,illu/ration     ,,sci5tific ,,am]ican  
,,supplem5t ,,no4 #dhh     ,,new ,,york1
 ,,may #i1 #ahhe  ,sci5tific ,am]ican   
,supplem5t4 ,vol4 ,,xix1 ,no4 #dhh4     
,sci5tific ,am]ican e/abli%$ #ahde      
,sci5tific ,am]ican ,supplem5t1 #e a    
ye>4  ,sci5tific ,am]ican & ,supplem5t1 
#g a ye>4         99       99       99  
99       99     ,,table ,,( ,,cont5ts4  
,,page ,i4   ,,*emi/ry4--,notes on ,?ree
 ,new ,*9ese ,fix$ ,oils4--,tea         
oil4--,cabbage oil4--,wood oil4--,pap]  
read by ,r4 ,h4      ,,davies be=e !    
,ph>maceutical ,society ( ,great        
,brita94                                
#ggih  ,,ii4  ,,eng9e]+ ,,&             
,,me*anics4--,a ,visit to ! ,creusot    
,works4--,giv+ a description ( ! works &
 !      projects und]tak5 by !          
proprietors4--,) full page      (       
engrav+s illu/rat+ ! ,hall ( ,=ges & !  
#ajj ton /eam hamm]4                    
#gghd       ,le ,creusot4--,extract ( ! 
report ( ! visit ( !      ,am]ican ,gun 
,f\ndry ,bo>d to ^! works4              

#gghd       ,plan = ! ,elevat$ ,railway 
at ,p>is4--#d figures4       #gghe      
,eng9e]+ ,inv5tions s9ce #ahfb4--;,by   
,sir ,f4 ,j4      ,,bramwell4--,bridge  
con/ruction4--,pneumatic                
,f\ndations4--,con/ruction (            
tunnels4--,canals & riv]                
improvem5ts4--,milit>y eng9e]+          
appliances4--,uses (                    
cem5t4--,pres]vation ( wood4            
#gghg  ,,iii4 ,,physics1 ,,electricity1 
,,etc4--,electric ,light ,app>atus =    
,milit>y ,purposes4--,) engrav+4        
#ggij       ,electricity &              
,magnetism4--,by ,pr(4 ,f4 ,e4          
,,niph]4                                
#ggij       ,! ,hydrodynamic ,rese>*es (
 ,pr(4 ,bj]knes4--,by ,c4      ,w4      
,,cooke4--#e figures4                   
#ggia       ,electrotyp+4--,) a full    
description ( ! process4   #ggic        
,a ,new ,seismograph4--,) engrav+4      
#ggic  ,,iv4  ,,art ,,&                 
,,ar*itecture4--,! ,ca!dral ( !         
,inc>nation      at ,g>d5 ,city4        

#gghg       ,movable ,m>ket             
,build+s4--#g figures & engrav+ (       
movable fl[] m>ket at ,p>is4            
#gghh       ,d9ocrates' ,project4--,)   
?ree engrav+s ( l&scapes      %[+ human 
pr(iles4                                
#gghi       ,! ,babylonian ,palace4     
#ggih  ,v4   ,,horticulture4--,! ,/one  
,p9e 7,p9us ,p9ea74--,)      engrav+4   
#ggig  ,,vi4  ,,hygi5e1 ,,etc4--,!      
,otoscope4--,) engrav+4                 
#ggid       ,/ate ,provision = !        
,insane4--,by ,c4 ,m4      ,,hughes1    
,m4,d4                                  
#ggid  ,,vii4 ,,miscellane\s4--,!       
,xylophone4--#b engrav+s4               
#ggic       ,! ,c\rage ( ,orig9ality4   
#ggie       ,a ,circul> ,b[l+           
,alley4--,) engrav+4                    
#ggie       ,pat5t ,(fice ,exam9ation ( 
,inv5tions4                  #ggie      
,! ,univ]sal ,exposition at ,antw]p1    
,belgium4--,) full      page engrav+4   
#ggig       ,! ,art ( ,bre$+4           
#ggih         99       99       99      

99       99   ,,ackn[l$gm5ts4  ,we give 
9 ?is numb] ( our ,,supplem5t sev]al    
articles ) illu/rations1 = :i* we are   
indebt$ to ,la ,nature4 ,!y are entitl$ 
,electric ,light ,app>atus = ,milit>y   
,purposes1 ,! ,otoscope1 ,a ,new        
,seismograph1 ,d9ocrates' ,project1 ,!  
,xylophone1 ,plan ( an ,elevat$ ,railway
 = ,p>is4         99       99       99  
99       99     ,a ,,visit ,,to ,,!     
,,creusot ,,works4   ,"h we are at !    
great =ge 7,fig4 #a71 t wond]ful        
creation :i* has n its l 9 ,france1 t   
gigantic con/ruction :i* iron has :olly 
paid =1 & :i* cov]s a space ( tw5ty-f\r 
acres4 ,we fir/ rem>k two puddl+ halls1 
ea* ( :i* conta9s #ej furnaces & #i /eam
 hamm]s4 ,x is 9 ^! furnaces t ! iron is
 puddl$4 ,! ball or bloom ?us obta9$ is 
aft]w>d tak5 to ! hamm]1 :i* cru%es x & 
expels ! scori4  ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4   
#a4--,,! ,,great ,,hall ,,( ,,=ges ,,at 
,,! ,,creusot ,,works4  ,! puddl]'s     
trade1 :i* is )\t d\bt ! mo/ labori\s "o
 9 metallurgy1 w surely soon be light5$ 

?r\gh ! use ( /eam4 ,two rot>y furnaces 
actuat$ by ?is ag5t h be5 9 op]ation = a
 few ye>s at ,creusot1 & ea* is yield+  
#bj tons ( iron p] day4  ,we h b a c\rt 
( #acj feet 9 wid? to cross 9 ord] to   
rea* ! roll+ mill4 ,at ! entrance to ?is
 we enjoy "o ( ! mo/ beautiful sights t 
! imm5se works c (f]4 ,= a l5g? ( #a1bdj
 feet we p]ceive on "o side a s]ies (   
roll+ ma*9es1 & on ! o!r a r[ (         
rev]b]atory furnaces t occasionally give
 out a dazzl+ light4 ,9 ! int]vals are  
fi]y blocks t are be+ tak5 to ! roll+   
ma*9es1 9 ord] to be giv5 ! mo/ div]se  
=ms1 accord+ to ! requirem5ts ( comm]ce4
  ,! iron obta9$ by puddl+ is n z yet 9 
its def9ite /ate1 b ! roll+ mill        
completes :at ! puddl+ hall does 9 !    
r\gh4 ,five hundr$ & fifty ?\s& tons (  
iron1 all %ap$1 are tak5 f ! =ge e day4 
,to rea* su* a result x requires no less
 ?an #c1jjj workm5 & a motive p[] (     
#g1jjj horses4  ,b d n be appall$ at !  
co/ ( ! coal1 =1 ?anks to +5i\s         
processes1 ! heat lo/ f ! furnaces ne>ly

 suffices to run ! boil]s4 ,if we rem>k 
t a p[] ( "o horse does 9 "o h\r !      
equival5t ( a man's labor p] day1 we    
conclude t ^! ma*9es 7:i* run night &   
day7 repres5t an army ( #afj1jjj m5 t   
l5ds its gratuit\s aid to ! workm5 ( !  
=ge4 ,?is is :at is call$ progress 9    
indu/ry4  ,we h j se5 t iron is obta9$ 9
 small masses4 ,^! c be weld$ ^u heat+  
!m to #a1ejj or #b1jjj degrees4 ,x is   
impossible to manufacture a l>ge piece  
exempt f dang] f ! weld+s4 ,ca/ iron    
always has defects t are inh]5t to its  
nature1 & ^! are all ! m dang]\s 9 t !y 
are hidd54 ,/eel is exempt f ^! defects1
 &1 moreov]1 :atev] be ! size ( ! +ot1  
its homog5e\sness is p]fect4 ,?is is :at
 has giv5 ! idea ( manufactur+ f x      
enorm\s m>9e eng9es & ^? gigantic guns t
 ! g5ius ( de/ruction has long covet$4  
,ah1 if ! good s5se ( m5 does n suffice 
to put a limit to _! increas+ progress1 
bridges1 viaducts1 & tunnels w take x ^u
 !mselves1 if ne$ be1 to b> _! passage4 
,b1 9 ord] to =ge l>ge +ots1 x became   

necess>y be=e all to increase ! p[] ( ! 
/eam hamm]4 ,! ,creusot e/abli%m5t1 :i* 
end[$ metallurgy ) ?is valuable ma*9e1  
_h all[$ itself to be eclips$1 n by !   
numb] 7= x _h #eg71 b by ! dim5sions ( !
 l>ge/ "o4 ,9 #ahge1 ! ,krupp works     
con/ruct$ "o ( #ej tons1 & _! example 0 
foll[$ at ,p]m1 ,/4 ,pet]sburg1 &       
,woolwi*4 ,x 0 !n t ,mr4 ,h5ry ,s*neid] 
put 9 execution a bold project t he _h  
/udi$ ) 8 fa!r1 t ( con/ruct+ a #ajj ton
 /eam hamm]1 along ) ! gigantic         
accessories necess>y 7,fig4 #b74 ,x     
became necess>y to erect a build+ ap>t =
 its reception4 ,?is /ructure cov]s a   
surface ( "o & ?ree-qu>t] roods1 &      
rea*es a height ( #ih feet 9 ! c5t]4 ,z 
= ! hamm]1 imag9e uprights #be feet 9   
height1 hav+ ! %ape ( ! lett] ,a1       
surm\nt$ ) a cyl9d] #ai feet 9 l5g? & ( 
a section ( #c squ>e y>ds4              
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,,! ,,creusot 
,,"o ,,hundr$ ,,ton ,,/eam ,,hamm]4  ,! 
pi/on :i* moves 9 ?is cyl9d]1 "u a      
pressure ( #e atmosph]es1 is capable (  

lift+ a weight ( #ajj tons4 ,! hamm]1   
:i* is fix$ to ?is pi/on by a rod1 has  
!re=e an asc5sional =ce ( #hh1jjj p\nds4
 ,x c be rais$ #af feet above ! anvil1 &
 ?is gives x a p[] ?ree & a ?ird times  
great] ?an t ( ! ,prussian hamm]4 ,l>ge 
guns c !re=e be made 9 ,france j z well 
z 9 ,g]many4  ,?is enorm\s mass is      
balanc$ 9 space at ! w ( "o man1 :o1 by 
means ( a lev]1 op5s & closes two valves
 )\t ! lea/ ef=t4 ,?is colossal hamm]   
requir$ an anvil wor?y ( x4 ,?is weighs 
#gbj tons1 & re/s ^u granite 9 ! c5t] ( 
#aif feet ( masonry4  ,! hamm] is       
surr\nd$ ) f\r furnaces heat$ by gas1 & 
duty is done = ea* ( ^! by /eam cranes  
capable ( lift+ #cej1jjj p\nds4 ,^!     
cranes take ! gl[+ block f ! furnace1   
place x ^u ! anvil1 & turn x ov] on e   
side at ! w ( ! =eman4 ,"u ?is hamm] a  
cannon is =g$ z if x 7 a m]e bolt4 ,!   
piece is m]ely r\gh-%ap$ ^u ! anvil1 & a
 metallic c> runn+ ^u a #cf foot track  
c>ries x to ! adju/+ %op4 ,!re ! cannon 
is turn$1 bor$1 & rifl$1 & no?+ rema9s b

 to temp] x1 t is to say1 to plunge x   
into a ba? aft] x has be5 heat$ :ite    
hot4 ,= ?is purpose an enorm\s dit* has 
be5 dug 9 :i* !re is a cyl9drical       
furnace1 & alongside ( x !re is a well (
 oil4 ,! c> br+s ! cannon to ! edge ( ! 
dit*1 & a /eam crane p]=ms ! op]ation ( 
temp]+ ) z mu* ease z we w\ld temp] a   
knife blade4  ,9 ! pres5ce ( su* eng9es 
( attack x 0 necess>y to ?9k ( def5se4  
,! hamm] t =ges ! cannon also gives u ! 
armor plate to brave x4 ,?is "t ! +ot is
 flatt5$ "u ! bl[s ( ! hamm]1 & ev5     
takes ! r\nd$ =m ( ! /]n1 if x be s     
desir$4 ,?us is obta9$ ! wall ( /eel t  
we wi%4  ,w x be possible to keep up !  
fight long8 ,9 ord] t "o may get "s idea
 ( ?is = himself1 let u rapidly describe
 an entirely peaceful conte/ t took     
place rec5tly ^u ! coa/ ( ,italy4 ,two  
rival plates1 "o ( !m ,engli% & ! o!r   
,fr5*1 7 plac$ 9 ! pres5ce ( ! ,spezia  
gun1 :i* weighs #ajj tons4 ,^! plates 7 
/rongly brac$ ) planks & old armor      
plate4 ,?ree %ots 7 to be fir$ at ea* ( 

! plates4  ,9 ! fir/ %ot ! ball 0 (     
h>d5$ ca/ iron1 & weigh$ #a1iij p\nds4  
,! ,engli% plate 0 fill$ ) fissures1    
:ile ! ,creusot did n %[ a s+le "o4 ,!  
ball p5etrat$ x ab\t sev5 in*es1 & 0    
brok5 into small pieces4  ,9 ! second   
%ot ! projectile 0 ! same1 b ! *>ge 0   
great]4 ,! %ot may be calculat$ f !     
velocity1 :i* 0 #a1ecj feet4 ,x 0 equal 
to :at ! great hamm] w\ld give 7 x to   
fall f a height ( a hundr$ y>ds4 ,!     
,engli% plate 0 completely %iv]$1 :ile !
 ,fr5* exhibit$ b six v f9e fissures    
radiat+ f ! po9t /ruck4 ,! ball ent]$ #h
 in*es1 & 0 brok5 z 9 ! fir/ exp]im5t4  
,! ?ird %ot fir$ 0 ) a /eel ball1 aga9/ 
! ,fr5* plate1 ! ,engli% be+ hors de    
combat4 ,! p5etration 0 ! same2 ! ball 0
 n brok51 b 0 flatt5$ at ! po9t l ! head
 ( a bolt4  ,we %\ld l to speak ( ^?    
magnific5t work%ops 9 :i* ! imm5se naval
 pieces are adju/$1 :]e ! %afts (       
helixes #fj feet 9 l5g? are turn$1 & ( !
 boil] works1 :]e "o may see g5]ators t 
h a heat+ surface exce$+ #b1jjj squ>e   

feet1 = x requires no less ?an t to     
supply #h1jjj ,h4,p41 & ?us triumph ov] 
! =ce ( in]tia & ^? colossal iron-clads4
 ,b h[ describe 9 a magaz9e article :at 
! eye _c take 9 9 a day8  ,despite all  
our regrets1 we h to pass ov] "s ?+s1 b 
our duty w n h be5 p]=m$ if we omit !   
hi/ory ( ! works4  ,creusot1 :i* to-day 
is a regul>ly-built city ) a population 
( #bh1jjj s\ls1 0 9 #aghb b a poor      
hamlet call$ ,*>bonni]e4 ,! exi/5ce !re 
( a coal b$ _h long be5 kn[n1 & iron ore
 _h be5 f\nd n f> (f4 ,b h[ e/abli%     
works 9 a locality depriv$ ( a wat]     
c\rse1 & di/ant f ! l>ge ways (         
communication8  ,9 #aghb ! /eam eng9e1  
:i* ,watt _h j f9ally improv$1 remov$ ! 
fir/ difficulty1 & ! second 0 soon to   
disappe>1 ?anks to a project$ canal4 ,an
 iron f\ndry 0 !n e/abli%$ !re "u !     
patronage ( ,l\is ,,xiv41 :ile ! ,que5  
_h glassworks erect$4  ,z long z ! w>   
la/$ ! f\ndry support$ itself ?r\gh ca/+
 cannons & balls1 b aft] ! ye> #ahae x  
became necess>y ei!r to trans=m ! works 

or sell !m4 ,x 0 decid$ to d ! latt]4 ,!
 ,messrs4 ,*agot1 :o became pur*as]s 9 !
 sum ( #ahj1jjj1 7 9 turn oblig$ to sell
 out 9 #ahbf4 ,creusot 0 !n c$$ to      
,messrs4 ,manby  ,wilson1 :o already _h 
works at ,*>5ton4 ,at ! end ( sev5 ye>s 
( ef=ts ?is firm made a failure1 &1     
f9ally1 9 #ahcf1 aft] six million doll>s
 _h be5 swall[$ up1 ,creusot 0 b\ght =  
#ecf1jjj1 by ,messrs4 ,adolphe  ,eug5e  
,s*neid]  ,co4 ,! p]iod ( rev]ses 0 at  
an end1 & "o ( cont9u$ success 0 begun4 
,! new manag]s _h se5 t c>riage by /eam 
0 soon to foll[1 & op5 up to metallurgy 
an entirely new horizon4 ,! works 7     
quickly trans=m$ & enl>g$1 & 9 #ahch1 ! 
fir/ ,fr5* locomotive 0 turn$ out ( !m4 
,aft] locomotives came /eamboats4 ,x 0  
!n t ! necessity ( =g+ l>ge pieces gave 
! idea ( a /eam hamm]4  ,by a co9cid5ce 
t c only be expla9$ by ! ne$s ( ! epo*1 
! ,engli% came ^u ! same discov]y almo/ 
at ! same "t1 & ! ,creusot pat5t ant$at$
 ! ,engli% "o by only two mon?s4  ,two  
ye>s aft]w>d1 frigates su* z !          

,labrador1 ,or5oque1 ,albatros1 etc41 ( 
#dej ,h4,p41 7 rival+ ,engli% vessels on
 ! ocean4  ,aft] ! dea? ( ,mr4 ,adolphe 
,s*neid]1 on ! #c;d ( ,augu/1 #ahde1 8  
bro!r ,eug5e1 left sole manag]1 display$
 an activity t x w\ld be difficult to   
exce$4 ,he made himself famili> ) !     
res\rces & productions ( =eign c\ntries 
& ( ,france1 & !n made up 8 m9d :at to  
d4 ,he desir$ to make 8 works ! f9e/ 9 !
 _w1 & x has be5 se5 f :at prec$es t1   
aft] tw5ty ye>s ( ef=t1 8 aim has be5   
atta9$4 ,:at a rapid progress = s %ort a
 "t6 ,9 #ahch1 ! fir/ locomotive t 0 n (
 ,engli% orig9 appe>$ to u l a true     
ph5om5on2 a few ye>s aft]w>d ! ,creusot 
locomotives 7 cross+ ! ,*annel 9 ord] to
 roll pr\dly ov] ! railways ( a rival   
nation4  ,a g5]al1 no matt] h[ skillful1
 c\ld n conqu] ) an undiscipl9$ army1 s 
! education ( ! workm5's *ildr5 0 "o ( !
 ?+s t ! f\nd] ( ?is great indu/rial    
c5t] _h con/antly 9 m9d4 ,mr4 ,h4       
,s*neid] has cont9u$ ! "w ( 8 fa!r1 &   
has consid]ably ext5d$ x1 at ,creusot z 

well z 9 ! annex$ e/abli%m5ts4 ,! numb] 
( pupils :o frequ5t ! s*ools exce$$     
#f1jjj 9 #ahgh4  ,! "w is n conf9$ to   
educat+ ! *ildr51 b a retreat is af=d$ !
 p>5ts1 )\t putt+ !m "u any re/ra9t4    
,aft] tw5ty-five ye>s' s]vice a workman 
receives an income ( #ajj if he is a    
ba*elor1 & #aej if m>ri$1 b ^u "o       
condition1 h[ev]1 & t is t he is a      
,fr5*man4 ,= #a4bj a mon? he is lodg$ 9 
a pretty little h\se surr\nd$ ) a g>d51 
&1 if he is sick1 he is att5d$          
gratuit\sly4  ,^! b5efits are n address$
 to +rates1 z 0 prov$ by ! pr(\nd sorr[ 
t reign$ 9 ! little city :5 ! dea? ( !  
b5efactor ( ,creusot 0 le>n$4--,sci5ce  
et ,nature4         99       99       99
       99       99     ,,le ,,creusot4  
,! memb]s ( ! ,am]ican ,gun ,f\ndry     
,bo>d visit$ ^! works 9 #ahhc1 & give ! 
foll[+ 9 _! report3 ,! mo/ important    
/eel works 9 ,france are situat$ at ,le 
,creusot1 & be> ! "n ( ! location 9 :i* 
!y are situat$4 ,^! works h advanc$ ye> 
by ye> 9 importance & 9 magnitude s9ce  

_! pur*ase by ,mr4 ,eug5e ,s*neid]4     
,?is g5tleman's dea?1 9 #ahge1 0 a s\rce
 ( m\rn+ to ! :ole t[n1 ! inhabitants ( 
:i* look$ up to him z a fa!r4 ,!        
grateful p h erect$ to 8 memory a       
monum5t 9 ! m>ket squ>e4  ,"u !         
adm9i/ration ( 8 son1 ,mr4 ,h5ry        
,s*neid]1 ! fame ( ! products ( ! works 
has be5 enhanc$1 & ! proportions ( !    
e/abli%m5t h be5 mu* increas$4 ,! :ole  
numb] ( workm5 n[ employ$ "h & at o!r   
po9ts am\nts to #ae1jjj2 & x is ! great 
c5t] ( indu/ry ( ! adjo9+ region4 ,at no
 o!r place 9 ! _w is /eel h&l$ 9 su*    
masses4  ,x w\ld be =eign to ! purpose (
 ?is report to dwell on ! _m objects (  
comm]ce :i* are suppli$ f ^! works1 b x 
is safe to say t no propos$ "w c be (   
su* magnitude z to exce$ ! res\rces ( ! 
e/abli%m5t4  ,= ! prep>ation ( metal =  
cannon & armor-plates ,le ,creusot is   
?or\ghly equipp$4 ,! iron is produc$ on 
! premises f ! pure/ import$ ores1 & !  
manufacture ( ! /eel is c>ri$ on by !   
mo/ approv$ application ( ! op5-he>?    

sy/em ) ! ,siem5s furnace2 ! *emical &  
me*anical te/s are su* z to satisfy !   
mo/ exact+ dem&s ( c>eful gov]nm5t      
(ficials2 & ! executive ability app>5t 9
 all ! dep>tm5ts & ! evid5t condition ( 
discipl9e t p]vades ! :ole e/abli%m5t   
inspire confid5ce 9 ! productions ( !   
labor4  ,! capacity = ca/+ /eel is      
repres5t$ by sev5 op5-he>? furnaces (   
#ah tons ea*1 equal to #abf tons2 & !   
process ( ca/+ l>ge +ots is a model (   
ord] & security4 ,ladles capable ( hold+
 ! cont5ts ( "o furnace1 m\nt$ ^u plat=m
 c>s1 are successively fill$ at a       
previ\sly det]m9$ int]val ( "t & run on 
railways to a conv5i5t position ov] !   
m\ld2 be=e ! fir/ ladle is exhau/$ !    
supply f ! succe$+ "o has comm5c$ to    
run1 & s on to ! completion ( ! ca/+1 ! 
supply to ! m\ld be+ un9t]rupt$ dur+ !  
entire process4 ,! precision ) :i* !    
sev]al ladles are br\ght into position 9
 succession makes x entirely unnecess>y 
to provide a common res]voir into :i*   
all ! furnaces may dis*>ge4 ,by ?is     

process ! ca/+ ( a #de ton +ot1 :i* 0   
witness$ by ! ,bo>d1 0 effect$ 9 #bc    
m9utes4  ,! process ( temp]+ ! gun-tubes
 0 also witness$ by ! ,bo>d4 ,!         
excavation ( ! pit is1 z at ,/4 ,*amond1
 #ae met]s deep1 ) ! furnace at "o end &
 ! oil tank 7#ajj tons7 at ! o!r4 ,"o   
side ( ! upright furnace is con/ruct$ 9 
! =m ( a door1 :i*1 by a conv5i5t       
arrangem5t = sw++1 is made to turn on   
its h+es4 ,?us1 :5 ! tube is rais$ to ! 
"r temp]ature1 x is seiz$ by ! travel+  
crane1 ! door ( ! furnace swung op51 & !
 tube at once advanc$ to ! tank 9 :i* x 
is imm]s$4  ,all tubes are imm]s$ 9 oil 
! second "t1 b at a temp]ature mu* bel[ 
t to :i* !y are rais$ at ! fir/         
imm]sion4 ,?is process con/itutes !     
anneal+ aft] temp]+4  ,! manufacture (  
/eel-armor plates is a specialty ( ,le  
,creusot1 :i* is engag$ 9 an active     
competition ) ! manufactur]s ( comp\nd  
armor4 ,plates up to #fj c5timet]s 9    
?ickness & #c met]s wide are =g$ "h2 !y 
are temp]$ aft] =g+1 b :at subsequ5t    

treatm5t !y receive 0 n expla9$4  ,!    
temp]+ pit = ! plates consi/s ( an      
excavation ( conv5i5t size1 9 ! c5t] (  
:i* is plac$ a tank conta9+ #ahj tons ( 
oil4 ,at ! f\r corn]s ( ! pit are       
furnaces 9 :i* ! plates are rais$ to a  
prop] temp]ature4 ,:5 suffici5tly heat$1
 a plate is seiz$ by a walk+ crane &    
imm]s$ 9 ! oil4  ,hoops = cannon are    
manufactur$ "h 9 l>ge quantities4 ,!y   
are cut f solid +ots1 & ^? = guns up to 
#bd c5timet]s are roll$ l railway tires2
 ^? = l>g] calib]s are =g$ on a m&rel4  
,jackets ( l>ge size are also           
manufactur$2 ^! are made f solid +ots1  
:i*1 aft] be+ =g$1 are bor$ out4  ,at   
,le ,creusot a rem>kable te/ ( hoops 0  
witness$1 :i* exemplifies n only !      
excell5ce ( ! manufacture ( ! /eel b    
also ! exact+ "* ( ! ,fr5* requirem5ts4 
,! hoops = naval guns are made ) !      
int]ior surface slightly conical4 ,:5   
=g$1 turn$1 & br\ght "u a hamm]1 a /&>d 
m&rel ( /eel1 conically %ap$ to suit !  
=m ( ! cone 9 ! hoop1 b ( a slightly    

increas$ diamet]1 is introduc$1 ! small]
 end ( ! m&rel be+ able to ent] ! l>g]  
end ( ! hoop4 ,! m&rel is !n =c$ 9 by ! 
hamm] until its l[] edge has pass$ ?r\gh
 ! hoop4 ,! bl[s are !n made to op]ate  
on ! upp] edge1 deta*+ x f ! m&rel4     
,c>eful measurem5ts are tak5 ( ! diamet]
 ( ! hoop be=e & aft] ?is te/1 & x is   
requir$ t ! measurem5t subsequ5t to !   
op]ation %all %[ t ! hoop has p>tially1 
b n entirely1 return$ to ! diamet] t x  
_h be=e ! entrance ( ! m&rel4 ,?is w\ld 
%[ t !re is left to ! metal a small m>g9
 )9 its ela/ic limit4 ,a sy/em (        
manufacture :i* c comply ) su* a        
ref9em5t ( exactitude mu/ be v precise4 
,p]haps ! mo/ /rik+ feature at ,le      
,creusot is ! =ge1 :]e is assembl$ an   
array ( /eam hamm]s n equal$ 9 ! _w1    
viz43    ,"o #ajj ton hamm] ) a fall (  
#e met]s4   ,"o #dj ton hamm] ) a fall (
 #c met]s4   ,"o #ae ton hamm] ) a fall 
( #c met]s4   ,two #aj ton hamm]s ) a   
fall ( #b met]s4   ,"o #h ton hamm] ) a 
fall ( #b met]s4  ,z ! #ajj ton hamm] at

