,,steam ,,turbines                      
,a ,,book ,,of ,,instruction            
,,for ,,the ,,adjustment ,,and          
,,operation ,,of                        
,,the ,,principal ,,types ,,of ,,this   
,,class ,,of ,,prime ,,movers           
,,compiled ,,and ,,written              
,,by                                    
,,hubert ,e4 ,,collins                  
,,first ,,edition                       
,second ,impression                     
,mc,g,r,a,w-,,hill ,,book ,,company1    
,inc4                           #bci    
,,west #ci,,th ,,street1 ,,new ,,york   
#f ,,bouverie ,,street1 ,,london1 ,e4   
,c4                ,copyright1 #aiji1 by
 the ,hill ,publishing ,company         
,all rights reserved                    
,,transcriber',s ,,notes  ,the authors  
of this book used the spellings aline1  
gage1 and hight for the conventional    
spellings align1 gauge1 and height4 ,as 
they are used consistently and do not   
affect the sense1 they have been left   
unchanged4 ,obvious typos and           

misspellings that did not affect the    
sense have been silently corrected4 ,the
 following substantive typographical    
errors have also been corrected3 being  
to bearing 7p4 #fh72 ,,fig4 #ej to      
,,fig4 #ef 7p4 #ia71 and ,fig4 #b to    
,fig4 #gc 7p4 #aei74 ,two other likely  
errors have been left as transcriber    
queries3 lead_/load on p4 #adb and      
beating_/heating on p4 #agg4            
,superscript numbers are indicated with 
carets3 ,b#a4 ,subscript numbers are    
indicated with curly braces3 ,p#a for   
,p-sub-#a4     ,,introduction   ,this   
issue of the ,power ,handbook attempts  
to give a compact manual for the        
engineer who feels the need of          
acquainting himself with steam turbines4
 ,to accomplish this within the limits  
of space allowed1 it has been necessary 
to confine the work to the description  
of a few standard types1 prepared with  
the assistance of the builders4         
,following this the practical experience
 of successful engineers1 gathered from 

the columns of ,power1 is given4 ,it is 
hoped that the book will prove of value 
to all engineers handling turbines1     
whether of the described types or not4  
,hubert ,e4 ,collins4     ,new ,york1   
,april1 #aiji4     ,,contents    ,,chap4
                                        
,,page       ,i  ,the ,curtis ,steam    
,turbine in ,practice             #a    
,,ii  ,setting the ,valves of the       
,curtis ,turbine        #ca     ,,iii   
,allis-,chalmers ,steam ,turbine        
#da      ,,iv  ,westinghouse-,parsons   
,turbine                    #eh       ,v
  ,proper ,method of ,testing a ,steam  
,turbine       #aab      ,,vi  ,testing 
a ,steam ,turbine                       
#acg     ,,vii  ,auxiliaries for ,steam 
,turbines                 #aed    ,,viii
  ,trouble with ,steam ,turbine         
,auxiliaries         #agb     ,i4 ,,the 
,,curtis ,,steam ,,turbine ,,in         
,,practice#a  #a ,contributed to ,power 
by ,fred ,l4 ,johnson4   ,of the making 
of books there is no end4 ,this seems   

especially true of steam-turbine books1 
but the book which really appeals to the
 operating engineer1 the man who may    
have a turbine unloaded1 set up1 put in 
operation1 and the builders'            
representative out of reach before the  
man who is to operate it fully realizes 
that he has a new type of prime mover on
 his hands1 with which he has little or 
no acquaintance1 has not been written4  
,there has been much published1 both    
descriptive and theoretical1 about the  
turbine1 but so far as the writer knows1
 there is nothing in print that tells   
the man on the job about the details of 
the turbine in plain language1 and how  
to handle these details when they need  
handling4 ,the operating engineer does  
not care why the moving buckets are made
 of a certain curvature1 but he does    
care about the distance between the     
moving bucket and the stationary one1   
and he wants to know how to measure that
 distance1 how to alter the clearance1  
if necessary1 to prevent rubbing4 ,he   

doesn't care anything about the area of 
the step-bearing1 but he does want to   
know the way to get at the bearing to   
take it down and put it up again1 etc4  
,the lack of literature along this line 
is the writer's apology for what        
follows4 ,the ,curtis #aejj-kilowatt    
steam turbine will be taken first and   
treated from the ground up4  ,on        
entering a turbine plant on the ground  
floor1 the attention is at once         
attracted by a multiplicity of pumps1   
accumulators and piping4 ,these are     
called auxiliaries and will be passed   
for the present to be taken up later1   
for though of standard types their use  
is comparatively new in power-plant     
practice1 and the engineer will find    
that more interruptions of service will 
come from the auxiliaries than from the 
turbine itself4   ,builders' ,foundation
 ,plans ,incomplete  ,it is impractical 
for the manufacturers to make complete  
foundation drawings1 as they are not    
familiar with the lay-out of pipes and  

the relative position of other apparatus
 in the station4 ,all that the          
manufacturers' drawing is intended to do
 is to show the customer where it will  
be necessary for him to locate his      
foundation bolts and opening for access 
to the step-bearing4  ,illustration3    
,,fig4 #a  ,fig4 #a shows the builders' 
foundation drawing1 with the addition of
 several horizontal and radial tubes    
introduced to give passage for the      
various pipes which must go to the      
middle of the foundation4 ,entering     
through the sides of the masonry they do
 not block the passage1 which must be as
 free as possible when any work is to be
 done on the step-bearing1 or lower     
guide-bearing4 ,entering the passage in 
the foundation1 a large screw is seen   
passing up through a circular block of  
cast iron with a #c_/d-;inch pipe       
passing through it4 ,this is the        
step-supporting screw4 ,it supports the 
lower half of the step-bearing1 which in
 turn supports the entire revolving part

 of the machine4 ,it is used to hold the
 wheels at a proper hight in the casing1
 and adjust the clearance between the   
moving and stationary buckets4 ,the     
large block which with its threaded     
bronze bushing forms the nut for the    
screw is called the cover-plate1 and is 
held to the base of the machine by eight
 #a-a_/b-;inch cap-screws4 ,on the upper
 side are two dowel-pins which enter the
 lower step and keep it from turning4   
7,see ,figs4 #b and #c47  ,illustration3
 ,,fig4 #b  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c    
,the step-blocks are very common-looking
 chunks of cast iron1 as will be seen by
 reference to ,fig4 #d4 ,the block with 
straight sides 7the lower one in the    
illustration7 has the two dowel holes to
 match the pins spoken of1 with a hole  
through the center threaded for         
#c_/d-;inch pipe4 ,the step-lubricant is
 forced up through this hole and out    
between the raised edges in a film1     
floating the rotating parts of the      
machine on a frictionless disk of oil or

 water4 ,the upper step-block has two   
dowel-pins1 also a key which fits into a
 slot across the bottom end of the      
shaft4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d  ,the  
upper side of the top block is          
counterbored to fit the end of the      
shaft4 ,the counterbore centers the     
block4 ,the dowel-pins steer the key    
into the key-way across the end of the  
shaft1 and the key compels the block to 
turn with the shaft4 ,there is also a   
threaded hole in the under side of the  
top block4 ,this is for the introduction
 of a screw which is used to pull the   
top block off the end of the shaft4 ,if 
taken off at all it must be pulled1 for 
the dowel-pins1 key and counterbore are 
close fits4 ,two long bolts with threads
 the whole length are used if it becomes
 necessary to take down the step or     
other parts of the bottom of the        
machine4 ,two of the bolts holding the  
cover-plate in place are removed1 these 
long bolts put in their places and the  
nuts screwed up against the plate to    

hold it while the remaining bolts are   
removed4   ,how to ,lower               
,step-,bearings to ,examine ,them  ,now1
 suppose it is intended to take down the
 step-bearings for examination4 ,the    
first thing to do is to provide some way
 of holding the shaft up in its place   
while we take its regular support from  
under it4 ,in some machines1 inside the 
base1 there is what is called a jacking 
ring4 ,it is simply a loose collar on   
the shaft1 which covers the holes into  
which four plugs are screwed4 ,these are
 taken out and in their places are put  
four hexagonal-headed screws provided   
for the purpose1 which are screwed up4  
,this brings the ring against a shoulder
 on the shaft and then the cover-plate  
and step may be taken down4  ,while all 
the machines have the same general      
appearance1 there are some differences  
in detail which may be interesting4 ,one
 difference is due to the sub-base which
 is used with the oil-lubricated        
step-bearings4 ,this style of machine   

has the jacking ring spoken of1 while   
others have neither sub-base nor jacking
 ring1 and when necessary to take down  
the step a different arrangement is     
used4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e  ,a     
piece of iron that looks like a big     
horseshoe 7,fig4 #e7 is used to hold the
 shaft up4 ,the flange that covers the  
entrance to the exhaust base is taken   
off and a man goes in with the          
horseshoe-shaped shim and an electric   
light4 ,other men take a long-handled   
wrench and turn up the step-screw until 
the man inside the base can push the    
horseshoe shim between the shoulder on  
the shaft and the guide-bearing casing4 
,the men on the wrench then back off and
 the horseshoe shim supports the weight 
of the machine4 ,when the shim is in    
place1 or the jacking ring set up1      
whichever the case may be1 the          
cover-plate bolts may be taken out1 the 
nuts on the long screws holding the     
cover in place4  ,the #c_/d-;inch pipe  
which passes up through the step-screw  

is taken down and1 by means of the nuts 
on the long screws1 the cover-plate is  
lowered about #b inches4 ,then through  
the hole in the step-screw a #c_/d-;inch
 rod with threads on both ends is passed
 and screwed into the top step2 then the
 cover-plate is blocked so it cannot    
rise and1 with a nut on the lower end of
 the #c_/d-;inch rod1 the top step is   
pulled down as far as it will come4 ,the
 cover-plate is let down by means of the
 two nuts1 and the top step-block       
follows4 ,when it is lowered to a       
convenient hight it can be examined1 and
 the lower end of the shaft and         
guide-bearing will be exposed to view4  
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f  ,the lower    
guide-bearing 7,fig4 #f7 is simply a    
sleeve flanged at one end1 babbitted on 
the inside1 and slightly tapered on the 
outside where it fits into the base4    
,the flange is held securely in the base
 by eight #c_/d-;inch cap-screws4       
,between the cap-screw holes are eight  
holes tapped to #c_/d-;inch1 and when it

 is desired to take the bearing down the
 cap-screws are taken out of the base   
and screwed into the threaded holes and 
used as jacks to force the guide-bearing
 downward4 ,some provision should be    
made to prevent the bearing from coming 
down on the run1 for being a taper fit  
it has only to be moved about one-half  
inch to be free4 ,two bolts1 about #h   
inches long1 screwed into the holes that
 the cap-screws are taken from1 answer  
nicely1 as a drop that distance will not
 do any harm1 and the bearing can be    
lowered by hand1 although it weighs     
about #bjj pounds4  ,the lower end of   
the shaft is covered by a removable     
bushing which is easily inspected after 
the guide-bearing has been taken down4  
,if it is necessary to take off this    
bushing it is easily done by screwing   
four #e_/h-;inch bolts1 each about #b   
feet long1 into the tapped holes in the 
lower end of the bushing1 and then      
pulling it off with a jack4 7,see ,fig4 
#g47  ,each pipe that enters the passage

 in the foundation should be connected  
by two unions1 one as close to the      
machine as possible and the other close 
to the foundation4 ,this allows the     
taking down of all piping in the passage
 completely and quickly without         
disturbing either threads or lengths4   
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g   ,studying the
 ,blueprints  ,fig4 #h shows an         
elevation and part-sectional view of a  
#aejj-kilowatt ,curtis steam turbine4   
,if one should go into the exhaust base 
of one of these turbines1 all that could
 be seen would be the under side of the 
lower or fourth-stage wheel1 with a few 
threaded holes for the balancing plugs  
which are sometimes used4 ,the internal 
arrangement is clearly indicated by the 
illustration1 ,fig4 #h4 ,it will be     
noticed that each of the four wheels has
 an upper and a lower row of buckets and
 that there is a set of stationary      
buckets for each wheel between the two  
rows of moving buckets4 ,these          
stationary buckets are called           

intermediates1 and are counterparts of  
the moving buckets4 ,their sole office  
is to redirect the steam which has      
passed through the upper buckets into   
the lower ones at the proper angle4     
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,,elevation   
,,and ,,part-,,sectional ,,view ,,of ,a 
#aejj-,,kilowatt ,,curtis ,,turbine     
,the wheels are kept the proper distance
 apart by the length of hub1 and all are
 held together by the large nut on the  
shaft above the upper wheel4 ,each wheel
 is in a separate chamber formed by the 
diaphragms which rest on ledges on the  
inside of the wheel-case1 their weight  
and steam pressure on the upper side    
holding them firmly in place and making 
a steam-tight joint where they rest4 ,at
 the center1 where the hubs pass through
 them1 there is provided a              
self-centering packing ring 7,fig4 #i71 
which is free to move sidewise1 but is  
prevented from turning1 by suitable     
lugs4 ,this packing is a close running  
fit on the hubs of the wheel and is     

provided with grooves 7plainly shown in 
,fig4 #i7 which break up and diminish   
the leakage of steam around each hub    
from one stage to the next lower4 ,each 
diaphragm1 with the exception of the top
 one1 carries the expanding nozzles for 
the wheel immediately below4            
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i  ,the expanding
 nozzles and moving buckets constantly  
increase in size and number from the top
 toward the bottom4 ,this is because the
 steam volume increases progressively   
from the admission to the exhaust and   
the entire expansion is carried out in  
the separate sets of nozzles1 very much 
as if it were one continuous nozzle2 but
 with this difference1 not all of the   
energy is taken out of the steam in any 
one set of nozzles4 ,the idea is to keep
 the velocity of the steam in each stage
 as nearly constant as possible4 ,the   
nozzles in the diaphragms and the       
intermediates do not1 except in the     
lowest stage1 take up the entire        
circumference1 but are proportioned to  

the progressive expansion of steam as it
 descends toward the condenser4         
,clearance  ,while the machine is       
running it is imperative that there be  
no rubbing contact between the revolving
 and stationary parts1 and this is      
provided for by the clearance between   
the rows of moving buckets and the      
intermediates4 ,into each stage of the  
machine a #b-;inch pipe hole is drilled 
and tapped4 ,sometimes this opening is  
made directly opposite a row of moving  
buckets as in ,fig4 #aj1 and sometimes  
it is made opposite the intermediate4   
,when opposite a row of buckets1 it will
 allow one to see the amount of         
clearance between the buckets and the   
intermediates1 and between the buckets  
and the nozzles4 ,when drilled opposite 
the intermediates1 the clearance is     
shown top and bottom between the buckets
 and intermediates4 7,see ,fig4 #aa47   
,this clearance is not the same in all  
stages1 but is greatest in the fourth   
stage and least in the first4 ,the      

clearances in each stage are nearly as  
follows3 ,first stage1 #j4jfj to #j4jhj2
 second stage1 #j4jhj to #j4ajj2 third  
stage1 #j4jhj to #j4ajj2 fourth stage1  
#j4jhj to #j4bjj4 ,these clearances are 
measured by what are called clearance   
gages1 which are simply taper slips of  
steel about #a_/b-;inch wide accurately 
ground and graduated1 like a jeweler's  
ring gage1 by marks about #a_/b-;inch   
apart2 the difference in thickness of   
the gage is one-thousandth of an inch   
from one mark to the next4              
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj               
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa  ,to determine
 whether the clearance is right1 one of 
the #b-;inch plugs is taken out and some
 marking material1 such as red lead or  
anything that would be used on a surface
 plate or bearing to mark the high spots
 is rubbed on the taper gage1 and it is 
pushed into the gap between the buckets 
and intermediates as far as it will go1 
and then pulled out1 the marking on the 
gage showing just how far in it went1   

and the nearest mark giving in          
thousandths of an inch the clearance4   
,this is noted1 the marking spread      
again1 and the gage tried on the other  
side1 the difference on the gage showing
 whether the wheel is high or low4      
,whichever may be the case the hight is 
corrected by the step-bearing screw4    
,the wheels should be placed as nearly  
in the middle of the clearance space as 
possible4 ,by some operators the        
clearance is adjusted while running1 in 
the following manner3 ,with the machine 
running at full speed the step-bearing  
screw is turned until the wheels are    
felt or heard to rub lightly4 ,the screw
 is marked and then turned in the       
opposite direction until the wheel rubs 
again4 ,another mark is made on the     
screw and it is then turned back midway 
between the two marks4 ,either method is
 safe if practiced by a skilful         
engineer4 ,in measuring the clearance by
 the first method1 the gage should be   
used with care1 as it is possible by    

using too much pressure to swing the    
buckets and get readings which could be 
misleading4 ,to an inexperienced man the
 taper gages would seem preferable4 ,in 
the hands of a man who knows what he is 
doing and how to do it1 a tapered pine  
stick will give as satisfactory results 
as the most elaborate set of hardened   
and ground clearance gages4  ,referring 
back to ,fig4 #aa1 at ,a is shown one of
 the peep-holes opposite the            
intermediate in the third stage wheel   
for the inspection of clearance4 ,the   
taper clearance gage is inserted through
 this hole both above and below the     
intermediate1 and the distance which it 
enters registers the clearance on that  
side4 ,this sketch also shows plainly   
how the shrouding on the buckets and the
 intermediates extends beyond the sharp 
edges of the buckets1 protecting them   
from damage in case of slight rubbing4  
,in a very few cases wheels have been   
known to warp to such an extent from    
causes that were not discovered until   

too late1 that adjustment would not stop
 the rubbing4 ,in such cases the        
shrouding has been turned or faced off  
by a cutting-off tool used through the  
peep-hole4   ,carbon ,packing ,used     
,where the shaft passes through the     
upper head of the wheel-case some       
provision must be made to prevent steam 
from the first stage escaping4 ,this is 
provided for by carbon packing 7,fig4   
#ab71 which consists of blocks of carbon
 in sets in a packing case bolted to the
 top head of the wheel-case4 ,there are 
three sets of these blocks1 and each set
 is made of two rings of three segments 
each4 ,one ring of segments breaks      
joints with its mate in the case1 and   
each set is separated from the others by
 a flange in the case in which it is    
held4 ,in some cases the packing is kept
 from turning by means of a link1 one   
end of which is fastened to the case and
 the other to the packing holder4       
,sometimes light springs are used to    
hold the packing against the shaft and  

in some the pressure of steam in the    
case does this4 ,there is a pipe1 also  
shown in ,fig4 #ab1 leading from the    
main line to the packing case1 the      
pressure in the pipe being reduced4 ,the
 space between the two upper sets of    
rings is drained to the third stage by  
means of a three-way cock1 which keeps  
the balance between the atmosphere and  
packing-case pressure4 ,the carbon rings
 are fitted to the shaft with a slight  
clearance to start with1 and very soon  
get a smooth finish1 which is not only  
practically steam-tight but             
frictionless4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab
  ,the carbon ring shown in ,fig4 #ab is
 the older design4 ,the segments are    
held against the flat bearing surface of
 the case by spiral springs set in brass
 ferrules4 ,the circle is held together 
by a bronze strap screwed and drawn     
together at the ends by springs4 ,still 
other springs press the straps against  
the surface upon which the carbon bears1
 cutting off leaks through joints and   

across horizontal surfaces of the       
carbon4 ,the whole ring is prevented    
from turning by a connecting-rod which  
engages a pin in the hole1 like those   
provided for the springs4               
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac               
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad               
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae               
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af   ,the        
,safety-stop  ,there are several designs
 of safety-stop or speed-limit devices  
used with these turbines1 the simplest  
being of the ring type shown in ,fig4   
#ac4 ,this consists of a flat ring      
placed around the shaft between the     
turbine and generator4 ,the ring-type   
emergencies are now all adjusted so that
 they normally run concentric with the  
shaft1 but weighted so that the center  
of gravity is slightly displaced from   
the center4 ,the centrifugal strain due 
to this is balanced by helical springs4 
,but when the speed increases the       
centrifugal force moves the ring into an
 eccentric position1 when it strikes a  

trigger and releases a weight which1    
falling1 closes the throttle and shuts  
off the steam supply4 ,the basic        
principle upon which all these stops are
 designed is the same--the centrifugal  
force of a weight balanced by a spring  
at normal speed4 ,figs4 #ad1 #ae1 and   
#af show three other types4   ,the      
,mechanical ,valve-,gear  ,fig4 #ag     
shows plainly the operation of the      
mechanical valve-gear4 ,the valves are  
located in the steam chests1 which are  
bolted to the top of the casing directly
 over the first sets of expansion       
nozzles4 ,the chests1 two in number1 are
 on opposite sides of the machine4 ,the 
valve-stems extend upward through       
ordinary stuffing-boxes1 and are        
attached to the notched cross-heads by  
means of a threaded end which is        
prevented from screwing in or out by a  
compression nut on the lower end of the 
cross-head4 ,each cross-head is actuated
 by a pair of reciprocating pawls1 or   
dogs 7shown more plainly in the enlarged

 view1 ,fig4 #ah71 one of which opens   
the valve and the other closes it4 ,the 
several pairs of pawls are hung on a    
common shaft which receives a rocking   
motion from a crank driven from a worm  
and worm-wheel by the turbine shaft4    
,the cross-heads have notches milled in 
the side in which the pawls engage to   
open or close the valve1 this engagement
 being determined by what are called    
shield-plates1 ,a 7,fig4 #ah71 which are
 controlled by the governor4 ,these     
plates are set1 one a little ahead of   
the other1 to obtain successive opening 
or closing of the valves4 ,when more    
steam is required the shield plate      
allows the proper pawl to fall into its 
notch in the cross-head and lift the    
valve from its seat4 ,if less steam is  
wanted the shield-plate rises and allows
 the lower pawl to close the valve on   
the down stroke4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 
#ag  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah  ,the    
valves1 as can easily be seen1 are very 
simple affairs1 the steam pressure in   

the steam chest holding the valve either
 open or shut until it is moved by the  
pawl on the rock-shaft4 ,the amount of  
travel on the rock-shaft is fixed by the
 design1 but the proportionate travel   
above and below the horizontal is       
controlled by the length of the         
connecting-rods from the crank to the   
rock-shaft4 ,there are besides the      
mechanical valve-gear the electric and  
hydraulic1 but these will be left for a 
future article4   ,the ,governor  ,the  
speed of the machine is controlled by   
the automatic opening and closing of the
 admission valves under the control of a
 governor 7,fig4 #ai71 of the           
spring-weighted type attached directly  
to the top end of the turbine shaft4    
,the action of the governor depends on  
the balance of force exerted by the     
spring1 and the centrifugal effort of   
the rectangular-shaped weights at the   
lower end2 the moving weights acting    
through the knife-edge suspension tend  
to pull down the lever against the      

resistance of the heavy helical spring4 
,the governor is provided with an       
auxiliary spring on the outside of the  
governor dome for varying the speed     
while synchronizing4 ,the tension of the
 auxiliary spring is regulated by a     
small motor wired to the switchboard4   
,this spring should be used only to     
correct slight changes in speed4 ,any   
marked change should be corrected by the
 use of the large hexagonal nut in the  
upper plate of the governor frame4 ,this
 nut is screwed down to increase the    
speed1 and upward to decrease it4       
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai   ,the ,stage 
,valves  ,fig4 #bj represents one of the
 several designs of stage valve1        
sometimes called the overload valve1 the
 office of which is to prevent too high 
pressure in the first stage in case of a
 sudden overload1 and to transfer a part
 of the steam to a special set of       
expanding nozzles over the second-stage 
wheel4 ,this valve is balanced by a     
spring of adjustable tension1 and is1 or

