry wood from a 
wood-house were used4 #c4 ,it is        
impossible to preserve an even          
temperature4 ,sometimes it is too cold1 
and at other times it is too warm2 and  
this1 with such means of warming1 is    
unavoidable4 ,scores of teachers have   
informed me that1 in order to keep their
 fires from going out1 it was necessary 
to have their stoves constantly full of 
wood1 and even to lay wood upon the     
stove1 that a portion of it might be    
seasoning while the rest was burning4   
,aside from the inconvenience of a      
fluctuating temperature1 this is an     
unseemly and filthy practice1 and one   
that generates very offensive and       
injurious gases4  ,again3 ,i have       
frequently heard the following and      

similar remarks3 ,the use of stoves in  
our school-houses is a great evil2      
,stoves are unhealthy in our            
school-houses1 or in any other houses1  
etc4 ,this idea being somewhat          
prevalent1 and stoves being generally   
used in our school-houses1 their        
influence upon health becomes a proper  
subject for consideration4  ,combustion1
 whether in a stove or fire-place1      
consists in a chemical union of the     
oxygen gas of the atmosphere with       
carbon1 the combustible part of the wood
 or coal used for fuel4 ,carbonic acid1 
the vitiating product of combustion1    
does not1 however1 ordinarily           
deteriorate the atmosphere of the room1 
but1 mingling with the smoke1 escapes   
through the stove-pipe or chimney4  ,the
 stove1 in point of economy1 is far     
superior to the open fire-place as      
ordinarily constructed4 ,when the latter
 is used1 it has been estimated that    
nine tenths of the heat evolved ascends 
the chimney1 and only one tenth1 or1    

according to ,rumford and ,franklin1    
only one fifteenth1 is radiated from the
 front of the fire into the room4       
,four-fold more fuel is required to warm
 a room by a fire-place than when a     
stove is used4 ,oxygen is1 of course1   
consumed in a like proportion1 and      
hence1 when the open fire-place is used1
 there is necessarily a four-fold       
greater ingress of cold air to supply   
combustion than where a stove is        
employed4  ,and1 what is of still       
greater importance1 when a fire-place is
 used1 it is impossible to preserve so  
uniform a temperature throughout the    
room as when a stove is employed4 ,when 
a fire-place is used1 the cold air is   
constantly rushing through every crevice
 at one end of the room to supply       
combustion at the other end4 ,hence the 
scholars in one part of the room suffer 
from cold1 while those in the opposite  
part are oppressed with heat4 ,the stove
 may be set in a central part of the    
room1 whence the heat will radiate1 not 

in one direction merely1 but in all     
directions4 ,in addition to this1 as we 
have already seen1 only one fourth as   
much air is required to sustain         
combustion1 on both of which accounts a 
much more even and uniform temperature  
can be maintained throughout a room     
where a stove is used than where a      
fire-place is employed4  ,but whence1   
then1 has arisen the prevailing opinion 
that stoves are unhealthy8 ,there are   
two sources of mischief1 either of which
 furnishes a sufficient foundation for  
this popular fallacy4 ,the first has    
already been referred to1 and consists  
simply in the almost total neglect of   
proper ventilation4 ,the other lies in  
the circumstance that school-rooms are  
generally kept too warm4 ,in addition to
 the inconvenience of too high a        
temperature1 the aqueous vapor existing 
in the atmosphere in its natural and    
healthful state is dispersed1 and the   
air of the room becomes too dry4 ,the   
evil being seen1 the remedy is apparent4

 ,reduce the temperature of the room to 
its proper point1 and supply the        
deficiency of aqueous vapor by an       
evaporating dish partially filled with  
pure water4 ,if this is not done1 the   
dry and over-heated air1 which is highly
 absorbent of moisture in every thing   
with which it comes in contact1 not only
 creates a disagreeable sensation of    
dryness on the surface of the body1 but 
in passing over the delicate membrane of
 the throat1 creates a tickling1 induces
 a cough1 and lays the foundation for   
pulmonary disease1 especially when      
ventilation is neglected4 ,the water in 
the evaporating dish should be          
frequently changed1 and kept free from  
dirt and other impurities4 ,care also   
should be taken not to create more      
moisture than the air naturally         
contains1 otherwise the effect will be  
positively injurious4  ,the evil        
complained of is attributable mainly to 
the maintenance of a too high           
temperature4 ,were a thermometer placed 

in many of our school-rooms--and a      
school-house should never be without one
 in every occupied apartment--instead of
 indicating a suitable temperature1 say 
sixty-two or sixty-five degrees1 or even
 a summer temperature1 it would not     
unfrequently rise above blood heat4 ,the
 system is thus not only enfeebled and  
deranged by breathing an infectious     
atmosphere1 but the debility thence     
arising is considerably increased in    
consequence of too high a temperature4  
,the two causes combined eminently      
predispose the system to disease4 ,the  
change from inhaling a fluid poison at  
blood heat1 to inhaling the purer air   
without at the freezing point or below1 
is greater than the system can bear with
 impunity4  ,a uniform temperature1     
which is highly important1 can be more  
easily and more effectually maintained  
where a stove is employed1 furnished    
with a damper1 and supplied with dry1   
hard wood1 than where a fire-place is   
used4 ,in the former case the draft may 

be regulated1 in the latter it can not  
be4 ,a great amount of air enters into  
combustion even where a stove is used4  
,a greater quantity enters into the     
combustion where a fire-place is used1  
in proportion to the increased amount of
 wood consumed4 ,much of the heated air1
 also1 where an open fire-place is used1
 mingling with the smoke1 passes off    
through the chimney1 and its place is   
supplied by an ingress of cold air at   
the more distant portions of the room4  
,there is hence not only a great waste  
of fuel1 but a sacrifice of comfort1    
health1 and life4  ,but even where a    
stove is used there is a constant       
ingress of cold air through cracks and  
defects in the floor1 doors1 windows1   
and walls1 which causes it to be colder 
in the outer portions of the room than  
in the central portions and about the   
stove4 ,the evil is the same in kind as 
that already referred to in speaking of 
fire-places1 but less in degree4 ,this  
evil1 however1 may be almost entirely   

obviated by a very simple arrangement1  
which will also do much to render       
ventilation at once more effectual and  
safe1 especially in very cold and       
inclement weather4 ,the arrangement is  
as follows3  ,immediately beneath the   
floor--and in case the school-house is  
two stories high1 between the ceiling   
and the floor above--insert a tube from 
four to six inches in diameter1         
according to the size of the rooms1 the 
outer end communicating with the        
external air by means of an orifice in  
the under-pinning or wall of the house1 
and the other1 by means of an angle1    
passing upward through the floor beneath
 the stove4 ,this part of the tube      
should be furnished with a register1 so 
as to admit much or little air1 as may  
be desirable4 ,this simple arrangement  
will reverse the ordinary currents of   
air in a school-room4 ,the cold air1    
instead of entering at the crevices in  
the outer part of the room1 where it is 
coldest1 enters directly beneath the    

stove1 where it is warmest4 ,it thus    
moderates the heat immediately about the
 stove1 and being warmed as it enters1  
and mingling with the heated air1       
establishes currents toward the walls1  
and gradually finds its way out at the  
numerous crevices through which the cold
 air previously entered4 ,if these are  
not sufficient for the purpose1 several 
ventilators should be provided in       
distant parts of the room1 as already   
suggested4 ,this simple arrangement1    
then1 provides for the more even        
dissemination of heat through all parts 
of the room1 and thus secures a more    
uniform temperature1 and1 at the same   
time1 provides a purer air for          
respiration1 contributes greatly to the 
comfort and health of the scholars1 and 
fulfills several important conditions   
which are essential to the most         
successful prosecution of their studies1
 and to the maintenance and improvement 
of social and moral1 as well as         
intellectual and physical health4  ,by  

inclosing the stove on three sides in a 
case of sheet iron1 leaving a space of  
two or three inches between the case and
 the stove for an air chamber1 the air  
will become more perfectly warmed before
 entering the room at the top of the    
case4 ,the best mode1 however1 of       
warming and ventilating large           
school-houses is by pure air heated in a
 furnace placed in the basement4 ,the   
whole house can in this way be warmed   
without any inconvenience to the school 
from maintaining the fires1 on account  
of either noise1 dust1 or smoke4 ,but as
 this mode of warming can not be        
advantageously adopted except in very   
large schools1 it will not often be     
found desirable out of cities and large 
villages4  ,,library ,,and              
,,apparatus4--,i have already said that 
every school-house should have a room   
for recitations1 library1 and apparatus4
 ,in country districts where but one    
teacher is employed in a school1 it will
 perhaps generally be found convenient  

to conduct the majority of the          
recitations in the principal            
school-room4 ,but even where this       
practice obtains1 there is still urgent 
necessity for a room for a library1     
apparatus1 and other purposes4  ,several
 of the states have carried into        
successful operation the noble system of
 ,district ,libraries4 ,these1 in the   
single state of ,new ,york1 already     
contain nearly two millions of volumes4 
,in some of the new states the system of
 ,township ,libraries has been adopted1 
which1 on some accounts1 is better      
adapted to a sparse population with     
limited means4 ,these1 in the ,state of 
,michigan1 already contain one hundred  
thousand volumes4 ,the director of each 
school district draws from the township 
library every three months the number of
 books his district is entitled to4     
,these1 for the time being1 constitute  
the district library1 and each citizen  
in the township is thus allowed the use 
of all the books in the township        

library4  ,now1 whichever of these      
systems is adopted1 the school-house is 
the appropriate depository of the       
library4 ,there are many reasons for    
this4 ,it is central4 ,it is the        
property of the district4 ,during       
term-time it is visited daily by members
 from perhaps every family in the       
district4 ,there may1 and should be1 a  
time fixed1 at least once a week1 when  
the library will be open1 the librarian 
or his assistant being in attendance1 at
 which time books may be returned and   
drawn anew4 ,for this purpose1 and on   
all accounts1 no place can be so        
appropriate and free from objection as  
the school-house4 ,the library may also 
be opened one or more evenings in the   
week1 and especially during the winter1 
when evenings are long1 as a district   
reading-room4 ,moreover1 should a       
,district ,lyceum be established1 the   
use of a well-selected library1 which   
will always be at hand1 and of          
appropriate apparatus for the           

illustration of scientific lectures1    
will contribute greatly to increase both
 the popularity and the usefulness of   
the institution4  ,with such an         
arrangement1 the children of the        
district would most assuredly be much   
more benefited by the instructions they 
would receive4 ,the school would also   
possess many attractions for adults of  
both sexes1 and by the co-operation of  
the wise and the good1 its refining1    
purifying1 and regenerating influences  
may be brought effectually to bear upon 
every family and every individual within
 the boundaries of the district4 ,then  
will the idea of ,cousin be realized1   
who says1 ,a school ought to be a noble 
asylum1 to which children will come1 and
 in which they will remain with         
pleasure2 to which their parents will   
send them with good will2 and1 ,i will  
add1 one whose uplifting influence both 
children and parents will constantly    
feel4  ,such a room as ,i have described
 will also be found important for       

various other purposes1 as a commodious 
place for retirement in case of sudden  
indisposition1 a place where a teacher  
may see a patron or a friend in private1
 should it be at any time desirable1 or 
a parent his child4 ,it would also be of
 great service in giving the teacher an 
opportunity to see scholars in private1 
for various purposes1 as well as in     
affording a convenient room for scholars
 to retire to1 with the permission of   
the teacher1 for mutual instruction4    
,that able and judicious advocate of    
popular enlightenment1 and eminently    
successful school officer1 the          
,honorable ,henry ,barnard1 does not    
over-estimate the importance of district
 libraries4 ,in speaking of the benefits
 they confer upon a community1 he says1 
,wherever such libraries have existed1  
especially in connection with the       
advantages of superior schools and an   
educated ministry1 they have called     
forth talent and virtue1 which would    
otherwise have been buried in poverty   

and ignorance1 to elevate1 bless1 and   
purify society4 ,the establishment of a 
library in every school-house will bring
 the mighty instrument of good books to 
act more directly and more broadly on   
the entire population of a state than it
 has ever yet done2 for it will open the
 fountains of knowledge1 without money  
and without price1 to the humble and the
 elevated1 the poor and the rich4       
,,appurtenances ,,to                    
,,school-,,houses4--,there are1 perhaps1
 in the majority of school-houses1 a    
pail for water1 a cup1 a broom1 and a   
chair for the teacher4 ,some one or more
 of these are frequently wanting4 ,i    
need hardly say1 every school-house     
should be supplied with them all4 ,in   
addition to these1 every school-house   
should be furnished with the following  
articles3 #a4 ,an evaporating dish for  
the stove1 which should be supplied with
 clean pure water4 #b4 ,a thermometer1  
by which the temperature of the room may
 be regulated4 #c4 ,a clock1 by which   

the time of beginning and closing       
school1 and conducting all its          
exercises1 may be governed4 #d4 ,a      
shovel and tongs4 #e4 ,an ash-pail and  
an ash-house4 ,for want of these1 much  
filth is frequently suffered to         
accumulate in and about the             
school-house1 and not unfrequently the  
house itself takes fire and burns down4 
#f4 ,a wood-house1 well supplied with   
seasoned wood4 #g4 ,a well1 with        
provisions not only for drinking1 but   
for the cleanliness of pupils4 #h4 ,and 
last1 though not least1 in this         
connection1 two privies1 in the rear of 
the school-house1 separated by a high   
close fence1 one for the boys and the   
other for the girls4 ,for want of these 
indispensable appendages of             
civilization1 the delicacy of children  
is frequently offended1 and their morals
 corrupted4 ,nay1 more1 the unnatural   
detention of the faeces1 when nature    
calls for an evacuation1 is frequently  
the foundation for chronic diseases1 and

 the principal cause of permanent ill   
health1 resulting not unfrequently in   
premature death4 ,the accommodations in 
this respect provided by a district in a
 country village of the ,northwest1     
whose schools have become celebrated1   
are none too ample4 ,two octagonal      
privies are provided--one for each      
sex--each of which has seven apartments4
 ,these are cleansed every two weeks1   
regularly1 and oftener1 if necessary4   
,mr4 ,barnard1 in treating upon the     
external arrangements of school-houses1 
has the following sensible remarks3 ,the
 building should not only be located on 
a dry1 healthy1 and pleasant site1 but  
be surrounded by a yard1 of never less  
than half an acre1 protected by a neat  
and substantial inclosure4 ,this yard   
should be large enough in front for all 
to occupy in common for recreation and  
sport1 and planted with oaks1 elms1     
maples1 and other shady trees1          
tastefully arranged in groups and around
 the sides4 ,in the rear of the         

building1 it should be divided by a high
 and close fence1 and one portion1      
appropriately fitted up1 should be      
assigned exclusively for the use of     
boys1 and the other for girls4 ,over    
this entire arrangement the most perfect
 neatness1 seclusion1 order1 and        
propriety should be enforced1 and every 
thing calculated to defile the mind1 or 
wound the delicacy or the modesty of the
 most sensitive1 should receive         
attention in private1 and be made a     
matter of parental advice and           
co-operation4  ,in cities and populous  
districts1 particular attention should  
be paid to the play-ground1 as connected
 with the physical education of         
children4 ,in the best-conducted        
schools1 the play-ground is now regarded
 as the uncovered school-room1 where the
 real dispositions and habits of the    
pupils are more palpably developed1 and 
can be more wisely trained1 than under  
the restraint of an ordinary            
school-room4 ,these grounds are provided

 with circular swings1 and are large    
enough for various athletic games4 ,to  
protect the children in their sports in 
inclement weather1 in some places1 the  
school-house is built on piers2 in      
others1 the basement story is properly  
fitted up1 and thrown open as a         
play-ground4  ,a good and substantial   
room1 well fitted up1 and properly      
warmed in cold weather1 in which        
children may conduct their sports1 under
 the supervision of a teacher or        
monitor1 is of the utmost importance2   
and especially is this true of all      
schools for small children4 ,such a room
 is1 indeed1 for these1 hardly less     
important than the school-room4 ,among  
other things1 it should be supplied with
 dumb-bells1#gj see-saws1 weights and   
measures of various kinds1 etc41 etc4   
,these are important for both boys and  
girls2 but1 as they are uncommon1 it may
 be well to suggest the proper mode of  
using them1 and the advantages they     
confer4     #gj ,dumb-bells are usually 

made of cast iron1 and sometimes of     
bell-metal1 of the shape indicated by   
the figure1 and should weigh from   two 
to ten pounds each1 according to the    
strength of the person using   them4    
,illustration   ,dumb-bells may be used1
 in connection with the sports          
enumerated in the third chapter1 for    
developing and strengthening the chest  
and improving the health4 ,i would refer
 any who question the fitness of such   
exercises to what has been said on the  
subject at the #ggth and following      
pages1 and especially to the testimony  
of ,dr4 ,caldwell there introduced4     
,see-saws1 in addition to the benefits  
that result from the exercise1 are      
attractive1 and may be rendered highly  
instructive4 ,for this purpose1 the     
plank or board used should be well hung 
and properly balanced4 ,the distance    
from the fulcrum or point of support    
should be accurately graduated1 and     
marked in feet and inches4 ,then1       
knowing the weight of one scholar1 the  

weights of all the others may be        
ascertained by their relative distances 
from the fulcrum when they exactly      
balance4 ,these interesting experiments 
may be tried by any child as soon as he 
understands the ground rules of         
arithmetic1 and the simple fact that1   
for two children to balance1 the product
 of the weight of one multiplied into   
his distance from the fulcrum will      
exactly equal the product of the weight 
of the other into his distance from the 
fulcrum4 ,such simple experiments1 when 
thus mingled with sports1 and made      
interesting to young children1 serve the
 double purpose of attaching them to the
 school1 and of fixing in their minds   
the habit of observation and experiment1
 and of understanding the why and       
wherefore1 which will be of incalculable
 service to them all the way through    
life4  ,weights and measures serve the  
same general purpose1 and may be        
rendered well-nigh as useful as slates  
and black-boards4 ,thousands of children

 recite every year the table1 four gills
 make a pint1 two pints make a quart1   
four quarts make a gallon1 etc41 month  
in and month out1 without any distinct  
idea of what constitutes a gill or a    
quart1 or even knowing which of the two 
is the greater4 ,but let these measures 
be once introduced into the experimental
 play-room1 and let the child1 under the
 supervision of the teacher or monitor1 
actually see that four gills make a     
pint1 etc41 and he will learn the table 
with ten-fold greater pleasure than he  
otherwise would1 and in one tenth the   
time4  ,the same general remark will    
apply to the other tables of weight and 
measure1 to experimental philosophy1 and
 to nearly every branch of study pursued
 in the common schools of our country4  
,i have but one other general remark to 
make on this subject1 and that is in    
relation to the  ,,influence ,,of       
,,school-,,houses4--,cicero observes    
that the face of a man will be tinged by
 the sun1 for whatever purpose he walks 

abroad2 so1 by daily associations1 the  
minds of all persons are influenced1 and
 their characters permanently affected1 
by scenes with which they are familiar2 
and especially is this true during the  
impressive periods of childhood and     
youth4 ,many persons seem to think that 
schoolmasters and school-mistresses do  
all the teaching in our schools4 ,but it
 is not so4 ,fellow-students1 neighbors1
 and citizens teach by precept and by   
example2 and especially do school-houses
 teach4 ,and oh6 what lessons of        
degradation1 pollution1 and ruin they   
sometimes impart6 as he can not fail to 
be convinced who remembers the testimony
 already introduced in relation to their
 condition4  ,i have seen the fond      
parent accompany his lovely child of    
four summers to the school the first day
 of its attendance4 ,the child had seen 
pictures of school-houses in books4     
,pictures1 if not always pretty1 usually
 please children4 ,it was so in this    
case4 ,the child1 anxious to go to      

school1 talked of the school-house on   
the way4 ,there arrived1 the parent     
passed his innocent little one into the 
care of the teacher1 with a few remarks1
 and was about to retire1 when the      
child1 clinging to him1 said1           
pathetically and energetically1 ,pa6    
pa66 ,i don't want to stay in this ugly 
old house2 ,i am afraid it will fall    
down on me3 ,i want to go home to our   
own pretty parlor4 ,but the parent1     
breaking away from his child1 leaves it 
in tears1 with a sad heart4 ,how cruel  
to do such violence to the tender       
feelings of innocent children6 ,and how 
baneful the influence6 ,the school1     
instead of being a comfortable1         
pleasant1 and delightful place1 as it   
should be1 is to the child positively   
offensive1 and the school-house a dreary
 prison4 ,just as the twig is bent1 the 
tree's inclined4 ,the child learns to   
hate school1 to hate instruction1 and   
all that is good4 ,he soon becomes the  
practiced truant4 ,in a few years he    