 ^! works is ! l>ge/ 9 ! _w1 "s         
p>ticul>s conc]n+ x w be appropriate4   
,! f\ndations are compos$ ( a mass (    
masonry laid 9 cem5t re/+ on b$ rock1   
:i* occurs at a dep? ( #aa met]s1 an    
anvil block ( ca/ iron1 & a fill+-9 (   
oak timb] design$ to dim9i% by its      
ela/icity ! vibrations result+ f ! bl[s 
( ! hamm]4 ,! masonry f\ndation pres5ts 
a cube ( #fjj met]s4 ,its upp] surface  
is cov]$ ) a lay] ( oak ab\t "o met] 9  
?ickness1 plac$ horizontally1 on :i*    
re/s ! anvil block4  ,at ! ,p]m f\ndry 9
 ,russia ! anvil block = ! #ej ton hamm]
 is made 9 "o piece1 m\ld$ & ca/ on !   
spot x 0 int5d$ to occupy4 ,its weight  
is #fbb tons4 ,at ,le ,creusot1 h[ev]1  
?is idea 0 n approv$1 & x 0 det]m9$ to  
con/ruct ! block 9 six horizontal       
c\rses1 ea* b$d$ ^u plane surfaces4 ,ea*
 c\rse is =m$ ( two ca/+s1 except ! upp]
 "o1 a s+le block1 :i* weighs #abj tons 
& supports ! anvil4 ,?us =m$ 9 #aa      
pieces1 x is #e4f met]s high1 #cc squ>e 
met]s at ! base1 & #g squ>e met]s at !  

top4 ,its entire weight is #gbj tons4   
,! space betwe5 ! block & ! sides ( !   
masonry 9 :i* x re/s is fill$ 9 solidly 
) oak4 ,! block is ?us indep5d5t ( !    
frame ( ! sup]/ructure4  ,! legs ( !    
frame1 incl9+ t[>d ea* o!r 9 ! =m ( an  
,a1 are secur$ at _! bases to a         
f\ndation plate emb$d$ 9 ! masonry4 ,!y 
are holl[1 ( ca/ iron1 & ( rectangul>   
cross section1 ea* leg 9 two pieces jo9$
 midway ( _! l5g? by flanges & bolts4 ,!
 legs are also b\nd toge!r by f\r plates
 ( wr\ght iron1 :i*1 at ! same "t1 holds
 ! guides4 ,! height ( ! legs is #aj4be 
met]s1 & _! weight1 ) ! guides1 #bej    
tons4 ,! b9d+ plates weigh toge!r ab\t  
#be tons1 & ! f\ndation plates #ij tons4
  ,! entablature ( ! frame "w weighs #cj
 tons2 on x is plac$ ! /eam cyl9d]1 s+le
 act+1 made 9 two pieces1 ea* #c met]s  
long unit$ by flanges & bolts4 ,!       
diamet] ( ! cyl9d] is #a4i met]s1 giv+ a
 surface ( #bg1cde squ>e c5timet]s      
7d$uct+ ! section ( ! rod1 :i* is #cf   
c5timet]s 9 diamet]72 :i*1 = #e         

atmosph]es1 gives a pressure "u ! pi/on 
( ab\t #adj tons4 ,z ! weight ( ! hamm] 
is #ajj tons1 x is evid5t t x c be rais$
 ) great velocity4  ,! /roke ( ! pi/on 9
 ! cyl9d] is #e met]s4 ,?is height (    
fall1 multipli$ by ! #ajj1jjj           
kilogrammes ( ! mass1 gives a work+ =ce 
( #ejj1jjj kilogrammet]s1 or ab\t #a1fdj
 foot tons4 ,! wid? betwe5 ! legs is    
#g4e met]s1 & ! free height "u ! cross  
ties #c met]s1 ?us provid+ ample space =
 maneuv]+ l>ge masses ( metal4  ,!      
entire height ( ?is colossal /ructure f 
! base ( ! masonry f\ndation to ! upp]  
"p ( ! /eam cyl9d] is #ca met]s 7#ajb   
feet71 b not)/&+ ?is unfavorable        
condition = /ability & ! enorm\s effect 
result+ f a %ock ( #ejj1jjj             
kilogrammet]s1 ev]y?+ is s well         
proportion$ t !re is b slight vibration4
  ,! workman :o maneuv]s ! hamm] is     
plac$ on a plat=m on "o ( ! legs1 ab\t  
#c met]s above ! floor4 ,he is "h       
protect$ f ! heat reflect$ f ! mass (   
metal dur+ ! op]ation ( =g+4         99 

99       99       99       99     ,,plan
 ,,= ,,an ,,elevat$ ,,railway ,,at      
,,p>is4   ,elevat$ railways h be5 9     
op]ation = a long "t 9 ,new ,york1      
,b]l91 & ,vi5na1 & ! city ( ,p>is has   
decid$ to h rec\rse to ?is mode (       
c>riage1 s indisp5sable to l>ge cities4 
,! "q ( e/abli%+ a l9e ( railways 9 our 
capital has be5 op51 z well kn[n1 s9ce  
#ahga4 ,dur+ ?is p]iod ( ne>ly f\rte5   
ye>s ?is grave subject has at v>i\s     
times giv5 rise to s]i\s discussions1 9 
:i* ! mo/ compet5t eng9e]s h tak5 "p1 & 
num]\s projects relat+ to ! solution t x
 calls = h be5 put =?4  ,! problem to be
 solv$ is ( ! mo/ complex nature1 & !   
eng9e]s :o h /udi$ x h n be5 able to    
come to an agreem5t except z reg>ds a   
small numb] ( po9ts4 ,x may ev5 be said 
t unanimity exi/s ^u b a s+le po9t1 & t 
is t ! means ( locomotion 9 ,p>is d n   
answ] ! requirem5ts ( ! public1 & t !re 
is an urg5t necessity = new ones4 ,!    
capital "q1 t ( kn[+ :e!r ! railway to  
be built %all be b5ea? or above gr\nd1  

is n yet settl$2 =1 up to ! pres5t1 no  
project has be5 prescrib$ 9 "o direction
 or ! o!r4  ,:ile "s extol ! und]gr\nd  
solution z be+ ! only "o t1 )\t int]f]+ 
) circulation 9 ! /reets1 p]mits (      
e/abli%+ a d\ble-track railway capable (
 giv+ passage to ord9>y roll+ /ock & (  
connect+ directly ) ! l>ge l9es1 o!rs1  
object+ t su* a road c\ld n give        
satisfaction to ! ta/e ( ,p>isians1 & t 
x w\ld necessitate "w out ( proportion  
to ! advantages ga9$1 conclude ^u !     
adoption ( an op5 air railway4          
,pref]5ces g5]ally are evid5tly = ?is   
latt] solution4  ,we h receiv$ f a le>n$
 eng9e]1 ,mr4 ,jules ,g>ni]1 a project =
 an elevat$ railway1 :i* appe>s to u to 
be v ably conceiv$1 v well /udi$ out1 & 
:i* we ha/5 to make kn[n4  7#a47 ,!     
sy/em is *>act]iz$ by ! foll[+          
fundam5tal po9ts3 ,! up & d[n tracks1   
in/ead ( be+ laid alongside ( ea* o!r1 z
 9 an ord9>y railway1 are sup]pos$ ^u   
two di/9ct plat=ms =m+ a viaduct1 :i* is
 consequ5tly s arrang$ z to p]mit ( !   

lay+ ( "o ( ! tracks at its l[] "p & ( !
 o!r at its upp]4  7#b47 ,! sy/em (     
con/ruct+ ! viaduct is s comb9$ z to be 
capable ( giv+ passage ^u ! road to !   
roll+ /ock ( ! l>ge l9es dur+ ! /oppage 
( ! daily pass5g] tra9s4  7#c47 ,!      
tracks are connect$ at ! extremities by 
a curve t has ! prop] incl9e to         
comp5sate = ! diff]5ce 9 level betwe5 ! 
two1 & :i* has a suffici5tly l>ge radius
 to all[ ! slope ( ! track to be kept )9
 ! limits admitt$4 ,! runn+ ( ! tra9s is
 ?us un9t]rupt$4  7#d47 ,:5 two l9es (  
diff]5t directions bisect "o ano!r1 a   
special arrangem5t p]mits ! pass5g]s f  
"o l9e to pass to ! o!r by means ( :at  
is call$ a tang5t /ation1 )\t ! tra9s ( 
"o l9e cross+ ! tracks ( ano!r1 !       
purpose ( :i* arrangem5t is to avoid ^? 
accid5ts t w\ld inevitably occur ?r\gh !
 cross+ ( a track by ! tra9s ( a        
transv]se l9e4  7#e47 ,! roll+ /ock is  
arrang$ 9 a mann] t all[s ! entrance &  
exit ( ! pass5g]s to be effect$ ) great 
promptness4  ,9 ord9>y av5ues1 compris+ 

a roadway & two sidewalks1 ! elevat$    
railway is plac$ 9 ! axis ( ! roadway at
 a suffici5t height to prev5t x int]f]+ 
) ! passage ( c>riages1 say #ad feet    
above ! surface1 :ile 9 b\lev>ds or     
av5ues ( great wid?1 hav+               
contre-allees#a bord]$ by a d\ble r[ (  
trees1 x is in/all$ 9 "o ( !            
contre-allees4     ,footnote #a3 ,pa?s  
p>allel ) ! public walks4  ,9 ! fir/    
case 7,fig4 #a71 ! viaduct is :olly     
metallic1 :ile 9 ! second x comprises   
masonry ar*es surm\nt$ by a metallic    
sup]/ructure4 ,! viaduct is =m$ (       
indep5d5t spans support$ by metallic    
pi]s t re/ ^u masonry f\ndations 7,fig4 
#b74  ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4              
#a4--,,project ,,= ,a ,,p>isian         
,,elevat$ ,,railway4  ,illu/ration3     
,,fig4 #b4--,,longitud9al ,,elevation4  
,! l9e w h ?ree k9ds ( /ations1         
int]m$iate1 tang5t1 & t]m9al ones4 ,x is
 at ! latt] t ! two sup]pos$ l9es are   
connect$ by ! circul> incl9$ plane4  ,! 
wait+ plat=ms ( ! int]m$iate /ations w  

be =m$ simply by ! wid5+ ( ! span       
correspond+ to ! /ation4 ,access to ^!  
plat=ms w be _h by /airs runn+ up f !   
edge ( ! sidewalk4 ,! pass5g]s w make _!
 exit by means ( correspond+ /airs on ! 
opposite side4 7,figs #c & #d47         
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4--;,a ,,/ation4 
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,,transv]se   
,,section ,,( ,,/ation4  ,! tang5t      
/ations are plac$ at ! meet+ po9t ( two 
l9es1 :i*1 in/ead ( cross+ ea* o!r1 are 
b5t inw>d l an ,x1 ! two p>ts ( :i* w be
 tang5t to ! c5tral po9t4 ,?r\gh su*    
arrangem5ts ! runn+ ( ! tra9s w be      
cont9u\s1 & a travel] rea*+ "o ( ^!     
/ations w be able1 ^u *ang+ tra91 to    
take at 8 option any "o ( ! ?ree o!r    
directions4  ,z may be se51 ,mr4        
,g>ni]'s project pres5ts conditions :i* 
are v favorable to ! e/abli%m5t ( an    
elevat$ road 9 ! int]ior ( ,p>is4 ,f> f 
injur+ ! aspect ( ! great art]ies ( our 
metropolis1 ! viaduct1 z x has be5      
conceiv$1 w contribute t[>d giv+ !m a   
/ill m impos+ look4 ,if ! beautiful is1 

z has be5 said1 ! expression ( ! useful1
 an elevat$ railway1 well conceiv$1 may 
be beautiful4 ,! project ( a subt]ranean
 railway is att5d$ ) great drawbacks1 n 
only z reg>ds ! great exp5se t x w\ld   
necessitate1 b also ! difficulties (    
con/ruct+ x4 ,& !re is a /ill grav]     
objection to x1 & t is t x w\ld oblige  
travel]s to move l moles 9 d>k1 cold1 & 
moi/ tunnels4 ,at ,p>is1 :]e we are     
accu/om$ to a pleasant climate & cle>   
atmosph]e1 we l pl5ty ( air & broad     
daylight4--,la ,nature4         99      
99       99       99       99           
,,eng9e]+ ,,inv5tions ,,s9ce #ahfb4a    
,footnote #a3 ,address ( ,sir ,fr$]ick  
,joseph ,bramwell1 ,f4,r4,s41 on    8   
election z presid5t ( ! ,in/itution (   
,civil ,eng9e]s4    ,janu>y #ac1 #ahhe4 
,by ,sir ,f4 ,j4 ,,bramwell4   ,i       
propose to devote ! v limit$ "t at my   
disposal to ! consid]ation ( "s ( ! mo/ 
important ( ^? improvem5ts :i* are      
obvi\sly & imm$iately connect$ ) civil  
eng9e]+4 ,i am aw>e ( ! dang] !re is (  

mak+ a s]i\s mi/ake1 :5 "o excludes any 
matt] :i* at ! mom5t appe>s to be ( b a 
trivial "*4 ,= :o kn[s h[ spe$ily "s    
developm5t may %[ t ! judgm5t :i* _h    
guid$ ! selection 0 entirely errone\s1 &
 t t :i* _h be5 pass$ ov] 0 9 tru? ! g]m
 ( a great improvem5t8 ,nev]!less1 9 !  
int]e/s ( "t "s risk mu/ be run1 & a    
selection mu/ be made2 ,i propose1      
!re=e1 to ask y\r att5tion :ile ,i      
consid] c]ta9 ( 7foll[+ ! full title (  
,division ,i47 ,! app>atus1 appliances1 
processes1 & products inv5t$ or br\ght  
into use s9ce #ahfb4 ,9 ^? matt]s :i*   
may be said to involve ! pr9ciples (    
eng9e]+ con/ruction1 !re mu/ ( necessity
 be b little progress to note4          
,pr9ciples are g5]ally v soon det]m9$1 &
 progress ensues1 n by additions to !   
pr9ciples1 b by improvem5t 9 ! me?ods ( 
giv+ to ^? pr9ciples a practical %ape1  
or by comb9+ 9 "o /ructure pr9ciples (  
con/ruction :i* _h be5 hi!rto us$ ap>t4 
,!re=e1 to avoid ! necessity ( hav+ a   
pause1 9 ref]r+ to a "w1 by f9d+ t "o is

 ov]/epp+ ! b\nd>y ( pr9ciple1 & tr5*+  
)9 ! doma9 ( con/ruction1 ,i ?9k x w be 
well to treat ^! two heads toge!r4  ,if 
my record _h gone back to j be=e #ahea  
7! date ( ! great exhibition71 ,i might 
h describ$ mu* progress 9 ! pr9ciples ( 
gird] con/ruction2 = %ortly prior to t  
date1 ! pla9 ca/-iron beam1 ) ! great]  
"p ( ! metal 9 ! web1 & ) b little 9 !  
top & bottom flange1 0 9 common use2 &  
ev5 9 ! prep>ation ( ! build+ = t       
exhibition1 x is record$ t "o ( !       
eng9e]s connect$ !re) _h great          
difficulty 9 und]/&+ h[ x 0 t ! =m ( op5
 "w gird]1 ) d\ble diagonals introduc$  
!re9 7a =m :i* 0 = ye>s aft]w>d kn[n z !
 exhibition gird]71 0 any /rong] ?an a  
gird] ) op5 panels sep>at$ by uprights1 
& )\t any diagonals4 ,b1 long be=e      
#ahfb1 ! ,w>r5 & o!r truss-gird]s _h    
come into use1 & ,i am incl9$ to say t1 
s f> z novelty 9 ! pr9ciple (           
gird]-con/ruction is conc]n$1 ,i mu/    
conf9e myself to t comb9ation (         
pr9ciples :i* is repres5t$ by ! susp5d$ 

cantilev]1 ( :i* ! ,=? ,bridge1 only n[ 
9 c\rse ( con/ruction1 af=ds ! mo/      
notable in/ance4 ,x is difficult to see 
h[ a rigid bridge1 ) #a1gjj foot spans1 
& ) ! necessity = s mu* cle> headway    
bel[1 c\ld h be5 con/ruct$ )\t !        
application ( ?is pr9ciple4   ,,bridge  
,,con/ruction4  ,pursu+ ?is subject (   
bridge "w1 ! ,/4 ,l\is ,bridge ( ,mr4   
,eads may1 ,i ?9k1 be fairly said to    
embody a pr9ciple ( con/ruction novel   
s9ce #ahfb1 t ( employ+ = ! ar*-ribs    
tubes compos$ ( /eel /aves hoop$ toge!r4
 ,fur!r1 9 susp5sion bridges !re has be5
 introduc$ t :i* ,i ?9k is fairly       
entitl$ to rank among pr9ciples (       
con/ruction1 ! light upp] *a91 f :i* are
 susp5d$ ! l9k$ truss-rods1 do+ ! actual
 "w ( support+ ! load1 ! rods be+       
ma9ta9$ 9 /raight l9es1 & )\t ! flexure 
at ! jo9ts due to _! weight4 ,9 ! ,ea/  
,riv] ,bridge1 ,new ,york1 !re 0 also   
introduc$ t :i* ,i believe 0 a novelty 9
 ! mode ( apply+ ! wire cables4 ,^! 7 n 
made z untwi/$ cables & !n hoi/$ into   

place1 !reby impos+ sev]e /ra9s ^u _m ( 
! wires compos+ ! cable ?r\gh _! flexure
 ov] ! saddles & else:]e1 b ! individual
 wires 7 l$ ov] f side to side1 ea* "o  
hav+ ! l5g? appropriate to its position1
 & all1 !re=e1 :5 ! bridge 0 erect$1    
hav+ ! same initial /ra9 & ! same fair  
play4 ,)9 ! p]iod we are consid]+1 !    
employm5t ( te/+-ma*9es has come into ! 
daily practice ( ! eng9e]2 by ! use ( ^!
 he is made exp]im5tally acqua9t$ ) !   
v>i\s physical prop]ties ( ! mat]ials he
 employs1 & is also enabl$ 9 ! l>ge/ (  
^! ma*9es to te/ ! /r5g? & usefulness ( 
^! mat]ials1 :5 assembl$ into =ms1 to   
resi/ /ra9s1 z columns or z gird]s4 ,i (
 c\rse d n = "o mom5t mean to say t     
exp]im5tal ma*9es 7 unkn[n or unus$     
prior to #ahfb--;*a9 cable te/+-ma*9es  
are ( old date1 & 7 employ$ by our pa/  
,presid5t1 ,mr4 ,b>l[1 & by o!rs1 9 _!  
e>ly exp]im5ts ^u /eel2 b ,i speak ( x z
 a matt] ( congratulation t1 9 lieu (   
su* ma*9es be+ us$ by ! few1 & at r>e   
int]vals ^u small specim5s1 = exp]im5tal

 purposes1 !y are n[ employ$ 9 daily    
practice & on a l>ge scale4  ,9 h>bor "w
 we h _h ! pr9ciple ( con/ruction       
employ$ by ,mr4 ,/oney at ,dubl91 :]e   
cem5t masonry is m\ld$ into ! =m ( !    
wall = its :ole height & ?ickness1 & =  
su* a l5g? =w>d z c be admitt$1 hav+    
reg>d to ! practical limit ( ! weight ( 
! block1 & !n1 ! block be+ c>ri$ to its 
place1 is l[]$ on to ! bottom1 :i* has  
be5 prep>$ to receive x1 & is secur$ to 
! "w already execut$ by groove & tongue4
  ,x w\ld n be "r1 ev5 9 ?is brief      
notice ( su* a mode ( con/ruction1 to   
omit m5tion ( ! v c>efully ?\ght out    
app>atus by :i* ! blocks are rais$ (f ! 
seats :]eon !y h be5 made1 & are        
transport$ to _! de/9ation4 ,x is no    
simple und]tak+ 7ev5 9 ^! days7 to raise
 7o!rwise ?an hydraulically7 a weight ( 
#cej tons1 :i* is ! weight ( ! blocks ) 
:i* ,mr4 ,/oney deals4 ,b he does ?is by
 means ( pulley-blocks atta*$ to %e>s   
built on ! vessel :i* is to transport ! 
block1 & he contrives to lift ! weight  

)\t putt+ ^u 8 *a9s ! extra /ra9 due to 
! friction ( ! num]\s pulleys ov] :i* !y
 pass4 ,! height ( ! lift is only ! few 
in*es ne$$ to raise ! block cle> ( !    
quay on :i* x has be5 =m$1 & ?is is     
obta9$ by w9d+ up ! *a9 by /eam ge> q   
taut1 s z to take a consid]able /ra91 b 
n t equal to ! weight ( ! block1 & !n   
wat] is pump$ into ! opposite end ( !   
vessel to t ^u :i* ! %e>s are c>ri$1 ?is
 latt] end rises1 & ! block is rais$ (f 
! seat on :i* x 0 =m$1 )\t ! *a9s be+   
put to "w to d ! actual lift+ at all4 ,!
 vessel1 ) ! block susp5d$ to ! %e> legs
 & ov] ! b[s1 is !n ready to be remov$  
to ! place :]e ! block has to be laid4  
,a ^w mu/ "h be said ab\t an extremely  
+5i\s mode ( deal+ ) ! slack *a91 to    
prev5t its becom+ f\l$1 & n pay+ out    
prop]ly1 :5 ! block is be+ l[]$4 ,?is is
 accompli%$ by reev+ ! slack ( ea* *a9  
ov] two fix$ sets ( multiple %eaves4  ,a
 donkey-eng9e works a little crab hav+ a
 l>ge drum1 ! *a9 f :i* is connect$ ) ! 
ma9 *a91 & draws x r\nd ! multiple      

%eaves s z to take up ! slack z fa/ z ! 
ma9 crab gives x out4 ,! /eam is always 
on ! donkey1 :i* is ( su* limit$        
dim5sions t x c d no injury to ! *a9 ev5
 :5 its full p[] is 9 va9 endeavor+ to  
draw x any fur!r2 directly1 h[ev]1 ! ma9
 crab gives m slack1 & ! *a9 betwe5 x & 
! two sets ( %eaves falls into a deep]  
cat5>y1 & "o :i* !re=e puts less        
opposition to ! motion ( ! donkey-eng9e1
 t eng9e goes to "w & makes a fur!r haul
 ^u ! slack1 & 9 ?is way1 &             
automatically1 ! slack is kept cle>4    
,,pneumatic ,,f\ndations4  ,a notewor?y 
in/ance ( ! use ( pneumatic appliances 9
 cyl9d] s9k+ = f\ndations is t 9        
progress at ! ,=? ,bridge4 ,!           
wr\ght-iron cyl9d]s are #gj feet 9      
diamet] at ! cutt+-edge1 & h a tap] (   
ab\t #a 9 #df4 ,!y are1 h[ev]1 at a     
height ( #a foot above l[ wat] 7t is1 at
 ! comm5cem5t ( ! masonry "w ( ! pi]7   
r$uc$ to #fj feet 9 diamet]2 at _!      
bottoms !re is a ro($ *amb]1 into :i* ! 
air is pump$1 & 9 :i* ! m5 "w :5        

excavat+1 ?is ro( be+ support$ by ample 
ma9 & cross lattice gird]s4 ,%afts )    
air-locks & pipes = admitt+ wat] &      
eject+ silt are provid$4 ,! air-locks   
are fitt$ ) slid+ doors1 work$ by       
hydraulic rams1 or by h&1 ! doors be+   
int]lock$ 9 a mann] simil> to t 9 :i*   
railway po9ts & signals are int]lock$1 s
 t "o door _c be op5$ until ! o!r is    
clos$4 ,! hoi/+ ( ! excavat$ mat]ial is 
done by a /eam eng9e fix$ outside !     
lock1 ?is eng9e work+ a %aft on :i* !re 
is a drum inside ! lock1 ! %aft pass+   
air-tight ?r\gh a /uff+ box4 ,a sep>ate 
air-lock1 ) doors1 ladd]1 etc41         
complete1 is provid$ to give +ress &    
egress = ! workm54 ,i h already adv]t$  
to "o ,scot* bridge2 ,i n[ h to m5tion  
ano!r1 viz41 ! ,tay ,bridge1 also n[ 9  
c\rse ( con/ruction4 ,"h ! cyl9d]s are  
sunk1 :ile be+ guid$1 ?r\gh wr\ght-iron 
pontoons1 :i* are float$ to _! b]?s1 &  
are !n secur$ at ! desir$ spot by !     
protrusion1 hydraulically1 ( f\r legs1  
:i* be> ^u ! bottom1 & ?us1 until !y are

 )drawn1 conv]t ! pontoon f a float+    
into a fix$ /ructure4   ,,subaque\s     
,,eng9e]+4  ,i regret t "t w n admit (  
my giv+ any description ( ! modes ( cut 
& cov] :i* h be5 propos$ = ! p]=mance ( 
subaque\s works2 sometimes ! proposition
 has be5 to d ?is by means ( c(f]-dams1 
& ) ! "w !re=e op5 to ! day-light dur+  
execution1 & sometimes by movable       
pneumatic appliances4 ,consid]ation (   
subaque\s works necess>ily leads ! m9d  
to appliances = div+1 & al?\gh its date 
is consid]ably ant]ior to #ahfb1 ,i feel
 tempt$1 z ,i believe ! con/ruction is  
kn[n to v few ( our memb]s1 to say a few
 words ab\t ! div+ app>atus kn[n z !    
,bateau-plongeur1 & us$ at ! b>rage on !
 ,nile4 ,?is consi/s ( a b>ge fitt$ ) an
 air-tight cab9 provid$ ) an air-lock1 &
 hav+ 9 ! c5t] ( its floor a l>ge oval  
op5+1 surr\nd$ by a cas+ /&+ up above ! 
wat]-l9e4 ,9 ?is cas+1 ano!r cas+ slides
 telescopically1 ! upp] "p ( :i* is     
connect$ to ! top ( ! fix$ cas+ by a    
lea!r sleeve4 ,:5 x is desir$ to exam9e 

! bottom ( ! riv]1 ! telescopic tube is 
l[]$ till x t\*es ! bottom1 & !n air is 
pump$ into ! cab9 until ! pressure is   
suffici5t to drive out ! wat]1 & ?us to 
expose ! bottom4 ,?is appe>s to be a v  
conv5i5t arrangem5t = %all[ draughts (  
wat]4  ,rev]t+ = a mom5t to ,mr4        
,/oney's "w1 ,i may m5tion t he uses = !
 greate/ dep?s he has to deal )1 :5     
prep>+ ! b$ to receive 8 blocks1 a div+ 
app>atus :i* 7:ile easily accessible at 
all times7 disp5ses ) ! necessity (     
rais+ & l[]+1 ne$$ 9 an ord9>y div+-bell
 to all[ ( ! entrance & exit ( ! workm54
 ,mr4 ,/oney employs a bell ( adequate  
size1 f ! summit ( :i* rises a holl[    
cyl9d]1 furni%$ at ! top ) an air-lock1 
by :i* access c be obta9$ to ! subm]g$  
bell4 ,beyond ! g5]al improvem5t 9      
detail & 9 ! mode ( manufacture1 & ) !  
exception ( ! application ( ! telephone1
 !re is probably n mu* to be said 9 !   
way ( inv5tion or progress 9 connection 
) ! ord9>y dress ( ! div]4   ,,!        
,,fleuss ,,div+ ,,app>atus4  ,b "o great