 can be1 set to open and close within a 
very small predetermined range of       
first-stage pressure4 ,the valve is     
intended to open and close instantly1   
and to supply or cut off steam from the 
second stage1 without affecting the     
speed regulation or economy of          
operation4 ,if any leaking occurs past  
the valve it is taken care of by a      
drip-pipe to the third stage4           
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj  ,the steam   
which passes through the automatic stage
 valves and is admitted to the extra set
 of nozzles above the second-stage wheel
 acts upon this wheel just the same as  
the steam which passes through the      
regular second-stage nozzles2 i4e41 all 
the steam which goes through the machine
 tends to hasten its speed1 or1 more    
accurately1 does work and maintains the 
speed of the machine4     ,,ii4         
,,setting ,,the ,,valves ,,of ,,the     
,,curtis ,,turbine#b  #b ,contributed to
 ,power by ,f4 ,l4 ,johnson4   ,under   
some conditions of service the stage    

valve in the ,curtis turbine will not do
 what it is designed to do4 ,it is      
usually attached to the machine in such 
manner that it will operate with1 or a  
little behind1 in the matter of time1   
the sixth valve4 ,the machine is        
intended to carry full load with only   
the first bank of five valves in        
operation1 with proper steam pressure   
and vacuum4 ,if the steam pressure is   
under #aej pounds1 or the vacuum is less
 than #bh inches1 the sixth valve may   
operate at or near full load1 and also  
open the stage valve and allow steam to 
pass to the second-stage nozzles at a   
much higher rate of speed than the steam
 which has already done some work in the
 first-stage wheel4 ,the tendency is to 
accelerate unduly the speed of the      
machine4 ,this is corrected by the      
governor1 but the correction is usually 
carried too far and the machine slows   
down4 ,with the stage valve in          
operation1 at a critical point the      
regulation is uncertain and irregular1  

and its use has to be abandoned4 ,the   
excess first-stage pressure will then be
 taken care of by the relief valve1     
which is an ordinary spring safety valve
 7not pop7 which allows the steam to    
blow into the atmosphere4  ,the         
mechanical valve-gear does not often get
 out of order1 but sometimes the        
unexpected happens4 ,the shop man may   
not have properly set up the nuts on the
 valve-stems2 or may have fitted the    
distance bushings between the shield    
plates too closely2 the superheat of the
 steam may distort the steam chest      
slightly and produce friction that will 
interfere with the regulation4 ,if any  
of the valve-stems should become loose  
in the cross-heads they may screw       
themselves either in or out4 ,if screwed
 out too far1 the valve-stem becomes too
 long and the pawl in descending will1  
after the valve is seated1 continue     
downward until it has broken something4 
,if screwed in1 the cross-head will be  
too low for the upper pawl to engage and

 the valve will not be opened4 ,this    
second condition is not dangerous1 but  
should be corrected4 ,the valve-stems   
should be made the right length1 and all
 check-nuts set up firmly4 ,if for any  
purpose it becomes necessary to set the 
valves on a #aejj-kilowatt mechanical   
gear1 the operator should proceed in the
 following manner4   ,setting the       
,valves of a #aejj-,kilowatt ,curtis    
,turbine  ,we will consider what is     
known as the mechanical valve-gear1 with
 two sets of valves1 one set of five    
valves being located on each side of the
 machine4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba    
,in setting the valves we should first  
throw out all pawls to avoid breakage in
 case the rods are not already of proper
 length1 holding the pawls out by       
slipping the ends of the pawl springs   
over the points of the pawls1 as seen in
 ,fig4 #ba4 ,then turn the machine      
slowly by hand until the pawls on one   
set of valves are at their highest point
 of travel1 then with the valves wide   

open adjust the drive-rods1 i4e41 the   
rods extending from the crank to the    
rock-shaft1 so that there is #a_/cb of  
an inch clearance 7shown dotted in ,fig4
 #ag1 ,chap4 ,i7 at the point of opening
 of the pawls when they are in4 7,see   
,fig4 #bb47 ,then set up the check-nuts 
on the drive-rod4 ,turn the machine     
slowly1 until the pawls are at their    
lowest point of travel4 ,then1 with the 
valves closed1 adjust each valve-stem to
 give #a_/cb of an inch clearance at the
 point of closing of the pawls when they
 are in1 securely locking the check-nut 
as each valve is set4 ,repeat this      
operation on the other side of the      
machine and we are ready to adjust the  
governor-rods4 7,valves cannot be set on
 both sides of the machine at the same  
time1 as the pawls will not be in the   
same relative position1 due to the      
angularity of the drive-rods47          
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb  ,next1 with  
the turbine running1 and the            
synchronizing spring in mid-position1   

adjust the governor-rods so that the    
turbine will run at the normal speed of 
#ijj revolutions per minute when working
 on the fifth valve1 and carrying full  
load4 ,the governor-rods for the other  
side of the turbine 7controlling valves 
,nos4 #f to #aj7 should be so adjusted  
that the speed change between the fifth 
and sixth valves will not be more than  
three or four revolutions per minute4   
,the valves of these turbines are all   
set during the shop test and the rods   
trammed with an #h-;inch tram4          
,governors are adjusted for a speed     
range of #b per cent4 between no load   
and full load 7#aejj kilowatt71 or #d   
per cent4 between the mean speeds of the
 first and tenth valves 7no load to full
 overload capacity74  ,the rods which   
connect the governor with the valve-gear
 have ordinary brass ends or heads and  
are adjusted by right-and-left threads  
and secured by lock-nuts4 ,they are free
 fits on the pins which pass through the
 heads1 and no friction is likely to    

occur which will interfere with the     
regulation1 but too close work on the   
shield-plate bushings1 or a slight      
warping of the steam chest1 will often  
produce friction which will seriously   
impair the regulation4 ,if it is noticed
 that the shield-plate shaft has any    
tendency to oscillate in unison with the
 rock-shaft which carries the pawls1 it 
is a sure indication that the           
shield-plates are not as free as they   
should be1 and should be attended to4   
,the governor-rod should be             
disconnected1 the pawls thrown out and  
the pawl strings hooked over the ends4  
,the plates should then be rocked up and
 down by hand and the friction at       
different points noted4 ,the horizontal 
rod at the back of the valve-gear may be
 loosened and the amount of end play of 
each individual shield-plate noticed and
 compared with the bushings on the      
horizontal rod at the back which binds  
the shield-plates together4 ,if the     
plates separately are found to be       

perfectly free they may be each one     
pushed hard over to the right or left   
and wedged2 then each bushing tried in  
the space between the tail-pieces of the
 plates4 ,it will probably be found that
 the bushings are not of the right      
length1 due to the alteration of the    
form of the steam chest by heat4 ,it    
will generally be found also that the   
bushings are too short1 and that the    
length can be corrected by very thin    
washers of sheet metal4 ,it has been    
found in some instances that the thin   
bands coming with sectional pipe        
covering were of the right thickness4   
,after the length of the bushings is    
corrected the shield-plates may be      
assembled1 made fast and tested by      
rocking them up and down1 searching for 
signs of sticking4 ,if none occurs1 the 
work has been correctly done1 and there 
will be no trouble from poor regulation 
due to friction of the shield-plates4   
,the ,baffler  ,the water which goes to 
the step-bearing passes through a       

baffler1 the latest type of which is    
shown by ,fig4 #bc4 ,it is a device for 
restricting the flow of water or oil to 
the step- and guide-bearing4 ,the amount
 of water necessary to float the machine
 and lubricate the guide-bearing having 
been determined by calculation and      
experiment1 the plug is set at that     
point which will give the desired flow4 
,the plug is a square-threaded worm1 the
 length of which and the distance which 
it enters the barrel of the baffler     
determining the amount of flow4 ,the    
greater the number of turns which the   
water must pass through in the worm the 
less will flow against the              
step-pressure4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4   
#bc  ,the engineers who have settled    
upon the flow and the pressure decided  
that a flow of from #d-a_/b to #e-a_/b  
gallons per minute and a step-pressure  
of from #dbe to #dej pounds is correct4 
,these factors are so dependent upon    
each other and upon the conditions of   
the step-bearing itself that they are   

sometimes difficult to realize in       
every-day work2 nor is it necessary4 ,if
 the machine turns freely with a lower  
pressure than that prescribed by the    
engineers1 there is no reason for       
raising this pressure2 and there is only
 one way of doing it without reducing   
the area of the step-bearing1 and that  
is by obstructing the flow of water in  
the step-bearing itself4  ,a very common
 method used is that of grinding4 ,the  
machine is run at about one-third speed 
and the step-water shut off for #ae or  
#bj seconds4 ,this causes grooves and   
ridges on the faces of the step-bearing 
blocks1 due to their grinding on each   
other1 which obstruct the flow of water 
between the faces and thus raises the   
pressure4 ,it seems a brutal way of     
getting a scientific result1 if the     
result desired can be called scientific4
 ,the grooving and cutting of the       
step-blocks will not do any harm1 and in
 fact they will aid in keeping the      
revolving parts of the machine turning  

about its mechanical center4  ,the      
operating engineer will be very slow to 
see the utility of the baffler1 and when
 he learns1 as he will sometime1 that   
the turbine will operate equally well   
with a plug out as with it in the       
baffler1 he will be inclined to remove  
the baffler4 ,it is true that with one  
machine operating on its own pump it is 
possible to run without the baffler1 and
 it is also possible that in some       
particular case two machines having     
identical step-bearing pressures might  
be so operated4 ,the baffler1 however1  
serves a very important function1 as    
described more fully as follows3 ,it    
tends to steady the flow from the pump1 
to maintain a constant oil film as the  
pressure varies with the load1 and when 
several machines are operating on the   
same step-bearing system it is the only 
means which fixes the flow to the       
different machines and prevents one     
machine from robbing the others4        
,therefore1 even if an engineer felt    

inclined to remove the baffler he would 
be most liable to regret taking such a  
step4  ,if the water supply should fail 
from any cause and the step-bearing     
blocks rub together1 no great amount of 
damage will result4 ,the machine will   
stop if operated long under these       
conditions1 for if steam pressure is    
maintained the machine will continue in 
operation until the buckets come into   
contact1 and if the step-blocks are not 
welded together the machine may be      
started as soon as the water is         
obtained4 ,if vibration occurs it will  
probably be due to the rough treatment  
of the step-blocks1 and may be cured by 
homeopathic repeat-doses of grinding1   
say about #ae seconds each4 ,if the     
step-blocks are welded a new pair should
 be substituted and the damaged ones    
refaced4  ,some few experimental steps  
of spherical form1 called saucer steps1 
have been installed with success 7see   
,fig4 #bd74 ,they seem to aid the lower 
guide-bearing in keeping the machine    

rotating about the mechanical center and
 reduce the wear on the guide-bearing4  
,in some instances1 too1 cast-iron      
bushings have been substituted for      
bronze1 with marked success4 ,there     
seems to be much less wear between      
cast-iron and babbitt metal than between
 bronze and babbitt metal4 ,the matter  
is really worth a thorough              
investigation4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4   
#bd     ,,iii4 ,,allis-,,chalmers       
,,company ,,steam ,,turbine   ,in ,fig4 
#be may be seen the interior            
construction of the steam turbine built 
by ,allis-,chalmers ,co41 of ,milwaukee1
 ,wis41 which is1 in general1 the same  
as the well-known ,parsons type4 ,this  
is a plan view showing the rotor resting
 in position in the lower half of its   
casing4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be      
,fig4 #bf is a longitudinal             
cross-section cut of rotor and both     
lower and upper casing4 ,referring to   
,fig4 #bf the steam comes in from the   
steam-pipe at ,c and passes through the 

main throttle or regulating valve ,d1   
which is a balanced valve operated by   
the governor4 ,steam enters the cylinder
 through the passage ,e4  ,turning in   
the direction of the bearing ,a1 it     
passes through alternate stationary and 
revolving rows of blades1 finally       
emerging at ,f and going out by way of  
,g to the condenser or to atmosphere4   
,h1 ,j1 and ,k represent three stages of
 blading4 ,l1 ,m1 and ,z are the balance
 pistons which counterbalance the thrust
 on the stages ,h1 ,j1 and ,k4 ,o and ,q
 are equalizing pipes1 and for the      
low-pressure balance piston similar     
provision is made by means of passages  
7not shown7 through the body of the     
spindle4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf  ,r 
indicates a small adjustable collar     
placed inside the housing of the main   
bearing ,b to hold the spindle in a     
position where there will be such a     
clearance between the rings of the      
balance pistons and those of the        
cylinder as to reduce the leakage of    

steam to a minimum and at the same time 
prevent actual contact under varying    
temperature4  ,at ,s and ,t are glands  
which provide a water seal against the  
inleakage of air and the outleakage of  
steam4 ,u represents the flexible       
coupling to the generator4 ,v is the    
overload or by-pass valve used for      
admitting steam to intermediate stage of
 the turbine4 ,w is the supplementary   
cylinder to contain the low-pressure    
balance piston4 ,x and ,y are reference 
letters used in text of this chapter to 
refer to equalizing of steam pressure on
 the low-pressure stage of the turbine4 
,the first point to study in this       
construction is the arrangement of      
dummies ,l1 ,m1 and ,z4 ,these dummy    
rings serve as baffles to prevent steam 
leakage past the pistons1 and their     
contact at high velocity means not only 
their own destruction1 but also damage  
to or the wrecking of surrounding parts4
 ,a simple but effective method of      
eliminating this difficulty is found in 

the arrangement illustrated in this     
figure4 ,the two smaller balance        
pistons1 ,l and ,m1 are allowed to      
remain on the high-pressure end2 but the
 largest piston1 ,z1 is placed upon the 
low-pressure end of the rotor           
immediately behind the last ring of     
blades1 and working inside of the       
supplementary cylinder ,w4 ,being backed
 up by the body of the spindle1 there is
 ample stiffness to prevent warping4    
,this balance piston1 which may also be 
plainly seen in ,fig4 #be1 receives its 
steam pressure from the same point as   
the piston ,m1 but the steam pressure1  
equalized with that on the third stage  
of the blading1 ,x1 is through holes in 
the webs of the blade-carrying rings4   
,entrance to these holes is through the 
small annular opening in the rotor1     
visible in ,fig4 #be between the second 
and third barrels4 ,as1 in consequence  
of varying temperatures1 there is an    
appreciable difference in the endwise   
expansion of the spindle and cylinder1  

the baffling rings in the low-pressure  
balance piston are so made as to allow  
for this difference4 ,the high-pressure 
end of the spindle being held by the    
collar bearing1 the difference in       
expansion manifests itself at the       
low-pressure end4 ,the labyrinth packing
 of the high-pressure and intermediate  
pistons has a small axial and large     
radial clearance1 whereas the labyrinth 
packing of the piston ,z has1 vice      
versa1 a small radial and large axial   
clearance4 ,elimination of causes of    
trouble with the low-pressure balance   
piston not only makes it possible to    
reduce the diameter of the cylinder1 and
 prevent distortion1 but enables the    
entire spindle to be run with           
sufficiently small clearance to obviate 
any excessive leakage of steam4         
,detail of ,blade ,construction  ,in    
this construction the blades are cut    
from drawn stock1 so that at its root it
 is of angular dovetail shape1 while at 
its tip there is a projection4 ,to hold 

the roots of the blades firmly1 a       
foundation ring is provided1 as shown at
 ,a in ,fig4 #bg4 ,this foundation ring 
is first formed to a circle of the      
proper diameter1 and then slots are cut 
in it4 ,these slots are accurately      
spaced and inclined to give the right   
pitch and angle to the blades 7,fig4    
#bh71 and are of dovetail shape to      
receive the roots of the blades4 ,the   
tips of the blades are substantially    
bound together and protected by means of
 a channel-shaped shroud ring1          
illustrated in ,fig4 #ca and at ,b in   
,fig4 #bg4 ,fig4 #ca shows the cylinder 
blading separate1 and ,fig4 #bg shows   
both with the shrouding4 ,in these1     
holes are punched to receive the        
projections on the tips of the blades1  
which are rivetted over pneumatically4  
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg  ,the         
foundation rings themselves are of      
dovetail shape in cross-section1 and1   
after receiving the roots of the blades1
 are inserted in dovetailed grooves in  

the cylinder and rotor1 where they are  
firmly held in place by keypieces1 as   
may be seen at ,c in ,fig4 #bg4 ,each   
keypiece1 when driven in place1 is upset
 into an undercut groove1 indicated by  
,d in ,fig4 #bg1 thereby positively     
locking the whole structure together4   
,each separate blade is firmly secured  
by the dovetail shape of the root1 which
 is held between the corresponding      
dovetailed slot in the foundation ring  
and the undercut side of the groove4    
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh  ,fig4 #bi1   
from a photograph of blading fitted in a
 turbine1 illustrates the construction1 
besides showing the uniform spacing and 
angles of the blades4  ,illustration3   
,,fig4 #bi  ,the obviously thin flanges 
of the shroud rings are purposely made  
in that way1 so that1 in case of        
accidental contact between revolving and
 stationary parts1 they will wear away  
enough to prevent the blades from being 
ripped out4 ,this protection1 however1  
is such that to rip them out a whole    

half ring of blades must be sheared off 
at the roots4 ,the strength of the      
blading1 therefore1 depends not upon the
 strength of an individual blade1 but   
upon the combined shearing strength of  
an entire ring of blades4               
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj  ,the blading 
is made up and inserted in half rings1  
and ,fig4 #cj shows two rings of        
different sizes ready to be put in      
place4 ,fig4 #ca shows a number of rows 
of blading inserted in the cylinder of  
an ,allis-,chalmers steam turbine1 and  
,fig4 #cb gives view of blading in the  
same turbine after nearly three years'  
running4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca     
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb   ,the        
,governor  ,next in importance to the   
difference in blading and balance piston
 construction1 is the governing         
mechanism used with these machines4     
,this follows the well-known ,hartung   
type1 which has been brought into       
prominence1 heretofore largely in       
connection with hydraulic turbines2 and 

the governor1 driven directly from the  
turbine shaft by means of cut gears     
working in an oil bath1 is required to  
operate the small1 balanced oil         
relay-valve only1 while the two steam   
valves1 main and by-pass 7or overload71 
are controlled by an oil pressure of    
about #bj pounds per square inch1 acting
 upon a piston of suitable size4 ,in    
view of the fact that a turbine by-pass 
valve opens only when the unit is       
required to develop overload1 or the    
vacuum fails1 a good feature of this    
governing mechanism is that the valve   
referred to can be kept constantly in   
motion1 thereby preventing sticking in  
an emergency1 even though it be actually
 called into action only at long        
intervals4 ,another feature of          
importance is that the oil supply to the
 bearings1 as well as that to the       
governor1 can be interconnected so that 
the governor will automatically shut off
 the steam if the oil supply fails and  
endangers the bearings4 ,this mechanism 

is also so proportioned that1 while     
responding quickly to variations in     
load1 its sensitiveness is kept within  
such bounds as to secure the best       
results in the parallel operation of    
alternators4 ,the governor can be       
adjusted for speed while the turbine is 
in operation1 thereby facilitating the  
synchronizing of alternators and        
dividing the load as may be desired4    
,in order to provide for any possible   
accidental derangement of the main      
governing mechanism1 an entirely        
separate safety or over-speed governor  
is furnished4 ,this governor is driven  
directly by the turbine shaft without   
the intervention of gearing1 and is so  
arranged and adjusted that1 if the      
turbine should reach a predetermined    
speed above that for which the main     
governor is set1 the safety governor    
will come into action and trip a valve  
which entirely shuts off the steam      
supply1 bringing the turbine to a stop4 
,lubrication  ,lubrication of the four  

bearings1 which are of the              
self-adjusting1 ball and socket pattern1
 is effected by supplying an abundance  
of oil to the middle of each bearing and
 allowing it to flow out at the ends4   
,the oil is passed through a tubular    
cooler1 having water circulation1 and   
pumped back to the bearings4 ,fig4 #cc  
shows the entire arrangement graphically
 and much more clearly than can be      
explained in words4 ,the oil is         
circulated by a pump directly operated  
from the turbine1 except where the      
power-house is provided with a central  
oiling system4 ,particular stress is    
laid by the builders upon the fact that 
it is not necessary to supply the       
bearings with oil under pressure1 but   
only at a head sufficient to enable it  
to run to and through the bearings2 this
 head never exceeding a few feet4 ,with 
each turbine is installed a separate    
direct-acting steam pump for circulating
 oil for starting up4 ,this will be     
referred to again under the head of     

operating4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc   
,generator  ,the turbo-generator1 which 
constitutes the electrical end of this  
unit1 is totally enclosed to provide for
 noiseless operation1 and forced        
ventilation is secured by means of a    
small fan carried by the shaft on each  
end of the rotor4 ,the air is taken in  
at the ends of the generator1 passes    
through the fans and is discharged over 
the end connections of the armature     
coils into the bottom of the machine1   
whence it passes through the ventilating
 ducts of the core to an opening at the 
top4 ,the field core is1 according to   
size1 built up either of steel disks1   
each in one piece1 or of steel forgings1
 so as to give high magnetic            
permeability and great strength4 ,the   
coils are placed in radial slots1       
thereby avoiding side pressure on the   
slot insulation and the complex stresses
 resulting from centrifugal force1      
which1 in these rotors1 acts normal to  
the flat surface of the strip windings4 

