,illu/ration ,,sci5tific ,,am]ican ,,supplem5t ,,no4 #fdg ,,new ,,york1 ,,may #bf1 #ahhh ,sci5tific ,am]ican ,supplem5t4 ,vol4 ,,xxv41 ,no4 #fdg4 ,sci5tific ,am]ican e/abli%$ #ahde ,sci5tific ,am]ican ,supplem5t1 #e a ye>4 ,sci5tific ,am]ican & ,supplem5t1 #g a ye>4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,table ,,( ,,cont5ts4 ,,page4 ,i4 ,,ar*itecture4--,elem5ts ( ,ar*itectural ,design4--,by ,h4 ,h4 ,/a?am4--,cont9uation ( ?is important contribution to build+ art1 ,go?ic1 ,roman1 ,romanesque1 & ,m$ival ar*itecture comp>$4--#bf illu/rations4 #ajcci ,! ,evolution ( ! ,mod]n ,mill4--,by ,c4 ,j4 ,h4 ,woodbury4--,sibley ,college lecture treat+ ( ! build+s = mills4 #ajcbi ,,ii4 ,,*emi/ry4--,an ,automatic ,/ill4--,by ,t4 ,mab54--,an improv$ app>atus = mak+ di/ill$ wat]4--#a illu/ration4 #ajcce ,te/+ ,indigo ,dyes4--,simple & practical *emical te/s ( indigo products4 #ajcdb ,,iii4 ,,civil ,,eng9e]+4--,railway ,bridge at ,la*9e4--,great /eel bridge across ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce ne> ,montreal4--#b illu/rations4 #ajccc ,,iv4 ,,electricity4--,influ5ce ,ma*9es4--,by ,mr4 ,james ,wim%ur/4--,a ,london ,royal ,in/itution lecture1 ( great value z giv+ a full acc\nt ( ! rec5t =ms ( g5]ators ( /atic electricity4--#ad illu/rations4 #ajcbg ,v4 ,,hygi5e4--,! ,c>e ( ! ,eyes4--,by ,pr(4 ,david ,web/]1 ,m4,d4--,a %ort & ?or\ghly practical pap] on ! all important subject ( pres]vation ( sight4 #ajcda ,,vi4 ,,me*anical ,,eng9e]+4--,economy ,trials ( a ,non-cond5s+ ,/eam ,eng9e4--,by ,mr4 ,p4 ,w4 ,w9ans1 ,m4,i4,c4,e4--,int]e/+ notes on te/+ /eam eng9es4 #ajcca ,! ,me*anical ,equival5t ( ,heat4--,by ,pr(4 ,de ,volson ,wood4--,a review ( ,mr4 ,hanss5's rec5t pap]1 ) int]e/+ discussion ( ! problem4 #ajcca ,,vii4 ,,meteorology4--,! ,meteorological ,/ation on ,mt4 ,santis4--,a new obs]vatory rec5tly erect$ 9 ,switz]l&1 at an elevation ( #h1bjb feet above ! sea4--#a illu/ration4 #ajcda ,,viii4 ,,naval ,,eng9e]+4--,improv$ ,screw ,propell]4--,mr4 ,b4 ,dick9son's new propell]4--,its =m & peculi>ities & results4--#d illu/rations4 #ajccc ,,ix4 ,,photography4--,manufacture ( ,photographic ,s5sitive ,plates4--,description ( a factory rec5tly erect$ = manufactur+ dry plates4--,! arrangem5t ( rooms1 ma*9]y1 & process4--#aj illu/rations4 #ajccf ,x4 ,,te*nology4--,cotton ,se$ ,oil4--,h[ cotton se$ oil is made1 & ! co/ & pr(its ( ! op]ation4 #ajcce ,improv$ ,dobby4--,an improv$ weav+ app>atus describ$ & illu/rat$4--#a ,illu/ration4 #ajccc ,sulphur ,m9es 9 ,sicily4--,by ,philip ,c>roll1 ,u4 ,s4 ,consul1 ,flor5ce4--,h[ sulphur is made 9 ,sicily1 p]c5tage1 composition ( ! ore1 & full details4 #ajccd ,! ,use ( ,ammonia z a ,refrig]at+ ,ag5t4--,by ,mr4 ,t4 ,b4 ,lightfoot1 ,m4,i4,c4,e4--,an elaborate discussion ( ! !ory & practice ( ammonia refrig]at+1 includ+ ! hydr\s & anhydr\s sy/ems1 ) conditions ( economy4 #ajccg 99 99 99 99 99 ,,influ5ce ,,ma*9es4#a ,footnote #a3 ,lecture deliv]$ at ! ,royal ,in/itution1 ,april #bg1 #ahhh4 ,= ! above & = our illu/rations we are indebt$ to ,eng9e]+4 ,,by ,,mr4 ,,james ,,wim%ur/4 ,i h ! honor ?is ev5+ ( address+ a few rem>ks to y ^u ! subject ( influ5ce ma*9es1 & ! mann] 9 :i* ,i propose to treat ! subject is to /ate z %ortly z possible1 fir/1 ! hi/orical portion1 & aft]w>d to po9t out ! prom95t *>act]i/ics ( ! lat] & ! m commonly kn[n ma*9es4 ,! diagrams ^u ! scre5 w assi/ ! eye to ! g5]al =m ( ! typical ma*9es1 b ,i fe> t want ( "t w prev5t me f expla9+ ea* ( !m4 ,9 #agfb ,wilcke describ$ a simple app>atus :i* produc$ electrical *>ges by influ5ce1 or induction1 & foll[+ ?is ! great ,italian sci5ti/ ,alex&] ,volta 9 #agge gave ! electrophorus ! =m :i* x reta9s to ! pres5t day4 ,?is app>atus may be view$ z conta9+ ! g]m ( ! pr9ciple ( all influ5ce ma*9es yet con/ruct$4 ,ano!r /ep 9 ! developm5t 0 ! inv5tion ( ! d\bl] by ,b5net 9 #aghf4 ,he con/ruct$ metal plates :i* 7 ?ickly v>ni%$1 & 7 support$ by insulat+ h&les1 & :i* 7 manipulat$ s z to increase a small initial *>ge4 ,x may be bett] = me to "h expla9 ! process ( build+ up an increas$ *>ge by electrical influ5ce1 = ! same pr9ciple holds 9 all ( ! _m =ms ( influ5ce ma*9es4 ,?is ,volta electrophorus1 & ^! ?ree blackbo>ds1 w s]ve = ! purpose4 ,i fir/ excite ! electrophorus 9 ! usual mann]1 & y see t x !n influ5ces a *>ge 9 its top plate2 ! *>ge 9 ! res9\s comp\nd is kn[n z negative1 :ile ! *>ge induc$ 9 its top plate is kn[n z positive4 ,i n[ %[ y by ?is electroscope t ^! *>ges are unlike 9 "*4 ,bo? *>ges are1 h[ev]1 small1 & ,b5net us$ ! foll[+ sy/em to increase !m4 ,let ^! ?ree bo>ds repres5t ,b5net's ?ree plates4 ,to plate ,no4 #a he imp>t$ a positive *>ge1 & ) x he induc$ a negative *>ge 9 plate ,no4 #b4 ,!n ) plate ,no4 #b he induc$ a positive *>ge 9 plate ,no4 #c4 ,he !n plac$ ! plates ,nos4 #a & #c toge!r1 by :i* comb9ation he _h two positive *>ges )9 practically ! same space1 & ) ^! two *>ges he induc$ a d\ble *>ge 9 plate ,no4 #b4 ,?is process 0 cont9u$ until ! desir$ degree ( increase 0 obta9$4 ,i w n g ?r\gh ! process ( actually build+ up a *>ge by su* means1 = x w\ld take m "t ?an ,i c sp>e4 ,9 #aghg ,c>vallo discov]$ ! v important fact t metal plates :5 insulat$ always acquire slight *>ges ( electricity2 foll[+ up ^? two important discov]ies ( ,b5net & ,c>vallo1 ,ni*olson 9 #aghh con/ruct$ an app>atus hav+ two disks ( metal insulat$ & fix$ 9 ! same plane4 ,!n by means ( a sp9dle & h&le1 a ?ird disk1 also insulat$1 0 made to revolve ne> to ! two fix$ disks1 metallic t\*es be+ fix$ 9 suitable positions4 ,) ?is app>atus be f\nd t small residual *>ges might readily be increas$4 ,x is 9 ?is simple app>atus t we h ! p>5t ( influ5ce ma*9es 7see ,fig4 #a71 & z x is n[ a hundr$ ye>s s9ce ,ni*olson describ$ ?is ma*9e 9 ! ,phil4 ,trans41 ,i ?9k x well wor? %[+ a l>ge siz$ ,ni*olson ma*9e at "w to-night 7see ,fig4 #aa1 above74 ,illu/ration3 ,figs4 #a-i4 ,9 #ahbc ,ronalds describ$ a ma*9e 9 :i* ! mov+ disk 0 atta*$ to & work$ by ! p5dulum ( a clock4 ,x 0 a modification ( ,ni*olson's d\bl]1 & he us$ x to supply electricity = telegraph work+4 ,= "s ye>s aft] ^! ma*9es 7 inv5t$ no important advance appe>s to h be5 made1 & ,i ?9k ?is may be attribut$ to ! great discov]ies 9 galvanic electricity :i* 7 made ab\t ! comm5cem5t ( ?is c5tury by ,galvani & ,volta1 foll[$ 9 #ahca to #aheg by ! magnific5t discov]ies ( ,f>aday 9 electro-magnetism1 electro-*emi/ry1 & electro-optics1 & no real improvem5t 0 made 9 influ5ce ma*9es till #ahfj1 9 :i* ye> ,v>ley pat5t$ a =m ( ma*9e %[n 9 ,fig4 #b4 ,x also 0 design$ = telegraph work+4 ,9 #ahfe ! subject 0 tak5 up ) vigor 9 ,g]many by ,toepl]1 ,holtz1 & o!r em95t m54 ,! mo/ prom95t ( ! ma*9es made by !m are figur$ 9 ! diagrams 7,figs4 #c to #f71 b "t w n admit ( my giv+ an explanation ( ! _m po9ts ( int]e/ 9 !m2 x be+ my wi% to %[ y at "w su* ( ! ma*9es z ,i may be able1 & to make "s obs]vations ^u !m4 ,9 #ahff ,b]ts* inv5t$ a ma*9e1 b n ( ! multiply+ type2 & 9 #ahfg ,sir ,william ,?omson inv5t$ ! =m ( ma*9e %[n 9 ,fig4 #g1 :i*1 = ! purpose ( ma9ta9+ a con/ant pot5tial 9 a ,leyd5 j>1 is exce$+ly useful4 ,! ,c>re ma*9e 0 inv5t$ 9 #ahfh1 & 9 #ahhj ! ,voss ma*9e 0 introduc$1 s9ce :i* "t ! latt] has f\nd a place 9 _m laboratories4 ,x closely resembles ! ,v>ley ma*9e 9 appe>ance1 & ! ,toepl] ma*9e 9 con/ruction4 ,9 cond5s+ ?is "p ( my subject1 ,i h _h to omit _m prom95t names & mu* int]e/+ subject matt]1 b ,i mu/ /ate t 9 plac+ :at ,i h be=e y1 _m ( my sci5tific fri5ds h be5 ready to help & to contribute1 &1 z an in/ance ( ?is1 ,i may m5tion t ,pr(4 ,sylvanus ,p4 ,?ompson at once plac$ all 8 lit]ature & ev5 8 private notes ( ref]5ce at my s]vice4 ,i w n[ endeavor to po9t out ! m prom95t features ( ! influ5ce ma*9es :i* ,i h pres5t1 &1 9 do+ s1 ,i mu/ ask a mom5t's leave f ! subject ( my lecture to %[ y a small ma*9e made by t em95t work] ,f>aday1 :i*1 ap>t f its value z 8 h&iwork1 s closely br+s u face to face ) ! imp]fect app>atus ) :i* he & o!rs ( 8 day made _! valuable rese>*es4 ,! next ma*9e :i* ,i take is a ,holtz4 ,x has "o plate revolv+1 ! second plate be+ fix$4 ,! fix$ plate1 z y see1 is s mu* cut away t x is v liable to breakage4 ,pap] inductors are fix$ ^u ! back ( x1 :ile opposite ! inductors1 & 9 front ( ! revolv+ plate1 are combs4 ,to "w ! ma*9e 7#a7 a specially dry atmosph]e is requir$2 7#b7 an initial *>ge is necess>y2 7#c7 :5 at "w ! am\nt ( electricity pass+ ?r\gh ! t]m9als is great2 7#d7 ! direction ( ! curr5t is apt to rev]se2 7#e7 :5 ! t]m9als are op5$ beyond ! sp>k+ di/ance1 ! excitem5t rapidly dies away2 7#f7 x does n "p ) free electricity f ei!r ( ! t]m9als s+ly4 ,x has no metal on ! revolv+ plates1 nor any metal contacts2 ! electricity is collect$ by combs :i* take ! place ( bru%es1 & x is ! break 9 ! connection ( ?is circuit :i* supplies a curr5t = ext]nal use4 ,on ?is po9t ,i _c d bett] ?an quote an extract f page #cci ( ,sir ,william ,?omson's ,pap]s on ,electro/atics & ,magnetism1 :i* runs3 ,holtz's n[ celebrat$ electric ma*9e1 :i* is closely analog\s 9 pr9ciple to ,v>ley's ( #ahfj1 is1 ,i believe1 a desc5dant ( ,ni*olson's4 ,its great p[] dep5ds ^u ! abolition by ,holtz ( metallic c>ri]s & metallic make-&-break-contacts4 ,x diff]s f ,v>ley's & m9e by leav+ ! inductors to !mselves1 & us+ ! curr5t 9 ! connect+ arc4 ,9 respect to ! second =m ( ,holtz ma*9e 7,fig4 #d7 ,i h v little in=mation1 = s9ce x 0 br\ght to my notice ne>ly six ye>s ago ,i h n be5 able to f9d ei!r "o ( ! ma*9es or any p]son :o _h se5 "o4 ,z w be se5 by ! diagram1 x has two disks revolv+ 9 opposite directions1 x has no metal sectors & no metal contacts4 ,! connect+ arc circuit is us$ = ! t]m9al circuit4 ,altoge!r ,i c v well und]/& & fully appreciate ! /atem5t made by ,pr(essor ,holtz 9 ,upp5born's ,j\rnal ( ,may1 #ahha1 :]e9 he writes t = ! purpose ( demon/ration ,i w\ld r be )\t su* ma*9es4 ,! fir/ type ( ,holtz ma*9e has n[ 9 _m in/ances be5 made up 9 multiple =m1 )9 suitably con/ruct$ glass cases1 b :5 s made up1 great difficulty has be5 f\nd 9 keep+ ea* ( ! _m plates to a l excitem5t4 ,:5 diff]5tly excit$1 ! "o set ( plates furni%$ positive electricity to ! comb1 :ile ! next set ( plates gave negative electricity2 z a consequ5ce1 no electricity pass$ ! t]m9al4 ,to ov]come ?is objection1 to disp5se ) ! dang]\sly cut plates1 & also to bett] neutralize ! revolv+ plate1 ?r\gh\t its :ole diamet]1 ,i made a l>ge ma*9e hav+ twelve disks #b ft4 #g 94 9 diamet]1 & 9 x ,i ins]t$ pla9 rectangul> slips ( glass betwe5 ! disks1 :i* might readily be remov$2 ^! slips c>ri$ ! pap] inductors4 ,to keep all ! pap] inductors on "o side ( ! ma*9e to a l excitem5t1 ,i connect$ !m toge!r by a metal wire4 ,! ma*9e s made work$ spl5didly1 & y\r late presid5t1 ,mr4 ,spottiswoode1 s5t on two occasions to take note ( my successful modifications4 ,! ma*9e is n[ t5 ye>s old1 b /ill works p]fectly4 ,i w %[ y a small] siz$ "o at "w4 ,! next ma*9e = obs]vations is ! ,c>re 7,fig4 #h74 ,x consi/s ess5tially or a disk ( glass :i* is free to revolve )\t t\* or friction4 ,at "o end ( a diamet] x moves ne> to ! excit$ plate ( a frictional ma*9e1 :ile at ! opposite end ( ! diamet] is a /rip ( insult+ mat]ial1 opposite :i*1 & also opposite ! excit$ amalgam plate1 are combs = conduct+ ! induc$ *>ges1 & to :i* ! t]m9als are metallically connect$2 ! ma*9e works well 9 ord9>y atmosph]e1 & c]ta9ly is 9 _m ways to be pref]r$ to ! simple frictional ma*9e4 ,9 my exp]im5ts ) x ,i f\nd t ! quantity ( electricity might be m ?an d\bl$ by add+ a segm5t ( glass betwe5 ! amalgam cu%ions & ! revolv+ plate4 ,! curr5t 9 ?is type ( ma*9e is con/ant4 ,! ,voss ma*9e has "o fix$ plate & "o revolv+ plate4 ,^u ! fix$ plate are two inductors1 :ile on ! revolv+ plate are six circul> c>ri]s4 ,two bru%es receive ! fir/ portions ( ! induc$ *>ges f ! c>ri]s1 :i* portions are convey$ to ! inductors4 ,! combs collect ! rema9+ portion ( ! induc$ *>ge = use z an out] circuit1 :ile ! metal rod ) its two bru%es neutralizes ! plate surface 9 a l9e ( its diagonal diamet]4 ,:5 at "w x supplies a consid]able am\nt ( electricity4 ,x is self-excit+ 9 ord9>y dry atmosph]e4 ,x freely p>ts ) its electricity f ei!r t]m9al1 b :5 s us$ ! curr5t frequ5tly *anges its direction1 h5ce !re is no c]ta9ty t a full *>ge has be5 obta9$1 nor :e!r ! *>ge is ( positive or negative electricity4 ,i next come to ! type ( ma*9e ) :i* ,i am m closely associat$1 & ,i may preface my rem>ks by add+ t ! inv5tion sprang solely f my exp]i5ce ga9$ by con/antly us+ & exp]im5t+ ) ! _m electrical ma*9es :i* ,i possess$4 ,x 0 f ^! ,i =m$ a work+ hypo!sis :i* l$ me to make my fir/ small ma*9e4 ,x excit$ itself :5 new ) ! fir/ revolution4 ,x s fully satisfi$ me ) its p]=mance t ,i _h f\r o!rs made1 ! fir/ ( :i* ,i pres5t$ to ?is ,in/itution4 ,its con/ruction is ( a simple "*4 ,! two disks ( glass revolve ne> to ea* o!r & 9 opposite directions4 ,ea* disk c>ries metallic sectors2 ea* disk has its two bru%es support$ by metal rods1 ! rods to ! two plates =m+ an angle ( #ij deg4 ) ea* o!r4 ,! ext]nal circuit is indep5d5t ( ! bru%es1 & is =m$ by ! combs & t]m9als4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,! ma*9e is self-excit+ "u all conditions ( atmosph]e1 ow+ probably to ea* plate be+ influ5c$ by & influ5c+ 9 turn its neighbor1 h5ce !re is ! m9imum surface = leakage4 ,:5 excit$1 ! direction ( ! curr5t nev] *anges2 ?is circum/ance is due1 probably1 to ! circuit ( ! metallic sectors & ! make & break contacts always be+ clos$1 :ile ! combs & ! ext]nal circuit are supplem5tal1 & = ext]nal use only4 ,! quantity ( electricity is v l>ge & ! pot5tial high4 ,:5 suitably arrang$1 ! l5g? ( sp>k produc$ is equal to ne>ly ! radius ( ! disk4 ,i h made !m f #b 94 to #g ft4 9 diamet]1 ) equally satisfactory results4 ,! diagram1 ,fig4 #i1 %[s ! di/ribution ( ! electricity ^u ! plate surfaces :5 ! ma*9e is fully excit$4 ,! inn] circle ( signs corresponds ) ! electricity ^u ! front surface ( ! disk4 ,! two circles ( signs betwe5 ! two black r+s ref] to ! electricity betwe5 ! disks1 :ile ! out] circle ( signs corresponds ) ! electricity ^u ! out] surface ( ! back disk4 ,! diagram is ! result ( exp]im5ts :i* ,i _c v well repeat "h ?is ev5+1 b 9 support ( ! di/ribution %[n on ! diagram1 ,i w %[ y two disks at "w made ( a flexible mat]ial1 :i* :5 driv5 9 "o direction close toge!r at ! top & ! bottom1 :ile 9 ! horizontal diamet] !y are repell$4 ,:5 driv5 9 ! rev]se direction1 ! opposite action takes place4 ,i h also exp]im5t$ ) ! cyl9drical =m ( ! ma*9e 7see ,fig4 #aj74 ,! fir/ ( ^! ,i made 9 #ahhb1 & x is be=e y4 ,! cyl9d] gives inf]ior results to ! simple disks1 & is m complicat$ to adju/4 ,y notice ,i nei!r use nor recomm5d vulcanite1 & x is p]haps well to caution my he>]s aga9/ ! use ( t mat]ial = ! purpose1 = x w>ps ) age1 & :5 left 9 ! daylight x *anges & becomes useless4 ,illu/ration3 ,figs4 #aa #ab4 ,i h n[ only to speak ( ! l>g] ma*9es4 ,!y are 9 all respects made up ) ! same plates1 sectors1 & bru%es z 7 us$ by me 9 ! fir/ exp]im5tal ma*9es1 b = conv5i5ce sake !y are fitt$ 9 numb]s )9 a glass case4 ,"o ma*9e has eight plates ( #b ft4 #d 94 diamet]2 x has be5 9 ! possession ( ! ,in/itution = ab\t ?ree ye>s4 ,a second1 :i* has be5 made = ?is lecture1 has twelve disks1 ea* #b ft4 #f 94 9 diamet]4 ,! l5g? ( sp>k f x is #ac-e_/h 94 7see ,fig4 #ab74 ,dur+ ! con/ruction ( ! ma*9e e c>e 0 tak5 to avoid electrical excitem5t 9 any ( its p>ts1 & aft] its completion sev]al fri5ds 7 pres5t to witness ! fitt+ ( ! bru%es & ! fir/ />t4 ,:5 all 0 ready ! t]m9als 7 connect$ to an electroscope1 & ! h&le 0 mov$ s sl[ly t x occupi$ ?irty seconds 9 mov+ "o-half revolution1 & at t po9t viol5t excitem5t appe>$4 ,! ma*9e has n[ be5 /&+ ) its h&le secur$ = ab\t eight h\rs4 ,no excitem5t is app>5t1 b /ill x may n be absolutely in]t4 ,( ?is ea* "o pres5t mu/ judge1 b ,i w connect x ) ?is electroscope 7,figs4 #ac & #ad71 & !n move ! h&le sl[ly1 s t y may see :5 ! excitem5t comm5ces & judge ( its absolutely reliable behavior z an in/rum5t = public demon/ration4 ,i may say t ,i h nev]1 "u any condition1 f\nd ?is type ( ma*9e to fail 9 its p]=mance4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ac4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,i n[ propose to %[ y ! beautiful appe>ances ( ! dis*>ge1 & !n1 9 ord] t y may judge ( ! relative capabilities ( ea* ( ^! ?ree ma*9es1 we w "w !m all at ! same "t4 ,! l>ge frictional ma*9e :i* is 9 use = ?is comp>ison is s well kn[n by y t a bett] /&>d c\ld n be desir$4 ,9 conclusion1 ,i may be p]mitt$ to say t x is =tunate ,i _h n read ! op9ions ( ,sir ,william ,?omson & ,pr(essor ,holtz1 z quot$ 9 ! e>li] "p ( my lecture1 previ\s to my own practical exp]im5ts4 ,= _h ,i read su* op9ions f su* au?orities1 ,i %\ld probably h accept$ !m )\t putt+ !m to practical te/4 ,z ! matt] /&s1 ,i h done ^? ?+s :i* !y said ,i ought n to h done1 & ,i h left undone ^? :i* !y said ,i ought to h done1 & by s do+ ,i ?9k y mu/ freely admit t ,i h produc$ an electric g5]at+ ma*9e ( great p[]1 & h plac$ 9 ! h&s ( ! physici/1 = ! purposes ( public demon/ration or orig9al rese>*1 an in/rum5t m reliable ?an any?+ hi!rto produc$4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,violet ,,copy+ ,,ink4--,dissolve #dj p>ts ( extract ( logwood1 #e ( oxalic acid & #cj p>ts ( sulphate ( alum9ium1 )\t heat1 9 #hjj p>ts ( di/ill$ wat] & #aj p>ts ( glyc]9e2 let /& tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 !n add a solution ( #e p>ts ( bi*romate ( potassium 9 #ajj p>ts ( di/ill$ wat]1 & aga9 set aside = tw5ty-f\r h\rs4 ,n[ raise ! mixture once to boil+ 9 a bright copp] boil]1 mix ) x1 :ile hot1 #ej p>ts ( wood v9eg>1 & :5 cold put into bottles4 ,aft] a =tnight decant x f ! s$im5t4 ,9 ?9 lay]s ?is ink is r$di% violet2 x writes d>k violet & furni%es blui% violet copies4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,sibley ,,college ,,lectures4--#ahhg-hh4 ,,by ,,! ,,cornell ,,univ]sity ,,non-,,resid5t ,,lectur]s ,,9 ,,me*anical ,,eng9e]+4 ,,! ,,evolution ,,( ,,! ,,mod]n ,,mill4#a ,footnote #a3 ,! lecture 0 illu/rat$ by ab\t fifty views on ! scre51 :i* _c be reproduc$ "h1 %[+ photographs ( mills & me*anical draw+s ( ! me?ods ( con/ruction allud$ to 9 ! lecture4 ,,by ,c4 ,j4 ,h4 ,,woodbury1 ,,bo/on1 ,,mass4 ,! great factories ( ! textile indu/ries 9 ?is c\ntry are fa%ion$ aft] me?ods peculi>ly adapt$ to ! purposes = :i* !y are design$1 p>ticul>ly z reg>ds ! mo/ conv5i5t plac+ ( ma*9]y1 ! di/ribution ( p[]1 ! relation ( ! sev]al processes to ea* o!r 9 ! natural sequ5ce ( manufacture1 & ! arrangem5t ( w9d[s secur+ ! mo/ favorable light+4 ,! floors & ro(s embody ! mo/ economical di/ribution ( mat]ial1 & ! walls furni% examples ( well kn[n =ms ( masonry orig9at+ ) ?is class ( build+s4 ,^! features ( con/ruction h n be5 produc$ by a /roke ( g5ius on ! "p ( any "o man4 ,!re has be5 no ,mi*ael ,angelo1 no ,sir ,*ri/oph] ,wr51 ^: epitaph bids ! read] to look ar\nd = a monum5t2 b ! :ole has be5 a matt] ( sl[1 /eady gr[?1 advanc+ by hair's bread?2 &1 z ! result ( cont9ual ef=ts to adapt means to ends1 an inorganic evolution has be5 effect$1 result+ 9 ! survival ( ! fitte/1 & lit]ally pu%+ ! weak] to ! wall4 ,?is advance 9 me?ods has1 l all inv5tions1 result$ 9 ! impairm5t ( inve/$ capital4 ,!re are hundr$s ( mill build+s1 ! wond] ( _! day1 n[ us$ = /orage because !y _c be employ$ to suffici5t advantage 9 manufactur+ purposes to compete ) ! facilities furni%$ by mills ( lat] design4 ,?us _! own]s h be5 compell$ to erect new build+s1 &1 z f> z ! orig9al purpose ( manufactur+ is conc]n$1 to ab&on _! old mills4 ,9 ! case ( a c]ta9 cotton mill built ab\t ?irty ye>s ago1 & us$ = ! manufacture ( color$ goods ( fancy weave1 ! own]s add$ to ! plant by con/ruct+ a "o /ory mill1 :i* prov$ to be peculi>ly adapt$ to ?is k9d ( manufacture1 by reason ( add$ /ability1 bett] light1 & increas$ facilities = transf]r+ ! /ock 9 process ( manufacture2 & !y soon le>n$ n only t ! old mill c\ld n compete ) ! new "o1 b t !y c\ld n af=d to run x at any price2 ! annual sav+ 9 ! co/ ( gas1 z measur$ by ! id5tical met] us$ to measure ! supply to ! old mill1 be+ six p] c5t4 on ! co/ ( ! new mill4 ,9 ano!r in/ance1 "o ( two cordage mills burn$1 & a new mill ( "o /ory con/ruction 0 erect$ 9 its place4 ,! advantage ( manufacture !re9 0 s great t ! own]s ( ! prop]ty *ang$ ! rema9+ old mill into a /oreh\se2 & n[1 z !y wi% to increase _! bus9ess1 x is to be torn d[n z a cumb]] ( ! gr\nd1 to make room = a build+ ( simil> con/ruction to ! new mill4 ,x is true t su* in/ances p]ta9 m p>ticul>ly to indu/ries & l9es ( manufacture :]e competition is close & conditions are exact+4 ,/ill !y apply 9 a great] or less degree to ne>ly e indu/rial process 9 :i* a consid]able portion ( ! exp5se ( manufacture consi/s 9 ! application ( organiz$ labor to ma*9es ( a high degree ( p]fection4 ,^! *anges h be5 solely due to ! diff]5ces 9 ! conditions impos$ by improvem5t 9 ! me?ods ( manufacture4 ,! e>ly mills ( ?is c\ntry 7 driv5 by wat] p[]1 & situat$ :]e t c\ld be develop$ 9 ! easie/ mann]4 ,!y 7 !re=e plac$ 9 ! n>r[ valleys ( rapid wat]c\rses4 ,! me?od ( apply+ wat] p[] 9 t day be+ /rictly limit$ to plac+ ! ov]%ot or brea/ :eel 9 ! race lead+ f ! canal to ! riv]1 ! mill 0 necess>ily plac$ on a n>r[ /rip ( l& betwe5 ^! two bodies ( wat]1 ) ! race-way runn+ "u ! mill4 ,to meet ^! conditions ( location1 :i* 0 limit$ to ?is /rip ( l&1 ! mill mu/ be n>r[ & %ort1 & ! requisite floor area mu/ be obta9$ by add+ to ! numb] ( /ories4 ,x 0 ess5tial t ! ro( ( su* a mill %\ld be /rong & well brac$ 9 ord] to su/a9 ! excessive /ress br\ght to be> ^u x4 ,! old factory ro( 0 a curi\s /ructure1 ) eaves spr++ out ( ! edge ( holl[ cornices1 ! ro( ris+ %>ply until ab\t six feet above ! attic floor1 ) an upright c\rse ( ab\t ?ree feet1 fill$ ) sa%es rea*+ to a second ro(1 :i*1 at a m mod]ate pit* ?an ! fir/ slope1 tr5d$ to ! ridge4 ,! attic 0 r$uc$ to an approximately squ>e room1 by plac+ %ea?+ betwe5 ! columns und]nea? ! sa%es1 & ceil+ und]nea? ! coll> beams above2 ?us =m+ a cock-l(t above & conceal$ spaces at ! sides :i* dim9i%$ ! practically available floor space 9 ! attic4 ,?is cock-l(t & ^! conceal$ spaces became receptacles = rubbi% & h>bors = v]m91 bo? ( :i* 7 frequ5t causes ( fire4 ,! floors ( su* a mill 7 simil> 9 _! arrangem5t to ^? ( a dwell+4 ,joi/s connect+ ! beams support$ ! floor2 & ! "u side 0 cov]$ ov] by %ea?+ or la? & pla/]1 ?us =m+1 z 9 ! case ( ! ro(1 holl[ spaces :i* 7 a s\rce ( dang]4 ,?is me?od caus$ at ! same "t an extravagant di/ribution ( mat]ial1 by ! prodigal use ( lumb] & ! unnecess>y ?ickness ( su* floors1 & entail$ an excessive am\nt ( masonry 9 ! walls4 ,mills built aft] ?is mann] 7 frequ5tly 9 odd dim5sions2 & ! ma*9]y 0 necess>ily plac$ 9 div]sifi$ arrangem5t1 call+ =? a simil> degree ( wa/$ skill z t us$ 9 mak+ a ,*9ese puzzle con=m to its giv5 b\nd>ies4 ,_! area dep5d$ ^u ! topography ( ! site1 & _! height ^u ! own]'s pocket book4 ,!re 0 9 ,massa*usetts a mill ) t5 floors1 built on l& wor? at t "t t5 c5ts or less p] squ>e foot1 :i* has be5 torn d[n & a new mill rebuilt 9 its place1 because1 s9ce ! adv5t ( mod]n mills1 x has fail$ e own] by reason ( ! excessive exp5diture necess>y = ! di/ribution ( p[]1 = sup]vision1 & = ! transf] ( /ock 9 process1 9 comp>ison ) ! mills ( _! competitors1 built ) great] gr\nd area & less numb] ( /ories4 ,) ! adv5t ( ! /eam eng9e z prime mov] 9 mills1 & ! introduction ( ! turb9e :eel ) its trunk1 af=d+ great] facilities 9 ! application ( wat] p[]1 ! "* ( ^! build+s *ang$ v mat]ially1 ?