arrives at manhood2 but1 instead of     
being a blessing to his family and a    
useful member of society1 he too        
frequently drags out a wretched life1 in
 ignorance and penury1 dividing it      
between the poor-house and jail1 and    
terminating it1 peradventure1 upon the  
gallows4  ,it needs the pen of a ready  
writer duly to portray the influence of 
neglected school-houses4 ,parents seem  
to have forgotten that1 while men sleep1
 the enemy comes and sows tares2 that if
 good school-houses do not elevate1     
neglected ones will pollute their       
children4 ,i have already alluded1 in   
the language of others1 to the          
representations of vulgarity and        
obscenity that meet the eye in every    
direction4 ,but ,i am constrained to    
add1 that1 during the intermissions1 and
 before school1 certain lewd fellows of 
the baser sort sometimes lecture in the 
hearing of the school generally1 boys   
and girls1 large and small1 illustrating
 their subject by these vulgar          

delineations4  ,but why are these things
 so8 ,and how may they be remedied8     
,different persons will answer these    
questions variously4 ,but when we bear  
in mind that1 in architectural          
appearance1 school-houses have very     
generally more resembled barns1 sheds   
for cattle1 or mechanic shops1 than     
,temples of ,science2 that windows are  
broken2 that benches are mutilated2 that
 desks are cut up2 that wood is         
unprovided2 that out-buildings are      
neglected2 that obscene images and      
vulgar delineations meet the eye within 
and without2 that1 in fine1 their very  
appearance is so contemptible1 that     
scholars feel themselves degraded in    
being obliged to occupy them2 when we   
bear in mind all these things1 and then 
consider that the impressive minds of   
children are necessarily and permanently
 affected by scenes with which they     
become familiar1 we can not wonder that 
they yield themselves to such           
influences1 and consent to increase     

their degradation by multiplying the    
abominations with which they are        
surrounded4 ,and especially shall we    
cease to wonder at the existence of     
these things1 when we consider that     
scholars are very often unfurnished with
 suitable employment2 that the younger  
scholars are frequently urged on by the 
example and influence of the older ones2
 and that teachers are sometimes        
employed who are so far lost to shame as
 to countenance these disgusting and    
corrupting practices by engaging in them
 themselves6  ,a knowledge of the cause 
suggests the remedy4 ,let1 then1 the    
school-house be commodious and cleanly2 
inviting in its appearance1 and         
elevating in its influence4 ,let every  
member of the school1 at all times1 be  
furnished with entertaining and         
profitable employment4 ,let the         
corrupting influence of bad example be  
at once and forever removed4 ,and1      
finally1 let the services of a          
well-qualified teacher1 of good morals1 

correct example1 and who is scrupulously
 watchful1 be invariably secured4  ,but 
if the mean appearance of our           
school-houses is one reason why they are
 so defaced1 it may be asked1 why do not
 our churches1 which are frequently     
among the most elegant specimens of     
architecture1 escape the pollution8 ,the
 reason is evident4 ,the foul habit is  
contracted in the unseemly school-house1
 and it becomes so established that it  
is very difficult to suspend its        
exercise even in the ,temple of ,god4   
,were our school-houses1 in point of    
neatness and architecture1 equal to our 
churches1 the evil in question would    
soon become less prevalent1 and1 with   
judicious supervision1 we might safely  
predict its early extinction4  ,i would 
not suggest that too much pains are     
taken to make our churches pleasant and 
comfortable1 but ,i do protest that     
there is a great and unwise             
disproportion in the appearance of our  
churches and school-houses4 ,it is      

frequently the case in villages and     
country neighborhoods1 that the expense 
of the former is from fifty to eighty   
times the value of the latter4 ,the     
appearance of our school-houses is an   
important consideration4 ,if we would   
cultivate the beastly propensities of   
our youth1 we have but to provide them  
places of instruction resembling the    
hovels which our cattle occupy1 and the 
work is well begun4 ,on the contrary1 if
 we would take into the account the     
whole duration of our being1 and the    
cultivation and right development of the
 nobler faculties of our nature1 while  
the animal propensities are allowed to  
remain in a quiescent state1 and adapt  
means to ends1 our school-houses should 
be pleasant and tasteful4 ,every thing  
offensive should be separated from them1
 and no pains should be spared to give  
them an inviting aspect and an elevating
 influence4  ,it is easier to make      
children good than to reform wicked men4
 ,it is cheaper to construct commodious 

school-houses1 with pleasant yards and  
suitable appurtenances1 than to erect   
numerous jails and extensive prisons4   
,george ,b4 ,emerson1 in a lecture on   
moral education1 speaks to the point4   
,in regard to the lower animal          
propensities1 says he1 the only safe    
principle is1 that nothing should be    
allowed which has a tendency1 directly  
or indirectly1 to excite them4 ,in many 
places there prevails an alarming and   
criminal indifference upon this point4  
,it is one toward which the attention of
 the teacher should be carefully        
directed4 ,no sound should be suffered  
from the lips2 no word1 or figure1 or   
mark should be allowed to reach the     
eyes1 to deface the wall of the house or
 out-house1 which could give offense to 
the most sensitive delicacy4 ,this is   
the teacher's business4 ,he must not be 
indifferent to it4 ,he has no right to  
neglect it4 ,he can not transfer it to  
another4 ,he1 and he only1 is           
responsible4#ga ,it is impossible to be 

over-scrupulous in this matter4 ,and the
 committee should see that the teacher  
does his duty2 otherwise all his lessons
 in duty are of no avail1 and the       
school1 instead of being a source of    
purity1 delicacy1 and refinement1       
becomes a fountain of corruption1       
throwing out poisonous waters1 and      
rendering the moral influence more      
pestiferous than that fabled fountain of
 old1 over which no creature of heaven  
could fly and escape death4     #ga ,i  
would by no means free parents from     
responsibility in this   matter4 ,they1 
if any class1 may be said to be alone   
responsible2 but1   in fact1 all who are
 intrusted with the care of children    
share in the   responsibility4 ,secret  
vice1 in the opinion of those who have  
had   occasion to remark the extent to  
which it is practiced1 from colleges    
and the higher seminaries of learning   
down to the common school1 and   even in
 the nursery before the child is sent to
 school1 prevails to an   alarming      

extent4 ,it is often the principal1 and1
 in many instances1 the   sole cause of 
a host of evils that are commonly       
attributed to hard   study1 among which 
are impaired nutrition1 and general     
lassitude and   weakness1 especially of 
the loins and back2 loss of memory1     
dullness of   apprehension1 and both    
indisposition and incapacity for study2 
dizziness1 affections of the eyes1      
headaches1 etc41 etc4 ,secret vice in   
childhood and youth is also a fruitful  
source of social vice later in   life1  
and of excesses even within the pale of 
wedlock1 ruinous alike to   the parties 
themselves and to their offspring4      
,licentiousness in some of   its forms1 
as we have frequently had occasion to   
see1 from the highest   testimony       
introduced into the text in various     
passages1 in addition to   the evils    
here referred to1 sometimes leads to the
 most driveling   idiocy1 and to        
insanity in its worst forms4 ,all1 then1
 who have the   charge of children1 and 

especially parents and teachers1 should 
exercise   a rational familiarity with  
them on this delicate but important     
subject4   ,they should give them timely
 counsel in relation to the temptations 
to   which they may be exposed1 apprise 
them of the evils that follow in the    
train of disobedience1 and endeavor1 by 
kindly advice and friendly   admonition1
 to infix in their minds a delicate     
sense of honor1 an   abhorrence for this
 whole class of vice1 and a             
determination never to   entertain a    
thought of indulging the appetite for   
sex except within the   pale of wedlock1
 and in accordance with ,god's own      
appointment4   ,in conclusion1 on this  
subject1 ,i would say1 if there is one  
house in the district more pleasantly   
located1 more comfortably constructed1  
better warmed1 and more inviting in its 
general appearance1 and more elevating  
in its influence than any other1 that   
house should be the school-house4       
99       99       99       99       99  

,,well-,,qualified ,,teachers ,,should  
,,be ,,employed4      ,all the          
provisions heretofore described would be
 of none effect if     we took no pains 
to procure for the public school thus   
constituted     an able master1 and     
worthy of the high vocation of          
instructing the     people4 ,it can not 
be too often repeated1 that it is the   
master that     makes the               
school4--,,guizot4      ,society can    
never feel the power of education until 
it calls into     exercise a class of   
effective educators4--,,lalor4      ,one
 of the surest signs of the regeneration
 of society will be the     elevation of
 the art of teaching to the highest rank
 in the     community4--,,channing4  ,we
 come next to the consideration of      
school teachers2 for1 in order to have  
good schools1 we want not merely good   
school-houses4 ,these1 as already seen1 
are of the utmost importance2 but1 to   
insure success1 we must have good       
teachers in those houses4 ,and here1    

were ,i addressing myself exclusively to
 the members of this profession1 it     
would be appropriate to dwell in detail 
upon the requisite qualifications of    
teachers4 ,but this would be foreign    
from my present design4#gb     #gb      
,among the many excellent works already 
before the public1 ,i would   name the  
following1 which the practical teacher  
may profitably consult3   ,,the ,,school
 ,,and ,,the ,,schoolmaster1 by ,dr4    
,potter and ,g4 ,b4 ,emerson2 ,,theory  
,,and ,,practice ,,of ,,teaching1 by ,d4
 ,p4 ,page2 ,,the ,,school ,,teacher',s 
,,manual1   by ,henry ,dunn2 ,,the      
,,teacher1 by ,jacob ,abbott2 ,,the     
,,teacher',s ,,manual1 by   ,thomas ,h4 
,palmer2 ,,the ,,teacher ,,taught1 by   
,emerson ,davis2 ,,slate ,,and          
,,black-,,board ,,exercises1 by ,wm4 ,a4
 ,alcott2 ,,lectures ,,on ,,education1  
by   ,horace ,mann2 ,,corporal          
,,punishment1 by ,lyman ,cobb2          
,,confessions ,,of ,a   ,,schoolmaster1 
by ,wm4 ,a4 ,alcott2 ,,the ,,teacher',s 

,,institute1 by ,wm4 ,b4   ,fowle2 ,,the
 ,,true ,,relation ,,of ,,the ,,sexes1  
by ,john ,ware4 ,these are also   useful
 to parents4 ,a more extended list1 with
 tables of contents1 may be   found in  
,barnard's ,school ,architecture1 p4    
#bgi to #bhh4   ,it has not been my     
intention in any thing ,i have yet said1
 nor will it be in any thing ,i may     
hereafter urge1 to overlook the         
importance of domestic education4       
,napoleon once said to an accomplished  
,french lady that the old systems of    
education were good for nothing1 and    
inquired what was wanting for the proper
 training of young persons in ,france4  
,with keen discernment and great truth1 
she replied1 in one word--,mothers4     
,this reply forcibly impressed the      
emperor1 and he exclaimed1 ,behold an   
entire system of education6 ,you must   
make mothers that know how to train     
their children4 ,i may add1 we want     
mothers not only1 but fathers too1      
qualified for the great work of training

 their offspring aright2 for parents are
 readily admitted to be the natural     
educators of their children4 ,but the   
literary training of children has always
 been accomplished chiefly by           
delegation2 and not only the literary1  
but1 to a great extent1 the moral and   
religious4  ,this course has been       
adopted on account of the situation of  
families2 many parents being unable to  
teach their children themselves1 and    
others lacking the necessary leisure to 
carry forward a systematic and thorough 
course of instruction4 ,this course is  
dictated by policy2 for the children of 
a whole neighborhood may be better      
taught1 and at less expense1 in good    
schools1 than in their respective       
families4 ,this course has also been    
adopted as a matter of necessity2 for   
the greatness of the work of education  
requires1 in order to carry it forward  
successfully1 that it should be studied 
as a profession4 ,the teacher then      
engages jointly with the parent in the  

work of education1 and with him shares  
its toils1 its responsibilities1 and its
 delights4  ,from the greatness of the  
teacher's work1 as we have already      
considered it--training1 as he should1  
his youthful charge for respectability1 
usefulness1 and happiness in this life1 
and for everlasting felicity in that    
which is to come--we may infer what     
should be his qualifications4 ,and we   
remark1 in the general1 that the        
business of  ,school teaching should    
rank among the learned professions4 ,the
 teacher should well understand the     
nature of the subjects of education1 as 
physical1 intellectual1 and moral       
beings4 ,the education of children can  
not safely be intrusted to persons who  
are not practically acquainted with     
human physiology1 and with mental       
science as based thereon4 ,the most     
serious physical evils frequently result
 from allowing incompetent persons to   
exercise the functions of this high and 
responsible vocation4  ,in addition to a

 thorough knowledge of all the branches 
in which a teacher is expected to give  
instruction1 and an acquaintance with   
those collateral branches that have a   
bearing upon them1 the instructor of    
youth should possess the rare attainment
 of aptness to teach4 ,it will be of    
little avail if the teacher has become  
familiar with all wisdom1 unless he can 
readily communicate instruction to      
others4 ,paul1 in speaking of the       
qualifications of bishops1 says1 among  
other things1 they should be apt to     
teach4 ,this attainment is no less      
important for schoolmasters than for    
bishops4 ,it is especially important    
that the teacher should be well         
acquainted with intellectual philosophy 
and moral science4 ,this is necessary1  
in order to enable him to judge         
correctly of character1 and to teach1   
and govern1 and train his charge aright4
 ,but these attainments can never be    
made until teaching is elevated to the  
rank of a profession4  ,the lawyer is   

required to devote a series of years to 
a regular course of classical study and 
professional reading before he can find 
employment in a case in which a few     
dollars only are pending4 ,with this we 
find no fault4 ,but it should not be    
forgotten that the teacher's calling is 
as much more important than the ordinary
 exercise of the legal profession1 as   
the imperishable riches of mind are more
 valuable than the corruptible treasures
 of earth4  ,we seek out from among us  
men of sound discretion and good report 
to enact laws for the government of the 
state and nation4 ,and with this1 too1  
we find no fault4 ,it is right and      
proper that we should do so4 ,but it    
should be borne in mind that it is the  
teacher's high prerogative not only so  
to instruct and train the rising        
generation that they shall rightly      
understand law1 but to infix in their   
minds the principles of justice and     
equity1 the attainment of which is the  
high aim of legislation4 ,while our     

legislators enact laws for the          
government of the people1 the           
well-qualified and faithful schoolmaster
 prepares those under his charge to     
govern themselves4 ,without the         
teacher's conservative influence1 under 
the best legislation1 the great mass of 
the people will be lawless2 while the   
tendency of his labors is to qualify the
 rising generation1 who constitute our  
future freemen and our country's hope1  
to render an enlightened1 a cheerful1   
and a ready obedience to the high claims
 of civil law4 ,the well-qualified1     
faithful teacher1 then1 becomes the     
right arm of the legislator4  ,the      
physician is required to become         
thoroughly acquainted with the anatomy  
and physiology of the human body2 in a  
word1 to become acquainted with the     
house ,i live in2 to understand the     
diseases to which we are subject1 and   
their proper treatment1 before he is    
allowed to extract a tooth1 to open a   
vein1 or administer the simplest        

medicine4 ,nor with this do we find     
fault1 for we justly prize the body4 ,it
 is the habitation of the immortal mind4
 ,when in health1 it is the mind's      
servant1 and ready to do its biddings2  
but darken its windows by disease1 and  
it becomes the mind's prison-house4 ,but
 while the physician1 whom we honor and 
love1 is required to make these         
attainments before he is permitted even 
to repair the house ,i live in1 should  
not he who teaches the ,,master of the  
house be entitled to a respectable rank 
in society8  ,it is common1 in the      
various branches of the ,church         
universal1 for men who feel themselves  
called of ,god to preach the ,gospel to 
obtain a collegiate education1 and then 
devote several years to professional    
study1 before exercising the functions  
of the sacred office2 and this has been 
required by popular opinion4 ,and       
heretofore1 ,i may add1 the efforts of  
the minister have been directed chiefly 
to the reformation of adults whose early

 training has been imperfectly attended 
to1 and to the building up of a         
religious character where no correct    
early foundation has been laid1 when the
 time and energies of a people upon whom
 labor is bestowed are devoted chiefly  
to absorbing secular pursuits4 ,the     
competent and faithful teacher1 on the  
contrary1 enters upon the discharge of  
his duties under circumstances widely   
different1 and with infinitely better   
prospects of success4 ,jesus said1      
,suffer the little children to come unto
 me1 and forbid them not2 for of such is
 the kingdom of ,god4 ,these are they   
upon whom the teacher is called to      
bestow labor4 ,he remembers that        
,solomon the wise has said1 ,train up a 
child in the way he should go1 and when 
he is old he will not depart from it2   
and he confidently expects that1 with   
proper parental co-operation1 if he     
faithfully discharges his duty1 and     
directs his efforts in accordance with  
the will of the ,great ,teacher1 his    

youthful charge1 when arrived at the    
years of accountability1 and in all     
future life1 will be like the child     
,samuel1 who grew on1 and was in favor  
both with the ,lord and also with men4  
,no wonder1 then1 that ,channing should 
say1 ,one of the surest signs of the    
regeneration of society will be the     
elevation of teaching to the highest    
rank in the community4  ,the clerical   
profession can never equal that of the  
teacher in moral sublimity and          
prospective usefulness until religious  
teachers come to direct their attention 
chiefly to the correct early education  
of the young in the ,sabbath-schools1   
but more especially in the common       
schools of our country4 ,then1 and not  
till then1 will it be entitled to the   
pre-eminence4  ,should any teacher1 in  
view of the immense responsibilities of 
his calling1 be disposed to inquire1 as 
all well may1 ,who is sufficient for    
these things8 we would say to him1 in   
the language of ,wirt1 ,let your motto  

be ,perseverando vinces--by perseverance
 thou wilt overcome4 ,practice upon it1 
and you will be convinced of its value  
by the distinguished pre-eminence to    
which it will lead you4 ,especially will
 this be true in case the anxious       
teacher faithfully complies with the    
,divine direction1 ,if any man lack     
wisdom1 let him ask of ,god1 that giveth
 to all men liberally1 and upbraideth   
not2 and it shall be given him4         
,parents and citizens generally should  
be impressed with the truth of the      
maxim1 ,as is the teacher1 so will be   
the school4 ,they should desire for     
their own children1 and for all others1 
teachers whose intellectual1 social1 and
 moral habits are1 in all respects1 what
 they are willing their children should 
form4 ,they should1 at least1 be well   
apprised of this fact3 ,if the teacher  
is not1 in these respects1 what they    
would have their children become1 their 
children will be likely to become what  
the teacher is4  ,there is a story of a 

