,this ebook was transcribed by ,les ,bowler4 ,picture3 ,george ,stephenson ,,lives ,,of ,,the ,,engineers4 ,,the ,,locomotive4 ,,george ,,and ,,robert ,,stephenson4 ,,by ,,samuel ,,smiles1 ,,author ,,of ',,character1' ',,self-,,help1' ,,etc4 ,bid ,harbours open1 ,public ,ways extend2 ,bid ,temples1 worthier of ,god1 ascend2 ,bid the broad ,arch the dang'rous flood contain1 ,the ,mole projected break the roaring main1 ,back to his bounds their subject sea command1 ,and roll obedient rivers through the land4 ,these honours1 ,peace to happy ,britain brings2 ,these are imperial works1 and worthy kings4 ,,pope4 ,a ,,new ,,and ,,revised ,,edition4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,london3 ,,john ,,murray1 ,,albemarle ,,street #ahgi4 ,the right of ,translation is reserved4 ,,introduction4 ,since the appearance of this book in its original form1 some seventeen years since1 the construction of ,railways has continued to make extraordinary progress4 ,although ,great ,britain1 first in the field1 had then1 after about twenty-five years' work1 expended nearly #cjj millions sterling in the construction of #hcjj miles of railway1 it has1 during the last seventeen years1 expended about #bhh millions more in constructing #gghj additional miles4 ,but the construction of railways has proceeded with equal rapidity on the ,continent4 ,france1 ,germany1 ,spain1 ,sweden1 ,belgium1 ,switzerland1 ,holland1 have largely added to their railway mileage4 ,austria is actively engaged in carrying new lines across the plains of ,hungary1 which ,turkey is preparing to meet by lines carried up the valley of the ,lower ,danube4 ,russia is also occupied with extensive schemes for connecting ,petersburg and ,moscow with her ports in the ,black ,sea on the one hand1 and with the frontier towns of her ,asiatic empire on the other4 ,italy is employing her new-born liberty in vigorously extending railways throughout her dominions4 ,a direct line of communication has already been opened between ,france and ,italy1 through the ,mont ,cenis ,tunnel2 while another has been opened between ,germany and ,italy through the ,brenner ,pass1--so that the entire journey may now be made by two different railway routes 7excepting only the short sea-passage across the ,english ,channel7 from ,london to ,brindisi1 situated in the south-eastern extremity of the ,italian peninsula4 ,during the last sixteen years1 nearly the whole of the ,indian railways have been made4 ,when ,edmund ,burke1 in #aghc1 arraigned the ,british ,government for their neglect of ,india in his speech on ,mr4 ,fox's ,bill1 he said3 ,england has built no bridges1 made no high roads1 cut no navigations1 dug out no reservoirs4 4 4 4 ,were we to be driven out of ,india this day1 nothing would remain to tell that it had been possessed1 during the inglorious period of our dominion1 by anything better than the ourang-outang or the tiger4 ,but that reproach no longer exists4 ,some of the greatest bridges erected in modern times--such as those over the ,sone near ,patna1 and over the ,jumna at ,allahabad--have been erected in connection with the ,indian railways4 ,more than #ejjj miles are now at work1 and they have been constructed at an expenditure of about #hh1jjj1jjj pounds of ,british capital1 guaranteed by the ,british ,government4 ,the ,indian railways connect the capitals of the three ,presidencies--uniting ,bombay with ,madras on the south1 and with ,calcutta on the north-east--while a great main line1 #bbjj miles in extent1 passing through the north-western provinces1 and connecting ,calcutta with ,lucknow1 ,delhi1 ,lahore1 ,moultan1 and ,kurrachee1 unites the mouths of the ,hooghly in the ,bay of ,bengal with those of the ,indus in the ,arabian ,sea4 ,when the first edition of this work appeared1 in the beginning of #aheg1 the ,canadian system of railways was but in its infancy4 ,the ,grand ,trunk was only begun1 and the ,victoria ,bridge--the greatest of all railway structures--was not half erected4 ,the ,colony of ,canada has now more than #cjjj miles in active operation along the great valley of the ,st4 ,lawrence1 connecting ,riviere du ,loup at the mouth of that river1 and the harbour of ,portland in the ,state of ,maine1 via ,montreal and ,toronto1 with ,sarnia on ,lake ,huron1 and with ,windsor1 opposite ,detroit in the ,state of ,michigan4 ,during the same time the ,australian ,colonies have been actively engaged in providing themselves with railways1 many of which are at work1 and others are in course of formation4 ,the ,cape of ,good ,hope has several lines open1 and others making4 ,france has constructed about #djj miles in ,algeria2 while the ,pasha of ,egypt is the proprietor of #cfj miles in operation across the ,egyptian desert4 ,the ,japanese are also making railroads4 ,but in no country has railway construction been prosecuted with greater vigour than in the ,united ,states4 ,there the railway furnishes not only the means of intercommunication between already established settlements1 as in the ,old ,world2 but it is regarded as the pioneer of colonization1 and as instrumental in opening up new and fertile territories of vast extent in the west1--the food-grounds of future nations4 ,hence railway construction in that country was scarcely interrupted even by the great ,civil ,war1--at the commencement of which ,mr4 ,seward publicly expressed the opinion that physical bonds--such as highways1 railroads1 rivers1 and canals--are vastly more powerful for holding civil communities together than any mere covenants1 though written on parchment or engraved on iron4 ,the people of the ,united ,states were the first to follow the example of ,england1 after the practicability of steam locomotion had been proved on the ,stockton and ,darlington1 and ,liverpool and ,manchester ,railways4 ,the first sod of the ,baltimore and ,ohio ,railway was cut on the #dth of ,july1 #ahbh1 and the line was completed and opened for traffic in the following year1 when it was worked partly by horse-power1 and partly by a locomotive built at ,baltimore1 which is still preserved in the ,company's workshops4 ,in #ahcj1 the ,hudson and ,mohawk ,railway was begun1 while other lines were under construction in ,pennsylvania1 ,massachusetts1 and ,new ,jersey2 and in the course of ten years1 #ahdc miles were finished and in operation4 ,in ten more years1 #hhbg miles were at work2 at the end of #ahfd1 #ce1jjj miles2 and at the #cast of ,december1 #ahgc1 not less than #gj1fea miles were in operation1 of which #ciaf had been made during that year4 ,one of the most extensive trunk-lines is the ,great ,pacific ,railroad1 connecting the lines in the valleys of the ,mississippi and the ,missouri with the city of ,san ,francisco on the shores of the ,pacific1 by means of which it is possible to make the journey from ,england to ,hong ,kong1 via ,new ,york1 in little more than a month4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the results of the working of railways have been in many respects different from those anticipated by their projectors4 ,one of the most unexpected has been the growth of an immense passenger-traffic4 ,the ,stockton and ,darlington line was projected as a coal line only1 and the ,liverpool and ,manchester as a merchandise line4 ,passengers were not taken into account as a source of revenue1 for at the time of their projection1 it was not believed that people would trust themselves to be drawn upon a railway by an explosive machine1 as the locomotive was described to be4 ,indeed1 a writer of eminence declared that he would as soon think of being fired off on a ricochet rocket1 as travel on a railway at twice the speed of the old stagecoaches4 ,so great was the alarm which existed as to the locomotive1 that the ,liverpool and ,manchester ,committee pledged themselves in their second prospectus1 issued in #ahbe1 not to require any clause empowering its use2 and as late as #ahbi1 the ,newcastle and ,carlisle ,act was conceded on the express condition that the line should not be worked by locomotives1 but by horses only4 ,nevertheless1 the ,liverpool and ,manchester ,company obtained powers to make and work their railway without any such restriction2 and when the line was made and opened1 a locomotive passenger train was advertised to be run upon it1 by way of experiment4 ,greatly to the surprise of the directors1 more passengers presented themselves as travellers by the train than could conveniently be carried4 ,the first arrangements as to passenger-traffic were of a very primitive character1 being mainly copied from the old stage-coach system4 ,the passengers were booked at the railway office1 and their names were entered in a way-bill which was given to the guard when the train started4 ,though the usual stage-coach bugleman could not conveniently accompany the passengers1 the trains were at first played out of the terminal stations by a lively tune performed by a trumpeter at the end of the platform2 and this continued to be done at the ,manchester ,station until a comparatively recent date4 ,but the number of passengers carried by the ,liverpool and ,manchester line was so unexpectedly great1 that it was very soon found necessary to remodel the entire system4 ,tickets were introduced1 by which a great saving of time was effected4 ,more roomy and commodious carriages were provided1 the original first-class compartments being seated for four passengers only4 ,everything was found to have been in the first instance made too light and too slight4 ,the prize ',rocket1' which weighed only #d4e tons when loaded with its coke and water1 was found quite unsuited for drawing the increasingly heavy loads of passengers4 ,there was also this essential difference between the old stage-coach and the new railway train1 that1 whereas the former was full with six inside and ten outside1 the latter must be able to accommodate whatever number of passengers came to be carried4 ,hence heavier and more powerful engines1 and larger and more substantial carriages were from time to time added to the carrying stock of the railway4 ,the speed of the trains was also increased4 ,the first locomotives used in hauling coal-trains ran at from four to six miles an hour4 ,on the ,stockton and ,darlington line the speed was increased to about ten miles an hour2 and on the ,liverpool and ,manchester line the first passenger-trains were run at the average speed of seventeen miles an hour1 which at that time was considered very fast4 ,but this was not enough4 ,when the ,london and ,birmingham line was opened1 the mail-trains were run at twenty-three miles an hour2 and gradually the speed went up1 until now the fast trains are run at from fifty to sixty miles an hour1--the pistons in the cylinders1 at sixty miles1 travelling at the inconceivable rapidity of #hjj feet per minute6 ,to bear the load of heavy engines run at high speeds1 a much stronger and heavier road was found necessary2 and shortly after the opening of the ,liverpool and ,manchester line1 it was entirely relaid with stronger materials4 ,now that express passenger-engines are from thirty to thirty-five tons each1 the weight of the rails has been increased from #ce lbs4 to #ge lbs4 or #hf lbs4 to the yard4 ,stone blocks have given place to wooden sleepers2 rails with loose ends resting on the chairs1 to rails with their ends firmly fished together2 and in many places1 where the traffic is unusually heavy1 iron rails have been replaced by those of steel4 ,and now see the enormous magnitude to which railway passenger-traffic has grown4 ,in the year #ahgc1 #dja1dfe1jhf passengers were carried by day tickets in ,great ,britain alone4 ,but this was not all4 ,for in that year #beg1dgj periodical tickets were issued by the different railways2 and assuming half of them to be annual1 one-fourth half-yearly1 and the remainder quarterly tickets1 and that their holders made only five journeys each way weekly1 this would give an additional number of #dg1jbd1jjj journeys1 or a total of #ddh1dhi1jhf passengers carried in ,great ,britain in one year4 ,it is difficult to grasp the idea of the enormous number of persons represented by these figures4 ,the mind is merely bewildered by them1 and can form no adequate notion of their magnitude4 ,to reckon them singly would occupy twenty-five years1 counting at the rate of one a second for twelve hours every day4 ,or take another illustration4 ,supposing every man1 woman1 and child in ,great ,britain to make ten journeys by rail yearly1 the number would greatly fall short of the passengers carried in #ahgc4 ,mr4 ,porter1 in his ',progress of the ,nation1' estimated that thirty millions of passengers1 or about eighty-two thousand a day1 travelled by coaches in ,great ,britain in #ahcd1 an average distance of twelve miles each1 at an average cost of #es4 a passenger1 or at the rate of #e;d4 a mile2 whereas above #ddh millions are now carried by railway an average distance of #h4e miles each1 at an average cost of #as4 #a4e;d4 per passenger1 or about three halfpence per mile1 in considerably less than one-fourth of the time4 ,but besides the above number of passengers1 over one hundred and sixty-two million tons of minerals and merchandise were carried by railway in the ,united ,kingdom in #ahgc1 besides mails1 cattle1 parcels1 and other traffic4 ,the distance run by passenger and goods trains in the year was #afb1efa1cjd miles2 to accomplish which it is estimated that four miles of railway must have been covered by running trains during every second all the year round4 ,to perform this service1 there were1 in #ahgc1 #aa1bee locomotives at work in the ,united ,kingdom1 consuming about four million tons of coal and coke1 and flashing into the air every minute some forty tons of water in the form of steam in a high state of elasticity4 ,there were also #bd1fdd passenger-carriages1 #iabh vans and breaks attached to passenger-trains1 and #cbi1afc trucks1 waggons1 and other vehicles appropriated to merchandise4 ,buckled together1 buffer to buffer1 the locomotives and tenders would extend from ,london to ,peterborough2 while the carrying vehicles1 joined together1 would form two trains occupying a double line of railway extending from ,london to beyond ,inverness4 ,a notable feature in the growth of railway traffic of late years has been the increase in the number of third-class passengers1 compared with first and second class4 ,sixteen years since1 the third-class passengers constituted only about one-third2 ten years later1 they were about one-half2 whereas now they form more than three-fourths of the whole number carried4 ,in #ahgc1 there were about #bc million first-class passengers1 #fb million second-class1 and not less than #cjf million third-class4 ,thus ,george ,stephenson's prediction1 that the time would come when it would be cheaper for a working man to make a journey by railway than to walk on foot1 is already verified4 ,the degree of safety with which this great traffic has been conducted is not the least remarkable of its features4 ,of course1 so long as railways are worked by men they will be liable to the imperfections belonging to all things human4 ,though their machinery may be perfect and their organisation as complete as skill and forethought can make it1 workmen will at times be forgetful and listless2 and a moment's carelessness may lead to the most disastrous results4 ,yet1 taking all circumstances into account1 the wonder is1 that travelling by railway at high speed should have been rendered comparatively so safe4 ,to be struck by lightning is one of the rarest of all causes of death2 yet more persons are killed by lightning in ,great ,britain than are killed on railways from causes beyond their own control4 ,most persons would consider the probability of their dying by hanging to be extremely remote2 yet1 according to the ,registrar-,general's returns1 it is considerably greater than that of being killed by railway accident4 ,the remarkable safety with which railway traffic is on the whole conducted1 is due to constant watchfulness and highly-applied skill4 ,the men who work the railways are for the most part the picked men of the country1 and every railway station may be regarded as a practical school of industry1 attention1 and punctuality4 ,few are aware of the complicated means and agencies that are in constant operation on railways day and night1 to ensure the safety of the passengers to their journey's end4 ,the road is under a system of continuous inspection4 ,the railway is watched by foremen1 with gangs of men under them1 in lengths varying from twelve to five miles1 according to circumstances4 ,their continuous duty is to see that the rails and chairs are sound1 their fastenings complete1 and the line clear of all obstructions4 ,then1 at all the junctions1 sidings1 and crossings1 pointsmen are stationed1 with definite instructions as to the duties to be performed by them4 ,at these places1 signals are provided1 worked from the station platforms1 or from special signal boxes1 for the purpose of protecting the stopping or passing trains4 ,when the first railways were opened1 the signals were of a very simple kind4 ,the station men gave them with their arms stretched out in different positions2 then flags of different colours were used2 next fixed signals1 with arms or discs of rectangular or triangular shape4 ,these were followed by a complete system of semaphore signals1 near and distant1 protecting all junctions1 sidings1 and crossings4 ,when ,government inspectors were first appointed by the ,board of ,trade to examine and report upon the working of railways1 they were alarmed by the number of trains following each other at some stations1 in what then seemed to be a very rapid succession4 ,a passage from a ,report written in #ahdj by ,sir ,frederick ,smith1 as to the traffic at ,taylor's ,junction1 on the ,york and ,north ,midland ,railway1 contrasts curiously with the railway life and activity of the present day3--,here1 wrote the alarmed ,inspector1 the passenger trains from ,york as well as ,leeds and ,selby1 meet four times a day4 ,no less than #bc passenger-trains stop at or pass this station in the #ba hours--an amount of traffic requiring not only the utmost perfect arrangements on the part of the management1 but the utmost vigilance and energy in the servants of the ,company employed at this place4 ,contrast this with the state of things now4 ,on the ,metropolitan ,line1 #ffg trains pass a given point in one direction or the other during the eighteen hours of the working day1 or an average of #cf trains an hour4 ,at the ,cannon ,street ,station of the ,south-,eastern ,railway1 #fbg trains pass in and out daily1 many of them crossing each other's tracks under the protection of the station-signals4 ,forty-five trains run in and out between #i and #aj ,a4,m41 and an equal number between #d and #e ,p4,m4 ,again1 at the ,clapham ,junction1 near ,london1 about #gjj trains pass or stop daily2 and though to the casual observer the succession of trains coming and going1 running and stopping1 coupling and shunting1 appears a scene of inextricable confusion and danger1 the whole is clearly intelligible to the signalmen in their boxes1 who work the trains in and out with extraordinary precision and regularity4 ,the inside of a signal-box reminds one of a pianoforte on a large scale1 the lever-handles corresponding with the keys of the instrument2 and1 to an uninstructed person1 to work the one would be as difficult as to play a tune on the other4 ,the signal-box outside ,cannon ,street ,station contains #fg lever-handles1 by means of which the signalmen are enabled at the same moment to communicate with the drivers of all the engines on the line within an area of #hjj yards4 ,they direct by signs1 which are quite as intelligible as words1 the drivers of the trains starting from inside the station1 as well as those of the trains arriving from outside4 ,by pulling a lever-handle1 a distant signal1 perhaps out of sight1 is set some hundred yards off1 which the approaching driver--reading it quickly as he comes along--at once interprets1 and stops or advances as the signal may direct4 ,the precision and accuracy of the signal-machinery employed at important stations and junctions have of late years been much improved by an ingenious contrivance1 by means of which the setting of the signal prepares the road for the coming train4 ,when the signal is set at ,danger1 the points are at the same time worked1 and the road is locked against it2 and when at ,safety1 the road is open1--the signal and the points exactly corresponding4 ,the ,electric ,telegraph has also been found a valuable auxiliary in ensuring the safe working of large railway traffics4 ,though the locomotive may run at #fj miles an hour1 electricity1 when at its fastest1 travels at the rate of #bhh1jjj miles a second1 and is therefore always able to herald the coming train4 ,the electric telegraph may1 indeed1 be regarded as the nervous system of the railway4 ,by its means the whole line is kept throbbing with intelligence4 ,the method of working the electric signals varies on different lines2 but the usual practice is1 to divide a line into so many lengths1 each protected by its signal-stations1--the fundamental law of telegraph-working being1 that two engines are not to be allowed to run on the same line between two signal-stations at the same time4 ,when a train passes one of such stations1 it is immediately signalled on--usually by electric signal-bells--to the station in advance1 and that interval of railway is blocked until the signal has been received from the station in advance that the train has passed it4 ,thus an interval of space is always secured between trains following each other1 which are thereby alike protected before and behind4 ,and thus1 when a train starts on a journey1 it may be of hundreds of miles1 it is signalled on from station to station--it lives along the line1--until at length it reaches its destination and the last signal of train in is given4 ,by this means an immense number of trains can be worked with regularity and safety4 ,on the ,south-,eastern ,railway1 where the system has been brought to a state of high efficiency1 it is no unusual thing during ,easter week to send #fjj1jjj passengers through the ,london ,bridge ,station alone2 and on some days as many as #abjj trains a-day4 ,while such are the expedients adopted to ensure safety1 others equally ingenious are adopted to ensure speed4 ,in the case of express and mail trains1 the frequent stopping of the engines to take in a fresh supply of water occasions a considerable loss of time on a long journey1 each stoppage for this purpose occupying from ten to fifteen minutes4 ,to avoid such stoppages1 larger tenders have been provided1 capable of carrying as much as #bjjj gallons of water each4 ,but as a considerable time is occupied in filling these1 a plan has been contrived by ,mr4 ,ramsbottom1 the ,locomotive ,engineer of the ,london and ,north-,western ,railway1 by which the engines are made to feed themselves while running at full speed6 ,the plan is as follows3--,an open trough1 about #ddj feet long1 is laid longitudinally between the rails4 ,into this trough1 which is filled with water1 a dip-pipe or scoop attached to the bottom of the tender of the running train is lowered2 and1 at a speed of #ej miles an hour1 as much as #ajgj gallons of water are scooped up in the course of a few minutes4 ,the first of such troughs was laid down between ,chester and ,holyhead1 to enable the ,express ,mail to run the distance of #hda miles in two hours and five minutes without stopping2 and similar troughs have since been laid down at ,bushey near ,london1 at ,castlethorpe near ,wolverton1 and at ,parkside near ,liverpool4 ,at these four troughs about #acj1jjj gallons of water are scooped up daily4 ,wherever railways have been made1 new towns have sprung up1 and old towns and cities been quickened into new life4 ,when the first ,english lines were projected1 great were the prophecies of disaster to the inhabitants of the districts through which they were proposed to be forced4 ,such fears have long since been dispelled in this country4 ,the same prejudices existed in ,france4 ,when the railway from ,paris to ,marseilles was laid out so as to pass through ,lyons1 a local prophet predicted that if the line were made the city would be ruined--,ville traversee1 ville perdue2 while a local priest denounced the locomotive and the electric telegraph as heralding the reign of ,antichrist4 ,but such nonsense is no longer uttered4 ,now it is the city without the railway that is regarded as the city lost2 for it is in a measure shut out from the rest of the world1 and left outside the pale of civilisation4 ,perhaps the most striking of all the illustrations that could be offered of the extent to which railways facilitate the locomotion1 the industry1 and the subsistence of the population of large towns and cities1 is afforded by the working of the railway system in connection with the capital of ,great ,britain4 ,the extension of railways to ,london has been of comparatively recent date2 the whole of the lines connecting it with the provinces and terminating at its outskirts1 having been opened during the last thirty years1 while the lines inside ,london have for the most part been opened within the last sixteen years4 ,the first ,london line was the ,greenwich ,railway1 part of which was opened for traffic to ,deptford in ,february #ahcf4 ,the working of this railway was first exhibited as a show1 and the usual attractions were employed to make it draw4 ,a band of musicians in the garb of the ,beef-eaters was stationed at the ,london end1 and another band at ,deptford4 ,for cheapness' sake the ,deptford band was shortly superseded by a large barrel-organ1 which played in the passengers2 but1 when the traffic became established1 the barrel organ1 as well as the beef-eater band at the ,london end1 were both discontinued4 ,the whole length of the line was lit up at night by a row of lamps on either side like a street1 as if to enable the locomotives or the passengers to see their way in the dark2 but these lamps also were eventually discontinued as unnecessary4 ,as a show1 the ,greenwich ,railway proved tolerably successful4 ,during the first eleven months it carried #def1gej passengers1 or an average of about #acjj a-day4 ,but the railway having been found more convenient to the public than either the river boats or the omnibuses1 the number of passengers rapidly increased4 ,when the ,croydon1 ,brighton1 and ,south-,eastern ,railways began to pour their streams of traffic over the ,greenwich viaduct1 its accommodation was found much too limited2 and it was widened from time to time1 until now nine lines of railway are laid side by side1 over which more than twenty millions of passengers are carried yearly1 or an average of about #fj1jjj a day all the year round4 ,since the partial opening of the ,greenwich ,railway in #ahcf1 a large extent of railways has been constructed in and about the metropolis1 and convenient stations have been established almost in the heart of the ,city4 ,sixteen of these stations are within a circle of half a mile radius from the ,mansion ,house1 and above three hundred stations are in actual use within about five miles of ,charing ,cross4 ,to accommodate this vast traffic1 not fewer than #cfjj local trains are run in and out daily1 besides #cdj trains which depart to and arrive from distant places1 north1 south1 east1 and west4 ,in the morning hours1 between #h4cj and #aj4cj1 when business men are proceeding inwards to their offices and counting-houses1 and in the afternoon between four and six1 when they are returning outwards to their homes1 as many as two thousand stoppages are made in the hour1 within the metropolitan district1 for the purpose of taking up and setting down passengers1 while about two miles of railway are covered by the running trains4 ,one of the remarkable effects of railways has been to extend the residential area of all large towns and cities4 ,this is especially notable in the case of ,london4 ,before the introduction of railways1 the residential area of the metropolis was limited by the time occupied by business men in making the journey outwards and inwards daily2 and it was for the most part bounded by ,bow on the east1 by ,hampstead and ,highgate on the north1 by ,paddington and ,kensington on the west1 and by ,clapham and ,brixton on the south4 ,but now that stations have been established near the centre of the city1 and places so distant as ,waltham1 ,barnet1 ,watford1 ,hanwell1 ,richmond1 ,epsom1 ,croydon1 ,reigate1 and ,erith1 can be more quickly reached by rail than the old suburban quarters were by omnibus1 the metropolis has become extended in all directions along its railway lines1 and the population of ,london1 instead of living in the ,city or its immediate vicinity1 as formerly1 have come to occupy a residential area of not less than six hundred square miles6 ,the number of new towns which have consequently sprung into existence near ,london within the last twenty years has been very great2 towns numbering from ten to twenty thousand inhabitants1 which before were but villages1--if1 indeed1 they existed4 ,this has especially been the case along the lines south of the ,thames1 principally in consequence of the termini of those lines being more conveniently situated for city men of business4 ,hence the rapid growth of the suburban towns up and down the river1 from ,richmond and ,staines on the west1 to ,erith and ,gravesend on the east1 and the hives of population which have settled on the high grounds south of the ,thames1 in the neighbourhood of ,norwood and the ,crystal ,palace1 rapidly spreading over the ,surrey ,downs1 from ,wimbledon to ,guildford1 and from ,bromley to ,croydon1 ,epsom1 and ,dorking4 ,and now that the towns on the south and south-east coast can be reached by city men in little more time than it takes to travel to ,clapham or ,bayswater by omnibus1 such places have become as it were parts of the great metropolis1 and ,brighton and ,hastings are but the marine suburbs of ,london4 ,the improved state of the communications of the ,city with the country has had a marked effect upon its population4 ,while the action of the railways has been to add largely to the number of persons living in ,london1 it has also been accompanied by their dispersion over a much larger area4 ,thus the population of the central parts of ,london is constantly decreasing1 whereas that of the suburban districts is as constantly increasing4 ,the population of the ,city fell off more than #aj1jjj between #ahea and #ahfa2 and during the same period1 that of ,holborn1 the ,strand1 ,st4 ,martin's-in-the-,fields1 ,st4 ,james's1 ,westminster1 ,east and ,west ,london1 showed a considerable decrease4 ,but1 as regards the whole mass of the metropolitan population1 the increase has been enormous4 ,thus1 starting from #ahja1 when the population of ,london was #ieh1hfc1 we find it increasing in each decennial period at the rate of between two and three hundred thousand1 until the year #ahda1 when it amounted to #a1idh1cfi4 ,railways had by that time reached ,london1 after which its population increased at nearly double the former ratio4 ,in the ten years ending #ahea1 the increase was #eac1hfg2 and in the ten years ending #ahfa1 #dda1gec3 until now1 to quote the words of the ,registrar-,general in a recent annual ,report1 the population within the registration limits is by estimate #b1iic1eac2 but beyond this central mass there is a ring of life growing rapidly1 and extending along railway lines over a circle of fifteen miles from ,charing ,cross4 ,the population within that circle1 patrolled by the metropolitan police1 is about #c1dfc1gga6 ,the aggregation of so vast a number of persons within so comparatively limited an area--the immense quantity of food required for their daily sustenance1 as well as of fuel1 clothing1 and other necessaries--would be attended with no small inconvenience and danger1 but for the facilities again provided by the railways4 ,the provisioning of a garrison of even four thousand men is considered a formidable affair2 how much more so the provisioning of nearly four millions of people6 ,the whole mystery is explained by the admirable organisation of the railway service1 and the regularity and despatch with which it is conducted4 ,we are enabled by the courtesy of the ,general ,managers of the ,london railways to bring together the following brief summary of facts relating to the food supply of ,london1 which will probably be regarded by most readers as of a very remarkable character4 ,generally speaking1 the railways to the south of the ,thames contribute comparatively little towards the feeding of ,london4 ,they are1 for the most part passenger and residential lines1 traversing a limited and not very fertile district bounded by the sea-coast2 and1 excepting in fruit and vegetables1 milk and hops1 they probably carry more food from ,london than they bring to it4 ,the principal supplies of grain1 flour1 potatoes1 and fish1 are brought by railway from the eastern counties of ,england and ,scotland2 and of cattle and sheep1 beef and mutton1 from the grazing counties of the west and north-west of ,britain1 as far as the ,highlands of ,scotland1 which have1 through the instrumentality of railways1 become part of the great grazing grounds of the metropolis4 ,take first the staff of life--bread and its constituents4 ,of wheat1 not less than #bbb1jhj quarters were brought into ,london by railway in #ahfg1 besides what was brought by sea2 of oats #aea1geg quarters2 of barley #gj1bhb quarters2 of beans and peas #ea1ddh quarters4 ,of the wheat and barley1 by far the largest proportion is brought by the ,great ,eastern ,railway1 which delivers in ,london in one year #aee1jjj quarters of wheat and #de1ejj quarters of barley1 besides #fjj1dbi quarters more in the form of malt4 ,the largest quantity of oats is brought by the ,great ,northern ,railway1 principally from the north of ,england and the ,east of ,scotland1--the quantity delivered by that ,company in #ahfg having been #ig1ejj quarters1 besides #bd1ffd quarters of wheat1 #eefj quarters of barley1 and #ajc1iag quarters of malt4 ,again1 of #a1bej1eff sacks of flour and meal delivered in ,london in one year1 the ,great ,eastern brings #fed1jjj sacks1 the ,great ,northern #bcb1jbb sacks1 and the ,great ,western #acf1cab sacks2 the principal contribution of the ,london and ,north-,western ,railway towards the ,london bread-stores being #ajj1gfj boxes of ,american flour1 besides #bd1cjj sacks of ,english4 ,the total quantity of malt delivered at the ,london railway stations in #ahfg was thirteen hundred thousand sacks4 ,next1 as to flesh meat4 ,in #ahfg1 not fewer than #agb1cjj head of cattle were brought to ,london by railway1--though this was considerably less than the number carried before the cattle-plague1 the ,great ,eastern ,railway alone having carried #dd1fgb less than in #ahfd4 ,but this loss has since been more than made up by the increased quantities of fresh beef1 mutton1 and other kinds of meat imported in lieu of the live animals4 ,the principal supplies of cattle are brought1 as we have said1 by the ,western1 ,northern1 and ,eastern lines3 by the ,great ,western from the western counties and ,ireland2 by the ,london and ,north-,western1 the ,midland1 and the ,great ,northern from the northern counties and from ,scotland2 and by the ,great ,eastern from the eastern counties and from the ports of ,harwich and ,lowestoft4 ,in #ahfg1 also1 #a1adg1fji sheep were brought to ,london by railway1 of which the ,great ,eastern delivered not less than #bfe1cga head4 ,the ,london and ,north-,western and ,great ,northern between them brought #cij1jjj head from the northern ,english counties1 with a large proportion from the ,scotch ,highlands4 ,while the ,great ,western brought up #acj1jjj head from the ,welsh mountains and from the rich grazing districts of ,wilts1 ,gloucester1 ,somerset1 and ,devon4 ,another important freight of the ,london and ,north-,western ,railway consists of pigs1 of which they delivered #ed1gjj in ,london1 principally ,irish2 while the ,great ,eastern brought up #bg1ejj of the same animal1 partly foreign4 ,while the cattle-plague had the effect of greatly reducing the number of live stock brought into ,london yearly1 it gave a considerable impetus to the ,fresh ,meat traffic4 ,thus1 in addition to the above large numbers of cattle and sheep delivered in ,london in #ahfg1 the railways brought #gf1age tons of meat1 which--taking the meat of an average beast at #hjj lbs41 and of an average sheep at #fd lbs4--would be equivalent to about #aab1jjj more cattle1 and #a1bfg1ejj more sheep4 ,the ,great ,northern brought the largest quantity2 next the ,london and ,north-,western2--these two ,companies having brought up between them1 from distances as remote as ,aberdeen and ,inverness1 about #db1jjj tons of fresh meat in #ahfg1 at an average freight of about #j4e;d4 a lb4 ,again as regards ,fish1 of which six-tenths of the whole quantity consumed in ,london is now brought by rail4 ,the ,great ,eastern and the ,great ,northern are by far the largest importers of this article1 and justify their claim to be regarded as the great food lines of ,london4 ,of the #fa1ceh tons of fish brought by railway in #ahfg1 not less than #bd1ejj tons were delivered by the former1 and #bb1jjj tons1 brought from much longer distances1 by the latter ,company4 ,the ,london and ,north-,western brought about #fjjj tons1 the principal part of which was salmon from ,scotland and ,ireland4 ,the ,great ,western also brought about #djjj tons1 partly salmon1 but the greater part mackerel from the south-west coast4 ,during the mackerel season1 as much as a hundred tons at a time are brought into the ,paddington ,station by express fish-train from ,cornwall4 ,the ,great ,eastern and ,great ,northern ,companies are also the principal carriers of turkeys1 geese1 fowls1 and game2 the quantity delivered in ,london by the former ,company having been #ejdb tons4 ,in ,christmas week no fewer than #cj1jjj turkeys and geese were delivered at the ,bishopsgate ,station1 besides about #cjj tons of poultry1 #aj1jjj barrels of beer1 and immense quantities of fish1 oysters1 and other kinds of food4 ,as much as #afjj tons of poultry and game were brought last year by the ,south-,western ,railway2 #fjj tons by the ,great ,northern ,railway2 and #acj tons of turkeys1 geese1 and fowls1 by the ,london1 ,chatham and ,dover line1 principally from ,france4 ,of miscellaneous articles1 the ,great ,northern and the ,midland each brought about #cjjj tons of cheese1 the ,south-,western #bfjj tons1 and the ,london and ,north-,western #aj1jcd cheeses in number2 while the ,south-,western and ,brighton lines brought a splendid contribution to the ,london breakfast-table in the shape of #aa1bei tons of ,french eggs2 these two ,companies delivering between them an average of more than three millions of eggs a week all the year round6 ,the same ,companies delivered in ,london #ad1hai tons of butter1 for the most part the produce of the farms of ,normandy1--the greater cleanness and neatness with which the ,normandy butter is prepared for market rendering it a favourite both with dealers and consumers of late years compared with ,irish butter4 ,the ,london1 ,chatham and ,dover ,company also brought from ,calais #if tons of eggs4 ,next1 as to the potatoes1 vegetables1 and fruit1 brought by rail4 ,forty years since1 the inhabitants of ,london relied for their supply of vegetables on the garden-grounds in the immediate neighbourhood of the metropolis1 and the consequence was that they were both very dear and limited in quantity4 ,but railways1 while they have extended the grazing-grounds of ,london as far as the ,highlands1 have at the same time extended the garden-grounds of ,london into all the adjoining counties--into ,east ,kent1 ,essex1 ,suffolk1 and ,norfolk1 the vale of ,gloucester1 and even as far as ,penzance in ,cornwall4 ,the ,london1 ,chatham and ,dover1 one of the youngest of our main lines1 brought up from ,east ,kent in #ahfg #ebgi tons of potatoes1 #ajdf tons of vegetables1 and #echf tons of fruit1 besides #edb tons of vegetables from ,france4 ,the ,south-,eastern brought #be1afc tons of the same produce4 ,the ,great ,eastern brought from the eastern counties #ba1cae tons of potatoes1 and #ceif tons of vegetables and fruit2 while the ,great ,northern brought no less than #gh1eje tons of potatoes--a large part of them from the east of ,scotland--and #cgfh tons of vegetables and fruit4 ,about #fjjj tons of early potatoes were brought from ,cornwall1 with about #ejjj tons of broccoli1 and the quantities are steadily increasing4 ,truly ,london hath a large belly1 said old ,fuller1 two hundred years since4 ,but how much more capacious is it now6 ,one of the most striking illustrations of the utility of railways in contributing to the supply of wholesome articles of food to the population of large cities1 is to be found in the rapid growth of the traffic in ,milk4 ,readers of newspapers may remember the descriptions published some years since of the horrid dens in which ,london cows were penned1 and of the odious compound sold by the name of milk1 of which the least deleterious ingredient in it was supplied by the cow with the iron tail4 ,that state of affairs is now completely changed4 ,what with the greatly improved state of the ,london dairies and the better quality of the milk supplied by them1 together with the large quantities brought by railway from a range of a hundred miles and more all round ,london1 even the poorest classes in the metropolis are now enabled to obtain as wholesome a supply of the article as the inhabitants of most country towns4 ,these great streams of food1 which we have thus so summarily described1 flow into ,london so continuously and uninterruptedly1 that comparatively few persons are aware of the magnitude and importance of the process thus daily going forward4 ,though gathered from an immense extent of country--embracing ,england1 ,scotland1 ,wales1 and ,ireland--the influx is so unintermitted that it is relied upon with as much certainty as if it only came from the counties immediately adjoining ,london4 ,the express meat-train from ,aberdeen arrives in town as punctually as the ,clapham omnibus1 and the express milk-train from ,aylesbury is as regular in its delivery as the penny post4 ,indeed ,london now depends so much upon railways for its subsistence1 that it may be said to be fed by them from day to day1 having never more than a few days' food in stock4 ,and the supply is so regular and continuous1 that the possibility of its being interrupted never for a moment occurs to any one4 ,yet in these days of strikes amongst workmen1 such a contingency is quite within the limits of possibility4 ,another contingency1 which might arise during a state of war1 is probably still more remote4 ,but were it possible for a war to occur between ,england and a combination of foreign powers possessed of stronger ironclads than ours1 and that they were able to ram our ships back into port and land an enemy of overpowering force on the ,essex coast1 it would be sufficient for them to occupy or cut the railways leading from the north1 to starve ,london into submission in less than a fortnight4 ,besides supplying ,london with food1 railways have also been instrumental in ensuring the more regular and economical supply of fuel1--a matter of almost as vital importance to the population in a climate such as that of ,england4 ,so long as the market was supplied with coal brought by sea in sailing ships1 fuel in winter often rose to a famine price1 especially during long-continued easterly winds4 ,but now that railways are in full work1 the price is almost as steady in winter as in summer1 and 7but for strikes7 the supply is more regular at all seasons4 ,but the carriage of food and fuel to ,london forms but a small part of the merchandise traffic carried by railway4 ,above #fjj1jjj tons of goods of various kinds yearly pass through one station only1 that of the ,london and ,north-,western ,company1 at ,camden ,town2 and sometimes as many as #bj1jjj parcels daily4 ,every other metropolitan station is similarly alive with traffic inwards and outwards1 ,london having since the introduction of railways become more than ever a great distributive centre1 to which merchandise of all kinds converges1 and from which it is distributed to all parts of the country4 ,mr4 ,bazley1 ,m4,p41 stated at a late public meeting at ,manchester1 that it would probably require ten millions of horses to convey by road the merchandise traffic which is now annually carried by railway4 ,railways have also proved of great value in connection with the ,cheap ,postage system4 ,by their means it has become possible to carry letters1 newspapers1 books and post parcels1 in any quantity1 expeditiously1 and cheaply4 ,the ,liverpool and ,manchester line was no sooner opened in #ahcj1 than the ,post ,office authorities recognised its utility1 and used it for carrying the mails between the two towns4 ,when the ,london and ,birmingham line was opened eight years later1 mail trains were at once put on1--the directors undertaking to perform the distance of #aac miles within #e hours by day and #e4e hours by night4 ,as additional lines were opened1 the old four-horse mail coaches were gradually discontinued1 until in #aheh1 the last of them1 the ,derby ,dilly1 which ran between ,manchester and ,derby1 was taken off on the opening of the ,midland line to ,rowsley4 ,the increased accommodation provided by railways was found of essential importance1 more particularly after the adoption of the ,cheap ,postage system2 and that such accommodation was needed will be obvious from the extraordinary increase which has taken place in the number of letters and packets sent by post4 ,thus1 in #ahci1 the number of chargeable letters carried was only #gf millions1 and of newspapers #dd4e millions2 whereas1 in #ahfe1 the numbers of letters had increased to #gbj millions1 and in #ahfg to #gge millions1 or more than ten-fold1 while the number of newspapers1 books1 samples and patterns 7a new branch of postal business began in #ahfd7 had increased1 in #ahfe1 to #ih4e millions4 ,to accommodate this largely-increasing traffic1 the bulk of which is carried by railway1 the mileage run by mail trains in the ,united ,kingdom has increased from #be1jjj miles a day in #ahed 7the first year of which we have any return of the mileage run7 to #fj1jjj miles a day in #ahfg1 or an increase of #bdj per cent4 ,the ,post ,office expenditure on railway service has also increased1 but not in like proportion1 having been #cfd1jjj pounds in the former year1 and #eei1ege pounds in the latter1 or an increase of #aed per cent4 ,the revenue1 gross and net1 has increased still more rapidly4 ,in #ahda1 the first complete year of the ,cheap ,postage system1 the gross revenue was #a1cei1dff pounds and the net revenue #ejj1ghi pounds2 in #ahed1 the gross revenue was #b1egd1djg pounds1 and the net revenue #a1agc1gbc pounds2 and in #ahfg1 the gross revenue was #d1edh1abi pounds1 and the net revenue #b1abg1abe pounds1 being an increase of #dbj per cent4 compared with #ahda1 and of #ahj per cent4 compared with #ahed4 ,how much of this net increase might fairly be credited to the ,railway ,postal service we shall not pretend to say2 but assuredly the proportion must be very considerable4 ,one of the great advantages of railways in connection with the postal service is the greatly increased frequency of communication which they provide between all the large towns4 ,thus ,liverpool has now six deliveries of ,manchester letters daily2 while every large town in the kingdom has two or more deliveries of ,london letters daily4 ,in #ahfc1 #cic towns had two mails daily from ,london2 #ej had three mails daily2 #g had four mails a day from ,london1 and #ae had four mails a day to ,london2 while #c towns had five mails a day from ,london1 and #f had five mails a day to ,london4 ,another feature of the railway mail train1 as of the passenger train1 is its capacity to carry any quantity of letters and post parcels that may require to be carried4 ,in #ahch1 the aggregate weight of all the evening mails despatched from ,london by twenty-eight mail coaches was #d tons #f cwt41 or an average of about #c4be cwt4 each1 though the maximum contract weight was #ae cwt4 ,the mails now are necessarily much heavier1 the number of letters and packets having1 as we have seen1 increased more than ten-fold since #ahci4 ,but it is not the ordinary so much as the extraordinary mails that are of considerable weight1--more particularly the ,american1 the ,continental1 and the ,australian mails4 ,it is no unusual thing1 we are informed1 for the last-mentioned mail to weigh as much as #dj tons4 ,how many of the old mail coaches it would take to carry such a mail the #gi miles journey to ,southampton1 with a relay of four horses every five or seven miles1 is a problem for the arithmetician to solve4 ,but even supposing each coach to be loaded to the maximum weight of #ae cwt4 per coach1 it would require about sixty vehicles and about #agjj horses to carry the #dj tons1 besides the coachman and guards4 ,whatever may be said of the financial management of railways1 there can be no doubt as to the great benefits conferred by them on the public wherever made4 ,even those railways which have exhibited the most frightful examples of financing and jobbing1 have been found to prove of unquestionable public convenience and utility4 ,and notwithstanding all the faults and imperfections that have been alleged against railways1 we think that they must1 nevertheless1 be recognised as by far the most valuable means of communication between men and nations that has yet been given to the world4 ,the author's object in publishing this book in its original form1 was to describe1 in connection with the ',life of ,george ,stephenson1' the origin and progress of the railway system1--to show by what moral and material agencies its founders were enabled to carry their ideas into effect1 and work out results which even then were of a remarkable character1 though they have since1 as above described1 become so much more extraordinary4 ,the favour with which successive editions of the book have been received1 has justified the author in his anticipation that such a narrative would prove of general1 if not of permanent interest4 ,the book was written with the concurrence and assistance of ,robert ,stephenson1 who also supplied the necessary particulars relating to himself4 ,such portions of these were accordingly embodied in the narrative as could with propriety be published during his lifetime1 and the remaining portions have since been added1 with the object of rendering more complete the record of the son's life as well as of the early history of the ,railway system4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,i4 ,,newcastle ,,and ,,the ,,great ,,northern ,,coal-,,fields4 ,the colliery districts of the ,pages #a-aa ,north--,newcastle-upon-,tyne in ancient times--,the ,roman settlement--,social insecurity in the ,middle ,ages--,northumberland roads--,the coal-trade--,modern ,newcastle--,coal haulage--,early waggon-roads1 tram-roads1 and railways--,machinery of coal-mines--,newcomen's fire-engine--,the colliers1 their character and habits--,coal-staiths--,the keelmen ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,wylam ,,and ,,dewley ,,burn--,,george ,,stephenson',s ,,early ,,years4 ,wylam ,colliery and village--,george ,stephenson's #ab-cj birth-place--,his parents--,the ,stephenson family--,old ,robert ,stephenson--,george's boyhood--,dewley ,burn ,colliery--,sister ,nell's bonnet--,employed as a herd-boy--,makes clay engines--,follows the plough--,employed as corf-bitter--,drives the gin-horse--,black ,callerton ,colliery--,love of animals--,made assistant-fireman--,old ,robert and family shift their home--,jolly's ,close1 ,newburn--,family earnings--,george as fireman--,his athletic feats--,throckley ,bridge--,a made man for life6--,appointed engineman--,studies his engine--,experiments in egg-hatching--,puts himself to school1 and learns to read--,his schoolmasters--,progress in arithmetic--,his dog--,learns to brake--,brakesman at ,black ,callerton--,duties of brakesman--,begins shoe-making--,fanny ,henderson--,saves his first guinea--,fight with a pitman ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,engineman ,,at ,,willington ,,quay ,,and ,,killingworth4 ,sobriety and studiousness--,inventiveness--,removes to #ca-df ,willington ,quay--,marries ,fanny ,henderson--,their cottage at ,willington--,attempts at perpetual motion--,william ,fairbairn and ,george ,stephenson--,ballast-heaving--,chimney on fire1 and clock-cleaning--,birth of ,robert ,stephenson--,george removes to ,west ,moor1 ,killingworth--,death of his wife--,engineman at ,montrose1 ,scotland--,his pump-boot--,saves money--,his return to ,killingworth--,brakesman at ,west ,moor--,is drawn for the ,militia--,thinks of emigrating to ,america--,takes a contract for brakeing engines--,improves the winding-engine--,cures a pumping-engine--,becomes famous as an engine-doctor--,appointed engine-wright of a colliery ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,stephensons ,,at ,,killingworth--,,education ,,and ,,self-,,education ,,of ,,father ,,and ,,son4 ,george ,stephenson's self-improvement--,john #dg-fb ,wigham--,studies in ,natural ,philosophy--,sobriety--,education of ,robert ,stephenson--,sent to ,rutter's school1 ,benton--,bruce's school1 ,newcastle--,literary and ,philosophical ,institute--,george educates his son in ,mechanics--,ride to ,killingworth--,robert's boyish tricks--,repeats the ,franklin kite-experiment--,stephenson's cottage1 ,west ,moor--,odd mechanical expedients--,competition in last-making--,father and son make a sun-dial--,colliery improvements--,stephenson's mechanical expertness ,,chapter ,v4 ,,early ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,locomotive--,,george ,,stephenson ,,begins ,,its ,,improvement4 ,various expedients for #fc-hh coal-haulage--,sailing-waggons--,mr4 ,edgworth's experiments--,cugnot's first locomotive steam-carriage--,murdock's model locomotive--,trevithick's steam-carriage and tram-engine--,blenkinsop's engine--,chapman and ,brunton's locomotives--,the ,wylam waggon-way--,mr4 ,blackett's experiments--,jonathan ,foster--,william ,hedley--,the ,wylam engine--,stephenson determines to build a locomotive--,lord ,ravensworth--,the first ,killingworth engine described--,the steam-blast invented--,stephenson's second locomotive ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,invention ,,of ,,the ,,geordy ,,safety-,,lamp4 ,frequency of colliery explosions--,accident in the #hi-ajh ,killingworth ,pit--,stephenson's heroic conduct--,a safety-lamp described--,dr4 ,clanny's lamp--,stephenson's experiments on fire-damp--,designs a lamp1 and tests it in the pit--,cottage experiments with coal-gas--,stephenson's second and third lamps--,the ,stephenson and ,davy controversy--,scene at the ,newcastle ,institute--,the ,davy testimonial--,the ,stephenson testimonial--,merits of the ,geordy lamp ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,george ,,stephenson',s ,,further ,,improvements ,,in ,,the ,,locomotive--,,the ,,hetton ,,railway--,,robert ,,stephenson ,,as ,,viewer',s ,,apprentice ,,and ,,student4 ,the ,killingworth mine machinery--,stephenson improves #aji-abb his locomotive--,strengthens the road--,his patent--,his steam-springs--,experiments on friction--,steam-locomotion on common roads--,early neglect of the locomotive--,stephenson again thinks of emigration--,constructs the ,hetton ,railway--,the working power employed--,robert ,stephenson viewer's apprentice--,his pursuits at ,killingworth--,his father sends him to ,edinburgh ,university--,his application to the studies of ,chemistry1 ,natural ,history1 and ,natural ,philosophy--,his ,,ms4 volumes of ,lectures--,geological tour with ,professor ,jameson in the ,highlands ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,george ,,stephenson ,,engineer ,,of ,,the ,,stockton ,,and ,,darlington ,,railway4 ,the ,bishop ,auckland ,coal-field--,edward ,pease #abc-ade projects a railway from ,witton to ,stockton--,the ,bill rejected--,the line re-surveyed1 and the ,act obtained--,george ,stephenson's visit to ,edward ,pease--,appointed engineer of the railway--,again surveys the line--,mr4 ,pease visits ,killingworth--,the ,newcastle locomotive works projected--,the railway constructed--,locomotives ordered--,stephenson's anticipations as to railways--,public opening of the line--,the coal traffic--,the first railway passenger-coach--,the coaching traffic described--,the ,locomotion engine--,race with stage-coach--,commercial results of the ,stockton and ,darlington ,railway--,the town of ,middlesborough created ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,the ,,liverpool ,,and ,,manchester ,,railway ,,projected4 ,insufficient communications between ,manchester and #adf-agb ,liverpool--,the canal monopoly--,a tramroad projected--,joseph ,sanders--,sir ,r4 ,phillip's speculations as to railways--,thomas ,gray--,william ,james surveys a line between ,liverpool and ,manchester--,opposition to the survey--,mr4 ,james's visits to ,killingworth--,robert ,stephenson assists in the survey--,george ,stephenson appointed engineer--,the first prospectus--,stephenson's survey opposed--,the canal companies--,speculations as to railway speed--,stephenson's notions thought extravagant--,article in the ',quarterly'--,the ,bill before ,parliament--,the ,evidence--,george ,stephenson in the witness box--,examined as to speed--,his cross-examination--,the survey found defective--,mr4 ,harrison's speech--,evidence of opposing engineers--,mr4 ,alderson's speech--,the ,bill withdrawn--,stephenson's vexation--,the scheme prosecuted--,the line re-surveyed--,sir ,isaac ,coffin's speech--,the ,act passed ,,chapter ,x4 ,,chat ,,moss--,,construction ,,of ,,the ,,liverpool ,,and ,,manchester ,,railway4 ,george ,stephenson appointed engineer--,chat ,moss #agc-aib described--,the resident engineers--,mr4 ,dixon's visit of inspection--,stephenson's theory of a floating road--,operations begun--,tar-barrel drains--,the embankment sinks in the ,moss--,proposed abandonment of the work--,stephenson perseveres--,the obstacles conquered--,road across ,parr ,moss--,the road formed--,stephenson's organization of labour--,the ,liverpool ,tunnel--,olive ,mount ,cutting--,sankey ,viaduct--,stephenson and ,cropper--,stephenson's labours--,pupils and assistants--,his daily life--,practical education--,evenings at home ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,robert ,,stephenson',s ,,residence ,,in ,,colombia ,,and ,,return--,,the ,,battle ,,of ,,the ,,locomotive--,,the ,,rocket4 ,robert ,stephenson mining engineer in ,colombia--,mule #aic-bbj journey to ,bogota--,mariquita--,silver mining--,difficulties with the ,cornishmen--,his cottage at ,santa ,anna--,longs to return home--,resigns his post--,meeting with ,trevithick--,voyage to ,new ,york1 and shipwreck--,returns to ,newcastle1 and takes charge of the factory--,the working power of the ,liverpool and ,manchester ,railway--,fixed engines and locomotives1 and their respective advocates--,walker and ,rastrick's report--,a prize offered for the best locomotive--,conferences of the ,stephensons--,boiler arrangements and heating surface--,mr4 ,booth's contrivance--,building of the ,rocket--,the competition of engines at ,rainhill--,the ,novelty and ,sanspareil--,triumph of the ,rocket1 and its destination ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,opening ,,of ,,the ,,liverpool ,,and ,,manchester ,,railway1 ,,and ,,extension ,,of ,,the ,,railway ,,system4 ,the railway finished--,the traffic arrangements #bba-bcf organized--,public opening of the line--,accident to ,mr4 ,huskisson--,arrival of the trains at ,manchester--,the traffic results--,improvement of the road and rolling stock--,improvements in the locomotive--,the railway a wonder--,extension of the railway system--,joint-stock railway companies--,new lines projected--,new engineers--,the ,grand ,junction--,public opposition to railways--,robert ,stephenson engineer to the ,leicester and ,swannington ,railway--,george ,stephenson removes to ,snibston--,sinks for and gets coal--,stimulates local enterprise--,his liberality ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,robert ,,stephenson ,,constructs ,,the ,,london ,,and ,,birmingham ,,railway4 ,the line projected--,george and ,robert ,stephenson #bcg-beb appointed engineers--,opposition--,hostile pamphlets and public meetings--,robert ,stephenson and ,sir ,astley ,cooper--,the survey obstructed--,the opposing clergyman--,the ,bill in ,parliament--,thrown out in the ,lords--,proprietors conciliated1 and the ,act obtained--,the works let in contracts--,the difficulties of the undertaking--,the line described--,blisworth ,cutting--,primrose ,hill ,tunnel--,kilsby ,tunnel--,its construction described--,cost of the ,railway greatly increased--,failure of contractors--,magnitude of the works--,railway navvies ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,manchester ,,and ,,leeds1 ,,and ,,midland ,,railways--,,stephenson',s ,,life ,,at ,,alton--,,visit ,,to ,,belgium--,,general ,,extension ,,of ,,railways ,,and ,,their ,,results4 ,projection of new lines--,dutton ,viaduct1 ,grand #bec-bgd ,junction--,the ,manchester and ,leeds--,summit ,tunnel1 ,littleborough--,magnitude of the work--,the ,midland ,railway--,the works compared with the ,simplon road--,slip near ,ambergate--,bull ,bridge--,the ,york and ,north ,midland--,george ,stephenson on his surveys--,his quick observation--,travelling and correspondence--,life at ,alton ,grange--,the ,stephensons' ,london office--,visits to ,belgium--,interviews with the ,king--,public openings of ,english railways--,stephenson's pupils and assistants--,prophecies falsified concerning railways--,their advantageous results ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,george ,,stephenson',s ,,coal ,,mines--,,the ,,atmospheric ,,system--,,railway ,,mania--,,visits ,,to ,,belgium ,,and ,,spain4 ,george ,stephenson on railways and #bge-cjj coal-traffic--,leases the ,claycross estate1 and sinks for coal--,his extensive lime-works--,removes to ,tapton ,house--,british ,association at ,newcastle--,appears at ,mechanics' ,institutes--,speech at ,leeds--,his self-acting brake--,his views of railway speed--,theory of undulating lines--,chester and ,birkenhead ,company--,stephenson's liberality--,atmospheric railways projected--,stephenson opposes the principle of working--,the railway mania--,stephenson resists1 and warns against it--,george ,hudson1 ,railway ,king--,parliament and the mania--,stephenson's letter to ,sir ,r4 ,peel--,again visits ,belgium--,interviews with ,king ,leopold--,journey into ,spain ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,robert ,,stephenson',s ,,career--,,the ,,stephensons ,,and ,,brunel--,,east ,,coast ,,route ,,to ,,scotland--,,royal ,,border ,,bridge1 ,,berwick--,,high ,,level ,,bridge1 ,,newcastle4 ,george ,stephenson's retirement--,robert's employment #cja-cai as ,parliamentary ,engineer--,his rival ,brunel--,the ,great ,western ,railway--,the width of gauge--,robert ,stephenson's caution as to investments--,the ,newcastle and ,berwick ,railway--,contest in ,parliament--,george ,stephenson's interview with ,lord ,howick--,royal ,border ,bridge1 ,berwick--,progress of iron-bridge building--,robert ,stephenson constructs the ,high ,level ,bridge1 ,newcastle--,pile-driving by steam--,characteristics of the structure--,through railway to ,scotland completed ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,robert ,,stephenson',s ,,tubular ,,bridges ,,at ,,menai ,,and ,,conway4 ,george ,stephenson surveys a line from ,chester to #cbj-cdj ,holyhead--,robert ,stephenson's construction of the works at ,penmaen ,mawr--,crossing of the ,menai ,strait--,various plans proposed--,a tubular beam determined on--,strength of wrought-iron tubes--,mr4 ,william ,fairbairn consulted--,his experiments--,the design settled--,the ,britannia ,bridge described--,the ,conway ,bridge--,floating of the tubes--,lifting of the tubes--,robert ,stephenson's anxieties--,bursting of the ,hydraulic ,press--,the works completed--,merits of the ,britannia and ,conway ,bridges ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,george ,,stephenson',s ,,closing ,,years--,,illness ,,and ,,death4 ,george ,stephenson's ,life at ,tapton--,experiments in #cda-cef ,horticulture1 ,gardening1 and ,farming--,affection for animals--,bird-hatching and bee-keeping--,reading and conversation--,rencontre with ,lord ,denman--,hospitality at ,tapton--,experiments with the microscope--,frolics--,a crowdie night--,visits to ,london--,visit to ,sir ,robert ,peel at ,drayton ,manor--,encounter with ,dr4 ,buckland--,coal formed by the sun's light--,opening of the ,trent ,valley ,railway--,meeting with ,emerson--,illness1 death1 and funeral--,memorial ,statues ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,robert ,,stephenson',s ,,victoria ,,bridge1 ,,lower ,,canada--,,illness ,,and ,,death--,,stephenson ,,characteristics4 ,robert ,stephenson's inheritances--,gradual retirement #ceg-chj from the profession of engineer--,his last great works--,tubular ,bridges over the ,st4 ,lawrence and the ,nile--,the ,grand ,trunk ,railway1 ,canada--,necessity for a great railway bridge near ,montreal--,discussion as to the plan--,robert ,stephenson's report--,a tubular bridge determined on--,massiveness of the piers--,ice-floods in the ,st4 ,lawrence--,victoria ,bridge constructed and completed--,tubular bridges in ,egypt--,the ,suez ,canal--,robert ,stephenson's employment as arbitrator--,assists ,brunel at launching of the ,great ,eastern--,regardlessness of health--,death and ,funeral--,characteristics of the ,stephensons and resume of their history--,politics of father and son--,services rendered to civilization by the ,stephensons ,,index #cha ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations4 ,,page ,portrait of ,george ,stephenson to face title page ,high ,level ,bridge1 to face #a ,map of ,newcastle ,district #b ,flange rail #f ,coal-staith on the ,tyne #aj ,coal waggons #aa ,wylam ,colliery and village #ab ,high ,street ,house1 ,wylam--,george ,stephenson's birthplace #ad ,newburn on the ,tyne #bj ,colliery ,whimsey #cj ,stephenson's ,cottage1 ,willington ,quay #ca ,west ,moor ,colliery #cg ,killingworth ,high ,pit #df ,glebe ,farm ,house1 ,benton #dg ,rutter's ,school ,house1 ,long ,benton #ea ,bruce's ,school1 ,newcastle #ec ,stephenson's ,cottage1 ,west ,moor #eg ,sun-dial at ,killingworth #fj ,colliers' ,cottages at ,long ,benton #fb ,cugnot's ,engine #fd ,section of ,murdock's ,model ,locomotive #ff ,trevithick's high-pressure ,tram-,engine #gj ,improved ,wylam ,engine #gh ,spur-gear #hc ,the ,pit-head1 ,west ,moor #ia ,davy's and ,stephenson's ,safety-lamps #aja ,west ,moor ,pit1 ,killingworth #ajh ,half-lap joint #aaa ,old ,killingworth ,locomotive #aac ,map of ,stockton and ,darlington ,railway #abc ,portrait of ,edward ,pease #abd ,the first ,railway ,coach #aci ,the ,no4 #a ,engine at ,darlington #adb ,middlesborough-on-,tees #ade ,map of ,liverpool and ,manchester ,railway 7,western ,part7 #aej 11 7,eastern part7 #aea ,surveying on ,chat ,moss #agb ,olive ,mount ,cutting #ahd ,sankey ,viaduct #ahf ,robert ,stephenson's ,cottage at ,santa ,anna #aih ,the ,rocket #bab ,locomotive competition1 ,rainhill #bae ,railway versus ,road #bbj ,map of ,leicester and ,swannington ,railway #bcc ,stephenson's ,house at ,alton ,grange #bcf ,portrait of ,robert ,stephenson1 to face #bcg ,map of ,london and ,birmingham ,railway 7,rugby to ,watford7 #bdb ,blisworth ,cutting #bdc ,shafts over ,kilsby ,tunnel #bdf ,dutton ,viaduct #bed ,entrance to ,summit ,tunnel1 ,lancashire and ,yorkshire #bef ,railway ,land-slip1 near ,ambergate1 ,north ,midland ,railway #bei ,bullbridge1 near ,ambergate #bfj ,coalville and ,snibston ,colliery #bgd ,tapton ,house1 near ,chesterfield #bge ,lime-works at ,ambergate #bgh ,newcastle1 from the ,high ,level ,bridge #cja ,royal ,border ,bridge1 ,berwick-upon-,tweed #caa ,high ,level ,bridge--,elevation of one ,arch #cah ,penmaen ,mawr #cbb ,map of ,menai ,straits #cbe ,conway ,tubular ,bridge #ccd ,britannia ,bridge #cci ,conway ,bridge--,floating the first ,tube #cdj ,view in ,tapton ,gardens #cda ,pathway to ,tapton ,house #cdg ,trinity ,church1 ,chesterfield #cee ,tablet in ,trinity ,church1 ,chesterfield #cef ,the ,victoria ,bridge1 ,montreal #ceg ,robert ,stephenson's ,burial-place in ,westminster ,abbey #cfi ,the ,stephenson ,memorial ,schools1 ,willington ,quay #chj ,picture3 ,newcastle-upon-,tyne and the ,high-level ,bridge ,,chapter ,i4 ,,newcastle ,,and ,,the ,,great ,,northern ,,coal-,,field4 ,in no quarter of ,england have greater changes been wrought by the successive advances made in the practical science of engineering than in the extensive colliery districts of the ,north1 of which ,newcastle-upon-,tyne is the centre and the capital4 ,in ancient times the ,romans planted a colony at ,newcastle1 throwing a bridge across the ,tyne near the site of the low-level bridge shown in the prefixed engraving1 and erecting a strong fortification above it on the high ground now occupied by the ,central ,railway ,station4 ,north and north-west lay a wild country1 abounding in moors1 mountains1 and morasses1 but occupied to a certain extent by fierce and barbarous tribes4 ,to defend the young colony against their ravages1 a strong wall was built by the ,romans1 extending from ,wallsend on the north bank of the ,tyne1 a few miles below ,newcastle1 across the country to ,burgh-upon-,sands on the ,solway ,firth4 ,the remains of the wall are still to be traced in the less populous hill-districts of ,northumberland4 ,in the neighbourhood of ,newcastle they have been gradually effaced by the works of succeeding generations1 though the ,wallsend coal consumed in our household fires still serves to remind us of the great ,roman work4 ,picture3 ,map of ,newcastle ,district ,after the withdrawal of the ,romans1 ,northumbria became planted by immigrant ,saxons from ,north ,germany and ,norsemen from ,scandinavia1 whose ,eorls or ,earls made ,newcastle their principal seat4 ,then came the ,normans1 from whose ,new ,castle1 built some eight hundred years since1 the town derived its present name4 ,the keep of this venerable structure1 black with age and smoke1 still stands entire at the northern end of the noble high-level bridge--the utilitarian work of modern times thus confronting the warlike relic of the older civilisation4 ,the nearness of ,newcastle to the ,scotch ,border was a great hindrance to its security and progress in the middle ages of ,english history4 ,indeed1 the district between it and ,berwick continued to be ravaged by moss-troopers long after the union of the ,crowns4 ,the gentry lived in their strong ,peel castles2 even the larger farm-houses were fortified2 and bloodhounds were trained for the purpose of tracking the cattle-reavers to their retreats in the hills4 ,the ,judges of ,assize rode from ,carlisle to ,newcastle guarded by an escort armed to the teeth4 ,a tribute called dagger and protection money was annually paid by the ,sheriff of ,newcastle for the purpose of providing daggers and other weapons for the escort2 and1 though the need of such protection has long since ceased1 the tribute continues to be paid in broad gold pieces of the time of ,charles the ,first4 ,until about the middle of last century the roads across ,northumberland were little better than horse-tracks1 and not many years since the primitive agricultural cart with solid wooden wheels was almost as common in the western parts of the county as it is in ,spain now4 ,the tract of the old ,roman road continued to be the most practicable route between ,newcastle and ,carlisle1 the traffic between the two towns having been carried along it upon packhorses until a comparatively recent period4 ,since that time great changes have taken place on the ,tyne4 ,when wood for firing became scarce and dear1 and the forests of the ,south of ,england were found inadequate to supply the increasing demand for fuel1 attention was turned to the rich stores of coal lying underground in the neighbourhood of ,newcastle and ,durham4 ,it then became an article of increasing export1 and seacoal fires gradually supplanted those of wood4 ,hence an old writer described ,newcastle as the ,eye of the ,north1 and the ,hearth that warmeth the ,south parts of this kingdom with ,fire4 ,fuel has become the staple product of the district1 the quantity exported increasing from year to year1 until the coal raised from these northern mines amounts to upwards of sixteen millions of tons a year1 of which not less than nine millions are annually conveyed away by sea4 ,newcastle has in the mean time spread in all directions far beyond its ancient boundaries4 ,from a walled mediaeval town of monks and merchants1 it has been converted into a busy centre of commerce and manufactures inhabited by nearly #ajj1jjj people4 ,it is no longer a ,border fortress--a shield and defence against the invasions and frequent insults of the ,scots1 as described in ancient charters--but a busy centre of peaceful industry1 and the outlet for a vast amount of steam-power1 which is exported in the form of coal to all parts of the world4 ,newcastle is in many respects a town of singular and curious interest1 especially in its older parts1 which are full of crooked lanes and narrow streets1 wynds1 and chares1 #d formed by tall1 antique houses1 rising tier above tier along the steep northern bank of the ,tyne1 as the similarly precipitous streets of ,gateshead crowd the opposite shore4 ,all over the coal region1 which extends from the ,coquet to the ,tees1 about fifty miles from north to south1 the surface of the soil exhibits the signs of extensive underground workings4 ,as you pass through the country at night1 the earth looks as if it were bursting with fire at many points2 the blaze of coke-ovens1 iron-furnaces1 and coal-heaps reddening the sky to such a distance that the horizon seems to be a glowing belt of fire4 ,from the necessity which existed for facilitating the transport of coals from the pits to the shipping places1 it is easy to understand how the railway and the locomotive should have first found their home in such a district as we have thus briefly described4 ,at an early period the coal was carried to the boats in panniers1 or in sacks upon horses' backs4 ,then carts were used1 to facilitate the progress of which tramways of flag-stone were laid down4 ,this led to the enlargement of the vehicle1 which became known as a waggon1 and it was mounted on four wheels instead of two4 ,a local writer about the middle of the seventeenth century says1 ,many thousand people are engaged in this trade of coals2 many live by working of them in the pits2 and many live by conveying them in waggons and wains to the river ,tyne4 ,still further to facilitate the haulage of the waggons1 pieces of planking were laid parallel upon wooden sleepers1 or imbedded in the ordinary track1 by which friction was still further diminished4 ,it is said that these wooden rails were first employed by one ,beaumont1 about #afcj2 and on a road thus laid1 a single horse was capable of drawing a large loaded waggon from the coal-pit to the shipping staith4 ,roger ,north1 in #afgf1 found the practice had become extensively adopted1 and he speaks of the large sums then paid for way-leaves2 that is1 the permission granted by the owners of lands lying between the coal-pit and the river-side to lay down a tramway between the one and the other4 ,a century later1 ,arthur ,young observed that not only had these roads become greatly multiplied1 but important works had been constructed to carry them along upon the same level4 ,the coal-waggon roads from the pits to the water1 he says1 are great works1 carried over all sorts of inequalities of ground1 so far as the distance of nine or ten miles4 ,the tracks of the wheels are marked with pieces of wood let into the road for the wheels of the waggons to run on1 by which one horse is enabled to draw1 and that with ease1 fifty or sixty bushels of coals4 #e ,similar waggon-roads were laid down in the coal districts of ,wales1 ,cumberland1 and ,scotland4 ,at the time of the ,scotch rebellion in #agde1 a tramroad existed between the ,tranent coal-pits and the small harbour of ,cockenzie in ,east ,lothian2 and a portion of the line was selected by ,general ,cope as a position for his cannon at the battle of ,prestonpans4 ,in these rude wooden tracks we find the germ of the modern railroad4 ,improvements were gradually made in them4 ,thus1 at some collieries1 thin plates of iron were nailed upon their upper surface1 for the purpose of protecting the parts most exposed to friction4 ,cast-iron rails were also tried1 the wooden rails having been found liable to rot4 ,the first rails of this kind are supposed to have been used at ,whitehaven as early as #agch4 ,this cast-iron road was denominated a plate-way1 from the plate-like form in which the rails were cast4 ,in #agfg1 as appears from the books of the ,coalbrookdale ,iron ,works1 in ,shropshire1 five or six tons of rails were cast1 as an experiment1 on the suggestion of ,mr4 ,reynolds1 one of the partners2 and they were shortly after laid down to form a road4 ,in #aggf1 a cast-iron tramway1 nailed to wooden sleepers1 was laid down at the ,duke of ,norfolk's colliery near ,sheffield4 ,the person who designed and constructed this coal line was ,mr4 ,john ,curr1 whose son has erroneously claimed for him the invention of the cast-iron railway4 ,he certainly adopted it early1 and thereby met the fate of men before their age2 for his plan was opposed by the labouring people of the colliery1 who got up a riot in which they tore up the road and burnt the coal-staith1 whilst ,mr4 ,curr fled into a neighbouring wood for concealment1 and lay there perdu for three days and nights1 to escape the fury of the populace4 ,the plates of these early tramways had a ledge cast on their edge to guide the wheel along the road1 after the manner shown in the annexed cut4 ,picture3 ,flange rail ,in #aghi1 ,mr4 ,william ,jessop constructed a railway at ,loughborough1 in ,leicestershire1 and there introduced the cast-iron edge-rail1 with flanches cast upon the tire of the waggon-wheels to keep them on the track1 instead of having the margin or flanch cast upon the rail itself2 and this plan was shortly after adopted in other places4 ,in #ahjj1 ,mr4 ,benjamin ,outram1 of ,little ,eaton1 in ,derbyshire 7father of the distinguished ,general ,outram71 used stone props instead of timber for supporting the ends or joinings of the rails4 ,thus the use of railroads1 in various forms1 gradually extended1 until they were found in general use all over the mining districts4 ,such was the growth of the railway1 which1 it will be observed1 originated in necessity1 and was modified according to experience2 progress in this1 as in all departments of mechanics1 having been effected by the exertions of many men1 one generation entering upon the labours of that which preceded it1 and carrying them onward to further stages of improvement4 ,we shall afterwards find that the invention of the locomotive was made by like successive steps4 ,it was not the invention of one man1 but of a succession of men1 each working at the proper hour1 and according to the needs of that hour2 one inventor interpreting only the first word of the problem which his successors were to solve after long and laborious efforts and experiments4 ,the locomotive is not the invention of one man1 said ,robert ,stephenson at ,newcastle1 but of a nation of mechanical engineers4 ,the same circumstances which led to the rapid extension of railways in the coal districts of the north tended to direct the attention of the mining engineers to the early development of the powers of the steam-engine as a useful instrument of motive power4 ,the necessity which existed for a more effective method of hauling the coals from the pits to the shipping places was constantly present to many minds2 and the daily pursuits of a large class of mechanics occupied in the management of steam power1 by which the coal was raised from the pits1 and the mines were pumped clear of water1 had the effect of directing their attention to the same agency as the best means for accomplishing that object4 ,among the upper-ground workmen employed at the coal-pits1 the principal are the firemen1 enginemen1 and brakes-men1 who fire and work the engines1 and superintend the machinery by means of which the collieries are worked4 ,previous to the introduction of the steam-engine the usual machine employed for the purpose was what is called a gin4 ,the gin consists of a large drum placed horizontally1 round which ropes attached to buckets and corves are wound1 which are thus drawn up or sent down the shafts by a horse travelling in a circular track or gin race4 ,this method was employed for drawing up both coals and water1 and it is still used for the same purpose in small collieries2 but where the quantity of water to be raised is great1 pumps worked by steam power are called into requisition4 ,newcomen's atmospheric engine was first made use of to work the pumps2 and it continued to be so employed long after the more powerful and economical condensing engine of ,watt had been invented4 ,in the ,newcomen or fire engine1 as it was called1 the power is produced by the pressure of the atmosphere forcing down the piston in the cylinder1 on a vacuum being produced within it by condensation of the contained steam by means of cold water injection4 ,the piston-rod is attached to one end of a lever1 whilst the pump-rod works in connexion with the other1--the hydraulic action employed to raise the water being exactly similar to that of a common sucking-pump4 ,the working of a ,newcomen engine was a clumsy and apparently a very painful process1 accompanied by an extraordinary amount of wheezing1 sighing1 creaking1 and bumping4 ,when the pump descended1 there was heard a plunge1 a heavy sigh1 and a loud bump3 then1 as it rose1 and the sucker began to act1 there was heard a croak1 a wheeze1 another bump1 and then a strong rush of water as it was lifted and poured out4 ,where engines of a more powerful and improved description are used1 the quantity of water raised is enormous--as much as a million and a half gallons in the twenty-four hours4 ,the pitmen1 or the lads belaw1 who work out the coal below ground1 are a peculiar class1 quite distinct from the workmen on the surface4 ,they are a people with peculiar habits1 manners1 and character1 as much as fishermen and sailors1 to whom1 indeed1 they bear1 in some respects1 a considerable resemblance4 ,some fifty years since they were a much rougher and worse educated class than they are now2 hard workers1 but very wild and uncouth2 much given to steeks1 or strikes2 and distinguished1 in their hours of leisure and on pay-nights1 for their love of cock-fighting1 dog-fighting1 hard drinking1 and cuddy races4 ,the pay-night was a fortnightly saturnalia1 in which the pitman's character was fully brought out1 especially when the yel was good4 ,though earning much higher wages than the ordinary labouring population of the upper soil1 the latter did not mix nor intermarry with them2 so that they were left to form their own communities1 and hence their marked peculiarities as a class4 ,indeed1 a sort of traditional disrepute seems long to have clung to the pitmen1 arising perhaps from the nature of their employment1 and from the circumstance that the colliers were among the last classes enfranchised in ,england1 as they were certainly the last in ,scotland1 where they continued bondmen down to the end of last century4 ,the last thirty years1 however1 have worked a great improvement in the moral condition of the ,northumbrian pitmen2 the abolition of the twelve months' bond to the mine1 and the substitution of a month's notice previous to leaving1 having given them greater freedom and opportunity for obtaining employment2 and day-schools and ,sunday-schools1 together with the important influences of railways1 have brought them fully up to a level with the other classes of the labouring population4 ,the coals1 when raised from the pits1 are emptied into the waggons placed alongside1 from whence they are sent along the rails to the staiths erected by the river-side1 the waggons sometimes descending by their own gravity along inclined planes1 the waggoner standing behind to check the speed by means of a convoy or wooden brake bearing upon the rims of the wheels4 ,arrived at the staiths1 the waggons are emptied at once into the ships waiting alongside for cargo4 ,any one who has sailed down the ,tyne from ,newcastle ,bridge cannot but have been struck with the appearance of the immense staiths1 constructed of timber1 which are erected at short distances from each other on both sides of the river4 ,picture3 ,coal-,staith on the ,tyne ,but a great deal of the coal shipped from the ,tyne comes from above-bridge1 where sea-going craft cannot reach1 and is floated down the river in keels1 in which the coals are sometimes piled up according to convenience when large1 or1 when the coal is small or tender1 it is conveyed in tubs to prevent breakage4 ,these keels are of a very ancient model1--perhaps the oldest extant in ,england3 they are even said to be of the same build as those in which the ,norsemen navigated the ,tyne centuries ago4 ,the keel is a tubby1 grimy-looking craft1 rounded fore and aft1 with a single large square sail1 which the keel-bullies1 as the ,tyne watermen are called1 manage with great dexterity2 the vessel being guided by the aid of the swape1 or great oar1 which is used as a kind of rudder at the stern of the vessel4 ,these keelmen are an exceedingly hardy class of workmen1 not by any means so quarrelsome as their designation of bully would imply--the word being merely derived from the obsolete term boolie1 or beloved1 an appellation still in familiar use amongst brother workers in the coal districts4 ,one of the most curious sights upon the ,tyne is the fleet of hundreds of these black-sailed1 black-hulled keels1 bringing down at each tide their black cargoes for the ships at anchor in the deep water at ,shields and other parts of the river below ,newcastle4 ,these preliminary observations will perhaps be sufficient to explain the meaning of many of the occupations alluded to1 and the phrases employed1 in the course of the following narrative1 some of which might otherwise have been comparatively unintelligible to the general reader4 ,picture3 ,coal ,waggons ,picture3 ,wylam ,colliery and ,village ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,wylam ,,and ,,dewley ,,burn--,,george ,,stephenson',s ,,early ,,years4 ,the colliery village of ,wylam is situated on the north bank of the ,tyne1 about eight miles west of ,newcastle4 ,the ,newcastle and ,carlisle railway runs along the opposite bank2 and the traveller by that line sees the usual signs of a colliery in the unsightly pumping-engines surrounded by heaps of ashes1 coal-dust1 and slag2 whilst a neighbouring iron-furnace in full blast throws out dense smoke and loud jets of steam by day and lurid flames at night4 ,these works form the nucleus of the village1 which is almost entirely occupied by coal-miners and iron-furnacemen4 ,the place is remarkable for its large population1 but not for its cleanness or neatness as a village2 the houses1 as in most colliery villages1 being the property of the owners or lessees1 who employ them in temporarily accommodating the workpeople1 against whose earnings there is a weekly set-off for house and coals4 ,about the end of last century the estate of which ,wylam forms part1 belonged to ,mr4 ,blackett1 a gentleman of considerable celebrity in coal-mining1 then more generally known as the proprietor of the ',globe' newspaper4 ,there is nothing to interest one in the village itself4 ,but a few hundred yards from its eastern extremity stands a humble detached dwelling1 which will be interesting to many as the birthplace of one of the most remarkable men of our times--,george ,stephenson1 the ,railway ,engineer4 ,it is a common two-storied1 red-tiled1 rubble house1 portioned off into four labourers' apartments4 ,it is known by the name of ,high ,street ,house1 and was originally so called because it stands by the side of what used to be the old riding post road or street between ,newcastle and ,hexham1 along which the post was carried on horseback within the memory of persons living4 ,the lower room in the west end of this house was the home of the ,stephenson family2 and there ,george ,stephenson was born1 the second of a family of six children1 on the #ith of ,june1 #agha4 ,the apartment is now1 what it was then1 an ordinary labourer's dwelling1--its walls are unplastered1 its floor is of clay1 and the bare rafters are exposed overhead4 ,robert ,stephenson1 or ,old ,bob1 as the neighbours familiarly called him1 and his wife ,mabel1 were a respectable couple1 careful and hard-working4 ,it is said that ,robert ,stephenson's father was a ,scotchman1 and came into ,england as a gentleman's servant4 ,mabel1 his wife1 was the daughter of ,robert ,carr1 a dyer at ,ovingham4 ,when first married1 they lived at ,walbottle1 a village situated between ,wylam and ,newcastle1 afterwards removing to ,wylam1 where ,robert was employed as fireman of the old pumping engine at that colliery4 ,picture3 ,high-street ,house1 ,wylam1 the ,birthplace of ,george ,stephenson ,an old ,wylam collier1 who remembered ,george ,stephenson's father1 thus described him3--,geordie's fayther war like a peer o' deals nailed thegither1 an' a bit o' flesh i' th' inside2 he war as queer as ,dick's hatband--went thrice aboot1 an' wudn't tie4 ,his wife ,mabel war a delicat' boddie1 an' varry flighty4 ,thay war an honest family1 but sair hadden doon i' th' world4 ,indeed1 the earnings of old ,robert did not amount to more than twelve shillings a week2 and1 as there were six children to maintain1 the family1 during their stay at ,wylam1 were necessarily in very straitened circumstances4 ,the father's wages being barely sufficient1 even with the most rigid economy1 for the sustenance of the household1 there was little to spare for clothing1 and nothing for education1 so none of the children were sent to school4 ,old ,robert was a general favourite in the village1 especially amongst the children1 whom he was accustomed to draw about him whilst tending the engine-fire1 and feast their young imaginations with tales of ,sinbad the ,sailor and ,robinson ,crusoe1 besides others of his own invention2 so that ,bob's engine-fire came to be the most popular resort in the village4 ,another feature in his character1 by which he was long remembered1 was his affection for birds and animals2 and he had many tame favourites of both sorts1 which were as fond of resorting to his engine-fire as the boys and girls themselves4 ,in the winter time he had usually a flock of tame robins about him2 and they would come hopping familiarly to his feet to pick up the crumbs which he had saved for them out of his humble dinner4 ,at his cottage he was rarely without one or more tame blackbirds1 which flew about the house1 or in and out at the door4 ,in summer-time he would go a-birdnesting with his children2 and one day he took his little son ,george to see a blackbird's nest for the first time4 ,holding him up in his arms1 he let the wondering boy peep down1 through the branches held aside for the purpose1 into a nest full of young birds--a sight which the boy never forgot1 but used to speak of with delight to his intimate friends when he himself had grown an old man4 ,the boy ,george led the ordinary life of working-people's children4 ,he played about the doors2 went birdnesting when he could2 and ran errands to the village4 ,he was also an eager listener1 with the other children1 to his father's curious tales2 and he early imbibed from him that affection for birds and animals which continued throughout his life4 ,in course of time he was promoted to the office of carrying his father's dinner to him while at work1 and it was on such occasions his great delight to see the robins fed4 ,at home he helped to nurse1 and that with a careful hand1 his younger brothers and sisters4 ,one of his duties was to see that the other children were kept out of the way of the chaldron waggons1 which were then dragged by horses along the wooden tramroad immediately in front of the cottage-door4 ,this waggon-way was the first in the northern district on which the experiment of a locomotive engine was tried4 ,but at the time of which we speak1 the locomotive had scarcely been dreamt of in ,england as a practicable working power2 horses only were used to haul the coal2 and one of the first sights with which the boy was familiar was the coal-waggons dragged by them along the wooden railway at ,wylam4 ,thus eight years passed2 after which1 the coal having been worked out1 the old engine1 which had grown dismal to look at1 as one of the workmen described it1 was pulled down2 and then ,robert1 having obtained employment as a fireman at the ,dewley ,burn ,colliery1 removed with his family to that place4 ,dewley ,burn1 at this day1 consists of a few old-fashioned low-roofed cottages standing on either side of a babbling little stream4 ,they are connected by a rustic wooden bridge1 which spans the rift in front of the doors4 ,in the central one-roomed cottage of this group1 on the right bank1 ,robert ,stephenson lived for a time with his family2 the pit at which he worked standing in the rear of the cottages4 ,young though he was1 ,george was now of an age to be able to contribute something towards the family maintenance2 for in a poor man's house1 every child is a burden until his little hands can be turned to profitable account4 ,that the boy was shrewd and active1 and possessed of a ready mother wit1 will be evident enough from the following incident4 ,one day his sister ,nell went into ,newcastle to buy a bonnet2 and ,geordie went with her for company4 ,at a draper's shop in the ,bigg ,market1 ,nell found a chip quite to her mind1 but on pricing it1 alas6 it was found to be fifteen pence beyond her means1 and she left the shop very much disappointed4 ,but ,geordie said1 ,never heed1 ,nell2 see if ,i canna win siller enough to buy the bonnet2 stand ye there1 till ,i come back4 ,away ran the boy and disappeared amidst the throng of the market1 leaving the girl to wait his return4 ,long and long she waited1 until it grew dusk1 and the market people had nearly all left4 ,she had begun to despair1 and fears crossed her mind that ,geordie must have been run over and killed2 when at last up he came running1 almost breathless4 ,i've gotten the siller for the bonnet1 ,nell6 cried he4 ,eh ,geordie6 she said1 but hoo hae ye gotten it8 ,haudin the gentlemen's horses6 was the exultant reply4 ,the bonnet was forthwith bought1 and the two returned to ,dewley happy4 ,george's first regular employment was of a very humble sort4 ,a widow1 named ,grace ,ainslie1 then occupied the neighbouring farmhouse of ,dewley4 ,she kept a number of cows1 and had the privilege of grazing them along the waggon-road4 ,she needed a boy to herd the cows1 to keep them out of the way of the waggons1 and prevent their straying or trespassing on the neighbours' liberties2 the boy's duty was also to bar the gates at night after all the waggons had passed4 ,george petitioned for this post1 and1 to his great joy1 he was appointed at the wage of twopence a day4 ,it was light employment1 and he had plenty of spare time on his hands1 which he spent in birdnesting1 making whistles out of reeds and scrannel straws1 and erecting ,lilliputian mills in the little water-streams that ran into the ,dewley bog4 ,but his favourite amusement at this early age was erecting clay engines in conjunction with his chosen playmate1 ,bill ,thirlwall4 ,the place is still pointed out where the future engineers made their first essays in modelling4 ,the boys found the clay for their engines in the adjoining bog1 and the hemlocks which grew about supplied them with imaginary steam-pipes4 ,they even proceeded to make a miniature winding-machine in connexion with their engine1 and the apparatus was erected upon a bench in front of the ,thirlwalls' cottage4 ,the corves were made out of hollowed corks2 the ropes were supplied by twine2 and a few bits of wood gleaned from the refuse of the carpenter's shop completed their materials4 ,with this apparatus the boys made a show of sending the corves down the pit and drawing them up again1 much to the marvel of the pitmen4 ,but some mischievous person about the place seized the opportunity early one morning of smashing the fragile machinery1 much to the grief of the young engineers4 ,as ,stephenson grew older and abler to work1 he was set to lead the horses when ploughing1 though scarce big enough to stride across the furrows2 and he used afterwards to say that he rode to his work in the mornings at an hour when most other children of his age were asleep in their beds4 ,he was also employed to hoe turnips1 and do similar farm-work1 for which he was paid the advanced wage of fourpence a day4 ,but his highest ambition was to be taken on at the colliery where his father worked2 and he shortly joined his elder brother ,james there as a corf-bitter1 or picker1 to clear the coal of stones1 bats1 and dross4 ,his wages were then advanced to sixpence a day1 and afterwards to eightpence when he was set to drive the gin-horse4 ,shortly after1 ,george went to ,black ,callerton to drive the gin there2 and as that colliery lies about two miles across the fields from ,dewley ,burn1 he walked that distance early in the morning to his work1 returning home late in the evening4 ,one of the old residents at ,black ,callerton1 who remembered him at that time1 described him to the author as a grit growing lad1 with bare legs an' feet2 adding that he was very quick-witted and full of fun and tricks3 indeed1 there was nothing under the sun but he tried to imitate4 ,he was usually foremost also in the sports and pastimes of youth4 ,among his first strongly-developed tastes was the love of birds and animals1 which he inherited from his father4 ,blackbirds were his special favourites4 ,the hedges between ,dewley and ,black ,callerton were capital bird-nesting places2 and there was not a nest there that he did not know of4 ,when the young birds were old enough1 he would bring them home with him1 feed them1 and teach them to fly about the cottage unconfined by cages4 ,one of his blackbirds became so tame1 that1 after flying about the doors all day1 and in and out of the cottage1 it would take up its roost upon the bed-head at night4 ,and most singular of all1 the bird would disappear in the spring and summer months1 when it was supposed to go into the woods to pair and rear its young1 after which it would reappear at the cottage1 and resume its social habits during the winter4 ,this went on for several years4 ,george had also a stock of tame rabbits1 for which he built a little house behind the cottage1 and for many years he continued to pride himself upon the superiority of his breed4 ,after he had driven the gin for some time at ,dewley and ,black ,callerton1 he was taken on as an assistant to his father in firing the engine at ,dewley4 ,this was a step of promotion which he had anxiously desired1 his only fear being lest he should be found too young for the work4 ,indeed1 he used afterwards to relate how he was wont to hide himself when the owner of the colliery went round1 in case he should be thought too little a boy to earn the wages paid him4 ,since he had modelled his clay engines in the bog1 his young ambition was to be an engineman2 and to be an assistant fireman was the first step towards this position4 ,great therefore was his joy when1 at about fourteen years of age1 he was appointed assistant-fireman1 at the wage of a shilling a day4 ,but the coal at ,dewley ,burn being at length worked out1 the pit was ordered to be laid in1 and old ,robert and his family were again under the necessity of shifting their home2 for1 to use the common phrase1 they must follow the wark4 ,they removed accordingly to a place called ,jolly's ,close1 a