\gh /ill reta9+ _m ( _! old features4 ,"o ( ! fir/ ( ^! *anges may be notic$ 9 ! consid]ation :i* millwrights gave to ! problem ( fix+ ^u ! dim5sions ( a mill s z to arrange ! ma*9]y 9 ! mo/ conv5i5t mann]4 ,al?\gh ! floors 7 /ill holl[1 !re 0 a bett] di/ribution ( mat]ial1 ! joi/s be+ deep]1 ( long] span1 & re/+ ^u ! beams1 ?us avoid+ ! p]nici\s me?od ( wa/+ lumb]1 & gu>d+ aga9/ fracture by t5on+ joi/s into ! upp] side ( beams4 ,b ?is second>y type ( mills 0 n hone/ 9 ! matt] ( design4 ,! influ5ce ( ar*itects :o attempt$ effects n accordant ) or subs]vi5t to ! practical use ( ! prop]ty is app>5t 9 su* mills4 ,! mo/ frequ5t ( ^! wood5 ef=ts at classic ar*itecture 0 ! common practice ( repres5t+ a dim9utive ,grecian temple surr\nd+ a factory bell p]*$ 9 mid air4 ,!re 7 also w9d[s ) ,romanesque ar*es copi$ f *ur*es1 & ,mans>d ro(s1 exil$ f _! true function ( decorat+ ! home1 cov]+ a factory )\t an answ]+ l9e any:]e on its flat walls4 ,i d n mean to criticise any ( ^! elem5ts ( design 9 _! prop] place & environm5t2 b utility is ! fundam5tal elem5t 9 design1 & %\ld be especially noticeable 9 a build+ con/ruct$ = indu/rial purposes1 & us$ solely z a s\rce ( comm]cial pr(it 9 su* applications4 ,its l9es !re=e fulfill _! true function 9 design 9 su* measure z !y sugge/ /ability & conv5i5ce2 & ?is c be obta9$ 9 su* /ructures )\t ! adoption ( bad proportions (f5sive to ! ta/e4 ,9 fact1 c]ta9 decorative effects h be5 made ) good results2 b ^! h be5 :olly subord9ate to ! fundam5tal idea ( utility4 ,! endurance ) :i* brick w )/& fro/ & fires1 & ! dis9tegrat+ =ces ( nature1 9 addition to its resi/ance to cru%+ & ! facility ( con/ruction1 con/itute v important reasons = its value = build+ purposes4 ,b ! use ( ?is has be5 too (t5 limit$ to pla9 brick 9 pla9 walls1 ^: monotony portray$ no arti/ic effect beyond t furni%$ by a few geometrical designs ( ! mo/ primitive =m ( ornam5t1 & fall+ f> %ort ( :at ! practice ( rec5t ye>s has %[n to be possible ) ?is mat]ial4 ,additions ( ca/ iron s]ve z ornam5ts only 9 ! phraseology ( trade catalogues2 & ! mixture ( /one ) brick %[s results 9 fl>+ contra/s1 produc+ h>% dissonance 9 ! effect4 ,! facades ( su* build+s %[ t ?is is brick1 ?is is /one1 or ?is is ca/ iron2 b !y always fail to impress ! behold] ) ! idea ( h>moni\s design4 ,! use ( f9] v>ieties ( clay 9 t]ra cotta figures laid among ! brickwork furni%es a field ( ar*itectural design h>dly appreciat$4 ,! heavy mass ( brick1 divid$ by regul> l9es ( dem>kation1 s]ves z ! gr\ndwork ( su* ornam5tation1 :ile ! suitable introduction 9 ! prop] places ( ! same mat]ial 9 t]ra cotta imp>ts ! mo/ appropriate elem5ts ( beauty 9 design2 = clay 9 bo? =ms %[s alike its capacity = utility & decoration4 ,! absorption ( light by bo? =ms ( ?is mat]ial abates reflection1 & r5d]s its proportions m cle>ly visible ?an any o!r sub/ance us$ 9 build+ con/ruction4 ,! mod]n mill has be5 evolv$ out ( ! v>i\s exact+ conditions develop$ 9 ! ef=t to r$uce ! co/ ( production to ! l[e/ t]ms4 ,^! conditions comprise 9 a great measure que/ions ( /ability1 repairs1 insurance1 di/ribution ( p[]1 & arrangem5t ( ma*9]y4 ,9 pres5t+ to y\r att5tion "s ( ! sali5t features ( mod]n mill con/ruction1 ,i d n assume to (f] a g5]al treatise ^u ! subject2 b propose to conf9e myself to a consid]ation ( "s topics :i* may n h be5 br\ght to y\r notice1 z !y are /ill l>gely matt]s ( p]sonal exp]i5ce :i* h n yet f\nd _! way into ! books on ! subject4 ,mu* ( ?is1 especially ! draw+s ?r[n on ! scre51 is obta9$ f ! exp]i5ce ( ! manufactur]s' mutual insurance companies1 ) :i* ,i am connect$4 ,by way ( explanation1 ,i w say t ^! companies conf9e _! "w to writ+ ^u indu/rial prop]ty2 & !re is n a me*anical process1 or me?od ( build+1 or use ( raw mat]ial1 :i* does n h its relation to ! "q ( haz>d by fire1 by reason ( ! elem5ts ( relative dang] :i* x embodies4 ,x is inde$ =tunate t x has be5 f\nd by exp]i5ce t ^? me?ods ( build+ :i* are mo/ desirable = ! und]writ] are also equally advantage\s = ! manufactur]4 ,!re is no pret5se made at dem&s to compass ! erection ( firepro( build+s4 ,9 fact1 z ,i h once rem>k$1 a firepro( mill is comm]cially impossible1 :atev] ef=t may be made to ov]come ! con/ructive difficulties 9 ! way ( erect+ & op]at+ a mill :i* %all be all t ! "n implies4 ,! pres5t practice is to build a mill ( sl[ burn+ con/ruction4 ,,f\ndations4 ,9 consid]+ ! elem5ts ( su* build+s1 ,i wi% to devote a few words to ! "q ( f\ndations1 because 9 ! excessive loads impos$ by ?is class ( build+s1 & 9 ! frequ5t necessity ( con/ruct+ !m ^u sites :]e alluvial drift or quicks&s =m compressible f\ndations1 !re is af=d$ an opportunity = ! wide/ range ( eng9e]+ skill 9 deal+ ) ! problem4 ,9 su* in/ances1 a settl+ ( ! build+ mu/ be =ese5 & provid$ =1 9 ord] t x may be uni=m "u ! :ole /ructure4 ,?is is g5]ally accompli%$ by means ( indep5d5t f\ndations "u ! v>i\s po9ts ( pressure1 arrang$ s z to give a uni=m int5sity ( pressure ^u all p>ts ( ! f\ndation4 ,x is consid]$ important to limit ! load ^u su* f\ndations to two tons a squ>e foot1 al?\gh loads frequ5tly exce$ ?is am\nt4 ,!re is a l>ge build+ 9 ,new ,york ,city :i* has rec5tly be5 recon/ruct$1 & ! f\ndations re>rang$1 :]e ! load rea*$ to ! enorm\s am\nt ( six to t5 tons p] squ>e foot4 ,x 0 a frequ5t occurr5ce 9 ! class ( high mills spok5 ( to impose loads ( s mu* great] int5sity ^u ! wall f\ndation ?an ^u ! pi]s "u ! columns ( ! mill1 t ! floors became mu* l[] at ! walls ?an at ! middle4 ,! /one = su* f\ndations %\ld be laid 9 cem5t r ?an 9 mort>1 n m]ely because cem5t (f]s s mu* great] resi/ance to cru%+1 b because its sett+ is due to *emical *anges occurr+ simultane\sly ?r\gh\t ! mass4 ,! h>d5+ ( mort>1 on ! o!r h&1 is due to ! dry+ out ( ! wat] me*anically conta9$ ) x1 & its f9al sett+ is caus$ by ! action ( ! c>bonic acid gas 9 ! air4 ,al?\gh quicks&s are nev] to be desir$1 yet !y w su/a9 heavy loads if suitably conf9$4 ,:5 incl9$ rock /rata are met )1 all horizontal compon5ts ( /ress %\ld be remov$ by cutt+ /eps s t ! f\ndation /ones %all lie ^u horizontal b$s4 ,f\ndations are frequ5tly impair$ by ! sl[1 insidi\s action ( spr+s or ( wat] p]colat+ f ! canal :i* supplies ! wat] p[] = ! mill2 & ! prop] div]sion ( su* /reams %\ld be c>efully provid$ =4 ,9 ! "q ( f\ndations1 !re is mu* ( a g5]al nature :i* is applicable to all /ructures2 b1 at ! same "t1 ea* case requires indep5d5t consid]ation ( ! circum/ances involv$4 ,,walls4 ,9 addition to :at has be5 said1 !re is b little = me to (f] on ! subject ( walls beyond ! g5]al "q ( /ability4 ,9 mill con/ruction1 walls ( uni=m ?ickness h be5 displac$ by pila/]$ walls1 ab\t sixte5 in*es ?ick at ! upp] /ory1 & increas+ f\r in*es 9 ?ickness ) ea* /ory bel[4 ,! rema9d] ( ! walls is f f\r to six in*es less 9 ?ickness ?an at ! pila/]s4 ,frequ5tly ! outside dim5sions ( ^! pila/]s are some:at increas$1 giv+ great] /ability & arti/ic effect4 ,by leav+ holl[ flues )9 !m1 & us+ ^! flues z conductors = heat$ air :i* may be =c$ 9 by a bl[]1 su* pila/]s af=d a means = ! mo/ effici5t me?od ( w>m+ ! build+4 ,consid]ation mu/ be giv5 to ! contraction ( brick masonry1 especially :5 an ext5sion or addition is to be made to an old] build+4 ,?is %r9kage am\nts to ab\t ?ree-sixte5?s ( an in* to ! rod1 an item :i* is ( consid]able importance 9 ! floors ( high build+s1 :]e ! aggregate diff]5ce is v appreciable4 ,"s degree ( annoyance is caus$ by neglect to consid] ?is elem5t ( %r9kage 9 ref]5ce to ! w9d[ & door frames1 :i* %\ld h a slight space above !m all[+ = su* contraction4 ,?is contraction is (t5 ! s\rce ( s]i\s tr\ble 9 brick build+s ) /one faces1 ! %r9kage ( ! brick impos+ excessive /ress on ! /one4 ,in/ances ( ?is are q frequ5t1 especially 9 l>ge public build+s1 notably ! capitol at ,h>t=d & ! public build+ at ,philadelphia1 :]e ! %iv]+ ( ! jo9ts ( ! /one "w gave undue al>m1 on ! g5]al assumption t x indicat$ a dang]\s /ructural weakness4 ,! difficulty has1 ,i believe1 be5 entirely rem$i$ 9 bo? cases4 ,! limit ( good practice on loads ^u brickwork is eight to t5 tons p] squ>e foot1 al?\gh x is true t ^! loads are l>gely exce$$ at times4 ,x is n to be %[n1 h[ev]1 t ! limits ( safety 9 reg>d to desirable con/ruction %\ld be conf9$ to ! use ( masonry = any l[ build+s4 ,/ructures :i* may be said to be equal to ^? ( brickwork1 z f> z comm]cial risk is conc]n$1 c be built :olly or 9 "p ( wood s z to con=m to all practical conditions ( safety4 ,?is /atem5t does n apply except to l[ build+s ( "o or possibly two /ories 9 height1 :]e ! timb] _c be subject$ to ! int5se bla/ ( flame occurr+ :5 a high build+ is on fire4 ,mr4 ,george ,h4 ,corliss1 ! em95t eng9e build]1 ( ,provid5ce1 fir/ built a "o-/ory ma*9e %op1 ) brick walls ext5d+ only to ! base ( ! w9d[s1 above ?is ! w9d[s be+ v close toge!r1 ) solid timb] con/ruction betwe5 !m4 ,ano!r me?od is to place upright po/s rea*+ f ! sill to ! ro( timb]s1 & to lay ?ree-in* plank on ! outside ( su* po/s up to ! l9e ( ! w9d[s4 ,a %ea?+ on ! outside plank betwe5 ! timb]s is laid v]tically & fa/5$ to horizontal furr+ /rips4 ,9 "s in/ances a small am\nt ( mort> is plac$ ov] ea* ( ! furr+ /rips4 ,! reason = ?is arrangem5t is to prev5t ! =mation ( v]tical flues1 :i* are su* a pot5t factor 9 ! ext5sion ( fires4 ,,w9d[s4 ,light is (t5 limit$ or misappli$ on acc\nt ( faulty position or size ( w9d[s4 ,! use ( pila/]$ walls p]mits ! introduction ( l>g] w9d[s1 :i* are 9 mo/ in/ances virtually d\ble w9d[s1 ! two pairs ( sa%es be+ set 9 "o frame sep>at$ by a mullion4 ,a m rec5t arrangem5t1 widely adopt$ 9 ,engli% practice1 is to place a sw++ sa% at ! top ( ! w9d[1 :i* c be op5$1 :5 necess>y1 to assi/ 9 ! v5tilation1 :ile ! ma9 sa%es ( ! w9d[ are p]man5tly fix$4 ,r\gh plate glass is us$ 9 su* w9d[s1 because x gives a s(t] & m diffus$ light1 :i* is pref]r$ to t f ord9>y cle> glass4 ,:ite glass may be r5d]$ transluc5t by a coat ( :ite z9c & turp5t9e4 ,! top ( a w9d[ %\ld be z ne> ! ceil+ z practicable1 because light ent]+ ! upp] portion ( a room illum9ates x m ev5ly1 & ) less %>ply m>k$ %ad[s1 ?an :]e ! w9d[s are l[] d[n4 ,! walls bel[ ! w9d[s %\ld be slop$1 9 ord] t !re may be no opportunity to use !m z a re/+ place = mat]ial :i* %\ld be plac$ else:]e4 ,,fire ,,walls4 ,brick division walls %\ld be built s z to con/itute a fire wall :]ev] x is practicable to d s4 ,su* walls %\ld project at lea/ ?ree feet above ! ro(1 & %\ld be capp$ by /one1 t]ra cotta1 or %eet metal4 ,!y mu/ =m a complete cut-(f ( all combu/ible mat]ial1 especially at ! cornices4 ,,fire ,,doors4 ,all op5+s 9 su* walls mu/ be provid$ ) su* firepro( doors z w prove reliable 9 "t ( ne$4 ,exp]i5ce ) iron doors ( v>i\s =ms ( con/ruction %[ t !y h be5 utt]ly unreliable 9 resi/+ ! heat ( ev5 a small fire4 ,!y w w>p & buckle s z to op5 ! passageway & all[ ! fire to pass ?r\gh ! doorway into ! next room4 ,a door made ( wood1 completely envelop$ by %eets ( t9n$ iron1 & /rongly fa/5$ to ! wall1 has prov$ to resi/ fire bett] ?an any door :i* c be appli$ to g5]al use4 ,i h se5 su* doors 9 division walls :]e !y _h successfully resi/$ ! flame :i* de/roy$ f\r /ories ( a build+ fill$ ) combu/ible mat]ial1 )\t impos+ any injury ^u ! door except ! removal ( ! t9 on ! %eet iron2 & ! doors 7 kept 9 fur!r s]vice )\t any repairs o!r ?an a coat ( pa9t4 ,! reason = ?is resi/ance to fire is t ! wood1 be+ a poor conductor ( heat1 w n w>p & buckle "u heat1 & _c burn = lack ( air to support combu/ion4 ,a removal ( ! %eet metal on su* a door aft] a fire 9 a mill %[s t ! surface ( ! wood is c>boniz$1 n burn$1 r$uc$ to *>coal1 b n to a%es4 ,_m fire doors are con/ruct$ & hung 9 su* a mann] t x is d\btful :e!r !y c\ld )/& a fire s]i\s en\gh to require _! s]vices4 ,! door %\ld be made ( two ?icknesses ( mat*$ p9e bo>ds ( well dri$ /ock1 & ?or\ghly fa/5$ ) cl9*$ nails4 ,x %\ld be cov]$ ) heavy t91 secur$ by hang+ /rips1 & ! %eets lock-jo9t$ to ea* o!r1 ) ! edge %eets wrapp+ ar\nd1 s t no seam w be left on ! edge4 ,slid+ doors are pref]able to sw++ doors = _m reasons1 especially because !y _c be int]f]$ ) by objects on ! floor4 ,b1 if sw++ doors are us$1 c>e %\ld be tak5 t ! h+es & lat*es are v /rong1 & securely fa/5$ directly to ! walls1 & n to furr+ or any?+ 9 turn atta*$ to ! walls4 ,! portion ( ! fixtures atta*$ to ! doors mu/ be fa/5$ by c>riage bolts1 & n by wood screws4 ,slid+ on trucks is ! pref]able me?od ( hang+ slid+ doors1 incl9$ two & "o half in*es to ! foot1 & bolt$ to ! wall4 ,! trucks %\ld be heavy b>n door hang]s1 bolt$ to ! door2 & a groov$ door jamb1 ( wood1 cov]$ ) t9 simil> to ! door1 %\ld receive x :5 %ut4 ,a /ep ( wood w hold ! door aga9/ ! wall :5 clos$4 ,a ?re%old 9 ! doorway ret>ds fire f pass+ "u ! door1 & also prev5ts ! fl[ ( wat] f "o room to ano!r4 ,^! doors are usually plac$ 9 pairs1 & sometimes an automatic spr9kl] is plac$ betwe5 !m4 ,fire doors %\ld always be clos$ at night4 ,9 "s well ord]$ e/abli%m5ts !re is a pr9t$ notice ov] ea* door direct+ ! night wat*m5 to close su* doors aft] !m4 ,9 a /orage w>eh\se 9 ,bo/on1 ! fire doors are connect$ ) ! wat*man's electric clock sy/em1 s t all op5+s ( fire doors are matt]s ( record on ! dial %eet4 ,fire doors %\ld c]ta9ly be clos$ at times ( fire2 yet1 t su* doors are op5 at night fires1 or left op5 by flee+ help at day fires1 is an old /ory ) und]writ]s4 ,a simple automatic device c be us$ to %ut su* doors4 ,x consi/s ( two r\nd pieces ( wood ) a sc>f$ jo9t held by a f]rule1 =m+ a /rut :i* is plac$ on two p9s1 keep+ ! door op51 z o!r /icks h long s9ce s]v$ l purposes4 ,! peculi>ity ( ?is arrangem5t is t ! f]rule is n homog5e\s1 b is made up ( f\r segm5ts ( brass sold]$ toge!r ) ! alloy fusible at #afc degrees ,fahr41 :i* is widely kn[n = its use 9 automatic spr9kl]s4 ,:5 ! sold] yields1 ! rod cripples1 & ! door rolls d[n ! incl9$ rail & %uts4 ,at any "t ! door c be clos$ by remov+ "o end ( ! rod f "o ( ! p9s & all[+ x to hang f ! o!r p94 ,,mill ,,t[]s4 ,because ( economic reasons = pres]v+ ! space )9 ! walls ( ! mill s t x may be to ! greate/ ext5t available = ! be/ arrangem5t ( ma*9]y1 ! /airways %\ld be plac$ outside ( ! build+4 ,su* /airways %\ld n be spiral /airways1 b %\ld be made 9 %ort /raight runs ) squ>e l&+s1 because 9 ! spiral /airway ! portion ( ! /airs ne> ! c5t] is ( s mu* /eep] pit* t x r5d]s !m dang]\s :5 ! help are cr[d+ out ( ! mill4 ,! we> ( /airs f ! tread ( _m feet pres5ts a difficult problem4 ,a v common practice consi/s 9 cov]+ ea* tread ) a ?9 piece ( ca/ iron m>k$ ) diagonal scores1 & g5]ally %[+ ! "n ( ! mill4 ,^! treads we> out 9 ! c\rse ( "t1 b = ?is use !y answ] v well1 al?\gh some:at slipp]y4 ,a wood tread gives a m secure foo?old ^u ! /airway2 & 9 "s in/ances /airs h be5 protect$ by cov]+ ! treads ) bo>ds ( h>d wood1 conta9+ grooves ab\t ?ree-eigh?s ( an in* deep1 & ( simil> wid?1 ) a space ( half an in* betwe5 !m4 ,^! bo>ds are groov$ on bo? sides & plac$ on ! /airs4 ,aft] ! front edge is worn1 !y are turn$ ar\nd s z to pres5t ! o!r edge to ! front1 &1 9 c\rse ( "t1 turn$ f ! expos$ side to d s]vice 9 two positions on ! o!r side4 ,9 ?is mann] ^! tread cov]s are expos$ to we> 9 f\r diff]5t positions4 ,mill t[]s1 besides conta9+ ! /airways1 also s]ve o!r purposes1 z = cloak rooms = ! help4 ,!y (t5 conta9 a "p ( ! fire protective app>atus1 c>ry+ /&pipes ) hydrants at ea* floor4 ,= ?is use !y are easily available1 & furni% a l9e ( retreat 9 case a fire spreads to an ext5t beyond ! ability ( ! app>atus to cope ) x4 ,^! t[]s also furni% an excell5t f\ndation = ! elevat$ tank necess>y = ! supply ( wat] = ! fire app>atus 9 places unprovid$ ) an elevat$ res]voir4 ,9 view ( ! t]rible & deplorable accid5ts :i* h occurr$ by reason ( lack ( prop] /airway facilities at panics caus$ 9 "t ( fire1 ,i w\ld repeat ! words ( ! late ,amos ,d4 ,lockwood1 ! mo/ em95t mill eng9e] :i* ?is c\ntry has yet produc$1 :5 he said to ! ,new ,engl& ,cotton ,manufactur]s' ,association1 ,y h no moral "r to build a mill employ+ a l>ge numb] ( help1 ) only "o t[] conta9+ ! /airways = exit4 ,! /atute laws ( sev]al ( ! ,/ates require fire escapes2 b x is a matt] ( fact t !y are r>ely us$1 because p are n (t5 cool en\gh to avail !mselves ( t opportunity ( escape4 ,i "k ( "o in/ance :]e a numb] ( girls jump$ out ( a f\r? /ory w9d[1 because !y did n ?9k ( ! /airways1 & did n d>e to use ! fire escape4 ,9 t in/ance1 none ( ! gr\p ref]r$ to tri$ to g d[n ! /airs1 :i* did furni% a p]fectly safe means ( exit to a numb] ( o!rs4 ,mo/ ( ! fire escapes are put up s z to con=m to ! lett] ( ! law2 & 9 su* mann] t no "o b a sailor or an acrobat w\ld be likely to tru/ himself to !m4 ,9 cr[d$ city build+s1 & 9 o!r places :]e ! ord9>y means ( escape are n 9 duplicate1 x is ess5tial t fire escapes %\ld be provid$2 b x is a great deal bett] to make a mill build+ s t !y %all n be necess>y z a matt] ( fact1 ev5 if !y are put up to con=m to ! requirem5ts ( /atute law4 ,,re> ,,t[]s4 ,9 addition to /airways1 t[]s are plac$ at ! re> ( ! mill1 = ! purpose ( accommodat+ ! elevators & sanit>y arrangem5ts4 ,x is n desirable t elevators %\ld be box$ or surr\nd$ ) any?+ t w\ld result 9 ! con/ruction ( a flue2 b x is pref]able t !y pass directly ?r\gh ! floors1 ) ! op5+s protect$ by automatic hat*ways :i* close :5ev] ! elevator c> is abs5t4 ,9 ! wa%room1 etc41 9 ^! t[]s1 x is desirable to protect ! wood floors by means ( a ?9 lay] ( asphalt4 ,,basem5t ,,floors4 ,!re are difficulties connect$ ) ! floors on or ne> ! gr\nd1 by reason ( ! dry rot incid5t to su* places4 ,dry rot consi/s 9 ! developm5t ( fungus gr[? f spores exi/+ 9 ! wood1 & wait+ only ! prop] conditions = _! g]m9ation4 ,! be/ condition = ?is g]m9ation is ! exposure to a slight degree ( w>m? & dampness4 ,!re h be5 _m me?ods ( apply+ antiseptic processes = ! pres]vation ( wood2 b1 irrespective ( _! v>y+ degrees ( m]it1 !y h n come into g5]al use on acc\nt ( _! co/1 odor1 & solubility 9 wat]4 ,x is necess>y t wood %\ld be freely expos$ to circulation ( air1 9 ord] to pres]ve x "u ! ord9>y conditions met ) 9 build+s4 ,:5ev] wood is seal$ up 9 any way by pa9t or v>ni%1 unless absolutely season$1 & 9 a condition n f\nd 9 heavy m]*antable timb]1 dry rot is almo/ sure to ensue4 ,:itewa% is bett]4 ,!re has rec5tly be5 an in/ance ( a v l>ge build+ 9 ,new ,york prov+ unsafe by reason ( ! dry rot g5]at$ 9 timb]s :i* h be5 completely seal$ up by application ( pla/] ( ,p>is outside ( ! wire la? & pla/] orig9ally adopt$ z a protection aga9/ fire4 ,wire la? & pla/] is "o ( ! be/ me?ods ( protect+ timb] aga9/ fire2 &1 if ! outside is n seal$ by a pla/] ( /ucco or "s o!r imp]meable sub/ance1 ! mort> w af=d suffici5t facilities = v5tilation to prev5t ! deposition ( moi/ure1 :i* w 9 turn g5]ate dry rot4 ,:]e beams pass into walls1 v5tilation %\ld be assur$ by plac+ a bo>d ea* side ( ! beam :ile ! walls are be+ built up1 & aft]w>d )draw+ x4 ,9 ! =m ( holl[ walls ref]r$ to1 x is a common practice to run ! end ( ! beam into ! flue ?us =m$1 9 ord] to secure v5tilation4 ,i am well acqua9t$ ) a l>ge mill prop]ty1 "o build+ ( :i* 0 erect$ a %ort "t be=e ! failure ( ! corporation1 :i* result$ 9 ! :ole plant rema9+ idle sev]al ye>s4 ,aft] ! lapse ( ab\t five ye>s ?is e/abli%m5t 0 aga9 put into op]ation2 b be=e ! new mill c\ld be safely fill$ ) ma*9]y1 x 0 necess>y to remove all ! beams :i* ent]$ walls & to sub/itute = !m new ones1 because ! ends 7 s ?or\ghly rott$ t x w\ld h be5 dang]\s to impose any fur!r loads ^u ! floors4 ,:5 floors are )9 a few feet ( ! gr\nd1 unless ! site be rem>kably dry1 x is ess5tial to provide = a circulation ( air1 :i* c be done v feasibly 9 a textile mill by lay+ dra9 pipe ?r\gh ! upp] "p ( ! und]p9n+1 =m+ a numb] ( holes lead+ into ?is space1 & !n mak+ a flue f ?is space to ! pick] room or any o!r place requir+ a l>ge am\nt ( air4 ,! fans ( ! pick] room1 draw+ _! supply f und]nea? ! build+1 produce a circulation ( air :i* keeps ! timb] 9 good condition4 ,x is suppos$ by "s t !re is a diff]5ce 9 ! quality ( timb] accord+ to ! season 9 :i* x is fell$1 pref]5ce be+ giv5 to w9t] timb]1 on acc\nt ( ! great] am\nt ( pota% & phosphoric acid :i* x is said to conta9 at t "t4 ,9 "s p>ts ( ,europe x is a cu/om to specify t ! lumb] %\ld h be5 made f raft$ timb]1 on acc\nt ( ! action ( ! wat] 9 kill+ c]ta9 species ( g]ms4 ,:atev] may be ! m]its ( ei!r ( ^! two !ories1 ! comm]cial lumb] ( ! nor!rn "p ( ?is c\ntry is g5]ally fell$ 9 w9t] & aft]w>d raft$4 ,! action ( lime 9 ! pres]vation ( wood has always be5 att5d$ ) ! mo/ excell5t results2 al?\gh n suit$ to places subject to ! action ( wat]1 :i* dissolves ! lime1 leav+ ! timb] practically 9 its orig9al condition4 ,! pres]vative action ( lime ^u wood is readily %[n by ! admirable condition 9 :i* la?s are always f\nd4 ,i d\bt if any "o ev] f\nd a decay$ la? 9 connection ) pla/]4 ,z an example ( ! action ( lime z a pres]vative ( lumb]4 ,i c cite an in/ance ( a mill 9 ,new ,hamp%ire :]e ! basem5t floor 0 plac$ 9 #ahef1 ! l$ge 9 ! cell> hav+ be5 bla/$ out = ! purpose4 ,! rock 0 v seamy1 & ab\nd$ 9 wat] issu+ f spr+s or p]colat+ f ! canal supply+ wat] to ! mill4 ,! rock 0 bla/$ away to a grade two feet bel[ ! floor1 & mo/ ( ! space fill$ up aga9 by replac+ ! small pieces ( /one1 s arrang$ z to =m bl9d dra9s = ! removal ( any wat] :i* might f9d its way "u ! floor4 ,t[>d ! top ( ?is fill+1 f9] /ones 7 us$1 !n ab\t ?ree in*es ( gravel1 :i* 0 cov]$ ) two in*es ( s& & lime4 ,two ye>s ago ,i 0 at ?is mill :5 "s alt]ations requir+ ! removal ( ! floor 7 9 progress1 & f\nd t ! lumb] 0 /ill 9 good1 s\nd condition1 except = a sup]ficial decay on ! "u side ( ! floor plank4 ,b !re are frequ5t in/ances :]e x is necess>y to place ! floor directly ^u ! e>?1 )\t any space or loose fill+ und]nea? x1 9 ord] to save room1 or to secure a firm support = ma*9]y4 ,by way ( in=mation ^u :at has actually be5 accompli%$ 9 ?is direction1 ,i w cite in/ances ( ?ree floors 9 su* positions1 all ( :i* h to my k fulfill$ ! purpose = :i* !y 7 design$4 ,! fir/ in/ance is t ( a basem5t floor laid tw5ty-"o ye>s ago1 a portion ( :i* 0 made by excavat+ "o foot bel[ ! floor1 six in*es ( co>se /one be+ fill$ 91 !n five in*es ( coal t> concrete made up ) co>se gravel1 & f9ally ab\t "o in* ( f9e gravel concrete4 ,be=e ! concrete 0 laid1 heavy /akes 7 driv5 ?r\gh ! floor ab\t ?ree feet ap>t1 to :i* ! floor timb]s 7 nail$ & level$ up4 ,! concrete 0 !n fill$ 9 ^u ! floor timb]s1 & ?or\ghly tamp$ & roll$ out to ! level ( ! top ( ! floor timb]s4 ,! "u side ( ! floor timb]s 0 cov]$ ) hot coal t>4 ,?is floor is /ill 9 good condition1 & has n ne$$ repairs caus$ by ! decay ( ! timb]4 ,ano!r portion ( ! floor laid at ! same "t & 9 ! same mann]1 ) ! exception t cem5t concrete 0 us$ 9 ! place ( ! coal t>1 0 entirely rott$ out 9 t5 ye>s4 ,ano!r floor 0 made 9 q a simil> mann]4 ,all soil & loam 0 remov$ f ! int]ior ( ! build+2 ! :ole surface 0 br\ght up to ! grade ) a puddle ( gravel & a%es2 /akes two & a half by f\r in*es1 & ?irty in*es 9 l5g?1 7 driv5 d[n2 & nail+ /rips 7 secur$ to !m4 ,ov] ?is puddl$ surface a coat ( concrete eight in*es ?ick 0 laid1 ! top be+ flu% ) ! upp] surface ( ! nail+ /rips4 ,?is concrete 0 made ( pebbles ab\t two in*es 9 diamet]1 well coat$ ) coal t>1 & laid 9 place :5 hot4 ,x 0 !n pack$ toge!r by be+ tamp$ & roll$1 & a ?9 cov]+ ( ! t>r$ s& plac$ ^u ! top1 =m+ a smoo?1 h>d surface4 ,! fir/ floor consi/$ ( two in*es ( mat*$ spruce1 groov$ on bo? sides1 & fitt$ ) h>d p9e spl9es1 five-eigh?s by "o & "o-f\r? in*es4 ,on ! top ( ?is a h>d p9e #a in* floor 0 laid ov] a c\rse ( build+ pap]4 ,ano!r me?od1 :i* is c]ta9ly m novel ?an ei!r ( ! o!rs1 consi/s 9 support+ a floor ^u a b$ ( res94 ,! und]ly+ e>? 