,german schoolmaster1 which shows the   
low notions that may be entertained of  
education4 ,stouber1 the predecessor of 
,oberlin1 the pastor of ,waldbach1 on   
his arrival at the place1 desired to be 
shown to the principal school-house4 ,he
 was conducted into a miserable cottage1
 where a number of children were crowded
 together1 without any occupation4 ,he  
inquired for the master4 ,there he is1  
said one1 as soon as silence could be   
obtained1 pointing to a withered old    
man1 who lay on a little bed in one     
corner4 ,are you the master1 my friend8 
asked ,stouber4 ,yes1 sir4 ,and what do 
you teach the children8 ,nothing1 sir4  
,nothing6 how is that8 ,because1 replied
 the old man1 ,i know nothing myself4   
,why1 then1 were you appointed the      
schoolmaster8 ,why1 sir1 ,i had been    
taking care of the ,waldbach pigs a     
number of years1 and when ,i got too old
 and infirm for that employment1 they   
sent me here to take care of the        
children4  ,this anecdote may evince a  

degree of stupidity not to be met with  
in this country4 ,we are1 however1 very 
far from being as careful in the        
selection of teachers as we ought to be4
 ,unworthy teachers frequently find     
employment4 ,i refer not to teachers    
whose literary qualifications are       
insufficient1 although1 as we have      
already seen1 there are quite too many  
such4 ,i refer now more particularly to 
those who are disqualified for the      
office because of moral obliquity4      
,teachers are sometimes employed who are
 habitual ,sabbath breakers2 who are    
accustomed to the use of vulgar and     
profane language2 who frequent the      
gambling table2 who habitually use      
tobacco1 in several of its forms1 and   
that in the school-house6 nay1 more1 who
 even teach the despicable habit to     
their children during school hours6     
,several emperors have prohibited the   
use of this filthy weed in their        
respective kingdoms1 under the severest 
penalties4 ,the pope has made a bull to 

excommunicate all those who use tobacco 
in the churches4 ,one of the most       
numerous of the ,protestant sects once  
prohibited the use of tobacco in their  
society2 but so strong is this filthy   
habit1 especially when formed in early  
life1 that this society has backslidden 
and given up this excellent rule4       
,since writing the above1 ,i have       
noticed an article headed ,tobacco-using
 ,ministers1 which has appeared in      
several highly-reputable and            
widely-circulating periodicals1 from    
which it appears that a large annual    
conference of divines of the same order1
 among other resolutions1 have adopted  
one recommending that the ministers     
refrain from the use of tobacco in all  
its forms1 especially in the house of   
worship4  ,in commenting upon this      
action1 a religious paper observes1 that
 by 'tobacco in all its forms' we       
suppose is meant chewing1 smoking1 and  
snuffing4 ,but can it be possible that a
 minister1 whose duty it is to recommend

 purity1 and whose example should be    
cleanliness1 can need conference        
resolutions to dissuade him from a      
practice so filthy and disgusting8 ,and 
do they even carry this inconsistency   
into the 'house of worship8' ,so it     
seems6 ,but such is the severity of the 
strictures in the article referred to1  
that1 although just1 ,i forbear         
inserting them4  ,it has been suggested 
that1 while ,robinson ,crusoe was alone 
on his island1 he may have had a right  
to smoke1 snuff1 or chew2 but that1 when
 his man ,friday came1 a decent regard  
for the opinions of mankind--as the     
,declaration of ,independence has       
it--should have debarred him at once    
from further indulgence4  ,one who has  
enjoyed large opportunities of          
observing1 and who is scrupulous to a   
proverb1 has remarked1 that the         
ministerial profession is probably the  
most offending in this particular4 ,the 
,scriptures have much to say about      
keeping the body pure4 ,had tobacco been

 known to the ,hebrews1 who can doubt   
that it would have been among the       
articles prohibited by the ,levitical   
law8 ,st4 ,paul beseeches the ,romans1  
by the mercies of ,god1 to present their
 bodies 'a living sacrifice1 holy and   
acceptable4' ,to the ,corinthians he    
says1 ',know ye not that ye are the     
temple of ,god1 and that the spirit of  
,god dwelleth in you8 ,if any man defile
 the temple of ,god1 him will ,god      
destroy2 for the temple of ,god is holy1
 which temple ye are4' ,he commands them
 to glorify ,god in their body as well  
as in their spirit2 for 'know ye not1'  
says he1 'that your body is the temple  
of the ,holy ,ghost8 ,what sort of a    
'temple of the ,holy ,ghost' is he1     
every atom and molecule of whose        
physical system is saturated and        
stenched with the vile fetor of tobacco2
 whose every vesicle is distended by its
 foul gases2 whose brain and marrow are 
begrimed and blackened with its sooty   
vapors and effluxions2 all whose pores  

jet forth its malignant stream like so  
many hydrants2 whose prayers are        
breathed out1 not with a sweet1 but with
 a foul-smelling savor2 who baptizes    
infants with a hand which itself needs  
literal baptism and purification as by  
fire2 and who carries to the bed-side of
 the dying an odor which1 if the        
'immaterial essence' could be infected  
by any earthly virus1 would subject the 
departed soul to quarantine before it   
could enter the gates of heaven8#gc     
#gc ,a female teacher in the ,bay       
,state1 in #ahdg1 addressed the         
following   inquiry through the columns 
of the ,massachusetts ,common ,school   
,journal3    ,i have been laboring for  
the last year in a large school1 and    
have   endeavored1 according to the best
 of my ability1 to inculcate habits of  
neatness among the pupils1 especially to
 break them of the filthy habit   of    
spitting upon the floor4 ,i have often  
told them gentlemen never do   it4 ,but 
at a recent visit of the committee1 an  

individual1 who has been   elected by   
the town to superintend the educational 
interests of the   rising generation1   
spit the dirty juice of his tobacco quid
 upon the   floor of my school-room with
 apparent self-complacency4    ,shall ,i
 say to the children that this person is
 not a gentleman1   and thus destroy his
 influence8 or shall ,i pass it over in 
silence1 and   thus leave them to draw  
the natural inference that all ,i have  
said on   the subject is only a woman's 
whim8    ,mr4 ,mann1 the editor1 gave a 
full reply through the ,journal1 from   
which   ,i have here quoted part of a   
paragraph4 ,he closes by offering a     
prize of   the eternal gratitude of all 
decent men to the discoverer of a remedy
   or antidote for the evil4   ,touch   
not1 taste not1 handle not1 is the only 
safe rule in relation to all vicious    
practices2 and especially is it true of 
this habit1 which we can not call       
beastly1 for there is not a natural     
beast in creation that indulges in it4  

,i therefore congratulate my countrymen 
in view of the prospect before us of    
ultimately being freed from this        
disgusting and filthy habit1 for the    
,board of ,education in some of our     
cities have already wisely adopted the  
rule of employing no teachers who use   
tobacco in any form4 ,let this rule     
become universal among us1 and the next 
generation will be comparatively free   
from the use of that repulsive weed1    
which only one of all created beings    
takes to naturally4 ,wherever else the  
filthy practice may be allowed1 it ought
 never to be permitted in a house       
consecrated to the sacred work of       
educating the rising generation4 ,and   
just look at the immense expenditure in 
this country for the support of this    
pernicious habit4 ,it is said1 on good  
authority1 that for smoking merely we   
pay annually a tax of ten millions of   
dollars1 which is a much greater sum    
than is paid to the teachers of all the 
public schools in the ,united ,states4  

,but to return3 teachers are sometimes  
employed who are addicted to inebriety2 
who are notorious libertines1 and       
unblushingly boast of the number of     
their victims4 ,but ,i will not extend  
this dark catalogue4 ,comment is        
unnecessary4 ,my fellow-countrymen1 who 
have carefully perused and properly     
weighed the preceding considerations1 ,i
 doubt not1 will concur with me in the  
opinion that there is no station in     
life--no1 not excepting even the        
clerical office1 that1 in order to be   
well filled1 so much demands purity of  
heart1 simplicity of life1 ,christian   
courtesy1 and every thing that will     
ennoble man1 and beautify and give      
dignity to the human character1 as that 
of the primary school-teacher4 ,he      
influences his pupils in the formation  
of habits and character1 by precept1 it 
is true1 but chiefly by example4 ,his   
example1 then1 should be such1 that1 if 
strictly followed by his pupils1 it will
 lead them aright in all things1 astray 

in nothing4 ,it should be his chief     
concern to allure to brighter worlds on 
high1 and himself lead the way4 ,then1  
and not till then1 will he be prepared  
to magnify and fill his office4  ,but1  
it may be said1 we have not a           
sufficiency of well-qualified teachers1 
according to this standard1 to take the 
charge of all1 or of any considerable   
part of our schools4 ,this is very      
readily admitted4 ,some such1 however1  
there are4 ,these should be employed4   
,their influence will be felt by others4
 ,the present generation of teachers may
 be much improved by means of teachers' 
associations and teachers' institutes4  
,by the establishment of normal schools1
 or teachers' seminaries1 a higher grade
 of teachers may be trained up and      
qualified to take the charge of the next
 generation of scholars4 ,these         
institutions have been established in   
several of the ,european states1 in ,new
 ,england and ,new ,york1 and more      
recently in ,michigan1 by the several   

,state ,legislatures1 and to some extent
 in other states4 ,those seminaries for 
training masters1 says ,lord ,brougham1 
are an invaluable gift to mankind1 and  
lead to the indefinite improvement of   
education4 ,in remarking upon their     
advantages1 the same high authority     
says1 ,these training seminaries would  
not only teach the masters the branches 
of learning and science they are now    
deficient in1 but would teach them what 
they know far less--the didactic        
art--the mode of imparting the knowledge
 which they have or may acquire2 the    
best mode of training and dealing with  
children in all that regards both       
temper1 capacity1 and habits1 and the   
means of stirring them to exertion1 and 
controlling their aberrations4  ,normal 
schools are essential to the complete   
success of any system of popular        
education4 ,the necessity for their     
establishment can not fail to be        
apparent to any one at all competent to 
judge1 when he considers the early age  

at which young persons of both sexes    
generally enter upon the business of    
school-teaching--or1 perhaps ,i may more
 appropriately say1 of keeping school2  
for the majority of them can hardly be  
regarded as competent to teach4  ,for   
the purpose of being more specific1 and 
of impressing1 if possible1 upon the    
mind of the reader1 the necessity of    
professional instruction1 the author    
trusts he will be pardoned for          
introducing a few paragraphs from a     
report made nine years ago as county    
superintendent of common schools in the 
,state of ,new ,york and which was      
printed at that time in the ,assembly   
documents of that state4 ,the author1 at
 the time referred to1 exercised a      
general supervision over more than      
twenty thousand children1 aided in the  
examination of the teachers of twenty   
large townships1 and visited and        
inspected their schools4 ,nine years'   
additional experience--four of which    
have been devoted to the supervision of 

the schools of a large state1 and a     
considerable portion of the remaining   
time to the visitation of schools in    
different states--has convinced him that
 the condition of common schools1 and   
the qualifications of teachers in those 
states of the ,union where increased    
attention has not been bestowed upon the
 subject within a few years past1 are   
not in advance of what they were at that
 time in the county referred to4 ,the   
paragraphs introduced are included      
within brackets4  ,,literary            
,,qualifications4--,some of the teachers
 possess a very limited knowledge of the
 branches usually taught in our common  
schools4 ,this is true even of a portion
 of those who have bestowed considerable
 attention upon some of the higher      
branches of study4 ,there is in our     
common schools1 and indeed in our higher
 schools1 an undue anxiety to advance   
rapidly4 ,a score of persons may be     
heard speaking of the number of their   
recitations1 of their rapid progress1   

and perhaps of skipping difficulties1   
while hardly one will speak of          
progressing understandingly1 and        
comprehending every principle as he     
proceeds4 ,when students speak of their 
progress in study1 their first          
qualifying word should be thorough1     
after which1 if they please1 they may   
add rapid4  ,the following              
circumstances1 that have occurred in    
classes of both ladies and gentlemen who
 have presented themselves for          
examination as candidates for teaching1 
illustrate the nature and extent of the 
evil4 ,i have more than once received1  
in answer to the question ,what is      
language8 the following reply3 ,language
 is an unlimited sense4 ,i have met with
 some experienced teachers1 holding two 
or three town certificates1 who did not 
know one half of the marks and pauses   
used in writing4 ,they could1 indeed1   
generally recite the answers in the     
spelling-book with some degree of       
accuracy2 but when the marks have been  

pointed out1 and their names and use    
have been asked1 teachers in service    
have sometimes mistaken the note of     
interrogation for a parenthesis1 and    
made other as gross errors4 ,in answer  
to the question ,what is arithmetic8 ,i 
have several times received the         
following reply3 ,it is the art of      
science1 etc4 ,sometimes this           
constitutes the entire reply4 ,in one   
instance four fifths of the class united
 in this answer4 ,the terms sum1        
remainder1 product1 and quotient are    
frequently applied indiscriminately in  
the four ground rules of arithmetic4    
,there are1 hence1 three chances for    
them to be used erroneously where there 
is one chance for them to be correctly  
applied4 ,the following expressions are 
common3 ,add up and set down the        
remainder2 subtract and set down the    
quotient2 multiply and write down the   
sum2 divide and write down the product1 
etc43 never so much as thinking that sum
 belongs to addition2 remainder1 to     

subtraction2 product1 to multiplication2
 and quotient1 to division4 ,in         
attending the examination of such       
teachers1 any person of discernment will
 soon become satisfied that with them   
language is an unlimited sense2 that    
arithmetic is the art of science2 and   
that grammar1 too1 is the art of        
science2 for the same answer has been   
given to the question1 ,what is grammar8
 ,i introduce these things1 not for the 
purpose of ridiculing any portion of our
 teachers1 but to exemplify the extent  
of the evil under consideration4  ,the  
majority of teachers manifest a         
tolerable familiarity with the branches 
usually taught in our common schools4   
,they have not1 however1 generally      
studied more than one author on the same
 subject4  ,a portion of our teachers1  
it gives me pleasure to add1 are not    
only superior scholars in the common    
,english branches1 but they have made   
respectable attainments in philosophy1  
astronomy1 chemistry1 algebra1 ,latin1  

etc4 ,all of these branches are         
successfully taught in a few of our     
schools4  ,,school ,,government4--,there
 is1 perhaps1 as wide a difference in   
the administration of government in our 
common schools as in any other          
particular connected with them4 ,good   
government requires the healthful       
exercise of a rare combination of good  
qualities4 ,but this can not reasonably 
be expected in inexperienced youth1 who1
 instead of being guided by enlightened 
moral sentiment1 have not only never    
subjected themselves to government1 but 
are totally unacquainted with the       
principles upon which it should be      
administered4 ,about one third of our   
schools are tolerably well governed4 ,a 
portion of them are under a wise and    
parental supervision1 the government    
being uniformly mild1 and at the same   
time efficient4 ,but indecision1        
rashness1 and inefficiency are far more 
common4 ,sometimes teachers resolve to  
have no whispering1 leaving seats1      

asking questions1 etc41 among any of the
 scholars1 and severely punish every    
detected offender4 ,soon a portion of   
the patrons justly manifest             
dissatisfaction4 ,then all attempts to  
govern the school are unwisely given up4
 ,many teachers thus rashly fly from one
 extreme of government to the other1    
without stopping to test the golden     
mean1 or even appearing to bestow a     
single thought upon the subject4        
,again3 the feelings of the teacher have
 been outraged by having frequently     
witnessed severity1 and even cruelty1 in
 government2 and1 in studiously avoiding
 them1 he has inadvertently adopted a   
lax government1 if government it may be 
called4 ,the latter may be the more     
amiable extreme1 but it is hardly the   
less fatal4 ,i have heard scholars say  
in the presence of such a teacher1 ,we  
have a good teacher1 who gives us all   
the good advice we need1 and then lets  
us do as we please2 and then ,i have    
witnessed whispering1 talking1 chewing  

gum and throwing it about the house1    
passing from seat to seat1 playing with 
tops and whirls1 tossing wads of wet    
paper about the house and to the        
ceiling1 cutting images upon the desks1 
imitating the practice of botanic       
physicians1 exhibiting and passing from 
one to another roots and herbs1 and     
discoursing upon their properties1      
chasing mice about the house1 and in    
some instances slaying them1 and        
practicing sundry other antics too      
numerous to be mentioned4 ,good advice  
was freely given1 but it was disregarded
 with impunity4  ,government in school1 
as elsewhere1 should be mild but        
efficient4 ,the teacher should speak    
kindly1 but with authority4 ,every      
request should meet with a ready        
compliance4 ,the scholars will not only 
fear to disobey such a teacher1 but     
will1 at the same time1 respect1 and    
even love him4 ,this is not only good   
theory1 but is susceptible of being     
reduced to practice4 ,it is1 indeed1    

exemplified in many of our schools1 as a
 visit to them will clearly manifest4 ,i
 know of no one thing in school         
government more mischievous in its      
tendency than the habit of speaking     
several times without being obeyed4     
,,mode ,,of ,,instruction4--,in some    
schools the instruction is thorough and 
systematic4 ,in them the scholars       
generally learn principles1 and         
understand1 and are able to explain1 all
 that they pass over4 ,but this is the  
case in comparatively few schools4      
,scholars generally are poorly          
instructed1 and understand very         
imperfectly what they profess to have   
learned4 ,i will give a few             
illustrations3  ,first4 ,scholars are   
frequently introduced to the twenty-six 
letters of the alphabet four times a day
 for several weeks in succession1       
without making a single acquaintance4   
,they occasionally become so familiar   
with their names and order as to repeat 
them down and back1 as well without the 

book as with it1 before learning a      
single letter4  ,this method of         
instruction is as unphilosophical as it 
is unsuccessful4 ,were ,i to be         
introduced to twenty-six strangers1 and 
were my introducer to pronounce their   
names in rapid succession down and back1
 giving me merely an opportunity of     
pronouncing them after him1 ,i should   
hardly expect to form a single          
acquaintance with twenty-six            
introductions4 ,but were he to introduce
 me to one1 and give me an opportunity  
of shaking hands with him1 of conversing
 with him1 of observing his features1   
etc42 and were he then to introduce me  
to another1 in like manner1 with the    
privilege of shaking hands again with   
the first1 before my introduction to the
 third2 and were he thus to introduce me
 to them all successively1 ,i might form
 twenty-six acquaintances with one      
introduction4  ,the application is      
readily made4 ,introduce the abecedarian
 to but one letter at first4 ,describe  

it to him familiarly4 ,fix its contour  
distinctly in his mind4 ,compare it with
 things with which he is acquainted1 if 
it will admit of such comparison4 ,it   
might be well to make the letter upon a 
slate or black-board4 ,when he shall    
have become acquainted with one letter  
so as to know it any where1 introduce   
him to another4 ,after he becomes       
acquainted with the second1 let him     
again point out the first4 ,as he learns
 new letters1 he will thus retain a     
knowledge of those he has previously    
learned4 ,it is immaterial where we     
commence1 provided two conditions are   
fulfilled4 ,it would be well to have the
 first letters as simple in their       
construction1 and as easily described1  
as possible4 ,it would be well1 also1 to
 have them so selected as to combine and
 form simple words1 with which the child
 is familiar4 ,he will thus become      
encouraged in his first efforts4        
,suppose we commence with ,o1 and tell  
the child that it is round2 that it is  

shaped like the button on his coat1 or  
like a penny1 which might be shown to   
him4 ,after the child has become        
somewhat familiar with its shape and    
name1 suppose we inquire what there was 
on the breakfast table shaped like ,o4  
,it may be necessary to name a few      
articles1 as knives1 forks1 spoons1     
plates4 ,before there is time to proceed
 further1 the child1 in nine cases out  
of ten1 will say1 ,the plates look like 
,o4 ,suppose we next take ,x1 which may 
be represented by crossing the          
fore-fingers1 or two little sticks4 ,we 
can now teach the child that these two  
letters1 combined1 spell ox4 ,we might  
then tell him a familiar story about    
oxen2 that we put a yoke on them2 that  
they draw the cart1 etc42 and that      
cart-wheels are great ,o's4 ,suppose we 
take ,b next4 ,we might tell the child  
that it is a straight line with two bows
 on the right side of it1 and that it is
 shaped some like the ox-yoke4 ,we might
 then instruct him that these three     

letters1 ,b1 ,o1 and ,x1 combined1 spell
 box2 that its top and sides are        
rectangles1 and that its ends are       
squares1 if they are so4 ,the child has 
now learned three letters1 two words1   
and a score of ideas4 ,he1 moreover1    
likes to go to school4 ,any other method
 in which children would be equally     
interested might be pursued instead of  
this1 which is only introduced as a     
specimen of the manner in which the     
alphabet has been successfully          
taught4#gd ,better methods may be       
devised4     #gd ,since these           
suggestions were first given to the     
public1 several   excellent books for   
children have been published1           
constructed on a   similar plan to that 
here recommended4 ,it will generally be 
found   advantageous to teach the vowels
 first1 and then to teach such          
consonants as combine with the long     
sound of the vowel2 as1 for   example1  
first o2 then g1 h1 l1 n1 and s1 when   
the child can read go1   ho1 lo1 no1 and

 so4 ,after this1 e may be learned1 and 
then b1 m1 and s1   when the child can  
read be1 bee1 me1 and see4 ,then these  
may be combined   as see me2 lo1 see me2
 see me ho2 lo1 see me ho1 etc4 ,the    
idea is1 that   every letter and        
combination of letters be used as fast  
they are   learned4   ,second4 ,the     
,roman notation table is sometimes      
taught after the same manner4 ,after    
spelling1 ,i have heard the teacher say 
to the class1 ,one ,i48 to which the    
scholar at the head would reply1 one2   
and the exercise would continue through 
the class1 as follows3 two ,i4's8 two2  
three ,i4's8 three2 ,,iv48 four2 and so 
on1 to two ,x4's8 twenty2 three ,x4's8  
twenty-one4 ,no1 says the teacher1      
thirty4 ,thus corrected1 the class went 
through the entire table1 without making
 another mistake4 ,the thought occurred 
to me that they did not know their      
lesson1 though they had recited it1     
making but one mistake4 ,with the       
permission of the teacher1 ,i inquired  