few miles to the south1 close behind the village of ,newburn1 where another coal-mine belonging to the ,duke of ,northumberland1 called the ,duke's ,winnin1 had recently been opened out4 ,picture3 ,newburn on the ,tyne ,one of the old persons in the neighbourhood1 who knew the family well1 describes the dwelling in which they lived as a poor cottage of only one room1 in which the father1 mother1 four sons1 and two daughters1 lived and slept4 ,it was crowded with three low-poled beds4 ,the one apartment served for parlour1 kitchen1 sleeping-room1 and all4 ,the children of the ,stephenson family were now growing apace1 and several of them were old enough to be able to earn money at various kinds of colliery work4 ,james and ,george1 the two eldest sons1 worked as assistant-firemen2 and the younger boys worked as wheelers or pickers on the bank-tops4 ,the two girls helped their mother with the household work4 ,other workings of the coal were opened out in the neighbourhood2 and to one of these ,george was removed as fireman on his own account4 ,this was called the ,mid ,mill ,winnin1 where he had for his mate a young man named ,coe4 ,they worked together there for about two years1 by twelve-hour shifts1 ,george firing the engine at the wage of a shilling a day4 ,he was now fifteen years old4 ,his ambition was as yet limited to attaining the standing of a full workman1 at a man's wages2 and with that view he endeavoured to attain such a knowledge of his engine as would eventually lead to his employment as an engineman1 with its accompanying advantage of higher pay4 ,he was a steady1 sober1 hard-working young man1 but nothing more in the estimation of his fellow-workmen4 ,one of his favourite pastimes in by-hours was trying feats of strength with his companions4 ,although in frame he was not particularly robust1 yet he was big and bony1 and considered very strong for his age4 ,at throwing the hammer ,george had no compeer4 ,at lifting heavy weights off the ground from between his feet1 by means of a bar of iron passed through them--placing the bar against his knees as a fulcrum1 and then straightening his spine and lifting them sheer up--he was also very successful4 ,on one occasion he lifted as much as sixty stones weight--a striking indication of his strength of bone and muscle4 ,when the pit at ,mid ,mill was closed1 ,george and his companion ,coe were sent to work another pumping-engine erected near ,throckley ,bridge1 where they continued for some months4 ,it was while working at this place that his wages were raised to #abs4 a week--an event to him of great importance4 ,on coming out of the foreman's office that ,saturday evening on which he received the advance1 he announced the fact to his fellow-workmen1 adding triumphantly ,i am now a made man for life6 ,the pit opened at ,newburn1 at which old ,robert ,stephenson worked1 proving a failure1 it was closed2 and a new pit was sunk at ,water-row1 on a strip of land lying between the ,wylam waggon-way and the river ,tyne1 about half a mile west of ,newburn ,church4 ,a pumping engine was erected there by ,robert ,hawthorn1 the ,duke's engineer2 and old ,stephenson went to work it as fireman1 his son ,george acting as the engineman or plugman4 ,at that time he was about seventeen years old--a very youthful age at which to fill so responsible a post4 ,he had thus already got ahead of his father in his station as a workman2 for the plugman holds a higher grade than the fireman1 requiring more practical knowledge and skill1 and usually receiving higher wages4 ,george's duty as plugman was to watch the engine1 to see that it kept well in work1 and that the pumps were efficient in drawing the water4 ,when the water-level in the pit was lowered1 and the suction became incomplete through the exposure of the suction-holes1 it was then his duty to proceed to the bottom of the shaft and plug the tube so that the pump should draw3 hence the designation of plugman4 ,if a stoppage in the engine took place through any defect which he was incapable of remedying1 it was for him to call in the aid of the chief engineer to set it to rights4 ,but from the time when ,george ,stephenson was appointed fireman1 and more particularly afterwards as engineman1 he applied himself so assiduously and so successfully to the study of the engine and its gearing--taking the machine to pieces in his leisure hours for the purpose of cleaning and understanding its various parts--that he soon acquired a thorough practical knowledge of its construction and mode of working1 and very rarely needed to call the engineer of the colliery to his aid4 ,his engine became a sort of pet with him1 and he was never wearied of watching and inspecting it with admiration4 ,though eighteen years old1 like many of his fellow-workmen1 ,stephenson had not yet learnt to read4 ,all that he could do was to get some one to read for him by his engine fire1 out of any book or stray newspaper which found its way into the neighbourhood4 ,buonaparte was then overrunning ,italy1 and astounding ,europe by his brilliant succession of victories2 and there was no more eager auditor of his exploits1 as read from the newspaper accounts1 than the young engineman at the ,water-row ,pit4 ,there were also numerous stray bits of information and intelligence contained in these papers1 which excited ,stephenson's interest4 ,one of these related to the ,egyptian method of hatching birds' eggs by means of artificial heat4 ,curious about everything relating to birds1 he determined to test it by experiment4 ,it was spring time1 and he forthwith went a birdnesting in the adjoining woods and hedges4 ,he gathered a collection of eggs of various sorts1 set them in flour in a warm place in the engine-house1 covering the whole with wool1 and then waited the issue4 ,the heat was kept as steady as possible1 and the eggs were carefully turned every twelve hours1 but though they chipped1 and some of them exhibited well-grown chicks1 they never hatched4 ,the experiment failed1 but the incident shows that the inquiring mind of the youth was fairly at work4 ,modelling of engines in clay continued to be another of his favourite occupations4 ,he made models of engines which he had seen1 and of others which were described to him4 ,these attempts were an improvement upon his first trials at ,dewley ,burn bog1 when occupied there as a herd-boy4 ,he was1 however1 anxious to know something of the wonderful engines of ,boulton and ,watt1 and was told that they were to be found fully described in books1 which he must search for information as to their construction1 action and uses4 ,but1 alas6 ,stephenson could not read2 he had not yet learnt even his letters4 ,thus he shortly found1 when gazing wistfully in the direction of knowledge1 that to advance further as a skilled workman1 he must master this wonderful art of reading--the key to so many other arts4 ,only thus could he gain an access to books1 the depositories of the wisdom and experience of the past4 ,although a grown man1 and doing the work of a man1 he was not ashamed to confess his ignorance1 and go to school1 big as he was1 to learn his letters4 ,perhaps1 too1 he foresaw that1 in laying out a little of his spare earnings for this purpose1 he was investing money judiciously1 and that1 in every hour he spent at school1 he was really working for better wages4 ,his first schoolmaster was ,robin ,cowens1 a poor teacher in the village of ,walbottle4 ,he kept a night-school1 which was attended by a few of the colliers and labourers' sons in the neighbourhood4 ,george took lessons in spelling and reading three nights in the week4 ,robin ,cowen's teaching cost threepence a week2 and though it was not very good1 yet ,george1 being hungry for knowledge and eager to acquire it1 soon learnt to read4 ,he also practised pothooks1 and at the age of nineteen he was proud to be able to write his own name4 ,a ,scotch dominie1 named ,andrew ,robertson1 set up a night-school in the village of ,newburn1 in the winter of #agii4 ,it was more convenient for ,george to attend this school1 as it was nearer to his work1 and only a few minutes' walk from ,jolly's ,close4 ,besides1 ,andrew had the reputation of being a skilled arithmetician2 and this branch of knowledge ,stephenson was very desirous of acquiring4 ,he accordingly began taking lessons from him1 paying fourpence a week4 ,robert ,gray1 the junior fireman at the ,water-row ,pit1 began arithmetic at the same time2 and ,gray afterwards told the author that ,george learnt figuring so much faster than he did1 that he could not make out how it was--he took to figures so wonderful4 ,although the two started together from the same point1 at the end of the winter ,george had mastered reduction1 while ,robert ,gray was still struggling with the difficulties of simple division4 ,but ,george's secret was his perseverance4 ,he worked out the sums in his bye-hours1 improving every minute of his spare time by the engine-fire1 and studying there the arithmetical problems set for him upon his slate by the master4 ,in the evenings he took to ,robertson the sums which he had worked1 and new ones were set for him to study out the following day4 ,thus his progress was rapid1 and1 with a willing heart and mind1 he soon became well advanced in arithmetic4 ,indeed1 ,andrew ,robertson became very proud of his scholar2 and shortly after1 when the ,water-row ,pit was closed1 and ,george removed to ,black ,callerton to work there1 the poor schoolmaster1 not having a very extensive connexion in ,newburn1 went with his pupils1 and set up his night-school at ,black ,callerton1 where he continued his lessons4 ,george still found time to attend to his favourite animals while working at the ,water-row ,pit4 ,like his father1 he used to tempt the robin-redbreasts to hop and fly about him at the engine-fire1 by the bait of bread-crumbs saved from his dinner4 ,but his chief favourite was his dog--so sagacious that he almost daily carried ,george's dinner to him at the pit4 ,the tin containing the meal was suspended from the dog's neck1 and1 thus laden1 he proceeded faithfully from ,jolly's ,close to ,water-row ,pit1 quite through the village of ,newburn4 ,he turned neither to left nor right1 nor heeded the barking of curs at his heels4 ,but his course was not unattended with perils4 ,one day the big strange dog of a passing butcher espying the engineman's messenger with the tin can about his neck1 ran after and fell upon him4 ,there was a terrible tussle and worrying1 which lasted for a brief while1 and1 shortly after1 the dog's master1 anxious for his dinner1 saw his faithful servant approaching1 bleeding but triumphant4 ,the tin can was still round his neck1 but the dinner had been spilt in the struggle4 ,though ,george went without his dinner that day1 he was prouder of his dog than ever when the circumstances of the combat were related to him by the villagers who had seen it4 ,it was while working at the ,water-row ,pit that ,stephenson learnt the art of brakeing an engine4 ,this being one of the higher departments of colliery labour1 and among the best paid1 ,george was very anxious to learn it4 ,a small winding-engine having been put up for the purpose of drawing the coals from the pit1 ,bill ,coe1 his friend and fellow-workman1 was appointed the brakesman4 ,he frequently allowed ,george to try his hand at the machine1 and instructed him how to proceed4 ,coe was1 however1 opposed in this by several of the other workmen--one of whom1 a banksman named ,william ,locke1 #bf went so far as to stop the working of the pit because ,stephenson had been called in to the brake4 ,but one day as ,mr4 ,charles ,nixon1 the manager of the pit1 was observed approaching1 ,coe adopted an expedient which put a stop to the opposition4 ,he called upon ,stephenson to come into the brake-house1 and take hold of the machine4 ,locke1 as usual1 sat down1 and the working of the pit was stopped4 ,when requested by the manager to give an explanation1 he said that young ,stephenson couldn't brake1 and1 what was more1 never would learn1 he was so clumsy4 ,mr4 ,nixon1 however1 ordered ,locke to go on with the work1 which he did2 and ,stephenson1 after some further practice1 acquired the art of brakeing4 ,after working at the ,water-row ,pit and at other engines near ,newburn for about three years1 ,george and ,coe went to ,black ,callerton early in #ahja4 ,though only twenty years of age1 his employers thought so well of him that they appointed him to the responsible office of brakesman at the ,dolly ,pit4 ,for convenience' sake1 he took lodgings at a small farmer's in the village1 finding his own victuals1 and paying so much a week for lodging and attendance4 ,in the locality this was called picklin in his awn poke neuk4 ,it not unfrequently happens that the young workman about the collieries1 when selecting a lodging1 contrives to pitch his tent where the daughter of the house ultimately becomes his wife4 ,this is often the real attraction that draws the youth from home1 though a very different one may be pretended4 ,george ,stephenson's duties as brakesman may be briefly described4 ,the work was somewhat monotonous1 and consisted in superintending the working of the engine and machinery by means of which the coals were drawn out of the pit4 ,brakesman are almost invariably selected from those who have had considerable experience as engine-firemen1 and borne a good character for steadiness1 punctuality1 watchfulness1 and mother wit4 ,in ,george ,stephenson's day the coals were drawn out of the pit in corves1 or large baskets made of hazel rods4 ,the corves were placed together in a cage1 between which and the pit-ropes there was usually from fifteen to twenty feet of chain4 ,the approach of the corves towards the pit mouth was signalled by a bell1 brought into action by a piece of mechanism worked from the shaft of the engine4 ,when the bell sounded1 the brakesman checked the speed1 by taking hold of the hand-gear connected with the steam-valves1 which were so arranged that by their means he could regulate the speed of the engine1 and stop or set it in motion when required4 ,connected with the fly-wheel was a powerful wooden brake1 acting by pressure against its rim1 something like the brake of a railway-carriage against its wheels4 ,on catching sight of the chain attached to the ascending corve-cage1 the brakesman1 by pressing his foot upon a foot-step near him1 was enabled1 with great precision1 to stop the revolutions of the wheel1 and arrest the ascent of the corves at the pit mouth1 when they were forthwith landed on the settle board4 ,on the full corves being replaced by empty ones1 it was then the duty of the brakesman to reverse the engine1 and send the corves down the pit to be filled again4 ,the monotony of ,george ,stephenson's occupation as a brakesman was somewhat varied by the change which he made1 in his turn1 from the day to the night shift4 ,his duty1 on the latter occasions1 consisted chiefly in sending men and materials into the mine1 and in drawing other men and materials out4 ,most of the workmen enter the pit during the night shift1 and leave it in the latter part of the day1 whilst coal-drawing is proceeding4 ,the requirements of the work at night are such1 that the brakesman has a good deal of spare time on his hands1 which he is at liberty to employ in his own way4 ,from an early period1 ,george was accustomed to employ those vacant night hours in working the sums set for him by ,andrew ,robertson upon his slate1 practising writing in his copy-book1 and mending the shoes of his fellow-workmen4 ,his wages while working at the ,dolly ,pit amounted to from #a pounds #aes4 to #b pounds in the fortnight2 but he gradually added to them as he became more expert at shoe-mending1 and afterwards at shoe-making4 ,probably he was stimulated to take in hand this extra work by the attachment he had by this time formed for a young woman named ,fanny ,henderson1 who officiated as servant in the small farmer's house in which he lodged4 ,we have been informed that the personal attractions of ,fanny1 though these were considerable1 were the least of her charms4 ,mr4 ,william ,fairbairn1 who afterwards saw her in her home at ,willington ,quay1 describes her as a very comely woman4 ,but her temper was one of the sweetest2 and those who knew her were accustomed to speak of the charming modesty of her demeanour1 her kindness of disposition1 and withal her sound good sense4 ,amongst his various mendings of old shoes at ,callerton4 ,george was on one occasion favoured with the shoes of his sweetheart to sole4 ,one can imagine the pleasure with which he would linger over such a piece of work1 and the pride with which he would execute it4 ,a friend of his1 still living1 relates that1 after he had finished the shoes1 he carried them about with him in his pocket on the ,sunday afternoon1 and that from time to time he would pull them out and hold them up1 exclaiming1 what a capital job he had made of them6 ,out of his earnings by shoe-mending at ,callerton1 ,george contrived to save his first guinea4 ,the first guinea saved by a working man is no trivial thing4 ,if1 as in ,stephenson's case1 it has been the result of prudent self-denial1 of extra labour at bye-hours1 and of the honest resolution to save and economise for worthy purposes1 the first guinea saved is an earnest of better things4 ,when ,stephenson had saved this guinea he was not a little elated at the achievement1 and expressed the opinion to a friend1 who many years after reminded him of it1 that he was now a rich man4 ,not long after he began to work at ,black ,callerton as brakesman1 he had a quarrel with a pitman named ,ned ,nelson1 a roistering bully1 who was the terror of the village4 ,nelson was a great fighter2 and it was therefore considered dangerous to quarrel with him4 ,stephenson was so unfortunate as not to be able to please this pitman by the way in which he drew him out of the pit2 and ,nelson swore at him grossly because of the alleged clumsiness of his brakeing4 ,george defended himself1 and appealed to the testimony of the other workmen4 ,but ,nelson had not been accustomed to ,george's style of self-assertion2 and1 after a great deal of abuse1 he threatened to kick the brakesman1 who defied him to do so4 ,nelson ended by challenging ,stephenson to a pitched battle2 and the latter accepted the challenge1 when a day was fixed on which the fight was to come off4 ,great was the excitement at ,black ,callerton when it was known that ,george ,stephenson had accepted ,nelson's challenge4 ,everybody said he would be killed4 ,the villagers1 the young men1 and especially the boys of the place1 with whom ,george was a great favourite1 all wished that he might beat ,nelson1 but they scarcely dared to say so4 ,they came about him while he was at work in the engine-house to inquire if it was really true that he was goin to fight ,nelson8 ,ay2 never fear for me2 ,i'll fight him4 ,and fight him he did4 ,for some days previous to the appointed day of battle1 ,nelson went entirely off work for the purpose of keeping himself fresh and strong1 whereas ,stephenson went on doing his daily work as usual1 and appeared not in the least disconcerted by the prospect of the affair4 ,so1 on the evening appointed1 after ,george had done his day's labour1 he went into the ,dolly ,pit ,field1 where his already exulting rival was ready to meet him4 ,george stripped1 and went in like a practised pugilist--though it was his first and last fight4 ,after a few rounds1 ,george's wiry muscles and practised strength enabled him severely to punish his adversary1 and to secure an easy victory4 ,this circumstance is related in illustration of ,stephenson's personal pluck and courage2 and it was thoroughly characteristic of the man4 ,he was no pugilist1 and the very reverse of quarrelsome4 ,but he would not be put down by the bully of the colliery1 and he fought him4 ,there his pugilism ended2 they afterwards shook hands1 and continued good friends4 ,in after life1 ,stephenson's mettle was often as hardly tried1 though in a different way2 and he did not fail to exhibit the same resolute courage in contending with the bullies of the railway world1 as he showed in his encounter with ,ned ,nelson1 the fighting pitman of ,callerton4 ,picture3 ,colliery ,whimsey ,picture3 ,stephenson's ,cottage at ,wallington ,quay ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,engineman ,,at ,,willington ,,quay ,,and ,,killingworth4 ,george ,stephenson had now acquired the character of an expert workman4 ,he was diligent and observant while at work1 and sober and studious when the day's work was over4 ,his friend ,coe described him to the author as a standing example of manly character4 ,on pay-,saturday afternoons1 when the pitmen held their fortnightly holiday1 occupying themselves chiefly in cock-fighting and dog-fighting in the adjoining fields1 followed by adjournments to the yel-house1 ,george was accustomed to take his engine to pieces1 for the purpose of obtaining insight1 and he cleaned all the parts and put the machine in thorough working order before leaving it4 ,in the evenings he improved himself in the arts of reading and writing1 and occasionally took a turn at modelling4 ,it was at ,callerton1 his son ,robert informed us1 that he began to try his hand at original invention2 and for some time he applied his attention to a machine of the nature of an engine-brake1 which reversed itself by its own action4 ,but nothing came of the contrivance1 and it was eventually thrown aside as useless4 ,yet not altogether so2 for even the highest skill must undergo the inevitable discipline of experiment1 and submit to the wholesome correction of occasional failure4 ,after working at ,callerton for about two years1 he received an offer to take charge of the engine on ,willington ,ballast ,hill at an advanced wage4 ,he determined to accept it1 and at the same time to marry ,fanny ,henderson1 and begin housekeeping on his own account4 ,though he was only twenty-one years old1 he had contrived1 by thrift1 steadiness1 and industry1 to save as much money as enabled him to take a cottage-dwelling at ,willington ,quay1 and furnish it in a humble but comfortable style for the reception of his bride4 ,willington ,quay lies on the north bank of the ,tyne1 about six miles below ,newcastle4 ,it consists of a line of houses straggling along the river-side2 and high behind it towers up the huge mound of ballast emptied out of the ships which resort to the quay for their cargoes of coal for the ,london market4 ,the ballast is thrown out of the ships' holds into waggons laid alongside1 which are run up to the summit of the ,ballast ,hill1 and emptied out there4 ,at the foot of the great mound of shot rubbish was the fixed engine of which ,george ,stephenson acted as brakesman4 ,the cottage in which he took up his abode was a small two-storied dwelling1 standing a little back from the quay with a bit of garden ground in front4 #cc ,the ,stephenson family occupied the upper room in the west end of the cottage4 ,close behind rose the ,ballast ,hill4 ,when the cottage dwelling had been made snug1 and was ready for occupation1 the marriage took place4 ,it was celebrated in ,newburn ,church1 on the #bhth of ,november1 #ahjb4 ,after the ceremony1 ,george1 with his newly-wedded wife1 proceeded to the house of his father at ,jolly's ,close4 ,the old man was now becoming infirm1 and1 though he still worked as an engine-fireman1 contrived with difficulty to keep his head above water4 ,when the visit had been paid1 the bridal party set out for their new home at ,willington ,quay1 whither they went in a manner quite common before travelling by railway came into use4 ,two farm horses1 borrowed from a neighbouring farmer1 were each provided with a saddle and pillion1 and ,george having mounted one1 his wife seated herself behind him1 holding on by his waist4 ,the bridesman and bridesmaid in like manner mounted the other horse2 and in this wise the wedding party rode across the country1 passing through the old streets of ,newcastle1 and then by ,wallsend to ,willington ,quay--a ride of about fifteen miles4 ,george ,stephenson's daily life at ,willington was that of a steady workman4 ,by the manner1 however1 in which he continued to improve his spare hours in the evening1 he was silently and surely paving the way for being something more than a manual labourer4 ,he set himself to study diligently the principles of mechanics1 and to master the laws by which his engine worked4 ,for a workman1 he was even at that time more than ordinarily speculative--often taking up strange theories1 and trying to sift out the truth that was in them4 ,while sitting by his wife's side in his cottage-dwelling in the winter evenings1 he was usually occupied in studying mechanical subjects1 or in modelling experimental machines4 ,amongst his various speculations while at ,willington1 he tried to discover a means of ,perpetual ,motion4 ,although he failed1 as so many others had done before him1 the very efforts he made tended to whet his inventive faculties1 and to call forth his dormant powers4 ,he went so far as to construct the model of a machine for the purpose4 ,it consisted of a wooden wheel1 the periphery of which was furnished with glass tubes filled with quicksilver2 as the wheel rotated1 the quicksilver poured itself down into the lower tubes1 and thus a sort of self-acting motion was kept up in the apparatus1 which1 however1 did not prove to be perpetual4 ,where he had first obtained the idea of this machine--whether from conversation or reading1 is not known2 but his son ,robert was of opinion that he had heard of the apparatus of this kind described in the ,history of ,inventions4 ,as he had then no access to books1 and indeed could barely read with ease1 it is probable that he had been told of the contrivance1 and set about testing its value according to his own methods4 ,much of his spare time continued to be occupied by labour more immediately profitable1 regarded in a pecuniary point of view4 ,in the evenings1 after his day's labour at his engine1 he would occasionally employ himself for an hour or two in casting ballast out of the collier ships1 by which means he was enabled to earn a few extra shillings weekly4 ,mr4 ,william ,fairbairn of ,manchester has informed us that while ,stephenson was employed at ,willington1 he himself was working in the neighbourhood as an engine apprentice at the ,percy ,main ,colliery4 ,he was very fond of ,george1 who was a fine1 hearty fellow1 besides being a capital workman4 ,in the summer evenings young ,fairbairn was accustomed to go down to the ,quay to see his friend1 and on such occasions he would frequently take charge of ,george's engine while he took a turn at heaving ballast out of the ships' holds4 ,it is pleasant to think of the future ,president of the ,british ,association thus helping the future ,railway ,engineer to earn a few extra shillings by overwork in the evenings1 at a time when both occupied the rank of humble working men in an obscure northern village4 ,mr4 ,fairbairn was also a frequent visitor at ,george's cottage on the ,quay1 where1 though there was no luxury1 there was comfort1 cleanliness1 and a pervading spirit of industry4 ,even at home ,george was never for a moment idle4 ,when there was no ballast to heave out at the ,quay he took in shoes to mend2 and from mending he proceeded to making them1 as well as shoe-lasts1 in which he was admitted to be very expert4 ,but an accident occurred in ,stephenson's household about this time1 which had the effect of directing his industry into a new and still more profitable channel4 ,the cottage chimney took fire one day in his absence1 when the alarmed neighbours1 rushing in1 threw quantities of water upon the flames2 and some1 in their zeal1 even mounted the ridge of the house1 and poured buckets of water down the chimney4 ,the fire was soon put out1 but the house was thoroughly soaked4 ,when ,george came home he found everything in disorder1 and his new furniture covered with soot4 ,the eight-day clock1 which hung against the wall--one of the most highly-prized articles in the house--was much damaged by the steam with which the room had been filled2 and its wheels were so clogged by the dust and soot that it was brought to a complete standstill4 ,george was always ready to turn his hand to anything1 and his ingenuity1 never at fault1 immediately set to work to repair the unfortunate clock4 ,he was advised to send it to the clockmaker1 but that would cost money2 and he declared that he would repair it himself--at least he would try4 ,the clock was accordingly taken to pieces and cleaned2 the tools which he had been accumulating for the purpose of constructing his ,perpetual ,motion machine1 enabled him to do this readily2 and he succeeded so well that1 shortly after1 the neighbours sent him their clocks to clean1 and he soon became one of the most famous clock-doctors in the neighbourhood4 ,it was while living at ,willington ,quay that ,george ,stephenson's only son was born1 on the #afth of ,october1 #ahjc4 ,the child was a great favourite with his father1 and added much to the happiness of his evening hours4 ,george's philoprogenitiveness1 as phrenologists call it1 had been exercised hitherto upon birds1 dogs1 rabbits1 and even the poor old gin-horses which he had driven at the ,callerton ,pit2 but in his boy he now found a much more genial object for the exercise of his affection4 ,the christening took place in the school-house at ,wallsend1 the old parish church being at the time in so dilapidated a condition from the creeping or subsidence of the ground1 consequent upon the excavation of the coal1 that it was considered dangerous to enter it4 ,on this occasion1 ,robert ,gray and ,anne ,henderson1 who had officiated as bridesman and bridesmaid at the wedding1 came over again to ,willington1 and stood godfather and godmother to little ,robert1--so named after his grandfather4 ,after working for several years more as a brakesman at the ,willington machine1 ,george ,stephenson was induced to leave his situation there for a similar one at the ,west ,moor ,colliery1 ,killingworth4 ,it was not without considerable persuasion that he was induced to leave the ,quay1 as he knew that he should thereby give up the chance of earning extra money by casting ballast from the keels4 ,at last1 however1 he consented1 in the hope of making up the loss in some other way4 ,the village of ,killingworth lies about seven miles north of ,newcastle1 and is one of the best-known collieries in that neighbourhood4 ,the workings of the coal are of vast extent1 and give employment to a large number of work-people4 ,to this place ,stephenson first came as a brakesman about the beginning of #ahje4 ,he had not been long in his new place1 ere his wife died 7in #ahjf71 shortly after giving birth to a daughter1 who survived the mother only a few months4 ,george deeply felt the loss of his wife1 for they had been very happy together4 ,their lot had been sweetened by daily successful toil4 ,the husband was sober and hard-working1 and his wife made his hearth so bright and his home so snug1 that no attraction could draw him from her side in the evening hours4 ,but this domestic happiness was all to pass away2 and ,george felt as one that had thenceforth to tread the journey of life alone4 ,picture3 ,west ,moor ,colliery ,shortly after this event1 while his grief was still fresh1 he received an invitation from some gentlemen concerned in large spinning works near ,montrose in ,scotland1 to proceed thither and superintend the working of one of ,boulton and ,watt's engines4 ,he accepted the offer1 and made arrangements to leave ,killingworth for a time4 ,having left his little boy in good keeping1 he set out upon his long journey to ,scotland on foot1 with his kit upon his back4 ,while working at ,montrose he gave a striking proof of that practical ability in contrivance for which he was afterwards so distinguished4 ,it appears that the water required for the purposes of his engine1 as well as for the use of the works1 was pumped from a considerable depth1 being supplied from the adjacent extensive sand strata4 ,the pumps frequently got choked by the sand drawn in at the bottom of the well through the snore-holes1 or apertures through which the water to be raised is admitted4 ,the barrels soon became worn1 and the bucket and clack leathers destroyed1 so that it became necessary to devise a remedy2 and with this object the engineman proceeded to adopt the following simple but original expedient4 ,he had a wooden box or boot made1 twelve feet high1 which he placed in the sump or well1 and into this he inserted the lower end of the pump4 ,the result was1 that the water flowed clear from the outer part of the well over into the boot1 and being drawn up without any admixture of sand1 the difficulty was thus conquered4 #ch ,being paid good wages1 ,stephenson contrived1 during the year he worked at ,montrose1 to save a sum of #bh pounds1 which he took back with him to ,killingworth4 ,longing to get back to his kindred1 his heart yearning for the son whom he had left behind1 our engineman took leave of his employers1 and trudged back to ,northumberland on foot as he had gone4 ,while on his journey southward he arrived late one evening1 footsore and wearied1 at the door of a small farmer's cottage1 at which he knocked1 and requested shelter for the night4 ,it was refused1 and then he entreated that1 being tired1 and unable to proceed further1 the farmer would permit him to lie down in the outhouse1 for that a little clean straw would serve him4 ,the farmer's wife appeared at the door1 looked at the traveller1 then retiring with her husband1 the two confabulated a little apart1 and finally they invited ,stephenson into the cottage4 ,always full of conversation and anecdote1 he soon made himself at home in the farmer's family1 and spent with them a few pleasant hours4 ,he was hospitably entertained for the night1 and when he left the cottage in the morning1 he pressed them to make some charge for his lodging1 but they refused to accept any recompense4 ,they only asked him to remember them kindly1 and if he ever came that way1 to be sure and call again4 ,many years after1 when ,stephenson had become a thriving man1 he did not forget the humble pair who had succoured and entertained him on his way2 he sought their cottage again1 when age had silvered their hair2 and when he left the aged couple1 they may have been reminded of the old saying that we may sometimes entertain angels unawares4 ,reaching home1 ,stephenson found that his father had met with a serious accident at the ,blucher ,pit1 which had reduced him to great distress and poverty4 ,while engaged in the inside of an engine1 making some repairs1 a fellow-workman accidentally let in the steam upon him4 ,the blast struck him full in the face2 he was terribly scorched1 and his eyesight was irretrievably lost4 ,the helpless and infirm man had struggled for a time with poverty2 his sons who were at home1 poor as himself1 were little able to help him1 while ,george was at a distance in ,scotland4 ,on his return1 however1 with his savings in his pocket1 his first step was to pay off his father's debts1 amounting to about #ae pounds2 and shortly after he removed the aged pair from ,jolly's ,close to a comfortable cottage adjoining the tramroad near the ,west ,moor at ,killingworth1 where the old man lived for many years1 supported entirely by his son4 ,stephenson was again taken on as a brakesman at the ,west ,moor ,pit4 ,he does not seem to have been very hopeful as to his prospects in life about this time 7#ahjg-h74 ,indeed the condition of the working class generally was very discouraging4 ,england was engaged in a great war1 which pressed upon the industry1 and severely tried the resources1 of the country4 ,there was a constant demand for men to fill the army4 ,the working people were also liable to be pressed for the navy1 or drawn for the militia2 and though they could not fail to be discontented under such circumstances1 they scarcely dared even to mutter their discontent to their neighbours4 ,stephenson was drawn for the militia3 he must therefore either quit his work and go a-soldiering1 or find a substitute4 ,he adopted the latter course1 and borrowed #f pounds1 which1 with the remainder of his savings1 enabled him to provide a militiaman to serve in his stead4 ,thus the whole of his hard-won earnings were swept away at a stroke4 ,he was almost in despair1 and contemplated the idea of leaving the country1 and emigrating to the ,united ,states4 ,although a voyage thither was then a much more formidable thing for a working man to accomplish than a voyage to ,australia is now1 he seriously entertained the project1 and had all but made up his mind to go4 ,his sister ,ann1 with her husband1 emigrated about that time1 but ,george could not raise the requisite money1 and they departed without him4 ,after all1 it went sore against his heart to leave his home and his kindred1 the scenes of his youth and the friends of his boyhood2 and he struggled long with the idea1 brooding over it in sorrow4 ,speaking afterwards to a friend of his thoughts at the time1 he said3 ,you know the road from my house at the ,west ,moor to ,killingworth4 ,i remember once when ,i went along that road ,i wept bitterly1 for ,i knew not where my lot in life would be cast4 ,in #ahjh1 ,stephenson1 with two other brakesmen1 took a small contract under the colliery lessees for brakeing the engines at the ,west ,moor ,pit4 ,the brakesmen found the oil and tallow2 they divided the work amongst them1 and were paid so much per score for their labour4 ,it was the interest of the brakesmen to economise the working as much as possible1 and ,george no sooner entered upon the contract than he proceeded to devise ways and means of making it pay4 ,he observed that the ropes which1 at other pits in the neighbourhood1 lasted about three months1 at the ,west ,moor ,pit became worn out in about a month4 ,he immediately set about ascertaining the cause of the defect2 and finding it to be occasioned by excessive friction1 he proceeded1 with the sanction of the head engine-wright and the colliery owners1 to shift the pulley-wheels and re-arrange the gearing1 which had the effect of greatly diminishing the tear and wear1 besides allowing the work of the colliery to proceed without interruption4 ,about the same time he attempted an improvement in the winding-engine which he worked1 by placing a valve between the air-pump and condenser4 ,this expedient1 although it led to no practical result1 showed that his mind was actively engaged in studying new mechanical adaptations4 ,it continued to be his regular habit1 on ,saturdays1 to take his engine to pieces1 for the purpose1 at the same time1 of familiarising himself with its action1 and of placing it in a state of thorough working order4 ,by mastering its details1 he was enabled1 as opportunity occurred1 to turn to practical account the knowledge he thus diligently and patiently acquired4 ,such an opportunity was not long in presenting itself4 ,in the year #ahaj1 a new pit was sunk by the ,grand ,allies 7the lessees of the mines7 at the village of ,killingworth1 now known as the ,killingworth ,high ,pit4 ,an atmospheric or ,newcomen engine1 made by ,smeaton1 was fixed there for the purpose of pumping out the water from the shaft2 but somehow it failed to clear the pit4 ,as one of the workmen has since described the circumstance--,she couldn't keep her jack-head in water3 all the enginemen in the neighbourhood were tried1 as well as ,crowther of the ,ouseburn1 but they were clean bet4 ,the engine had been fruitlessly pumping for nearly twelve months1 and began to be spoken of as a total failure4 ,stephenson had gone to look at it when in course of erection1 and then observed to the over-man that he thought it was defective2 he also gave it as his opinion that1 if there were much water in the mine1 the engine would never keep it under4 ,of course1 as he was only a brakesman1 his opinion was considered to be worth very little on such a point4 ,he continued1 however1 to make frequent visits to the engine1 to see how she was getting on4 ,from the bank-head where he worked his brake he could see the chimney smoking at the ,high ,pit2 and as the men were passing to and from their work1 he would call out and inquire if they had gotten to the bottom yet8 ,and the reply was always to the same effect--the pumping made no progress1 and the workmen were still drowned out4 ,one ,saturday afternoon he went over to the ,high ,pit to examine the engine more carefully than he had yet done4 ,he had been turning the subject over thoughtfully in his mind2 and seemed to have satisfied himself as to the cause of the failure4 ,kit ,heppel1 one of the sinkers1 asked him1 ,weel1 ,george1 what do you mak' o' her8 ,do you think you could do anything to improve her8 ,said ,george1 ,i could alter her1 man1 and make her draw3 in a week's time ,i could send you to the bottom4 ,forthwith ,heppel reported this conversation to ,ralph ,dodds1 the head viewer1 who1 being now quite in despair1 and hopeless of succeeding with the engine1 determined to give ,george's skill a trial4 ,at the worst he could only fail1 as the rest had done4 ,in the evening1 ,dodds went in search of ,stephenson1 and met him on the road1 dressed in his ,sunday's suit1 on the way to the preaching in the ,methodist ,chapel1 which he attended4 ,well1 ,george1 said ,dodds1 they tell me that you think you can put the engine at the ,high ,pit to rights4 ,yes1 sir1 said ,george4 ,i think ,i could4 ,if that's the case1 ,i'll give you a fair trial1 and you must set to work immediately4 ,we are clean drowned out1 and cannot get a stop further4 ,the engineers hereabouts are all bet2 and if you really succeed in accomplishing what they cannot do1 you may depend upon it ,i will make you a man for life4 ,stephenson began his operations early next morning4 ,the only condition that he made1 before setting to work1 was that he should select his own workmen4 ,there was1 as he knew1 a good deal of jealousy amongst the regular men that a colliery brakesman should pretend to know more about their engine than they themselves did1 and attempt to remedy defects which the most skilled men of their craft1 including the engineer of the colliery1 had failed to do4 ,but ,george made the condition a sine qua non4 ,the workmen1 said he1 must either be all ,whigs or all ,tories4 ,there was no help for it1 so ,dodds ordered the old hands to stand aside4 ,the men grumbled1 but gave way2 and then ,george and his party went in4 ,the engine was taken entirely to pieces4 ,the cistern containing the injection water was raised ten feet2 the injection cock1 being too small1 was enlarged to nearly double its former size1 and it was so arranged that it should be shut off quickly at the beginning of the stroke4 ,these and other alterations were necessarily performed in a rough way1 but1 as the result proved1 on true principles4 ,stephenson also1 finding that the boiler would bear a greater pressure than five pounds to the inch1 determined to work it at a pressure of ten pounds1 though this was contrary to the directions of both ,newcomen and ,smeaton4 ,the necessary alterations were made in about three days1 and many persons came to see the engine start1 including the men who had put her up4 ,the pit being nearly full of water1 she had little to do on starting1 and1 to use ,george's words1 came bounce into the house4 ,dodds exclaimed1 ,why1 she was better as she was2 now1 she will knock the house down4 ,after a short time1 however1 the engine got fairly to work1 and by ten o'clock that night the water was lower in the pit than it had ever been before4 ,it was kept pumping all ,thursday1 and by the ,friday afternoon the pit was cleared of water1 and the workmen were sent to the bottom1 as ,stephenson had promised4 ,thus the alterations effected in the pumping apparatus proved completely successful4 ,dodds was particularly gratified with the manner in which the job had been done1 and he made ,stephenson a present of ten pounds1 which1 though very inadequate when compared with the value of the work performed1 was accepted with gratitude4 ,george was proud of the gift as the first marked recognition of his skill as a workman2 and he used afterwards to say that it was the biggest sum of money he had up to that time earned in one lump4 ,ralph ,dodds1 however1 did more than this4 ,he released the brakesman from the handles of his engine at ,west ,moot1 and appointed him engineman at the ,high ,pit1 at good wages1 during the time the pit was sinking1--the job lasting for about a year2 and he also kept him in mind for further advancement4 ,stephenson's skill as an engine-doctor soon became noised abroad1 and he was called upon to prescribe remedies for all the old1 wheezy1 and ineffective pumping-machines in the neighbourhood4 ,in this capacity he soon left the regular men far behind1 though they in their turn were very mach disposed to treat the ,killingworth brakesman as no better than a quack4 ,nevertheless1 his practice was really founded upon a close study of the principles of mechanics1 and on an intimate practical acquaintance with the details of the pumping-engine4 ,another of his smaller achievements in the same line is still told by the people of the district4 ,at the corner of the road leading to ,long ,benton1 there was a quarry from which a peculiar and scarce kind of ochre was taken4 ,in the course of working it out1 the water had collected in considerable quantities2 and there being no means of draining it off1 it accumulated to such an extent that the further working of the ochre was almost entirely stopped4 ,ordinary pumps were tried1 and failed2 and then a windmill was tried1 and failed too4 ,on this1 ,george was asked what ought to be done to clear the quarry of the water4 ,he said1 he would set up for them an engine little bigger than a kail-pot1 that would clear them out in a week4 ,and he did so4 ,a little engine was speedily erected1 by means of which the quarry was pumped dry in the course of a few days4 ,thus his skill as a pump-doctor soon became the marvel of the district4 ,in elastic muscular vigour1 ,stephenson was now in his prime1 and he still continued to be zealous in measuring his strength and agility with his fellow workmen4 ,the competitive element in his nature was always strong2 and his success in these feats of rivalry was certainly remarkable4 ,few1 if any1 could lift such weights1 throw the hammer and putt the stone so far1 or cover so great a space at a standing or running leap4 ,one day1 between the engine hour and the rope-rolling hour1 ,kit ,heppel challenged him to leap from one high wall to another1 with a deep gap between4 ,to ,heppel's surprise and dismay1 ,george took the standing leap1 and cleared the eleven feet at a bound4 ,had his eye been less accurate1 or his limbs less agile and sure1 the feat must have cost him his life4 ,but so full of redundant muscular vigour was he1 that leaping1 putting1 or throwing the hammer were not enough for him4 ,he was also ambitious of riding on horseback1 and1 as he had not yet been promoted to an office enabling him to keep a horse of his own1 he sometimes borrowed one of the gin-horses for a ride4 ,on one of these occasions1 he brought the animal back reeking2 when ,tommy ,mitcheson1 the bank horse-keeper1 a rough-spoken fellow1 exclaimed to him3 ,set such fellows as you on horseback1 and you'll soon ride to the ,de'il4 ,but ,tommy ,mitcheson lived to tell the joke1 and to confess that1 after all1 there had been a better issue to ,george's horsemanship than that which he predicted4 ,old ,cree1 the engine-wright at ,killingworth ,high ,pit1 having been killed by an accident1 ,george ,stephenson was1 in #ahab1 appointed engine-wright of the colliery at the salary of #ajj pounds a year4 ,he was also allowed the use of a galloway to ride upon in his visits of inspection to the collieries leased by the ,grand ,allies in that neighbourhood4 ,the ,grand ,allies were a company of gentlemen1 consisting of ,sir ,thomas ,liddell 7afterwards ,lord ,ravensworth71 the ,earl of ,strathmore1 and ,mr4 ,stuart ,wortley 7afterwards ,lord ,wharncliffe71 the lessees of the ,killingworth collieries4 ,having been informed of the merits of ,stephenson1 of his indefatigable industry1 and the skill which he had displayed in the repairs of the pumping-engines1 they readily acceded to ,mr4 ,dodds' recommendation that he should be appointed the colliery engine-wright2 and1 as we shall afterwards find1 they continued to honour him by distinguished marks of their approval4 ,picture3 ,killingworth ,high ,pit ,picture3 ,glebe ,farm ,house1 ,benton ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,stephensons ,,at ,,killingworth--,,education ,,and ,,self-,,education ,,of ,,father ,,and ,,son4 ,george ,stephenson had now been diligently employed for several years in the work of self-improvement1 and he experienced the usual results in increasing mental strength1 capability1 and skill4 ,perhaps the secret of every man's best success is to be found in the alacrity and industry with which he takes advantage of the opportunities which present themselves for well-doing4 ,our engineman was an eminent illustration of the importance of cultivating this habit of life4 ,every spare moment was laid under contribution by him1 either for the purpose of adding to his earnings1 or to his knowledge4 ,he missed no opportunity of extending his observations1 especially in his own department of work1 ever aiming at improvement1 and trying to turn all that he did know to useful practical account4 ,he continued his attempts to solve the mystery of ,perpetual ,motion1 and contrived several model machines with the object of embodying his ideas in a practical working shape4 ,he afterwards used to lament the time he had lost in these futile efforts1 and said that if he had enjoyed the opportunity which most young men now have1 of learning from books what previous experimenters had accomplished1 he would have been spared much labour and mortification4 ,not being acquainted with what other mechanics had done1 he groped his way in pursuit of some idea originated by his own independent thinking and observation2 and1 when he had brought it into some definite form1 lo6 he found that his supposed invention had long been known and recorded in scientific books4 ,often he thought he had hit upon discoveries1 which he subsequently found were but old and exploded fallacies4 ,yet his very struggle to overcome the difficulties which lay in his way1 was of itself an education of the best sort4 ,by wrestling with them1 he strengthened his judgment and sharpened his skill1 stimulating and cultivating his inventiveness and mechanical ingenuity4 ,being very much in earnest1 he was compelled to consider the subject of his special inquiry in all its relations2 and thus he gradually acquired practical ability even through his very efforts after the impracticable4 ,many of his evenings were now spent in the society of ,john ,wigham1 whose father occupied the ,glebe ,farm at ,benton1 close at hand4 ,john was a fair penman and a sound arithmetician1 and ,stephenson sought his society chiefly for the purpose of improving himself in writing and figures4 ,under ,andrew ,robertson1 he had never quite mastered the ,rule of ,three1 and it was only when ,wigham took him in hand that he made much progress in the higher branches of arithmetic4 ,he generally took his slate with him to the ,wighams' cottage1 when he had his sums set1 that he might work them out while tending his engine on the following day4 ,when too busy to be able to call upon ,wigham1 he sent the slate to have the former sums corrected and new ones set4 ,sometimes also1 at leisure moments1 he was enabled to do a little figuring with chalk upon the sides of the coal-waggons4 ,so much patient perseverance could not but eventually succeed2 and by dint of practice and study1 ,stephenson was enabled to master successively the various rules of arithmetic4 ,john ,wigham was of great use to his pupil in many ways4 ,he was a good talker1 fond of argument1 an extensive reader as country reading went in those days1 and a very suggestive thinker4 ,though his store of information might be comparatively small when measured with that of more highly-cultivated minds1 much of it was entirely new to ,stephenson1 who regarded him as a very clever and ingenious person4 ,wigham taught him to draw plans and sections2 though in this branch ,stephenson proved so apt that he soon surpassed his master4 ,a volume of ',ferguson's ,lectures on ,mechanics1' which fell into their hands1 was a great treasure to both the students4 ,one who remembers their evening occupations says he used to wonder what they meant by weighing the air and water in so odd a way4 ,they were trying the specific gravities of objects2 and the devices which they employed1 the mechanical shifts to which they were put1 were often of the rudest kind4 ,in these evening entertainments1 the mechanical contrivances were supplied by ,stephenson1 whilst ,wigham found the scientific rationale4 ,the opportunity thus afforded to the former of cultivating his mind by contact with one wiser than himself proved of great value1 and in after-life ,stephenson gratefully remembered the assistance which1 when a humble workman1 he had derived from ,john ,wigham1 the farmer's son4 ,his leisure moments thus carefully improved1 it will be inferred that ,stephenson continued a sober man4 ,though his notions were never extreme on this point1 he was systematically temperate4 ,it appears that on the invitation of his master1 he had1 on one or two occasions1 been induced to join him in a forenoon glass of ale in the public-house of the village4 ,but one day1 about noon1 when ,dodds had got him as far as the public-house door1 on his invitation to come in and take a glass o' yel1 ,stephenson made a dead stop1 and said1 firmly1 ,no1 sir1 you must excuse me2 ,i have made a resolution to drink no more at this time of day4 ,and he went back4 ,he desired to retain the character of a steady workman2 and the instances of men about him who had made shipwreck of their character through intemperance1 were then1 as now1 unhappily but too frequent4 ,but another consideration besides his own self-improvement had already begun to exercise an important influence on his life4 ,this was the training and education of his son ,robert1 now growing up an active1 intelligent boy1 as full of fun and tricks as his father had been4 ,when a little fellow1 scarcely able to reach so high as to put a clock-head on when placed upon the table1 his father would make him mount a chair for the purpose2 and to help father was the proudest work which the boy then1 and ever after1 could take part in4 ,when the little engine was set up at the ,ochre ,quarry to pump it dry1 ,robert was scarcely absent for an hour4 ,he watched the machine very eagerly when it was set to work2 and he was very much annoyed at the fire burning away the grates4 ,the man who fired the engine was a sort of wag1 and thinking to get a laugh at the boy1 he said1 ,those bars are getting varra bad1 ,robert2 ,i think we main cut up some of that hard wood1 and put it in instead4 ,what would be the use of that1 you fool8 said the boy quickly4 ,you would no sooner have put them in than they would be burnt out again6 ,so soon as ,robert was of proper age1 his father sent him over to the road-side school at ,long ,benton1 kept by ,rutter1 the parish clerk4 ,but the education which ,rutter could give was of a very limited kind1 scarcely extending beyond the primer and pothooks4 ,while working as a brakesman on the pit-head at ,killingworth1 the father had often bethought him of the obstructions he had himself encountered in life through his want of schooling2 and he formed the noble determination that no labour1 nor pains1 nor self-denial on his part should be spared to furnish his son with the best education that it was in his power to bestow4 ,picture3 ,rutter's ,school ,house1 ,long ,benton ,it is true his earnings were comparatively small at that time4 ,he was still maintaining his infirm parents2 and the cost of living continued excessive4 ,but he fell back upon his old expedient of working up his spare time in the evenings at home1 or during the night shifts when it was his turn to tend the engine1 in mending and making shoes1 cleaning clocks and watches1 making shoe-lasts for the shoe-makers of the neighbourhood1 and cutting out the pitmen's clothes for their wives2 and we have been told that to this day there are clothes worn at ,killingworth made after ,geordy ,steevie's cut4 ,to give his own words3--,in the earlier period of my career1 said he1 when ,robert was a little boy1 ,i saw how deficient ,i was in education1 and ,i made up my mind that he should not labour under the same defect1 but that ,i would put him to a good school1 and give him a liberal training4 ,i was1 however1 a poor man2 and how do you think ,i managed8 ,i betook myself to mending my neighbours' clocks and watches at nights1 after my daily labour was done1 and thus ,i procured the means of educating my son4 #eb ,carrying out the resolution as to his boy's education1 ,robert was sent to ,mr4 ,bruce's school in ,percy ,street1 ,newcastle1 at ,midsummer1 #ahae1 when he was about twelve years old4 ,his father bought for him a donkey1 on which he rode into ,newcastle and back daily2 and there are many still living who remember the little boy1 dressed in his suit of homely grey stuff1 cut out by his father1 cantering along to school upon the cuddy1 with his wallet of provisions for the day and his bag of books slung over his shoulder4 ,when ,robert went to ,mr4 ,bruce's school1 he was a shy1 unpolished country lad1 speaking the broad dialect of the pitmen2 and the other boys would occasionally tease him1 for the purpose of provoking an outburst of his ,killingworth ,doric4 ,as the shyness got rubbed off1 his love of fun began to show itself1 and he was found able enough to hold his own amongst the other boys4 ,as a scholar he was steady and diligent1 and his master was accustomed to hold him up to the laggards of the school as an example of good conduct and industry4 ,but his progress1 though satisfactory1 was by no means extraordinary4 ,he used in after-life to pride himself on his achievements in mensuration1 though another boy1 ,john ,taylor1 beat him at arithmetic4 ,he also made considerable progress in mathematics2 and in a letter written to the son of his teacher1 many years after1 he said1 ,it was to ,mr4 ,bruce's tuition and methods of modelling the mind that ,i attribute much of my success as an engineer2 for it was from him that ,i derived my taste for mathematical pursuits and the facility ,i possess of applying this kind of knowledge to practical purposes and modifying it according to circumstances4 ,picture3 ,bruce's ,school1 ,newcastle ,during the time ,robert attended school at ,newcastle1 his father made the boy's education instrumental to his own4 ,robert was accustomed to spend some of his spare time at the rooms of the ,literary and ,philosophical ,institute2 and when he went home in the evening1 he would recount to his father the results of his reading4 ,sometimes he was allowed to take with him to ,killingworth a volume of the ',repertory of ,arts and ,sciences1' which father and son studied together4 ,but many of the most valuable works belonging to the ,newcastle ,library were not lent out2 these ,robert was instructed to read and study1 and bring away with him descriptions and sketches for his father's information4 ,his father also practised him in reading plans and drawings without reference to the written descriptions4 ,he used to observe that ,a good plan should always explain itself2 and1 placing a drawing of an engine or machine before the youth1 would say1 ,there1 now1 describe that to me--the arrangement and the action4 ,thus he taught him to read a drawing as easily as he would read a page of a book4 ,both father and son profited by this excellent practice1 which enabled them to apprehend with the greatest facility the details of even the most difficult and complicated mechanical drawing4 ,while ,robert went on with his lessons in the evenings1 his father was usually occupied with his watch and clock cleaning2 or in contriving models of pumping-engines2 or endeavouring to embody in a tangible shape the mechanical inventions which he found described in the odd volumes on ,mechanics which fell in his way4 ,this daily and unceasing example of industry and application1 in the person of a loving and beloved father1 imprinted itself deeply upon the boy's heart in characters never to be effaced4 ,a spirit of self-improvement was thus early and carefully planted and fostered in ,robert's mind1 which continued to influence him through life2 and to the close of his career1 he was proud to confess that if his professional success had been great1 it was mainly to the example and training of his father that he owed it4 ,robert was not1 however1 exclusively devoted to study1 but1 like most boys full of animal spirits1 he was very fond of fun and play1 and sometimes of mischief4 ,dr4 ,bruce relates that an old ,killingworth labourer1 when asked by ,robert1 on one of his last visits to ,newcastle1 if he remembered him1 replied with emotion1 ,ay1 indeed6 ,haven't ,i paid your head many a time when you came with your father's bait1 for you were always a sad hempy8 ,the author had the pleasure1 in the year #ahed1 of accompanying ,robert ,stephenson on a visit to his old home and haunts at ,killingworth4 ,he had so often travelled the road upon his donkey to and from school1 that every foot of it was familiar to him2 and each turn in it served to recall to mind some incident of his boyish days4 ,his eyes glistened when he came in sight of ,killingworth pit-head4 ,pointing to a humble red-tiled house by the road-side at ,benton1 he said1 ,you see that house--that was ,rutter's1 where ,i learnt my ,a ,b ,c1 and made a beginning of my school learning4 ,and there1 pointing to a colliery chimney on the left1 there is ,long ,benton1 where my father put up his first pumping-engine2 and a great success it was4 ,and this humble clay-floored cottage you see here1 is where my grandfather lived till the close of his life4 ,many a time have ,i ridden straight into the house1 mounted on my cuddy1 and called upon grandfather to admire his points4 ,i remember the old man feeling the animal all over--he was then quite blind--after which he would dilate upon the shape of his ears1 fetlocks1 and quarters1 and usually end by pronouncing him to be a 'real blood4' ,i was a great favourite with the old man1 who continued very fond of animals1 and cheerful to the last2 and ,i believe nothing gave him greater pleasure than a visit from me and my cuddy4 ,on the way from ,benton to ,high ,killingworth1 ,mr4 ,stephenson pointed to a corner of the road where he had once played a boyish trick upon a ,killingworth collier4 ,straker1 said he1 was a great bully1 a coarse1 swearing fellow1 and a perfect tyrant amongst the women and children4 ,he would go tearing into old ,nanny the huxter's shop in the village1 and demand in a savage voice1 ',what's ye'r best ham the pund8' ',what's floor the hunder8' ',what d'ye ax for prime bacon8'--his questions often ending with the miserable order1 accompanied with a tremendous oath1 of ',gie's a penny rrow 7roll7 an' a baubee herrin6' ,the poor woman was usually set 'all of a shake' by a visit from this fellow4 ,he was also a great boaster1 and used to crow over the robbers whom he had put to flight2 mere men in buckram1 as everybody knew4 ,we boys1 he continued1 believed him to be a great coward1 and determined to play him a trick4 ,two other boys joined me in waylaying ,straker one night at that corner1 pointing to it4 ,we sprang out and called upon him1 in as gruff voices as we could assume1 to 'stand and deliver6' ,he dropped down upon his knees in the dirt1 declaring he was a poor man1 with a sma' family1 asking for 'mercy1' and imploring us1 as 'gentlemen1 for ,god's sake1 t' let him a-be6' ,we couldn't stand this any longer1 and set up a shout of laughter4 ,recognizing our boys' voices1 he sprang to his feet and rattled out a volley of oaths2 on which we cut through the hedge1 and heard him shortly after swearing his way along the road to the yel-house4 ,on another occasion1 ,robert played a series of tricks of a somewhat different character4 ,like his father1 he was very fond of reducing his scientific reading to practice2 and after studying ,franklin's description of the lightning experiment1 he proceeded to expend his store of ,saturday pennies in purchasing about half a mile of copper wire at a brazier's shop in ,newcastle4 ,having prepared his kite1 he sent it up in the field opposite his father's door1 and bringing the wire1 insulated by means of a few feet of silk cord1 over the backs of some of ,farmer ,wigham's cows1 he soon had them skipping about the field in all directions with their tails up4 ,one day he had his kite flying at the cottage-door as his father's galloway was hanging by the bridle to the paling1 waiting for the master to mount4 ,bringing the end of the wire just over the pony's crupper1 so smart an electric shock was given it1 that the brute was almost knocked down4 ,at this juncture the father issued from the door1 riding-whip in hand1 and was witness to the scientific trick just played off upon his galloway4 ,ah6 you mischievous scoondrel6 cried he to the boy1 who ran off4 ,he inwardly chuckled with pride1 nevertheless1 at ,robert's successful experiment4 #eg ,picture3 ,stephenson's ,cottage1 ,west ,moor ,at this time1 and for many years after1 ,stephenson dwelt in a cottage standing by the side of the road leading from the ,west ,moor colliery to ,killingworth4 ,the railway from the ,west ,moor ,pit crosses this road close by the east end of the cottage4 ,the dwelling originally consisted of but one apartment on the ground-floor1 with the garret over-head1 to which access was obtained by means of a step-ladder4 ,but with his own hands ,stephenson built an oven1 and in the course of time he added rooms to the cottage1 until it became a comfortable four-roomed dwelling1 in which he lived as long as he remained at ,killingworth4 ,he continued as fond of birds and animals as ever1 and seemed to have the power of attaching them to him in a remarkable degree4 ,he had a blackbird at ,killingworth so fond of him that it would fly about the cottage1 and on holding out his finger1 would come and perch upon it4 ,a cage was built for blackie in the partition between the passage and the room1 a square of glass forming its outer wall2 and ,robert used afterwards to take pleasure in describing the oddity of the bird1 imitating the manner in which it would cock its head on his father's entering the house1 and follow him with its eye into the inner apartment4 ,neighbours were accustomed to call at the cottage and have their clocks and watches set to rights when they went wrong4 ,one day1 after looking at the works of a watch left by a pitman's wife1 ,george handed it to his son2 ,put her in the oven1 ,robert1 said he1 for a quarter of an hour or so4 ,it seemed an odd way of repairing a watch2 nevertheless1 the watch was put into the oven1 and at the end of the appointed time it was taken out1 going all right4 ,the wheels had merely got clogged by the oil congealed by the cold2 which at once explains the rationale of the remedy adopted4 ,there was a little garden attached to the cottage1 in which1 while a workman1 ,stephenson took a pride in growing gigantic leeks and astounding cabbages4 ,there was great competition amongst the villagers in the growth of vegetables1 all of whom he excelled1 excepting one of his neighbours1 whose cabbages sometimes outshone his4 ,in the protection of his garden-crops from the ravages of the birds1 he invented a strange sort of fley-craw1 which moved its arms with the wind2 and he fastened his garden-door by means of a piece of ingenious mechanism1 so that no one but himself could enter it4 ,his cottage was quite a curiosity-shop of models of engines1 self-acting planes1 and perpetual-motion machines4 ,the last-named contrivances1 however1 were only unsuccessful attempts to solve a problem which had effectually baffled hundreds of preceding inventors4 ,his odd and eccentric contrivances often excited great wonder amongst the ,killingworth villagers4 ,he won the women's admiration by connecting their cradles with the smoke-jack1 and making them self-acting4 ,then he astonished the pitmen by attaching an alarum to the clock of the watchman whose duty it was to call them betimes in the morning4 ,he also contrived a wonderful lamp which burned under water1 with which he was afterwards wont to amuse the ,brandling family at ,gosforth1--going into the fish-pond at night1 lamp in hand1 attracting and catching the fish1 which rushed wildly towards the flame4 ,dr4 ,bruce tells of a competition which ,stephenson had with the joiner at ,killingworth1 as to which of them could make the best shoe-last2 and when the former had done his work1 either for the humour of the thing1 or to secure fair play from the appointed judge1 he took it to the ,morrisons in ,newcastle1 and got them to put their stamp upon it4 ,so that it is possible the ,killingworth brakesman1 afterwards the inventor of the safety lamp and the originator of the railway system1 and ,john ,morrison1 the last-maker1 afterwards the translator of the ,scriptures into the ,chinese language1 may have confronted each other in solemn contemplation over the successful last1 which won the verdict coveted by its maker4 ,sometimes he would endeavour to impart to his fellow-workmen the results of his scientific reading4 ,everything that he learnt from books was so new and so wonderful to him1 that he regarded the facts he drew from them in the light of discoveries1 as if they had been made but yesterday4 ,once he tried to explain to some of the pitmen how the earth was round1 and kept turning round4 ,but his auditors flatly declared the thing to be impossible1 as it was clear that at the bottom side they must fall off6 ,ah6 said ,george1 you don't quite understand it yet4 ,his son ,robert also early endeavoured to communicate to others the information which he had gathered at school2 and ,dr4 ,bruce has related that1 when visiting ,killingworth on one occasion1 he found him engaged in teaching algebra to such of the pitmen's boys as would become his pupils4 ,picture3 ,the ,sundial ,while ,robert was still at school1 his father proposed to him during the holidays that he should construct a sun-dial1 to be placed over their cottage-door at ,west ,moor4 ,i expostulated with him at first1 said ,robert1 that ,i had not learnt sufficient astronomy and mathematics to enable me to make the necessary calculations4 ,but he would have no denial4 ',the thing is to be done1' said he2 'so just set about it at once4' ,well2 we got a ',ferguson's ,astronomy1' and studied the subject together4 ,many a sore head ,i had while making the necessary calculations to adapt the dial to the latitude of ,killingworth4 ,but at length it was fairly drawn out on paper1 and then my father got a stone1 and we hewed1 and carved1 and polished it1 until we made a very respectable dial of it2 and there it is1 you see1 pointing to it over the cottage-door1 still quietly numbering the hours when the sun is shining4 ,i assure you1 not a little was thought of that piece of work by the pitmen when it was put up1 and began to tell its tale of time4 ,the date carved upon the dial is ,august #aath1 ,,mdcccxvi4 ,both father and son were in after-life very proud of the joint production4 ,many years after1 ,george took a party of savans1 when attending the meeting of the ,british ,association at ,newcastle1 over to ,killingworth to see the pits1 and he did not fail to direct their attention to the sun-dial2 and ,robert1 on the last visit which he made to the place1 a short time before his death1 took a friend into the cottage1 and pointed out to him the very desk1 still there1 at which he had sat while making his calculations of the latitude of ,killingworth4 ,from the time of his appointment as engineer at the ,killingworth ,pit1 ,george ,stephenson was in a measure relieved from the daily routine of manual labour1 having1 as we have seen1 advanced himself to the grade of a higher class workman4 ,but he had not ceased to be a worker1 though he employed his industry in a different way4 ,it might1 indeed1 be inferred that he had now the command of greater leisure2 but his spare hours were as much as ever given to work1 either necessary or self-imposed4 ,so far as regarded his social position1 he had already reached the summit of his ambition2 and when he had got his hundred a year1 and his dun galloway to ride on1 he said he never wanted to be any higher4 ,when ,robert ,whetherly offered to give him an old gig1 his travelling having so much increased of late1 he accepted it with great reluctance1 observing1 that he should be ashamed to get into it1 people would think him so proud4 ,when the ,high ,pit had been sunk1 and the coal was ready for working1 ,stephenson erected his first winding-engine to draw the coals out of the pit1 and also a pumping-engine for ,long ,benton ,colliery1 both of which proved quite successful4 ,amongst other works of this time1 he projected and laid down a self-acting incline along the declivity which fell towards the coal-loading place near ,willington1 where he had officiated as brakesman2 and he so arranged it1 that the full waggons descending drew the empty waggons up the railroad4 ,this was one of the first self-acting inclines laid down in the district4 ,stephenson had now much better opportunities than hitherto for improving himself in mechanics4 ,his familiar acquaintance with the steam-engine proved of great value to him4 ,his shrewd insight1 and his intimate practical acquaintance with its mechanism1 enabled him to apprehend1 as if by intuition1 its most abstruse and difficult combinations4 ,the practical study which he had given to it when a workman1 and the patient manner in which he had groped his way through all the details of the machine1 gave him the power of a master in dealing with it as applied to colliery purposes4 ,sir ,thomas ,liddell was frequently about the works1 and took pleasure in giving every encouragement to the engine-wright in his efforts after improvement4 ,the subject of the locomotive engine was already closely occupying ,stephenson's attention2 although it was still regarded as a curious and costly toy1 of comparatively little real use4 ,but he had at an early period detected its practical value1 and formed an adequate conception of the might which as yet slumbered within it2 and he now bent his entire faculties to the development of its extraordinary powers4 ,picture3 ,colliers' ,cottages at ,long ,benton ,,chapter ,v4 ,,early ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,locomotive--,,george ,,stephenson ,,begins ,,its ,,improvement4 ,the rapid increase in the coal-trade of the ,tyne about the beginning of the present century had the effect of stimulating the ingenuity of mechanics1 and encouraging them to devise improved methods of transporting the coal from the pits to the shipping places4 ,from our introductory chapter1 it will have been observed that the improvements which had thus far been effected were confined almost entirely to the road4 ,the railway waggons still continued to be drawn by horses4 ,by improving and flattening the tramway1 considerable economy in horse-power had indeed been secured2 but unless some more effective method of mechanical traction could be devised1 it was clear that railway improvement had almost reached its limits4 ,many expedients had been tried with this object4 ,one of the earliest was that of hoisting sails upon the waggons1 and driving them along the waggon-way1 as a ship is driven through the water by the wind4 ,this method seems to have been employed by ,sir ,humphrey ,mackworth1 an ingenious coal-miner at ,neath in ,glamorganshire1 about the end of the seventeenth century4 ,after having been lost sight of for more than a century1 the same plan of impelling carriages was revived by ,richard ,lovell ,edgworth1 with the addition of a portable railway1 since revived also1 in ,boydell's patent4 ,but although ,mr4 ,edgworth devoted himself to the subject for many years1 he failed in securing the adoption of his sailing carriage4 ,it is indeed quite clear that a power so uncertain as wind could never be relied on for ordinary traffic1 and ,mr4 ,edgworth's project was consequently left to repose in the limbo of the ,patent ,office1 with thousands of other equally useless though ingenious contrivances4 ,a much more favourite scheme was the application of steam power for the purpose of carriage traction4 ,savery1 the inventor of the working steam-engine1 was the first to propose its employment to propel vehicles along the common roads2 and in #agei ,dr4 ,robison1 then a young man studying at ,glasgow ,college1 threw out the same idea to his friend ,james ,watt2 but the scheme was not matured4 ,picture3 ,cugnot's ,engine ,the first locomotive steam-carriage was built at ,paris by the ,french engineer ,cugnot1 a native of ,lorraine4 ,it is said to have been invented for the purpose of dragging cannon into the field independent of horses4 ,the original model of this machine was made in #agfc4 ,count ,saxe was so much pleased with it1 that on his recommendation a full-sized engine was constructed at the cost of the ,french monarch2 and in #agfi it was tried in the presence of the ,duc de ,choiseul1 ,minister of ,war1 ,general ,gribeauval1 and other officers4 ,at one of the experiments it ran with such force as to knock down a wall in its way4 ,but the new vehicle1 loaded with four persons1 could not travel faster than two and a half miles an hour4 ,the boiler was insufficient in size1 and it could only work for about fifteen minutes2 after which it was necessary to wait until the steam had again risen to a sufficient pressure4 ,to remedy this defect1 ,cugnot constructed a new machine in #aggj1 the working of which was more satisfactory4 ,it was composed of two parts--the fore part consisting of a small steam-engine1 formed of a round copper boiler1 with a furnace inside1 provided with two small chimneys and two single-acting brass steam cylinders1 whose pistons acted alternately upon the single driving-wheel4 ,the hinder part consisted merely of a rude carriage on two wheels to carry the load1 furnished with a seat in front for the conductor4 ,this engine was tried in the streets of ,paris2 but when passing near where the ,madeleine now stands1 it overbalanced itself on turning a corner1 and fell over with a crash2 after which1 its employment being thought dangerous1 it was locked up in the arsenal to prevent further mischief4 ,the machine is1 however1 still to be seen in the collection of the ,conservatoire des ,arts et ,metiers at ,paris4 ,it has very much the look of a long brewer's cart1 with the addition of the circular boiler hung on at one end4 ,rough though it looks1 it was a highly creditable piece of work1 considering the period at which it was executed2 and as the first actual machine constructed for the purpose of travelling on ordinary roads by the power of steam1 it is certainly a most curious and interesting mechanical relic1 well worthy of preservation4 ,but though ,cugnot's road locomotive remained locked up from public sight1 the subject was not dead2 for we find inventors employing themselves from time to time in attempting to solve the problem of steam locomotion in places far remote from ,paris4 ,the idea had taken root in the minds of inventors1 and was striving to grow into a reality4 ,thus ,oliver ,evans1 the ,american1 invented a steam carriage in #aggb to travel on common roads2 in #aghg he obtained from the ,state of ,maryland an exclusive right to make and use steam-carriages1 but his invention never came into use4 ,then1 in #aghd1 ,william ,symington1 one of the early inventors of the steamboat1 was similarly occupied in ,scotland in endeavouring to develop the latent powers of the steam-carriage4 ,he had a working model of one constructed1 which he exhibited in #aghf to the professors of ,edinburgh ,college2 but the state of the ,scotch roads was then so bad that he found it impracticable to proceed further with his scheme1 which he shortly after abandoned in favour of steam navigation4 ,picture3 ,section of ,murdock's ,model ,the same year in which ,symington was occupied upon his steam-carriage1 ,william ,murdock1 the friend and assistant of ,watt1 constructed his model of a locomotive at the opposite end of the island--at ,redruth in ,cornwall4 ,his model was of small dimensions1 standing little more than a foot high2 and it was until recently in the possession of the son of the inventor1 at whose house we saw it a few years ago4 ,the annexed section will give an idea of the arrangements of this machine4 ,it acted on the high-pressure principle1 and1 like ,cugnot's engine1 ran upon three wheels1 the boiler being heated by a spirit-lamp4 ,small though the machine was1 it went so fast on one occasion that it fairly outran its inventor4 ,it seems that one night after returning from his duties at the ,redruth mine1 ,murdock determined to try the working of his model locomotive4 ,for this purpose he had recourse to the walk leading to the church1 about a mile from the town4 ,it was rather narrow1 and was bounded on each side by high hedges4 ,the night was dark1 and ,murdock set out alone to try his experiment4 ,having lit his lamp1 the water boiled speedily1 and off started the engine with the inventor after it4 ,he soon heard distant shouts of terror4 ,it was too dark to perceive objects2 but he found1 on following up the machine1 that the cries proceeded from the worthy pastor of the parish1 who1 going towards the town1 was met on this lonely road by the hissing and fiery little monster1 which he subsequently declared he had taken to be the ,evil ,one in propria persona4 ,no further steps were1 however1 taken by ,murdock to embody his idea of a locomotive carriage in a more practical form4 ,the idea was next taken up by ,murdock's pupil1 ,richard ,trevithick1 who resolved on building a steam-carriage adapted for common roads as well as railways4 ,he took out a patent to secure the right of his invention in #ahjb4 ,andrew ,vivian1 his cousin1 joined with him in the patent--,vivian finding the money1 and ,trevithick the brains4 ,the steam-carriage built on this patent presented the appearance of an ordinary stage-coach on four wheels4 ,the engine had one horizontal cylinder1 which1 together with the boiler and the furnace-box1 was placed in the rear of the hind axle4 ,the motion of the piston was transmitted to a separate crank-axle1 from which1 through the medium of spur-gear1 the axle of the driving-wheel 7which was mounted with a fly-wheel7 derived its motion4 ,the steam-cocks and the force-pump1 as also the bellows used for the purpose of quickening combustion in the furnace1 were worked off the same crank-axle4 ,john ,petherick1 of ,camborne1 has related that he remembers this first ,english steam-coach passing along the principal street of his native town4 ,considerable difficulty was experienced in keeping up the pressure of steam2 but when there was pressure enough1 ,trevithick would call upon the people to jump up1 so as to create a load upon the engine4 ,it was soon covered with men attracted by the novelty1 nor did their number seem to make any difference in the speed of the engine so long as there was steam enough2 but it was constantly running short1 and the horizontal bellows failed to keep it up4 ,this road-locomotive of ,trevithick's was one of the first high-pressure working engines constructed on the principle of moving a piston by the elasticity of steam against the pressure only of the atmosphere4 ,such an engine had been described by ,leopold1 though in his apparatus it was proposed that the pressure should act only on one side of the piston4 ,in ,trevithick's engine the piston was not only raised1 but was also depressed by the action of the steam1 being in this respect an entirely original invention1 and of great merit4 ,the steam was admitted from the boiler under the piston moving in a cylinder1 impelling it upward4 ,when the motion had reached its limit1 the communication between the piston and the under side was shut off1 and the steam allowed to escape into the atmosphere4 ,a passage being then opened between the boiler and the upper side of the piston1 which was pressed downwards1 the steam was again allowed to escape as before4 ,thus the power of the engine was equal to the difference between the pressure of the atmosphere and the elasticity of the steam in the boiler4 ,this steam-carriage excited considerable interest in the remote district near the ,land's ,end where it had been erected4 ,being so far removed from the great movements and enterprise of the commercial world1 ,trevithick and ,vivian determined upon exhibiting their machine in the metropolis4 ,they accordingly set out with it to ,plymouth1 whence it was conveyed by sea to ,london4 ,the carriage safely reached the metropolis1 and excited much public interest4 ,it also attracted the notice of scientific men1 amongst others of ,mr4 ,davies ,gilbert1 ,president of the ,royal ,society1 and ,sir ,humphry ,davy1 both ,cornishmen like ,trevithick1 who went to see the private performances of the engine1 and were greatly pleased with it4 ,writing to a ,cornish friend shortly after its arrival in town1 ,sir ,humphry said3 ,i shall soon hope to hear that the roads of ,england are the haunts of ,captain ,trevithick's dragons--a characteristic name4 ,the machine was afterwards publicly exhibited in an enclosed piece of ground near ,euston ,square1 where the ,london and ,north-,western ,station now stands1 and it dragged behind it a wheel-carriage full of passengers4 ,on the second day of the performance1 crowds flocked to see it2 but ,trevithick1 in one of his odd freaks1 shut up the place1 and shortly after removed the engine4 ,it is1 however1 probable that the inventor came to the conclusion that the state of the roads at that time was such as to preclude its coming into general use for purposes of ordinary traffic4 ,while the steam-carriage was being exhibited1 a gentleman was laying heavy wagers as to the weight which could be hauled by a single horse on the ,wandsworth and ,croydon iron tramway2 and the number and weight of waggons drawn by the horse were something surprising4 ,trevithick very probably put the two things together--the steam-horse and the iron-way--and kept the performance in mind when he proceeded to construct his second or railway locomotive4 ,the idea was not1 however1 entirely new to him2 for1 although his first engine had been constructed with a view to its employment upon common roads1 the specification of his patent distinctly alludes to the application of his engine to travelling on railroads4 ,having been employed at the iron-works of ,pen-y-darran1 in ,south ,wales1 to erect a forge engine for the ,company1 a convenient opportunity presented itself1 on the completion of this work1 for carrying out his design of a locomotive to haul the minerals along the ,pen-y-darran tramway4 ,such an engine was erected by him in #ahjc1 in the blacksmiths' shop at the ,company's works1 and it was finished and ready for trial before the end of the year4 ,the boiler of this second engine was cylindrical in form1 flat at the ends1 and made of wrought iron4 ,the furnace and flue were inside the boiler1 within which the single cylinder1 eight inches in diameter and four feet six inches stroke1 was placed horizontally4 ,as in the first engine1 the motion of the wheels was produced by spur gear1 to which was also added a fly-wheel on one side1 to secure a rotatory motion in the crank at the end of each stroke of the piston in the single cylinder4 ,the waste steam was thrown into the chimney through a tube inserted into it at right angles2 but it will be obvious that this arrangement was not calculated to produce any result in the way of a steam-blast in the chimney4 ,in fact1 the waste steam seems to have been turned into the chimney in order to get rid of the nuisance caused by throwing the jet directly into the air4 ,trevithick was here hovering on the verge of a great discovery2 but that he was not aware of the action of the blast in contributing to increase the draught and thus quicken combustion1 is clear from the fact that he employed bellows for this special purpose2 and at a much later date 7#ahae7 he took out a patent which included a method of urging the fire by means of fanners4 #gj ,picture3 ,trevithick's ,high ,pressure ,tram-,engine ,at the first trial of this engine it succeeded in dragging after it several waggons1 containing ten tons of bar-iron1 at the rate of about five miles an hour4 ,rees ,jones1 who worked at the fitting of the engine1 and remembers its performances1 says1 ,she was used for bringing down metal from the furnaces to the ,old ,forge4 ,she worked very well2 but frequently1 from her weight1 broke the tram-plates and the hooks between the trams4 ,after working for some time in this way1 she took a load of iron from ,pen-y-darran down the ,basin-road1 upon which road she was intended to work4 ,on the journey she broke a great many of the tram-plates1 and before reaching the basin ran off the road1 and had to be brought back to ,pen-y-darran by horses4 ,the engine was never after used as a locomotive4 #ga ,it seems to have been felt that unless the road were entirely reconstructed so as to bear the heavy weight of the locomotive--so much greater than that of the tram-waggons1 to carry which the original rails had been laid down--the regular employment of ,trevithick's high-pressure tram-engine was altogether impracticable2 and as the owners of the works were not prepared to incur so serious a cost1 it was determined to take the locomotive off the road1 and employ it as an engine for other purposes4 ,it was accordingly dismounted1 and used for some time after as a pumping-engine1 for which purpose it was found well adapted4 ,trevithick himself seems from this time to have taken no further steps to bring the locomotive into general use4 ,we find him1 shortly after1 engaged upon schemes of a more promising character1 abandoning the engine to other mechanical inventors1 though little improvement was made in it for several years4 ,an imaginary difficulty seems to have tended1 amongst other obstacles1 to prevent its adoption2 viz41 the idea that1 if a heavy weight were placed behind the engine1 the grip or bite of its smooth wheels upon the equally smooth iron rail1 must necessarily be so slight that they would whirl round upon it1 and1 consequently1 that the machine would not make progress4 ,hence ,trevithick1 in his patent1 provided that the periphery of the driving-wheels should be made rough by the projection of bolts or cross-grooves1 so that the adhesion of the wheels to the road might be secured4 ,following up the presumed necessity for a more effectual adhesion between the wheels and the rails1 ,mr4 ,blenkinsop of ,leeds1 in #ahaa1 took out a patent for a racked or tooth-rail laid along one side of the road1 into which the toothed-wheel of his locomotive worked as pinions work into a rack4 ,the boiler of his engine was supported by a carriage with four wheels without teeth1 and rested immediately upon the axles4 ,these wheels were entirely independent of the working parts of the engine1 and therefore merely supported its weight upon the rails1 the progress being effected by means of the cogged-wheel working into the cogged-rail4 ,the engine had two cylinders1 instead of one as in ,trevithick's engine4 ,the invention of the double cylinder was due to ,matthew ,murray1 of ,leeds1 one of the best mechanical engineers of his time2 ,mr4 ,blenkinsop1 who was not a mechanic1 having consulted him as to all the practical arrangements4 ,the connecting-rods gave the motion to two pinions by cranks at right angles to each other2 these pinions communicating the motion to the wheel which worked into the cogged-rail4 ,mr4 ,blenkinsop's engines began running on the railway from the ,middleton ,collieries to ,leeds1 about #c4e miles1 on the #abth of ,august1 #ahab4 ,they continued for many years to be one of the principal curiosities of the place1 and were visited by strangers from all parts4 ,in #ahaf1 the ,grand ,duke ,nicholas 7afterwards ,emperor7 of ,russia observed the working of ,blenkinsop's locomotive with curious interest and admiration4 ,an engine dragged as many as thirty coal-waggons at a speed of about #c4be miles per hour4 ,these engines continued for many years to be thus employed in the haulage of coal1 and furnished the first instance of the regular employment of locomotive power for commercial purposes4 ,the ,messrs4 ,chapman1 of ,newcastle1 in #ahab1 endeavoured to overcome the same fictitious difficulty of the want of adhesion between the wheel and the rail1 by patenting a locomotive to work along the road by means of a chain stretched from one end of it to the other4 ,this chain was passed once round a grooved barrel-wheel under the centre of the engine3 so that1 when the wheel turned1 the locomotive1 as it were1 dragged itself along the railway4 ,an engine1 constructed after this plan1 was tried on the ,heaton ,railway1 near ,newcastle2 but it was so clumsy in its action1 there was so great a loss of power by friction1 and it was found to be so expensive and difficult to keep in repair1 that it was soon abandoned4 ,another remarkable expedient was adopted by ,mr4 ,brunton1 of the ,butterley ,works1 ,derbyshire1 who1 in #ahac1 patented his ,mechanical ,traveller1 to go upon legs working alternately like those of a horse4 #gc ,but this engine never got beyond the experimental state1 for1 at its very first trial1 the driver1 to make sure of a good start1 overloaded the safety-valve1 when the boiler burst and killed a number of the bystanders1 wounding many more4 ,these1 and other contrivances with the same object1 projected about the same time1 show that invention was actively at work1 and that many minds were anxiously labouring to solve the important problem of locomotive traction upon railways4 ,but the difficulties contended with by these early inventors1 and the step-by-step progress which they made1 will probably be best illustrated by the experiments conducted by ,mr4 ,blackett1 of ,wylam1 which are all the more worthy of notice1 as the persevering efforts of this gentleman in a great measure paved the way for the labours of ,george ,stephenson1 who1 shortly after1 took up the question of steam locomotion1 and brought it to a successful issue4 ,the ,wylam waggon-way is one of the oldest in the north of ,england4 ,down to the year #ahjg it was formed of wooden spars or rails1 laid down between the colliery at ,wylam--where old ,robert ,stephenson had worked--and the village of ,lemington1 some four miles down the ,tyne1 where the coals were loaded into keels or barges1 and floated down past ,newcastle1 to be shipped for ,london4 ,each chaldron-waggon had a man in charge of it1 and was originally drawn by one horse4 ,the rate at which the waggons were hauled was so slow that only two journeys were performed by each man and horse in one day1 and three on the day following4 ,this primitive waggon-way passed1 as before stated1 close in front of the cottage in which ,george ,stephenson was born2 and one of the earliest sights which met his infant eyes was this wooden tramroad worked by horses4 ,mr4 ,blackett was the first colliery owner in the ,north who took an active interest in the locomotive4 ,having formed the acquaintance of ,trevithick in ,london1 and inspected the performances of his engine1 he determined to repeat the ,pen-y-darran experiment upon the ,wylam waggon-way4 ,he accordingly obtained from ,trevithick1 in ,october1 #ahjd1 a plan of his engine1 provided with friction-wheels1 and employed ,mr4 ,john ,whinfield1 of ,pipewellgate1 ,gateshead1 to construct it at his foundry there4 ,the engine was constructed under the superintendence of one ,john ,steele1 an ingenious mechanic who had been in ,wales1 and worked under ,trevithick in fitting the engine at ,pen-y-darran4 ,when the ,gateshead locomotive was finished1 a temporary way was laid down in the works1 on which it was run backwards and forwards many times4 ,for some reason1 however--it is said because the engine was deemed too light for drawing the coal-trains--it never left the works1 but was dismounted from the wheels1 and set to blow the cupola of the foundry1 in which service it long continued to be employed4 ,several years elapsed before ,mr4 ,blackett took any further steps to carry out his idea4 ,the final abandonment of ,trevithick's locomotive at ,pen-y-darran perhaps contributed to deter him from proceeding further2 but he had the wooden tramway taken up in #ahjh1 and a plate-way of cast-iron laid down instead--a single line furnished with sidings to enable the laden waggons to pass the empty ones4 ,the new iron road proved so much smoother than the old wooden one1 that a single horse1 instead of drawing one1 was now enabled to draw two1 or even three1 laden waggons4 ,encouraged by the success of ,mr4 ,blenkinsop's experiment at ,leeds1 ,mr4 ,blackett determined to follow his example2 and in #ahab he ordered a second engine1 to work with a toothed driving-wheel upon a rack-rail4 ,this locomotive was constructed by ,thomas ,waters1 of ,gateshead1 under the superintendence of ,jonathan ,foster1 ,mr4 ,blackett's principal engine-wright4 ,it was a combination of ,trevithick's and ,blenkinsop's engines2 but it was of a more awkward construction than either4 ,the boiler was of cast-iron4 ,the engine was provided with a single cylinder six inches in diameter1 with a fly-wheel working at one side to carry the crank over the dead points4 ,jonathan ,foster described it to the author in #ahed1 as a strange machine1 with lots of pumps1 cog-wheels1 and plugs1 requiring constant attention while at work4 ,the weight of the whole was about six tons4 ,when finished1 it was conveyed to ,wylam on a waggon1 and there mounted upon a wooden frame supported by four pairs of wheels1 which had been constructed for its reception4 ,a barrel of water1 placed on another frame upon wheels1 was attached to it as a tender4 ,after a great deal of labour1 the cumbrous machine was got upon the road4 ,at first it would not move an inch4 ,its maker1 ,tommy ,waters1 became impatient1 and at length enraged1 and taking hold of the lever of the safety valve1 declared in his desperation1 that either she or he should go4 ,at length the machinery was set in motion1 on which1 as ,jonathan ,foster described to the author she flew all to pieces1 and it was the biggest wonder i' the world that we were not all blewn up4 ,the incompetent and useless engine was declared to be a failure2 it was shortly after dismounted and sold2 and ,mr4 ,blackett's praiseworthy efforts thus far proved in vain4 ,he was still1 however1 desirous of testing the practicability of employing locomotive power in working the coal down to ,lemington1 and he determined on another trial4 ,he accordingly directed his engine-wright to proceed with the building of a third engine in the ,wylam workshops4 ,this new locomotive had a single #h-;inch cylinder1 was provided with a fly-wheel like its predecessor1 and the driving-wheel was cogged on one side to enable it to travel in the rack-rail laid along the road4 ,this engine proved more successful than the former one2 and it was found capable of dragging eight or nine loaded waggons1 though at the rate of little more than a mile an hour1 from the colliery to the shipping-place4 ,it sometimes took six hours to perform the journey of five miles4 ,its weight was found too great for the road1 and the cast-iron plates were constantly breaking4 ,it was also very apt to get off the rack-rail1 and then it stood still4 ,the driver was one day asked how he got on8 ,get on8 said he1 we don't get on2 we only get off6 ,on such occasions1 horses had to be sent to drag the waggons as before1 and others to haul the engine back to the work-shops4 ,it was constantly getting out of order2 its plugs1 pumps1 or cranks1 got wrong2 it was under repair as often as at work2 at length