 /ep has be5 made 9 ! div]'s art by !   
introduction ( ! *emical sy/em (        
respiration1 ! inv5tion ( ,mr4 ,fleuss4 
,he has succe$$ 9 devis+ a p]fectly     
portable app>atus1 conta9+ a *emical    
filt]1 by means ( :i* ! exhal$ brea? ( !
 div] is depriv$ ( its c>bonic acid2 !  
div] also c>ries a supply ( compress$   
oxyg5 f :i* to add to ! rema9+ nitrog5  
oxyg51 9 sub/itution = t :i* has be5    
burnt up 9 ! process ( respiration4     
,arm$ ) ?is app>atus1 a div] is enabl$  
to foll[ 8 vocation )\t any air-tube    
connect+ ) ! surface1 inde$ )\t any     
connections :atev]4 ,a notable in/ance (
 a mo/ c\rage\s use ( ?is app>atus 0    
af=d$ by a div] nam$ ,lamb]t1 :o1 dur+  
"o ( ! inundations :i* occurr$ 9 !      
con/ruction ( ! ,sev]n tunnel1 desc5d$  
into ! head+1 & proce$+ along x = "s    
#ccj y>ds 7) ! wat] /&+ "s #ce feet     
above him71 clos$ a sluice door1 ?r\gh  
:i* ! wat] 0 ent]+ ! excavations1 & ?us 
enabl$ ! pumps to unwat] ! tunnel4      
,altoge!r1 on ?is occasion1 ?is man 0 "u

 ! wat]1 & )\t any communication ) ^?   
above1 = "o h\r & tw5ty-five m9utes4 ,! 
app>atus has also prov$ to be ( great   
utility 9 cases ( explosion 9 colli]ies1
 enabl+ ! we>] to safely p5etrate !     
work+s1 ev5 :5 !y h be5 fill$ ) ! fatal 
*oke-damp1 to rescue ! injur$ or to     
remove ! dead4   ,,con/ruction ,,(      
,,tunnels4  ,) respect to ! subject (   
tunnel+ ?us incid5tally introduc$1 9    
subaque\s "w ( ?is k9d1 ,i h already    
allud$ to t :i* is done by cut & cov]1 b
 :]e ! influx ( wat] is a s\rce ( great 
difficulty1 z x 0 9 ! old ,?ames tunnel 
7?\gh 9 ?is case = wat] "o %\ld read    
silt or mud71 ,i d n "k t any?+ has be5 
devis$ s +5i\s z ! ,?ames tunnel %ield2 
improvem5t has1 h[ev]1 be5 made by !    
application ( compress$ air4  ,9 !      
in/ance ( ! ,hudson ,riv] tunnel1 ! "w 0
 done 9 ! mann] propos$ s long ago z !  
ye> #ahcj by ,"l ,co*rane 7,e>l         
,dundonald7 9 t specification ( 81 ,no4 
#f1jah1 :]e9 he discloses1 n m]ely !    
crude idea1 b ! v details ne$$ =        

compress$ air cyl9d]-s9k+ & tunnel+1    
includ$ air-locks & hydraulically-seal$ 
modes = ! introduction & extraction (   
mat]ials4 ,i may1 p]haps1 be p]mitt$ to 
m5tion t "s few ye>s ago ,i devis$ = a  
tunnel ?r\gh ! wat]-be>+ *alk a mode (  
excavation by ! use ( compress$ air to  
hold back ! wat]1 & comb9$ ) ! employm5t
 ( a tunnel+ ma*9e4 ,?is "w1 ,i regret  
to say1 0 n c>ri$ out4 ,b !re are1      
happily1 cases ( subaque\s tunnel+ :]e !
 wat] c be dealt ) by ord9>y pump+ p[]1 
m or less ext5sive1 & :]e ! mat]ial is  
capable ( be+ cut by a tunnel+ ma*9e4   
,?is 0 s 9 ! ,m]sey tunnel1 & w\ld be 9 
! ,*annel tunnel4 ,9 ! ,m]sey tunnel1 & 
9 ! exp]im5tal "w ( ! ,*annel tunnel1   
,colonel ,beaumont & ,major ,engli%'s   
tunnel+ ma*9e has done mo/ admirable "w4
 ,9 ! #g foot #d in* diamet] head+1 9 ! 
new r$ s&/one ( ! ,m]sey tunnel1 a spe$ 
( z mu* z #aj y>ds =w>d 9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs
 has be5 av]ag$1 :ile a maximum (       
#aa-b_/c y>ds has be5 atta9$2 :ile 9 !  
#g foot head+ = ! ,*annel tunnel1 9 !   

gray *alk1 a maximum spe$ ( z mu* z #bd 
y>ds =w>d 9 ! tw5ty-f\r h\rs has be5    
atta9$ on ! ,engli% side2 & ) ! lat]    
ma*9e put to "w at ! ,fr5* end1 a       
maximum spe$ ( z mu* z #bg-a_/c y>ds    
=w>d 9 ! tw5ty-f\r h\rs has be5 effect$4
 ,9 ord9>y l& tunnel+ s9ce #ahfb !re has
 be5 great progress1 by ! sub/itution ( 
dynamite & prep>ations ( a simil> nature
 = gunp[d]1 & by ! improvem5ts 9 !      
rock-drills work$ by compress$ air1 :i* 
are us$ 9 mak+ ! holes into :i* !       
explosive is *>g$4 ,= bor+ = wat]1 & =  
_m o!r purposes1 ! diamond drill has    
prov$ ( great s]vice1 & mo/ c]ta9ly its 
adv5t %\ld be welcom$ by ! geologi/1 z x
 has enabl$ specim5s ( ! /ratum pass$   
?r\gh to be tak5 9 ! natural1 unbrok5   
condition1 exhibit+ n only ! mat]ial & !
 v /ructure ( ! rock1 b ! direction & ! 
angle ( ! dip ( ! b$s4  ,closely        
connect$ ) tunnel+ ma*9es are ! ma*9es =
 gett+ coal4 ,?is gett+1 :5 practic$ by 
manual labor1 involves1 z we "k1 !      
conv]sion into fragm5ts & du/ ( a v     

consid]able portion ( ! und]side ( !    
seam ( coal1 ! workman labor+ 9 a conf9$
 position1 & 9 p]il ( ! block ( coal    
break+ away & cru%+ him b5ea? x4        
,coal-gett+ ma*9es1 su* z ^? ( ! late   
,mr4 ,fir?1 work$ by compress$ air1     
r$uce to a m9imum ! wa/e ( coal1 relieve
 ! workman ( a mo/ fatigu+ labor 9 a    
con/ra9$ position1 & save him f ! dang] 
to :i* he is expos$ 9 ! h& op]ation4 ,x 
is a matt] ( deep regret on _m gr\nds1 b
 especially z %[+ h[ little ! true      
pr9ciples ( political economy are       
realiz$ by work+ m51 :o are usually well
 in=m$ on _m o!r po9ts1 t ! comm]cial   
failure ( ^! ma*9es is due to _!        
opposition4 ,9 connection ) colli]y "w1 
& inde$ 9 connection ) explosives1 9 !  
s5se ( a sub/itution = !m ( s\rces (    
expansion act+ m sl[ly1 m5tion %\ld be  
made ( ! hydraulic w$ges4 ,! employm5t (
 ^! 9 lieu ( gunp[d]1 to =ce d[n ! block
 ( coal t _h be5 und]cut1 is "o ( !     
means to be look$ to = dim9i%+ !        
explosions 9 colli]ies4 ,ano!r sub/itute

 = gunp[d] is f\nd 9 ! utilization ( !  
expansion ( lime :5 wett$4 ,?is has giv5
 bir? to ! lime c>tridge1 ! m]its ( :i* 
are n[ univ]sally recogniz$1 b x is fe>$
 t trade prejudices may also prev5t its 
introduction4 ,:ile on ?is subject (    
accid5ts 9 m9es1 x w be well to call    
att5tion to ! inve/igations t h be5 made
 into ! causes ( ^! disa/]s1 & into !   
probable "p play$ by ! m9ute du/ :i*    
prevails to s great an ext5t 9 dry      
colli]ies4  ,! exp]im5ts ( our honor>y  
memb]1 ,sir ,fr$]ick ,abel1 on ?is po9t 
h be5 ( ! mo/ /rik+ & conclusive "*1 &  
corroborate inve/igations ( ! late      
,macquorn ,rank9e into ! orig9 (        
explosions 9 fl\r mills & rice mills1   
:i* _h previ\sly be5 s obscure4 ,! "n ( 
,mr4 ,gall[ay %\ld also be m5tion$ z "o 
( ! e>lie/ work]s 9 ?is direction4 ,at  
fir/ sight1 pile driv+ appe>s to h b    
little connection ) explosives1 b x w be
 well to notice an inv5tion :i* has be5 
br\ght into practical use1 al?\gh n     
l>gely 79 ?is c\ntry at all ev5ts71 =   

driv+ piles1 by all[+ ! monkey to fall  
on a c>tridge plac$ 9 ! cavity 9 ! cap  
on top ( ! pile2 ! c>tridge is explod$  
by ! fall1 & 9 ! act ( explosion drives 
d[n ! pile & raises ! monkey2 dur+ its  
asc5t1 & be=e ! completion ( its desc5t1
 "t is f\nd = ! removal ( ! empty       
c>tridge & ! ins]tion ( a new "o4       
,,canals ,,& ,,riv] ,,improvem5ts4  ,9 !
 days ( ,br9dley & ( ,smeaton1 & ( ! o!r
 fa!rs ( our pr(ession1 ^: portraits are
 on ^! walls1 canals & canaliz$ riv]s   
=m$ ! only mode ( int]nal transit :i* 0 
less co/ly ?an horse traction1 &1 ?anks 
to _! labors1 ! c\ntry has be5 v well   
provid$ ) canals2 b ! introduction (    
railways prov$1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 a     
practical b> to ! ext5sion ( ! canal    
sy/em1 &1 ev5tually1 a too successful   
competitor ) ! canals already made4     
,frequ5tly ! r\te t _h be5 select$ by ! 
canal eng9e] 0 f\nd 7z 0 to be expect$7 
a favorable "o = ! compet+ railway1 & ! 
result 01 ! t[ns t _h be5 s]v$ by !     
canal 7 s]v$ by ! railway1 :i* 0 ?us 9 a

 position to take away ev5 ! local      
traffic ( ! canal4 ,= "s "t x look$ z   
?\gh canal & canaliz$ riv] navigations  
mu/ come to an end2 = al?\gh heavy goods
 c\ld be c>ri$ v *eaply on canals1 & )  
respect to ! _m works & factories erect$
 on ! canal banks1 or on bases connect$ 
!re)1 !re 0 ) canal navigation no item (
 exp5se correspond+ to ! co/ ( c>tage to
 ! railway /ations1 yet ! smallness ( ! 
railway rates = heavy goods1 & ! great] 
spe$ ( transit1 7 f\nd to be m ?an      
c\nt]vail+ advantages4 ,b :5 private    
individuals h emb>k$ _! capital 9 an    
und]tak+1 !y d n calmly see t capital   
made unproductive1 nor d !y refra9 f    
ef=ts to pres]ve _! divid5ds1 & ?us     
canal companies set !mselves to "w to   
add to _! position ( m]e own]s ( wat]   
highways1 entitl$ to take toll = ! use (
 ^? highways1 ! function ( common       
c>ri]s1 ?us putt+ !mselves on a p> ) !  
railway companies1 :o1 z no d\bt is )9 !
 recollection ( our old] memb]s1 7 9 !  
outset legaliz$ only z m]e own]s ( iron 

highways1 & z ! receiv]s ( toll f any   
p]sons :o might *oose to run eng9es &   
tra9s !reon1 a condition ( ?+s :i* 0    
alt]$ z soon z x 0 po9t$ out t x 0      
utt]ly incompatible ei!r ) punctuality  
or ) safe work+4 ,?is addition to !     
legal p[]s ( ! canal companies1 made by 
! acts ( #ahde & #ahdg1 has _h a v      
b5eficial effect ^u ! value ( _!        
prop]ty1 & has assi/$ to pres]ve a mode 
( transport compet+ ) t af=d$ by !      
railways4 ,fur!r1 ! canal proprietors h 
f "t to "t endeavor$ to improve ! rate (
 transport1 & ) ?is object h introduc$  
/eam 9 lieu ( horse haulage1 & by       
/ructural improvem5ts h dim9i%$ ! numb] 
( lockages4 ,_m ye>s be=e ! p]iod we are
 consid]+1 !re 0 employ$1 to save "t 9 !
 lockages & to economize wat]1 ! sy/em (
 incl9$ planes1 :]e1 ei!r wat]-borne 9 a
 travel+ caisson1 z on ! ,monkl&s       
incl9e1 or support$ on a cradle1 z 9 !  
incl9e at ,new>k1 9 ! ,/ate ( ,new      
,j]sey1 ! b>ges 7 transf]r$ f "o level  
to ano!r2 b an important improvem5t on  

ei!r ( ^! modes ( ov]com+ a great       
diff]5ce ( level is ! application (     
direct v]tically lift+ hydraulic p[]4 ,a
 notable in/ance ( ?is sy/em 0 br\ght   
be=e ! ,in/itution 9 a pap] read on !   
,hydraulic ,canal ,lift at ,&]ton1 on ! 
,riv] ,weav]1 by ,s4 ,du]1#b & ano!r    
in/ance exi/s on ! ,canal de ,new       
,fosse1 at ,font9ettes1 9 ,france1 !    
eng9e]s be+ ,messrs4 ,cl>k & ,/&field1  
:o h o!r lifts 9 progress4 ,?is sy/em   
r$uces ! consumption ( wat] & !         
exp5diture ( "t to a m9imum4            
,footnote #b3 ,m9utes ( ,proce$+s ,in/4 
,c4 ,e41 vol4 xlv41 p4 #ajg4  ,) respect
 to canaliz$ riv]s1 ! difficulty t mu/  
always h exi/$ :5 ^! riv]s 7z 0 mo/ly ! 
case7 7 provid$ ) weirs to dam up ! wat]
 = giv+ p[] to mills has be5 augm5t$ (  
late ye>s by ! *ange 9 ! "* ( floods4 ,x
 has frequ5tly be5 sugge/$ t 9 ^! days (
 /eam motors 9 lieu ( wat] p[]1 & (     
railways 9 lieu ( wat] c>riage1 ! injury
 done by ob/ruct+ ! deliv]y ( floods is 
by no means comp5sat$ by ! o!rwise all b

 co/less p[] obta9$1 or by ! pres]vation
 ( a mode ( transport compet+ )         
railways4 ,x has !reupon be5 sugge/$ t x
 w\ld be 9 ! int]e/s ( ! community to   
pur*ase & ext+ui% bo? ! manufactur+ & ! 
navigat+ rights1 s z to enable ! weirs  
to be remov$1 & free c\rse to be provid$
 = floods4 ,x ne$ h>dly be said1 h[ev]1 
t if means c\ld be devis$ = giv+ full   
effect to ! riv] *annels = flood        
purposes1 :ile ma9ta9+ !m = ! provision 
( motive p[] & ( navigation1 x is       
desirable t ?is %\ld be done4 ,! great  
/ep 9 ?is direction appe>s to be !      
employm5t ( readily or1 x may be1 (     
automatically movable weirs4 ,two v     
int]e/+ pap]s on ?is subject by ,messrs4
 ,v]non-,h>c\rt & ,e4 ,b4 ,buckley 7    
read & discuss$ 9 ! session #ahgi-ahhj4 
,^! dealt1 ,i fe> exclusively1 ) =eign1 
notably ) ,fr5* & ,indian1 examples4 ,i 
say ,i fe>1 n 9 ! way ( imput+ blame to 
! au?ors = n hav+ notic$ ,engli% weirs1 
b because ! abs5ce ( su* notice am\nts  
to a confession ( backw>dness 9 !       

adoption ( rem$ial measures on ,engli%  
riv]s4 ,an in/ance1 h[ev]1 ( improvem5t 
s9ce !n has be5 ! con/ruction by ,mr4   
,wiswall1 ! eng9e] to ! ,bridgewat]     
,navigation ,company 7on ! ,m]sey &     
,irwell section ( t navigation71 ( !    
movable ,?ro/le ,ne/ weir at ,man*e/]4  
,x does seem to me t by ! adoption (    
movable weirs1 riv]s 9 ord9>y times may 
be damm$ up to reta9 suffici5t wat] to  
admit ( a pay+ navigation & wat] = !    
mills on _! banks2 :ile 9 "t ( flood !y 
%all all[ *annels z effici5t = relief z 
if e weir _h be5 swept away4  ,b ! great
 feature ( late ye>s 9 canal eng9e]+ is 
n ! pres]vation or improvem5t ( ! ord9>y
 int]nal canal1 b ! provision ( canals1 
su* z ! complet$ ,suez canal1 ! ,panama 
canal 9 c\rse ( con/ruction1 !          
contemplat$ ,i/hmus ( ,cor9? canal--all 
= sav+ circuit\s j\rneys 9 pass+ f "o   
sea to ano!r2 or 9 ! case ne>] home ( ! 
,man*e/] %ip canal1 = tak+ ocean /eam]s 
_m miles inl&4  ,b ! old fight betwe5 ! 
canal eng9e] & ! railway eng9e]1 or1 m  

prop]ly speak+1 betwe5 ! eng9e] :5 he _h
 8 canal /op on & ! same individual :5  
he has 8 railway /op--y w see t ,i am   
borr[+ a figure1 ei!r f ,dombey  ,son1  
:]e ,mr4 ,fe$]1 ,b4,a41 is %[n to u ) 8 
,h]odotus /op on1 or1 z is m likely1 ,i 
am ?9k+ ( ! organs to be exhibit$ 9 !   
,second division1 ,music1 ( t exhibition
 ( :i* ,i h ! honor to be *airman--,i am
 afraid ?is is a long p>5!sis break+ !  
cont9uity ( my obs]vations1 :i* relat$  
to ! old rivalry betwe5 canal & railway 
eng9e]+4 ,i 0 ab\t to say t ?is rivalry 
0 reviv$1 ev5 9 ! case ( ! transport+ ( 
ocean vessels f sea to sea1 = we "k t   
our di/+ui%$ memb]1 ,mr4 ,eads1 is      
propos+ to connect ! ,atlantic &        
,pacific oceans by means ( a %ip railway
 across ! ,i/hmus ( ,panama4 ,he sugge/s
 t ! l>ge/ vessels %\ld be rais$ out ( !
 wat]1 9 ! mann] commonly employ$ 9     
float+ docks1 & %\ld !n be transf]r$ to 
a truck-l cradle on :eels1 fitt$ )      
hydraulic be>+ blocks 7?is be+1 h[ev]1 n
 a new proposition z appli$ to grav+    

docks71 s z to obta9 practical equality 
( support = ! %ip1 not)/&+ slight       
irregul>ities 9 ! roadway1 :ile he      
proposes to deal ) ! "q ( *anges (      
direction by ! avoidance ( curves & by !
 sub/itution ( angles1 hav+ at ! po9t ( 
junction ( ! two sides turntables on :i*
 ! cradle & %ip w be drawn2 ^! c be mov$
 ) p]fect ease1 not)/&+ ! heavy load1   
because ! turntable w be float+ 9 wat]  
c>ri$ 9 circul> tanks4  ,! "q ( pres]v+ 
! level ( ! turntable1 :e!r unload$1    
p>tially load$1 or load$1 is happily met
 by an arrangem5t ( wat] balla/ & pump+4
 ,i _c pass away f ! m5tion ( ,mr4      
,eads' "w )\t j rem9d+ y ( ! successful 
mann] 9 :i* he has dealt ) ! m\? ( !    
,mississippi1 by :i* he has caus$ t riv]
 to sc\r & ma9ta9 a *annel #cj feet deep
 at l[ wat]1 in/ead ( t #h feet deep :i*
 prevail$ !re be=e 8 skillful treatm5t4 
,nei!r c ,i refra9 f m5tion+ !          
successful labors ( our fri5d ,sir      
,*>les ,h>tley1 9 improv+ ! navigation (
 t great ,european riv]1 ! ,danube4 ,i  

am sure we are all rejoic$ to see t "o (
 ! lectures ( ! =?com+ s]ies1 t on ,inl&
 ,navigation1 is to be deliv]$ by him1 &
 ,i d e>ne/ly tru/ he w rememb] x is 8  
duty to ! ,in/itution n to leave        
important & successful works unref]r$ to
 because ^? works happ5 to be 8 own4  ,i
 regret t "t does n admit ( my notic+ ! 
_m improv$ ma*9es = excavat+1 to be us$ 
ei!r bel[ wat] or on dry l&4 ,i also    
regret1 = simil> reasons1 ,i mu/ omit   
all m5tion ( %ip con/ruction1 :e!r = !  
purpose ( comm]ce or ( w>1 a subject t  
w\ld naturally foll[ t ( riv]s & ( %ip  
railways & canals1 & w\ld h enabl$ me to
 speak ( ! great debt ?is bran* ( civil 
eng9e]+ owes to ! labors ( our late     
memb]1 ,william ,fr\de1 & w\ld h enabl$ 
me also to deal ) ! "q ( mat]ial = %ips1
 & ) ! "q ( armor plat+1 9 :i*1 & 9 !   
con/ruction ( ordnance1 our pa/         
presid5t1 ,mr4 ,b>l[1 & myself1 z ! two 
lay memb]s ( ! ,ordnance ,committee1 are
 s specially int]e/$4   ,,milit>y       
,,eng9e]+ ,,appliances4  ,! m5tion (    

armor plates inevitably br+s to our m9ds
 ! consid]ation ( ordnance1 b ,i d n    
int5d to say ev5 a few words on ?is head
 ( inv5tion & improvem5t--a topic to :i*
 a :ole ev5+ might well be              
devot$--because only ?ree ye>s ago my   
tal5t$ pr$ecessor 9 ?is *air1 ,sir      
,william ,arm/rong1 made x ! subject ( 8
 inaugural address1 & dealt ) x 9 s     
ma/]ly & exhau/ive a /yle z to r5d] x   
absolutely impossible = me to usefully  
add any?+ to 8 rem>ks4 ,i _c1 h[ev]1    
leave ?is bran* ( ! subject )\t m5tion+1
 n a piece ( ordnance1 b a small arm1   
inv5t$ s9ce ! date ( ,sir ,william's    
address4 ,i mean ! ,maxim ma*9e gun4    
,?is is n only "o ( ! late/1 b is       
c]ta9ly "o ( ! mo/ +5i\s pieces (       
me*anism t has be5 devis$4 ,! s+le b>rel
 fires ! ,m>t9i-,h5ry ammunition2 !     
c>tridges are plac$ 9 loops ^u a belt1 &
 :5 ?is belt is introduc$ to ! gun1 & "s
 five or six c>tridges h be5 drawn 9 by 
z _m reciprocations ( a h&le1 ! gun is  
ready to comm5ce fir+4 ,aft] ! fir/ %ot1

 :i* mu/ be fir$ by ! pull+ ( a trigg] 9
 ! ord9>y way1 ! gun w automatically    
cont9ue to s5d out %ot aft] %ot1 until !
 :ole ( ! c>tridges on ! belt are       
exhau/$2 & if c>e is tak5 be=e ?is      
happ5s to l9k on to ! tail ( ! fir/ belt
 ! head ( a second "o1 & ano!r belt to  
?is1 & s on1 ! fir+ w be automatically  
cont9u\s1 & at a rate any:]e betwe5 "o  
%ot p] m9ute & six hundr$ %ots p] m9ute1
 dep5d5t on ! w ( ! p]son 9 *>ge ( !    
gun1 ! :ole ( ! op]ations ( load+1 fir+1
 & eject+ ! c>tridge be+ p]=m$ by !     
en]gy ( ! recoil4 ,?is p]fectly         
automatic action enables ! man :o works 
! gun to devote 8 :ole att5tion to      
direct+ x1 & z x is c>ri$ on a pivot & c
 be elevat$ & depress$1 he c1 :ile ! gun
 is fir+1 aim ! bullets to any po9t he  
may *oose4  ,s9ce #ahfb ! p[] ( def5d+  
seaports has be5 add$ to by !           
application ( subm>9e m9es1 arrang$ to  
be fir$ by impact alone1 or to be fir$  
on impact :5 7"u electrical control7 !  
fir+ arrangem5t is set = ! purpose1 or  

to be fir$ electrically f ! %ore by two 
p]sons /ation$ on cross-be>+s1 bo? ( :om
 mu/ concur 9 ! act ( explosion4 ,^!    
m9es are *>g$ ) gun-cotton1 ! developm5t
 ( :i* owes s mu* to ,sir ,fr$]ick      
,abel1 :ile = purposes ( attack ! same  
mat]ial1 n yet 9 practical use = %ells1 
is tak5 z ! *>ge = torp$oes1 :i* are    
ei!r affix$ to a sp> or are c>ri$ 9 !   
head ( a subm]g$ cig>-%ap$ body4 ,by a  
compress$ air or by a direct /eam       
impulse arrangem5t ^! weapons are />t$  
on _! c\rse & are direct$1 & !n ! runn+ 
is tak5 up by _! own eng9es op]at+ on   
screw propell]s1 driv5 by a magaz9e (   
compress$ air conta9$ 9 ! body ( !      
torp$o4 ,means are also provid$ to      
ma9ta9 ! design$ level bel[ ! wat]      
surface4 ,! torp$o may ei!r be project$ 
f ! w> %ip itself or f "o ( ^? laun*es  
:i* owe _! orig9 to our memb]1 ,mr4     
,john ,isaac ,?ornycr(t1 :o fir/        
demon/rat$ ! feasibility ( t :i* 0      
previ\sly consid]$ to be impossible1    
viz41 ! obta9+ a spe$ ( tw5ty miles &   

ov] f a vessel n m ?an #hj feet long4   
,exp]im5ts h be5 c>ri$ on 9 ! ,unit$    
,/ates by ,capta9 ,ericsson to disp5se )
 ! int]nal ma*9]y ( ! torp$o1 & to rely 
= its trav]se ?r\gh ! wat] ^u ! orig9al 
impulse giv5 to x by a bree*-load+ gun1 
c>ri$ at ! requisite dep? bel[ ! wat]   
level 9 a torp$o boat4 ,?is gun1 hav+ a 
feeble *>ge ( p[d] at a l[ gravimetric  
d5sity1 fires ! torp$o1 &1 x is said1   
succe$s 9 s5d+ x _m y>ds1 & ) a         
suffici5t t]m9al velocity to explode !  
*>ge by impact4 ,also1 9 ! ,unit$       
,/ates1 exp]im5ts h be5 made ) a        
compress$ air gun ( #dj feet 9 l5g? & #d
 in*es 9 diamet] 7probably by ?is "t    
replac$ by a gun ( #h in*es 9 diamet]71 
to propel a d>t ?r\gh ! air1 9 ! front (
 :i* d>t !re is a metallic *amb] conta9+
 dynamite4 ,al?\gh no d\bt ! be/ eng9e] 
is ! man :o does good "w ) bad mat]ials1
 yet ,i presume we %\ld n recomm5d any  
memb] ( our pr(ession to select         
unsuitable mat]ials ) ! object ( %[+ h[ 
skillfully he c employ !m4 ,on !        