0 remov$1 & replac$ ) sp5t m\ld+ s&1 leav+ tr5*es = ! floor timb]s1 :i* 7 plac$ ^u bricks laid )\t mort>4 ,melt$ res9 0 p\r$ into ! space alongside & und]nea? ! timb]s4 ,! floor planks 7 !n laid ^u ! timb]s1 ! tops ( :i* 7 ab\t half an in* above ! level ( ! s&4 ,holes 7 bor$ into ! floor plank ab\t f\r feet ap>t1 & melt$ res9 !n p\r$ into ! holes1 s z to int]pose a lay] ( res9 und]nea? ! floor plank & beams4 ,^u ?is floor a top floor ( h>d wood 0 laid 9 ! usual mann]4 ,?is floor has be5 us$ = a numb] ( ye>s to support a l>ge quantity ( heavy ma*9e tools1 pr9cipally plan]s1 )\t yield+ or depreciation due to decay1 & has prov$ to be mo/ satisfactory4 ,9 "s in/ances asphaltum or coal t> concrete floors are n cov]$ ) wood1 al?\gh x is mu* m agreeable = ! help to /& ^u wood5 floors4 ,x %\ld be rememb]$ t all ^! comp\nds are readily s(t5$ by means ( oil1 & !y %\ld be protect$ f oil by a coat ( pa9t :5 n cov]$ ) wood2 ! pref]able me?od be+ to fir/ apply a prim+ conta9+ v little oil1 or a coat ( %ellac1 & foll[ ) "s pa9t mix$ up ) boil$ l9se$ oil4 7,to be cont9u$47 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,me*anical ,,equival5t ,,( ,,heat4 ,,by ,,de ,,volson ,,wood1 ,,pr(essor ,,( ,,eng9e]+ ,,9 ,,/ev5s ,,in/itute ,,( ,,te*nology4 ,x is cle>ly intimat$ by ,mr4 ,hanss51 9 8 det]m9ation ( ! me*anical equival5t ( heat1 publi%$ 9 ! ,sci5tific ,am]ican ,supplem5t1 ,no4 #fdb1 ,april #ba1 #ahhh1 t 8 object is to det]m9e ! absolute value ( ?is con/ant4 ,) 8 data he f9ds x to be #gga4hi foot p\nds4 ,b ! det]m9ation by direct exp]im5t gives a l>g] value4 ,?us1 ! mo/ reliable exp]im5ts--^? ( ,j\le & ,r[l&--give values exce$+ by sev]al units t f\nd by ,hanss54 ,a committee ( ! ,briti% ,association1 appo9t$ = ?is purpose1 report$ 9 #ahgf t sixty ( ! mo/ reliable ( ,j\le's exp]im5ts gave ! mean value #ggd4a4 ,! exp]im5ts 7 made ) wat] at a temp]ature ( ab\t #fj ,f41 accord+ to ! m]curial !rmomet]1 & r$uc$ to its value at ! temp]ature ( melt+ ice1 accord+ to ! =mula giv5 by ,regnault = ! v>iation ( ! specific heat ( wat] at v>y+ temp]ature "u ! con/ant pressure ( "o atmosph]e4 ,accord+ to ?is =mula ! specific heat ( wat] increases ) ! temp]ature above ! melt+ po9t ( ice1 s t ! equival5t w\ld be some:at less at #cb ,f4 ?an at #fj ,f4 ,x w be f\nd 9 ,regnault's ,relation des ,exp]i5ces t he exp]im5t$ on wat] at high temp]atures1 b m rec5tly ,pr(essor ,r[l& has f\nd t ! specific heat ( wat] is great] at #dj ,f4 ?an at #fj ,f41 ?us rev]s+ betwe5 ^! limits ! law giv5 by ,regnault2 ! increase1 z giv5 by ! mo/ probable values1 be+1 r\ghly1 ab\t #a_/bej ( its value at #fj ,f4 ,! prop] correction due to ?is cause w\ld make ! equival5t ov] #ggg foot p\nds1 in/ead ( #ggd4a4 ,pr(essor ,r[l&'s exp]im5ts1 :5 r$uc$ to ! same !rmomet]1 same temp]ature1 & same latitude z ,j\le's1 agre$ v ne>ly ) ^? ( ! latt]1 be+ ab\t #a_/ajjj "p l>g]2 s t ! *ief diff]5ce 9 ! ultimate values consi/s 9 ! r$uctions = temp]ature & latitude4 ,! =ce ( gravity be+ less = ! l[] latitudes1 ! numb] repres5t+ ! me*anical equival5t w be great] = ! latt]1 s9ce ! unit p\nd mass mu/ fall ?r\gh a great] numb] ( feet to equal ! same "w2 s t ! equival5t w be great] at ,p>is ?an at ,man*e/]4 ,pr(essor ,r[l& also f\nd t ! degrees on ! air !rmomet] f #dj ,f4 upw>d to above #fj ,f4 exce$$ ^? on ! m]curial !rmomet] ?r\gh\t ! correspond+ range1 & t f #dj to #da ! degree 0 betwe5 #a_/aej & #a_/bjj ( a degree l>g] on ! air !rmomet] ?an on ! m]curial4 ,al?\gh ?is fraction is too small to be obs]v$ by ord9>y means1 yet1 if x exi/s1 x _c be ignor$ if absolute values are s\ght4 ,regnault employ$ ! air !rmomet] 9 8 exp]im5ts1 :ile ,j\le us$ ! m]curial !rmomet]1 & if ,j\le's value #ggd4a be increas$ by #a_/bjj ( itself 9 ord] to r$uce x f ! equival5t ( ! degree on ! m]curial !rmomet] to t on ! air !rmomet]1 we get #ggh foot p\nds1 ne>ly4 ,r[l& f\nd f 8 exp]im5ts t :5 r$uc$ to ! air !rmomet] & to ! latitude ( ,baltimore1 ! equival5t 0 ne>ly #ghc1 subject to small residual errors4 ,ne>ly all writ]s ^u ?is subject--except ,rank9e--h consid]$ t ! me*anical equival5t ( heat1 9 ,briti% units1 0 ! en]gy necess>y to raise ! temp]ature ( "o p\nd ( wat] f #cb ,f4 to #cc ,f41 b ,rank9e def9es x z ! heat necess>y to increase ! temp]ature ( "o p\nd ( wat] "o degree ,fahr5heit f t ( maximum d5sity1 or f #ci ,f4 to #dj ,f4 ,= ord9>y practice x is immat]ial :i* ( ^! def9itions is us$1 = ! errors result+ !refrom are mu* less ?an ^? result+ f ord9>y obs]vations4 ,b :5 ! value is to be det]m9$ by direct exp]im5t at ! /&>d temp]ature1 ,rank9e's limits are mu* to be pref]r$2 = x is s v difficult to det]m9e exact values by obs]vation :5 ! sub/ance is ne> ! /ate bord]+ on a *ange ( /ate ( aggregation1 z t ( *ang+ f wat] to ice4 ,obs]vations made at ab\t #fj ,f4 7 r$uc$ by means ( ,regnault's law = ! specific heat ( wat]1 z has be5 /at$1 :i* is express$ by ! =mula #d #i c #a ------ t ------ t#b #aje #ajg 9 :i* t d5otes ! temp]ature accord+ to ! ,c5tigrade scale4 ,accord+ to ?is law1 ! me*anical equival5t w\ld n be #j4b ( a foot p\nd great] at #e ,c4 7#da ,f47 ?an at #j ,c4 7#cb ,f472 h5ce1 if ?is law 7 correct1 x w\ld make no practical diff]5ce :e!r ! temp]ature 7 at #j ,c4 or #e ,c4 ,?is law makes ! comput$ value at #cb ,f4 ab\t #j4ie ( a foot p\nd less ?an t det]m9$ by exp]im5t at #fj ,f42 :]eas ,r[l&'s exp]im5ts make x great] at #dj ,f4 by m ?an f\r foot p\nds1 = ! air !rmomet]4 ,9 det]m9+ a fix$ value to be us$ = sci5tific purposes1 x is necess>y to fix ! place1 ! !rmomet]1 & ! p>ticul> degree on ! !rmomet]4 ,! place may be kn[n by its latitude if r$uc$ to ! level ( ! sea4 ,! air !rmomet] agrees mo/ ne>ly ) t ( ! ideally p]fect gas !rmomet]1 :ile ! m]curial !rmomet] diff]s v mu* f x 9 "s cases4 ,?us1 ,regnault f\nd t :5 ! air !rmomet] indicat$ #fcj ,f4 above ! melt+ po9t ( ice 7or #ffb ,f471 ! m]curial !rmomet] indicat$ #fea4i above ! same po9t 7#fhc4i ,f471 a diff]5ce ( #bb ,f4 ,x is app>5t t ! air !rmomet] furni%es ! be/ /&>d4 ,z = ! p>ticul> degree on ! scale to be us$ = ! /&>d1 x is app>5t1 f ! obs]vations above made1 t ! temp]ature correspond+ to t at or ne> ! maximum d5sity ( wat] is m desirable ?an t at ! melt+ po9t ( ice4 ,! fact1 also1 t ! specific heats at con/ant pressure & at con/ant volume are ! same at ! po9t ( maximum d5sity1 z %[n by !ory1 is an additional argum5t 9 favor ( select+ ?is po9t = ! /&>d4 ,x ?us appe>s t ! solution ( ?is problem1 :i* appe>s simple & v def9ite by ,mr4 ,hanss5's me?od1 becomes intricate &1 to a limit$ degree1 indet]m9ate :5 subject$ to ! ref9em5ts ( direct exp]im5t4 ,if ! con/ants us$ by ,hanss5 are absolutely correct1 !n 8 result mu/ be unque/ion$2 b s9ce physical con/ants are subject to c]ta9 residual errors1 "o w\ld z soon ?9k ( f9d+ ! specific heat ( air at con/ant volume1 by us+ ! value ( ! me*anical equival5t z "o ( ! elem5ts1 & tru/+ ! result1 z he w\ld to tru/ to ! comput$ value ( ! me*anical equival5t )\t subject+ x to ! te/ ( a direct exp]im5t4 ,we w1 !re=e1 exam9e ! con/ants us$ to see if !y are ! exact values ( ! quantities !y repres5t4 ,he says !y are univ]sally accept$ z correct2 & ?is may be true1 :5 us$ = g5]al purposes1 & yet n be sci5tifically exact4 ,he uses #j4bcgg z ! specific heat ( air4 ,?is is ! value1 to f\r decimals1 f\nd by ,regnault4 ,?us1 ,regnault gives = ! mean value ( ! specific heat ( air ,betwe5 -#cj ,c & #aj ,c4 #j4bcgga #j ,c #ajj ,c4 #j4bcgda #j ,c #bjj ,c4 #j4bcgea ,& we "k ( no reason :y "o ( ^! values %\ld be us$ r ?an ano!r1 except t ! mean ( a l>ge range ( temp]atures may be m ne>ly correct ?an t ( any o!r2 & if ?is reason det]m9es our *oice1 ! numb] #j4bcge w\ld be us$ in/ead ( #j4bcgg4 ,al?\gh ?is diff]5ce is small1 yet ! =m] value w\ld h r$uc$ 8 result ab\t #j4g ( a foot p\nd4 ,aga91 he uses #j4afhf = ! specific heat ( air at con/ant volume4 ,! value ( ?is con/ant has nev] be5 f\nd to any degree ( accuracy by direct exp]im5t1 & we are /ill dep5d5t ^u ! me?od e/abli%$ by ,la ,place & ,poisson1 accord+ to :i* ! con/ant ratio ( ! specific heat ( a gas at con/ant pressure to t at con/ant volume is f\nd by means ( ! velocity ( s\nd 9 ! gas4 ,! value ( ! ratio = air1 z f\nd 9 ! days ( ,la ,place1 0 #a4da1 & we h #j4bcgg #a4da #j4afhf1 ! value us$ by ,clausius1 ,hanss51 & _m o!rs4 ,b ?is ratio is n def9itely kn[n4 ,rank9e 9 8 lat] writ+s us$ #a4djh1 & ,tait 9 a rec5t "w gives #a4djd1 :ile "s exp]im5ts give less ?an #a4d1 & o!rs m ?an #a4da4 ,an error ( "o foot 9 a ?\s& 9 det]m9+ ! velocity ( s\nd w affect ! ?ird decimal figure "o or two units4 ,a small diff]5ce 9 ! assum$ weight ( a cubic foot ( air also affects ! result4 ,m4 ,hanss5 gives #j4jhjgdc p\nd z ! weight at #cb ,f4 "u ! pressure ( "o atmosph]e2 :ile ,rank9e gives #j4jhjgbh p\nd4 ,9 my own computations ,i use #a4djf z a m probable value ( ! con/ant s\ght4 ,?is w give = ! specific heat ( air at con/ant pressure #j4bcge #a4djf #j4afhi ,?is is only #j4jjjc ( a unit great] ?an ! value us$ by ,hanss51 b x w\ld h giv5 him ne>ly #gge1 in/ead ( #gga4hi4 ,aga91 he uses #dia4d ,f4 = ! absolute temp]ature ( melt+ ice4 ,! exact value ( ?is con/ant is unkn[n2 b ! mean value z det]m9$ by ,j\le & ,?omson1 9 _! celebrat$ exp]im5ts ) por\s plugs1 0 #dib4ff ,f4 ,?is value w\ld slightly *ange 8 result4 ,x w be se5 f ! above t a small *ange 9 ! con/ants us$ may affect by sev]al units ! comput$ value ( ! me*anical equival5t4 ,i h comput$ x1 us+ #a4djf = ! ratio ( ! specific heat ( air at con/ant pressure to t at con/ant volume1 #dia4ac ,f4 z ! temp]ature ( melt+ ice above ! z]o ( ! air !rmomet]1 #bf1bad feet = ! height ( a homog5e\s atmosph]e1 & #j4bcge = ! specific heat ( air1 & ,i f9d1 by means ( ^! con/ants1 #ggh4 ,if comput$ f ! z]o ( ! absolute scale1 #dib4ff ,f41 ,i f9d #ggg to ! ne>e/ integ]4 ,rec5tly ,i h us$ #ggh4 ,if ! value giv5 by ,r[l&1 ab\t #ghc accord+ to ! air !rmomet] at #ci ,f41 %\ld prove to be correct1 x seems probable t ! con/ant #a4djf us$ above w\ld be r$uc$ to ab\t #a4djc1 or t ! o!r con/ants mu/ be *ang$ by a small am\nt4 ,! height ( ! homog5e\s atmosph]e us$ above1 #bf1bad feet1 is ! value us$ by ,rank9e z d$uc$ f ,regnault's figures1 & only "o foot less ?an ! value us$ by ,sir ,william ,?omson2 b ! figures us$ by ,mr4 ,hanss5 give #bf1baj feet4 ,! me?od above call$ ,hanss5's is really t ( ,dr4 ,may] 7! ,g]man pr(essor71 :o 9 #ahdb us$ x = det]m9+ ! me*anical equival5t2 b on acc\nt ( errone\s data1 ! value f\nd by him 0 mu* too small4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,economy ,,trials ,,( ,a ,,non-,,cond5s+ ,,/eam ,,eng9e--,,simple1 ,,comp\nd1 ,,& ,,triple4#a ,footnote #a3 ,ab/ract ( pap] read be=e ! ,in/itution ( ,civil ,eng9e]s1 ,m>* #ac4 ,,by ,,mr4 ,p4 ,w4 ,,willans1 ,m4,i4,c4,e4 ,! au?or describ$ a s]ies ( economy trials1 non-cond5s+1 made ) "o ( 8 c5tral valve triple expansion eng9es1 ) "o crank1 hav+ ?ree cyl9d]s 9 l9e4 ,by remov+ "o or bo? ( ! upp] pi/ons1 ! eng9e c\ld be easily *ang$ into a comp\nd or into a simple eng9e at pleasure4 ,di/9ct gr\ps ( trials 7 ?us c>ri$ out "u conditions v favorable to a satisfactory comp>ison ( results4 ,no jackets 7 us$1 & no addition _h1 !re=e1 to be made to ! figures giv5 = fe$ wat] consumption on t acc\nt4 ,mo/ ( ! trials 7 conduct$ by ! au?or1 b *eck trials 7 made by ,mr4 ,mac,farlane ,gray1 ,pr(4 ,k5n$y1 ,mr4 ,druitt ,halp91 ,pr(essor ,unw91 & ,mr4 ,wilson ,h>tnell4 ,! "w !oretically due f a giv5 quantity ( /eam at giv5 pressure1 exhau/+ into ! atmosph]e1 0 fir/ consid]$4 ,by a =mula d$uc$ f ! !ta phi diagram ( ,mr4 ,mac,farlane ,gray1 :i* agre$ 9 results ) ! less simple =mulas ( ,rank9e & ,clausius1 ! p\nd weight ( /eam ( v>i\s pressures requir$ !oretically p] indicat$ horse p[] 7 asc]ta9$4 7,see annex$ table47 ,a description 0 !n giv5 ( ! ma9 s]ies ( trials1 all at f\r hundr$ revolutions p] m9ute1 ( ! appliances us$1 & ( ! means tak5 to insure accuracy4 ,a few ( ! results 7 embodi$ 9 ! table4 ,! miss+ quantity ( fe$ wat] at cut (f1 :i*1 9 ! simple trials1 rose f #aa4g p] c5t4 at #dj lb4 absolute pressure to ne>ly #cj p] c5t4 at #aaj lb4 & at #ij lb4 0 #bd4h p] c5t41 0 at #ij lb4 only #e p] c5t4 9 ! comp\nd trials4 ,9 ! latt]1 at #afj lb41 x increas$ to #ag p] c5t41 b1 on repeat+ ! trial ) triple expansion1 x fell to #e4df p] c5t4 or to #d4dc p] c5t4 9 ano!r trial n includ$ 9 ! table4 ,on ! o!r h&1 f ! great] loss 9 passages1 etc41 ! comp\nd eng9e mu/ always give a small] diagram1 consid]$ ) ref]5ce to ! /eam pres5t at cut-(f1 ?an a simple eng9e1 & a triple a small] diagram ?an a comp\nd eng9e4 ,nev]!less1 ev5 at #hj lb4 absolute pressure1 ! comp\nd eng9e _h consid]able advantage1 n only f less5$ initial cond5sation1 b f small] loss f cle>ances1 & f r$uc+ bo? ! am\nt ( leakage & ! loss result+ f x4 ,^! ga9s became m app>5t ) increas+ we>4 ,! great] surface 9 a comp\nd eng9e _h n ! injuri\s effect sometimes attribut$ to x1 & ! au?or %[$ h[ mu* less ! !oretical diagram 0 r$uc$ by ! two small areas tak5 out ( x 9 a comp\nd eng9e ?an by ! s+le l>ge area ab/ract$ 9 a simple eng9e4 ,! trials completely confirm$ ! view t ! comp\nd eng9e ow$ its sup]iority to r$uc$ range ( temp]ature4 ,at ! unavoidably re/rict$ pressures ( ! triple trials1 ! losses due to ! new set ( passages1 etc41 almo/ neutraliz$ ! sav+ 9 initial cond5sation1 b ) increas$ pressure--say to #bjj lb4 absolute--!re w\ld evid5tly be consid]able economy4 ,! figures ( ^! trials %[$ t ! loss ( pressure due to passages 0 f> great] ) high ?an ) l[ pressure /eam1 & t pipes & passages %\ld be proportion$ ) ref]5ce to ! weight ( /eam pass+1 & n = a p>ticul> velocity m]ely4 ,! au?or describ$ a s]ies ( calorimetric te/s ^u a l>ge scale 7usually ) ov] two tons ( wat]71 ! results ( :i* 7 /at$ to be v consi/5t4 ,aft] comp>+ ! dates ( initial cond5sation 9 cases :]e ! d5sity ( /eam1 ! area ( expos$ surface1 & ! range ( temp]ature 7 all v>iables1 ) o!r cases 7#a7 :]e ! d5sity 0 con/ant & 7#b7 :]e ! surface 0 con/ant1 ! au?or conclud$ t1 at f\r hundr$ revolutions p] m9ute1 ! am\nt ( initial cond5sation dep5d$ *iefly on ! range ( temp]ature 9 ! cyl9d]1 & n ^u ! d5sity ( ! /eam or ^u ! ext5t ( surface1 & t its cause 0 probably ! alt]nate heat+ & cool+ ( a small body ( wat] reta9$ 9 ! cyl9d]4 ,! effect ( wat]1 int5tionally introduc$ into ! air cu%ion cyl9d]1 corroborat$ ! au?or's views1 & he %[$ h[ small a quantity ( wat] reta9$ 9 ! cyl9d] w\ld acc\nt = ! effects obs]v$4 ,at l[] spe$s surface might h m influ5ce4 ,! favorable economical effect ( high rotative spe$1 p] se1 0 v app>5t4 ,9 a trial ) a comp\nd eng9e1 ) #acj lb4 absolute pressure1 ! miss+ quantity at cut-(f rose f #aa4g p] c5t4 at #dje revolutions to #bi4ff p] c5t4 at #acj revolutions1 ! consumption ( fe$ wat] increas+ f #bj4ce lb4 to #bc4fg lb4 ,?is sav+ ( #ad p] c5t4 0 due solely to increase ( spe$4 ,simil> trials _h be5 made ) a simple eng9e4 ,9 "o simple trial at sl[ spe$ ! miss+ quantity rose to #dd4e p] c5t4 ( ! :ole fe$ wat]4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,int5d$ mean admission pressure ,lb4 #dj #ij #aaj #acj #aej #afj #agj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,simple1 ,comp\nd1 or ,triple4 ,s4 ,s4 ,c4 ,s4 ,c4 ,c4 ,c4 ,t4 ,c4 ,t4 ,t4 ,actual mean admission pressure ,lb4#dj4hh #ib4fehg4edajf4c #aji4c #acj4f #adi4i #aea4i #aeh4e #aeh4a #agb4e ,p]c5tage ratio ( actual mean pressure1 ref]r$ to l[ pressure pi/on1 to !oretical mean pressure #ih4b #ajj #ia4c #ajj4g #id4h #id4b #id4f #hd4ed #ie4i #he4c #he4b ,indicat$ horse p[] #af4ea #ca4fabh4ad #cc4e #cc #cf4ca #ch4ei #ce4fi #ci4ee #ce4ef #ch4de ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,fe$ wat] actually us$ p] indicat$ ,h4,p4,h4-- ,simple ,lb4#db4gf #bf4hi 444 #bf 444 444 444 444 444 444 444 ,comp\nd ,lb4 444 444 #cd4af 444 #ba4cg #bj4ce #ai4de 444 #ai4ai 444 444 ,triple ,lb4 444 444 444 444 444 444 444 #ai4fh 444 #ai4ai #ah4de ,/eam requir$ !oretically p] #a ,h4,p4,h4 ,lb4#cd4fg #ai4bdai4hf #ag4i #ag4fe #af4be #ae4bc #ae4af #ad4hg #ad4i #ad4cf ,p]c5tage effici5cy #ha4a #ga4e #hb4b #fh4h #hb4e #hj #gh4c #gg #gg4d #gg4f #gg4h ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,p]c5tage ( fe$ wat] miss+ at cut (f 9 high pressure cyl9d] 444 444 444 444 444 444 444 #e4cc 444 #f4hd #e4ja ,ditto high pressure cyl9d] 444 444 #e 444 #i4e #aa4g #ae4a #ad4hd #ag #ab4jf #ae4cc ,ditto l[ pressure cyl9d] #aa4g #bd4h #ae4b #bi4ef #af4be #ai4a #bj4f #bb4ab #ba4c #bb4aa #bd4ba ,p]c5tage ( fe$ wat] miss+ at end ( /roke 9 l[ pressure cyl9d] #aj4d #ah4hcad4be #ba4ec #af4ei #ag4ee #bj4fi #ah4ja #ai4ee #ah4ha #ai4be ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,! au?or comp>$ a s]ies ( comp\nd trials1 at diff]5t p[]s1 ) #acj lb4 absolute pressure1 & v>i\s ratios ( expansion1 ) a s]ies giv+ approximately ! same p[]s at a con/ant ratio ( expansion1 b ) v>y+ pressures1 be+ practically a trial ( automatic expansion aga9/ ?rottl+4 ,/>t+ ) #dj indicat$ horse p[]1 #acj lb4 absolute pressure1 f\r expansions1 & a consumption ( #bj4ge lb4 ( wat]1 ! plan ( v>y+ ! expansion1 z comp>$ ) ?rottl+1 %[$ a ga9 ( ab\t #g p] c5t4 at #cj indicat$ horse p[]1 b ( a v small p]c5tage :5 bel[ half p[]4 ,if ! eng9e _h an ord9>y slide valve1 ! great] friction1 add$ to irregul> motion1 w\ld probably neutralize ! sav+1 :ile if ! eng9e 7 "o 9 :i* initial cond5sation assum$ m usual proportions1 ! ga9 w\ld be probably on ! side ( v>iable pressure4 ,ev5 z x 01 ! diagrams %[$ t ! miss+ quantity became enorm\sly l>ge z ! expansion increas$4 ,judg+ only by ! fe$ wat] acc\nt$ = by ! indicator1 ! automatic eng9e appe>$ greatly ! m economical1 b actual measurem5t ( ! fe$ wat] disprov$ ?is4 ,! position ( ! automatic eng9e 01 h[ev]1 relatively m favorable :5 simple ?an :5 comp\nd4 ,9 conclusion1 ! au?or ref]r$ to a trial ) a cond5s+ eng9e1 at #agj lb4 absolute pressure1 9 :i* ! fe$ wat] us$ 0 #ae4a lb41 a result evid5tly capable ( fur!r improvem5t1 & to an effici5cy trial ( a comb9$ c5tral valve eng9e & ,siem5s' dynamo1 made = ! ,admiralty1 at v>i\s p[]s4 ,at ! highe/ p[] ! ratio ( ext]nal electrical horse p[] to indicat$ horse p[] 9 ! eng9e 0 #hb4c p] c5t4 ,tak+ ! !rmo-dynamic effici5cy ( ! eng9e at #hj p] c5t41 t ( ! comb9$ app>atus w\ld be ne>ly #ff p] c5t4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,railway ,,bridge ,,at ,,la*9e4 ,! subject ( our l>ge illu/ration ?is week is a l>ge /eel bridge c>ry+ ! ,c5tral ,pacific ,railway ov] ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce ,riv] at ,la*9e1 ne> ,montreal4 ,! ma9 features ( ?is really magnific5t /ructure are ! two great *annel spans1 ea* #djh feet long4 ,x w be notic$ t ! design comb9es1 9 a v +5i\s mann]1 an upp] & a l[] deck /ructure1 ! railway track be+ laid on ! top ( ! gird]s =m+ ! side spans1 & on ! l[] flanges ( ! *annel spans1 :i* are cross$ by cont9u\s gird]s1 #ge feet deep1 ov] ! c5tral pi]1 & support$ by brackets z %[n4 ,! upp] ( our two engrav+s %[s ! me?od ( con/ruct+ ! pr9cipal spans1 :i* 7 built outw>d f ! side pi]s1 :ile ! "w on ! c5t] pi] 0 ext5d$ on ea* side to meet4 ,x 0 built at ! works ( ! ,dom9ion ,bridge ,company1 ,montreal1 f ! design ( ,mr4 ,c4 ,%al] ,smi?1 ! well-kn[n ,am]ican bridge eng9e]4--,eng9e]+4 ,illu/ration 99 99 99 99 99 ,,improv$ ,,screw ,,propell]4 ,:ile ! la/ few ye>s h se5 great advances made 9 ! designs ( /eam%ips & ( _! eng9es1 little or no?+ has be5 done 9 ! way ( improv+ ! screw propell]4 ,z a g5]al rule x w\ld appe> to be tak5 = grant$ t no radical improvem5t c\ld be made 9 ! =m ( ! propell]1 al?\gh v>i\s metals h be5 introduc$ 9 its manufacture ) ! view ( increas+ its effici5cy4 ,= sea-go+ /eam]s1 h[ev]1 ! %ape rema9s ! same1 ! v>iation *iefly relat+ to ! numb] ( blades employ$4 ,a /rik+ dep>ture f ord9>y practice1 h[ev]1 has ( late be5 made by ,mr4 ,b4 ,dick9son1 :o has inv5t$ a screw propell] :i*1 on practical trial1 has giv5 an effici5cy f> 9 advance ( ! ord9>y screw4 ,?is new propell] we illu/rate "h 9 ,figs4 ,c & ,d1 :ile ,fig4 ,a %[s an ord9>y propell]4 ,! ,dick9son propell] illu/rat$ has six blades1 giv+ a surface ( #cj squ>e feet2 x is "r h&$1 & has pit* ( #ae ft4 & a diamet] ( #aj ft4 #f 94 ,! ord9>y screw propell] %[n at ,fig4 ,a is "r h&$ & two blad$1 ) a pit* at ! boss ( #ac ft4 #f 94 & at ! tip ( #ae ft4 ,x has a diamet] ( #aj ft4 #i 94 & #cb squ>e ft4 ( surface4 ,! project$ area look+ =w>d is #bb squ>e ft4 & ! project$ area look+ a?w>t%ip #bb4hd squ>e feet4 ,! mo/ graphic way ( illu/rat+ ! pr9ciple ( ,mr4 ,dick9son's propell] is to take a two blad$ propell] ( ! ord9>y type z %[n at ,fig4 ,a 9 ! annex$ cuts1 & divide into ?ree sections z 9 ,fig4 ,b1 !n move section ,no4 #a to ! l9e position on ! %aft ( ,no4 #c1 & ,no4 #c to t ( ,no4 #a1 ,no4 #b rema9+ /ation>y4 ,! effect ( ?is int]*ange w be t 7hav+ reg>d to ! circle ( rotation7 ,no4 #c1 ! re>mo/ section1 w rotate 9 advance ( ,no4 #b1 & ,no4 #b 9 advance ( ,no4 #a 7see ,fig4 ,c74 ,by ?is arrangem5t ! wat] op]at$ on escapes freely a/]n f e blade--t f ,no4 #a pass+ 9 ! wake ( ,no4 #b1 :ile t f ,nos4 #b & #a passes 9 ! wake ( ,no4 #c4 ,fig4 ,d repres5ts ! blades ) a wid] spread z practically us$4 ,! advantages claim$ by ,mr4 ,dick9son = 8 propell]1 & :i* are suffici5tly important to be giv5 9 detail1 are3 ,illu/ration3 ,figs4 ,a-,d4 #a4 ,t ! blades ( ea* section1 :5 ! vessel is 9 motion1 necess>ily cut solid1 undi/urb$ wat]1 ea* blade op]at+ ^u precisely ! same quantity ( wat] z an individual broad blade w\ld d1 ?\gh1 ( c\rse1 x p>ts ) x 9 "o-?ird ( ! "t4 #b4 ,t ea* sectional blade ex]ts ! equival5t effici5cy ( ! fir/ or ent]+ ?ird portion ( ! bread? ( an ord9>y propell] blade1 & t consequ5tly ! comb9$ sections h great] effective p[]4 ,x is n[ reg>d$ by exp]ts z an asc]ta9$ fact t ! aft] or trail+ portion ( ! broad blade is relatively non-effective z comp>$ ) ! =w>d or ent]+ portion4 #c4 ,:5 ?ree blades are fitt$1 ! sp5t wat] f ,no4 #b be+ deliv]$ imm$iately 9 ! wake ( ,no4 #c1 & t f ,no4 #a 9 ! wake ( ,no4 #b1 has ! effect ( de/roy+ or r$uc+ to a m9imum ! back draught ( sections ,nos4 #b & #c1 ,no4 #a alone be+ subject to ?is drawback4 ,?is is ( great] importance ?an might at fir/ ?