it became so cranky that the horses were usually sent out after it to drag it when it gave up2 and the workmen generally declared it to be a perfect plague4 ,mr4 ,blackett did not obtain credit amongst his neighbours for these experiments4 ,many laughed at his machines1 regarding them only in the light of crotchets1--frequently quoting the proverb that a fool and his money are soon parted4 ,others regarded them as absurd innovations on the established method of hauling coal2 and pronounced that they would never answer4 ,notwithstanding1 however1 the comparative failure of this second locomotive1 ,mr4 ,blackett persevered with his experiments4 ,he was zealously assisted by ,jonathan ,foster the engine-wright1 and ,william ,hedley1 the viewer of the colliery1 a highly ingenious person1 who proved of great use in carrying out the experiments to a successful issue4 ,one of the chief causes of failure being the rack-rail1 the idea occurred to ,mr4 ,hedley that it might be possible to secure adhesion enough between the wheel and the rail by the mere weight of the engine1 and he proceeded to make a series of experiments for the purpose of determining this problem4 ,he had a frame placed on four wheels1 and fitted up with windlasses attached by gearing to the several wheels4 ,the frame having been properly weighted1 six men were set to work the windlasses2 when it was found that the adhesion of the smooth wheels on the smooth rails was quite sufficient to enable them to propel the machine without slipping4 ,having found the proportion which the power bore to the weight1 he demonstrated by successive experiments that the weight of the engine would of itself produce sufficient adhesion to enable it to draw upon a smooth railroad the requisite number of waggons in all kinds of weather4 ,and thus was the fallacy which had heretofore prevailed on this subject completely exploded1 and it was satisfactorily proved that rack-rails1 toothed wheels1 endless chains1 and legs1 were alike unnecessary for the efficient traction of loaded waggons upon a moderately level road4 ,from this time forward considerably less difficulty was experienced in working the coal trains upon the ,wylam tramroad4 ,at length the rack-rail was dispensed with4 ,the road was laid with heavier rails2 the working of the old engine was improved2 and a new engine was shortly after built and placed upon the road1 still on eight wheels1 driven by seven rack-wheels working inside them--with a wrought-iron boiler through which the flue was returned so as largely to increase the heating surface1 and thus give increased power to the engine4 ,picture3 ,improved ,wylam ,engine ,as may readily be imagined1 the jets of steam from the piston1 blowing off into the air at high pressure while the engine was in motion1 caused considerable annoyance to horses passing along the ,wylam road1 at that time a public highway4 ,the nuisance was felt to be almost intolerable1 and a neighbouring gentleman threatened to have it put down4 ,to diminish the noise as much as possible1 ,mr4 ,blackett gave orders that so soon as any horse1 or horses1 came in sight1 the locomotive was to be stopped1 and the frightful blast of the engine thus suspended until the passing animals had got out of hearing4 ,much interruption was thus caused to the working of the railway1 and it excited considerable dissatisfaction amongst the workmen4 ,the following plan was adopted to abate the nuisance3 a reservoir was provided immediately behind the chimney 7as shown in the preceding cut7 into which the waste steam was thrown after it had performed its office in the cylinder2 and from this reservoir1 the steam gradually escaped into the atmosphere without noise4 ,while ,mr4 ,blackett was thus experimenting and building locomotives at ,wylam1 ,george ,stephenson was anxiously studying the same subject at ,killingworth4 ,he was no sooner appointed engine-wright of the collieries than his attention was directed to the means of more economically hauling the coal from the pits to the river-side4 ,we have seen that one of the first important improvements which he made1 after being placed in charge of the colliery machinery1 was to apply the surplus power of a pumping steam-engine1 fixed underground1 to drawing the coals out of the deeper workings of the ,killingworth mines1--by which he succeeded in effecting a large reduction in the expenditure on manual and horse labour4 ,the coals1 when brought above ground1 had next to be laboriously dragged by horses to the shipping staiths on the ,tyne1 several miles distant4 ,the adoption of a tramroad1 it is true1 had tended to facilitate their transit4 ,nevertheless the haulage was both tedious and costly4 ,with the view of economising labour1 ,stephenson laid down inclined planes where the nature of the ground would admit of this expedient4 ,thus1 a train of full waggons let down the incline by means of a rope running over wheels laid along the tramroad1 the other end of which was attached to a train of empty waggons placed at the bottom of the parallel road on the same incline1 dragged them up by the simple power of gravity4 ,but this applied only to a comparatively small part of the road4 ,an economical method of working the coal trains1 instead of by horses1--the keep of which was at that time very costly1 from the high price of corn1--was still a great desideratum2 and the best practical minds in the collieries were actively engaged in the attempt to solve the problem4 ,in the first place ,stephenson resolved to make himself thoroughly acquainted with what had already been done4 ,mr4 ,blackett's engines were working daily at ,wylam1 past the cottage where he had been born2 and thither he frequently went to inspect the improvements made by ,mr4 ,blackett from time to time both in the locomotive and in the plateway along which it worked4 ,jonathan ,foster informed us that1 after one of these visits1 ,stephenson declared to him his conviction that a much more effective engine might be made1 that should work more steadily and draw the load more effectively4 ,he had also the advantage1 about the same time1 of seeing one of ,blenkinsop's ,leeds engines1 which was placed on the tramway leading from the collieries of ,kenton and ,coxlodge1 on the #bnd ,september1 #ahac4 ,this locomotive drew sixteen chaldron waggons containing an aggregate weight of seventy tons1 at the rate of about three miles an hour4 ,george ,stephenson and several of the ,killingworth men were amongst the crowd of spectators that day2 and after examining the engine and observing its performances1 he observed to his companions1 that he thought he could make a better engine than that1 to go upon legs4 ,probably he had heard of the invention of ,brunton1 whose patent had by this time been published1 and proved the subject of much curious speculation in the colliery districts4 ,certain it is1 that1 shortly after the inspection of the ,coxlodge engine1 he contemplated the construction of a new locomotive1 which was to surpass all that had preceded it4 ,he observed that those engines which had been constructed up to this time1 however ingenious in their arrangements1 had proved practical failures4 ,mr4 ,blackett's was as yet both clumsy and expensive4 ,chapman's had been removed from the ,heaton tramway in #ahab1 and was regarded as a total failure4 ,and the ,blenkinsop engine at ,coxlodge was found very unsteady and costly in its working2 besides1 it pulled the rails to pieces1 the entire strain being upon the rack-rail on one side of the road4 ,the boiler1 however1 having soon after blown up1 there was an end of that engine2 and the colliery owners did not feel encouraged to try any further experiment4 ,an efficient and economical working locomotive1 therefore1 still remained to be invented2 and to accomplish this object ,mr4 ,stephenson now applied himself4 ,profiting by what his predecessors had done1 warned by their failures and encouraged by their partial successes1 he commenced his labours4 ,there was still wanting the man who should accomplish for the locomotive what ,james ,watt had done for the steam-engine1 and combine in a complete form the best points in the separate plans of others1 embodying with them such original inventions and adaptations of his own as to entitle him to the merit of inventing the working locomotive1 in the same manner as ,james ,watt is to be regarded as the inventor of the working condensing-engine4 ,this was the great work upon which ,george ,stephenson now entered1 though probably without any adequate idea of the ultimate importance of his labours to society and civilization4 ,he proceeded to bring the subject of constructing a ,travelling ,engine1 as he then denominated the locomotive1 under the notice of the lessees of the ,killingworth ,colliery1 in the year #ahac4 ,lord ,ravensworth1 the principal partner1 had already formed a very favourable opinion of the new engine-wright1 from the improvements which he had effected in the colliery engines1 both above and below ground2 and1 after considering the matter1 and hearing ,stephenson's explanations1 he authorised him to proceed with the construction of a locomotive1--though his lordship was1 by some1 called a fool for advancing money for such a purpose4 ,the first locomotive that ,i made1 said ,stephenson1 many years after1 #hb when speaking of his early career at a public meeting in ,newcastle1 was at ,killingworth ,colliery1 and with ,lord ,ravensworth's money4 ,yes2 ,lord ,ravensworth and partners were the first to entrust me1 thirty-two years since1 with money to make a locomotive engine4 ,i said to my friends1 there was no limit to the speed of such an engine1 if the works could be made to stand4 ,our engine-wright had1 however1 many obstacles to encounter before he could get fairly to work with the erection of his locomotive4 ,his chief difficulty was in finding workmen sufficiently skilled in mechanics1 and in the use of tools1 to follow his instructions and embody his designs in a practical shape4 ,the tools then in use about the collieries were rude and clumsy2 and there were no such facilities as now exist for turning out machinery of an entirely new character4 ,stephenson was under the necessity of working with such men and tools as were at his command2 and he had in a great measure to train and instruct the workmen himself4 ,the engine was built in the workshops at the ,west ,moor1 the leading mechanic employed being the colliery blacksmith1 an excellent workman in his way1 though quite new to the work now entrusted to him4 ,in this first locomotive constructed at ,killingworth1 ,stephenson to some extent followed the plan of ,blenkinsop's engine4 ,the boiler was cylindrical1 of wrought iron1 #h feet in length and #cd inches in diameter1 with an internal flue-tube #bj inches wide passing through it4 ,the engine had two vertical cylinders of #h inches diameter1 and #b feet stroke1 let into the boiler1 working the propelling gear with cross heads and connecting rods4 ,the power of the two cylinders was combined by means of spurwheels1 which communicated the motive power to the wheels supporting the engine on the rail1 instead of1 as in ,blenkinsop's engine1 to cogwheels which acted on the cogged rail independent of the four supporting wheels4 ,the engine thus worked upon what is termed the second motion4 ,the chimney was of wrought iron1 round which was a chamber extending back to the feed-pumps1 for the purpose of heating the water previous to its injection into the boiler4 ,the engine had no springs1 and was mounted on a wooden frame supported on four wheels4 ,in order to neutralise as much as possible the jolts and shocks which such an engine would necessarily encounter from the obstacles and inequalities of the then very imperfect plateway1 the water-barrel which served for a tender was fixed to the end of a lever and weighted1 the other end of the lever being connected with the frame of the locomotive carriage4 ,by this means the weight of the two was more equally distributed1 though the contrivance did not by any means compensate for the absence of springs4 ,picture3 ,the ,spur-gear ,the wheels of the locomotive were all smooth1 ,mr4 ,stephenson having satisfied himself by experiment that the adhesion between the wheels of a loaded engine and the rail would be sufficient for the purpose of traction4 ,robert ,stephenson informed us that his father caused a number of workmen to mount upon the wheels of a waggon moderately loaded1 and throw their entire weight upon the spokes on one side1 when he found that the waggon could thus be easily propelled forward without the wheels slipping4 ,this1 together with other experiments1 satisfied him of the expediency of adopting smooth wheels on his engine1 and it was so finished accordingly4 ,the engine was1 after much labour and anxiety1 and frequent alterations of parts1 at length brought to completion1 having been about ten months in hand4 ,it was placed upon the ,killingworth ,railway on the #beth ,july1 #ahad2 and its powers were tried on the same day4 ,on an ascending gradient of #a in #dej1 the engine succeeded in drawing after it eight loaded carriages of thirty tons' weight at about four miles an hour2 and for some time after it continued regularly at work4 ,although a considerable advance upon previous locomotives1 ,blutcher 7as the engine was popularly called7 was nevertheless a somewhat cumbrous and clumsy machine4 ,the parts were huddled together4 ,the boiler constituted the principal feature2 and being the foundation of the other parts1 it was made to do duty not only as a generator of steam1 but also as a basis for the fixings of the machinery and for the bearings of the wheels and axles4 ,the want of springs was seriously felt2 and the progress of the engine was a succession of jolts1 causing considerable derangement to the machinery4 ,the mode of communicating the motive power to the wheels by means of the spur-gear also caused frequent jerks1 each cylinder alternately propelling or becoming propelled by the other1 as the pressure of the one upon the wheels became greater or less than the pressure of the other2 and when the teeth of the cogwheels became at all worn1 a rattling noise was produced during the travelling of the engine4 ,as the principal test of the success of the locomotive was its economy as compared with horse power1 careful calculations were made with the view of ascertaining this important point4 ,the result was1 that it was found the working of the engine was at first barely economical2 and at the end of the year the steam power and the horse power were ascertained to be as nearly as possible upon a par in point of cost4 ,the fate of the locomotive in a great measure depended on this very engine4 ,its speed was not beyond that of a horse's walk1 and the heating surface presented to the fire being comparatively small1 sufficient steam could not be raised to enable it to accomplish more on an average than about four miles an hour4 ,the result was anything but decisive2 and the locomotive might have been condemned as useless1 had not our engineer at this juncture applied the steam-blast1 and by its means carried his experiment to a triumphant issue4 ,the steam1 after performing its duty in the cylinders1 was at first allowed to escape into the open atmosphere with a hissing blast1 to the terror of horses and cattle4 ,it was complained of as a nuisance2 and an action at law against the colliery lessees was threatened unless it was stopped4 ,stephenson's attention had been drawn to the much greater velocity with which the steam issued from the exit pipe compared with that at which the smoke escaped from the chimney4 ,he conceived that1 by conveying the eduction steam into the chimney1 by means of a small pipe1 after it had performed its office in the cylinders1 allowing it to escape in a vertical direction1 its velocity would be imparted to the smoke from the fire1 or to the ascending current of air in the chimney1 thereby increasing the draft1 and consequently the intensity of combustion in the furnace4 ,the experiment was no sooner made than the power of the engine was at once more than doubled2 combustion was stimulated by the blast2 consequently the capability of the boiler to generate steam was greatly increased1 and the effective power of the engine augmented in precisely the same proportion1 without in any way adding to its weight4 ,this simple but beautiful expedient was really fraught with the most important consequences to railway communication2 and it is not too much to say that the success of the locomotive has in a great measure been the result of its adoption4 ,without the steam-blast1 by means of which the intensity of combustion is maintained at its highest point1 producing a correspondingly rapid evolution of steam1 high rates of speed could not have been kept up2 the advantages of the multi-tubular boiler 7afterwards invented7 could never have been fairly tested2 and locomotives might still have been dragging themselves unwieldily along at little more than five or six miles an hour4 ,the steam-blast had scarcely been adopted1 with so decided a success1 when ,stephenson1 observing the numerous defects in his engine1 and profiting by the experience which he had already acquired1 determined to construct a second engine1 in which to embody his improvements in their best form4 ,careful and cautious observation of the working of his locomotive had convinced him that the complication arising out of the action of the two cylinders being combined by spur-wheels would prevent its coming into practical use4 ,he accordingly directed his attention to an entire change in the construction and mechanical arrangements of the machine2 and in the following year1 conjointly with ,mr4 ,dodds1 who provided the necessary funds1 he took out a patent1 dated the #bhth of ,february1 #ahae1 for an engine which combined in a remarkable degree the essential requisites of an economical locomotive2 that is to say1 few parts1 simplicity in their action1 and directness in the mode by which the power was communicated to the wheels supporting the engine4 ,this locomotive1 like the first1 had two vertical cylinders1 which communicated directly with each pair of the four wheels that supported the engine1 by means of a cross head and a pair of connecting rods4 ,but in attempting to establish a direct communication between the cylinders and the wheels that rolled upon the rails1 considerable difficulties presented themselves4 ,the ordinary joints could not be employed to unite the parts of the engine1 which was a rigid mass1 with the wheels lolling upon the irregular surface of the rails2 for it was evident that the two rails of the line of way--more especially in those early days of imperfect construction of the permanent road--could not always be maintained at the same level1--that the wheel at one end of the axle might be depressed into one part of the line which had subsided1 whilst the other wheel would be comparatively elevated2 and in such a position of the axle and wheels1 it was obvious that a rigid communication between the cross head and the wheels was impracticable4 ,hence it became necessary to form a joint at the top of the piston-rod where it united with the cross head1 so as to permit the cross head to preserve complete parallelism with the axle of the wheels with which it was in communication4 ,in order to obtain that degree of flexibility combined with direct action1 which was essential for ensuring power and avoiding needless friction and jars from irregularities in the road1 ,stephenson made use of the ball and socket joint for effecting a union between the ends of the cross heads where they united with the connecting rods1 and between the ends of the connecting rods where they were united with the crank-pins attached to each driving-wheel4 ,by this arrangement the parallelism between the cross head and the axle was at all times maintained and preserved1 without producing any serious jar or friction on any part of the machine4 ,another important point was1 to combine each pair of wheels by means of some simple mechanism instead of by the cogwheels which had formerly been used4 ,and1 with this object1 ,stephenson made cranks in each axle at right angles to each other1 with rods communicating horizontally between them4 ,a locomotive was constructed upon this plan in #ahae1 and was found to answer extremely well4 ,but at that period the mechanical skill of the country was not equal to forging cranked axles of the soundness and strength necessary to stand the jars incident to locomotive work4 ,stephenson was accordingly compelled to fall back upon a substitute1 which1 although less simple and efficient1 was within the mechanical capabilities of the workmen of that day1 in respect of construction as well as repair4 ,he adopted a chain which rolled over indented wheels placed on the centre of each axle1 and was so arranged that the two pairs of wheels were effectually coupled and made to keep pace with each other4 ,the chain1 however1 after a few years' use1 became stretched2 and then the engines were liable to irregularity in their working1 especially in changing from working back to working forward again4 ,eventually the chain was laid aside1 and the front and hind wheels were united by rods on the outside1 instead of by rods and crank axles inside1 as specified in the original patent4 ,this expedient completely answered the purpose required1 without involving any expensive or difficult workmanship4 ,thus1 in #ahae1 by dint of patient and persevering labour1--by careful observation of the works of others1 and never neglecting to avail himself of their suggestions1--,stephenson succeeded in manufacturing an engine which included the following important improvements on all previous attempts in the same direction3--viz41 simple and direct communication between the cylinders and the wheels rolling upon the rails2 joint adhesion of all the wheels1 attained by the use of horizontal connecting-rods2 and finally1 a beautiful method of exciting the combustion of the fuel by employing the waste steam1 which had formerly been allowed to escape uselessly into the air4 ,although many improvements in detail were afterwards introduced in the locomotive by ,george ,stephenson himself1 as well as by his equally distinguished son1 it is perhaps not too much to say that this engine1 as a mechanical contrivance1 contained the germ of all that has since been effected4 ,it may in fact be regarded as the type of the present locomotive engine4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,invention ,,of ,,the ,,geordy ,,safety-,,lamp4 ,explosions of fire-damp were unusually frequent in the coal mines of ,northumberland and ,durham about the time when ,george ,stephenson was engaged in the construction of his first locomotives4 ,these explosions were often attended with fearful loss of life and dreadful suffering to the workpeople4 ,killingworth ,colliery was not free from such deplorable calamities2 and during the time that ,stephenson was employed as a brakesman at the ,west ,moor1 several blasts took place in the pit1 by which many workmen were scorched and killed1 and the owners of the colliery sustained heavy losses4 ,one of the most serious of these accidents occurred in #ahjf1 not long after he had been appointed brakesman1 by which #aj persons were killed4 ,stephenson was working at the mouth of the pit at the time1 and the circumstances connected with the accident made a deep impression on his mind4 ,another explosion took place in the same pit in #ahji1 by which #ab persons lost their lives4 ,the blast did not reach the shaft as in the former case2 the unfortunate persons in the pit having been suffocated by the after-damp4 ,more calamitous still were the explosions which took place in the neighbouring collieries2 one of the worst being that of #ahab1 in the ,felling ,pit1 near ,gateshead1 by which no fewer than #ij men and boys were suffocated or burnt to death4 ,and a similar accident occurred in the same pit in the year following1 by which #bb persons perished4 ,it was natural that ,george ,stephenson should devote his attention to the causes of these deplorable accidents1 and to the means by which they might if possible be prevented4 ,his daily occupation led him to think much and deeply on the subject4 ,as engine-wright of a colliery so extensive as that of ,killingworth1 where there were nearly #afj miles of gallery excavation1 in which he personally superintended the working of the inclined planes along which the coals were sent to the pit entrance1 he was necessarily very often underground1 and brought face to face with the dangers of fire-damp4 ,from fissures in the roofs of the galleries1 carburetted hydrogen gas was constantly flowing2 in some of the more dangerous places it might be heard escaping from the crevices of the coal with a hissing noise4 ,ventilation1 firing1 and all conceivable modes of drawing out the foul air had been adopted1 and the more dangerous parts of the galleries were built up4 ,still the danger could not be wholly prevented4 ,the miners must necessarily guide their steps through the extensive underground ways with lighted lamps or candles1 the naked flame of which1 coming in contact with the inflammable air1 daily exposed them and their fellow-workers in the pit to the risk of death in one of its most dreadful forms4 ,one day1 in #ahad1 a workman hurried into ,stephenson's cottage with the startling information that the deepest main of the colliery was on fire6 ,he immediately hastened to the pit-head1 about a hundred yards off1 whither the women and children of the colliery were running1 with wildness and terror depicted in every face4 ,in a commanding voice ,stephenson ordered the engineman to lower him down the shaft in the corve4 ,there was peril1 it might be death1 before him1 but he must go4 ,he was soon at the bottom1 and in the midst of the men1 who were paralysed by the danger which threatened the lives of all in the pit4 ,leaping from the corve on its touching the ground1 he called out2 ,are there six men among you who have courage to follow me8 ,if so1 come1 and we will put the fire out4 ,the ,killingworth pitmen had the most perfect confidence in their engine-wright1 and they readily volunteered to follow him4 ,picture3 ,the ,pit ,head1 ,west ,moor ,silence succeeded the frantic tumult of the previous minute1 and the men set to work with a will4 ,in every mine1 bricks1 mortar1 and tools enough are at hand1 and by ,stephenson's direction the materials were forthwith carried to the required spot1 where1 in a very short time a wall was raised at the entrance to the main1 he himself taking the most active part in the work4 ,the atmospheric air was by this means excluded1 the fire was extinguished1 the people were saved from death1 and the mine was preserved4 ,this anecdote of ,stephenson was related to the writer1 near the pit-mouth1 by one of the men who had been present and helped to build up the brick wall by which the fire was stayed1 though several workmen were suffocated4 ,he related that1 when down the pit some days after1 seeking out the dead bodies1 the cause of the accident was the subject of conversation1 and ,stephenson was asked1 ,can nothing be done to prevent such awful occurrences8 ,his reply was that he thought something might be done4 ,then1 said the other1 the sooner you start the better2 for the price of coal-mining now is pitmen's lives4 ,fifty years since1 many of the best pits were so full of the inflammable gas given forth by the coal1 that they could not be worked without the greatest danger2 and for this reason some were altogether abandoned1 ,the rudest possible methods were adopted of producing light sufficient to enable the pitmen to work by4 ,the phosphorescence of decayed fish-skins was tried2 but this1 though safe1 was very inefficient4 ,the most common method employed was what was called a steel mill1 the notched wheel of which1 being made to revolve against a flint1 struck a succession of sparks1 which scarcely served to do more than make the darkness visible4 ,a boy carried the apparatus after the miner1 working the wheel1 and by the imperfect light thus given forth he plied his dangerous trade4 ,candles were only used in those parts of the pit where gas was not abundant4 ,under this rude system not more than one-third of the coal could be worked2 and two-thirds were left4 ,what the workmen1 not less than the coal-owners1 eagerly desired was1 a lamp that should give forth sufficient light1 without communicating flame to the inflammable gas which accumulated in certain parts of the pit4 ,something had already been attempted towards the invention of such a lamp by ,dr4 ,clanny1 of ,sunderland1 who1 in #ahac1 contrived an apparatus to which he gave air from the mine through water1 by means of bellows4 ,this lamp went out of itself in inflammable gas4 ,it was found1 however1 too unwieldy to be used by the miners for the purposes of their work1 and did not come into general use4 ,a committee of gentlemen was formed to investigate the causes of the explosions1 and to devise1 if possible1 some means of preventing them4 ,at the invitation of that ,committee1 ,sir ,humphry ,davy1 then in the full zenith of his reputation1 was requested to turn his attention to the subject4 ,he accordingly visited the collieries near ,newcastle on the #bdth of ,august1 #ahae2 and on the #ith of ,november following1 he read before the ,royal ,society of ,london his celebrated paper ,on the ,fire-,damp of ,coal ,mines1 and on ,methods of lighting the ,mine so as to prevent its explosion4 ,but a humbler though not less diligent and original thinker had been at work before him1 and had already practically solved the problem of the ,safety-,lamp4 ,stephenson was of course well aware of the anxiety which prevailed in the colliery districts as to the invention of a lamp which should give light enough for the miners to work by without exploding the fire-damp4 ,the painful incidents above described only served to quicken his eagerness to master the difficulty4 ,for several years he had been engaged1 in his own rude way1 in making experiments with the fire-damp in the ,killingworth mine4 ,the pitmen used to expostulate with him on these occasions1 believing his experiments to be fraught with danger4 ,one of the sinkers1 observing him holding up lighted candles to the windward of the blower or fissure from which the inflammable gas escaped1 entreated him to desist2 but ,stephenson's answer was1 that he was busy with a plan by which he hoped to make his experiments useful for preserving men's lives4 ,on these occasions the miners usually got out of the way before he lit the gas4 ,in #ahae1 although he was very much occupied with the business of the collieries and the improvement of his locomotive engine1 he was also busily engaged in making experiments upon inflammable gas in the ,killingworth pit4 ,according to the explanation afterwards given by him1 he imagined that if he could construct a lamp with a chimney so arranged as to cause a strong current1 it would not fire at the top of the chimney2 as the burnt air would ascend with such a velocity as to prevent the inflammable air of the pit from descending towards the flame2 and such a lamp1 he thought1 might be taken into a dangerous atmosphere without risk of exploding4 ,such was ,stephenson's theory when he proceeded to embody his idea of a miner's safety-lamp in a practical form4 ,in the month of ,august1 #ahae1 he requested his friend ,nicholas ,wood1 the head viewer1 to prepare a drawing of a lamp according to the description which he gave him4 ,after several evenings' careful deliberations1 the drawing was made1 and shown to several of the head men about the works4 ,stephenson proceeded to order a lamp to be made by a ,newcastle tinman1 according to his plan2 and at the same time he directed a glass to be made for the lamp at the ,northumberland ,glass ,house4 ,both were received by him from the makers on the #bast ,october1 and the lamp was taken to ,killingworth for the purpose of immediate experiment4 ,i remember that evening as distinctly as if it had been but yesterday1 said ,robert ,stephenson1 describing the circumstances to the author in #aheg3 ,moodie came to our cottage about dusk1 and asked1 'if father had got back yet with the lamp8' ',no4' ',then ,i'll wait till he comes1' said ,moodie1 'he can't be long now4' ,in about half-an-hour1 in came my father1 his face all radiant4 ,he had the lamp with him6 ,it was at once uncovered1 and shown to ,moodie4 ,then it was filled with oil1 trimmed1 and lighted4 ,all was ready1 only the head viewer hadn't arrived4 ',run over to ,benton for ,nichol1 ,robert1' said my father to me1 'and ask him to come directly2 say we're going down the pit to try the lamp4' ,by this time it was quite dark2 and off ,i ran to bring ,nicholas ,wood4 ,his house was at ,benton1 about a mile off4 ,there was a short cut through the ,churchyard1 but just as ,i was about to pass the wicket1 ,i saw what ,i thought was a white figure moving about amongst the grave-stones4 ,i took it for a ghost6 ,my heart fluttered1 and ,i was in a great fright1 but to ,wood's house ,i must get1 so ,i made the circuit of the ,churchyard2 and when ,i got round to the other side ,i looked1 and lo6 the figure was still there4 ,but what do you think it was8 ,only the grave-digger1 plying his work at that late hour by the light of his lanthorn set upon one of the gravestones6 ,i found ,wood at home1 and in a few minutes he was mounted and off to my father's4 ,when ,i got back1 ,i was told they had just left--it was then about eleven--and gone down the shaft to try the lamp in one of the most dangerous parts of the mine4 ,arrived at the bottom of the shaft with the lamp1 the party directed their steps towards one of the foulest galleries in the pit1 where the explosive gas was issuing through a blower in the roof of the mine with a loud hissing noise4 ,by erecting some deal boarding round that part of the gallery into which the gas was escaping1 the air was made more foul for the purpose of the experiment4 ,after waiting about an hour1 ,moodie1 whose practical experience of fire-damp in pits was greater than that of either ,stephenson or ,wood1 was requested to go into the place which had thus been made foul2 and1 having done so1 he returned1 and told them that the smell of the air was such1 that if a lighted candle were now introduced1 an explosion must inevitably take place4 ,he cautioned ,stephenson as to the danger both to themselves and to the pit1 if the gas took fire4 ,but ,stephenson declared his confidence in the safety of his lamp1 and1 having lit the wick1 he boldly proceeded with it towards the explosive air4 ,the others1 more timid and doubtful1 hung back when they came within hearing of the blower2 and apprehensive of the danger1 they retired into a safe place1 out of sight of the lamp1 which gradually disappeared with its bearer in the recesses of the mine4 #ie ,advancing to the place of danger1 and entering within the fouled air1 his lighted lamp in hand1 ,stephenson held it finally out1 in the full current of the blower1 and within a few inches of its mouth4 ,thus exposed1 the flame of the lamp at first increased1 then flickered1 and then went out2 but there was no explosion of the gas4 ,returning to his companions1 who were still at a distance1 he told them what had occurred4 ,having now acquired somewhat more confidence1 they advanced with him to a point from which they could observe him repeat his experiment1 but still at a safe distance4 ,they saw that when the lighted lamp was held within the explosive mixture1 there was a great flame2 the lamp became almost full of fire2 and then it smothered out4 ,again returning to his companions1 he relighted the lamp1 and repeated the experiment several times with the same result4 ,at length ,wood and ,moodie ventured to advance close to the fouled part of the pit2 and1 in making some of the later trials1 ,mr4 ,wood himself held up the lighted lamp to the blower4 ,before leaving the pit1 ,stephenson expressed his opinion that by an alteration of the lamp which he then contemplated1 he could make it burn better2 this was by a change in the slide through which the air was admitted into the lower part1 under the flame4 ,after making some experiments on the air collected at the blower1 by bladders which were mounted with tubes of various diameters1 he satisfied himself that1 when the tube was reduced to a certain diameter1 the foul air would not pass through2 and he fashioned his slide accordingly1 reducing the diameter of the tube until he conceived it was quite safe4 ,in about a fortnight the experiments were repeated1 in a place purposely made foul as before2 on this occasion a larger number of persons ventured to witness them1 and they again proved successful4 ,the lamp was not yet1 however1 so efficient as the inventor desired4 ,it required1 he observed1 to be kept very steady when burning in the inflammable gas1 otherwise it was liable to go out1 in consequence1 as he imagined1 of the contact of the burnt air 7as he then called it71 or azotic gas1 which lodged round the exterior of the flame4 ,if the lamp was moved horizontally1 the azote came in contact with the flame and extinguished it4 ,it struck me1 said he1 that if ,i put more tubes in1 ,i should discharge the poisonous matter that hung round the flame1 by admitting the air to its exterior part4 ,although he had then no access to scientific books1 nor intercourse with scientific men1 nor anything that could assist him in his investigation1 besides his own indefatigable spirit of inquiry1 he contrived a rude apparatus by which he tested the explosive properties of the gas and the velocity of current 7for this was the direction of his inquiries7 necessary to enable the explosive gas to pass through tubes of different diameters4 ,in making these experiments in his humble cottage at the ,west ,moor1 ,nicholas ,wood and ,george's son ,robert usually acted as his assistants1 and sometimes the gentlemen of the neighbourhood interested in coal-mining attended as spectators4 ,these experiments were not performed without risk1 for on one occasion the experimenting party had nearly blown off the roof of the cottage4 ,one of these blows up was described by ,stephenson himself before the ,committee on ,accidents in ,coal ,mines1 in #ahce3 ,i made several experiments1 said he1 as to the velocity required in tubes of different diameters1 to prevent explosion from fire-damp4 ,we made the mixtures in all proportions of light carburetted hydrogen with atmospheric air in the receiver1 and we found by the experiments that when a current of the most explosive mixture that we could make was forced up a tube #d_/aj of an inch in diameter1 the necessary current was #i inches in a second to prevent its coming down that tube4 ,these experiments were repeated several times4 ,we had two or three blows up in making the experiments1 by the flame getting down into the receiver1 though we had a piece of very fine wire-gauze put at the bottom of the pipe1 between the receiver and the pipe through which we were forcing the current4 ,in one of these experiments ,i was watching the flame in the tube1 my son was taking the vibrations of the pendulum of the clock1 and ,mr4 ,wood was attending to give me the column of water as ,i called for it1 to keep the current up to a certain point4 ,as ,i saw the flame descending in the tube ,i called for more water1 and ,wood unfortunately turned the cock the wrong way1 the current ceased1 the flame went down the tube1 and all our implements were blown to pieces1 which at the time we were not very able to replace4 ,stephenson followed up those experiments by others of a similar kind1 with the view of ascertaining whether ordinary flame would pass through tubes of a small diameter and with this object he filed off the barrels of several small keys4 ,placing these together1 he held them perpendicularly over a strong flame1 and ascertained that it did not pass upward4 ,this was a further proof to him of the soundness of the course he was pursuing4 ,in order to correct the defect of his first lamp he resolved to alter it so as to admit the air to the flame by several tubes of reduced diameter1 instead of by a single tube4 ,he inferred that a sufficient quantity of air would thus be introduced into the lamp for the purposes of combustion1 while the smallness of the apertures would still prevent the explosive gas passing downwards1 at the same time that the burnt air 7the cause1 in his opinion1 of the lamp going out7 would be more effectually dislodged4 ,he accordingly took the lamp to a tinman in ,newcastle1 and had it altered so that the air was admitted by three small tubes inserted in the bottom of the lamp1 the openings of which were placed on the outside of the burner1 instead of having 7as in the original lamp7 the one tube opening directly under the flame4 ,this second or altered lamp was tried in the ,killingworth pit on the #dth ,november1 and was found to burn better than the first1 and to be perfectly safe4 ,but as it did not yet come quite up to the inventor's expectations1 he proceeded to contrive a third lamp1 in which he proposed to surround the oil vessel with a number of capillary tubes4 ,then it struck him1 that if he cut off the middle of the tubes1 or made holes in metal plates1 placed at a distance from each other1 equal to the length of the tubes1 the air would get in better1 and the effect in preventing explosion would be the same4 ,he was encouraged to persevere in the completion of his safety-lamp by the occurrence of several fatal accidents about this time in the ,killingworth pit4 ,on the #ith ,november a boy was killed by a blast in the ,a pit1 at the very place where ,stephenson had made the experiments with his first lamp2 and1 when told of the accident1 he observed that if the boy had been provided with his lamp1 his life would have been saved4 ,on the #bjth ,november he went over to ,newcastle to order his third lamp from a plumber in that town4 ,the plumber referred him to his clerk1 whom ,stephenson invited to join him at a neighbouring public-house1 where they might quietly talk over the matter1 and finally settle the plan of the new lamp4 ,they adjourned to the ,newcastle ,arms1 near the present ,high ,level ,bridge1 where they had some ale1 and a design of the lamp was drawn in pencil upon a half-sheet of foolscap1 with a rough specification subjoined4 ,the sketch1 when shown to us by ,robert ,stephenson some years since1 still bore the marks of the ale4 ,it was a very rude design1 but sufficient to work from4 ,it was immediately placed in the hands of the workmen1 finished in the course of a few days1 and experimentally tested in the ,killingworth pit like the previous lamps1 on the #cjth ,november4 ,at that time neither ,stephenson nor ,wood had heard of ,sir ,humphry ,davy's experiments nor of the lamp which that gentleman proposed to construct4 ,an angry controversy afterwards took place as to the respective merits of ,george ,stephenson and ,sir ,humphry ,davy in respect of the invention of the safety-lamp4 ,a committee was formed on both sides1 and the facts were stated in various ways4 ,it is perfectly clear1 however1 that ,stephenson had ascertained the fact that flame will not pass through tubes of a certain diameter--the principle on which the safety-lamp is constructed--before ,sir ,humphry ,davy had formed any definite idea on the subject1 or invented the model lamp afterwards exhibited by him before the ,royal ,society4 ,stephenson had actually constructed a lamp on such a principle1 and proved its safety1 before ,sir ,humphry had communicated his views on the subject to any person2 and by the time that the first public intimation had been given of his discovery1 ,stephenson's second lamp had been constructed and tested in like manner in the ,killingworth pit4 ,the first was tried on the #bast ,october1 #ahae2 the second was tried on the #dth ,november2 but it was not until the #ith ,november that ,sir ,humphry ,davy presented his first lamp to the public4 ,and by the #cjth of the same month1 as we have seen1 ,stephenson had constructed and tested his third safety-lamp4 ,picture3 ,davy's and ,stephenson's ,safety ,lamps ,stephenson's theory of the burnt air and the draught was no doubt wrong2 but his lamp was right1 and that was the great fact which mainly concerned him4 ,torricelli did not know the rationale of his tube1 nor ,otto ,gurike that of his air-pump2 yet no one thinks of denying them the merit of their inventions on that account4 ,the discoveries of ,volta and ,galvani were in like manner independent of theory2 the greatest discoveries consisting in bringing to light certain grand facts1 on which theories are afterwards framed4 ,our inventor had been pursuing the ,baconian method1 though he did not think of that1 but of inventing a safe lamp1 which he knew could only be done through the process of repeated experiment4 ,he experimented upon the fire-damp at the blowers in the mine1 and also by means of the apparatus which was blown up in his cottage1 as above described by himself4 ,by experiment he distinctly ascertained that the explosion of fire-damp could not pass through small tubes2 and he also did what had not before been done by any inventor--he constructed a lamp on this principle1 and repeatedly proved its safety at the risk of his life4 ,at the same time1 there is no doubt that it was to ,sir ,humphry ,davy that the merit belonged of having pointed out the true law on which the safety-lamp is constructed4 ,the subject of this important invention excited so much interest in the northern mining districts1 and ,stephenson's numerous friends considered his lamp so completely successful--having stood the test of repeated experiments--that they urged him to bring his invention before the ,philosophical and ,literary ,society of ,newcastle1 of whose apparatus he had availed himself in the course of his experiments on fire-damp4 ,after much persuasion he consented1 and a meeting was appointed for the purpose of receiving his explanations1 on the evening of the #eth ,december1 #ahae4 ,stephenson was at that time so diffident in manner and unpractised in speech1 that he took with him his friend ,nicholas ,wood1 to act as his interpreter and expositor on the occasion4 ,from eighty to a hundred of the most intelligent members of the society were present at the meeting1 when ,mr4 ,wood stood forward to expound the principles on which the lamp had been formed1 and to describe the details of its construction4 ,several questions were put1 to which ,mr4 ,wood proceeded to give replies to the best of his knowledge4 ,but ,stephenson1 who up to that time had stood behind ,wood1 screened from notice1 observing that the explanations given were not quite correct1 could no longer control his reserve1 and1 standing forward1 he proceeded in his strong ,northumbrian dialect1 to describe the lamp1 down to its minutest details4 ,he then produced several bladders full of carburetted hydrogen1 which he had collected from the blowers in the ,killingworth mine1 and proved the safety of his lamp by numerous experiments with the gas1 repeated in various ways2 his earnest and impressive manner exciting in the minds of his auditors the liveliest interest both in the inventor and his invention4 ,shortly after1 ,sir ,h4 ,davy's model lamp was received and exhibited to the coal-miners at ,newcastle1 on which occasion the observation was made by several gentlemen1 ,why1 it is the same as ,stephenson's6 ,notwithstanding ,stephenson's claim to be regarded as the first inventor of the ,tube ,safety-lamp1 his merits do not seem to have been generally recognised2 and ,sir ,humphry ,davy carried off the larger share of the eclat which attached to the discovery4 ,what chance had the unknown workman of ,killingworth with so distinguished a competitor8 ,the one was as yet but a colliery engine-wright1 scarce raised above the manual-labour class1 pursuing his experiments in obscurity1 with a view only to usefulness2 the other was the scientific prodigy of his day1 the most brilliant of lecturers1 and the most popular of philosophers4 ,no small indignation was expressed by the friends of ,sir ,humphry ,davy at ,stephenson's presumption in laying claim to the invention of the safety-lamp4 ,in #ahca ,dr4 ,paris1 in his ',life of ,sir ,humphry ,davy1' thus wrote3--,it will hereafter be scarcely believed that an invention so eminently scientific1 and which could never have been derived but from the sterling treasury of science1 should have been claimed on behalf of an engine-wright of ,killingworth1 of the name of ,stephenson--a person not even possessing a knowledge of the elements of chemistry4 ,but ,stephenson was far above claiming for himself any invention not his own4 ,he had already accomplished a far greater feat than the making of a safety-lamp--he had constructed a successful locomotive1 which was to be seen in daily work on the ,killingworth railway4 ,by the improvements he had made in the engine1 he might almost be said to have invented it2 but no one--not even the philosophers--detected the significance of that wonderful machine4 ,what railways were to become1 rested in a great measure with that engine-wright of ,killingworth1 of the name of ,stephenson1 though he was scarcely known as yet beyond the bounds of his own district4 ,as to the value of the invention of the safety-lamp there could be no doubt2 and the colliery owners of ,durham and ,northumberland1 to testify their sense of its importance1 determined to present a testimonial to its inventor4 ,the friends of ,sir ,h4 ,davy met in ,august1 #ahaf1 to take steps for raising a subscription for the purpose4 ,the advertised object of the meeting was to present him with a reward for the invention of his safety-lamp4 ,to this no objection could be taken2 for though the principle on which the safety-lamps of ,stephenson and ,davy were constructed was the same2 and although ,stephenson's lamp was1 unquestionably1 the first successful lamp that had been constructed on such principle1 and proved to be efficient1--yet ,sir ,h4 ,davy did invent a safety-lamp1 no doubt quite independent of all that ,stephenson had done2 and having directed his careful attention to the subject1 and elucidated the true theory of explosion of carburetted hydrogen1 he was entitled to all praise and reward for his labours4 ,but when the meeting of coal-owners proposed to raise a subscription for the purpose of presenting ,sir ,h4 ,davy with a reward for his invention of the safety-lamp1 the case was entirely altered2 and ,stephenson's friends then proceeded to assert his claims to be regarded as its first inventor4 ,many meetings took place on the subject1 and much discussion ensued1 the result of which was that a sum of #bjjj pounds was presented to ,sir ,humphry ,davy as the inventor of the safety-lamp2 but1 at the same time1 a purse of #ajj guineas was voted to ,george ,stephenson1 in consideration of what he had done in the same direction4 ,this result was1 however very unsatisfactory to ,stephenson1 as well as to his friends1 and ,mr4 ,brandling1 of ,gosforth1 suggested to him that1 the subject being now fairly before the public1 he should publish a statement of the facts on which his claim was founded4 ,this was not at all in ,george's line4 ,he had never appeared in print2 and it seemed to him a more formidable thing to write a letter for the papers than to invent a safety-lamp or design a locomotive4 ,however1 he called to his aid his son ,robert1 set him down before a sheet of foolscap1 and told him to put down there just what ,i tell you4 ,the composition of this letter1 as we were informed by the writer of it1 occupied more evenings than one2 and when it was at length finished1 after many corrections1 and fairly copied out1 the father and son set out--the latter dressed in his ,sunday's round jacket--to lay the joint production before ,mr4 ,brandling1 at ,gosforth ,house4 ,glancing over the letter1 ,mr4 ,brandling said1 ,george1 this will never do4 ,it is all true1 sir1 was the reply4 ,that may be2 but it is badly written4 ,robert blushed1 for he thought the penmanship was called in question1 and he had written his best4 ,mr4 ,brandling1 however1 revised the letter1 which was shortly after published in the local journals4 ,stephenson's friends1 fully satisfied of his claims to priority as the inventor of the safety-lamp used in the ,killingworth and other collieries1 held a public meeting for the purpose of presenting him with a reward for the valuable service he had thus rendered to mankind4 ,a subscription was immediately commenced with this object1 and a committee was formed1 consisting of the ,earl of ,strathmore1 ,c4 ,j4 ,brandling1 and others4 ,the subscriptions1 when collected1 amounted to #ajjj pounds4 ,part of the money was devoted to the purchase of a silver tankard1 which was presented to the inventor1 together with the balance of the subscription1 at a public dinner given in the ,assembly ,rooms at ,newcastle4 #aje ,but what gave ,stephenson even greater pleasure than the silver tankard and purse of sovereigns was the gift of a silver watch1 purchased by small subscriptions amongst the colliers themselves1 and presented by them as a token of their personal esteem and regard for him1 as well as of their gratitude for the perseverance and skill with which he had prosecuted his valuable and lifesaving invention to a successful issue4 ,however great the merits of ,stephenson in connexion with the invention of the tube safety-lamp1 they cannot be regarded as detracting from the reputation of ,sir ,humphry ,davy4 ,his inquiries into the explosive properties of carburetted hydrogen gas were quite original2 and his discovery of the fact that explosion will not pass through tubes of a certain diameter was made independently of all that ,stephenson had done in verification of the same fact4 ,it even appears that ,mr4 ,smithson ,tennant and ,dr4 ,wollaston had observed the same fact several years before1 though neither ,stephenson nor ,davy knew it while they were prosecuting their experiments4 ,sir ,humphry ,davy's subsequent modification of the tube-lamp1 by which1 while diminishing the diameter1 he in the same ratio shortened the tubes without danger1 and in the form of wire-gauze enveloped the safety-lamp by a multiplicity of tubes1 was a beautiful application of the true theory which he had formed upon the subject4 ,the increased number of accidents which have occurred from explosions in coal-mines since the general introduction of the ,davy lamp1 have led to considerable doubts as to its safety1 and to inquiries as to the means by which it may be further improved2 for experience has shown that1 under certain circumstances1 the ,davy lamp is not safe4 ,stephenson was himself of opinion that the modification of his own and ,sir ,humphry ,davy's lamp1 combining the glass cylinder with the wire-gauze1 was the most secure2 at the same time it must be admitted that the ,davy and the ,geordy lamps alike failed to stand the severe tests to which they were submitted by ,dr4 ,pereira1 before the ,committee on ,accidents in ,mines4 ,indeed1 ,dr4 ,pereira did not hesitate to say1 that when exposed to a current of explosive gas the ,davy lamp is decidedly unsafe1 and that the experiments by which its safety had been demonstrated in the lecture-room had proved entirely fallacious4 ,it is worthy of remark1 that under circumstances in which the wire-gauze of the ,davy lamp becomes red-hot from the high explosiveness of the gas1 the ,geordy lamp is extinguished2 and we cannot but think that this fact testifies to the decidedly superior safety of the ,geordy4 ,an accident occurred in the ,oaks colliery ,pit at ,barnsley1 on the #bjth ,august1 #aheg1 which strikingly exemplified the respective qualities of the lamps4 ,a sudden outburst of gas took place from the floor of the mine1 along a distance of fifty yards4 ,fortunately the men working in the pit at the time were all supplied with safety-lamps--the hewers with ,stephenson's1 and the hurriers with ,davy's4 ,upon this occasion1 the whole of the ,stephenson's lamps1 over a space of five hundred yards1 were extinguished almost instantaneously2 whereas the ,davy lamps were filled with fire1 and became red-hot--so much so1 that several of the men using them had their hands burnt by the gauze4 ,had a strong current of air been blowing through the gallery at the time1 an explosion would most probably have taken place--an accident which1 it will be observed1 could not1 under such circumstances1 occur from the use of the ,geordy1 which is immediately extinguished as soon as the air becomes explosive4 #ajg ,nicholas ,wood1 a good judge1 has said of the two inventions1 ,priority has been claimed for each of them--,i believe the inventions to be parallel4 ,by different roads they both arrived at the same result4 ,stephenson's is the superior lamp4 ,davy's is safe--,stephenson's is safer4 ,when the question of priority was under discussion at the studio of ,mr4 ,lough1 the sculptor1 in #aheg1 ,sir ,matthew ,white ,ridley asked ,robert ,stephenson1 who was present1 for his opinion on the subject4 ,his answer was1 ,i am not exactly the person to give an unbiassed opinion2 but1 as you ask me frankly1 ,i will as frankly say1 that if ,george ,stephenson had never lived1 ,sir ,humphry ,davy could and most probably would have invented the safety-lamp2 but again1 if ,sir ,humphry ,davy had never lived1 ,george ,stephenson certainly would have invented the safety-lamp1 as ,i believe he did1 independent of all that ,sir ,humphry ,davy had ever done in the matter4 ,picture3 ,west ,moor ,pit1 ,killingworth ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,george ,,stephenson',s ,,further ,,improvements ,,in ,,the ,,locomotive--,,the ,,hetton ,,railway--,,robert ,,stephenson ,,as ,,viewer',s ,,apprentice ,,and ,,student4 ,stephenson's experiments on fire-damp1 and his labours in connexion with the invention of the safety-lamp1 occupied but a small portion of his time1 which was necessarily devoted for the most part to the ordinary business of the colliery4 ,from the day of his appointment as engine-wright1 one of the subjects which particularly occupied his attention was the best practical method of winning and raising the coal4 ,he was one of the first to introduce steam machinery underground with the latter object4 ,indeed1 the ,killingworth mines came to be regarded as the models of the district2 the working arrangements generally being conducted in a skilful and efficient manner1 reflecting the highest credit on the colliery engineer4 ,besides attending to the underground arrangements1 the improved transit of the coals above-ground from the pithead to the shipping-place1 demanded an increasing share of his attention4 ,every day's experience convinced him that the locomotive constructed by him after his patent of the year #ahae1 was far from perfect2 though he continued to entertain confident hopes of its eventual success4 ,he even went so far as to say that the locomotive would yet supersede every other traction-power for drawing heavy loads4 ,many still regarded his travelling engine as little better than a curious toy2 and some1 shaking their heads1 predicted for it a terrible blow-up some day4 ,nevertheless1 it was daily performing its work with regularity1 dragging the coal-waggons between the colliery and the staiths1 and saving the labour of many men and horses4 ,there was not1 however1 so marked a saving in haulage as to induce the colliery masters to adopt locomotive power generally as a substitute for horses4 ,how it could be improved and rendered more efficient as well as economical1 was constantly present to ,stephenson's mind4 ,at an early period of his labours1 or about the time when he had completed his second locomotive1 he began to direct his particular attention to the state of the ,road2 as he perceived that the extended use of the locomotive must necessarily depend in a great measure upon the perfection1 solidity1 continuity1 and smoothness of the way along which the engine travelled4 ,even at that early period1 he was in the habit of regarding the road and the locomotive as one machine1 speaking of the rail and the wheel as man and wife4 ,all railways were at that time laid in a careless and loose manner1 and great inequalities of level were allowed to occur without much attention being paid to repairs4 ,the consequence was a great loss of power1 as well as much tear and wear of the machinery1 by the frequent jolts and blows of the wheels against the rails4 ,his first object therefore was1 to remove the inequalities produced by the imperfect junction between rail and rail4 ,at that time1 7in #ahaf7 the rails were made of cast iron1 each rail being about three feet long2 and sufficient care was not taken to maintain the points of junction on the same level4 ,the chairs1 or cast-iron pedestals into which the rails were inserted1 were flat at the bottom2 so that1 whenever any disturbance took place in the stone blocks or sleepers supporting them1 the flat base of the chair upon which the rails rested being tilted by unequal subsidence1 the end of one rail became depressed1 whilst that of the other was elevated4 ,hence constant jolts and shocks1 the reaction of which very often caused the fracture of the rails1 and occasionally threw the engine off the road4 ,to remedy this imperfection ,mr4 ,stephenson devised a new chair1 with an entirely new mode of fixing the rails therein4 ,instead of adopting the butt-joint which had hitherto been used in all cast-iron rails1 he adopted the half-lap joint1 by which means the rails extended a certain distance over each other at the ends1 like a scarf-joint4 ,these ends1 instead of resting upon the flat chair1 were made to rest upon the apex of a curve forming the bottom of the chair4 ,the supports were also extended from three feet to three feet nine inches or four feet apart4 ,these rails were accordingly substituted for the old cast-iron plates on the ,killingworth ,colliery ,railway1 and they were found to be a very great improvement upon the previous system1 adding both to the efficiency of the horse-power1 still employed in working the railway1 and to the smooth action of the locomotive engine1 but more particularly increasing the efficiency of the latter4 ,picture3 ,half-lap ,joint ,this improved form of rail and chair was embodied in a patent taken out in the joint names of ,mr4 ,losh1 of ,newcastle1 iron-founder1 and of ,mr4 ,stephenson1 bearing date #cjth ,september1 #ahaf4 ,mr4 ,losh being a wealthy1 enterprising iron-manufacturer1 and having confidence in ,george ,stephenson and his improvements1 found the money for the purpose of taking out the patent1 which1 in those days1 was a very costly as well as troublesome affair4 ,the specification of the same patent also described various important improvements in the locomotive itself4 ,the wheels of the engine were improved1 being altered from cast to malleable iron1 in whole or in part1 by which they were made lighter as well as more durable and safe4 ,but the most ingenious and original contrivance embodied in this patent was the substitute for springs which ,mr4 ,stephenson invented4 ,he contrived that the steam generated in the boiler should perform this important office4 ,the method by which this was effected displayed such genuine mechanical genius1 that we would particularly call attention to the device1 which was the more remarkable1 as it was contrived long before the possibility of steam locomotion had become an object of general inquiry or of public interest4 ,it has already been observed that up to1 and indeed after1 the period of which we speak1 there was no such class of skilled mechanics1 nor were there any such machines and tools in use1 as are now available to inventors and manufacturers4 ,although skilled workmen were in course of gradual training in a few of the larger manufacturing towns1 they did not1 at the date of ,stephenson's patent1 exist in any considerable numbers1 nor was there then any class of mechanics capable of constructing springs of sufficient strength and elasticity to support locomotive engines of ten tons weight4 ,in order to avoid the dangers arising from the inequalities of the road1 ,stephenson so arranged the boiler of his new patent locomotive that it was supported upon the frame of the engine by four cylinders1 which opened into the interior of the boiler4 ,these cylinders were occupied by pistons with rods1 which passed downwards and pressed upon the upper side of the axles4 ,the cylinders opening into the interior of the boiler1 allowed the pressure of steam to be applied to the upper side of the piston2 and the pressure being nearly equivalent to one-fourth of the weight of the engine1 each axle1 whatever might be its position1 had at all times nearly the same amount of weight to bear1 and consequently the entire weight was pretty equally distributed amongst the four wheels of the locomotive4 ,thus the four floating pistons were ingeniously made to serve the purpose of springs in equalising the weight1 and in softening the jerks of the machine2 the weight of which1 it must also be observed1 had been increased1 on a road originally calculated to bear a considerably lighter description of carriage4 ,this mode of supporting the engine remained in use until the progress of spring-making had so far advanced that steel springs could be manufactured of sufficient strength to bear the weight of locomotive engines4 ,picture3 ,old ,killingworth ,locomotive1 still in use ,the result of the actual working of the new locomotive on the improved road amply justified the promises held forth in the specification4 ,the traffic was conducted with greater regularity and economy1 and the superiority of the engine1 as compared with horse traction1 became still more marked4 ,it is a fact worthy of notice1 that the identical engines constructed in #ahaf after the plan above described are to this day to be seen in regular useful work upon the ,killingworth ,railway1 conveying heavy coal-trains at the speed of between five and six miles an hour1 probably as economically as any of the more perfect locomotives now in use4 ,mr4 ,stephenson's endeavours having been attended with such marked success in the adaptation of locomotive power to railways1 his attention was called by many of his friends1 about the year #ahah1 to the application of steam to travelling on common roads4 ,it was from this point that the locomotive started1 ,trevithick's first engine having been constructed with this special object4 ,stephenson's friends having observed how far behind he had left the original projector of the locomotive in its application to railroads1 perhaps naturally inferred that he would be equally successful in applying it to the purpose for which ,trevithick and ,vivian had intended their first engine4 ,but the accuracy with which he estimated the resistance to which loads were exposed on railways1 arising from friction and gravity1 led him at a very early stage to reject the idea of ever applying steam power economically to common-road travelling4 ,in ,october1 #ahah1 he made a series of careful experiments in conjunction with ,nicholas ,wood1 on the resistance to which carriages were exposed on railways1 testing the results by means of a dynamometer of his own construction4 ,the series of practical observations made by means of this instrument were interesting1 as the first systematic attempt to determine the precise amount of resistance to carriages moving along railways4 ,it was then for the first time ascertained by experiment that the friction was a constant quantity at all velocities4 ,although this theory had long before been developed by ,vince and ,coulomb1 and was well known to scientific men as an established truth1 yet1 at the time when ,stephenson made his experiments1 the deductions of philosophers on the subject were neither believed in nor acted upon by practical engineers4 ,he ascertained that the resistances to traction were mainly three2 the first being upon the axles of the carriages1 the second1 or rolling resistance1 being between the circumference of the wheel and the surface of the rail1 and the third being the resistance of gravity4 ,the amount of friction and gravity he could accurately ascertain2 but the rolling resistance was a matter of greater difficulty1 being subject to much variation4 ,he satisfied himself1 however1 that it was so great when the surface presented to the wheel was of a rough character1 that the idea of working steam carriages economically on common roads was dismissed by him as entirely impracticable4 ,taking it as #aj lbs to a ton weight on a level railway1 it became obvious to him that so small a rise as #a in #ajj would diminish the useful effort of a locomotive by upwards of #ej per cent4 ,this was demonstrated by repeated experiments1 and the important fact1 thus rooted in his mind1 was never lost sight of in the course of his future railway career4 ,it was owing in a great measure to these painstaking experiments that he early became convinced of the vital importance1 in an economical point of view1 of reducing the country through which a railway was intended to pass as nearly as possible to a level4 ,where1 as in the first coal railways of ,northumberland and ,durham1 the load was nearly all one way1--that is1 from the colliery to the shipping-place1--it was an advantage to have an inclination in that direction4 ,the strain on the powers of the locomotive was thus diminished1 and it was easy for it to haul the empty waggons back to the colliery up even a pretty steep incline4 ,but when the loads were both ways1 he deemed it of great importance that the railroad should be constructed as nearly as possible on a level4 ,these views1 thus early entertained1 originated in ,stephenson's mind the peculiar character of railroad works as distinguished from other roads2 for1 in railways1 he early contended that large sums would be wisely expended in perforating barriers of hills with long tunnels1 and in raising the lower levels with the excess cut down from the adjacent high ground4 ,in proportion as these views forced themselves upon his mind and were corroborated by his daily experience1 he became more and more convinced of the hopelessness of applying steam locomotion to common roads2 for every argument in favour of a level railway was1 in his view1 an argument against the rough and hilly course of a common road4 ,although ,stephenson's locomotive engines were in daily use for many years on the ,killingworth ,railway1 they excited comparatively little interest4 ,they were no longer experimental1 but had become an established tractive power4 ,the experience of years had proved that they worked more steadily1 drew heavier loads1 and were1 on the whole1 considerably more economical than horses4 ,nevertheless eight years passed before another locomotive railway was constructed and opened for the purposes of coal or other traffic4 ,stephenson had no means of bringing his important invention prominently under the notice of the public4 ,he himself knew well its importance1 and he already anticipated its eventual general adoption2 but being an unlettered man1 he could not give utterance to the thoughts which brooded within him on the subject4 ,killingworth ,colliery lay far from ,london1 the centre of scientific life in ,england4 ,it was visited by no savans nor literary men1 who might have succeeded in introducing to notice the wonderful machine of ,stephenson4 ,even the local chroniclers seem to have taken no notice of the ,killingworth ,railway4 ,there seemed1 indeed1 to be so small a prospect of introducing the locomotive into general use1 that ,stephenson1--perhaps feeling the capabilities within him1--again recurred to his old idea of emigrating to the ,united ,states4 ,before joining ,mr4 ,burrel as partner in a small foundry at ,forth ,banks1 ,newcastle1 he had thrown out to him the suggestion that it would be a good speculation for them to emigrate to ,north ,america1 and introduce steamboats upon the great inland lakes there4 ,the first steamers were then plying upon the ,tyne before his eyes2 and he saw in them the germ of a great revolution in navigation4 ,it occurred to him that ,north ,america presented the finest field for trying their wonderful powers4 ,he was an engineer1 his partner was an iron-founder2 and between them he thought they might strike out a path to fortune in the mighty ,west4 ,fortunately1 this idea remained a mere speculation so far as ,stephenson was concerned3 and it was left to others to do what he had dreamt of achieving4 ,after all his patient waiting1 his skill1 industry1 and perseverance were at length about to bear fruit4 ,in #ahai the owners of the ,hetton ,colliery1 in the county of ,durham1 determined to have their waggon-way altered to a locomotive railroad4 ,the result of the working of the ,killingworth ,railway had been so satisfactory1 that they resolved to adopt the same system4 ,one reason why an experiment so long continued and so successful as that at ,killingworth should have been so slow in producing results1 perhaps was1 that to lay down a railway and furnish it with locomotives1 or fixed engines where necessary1 required a very large capital1 beyond the means of ordinary coal-owners2 whilst the small amount of interest felt in railways by the general public1 and the supposed impracticability of working them to a profit1 as yet prevented ordinary capitalists from venturing their money in the promotion of such undertakings4 ,the ,hetton ,coal ,company were1 however1 possessed of adequate means2 and the local reputation of the ,killingworth engine-wright pointed him out as the man best calculated to lay out their line1 and superintend their works4 ,they accordingly invited him to act as the engineer of the proposed railway1 which was to be the longest locomotive line that had1 up to that time1 been constructed4 ,it extended from the ,hetton ,colliery1 situated about two miles south of ,houghton-le-,spring1 in the county of ,durham1 to the shipping-places on the banks of the ,wear1 near ,sunderland4 ,its length was about eight miles2 and in its course it crossed ,warden ,law1 one of the highest hills in the district4 ,the character of the country forbade the construction of a flat line1 or one of comparatively easy gradients1 except by the expenditure of a much larger capital than was placed at the engineer's disposal4 ,heavy works could not be executed2 it was therefore necessary to form the line with but little deviation from the natural conformation of the district which it traversed1 and also to adapt the mechanical methods employed for its working to the character of the gradients1 which in some places were necessarily heavy4 ,although ,stephenson had1 with every step made towards its increased utility1 become more and more identified with the success of the locomotive engine1 he did not allow his enthusiasm to carry him away into costly mistakes4 ,he carefully drew the line between the cases in which the locomotive could be usefully employed1 and those in which stationary engines were calculated to be more economical4 ,this led him1 as in the instance of the ,hetton ,railway1 to execute lines through and over rough countries1 where gradients within the powers of the locomotive engine of that day could not be secured1 employing in their stead stationary engines where locomotives were not practicable4 ,in the present case1 this course was adopted by him most successfully4 ,on the original ,hetton line1 there were five self-acting inclines1--the full waggons drawing the empty ones up1--and two inclines worked by fixed reciprocating engines of sixty horse power each4 ,the locomotive travelling engine1 or the iron horse1 as the people of the neighbourhood then styled it1 did the rest4 ,on the day of the opening of the ,hetton ,railway1 the #ahth ,november1 #ahbb1 crowds of spectators assembled from all parts to witness the first operations of this ingenious and powerful machinery1 which was entirely successful4 ,on that day five of ,stephenson's locomotives were at work upon the railway1 under the direction of his brother ,robert2 and the first shipment of coal was then made by the ,hetton ,company1 at their new staiths on the ,wear4 ,the speed at which the locomotives travelled was about #d miles an hour1 and each engine dragged after it a train of #ag waggons1 weighing about #fd tons4 ,while thus advancing step by step1--attending to the business of the ,killingworth ,colliery1 and laying out railways in the neighbourhood1--he was carefully watching over the education of his son4 ,we have already seen that ,robert was sent to ,bruce's school at ,newcastle1 where he remained about four years4 ,he left it in the summer of #ahai1 and was then put apprentice to ,mr4 ,nicholas ,wood1 the head viewer at ,killingworth1 to learn the business of the colliery4 ,he served in that capacity for about three years1 during which time he became familiar with most departments of underground work4 ,the occupation was not unattended with peril1 as the following incident will show4 ,though the use of the ,geordy lamp had become general in the ,killingworth pits1 and the workmen were bound1 under a penalty of half-a-crown1 not to use a naked candle1 it was difficult to enforce the rule1 and even the masters themselves occasionally broke it4 ,one day ,nicholas ,wood1 the head viewer1 ,moodie the under viewer1 and ,robert ,stephenson1 were proceeding along one of the galleries1 ,wood with a naked candle in his hand1 and ,robert following him with a lamp4 ,they came to a place where a fall of stones from the roof had taken place1 on which ,wood1 who was first1 proceeded to clamber over the stones1 holding high the naked candle4 ,he had nearly reached the summit of the heap1 when the fire-damp1 which had accumulated in the hollow of the roof1 exploded1 and instantly the whole party were blown down1 and the lights extinguished4 ,they were a mile from the shaft1 and quite in the dark4 ,there was a rush of the workpeople from all quarters towards the shaft1 for it was feared that the fire might extend to more dangerous parts of the pit1 where1 if the gas had exploded1 every soul in the mine must inevitably have perished4 ,robert ,stephenson and ,moodie1 on the first impulse1 ran back at full speed along the dark gallery leading to the shaft1 coming into collision1 on their way1 with the hind quarters of a horse stunned by the explosion4 ,when they had gone halfway1 ,moodie halted1 and bethought him of ,nicholas ,wood4 ,stop1 laddie6 said he to ,robert1 stop2 we maun gang back1 and seek the maister4 ,so they retraced their steps4 ,happily1 no further explosion had taken place4 ,they found the master lying on the heap of stones1 stunned and bruised1 with his hands severely burnt4 ,they led him to the bottom of the shaft2 and he took care afterwards not to venture into the dangerous parts of the mine without the protection of a ,geordy lamp4 ,the time that ,robert spent at ,killingworth as viewer's apprentice was of advantage both to his father and himself4 ,the evenings were generally devoted to reading and study1 the two from this time working together as friends and co-labourers4 ,one who used to drop in at the cottage of an evening1 well remembers the animated and eager discussions which on some occasions took place1 more especially with reference to the growing powers of the locomotive engine4 ,the son was even more enthusiastic than the father on this subject4 ,robert would suggest numerous alterations and improvements in details4 ,his father1 on the contrary1 would offer every possible objection1 defending the existing arrangements1--proud1 nevertheless of his son's suggestions1 and often warmed and excited by his brilliant anticipations of the ultimate triumph of the locomotive4 ,these discussions probably had considerable influence in inducing ,stephenson to take the next important step in the education of his son4 ,although ,robert1 who was only nineteen years of age1 was doing well1 and was certain at the expiration of his apprenticeship to rise to a higher position1 his father was not satisfied with the amount of instruction which he had as yet given him4 ,remembering the disadvantages under which he had himself laboured through his ignorance of practical chemistry during his investigations connected with the safety-lamp1 more especially with reference to the properties of gas1 as well as in the course of his experiments with the object of improving the locomotive engine1 he determined to furnish his son with as complete a scientific culture as his means would afford4 ,he also believed that a proper training in technical science was indispensable to success in the higher walks of the engineer's profession2 and he determined to give to his son that kind and degree of education which he so much desired for himself4 ,he would thus1 he knew1 secure a hearty and generous co-worker in the elaboration of the great ideas now looming before him1 and with their united practical and scientific knowledge he probably felt that they would be equal to any enterprise4 ,he accordingly took ,robert from his labours as under-viewer in the ,west ,moor ,pit1 and in ,october1 #ahbb1 sent him to the ,edinburgh ,university1 there being then no college in ,england accessible to persons of moderate means1 for purposes of scientific culture4 ,robert was furnished with letters of introduction to several men of literary eminence in ,edinburgh2 his father's reputation in connexion with the safety-lamp being of service to him in this respect4 ,he lodged in ,drummond ,street1 in the immediate vicinity of the college1 and attended the ,chemical ,lectures of ,dr4 ,hope1 the ,natural ,philosophy ,lectures of ,sir ,john ,leslie1 and the ,natural ,history ,class of ,professor ,jameson4 ,he also devoted several evenings in each week to the study of practical ,chemistry under ,dr4 ,john ,murray1 himself one of the numerous designers of a safety-lamp4 ,he took careful notes of all the lectures1 which he copied out at night before he went to bed2 so that1 when he returned to ,killingworth1 he might read them over to his father4 ,he afterwards had the notes bound up1 and placed in his library4 ,long years after1 when conversing with ,thomas ,harrison1 ,c4,e41 at his house in ,gloucester ,square1 he rose from his seat and took down a volume from the shelves4 ,mr4 ,harrison observed that the book was in ,,ms41 neatly written out4 ,what have we here8 he asked4 ,the answer was--,when ,i went to college1 ,i knew the difficulty my father had in collecting the funds to send me there4 ,before going ,i studied short-hand2 while at ,edinburgh1 ,i took down verbatim every lecture2 and in the evenings1 before ,i went to bed1 ,i transcribed those lectures word for word4 ,you see the result in that range of books4 ,one of the practical sciences in the study of which ,robert ,stephenson took special interest while at ,edinburgh was that of geology4 ,the situation of the city1 in the midst of a district of highly interesting geological formation1 easily accessible to pedestrians1 is indeed most favourable to the pursuit of such a study2 and it was the practice of ,professor ,jameson frequently to head a band of his pupils1 armed with hammers1 chisels1 and clinometers1 and take them with him on a long ramble into the country1 for the purpose of teaching them habits of observation and reading to them from the open book of ,nature itself4 ,at the close of this session1 the professor took with him a select body of his pupils on an excursion along the ,great ,glen of the ,highlands1 in the line of the ,caledonian ,canal1 and ,robert formed one of the party4 ,they passed under the shadow of ,ben ,nevis1 examined the famous old sea-margins known as the parallel roads of ,glen ,roy1 and extended their journey as far as ,inverness2 the professor teaching the young men as they travelled how to observe in a mountain country4 ,not long before his death1 ,robert ,stephenson spoke in glowing terms of the great pleasure and benefit which he had derived from that interesting excursion4 ,i have travelled far1 and enjoyed much1 he said2 but that delightful botanical and geological journey ,i shall never forget2 and ,i am just about to start in the ,titania for a trip round the east coast of ,scotland1 returning south through the ,caledonian ,canal1 to refresh myself with the recollection of that first and brightest tour of my life4 ,towards the end of the summer of #ahbb the young student returned to ,killingworth to re-enter upon the active business of life4 ,the six months' study had cost his father #hj pounds2 but he was amply repaid by the better scientific culture which his son had acquired1 and the evidence of ability and industry which he was enabled to exhibit in a prize for mathematics which he had won at the ,university4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,george ,,stephenson ,,engineer ,,of ,,the ,,stockton ,,and ,,darlington ,,railway4 ,the district west of ,darlington1 in ,durham1 is one of the richest mineral fields of the ,north4 ,vast stores of coal underlie the ,bishop ,auckland ,valley2 and from an early period new and good roads to market were felt to be exceedingly desirable4 ,as yet it remained almost a closed field1 the cost of transport of the coal in carts1 or on horses' or donkeys' backs1 greatly limiting the sale4 ,long ago1 in the days of canal formations1 ,brindley was consulted about a canal2 afterwards1 in #ahab1 a tramroad was surveyed by ,rennie2 and eventually1 in #ahag1 a railway was projected from ,darlington to ,stockton-on-,tees4 ,picture3 ,map of ,stockton and ,darlington ,railway ,of this railway ,edward ,pease was the projector4 ,a thoughtful and sagacious man1 ready in resources1 possessed of indomitable energy and perseverance1 he was eminently qualified to undertake what appeared to many the hopeless enterprise of obtaining an ,act for a railway through such an unpromising district4 ,one who knew him in #ahah said1 he was a man who could see a hundred years ahead4 ,picture3 ,edward ,pease ,when the writer last saw him1 in the autumn of #ahed1 ,mr4 ,pease was in his eighty-eighth year2 yet he still possessed the hopefulness and mental vigour of a man in his prime4 ,hale and hearty1 and full of reminiscences of the past1 he continued to take an active interest in all measures calculated to render men happier and better4 ,still sound in health1 his eye had not lost its brilliancy1 nor his cheek its colour2 and there was an elasticity in his step which younger men might have envied4 #abe ,in getting up a company for surveying and forming a railway1 ,mr4 ,pease had great difficulties to encounter4 ,the people of the neighbourhood spoke of it as a ridiculous undertaking1 and predicted that it would be ruinous to all concerned4 ,even those most interested in the opening of new markets for their coal1 were indifferent1 if not actually hostile4 ,the ,stockton merchants and shipowners1 whom it was calculated so greatly to benefit1 gave the project no support2 and not twenty shares were subscribed for in the whole town4 ,mr4 ,pease nevertheless persevered2 and he induced many of his friends and relations to subscribe the capital required4 ,the necessary preliminary steps were taken in #ahah to apply for an act to authorise the construction of a tramroad from ,witton to ,stockton4 ,the measure was however1 strongly opposed by the ,duke of ,cleveland1 because the proposed line passed close by one of his fox covers2 and the bill was rejected4 ,a new survey was then made1 avoiding the ,duke's cover2 and in #ahai a renewed application was made to ,parliament4 ,the promoters were this time successful1 and the royal assent was given to the first ,stockton and ,darlington ,railway ,act on the #aith ,april1 #ahba4 ,the projectors did not originally contemplate the employment of locomotives4 ,the ,act provided for the making and maintaining of tramroads for the passage of waggons and other carriages with men and horses or otherwise1 and a further clause made provision for damages done in course of traffic by the waggoners4 ,the public were to be free to use with horses1 cattle and carriages1 the roads formed by the company1 on payment of the authorised rates1 between the hours of seven in the morning and six in the evening1 during winter2 between six in the morning and eight in the evening1 in two of the spring and autumn months2 and between five in the morning and ten in the evening1 in the summer months of ,may1 ,june1 ,july1 and ,august4 ,from this it will be obvious that the projectors of the line had themselves at first no very large conceptions as to the scope of their project4 ,one day1 in the spring of #ahba1 two strangers knocked at the door of ,mr4 ,pease's house in ,darlington2 and the message was brought to him that some persons from ,killingworth wanted to speak with him4 ,they were invited in1 on which one of the visitors introduced himself as ,nicholas ,wood1 viewer at ,killingworth1 and then turning to his companion1 he introduced him as ,george ,stephenson1 engine-wright1 of the same place4 ,mr4 ,pease entered into conversation with his visitors1 and was soon told their object4 ,stephenson had heard of the passing of the ,stockton and ,darlington ,act1 and desiring to increase his railway experience1 and also to employ in some larger field the practical knowledge he had already gained1 he determined to visit the known projector of the undertaking1 with the view of being employed to carry it out4 ,he had brought with him his friend ,wood1 for the purpose at the same time of relieving his diffidence1 and supporting his application4 ,mr4 ,pease liked the appearance of his visitor3 there was1 as he afterwards remarked when speaking of ,stephenson1 such an honest1 sensible look about him1 and he seemed so modest and unpretending4 ,he spoke in the strong ,northumbrian dialect of his district1 and described himself as 'only the engine-wright at ,killingworth2 that's what he was4' ,mr4 ,pease soon saw that our engineer was the very man for his purpose4 ,the whole plans of the railway were still in an undetermined state1 and ,mr4 ,pease was therefore glad to have the opportunity of profiting by ,stephenson's experience4 ,in the course of their conversation1 the latter strongly recommended a railway in preference to a tramroad4 ,they also discussed the kind of tractive power to be employed3 ,mr4 ,pease stating that the company had based their whole calculations on the employment of horse power4 ,i was so satisfied1 said he afterwards1 that a horse upon an iron road would draw ten tons for one ton on a common road1 that ,i felt sure that before long the railway would become the ,king's highway4 ,but ,mr4 ,pease was scarcely prepared for the bold assertion made by his visitor1 that the locomotive engine with which he had been working the ,killingworth ,railway for many years past was worth fifty horses1 and that engines made after a similar plan would yet entirely supersede all horse power upon railroads4 ,stephenson was daily becoming more positive as to the superiority of his locomotive2 and hence he strongly urged ,mr4 ,pease to adopt it4 ,come over to ,killingworth1 said he1 and see what my engines can do2 seeing is believing1 sir4 ,mr4 ,pease accordingly promised that on some early day he would go over to ,killingworth1 and take a look at the wonderful machine that was to supersede horses4 ,the result of the interview was1 that ,mr4 ,pease promised to bring ,stephenson's application for the appointment of engineer before the ,directors1 and to support it with his influence2 whereon the two visitors prepared to take their leave1 informing ,mr4 ,pease that they intended to return to ,newcastle by nip2 that is1 they expected to get a smuggled lift on the stage-coach1 by tipping ,jehu1--for in those days the stage coachmen regarded all casual roadside passengers as their proper perquisites4 ,they had1 however1 been so much engrossed by their conversation1 that the lapse of time was forgotten1 and when ,stephenson and his friend made enquiries about the return coach1 they found the last had left2 and they had to walk the #ah miles to ,durham on their way back to ,newcastle4 ,mr4 ,pease having made further inquiries respecting ,stephenson's character and qualifications1 and having received a very strong recommendation of him as the right man for the intended work1 he brought the subject of his application before the directors of the ,stockton and ,darlington ,company4 ,they resolved to adopt his recommendation that a railway be formed instead of a tramroad2 and they further requested ,mr4 ,pease to write to ,stephenson1 desiring him to undertake a re-survey of the line at the earliest practicable period4 ,a man was despatched on a horse with the letter1 and when he reached ,killingworth he made diligent enquiry after the person named upon the address1 ,george ,stephenson1 ,esquire1 ,engineer4 ,no such person was known in the village4 ,it is said that the man was on the point of giving up all further search1 when the happy thought struck some of the colliers' wives who had gathered about him1 that it must be ,geordie the engine-wright the man was in search of2 and to ,geordie's cottage he accordingly went1 found him at home1 and delivered the letter4 ,about the end of ,september1 ,stephenson went carefully over the line of the proposed railway1 for the purpose of suggesting such improvements and deviations as he might consider desirable4 ,he was accompanied by an assistant and a chainman1--his son ,robert entering the figures while his father took the sights4 ,after being engaged in the work at intervals for about six weeks1 ,stephenson reported the result of his survey to the ,board of ,directors1 and showed that by certain deviations1 a line shorter by about three miles might be constructed at a considerable saving in expense1 while at the same time more favourable gradients--an important consideration--would be secured4 ,it was1 however1 determined in the first place to proceed with the works at those parts of the line where no deviation was proposed2 and the first rail of the ,stockton and ,darlington ,railway was laid with considerable ceremony1 near ,stockton1 on the #bcrd ,may1 #ahbb4 ,it is worthy of note that ,stephenson1 in making his first estimate of the cost of forming the railway according to the ,instructions of the directors1 set down1 as part of the cost1 #fbjj pounds for stationary engines1 not mentioning locomotives at all4 ,the directors as yet confined their views to the employment only of horses for the haulage of the coals1 and of fixed engines and ropes where horse-power was not applicable4 ,the whole question of steam locomotive power was1 in the estimation of the public1 as well as of practical and scientific men1 as yet in doubt4 ,the confident anticipations of ,george ,stephenson1 as to the eventual success of locomotive engines1 were regarded as mere speculations2 and when he gave utterance to his views1 as he frequently took the opportunity of doing1 it even had the effect of shaking the confidence of some of his friends in the solidity of his judgment and his practical qualities as an engineer4 ,when ,mr4 ,pease discussed the question with ,stephenson1 his remark was1 ,come over and see my engines at ,killingworth1 and satisfy yourself as to the efficiency of the locomotive4 ,i will show you the colliery books1 that you may ascertain for yourself the actual cost of working4 ,and ,i must tell you that the economy of the locomotive engine is no longer a matter of theory1 but a matter of fact4 ,so confident was the tone in which ,stephenson spoke of the success of his engines1 and so important were the consequences involved in arriving at a correct conclusion on the subject1 that ,mr4 ,pease at length resolved upon paying a visit to ,killingworth in the summer of #ahbb1 to see with his own eyes the wonderful new power so much vaunted by the engineer4 ,when ,mr4 ,pease arrived at ,killingworth village1 he inquired for ,george ,stephenson1 and was told that he must go over to the ,west ,moor1 and seek for a cottage by the roadside1 with a dial over the door--that was where ,george ,stephenson lived4 ,they soon found the house with the dial2 and on knocking1 the door was opened by ,mrs4 ,stephenson--his second wife 7,elizabeth ,hindmarsh71 the daughter of a farmer at ,black ,callerton1 whom he had married in #ahbj4 #abi ,her husband1 she said1 was not in the house at present1 but she would send for him to the colliery4 ,and in a short time ,stephenson appeared before them in his working dress1 just as he had come out of the pit4 ,he very soon had his locomotive brought up to the crossing close by the end of the cottage1--made the gentlemen mount it1 and showed them its paces4 ,harnessing it to a train of loaded waggons1 he ran it along the railroad1 and so thoroughly satisfied his visitors of its power and capabilities1 that from that day ,edward ,pease was a declared supporter of the locomotive engine4 ,in preparing the ,amended ,stockton and ,darlington ,act1 at ,stephenson's urgent request ,mr4 ,pease had a clause inserted1 taking power to work the railway by means of locomotive engines1 and to employ them for the haulage of passengers as well as of merchandise4 #acj ,the ,act was obtained in #ahbc1 on which ,stephenson was appointed the company's engineer at a salary of #cjj pounds per annum2 and it was determined that the line should be constructed and opened for traffic as soon as practicable4 ,he at once proceeded1 accompanied by his assistants1 with the working survey of the line1 laying out every foot of the ground himself4 ,railway surveying was as yet in its infancy1 and was slow and difficult work4 ,it afterwards became a separate branch of railway business1 and was entrusted to a special staff4 ,indeed on no subsequent line did ,george ,stephenson take the sights through the spirit level with his own hands and eyes as he did on this railway4 ,he started very early--dressed in a blue tailed coat1 breeches1 and top-boots--and surveyed until dusk4 ,he was not at any time particular as to his living2 and during the survey1 he took his chance of getting a little milk and bread at some cottager's house along the line1 or occasionally joined in a homely dinner at some neighbouring farmhouse4 ,the country people were accustomed to give him a hearty welcome when he appeared at their door2 for he was always full of cheery and homely talk1 and1 when there were children about the house1 he had plenty of humorous chat for them as well as for their seniors4 ,after the day's work was over1 ,george would drop in at ,mr4 ,pease's1 to talk over the progress of the survey1 and discuss various matters connected with the railway4 ,mr4 ,pease's daughters were usually present2 and on one occasion1 finding the young ladies learning the art of embroidery1 he volunteered to instruct them4 #aca ,i know all about it1 said he2 and you will wonder how ,i learnt it4 ,i will tell you4 ,when ,i was a brakesman at ,killingworth1 ,i learnt the art of embroidery while working the pitmen's buttonholes by the engine fire at nights4 ,he was never ashamed1 but on the contrary rather proud1 of reminding his friends of these humble pursuits of his early life4 ,mr4 ,pease's family were greatly pleased with his conversation1 which was always amusing and instructive2 full of all sorts of experience1 gathered in the oddest and most out-of-the-way places4 ,even at that early period1 before he mixed in the society of educated persons1 there was a dash of speculativeness in his remarks1 which gave a high degree of originality to his conversation2 and he would sometimes1 in a casual remark1 throw a flash of light upon a subject1 which called up a train of pregnant suggestions4 ,one of the most important subjects of discussion at these meetings with ,mr4 ,pease1 was the establishment of a manufactory at ,newcastle for the building of locomotive engines4 ,up to this time all the locomotives constructed after ,stephenson's designs1 had been made by ordinary mechanics working among the collieries in the ,north of ,england4 ,but he had long felt that the accuracy and style of their workmanship admitted of great improvement1 and that upon this the more perfect action of the locomotive engine1 and its general adoption1 in a great measure depended4 ,one great object that he had in view in establishing the proposed factory was1 to concentrate a number