contr>y1 an eng9e] %[s 8 ability by !   
*oice ( ^? mat]ials :i* are ! v be/ = 8 
purpose1 hav+ reg>d1 h[ev]1 to !        
relative facilities ( c>riage1 to ! p[] 
( supply 9 suffici5tly l>ge quantities1 
to ! ease ) :i* !y c be work$ up or     
built 91 & to ! co/4   ,,uses ,,(       
,,cem5t4  ,probably few mat]ials h be5  
f\nd m g5]ally useful to ! civil eng9e]1
 9 works :i* are n ( metal1 ?an has be5 
,portl& cem5t4 ,x %\ld be notic$ t dur+ 
! la/ tw5ty-two ye>s great improvem5ts h
 be5 made 9 ! gr9d+ & 9 ! quality ( !   
cem5t4 ,^! h be5 l>gely due to ! labors 
9 ,engl& ( our memb]1 ,mr4 ,john ,grant1
 to ! labors ( =eign eng9e]s foll[+ 9 8 
foot/eps1 & to ! zeal & intellig5ce )   
:i* ! manufactur]s h foll[$ up ! "q1 f a
 sci5tific z well z f a practical po9t (
 view1 n re/+ until !y 7 able ) c]ta9ty 
to produce a cem5t su* z ! eng9e] ne$$4 
,i d n "k t !re is v mu* to be said 9 ! 
way ( progress 7s f> z ! f9i%$ results  
are conc]n$7 9 ! mat]ials :i* ,portl&   
cem5t & o!r mort>s are int5d$ to unite4 

,clean gravel & balla/ & clean s& are1  
,i presume1 v mu* ! same 9 ! ye> #ahhd z
 !y 7 n only 9 ! ye> #ahfb1 b z !y 7 9 !
 ye> #a4 ,! same rem>k applies to /one &
 to all o!r natural build+ mat]ials2 &1 
inde$1 ev5 ! artificial mat]ial brick _c
 9 ^! days be said to surpass 9 quality 
! bricks us$ by ! ,romans 9 ?is isl&    
n9ete5 hundr$ ye>s ago1 b z reg>ds !    
mode ( manufacture & ! mat]ials employ$ 
!re is progress to be not$4 ,!          
brick-mak+ ma*9e & ! ,h(fmann kiln h    
economiz$ labor & fuel1 :ile attempts h 
be5 made1 :i* ,i tru/ may prove         
successful1 = utiliz+ ! clay :i* is to  
be f\nd 9 ! =m ( slate 9 ^? enorm\s     
m\nds ( wa/e :i* disfigure ! l&scape 9 !
 neighborhood ( slate qu>ries4 ,c]ta9   
artificial /ones1 moreov]1 appe> at la/ 
to be made ) a uni=mity & a p[] (       
endurance1 & 9 respect ( ^! qualities   
comp>e favorably ) ! be/ natural /one1 &
 /ill m favorably hav+ reg>d to ! fact t
 !y c be made ( ! desir$ dim5sions &    
%ape1 ?us be+ ready = use )\t labor (   

prep>ation4   ,,pres]vation ,,( ,,wood4 
,rev]t+ to natural mat]ials1 !re rema9s 
to be m5tion$ t great class1 timb]4 ,9  
new c\ntries ! eng9e] is commonly glad  
to avail himself ( ?is mat]ial to an    
ext5t :i* among u is unkn[n4 ,= "h1 day 
by day1 ow+ to ! ready adaptability (   
metals to ! uses ( ! eng9e]1 ! employm5t
 ( wood is decreas+4 ,f>1 inde$1 are we 
f ! practice ( n m ?an a hundr$ ye>s    
ago1 :5 x 0 n ?\ght improp] to make !   
%ell ( a /eam eng9e boil] ( wood5 /aves4
 ,! eng9e] ( to-day1 9 a c\ntry l       
,engl&1 refra9s f us+ wood4 ,he _c ca/ x
 into =m1 he _c weld x4 ,glue 7ev5 if   
m>9e7 w\ld h>dly be look$ ^u z an       
effici5t sub/itute = a s\nd weld2 & !   
fact is1 t x is practically impossible  
to lay hold ( timb] :5 employ$ = t5sile 
purposes s z to obta9 any?+ approa*+ to 
! full t5sile /r5g?4 ,if x be desir$ to 
utilize metals = su* a purpose1 !y c be 
swoll5 out into appropriate eyes to     
receive ! ne$$ connection2 b ?is _c be  
done ) wood1 = ! only way ( mak+ an     

enl>g$ eye 9 wood is by tak+ a piece t  
is big en\gh to =m ! eye1 & !n cutt+    
away ! sup]flu\s portion ( ! body4      
,moreov]1 :5 too mu* expos$ to ! wea!r1 
& :5 too mu* cov]$ up1 wood has an evil 
habit ( rott+1 comp>$ ) ! rapidity ( :i*
 mode ( decay ! oxidiz+ ( metals is     
unimportant4 ,fur!r1 "o's daily exp]i5ce
 ( ! way 9 :i* a h\semaid prep>es a fire
 = light+ is sugge/ive ( !              
undesirability ( ! introduction ( res9\s
 /icks ( timb]1 ev5 al?\gh !y may be    
l>ge /icks1 into our build+s4 ,_m       
attempts1 z we "k1 h be5 made to r5d]   
timb] pro( aga9/ ^! two great defects ( 
rapid decay & ( ready combu/ibility1 &1 
z x appe>s to me1 x is 9 ^! directions  
alone "o c look = progress 9 connection 
) timb]4 ,) respect to ! fir/1 x 0 only 
at ! la/ meet+ ( ! ,in/itution we       
pres5t$ a ,tel=d m$al & a ,tel=d premium
 to ,mr4 ,s4 ,b4 ,b\lton = 8 pap] ,on ! 
,antiseptic ,treatm5t ( ,timb]1 to :i*  
,i desire to ref] all ^? :o seek        
in=mation on ?is po9t4 ,) respect to !  

pres]vation f fire ( inflammable build+ 
mat]ials1 ! processes1 m or less        
successful1 t h be5 tri$ are s num]\s t 
,i _c ev5 pret5d to enum]ate !m4 ,i w1  
h[ev]1 j m5tion "o1 ! asbe/os pa9t1     
because x is us$ to coat ! wood5        
/ructures ( ! ,inv5tions ,exhibition4   
,to ! employm5t ( ?is1 ,i ?9k1 x is n   
too mu* to say ^? build+s ow$ _! escape1
 9 la/ ye>'s v dry summ]1 f be+ consum$ 
by a fire t broke out 9 an exhibitor's  
/&1 de/roy+ e object on t /&1 b happily 
n sett+ ! pa9t$ woodwork on fire1 al?\gh
 x 0 *>r$ bel[ ! surface4 ,i d n pret5d 
to say t a surface application c enable 
wood to resi/ ! effects ( a cont9u$     
exposure to fire1 b x does appe> t x c  
prev5t its ready ignition4  7,to be     
cont9u$47         99       99       99  
99       99     ,,! ,,ca!dral ,,( ,,!   
,,inc>nation4   ,! ,ca!dral ( !         
,inc>nation1 at ,g>d5 ,city1 ,n4 ,y41 ! 
memorial ( ,mrs4 ,cornelia ,m4 ,/ew>t to
 h] husb&1 ,alex&] ,t4 ,/ew>t1 0 op5$   
,april #i1 #ahhe1 by impressive religi\s

 c]emonies4 ,at precisely #aa o'clock ! 
*imes 9 ! ca!dral t[] rang out a cle> & 
resonant peal1 & ! p ?rong$ into !      
build+ ?r\gh its t[] & transept         
entrances4  ,! ef=t has be5 made to     
reproduce 9 ! ca!dral a pure type ( !   
,go?ic ar*itecture ( ! ?irte5? c5tury1  
)\t its rud] & less ref9$ *>act]i/ics4  
,! /ra9$ & co>se images design$ to      
illu/rate ! _w1 ! fle%1 & ! devil1 :i*  
seem s /range & unapt to ,am]ican       
visitors to ! great ,cont95tal ca!drals1
 are almo/ entirely omitt$ 9 ?is        
reproduction4 ,! c>v+1 too1 9 def]5ce to
 ! m s5sitive ta/es & bett] skill ( ?is 
age1 is f> m arti/ic & natural ?an 9 !  
old orig9als4 ,fl[]s 9 /one are made to 
resemble fl[]s1 & heads are fa%ion$ aft]
 a human patt]n1 & clu/]s ( figures are 
model$ 9 a congru\s & mod]n mann]4 ,b   
aside f *anges ( ?is k9d1 ! new &       
magnific5t edifice ^u ,hemp/ead ,pla9s  
is a p]fect example ( ! elaborate &     
picturesque ,go?ic /ructures ( m$ival   
days4  ,x is built ( br[n s&/one rais$ 9

 colossal blocks4 ,! spire1 floriat$    
ri*ly & graduat$ ) a precise symmetry1  
rises to an extreme altitude ( #bbj feet
 #f in*es4 ,! extreme l5g? is ab\t #agj 
ft4 ,! massive oak5 front doors are c>v$
 h&somely1 & conta9 ! arms ( ! ,/ew>t   
family1 ! ,cl9* family 7,mrs4 ,/ew>t's  
maid5 "n71 ! ,hilton family1 & ^? (     
,bi%op ,littlejohn1 ! ,episcopal head ( 
! ,long ,isl& ,diocese4 ,! por* or t[]  
entrance1 :i* is ! ma9 entrance to !    
build+1 is pav$ ) :ite m>ble4 ,9 ! c5t] 
( ! floor ! ,/ew>t arms are enamel$ 9   
brass1 %[+ a %ield ) a :ite & blue *eck1
 support$ by ! figures ( a wild ,briton 
& a lion4 ,! cre/ is a pelican fe$+ its 
"y1 & ! motto is ,prud5tia et           
,con/antia4 ,^! h]aldic figures are made
 a special feature ( ! ma9 aisle4       
,directly 9 ! c5t] ( ! auditorium floor 
! ,/ew>t & ,cl9* arms are impal$1       
enamel$ 9 brass4 ,on ! floor 9 ! *oir ! 
,hilton arms are plac$4 ,!y be> !       
patriotic motto ,ubi lib]tas ibi patria1
 ) a de] = a cre/4 ,! floor ( !         

ante-*ancel pres5ts ! arms ( ! diocese4 
,its insul> "* is especially prom95t4 ,!
 %ield ( b>ry wavy conta9s ?ree         
crosslets1 ! peculi> sign ( ! ca!dral4  
,x is support$ by dolph9s4 ,! cre/ is a 
%ip1 & "u all is ! sacr$ motto1 ,i w set
 8 dom9ion 9 ! sea4 ,! workman%ip ( all 
^! arms is sup]b4  ,by f> ! mo/ wond]ful
 works ( art 9 ! edifice are ! w9d[s (  
/a9$ glass & ! musical facilities4 ,e   
w9d[ pres5ts a !me sugge/ive ( !        
,inc>nation4 ,! w9d[s ( ! por* pres5t   
sev]al ( ! ,old ,te/am5t *>act]s & ev5ts
 :i* prefigur$ ! bir? ( ,*ri/1 & ov] !  
door lead+ to ! nave are figures ( ,adam
 & ,eve & ( ,abraham & ,s>ah4 ,! f\r    
w9d[s on ! s\? side ( ! nave %[ !       
,annunciation1 ! dream ( ,joseph1 !     
salutation ( ,elizabe?1 & ! refusal ( ! 
/able to ! p>5ts ( ! infant ,r$eem]4 ,9 
! fir/ w9d[ ( ! transept is pres5t$ !   
inn-keep]'s refusal ( refuge to ,joseph 
& ,m>y4 ,! great w9d[ ( ! s\? transept1 
9 all ab\t ?irty feet high1 "o ( ! l>ge/
 w9d[s 9 ! _w1 %[s ! family ( ,jesse1 ! 

ance/or ( ,jesus4 ,jesse is re/+ at full
 l5g?2 above him is ,k+ ,david1 & all   
ar\nd are figures ( 8 desc5dants lead+  
up to ! ,virg9 ,m>y ) ! ,holy ,*ild 9 h]
 arms4 ,above all1 9 ! apex ( ! w9d[s1  
are ! emblems us$ 9 prophecies ( ,*ri/'s
 com+4 ,! ?ird w9d[ ( ! s\? transept %[s
 ! ,nativity1 ) ! ,babe 9 ! mang]4 ,two 
w9d[s 9 ! *oir are *os5 ) special       
ref]5ce to ! regul> s]vice ( ! *ur*4 ,! 
fir/ repres5ts ! appe>ance ( ! /> 9 !   
ea/ to ! %eph]ds ( ,be?lehem1 introduc+ 
! ,gloria 9 ,excelsis1 & ! second %[s ! 
pres5tation ( ,*ri/ 9 ! temple1 sugge/+ 
! ,nunc ,dimittis1 ! ,magnificat1 & !   
,b5$ictus4 ,!n beautiful repres5tations 
are giv5 9 ! nor? transept w9d[s ( !    
,magi br++ gifts to ! infant ,savi\r1 & 
! wise m5 be=e ,k+ ,h]od4 ,! w9d[s ( !  
nave %[ ! flight into ,egypt1 ! massacre
 ( ! innoc5ts1 & ! return to ,naz>e?4   
,! nor? w9d[ ( ! transept is ! mo/      
magnific5t ( all4 ,x pres5ts ,*ri/ 9    
glory1 ?us sugge/+ ! ,te ,deum4 ,jesus  
sits en?ron$ ) ! angels & ar*angels1    

prophets1 apo/les & m>tyrs ( ! *ur* 9   
all ages b5d+ 9 adoration be=e ,him1    
:ile ! heav5ly *oir are wav+ palms &    
*ant+ music 9 honor ( ,heav5's ,k+4 ,!  
small] w9d[s "u ! ro( %[ ! hi]>*y (     
heav5 indicat+ by music & dances ! joy (
 ! cele/ial _w at ! sc5es ( !           
,inc>nation depict$ bel[4 ,^u a bright1 
sunny day ! ca!dral is made exquisitely 
beautiful by ! mell[$ radiance ( ^!     
w9d[s4 ,!y 7 design$ & manufactur$ by   
,clayton  ,bell1 ( ,london1 & are e/eem$
 to pres5t ! p]fection ( _! "w4 ,_!     
colors1 ri* & v>i$1 bl5d 9 p]fect       
h>mony1 & ! intricacy ( ! gr\p+s makes  
ea* "o z int]e/+ z an oil pa9t+4  ,six  
diff]5t organs h be5 built 9 diff]5t    
p>ts ( ! build+4 ,! mo/ important ( ^!  
is ! great organ 9 ! nor? apse4 ,x is   
furni%$ ) f\r keybo>ds & #abd /ops1 )   
tw5ty-f\r comb9ation /ops t admit ( m   
?an a million comb9ations ( s\nd4 ,on   
ei!r side ( ! *oir is ano!r organ1 ) a  
f\r? ( great p[] 9 ! crypt1 a fif? 9 !  
t[]1 & an e*o organ built "u ! vault+ ( 

! ro(4 ,?is produces a s(t & weird      
music4 ,all ! organs are op]at$ f !     
keybo>d ( ! great apse organ1 :i* also  
plays ! *imes ( ?irte5 bells 9 ! t[]4 ,!
 *oir in/rum5ts are made to correspond  
by means ( iron tubes fill$ ) w9d by a  
bell[s eng9e 9 ! crypt ( ! apse4 ,a     
second eng9e 9 ! crypt ( ! t[] op]ates !
 bell[s t inflate ! in/rum5ts 9 ! crypt1
 ! t[]1 & ! vault+4 ,all ! organs & !   
*imes are connect$ by electric wires1   
ab\t tw5ty-six miles ( :i* are employ$1 
suppli$ ) electricity by a motor 9 ! t[]
 eng9e room4 ,sublime & gr& are ! only  
t]ms :i* c sugge/ ! effect ( ! volume ( 
h>mony produc$ by ^! in/rum5ts 9 unit$  
action4 ,!y 7 made by ,hilborne ,l4     
,roosevelt1 ( ?is city4  ,! ante-*ancel 
conta9s ! bi%op's ?rone1 ! dean's seat1 
& ! /alls ( ! cl]gy & canons1 all ( c>v$
 mahogany4 ,a sup]b "w ( art is ! alt>1 
9 ! *ancel1 :i* is sep>at$ f !          
ante-*ancel by a heavy bronze rail+4 ,! 
alt> is ( /atu>y m>ble manufactur$ by   
,cox  ,sons1 ( ,london4 ,its corn]      

columns are ( black m>ble1 support$ by  
o!rs ( fleck$ m>ble1 ) panels ( ,si5na &
 ,griote4 ,betwe5 ! panels are ri*      
c>v+s1 done 9 ,antw]p1 repres5t+ !      
temptation & fall 9 ,ed52 ,abraham's    
(f]+ ( 8 son ,isaac2 ,moses rais+ !     
braz5 s]p5t 9 ! wild]ness2 !            
annunciation to ! ,virg92 ! bir? sc5e 9 
! /able2 ! ,crucifixion & !             
,resurrection4 ,! slab ( ! alt> is      
inlaid ) five crosslets1 repres5t+ !    
five w\nds1 & ! symbol ,i4 ,h4 ,s4      
,none ( ! ca!dral w9d[s are ri*] ?an ^? 
:i* circle ! *ancel4 ,!y pres5t ,*ri/ z 
! ,good ,%eph]d & ! apo/olic college4   
,an excell5t piece ( *isel+ is done by  
,sibbel1 ! sculptor ( ?is city1 9 !     
panels ov] ! cr$5ce4 ,!y are figures ( !
 high prie/ ) a sla9 lamb1 ! type ( !   
bloody sacrifice1 & ,*ri/ ) %eaves (    
:eat & clu/]s ( grapes1 ! unbloody      
sacrifice4 ,b5ea? !m is ! text1 ,?\ art 
a prophet =ev] aft] ! ord] ( ,mel*is$ec4
 ,! *ancel is pav$ ) r$ & yell[ ,si5na  
m>ble z c5t] pieces1 flank$ ) squ>es (  

r$ ,griote & :ite m>ble1 ! :ole bord]$ )
 /rips ( r$ & black m>ble4 ,!           
ante-*ancel is pav$ ) blocks ( r$       
,griote & v]d antique4 ,two magnific5t  
pieces ( /atu>y /& on ei!r side ( !     
transept4 ,! fir/ repres5ts ,religion   
hold+ a little model ( ! ca!dral4 ,! o!r
 is an image ( ,hope4 ,!y 7 done by     
,p>k1 ! ,flor5t9e sculptor4  ,9 ! s\?   
apse is ! bapti/]y1 built ) a t[]       
furni%$ ) *imes4 ,its support+ columns  
are ( ,langu$oc m>ble clu/]$ ) small]   
ones ( ,si5na & v]d antique4 ,six       
columns support ! dome4 ,ea* is ( a     
diff]5t m>ble1 cr[n$ ) sculptur$        
capitals 9 high relief4 ,! w9d[s are    
appropriate 9 !me4 ,!y repres5t ,noah ) 
! ark2 ! build+ ( ! ark2 ,moses hold+ ! 
tables ( ! law2 ! passage ( ! ,r$ ,sea2 
,john ! ,bapti/2 ! ,baptism ( ! eunu*2  
,/4 ,philip1 ! deacon2 & ! ,baptism (   
,*ri/4 ,9 ! c5t] ( ! room /&s ! font ^u 
an octagonal base ( two /eps4 ,its      
p$e/al & b[l are trac$ ) symbolic c>v+s4
 ,ov] x is a canopy ( elaborately c>v$  

mahogany drawn into a spire be>+ a gold 
cr[n1 /udd$ ) rubies & ame?y/s4  ,at !  
foot ( ! *ancel is ! pulpit1 ( bronze1  
design$ by ,sibbel4 ,its base is        
surr\nd$ by figures repres5t+ he>]s ( ! 
,^w4 ,mr4 ,sibbel has incorporat$ an    
ana*ronism 9 "o ( ^! figures t w be     
exce$+ly int]e/+ 9 com+ ye>s4 ,x %[s !  
features ( ,h5ry ,g4 ,h>rison1 ( ?is    
city1 ! ar*itect ( ! ca!dral4 ,! lect]n 
/&s on ! o!r side ( ! ante-*ancel1      
repres5t+ ,*ri/ bless+ little *ildr54   
,sup]b bronze columns ) brass coronas ( 
natural fl[]s support ! ro( ( ! build+4 
,! tri=ium is c>v$ 9 ! ri*e/ /yle )     
passion fl[]s1 fu*sias1 roses1 & lilies4
  ,9 ! crypt bel[ are ! rob+ rooms ( !  
cl]gy & ! *oir & ! ,sunday-s*ool room4  
,its w9d[s %[ ! arms ( e ,am]ican       
diocese4 ,b5ea? ! *oir is ! *antry1     
furni%$ 9 c>v$ oak4 ,adjo9+ ?is room is 
! fam\s mausoleum erect$ to ! memory (  
,alex&] ,t4 ,/ew>t4 ,x is con/ruct$ (   
/atu>y m>ble1 & consi/s ( f\rte5 bays1  
at ! angles ( :i* are triple columns ( !

 mo/ ri*ly color$ import$ m>bles ar*$   
above ! elegantly c>v$ capitals1 ) op5  
trac]y1 ?r\gh :i* ! headlights ( !      
color$ glass are se54 ,! subjects ( !   
?irte5 w9d[s relate to ! passion1 dea?1 
resurrection1 & subsequ5t appe>ances (  
,*ri/1 & are execut$ 9 admirable design 
& color4 ,!y 7 made by ,heaton1 ,butl]  
,bayne1 ( ,london4 ,above ! w9d[ op5+s  
rises a dome-%ap$ ceil+1 9 c>v$ m>ble1 )
 a p5d5t canopy 9 ! c5t]4 ,! pavem5t1 ( 
black & :ite m>bles1 radiates f ! c5t] (
 ! sides ( ?is polygonal /ructure1 & a  
l>ge :ite urn1 delicately drap$ aft]    
,sibbel's designs1 /&s "u ! p5d5t       
canopy4 ,x be>s ,mr4 ,/ew>t's "n4 ,! two
 entrances to ! mausoleum are gu>d$ by  
op5-"w bronze gates ( elegant design &  
workman%ip4--,n4 ,y4 ,tribune4          
99       99       99       99       99  
,,movable ,,m>ket ,,build+s4   ,!       
furni%+ ( food supplies has always be5 a
 "q ( great importance to cities1 & !re 
are few ( ! latt]1 great or small1 :]e !
 e/abli%m5t ( m>kets is n ! ord] ( !    

day4  ,at ,p>is especially1 by reason ( 
! mass+ ( ! population1 :i* is annually 
increas+1 ! multiplicity ( ! wants to be
 satisfi$ r5d]s ! solution ( ?is "q m & 
m difficult4 ,! old m>kets1 "s ( ! types
 ( :i* /ill exi/ 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ,p>is1 7
 built ( masonry & wood4 ,!y 7 massive  
/ructures into :i* ! air & light        
p5etrat$ ) difficulty1 & :i* consequ5tly
 =m$ a dang]\s focus ( infection = ^? :o
 occupi$ !m1 & = ! inhabitants ( !      
neighbor+ h\ses4 ,s ! introduction (    
iron into ! con/ruction ( m>kets w br+  
ab\t a g5u9e revolution ^: influ5ce w   
soon make itself felt 9 all bran*es ( ! 
build]'s art4  ,! ,c5tral ,m>kets 7 to h
 be5 built ( masonry1 & ! "w _h ev5 be5 
begun1 :51 "u ! pressure ( public       
op9ion1 ! ar*itect1 ,mr4 ,balt>d1 0 l$  
to use iron4 ,evid5tly1 ! metal t p]mits
 ( cov]+ va/ spaces ) ! use ( di/ant    
be>+ po9ts t pres5t a small surface 9   
plan1 & leaves betwe5 !m wide op5+s t ! 
sun & air c ent] 9 quantity1 0 ! only ?+
 t 0 capable ( giv+ ! solution s\ght4 ,s

 x has be5 said1 & rightly1 t ! ,c5tral 
,m>kets are1 z reg>ds ! di/ribution &   
rational use ( mat]ials1 ! mo/ beautiful
 ( ! /ructures ( mod]n ,p>is4 ,?is sy/em
 ( con/ruction at once met ) great      
success1 & ! old m>kets are ev]y:]e     
gradually disappe>+1 9 ord] to give     
place to ! new /yle ( build+s4  ,not)/&+
 _! numb]1 ! ,p>isian m>kets long ago   
became insuffici5t1 & wants increas$ )  
su* rapidity t x became impossible to   
supply !m4 ,! municipal adm9i/ration 0  
!re=e oblig$1 especially 9 popul\s      
qu>t]s1 to tol]ate p]ambulat+ p$dl]s1 :o
 c>ri$ _! w>es 9 h& c>ts4 ,?is sy/em has
 ! drawback t x int]f]es consid]ably )  
travel1 & especially 9 /reets :]e !     
latt] is mo/ active4 ,moreov]1 ! m]*ants
 & _! goods are expos$ to ! inclem5cy ( 
! wea!r4 ,9 o!r places1 :]e l>ge spaces 
7 utilizable1 su* z squ>es & av5ues1 v  
light /ructures1 t c\ld be easily put   
toge!r & tak5 ap>t1 7 erect$1 & m>kets 7
 op5$ 9 ^! once or twice a week4 ,?is   
me?od pres5ts s]i\s advantages4 ,iron   

m>kets1 9 fact1 despite ! imm5se        
progress t !y m>k1 pres5t disadvantages 
t are inh]5t to all /ation>y /ructures4 
,x is necess>y to erect !m 9 popul\s    
c5t]s1 :]e l& is consequ5tly ( great    
value2 & ! /ructure itself is co/ly4  ,!
 result is t ! prime co/ is v great1 &  
?is =ces ! city to *>ge ! m]*ants high  
r5ts1 & ! consum] has to pay = x4 ,)    
movable m>kets1 on ! contr>y1 ! city c  
utilize l>ge areas ( unproductive gr\nd1
 & f9d new res\rces1 al?\gh r5t+ ! /alls
 at a m9imum price4 ,! exp5se connect$ )
 ! /ructure itself is v small4 ,9 fact1 
! di/+ui%+ "* ( su* /ructures is _!     
portability--s t ! same %$ c be us$ 9   
any numb] ( diff]5t places4  ,! pr9cipal
 exp5se1 !n1 w be = c>riage2 b x is easy
 to see t !re w always be an economy 9  
_! use4 ,?is is a fact1 moreov]1 t      
practice has v]ifi$1 = x is well kn[n t 
,p>is does n get h] exp5ses back f h]   
/ation>y m>kets1 :ile ! movable ones    
yield a rev5ue4  ,on ano!r h&1 z        
/ation>y m>kets are co/ly1 x results t  