,operation  ,as practically no          
adjustments are necessary when these    
units are in operation1 the greater part
 of the attention required by them is   
involved in starting up and shutting    
down1 which may be described in detail  
as follows3   ,to ,start ,up  ,first1   
the auxiliary oil pump is set going1 and
 this is speeded up until the oil       
pressure shows a hight sufficient to    
lift the inlet valve and oil is flowing 
steadily at the vents on all bearings4  
,the oil pressure then shows about #bj  
to #be pounds on the ,relay ,oil gage1  
and #b to #d pounds on the ,bearing ,oil
 gage4 ,next the throttle is opened1    
without admitting sufficient steam to   
the turbine to cause the spindle to     
turn1 and it is seen that the steam     
exhausts freely into the atmosphere1    
also that the high-pressure end of the  
turbine expands freely in its guides4   
,water having been allowed to blow out  
through the steam-chest drains1 the     
drains are closed and steam is permitted

 to continue flowing through the turbine
 not less than a half an hour 7unless   
the turbine is warm to start with1 when 
this period may be reduced7 still       
without turning the spindle4 ,after this
 it is advisable to shut off steam and  
let the turbine stand ten minutes1 so as
 to warm thoroughly1 during which time  
the governor parts may be oiled and any 
air which may have accumulated in the   
oil cylinder above the inlet valve blown
 off4 ,then the throttle should be      
opened sufficiently to start the turbine
 spindle to revolving very slowly and   
the machine allowed to run in this way  
for five minutes4  ,successive          
operations may be mentioned briefly as  
admitting water to the oil cooler2      
bringing the turbine up to speed1 at the
 same time slowing down the auxiliary   
oil pump and watching that the oil      
pressures are kept up by the rotary oil 
pump on the turbine2 turning the water  
on to the glands very gradually and1    
before putting on vacuum1 making sure   

that there is just enough water to seal 
these glands properly2 and starting the 
vacuum gradually just before putting on 
the load4 ,these conditions having been 
complied with1 the operator next turns  
his attention to the generator1 putting 
on the field current1 synchronizing     
carefully and building up the load on   
the unit gradually4  ,the principal     
precautions to be observed are not to   
start without warming up properly1 to   
make sure that oil is flowing freely    
through the bearings1 that vacuum is not
 put on until the water glands seal1 and
 to avoid running on vacuum without load
 on the turbine4   ,in ,operation  ,in  
operation all that is necessary is to   
watch the steam pressure at the         
,throttle and ,inlet gages1 to see that 
neither this pressure nor the steam     
temperature varies much2 to keep the    
vacuum constant1 as well as pressures on
 the water glands and those indicated by
 the ,relay ,oil and ,bearing ,oil      
gages2 to take care that the            

temperatures of the oil flowing to and  
from the bearings does not exceed #ace  
degrees ,fahr4 7at which temperature the
 hand can comfortably grasp the copper  
oil-return pipes72 to see that oil flows
 freely at all vents on the bearings1   
and that the governor parts are         
periodically oiled4 ,so far as the      
generator is concerned1 it is only      
essential to follow the practice common 
in all electric power plant operation1  
which need not be reviewed here4        
,stopping the turbine is practically the
 reverse of starting1 the successive    
steps being as follows3 starting the    
auxiliary oil pump1 freeing it of water 
and allowing it to run slowly2 removing 
the load gradually2 breaking the vacuum 
when the load is almost zero1 shutting  
off the condenser injection and taking  
care that the steam exhausts freely into
 the atmosphere2 shutting off the gland 
water when the load and vacuum are off2 
pulling the automatic stop to trip the  
valve and shut off steam and1 as the    

speed of the turbine decreases1 speeding
 up the auxiliary oil pump to maintain  
pressure on the bearings2 then1 when the
 turbine has stopped1 shutting down the 
auxiliary oil pump1 turning off the     
cooling water1 opening the steam chest  
drains and slightly oiling the oil inlet
 valve-stem4 ,during these operations   
the chief particulars to be heeded are3 
not to shut off the steam before        
starting the auxiliary oil pump nor     
before the vacuum is broken1 and not to 
shut off the gland water with vacuum on 
the turbine4 ,the automatic stop should 
also remain unhooked until the turbine  
is about to be started up again4        
,general  ,water used in the glands of  
the turbine must be free from           
scale-forming impurities and should be  
delivered at the turbine under a steady 
pressure of not less than #ae pounds4   
,the pressure in the glands will vary   
from #d to #aj pounds4 ,this water may  
be warm4 ,in the use of water for the   
cooling coils and of oil for the        

lubricating system1 nothing more is     
required than ordinary good sense       
dictates4 ,an absolutely pure mineral   
oil must be supplied1 of a non-foaming  
character1 and it should be kept free   
through filtering from any impurities4  
,the above refers particularly to       
,allis-,chalmers turbines of the type   
ordinarily used for power service4 ,for 
turbines built to be run non-condensing1
 the part relating to vacuum does not1  
of course1 apply4     ,,iv4             
,,westinghouse-,,parsons ,,steam        
,,turbine   ,while the steam turbine is 
simple in design and construction and   
does not require constant tinkering and 
adjustment of valve gears or taking up  
of wear in the running parts1 it is like
 any other piece of fine machinery in   
that it should receive intelligent and  
careful attention from the operator by  
inspection of the working parts that are
 not at all times in plain view4 ,any   
piece of machinery1 no matter how simple
 and durable1 if neglected or abused    

will in time come to grief1 and the     
higher the class of the machine the more
 is this true4  ,any engineer who is    
capable of running and intelligently    
taking care of a reciprocating engine   
can run and take care of a turbine1 but 
if he is to be anything more than a     
starter and stopper1 it is necessary    
that he should know what is inside of   
the casing1 what must be done and       
avoided to prevent derangement1 and to  
keep the machine in continued and       
efficient operation4  ,in the steam     
turbine the steam instead of being      
expanded against a piston is made to    
expand against and to get up velocity in
 itself4 ,the jet of steam is then made 
to impinge against vanes or to react    
against the moving orifice from which it
 issues1 in either of which cases its   
velocity and energy are more or less    
completely abstracted and appropriated  
by the revolving member4 ,the ,parsons  
turbine utilizes a combination of these 
two methods4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd 

,fig4 #cd is a sectional view of the    
standard ,westinghouse-,parsons         
single-flow turbine4 ,a photograph of   
the rotor ,r ,r ,r is reproduced in     
,fig4 #ce1 while in ,fig4 #cf a section 
of the blading is shown upon a larger   
scale4 ,between the rows of the blading 
upon the rotor extend similar rows of   
stationary blades attached to the casing
 or stator4 ,the steam entering at ,a   
7,fig4 #cd71 fills the circular space   
surrounding the rotor and passes first  
through a row of stationary blades1 #a  
7,fig4 #cg71 expanding from the initial 
pressure ,p to the slightly lower       
pressure ,p#a1 and attaining by that    
expansion a velocity with which it is   
directed upon the moving blade #b4 ,in  
passing through this row of blades it is
 further expanded from pressure ,p#a to 
,p#b and helps to push the moving blades
 along by the reaction of the force with
 which it issues therefrom4 ,impinging  
upon the second row of stationary blades
 #c1 the direction of flow is diverted  

so as to make it impinge at a favorable 
angle upon the second row of revolving  
blades #d1 and the action is continued  
until the steam is expanded to the      
pressure of the condenser or of the     
medium into which the turbine finally   
exhausts4 ,as the expansion proceeds1   
the passages are made larger by         
increasing the length of the blades and 
the diameter of the drums upon which    
they are carried in order to accommodate
 the increasing volume4  ,illustration3 
,,fig4 #ce  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf   
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg  ,it is not   
necessary that the blades shall run     
close together1 and the axial clearance1
 that is the space lengthwise of the    
turbine between the revolving and the   
stationary blades1 varies from #a_/h to 
#a_/b inch2 but in order that there may 
not be excessive leakage over the tops  
of the blades1 as shown1 very much      
exaggerated1 in ,fig4 #ch1 the radial   
clearance1 that is1 the clearance       
between the tops of the moving blades   

and the casing1 and between the ends of 
the stationary blades and the shell of  
the rotor1 must be kept down to the     
lowest practical amount1 and varies1    
according to the size of the machine and
 length of blade1 from about #j4jbe to  
#j4abe of an inch4  ,illustration3      
,,fig4 #ch  ,in the passage ,a 7,fig4   
#cd7 exists the initial pressure2 in the
 passage ,b the pressure after the steam
 has passed the first section or        
diameter of the rotor2 in the passage ,c
 after it has passed the second section4
 ,the pressure acting upon the exposed  
faces of the rows of vanes would crowd  
the rotor to the left4 ,they are        
therefore balanced by pistons or dummies
 ,p ,p ,p revolving with the shaft and  
exposing in the annular spaces ,b#a and 
,c#a the same areas as those of the     
blade sections which they are designed  
to balance4 ,the same pressure is       
maintained in ,b#a as in ,b1 and in ,c#a
 as in ,c by connecting them with       
equalizing pipes ,e ,e4 ,the third      

equalizing pipe connects the back or    
right-hand side of the largest dummy    
with the exhaust passage so that the    
same pressure exists upon it as exists  
upon the exhaust end of the rotor4      
,these dummy pistons are shown at the   
near end of the rotor in ,fig4 #ce4     
,they are grooved so as to form a       
labyrinth packing1 the face of the      
casing against which they run being     
grooved and brass strips inserted1 as   
shown in ,fig4 #ci4 ,the dummy pistons  
prevent leakage from ,a1 ,b#a and ,c#a  
to the condenser1 and must1 of course1  
run as closely as practicable to the    
rings in the casing1 the actual         
clearance being from about #j4jje to    
#j4jae of an inch1 again depending on   
the size of the machine4  ,illustration3
 ,,fig4 #ci  ,the axial adjustment is   
controlled by the device shown at ,t in 
,fig4 #cd and on a larger scale in ,fig4
 #dj4 ,the thrust bearing consists of   
two parts1 ,t#a ,t#b4 ,each consists of 
a cast-iron body in which are placed    

brass collars4 ,these collars fit into  
grooves ,c1 turned in the shaft as      
shown4 ,the halves of the block are     
brought into position by means of screws
 ,s#a ,s#b acting on levers ,l#a ,l#b   
and mounted in the bearing pedestal and 
cover4 ,the screws are provided with    
graduated heads which permit the        
respective halves of the thrust bearing 
to be set within one one-thousandth of  
an inch4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj     
,the upper screw ,s#b is set so that    
when the rotor exerts a light pressure  
against it through the thrust block and 
lever the grooves in the balance pistons
 are just unable to come in contact with
 the dummy strips in the cylinder4 ,the 
lower screw ,s#a is then adjusted to    
permit about #j4jjh to #j4jaj of an inch
 freedom for the collar between the     
grooves of the thrust bearing4  ,these  
bearings are carefully adjusted before  
the machine leaves the shop1 and to     
prevent either accidental or            
unauthorized changes of their adjustment

 the adjusting screw heads are locked by
 the method shown in ,fig4 #dj4 ,the    
screw cannot be revolved without sliding
 back the latch ,l#c4 ,to do this the   
pin ,p#d must be withdrawn1 for which   
purpose the bearing cover must be       
removed4  ,in general this adjustment   
should not be changed except when there 
has been some wear of the collars in the
 thrust bearing2 nevertheless1 it is a  
wise precaution to go over the          
adjustment at intervals4 ,the method of 
doing this is as follows3 ,the machine  
should have been in operation for some  
time so as to be well and evenly heated 
and should be run at a reduced speed1   
say #aj per cent4 of the normal1 during 
the actual operation of making the      
adjustment4 ,adjust the upper screw     
which1 if tightened1 would push the     
spindle away from the thrust bearing    
toward the exhaust4 ,find a position for
 this so that when the other screw is   
tightened the balance pistons can just  
be heard to touch1 and so the least     

change of position inward of the upper  
screw will cause the contact to cease4  
,to hear if the balance pistons are     
touching1 a short piece of hardwood     
should be placed against the cylinder   
casing near the balance piston4 ,if the 
ear is applied to the other end of the  
piece of wood the contact of the balance
 pistons can be very easily detected4   
,the lower screw should then be loosened
 and the upper screw advanced from five 
to fifteen one-thousandths1 according to
 the machine1 at which position the     
latter may be considered to be set4 ,the
 lower screw should then be advanced    
until the under half of the thrust      
bearing pushes the rotor against the    
other half of the thrust bearing1 and   
from this position it should be pushed  
back ten or more one-thousandths1 to    
give freedom for the rotor between the  
thrusts1 and locked4 ,a certain amount  
of care should be exercised in setting  
the dummies1 to avoid straining the     
parts and thus obtain a false setting4  

,the object in view is to have the      
grooves of the balance pistons running  
as close as possible to the collars in  
the cylinder1 but without danger of     
their coming in actual contact1 and to  
allow as little freedom as possible in  
the thrust bearing itself1 but enough to
 be sure that it will not heat4 ,the    
turbine rotor itself has scarcely any   
end thrust1 so that all the thrust      
bearing has to do is to maintain the    
above-prescribed adjustment4  ,the      
blades are so gaged that at all loads   
the rotor has a very light but positive 
thrust toward the running face of the   
dummy strips1 thus maintaining the      
proper clearance at the dummies as      
determined by the setting of the proper 
screw adjustment4   ,main ,bearings     
,the bearings which support the rotor   
are shown at ,f ,f in ,fig4 #cd and in  
detail in ,fig4 #da4 ,the bearing proper
 consists of a brass tube ,b with proper
 oil grooves4 ,it has a dowel arm ,l    
which fits into a corresponding recess  

in the bearing cover and which prevents 
the bearing from turning4 ,on this tube 
are three concentric tubes1 ,c ,d ,e1   
each fitting over the other with some   
clearance so that the shaft is free to  
move slightly in any direction4 ,these  
tubes are held in place by the nut ,f1  
and this nut1 in turn1 is held by the   
small set-screw ,g4 ,the bearing with   
the surrounding tubes is placed inside  
of the cast-iron shell ,a1 which rests  
in the bearing pedestal on the block and
 liner ,h4 ,the packing ring ,m prevents
 the leakage of oil past the bearing4   
,oil enters the chamber at one end of   
the bearing at the top and passes       
through the oil grooves1 lubricating the
 journal1 and then out into the         
reservoir under the bearing4 ,the oil   
also fills the clearance between the    
tubes and forms a cushion1 which dampens
 any tendency to vibration4             
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da  ,the         
bearings1 being supported by the blocks 
or pads ,h1 are self-alining4 ,under    

these pads are liners #e1 #aj1 #bj1 and 
#ej thousandths in thickness4 ,by means 
of these liners the rotor may be set in 
its proper running position relative to 
the stator4 ,this operation is quite    
simple4 ,remove the liners from under   
one bearing pad and place them under the
 opposite pad until a blade touch is    
obtained by turning the rotor over by   
hand4 ,after a touch has been obtained  
on the top1 bottom1 and both sides1 the 
total radial blade clearance will be    
known to equal the thickness of the     
liners transferred4 ,the position of the
 rotor is then so adjusted that the     
radial blade clearance is equalized when
 the turbine is at operating            
temperature4  ,on turbines running at   
#ahjj revolutions per minute or under1 a
 split babbitted bearing is used1 as    
shown in ,figs4 #db;a and #db;b4 ,these 
bearings are self-alining and have the  
same liner adjustment as the            
concentric-sleeve bearings just         
described4 ,oil is supplied through a   

hole ,d in the lower liner pad1 and is  
carried to the oil groove ,f through the
 tubes ,e ,e4 ,the oil flows from the   
middle of this bearing to both ends     
instead of from one end to the other1 as
 in the other type4  ,illustration3     
,,fig4 #db;,a  ,illustration3 ,,fig4    
#db;,b   ,packing ,glands  ,where the   
shaft passes through the casing at      
either end it issues from a chamber in  
which there exists a vacuum4 ,it is     
necessary to pack the shaft at these    
points1 therefore1 against the          
atmospheric pressure1 and this is done  
by means of a water-gland packing ,w ,w 
7,fig4 #cd74 ,upon the shaft in ,fig4   
#ce1 just in front of the dummy pistons1
 will be seen a runner of this packing  
gland1 which runner is shown upon a     
larger scale and from a different       
direction in ,fig4 #dc4 ,to get into the
 casing the air would have to enter the 
guard at ,a 7,fig4 #dd71 pass over the  
projecting rings ,b1 the function of    
which is to throw off any water which   

may be creeping along the shaft by      
centrifugal force into the surrounding  
space ,c1 whence it escapes by the drip 
pipe ,d1 hence over the five rings of   
the labyrinth packing ,e and thence over
 the top of the revolving blade wheel1  
it being apparent from ,fig4 #dc that   
there is no way for the air to pass by  
without going up over the top of the    
blades2 but water is admitted to the    
centrally grooved space through the pipe
 shown1 and is revolved with the wheel  
at such velocity that the pressure due  
to centrifugal force exceeds that of the
 atmosphere1 so that it is impossible   
for the air to force the water aside and
 leak in over the tips of the blades1   
while the action of the runner in       
throwing the water out would relieve the
 pressure at the shafts and avoid the   
tendency of the water to leak outward   
through the labyrinth packing either    
into the vacuum or the atmosphere4      
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc               
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd  ,the water   

should come to the glands under a head  
of about #aj feet1 or a pressure of     
about #e pounds1 and be connected in    
such a way that this pressure may be    
uninterruptedly maintained4 ,its        
temperature must be lower than the      
temperature due to the vacuum within the
 turbine1 or it will evaporate readily  
and find its way into the turbine in the
 form of steam4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4  
#de  ,in any case a small amount of the 
steaming water will pass by the gland   
collars into the turbine1 so that if the
 condensed steam is to be returned to   
the boilers the water used in the glands
 must be of such character that it may  
be safely used for feed water4 ,but     
whether the water so used is to be      
returned to the boilers or not it should
 never contain an excessive amount of   
lime or solid matter1 as a certain      
amount of evaporation is continually    
going on in the glands which will result
 in the deposit of scale and require    
frequent taking apart for cleaning4     

,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df  ,when there  
is an ample supply of good1 clean water 
the glands may be packed as in ,fig4    
#de1 the standpipe supplying the        
necessary head and the supply valve     
being opened sufficiently to maintain a 
small stream at the overflow4 ,when     
water is expensive and the overflow must
 be avoided1 a small float may be used  
as in ,fig4 #df1 the ordinary tank used 
by plumbers for closets1 etc41 serving  
the purpose admirably4  ,when the same  
water that is supplied to the glands is 
used for the oil-cooling coils1 which   
will be described in detail later1 the  
coils may be attached to either of the  
above arrangements as shown in ,fig4    
#dg4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg  ,when  
the only available supply of pure water 
is that for the boiler feed1 and the    
condensed steam is pumped directly back 
to the boiler1 as shown in ,fig4 #dh1   
the delivery from the condensed-water   
pumps may be carried to an elevation #aj
 feet above the axis of the glands1     

where a tank should be provided of      
sufficient capacity that the water may  
have time to cool considerably before   
being used4 ,in most of these cases1 if 
so desired1 the oil-cooling water may   
come from the circulating pumps of the  
condenser1 provided there is sufficient 
pressure to produce circulation1 as is  
also shown in ,fig4 #dh4  ,illustration3
 ,,fig4 #dh  ,when the turbine is       
required to exhaust against a back      
pressure of one or two pounds a slightly
 different arrangement of piping must be
 made4 ,the water in this case must be  
allowed to circulate through the glands 
in order to keep the temperature below  
#bab degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,if this is   
not done the water in the glands will   
absorb heat from the main castings of   
the machine and will evaporate4 ,this   
evaporation will make the glands appear 
as though they were leaking badly4 ,in  
reality it is nothing more than the     
water in the glands boiling1 but it is  
nevertheless equally objectionable4     

,this may be overcome by the arrangement
 shown in ,fig4 #di1 where two          
connections and valves are furnished at 
,m and ,n1 which drain away to any      
suitable tank or sewer4 ,these valves   
are open just enough to keep sufficient 
circulation so that there is no         
evaporation going on1 which is evidenced
 by steam coming out as though the      
glands were leaking4 ,these circulating 
valves may be used with any of the      
arrangements above described4           
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di   ,the        
,governor  ,on the right-hand end of the
 main shaft in ,fig4 #cd there will be  
seen a worm gear driving the governor4  
,this is shown on a larger scale at ,a  
7,fig4 #ej74 ,at the left of the worm   
gear is a bevel gear driving the spindle
 ,d of the governor1 and at the right an
 eccentric which gives a vibratory      
motion to the lever ,f4 ,the crank ,c   
upon the end of the shaft operates the  
oil pump4 ,the speed of the turbine is  
controlled by admitting the steam in    

puffs of greater or less duration       
according to the load4 ,the lever ,f1   
having its fulcrum in the collar        
surrounding the shaft1 operates with    
each vibration of the eccentric the     
pilot valve4 ,the valve is explained in 
detail later4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej
  ,this form of governor has been       
superseded by an improved type1 but so  
many have been made that it will be well
 to describe its construction and       
adjustment4 ,the two balls ,w ,w 7,fig4 
#ej7 are mounted on the ends of bell    
cranks ,n1 which rest on knife edges4   
,the other end of the bell cranks carry 
rollers upon which rest a plate ,p1     
which serves as a support for the       
governor spring ,s4 ,they are also      
attached by links to a yoke and sleeve  
,e which acts as a fulcrum for the lever
 ,f4 ,the governor is regulated by means
 of the spring ,s resting on the plate  
,p and compressed by a large nut ,g on  
the upper end of the governor spindle1  
which nut turns on a threaded quill ,j1 

held in place by the nut ,h on the end  
of the governor spindle and is held     
tight by the lock-nut ,k4 ,to change the
 compression of the spring and thereby  
the speed of the turbine the lock-nut   
must first be loosened and the hand-nut 
raised to lower the speed or lowered to 
raise the speed as the case may be4     
,this operation may be accomplished     
while the machine is either running or  
at rest4  ,the plate ,p rests upon ball 
bearings so that by simply bringing     
pressure to bear upon the hand-wheel1   
which is a part of the quill ,j1 the    
spring and lock-nut may be held at rest 
and adjusted while the rest of the      
turbine remains unaffected4 ,another    
lever is mounted upon the yoke ,e on the
 pin shown at ,i1 the other end of which
 is fastened to the piston of a dash-pot
 so as to dampen the governor against   
vibration4 ,under the yoke ,e will be   
noticed a small trigger ,m which is used
 to hold the governor in the full-load  
position when the turbine is at rest4   

,the throwing out of the weights        
elevates the sleeve ,e1 carrying with it
 the collar ,c1 which is spanned by the 
lever ,f upon the shaft ,h4 ,the later  
turbines are provided with an improved  
form of governor operating on the same  
principle1 but embodying several        
important features4 ,first1 the spindle 
sleeve is integral with the governor    
yoke1 and the whole rotates about a     
vertical stationary spindle1 so that two
 motions are encountered--a rotary      
motion and an up and down motion1       
according to the position taken by the  
governor4 ,this spiral motion almost    
entirely eliminates the effect of       
friction of rest1 and thereby enhances  
the sensitiveness of the governor4      
,second1 the governor weights move      
outward on a parallel motion opposed    
directly by spring thrust1 thus         
relieving the fulcrum entirely of spring
 thrust4 ,third1 the lay shaft driving  
the governor oil pump and reciprocator  
is located underneath the main turbine  

shaft1 so that the rotor may be readily 
removed without in the least disturbing 
the governor adjustment4   ,the         
,valve-,gear  ,the valve-gear is shown  
in section in ,fig4 #ea1 the main       
admission being shown at ,v#a at the    
right1 and the secondary ,v#b at the    
left of the steam inlet4 ,the pilot     
valve ,f receives a constant            
reciprocating motion from the eccentric 
upon the layshaft of the turbine through
 the lever ,f 7,fig4 #ej74 ,these       
reciprocations run from #aej to #ahj per
 minute4 ,the space beneath the piston  
,c is in communication with the large   
steam chest1 where exists the initial   
pressure through the port ,a2 the       
admission of steam to the piston ,c     
being controlled by a needle valve ,b4  
,the pilot valve connects the port ,e1  
leading from the space beneath the      
piston to an exhaust port ,i4           
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ea  ,when the    
pilot valve is closed1 the pressures can
 accumulate beneath the piston ,c and   

raise the main admission valve from its 
seat4 ,when the pilot valve opens1 the  
pressure beneath the piston is relieved 
and it is seated by the helical spring  
above4 ,if the fulcrum ,e 7,fig4 #ej7 of
 the lever ,f were fixed the admission  
would be of an equal and fixed duration4
 ,but if the governor raises the fulcrum
 ,e1 the pilot valve ,f 7,fig4 #ea7 will
 be lowered1 changing the relations of  
the openings with the working edges of  
the ports4  ,the seating of the main    
admission valve is cushioned by the     
dashpot1 the piston of which is shown in
 section at ,g 7,fig4 #ea74 ,the valve  
may be opened by hand by means of the   
lever ,k1 to see if it is perfectly     
free4  ,the secondary valve is somewhat 
different in its action4 ,steam is      
admitted to both sides of its actuating 
piston through the needle valves ,m ,m1 
and the chamber from which this steam is
 taken is connected with the under side 
of the main admission valve1 so that no 
steam can reach the actuating piston of 

the secondary valve until it has passed 
through the primary valve4 ,when the    
pilot valve is closed1 the pressures    
equalize above and below the piston ,n  
and the valve remains upon its seat4    
,when the load upon the turbine exceeds 
its rated capacity1 the pilot valve     
moves upward so as to connect the space 
above the piston with the exhaust ,l1   
relieving the pressure upon the upper   
side and allowing the greater pressure  
below to force the valve open1 which    
admits steam to the secondary stage of  
the turbine4  ,it would do no good to   
admit more steam to the first stage1 for
 at the rated capacity that stage is    
taking all the steam for which the blade
 area will afford a passage4 ,the port  
connecting the upper side of the piston 
,n with the exhaust may be permanently  
closed by means of the hand valve ,q1 to
 be found on the side of the secondary  
pilot valve chest1 thus cutting the     
secondary valve entirely out of action4 
,no dashpot is necessary on this valve1 

the compression of the steam in the     
chamber ,w by the fall of the piston    
being sufficient to avoid shock4  ,the  
timing of the secondary valve is        
adjusted by raising or lowering the     
pilot valve by means of the adjustment  
provided4 ,it should open soon enough so
 that there will not be an appreciable  
drop in speed before the valve comes    
into play4 ,the economy of the machine  
will be impaired if the valve is allowed
 to open too soon4   ,safety ,stop      
,governor  ,this device is mounted on   
the governor end of the turbine shaft1  
as shown in ,figs4 #eb and #ec4 ,when   
the speed reaches a predetermined limit1
 the plunger ,a1 having its center of   
gravity slightly displaced from the     
center of rotation of the shaft1 is     
thrown radially outward and strikes the 
lever ,b4 ,it will easily be understood 
that when the plunger starts outward1   
the resistance of spring ,c is rapidly  
overcome1 since the centrifugal force   
increases as the square of the radius1  

or in this case the eccentricity of the 
center of gravity relative to the center
 of rotation4 ,hence1 the lever is      
struck a sharp blow4 ,this releases the 
trip ,e on the outside of the governor  
casing1 and so opens the steam valve ,f1
 which releases steam from beneath the  
actuating piston of a quick-closing     
throttle valve1 located in the steam    
line4 ,thus1 within a period of usually 
less than one second1 the steam is      
entirely shut off from the turbine when 
the speed has exceeded #g or #h per cent
 of the normal4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4  
#eb  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec   ,the   
,oiling ,system  ,mounted on the end of 
the bedplate is the oil pump1 operated  
from the main shaft of the turbine as   
previously stated4 ,this may be of the  
plunger type shown in ,fig4 #ed1 or upon
 the latest turbine1 the rotary type    
shown in ,fig4 #ee4 ,around the bedplate
 are located the oil-cooling coils1 the 
oil strainer1 the oil reservoir and the 
oil pipings to the bearing4             