of good workmen1 for the purpose of carrying out the improvements in detail which he was constantly making in his engine4 ,he felt hampered by the want of efficient help from skilled mechanics1 who could work out in a practical form the ideas of which his busy mind was always so prolific4 ,doubtless1 too1 he believed that the manufactory would prove a remunerative investment1 and that1 on the general adoption of the railway system which he anticipated1 he would derive solid advantages from the fact of his establishment being the only one of the kind for the special construction of locomotive engines4 ,mr4 ,pease approved of his design1 and strongly recommended him to carry it into effect4 ,but there was the question of means2 and ,stephenson did not think he had capital enough for the purpose4 ,he told ,mr4 ,pease that he could advance #ajjj pounds--the amount of the testimonial presented by the coal-owners for his safety-lamp invention1 which he had still left untouched2 but he did not think this sufficient for the purpose1 and he thought that he should require at least another #ajjj pounds4 ,mr4 ,pease had been very much struck with the successful performances of the ,killingworth engine2 and being an accurate judge of character1 he believed that he could not go far wrong in linking a portion of his fortune with the energy and industry of ,george ,stephenson4 ,he consulted his friend ,thomas ,richardson in the matter2 and the two consented to advance #ejj pounds each for the purpose of establishing the engine factory at ,newcastle4 ,a piece of land was accordingly purchased in ,forth ,street1 in ,august1 #ahbc1 on which a small building was erected--the nucleus of the gigantic establishment which was afterwards formed around it2 and active operations were begun early in #ahbd4 ,while the ,stockton and ,darlington ,railway works were in progress1 our engineer had many interesting discussions with ,mr4 ,pease1 on points connected with its construction and working1 the determination of which in a great measure affected the formation and working of all future railways4 ,the most important points were these3 #a4 ,the comparative merits of cast and wrought iron rails4 #b4 ,the gauge of the railway4 #c4 ,the employment of horse or engine power in working it1 when ready for traffic4 ,the kind of rails to be laid down to form the permanent road was a matter of considerable importance4 ,a wooden tramroad had been contemplated when the first ,act was applied for2 but ,stephenson having advised that an iron road should be laid down1 he was instructed to draw up a specification of the rails4 ,he went before the directors to discuss with them the kind of material to be specified4 ,he was himself interested in the patent for cast-iron rails1 which he had taken out in conjunction with ,mr4 ,losh in #ahaf2 and1 of course1 it was to his interest that his articles should be used4 ,but when requested to give his opinion on the subject1 he frankly said to the directors1 ,well1 gentlemen1 to tell you the truth1 although it would put #ejj pounds in my pocket to specify my own patent rails1 ,i cannot do so after the experience ,i have had4 ,if you take my advice1 you will not lay down a single cast-iron rail4 ,why8 asked the directors4 ,because they will not stand the weight1 and you will be at no end of expense for repairs and relays4 ,what kind of road1 then1 he was asked1 would you recommend8 ,malleable rails1 certainly1 said he2 and ,i can recommend them with the more confidence from the fact that at ,killingworth we have had some ,swedish bars laid down--nailed to wooden sleepers--for a period of fourteen years1 the waggons passing over them daily2 and there they are1 in use yet1 whereas the cast rails are constantly giving way4 ,the price of malleable rails was1 however1 so high--being then worth about #ab pounds per ton as compared with cast-iron rails at about #e pounds #ajs4--and the saving of expense was so important a consideration with the subscribers1 that ,stephenson was directed to provide1 in the specification1 that only one-half of the rails required--or about #hjj tons--should be of malleable iron1 and the remainder of cast-iron4 ,the malleable rails were of the kind called fish-bellied1 and weighed #bh lbs4 to the yard1 being #b4be inches broad at the top1 with the upper flange #j4ge inch thick4 ,they were only #b inches in depth at the points at which they rested on the chairs1 and #c4be inches in the middle or bellied part4 ,when forming the road1 the proper gauge had also to be determined4 ,what width was this to be8 ,the gauge of the first tramroad laid down had virtually settled the point4 ,the gauge of wheels of the common vehicles of the country--of the carts and waggons employed on common roads1 which were first used on the tramroads--was about #d feet #h4e inches4 ,and so the first tramroads were laid down of this gauge4 ,the tools and machinery for constructing coal-waggons and locomotives were formed with this gauge in view4 ,the ,wylam waggon-way1 afterwards the ,wylam plate-way1 the ,killingworth railroad1 and the ,hetton rail road1 were as nearly as possible on the same gauge4 ,some of the earth-waggons used to form the ,stockton and ,darlington road were brought from the ,hetton railway2 and others which were specially constructed were formed of the same dimensions1 these being intended to be afterwards employed in the working of the traffic4 ,as the period drew near for the opening of the line1 the question of the tractive power to be employed was anxiously discussed4 ,at the ,brusselton incline1 fixed engines must necessarily be made use of2 but with respect to the mode of working the railway generally1 it was decided that horses were to be largely employed1 and arrangements were made for their purchase4 ,the influence of ,mr4 ,pease also secured that a fair trial should be given to the experiment of working the traffic by locomotive power2 and three engines were ordered from the firm of ,stephenson and ,co41 ,newcastle1 which were put in hand forthwith1 in anticipation of the opening of the railway4 ,these were constructed after ,mr4 ,stephenson's most matured designs1 and embodied all the improvements which he had contrived up to that time4 ,no4 ,i4 engine1 the ,locomotion1 which was first delivered1 weighed about eight tons4 ,it had one large flue or tube through the boiler1 by which the heated air passed direct from the furnace at one end1 lined with fire-bricks1 to the chimney at the other4 ,the combustion in the furnace was quickened by the adoption of the steam-blast in the chimney4 ,the heat raised was sometimes so great1 and it was so imperfectly abstracted by the surrounding water1 that the chimney became almost red-hot4 ,such engines1 when put to their speed1 were found capable of running at the rate of from twelve to sixteen miles an hour2 but they were better adapted for the heavy work of hauling coal-trains at low speeds--for which1 indeed1 they were specially constructed--than for running at the higher speeds afterwards adopted4 ,nor was it contemplated by the directors as possible1 at the time when they were ordered1 that locomotives could be made available for the purposes of passenger travelling4 ,besides1 the ,stockton and ,darlington ,railway did not run through a district in which passengers were supposed to be likely to constitute any considerable portion of the traffic4 ,we may easily imagine the anxiety felt by ,mr4 ,stephenson during the progress of the works towards completion1 and his mingled hopes and doubts 7though his doubts were but few7 as to the issue of this great experiment4 ,when the formation of the line near ,stockton was well advanced1 ,mr4 ,stephenson one day1 accompanied by his son ,robert and ,john ,dixon1 made a journey of inspection of the works4 ,the party reached ,stockton1 and proceeded to dine at one of the inns there4 ,after dinner1 ,stephenson ventured on the very unusual measure of ordering in a bottle of wine1 to drink success to the railway4 ,john ,dixon relates with pride the utterance of the master on the occasion4 ,now1 lads1 said he to the two young men1 ,i venture to tell you that ,i think you will live to see the day when railways will supersede almost all other methods of conveyance in this country--when mail-coaches will go by railway1 and railroads will become the great highway for the king and all his subjects4 ,the time is coming when it will be cheaper for a working man to travel upon a railway than to walk on foot4 ,i know there are great and almost insurmountable difficulties to be encountered2 but what ,i have said will come to pass as sure as you live4 ,i only wish ,i may live to see the day1 though that ,i can scarcely hope for1 as ,i know how slow all human progress is1 and with what difficulty ,i have been able to get the locomotive thus far adopted1 notwithstanding my more than ten years' successful experiment at ,killingworth4 ,the result1 however1 outstripped even the most sanguine anticipations of ,stephenson2 and his son ,robert1 shortly after his return from ,america in #ahbg1 saw his father's locomotive generally employed as the tractive power on railways4 ,the ,stockton and ,darlington line was opened for traffic on the #bgth ,september1 #ahbe4 ,an immense concourse of people assembled from all parts to witness the ceremony of opening this first public railway4 ,the powerful opposition which the project had encountered1 the threats which were still uttered against the company by the road-trustees and others1 who declared that they would yet prevent the line being worked1 and perhaps the general unbelief as to its success which still prevailed1 tended to excite the curiosity of the public as to the result4 ,some went to rejoice at the opening1 some to see the bubble burst2 and there were many prophets of evil who would not miss the blowing up of the boasted travelling engine4 ,the opening was1 however1 auspicious4 ,the proceedings commenced at ,brusselton ,incline1 about nine miles above ,darlington1 where the fixed engine drew a train of loaded waggons up the incline from the west1 and lowered them on the east side4 ,at the foot of the incline a locomotive was in readiness to receive them1 ,stephenson himself driving the engine4 ,the train consisted of six waggons loaded with coals and flour2 after these was the passenger-coach1 filled with the directors and their friends1 and then twenty-one waggons fitted up with temporary seats for passengers2 and lastly came six waggon-loads of coals1 making in all a train of thirty-eight vehicles4 ,the local chronicler of the day almost went beside himself in describing the extraordinary event3--,the signal being given1 he says1 the engine started off with this immense train of carriages2 and such was its velocity1 that in some parts the speed was frequently #ab miles an hour6 ,by the time it reached ,stockton there were about #fjj persons in the train or hanging on to the waggons1 which must have gone at a safe and steady pace of from four to six miles an hour from ,darlington4 ,the arrival at ,stockton1 it is added1 excited a deep interest and admiration4 ,the working of the line then commenced1 and the results were such as to surprise even the most sanguine of its projectors4 ,the traffic upon which they had formed their estimates of profit proved to be small in comparison with that which flowed in upon them which they had never dreamt of4 ,thus1 what the company had principally relied upon for their receipts was the carriage of coals for land sale at the stations along the line1 whereas the haulage of coals to the seaports for exportation to the ,london market was not contemplated as possible4 ,when the bill was before ,parliament1 ,mr4 ,lambton 7afterwards ,earl of ,durham7 succeeded in getting a clause inserted1 limiting the charge for the haulage of all coal to ,stockton-on-,tees for the purpose of shipment to #j4e;d4 per ton per mile2 whereas a rate of #d;d4 per ton was allowed to be taken for all coals led upon the railway for land sale4 ,mr4 ,lambton's object in enforcing the low rate of #j4e;d4 was to protect his own trade in coal exported from ,sunderland and the northern ports4 ,he believed1 in common with everybody else1 that the #j4e;d4 rate would effectually secure him against competition on the part of the ,company2 for it was not considered possible to lead coals at that price1 and the proprietors of the railway themselves considered that such a rate would be utterly ruinous4 ,the projectors never contemplated sending more than #aj1jjj tons a year to ,stockton1 and those only for shipment as ballast2 they looked for their profits almost exclusively to the land sale4 ,the result1 however1 was as surprising to them as it must have been to ,mr4 ,lambton4 ,the #j4e;d4 rate which was forced upon them1 instead of being ruinous1 proved the vital element in the success of the railway4 ,in the course of a few years1 the annual shipment of coal1 led by the ,stockton and ,darlington ,railway to ,stockton and ,middlesborough1 was more than #ejj1jjj tons2 and it has since far exceeded this amount4 ,instead of being1 as anticipated1 a subordinate branch of traffic1 it proved1 in fact1 the main traffic1 while the land sale was merely subsidiary4 ,the anticipations of the company as to passenger traffic were in like manner more than realised4 ,at first1 passengers were not thought of2 and it was only while the works were in progress that the starting of a passenger coach was seriously contemplated4 ,the number of persons travelling between the two towns was very small2 and it was not known whether these would risk their persons upon the iron road4 ,it was determined1 however1 to make trial of a railway coach2 and ,mr4 ,stephenson was authorised to have one built at ,newcastle1 at the cost of the company4 ,this was done accordingly2 and the first railway passenger carriage was built after our engineer's design4 ,it was1 however1 a very modest1 and indeed a somewhat uncouth machine1 more resembling the caravans still to be seen at country fairs containing the ,giant and the ,dwarf and other wonders of the world1 than a passenger-coach of any extant form4 ,a row of seats ran along each side of the interior1 and a long deal table was fixed in the centre2 the access being by means of a door at the back end1 in the manner of an omnibus4 ,picture3 ,the ,first ,railway ,coach ,this coach arrived from ,newcastle the day before the opening1 and formed part of the railway procession above described4 ,mr4 ,stephenson was consulted as to the name of the coach1 and he at once suggested ,the ,experiment2 and by this name it was called4 ,the ,company's arms were afterwards painted on her side1 with the motto ,periculum privatum utilitas publica4 ,such was the sole passenger-carrying stock of the ,stockton and ,darlington ,company in the year #ahbe4 ,but the ,experiment proved the forerunner of a mighty traffic3 and long time did not elapse before it was displaced1 not only by improved coaches 7still drawn by horses71 but afterwards by long trains of passenger-carriages drawn by locomotive engines4 ,the ,experiment was fairly started as a passenger-coach on the #ajth ,october1 #ahbe1 a fortnight after the opening of the line4 ,it was drawn by one horse1 and performed a journey daily each way between the two towns1 accomplishing the distance of twelve miles in about two hours4 ,the fare charged was a shilling without distinction of class2 and each passenger was allowed fourteen pounds of luggage free4 ,the ,experiment was not1 however1 worked by the company1 but was let to contractors who worked it under an arrangement whereby toll was paid for the use of the line1 rent of booking-cabins1 etc4 ,the speculation answered so well1 that several private coaching companies were shortly after got up by innkeepers at ,darlington and ,stockton1 for the purpose of running other coaches upon the railroad2 and an active competition for passenger traffic sprang up4 ,the ,experiment being found too heavy for one horse to draw1 besides being found an uncomfortable machine1 was banished to the coal district4 ,its place was then supplied by other and better vehicles1--though they were no other than old stage-coach bodies purchased by the company1 and each mounted upon an underframe with flange-wheels4 ,these were let on hire to the coaching companies1 who horsed and managed them under an arrangement as to tolls1 in like manner as the ,experiment had been worked4 ,now began the distinction of inside and outside passengers1 equivalent to first and second class1 paying different fares4 ,the competition with each other upon the railway1 and with the ordinary stagecoaches upon the road1 soon brought up the speed1 which was increased to ten miles an hour--the mail-coach rate of travelling in those days1 and considered very fast4 ,mr4 ,clephan1 a native of the district1 has described some of the curious features of the competition between the rival coach companies3--,there were two separate coach companies in ,stockton1 and amusing collisions sometimes occurred between the drivers--who found on the rail a novel element for contention4 ,coaches cannot pass each other on the rail as on the road2 and1 as the line was single1 with four sidings in the mile1 when two coaches met1 or two trains1 or coach and train1 the question arose which of the drivers must go back8 ,this was not always settled in silence4 ,as to trains1 it came to be a sort of understanding that empty should give way to loaded waggons2 and as to trains and coaches1 that the passengers should have preference over coals2 while coaches1 when they met1 must quarrel it out4 ,at length1 midway between sidings1 a post was erected1 and a rule was laid down that he who had passed the pillar must go on1 and the 'coming man' go back4 ,at the ,goose ,pool and ,early ,nook1 it was common for these coaches to stop2 and there1 as ,jonathan would say1 passengers and coachmen 'liquored4' ,one coach1 introduced by an innkeeper1 was a compound of two mourning-coaches1--an approximation to the real railway-coach1 which still adheres1 with multiplying exceptions1 to the stage-coach type4 ,one ,dixon1 who drove the ',experiment' between ,darlington and ,shildon1 is the inventor of carriage-lighting on the rail4 ,on a dark winter night1 having compassion on his passengers1 he would buy a penny candle1 and place it lighted amongst them on the table of the ',experiment'--the first railway-coach 7which1 by the way1 ended its days at ,shildon as a railway cabin71 being also the first coach on the rail 7first1 second1 and third class jammed all into one7 that indulged its customers with light in darkness4 ,the traffic of all sorts increased so steadily and so rapidly that considerable difficulty was experienced in working it satisfactorily4 ,it had been provided by the first ,stockton and ,darlington ,act that the line should be free to all parties who chose to use it at certain prescribed rates1 and that any person might put horses and waggons on the railway1 and carry for himself4 ,but this arrangement led to increasing confusion and difficulty1 and could not continue in the face of a large and rapidly-increasing traffic4 ,the goods trains got so long that the carriers found it necessary to call in the aid of the locomotive engine to help them on their way4 ,then mixed trains of passengers and merchandise began to run2 and the result was that the railway company found it necessary to take the entire charge and working of the traffic4 ,in course of time new coaches were specially built for the better accommodation of the public1 until at length regular passenger-trains were run1 drawn by the locomotive engine1--though this was not until after the ,liverpool and ,manchester ,company had established this as a distinct branch of their traffic4 ,picture3 ,the ,no4 ,i4 ,engine at ,darlington ,the three ,stephenson locomotives were from the first regularly employed to work the coal trains2 and their proved efficiency for this purpose led to the gradual increase of the locomotive power4 ,the speed of the engines--slow though it seems now--was in those days regarded as something marvellous4 ,a race actually came off between ,no4 ,i4 engine1 the ,locomotion1 and one of the stage-coaches travelling from ,darlington to ,stockton by the ordinary road2 and it was regarded as a great triumph of mechanical skill that the locomotive reached ,stockton first1 beating the stage-coach by about a hundred yards6 ,the same engine continued in good working order in the year #ahdf1 when it headed the railway procession on the opening of the ,middlesborough and ,redcar ,railway1 travelling at the rate of about fourteen miles an hour4 ,this engine1 the first that travelled upon the first public railway1 has recently been placed upon a pedestal in front of the railway station at ,darlington4 ,for some years1 however1 the principal haulage of the line was performed by horses4 ,the inclination of the gradients being towards the sea1 this was perhaps the cheapest mode of traction1 so long as the traffic was not very large4 ,the horse drew the train along the level road1 until1 on reaching a descending gradient1 down which the train ran by its own gravity1 the animal was unharnessed1 and1 when loose1 he wheeled round to the other end of the waggons1 to which a dandy-cart was attached1 its bottom being only a few inches from the rail4 ,bringing his step into unison with the speed of the train1 the horse learnt to leap nimbly into his place in this waggon1 which was usually fitted with a well-filled hay-rack4 ,the details of the working were gradually perfected by experience1 the projectors of the line being scarcely conscious at first of the importance and significance of the work which they had taken in hand1 and little thinking that they were laying the foundations of a system which was yet to revolutionise the internal communications of the world1 and confer the greatest blessings on mankind4 ,it is important to note that the commercial results of the enterprise were considered satisfactory from the opening of the railway4 ,besides conferring a great public benefit upon the inhabitants of the district and throwing open entirely new markets for coal1 the profits derived from the traffic created by the railway yielded increasing dividends to those who had risked their capital in the undertaking1 and thus held forth an encouragement to the projectors of railways generally1 which was not without an important effect in stimulating the projection of similar enterprises in other districts4 ,these results1 as displayed in the annual dividends1 must have been eminently encouraging to the astute commercial men of ,liverpool and ,manchester1 who were then engaged in the prosecution of their railway4 ,indeed1 the commercial success of the ,stockton and ,darlington ,company may be justly characterised as the turning-point of the railway system4 ,before leaving this subject1 we cannot avoid alluding to one of its most remarkable and direct results--the creation of the town of ,middlesborough-on-,tees4 ,when the railway was opened in #ahbe1 the site of this future metropolis of ,cleveland was occupied by one solitary farmhouse and its outbuildings4 ,all round was pasture-land or mud-banks2 scarcely another house was within sight4 ,in #ahbi some of the principal proprietors of the railway joined in the purchase of about #ejj or #fjj acres of land five miles below ,stockton--the site of the modern ,middlesborough--for the purpose of there forming a new seaport for the shipment of coals brought to the ,tees by the railway4 ,the line was accordingly extended thither2 docks were excavated2 a town sprang up2 churches1 chapels1 and schools were built1 with a custom-house1 mechanics' institute1 banks1 shipbuilding yards1 and iron-factories4 ,in ten years a busy population of some #fjjj persons 7since increased to about #bc1jjj7 occupied the site of the original farmhouse4 #add ,more recently1 the discovery of vast stores of ironstone in the ,cleveland ,hills1 closely adjoining ,middlesborough1 has tended still more rapidly to augment the population and increase the commercial importance of the place4 ,it is pleasing to relate1 in connexion with this great work--the ,stockton and ,darlington ,railway1 projected by ,edward ,pease and executed by ,george ,stephenson--that when ,mr4 ,stephenson became a prosperous and a celebrated man1 he did not forget the friend who had taken him by the hand1 and helped him on in his early days4 ,he continued to remember ,mr4 ,pease with gratitude and affection1 and that gentleman1 to the close of his life1 was proud to exhibit a handsome gold watch1 received as a gift from his celebrated protege1 bearing these words2--,esteem and gratitude3 from ,george ,stephenson to ,edward ,pease4 ,picture3 ,middlesborough-on-,tees ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,the ,,liverpool ,,and ,,manchester ,,railway ,,projected4 ,the rapid growth of the trade and manufactures of ,south ,lancashire gave rise1 about the year #ahba1 to the project of a tramroad for the conveyance of goods between ,liverpool and ,manchester4 ,since the construction of the ,bridgewater ,canal by ,brindley1 some fifty years before1 the increase in the business transacted between the two towns had become quite marvellous4 ,the steam-engine1 the spinning-jenny1 and the canal1 working together1 had accumulated in one focus a vast aggregate of population1 manufactures1 and trade4 ,such was the expansion of business caused by the inventions to which we have referred1 that the navigation was found altogether inadequate to accommodate the traffic1 which completely outgrew all the ,canal ,companies' appliances of wharves1 boats1 and horses4 ,cotton lay at ,liverpool for weeks together1 waiting to be removed2 and it occupied a longer time to transport the cargoes from ,liverpool to ,manchester than it had done to bring them across the ,atlantic from the ,united ,states to ,england4 ,carts and waggons were tried1 but proved altogether insufficient4 ,sometimes manufacturing operations had to be suspended altogether1 and during a frost1 when the canals were frozen up1 the communication was entirely stopped4 ,the consequences were often disastrous1 alike to operatives1 merchants1 and manufacturers4 ,expostulation with the ,canal ,companies was of no use4 ,they were overcrowded with business at their own prices1 and disposed to be very dictatorial4 ,when the ,duke first constructed his canal1 he had to encounter the fierce opposition of the ,irwell and ,mersey ,navigation1 whose monopoly his new line of water conveyance threatened to interfere with4 #adg ,but the innovation of one generation often becomes the obstruction of the next4 ,the ,duke's agents would scarcely listen to the remonstrances of the ,liverpool merchants and ,manchester manufacturers1 and the ,bridgewater ,canal was accordingly1 in its turn1 denounced as a monopoly4 ,under these circumstances1 any new mode of transit between the two towns which offered a reasonable prospect of relief was certain to receive a cordial welcome4 ,the scheme of a tramroad was1 however1 so new and comparatively untried1 that it is not surprising that the parties interested should have hesitated before committing themselves to it4 ,mr4 ,sandars1 a ,liverpool merchant1 was amongst the first to broach the subject4 ,he had suffered in his business1 in common with many others1 from the insufficiency of the existing modes of communication1 and was ready to give consideration to any plan presenting elements of practical efficiency which proposed a remedy for the generally admitted grievance4 ,having caused inquiry to be made as to the success which had attended the haulage of heavy coal-trains by locomotive power on the northern railways1 he was led to the opinion that the same means might be equally efficient in conducting the increasing traffic in merchandise between ,liverpool and ,manchester4 ,he ventilated the subject amongst his friends1 and about the beginning of #ahba a committee was formed for the purpose of bringing the scheme of a railroad before the public4 ,the novel project having become noised abroad1 attracted the attention of the friends of railways in other quarters4 ,tramroads were by no means new expedients for the transit of heavy articles4 ,the ,croydon and ,wandsworth ,railway1 laid down by ,william ,jessop as early as the year #ahja1 had been regularly used for the conveyance of lime and stone in waggons hauled by mules or donkeys from ,merstham to ,london4 ,the sight of this humble railroad in #ahac led ,sir ,richard ,phillips in his ',morning ,walk to ,kew' to anticipate the great advantages which would be derived by the nation from the general adoption of ,blenkinsop's engine for the conveyance of mails and passengers at ten or even fifteen miles an hour4 ,in the same year we find ,mr4 ,lovell ,edgworth1 who had for fifty years been advocating the superiority of tram or rail roads over common roads1 writing to ,james ,watt 7#gth ,august1 #ahac73 ,i have always thought that steam would become the universal lord1 and that we should in time scorn post-horses2 an iron railroad would be a cheaper thing than a road upon the common construction4 ,thomas ,gray1 of ,nottingham1 was another speculator on the same subject4 ,though he was no mechanic nor inventor1 he had an enthusiastic belief in the powers of the railroad system4 ,being a native of ,leeds1 he had1 when a boy1 seen ,blenkinsop's locomotive at work on the ,middleton cogged railroad1 and from an early period he seems to have entertained almost as sanguine views on the subject as ,sir ,richard ,phillips4 ,it would appear that ,gray was residing in ,brussels in #ahaf1 when the project of a canal from ,charleroi1 for the purpose of connecting ,holland with the mining districts of ,belgium1 was the subject of discussion2 and1 in conversation with ,mr4 ,john ,cockerill and others1 he took the opportunity of advocating the superior advantages of a railway4 ,he was absorbed for some time with the preparation of a pamphlet on the subject4 ,he shut himself up1 secluded from his wife and relations1 declining to give them any information as to his mysterious studies1 beyond the assurance that his scheme would revolutionise the whole face of the material world and of society4 ,in #ahbj ,mr4 ,gray published the result of his studies in his ',observations on a ,general ,iron ,railway1' in which1 with great cogency1 he urged the superiority of a locomotive railway over common roads and canals1 pointing out1 at the same time1 the advantages to all classes of the community of this mode of conveyance for merchandise and persons4 ,in this book ,mr4 ,gray suggested a railway between ,manchester and ,liverpool1 which1 he observed1 would employ many thousands of the distressed population of ,lancashire4 ,the treatise must have met with a ready sale1 as we find that two years later it had passed into a fourth edition4 ,in #ahbb ,mr4 ,gray added diagrams to the book1 showing1 in one1 suggested lines of railway connecting the principal towns of ,england1 and in another1 the principal towns of ,ireland4 ,these speculations show that the subject of railways was gradually becoming familiar to the public mind1 and that thoughtful men were anticipating with confidence the adoption of steam-power for the purposes of railway traction4 ,at the same time1 a still more profitable class of labourers was at work--first1 men like ,stephenson1 who were engaged in improving the locomotive and making it a practicable and economical working power2 and next1 those like ,edward ,pease of ,darlington1 and ,joseph ,sandars of ,liverpool1 who were organising the means of laying down the railways4 ,mr4 ,william ,james1 of ,west ,bromwich1 belonged to the active class of projectors4 ,he was a man of considerable social influence1 of an active temperament1 and had from an early period taken a warm interest in the formation of tramroads4 ,acting as land-agent for gentlemen of property in the mining districts1 he had laid down several tramroads in the neighbourhood of ,birmingham1 ,gloucester1 and ,bristol2 and he published many pamphlets urging their formation in other places4 ,at one period of his life he was a large iron-manufacturer4 ,the times1 however1 went against him4 ,it was thought he was too bold1 some considered him even reckless1 in his speculations2 and he lost almost his entire fortune4 ,he continued to follow the business of a land-agent1 and it was while engaged in making a survey for one of his clients in the neighbourhood of ,liverpool early in #ahba1 that he first heard of the project of a railway between that town and ,manchester4 ,he at once called upon ,mr4 ,sandars1 and offered his services as surveyor of the proposed line1 and his offer was accepted4 ,picture3 ,map of ,liverpool and ,manchester ,railway4 7,western ,part47 ,picture3 ,map of ,liverpool and ,manchester ,railway4 7,eastern ,part47 ,a trial survey was then begun1 but it was conducted with great difficulty1 the inhabitants of the district entertaining the most violent prejudices against the scheme4 ,in some places ,mr4 ,james and his surveying party even encountered personal violence4 ,the farmers stationed men at the field-gates with pitchforks1 and sometimes with guns1 to drive them back4 ,at ,st4 ,helen's1 one of the chainmen was laid hold of by a mob of colliers1 and threatened to be hurled down a coal-pit4 ,a number of men1 women1 and children1 collected and ran after the surveyors wherever they made their appearance1 bawling nicknames and throwing stones at them4 ,as one of the chainmen was climbing over a gate one day1 a labourer made at him with a pitchfork1 and ran it through his clothes into his back2 other watchers running up1 the chainman1 who was more stunned than hurt1 took to his heels and fled4 ,but that mysterious-looking instrument---the theodolite---most excited the fury of the natives1 who concentrated on the man who carried it their fiercest execrations and most offensive nicknames4 ,a powerful fellow1 a noted bruiser1 was hired by the surveyors to carry the instrument1 with a view to its protection against all assailants2 but one day an equally powerful fellow1 a ,st4 ,helen's collier1 cock of the walk in his neighbourhood1 made up to the theodolite bearer to wrest it from him by sheer force4 ,a battle took place1 the collier was soundly pummelled1 but the natives poured in volleys of stones upon the surveyors and their instruments1 and the theodolite was smashed to pieces4 ,an outline-survey having at length been made1 notices were published of an intended application to ,parliament4 ,in the mean time ,mr4 ,james proceeded to ,killingworth to see ,stephenson's locomotives at work4 ,stephenson was not at home at the time1 but ,james saw his engines1 and was very much struck by their power and efficiency4 ,he saw at a glance the magnificent uses to which the locomotive might be applied4 ,here1 said he1 is an engine that will1 before long1 effect a complete revolution in society4 ,returning to ,moreton-in-the-,marsh1 he wrote to ,mr4 ,losh 7,stephenson's partner in the patent7 expressing his admiration of the ,killingworth engine4 ,it is1 said he1 the greatest wonder of the age1 and the forerunner1 as ,i firmly believe1 of the most important changes in the internal communications of the kingdom4 ,shortly after1 ,mr4 ,james1 accompanied by his two sons1 made a second journey to ,killingworth1 where he met both ,losh and ,stephenson4 ,the visitors were at once taken to where the locomotive was working1 and invited to mount it4 ,the uncouth and extraordinary appearance of the machine1 as it came snorting along1 was somewhat alarming to the youths1 who expressed their fears lest it should burst2 and they were with some difficulty induced to mount4 ,the engine went through its usual performances1 dragging a heavy load of coal-waggons at about six miles an hour1 with apparent ease1 at which ,mr4 ,james expressed his extreme satisfaction1 and declared to ,mr4 ,losh his opinion that ,stephenson was the greatest practical genius of the age1 and that1 if he developed the full powers of that engine 7the locomotive71 his fame in the world would rank equal with that of ,watt4 ,mr4 ,james informed ,stephenson and ,losh of his survey of the proposed tramroad between ,liverpool and ,manchester1 and did not hesitate to state that he would thenceforward advocate the construction of a locomotive railroad instead of the tramroad which had originally been proposed4 ,stephenson and ,losh were naturally desirous of enlisting ,james's good services on behalf of their patent locomotive1 for as yet it had proved comparatively unproductive4 ,they believed that he might be able so to advocate it in influential quarters as to ensure its more extensive adoption1 and with this object they proposed to give him an interest in the patent4 ,accordingly they assigned him one-fourth of any profits which might be derived from the use of the patent locomotive on any railways constructed south of a line drawn across ,england from ,liverpool to ,hull4 ,the arrangement1 however1 led to no beneficial results4 ,mr4 ,james endeavoured to introduce the engine on the ,moreton-on-,marsh ,railway2 but it was opposed by the engineer of the line1 and the attempt failed4 ,he next urged that a locomotive should be sent for trial upon the ,merstham tramroad2 but1 anxious though ,stephenson was respecting its extended employment1 he was too cautious to risk an experiment which might only bring discredit upon the engine2 and the ,merstham road being only laid with cast-iron plates1 which would not bear its weight1 the invitation was declined4 ,it turned out that the first survey of the ,liverpool and ,manchester line was very imperfect1 and it was determined to have a second and more complete one made in the following year4 ,robert ,stephenson was sent over by his father to ,liverpool to assist in this survey4 ,he was present with ,mr4 ,james on the occasion on which he tried to lay out the line across ,chat ,moss1--a proceeding which was not only difficult but dangerous4 ,the ,moss was very wet at the time1 and only its edges could be ventured on4 ,mr4 ,james was a heavy1 thick-set man2 and one day1 when endeavouring to obtain a stand for his theodolite1 he felt himself suddenly sinking4 ,he immediately threw himself down1 and rolled over and over until he reached firm ground again1 in a sad mess4 ,other attempts which he subsequently made to enter upon the ,moss for the same purpose1 were abandoned for the same reason--the want of a solid stand for the theodolite4 ,on the #dth ,october1 #ahbb1 we find ,mr4 ,james writing to ,mr4 ,sandars1 ,i came last night to send my aid1 ,robert ,stephenson1 to his father1 and to-morrow ,i shall pay off ,evans and ,hamilton1 two other assistants4 ,i have now only ,messrs4 ,padley and ,clarke to finish the copy of plans for ,parliament1 which will be done in about a week or nine days' time4 ,it would appear however1 that1 notwithstanding all his exertions1 ,mr4 ,james was unable to complete his plans and estimates in time for the ensuing ,session2 and another year was thus lost4 ,the ,railroad ,committee became impatient at the delay4 ,mr4 ,james's financial embarrassments reached their climax2 and1 what with illness and debt1 he was no longer in a position to fulfil his promises to the ,committee4 ,they were1 therefore1 under the necessity of calling to their aid some other engineer4 ,mr4 ,sandars had by this time visited ,george ,stephenson at ,killingworth1 and1 like all who came within reach of his personal influence1 was charmed with him at first sight4 ,the energy which he had displayed in carrying on the works of the ,stockton and ,darlington ,railway1 now approaching completion2 his readiness to face difficulties1 and his practical ability in overcoming them2 the enthusiasm which he displayed on the subject of railways and railway locomotion1--concurred in satisfying ,mr4 ,sandars that he was1 of all men1 the best calculated to help forward the ,liverpool undertaking at this juncture4 ,on his return he stated this opinion to the ,committee1 who approved his recommendation1 and ,george ,stephenson was unanimously appointed engineer of the projected railway4 ,it will be observed that ,mr4 ,sandars had held to his original purpose with great determination and perseverance1 and he gradually succeeded in enlisting on his side an increasing number of influential merchants and manufacturers both at ,liverpool and ,manchester4 ,early in #ahbd he published a pamphlet1 in which he strongly urged the great losses and interruptions to the trade of the district by the delays in the forwarding of merchandise2 and in the same year he had a ,public ,declaration drawn up1 and signed by upwards of #aej of the principal merchants of ,liverpool1 setting forth that they considered the present establishments for the transport of goods quite inadequate1 and that a new line of conveyance has become absolutely necessary to conduct the increasing trade of the country with speed1 certainty1 and economy4 ,a public meeting was then held to consider the best plan to be adopted1 and resolutions were passed in favour of a railroad4 ,a committee was appointed to take the necessary measures2 but1 as if reluctant to enter upon their arduous struggle with the vested interests1 they first waited on ,mr4 ,bradshaw1 the ,duke of ,bridgewater's canal agent1 in the hope of persuading him to increase the means of conveyance1 as well as to reduce the charges2 but they were met by an unqualified refusal4 ,they suggested the expediency of a railway1 and invited ,mr4 ,bradshaw to become a proprietor of shares in it4 ,but his reply was--,all or none6 ,the canal proprietors1 confident in their imagined security1 ridiculed the proposed railway as a chimera4 ,it had been spoken about years before1 and nothing had come of it then3 it would be the same now4 ,in order to form a better opinion as to the practicability of the railroad1 a deputation of gentlemen interested in the project proceeded to ,killingworth1 to inspect the engines which had been so long in use there4 ,they first went to ,darlington1 where they found the works of the ,stockton line in progress1 though still unfinished4 ,proceeding next to ,killingworth with ,mr4 ,stephenson1 they there witnessed the performances of his locomotive engines4 ,the result of their visit was1 on the whole1 so satisfactory1 that on their report being delivered to the committee at ,liverpool1 it was finally determined to form a company of proprietors for the construction of a double line of railway between ,liverpool and ,manchester4 ,the first prospectus of the scheme was dated the #bith ,october1 #ahbd1 and had attached to it the names of the leading merchants of ,liverpool and ,manchester4 ,it was a modest document1 very unlike the inflated balloons which were sent up by railway speculators in succeeding years4 ,it set forth as its main object the establishment of a safe and cheap mode of transit for merchandise1 by which the conveyance of goods between the two towns would be effected in #e or #f hours 7instead of #cf hours by the canal71 whilst the charges would be reduced one-third4 ,on looking at the prospectus now1 it is curious to note that1 while the advantages anticipated from the carriage of merchandise were strongly insisted upon1 the conveyance of passengers--which proved to be the chief source of profit--was only very cautiously referred to4 ,as a cheap and expeditious means of conveyance for travellers1 says the prospectus in conclusion1 the railway holds out the fair prospect of a public accommodation1 the magnitude and importance of which cannot be immediately ascertained4 ,the estimated expense of forming the line was set down at #djj1jjj pounds1--a sum which was eventually found quite inadequate4 ,the subscription list when opened was filled up without difficulty4 ,while the project was still under discussion1 its promoters1 desirous of removing the doubts which existed as to the employment of steam power on the proposed railway1 sent a second deputation to ,killingworth for the purpose of again observing the action of ,stephenson's engines4 ,the cautious projectors of the railway were not yet quite satisfied2 and a third journey was made to ,killingworth1 in ,january1 #ahbe1 by several gentlemen of the committee1 accompanied by practical engineers1 for the purpose of being personal eye-witnesses of what steam-carriages were able to perform upon a railway4 ,there they saw a train1 consisting of a locomotive and loaded waggons1 weighing in all #ed tons1 travelling at the average rate of about #g miles an hour1 the greatest speed being about #i4e miles an hour4 ,but when the engine was run with only one waggon attached containing twenty gentlemen1 five of whom were engineers1 the speed attained was from #aj to #ab miles an hour4 ,in the mean time the survey was proceeded with1 in the face of great opposition from the proprietors of the lands through which the railway was intended to pass4 ,the prejudices of the farming and labouring classes were strongly excited against the persons employed upon the ground1 and it was with the greatest difficulty that the levels could be taken4 ,at one place1 ,stephenson was driven off the ground by the keepers1 and threatened to be ducked in the pond if found there again4 ,the farmers also turned out their men to watch the surveying party1 and prevent them entering upon any lands where they had the power of driving them off4 ,one of the proprietors declared that he would order his game-keepers to shoot or apprehend any persons attempting a survey over his property4 ,but one moonlight night a survey was obtained by the following ruse4 ,some men1 under the orders of the surveying party1 were set to fire off guns in a particular quarter2 on which all the game-keepers on the watch made off in that direction1 and they were drawn away to such a distance in pursuit of the supposed poachers1 as to enable a rapid survey to be made during their absence4 ,when the canal companies found that the ,liverpool merchants were determined to proceed with their scheme--that they had completed their survey1 and were ready to apply to ,parliament for an ,act to enable them to form the railway--they at last reluctantly1 and with a bad grace1 made overtures of conciliation4 ,they promised to employ steam-vessels both on the ,mersey and on the ,canal4 ,one of the companies offered to reduce its length by three miles1 at a considerable outlay4 ,at the same time they made a show of lowering their rates4 ,but it was too late2 for the project of the railway had now gone so far that the promoters 7who might have been conciliated by such overtures at an earlier period7 felt they were fully committed to it1 and that now they could not well draw back4 ,besides1 the remedies offered by the canal companies could only have had the effect of staving off the difficulty for a brief season1--the absolute necessity of forming a new line of communication between ,liverpool and ,manchester becoming more urgent from year to year4 ,arrangements were therefore made for proceeding with the bill in the parliamentary session of #ahbe4 ,on this becoming known1 the canal companies prepared to resist the measure tooth and nail4 ,the public were appealed to on the subject2 pamphlets were written and newspapers were hired to revile the railway4 ,it was declared that its formation would prevent cows grazing and hens laying4 ,the poisoned air from the locomotives would kill birds as they flew over them1 and render the preservation of pheasants and foxes no longer possible4 ,householders adjoining the projected line were told that their houses would be burnt up by the fire thrown from the engine-chimneys2 while the air around would be polluted by clouds of smoke4 ,there would no longer be any use for horses2 and if railways extended1 the species would become extinguished1 and oats and hay be rendered unsaleable commodities4 ,travelling by rail would be highly dangerous1 and country inns would be ruined4 ,boilers would burst and blow passengers to atoms4 ,but there was always this consolation to wind up with--that the weight of the locomotive would completely prevent its moving1 and that railways1 even if made1 could never be worked by steam-power4 ,indeed1 when ,mr4 ,stephenson1 at the interviews with counsel1 held previous to the ,liverpool and ,manchester bill going into ,committee of the ,house of ,commons1 confidently stated his expectation of being able to impel his locomotive at the rate of #bj miles an hour1 ,mr4 ,william ,brougham1 who was retained by the promoters to conduct their case1 frankly told him that if he did not moderate his views1 and bring his engine within a reasonable speed1 he would inevitably damn the whole thing1 and be himself regarded as a maniac fit only for ,bedlam4 ,the idea thrown out by ,stephenson1 of travelling at a rate of speed double that of the fastest mail-coach1 appeared at the time so preposterous that he was unable to find any engineer who would risk his reputation in supporting such absurd views4 ,speaking of his isolation at the time1 he subsequently observed1 at a public meeting of railway men in ,manchester3 ,he remembered the time when he had very few supporters in bringing out the railway system--when he sought ,england over for an engineer to support him in his evidence before ,parliament1 and could find only one man1 ,james ,walker1 but was afraid to call that gentleman1 because he knew nothing about railways4 ,he had then no one to tell his tale to but ,mr4 ,sandars1 of ,liverpool1 who did listen to him1 and kept his spirits up2 and his schemes had at length been carried out only by dint of sheer perseverance4 ,george ,stephenson's idea was at that time regarded as but the dream of a chimerical projector4 ,it stood before the public friendless1 struggling hard to gain a footing1 scarcely daring to lift itself into notice for fear of ridicule4 ,the civil engineers generally rejected the notion of a ,locomotive ,railway2 and when no leading man of the day could be found to stand forward in support of the ,killingworth mechanic1 its chances of success must indeed have been pronounced but small4 ,when such was the hostility of the civil engineers1 no wonder the reviewers were puzzled4 ,the ',quarterly1' in an able article in support of the projected ,liverpool and ,manchester ,railway1--while admitting its absolute necessity1 and insisting that there was no choice left but a railroad1 on which the journey between ,liverpool and ,manchester1 whether performed by horses or engines1 would always be accomplished within the day1--nevertheless scouted the idea of travelling at a greater speed than eight or nine miles an hour4 ,adverting to a project for forming a railway to ,woolwich1 by which passengers were to be drawn by locomotive engines1 moving with twice the velocity of ordinary coaches1 the reviewer observed3--,what can be more palpably absurd and ridiculous than the prospect held out of locomotives travelling twice as fast as stagecoaches6 ,we would as soon expect the people of ,woolwich to suffer themselves to be fired off upon one of ,congreve's ricochet rockets1 as trust themselves to the mercy of such a machine going at such a rate4 ,we will back old ,father ,thames against the ,woolwich ,railway for any sum4 ,we trust that ,parliament will1 in all railways it may sanction1 limit the speed to eight or nine miles an hour1 which we entirely agree with ,mr4 ,sylvester is as great as can be ventured on with safety4 ,at length the survey was completed1 the plans were deposited1 the requisite preliminary arrangements were made1 and the promoters of the scheme applied to ,parliament for the necessary powers to construct the railway4 ,the ,bill went into ,committee of the ,commons on the #bast of ,march1 #ahbe4 ,there was an extraordinary array of legal talent on the occasion1 but especially on the side of the opponents to the measure2 their counsel including ,mr4 7afterwards ,baron7 ,alderson1 ,mr4 7afterwards ,baron7 ,parke1 ,mr4 ,harrison1 and ,mr4 ,erle4 ,the counsel for the bill were ,mr4 ,adam1 ,mr4 ,serjeant ,spankie1 ,mr4 ,william ,brougham1 and ,mr4 ,joy4 ,evidence was taken at great length as to the difficulties and delays in forwarding raw material of all kinds from ,liverpool to ,manchester1 as also in the conveyance of manufactured goods from ,manchester to ,liverpool4 ,the evidence adduced in support of the bill on these grounds was overwhelming4 ,the utter inadequacy of the existing modes of conveyance to carry on satisfactorily the large and rapidly-growing trade between the two towns was fully proved4 ,but then came the gist of the promoter's case--the evidence to prove the practicability of a railroad to be worked by locomotive power4 ,mr4 ,adam1 in his opening speech1 referred to the cases of the ,hetton and the ,killingworth railroads1 where heavy goods were safely and economically transported by means of locomotive engines4 ,none of the tremendous consequences1 he observed1 have ensued from the use of steam in land carriage that have been stated4 ,the horses have not started1 nor the cows ceased to give their milk1 nor have ladies miscarried at the sight of these things going forward at the rate of four miles and a half an hour4 ,notwithstanding the petition of two ladies alleging the great danger to be apprehended from the bursting of the locomotive boilers1 he urged the safety of the high-pressure engine when the boilers were constructed of wrought-iron2 and as to the rate at which they could travel1 he expressed his full conviction that such engines could supply force to drive a carriage at the rate of five or six miles an hour4 ,the taking of the evidence as to the impediments thrown in the way of trade and commerce by the existing system extended over a month1 and it was the #bast of ,april before the ,committee went into the engineering evidence1 which was the vital part of the question4 ,on the #beth ,george ,stephenson was called into the witness-box4 ,it was his first appearance before a ,committee of the ,house of ,commons1 and he well knew what he had to expect4 ,he was aware that the whole force of the opposition was to be directed against him2 and if they could break down his evidence1 the canal monopoly might yet be upheld for a time4 ,many years afterwards1 when looking back at his position on this trying occasion1 he said3--,when ,i went to ,liverpool to plan a line from thence to ,manchester1 ,i pledged myself to the directors to attain a speed of #aj miles an hour4 ,i said ,i had no doubt the locomotive might be made to go much faster1 but that we had better be moderate at the beginning4 ,the directors said ,i was quite right2 for that if1 when they went to ,parliament1 ,i talked of going at a greater rate than #aj miles an hour1 ,i should put a cross upon the concern4 ,it was not an easy task for me to keep the engine down to #aj miles an hour1 but it must be done1 and ,i did my best4 ,i had to place myself in that most unpleasant of all positions--the witness-box of a ,parliamentary ,committee4 ,i was not long in it1 before ,i began to wish for a hole to creep out at6 ,i could not find words to satisfy either the ,committee or myself4 ,i was subjected to the cross-examination of eight or ten barristers1 purposely1 as far as possible1 to bewilder me4 ,some member of the ,committee asked if ,i was a foreigner1 and another hinted that ,i was mad4 ,but ,i put up with every rebuff1 and went on with my plans1 determined not to be put down4 ,mr4 ,stephenson stood before the ,committee to prove what the public opinion of that day held to be impossible4 ,the self-taught mechanic had to demonstrate the practicability of accomplishing that which the most distinguished engineers of the time regarded as impracticable4 ,clear though the subject was to himself1 and familiar as he was with the powers of the locomotive1 it was no easy task for him to bring home his convictions1 or even to convey his meaning1 to the less informed minds of his hearers4 ,in his strong ,northumbrian dialect1 he struggled for utterance1 in the face of the sneers1 interruptions1 and ridicule of the opponents of the measure1 and even of the ,committee1 some of whom shook their heads and whispered doubts as to his sanity1 when he energetically avowed that he could make the locomotive go at the rate of #ab miles an hour6 ,it was so grossly in the teeth of all the experience of honourable members1 that the man must certainly be labouring under a delusion6 ,and yet his large experience of railways and locomotives1 as described by himself to the ,committee1 entitled this untaught1 inarticulate genius1 as he has so well been styled1 to speak with confidence on such a subject4 ,beginning with his experience as a brakesman at ,killingworth in #ahjc1 he went on to state that he was appointed to take the entire charge of the steam-engines in #ahac1 and had superintended the railroads connected with the numerous collieries of the ,grand ,allies from that time downwards4 ,he had laid down or superintended the railways at ,burradon1 ,mount ,moor1 ,springwell1 ,bedlington1 ,hetton1 and ,darlington1 besides improving those at ,killingworth1 ,south ,moor1 and ,derwent ,crook4 ,he had constructed fifty-five steam-engines1 of which sixteen were locomotives4 ,some of these had been sent to ,france4 ,the engines constructed by him for the working of the ,killingworth ,railroad1 eleven years before1 had continued steadily at work ever since1 and fulfilled his most sanguine expectations4 ,he was prepared to prove the safety of working high-pressure locomotives on a railroad1 and the superiority of this mode of transporting goods over all others4 ,as to speed1 he said he had recommended #h miles an hour with #bj tons1 and #d miles an hour with #dj tons2 but he was quite confident that much more might be done4 ,indeed1 he had no doubt they might go at the rate of #ab miles4 ,as to the charge that locomotives on a railroad would so terrify the horses in the neighbourhood1 that to travel on horseback or to plough the adjoining fields would be rendered highly dangerous1 the witness said that horses learnt to take no notice of them1 though there were horses that would shy at a wheelbarrow4 ,a mail-coach was likely to be more shied at by horses than a locomotive4 ,in the neighbourhood of ,killingworth1 the cattle in the fields went on grazing while the engines passed them1 and the farmers made no complaints4 ,mr4 ,alderson1 who had carefully studied the subject1 and was well skilled in practical science1 subjected the witness to a protracted and severe cross-examination as to the speed and power of the locomotive1 the stroke of the piston1 the slipping of the wheels upon the rails1 and various other points of detail4 ,mr4 ,stephenson insisted that no slipping took place1 as attempted to be extorted from him by the counsel4 ,he said1 ,it is impossible for slipping to take place so long as the adhesive weight of the wheel upon the rail is greater than the weight to be dragged after it4 ,as to accidents1 ,stephenson said he knew of none that had occurred with his engines4 ,there had been one1 he was told1 at the ,middleton ,colliery1 near ,leeds1 with a ,blenkinsop engine4 ,the driver had been in liquor1 and put a considerable load on the safety-valve1 so that upon going forward the engine blew up and the man was killed4 ,but he added1 if proper precautions had been used with that boiler1 the accident could not have happened4 ,the following cross-examination occurred in reference to the question of speed3-- ,of course1 he was asked1 when a body is moving upon a road1 the greater the velocity the greater the momentum that is generated8 ,certainly4--,what would be the momentum of #dj tons moving at the rate of #ab miles an hour8 ,it would be very great4--,have you seen a railroad that would stand that8 ,yes4--,where8 ,any railroad that would bear going #d miles an hour3 ,i mean to say1 that if it would bear the weight at #d miles an hour1 it would bear it at #ab4--,taking it at #d miles an hour1 do you mean to say that it would not require a stronger railway to carry the same weight #ab miles an hour8 ,i will give an answer to that4 ,i dare say every person has been over ice when skating1 or seen persons go over1 and they know that it would bear them better at a greater velocity than it would if they went slower2 when they go quick1 the weight in a measure ceases4--,is not that upon the hypothesis that the railroad is perfect8 ,it is2 and ,i mean to make it perfect4 ,it is not necessary to state that to have passed the ordeal of so severe a cross-examination scatheless1 needed no small amount of courage1 intelligence1 and ready shrewdness on the part of the witness4 ,nicholas ,wood1 who was present on the occasion1 has since stated that the point on which ,stephenson was hardest pressed was that of speed4 ,i believe1 he says1 that it would have lost the ,company their bill if he had gone beyond #h or #i miles an hour4 ,if he had stated his intention of going #ab or #ae miles an hour1 not a single person would have believed it to be practicable4 ,the ,committee also seem to have entertained considerable alarm as to the high rate of speed which had been spoken of1 and proceeded to examine the witness further on the subject4 ,they supposed the case of the engine being upset when going at #i miles an hour1 and asked what1 in such a case1 would become of the cargo astern4 ,to which the witness replied that it would not be upset4 ,one of the members of the ,committee pressed the witness a little further4 ,he put the following case3--,suppose1 now1 one of these engines to be going along a railroad at the rate of #i or #aj miles an hour1 and that a cow were to stray upon the line and get in the way of the engine2 would not that1 think you1 be a very awkward circumstance8 ,yes1 replied the witness1 with a twinkle in his eye1 very awkward--for the coo6 ,the honourable member did not proceed further with his cross-examination2 to use a railway phrase1 he was shunted4 ,another asked if animals would not be very much frightened by the engine passing them1 especially by the glare of the red-hot chimney8 ,but how would they know that it wasn't painted8 said the witness4 ,on the following day1 the engineer was subjected to a very severe examination4 ,on that part of the scheme with which he was most practically conversant1 his evidence was clear and conclusive4 ,now1 he had to give evidence on the plans made by his surveyors1 and the estimates which had been founded on such plans4 ,so long as he was confined to locomotive engines and iron railroads1 with the minutest details of which he was more familiar than any man living1 he felt at home1 and in his element4 ,but when the designs of bridges and the cost of constructing them had to be gone into1 the subject being in a great measure new to him1 his evidence was much less satisfactory4 ,mr4 ,alderson cross-examined him at great length on the plans of the bridges1 the tunnels1 the crossings of the roads and streets1 and the details of the survey1 which1 it soon clearly appeared1 were in some respects seriously at fault4 ,it seems that1 after the plans had been deposited1 ,stephenson found that a much more favourable line might be made2 and he made his estimates accordingly1 supposing that ,parliament would not confine the ,company to the precise plan which had been deposited4 ,this was felt to be a serious blot in the parliamentary case1 and one very difficult to be got over4 ,for three entire days was our engineer subjected to this cross-examination4 ,he held his ground bravely1 and defended the plans and estimates with remarkable ability and skill2 but it was clear they were imperfect1 and the result was on the whole damaging to the measure4 ,the case of the opponents was next gone into1 in the course of which the counsel indulged in strong vituperation against the witnesses for the bill4 ,one of them spoke of the utter impossiblity of making a railway upon so treacherous a material as ,chat ,moss1 which was declared to be an immense mass of pulp1 and nothing else4 ,it actually1 said ,mr4 ,harrison1 rises in height1 from the rain swelling it like a sponge1 and sinks again in dry weather2 and if a boring instrument is put into it1 it sinks immediately by its own weight4 ,the making of an embankment out of this pulpy1 wet moss1 is no very easy task4 ,who but ,mr4 ,stephenson would have thought of entering into ,chat ,moss1 carrying it out almost like wet dung8 ,it is ignorance almost inconceivable4 ,it is perfect madness1 in a person called upon to speak on a scientific subject1 to propose such a plan4 ,every part of this scheme shows that this man has applied himself to a subject of which he has no knowledge1 and to which he has no science to apply4 ,then adverting to the proposal to work the intended line by means of locomotives1 the learned gentleman proceeded3 ,when we set out with the original prospectus1 we were to gallop1 ,i know not at what rate2 ,i believe it was at the rate of #ab miles an hour4 ,my learned friend1 ,mr4 ,adam1 contemplated--possibly alluding to ,ireland--that some of the ,irish members would arrive in the waggons to a division4 ,my learned friend says that they would go at the rate of #ab miles an hour with the aid of the devil in the form of a locomotive1 sitting as postilion on the fore horse1 and an honourable member sitting behind him to stir up the fire1 and keep it at full speed4 ,but the speed at which these locomotive engines are to go has slackened3 ,mr4 ,adam does not go faster now than #e miles an hour4 ,the learned serjeant 7,spankie7 says he should like to have #g1 but he would be content to go #f4 ,i will show he cannot go #f2 and probably1 for any practical purposes1 ,i may be able to show that ,i can keep up with him by the canal4 4 4 4 ,locomotive engines are liable to be operated upon by the weather4 ,you are told they are affected by rain1 and an attempt has been made to cover them2 but the wind will affect them2 and any gale of wind which would affect the traffic on the ,mersey would render it impossible to set off a locomotive engine1 either by poking of the fire1 or keeping up the pressure of the steam till the boiler was ready to burst4 ,how amusing it now is to read these extraordinary views as to the formation of a railway over ,chat ,moss1 and the impossibility of starting a locomotive engine in the face of a gale of wind6 ,evidence was called to show that the house property passed by the proposed railway would be greatly deteriorated--in some places almost destroyed2 that the locomotive engines would be terrible nuisances1 in consequence of the fire and smoke vomited forth by them2 and that the value of land in the neighbourhood of ,manchester alone would be deteriorated by no less than #bj1jjj pounds6 ,evidence was also given at great length showing the utter impossibility of forming a road of any kind upon ,chat ,moss4 ,a ,manchester builder1 who was examined1 could not imagine the feat possible1 unless by arching it across in the manner of a viaduct from one side to the other4 ,it was the old story of nothing like leather4 ,but the opposition mainly relied upon the evidence of the leading engineers--not like ,stephenson1 self-taught men1 but regular professionals4 ,one of these1 ,mr4 ,francis ,giles1 ,c4,e41 had been twenty-two years an engineer1 and could speak with some authority4 ,his testimony was mainly directed to the utter impossibility of forming a railway over ,chat ,moss4 ,no engineer in his senses1 said he1 would go through ,chat ,moss if he wanted to make a railroad from ,liverpool to ,manchester4 4 4 4 ,in my judgment a railroad certainly cannot be safely made over ,chat ,moss without going to the bottom of the ,moss4 ,the soil ought all to be taken out1 undoubtedly2 in doing which1 it will not be practicable to approach each end of the cutting1 as you make it1 with the carriages4 ,no carriages would stand upon the ,moss short of the bottom4 ,my estimate for the whole cutting and embankment over ,chat ,moss is #bgj1jjj pounds nearly1 at those quantities and those prices which are decidedly correct 4 4 4 ,it will be necessary to take this ,moss completely out at the bottom1 in order to make a solid road4 ,when the engineers had given their evidence1 ,mr4 ,alderson summed up in a speech which extended over two days4 ,he declared ,mr4 ,stephenson's plan to be the most absurd scheme that ever entered into the head of man to conceive4 ,my learned friends1 said he1 almost endeavoured to stop my examination2 they wished me to put in the plan1 but ,i had rather have the exhibition of ,mr4 ,stephenson in that box4 ,i say he never had a plan--,i believe he never had one--,i do not believe he is capable of making one4 ,his is a mind perpetually fluctuating between opposite difficulties3 he neither knows whether he is to make bridges over roads or rivers1 of one size or of another2 or to make embankments1 or cuttings1 or inclined planes1 or in what way the thing is to be carried into effect4 ,whenever a difficulty is pressed1 as in the case of a tunnel1 he gets out of it at one end1 and when you try to catch him at that1 he gets out at the other4 ,mr4 ,alderson proceeded to declaim against the gross ignorance of this so-called engineer1 who proposed to make impossible ditches by the side of an impossible railway upon ,chat ,moss2 ,i care not1 he said1 whether ,mr4 ,giles is right or wrong in his estimate1 for whether it be effected by means of piers raised up all the way for four miles through ,chat ,moss1 whether they are to support it on beams of wood or by erecting masonry1 or whether ,mr4 ,giles shall put a solid bank of earth through it1--in all these schemes there is not one found like that of ,mr4 ,stephenson's1 namely1 to cut impossible drains on the side of this road2 and it is sufficient for me to suggest and to show1 that this scheme of ,mr4 ,stephenson's is impossible or impracticable1 and that no other scheme1 if they proceed upon this line1 can be suggested which will not produce enormous expense4 ,i think that has been irrefragably made out4 ,every one knows ,chat ,moss--every one knows that the iron sinks immediately on its being put upon the surface4 ,i have heard of culverts1 which have been put upon the ,moss1 which1 after having been surveyed the day before1 have the next morning disappeared2 and that a house 7a poet's house1 who may be supposed in the habit of building castles even in the air71 story after story1 as fast as one is added1 the lower one sinks6 ,there is nothing1 it appears1 except long sedgy grass1 and a little soil to prevent its sinking into the shades of eternal night4 ,i have now done1 sir1 with ,chat ,moss1 and there ,i leave this railroad4 ,the case of the principal petitioners against the bill occupied many more days1 and on its conclusion the committee proceeded to divide on the preamble1 which was carried by a majority of only one--#cg voting for it1 and #cf against it4 ,the clauses were next considered1 and on a division the first clause1 empowering the ,company to make the railway1 was lost by a majority of #ai to #ac4 ,in like manner1 the next clause1 empowering the ,company to take land1 was lost2 on which the bill was withdrawn4 ,thus ended this memorable contest1 which had extended over two months--carried on throughout with great pertinacity and skill1 especially on the part of the opposition1 who left no stone unturned to defeat the measure4 ,the want of a third line of communication between ,liverpool and ,manchester had been clearly proved2 but the engineering evidence in support of the proposed railway having been thrown almost entirely upon ,stephenson1 who fought this1 the most important part of the battle1 single-handed1 was not brought out so clearly as it would have been1 had he secured more efficient engineering assistance--which he was not able to do1 as the principal engineers of that day were against the locomotive railway4 ,the obstacles thrown in the way of the survey by the landowners and canal companies1 by which the plans were rendered exceedingly imperfect1 also tended in a great measure to defeat the bill4 ,the rejection of the bill was probably the most severe trial ,george ,stephenson underwent in the whole course of his life4 ,the circumstances connected with the defeat of the measure1 the errors in the levels1 his rigid cross-examination1 followed by the fact of his being superseded by another engineer1 all told fearfully upon him1 and for some time he was as much weighed down as if a personal calamity of the most serious kind had befallen him4 ,stephenson had been so terribly abused by the leading counsel for the opposition in the course of the proceedings before the ,committee--stigmatised by them as an ignoramus1 a fool1 and a maniac--that even his friends seem for a time to have lost faith in him and in the locomotive system1 whose efficiency he nevertheless continued to uphold4 ,things never looked blacker for the success of the railway system than at the close of this great parliamentary struggle4 ,and yet it was on the very eve of its triumph4 ,the ,committee of ,directors appointed to watch the measure in ,parliament were so determined to press on the project of a railway1 even though it should have to be worked merely by horse-power1 that the bill had scarcely been thrown out ere they met in ,london to consider their next step4 ,they called their parliamentary friends together to consult as to future proceedings2 and the result was that they went back to ,liverpool determined to renew their application to ,parliament in the ensuing session4 ,it was not considered desirable to employ ,mr4 ,stephenson in making the new survey4 ,he had not as yet established his reputation as an engineer beyond the boundaries of his own district2 and the promoters of the bill had doubtless felt the disadvantages of this in the course of their parliamentary struggle4 ,they therefore resolved now to employ engineers of the highest established reputation1 as well as the best surveyors that could be obtained4 ,in accordance with these views they engaged ,messrs4 ,george and ,john ,rennie to be the engineers of the railway2 and ,mr4 ,charles ,vignolles was appointed to prepare the plans and sections4 ,the line which was eventually adopted differed somewhat from that surveyed by ,mr4 ,stephenson4 ,the principal parks and game-preserves of the district were carefully avoided4 ,the promoters thus hoped to get rid of the opposition of the most influential of the resident landowners4 ,the crossing of certain of the streets of ,liverpool was also avoided1 and the entrance contrived by means of a tunnel and an inclined plane4 ,the new line stopped short of the river ,irwell at the ,manchester end1 by which the objections grounded on an illegal interruption to the canal or river traffic were in some measure removed4 ,the opposition of the ,duke of ,bridgewater's trustees was also got rid of1 and the ,marquis of ,stafford became a subscriber for a thousand shares4 ,with reference to the use of the locomotive engine1 the promoters1 remembering with what effect the objections to it had been urged by the opponents of the bill1 intimated1 in their second prospectus1 that as a guarantee of their good faith towards the public they will not require any clause empowering them to use it2 or they will submit to such restrictions in the employment of it as ,parliament may impose4 ,the survey of the new line having been completed1 the plans were deposited1 the standing orders duly complied with1 and the bill went before ,parliament4 ,the same counsel appeared for the promoters1 but the examination of witnesses was not nearly so protracted as on the previous occasion4 ,the preamble was declared proved by a majority of #dc to #ah4 ,on the third reading in the ,house of ,commons1 an animated1 and what now appears a very amusing discussion took place4 ,the ,hon4 ,edward ,stanley moved that the bill be read that day six months2 and in his speech he undertook to prove that the railway trains would take ten hours on the journey1 and that they could only be worked by horses4 ,sir ,isaac ,coffin seconded the motion1 and in doing so denounced the project as a most flagrant imposition4 ,he would not consent to see widows' premises invaded2 and ,what1 he would like to know1 was to be done with all those who had advanced money in making and repairing turnpike-roads8 ,what was to become of coach-makers and harness-makers1 coach-masters and coachmen1 inn-keepers1 horse-breeders1 and horse-dealers8 ,was the house aware of the smoke and the noise1 the hiss and the whirl1 which locomotive engines1 passing at the rate of #aj or #ab miles an hour1 would occasion8 ,neither the cattle ploughing in the fields or grazing in the meadows could behold them without dismay4 ,iron would be raised in price #ajj per cent41 or more probably exhausted altogether6 ,it would be the greatest nuisance1 the most complete disturbance of quiet and comfort in all parts of the kingdom1 that the ingenuity of man could invent6 ,mr4 ,huskisson and other speakers1 though unable to reply to such arguments as these1 strongly supported the bill2 and it was carried on the third reading by a majority of #hh to #da4 ,the bill passed the ,house of ,lords almost unanimously1 its only opponents being the ,earl of ,derby and his relative the ,earl of ,wilton4 ,picture3 ,surveying on ,chat ,moss ,,chapter ,x4 ,,chat ,,moss--,,construction ,,of ,,the ,,railway4 ,the appointment of principal engineer to the railway was taken into consideration at the first meeting of the directors held at ,liverpool subsequent to the passing of the ,act4 ,the magnitude of the proposed works1 and the vast consequences involved in their experiment1 were deeply impressed upon their minds2 and they resolved to secure the services of a resident engineer of proved experience and ability4 ,their attention was naturally directed to ,mr4 ,stephenson2 at the same time they desired to have the benefit of the ,messrs4 ,rennie's professional assistance in superintending the works4 ,mr4 ,george ,rennie had an interview with the ,board on the subject1 at which he proposed to undertake the chief superintendence1 making six visits in each year1 and stipulating that he should have the appointment of the resident engineer4 ,but the responsibility attaching to the direction in the matter of the efficient carrying on of the works1 would not admit of their being influenced by ordinary punctilios on the occasion2 and they accordingly declined this proposal1 and proceeded to appoint ,mr4 ,stephenson their principal engineer at a salary of #ajjj pounds per annum4 ,he at once removed his residence to ,liverpool1 and made arrangements to commence the works4 ,he began with the impossible thing--to do that which the most distinguished engineers of the day had declared that no man in his senses would undertake to do--namely1 to make the road over ,chat ,moss6 ,it was indeed a most formidable undertaking2 and the project of carrying a railway along1 under1 or over such a material as that of which it consisted1 would certainly never have occurred to an ordinary mind4 ,michael ,drayton supposed the ,moss to have had its origin at the ,deluge4 ,nothing more impassable could have been imagined than that dreary waste2 and ,mr4 ,giles only spoke the popular feeling of the day when he declared that no carriage could stand on it short of the bottom4 ,in this bog1 singular to say1 ,mr4 ,roscoe1 the accomplished historian of the ,medicis1 buried his fortune in the hopeless attempt to cultivate a portion of it which he had bought4 ,chat ,moss is an immense peat bog of about twelve square miles in extent4 ,unlike the bogs or swamps of ,cambridge and ,lincolnshire1 which consist principally of soft mud or silt1 this bog is a vast mass of spongy vegetable pulp1 the result of the growth and decay of ages4 ,the spagni1 or bog-mosses1 cover the entire area2 one year's growth rising over another1--the older growths not entirely decaying1 but remaining partially preserved by the antiseptic properties peculiar to peat4 ,hence the remarkable fact that1 although a semifluid mass1 the surface of ,chat ,moss rises above the level of the surrounding country4 ,like a turtle's back1 it declines from the summit in every direction1 having from thirty to forty feet gradual slope to the solid land on all sides4 ,from the remains of trees1 chiefly alder and birch1 which have been dug out of it1 and which must have previously flourished upon the surface of soil now deeply submerged1 it is probable that the sand and clay base on which the bog rests is saucer-shaped1 and so retains the entire mass in position4 ,in rainy weather1 such is its capacity for water that it sensibly swells1 and rises in those parts where the moss is the deepest4 ,this occurs through the capillary attraction of the fibres of the submerged moss1 which is from #bj to #cj feet in depth1 whilst the growing plants effectually check evaporation from the surface4 ,this peculiar character of the ,moss has presented an insuperable difficulty in the way of reclaiming it by any system of extensive drainage--such as by sinking shafts1 and pumping up the water by steam power1 as has been proposed4 ,supposing a shaft of #cj feet deep to be sunk1 it has been calculated that this would only be effectual for draining a circle of about #ajj yards1 the water running down an incline of about #e to #a2 for it was found in the course of draining the bog1 that a ditch #c feet deep only served to drain a space of less than #e yards on each side1 and two ditches of this depth1 #aj yards apart1 left a portion of the ,moss between them scarcely affected by the drains4 ,the three resident engineers selected by ,mr4 ,stephenson to superintend the construction of the line1 were ,joseph ,locke1 ,william ,allcard1 and ,john ,dixon4 ,the last was appointed to that portion which lay across the ,moss1 neither of the other two envying his lot4 ,on ,mr4 ,dixon's arrival1 about ,july1 #ahbf1 ,mr4 ,locke proceeded to show him over the length he was to take charge of1 and to instal him in office4 ,when they reached ,chat ,moss1 ,mr4 ,dixon found that the line had already been staked out and the levels taken in detail by the aid of planks laid upon the bog4 ,the cutting of the drains along each side of the proposed road had also been commenced2 but the soft pulpy stuff had up to this time flowed into the drains and filled them up as fast as they were cut4 ,proceeding across the ,moss1 on the first day's inspection1 the new resident1 when about halfway over1 slipped off the plank on which he walked1 and sank to his knees in the bog4 ,struggling only sent him the deeper1 and he might have disappeared altogether1 but for the workmen1 who hastened to his assistance upon planks1 and rescued him from his perilous position4 ,much disheartened1 he desired to return1 and even thought of giving up the job2 but ,mr4 ,locke assured him that the worst part was now past2 so the new resident plucked up heart again1 and both floundered on until they reached the further edge of the ,moss1 wet and plastered over with bog-sludge4 ,mr4 ,dixon's companions endeavoured to comfort him by the assurance that he might avoid similar perils1 by walking upon pattens1 or boards fastened to the soles of his feet1 as they had done when taking the levels1 and as the workmen did when engaged in making drains in the softest parts of the ,moss4 ,the resident engineer was sorely puzzled in the outset by the problem of constructing a road for heavy locomotives1 with trains of passengers and goods1 upon a bog which he had found incapable of supporting his own weight6 ,mr4 ,stephenson's idea was1 that such a road might be made to float upon the bog1 simply by means of a sufficient extension of the bearing surface4 ,as a ship1 or a raft1 capable of sustaining heavy loads floated in water1 so in his opinion1 might a light road be floated upon a bog1 which was of considerably greater consistency than water4 ,long before the railway was thought of1 ,mr4 ,roscoe had adopted the remarkable expedient of fitting his plough-horses with flat wooden soles or pattens1 to enable them to walk upon the ,moss land which he had brought into cultivation4 ,these pattens were fitted on by means of a screw apparatus1 which met in front of the foot and was easily fastened4 ,the mode by which these pattens served to sustain the horse is capable of easy explanation1 and it will be observed that the rationale likewise explains the floating of a railway train4 ,the foot of an ordinary farm-horse presents a base of about five inches diameter1 but if this base be enlarged to seven inches--the circles being to each other as the squares of the diameters--it will be found that1 by this slight enlargement of the base1 a circle of nearly double the area has been secured2 and consequently the pressure of the foot upon every unit of ground upon which the horse stands has been reduced one half4 ,in fact1 this contrivance has an effect tantamount to setting the horse upon eight feet instead of four4 ,apply the same reasoning to the ponderous locomotive1 and it will be found1 that even such a machine may be made to stand upon a bog1 by means of a similar extension of the bearing surface4 ,suppose the engine to be #bj feet long and #e feet wide1 thus covering a surface of #ajj square feet1 and1 provided the bearing has been extended by means of cross sleepers supported on a matting of heath and branches of trees covered with a few inches of gravel1 the pressure of an engine of #bj tons will be only equal to about #c pounds per inch over the whole surface on which it stands4 ,such was ,george ,stephenson's idea in contriving his floating road--something like an elongated raft across the ,moss2 and we shall see that he steadily kept it in view in carrying the work into execution4 ,the first thing done was to form a footpath of ling or heather along the proposed road1 on which a man might walk without risk of sinking4 ,a single line of temporary railway was then laid down1 formed of ordinary cross-bars about #c feet long and an inch square1 with holes punched through them at the ends and nailed down to temporary sleepers4 ,along this way ran the waggons in which were conveyed the materials requisite to form the permanent road4 ,these waggons carried about a ton each1 and they were propelled by boys running behind them along the narrow iron rails4 ,the boys became so expert that they would run the #d miles across at the rate of #g or #h miles an hour without missing a step2 if they had done so1 they would have sunk in many places up to their middle4 ,a comparatively slight extension of the bearing surface being found sufficient to enable the bog to bear this temporary line1 the circumstance was a source of increased confidence and hope to our engineer in proceeding with the formation of the permanent roadway alongside4 ,the digging of drains had been proceeding for some time along each side of the intended line2 but they filled up almost as soon as dug1 the sides flowing in1 and the bottom rising up4 ,it was only in some of the drier parts of the bog that a depth of three or four feet could be reached4 ,the surface-ground between the drains1 containing the intertwined roots of heather and long grass1 was left untouched1 and upon this was spread branches of trees and hedge-cuttings4 ,in the softest places1 rude gates or hurdles1 some #h or #i feet long by #d feet wide1 interwoven with heather1 were laid in double thicknesses1 their ends overlapping each other2 and upon this floating bed was spread a thin layer of gravel1 on which the sleepers1 chairs1 and rails were laid in the usual manner4 ,such was the mode in which the road was formed upon the ,moss4 ,it was found1 however1 after the permanent way had been thus laid1 that there was a tendency to sinking at those parts where the bog was softest4 ,in ordinary cases1 where a bank subsides1 the sleepers are packed up with ballast or gravel2 but in this case the ballast was dug away and removed in order to lighten the road1 and the sleepers were packed instead with cakes of dry turf or bundles of heath4 ,by these expedients the subsided parts were again floated up to the level1 and an approach was made towards a satisfactory road4 ,but the most formidable difficulties were encountered at the centre and towards the edges of the ,moss2 and it required no small degree of ingenuity and perseverance on the part of the engineer successfully to overcome them4 ,the ,moss1 as already observed1 was highest in the centre1 and it there presented a sort of hunchback with a rising and falling gradient4 ,at that point it was found necessary to cut deeper drains in order to consolidate the ground between them on which the road was to be formed4 ,but1 as at other places1 the deeper the cutting the more rapid was the flow of fluid bog into the drain1 the bottom rising up almost as fast as it was removed4 ,to meet this emergency1 numbers of empty tar-barrels were brought from ,liverpool2 and as soon as a few yards of drain were dug1 the barrels were laid down end to end1 firmly fixed to each other by strong slabs laid over the joints1 and nailed4 ,they were then covered over with clay1 and thus formed an underground sewer of wood instead of bricks4 ,this expedient was found to answer the purpose intended1 and the road across the centre of the ,moss having been so prepared1 it was then laid with the permanent materials4 ,the greatest difficulty was1 however1 experienced in forming an embankment upon the edge of the bog at the ,manchester end4 ,moss as dry as it could be cut1 was brought up in small waggons1 by men and boys1 and emptied so as to form an embankment2 but the bank had scarcely been raised three or four feet in height1 when the stuff broke through the heathery surface of the bog and sank out of sight4 ,more moss was brought up and emptied with no better result2 and for weeks the filling was continued without any visible embankment having been made4 ,it was the duty of the resident engineer to proceed to ,liverpool every fortnight to obtain the wages for the workmen employed under him2 and on these occasions he was required to colour up1 on a section drawn to a working scale suspended against the wall of the directors' room1 the amount of excavation and embankment from time to time executed4 ,but on many of these occasions1 ,mr4 ,dixon had no progress whatever to show for the money expended on the ,chat ,moss embankment4 ,sometimes1 indeed1 the visible work done was less than it had appeared a fortnight or a month before6 ,the directors now became seriously alarmed1 and feared that the evil prognostications of the eminent engineers were about to be fulfilled4 ,the resident engineer was even called upon to supply an estimate of the cost of forming an embankment of solid stuff throughout1 as also of the cost of piling the roadway1 and in effect constructing a four mile viaduct of timber across the ,moss1 from twenty to thirty feet high from the foundation4 ,the expense appalled the directors1 and the question arose1 whether the work was to be proceeded with or abandoned6 ,mr4 ,stephenson afterwards described the alarming position of affairs at a public dinner at ,birmingham 7#bcrd ,december1 #ahcg71 on the occasion of a piece of plate being presented to his son1 upon the completion of the ,london and ,birmingham ,railway4 ,he related the anecdote1 he said1 for the purpose of impressing upon the minds of those who heard him the necessity of perseverance4 ,after working for weeks and weeks1 said he1 in filling in materials to form the road1 there did not yet appear to be the least sign of our being able to raise the solid embankment one single inch2 in short we went on filling in without the slightest apparent effect4 ,even my assistants began to feel uneasy1 and to doubt of the success of the scheme4 ,the directors1 too1 spoke of it as a hopeless task3 and at length they became seriously alarmed1 so much so1 indeed1 that a board meeting was held on ,chat ,moss to decide whether ,i should proceed any further4 ,they had previously taken the opinion of other engineers1 who reported unfavourably4 ,there was no help for it1 however1 but to go on4 ,an immense outlay had been incurred2 and great loss would have been occasioned had the scheme been then abandoned1 and the line taken by another route4 ,so the directors were compelled to allow me to go on with my plans1 of the ultimate success of which ,i myself never for one moment doubted4 ,during the progress of this part of the works1 the ,worsley and ,trafford men1 who lived near the ,moss1 and plumed themselves upon their practical knowledge of bog-work1 declared the completion of the road to be utterly impracticable4 ,if you knew as much about ,chat ,moss as we do1 they said1 you would never have entered on so rash an undertaking2 and depend upon it1 all you have done and are doing will prove abortive4 ,you must give up the idea of a floating railway1 and either fill the ,moss hard from the bottom1 or deviate so as to avoid it altogether4 ,such were the conclusions of science and experience4 ,in the midst of all these alarms and prophecies of failure1 ,stephenson never lost heart1 but held to his purpose4 ,his motto was ,persevere6 ,you must go on filling in1 he said2 there is no other help for it4 ,the stuff emptied in is doing its work out of sight1 and if you will but have patience1 it will soon begin to show4 ,and so the filling in went on2 several hundreds of men and boys were employed to skin the ,moss all round for many thousand yards1 by means of sharp spades1 called by the turf cutters tommy-spades2 and the dried cakes of turf were afterwards used to form the embankment1 until at length as the stuff sank and rested upon the bottom1 the bank gradually rose above the surface1 and slowly advanced onwards1 declining in height and consequently in weight1 until it became joined to the floating road already laid upon the ,moss4 ,in the course of forming the embankment1 the pressure of the bog turf tipped out of the waggons caused a copious stream of bog-water to flow from the end of it1 in colour resembling ,barclay's double stout2 and when completed1 the bank looked like a long ridge of tightly pressed tobacco-leaf4 ,the compression of the turf may be imagined from the fact that #fgj1jjj cubic yards of raw moss formed only #bgg1jjj cubic yards of embankment at the completion of the work4 ,at the western1 or ,liverpool end of the ,chat ,moss1 there was a like embankment2 but1 as the ground there was solid1 little difficulty was experienced in forming it1 beyond the loss of substance caused by the oozing out of the water held by the moss-earth4 ,at another part of the ,liverpool and ,manchester line1 ,parr ,moss was crossed by an embankment about #a4e mile in extent4 ,in the immediate neighbourhood was found a large excess of cutting1 which it would have been necessary to put out in spoil-banks 7according to the technical phrase72 but the surplus clay1 stone1 and shale1 were tipped1 waggon after waggon1 into ,parr ,moss1 until a solid but concealed embankment1 from fifteen to twenty-five feet high1 was formed1 although to the eye it appears to be laid upon the level of the adjoining surface1 as at ,chat ,moss4 ,the road across ,chat ,moss was finished by the #ast ,january1 #ahcj1 when the first experimental train of passengers passed over it1 drawn by the ,rocket2 and it turned out that1 instead of being the most expensive part of the line1 it was about the cheapest4 ,the total cost of forming the line over the ,moss was #bh1jjj pounds1 whereas ,mr4 ,giles's estimate was #bgj1jjj pounds6 ,it also proved to be one of the best portions of the railway4 ,being a floating road1 it was smooth and easy to run upon1 just as ,dr4 ,arnott's water-bed is soft and easy to lie upon--the pressure being equal at all points4 ,there was1 and still is1 a sort of springiness in the road over the ,moss1 such as is felt in passing along a suspended bridge2 and those who looked along the line as a train passed over it1 said they could observe a waviness1 such as precedes and follows a skater upon ice4 ,during the progress of these works the most ridiculous rumours were set afloat4 ,the drivers of the stage-coaches who feared for their calling1 brought the alarming intelligence into ,manchester from time to time1 that ,chat ,moss was blown up6 ,hundreds of men and horses had sunk2 and the works were completely abandoned6 ,the engineer himself was declared to have been swallowed up in the ,serbonian bog2 and railways were at an end for ever6 ,in the construction of the railway1 ,mr4 ,stephenson's capacity for organising and directing the labours of a large number of workmen of all kinds eminently displayed itself4 ,a vast quantity of ballast-waggons had to be constructed1 and implements and materials collected1 before the army of necessary labourers could be efficiently employed at the various points of the line4 ,there were not at that time1 as there are now1 large contractors possessed of railway plant1 capable of executing earth-works on a large scale4 ,the first railway engineer had not only to contrive the plant1 but to organise and direct the labour4 ,the labourers themselves had to be trained to their work2 and it was on the ,liverpool and ,manchester line that ,mr4 ,stephenson organised the staff of that mighty band of railway navvies1 whose handiworks will be the wonder and admiration of succeeding generations4 ,looking at their gigantic traces1 the men of some future age may be found to declare of the engineer and of his workmen1 that there were giants in those days4 ,although the works of the ,liverpool and ,manchester ,railway are of a much less formidable character than those of many lines that have since been constructed1 they were then regarded as of the most stupendous description4 ,in deed1 the like of them had not before been executed in ,england4 ,it had been our engineer's original intention carry the railway from the north end of ,liverpool1 round the red-sandstone ridge on which the upper part of the town is built1 and also round the higher rise of the coal formation at ,rainhill1 by following the natural levels4 ,but the opposition of the landowners having forced the line more to the south1 it was rendered necessary to cut through the hills1 and go over the high grounds instead of round them4 ,the first consequence of this alteration in the plans was the necessity for constructing a tunnel under the town of ,liverpool #a4e mile in length2 the second1 a long and deep cutting through the red-sandstone rock at ,olive ,mount2 and the third and most serious of all1 was the necessity for surmounting the ,whiston and ,sutton hills by inclined planes of #a in #if4 ,the line was also1 by the same forced deviation1 prevented passing through the ,lancashire coal-field1 and the engineer was compelled to carry it across the ,sankey valley1 at a point where the waters of the brook had dug out an excessively deep channel through the marl-beds of the district4 ,the principal difficulty was experienced in pushing on the works connected with the formation of the tunnel under ,liverpool1 #bbjj yards in length4 ,the blasting and hewing of the rock were vigorously carried on night and day2 and the engineer's practical experience in the collieries here proved of great use to him4 ,many obstacles had to be encountered and overcome in the formation of the tunnel1 the rock varying in hardness and texture at different parts4 ,in some places the miners were deluged by water1 which surged from the soft blue shale found at the lowest level of the tunnel4 ,in other places1 beds of wet sand were cut through2 and there careful propping and pinning were necessary to prevent the roof from tumbling in1 until the masonry to support it could be erected4 ,on one occasion1 while the engineer was absent from ,liverpool1 a mass of loose moss-earth and sand fell from the roof1 which had been insufficiently propped4 ,the miners withdrew from the work2 and on ,stephenson's return1 he found them in a refractory state1 refusing to re-enter the tunnel4 ,he induced them1 however1 by his example1 to return to their labours2 and when the roof had been secured1 the work went on again as before4 ,when there was danger1 he was always ready to share it with the men2 and gathering confidence from his fearlessness1 they proceeded vigorously with the undertaking1 boring and mining their way towards the light4 ,picture3 ,olive ,mount ,cutting ,the ,olive ,mount cutting was the first extensive stone cutting executed on any railway1 and to this