of the class1 ,what does ,,iv4 stand    
for8 ,none of them could tell4 ,i then  
inquired1 ,what do ,,vii4 stand for8    
,they all shook their heads4 ,i next    
inquired1 ,what does ,,ix4 stand for8   
and the teacher remarked1 ,they have    
just got it learnt the other way2 they  
ha'n't learnt it that way yet4 ,they had
 all learned to count2 they hence       
recited correctly to twenty2 and when   
told that three ,x4's stand for thirty  
instead of twenty-one1 they passed on   
readily to forty1 fifty1 sixty1 etc41   
without making another mistake4 ,and    
this1 too1 is but a specimen of the     
evil4  ,in teaching this table1 the     
child should be instructed1 in the      
beginning1 that there are but seven     
letters used1 by which all numbers may  
be represented2 that when standing      
alone1 ,i4 represents one2 ,v41 five2   
,x41 ten2 ,l41 fifty2 ,c1 one hundred2  
,d41 five hundred2 and ,m41 one         
thousand4 ,the child should next be     
taught that1 as often as a letter is    

repeated1 so many times its value is    
repeated2 thus1 ,x4 represents ten2 two 
,x4's1 twenty2 three ,x4's1 thirty1     
etc42 that when a letter representing a 
less number is placed after one         
representing a greater1 its value is to 
be added2 thus1 ,,vii4 represent seven2 
,,lx41 sixty1 etc42 that when a letter  
representing a less number is placed    
before one representing a greater1 its  
value is to be subtracted2 thus1 ,,iv4  
represents four2 ,,ix41 nine2 ,,xl41    
forty1 etc4 ,when the child understands 
what is here presented1 he has the key  
to the whole matter4 ,he is acquainted  
with the principle upon which the tables
 are constructed1 and a little practice 
will enable him to apply it1 as well to 
what is not in the table as to what is  
in it4 ,i have known scholars study that
 table faithfully four months1 and then 
have but an imperfect knowledge of what 
was in the book4 ,i have known others   
who1 with one hour's study1 after five  
minutes' instruction in the principles  

here laid down1 understood the table    
perfectly1 and could recite it1 without 
making a single mistake1 even before    
they had studied the whole of it once   
over4  ,third4 ,the manner in which     
reading is generally taught is hardly   
superior to the modes of instruction    
already considered4 ,in many instances1 
commendable effort is made to secure    
correct pronunciation1 and a proper     
observance of the inflections and       
pauses4 ,but there is a great lack in   
understanding what is read4 ,when       
visiting schools1 with the permission of
 the teacher1 ,i usually interrogate    
reading classes with reference to the   
meaning of what they have read4         
,occasionally ,i receive answers that   
give satisfactory evidences of correct  
instruction4 ,generally1 however1 the   
scholars have no distinct idea          
concerning the author's meaning4 ,they1 
astonished1 sometimes say1 ,i didn't    
know as the meaning has any thing to do 
with reading2 ,i try to pronounce the   

words right1 and mind the stops4        
,teachers sometimes say their scholars  
are poor readers1 and it takes all their
 attention to pronounce their words     
correctly4 ,they therefore do not wish  
to have them try to understand what they
 read1 thinking it would be a hinderance
 to them4 ,they occasionally justify    
themselves in the course they pursue1   
saying1 ,i don't have time to question  
my classes on their reading1 nor hardly 
time to look over and correct mistakes4 
,at the same time they will read three  
or four times around1 twice a day or    
oftener4 ,the idea prevails extensively1
 judging from the practice of teachers1 
that the value of their services depends
 upon the extent of the various         
exercises of the school4 ,if the classes
 can read several times around1 twice a 
day1 and spell two or three pages1      
teachers frequently think they have done
 well1 even though one half of the      
mistakes in reading are uncorrected1 and
 one fourth or more of the words in the 

spelling lessons are misspelled1 to say 
nothing of understanding what is read4  
,the majority of schools might be very  
much improved by conducting them upon   
the principle that what is worth doing  
at all is worth doing well4 ,i am fully 
satisfied that it is incomparably better
 for classes to read once around1 once a
 day1 and understand what they read1    
than to read four times around1 four    
times a day1 without understanding their
 lessons4 ,scholars should1 indeed1     
never be allowed to read what is beyond 
their comprehension2 and great pains    
should be taken to see that they        
actually understand every lesson1 and   
every book read4 ,the early formation of
 such a habit will be of incalculable   
value in after life4  ,i will introduce 
one extract from my note-book by way of 
illustration4 ,the reader will please   
observe that it relates to neither a    
back district nor an inexperienced      
teacher4  ,this is one of the oldest and
 most important districts in town4 ,the 

school is taught by an experienced and  
highly-reputable teacher4 ,the first    
class in the ,english ,reader read the  
section entitled ',the ,journey of a    
,day2 a ,picture of ,human ,life4'      
,obidah had been contemplating the      
beauties of nature1 visiting cascades1  
viewing prospects1 etc41 and in these   
amusements the hours passed away        
uncounted1 till 'day vanished from      
before him1 and a sudden tempest        
gathered around his head2' when1 it is  
said1 'he beheld through the brambles   
the glimmer of a taper4' ,i inquired of 
the class1 ',what is a taper8' ,no one  
replied4 ,i added1 ',it is either the   
sun1 a light1 a house1 or a man1'       
whereupon one replied1 'the sun2'       
another1 'a house2' another still1 'a   
house2' and still another1 'a man4' ,i  
next inquired1 ',what does glimmer      
mean8' ,no reply being given1 ,i added1 
',it either means a light1 the shadow1  
the top1 or the bottom4' ,they then     
replied successively as follows3 ',top1 

shadow1 bottom1' which would give their 
several ideas of the phrase1 'the       
glimmer of a taper1' as follows3 ,the   
shadow of a house4 ,the top of a man4   
,the bottom of the sun1 etc4 ,it should 
be borne in mind1 the class had just    
read that this 'taper' was discovered   
after 'day had vanished from sight4'    
,this example is selected from among    
more than a hundred1 scores of which are
 more striking illustrations than the   
one introduced1 which is selected       
because it occurred in the first class  
of an important school1 taught by an    
experienced and highly-reputable        
teacher4  ,the habit of reading without 
understanding originates mainly in the  
circumstance that the books put into the
 hands of children are to them          
uninteresting4 ,the style and matter are
 often above their comprehension4 ,it is
 impossible1 for example1 for children  
at an early age to understand the       
,english ,reader1 a work which          
frequently constitutes their only       

reading-book 7at least in school7 when  
but seven years of age4 ,the ,english   
,reader is an excellent book1 and would 
grace the library of any gentleman4 ,but
 it requires a better knowledge of      
language1 and more maturity of mind than
 is often possessed by children ten     
years old1 to understand it1 and to be  
interested in its perusal4 ,hence its   
use induces the habit of pronouncing the
 words and minding the stops1 with      
hardly a single successful effort to    
arrive at the idea of the author4 ,to   
this early-formed habit may be traced   
the prevailing indifference1 and1 in    
some instances1 aversion to reading1    
manifested not only in childhood1 but in
 after life4  ,the matter and style of  
the reading-book should be adapted to   
the capacity and taste of the learner4  
,the teacher should see that it is well 
understood1 and then it can hardly prove
 uninteresting1 or be otherwise than    
well read4 ,children should read less in
 school than they ordinarily do1 and    

greater pains should be taken to have   
them understand every sentence1 and word
 even1 of what they do read4 ,they will 
thus become more interested in their    
reading1 and read much more extensively1
 not only while young1 but in after     
life1 and with incomparably more profit4
  ,fourth4 ,i have heard several classes
 in geography bound states and counties 
with a considerable degree of accuracy1 
when none of them could point to the    
north1 south1 east1 or west4 ,indeed1 a 
portion of them were not aware that     
these terms relate to the four cardinal 
points of the compass4 ,still more3 some
 of them say that geography is a        
description of the earth1 but they do   
not know as they ever saw the earth4    
,they have no idea that they live upon  
it4 ,scholars in grammar frequently     
think that the only object of the study 
is to enable them to recite the         
definitions and rules1 and to parse4    
,they do not look for any assistance in 
thinking1 speaking1 or writing          

correctly1 neither do they expect any   
aid therefrom in understanding what they
 read4  ,classes in arithmetic not      
unfrequently think the principal object 
in pursuing that science is to be able  
to do the sums according to the rule1   
and perhaps to prove them4 ,propose to  
them a practical question for solution1 
and their reply is1 ,that isn't in the  
arithmetic4 ,some one more courageous   
may say1 ,if you'll tell me what rule it
 is in1 ,i'll try it6 ,practical        
questions should be added by the        
teacher1 till the class can readily     
apply the principles of each rule to the
 ordinary transactions of business in   
which they are requisite4 ,generally1 in
 grammar1 arithmetic1 and elsewhere1    
there is too much inquiry1              
comparatively1 after the how1 and too   
little after the why4  ,now if these    
paragraphs1 descriptive of the condition
 of common schools and the              
qualifications of teachers at the       
commencement of the educational reform  

in ,new ,york1 are applicable to those  
states of the ,union whose provisions   
for general education are not equal to  
what hers then were1 nothing can be     
plainer than that there exists an       
imperative demand for the establishment 
of normal schools in every part of the  
,union4 ,massachusetts has three2 but   
her provisions in this respect are not  
adequate to her necessities4  ,union    
schools1 and systems of graded schools  
in cities and villages1 should possess a
 normal characteristic2 that is1 young  
men and women who have the requisite    
natural and acquired ability should be  
employed as assistants in the lower     
departments1 and should sustain         
essentially the relation of apprenticed 
teachers1 to be promoted or discontinued
 according as they shall prove          
themselves worthy or otherwise4 ,in the 
public schools of the city of ,new ,york
 there are about two hundred teachers of
 this description4 ,these and all the   
less experienced teachers meet at a     

stated time every week for the purpose  
of receiving normal instruction from a  
committee of teachers whose instructions
 are adapted to their wants4 ,a similar 
feature has been adopted in other       
cities1 and in many villages1 and should
 become universal among us4  ,in        
connection with the suggestions ,i have 
just introduced from a former report1 ,i
 wish to say1 ,i know of no reform which
 is more needed in our schools than that
 of rendering instruction at once       
thorough and practical4 ,the suggestion 
in the note on the #dbhth page1 in      
relation to teaching the alphabet1 will 
admit of general application4 ,as fast  
as principles are learned1 they should  
be applied4 ,practical questions for the
 exercise of the student should be      
interspersed with the lessons in all our
 text-books1 when the nature of the     
subject will admit of it4 ,when these   
are not given by the author1 they should
 be supplied by the teacher4  ,i will   
illustrate by an example4 ,several years

 ago a teacher had the charge of a class
 in natural philosophy4 ,there were no  
questions in the text-book used for the 
exercise of the student1 as here        
recommended4 ,in treating upon the      
hydraulic press1 the author said1 in    
relation to the force to be obtained by 
its use1 ,if a pressure of two tons be  
given to a piston1 the diameter of which
 is only a quarter of an inch1 the force
 transmitted to the other piston1 if    
three feet in diameter1 would be upward 
of forty thousand tons4 ,the teacher    
inquired of the class1 ,how much upward 
of forty thousand tons would the        
pressure be8 ,not one in a large class  
was prepared to answer the question4    
,some of the scholars laughed outright  
at the idea of asking such a question4  
,after a few familiar remarks by the    
teacher1 the class was dismissed4 ,this 
question1 however1 constituted a part of
 their review lesson4 ,the next day     
found it solved by every member of the  
class4 ,several of the scholars said to 

the teacher that they had derived more  
practical information in relation to    
natural philosophy from the solution of 
this one question1 than they had        
previously acquired in studying it      
several quarters4  ,in treating upon the
 velocity of falling bodies1 such       
questions as the following might be     
asked3 ,suppose a body in a vacuum falls
 sixteen feet the first second1 how far 
will it fall the first three seconds8   
,how far will it fall the next three    
seconds8 ,how much further will it fall 
during the ninth second than in the     
fifth8 ,if this paragraph should be read
 by any teacher or student of natural   
philosophy who has not been accustomed  
thus to apply principles1 the author    
would suggest that it may be found      
pleasant and perhaps profitable to pause
 and solve these questions before       
reading further4  ,the importance of    
reducing immediately to practice every  
thing that is learned1 is no less       
essential in moral and religious        

education than in physical or           
intellectual4 ,indeed1 any thing short  
of this is jeoparding one's dearest     
interests2 for to him that knoweth to do
 good and doeth it not1 to him it is    
sin4 ,the practical educator should bear
 in mind that man is susceptible of     
progression in his moral and religious  
nature as well as in his physical and   
intellectual4 ,cease to do evil2 learn  
to do well1 is the ,divine command4 ,he 
who does only the former has but a      
negative goodness4 ,the practice of the 
latter is essential to the healthful    
condition of the soul4 ,it is important 
that we seek earnestly to be cleansed   
from secret faults4 ,without this1 our  
progress in excellence will at best be  
slow4 ,while the way of the wicked is as
 darkness1 and they stumble at they know
 not what1 it is nevertheless true that 
the path of the just is as the shining  
light1 that shineth more and more unto  
the perfect day4  ,understanding what we
 do of the nature of man1 the subject of

 education1 and knowing that the fear of
 the ,lord is the beginning of wisdom1  
and that the ,great ,teacher1 who taught
 as one having authority1 hath said1    
,seek ye first the kingdom of ,god and  
his righteousness1 can we regard it any 
thing less than consummate folly to     
enter upon the work of education in the 
open neglect of these precepts8 ,should 
we not rather cheerfully comply with    
them1 and do what we can to encourage   
all teachers1 and all who receive       
instruction1 to regard this law of      
progression1 so that1 while their       
physical and intellectual natures are   
being cultivated and developed1 they may
 not remain babes in the practice of    
morality and the ,christian virtues1 but
 grow in grace and in the knowledge of  
the ,lord and ,savior ,jesus ,christ8   
,we can not expect the student will     
excel his teacher1 if indeed he equals  
him1 in merely intellectual pursuits2   
much less can we reasonably look for    
superior attainments in morals and      

religion4 ,if1 then1 the teacher would  
secure the most perfect obedience of his
 scholars from the highest motives1 he  
must show them that he himself          
cheerfully and habitually complies1 in  
heart and in life1 with all the precepts
 of the ,great ,teacher1 with whom is   
lodged all authority1 and from whom he  
derives his4 ,when the members of a     
school become convinced that their      
teacher habitually asks wisdom of the   
,supreme ,educator1 whose will he aims  
constantly to do1 they will feel almost 
irresistibly urged to yield obedience to
 the precepts of ,christianity1 and1    
with suitable encouragement1 will take  
upon themselves the easy yoke of        
,christ4#ge     #ge ,in a former        
chapter1 the necessity of moral and     
religious education   was dwelt upon at 
length4 ,the importance of the          
,scriptures as a   text-book1 containing
 as they do the only perfect code of    
morals known   to man1 and the          
objections sometimes urged against their

 use1 were duly   considered4 ,i wish   
here simply to add1 that their exclusion
 from our   schools would be even more  
sectarian than their perverted use2 for 
the   atheistical plan1 which forbids   
the entrance of the ,bible into         
multitudes of our schools1 under the    
pretense of excluding sectarianism1     
shuts out ,christianity1 and establishes
 the influence of a single   sect1 that 
would dethrone the ,creator1 and break  
up every bond of   social order4   ,even
 common arithmetic1 when well taught1   
and illustrated by judiciously          
constructed examples1 may be made not   
only more practical than it has usually 
been heretofore1 but while the student  
is becoming acquainted with the science 
of numbers1 it may be rendered an       
efficient instrumentality in showing the
 advantages of knowledge and virtue1 and
 the expense and burden to the community
 of ignorance and crime1 thus promoting 
the great work of moral culture1 as is  
beautifully illustrated by the following

 examples1 selected from a recent       
treatise on that subject3  ,in the town 
of ,bury1 ,england1 with an estimated   
population of twenty-five thousand1 the 
expenditure for beer and spirits1 in the
 year #ahcf1 was estimated at ,l#ed1aij4
 ,if this was #bd per cent4 of the      
entire loss1 resulting from the waste of
 money1 ill health1 loss of labor1 and  
the other evils attendant upon          
intoxication1 what was the average loss 
from intemperance1 for each man1 woman1 
and child in the place1 estimating the  
pound sterling at #d4hj4 ,ans4 #dc1ccb4 
,this one example may do more1 in many  
instances1 toward establishing young men
 who may be engaged in its solution in  
habits of total abstinence1 than a score
 of lectures on temperance1 or as many  
lessons on domestic or political        
economy4 ,the following1 also1 may more 
effectually check existing abuses of    
some of the laws of health and longevity
 than a month's study of physiology and 
moral science3 ,it has been estimated   

that a man1 in a properly ventilated    
room1 can work twelve hours a day with  
no greater inconvenience than would be  
occasioned by ten hours' work in a room 
badly ventilated2 and that1 where there 
is proper ventilation1 a man may gain   
ten years' good labor on account of     
unimpaired health4 ,according to this   
estimate1 what is the loss in thirty    
years to each individual in a           
badly-ventilated work-shop1 valuing the 
labor at ten cents per hour8 ,ans4      
#ejjh4 ,what an astonishing result6     
,five thousand and eight dollars moneyed
 loss to each individual who respires   
impure air1 estimating labor at but ten 
cents an hour4  ,now suppose this loss  
occurs only in the case of the eight    
hundred thousand voters in the ,united  
,states who are unable to read and      
write--and it must accrue to a much     
greater number of persons--and one      
fourth of the annual loss would be      
sufficient to maintain an efficient     
system of common schools in every state 

of the ,union the entire year4  ,it has 
sometimes been said1 even by individuals
 occupying high stations in society1    
that persons of the second or third     
order of intellect make the best        
school-teachers4 ,but in the light of   
what has been said1 this statement needs
 but be made to prove its fallacy4 ,in  
order properly to fill the teachers'    
office1 we need men and women of the    
first order of intellect1 brought to a  
high state of cultivation4 ,a           
well-qualified and faithful             
school-teacher earns1 and of right ought
 to receive1 a salary equal to that paid
 to the clergyman1 or received by the   
members of the other learned            
professions4 ,he who can teach a good   
school can ordinarily engage with       
proportionate success in more lucrative 
pursuits4 ,so true is this remark1 that 
scarcely a man can be found that has    
attained to any considerable eminence as
 a teacher1 who has not been repeatedly 
solicited1 and perhaps strongly tempted1

 to relinquish teaching and engage in   
pursuits less laborious and more        
profitable4 ,many yield to this         
temptation1 and hence much of the best  
talent has been attracted to the other  
professions4 ,school committees1        
however1 can generally secure the       
services of teachers of any grade of    
qualifications they desire1 upon the    
simple condition of offering an adequate
 remuneration4  ,we have said1 as is the
 teacher so will be the school4 ,we     
might add1 as are the wages1 so         
ordinarily is the teacher4 ,let it be   
understood that in any township1 county1
 or state1 a high order of teachers is  
called for1 and that an adequate        
remuneration will be given1 and the     
demand will be supplied4 ,well-qualified
 teachers will be called in from abroad 
until competent ones can be trained up  
at home4 ,here1 as in other departments 
of labor1 as is the demand1 so will be  
the supply4  ,the best means which      
citizens can employ to give character   

and stability to the vocation of the    
teacher is to select competent and      
worthy individuals to take the charge of
 their schools1 and then pay them so    
liberally that they can have no         
pecuniary inducement to change their    
employment4 ,let this be generally done1
 and teaching will soon be raised1 in   
public estimation1 to the rank of a     
learned profession2 and the fourth      
learned profession--the vocation of the 
practical educator--will be taken up for
 life by as great a proportion of men   
and women eminent for talent1           
cultivation1 and moral worth1 as either 
of the other three professions have ever
 been able to boast4                    
99       99       99       99       99  
,,schools ,,should ,,continue ,,through 
,,the ,,year4      ,schools should be   
kept open at least ten full months      
during the     year2 in other words1 the
 entire year1 with the usual quarterly  
or     semi-annual vacations4--,michigan
 ,school ,report4  ,it is not enough    

that good school-houses be provided and 
well-qualified teachers be employed4    
,our schools should be kept open a      
sufficient length of time during the    
year to make their influence strongly   
and most favorably felt4 ,the work of   
instruction1 while it is going forward1 
should be the business of both teachers 
and scholars4 ,if children are          
habituated to industry1 to close        
application1 to hard study1 and to good 
personal1 social1 and moral habits      
during the period of their attendance   
upon school1 these habits will be       
favorably felt in after life1 in the    
development of characters whose         
possessors will be at once respectable  
and useful members of society1 and a    
blessing to the age in which they live4 
,on the contrary1 if children are       
allowed to attend an indifferent school 
three months during the year1 to work   
three months1 to play three months1 and 
are permitted to spend the remaining    
three months in idleness1 the influence 