,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed  ,the oil     
reservoir1 cooler1 and piping are all   
outside the machine and easily          
accessible for cleaning4 ,usually a     
corrugated-steel floor plate covers all 
this apparatus1 so that it will not be  
unsightly and accumulate dirt1          
particularly when the turbine is        
installed1 so that all this apparatus is
 below the floor level2 i4e41 when the  
top of the bedplate comes flush with the
 floor line4 ,in cases where the turbine
 is set higher1 a casing is usually     
built around this material so that it   
can be easily removed1 and forms a      
platform alongside the machine4         
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ee  ,the oil     
cooler1 shown in ,fig4 #ef1 is of the   
counter-current type1 the water entering
 at ,a and leaving at ,b1 oil entering  
at ,c 7opening not shown7 and leaving at
 ,d4 ,the coils are of seamless drawn   
copper1 and attached to the cover by    
coupling the nut4 ,the water manifold ,f
 is divided into compartments by        

transverse ribs1 each compartment       
connecting the inlet of each coil with  
the outlet of the preceding coil1 thus  
placing all coils in series4 ,these     
coils are removable in one piece with   
the coverplate without disturbing the   
rest of the oil piping4  ,illustration3 
,,fig4 #ef   ,blading  ,illustration3   
,,fig4 #eg  ,the blades are drawn from a
 rod consisting of a steel core coated  
with copper so intimately connected with
 the other metal that when the bar is   
drawn to the section required for the   
blading1 the exterior coating drawn with
 the rest of the bar forms a covering of
 uniform thickness as shown in ,fig4    
#eg4 ,the bar after being drawn through 
the correct section is cut into suitable
 lengths punched as at ,a 7,fig4 #eh71  
near the top of the blade1 and has a    
groove shown at ,b 7,fig4 #ei71 near the
 root1 stamped in its concave face1     
while the blade is being cut to length  
and punched4 ,the blades are then set   
into grooves cut into the rotor drum or 

the concave surface of the casing1 and  
spacing or packing pieces ,c 7,fig4 #ei7
 placed between them4 ,these spacing    
pieces are of soft iron and of the form 
which is desired that the passage       
between the blades shall take4 ,the     
groove made upon the inner face of the  
blade is sufficiently near to the root  
to be covered by this spacing piece4    
,when the groove has been filled the    
soft-iron pieces are calked or spread so
 as to hold the blades firmly in place4 
,a wire of comma section1 as shown at ,a
 7,fig4 #ei71 is then strung through the
 punches near the outer ends of the     
blades and upset or turned over as shown
 at the right in ,fig4 #eh4 ,this       
upsetting is done by a tool which shears
 the tail of the comma at the proper    
width between the blades4 ,the bent-down
 portion on either side of the blade    
holds it rigidly in position and the    
portion retained within the width of the
 blade would retain the blade in its    
radial position should it become        

loosened or broken off at the root4     
,this comma lashing1 as it is called1   
takes up a small proportion only of the 
blade length or projection and makes a  
job which is surprisingly stiff and     
rigid1 and yet which yields in case of  
serious disturbance rather than to      
maintain a contact which would result in
 its own fusing or the destruction of   
some more important member4             
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eh               
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ei   ,starting   
,up the ,turbine  ,when starting up the 
turbine for the first time1 or after any
 extended period of idleness1 special   
care must be taken to see that          
everything is in good condition and that
 all parts of the machine are clean and 
free from injury4 ,the oil piping should
 be thoroughly inspected and cleaned out
 if there is any accumulation of dirt4  
,the oil reservoirs must be very        
carefully wiped out and minutely        
examined for the presence of any grit4  
7,avoid using cotton waste for this1 as 

a considerable quantity of lint is      
almost sure to be left behind and this  
will clog up the oil passages in the    
bearings and strainer47  ,the pilot     
valves should be removed from the barrel
 and wiped off1 and the barrels         
themselves cleaned out by pushing a soft
 cloth through them with a piece of     
wood4 ,in no case should any metal be   
used4  ,if the turbine has been in a    
place where there was dirt or where     
there has been much dust blowing around1
 the bearings should be removed from the
 spindle and taken apart and thoroughly 
cleaned4 ,with care this can be done    
without removing the spindle from the   
cylinder1 by taking off the bearing     
covers and very carefully lifting the   
weight of the spindle off the bearings1 
then sliding back the bearings4 ,it is  
best to lift the spindle by means of    
jacks and a rope sling1 as1 if a crane  
is used1 there is great danger of       
lifting the spindle too high and thereby
 straining it or injuring the blades4   

,after all the parts have been carefully
 gone over and cleaned1 the oil for the 
bearing lubrication should be put into  
the reservoirs by pouring it into the   
governor gear case ,g 7,fig4 #cd74      
,enough oil should be put in so that    
when the governor1 gear case1 and all   
the bearing-supply pipes are full1 the  
supply to the oil pump is well covered4 
,special care should be taken so that no
 grit gets into the oil when pouring it 
into the machine4 ,considerable trouble 
may be saved in this respect by pouring 
the oil through cloth4  ,a very careful 
inspection of the steam piping is       
necessary before the turbine is run4 ,if
 possible it should be blown out by     
steam from the boilers before it is     
finally connected to the turbine4       
,considerable annoyance may result by   
neglecting this precaution1 from        
particles of scale1 red lead1 gasket1   
etc41 out of the steam pipe1 closing up 
the passages of the guide blades4  ,when
 starting up1 always begin to revolve   

the spindle without vacuum being on the 
turbine4 ,after the spindle is turning  
slowly1 bring the vacuum up4 ,the reason
 for this is1 that when the turbine is  
standing still1 the glands do not pack  
and air in considerable quantity will   
rush through the glands and down through
 the exhaust pipe4 ,this sometimes has  
the effect of unequal cooling4 ,in case 
the turbine is used in conjunction with 
its own separate condenser1 the         
circulating pump may be started up1 then
 the turbine revolved1 and afterward the
 air pump put in operation2 then1 last1 
put the turbine up to speed4 ,in cases1 
however1 where the turbine exhausts into
 the same condenser with other machinery
 and the condenser is therefore already 
in operation1 the valve between the     
turbine and the condenser system should 
be kept closed until after the turbine  
is revolved1 the turbine in the meantime
 exhausting through the relief valve to 
atmosphere4  ,care must always be taken 
to see that the turbine is properly     

warmed up before being caused to        
revolve1 but in cases where high        
superheat is employed always revolve the
 turbine just as soon as it is          
moderately hot1 and before it has time  
to become exposed to superheat4  ,in the
 case of highly superheated steam1 it is
 not undesirable to provide a connection
 in the steam line by means of which the
 turbine may be started up with         
saturated steam and the superheat       
gradually applied after the shaft has   
been permitted to revolve4  ,for warming
 up1 it is usual practice to set the    
governor on the trigger 7see ,fig4 #ej7 
and open the throttle valve to allow the
 entrance of a small amount of steam4   
,it is always well to let the turbine   
operate at a reduced speed for a time1  
until there is assurance that the       
condenser and auxiliaries are in proper 
working order1 that the oil pump is     
working properly1 and that there is no  
sticking in the governor or the valve   
gear4  ,after the turbine is up to speed

 and on the governor1 it is well to     
count the speed by counting the strokes 
of the pump rod1 as it is possible that 
the adjustment of the governor may have 
become changed while the machine has    
been idle4 ,it is well at this time1    
while there is no load on the turbine1  
to be sure that the governor controls   
the machine with the throttle wide open4
 ,it might be that the main poppet valve
 has sustained some injury not evident  
on inspection1 or was leaking badly4    
,should there be some such defect1 steps
 should be taken to regrind the valve to
 its seat at the first opportunity4  ,on
 the larger machines an auxiliary oil   
pump is always furnished4 ,this should  
be used before starting up1 so as to    
establish the oil circulation before the
 turbine is revolved4 ,after the turbine
 has reached speed1 and the main oil    
pump is found to be working properly1 it
 should be possible to take this pump   
out of service1 and start it again only 
when the turbine is about to be shut    

down4  ,if possible1 the load should be 
thrown on gradually to obviate a sudden1
 heavy demand upon the boiler1 with its 
sometimes attendant priming and rush of 
water into the steam pipe1 which is very
 apt to take place if the load is thrown
 on too suddenly4 ,a slug of water will 
have the effect of slowing down the     
turbine to a considerable extent1       
causing some annoyance4 ,there is not   
likely to be the danger of the damage   
that is almost sure to occur in the     
reciprocating engine1 but at the same   
time it is well to avoid this as much as
 possible4 ,a slug of water is obviously
 more dangerous when superheated steam  
is being employed1 owing to the extreme 
temperature changes possible4   ,running
  ,while the turbine is running1 it     
should have a certain amount of careful 
attention4 ,this1 of course1 does not   
mean that the engineer must stand over  
it every minute of the day1 but he must 
frequently inspect such parts as the    
lubricators1 the oiling system1 the     

water supply to the glands and the      
oil-cooling coil1 the pilot valve1 etc4 
,he must see that the oil is up in the  
reservoir and showing in the gage glass 
provided for that purpose1 and that the 
oil is flowing freely through the       
bearings1 by opening the pet cocks in   
the top of the bearing covers4 ,an ample
 supply of oil should always be in the  
machine to keep the suction in the tank 
covered4  ,care must be taken that the  
pump does not draw too much air4 ,this  
can usually be discovered by the        
bubbling up of the air in the governor  
case1 when more oil should be added4    
,it is well to note from time to time   
the temperature of the bearings1 but no 
alarm need be occasioned because they   
feel warm to the touch2 in fact1 a      
bearing is all right as long as the hand
 can be borne upon it even momentarily4 
,the oil coming from the bearings should
 be preferably about #abj degrees       
,fahrenheit and never exceed #afj       
degrees4  ,it should generally be seen  

that the oil-cooling coil is effective  
in keeping the oil cool4 ,sometimes the 
cooling water deposits mud on the       
cooling surface1 as well as the oil     
depositing a vaseline-like substance1   
which interferes with the cooling       
effect4 ,the bearing may become unduly  
heated because of this1 when the coil   
should be taken out at the first        
opportunity and cleaned on the outside  
and blown out by steam on the inside1 if
 this latter is possible4 ,if this does 
not reduce the temperature1 either the  
oil has been in use too long without    
being filtered1 or the quality of the   
oil is not good4  ,should a bearing give
 trouble1 the first symptom will be     
burning oil which will smoke and give   
off dense white fumes which can be very 
readily seen and smelled4 ,however1     
trouble with the bearings is one of the 
most unlikely things to be encountered1 
and1 if it occurs1 it is due to some    
radical cause1 such as the bearings     
being pinched by their caps1 or grit and

 foreign matter being allowed to get    
into the oil4  ,if a bearing gets hot1  
be assured that there is some very      
radical cause for it which should be    
immediately discovered and removed4     
,never1 under any circumstances1 imagine
 that you can nurse a bearing1 that has 
heated1 into good behavior4 ,turbine    
bearings are either all right or all    
wrong4 ,there are no halfway measures4  
,the oil strainer should also be        
occasionally taken apart and thoroughly 
cleaned1 which operation may be         
performed1 if necessary1 while the      
turbine is in operation4 ,the screens   
should be cleaned by being removed from 
their case and thoroughly blown out with
 steam4 ,in the case of a new machine1  
this may have to be done every two or   
three hours4 ,in course of time1 this   
need only be repeated perhaps once a    
week4 ,the amount of dirt found will be 
an indication of the frequency with     
which this cleaning is necessary4  ,the 
proper water pressure1 about five pounds

 per square inch1 must be maintained at 
the glands4 ,any failure of this will   
mean that there is some big leak in the 
piping1 or that the water is not flowing
 properly4  ,the pilot valve must be    
working freely1 causing but little kick 
on the governor1 and should be          
lubricated from time to time with good  
oil4  ,should it become necessary1 while
 operating1 to shut down the condenser  
and change over to non-condensing       
operation1 particular care should be    
observed that the change is not made too
 suddenly to non-condensing1 as all the 
low-pressure sections of the turbine    
must be raised to a much higher         
temperature4 ,while this may not cause  
an accident1 it is well to avoid the    
stresses which necessarily result from  
the sudden change of temperature4 ,the  
same reasons1 of course1 do not hold    
good in changing from non-condensing to 
condensing4   ,shutting ,down  ,when    
shutting down the turbine the load may  
be taken off before closing the         

throttle2 or1 as in the case of a       
generator operating on an independent   
load1 the throttle may be closed first1 
allowing the load to act as a brake1    
bringing the turbine to rest quickly4   
,in most cases1 however1 the former     
method will have to be used1 as the     
turbine generally will have been        
operating in parallel with one or more  
other generators4 ,when this is the     
case1 partially close the throttle just 
before the load is to be thrown off1 and
 if the turbine is to run without load  
for some time1 shut off the steam almost
 entirely in order to prevent any chance
 of the turbine running away4 ,there is 
no danger of this unless the main valve 
has been damaged by the water when wet  
steam has been used1 or held open by    
some foreign substance1 when1 in either 
case1 there may be sufficient leakage to
 run the turbine above speed1 while     
running light4 ,at the same time1 danger
 is well guarded against by the         
automatic stop valve1 but it is always  

well to avoid a possible danger4 ,as    
soon as the throttle is shut1 stop the  
condenser1 or1 in the case where one    
condenser is used for two or more       
turbines1 close the valve between the   
turbine and the condenser4 ,also open   
the drains from the steam strainer1 etc4
 ,this will considerably reduce the time
 the turbine requires to come to rest4  
,still more time may be saved by leaving
 the field current on the generator4    
,care should be taken1 when the vacuum  
falls and the turbine slows down1 to see
 that the water is shut off from the    
glands for fear it may leak out to such 
an extent as to let the water into the  
bearings and impair the lubricating     
qualities of the oil4   ,inspection  ,at
 regular intervals thorough inspection  
should be made of all parts of the      
turbine4 ,as often as it appears        
necessary from the temperature of the   
oil1 depending on the quality of the oil
 and the use of the turbine1 remove the 
oil-cooling coil and clean it both on   

the inside and outside as previously    
directed2 also clean out the chamber in 
which it is kept4 ,put in a fresh supply
 of oil4 ,this need not necessarily be  
new1 but may be oil that has been in use
 before but has been filtered4 ,we      
recommend that an oil filter be kept for
 this purpose4 ,entirely new oil need   
only be put into the turbine when the   
old oil shows marked deterioration4     
,with a first-class oil this will       
probably be a very infrequent necessity1
 as some new oil has to be put in from  
time to time to make up the losses from 
leakage and waste4  ,clean out the oil  
strainer1 blowing steam through the wire
 gauze to remove any accumulation of    
dirt4 ,every six months to a year take  
off the bearing covers1 remove the      
bearings1 and take them apart and clean 
out thoroughly4 ,even the best oil will 
deposit more or less solid matter upon  
hot surfaces in time1 which will tend to
 prevent the free circulation of the oil
 through the bearings and effectively   

stop the cushioning effect on the       
bearings4 ,take apart the main and      
secondary valves and clean thoroughly1  
seeing that all parts are in good       
working order4 ,clean and inspect the   
governor and the valve-gear1 wiping out 
any accumulation of oil and dirt that   
may appear4 ,be sure to clean out the   
drains from the glands so that any water
 that may pass out of them will run off 
freely and will not get into the        
bearings4  ,at the end of the first     
three months1 and after that about once 
a year1 take off the cylinder cover and 
remove the spindle4 ,when the turbine is
 first started up1 there is very apt to 
be considerable foreign matter come over
 in the steam1 such as balls of red lead
 or small pieces of gasket too small to 
be stopped by the strainer4 ,these get  
into the guide blades in the cylinder   
and quite effectively stop them up4     
,therefore1 the blades should be gone   
over very carefully1 and any such       
additional accumulation removed4        

,examine the glands and equilibrium     
ports for any dirt or broken parts4     
,particularly examine the glands for any
 deposit of scale4 ,all the scale should
 be chipped off the gland parts1 as1    
besides preventing the glands from      
properly packing1 this accumulation will
 cause mechanical contact and perhaps   
cause vibration of the machine due to   
lack of freedom of the parts4 ,the      
amount of scale found after the first   
few inspections will be an indication of
 how frequently the cleaning should be  
done4 ,as is discussed later1 any water 
that is unsuitable for boiler feed      
should not be used in the glands4  ,in  
reassembling the spindle and cover1 very
 great care must be taken that no blades
 are damaged and that nothing gets into 
the blades4 ,nearly all the damage that 
has been done to blades has resulted    
from carelessness in this respect2 in   
fact1 it is impossible to be too        
careful4 ,particular care is also to be 
taken in assembling all the parts and in

 handling them1 as slight injury may    
cause serious trouble4 ,in no case      
should a damaged part be put back until 
the injury has been repaired4  ,if for  
any reason damaged blades cannot be     
repaired at the time1 they can be easily
 removed and the turbine run again      
without them until it is convenient to  
put in new ones2 in fact1 machines have 
been run at full load with only         
three-quarters of the total number of   
blades4 ,in such an event remove the    
corresponding stationary blades as well 
as the moving blades1 so as not to      
disturb the balance of the end thrust4  
,conditions ,conducive to ,successful   
,operation  ,in the operation of the    
turbine and the conditions of the steam1
 both live and exhaust play a very      
important part4 ,it has been found by   
expensive experimenting that moisture in
 the steam has a very decided effect on 
the economy of operation2 or            
considerably more so than in the case of
 the reciprocating engine4 ,in the      

latter engine1 #b per cent4 of moisture 
will mean very close to #b per cent4    
increase in the amount of water supplied
 to the engine for a given power4 ,on   
the other hand1 in the turbine #b per   
cent4 moisture will cause an addition of
 more nearly #d per cent4 ,it is        
therefore readily seen that the drier   
the entering steam1 the better will be  
the appearance of the coal bill4  ,by   
judicious use of first-class separators 
in connection with a suitable draining  
system1 such as the ,holly system which 
returns the moisture separated from the 
steam1 back to the boilers1 a high      
degree of quality may be obtained at the
 turbine with practically no extra      
expense during operation4 ,frequent     
attention should be given the separators
 and traps to insure their proper       
operation4 ,the quality of the steam may
 be determined from time to time by the 
use of a throttling calorimeter4 ,dry   
steam1 to a great extent1 depends upon  
the good and judicious design of steam  

piping4  ,superheated steam is of great 
value where it can be produced          
economically1 as even a slight degree   
insures the benefits to be derived from 
the use of dry steam4 ,the higher       
superheats have been found to increase  
the economy to a considerable extent4   
,when superheat of a high degree 7#ajj  
degrees ,fahrenheit or above7 is used   
special care must be exercised to       
prevent a sudden rise of the superheat  
of any amount4 ,the greatest source of  
trouble in this respect is when a sudden
 demand is made for a large increase in 
the amount of steam used by the engine1 
as when the turbine is started up and   
the superheater has been in operation   
for some time before1 the full load is  
suddenly thrown on4 ,it will be readily 
seen that with the turbine running light
 and the superheater operating1 there is
 a very small amount of steam passing   
through2 in fact1 practically none1 and 
this may become very highly heated in   
the superheater1 but loses nearly all   

its superheat in passing slowly to the  
turbine2 then1 when a sudden demand is  
made1 this very high temperature steam  
is drawn into the turbine4 ,this may    
usually be guarded against where a      
separately fired superheater is used1 by
 keeping the fire low until the load    
comes on1 or1 in the case where the     
superheater is part of the boiler1 by   
either not starting up the superheater  
until after load comes on1 or else      
keeping the superheat down by mixing    
saturated steam with that which has been
 superheated4 ,after the plant has been 
started up there is little danger from  
this source1 but such precautions should
 be taken as seem best in the particular
 cases4  ,taking up the exhaust end of  
the turbine1 we have a much more        
striking departure from the conditions  
familiar in the reciprocating engine4   
,due to the limits imposed upon the     
volume of the cylinder of the engine1   
any increase in the vacuum over #bc or  
#bd inches1 in the case1 for instance1  

of a compound-condensing engine1 has    
very little1 if any1 effect on the      
economy of the engine4 ,with the        
turbine1 on the other hand1 any increase
 of vacuum1 even up to the highest      
limits1 increases the economy to a very 
considerable extent and1 moreover1 the  
higher the vacuum the greater will be   
the increase in the economy for a given 
addition to the vacuum4 ,thus1 raising  
the vacuum from #bg to #bh inches has a 
greater effect than from #bc to #bd     
inches4 ,for this reason the engineer   
will readily perceive the great         
desirability of maintaining the vacuum  
at the highest possible point consistent
 with the satisfactory and economical   
operation of the condenser4  ,the       
exhaust pipe should always be carried   
downward to the condenser when possible1
 to keep the water from backing up from 
the condenser into the turbine4 ,if the 
condenser must be located above the     
turbine1 then the pipe should be carried
 first downward and then upward in the  