day it is one of the most formidable4 ,it is about two miles long1 and in some parts #hj feet deep4 ,it is a narrow ravine or defile cut out of the solid rock2 and not less than #dhj1jjj cubic yards of stone were removed from it4 ,mr4 ,vignolles1 afterwards describing it1 said it looked as if it had been dug out by giants4 ,the crossing of so many roads and streams involved the necessity for constructing an unusual number of bridges4 ,there were not fewer than #fc1 under or over the railway1 on the #cj miles between ,liverpool and ,manchester4 ,up to this time1 bridges had been applied generally to high roads where inclined approaches were of comparatively small importance1 and in determining the rise of his arch the engineer selected any headway he thought proper4 ,every consideration was indeed made subsidiary to constructing the bridge itself1 and the completion of one large structure of this sort was regarded as an epoch in engineering history4 ,yet here1 in the course of a few years1 no fewer than #fc bridges were constructed on one line of railway6 ,mr4 ,stephenson early found that the ordinary arch was inapplicable in certain cases1 where the headway was limited1 and yet the level of the railway must be preserved4 ,in such cases he employed simple cast-iron beams1 by which he safely bridged gaps of moderate width1 economizing headway1 and introducing the use of a new material of the greatest possible value to the railway engineer4 ,the bridges of masonry upon the line were of many kinds2 several of them askew bridges1 and others1 such as those at ,newton and over the ,irwell at ,manchester1 straight and of considerable dimensions2 but the principal piece of masonry was the ,sankey viaduct4 ,picture3 ,sankey ,viaduct ,this fine work is principally of brick1 with stone facings4 ,it consists of nine arches of fifty feet span each4 ,the massive piers are supported on two hundred piles driven deep into the soil2 and they rise to a great height1--the coping of the parapet being seventy feet above the level of the valley1 in which flow the ,sankey brook and canal4 ,its total cost was about #de1jjj pounds4 ,by the end of #ahbh the directors found they had expended #dfj1jjj pounds on the works1 and that they were still far from completion4 ,they looked at the loss of interest on this large investment1 and began to grumble at the delay4 ,they desired to see their capital becoming productive2 and in the spring of #ahbi they urged the engineer to push on the works with increased vigour4 ,mr4 ,cropper1 one of the directors1 who took an active interest in their progress1 said to ,stephenson one day1 ,now1 ,george1 thou must get on with the railway1 and have it finished without further delay2 thou must really have it ready for opening by the first day of ,january next4 ,consider the heavy character of the works1 sir1 and how much we have been delayed by the want of money1 not to speak of the wetness of the weather3 it is impossible4 ,impossible6 rejoined ,cropper2 ,i wish ,i could get ,napoleon to thee--he would tell thee there is no such word as 'impossible' in the vocabulary4 ,tush6 exclaimed ,stephenson1 with warmth2 don't speak to me about ,napoleon6 ,give me men1 money1 and materials1 and ,i will do what ,napoleon couldn't do--drive a railway from ,liverpool to ,manchester over ,chat ,moss6 ,the works made rapid progress in the course of the year #ahbi4 ,double sets of labourers were employed on ,chat ,moss and at other points1 by night and day1 the night shifts working by torch and fire light2 and at length1 the work advancing at all points1 the directors saw their way to the satisfactory completion of the undertaking4 ,it may well be supposed that ,mr4 ,stephenson's time was fully occupied in superintending the extensive1 and for the most part novel works1 connected with the railway1 and that even his extraordinary powers of labour and endurance were taxed to the utmost during the four years that they were in progress4 ,almost every detail in the plans was directed and arranged by himself4 ,every bridge1 from the simplest to the most complicated1 including the then novel structure of the skew bridge1 iron girders1 siphons1 fixed engines1 and the machinery for working the tunnel at the ,liverpool end1 had to be thought out by his own head1 and reduced to definite plans under his own eyes4 ,besides all this1 he had to design the working plant in anticipation of the opening of the railway4 ,he must be prepared with waggons1 trucks1 and carriages1 himself superintending their manufacture4 ,the permanent road1 turntables1 switches1 and crossings1--in short1 the entire structure and machinery of the line1 from the turning of the first sod to the running of the first train of carriages upon the railway1--were executed under his immediate supervision4 ,and it was in the midst of this vast accumulation of work and responsibility that the battle of the locomotive engine had to be fought1--a battle1 not merely against material difficulties1 but against the still more trying obstructions of deeply-rooted mistrust and prejudice on the part of a considerable minority of the directors4 ,he had no staff of experienced assistants1--not even a staff of draughtsmen in his office1--but only a few pupils learning their business2 and he was frequently without even their help4 ,the time of his engineering inspectors was fully occupied in the actual superintendence of the works at different parts of the line2 and he took care to direct all their more important operations in person4 ,the principal draughtsman was ,mr4 ,thomas ,gooch1 a pupil he had brought with him from ,newcastle4 ,i may say1 writes ,mr4 ,gooch1 that nearly the whole of the working and other drawings1 as well as the various land-plans for the railway1 were drawn by my own hand4 ,they were done at the ,company's office in ,clayton ,square during the day1 from instructions supplied in the evenings by ,mr4 ,stephenson1 either by word of mouth1 or by little rough hand-sketches on letter-paper4 ,the evenings were also generally devoted to my duties as secretary1 in writing 7mostly from his own dictation7 his letters and reports1 or in making calculations and estimates4 ,the mornings before breakfast were not unfrequently spent by me in visiting and lending a helping hand in the tunnel and other works near ,liverpool1--the untiring zeal and perseverance of ,george ,stephenson never for an instant flagging and inspiring with a like enthusiasm all who were engaged under him in carrying forward the works4 #ahi ,the usual routine of his life at this time--if routine it might be called--was1 to rise early1 by sunrise in summer and before it in winter1 and thus break the back of the day's work by mid-day4 ,while the tunnel under ,liverpool was in progress1 one of his first duties in a morning before breakfast was to go over the various shafts1 clothed in a suitable dress1 and inspect their progress at different points2 on other days he would visit the extensive workshops at ,edgehill1 where most of the plant for the line was in course of manufacture4 ,then1 returning to his house1 in ,upper ,parliament ,street1 ,windsor1 after a hurried breakfast1 he would ride along the works to inspect their progress1 and push them on with greater energy where needful4 ,on other days he would prepare for the much less congenial engagement of meeting the ,board1 which was often a cause of great anxiety and pain to him2 for it was difficult to satisfy men of all tempers1 and some of these not of the most generous sort4 ,on such occasions he might be seen with his right-hand thumb thrust through the topmost button-hole of his coat-breast1 vehemently hitching his right shoulder1 as was his habit when labouring under any considerable excitement4 ,occasionally he would take an early ride before breakfast1 to inspect the progress of the ,sankey viaduct4 ,he had a favourite horse1 brought by him from ,newcastle1 called ,bobby1--so tractable that1 with his rider on his back1 he would walk up to a locomotive with the steam blowing off1 and put his nose against it without shying4 ,bobby1 saddled and bridled1 was brought to ,mr4 ,stephenson's door betimes in the morning2 and mounting him1 he would ride the fifteen miles to ,sankey1 putting up at a little public house which then stood upon the banks of the canal4 ,there he had his breakfast of crowdie1 which he made with his own hands4 ,it consisted of oatmeal stirred into a basin of hot water1--a sort of porridge1--which was supped with cold sweet milk4 ,after this frugal breakfast1 he would go upon the works1 and remain there1 riding from point to point for the greater part of the day4 ,when he returned before mid-day1 he examined the pay-sheets in the different departments1 sent in by the assistant engineers1 or by the foremen of the workshops4 ,to all these he gave his most careful personal attention1 requiring when necessary a full explanation of the items4 ,after a late dinner1 which occupied very short time and was always of a plain and frugal description1 he disposed of his correspondence1 or prepared sketches of drawings1 and gave instructions as to their completion4 ,he would occasionally refresh himself for this evening work by a short doze1 which1 however1 he would never admit had exceeded the limits of winking1 to use his own term4 ,mr4 ,frederick ,swanwick1 who officiated as his secretary1 after the appointment of ,mr4 ,gooch as ,resident ,engineer to the ,bolton and ,leigh ,railway1 has informed us that he then remarked--what in after years he could better appreciate--the clear1 terse1 and vigorous style of ,mr4 ,stephenson's dictation4 ,there was nothing superfluous in it2 but it was close1 direct1 and to the point1--in short1 thoroughly businesslike4 ,and if1 in passing through the pen of the amanuensis1 his meaning happened in any way to be distorted or modified1 it did not fail to escape his detection1 though he was always tolerant of any liberties taken with his own form of expression1 so long as the words written down conveyed his real meaning4 ,his letters and reports written1 and his sketches of drawings made and explained1 the remainder of the evening was usually devoted to conversation with his wife and those of his pupils who lived under his roof1 and constituted1 as it were1 part of the family4 ,he then delighted to test the knowledge of his young companions1 and to question them upon the principles of mechanics4 ,if they were not quite up to the mark on any point1 there was no escaping detection by evasive or specious explanations4 ,these always brought out the verdict1 ,ah6 you know nought about it now2 but think it over again1 and tell me when you understand it4 ,if there were even partial success in the reply1 it was at once acknowledged1 and a full explanation given1 to which the master would add illustrative examples for the purpose of impressing the principle more deeply upon the pupil's mind4 ,it was not so much his object and purpose to cram the minds of the young men committed to his charge with the results of knowledge1 as to stimulate them to educate themselves--to induce them to develop their mental and moral powers by the exercise of their own free energies1 and thus acquire that habit of self-thinking and self-reliance which is the spring of all true manly action4 ,in a word1 he sought to bring out and invigorate the character of his pupils4 ,he felt that he himself had been made stronger and better through his encounters with difficulty2 and he would not have the road of knowledge made too smooth and easy for them4 ,learn for yourselves1--think for yourselves1 he would say3--make yourselves masters of principles1--persevere1--be industrious1--and there is then no fear of you4 ,and not the least emphatic proof of the soundness of this system of education1 as conducted by ,mr4 ,stephenson1 was afforded by the after history of these pupils themselves4 ,there was not one of those trained under his eye who did not rise to eminent usefulness and distinction as an engineer4 ,he sent them forth into the world braced with the spirit of manly self-help--inspired by his own noble example2 and they repeated in their after career the lessons of earnest effort and persistent industry which his daily life had taught them4 ,stephenson's evenings at home were not1 however1 exclusively devoted either to business or to the graver exercises above referred to4 ,he would often indulge in cheerful conversation and anecdote1 falling back from time to time upon the struggles and difficulties of his early life4 ,the not unfrequent winding up of his story addressed to the young men about him1 was1 ,ah6 ye young fellows don't know what wark is in these days6 ,mr4 ,swanwick takes pleasure in recalling to mind how seldom1 if ever1 a cross or captious word1 or an angry look1 marred the enjoyment of those evenings4 ,the presence of ,mrs4 ,stephenson gave them an additional charm3 amiable1 kind-hearted1 and intelligent1 she shared quietly in the pleasure of the party2 and the atmosphere of comfort which always pervaded her home contributed in no small degree to render it a centre of cheerful1 hopeful intercourse1 and of earnest1 honest industry4 ,she was a wife who well deserved1 what she through life retained1 the strong and unremitting affection of her husband4 ,when ,mr4 ,stephenson retired for the night1 it was not always that he permitted himself to sink into slumber4 ,like ,brindley1 he worked out many a difficult problem in bed2 and for hours he would turn over in his mind and study how to overcome some obstacle1 or to mature some project1 on which his thoughts were bent4 ,some remark inadvertently dropped by him at the breakfast-table in the morning1 served to show that he had been stealing some hours from the past night in reflection and study4 ,yet he would rise at his accustomed early hour1 and there was no abatement of his usual energy in carrying on the business of the day4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,robert ,,stephenson',s ,,residence ,,in ,,colombia1 ,,and ,,return--,,the ,,battle ,,of ,,the ,,locomotive--,,the ,,rocket4 ,we return to the career of ,robert ,stephenson1 who had been absent from ,england during the construction of the ,liverpool railway1 but was shortly about to join his father and take part in the battle of the locomotive1 which was now impending4 ,on his return from ,edinburgh ,college in the summer of #ahbc1 he had assisted in the survey of the ,stockton and ,darlington line2 and when the ,locomotive ,engine ,works were started in ,forth ,street1 ,newcastle1 he took an active part in that concern4 ,the factory1 he says1 was in active operation early in #ahbd2 ,i left ,england for ,colombia in ,june of that year1 having finished drawing the designs of the ,brusselton stationary engines for the ,stockton and ,darlington ,railway before ,i left4 #aic ,speculation was very rife at the time2 and amongst the most promising adventures were the companies organised for the purpose of working the gold and silver mines of ,south ,america4 ,great difficulty was experienced in finding mining engineers capable of carrying out those projects1 and young men of even the most moderate experience were eagerly sought after4 ,the ,columbian ,mining ,association of ,london offered an engagement to young ,stephenson1 to go out to ,mariquita and take charge of the engineering operations of that company4 ,robert was himself desirous of accepting it1 but his father said it would first be necessary to ascertain whether the proposed change would be for his good4 ,his health had been very delicate for some time1 partly occasioned by his rapid growth1 but principally because of his close application to work and study4 ,father and son together called upon ,dr4 ,headlam1 the eminent physician of ,newcastle1 to consult him on the subject4 ,during the examination which ensued1 ,robert afterwards used to say that he felt as if he were upon trial for life or death4 ,to his great relief1 the doctor pronounced that a temporary residence in a warm climate was the very thing likely to be most beneficial to him4 ,the appointment was accordingly accepted1 and1 before many weeks had passed1 ,robert ,stephenson set sail for ,south ,america4 ,after a tolerably prosperous voyage he landed at ,la ,guayra1 on the north coast of ,venezuela1 on the #bcrd ,july1 from thence proceeding to ,caraccas1 the capital of the district1 about #ae miles inland4 ,there he remained for two months1 unable to proceed in consequence of the wretched state of the roads in the interior4 ,he contrived1 however1 to make occasional excursions in the neighbourhood1 with an eye to the mining business on which he had come4 ,about the beginning of ,october he set out for ,bogota1 the capital of ,columbia or ,new ,granada4 ,the distance was about #abjj miles1 through a very difficult region1 and it was performed entirely upon mule-back after the fashion of the country4 ,in the course of the journey ,robert visited many of the districts reported to be rich in minerals1 but he met with few traces except of copper1 iron1 and coal1 with occasional indications of gold and silver4 ,he found the people ready to furnish information1 which1 however1 when tested1 usually proved worthless4 ,a guide whom he employed for weeks1 kept him buoyed up with the hope of richer mining quarters than he had yet seen2 but when he professed to be able to show him mines of brass1 steel1 alcohol1 and pinchbeck1 ,stephenson discovered him to be an incorrigible rogue1 and immediately dismissed him4 ,at length our traveller reached ,bogota1 and after an interview with ,mr4 ,illingworth1 the commercial manager of the mining ,company1 he proceeded to ,honda1 crossed the ,magdalena1 and shortly after reached the site of his intended operations on the eastern slopes of the ,andes4 ,mr4 ,stephenson used afterwards to speak in glowing terms of this his first mule-journey in ,south ,america4 ,everything was entirely new to him4 ,the variety and beauty of the indigenous plants1 the luxurious tropical vegetation1 the appearance1 manners1 and dress of the people1 and the mode of travelling1 were altogether different from everything he had before seen4 ,his own travelling garb also must have been strange even to himself4 ,my hat1 he says1 was of plaited grass1 with a crown nine inches in height1 surrounded by a brim of six inches2 a white cotton suit2 and a ruana of blue and crimson plaid1 with a hole in the centre for the head to pass through4 ,this cloak is admirably adapted for the purpose1 amply covering the rider and mule1 and at night answering the purpose of a blanket in the net-hammock1 which is made from fibres of the aloe1 and which every traveller carries before him on his mule1 and suspends to the trees or in houses1 as occasion may require4 ,the part of the journey which seems to have made the most lasting impression on his mind was that between ,bogota and the mining district in the neighbourhood of ,mariquita4 ,as he ascended the slopes of the mountain-range1 and reached the first step of the table-land1 he was struck beyond expression with the noble view of the valley of the ,magdalena behind him1 so vast that he failed in attempting to define the point at which the course of the river blended with the horizon4 ,like all travellers in the district1 he noted the remarkable changes of climate and vegetation1 as he rose from the burning plains towards the fresh breath of the mountains4 ,from an atmosphere as hot as that of an oven he passed into delicious cool air2 until1 in his onward and upward journey1 a still more temperate region was reached1 the very perfection of climate4 ,before him rose the majestic ,cordilleras1 forming a rampart against the western skies1 at certain times of the day looking black1 sharp1 and1 at their summit1 almost as even as a wall4 ,our engineer took up his abode for a time at ,mariquita1 a fine old city1 though then greatly decayed4 ,during the period of the ,spanish dominion1 it was an important place1 most of the gold and silver convoys passing through it on their way to ,cartagena1 there to be shipped in galleons for ,europe4 ,the mountainous country to the west was rich in silver1 gold1 and other metals1 and it was ,mr4 ,stephenson's object to select the best site for commencing operations for the ,company4 ,with this object he prospected about in all directions1 visiting long-abandoned mines1 and analysing specimens obtained from many quarters4 ,the mines eventually fixed upon as the scene of his operations were those of ,la ,manta and ,santa ,anna1 long before worked by the ,spaniards1 though1 in consequence of the luxuriance and rapidity of the vegetation1 all traces of the old workings had become completely overgrown and lost4 ,everything had to be begun anew4 ,roads had to be cut to the mines1 machinery to be erected1 and the ground opened up1 in course of which some of the old adits were hit upon4 ,the native peons or labourers were not accustomed to work1 and at first they usually contrived to desert when they were not watched1 so that very little progress could be made until the arrival of the expected band of miners from ,england4 ,the authorities were by no means helpful1 and the engineer was driven to an old expedient with the object of overcoming this difficulty4 ,we endeavour all we can1 he says1 in one of his letters1 to make ourselves popular1 and this we find most effectually accomplished by 'regaling the venal beasts4' #aif ,he also gave a ball at ,mariquita1 which passed off with eclat1 the governor from ,honda1 with a host of friends1 honouring it with their presence4 ,it was1 indeed1 necessary to make a party in this way1 as other schemers were already trying to undermine the ,colombian company in influential directions4 ,the engineer did not exaggerate when he said1 ,the uncertainty of transacting business in this country is perplexing beyond description4 ,at last1 his party of miners arrived from ,england1 but they gave him even more trouble than the peons had done4 ,they were rough1 drunken1 and sometimes altogether ungovernable4 ,he set them to work at the ,santa ,anna mine without delay1 and at the same time took up his abode amongst them1 to keep them1 he said1 if possible1 from indulging in the detestable vice of drunkenness1 which1 if not put a stop to1 will eventually destroy themselves1 and involve the mining association in ruin4 ,to add to his troubles1 the captain of the miners displayed a very hostile and insubordinate spirit1 quarrelled and fought with the men1 and was insolent to the engineer himself4 ,the captain and his gang1 being ,cornish men1 told ,robert to his face1 that because he was a ,north-country man1 and not born in ,cornwall it was impossible he should know anything of mining4 ,disease also fell upon him1--first fever1 and then visceral derangement1 followed by a return of his old complaint1 a feeling of oppression in the breast4 ,no wonder that in the midst of these troubles he should longingly speak of returning to his native land4 ,but he stuck to his post and his duty1 kept up his courage1 and by a mixture of mildness and firmness1 and the display of great coolness of judgment1 he contrived to keep the men to their work1 and gradually to carry forward the enterprise which he had undertaken4 ,by the beginning of ,july1 #ahbf1 we find that quietness and order had been restored1 and the works were proceeding more satisfactorily1 though the yield of silver was not as yet very promising4 ,mr4 ,stephenson calculated that at least three years' diligent and costly operations would be needed to render the mines productive4 ,in the mean time he removed to the dwelling which had been erected for his accommodation at ,santa ,anna4 ,it was a structure speedily raised after the fashion of the country4 ,picture3 ,robert ,stephenson's ,cottage at ,santa ,anna ,the walls were of split and flattened bamboo1 tied together with the long fibres of a dried climbing plant2 the roof was of palm-leaves1 and the ceiling of reeds4 ,when an earthquake shook the district--for earthquakes were frequent--the inmates of such a fabric merely felt as if shaken in a basket1 without sustaining any harm4 ,in front of the cottage lay a woody ravine1 extending almost to the base of the ,andes1 gorgeously clothed in primeval vegetation--magnolias1 palms1 bamboos1 tree-ferns1 acacias1 cedars2 and1 towering over all1 the great almendrons1 with their smooth1 silvery stems1 bearing aloft noble clusters of pure white blossom4 ,the forest was haunted by myriads of gay insects1 butterflies with wings of dazzling lustre1 birds of brilliant plumage1 humming-birds1 golden orioles1 toucans1 and a host of solitary warblers4 ,but the glorious sunsets seen from his cottage-porch more than all astonished and delighted the young engineer2 and he was accustomed to say that1 after having witnessed them1 he was reluctant to accuse the ancient ,peruvians of idolatry4 ,but all these natural beauties failed to reconcile him to the harassing difficulties of his situation1 which continued to increase rather than diminish4 ,he was hampered by the action of the ,board at home1 who gave ear to hostile criticisms on his reports2 and1 although they afterwards made handsome acknowledgment of his services1 he felt his position to be altogether unsatisfactory4 ,he therefore determined to leave at the expiry of his three years engagement1 and communicated his decision to the directors accordingly4 ,on receiving his letter1 the ,board1 through ,mr4 ,richardson1 of ,lombard street1 one of the directors1 communicated with his father at ,newcastle1 representing that if he would allow his son to remain in ,colombia the ,company would make it worth his while4 ,to this the father gave a decided negative1 and intimated that he himself needed his son's assistance1 and that he must return at the expiry of his three years' term1--a decision1 writes ,robert1 at which ,i feel much gratified1 as it is clear that he is as anxious to have me back in ,england as ,i am to get there4 #aii ,at the same time1 ,edward ,pease1 a principal partner in the ,newcastle firm1 privately wrote ,robert to the following effect1 urging his return home3--,i can assure thee that thy business at ,newcastle1 as well as thy father's engineering1 have suffered very much from thy absence1 and1 unless thou soon return1 the former will be given up1 as ,mr4 ,longridge is not able to give it that attention it requires2 and what is done is not done with credit to the house4 ,the idea of the manufactory being given up1 which ,robert had laboured so hard to establish before leaving ,england1 was painful to him in the extreme1 and he wrote to the manager of the ,company1 strongly urging that arrangements should be made for him to leave without delay4 ,in the mean time he was again laid prostrate by another violent attack of aguish fever2 and when able to write in ,june1 #ahbg1 he expressed himself as completely wearied and worn down with vexation4 ,at length1 when he was sufficiently recovered from his attack and able to travel1 he set out on his voyage homeward in the beginning of ,august4 ,at ,mompox1 on his way down the river ,magdalena1 he met ,mr4 ,bodmer1 his successor1 with a fresh party of miners from ,england1 on their way up the country to the quarters which he had just quitted4 ,next day1 six hours after leaving ,mompox1 a steamboat was met ascending the river1 with ,bolivar the ,liberator on board1 on his way to ,st4 ,bogota2 and it was a mortification to our engineer that he had only a passing sight of that distinguished person4 ,it was his intention1 on leaving ,mariquita1 to visit the ,isthmus of ,panama on his way home1 for the purpose of inquiring into the practicability of cutting a canal to unite the ,atlantic and ,pacific--a project which then formed the subject of considerable public discussion2 but his presence being so anxiously desired at home1 he determined to proceed to ,new ,york without delay4 ,arrived at the port of ,cartagena1 he had to wait some time for a ship4 ,the delay was very irksome to him1 the more so as the city was then desolated by the ravages of the yellow fever4 ,while sitting one day in the large1 bare1 comfortless public room at the miserable hotel at which he put up1 he observed two strangers1 whom he at once perceived to be ,english4 ,one of the strangers was a tall1 gaunt man1 shrunken and hollow-looking1 shabbily dressed1 and apparently poverty-stricken4 ,on making inquiry1 he found it was ,trevithick1 the builder of the first railroad locomotive6 ,he was returning home from the gold-mines of ,peru penniless4 ,he had left ,england in #ahaf1 with powerful steam-engines1 intended for the drainage and working of the ,peruvian mines4 ,he met with almost a royal reception on his landing at ,lima4 ,a guard of honour was appointed to attend him1 and it was even proposed to erect a statue of ,don ,ricardo ,trevithick in solid silver4 ,it was given forth in ,cornwall that his emoluments amounted to #ajj1jjj pounds a year1 #bja and that he was making a gigantic fortune4 ,great1 therefore1 was ,robert ,stephenson's surprise to find this potent ,don ,ricardo in the inn at ,cartagena1 reduced almost to his last shilling1 and unable to proceed further4 ,he had indeed realised the truth of the ,spanish proverb1 that a silver-mine brings misery1 a gold-mine ruin4 ,he and his friend had lost everything in their journey across the country from ,peru4 ,they had forded rivers and wandered through forests1 leaving all their baggage behind them1 and had reached thus far with little more than the clothes upon their backs4 ,almost the only remnant of precious metal saved by ,trevithick was a pair of silver spurs1 which he took back with him to ,cornwall4 ,robert ,stephenson lent him #ej pounds to enable him to reach ,england2 and though he was afterwards heard of as an inventor there1 he had no further part in the ultimate triumph of the locomotive4 ,but ,trevithick's misadventures on this occasion had not yet ended1 for before he reached ,new ,york he was wrecked1 and ,robert ,stephenson with him4 ,the following is the account of the voyage1 big with adventures1 as given by the latter in a letter to his friend ,illingworth3--,at first we had very little foul weather1 and indeed were for several days becalmed amongst the islands1 which was so far fortunate1 for a few degrees further north the most tremendous gales were blowing1 and they appear 7from our future information7 to have wrecked every vessel exposed to their violence4 ,we had two examples of the effects of the hurricane2 for1 as we sailed north we took on board the remains of two crews found floating about on dismantled hulls4 ,the one had been nine days without food of any kind1 except the carcasses of two of their companions who had died a day or two previously from fatigue and hunger4 ,the other crew had been driven about for six days1 and were not so dejected1 but reduced to such a weak state that they were obliged to be drawn on board our vessel by ropes4 ,a brig bound for ,havannah took part of the men1 and we took the remainder4 ,to attempt any description of my feelings on witnessing such scenes would be in vain4 ,you will not be surprised to learn that ,i felt somewhat uneasy at the thought that we were so far from ,england1 and that ,i also might possibly suffer similar shipwreck2 but ,i consoled myself with the hope that fate would be more kind to us4 ,it was not so much so1 however1 as ,i had flattered myself2 for on voyaging towards ,new ,york1 after we had made the land1 we ran aground about midnight4 ,the vessel soon filled with water1 and1 being surrounded by the breaking surf1 the ship was soon split up1 and before morning our situation became perilous4 ,masts and all were cut away to prevent the hull rocking2 but all we could do was of no avail4 ,about #h o'clock on the following morning1 after a most miserable night1 we were taken off the wreck1 and were so fortunate as to reach the shore4 ,i saved my minerals1 but ,empson lost part of his botanical collection4 ,upon the whole1 we got off well2 and1 had ,i not been on the ,american side of the ,atlantic1 ,i 'guess' ,i would not have gone to sea again4 ,after a short tour in the ,united ,states and ,canada1 ,robert ,stephenson and his friend took ship for ,liverpool1 where they arrived at the end of ,november1 and at once proceeded to ,newcastle4 ,the factory was by no means in a prosperous state4 ,during the time ,robert had been in ,america it had been carried on at a loss2 and ,edward ,pease1 much disheartened1 wished to retire1 but ,george ,stephenson was unable to buy him out1 and the establishment had to be carried on in the hope that the locomotive might yet be established in public estimation as a practical and economical working power4 ,robert ,stephenson immediately instituted a rigid inquiry into the working of the concern1 unravelled the accounts1 which had fallen into confusion during his father's absence at ,liverpool2 and he soon succeeded in placing the affairs of the factory in a more healthy condition4 ,in all this he had the hearty support of his father1 as well as of the other partners4 ,the works of the ,liverpool and ,manchester ,railway were now approaching completion4 ,but1 singular to say1 the directors had not yet decided as to the tractive power to be employed in working the line when opened for traffic4 ,the differences of opinion among them were so great as apparently to be irreconcilable4 ,it was necessary1 however1 that they should come to some decision without further loss of time2 and many ,board meetings were accordingly held to discuss the subject4 ,the old-fashioned and well-tried system of horse haulage was not without its advocates2 but1 looking at the large amount of traffic which there was to be conveyed1 and at the probable delay in the transit from station to station if this method were adopted1 the directors1 after a visit made by them to the ,northumberland and ,durham railways in #ahbh1 came to the conclusion that the employment of horse power was inadmissible4 ,fixed engines had many advocates2 the locomotive very few3 it stood as yet almost in a minority of one--,george ,stephenson4 ,the prejudice against the employment of the latter power had even increased since the ,liverpool and ,manchester ,bill underwent its first ordeal in the ,house of ,commons4 ,in proof of this1 we may mention that the ,newcastle and ,carlisle ,railway ,act was conceded in #ahbi1 on the express condition that it should not be worked by locomotives1 but by horses only4 ,grave doubts existed as to the practicability of working a large traffic by means of travelling engines4 ,the most celebrated engineers offered no opinion on the subject4 ,they did not believe in the locomotive1 and would scarcely take the trouble to examine it4 ,the ridicule with which ,george ,stephenson had been assailed by the barristers before the ,parliamentary ,committee had not been altogether distasteful to them4 ,perhaps they did not relish the idea of a man who had picked up his experience in ,newcastle coal-pits appearing in the capacity of a leading engineer before ,parliament1 and attempting to establish a new system of internal communication in the country4 ,the directors could not disregard the adverse and conflicting views of the professional men whom they consulted4 ,but ,mr4 ,stephenson had so repeatedly and earnestly urged upon them the propriety of making a trial of the locomotive before coming to any decision against it1 that they at length authorised him to proceed with the construction of one of his engines by way of experiment4 ,in their report to the proprietors at their annual meeting on1 the #bgth ,march1 #ahbh1 they state that they had1 after due consideration1 authorised the engineer to prepare a locomotive engine1 which1 from the nature of its construction and from the experiments already made1 he is of opinion will be effective for the purposes of the ,company1 without proving an annoyance to the public4 ,the locomotive thus ordered was placed upon the line in #ahbi1 and was found of great service in drawing the waggons full of marl from the two great cuttings4 ,in the mean time the discussion proceeded as to the kind of power to be permanently employed for the working of the railway4 ,the directors were inundated with schemes of all sorts for facilitating locomotion4 ,the projectors of ,england1 ,france1 and ,america1 seemed to be let loose upon them4 ,there were plans for working the waggons along the line by water power4 ,some proposed hydrogen1 and others carbonic acid gas4 ,atmospheric pressure had its eager advocates4 ,and various kinds of fixed and locomotive steam-power were suggested4 ,thomas ,gray urged his plan of a greased road with cog rails2 and ,messrs4 ,vignolles and ,ericsson recommended the adoption of a central friction rail1 against which two horizontal rollers under the locomotive1 pressing upon the sides of this rail1 were to afford the means of ascending the inclined planes4 ,the directors felt themselves quite unable to choose from amidst this multitude of projects4 ,the engineer expressed himself as decidedly as heretofore in favour of smooth rails and locomotive engines1 which1 he was confident1 would be found the most economical and by far the most convenient moving power that could be employed4 ,the ,stockton and ,darlington ,railway being now at work1 another deputation went down personally to inspect the fixed and locomotive engines on that line1 as well as at ,hetton and ,killingworth4 ,they returned to ,liverpool with much information2 but their testimony as to the relative merits of the two kinds of engines was so contradictory1 that the directors were as far from a decision as ever4 ,they then resolved to call to their aid two professional engineers of high standing1 who should visit the ,darlington and ,newcastle railways1 carefully examine both modes of working--the fixed and the locomotive1--and report to them fully on the subject4 ,the gentlemen selected were ,mr4 ,walker of ,limehouse1 and ,mr4 ,rastrick of ,stourbridge4 ,after carefully examining the modes of working the northern railways1 they made their report to the directors in the spring of #ahbi4 ,they concurred in the opinion that the cost of an establishment of fixed engines would be somewhat greater than that of locomotives to do the same work2 but thought the annual charge would be less if the former were adopted4 ,they calculated that the cost of moving a ton of goods thirty miles by fixed engines would be #f4dj;d41 and by locomotives1 #h4cf;d41--assuming a profitable traffic to be obtained both ways4 ,at the same time it was admitted that there appeared more ground for expecting improvements in the construction and working of locomotives than of stationary engines4 ,on the whole1 however1 and looking especially at the computed annual charge of working the road on the two systems on a large scale1 the two reporting engineers were of opinion that fixed engines were preferable1 and accordingly recommended their adoption4 ,and1 in order to carry the system recommended by them into effect1 they proposed to divide the railroad between ,liverpool and ,manchester into nineteen stages of about a mile and a half each1 with twenty-one engines fixed at the different points to work the trains forward4 ,such was the result1 so far1 of ,george ,stephenson's labours4 ,two of the best practical engineers of the day concurred in reporting substantially in favour of the employment of fixed engines4 ,not a single professional man of eminence supported the engineer in his preference for locomotive over fixed engine power4 ,he had scarcely an adherent1 and the locomotive system seemed on the eve of being abandoned4 ,still he did not despair4 ,with the profession as well as public opinion against him--for the most frightful stories were abroad respecting the dangers1 the unsightliness1 and the nuisance which the locomotive would create--,stephenson held to his purpose4 ,even in this1 apparently the darkest hour of the locomotive1 he did not hesitate to declare that locomotive railroads would1 before many years had passed1 be the great highways of the world4 ,he urged his views upon the directors in all ways1 and1 as some of them thought1 at all seasons4 ,he pointed out the greater convenience of locomotive power for the purposes of a public highway1 likening it to a series of short unconnected chains1 any one of which could be removed and another substituted without interruption to the traffic2 whereas the fixed engine system might be regarded in the light of a continuous chain extending between the two termini1 the failure of any link of which would derange the whole4 #bjf ,he represented to the ,board that the locomotive was yet capable of great improvements1 if proper inducements were held out to inventors and machinists to make them2 and he pledged himself that1 if time were given him1 he would construct an engine that should satisfy their requirements1 and prove itself capable of working heavy loads along the railway with speed1 regularity and safety4 ,at length1 influenced by his persistent earnestness not less than by his arguments1 the directors1 at the suggestion of ,mr4 ,harrison1 determined to offer a prize of #ejj pounds for the best locomotive engine1 which1 on a certain day1 should be produced on the railway1 and perform certain specified conditions in the most satisfactory manner4 #bjg ,it was now felt that the fate of railways in a great measure depended upon the issue of this appeal to the mechanical genius of ,england4 ,when the advertisement of the prize for the best locomotive was published1 scientific men began more particularly to direct their attention to the new power which was thus struggling into existence4 ,in the mean time public opinion on the subject of railway working remained suspended1 and the progress of the undertaking was watched with intense interest4 ,during the progress of the discussion with reference to the kind of power to be employed1 ,mr4 ,stephenson was in constant communication with his son ,robert1 who made frequent visits to ,liverpool for the purpose of assisting his father in the preparation of his reports to the ,board on the subject4 ,they had also many conversations as to the best mode of increasing the powers and perfecting the mechanism of the locomotive4 ,these became more frequent and interesting1 when the prize was offered for the best locomotive1 and the working plans of the engine which they proposed to construct came to be settled4 ,one of the most important considerations in the new engine was the arrangement of the boiler and the extension of its heating surface to enable steam enough to be raised rapidly and continuously1 for the purpose of maintaining high rates of speed1--the effect of high-pressure engines being ascertained to depend mainly upon the quantity of steam which the boiler can generate1 and upon its degree of elasticity when produced4 ,the quantity of steam so generated1 it will be obvious1 must depend chiefly upon the quantity of fuel consumed in the furnace1 and by necessary consequence1 upon the high rate of temperature maintained there4 ,it will be remembered that in ,stephenson's first ,killingworth engines he invented and applied the ingenious method of stimulating combustion in the furnace1 by throwing the waste steam into the chimney after performing its office in the cylinders1 thus accelerating the ascent of the current of air1 greatly increasing the draught1 and consequently the temperature of the fire4 ,this plan was adopted by him1 as we have already seen1 as early as #ahae2 and it was so successful that he himself attributed to it the greater economy of the locomotive as compared with horse power4 ,hence the continuance of its use upon the ,killingworth ,railway4 ,though the adoption of the steam-blast greatly quickened combustion and contributed to the rapid production of high-pressure steam1 the limited amount of heating surface presented to the fire was still felt to be an obstacle to the complete success of the locomotive engine4 ,mr4 ,stephenson endeavoured to overcome this by lengthening the boilers and increasing the surface presented by the flue-tubes4 ,the ,lancashire ,witch1 which he built for the ,bolton and ,leigh ,railway1 and used in forming the ,liverpool and ,manchester ,railway embankments1 was constructed with a double tube1 each of which contained a fire and passed longitudinally through the boiler4 ,but this arrangement necessarily led to a considerable increase in the weight of the engine1 which amounted to about twelve tons2 and as six tons was the limit allowed for engines admitted to the ,liverpool competition1 it was clear that the time was come when the ,killingworth locomotive must undergo a further important modification4 ,for many years previous to this period1 ingenious mechanics had been engaged in attempting to solve the problem of the best and most economical boiler for the production of high-pressure steam4 ,as early as #ahjc1 ,mr4 ,woolf patented a tubular boiler1 which was extensively employed at the ,cornish mines1 and was found greatly to facilitate the production of steam1 by the extension of the heating surface4 ,the ingenious ,trevithick1 in his patent of #ahae1 seems also to have entertained the idea of employing a boiler constructed of small perpendicular tubes1 with the same object of increasing the heating surface4 ,these tubes were to be closed at the bottom1 and open into a common reservoir1 from which they were to receive their water1 and where the steam of all the tubes was to be united4 ,about the same time ,george ,stephenson was trying the effect of introducing small tubes in the boilers of his locomotives1 with the object of increasing their evaporative power4 ,thus1 in #ahbi1 he sent to ,france two engines constructed at the ,newcastle works for the ,lyons and ,st4 ,etienne ,railway1 in the boilers of which tubes were placed containing water4 ,the heating surface was thus found to be materially increased2 but the expedient was not successful1 for the tubes1 becoming furred with deposit1 shortly burned out and were removed4 ,it was then that ,m4 ,seguin1 the engineer of the railway1 pursuing the same idea1 adopted his plan of employing horizontal tubes through which the heated air passed in streamlets4 ,mr4 ,henry ,booth1 the secretary of the ,liverpool and ,manchester ,railway1 without any knowledge of ,m4 ,seguin's proceedings1 next devised his plan of a tubular boiler1 which he brought under the notice of ,mr4 ,stephenson1 who at once adopted it1 and settled the mode in which the fire-box and tubes were to be mutually arranged and connected4 ,this plan was adopted in the construction of the celebrated ,rocket engine1 the building of which was immediately proceeded with at the ,newcastle works4 ,the principal circumstances connected with the construction of the ,rocket1 as described by ,robert ,stephenson to the author1 may be briefly stated4 ,the tubular principle was adopted in a more complete manner than had yet been attempted4 ,twenty-five copper tubes1 each three inches in diameter1 extended from one end of the boiler to the other1 the heated air passing through them on its way to the chimney2 and the tubes being surrounded by the water of the boiler1 it will be obvious that a large extension of the heating surface was thus effectually secured4 ,the principal difficulty was in fitting the copper tubes within the boiler so as to prevent leakage4 ,they were made by a ,newcastle coppersmith1 and soldered to brass screws which were screwed into the boiler ends1 standing out in great knobs4 ,when the tubes were thus fitted1 and the boiler was filled with water1 hydraulic pressure was applied2 but the water squirted out at every joint1 and the factory floor was soon flooded4 ,robert went home in despair2 and in the first moment of grief1 he wrote to his father that the whole thing was a failure4 ,by return of post came a letter from his father1 telling him that despair was not to be thought of--that he must try again2 and he suggested a mode of overcoming the difficulty1 which his son had already anticipated and proceeded to adopt4 ,it was1 to bore clean holes in the boiler ends1 fit in the smooth copper tubes as tightly as possible1 solder up1 and then raise the steam4 ,this plan succeeded perfectly1 the expansion of the copper tubes completely filling up all interstices1 and producing a perfectly watertight boiler1 capable of withstanding extreme internal pressure4 ,the mode of employing the steam-blast for the purpose of increasing the draught in the chimney1 was also the subject of numerous experiments4 ,when the engine was first tried1 it was thought that the blast in the chimney was not strong enough to keep up the intensity of the fire in the furnace1 so as to produce high-pressure steam in sufficient quantity4 ,the expedient was therefore adopted of hammering the copper tubes at the point at which they entered the chimney1 whereby the blast was considerably sharpened2 and on a further trial it was found that the draught was increased to such an extent as to enable abundance of steam to be raised4 ,the rationale of the blast may be simply explained by referring to the effect of contracting the pipe of a water-hose1 by which the force of the jet of water is proportionately increased4 ,widen the nozzle of the pipe1 and the force is in like manner diminished4 ,so is it with the steam-blast in the chimney of the locomotive4 ,doubts were1 however1 expressed whether the greater draught secured by the contraction of the blast-pipe was not counterbalanced in some degree by the negative pressure upon the piston4 ,a series of experiments was made with pipes of different diameters2 the amount of vacuum produced being determined by a glass tube open at both ends1 which was fixed to the bottom of the smoke-box1 and descended into a bucket of water4 ,as the rarefaction took place1 the water would of course rise in the tube2 and the height to which it rose above the surface of the water in the bucket was made the measure of the amount of rarefaction4 ,these experiments proved that a considerable increase of draught was obtained by the contraction of the orifice2 accordingly1 the two blast-pipes opening from the cylinders into either side of the ,rocket chimney1 and turned up within it1 were contracted slightly below the area of the steam-ports2 and before the engine left the factory1 the water rose in the glass tube three inches above the water in the bucket4 ,picture3 ,the ,rocket ,the other arrangements of the ,rocket were briefly these3--the boiler was cylindrical with flat ends1 #f feet in length1 and #c feet #d inches in diameter4 ,the upper half of the boiler was used as a reservoir for the steam1 the lower half being filled with water4 ,through the lower part1 #be copper tubes of #c inches diameter extended1 which were open to the fire-box at one end1 and to the chimney at the other4 ,the fire-box1 or furnace1 #b feet wide and #c feet high1 was attached immediately behind the boiler1 and was also surrounded with water4 ,the cylinders of the engine were placed on each side of the boiler1 in an oblique position1 one end being nearly level with the top of the boiler at its after end1 and the other pointing towards the centre of the foremost or driving pair of wheels1 with which the connection was directly made from the piston-rod1 to a pin on the outside of the wheel4 ,the engine1 together with its load of water1 weighed only #d4be tons1 and was supported on four wheels1 not coupled4 ,the tender was four-wheeled1 and similar in shape to a waggon1--the foremost part holding the fuel1 and the hind part a water-cask4 ,when the ,rocket was finished1 it was placed upon the ,killingworth railway for the purpose of experiment4 ,the new boiler arrangement was found perfectly successful4 ,the steam was raised rapidly and continuously1 and in a quantity which then appeared marvellous4 ,the same evening ,robert despatched a letter to his father at ,liverpool1 informing him1 to his great joy1 that the ,rocket was all right1 and would be in complete working trim by the day of trial4 ,the engine was shortly after sent by waggon to ,carlisle1 and thence shipped for ,liverpool4 ,the time so much longed for by ,george ,stephenson had now arrived1 when the merit of the passenger locomotive was to be put to a public test4 ,he had fought the battle for it until now almost single-handed4 ,engrossed by his daily labours and anxieties1 and harassed by difficulties and discouragements which would have crushed the spirit of a less resolute man1 he had held firmly to his purpose through good and through evil report4 ,the hostility which he experienced from some of the directors opposed to the adoption of the locomotive1 was the circumstance that caused him the greatest grief of all2 for where he had looked for encouragement1 he found only carping and opposition4 ,but his pluck never failed him2 and now the ,rocket was upon the ground1--to prove1 to use his own words1 whether he was a man of his word or not4 ,great interest was felt at ,liverpool1 as well as throughout the country1 in the approaching competition4 ,engineers1 scientific men1 and mechanics1 arrived from all quarters to witness the novel display of mechanical ingenuity on which such great results depended4 ,the public generally were no indifferent spectators either4 ,the inhabitants of ,liverpool1 ,manchester1 and the adjacent towns felt that the successful issue of the experiment would confer upon them individual benefits and local advantages almost incalculable1 whilst populations at a distance waited for the result with almost equal interest4 ,on the day appointed for the great competition of locomotives at ,rainhill1 the following engines were entered for the prize3-- #a4 ,messrs4 ,braithwaite and ,ericsson's ,novelty4 #bad #b4 ,mr4 ,timothy ,hackworth's ,sanspareil4 #c4 ,messrs4 ,r4 ,stephenson and ,co4's ,rocket4 #d4 ,mr4 ,burstall's ,perseverance4 ,another engine was entered by ,mr4 ,brandreth of ,liverpool--the ,cycloped1 weighing #c tons1 worked by a horse in a frame1 but it could not be admitted to the competition4 ,the above were the only four exhibited1 out of a considerable number of engines constructed in different parts of the country in anticipation of this contest1 many of which could not be satisfactorily completed by the day of trial4 ,the ground on which the engines were to be tried was a level piece of railroad1 about two miles in length4 ,each was required to make twenty trips1 or equal to a journey of #gj miles1 in the course of the day2 and the average rate of travelling was to be not under #aj miles an hour4 ,it was determined that1 to avoid confusion1 each engine should be tried separately1 and on different days4 ,picture3 ,locomotive competition at ,rainhill ,the day fixed for the competition was the #ast of ,october1 but to allow sufficient time to get the locomotives into good working order1 the directors extended it to the #fth4 ,on the morning of the #fth1 the ground at ,rainhill presented a lively appearance1 and there was as much excitement as if the ,st4 ,leger were about to be run4 ,many thousand spectators looked on1 amongst whom were some of the first engineers and mechanicians of the day4 ,a stand was provided for the ladies2 the beauty and fashion of the neighbourhood were present1 and the side of the railroad was lined with carriages of all descriptions4 ,it was quite characteristic of the ,stephensons1 that1 although their engine did not stand first on the list for trial1 it was the first that was ready2 and it was accordingly ordered out by the judges for an experimental trip4 ,yet the ,rocket was by no means the favourite with either the judges or the spectators4 ,a majority of the judges was strongly predisposed in favour of the ,novelty1 and nine-tenths of those present were against the ,rocket because of its appearance4 ,nearly every person favoured some other engine1 so that there was nothing for the ,rocket but the practical test4 ,the first trip which it made was quite successful4 ,it ran about #ab miles1 without interruption1 in about #ec minutes4 ,the ,novelty was next called out4 ,it was a light engine1 very compact in appearance1 carrying the water and fuel upon the same wheels as the engine4 ,the weight of the whole was only #c tons and #a hundredweight4 ,a peculiarity of this engine was that the air was driven or forced through the fire by means of bellows4 ,the day being now far advanced1 and some dispute having arisen as to the method of assigning the proper load for the ,novelty1 no particular experiment was made1 further than that the engine traversed the line by way of exhibition1 occasionally moving at the rate of #bd miles an hour4 ,the ,sanspareil1 constructed by ,mr4 ,timothy ,hackworth1 was next exhibited2 but no particular experiment was made with it on this day4 ,the contest was postponed until the following day1 but before the judges arrived on the ground1 the bellows for creating the blast in the ,novelty gave way1 and it was found incapable of going through its performance4 ,a defect was also detected in the boiler of the ,sanspareil2 and some further time was allowed to get it repaired4 ,the large number of spectators who had assembled to witness the contest were greatly disappointed at this postponement2 but1 to lessen it1 ,stephenson again brought out the ,rocket1 and1 attaching to it a coach containing thirty persons1 he ran them along the line at the rate of from #bd to #cj miles an hour1 much to their gratification and amazement4 ,before separating1 the judges ordered the engine to be in readiness by eight o'clock on the following morning1 to go through its definitive trial according to the prescribed conditions4 ,on the morning of the #hth ,october1 the ,rocket was again ready for the contest4 ,the engine was taken to the extremity of the stage1 the fire-box was filled with coke1 the fire lighted1 and the steam raised until it lifted the safety-valve loaded to a pressure of #ej pounds to the square inch4 ,this proceeding occupied fifty-seven minutes4 ,the engine then started on its journey1 dragging after it about #ac tons weight in waggons1 and made the first ten trips backwards and forwards along the two miles of road1 running the #ce miles1 including stoppages1 in one hour and #dh minutes4 ,the second ten trips were in like manner performed in #b hours and #c minutes4 ,the maximum velocity attained during the trial trip was #bi miles an hour1 or about three times the speed that one of the judges of the competition had declared to be the limit of possibility4 ,the average speed at which the whole of the journeys were performed was #ae miles an hour1 or #e miles beyond the rate specified in the conditions published by the ,company4 ,the entire performance excited the greatest astonishment amongst the assembled spectators2 the directors felt confident that their enterprise was now on the eve of success2 and ,george ,stephenson rejoiced to think that in spite of all false prophets and fickle counsellors1 the locomotive system was now safe4 ,when the ,rocket1 having performed all the conditions of the contest1 arrived at the grand stand at the close of its day's successful run1 ,mr4 ,cropper--one of the directors favourable to the fixed-engine system--lifted up his hands1 and exclaimed1 ,now has ,george ,stephenson at last delivered himself6 ,neither the ,novelty nor the ,sanspareil was ready for trial until the #ajth1 on the morning of which day an advertisement appeared1 stating that the former engine was to be tried on that day1 when it would perform more work than any engine upon the ground4 ,the weight of the carriages attached to it was only about #g tons4 ,the engine passed the first post in good style2 but in returning1 the pipe from the forcing-pump burst and put an end to the trial4 ,the pipe was afterwards repaired1 and the engine made several trips by itself1 in which it was said to have gone at the rate of from #bd to #bh miles an hour4 ,the ,sanspareil was not ready until the #acth2 and when its boiler and tender were filled with water1 it was found to weigh #d cwt4 beyond the weight specified in the published conditions as the limit of four-wheeled engines2 nevertheless the judges allowed it to run on the same footing as the other engines1 to enable them to ascertain whether its merits entitled it to favourable consideration4 ,it travelled at the average speed of about #ad miles an hour1 with its load attached2 but at the eighth trip the cold-water pump got wrong1 and the engine could proceed no further4 ,it was determined to award the premium to the successful engine on the following day1 the #adth1 on which occasion there was an unusual assemblage of spectators4 ,the owners of the ,novelty pleaded for another trial2 and it was conceded4 ,but again it broke down4 ,the owner of the ,sanspareil also requested the opportunity for making another trial of his engine4 ,but the judges had now had enough of failures2 and they declined1 on the ground that not only was the engine above the stipulated weight1 but that it was constructed on a plan which they could not recommend for adoption by the directors of the ,company4 ,one of the principal practical objections to this locomotive was the enormous quantity of coke consumed or wasted by it--about #fib lbs4 per hour when travelling--caused by the sharpness of the steam-blast in the chimney1 which blew a large proportion of the burning coke into the air4 ,the ,perseverance was found unable to move at more than five or six miles an hour2 and it was withdrawn from the contest at an early period4 ,the ,rocket was thus the only engine that had performed1 and more than performed1 all the stipulated conditions2 and its owners were declared to be fully entitled to the prize of #ejj pounds1 which was awarded to the ,messrs4 ,stephenson and ,booth accordingly4 ,and further1 to show that the engine had been working quite within its powers1 ,mr4 ,stephenson ordered it to be brought upon the ground and detached from all incumbrances1 when1 in making two trips1 it was found to travel at the astonishing rate of #ce miles an hour4 ,the ,rocket had thus eclipsed the performances of all locomotive engines that had yet been constructed1 and outstripped even the sanguine expectations of its constructors4 ,it satisfactorily answered the report of ,messrs4 ,walker and ,rastrick2 and established the efficiency of the locomotive for working the ,liverpool and ,manchester ,railway1 and indeed all future railways4 ,the ,rocket showed that a new power had been born into the world1 full of activity and strength1 with boundless capability of work4 ,it was the simple but admirable contrivance of the steam-blast1 and its combination with the multitubular boiler1 that at once gave the locomotive a vigorous life1 and secured the triumph of the railway system4 #bai ,it has been well observed1 that this wonderful ability to increase and multiply its powers of performance with the emergency that demands them1 has made this giant engine the noblest creation of human wit1 the very lion among machines4 ,the success of the ,rainhill experiment1 as judged by the public1 may be inferred from the fact that the shares of the ,company immediately rose ten per cent41 and nothing more was heard of the proposed twenty-one fixed engines1 engine-houses1 ropes1 etc4 ,all this cumbersome apparatus was thenceforward effectually disposed of4 ,very different now was the tone of those directors who had distinguished themselves by the persistency of their opposition to ,mr4 ,stephenson's plans4 ,coolness gave way to eulogy1 and hostility to unbounded offers of friendship--after the manner of many men who run to the help of the strong4 ,deeply though the engineer had felt aggrieved by the conduct pursued towards him during this eventful struggle1 by some from whom forbearance was to have been expected1 he never entertained towards them in after life any angry feelings2 on the contrary1 he forgave all4 ,but though the directors afterwards passed unanimous resolutions eulogising the great skill and unwearied energy of their engineer1 he himself1 when speaking confidentially to those with whom he was most intimate1 could not help pointing out the difference between his foul-weather and fair-weather friends4 ,mr4 ,gooch says of him that though naturally most cheerful and kind-hearted in his disposition1 the anxiety and pressure which weighed upon his mind during the construction of the railway1 had the effect of making him occasionally impatient and irritable1 like a spirited horse touched by the spur2 though his original good-nature from time to time shone through it all4 ,when the line had been brought to a successful completion1 a very marked change in him became visible4 ,the irritability passed away1 and when difficulties and vexations arose they were treated by him as matters of course1 and with perfect composure and cheerfulness4 ,picture3 ,railway versus ,road ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,opening ,,of ,,the ,,liverpool ,,and ,,manchester ,,railway1 ,,and ,,extension ,,of ,,the ,,railway ,,system4 ,the directors of the ,railway now began to see daylight2 and they derived encouragement from the skilful manner in which their engineer had overcome the principal difficulties of the undertaking4 ,he had formed a solid road over ,chat ,moss1 and thus achieved one impossibility2 and he had constructed a locomotive that could run at a speed of #cj miles an hour1 thus vanquishing a still more formidable difficulty4 ,a single line of way was completed over ,chat ,moss by the #ast of ,january1 #ahcj2 and on that day1 the ,rocket with a carriage full of directors1 engineers1 and their friends1 passed along the greater part of the road between ,liverpool and ,manchester4 ,mr4 ,stephenson continued to direct his close attention to the improvement of the details of the locomotive1 every successive trial of which proved more satisfactory4 ,in this department he had the benefit of the able and unremitting assistance of his son1 who1 in the workshops at ,newcastle1 directly superintended the construction of the new engines required for the public working of the railway4 ,he did not by any means rest satisfied with the success1 decided though it was1 which had been achieved by the ,rocket4 ,he regarded it but in the light of a successful experiment2 and every succeeding engine placed upon the railway exhibited some improvement on its predecessors4 ,the arrangement of the parts1 and the weight and proportions of the engines1 were altered1 as the experience of each successive day1 or week1 or month1 suggested2 and it was soon found that the performances of the ,rocket on the day of trial had been greatly within the powers of the locomotive4 ,the first entire trip between ,liverpool and ,manchester was performed on the #adth of ,june1 #ahcj1 on the occasion of a ,board meeting being held at the latter town4 ,the train was on this occasion drawn by the ,arrow1 one of the new locomotives1 in which the most recent improvements had been adopted4 ,mr4 ,stephenson himself drove the engine1 and ,captain ,scoresby1 the circumpolar navigator1 stood beside him on the foot-plate1 and minuted the speed of the train4 ,a great concourse of people assembled at both termini1 as well as along the line1 to witness the novel spectacle of a train of carriages dragged by an engine at a speed of #ag miles an hour4 ,on the return journey to ,liverpool in the evening1 the ,arrow crossed ,chat ,moss at a speed of nearly #bg miles an hour1 reaching its destination in about an hour and a half4 ,in the mean time ,mr4 ,stephenson and his assistants were diligently occupied in making the necessary preliminary arrangements for the conduct of the traffic against the time when the line should be ready for opening4 ,the experiments made with the object of carrying on the passenger traffic at quick velocities were of an especially harassing and anxious character4 ,every week1 for nearly three months before the opening1 trial trips were made to ,newton and back1 generally with two or three trains following each other1 and carrying altogether from #bjj to #cjj persons4 ,these trips were usually made on ,saturday afternoons1 when the works could be more conveniently stopped and the line cleared4 ,in these experiments ,mr4 ,stephenson had the able assistance of ,mr4 ,henry ,booth1 the secretary of the ,company1 who contrived many of the arrangements in the rolling stock1 not the least valuable of which was his invention of the coupling screw1 still in use on all passenger railways4 ,at length the line was finished1 and ready for the public ceremony of the opening1 which took place on the #aeth ,september1 #ahcj1 and attracted a vast number of spectators4 ,the completion of the railway was justly regarded as an important national event1 and the opening was celebrated accordingly4 ,the ,duke of ,wellington1 then ,prime ,minister1 ,sir ,robert ,peel1 and ,mr4 ,huskisson1 one of the members for ,liverpool1 were among the number of distinguished public personages present4 ,eight locomotive engines1 constructed at the ,stephenson works1 had been delivered and placed upon the line1 the whole of which had been tried and tested weeks before1 with perfect success4 ,the several trains of carriages accommodated in all about six hundred persons4 ,the procession was cheered in its progress by thousands of spectators--through the deep ravine of ,olive ,mount2 up the ,sutton incline2 over the great ,sankey viaduct1 beneath which a great multitude of persons had assembled1--carriages filling the narrow lanes1 and barges crowding the river2 the people below gazing with wonder and admiration at the trains which sped along the line1 far above their heads1 at the rate of some #bd miles an hour4 ,at ,parkside1 about #ag miles from ,liverpool1 the engines stopped to take in water4 ,here a deplorable accident occurred to one of the illustrious visitors1 which threw a deep shadow over the subsequent proceedings of the day4 ,the ,northumbrian engine1 with the carriage containing the ,duke of ,wellington1 was drawn up on one line1 in order that the whole of the trains on the other line might pass in review before him and his party4 ,mr4 ,huskisson had alighted from the carriage1 and was standing on the opposite road1 along which the ,rocket was observed rapidly coming up4 ,at this moment the ,duke of ,wellington1 between whom and ,mr4 ,huskisson some coolness had existed1 made a sign of recognition1 and held out his hand4 ,a hurried but friendly grasp was given2 and before it was loosened there was a general cry from the bystanders of ,get in1 get in6 ,flurried and confused1 ,mr4 ,huskisson endeavoured to get round the open door of the carriage1 which projected over the opposite rail2 but in so doing he was struck down by the ,rocket1 and falling with his leg doubled across the rail1 the limb was instantly crushed4 ,his first words1 on being raised1 were1 ,i have met my death1 which unhappily proved true1 for he expired that same evening in the parsonage of ,eccles4 ,it was cited at the time as a remarkable fact1 that the ,northumbrian engine1 driven by ,george ,stephenson himself1 conveyed the wounded body of the unfortunate gentleman a distance of about #ae miles in #be minutes1 or at the rate of #cf miles an hour4 ,this incredible speed burst upon the world with the effect of a new and unlooked-for phenomenon4 ,the accident threw a gloom over the rest of the day's proceedings4 ,the ,duke of ,wellington and ,sir ,robert ,peel expressed a wish that the procession should return to ,liverpool4 ,it was1 however1 represented to them that a vast concourse of people had assembled at ,manchester to witness the arrival of the trains2 that report would exaggerate the mischief1 if they did not complete the journey2 and that a false panic on that day might seriously affect future railway travelling and the value of the ,company's property4 ,the party consented accordingly to proceed to ,manchester1 but on the understanding that they should return as soon as possible1 and refrain from further festivity4 ,as the trains approached ,manchester1 crowds of people were found covering the banks1 the slopes of the cuttings1 and even the railway itself4 ,the multitude1 become impatient and excited by the rumours which reached them1 had outflanked the military1 and all order was at an end4 ,the people clambered about the carriages1 holding on by the door-handles1 and many were tumbled over2 but1 happily no fatal accident occurred4 ,at the ,manchester station1 the political element began to display itself2 placards about ,peterloo1 etc41 were exhibited1 and brickbats were thrown at the carriage containing the ,duke4 ,on the carriages coming to a stand in the ,manchester station the ,duke did not descend1 but remained seated1 shaking hands with the women and children who were pushed forward by the crowd4 ,shortly after1 the trains returned to ,liverpool1 which they reached1 after considerable interruptions1 in the dark1 at a late hour4 ,on the following morning the railway was opened for public traffic4 ,the first train of #adj passengers was booked and sent on to ,manchester1 reaching it in the allotted period of two hours2 and from that time the traffic has regularly proceeded from day to day until now4 ,it is scarcely necessary that we should speak at any length of the commercial results of the ,liverpool and ,manchester ,railway4 ,suffice it to say that its success was complete and decisive4 ,the anticipations of its projectors were1 however1 in many respects at fault4 ,they had based their calculations almost entirely on the heavy merchandise traffic--such as coal1 cotton1 and timber1--relying little upon passengers2 whereas the receipts derived from the conveyance of passengers far exceeded those derived from merchandise of all kinds1 which1 for a time continued a subordinate branch of the traffic4 ,for some time after the public opening of the line1 ,mr4 ,stephenson's ingenuity continued to be employed in devising improved methods for securing the safety and comfort of the travelling public4 ,few are aware of the thousand minute details which have to be arranged--the forethought and contrivance that have to be exercised--to enable the traveller by railway to accomplish his journey in safety4 ,after the difficulties of constructing a level road over bogs1 across valleys1 and through deep cuttings1 have been overcome1 the maintenance of the way has to be provided for with continuous care4 ,every rail with its fastenings must be complete1 to prevent risk of accident2 and the road must be kept regularly ballasted up to the level1 to diminish the jolting of vehicles passing over it at high speeds4 ,then the stations must be protected by signals observable from such a distance as to enable the train to be stopped in event of an obstacle1 such as a stopping or shunting train being in the way4 ,for some years the signals employed on the ,liverpool railway were entirely given by men with flags of different colours stationed along the line2 there were no fixed signals1 nor electric telegraphs2 but the traffic was nevertheless worked quite as safely as under the more elaborate and complicated system of telegraphing which has since been established4 ,from an early period it became obvious that the iron road as originally laid down was far too weak for the heavy traffic which it had to carry4 ,the line was at first laid with fish-bellied rails weighing thirty-five pounds to the yard1 calculated only for horse-traffic1 or1 at most1 for engines like the ,rocket1 of very light weight4 ,but as the power and the weight of the locomotives were increased1 it was found that such rails were quite insufficient for the safe conduct of the traffic1 and it therefore became necessary to re-lay the road with heavier and stronger rails at considerably increased expense4 ,the details of the carrying stock had in like manner to be settled by experience4 ,everything had1 as it were1 to be begun from the beginning4 ,the coal-waggon1 it is true1 served in some degree as a model for the railway-truck2 but the railway passenger-carriage was an entirely novel structure4 ,it had to be mounted upon strong framing1 of a peculiar kind1 supported on springs to prevent jolting4 ,then there was the necessity for contriving some method of preventing hard bumping of the carriage-ends when the train was pulled up2 and hence the contrivance of buffer-springs and spring frames4 ,for the purpose of stopping the train1 brakes on an improved plan were also contrived1 with new modes of lubricating the carriage-axles1 on which the wheels revolved at an unusually high velocity4 ,in all these arrangements1 ,mr4 ,stephenson's inventiveness was kept constantly on the stretch2 and though many improvements in detail have been effected since his time1 the foundations were then laid by him of the present system of conducting railway traffic4 ,as an illustration of the inventive ingenuity which he displayed in providing for the working of the ,liverpool line1 we may mention his contrivance of the ,self-acting ,brake4 ,he early entertained the idea that the momentum of the running train might itself be made available for the purpose of checking its speed4 ,he proposed to fit each carriage with a brake which should be called into action immediately on the locomotive at the head of the train being pulled up4 ,the impetus of the carriages carrying them forward1 the buffer-springs would be driven home and1 at the same time1 by a simple arrangement of the mechanism1 the brakes would be called into simultaneous action2 thus the wheels would be brought into a state of sledge1 and the train speedily stopped4 ,this plan was adopted by ,mr4 ,stephenson before he left the ,liverpool and ,manchester ,railway1 though it was afterwards discontinued2 but it is a remarkable fact1 that this identical plan1 with the addition of a centrifugal apparatus1 has quite recently been revived by ,m4 ,guerin1 a ,french engineer1 and extensively employed on foreign railways1 as the best method of stopping railway trains in the most efficient manner and in the shortest time4 ,finally1 ,mr4 ,stephenson had to attend to the improvement of the power and speed of the locomotive--always the grand object of his study1--with a view to economy as well as regularity of working4 ,in the ,planet engine1 delivered upon the line immediately subsequent to the public opening1 all the improvements which had up to that time been contrived by him and his son were introduced in combination--the blast-pipe1 the tubular boiler1 horizontal cylinders inside the smoke-box1 the cranked axle1 and the fire-box firmly fixed to the boiler4 ,the first load of goods conveyed from ,liverpool to ,manchester by the ,planet was #hj tons in weight1 and the engine performed the journey against a strong head wind in #b4e hours4 ,on another occasion1 the same engine brought up a cargo of voters from ,manchester to ,liverpool1 during a contested election1 within a space of sixty minutes6 ,the ,samson1 delivered in the following year1 exhibited still further improvements1 the most important of which was that of coupling the fore and hind wheels of the engine4 ,by this means1 the adhesion of the wheels on the rails was more effectually secured1 and thus the full hauling power of the locomotive was made available4 ,the ,samson1 shortly after it was placed upon the line1 dragged after it a train of waggons weighing #aej tons at a speed of about #bj miles an hour2 the consumption of coke being reduced to only about a third of a pound per ton per mile4 ,the success of the ,liverpool and ,manchester experiment naturally excited great interest4 ,people flocked to ,lancashire from all quarters to see the steam-coach running upon a railway at three times the speed of a mailcoach1 and to enjoy the excitement of actually travelling in the wake of an engine at that incredible velocity4 ,the travellers returned to their respective districts full of the wonders of the locomotive1 considering it to be the greatest marvel of the age4 ,railways are familiar enough objects now1 and our children who grow up in their midst may think little of them2 but thirty years since it was an event in one's life to see a locomotive1 and to travel for the first time upon a public railroad4 ,the practicability of railway locomotion being now proved1 and its great social and commercial advantages ascertained1 the general extension of the system was merely a question of time1 money1 and labour4 ,although the legislature took no initiative step in the direction of railway extension1 the public spirit and enterprise of the country did not fail it at this juncture4 ,the ,english people1 though they may be defective in their capacity for organization1 are strong in individualism2 and not improbably their admirable qualities in the latter respect detract from their efficiency in the former4 ,thus1 in all times1 their greatest enterprises have not been planned by officialism and carried out upon any regular system1 but have sprung1 like their constitution1 their laws1 and their entire industrial arrangements1 from the force of circumstances and the individual energies of the people4 ,the mode of action in the case of railway extension1 was characteristic and national4 ,the execution of the new lines was undertaken entirely by joint-stock associations of proprietors1 after the manner of the ,stockton and ,darlington1 and ,liverpool and ,manchester companies4 ,these associations are conformable to our national habits1 and fit well into our system of laws4 ,they combine the power of vast resources with individual watchfulness and motives of self-interest2 and by their means gigantic undertakings1 which otherwise would be impossible to any but kings and emperors with great national resources at command1 were carried out by the co-operation of private persons4 ,and the results of this combination of means and of enterprise have been truly marvellous4 ,within the life of the present generation1 the private citizens of ,england engaged in railway extension have1 in the face of ,government obstructions1 and without taking a penny from the public purse1 executed a system of communications involving works of the most gigantic kind1 which1 in their total mass1 their cost1 and their public utility1 far exceed the most famous national undertakings of any age or country4 ,mr4 ,stephenson was of course1 actively engaged in the construction of the numerous railways now projected by the joint-stock companies4 ,the desire for railway extension principally pervaded the manufacturing districts1 especially after the successful opening of the ,liverpool and ,manchester line4 ,the commercial classes of the larger towns soon became eager for a participation in the good which they had so recently derided4 ,railway projects were set on foot in great numbers1 and ,manchester became a centre from which main lines and branches were started in all directions4 ,the interest1 however1 which attaches to these later schemes is of a much less absorbing kind than that which belongs to the earlier history of the railway and the steps by which it was mainly established4 ,we naturally sympathise more keenly with the early struggles of a great principle1 its trials and its difficulties1 than with its after stages of success2 and1 however gratified and astonished we may be at its consequences1 the interest is in a great measure gone when its triumph has become a matter of certainty4 ,the commercial results of the ,liverpool and ,manchester line were so satisfactory1 and indeed so greatly exceeded the expectations of its projectors1 that many of the abandoned projects of the speculative year #ahbe were forthwith revived4 ,an abundant crop of engineers sprang up1 ready to execute railways of any extent4 ,now that the ,liverpool and ,manchester line had been made1 and the practicability of working it by locomotive power had been proved1 it was as easy for engineers to make railways and to work them1 as it was for navigators to find ,america after ,columbus had made the first voyage4 ,mr4 ,francis ,giles attached himself to the ,newcastle and ,carlisle and ,london and ,southampton projects4 ,mr4 ,brunel appeared as engineer of the line projected between ,london and ,bristol2 and ,mr4 ,braithwaite1 the builder of the ,novelty engine1 acted in the same capacity for a railway from ,london to ,colchester4 ,the first lines constructed subsequent to the opening of the ,liverpool and ,manchester ,railway1 were mostly in connection with it1 and principally in the county of ,lancaster4 ,thus a branch was formed from ,bolton to ,leigh1 and another from ,leigh to ,kenyon1 where it formed a junction with the main line between ,liverpool and ,manchester4 ,branches to ,wigan on the north1 and to ,runcorn ,gap and ,warrington on the south of the same line1 were also formed4 ,a continuation of the latter1 as far south as ,birmingham1 was shortly after projected under the name of the ,grand ,junction ,railway4 ,the last mentioned line was projected as early as the year #ahbd1 when the ,liverpool and ,manchester scheme was under discussion1 and ,mr4 ,stephenson then published a report on the subject4 ,the plans were deposited1 but the bill was thrown out through the opposition of the landowners and canal proprietors4 ,when engaged in making the survey1 ,stephenson called upon some of the landowners in the neighbourhood of ,nantwich to obtain their assent1 and was greatly disgusted to learn that the agents of the canal companies had been before him1 and described the locomotive to the farmers as a most frightful machine1 emitting a breath as poisonous as the fabled dragon of old2 and telling them that if a bird flew over the district where one of these engines passed1 it would inevitably drop down dead6 ,the application for the bill was renewed in #ahbf1 and again failed2 and at length it was determined to wait the issue of the ,liverpool and ,manchester experiment4 ,the act was eventually obtained in #ahcc4 ,when it was proposed to extend the advantages of railways to the population of the midland and southern counties of ,england1 an immense amount of alarm was created in the minds of the country gentlemen4 ,they did not relish the idea of private individuals1 principally resident in the manufacturing districts1 invading their domains2 and they everywhere rose up in arms against the new-fangled roads4 ,colonel ,sibthorpe openly declared his hatred of the infernal railroads1 and said that he would rather meet a highwayman1 or see a burglar on his premises1 than an engineer6 ,the impression which prevailed in the rural districts was1 that fox-covers and game-preserves would be seriously prejudiced by the formation of railroads2 that agricultural communications would be destroyed1 land thrown out of cultivation1 landowners and farmers reduced to beggary1 the poor-rates increased through the number of persons thrown out of employment by the railways1--and all this in order that ,liverpool1 ,manchester1 and ,birmingham shopkeepers and manufacturers might establish a monstrous monopoly in railway traffic4 ,the inhabitants of even some of the large towns were thrown into a state of consternation by the proposal to provide them with the accommodation of a railway4 ,the line from ,london to ,birmingham would naturally have passed close to the handsome town of ,northampton1 and was so projected2 but the inhabitants of the shire1 urged on by the local press1 and excited by men of influence and education1 opposed the project1 and succeeded in forcing the promoters1 in their survey of the line1 to pass the town at a distance4 ,when the first railway through ,kent was projected1 the line was laid out so as to pass by ,maidstone1 the county town4 ,but it had not a single supporter amongst the townspeople1 whilst the landowners for many miles round combined to oppose it4 ,in like manner1 the line projected from ,london to ,bristol was strongly denounced by the inhabitants of the intermediate districts2 and when the first bill was thrown out1 ,eton assembled under the presidency of the ,marquis of ,chandos to congratulate the country upon its defeat4 ,during the time that the works of the ,liverpool and ,manchester line were in progress1 our engineer was consulted respecting a short railway proposed to be formed between ,leicester and ,swannington1 for the purpose of opening up a communication between the town of ,leicester and the coal-fields in the western part of the county4 ,the projector of this undertaking had some difficulty in getting the requisite capital subscribed for1 the ,leicester townspeople who had money being for the most part interested in canals4 ,george ,stephenson was invited to come upon the ground and survey the line4 ,he did so1 and then the projector told him of the difficulty he had in finding subscribers to the concern4 ,give me a sheet1 said ,stephenson1 and ,i will raise the money for you in ,liverpool4 ,the engineer was as good as his word1 and in a short time the sheet was returned with the subscription complete4 ,mr4 ,stephenson was then asked to undertake the office of engineer for the line1 but his answer was that he had thirty miles of railway in hand1 which were enough for any engineer to attend to properly4 ,was there any person he could recommend8 ,well1 said he1 ,i think my son ,robert is competent to undertake the thing4 ,would ,mr4 ,stephenson be answerable for him8 ,oh1 yes1 certainly4 ,and ,robert ,stephenson1 at twenty-seven years of age1 was installed engineer of the line accordingly4 ,picture3 ,map of ,leicester and ,swannington ,railway ,the requisite ,parliamentary powers having been obtained1 ,robert ,stephenson proceeded with the construction of the railway1 about #af miles in length1 towards the end of #ahcj4 ,the works were comparatively easy1 excepting at the ,leicester end1 where the young engineer encountered his first stiff bit of tunnelling4 ,the line passed underground for #a4ge mile1 and #ejj yards of its course lay in loose dry running sand4 ,the presence of this material rendered it necessary for the engineer first to construct a wooden tunnel to support the soil while the brickwork was being executed4 ,this proved sufficient1 and the whole was brought to a successful termination within a reasonable time4 ,while the works were in progress1 ,robert kept up a regular correspondence with his father at ,liverpool1 consulting him on all points in which his greater experience was likely to be of service4 ,like his father1 ,robert was very observant1 and always ready to seize opportunity by the forelock4 ,it happened that the estate of ,snibston1 near ,ashby-de-la-,zouch1 was advertised for sale2 and the young engineer's experience as a coal-viewer and practical geologist suggested to his mind that coal was most probably to be found underneath4 ,he communicated his views to his father on the subject4 ,the estate lay in the immediate neighbourhood of the railway2 and if the conjecture proved correct1 the finding of coal would necessarily greatly enhance its value4 ,he accordingly requested his father to come over to ,snibston and look at the property1 which he did2 and after a careful inspection of the ground1 he arrived at the same conclusion as his son4 ,the large manufacturing town of ,leicester1 about fourteen miles distant1 had up to that time been exclusively supplied with coal brought by canal from ,derbyshire2 and ,mr4 ,stephenson saw that the railway under construction from ,swannington to ,leicester1 would furnish him with a ready market for any coals which he might find at ,snibston4 ,having induced two of his ,liverpool friends to join him in the venture1 the ,snibston estate was purchased in #ahca3 and shortly after1 ,stephenson removed his home from ,liverpool to ,alton ,grange1 for the purpose of superintending the sinking of the pit4 ,he travelled thither by gig with his wife1--his favourite horse ,bobby performing the journey by easy stages4 ,sinking operations were immediately begun1 and proceeded satisfactorily until the old enemy1 water1 burst in upon the workmen1 and threatened to drown them out4 ,but by means of efficient pumping-engines1 and the skilful casing of the shaft with segments of cast-iron--a process called tubbing1 #bcd which ,mr4 ,stephenson was the first to adopt in the ,midland ,counties--it was eventually made water-tight1 and the sinking proceeded4 ,when a depth of #aff feet had been reached1 a still more formidable difficulty presented itself--one which had baffled former sinkers in the neighbourhood1 and deterred them from further operations4 ,this was a remarkable bed of whinstone or green-stone1 which had originally been poured out as a sheet of burning lava over the denuded surface of the coal measures2 indeed it was afterwards found that it had turned to cinders one part of the seam of coal with which it had come in contact4 ,the appearance of this bed of solid rock was so unusual a circumstance in coal mining1 that some experienced sinkers urged ,stephenson to proceed no further1 believing the occurrence of the dyke at that point to be altogether fatal to his enterprise4 ,but1 with his faith still firm in the existence of coal underneath1 he fell back on his old motto of ,persevere4 ,he determined to go on boring2 and down through the solid rock he went until1 twenty-two feet lower1 he came upon the coal measures4 ,in the mean time1 however1 lest the boring at that point should prove unsuccessful1 he had commenced sinking another pair of shafts about a quarter of a mile west of the fault2 and after about nine months' labour he reached the principal seam1 called the main coal4 ,the works were then opened out on a large scale1 and ,mr4 ,stephenson had the pleasure and good fortune to send the first train of main coal to ,leicester by railway4 ,the price was immediately reduced to about #hs4 a ton1 effecting a pecuniary saving to the inhabitants of the town of about #dj1jjj pounds per annum1 or equivalent to the whole amount then collected in ,government taxes and local rates1 besides giving an impetus to the manufacturing prosperity of the place1 which has continued down to the present day4 ,the correct principles upon which the mining operations at ,snibston were conducted offered a salutary example to the neighbouring colliery owners4 ,the numerous improvements there introduced were freely exhibited to all1 and they were afterwards reproduced in many forms all over the ,midland ,counties1 greatly to the advantage of the mining interest4 ,nor was ,mr4 ,stephenson less attentive to the comfort and well-being of those immediately dependent upon him--the workpeople of the ,snibston colliery and their families4 ,unlike many of those large employers who have sprung from the ranks1 he was one of the kindest and most indulgent of masters4 ,he would have a fair day's work for a fair day's wages2 but he never forgot that the employer had his duties as well as his rights4 ,first of all1 he attended to the proper home accommodation of his workpeople4 ,he erected a village of comfortable cottages1 each provided with a snug little garden4 ,he was also instrumental in erecting a church adjacent to the works1 as well as ,church schools for the education of the colliers' children2 and with that broad catholicity of sentiment which distinguished him1 he further provided a chapel and a school-house for the use of the ,dissenting portion of the colliers and their families--an example of benevolent liberality which was not without a salutary influence upon the neighbouring employers4 ,picture3 ,stephenson's ,house at ,alton ,grange ,picture3 ,robert ,stephenson ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,robert ,,stephenson ,,constructs ,,the ,,london ,,and ,,birmingham ,,railway4 ,of the numerous extensive projects which followed close upon the completion of the ,liverpool and ,manchester line1 and the ,locomotive triumph at ,rainhill1 that of a railway between ,london and ,birmingham was the most important4 ,the scheme originated at the latter place in #ahcj4 ,two committees were formed1 and two plans were proposed4 ,one was of a line to ,london by way of ,oxford1 and the other by way of ,coventry4 ,the simple object of the promoters of both schemes being to secure the advantages of railway communication with the metropolis1 they wisely determined to combine their strength to secure it4 ,they then resolved to call ,george ,stephenson to their aid1 and requested him to advise them as to the two schemes which were before them4 ,after a careful examination of the country1 ,mr4 ,stephenson reported in favour of the ,coventry route1 when the ,lancashire gentlemen1 who were the principal subscribers to the project1 having every confidence in his judgment1 supported his decision1 and the line recommended by him was adopted accordingly4 ,at the meeting of the promoters held at ,birmingham to determine on the appointment of the engineer for the railway1 there was a strong party in favour of associating with ,mr4 ,stephenson a gentleman with whom he had been brought into serious collision in the course of the ,liverpool and ,manchester undertaking4 ,when the offer was made to him that he should be joint engineer with the other1 he requested leave to retire and consider the proposal with his son4 ,the father was in favour of accepting it4 ,his struggle heretofore had been so hard that he could not bear the idea of missing so promising an opportunity of professional advancement4 ,but the son1 foreseeing the jealousies and heartburnings which the joint engineership would most probably create1 recommended his father to decline the connection4 ,george adopted the suggestion1 and returning to the ,committee1 he announced to them his decision2 on which the promoters decided to appoint him the engineer of the undertaking in conjunction with his son4 ,this line1 like the ,liverpool and ,manchester1 was very strongly opposed1 especially by the landowners4 ,numerous pamphlets were published1 calling on the public to beware of the bubbles1 and holding up the promoters of railways to ridicule4 ,they were compared to ,st4 ,john ,long and similar quacks1 and pronounced fitter for ,bedlam than to be left at large4 ,the canal proprietors1 landowners1 and road trustees1 made common cause against them4 ,the failure of railways was confidently predicted--indeed1 it was elaborately attempted to be proved that they had failed2 and it was industriously spread abroad that the locomotive engines1 having been found useless and highly dangerous on the ,liverpool and ,manchester line1 were immediately to be abandoned in favour of horses--a rumour which the directors of the ,company thought it necessary publicly to contradict4 ,public meetings were held in all the counties through which the line would pass between ,london and ,birmingham1 at which the project was denounced1 and strong resolutions against it were passed4 ,the attempt was made to conciliate the landlords by explanations1 but all such efforts proved futile1 the owners of nearly seven-eighths of the land being returned as dissentients4 ,i remember1 said ,robert ,stephenson1 describing the opposition1 that we called one day on ,sir ,astley ,cooper1 the eminent surgeon1 in the hope of overcoming his aversion to the railway4 ,he was one of our most inveterate and influential opponents4 ,his country house at ,berkhampstead was situated near the intended line1 which passed through part of his property4 ,we found a courtly1 fine-looking old gentleman1 of very stately manners1 who received us kindly and heard all we had to say in favour of the project4 ,but he was quite inflexible in his opposition to it4 ,no deviation or improvement that we could suggest had any effect in conciliating him4 ,he was opposed to railways generally1 and to this in particular4 ',your scheme1' said he1 'is preposterous in the extreme4 ,it is of so extravagant a character1 as to be positively absurd4 ,then look at the recklessness of your proceedings6 ,you are proposing to cut up our estates in all directions for the purpose of making an unnecessary road4 ,do you think for one moment of the destruction of property involved by it8 ,why1 gentlemen1 if this sort of thing be permitted to go on1 you will in a very few years destroy the noblesse6' ,we left the honourable baronet without having produced the slightest effect upon him1 excepting perhaps1 it might be1 increased exasperation against our scheme4 #a could not help observing to my companions as we left the house1 ',well1 it is really provoking to find one who has been made a ,sir for cutting that wen out of ,george the ,fourth's neck1 charging us with