\ght appe>1 z 9 cases :]e !re are ?ree or f\r blades revolv+ 9 "o plane1 ! wat] is drawn aft] ! retreat+ blade1 less5+ ! resi/ance to ! face ( ! advanc+ "o4 #d4 ,t by ! subdivision ( ! blades1 z arrang$ spirally1 ! wat] pass+ ?r\gh )9 ! radius ( ! propell] has its resi/+ capacity m ?or\ghly work$ out ?an is possible ) any propell] ^: blades are all on ! same plane4 ,?is view is confirm$ by ! visibly increas$ rotation ( ! wat] 9 ! wake ( ! vessel4 #e4 ,t by broad5+ ! blades or increas+ ! numb] ( sections1 ! diamet] ( ! propell] may be proportionately dim9i%$ )\t ! sacrifice ( eng9e p[]4 ,?is is (t5 desirable ) vessels ( light draught1 ! complete imm]sion ( ! screw be+ at all times necess>y to avoid wa/e ( p[]4 #f4 ,! propell] be+ made & fitt$ on ! %aft 9 sections1 all t is necess>y 9 case ( accid5t is to replace ! brok5 section4 ,?is 9 _m cases c\ld be done afloat4 #g4 ,! blades be+ arrang$ to take _! wat] at diff]5t planes1 !re is ! great] c]ta9ty ( "o or o!r ( ! sections op]at+ ^u :at is t]m$ ! wat] ( friction4 ,?is is consid]$ an advantage4 #h4 ,:]e x is desirable1 ! blades ( ! diff]5t sections c be made ( v>y+ bread? or pit*4 #i4 ,! pr9ciple ( division into two or m sections applies equally to two1 ?ree1 or f\r blad$ ord9>y propell]s4 #aj4 ,! adoption ( ?is pr9ciple does n entail any alt]ation or enl>gem5t ( ! screw space or bay z usually provid$4 #aa4 ,z a consequ5ce ( ! fre$om & rapidity ) :i* ! wat] op]at$ ^u escapes f ! n>r[ blades1 ! depression at ! /]n ( ! vessel caus$ by ! action ( ! ord9>y propell] is greatly r$uc$4 #ab4 ,! vibration caus$ by ?is propell] is s slight z to be h>dly noticeable1 !reby effect+ a sav+ 9 ! we> & te> ( ! eng9e & ma*9]y4 ,?is may also be a consid]ation 9 promot+ ! com=t ( pass5g]s4 ,f a practical & work+ po9t ( view we take ,mr4 ,dick9son's *ief claims to be1 9 ! fir/ place1 ! yield+ ( a great] spe$ p] p[] employ$1 or an economy 9 obta9+ an equal spe$2 9 ! second1 increas$1 rapidity 9 maneuv]+ & /opp+ a vessel2 & 9 ! ?ird1 a r$uction ( vibration4 ,9 ord] to put ^! claims to a practical & reliable comp>ative te/1 ,messrs4 ,wea!rley1 ,mead ,hussey1 ( ,sa9t ,dun/an's ,hill1 ,london1 plac$ at ! inv5tor's disposal two ( _! new /eam]s1 ! ,h]ongate & ! ,belle ( ,dunk]que4 ,^! are 9 e respect si/] boats1 & 7 built 9 #ahhg by ,messrs4 ,%ort ,bro!rs1 & eng9$ by ,mr4 ,john ,dick9son1 ( ,sund]l&4 ,! ,h]ongate 0 fitt$ ab\t f\r mon?s ago ) ! l>ge/ propell] yet made on ,mr4 ,b4 ,dick9son's pr9ciple1 ! ,belle ( ,dunk]que hav+ an ord9>y f\r-blad$ propell] ( ! late/ improv$ type4 ,e precaution 0 tak5 to place ! two vessels on ! same foot+ = ! purpose ( a comp>ative te/1 :i* 0 rec5tly c>ri$ out4 ,bo? vessels previ\sly to ! trial 7 plac$ on ! gridiron1 clean$ & pa9t$1 _! boil]s op5$ out & scal$1 _! /eam gauges indep5d5tly te/$1 & bo? vessels load$ ) a simil> c>go ( pit*1 ! only diff]5ce be+ t ! ,h]ongate c>ri$ #aa tons m dead weight & _h "o in* m mean draught ?an ! ,belle ( ,dunk]que1 :ile ! =m] _h be5 runn+ cont9u\sly = n9e mon?s aga9/ ! latt]'s two & a half mon?s4 ,on ! day ( ! trial ! vessels 7 ly+ 9 ! ,l[] ,hope rea*1 & x 0 decid$ to run !m ov] ! measur$ mile !re ) equal pressure ( /eam4 ,! ord] ( runn+ hav+ be5 arrang$1 ! ,h]ongate got "u way fir/1 ! ,belle ( ,dunk]que foll[+ ov] ! same c\rse4 ,/eam+ d[n aga9/ tide1 ! ,h]ongate is said to h come r\nd ) rem>kable ease & rapidity1 & 9 turn+ on ei!r helm1 :e!r ) or aga9/ tide1 to h %[n a decid$ advantage4 ,equally manife/1 x is /at$1 0 ! sup]iority %[n 9 br++ up ! vessel by rev]s+1 :5 runn+ at full spe$1 ?us confirm+ ! v favorable reports previ\sly receiv$ by ! own]s f _! capta9s s9ce ! ,dick9son propell] 0 fitt$ to ! ,h]ongate4 ,^? :o 7 on bo>d h] /ate t ! vibration 0 sc>cely noticeable4 ,f a /atem5t submitt$ to u x is cle> t ! ,h]ongate _h ! turn ( ! scale aga9/ h] 9 dead weight & draught1 vacuum1 & diagrams tak51 b not)/&+ 7mak+ all[ance = "o faulty run due to ! v>iations 9 tide7 %e appe>s to h m ?an held h] own 9 ! matt] ( spe$1 ) a sav+ ( #d & #c revolutions p] m9ute at #adj lb4 & #afj lb4 /eam pressure respectively4 ,?is is fur!r confirm$ by ! results ( a run made aft] ! exp]im5ts 7 conclud$1 ! two vessels be+ plac$ 9 l9e1 & fairly />t$ = a half h\r's run ov] ! flood ) #aej lb4 /eam pressure4 ,at ! expiration ( t "t ! ,h]ongate 0 judg$ to be lead+ by at lea/ half a l5g?1 h] revolutions be+ #gf1 z aga9/ #hj 9 ! ,belle ( ,dunk]que4 ,x 0 agre$ by all pres5t at ^! trials t ! propell] _h realiz$ 9 full ! ?ree ma9 work+ advantages claim$ = x4 ,?is be+ ! fir/ ,dick9son propell] fitt$ to a sea-go+ vessel ( ?is size1 x is q )9 ! limits ( possibility t ! pres5t results may be improv$ ^u 9 fur!r practice4 ,9 any case we c b reg>d ?is propell] z a di/9ct & orig9al dep>ture 9 m>9e propulsion1 & we congratulate ,mr4 ,dick9son on 8 pres5t success & promis+ future4 ,messrs4 ,wea!rley1 ,mead ,hussey also des]ve cr$it = _! disc]nm5t1 & = ! spirit$ mann] 9 :i* !y h tak5 up ,mr4 ,dick9son's +5i\s inv5tion4 ,we und]/& t !y are s satisfi$ ) ! results t !y int5d hav+ "o ( _! l>g] ocean-go+ /eam]s fitt$ ) ! ,dick9son propell]4--,iron4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,improv$ ,,dobby4 ,illu/ration ,at ! ,man*e/] ,royal ,jubilee ,exhibition1 ,messrs4 ,butt]wor? ,dick9son1 ,burnley1 %[$ ,catl['s pat5t dobby1 :i* is illu/rat$ above1 z appli$ to a /rong calico loom4 ,?is dobby is a d\ble lift "o1 ?us obta9+ a wide %$1 & ! use ( two lattice b>rels connect$ by ge>+ s t !y bo? revolve 9 ! same direction4 ,! jack lev] is atta*$ to ! v]tical lev]s1 ! top & bottom cat*es be+ work$ respectively by ! two b>rels1 & connect$ ) ! ends ( ! lev]s4 ,to ea* ( ^! cat*es a light blade spr+ is atta*$1 :i* insures !m be+ sprung ^u ! top ( ! knife1 & !reby obta9+ a c]ta9 lift4 ,a s]ies ( wood5 jacks or lev]s are employ$1 s z to give a v>y+ lift to ! front & back healds1 9 ?is way keep+ ! y>n 9 ev5 t5sion1 & prev5t+ slack %$s4 ,! healds are drawn d[n by means ( a s]ies ( lev]s adjo9+ "o ano!r1 & work$ by means ( a rock+ b> driv5 f ! tappet %aft4 ,:5 ! %$ is be+ =m$1 ! jacks are pu%$ d[n until x is fully op51 & ! w>p is ?us drawn d[n ) ! same c]ta9ty z ! upw>d movem5t is made4--,indu/ries4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,unit$ ,,/ates ,,consul> ,,reports4 ,,special ,,issue ,,no4 #aj4 ,,sulphur ,,m9es ,,9 ,,sicily4 ,,by ,,phillip ,,c>roll1 ,u4 ,s4 ,,consul1 ,,pal]mo4 ,sulphur1 or brim/one1 is a h>d1 brittle sub/ance ( v>i\s colors1 f brilliant yell[ to d>k br[n1 )\t smell :5 cool1 ( a mild ta/e1 & burns ) a pale blue flame1 emitt+ pung5t & suffocat+ fumes4 ,its specific gravity is f #a4i to #b4a4 ,sulphur exi/s m or less 9 all kn[n c\ntries1 b ! isl& ( ,sicily1 x is ?\ght1 is ! only place :]e x is produc$ on a l>ge scale1 & consequ5tly t isl& appe>s to comm& ! m>ket4 ,small quantities h be5 f\nd 9 ! nor? ( ,italy1 ! ,grecian ,ar*ipelago1 ,russia1 ,au/ria1 ,pol&1 ,france1 ,spa91 ea/]n %ores ( ,egypt1 ,tunis1 ,icel&1 ,brazil1 ,c5tral ,am]ica1 & ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,l>ge quantities are said to exi/ 9 v>i\s c\ntries ( ,asia1 b x is und]/ood to be impracticable to utilize ! same1 consequ5t ^u ! di/ance f any comm]cial port & ! abs5ce ( rail or o!r roads4 ,sulphur is ( two k9ds1 "o ( :i* is ( volcanic emanation1 ! o!r be+ closely alli$ to s$im5t>y rocks4 ,! latt] is f\nd 9 ,sicily1 on ! s\!rn & c5tral portions ( ! isl&4 ,m\nt ,etna1 situat$ 9 ! ea/1 seems to ex]t no influ5ce 9 ! =mation ( brim/one4 ,!re are v>i\s hypo!ses relative to its natural =mation4 ,dr4 ,philip ,sw>z5burg attributes x to ! emanations ( sulphur vapor expell$ f metallic matt] exi/+ 9 ! e>?1 consequ5t ^u ! fire 9 ! latt]1 :ile ,pr(essors ,h(fman & ,bis*(f ascribe x to ! decomposition ( sulphuret$ hydrog54 ,h(fman believes ! sulphuret$ hydrog5 mu/ h pass$ ?r\gh ! fissures ( /ratifi$ rocks1 b ,bis*(f is ( op9ion t ! sulphuret$ hydrog5 mu/ h be5 ! result ( ! decomposition ( sulphate ( lime 9 ! pres5ce ( organic matt]4 ,! !ory ( o!rs is t sulphur owes its orig9 to ! comb9ation ( lacu/r9e deposits ) vegetable matt]1 & o!rs aga9 suppose t x is due to ! action ( ! sea ^u animal rema9s4 ,! huge banks ( rock salt (t5 met ) 9 ! vic9ity ( sulphur m9es1 & :i* 9 "s places /ret* = a di/ance ( sev]al miles1 seem to indicate t ! sea has work$ its way into ! subsoil4 ,fi% & insects1 :i* are frequ5tly f\nd 9 /rata ( tripoli1 :i* lie "u sulphur b$s1 induce ! belief t lakes =m]ly exi/$ 9 ,sicily4 ,! foll[+ is a li/ ( ! v>i\s /rata :i* =m "p ( ! cru/ ( ! e>? 9 ,sicily1 accord+ to ,pr(essor ,mottura1 an ,italian geologi/3 ,plioc5e4--,s&/one2 co>se calc>e\s rock2 m>l4 ,upp] ,mioc5e4--,calc>e\s m>l2 gypsum1 etc42 sulphur emb$d$ 9 calc>e\s lime/one2 silici\s lime/one2 tripoli1 conta9+ fossils ( fi%1 insects' eggs1 etc4 ,middle ,mioc5e4--,s&/one conta9+ qu>tz1 int]calat$ ) m>l ( a salti% ta/e4 ,l[] ,mioc5e4--,rock salt2 blue m>l1 conta9+ petroleum & bitum52 fl9t/one2 f]rug9\s clay1 mix$ ) aragonite & bitum9\s s*i/s2 f]rug9\s & silici\s s&/one4 ,eoc5e4--,lime/one1 conta9+ diaspores & %ells4 ,at times "o or ano!r ( ! /rata disappe>s1 :ile ! ord] ( "s is slightly rev]s$ on acc\nt ( ! brok5 /ate ( ! cru/4 ,^u ! :ole1 h[ev]1 ! above has be5 g5]ally obs]v$ 9 ! v>i\s m9es by ! au?or ref]r$ to4 ,sulphur m9es h be5 op]at$ 9 ,sicily ov] ?ree hundr$ ye>s1 b until ! ye> #ahbj its exportation 0 conf9$ to n>r[ limits4 ,at pres5t ! numb] ( m9es exi/+ 9 ,sicily is ab\t ?ree hundr$1 ne>ly two hundr$ ( :i*1 be+ op]at$ on cr$it1 are1 x is und]/ood1 de/9$ to an e>ly demise4 ,x is said t !re are ab\t #cj1jjj1jjj tons ( sulphur 9 ,sicily at pres5t1 & t ! annual production am\nts to ab\t #djj1jjj tons4 ,if ?is %\ld be true1 tak+ ! =ego+ z a basis1 ! supply w become exhau/$ 9 ab\t sev5ty-five ye>s4 ,9 #ahai a law 0 pass$ 9 ,italy1 :i* is /ill 9 =ce1 gov]n+ m9+ 9 ,sicily1 :i* provides t %\ld a l& own] discov] ore 9 8 prop]ty he w\ld be ! own] !re(1 & %\ld h ! "r to m9e1 op]ate1 or r5t ! prop]ty to o!rs = t purpose1 b if he %\ld decl9e to op]ate 8 m9es or to r5t !m to o!rs to be op]at$1 ! /ate w\ld r5t !m on its own acc\nt4 ,royalties v>y f #ab to #de p] c5t4 ,!y are paid accord+ to ! quality ( ! ore & ! facilities = produc+ sulphur2 #be p] c5t4 may1 h[ev]1 be tak5 z an av]age4 ,!re is a l& tax ( #cf p] c5t4 ( ! net income1 :i* is usually paid by ! own]s & lessees ( ! m9es1 9 proportion to ! quantity ( sulphur :i* !y produce4 ,! export duty is #aj lire p] ton4 ,all m9es are inspect$ by gov]nm5t (ficials once a ye>1 & ! own]s are requir$ to furni% ! /ate ) plans ( ! works & _! progress1 ) a view to insure ! safety ( ! workm5 & to asc]ta9 ! ext5t ( ! prop]ty4 ,^? :o r5t _! m9es receive f #aj to #dj p] c5t4 ( ! sulphur produc$4 ,leases are valid = su* p]iod z ! contract+ p>ties may /ipulate !re94 ,! g5]al limit1 h[ev]1 is n9e ye>s4 ,! av]age lease is #be p] c5t41 #dj p] c5t4 be+ paid only :5 ! m9es are v favorably situat$ & ! production good4 ,"s lessees pref] pay+ a consid]able sum 9 ca% 9 advance1 at ! beg9n+ ( ! t]m ( ! lease1 & giv+ #ae or #bj p] c5t4 9 sulphur annually !reaft]1 in/ead ( a high] p]c5tage4 ,! ext]nal indications ( ! pres5ce ( sulphur are ! appe>ance ( gypsum & sulphur\s spr+s4 ,^! are indubitable signs ( ! pres5ce ( sulphur1 & :5 discov]$ ! process resort$ to "h1 9 ord] to rea* ! sulphur1 is to bore a hole suffici5tly l>ge to admit a man1 aft] :i* /eps are con/ruct$ 9 ! passage 9 ord] to facilitate ! workm5 9 go+ to & fro4 ,^! /eps ext5d across ! passage1 & are ab\t #be c5timet]s high & #ce broad4 ,! incl9ation ( ! holes or passages v>ies f #cj to #ej degrees4 ,^u atta9+ ! dep? ( sev]al met]s wat] is (t5 met )1 & 9 su* consid]able quantity t x is impossible to proce$4 ,h5ce x becomes necess>y to ei!r pump ! wat] out or retreat 9 ord] to bore else:]e4 ,x is (t5 necess>y to bore sev]al passages 9 ord] to discov] ! ore or seam ( sulphur4 ,:51 h[ev]1 x has be5 discov]$ ! passages are made to foll[ its direction1 :e!r upw>d or d[nw>d4 ,z ! direction ( seams is 9 mo/ cases irregul>1 t ( ! passages or gall]ies is likewise4 ,:]e ! ore is ri* & ! matrix yield+1 ! m9]s break x by means ( pick-axes & pikes1 b :5 su* is n ! case gunp[d] is resort$ to1 ! ore 9 ?is case be+ c>ri$ to ! surface by boys4 ,! m9]s deta* ! ore f ! surr\nd+ mat]ial1 & ! cavities :i* ensue 9 consequ5ce assume ! appe>ance ( va/ caves1 :i* are "h & !re support$ by pill>s ( rock & ore 9 ord] to keep !m f fall+ or giv+ way4 ,9 ord] to /r5g!n ! gall]ies /]ile rock is pil$ ^u ea* side & cem5t$ ) gypsum4 ,9 ext5sive m9es1 h[ev]1 ^! supports & l9+s are too weak1 & n infrequ5tly1 z a result1 ! gall]ies & cav]ns give way1 occasionally caus+ consid]able havoc among ! m9]s4 ,sulphur is f\nd f ! surface to a dep? ( #aej met]s4 ,! difficulties met ) 9 op]at+ m9es are num]\s1 & among ! greate/ 9 ?is category are wat]1 l& slides1 irregul>ity ( seam1 delet]i\s gases1 h>dness ( rocks & matrices4 ,( ^! difficulties1 wat] is ! mo/ frequ5tly met )4 ,inde$1 x is always pres5t1 & r5d]s ! con/ant use ( pumps necess>y4 ,at "o "t m9]s 7 all[$ to dig :]e !y pleas$ s long z sulphur 0 extract$1 ! consequ5ce be+ t 9 gr\ps ( m9es1 ! ext5t & direction ( :i* be+ unkn[n to _! respective own]s1 "o m9e (t5 fell into or ^u ano!r1 ?us caus+ de/ruction to life & prop]ty4 ,x 0 l>gely = ?is reason1 x is und]/ood1 t ! gov]nm5t det]m9$ to require own]s & lessees ( m9es to furni% plans !re( to prop] au?ority1 & direct$ t (ficial inspection ( ! m9es %\ld be made at /at$ p]iods4 ,9 ord] to comply ) ! decree ( ! gov]nm5t x became necess>y to employ m9+ eng9e]s to draw ! plans1 etc41 & ^? employ$ 7 g5]ally =eign]s4 ,9 ! sy/em ( excavation describ$ no /eam p[] is employ$4 ,pump+ is p]=m$ by means ( primitive wood5 h& pumps1 & :5 suffici5t ore has be5 collect$ x is convey$ on ! backs ( boys to ! surface--a sl[1 co/ly1 & difficult proc$ure4 ,?is sy/em may1 h[ev]1 be suitable to small m9es1 b 9 l>ge m9es !re is no economy 9 h& labor2 inde$1 mu* is lo/ 9 "t & exp5se by x4 ,= ?is reason /eam has be5 introduc$ into ! l>g] & m important m9es4 ,! ma*9]y employ$ is a hoi/+ app>atus1 ) a drum1 ar\nd :i* a coil is w\nd1 ) ! object ( hoi/+ & l[]+ trucks 9 v]tical %afts4 ,/eam pumps s]ve to extract ! wat]4 ,! =ce ( ! hoi/+ app>atus v>ies f #ae to #ej horse p[]4 ,! fuel consum$ is ,engli% & ,fr5* coal1 ! =m] be+ pref]r$1 z x eng5d]s great] heat4 ,! co/ ( a ton ( coal at ! :>f is #d4dj1 :]eas 9 ! int]ior ( ! isl& x co/s ab\t #aj4 ,! %afts or pits are made 9 ! ord9>y way1 great c>e be+ tak5 9 l9+ !m ) masonry 9 ord] to gu>d aga9/ l& slides4 ,9 level portions ( ! c\ntry v]tical %afts are pref]r$1 b :]e ! m9e is situat$ ^u a hill a deb\* may (t5 be f\nd bel[ ! sulphur seam1 :5 an incl9$ plane is pref]r$1 ! ore be+ plac$ 9 trucks & all[$ to run d[n ! plane on rails until x rea*es ! ext]ior ( ! m9e1 :]e x sudd5ly & viol5tly /ops1 & z a result ! trucks are empti$ ( _! load1 :5 !y are drawn up ! plane to be refill$2 & ?us ! process goes on indef9itely4 ,9 ^! m9es a gutt] is made 9 ! incl9$ plane :i* c>ries (f ! wat]1 ?us disp5s+ ) ! necessity ( a pump & ! requisites to op]ate x4 ,! gall]ies & incl9$ %afts are l9$ ) beams ( p9e or l>*1 :i* are br\ght hi!r f ,s>d9ia1 z ,sicily possesses v little timb]4 ,! m9es are illum9at$ by means ( iron oil lamps1 ! wicks ( :i* are expos$4 ,! lamps are import$ f ,g]many4 ,9 c]ta9 cases an e>!nw>e lamp1 made on ! isl&1 & said to be a facsimile ( ^? us$ by ! ,pho5icians1 is employ$4 ,?is lamp is made 9 ! %ape ( a small b[l4 ,x is fill$ ) oil & a wick ins]t$1 :i* hangs or ext5ds outw>d1 & is ?us ignit$1 ! flame be+ expos$ to ! air4 ,safety lamps are unkn[n1 & ^? describ$ are g5]ally secure4 ,few explosions take place--only :5 conf9$ c>bonic hydrog5 is met ) 9 consid]able quantities1 & :5 ! v5tilation is n good4 ,9 ?is case ! m9e is easily ignit$1 & once on fire may burn = ye>s4 ,! only practical exp$i5t = ext+ui%+ ! fire is to close all inlets & outlets 9 ord] to %ut (f ! air4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is difficult & takes "t4 ,not)/&+ ! clos+ ( communications1 ! gases escape ?r\gh ! fissures & op5+s :i* obta9 ev]y:]e1 & ! +ress ( air makes x next to impossible to ext+ui% ! fire2 h5ce x burns indef9itely or until ! m9e is exhau/$4 ,occasionally ! burn+ ( a m9e results b5eficially to its own]s1 9 t x disp5ses ) ! necessity ( smelt+1 & produces natural1 ref9$ sulphur4 ,gall]ies 9 ext5t are usually #a4bj by #a4hj met]s1 & :5 ore is n f\nd & x becomes necess>y to ext5d ! gall]ies1 labor]s are paid 9 accordance ) ! progress !y may make & ! "* ( ! rock1 e>?1 etc41 ?r\gh :i* x may be necess>y to cut1 z foll[s3 ,silici\s lime/one1 #fj lire p] met]2 daily progress1 #j4bj met]4 ,gypsum1 #ej lire p] met]2 daily progress1 #j4cj met]4 ,m>l1 #cj lire p] met]2 daily progress1 #j4ej met]4 ,clay1 #ae lire p] met]2 daily progress1 #a met]4 ,labor]s work+ 9 ! ore are paid #d4cj lire p] ton4 ,?is includes digg+1 extract+1 & illum9ation4 ,9 "s m9es1 h[ev]1 ! labor]s are paid :5 ! sulphur is fus$ & ready = exportation4 ,"o ton ( sulphur1 or its equival5t 7say f #dj to #ej lire71 is ! am\nt g5]ally paid4 ,9 m9es :]e ?is sy/em obta9s ! adm9i/ration is only responsible = _! ma9t5ance4 ,ea* m9] produces on an av]age ab\t #a tons ( ore daily1 & :5 ! works are n m ?an #dj met]s 9 dep? he employs "o boy to assi/ him1 two boys :5 !y rea* #fj met]s1 & ?ree :5 "u #ajj met]s4 ,^! boys are f sev5 to sixte5 ye>s ( age1 & are paid f #j4he to #a4ej lire p] day by ! m9] :o employs !m4 ,!y c>ry f #a1jjj to #a1ejj p\nds ( ore daily1 or 9 f six to eight h\rs4 ,! food consum$ by m9]s is v meag]1 & consi/s ( bread1 oil1 w9e1 or wat]2 occasionally *eese1 mac>oni1 & vegetables are add$ to ! above4 ,m9+ labor]s g5]ally c nei!r read nor write1 & :5 employ$ 9 m9es di/ant f habitations or t[ns1 live & sleep !re91 or 9 ! op5 air1 dep5d+ on ! season or ! wea!r4 ,9 a few m9es ! labor]s are1 h[ev]1 provid$ ) suitable dwell+ places1 & a relief fund is 9 exi/5ce = ! succor ( ! families ( ^? :o die 9 ! s]vice4 ,?is fund is greatly oppos$ by ! m9]s1 f ^: wages f #a to #b p] c5t4 is d$uct$ = its ma9t5ance4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( a fund ( ?is "*1 ! sick or infirm are ab&on$ by _! companions & left to die4 ,g5]ally m9]s are in(f5sive :5 fairly dealt )4 ,!y are said to be indol5t & di%one/ z a rule4 ,! manag]s ( m9es receive f #c1jjj to #e1jjj lire p] annum2 *ief m9]s f #a1ejj to #b1ejj lire2 surveyors1 #gjj to #a1jjj lire2 & weigh]s & cl]ks1 f #a1jjj to #b1jjj lire p] annum4 ,! total numb] ( m9+ labor]s 9 ,sicily is e/imat$ at ab\t #be1jjj4 ,! ore = fusion ( ! fir/ grade z to yield conta9s f #bj to #be p] c5t4 ( sulphur1 t ( ! second grade f #ae to #bj p] c5t41 & ( ! ?ird grade #aj to #ae p] c5t4 ,! usual means adopt$ = extract+ sulphur f ! ore is heat1 :i* atta9s ! height ( #djj degrees ,c5tigrade1 smelt+ ) ! kiln1 :i* 9 ,sicilian dialect is call$ a calc>one4 ,! calc>one is capable ( smelt+ sev]al ?\s& tons ( ore at a "t & is op]at$ 9 ! op5 air4 ,"p ( ! sulphur is burn$ 9 ! process ( smelt+ 9 ord] to liquefy ! rema9d]4 ,calc>oni are situat$ z closely to ! m\? ( a %aft z possible1 & if practicable on ! side ( a hill1 9 ord] t :5 ! process ( smelt+ is complete1 ! sulphur may run d[n ! hill 9 *annels prep>$ = ! purpose4 ,! %op ( a calc>one is circul> & ! floor has an incl9ation ( f #aj to #ae degrees4 ,a design ( a calc>one is h]e) inclos$4 ,! circul> wall is made ( rude /one "w1 cem5t$ toge!r ) gypsum4 ,! ?ickness ( ! wall at ! back is #j4ej met]1 & f ?is x gradually becomes ?ick] until 9 front1 :]e x is #a met]1 :5 ! diamet] is to be #aj met]s4 ,9 front ( ! ?icke/ "p ( ! wall an op5+ is left1 measur+ #a4bj met]s high & #j4be met] broad4 ,?r\gh ?is op5+ ! liquid sulphur fl[s4 ,^u ea* side ( ?is op5+ two walls are built at "r angles ) ! circul> wall1 9 ord] to /r5g!n ! front ( ! kiln4 ,^! walls are #hj c5timet]s ?ick ea* & are ro($4 ,a door is h+$ to ^! walls1 ?us =m+ a small room 9 front ( ea* kiln 9 :i* ! keep] !re( resides f ! comm5cem5t to ! t]m9ation ( ! fl[ ( sulphur4 ,! incl9$ floor ( ! kiln is made ( /one "w & is cov]$ ) g9esi1 ! "n giv5 to ! refuse ( a =m] process ( smelt+4 ,! /one "w is #bj c5timet]s ?ick1 & ! g9esi cov]+ #be c5timet]s1 :i* gradually becomes ?ick] z x approa*es its l[e/ extremity4 ,! front "p ( ! circul> wall is #c4ej met]s high & ! back #a4hj met]s4 ,! int]ior ( ! wall is pla/]$ ) gypsum 9 ord] to r5d] x imp]meable4 ,! co/ ( a calc>one ( ab\t #ejj tons capacity is #hjj lire4 ,! capacity v>ies f #dj to #e1jjj tons1 or m1 dep5d+ ^u circum/ances4 ,if a m9e is enabl$ to smelt ! :ole ye> r\nd1 ! small] calc>oni1 be+ m easily manag$1 are pref]r$2 ! inv]se is ! case z to ! l>g] calc>oni1 :5 ?is is impracticable4 ,:5 a calc>one is situat$ )9 #ajj met]s ( a c]eal f>m1 its op]ation is prohibit$ by law dur+ ! summ]1 le/ ! fumes ( ! sulphur %\ld de/roy ! crop4 ,:51 h[ev]1 ! di/ance is great] f ! f>m or f>ms ?an #ajj met]s1 smelt+ is p]mitt$2 b %\ld any damage ensue to ! crops z a result ( ! fumes1 ! own]s ( ! calc>oni are requir$ to liquidate x4 ,!re=e ! m9es :i* are favorably situat$ smelt ! entire ye>1 & employ calc>oni ( f #dj to #ejj tons1 z !re is less risk ( a process fail+1 :i* occasionally happ5s1 & = ! reason t ! ore c be smelt$ z soon z x is extract$2 :]eas1 :5 kilns or calc>oni are situat$ )9 or adjac5t to ! limit adv]t$ to1 !y c only be op]at$ five or six mon?s 9 ! ye>1 consequ5t ^u :i* ! ore is necess>ily /ack$ up all ?r\gh ! summ] or until su* "t z smelt+ may be comm5c$ )\t endang]+ ! crops1 :5 x becomes necess>y to use calc>oni ^: capacity am\nts to sev]al ?\s& tons4 ,z intimat$1 ^! l>ge calc>oni are n s manageable z ^? ( small] dim5sions1 & z a result _m ?