,u form1 in the manner of the familiar  
entrainer1 which will be found          
effectively to prevent water getting    
back when the turbine is operating4     
,condensers  ,as has been previously    
pointed out1 the successful and         
satisfactory operation of the turbine   
depends very largely on the condenser4  
,with the reciprocating engine1 if the  
condenser will give #be inches vacuum1  
it is considered fairly good1 and it is 
allowed to run along by itself until the
 vacuum drops to somewhere below #bj    
inches1 when it is completely gone over1
 and in many cases practically rebuilt  
and the vacuum brought back to the      
original #be inches4 ,it has been seen  
that this sort of practice will never do
 in the case of the turbine condenser   
and1 unless the vacuum can be regularly 
maintained at #bg or #bh inches1 the    
condenser is not doing as well as it    
ought to do1 or it is not of the proper 
type1 unless perhaps the temperature and
 the quantity of cooling water available

 render a higher vacuum unattainable4   
,on account of the great purity of the  
condensed steam from the turbine and its
 peculiar availability for boiler feed  
7there being no oil of any kind mixed   
with it to injure the boilers71 the     
surface condenser is very desirable in  
connection with the turbine4 ,it further
 recommends itself by reason of the high
 vacuum obtainable4  ,where a condenser 
system capable of the highest vacuum is 
installed1 the need of utilizing it to  
its utmost capacity can hardly be       
emphasized too strongly4 ,a high vacuum 
will1 of course1 mean special care and  
attention1 and continual vigilance for  
air leaks in the exhaust piping1 which  
will1 however1 be fully paid for by the 
great increase in economy4  ,it must not
 be inferred that a high vacuum is      
essential to successful operation of    
this type of turbine1 for excellent     
performance both in the matter of steam 
consumption and operation is obtained   
with inferior vacuum4 ,the choice of a  

condenser1 however1 is a matter of      
special engineering1 and is hardly      
within the province of this article4    
,oils  ,there are several oils on the   
market that are suitable for the purpose
 of the turbine oiling system1 but great
 care must be exercised in their        
selection4 ,in the first place1 the oil 
must be pure mineral1 unadulterated with
 either animal or vegetable oils1 and   
must have been washed free from acid4   
,certain brands of oil require the use  
of sulphuric acid in their manufacture  
and are very apt to contain varying     
degrees of free acid in the finished    
product4 ,a sample from one lot may have
 almost no acid1 while that from another
 lot may contain a dangerous amount4    
,mineral oils that have been            
adulterated1 when heated up1 will       
partially decompose1 forming acid4      
,these oils may be very good lubricants 
when first put into use1 but after      
awhile they lose all their good         
qualities and become very harmful to the

 machine by eating the journals in which
 they are used4 ,these oils must be very
 carefully avoided in the turbine1 as   
the cheapness of their first cost will  
in no way pay for the damage they may   
do4 ,a very good and simple way to test 
for such adulterations is to take up a  
quantity of the oil in a test tube with 
a solution of borax and water4 ,if there
 is any animal or vegetable adulterant  
present it will appear as a white       
milk-like emulsion which will separate  
out when allowed to stand4 ,the pure    
mineral oil will appear at the top as a 
clear liquid and the excess of the borax
 solution at the bottom1 the emulsion   
being in between4 ,a number of oils also
 contains a considerable amount of      
paraffin which is deposited in the      
oil-cooling coil1 preventing the oil    
from being cooled properly1 and in the  
pipes and bearings1 choking the oil     
passages and preventing the proper      
circulation of the oil and cushioning   
effect in the bearing tubes4 ,this is   

not entirely a prohibitive drawback1 the
 chief objection being that it          
necessitates quite frequently cleaning  
the cooling coil1 and the oil piping and
 bearings4  ,some high-class mineral    
oils of high viscosity are inclined to  
emulsify with water1 which emulsion     
appears as a jelly-like substance4 ,it  
might be added that high-grade oils     
having a high viscosity might not be the
 most suitable for turbine use4  ,since 
the consumption of oil in a turbine is  
so very small1 being practically due    
only to leakage or spilling1 the price  
paid for it should therefore be of      
secondary importance1 the prime         
consideration being its suitability for 
the purpose4  ,in some cases a central  
gravity system will be employed1 instead
 of the oil system furnished with the   
turbine1 which1 of course1 will be a    
special consideration4  ,for large      
installations a central gravity oiling  
system has much to recommend it1 but as 
it performs such an important function  

in the power plant1 and its failure     
would be the cause of so much damage1   
every detail in connection with it      
should be most carefully thought out1   
and designed with a view that under no  
combination of circumstances would it be
 possible for the system to become      
inoperative4 ,one of the great          
advantages of such a system is that it  
can be designed to contain very large   
quantities of oil in the settling tanks2
 thus the oil will have quite a long    
rest between the times of its being used
 in the turbine1 which seems to be very 
helpful in extending the life of the    
oil4 ,where the oil can have a long rest
 for settling1 an inferior grade of oil 
may be used1 providing1 however1 that it
 is absolutely free of acid4     ,v4    
,,proper ,,method ,,of ,,testing ,a     
,,steam ,,turbine#c  #c ,contributed to 
,power by ,thomas ,franklin4   ,the     
condensing arrangements of a turbine are
 perhaps mainly instrumental in         
determining the method of test4 ,the    

condensed steam alone1 issuing from a   
turbine having1 for example1 a          
barometric or jet condenser1 cannot be  
directly measured or weighed1 unless by 
meter1 and these at present are not     
sufficiently accurate to warrant their  
use for test purposes1 if anything more 
than approximate results are desired4   
,the steam consumed can1 in such a case1
 only be arrived at by measuring the    
amount of condensing water 7which       
ultimately mingles with the condensed   
steam71 and subtracting this quantity   
from the condenser's total outflow4     
,consequently1 in the case of turbines  
equipped with barometric or jet         
condensers1 it is often thought         
sufficient to rely upon the measurement 
taken of the boiler feed1 and the       
boiler's initial and final contents4    
,turbines equipped with                 
surface-condensing plants offer better  
facilities for accurate                 
steam-consumption calculations than     
those plants in which the condensed     

exhaust steam and the circulating water 
come into actual contact1 it being      
necessary with this type simply to pump 
the condensed steam into a weighing or  
measuring tank4  ,in the case of a      
single-flow turbine of the ,parsons     
type1 the covers should be taken off and
 every row of blades carefully examined 
for deposits1 mechanical irregularities1
 deflection from the true radial and    
vertical positions1 etc4 ,the blade     
clearances also should be gaged all     
around the circumference1 to insure this
 clearance being an average working     
minimum4 ,on no account should a test be
 proceeded with when any doubt exists as
 to the clearance dimensions4           
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj  ,the dummy   
rings of a turbine1 namely1 those rings 
which prevent excessive leakage past the
 balancing pistons at the high-pressure 
end1 should have especial attention     
before a test4 ,a diagrammatic sketch of
 a turbine cylinder and spindle is shown
 in ,fig4 #fj1 for the benefit of those 

unfamiliar with the subject4 ,in this ,a
 is the cylinder or casing1 ,b the      
spindle or rotor1 and ,c the blades4    
,the balancing pistons1 ,d1 ,e1 and ,f1 
the pressure upon which counterbalances 
the axial thrust upon the three-bladed  
stages1 are grooved1 the brass dummy    
rings ,g ,g in the cylinder being alined
 within a few thousandths of an inch of 
the grooved walls1 as indicated4 ,after 
these rings have been turned 7the       
turning being done after the rings have 
been calked in the cylinder71 it is     
necessary to insure that each ring is   
perfectly bedded to its respective      
grooved wall so that when running the   
several small clearances between the    
groove walls and rings are equal4 ,a    
capital method of thus bedding the dummy
 rings is to grind them down with a     
flour of emery or carborundum1 while the
 turbine spindle is slowly revolving    
under steam4 ,under these conditions the
 operation is performed under a high    
temperature1 and any slight permanent   

warp the rings may take is thus         
accounted for4 ,the turbine             
thrust-block1 which maintains the       
spindle in correct position relatively  
to the spindle1 may also be ground with 
advantage in a similar manner4  ,the    
dummy rings are shown on a large scale  
in ,fig4 #fa1 and their preliminary     
inspection may be made in the following 
manner3  ,the spindle has been set and  
the dummy rings ,c are consequently     
within a few thousandths of an inch of  
the walls d of the spindle dummy grooves
 ,d4 ,the clearances allowed can be     
gaged by a feeler placed between a ring 
and the groove wall4 ,before a test the 
spindle should be turned slowly around1 
the feelers being kept in position4 ,by 
this means any mechanical flaws or      
irregularities in the groove walls may  
be detected4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fa 
,it has sometimes been found that the   
groove walls1 under the combined action 
of superheated steam and friction1 in   
cases where actual running contact has  

occurred1 have worn very considerably1  
the wear taking the form of a rapid     
crumbling away4 ,it is possible1        
however1 that such deterioration may be 
due solely to the quality of the steel  
from which the spindle is forged4 ,good 
low-percentage carbon-annealed steel    
ought to withstand considerable         
friction2 at all events the wear under  
any conditions should be uniform4 ,if   
the surfaces of both rings and grooves  
be found in bad condition1 they should  
be re-ground1 if not sufficiently worn  
to warrant skimming up with a tool4  ,as
 the question of dummy leakage is of    
very considerable importance during a   
test1 it may not be inadvisable to      
describe the manner of setting the      
spindle and cylinder relatively to one  
another to insure minimum leakage1 and  
the methods of noting their conduct     
during a prolonged run4 ,in ,fig4 #fb1  
showing the spindle1 ,b is the thrust   
7made in halves71 the rings ,o of which 
fit into the grooved thrust-rings ,c in 

the spindle4 ,two lugs ,d are cast on   
each half of the thrust-block4 ,the     
inside faces of these lugs are machined1
 and in them fit the ball ends of the   
levers ,e1 the latter being fulcrumed at
 ,f in the thrust-bearing cover4 ,the   
screws ,g1 working in bushes1 also fit  
into the thrust-bearing cover1 and are  
capable of pushing against the ends of  
the levers ,e and thus adjusting the    
separate halves of the block in opposite
 directions4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fb 
,the top half of the turbine cylinder   
having been lifted off1 the spindle is  
set relatively to the bottom half by    
means of the lower thrust-block screw   
,g4 ,this screw is then locked in       
position and the top half of the cover  
then lowered into place4 ,with this     
method great care must necessarily be   
exercised when lowering the top cover2  
otherwise the brass dummy rings may be  
damaged4  ,a safer method is to set the 
dummy rings in the center of the grooves
 of the spindle1 and then to lower the  

cover1 with less possibility of contact4
 ,there being usually plenty of side    
clearance between the blades of a       
turbine1 it may be deemed quite safe to 
lock the thrust-block in its position1  
by screwing the screws ,g up lightly1   
and then to turn on steam and begin     
running slowly4  ,next1 the spindle may 
be very carefully and gradually worked  
in the required direction1 namely1 in   
that direction which will tend to bring 
the dummy rings and groove walls into   
contact1 until actual but very light    
contact takes place4 ,the slightest     
noise made by the rubbing parts inside  
the turbine can be detected by placing  
one end of a metal rod onto the casing  
in vicinity of the dummy pistons1 and   
letting the other end press hard against
 the ear4 ,contact between the dummy    
rings and spindle being thus            
demonstrated1 the spindle must be moved 
back by the screws1 but only by the     
slightest amount possible4 ,the merest  
fraction of a turn is enough to break   

the contact1 which is all that is       
required4 ,in performing this operation 
it is important1 during the axial       
movements of the spindle1 to adjust the 
halves of the thrust-block so that there
 can exist no possible play which would 
leave the spindle free to move axially  
and probably vibrate badly4  ,after     
ascertaining the condition of the dummy 
rings1 attention might next be turned to
 the thrust-block1 which must not on any
 account be tightened up too much4 ,it  
is sufficient to say that the actual    
requirements are such as will enable a  
very thin film of oil to circulate      
between each wall of the spindle        
thrust-grooves and the brass            
thrust-blocks ring4 ,in other words1    
there should be no actual pressure1     
irrespective of that exerted by the     
spindle when running1 upon the          
thrust-block rings1 due to the separate 
halves having been nipped too tightly4  
,the results upon a test of considerable
 friction between the spindle and       

thrust-rings are obvious4  ,the         
considerations outlined regarding       
balancing pistons and dummy rings can be
 dispensed with in connection with      
impulse turbines of the ,de ,laval and  
,rateau types1 and also with double-flow
 turbines of a type which does not      
possess any dummies4 ,the same general  
considerations respecting blade         
conditions and thrust-blocks are        
applicable1 especially to the latter    
type4 ,with pure so-called impulse      
turbines1 where the blade clearances are
 comparatively large1 the preliminary   
blade inspection should be devoted to   
the mechanical condition of the blade   
edges and passages4 ,as the steam       
velocities of these types are usually   
higher1 the importance of minimizing the
 skin friction and eliminating the      
possibility of eddies is great4         
,although steam leakage through the     
valves of a turbine may not materially  
affect its steam consumption1 unless it 
be the leakage through the overload     

valve during a run on normal full load1 
a thorough examination of all valves is 
advocated for many reasons4 ,in a       
turbine the main steam-inlet valve is   
usually operated automatically from the 
governor2 and whether it be of the      
pulsating type1 admitting the steam in  
blasts1 or of the non-pulsating         
throttling type1 it is equally essential
 to obtain the least possible friction  
between all moving and stationary parts4
 ,similar remarks apply to the main     
governor1 and any sensitive transmitting
 mechanism connecting it with any of the
 turbine valves4 ,if a safety or runaway
 governor is possessed by the machine to
 be tested1 this should invariably be   
tried under the requisite conditions    
before proceeding farther4 ,the object  
of this governor being automatically to 
shut off all steam from the turbine1    
should the latter through any cause rise
 above the normal speed1 it is often set
 to operate at about #ab to #ae per     
cent4 above the normal4 ,thus1 a turbine

 revolving at about #cjjj revolutions   
per minute would be closed down at1 say1
 #cejj1 which would be within the limit 
of safe speed4   ,importance of ,oiling 
,system and ,water ,service  ,the oil   
question1 being important1 should be    
solved in the early stages previously1  
if possible1 to any official or         
unofficial consumption tests4 ,whether  
the oil be supplied to the turbine      
bearings by a self-contained system     
having the oil stored in the turbine    
bedplate or by gravity from a separate  
oil source1 does not affect the question
 in its present aspect4 ,the necessary  
points to investigate are four in       
number1 and may be headed as follows3   
7a7 ,examination of pipes and partitions
 for oil leakage4  7b7 ,determination of
 volume of oil flowing through each     
bearing per unit of time4  7c7          
,examination for signs of water in oil4 
7d7 ,determination of temperature rise  
between inlet and outlet of oil         
bearings4  ,the turbine supplied with   

oil by the gravity or any other separate
 system holds an advantage over the     
ordinary self-contained machine1        
inasmuch as the oil pipes conveying oil 
into and from the bearings can be easily
 approached and1 if necessary1 repaired4
 ,on the other hand1 the machine        
possessing its own oil tank1 cooling    
chamber and pump is somewhat at a       
disadvantage in this respect1 as a part 
of the system is necessarily hidden from
 view1 and1 further1 it is not easily   
accessible4 ,the leakage taking place in
 any system1 if there be any1 must1     
however1 be detected and stopped4  ,fig4
 #fc is given to illustrate a danger    
peculiar to the self-contained oil      
system1 in which the oil and oil-cooling
 chambers are situated adjacently in the
 turbine bedplate4 ,one end of the      
bedplate only is shown2 ,b is a         
cast-iron partition dividing the oil    
chamber ,c from the oil-cooling chamber 
,d4 ,castings of this kind have         
sometimes a tendency to sponginess and  

the trouble consequent upon this        
weakness would take the form of leakage 
between the two chambers4 ,of course    
this is only a special case1 and the    
conditions named are hardly likely to   
exist in every similarly designed plant4
 ,the capacity of oil1 and especially of
 hot oil1 to percolate through the most 
minute pores is well known4             
,consequently1 in advocating extreme    
caution when dealing with oil leakage1  
no apology is needed4  ,illustration3   
,,fig4 #fc  ,it may be stated without   
fear of contradiction that the oil in a 
self-contained system1 namely1 a system 
in which the oil1 stored in a reservoir 
near or underneath the turbine1 passes  
only through that one turbine's         
bearings1 and immediately back to the   
storage compartment1 deteriorates more  
rapidly than when circulating around an 
entire system1 such as the gravity or   
other analogous system4 ,in the latter1 
the oil tanks are usually placed a      
considerable distance from the turbine  

or turbines1 with the oil-cooling       
arrangements in fairly close proximity4 
,the total length of the oil circuit is 
thus considerably increased1            
incidentally increasing the relative    
cooling capacity of the whole plant1 and
 thereby reducing the loss of oil by    
vaporization4  ,the amount of oil       
passing through the bearings can be     
ascertained accurately by measurement4  
,with a system such as the gravity it is
 only necessary to run the turbine up to
 speed1 turn on the oil1 and then1 over 
a period1 calculate the volume of oil   
used by measuring the fall of level in  
the storage tank and multiplying by its 
known cross-sectional area4 ,in those   
cases where the return oil1 after       
passing through the bearings1 is        
delivered back into the same tank from  
which it is extracted1 it is of course  
necessary1 during the period of test1 to
 divert this return into a separate     
temporary receptacle4 ,where the system 
possesses two tanks1 one delivery and   

one return 7a superior arrangement71    
this additional work is unnecessary4    
,the same method can be applied to      
individual turbines pumping their own   
oil from a tank in the bedplate2 the    
return oil1 as previously described1    
being temporarily prevented from running
 back to the supply4  ,the causes of    
excessive oil consumption by bearings   
are many4 ,there is an economical mean  
velocity at which the oil must flow     
along the revolving spindle2 also an    
economical mean pressure1 the latter    
diminishing from the center of the      
bearing toward the ends4 ,the aim of the
 economist must therefore be in the     
direction of adjusting these quantities 
correctly in relation to a minimum      
supply of oil per bearing2 and the      
principal factors capable of variation  
to attain certain requirements are the  
several bearing clearances measured as  
annular orifices1 and the bearing       
diameters4  ,it is not always an easy   
matter to detect the presence of water  

in an oil system1 and this difficulty is
 increased in large circuits1 as the    
water1 when the oil is not flowing1     
generally filters to the lowest members 
and pipes of the system1 where it cannot
 usually be seen4 ,a considerable       
quantity of water in any system1        
however1 indicates its presence by small
 globular deposits on bearings and      
spindles1 and in the worst cases the    
water can clearly be seen in a small    
sample tapped from the oil mains4 ,there
 is only one effective method of ridding
 the oil of this water1 and this is by  
allowing the whole mass of oil in the   
system to remain quiescent for a few    
days1 after which the water1 which falls
 to the lowest parts1 can be drained    
off4 ,a simple method of clearing out   
the system is to pump all the oil the   
whole circuit contains through the      
filters1 and thence to a tank from which
 all water can be taken off4 ,one of the
 ordinary supply tanks used in the      
gravity system will serve this purpose1 

should a temporary tank not be at hand4 
,if necessary1 the headers and auxiliary
 pipes of the system can be cleaned out 
before circulating the oil again1 but as
 this is rather a large undertaking1 it 
need only be resorted to in serious     
cases4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fd  ,it  
is seldom possible to discover the      
correct and permanent temperature rise  
of the circulating oil in a turbine     
within the limited time usually alloted 
for a test4 ,after a continuous run of  
one hundred hours it is possible that   
the temperature at the bearing outlets  
may be lower than it was after the      
machine had run for1 say1 only twenty   
hours4 ,as a matter of fact an          
oil-temperature curve plotted from      
periodical readings taken over a        
continuous run of considerable length   
usually reaches a maximum early1        
afterward falling to a temperature about
 which the fluctuations are only slight 
during the remainder of the run4 ,fig4  
#fd illustrates an oil-temperature curve

 plotted from readings taken over a     
period of twenty-four hours4 ,in this   
case the oil system was of the gravity  
description1 the capacity of the turbine
 being about #fjjj kilowatts4 ,the      
bearings were of the ordinary           
white-metal spherical type4 ,over       
extended runs of hundreds and even      
thousands of hours1 the above deductions
 may be scarcely applicable4 ,running   
without break for so long1 a small      
turbine circulating its own lubricant   
would possibly require a renewal of the 
oil before the run was completed1 in the
 main owing to excessive temperature    
rise and consequent deterioration of the
 quality of the oil4 ,under these       
conditions the probabilities are that   
several temperature fluctuations might  
occur before the final maximum1 and more
 or less constant1 temperature was      
reached4 ,in this connection1 however1  
the results obtained are to a very large
 extent determined by the general       
mechanical design and construction of   

the oiling system and turbine4 ,a       
reference to ,fig4 #fc again reveals at 
once a weakness in that design1 namely1 
the unnecessarily close proximity in    
which the oil and water tanks are       
placed4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fe  ,a  
design of thermometer cup suitable for  
oil thermometers is given in ,fig4 #fe  
in which ,a is an end view of the       
turbine bedplate1 ,b is a turbine       
bearing and ,c and ,d are the inlet and 
outlet pipes1 respectively4 ,the        
thermometer fittings1 which are placed  
as near the bearing as is practicable1  
are made in the form of an angular tee  
fitting1 the oil pipes being screwed    
into its ends4 ,the construction of the 
oil cup and tee piece is shown in the   
detail at the left where ,a is the steel
 tee piece1 into which is screwed the   
brass thermometer cup ,b4 ,the hollow   
bottom portion of this cup is less than 
#a_/af of an inch in thickness4 ,the top
 portion of the bored hole is enlarged  
as shown1 and into this1 around the     

thermometer1 is placed a non-conducting 
material4 ,the cup itself is generally  
filled with a thin oil of good          
conductance4  ,allied to the oil system 
of a turbine plant is the water service1
 of comparatively little importance in  
connection with single self-contained   
units of small capacity1 where the      
entire service simply consists of a few 
coils and pipes1 but of the first       
consideration in large installations    
having numerous separate units supplied 
by oil and water from an exterior       
source4 ,the largest turbine units are  
often supplied with water for cooling   
the bearings and other parts liable to  
attain high temperature4 ,although the  
water used for cooling the bearings     
indirectly supplements the action taking
 place in the separate oil coolers1 it  
is of necessity a separate auxiliary    
service in itself1 and the complexity of
 the system is thus added to4 ,a        
carefully constructed water service1    
however1 is hardly likely to give       

trouble of a mechanical nature4 ,the    
more serious deficiencies usually arise 
from conditions inherent to the design1 
and as such must be approached4         
,special ,turbine ,features to be       
,inquired into  ,before leaving the     
prime mover itself1 and proceeding to   
the auxiliary plant inspection1 it may  
be well to instance a few special       
features relating to the general conduct
 of a turbine1 which it is the duty of a
 tester to inquire into4 ,there are     
certain specified qualifications which a
 machine must hold when running under   
its commercial conditions1 among these  
being lack of vibration of both turbine 
and machinery driven1 be it generator or
 fan1 the satisfactory running of       
auxiliary turbine parts directly driven 
from the turbine spindle1 minimum       
friction between the driving mediums1   
such as worm-wheels1 pumps1 fans1 etc41 
slight irregularities of construction1  
often resulting in heated parts and     
excessive friction and wear1 and must   

therefore be detected and righted before
 the final test4 ,furthermore1 those    
features of design--and they are not    
infrequent in many machines of recent   
development--which1 in practice1 do not 
fulfil theoretical expectations1 must be
 re-designed upon lines of practical    
consistency4 ,the experienced tester's  
opinion is often at this point          
invaluable4 ,to illustrate the          
foregoing1 ,figs4 #ff1 #fg1 and #fh are 
given1 representing1 respectively1 three
 distinct phases in the evolution of a  
turbine part1 namely1 the coupling4     
,briefly1 an ordinary coupling          
connecting a driving and a driven shaft 
becomes obstinate when the two separate 
spindles which it connects are not truly
 alined4 ,the desire of turbine         
manufacturers has consequently been to  
design a flexible coupling1 capable of  
accommodating a certain want of         
alinement between the two spindles      
without in any way affecting the smooth 
running of the whole unit4              