contemplating the destruction of the noblesse1 because we propose to confer upon him the benefits of a railroad4' ,such being the opposition of the owners of land1 it was with the greatest difficulty that an accurate survey of the line could be made4 ,at one point the vigilance of the landowners and their servants was such1 that the surveyors were effectually prevented taking the levels by the light of day2 and it was only at length accomplished at night by means of dark lanterns4 ,there was one clergyman1 who made such alarming demonstrations of his opposition1 that the extraordinary expedient was resorted to of surveying his property during the time he was engaged in the pulpit4 ,this was managed by having a strong force of surveyors in readiness to commence their operations1 who entered the clergyman's grounds on one side the moment they saw him fairly off them on the other4 ,by a well-organised and systematic arrangement each man concluded his allotted task just as the reverend gentleman concluded his sermon2 so that1 before he left the church1 the deed was done1 and the sinners had all decamped4 ,similar opposition was offered at many other points1 but ineffectually4 ,the laborious application of ,robert ,stephenson was such1 that in examining the country to ascertain the best line1 he walked the whole distance between ,london and ,birmingham upwards of twenty times4 ,when the bill went before the ,committee of the ,commons in #ahcb1 a formidable array of evidence was produced4 ,all the railway experience of the day was brought to bear in support of the measure1 and all that interested opposition could do was set in motion against it4 ,the necessity for an improved mode of communication between ,london and ,birmingham was clearly demonstrated2 and the engineering evidence was regarded as quite satisfactory4 ,not a single fact was proved against the utility of the measure1 and the bill passed the ,committee1 and afterwards the third reading in the ,commons1 by large majorities4 ,it was then sent to the ,lords1 and went into ,committee1 when a similar mass of testimony was again gone through4 ,but it had been evident1 from the opening of the proceedings1 that the fate of the bill had been determined before even a word of the evidence had been heard4 ,at that time the committees were open to all peers2 and the promoters of the bill found1 to their dismay1 many of the lords who were avowed opponents of the measure as landowners1 sitting as judges to decide its fate4 ,their principal object seemed to be1 to bring the proceedings to a termination as quickly as possible4 ,an attempt at negotiation was indeed made in the course of the proceedings in committee1 but failed1 and the bill was thrown out4 ,as the result had been foreseen1 measures were taken to neutralise the effect of this decision as regarded future operations4 ,not less than #cb1jjj pounds had been expended in preliminary and parliamentary expenses up to this stage2 but the promoters determined not to look back1 and forthwith made arrangements for prosecuting the bill in the next session4 ,strange to say1 the bill then passed both ,houses silently and almost without opposition4 ,the mystery was afterwards solved by the appearance of a circular issued by the directors of the company1 in which it was stated1 that they had opened negotiations with the most influential of their opponents2 that these measures had been successful to a greater extent than they had ventured to anticipate2 and the most active and formidable had been conciliated4 ,an instructive commentary on the mode by which these noble lords and influential landed proprietors had been conciliated1 was the simple fact that the estimate for land was nearly trebled1 and that the owners were paid about #gej1jjj pounds for what had been originally estimated at #bej1jjj pounds4 ,the landowners having thus been conciliated1 the promoters of the measure were permitted to proceed with the formation of their great highway4 ,robert ,stephenson was1 with the sanction of his father1 appointed sole engineer2 and steps were at once taken by him to make the working survey1 to prepare the working drawings1 and arrange for the construction of the railway4 ,eighty miles of the road were shortly under contract1 having been let within the estimates2 and the works were in satisfactory progress by the beginning of #ahcd4 ,the difficulties encountered in their construction were very great2 the most formidable of them originating in the character of the works themselves4 ,extensive tunnels had to be driven through unknown strata1 and miles of underground excavation had to be carried out in order to form a level road from valley to valley1 under the intervening ridges4 ,this kind of work was the newest of all to the contractors of that day4 ,robert ,stephenson's experience in the collieries of the ,north rendered him well fitted to grapple with such difficulties2 yet even he1 with all his practical knowledge1 could scarcely have foreseen the serious obstacles which he was called upon to encounter in executing the formidable cuttings1 embankments1 and tunnels of the ,london and ,birmingham ,railway4 ,it would be an uninteresting1 as it would be a fruitless task1 to attempt to describe the works in detail2 but a general outline of their extraordinary character and extent may not be out of place4 ,picture3 ,rugby to ,watford ,the length of railway to be constructed between ,london and ,birmingham was #aab4e miles4 ,the line crossed a series of low-lying districts separated from each other by considerable ridges of hills2 and it was the object of the engineer to cross the valleys at as high1 and the hills at as low1 elevations as possible4 ,the high ground was therefore cut down and the stuff led into embankments1 in some places of great height and extent1 so as to form a road upon as level a plane as was considered practicable for the working of the locomotive engine4 ,in some places1 the high grounds were passed in open cuttings1 whilst in others it was necessary to bore through them in tunnels with deep cuttings at each end4 ,the most formidable excavations on the line are those at ,tring1 ,denbigh ,hall1 and ,blisworth4 ,the ,tring cutting is an immense chasm across the great chalk ridge of ,ivinghoe4 ,it is #b4e miles long1 and for #j4be of a mile is #eg feet deep4 ,a million and a half cubic yards of chalk and earth were taken out of this cutting by means of horse-runs and deposited in spoil banks2 besides the immense quantity run into the embankment north of the cutting1 forming a solid mound nearly #f miles long and about #cj feet high4 ,passing over the ,denbigh ,hall cutting1 and the ,wolverton embankment of #a4e mile in length across the valley of the ,ouse1 we come to the excavation at ,blisworth1 a brief description of which will give the reader an idea of one of the most difficult kinds of railway work4 ,picture3 ,blisworth ,cutting ,the ,blisworth ,cutting is one of the longest and deepest grooves cut in the solid earth4 ,it is #a4e mile long1 in some places #fe feet deep1 passing through earth1 stiff clay1 and hard rock4 ,not less than a million cubic yards of these materials were dug1 quarried1 and blasted out of it4 ,one-third of the cutting was stone1 and beneath the stone lay a thick bed of clay1 under which were found beds of loose shale so full of water that almost constant pumping was necessary at many points to enable the works to proceed4 ,for a year and a half the contractor went on fruitlessly contending with these difficulties1 and at length he was compelled to abandon the adventure4 ,the engineer then took the works in hand for the ,company1 and they were vigorously proceeded with4 ,steam-engines were set to work to pump out the water2 two locomotives were put on1 one at each end of the cutting1 to drag away the excavated rock and clay2 and #hjj men and boys were employed along the work1 in digging1 wheeling1 and blasting1 besides a large number of horses4 ,some idea of the extent of the blasting operations may be formed from the fact that #be barrels of gunpowder were used weekly2 the total quantity exploded in forming this one cutting being about #c1jjj barrels4 ,considerable difficulty was experienced in supporting the bed of rock cut through1 which overlaid the clay and shale along each side of the cutting4 ,it was found necessary to hold it up by strong retaining walls1 to prevent the clay bed from bulging out1 and these walls were further supported by a strong invert1--that is1 an arch placed in an inverted position under the road1--thus binding together the walls on both sides4 ,behind the retaining walls1 a drift or horizontal drain was provided to enable the water to run off1 and occasional openings were left in the walls themselves for the same purpose4 ,the work was at length brought to a successful completion1 but the extraordinary difficulties encountered in forming the cutting had the effect of greatly increasing the cost of this portion of the railway4 ,the ,tunnels on the line are eight in number1 their total length being #gccf yards4 ,the first high ground encountered was ,primrose ,hill1 where the stiff ,london clay was passed through for a distance of about #aafd yards4 ,the clay was close1 compact1 and dry1 more difficult to work than stone itself4 ,it was entirely free from water2 but the absorbing properties of the clay were such that when exposed to the air it swelled out rapidly4 ,hence an unusual thickness of brick lining was found necessary2 and the engineer afterwards informed the author that for some time he entertained an apprehension lest the pressure should force in the brickwork altogether4 ,it was so great that it made the face of the bricks to fly off in minute chips which covered his clothes whilst he was inspecting the work4 ,the materials used in the building were1 however1 of excellent quality2 and the tunnel was happily brought to a completion without any accident4 ,at ,watford the chalk ridge was penetrated by a tunnel about #ahjj yards long2 and at ,northchurch1 ,lindslade1 and ,stowe ,hill1 there were other tunnels of minor extent4 ,but the chief difficulty of the undertaking was the execution of that under the ,kilsby ridge4 ,though not the largest1 this is in many respects one of the most interesting works of the kind in ,england4 ,it is about #bdjj yards long1 and runs at an average depth of about #afj feet below the surface4 ,the ridge under which it extends is of considerable extent1 the famous battle of ,naseby having been fought upon one of the spurs of the same high ground about seven miles to the eastward4 ,previous to the letting of the contract1 the character of the underground soil was examined by trial-shafts4 ,the tests indicated that it consisted of shale of the lower oolite1 and the works were let accordingly4 ,but they had scarcely been commenced when it was discovered that1 at an interval between the two trial-shafts which had been sunk1 about #bjj yards from the south end of the tunnel1 there existed an extensive quicksand under a bed of clay #dj feet thick1 which the borings had escaped in the most singular manner4 ,at the bottom of one of these shafts the excavation and building of the tunnel were proceeding1 when the roof at one part suddenly gave way1 a deluge of water burst in1 and the party of workmen with the utmost difficulty escaped with their lives4 ,they were only saved by means of a raft1 on which they were towed by one of the engineers swimming with the rope in his mouth to the lower end of the shaft1 out of which they were safely lifted to the daylight4 ,the works were of course at that point immediately stopped4 ,picture3 ,the ,shafts over ,kilsby ,tunnel ,the contractor1 who had undertaken the construction of the tunnel1 was so overwhelmed by the calamity1 that1 though he was relieved by the ,company from his engagement1 he took to his bed and shortly after died4 ,pumping-engines were then erected for the purpose of draining off the water1 but for a long time it prevailed1 and sometimes even rose in the shaft4 ,the question then presented itself1 whether in the face of so formidable a difficulty1 the works should be proceeded with or abandoned4 ,robert ,stephenson sent over to ,alton ,grange for his father1 and the two took serious counsel together4 ,george was in favour of pumping out the water from the top by powerful engines erected over each shaft1 until the water was mastered4 ,robert concurred in that view1 and although other engineers pronounced strongly against the practicability of the scheme and advised its abandonment1 the directors authorised him to proceed2 and powerful steam-engines were ordered to be constructed and delivered without loss of time4 ,in the mean time1 ,robert suggested to his father the expediency of running a drift along the heading from the south end of the tunnel1 with the view of draining off the water in that way4 ,george said he thought it would scarcely answer1 but that it was worth a trial1 at all events until the pumping-engines were got ready4 ,robert accordingly gave orders for the drift to be proceeded with4 ,the excavators were immediately set to work2 and they were very soon close upon the sand bed4 ,one day1 when the engineer1 his assistants1 and the workmen were clustered about the open entrance of the drift-way1 they heard a sudden roar as of distant thunder4 ,it was hoped that the water had burst in--for all the workmen were out of the drift1--and that the sand bed would now drain itself off in a natural way4 ,instead of which1 very little water made its appearance2 and on examining the inner end of the drift1 it was found that the loud noise had been caused by the sudden discharge into it of an immense mass of sand1 which had completely choked up the passage1 and prevented the water from flowing away4 ,the engineer now found that there was nothing for it but to sink numerous additional shafts over the line of the tunnel at the points at which it crossed the quicksand1 and endeavour to master the water by sheer force of engines and pumps4 ,the engines erected1 possessed an aggregate power of #afj horses2 and they went on pumping for eight successive months1 emptying out an almost incredible quantity of water4 ,it was found that the water1 with which the bed of sand extending over many miles was charged1 was to a certain degree held back by the particles of the sand itself1 and that it could only percolate through at a certain average rate4 ,it appeared in its flow to take a slanting direction to the suction of the pumps1 the angle of inclination depending upon the coarseness or fineness of the sand1 and regulating the time of the flow4 ,hence the distribution of the pumping power at short intervals along the line of the tunnel had a much greater effect than the concentration of that power at any one spot4 ,it soon appeared that the water had found its master4 ,protected by the pumps1 which cleared a space for the engineering operations--carried on in the midst1 as it were1 of two almost perpendicular walls of water and sand on either side--the workmen proceeded with the building of the tunnel at numerous points4 ,every exertion was used to wall in the dangerous parts as quickly as possible2 the excavators and bricklayers labouring night and day until the work was finished4 ,even while under the protection of the immense pumping power above described1 it often happened that the bricks were scarcely covered with cement ready for the setting1 ere they were washed quite clean by the streams of water which poured from overhead4 ,the men were accordingly under the necessity of holding over their work large whisks of straw and other appliances to protect the bricks and cement at the moment of setting4 ,the quantity of water pumped out of the sand bed during eight months of incessant pumping1 averaged #b1jjj gallons per minute1 raised from an average depth of #abj feet4 ,it is difficult to form an adequate idea of the bulk of the water thus raised1 but it may be stated that if allowed to flow for three hours only1 it would fill a lake one acre square to the depth of one foot1 and if allowed to flow for one entire day it would fill the lake to over eight feet in depth1 or sufficient to float vessels of #ajj tons burthen4 ,the water pumped out of the tunnel while the work was in progress would be nearly equivalent to the contents of the ,thames at high water1 between ,london and ,woolwich4 ,it is a curious circumstance that notwithstanding the quantity thus removed1 the level of the surface of the water in the tunnel was only lowered about #b4e to #c inches per week1 proving the vast area of the quicksand1 which probably extended along the entire ridge of land under which the railway passed4 ,the cost of the line was greatly increased by the difficulties encountered at ,kilsby4 ,the original estimate for the tunnel was only #ii1jjj pounds2 but before it was finished it had cost more than #ajj pounds per lineal yard forward1 or a total of nearly #cjj1jjj pounds4 ,the expenditure on the other parts of the line also greatly exceeded the amount first set down by the engineer2 and before the works were finished it was more than doubled4 ,the land cost three times more than the estimate2 and the claims for compensation were enormous4 ,although the contracts were let within the estimates1 very few of the contractors were able to complete them without the assistance of the ,company1 and many became bankrupt4 ,the magnitude of the works1 which were unprecedented in ,england1 was one of the most remarkable features in the undertaking4 ,the following striking comparison has been made between this railway and one of the greatest works of ancient times4 ,the ,great ,pyramid of ,egypt was1 according to ,diodorus ,siculus1 constructed by #cjj1jjj--;according to ,herodotus1 by #ajj1jjj--men4 ,it required for its execution twenty years1 and the labour expended upon it has been estimated as equivalent to lifting #ae1gcc1jjj1jjj of cubic feet of stone one foot high4 ,whereas1 if the labour expended in constructing the ,london and ,birmingham ,railway be in like manner reduced to one common denomination the result is #be1jjj1jjj1jjj of cubic feet more than was lifted for the ,great ,pyramid2 and yet the ,english work was performed by about #bj1jjj men in less than five years4 ,and whilst the ,egyptian work was executed by a powerful monarch concentrating upon it the labour and capital of a great nation1 the ,english railway was constructed1 in the face of every conceivable obstruction and difficulty1 by a company of private individuals out of their own resources1 without the aid of ,government or the contribution of one farthing of public money4 ,the labourers who executed this formidable work were in many respects a remarkable class4 ,the railway navvies1 as they are called1 were men drawn by the attraction of good wages from all parts of the kingdom2 and they were ready for any sort of hard work4 ,some of the best came from the fen districts of ,lincoln and ,cambridge1 where they had been trained to execute works of excavation and embankment4 ,these old practitioners formed a nucleus of skilled manipulation and aptitude1 which rendered them of indispensable utility in the immense undertakings of the period4 ,their expertness in all sorts of earthwork1 in embanking1 boring1 and well-sinking--their practical knowledge of the nature of soils and rocks1 the tenacity of clays1 and the porosity of certain stratifications--were very great2 and1 rough-looking though they were1 many of them were as important in their own department as the contractor or the engineer4 ,during the railway-making period the navvy wandered about from one public work to another--apparently belonging to no country and having no home4 ,he usually wore a white felt hat with the brim turned up1 a velveteen or jean square-tailed coat1 a scarlet plush waistcoat with little black spots1 and a bright-coloured kerchief round his herculean neck1 when1 as often happened1 it was not left entirely bare4 ,his corduroy breeches were retained in position by a leathern strap round the waist1 and were tied and buttoned at the knee1 displaying beneath a solid calf and foot encased in strong high-laced boots4 ,joining together in a butty gang1 some ten or twelve of these men would take a contract to cut out and remove so much dirt--as they denominated earth-cutting--fixing their price according to the character of the stuff1 and the distance to which it had to be wheeled and tipped4 ,the contract taken1 every man put himself on his mettle2 if any was found skulking1 or not putting forth his full working power1 he was ejected from the gang4 ,their powers of endurance were extraordinary4 ,in times of emergency they would work for #ab and even #af hours1 with only short intervals for meals4 ,the quantity of flesh-meat which they consumed was something enormous2 but it was to their bones and muscles what coke is to the locomotive--the means of keeping up the steam4 ,they displayed great pluck1 and seemed to disregard peril4 ,indeed the most dangerous sort of labour--such as working horse-barrow runs1 in which accidents are of constant occurrence--has always been most in request amongst them1 the danger seeming to be one of its chief recommendations4 ,working1 eating1 drinking1 and sleeping together1 and daily exposed to the same influences1 these railway labourers soon presented a distinct and well-defined character1 strongly marking them from the population of the districts in which they laboured4 ,reckless alike of their lives as of their earnings1 the navvies worked hard and lived hard4 ,for their lodging1 a hut of turf would content them2 and1 in their hours of leisure1 the meanest public-house would serve for their parlour4 ,unburdened1 as they usually were1 by domestic ties1 unsoftened by family affection1 and without much moral or religious training1 the navvies came to be distinguished by a sort of savage manners1 which contrasted strangely with those of the surrounding population4 ,yet1 ignorant and violent though they might be1 they were usually good-hearted fellows in the main--frank and openhanded with their comrades1 and ready to share their last penny with those in distress4 ,their pay-nights were often a saturnalia of riot and disorder1 dreaded by the inhabitants of the villages along the line of works4 ,the irruption of such men into the quiet hamlet of ,kilsby must1 indeed1 have produced a very startling effect on the recluse inhabitants of the place4 ,robert ,stephenson used to tell a story of the clergyman of the parish waiting upon the foreman of one of the gangs to expostulate with him as to the shocking impropriety of his men working during ,sunday4 ,but the head navvy merely hitched up his trousers1 and said1 ,why1 ,soondays hain't cropt out here yet6 ,in short1 the navvies were little better than heathens1 and the village of ,kilsby was not restored to its wonted quiet until the tunnel-works were finished1 and the engines and scaffoldings removed1 leaving only the immense masses of debris around the line of shafts which extend along the top of the tunnel4 ,in illustration of the extraordinary working energy and powers of endurance of the ,english navvies1 we may mention that when railway-making extended to ,france1 the ,english contractors for the works took with them gangs of ,english navvies1 with the usual plant1 which included wheelbarrows4 ,these the ,english navvy was accustomed to run out rapidly and continuously1 piled so high with stuff that he could barely see over the summit of his load1 the gang-board along which he wheeled his barrow4 ,while he thus easily ran out some #c or #d cwt4 at a time1 the ,french navvy was contented with half the weight4 ,indeed1 the ,french navvies on one occasion struck work because of the size of the ,english barrows1 and there was an emeute on the ,rouen ,railway1 which was only quelled by the aid of the military4 ,the consequence was that the big barrows were abandoned to the ,english workmen1 who earned nearly double the wages of the ,frenchmen4 ,the manner in which they stood to their work was matter of great surprise and wonderment to the ,french countrypeople1 who came crowding round them in their blouses1 and1 after gazing admiringly at their expert handling of the pick and mattock1 and the immense loads of dirt which they wheeled out1 would exclaim to each other1 ,mon ,dieu1 voila6 voila ces ,anglais1 comme ils travaillent6 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,manchester ,,and ,,leeds1 ,,and ,,midland ,,railways--,,stephenson',s ,,life ,,at ,,alton--,,visit ,,to ,,belgium--,,general ,,extension ,,of ,,railways ,,and ,,their ,,results4 ,the rapidity with which railways were carried out1 when the spirit of the country became roused1 was indeed remarkable4 ,this was doubtless in some measure owing to the increased force of the current of speculation at the time1 but chiefly to the desire which the public began to entertain for the general extension of the system4 ,it was even proposed to fill up the canals1 and convert them into railways4 ,the new roads became the topic of conversation in all circles2 they were felt to give a new value to time2 their vast capabilities for business peculiarly recommended them to the trading classes2 whilst the friends of progress dilated on the great benefits they would eventually confer upon mankind at large4 ,it began to be seen that ,edward ,pease had not been exaggerating when he said1 ,let the country but make the railroads1 and the railroads will make the country6 ,they also came to be regarded as inviting objects of investment to the thrifty1 and a safe outlet for the accumulations of inert men of capital4 ,thus new avenues of iron road were soon in course of formation1 branching in all directions1 so that the country promised in a wonderfully short time to become wrapped in one vast network of iron4 ,in #ahcf the ,grand ,junction ,railway was under construction between ,warrington and ,birmingham--the northern part by ,mr4 ,stephenson1 and the southern by ,mr4 ,rastrick4 ,the works on that line embraced heavy cuttings1 long embankments1 and numerous viaducts2 but none of these are worthy of any special description4 ,perhaps the finest piece of masonry on the railway is the ,dutton ,viaduct across the valley of the ,weaver4 ,it consists of twenty arches of #fj feet span1 springing #af feet from the perpendicular shaft of each pier1 and #fj feet in height from the crown of the arches to the level of the river4 ,the foundations of the piers were built on piles driven #bj feet deep4 ,the structure has a solid and majestic appearance1 and is perhaps the finest of ,george ,stephenson's viaducts4 ,picture3 ,the ,dutton ,viaduct ,the ,manchester and ,leeds line was in progress at the same time--an important railway connecting the principal manufacturing towns of ,yorkshire and ,lancashire4 ,an attempt was made to obtain the ,act as early as #ahca2 but its promoters were defeated by the powerful opposition of the landowners aided by the canal companies1 and the project was not revived for several years4 ,the line was somewhat circuitous1 and the works were heavy2 but on the whole the gradients were favourable1 and it had the advantage of passing through a district full of manufacturing towns and villages1 teeming hives of population1 industry1 and enterprise4 ,the ,act authorising the construction of the railway was obtained in #ahcf2 it was greatly amended in the succeeding year1 and the first ground was broken on the #ahth ,august1 #ahcg4 ,in conducting this project to an issue1 the engineer had the usual opposition and prejudices to encounter4 ,predictions were confidently made in many quarters that the line could never succeed4 ,it was declared that the utmost engineering skill could not construct a railway through such a country of hills and hard rocks2 and it was maintained that1 even if the railroad were practicable1 it could only be made at a ruinous cost4 ,during the progress of the works1 as the ,summit ,tunnel1 near ,littleborough1 was approaching completion1 the rumour was spread abroad in ,manchester that the tunnel had fallen in and buried a number of the workmen4 ,the last arch had been keyed in1 and the work was all but finished1 when the accident occurred which was thus exaggerated by the lying tongue of rumour4 ,an invert had given way through the irregular pressure of the surrounding earth and rock at a part of the tunnel where a fault had occurred in the strata4 ,a party of the directors accompanied the engineer to inspect the scene of the accident4 ,they entered the tunnel's mouth preceded by upwards of fifty navvies1 each bearing a torch4 ,after walking a distance of about half a mile1 the inspecting party arrived at the scene of the frightful accident1 about which so much alarm had been spread4 ,all that was visible was a certain unevenness of the ground1 which had been forced up by the invert under it giving way2 thus the ballast had been loosened1 the drain running along the centre of the road had been displaced1 and small pools of water stood about4 ,but the whole of the walls and the roof were still as perfect as at any other part of the tunnel4 ,picture3 ,entrance to the ,summit ,tunnel1 ,littleborough ,the engineer explained the cause of the accident2 the blue shale1 he said1 through which the excavation passed at that point1 was considered so hard and firm1 as to render it unnecessary to build the invert very strong there4 ,but shale is always a deceptive material4 ,subjected to the influence of the atmosphere1 it gives but a treacherous support4 ,in this case1 falling away like quicklime1 it had left the lip of the invert alone to support the pressure of the arch above1 and hence its springing inwards and upwards4 ,mr4 ,stephenson directed the attention of the visitors to the completeness of the arch overhead1 where not the slightest fracture or yielding could be detected4 ,speaking of the work1 in the course of the same day1 he said1 ,i will stake my character and my head1 if that tunnel ever give way1 so as to cause danger to any of the public passing through it4 ,taking it as a whole1 ,i don't think there is such another piece of work in the world4 ,it is the greatest work that has yet been done of this kind1 and there has been less repairing than is usual1--though an engineer might well be beaten in his calculations1 for he cannot beforehand see into those little fractured parts of the earth he may meet with4 ,as ,stephenson had promised1 the invert was put in2 and the tunnel was made perfectly safe4 ,the construction of this subterranean road employed the labour of above a thousand men for nearly four years4 ,besides excavating the arch out of a solid rock1 they used #bc1jjj1jjj of bricks1 and #hjjj tons of ,roman cement in the building of the tunnel4 ,thirteen stationary engines1 and about #ajj horses1 were also employed in drawing the earth and stone out of the shafts4 ,its entire length is #bhfi yards1 or nearly #a4ge mile--exceeding the famous ,kilsby ,tunnel by #dga yards4 ,the ,midland ,railway was a favourite line of ,mr4 ,stephenson's for several reasons4 ,it passed through a rich mining district1 in which it opened up many valuable coalfields1 and it formed part of the great main line of communication between ,london and ,edinburgh4 ,the ,act was obtained in #ahcf1 and the first ground was broken in ,february1 #ahcg4 ,although the ,midland ,railway was only one of the many great works of the same kind executed at that time1 it was almost enough of itself to be the achievement of a life4 ,compare it1 for example with ,napoleon's military road over the ,simplon1 and it will at once be seen how greatly it excels that work1 not only in the constructive skill displayed in it1 but also in its cost and magnitude1 and the amount of labour employed in its formation4 ,the road of the ,simplon is #de miles in length2 the ,north ,midland ,railway is #gb4e miles4 ,the former has #ej bridges and #e tunnels1 measuring together #acch feet in length2 the latter has #bjj bridges and #g tunnels1 measuring together #aa1djj feet1 or about #b4be miles4 ,the former cost about #gbj1jjj pounds sterling1 the latter above #c1jjj1jjj pounds4 ,napoleon's grand military road was constructed in six years1 at the public cost of the two great kingdoms of ,france and ,italy2 while ,stephenson's railway was formed in about three years1 by a company of private merchants and capitalists out of their own funds1 and under their own superintendence4 ,it is scarcely necessary that we should give any account in detail of the ,north ,midland works4 ,the making of one tunnel so much resembles the making of another1--the building of bridges and viaducts1 no matter how extensive1 so much resembles the building of others1--the cutting out of dirt1 the blasting of rocks1 and the wheeling of excavation into embankments1 is so much a matter of mere time and hard work1--that is quite unnecessary for us to detain the reader by any attempt at their description4 ,of course there were the usual difficulties to encounter and overcome1--but the railway engineer regarded these as mere matters of course1 and would probably have been disappointed if they had not presented themselves4 ,on the ,midland1 as on other lines1 water was the great enemy to be fought against1--water in the ,claycross and other tunnels1--water in the boggy or sandy foundations of bridges1--and water in cuttings and embankments4 ,as an illustration of the difficulties of bridge building1 we may mention the case of the five-arch bridge over the ,derwent1 where it took two years' work1 night and day1 to get in the foundations of the piers alone4 ,another curious illustration of the mischief done by water in cuttings may be briefly mentioned4 ,at a part of the ,north ,midland ,line1 near ,ambergate1 it was necessary to pass along a hillside in a cutting a few yards deep4 ,as the cutting proceeded1 a seam of shale was cut across1 lying at an inclination of #f to #a2 and shortly after1 the water getting behind the bed of shale1 the whole mass of earth along the hill above began to move down across the line of excavation4 ,the accident completely upset the estimates of the contractor1 who1 instead of #ej1jjj cubic yards1 found that he had about #ejj1jjj to remove2 the execution of this part of the railway occupying fifteen months instead of two4 ,picture3 ,land-slip on ,north ,midland ,line1 near ,ambergate ,the ,oakenshaw cutting near ,wakefield was also of a very formidable character4 ,about #fjj1jjj yards of rock shale and bind were quarried out of it1 and led to form the adjoining ,oakenshaw embankment4 ,the ,normanton cutting was almost as heavy1 requiring the removal of #djj1jjj yards of the same kind of excavation into embankment and spoil4 ,but the progress of the works on the line was so rapid in #ahci1 that not less than #dej1jjj cubic yards of excavation were removed monthly4 ,picture3 ,bullbridge1 near ,ambergate ,as a curiosity in construction1 we may also mention a very delicate piece of work executed on the same railway at ,bullbridge in ,derbyshire1 where the line at the same point passes over a bridge which here spans the river ,amber1 and under the bed of the ,cromford ,canal4 ,water1 bridge2 railway1 and canal1 were thus piled one above the other1 four stories high2 such another curious complication probably not existing4 ,in order to prevent the possibility of the waters of the canal breaking in upon the works of the railroad1 ,mr4 ,stephenson had an iron trough made1 #aej feet long1 of the width of the canal1 and exactly fitting the bottom4 ,it was brought to the spot in three pieces1 which were firmly welded together1 and the trough was then floated into its place and sunk2 the whole operation being completed without in the least interfering with the navigation of the canal4 ,the railway works underneath were then proceeded with and finished4 ,another line of the same series constructed by ,george ,stephenson1 was the ,york and ,north ,midland1 extending from ,normanton--a point on the ,midland ,railway--to ,york2 but it was a line of easy formation1 traversing a comparatively level country4 ,during the time that our engineer was engaged in superintending the execution of these undertakings1 he was occupied upon other projected railways in various parts of the country4 ,he surveyed several lines in the neighbourhood of ,glasgow1 and afterwards routes along the east coast from ,newcastle to ,edinburgh1 with the view of completing the main line of communication with ,london4 ,when out on foot in the fields1 on these occasions1 he was ever foremost in the march2 and he delighted to test the prowess of his companions by a good jump at any hedge or ditch that lay in their way4 ,his companions used to remark his singular quickness of observation4 ,nothing escaped his attention--the trees1 the crops1 the birds1 or the farmer's stock2 and he was usually full of lively conversation1 everything in nature affording him an opportunity for making some striking remark1 or propounding some ingenious theory4 ,when taking a flying survey of a new line1 his keen observation proved very useful to him1 for he rapidly noted the general configuration of the country1 and inferred its geological structure4 ,he afterwards remarked to a friend1 ,i have planned many a railway travelling along in a postchaise1 and following the natural line of the country4 ,and it was remarkable that his first impressions of the direction to be taken almost invariably proved correct2 and there are few of the lines surveyed and recommended by him which have not been executed1 either during his lifetime or since4 ,as an illustration of his quick and shrewd observation on such occasions1 we may mention that when employed to lay out a line to connect ,manchester1 through ,macclesfield1 with the ,potteries1 the gentleman who accompanied him on the journey of inspection cautioned him to provide large accommodation for carrying off the water1 observing--,you must not judge by the appearance of the brooks2 for after heavy rains these hills pour down volumes of water1 of which you can have no conception4 ,pooh6 pooh6 don't ,i see your bridges8 replied the engineer4 ,he had noted the details of each as he passed along4 ,among the other projects which occupied his attention about the same time1 were the projected lines between ,chester and ,holyhead1 between ,leeds and ,bradford1 and between ,lancaster and ,maryport by the western coast4 ,this latter was intended to form part of a west-coast line to ,scotland2 ,stephenson favouring it partly because of the flatness of the gradients1 and also because it could be formed at comparatively small cost1 whilst it would open out a valuable iron-mining district1 from which a large traffic in ironstone was expected4 ,one of its collateral advantages1 in the engineer's opinion1 was1 that by forming the railway directly across ,morecambe ,bay1 on the north-west coast of ,lancashire1 a large tract of valuable land might be reclaimed from the sea1 the sale of which would considerably reduce the cost of the works4 ,he estimated that by means of a solid embankment across the bay1 not less than #dj1jjj acres of rich alluvial land would be gained4 ,he proposed to carry the road across the ten miles of sands which lie between ,poulton1 near ,lancaster1 and ,humphrey ,head on the opposite coast1 forming the line in a segment of a circle of five miles' radius4 ,his plan was to drive in piles across the entire length1 forming a solid fence of stone blocks on the land side for the purpose of retaining the sand and silt brought down by the rivers from the interior4 ,the embankment would then be raised from time to time as the deposit accumulated1 until the land was filled up to high-water mark2 provision being made by means of sufficient arches1 for the flow of the river waters into the bay4 ,the execution of the railway after this plan would1 however1 have occupied more years than the promoters of the ,west ,coast line were disposed to wait2 and eventually ,mr4 ,locke's more direct but uneven line by ,shap ,fell was adopted4 ,a railway has since been carried across the head of the bay2 and it is not improbable that ,stephenson's larger scheme of reclaiming the vast tract of land now left bare at each receding tide1 may yet be carried out4 ,while occupied in carrying out the great railway undertakings which we have above so briefly described1 ,mr4 ,stephenson's home continued1 for the greater part of the time1 to be at ,alton ,grange1 near ,leicester4 ,but he was so much occupied in travelling about from one committee of directors to another--one week in ,england1 another in ,scotland1 and probably the next in ,ireland1--that he often did not see his home for weeks together4 ,he had also to make frequent inspections of the various important and difficult works in progress1 especially on the ,midland and ,manchester and ,leeds lines2 besides occasionally going to ,newcastle to see how the locomotive works were going on there4 ,during the three years ending in #ahcg--perhaps the busiest years of his life #bfc--;he travelled by postchaise alone upwards of #bj1jjj miles1 and yet not less than six months out of the three years were spent in ,london4 ,hence there is comparatively little to record of ,mr4 ,stephenson's private life at this period2 during which he had scarcely a moment that he could call his own4 ,his correspondence increased so much1 that he found it necessary to engage a private secretary1 who accompanied him on his journeys4 ,he was himself exceedingly averse to writing letters4 ,the comparatively advanced age at which ho learnt the art of writing1 and the nature of his duties while engaged at the ,killingworth colliery1 precluded that facility in correspondence which only constant practice can give4 ,he gradually1 however1 acquired great facility in dictation1 and possessed the power of labouring continuously at this work2 the gentleman who acted as his secretary in #ahce1 having informed us that during his busy season he one day dictated not fewer than #cg letters1 several of them embodying the results of much close thinking and calculation4 ,on another occasion1 he dictated reports and letters for twelve continuous hours1 until his secretary was ready to drop off his chair from sheer exhaustion1 and at length he pleaded for a suspension of the labour4 ,this great mass of correspondence1 although closely bearing on the subjects under discussion1 was not1 however1 of a kind to supply the biographer with matter for quotation1 or give that insight into the life and character of the writer which the letters of literary men so often furnish4 ,they were1 for the most part1 letters of mere business1 relating to works in progress1 parliamentary contests1 new surveys1 estimates of cost1 and railway policy1--curt1 and to the point2 in short1 the letters of a man every moment of whose time was precious4 ,he was also frequently called upon to inspect and report upon colliery works1 salt works1 brass and copper works1 and such like1 in addition to his own colliery and railway business4 ,and occasionally he would run up to ,london1 for the purpose of attending in person to the preparation and deposit of the plans and sections of the projected undertakings of which he had been appointed engineer4 ,fortunately ,stephenson possessed a facility of sleeping1 which enabled him to pass through this enormous amount of fatigue and labour without injury to his health4 ,he had been trained in a hard school1 and could bear with ease conditions which1 to men more softly nurtured1 would have been the extreme of physical discomfort4 ,many1 many nights he snatched his sleep while travelling in his chaise2 and at break of day he would be at work1 surveying until dark1 and this for weeks in succession4 ,his whole powers seemed to be under the control of his will1 for he could wake at any hour1 and go to work at once4 ,it was difficult for secretaries and assistants to keep up with such a man4 ,it is pleasant to record that in the midst of these engrossing occupations1 his heart remained as soft and loving as ever4 ,in spring-time he would not be debarred of his boyish pursuit of bird-nesting2 but would go rambling along the hedges spying for nests4 ,in the autumn he went nutting1 and when he could snatch a few minutes he indulged in his old love of gardening4 ,his uniform kindness and good temper1 and his communicative1 intelligent disposition1 made him a great favourite with the neighbouring farmers1 to whom he would volunteer much valuable advice on agricultural operations1 drainage1 ploughing1 and labour-saving processes4 ,sometimes he took a long rural ride on his favourite ,bobby1 now growing old1 but as fond of his master as ever4 ,towards the end of his life1 ,bobby lived in clover1 its master's pet1 doing no work2 and he died at ,tapton1 in #ahde1 more than twenty years old4 ,during one of ,george's brief sojourns at the ,grange1 he found time to write to his son a touching account of a pair of robins that had built their nest within one of the upper chambers of the house4 ,one day he observed a robin fluttering outside the windows1 and beating its wings against the panes1 as if eager to gain admission4 ,he went up stairs1 and there found1 in a retired part of one of the rooms1 a robin's nest1 with one of the parent birds sitting over three or four young--all dead4 ,the excluded bird outside still beat against the panes2 and on the window being let down1 it flew into the room1 but was so exhausted that it dropped upon the floor4 ,mr4 ,stephenson took up the bird1 carried it down stairs1 had it warmed and fed4 ,the poor robin revived1 and for a time was one of his pets4 ,but it shortly died too1 as if unable to recover from the privations it had endured during its three days' fluttering and beating at the windows4 ,it appeared that the room had been unoccupied1 and1 the sash having been let down1 the robins had taken the opportunity of building their nest within it2 but the servant having closed the window again1 the calamity befel the birds which so strongly excited ,mr4 ,stephenson's sympathies4 ,an incident such as this1 trifling though it may seem1 gives the true key to the heart of the man4 ,the amount of their ,parliamentary business having greatly increased with the projection of new lines of railway1 the ,stephensons found it necessary to set up an office in ,london in #ahcf4 ,george's first office was at #i1 ,duke ,street1 ,westminster1 from whence he removed in the following year to #cj4e1 ,great ,george-street4 ,that office was the busy scene of railway politics for several years4 ,there consultations were held1 schemes were matured1 deputations were received1 and many projectors called upon our engineer for the purpose of submitting to him their plans of railways and railway working4 ,his private secretary at the time has informed us that at the end of the first ,parliamentary session in which he had been engaged as engineer for more companies than one1 it became necessary for him to give instructions as to the preparation of the accounts to be rendered to the respective companies4 ,in the simplicity of his heart1 he directed ,mr4 ,binns to take his full time at the rate of ten guineas a day1 and charge the railway companies in the proportion in which he had been actually employed on their respective business during each day4 ,when ,robert heard of this instruction1 he went directly to his father and expostulated with him against this unprofessional course2 and1 other influences being brought to bear upon him1 ,george at length reluctantly consented to charge as other engineers did1 an entire day's fee to each of the ,companies for which he was concerned whilst their business was going forward2 but he cut down the number of days charged for and reduced the daily amount from ten to seven guineas4 ,besides his journeys at home1 ,mr4 ,stephenson was on more than one occasion called abroad on railway business4 ,thus1 at the desire of ,king ,leopold1 he made several visits to ,belgium to assist the ,belgian engineers in laying out the national lines of that kingdom4 ,that enlightened monarch at an early period discerned the powerful instrumentality of railways in developing a country's resources1 and he determined at the earliest possible period to adopt them as the great high-roads of the nation4 ,the country1 being rich in coal and minerals1 had great manufacturing capabilities4 ,it had good ports1 fine navigable rivers1 abundant canals1 and a teeming1 industrious population4 ,leopold perceived that railways were eminently calculated to bring the industry of the country into full play1 and to render the riches of the provinces available to the rest of the kingdom4 ,he therefore openly declared himself the promoter of public railways throughout ,belgium4 ,a system of lines was projected1 at his instance1 connecting ,brussels with the chief towns and cities of the kingdom2 extending from ,ostend eastward to the ,prussian frontier1 and from ,antwerp southward to the ,french frontier4 ,mr4 ,stephenson and his son1 as the leading railway-engineers of ,england1 were consulted by the ,king on the best mode of carrying out his important plans1 as early as #ahce4 ,in the course of that year they visited ,belgium1 and had several interesting conferences with ,leopold and his ministers on the subject of the proposed railways4 ,the ,king then appointed ,george ,stephenson by royal ordinance a ,knight of the ,order of ,leopold4 ,at the invitation of the monarch1 ,mr4 ,stephenson made a second visit to ,belgium in #ahcg1 on the occasion of the public opening of the line from ,brussels to ,ghent4 ,at ,brussels there was a public procession1 and another at ,ghent on the arrival of the train4 ,stephenson and his party accompanied it to the ,public ,hall1 there to dine with the chief ,ministers of ,state1 the municipal authorities1 and about five hundred of the principal inhabitants of the city2 the ,english ,ambassador being also present4 ,after the ,king's health and a few others had been drunk1 that of ,mr4 ,stephenson was proposed2 on which the whole assembly rose up1 amidst great excitement and loud applause1 and made their way to where he sat1 in order to jingle glasses with him1 greatly to his own amazement4 ,on the day following1 our engineer dined with the ,king and ,queen at their own table at ,laaken1 by special invitation2 afterwards accompanying his ,majesty and suite to a public ball given by the municipality of ,brussels1 in honour of the opening of the line to ,ghent1 as well as of their distinguished ,english guest4 ,on entering the room1 the general and excited inquiry was1 ,which is ,stephenson8 ,the ,english engineer had not before imagined that he was esteemed to be so great a man4 ,the ,london and ,birmingham ,railway having been completed in ,september1 #ahch1 after being about five years in progress1 the great main system of railway communication between ,london1 ,liverpool1 and ,manchester was then opened to the public4 ,for some months previously1 the line had been partially opened1 coaches performing the journey between ,denbigh ,hall 7near ,wolverton7 and ,rugby1--the works of the ,kilsby tunnel being still incomplete4 ,it was already amusing to hear the complaints of the travellers about the slowness of the coaches as compared with the railway1 though the coaches travelled at the speed of eleven miles an hour4 ,the comparison of comfort was also greatly to the disparagement of the coaches4 ,then the railway train could accommodate any quantity1 whilst the road conveyances were limited2 and when a press of travellers occurred--as on the occasion of the ,queen's coronation--the greatest inconvenience was experienced1 and as much as #aj pounds was paid for a seat on a donkey-chaise between ,rugby and ,denbigh4 ,on the opening of the railway throughout1 of course all this inconvenience and delay was brought to an end4 ,numerous other openings of railways constructed by ,mr4 ,stephenson took place about the same time4 ,the ,birmingham and ,derby line was opened for traffic in ,august1 #ahci2 the ,sheffield and ,rotherham in ,november1 #ahci2 and in the course of the following year1 the ,midland1 the ,york and ,north ,midland1 the ,chester and ,crewe1 the ,chester and ,birkenhead1 the ,manchester and ,birmingham1 the ,manchester and ,leeds1 and the ,maryport and ,carlisle railways1 were all publicly opened in whole or in part4 ,thus #cba miles of railway 7exclusive of the ,london and ,birmingham7 constructed under ,mr4 ,stephenson's superintendence1 at a cost of upwards of eleven millions sterling1 were1 in the course of about two years1 added to the traffic accommodation of the country4 ,the ceremonies which accompanied the public opening of these lines were often of an interesting character4 ,the adjoining population held general holiday2 bands played1 banners waved1 and assembled thousands cheered the passing trains amidst the occasional booming of cannon4 ,the proceedings were usually wound up by a public dinner2 and in the course of the speeches which followed1 ,mr4 ,stephenson would revert to his favourite topic--the difficulties which he had early encountered in the promotion of the railway system1 and in establishing the superiority of the locomotive4 ,on such occasions he always took great pleasure in alluding to the services rendered to himself and the public by the young men brought up under his eye--his pupils at first1 and afterwards his assistants4 ,no great master ever possessed a more devoted band of assistants and fellow-workers than he did4 ,it was one of the most marked evidences of his own admirable tact and judgment that he selected1 with such undeviating correctness1 the men best fitted to carry out his plans4 ,indeed1 the ability to accomplish great things1 and to carry grand ideas into practical effect1 depends in no small measure on that intuitive knowledge of character1 which ,stephenson possessed in so remarkable a degree4 ,at the dinner at ,york1 which followed the partial opening of the ,york and ,north ,midland ,railway1 ,mr4 ,stephenson said1 he was sure they would appreciate his feelings when he told them1 that when he first began railway business his hair was black1 although it was now grey2 and that he began his life's labour as but a poor ploughboy4 ,about thirty years since1 he had applied himself to the study of how to generate high velocities by mechanical means4 ,he thought he had solved that problem2 and they had for themselves seen1 that day1 what perseverance had brought him too4 ,he was1 on that occasion1 only too happy to have an opportunity of acknowledging that he had1 in the latter portion of his career1 received much most valuable assistance1 particularly from young men brought up in his manufactory4 ,whenever talent showed itself in a young man he had always given that talent encouragement where he could1 and he would continue to do so4 ,that this was no exaggerated statement is amply proved by many facts which redound to ,mr4 ,stephenson's credit4 ,he was no niggard of encouragement and praise when he saw honest industry struggling for a footing4 ,many were the young men whom1 in the course of his useful career1 he took by the hand and led steadily up to honour and emolument1 simply because he had noted their zeal1 diligence1 and integrity4 ,one youth excited his interest while working as a common carpenter on the ,liverpool and ,manchester line2 and before many years had passed1 he was recognised as an engineer of distinction4 ,another young man he found industriously working away at his bye-hours1 and1 admiring his diligence1 engaged him for his private secretary1 the gentleman shortly after rising to a position of eminent influence and usefulness4 ,indeed1 nothing gave ,mr4 ,stephenson greater pleasure than in this way to help on any deserving youth who came under his observation1 and1 in his own expressive phrase1 to make a man of him4 ,the openings of the great main lines of railroad communication shortly proved the fallaciousness of the numerous rash prophecies which had been promulgated by the opponents of railways4 ,the proprietors of the canals were astounded by the fact that1 notwithstanding the immense traffic conveyed by rail1 their own traffic and receipts continued to increase2 and that1 in common with other interests1 they fully shared in the expansion of trade and commerce which had been so effectually promoted by the extension of the railway system4 ,the cattle-owners were equally amazed to find the price of horse-flesh increasing with the extension of railways1 and that the number of coaches running to and from the new railway stations gave employment to a greater number of horses than under the old stage-coach system4 ,those who had prophesied the decay of the metropolis1 and the ruin of the suburban cabbage-growers1 in consequence of the approach of railways to ,london1 were also disappointed2 for1 while the new roads let citizens out of ,london1 they let country-people in4 ,their action1 in this respect1 was centripetal as well as centrifugal4 ,tens of thousands who had never seen the metropolis could now visit it expeditiously and cheaply2 and ,londoners who had never visited the country1 or but rarely1 were enabled1 at little cost of time or money1 to see green fields and clear blue skies1 far from the smoke and bustle of town4 ,if the dear suburban-grown cabbages became depreciated in value1 there were truck-loads of fresh-grown country cabbages to make amends for the loss3 in this case1 the partial evil was a far more general good4 ,the food of the metropolis became rapidly improved1 especially in the supply of wholesome meat and vegetables4 ,and then the price of coals--an article which1 in this country1 is as indispensable as daily food to all classes--was greatly reduced4 ,what a blessing to the metropolitan poor is described in this single fact6 ,the prophecies of ruin and disaster to landlords and farmers were equally confounded by the openings of the railways4 ,the agricultural communications1 so far from being destroyed1 as had been predicted1 were immensely improved4 ,the farmers were enabled to buy their coals1 lime1 and manure for less money1 while they obtained a readier access to the best markets for their stock and farm-produce4 ,notwithstanding the predictions to the contrary1 their cows gave milk as before1 their sheep fed and fattened1 and even skittish horses ceased to shy at the passing locomotive4 ,the smoke of the engines did not obscure the sky1 nor were farmyards burnt up by the fire thrown from the locomotives4 ,the farming classes were not reduced to beggary2 on the contrary1 they soon felt that1 so far from having anything to dread1 they had very much good to expect from the extension of railways4 ,landlords also found that they could get higher rents for farms situated near a railway than at a distance from one4 ,hence they became clamorous for sidings4 ,they felt it to be a grievance to be placed at a distance from a station4 ,after a railway had been once opened1 not a landlord would consent to have the line taken from him4 ,owners who had fought the promoters before ,parliament1 and compelled them to pass their domains at a distance1 at a vastly-increased expense in tunnels and deviations1 now petitioned for branches and nearer station accommodation4 ,those who held property near towns1 and had extorted large sums as compensation for the anticipated deterioration in the value of their building land1 found a new demand for it springing up at greatly advanced prices4 ,land was now advertised for sale1 with the attraction of being near a railway station4 ,the prediction that1 even if railways were made1 the public would not use them1 was also completely falsified by the results4 ,the ordinary mode of fast travelling for the middle classes had heretofore been by mail-coach and stage-coach4 ,those who could not afford to pay the high prices charged for such conveyances went by waggon1 and the poorer classes trudged on foot4 ,george ,stephenson was wont to say that he hoped to see the day when it would be cheaper for a poor man to travel by railway than to walk1 and not many years passed before his expectation was fulfilled4 ,in no country in the world is time worth more money than in ,england2 and by saving time--the criterion of distance--the railway proved a great benefactor to men of industry in all classes4 ,it was some time before the more opulent1 who could afford to post to town in aristocratic style1 became reconciled to railway travelling4 ,in the opinion of many1 it was only another illustration of the levelling tendencies of the age4 ,it put an end to that gradation of rank in travelling which was one of the few things left by which the nobleman could be distinguished from the ,manchester manufacturer and bagman4 ,but to younger sons of noble families the convenience and cheapness of the railway did not fail to recommend itself4 ,one of these1 whose eldest brother had just succeeded to an earldom1 said one day to a railway manager3 ,i like railways--they just suit young fellows like me with 'nothing per annum paid quarterly4' ,you know we can't afford to post1 and it used to be deuced annoying to me1 as ,i was jogging along on the box-seat of the stage-coach1 to see the little ,earl go by drawn by his four posters1 and just look up at me and give me a nod4 ,but now1 with railways1 it's different4 ,it's true1 he may take a first-class ticket1 while ,i can only afford a second-class one1 but we both go the same pace4 ,for a time1 however1 many of the old families sent forward their servants and luggage by railroad1 and condemned themselves to jog along the old highway in the accustomed family chariot1 dragged by country post-horses4 ,but the superior comfort of the railway shortly recommended itself to even the oldest families2 posting went out of date2 post-horses were with difficulty to be had along even the great high-roads2 and nobles and servants1 manufacturers and peasants1 alike shared in the comfort1 the convenience1 and the despatch of railway travelling4 ,the late ,dr4 ,arnold1 of ,rugby1 regarded the opening of the ,london and ,birmingham line as another great step accomplished in the march of civilisation4 ,i rejoice to see it1 he said1 as he stood on one of the bridges over the railway1 and watched the train flashing along under him1 and away through the distant hedgerows--,i rejoice to see it1 and to think that feudality is gone for ever3 it is so great a blessing to think that any one evil is really extinct4 ,it was long before the late ,duke of ,wellington would trust himself behind a locomotive4 ,the fatal accident to ,mr4 ,huskisson1 which had happened before his eyes1 contributed to prejudice him strongly against railways1 and it was not until the year #ahdc that he performed his first trip on the ,south-,western ,railway1 in attendance upon her ,majesty4 ,prince ,albert had for some time been accustomed to travel by railway alone1 but in #ahdb the ,queen began to make use of the same mode of conveyance between ,windsor and ,london4 ,even ,colonel ,sibthorpe was eventually compelled to acknowledge its utility4 ,for a time he continued to post to and from the country as before4 ,then he compromised the matter by taking a railway ticket for the long journey1 and posting only a stage or two nearest town2 until1 at length1 he undisguisedly committed himself1 like other people1 to the express train1 and performed the journey throughout upon what he had formerly denounced as the infernal railroad4 ,picture3 ,coalville and ,snibston ,colliery ,picture3 ,tapton ,house1 near ,chesterfield ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,george ,,stephenson',s ,,coal ,,mines--,,appears ,,at ,,mechanics' ,,institutes--,,his ,,opinion ,,on ,,railway ,,speeds--,,atmospheric ,,system--,,railway ,,mania--,,visits ,,to ,,belgium ,,and ,,spain4 ,while ,george ,stephenson was engaged in carrying on the works of the ,midland ,railway in the neighbourhood of ,chesterfield1 several seams of coal were cut through in the ,claycross ,tunnel1 and it occurred to him that if mines were opened out there1 the railway would provide the means of a ready sale for the article in the midland counties1 and as far south as even the metropolis itself4 ,at a time when everybody else was sceptical as to the possibility of coals being carried from the midland counties to ,london1 and sold there at a price to compete with those which were seaborne1 he declared his firm conviction that the time was fast approaching when the ,london market would be regularly supplied with north-country coals led by railway4 ,one of the greatest advantages of railways1 in his opinion was that they would bring iron and coal1 the staple products of the country1 to the doors of all ,england4 ,the strength of ,britain1 he would say1 lies in her iron and coal beds2 and the locomotive is destined1 above all other agencies1 to bring it forth4 ,the ,lord ,chancellor now sits upon a bag of wool2 but wool has long ceased to be emblematical of the staple commodity of ,england4 ,he ought rather to sit upon a bag of coals1 though it might not prove quite so comfortable a seat4 ,then think of the ,lord ,chancellor being addressed as the noble and learned lord on the coal-sack6 ,i am afraid it wouldn't answer1 after all4 ,to one gentleman he said3 ,we want from the coal-mining1 the iron-producing and manufacturing districts1 a great railway for the carriage of these valuable products4 ,we want1 if ,i may so say1 a stream of steam running directly through the country1 from the ,north to ,london1 and from other similar districts to ,london4 ,speed is not so much an object as utility and cheapness4 ,it will not do to mix up the heavy merchandise and coal trains with the passenger trains4 ,coal and most kinds of goods can wait2 but passengers will not4 ,a less perfect road and less expensive works will do well enough for coal trains1 if run at a low speed2 and if the line be flat1 it is not of much consequence whether it be direct or not4 ,whenever you put passenger trains on a line1 all the other trains must be run at high speeds to keep out of their way4 ,but coal trains run at high speeds pull the road to pieces1 besides causing large expenditure in locomotive power2 and ,i doubt very much whether they will pay after all2 but a succession of long coal trains1 if run at from ten to fourteen miles an hour1 would pay very well4 ,thus the ,stockton and ,darlington ,company made a larger profit when running coal at low speeds at a halfpenny a ton per mile1 than they have been able to do since they put on their fast passenger trains1 when everything must needs be run faster1 and a much larger proportion of the gross receipts is absorbed by working expenses4 ,in advocating these views1 ,mr4 ,stephenson was considerably ahead of his time2 and although he did not live to see his anticipations fully realised as to the supply of the ,london coal-market1 he was nevertheless the first to point out1 and to some extent to prove1 the practicability of establishing a profitable coal trade by railway between the northern counties and the metropolis4 ,so long1 however1 as the traffic was conducted on main passenger lines at comparatively high speeds1 it was found that the expenditure on tear and wear of road and locomotive power1--not to mention the increased risk of carrying on the first-class passenger traffic with which it was mixed up1--necessarily left a very small margin of profit2 and hence ,mr4 ,stephenson was in the habit of urging the propriety of constructing a railway which should be exclusively devoted to goods and mineral traffic run at low speeds as the only condition on which a large railway traffic of that sort could be profitably conducted4 ,having induced some of his ,liverpool friends to join him in a coal-mining adventure at ,chesterfield1 a lease was taken of the ,claycross estate1 then for sale1 and operations were shortly after begun4 ,at a subsequent period ,mr4 ,stephenson extended his coal-mining operations in the same neighbourhood2 and in #ahda he himself entered into a contract with owners of land in adjoining townships for the working of the coal thereunder2 and pits were opened on the ,tapton estate on an extensive scale4 ,about the same time he erected great lime-works1 close to the ,ambergate station of the ,midland ,railway1 from which1 when in full operation he was able to turn out upwards of #bjj tons a day4 ,the limestone was brought on a tramway from the village of ,crich1 #b or #c miles distant1 the coal being supplied from his adjoining ,claycross colliery4 ,the works were on a scale such as had not before been attempted by any private individual engaged in a similar trade2 and we believe they proved very successful4 ,picture3 ,lime ,works at ,ambergate ,tapton ,house was included in the lease of one of the collieries1 and as it was conveniently situated--being1 as it were1 a central point on the ,midland ,railway1 from which he could readily proceed north or south1 on his journeys of inspection of the various lines then under construction in the midland and northern counties1--he took up his residence there1 and it continued his home until the close of his life4 ,tapton ,house is a large roomy brick mansion1 beautifully situated amidst woods1 upon a commanding eminence1 about a mile to the north-east of the town of ,chesterfield4 ,green fields dotted with fine trees slope away from the house in all directions4 ,the surrounding country is undulating and highly picturesque4 ,north and south the eye ranges over a vast extent of lovely scenery2 and on the west1 looking over the town of ,chesterfield1 with its church and crooked spire1 the extensive range of the ,derbyshire hills bounds the distance4 ,the ,midland ,railway skirts the western edge of the park in a deep rock cutting1 and the shrill whistle of the locomotive sounds near at hand as the trains speed past4 ,the gardens and pleasure-grounds adjoining the house were in a very neglected state when ,mr4 ,stephenson first went to ,tapton2 and he promised himself1 when he had secured rest and leisure from business1 that he would put a new face upon both4 ,the first improvement he made was cutting a woodland footpath up the hill-side1 by which he at the same time added a beautiful feature to the park1 and secured a shorter road to the ,chesterfield station4 ,but it was some years before he found time to carry into effect his contemplated improvements in the adjoining gardens and pleasure-grounds4 ,he had so long been accustomed to laborious pursuits1 and felt himself still so full of work1 that he could not at once settle down into the habit of quietly enjoying the fruits of his industry4 ,he had no difficulty in usefully employing his time4 ,besides directing the mining operations at ,claycross1 the establishment of the lime-kilns at ,ambergate1 and the construction of the extensive railways still in progress1 he occasionally paid visits to ,newcastle1 where his locomotive manufactory was now in full work1 and the proprietors were reaping the advantages of his early foresight in an abundant measure of prosperity4 ,one of his most interesting visits to the place was in #ahch1 on the occasion of the meeting of the ,british ,association there1 when he acted as one of the ,vice-,presidents in the section of ,mechanical ,science4 ,extraordinary changes had occurred in his own fortunes1 as well as in the face of the country1 since he had first appeared before a scientific body in ,newcastle--the members of the ,literary and ,philosophical ,institute--to submit his safety-lamp for their examination4 ,twenty-three years had passed over his head1 full of honest work1 of manful struggle2 and the humble colliery engine-wright of the name of ,stephenson had achieved an almost worldwide reputation as a public benefactor4 ,his fellow-townsmen1 therefore1 could not hesitate to recognise his merits and do honour to his name4 ,during the sittings of the ,association1 ,mr4 ,stephenson took the opportunity of paying a visit to ,killingworth1 accompanied by some of the distinguished savans whom he numbered amongst his friends4 ,he there pointed out to them1 with a degree of honest pride1 the cottage in which he had lived for so many years1 showed what parts of it had been his own handiwork1 and told them the story of the sun-dial over the door1 describing the study and the labour it had cost him and his son to calculate its dimensions1 and fix it in its place4 ,the dial had been serenely numbering the hours through the busy years that had elapsed since that humble dwelling had been his home2 during which the ,killingworth locomotive had become a great working power1 and its contriver had established the railway system1 which was now rapidly becoming extended in all parts of the world4 ,about the same time1 his services were very much in request at the meetings of ,mechanics' ,institutes held throughout the northern counties4 ,from an early period in his history1 he had taken an active interest in these institutions4 ,while residing at ,newcastle in #ahbd1 shortly after his locomotive foundry had been started in ,forth-street1 he presided at a public meeting held in that town for the purpose of establishing a ,mechanics' ,institute4 ,the meeting was held2 but as ,george ,stephenson was a man comparatively unknown even in ,newcastle at that time1 his name failed to secure an influential attendance4 ,among those who addressed the meeting on the occasion was ,joseph ,locke1 then his pupil1 and afterwards his rival as an engineer4 ,the local papers scarcely noticed the proceedings2 yet the ,mechanics' ,institute was founded1 and struggled into existence4 ,years passed1 and it was now felt to be an honour to secure ,mr4 ,stephenson's presence at any public meetings held for the promotion of popular education4 ,among the ,mechanics' ,institutes in his immediate neighbourhood at ,tapton1 were those of ,belper and ,chesterfield2 and at their soirees he was a frequent and a welcome visitor4 ,on these occasions he loved to tell his auditors of the difficulties which had early beset him through want of knowledge1 and of the means by which he had overcome them4 ,his grand text was--,,persevere2 and there was manhood in the very word4 ,on more than one occasion1 the author had the pleasure of listening to ,george ,stephenson's homely but forcible addresses at the annual soirees of the ,leeds ,mechanics' ,institute4 ,he was always an immense favourite with his audiences there4 ,his personal appearance was greatly in his favour4 ,a handsome1 ruddy1 expressive face1 lit up by bright dark-blue eyes1 prepared one for his earnest words when he stood up to speak and the cheers had subsided which invariably hailed his rising4 ,he was not glib1 but he was very impressive4 ,and who1 so well as he1 could serve as a guide to the working man in his endeavours after higher knowledge8 ,his early life had been all struggle--encounter with difficulty--groping in the dark after greater light1 but always earnestly and perseveringly4 ,his words were therefore all the more weighty1 since he spoke from the fulness of his own experience4 ,nor did he remain a mere inactive spectator of the improvements in railway working which increasing experience from day to day suggested4 ,he continued to contrive improvements in the locomotive1 and to mature his invention of the carriage-brake4 ,when examined before the ,select ,committee on ,railways in #ahda1 his mind seems principally to have been impressed with the necessity which existed for adopting a system of self acting brakes2 stating that1 in his opinion1 this was the most important arrangement that could be provided for increasing the safety of railway travelling4 ,i believe1 he said1 that if self-acting brakes were put upon every carriage1 scarcely any accident could take place4 ,his plan consisted in employing the momentum of the running train to throw his proposed brakes into action1 immediately on the moving power of the engine being checked4 ,he would also have these brakes under the control of the guard1 by means of a connecting line running along the whole length of the train1 by which they should at once be thrown out of gear when necessary4 ,at the same time he suggested1 as an additional means of safety1 that the signals of the line should be self-acting1 and worked by the locomotives as they passed along the railway4 ,he considered the adoption of this plan of so much importance1 that1 with a view to the public safety1 he would even have it enforced upon railway companies by the legislature4 ,at the same time he was of opinion that it was the interest of the companies themselves to adopt the plan1 as it would save great tear and wear of engines1 carriages1 tenders1 and brake-vans1 besides greatly diminishing the risk of accidents upon railways4 ,while before the same ,committee1 he took the opportunity of stating his views with reference to railway speed1 about which wild ideas were then afloat--one gentleman of celebrity having publicly expressed the opinion that a speed of #ajj miles an hour was practicable in railway travelling6 ,not many years had passed since ,george ,stephenson had been pronounced insane for stating his conviction that #ab miles an hour could be performed by the locomotive2 but now that he had established the fact1 and greatly exceeded that speed1 he was thought behind the age because he recommended the rate to be limited to #dj miles an hour4 ,he said3 ,i do not like either #dj or #ej miles an hour upon any line--,i think it is an unnecessary speed2 and if there is danger upon a railway1 it is high velocity that creates it4 ,i should say no railway ought to exceed #dj miles an hour on the most favourable gradient2 but upon a curved line the speed ought not to exceed #bd or #be miles an hour4 ,he had1 indeed1 constructed for the ,great ,western ,railway an engine capable of running #ej miles an hour with a load1 and #hj miles without one4 ,but he never was in favour of a hurricane speed of this sort1 believing it could only be accomplished at an unnecessary increase both of danger and expense4 ,it is true1 he observed on other occasions1 ,i have said the locomotive engine might be made to travel #ajj miles an hour2 but ,i always put a qualification on this1 namely1 as to what speed would best suit the public4 ,the public may1 however1 be unreasonable2 and #ej or #fj miles an hour is an unreasonable speed4 ,long before railway travelling became general1 ,i said to my friends that there was no limit to the speed of the locomotive1 provided the works could be made to stand4 ,but there are limits to the strength of iron1 whether it be manufactured into rails or locomotives2 and there is a point at which both rails and tyres must break4 ,every increase of speed1 by increasing the strain upon the road and the rolling stock1 brings us nearer to that point4 ,at #cj miles a slighter road will do1 and less perfect rolling stock may be run upon it with safety4 ,but if you increase the speed by say #aj miles1 then everything must be greatly strengthened4 ,you must have heavier engines1 heavier and better-fastened rails1 and all your working expenses will be immediately increased4 ,i think ,i know enough of mechanics to know where to stop4 ,i know that a pound will weigh a pound1 and that no more should be put upon an iron rail than it will bear4 ,if you could ensure perfect iron1 perfect rails1 and perfect locomotives1 ,i grant #ej miles an hour or more might be run with safety on a level railway4 ,but then you must not forget that iron1 even the best1 will 'tire1' and with constant use will become more and more liable to break at the weakest point--perhaps where there is a secret flaw that the eye cannot detect4 ,then look at the rubbishy rails now manufactured on the contract system--some of them little better than cast metal3 indeed1 ,i have seen rails break merely on being thrown from the truck on to the ground4 ,how is it possible for such rails to stand a #bj or #cj ton engine dashing over them at the speed of #ej miles an hour8 ,no1 no1 he would conclude1 ,i am in favour of low speeds because they are safe1 and because they are economical2 and you may rely upon it that1 beyond a certain point1 with every increase of speed there is an increase in the element of danger4 ,when railways became the subject of popular discussion1 many new and unsound theories were started with reference to them1 which ,stephenson opposed as calculated1 in his opinion1 to bring discredit on the locomotive system4 ,one of these was with reference to what were called undulating lines4 ,among others1 ,dr4 ,lardner1 who had originally been somewhat sceptical about the powers of the locomotive1 now promulgated the idea that a railway constructed with rising and falling gradients would be practically as easy to work as a line perfectly level4 ,mr4 ,badnell went even beyond him1 for he held that an undulating railway was much better than a level one for purposes of working4 ,for a time1 this theory found favour1 and the undulating system was extensively adopted2 but ,mr4 ,stephenson never ceased to inveigh against it2 and experience has amply proved that his judgment was correct4 ,his practice1 from the beginning of his career until the end of it1 was to secure a road as nearly as possible on a level1 following the course of the valleys and the natural line of the country3 preferring to go round a hill rather than to tunnel under it or carry his railway over it1 and often making a considerable circuit to secure good1 workable gradients4 ,he studied to lay out his lines so that long trains of minerals and merchandise1 as well as passengers1 might be hauled along them at the least possible expenditure of locomotive power4 ,he had long before ascertained1 by careful experiments at ,killingworth1 that the engine expends half of its power in overcoming a rising gradient of #a in #bfj1 which is about #bj feet in the mile2 and that when the gradient is so steep as #a in #ajj1 not less than three-fourths of its power is sacrificed in ascending the acclivity4 ,he never forgot the valuable practical lesson taught him by the early trials which he had made and registered long before the advantages of railways had been recognised4 ,he saw clearly that the longer flat line must eventually prove superior to the shorter line of steep gradients as respected its paying qualities4 ,he urged that1 after all1 the power of the locomotive was but limited2 and1 although he and his son had done more than any other men to increase its working capacity1 it provoked him to find that every improvement made in it was neutralised by the steep gradients which the new school of engineers were setting it to overcome4 ,on one occasion1 when ,robert ,stephenson stated before a ,parliamentary ,committee that every successive improvement in the locomotive was being rendered virtually nugatory by the difficult and almost impracticable gradients proposed on many of the new lines1 his father1 on his leaving the witness-box1 went up to him1 and said1 ,robert1 you never spoke truer words than those in all your life4 ,to this it must be added1 that in urging these views ,mr4 ,stephenson was strongly influenced by commercial considerations4 ,he had no desire to build up his reputation at the expense of railway shareholders1 nor to obtain engineering eclat by making ducks and drakes of their money4 ,he was persuaded that1 in order to secure the practical success of railways1 they must be so laid out as not only to prove of decided public utility1 but also to be worked economically and to the advantage of their proprietors4 ,they were not government roads1 but private ventures--in fact1 commercial speculations4 ,he therefore endeavoured to render them financially profitable2 and he repeatedly declared that if he did not believe they could be made to pay1 he would have nothing to do with them4 ,he was not influenced by the sordid consideration of what he could make out of any company that employed him2 indeed1 in many cases he voluntarily gave up his claim to remuneration where the promoters of schemes which he thought praiseworthy had suffered serious loss4 ,thus1 when the first application was made to ,parliament for the ,chester and ,birkenhead ,railway ,bill1 the promoters were defeated4 ,they repeated their application1 on the understanding that in event of their succeeding1 the engineer and surveyor were to be paid their costs in respect of the defeated measure4 ,the ,bill was successful1 and to several parties their costs were paid4 ,mr4 ,stephenson's amounted to #hjj pounds1 and he very nobly said1 ,you have had an expensive career in ,parliament2 you have had a great struggle2 you are a young ,company2 you cannot afford to pay me this amount of money4 ,i will reduce it to #bjj pounds1 and ,i will not ask you for that #bjj pounds until your shares are at #bj pounds premium3 for whatever may be the reverses you will go through1 ,i am satisfied ,i shall live to see the day when your shares will be at #bj pounds premium1 and when ,i can legally and honourably claim that #bjj pounds4 ,we may add that the shares did eventually rise to the premium specified1 and the engineer was no loser by his generous conduct in the transaction4 ,another novelty of the time1 with which ,george ,stephenson had to contend1 was the substitution of atmospheric pressure for locomotive steam-power in the working of railways4 ,the idea of obtaining motion by means of atmospheric pressure is said to have originated with ,denis ,papin1 more than #aej years ago2 but it slept until revived in #ahaj by ,mr4 ,medhurst1 who published a pamphlet to prove the practicability of carrying letters and goods by air4 ,in #ahbd1 ,mr4 ,vallance of ,brighton took out a patent for projecting passengers through a tube large enough to contain a train of carriages2 the tube being previously exhausted of its atmospheric air4 ,the same idea was afterwards taken up1 in #ahce1 by ,mr4 ,pinkus1 an ingenious ,american4 ,scientific gentlemen1 ,dr4 ,lardner and ,mr4 ,clegg amongst others1 advocated the plan2 and an association was formed to carry it into effect4 ,shares were created1 and #ah1jjj pounds raised3 and a model apparatus was exhibited in ,london4 ,mr4 ,vignolles took his friend ,stephenson to see the model2 and after carefully examining it1 he observed emphatically1 ,it won't do3 it is only the fixed engines and ropes over again1 in another form2 and1 to tell you the truth1 ,i don't think this rope of wind will answer so well as the rope of wire did4 ,he did not think the principle would stand the test of practice1 and he objected to the mode of applying the principle4 ,after all1 it was only a modification of the stationary-engine plan2 and every day's experience was proving that fixed engines could not compete with locomotives in point of efficiency and economy4 ,he stood by the locomotive engine2 and subsequent experience proved that he was right4 ,messrs4 ,clegg and ,samuda afterwards1 in #ahdj1 patented their plan of an atmospheric railway2 and they publicly tested its working on an unfinished portion of the ,west ,london ,railway4 ,the results of the experiment were so satisfactory1 that the directors of the ,dublin and ,kingstown line adopted it between ,kingstown and ,dalkey4 ,the ,london and ,croydon ,company also adopted the atmospheric principle2 and their line was opened in #ahde4 ,the ordinary mode of applying the power was to lay between the line of rails a pipe1 in which a large piston was inserted1 and attached by a shaft to the framework of a carriage4 ,the propelling power was the ordinary pressure of the atmosphere acting against the piston in the tube on one side1 a vacuum being created in the tube on the other side of the piston by the working of a stationary engine4 ,great was the popularity of the atmospheric system2 and still ,george ,stephenson said ,it won't do3 it's but a gimcrack4 ,engineers of distinction said he was prejudiced1 and that he looked upon the locomotive as a pet child of his own4 ,wait a little1 he replied1 and you will see that ,i am right4 ,it was generally supposed that the locomotive system was about to be snuffed out4 ,not so fast1 said ,stephenson4 ,let us wait to see if it will pay4 ,he never believed it would4 ,it was ingenious1 clever1 scientific1 and all that2 but railways were commercial enterprises1 not toys2 and if the atmospheric railway could not work to a profit1 it would not do4 ,considered in this light1 he even went so far as to call it a great humbug4 ,nothing will beat the locomotive1 said he1 for efficiency in all weathers1 for economy in drawing loads of average weight1 and for power and speed as occasion may require4 ,the atmospheric system was fairly and fully tried1 and it was found wanting4 ,it was admitted to be an exceedingly elegant mode of applying power2 its devices were very skilful1 and its mechanism was most ingenious4 ,but it was costly1 irregular in action1 and1 in particular kinds of weather1 not to be depended upon4 ,at best1 it was but a modification of the stationary-engine system1 and experience proved it to be so expensive that it was shortly after entirely abandoned in favour of locomotive power4 #bhh ,one of the remarkable results of the system of railway locomotion which ,george ,stephenson had by his persevering labours mainly contributed to establish1 was the outbreak of the railway mania towards the close of his professional career4 ,the success of the first main lines of railway naturally led to their extension into many new districts2 but a strongly speculative tendency soon began to display itself1 which contained in it the elements of great danger4 ,the extension of railways had1 up to the year #ahdd1 been mainly effected by men of the commercial classes1 and the shareholders in them principally belonged to the manufacturing districts1--the capitalists of the metropolis as yet holding aloof1 and prophesying disaster to all concerned in railway projects4 ,but when the lugubrious anticipations of the ,city men were found to be so entirely falsified by the results--when1 after the lapse of years1 it was ascertained that railway traffic rapidly increased and dividends steadily improved--a change came over the spirit of the ,london capitalists4 ,they then invested largely in railways1 the shares in which became a leading branch of business on the ,stock ,exchange1 and the prices of some rose to nearly double their original value4 ,a stimulus was thus given to the projection of further lines1 the shares in most of which came out at a premium1 and became the subject of immediate traffic4 ,a reckless spirit of gambling set in1 which completely changed the character and objects of railway enterprise4 ,the public outside the ,stock ,exchange became also infected1 and many persons utterly ignorant of railways1 knowing and caring nothing about their national uses1 but hungering and thirsting after premiums1 rushed eagerly into the vortex4 ,they applied for allotments1 and subscribed for shares in lines1 of the engineering character or probable traffic of which they knew nothing4 ,provided they could but obtain allotments which they could sell at a premium1 and put the profit--in many cases the only capital they possessed #bhi--;into their pocket1 it was enough for them4 ,the mania was not confined to the precincts of the ,stock ,exchange1 but infected all ranks4 ,it embraced merchants and manufacturers1 gentry and shopkeepers1 clerks in public offices1 and loungers at the clubs4 ,noble lords were pointed at as stags2 there were even clergymen who were characterised as bulls2 and amiable ladies who had the reputation of bears1 in the share markets4 ,the few quiet men who remained uninfluenced by the speculation of the time were1 in not a few cases1 even reproached for doing injustice to their families1 in declining to help themselves from the stores of wealth that were poured out on all sides4 ,folly and knavery were1 for a time1 completely in the ascendant4 ,the sharpers of society were let loose1 and jobbers and schemers became more and more plentiful4 ,they threw out railway schemes as lures to catch the unwary4 ,they fed the mania with a constant succession of new projects4 ,the railway papers became loaded with their advertisements4 ,the post-office was scarcely able to distribute the multitude of prospectuses and circulars which they issued4 ,for a time their popularity was immense4 ,they rose like froth into the upper heights of society1 and the flunkey ,fitz,plushe1 by virtue of his supposed wealth1 sat amongst peers and was idolised4 ,then was the harvest-time of scheming lawyers1 parliamentary agents1 engineers1 surveyors1 and traffic-takers1 who were ready to take up any railway scheme however desperate1 and to prove any amount of traffic even where none existed4 ,the traffic in the credulity of their dupes was1 however1 the great fact that mainly concerned them1 and of the profitable character of which there could be no doubt4 ,mr4 ,stephenson was anxiously entreated to lend his name to prospectuses during the railway mania2 but he invariably refused4 ,he held aloof from the headlong folly of the hour1 and endeavoured to check it1 but in vain4 ,had he been less scrupulous1 and given his countenance to the numerous projects about which he was consulted1 he might1 without any trouble1 have thus secured enormous gains2 but he had no desire to accumulate a fortune without labour and without honour4 ,he himself never speculated in shares4 ,when he was satisfied as to the merits of any undertaking1 he subscribed for a certain amount of capital in it1 and held on1 neither buying nor selling4 ,at a dinner of the ,leeds and ,bradford directors at ,ben ,rydding in ,october1 #ahdd1 before the mania had reached its height1 he warned those present against the prevalent disposition towards railway speculation4 ,it was1 he said1 like walking upon a piece of ice with shallows and deeps2 the shallows were frozen over1 and they would carry1 but it required great caution to get over the deeps4 ,he was satisfied that in the course of the next year many would step on to places not strong enough to carry them1 and would get into the deeps2 they would be taking shares1 and afterwards be unable to pay the calls upon them4 ,yorkshiremen were reckoned clever men1 and his advice to them was1 to stick together and promote communication in their own neighbourhood1--not to go abroad with their speculations4 ,if any had done so1 he advised them to get their money back as fast as they could1 for if they did not they would not get it at all4 ,he informed the company1 at the same time1 of his earliest holding of railway shares2 it was in the ,stockton and ,darlington ,railway1 and the number he held was three--a very large capital for him to possess at the time4 ,but a ,stockton friend was anxious to possess a share1 and he sold him one at a premium of #ccs42 he supposed he had been about the first man in ,england to sell a railway share at a premium4 ,during #ahde1 his son's offices in ,great ,george-street1 ,westminster1 were crowded with persons of various conditions seeking interviews1 presenting very much the appearance of the levee of a minister of state4 ,the burly figure of ,mr4 ,hudson1 the ,railway ,king1 surrounded by an admiring group of followers1 was often to be seen there2 and a still more interesting person1 in the estimation of many1 was ,george ,stephenson1 dressed in black1 his coat of somewhat old-fashioned cut1 with square pockets in the tails4 ,he wore a white neckcloth1 and a large bunch of seals was suspended from his watch-ribbon4 ,altogether1 he presented an appearance of health1 intelligence1 and good humour1 that rejoiced one to look upon in that sordid1 selfish and eventually ruinous saturnalia of railway speculation4 ,powers were granted by ,parliament1 in #ahdc1 to construct not less than #bhhc miles of new railways in ,britain1 at an expenditure of about forty-four millions sterling6 ,yet the mania was not appeased2 for in the following session of #ahdf1 applications were made to ,parliament for powers to raise #chi1jjj1jjj pounds sterling for the construction of further lines2 and powers were actually conceded for forming #dgij miles 7including #fj miles of tunnels71 at a cost of about #abj1jjj1jjj pounds sterling4 ,during this session1 ,mr4 ,stephenson appeared as engineer for only one new line1--the ,buxton1 ,macclesfield1 ,congleton1 and ,crewe ,railway--a line in which1 as a coal-owner1 he was personally interested2--and of three branch-lines in connexion with existing companies for which he had long acted as engineer4 ,at the same time1 all the leading professional men were fully occupied1 some of them appearing as consulting engineers for upwards of thirty lines each6 ,one of the features of the mania was the rage for direct lines which everywhere displayed itself4 ,there were ,direct ,manchester1 ,direct ,exeter1 ,direct ,york1 and1 indeed1 new direct lines between most of the large towns4 ,the ,marquis of ,bristol1 speaking in favour of the ,direct ,norwich and ,london project1 at a public meeting at ,haverhill1 said1 ,if necessary1 they might make a tunnel beneath his very drawing-room1 rather than be defeated in their undertaking6 ,and the ,rev4 ,f4 ,litchfield1 at a meeting in ,banbury1 on the subject of a line to that town1 said ,he had laid down for himself a limit to his approbation of railways1--at least of such as approached the neighbourhood with which he was connected1--and that limit was1 that he did not wish them to approach any nearer to him than to run through his bedroom1 with the bedposts for a station6 ,how different was the spirit which influenced these noble lords and gentlemen but a few years before6 ,the ,house of ,commons became thoroughly influenced by the prevailing excitement4 ,even the ,board of ,trade began to favour the views of the fast school of engineers4 ,in their ,report on the ,lines projected in the ,manchester and ,leeds ,district1 they promulgated some remarkable views respecting gradients1 declaring themselves in favour of the undulating system4 ,they there stated that lines of an undulating character which have gradients of #a in #gj or in #hj distributed over them in short lengths1 may be positively better lines1 i4e41 more susceptible of cheap and expeditious working1 than others which have nothing steeper than #a in #ajj or #a in #abj6 ,they concluded by reporting in favour of the line which exhibited the worst gradients and the sharpest curves1 chiefly on the ground that it could be constructed for less money4 ,sir ,robert ,peel took occasion to advert to this ,report in the ,house of ,commons on the #dth of ,march following1 as containing a novel and highly important view on the subject of gradients1 which1 he was certain1 never could have been taken by any ,committee of the ,house of ,commons1 however intelligent2 and he might have added1 that the more intelligent1 the less likely they were to arrive at any such conclusion4 ,when ,mr4 ,stephenson saw this report of the ,premier's speech in the newspapers of the following morning1 he went forthwith to his son1 and asked him to write a letter to ,sir ,robert ,peel on the subject4 ,he saw clearly that if these views were adopted1 the utility and economy of railways would be seriously curtailed4 ,these members of ,parliament1 said he1 are now as much disposed to exaggerate the powers of the locomotive1 as they were to under-estimate them but a few years ago4 ,robert accordingly wrote a letter for his father's signature1 embodying the views which he so strongly entertained as to the importance of flat gradients1 and referring to the experiments conducted by him many years before1 in proof of the great loss of working power which was incurred on a line of steep as compared with easy gradients4 ,it was clear1 from the tone of ,sir ,robert ,peel's speech in a subsequent debate1 that he had carefully read and considered ,mr4 ,stephenson's practical observations on the subject2 though it did not appear that he had come to any definite conclusion thereon1 further than that he strongly approved of the ,trent ,valley ,railway1 by which ,tamworth would be placed upon a direct main line of communication4 ,the result of the labours of ,parliament was a tissue of legislative bungling1 involving enormous loss to the public4 ,railway ,bills were granted in heaps4 ,two hundred and seventy-two additional ,acts were passed in #ahdf4 ,some authorised the construction of lines running almost parallel to existing railways1 in order to afford the public the benefits of unrestricted competition4 ,locomotive and atmospheric