!y _c be multipli$ z mu* z necess>y1 & s
 a portion ( ! inhabitants are daily    
submitt$ to a loss ( "t 9 rea*+ ! "o    
ne>e/ !m4  ,f9ally1 f a hygi5ic /&po9t1 
movable m>kets pres5t a v great         
advantage ov] /ation>y ones4 ,! latt]1 9
 fact1 not)/&+ _! l>ge op5 spaces1 nev] 
get rid ( ! vitiat$ air t !y conta91 & !
 bad odors t emanate f !m are also a    
s\rce ( annoyance & dang] to !          
neighborhood4 ,9 movable ones1 on !     
contr>y1 :5 ! /ructure is tak5 ap>t1 !  
air1 sun1 & ra9 disp]se all bad odors1 &
 ! place is r5d]$ :olesome 9 an in/ant4 
,we h n[ demon/rat$ :at great advantages
 ! city ( ,p>is & h] population might   
d]ive f ! e/abli%+ ( movable m>kets4  ,x
 is easy to see t well e/abli%$         
/ructures ( ?is k9d w\ld r5d] great     
s]vices 9 small t[ns also4 ,!y might    
entirely replace /ation>y iron m>kets1 !
 high co/ ( :i* (t5 causes              
municipalities to pres]ve _! old1       
inconv5i5t1 & unheal?y /ructures4 ,z a  
g5]al ?+1 m>ket is held b once or twice 

a week 9 small t[ns4 ,9 ! int]ior !     
/ructure c\ld be tak5 ap>t1 & ! place   
r5d]$ free4  ,! "q1 !n1 is to h a sy/em 
( con/ruction t %all satisfy ! diff]5t  
p>ts ( ! programme t we h j laid out1 t 
is to say1 /r5g?1 lightness1 rapidity ( 
erection1 & ease ( c>riage4 ,! %elt]s t 
are at pres5t employ$ = movable m>kets  
at ,p>is are v primitive1 & are want+ 9 
solidity & conv5i5ce4 ,!y consi/ simply 
( wood5 uprights to :i* are affix$      
cross-pieces t support an imp]meable    
canvas4  ,9 ord] to r5d] x possible to  
ext5d ! sy/em ( movable m>kets1 x became
 necess>y to fir/ f9d & /udy ! prop]    
mat]ial4  ,dur+ ! ye> #ahhc ! city (    
,p>is resolv$ to make "s exp]im5ts1 & ! 
,direction ( ,municipal ,affairs        
commission$ ,mr4 ,&re1 director ( !     
,neuilly works1 to submit to him a plan 
= a /ructure t c\ld be easily tak5 ap>t4
 ,! plan f9ally propos$ seem$ to meet   
all ! requirem5ts ( ! case1 & a gr\p (  
t5 /ructures 0 erect$4 ,! trial t 0 made
 ( ^! prov$ entirely satisfactory4 ,!   

city !n made concession to ! ,neuilly   
company1 = six ye>s1 ( ! m>ket 9        
,b\lev>d ,ri*>d-,l5oir1 ( ^? ( ,la ,re9e
 ,p>k1 & ( ! ,madele9e fl[] m>kets4 ,a  
six mon?s' trial has %[n ! great        
resi/ance ( ! mat]ials t we are ab\t to 
describe 9 detail4  ,! /ructure is      
support$ by cyl9drical holl[ iron       
uprights t are firmly connect$ ) ! gr\nd
 z foll[s3 ,at ! places :]e !y are to be
 fix$1 small cat*es are ins]t$ 9 ! gr\nd
 s t _! upp] surface comes flu% !re)4   
,^! cat*es consi/ ( two ca/ iron sides  
bolt$ toge!r1 & ( a bottom & ends =m$ ( 
flat iron--! end pieces be+ b5t s z to  
=m cramp irons4 ,ea* ( ! sides is       
provid$ int]nally ) a project+ piece1 & 
an incl9$ plane z a w$ge4 ,9 case ! cat*
 becomes fill$ ) dirt1 x c be easily    
clean$ out ) a scrap]4 ,! iron upright  
t]m9ates 9 a malleable ca/ iron %oe1 :i*
 is screw$ on to x1 & :i* is provid$    
b5ea? ) a projection 9 ! =m ( a rev]s$  
,t1 ! upp] "p ( ! horizontal bran*es (  
:i* is bevel$ (f 9 a direction opposite 

t ( ! incl9$ planes ( ! cat*4 ,?is      
projection ent]s ?r\gh ! slit & fits    
into ! two w$ges1 & a simple bl[ ( a    
hamm] suffices to make ! adh]5ce p]fect4
  ,! front & h9d uprights diff] only 9  
l5g?1 & ! ro( timb]s are jo9$ at _! upp]
 extremities4 ,! figures s well %[ h[ ! 
p>ts are fitt$ toge!r z to r5d] an      
explanation unnecess>y4  ,! dim5sions ( 
^! /ructures v>y f #f4e to #e4ge feet 9 
l5g? by #f4e 9 wid? & #f 9 height4 ,!   
raft]s are prolong$ s z to project #d4be
 feet 9 front1 9 ord] to =m a protection
 = ! pur*as]4 ,?is "p ( ! raft]s1 z well
 z ! longitud9als1 is support$ by ?ree  
curv$ iron braces1 :i* are put 9 place z
 foll[s3 ,! timb]s are provid$ ) a r+   
fix$ by a screw1 & "o extremity ( !     
brace is ins]t$ into ?is1 :ile ! o!r is 
held aga9/ ! upright by a slid+ iron    
socket4 ,! longitud9al timb]s are       
support$ betwe5 ea* two uprights by an  
iron rod t re/s ^u a block ( /one fix$ 9
 ! gr\nd4  ,! front ends ( ! raft]s are 
connect$ by a longitud9al1 #ah feet 9   

l5g?4  ,! /ructure is cov]$ ) wat]pro(  
canvas held 9 place by wood5 rods1 to   
:i* x is atta*$4  ,! wood employ$ is    
pit* p9e4  ,an entire m>ket ( #cjj /alls
 c be put up 9 ?ree h\rs by "o workman &
 f\r assi/ants4--,le ,g5ie ,civil4      
,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,movable ,,madele9e  
,,fl[] ,,m>ket ,,at ,,p>is4             
,,fig4 #a4--;,,g5]al ,,view ,,( ,a      
,,movable ,,m>ket4                ,,fig4
 #b4--,,%oes4                ,,fig4     
#c4--,,mode ,,( ,,jo9+ ,,! ,,ro(        
,,timb]s4                ,,fig4         
#d4--;,,iron ,,support4                 
,,fig4 #e4--,,section ,,( ,a ,,%oe      
,,ins]t$ ,,9 ,,! ,,cat*4                
,,fig4 #f4--;,,cat*es4                  
,,fig4 #g4--,,wat]pro( ,,canvas4        
99       99       99       99       99  
,,d9ocrates' ,,project4   ,vitruvius    
relates t ! ar*itect ,d9ocrates propos$ 
to ,alex&] ! ,great to c>ve ,m\nt ,a?os 
9 su* a way z to give x ! %ape ( a man1 
^: "o h& %\ld support an entire city1 & 
^: o!r %\ld c>ry a cup :i* receiv$ all !

 wat]s f ! m\nta91 & f :i* !y ov]fl[$   
into ! sea4  ,alex&]1 *>m$ ) ! idea1    
ask$ him if ?is city 0 to be surr\nd$ by
 l& capable ( supply+ x ) ! gra9        
necess>y = its subsi/5ce4 ,hav+ asc]ta9$
 t ! provision+ c\ld only be done by    
sea1 ,alex&] said3 ,d9ocrates1 ,i grant 
! beauty ( y\r project2 x pleases me1 b 
,i ?9k t any "o :o %\ld take x into 8   
head to e/abli% a colony 9 ! place y    
propose w\ld run ! risk ( be+ tax$ )    
want ( =esight2 =1 j z a *ild c nei!r   
fe$ nor develop )\t ! milk ( a nurse1 s 
a city _c increase )\t f]tile fields1 h 
a l>ge population )\t pl5ty ( food1 &   
all[ its inhabitants to subsi/ )\t ri*  
h>ve/s2 s1 :ile giv+ ! orig9ality ( y\r 
plan my approval1 ,i h to say to y t ,i 
disapprove ( ! place t y h select$ =    
putt+ x into execution4 ,b ,i want y to 
/ay ne> me1 because ,i %all h ne$ ( y\r 
s]vices4  ,?is gigantic project _h      
d\btless be5 sugge/$ to ! ,mac$onian    
ar*itect by ! s+ul> =ms t c]ta9 m\nta9s 
affect4 ,x is n r>e1 9 fact1 to see     

human pr(iles del9eat$ ^u ! sky1 & ?is  
ph5om5on especially happ5s 9 c\ntries   
:]e ! fold$ lime/one /rata h be5 brok5  
up 9 su* a way z to give rise to deep   
valleys p]p5dicul> to ! direction ( !   
*a94 ,if we look at ^! folds f bel[ 9 an
 oblique direction1 we %all see !m      
sup]pos$ ^u "o ano!r 9 su* a way z to   
repres5t figures t recall a human       
pr(ile4  ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4       
,,l&scape ,,by ,,fa!r ,,kir*]4  ,9 !    
sev5te5? c5tury1 ,fa!r ,kir*] conceiv$ !
 idea ( tak+ up ,d9ocrates' plan ^u a   
small scale1 & compos$ ! l&scape %[n 9  
,fig4 #a4 ,! draw+ rema9$ engrav$ = a   
long "t ^u a m>ble tablet set into !    
wall ( ,c>d9al ,montalte's g>d5 at      
,rome4 ,lat] on1 arti/s improv$ & v>i$  
?is project1 z %[n 9 ,figs4 #b & #c4 ,by
 look+ at ^! cuts f ! sides ( ! page1 x 
w be se5 t !y =m human pr(iles4 ,fig4 #b
 repres5ts an old woman1 & ,fig4 #c a   
man ^: be>d & hair are =m$ by %rubb]y4  
,illu/ration3 ,,figs4 #b ,,&            
#c4--,,l&scapes ,,%[+ ,,pr(iles ,,(     

,,human ,,face4  ,we d n ?9k t ^!       
conceptions h ev] be5 realiz$1 al?\gh   
,h]on 9 8 treatise on ,dioptra1 & ,fa!r 
,scott 9 8 ,p>a/atic ,magic1 h describ$ 
in/rum5ts t p]mit ( mak+ ! necess>y     
outl9es to cause gr\nds to pres5t a giv5
 aspect f a giv5 po9t4 ,^! in/rum5ts    
consi/ ess5tially ( a v]tical transp>5t 
frame ^u :i* is drawn a v]tical         
projection ( ! l&scape t x is desir$ to 
obta94         99       99       99     
99       99   ,9 ! isl& ( ,goa1 ne>     
,bombay1 !re is a s+ul> vegetable call$ 
! sorr[ful tree1 because x only fl\ri%es
 9 ! night4 ,at sunset no fl[]s are to  
be se51 & yet aft] half an h\r x is full
 ( !m4 ,!y yield a sweet smell1 b ! sun 
no soon] beg9s to %9e ^u !m ?an "s ( !m 
fall (f1 & o!rs close up2 & ?us x       
cont9ues fl[]+ 9 ! night dur+ ! :ole    
ye>4         99       99       99       
99       99     ,,! ,,cruto ,,inc&esc5t 
,,lamp4   ,an electrical exhibition on a
 comp>atively small scale 0 op5$ 9      
,p>is1 ,m>* #bb1 #ahhe1 ) consid]able   

eclat1 ! ,presid5t ( ! ,republic be+    
pres5t4 ,eng9es to ! ext5t ( #bjj ,h4,p4
 are employ$ to "w ! lights4 ,among !   
exhibits is ! ,cruto light4 ,eng9e]+    
says3 ,at ! fir/ glance x pres5ts ! same
 appe>ance z an ,edison lamp1 hav+ !    
same =m ( globe1 & app>5tly a simil>    
lum9\s filam5t4 ,b ?is latt] is made 9  
an entirely diff]5t mann]4 ,a plat9um   
wire is employ$1 #a_/ajj ( a millimet] 9
 diamet]4 ,?is is obta9$ by ! ,wolla/on 
process1 t is to say1 a piece ( co>se   
plat9um wire is cov]$ ) a /\t coat+ (   
silv]1 & drawn d[n till ! outside       
diamet] is #a_/aj millimet]4 ,! silv]   
coat+ is !n dissolv$ 9 a ba? ( nitric   
acid1 & ! plat9um wire is left beh9d4   
,?is wire is !n cut into l5g?s1 b5t into
 a ,u =m1 & plac$ 9 a glass globe1 9 :i*
 circulates a curr5t ( bic>bonat$       
hydrog5 obta9$ by ! action ( sulphuric  
acid on alcohol4 ,?is gas1 previ\sly    
purifi$1 circulates ar\nd ! plat9um     
filam5t1 ?r\gh :i* an electric curr5t is
 pass$ suffici5t to br+ x to a r$ heat4 

,?is decomposes ! gas1 & a ?9 coat+ (   
absolutely pure c>bon is deposit$ on !  
wire4 ,! op]ation is cont9u$ until a    
suffici5t ?ickness ( c>bon has be5      
deposit$ = ea* type ( lamp1 & ! me?od ( 
regulat+ ! am\nt ( deposit is effect$ v 
simply1 &1 9 fact1 almo/ automatically4 
,inde$1 "o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ features ( ! 
process is its great simplicity1 al?\gh 
x is some:at m co/ly ?an ! ord9>y me?ods
 ( produc+ inc&esc5ce lamps4 ,aft] hav+ 
be5 subject$ to ! action ( ! gas = two  
or ?ree h\rs1 ! filam5t is tak5 f !     
glass globe1 its diamet] is c>efully    
measur$1 ! l5g? is calibrat$1 & x is set
 on a plat9um support1 to :i* x is      
sold]$ by a v +5i\s process4 ,! filam5t 
is !n introduc$ into a second glass     
globe *>g$ ) bic>bonate ( hydrog52 x is 
plac$ betwe5 p9c]s t hold ! c>bon ne>   
its union ) ! plat9um1 & ! plat9um "s   
millimet]s bel[4 ,^! p9c]s are !n ?r[n  
into circuit1 & a p[]ful curr5t is pass$
 ?r\gh ! "p :i* is to be sold]$4 ,!     
plat9um & c>bon become inc&esc5t1 !     

bic>bonate is decompos$1 & a fre%       
deposit ( c>bon sold]s ! filam5t to its 
support4 ,! sy/em ?us m\nt$ is plac$ )9 
! p]man5t globe1 & a vacuum is obta9$ 9 
! ord9>y way1 :ile ! te/+ & f9i%+       
details pres5t no?+ ( special int]e/4 ,!
 f9i%$ lamp is !n photometrically te/$1 
& plac$ on a support some?+ l ! ,edison 
m\nt+4 ,^u x are engrav$ ! work+        
con/ants4 ,z an ord9>y practical result1
 ^! lamps1 work+ ) #ej volts & #a4ae    
amp]es1 give a lum9\s int5sity ( #bj    
c&les1 or ! equival5t 9 lum9\s sph]ical 
int5sity ( #a4a ,edison ,a lamps4 ,?is  
result is int]e/+1 especially z ! life (
 ! lamp ranges f #ijj to #a1ajj h\rs1 z 
0 demon/rat$ by v>i\s c>eful te/s made )
 "s #bej lamps2 ! mo/ valuable trials   
hav+ tak5 place at ! ,tur9 ,exhibition4 
,aft] prolong$ use1 a dim9ution 9 ! fall
 ( pot5tial is produc$1 to a m m>k$     
degree ?an 9 ! ,edison lamp1 & ! light c
 be ma9ta9$ con/ant by increas+ ! /r5g? 
( ! curr5t 9 a proportion t c be det]m9$
 by means ( resi/ances4 ,! ,cruto       

filam5t exam9$ "u ! microscope appe>s to
 be uni=mly magnetic1 & is v regul>1    
except at ! curv$ p>ts :]e ! diamet] is 
slightly dim9i%$1 & x is "h t rupture   
g5]ally takes place4 ,! great /ructural 
regul>ity ( ! filam5t probably acc\nts =
 its high durability1 & f ! fact t x may
 be work$ ) a high] curr5t ?an probably 
any o!r =m ( inc&esc5ce lamp4 ,m4       
,desrozi]s 9 a s]ies ( exp]im5ts obta9$ 
z mu* z #bej c>cel sph]ical lum9\s value
 p] horse-p[]2 ?is *>act]i/ic is "o     
likely to be ( great value 9 electric   
light+ by inc&esc5ce ( high int5sity4   
,at pres5t only #bj-;c&le lamps are made
 on ! ,cruto sy/em4 ,! c>bon filam5t1 :5
 prop]ly prep>$1 is gray 9 hue & (      
metallic appe>ance2 x is built up 9 v   
f9e lam9 indicat+ ! mode ( manufacture4 
,! results obta9$ ) ^! lamps v>y z mu* z
 #be p] c5t41 accord+ to ! c>e be/[$ 9  
produc+ ! filam5t4 ,if traces ( air exi/
 9 ! globe1 !y v quickly manife/        
!mselves by ! surface ( ! glass becom+  
black5$1 :ile an increas$ en]gy is      

requir$ to ma9ta9 ! brightness ( !      
light4  ,9 ! e>ly days ( ?is lamp x 0   
?\ght necess>y to remove ! delicate     
plat9um wire :i* =ms ! core ( ! filam5t1
 by rais+ ! /r5g? ( ! curr5t suffici5tly
 to de/roy x 9 ! c\rse ( manufacture4   
,?is1 h[ev]1 0 giv5 up1 & ! plat9um n[  
rema9s ei!r z a cont9u\s wire or z a    
s]ies ( small sep>at$ granules4         
99       99       99       99       99  
,,electric ,,light ,,app>atus ,,=       
,,milit>y ,,purposes4   ,9 ! fir/ p]iod 
( ! siege ( a /ronghold x is ( v great  
importance = ! besieg$ to emb>rass !    
fir/ progress ( ! attack1 9 ord] to     
complete _! own armam5t1 & to p]=m c]ta9
 op]ations :i* are ( absolute necessity 
= ! safety ( ! place1 b :i* are only !n 
possible4 ,9 ord] to ret>d ! completion 
( ! fir/ p>allel1 & ! op5+ ( ! fire1 x  
is necess>y to try to discov] ! location
 ( su* p>allel1 z well z t ( ! artill]y1
 & to ply !m ) projectiles4 ,b1 on _!   
side1 ! besieg]s w d all 9 _! p[] to    
hide _! works1 & ^? t !y are unable to  

beg9 beh9d natural cov]ts !y w execute  
at night4 ,x w be se5 f ?is h[ important
 x is = ! besieg$ to possess at ?is /age
 ( ev5ts an effective means ( light+ up 
! ext]nal c\ntry4 ,lat] on1 su* means w 
be ( utility to !m 9 ! night-fir+ (     
long-range rifl$ guns1 z well z =       
prev5t+ surprises1 & also = illum9at+ ! 
brea* & ! dit*es at ! "t ( an assault1 &
 ! entire field ( battle at ! "t ( a    
sortie4  ,illu/ration3 ,,electric       
,,light ,,app>atus ,,= ,,army ,,use4    
,on a campaign x w prove none ! less    
useful to be provid$ ) movable app>atus 
t foll[ ! army4 ,a few ye>s ago4 ,lieut4
 ,a4 ,cuveli]1 9 a v rem>kable article 9
 ! ,revue ,militaire ,belge1 po9t$ out !
 l>ge numb] ( night op]ations ( ! w> (  
#ahgg1 & pr$ict$ ! frequ5t use ( su*    
app>atus 9 future w>s4  ,! accompany+   
engrav+ repres5ts a v f9e electric light
 app>atus1 especially design$ = milit>y 
use 9 m\nta9\s c\ntries4 ,x consi/s ( a 
two-:eel$ c>riage1 drawn by "o horse &  
c>ry+ all ! app>atus necess>y =         

illum9at+ ! works ( ! enemy4 ,! ma*9e   
consi/s ( ! foll[+ p>ts3 7#a7 ,a field  
boil]4 7#b7 ,a ,gramme electric ma*9e1  
type ,m1 actuat$ directly by a          
,bro!rhood #c-;cyl9d] motor4 7#c7 ,a    
,mang9 projector1 #ab in*es 9 diamet]1  
susp5d$ = c>riage f a movable support4  
,?is latt]1 :5 ! place is rea*$ :]e !   
app>atus is to op]ate1 may be remov$ f !
 c>riage & plac$ on ! gr\nd at a di/ance
 ( ab\t a hundr$ y>ds f ! ma*9e1 & be   
connect$ !re) by a conductor4 ,col4     
,mang9's projector consi/s ( a glass    
mirror ) d\ble curvature1 silv]$ ^u its 
convex face4 ,x possesses s rem>kable   
optical prop]ties t x has be5 adopt$ by 
ne>ly all p[]s4 ,! fascicle ( light t x 
emits has a p]fect conc5tration4 ,9     
front ( ! projector !re are two doors4  
,! fir/ ( ^!1 :i* is plane & simple1 is 
us$ :5 x is desir$ to give ! fascicle   
all ! conc5tration possible2 ! o!r1 :i* 
consi/s ( cyl9drical l5ses1 spreads !   
fascicle horizontally1 s z to make x    
cov] a wid] space4  ,! range ( !        

conc5trat$ fascicle is ab\t #hf1jjj     
feet4 ,! projector may be po9t$ 9 all   
directions1 s z to br+ x to be> 9       
succession ^u all ! po9ts t x is desir$ 
to illum9ate4 ,! #ab-;in* projector is !
 smalle/ size made = ?is purpose4 ,!    
con/ructors1 ,messrs4 ,sautt]1 ,lemonni]
  ,co41 are mak+ m p[]ful ones1 up to   
#cf in*es 9 diamet]1 ) a correspond+    
increase 9 ! size ( ! electric ma*9es1  
motors1 & boil]s4  ,! v>i\s p[]s make   
use ( ^! app>atus = ! def5se ( =tresses 
& coa/s1 = campaign s]vice1 etc4  ,!    
v>i\s p>ts ( ! app>atus c be easily tak5
 ap>t & load$ ^u ! backs ( mules4 ,!    
only really heavy piece is ! boil]1 :i* 
weighs ab\t #iij p\nds4         99      
99       99       99       99           
,,electricity ,,& ,,magnetism4#a        
,footnote #a3 ,introductory to ! c\rse (
 ,lectures on ,physics at    ,wa%+ton   
,univ]sity1 ,/4 ,l\is1 ,miss\ri--,kansas
 ,city    ,review4  ,pr(4 ,,francis ,e4 
,,niph]4   ,x 0 kn[n six hundr$ ye>s    
be=e ,*ri/ t :5 amb] is rubb$ x acquires

 ! p[] ( attract+ light bodies4 ,!      
,greek "n = amb]1 elektron1 0 aft]w>d   
appli$ to ! ph5om5on4 ,x 0 also kn[n to 
! anci5ts t a c]ta9 k9d ( iron ore1 fir/
 f\nd at ,magnesia1 9 ,asia ,m9or1 _h ! 
prop]ty ( attract+ iron4 ,?is ph5om5on 0
 call$ magnetism4 ,?is is ! hi/ory (    
electricity & magnetism = two ?\s& ye>s1
 dur+ :i* ^! facts /ood alone1 l isolat$
 m\nta9 peaks1 ) summits t\*$ & made    
visible by ! morn+ sun1 :ile ! region   
surr\nd+ & connect+ !m lay hidd5 &      
unexplor$4  ,9 fact1 x is only 9 m rec5t
 times t m5 c\ld be f\nd possess+ !     
necess>y m5tal qualities to insure      
success 9 physical inve/igation4 ,"s ( !
 anci5ts 7 acute obs]v]s1 & made        
valuable obs]vations 9 descriptive      
natural hi/ory4 ,!y also obs]v$ &       
describ$ ph5om5a :i* !y saw ar\nd !m1   
al?\gh (t5 9 vague & my/ical t]ms4  ,!y1
 h[ev]1 7 greatly lack+ 9 p[] to        
discrim9ate betwe5 ! possible & !       
absurd1 & s old wives' tales1 acute     
speculations1 & tru?ful obs]vations are 

/rangely jumbl$ toge!r4 ,) r>e          
exceptions !y did n contrive new        
conditions to br+ ab\t ph5om5a :i*      
,nature did n spontane\sly exhibit--!y  
did n exp]im5t4 ,!y attempt$ to solve ! 
univ]se 9 _! heads1 & made little       
progress4  ,9 m$ival times intellectual 
m5 7 busy 9 try+ to set ea* o!r "r1 & 9 
disput+ & argu+ ) ^? :o believ$ !mselves
 to be "r4 ,x 0 an era ( intellectual   
pugilism1 & no?+ 0 done 9 physics4 ,9   
fact1 ?is frame ( m9d is incompatible ) 
any m>k$ success 9 sci5tific "w4  ,!    
physical inve/igator _c take up 8 "w 9 !
 _s ( controv]sy2 = ! ph5om5a & laws (  
,nature w n argue ) him4 ,he mu/ come z 
a le>n]1 & ! true man ( sci5ce is cont5t
 to le>n1 is cont5t to lay 8 results    
be=e 8 fell[s1 & is will+ to pr(it by _!
 criticisms4 ,9 s f> z he p]mits himself
 to assume ! m5tal attitude ( "o :o     
def5ds a position1 9 s f> does he reveal
 a grave disqualification = ! mo/ useful
 sci5tific "w4 ,sci5tific tru? ne$s no  
man's def5se1 b our individual /atem5ts 