,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ff               
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fg  ,in ,fig4 #ff
 ,a is the turbine spindle end and ,b   
the generator spindle end1 which it is  
required to drive4 ,it will be seen from
 the cross-sectional end view that both 
spindle ends are squared1 the coupling  
,c1 with a square hole running through  
it1 fitting accurately over both spindle
 ends as shown4 ,obviously the fit      
between the coupling and spindle in this
 case must be close1 otherwise          
considerable wear would take place2 and 
equally obvious is the fact than any    
want of alinement between the two       
spindles ,a and ,b will be accompanied  
by a severe strain upon the coupling1   
and incidentally by many other troubles 
of operation of which this inability of 
the coupling to accommodate itself to a 
little want of alinement is the inherent
 cause4  ,looking at the coupling       
illustrated in ,fig4 #fg1 it will be    
seen that something here is much better 
adapted to dealing with troubles of     

alinement4 ,the turbine and generator   
spindles ,a and ,b1 respectively1 are   
coned at the ends1 and upon these       
tapered portions are shrunk circular    
heads ,c and ,d having teeth upon their 
outer circumferences4 ,made in halves1  
and fitting over the heads1 is a        
sleeve-piece1 with teeth cut into its   
inner bored face4 ,the teeth of the     
heads and sleeve are proportioned       
correctly to withstand1 without strain1 
the greatest pressure liable to be      
thrown upon them4 ,there is practically 
no play between the teeth1 but there    
exists a small annular clearance between
 the periphery of the heads and the     
inside bore of the sleeve1 which allows 
a slight lack of alinement to exist     
between the two spindles1 without any   
strain whatever being felt by the       
coupling sleeve ,e4 ,the nuts ,f and ,g 
prevent any lateral movement of the     
coupling heads ,c and ,d4 ,for all      
practical requirements this type of     
coupling is satisfactory1 as the        

clearances allowed between sliding      
sleeve and coupling heads can always be 
made sufficient to accommodate a        
considerable want of alinement1 far     
beyond anything which is likely to occur
 in actual practice4 ,perhaps the only  
feature against it is its lack of       
simplicity of construction and          
corresponding costliness4               
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fh  ,the type    
illustrated in ,fig4 #fh is a distinct  
advance upon either of the two previous 
examples1 because1 theoretically at     
least1 it is capable of successfully    
accommodating almost any amount of      
spindle movement4 ,the turbine and      
generator spindle ends1 ,a and ,b1 have 
toothed heads ,c and ,d shrunk upon     
them1 the heads being secured by the    
nuts ,e and ,f4 ,the teeth in this case 
are cut in the enlarged ends as shown4  
,a sleeve ,g1 made in halves1 fits over 
the heads1 and the teeth cut in each    
half engage with those of their         
respective heads4 ,all the teeth and    

teeth faces are cut radially1 and a     
little side play is allowed4   ,the     
,condenser  ,to some extent1 as         
previously remarked1 the condenser and  
condensing arrangements are instrumental
 in determining the lines upon which a  
test ought to be carried out4 ,in       
general1 the local features of a plant  
restrict the tester more or less in the 
application of his general methods4 ,a  
thorough inspection1 including some     
preliminary tests if necessary1 is as   
essential to the good conduct of the    
condensing plant as to the turbine above
 it4 ,it may be interesting to outline  
the usual course this inspection takes1 
and to draw attention to a few of the   
special features of different plants4   
,for this purpose a type of vertical    
condenser is depicted in ,fig4 #fi4 ,its
 general principle will be gathered from
 the following description3  ,exhaust   
steam from the turbine flows down the   
pipe ,t and enters the condenser at the 
top as shown1 where it at once comes    

into contact with the water tubes in ,w4
 ,these tubes fill an annular area1 the 
central un-tubed portion below the      
baffle cap ,b forming the vapor chamber4
 ,the condensed steam falls upon the    
bottom tube-plate ,p and is carried away
 by the pipe ,s leading to the water    
pump ,h4 ,the ,y pipe ,e terminating    
above the level of the water in the     
condenser enters the dry-air pump       
section pipe ,a4 ,cold circulating water
 enters the condenser at the bottom1    
through the pipe ,i1 and entering the   
water chamber ,x proceeds upward through
 the tubes into the top-water chamber   
,y1 and from there out of the condenser 
through the exit pipe4 ,it will be      
observed that the vapor extracted       
through the plate ,p passes on its      
journey out of the condenser through the
 cooling chamber ,d surrounded by the   
cold circulating water4 ,this1 of       
course1 is a very advantageous feature4 
,at ,r is the condenser relief1 at ,u   
the relief valve for the water chambers4

  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fi  ,a new     
condenser1 especially if it embody new  
and untried features1 generally requires
 a little time and patience ere the best
 results can be obtained from it4       
,perhaps the quickest and most          
satisfactory method of getting at the   
weak points of this portion of a plant  
is to test the various elements         
individually before applying a strict   
load test4 ,thus1 in dealing with a     
condenser similar to that illustrated in
 ,fig4 #fi1 the careful tester would    
probably make1 in addition to a thorough
 mechanical examination1 three or four  
individual vacuum and water tests4 ,a   
brief description of these will be      
given4 ,the water test1 the purpose of  
which is to discover any leakage from   
the tubes1 tube-plates1 water pipes1    
etc41 into portions of the steam or air 
chambers1 should be made first4   ,water
 ,tests of ,condenser  ,the condenser is
 first thoroughly dried out1 particular 
care being given to the outside of the  

tubes and the bottom tube-plate ,p4     
,water is then circulated through the   
tubes and chambers for an hour or two1  
after which the pumps are stopped1 all  
water is allowed to drain out and a     
careful examination is made inside4 ,any
 water leaking from the tubes above the 
bottom baffle-plate will ultimately be  
deposited upon that plate4 ,it is       
essential to stop this leakage if there 
be any1 otherwise the condensed steam   
measured during the consumption test    
will be increased to the extent of the  
leakage4 ,a slight leakage in a large   
condenser will obviously not affect the 
results to any serious extent4 ,the     
safest course to adopt when a leak is   
discovered and it is found inopportune  
to effect immediate repair is to measure
 the actual volume of leakage over a    
specified period1 and the quantity then 
being known it can be subtracted from   
the volume of the condensed steam at the
 end of the consumption test4  ,it is   
equally essential that no leakage shall 

occur between the bottom tube-plate ,p  
and the tube ends4 ,the soundness of the
 tube joints1 and the joint at the      
periphery of the tube-plate can be      
tested by well covering the plate with  
water1 the water chamber ,w and cooling 
chamber having been previously emptied1 
and observing the under side of the     
plate4 ,it must be admitted that the    
practice of measuring the extent of a   
water leak over a period1 and afterward 
with this knowledge adjusting the       
obtained quantities1 is not always      
satisfactory4 ,on no account should any 
test be made with considerable water    
leakage inside the condenser4 ,the above
 method1 however1 is perhaps the most   
reliable to be followed1 if during its  
conduct the conditions of temperature in
 the condenser are made as near to the  
normal test temperature as possible4    
,there are many condensers using salt   
water in their tubes1 and in these cases
 it would seem natural to turn to some  
analytical method of detecting the      

amount of saline and foreign matter     
leaking into the condensed steam4       
,unless1 however1 only approximate      
results are required1 such methods are  
not advocated4 ,there are many reasons  
why they cannot be relied upon for      
accurate results1 among these being the 
variation in the percentage of saline   
matter in the sea-water1 the varying    
temperature of the condenser tubes      
through which the water flows1 and the  
uncertainty of such analysis1 especially
 where the percentage leakage of pure   
saline matter is comparatively small4   
,the ,vacuum ,test  ,having convinced   
himself of the satisfactory conduct of  
the condenser under the foregoing simple
 preparatory water tests1 the tester may
 safely pass to considerations of       
vacuum4 ,there exists a good            
old-fashioned method of discovering the 
points of leakage in a vacuum chamber1  
namely1 that of applying the flame of a 
candle to all seams and other vulnerable
 spots1 which in the location of big    

leaks is extremely valuable4 ,assuming  
that the turbine joints and glands have 
been found capable of preventing any    
inleak of air1 with only a small        
absolute pressure of steam or air inside
 it1 and1 further1 an extremely         
important condition1 with the turbine   
casing at high and low temperatures1    
separately1 a vacuum test can be        
conducted on the condenser alone4  ,this
 test consists of three operations4 ,in 
the first place a high vacuum is        
obtained by means of the air pump1 upon 
the attainment of which communication   
with everything else is closed1 and     
results noted4 ,the second operation    
consists in repeating the above with the
 water circulating through the condenser
 tubes1 the results in this case also   
being carefully tabulated4 ,before      
conducting the third test1 the          
condensers must be thoroughly warmed    
throughout1 by running the turbine for a
 short time if necessary1 and after     
closing communication with everything1  

allowing the vacuum to slowly fall4  ,a 
careful consideration and comparison of 
the foregoing tests will reveal the     
capabilities of the condenser in the    
aspect in which it is being considered1 
and will suggest where necessary the    
desirable steps to be taken4     ,,vi4  
,,testing ,a ,,steam ,,turbine#d  #d    
,contributed to ,power by ,thomas       
,franklin4   ,special ,auxiliary ,plant 
for ,consumption ,test  ,there are one  
or two points of importance in the      
conduct of a test on a turbine and these
 will be briefly touched upon4 ,fig4 #gj
 illustrates the general arrangement of 
the special auxiliary plant necessary   
for carrying through a consumption test1
 when the turbine exhaust passes through
 a surface condenser4 ,the condensed    
steam1 after leaving the condenser1     
passes along the pipe ,a to the pump1   
and is then forced along the pipe ,b    
7leading under ordinary circumstances to
 the hot-well71 through the main water  
valve ,c directly to the measuring      

tanks4 ,to enter these the water has to 
pass through the valves ,d and ,e1 while
 the valves ,f and ,g are for quickly   
emptying the tanks when necessary1 being
 of a larger bore than the inlet valves4
 ,the inlet pipes ,h ,i are placed      
directly above the outlet valves1 and   
thus1 when required1 before any         
measurements are taken1 the water can   
flow directly through the outlet valves1
 the pipes terminating only a short     
distance above them1 away to an         
auxiliary tank or directly to the       
hot-well4 ,levers ,k and ,l fulcrumed at
 ,j and ,j are connected to the valve   
spindles by auxiliary levers4 ,the valve
 arrangement is such that by pulling    
down the lever ,k the inlet valve ,d is 
opened and the inlet valve ,e is closed4
 ,again1 by pulling down the lever ,l   
the outlet valve ,f is closed1 while the
 outlet valve ,g is also simultaneously 
closed4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gj      
,during a consumption test the valves   
are operated in the following manner3   

,the lever ,k is pulled down1 which     
opens the inlet valve to the first tank 
and closes that to the second4 ,the     
bottom lever ,l1 however1 is lifted1    
which for the time being opens the      
outlet valve ,f1 and incidentally opens 
the valve ,g2 the latter valve can2     
however1 for the moment be neglected4   
,when the turbine is started1 and the   
condensed steam begins to accumulate in 
the condenser1 the water is pumped along
 the pipes and1 both the inlet and      
outlet valves on the first tank being   
open1 passes through1 without any being 
deposited in the tank1 to the drain4    
,this may be continued until all        
conditions are right for a consumption  
test and1 the time being carefully      
noted1 lever ,l is quickly pulled down  
and the valves ,f and ,g closed4 ,the   
first tank now gradually fills1 and     
after a definite period1 say fifteen    
minutes1 the lever ,k is pushed up1 thus
 diverting the flow into the second     
tank4 ,while the latter is filling1 the 

water in the first tank is measured1 and
 the tank emptied by a large sluice     
valve1 not shown4  ,the operation of    
alternately filling1 measuring1 and     
emptying the two measuring tanks is thus
 carried on until the predetermined time
 of duration of test has expired1 when  
the total water as measured in the      
tanks1 and representing the amount of   
steam condensed during that time1 is    
easily found by adding together the     
quantities given at each individual     
measurement4  ,all that are necessary to
 insure successful results from a plant 
similar to this are care and accuracy in
 its operation and construction4        
,undoubtedly in most cases it is        
preferable to weigh the condensed steam 
instead of measuring the volume passed1 
and from that to calculate the weight4  
,if dependence is being placed upon the 
volumetric method1 it is advisable to   
lengthen the duration of the test       
considerably1 and if possible to measure
 the feed-water evaporated at the same  

time4 ,such a course1 however1 would    
necessitate little change1 and none of a
 radical nature1 from the arrangement   
described4 ,where1 however1 the         
measuring method is adopted1 the        
all-important feature1 requiring on the 
tester's part careful personal          
investigation1 is the graduation of the 
tanks4 ,it facilitates this operation   
very considerably when the receptacles  
are graduated upon a weight scale4 ,that
 is to say1 whether or not a vertical   
scale showing the actual hight of water 
be placed inside the tank1 it is        
advisable to have a separate scale      
indicating at once to the attendant the 
actual contents1 by weight1 of the tank 
at any time4 ,it is the tester's duty to
 himself to check the graduation of this
 latter scale by weighing the water with
 which he performs the operation of     
checking4  ,apart from the foregoing1   
there is little to be said about the    
measuring apparatus4 ,as has been       
stated1 accuracy of result depends in   

this connection1 as in all others1 upon 
careful supervision and sound and       
accurate construction1 and this the     
tester can only positively insure by    
exhaustive inspection in the one case   
and careful deliberation in the conduct 
of the other4  ,it will be readily      
understood that the procedure--and this 
implies some limitations--of a test is  
to an extent controlled by the          
conditions1 or particular environment of
 the moment4 ,this is strictly true1 and
 as a consequence it is often           
impossible1 in a maker's works1 for     
example1 to obtain every condition1     
coinciding with those specified1 which  
are to be had on the site of final      
operation only4 ,for this reason it     
would appear best to reserve the final  
and crucial test of a machine1 which    
test usually in the operating sense     
restricts a prime mover in certain      
directions with regard to its auxiliary 
plant1 etc41 until the machine has been 
finally erected on its site4 ,obviously1

 unless a machine had become more or    
less standardized1 a preliminary        
consumption test would be necessary1 but
 once this primary qualification        
respecting consumption had been         
satisfactorily settled1 there appears to
 be no reason why exhaustive tests in   
other directions should not all be      
carried out upon the site1 where the    
conditions for them are so much more    
favorable4  ,when the steam consumption 
of a steam turbine is so much higher    
than the guaranteed quantity1 it usually
 takes little less than a reconstruction
 to put things right4 ,the minor        
qualifications of a machine1 however1   
which can be examined into and tested   
with greater ease1 and usually at       
considerably less expense1 upon the     
site1 and consequently under specified  
conditions1 may be advantageously left  
over until that site is reached1 where  
it is obvious that any shortcomings and 
general deficiency in performance will  
be more quickly detected and diagnosed4 

,test ,loads from the ,tester's         
,view-point  ,before proceeding to      
describe the points of actual interest  
in the consumption test1 a few          
considerations respecting test loads    
will be dealt with from the tester's    
point of view4 ,here again we often find
 ourselves restricted1 to an extent1 by 
the surrounding conditions4 ,the very   
first considerations1 when undertaking  
to carry out a consumption test1 should 
be devoted to obtaining the steadiest   
possible lead ,transcriber3 load84 ,it  
may be1 and is in many cases1 that      
circumstances are such as to allow a    
steady electrical load to be obtained at
 almost any time4 ,on the other hand an 
electrical load of any description is   
sometimes not procurable at all1 without
 the installation of a special plant for
 the purpose4 ,in such cases a          
mechanical friction load1 as1 for       
example1 that obtained by the water     
brake1 is sometimes available1 or can   
easily be procured4 ,whereas1 however1  

this type of load may be satisfactory   
for small machines1 it is usually quite 
impossible for use with large units1 of1
 say1 #ejjj kilowatts and upward4 ,it is
 seldom1 however1 that turbines are made
 in large sizes for directly driving    
anything but electrical plants1 although
 there is every possibility of direct   
mechanical driving between large steam  
turbines and plants of various          
descriptions1 shortly coming into vogue1
 so that usually there exist some       
facilities for obtaining an electrical  
load at both the maker's works and upon 
the site of operation4  ,one            
consideration of importance is worth    
inquiring into1 and this has relation to
 the largest turbo-generators supplied  
for power-station and like purposes4    
,obviously1 the testing of1 say1 a      
#gjjj-kilowatt alternator by any        
standard electrical-testing method must 
entail considerable expense1 if such a  
test is to be carried out in the maker's
 works4 ,nor would this expense be      

materially decreased by transferring the
 operations to the power-station1 and   
there erecting the necessary electrical 
plant for obtaining a water load1 or any
 other installation of sufficient       
capacity to carry the required load     
according to the rated full capacity of 
the machine4  ,assuming1 then1 that     
there exist no permanent facilities at  
either end1 namely the maker's works and
 the power station1 for adequately      
procuring a steady electrical-testing   
load of sufficient capacity1 there still
 remains1 in this instance1 an          
alternative source of power which is    
usually sufficiently elastic to serve   
all purposes1 and this is of course the 
total variable load procurable from the 
station bus-bars4 ,it is conceivable    
that one out of a number of machines    
running in parallel might carry a       
perfectly steady load1 the latter being 
a fraction of a total varying quantity1 
leaving the remaining machines to       
receive and deal with all fluctuations  

which might occur4 ,even in the event of
 there being only two machines1 it is   
possible to maintain the load on one of 
them comparatively steady1 though the   
percentage variation in load on either  
side of the normal would in the latter  
case be greater than in the previous    
one4 ,this is accomplished by governor  
regulation after the machines have been 
paralleled4 ,for example1 assuming three
 turbo-alternators of similar make and  
capacity to be running in parallel1 each
 machine carrying exactly one-third of  
the total distributed load1 it is fair  
to regard the governor condition1       
allowing for slight mechanical          
disparities of construction1 of all     
three machines as being similar2 and    
even in the case of three machines of   
different capacity and construction1 the
 governor conditions when the machines  
are paralleled are more or less         
relatively and permanently fixed in     
relation to one another4 ,in other      
words1 while the variation in load on   

each machine is the same1 the relative  
variation in the governor condition must
 be constant4  ,by a previously         
mentioned system of governor regulation1
 however1 it is possible1 considering   
again for a moment the case of three    
machines in parallel1 by decreasing the 
sensitiveness of one governor only1 to  
accommodate nearly all the total        
variation in load by means of the two   
remaining machines1 the unresponsiveness
 of the one governor to change in speed 
maintaining the load on that machine    
fairly constant4 ,by this method1 at any
 rate1 the variation in load on any one 
machine can be minimized down to1 say1  
#c per cent1 either side of the normal  
full load4  ,there is another and more  
positive method by which a perfectly    
steady load can be maintained upon one  
machine of several running in parallel4 
,this may be carried out as follows3    
,suppose1 in a station having a total   
capacity of #bj1jjj kilowatts1 there are
 three machines1 two of #fjjj kilowatts 

each1 and one of #hjjj kilowatts1 and it
 is desired to carry out a steady       
full-load test upon one of the #fjjj    
kilowatts units4 ,assuming that the test
 is to be of six hours' duration1 and   
that the conditions of load fluctuations
 upon the station are well known1 the   
first step to take is to select a period
 for the test during which the total    
load upon all machines is not likely to 
fall below1 say1 #hjjj kilowatts4 ,the  
tension upon the governor spring of the 
turbine to be tested must then be       
adjusted so that the machine on each    
peak load is taxed to its utmost normal 
capacity2 and even when the station load
 falls to its minimum1 the load from the
 particular machine shall not be        
released sufficiently to allow it to    
fall below #fjjj kilowatts4 ,under these
 conditions1 then1 it may be assumed    
that although the load on the test      
machine will vary1 it cannot fall below 
#fjjj kilowatts4 ,therefore1 all that   
remains to be done to insure a perfectly

 steady load equal to the normal full   
load of the machine1 or #fjjj kilowatts1
 is to fix the main throttle or         
governing valve in such a position that 
the steam passing through at constant   
pressure is just capable of sustaining  
full speed under the load required4     
,when this method is adopted1 it is     
desirable to fix a simple               
hight-adjusting and locking mechanism to
 the governing-valve spindle4 ,the load 
as read on the indicating wattmeter can 
then be very accurately varied until    
correct1 and farther varied1 if         
necessary1 should any change occur in   
the general conditions which might      
either directly or indirectly bring     
about a change of load4   ,preparing the
 ,turbine for ,testing  ,all preliminary
 labors connected with a test being     
satisfactorily disposed of1 it only     
remains to place the turbines under the 
required conditions1 and to then proceed
 with the test4 ,for the benefit of     
those inexperienced in the operation of 

large turbines1 we will assume that such
 a machine is about to be started for   
the purpose outlined4  ,it is always    
advisable to make a strict practice of  
getting all the auxiliary plant under   
way before starting up the turbine4 ,in 
handling a turbine plant the several    
operations might be carried through in  
the following order3  7#a7 ,circulating 
oil through all bearings and oil        
chambers4#e  7#b7 ,starting of condenser
 circulating-water pumps1 and continuous
 circulation of circulating water       
through the tubes of condenser4  7#c7   
,starting of pump delivering condensed  
steam from the condenser hot-well to    
weighing tanks4  7#d7 ,starting of air  
pump1 vacuum being raised as high as    
possible within condenser4  7#e7        
,sealing of turbine glands1 whether of  
liquid or steam type1 no adjustment of  
the quantity of sealing fluid being     
necessary1 however1 at this point4  7#f7
 ,adjustment of valves on and leading to
 the water-weighing tanks4  7#g7        

,opening of main exhaust valve or valves
 between turbine and condenser4  7#h7   
,starting up of turbine and slowly      
running to speed4  7#i7 ,application of 
load1 and adjustment of gland-sealing   
steam4  #e ,in a self-contained system1 
where the oil pump is usually driven    
from the turbine spindle1 this would of 
course be impossible4 ,in the gravity   
and allied systems1 however1 it should  
always be the first operation performed4
 ,the tests for oil consumption1        
described previously1 having been       
carried out1 it is assumed that suitable
 means have been adopted to restrict the
 total oil flow through the bearings to 
a minimum quantity4  ,the running to    
speed of large turbo-alternators        
requires considerable care1 and should  
always be done slowly2 that is to say   
the rate of acceleration should be slow4
 ,it is well known that the vibration of
 a heavy unit is accompanied by a       
synchronous or non-synchronous vibration
 of the foundation upon which it rests4 

,the nearest approach to perfect        
synchronism between unit and foundation 
is obtained by a gradual rise in speed4 
,a machine run up to speed too quickly  
might1 after passing the critical speed1
 settle down with little visible        
vibration1 but at a later time1 even    
hours after1 suddenly begin vibrating   
violently from no apparent cause4 ,the  
chances of this occurring are minimized 
by slow and careful running to speed4   
,whether the machine being tested is one
 of a number running in parallel1 or a  
single unit running on a steady water   
load1 the latter should in all cases be 
thrown on gradually until full load is  
reached4 ,a preliminary run of two or   
three hours--whenever possible--should  
then be made1 during which ample        
opportunity is afforded for regulating  
the conditions in accordance with test  
requirements4 ,the tester will do well  
during the last hour of this trial run  
to station his recorders at their       
several posts and1 for a short time at  

least1 to have a complete set of        
readings taken at the correct test      
intervals4 ,this more particularly      
applies to the electrical water1        
superheat and vacuum readings4 ,in the  
case of a turbo-alternator the          
steadiness obtainable in the electrical 
load may determine the frequency of     
readings taken1 both electrical and     
otherwise4 ,on a perfectly steady       
water-tank load1 for example1 it may be 
sufficiently adequate to read all       
wattmeters1 voltmeters1 and ammeters    
from standard instruments at from one-  
to two-minute intervals4 ,readings at   
half-minute intervals1 however1 should  
be taken with a varying load1 even when 
the variation is only slight4  ,the     
water-measurement readings may of course
 be taken at any suitable intervals1 the
 time being to an extent determined by  
the size of the measuring tanks or the  
capacity of the weighing machine or     
machines4 ,when designing the measuring 
apparatus1 the object should be to      

minimize1 within economical and         
practical range1 the total number of    
weighings or measurements necessary4    
,consequently1 no strict time of        
interval between individual weighings or
 measurements can be given in this case4
 ,it may be said1 however1 that it is   
not desirable to take these at anything 
less than five-minute intervals4 ,under 
ordinary circumstances a three- to      
five-minute interval is sufficient in   
the case of all steam-pressure1         
vacuum--including mercurial columns and 
barometer--superheat and temperature    
readings4   ,gland and ,hot-,well       
,regulation  ,there are two highly      
important features requiring more or    
less constant attention throughout a    
test1 namely the gland and hot-well     
regulation4 ,for the present purpose we 
may assume that the glands are supplied 
with either steam or water for sealing  
them4 ,all steam supplied to the turbine
 obviously goes to swell the hot-well   
contents1 and to thus increase the total

 steam consumption4 ,the ordinary steam 
gland is in reality a pressure gland4   
,at both ends of the turbine casing is  
an annular chamber1 surrounding the     
turbine spindle at the point where it   
projects through the casing4 ,a number  
of brass rings on either side of this   
chamber encircle the spindle1 with only 
a very fine running clearance between   
the latter and themselves4 ,steam enters
 the gland chamber at a slight pressure1
 and1 when a vacuum exists inside the   
turbine casing1 tends to flow inward4   
,the pressure1 however1 inside the gland
 is increased until it exceeds that of  
the atmosphere outside1 and by          
maintaining it at this pressure it is   
obvious that no air can possibly enter  
the turbine through the glands1 to      
destroy the vacuum4 ,the above principle
 must be borne in mind during a test    
upon a turbine having steam-fed glands4 
,perhaps the best course to follow--in  
view of the economy of gland steam      
consumption necessary--is as follows3   