lines1 broad-gauge and narrow-gauge lines1 were granted without hesitation4 ,committees decided without judgment and without discrimination2 it was a scramble for ,bills1 in which the most unscrupulous were the most successful4 ,amongst the many ill effects of the mania1 one of the worst was that it introduced a low tone of morality into railway transactions4 ,the bad spirit which had been evoked by it unhappily extended to the commercial classes1 and many of the most flagrant swindles of recent times had their origin in the year #ahde4 ,those who had suddenly gained large sums without labour1 and also without honour1 were too ready to enter upon courses of the wildest extravagance2 and a false style of living shortly arose1 the poisonous influence of which extended through all classes4 ,men began to look upon railways as instruments to job with4 ,persons1 sometimes possessing information respecting railways1 but more frequently possessing none1 got upon boards for the purpose of promoting their individual objects1 often in a very unscrupulous manner2 landowners1 to promote branch lines through their property2 speculators in shares1 to trade upon the exclusive information which they obtained2 whilst some directors were appointed through the influence mainly of solicitors1 contractors1 or engineers1 who used them as tools to serve their own ends4 ,in this way the unfortunate proprietors were1 in many cases1 betrayed1 and their property was shamefully squandered1 much to the discredit of the railway system4 ,while the mania was at its height in ,england1 railways were also being extended abroad1 and ,george ,stephenson was requested on several occasions to give the benefit of his advice to the directors of foreign undertakings4 ,one of the most agreeable of these excursions was to ,belgium in #ahde4 ,his special object was to examine the proposed line of the ,sambre and ,meuse ,railway1 for which a concession had been granted by the ,belgian legislature4 ,arrived on the ground1 he went carefully over the entire length of the proposed line1 to ,convins1 the ,forest of ,ardennes1 and ,rocroi1 across the ,french frontier2 examining the bearings of the coal-field1 the slate and marble quarries1 and the numerous iron-mines in existence between the ,sambre and the ,meuse1 as well as carefully exploring the ravines which extended through the district1 in order to satisfy himself that the best possible route had been selected4 ,mr4 ,stephenson was delighted with the novelty of the journey1 the beauty of the scenery1 and the industry of the population4 ,his companions were entertained by his ample and varied stores of practical information on all subjects1 and his conversation was full of reminiscences of his youth1 on which he always delighted to dwell when in the society of his more intimate friends4 ,the journey was varied by a visit to the coal-mines near ,jemappe1 where ,stephenson examined with interest the mode adopted by the ,belgian miners of draining the pits1 inspecting their engines and brakeing machines1 so familiar to him in early life4 ,the engineers of ,belgium took the opportunity of ,mr4 ,stephenson's visit to their country to invite him to a magnificent banquet at ,brussels4 ,the ,public ,hall1 in which they entertained him1 was gaily decorated with flags1 prominent amongst which was the ,union ,jack1 in honour of their distinguished guest4 ,a handsome marble pedestal1 ornamented with his bust crowned with laurels1 occupied one end of the room4 ,the chair was occupied by ,m4 ,massui1 the ,chief ,director of the ,national ,railways of ,belgium2 and the most eminent scientific men of the kingdom were present4 ,their reception of the ,father of railways was of the most enthusiastic description4 ,mr4 ,stephenson was greatly pleased with the entertainment4 ,not the least interesting incident of the evening was his observing1 when the dinner was about half over1 a model of a locomotive engine placed upon the centre table1 under a triumphal arch4 ,turning suddenly to his friend ,sopwith1 he exclaimed1 ,do you see the ',rocket'8 ,the compliment thus paid him1 was perhaps more prized than all the encomiums of the evening4 ,the next day 7,april #eth7 ,king ,leopold invited him to a private interview at the palace4 ,accompanied by ,mr4 ,sopwith1 he proceeded to ,laaken1 and was very cordially received by ,his ,majesty4 ,the king immediately entered into familiar conversation with him1 discussing the railway project which had been the object of his visit to ,belgium1 and then the structure of the ,belgian coal-fields1--his ,majesty expressing his sense of the great importance of economy in a fuel which had become indispensable to the comfort and well-being of society1 which was the basis of all manufactures1 and the vital power of railway locomotion4 ,the subject was always a favourite one with ,mr4 ,stephenson1 and1 encouraged by the king1 he proceeded to describe to him the geological structure of ,belgium1 the original formation of coal1 its subsequent elevation by volcanic forces1 and the vast amount of denudation4 ,in describing the coal-beds he used his hat as a sort of model to illustrate his meaning2 and the eyes of the king were fixed upon it as he proceeded with his interesting description4 ,the conversation then passed to the rise and progress of trade and manufactures1--,mr4 ,stephenson pointing out how closely they everywhere followed the coal1 being mainly dependent upon it1 as it were1 for their very existence4 ,the king seemed greatly pleased with the interview1 and at its close expressed himself obliged by the interesting information which the engineer had communicated4 ,shaking hands cordially with both the gentlemen1 and wishing them success in their important undertakings1 he bade them adieu4 ,as they were leaving the palace ,mr4 ,stephenson1 bethinking him of the model by which he had just been illustrating the ,belgian coal-fields1 said to his friend1 ,by the bye1 ,sopwith1 ,i was afraid the king would see the inside of my hat2 it's a shocking bad one6 ,little could ,george ,stephenson1 when brakesman at a coal-pit1 have dreamt that1 in the course of his life1 he should be admitted to an interview with a monarch1 and describe to him the manner in which the geological foundations of his kingdom had been laid6 ,mr4 ,stephenson paid a second visit to ,belgium in the course of the same year1 on the business of the ,west ,flanders ,railway2 and he had scarcely returned from it ere he made arrangements to proceed to ,spain1 for the purpose of examining and reporting upon a scheme then on foot for constructing the ,royal ,north of ,spain ,railway4 ,a concession had been made by the ,spanish ,government of a line of railway from ,madrid to the ,bay of ,biscay1 and a numerous staff of engineers was engaged in surveying it4 ,the directors of the ,company had declined making the necessary deposits until more favourable terms had been secured2 and ,sir ,joshua ,walmsley1 on their part1 was about to visit ,spain and press the ,government on the subject4 ,mr4 ,stephenson1 whom he consulted1 was alive to the difficulties of the office which ,sir ,joshua was induced to undertake1 and offered to be his companion and adviser on the occasion1--declining to receive any recompense beyond the simple expenses of the journey4 ,he could only arrange to be absent for six weeks1 and set out from ,england about the middle of ,september1 #ahde4 ,the party was joined at ,paris by ,mr4 ,mackenzie1 the contractor for the ,orleans and ,tours ,railway1 then in course of construction1 who took them over the works1 and accompanied them as far as ,tours4 ,they soon reached the great chain of the ,pyrenees1 and crossed over into ,spain4 ,it was on a ,sunday evening1 after a long day's toilsome journey through the mountains1 that the party suddenly found themselves in one of those beautiful secluded valleys lying amidst the ,western ,pyrenees4 ,a small hamlet lay before them1 consisting of some thirty or forty houses and a fine old church4 ,the sun was low on the horizon1 and1 under the wide porch1 beneath the shadow of the church1 were seated nearly all the inhabitants of the place4 ,they were dressed in their holiday attire4 ,the bright bits of red and amber colour in the dresses of the women1 and the gay sashes of the men1 formed a striking picture1 on which the travellers gazed in silent admiration4 ,it was something entirely novel and unexpected4 ,beside the villagers sat two venerable old men1 whose canonical hats indicated their quality as village pastors4 ,two groups of young women and children were dancing outside the porch to the accompaniment of a simple pipe2 and within a hundred yards of them1 some of the youths of the village were disporting themselves in athletic exercises2 the whole being carried on beneath the fostering care of the old church1 and with the sanction of its ministers4 ,it was a beautiful scene1 and deeply moved the travellers as they approached the principal group4 ,the villagers greeted them courteously1 supplied their present wants1 and pressed upon them some fine melons1 brought from their adjoining gardens4 ,mr4 ,stephenson used afterwards to look back upon that simple scene1 and speak of it as one of the most charming pastorals he had ever witnessed4 ,they shortly reached the site of the proposed railway1 passing through ,irun1 ,st4 ,sebastian1 ,st4 ,andero1 and ,bilbao1 at which places they met deputations of the principal inhabitants who were interested in the subject of their journey4 ,at ,raynosa ,stephenson carefully examined the mountain passes and ravines through which a railway could be made4 ,he rose at break of day1 and surveyed until the darkness set in2 and frequently his resting-place at night was the floor of some miserable hovel4 ,he was thus laboriously occupied for ten days1 after which he proceeded across the province of ,old ,castile towards ,madrid1 surveying as he went4 ,the proposed plan included the purchase of the ,castile ,canal2 and that property was also surveyed4 ,he next proceeded to ,el ,escorial1 situated at the foot of the ,guadarama mountains1 through which he found that it would be necessary to construct two formidable tunnels2 added to which he ascertained that the country between ,el ,escorial and ,madrid was of a very difficult and expensive character to work through4 ,taking these circumstances into account1 and looking at the expected traffic on the proposed line1 ,sir ,joshua ,walmsley1 acting under the advice of ,mr4 ,stephenson1 offered to construct the line from ,madrid to the ,bay of ,biscay1 only on condition that the requisite land was given the ,company for the purpose2 that they should be allowed every facility for cutting such timber belonging the ,crown as might be required for the purposes of the railway2 and also that the materials required from abroad for the construction of the line should be admitted free of duty4 ,in return for these concessions the ,company offered to clothe and feed several thousands of convicts while engaged in the execution of the earthworks4 ,general ,narvaez1 afterwards ,duke of ,valencia1 received ,sir ,joshua ,walmsley and ,mr4 ,stephenson on the subject of their proposition1 and expressed his willingness to close with them2 but it was necessary that other influential parties should give their concurrence before the scheme could be carried into effect4 ,the deputation waited ten days to receive the answer of the ,spanish ,government2 but no answer of any kind was vouchsafed4 ,the authorities1 indeed1 invited them to be present at a ,spanish bullfight1 but that was not quite the business ,mr4 ,stephenson had gone all the way to ,spain to transact2 and the offer was politely declined4 ,the result was1 that ,mr4 ,stephenson dissuaded his friend from making the necessary deposit at ,madrid4 ,besides1 he had by this time formed an unfavourable opinion of the entire project1 and considered that the traffic would not amount to one-eighth of the estimate4 ,mr4 ,stephenson was now anxious to be in ,england4 ,during the journey from ,madrid he often spoke with affection of friends and relatives2 and when apparently absorbed by other matters1 he would revert to what he thought might then be passing at home4 ,few incidents worthy of notice occurred on the journey homeward1 but one may be mentioned4 ,while travelling in an open conveyance between ,madrid and ,vittoria1 the driver urged his mules down hill at a dangerous pace4 ,he was requested to slacken speed2 but suspecting his passengers to be afraid1 he only flogged the brutes into a still more furious gallop4 ,observing this1 ,mr4 ,stephenson coolly said1 ,let us try him on the other tack2 tell him to show us the fastest pace at which ,spanish mules can go4 ,the rogue of a driver1 when he found his tricks of no avail1 pulled up and proceeded at a more moderate speed for the rest of the journey4 ,urgent business required ,mr4 ,stephenson's presence in ,london on the last day of ,november4 ,they travelled therefore almost continuously1 day and night2 and the fatigue consequent on the journey1 added to the privations voluntarily endured by the engineer while carrying on the survey among the ,spanish mountains1 began to tell seriously on his health4 ,by the time he reached ,paris he was evidently ill1 but he nevertheless determined on proceeding4 ,he reached ,havre in time for the ,southampton boat2 but when on board1 pleurisy developed itself1 and it was necessary to bleed him freely4 ,during the voyage1 he spent his time chiefly in dictating letters and reports to ,sir ,joshua ,walmsley1 who never left him1 and whose kindness on the occasion he gratefully remembered4 ,his friend was struck by the clearness of his dictated composition1 which exhibited a vigour and condensation which to him seemed marvellous4 ,after a few weeks' rest at home1 ,mr4 ,stephenson gradually recovered1 though his health remained severely shaken4 ,picture3 ,newcastle1 from the ,high ,level ,bridge ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,robert ,,stephenson',s ,,career--,,the ,,stephensons ,,and ,,brunel--,,east ,,coast ,,route ,,to ,,scotland--,,royal ,,border ,,bridge1 ,,berwick--,,high ,,level ,,bridge1 ,,newcastle4 ,the career of ,george ,stephenson was drawing to a close4 ,he had for some time been gradually retiring from the more active pursuit of railway engineering1 and confining himself to the promotion of only a few undertakings in which he took a more than ordinary personal interest4 ,in #ahdj1 when the extensive main lines in the ,midland districts had been finished and opened for traffic1 he publicly expressed his intention of withdrawing from the profession4 ,he had reached sixty1 and1 having spent the greater part of his life in very hard work1 he naturally desired rest and retirement in his old age4 ,there was the less necessity for his continuing in harness1 as ,robert ,stephenson was now in full career as a leading railway engineer1 and his father had pleasure in handing over to him1 with the sanction of the companies concerned1 nearly all the railway appointments which he held4 ,robert ,stephenson amply repaid his father's care4 ,the sound education of which he had laid the foundations at school1 improved by his subsequent culture1 but more than all by his father's example of application1 industry1 and thoroughness in all that he undertook1 told powerfully in the formation of his character1 not less than in the discipline of his intellect4 ,his father had early implanted in him habits of mental activity1 familiarized him with the laws of mechanics1 and carefully trained and stimulated his inventive faculties1 the first great fruits of which1 as we have seen1 were exhibited in the triumph of the ,rocket at ,rainhill4 ,i am fully conscious in my own mind1 said the son at a meeting of the ,mechanical ,engineers at ,newcastle1 in #aheh1 how greatly my civil engineering has been regulated and influenced by the mechanical knowledge which ,i derived directly from my father2 and the more my experience has advanced1 the more convinced ,i have become that it is necessary to educate an engineer in the workshop4 ,that is1 emphatically1 the education which will render the engineer most intelligent1 most useful1 and the fullest of resources in times of difficulty4 ,robert ,stephenson was but twenty-six years old when the performances of the ,rocket established the practicability of steam locomotion on railways4 ,he was shortly after appointed engineer of the ,leicester and ,swannington ,railway2 after which1 at his father's request1 he was made joint engineer with himself in laying out the ,london and ,birmingham ,railway1 and the execution of that line was afterwards entrusted to him as sole engineer4 ,the stability and excellence of the works of that railway1 the difficulties which had been successfully overcome in the course of its construction1 and the judgment which was displayed by ,robert ,stephenson throughout the whole conduct of the undertaking to its completion1 established his reputation as an engineer2 and his father could now look with confidence and with pride upon his son's achievements4 ,from that time forward1 father and son worked together as one man1 each jealous of the other's honour2 and on the father's retirement1 it was generally recognized that1 in the sphere of railways1 ,robert ,stephenson was the foremost man1 the safest guide1 and the most active worker4 ,robert ,stephenson was subsequently appointed engineer of the ,eastern ,counties1 the ,northern and ,eastern1 and the ,blackwall railways1 besides many lines in the midland and southern districts4 ,when the speculation of #ahdd set in1 his services were1 of course1 greatly in request4 ,thus1 in one session1 we find him engaged as engineer for not fewer than #cc new schemes4 ,projectors thought themselves fortunate who could secure his name1 and he had only to propose his terms to obtain them4 ,the work which he performed at this period of his life was indeed enormous1 and his income was large beyond any previous instance of engineering gain4 ,but much of his labour was heavy hackwork of a very uninteresting character4 ,during the sittings of the committees of ,parliament1 almost every moment of his time was occupied in consultations1 and in preparing evidence or in giving it4 ,the crowded1 low-roofed committee-rooms of the old ,houses of ,parliament were altogether inadequate to accommodate the rush of perspiring projectors of bills1 and even the lobbies were sometimes choked with them4 ,to have borne that noisome atmosphere and heat would have tested the constitutions of salamanders1 and engineers were only human4 ,with brains kept in a state of excitement during the entire day1 no wonder their nervous systems became unstrung4 ,their only chance of refreshment was during an occasional rush to the bun and sandwich stand in the lobby1 though sometimes even that resource failed them4 ,then1 with mind and body jaded--probably after undergoing a series of consultations upon many bills after the rising of the committees--the exhausted engineers would seek to stimulate nature by a late1 perhaps a heavy1 dinner4 ,what chance had any ordinary constitution of surviving such an ordeal8 ,the consequence was1 that stomach1 brain1 and liver were alike irretrievably injured2 and hence the men who bore the brunt of those struggles--,stephenson1 ,brunel1 ,locke1 and ,errington--have already all died1 comparatively young men4 ,in mentioning the name of ,brunel1 we are reminded of him as the principal rival and competitor of ,robert ,stephenson4 ,both were the sons of distinguished men1 and both inherited the fame and followed in the footsteps of their fathers4 ,the ,stephensons were inventive1 practical1 and sagacious2 the ,brunels ingenious1 imaginative1 and daring4 ,the former were as thoroughly ,english in their characteristics as the latter were perhaps as thoroughly ,french4 ,the fathers and the sons were alike successful in their works1 though not in the same degree4 ,measured by practical and profitable results1 the ,stephensons were unquestionably the safer men to follow4 ,robert ,stephenson and ,isambard ,kingdom ,brunel were destined often to come into collision in the course of their professional life4 ,their respective railway districts marched with each other1 and it became their business to invade or defend those districts1 according as the policy of their respective boards might direct4 ,the gauge of #g feet fixed by ,mr4 ,brunel for the ,great ,western ,railway1 so entirely different from that of #d;ft4 #h4e;in4 adopted by the ,stephensons on the ,northern and ,midland lines1 was from the first a great cause of contention4 ,but ,mr4 ,brunel had always an aversion to follow any man's lead2 and that another engineer had fixed the gauge of a railway1 or built a bridge1 or designed an engine1 in one way1 was of itself often a sufficient reason with him for adopting an altogether different course4 ,robert ,stephenson1 on his part1 though less bold1 was more practical1 preferring to follow the old routes1 and to tread in the safe steps of his father4 ,mr4 ,brunel1 however1 determined that the ,great ,western should be a giant's road1 and that travelling should be conducted upon it at double speed4 ,his ambition was to make the best road that imagination could devise2 whereas the main object of the ,stephensons1 both father and son1 was to make a road that would pay4 ,although1 tried by the ,stephenson test1 ,brunel's magnificent road was a failure so far as the shareholders in the ,great ,western ,company were concerned1 the stimulus which his ambitious designs gave to mechanical invention at the time proved a general good4 ,the narrow-gauge engineers exerted themselves to quicken their locomotives to the utmost4 ,they improved and re-improved them2 the machinery was simplified and perfected2 outside cylinders gave place to inside2 the steadier and more rapid and effective action of the engine was secured2 and in a few years the highest speed on the narrow-gauge lines went up from #cj to about #ej miles an hour4 ,for this rapidity of progress we are in no small degree indebted to the stimulus imparted to the narrow-gauge engineers by ,mr4 ,brunel4 ,and it is well for a country that it should possess men such as he1 ready to dare the untried1 and to venture boldly into new paths4 ,individuals may suffer from the cost of the experiments2 but the nation1 which is an aggregate of individuals1 gains1 and so does the world at large4 ,it was one of the characteristics of ,brunel to believe in the success of the schemes for which he was professionally engaged as engineer2 and he proved this by investing his savings largely in the ,great ,western ,railway1 in the ,south ,devon atmospheric line1 and in the ,great ,eastern steamship1 with what results are well known4 ,robert ,stephenson1 on the contrary1 with characteristic caution1 towards the latter years of his life avoided holding unguaranteed railway shares2 and though he might execute magnificent structures1 such as the ,victoria ,bridge across the ,st4 ,lawrence1 he was careful not to embark any portion of his own fortune in the ordinary capital of these concerns4 ,in #ahde1 he shrewdly foresaw the inevitable crash that was about to follow the mania of that year2 and while shares were still at a premium he took the opportunity of selling out all that he had4 ,he urged his father to do the same thing1 but ,george's reply was characteristic4 ,no1 said he2 ,i took my shares for an investment1 and not to speculate with1 and ,i am not going to sell them now because folks have gone mad about railways4 ,the consequence was1 that he continued to hold the #fj1jjj pounds which he had invested in the shares of various railways until his death1 when they were at once sold out by his son1 though at a great depreciation on their original cost4 ,one of the hardest battles fought between the ,stephensons and ,brunel was for the railway between ,newcastle and ,berwick1 forming part of the great ,east ,coast route to ,scotland4 ,as early as #ahcf1 ,george ,stephenson had surveyed two lines to connect ,edinburgh with ,newcastle3 one by ,berwick and ,dunbar along the coast1 and the other1 more inland1 by ,carter ,fell1 up the vale of the ,gala1 to the northern capital2 but both projects lay dormant for several years longer1 until the completion of the ,midland and other main lines as far north as ,newcastle1 had the effect of again reviving the subject of the extension of the route as far as ,edinburgh4 ,on the #ahth of ,june1 #ahdd1 the ,newcastle and ,darlington line--an important link of the great main highway to the north--was completed and publicly opened1 thus connecting the ,thames and the ,tyne by a continuous line of railway4 ,on that day the ,stephensons1 with a distinguished party of railway men1 travelled by express train from ,london to ,newcastle in about nine hours4 ,it was a great event1 and was worthily celebrated4 ,the population of ,newcastle held holiday2 and a banquet given in the ,assembly ,rooms the same evening assumed the form of an ovation to ,george ,stephenson and his son4 ,thirty years before1 in the capacity of a workman1 he had been labouring at the construction of his first locomotive in the immediate neighbourhood4 ,by slow and laborious steps he had worked his way on1 dragging the locomotive into notice1 and raising himself in public estimation2 until at length he had victoriously established the railway system1 and went back amongst his townsmen to receive their greeting4 ,after the opening of this railway1 the project of the ,east ,coast line from ,newcastle to ,berwick was revived2 and ,george ,stephenson1 who had already identified himself with the question1 and was intimately acquainted with every foot of the ground1 was called upon to assist the promoters with his judgment and experience4 ,he again recommended as strongly as before the line he had previously surveyed2 and on its being adopted by the local committee1 the necessary steps were taken to have the scheme brought before ,parliament in the ensuing session4 ,the ,east ,coast line was not1 however1 to be allowed to pass without a fight4 ,on the contrary1 it had to encounter as stout an opposition as the ,stephensons had ever experienced4 ,we have already stated that about this time the plan of substituting atmospheric pressure for locomotive steam-power in the working of railways1 had become very popular4 ,many eminent engineers supported the atmospheric system1 and a strong party in ,parliament1 headed by the ,prime ,minister1 were greatly disposed in its favour4 ,mr4 ,brunel warmly espoused the atmospheric principle1 and his persuasive manner1 as well as his admitted scientific ability1 unquestionably exercised considerable influence in determining the views of many leading members of both ,houses4 ,amongst others1 ,lord ,howick1 one of the members for ,northumberland1 adopted the new principle1 and1 possessing great local influence1 he succeeded in forming a powerful confederacy of the landed gentry in favour of ,brunel's atmospheric railway through that county4 ,george ,stephenson could not brook the idea of seeing the locomotive1 for which he had fought so many stout battles1 pushed to one side1 and that in the very county in which its great powers had been first developed4 ,nor did he relish the appearance of ,mr4 ,brunel as the engineer of ,lord ,howick's scheme1 in opposition to the line which had occupied his thoughts and been the object of his strenuous advocacy for so many years4 ,when ,stephenson first met ,brunel in ,newcastle1 he good-naturedly shook him by the collar1 and asked ,what business he had north of the ,tyne8 ,george gave him to understand that they were to have a fair stand-up fight for the ground1 and1 shaking hands before the battle like ,englishmen1 they parted in good humour4 ,a public meeting was held at ,newcastle in the following ,december1 when1 after a full discussion of the merits of the respective plans1 ,stephenson's line was almost unanimously adopted as the best4 ,the rival projects went before ,parliament in #ahde1 and a severe contest ensued4 ,the display of ability and tactics on both sides was great4 ,robert ,stephenson was examined at great length as to the merits of the locomotive line1 and ,brunel at equally great length as to the merits of the atmospheric system4 ,mr4 ,brunel1 in his evidence1 said that after numerous experiments1 he had arrived at the conclusion that the mechanical contrivance of the atmospheric system was perfectly applicable1 and he believed that it would likewise be more economical in most cases than locomotive power4 ,in short1 said he1 rapidity1 comfort1 safety1 and economy1 are its chief recommendations4 ,but the locomotive again triumphed4 ,the ,stephenson ,coast ,line secured the approval of ,parliament2 and the shareholders in the ,atmospheric ,company were happily prevented investing their capital in what would unquestionably have proved a gigantic blunder4 ,for1 less than three years later1 the whole of the atmospheric tubes which had been laid down on other lines were pulled up and the materials sold--including ,mr4 ,brunel's immense tube on the ,south ,devon ,railway--to make way for the working of the locomotive engine4 ,george ,stephenson's first verdict of ,it won't do1 was thus conclusively confirmed4 ,robert ,stephenson used afterwards to describe with great gusto an interview which took place between ,lord ,howick and his father1 at his office in ,great ,george ,street1 during the progress of the bill in ,parliament4 ,his father was in the outer office1 where he used to spend a good deal of his spare time2 occasionally taking a quiet wrestle with a friend when nothing else was stirring4 #cji ,on the day in question1 ,george was standing with his back to the fire1 when ,lord ,howick called to see ,robert4 ,oh6 thought ,george1 he has come to try and talk ,robert over about that atmospheric gimcrack2 but ,i'll tackle his ,lordship4 ,come in1 my ,lord1 said he1 ,robert's busy2 but ,i'll answer your purpose quite as well2 sit down here1 if you please4 ,george began1 ,now1 my ,lord1 ,i know very well what you have come about3 it's that atmospheric line in the north2 ,i will show you in less than five minutes that it can never answer4 ,if ,mr4 ,robert ,stephenson is not at liberty1 ,i can call again1 said his ,lordship4 ,he's certainly occupied on important business just at present1 was ,george's answer2 but ,i can tell you far better than he can what nonsense the atmospheric system is3 ,robert's good-natured1 you see1 and if your ,lordship were to get alongside of him you might talk him over2 so you have been quite lucky in meeting with me4 ,now1 just look at the question of expense1--and then he proceeded in his strong ,doric to explain his views in detail1 until ,lord ,howick could stand it no longer1 and he rose and walked towards the door4 ,george followed him down stairs1 to finish his demolition of the atmospheric system1 and his parting words were1 ,you may take my word for it1 my ,lord1 it will never answer4 ,george afterwards told his son with glee of the settler he had given ,lord ,howick4 ,so closely were the ,stephensons identified with this measure1 and so great was the personal interest which they were both known to take in its success1 that1 on the news of the triumph of the bill reaching ,newcastle1 a sort of general holiday took place1 and the workmen belonging to the ,stephenson ,locomotive ,factory1 upwards of #hjj in number1 walked in procession through the principal streets of the town1 accompanied with music and banners4 ,it is unnecessary to enter into any description of the works on the ,newcastle and ,berwick ,railway4 ,there are no fewer than #aaj bridges of all sorts on the line--some under and some over it4 ,but by far the most formidable piece of masonry work on this railway is at its northern extremity1 where it passes across the ,tweed into ,scotland1 immediately opposite the formerly redoubtable castle of ,berwick4 ,not many centuries had passed since the district amidst which this bridge stands was the scene of almost constant warfare4 ,berwick was regarded as the key of ,scotland1 and was fiercely fought for1 sometimes held by a ,scotch and sometimes by an ,english garrison4 ,though strongly fortified1 it was repeatedly taken by assault4 ,on its capture by ,edward ,i41 ,boetius says #ag1jjj persons were slain1 so that its streets ran with blood like a river4 ,within sight of the ramparts1 a little to the west1 is ,halidon ,hill1 where a famous victory was gained by ,edward ,,iii41 over the ,scottish army under ,douglas2 and there is scarcely a foot of ground in the neighbourhood but has been the scene of contention in days long past4 ,in the reigns of ,james ,i4 and ,charles ,i41 a bridge of #ae arches was built across the ,tweed at ,berwick2 and in our own day a railway-bridge of #bh arches has been built a little above the old one1 but at a much higher level4 ,the bridge built by the ,kings1 out of the national resources1 cost #ae1jjj pounds1 and occupied #bd years and #d months in the building2 the bridge built by the ,railway ,company1 with funds drawn from private resources1 cost #abj1jjj pounds1 and was finished in #c years and #d months from the day of laying the foundation-stone4 ,picture3 ,the ,royal ,border ,bridge1 ,berwick-upon-,tweed ,this important viaduct1 built after the design of ,robert ,stephenson1 consists of a series of #bh semicircular arches1 each #fa feet #f inches in span1 the greatest height above the bed of the river being #abf feet4 ,the whole is built of ashlar1 with a hearting of rubble2 excepting the river parts of the arches1 which are constructed with bricks laid in cement4 ,the total length of the work is #bafj feet4 ,the foundations of the piers were got in by coffer-dams in the ordinary way1 ,nasmyth's steam-hammer being extensively used in driving the piles4 ,the bearing piles1 from which the foundations of the piers were built up1 were each capable of carrying #gj tons4 ,another bridge1 of still greater importance1 necessary to complete the continuity of the ,east ,coast route1 was the masterwork erected by ,robert ,stephenson between the north and south banks of the ,tyne at ,newcastle1 commonly known as the ,high ,level ,bridge4 ,mr4 ,r4 ,w4 ,brandling1 ,george ,stephenson's early friend1 is entitled to the merit of originating the idea of this bridge as it was eventually carried out1 with a central terminus for the northern railways in the ,castle ,garth4 ,the plan was first promulgated by him in #ahda2 and in the following year it was resolved that ,george ,stephenson should be consulted as to the most advisable site for the proposed structure4 ,a prospectus of a ,high ,level ,bridge ,company was issued in #ahdc1 the names of ,george ,stephenson and ,george ,hudson appearing on the committee of management1 ,robert ,stephenson being the consulting engineer4 ,the project was eventually taken up by the ,newcastle and ,darlington ,railway ,company1 and an ,act for the construction of the bridge was obtained in #ahde4 ,the rapid extension of railways had given an extraordinary stimulus to the art of bridge-building2 the number of such structures erected in ,great ,britain alone1 since #ahcj1 having been above #be1jjj1 or more than all that had before existed in the country4 ,instead of the erection a single large bridge constituting1 as formerly1 an epoch in engineering1 hundreds of extensive bridges of novel design were simultaneously constructed4 ,the necessity which existed for carrying rigid roads1 capable of bearing heavy railway trains at high speeds1 over extensive gaps free of support1 rendered it obvious that the methods which had up to that time been employed for bridging space were altogether insufficient4 ,the railway engineer could not1 like the ordinary road engineer1 divert his road and make choice of the best point for crossing a river or a valley4 ,he must take such ground as lay in the line of his railway1 be it bog1 or mud1 or shifting sand4 ,navigable rivers and crowded thoroughfares had to be crossed without interruption to the existing traffic1 sometimes by bridges at right angles to the river or road1 sometimes by arches more or less oblique4 ,in many cases great difficulty arose from the limited nature of the headway2 but1 as the level of the original road must generally be preserved1 and that of the railway was in a measure fixed and determined1 it was necessary to modify the form and structure of the bridge1 in almost every case1 in order to comply with the public requirements4 ,novel conditions were met by fresh inventions1 and difficulties of the most unusual character were one after another successfully surmounted4 ,in executing these extraordinary works1 iron has been throughout the sheet-anchor of the engineer4 ,in its different forms of cast or wrought iron1 it offered a valuable resource1 where rapidity of execution1 great strength1 and cheapness of construction in the first instance1 were elements of prime importance2 and by its skilful use1 the railway architect was enabled to achieve results which thirty years ago would scarcely have been thought possible4 ,in many of the early cast-iron bridges the old form of the arch was adopted1 the stability of the structure depending wholly on compression1 the only novel feature being the use of iron instead of stone4 ,but in a large proportion of cases1 the arch1 with the railroad over it1 was found inapplicable in consequence of the limited headway which it provided4 ,hence it early occurred to ,george ,stephenson1 when constructing the ,liverpool and ,manchester ,railway1 to adopt the simple cast-iron beam for the crossing of several roads and canals along that line--this beam resembling in some measure the lintel of the early temples--the pressure on the abutments being purely vertical4 ,one of the earliest instances of this kind of bridge was that erected over ,water ,street1 ,manchester1 in #ahbi2 after which1 cast-iron girders1 with their lower webs considerably larger than their upper1 were ordinarily employed where the span was moderate2 and wrought-iron tie rods below were added to give increased strength where the span was greater4 ,the next step was the contrivance of arched beams or bowstring girders1 firmly held together by horizontal ties to resist the thrust1 instead of abutments4 ,numerous excellent specimens of this description of bridge were erected by ,robert ,stephenson on the original ,london and ,birmingham ,railway2 but by far the grandest work of the kind--perfect as a specimen of modern constructive skill--was the ,high ,level ,bridge1 which we owe to the genius of the same engineer4 ,the problem was1 to throw a railway bridge across the deep ravine which lies between the towns of ,newcastle and ,gateshead1 at the bottom of which flows the navigable river ,tyne4 ,along and up the sides of the valley--on the ,newcastle bank especially--run streets of old-fashioned houses1 clustered together in the strange forms peculiar to the older cities4 ,the ravine is of great depth--so deep and so gloomy-looking towards dusk1 that local tradition records that when the ,duke of ,cumberland arrived late in the evening at the brow of the hill overlooking the ,tyne1 on his way to ,culloden1 he exclaimed to his attendants1 on looking down into the black gorge before him1 ,for ,god's sake1 don't think of taking me down that coal-pit at this time of night6 ,the road down the ,gateshead ,high ,street is almost as steep as the roof of a house1 and up the ,newcastle ,side1 as the street there is called1 it is little better4 ,during many centuries the traffic north and south passed along this dangerous and difficult route1 over the old bridge which crosses the river in the bottom of the valley4 ,for about #cj years the ,newcastle ,corporation had discussed various methods of improving the communication between the towns2 and the discussion might have gone on for #cj years more1 but for the advent of railways1 when the skill and enterprise to which they gave birth speedily solved the difficulty and bridged the ravine4 ,the local authorities adroitly took advantage of the opportunity1 and insisted on the provision of a road for ordinary vehicles and foot passengers in addition to the railroad4 ,in this circumstance originated one of the striking peculiarities of the ,high ,level ,bridge1 which serves two purposes1 being a railway above and a carriage roadway underneath4 ,the breadth of the river at the point of crossing is #eae feet1 but the length of the bridge and viaduct between the ,gateshead station and the terminus on the ,newcastle side is about #djjj feet4 ,it springs from ,pipewell ,gate ,bank1 on the south1 directly across to ,castle ,garth1 where1 nearly fronting the bridge1 stands the fine old ,norman keep of the ,new ,castle1 now nearly #hjj years old1 and a little beyond it is the spire of ,st4 ,nicholas ,church1 with its light and graceful ,gothic crown2 the whole forming a grand architectural group of unusual historic interest4 ,the bridge passes completely over the roofs of the houses which fill both sides of the valley2 and the extraordinary height of the upper parapet1 which is about #acj feet above the bed of the river1 offers a prospect to the passing traveller the like of which is perhaps nowhere else to be seen4 ,far below are the queer chares and closes1 the wynds and lanes of old ,newcastle2 the water is crowded with pudgy1 black1 coal keels2 and1 when there is a partial dispersion of the great smoke clouds which usually obscure the sky1 the funnels of steamers and the masts of shipping may be seen far down the river4 ,the old bridge lies so far beneath that the passengers crossing it seem like so many bees passing to and fro4 ,the first difficulty encountered in building the bridge was in securing a solid foundation for the piers4 ,the dimensions of the piles to be driven were so huge1 that the engineer found it necessary to employ some extraordinary means for the purpose4 ,he called ,nasmyth's ,titanic steam-hammer to his aid--the first occasion1 we believe1 on which this prodigious power was employed in bridge pile-driving4 ,a temporary staging was erected for the steam-engine and hammer apparatus1 which rested on two keels1 and1 notwithstanding the newness and stiffness of the machinery1 the first pile was driven on the #fth ,october1 #ahdf1 to a depth of #cb feet1 in four minutes4 ,two hammers of #cj cwt4 each were kept in regular use1 making from #fj to #gj strokes a minute2 and the results were astounding to those who had been accustomed to the old style of pile-driving by means of the ordinary pile-frame1 consisting of slide1 ram1 and monkey4 ,by the old system1 the pile was driven by a comparatively small mass of iron descending with great velocity from a considerable height--the velocity being in excess and the mass deficient1 and calculated1 like the momentum of a cannon-ball1 rather for destructive than impulsive action4 ,in the case of the steam pile-driver1 on the contrary1 the whole weight of a heavy mass is delivered rapidly upon a driving-block of several tons weight placed directly over the head of the pile1 the weight never ceasing1 and the blows being repeated at the rate of a blow a second1 until the pile is driven home4 ,it is a curious fact1 that the rapid strokes of the steam-hammer evolved so much heat1 that on many occasions the pile-head burst into flames during the process of driving4 ,the elastic force of steam is the power that lifts the ram1 the escape permitting its entire force to fall upon the head of the driving block2 while the steam above the piston on the upper part of the cylinder1 acting as a buffer or recoil-spring1 materially enhances the effect of the downward blow4 ,as soon as one pile was driven1 the traveller1 hovering overhead1 presented another1 and down it went into the solid bed of the river1 with almost as much ease as a lady sticks pins into a cushion4 ,by the aid of this powerful machine1 pile-driving1 formerly among the most costly and tedious of engineering operations1 became easy1 rapid1 and comparatively economical4 ,when the piles had been driven and the coffer-dams formed and puddled1 the water within the enclosed spaces was pumped out by the aid of powerful engines1 so as1 if possible1 to lay bare the bed of the river4 ,considerable difficulty was experienced in getting in the foundations of the middle pier1 in consequence of the water forcing itself through the quicksand beneath as fast as it was removed1 ,this fruitless labour went on for months1 and many expedients were tried4 ,chalk was thrown in in large quantities outside the piling1 but without effect4 ,cement concrete was at last put within the coffer-dam1 until it set1 and the bottom was then found to be secure4 ,a bed of concrete was laid up to the level of the heads of the piles1 the foundation course of stone blocks being commenced about two feet below low water1 and the building proceeded without further difficulty4 ,it may serve to give an idea of the magnitude of the work1 when we state that #djj1jjj cubic feet of ashlar1 rubble1 and concrete were worked up in the piers1 and #dej1jjj cubic feet in the land-arches and approaches4 ,the most novel feature of the structure is the use of cast and wrought iron in forming the double bridge1 which admirably combines the two principles of the arch and suspension2 the railway being carried over the back of the ribbed arches in the usual manner1 while the carriage-road and footpaths1 forming a long gallery or aisle1 are suspended from these arches by wrought-iron vertical rods1 with horizontal tie-bars to resist the thrust4 ,the suspension-bolts are enclosed within spandril pillars of cast iron1 which give great stiffness to the superstructure4 ,this system of longitudinal and vertical bracing has been much admired1 for it not only accomplishes the primary object of securing rigidity in the roadway1 but at the same time1 by its graceful arrangement1 heightens the beauty of the structure4 ,the arches consist of four main ribs1 disposed in pairs with a clear distance between the two inner arches of #bj feet #d inches1 forming the carriage-road1 while between each of the inner and outer ribs there is a space of #f feet #b inches1 constituting the footpaths4 ,each arch is cast in five separate lengths or segments1 strongly bolted together4 ,the ribs spring from horizontal plates of cast iron1 bedded and secured on the stone piers4 ,all the abutting joints were carefully executed by machinery1 the fitting being of the most perfect kind4 ,in order to provide for the expansion and contraction of the iron arching1 and to preserve the equilibrium of the piers without disturbance or racking of the other parts of the bridge1 it was arranged that the ribs of every two adjoining arches resting on the same pier should be secured to the springing-plates by keys and joggles2 whilst on the next piers on either side1 the ribs remained free and were at liberty to expand or contract according to temperature--a space being left for the purpose4 ,hence each arch is complete and independent in itself1 the piers having simply to sustain their vertical pressure4 ,there are six arches of #abe feet span each2 the two approaches to the bridge being formed of cast-iron pillars and bearers in keeping with the arches4 ,picture3 ,high ,level ,bridge--,elevation of one ,arch ,the result is a bridge that for massive solidity may be pronounced unrivalled4 ,it is perhaps the most magnificent and striking of all the bridges to which railways have given birth1 and has been worthily styled the ,king of railway structures4 ,it is a monument of the highest engineering skill of our time1 with the impress of power grandly stamped upon it4 ,it will also be observed1 from the drawing placed as the frontispiece of this book1 that the ,high ,level ,bridge forms a very fine object in a picture of great interest1 full of striking architectural variety and beauty4 ,the bridge was opened on the #aeth ,august1 #ahdi1 and a few days after the royal train passed over it1 halting for a few minutes to enable her ,majesty to survey the wonderful scene below4 ,in the course of the following year the ,queen opened the extensive stone viaduct across the ,tweed1 above described1 by which the last link was completed of the continuous line of railway between ,london and ,edinburgh4 ,over the entrance to the ,berwick station1 occupying the site of the once redoubtable ,border fortress1 so often the deadly battle-ground of the ancient ,scots and ,english1 was erected an arch under which the royal train passed1 bearing in large letters of gold the appropriate words1 ,the last act of the ,union4 ,the warders at ,berwick no longer look out from the castle walls to descry the glitter of ,southron spears4 ,the bell-tower1 from which the alarm was sounded of old1 though still standing1 is deserted2 the only bell heard within the precincts of the old castle being the railway porter's bell announcing the arrival and departure of trains4 ,you see the ,scotch express pass along the bridge and speed southward on the wings of steam4 ,but no alarm spreads along the border now4 ,northumbrian beeves are safe4 ,chevy-,chase and ,otterburn are quiet sheep-pastures4 ,the only men at arms on the battlements of ,alnwick ,castle are of stone4 ,bamborough ,castle has become an asylum for shipwrecked mariners1 and the ,norman ,keep at ,newcastle has been converted into a ,museum of ,antiquities4 ,the railway has indeed consummated the ,union4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,robert ,,stephenson',s ,,tubular ,,bridges ,,at ,,menai ,,and ,,conway4 ,we have now to describe briefly another great undertaking1 begun by ,george ,stephenson1 and taken up and completed by his son1 in the course of which the latter carried out some of his greatest works--we mean the ,chester and ,holyhead ,railway1 completing the railway connection with ,dublin1 as the ,newcastle and ,berwick line completed the connection with ,edinburgh4 ,it will thus be seen how closely ,telford was followed by the ,stephensons in perfecting the highways of their respective epochs2 the former by means of turnpike-roads1 and the latter by means of railways4 ,george ,stephenson surveyed a line from ,chester to ,holyhead in #ahch1 and at the same time reported on the line through ,north ,wales to ,port ,dynllaen1 proposed by the ,irish ,railway ,commissioners4 ,his advice was strongly in favour of adopting the line to ,holyhead1 as less costly and presenting better gradients4 ,a public meeting was held at ,chester1 in ,january1 #ahci1 in support of the latter measure1 at which he was present to give explanations4 ,mr4 ,uniacke1 the ,mayor1 in opening the proceedings1 said that ,mr4 ,stephenson was present1 ready to answer any questions which might be put to him on the subject2 and it was judiciously remarked that it would be better that he should be asked questions than required to make a speech2 for1 though a very good engineer1 he was a bad speaker4 ,one of the questions then put to ,mr4 ,stephenson related to the mode by which he proposed to haul the passenger carriages over the ,menai ,suspension ,bridge by horse power2 and he was asked whether he knew the pressure the bridge was capable of sustaining4 ,his answer was1 that he had not yet made any calculations2 but he proposed getting data which would enable him to arrive at an accurate calculation of the actual strain upon the bridge during the late gale4 ,he had1 however1 no hesitation in saying that it was more than twenty times as much as the strain of a train of carriages and a locomotive engine4 ,the only reason why he proposed to convey the carriages over by horses1 was in order that he might1 by distributing the weight1 not increase the wavy motion4 ,all the train would be on at once2 but distributed4 ,this he thought better than passing them1 linked together1 by a locomotive engine4 ,it will thus be observed that the practicability of throwing a rigid railway bridge across the ,straits had not yet been contemplated4 ,the ,dublin ,chamber of ,commerce passed resolutions in favour of ,stephenson's line1 after hearing his explanation of its essential features4 ,the project1 after undergoing much discussion1 was at length embodied in an ,act passed in #ahdd2 and the work was brought to a successful completion by his son1 with several important modifications1 including the grand original feature of the tubular bridges across the ,menai ,straits and the estuary of the ,conway4 ,excepting these great works1 the construction of this line presented no unusual features2 though the remarkable terrace cut for the accommodation of the railway under the steep slope of ,penmaen ,mawr is worthy of a passing notice4 ,about midway between ,conway and ,bangor1 ,penmaen ,mawr forms a bold and almost precipitous headland1 at the base of which1 in rough weather1 the ocean dashes with great fury4 ,there was not space enough between the mountain and the strand for the passage of the railway2 hence in some places the rock had to be blasted to form a terrace1 and in others sea-walls had to be built up to the proper level1 on which to form an embankment of sufficient width to enable the road to be laid4 ,picture3 ,penmaen ,mawr4 7,by ,percival ,skelton47 ,a tunnel #aj4e chains in length was cut through the headland itself2 and on its east and west sides the line was formed by a terrace cut out of the cliff1 and by embankments protected by sea walls2 the terrace being three times interrupted by embankments in its course of about #a4be mile4 ,the road lies so close under the steep mountain face1 that it was even found necessary at certain places to protect it against possible accidents from falling stones1 by means of a covered way4 ,the terrace on the east side of the headland was1 however1 in some measure protected against the roll of the sea by the mass of stone run out from the tunnel1 and forming a deep shingle bank in front of the wall4 ,the part of the work which lies on the westward of the headland penetrated by the tunnel1 was exposed to the full force of the sea2 and the formation of the road at that point was attended with great difficulty4 ,while the sea wall was still in progress1 its strength was severely tried by a strong north-westerly gale1 which blew in ,october1 #ahdf1 with a spring tide of #ag feet4 ,on the following morning it was found that a large portion of the rubble was irreparably injured1 and #bjj yards of the wall were then replaced by an open viaduct1 with the piers placed edgeways to the sea1 the openings between them being spanned by ten cast-iron girders each #db feet long4 ,this accident induced the engineer to alter the contour of the sea wall1 so that it should present a diminished resistance to the force of the waves4 ,but the sea repeated its assaults1 and made further havoc with the work2 entailing heavy expenses and a complete reorganisation of the contract4 ,increased solidity was then given to the masonry1 and the face of the wall underwent further change4 ,at some points outworks were constructed1 and piles were driven into the beach about #ae feet from the base of the wall1 for the purpose of protecting its foundations and breaking the force of the waves4 ,the work was at length finished after about three years' anxious labour2 but ,mr4 ,stephenson confessed that if a long tunnel had been made in the first instance through the solid rock of ,penmaen ,mawr1 a saving of from #be1jjj to #cj1jjj pounds would have been effected4 ,he also said he had arrived at the conclusion that in railway works engineers should endeavour as far as possible to avoid the necessity of contending with the sea2 #cbd but if he were ever again compelled to go within its reach1 he would adopt1 instead of retaining walls1 an open viaduct1 placing all the piers edgeways to the force of the sea1 and allowing the waves to break upon a natural slope of beach4 ,he was ready enough to admit the errors he had committed in the original design of this work2 but he said he had always gained more information from studying the causes of failures and endeavouring to surmount them than he had done from easily-won successes4 ,whilst many of the latter had been forgotten1 the former were indelibly fixed in his memory4 ,but by far the greatest difficulty which ,robert ,stephenson had to encounter in executing this railway1 was in carrying it across the ,straits of ,menai and the estuary of the ,conway1 where1 like his predecessor ,telford when forming his high road through ,north ,wales1 he was under the necessity of resorting to new and altogether untried methods of bridge construction4 ,at ,menai the waters of the ,irish ,sea are perpetually vibrating along the precipitous shores of the strait2 rising and falling from #bj to #be feet at each successive tide2 the width and depth of the channel being such as to render it available for navigation by the largest ships4 ,the problem was1 to throw a bridge across this wide chasm--a bridge of unusual span and dimensions--of such strength as to be capable of bearing the heaviest loads at high speeds1 and at such a uniform height throughout as not in any way to interfere with the navigation of the ,strait4 ,from an early period1 ,mr4 ,stephenson had fixed upon the spot where the ,britannia ,rock occurs1 nearly in the middle of the channel1 as the most eligible point for crossing2 the water-width from shore to shore at high water there being about #aajj feet4 ,his first idea was to construct the bridge of two cast-iron arches1 each of #cej feet span4 ,there was no novelty in this idea2 for1 as early as the year #ahja1 ,mr4 ,rennie prepared a design of a cast-iron bridge across the ,strait at the ,swilly rocks1 the great centre arch of which was to be #dej feet span2 and at a later period1 in #ahaj1 ,telford submitted a design of a similar bridge at ,inys-y-,moch1 with a single cast-iron arch of #ejj feet4 ,but the same objections which led to the rejection of ,rennie's and ,telford's designs1 proved fatal to ,robert ,stephenson's1 and his iron-arched railway bridge was rejected by the ,admiralty4 ,the navigation of the ,strait was under no circumstances to be interfered with2 and even the erection of scaffolding from below1 to support the bridge during construction1 was not to be permitted4 ,the idea of a suspension bridge was dismissed as inapplicable2 a degree of rigidity and strength1 greater than could be secured by any bridge constructed on the principle of suspension1 being considered an indispensable condition of the proposed structure4 ,picture3 ,britannia ,bridge ,various other plans were suggested2 but the whole question remained unsettled even down to the time when the ,company went before ,parliament1 in #ahdd1 for power to construct the proposed bridges4 ,no existing kind of structure seemed to be capable of bearing the fearful extension to which rigid bridges of the necessary spans would be subjected2 and some new expedient of engineering therefore became necessary4 ,mr4 ,stephenson was then led to reconsider a design which he had made in #ahda for a road bridge over the river ,lea at ,ware1 with a span of #ej feet1--the conditions only admitting of a platform #ah or #bj inches thick4 ,for this purpose a wrought-iron platform was designed1 consisting of a series of simple cells1 formed of boiler-plates riveted together with angle-iron4 ,the bridge was not1 however1 carried out after this design1 but was made of separate wrought-iron girders composed of riveted plates4 ,recurring to his first idea of this bridge1 ,mr4 ,stephenson thought that a stiff platform might be constructed1 with sides of strongly trussed frame-work of wrought-iron1 braced together at top and bottom with plates of like material riveted together with angle-iron2 and that such platform might be suspended by strong chains on either side to give it increased security4 ,it was now1 says ,mr4 ,stephenson1 that ,i came to regard the tubular platform as a beam1 and that the chains should be looked upon as auxiliaries4 ,it appeared1 nevertheless1 that without a system of diagonal struts inside1 which of course would have prevented the passage of trains through it1 this kind of structure was ill-suited for maintaining its form1 and would be very liable to become lozenge-shaped4 ,besides1 the rectangular figure was deemed objectionable1 from the large surface which it presented to the wind4 ,it then occurred to him that circular or elliptical tubes might better answer the intended purpose2 and in ,march1 #ahde1 he gave instructions to two of his assistants to prepare drawings of such a structure1 the tubes being made with a double thickness of plate at top and bottom4 ,the results of the calculations made as to the strength of such a tube1 were considered so satisfactory1 that ,mr4 ,stephenson says he determined to fall back on a bridge of this description1 on the rejection of his design of the two cast-iron arches by the ,parliamentary ,committee4 ,indeed1 it became evident that a tubular wrought-iron beam was the only structure which combined the necessary strength and stability for a railway1 with the conditions deemed essential for the protection of the navigation4 ,i stood1 says ,mr4 ,stephenson1 on the verge of a responsibility from which1 ,i confess1 ,i had nearly shrunk4 ,the construction of a tubular beam of such gigantic dimensions1 on a platform elevated and supported by chains at such a height1 did at first present itself as a difficulty of a very formidable nature4 ,reflection1 however1 satisfied me that the principles upon which the idea was founded were nothing more than an extension of those daily in use in the profession of the engineer4 ,the method1 moreover1 of calculating the strength of the structure which ,i had adopted1 was of the simplest and most elementary character2 and whatever might be the form of the tube1 the principle on which the calculations were founded was equally applicable1 and could not fail to lead to equally accurate results4 #cbg ,mr4 ,stephenson accordingly announced to the directors of the railway that he was prepared to carry out a bridge of this general description1 and they adopted his views1 though not without considerable misgivings4 ,while the engineer's mind was still occupied with the subject1 an accident occurred to the ,prince of ,wales iron steamship1 at ,blackwall1 which singularly corroborated his views as to the strength of wrought-iron beams of large dimensions4 ,when this vessel was being launched1 the cleet on the bow gave way1 in consequence of the bolts breaking1 and let the vessel down so that the bilge came in contact with the wharf1 and she remained suspended between the water and the wharf for a length of about #aaj feet1 but without any injury to the plates of the ship2 satisfactorily proving the great strength of this form of construction4 ,thus1 ,mr4 ,stephenson became gradually confirmed in his opinion that the most feasible method of bridging the strait at ,menai and the river at ,conway was by means of a hollow beam of wrought-iron4 ,as the time was approaching for giving evidence before ,parliament on the subject1 it was necessary for him to settle some definite plan for submission to the committee4 ,my late revered father1 says he1 having always taken a deep interest in the various proposals which had been considered for carrying a railway across the ,menai ,straits1 requested me to explain fully to him the views which led me to suggest the use of a tube1 and also the nature of the calculations ,i had made in reference to it4 ,it was during this personal conference that ,mr4 ,william ,fairbairn accidentally called upon me1 to whom ,i also explained the principles of the structure ,i had proposed4 ,he at once acquiesced in their truth1 and expressed confidence in the feasibility of my project1 giving me at the same time some facts relative to the remarkable strength of iron steamships1 and invited me to his works at ,millwall1 to examine the construction of an iron steamship which was then in progress4 ,the date of this consultation was early in ,april1 #ahde1 and ,mr4 ,fairbairn states that1 on that occasion1 ,mr4 ,stephenson asked whether such a design was practicable1 and whether ,i could accomplish it3 and it was ultimately arranged that the subject should be investigated experimentally1 to determine not only the value of ,mr4 ,stephenson's original conception 7of a circular or egg-shaped wrought-iron tube1 supported by chains71 but that of any other tubular form of bridge which might present itself in the prosecution of my researches4 ,the matter was placed unreservedly in my hands2 the entire conduct of the investigation was entrusted to me2 and1 as an experimenter1 ,i was to be left free to exercise my own discretion in the investigation of whatever forms or conditions of the structure might appear to me best calculated to secure a safe passage across the ,straits4 #cbi;a ,mr4 ,fairbairn then proceeded to construct a number of experimental models for the purpose of testing the strength of tubes of different forms4 ,the short period which elapsed1 however1 before the bill was in committee1 did not admit of much progress being made with those experiments2 but from the evidence in chief given by ,mr4 ,stephenson on the subject1 on the #eth ,may following1 it appears that the idea which prevailed in his mind was that of a bridge with openings of #dej feet 7afterwards increased to #dfj feet72 with a roadway formed of a hollow wrought-iron beam1 about #be feet in diameter1 presenting a rigid platform1 suspended by chains4 ,at the same time1 he expressed the confident opinion that a tube of wrought iron would possess sufficient strength and rigidity to support a railway train running inside of it without the help of the chains4 ,while the bill was still in progress1 ,mr4 ,fairbairn proceeded with his experiments4 ,he first tested tubes of a cylindrical form1 in consequence of the favourable opinion entertained by ,mr4 ,stephenson of the tubes in that shape1 extending them subsequently to those of an elliptical form4 #cbi;b ,he found tubes thus shaped more or less defective1 and proceeded to test those of a rectangular kind4 ,after the bill had received the royal assent on the #cjth ,june1 #ahde1 the directors of the company1 with great liberality1 voted a sum for the purpose of enabling the experiments to be prosecuted1 and upwards of #fjjj pounds were thus expended to make the assurance of their engineer doubly sure4 ,mr4 ,fairbairn's tests were of the most elaborate and eventually conclusive character1 bringing to light many new and important facts of great practical value4 ,the due proportions and thicknesses of the top1 bottom1 and sides of the tubes were arrived at after a vast number of trials2 one of the results of the experiments being the adoption of ,mr4 ,fairbairn's invention of rectangular hollow cells in the top of the beam for the purpose of giving it the requisite degree of strength4 ,about the end of ,august it was thought desirable to obtain the assistance of a mathematician1 who should prepare a formula by which the strength of a full-sized tube might be calculated from the results of the experiments made with tubes of smaller dimensions4 ,professor ,hodgkinson was accordingly called in1 and he proceeded to verify and confirm the experiments which ,mr4 ,fairbairn had made1 and afterwards reduced them to the required formula4 ,mr4 ,stephenson's time was so much engrossed with his extensive engineering business that he was in a great measure precluded from devoting himself to the consideration of the practical details4 ,the results of the experiments were communicated to him from time to time1 and were regarded by him as exceedingly satisfactory4 ,it would appear1 however1 that while ,mr4 ,fairbairn urged the rigidity and strength of the tubes without the aid of chains1 ,mr4 ,stephenson had not quite made up his mind upon the point4 ,mr4 ,hodgkinson1 also1 was strongly inclined to retain them4 ,mr4 ,fairbairn held that it was quite practicable to make the tubes sufficiently strong to sustain not only their own weight1 but1 in addition to that load1 #bjjj tons equally distributed over the surface of the platform1--a load ten times greater than they will ever be called upon to support4 ,it was thoroughly characteristic of ,mr4 ,stephenson1 and of the caution with which he proceeded in every step of this great undertaking--probing every inch of the ground before he set down his foot upon it--that he should1 early in #ahef1 7sic7 have appointed his able assistant1 ,mr4 ,edwin ,clark1 to scrutinise carefully the results of every experiment1 and subject them to a separate and independent analysis before finally deciding upon the form or dimensions of the structure1 or upon any mode of procedure connected with it4 ,at length ,mr4 ,stephenson became satisfied that the use of auxiliary chains was unnecessary1 and that the tubular bridge might be made of such strength as to be entirely self-supporting4 ,while these important discussions were in progress1 measures were taken to proceed with the masonry of the bridges simultaneously at ,conway and the ,menai ,straits4 ,the foundation-stone of the ,britannia ,bridge was laid on the #ajth ,april1 #ahdf2 and on the #abth ,may following that of the ,conway ,bridge was laid4 ,suitable platforms and workshops were also erected for proceeding with the punching1 fitting1 and riveting of the tubes2 and when these operations were in full progress1 the neighbourhood of the ,conway and ,britannia ,bridges presented scenes of extraordinary bustle and industry4 ,about #aejj men were employed on the ,britannia ,bridge alone1 and they mostly lived upon the ground in wooden cottages erected for the occasion4 ,the iron plates were brought in ship-loads from ,liverpool1 ,anglesey marble from ,penmon1 and red sandstone from ,runcorn1 in ,cheshire1 as wind and tide1 and shipping and convenience1 might determine4 ,there was an unremitting clank of hammers1 grinding of machinery1 and blasting of rock1 going on from morning till night4 ,in fitting the ,britannia tubes together1 not less than #b1jjj1jjj of bolts were riveted1 weighing some #ijj tons4 ,the ,britannia ,bridge consists of two independent continuous tubular beams1 each #aeaa feet in length1 and each weighing #dfhj tons1 independent of the cast-iron frames inserted at their bearings on the masonry of the towers4 ,these immense beams are supported at five places1 namely1 on the abutments and on three towers1 the central of which is known as the ,great ,britannia ,tower1 #bcj feet high1 built on a rock in the middle of the ,strait4 ,the side towers are #ah feet less in height than the central one1 and the abutment #ce feet lower than the side towers4 ,the design of the masonry is such as to accord with the form of the tubes1 being somewhat of an ,egyptian character1 massive and gigantic rather than beautiful1 but bearing the unmistakable impress of power4 ,the bridge has four spans1--two of #dfj feet over the water1 and two of #bcj feet over the land4 ,the weight of the larger spans1 at the points where the tubes repose on the masonry1 is not less than #aehg tons4 ,on the centre tower the tubes rest solid2 but on the land towers and abutments they lie on roller-beds1 so as to allow of expansion and contraction4 ,the road within each tube is #ae feet wide1 and the height varies from #bc feet at the ends to #cj feet at the centre4 ,to give an idea of the vast size of the tubes by comparison with other structures1 it may be mentioned that each length constituting the main spans is twice as long as ,london ,monument is high2 and if it could be set on end in ,st4 ,paul's ,churchyard1 it would reach nearly #ajj feet above the cross4 ,the ,conway ,bridge is1 in most respects1 similar to the ,britannia1 consisting of two tubes1 of #djj feet span1 placed side by side1 each weighing #aahj tons4 ,the principle adopted in the construction of the tubes1 and the mode of floating and raising them1 were nearly the same as at the ,britannia ,bridge1 though the general arrangement of the plates is in many respects different4 ,it was determined to construct the shorter outer tubes of the ,britannia ,bridge on scaffoldings in the positions in which they were permanently to remain1 and to erect the larger tubes upon wooden platforms at high-water-mark on the ,caernarvon shore1 from whence they were to be floated in pontoons4 ,the floating of the tubes on pontoons1 from the places where they had been constructed1 to the recesses in the masonry of the towers1 up which they were to be hoisted to the positions they were permanently to occupy1 was an anxious and exciting operation4 ,the first part of this process was performed at ,conway1 where ,mr4 ,stephenson directed it in person1 assisted by ,captain ,claxton1 ,mr4 ,brunel1 and other engineering friends4 ,on the #fth ,march1 #ahdh1 the pontoons bearing the first great tube of the up-line were floated round quietly and majestically into their place between the towers in about twenty minutes4 ,unfortunately1 one of the sets of pontoons had become slightly slued by the stream1 by which the ,conway end of the tube was prevented from being brought home2 and five anxious days to all concerned intervened before it could be set in its place4 ,in the mean time1 the presses and raising machinery had been fitted in the towers above1 and the lifting process was begun on the #hth ,april1 when the immense mass was raised #h feet1 at the rate of about #b inches a minute4 ,on the #afth1 the tube had been raised and finally lowered into its permanent bed2 the rails were laid along it2 and1 on the #ahth1 ,mr4 ,stephenson passed through with the first locomotive4 ,the second tube was proceeded with on the removal of the first from the platform1 and was completed and floated in seven months4 ,the rapidity with which this second tube was constructed was in no small degree owing to the ,jacquard punching-machine1 contrived for the purpose by ,mr4 ,roberts of ,manchester4 ,this tube was finally fixed in its permanent bed on the #bnd of ,january1 #ahdi4 ,picture3 ,conway ,tubular ,bridge ,the floating and fixing of the great ,britannia tubes was a still more formidable enterprise1 though the experience gained at ,conway rendered it easy compared with what it otherwise would have been4 ,mr4 ,stephenson superintended the operation of floating the first in person1 giving the arranged signals from the top of the tube on which he was mounted1 the active part of the business being performed by a numerous corps of sailors1 under the immediate direction of ,captain ,claxton4 ,thousands of spectators lined the shores of the ,strait on the evening of the #aith ,june1 #ahdi4 ,on the land attachments being cut1 the pontoons began to float off2 but one of the capstans having given way from excessive strain1 the tube was brought home again for the night4 ,by next morning the defective capstan was restored1 and all was in readiness for another trial4 ,at half-past seven in the evening the tube was afloat1 and the pontoons swung out into the current like a monster pendulum1 held steady by the shore guide-lines1 but increasing in speed to almost a fearful extent as they neared their destined place between the piers4 ,the success of this operation1 says ,mr4 ,clark1 depended mainly on properly striking the 'butt' beneath the ,anglesey tower1 on which1 as upon a centre1 the tube was to be veered round into its position across the opening4 ,this position was determined by a #ab-;inch line1 which was to be paid out to a fixed mark from the ,llanfair capstan4 ,the coils of the rope unfortunately over-rode each other upon this capstan1 so that it could not be paid out4 ,in resisting the motion of the tube1 the capstan was bodily dragged out of the platform by the action of the palls1 and the tube was in imminent danger of being carried away by the stream1 or the pontoons crushed upon the rocks4 ,the men at the capstan were all knocked down1 and some of them thrown into the water1 though they made every exertion to arrest the motion of the capstan-bars4 ,in this dilemma ,mr4 ,rolfe1 who had charge of the capstan1 with great presence of mind1 called the visitors on shore to his assistance2 and handing out the spare coil of the #ab-;inch line into the field at the back of the capstan1 it was carried with great rapidity up the field1 and a crowd of people1 men1 women1 and children1 holding on to this huge cable1 arresting the progress of the tube1 which was at length brought safely against the butt and veered round4 ,the ,britannia end was then drawn into the recess of the masonry by a chain passing through the tower to a crab on the far side4 ,the violence of the tide abated1 though the wind increased1 and the ,anglesey end was drawn into its place beneath the corbelling in the masonry2 and as the tide went down1 the pontoons deposited their valuable cargo on the welcome shelf at each end4 ,the successful issue was greeted by cannon from the shore and the hearty cheers of many thousands of spectators1 whose sympathy and anxiety were but too clearly indicated by the unbroken silence with which the whole operation had been accompanied4 #cce ,by midnight all the pontoons had been got clear of the tube1 which now hung suspended over the waters of the ,strait by its two ends1 which rested upon the edges cut in the rock for the purpose at the base of the ,britannia and ,anglesey towers respectively1 up which the tube had now to be lifted by hydraulic power to its permanent place near the summit4 ,the accuracy with which the gigantic beam had been constructed may be inferred from the fact that1 after passing into its place1 a clear space remained between the iron plating and the rock outside of it of only about three-quarters of an inch6 ,mr4 ,stephenson's anxiety was1 of course1 very great up to the time of performing this trying operation4 ,when he had got the first tube floated at ,conway1 and saw all safe1 he said to ,captain ,moorsom1 ,now ,i shall go to bed4 ,but the ,britannia ,bridge was a still more difficult enterprise1 and cost him many a sleepless night4 ,afterwards describing his feelings to his friend ,mr4 ,gooch1 he said3 ,it was a most anxious and harassing time with me4 ,often at night ,i would lie tossing about1 seeking sleep in vain4 ,the tubes filled my head4 ,i went to bed with them and got up with them4 ,in the grey of the morning1 when ,i looked across the ,square1 #ccf it seemed an immense distance across to the houses on the opposite side4 ,it was nearly the same length as the span of my tubular bridge6 ,when the first tube had been floated1 a friend observed to him1 ,this great work has made you ten years older4 ,i have not slept sound1 he replied1 for three weeks4 ,sir ,f4 ,head1 however relates1 that when he revisited the spot on the following morning1 he observed1 sitting on a platform overlooking the suspended tube1 a gentleman1 reclining entirely by himself1 smoking a cigar1 and gazing1 as if indolently1 at the aerial gallery beneath him4 ,it was the engineer himself1 contemplating his new born child4 ,he had strolled down from the neighbouring village1 after his first sound and refreshing sleep for weeks1 to behold in sunshine and solitude1 that which during a weary period of gestation had been either mysteriously moving in his brain1 or1 like a vision--sometimes of good omen1 and sometimes of evil--had1 by night as well as by day1 been flitting across his mind4 ,the next process was the lifting of the tube into its place1 which was performed very deliberately and cautiously4 ,it was raised by powerful hydraulic presses1 only a few feet at a time1 and carefully under-built1 before being raised to a farther height4 ,when it had been got up by successive stages of this kind to about #bd feet1 an extraordinary accident occurred1 during ,mr4 ,stephenson's absence in ,london1 which he afterwards described to the author in as nearly as possible the following words3--,in a work of such novelty and magnitude1 you may readily imagine how anxious ,i was that every possible contingency should be provided for4 ,where one chain or rope was required1 ,i provided two4 ,i was not satisfied with 'enough3' ,i must have absolute security1 as far as that was possible4 ,i knew the consequences of failure would be most disastrous to the ,company1 and that the wisest economy was to provide for all contingencies at whatever cost4 ,when the first tube at the ,britannia had been successfully floated between the piers1 ready for being raised1 my young engineers were very much elated2 and when the hoisting apparatus had been fixed1 they wrote to me saying1--',we are now all ready for raising her3 we could do it in a day1 or in two at the most4 ,but my reply was1 ',no3 you must only raise the tube inch by inch1 and you must build up under it as you rise4 ,every inch must be made good4 ,nothing must be left to chance or good luck4' ,and fortunate it was that ,i insisted upon this cautious course being pursued2 for1 one day1 while the hydraulic presses were at work1 the bottom of one of them burst clean away6 ,the crosshead and the chains1 weighing more than #ej tons1 descended with a fearful crash upon the press1 and the tube itself fell down upon the packing beneath4 ,though the fall of the tube was not more than nine inches1 it crushed solid castings1 weighing tons1 as if they had been nuts4 ,the tube itself was slightly strained and deflected1 though it still remained sufficiently serviceable4 ,but it was a tremendous test to which it was put1 for a weight of upwards of #ejjj tons falling even a few inches must be admitted to be a very serious matter4 ,that it stood so well was extraordinary4 ,clark immediately wrote me an account of the circumstance1 in which he said1 ',thank ,god1 you have been so obstinate4 ,for if this accident had occurred without a bed for the end of the tube to fall on1 the whole would now have been lying across the bottom of the ,straits4' ,five thousand pounds extra expense was caused by this accident1 slight though it might seem4 ,but careful provision was made against future failure2 a new and improved cylinder was provided3 and the work was very soon advancing satisfactorily towards completion4 ,when the ,queen first visited the ,britannia ,bridge1 on her return from the ,north in #aheb1 ,robert ,stephenson accompanied ,her ,majesty and ,prince ,albert over the works1 explaining the principles on which the bridge had been built1 and the difficulties which had attended its erection4 ,he conducted the ,royal party to near the margin of the sea1 and1 after describing to them the incident of the fall of the tube1 and the reason of its preservation1 he pointed with pardonable pride to a pile of stones which the workmen had there raised to commemorate the event4 ,while nearly all the other marks of the work during its progress had been obliterated1 that cairn had been left standing in commemoration of the caution and foresight of their chief4 ,the floating and raising of the remaining tubes need not be described in detail4 ,the second was floated on the #crd ,december1 and set in its permanent place on the #gth ,january1 #ahej4 ,the others were floated and raised in due course4 ,on the #eth ,march1 ,mr4 ,stephenson put the last rivet in the last tube1 and passed through the completed bridge1 accompanied by about a thousand persons1 drawn by three locomotives4 ,the bridge was opened for public traffic on the #ahth ,march4 ,the cost of the whole work was #bcd1dej pounds4 ,picture3 ,the ,britannia ,bridge4 7,by ,percival ,skelton7 ,the ,britannia ,bridge is one of the most remarkable monuments of the enterprise and skill of the present century4 ,robert ,stephenson was the master spirit of the undertaking4 ,to him belongs the merit of first seizing the ideal conception of the structure best adapted to meet the necessities of the case2 and of selecting the best men to work out his idea1 himself watching1 controlling1 and testing every result1 by independent check and counter-check4 ,and finally1 he organised and directed1 through his assistants1 the vast band of skilled workmen and labourers who were for so many years occupied in carrying his magnificent original conception to a successful practical issue4 ,as he himself said of the work1--,the true and accurate calculation of all the conditions and elements essential to the safety of the bridge had been a source not only of mental but of bodily toil2 including1 as it did1 a combination of abstract thought and well-considered experiment adequate to the magnitude of the project4 ,the ,britannia ,bridge was the result of a vast combination of skill and industry4 ,but for the perfection of our tools and the ability of our mechanics to use them to the greatest advantage2 but for the matured powers of the steam-engine2 but for the improvements in the iron manufacture1 which enabled blooms to be puddled of sizes before deemed impracticable1 and plates and bars of immense size to be rolled and forged2 but for these1 the ,britannia ,bridge would have been designed in vain4 ,thus1 it was not the product of the genius of the railway engineer alone1 but of the collective mechanical genius of the ,english nation4 ,picture3 ,conway ,bridge4--,floating the ,first ,tube ,picture3 ,view in ,tapton ,gardens ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,george ,,stephenson',s ,,closing ,,years--,,illness ,,and ,,death4 ,in describing the completion of the series of great works detailed in the preceding chapter1 we have somewhat anticipated the closing years of ,george ,stephenson's life4 ,he could not fail to take an anxious interest in the success of his son's designs1 and he accordingly paid many visits to ,conway and to ,menai1 during the progress of the works4 ,he was present on the occasion of the floating and raising of the first ,conway tube1 and there witnessed a clear proof of the soundness of ,robert's judgment as to the efficiency and strength of the tubular bridge1 of which he had at first expressed some doubts2 but before the like test could be applied at the ,britannia ,bridge1 ,george ,stephenson's mortal anxieties were at an end1 for he had then ceased from all his labours4 ,towards the close of his life1 ,george ,stephenson almost entirely withdrew from the active pursuit of his profession2 he devoted himself chiefly to his extensive collieries and lime-works1 taking a local interest only in such projected railways as were calculated to open up new markets for their products4 ,at home he lived the life of a country gentleman1 enjoying his garden and grounds1 and indulging his love of nature1 which1 through all his busy life1 had never left him4 ,it was not until the year #ahde that he took an active interest in horticultural pursuits4 ,then he began to build new melon-houses1 pineries1 and vineries1 of great extent2 and he now seemed as eager to excel all other growers of exotic plants in his neighbourhood1 as he had been to surpass the villagers of ,killingworth in the production of gigantic cabbages and cauliflowers some thirty years before4 ,he had a pine-house built #fh feet in length and a pinery #adj feet4 ,workmen were constantly employed in enlarging them1 until at length he had no fewer than ten glass forcing-houses1 heated with hot water1 which he was one of the first in that neighbourhood to make use of for such a purpose4 ,he did not take so much pleasure in flowers as in fruits4 ,at one of the county agricultural meetings1 he said that he intended yet to grow pineapples at ,tapton as big as pumpkins4 ,the only man to whom he would knock under was his friend ,paxton1 the gardener to the ,duke of ,devonshire2 and he was so old in the service1 and so skilful1 that he could scarcely hope to beat him4 ,yet his ,queen pines did take the first prize at a competition with the ,duke1--though this was not until shortly after his death1 when the plants had become more fully grown4 ,his grapes also took the first prize at ,rotherham1 at a competition open to all ,england4 ,he was extremely successful in producing melons1 having invented a method of suspending them in baskets of wire gauze1 which1 by relieving the stalk from tension1 allowed nutrition to proceed more freely1 and better enabled the fruit to grow and ripen4 ,he took much pride also in his growth of cucumbers4 ,he raised them very fine and large1 but he could not make them grow straight4 ,place them as he would1 notwithstanding all his propping of them1 and humouring them by modifying the application of heat and the admission of light for the purpose of effecting his object1 they would still insist on growing crooked in their own way4 ,at last he had a number of glass cylinders made at ,newcastle1 for the purpose of an experiment2 into these the growing cucumbers were inserted1 and then he succeeded in growing them perfectly straight4 ,carrying one of the new products into his house one day1 and exhibiting it to a party of visitors1 he told them of the expedient he had adopted1 and added gleefully1 ,i think ,i have bothered them noo6 ,mr4 ,stephenson also carried on farming operations with some success4 ,he experimented on manure1 and fed cattle after methods of his own4 ,he was very particular as to breed and build in stock-breeding4 ,you see1 sir1 he said to one gentleman1 ,i like to see the coo's back at a gradient something like this 7drawing an imaginary line with his hand71 and then the ribs or girders will carry more flesh than if they were so--or so4 ,when he attended the county agricultural meetings1 which he frequently did1 he was accustomed to take part in the discussions1 and he brought the same vigorous practical mind to bear upon questions of tillage1 drainage1 and farm economy1 which he had been accustomed to exercise on mechanical and engineering matters4 ,all his early affection for birds and animals revived4 ,he had favourite dogs1 and cows1 and horses2 and again he began to keep rabbits1 and to pride himself on the beauty of his breed4 ,there was not a bird's nest upon the grounds that he did not know of2 and from day to day he went round watching the progress which the birds made with their building1 carefully guarding them from injury4 ,no one was more minutely acquainted with the habits of ,british birds1 the result of a long1 loving1 and close observation of nature4 ,at ,tapton he remembered the failure of his early experiment in hatching birds' eggs by heat1 and he now performed it successfully1 being able to secure a proper apparatus for maintaining a uniform temperature4 ,he was also curious about the breeding and fattening of fowls2 and when his friend ,edward ,pease of ,darlington visited him at ,tapton1 he explained a method which he had invented for fattening chickens in half the usual time4 ,mrs4 ,stephenson tried to keep bees1 but found they would not thrive at ,tapton4 ,many hives perished1 and there was no case of success4 ,the cause of failure was a puzzle to the engineer2 but one day his acute powers of observation enabled him to unravel it4 ,at the foot of the hill on which ,tapton ,house stands1 he saw some bees trying to rise up from amongst the grass1 laden with honey and wax4 ,they were already exhausted1 as if with long flying2 and then it occurred to him that the height at which the house stood above the bees' feeding-ground rendered it difficult for them to reach their hives when heavy laden1 and hence they sank exhausted4 ,he afterwards incidentally mentioned the circumstance to ,mr4 ,jesse the naturalist1 who concurred in his view as to the cause of failure1 and was much struck by the keen observation which had led to its solution4 ,mr4 ,stephenson had none of the in-door habits of the student4 ,he read very little2 for reading is a habit which is generally acquired in youth2 and his youth and manhood had been for the most part spent in hard work4 ,books wearied him1 and sent him to sleep4 ,novels excited his feelings too much1 and he avoided them1 though he would occasionally read through a philosophical book on a subject in which he felt particularly interested4 ,he wrote very few letters with his own hand2 nearly all his letters were dictated1 and he avoided even dictation when he could4 ,his greatest pleasure was in conversation1 from which he gathered most of his imparted information4 ,it was his practice1 when about to set out on a journey by railway1 to walk along the train before it started1 and look into the carriages to see if he could find a conversable face4 ,on one of these occasions1 at the ,euston ,station1 he discovered in a carriage a very handsome1 manly1 and intelligent face1 which he afterwards found was that of the late ,lord ,denman4 ,he was on his way down to his seat at ,stony ,middleton1 in ,derbyshire4 ,mr4 ,stephenson entered the carriage1 and the two were shortly engaged in interesting conversation4 ,it turned upon chronometry and horology1 and the engineer amazed his lordship by the extent of his knowledge on the subject1 in which he displayed as much minute information1 even down to the latest improvements in watchmaking1 as if he had been bred a watchmaker and lived by the trade4 ,lord ,denman was curious to know how a man whose time must have been mainly engrossed by engineering1 had gathered so much knowledge on a subject quite out of his own line1 and he asked the question4 ,i learnt clockmaking and watchmaking1 was the answer1 while a working man at ,killingworth1 when ,i made a little money in my spare hours1 by cleaning the pitmen's clocks and watches2 and since then ,i have kept up my information on the subject4 ,this led to further questions1 and then ,mr4 ,stephenson told ,lord ,denman the interesting story of his life1 which held him entranced during the remainder of the journey4 ,many of his friends readily accepted invitations to ,tapton ,house to enjoy his hospitality1 which never failed4 ,with them he would fight his battles o'er again1 reverting to his battle for the locomotive2 and he was never tired of telling1 nor were his auditors of listening to1 the lively anecdotes with which he was accustomed to illustrate the struggles of his early career4 ,whilst walking in the woods or through the grounds1 he would arrest his friend's attention by allusion to some simple object1--such as a leaf1 a blade of grass1 a bit of bark1 a nest of birds1 or an ant carrying its eggs across the path1--and descant in glowing terms upon the creative power of the ,divine ,mechanician1 whose contrivances were so exhaustless and so wonderful4 ,this was a theme upon which he was often accustomed to dwell in reverential admiration1 when in the society of his more intimate friends4 ,one night1 when walking under the stars1 and gazing up into the field of suns1 each the probable centre of a system1 forming the ,milky ,way1 a friend said to him1 ,what an insignificant creature is man in sight of so immense a creation as that6 ,yes6 was his reply2 but how wonderful a creature also is man1 to be able to think and reason1 and even in some measure to comprehend works so infinite6 ,a microscope1 which he had brought down to ,tapton1 was a source of immense enjoyment to him2 and he was never tired of contemplating the minute wonders which it revealed4 ,one evening1 when some friends were visiting him1 he induced them each to puncture their skin so as to draw blood1 in order that he might examine the globules through the microscope4 ,one of the gentlemen present was a teetotaller1 and ,mr4 ,stephenson pronounced his blood to be the most lively of the whole4 ,he had a theory of his own about the movement of the globules in the blood1 which has since become familiar4 ,it was1 that they were respectively charged with electricity1 positive at one end and negative at the other1 and that thus they attracted and repelled each other1 causing a circulation4 ,no sooner did he observe anything new1 than he immediately set about devising a reason for it4 ,his training in mechanics1 his practical familiarity with matter in all its forms1 and the strong bent of his mind1 led him first of all to seek for a mechanical explanation4 ,and yet he was ready to admit that there was a something in the principle of life--so mysterious and inexplicable--which baffled mechanics1 and seemed to dominate over and control them4 ,he did not care much1 either1 for abstruse mechanics1 but only for the experimental and practical1 as is usually the case with those whose knowledge has been self-acquired4 ,even at his advanced age1 the spirit of frolic had not left him4 ,when proceeding from ,chesterfield station to ,tapton ,house with his friends1 he would almost invariably challenge them to a race up the steep path1 partly formed of stone steps1 along the hill side4 ,and he would struggle1 as of old1 to keep the front place1 though by this time his wind had greatly failed4 ,he would occasionally invite an old friend to take a quiet wrestle with him on the lawn1 to keep up his skill1 and perhaps to try some new knack of throwing4 ,in the evening1 he would sometimes indulge his visitors by reciting the old pastoral of ,damon and ,phyllis1 or singing his favourite song of ,john ,anderson my ,joe4 ,but his greatest glory amongst those with whom he was most intimate1 was a crowdie6 ,let's have a crowdie night1 he would say2 and forthwith a kettle of boiling water was ordered in1 with a basin of oatmeal4 ,taking a large bowl1 containing a sufficiency of hot water1 and placing it between his knees1 he poured in oatmeal with one hand1 and stirred the mixture vigorously with the other4 ,when enough meal had been added1 and the stirring was completed1 the crowdie was made4 ,it was then supped with new milk1 and ,stephenson generally pronounced it capital6 ,it was the diet to which he had been accustomed when a working man1 and all the dainties with which he had become familiar in recent years had not spoiled his simple tastes4 ,to enjoy crowdie at his age1 besides1 indicated that he still possessed that quality on which no doubt much of his practical success in life had depended1--a strong and healthy digestion4 ,he would also frequently invite to his house the humbler companions of his early life1 and take pleasure in talking over old times with them4 ,he never assumed any of the bearings of a great man on such occasions1 but treated the visitors with the same friendliness and respect as if they had been his equals1 sending them away pleased with themselves and delighted with him4 ,at other times1 needy men who had known him in youth would knock at his door1 and they were never refused access4 ,but if he had heard of any misconduct on their part he would rate them soundly4 ,one who knew him intimately in private life has seen him exhorting such backsliders1 and denouncing their misconduct and imprudence with the tears streaming down his cheeks4 ,and he would generally conclude by opening his purse1 and giving them the help which they needed to make a fresh start in the world4 ,mr4 ,stephenson's life at ,tapton during his latter years was occasionally diversified with a visit to ,london4 ,his engineering business having become limited1 he generally went there for the purpose of visiting friends1 or to see what there was fresh going on4 ,he found a new race of engineers springing up on all hands--men who knew him not2 and his ,london journeys gradually ceased to yield him pleasure4 ,a friend used to take him to the opera1 but by the end of the first act1 he was generally in a profound slumber4 ,yet on one occasion he enjoyed a visit to the ,haymarket with a party of friends on his birthday1 to see ,t4 ,p4 ,cooke1 in ,black-eyed ,susan2--if that can be called enjoyment which kept him in a state of tears during half the performance4 ,at other times he visited ,newcastle1 which always gave him great pleasure4 ,he would1 on such occasions1 go out to ,killingworth and seek up old friends1 and if the people whom he knew were too retiring1 and shrunk into their cottages1 he went and sought them there4 ,striking the floor with his stick1 and holding his noble person upright1 he would say1 in his own kind way1 ,well1 and how's all here to-day8 ,to the last he had always a warm heart for ,newcastle and its neighbourhood4 ,sir ,robert ,peel1 on more than one occasion1 invited ,george ,stephenson to his mansion at ,drayton1 where he was accustomed to assemble round him men of the highest distinction in art1 science1 and legislation1 during the intervals of his parliamentary life4 ,the first invitation was respectfully declined4 ,sir ,robert invited him a second time1 and a second time he declined3 ,i have no great ambition1 he said1 to mix in fine company1 and perhaps should feel out of my element