( :at we believe to be tru? frequ5tly   
ne$ criticism4 ,x is h>dly necess>y to  
rem>k1 also1 t critics are ( v>i\s      
degrees ( excell5ce1 & x seems t ^? 9   
:om ! habit ( criticism has become      
*ronic are ( comp>atively little s]vice 
to ! _w4  ,! great h>b+] ( ! new era 0  
,galileo4 ,!re _h be5 prophets be=e him1
 & aft] him came a great] "o--,newton4  
,!y did no?+ ( note 9 electricity &     
magnetism1 b !y 7 fill$ ) ! true _s (   
sci5ce1 !y introduc$ prop] & reasonable 
me?ods ( inve/igation1 & by _! great    
ability & di/+ui%$ success !y h produc$ 
a revolution 9 ! intellectual _w4 ,o!r  
great m5 _h also appe>$1 su* z ,leibnitz
 & ,huygh5s2 & x became v cle> t !      
me?ods ( inve/igation :i* _h borne su*  
fruit 9 ! days ( ,galileo 7 n dispos$ ( 
completely by 8 unwill+ recantation2 x  
became v cle> t ! new civilization :i* 0
 dawn+ ^u ,europe 0 n de/9$ to ! rude   
fate :i* _h ov]:elm$ ! brilliant        
sci5tific a*ievem5ts ( ! ,spani% ,moors 
( a half c5tury be=e4  ,already 9 #aehj1

 ab\t ! "t :5 ,galileo ent]$ ,pisa z a  
/ud5t1 ,borr\ghs _h det]m9$ ! v>iation (
 ! magnetic ne$le at ,london1 & we h ^u 
! scre5 a view ( 8 in/rum5t1 :i* seems  
rude en\gh1 9 comp>ison ) ! elaborate   
app>atus ( our times4 ,! fir/ great "w  
on electricity & magnetism 0 ! ,de      
,magnete ( ,gilb]t1 physician ( ,que5   
,elizabe?1 publi%$ 9 #afjj4 ,galileo1   
already fam\s 9 ,europe1 recogniz$ 9 !  
me?ods ( inve/igation us$ by ,gilb]t !  
ones :i* he _h f\nd s fruitful1 & wrote 
( him1 ,i extremely praise1 admire1 &   
envy ?is au?or4  ,gilb]t made _m int]e/+
 contributions to magnetism1 :i* we %all
 notice 9 ano!r lecture1 & he also f\nd 
t sulphur1 glass1 wax1 & o!r bodies %>e 
) amb] ! prop]ty ( be+ electrifi$ by    
friction4 ,he conclud$ t _m bodies c\ld 
n be ?us electrifi$4 ,gray1 h[ev]1 f\nd 
9 #agbi t ^! bodies 7 conductors (      
electricity1 & 8 discov]ies & exp]im5ts 
7 expla9$ & describ$ to ! presid5t ( !  
,royal ,society :ile on 8 dea? b$1 &    
only a few h\rs be=e 8 dea?4 ,if        

precautions are tak5 to prop]ly insulate
 conductors1 all bodies :i* diff] 9 any 
way1 ei!r 9 /ructure1 9 smoo?ness (     
surface1 or ev5 9 temp]ature1 are       
app>5tly electrifi$ by friction4 ,9 all 
cases ! friction also produces heat1 &  
if ! bodies rubb$ are exactly alike1    
heat only is produc$4  ,an electrifi$   
body w attract all light bodies4 ,?is   
gutta p]*a :5 rubb$ ) a cat's sk9       
attracts ^! bits ( pap]1 & ?is pi? ball1
 & ?is copp] ball2 x moves ?is long la? 
balanc$ on its c5t]1 & deflects ?is     
v]tical jet ( wat] into a beautiful     
curve4  ,if a conductor is to be        
electrifi$1 x mu/ be support$ by bad    
conductors4 ,?is brass cyl9d] /&+ on a  
glass column has become electrifi$ by   
friction ) cat's-sk94 ,my assi/ant w /& 
^u ?is insulat+ /ool1 & by /rok+ 8 h& y 
w obs]ve t ) 8 o!r h& he c attract ?is  
susp5d$ rod ( wood1 & y w he> a feeble  
sp>k :5 ,i apply my knuckle to 84  ,du  
,fay1 ( ,p>is1 discov]$ :at he call$ two
 k9ds ( electricity4 ,he f\nd t a glass 

rod rubb$ ) silk w repel ano!r glass rod
 simil>ly rubb$1 b t ! silk w\ld attract
 a rubb$ glass rod4 ,we express ! facts 
9 ! well-kn[n law t l electricities     
repel ea* o!r1 & unlike attract4 ,= a   
long "t ! nature ( ! di/9ctions betwe5 !
 two electricities 0 n und]/ood4 ,x 0   
f\nd lat] t :5 ! two bodies are rubb$   
toge!r !y become oppositely electrifi$1 
& t ! two electricities are always      
g5]at$ 9 equal quantity2 s t if ! two   
bodies are held 9 contact aft] ! rubb+  
has ceas$ ! two electricities come      
toge!r aga9 & ! electrical ph5om5a      
disappe>4 ,!y h be5 add$ toge!r1 & !    
result is z]o4 ,frankl9 propos$ to call 
^! electricities positive & negative4   
,^! names are well *os51 b we d n "k any
 reason :y "o %\ld be call$ positive r  
?an ! o!r4 ,! electricity g5]at$ on     
glass :5 rubb$ ) silk is call$ positive4
  ,let u n[ exam9e ! di/9ction betwe5   
positive & negative electricities       
some:at m closely1 aid+ ourselves by two
 cases :i* are some:at analog\s4  ,two  

air-tight cyl9d]s1 ,a & ,b1 conta9 air  
at ord9>y pressure4 ,! cyl9d]s are      
connect$ by a tube conta9+ an air-pump 9
 su* a way t1 :5 ! pump is work$1 air is
 tak5 f ,a & =c$ into ,b4 ,to use !     
language ( ! electricians1 we at once   
g5]ate two k9ds ( pressure4 ,! vessels h
 acquir$ new prop]ties4 ,if we op5 a    
cock 9 ! side ( ei!r vessel1 we he> a   
hiss+ s\nd1 if a light body is plac$    
be=e ! op5+ 9 ,a x w\ld be attract$1 &  
be=e ! op5+ 9 ,b x w\ld be repell$4 ,n[ 
?is is only r\ghly analog\s to ! case ( 
! electrifi$ bodies1 b ! analogy w      
nev]!less aid u 9 our /udy4 ,if ! two   
vessels are fir/ connect$ ) ! air1 & !n 
clos$ up & ! pump is set to "w1 we      
increase ! pressure 9 ,b & dim9i% !     
pressure 9 ,a4 ,to d ?is requires !     
exp5diture ( a quantity ( "w4 ,if !     
cyl9d]s are connect$ by an op5 tube--a  
conductor--! diff]5ce 9 pressure        
disappe>s by reason ( a fl[ ( gas f "o  
vessel to ! o!r4  ,if we _h a pump by   
means ( :i* we c\ld pump heat f "o body 

into ano!r1 />t+ ) two bodies at ! same 
temp]ature1 ! temp]ature ( "o body w\ld 
increase & t ( ! o!r w\ld dim9i%4 ,if we
 knew less ?an we d ( heat1 we might    
well discuss :e!r ! plus sign %\ld be   
appli$ to ! heat or to ! cold1 because  
^! names 7 co9$ by p :o knew v little   
ab\t ! subject except t ^! bodies       
produce diff]5t s5sations :5 !y come 9  
contact ) ! human body4  ,fur!rmore1 we 
f9d t :e!r ! h& is appli$ to a v hot    
body or to a v cold body1 !             
physiological effect is ! same4 ,9 ea*  
case ! tissue is de/roy$ & a burn is    
produc$4 ,%all we n[ say t ?is burn is  
produc$ by an unusual fl[ ( heat f ! hot
 body to ! h&1 or f ! h& to ! cold body1
 or %all we say t x is due to an unusual
 fl[ ( cold f ! cold body to ! h&1 or f 
! h& to ! hot body8  ,logically ^!      
expressions are id5tical2 /ill we h come
 to pref] "o ( !m4 ,x is because we h   
le>n$ t 9 ^? bodies :i* our fa!rs call$ 
hot1 ! p>ticles are vibrat+ ) great]    
en]gy ?an 9 cold bodies1 t we pref] to  

say t heat is add$ & n cold subtract$1  
:5 a cold body becomes less cold4  ,n[  
to come back to our electrifi$ bodies4  
,let u suppose t ?is gutta p]*a1 & ?is  
cat's-sk9 are n electrifi$4 ,t means t  
_! electrical condition is ! same z t ( 
surr\nd+ bodies4 ,let u also suppose t  
_! !rmal condition is ! same z surr\nd+ 
bodies1 ourselves includ$--t is1 !y are 
nei!r hot nor cold4 ,we express ^!      
conditions 9 o!r words by say+ t !      
bodies h ! same electrical pot5tial & ! 
same temp]ature4  ,temp]ature 9 heat is 
analog\s to pot5tial 9 electricity4 ,z  
soon z adjac5t bodies are at diff]5t    
temp]atures1 we h ! ph5om5a :i* reveal  
to u ! exi/5ce ( heat4 ,z soon z adjac5t
 bodies h diff]5t electrical pot5tials1 
we h ! ph5om5a :i* reveal ! exi/5ce (   
electricity4 ,z soon z adjac5t regions 9
 ! air are at diff]5t pressures1 we h   
ph5om5a :i* reveal ! exi/5ce ( air4     
,bodies all t5d to pres]ve ! same       
temp]ature & also ! same electrical     
pot5tial4 ,any di/urbances 9 electrical 

equilibrium are mu* m quickly oblit]at$ 
?an 9 case ( !rmal equilibrium1 & we    
!re=e see less ( electrical ph5om5a ?an 
( !rmal4 ,9 ?und] /orms we see su*      
di/urbances1 & ) delicate in/rum5ts we  
f9d !m go+ on cont9u\sly4 ,*anges 9     
temp]ature occurr+ on a l>ge scale 9 our
 atmosph]e1 occurr+ 9 ^! gas jets1 9 our
 fires1 9 ! axles ( ma*9]y1 & 9 ?\s&s ( 
o!r places1 are s famili> t we h ceas$  
to wond] at !m4  ,if we rub ^! two      
bodies toge!r1 ! pot5tial ( ! two is no 
long] ! same4 ,we d n "k :i* "o has     
become great]1 & 9 ?is respect our k (  
electricity is less complete ?an ( heat4
 ,we assume t ! gutta p]*a has become   
negative4 ,if we n[ leave ^! bodies 9   
contact1 ! pot5tial ( ! cat's sk9 w     
dim9i% & t ( ! gutta p]*a w increase    
until !y h aga9 rea*$ a common          
pot5tial--t ( ! e>?4 ,z 9 ! case ( heat 
& cold1 we may say ei!r t ?is has come  
ab\t by a fl[ ( positive electricity f !
 cat's sk9 to ! gutta p]*a1 or by a fl[ 
( negative electricity 9 ! opposite     

direction1 = ^! /atem5ts are id5tical4  
,9 case ( our gas cyl9d]s1 ! gas t5ds to
 leak out ( ! vessel :]e ! pressure is  
great into ! vessel :]e x is small4 ,!  
heat t5ds to leak out ( a body ( high   
temp]ature into ! cold] "o1 or ! cold   
t5ds to g 9 ! opposite direction4       
,simil>ly1 ! plus electricity t5ds to   
fl[ f ! body hav+ a high pot5tial1 to ! 
body hav+ a l[ pot5tial1 or ! m9us      
electricity t5ds to g 9 ! opposite      
direction4         99       99       99 
99       99  ,,eng9e]+4     ,,!         
,,hydrodynamic ,,rese>*es ,,( ,,pr(essor
 ,,bj]knes4  ,,by ,,conrad ,w4 ,,cooke4 
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4  ,we h 9 =m]   
articles describ$ ! highly int]e/+ s]ies
 ( exp]im5tal rese>*es ( ,dr4 ,c4 ,a4   
,bj]knes1 ,pr(essor ( ,ma!matics 9 !    
,univ]sity ( ,*ri/iania1 :i* =m$ s      
attractive a feature 9 ! ,electrical    
,exhibition ( ,p>is 9 #ahha1 & :i*      
con/itut$ ! practical developm5t ( a    
!oretical rese>* :i* _h ext5d$ ov] a    
previ\s p]iod ( m ?an tw5ty ye>s4 ,!    

exp]im5ts :i* we describ$ 9 ^? articles 
71 z our read]s w rememb]1 ^u ! influ5ce
 ( pulsat+ & rectil9e> vibrat+ bodies ^u
 "o ano!r & ^u bodies 9 _! neighborhood1
 z well z ^u ! m$ium 9 :i* !y are       
imm]s$4 ,?is m$ium1 9 ! majority (      
,pr(essor ,bj]knes e>li] exp]im5ts1 0   
wat]1 al?\gh he demon/rat$ ma!matically1
 & to a small ext5t exp]im5tally1 t !   
ph5om5a1 :i* be> s /rik+ an analogy to  
^? ( magnetism1 may be produc$ 9 air4   
,our read]s w recollect t 9 ! spr+ (    
#ahhb ,mr4 ,/roh1 by means ( "s v       
delicate & beautifully design$ app>atus1
 0 able to demon/rate a l>ge numb] ( !  
same ph5om5a 9 atmosph]ic air ( ! ord9>y
 d5sity2 & ab\t ! same "t ,pr(essor     
,bj]knes1 9 ,*ri/iania1 0 ext5d+ 8      
rese>*es to ph5om5a produc$ by a diff]5t
 class ( vibrations1 namely1 ^? ( bodies
 mov+ 9 oscillations ( a circul> "*1    
su*1 = example1 z a cyl9d] vibrat+ ab\t 
its own axis or a sph]e ar\nd "o ( its  
diamet]s2 "s ( ^! exp]im5ts 7 br\ght by 
,pr(essor ,bj]knes be=e ! ,physical     

,society ( ,london 9 ! foll[+ ,june4    
,s9ce t "t1 h[ev]1 ,pr(essor ,bj]knes1 )
 ! v important assi/ance ( 8 son1 ,mr4  
,vilhelm ,bj]knes1 has be5 ext5d+ ^!    
exp]im5tal rese>*es 9 ! same direction1 
& ) ! results :i* x is ! object ( !     
pres5t s]ies ( articles to describe4    
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4  ,! especial   
feature ( int]e/ 9 all ,pr(essor        
,bj]knes exp]im5ts has be5 ! rem>kably  
close analogy :i* exi/s betwe5 ! ph5om5a
 exhibit$ 9 8 me*anical exp]im5ts 9 wat]
 & o!r m$ia & ^? ( magnetism & (        
electricity1 & x may be ( "s int]e/ if  
we "h recapitulate "s ( ! m /rik+ ( ^!  
analogies4  7#a47 ,9 ! fir/ place1 !    
vibrat+ or pulsat+ bodies1 by sett+ !   
wat] or o!r m$ium 9 :i* !y are imm]s$   
into vibration1 set up 9 _! imm$iate    
neighborhood a field ( me*anical =ce v  
closely analog\s to ! field ( magnetic  
=ce ) :i* magnetiz$ bodies are surr\nd$4
 ,! l9es ( vibration h precisely ! same 
directions & =m ! same figures1 :ile at 
! same "t ! decrease ( ! int5sity (     

vibration by an increase ( di/ance obeys
 precisely ! same law z does t (        
magnetic int5sity at increas+ di/ances f
 a magnetic body4  7#b47 ,:5 two or m   
vibrat+ bodies are imm]s$ 9 a fluid1 !y 
set up ar\nd !m fields ( vibration1 &   
act & react ^u "o ano!r 9 a mann]       
closely analog\s to ! action & reaction 
( magnets ^u "o ano!r1 produc+ ! ph5om5a
 ( attraction & repulsion4 ,9 ?is       
respect1 h[ev]1 ! analogy appe>s to be  
inv]se1 repulsion be+ produc$ :]e1 f !  
magnetic analogy1 "o w\ld expect to f9d 
attraction1 & vice v]sa4  7#c47 ,if a   
neutral body1 t is to say a body hav+ no
 vibration ( its own1 be imm]s$ 9 !     
fluid & )9 ! field ( vibration1 ph5om5a 
are produc$ exactly analog\s to !       
magnetic & diamagnetic ph5om5a produc$  
by ! action ( a magnet ^u s(t iron or   
bismu?1 its app>5tly magnetic or        
diamagnetic prop]ties be+ det]m9$ by !  
specific gravity ( ! neutral body z     
comp>$ to t ( ! m$ium 9 :i* x is imm]s$4
 ,if ! neutral body be light] ?an !     

m$ium1 x exhibits ! magnetic induction (
 iron ) respect to pol>ity1 b is        
nev]!less repell$2 :ile if x be heavi]  
?an ! m$ium1 its direction is simil> to 
t ( diamagnetic bodies su* z bismu?1 b  
on ! o!r h& exhibits ! ph5om5a (        
attraction4  ,9 ?is way ,pr(essor       
,bj]knes has be5 able to reproduce      
analogues ( all ! ph5om5a ( magnetism & 
diamagnetism1 ^? ph5om5a :i* may be     
class$ z effects ( induction be+        
directly reproduc$1 :ile ^? :i* may be  
class$ z effects ( me*anical action1 &  
result+ 9 *ange ( place1 are analog\s   
inv]sely4 ,?is fact has be5 s mu*       
misund]/ood bo? 9 ?is c\ntry & on !     
,cont95t t x w be well1 be=e describ+ ! 
exp]im5ts1 to ent] m fully into an      
explanation ( ^! mo/ int]e/+ &          
in/ructive ph5om5a4  ,= ! sake (        
cle>ness we w speak ( magnetic induction
 z t prop]ty ( a magnet by :i* x is     
surr\nd$ by a field ( =ce1 & by :i*     
pieces ( iron1 )9 t field1 are conv]t$  
into magnets1 & pieces ( bismu? into    

diamagnets1 & we w speak ( magnetic     
action z ! prop]ty ( a magnet by :i* x  
attracts or repels ano!r magnet1 or by  
:i* x attacks or repels a piece ( iron  
or bismu? magnetiz$ by magnetic         
induction4  ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4  ,!
 correspond+ hydrodynamic ph5om5a may be
 reg>d$ 9 a simil> mann]2 ?us1 :5 a     
vibrat+ or pulsat+ body imm]s$ 9 a      
liquid surr\nds itself ) a field (      
vibrations1 or communicates vibrations  
to o!r imm]s$ bodies )9 t vibratory     
field1 ! ph5om5a s produc$ may be look$ 
^u z ph5om5a ( hydrodynamic induction1  
:ile on ! o!r h&1 :5 a vibrat+ or       
pulsat+ body attracts or repels ano!r   
pulsat+ or vibratory body 7:e!r su*     
vibrations be produc$ by outside        
me*anical ag5cy or by hydrodynamical    
induction71 !n ! ph5om5a s produc$ are  
^? ( hydrodynamical action1 & x is 9 ?is
 way t we %all treat ! ph5om5a ?r\gh\t  
?is article1 us+ ! words induction &    
direct action 9 ^! some:at re/rict$     
mean+s4  ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4       

,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4  ,9 !          
hydrodynamical exp]im5ts ( ,pr(essor    
,bj]knes all ! ph5om5a ( magnetic       
induction c be reproduc$ directly &     
p]fectly1 b ! ph5om5a ( magnetic action 
are n s exactly reproduc$1 t is to say1 
!y are subject to a sort ( inv]sion4    
,?us :5 two bodies are pulsat+ toge!r & 
9 ! same phase 7i4 e41 bo? exp&+ & bo?  
contract+ at ! same "t71 !y mutually    
attract ea* o!r3 b if !y are pulsat+ 9  
opposite phases1 repulsion is ! result4 
,f ?is "o exp]im5t tak5 by itself we    
might be l$ to inf] t bodies pulsat+ 9  
simil> phases are ! hydrodynamic        
analogues ( magnets hav+ _! opposite    
poles pres5t$ to "o ano!r1 & t bodies   
pulsat+ 9 opposite phases are analog\s  
to a pres5tation ( simil> magnetic      
poles2 b x w be se5 at once t ?is _c be 
! case if ?ree magnetic poles or ?ree   
pulsat+ bodies be consid]$ in/ead ( only
 two4 ,x is cle>1 on ! "o h&1 t ?ree    
simil> magnet poles w all repel "o      
ano!r1 :ile1 on ! o!r1 ( ?ree pulsat+   

bodies1 two ( !m mu/ always attract "o  
ano!r1 :ile a ?ird w\ld be repell$2 &1  
moreov]1 two simil>ly pulsat+ bodies set
 up ar\nd !m ! same l9es ( =ce z two    
simil> magnetic poles1 & two oppositely 
pulsat+ bodies produce l9es ( =ce       
id5tically ! same z ^? set up by two    
magnets ( opposite pol>ity4 ,?us x w be 
se5 t !re is a break 9 ! analogy betwe5 
! hydrodynamical & ! magnetic ph5om5a   
7if a uni=m inv]sion ( ! effects c be   
call$ a break1 = x is1 z f> z ,pr(essor 
,bj]knes' exp]im5ts g1 )\t an           
exception72 & if by any means ?is       
inv]sion c\ld be re9v]t$1 all ! ph5om5a 
( magnetism & diamagnetism c\ld be      
exactly reproduc$ by hydrodynamical     
analogues2 !re w\ld ?us be gr\nds = =m+ 
a !ory ( magnetism on ! basis (         
me*anical ph5om5a1 & a v important l9k 9
 ! *a9 ( ! correlation ( ! physical =ces
 w\ld be suppli$4  ,:ile ! exp]im5ts (  
,pr(essor ,bj]knes ^u pulsat+ &         
rectil9e>ly vibrat+ bodies & _! influ5ce
 ^u "o ano!r illu/rate by v close       

analogies ! ph5om5a ( magnetism1 ^? ^u  
circul>ly vibrat+ bodies & _! mutual    
influ5ces be> a rem>kable analogy to    
electrical ph5om5a2 & x is a significant
 fact t exactly z 9 ! case ( magnetic   
illu/ration1 ! analogies are direct z   
reg>ds ! ph5om5a ( induction1 & inv]se 9
 _! illu/ration ( direct electrical     
action4  ,if we exam9e ! figure produc$ 
by ! field ( =ce surr\nd+ a conductor   
?r\gh :i* a curr5t ( electricity is be+ 
transmitt$ 7see ,fig4 #a71 we see t iron
 fil+s )9 t field arrange !mselves 9 m  
or less conc5tric circles ar\nd !       
conductor convey+ ! curr5t4 ,f ?is fact 
,pr(essor ,bj]knes & 8 son1 reason+ t1  
to produce a simil> field ( en]gy ar\nd 
a vibrat+ body1 ! vibrations ( t body   
mu/ p>take ( a circul> or rot>y "*1     
con/ruct$ app>atus = produc+ !          
hydrodynamic analogue ( electric        
curr5ts1 9 :i* a conductor transmitt+ a 
curr5t ( electricity is repres5t$ by a  
cyl9d] to :i* oscillations 9 circles    
ar\nd its axis are giv5 by suitable     

me*anical means1 s z to cause ! envelop+
 m$ium to foll[ its motion & make simil>
 rotative vibrations4 ,9 "s ( ! e>li]   
exp]im5ts 9 ?is direction1 cyl9d]s c>ry+
 radial ve9s 7,a1 ,fig4 #b7 or flut$    
longitud9ally ar\nd _! surfaces 7,b1    
,fig4 #b7 7 employ$ ) ! object ( giv+ ! 
vibrat+ cyl9d] a great] hold ( ! liquid 
9 :i* !y 7 imm]s$2 b x 0 f\nd t ^! vanes
 or flut+s _h b little or no effect ^u  
wat] or liquids ( simil> viscosity1 &   
,pr(essor ,bj]kes 0 l$ to adopt highly  
visc\s fluids1 su* z ,glyc]9 or maize   
sirup1 bo? ( :i* sub/ances are well     
adapt$ = ! exp]im5ts1 be+ at ! same "t  
bo? highly visc\s & p]fectly transp>5t &
 colorless4 ,9 seek+1 = ! purpose ( ?is 
rese>*1 a fluid m$ium :i* %all possess  
analog\s prop]ties to ! lum9if]\s e!r1  
or :atev] may be ! m$ium ^: vibrations  
r5d] manife/ c]ta9 physical ph5om5a1 x  
might be consid]$ at fir/ sight t       
sub/ances s d5se z glyc]9 & sirup c\ld h
 b little 9 common ) ! e!r1 & t an      
analogy betwe5 exp]im5ts made )9 x &    

ph5om5a associat$ ) e!real vibrations   
w\ld be ( a v feeble description3 b     
,pr(essor ,bj]knes has %[n t ! *ief     
requisite 9 su* a m$ium is t its        
viscosity %\ld be great1 n absolutely1 b
 l>ge only 9 proportion to its d5sity1 &
 if ! d5sity be small1 ! necess>y       
viscosity may be small also4 ,nei!r is x
 necess>y = ! fluid m$ium to possess    
great int]nal friction1 b :at is        
necess>y to ! exp]im5ts is t ! m$ium    
%all be "o :i* is readily set into      
vibration by ! action ( ! circul>ly     
vibrat+ cyl9d]2 ?is prop]ty appe>s to be
 possess$ exclusively by ! m visc\s     
fluids1 & is1 moreov]1 9 complete accord
 ) :at is kn[n ( ! lum9if]\s e!r accord+
 to ! !ory ( light4  ,! prop]ty is r a  
k9d ( ela/icity1 :i* ord9>y fluids d n  
possess1 b :i* facilitates ! propagation
 ( transv]se vibrations4  ,"o =m (      
app>atus = ! propagation ( rotative     
oscillations is %[n to ! left ( ,fig4   
#c1 & consi/s ( a cyl9d]1 ,a1 m\nt$ on a
 tubul> sp9dle1 & :i* is set into       

circul> oscillations ar\nd its axis by !
 little vibrat+ membrane1 ,c1 :i* is    
atta*$ to ! axis ( ! cyl9d] by a little 
crank & connect+ rod %[n 9 detail 9     
,fig4 #d4 ,?is membrane is set into     
vibration by a rapidly pulsat+ column ( 
air conta9$ 9 a flexible tube ,m1 by :i*
 app>atus is connect$ to ! pulsation    
pump :i* 0 employ$ by ,pr(essor ,bj]knes
 9 8 e>li] exp]im5ts4 ,9 ,fig4 #e1 a    
some:at simil> app>atus = produc+       
horizontal vibrations is %[n1 & m>k$ ,n 
,h ,c1 ! only diff]5ce betwe5 !m be+ "o 
( me*anical detail necessitat$ by !     
*ange 9 ! position ( axis ( vibration f 
! v]tical to ! horizontal4  ,if         
circul>ly vibrat+ cyl9d]s1 su* z we h   
describ$1 be imm]s$ 9 a visc\s fluid &  
set into action1 ! foll[+ ph5om5a may be
 obs]v$3 #a4 ,! effect ^u ! fluid       
itself1 sett+ up !re9 a field (         
vibration1 & correspond+ by analogy ) ! 
production ( a field ( =ce ar\nd a wire 
convey+ an electric curr5t4 #b4 ,!      
effect ^u o!r circul>ly vibrat+ bodies  

)9 t field ( =ce correspond+ to ! action
 & reaction ( electric curr5ts ^u "o    
ano!r4 #c4 ,! effect on pulsat+ &       
oscillat+ bodies simil>ly imm]s$1       
illu/rat+ ! mutual effects ^u "o ano!r (
 magnets & electric curr5ts4 ,! fir/ (  
^! effects is "o ( induction1 &1 f :at  
has be5 said f an e>li] "p ( ?is        
article1 x w be und]/ood t ! analogy    
betwe5 ! hydrodynamic & ! electric      
ph5om5a is direct & complete4 ,! effects
 classifi$ "u ! second & ?ird heads1 be+
 ph5om5a ( direct action 79 ! re/rict$  
use ( ! ^w71 are uni=mly analog\s to !  
magnetic & electric ph5om5a :i* !y      
illu/rate4  7,to be cont9u$47         99
       99       99       99       99    
,,! ,,xylophone4   ,l mo/ musical       
in/rum5ts1 ! xylophone1 _h its orig9 9 v
 remote times4 ,! ,hebrews & ,greeks _h 
in/rum5ts f :i* ! "o ( to-day 0 d]iv$1  
al?\gh ! latt] has naturally und]gone _m
 trans=mations4 ,along ab\t #agdb we f9d
 x widely 9 use 9 ,sicily "u ! "n (     
,xylonganum4 ,! ,russians1 ,cossacks1 & 