\s&s ( tons ( sulphur are lo/ 9 ! process ( smelt+1 besides p]haps ! loss ( an entire ye> 9 labor4 ,aga91 ! ore det]iorates or depreciates :5 long expos$ to ! air & ra91 all ( :i*1 :5 practicable1 r5d] ! kilns or calc>oni ( ! small] capacity m advantage\s & lucrative to ^? op]at+ sulphur m9es 9 ,sicily4 ,smelt+ ) a calc>one ( #bjj tons capacity consumes ?irty days1 "o ( #hjj tons #fj days1 & ) a calc>one ( #b1jjj tons capacity f #ij to #abj days are consum$4 ,9 load+ or fill+ ! calc>oni1 ! l>g] blocks ( ore are plac$ at ! bottom z well z aga9/ ! m\?1 9 ord] to keep ! l[] "p ( ! kiln z cool z possible ) a view ( prev5t+ ! liquid sulphur f becom+ ignit$ z x passes d[n to :]e x makes its exit1 etc4 ,! blocks ( ore ?us fir/ plac$ 9 position are1 = obvi\s reasons1 ! mo/ /]ile4 ,aft] ! f\ndation is ?or\ghly laid ! build+ ( ! pile is proce$$ )1 ! l>g] blocks be+ plac$ 9 ! c5t] to =m1 z x 71 ! backbone ( ! pile2 ! small] blocks ( ore are arrang$ on ! outside ( ^! & 9 ! int]/ices4 ,! %ape or =m ( ! pile :5 complet$ is simil> to a truncat$ cone1 & :5 burn+ ! kiln looks l a small volcano4 ,:5 ! kiln has be5 fill$ ) ore1 ! :ole is cov]$ ) g9esi ) a view ( prev5t+ ! escape ( ! fumes4 ,! ore is !n ignit$ by means ( bundles ( /raw1 impregnat$ or saturat$ ) sulphur1 be+ held above ! ?9 portion ( ! top ( ! kiln1 :i* is at once clos$ ) g9esi1 & ! calc>one is left to itself = ab\t a week4 ,dur+ ! burn+ process ! flames gradually desc5d1 & ! sulphur conta9$ 9 ! ore is melt$ by ! heat f above4 ,9 ab\t sev5 or eight days sulphuric fumes & sublim$ sulphur comm5ce to escape1 :5 x becomes necess>y to add a new coat ( g9esi to ! cov]+ & ?us prev5t ! de/ruction ( vegetation by ! sulphur fumes4 ,! m\? ( ! kiln1 :i* has be5 left op5 9 ord] to create a draught1 is clos$ up ab\t ?is "t ) gypsum pla/]4 ,:5 ! sulphur is all liquefi$ x f9ds its way to ! mo/ depress$ "p ( ! kiln1 & !re1 ^u enc\nt]+ ! l>ge /]ile blocks1 q cold1 already ref]r$ to1 solidifies4 ,x is aga9 liquefi$ by means ( burn+ /raw1 :]eupon an iron tr\gh is ins]t$ into a m\? made 9 ! kiln = ! purpose1 & ! reliquefi$ sulphur runs into x1 f :i* x is imm$iately collect$ into wood5 m\lds1 call$ gadite1 & :i* h be5 kept cool by be+ subm]g$ 9 wat]4 ,^u its becom+ ?or\ghly cool ! sulphur is tak5 out ( ! m\lds ref]r$ to1 & is n[ 9 solid blocks1 ea* weigh+ ab\t #ajj weight4 ,two ( ^! blocks con/itute a load = a mule1 & co/ f #d to #e francs4 ,! above is ! result :5 ! op]ation succe$s2 b ?is is n always ! case4 ,at times ! sulphur becomes solidifi$ be=e x rea*es ! m\? ( ! kiln1 because ( ! heat n be+ suffici5t to keep x liquid 9 its passage !reto1 & o!r mis=tunes n )9 control1 & consequ5t ^u ! use ( ! l>g] kilns1 or calc>oni4 ,:5 ! sulphur ceases to run f ! kiln1 ! process is complete4 ,! residue is left to cool1 :i* consumes f "o to two mon?s4 ,! cool+ process c\ld be accompli%$ 9 mu* less "t by p]mitt+ ! air to ent] ! kiln1 b ?is w\ld be de/ructive to vegetation1 & ev5 to life1 consequ5t ^u ! fumes ( ! sulphur4 ,! greate/ heat at a giv5 "t 9 a kiln is calculat$ to be above #fej degrees ,c5tigrade--t is1 at ! close ( ! process4 ,?is enorm\s heat is g5]ally all[$ to wa/e1 :]eas x is und]/ood x c\ld be utiliz$ 9 _m ways4 ,a g5tleman ( ! "n ( ,gill is und]/ood to h inv5t$ a recup]ative kiln1 :i* w1 if g5]ally adopt$1 utilize ! heat ( =m] processes nam$4 ,a ton ( ore conta9+ ab\t #be p] c5t4 ( sulphur yields #cjj p\nds ( sulphur4 ,?is is consid]$ a good yield4 ,:5 x yields #bjj p\nds x is consid]$ m$ium1 & poor :5 only #ge p\nds4 ,labor]s are paid #j4dj lire p] ton = load+ & unload+ kilns1 & f ?irty to =ty h&s are employ$ at a "t4 ,! keep] ( a kiln receives f #b to #b4ej lire p] day4 ,not)/&+ ! calc>one has _m defects1 x is ! simple/ & *eape/ mode ( smelt+1 & is pref]r$ "h to any o!r sy/em requir+ ma*9]y & skill$ labor to op]ate x4 ,! foll[+ are ! pr9cipal furnaces 9 use "h3 ,dur&'s2 ,hirzel2 ,gill & ,kays]'s sy/em ( fusion2 ,conby ,bollman process2 ,?omas /eam process ( smelt+2 & ,rob]t ,gill's recup]ative kilns4 ,!re are sev5 qualities or grades ( sulphur1 viz43 #a4 ,sulphur almo/ *emically pure1 ( a v bright & yell[ color4 ,second ,be/4--,slightly inf]ior to ! fir/ quality2 bright & yell[4 ,second ,good4--,conta9s #d to #e p] c5t4 ( e>?y matt]1 b is ( a bright yell[4 ,second ,curr5t4--,dirty yell[1 conta9+ m e>?y matt] ?an t la/ nam$4 ,?ird ,be/4--,br[ni% yell[2 ?is t9t dep5ds on ! am\nt ( bitum5 :i* x conta9s4 ,?ird ,good4--,light br[n1 conta9+ mu* extrane\s matt]4 ,?ird ,curr5t4--,br[n & co>se4 ,^! qualities are decid$ by color1 n by te/4 ,! diff]5ce ( price is f #c to #aj francs p] ton4 ,manufactur]s pref] ! ?ird be/1 because ( its conta9+ m sulphuric acid & co/+ less ?an ! sulphur ( bett] quality4 ,sulphur is convey$ to ! seabo>d by rail1 9 c>ts1 or on mules or donkeys4 ,conveyance by c>t1 mule1 or donkey is only resort$ to :5 ! di/ance is %ort or f m9es to railroad /ations4 ,! t>iff 9 ! latt] case is und]/ood to be #a lire p] ton p] mile4 ,! railroad t>iff is #j4ab p] ton p] kilomet]2 b x is contemplat$1 x is und]/ood1 to r$uce ?is to #g c5times 9 a %ort "t4 ,! price p] ton ( sulphur is z foll[s3 ,at ,porto ,at ,at ,grade4 ,emp$ocle4 ,licata4 ,catania4 ,lire4 ,lire4 ,lire4 ,second be/ #hf4fj #hg4jj #ij4gj ,second good #hd4db #hd4ej #ij4cj ,second curr5t #hc4ij #hc4ij #hh4dj ,?ird be/ #gi4jj #gi4ij #hf4ij ,?ird good #gg4hj #gg4hj #hc4jj ,?ird curr5t #gf4hj #gf4gj ,sulphur free on bo>d1 brok]age1 %ipm5t1 export duty1 & all o!r exp5ses includ$1 co/s #bj lire p] ton 9 excess ( ! above prices4 ,ne>ly all ! sulphur export$ f ,pal]mo emanates f ! ,l]c>a m9es1 9 ! prov9ce ( ,pal]mo1 ! price p] ton be+ z foll[s3 fir/ quality1 #ia4fj lire2 second quality1 #hh4dj4 ,sulphur is usually convey$ 9 /eam]s to =eign c\ntries f ,sicilian ports4 ,! av]age freight p] ton to ,new ,york is ab\t z foll[s3 ,f ,pal]mo1 #h4gj lire2 f ,catania1 #ac4ej lire2 f ,girg5ti1 #af lire4 ,an additional *>ge ( #b4ej lire is made :5 ! sulphur may be de/9$ = o!r ports 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,liebig once said t ! degree ( civilization ( a nation & its weal? c\ld be se5 9 its consumption ( sulphuric acid4 ,n[1 al?\gh ,italy produces imm5se quantities ( sulphur1 x _c1 on acc\nt ( ! sc>city ( fuel1 & o!r obvi\s reasons p]haps1 compete ) c]ta9 o!r c\ntries 9 ! manufacture & consumption ( sulphuric acid4 ,sulphur is employ$ 9 ! manufacture ( sulphuric acid1 & ! latt] s]ves 9 ! manufacture ( sulphate ( soda1 *loridic acid1 c>bonate ( soda1 azodic acid1 e!r1 /e>9e c&les1 purification ( oils 9 connection ) preci\s metals & electric batt]ies4 ,nordhaus5's sulphuric acid is employ$ 9 ! manufacture ( indigo4 ,sulphate ( soda is employ$ 9 ! manufacture ( artificial soda1 glassw>e1 cold mixtures1 & m$ic9es4 ,c>bonate ( soda is us$ 9 ! manufacture ( soap1 blea*+ wool1 color+ & pa9t+ tissues1 & 9 ! manufacture ( f9e cry/al w>e & ! prep>ation ( borax4 ,*loric acid is us$ 9 ! prep>ation ( *lorides ) bioxide ( manganese1 & ) *lorides 9 ! prep>ation ( hypo*lorides ( lime1 kn[n 9 comm]ce "u ! "n ( blea*+ p[d]1 & improp]ly call$ *loride ( lime1 :i* is us$ z a dis9fectant 9 contagi\s diseases1 9 blea*+ /uffs1 & 9 ! manufacture ( pap] f vegetable fib]s1 & 9 ! manufacture ( gelat9e extract$ f bones1 z well z 9 f]m5t+ molasses & 9 ! manufacture ( sug> f beet root4 ,sulphur is also us$ 9 ! prep>ation ( gunp[d] & oil ( vitriol1 & 9 ! manufacture ( mat*es & cultivation ( ! v9e4 ,9 ! ye> #ahch ! ,neapolitan gov]nm5t grant$ a monopoly to a ,fr5* company = ! trade 9 sulphur4 ,by ! t]ms ( ! agreem5t ! produc]s 7 requir$ to sell _! sulphur to ! company at c]ta9 fix$ prices1 & ! latt] paid ! gov]nm5t ! sum ( #cej1jjj annually 9 consid]ation ( ?is requirem5t4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 0 n a success1 & t5d$ to curtail ! sulphur indu/ry1 & ! gov]nm5t1 discov]+ ! agreem5t to be aga9/ its int]e/s1 annull$ x1 & e/abli%$ a free sy/em ( production1 *>g+ an export tax p] ton only4 ,at t "t sulphuric acid 0 d]iv$ exclusively f sulphur4 ,h5ce ! dem& f all c\ntries 0 great1 & ! prices paid = sulphur 7 high4 ,x 0 ab\t ?is p]iod t ! sulphur indu/ry 0 at its z5i?4 ,! monopoly hav+ be5 aboli%$1 e m9e did its utmo/ to produce z mu* sulphur z possible1 & f ! export duty exact$ by ! gov]nm5t !re accru$ to x a mu* l>g] rev5ue ?an t :i* x receiv$ dur+ ! p]iod ( ! monopoly4 ,! progress ( sci5ce has1 h[ev]1 modifi$ ! /ate ( ?+s s9ce !n1 z sulphur c n[ be obta9$ f pyrite or pyrite ( iron4 ,?is discov]y imm$iately caus$ ! price ( sulphur to fall1 & ! great dem& !re=e correspond+ly ceas$4 ,9 ,engl&1 at ! pres5t "t1 x is und]/ood t two-?irds ( ! sulphuric acid us$ is manufactur$ f pyrites4 ,! decrease 9 prices caus$ _m ( ! m9es to susp5d op]ations1 & z a result ! sulphur rema9$ idle 9 /ock4 ,9 #ahhd an association 0 =m$ at ,catania ) a view to buy+ up sulphur ?us /or$ away at ! m9es & v>i\s ports at l[ prices1 & /ore x away until a favorable opportunity %\ld pres5t itself = ! sale !re(4 ,?is _h ! effect ( increas+ ! prices ( sulphur 9 ,sicily = "s "t1 & ! produc]s1 discov]+ t ! me?ods ( ! association increas$ ! =eign dem& = _! produce z well z its prices1 export$ x directly !mselves1 ?us break+ up ! association ref]r$ to1 z x 0 no long] a pr(itable conc]n4 ,! railroad sy/em1 :i* 9 lat] ye>s has plac$ ! mo/ important p>ts ( ,sicily 9 communication ) ! seabo>d1 has be5 mo/ b5eficial to ! sulphur indu/ry4 ,a great sav+ has be5 made 9 transport+ x to ! ports4 ,?is 0 =m]ly 7z /at$7 accompli%$ by c>ts drawn by mules at an enorm\s exp5se1 z ! roads 7 wret*$1 & unless "s p]son ( di/9ction contemplat$ pass+ ov] !m1 repairs 7 unkn[n4 ,pal]mo1 ,m>* #bj1 #ahhh4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,an ,,automatic ,,/ill4 ,,by ,t4 ,,mab54 ,! arrangem5t "h describ$ is "o t may readily be adapt$ to1 & is specially suit$ =1 ! old fa%ion$ /ills :i* are 9 frequ5t use among ph>maci/s = ! purpose ( di/ill+ wat]4 ,! idea is extremely simple1 b ,i c te/ify to its ?or\gh effici5cy 9 actual practice4 ,! /ill is ( t9n$ copp]1 two gallon capacity1 & ! cond5s] is ! usual worm surr\nd$ ) cold wat]4 ,! ov]fl[ ( w>m wat] f ! cond5s] is n run into ! wa/e pipe z 9 ! ord9>y c\rse1 b c>ri$ by means ( a b5t tube1 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 to ! supply pipe ( ! /ill4 ,! b5d at ,b acts z a trap1 :i* prev5ts ! escape ( /eam4 ,illu/ration ,! advantages ( ?is arrangem5t are obvi\s4 ,x is p]fectly simple1 & c be adapt$ at no exp5se4 ,x p]mits ( a cont9u\s supply ( hot wat] to ! /ill1 s t ! cont5ts ( ! latt] may always be kept boil+ rapidly1 & z a consequ5ce x cond5ses ! maximum am\nt ( wat] ) ! m9imum ( loss ( heat4 ,if ! supply ( wat] at ,d be c>efully regulat$1 x w be f\nd t a cont9u\s curr5t w be pass+ into ! /ill at a temp]ature ( ab\t #ahj ,f41 or1 if practice sugge/ ! desirability ( runn+ 9 ! wat] at int]vals1 ?is c be easily arrang$4 ,x is necess>y t ! level at ,a %\ld be two in*es or !reab\t high] ?an ! level ( ! b5d at ,c1 o!rwise !re may n be suffici5t head to =ce a free curr5t ( wat] aga9/ ! pressure ( /eam4 ,x w also be f\nd t ! /ill %\ld only conta9 wat] to ! ext5t ( ab\t "o-f\r? ( its capacity :5 di/illation is comm5c$1 z ! wat] 9 ! cond5s] becomes heat$ mu* m rapidly ?an ! same volume is vaporiz$4 ,by ?is exp$i5t a /ill ( two gallons capacity w yield ab\t half a doz5 gallons p] day1 a mu* great] quantity ?an c\ld ev] be obta9$ "u ! old sy/em1 :i* requir$ ! /ill to be re*>g$ ) cold wat] e "t "o & a half gallons _h be5 tak5 (f4 ,! objection to all su* cont9u\s or automatic arrangem5ts is1 ( c\rse1 t ! cond5s$ wat] conta9s all ! free ammonia t may h exi/$ 9 ! wat] orig9ally1 b x is only 9 cases :]e ! wat] is exceptionally impure t ?is disadvantage w become really s]i\s4 ,! me?od "h outl9$ has1 no d\bt1 occurr$ to _m1 & may probably be 9 regul> use1 b n hav+ se5 any previ\s m5tion ( ! idea1 ,i h ?\ght t x might be useful to "s ph>maci/s :o prep>e _! own di/ill$ wat]4--,ph>4 ,j\r4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,cotton ,,se$ ,,oil4 ,cotton se$ oil1 said ,mr4 ,a4,e4 ,?ornton1 ( ! ,atlanta mills1 is "o ( ! mo/ valuable ( oils because x is a neutral oil1 t is1 nei!r acid nor alkali1 & c be made to =m ! body ( any o!r oil4 ,x assimilates ! prop]ties ( ! oil ) :i* x is mix$4 ,= in/ance1 olive oil4 ,cotton se$ oil is tak5 & a little extract ( olives put 94 ,! cotton oil takes up ! prop]ties ( ! extract1 & = all practical purposes x is e bit z good z ! pure olive oil4 ,!n x is us$ 9 sweet oil1 hair oil1 &1 9 fact1 9 ne>ly all o!rs4 ,a *emi/ _c tell ! prep>$ cotton oil f olive oil except by expos+ a sauc]ful ( ea*1 & ! olive oil becomes rancid mu* quick] ?an ! cotton oil4 ,! crude oil is wor? ?irty c5ts a gallon1 & ev5 z x is makes ! f9e/ ( cook+ l>d1 & ent]s into ! composition ( ne>ly all l>d4 ,a visit to ! mills %[$ h[ ! oil is made4 ,f ! plat=m :]e ! se$ is unload$ x is ?r[n into an elevator & c>ri$ by a conveyor--an endless screw 9 a tr\gh--to ! w>eh\se4 ,!n x is di/ribut$ by ! conveyor uni=mly ov] ! l5g? ( ! build+--ab\t #bjj feet4 ,! w>eh\se is ne>ly half fill$ n[1 & ?\s&s & ?\s&s ( bu%els are ly+ 9 /ore4 ,ano!r elevator c>ries ! se$ up to ! s& scre54 ,?is is a revolv+ cyl9d] made ( wire clo?1 ! me%es be+ small en\gh to reta9 ! se$1 :i* are inside ! cyl9d]1 b ! s& & dirt escape4 ,n[ ! se$s />t d[n an incl9$ tr\gh4 ,!re is some?+ else to be tak5 out1 & t is ! screws & nails & rocks t 7 too l>ge to be sift$ out ) ! s& & dirt4 ,!re is a hole 9 ! incl9$ tr\gh1 & up ?r\gh t hole is bl[n a curr5t ( air by a suction fan4 ,if x 7 n = ! fan1 ! cotton se$1 rocks1 nails1 & all w\ld fall ?r\gh4 ,! curr5t keeps up ! cotton se$1 & !y g on ov]1 b x is n /rong en\gh to keep up ! nails & pebbles1 & !y fall ?r\gh4 ,n[ ! se$1 free ( all else1 is c>ri$ by ano!r elevator & endless screw conveyor to ! l9t]4 ,?is is really no?+ m ?an a cotton g9 ) an automatic fe$4 ,,hull] ,,& ,,heat]s4 ,!n ! se$ is c>ri$ to ! hull]1 :]e x is cru%$ or gr\nd into a r\gh meal ab\t z co>se z ! ord9>y corn grits4 ,! next /ep is to sep>ate ! hulls f ! k]nels1 all ! oil be+ 9 ! k]nel1 s ! cru%$ se$ is c>ri$ to ! sep>ator4 ,?is is v mu* on ! /yle ( a s& scre51 be+ a revolv+ cyl9d] ( wire clo?4 ,! k]nels1 be+ small] ?an ! brok5 hulls1 fall ?r\gh ! brok5 me%es1 & ^u ?is pr9ciple ! hull is sep>at$ & c>ri$ direct to ! furnace to be us$ z fuel4 ,! k]nels are gr\nd z f9e z meal1 v mu* z gri/ is gr\nd1 betwe5 corrugat$ /eel roll]s1 & ! damp1 r$di% color$ meal is c>ri$ to ! heat]4 ,! heat] is "o iron kettle )9 ano!r1 ! six in* /eam space betwe5 ! kettles be+ connect$ direct ) ! boil]s4 ,!re are f\r ( ^! kettles side by side4 ,! meal is br\ght into ?is room by an elevator1 ! fir/ heat] is fill$1 & = tw5ty m9utes ! meal is subject$ to a dry cook1 a /eam cook1 ! /eam 9 ! packet be+ "u a pressure ( =ty-five p\nds4 ,inside ! inn] kettle is a /irr]1 a revolv+ arm atta*$ at "r angles to a v]tical %aft4 ,! /irr] makes ! heat+ uni=m1 & ! high temp]ature drives (f all ! wat] 9 ! meal1 :ile ! involatile oil all rema9s4 ,9 five m9utes ! next heat] is fill$1 9 five m9utes ! next1 etc4 ,n[ !re are f\r heat]s1 & z ! la/ heat] is fill$--at ! end ( tw5ty m9utes--! fir/ heat] is empti$4 ,!n at ! end ( five m9utes ! fir/ heat] is fill$1 & ! "o next to x is empti$1 & ! rotation is kept up1 ea* heat] full ( meal be+ dry-cook$ = tw5ty m9utes4 ,correspond+ to ! f\r heat]s are f\r presses4 ,ea* press consi/s ( six iron pans1 %ap$ l bak+ pans1 arrang$ "o above ! o!r1 & ab\t five in*es ap>t4 ,! pans are %all[1 & ar\nd ! edge ( ea* is a semicircul> tr\gh1 & at ! l[e/ po9t ( ! tr\gh is a funnel-%ap$ hole to enable ! oil to run f "o pan to ! next l[e/1 & f ! l[e/ pan to ! receiv+ tanks bel[4 ,,press+ ,,out ,,! ,,oil4 ,z soon z a heat] is ready to be empti$1 ! meal is tak5 out & put into six hair sacks1 correspond+ to ! six pans 9 ! press4 ,!re are six hair mats ab\t "o foot wide & six long1 "o side ( ea* be+ coat$ ) lea!r4 ,! hair mat is ab\t an in* ?ick4 ,n[ ! hair sack1 conta9+ t5 & a half to elev5 p\nds ( heat$ /eam+ meal1 is plac$ on "o end ( ! mat1 & ! meal di/ribut$ s z to make a pad or cu%ion ( uni=m ?ickness4 ,! pad ( meal is n q ?ree feet long1 a foot wide1 & ?ree in*es ?ick1 & ! hair mat is fold$ ov]1 s&wi*+ ! pad & leav+ ! lea!r coat+ ( ! pad outside4 ,9 ?is =m ! six loads are put into ! six pans1 & by means ( a p[]ful hydraulic press ! pans are sl[ly press$ toge!r4 ,! oil beg9s trickl+ out at ! side1 sl[ly at fir/1 & !n sudd5ly x beg9s runn+ freely4 ,! pressure on ! loads is #cej tons4 ,aft] be+ press$ ab\t five m9utes1 ! pressure is eas$ (f & ! loads tak5 out4 ,:at _h be5 a mu%y pad ?ree in*es ?ick is a h>d1 compact cake ab\t ?ree-qu>t]s ( an in* ?ick1 & ! sack is lit]ally glu$ to ! cake4 ,! crude oil has a r$di% muddy color z x runs into ! tanks4 ,to "o side 7 ly+ great heaps ( sacks ( yell[i% meal--! cakes :i* h be5 brok5 & gr\nd up into meal4 ,t1 z expla9$ above1 =ms ! body ( all f]tiliz]s4 ,! foll[+ is a summ>y ( ! "w = ! eight mon?s' season at ! ,atlanta mills3 ,fifte5 ?\s& tons ( se$ us$ give3 ,fifte5 million p\nds ( hull4 ,t5 million ?ree hundr$ & ?irty-"o ?\s& two hundr$ & fifty p\nds ( meal4 ,f\r million six hundr$ & sixty-eight ?\s& sev5 hundr$ & fifty p\nds ( oil4 ,?ree hundr$ ?\s& p\nds ( l9t cotton4 ,! meal is wor? at ! rate ( #f = #gjj p\nds1 or #hh1fjc4eh4 ,! oil is wor? ?irty c5ts a gallon1 or sev5 & a half p\nds1 or #ahf1gej4 ,! l9t is wor? #ah1jjj1 mak+ a total ( #bic1cec1 & t doesn't include ! #ae1jjj1jjj p\nds ( hull4--,atlanta ,con/itution4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,manufacture ,,( ,,photographic ,,s5sitive ,,plates4 ,q rec5tly ,messrs4 ,m>ion ,company1 ,london1 began on _! own acc\nt to manufacture s5sitive photographic plates by ma*9]y1 & ! op]ations are exce$+ly delicate1 = a s+le m9ute air bubble or speck ( du/ on a plate may m> ! p]fection ( a picture4 ,_! works = ! purpose at ,s\?gate 7 erect$ 9 ! summ] ( #ahhf1 & 7 design$ ?r\gh\t by ,mr4 ,alex&] ,c[an4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,build+s ( ?is k9d h to be specially con/ruct$1 because "s ( ! op]ations h to be c>ri$ on 9 ! abs5ce ( daylight1 & 9 t k9d ( non-act9ic illum9ation :i* does n act ^u ! p>ticul> description ( s5sitive photographic comp\nd manipulat$4 ,glass & o!r mat]ials h !re=e to pass f light to d>k rooms ?r\gh d\ble doors or d\ble slid+ cupbo>ds made = ! purpose1 & ! work%ops h to be s plac$ 9 relation to ea* o!r t ! am\nt ( lift+ & ! di/ance ( c>riage ( mat]ial %all be r$uc$ to a m9imum4 ,moreov]1 ! f9al dry+ ( s5sitive photographic plates takes place 9 absolute d>kness4 ,fig4 #a is a gr\nd plan ( ! *ief portion ( ! works4 ,9 ?is cut1 ,a is ! manag]'s private (fice1 ,b ! c\nt+ h\se1 ,c ! manag]'s laboratory1 & ,d 8 d>k room = private exp]im5t1 :i* c ?us be conduct$ )\t int]f]+ ) ! regul> "w ( ! e/abli%m5t4 ,e is ! c>p5t]'s %op & pack+ room1 ,f ! album5 prep>ation room1 ,g ! eng9e room1 ) its two doors2 ! position ( ! eng9e is m>k$ at ,h4 ,! ma9 build+ is ent]$ ?r\gh ! door1 ,k2 ! passage1 ,l1 is us$ = ! /orage ( glass1 & has op5+s 9 ! wall on "o side to p]mit ! passage ( glass into ! clean+ room1 ,m2 ?is room is illum9at$ by daylight4 ,! plates1 aft] be+ clean$1 pass into ! coat+ rooms1 ,n & ,o1 into :i* daylight is nev] admitt$2 ! coat+ ma*9e is 9 ! room1 ,n1 & ?ree h& coat+ tables 9 ! room1 ,o2 bo? ^! rooms are illum9at$ by non-act9ic light4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,! walls ( ,n & ,o are ( brick1 to keep ^! int]ior rooms z cool z possible 9 hot wea!r1 = ! mak+ ( photographic plates is m difficult 9 summ] "t1 because ! high temp]ature t5ds to prev5t ! rapid sett+ ( ! gelat9e emulsion ^u !m4 ,at ! end ( ^! rooms & communicat+ ) bo? is ! lift1 ,p1 by :i* ! coat$ plates are c>ri$ to ! dry+ rooms above1 :i* !re cov] ! entire area ( ! ma9 build+2 !y consi/ ( two rooms measur+ #fj ft4 by #cj ft41 & are ea* #cj ft4 high at ! highe/ "p 9 ! c5t] ( ! build+2 ^! rooms are necess>ily kept 9 absolute d>kness1 except :ile ! plates are be+ /or$ !re9 or remov$ !refrom1 & on su* occasions non-act9ic light is us$4 ,aft] ! plates are dry1 !y come d[n ! lift1 ,q1 into ! cutt+ & pack+ room1 ,r1 :i* is illum9at$ by non-act9ic light4 ,9 ! dry+ rooms ! bat*es ( plates are plac$ "o aft] ! o!r on tram l9es at "o end ( ! room1 & are gradually pu%$ to ! o!r end ( ! build+1 s t ! fir/ bat*es coat$ are ! fir/ to be ready to be tak5 (f :5 dry1 & to be s5t d[n ! lift1 ,q4 ,! plates 9 ,r1 :5 suffici5tly pack$ to be safe f ! action ( daylight1 are pass$ ?r\gh specially con/ruct$ op5+s into ! outside pack+ room1 ,s1 :]e !y are label$4 ,! *emicals are kept 9 ! room1 ,u1 :]e !y are weigh$ & measur$ ready = ! mak+ ( ! photographic emulsion 9 ! room1 ,u4 ,! next room1 ,v1 is = wa%+ small exp]im5tal bat*es ( emulsion1 & ,w is ! l>ge wa%+ room4 ,! emulsion is !n tak5 into ! passage1 ,x1 communicat+ ) ! two coat+ rooms4 ,a c5trifugal ma*9e 9 ! room1 ,y1 is us$ = extract+ silv] residues f wa/e mat]ials1 also = free+ ! emulsion f all soluble salts4 ,wa%+ & clean+ 9 g5]al g on 9 ! room1 ,z4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,! glass = ma*9e coat+ is cut to /&>d sizes at ! />t+1 in/ead ( be+ coat$ 9 l>ge %eets & cut aft]w>d--a practice some:at common 9 ?is indu/ry4 ,! disadvantage ( ! ord9>y plan is t m9ute fragm5ts ( glass are liable to settle ^u ! s5sitive film & to cause spots & scrat*es dur+ ! pack+ op]ations2 any defect ( ?is k9d r5d]s a plate wor?less to ! photograph]4 ,:5 any breakages take place 9 ! cutt+1 x is be/ t !y %\ld occur at ! outset1 & n aft] ! plate has be5 coat$ ) emulsion4 ,! cutt+ :5 necess>y is effect$ by ! aid ( a cutt+ bo>d1 ,fig4 #b1 inv5t$ by ,mr4 ,c[an1 & n[ l>gely 9 use 9 ! photographic _w4 ,?is appliance is us$ to divide into two equal p>ts1 ) absolute exactness1 any plate )9 its capacity1 & x is especially useful 9 dimly light$ rooms4 ,x consi/s ( f\r rods pivot$ toge!r at ! corn]s & sw++ on two c5t]s1 s t 9 ! fir/ position x is truly squ>e1 & 9 o!r positions ( rhomboid =m1 ! two out] b>s approa*+ ea* o!r l ^? ( a p>allel rul]4 ,! h+e flap comes d[n on ! exact c5t] ( ! plate1 m9us ! ?ickness ( ! block hold+ ! diamond4 ,by ?is appliance plates c be cut 9 ei!r direction4 ,fig4 #c repres5ts a simil> arrangem5t = cutt+ a numb] ( v small plates out ( "o l>ge "o2 9 ?is ! h+e flap is made 9 ! =m ( a gridiron1 & ! b>s are spac$ at accurate di/ances1 accord+ to ! size ( ! plate to be cut1 s t a plate #aj 94 squ>e1 receiv+ f\r cuts 9 ea* direction1 w be divid$ into tw5ty-five small plates4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,be=e be+ clean$ all %>p edges are r\ghly tak5 (f ^? plates int5d$ = ma*9e coat+ by girls1 :o rub ! edges & corn]s ( ! plates ^u a /one2 ! plates are !n clean$ by any suitable me?od 9 use among photograph]s4 ,! plates1 n[ ready = ! coat+ room1 h to be w>m$ to ! temp]ature ( ! emulsion1 say f #hj deg4 ,f4 to #ajj deg4 ,f41 be=e !y pass to ! coat+ ma*9e1 ! inv5tor ( :i*1 ,mr4 ,cadett1 hav+ come to ! conclusion t1 if ! plates are n ( ! prop] temp]ature1 ! coat+ giv5 w be unev5 ov] v>i\s p>ts ( ! surface4 ,! plate-w>m+ ma*9e is repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #d2 x 0 design$ by ,mr4 ,a4 ,c[an1 & made by 8 son1 ,mr4 ,a4 ,r4 ,c[an4 ,x consi/s ( a tr\gh #g ft4 long by #c 94 deep1 =m+ a flat tank1 ?r\gh :i* hot wat] passes by means ( ! circulat+ sy/em %[n 9 ! engrav+4 ,to facilitate ! travel+ ( ! glass plates )\t friction ! top ( ! tank is a %eet ( plate glass b$d$ on a s& ba?4 ,an assi/ant at "o end places ! glasses "o aft] ! o!r on ! w>m glass slab1 & by means ( a movable slide pu%es !m "o at a "t "u ! cov]1 :i* cov] is repres5t$ rais$ 9 ! engrav+ to %[ ! int]ior ( ! ma*9e4 ,aft] hav+ put "o glass plate on ! slide1 ano!r _c be add$ until ! man 9 ! d>k room at ! o!r end ( ! slide has tak5 (f ! f>!/ w>m$ plate1 because ! slide has a reciprocat+ movem5t4 ,?is heat+ app>atus is built at "r angles to ! coat+ ma*9e 9 ! next room1 9 ord] to be conv5i5tly plac$ 9 ! pres5t build+2 b x is int5d$ 9 future to use x z a "p ( ! coat+ ma*9e itself1 & to drive x at ! same spe$ & ) ! same ge>+1 s t ! cold plates w be put on by h& at "o end1 get w>m$ z !y pass into ! d>k room1 at ! o!r end ( :i* !y w be deliv]$ by ! ma*9e 9 coat$ condition4 ,und]nea? ! heat+ table is a copp] boil]1 ) its ,buns5's burn] ( ?ree conc5tric r+s to get up ! temp]ature quickly & to give ! p[] ( keep+ ! wat] "u ! heat+ slab at a def9ite temp]ature1 z indicat$ by a !rmomet]4 ,! cold wat] tank ( ! sy/em is repres5t$ aga9/ ! wall 9 ! cut4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,fig4 #e repres5ts ! hot wat] circulat+ sy/em outside ! coat+ rooms = keep+ ! gelat9e emulsions 9 ^! dimly light$ regions at a giv5 temp]ature1 )\t lib]at+ ! products ( combu/ion :]e ! emulsion is manipulat$4 ,! temp]ature is regulat$ automatically4 ,x w be notic$ :]e ! pipes ent] ! two coat+ rooms1 & ,fig4 #f %[s ! copp] inside "o ( !m heat$ by ! app>atus j describ$4 ,! emulsion vessel 9 ! copp] is surr\nd$ by w>m wat]1 & ! copp] itself is jacket$ & connect$ ) ! hot wat] pipes1 s =m+ "p ( ! circulat+ sy/em4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,fig4 #g is a g5]al view ( ! coat+ ma*9e rec5tly inv5t$ by ,mr4 ,cadett1 ( ! ,greville ,works1 ,a%tead1 ,surrey4 ,! plates w>m$ 9 ! light room1 z already describ$1 are deliv]$ ne> ! end ( ! coat+ table1 :]e !y are pick$ (f a gridiron-l plat=m1 repres5t$ on ! "r h& side ( ! cut1 & are plac$ by an assi/ant "o by "o ^u ! p>allel gauges %[n at ! beg9n+ ( ! ma*9e prop]2 !y are !n c>ri$ on endless cords "u ! coat+ tr\gh describ$ f>!r on4 ,aft] !y h be5 coat$ !y are c>ri$ onw>d ^u a s]ies ( f\r broad endless b&s ( absorb5t cotton--,turki% t[el+ answ]s well--& ?is cotton is kept con/antly soak$ ) cold wat]1 :i* fl[s ov] %eets ( accurately level$ plate glass bel[ & 9 contact ) ! t[el+2 ! backs ( ! plates be+ ?us kept 9 contact ) fre% cold wat]1 ! emulsion ^u !m is soon cool$ d[n & is firmly set by ! "t ! plates h rea*$ ! end ( ! s]ies ( f\r wet tables4 ,!y are !n receiv$ ^u "o ov] :i* dry t[el+ travels1 :i* absorbs mo/ ( ! moi/ure :i* may be cl++ to ! backs ( ! plates2 v little wet comes (f ! backs1 s t dur+ a day's "w x is n necess>y to adopt special means to r$ry ?is la/ endless b&4 ,:at are te*nically kn[n z :ole plates1 :i* are #h 94 by #f 941 are plac$ t\*+ ea* o!r end to end z !y ent] ! ma*9e1 & !y travel ?r\gh x at ! rate ( #gbj p] h\r2 small] sizes are coat$ 9 proportion1 ! small] ! plates ! l>g] is ! numb] coat$ 9 a giv5 "t4 ,! small] plates pass ?r\gh ! ma*9e 9 two p>allel r[s1 in/ead ( 9 a s+le r[1 s t qu>t] plates1 #d 94 by #c 941 are deliv]$ at ! end ( ! ma*9e at ! rate ( #b1hjj p] h\r1 keep+ two att5dants well employ$ 9 pick+ !m up & plac+ !m 9 racks z quickly z !y c d ! "w4 ,! d\ble r[ ( cords = c>ry+ two l9es ( small plates ?r\gh ! ma*9e is repres5t$ 9 ! engrav+4 ,al?