,during the preliminary non-test run1   
full steam is turned into both glands   
while the vacuum is being raised1 and   
maintained until full load has been on  
the turbine for some little time4 ,the  
vacuum will by this time have probably  
reached its maximum1 and perhaps fallen 
to a point slightly lower1 at which     
hight it may be expected to remain1     
other conditions also remaining         
constant4 ,the gland steam must now be  
gradually turned off until the amount of
 steam vapor issuing from the glands is 
almost imperceptible4 ,this should not  
lower the vacuum in the slightest       
degree4 ,by gradual degrees the gland   
steam can be still farther cut down1    
until no steam vapor at all can be      
discerned issuing from the gland boxes4 
,this reduction should be continued     
until a point is reached at which the   
vacuum is affected1 when it must be     
stopped and the amount of steam flowing 
to the gland again increased very       
slightly1 just enough to bring the      

vacuum again to its original hight4 ,the
 steam now passing into the glands is   
the minimum required under the          
conditions1 and should be maintained as 
nearly constant as possible throughout  
the test4 ,practically all steam        
entering the glands is drawn into the   
turbine1 and thence to the condenser1   
and under the circumstances it may be   
assumed the increase in steam           
consumption arising from this source is 
also a minimum4  ,there is one          
mechanical feature which has an         
important bearing upon the foregoing    
question1 and which it is one of the    
tester's duties to investigate4 ,this is
 illustrated in ,fig4 #ga1 which shows a
 turbine spindle projecting through the 
casing4 ,the gland box is let into the  
casing as shown4 ,brass rings ,a calked 
into the gland box encircle the shaft on
 either side of the annular steam space 
,s4 ,as the clearance between the       
turbine spindle and the rings ,a is in a
 measure instrumental in determining the

 amount of steam required to maintain a 
required pressure inside the chamber1 it
 is obvious that this clearance should  
be minimum4 ,an unnecessarily large     
clearance means a proportionally large  
increase in gland steam consumption and 
vice versa4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ga  
,when the turbine glands are sealed with
 water1 all water leakage which takes   
place into the turbine1 and ultimately  
to the condenser hot-well1 must be      
measured and subtracted from the        
hot-well contents at the end of a test4 
,the foregoing remarks would not apply  
to those cases in which the gland supply
 is drawn from and returned to the      
hot-well1 or a pipe leading from the    
hot-well4 ,then no correction would be  
necessary1 as all water used for gland  
purposes might be assumed as being taken
 from the measuring tanks and returned  
again in time for same or next weighing 
or measurement4   ,general              
,considerations  ,there are a few       
principal elementary points which it is 

necessary always to keep in mind during 
the conduct of a test4 ,among these are 
the effects of variation in vacuum1     
superheat1 initial steam pressure1 and1 
as already indicated1 in load4 ,there   
exist many rules for determining the    
corrections necessitated by this        
variation4 ,for example1 it is often    
assumed that #i degrees ,fahrenheit1    
excess or otherwise1 above or below that
 specified1 represents an increase or   
reduction in efficiency of about #a per 
cent4 ,it is probable that the          
percentage increase or decrease in steam
 consumption1 in the case of superheat1 
can be more reliably calculated than in 
other cases1 as1 for example1 vacuum2   
but the increase cannot be said to be   
due solely to the variation in          
superheat4 ,in other words1 the         
individuality of the particular turbine 
being tested always contributes         
something1 however small this something 
may be1 to the results obtained4  ,these
 remarks are particularly applicable    

where vacuum is concerned4 ,here again  
rules exist1 one of these being that    
every additional inch of vacuum         
increases the economy of the turbine by 
something slightly under half a pound of
 steam per kilowatt-hour4 ,but a        
moment's consideration convinces one of 
the utter unreliability of such rules   
for general application4 ,it is1 for    
instance1 well known that many machines1
 when under test1 have demonstrated that
 the total increase in the water rate is
 very far from constant4 ,a machine     
tested1 for example1 gave approximately 
the following results1 the object of the
 test being to discover the total       
increase in the water rate per inch     
decrease in vacuum3  ,from #bg inches to
 #bf inches1 #d4e per cent4  ,from #bf4b
 inches to #bd4e inches1 #b4e per cent4 
,this illustrates to what an extent the 
ratio of increase can vary1 and it must 
be borne in mind that it is very        
probable that the variation is different
 in different types and sizes of        

machines4  ,there can exist1 therefore1 
no empirical rules of a reliable nature 
upon which the tester can base his      
deductions4 ,the only way calculated to 
give satisfaction is to conduct a series
 of preliminary tests upon the turbine  
undergoing observation1 and from these  
to deduce all information of the nature 
required1 which can be permanently      
recorded in a set of curves for         
reference during the final official     
tests4  ,in conclusion1 it must be      
admitted that many published tests      
outlining the performances of certain   
makes of turbine are unreliable4 ,to    
determine honestly the capabilities of  
any machine in the direction of steam   
economy is an operation requiring time1 
and unbiased and accurate supervision4  
,by means of such assets as floating    
quantities1 short tests during          
exceptionally favorable conditions1 and 
disregard of the vital necessity of     
running a test under the proper         
specified conditions1 it is             

comparatively easy to obtain results    
apparently highly satisfactory1 but     
which under other conditions might be   
just the reverse4 ,these considerations 
are1 however1 unworthy of the tester    
proper4     ,,vii4 ,,auxiliaries ,,for  
,,steam ,,turbines#f  #f ,contributed to
 ,power by ,thomas ,franklin4   ,the    
,jet ,condenser  ,the jet condenser     
illustrated in ,fig4 #gb is singularly  
well adapted for the turbine            
installation4 ,as the type has not been 
so widely adopted as the more common    
forms of jet condenser and the surface  
types1 it may prove of interest to      
describe briefly its general            
construction and a few of its special   
features in relation to tests4          
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gb  ,referring to
 the figure1 ,c is the main condenser   
body4 ,exhaust steam enters at the      
left-hand side through the pipe ,e1     
condensing water issuing through the    
pipe ,d at the opposite side4 ,passing  
through the short conical pipe ,p1 the  

condensing water enters the cylindrical 
chamber ,w and falls directly upon the  
spraying cone ,s4 ,the hight of this    
spraying cone is determined by the      
tension upon the spring ,t1 below the   
piston ,r1 the latter being connected to
 the cone by a spindle ,l4 ,an increase 
of the water pressure inside the chamber
 ,w will thus compress the spring1 and  
the spraying cone being consequently    
lowered increases the aperture between  
it and the sloping lower wall of the    
chamber ,w1 allowing a greater volume of
 water to be sprayed4 ,the piston ,r    
incidentally prevents water entering the
 top vapor chamber ,v4 ,from the        
foregoing it can be seen that this      
condenser is of the contra-flow type1   
the entering steam coming immediately   
into contact with the sprayed water4    
,the perforated diaphragm plate ,f      
allows the vapor to rise into the       
chamber ,v1 from which it is drawn      
through the pipe ,a to the air pump4 ,a 
relief valve ,u prevents an excessive   

accumulation of pressure in the vapor   
chamber1 this valve being obviously of  
delicate construction1 capable of       
opening upon a very slight increase of  
the internal pressure over that of the  
atmosphere4 ,condensed steam and        
circulating water are together carried  
down the pipe ,b to the well ,z1 from   
which a portion may be carried off as   
feed water1 and the remainder cooled and
 passed through the condenser again4    
,under any circumstances1 whether the   
air pump is working or not1 a certain   
percentage of the vapor in the condenser
 is always carried down the pipe ,b1 and
 this action alone creates a partial    
vacuum1 thus rendering the work of the  
air pump easier4 ,as a matter of fact1 a
 fairly high vacuum can be maintained   
with the air pump closed down1 and only 
the indirect pumping action of the      
falling water operating to rarify the   
contents of the condenser body4 ,it is  
customary to place the condenser forty  
or more feet above the circulating-water

 pump1 the latter usually being a few   
feet below the turbine4   ,features     
,demanding ,attention  ,when operating a
 condenser of this type1 the most       
important features requiring preliminary
 inspection and regulation while running
 are3  7a7 ,circulating-water           
regulation4  7b7 ,freedom of all        
mechanical parts of spraying mechanism4 
7c7 ,relief-valve regulation4  7d7      
,water-cooling arrangements4  ,the      
tester will1 however1 devote his        
attention to a practical survey of the  
condenser and its auxiliaries1 before   
running operations commence4  ,a        
preliminary vacuum test ought to be     
conducted upon the condenser body1 and  
the exhaust piping between the condenser
 and turbine4 ,to accomplish this the   
circulating-water pipe ,d can be filled 
with water to the condenser level4 ,the 
relief valve should also be             
water-sealed4 ,any existing leakage can 
thus be located and stopped4  ,having   
made the condenser as tight as possible 

within practical limits1 vacuum might be
 again raised and1 with the same parts  
sealed1 allowed to fall slowly for1 say1
 ten minutes4 ,a similar test over an   
equal period may then be conducted with 
the relief valve not water-sealed4 ,a   
comparison of the times taken for an    
equal fall of vacuum in inches1 under   
the different conditions1 during the    
above two tests1 will reveal the extent 
of the leakage taking place through the 
relief valve4 ,it seems superfluous to  
add that the fall of vacuum in both the 
foregoing tests must not be accelerated 
in any way1 but must be a result simply 
of the slight inevitable leakage which  
is to be found in every system4  ,on a  
comparatively steady load1 and with     
consequently only small fluctuation in  
the volume of steam to be condensed1 the
 conditions are most favorable for      
regulating the amount of circulating    
water necessary4 ,naturally1 an excess  
of water above the required minimum will
 not affect the pressure conditions     

inside the condenser4 ,it does1 however1
 increase the quantity of water to be   
handled from the hot-well1 and          
incidentally lowers the temperature     
there1 which1 whether the feed-water    
pass through economizers or otherwise1  
is not advisable from an economical     
standpoint4 ,thus there is an economical
 minimum of circulating water to be     
aimed at1 and1 as previously stated1 it 
can best be arrived at by running the   
turbine under normal load and adjusting 
the flow of the circulating water by    
regulating the main valve and the       
tension upon the spring ,t4 ,under      
abnormal conditions1 the breakdown of an
 air pump1 or the sudden springing of a 
bad leak1 for instance1 the amount of   
circulating water can be increased by a 
farther opening of the main valve if    
necessary1 and a relaxation of the      
spring tension by hand2 or1 the spring  
tension might be automatically changed  
immediately upon the vacuum falling4    
,the absolute freedom of all moving     

parts of the spraying mechanism should  
be one of the tester's first assurances4
 ,to facilitate this1 it is customary to
 construct the parts1 with the exception
 of the springs1 of brass or some other 
non-corrosive metal4 ,the spraying cone 
must be thoroughly clean in every       
channel1 to insure a well-distributed   
stream of water4 ,nor is it less        
important that careful attention be     
given to the setting and operation of   
the relief valve1 as will be seen later4
 ,the obvious object of such a valve is 
to prevent the internal condenser       
pressure ever being maintained much     
higher than the atmospheric pressure4 ,a
 number of carefully designed rubber    
flap valves1 or one large one1 have been
 found to act successfully for this     
purpose1 although a balanced valve of   
more substantial construction would     
appear to be more desirable4            
,importance of ,relief ,valves  ,the    
question of relief valves in turbine    
installations is an important one1 and  

it seems desirable at this point to draw
 attention to another necessary relief  
valve and its function1 namely the      
turbine atmospheric valve4 ,as generally
 understood1 this is placed between the 
turbine and condenser1 and1 should the  
pressure in the latter1 owing to any    
cause1 rise above that of the           
atmosphere1 it opens automatically and  
allows the exhaust steam to flow through
 it into the atmosphere1 or into another
 condenser4  ,a general diagrammatic    
arrangement of a steam turbine1         
condenser1 and exhaust piping is shown  
in ,fig4 #gc4 ,connected to the exhaust 
pipe ,b1 near to the condenser1 is the  
automatic atmospheric valve ,d1 from    
which leads the exhaust piping ,e to the
 atmosphere4 ,the turbine relief valve  
is shown at ,f1 and the condenser relief
 valve at ,g4 ,the main exhaust valve   
between turbine and condenser is seen at
 ,h4 ,we have here three separate relief
 valves3 one1 ,f1 to prevent excessive  
pressure in the turbine3 the second1 ,d1

 an atmospheric valve opening a path to 
the air1 and1 in addition to preventing 
excessive pressure accumulating1 also   
helping to keep the temperature of the  
condenser body and tubes low2 the third1
 the condenser relief valve ,g1 which in
 itself ought to be capable of          
exhausting all steam from the turbine1  
should occasion demand it4              
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gc  ,assuming a  
plant of this description to be         
operating favorably1 the conditions     
would of necessity be as follows3 ,the  
valves ,f1 ,d1 and ,g1 all closed2 the  
valve ,h open4 ,suppose that1 owing to  
sudden loss of circulating water1 the   
vacuum fell to zero4 ,the condenser     
would at once fill with steam1 a slight 
pressure would be set up1 and whichever 
of the three valves happened to be set  
to blow off at the lowest pressure would
 do so4 ,now it is desirable that the   
first valve to open under such          
circumstances should be the atmospheric 
valve ,d4 ,this being so1 the condenser 

would remain full of steam at           
atmospheric pressure until the attendant
 had had time to close the main hand-or 
motor-operated exhaust valve ,h1 which  
he would naturally do before attempting 
to regain the circulation of the        
condensing water4 ,again1 assume the    
installation to be running under the    
initial conditions1 with the atmospheric
 valve ,d and all remaining valves      
except ,h closed4  ,suppose the vacuum  
again fell to zero from a similar cause1
 and1 further1 suppose the atmospheric  
valve ,d failed to operate              
automatically4 ,the only valves now     
capable of passing the exhaust steam are
 the turbine and condenser relief valves
 ,f and ,g4 ,inasmuch as the pressures  
at exhaust in the turbine proper1 on    
varying load1 vary over a considerably  
greater range than the small fairly     
constant absolute pressures inside the  
condenser1 it is obviously necessary to 
allow for this factor in the respective 
setting of these two relief valves4 ,in 

other words1 the obvious deduction is to
 set the turbine relief valve to blow   
off at a higher pressure than the       
condenser relief valve1 even when       
considering the question with respect to
 condensing conditions only4 ,in this   
second hypothetical case1 then1 with a  
closed and disabled atmospheric valve1  
the exhaust must take place through the 
condenser1 until the turbine can be shut
 down1 or the circulating water regained
 without the former course being found  
necessary4  ,there is one other remote  
case which may be assumed1 namely1 the  
simultaneous refusal of both atmospheric
 and condenser relief valves to open1   
upon the vacuum inside the condenser    
being entirely lost4 ,the exhaust would 
then be blown through the turbine relief
 valve ,f1 until the plant could be     
closed down4  ,although the conditions  
just cited are highly improbable in     
actual practice1 it can at once be seen 
that to insure the safety of the        
condenser1 absolutely1 the turbine      

relief valve must be set to open at a   
comparatively low pressure1 say #dj     
pounds by gage1 or thereabouts4 ,to set 
it much lower than this would create a  
possibility of its leaking when the     
turbine was making a non-condensing run1
 and when the pressure at the turbine   
exhaust end is often above that of the  
atmosphere4 ,from every point of view1  
therefore1 it is advisable to make a    
minute examination of all relief valves 
in a system1 and before a test to insure
 that these valves are all set to open  
at their correct relative pressures4    
,it must be admitted that the practice  
of placing a large relief valve upon a  
condenser in addition to the atmospheric
 exhausting valve is by no means common4
 ,the latter valve1 where surface       
condensing is adopted1 is often thought 
sufficient1 working in conjunction with 
a quickly operated main exhaust valve4  
,similarly1 with a barometric condenser 
as that illustrated in ,fig4 #gb1 the   
atmospheric exhaust valve ,d 7seen in   

,fig4 #gc7 is sometimes dispensed with4 
,this course is1 however1 objectionable1
 for upon a loss of vacuum in the       
turbine1 all exhaust steam must pass    
through the condenser body1 or the      
entire plant be closed down until the   
vacuum is regained4 ,the simple         
construction of the barometric          
condenser1 however1 is in such an event 
much to its advantage1 and the passage  
of the hot steam right through it is not
 likely to seriously warp or strain any 
of its parts1 as might probably happen  
in the case of a surface condenser4     
,the question of the advisability of    
thus adding to a plant can only be      
fairly decided when all conditions1     
operating and otherwise1 are fully      
known4 ,for example1 if we assume a     
large turbine to be operating on a      
greatly varying load1 and exhausting    
into a condenser1 as that in ,fig4 #gb1 
and1 further1 having an adequate        
stand-by to back it up1 one's obvious   
recommendation would be to equip the    

installation with both a condenser      
relief valve and an atmospheric valve1  
in addition1 of course1 to the main     
exhaust valve1 which is always placed   
between the atmospheric valve and       
condenser4 ,there are still other       
considerations1 such as water supply1   
condition of circulating water1 style of
 pump1 etc41 which must all necessarily 
have an obvious bearing upon the        
settlement of this question2 so that    
generalization is somewhat out of place1
 the final design in all cases depending
 solely upon general principles and     
local conditions4   ,other ,necessary   
,features of a ,test  ,in connection    
with the condenser1 of any type1 and its
 auxiliaries1 there remain a few        
necessary examinations and operations to
 be conducted1 if it is desired to      
obtain the very best results during the 
test4 ,it will be sufficient to just    
outline them1 the method of procedure   
being well known1 and the requirement of
 any strict routine being unnecessary4  

,these include3  7#a7 ,a thorough       
examination of the air-pump1 and1 if    
possible1 an equally careful examination
 of diagrams taken from it when running 
on full load4 ,also careful examination 
of the piping1 and of any other         
connections between the air pump and    
condenser1 or other auxiliaries4 ,it    
will be well in this examination to note
 the general lay of the air pipes1      
length1 hight to which they rise above  
condenser and air pump1 facilities for  
drainage1 etc41 as this information may 
prove valuable in determining the course
 necessary to rectify deficiencies which
 may later be found to exist4  7#b7 ,in 
a surface condenser1 inspection of the  
pumps delivering condensed steam to the 
measuring tanks or hot-well2 inspection 
of piping between the condenser and the 
pump1 and also between the pump and     
measuring tanks4 ,if these pumps are of 
the centrifugal type it is essential to 
insure1 for the purposes of a           
steam-consumption test1 as much         

regularity of delivery as possible4     
7#c7 ,in the case of a consumption test 
upon a turbine exhausting into a        
barometric condenser1 and where the     
steam consumed is being measured by the 
evaporation in the boiler over the test 
period1 time must be devoted to the     
feed-pipes between the feed-water       
measuring meter or tank and the boilers4
 ,under conditions similar to those     
operating in a plant such as that shown 
in ,fig4 #gb1 the necessary boiler feed 
might be drawn from the hot-well1 the   
remainder of the hot-well contents      
probably being pumped through water     
coolers1 or towers1 for circulating     
through the condenser4 ,with the very   
best system1 it is possible for a slight
 quantity of oil to leak into the       
exhaust steam1 and thence to the        
hot-well4 ,in its passage1 say along    
wooden conduits1 to the measuring tank  
or meter1 this water would probably pass
 through a number of filters4 ,the      
efficiency of these must be thoroughly  

insured4 ,it is unusual1 in those cases 
where a simple turbine steam-consumption
 test is being carried out1 and not an  
efficiency test of a complete plant1 to 
pass the measured feed-water through    
economizers4 ,should the latter course1 
owing to special conditions1 become     
necessary1 a careful examination of all 
economizer pipes would be necessary4    
7#d7 ,the very careful examination of   
all thermometer pockets1 steam- and     
temperature-gage holes1 etc41 as to     
cleanliness1 non-accumulation of scale1 
etc4   ,special ,auxiliaries ,necessary 
,having outlined the points of interest 
and importance in connection with the   
more permanent features of a plant1 we  
arrive at the preparation and fitting of
 those special auxiliaries necessary to 
carry on the test4  ,illustration3      
,,fig4 #gd  ,it is customary1 when      
carrying out a first test1 upon both    
prime mover and auxiliaries1 to place   
every important stage in the expansion  
in communication with a gage1 so that   

the various pressures may be recorded   
and later compared with the figures of  
actual requirement4 ,to do this1 in the 
case of the turbine1 it is necessary to 
bore holes in the cover leading to the  
various expansion chambers1 and into    
each of these holes to screw a short    
length of steam pipe1 having preferably 
a loop in its length1 to the other end  
of which the gage is attached4 ,fig4 #gd
 illustrates1 diagrammatically1 a       
complete turbine installation1 and shows
 the various points along the course    
taken by the steam at which it is       
desirable to place pressure gages4 ,the 
figure does not show the high-pressure  
steam pipe1 nor any of the turbine      
valves4 ,with regard to these1 it will  
be desirable to place a steam gage in   
the pipe1 immediately before the main   
stop-valve1 and another immediately     
after it4 ,any fall of pressure between 
the two sides of the valve can thus be  
detected4 ,to illustrate this clearly1  
,fig4 #ge is given1 showing the valves  

of a turbine1 and the position of the   
gages connected to them4 ,the two gages 
,e and ,f on either side of the main    
stop-valve ,a are also shown4 ,the steam
 after passing through the valve1 which1
 in the case of small turbines1 is      
hand-operated1 goes in turn through the 
automatic stop-valve ,b1 the function of
 which is to automatically shut steam   
off should the turbine attain a         
predetermined speed above the normal1   
the steam strainer ,c1 and finally      
through the governing valve ,d into the 
turbine4 ,as shown1 gages ,g and ,h are 
also fitted on either side of the       
strainer1 and these1 in conjunction with
 gages ,e and ,f1 will enable any fall  
in pressure between the first two valves
 and the governing valve to be found4   
,up to the governing-valve inlet no     
throttling of the steam ought to take   
place under normal conditions1 i4e41    
with all valves open1 and consequently  
any fall in pressure between the steam  
inlet and this point must be the result 