,t>t>s1 & especially ! m\nta9 population
 ( ! ,c>pa?ians & ,ural1 play$ mu* ^u an
 in/rum5t ( ! same nature t !y call$    
,di]eva & ,saloma4  ,x appe>s t !       
xylophone 0 play$ 9 ,g]many z e>ly z !  
beg9n+ ( ! #af? c5tury4 ,aft] ?is epo* x
 0 9 use = q a long p]iod1 b gradually  
fell into oblivion until ! beg9n+ ( !   
pres5t c5tury4 ,x 0 t[>d #ahcj t !      
celebrat$ ,russian ,gussik[ und]took a  
gr& arti/ic voyage ?r\gh ,europe1 & ga9$
 a c]ta9 r5[n & receiv$ _m honors due to
 8 truly orig9al productions4 ,gussik[  
possess$ a rem>kable te*nique t p]mitt$ 
! musical in/rum5t :i* he br\ght into   
fa%ion to be appreciat$ = all its wor?4 
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,,me?od ,,(   
,,play+ ,,^u ,,! ,,xylophone4  ,z ! "n1 
in/rum5t ( wood & /raw1 indicates1 !    
xylophone 7:i* ,fig4 #a %[s ! mode (    
us+7 consi/s ( small pieces ( wood (    
v>y+ l5g?1 & n>r[ or wide accord+ to !  
tone t x is desir$ to get f !m4 ,^!     
pieces ( wood are connect$ ) ea* o!r by 
cords s z to =m a triangul> figure      

7,fig4 #b7 t may be manag$ )\t fe> (    
displac+ ! p>ts4 ,! :ole is laid ^u b&s 
( /raw design$ to br+ out ! s\nds & r5d]
 !m /rong] & pur]4 ,! s\nds are produc$ 
by /rik+ ! pieces ( wood ) a c\ple (    
small hamm]s4 ,!y are %ort & j]ky1 &1 z 
!y _c be prolong$1 no?+ b pieces        
possess+ a quick rhy?m c be execut$ ^u !
 in/rum5t4 ,dances1 m>*es1 v>iations1   
etc41 are play$ ^u x by pref]5ce1 & ) ! 
be/ effect4  ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4       
#b4--,,plan ,,view ,,( ,,! ,,xylophone4 
,! popul>ity ( ?is in/rum5t is mak+     
rapid progress1 & x is beg9n+ to be     
play$ 9 or*e/ras 9 ,france z x has be5 9
 ,am]ica = _m ye>s4 ,a me?od ( us+ x has
 j be5 publi%$1 z well z pieces ( music 
adapt$ to x1 ) piano1 viol91 or*e/ra1   
etc41 accompanim5t4         99       99 
99       99       99     ,,electrotyp+4 
,?is em95tly useful application ( ! art 
( electrotyp+ orig9at$ ) ,volta1        
,cruick%ank1 & ,wolla/on ab\t #ahjj or  
#ahja4 ,9 #ahch1 ,sp5c]1 ( ,london1 made
 ca/s ( co9s1 & ca/ 9 intaglio f !      

matrices ?us =m$2 9 ! same ye> ,jacobi1 
( ,dorpat1 9 ,russia1 made ca/s by      
electro deposit1 :i* caus$ him to be put
 9 *>ge ( ! "w ( gild+ ! dome ( ,/4     
,isaac at ,/4 ,pet]sburg4  ,electrotyp+ 
= ! purposes ( pr9t+ orig9at$ ) ,mr4    
,joseph ,a4 ,adams1 a wood-engrav] (    
,new ,york1 :o made ca/s 7#ahci-da7 f   
wood-cuts1 "s engrav+s be+ pr9t$ f      
electrotype plates 9 ! latt] ye>4 ,_m   
improvem5ts 9 detail h be5 add$ s9ce1 9 
! processes z well z ! appliances4      
,rob]t ,murray introduc$ graphite z a   
coat+ = ! =m m\lds4 ,he fir/ communicat$
 8 discov]y to ! ,royal ,in/itution (   
,london1 & aft]w>d receiv$ a silv] m$al 
f ! ,society ( ,arts4   ,,blacklead+ ,,!
 ,,=m4  ,! process ( electrotyp+ is z   
foll[s3 ,! =m is lock$ up v tightly1 &  
is !n coat$ ) a surface ( graphite1     
commonly kn[n z blacklead1 b x is a     
misnom]4 ,?is is put on ) a bru%1 & may 
be done v ev5ly & spe$ily by a ma*9e 9  
:i* ! bru% is reciprocat$ ov] ! type by 
h&-:eel1 crank1 & pitman4 ,a s(t bru% & 

v f9ely p[d]$ graphite are us$2 !       
sup]flu\s p[d] be+ remov$1 & ! face ( ! 
type clean$ by ! palm ( ! h&4   ,,tak+  
,,! ,,m\ld4  ,a %all[ pan1 kn[n z a     
m\ld+ pan1 is !n fill$ ) melt$ yell[    
wax1 mak+ a smoo?1 ev5 surface1 :i* is  
blacklead$4 ,! pan is !n secur$ to !    
head ( ! press1 & ! =m plac$ on ! b$1   
:i* is !n rais$1 deliv]+ an impression (
 ! type ^u ! wax4  ,! pan is remov$ f ! 
head ( ! press1 plac$ on a table1 & !n  
built up1 z x is t]m$4 ,?is consi/s 9   
runn+ wax ^u ! portions :]e l>ge spaces 
occur betwe5 type1 9 ord] t correspond+ 
portions 9 ! electrotype may n be t\*$  
by ! ink+ roll]1 or t\*$ by ! sagg+ d[n 
( ! pap] 9 pr9t+4   ,,mak+ ,,!          
,,deposit4  ,! wax m\ld be+ built1 is   
ready = blacklead+1 to give x a conduct+
 surface ^u :i* ! metal may be deposit$ 
9 ! ba?1 sup]flu\s blacklead be+ remov$ 
) a bell[s4 ,blacklead1 be+ ne>ly pure  
c>bon1 is a poor conductor1 & a "p ( !  
metal ( ! pan is scrap$ clean1 to =m a  
place = ! comm5cem5t ( ! deposit4 ,!    

back ( ! m\ld+ is wax$1 to prev5t       
deposit ( copp] !reon1 & ! face ( !     
matrix is wett$ to drive away all films 
or bubbles ( air :i* may o!rwise be     
atta*$ to ! blacklead$ surface ( ! type4
  ,! m\ld is !n plac$ 9 ! ba?1 conta9+ a
 solution ( sulphate ( copp]1 & is made 
a "p ( an electric circuit1 9 :i* is    
also includ$ ! z9c elem5t 9 !           
sulphuric-acid solution 9 ! o!r ba?4 ,a 
film ( copp] is deposit$ on ! blacklead 
surface ( ! m\ld2 & :5 ?is %ell is      
suffici5tly ?ick1 x is tak5 f ! ba?1 !  
wax remov$1 ! %ell trimm$1 ! back t9n$1 
/raight5$1 back$ ) an alloy (           
type-metal1 !n %av$ to a ?ickness1 &    
m\nt$ on a block to make x type-high4   
,a ,,rec5t ,,improvem5t4  has be5       
introduc$ 9 :i* !re is add$ f9ely       
pulv]iz$ t9 to ! graphite = fac+ ! wax  
m\ld2 ! effect 9 ! sulphate ( copp] ba? 
is to cause a rapid deposition ( copp]  
by ! sub/itution ( copp] = ! t91 ! latt]
 be+ seiz$ by ! oxyg51 :ile ! copp] is  
deposit$ ^u ! graphite4 ,! film is aft] 

increas$ by ! usual means4 ,knight's    
exp$iti\s process consi/s 9 du/+ f9e    
iron fil+s on ! wet graphite surface ( !
 wax m\ld1 & !n p\r+ ^u x a solution (  
sulphate ( copp]4 ,/irr+ ) a bru%       
exp$ites ! contact1 & a decomposition   
takes place2 ! acid leaves ! copp] & =ms
 ) ! iron sulphate a solution :i* floats
 (f1 :ile ! copp] is fre$ & deposit$ 9 a
 pure metallic =m ^u ! graphite4 ,!     
black surface takes on a muddy t+e )    
m>vel\s rapidity4 ,! electric-connection
 gripp] is design$ to hold & su/a9 !    
m\ld+ pan & make an electric connection 
) ! prep>$ conduct+ pan ( ! m\ld only1  
:ile ! metallic pan itself is out ( !   
curr5t ( electricity1 & receives no     
deposit4   ,,back+-,,up4  ,! ?9         
copp]-plate1 :5 remov$ f ! wax m\ld1 is 
j z m9utely correct 9 ! l9es & po9ts z 0
 ! wax m\ld1 & ! orig9al page ( type4 ,b
 x is obvi\s t ! copp] %eet is no use to
 get a pr9t f4 ,y mu/ h some?+ z solid z
 ! type itself be=e x c be reproduc$ on 
pap]4 ,s a basis ( metal is affix$ to ! 

copp] film1 & ?is aga9 is back$ up )    
wood ?ick en\gh to make ! :ole          
type-high4 ,to get ?is1 a man melts "s  
t9foil 9 a %all[ iron tray1 :i* he      
places on ! surface ( molt5 lead1 kept  
to t heat 9 squ>e tanks ov] ord9>y      
fires4 ,! t9foil /icks to ! back ( !    
copp]1 & on ! back ( ?is is p\r$ melt$  
type-metal1 until a solid plate has be5 
=m$1 ! surface ( :i* is ! copp]         
facsimile & ! body :ite metal4 ,!       
electro metal plate1 copp] color$ &     
bright on its surface1 has n[ to g to ! 
,,f9i%+ ,,room4  ,"h are two dep>tm5ts4 
,9 "o ! plates are %av$ & trimm$ d[n to 
fit ! wood blocks1 :i* are made 9 ! o!r 
dep>tm5t4 ,"s ( ^! op]ations are done by
 h&1 b x is v int]e/+ to see self-work+ 
ma*9es plan+ ! %eets ( metal to         
precisely ! requir$ ?9ness ) ma!matical 
exactness4 ,a po9t$ tool is set to a    
c]ta9 pit*1 & ! plate ( metal is made to
 revolve 9 su* a way t "o cont9u\s curl 
%av+ falls until ! :ole surface 7back7  
has be5 plan$ p]fectly true4 ,! wood    

blocks are treat$ 9 ! same way1 aft] be+
 sawn into ! requir$ sizes by a numb] ( 
circul> saws4 ,ano!r set ( workm5 fit & 
jo9 ! metal to ! wood1 trim ! edges1 &  
turn ! blocks out type-high & ready =   
work+ on ! pr9t+ press4   ,a ,,wet      
,,blacklead+ ,,process4  ,9 ,messrs4    
,h>p]'s e/abli%m5t 9 ,new ,york1 an     
improv$ wet process ( blacklead+ is     
adopt$4 ,! wax m\ld is laid face upw>d  
on ! floor ( an inclos$ box1 & a torr5t 
( f9ely pulv]iz$ graphite susp5d$ 9 wat]
 is p\r$ ^u x by means ( a rot>y pump1 a
 hose1 & a di/ribut+ nozzle :i* da%es ! 
liquid equally ov] ! :ole surface ( !   
m\ld4 ,sup]flu\s graphite is !n remov$  
by copi\s wa%+1 an extremely f9e film ( 
graphite adh]+ to ! wax4 ,?is answ]s a  
triple purpose2 x coats ! m\ld )        
graphite1 wets x ready = ! ba?1 & expels
 air bubbles f ! lett]s4 ,?is process   
prev5ts entirely ! circulation (        
blacklead 9 ! air1 :i* has h]et(ore be5 
s objectionable 9 ! process (           
electrotyp+4   ,a ,,new ,,=eign         

,,process4  ,! galvanopla/ic process (  
,m4 ,cobl5ce = obta9+ electrotypes (    
wood-engrav+s is z foll[s3 ,a frame is  
laid ^u a m>ble block1 & !n cov]$ ) a   
solution ( wax1 colophane1 & turp5t9e4  
,?is mixture on ! frame1 aft] cool+1    
becomes h>d1 & pres5ts a smoo?1 ev5     
surface4 ,an engrav$ wood5 block is !n  
plac$ ^u ! surface ( ! frame1 & subject$
 to a /rong pressure4 ,! impr9t on      
matrix 9 cameo1 hav+ be5 coat$ )        
graphite1 is !n plac$ v]tically 9 a     
galvanopla/ic ba?1 & a ca/1 an exact    
reproduction ( ! wood-engrav+1 is       
obta9$4 ,! %ell is !n back$ ) type metal
 & f9i%$ 9 ! usual way4--,pr9t] &       
,/ation]4         99       99       99  
99       99     ,a ,,new ,,seismograph4 
,all ! seismographs t h hi!rto be5      
employ$ h two grave disadvantages3 !y   
are ei!r too simple1 s t _! indications 
are valueless1 or too complicat$1 s t _!
 high co/ & delicacy1 & ! difficulty (  
m\nt+ !m & keep+ !m 9 ord]1 t5d to      
prev5t !m f be+ g5]ally us$4            

,seismology w n be able to make any     
s]i\s progress until x has at its       
disposal v c]ta9 & v num]\s data z to   
telluric movem5ts regi/]$ at a l>ge     
numb] ( po9ts at once by accurate       
in/rum5ts4 ,i h endeavor$ to con/ruct a 
simple app>atus capable ( automatically 
regi/]+ su* facts z x is mo/ necess>y to
 "k 9 sci5tific rese>*es on ! movem5ts (
 ! e>?4 ,aft] num]\s exp]im5ts ,i       
believe t ,i h succe$$ 9 solv+ ?is      
delicate problem1 s9ce my app>atus1 put 
to ! te/ ( exp]i5ce1 has giv5 me        
satisfactory results4 ,i h consequ5tly  
decid$ to submit x to ! approval ( m5 ( 
sci5ce4  ,my seismograph is capable (   
regi/]+ 7#a7 v]tical %ocks1 7#b7        
horizontal ones1 7#c7 ! ord] 9 :i* all !
 %ocks manife/ !mselves1 7#d7 _!        
direction1 & 7#e7 ! h\r ( ! fir/        
movem5t4  ,illu/ration3 ,,cord5ons'     
,,seismograph4  ,! app>atus is repres5t$
 9 ! accompany+ cut4 ,! horizontal %ocks
 are indicat$ by ! front portion ( !    
sy/em1 & ! v]tical ones by ! back       

portion4 ,! h\r ( ! fir/ %ock is        
indicat$ z foll[s3 ,! ela/ic /rip (     
/eel1 ,c1 is fix$ by "o ( its           
extremities to a /ation>y support1 d4   
,:51 z a consequ5ce ( a v]tical motion1 
! free extremity ( ?is /rip oscillates1 
! lead5 ball1 x1 drops into ! tube1 c1  
&1 on rea*+ ! bottom ( ?is1 acts by its 
%ock ^u a cord1 i1 :i* actuates !       
p5dulum ( a clock t has previ\sly be5   
/opp$ at #ab4 ,! o!r /rip1 ,b1 is v     
simil> to ! "o j describ$1 b1 in/ead (  
c>ry+ a ball1 x holds a small metallic  
cyl9d]1 u1 s balanc$ t a v]tical %ock 9 
an upw>d direction causes x to drop =w>d
 into ! ant]ior half ( ! tube to ! left4
 ,a second v]tical %ock 9 a d[nw>d      
direction causes x to drop into ! o!r   
half4 ,! cyl9d]1 u1 & ! ball1 x1 are    
regulat$ 9 _! positions by means (      
screws affix$ to a /ation>y support4  ,!
 portion ( ! app>atus design$ to regi/] 
horizontal 7undulatory7 motions consi/s 
( f\r v]tical p5dulums1 z z z z1 ea* (  
:i* is capable ( mov+ 9 b "o direction1 

s9ce1 9 ! o!r1 x re/s aga9/ a fix$      
column4  ,telluric waves1 accord+ to    
mod]n obs]vations1 almo/ inv>iably 9 e  
region foll[ two directions t cross ea* 
o!r at "r angles4 ,:5 ! seismograph has 
be5 arrang$ accord+ to su* directions1  
no matt] f :at "p ! fir/ horizontal %ock
 comes1 "o ( ! f\r p5dulums w be set 9  
motion4 ,if1 aft] ! fir/ undulation 9 "o
 direction1 ano!r occurs 9 ! opposite1 !
 p5dulum fac+ ! fir/ w 9 its turn beg9  
to move2 & if o!r undulations make      
!mselves felt 9 diametrically opposite  
directions1 ! o!r p5dulums w beg9 to    
act4 ,^! p5dulums1 9 _! motion1 c>ry    
along ! app5dages1 e e e e1 :i* are s   
arrang$ z to fall 9 ! c5t] ( ! m>ble or 
iron table1 "o ^u ano!r1 & ?us %[ ! ord]
 accord+ to :i* ! telluric waves        
manife/$ !mselves4 ,! "p ( ! app>atus t 
records v]tical %ocks has a w9*1 r1 :i* 
falls at ! same place :5 ! lead ball    
drops4  ,! app>atus z a :ole may be     
inclos$ 9 a case4 ,:5 x is desir$ to    
employ x1 x %\ld be m\nt$ 9 a cell>1    

:ile ! clock t is connect$ ) x c be     
locat$ 9 "o ( ! upp] /ories ( !         
h\se4--,f4 ,cord5ons1 9 ,la ,nature4    
99       99       99       99       99  
,,notes ,,on ,,?ree ,,new ,,*9ese ,,fix$
 ,,oils4#a     ,footnote #a3 ,read at an
 ev5+ meet+ ( ! ,ph>maceutical          
,society ( ,great ,brita91 ,feb1 #d1    
#ahhe4  ,by ,,rob]t ,h4 ,,davies1       
,f4,i4,c41 ,f4,c4,s41 ,g5]al ,sup]9t5d5t
 ( ,apo!c>ies' ,hall4   ,! ?ree oils t  
=m ! subject ( ! exam9ation detail$ 9   
?is pap] 7 consign$ to a ,london brok]1 
) a view to _! be+ regul>ly export$ f   
,*9a if a m>ket c\ld be f\nd = !m "h3 x 
01 !re=e1 necess>y to asc]ta9 :at       
comm]cial oils !y resembl$ 9 "*1 s z to 
e/imate to :at uses !y might be appli$4 
,,tea ,,oil 7,camellia oleif]a74  ,9    
color1 transp>5cy1 & mobility1 ?is oil  
consid]ably resembles olive oil4 ,! odor
 & ta/e1 ?\gh *>act]i/ic1 are n easy to 
describe4  7#a47 ,specific ,gravity4--,!
 specific gravity at #fj ,f4 is #iag4e71
 wat] at #fj ,f4 be+ tak5 z #a1jjj4     

7#b47 ,action ( ,cold4--,on subject+ to 
! cold produc$ by a mixture ( p\nd$ ice 
& salt1 "s solid fatty matt]1 probably  
/e>9e1 sep>ates1 adh]+ to ! side ( !    
tube4 ,x takes a long] exposure & a l[] 
temp]ature ?an is necess>y ) olive oil4 
,i did n succe$ 9 solidify+ x1 b only 9 
caus+ "s deposit4 ,olive oil became     
solid1 :ile almond & ca/or oil on ! o!r 
h& did n deposit at all "u simil>       
circum/ances4 ,! l[e/ temp]ature obs]v$ 
0 -#ac4c ,c4 7#h ,f471 ! !rmomet] bulb  
be+ imm]s$ 9 ! oil4  ,a few qualitative 
te/s1 viz41 ! action ( sulphuric acid1  
nitric acid 7sp4 gr4 #a4db71 & dige/ion1
 ) m dilute nitric acid 7#a4b sp4 gr47 &
 a globule ( m]cury1 7 fir/ tri$4  ,:5  
"o drop ( sulphuric acid is add$ to     
eight or t5 drops ( tea oil on a :ite   
plate1 ! *ange ( color obs]v$ is m l t  
:5 almond oil is simil>ly treat$ ?an )  
any o!r oil1 olive oil com+ next 9 ord] 
( simil>ity4  ,:5 a few drops ( tea oil 
are boil$ ) ?irty drops or s ( nitric   
acid 9 a small tube1 ! lay] ( oily      

matt]1 :5 ! brisk action has mod]at$1 is
 ( a light yell[ color1 simil> 9 t9t to 
t produc$ f almond & olive oil "u simil>
 circum/ances4 ,:5 ! oil is dige/$ ) an 
equal volume ( nitric acid 7#a4b sp4    
gr471 & a globule ( m]cury add$1 ! :ole 
becomes conv]t$ into a mass ( elaid9 9  
ab\t two h\rs1 ( ! same t9t z t produc$ 
f almond oil :5 simil>ly treat$4  ,^!   
te/s po9t to ! fact t ! oil may be      
consid]$ z resembl+ almond or olive oil 
9 composition1 a conclusion :i* is borne
 out by ! subsequ5t exp]im5ts4  7#c47   
,free ,acidity ( ,oil4--,! oil 0 f\nd to
 conta9 free acid 9 small quantity1 :i* 
0 e/imat$ by agitat+ a weigh$ quantity )
 alcohol1 9 :i* ! free acid dissolves   
:ile ! neutral fat does n1 & titrat+ !  
alcoholic liquid ) dec9ormal alkali1 us+
 solution ( ph5ol-ph?ale9 z an          
indicator4  ,x 0 ?us f\nd t #ajj grammes
 ( ! oil require #j4cd gramme ( cau/ic  
pota% to neutralize ! free acid4 ,mr4   
,w4 ,h4 ,de]+ 7,j\rn4 ,soc4 ( ,*em4     
,indu/ry1 ,nov41 #ahhd7 /ates t 9 sev5  

samples ( olive oil exam9$ by him1 !    
m9imum numb] = acidity 0 #j4hf p] c5t41 
& ! maximum #a4fd p] c5t41 ! mean be+   
#a4bh p] c5t4 ,tea oil comp>es favorably
 ) olive oil1 !re=e1 9 respect (        
acidity1 a quality ( :i* note has to be 
tak5 :5 consid]+ ! employm5t ( oil z a  
lubricat+ ag5t4  7#d47 ,saponification (
 ! ,oil4--,consid]able light is ?r[n on 
! composition ( a fix$ oil by asc]ta9+  
h[ mu* alkali is requir$ to saponify x4 
,9 ord] to e/imate ?is1 a kn[n excess ( 
alcoholic solution ( pota% is add$ to a 
weigh$ quantity ( ! oil1 conta9$ 9 a    
/\t1 well-clos$ bottle 7an ,india-rubb] 
/opp] is ! mo/ conv5i5t71 :i* is !n     
heat$ 9 a wat] ov5 until ! liquid is    
cle>1 no oil bubbles be+ visible4       
,ph5ol-ph?ale9 solution be+ add$1 !     
excess ( pota% is e/imat$ by c>efully   
titrat+ ) /&>d hydro*loric acid         
solution4  ,x 0 ?us f\nd t #a1jjj       
grammes ( oil w\ld require #aie4e       
grammes ( cau/ic pota% to conv]t x      
entirely into pota% soap4  ,koett/orf]1 

to :om ?is me?od ( analysis is due1     
gives #aia4h1 & ,messrs4 ,f4 ,w4 & ,a4  
,f4 ,/odd>t ! numb]s #aia to #aif1 z !  
am\nts ( cau/ic pota% requir$ by #a1jjj 
p>ts ( olive oil4 ,! numb]s giv5 by nig]
 se$1 cotton se$1 & l9se$ oils are v    
simil> to ^!4 ,^! oils diff] f olive &  
tea oil1 h[ev]1 9 hav+ a high] specific 
gravity1 & 9 ! prop]ty !y possess ( dry+
 to a great] or less ext5t on exposure  
to air4  7#e47 ,! ,fatty ,acids         
,produc$4--,a solution ( ! pota% soap 0 
treat$ ) excess ( hydro*loric acid1 &   
aft] be+ well wa%$ ) hot wat]1 ! cake ( 
fatty acids 0 dri$ ?or\ghly & weigh$4   
,^!1 insoluble 9 wat]1 am\nt$ to #ic4id 
p] c5t1 ( ! fat tak54 ,! proportion     
dissolv$ 9 ! wat] us$ = wa%+ 0 e/imat$  
by titration ) alkali2 ! quantity (     
,,koh requir$ 0 insignificant1 equal+   
#j4ga p] c5t1 ( ! fat orig9ally us$4    
,?is portion 0 n fur!r exam9$4  ,!      
insoluble fatty acids am\nt$1 z la/     
/at$1 to #ic4id p] c5t4 ,pure ole91     
suppos+ none ( ! lib]at$ acid to be     

dissolv$ 9 wat]1 w\ld yield #ie4g p]    
c5t4 ( fatty acid4  ,! acid 0 evid5tly a
 mixture1 & _h no def9ite melt+ po9t4 ,x
 0 solid at #i ,c41 & suffici5tly s(t to
 fl[ at #ab ,c41 b did n entirely       
liquefy "u #bb ,c4 ,to te/ its          
neutraliz+ p[]1 #j4iege gramme dissolv$ 
9 alcohol 0 titrat$ ) dec9ormal alkali2 
x requir$ #cd4je c4c4 ,?is am\nt ( pure 
oleic acid w\ld require #cc4ie c4c42 (  
pure /e>ic acid1 :i* has almo/ ! same   
molecul> weight z oleic acid1 #cc4ga    
c4c42 or ( pure palmitic acid1 #cg4d    
c4c4 ,?is1 tak5 9 conjunction ) ! way 9 
:i* ! acid melt$1 makes x extremely     
probable t x is a mixture ( oleic &     
/e>ic acids4  ,additional evid5ce ( !   
l>ge proportion ( oleic acid 0 furni%$  
by =m+ ! lead salt1 & treat+ ) e!r1 9   
:i* lead oleate is soluble1 ! /e>ate &  
palmitate be+ insoluble4 ,9 ?is way x 0 
f\nd t ! oleic acid obta9$ f ! e!real   
solution ( ! lead salt am\nt$ to #hc4ae 
p] c5t4 ( ! oil4  ,?is acid 0 prov$ to  
be oleic1 by its saturat+ p[] & its     

melt+ po9t1 :i* 7 fairly concordant ) ^?
 ( ! pure acid4   ,,cabbage ,,oil       
7,brassica1 sp474  ,appe>ance1 etc4--,! 
sample 0 ( a deep br[n color1 ( a       
fluidity int]m$iate betwe5 olive & ca/or
 oil1 & possess$ a /rong1 r disagreeable
 odor4  ,! ,specific ,gravity at #fj    
,fahr41 #iad4j4--,! specific gravity (  
rape oil & colza oil1 bo? ( :i* are     
obta9$ f species ( ! g5ius ,brassica1   
v>ies f #iac4f to #iaf4  ,exposure to   
,cold4--,?is oil by exposure to a       
temp]ature ( -#ab ,c4 7#aj ,f47 becomes 
solidifi$ 9 c\rse ( an h\r1 a bright    
orange-yell[ mass result+4  ,qualitative
 ,exam9ation4--,! ?ree reag5ts be=e     
indicat$ 7 appli$ to ?is oil4  7a47     
,sulphuric ,acid4--,! color produc$ 0 v 
m>k$ & *>act]i/ic2 x diff]$ consid]ably 
f any ( ! o!rs simultane\sly te/$1 !    
ne>e/ to x be+ olive end rape oil4  7b47
 ,/rong ,nitric ,acid4--,! reaction 0 m 
viol5t ?an be=e1 ! /ratum ( oil aft]    
cool+ be+ d>k] 9 color ?an 9 ! ?ree     
cases be=e m5tion$4 ,! reaction ) rape  

oil 0 simil> 9 all respects4  7c47      
,elaid9 ,te/4--,! solid mass ( elaid9   
=m$ 0 ( a d>k] color ?an t f olive1     
almond1 & tea oil1 b closely resembl$ t 
f rape oil4  ,free ,acidity4--,?is 0    
e/imat$ z above describ$4 #ajj grammes (
 oil w\ld require #j4abe gramme cau/ic  
pota%4 ,! samples ( rape oil exam9$ by  
,de]+ 7loc4 cit47 7 f\nd to require f   
#j4ba to #j4gh ,,koh p] #ajj grammes    
oil4  ,saponification ( ! ,oil4--,^u    
saponify+ ) alcoholic pota%1 x 0 f\nd t 
#a1jjj grammes ( oil requir$ #age4b     
grammes ( pota% = complete              
saponification4  ,! numb] obta9$ by     
,koett/orf] = colza 0 #agh4g1 by        
,messrs4 ,/odd>t = rape oil1 #age-agi1 &
 by ,de]+ = rape oil1 #agj4h-age4e4 ,!  
only o!r oil ( :i* ,i c f9d figures     
resembl+ ^! is ca/or oil1 :i* requires  
#agf-agh grammes p] kilo 7,messrs4      
,/odd>t74 ,! diff]5ce 9 specific gravity
 betwe5 ?is 7cabbage7 oil & ca/or oil & 
! solubility ( ! latt] 9 alcohol po9t to
 a wide di/9ction betwe5 !m4 ,h5ce ,i   