of this course will be felt1 and it will
 be likely to give character to their   
future lives4  ,under such              
circumstances1 the good1 if any1 that   
children will receive while attending an
 indifferent school one fourth of the   
year1 will be more than counterbalanced 
by the evil influences that surround    
them during the half of the year they   
devote to play and idleness4 ,we can not
 reasonably expect that children brought
 up under such unfavorable and          
distracting influences will become even 
respectable members of society1 much    
less that they will be a blessing to the
 generation in which they live4  ,in    
villages and densely-settled            
neighborhoods schools should be kept    
open at least ten full months during the
 year2 in other words1 the entire year1 
with the usual quarterly or semi-annual 
vacations2 and1 if possible1 they should
 not1 under any circumstances1 be       
continued less than eight months4 ,and1 
,i may add1 the same teacher should be  

retained in the charge of a school1     
wherever practicable1 from year to year4
 ,the teacher occupies1 for the time    
being1 the place of the parent4 ,but    
what kind of government and discipline  
should we expect in a family where a new
 step-father or step-mother is          
introduced and invested with parental   
authority every six months1 and where   
the children are left in orphanage half 
of the year6 ,much more may we inquire1 
what kind of instruction and educational
 training may we reasonably expect in a 
large school whose wants are no better  
provided for6 ,a school-teacher should  
be selected with as great care as the   
minister of the parish2 and when        
selected1 the services of the one should
 be continued as uninterruptedly and    
permanently as those of the other4 ,then
 will be beautifully illustrated this   
interesting truth3 ,it is easier1       
cheaper1 and pleasanter incomparably1   
and infinitely more effectual1 rightly  
to train the rising generation1 than it 

is to reform men grown old in sin4      
,lalor1 in his prize essay on education1
 published ten years ago in ,london1 has
 recorded a kindred sentiment in this   
very beautiful and highly-expressive    
language3 ,the schoolmaster alone1 going
 forth with the power of intelligence   
and a moral purpose among the infant    
minds of the community1 can stop the    
flood of vice and crime at its source1  
by repressing in childhood those wild   
passions which are its springs4 ,nay1   
often will the mature mind1 hard as     
adamant against the terrors of the law  
and the contempt of society1 be softened
 to tears of penitence by the innocence 
of its educated child speaking          
unconscious reproof4                    
99       99       99       99       99  
,,every ,,child ,,should ,,attend       
,,school4      ,the plan of this nation 
was not1 and is not1 to see how many    
individuals we can raise up who shall be
 distinguished1 but to see     how high1
 by free schools and free institutions1 

we can raise the     great mass of      
population4--,,rev4 ,,john ,,todd4      
,i promised ,god that ,i would look upon
 every ,prussian peasant child     as a 
being who could complain of me before   
,god if ,i did not provide     for him  
the best education1 as a man and a      
,christian1 which it was     possible   
for me to provide4--,,school-,,counselor
 ,,dinter4  ,good school-houses maybe   
built1 well-qualified teachers may be   
employed1 and schools may be kept open  
the entire year1 but all this will not  
secure the correct education of the     
people1 unless those schools are        
patronized2 patronized1 not by a few    
persons1 not by one half1 or three      
fourths even of a community1 but by the 
whole community4 ,as was said in a      
former chapter1 there is no safety but  
in the education of the masses4 ,a few  
vile persons will taint and infect a    
whole neighborhood4 ,in the graphic     
language of the ,scriptures1 ,one sinner
 destroyeth much good4  ,the better     

portions of the community every where   
provide for the education of their      
children4 ,if they are not instructed at
 home1 they are sent to good schools1   
public or private1 where their education
 is well looked after4 ,unfortunately1  
those children whose education is most  
neglected at home are the very ones1    
usually1 that are sent least to school1 
and when at all1 to the poorest schools4
  ,but how shall the evil in question be
 remedied8 ,how shall we secure the     
attendance of children generally at the 
schools1 provided good ones are         
established8 ,in the first place1       
diligent effort should be made to arouse
 the public mind to an appreciation of  
the importance and necessity of         
universal attendance4 ,this will go far 
toward remedying the evil4 ,it should be
 made every where unpopular1 and be     
regarded as dishonorable in a member of 
our social compact1 and unworthy of a   
citizen of a free state1 to bring up a  
child without giving him such an        

education as shall fit him for the      
discharge of the duties of an ,american 
citizen4  ,but there is a portion of    
almost every community who feel hardly  
able to allow their children the        
necessary time to pursue an extended    
course of common school education1 and  
who are really unable to clothe them    
properly1 furnish them with useful      
books1 and pay their tuition4 ,this     
class1 although comparatively small1 is 
not unimportant4 ,the legal provisions  
made for such children vary in different
 states4 ,wherever the free school      
principle is adopted1 their tuition is  
of course provided for4 ,this provision 
in some instances extends further4 ,the 
statutes of ,michigan relating to       
primary schools make it the duty of the 
district board to exempt from the       
payment of teachers' wages not only1 but
 from providing fuel for the use of the 
district1 all such persons residing     
therein as in their opinion ought to be 
exempted1 and to admit the children of  

such persons to the school free of      
charge not only1 but the district board 
is authorized to purchase1 at the       
expense of the district1 such books as  
may be necessary for the use of children
 thus admitted by them to the district  
school4 ,the entire expense incurred for
 tuition1 fuel1 and books1 in such      
cases1 is assumed by the district1 and  
paid by a tax levied upon the property  
thereof4  ,we have now arrived at an    
interesting crisis4 ,we have exhausted  
the legal provision1 generous as it is1 
and yet the blessing of universal       
education is not secured to those who   
will succeed us4 ,good schools may every
 where be established1 in which the     
wealthy1 and those in comfortable       
circumstances1 may educate their        
children4 ,provision--yes1 generous     
provision1 though but just--has been    
made to meet the expense of tuition and 
books for the children of indigent      
parents4 ,still1 they may not           
sufficiently appreciate an education to 

send their children2 or1 if this be not 
so1 they may keep them at home from     
motives of delicacy1 being unable to    
clothe them decently4 ,how shall such   
cases be met8 ,how shall we actually    
bring such children into the peaceable  
possession and enjoyment of a good      
common school education1 that rich      
legacy which noble-minded legislators   
have bequeathed to them1 and which is   
the inalienable right of every son and  
daughter of this republic8  ,legislation
 has already1 in many of the states1    
done much--perhaps all that can be      
reasonably expected1 at least1 until a  
good common education shall be better   
appreciated by the community at large1  
and be ranked1 as it ought to be1 among 
the necessaries of life4 ,the work1     
then1 must be consummated chiefly by the
 united and well-directed efforts of    
benevolent and philanthropic            
individuals4  ,benevolent females--and  
especially ,christian mothers1 who have 
long been pre-eminently distinguished   

for their successful efforts in         
protecting the innocent1 administering  
to the wants of the necessitous1 and    
reclaiming the wanderer from the paths  
of vice--have felt the claims of this   
innocent and unoffending portion of the 
community1 and have1 in some instances1 
organized themselves into associations  
to meet those claims4  ,benevolent and  
,christian females can doubtless        
accomplish more1 by visiting the poor   
and needy in their respective school    
districts1 and making known unto them   
their privileges1 and encouraging and   
assisting them1 if need be1 to avail    
themselves of these privileges1 than by 
the same expenditure of time and means  
in any other way4 ,they have long and   
very generally been accustomed to clothe
 the children of the destitute1 and     
accompany them to the ,sunday-school1   
and there teach them those things which 
pertain to their present and everlasting
 well-being1 and have thus accomplished 
incalculable good2 but by co-operating  

with the civil authorities in securing  
the attendance of every child in their  
respective districts at the improved    
common school1 they can hardly fail to  
accomplish vastly more4  ,several       
associations have been formed for this  
noble purpose1 and many children who1   
but for their fostering care1 would have
 remained at their cheerless homes1     
have1 by this labor of love1 been sought
 out1 properly cared for1 and led to the
 common school1 that fountain of        
intellectual life1 and of social and    
moral culture1 which is alike open to   
all4 ,gentlemen should everywhere       
encourage the formation of such         
associations1 and1 when formed1 should  
offer every facility in their power to  
increase their usefulness4 ,clergymen   
might help forward such benevolent      
labors1 where they are entered upon1 by 
preaching occasionally from that good   
text1 ,help those women4  ,but there are
 two classes of our                     
fellow-citizens--perhaps ,i should say  

fellow-beings--who1 notwithstanding the 
abundant legal provisions to which ,i   
have referred1 and the utmost that the  
benevolent and philanthropic can        
accomplish by voluntary effort1 will    
utterly refuse to give their children   
such an education as we have been       
contemplating4 ,these are1 first1 men in
 comfortable circumstances1 who have so 
much blindness of mind1 and such an     
utter disregard for the welfare of their
 offspring1 as to deprive them of the   
advantages of even a common school      
education2 and1 secondly1 those who have
 such an obduracy of heart as absolutely
 to refuse to allow their children to   
attend school1 and who1 although the    
abundant provisions of the law are made 
known unto them1 in meekness and love1  
by man's guardian angel1 prove utterly  
incorrigible4  ,such persons are        
unworthy to sustain the parental        
relation1 and the safety of the         
community requires that the forfeiture  
be claimed1 and that the right of       

control be transferred from such        
unnatural parents to the civil          
authorities2 for1 as ,kent says1 ,a     
parent who sends his son into the world 
uneducated1 and without skill in any art
 or science1 does a great injury to     
mankind as well as to his own family1   
for he defrauds the community of a      
useful citizen1 and bequeaths to it a   
nuisance4 ,how true is it that the mobs1
 the riots1 the burnings1 the lynchings 
perpetrated by the men of the present   
day1 are perpetrated because of their   
vicious or defective education when     
children6 ,we see and feel the havoc and
 the ravage of their tiger passions now1
 when they are full grown1 but it was   
years ago that they were whelped and    
suckled4  ,in the very expressive       
language of ,macaulay1 the right to     
,,hang includes the right to ,,educate4 
,this is not a strange nor a new idea4  
,it long ago entered into civil codes in
 the ,old ,world not only1 but in the   
,new4 ,in ,prussia1 when a parent       

refuses1 without satisfactory excuse1 to
 send his child to school the time      
required by law1 he is cited before the 
court1 tried1 and1 if he refuses        
compliance1 the child is taken from him 
and sent to school1 and the father to   
prison4  ,similar laws were enacted and 
enforced by our ,new ,england fathers   
more than two hundred years ago1 which  
history informs us were attended with   
the most beneficial results4#gf         
,although their descendants of the      
present generation should blush for     
their degeneracy1 still we should be    
encouraged from an increasing           
disposition of late to return to these  
salutary restraints and needful checks  
upon ignorance and crime4 ,said the     
,honorable ,josiah ,quincy1 ,jr41 late  
mayor of the city of ,boston1 in his    
inaugural address1 ,i hold that the     
state has a right to compel parents to  
take advantage of the means of educating
 their children4 ,if it can punish them 
for crime1 it should surely have the    

power of preventing them from committing
 it1 by giving them the habits and the  
education that are the surest           
safeguards4 ,similar sentiments have    
been recently promulgated by the heads  
of the school departments of several    
states in their official reports1 and by
 governors in their annual messages2 and
 we have much reason for believing that 
the time is not distant when an         
enlightened public sentiment shall      
demand the re-enactment of these most   
salutary laws of our ancestors4     #gf 
,the following paragraph is from the    
,massachusetts ,colony ,laws of   #afdb2
 ,forasmuch as the good education of    
children is of singular behoof   and    
benefit to any commonwealth1 and whereas
 many parents and masters   are too     
indolent and negligent of their duty in 
that kind1 it is ordered   that the     
select-men of every town in the several 
precincts and quarters1   where they    
dwell1 shall have a vigilant eye over   
their brethren and   neighbors1 to see1 

first1 that none of them shall suffer so
 much   barbarism in any of their       
families as not to teach1 by themselves 
or   others1 their children and         
apprentices so much learning as may     
enable   them perfectly to read the     
,english tongue1 and knowledge of the   
capital   laws1 upon penalty of twenty  
shillings for each neglect therein4     
,,compulsory ,,attendance ,,upon        
,,school4--,since the preceding         
paragraphs were prepared for the        
printer1 the author has received the    
statutes and resolves of the            
,massachusetts ,legislature of #ahej1   
relating to education1 which recognize  
the principle here contended for4 ,each 
of the several cities and towns in that 
commonwealth is authorized and empowered
 to make all needful provisions and     
arrangements concerning habitual        
truants1 and children not attending     
school1 without any regular and lawful  
occupation1 growing up in ignorance1    
between the ages of six and fifteen     

years2 and1 also1 all such ordinances   
and by-laws respecting such children as 
shall be deemed most conducive to their 
welfare and the good order of such city 
or town2 and there shall be annexed to  
such ordinances suitable penalties1 not 
exceeding1 for any one breach1 a fine of
 twenty dollars4  ,it is made the duty  
of the several cities and towns availing
 themselves of the provisions of this   
act1 to appoint1 at the annual meetings 
of said towns1 or annually by the mayor 
and aldermen of said cities1 three or   
more persons1 who alone shall be        
authorized to make the complaints1 in   
every case of violation of said         
ordinances or by-laws1 to the justice of
 the peace1 or other judicial officer1  
who1 by said ordinances1 shall have     
jurisdiction in the matter1 which       
persons thus appointed shall alone have 
authority to carry into execution the   
judgments of said justices of the peace1
 or other judicial officer4  ,it is     
further provided that the said justices 

of the peace1 or other judicial officer1
 shall1 in all cases1 at their          
discretion1 in place of the fine        
aforesaid1 be authorized to order       
children proved before them to be       
growing up in truancy1 and without the  
benefit of the education provided for   
them by law1 to be placed1 for such     
periods of time as they may judge       
expedient1 in such institution of       
instruction1 or house of reformation1 or
 other suitable situation1 as may be    
assigned or provided for the purpose in 
each city or town availing itself of the
 powers herein granted4  ,this principle
 has been incorporated into several     
municipal codes4 ,children in the city  
of ,boston1 under sixteen years of age1 
whose parents are dead1 or1 if living1  
do1 from vice1 or any other cause1      
neglect to provide suitable employment  
for1 or to exercise salutary control    
over them1 may be sent by the court to  
the house of reformation4 ,by the late  
act1 establishing the ,state ,reform    

,school1 male convicts under sixteen    
years of age may be sent to this school 
from any part of the commonwealth1 to be
 there instructed in piety and morality1
 and in such branches of useful         
knowledge as shall be adapted to their  
age and capacity4 ,the inmates may be   
bound out2 but1 in executing this part  
of their duty1 the trustees shall have  
scrupulous regard to the religious and  
moral character of those to whom they   
are bound1 to the end that they may     
secure to the boys the benefit of a good
 example1 and wholesome instruction1 and
 the sure means of improvement in virtue
 and knowledge1 and thus the opportunity
 of becoming intelligent1 moral1 useful1
 and happy citizens of the commonwealth4
  ,the ,massachusetts ,state ,reform    
,school is designed to be a school for  
the instruction1 reformation1 and       
employment of juvenile offenders4 ,any  
boy under sixteen years of age1         
convicted of any offense punishable by  
imprisonment other than for life1 may be

 sentenced to this school4 ,here he may 
be kept during the term of his sentence2
 or he may be bound out as an           
apprentice2 or1 in case he proves       
incorrigible1 he may be sent to prison1 
as he would originally have been but for
 the existence of this school4  ,the    
buildings erected are sufficiently large
 for three hundred boys4 ,attached to   
the establishment is a large farm1 the  
cost of all which1 when the buildings   
are completed and furnished1 and the    
farm stocked and provided with          
agricultural implements1 it is estimated
 will be about one hundred thousand     
dollars4 ,a citizen of that state has   
given twenty-two thousand five hundred  
dollars to this institution1 partly to  
defray past expenses and partly to form 
a fund for its future benefit4  ,in     
visiting this noble institution1 one can
 not but think how closely it resembles1
 in spirit and in purpose1 the mission  
of ,him who came to seek and to save    
that which was lost2 and yet1 in        

traversing its spacious halls and       
corridors1 the echo of each footfall    
seems to say that one tenth part of its 
cost would have done more in the way of 
prevention than its whole amount can    
accomplish in the way of reclaiming1 and
 would1 besides1 have saved a thousand  
pangs that have torn parental hearts1   
and a thousand more wounds in the hearts
 of the children themselves1 which no   
human power can ever wholly heal4 ,when 
will the state learn that it is better  
to spend its units for prevention than  
tens and hundreds for remedy8 ,how long 
must the state1 like those same         
unfortunate children1 suffer the        
punishment of ,,their existence before  
,,it will be reformed8  ,kindred        
institutions have existed in several of 
our principal cities for a quarter of a 
century1 among which are the ,house of  
,reformation for ,juvenile ,delinquents 
in ,new ,york1 the ,house of ,refuge in 
,philadelphia1 and the ,house of        
,reformation in ,boston4 ,considering   

the degradation of their parents1 the   
absence of correct early instruction1   
and the corrupting influences to which  
the children sent to these institutions 
have been exposed1 becoming generally   
criminals before any effort has been    
made by the humane for their correct    
educational training1 one may well      
wonder at the success which has crowned 
the efforts that have been put forth in 
their behalf1 for the greater part of   
them are effectually and permanently    
reformed4 ,this1 however1 only shows    
more clearly the power of education1 and
 the advantages that may be derived from
 the establishment and maintenance of   
improved common schools throughout our  
country4  ,but how are these reforms    
effected8 ,the means are simple1 and are
 slightly different from those already  
described for the correct training of   
unoffending children4 ,take1 for        
instance1 the ,house of ,reformation in 
the ,city of ,new ,york4 ,in the first  
place1 they have a good school-house1   

embracing nearly all the modern         
improvements4 ,the yard and play-ground 
are of ample dimensions1 and are        
inclosed by a substantial fence4 ,this  
constitutes a barrier beyond which the  
children1 once within1 can not pass4    
,but the clean gravel-walks1 the        
beautiful shade-trees1 the green        
grass-plats1 the sparkling fountains1   
the ornamental flower-garden1 all       
conspire to render the place delightful4
 ,it is1 indeed1 a prison in one sense1 
but the children seem hardly to know it4
 ,then1 again1 well-qualified teachers  
and superintendents are employed4 ,the  
spirit which actuates them is that of   
love4 ,by proving themselves the friends
 of the children1 the children become   
their friends1 and are hence easily     
governed1 considering their former      
neglect4 ,being well instructed1 they   
love study1 and generally make          
commendable progress4 ,their habits are 
regular1 and they are constantly        
employed4 ,a portion of the day is      

devoted to study2 another portion to    
industrial pursuits2 and still another  
to recreation and amusements4 ,strict   
obedience is required4 ,this may be     
yielded at first from restraint1 but    
ultimately from love4 ,the love of kind 
and faithful teachers1 the love of      
approving consciences1 the love of      
right1 the love of ,god1 separately and 
conjointly influence them1 until they   
can say ultimately of a truth1 ,the love
 of ,christ constraineth us4  ,their    
industrial habits are of incalculable   
benefit to them4 ,they all learn some   
trade1 and acquire the habits and the   
skill requisite to constitute them      
producers1 and thus practically conform 
to this fundamental law1 that if any man
 would not work1 neither should he eat4 
,the other conditions that have been    
stated as essential to success are also 
complied with1 the scholars being kept  
under the influence of good teachers1   
and of the same teachers from year to   
year1 during their continuance in the   

institution4  ,the well-qualified and   
eminently successful teacher who has    
long been connected with the ,refuge in 
,new ,york1 in a late report says1 ,the 
habits of industry which the children   
here acquire will be of incalculable    
benefit to them through life4 ,yet we   
look upon the ,school ,department as the
 greatest of all the means employed to  
save our youthful charge from ignorance 
and vice4 ,as it is the mind and the    
heart that are mostly depraved1 so we   
must act mostly upon the mind and the   
heart to eradicate this depravity4  ,the
 education here is a moral education4   
,we do endeavor1 it is true1 by all the 
powers we possess1 to impress upon the  
mind the great importance of a good     
education2 and not only to impress it   
upon the mind1 but to assist the mind to
 act1 that it may obtain it4 ,but our   
principal aim is to fan into life the   
almost dying spark of virtue1 and kindle
 anew the moral feelings1 that they may 
glow with fresh ardor1 and shine forth  