\gh ! plates t\* ea* o!r at _! edges on ent]+ ! ma*9e1 !y are sep>at$ f ea* o!r by %ort int]vals aft] be+ coat$2 ?is is effect$ by diff]5tial ge>+4 ,! wat] fl[+ ov] ! tables = cool+ ! plates is caught 9 receptacles bel[ & c>ri$ away by pipes4 ,betwe5 ea* ( ! tables is a little roll] to enable small plates to travel )\t tilt+ ov] ! necess>y gap betwe5 ea* pair ( b&s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,! fe$+ tr\gh ( ,cadett's ma*9e is repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #h4 ,! plates1 clean$ z already describ$1 are c>ri$ ^u ! cords "u a brass roll]1 ! weight ( :i* causes suffici5t friction to keep ! plates f tilt+2 !y next pass "u a s(t camel's hair bru% to remove any?+ 9 ! %ape ( du/ or grit1 & are !n coat$4 ,!y aft]w>d pass ov] a s]ies ( accurately level$ :eels runn+ 9 a tank ( wat] kept exact by an automatic regulator at a temp]ature ( f #hj deg4 ,fah4 to #ajj deg4 ,fah41 by means ( a small hot wat] circulat+ sy/em4 ,! emulsion tr\gh is jacket$ ) hot wat] at a con/ant temp]ature4 ,?is tr\gh is silv] plat$ inside1 because mo/ metals 9 common use w\ld spoil ! emulsion by *emical action4 ,! tr\gh is #af 94 long2 x some:at tap]s t[>d ! bottom1 & conta9s a s]ies ( silv] pumps %[n 9 ! cut2 ! :ole ( ?is s]ies ( pumps is connect$ ) "o long adju/able crank :5 plates ( ! l>ge/ size h to be coat$2 :5 coat+ plates ( small] sizes "s ( ! pumps are deta*$4 ,a *ief object ( ! ma*9e is to deliv] a c>efully measur$ quantity ( emulsion ^u ea* plate1 & ?is is done by means ( pumps1 9 ord] t ! quantity ( emulsion deliv]$ %all n be affect$ by *anges 9 ! level ( ! emulsion 9 ! tr\gh2 ! quantity deliv]$ is ?us indep5d5t ( v>iations due to gravity or to ! spe$ ( ! ma*9e4 ,^! pumps draw ! emulsion f a suffici5t dep? 9 ! tr\gh to avoid dang] f ! pres5ce ( air bubbles1 & ! bottom ( ! tr\gh is s %ap$ t %\ld by *ance any s$im5t>y matt] be pres5t1 x has a t5d5cy to travel d[nw>d1 away f ! bottoms ( ! pumps4 ,!re is a /eady fl[ ( emulsion f ! pumps to ! deliv]y pipes1 !n x passes d[n a guide plate ( ! exact wid? ( ! plate to be coat$4 ,imm$iately 9 front ( ! guide plate is a fix$ silv] cyl9d]1 kept out ( contact ) ! plate by ! ?ickness ( a piece ( f9e & v h>d hemp5 cord1 :i* c be r5ew$ f "t to "t4 ,^! cords keep ! cyl9d] f scrap+ ! emulsion (f ! plate1 & !y help to di/ribute x 9 an ev5 lay]4 ,!re w\ld be two l9es ^u ea* plate :]e x is t\*$ by ! cords1 7 n ! emulsion s fluid z to fl[ ov] ! cut-l l9es made & close !m up4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,! silv] cyl9d] to a c]ta9 ext5t ov]comes ! effects ( irregul>ities 9 ! glass plates1 = ! cyl9d] is jo9t$ some:at 9 ! cup & ball fa%ion1 & is made 9 two or m p>ts1 :i* p>ts are held toge!r by l5g?s ( ,india rubb]4 ,! arrangem5t is %[n 9 section 9 ,fig4 #i1 9 :i* ,a is ! hot wat] jacket ( ! emulsion vessel2 ,b1 ! crank driv+ ! pumps2 ,c1 a pump ) pi/on 9 position2 ,d1 deliv]y tube ( ! pump2 ,e1 ! silv] guide plate to conduct ! emulsion d[n to ! glass2 ,f1 ! spread+ cyl9d]2 ,g1 ! cords regulat+ ! di/ance ( ! cyl9d] f ! glass plates2 ,h1 s(t camel's hair bru%2 ,k1 friction roll]2 ,l ,l ,l1 ?ree plates pass+ "u ! emulsion tank2 ,m1 knife edg$ :eels 9 ! hot wat] tank1 ,n2 ! pluck+ roll]1 ,p1 has a hot wat] tank ( its own1 & travels at slightly great] spe$ ?an ! o!r roll]s2 ,r is ! beg9n+ ( ! cool+ b&s2 ,t1 ! driv+ cords2 & ,w1 a level ( ! emulsion 9 ! tr\gh4 ,y repres5ts "o ( ! bucket pi/ons ( ! pumps1 deta*$4 ,! con/ruction ( ! crank itself is su* t1 by adju/m5t ( ! connect+ rods1 m or less emulsion may be put ^u ! plates4 ,mr4 ,c[an1 h[ev]1 int5ds to adju/ ! pumps once = all1 & to regulate ! am\nt ( emulsion deliv]$ ^u ! plates by means ( driv+ :eels ( diff]5t diamet]s ^u ! cranks4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,fig4 #aj is a section ( ! holl[ spread+ cyl9d]1 made ( %eet silv] z ?9 z pap]1 s t its weight is light4 ,= coat+ l>ge plates x is divid$ 9 ! c5t]1 s z to adapt itself some:at to irregul>ities 9 ! surface ( ea* plate4 ,9 ?is case x is support$ by a ?ird & c5tral ?read1 z repres5t$ 9 ! cut4 ,o!rwise ! cyl9d] w\ld t\* ! c5t] ( ! plate4 ,its two halves are held toge!r by a slip ( ,india rubb]4--,! ,eng9e]4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,use ,,( ,,ammonia ,,z ,a ,,refrig]at+ ,,ag5t4#a ,footnote #a3 ,pap] lately read be=e ! ,civil & ,me*anical ,eng9e]s' ,society4 ,,by ,,mr4 ,t4,b4 ,,lightfoot1 ,m4,i4,c4,e4 ,)9 ! la/ few ye>s consid]able progress has be5 made 9 ! application ( refrig]at+ processes to indu/rial purposes1 & ! dem& = refrig]at+ app>atus ?us creat$ has l$ to ! production ( ma*9es employ+ v>i\s sub/ances z ! refrig]at+ ag5t4 ,9 a pap] read by ! au?or be=e ! ,in/itution ( ,me*anical ,eng9e]s1 9 ,may1 #ahhf1 ^! sy/ems 7 %ortly describ$1 & g5]al comp>isons giv5 z to _! respective m]its1 scope ( application1 & co/ ( work+4 ,9 ! pres5t pap] x is propos$ to deal entirely ) ! use ( ammonia z a refrig]at+ ag5t1 & to deal ) x 9 a m full & compreh5sive mann] ?an 0 possible 9 a pap] devot$ to ! consid]ation ( a numb] ( diff]5t sy/ems & app>atus4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates & 9 ,g]many1 z well z to "s ext5t else:]e1 ammonia has be5 v g5]ally employ$ = refrig]at+ purposes dur+ ! la/ t5 ye>s or s4 ,9 ?is c\ntry1 h[ev]1 its application has be5 extremely limit$2 & ev5 at ! pres5t "t !re are b few ammonia ma*9es successfully at "w 9 ,great ,brita94 ,no d\bt ?is is1 to a l>ge ext5t1 due to ! fact t 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates & 9 ,g]many !re exi/$ c]ta9 /imulat+ causes1 bo? z reg>ds climate & manufactures1 :ile 9 ?is c\ntry1 on ! o!r h&1 ^! causes 7 pres5t only 9 a modifi$ degree1 or 7 abs5t altoge!r4 ,! consequ5ce 0 t up to a comp>atively rec5t date ! only ma*9e manufactur$ on any?+ l a comm]cial scale 0 ! orig9al ,h>rison's e!r ma*9e1 fir/ produc$ by ,siebe1 ab\t ! ye> #aheg--;a ma*9e :i*1 ?\gh answ]+ its purpose z a refrig]ator1 0 bo? co/ly to make & co/ly to "w4 ,9 #ahgh ! desirability ( supplem5t+ our !n exi/+ meat supply by means ( ! l>ge /ocks 9 our colonies & abroad l$ to ! rapid developm5t ( ! special class ( refrig]at+ app>atus commonly kn[n z ! dry air refrig]ator1 :i*1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 0 specially design$ = use on bo>d %ip1 :]e x 0 consid]$ undesirable to employ *emical refrig]ants4 ,ow+ to _! simplicity1 & p]haps also to _! novelty1 ^! cold air ma*9es h v frequ5tly be5 appli$ on l&1 "u circum/ances 9 :i* ! same result c\ld h be5 obta9$ ) mu* great] economy by ! use ( ammonia or "s o!r *emical ag5t4 ,rec5tly1 h[ev]1 m att5tion has be5 direct$ to ! "q ( economy1 & consid]ation is n[ be+ giv5 to ! applicability ( c]ta9 ma*9es to c]ta9 special purposes1 ) ! result t ammonia--:i* is ! ag5t t1 9 our pres5t /ate ( k1 gives z a rule ! be/ results = l>ge in/allations1 :ile on l& at any rate its application = all refrig]at+ purposes pres5ts no unusual difficulties--promises to become l>gely adopt$4 ,x is hop$1 !re=e1 t ! foll[+ pap] respect+ its use w be ( int]e/4 ,9 all cases :]e a liquid is employ$1 ! refrig]at+ action is produc$ by ! *ange 9 physical /ate f ! liquid to ! vapor\s =m4 ,x is1 ( c\rse1 well kn[n t su* a *ange c only be br\ght ab\t by ! acquirem5t ( heat2 & = ! purpose ( refrig]ation 7by :i* mu/ be und]/ood ! ab/raction ( heat at temp]atures bel[ ! normal7 x is obvi\s t1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 t liquid is ! be/ :i* has ! highe/ heat ( vaporization1 because ) x ! lea/ quantity has to be dealt ) 9 ord] to produce a giv5 result4 ,9 fact1 h[ev]1 liquids v>y1 n only 9 ! am\nt ( heat requir$ to vaporize !m 7?is am\nt also v>y+ accord+ to ! temp]ature or pressure at :i* vaporization occurs71 b also 9 ! conditions "u :i* su* *ange c be effect$4 ,= in/ance1 wat] has an extremely high lat5t heat1 b z its boil+ po9t at atmosph]ic pressure is also high1 evaporation at su* temp]atures z w\ld enable x to be us$ = refrig]at+ purposes c only be effect$ "u an almo/ p]fect vacuum4 ,! boil+ po9t ( anhydr\s ammonia1 on ! o!r h&1 is #cg bel[ z]o ,f4 at atmosph]ic pressure1 & !re=e = all ord9>y cool+ purposes its evaporation c take place at pressures consid]ably above t ( our atmosph]e4 ,"s o!r ag5ts us$ = refrig]at+ purposes are me?ylic e!r1 ,pictet's liquid1 sulphur dioxide1 & e!r4 ,9 ?is connection x %\ld be /at$ t ,pictet's liquid is a comp\nd ( c>bon dioxide & sulphur dioxide1 & is said to possess ! prop]ty ( hav+ vapor t5sions n only mu* bel[ ^? ( pure c>bon dioxide at equal temp]atures1 b ev5 bel[ ^? ( pure sulphur dioxide at temp]atures above #gh ,f4 ,! consid]ations1 !re=e1 :i* *iefly influ5ce ! selection ( a liquid refrig]at+ ag5t are3 #a4 ,! am\nt ( heat requir$ to effect ! *ange f ! liquid to ! vapor\s /ate1 commonly call$ ! lat5t heat ( vaporization4 #b4 ,! temp]atures & pressures at :i* su* *ange c be effect$4 ,?is latt] attribute is ( tw(old importance2 =1 9 ord] to avoid ! r5ewal ( ! ag5t1 x is necess>y to deprive x ( ! heat acquir$ dur+ vaporization1 "u su* conditions z w cause x to assume ! liquid =m1 & ?us become aga9 available = refrig]ation4 ,z ?is rejection ( heat c only take place if ! temp]ature ( ! vapor is some:at above t ( ! cool+ body :i* receives ! heat1 & :i*1 = obvi\s reasons1 is 9 all cases wat]1 ! liquefy+ pressure at ! temp]ature ( ! cool+ wat]1 & ! facility ) :i* ?is pressure c be rea*$ & ma9ta9$1 is ( great importance 9 ! practical work+ ( any refrig]at+ app>atus4 ,ammonia 9 its anhydr\s =m1 ! use ( :i* is specially dealt ) 9 ?is pap]1 is a liquid hav+ at atmosph]ic pressure a lat5t heat ( vaporization ( #ijj1 & a boil+ po9t at ! same pressure ( #cg bel[ z]o ,f4 ,wat] be+ unity1 ! specific gravity ( ! liquid at a temp]ature ( #dj ,f4 is #j4gf1 & ! specific gravity ( its vapor is #j4ei1 air be+ unity4 ,9 ! use ( ammonia1 two di/9ct sy/ems are employ$4 ,s f>1 h[ev]1 z ! m]e evaporat+ or refrig]at+ "p ( ! process is conc]n$1 x is ! same 9 bo?4 ,! object is to evaporate ! liquid anhydr\s ammonia at su* t5sion & 9 su* quantity z w produce ! requir$ cool+ effect4 ,! actual t5sion "u :i* ?is evaporation %\ld be effect$ 9 any p>ticul> case dep5ds entirely ^u ! temp]ature at :i* ! acquirem5t ( heat is to take place1 or1 9 o!r words1 on ! temp]ature ( ! mat]ial to be cool$4 ,! high] ! temp]ature1 ! high] may be ! evaporat+ pressure1 & !re=e ! high] is ! d5sity ( ! vapor1 ! great] ! weight ( liquid evaporat$ 9 a giv5 "t1 & ! great] ! am\nt ( heat ab/ract$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x mu/ be rememb]$ t1 z 9 ! case ( wat]1 ! l[] ! temp]ature ( ! evaporat+ liquid1 ! high] is ! heat ( vaporization4 ,x is 9 ! me?od ( secur+ ! rejection ( heat dur+ cond5sation ( ! vapor t ! two sy/ems div]ge1 & x w be conv5i5t to consid] ea* ( ^! sep>ately4 ,! ,absorption ,process4--,! pr9ciple employ$ 9 ?is process is physical r ?an me*anical4 ,ord9>y ammonia liquor ( comm]ce ( #j4hhj specific gravity1 :i* conta9s ab\t #ch p] c5t4 by weight ( pure ammonia & #fb p] c5t4 ( wat]1 is introduc$ into a vessel nam$ ! g5]ator4 ,?is vessel is heat$ by means ( /eam circulat+ ?r\gh coils ( iron pip+1 & a mix$ vapor ( ammonia & wat] is driv5 (f4 ,?is mix$ vapor is !n pass$ into a second vessel1 9 ord] to be subject$ to ! cool+ action ( wat]4 ,& "h1 ow+ to ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! boil+ po9ts ( wat] & ammonia1 fractional cond5sation takes place1 ! bulk ( ! wat]1 :i* cond5ses fir/1 be+ caught & run back to ! g5]ator1 :ile ! ammonia 9 a ne>ly anhydr\s /ate is cond5s$ & collect$ 9 ! l[] "p ( ! vessel4 ,?is process ( fractional cond5sation is due to ,rees ,reece1 & =ms an important feature 9 ! mod]n absorption ma*9e4 ,prior to ! introduction ( ?is inv5tion1 ! wat] evaporat$ 9 ! g5]ator 0 cond5s$ ) ! ammonia1 & int]f]$ v s]i\sly ) ! effici5cy ( ! process by r$uc+ ! p[] ( ! refrig]at+ ag5t by rais+ its boil+ po9t4 ,9 ! improv$ =m ( app>atus1 ammonia is obta9$ 9 a ne>ly anhydr\s condition1 & 9 ?is /ate passes on to ! refrig]ator4 ,9 ?is vessel1 :i* is 9 communication ) ano!r vessel call$ ! absorb]1 conta9+ cold wat] or v weak ammonia liquor1 evaporation takes place1 ow+ to ! read9ess ) :i* cold wat] or weak liquor absorbs ! ammonia1 wat] at #ei ,fahr4 absorb+ #gbg times its volume ( ammonia vapor4 ,! heat necess>y to effect ?is vaporization is ab/ract$ f br9e or o!r liquid1 :i* is circulat$ ?r\gh ! refrig]ator by means ( a pump4 ,ow+ to ! absorption ( ammonia1 ! weak liquor 9 ! absorb] becomes /r5g!n$1 & x is !n pump$ back into ! g5]at+ vessel to be aga9 dealt ) z above describ$4 ,! absorption app>atus1 z appli$ = cool+ purposes1 consi/s ( a g5]ator1 :i* is a vessel ( ca/ iron conta9+ coils ( iron pip+ to :i* /eam at any conv5i5t pressure is suppli$2 an analyz]1 9 :i* a portion ( ! wat] vapor is cond5s$1 & f :i* x fl[s back imm$iately into ! g5]ator2 a rectifi] & cond5s]1 9 ! upp] portion ( :i* a fur!r cond5sation ( wat] vapor & a little ammonia takes place1 ! liquid ?us =m$ pass+ back by a pipe to ! analyz] & !nce to ! g5]ator1 :ile 9 ! l[] portion ! ammonia vapor is cond5s$ & collect$2 & a refrig]ator or cool]1 into :i* ! ne>ly anhydr\s liquid obta9$ 9 ! cond5s] is admitt$ by a pipe & regulat+ valve1 & all[$ to evaporate1 ! upp] portion be+ 9 communication ) ! absorb]4 ,?r\gh ?is vessel weak liquor1 :i* has be5 depriv$ ( its ammonia 9 ! g5]ator1 is cont9ually circulat$1 aft] be+ fir/ cool$ 9 an economiz] by an opposite curr5t ( /rong cold liquor pass+ f ! absorb] to ! g5]ator1 :ile1 9 addition1 ! liquor 9 ! absorb]1 :i* w\ld become heat$ by ! lib]ation ( heat due to ! absorption & consequ5t liquefaction ( ! ammonia vapor1 is /ill fur!r cool$ by ! circulation ( cold wat]4 ,z ! pressure 9 ! absorb] is mu* l[] ?an t 9 ! g5]ator1 ! /rong liquor has to be pump$ into ! latt] vessel1 & = ?is purpose pumps are provid$4 ,?\gh ( necessity ! v>i\s op]ations h be5 describ$ sep>ately1 ! process is a cont9u\s "o1 /rong liquor f ! absorb] be+ con/antly pump$ into ! g5]ator ?r\gh ! heat] or economiz]1 :ile ne>ly anhydr\s liquid ammonia is be+ cont9ually =m$ 9 ! cond5s]1 !n evaporat$ 9 ! refrig]ator & absorb$ by ! cool weak liquor pass+ ?r\gh ! absorb]4 ,putt+ aside ! effect ( losses f radiation1 etc41 all ! heat exp5d$ 9 ! g5]ator w be tak5 up by ! wat] pass+ ?r\gh ! cond5s]1 less t portion due to ! cond5sation ( ! wat] vapor 9 ! analyz]1 & plus ! am\nt due to ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! temp]ature ( ! liquid z x ent]s ! g5]ator & ! temp]ature at :i* x leaves ! cond5s]4 ,9 ! refrig]ator ! liquid ammonia1 9 becom+ vaporiz$1 w take up ! precise quantity ( heat t 0 giv5 (f dur+ its cool+ & liquefaction 9 ! cond5s]1 plus ! am\nt due to ! diff]5ce 9 heat ( vaporization1 ow+ to ! l[] pressure at :i* ! *ange ( /ate takes place 9 ! refrig]ator1 & less ! small am\nt due to ! diff]5ce 9 temp]ature betwe5 ! vapor ent]+ ! cond5s] & t leav+ ! refrig]ator1 less also ! am\nt necess>y to cool ! liquid ammonia to ! refrig]ator temp]ature4 ,:5 ! vapor ent]s into solution ) ! weak liquor 9 ! absorb]1 ! heat tak5 up 9 ! refrig]ator is imp>t$ to ! cool+ wat]1 subject also to corrections = diff]5ces ( pressure & temp]ature4 ,! s\rces ( loss 9 su* an app>atus are3 a4 ,radiation & conduction ( heat f all vessels & pipes above normal temp]ature1 :i* c1 to a l>ge ext5t1 be prev5t$ by lagg+4 b4 ,conduction ( heat f )\t into all vessels & pipes t are bel[ normal temp]ature1 :i* c also to a l>ge ext5t be prev5t$ by lagg+4 c4 ,ineffici5cy ( economiz]1 by reason ( :i* heat obta9$ by ! exp5diture ( /eam 9 ! g5]ator is pass$ on to ! absorb] & !re uselessly imp>t$ to ! cool+ wat]4 d4 ,! entrance ( wat] into ! refrig]ator1 due to ! liquid be+ n p]fectly anhydr\s4 e4 ,! useless evaporation ( wat] 9 ! g5]ator4 ,) reg>d to ! am\nt ( heat us$1 x w h be5 se5 t ! :ole ( t requir$ to vaporize ! ammonia1 & :atev] wat] vapor passes (f f ! g5]ator1 has to be suppli$ f )\t4 ,ow+ to ! fact t ! heat+ takes place by means ( coils1 ! /eam pass$ ?r\gh may be cond5s$1 & ?us ea* p\nd c be made to give up "s #iej units ( heat4 ,) ! absorption process work$ by an effici5t boil]1 x may be tak5 t #bjj1jjj !rmal units p] h\r may be elim9at$ by ! consumption ( ab\t #ajj lb4 ( coal p] h\r1 ) a br9e temp]ature 9 ! refrig]ator ( ab\t #bj ,fahr4 ,compression ,process4--,9 ?is process ammonia is us$ 9 its anhydr\s =m4 ,s f> z ! action ( ! refrig]ator is conc]n$1 x is precisely ! same z x is 9 ! case ( ! absorption app>atus1 b in/ead ( ! vapor be+ liquefi$ by absorption by wat]1 x is drawn f ! refrig]ator by a pump1 by means ( :i* x is compress$ & deliv]$ into ! cond5s] at su* pressure z to cause its liquefaction at ! temp]ature ( ! cool+ wat]4 ,x mu/ be borne 9 m9d1 h[ev]1 t all[ance mu/ be made = ! rise ( temp]ature ( ! wat] pass+ ?r\gh ! cond5s]1 & also = ! diff]5ce 9 temp]ature necess>y 9 ord] to p]mit ! transf] ( heat f "o side ( ! cool+ surface to ! o!r4 ,9 a compression ma*9e ! "w appli$ to ! pump may be acc\nt$ = z foll[s3 a4 ,friction4 b4 ,heat reject$ dur+ compression & dis*>ge4 c4 ,heat acquir$ by ! ammonia 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! pump4 d4 ,"w exp5d$ 9 dis*>g+ ! compress$ vapor f ! pump4 ,b aga9/ ?is mu/ be set ! useful me*anical "w p]=m$ by ! vapor ent]+ ! pump4 ,! heat reject$ 9 ! cond5s] is ! heat ( vaporization tak5 up 9 ! refrig]ator1 less ! am\nt due to ! high] pressure at :i* ! *ange 9 physical /ate occurs1 plus ! heat acquir$ 9 ! pump1 & less ! am\nt due to ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! temp]ature at :i* ! vapor is liquefi$ 9 ! cond5s] & t at :i* x ent]$ ! pump4 ,an ammonia compression ma*9e1 z appli$ to ice mak+1 conta9s ice-mak+ tanks1 9 :i* is circulat$ a br9e mixture1 uncongealable at any temp]ature likely to be rea*$ dur+ ! process4 ,?is br9e also circulates ar\nd coils ( wr\ght iron pipes1 9 :i* ! liquid ammonia pass+ f ! cond5s] is vaporiz$1 ! heat requir$ = ?is vaporization be+ obta9$ f ! br9e4 ,a pump draws (f ! ammonia vapor f ! refrig]ator coils1 & compresses x into ! cond5s]1 :]e1 by means ( ! comb9$ action ( pressure & cool+ by wat]1 x assumes a liquid =m1 & is ready to be aga9 pass$ on to ! refrig]ator = evaporation4 ,! ammonia compression process is m economical ?an ! absorption process1 & ) a good boil] & eng9e ab\t #bdj1jjj !rmal units p] h\r c be elim9at$ by ! exp5diture ( #ajj lb4 ( coal p] h\r1 ) a br9e temp]ature 9 ! refrig]ator ( ab\t #bj ,fahr4 ,,g5]al ,,consid]ations4 ,f :at has be5 said1 x w h be5 se5 t1 s f> z ! m]e application is conc]n$1 !re is no diff]5ce :atev] betwe5 ! absorption & compression processes4 ,! foll[+ consid]ations1 !re=e1 :i* *iefly relate to ! application ( refrig]at+ app>atus1 w be dealt ) q indep5d5t ( ei!r sy/em4 ,! application ( refrig]at+ app>atus may r\ghly be divid$ into ! foll[+ heads3 a4 ,ice mak+4 b4 ,! cool+ ( liquids4 c4 ,! cool+ ( /ores & rooms4 ,ice ,mak+4--,= ?is purpose two me?ods are employ$1 kn[n z ! c & cell sy/ems respectively4 ,9 ! =m]1 m\lds ( t9n$ %eet copp] or galvaniz$ /eel ( ! desir$ size are fill$ ) ! wat] to be froz51 & susp5d$ 9 a tank ?r\gh :i* br9e cool$ to a l[ temp]ature 9 ! refrig]ator is circulat$4 ,z soon z ! wat] is completely froz51 ! m\lds are remov$1 & dipp$ = a long "t into w>m wat]1 :i* loos5s ! blocks ( ice & enables !m to be turn$ out4 ,! ?ickness ( ! blocks ex]cises an important influ5ce ^u ! numb] ( m\lds requir$ = a giv5 output1 z a block #i 94 ?ick w take f\r or five times z long to freeze solid z "o ( only #c 94 ,9 ! cell sy/em a s]ies ( cellul> walls ( wr\ght or ca/ iron are plac$ 9 a tank1 ! di/ance betwe5 ea* pair ( walls be+ f #ab to #af 941 accord+ to ! ?ickness ( ! block requir$4 ,?is space is fill$ ) ! wat] to be froz54 ,cold br9e circulates ?r\gh ! cells1 & ! ice =ms on ! out] surfaces1 gradually increas+ 9 ?ickness until ! two opposite lay]s meet & jo9 toge!r4 ,if ?9n] blocks are requir$1 ! freez+ process may be /opp$ at any "t & ! ice remov$4 ,9 ord] to deta* ! ice x is cu/om>y to cut (f ! supply ( cold br9e & circulate br9e at a high] temp]ature ?r\gh ! cells4 ,ice froz5 by ei!r ( ! above describ$ me?ods f ord9>y wat] is m or less opaque1 ow+ to ! air lib]at$ dur+ ! freez+ process1 little bubbles ( :i* are caught 9 ! ice z x =ms1 & 9 ord] to produce transp>5t ice x is necess>y t ! wat] %\ld be agitat$ dur+ ! freez+ process 9 su* a way z to p]mit ! air bubbles to escape4 ,) ! c sy/em ?is is g5]ally accompli%$ by means ( arms hav+ a v]tical or horizontal movem5t4 ,^! arms are ei!r )drawn z ! ice =ms1 leav+ ! block solid1 or !y are made to "w backw>d & =w>d 9 ! c5t] ( ! m\lds1 divid+ ! block v]tically into two pieces4 ,) ! cell sy/em agitation is g5]ally effect$ by mak+ a communication betwe5 ! bottom ( ea* wat] space & a *amb] bel[1 9 :i* a paddle or wood pi/on is caus$ to reciprocate4 ,! movem5t ?us giv5 to ! wat] 9 ! *amb] is communicat$ to t 9 ! process ( be+ froz51 & ! small bubbles ( air are 9 ?is way deta*$ & set free4 ,! ice :i* fir/ =ms on ! sides ( ! m\lds or cells is1 z a rule1 suffici5tly transp>5t ev5 )\t agitation4 ,! opacity increases t[>d ! c5t]1 :]e ! oppos+ lay]s jo91 & x is1 !re=e1 m necess>y to agitate t[>d ! end ( ! freez+ process ?an at ! comm5cem5t4 ,z ! capacity = hold+ air 9 solution decreases if ! temp]ature ( ! wat] is rais$1 less agitation is ne$$ 9 hot ?an 9 temp]ate climates4 ,exp]im5ts h be5 made f "t to "t ) ! view ( produc+ transp>5t ice f di/ill$ wat]1 & s disp5s+ ) agitation4 ,9 ?is case ! co/ ( di/ill+ ! wat] w h to be add$ to ! ord9>y work+ exp5ses4 ,cool+ ( ,liquids4--,9 brew]ies1 di/ill]ies1 butt] factories1 & o!r places :]e x is desir$ to h a supply ( wat] or br9e = cool+ & o!r purposes at a comp>atively l[ temp]ature1 refrig]at+ ma*9es may be advantage\sly appli$4 ,9 ?is case ! liquid is pass$ ?r\gh ! refrig]ator & !n utiliz$ 9 any conv5i5t mann]4 ,cool+ ( ,rooms4--,= ?is purpose ! usual plan is to employ a circulation ( cold br9e ?r\gh r[s ( iron pip+1 plac$ ei!r on ! ceil+ or on ! walls ( ! rooms to be cool$4 ,9 ?is1 z 9 ! o!r cases :]e br9e is us$1 x is employ$ m]ely z a m$ium = tak+ up heat at "o place & transf]r+ x to ! ammonia 9 ! refrig]ator1 ! ammonia 9 turn complet+ ! op]ation by giv+ up ! heat to ! cool+ wat] dur+ liquefaction 9 ! cond5s]4 ,! br9e pipes cool ! adjac5t air1 :i*1 9 consequ5ce ( its great] specific gravity1 desc5ds1 be+ replac$ by w>m] air1 :i* 9 turn becomes cold1 & s ! process goes on4 ,assum+ ! air to be suffici5tly saturat$1 :i* is g5]ally ! case1 "s ( ! moi/ure 9 x is cond5s$ & froz5 on ! surface ( ! pipes2 & if ! air is r5ew$ 9 :ole or 9 "p f ! outside1 or if ! cont5ts ( ! *amb] are wet1 ! deposit ( ice 9 ! pipes w 9 "t become s ?ick z to necessitate its be+ ?aw$ (f4 ,?is is accompli%$ by turn+ a curr5t ( w>m br9e ?r\gh ! pipes4 ,ano!r me?od has be5 propos$1 9 :i* ! br9e pipes are plac$ 9 a sep>ate comp>tm5t1 air be+ circulat$ ?r\gh ?is