amongst such high folks4 ,but ,sir ,robert a third time pressed him to come down to ,tamworth early in ,january1 #ahde1 when he would meet ,buckland1 ,follett1 and others well known to both4 ,well1 ,sir ,robert1 said he1 ,i feel your kindness very much1 and can no longer refuse3 ,i will come down and join your party4 ,mr4 ,stephenson's strong powers of observation1 together with his native humour and shrewdness1 imparted to his conversation at all times much vigour and originality1 and made him1 to young and old1 a delightful companion4 ,though mainly an engineer1 he was also a profound thinker on many scientific questions3 and there was scarcely a subject of speculation1 or a department of recondite science1 on which he had not employed his faculties in such a way as to have formed large and original views4 ,at ,drayton1 the conversation usually turned upon such topics1 and ,mr4 ,stephenson freely joined in it4 ,on one occasion1 an animated discussion took place between himself and ,dr4 ,buckland on one of his favourite theories as to the formation of coal4 ,but the result was1 that ,dr4 ,buckland1 a much greater master of tongue-fence than ,mr4 ,stephenson1 completely silenced him4 ,next morning1 before breakfast1 when he was walking in the grounds1 deeply pondering1 ,sir ,william ,follett came up and asked what he was thinking about8 ,why1 ,sir ,william1 ,i am thinking over that argument ,i had with ,buckland last night2 ,i know ,i am right1 and that if ,i had only the command of words which he has1 ,i'd have beaten him4 ,let me know all about it1 said ,sir ,william1 and ,i'll see what ,i can do for you4 ,the two sat down in an arbour1 and the astute lawyer made himself thoroughly acquainted with the points of the case2 entering into it with all the zeal of an advocate about to plead the dearest interests of his client4 ,after he had mastered the subject1 ,sir ,william rose up1 rubbing his hands with glee1 and said1 ,now ,i am ready for him4 ,sir ,robert ,peel was made acquainted with the plot1 and adroitly introduced the subject of the controversy after dinner4 ,the result was1 that in the argument which followed1 the man of science was overcome by the man of law2 and ,sir ,william ,follett had at all points the mastery over ,dr4 ,buckland4 ,what do you say1 ,mr4 ,stephenson8 asked ,sir ,robert1 laughing4 ,why1 said he1 ,i will only say this1 that of all the powers above and under the earth1 there seems to me to be no power so great as the gift of the gab4 #cej ,one ,sunday1 when the party had just returned from church1 they were standing together on the terrace near the ,hall1 and observed in the distance a railway-train flashing along1 tossing behind its long white plume of steam4 ,now1 ,buckland1 said ,stephenson1 ,i have a poser for you4 ,can you tell me what is the power that is driving that train8 ,well1 said the other1 ,i suppose it is one of your big engines4 ,but what drives the engine8 ,oh1 very likely a canny ,newcastle driver4 ,what do you say to the light of the sun8 ,how can that be8 asked the doctor4 ,it is nothing else1 said the engineer1 it is light bottled up in the earth for tens of thousands of years1--light1 absorbed by plants and vegetables1 being necessary for the condensation of carbon during the process of their growth1 if it be not carbon in another form1--and now1 after being buried in the earth for long ages in fields of coal1 that latent light is again brought forth and liberated1 made to work as in that locomotive1 for great human purposes4 ,during the same visit1 ,mr4 ,stephenson1 one evening repeated his experiment with blood drawn from the finger1 submitting it to the microscope in order to show the curious circulation of the globules4 ,he set the example by pricking his own thumb2 and the other guests1 by turns1 in like manner1 gave up a small portion of their blood for the purpose of ascertaining the comparative livelinesss of their circulation4 ,when ,sir ,robert ,peel's turn came1 ,mr4 ,stephenson said he was curious to know how the blood globules of a great politician would conduct themselves4 ,sir ,robert held forth his finger for the purpose of being pricked2 but once1 and again1 he sensitively shrunk back1 and at length the experiment1 so far as he was concerned1 was abandoned4 ,sir ,robert ,peel's sensitiveness to pain was extreme1 and yet he was destined1 a few years after1 to die a death of the most distressing agony4 ,in #ahdg1 the year before his death1 ,mr4 ,stephenson was again invited to join a distinguished party at ,drayton ,manor1 and to assist in the ceremony of formally opening the ,trent ,valley ,railway1 which had been originally designed and laid out by himself many years before4 ,the first sod of the railway had been cut by the ,prime ,minister1 in ,november1 #ahde1 during the time when ,mr4 ,stephenson was abroad on the business of the ,spanish railway4 ,the formal opening took place on the #bfth ,june1 #ahdg1 the line having thus been constructed in less than two years4 ,what a change had come over the spirit of the landed gentry since the time when ,george ,stephenson had first projected a railway through that district6 ,then they were up in arms against him1 characterising him as the devastator and spoiler of their estates2 now he was hailed as one of the greatest benefactors of the age4 ,sir ,robert ,peel1 the chief political personage in ,england1 welcomed him as a guest and friend1 and spoke of him as the chief among practical philosophers4 ,a dozen members of ,parliament1 seven baronets1 with all the landed magnates of the district1 assembled to celebrate the opening of the railway4 ,the clergy were there to bless the enterprise1 and to bid all hail to railway progress1 as enabling them to carry on with greater facility those operations in connexion with religion which were calculated to be so beneficial to the country4 ,the army1 speaking through the mouth of ,general ,a',court1 acknowledged the vast importance of railways1 as tending to improve the military defences of the country4 ,and representatives from eight corporations were there to acknowledge the great benefits which railways had conferred upon the merchants1 tradesmen1 and working classes of their respective towns and cities4 ,in the spring of #ahdh ,mr4 ,stephenson was invited to ,whittington ,house1 near ,chesterfield1 the residence of his friend and former pupil1 ,mr4 ,swanwick1 to meet the distinguished ,american1 ,emerson4 ,upon being introduced1 they did not immediately engage in conversation2 but presently ,stephenson jumped up1 took ,emerson by the collar1 and giving him one of his friendly shakes1 asked how it was that in ,england we could always tell an ,american8 ,this led to an interesting conversation1 in the course of which ,emerson said how much he had been everywhere struck by the haleness and comeliness of the ,english men and women2 and then they diverged into a further discussion of the influences which air1 climate1 moisture1 soil1 and other conditions exercised upon the physical and moral development of a people4 ,the conversation was next directed to the subject of electricity1 upon which ,stephenson launched out enthusiastically1 explaining his views by several simple and striking illustrations4 ,from thence it gradually turned to the events of his own life1 which he related in so graphic a manner as completely to rivet the attention of the ,american4 ,afterwards ,emerson said1 that it was worth crossing the ,atlantic to have seen ,stephenson alone2 he had such native force of character and vigour of intellect4 ,the rest of ,mr4 ,stephenson's days were spent quietly at ,tapton1 amongst his dogs1 his rabbits1 and his birds4 ,when not engaged about the works connected with his collieries1 he was occupied in horticulture and farming4 ,he continued proud of his flowers1 his fruits1 and his crops2 and the old spirit of competition was still strong within him4 ,although he had for some time been in delicate health1 and his hand shook from nervous affection1 he appeared to possess a sound constitution4 ,emerson had observed of him that he had the lives of many men in him4 ,but perhaps the ,american spoke figuratively1 in reference to his vast stores of experience4 ,it appeared that he had never completely recovered from the attack of pleurisy which seized him during his return from ,spain4 ,as late1 however1 as the #bfth ,july1 #ahdh1 he felt himself sufficiently well to be able to attend a meeting of the ,institute of ,mechanical ,engineers at ,birmingham1 and to read to the members his paper ,on the ,fallacies of the ,rotatory ,engine4 ,it was his last appearance before them4 ,shortly after his return to ,tapton1 he had an attack of intermittent fever1 from which he seemed to be recovering1 when a sudden effusion of blood from the lungs carried him off1 on the #abth ,august1 #ahdh1 in the sixty-seventh year of his age4 ,when all was over1 ,robert wrote to ,edward ,pease1 ,with deep pain ,i inform you1 as one of his oldest friends1 of the death of my dear father this morning at #ab o'clock1 after about ten days' illness from severe fever4 ,mr4 ,starbuck1 who was also present1 wrote1 ,the favourable symptoms of yesterday morning were towards evening followed by a serious change for the worse4 ,this continued during the night1 and early this morning it became evident that he was sinking4 ,at a few minutes before #ab to-day he breathed his last4 ,all that the most devoted and unremitting care of ,mrs4 ,stephenson #ced and the skill of medicine could accomplish1 has been done1 but in vain4 ,george ,stephenson's remains were followed to the grave by a large body of his workpeople1 by whom he was greatly admired and beloved4 ,they remembered him as a kind master1 who was ever ready actively to promote all measures for their moral1 physical1 and mental improvement4 ,the inhabitants of ,chesterfield evinced their respect for the deceased by suspending business1 closing their shops1 and joining in the funeral procession1 which was headed by the corporation of the town4 ,many of the surrounding gentry also attended4 ,the body was interred in ,trinity ,church1 ,chesterfield1 where a simple tablet marks the great engineer's last resting-place4 ,the statue of ,george ,stephenson1 which the ,liverpool and ,manchester and ,grand ,junction ,companies had commissioned1 was on its way to ,england when his death occurred2 and it served for a monument1 though his best monument will always be his works4 ,the statue referred to was placed in ,st4 ,george's ,hall1 ,liverpool4 ,a full-length statue of him1 by ,bailey1 was also erected a few years later1 in the noble vestibule of the ,london and ,north-,western ,station1 in ,euston ,square4 ,a subscription for the purpose was set on foot by the ,society of ,mechanical ,engineers1 of which he had been the founder and president4 ,a few advertisements were inserted in the newspapers1 inviting subscriptions2 and it is a notable fact that the voluntary offerings included an average of two shillings each from #caej working men1 who embraced this opportunity of doing honour to their distinguished fellow workman4 ,picture3 ,trinity ,church1 ,chesterfield ,but unquestionably the finest and most appropriate statue to the memory of ,george ,stephenson is that erected in #ahfb1 after the design of ,john ,lough1 at ,newcastle-upon ,tyne4 ,it is in the immediate neighbourhood of the ,literary and ,philosophical ,institute1 to which both ,george and his son ,robert were so much indebted in their early years2 close to the great ,stephenson locomotive foundry established by the shrewdness of the father2 and in the vicinity of the ,high ,level ,bridge1 one of the grandest products of the genius of the son4 ,the head of ,stephenson1 as expressed in this noble work1 is massive1 characteristic1 and faithful2 and the attitude of the figure is simple yet manly and energetic4 ,it stands on a pedestal1 at the respective corners of which are sculptured the recumbent figures of a pitman1 a mechanic1 an engine-driver1 and a plate-layer4 ,the statue appropriately stands in a very thoroughfare of working-men1 thousands of whom see it daily as they pass to and from their work2 and we can imagine them1 as they look up to ,stephenson's manly figure1 applying to it the words addressed by ,robert ,nicoll to ,robert ,burns1 with perhaps still greater appropriateness3-- ,before the proudest of the earth ,we stand1 with an uplifted brow2 ,like us1 thou wast a toiling man1-- ,and we are noble1 now6 ,the portrait prefixed to this volume gives a good indication of ,george ,stephenson's shrewd1 kind1 honest1 manly face4 ,his fair1 clear countenance was ruddy1 and seemingly glowed with health4 ,the forehead was large and high1 projecting over the eyes1 and there was that massive breadth across the lower part which is usually observed in men of eminent constructive skill4 ,the mouth was firmly marked1 and shrewdness and humour lurked there as well as in the keen grey eye4 ,his frame was compact1 well-knit1 and rather spare4 ,his hair became grey at an early age1 and towards the close of his life it was of a pure silky whiteness4 ,he dressed neatly in black1 wearing a white neckcloth2 and his face1 his person1 and his deportment at once arrested attention1 and marked the ,gentleman4 ,picture3 ,tablet in ,trinity ,church1 ,chesterfield ,picture3 ,victoria ,bridge1 ,montreal ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,robert ,,stephenson',s ,,victoria ,,bridge1 ,,lower ,,canada--,,illness ,,and ,,death--,,stephenson ,,characteristics4 ,george ,stephenson bequeathed to his son his valuable collieries1 his share in the engine manufactory at ,newcastle1 and his large accumulation of savings1 which1 together with the fortune he had himself amassed by railway work1 gave ,robert the position of an engineer millionaire--the first of his order4 ,he continued1 however1 to live in a quiet style2 and although he bought occasional pictures and statues1 and indulged in the luxury of a yacht1 he did not live up to his income1 which went on rapidly accumulating until his death4 ,there was no longer the necessity for applying himself to the laborious business of a parliamentary engineer1 in which he had now been occupied for some fifteen years4 ,shortly after his father's death1 ,edward ,pease strongly recommended him to give up the more harassing work of his profession2 and his reply 7#aeth ,june1 #ahej7 was as follows3--,the suggestion which your kind note contains is quite in accordance with my own feelings and intentions respecting retirement2 but ,i find it a very difficult matter to bring to a close so complicated a connexion in business as that which has been established by twenty-five years of active and arduous professional duty4 ,comparative retirement is1 however1 my intention2 and ,i trust that your prayer for the ,divine blessing to grant me happiness and quiet comfort will be fulfilled4 ,i cannot but feel deeply grateful to the ,great ,disposer of events for the success which has hitherto attended my exertions in life2 and ,i trust that the future will also be marked by a continuance of ,his mercies4 ,although ,robert ,stephenson1 in conformity with this expressed intention1 for the most part declined to undertake new business1 he did not altogether lay aside his harness2 and he lived to repeat his tubular bridges both in ,lower ,canada and in ,egypt4 ,the success of the tubular system1 as adopted at ,menai and ,conway1 was such as to recommend it for adoption wherever great span was required2 and the peculiar circumstances connected with the navigation of the ,st4 ,lawrence and the ,nile1 may be said to have compelled its adoption in carrying railways across those great rivers4 ,the ,victoria ,bridge1 of which ,robert ,stephenson was the designer and chief engineer1 is1 without exception1 the greatest work of the kind in the world4 ,for gigantic proportions and vast length and strength there is nothing to compare with it in ancient or modern times4 ,the entire bridge1 with its approaches1 is only about sixty yards short of two miles1 being five times longer than the ,britannia across the ,menai ,straits1 seven and a half times longer than ,waterloo ,bridge1 and more than ten times longer than the new ,chelsea ,bridge across the ,thames6 ,it has not less than twenty-four spans of #bdb feet each1 and one great central span--itself an immense bridge--of #ccj feet4 ,the road is carried within iron tubes #fj feet above the level of the ,st4 ,lawrence1 which runs beneath at a speed of about ten miles an hour1 and in winter brings down the ice of two thousand square miles of lakes and rivers1 with their numerous tributaries4 ,the weight of iron in the tubes is about ten thousand tons1 supported on massive piers1 which contain1 some six1 and others ten thousand tons of solid masonry4 ,so gigantic a work1 involving so heavy an expenditure--about #a1cjj1jjj pounds--was not projected without sufficient cause4 ,the ,grand ,trunk ,railway of ,canada1 upwards of #abjj miles in length1 traverses ,british ,north ,america from the shores of the ,atlantic to the rich prairie country of the ,far ,west4 ,it opens up a vast extent of fertile territory for future immigration1 and provides a ready means for transporting the varied products of the ,western ,states to the seaboard4 ,so long as the ,st4 ,lawrence was relied upon1 the inhabitants along the ,great ,valley were precluded from communication with each other for nearly six months of the year1 during which the navigation was closed by the ice4 ,the ,grand ,trunk ,railway was designed to furnish a line of communication through this great district at all seasons2 following the course of the ,st4 ,lawrence along its north bank1 and uniting the principal towns of ,canada4 ,but stopping short on the north shore1 it was still an incomplete work2 unconnected1 except by a dangerous and often impracticable ferry1 with ,montreal1 the capital of the province1 and shut off from connection with the ,united ,states1 as well as with the coast to which the commerce of ,canada naturally tends4 ,without a bridge at ,montreal1 therefore1 it was felt that the system of ,canadian railway communication would have been incomplete1 and the benefits of the ,grand ,trunk ,railway in a great measure nugatory4 ,as early as #ahdf the construction of a bridge across the ,st4 ,lawrence at ,montreal was strongly advocated by the local press for the purpose of directly connecting that city with the then projected ,atlantic and ,st4 ,lawrence ,railway4 ,a survey of the bridge was made1 and the scheme was reported to be practicable4 ,a period of colonial depression1 however1 intervened1 and although the project was not lost sight of1 it was not until #aheb1 when the ,grand ,trunk ,railway ,company began their operations1 that there seemed to be any reasonable prospect of its being carried out4 ,in that year1 ,mr4 ,a4 ,m4 ,ross--who had superintended1 under ,robert ,stephenson1 the construction of the tubular bridge over the ,conway--visited ,canada1 and inspected the site of the proposed bridge1 when he readily arrived at the conclusion that a like structure was suitable for the crossing of the ,st4 ,lawrence4 ,he returned to ,england to confer with ,robert ,stephenson on the subject1 and the result was the plan of the ,victoria ,bridge1 of which ,robert ,stephenson was the designer1 and ,mr4 ,a4 ,m4 ,ross the joint and resident engineer4 ,the particular kind of structure to be adopted1 however1 formed the subject of much preliminary discussion4 ,even after the design of a tubular bridge had been adopted1 and the piers were commenced1 the plan was made the subject of severe criticism1 on the ground of its alleged excessive cost4 ,it therefore became necessary for ,mr4 ,stephenson to vindicate the propriety of his design in a report to the directors of the railway1 in which he satisfactorily proved that as respected strength1 efficiency1 and economy1 with a view to permanency1 the plan of the ,victoria ,bridge was unimpeachable4 ,there were various methods proposed for spanning the ,st4 ,lawrence4 ,the suspension bridge1 such as that over the river ,niagara1 was found inapplicable for several reasons1 but chiefly because of its defective rigidity1 which greatly limited the speed and weight of the trains1 and consequently the amount of traffic which could be passed over such a bridge4 ,thus1 taking the length of the ,victoria ,bridge into account1 it was found that not more than #bj trains could pass within the #bd hours1 a number insufficient for the accommodation of the anticipated traffic4 ,to introduce such an amount of material into the suspension bridge as would supply increased rigidity1 would only be approximating to the original beam1 and neutralizing any advantages in point of cheapness which might be derivable from this form of structure1 without securing the essential stiffness and strength4 ,iron arches were also considered inapplicable1 because of the large headway required for the passage of the ice in winter1 and the necessity which existed for keeping the springing of the arches clear of the water-line4 ,this would have involved the raising of the entire road1 and a largely increased expenditure on the upper works4 ,the question was therefore reduced to the consideration of the kind of horizontal beam or girder to be employed4 ,horizontal girders are of three kinds4 ,the ,tubular is constructed of riveted rectangular boiler plates4 ,where the span is large1 the road passes within the tube2 where the span is comparatively small1 the roadway is supported by two or more rectangular beams4 ,next there is the ,lattice girder1 borrowed from the loose rough timber bridges of the ,american engineers1 consisting of a top and bottom flange connected by a number of flat iron bars1 riveted across each other at a certain angle1 the roadway resting on the top1 or being suspended at the bottom between the lattice on either side4 ,bridges on the same construction are now extensively used for crossing the broad rivers of ,india1 and are especially designed with a view to their easy transport and erection4 ,the ,trellis or ,warren girder is a modification of the same plan1 consisting of a top and bottom flange1 with a connecting web of diagonal flat bars1 forming a complete system of triangulation--hence the name of ,triangular girder1 by which it is generally known4 ,the merit of this form consists in its comparative rigidity1 strength1 lightness1 and economy of material ,these bridges are also extensively employed in spanning the rivers of ,india4 ,one of the best specimens is the ,crumlin viaduct1 #bjj feet high at one point1 which spans the river and valley of the ,ebbw near the village of ,crumlin in ,south ,wales4 ,this viaduct is about a third of a mile long1 divided into two parts by a ridge of hills which runs through the centre of the valley--each part forming a separate viaduct1 the one of seven equal spans of #aej feet1 the other of three spans of the same diameter4 ,the bridge has been very skilfully designed and constructed1 and1 by reason of its great dimensions and novel arrangements1 is entitled to be regarded as one of the most remarkable engineering works of the day4 ,in calculating the strength of these different classes of girders1 ,mr4 ,stephenson observed1 one ruling principle appertains1 and is common to all of them4 ,primarily and essentially1 the ultimate strength is considered to exist in the top and bottom1--the former being exposed to a compression force by the action of the load1 and the latter to a force of tension2 therefore1 whatever be the class or denomination of girders1 they must all be alike in amount of effective material in these members1 if their spans and depths are the same1 and they have to sustain the same amount of load4 ,hence1 the question of comparative merit amongst the different classes of construction of beams or girders is really narrowed to the method of connecting the top and bottom webs1 so called4 ,in the tubular system the connexion is effected by continuous boiler plates riveted together2 and in the lattice and trellis bridges by flat iron bars1 more or less numerous1 forming a series of struts and ties4 ,those engineers who advocate the employment of the latter form of construction1 set forth as its principal advantage the saving of material which is effected by employing bars instead of iron plates2 whereas ,mr4 ,stephenson and his followers urge1 that in point of economy the boiler plate side is equal to the bars1 whilst in point of effective strength and rigidity it is decidedly superior4 ,to show the comparative economy of material1 he contrasted the lattice girder bridge over the river ,trent1 on the ,great ,northern ,railway near ,newark1 with the tubes of the ,victoria ,bridge4 ,in the former case1 where the span is #bdj4e feet1 and the bridge #ac feet wide1 the weight including bearings is #bib tons2 in the latter1 where the span is #bdb feet1 the width of the tube #af feet1 the weight including bearings is #bge tons1 showing a balance in favour of the ,victoria ,tube of #ag tons4 ,the comparison between the ,newark ,dyke ,bridge and the ,tubular ,bridge over the river ,aire is equally favourable to the latter2 and no one can have travelled over the ,great ,northern line to ,york without noting that1 as respects rigidity under the passing train1 the ,tubular ,bridge is decidedly superior4 ,it is ascertained that the deflection caused by a passing load is considerably greater in the former case2 and ,mr4 ,stephenson was also of opinion that the sides of all trellis or lattice girders are useless1 except for the purpose of connecting the top and bottom1 and keeping them in their position4 ,they depend upon their connexion with the top and bottom webs for their own support2 and since they could not sustain their shape1 but would collapse immediately on their being disconnected from their top and bottom members1 it is evident that they add to the strain upon them1 and consequently to that extent reduce the ultimate strength of the beams4 ,i admit1 he added1 that there is no formula for valuing the solid sides for strains1 and that at present we only ascribe to them the value or use of connecting the top and bottom2 yet we are aware that1 from their continuity and solidity1 they are of value to resist horizontal and many other strains1 independently of the top and bottom1 by which they add very much to the stiffness of the beam2 and the fact of their containing more material than is necessary to connect the top and bottom webs1 has by no means been fairly established4 ,another important advantage of the ,tubular bridge over the ,trellis or ,lattice structure1 consists in its greater safety in event of a train running off the line1--a contingency which has more than once occurred on a tubular bridge without detriment1 whereas in event of such an accident occurring on a ,trellis or ,lattice bridge1 it must infallibly be destroyed4 ,where the proposed bridge is of the unusual length of a mile and a quarter1 it is obvious that this consideration must have had no small weight with the directors1 who eventually decided on proceeding with the ,tubular ,bridge according to ,mr4 ,stephenson's original design4 ,from the first projection of the ,victoria ,bridge1 the difficulties of executing such a work across a wide river1 down which an avalanche of ice rushes to the sea every spring1 were pronounced almost insurmountable by those best acquainted with the locality4 ,the ice of two thousand miles of inland lakes and upper rivers1 besides their tributaries1 is then poured down stream1 and1 in the neighbourhood of ,montreal especially1 it is often piled up to the height of from forty to fifty feet1 placing the surrounding country under water1 and doing severe damage to the massive stone buildings along the noble river front of the city4 ,to resist so prodigious a pressure1 it was necessary that the piers of the proposed bridge should be of the most solid and massive description4 ,their foundations are placed in the solid rock2 for none of the artificial methods of obtaining foundations1 suggested by some engineers for cheapness' sake1 were found practicable in this case4 ,where the force exercised against the piers was likely to be so great1 it was felt that timber ice-breakers1 timber or cast-iron piling1 or even rubble-work1 would have proved but temporary expedients4 ,the two centre piers are eighteen feet wide1 and the remaining twenty-two piers fifteen feet2 to arrest and break the ice1 an inclined plane1 composed of great blocks of stone1 was added to the up-river side of each pier--each block weighing from seven to ten tons1 and the whole were firmly clamped together with iron rivets4 ,to convey some idea of the immense force which these piers are required to resist1 we may briefly describe the breaking up of the ice in ,march1 #aheh1 while the bridge was under construction4 ,fourteen out of the twenty-four piers were then finished1 together with the formidable abutments and approaches to the bridge4 ,the ice in the river began to show signs of weakness on the #bith ,march1 but it was not until the #cast that a general movement became observable1 which continued for an hour1 when it suddenly stopped1 and the water rose rapidly4 ,on the following day1 at noon1 a grand movement commenced2 the waters rose about four feet in two minutes1 up to a level with many of the ,montreal streets4 ,the fields of ice at the same time were suddenly elevated to an incredible height2 and so overwhelming were they in appearance1 that crowds of the townspeople1 who had assembled on the quay to watch the progress of the flood1 ran for their lives4 ,this movement lasted about twenty minutes1 during which the jammed ice destroyed several portions of the quay-wall1 grinding the hardest blocks to atoms4 ,the embanked approaches to the ,victoria ,bridge had tremendous forces to resist4 ,in the full channel of the stream1 the ice in its passage between the piers was broken up by the force of the blow immediately on its coming in contact with the cutwaters4 ,sometimes thick sheets of ice were seen to rise up and rear on end against the piers1 but by the force of the current they were speedily made to roll over into the stream1 and in a moment after were out of sight4 ,for the two next days the river was still high1 until on the #dth ,april the waters seemed suddenly to give way1 and by the following day the river was flowing clear and smooth as a millpond1 nothing of winter remaining except the masses of bordage ice which were strewn along the shores of the stream4 ,on examination of the piers of the bridge1 it was found that they had admirably resisted the tremendous pressure2 and though the timber cribwork erected to facilitate the placing of floating pontoons to form the dams1 was found considerably disturbed and in some places seriously damaged1 the piers1 with the exception of one or two heavy stone blocks1 which were still unfinished1 escaped uninjured4 ,one heavy block of many tons' weight was carried to a considerable distance1 and must have been torn out of its place by sheer force1 as several of the broken fragments were found left in the pier4 ,the works in connection with the ,victoria ,bridge were begun on the #bbnd ,july1 #ahed1 when the first stone was laid1 and continued uninterruptedly during a period of #e4e years1 until the #agth ,december1 #ahei1 when the bridge was finished and taken off the contractor's hands4 ,it was formally opened for traffic early in #ahfj2 though ,robert ,stephenson did not live to see its completion4 ,the tubular system was also applied by the same engineer1 in a modified form1 in the two bridges across the ,nile1 near ,damietta in ,lower ,egypt4 ,that near ,benha contains eight spans or openings of #hj feet each1 and two centre spans1 formed by one of the largest swing bridges ever constructed1--the total length of the swing-beam being #aeg feet1--a clear water-way of #fj feet being provided on either side of the centre pier4 ,the only novelty in these bridges consisted in the road being carried upon the tubes instead of within them2 their erection being carried out in the usual manner1 by means of workmen1 materials1 and plant sent out from ,england4 ,during the later years of his life1 ,mr4 ,stephenson took considerable interest in public affairs and in scientific investigations4 ,in #ahdg he entered the ,house of ,commons as member for ,whitby2 but he does not seem to have been very devoted in his attendance1 and only appeared on divisions when there was a whip of the party to which he belonged4 ,he was a member of the ,sanitary and ,sewage ,commissions1 and of the ,commission which sat on ,westminster ,bridge4 ,the last occasions on which he addressed the ,house were on the ,suez ,canal and the cleansing of the ,serpentine4 ,he pronounced the ,suez ,canal to be an impracticable scheme4 ,i have surveyed the line1 said he1 ,i have travelled the whole distance on foot1 and ,i declare there is no fall between the two seas4 ,honourable members talk about a canal4 ,a canal is impossible--the thing would only be a ditch4 ,besides constructing the railway between ,alexandria and ,cairo1 he was consulted1 like his father1 by the ,king of ,belgium1 as to the railways of that country2 and he was made ,knight of the ,order of ,leopold because of the improvements which he had made in locomotive engines1 so much to the advantage of the ,belgian system of inland transit4 ,he was consulted by the ,king of ,sweden as to the railway between ,christiana and ,lake ,miosen1 and in consideration of his services was decorated with the ,grand ,cross of the ,order of ,st4 ,olaf4 ,he also visited ,switzerland1 ,piedmont1 and ,denmark1 to advise as to the system of railway communication best suited for those countries4 ,at the ,paris ,exhibition of #ahee the ,emperor of ,france decorated him with the ,legion of ,honour in consideration of his public services2 and at home the ,university of ,oxford made him a ,doctor of ,civil ,laws4 ,in #ahee he was elected ,president of the ,institute of ,civil ,engineers1 which office he held with honour and filled with distinguished ability for two years1 giving place to his friend ,mr4 ,locke at the end of #aheg4 ,mr4 ,stephenson was frequently called upon to act as arbitrator between contractors and railway companies1 or between one company and another1--great value being attached to his opinion on account of his weighty judgment1 his great experience1 and his upright character1 and we believe his decisions were invariably stamped by the qualities of impartiality and justice4 ,he was always ready to lend a helping hand to a friend1 and no petty jealousy stood between him and his rivals in the engineering world4 ,the author remembers being with ,mr4 ,stephenson one evening at his house in ,gloucester ,square1 when a note was put into his hands from his friend ,brunel1 then engaged in his first fruitless efforts to launch the ,great ,eastern4 ,it was to ask ,stephenson to come down to ,blackwall early next morning1 and give him the benefit of his judgment4 ,shortly after six next morning ,stephenson was in ,scott ,russell's building-yard1 and he remained there until dusk4 ,about midday1 while superintending the launching operations1 the baulk of timber on which he stood canted up1 and he fell up to his middle in the ,thames mud4 ,he was dressed as usual1 without great-coat 7though the day was bitter cold71 and with only thin boots upon his feet4 ,he was urged to leave the yard1 and change his dress1 or at least dry himself2 but with his usual disregard of health1 he replied1 ,oh1 never mind me--,i'm quite used to this sort of thing2 and he went paddling about in the mud1 smoking his cigar1 until almost dark1 when the day's work was brought to an end4 ,the result of this exposure was an attack of inflammation of the lungs1 which kept him to his bed for a fortnight4 ,he was habitually careless of his health1 and perhaps he indulged in narcotics to a prejudicial extent4 ,hence he often became hipped and sometimes ill4 ,when ,mr4 ,sopwith accompanied him to ,egypt in the ,titania1 in #ahef1 he succeeded in persuading ,mr4 ,stephenson to limit his indulgence in cigars and stimulants1 and the consequence was that by the end of the voyage he felt himself1 as he said1 quite a new man4 ,arrived at ,marseilles1 he telegraphed from thence a message to ,great ,george ,street1 prescribing certain stringent and salutary rules for observance in the office there on his return4 ,but he was of a facile1 social disposition1 and the old associations proved too strong for him4 ,when he sailed for ,norway1 in the autumn of #ahei1 though then ailing in health1 he looked a man who had still plenty of life in him4 ,by the time he returned1 his fatal illness had seized him4 ,he was attacked by congestion of the liver1 which first developed itself in jaundice1 and then ran into dropsy1 of which he died on the #abth ,october1 in the fifty-sixth year of his age4 #cfh ,he was buried by the side of ,telford in ,westminster ,abbey1 amidst the departed great men of his country1 and was attended to his resting-place by many of the intimate friends of his boyhood and his manhood4 ,among those who assembled round his grave were some of the greatest men of thought and action in ,england1 who embraced the sad occasion to pay the last mark of their respect to this illustrious son of one of ,england's greatest working men4 ,picture3 ,robert ,stephenson's ,burial-place in ,westminster ,abbey ,it would be out of keeping with the subject thus drawn to a conclusion1 to pronounce any panegyric on the character and achievements of ,george and ,robert ,stephenson4 ,these for the most part speak for themselves4 ,both were emphatically true men1 exhibiting in their lives many sterling qualities4 ,no beginning could have been less promising than that of the elder ,stephenson4 ,born in a poor condition1 yet rich in spirit1 he was from the first compelled to rely upon himself2 and every step of advance which he made was conquered by patient labour4 ,whether working as a brakesman or an engineer1 his mind was always full of the work in hand4 ,he gave himself thoroughly up to it4 ,like the painter1 he might say that he had become great by neglecting nothing4 ,whatever he was engaged upon1 he was as careful of the details as if each were itself the whole4 ,he did all thoroughly and honestly4 ,there was no scamping with him4 ,when a workman he put his brains and labour into his work2 and when a master he put his conscience and character into it4 ,he would have no slop-work executed merely for the sake of profit4 ,the materials must be as genuine as the workmanship was skilful4 ,the structures which he designed and executed were distinguished for their thoroughness and solidity2 his locomotives were famous for their durability and excellent working qualities4 ,the engines which he sent to the ,united ,states in #ahcb are still in good condition2 and even the engines built by him for the ,killingworth ,colliery1 upwards of thirty years ago1 are working steadily there to this day4 ,all his work was honest1 representing the actual character of the man4 ,he was ready to turn his hand to anything--shoes and clocks1 railways and locomotives4 ,he contrived his safety-lamp with the object of saving pitmen's lives1 and perilled his own life in testing it4 ,whatever work was nearest him1 he turned to and did it4 ,with him to resolve was to do4 ,many men knew far more than he2 but none were more ready forthwith to apply what he did know to practical purposes4 ,it was while working at ,willington as a brakes-man1 that he first learnt how best to handle a spade in throwing ballast out of the ships' holds4 ,this casual employment seems to have left upon his mind the strongest impression of what hard work was2 and he often used to revert to it1 and say to the young men about him1 ,ah1 ye lads6 there's none o' ye know what wark is4 ,mr4 ,gooch says he was proud of the dexterity in handling a spade which he had thus acquired1 and that he has frequently seen him take the shovel from a labourer in some railway cutting1 and show him how to use it more deftly in filling waggons of earth1 gravel1 or sand4 ,sir ,joshua ,walmsley has also informed us1 that1 when examining the works of the ,orleans and ,tours ,railway1 ,mr4 ,stephenson1 seeing a large number of excavators filling and wheeling sand in a cutting1 at a great waste of time and labour1 went up to the men and said he would show them how to fill their barrows in half the time4 ,he showed them the proper position in which to stand so as to exercise the greatest amount of power with the least expenditure of strength2 and he filled the barrow with comparative ease again and again in their presence1 to the great delight of the workmen4 ,when passing through his own workshops1 he would point out to his men how to save labour1 and to get through their work skilfully and with ease4 ,his energy imparted itself to others1 quickening and influencing them as strong characters always do--flowing down into theirs1 and bringing out their best powers4 ,his deportment towards the workmen employed under him was familiar1 yet firm and consistent4 ,as he respected their manhood1 so did they respect his masterhood4 ,although he comported himself towards his men as if they occupied very much the same level as himself1 he yet possessed that peculiar capacity for governing which enabled him always to preserve among them the strictest discipline1 and to secure their cheerful and hearty services4 ,mr4 ,ingham1 ,m4,p4 for ,south ,shields1 on going over the workshops at ,newcastle1 was particularly struck with this quality of the master in his bearing towards his men4 ,there was nothing1 said he1 of undue familiarity in their intercourse1 but they spoke to each other as man to man2 and nothing seemed to please the master more than to point out illustrations of the ingenuity of his artisans4 ,he took up a rivet1 and expatiated on the skill with which it had been fashioned by the workman's hand--its perfectness and truth4 ,he was always proud of his workmen and his pupils2 and1 while indifferent and careless as to what might be said of himself1 he fired up in a moment if disparagement were thrown upon any one whom he had taught or trained4 ,in manner1 ,george ,stephenson was simple1 modest1 and unassuming1 but always manly4 ,he was frank and social in spirit4 ,when a humble workman1 he had carefully preserved his sense of self-respect4 ,his companions looked up to him1 and his example was worth even more to many of them than books or schools4 ,his devoted love of knowledge made his poverty respectable1 and adorned his humble calling4 ,when he rose to a more elevated station1 and associated with men of the highest position and influence in ,britain1 he took his place amongst them with perfect self-possession4 ,they wondered at the quiet ease and simple dignity of his deportment2 and men in the best ranks of life have said of him that ,he was one of ,nature's gentlemen4 ,probably no military chiefs were ever more beloved by their soldiers than were both father and son by the army of men who1 under their guidance1 worked at labours of profit1 made labours of love by their earnest will and purpose4 ,true leaders of men and lords of industry1 they were always ready to recognise and encourage talent in those who worked for and with them4 ,thus it was pleasant1 at the openings of the ,stephenson lines1 to hear the chief engineers attributing the successful completion of the works to their able assistants2 whilst the assistants1 on the other hand1 ascribed the glory to their chiefs4 ,mr4 ,stephenson1 though a thrifty and frugal man1 was essentially unsordid4 ,his rugged path in early life made him careful of his resources4 ,he never saved to hoard1 but saved for a purpose1 such as the maintenance of his parents or the education of his son4 ,in later years he became a prosperous and even a wealthy man2 but riches never closed his heart1 nor stole away the elasticity of his soul4 ,he enjoyed life cheerfully1 because hopefully4 ,when he entered upon a commercial enterprise1 whether for others or for himself1 he looked carefully at the ways and means4 ,unless they would pay1 he held back4 ,he would have nothing to do1 he declared1 with stock-jobbing speculations4 ,his refusal to sell his name to the schemes of the railway mania--his survey of the ,spanish lines without remuneration--his offer to postpone his claim for payment from a poor company until their affairs became more prosperous--are instances of the unsordid spirit in which he acted4 ,another marked feature in ,mr4 ,stephenson's character was his patience4 ,notwithstanding the strength of his convictions as to the great uses to which the locomotive might be applied1 he waited long and patiently for the opportunity of bringing it into notice2 and for years after he had completed an efficient engine he went on quietly devoting himself to the ordinary work of the colliery4 ,he made no noise nor stir about his locomotive1 but allowed another to take credit for the experiments on velocity and friction made with it by himself upon the ,killingworth railroad4 ,by patient industry and laborious contrivance1 he was enabled1 with the powerful help of his son1 to do for the locomotive what ,james ,watt had done for the condensing engine4 ,he found it clumsy and inefficient2 and he made it powerful1 efficient1 and useful4 ,both have been described as the improvers of their respective engines2 but1 as to all that is admirable in their structure or vast in their utility1 they are rather entitled to be described as their ,inventors4 ,while the invention of ,watt increased the power1 and at the same time so regulated the action of the steam-engine1 as to make it capable of being applied alike to the hardest work and to the finest manufactures1 the invention of ,stephenson gave an effective power to the locomotive1 which enabled it to perform the work of teams of the most powerful horses1 and to outstrip the speed of the fleetest4 ,watt's invention exercised a wonderfully quickening influence on every branch of industry1 and multiplied a thousand-fold the amount of manufactured productions2 and ,stephenson's enabled these to be distributed with an economy and despatch such as had never before been thought possible4 ,they have both tended to increase indefinitely the mass of human comforts and enjoyments1 and to render them cheap and accessible to all4 ,but ,stephenson's invention1 by the influence which it is daily exercising upon the civilisation of the world1 is even more remarkable than that of ,watt1 and is calculated to have still more important consequences4 ,in this respect1 it is to be regarded as the grandest application of steam power that has yet been discovered4 ,the ,locomotive1 like the condensing engine1 exhibits the realisation of various capital1 but wholly distinct1 ideas1 promulgated by many ingenious inventors4 ,stephenson1 like ,watt1 exhibited a power of selection1 combination1 and invention of his own1 by which--while availing himself of all that had been done before him1 and superadding the many skilful contrivances devised by himself--he was at length enabled to bring his engine into a condition of marvellous power and efficiency4 ,he gathered together the scattered threads of ingenuity which already existed1 and combined them into one firm and complete fabric of his own4 ,he realised the plans which others had imperfectly formed2 and was the first to construct1 what so many others had unsuccessfully attempted1 the practical and economical working locomotive4 ,mr4 ,stephenson's close and accurate observation provided him with a fulness of information on many subjects1 which often appeared surprising to those who had devoted to them a special study4 ,on one occasion the accuracy of his knowledge of birds came out in a curious way at a convivial meeting of railway men in ,london4 ,the engineers and railway directors present knew each other as railway men and nothing more4 ,the talk had been all of railways and railway politics4 ,mr4 ,stephenson was a great talker on those subjects1 and was generally allowed1 from the interest of his conversation and the extent of his experience1 to take the lead4 ,at length one of the party broke in with ,come now1 ,stephenson1 we have had nothing but railways2 cannot we have a change and try if we can talk a little about something else8 ,well1 said ,mr4 ,stephenson1 ,i'll give you a wide range of subjects2 what shall it be about8 ,say birds' nests6 rejoined the other1 who prided himself on his special knowledge of this subject4 ,then birds' nests be it4 ,a long and animated conversation ensued3 the bird-nesting of his boyhood1 the blackbird's nest which his father had held him up in his arms to look at when a child at ,wylam1 the hedges in which he had found the thrush's and the linnet's nests1 the mossy bank where the robin built1 the cleft in the branch of the young tree where the chaffinch had reared its dwelling--all rose up clear in his mind's eye1 and led him back to the scenes of his boyhood at ,callerton and ,dewley ,burn4 ,the colour and number of the bird's eggs1 the period of their incubation1 the materials employed by them for the walls and lining of their nests1 were described by him so vividly1 and illustrated by such graphic anecdotes1 that one of the party remarked that1 if ,george ,stephenson had not been the greatest engineer of his day1 he might have been one of the greatest naturalists4 ,his powers of conversation were very great4 ,he was so thoughtful1 so original1 and so suggestive4 ,there was scarcely a department of science on which he had not formed some novel and sometimes daring theory4 ,thus ,mr4 ,gooch1 his pupil1 who lived with him when at ,liverpool1 informs us that when sitting over the fire1 he would frequently broach his favourite theory of the sun's light and heat being the original source of the light and heat given forth by the burning coal4 ,it fed the plants of which that coal is made1 he would say1 and has been bottled up in the earth ever since1 to be given out again now for the use of man4 ,his son ,robert once said of him1 ,my father flashed his bull's eye full upon a subject1 and brought it out in its most vivid light in an instant3 his strong common sense1 and his varied experience operating upon a thoughtful mind1 were his most powerful illuminators4 ,mr4 ,stephenson had once a conversation with a watchmaker1 whom he astonished by the extent and minuteness of his knowledge as to the parts of a watch4 ,the watchmaker knew him to be an eminent engineer1 and asked him how he had acquired so extensive a knowledge of a branch of business so much out of his sphere4 ,it is very easy to be explained1 said ,mr4 ,stephenson2 ,i worked long at watch-cleaning myself1 and when ,i was at a loss1 ,i was never ashamed to ask for information4 ,towards the close of his life he frequently went down to ,newcastle1 and visited the scenes of his boyhood4 ,i have been to ,callerton1 said he one day to a friend1 and seen the fields in which ,i used to pull turnips at twopence a day2 and many a cold finger1 ,i can tell you1 ,i had4 ,his hand was open to his former fellow-workmen whom old age had left in poverty4 ,to poor ,robert ,gray1 of ,newburn1 who acted as his bridesman on his marriage to ,fanny ,henderson1 he left a pension for life4 ,he would slip a five-pound note into the hand of a poor man or a widow in such a way as not to offend their delicacy1 but to make them feel as if the obligation were all on his side4 ,when ,farmer ,paterson1 who married a sister of ,george's first wife1 ,fanny ,henderson1 died and left a large young family fatherless1 poverty stared them in the face4 ,but ye ken1 said our informant1 ,george struck in fayther for them4 ,and perhaps the providential character of the act could not have been more graphically expressed than in these simple words4 ,on his visit to ,newcastle1 he would frequently meet the friends of his early days1 occupying very nearly the same station1 whilst he had meanwhile risen to almost world-wide fame4 ,but he was no less hearty in his greeting of them than if their relative position had continued the same4 ,thus1 one day1 after shaking hands with ,mr4 ,brandling on alighting from his carriage1 he proceeded to shake hands with his coachman1 ,anthony ,wigham1 a still older friend1 though he only sat on the box4 ,robert ,stephenson inherited his father's kindly spirit and benevolent disposition4 ,he almost worshipped his father's memory1 and was ever ready to attribute to him the chief merit of his own achievements as an engineer4 ,it was his thorough training1 we once heard him say1 his example1 and his character1 which made me the man ,i am4 ,on a more public occasion he said1 ,it is my great pride to remember1 that whatever may have been done1 and however extensive may have been my own connection with railway development1 all ,i know and all ,i have done is primarily due to the parent whose memory ,i cherish and revere4 #cgg ,to ,mr4 ,lough1 the sculptor1 he said he had never had but two loves--one for his father1 the other for his wife4 ,like his father1 he was eminently practical1 and yet always open to the influence and guidance of correct theory4 ,his main consideration in laying out his lines of railway was what would best answer the intended purpose1 or1 to use his own words1 to secure the maximum of result with the minimum of means4 ,he was pre-eminently a safe man1 because cautious1 tentative1 and experimental2 following closely the lines of conduct trodden by his father1 and often quoting his maxims4 ,in society ,robert ,stephenson was simple1 unobtrusive1 and modest2 but charming and even fascinating in an eminent degree4 ,sir ,john ,lawrence has said of him that he was1 of all others1 the man he most delighted to meet in ,england--he was so manly1 yet gentle1 and withal so great4 ,while admired and beloved by men of such calibre1 he was equally a favourite with women and children4 ,he put himself upon the level of all1 and charmed them no less by his inexpressible kindliness of manner than by his simple yet impressive conversation4 ,his great wealth enabled him to perform many generous acts in a right noble and yet modest manner1 not letting his right hand know what his left hand did4 ,of the numerous kindly acts of his which have been made public1 we may mention the graceful manner in which he repaid the obligations which both himself and his father owed to the ,newcastle ,literary and ,philosophical ,institute1 when working together as humble experimenters in their cottage at ,killingworth4 ,the ,institute was struggling under a debt of #fbjj pounds which seriously impaired its usefulness as an educational agency4 ,robert ,stephenson offered to pay one-half of the sum1 provided the local supporters of the ,institute would raise the remainder2 and conditional also on the annual subscription being reduced from two guineas to one1 in order that the usefulness of the institution might be extended4 ,the generous offer was accepted1 and the debt extinguished4 ,both father and son were offered knighthood1 and both declined it4 ,during the summer of #ahdg1 ,george ,stephenson was invited to offer himself as a candidate for the representation of ,south ,shields in ,parliament4 ,but his politics were at best of a very undefined sort2 indeed his life had been so much occupied with subjects of a practical character1 that he had scarcely troubled himself to form any decided opinion on the party political topics of the day1 and to stand the cross fire of the electors on the hustings might have been found an even more distressing ordeal than the cross-questioning of the barristers in the ,committees of the ,house of ,commons4 ,politics1 he used to say1 are all matters of theory--there is no stability in them3 they shift about like the sands of the sea3 and ,i should feel quite out of my element amongst them4 ,he had accordingly the good sense respectfully to decline the honour of contesting the representation of ,south ,shields4 ,we have1 however1 been informed by ,sir ,joseph ,paxton1 that although ,george ,stephenson held no strong opinions on political questions generally1 there was one question on which he entertained a decided conviction1 and that was the question of ,free-trade4 ,the words used by him on one occasion to ,sir ,joseph were very strong4 ,england1 said he1 is1 and must be a shopkeeper2 and our docks and harbours are only so many wholesale shops1 the doors of which should always be kept wide open4 ,it is curious that his son ,robert should have taken precisely the opposite view of this question1 and acted throughout with the most rigid party amongst the protectionists1 supporting the ,navigation ,laws and opposing ,free ,trade4 ,but ,robert ,stephenson will be judged in after times by his achievements as an engineer1 rather than by his acts as a politician2 and happily these last were far outweighed in value by the immense practical services which he rendered to trade1 commerce1 and civilisation1 through the facilities which the railways constructed by him afforded for free intercommunication between men in all parts of the world4 ,speaking in the midst of his friends at ,newcastle1 in #ahej1 he observed3-- ,it seems to me but as yesterday that ,i was engaged as an assistant in laying out the ,stockton and ,darlington ,railway4 ,since then1 the ,liverpool and ,manchester and a hundred other great works have sprung into existence4 ,as ,i look back upon these stupendous undertakings1 accomplished in so short a time1 it seems as though we had realised in our generation the fabled powers of the magician's wand4 ,hills have been cut down and valleys filled up2 and when these simple expedients have not sufficed1 high and magnificent viaducts have been raised1 and if mountains stood in the way1 tunnels of unexampled magnitude have pierced them through1 bearing their triumphant attestation to the indomitable energy of the nation1 and the unrivalled skill of our artisans4 ,as respects the immense advantages of railways to mankind1 there cannot be two opinions4 ,they exhibit1 probably1 the grandest organisation of capital and labour that the world has yet seen4 ,although they have unhappily occasioned great loss to many1 the loss has been that of individuals2 whilst1 as a national system1 the gain has already been enormous4 ,as tending to multiply and spread abroad the conveniences of life1 opening up new fields of industry1 bringing nations nearer to each other1 and thus promoting the great ends of civilisation1 the founding of the railway system by ,george ,stephenson and his son must be regarded as one of the most important events1 if not the very greatest1 in the first half of this nineteenth century4 ,picture3 ,the ,stephenson ,memorial ,schools1 ,willington ,quay ,,index4 ,,accidents in coal-mines1 #hi1 #aai4 ,adam1 ,mr41 counsel for ,liverpool and ,manchester ,railway1 #afj1 #aff4 ,alderson1 ,mr4 7afterwards ,baron71 #afj1 #afc1 #afe1 #afh4 ,alton ,grange1 ,g4 ,stephenson's residence at1 #bcd-f1 #bfc4 ,ambergate ,railway slip1 #bei2 ,lime-works1 #bgh4 ,anna1 ,santa1 mines at1 #aif4 ,arnold1 ,dr41 on ,railways1 #bgc4 ,ashby-de-la-,zouch1 #bcc4 ,atmospheric ,railway system1 #bhf1 #cjh4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,beaumont1 ,mr41 his wooden waggon-ways1 #e4 ,belgium1 ,g4 ,stephenson's visit to1 #bif4 ,benton ,colliery and village1 #dd1 #dg1 #ea1 #fa4 ,berwick ,royal ,border ,bridge1 #caa4 ,birds and bird-nesting1 #ae1 #ag1 #be1 #eh1 #cec1 #cge4 ,birmingham and ,derby ,railway1 #bfh4 ,bishop ,auckland coal-field1 #abc4 ,black ,callerton1 #ah1 #bf1 #bi1 #cb4 ,blackett1 ,mr41 ,wylam1 #ac1 #gd4 ,blast1 invention of the ,steam1 #he1 #bjh1 #baa4 ,blenkinsop's ,locomotive1 #gb1 #hj4 ,blisworth ,cutting1 #bdc4 ,boiler1 multi-tubular1 #baj4 ,booth1 ,henry1 ,liverpool1 #baj1 #bbb4 ,bradshaw1 ,mr41 opposes ,liverpool and ,manchester line1 #aee4 ,braithwaite1 ,isaac1 ,locomotive1 #bad1 #bcj4 ,brakeing coal-engine1 #bg1 #cf1 #dj4 ,brandling1 ,messrs41 #aje1 #cab4 ,brandreth's ,locomotive1 ,cycloped1 #bad4 ,bridges1 ,railway1 on ,liverpool line1 #ahe2 improved bridges1 #caj-ai2 tubular bridges1 #cbf-dj1 #cfj4 ,bridgewater ,canal monopoly1 #adg1 #aeg4 ,britannia ,tubular ,bridge1 #cci4 ,british ,association ,meeting at ,newcastle1 #bgi4 ,brougham1 ,mr4 ,william1 counsel on ,liverpool and ,manchester ,bill1 #aeh1 #afj4 ,bruce's ,school1 ,newcastle1 #ec1 #ei4 ,brunel1 ,i4 ,k41 #bcj1 #cjd1 #cfg4 ,brunton's ,locomotive1 #gc4 ,brussels1 railway celebrations at1 #bfg4 ,brusselton incline1 #ace4 ,buckland1 ,dr41 #cej4 ,bullbridge1 ,ambergate1 #bfj4 ,burstall's ,locomotive1 ,perseverance1 #bad1 #bah4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,callerton ,colliery and village1 #ah1 #bf1 #bi1 #cb4 ,canal opposition to ,railways1 #adf1 #aeg1 #bch4 ,cartagena1 ,r4 ,stephenson at1 #bjj4 ,chapman's ,locomotive1 #gc4 ,characteristics of the ,stephensons1 #cfh-hj4 ,chat ,moss1 ,william ,james's attempted ,survey1 #aea2 ,mr4 ,harrison's speech1 #aff2 evidence of ,francis ,giles1 ,c4,e41 #afg2 ,mr4 ,alderson's speech1 #afh2 description of1 #agd2 construction of ,railway over1 #agg4 ,chester and ,birkenhead ,railway1 #bhf4 ,chester and ,holyhead ,railway1 #cbj4 ,chesterfield1 #bgi1 #bhc4 ,clanny1 ,dr41 his safety-lamp1 #ib4 ,clark1 ,edwin1 ,c4,e41 #cca1 #cce1 #cch4 ,clay ,cross ,colliery1 ,g4 ,stephenson leases1 #bgg4 ,clegg and ,samuda's ,atmospheric ,railway1 #bhg4 ,clephan1 ,mr41 description of first railway traffic1 #adj4 ,cleveland1 ,duke of1 and ,stockton and ,darlington ,railway1 #abe4 ,clock-mending and cleaning1 #ce1 #ea1 #cde4 ,coach1 first railway1 #aci4 ,coal trade1 #c1 #aa2 staiths1 #aj2 haulage1 early expedients for1 #e1 #g1 #fc1 #adc2 traffic by ,railway1 #ach1 #bgf2 mining1 ,george ,stephenson's adventures in1 #bcd1 #bgg2 theory of formation of1 #cea4 ,coalbrookdale1 rails early cast at1 #f4 ,coe1 ,wm41 fellow workman of ,g4 ,stephenson1 #ba1 #bf1 #ca4 ,coffin1 ,sir ,i41 #agb4 ,colliery districts1 #a-d2 machinery and workmen1 #g-aa4 ,colombia1 mining association of1 #aic2 ,robert ,stephenson's residence in1 #aif4 ,contractors1 railway1 #bbi1 #bdi4 ,conway1 tubular bridge at1 #ccd4 ,cooper1 ,sir ,astley1 ,robert ,stephenson's interview with1 #bch4 ,crich ,lime-works1 ,ambergate1 #bgh4 ,cropper1 ,isaac1 ,liverpool1 #ahg1 #bag4 ,cugnot's steam-carriage1 #fd-f4 ,curr1 ,john1 his cast-iron ,railway at ,sheffield1 #f4 ,cuttings1 railway1 ,tring1 #bdb2 ,blisworth1 #bdc2 ,ambergate1 #bei2 ,oakenshaw and ,normanton1 #bei4 ,cycloped ,locomotive1 #bad4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,darlington and ,stockton ,railway1 #abc1 #acf4 ,davy1 ,sir ,humphry1 his description of ,trevithick's steam-carriage1 #fh2 his paper on fire-damp in mines1 #ib2 his safety-lamp1 #aja-c2 testimonial1 #ajd4 ,denman1 ,lord1 #cde4 ,derby1 ,earl of1 #agb4 ,dewley ,burn ,colliery1 #af4 ,direct lines1 mania for1 #bib4 ,dixon1 ,john1 ,c4,e41 assists in survey of ,stockton and ,darlington line1 #acf2 assistant engineer1 ,liverpool and ,manchester ,railway1 #age-i4 ,dodds1 ,ralph1 ,killingworth1 #db-d1 #ej1 #hf4 ,drayton ,manor1 ,george ,stephenson's visit to1 #cdi4 ,dutton ,viaduct1 #bed4 ,durham1 ,earl of1 ,see ,lambton4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,east ,,coast ,railway to ,scotland1 #cjf-i4 ,edgworth1 ,mr41 sailing-waggons1 #fc2 advocacy of ,railways1 #adh4 ,edinburgh ,university1 ,robert ,stephenson at1 #aba4 ,education1 ,george ,stephenson's self-education1 #bd1 #dg2 ,robert ,stephenson's1 #ej1 #aba2 ,george ,stephenson's ideas of1 #aia1 #bha4 ,egg-hatching by artificial heat1 #bc1 #cdd4 ,egyptian ,tubular ,bridges1 ,robert ,stephenson's1 #ceg4 ,emerson1 ,george ,stephenson's meeting with1 #cec4 ,emigration1 ,george ,stephenson contemplates1 #dj1 #aaf4 ,engine1 study of1 #bb1 #fb1 #gh1 #hj4 ,ericsson1 ,mr41 engineer1 #bjd1 #bad4 ,estimates1 railway1 #afe1 #bdi4 ,experiment1 the first railway coach1 #aci4 ,explosion of fire-damp1 #hi4 ,evans's steam-carriage1 #fe4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,fairbairn1 ,wm41 ,c4,e41 #bh2 at ,percy ,main ,colliery1 #cd2 experiments on iron tubes1 #cbh-cj4 ,fire-damp1 explosions of1 #hi4 ,fixed-engine power1 #aah1 #abi1 #ace1 #bjc1 #bje4 ,floating road1 ,chat ,moss1 #agf4 ,floating ,conway and ,britannia ,tubes1 #ccb4 ,follett1 ,sir ,wm41 #cej4 ,forth-street ,works1 ,newcastle1 #acb1 #aic4 ,foster1 ,jonathan1 ,wylam4 #ge1 #gg1 #hj1 #caj4 ,franklin's lightning experiment repeated by ,robert ,stephenson1 #ef4 ,free trade1 ,george ,stephenson's views on1 #cgi4 ,friction on common roads and ,railways1 #aac4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,gardening1 ,george ,stephenson's pursuits in1 #eh1 #cdb4 ,gateshead1 #d1 #cad4 ,gauge of ,railways1 #acd1 #cjd4 ,geordy safety-lamp1 invention of1 #ic4 ,giles1 ,francis1 ,c4,e41 #afg1 #agd1 #bcj4 ,gooch1 ,f4 ,l41 ,c4,e41 #ahh1 #aij1 #bbj1 #ccf1 #cga4 ,gradients1 ,george ,stephenson's views on1 #aae1 #bhd4 ,grand ,allies1 ,killingworth1 #da1 #df4 11 ,junction ,railway1 #bcj1 #bec4 11 ,trunk ,railway1 ,canada1 #cei4 ,gray1 ,robert1 #bd1 #cf1 #cgf4 ,gray1 ,thomas1 #adh4 ,great ,western ,railway1 #bcj1 #bcb1 #cjd4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,hackworth1 ,timothy1 his engine ,sanspareil1 #bad1 #baf1 #bah4 ,half-lap joint1 ,g4 ,stephenson's1 #aaa4 ,harrison1 ,mr41 barrister1 #afj1 #aff4 ,hawthorn1 ,robert1 ,c4,e41 #bb4 ,heating surface in ,locomotives1 #bjh1 #bji4 ,hedley1 ,william1 ,wylam1 #gg4 ,henderson1 ,fanny1 #cb4 ,heppel1 ,kit1 #db1 #de4 ,hetton ,railway1 #aag4 ,high ,level ,bridge1 ,newcastle1 #b1 #cab4 11 ,street ,house1 ,wylam1 #ad4 ,holyhead1 ,railway to1 #cbj4 ,howick1 ,lord1 and the ,northumberland ,atmospheric ,railway1 #cjg1 #cji4 ,hudson1 ,george1 the ,railway ,king1 #bia1 #cab4 ,huskisson1 ,mr41 ,m4,p41 and the ,liverpool and ,manchester ,railway1 #agb2 killed at its opening1 #bbc4 ,hydraulic presses at the ,britannia ,bridge1 #bcg4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,inclines1 self-acting1 #i1 #fa4 ,iron railway bridges1 #cab1 #cbe4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,james1 ,william1 surveys a line between ,liverpool and ,manchester1 #aej2 visits ,killingworth1 #aea2 superseded by ,george ,stephenson1 #aed4 ,jameson1 ,professor1 ,edinburgh1 #abb4 ,jessop1 ,william1 ,c4,e41 #f4 ,jolly's ,close1 ,newburn1 #bj1 #bd4 ,jones1 ,rees1 on ,trevithick's ,locomotive1 #ga4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,keelmen of the ,tyne1 #aj-aa4 ,killingworth1 ,west ,moor1 #ca1 #cf1 #ch1 #dj2 ,high ,pit1 #da2 colliery explosions and mining1 #hi2 ,locomotive1 #hd1 #hh2 the underground machinery1 #aji4 ,kilsby ,tunnel1 #bde4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lambton1 ,mr4 7,earl of ,durham71 #acg4 ,lamp1 safety1 invention of1 #ic4 ,last-making competition1 #ei4 ,lardner1 ,dr41 and ,railways1 #bhd1 #bhf4 ,lattice ,girder ,bridges1 #cfa4 ,leeds ,mechanics' ,institute1 ,george ,stephenson's ,speech at1 #bha4 ,leicester and ,swannington ,railway1 #bcb4 ,lemington ,coal-staith1 #gd4 ,leopold1 ,king of the ,belgians1 and ,railways1 #bff2 ,george ,stephenson's interviews with1 #bfh1 #bif4 ,level ,railways1 advantages of1 #aae1 #bhd4 ,liddell1 ,sir ,t4 7,lord ,ravensworth71 #df1 #fb4 ,lime-works at ,ambergate1 ,george ,stephenson's1 #bgh4 ,literary and ,philosophical ,institute1 ,newcastle1 #ec1 #ajb1 #bhj1 #cgh4 ,littleborough ,tunnel1 #bee4 ,liverpool and ,manchester ,railway projected1 #adg2 surveyed by ,wm4 ,james1 #aej2 the survey opposed1 #aea2 ,george ,stephenson engaged1 #aed2 prospectus issued1 #aee2 deputations visit ,killingworth1 #aea1 #aed-e2 opposition of the land-owners and canal companies1 #aef-g2 the bill in committee1 #afj2 rejected1 #afi2 scheme prosecuted1 #agj2 ,messrs4 ,rennie appointed engineers1 #aga2 the bill passed1 #agb2 ,george ,stephenson again engaged as engineer1 #agc2 construction of the line across ,chat ,moss1 #agf2 discussions as to the working power to be employed1 #bjc2 ,george ,stephenson advocates the ,locomotive1 #bja2 prize of #ejj pounds for best engine1 #bjg2 won by ,stephenson's ,rocket1 #bah2 public opening of the line1 #bbb2 results of the traffic1 #bbh4 ,locke1 ,mr4 ,joseph1 ,c4,e41 #bf1 #age1 #cfg4 ,locomotion engine1 ,no4 ,i1 ,darlington1 #ace1 #adb4 ,locomotive engine1 invention of1 #g2 ,robison and ,watt's idea1 ,cugnot's steam-carriage1 #fd2 ,evans and ,symington's1 #fe2 ,murdock's model1 #ff2 ,trevithick's steam-carriage1 #fg2 his tram engine1 #fi1 #gd2 ,blenkinsop's engine1 #gb2 ,chapman and ,brunton's engines1 #gc2 ,blackett's ,wylam engine1 #gd2 ,kenton and ,coxlodge engine1 #hj2 ,stephenson's ,killingworth locomotive1 #ha1 #hf2 ,stockton and ,darlington locomotives1 #ace2 prize at ,liverpool for the best engine1 #bjg2 won by the ,rocket1 #bah2 the ,arrow1 #bbb2 further improvements1 #bbf4 ,locomotive manufactory1 ,stephenson's1 at ,newcastle1 #acb1 #aic1 #aii1 #caj4 ,long ,benton4 ,see ,benton4 ,london and ,birmingham ,railway projected1 #bcg2 the ,stephensons appointed engineers1 #bch2 opposition to the ,bill1 ,sir ,astley ,cooper1 #bci2 the ,bill rejected1 #bdj2 ,bill passed1 #bda2 the works1 #bdb2 ,tring ,cutting1 #bdd2 ,blisworth ,cutting1 #bdc2 ,primrose ,hill ,tunnel1 #bdd2 ,kilsby ,tunnel1 #bde2 magnitude of the works1 #bdi4 ,losh1 ,mr41 ,newcastle1 #aaa1 #aeb4 ,lough's statue of ,george ,stephenson1 #cee4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,manchester and ,leeds ,railway #bed2 the ,act obtained1 #bee2 construction of summit tunnel1 #bef2 magnitude of the works1 #beg4 ,manchester1 trade with ,liverpool1 increase of1 #adf1 #aed4 ,mania1 the ,railway1 #bhh4 ,maps1 ,newcastle district1 #b2 ,stockton and ,darlington ,railway1 #abc2 ,liverpool and ,manchester ,railway1 #aej2 ,leicester and ,swannington ,railway1 #bcc2 ,london and ,birmingham ,railway1 #bdb2 ,menai ,strait1 #cbe4 ,mariquita1 ,robert ,stephenson at1 #aif4 ,mechanical ,engineers1 ,society of1 #cec4 ,mechanics' ,institutes1 ,george ,stephenson's interest in1 #bhj4 ,menai ,suspension ,bridge1 #cbj2 ,railway ,bridge1 #cca4 ,merstham ,tram-road1 #aec4 ,microscope1 ,george ,stephenson's1 #cdf4 ,middlesborough-on-,tees1 #add4 ,middleton ,railway1 ,leeds1 #gb1 #adh4 ,midland ,railway1 #beg4 ,militia1 ,g4 ,stephenson1 drawn for1 #dj4 ,mining1 coal1 #c1 #g1 #ib2 in ,south ,america1 #aig4 ,montrose1 ,g4 ,stephenson at1 #ch4 ,moodie1 underviewer at ,killingworth1 #id-g1 #aai4 ,morecambe ,bay1 proposed reclamation of1 #bfb4 ,morton-on-the-,marsh ,railway1 #aec4 ,multitubular boiler1 #bjh4 ,murdock's model ,locomotive1 #ff4 ,murray1 ,mathew1 ,leeds1 #gb4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,nasmyth',s steam hammer1 #cab1 #caf4 ,navvies1 railway1 #bej-eb4 ,nelson1 the fighting pitman #bi4 ,newburn ,colliery1 #bj1 #bb4 ,newcastle and ,berwick ,railway1 #cjf4 11 and ,carlisle ,railway1 #ab1 #bjc4 11 and ,darlington ,railway1 #cjf4 ,newcastle-on-,tyne in ancient times1 #a-c2 ,literary and ,philosophical ,institute1 #cgh2 ,stephenson1 jubilees at1 #bjf1 #caj2 ,high ,level ,bridge1 #cab2 ,george ,stephenson's statue1 #ced4 ,newcomen's atmospheric engine1 #h1 #da4 ,nile1 ,r4 ,stephenson's tubular bridges over1 #ceg4 ,north ,midland ,railway1 #beg1 #bfa4 ,north1 ,roger1 description of early tram-roads1 #e4 ,northampton1 opposition of to ,railways1 #bcb4 ,northumberland ,atmospheric ,railway1 #ccg4 ,novelty1 ,locomotive1 #bad1 #baf1 #bah1 #bcj4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,olive ,,mount ,cutting1 ,liverpool1 #ahe4 ,openings of ,railways1 ,hetton1 #aah2 ,stockton and ,darlington1 #acf2 ,middlesborough1 #adc2 ,liverpool and ,manchester1 #bbb2 ,london and ,birmingham1 #bfh2 ,birmingham and ,derby1 #bfh2 ,east ,coast route to ,scotland1 #cai2 ,britannia ,bridge1 #cci2 ,trent ,valley1 #ceb4 ,organization of labour1 ,g4 ,stephenson's1 #ahb1 #bbb1 #bbe4 ,outram1 ,benj41 ,little ,eaton1 #f4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,parliament and ,railways1 #bib1 #bid4 ,parr ,moss1 ,railway across1 #aha4 ,passenger traffic of early ,railways1 #ach1 #aef1 #afj4 ,paxton1 ,sir ,joseph1 #cgh4 ,pease1 ,edward1 projects the ,stockton and ,darlington ,railway1 #abc2 first interview with ,george ,stephenson1 #aef2 visits ,killingworth1 #abi2 joins ,stephenson in ,locomotive ,manufactory1 #acb1 #aii1 #bjb2 ,stephenson's esteem and gratitude1 #ade2 letters to ,robert ,stephenson1 #aii1 #bec1 #ceg4 ,peel1 ,sir ,robert1 #bbd1 #bic4 ,penmaen ,mawr1 ,railway under1 #cba4 ,permanent way of ,railroads1 #aaj4 ,perpetual motion1 ,george ,stephenson studies1 #cd1 #dh4 ,perseverance4 ,burstall's ,locomotive1 #bad1 #bah4 ,phillips1 ,sir ,r41 speculations on ,railways1 #adh4 ,pile-driving by steam1 #cab1 #caf4 ,pitmen1 ,northumbrian1 #h4 ,planet ,locomotive1 #bbi4 ,plugman1 duties of1 #bb4 ,politics1 ,george and ,robert ,stephenson's1 #cgh-i4 ,primrose ,hill ,tunnel1 #bdd4 ,prophecies of railway failure1 #aeh1 #aff1 #agb4 ,pumping-engines1 ,george ,stephenson's skill in1 #ch1 #da1 #dd1 #bdg4 ,pupils1 ,george ,stephenson's1 #aij-b1 #bfi4 ,pyrenean ,pastoral1 #bih4 99 99 99 99 99 ',,quarterly1' the1 on railway speed1 #aei4 ,queen1 the1 her first use of the ,railway1 #bgd2 opens the ,high ,level and ,royal ,border ,bridges1 #cai2 visits the ,britannia ,bridge1 #cch4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,rails1 cast and wrought iron1 #f1 #acc4 ,railways1 early1 #e-g2 ,merthyr ,tydfil 7,pen-y-darran71 #fi1 #ga2 ,middleton1 ,leeds1 #gb2 ,wylam1 #gd2 ,killingworth1 #hd1 #aaf2 ,hetton1 #aah2 ,stockton and ,darlington1 #abc2 ,liverpool and ,manchester1 #bbb2 ,grand ,junction1 #bcj1 #bec2 ,great ,western1 and ,leicester and ,swannington1 #bcb2 ,london and ,birmingham1 #bcg2 ,navvies1 #bej2 ,manchester and ,leeds1 #bed2 ,midland1 #beg2 ,york and ,north ,midland1 #bfa2 travelling1 #bgj-d2 undulating1 #bhd2 atmospheric1 #bhf2 ,chester and ,birkenhead1 #bhf2 mania1 #bhh2 ,newcastle and ,berwick1 and ,newcastle and ,darlington1 #cjf2 ,south ,devon1 #cjh2 ,chester and ,holyhead1 #cbj2 ,trent ,valley1 #ceb4 ,rainhill1 locomotive competition at1 #bae4 ,rastrick1 ,mr41 ,c4,e41 #bai1 #bec4 ,ravensworth1 ,earl of1 #df1 #hb4 ,rennie1 ,messrs41 ,c4,e41 #abc1 #aga1 #agc1 #cbe4 ,road locomotion1 ,cugnot's steam-carriage1 #fd2 ,evans and ,symington's1 #fe2 ,trevithick's1 #fg2 ,george ,stephenson on1 #aac4 ,robertson1 ,andrew1 schoolmaster1 #bd1 #bh4 ,robins1 anecdote of ,george ,stephenson and the1 #bfe4 ,robison1 ,dr41 his idea of a ,locomotive1 #fd4 ,rocket1 the1 its construction1 #baj2 arrangements of1 #bab2 wins the prize of #ejj pounds1 #bah4 ,roscoe1 ,mr41 his farm on ,chat ,moss1 #afi1 #agd1 #agf4 ,ross1 ,a4 ,m41 ,engineer1 #cfj4 ,royal ,border ,bridge1 ,berwick1 #caa4 ,rutter's ,school1 ,benton1 #ej1 #ee4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,safety-,,lamp1 ,dr4 ,clanny's1 #ib2 ,stephenson's first lamp1 #id2 second lamp1 #ii2 third lamp1 #ajj2 ,sir ,h4 ,davy's paper1 #ib2 his lamp1 #aja2 the safety-lamp controversy1 #ajb2 the ,davy and ,stephenson testimonials1 #ajd-f2 comparative merits of the ,davy and ,geordy lamps1 #ajg-h4 ,sailing-waggons on tram-roads1 #fc4 ,samson ,locomotive1 #bbg4 ,sandars1 ,joseph1 ,liverpool1 #adg1 #adi1 #aed4 ,sankey ,viaduct1 #ahe4 ,sanspareil ,locomotive1 ,tim ,hackworth's1 #bad1 #baf1 #bah4 ,sea1 the force of1 #cba1 #cbc4 ,seguin1 ,mr41 ,c4,e41 his tubular boiler1 #baj4 ,self-acting incline1 #fa4 ,sibthorpe1 ,colonel1 on ,railways1 #bca1 #bgd4 ,simplon ,road1 ,midland ,railway compared with1 #beg4 ,snibston ,colliery purchased by ,george ,stephenson1 #bcd4 ,sopwith1 ,mr41 ,c4,e41 #if1 #big4 ,spanish ,railway1 ,george ,stephenson's survey of1 #bih4 ,speed1 railway1 on ,middleton ,railway1 #gb2 ,wylam1 #hj2 ,killingworth1 #he1 #aef2 ,coxlodge1 #hj2 ,stockton and ,darlington1 #adc2 ,g4 ,stephenson before ,committee of ,house of ,commons on1 #bhb4 ,speed of engines tried at ,rainhill1 #bad-ai2 of the ,northumbrian1 #bbd2 ,george ,stephenson's views on1 #bhb4 ,spur-gear1 locomotive1 #hc4 ,staiths1 coal1 #aj4 ,stationary-engine power1 #aah1 #abi1 #ace1 #bjc1 #bje4 ,statues of ,george ,stephenson1 #ced4 ,steam-blast1 invention of1 #he1 #bjh-aa4 ,steam-springs1 ,g4 ,stephenson's1 #aab4 ,stephenson family1 the1 #ae1 #ag1 #ai1 #ba1 #ci2 ,old ,bob1 #ad1 #ae1 #ci1 #ee4 ,stephenson1 ,george1 birth and parentage1 #ac1 #ae2 employed as herd-boy1 makes clay engines1 #af1 #ag2 plough-boy2 drives the gin-horse1 #ah2 assistant-fireman1 #ai2 fireman1 #ba2 engineman--study of the steam-engine1 #bb2 his schoolmasters1 #bd1 #dh1 #fj2 learns to brake an engine1 #bf2 duties as brakesman1 #bg2 soles shoes1 #bh2 saves his first guinea1 #bi2 fights with a pitman1 #cj2 marries ,fanny ,henderson1 #cc2 heaves ballast1 #cd2 cleans clocks1 #ce2 death of his wife1 #cf2 goes to ,scotland1 #cg2 returns home1 #ch2 brakesman at ,west ,moor1 ,killingworth1 #ci2 drawn for the militia1 #dj2 takes a brakeing contract1 #da2 cures pumping-engine1 #db2 engine-wright to the colliery1 #df2 evenings with ,john ,wigham1 #dh2 education of his son1 #ej-d2 cottage at ,west ,moor1 #eg2 the sun-dial1 #fj2 erects winding and pumping engines1 #fa2 study of locomotive1 #fb2 makes his first travelling-engine1 #hb2 invents the steam-blast1 #he2 second locomotive1 #he2 fire in the main1 personal courage1 #ij2 invents and tests his safety-lamps1 #ic1 #ajb2 the ,stephenson testimonial1 #aje2 further improvements in the ,killingworth locomotive1 #aaj2 constructs the ,hetton ,railway1 #aag2 surveys and constructs the ,stockton and ,darlington ,railway1 #abh2 his second wife1 #abi2 starts a ,locomotive ,manufactory1 #acb2 appointed engineer of the ,liverpool and ,manchester line1 #aed2 examined before ,parliamentary ,committee1 #afb2 the ,railway across ,chat ,moss1 #agc-hf1 #aib2 life at home1 #aij2 the ,rocket constructed1 #baj2 public opening of ,liverpool and ,manchester line1 #bbc2 engineer of ,grand ,junction1 #bcj2 purchases ,snibston ,colliery1 and removes to ,alton ,grange1 #bcd2 appointed joint engineer of ,london and ,birmingham ,railway1 #bcg2 engineer of ,manchester and ,leeds ,railway1 #bec2 of ,midland ,railway1 #beg2 of ,york and ,north ,midland ,railway1 #bfa2 life at ,alton ,grange1 #bfc2 visit to ,belgium and interviews with ,king ,leopold1 #bfg2 takes lease of ,clayross ,colliery1 #bgg2 lime-works at ,ambergate1 residence at ,tapton ,house1 #bgh2 appearance at ,mechanics' ,institutes1 #bhj2 opinions of railway speed1 #bhb2 views as to atmospheric system of working1 #bhg2 opposes the railway mania1 #bij2 again visits ,belgium1 #bie2 visit to ,spain1 #big2 retires from the profession of engineering1 #cja2 ,newcastle and ,berwick ,railway1 and ,chester and ,holyhead ,railway1 #cjg2 habits1 conversation1 etc41 #cdc2 theory of coal formation1 #cea2 meeting with ,emerson1 #ceb2 illness and death1 #ced2 characteristics1 #cfh4 ,stephenson1 ,robert1 his birth1 death of his mother1 #cf2 his father's care for his education1 #ej2 is put to ,rutter's school1 ,benton1 #ej2 sent to ,bruce's school1 ,newcastle1 #eb2 evenings with his father1 #ed2 his boyish tricks1 #ee2 repeats ,franklin's lightning experiment1 #ef2 his father's assistant1 #ej1 #ec2 gives lessons to the pitmen's sons1 #fj2 calculates the latitude for a sundial at ,killingworth1 #fj2 his recollections of the trial of the first safety-lamp1 #id2 apprenticed to a coal viewer1 #aai2 sent to college at ,edinburgh1 #aba2 assists in survey of ,stockton and ,darlington ,railway1 #abh2 assists in survey of ,liverpool and ,manchester ,railway1 #aec2 leaves ,england for ,colombia1 #aic2 residence at ,mariquita1 #aif2 resigns his situation as mining engineer1 #aii2 rencontre with ,trevithick at ,cartagena1 #bjj2 shipwreck1 #bja2 return to ,newcastle1 #bjb2 pamphlet on the locomotive engine1 #bjf2 discussions with his father as to the locomotive1 #bjh2 constructs the ,rocket1 #baj2 wins the prize1 #bah2 improvements in the locomotive1 #bba2 appointed engineer of ,leicester and ,swannington ,railway1 #bcb2 his first tunnel1 #bcc2 finds coal at ,snibston1 #bcd2 appointed joint engineer of ,london and ,birmingham ,railway1 #bcg2 construction of the works1 #bdb2 overcomes the difficulties of the ,kilsby ,tunnel1 #bdh2 letter to ,sir ,robert ,peel on undulating railways1 #bic2 his extensive employment1 #cjb-c2 the competitor of ,brunel1 #cjd2 engineer of ,newcastle and ,berwick ,railway1 #cjf2 engineer of ,royal ,border ,bridge1 ,berwick1 #caa2 engineer of ,high ,level ,bridge1 ,newcastle1 #cab2 engineer of ,chester and ,holyhead ,railway1 #cbj2 constructs the ,britannia and ,conway ,tubular ,bridges1 #cbd2 succeeds to his father's wealth1 and arranges to retire from business1 #ceg2 designs tubular bridges for ,canada and ,egypt1 #ceg2 member of ,parliament1 foreign honours1 #cff2 death1 #cfh2 character1 #cgg4 ,stock ,exchange and railway speculation1 #bhi4 ,stockton and ,darlington ,railway1 projected1 promoted by ,edward ,pease1 #abc2 act passed1 #abe2 re-surveyed by ,g4 ,stephenson1 #abh2 opening of the ,railway1 #acf2 the coal traffic1 #ach2 the first passenger coach1 #aci2 coaching companies1 #adj2 increase of the traffic1 #ada2 town of ,middlesborough1 #add4 ,strathmore1 ,earl of1 #df1 #aje4 ,sun-dial at ,killingworth1 #fj1 #bhj4 ,swanwick1 ,frederick1 ,c4,e41 #aij1 #aib1 #ceb4 ,symington1 ,wm41 steam-carriage1 #fe4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,tapton ,,house1 ,chesterfield1 #bgh1 #cda4 ,tram-roads1 early1 #e2 ,croydon and ,merstham1 #adg4 ,travelling by ,railway1 #afj4 ,trevithick1 ,richard1 ,c4,e41 his steam-carriage1 #fg2 his train-engine1 and substitute for steam-blast1 #gj2 rencontre with ,robert ,stephenson at ,cartagena1 #bjj4 ,trent ,valley ,railway1 #ceb4 ,trellis girder bridges1 #cfj4 ,tring ,cutting1 #bdb4 ,tubular boilers1 #bji4 ,tubular bridges1 #ccd1 #cci1 #cfj4 ,tunnels1 railway1 ,liverpool1 #ahc2 ,primrose ,hill1 #bdd2 ,kilsby1 #bde2 ,watford1 #bde2 ,littleborough1 #bee4 ,tyne1 the1 at ,newcastle1 #c1 #aj1 #aa1 #cae4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,viaducts1 ,sankey1 #ahe2 ,dutton1 #bed2 ,berwick1 #caa2 ,newcastle1 #cab4 ,victoria ,bridge1 ,montreal1 #ceg-ff4 ,vignolles1 ,mr41 ,c4,e41 #aga1 #ahe1 #bjd4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,waggon-,,roads1 early1 #d-g1 #af1 #fc4 ,walker1 ,james1 ,c4,e41 #aei4 ,wallsend1 ,newcastle1 #a1 #cc4 ,walmsley1 ,sir ,joshua1 #big1 #bii1 #cga4 ,wandsworth and ,croydon ,tramway1 #fi1 #adg4 ,watford ,tunnel1 #bde4 ,watt1 ,james1 and the ,locomotive1 #fd4 ,way-leaves for waggon roads1 #e4 ,wellington1 ,duke of1 and ,railways1 #bbc1 #bgd4 ,west ,moor1 ,killingworth1 #cg1 #dj1 #ia1 #ajh4 ,whitehaven1 early ,railroad at1 #f4 ,wigham1 ,john1 ,stephenson's teacher1 #dh-i4 ,willington ,quay1 #bh1 #ca-f4 ,wilton1 ,earl of1 #agb4 ,wood1 ,nicholas1 prepares drawing of safety-lamp1 #id2 is present at its trial1 #ie2 assists at experiments on fire-damp1 #ih2 appears with ,stephenson before ,newcastle ,institute1 #ajb2 opinion of the ,geordy lamp1 #ajh2 experiments with ,stephenson on friction1 #aag2 accident in pit1 #aai2 visits ,edward ,pease with ,g4 ,stephenson1 #abf4 ,woolf's tubular boilers1 #bji4 ,wylam ,colliery and village1 #ab-ad4 11 waggon-way1 #gd1 #gh4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,york and ,north ,midland ,railway1 #bfa4 ,young1 ,arthur1 description of early waggon-roads1 #e4 ,,notes4 #d ,in the ,newcastle dialect1 a chare is a narrow street or lane4 ,at the local assizes some years since1 one of the witnesses in a criminal trial swore that he saw three men come out of the foot of a chare4 ,the judge cautioned the jury not to pay any regard to the man's evidence1 as he must be insane4 ,a little explanation by the foreman1 however1 satisfied his lordship that the original statement was correct4 #e ',six ,months' ,tour1' vol4 iii4 #i #bf ,father of ,mr4 ,locke1 ,m4,p41 the engineer4 ,he afterwards removed to ,barnsley1 in ,yorkshire4 #cc ,the ,stephenson ,memorial ,schools have since been erected on the site of the old cottage at ,willington ,quay represented in the engraving at the head of this chapter4 #ch ,this incident was related by ,robert ,stephenson during a voyage to the north of ,scotland in #aheg1 when off ,montrose1 on board his yacht ,titania2 and the reminiscence was communicated to the author by the late ,mr4 ,william ,kell of ,gateshead1 who was present1 at ,mr4 ,stephenson's request1 as being worthy of insertion in his father's biography4 #eb ,speech at ,newcastle1 on the #ahth of ,june1 #ahdd1 at the meeting held in celebration of the opening of the ,newcastle and ,darlington ,railway4 #eg ,robert ,stephenson was perhaps1 prouder of this little boyish experiment than he was of many of his subsequent achievements4 ,not having been quite accurately stated in the first edition of this book1 ,mr4 ,stephenson noted the correction for the second1 and wrote the author 7,sept4 #ahth1 #aheg7 as follows3--,in the kite experiment1 will you say1 that the copper-wire was insulated by a few feet of silk cord2 without this1 the experiment cannot be made4 #gj ,mr4 ,zerah ,colburn1 in his excellent work on ',locomotive ,engineering and the ,mechanism of ,railways1' points out that ,mr4 ,davies ,gilbert noted the effect of the discharge of the waste steam up the chimney of ,trevithick's engine in increasing the draught1 and wrote a letter to ',nicholson's ,journal' 7,sept4 #ahje7 on the subject4 ,mr4 ,nicholson himself proceeded to investigate the subject1 and in #ahjf he took out a patent for steam-blasting apparatus1 applicable to fixed engines4 ,trevithick himself1 however1 could not have had much faith in the steam-blast for locomotive purposes1 or else he would not have taken out his patent for urging the fire by means of fanners4 ,but the fact is1 that while the speed of the locomotive was only four or five miles an hour1 the blast was scarcely needed4 ,it was only when high speeds were adopted that artificial methods of urging the fire became necessary1 and that the full importance of the invention was recognised4 ,like many other inventions1 stimulated if not originated by necessity1 the steam-blast was certainly reinvented1 if not invented1 by ,george ,stephenson4 #ga ',mining ,journal1' #ith ,september1 #aheh4 #gc ,other machines1 with legs1 were patented in the following year by ,lewis ,gompertz and by ,thomas ,tindall4 ,in ,tindall's specification it is provided that the power of the engine is to be assisted by a horizontal windmill2 and the four pushers1 or legs1 are to be caused to come successively in contact with the ground1 and impel the carriage6 #hb ,speech at the opening of the ,newcastle and ,darlington ,railway1 ,june #ah1 #ahdd4 #ie ,the ,editor of the ',athenaeum' having 7,nov4 #hth1 #ahfb7 characterized the author's account of this affair as perfectly untrue and a fiction1 it becomes necessary to say a few words in explanation of it4 ,the ,editor of the ',athenaeum' quotes in support of his statement a passage from ,mr4 ,nicholas ,wood1 who1 however does not say that the anecdote is perfectly untrue1 but merely that the danger was not quite so great as is represented3 he adds that at most an explosion might have burnt the hands of the operator1 but would not extend a few feet from the blower4 ,however that may be1 we were not without good authority for making the original statement4 ,the facts were verbally communicated to the author in the first place by ,robert ,stephenson1 to whom the chapter was afterwards read in ,,ms41 in the presence of ,mr4 ,sopwith1 ,f4,r4,s4 at ,mr4 ,stephenson's house in ,gloucester ,square1 and received his entire approval4 ,but at the time at which ,mr4 ,stephenson communicated the verbal information1 he also handed a little book with his name written in it1 still in the author's possession1 saying1 ,read that1 you will find it all there4 ,we have again referred to the little book which contains1 among other things1 a pamphlet1 entitled ,report on the ,claims of ,mr4 ,george ,stephenson relative to the ,invention of his ,safety ,lamp4 ,by the ,committee appointed at a ,meeting holden in ,newcastle1 on this #ast of ,november1 #ahag4 ,with an ,appendix containing the ,evidence4 ,among the witnesses examined were ,george ,stephenson1 ,nicholas ,wood1 and ,john ,moodie1 and their evidence is given in the pamphlet4 ,we quote that of ,stephenson and ,moodie1 which was not contradicted1 but in all material points confirmed by ,wood1 and was published1 we believe1 with his sanction4 ,george ,stephenson said1 that he tried the first lamp in a part of the mine where the air was highly explosive4 ,nicholas ,wood and ,john ,moodie were his companions when the trial was made4 ,they became frightened when they came within hearing of the blower1 and would not go any further4 ,mr4 ,stephenson went alone with the lamp to the mouth of the blower1 etc4 ,this evidence was confirmed by ,john ,moodie1 who said the air of the place where the experiment was about to be tried was such1 that1 if a lighted candle had been introduced1 an explosion would have taken place that would have been extremely dangerous4 ,told ,stephenson it was foul1 and hinted at the danger2 nevertheless1 ,stephenson would try the lamp1 confiding in its safety4 ,stephenson took the lamp and went with it into the place in which ,moodie had been1 and ,moodie and ,wood1 apprehensive of the danger1 retired to a greater distance1 etc4 ,the other details of the statement made in the text1 are fully borne out by the published evidence1 the accuracy of which1 so far as the author is aware1 has never before been called in question4 #aje ,the tankard bore the following inscription--,this piece of plate1 purchased with a part of the sum of #ajjj pounds1 a subscription raised for the remuneration of ,mr4 ,,george ,,stephenson for having discovered the fact that inflamed fire-damp will not pass through tubes and apertures of small dimensions1 and having been the first to apply that principle in the construction of a safety-lamp calculated for the preservation of human life in situations formerly of the greatest danger1 was presented to him at a general meeting of the subscribers1 ,charles ,john ,brandling1 ,esq41 in the ,chair4 ,january #abth1 #ahah4 #ajg ,the accident above referred to was described in the ',barnsley ,times1' a copy of which1 containing the account1 ,robert ,stephenson forwarded to the author1 with the observation that it is evidently written by a practical miner1 and is1 ,i think1 worthy of record in my father's ,life4 #abe ,mr4 ,pease died at ,darlington1 on the #cast of ,july1 #aheh1 aged ninety two4 #abi ,the story has been told that ,george was a former suitor of ,miss ,hindmarsh1 while occupying the position of a humble workman at ,black ,callerton1 but that having been rejected by her1 he made love to and married ,fanny ,henderson2 and that long after the death of the latter1 when he had become a comparatively thriving man1 he again made up to ,miss ,hindmarsh1 and was on the second occasion accepted4 ,this is the popular story1 and different versions of it are current4 ,desirous of ascertaining the facts1 the author called on ,thomas ,hindmarsh1 ,mrs4 ,stephenson's brother1 who assured him that ,george knew nothing of his sister until he 7,hindmarsh7 introduced him to her1 at ,george's express request1 about the year #ahah or #ahai4 ,the author was himself originally attracted by the much more romantic version of the story1 and gave publicity to it many years since2 but after ,mr4 ,hindmarsh's explicit statement1 he thought fit to adopt the soberer1 and perhaps1 the truer view4 #acj ,the first clause in any railway act1 empowering the employment of locomotive engines for the working of passenger traffic4 #aca ,this incident1 communicated to the author by the late ,edward ,pease1 has since been made the subject of a fine picture by ,mr4 ,a4 ,rankley1 ,a4,r4,a41 exhibited at the ,royal ,academy ,exhibition of #ahfa4 #add ,middlesborough does not furnish the only instance of the extraordinary increase of population in certain localities1 occasioned by railways4 ,hartlepool1 in the same neighbourhood1 has in thirty years increased from #accj to above #ae1jjj2 and ,stockton-on-,tees from #ggfc to above #af1jjj4 ,in #ahca ,crewe was a little village with #bie inhabitants2 it now numbers upwards of #aj1jjj4 ,rugby and ,swindon have quadrupled their population in the same time4 ,the railway has been the making of ,southampton1 and added #cj1jjj to its formerly small number of inhabitants4 ,in like manner the railway has taken ,london to the sea-side1 and increased the population of ,brighton from #dj1jjj to nearly #ajj1jjj4 ,that of ,folkestone has been trebled4 ,new and populous suburbs have sprung up all round ,london4 ,the population of ,stratford-le-,bow and ,west ,ham was #aa1ehj in #ahca2 it is now nearly #dj1jjj4 ,reigate has been trebled in size1 and ,redhill has been created by the railway4 ,blackheath1 ,forest ,hill1 ,sydenham1 ,new ,cross1 ,wimbledon1 and a number of populous places round ,london1 may almost be said to have sprung into existence since the extension of railways to them within the last thirty years4 #adg ,lives of the ,engineers1 vol4 i4 p4 #cga4 #ahi ,mr4 ,gooch's letter to the author1 ,december #acth1 #ahfa4 ,referring to the preparations of the plans and drawings1 ,mr4 ,gooch adds1 ,when we consider the extensive sets of drawings which most engineers have since found it right to adopt in carrying out similar works1 it is not the least surprising feature in ,george ,stephenson's early professional career1 that he should have been able to confine himself to so limited a number as that which could be supplied by the hands of one person in carrying out the construction of the ,liverpool and ,manchester ,railway2 and this may still be said1 after full allowance is made for the alteration of system involved by the adoption of the large contract system4 #aic ,letter to the author4 #aif ,letter to ,mr4 ,illingworth4 ,september #beth1 #ahbe4 #aii ,letter to ,mr4 ,illingworth4 ,april #ith1 #ahbg4 #bja ',geological ,transactions of ,cornwall4' i4 #bbb4 #bjf ,the arguments used by ,mr4 ,stephenson with the directors1 in favour of the locomotive engine1 were afterwards collected and published in #ahcj by ,robert ,stephenson and ,joseph ,locke1 as compiled from the ,reports of ,mr4 ,george ,stephenson4 ,the pamphlet was entitled1 ',observations on the ,comparative ,merits of ,locomotive and ,fixed ,engines4' ,robert ,stephenson1 speaking of the authorship many years after1 said1 ,i believe ,i furnished the facts and the arguments1 and ,locke put them into shape4 ,locke was a very flowery writer1 whereas my style was rather bald and unattractive2 so he was the editor of the pamphlet1 which excited a good deal of attention amongst engineers at the time4 #bjg ,the conditions were these3-- #a4 ,the engine must effectually consume its own smoke4 #b4 ,the engine1 if of six tons weight1 must be able to draw after it1 day by day1 twenty tons weight 7including the tender and water-tank7 at ten miles an hour1 with a pressure of steam on the boiler not exceeding fifty pounds to the square inch4 #c4 ,the boiler must have two safety-valves1 neither of which must be fastened down1 and one of them be completely out of the control of the engineman4 #d4 ,the engine and boiler must be supported on springs1 and rest on six wheels1 the height of the whole not exceeding fifteen feet to the top of the chimney4 #e4 ,the engine1 with water1 must not weigh more than six tons2 but an engine of less weight would be preferred on its drawing a proportionate load behind it2 if only four and a half tons1 then it might be put on only four wheels4 ,the ,company to be at liberty to test the boiler1 etc41 by a pressure of one hundred and fifty pounds to the square inch4 #f4 ,a mercurial gauge must be affixed to the machine1 showing the steam pressure above forty-five pounds per square inch4 #g4 ,the engine must be delivered1 complete and ready for trial1 at the ,liverpool end of the railway1 not later than the #ast of ,october1 #ahbi4 #h4 ,the price of the engine must not exceed #eej pounds4 #bad ,the inventor of this engine was a ,swede1 who afterwards proceeded to the ,united ,states1 and there achieved considerable distinction as an engineer4 ,his ,caloric ,engine has so far proved a failure1 but his iron cupola vessel1 the ,monitor1 must be admitted to have been a remarkable success in its way4 #bai ,the ,rocket is now to be seen at the ,museum of ,patents at ,kensington1 where it is carefully preserved4 #bcd ,tubbing is now adopted in many cases as a substitute for brick-walling4 ,the tubbing consists of short portions of cast-iron cylinder fixed in segments4 ,each weighs about #d4e cwt41 is about #c or #d feet long1 and about #j4cge of an inch thick4 ,these pieces are fitted closely together1 length under length1 and form an impermeable wall along the side of the pit4 #bfc ,during this period he was engaged on the ,north ,midland1 extending from ,derby to ,leeds2 the ,york and ,north ,midland1 from ,normanton to ,york2 the ,manchester and ,leeds2 the ,birmingham and ,derby1 and the ,sheffield and ,rotherham ,railways2 the whole of these1 of which he was principal engineer1 having been authorised in #ahcf4 ,in that session alone1 powers were obtained for the construction of #bad miles of new railways under his direction1 at an expenditure of upwards of five millions sterling4 #bhh ,the question of the specific merits of the atmospheric as compared with the fixed engine and locomotive systems1 will be found fully discussed in ,robert ,stephenson's able ',report on the ,atmospheric ,railway ,system1' #ahdd1 in which he gives the result of numerous observations and experiments made by him on the ,kingstown ,atmospheric ,railway1 with the object of ascertaining whether the new power would be applicable for the working of the ,chester and ,holyhead ,railway1 then under construction4 ,his opinion was decidedly against the atmospheric system4 #bhi ,the ,marquis of ,clanricarde brought under the notice of the ,house of ,lords1 in #ahde1 that one ,charles ,guernsey1 the son of a charwoman1 and a clerk in a broker's office1 at #abs4 a week1 had his name down as a subscriber for shares in the ,london and ,york line1 for #eb1jjj pounds4 ,doubtless he had been made useful for the purpose by the brokers1 his employers4 #cji ,when my father came about the office1 said ,robert1 he sometimes did not well know what to do with himself4 ,so he used to invite ,bidder to have a wrestle with him1 for old acquaintance' sake4 ,and the two wrestled together so often1 and had so many 'falls' 7sometimes ,i thought they would bring the house down between them71 that they broke half the chairs in my outer office4 ,i remember once sending my father in a joiner's bill of about #b pounds #ajs4 for mending broken chairs4 #cbd ,the simple fact that in a heavy storm the force of impact of the waves is from one and a-half to two tons per square foot1 must necessarily dictate the greatest possible caution in approaching so formidable an element4 ,mr4 ,r4 ,stevenson 7,edinburgh7 registered a force of three tons per square foot at ,skerryvore1 during a gale in the ,atlantic1 when the waves were supposed to run twenty feet high4 #cbg ,robert ,stephenson's narrative in ,clark's ',britannia and ,conway ,tubular ,bridges1' vol4 i4 p4 #bg4 #cbi;a ',account of the ,construction of the ,britannia and ,conway ,tubular ,bridges4' ,by ,w4 ,fairbairn1 ,c4,e4 ,london1 #ahdi4 #cbi;b ,mr4 ,stephenson continued to hold that the elliptical tube was the right idea1 and that sufficient justice had not been done to it4 ,a year or two before his death ,mr4 ,stephenson remarked to the author1 that had the same arrangement for stiffening been adopted to which the oblong rectangular tubes owe a great part of their strength1 a very different result would have been obtained4 #cce ',the ,britannia and ,conway ,tubular ,bridges4' ,by ,edwin ,clark4 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #fhc-d4 #ccf ,no4 #cd1 ,gloucester ,square1 ,hyde ,park1 where he lived4 #cej ,the above anecdote is given on the authority of ,mr4 ,sopwith4 ,f4,r4,s4 #ced ,the second ,mrs4 ,stephenson having died in #ahde1 ,george married a third time in #ahdh1 about six months before his death4 ,the third ,mrs4 ,stephenson had for some time been his housekeeper4 #cfh ,in #ahbi ,robert ,stephenson married ,frances1 daughter of ,john ,sanderson1 merchant1 ,london2 but she died in #ahdb1 without issue1 and ,mr4 ,stephenson did not marry again4 ,until the close of his life1 ,robert ,stephenson was accustomed twice in every year to visit his wife's grave in ,hampstead churchyard4 #cgg ,address as ,president of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1 ,january1 #ahef4