again in the beauty of innocence4 ,our  
object is not to store the memory with  
facts1 but to elevate the soul2 not to  
think for the children1 but to teach    
them to think for themselves2 to        
describe the road1 and put them in the  
way2 never to hint what they have been1 
nor what they are1 but to point them    
continually to what they may be4  ,we   
feel assured that our labor will not be 
lost4 ,judging the future from the past1
 we are sanguine in our belief that our 
toils have left an impress upon the mind
 which time can not efface4 ,scarcely a 
week passes but our hearts are cheered  
and animated1 and our eyes are gladdened
 at the sight of those whom we taught in
 by-gone years1 who bid no fairer then  
to cheer us than those with whom we     
labor now4 ,yet they are saved--saved to
 themselves2 saved to society2 saved to 
their friends--who1 but for this        
,refuge1 would have poisoned the moral  
atmosphere of our land1 and breathed    
around them more deadly effluvia than   

that of the fabled ,upas4  ,the success 
which has attended well-directed efforts
 for the reformation of juvenile        
delinquents1 and evening free schools   
for the education of adults of all ages 
whose early education has been          
neglected1 ought to inspire the friends 
of human improvement with increased     
confidence in the redeeming power of a  
correct early education1 such as every  
state in this ,union may provide for all
 her children4 ,when this confidence is 
begotten1 and when a good common        
education comes to be generally regarded
 as the birth-right of every child in   
the community1 then may the friends of  
free institutions and of indefinite     
human advancement look for the more     
speedy realization of their             
long-cherished hopes4 ,for one          
generation the community must be doubly 
taxed--once in the reformation of       
juvenile delinquents1 and in the        
education of ignorant adults in evening 
schools1 and again in the correct       

training of all our children in improved
 schools4 ,this done1 each succeeding   
generation will come upon the stage     
under more favorable circumstances than 
the preceding1 and each present         
generation will be better prepared to   
educate that which is to follow1 to the 
end of time4   ,,the ,,redeeming ,,power
 ,,of ,,common ,,schools4       ,if all 
our schools were under the charge of    
teachers possessing what     ,i regard  
as the right intellectual and moral     
qualifications1 and if     all the      
children of the community were brought  
under the influence     of these schools
 for ten months in the year1 ,i think   
that the work     of training up ,,the  
,,whole ,,community to intelligence and 
virtue would     soon be accomplished1  
as completely as any human end can be   
obtained     by human means4--,,rev4    
,,jacob ,,abbott4  ,i might here        
introduce a vast amount of              
incontrovertible evidence to show that1 
if the attendance of all the children in

 any commonwealth could be secured at   
such improved common schools as we have 
been contemplating for ten months during
 the year1 from the age of four to that 
of sixteen years1 they would prove      
competent to the removal of ninety-nine 
one hundredths of the evils with which  
society is now infested in one          
generation1 and that they would         
ultimately redeem the state from social 
vices and crimes4  ,the ,hon4 ,horace   
,mann1 late ,secretary of the           
,massachusetts ,board of ,education1    
issued a circular in #ahdg1 in which he 
raised the question now under           
consideration4 ,this circular was sent  
out to a large number of the most       
experienced and reputable teachers in   
the ,northern and ,middle ,states1 all  
of whom were pleased to reply to it4    
,each reply corroborates the position   
here stated2 and1 taken together as a   
whole1 they are entitled to implicit    
credence4 ,the whole correspondence is  
too voluminous to be here exhibited2 ,i 

can not1 however1 forbear introducing a 
few illustrative passages4  ,says ,mr4  
,page1 the late lamented principal of   
the ,new ,york ,state ,normal ,school1  
,could ,i be connected with a school    
furnished with all the appliances you   
name2 where all the children should be  
constant attendants upon my instruction 
for a succession of years2 where all my 
fellow-teachers should be such as you   
suppose2 and where all the favorable    
influences described in your circular   
should surround me and cheer me1 even   
with my moderate abilities as a teacher1
 ,i should scarcely expect1 after the   
first generation submitted to the       
experiment1 to fail in a single case to 
secure the results you have named4  ,mr4
 ,solomon ,adams1 of ,boston1 who has   
been engaged in the profession of       
teaching twenty-four years1 remarks as  
follows3 ,permit me to say that1 in very
 many cases1 after laboring long with   
individuals almost against hope1 and    
sometimes in a manner1 too1 which ,i can

 now see was not always wise1 ,i have   
never had a case which has not resulted 
in some good degree according to my     
wishes4 ,the many kind and voluntary    
testimonials given years afterward by   
persons who remembered that they were   
once my way-ward pupils1 are among the  
pleasantest and most cheering incidents 
of my life4 ,so uniform have been the   
results1 when ,i have had a fair trial  
and time enough1 that ,i have           
unhesitatingly adopted the motto1 ,never
 despair4 ,parents and teachers are apt 
to look for too speedy results from the 
labors of the latter4 ,the moral nature1
 like the intellectual and physical1 is 
long and slow in reaching the full      
maturity of its strength4 ,i was told a 
few years since by a person who knew the
 history of nearly all my pupils for the
 first five years of my labor1 that not 
one of them had ever brought reproach   
upon himself or mortification upon      
friends by a bad life4 ,i can not now   
look over the whole of my pupils1 and   

find one who had been with me long      
enough to receive a decided impression1 
whose life is not honorable and useful4 
,i find them in all the learned         
professions and in the various          
mechanical arts4 ,i find my female      
pupils scattered as teachers through    
half the states of the ,union1 and as   
the wives and assistants of ,christian  
missionaries in every quarter of the    
globe4  ,so far1 therefore1 as my own   
experience goes1 so far as my knowledge 
of the experience of others extends1 so 
far as the statistics of crime throw any
 light upon the subject1 ,i confidently 
expect that ninety-nine in a hundred1   
and ,i think even more1 with such means 
of education as you have supposed1 and  
with such ,divine favor as we are       
authorized to expect1 would become good 
members of society1 the supporters of   
order1 and law1 and truth1 and justice1 
and all righteousness4  ,the ,rev4      
,jacob ,abbott1 who has been engaged in 
the practical duties of teaching for    

about ten years in the cities of ,boston
 and ,new ,york1 and who has had under  
his care about eight hundred pupils of  
both sexes1 and of all ages from four to
 twenty-five1 has expressed in a long   
letter the sentiment placed at the head 
of this section4 ,if all our schools    
were under the charge of teachers       
possessing what ,i regard as the right  
intellectual and moral qualifications1  
and if all the children of the community
 were brought under the influence of    
these schools for ten months in the     
year1 ,i think the work of training up  
,,the ,,whole ,,community to            
intelligence and virtue would soon be   
accomplished as completely as any human 
end can be obtained by human means4     
,mr4 ,roger ,s4 ,howard1 of ,vermont1   
who has been engaged in teaching about  
twenty years1 remarks1 among other      
things1 as follows3 ,judging from what  
,i have seen and do know1 if the        
conditions you have mentioned were      
strictly complied with2 if the          

attendance of the scholars could be as  
universal1 constant1 and long-continued 
as you have stated2 if the teachers were
 men and women of those high            
intellectual and moral qualities--apt to
 teach1 and devoted to their work1 and  
favored with that blessing which the    
word and providence of ,god teach us    
always to expect upon our honest1       
earnest1 and well-directed efforts in so
 good a cause--on these conditions and  
under these circumstances1 ,i do not    
hesitate to express the opinion that the
 failures need not be--would not be one 
per cent4  ,miss ,catharine ,e4         
,beecher1 of ,brattleboro1 ,vermont1 who
 has been engaged directly and          
personally as a teacher about fifteen   
years1 in ,hartford1 ,connecticut1 and  
,cincinnati1 ,ohio1 and who has had the 
charge of not less than a thousand      
pupils from every state in the ,union1  
after stating these and other           
considerations1 remarks as follows3 ,i  
will now suppose that it could be so    

arranged that1 in a given place1        
containing from ten to fifteen thousand 
inhabitants1 in any part of the country 
where ,i ever resided1 all the children 
at the age of four shall be placed six  
hours a day1 for twelve years1 under the
 care of teachers having the same views 
that ,i have1 and having received that  
course of training for their office that
 any state in this ,union can secure to 
the teachers of its children4 ,let it be
 so arranged that all these children    
shall remain till sixteen under these   
teachers1 and also that they shall spend
 their lives in this city1 and ,i have  
no hesitation in saying ,i do not       
believe that one1 no1 ,,not ,a ,,single 
,,one1 would fail of proving a          
respectable and prosperous member of    
society2 nay1 more1 ,i believe every one
 would1 at the close of life1 find      
admission into the world of endless     
peace and love4 ,i say this solemnly1   
deliberately1 and with the full belief  
that ,i am upheld by such imperfect     

experimental trials as ,i have made1 or 
seen made by others2 but1 more than     
this1 that ,i am sustained by the       
authority of ,heaven1 which sets forth  
this grand palladium of education1      
',train up a child in the way he should 
go1 and when he is old he will not      
depart from it4  ,this sacred maxim     
surely sets the ,divine imprimatur to   
the doctrine that all children can be   
trained up in the way they should go1   
and that1 when so trained1 they will not
 depart from it4 ,nor does it imply that
 education alone will secure eternal    
life without supernatural assistance2   
but it points to the true method of     
securing this indispensable aid4  ,in   
this view of the case1 ,i can command no
 language strong enough to express my   
infinite longings that my countrymen1   
who1 as legislators1 have the control of
 the institutions1 the laws1 and the    
wealth of our physically prosperous     
nation1 should be brought to see that   
they now have in their hands the power  

of securing to every child in the coming
 generation a life of virtue and        
usefulness here1 and an eternity of     
perfected bliss hereafter4 ,how1 then1  
can ,i express1 or imagine1 the awful   
responsibility which rests upon them1   
and which hereafter they must bear      
before the great ,judge of nations1 if  
they suffer the present state of things 
to go on1 bearing1 as it does1 thousands
 and hundreds of thousands of helpless  
children in our country to hopeless and 
irretrievable ruin6  ,testimony similar 
to the preceding might be multiplied to 
almost any extent4 ,enough1 however1 ,i 
trust1 has been said to remove any      
doubts in relation to the redeeming     
power of education which the reader may 
have previously entertained4 ,universal 
education1 we have seen1 constitutes the
 most effectual and the only sure means 
of securing to individuals and          
communities1 to states and nations1     
exemption from all avoidable evils of   
whatever kind1 and the possession of a  

competency of this world's goods1 with  
the ability and disposition so to enjoy 
them as most to augment human happiness4
 ,yes1 education1 and nothing short of  
it1 will dissipate the evils of         
ignorance2 it will greatly increase the 
productiveness of labor1 and make men   
more moral1 industrious1 and skillful1  
and thus diminish pauperism and crime1  
while at the same time it will          
indefinitely augment the sum total of   
human happiness4 ,by diminishing the    
number of fatal accidents that are      
constantly occurring in every community1
 and securing to the rising generation  
such judicious physical and moral       
treatment as shall give them sound minds
 in sound bodies1 it will lay an        
unfailing foundation for general        
prosperity1 will greatly promote        
longevity1 and will thus1 in both of    
these and in many other ways1 do more to
 increase the population1 wealth1 and   
universal well-being of the thirty      
states of this ,union than all other    

means of state policy combined4  ,at the
 late ,peace ,convention at ,paris to   
consider the practicability and         
necessity of a ,congress of ,nations to 
adjust national differences1 composed of
 about fifteen hundred members1 picked  
men from every ,christian nation1       
,,victor ,,hugo1 the ,president of the  
,convention1 on taking the chair1 made  
an address that was received with great 
applause1 in which the following        
passages occur3  ,a day will come when  
men will no longer bear arms one against
 the other2 when appeals will no longer 
be made to war1 but to civilization6    
,the time will come when the cannon will
 be exhibited as an old instrument of   
torture1 and wonder expressed how such a
 thing could have been used4 ,a day1 ,i 
say1 will come when the ,united ,states 
of ,america and the ,united ,states of  
,europe will be seen extending to each  
other the hand of fellowship across the 
ocean1 and when we shall have the       
happiness of seeing every where the     

majestic radiation of universal concord4
  ,that such a time will come1 every    
heart that glows with ,christian        
benevolence must earnestly desire and   
fervently pray4 ,but we can not hope to 
attain the end without the use of the   
necessary means4 ,so glorious a result  
as this1 that has become an object of   
universal desire throughout             
,christendom1 must follow when the      
conditions upon which it depends are    
complied with4 ,what these are there can
 be little room for doubt4 ,let1 then1  
every friend of ,universal ,peace seek  
it in the use of the appropriate        
means--,universal ,education4  ,the same
 remark will apply to every form of     
,christian benevolence and universal    
philanthropy2 for1 as has been well     
remarked1 in universal education1 every 
follower of ,god and friend of human    
kind will find the only sure means of   
carrying forward that particular reform 
to which he is devoted4 ,in whatever    
department of philanthropy he may be    

engaged1 he will find that department to
 be only a segment of the great circle  
of beneficence of which ,universal      
,education is the center and            
circumference2 and that he can most     
successfully promote the permanent      
advancement of his most cherished       
interest in securing the establishment  
of1 and attendance upon1 ,,improved     
,,schools ,,free ,,to ,,all4            
,,index4    ,abbott1 ,rev4 ,j41 on the  
redeeming power of common schools1 page 
#def4   ,abdominal ,supporters1 their   
use considered1 #aji4   ,academy1 ,new  
,york ,free1 #chf4   ,accidents1 cause  
and prevention of1 #bih4   ,adams1 ,john
 ,q41 accustomed to the daily reading of
 the ,scriptures1 #bbb4   ,adams1       
,solomon1 on the redeeming power of     
common schools1 #dee4   ,agriculture    
requires education for its successful   
prosecution1 #bfi4   ,air1 want of1     
causes death1 #he4    ,necessary to     
purify the blood1 #hi4    ,what composed
 of1 #hi4    ,quantity respired1 #ia1   

#ic4    ,how changed in respiration1    
#hf1 #hi4    ,once respired will not    
sustain life1 #ia4    ,importance of to 
health1 #ih4    ,abundance of for man's 
use1 #ii4    ,how freed from impurities1
 #ajj4    ,estimated loss of money and  
life from breathing impure1 #bii1 #dch4 
,an excellent medicine1 #ajh4   ,alcott1
 ,dr41 on breathing bad air1 #ajc4      
,alphabet1 how taught1 #dbf4    ,a      
better method1 #dbf-dbg4   ,anecdote of 
the ,indian1 #bjc1 #bbe4    ,of ,laura  
,bridgman1 #aeg-aei4    ,of ,dr4        
,franklin1 #ajc4    ,of a practical     
teacher1 #bef4    ,of a ,german         
schoolmaster1 #daf4    ,of a farmer     
plowing with three horses1 #bed4        
,apoplexy1 how caused1 #ij1 #ib4        
,death by1 #ij1 #ic4   ,apparatus and   
,library1 #cih4    ,may be useful to    
adults1 #cii1 #djj4   ,appurtenances to 
school-houses1 #dja4   ,arithmetic1     
often poorly taught1 #dcc4    ,its      
morals1 #dcg4   ,arts1 the useful1      
require education1 #bgb4                

,improvements made in the1 #bhj1 #bhb4  
,how improvements are to be made in the1
 #bhe4   ,astrology believed in1 to what
 extent1 #bcd4   ,atmospheric           
impurities1 #ajj1 #aja4    ,may be      
detected1 #ajd4    ,barnard1 ,hon4      
,henry1 ,school ,architecture by1 #chj4 
,testimony of1 in relation to school    
libraries1 #djj4    ,in relation to the 
external arrangements of school-houses1 
#djb4   ,bartlett1 ,h41 testimony of in 
relation to the productiveness of labor1
    #bfd4   ,bathing1 the importance of1
 #ei4    ,the luxury of1 #ei4    ,the   
benefits of1 #fj1 #fb4    ,the time for1
 #fa1 #fb4    ,a preservative of health1
 #fc4    ,a good exercise1 #hj4         
,beecher1 ,miss ,catharine ,e41 quoted1 
#deg4   ,benevolent females1 means of   
usefulness of1 #ddd4   ,bible1 its use  
in schools1 #bji4    ,vote on1 in the   
,new ,york ,legislature1 #bai4    ,what 
it has done for mankind1 #bbb4   ,black 
,hole in ,calcutta referred to1 #if1    
#ig4   ,blindness1 hereditary1 #cf4     

,how caused in schools1 #ahb4    ,blind 
persons inferior1 #abd4    ,injured by  
inaction1 #abg4    ,how taught1 #aej4   
,blood1 circulation of the1 #hb4        
,bones1 how injured1 #fh4    ,lengthened
 by habit1 #gb4   ,books furnished at   
the expense of the district1 #ddc4      
,boxing the ears injurious1 #aga4       
,brain1 the seat of the mind1 #aac4     
,its functions the highest in the animal
 economy1 #aac4    ,conditions of its   
healthy action1 #aad1 #aah1 #aba4       
,how affected by bad air1 #aah4         
,requires exercise1 #aba4    ,seclusion 
injurious to1 #abb4    ,want of exercise
 of the1 a cause of disease1 #abg4      
,effects of excessive activity of the1  
#abh1 #abi4    ,in childhood1 #acj-ace4 
,rules for the exercise of the1 #ace1   
#acg1 #adj1 #adc4   ,breath known to    
take fire1 #hf4   ,bull ,fights an      
amusement in ,spain1 #bbh4              
,california1 state of agriculture and   
the arts in1 #bgj4   ,capital punishment
 and compulsory attendance upon school1 

#ddf1 #ddi4   ,carriage of the body     
important1 #ga4   ,celebrations1 common 
school1 recommended1 #cfd4   ,character1
 how affected by associations1 #adb1    
#adc1 #dje4   ,chest1 how developed1    
#fi1 #gi1 #aje1 #ajf4    ,should not be 
compressed1 #hh4   ,children1 seats for1
 #fi4    ,how deformed1 #fi4    ,should 
not be confined too long1 #gg4          
,rational treatment of1 #gg4            
,chylification1 the process and         
necessity of1 #ej4   ,chymification1 the
 second important step in digestion1    
#di4   ,circulation of the blood1 #ha4  
,two circulations1 #hc4   ,clark1 ,john1
 testimony of1 in relation to education 
and labor1 #bfg4   ,cleanliness a       
virtue1 #fj4   ,clergymen1 their        
relation to the primary schools1 #dad1  
#ddb4    ,a text for1 #dde4   ,clothing1
 office of1 #fd4    ,necessity of airing
 and changing1 #fe4   ,cold1 how to     
prevent taking1 #ajh4   ,combe1 ,dr41 on
 bathing1 #fc4   ,confinement injurious 
to children1 #gg4   ,conflagration1     

general1 how it may be produced1 #cbj1  
#cba4   ,consumption1 hereditary1 #hg4  
,how death caused by1 #hd4    ,how      
prevented1 #hj1 #ajf4    ,common among  
the deaf and dumb1 #abf4   ,conventions1
 educational1 recommended1 #cfd4        
,costiveness1 effects of1 #ec4    ,how  
prevented1 #ed4   ,crime diminished by  
education1 #bhf4    ,statistics of1     
#bie4    ,expense of1 #ceh4    ,deaf and
 dumb1 why inferior to other persons1   
#abe4   ,deafness1 cause and cure of1   
#agb4   ,digestion1 process of1 #dh4    
,diseases1 hereditary1 #da1 #aad1 #abf4 
,caused by mental inactivity1 #abg4     
,district libraries1 #cii1 #djj4        
,district lyceum1 how rendered useful1  
#djj4   ,drawing an exercise in schools1
 #aia4   ,drunkenness becomes           
constitutional1 #da1 #db4   ,dumb-bells1
 their use recommended1 #aje1 #djc4     
,ears1 how injured1 #aga4   ,eclipses1 a
 source of alarm to the ignorant and    
superstitious1 #bcc4   ,education1 in   
what it consists1 #ac4    ,not finished 

in schools1 #ah4    ,should have        
reference to man's future existence1    
#ai4    ,not limited to man's physical  
powers1 #bd4    ,not limited to his     
intellectual powers1 #be4    ,not       
limited to his moral powers1 #bf4       
,physically considered1 #bh4            
,intellectual and moral1 #aaa4    ,of   
the five senses1 #adf4    ,necessity of 
moral and religious1 #aic4    ,the      
importance of1 #bbe4    ,it dissipates  
the evils of ignorance1 #bbf1 #bdb4     
,it increases the productiveness of     
labor1 #bec4    ,necessary for females1 
#bfh1 #bgi4    ,it diminishes pauperism 
and crime1 #bhf4    ,it improves the    
moral habits1 #bhg1 #bhh4    ,it        
increases human happiness1 #caa1 #cae4  
,degree of1 in the ,united ,states1     
#ccg4    ,existing provisions for1 #cdc4
    ,the means of rendering its         
blessings universal1 #cfb4              
,educational department1 the state      
should maintain an1 #cgj4   ,emerson1   
,george ,b41 quoted1 #djh4   ,epidemics 

arrested by ventilation1 #aja4          
,evacuation1 importance of1 to the      
preservation of health1 #ec4   ,evening 
schools for adults1 #dec4   ,exercise1  
effects of1 #gd4    ,when not to be     
taken1 #ge4    ,other laws of1 #gg4     
,should be taken regularly1 #gh4        
,experiment on breathing air1 #ia4      
,in visiting a school1 #if4    ,in      
plowing with three horses1 #bed4   ,eye1
 description of the1 #age4    ,its      
sympathy with the other bodily organs1  
#ahd4    ,rational care of the1         
#ahj-aib4    ,see ,sight4    ,factories1
 labor in1 requires education to render 
it productive1 #bfa-bfi4    ,school     
teachers employed in1 #bfh4   ,failures 
in business accounted for in certain    
cases1 #adj1 #ada4   ,farming requires  
knowledge1 #bfi4    ,illustrative       
anecdote1 #bed4    ,in ,california1     
#bgj4   ,females1 benevolent and        
,christian1 their relation to the       
primary school1    #ddb1 #ddd1 #dde4    
,fortune-telling practiced in ,great    