of internal wire-drawing4 ,by placing   
the gages as shown1 the extent to which 
this wire-drawing affects the pressures 
obtainable can be discovered4           
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ge  ,on varying  
and even on normal and steady full load1
 the steam is more or less reduced in   
pressure after passing through the      
governing valve ,d2 a gage ,i must      
consequently be placed between the      
valve1 preferably on the valve itself1  
and the turbine4 ,returning to ,fig4    
#gd1 the gages shown are ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1
 and ,e1 connected to the first1 second1
 third1 fourth1 and fifth expansions2   
also ,f in the turbine and exhaust      
space1 where there are no blades1 ,g in 
the exhaust pipe immediately before the 
main exhaust valve ,e 7see ,fig4 #gc71  
and ,h connected to the condenser4 ,on  
condensing full load it is probable that
 ,a1 ,b1 and ,c will all register       
pressures above the atmosphere1 while   
gages ,d1 ,e1 ,f1 and ,g will register  
pressures below the atmosphere1 being   

for this purpose vacuum gages4 ,on the  
other hand1 with a varying load1 and    
consequently varying initial pressures1 
one or two of the gages may register    
pressure at one moment and vacuum at    
another4 ,it will therefore be necessary
 to place at these points compound gages
 capable of registering both pressure   
and vacuum4 ,with the pressures in the  
various stages constantly varying1      
however1 a gage is not by any means the 
most reliable instrument for recording  
such variations4 ,the constant swinging 
of the finger not only renders accurate 
reading at any particular moment both   
difficult and1 to an extent1 unreliable1
 but1 in addition1 the accompanying     
sudden changes of condition1 both of    
temperature and pressure1 occurring     
inside the gage tube1 in a comparatively
 short time permanently warp this part1 
and thus altogether destroy the accuracy
 of the gage4 ,it is well known that    
even with the best steel-tube gages1    
registering comparatively steady        

pressures1 this warping of the tube     
inevitably takes place4 ,the quicker    
deterioration of such gage tubes1 when  
the gage is registering quickly changing
 pressures1 can therefore readily be    
conceived1 and for this reason alone it 
is desirable to have all gages1 whatever
 the conditions under which they work1  
carefully tested and adjusted at short  
intervals4 ,if it is desired to obtain  
reliable registration of the several    
pressures in the different expansions of
 a turbine running on a varying load1 it
 would therefore seem advisable to      
obtain these by some type of external   
spring gage 7an ordinary indicator has  
been found to serve well for this       
purpose7 which the sudden internal      
variations in pressure and temperature  
cannot deleteriously affect4  ,in view  
of the great importance he must attach  
to his gage readings1 the tester would  
do well to test and calibrate and adjust
 where necessary all the gages he       
intends using during a test4 ,this he   

can do with a standard gage-testing     
outfit4 ,by this means only can he have 
full confidence in the accuracy of his  
results4  ,in like manner it is his duty
 personally to supervise the connecting 
and arrangement of the gages1 and the   
preliminary testing for leakage which   
can be carried out simultaneously with  
the vacuum test made upon the turbine   
casing4   ,where ,thermometers are      
,required  ,equally important with the  
foregoing is the necessity of           
calibrating and testing of all          
thermometers used during a test4 ,where 
possible it is advisable to place new   
thermometers which have been previously 
tested at all points of high            
temperature4 ,briefly running them over1
 the points at which it is necessary to 
place thermometers in the entire system 
of the steam and condensing plant are as
 follows3  7#a7 ,a thermometer in the   
steam pipe on the boiler1 where the pipe
 leaves the superheater4  7#b7 ,in the  
steam pipe immediately in front of the  

main stop-valve1 near point ,e in ,fig4 
#ge4  7#c7 ,in the main governing valve 
body 7see ,i1 ,fig4 #ge7 on the inlet   
side4  7#d7 ,in the main governing valve
 body on the turbine side1 which will   
register temperatures of steam after it 
has passed through the valve4  7#e7 ,in 
the steam-turbine high-pressure chamber1
 giving the temperature of the steam    
before it has passed through any blades4
  7#f7 ,in the exhaust chamber1 giving  
the temperature of steam on leaving the 
last row of blades4  7#g7 ,in the       
exhaust pipe near the condenser4  7#h7  
,in the condenser body4  7#i7 ,in the   
circulating-water inlet pipe close to   
the condenser4  7#aj7 ,in the           
circulating-water outlet pipe close to  
the condenser4  7#aa7 ,in the air-pump  
suction pipe close to the condenser4    
7#ab7 ,in the air-pump suction pipe     
close to the air pump4  ,it is not      
advisable to place at those vital       
points1 the readings at which directly  
or indirectly affect the consumption1   

two thermometers1 say one ordinary      
chemical thermometer and one thermometer
 of the gage type1 thus eliminating the 
possibility of any doubt which might    
exist were only one thermometer placed  
there4  ,there is no apparent reason why
 one should attempt to take a series of 
temperature readings during a           
consumption test on varying load4 ,the  
temperatures registered under a steady  
load test can be obtained with great    
reliability1 but on a varying load1 with
 constantly changing temperatures at all
 points1 this is impossible4 ,this is1  
of course1 owing to the natural         
sluggishness of the                     
temperature-recording instruments1 of   
whatever class they belong to1 in       
responding to changes of condition4 ,as 
a matter of fact1 the possibility of    
obtaining correctly the entire          
conditions in a system running under    
greatly varying loads is very doubtful  
indeed1 and consequently great reliance 
cannot be placed upon figures obtained  

under such conditions4  ,a few simple   
calculations will reveal to the tester  
his special requirements in the         
direction of measuring tanks1 piping1   
etc41 for his steam consumption test4   
,thus1 assuming the turbine to be tested
 to be of #cjjj kilowatt capacity normal
 load1 with a guaranteed steam          
consumption of1 say1 #ad4e pounds per   
kilowatt-hour1 he calculates the total  
water rate per hour1 which in this case 
would be #dc1ejj pounds1 and designs his
 weighing or measuring tanks to cope    
with that amount1 allowing1 of course1 a
 marginal tank volume for overload      
requirements4     ,,viii4 ,,troubles    
,,with ,,steam ,,turbine ,,auxiliaries#g
  #g ,contributed to ,power by ,walter  
,b4 ,gump4   ,the case about to be      
described concerns a steam plant in     
which there were seven cross-compound   
condensing ,corliss engines1 and two    
,curtis steam turbines4 ,the latter were
 each of #aejj-kilowatt capacity1 and   
were connected to surface condensers1   

dry-vacuum pumps1 centrifugal1 hot-well 
and circulating pumps1 respectively4 ,in
 the illustration 7,fig4 #gf71 the      
original lay-out of piping is shown in  
full lines4 ,being originally a         
reciprocating plant it was difficult to 
make the allotted space for the turbines
 suitable for their proper installation4
 ,the trouble which followed was a      
perfectly natural result of the failure 
to meet the requirements of a turbine   
plant1 and the description herein given 
is but one example of a great many where
 the executive head of a concern insists
 upon controlling the situation without 
regard to engineering advice or common  
sense4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gf4      
,,turbine ,,auxiliaries ,,and ,,piping  
,circulating ,pump ,fails to ,meet      
,guarantee  ,observing the plan view1 it
 will be seen that the condensers for   
both turbines receive their supply of   
cooling water from the same supply pipe2
 that is1 the pipes1 both suction and   
discharge1 leading to ,no4 #a condenser 

are simply branches from ,no4 #b1 which 
was installed first without             
consideration for a second unit4 ,when  
,no4 #a was installed there was a row of
 columns from the basement floor to the 
main floor extending in a plane which   
came directly in front of the condenser4
 ,the column ,p shown in the plan was so
 located as to prevent a direct         
connection between the centrifugal      
circulating pump and the condenser      
inlet4 ,the centrifugal pump was        
direct-connected to a vertical          
high-speed engine1 and the coupling is  
shown at ,e in the elevation4  ,every   
possible plan was contemplated to       
accommodate the engine and pump without 
removing any of the columns1 and the    
arrangement shown was finally adopted1  
leaving the column ,p in its former     
place by employing an ,s-connection from
 the pump to the condenser4 ,it should  
be stated that the pump was purchased   
under a guarantee to deliver #fjjj      
gallons per minute under a head of #ej  

feet1 with an impeller velocity of #bhe 
revolutions per minute4 ,the vertical   
engine to which the pump was connected  
proved to be utterly unfit for running  
at a speed beyond #bbe to #bcj          
revolutions per minute1 and in addition 
the ,s-bend would obviously reduce the  
capacity1 even at the proper speed of   
the impeller4  ,besides these factors   
there was another feature even more     
serious4 ,it was found that when ,no4 #b
 unit was operating ,no4 #a could not   
get as great a quantity of circulating  
water as when ,no4 #b was shut down4    
,this was because ,no4 #b was drawing   
most of the water1 and ,no4 #a received 
only that which ,no4 #b could not pull  
from the suction pipe ,a4 ,this will be 
clear from the fact that the suction and
 discharge pipes for ,no4 #a were only  
#af inches1 while those of ,no4 #b were 
#bj inches and #af inches1 respectively4
 ,the condenser for ,no4 #b had #ajjj   
square feet less cooling surface than   
,no4 #a1 which had #fjjj square feet and

 was supplied with cooling water by     
means of two centrifugal pumps of       
smaller capacity than for ,no4 #a and   
arranged in parallel4 ,these were each  
driven by an electric motor1 and were   
termed ,the ,siamese ,twins1 due to the 
way in which they were connected4  ,the 
load factor of the plant ranged from    
#j4bb to #j4cj1 the load being almost   
entirely lighting1 so that for the      
winter season the load factor reached   
the latter figure4 ,the day load was1   
therefore1 light and not sufficient to  
give one turbine more than from         
one-fourth to one-third its rated       
capacity4 ,under these conditions ,no4  
#a unit was able to operate much more   
satisfactorily than when fully loaded1  
because of the fact that the cooling    
water was more effective4 ,this was1 of 
course1 all used by ,no4 #a unit when   
,no4 #b was not operating4 ,at best1    
however1 it was found that the vacuum   
could not be made to exceed #bd inches1 
and during the peak1 with the two       

turbines running1 the vacuum would often
 drop to #ab inches4 ,a vacuum of #af   
inches or #ah inches on the peak was    
considered good4   ,an ,investigation   
,severe criticism rained heavily upon   
the engineer in charge1 and complaints  
were made in reference to the high oil  
consumption4 ,an investigation on the   
company's part followed1 and the firm   
which furnished the centrifugal pump and
 engine was next in order to receive    
complaints4 ,repeated efforts were made 
to increase the speed of the vertical   
engine to #bhe revolutions per minute1  
but such a speed proved detrimental to  
the engine1 and a lower speed of about  
#bbe revolutions per minute had to be   
adopted4  ,a thorough test on the pump  
to ascertain its delivery at various    
speeds was the next move1 and a notched 
weir1 such as is shown in the elevation1
 was employed4 ,the test was made on    
,no4 #b cooling tower1 not shown in the 
sketch1 and showed that barely #cjjj    
gallons per minute were being delivered 

to the cooling tower4 ,while the firm   
furnishing the pump was willing to      
concede that the pump might not be doing
 all it should1 attention was called to 
the fact that there might be some other 
conditions in connection with the system
 which were responsible for the losses4 
,notable among these was the hydraulic  
friction1 and when this feature of the  
case was presented1 the company did not 
seem at all anxious to investigate the  
matter further2 obviously on account of 
facing a possible necessity for new     
piping or other apparatus which might   
cost something4  ,approximately #cd feet
 was the static head of water to be     
pumped over ,no4 #b cooling tower4      
,pressure gages were connected to the   
suction1 discharge1 and condenser inlet1
 as shown at ,g1 ,g' and ,g''           
respectively4 ,when ,no4 #a unit was    
operating alone the gage ,g showed      
practically zero1 indicating no vacuum  
in the suction pipe4 ,observing the same
 gage when ,no4 #b unit was running1 a  

vacuum as high as #b pounds was         
indicated1 showing that ,no4 #b was     
drawing more than its share of cooling  
water from the main ,a and hence the    
circulating pump for ,no4 #a was        
fighting for all it received4 ,gage ,g' 
indicated a pressure of #ba pounds1     
while ,g'' indicated #ah4e pounds1      
showing a difference of #b4e pounds     
pressure lost in the ,s-bend4 ,this is  
equivalent to a loss of head of nearly  
#f feet1 #j4dc pound per foot head being
 the constant employed4 ,the total head 
against which the pump worked was       
therefore                ,g'  ,g  #ba   
#b1 or                       #bc        
----  #ec                      #j4dc    
feet approximately4 ,since the static   
head was #cd feet1 the head lost in     
friction was evidently                  
#ec-cd  #ai feet1 or                    
#aijj                     ----  #cf     
#ec  per cent41 approximately4   ,supply
 of ,cooling ,water ,limited  ,in       
addition to this the supply of cooling  

water was limited1 the vacuum being     
extremely low at just the time when     
efficient operation should be had4 ,the 
natural result occurred1 which was this3
 ,as the load on the turbine increased1 
the amount of steam issuing into the    
condenser increased1 beating            
,transcriber3 heating8 the circulating  
water to a temperature which the cooling
 tower 7not in the best condition7 was  
unable to decrease to any great extent4 
,the vacuum gradually dropped off1 which
 indicated that the condenser was being 
filled with vapor1 and in a short time  
the small centrifugal tail-pump lost its
 prime1 becoming vapor bound1 and the   
vacuum further decreased4 ,the steam    
which had condensed would not go into   
the tail-pump because of the tendency of
 the dry-pump to maintain a vacuum4     
,when a certain point was reached the   
dry-vacuum pump started to draw water in
 its cylinder1 and the unit had to be   
shut down immediately4   ,vapor-bound   
,pumps  ,as the circulating water       

gradually rose in temperature the       
circulating pump also became vapor      
bound1 so that the unit would be tied up
 for the rest of the night1 as this pump
 could not be made to draw hot water4   
,the reason for this condition may be   
explained in the following way4 ,when   
the circulating pump was operating and  
there was a suction of #b pounds        
indicated at ,g1 the water was not      
flowing to the pump of its own accord1  
but was being pulled through by force4  
,this water would flow through the pump 
until a point was reached when the water
 became hot enough to be converted into 
vapor1 this occurring at a point where  
the pressure was sufficiently reduced to
 cause the water to boil4 ,naturally    
this point was in the suction pipe and  
vapor was thus maintained behind the    
pump as long as it was operating4 ,in   
this case the pump was merely           
maintaining a partial vacuum1 but not   
drawing water4 ,after the vacuum was    
once lost1 by reason of the facts given1

 it could not be regained1 as the       
circulating water1 piping and condenser 
required a considerable period of time  
in which to cool4  ,before any radical  
changes were made it was decided that a 
man should crawl in the suction pipe ,a1
 and remove such sand1 dirt1 or any     
other obstacles as were believed to     
cause the friction4 ,after this had been
 done and considerable sand had been    
removed1 tests were resumed with        
practically the same results as before4 
,the investigation was continued and the
 dry-vacuum pumps were overhauled1 as   
they had been damaged by water in the   
cylinders1 and furthermore needed       
re-boring4 ,in short1 the auxiliaries   
were restored to the best condition that
 could be brought about by the          
individual improvement of each piece of 
apparatus4 ,as this was not the seat of 
the trouble1 however1 the remedy failed 
to effect a cure4 ,it was demonstrated  
that the steam consumption of the       
turbines was greatly increased due to   

priming of the boilers1 as well as      
condensation in the turbine casing2     
hence1 the ills above mentioned were    
aggravated4   ,changes in ,piping       
,after a great deal of argument from the
 chief engineer1 and the firm which     
furnished the pump1 both making a strong
 plea for a change in the piping1 the   
company accepted the inevitable1 and the
 dotted portion shows the present       
layout4 ,the elbow ,m was removed1 and a
 tee put in its place to which the      
piping ,d was connected4 ,the           
circulating pump was removed to the     
position shown1 and a direct connection 
substituted for the ,s-bend4 ,the       
discharge pipe ,c was carried from ,no4 
#a unit separately1 as shown in the     
elevation1 and terminated at ,no4 #a    
cooling tower instead of ,no4 #b1 which 
shortened the distance about #fj feet1  
the total length of pipe 7one way7 from 
,no4 #a unit being originally #bej feet4
 ,in this way the condensing equipment  
was made practically separate for each  

turbine1 as it should have been in the  
first place4  ,with the new piping a    
vacuum of #bd inches on the peak could  
be reached4 ,while this is far from an  
efficient value1 yet it is better than  
the former figure4 ,the failure to reach
 a vacuum of #bh inches or better is due
 primarily to a lack of cooling water1  
but an improvement in this regard could 
be made by reconstructing the cooling   
towers1 which at present do not offer   
the proper amount of cooling surface4   
,the screens used were heavy galvanized 
wire of about #c_/af-;inch mesh1 which  
became coated in a short time1 and must 
be thoroughly cleaned to permit the     
water to drop through them4 ,the supply 
of cooling water was taken from a       
#cj-;inch pipe line several miles long  
and fed from a spring4 ,the amount of   
water varied considerably and was at    
times quite insufficient for the load on
 the plant4 ,instead of meeting this    
condition with the best apparatus       
possible1 a chain of difficulties were  

added to it1 with the results given4    
,,index   ,acceleration1 rate of1 #adg  
,adjustment1 axial1 #fe   making1 #ff   
,air-pump1 examining1 #afc              
,allis-,chalmers ,co4 steam turbine1 #da
  ,auxiliaries1 #b1 #aed   special1 #afe
  ,auxiliary plant for consumption test1
 #acg   spring on governor dome1 #bh    
,axial adjustment1 #fe   ,baffler1 #cf  
functions1 #ci  ,bearings1 main1 #fi    
,blades1 construction details1 #dd      
inspecting1 #ajd  ,blading1             
,allis-,chalmers turbine1 #dh           
,westinghouse-,parsons turbine1 #ei1 #ib
  ,blueprints1 studying1 #aa  ,buckets1 
moving1 #ad   stationary1 #ad           
,bushings1 #cf   ,carbon packing1 #ai   
ring1 #bj  ,central gravity oiling      
system1 #aaa  ,circulating pump fails to
 meet guarantee1 #agb  ,clearance1 #ae1 
#aej   adjusting1 #ah   between moving  
and stationary buckets1 #d   gages1 #ag 
measuring1 #ah   radial1 #fc  ,comma    
lashing1 #ie  ,condensers1 #ajh1 #aca   
jet1 #aed  ,conditions for successful   

operation1 #aje  ,cooling water supply  
limited1 #agg  ,coupling1 #abg          
,cover-plate1 #d   -plate1 lowering1 #i 
,curtis turbine1 #aa   turbine in       
practice1 #a   setting valves1 #ca1 #cb 
,de ,laval turbines1 #aah  ,draining    
system1 #aje  ,dummy leakage1 #aae      
pistons1 #fc1 #fe   rings1 #dc1 #aac1   
#aad   ,equalizing pipes1 #fd  ,exhaust 
end of turbine1 #ajg   pipe1 #ajg       
,expanding nozzles1 #ad   ,feed-pipes1  
#afd  ,flow1 rate1 #ch  ,foundation     
drawings1 #b   rings1 #dd1 #df          
,fourth-stage wheel1 #ad  ,franklin1    
,thomas1 #aab1 #acg1 #aed   ,gages1     
calibrating and adjusting1 #afi         
clearance1 #ag   for test work1 #afe    
,generator1 #ec  ,glands1 examination   
for scale1 #ajd   packing1 #ga1 #gg     
regulation1 #adh  ,governor1            
,allis-,chalmers turbine1 #dh   ,curtis 
turbine1 #bg1 #ca   improved1           
,westinghouse-,parsons turbine1 #hc     
-rods1 adjusting1 #ce   safety-stop1 #hf
   ,westinghouse-,parsons turbine1 #hj  

,grinding1 #ch  ,guide-bearing1 lower1  
#i  ,gump1 ,walter ,b41 #agb   ,holly   
draining system1 #ajf  ,horseshoe shim1 
#h  ,hot-well regulation1 #adh          
,inspection1 #ajc  ,intermediate1 #ad   
,jacking ring1 #h  ,jet condenser1 #aed 
,johnson1 ,fred ,l41 #a1 #ca   ,leakage1
 #aah  ,load variation1 #add  ,lower    
guide-bearing1 #i  ,lubrication1 #ea    
,measuring tanks1 #aga  ,mechanical     
valve-gear1 #cb   ,nozzles1 expanding1  
#ad   ,oil1 #eg1 #ajc1 #aji   amount    
passing through bearings1 #abb          
consumption1 high1 #age   detecting     
water in1 #abb   pressure1 #abb         
-temperature curve1 #abc  ,oil1 testing1
 #aaj   velocity of flow1 #abb  ,oiling1
 #hg   system1 importance1 #aai         
,operation1 ,allis-,chalmers turbine1   
#ed1 #ee   successful1 #aje  ,operations
 in handling turbine plant1 #adf        
,overload valve1 #bh   ,packing1 carbon1
 #ai   glands1 #ga   ring1              
self-centering1 #ad  ,parsons type of   
turbine1 #da  ,passage in foundation1 #b

  ,peep-holes1 #ae1 #ah  ,piping1 #aga  
changing1 #agi   inspection1 #afd       
,pressure1 #fc   gages1 #aff   in       
glands1 #eg  ,pump1 circulating1 fails  
to meet guarantee1 #agb   inspection1   
#afd   ,radial clearance1 #fc  ,rateau  
turbines1 #aah  ,relief valves1 #ca     
valves1 importance1 #aei  ,ring1 carbon1
 #bj  ,rotor1 ,westinghouse-,parsons    
turbine1 #ei  ,running1 #ii             
,safety-stop1 #bb   -stop governor1 #hf 
,saucer steps1 #ci  ,screw1             
step-bearing1 #ah   step-supporting1 #d 
,separators1 #aje  ,setting spindle and 
cylinder for minimum leakage1 #aae      
valves in ,curtis turbine1 #ca1 #cb     
,shaft1 holding up while removing       
support1 #h  ,shield-plate1 #bf1 #cf    
,shim1 horseshoe1 #h  ,shroud rings1    
#dd1 #df  ,shrouding on buckets and     
intermediates1 #ah  ,shutting down1 #aja
  ,special turbine features1 #abg       
,spindle1 lifting1 #if   removing1 #ajd 
,spraying mechanism1 #aeh  ,stage       
valves1 #bh1 #ca  ,starting up1 #ed1 #ie

  ,step-bearing1 lowering to examine1 #h
   -bearing screw1 #ah   -blocks1 #d    
-lubricant1 #d   -pressure1 #ch         
-supporting screw1 #d   -water1 flow1   
#ch  ,stopping turbine1 #ef  ,sub-base1 
#h  ,superheated steam1 #aje   ,test    
loads1 #ada   necessary features1 #afc  
,testing oil1 #aaj   preparing turbine  
for1 #ade   steam turbine1 #aab1 #acg1  
#aeb  ,thermometer1 calibrating and     
testing1 #afi   oil1 #abe               
,thrust-block1 #aah  ,top block1 #d     
,troubles with steam turbine            
auxiliaries1 #agb  ,turbine features1   
special1 #abg   ,vacuum1 #aeb   raising1
 #ajg   test1 #ace  ,valve-gear1 #hc    
-gear1 mechanical1 #bb1 #cb   operation 
during consumption test1 #ach           
overload1 #bh   relief1 #ca             
importance1 #aei   setting in ,curtis   
turbine1 #ca1 #cb   stage1 #bh1ca       
,vapor bound pumps1 #agh   ,water1      
cooling1 limited1 #agg   in oil1        
detecting1 #abb   -measurement readings1
 #adh   pressure1 #aja   service1 #abf  

importance1 #aai   tests of condenser1  
#acc   used in glands1 #eg1 #gf         
,westinghouse-,parsons steam turbine1   
#eh  ,wheels1 #ad   lower or            
fourth-stage1 #ad   position1 #ah