comp>tm5t to ! rooms1 & back aga9 to ! cool+ pipes 9 a clos$ cycle by means ( a fan4 ,?is plan 0 tri$ on a l>ge scale by ,mr4 ,*amb]s at ! ,victoria ,docks1 b = "s reason or o!r 0 ab&on$4 ,"o difficulty is ! collection ( ice f ! moi/ure deposit$ f ! air1 :i* clogs up ! spaces betwe5 ! pipes1 besides dim9i%+ _! cool+ p[]4 ,?is1 9 "s cases1 c be p>tially obviat$ by us+ ! same air ov] aga91 b 9 mo/ in/ances special means w\ld h to be provid$ = frequ5t ?aw+ (f1 ! pipes hav+1 on acc\nt ( economy ( space & conv5i5ce1 to be plac$ s close toge!r1 & to be s conf9$ 9 surface1 t !y are mu* m liable to h _! action int]f]$ ) ?an :5 plac$ on ! ro( or walls ( ! room4 ,9 addition to ! =ego+ !re are1 ( c\rse1 _m o!r applications ( ammonia refrig]at+ ma*9es ( a m or less special nature1 ( :i* "t w n p]mit ev5 a pass+ ref]5ce4 ,_m ( ^! are embrac$ 9 ! second class1 cold wat] or br9e be+ us$ = ! cool+ ( c&les1 ! sep>ation ( p>aff91 ! cry/allization ( salts1 & = _m o!r purposes4 ,9 ! same way cold br9e has be5 us$ ) great success = freez+ quicks& 9 ! s9k+ ( %afts1 ! excavation be+ c>ri$ out & ! wat]tight tub+ or l9+ put 9 :ile ! mat]ial is 9 a solid /ate4 ,9 a pap] su* z ?is x w\ld be q impracticable to ent] into details ( con/ruction1 & ! au?or has !re=e conf9$ himself *iefly to pr9ciples ( work+4 ,9 conclusion1 h[ev]1 x may be add$ t 9 ammonia ma*9es1 :e!r on ! absorption or compression sy/ems1 no copp] or alloy ( copp] c be us$ 9 p>ts subject$ to ! action ( ! ammonia4 ,ca/ or wr\ght iron & /eel may1 h[ev]1 be us$1 provid$ ! quality is good1 b special c>e mu/ be tak5 9 ! con/ruction ( ^? p>ts ( absorption ma*9es :i* are subject$ to a high temp]ature4 ,9 bo? classes ( app>atus fir/-class mat]ials & workman%ip are mo/ absolute ess5tials4 99 99 99 99 99 ,cont9u$ f ,supplem5t1 ,no4 #fdf1 p4 #ajcai4 ,,elem5ts ,,( ,,ar*itectural ,,design4#a ,footnote #a3 ,deliv]$ be=e ! ,society ( ,arts1 ,london1 ,decemb] #ac1 #ahhg4 ,f ! ,j\rnal ( ! ,society4 ,,by ,h4 ,h4 ,,/a?am4 ,,iii4--,,cont9u$4 ,! ,romans1 9 _! ar*$ con/ructions1 habitually /r5g!n$ ! po9t aga9/ :i* ! vault ?ru/ by add+ column> features to ! walls1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ajh2 ?us aga9 mak+ a false use ( ! column 9 a way 9 :i* x 0 nev] contemplat$ by ^? :o orig9ally develop$ its =m4 ,9 ,romanesque ar*itecture ! column 0 no long] us$ = ?is purpose2 its place 0 tak5 by a flat pila/]-l projection ( ! wall 7plan & section1 ,fig4 #aji71 :i* gave suffici5t /r5g? = ! n v ambiti\s vault$ ro(s ( ?is p]iod1 :]e (t5 9 fact only ! aisles 7 vault$1 & ! c5t] comp>tm5t cov]$ ) a wood5 ro(4 ,at fir/ ?is pila/]-l =m bore a rem9isc5ce ( a classic capital z its t]m9ation2 a m\ld$ capp+ "u ! eaves ( ! build+4 ,next ?is capp+ 0 almo/ ins5sibly dropp$1 & ! buttress became a m]e flat /rip ( wall4 ,z ! vault+ became bold] & m ambiti\s1 ! buttress _h to be made m massive & ( great] projection1 to af=d suffici5t abutm5t to ! vault1 m especially t[>d ! l[] "p1 :]e ! ?ru/ ( ! ro( is c>ri$ to ! gr\nd4 ,h5ce arose ! t5d5cy to increase ! projection ( ! buttress gradually d[nw>d1 & ?is 0 done by successive slopes or set-(fs1 z !y are t]m$1 :i* assi/$ 7:e!r int5tionally or n 9 ! fir/ in/ance7 9 fur!r aid+ ! correct ar*itectural expression ( ! buttress4 ,!n ! vault+ ( ! c5t] aisle 0 c>ri$ s high & treat$ 9 s bold a mann]1 ) a progressive dim9ution ( ! wall pi]s 7z ! ta/e = l>ge trac]i$ w9d[s develop$ m & m71 t a fly+ buttress 7see section1 ,fig4 #aaj7 0 necess>y to take ! ?ru/ across to ! ext]ior buttresses1 & ^! aga91 "u ?is additional /ress1 7 fur!r increas$ 9 projection1 & 7 at ! same "t made n>r[] 7to all[ = all ! w9d[ space t 0 want$ betwe5 !m71 until ! result 0 t ! masses ( wall1 :i* 9 ! ,romanesque build+ 7 plac$ longitud9ally & p>allel to ! axis ( ! build+1 h all turn$ ab\t 7,fig4 #aaj1 plan7 & plac$ !mselves ) _! edges to ! build+ to resi/ ! ?ru/ ( ! ro(+4 ,! same am\nt ( wall is !re z 9 ! ,romanesque build+1 b x is arrang$ 9 q a new mann]1 9 ord] to meet ! new con/ructive conditions ( ! complete ,go?ic build+4 ,illu/ration3 ,figs4 #ajh-aad4 ,x w be se5 ?us h[ completely ?is important & *>act]i/ic feature ( ,go?ic ar*itecture1 ! buttress1 is ! outcome ( practical conditions ( con/ruction4 ,x is treat$ decoratively1 b x is itself a necess>y eng9e]+ exp$i5t 9 ! con/ruction4 ,! application ( ! same pr9ciple1 & its effect ^u ar*itectural expression1 may be se5 9 "s o!r examples besides t ( ! buttress 9 its usual %ape & position4 ,! :ole arrangem5t & disposition ( an ar*$ build+ is affect$ by ! necessity ( provid+ c\nt]=ts to resi/ ! ?ru/ ( ar*es4 ,! position ( ! c5tral t[]1 = in/ance1 9 s _m ca!drals & *ur*es1 at ! int]section ( ! nave & transepts1 is n only ! result ( a feel+ = ar*itectural effect & ! c5traliz+ ( ! composition1 x is ! position 9 :i* also ! t[] has ! cross walls ( nave & transepts abutt+ aga9/ x 9 all f\r directions3 if ! t[] is to be plac$ ov] ! c5tral ro( at all1 x c\ld only be ov] ?is po9t ( ! plan4 ,9 ! ,norman build+s1 :i* 9 "s respects 7 f9] con/ructions ?an ^? ( lat] ,go?ic1 ! desire to provide a firm abutm5t = ! ar*es c>ry+ ! t[] _h a mo/ m>k$ effect on ! ar*itectural expression ( ! int]ior4 ,at ,tewkesbury1 = in/ance1 :ile ! l[] pi]s are design$ 9 ! usual way t[>d ! nor? & s\? sides 7viz41 z portions ( a pi] ( ne>ly squ>e proportion /&+ "u ! angle ( ! t[]71 9 ! ea/ & we/ direction ! t[] pi]s run out into great solid masses ( wall1 9 ord] to insure a suffici5t abutm5t = ! t[] ar*es4 ,on ! nor? & s\? sides ! solid transept walls 7 available imm$iately on ! o!r side ( ! l[ ar* ( ! side aisle1 b on ! ea/ & we/ sides !re 7 only ! nave & *oir arcades to take ! ?ru/ ( ! nor? & s\? t[] ar*es1 & s ! ,normans took c>e to int]pose a massive piece ( wall betwe51 9 ord] t ! ?ru/ ( ! t[] ar*es might be neutraliz$ be=e x c\ld op]ate aga9/ ! less solid arcad$ portions ( ! walls4 ,?is exp$i5t1 ?is great mass ( wall introduc$ solely = con/ructive reasons1 adds greatly to ! gr&eur ( ! int]ior ar*itectural effect4 ,! true con/ructive & ar*itectural p]ception ( ! ,normans 9 ?is treatm5t ( ! l[] pi]s is illu/rat$ by ! curi\s contra/ pres5t$ at ,salisbury4 ,!re ! t[] pi]s are r small1 ! /yle is lat]1 & ! massive build+ ( ! ,normans _h giv5 way to a m graceful b less monum5tal mann] ( build+4 ,/ill ! abutm5t ( ! t[] ar*es 0 probably suffici5t = ! weight ( ! t[] z at fir/ built2 b :5 ! l(ty spire 0 put on ! top ( ?is1 its v]tical weight1 press+ ^u ! t[] ar*es & increas+ _! horizontal ?ru/1 actually ?ru/ ! nave & *oir arcades out ( ! p]p5dicul> t[>d ! we/ & ea/ respectively1 & !re !y are lean+ at a v p]ceptible angle away f ! c5t] ( ! *ur*--! ar*itectural expression1 9 a v significant =m1 ( ! neglect ( balance ( mass 9 con/ruction4 ,b :ile ! buttress 9 ,go?ic ar*itecture has be5 9 process ( developm5t1 :at has ! vault be5 do+8 ,we left x 7,fig4 #ib7 9 ! condition ( a r\nd wagon vault1 int]sect$ by ano!r simil> vault at "r angles4 ,by t me?od ( treatm5t we got rid ( ! cont9u\s ?ru/ on ! walls4 ,b !re 7 _m difficulties to be fac$ 9 ! con/ruction ( vault+ aft] ?is fir/ /ep _h be5 tak51 difficulties :i* arose *iefly f ! rigid & unmanageable proportions ( ! circul> ar*1 & :i* c\ld n be ev5 p>tially solv$ till ! introduction ( ! po9t$ ar*4 ,! po9t$ ar* is ! o!r mo/ m>k$ & *>act]i/ic feature ( ,go?ic ar*itecture1 &1 l ! buttress1 x w be se5 t x arose entirely out ( con/ructive difficulties4 ,^! difficulties 7 ( two k9ds2 ! fir/ arose f ! t5d5cy ( ! r\nd ar*1 :5 on a l>ge scale & heavily weight$1 to s9k at ! cr[n if !re is ev5 any v slight settlem5t ( ! abutm5ts4 ,if we turn aga9 to diagram #gg1 & obs]ve ! ne>ly v]tical l9e =m$ !re by ! jo9ts ( ! key/one1 & if we suppose ! scale ( t ar* v mu* increas$ )\t increas+ ! wid? ( ea* v\ssoir1 & suppose x built 9 two or ?ree r+s "o ov] ! o!r 7:i* is really ! con/ructive me?od ( a ,go?ic ar*71 we %all see t ^! jo9ts 9 ! upp]mo/ portion ( ! ar* mu/ 9 t case become /ill m ne>ly v]tical2 9 o!r words1 ! v\ssoirs almo/ lose ! w$ge %ape :i* is necess>y to keep !m 9 _! places1 & a v slight movem5t or settlem5t ( ! abutm5ts is suffici5t to make ! ar* /ones lose "s ( _! grip on ea* o!r & s9k m or less1 leav+ ! ar* flat at ! cr[n4 ,!re c be no d\bt t x 0 ! obs]vance ( ?is p>tial failure ( ! r\nd ar* 7p>tly ow+ probably to _! own c>eless way ( prep>+ ! f\ndations = _! pi]s--= ! m$ival build]s 7 v bad eng9e]s 9 t respect7 :i* induc$ ! build]s ( ! e>ly transitional abbeys1 su* z ,furness & ,f\nta9s & ,kirk/all1 to build ! l>ge ar*es ( ! nave po9t$1 ?\gh !y /ill reta9 ! circul>-head$ =m = ! small] ar*es 9 ! same build+s1 :i* 7 n s con/ructively important4 ,?is is "o ( ! con/ructive reasons :i* l$ to ! adoption ( ! po9t$ ar* 9 m$ival ar*itecture1 & "o :i* is easily /at$ & easily und]/ood4 ,! o!r influ5ce is "o aris+ out ( ! l5g!n$ conflict ) ! practical difficulties ( vault+1 & is a r m complicat$ matt]1 :i* we mu/ n[ endeavor to foll[ out4 ,illu/ration3 ,figs4 #ic-ajg4 ,look+ at ,fig4 #ib1 x w be se5 t 9 addition to ! p]spective sket* ( ! int]sect+ ar*es1 !re is drawn "u x a plan1 :i* repres5ts ! f\r po9ts ( ! abutm5t ( ! ar*es 7id5tifi$ 9 plan & p]spective sket* z ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d71 & ! l9es :i* are tak5 by ! v>i\s ar*es %[n by dott$ l9es4 ,look+ at ! p]spective sket*1 x w be app>5t t ! int]section ( ! two cross vaults produces two int]sect+ ar*es1 ! upp] l9e ( :i* is %[n 9 ! p]spective sket* 7m>k$ e & f72 und]nea?1 ?is int]section ( ! two ar*es1 :i* =ms a furr[ 9 ! upp] side ( ! con/ruction1 =ms an edge :i* trav]ses ! space occupi$ by ! plan ( ! vault+ z two oblique ar*es1 runn+ f ,a to ,c & f ,b to ,d on ! plan4 ,al?\gh ^! are only l9es =m$ by ! int]section ( two cross ar*es1 /ill !y make decid$ ar*es to ! eye1 & =m prom95t l9es 9 ! sy/em ( vault+2 & 9 a lat] p]iod ( vault+ !y 7 treat$ z prom95t l9es & /rongly emphasiz$ by m\ld+s2 b 9 ! ,roman & e>ly ,romanesque vaults !y 7 simply left z edges1 ! eye be+ direct$ r to ! vault+ surfaces ?an to ! edges4 ,! importance ( ?is di/9ction betwe5 ! vault+ surfaces & _! meet+ edges or gro9s#b w be se5 j n[4 ,! edges1 nev]!less1 z 0 obs]v$1 d =m ar*es1 & we h !re=e a sy/em ( cross ar*es 7,a ,b & ,c ,d#c ,fig4 #ie71 two wall ar*es 7,a1 ,d & ,b ,c71 & two oblique ar*es 7,a ,c & ,b ,d71 :i* divide ! space into f\r equal triangul> portions2 ?is k9d ( vault+ be+ h5ce call$ quadrip>tite vault+4 ,9 ?is & ! o!r diagrams ( ar*es on ?is page1 ! cross ar*es are all %[n 9 positive l9es1 & ! oblique ar*es 9 dott$ l9es4 ,footnote #b3 ,a gro9 is ! edge l9e =m$ by ! meet+ & int]section ( any two ar*$ surfaces4 ,:5 ?is edge l9e is cov]$ & emphasiz$ by a b& ( m\ld$ /ones =m+ an ar*1 z x 71 on ?is edge1 ?is is call$ a gro9 rib4 ,footnote #c3 ,! ,d seems to h be5 accid5tally omitt$ 9 ?is diagram2 x is ( c\rse ! f\r? angle ( ! plan4 ,we h "h a sy/em 9 :i* f\r semicircul> ar*es ( ! wid? ( ,a ,b are comb9$ ) two oblique ar*es ( ! wid? ( ,a ,c1 spr++ f ! same level & suppos$ to rise to ! same height4 ,b if we draw out ! l9es ( ^! two ar*es 9 a comp>ative elevation1 s z to comp>e _! curves toge!r1 we at once f9d we are 9 a difficulty4 ,! int]section ( ! two circul> ar*es produces an ellipse ) a v flat cr[n1 & v liable to fail4 ,if we attempt to make ! oblique ar* a segm5t only ( a l>ge circle1 z 9 ! dott$ l9e at #id1 s z to keep x ! same level z ! o!r )\t be+ s flat at ! top1 ! cr[n ( ! ar* is saf]1 b ?is c only be done at ! co/ ( gett+ a que] twi/ 9 ! l9e ( ! oblique ar*1 z %[n at ,d1 ,fig4 #ic4 ,! l result ( a twi/ ( ! l9e ( ! oblique ar* w\ld occur if ! two sides ( ! space we are vault+ ov] 7 ( diff]5t l5g?s1 i4e4 if ! vault+ space 7 o!rwise ?an a squ>e1 z long z we are us+ circul> ar*es4 ,if we attempt to make ! oblique ar*es complete circles1 z at ,fig4 #if1 we see t !y mu/ necess>ily rise high] ?an ! cross & side ar*es1 s t ! ro( w\ld be 9 a succession ( domical =ms1 z at ,fig4 #ig4 ,!re is ! fur!r exp$i5t ( /ilt+ ! cross ar*es1 t is1 mak+ ! real ar* spr+ f a po9t above ! impo/ & build+ ! l[] portion ( x v]tical1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ih4 ,?is device ( /ilt+ ! small] ar*es to raise _! cr[ns to ! level ( ^? ( ! l>g] ar*es 0 9 con/ant use 9 ,byzant9e & e>ly ,romanesque ar*itecture1 9 ! k9d ( mann] %[n 9 ! sket*1 ,fig4 #ii2 & a v clumsy & make%ift me?od ( deal+ ) ! problem x is2 b some?+ ( ! k9d 0 inevitable z long z no?+ b ! r\nd ar* 0 available = cov]+ contigu\s spaces ( diff]5t wid?s4 ,! :ole ( ^! difficulties 7 approximately got ov] 9 !ory1 & almo/ entirely 9 practice1 by ! adoption ( ! po9t$ ar*4 ,by its means1 z w be se5 9 ,fig4 #ajj1 ar*es ov] spaces ( diff]5t wid?s c\ld be c>ri$ to ! same height1 yet ) little diff]5ce 9 _! curves at ! spr++1 & )\t ! necessity ( employ+ a dang]\sly flat elliptical =m 9 ! oblique ar*4 ,a sket* ( ! ,go?ic vault 9 ?is =m1 & z ! int]section ( ! surfaces ( po9t$ vaults1 is %[n 9 ,fig4 #aja4 ,b n[ ano!r & mo/ important *ange 0 to come ov] ! vault4 ,! m$ival ar*itects 7 n satisfi$ ) ! m]e edge left by ! ,romans 9 _! vaults1 & ev5 be=e ! full ,go?ic p]iod ! ,roman build]s _h emphasiz$ _! oblique ar*es 9 _m cases by pond]\s c\rses ( m\ld$ or unm\ld$ /one 9 ! =m ( vault+ ribs4 ,^!1 9 ! case ( ,norman build+1 7 probably n m]ely put = ! purpose ( ar*itectural expression1 b also because !y af=d$ an opportunity ( conceal+ beh9d ! l9es ( a regul>ly curv$ gro9 rib ! irregul> curves :i* 7 really =m$ by ! junction ( ! vault+ surfaces4 ,b :5 ! vault become m manageable 9 its curves aft] ! adoption ( ! po9t$ ar*1 ! gro9 rib became adopt$ 9 ! e>ly po9t$ vault+ z a means ( giv+ expression & c>ry+ up ! l9es ( ! ar*itectural design4 ,on its edge 7 /ones m\ld$ ) ! deep und]cut holl[s ( e>ly ,engli% m\ld+1 def9+ ! curves ( ! oblique z well z ( ! cross ar*es ) /rongly m>k$ l9es1 &1 moreov]1 fall+ on a level ) ea* o!r 9 ar*itectural importance2 ! oblique vault ( ! ar* is no long] a second>y l9e 9 ! vault+ design2 on ! contr>y1 ! cross ar*es are usually omitt$1 z %[n 9 ,figs4 #ajb & #ajc 7view & plan ( an e>ly ,go?ic quadrip>tite vault72 s t ! cross rib1 :i*1 9 ! e>ly ,romanesque wagon vault 7,fig4 #ij71 0 ! "o m>k$ l9e on ! vault+ surface1 has n[ be5 oblit]at$1 & ! l9e ( ! oblique ar* 7,e ,f1 ,figs4 #ajb1 #ajc7 has tak5 its place4 ,! effect ( ! /rongly m>k$ l9es ( ! gro9 ribs1 radiat+ f ! cap ( ! %aft :i* 0 _! ar*itectural support1 seems to h be5 s f> attractive to ! m$ival build]s t !y soon endeavor$ to improve ^u x & c>ry x fur!r by multiply+ ! gro9 ribs4 ,"o ( ! /ages ( ?is progress is %[n 9 ,figs4 #ajd1 #aje4 ,"h x w be se5 t ! cross rib is aga9 %[n1 & t int]m$iate ribs h be5 introduc$ betwe5 x & ! oblique rib4 ,! ri*ness ( effect ( ! vault is mu* height5$ !reby2 b a v important modification 9 ! mode ( con/ruct+ x has be5 introduc$4 ,z ! gro9 ribs become multipli$1 x came to be se5 t x 0 easi] to con/ruct !m fir/1 & fill 9 ! spaces aft]w>d2 accord+ly ! gro91 in/ead ( be+1 z x 0 9 ! e>ly days ( vault+1 m]ely ! l9e =m$ by ! meet+ ( two ar* surfaces1 became a k9d ( /one scaffold+ or frame "w1 betwe5 :i* ! vault+ surfaces 7 fill$ 9 ) light] mat]ial4 ,?is arrangem5t ( c\rse made an imm5se diff]5ce 9 ! :ole pr9ciple ( con/ruct+ ! vault1 & r5d]$ x mu* m ductile 9 ! h&s ( ! build]1 m capable ( tak+ any =m :i* he wi%$ to impose on x1 ?an :5 ! vault 0 reg>d$ & built z an int]section ( surfaces4 ,!re 0 /ill "o difficulty1 h[ev]1 "o slight failure bo? practical & !oretical 9 ! vault ar*itecture1 :i* = a long "t mu* ex]cis$ ! m9ds ( ! build]s4 ,! ribs ( ! vault+ be+ all ( unequal l5g?1 !y _h to assume diff]5t curves almo/ imm$iately on ris+ f ! impo/2 & z ! m\ld+s ( ! ribs h to be run into ea* o!r 7mit]$ is ! te*nical t]m7 on ! impo/1 !re n be+ room to receive !m all sep>ately1 x 0 almo/ impossible to get !m to make _! div]g5ce f ea* o!r 9 a completely symmetrical mann]2 ! %ort] ribs ) ! quick] curves p>t$ f ea* o!r at a l[] po9t ?an ! l>g] ones1 & ! mit]s occurr$ at unequal heights4 ,! ef=t to get ov] ?is unsatisfactory & irregul> junction ( ! ribs at ! spr++ 0 made fir/ by sett+ back ! feet ( ! %ort] ribs on ! impo/ capp+1 some:at 9 ! re> ( ! feet ( ! l>g] ribs1 s z to ?r[ _! p>t+ po9t high] up2 b ?is also 0 only a make%ift1 :i* x 0 hop$ ! eye w\ld pass ov]2 & 9 fact x is r>ely noticeable except to ^? :o "k ab\t x & look = x4 ,/ill ! defect 0 !re1 & 0 n got ov] until ! idea occurr$ ( mak+ all ! ribs ( ! same curvature & ! same l5g?1 & int]cept+ !m all by a circle at ! apex ( ! vault1 z %[n 9 ,figs4 #ajf1 #ajg2 ! space betwe5 ! circles at ! apex ( ! vault be+ practically a ne>ly flat surface or plafond held 9 its place by ! ar*es surr\nd+ x2 ?\gh1 = effect1 x is (t5 treat$ o!rwise 9 ext]nal appe>ance1 be+ decorat$ by p5dants giv+ a rev]s$ curve at ?is po9t1 b :i* ( c\rse are only ornam5tal features hung f ! ro(4 ,if we look aga9 at ,fig4 #ajd1 we %all see t ?is 0 a v natural transition aft] all1 = ! arrangem5t ( ! ribs & vault+ surfaces 9 t example is manife/ly sugge/ive ( a =m radiat+ r\nd ! c5tral po9t ( spr++1 ?\gh x only sugge/s t1 & does n completely realize x4 ,b "h came a fur!r & v curi\s *ange 9 ! me?od ( build+ ! vault1 = z ! ribs 7 made m num]\s1 = ri*ness ( effect1 9 ?is =m ( vault+1 x 0 discov]$ t x 0 mu* easi] to build ! :ole z a solid face ( masonry1 work+ ! ribs on ! face ( x4 ,?us ! ribs1 :i* 9 ! int]m$iate p]iod 7 ! con/ructive framework ( ! vault1 9 ! f9al =m ( fan vault+ came back to _! orig9al use z m]ely a =m ( ar*itectural expression1 meant to c>ry on ! ar*itectural l9es ( ! design2 & !y p]=m1 on a l>g] scale & ) a diff]5t expression1 mu* ! same k9d ( function :i* ! flut+ l9es p]=m$ 9 ! ,greek column4 ,! fan vault is !re=e a k9d ( inv]t$ dome1 built up 9 c\rses on mu* ! same pr9ciple z a dome1 b a convex curve int]nally1 in/ead ( a concave "o1 ! :ole =m+ a s]ies ( inv]t$ conoid =ms abutt+ aga9/ ! wall at ! foot & aga9/ ea* o!r at _! upp] m>g9s4 ,?is =m ( ro( is wond]fully ri* 9 effect1 & has ! appe>ance ( be+ a piece ( purely arti/ic "w done = ! pleasure ( see+ x2 yet1 z we h se51 x is 9 reality1 l almo/ ev]y?+ good 9 ar*itecture1 ! logical outcome ( a cont5tion ) /ructural problems4 ,we h already notic$ ! sugge/ion1 9 e>ly ,go?ic or ,romanesque1 ( ! divid+ up ( a pi] into a multiple pi]1 ( :i* ea* "p supports a special memb] ( ! sup]/ructure1 z indicat$ 9 ,fig4 #ij4 ,! ,go?ic pi]1 9 its developm5t 9 ?is respect1 af=ds a /rik+ example ( t influ5ce ( ! sup]/ructure on ! plan :i* has be=e be5 ref]r$ to4 ,! peculi> mann] ( build+ ! ar* 9 ,go?ic "w l$ almo/ inevitably to ?is break+ up ( ! pi] into v>i\s memb]s4 ,! ,roman ar* 0 on its l[] surface a simple flat section1 ! decorative treatm5t 9 ! way ( m\ld+s be+ r\nd ! circumf]5ce1 & n on ! "u side or s(fit ( ! ar*1 & 9 e>ly ,romanesque "w ?is me?od 0 /ill foll[$4 ,! m$ival build]s1 p>tly 9 ! fir/ in/ance because !y built ) small] /ones1 adopt$ at an e>ly p]iod ! plan ( build+ an ar* 9 two or m c\rses or r+s1 "o bel[ & recess$ )9 ! o!r4 ,z ! process ( m\ld+ ! ar* /ones became m elaborat$1 & a l>g] numb] ( sub>*es "o )9 ano!r 7 introduc$1 ?is *>act]i/ic =m ( sub>*es became almo/ lo/ to ! eye 9 ! multiplicity ( ! m\ld+s us$4 ,b up to ne>ly ! late/ p]iod ( ,go?ic ar*itecture ?is =m may /ill be trac$1 if look$ =1 z ! basis ( ! arrangem5t ( ! m\ld+s1 :i* are all =m$ by cutt+ out ( s _m squ>e sections1 recess$ "o )9 ! o!r4 ,?is w be m fully describ$ 9 ! next lecture4 ,we are n[ speak+ m especially ( ! pi] z affect$ by ?is me?od ( build+ ! ar*es 9 recess$ ord]s4 ,if we consid] ! effect ( br++ d[n on ! top ( a squ>e capital an ar* compos$ ( two r+s ( squ>$ /ones1 ! l[] "o only half ! wid? 7say7 ( ! upp] "o1 x w be app>5t t on ! squ>e capital ! ar* /ones w\ld leave a portion ( ! capital at ea* angle b>e1 & support+ no?+4#d ,?is looks awkw>d & illogical1 & accord+ly ! pi] is modifi$ s z to suit ! %ape ( ! ar*4 ,figs4 #aaa1 #aab1 #aac1 & #aad1 ) ! plans1 ,b ,c ,d1 accompany+ !m1 illu/rate ?is developm5t ( ! pi]4 ,fig4 #aaa is a simple cyl9drical pi] ) a co>sely =m$ capital1 a k9d ( rem9isc5ce ( ! ,doric capital1 ) a pla9 ,romanesque ar* />t+ f x4 ,fig4 #aab1 %[n 9 plan at ,b1 is ! k9d ( =m 7v>i$ 9 diff]5t examples7 :i* ! pi] assum$ 9 ,norman & e>ly ,fr5* "w1 :5 ! ar* _h be5 divid$ into two recess$ ord]s4 ,! d\ble l9es ( ! ar* are se5 spr++ f ! cap ea* way1 9 ! elevation ( ! pi]4 ,if we look at ! plan ( ! pi]1 we see t1 9 place ( ! s+le cyl9d]1 x is n[ a squ>e ) f\r small] half cyl9d]s1 "o on ea* face4 ,( ^!1 ^? on ! "r & left ( ! plan support ! sub>*es ( ! arcade2 ! "o on ! l[] side1 :i* we w suppose to be look+ t[>d ! nave1 supports ! %aft :i* c>ries ! nave vault+1 & :i* /&s on ! ma9 capital ) a small base ( its own1 z se5 9 ,fig4 #aab--;a common feature 9 e>ly "w2 & ! half column on ! upp] side ( ! plan supports ! vault+ rib ( ! aisle4 ,9 ,fig4 #aac & plan ,c1 :i* repres5ts a pi] ( ne>ly a c5tury lat]1 we see t ! pi] is brok5 up by p]fectly deta*$ %afts1 ea* ) its own capital1 & ea* c>ry+ a gr\p ( ar* m\ld+s1 :i* latt] h become m elaborat$4 ,fig4 #aad & plan ,d %[ a late ,go?ic f\rte5? c5tury pi]1 9 :i* ! sep>ate %afts h be5 ab&on$1 or r absorb$ into ! body ( ! pi]1 & ! pi] is =m$ ( a numb] ( m\ld$ projections1 ) holl[s giv+ deep %ad[s betwe5 !m1 & ! capitals ( ! v>i\s memb]s run into "o ano!r1 =m+ a complete cap r\nd ! pi]4 ,?is pi] %[s a rem>kable contra/ 9 e way to ,b1 yet x is a direct developm5t f ! latt]4 ,9 ?is late =m ( pi]1 x w be obs]v$ t ! projection1 ,e1 :i* c>ries ! vault+ ribs ( ! nave1 in/ead ( spr++ f ! capital1 z 9 ! e>ly example1 ,fig4 #aaa1 spr+s f ! floor1 & runs "r up pa/ ! capital2 ?us ! plan ( ! vault+ is br\ght1 z x 71 d[n on to ! floor1 & ! connection betwe5 ! ro(+ ( its build+ & its plan is z complete z c well be4 ,9 ,fig4 #aac ! vault+ %aft is suppos$ to /op %ort ( ! capital & to spr+ f a corbel 9 ! wall1 situat$ above ! limit ( ! draw+4 ,?is 0 a common arrangem5t 9 ! ,e>ly ,engli% & ,e>ly ,decorat$ p]iods ( ,go?ic1 b x is n s logical & complete1 or s satisfactory ei!r to ! eye or to ! judgm5t1 z />t+ ! vault+ %aft f ! floor l9e4 ,! connection betwe5 ! ro(+ & ! plan may be fur!r se5 by look+ at ! portion ( a m$ival plan giv5 "u ,fig4 #aaj1 :]e ! dott$ l9es repres5t ! c\rse ( ! gro9 ribs ( ! ro( above4 ,x w be se5 h[ completely ^! dep5d ^u ! plan1 s t x is necess>y to det]m9e h[ ! ro( 9 a vault$ build+ is to be arrang$ be=e sett+ out ! gr\nd plan4 ,footnote #d3 ,?is 0 illu/rat$ by diagrams on ! wall at ! deliv]y ( ! lecture4 ,?us we see t ! ,go?ic ca!dral1 entirely diff]5t 9 its =m f t ( ! ,greek temple1 illu/rates1 p]haps1 ev5 m completely ?an ! ,greek /yle1 ! same pr9ciple ( correct & tru?ful expression ( ! con/ruction ( ! build+1 & t all ! ma9 features :i* give to ! /yle its mo/ /rik+ & picturesque effects are n arbitr>ily adopt$ =ms1 b are ! result ( a cont9u\s ar*itectural developm5t bas$ on ! developm5t ( ! con/ruction4 ,! decorative details ( ! ,go?ic /yle1 ?