,britain and in the ,united ,states1    
#bcd4   ,fracture of the skull1 cases   
of1 referred to1 #abi4   ,france        
infidel--the ,united ,states ,christian1
 #bjd4   ,franklin's ,methusalem1 #ajc4 
,free ,academy1 ,new ,york1 #chf4       
,freezing of water1 law of1 illustrates 
the beneficence of ,god1 #bba-bbc4      
,french ladies1 posture of1 #ga4        
,friday and other unlucky days1         
#bcf-bch4   ,funds for the support of   
schools1 #cff4    ,when useful1 #cfi4   
,general conflagration may be produced  
by the decomposition of air or    water1
 #cba4   ,geography1 how taught in many 
schools1 #dcb4   ,gestation1 state of   
the mother during1 affects the health   
and happiness    of the offspring1 #aaf1
 #aag4   ,grain1 influence of the moon  
on the growth of1 #bej4   ,greeley1     
,horace1 extract from ,address of1 on   
free schools1 #bfg4    ,habits1 mental  
and physical1 how formed1 #adj4         
,happiness increased by education1 #caa4
   ,health1 laws of1 #dd-ha4   ,hearing1

 the sense of1 #afi4    ,how improved1  
#aga4    ,how injured1 #aga4            
,cultivation of1 #agb-agd4   ,hereditary
 diseases1 #da1 #aae4   ,hot-bed system 
of education1 #acj-ace4   ,house of     
,refuge for juvenile delinquents1       
#dej-deh4   ,howard1 ,roger ,s41 on the 
redeeming power of common schools1 #def4
   ,howe1 ,dr4 ,samuel ,g41 on the      
importance of physical education1 #cf4  
,humphrey1 ,dr41 on moral and religious 
training1 #aid4   ,hypocrisy1 why       
unsuccessful1 #adb4    ,idiocy1 extent  
of1 #cja4 ,causes of1 #cjb1 #cjc1 #dji4 
,idiots1 who are1 in law1 #aea4         
,condition of1 #cjd4    ,may be         
educated1 #cjj1 #cjg4   ,ignorance1 its 
effects considered1 #bcj4    ,of the    
correct treatment of children1 #acc4    
,man in a state of1 #caa4   ,indians    
never have consumption1 #aji4           
,anecdote of an1 #bjc1 #bbe4            
,indigestion caused by mental anxiety1  
#acg4   ,inhaling tubes1 their use      
considered1 #aji1 #aaj4   ,insanity1 how

 caused1 #abf1 #ach1 #cjh1 #dji4        
,instruction1 modes of1 extensively     
practiced1 #dbe4   ,insurance of        
property1 the best modes of1 #bff1 #bfg4
   ,intellectual education1 its nature1 
#aaa4   ,intemperance1 hereditary1 #da1 
#db4    ,a cause of idiocy1 #cjb4       
,expense of1 in this country1 #ceh1     
#cfj4    ,see ,breath4                  
,intermarriages1 influence of1 on       
posterity1 #aae4   ,irritability of     
teachers accounted for1 #abj4           
,juvenile delinquents1 provisions for1  
#ddi1 #dej4    ,knowledge essential to  
prosperity in agriculture1 #bfi4        
,required in the useful arts1 #bgb4     
,see ,education4    ,labor1 education   
increases the productiveness of1 #bec4  
,during rapid growth often injurious1   
#fh4    ,of females in factories and in 
the domestic employments of the sex1    
#bfh1 #bgi4   ,ladies in ,france1       
consequences of their erect posture1    
#ga4   ,lardner1 ,dr41 on popular       
fallacies1 #bdf1 #bdh4   ,laura         

,bridgman1 the deaf1 dumb1 and blind    
girl1 #adh4   ,library and apparatus1   
#cih4 ,township and district libraries1 
#cii4   ,life1 extensive loss of1 how   
caused1 #bih4   ,lunacy1 origin and     
signification of1 #bea1 #beb4   ,lunar  
influences considered1 #bej4   ,lungs   
strengthened by reading aloud and       
singing1 #gi1 #hj4    ,blood changed in 
the1 #he4    ,exhalations from the1 #hf4
    ,absorption in the1 #hg4            
,diseases of the1 hereditary1 #hg4      
,exercise of the1 a means of preventing 
disease1 #aje4    ,when they should not 
be exercised1 #ajg4   ,lyceums in       
districts1 how rendered popular and     
useful1 #djj4    ,mann1 ,hon4 ,horace1  
referred to and quoted1 #beg1 #cbh4     
,manufactories1 to be productive1       
require educated workmen1 #bfa-bfi4     
,education of children employed in1     
#bgh4   ,marriage of relatives a cause  
of consumption1 #abf4    ,a cause of    
idiocy1 #cjc1 #cjd4   ,mastication1     
importance of1 to digestion1 #dh4       

,masturbation1 #dji4    ,see ,secret    
,vice4   ,meals1 proper time for        
partaking of1 #ee4   ,measures1 a system
 of1 for schools1 #ahh1 #djd4   ,mills1 
,james ,k41 testimony of1 in relation to
 education and labor1 #bfa4   ,mind1    
laws of1 #aaa1 #aab4    ,see ,brain4    
,moral education1 its nature1 #aaa4     
,necessity of1 #aic4    ,want of1 a     
cause of insanity1 #cji4    ,should be  
pursued practically1 #dce4   ,moon1 its 
influence on the weather1 #bdh4         
,mortality1 cause and extent of1 among  
infants1 #bih-cjj4   ,muscles1 how they 
act1 #gb4    ,of the eye1 #agi4    ,see 
,exercise4   ,music1 vocal1 a branch of 
education in ,germany1 #hj4    ,national
 education1 political necessity of1     
#cbe4    ,degree of1 in this country1   
#ccg4    ,provisions for1 #cdc4         
,practicability of1 #cec4    ,the means 
of1 #cfb-dfj4   ,natural philosophy1 the
 mode of teaching1 #dcd4   ,navigation  
among the ignorant and educated1 #bej4  
,nerves1 sensibility of the1 #afa1 #afb4

    ,see ,brain4   ,new ,york1 ,free    
,academy1 #chf4    ,public ,schools in1 
#chf1 #dcd4   ,normal ,schools1         
necessity for1 #dba-ddj4    ,oliver     
,caswell1 the deaf1 dumb1 and blind boy1
 #aei4   ,onanism1 #dji4    ,see ,secret
 ,vice4    ,page1 ,d4 ,p41 on the       
redeeming power of common schools1 #ded4
   ,parents1 the natural educators of   
their children1 #daa4    ,vicious1      
sometimes reformed by school children1  
#dda4   ,pauperism1 diminished by       
education1 #bhf4    ,extent of1 in ,new 
,york1 #ceh4    ,expense of maintaining1
 #ceh4   ,peace convention at ,paris    
referred to1 #dei4   ,petulancy in      
teachers and others accounted for1 #id1 
#abj4   ,physical education1 importance 
of1 #bh4    ,a preventive of disease1   
#cd4    ,the only correct basis for     
intellectual and moral1 #cb1 #aaa4      
,physician1 his office and that of the  
clergyman compared1 #cd4    ,how he may 
be most useful in his profession1 #cd1  
#ce4   ,physiology1 made by law a study 

in common schools1 #fa4    ,lectures    
upon1 by school teachers1 #fa4          
,play-rooms1 important for small        
children1 #djc4   ,politics1 definition 
of1 #cce4    ,should be a school study1 
#cce4   ,politeness should be habitual1 
#adb4   ,popular intelligence1 degree   
of1 in the ,united ,states1 #ccg4       
,existing provisions for1 #cdc4         
,poverty1 extent of in ,spain1 #bid4    
,how diminished1 #bec1 #bhf4            
,precocity of scrofulous and rickety    
children1 #acj4    ,how they should be  
treated1 #aca1 #acb1 #acc4   ,pregnancy1
 the state of the mother during1        
influences the character of    the      
child1 #aaf1 #aag4   ,punishments1      
certain kinds injurious1 #gg1 #aga4     
,see ,capital ,punishment4   ,purblind  
students1 suggestions for1 #ahe4        
,quincy1 ,hon4 ,josiah1 ,jr41 on        
compulsory attendance upon school1 #ddg4
    ,reading aloud a healthful exercise1
 #gi4    ,how reading is frequently     
taught1 #dbi4    ,a better way1 #dcj4   

,reading-room in connection with the    
school-house1 #cii4   ,recesses in      
schools should be frequent1 #gg4        
,reform school4    ,see ,state ,reform  
,school4   ,regularity1 in bodily       
exercise1 #gh4    ,in mental exercise1  
#aci4   ,relatives1 consequences of the 
marriage of1 #abf1 #cjc4   ,religion    
defined1 #bjg4    ,of some kind         
unavoidable1 #bjg4   ,religious         
education1 the necessity for1 #aic4     
,should be reduced to practice1 #dce4   
,respiration1 philosophy of1 #ha4       
,rickety children injured by study1     
#acj4   ,riots1 expense of1 in          
,philadelphia1 #ceg4   ,roman notation  
table1 how taught1 #dbh4    ,a better   
way1 #dbi4   ,rush1 ,dr41 on the use of 
tobacco1 #fg4    ,school funds1 their   
utility considered1 #cff-cfi4           
,school-houses1 their common size1 #ib4 
,good ones should be provided1 #cgb4    
,the condition of1 #cgc4    ,the        
location of1 #cgi4    ,size and         
construction of1 #chb4    ,for country  

districts1 #chc4    ,for cities and     
villages1 #che4    ,plans for1 #chg-chi4
    ,ventilation of1 #cij4    ,means of 
warming1 #cib4    ,appurtenances to1    
#dja4    ,influence of1 #dje4           
,schools1 the support of1 #cff4    ,the 
redeeming power of1 #ded4    ,should    
continue through the year1 #ddj4        
,every child should attend1 #ddb4       
,compulsory attendance upon1 #ddg4      
,scrofulous children injured by study1  
#acj4    ,proper treatment of1 #aca1    
#acb4   ,seclusion from society         
injurious to both body and mind1 #abb4  
,secret vice1 how increased1 #dje4      
,how remedied1 #djg4    ,causes idiocy1 
insanity1 and other evils1 #dji4        
,see-saws1 how rendered interesting and 
useful1 #djc4   ,senses1 education of   
the1 #adf4    ,loss of the1 impairs the 
health1 #abd1 #abe4    ,loss of the1    
causes insanity1 #abf4    ,general law  
concerning the1 #afb4    ,their         
cultivation increases human happiness1  
#aia4   ,shooting stars a source of     

terror to the ignorant1 #bcd4           
,shoulder braces1 their use considered1 
#aji1 #aaj4   ,sickness in school       
accounted for1 #id1 #ie1 #if1 #aai4     
,sight1 the sense of1 #age4             
,influence of tobacco and spectacles on 
the1 #ahf4    ,how injured1 and how     
preserved and improved1 #ahj-ahf4       
,how persons become near or long        
sighted1 #ahc1 #ahd4    ,how the sight  
may be disciplined1 #ahh4   ,skin1      
functions of the1 #ee4    ,cleanliness  
of1 important1 #ei4   ,skull1 cases of  
fracture of the1 #abi4   ,smell1 the    
sense of1 #afe4    ,its uses1 #afg4     
,how injured1 #afh4   ,snuff1 its       
influence upon the sense of smell1 #afi4
   ,spectacles1 the use of1 often       
injurious1 #ahf4   ,sports1 what kinds  
most advantageous1 #gi4   ,state ,reform
 ,school in ,massachusetts1 #ddi4       
,statistics of education in the ,united 
,states1 #ccg-cea4   ,stooping1 how     
induced1 #gj4    ,habitual1 to be       
avoided1 #gj4   ,study1 best time for1  

#ach4    ,see ,brain4   ,sulphureted    
hydrogen gas poisonous1 #ajb4   ,summary
 of important principles1 #ade1 #bhf1   
#cbc1 #cfa4    ,of improvements in the  
arts1 #bhb4    ,taste1 the sense of1 its
 uses and abuses1 #afc-afe4   ,teachers1
 why their health fails1 #id-if4        
,employed in factories1 #bfh4    ,their 
relation to the school1 #daj-ddj4       
,books for1 #daj4    ,tobacco used by1  
#dag4    ,indulge in other evil         
practices1 #dag-dbj4    ,who make the   
best1 #dch4    ,qualifications of1 #cdj1
 #cej1 #dag1 #dbj1 #dbb4    ,institutes 
for1 #dbj4   ,teaching1 should be ranked
 among the learned professions1 #dab1   
#dci4    ,compared with the practice of 
law1 #dac4    ,with the business of     
legislation1 #dac4    ,with the practice
 of medicine1 #dad4    ,with the        
clerical profession1 #dad4   ,teeth1    
their relation to health1 #fe4    ,how  
to preserve them1 #fe4    ,acids        
injurious to them1 #ff4    ,tobacco not 
a preservative of1 #ff4   ,timber1 time 

for felling1 #bdh4   ,tobacco1 its use  
tends to drunkenness1 #fg4    ,it       
impairs the sight1 #ahf4    ,used by    
teachers1 #dag4    ,used by ministers1  
#dag1 #dah4    ,a lady's inquiry        
concerning the use of1 #dai4    ,the use
 of1 expensive1 #dbj4   ,touch1 sense   
of1 #afj4    ,how improved1 #afa4       
,township libraries instead of district 
libraries1 #cii4   ,truancy1 legal      
provisions concerning1 #ddg-dej4        
,union or graded schools1 #chd4    ,they
 should possess a normal characteristic1
 #dcc4   ,united ,states1 the1 a        
,christian nation1 #bjd4 ,see ,france4  
,universal education4 ,see ,education1  
,national ,education1 and ,free         
,schools4   ,unlucky days in ,scotland1 
#bcf4    ,in the ,united ,states1 #bcg4 
,vaccination1 how effected1 #ei4        
,ventilation1 necessity of1 #ia-ii4     
,of clothing1 #eg1 #fd4    ,means of1   
#cij1 #cig4   ,vocal gymnastics1        
influence of1 #ajg4   ,vocal music      
useful as an exercise1 #hj4    ,dr4     

,rush's testimony quoted1 #hj4          
,should be introduced into all our      
schools1 #ajg4    ,walking1 not the best
 exercise1 #gh4    ,how rendered most   
beneficial1 #gh4   ,washington1         
quotation from ,farewell ,address of1   
#bba4   ,waste1 the cause of1 #dd4      
,the repair of1 #dg4   ,water1 the      
freezing of1 illustrates the beneficence
 of ,god1 #cba-cbc4   ,watson1 ,rev4    
,james ,v41 on the providence of ,god1  
#fb4   ,weather1 does the moon influence
 the1 #bdh4   ,weights and measures for 
school apparatus1 #djd4 ,see ,measures4 
,witchcraft in ,england and ,new        
,england1 #bdj4    ,young1 the ,hon4    
,samuel1 on the use of the ,bible in    
schools1 #bbj4     ,,the ,,end4         
,valuable ,standard ,publications       
,,issued ,,by  ,,harper  ,,brothers1    
,,new ,,york4    ,addison's complete    
,works4  ,including the ,spectator      
entire4 ,with a ,portrait4 #c vols4     
#hvo1  ,sheep extra1 #e #ej4   ,the     
,spectator in ,miniature4  ,selections  

from the ,spectator2 embracing the most 
interesting  ,papers by ,addison and    
others4 #b vols4 #ahmo1 ,muslin1 #ij    
cents4   ,arabian ,nights'              
,entertainments4  ,or1 the ,thousand and
 ,one ,nights4 ,translated and arranged 
for  ,family ,reading1 with explanatory 
,notes1 by ,e4 ,w4 ,,lane1 ,esq4  ,with 
#fjj ,engravings4 #b vols4 #abmo1       
,muslin1 plain edges1 #c #ej2  ,muslin1 
gilt edges1 #c #ge2 ,turkey ,morocco1   
gilt edges1 #f #jj4   ,bacon and ,locke4
  ,essays1 ,moral1 ,economical1 and     
,political4 ,and the ,conduct  of the   
,understanding4 #ahmo1 ,muslin1 #de     
cents4   ,bucke's ,beauties1 ,harmonies1
 and ,sublimities  of ,nature4 #ahmo1   
,muslin1 #de cents4   ,chesterfield's   
,works4  ,including his ,letters to his 
,son1 complete4 ,with a ,memoir4  #hvo1 
,muslin1 #a #ge4   ,the ,moral1 ,social1
 and ,professional ,duties of           
,attorneys and ,solicitors4 ,by ,,samuel
 ,,warren1 ,f4,r4,s4 #ahmo1  ,muslin1   
#ge cents4   ,the ,incarnation2  ,or1   

,pictures of the ,virgin and her ,son4  
,by the ,rev4 ,,charles  ,,beecher4     
,with an introductory ,essay1 by ,mrs4  
,,harriet ,b4  ,,stowe4 #ahmo1 ,muslin4 
,blackstone's ,commentaries on the ,laws
 of ,england4  ,with the last           
,corrections of the ,author1 and ,notes 
from the ,twenty-first ,london ,edition4
 ,with copious ,notes  explaining the   
,changes in the ,law effected by        
,decision or ,statute  down to #ahdd4   
,together with ,notes adapting the ,work
 to the ,american  ,student1 by ,j4 ,l4 
,,wendell1 ,esq4 ,with a ,memoir of the 
,author4 #d vols4 #hvo1  ,sheep extra1  
#g #jj4   ,burke's complete ,works4     
,with a ,memoir4 ,portrait4 #c vols4    
#hvo1 ,sheep extra1 #e #jj4   ,letters1 
,conversations1 and ,recollections of   
,s4  ,t4 ,coleridge4 #abmo1 ,muslin1 #fe
 cents4   ,specimens of the ,table-talk 
of ,s4 ,t4 ,coleridge4  ,edited by ,h4  
,n4 ,,coleridge4 #abmo1 ,muslin1 #gj    
cents4   ,mardi3 and a ,voyage ,thither4
  ,by ,,herman ,,melville4 #b vols4     

#abmo1 ,muslin1 #a #ge4   ,omoo2  ,or1 a
 ,narrative of ,adventures in the ,south
 ,seas4 ,by ,,herman  ,,melville4 #abmo1
 ,muslin1 #a #be4   ,montgomery's       
,lectures on ,general ,literature1      
,poetry1 c41 with a ,retrospect of      
,literature1 and a ,view of  modern     
,english ,literature4 #ahmo1 ,muslin1   
#de cents4   ,boswell's ,life of ,dr4   
,johnson4  ,including a ,journal of a   
,tour to the ,hebrides4 ,with numerous  
,additions and ,notes1 by ,j4 ,w4       
,,croker1 ,,ll4,d4 ,a new ,edition4     
,portraits4 #b vols4 #hvo1 ,muslin1 #b  
#ge2 ,sheep extra1 #c #jj4   ,dr4       
,samuel ,johnson's complete ,works4     
,with an ,essay on his ,life and        
,genius1 by ,a4 ,,murphy1 ,esq4         
,engravings4 #b vols4 #hvo1 ,muslin1 #b 
#ge2 ,sheep extra1 #c #jj4   ,cicero's  
,offices1 ,orations1 c4  ,the ,orations 
translated by ,,duncan2 the ,offices1 by
 ,,cockman2  and the ,cato and ,laelius1
 by ,,melmoth4 ,with a ,portrait4 #c    
vols4 #ahmo1 ,muslin1 #a #be4   ,paley's

 ,natural ,theology4  ,a new ,edition1  
from large ,type1 edited by ,d4 ,e4     
,,bartlett4  ,copiously ,illustrated1   
and a ,life and ,portrait of the        
,author4  #b vols4 #abmo1 ,muslin1 #a   
#ej4   ,paley's ,natural ,theology4     
,with illustrative ,notes1 c41 by ,lord 
,,brougham and ,sir ,c4  ,,bell1 and    
preliminary ,observations and ,notes1 by
 ,,alonzo ,,potter1  ,d4,d4 ,with       
,engravings4 #b vols4 #ahmo1 ,muslin1   
#ij cents4   ,the ,orations of          
,demosthenes4  ,translated by ,dr4      
,,leland4 #b vols4 #ahmo1 ,muslin1 #he  
cents4   ,lamb's ,works4  ,comprising   
his ,letters1 ,poems1 ,essays of ,elia1 
,essays upon  ,shakespeare1 ,hogarth1   
c41 and a ,sketch of his ,life1 by ,t4  
,n4  ,,talfourd4 ,portrait4 #b vols4    
royal #abmo1 ,muslin1 #b #jj4   ,hoes   
and ,way's ,anecdotical ,olio4          
,anecdotes1 ,literary1 ,moral1          
,religious1 and ,miscellaneous4 #hvo1   
,muslin1 #a #jj4   ,dendy's ,philosophy 
of ,mystery4  #abmo1 ,muslin1 #ej cents4

   ,potter's ,hand-book for ,readers and
 ,students1  ,intended to assist private
 ,individuals1 ,associations1 ,school   
,districts1  c41 in the ,selection of   
useful and interesting ,works for       
,reading and ,investigation4 #ahmo1     
,muslin1 #de cents4   ,amenities of     
,literature2  ,consisting of ,sketches  
and ,characters of ,english ,literature 
,by ,i4 ,d',,israeli1 ,d4,c4,l41        
,f4,s4,a4 #b vols4 #abmo1 ,muslin1 #a   
#ej4   ,dryden's complete ,works4  ,with
 a ,memoir4 ,portrait4 #b vols4 #hvo1   
,sheep extra1 #c #ge4   ,woman in       
,america2  ,being an ,examination into  
the ,moral and ,intellectual ,condition 
of ,american ,female ,society4 ,by ,mrs4
 ,a4 ,j4 ,,graves4 #ahmo1  ,muslin1 #de 
cents4   ,homes and ,haunts of the most 
eminent ,british  ,poets4 ,by ,,william 
,,howitt4 ,with numerous ,illustrations4
  #b vols4 #abmo1 ,muslin1 #c #jj4      
,mrs4 ,jameson's ,visits and ,sketches  
at ,home  and ,abroad4 ,including the   
,diary of an ,ennuyee4 #b vols  #abmo1  

,muslin1 #a #jj4   ,the ,sacred         
,philosophy of the ,seasons4            
,illustrating the ,perfections of ,god  
in the ,phenomena of the  ,year4 ,by the
 ,rev4 ,,henry ,,duncan1 ,d4,d4 ,edited 
by ,f4 ,w4 ,p4  ,,greenwood1 ,d4,d4 #d  
vols4 #abmo1 ,muslin1 #c #jj4           
,mackenzie's ,novels and ,miscellaneous 
,works3  ,comprising ,the ,man of       
,feeling1 ,the ,man of the ,world1      
,julia  de ,roubigne1 c4 ,with a ,memoir
 of the ,author1 by ,sir ,,walter       
,,scott4 ,royal #abmo1 ,muslin1 #a #jj4 
,how to ,observe3 ,morals and ,manners4 
,by ,miss ,,harriet ,,martineau4 #abmo1 
,muslin1 #db-a_/b cents4   ,the ,spoon4 
,with upward of #ajj ,illustrations1    
,primitive1 ,egyptian1 ,roman1          
,mediaeval1 and ,modern4 ,by ,h4 ,o4    
,,westman4 #hvo1 ,muslin1 #a #be4       
,neele's ,literary ,remains4  ,the      
,literary ,remains of ,henry ,neele4    
#hvo1 ,muslin1 #a #jj4   ,a ,new ,spirit
 of the ,age4  ,edited by ,r4 ,h4       
,,horne4 #abmo1 ,paper1 #be cents4      

,men1 ,women1 and ,books4  ,a ,selection
 of ,sketches1 ,essays1 and ,critical   
,memoirs1 from his  uncollected ,prose  
,writings4 ,by ,,leigh ,,hunt4 #b vols4 
#abmo1 ,muslin1 #a4ej4   ,georgia       
,scenes4  ,with original ,illustrations4
 #abmo1 ,muslin1 #ij cents4   ,hannah   
,more's complete ,works4  ,with         
,engravings4 #a vol4 #hvo1 ,sheep extra1
 #b #ej2 #b vols41  ,sheep extra1 #b    
#ge4   ,hannah ,more's complete ,works4 
,printed from large ,type4 #g vols4     
royal #abmo1 ,muslin1 #f #ej4   ,blunt's
 ,ship-master's ,assistant and          
,commercial  ,digest3 comprising        
,information necessary for ,merchants1  
,owners1 and ,masters of ,ships on the  
following ,subjects3 ,masters1  ,mates1 
,seamen1 ,owners1 ,ships1 ,navigation   
,laws1 ,fisheries1  ,revenue ,cutters4  
,custom ,house ,laws1 ,importations1    
,clearing and ,entering  ,vessels1      
,drawbacks1 ,freight1 ,insurance1       
,average1 ,salvage1 ,bottomry and       
,respondentia1 ,factors1 ,bills of      

,exchange1 ,exchange1 ,currencies1      
,weights1  ,measures1 ,wreck ,laws1     
,quarantine ,laws1 ,passenger ,laws1    
,pilot ,laws1 ,harbor  ,regulations1    
,marine ,offenses1 ,slave ,trade1 ,navy1
 ,pensions1 ,consuls1  ,commercial      
,regulations of ,foreign ,nations4 ,with
 an ,appendix1 containing  the ,tariff  
of the ,united ,states1 and an          
,explanation of ,sea ,terms4 #hvo1      
,sheep extra1 #d #ej4   ,miss           
,edgeworth's ,tales and ,novels4  ,with 
,engravings4 #aj vols4 #abmo1 ,muslin4  
#ge cents per ,volume4  ,sold separately
 or in ,sets4   ,mrs4 ,sherwood's       
,works4  ,with ,engravings4 #af vols4   
#abmo1 ,muslin4 #he cents per ,volume4  
,sold separately or in ,sets4   ,louis  
the ,fourteenth1 and the ,court of      
,france  in the ,seventeenth ,century4  
,by ,miss ,,pardoe4 ,with numerous      
,engravings1 ,portraits1 c4 #b vols4    
#abmo1 ,muslin1 #c #ej4   ,the          
,philosophy of ,life and ,philosophy of 
,language1  in a ,course of ,lectures4  

,by ,,frederick ,,von ,,schlegel4       
,translated from the ,german1 by the    
,rev4 ,a4 ,j4 ,w4 ,,morrison1  ,m4,a4   
#abmo1 ,muslin1 #ij cents4   ,prescott's
 ,biographical and ,critical            
,miscellanies4  ,containing ,notices of 
,charles ,brockden ,brown1 the          
,american ,novelist4--,asylum for the   
,blind4--,irving's ,conquest  of        
,granada4--,cervantes4--,sir ,walter    
,scott4--,chateaubriand's  ,english     
,literature4--,bancroft's ,history of   
the ,united ,states4--,madame           
,calderon's ,life in                    
,mexico4--,moliere4--,italian ,narrative
  ,poetry4--,scottish ,song1 c4 #hvo1   
,muslin1 #b #jj2 ,sheep  extra1 #b #be2 
half ,calf1 #b #ej4   ,pursuit of       
,knowledge under ,difficulties2  ,its   
,pleasures and ,rewards4 ,illustrated by
 ,memoirs of eminent  ,men4 #b vols4    
#ahmo1 ,muslin1 #ij cents4   ,pursuit of
 ,knowledge under ,difficulties2  ,its  
,pleasures and ,rewards4 ,illustrated by
 ,memoirs of eminent  ,men4 ,edited by  

,rev4 ,dr4 ,,wayland4 ,with ,portraits4 
#b vols4  #abmo1 ,muslin1 #a #ej4       
,letters to ,mothers4  ,by ,mrs4 ,l4 ,h4
 ,,sigourney4 #abmo1 ,muslin1 #ij cents2
 ,muslin1  gilt edges1 #a #jj4          
,letters to ,young ,ladies4  ,by ,mrs4  
,l4 ,h4 ,,sigourney4 #abmo1 ,muslin1 #ij
 cents2 ,muslin1  gilt edges1 #a #jj4   
,the ,doctor1 c4  ,by ,,robert          
,,southey4 #abmo1 ,muslin1 #de cents4   
,percy ,anecdotes4  ,to which is added1 
a ,selection of ,american ,anecdotes4   
,with  ,portraits4 #hvo1 ,sheep extra1  
#b #jj4   ,the ,writings of ,robert ,c4 
,sands4  ,with a ,memoir4 #b vols4 #hvo1
 ,muslin1 #c #ge4   ,sismondi's         
,historical ,view of the ,literature  of
 the ,south of ,europe4 ,translated1    
with ,notes1 by ,,thomas  ,,roscoe4 #b  
vols4 #abmo1 ,muslin1 #a #hj4   ,hon4   
,j4 ,c4 ,smith's ,correspondence and    
,miscellanies4  ,with an ,eulogy1 by the
 ,rev4 ,,william ,w4 ,,andrews4  #abmo1 
,muslin1 #a #jj4   ,england and         
,america3  ,a ,comparison of the ,social

 and ,political ,state of both ,nations4
  ,by ,e4 ,g4 ,,wakefield4 #hvo1        
,muslin1 #a #be4   ,letters of the      
,british ,spy4  ,by ,,william ,,wirt4   
,to which is prefixed a ,sketch of the  
,author's  ,life4 #abmo1 ,muslin1 #fj   
cents4   ,paulding's ,letters from the  
,south4  #b vols4 #abmo1 ,muslin1 #a    
#be4   ,indian ,tales and ,legends2     
,or1 ,algic ,researches4 ,comprising    
,inquiries respecting the  ,mental      
,characteristics of the ,north ,american
 ,indians4 ,by  ,,henry ,r4             
,,schoolcraft4 #b vols4 #abmo1 ,muslin1 
#a #be4   ,cassius ,m4 ,clay's          
,writings2  ,including ,speeches and    
,addresses4 ,with a ,preface and        
,memoir1  by ,,horace ,,greeley4        
,portrait4 #hvo1 ,muslin1 #a #ej4       
,past and ,present1 ,chartism1 and      
,sartor ,resartus4  ,by ,,thomas        
,,carlyle4 #abmo1 ,muslin1 #a #jj4      
,mathews's ,miscellaneous ,writings3    
,embracing ,the ,motley ,book1          
,behemoth1 ,the ,politicians1 ,poems  on

 ,man in the ,republic1 ,wakondah1      
,puffer ,hopkins1 ,miscellanies1  c4    
#hvo1 ,muslin1 #a #jj4   ,verplanck's   
,right ,moral ,influence and ,use of    
,liberal ,studies4 #abmo1 ,muslin1 #be  
cents4   ,raphael2  ,or1 ,pages of the  
,book of ,life at ,twenty4 ,by ,a4 ,,de 
,,lamartine4  #abmo1 ,paper1 #be cents4 
,thankfulness4  ,a ,narrative4          
,comprising ,passages from the ,diary of
 the ,rev4  ,allan ,temple4 ,by the     
,rev4 ,c4 ,b4 ,,tayler4 #abmo1 ,paper1  
#cg-a_/b  cents2 ,muslin1 #ej cents4    
,longfellow's ,poems4  ,a new ,edition1 
enlarged by the ,addition of            
,evangeline4  #hvo1 ,paper1 #fb-a_/b    
cents4   ,harper's ,illustrated         
,shakespeare4  ,the complete ,dramatic  
,writings of ,william ,shakespeare1     
arranged  according to recent approved  
collations of the ,text2 with ,notes and
  other ,illustrations1 by ,hon4        
,,gulian ,c4 ,,verplanck4 ,superbly     
,embellished  by over #adjj exquisite   
,engravings by ,hewet1 after ,designs by

 ,meadows1  ,weir1 and other eminent    
,artists4 #c vols4 royal #hvo1 ,muslin1 
#ah #jj2 half  ,calf1 #bj #jj2 ,turkey  
,morocco1 gilt edges1 #be #jj4          
,shakespeare's ,dramatic ,works4  ,with 
the ,corrections and ,illustrations of  
,dr4 ,,johnson1 ,g4  ,,steevens1 and    
others4 ,revised by ,,isaac ,,reed1     
,esq4 ,with ,engravings4 #f  vols4 royal
 #abmo1 ,muslin1 #f #ej4                
,shakespeare's ,dramatic ,works and     
,poems4  ,with ,notes1 by ,,samuel      
,,weller ,,singer1 and a ,life of the   
,poet1  by ,,charles ,,symmons1 ,d4,d4  
,with ,engravings4 #hvo1 ,sheep extra1  
#a vol41  #b #ej2 #b vols41 #b #ge4     
,milton's ,poetical ,works4  ,with a    
,memoir and ,critical ,remarks on his   
,genius and ,writings1 by ,,james       
,,montgomery4 ,with #abj ,engravings4 #b
 vols4 #hvo1 ,muslin1 gilt edges1 #c    
#ge2  imitation ,morocco1 gilt edges1 #d
 #be2 ,turkey ,morocco1 gilt edges1 #e  
#jj4   ,cowper's ,poetical ,works4      
,with a ,biographical and ,critical     

,introduction1 by the ,rev  ,,thomas    
,,dale4 ,with #ge ,illustrations4 #b    
vols4 #hvo1 ,muslin1  gilt edges1 #c    
#ge2 ,turkey ,morocco1 gilt edges1 #e   
#jj4   ,thomson's ,seasons4  ,with      
numerous engraved ,illustrations4 ,and  
with the ,life of the ,author1  by      
,,patrick ,,murdoch1 ,d4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4  
,edited by ,,bolton ,,corney1 ,esq4     
#hvo1  ,muslin1 gilt edges1 #b #ge2     
imitation ,morocco1 gilt edges1 #c #ej2 
,turkey  ,morocco1 gilt edges1 #d #jj4  
,goldsmith's ,poetical ,works4          
,illustrated by numerous ,wood          
,engravings4 ,with a ,biographical      
,memoir1 and ,notes on the ,poems4      
,edited by ,,bolton ,,corney1  ,esq4    
#hvo1 ,muslin1 gilt edges1 #b #ej2      
imitation ,morocco1  gilt edges1 #c #be2
 ,turkey ,morocco1 gilt edges1 #c #ge4  
,popular ,works  ,,on ,,education1      
,,composition1 ,,rhetoric1 ,,etc4       
,,published ,,by  ,,harper  ,,brothers1 
,,new ,,york4    ,alison on the ,nature 
and ,principles of ,taste  ,with        

,corrections and ,improvements1 by      
,,abraham ,,mills4  #abmo1 ,muslin1 #ge 
cents4   ,beecher's 7,miss7 ,address4   
,the ,evils suffered by ,american ,women
 and ,american ,children3  the ,causes  
and the ,remedy4 ,also1 an ,address to  
the ,protestant ,clergy of  the ,united 
,states4 #hvo1 ,paper1 #ab-a_/b cents4  
,boyd's ,elements of ,rhetoric and      
,literary ,criticism4  ,with practical  
,exercises and ,examples4 ,also1 a      
succinct  ,history of the ,english      
,language1 and of ,british and          
,american ,literature4 #ahmo1 half      
,bound1 #ej cents4   ,burke on the      
,sublime and ,beautiful4  ,a            
,philosophical ,inquiry into the ,origin
 of our ,ideas of the ,sublime  and     
,beautiful4 ,with an introductory       
,discourse concerning  ,taste4 ,edited  
by ,a4 ,,mills4 #abmo1 ,muslin1 #ge     
cents4   ,campbell's ,philosophy of     
,rhetoric4  ,revised ,edition4 #abmo1   
,muslin1 #a #be4   ,dick on the         
,improvement of ,society by the         

,diffusion  of ,knowledge4 #ahmo1       
,muslin1 #de cents4   ,combe's          
,constitution of ,man1  ,considered in  
,relation to external ,objects4 #ahmo1  
,muslin1 #de cents4   ,duty of ,american
 ,women to their ,country4  #ahmo1      
,muslin1 #cg-a_/b cents4   ,edgeworth's 
,treatise on ,practical ,education4  ,by
 ,,richard ,l4 ,,edgeworth and ,,maria  
,,edgeworth4 ,engravings4  #abmo1       
,muslin1 #he cents4   ,family           
,instructor2  ,or1 a ,manual of the     
,duties of ,domestic ,life4 ,by a       
,parent4  #ahmo1 ,muslin1 #de cents4    
,the ,importance of ,practical          
,education and  ,useful ,knowledge4 ,by 
,hon4 ,,edward ,,everett4 #abmo1        
,muslin1  #ge cents4   ,johnson's 7,a4  
,b47 ,lectures to ,young ,men4          
,religion in its ,relation to the       
,present ,life4 ,in a ,series of        
,lectures4 #ahmo1 ,muslin1 #de cents4   
,johnson's 7,a4 ,b47 ,treatise on       
,language2  ,or1 the ,relations which   
,words bear to ,things4 #hvo1 ,muslin1  

#a #ge4   ,maury's ,principles of       
,eloquence4  ,with an ,introduction1 by 
,rev4 ,dr4 ,,potter4 #ahmo1 ,muslin1 #de
  cents2 half ,bound1 #ej cents4        
,parker's ,aids to ,english             
,composition4  ,embracing ,specimens and
 ,examples of ,school and ,college      
,exercises1  and most of the higher     
,departments of ,english ,composition4  
#abmo1 ,muslin1 #hj cents2 ,sheep extra1
 #ij cents4   ,sedgwick's 7,miss7 ,means
 and ,ends2  ,or1 ,self-training4 #ahmo1
 ,muslin1 #de cents4   ,the ,school and 
the ,schoolmaster4  ,the ,school2 its   
,objects1 ,relations1 and ,uses4 ,with a
 ,sketch of the  ,education most needed 
in the ,united ,states1 the present     
,state of ,common  ,schools1 c4 ,by     
,rev4 ,dr4 ,,potter4--,the proper       
,character1 ,studies1 and  ,duties of   
the ,teacher1 with the best ,methods for
 the ,government and  ,instruction of   
,common ,schools1 and the ,principles on
 which ,school-houses  should be ,built1
 ,arranged1 ,warmed1 and ,ventilated4   

,by ,g4 ,b4 ,,emerson4  ,with           
,engravings4 #abmo1 ,muslin1 #a #jj4    
,phelps's 7,mrs47 ,fireside ,friend2    
,or1 ,female ,student3 being ,advice to 
,young ,ladies on the  ,subject of      
,education4 #abmo1 ,muslin1 #ge cents4  
,smith's ,history of ,education3  ,with 
a ,plan of ,culture and ,instruction1   
based on ,christian  ,principles1 and   
designed to aid in the right ,education 
of ,youth1  ,physically1                
,intellectually1 and ,morally4 #ahmo1   
,muslin1 #de cents4   ,russell's        
,juvenile ,speaker1  ,comprising        
elementary ,rules and ,exercises in     
,declamation1  with a ,selection of     
,pieces for ,practice4 #abmo1 ,muslin1  
#fj cents2  half ,bound1 #gj cents4     
,mill's ,logic1 ,ratiocinative and      
,inductive4  ,being a connected ,view of
 the ,principles of ,evidence and       
,methods of ,scientific ,investigation4 
#hvo1 ,muslin1 #b #jj4   ,cicero's      
,three ,dialogues on the ,orator4       
,translated into ,english by ,w4        

,,guthrie4 ,revised and corrected1  with
 ,notes4 #ahmo1 ,muslin1 #de cents4     
,nott's ,counsels to ,young ,men1  ,on  
the ,formation of ,character1 and the   
,principles which lead to  ,success and 
,happiness in ,life4 #ahmo1 ,muslin1 #ej
 cents4