\gh diff]+ exce$+ly f ^? ( ! ,greek1 are1 l ! latt]1 conv5tional adaptations ( sugge/ions f nature2 & 9 ?is respect aga91 z well z 9 ! "* ( ! m\ld+s1 we f9d bo? sides illu/rat+ ! same g5]al pr9ciple 9 ! design ( ornam5t1 9 its relation to position1 climate1 & mat]ial2 b ?is "p ( ! subject w be m fully treat$ ( 9 ! next lecture4 ,we h n[ arriv$ at a /yle ( ar*itectural con/ruction & expression :i* seems s diff]5t f t ( ,greek ar*itecture1 :i* we consid]$ 9 ! la/ lecture1 t x is difficult to realize at fir/ t ! "o is1 9 reg>d to "s ( its mo/ important features1 a l9eal desc5dant ( ! o!r4 ,yet ?is is unque/ionably ! case4 ,! long ?9 %aft ( ,go?ic ar*itecture is desc5d$1 ?r\gh a long s]ies ( modifications1 f ! s+le cyl9drical column ( ! ,greek2 & ! c>v$ m$ival capital1 aga91 is to be trac$ back to ! ,greek ,cor9?ian capital1 ?r\gh examples 9 e>ly ,fr5* ar*itecture1 ( :i* a tol]ably complete s]ies ( modifications c\ld be collect$1 %[+ ! gradual *ange f ! fir/ deviations ( ! e>ly ,go?ic capital f its classical model1 :ile x /ill reta9$ ! squ>e abacus & ! scroll "u ! angle & ! symmetrical disposition ( ! leaves1 d[n to ! free & uncon/ra9$ treatm5t ( ! lat] ,go?ic capital4 ,yet ) ^! decid$ relations 9 d]ivation1 :at a diff]5ce 9 ! two mann]s ( build+6 ,! ,greek build+ is comp>atively small 9 scale1 symmetrical & balanc$ 9 its ma9 design1 highly f9i%$ 9 its details 9 accordance ) a preconceiv$ !ory4 ,! ,go?ic build+ is mu* m ext5sive 9 scale1 is n necess>ily symmetrical 9 its ma9 design1 & ! decorative details appe> z if work$ accord+ to ! individual ta/e & pleasure ( ea* c>v]1 & n ^u any preconceiv$ !ory ( =m or proportion4 ,9 ! ,greek build+ all ! pr$om9ant l9es are horizontal2 9 ! m$ival build+ !y are v]tical4 ,9 ! ,greek build+ e op5+ is cov]$ by a l9tel2 9 ! ,go?ic build+ e op5+ is cov]$ by an ar*4 ,no two /yles1 x might be said1 c\ld be m /rongly contra/$ 9 _! g5]al *>act]i/ics & appe>ance4 ,yet ?is v contra/ only s]ves to emphasize ! m /rongly ! ma9 po9t :i* ,i h be5 wi%+ to keep prom95t 9 ^! lectures--t ar*itectural design1 rightly consid]$1 is bas$ on & is ! expression ( plan & con/ruction4 ,9 ,greek column> ar*itecture ! sali5t feature ( ! /yle is ! support ( a cross l9tel by a v]tical pill>2 & ! ma9 ef=t ( ! ar*itectural design] is conc5trat$ on develop+ ! expression ( ! functions ( ^! two ess5tial portions ( ! /ructure4 ,! :ole ( ! op5+s be+ bridg$ by horizontal l9tels1 ! :ole ( ! ma9 l9es ( ! sup]/ructure are horizontal1 & _! horizontal /atus is z /rongly m>k$ z possible by ! t]m9at+ l9es ( ! cornice--! :ole ( ! pressures ( ! sup]/ructure are simply v]tical1 & ! :ole ( ! l9es ( design ( ! supports are laid out s z to emphasize ! idea ( resi/ance to v]tical pressure4 ,! ,greek column1 too1 has only "o simple (fice to p]=m1 t ( support+ a s+le mass ( ! sup]/ructure1 ex]cis+ a s+le pressure 9 ! same direction4 ,9 ! ,go?ic build+ ! ma9 pressures are oblique & n v]tical1 & ! ma9 feature ( ! ext]ior sub/ructure1 ! buttress1 is design$ to express resi/ance to an oblique pressure2 & no real progress 0 made ) ! developm5t ( ! ar*$ /yle until ! false use ( ! app>5t column or pila/] z a buttress 0 got rid (1 & ! true buttress =m evolv$4 ,on ! int]ior pi]s ( ! arcade !re is a resolution ( pressures :i* practically results 9 a v]tical pressure1 & ! pi] rema9s v]tical2 b ! pressure ^u x be+ ! resultant ( a complex collection ( pressures1 ea* ( ^! has1 9 complete ,go?ic1 its own app>5t v]tical support+ feature1 s t ! plan ( ! sub/ructure becomes a logical repres5tation ( ! ma9 features & pressures ( ! sup]/ructure4 ,! ma9 t5d5cy ( ! po9t$ ar*$ build+ is t[>d v]tically1 & ?is v]tical t5d5cy is /rongly emphasiz$ & assi/$ by ! break+ up ( ! really solid mass ( ! pi] into a numb] ( sl5d] %afts1 :i*1 by _! /rongly m>k$ p>allel l9es1 lead ! eye upw>d t[>d ! clos+-9 l9es ( ! arcade & ( ! vault$ ro( :i* =ms ! culm9ation ( ! :ole4 ,! ,greek column is also assi/$ 9 its v]tical expression by ! l9es ( ! flut+2 b z ! object ( ^! is only to emphasize ! "o (fice ( ! "o column1 !y are /rictly subord9ate to ! ma9 =m1 are 9 fact m]ely a k9d ( decorative treatm5t ( x 9 accordance ) its function4 ,9 ! ,go?ic pi] ! object is to express complexity ( function1 & ! pi]1 in/ead ( be+ a s+le flut$ column1 is brok5 up into a v>iety ( connect$ column> =ms1 ea* expressive ( its own function 9 ! design4 ,x may be obs]v$ also t ! ,go?ic build+1 l ! ,greek1 falls into c]ta9 ma9 divisions aris+ out ( ! practical conditions ( its con/ruction1 & :i* =m a k9d ( ord] analog\s to ! classic ord] 9 a s5se1 ?\gh n gov]n$ by su* /rict conv5tional rules4 ,! classic ord] has its column> support1 its beam1 its frieze = decorative treatm5t4 ,! ,go?ic ord] has its column> support1 its ar* 79 place ( ! beam71 its decoratively treat$ /age 7! tri=ium71 occupy+ ! space aga9/ :i* ! aisle ro( abuts1 & its cl]e/ory1 or w9d[ /age4 ,all ^! arise z naturally out ( ! conditions & hi/orical developm5t ( ! /ructure 9 ! ,go?ic case z 9 ! ,greek "o1 b ! ,greek ord] is an ext]nal1 ! ,go?ic an int]nal "o4 ,! two /yles are bas$ on con/ructive conditions totally diff]5t ! "o f ! o!r2 _! expression & "* are totally diff]5t4 ,b ?is v diff]5ce is ! mo/ emphatic decl>ation ( ! same pr9ciple1 t ar*itectural design is ! logical1 b decorative1 expression ( plan & con/ruction4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,meteorological ,,/ation ,,on ,,mt4 ,,santis4 ,illu/ration ,at ! second ,int]national ,meteorological ,congress1 9 #ahgi1 ! erection ( an obs]vatory on ! top ( a high m\nta9 0 consid]$4 ,! ,swiss ,meteorological ,commission und]took to c>ry out ! project1 & s5t out circul>s to diff]5t associations1 gov]nm5ts1 & private individuals reque/+ s+le or ye>ly contributions to aid 9 defray+ ! exp5se ( ! /ation4 ,9 ,decemb]1 #ahha1 an extra cr$it ( ab\t #a1jjj 0 grant$ by ! ,bundesv]sammlung = ! initial "w on ! /ation1 :i* 0 tempor>ily plac$ 9 ! ,santis ,hotel1 & a telegraph 0 put up betwe5 t place & ,weisbad 9 ,augu/1 #ahhb1 s t on ,septemb] #a ( ! same ye> ! meteorological obs]vations 7 begun4 ,at ! end ( ,augu/1 #ahhe1 ?is tempor>y arrangem5t expir$1 & ! ent]prise c\ld n be c>ri$ on unless ! support ( ! same 0 und]tak5 by ! ,union4 ,on ,m>* #bg1 #ahhe1 ! ,bundesv]sammlung decid$ to take ! necess>y /eps4 ,mr4 ,fritz ,brunn]1 :o di$ ,may #a1 #ahhe1 left a l>ge legacy = ! ent]prise1 mak+ x possible to build a special obs]vatory4 ,= ?is purpose ! nor!a/ corn] ( ! highe/ rocky peak 0 bla/$ out & ! build+ 0 s plac$ t ! wall ( rock at ! re> =m$ an excell5t protection f ! high we/ w9ds4 ,by ! fir/ ( ,octob]1 la/ ye>1 ! build+ 0 ready = occupancy1 & !re 0 a quiet op5+ at :i* ,mr4 ,pot*1 director ( ! ,blue ,hill ,obs]vatory1 ne> ,bo/on1 & o!rs 7 pres5t4 ,! build+ is #bf feet long1 #ai feet deep1 & #cj feet high1 & is v solid & massive1 hav+ be5 built ( ! lime/one bla/$ f ! rock4 ,x consi/s ( a gr\nd floor conta9+ ! telegraph (fice1 ! obs]v]s' "w room1 & ! kit*5 & /ore rooms2 ! fir/ /ory1 9 :i* are ! liv+ & sleep+ rooms = ! obs]v]s & _! assi/ants2 & ! second /ory1 liv+ & sleep+ rooms = visit+ sci5ti/s :o come to make special obs]vations1 & a res]ve room4 ,! b>omet] & b>ograph are plac$ 9 ! second /ory1 at a height ( ab\t #h1bjb feet above ! level ( ! sea1 :]eas 9 ! hotel !y 7 only ab\t #h1jic feet above ! sea level4 ,! flat ro(1 ( wood & cem5t1 :i* ext5ds v little above ! plateau ( ! m\nta9 top1 is admirably adapt$ = mak+ obs]vations 9 ! op5 air4 ,all ! rooms 9 ! h\se are ceil$ ) wood1 & ! walls & floors ( ! gr\nd floor & fir/ /ory & ! ceil+s ( ! second /ory are cov]$ ) insulat+ mat]ial4 ,! co/ ( ! build+1 includ+ ! equipm5ts1 am\nt$ to ab\t #aa1bjj4 ,! fact t s9ce ! erection ( ! ,santis /ation !re has be5 a /ill high] /ation con/ruct$ on ,sonnblick 7#aj1acg feet high7 does n decrease ! value ( ! =m]1 = ! great] ! numb] ( su* elevat$ /ations1 ! bett] w be ! meteorological inve/igations ( ! upp] air curr5ts4 ,! pres5t obs]v] at ,santis is ,mr4 ,c4 ,sax]1 :o has endur$ ! h>d%ips & privations ( a long w9t] at ! /ation4 ,! anemomet] h\se1 :i* is %[n 9 our illu/ration1 is connect$ ) ! ma9 h\se by a tunnel4 ,sev]al times dur+ ! day records are tak5 ( ! b>omet]1 ! !rmomet]1 ! wea!r vane1 z well z notes 9 reg>d to ! condition ( ! wea!r1 ! cl\ds1 fall ( ra9 or sn[1 etc4 ,a regi/]+ an]oid b>omet] m>ks ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e h\rly1 & two turn+ !rmomet]s regi/] ! temp]ature at midnight & at f\r o'clock 9 ! morn+4--,illu/rirte ,zeitung4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,c>e ,,( ,,! ,,eyes4#a ,footnote #a3 ,f a pap] by ,david ,web/]4 ,m4,d41 pr(essor ( oph?almology 9 ! ,new ,york ,polycl9ic & surgeon to ! ,manhattan ,eye & ,e> ,hospital1 ,new ,york4 ,,by ,,pr(4 ,,david ,,web/]1 ,m4,d4 ,! light ( ! body is ! eye4 ,( all our s5ses1 sight1 he>+1 t\*1 ta/e1 & smell1 ! sight is t :i* seems to u ! mo/ important4 ,?r\gh ! eye1 ! organ ( vision1 we ga9 m in=mation & exp]i5ce m pleasure1 p]haps1 ?an ?r\gh any or all our o!r organs ( s5se4 ,inde$1 we are apt to depreciate ! value ( our o!r s5ses :5 comp>+ !m to ! eyesight4 ,x is n uncommon to he> a p]son say1 ,i w\ld r die ?an be bl9d4 ,b no "o says1 ,i w\ld r die ?an lose my he>+4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 ! p]son :o is totally bl9d g5]ally appe>s to be m *e]ful1 happi]1 ?an "o :o is totally deaf4 ,deaf mutes are (t5 dull1 morose1 quick temp]$1 ob/9ate1 self-will$1 & difficult to get along )1 :ile ! bl9d are n infrequ5tly di/+ui%$ = qualities q ! rev]se4 ,x is wor?y ( rem>k t ! eye is t organ ( s5se :i* is mo/ ornam5tal z well z useful1 & ! deprivation ( :i* con/itutes ! mo/ visible de=mity4 ,b x is unnecess>y to ent] into a comp>ison ( ! relative value ( our s5ses or ! relative mis=tune ( our loss ( any "o ( !m4 ,we ne$ !m all 9 our daily /ruggle = exi/5ce1 & x is necess>y to our physical & m5tal well-be+1 z well z to our success 9 life1 t we pres]ve !m all 9 z high a degree ( p]fection z possible4 ,we mu/ n lose sight ( ! fact t all our organs ( s5se are p>ts ( "o body1 & t :atev] we d to improve or pres]ve ! heal? ( our eyes _c d h>m to any o!r organ4 ,we %all be able to take c>e ( our eyes m intellig5tly if we "k some?+ ( _! /ructure & h[ !y p]=m _! functions4 ,! eye is a holl[ globe fill$ ) transp>5t mat]ial & set 9 a bony cavity ( ! skull1 :i*1 ) ! eyelids & eyela%es1 protect x f injury4 ,x is mov$ at w 9 e direction by six muscles :i* are atta*$ to its surface1 & is lubricat$ & kept moi/ by ! secretions ( ! te> gl& & o!r gl&s1 :i* secretions1 hav+ done _! "w1 are c>ri$ d[n into ! nose by a passage especially made = ! purpose--! te> duct4 ,we are all famili> ) ! fact t our eyes are to see )1 b 9 ord] to be able to take c>e ( our eyes intellig5tly1 x is necess>y to und]/& z f> z possible h[ to see ) !m4 ,,! ,,back ,,wall ,,( ,,! ,,eye4 ,x is a rem>kable fact t e object we see has its picture =m$ ^u ! back wall ( our eyes4 ,! eye is a d>k5$ *amb]1 & ! :ole ( ! front "p ( x acts z a l5s to br+ ! rays ( light com+ f objects we wi% to see to a focus on its back wall1 ?us =m+ a picture !re z di/9ct z ! picture =m$ 9 ! cam]a obscura ( ! photograph]4 ,?is has n only be5 prov$ by ! laws ( optics1 b has be5 actually demon/rat$ 9 ! eyes ( rabbits & o!r animals4 ,exp]im5t]s h held an object be=e ! eye ( a rabbit = a few mom5ts1 & h !n kill$ ! animal & remov$ ! eye z quickly z possible1 & laid its back wall b>e1 & h di/9ctly se5 !re ! picture ( ! object ^u :i* ! eye _h be5 fix$4 ,x is a truly wond]ful fact t ^! pictures ^u ! back wall ( ! eye c be *ang$ s rapidly t ! picture ( ! object la/ look$ at disappe>s 9 an in/ant & makes way = ! picture ( ! next4 ,we "k t ! picture =m$ on ! back wall ( ! eye is c>ri$ back to ! bra9 by ! optic n]ve1 b !re our k /ops4 ,sci5ce _c tell u h[ ! bra91 & ?r\gh x ! m9d1 completes ! act ( see+4 ,x is !re t ! f9ite & ! inf9ite t\*1 &1 z our m9ds are f9ite1 we _c compreh5d ! inf9ite4 ,b !re is en\gh t we c und]/&1 & x %all be my endeavor 9 ?is pap] to make "s pla9 /atem5ts t w help z a guide 9 ! pres]vation ( ^? wond]ful & useful organs4 ,,f> ,,& ,,ne> ,,sight$ness4 ,we h to use our eyes = ne> & f> di/ant vision4 ,9 ga!r+ pictures ( di/ant objects ! normally %ap$ eye puts =? little or no ef=t4 ,x is ! ne> "w1 su* z read+1 sew+1 or draw+1 t puts a real muscul> /ra9 ^u ! eyes4 ,!re are c]ta9 rules t apply to ! use ( ! eyes = su* ne> "w reg>dless ( ! age ( ! p]son4 ,,read+4 #a4 ,9 read+1 a book or newspap] %\ld be held at a di/ance ( f t5 to fifte5 in*es f ! eyes4 ,x is h>dly necess>y to caution anybody n to hold ! pr9t fur!r away ?an fifte5 in*es4 ,! only objection to hold+ ord9>y pr9t too f> away is t 9 s do+ ! pictures =m$ on ! back wall ( ! eye are too small to be readily & easily p]ceiv$1 & ! close att5tion consequ5tly necess>y causes bo? ! eyes & ! bra9 to tire4 ,mo/ p]sons quickly f9d ?is out !mselves1 & ! t5d5cy is r to hold ! book too ne>1 = ! ne>] ! object to ! eye1 ! l>g] its picture ^u ! ret9a1 or back eye wall4 ,b "h we enc\nt] ano!r dang]4 ,! ne>] ! object ! eyes are conc5trat$ ^u1 ! great] ! muscul> ef=t necess>y2 s t by hold+ ! book too ne>1 ! labor ( read+ is greatly increas$1 & ! long p]si/5ce 9 su* a habit is likely to produce weak eyes1 & may1 9 "s in/ances1 lead to real ne>-sight$ness4 ,:5 *ildr5 are obs]v$ to h acquir$ ?is habit & _c be p]suad$ out ( x1 !y %\ld always be tak5 to a physician skill$ 9 ! treatm5t ( ! eye = exam9ation & advice4 ,a little att5tion at su* a "t may save !m f a :ole lifetime ( tr\ble ) _! eyes4 ,( c\rse1 ! l>g] ! pr9t1 ! f>!r x may be held f ! eyes4 ,,position4 #b4 ,! position ( ! p]son ) reg>d to ! light %\ld be s t ! latt] w fall ^u ! page he is read+1 & n ^u 8 eyes4 ,x is g5]ally consid]$ mo/ conv5i5t to h ! light %9e ov] ! left %\ld]1 s t 9 turn+ ! leaves ( ! book1 ! %ad[ ( ! h& ^u ! page is avoid$4 ,x is n always possible to d ?is1 h[ev]1 &1 at ! same "t1 to get pl5ty ( light ^u ! page4 ,:5 "o f9ds himself compell$ to face ! light 9 read+1 or 9 /&+ at a desk bookkeep+1 he %\ld always contrive to %ade 8 eyes f a direct light4 ,?is may be done ) a l>ge eye %ade project+ f ! br[4 ,a fri5d ( m9e1 a physician1 is v fond ( read+ by a k]os5e lamp1 ! lamp be+ plac$ on a table by 8 side1 & ! direct light kept f 8 eyes by means ( a piece ( c>dbo>d /uck up by ! lamp *imney4 ,,prop] ,,light4 #c4 ,! illum9ation %\ld always be suffici5t4 ,no?+ is m injuri\s to ! eyes ?an read+ by a poor light4 ,_m p]sons /ra9 _! eyes by read+ on into ! twilight z long z !y possibly c4 ,!y become int]e/$ & d n l to leave (f4 ,"s read 9 ! ev5+ at too great a di/ance f ! s\rce ( light1 =gett+ t ! quantity ( light dim9i%es z ! squ>e ( ! di/ance f ! s\rce ( light increases4 ,?us1 at f\r feet1 "o gets only "o-sixte5? "p ( ! light ^u 8 page t he w\ld at "o foot4 ,x is ! duty ( p>5ts & o!rs :o h *>ge ( *ildr5 to see to x t !y d n injure _! eyes by read+ by insuffici5t light1 ei!r daylight or artificial light4 ,!re is a common notion t electric light is bad = ! eyes4 ,! only f\ndation ,i c ?9k ( = su* a notion is t x is try+ to ! eyes to gaze directly at ! bright electric light4 ,x is bad to gaze long at any s\rce ( light1 & ! bright] ! s\rce ( light gaz$ at1 ! worse = ! eyes1 ! sun be+ ! wor/ ( all4 ,i h se5 m ?an "o p]son ^: eyes 7 p]man5tly injur$ by gaz+ at ! sun1 dur+ an eclipse or o!rwise4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 no?+ %ort ( sunlight is bett] ?an ! inc&esc5t electric light to read by or to "w by4 ,,read+ ,,9 ,,b$4 ,z to read+ :ile ly+ d[n 9 b$ or on a l\nge1 ,i c see no objection to x s f> z ! eyes are conc]n$1 provid$ ! book is held 9 su* a position t ! eyes d n h to be roll$ d[n too f>4 ,unless ! head is rais$ v high by pill[s1 h[ev]1 x w be f\nd v fatigu+ to hold ! book high en\gh1 n to m5tion ! dang] ( fall+ asleep1 & ( upsett+ ! lamp or c&le1 & ?us sett+ ! b$ on fire4 ,_m p]sons p]man5tly weak5 _! eyes by read+ to pass away ! t$i\s h\rs dur+ recov]y f sev]e illness4 ,! muscles ( ! eyes p>take ( ! g5]al weakness & are easily ov]tax$4 ,p]sons 9 ?is condition may be read to1 b %\ld avoid ! active use ( _! own eyes4 ,,read+ ,,9 ,,rail ,,c>s4 ,read+ :ile 9 ! rail c>s or 9 omnibuses is to be avoid$4 ,! rapid %ak+1 trembl+ or oscillat+ motion ( ! c>s makes x v difficult to keep ! eyes fix$ ^u ! words1 & is v tiresome4 ,i h se5 _m p]sons :o attribut$ ! failure ( _! eyes to ! daily habit ( read+ :ile rid+ to & f ! city4 ,*ildr5 %\ld be caution$ aga9/ read+ ) ! head incl9$ =w>d4 ,! /oop+ position enc\rages a ru% ( blood to ! head1 & consequ5tly ! eyes become conge/$1 & ! f\ndations = ne>-sight$ness are laid4 7,to be cont9u$47 99 99 99 99 99 ,,te/+ ,,indigo ,,dyes4 ,! au?or deals ) ! "q :e!r a sample ( goods is dy$ ) indigo alone or ) a mixture ( indigo & o!r blue color+ matt]s4 ,8 me?od may be summ>iz$ z foll[s3 ,?reads ( ! mat]ial 9 "q %\ld give up no color+ matt] to boil+ wat]4 ,alcohol at #ej & at #ie p] c5t4 7by volume7 ought to extract no color1 ev5 if g5tly w>m$ 7n boil$74 ,solution ( oxalic acid saturat$ 9 ! cold1 solution ( borax1 solution ( alum at #aj p] c5t41 & solution ( ammonium molybdate at #cc-a_/c p] c5t4 ought n to extract any color+ matt] at a boil+ heat4 ,! borax extract1 if subsequ5tly treat$ ) hydro*loric acid1 %\ld n turn r$1 nor become blue on ! fur!r addition ( f]ric *loride4 ,solutions ( /ann\s *loride & f]ric *loride ) ! aid ( heat ought entirely to de/roy ! blue color+ matt]4 ,glacial acetic acid on repeat$ boil+ %\ld entirely dissolve ! color+ matt]4 ,if ! acetic extracts are mix$ ) two volumes ( e!r & wat] is add$1 s z to sep>ate out ! e!r1 ! wat] %\ld appe> z a slightly blue solution1 ! ma9 bulk ( ! indigo rema9+ 9 susp5sion at ! surface ( contact ( ! e!real & wat]y /ratum4 ,?is acid wat]y /ratum %\ld be colorless1 & %\ld n assume any color if a little /rong hydro*loric acid is all[$ to fall into x ?r\gh ! e!r4 ,no sulphuret$ hydrog5 %\ld be evolv$ on boil+ ! y>n or clo? 9 /rong hydro*loric acid4 ,on prolong$ boil+1 sup]saturation ) /rong potassa 9 excess1 heat+ & add+ a few drops ( *lor(orm1 no isonitrile %\ld be =m$4--,w4 ,l5z4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,sci5tific ,,am]ican ,,ar*itects ,,& ,,build]s ,,edition4 #b4ej a ,ye>4 ,s+le ,copies1 #be cts4 ,?is is a ,special ,edition ( ! ,sci5tific ,am]ican1 issu$ mon?ly--on ! fir/ day ( ! mon?4 ,ea* numb] conta9s ab\t =ty l>ge qu>to pages1 equal to ab\t two hundr$ ord9>y book pages1 =m+1 practically1 a l>ge & spl5did ,,magaz9e ,,( ,,ar*itecture1 ri*ly adorn$ ) elegant plates 9 colors & ) f9e engrav+s1 illu/rat+ ! mo/ int]e/+ examples ( mod]n ,ar*itectural ,con/ruction & alli$ subjects4 ,a special feature is ! pres5tation 9 ea* numb] ( a v>iety ( ! late/ & be/ plans = private resid5ces1 city & c\ntry1 includ+ ^? ( v mod]ate co/ z well z ! m exp5sive4 ,draw+s 9 p]spective & 9 color are giv51 toge!r ) full ,plans1 ,specifications1 ,co/s1 ,bills ( ,e/imate1 & ,%eets ( ,details4 ,no o!r build+ pap] conta9s s _m plans1 details1 & specifications regul>ly pres5t$ z ! ,sci5tific ,am]ican4 ,hundr$s ( dwell+s h already be5 erect$ on ! v>i\s plans we h issu$ dur+ ! pa/ ye>1 & _m o!rs are 9 process ( con/ruction4 ,ar*itects1 ,build]s1 & ,own]s w f9d ?is "w valuable 9 furni%+ fre% & useful sugge/ions4 ,all :o contemplate build+ or improv+ homes1 or erect+ /ructures ( any k9d1 h be=e !m 9 ?is "w an almo/ endless s]ies ( ! late/ & be/ examples f :i* to make selections1 ?us sav+ "t & money4 ,_m o!r subjects1 includ+ ,sew]age1 ,pip+1 ,light+1 ,w>m+1 ,v5tilat+1 ,decorat+1 ,lay+ out ( ,gr\nds1 etc41 are illu/rat$4 ,an ext5sive ,comp5dium ( ,manufactur]s' ,ann\ncem5ts is also giv51 9 :i* ! mo/ reliable & approv$ ,build+ ,mat]ials1 ,goods1 ,ma*9es1 ,tools1 & ,appliances are describ$ & illu/rat$1 ) addresses ( ! mak]s1 etc4 ,! fullness1 ri*ness1 *eapness1 & conv5i5ce ( ?is "w h won = x ! ,,l>ge/ ,,circulation ( any ,ar*itectural publication 9 ! _w4 ,,munn ,,co41 ,,publi%]s1 #cfa ,,broadway1 ,,new ,,york4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,catalogue ( valuable books on ,ar*itecture1 ,build+1 ,c>p5try1 ,masonry1 ,heat+1 ,w>m+1 ,light+1 ,v5tilation1 & all bran*es ( indu/ry p]ta9+ to ! art ( ,build+1 is suppli$ free ( *>ge1 s5t to any address4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,build+ ,,plans ,,& ,,specifications4 ,9 connection ) ! publication ( ! ,build+ ,edition ( ! ,,sci5tific ,,am]ican1 ,messrs4 ,munn ,co4 furni% plans & specifications = build+s ( e k9d1 includ+ ,*ur*es1 ,s*ools1 ,/ores1 ,dwell+s1 ,c>riage ,h\ses1 ,b>ns1 etc4 ,9 ?is "w !y are assi/$ by able & exp]i5c$ ar*itects4 ,full plans1 details1 & specifications = ! v>i\s build+s illu/rat$ 9 ?is pap] c be suppli$4 ,^? :o contemplate build+1 or :o wi% to alt]1 improve1 ext5d1 or add to exi/+ build+s1 :e!r w+s1 por*es1 bay w9d[s1 or attic rooms1 are invit$ to communicate ) ! und]sign$4 ,our "w ext5ds to all p>ts ( ! c\ntry4 ,e/imates1 plans1 & draw+s promptly prep>$4 ,t]ms mod]ate4 ,address ,,munn ,,co41 #cfa ,,broadway1 ,,new ,,york4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,sci5tific ,,am]ican ,,supplem5t4 ,,publi%$ ,,weekly4 ,t]ms ( ,subscription1 #e a ye>4 ,s5t by mail1 po/age prepaid1 to subscrib]s 9 any "p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates or ,canada4 ,six doll>s a ye>1 s5t1 prepaid1 to any =eign c\ntry4 ,all ! back numb]s ( ,! ,supplem5t1 f ! comm5cem5t1 ,janu>y #a1 #ahgf1 c be _h4 ,price1 #aj c5ts ea*4 ,all ! back volumes ( ,! ,supplem5t c likewise be suppli$4 ,two volumes are issu$ ye>ly4 ,price ( ea* volume1 #b4ej /it*$ 9 pap]1 or #c4ej b\nd 9 /iff cov]s4 ,,comb9$ ,,rates4--,"o copy ( ,,sci5tific ,,am]ican & "o copy ( ,,sci5tific ,,am]ican ,,supplem5t1 "o ye>1 po/paid1 #g4jj4 ,a lib]al disc\nt to booksell]s1 news ag5ts1 & canvass]s4 ,,munn ,,co41 #cfa ,,broadway1 ,,new ,,york1 ,n4,y4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,new ,catalogue ( ,valuable ,pap]s ,conta9$ 9 ,,sci5tific ,,am]ican ,,supplem5t dur+ ! pa/ t5 ye>s1 s5t free ( *>ge to any address4 ,,munn ,,co41 #cfa ,broadway1 ,new ,york4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,useful ,,eng9e]+ ,,books ,manufactur]s1 ,agriculturi/s1 ,*emi/s1 ,eng9e]s1 ,me*anics1 ,build]s1 m5 ( leisure1 & pr(essional m51 ( all classes1 ne$ good books 9 ! l9e ( _! respective call+s4 ,our po/ (fice dep>tm5t p]mits ! transmission ( books ?r\gh ! mails at v small co/4 ,a compreh5sive catalogue ( useful books by diff]5t au?ors1 on m ?an fifty diff]5t subjects1 has rec5tly be5 publi%$1 = free circulation1 at ! (fice ( ?is pap]4 ,subjects classifi$ ) names ( au?or4 ,p]sons desir+ a copy h only to ask = x1 & x w be mail$ to !m4 ,address1 ,,munn ,,co41 #cfa ,broadway1 ,new ,york4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,pat5ts4 ,9 connection ) ! ,,sci5tific ,,am]ican1 ,messrs4 ,,munn ,,co4 are solicitors ( ,am]ican & ,=eign ,pat5ts1 h _h #db ye>s' exp]i5ce1 & n[ h ! l>ge/ e/abli%m5t 9 ! _w4 ,pat5ts are obta9$ on ! be/ t]ms4 ,a special notice is made 9 ! ,,sci5tific ,,am]ican ( all inv5tions pat5t$ ?r\gh ?is ,ag5cy1 ) ! "n & resid5ce ( ! ,pat5tee4 ,by ! imm5se circulation ?us giv51 public att5tion is direct$ to ! m]its ( ! new pat5t1 & sales or introduction (t5 easily effect$4 ,any p]son :o has made a new discov]y or inv5tion c asc]ta91 free ( *>ge1 :e!r a pat5t c probably be obta9$1 by writ+ to ,,munn ,,co4 ,we also s5d free our ,h& ,book ab\t ! ,pat5t ,laws1 ,pat5ts1 ,caveats1 ,trade ,m>ks1 _! co/s1 & h[ procur$4 ,address ,,munn ,,co41 #cfa ,,broadway1 ,,new ,,york4 ,,bran* ,,(fice1 #fbb ,,& #fbd ,f ,,/41 ,,wa%+ton1 ,d4,c4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,transcrib]',s ,,notes #a4 ,simple & obvi\s typographical errors h be5 correct$4 #b4 ,9 ! article ,manufacture ( ,photos5sitive ,plates1 ! orig9al text ref]r$ to room ,u twice4 ,! fir/ in/ance has be5 *ang$ to room ,t4 #c4 ,9 ! article ,an ,improv$ ,screw ,propell]1 ! text ref]s to ! propell] 9 figure ,a z be+ f\r blad$ & also two blad$4 ,x is cle>ly two blad$ & ! ref]5ce to x be+ f\r-blad$ has be5 correct$4