?9k ! numb]s above giv5 conclusively    
demon/rate ! resemblance betwe5 ?is oil 
& rape oil 9 composition4  ,! ,fatty    
,acids4--,! acids produc$ by add+ ,h,cl 
to ! pota% soap 7 almo/ entirely        
insoluble 9 wat]4 ,! actual am\nt (     
pota% requir$ to neutralize ! acid 9 !  
wa% wat] equal$ #j4bj p] c5t4 ( ! oil   
orig9ally tak54  ,! insoluble fatty acid
 am\nt$ to #ie4cae p] c5t4 ( ! oil tak54
 ,x 0 evid5tly a mixture ( two or m     
fatty acids4 ,on try+ to take its melt+ 
po9t1 ,i f\nd t x comm5c$ to s(t5 at #ag
 ,c41 0 di/9ctly liquid at #ai1 b n     
completely melt$ until #bb ,c4  ,accord+
 to ,o4 ,ba* 7,ye> ,book ,ph>m41 #ahhd1 
p4 #bej71 ! fatty acids f rape se$ oil  
melt at #bj4g ,c41 :i* is fairly        
concordant ) ! result obta9$ = cabbage  
oil acids4  ,! neutraliz+ p[] ( ^! acids
 0 !n te/$4 #j4fih gramme dissolv$ 9    
alcohol requir$ #bj4eb c4c4 dec9ormal   
alkali4 ,x is a s+ul> co9cid5ce t       
brassic acid 7,c#bb;,h#db,o#b71 :i* is a
 *>act]i/ic acid ( colza & rape oils1   

w\ld h requir$ almo/ exactly ?is        
quantity ( alkali = neutralization1     
#j4fih brassic acid !oretically saturat+
 #bj4fi c4c4 ( dec9ormal alkali4 ,i am  
dispos$ to reg>d ?is z a co9cid5ce1 s9ce
 a subsequ5t exp]im5t %[$ t ! lead salts
 =m$ 7 p>tially soluble 9 e!r1 :]eas !  
lead salt ( brassic acid is said to be  
insoluble 9 ?is liquid4   ,,wood ,,oil  
7,elococcus cordata74  ,appe>ance1      
etc4--,?is oil has a decid$ br[n color &
 a p]si/5t & disagreeable odor4 ,x is r 
m fluid ?an ca/or oil4 ,glass vessels   
conta9+ x soon %[ a film ( app>5tly     
res9\s mat]ial1 :i* =ms :5ev] a portion 
( ! oil fl[s f ! lip or edge d[n !      
outside ( ! vessel1 & is ?us expos$ to !
 air 9 a ?9 /ream4 ,?is dry+ p[] is "o (
 its mo/ prom95t *>act]s4 ,if a few     
drops be expos$ 9 a flat di%1 9 ! wat]  
ov51 ! oil dries rapidly1 s t 9 two h\rs
 ! ga9 9 weight w be appreciable1 & 9   
f\r h\rs ! :ole w h become solid4  ,!   
,specific ,gravity at #fj ,fahr41       
#idj4ae4--,?is is an unusually high     

gravity = a fix$ oil4 ,! only two :i*   
exce$ x are ca/or oil1 :i* is #ifj1     
ab\t1 & croton oil1 :i* is v simil> to  
?is1 #idb to #idc 7,a4 ,h4 ,all574 ,x is
 int]e/+ to note t bo? ^! oils are      
yield$ by plants ( ! natural ord]       
,euphorbiace1 to :i* ! plant yield+     
s-call$ wood oil belongs4  ,exposure to 
,cold4--,?is oil is app>5tly unaffect$  
by exposure to a temp]ature ( -#ac4c ,c4
 7#h ,f74  ,qualitative ,exam9ation4--,!
 action ( sulphuric acid is rem>kable4  
,:5 a drop comes 9 contact ) ! oil1 !   
latt] app>5tly solidifies r\nd ! drop ( 
acid1 =m+ a black envelope :i* gr[s 9   
size & gradually absorbs & acts ^u s mu*
 ( ! surr\nd+ oil z to assume !         
appe>ance ( a l>ge dri$ currant (       
some:at irregul> %ape4  ,:5 a drop ( !  
oil is add$ to nitric acid1 x           
solidifies1 & on heat+ v readily *anges 
into an orange yell[ solid1 :i* appe>s  
to s(t51 ?\gh n to liquefy1 at !        
temp]ature ( boil+ wat]4 ,?is sub/ance  
is readily soluble 9 hot solution (     

pota% or soda1 produc+ a deep br[n      
liquid1 f :i* x is aga9 deposit$ 9      
flocks on acidify+4 ,i h n yet f\nd any 
solv5t = x4 ,! action ( nitric acid )   
l9se$ oil is m simil> to ?is ?an t ) any
 o!r oil ,i h tri$1 b ! nitro products (
 ! two1 if ,i may s call !m1 are q      
diff]5t f "o ano!r4 ,t f l9se$ oil      
produc$ z indicat$ rema9s liquid at     
ord9>y temp]atures1 z does ! oil ^u its 
addition to ! acid4  ,elaid9 ,te/4--,by 
! action ( nitric acid 9 pres5ce (      
m]cury1 a semi-solid mass is produc$ ( a
 mu* deep] color ?an 9 ! prec$+ cases4  
,a portion ( ! oil rema9s 9 ! liquid    
/ate1 z is usually ! case ) dry+ oils4  
,free ,acidity4--,by ! me?od indicat$1 x
 0 f\nd t #ajj grammes ( oil requir$    
#j4ci grammes cau/ic pota% to neutralize
 ! acid occurr+ 9 a free /ate4          
,saponification ( ! ,oil4--,! oil       
saponifies readily on be+ heat$ ) pota% 
9 pres5ce ( alcohol1 & ! am\nt requir$  
to conv]t x entirely into pota% soap 0  
#baa grammes ( cau/ic pota% p] ?\s&     

grammes ( oil4 ,!re are no              
saponification numb]s = oils t c be     
consid]$ close to ?is4 ,i c f9d no      
record ( any hav+ be5 obta9$ betwe5 #aig
 & #bba1 s t ! fur!r exam9ation on :i*  
,i am n[ engag$ may %[ ?is unusual numb]
 to be due to ?is oil conta9+ "s new    
fatty acid 9 comb9ation4  ,! ,fatty     
,acid4--,! acids produc$ by add+ acid to
 ! pota% soap =m$ 9 ?is case a cake on  
cool+1 ( a mu* deep] color ?an ,i h be=e
 obta9$4 ,aft] wa%+ well !y am\nt$ to   
#id4aj p] c5t4 ( ! oil4 ,! am\nt        
dissolv$ by ! wat] 9 wa%+ 0 9 ?is case  
also v small1 ! pota% requir$ =         
neutraliz+ equal+ #a4jb p] c5t4 ( !     
weight ( oil4  ,i f\nd t ! cakes ( acids
 7 solid at #cf ,c41 & 7 completely     
melt$ at #ci4  ,on solution 9 alcohol1 &
 dige/ion = two days ) animal *>coal1 ! 
color 0 mu* dim9i%$1 & on ! liquid be+  
filt]$ & cool$ to #j ,c41 an abundance (
 small :ite cry/all9e plates sep>at$    
out1 :i*1 :5 dri$1 melt$ at #fg ,c4  ,! 
crude fatty acids turn black ) sulphuric

 acid1 z ! oil does1 & yield a simil>   
sub/ance ) nitric acid4 ,x is simil> 9  
appe>ance1 b diff]s 9 t x melts at ab\t 
#ej ,c41 & is soluble 9 glacial acetic  
acid1 :i* is n ! case ) ! sub/ance f !  
oil4  ,^! fatty acids cry/allize on     
cool+1 9 a mo/ *>act]i/ic & beautiful   
way1 =m+ wavy circul> plates totally    
unlike any t ,i h se5 be=e4  ,! above   
exp]im5ts may1 ,i ?9k1 be tak5 z        
conclusive z to ! nature ( tea oil &    
cabbage oil4 ,! =m] may c]ta9ly be      
consid]$ a useful lubricat+ ag5t = ! f9]
 k9ds ( ma*9]y4 ,! "w ^u wood oil is n  
yet suffici5tly complete to %[ u !      
nature ( its proximate con/itu5ts4 ,i am
 cont9u+ ! exam9ation ( ?is oil4 ,p]haps
 ,i ne$ sc>cely add t !re is no         
connection betwe5 ?is wood oil & !      
,gurgun balsam1 ! product ( ,dipt]oc>pus
 turb9atus1 :i* is also kn[n z wood oil4
         99       99       99       99  
99     ,,! ,,otoscope4   ,pr(4 ,leon ,le
 ,=t has rec5tly pres5t$ to ! ,academy (
 ,m$ic9e1 9 ! "n ( ,dr4 ,rattel1 a new  

otoscope1 :i* we illu/rate h]e)4  ,!    
fir/ p]son to :om ! idea occurr$ to     
illum9ate ! e> 0 ,fabricius             
d',acquap5d5tus 7#afjj74 ,to d ?is he   
plac$ ! pati5t 9 front ( a w9d[ 9 su* a 
way z to cause ! lum9\s rays to ent] !  
ext]nal auditory canal4 ,x 0 he likewise
 :o conceiv$ ! idea ( plac+ a light     
beh9d a bottle fill$ ) wat]1 & (        
project+ its conc5trat$ rays into ! e>4 
,9 #aehe ,fabricius de ,hild5 inv5t$ !  
speculum auris4 ,?is in/rum5t 0 employ$ 
by him = ! fir/ "t "u ! foll[+          
circum/ances3 ,a girl t5 ye>s ( age _h 9
 play+ introduc$ a small glass ball into
 h] left e>1 & f\r surgeons1 call$ 9    
successively & at diff]5t times1 _h be5 
unable to extract x4 ,mean:ile ! little 
pati5t 0 suff]+ f an e>a*e t ext5d$ ov] 
almo/ ! entire head1 & t increas$ at    
night & especially 9 cold & damp wea!r4 
,to ^! symptoms 7 add$ /rokes ( epilepsy
 & an atrophy ( ! left arm4 ,f9ally1 9  
,novemb]1 #aeie1 ,de ,hild51 be+ call$  
91 acqua9t$ himself ) ! cause ( !       

tr\ble1 & decid$ to remove ! =eign body4
 ,to d ?is1 he select$1 z he tells u1 a 
well light$ place1 caus$ ! sol> light to
 ent] ! ail+ e>1 lubricat$ ! sides ( !  
auditory canal ) oil ( almonds1 &       
introduc$ 8 app>atus4 ,!n1 pass+ a scoop
 ) "s viol5ce betwe5 ! side ( ! auditory
 canal & ! glass ball1 he succe$$ 9     
extract+ ! latt]4  ,at ! beg9n+ ( ! #ag?
 c5tury1 !n1 physicians _h at _!        
disposal all t 0 necess>y = mak+ an     
exam9ation ( ! e>1 viz43 7#a7 a lum9\s  
s\rce2 7#b7 a means ( conc5trat+ !      
light2 & 7#c7 an in/rum5t :i*1 ent]+ !  
auditory canal1 held its sides ap>t4  ,!
 improvem5ts :i* succe$$ 7 connect$ )   
ea* ( ^! ?ree po9ts4 ,to sol> light1 an 
artificial "o has be5 pref]r$4          
,d',acquap5d5tus' bottle has giv5 way to
 ! convex l5s1 & to concave1 sph]ical1 &
 p>abolic mirrors1 etc4 ,de ,hild5's    
speculum has be5 replac$ by cyl9drical1 
conical1 bivalve1 & o!r =ms ( !         
in/rum5t4  ,! app>atus t we illu/rate   
h]e) (f]s "s arrangem5ts t are all its  

own z reg>ds ! process ( conc5trat+ !   
light4 ,x is light$1 9 fact1 by a small 
inc&esc5t lamp ( #b c&le-p[]1 plac$ )9 !
 app>atus & suppli$ by an accumulator4  
,! reflector is repres5t$ by a portion (
 an ellipse s calculat$ t "o ( ! foci   
corresponds to ! lamp & ! o!r to !      
extremity ( ! in/rum5t4 ,a commutator1  
,b1 p]mits ( e/abli%+ or int]rupt+ !    
curr5t at w4 ,a rheo/at add$ to !       
accumulator makes x possible to graduate
 ! light at "o's leisure & cause x to   
pass ?r\gh all ! %ades compris$ betwe5  
*]ry-r$ & inc&esc5ce4 ,f9ally1 ! orifice
 ?r\gh :i* ! obs]v] looks is ( su*      
dim5sions t x gives passage to all !    
in/rum5ts necess>y = treat+ compla9ts ( 
! middle & int]nal e>4  ,illu/ration3   
,,rattel',s ,,otoscope4  ,?is mode (    
light+ & reflection may be adapt$ to a  
,brunton otoscope1 utiliz$ = exam9+ o!r 
natural cavities1 su* z ! nose1 ph>ynx1 
etc4 ,elliptical reflectors d n appe> to
 h be5 employ$ up to ! pres5t4          
99       99       99       99       99  

,,/ate ,,provision ,,= ,,! ,,insane4#a  
,footnote #a3 ,rem>ks foll[+ ,def9ition 
( ,insanity1    publi%$ 9 ! ,octob]     
numb] ( ,! ,ali5i/ &    ,neurologi/1 &  
read be=e ! ,association ( ,*>ities &   
,corrections at ,/4 ,l\is1 ,oct4 #ae1   
#ahhd4  ,by ,c4 ,h4 ,,hughes1 ,m4,d4    
,we live 9 an age :5 e utt]$ s5tim5t (  
*>ity t[>d ! insane is applaud$ to its  
remote/ e*o2 an age 9 :i* ! *a9s & locks
 & b>s & dismal dungeon cells &         
flagellations & manifold tortures ( !   
less humane & less enlight5$ pa/ are    
ju/ly abhorr5t2 an age :i* measures its 
magnific5t philan?ropy by munific5t     
millions1 be/[$ )\t /9t ^u monum5tal    
mansions = ! indwell+ ( ! mo/ pitiable &
 afflict$ ( ! *ildr5 ( m51 safe f !     
pitiless /orms ( adv]se environm5t )\t  
:i* are s h>%ly viol5t to ! morbidly    
s5sitive & un/able insane m9d2 an age 9 
:i* he :o /rikes a ne$less %ackle f     
human =m or he>t1 or removes a cause (  
human torture1 psy*ical or physical1 is 
reg>d$ z a great] moral h]o ?an he :o1  

by /orm or /rategy ( w> take? a resi/+  
=tress2 an age :5 ! ,*i>ugis & ,p9els1 !
 ,yorks & ,tukes1 ( n remotely pa/      
hi/ory1 & ! ,flor5ce ,night+ales &      
,doro!a ,dixes ( our own "t1 are en%r9$ 
9 ! he>ts ( a philan?ropic _w ) great]  
?an monum5tal memory4  ,noble1 ,*ri/like
 s5tim5t ( human *>ity6 ,let x be *]i%$ 
& fo/]$ /ill1 t[>d ! lea/ ( ! *ildr5 (  
affliction & mis=tune1 z man 9 8        
immortal aspirations moves ne>] & ne>]  
to ! lov+1 *>itable he>t ( ,god1 imag+ 9
 8 "w ! example ( ! div9ely inc>nate    
,ma/]6  ,b let u always c\ple ?is exalt$
 s5tim5tality ) ! /]n logic ( fact1 &   
nev] misdirect or misapply x 9 any ( our
 *>itable "w4 ,imp]fect k p]v]ts !      
noble/ s5tim5ts2 wid5$ & p]fect$ k      
/r5g!ns _! p[]4 ,a truly philan?ropic   
s5tim5t is mo/ pot5t = good 9 ! p[] ( k1
 & may be made mo/ p[]ful = evil ?r\gh  
misconception ( or inadequate           
compreh5sion ( facts4 ,z we gr[ 9       
aspirations aft] ! highe/ welf>e ( !    
insane1 let u wid5 our k ( ! real nature

 ( insanity & ! necessities = its       
amelioration1 prev5tion1 & cure4  ,x is 
a long "t s9ce ,grotius wrote1 ,! /udy (
 ! human m9d is ! noble/ bran* ( m$ic9e2
 & we realize to-day t x is ! noble/    
/udy ( man1 reg>dless ( vocation4 ,aye6 
x is ! imp]ative /udy ( our g5]ation & (
 ^? :o are to foll[ u1 if we w\ld       
cont9ue1 z we wi% to be1 ! cons]vators (
 ! good & great1 & promot]s ( advanc+   
capability = great & good de$s 9 our    
humanity4  ,"o kn[n & ackn[l$g$ insane  
p]son to e five hundr$ sane p]sons1 &   
among ^? are unreckon$ numb]s ( un/ably 
end[$ & too mildly mann]$ lunatics to   
require public re/ra9t1 b none ! less   
dang]\s to ! p]petuation ( ! m5tal      
/ability ( ! race1 is an appall+ picture
 ( fact = philan?ropic cons]vators ( !  
race to contemplate4  ,! insane         
temp]am5t & its pa?ological tw9 bro!r1 !
 neuropa?ic dia!sis1 roams at l>ge      
unre/ra9$ f )\t or t self-re/ra9t :i*1  
br$ ( adequate self-k1 might come f )91 
& contam9ates ) neurotic & m5tal        

in/ability ! innoc5t unborn1 furni%+    
hi/og5ic factors :i* ! future w =mulate 
9 m9ds de?ron$ to become helpless w>ds (
 ! /ate or family4  ,! insane temp]am5t 
is m endur+ly fatal to ! welf>e (       
humanity ?an ! deadly comma bacillus :i*
 is suppos$ to convey ! sc\rge ( ,asia  
to our %ores4 ,! latt] comes at /at$    
p]iods1 & disappe>s aft] a season or two
 ( deva/ation1 9 :i* ! lea/ fit to      
survive ( our population1 by reason (   
feeble organic resi/+ p[]1 are de/roy$2 
:ile resi/+ tol]ance is e/abli%$ 9 !    
rema9d]4 ,b ?is sc\rge is ) u always1   
transmitt+ weakness unto com+ g5]ations4
  ,x is ! insanity 9 *ronic =m :i*      
escapes asylum c>e & cu/ody except 9 its
 exac]bations2 x is ! insanity (        
organism :i* gives s mu* ( ! erratic &  
un/able to society1 9 its manife/ations 
( m9d & morals2 x is ! =m ( un/able     
m5tal organism :i*1 l an un/rung        
in/rum5t jangl+ out ( tune & h>%1 :5    
t\*$ 9 a mann] to elicit 9 m5 ( /able   
organisms only concord ( sweet1 h>moni\s

 s\nds2 x is ! =m ( m5tal organism out (
 :i*1 by slight excit+ causes l>gely    
imag9>y1 ! ,guiteaus & ,joan d',arcs (  
hi/ory are made1 ! ,hawisons &          
,passanantis & ,freemans1 & names       
innum]able1 ^: de$s ( blood h /a9$ !    
pages ( hi/ory1 & ^: do+s 9 our day     
contribute s l>gely to ! awful cal5d> ( 
crime :i* black5s & spreads ) gore !    
pages ( our public press4  ,we may *]i% 
! s5tim5t t x 7 base c[>dice to lay h&  
^u ! lunatic save 9 k9dness2 & yet      
re/ra9 him f himself & ! community f    
him4 ,we may c\ple 8 re/ra9ts ) ! l>ge/ 
lib]ty compatible ) 8 welf>e & ours2 we 
may n always aboli% ! bolts & b>s1 inde$
 we _c1 ei!r to 8 absolute p]sonal      
lib]ty 9 asylums or to 8 entire moral   
fre$om )\t _! walls1 yet we may keep !m 
l>gely out ( sight4 ,let him be manacl$ 
:5 he mu/ & only :5 he mu/1 & !n only ) 
silk5 cords b\nd by affectionate h&s1 & 
n by *a9s4 ,we may n op5 all ! doors1   
inde$ we _c1 b we c & d1 ?anks to !     
humanit>ian _s ( ! age 9 :i* we live1   

op5 _m ( !m & s %ut !m1 :5 x mu/ ne$ be 
done1 t !y close = 8 welf>e & ours only2
 t he may n feel t hope is gone or      
humanity b>r$ out ) ! %utt+ ( ! door t  
sep>ates him f ! _w4  ,we may n always  
sw+ ! door ( ! lunatic z facilely outw>d
 z inw>d--! nature ( 8 malady w n always
 admit ( ?is--b we %\ld d x :5ev] we c1 
& nev]1 :5 we mu/1 %\ld we close x      
h>%ly4 ,& :ile we mu/ ne$s n>r[ 8 lib]ty
 among ourselves1 we %\ld enl>ge x 9 !  
community to :i* 8 affliction assigns   
him1 to ! fulle/ ext5t p]missible by !  
nature ( 8 malady4  ,lib]ty ne$ n       
necess>ily be d5i$ him2 & to ! glory (  
our age x is n 9 ! majority ( ,am]ican  
asylums = ! insane1 because ! conditions
 "u :i* he may safely enjoy lib]ty1 to 8
 own & ! community's welf>e1 are *ang$  
by disease4 ,! free sunlight & ! fre%   
air belong z mu* to him 9 8 *ang$ m5tal 
e/ate z to y or me1 & m1 because 8      
affliction ne$s _! invigorat+ p[]1 & !  
man :o w\ld *a91 9 ?is enlight5$ age1 an
 insane man 9 a dungeon1 because he is  

diseas$ & tr\blesome or dang]\s1 w\ld be
 unwor?y ! "n ( human4 ,effective       
re/ra9t may be employ$ )\t ! use ( ei!r 
iron manacles or dismal light & air     
exclud+ dungeons4  ,! insane man is "o (
 our comrades :o has fall5 m5tally maim$
 9 ! battle ( life4 ,x may be our turn  
next to foll[ him to ! re>2 b because we
 mu/ c>ry him f ! battlefield1 :]e he   
may h f\ght ev5 m valiantly ?an         
ourselves1 we ne$ n =get or neglect him4
 ,! duty is all ! m imp]ative t we c>e =
 him1 & 9 su* a mann] t he may1 if      
possible1 be re/or$4 ,simple            
seque/ration ( ! insane man is an       
outrage ^u him & ^u our humanity4       
,:atsoev] ye w\ld t m5 %\ld d unto y1 d 
ye ev5 s to !m1 is ! div9e precept1 :i*1
 if we foll[ x z we ought1 w lead u to  
se>* = our fall5 comrades 9 ! alms-h\ses
 & p5al in/itutions & re=matories1 &    
sometimes 9 ! ou?\ses or cell>s (       
private homes1 to our %ame1 :]e errors (
 judgm5t or cruelty h plac$ !m1 & to    
transf] !m to places ( l>g] lib]ty &    

hopes ( happ9ess & recov]y4 ,! *ronic   
insane are entitl$ to our c>e1 n to our 
neglect1 & to all ! com=ts !y e>n$ :ile 
battl+ ) u1 :5 9 _! be/ m5tal e/ate1 =  
_! common welf>e & ours4  ,alm%\ses &   
neglect$ ou?\ses are n prop] places =   
!m4 ,!y are entitl$ to our protection & 
to be s c>$ =1 if we _c cure !m1 z t !y 
may n d ^? ?+s1 to _! own h>m or ! h>m (
 ! race1 :i* !y w\ld n d if !y 7 s\nd 9 
m9d4 ,society mu/ be protect$ aga9/ !   
spread ( h]$it>y insanity1 h5ce su*     
k9dly surveillance1 c\pl$ ) ! l>ge/     
possible lib]ty1 %\ld be ex]cis$ ov] !m 
z w save po/]ity1 s f> z practicable1 f 
! entailm5t ( a h]itage m fatal ?an     
canc] or consumption4  ,! insane man is 
a *ang$ man1 & 8 life is m or less      
delusional4 ,9 view ( ?is fact1 we %\ld 
endeavor always to s surr\nd him t 8    
environm5ts may n augm5t ! morbid *ange 
9 him & int5sify 8 p]v]t$1 delusion$ "*4
  ,realiz+ ! fact t m9d 9 insanity is r 
p]v]t$ ?an lo/1 we %\ld s deport        
ourselves t[>d ! victims ( ?is disease z

 9 no wise to int5sify or augm5t !      
malady1 b always1 if possible1 s z to   
ameliorate or remove x4  ,realiz+ t !   
insane man 9 8 be/ e/ate may h walk$ !  
e>? a k+1 & 9 ?is free c\ntry ( ours h  
be5 an honor$ sov]eign weight$ ) !      
welf>e ( 8 p1 & contribut+ ( 8 sub/ance 
t[>d our *>ities1 we %\ld1 ) un/9t+ h&1 
cat] to 8 com=t :5 ?is affliction comes 
^u him4  ,we %\ld give him a home wor?y 
( our own sov]eign selves1 & su* z w\ld 
suit u 7 we provid+ = ourselves1 ) ! k  
we h ( ! ne$s ( ?is affliction1 p5d+ its
 approa* to u4  ,t 8 home %\ld be z     
unirritat+ & re/ful to him z possible x 
%\ld be unprison-l always1 & only be an 
imprisonm5t :5 ! viol5t phases ( 8      
malady imp]atively dem& re/ra9t4 ,an h\r
 ( maniacal excitem5t does n ju/ify a   
mon? ( *a9s4 ,me*anical re/ra9t is a    
rem$y ( easy resort1 b ! fett]$ man     
frets away /r5g? ess5tial to 8 recov]y4 
,outside ( asylums direct re/ra9t is (t5
 a /]n necessity4 ,x is sometimes s 9   
!m1 b 9 _m ( !m & outside ( all ( !m x  

may be greatly dim9i%$1 & asylums may be
 s con/ruct$ z to make ! r$uction (     
direct re/ra9t practicable to ! smalle/ 
m9imum4 ,direct me*anical re/ra9t = !   
insane1 save to av]t an act ( viol5ce n 
o!rwise prev5table1 is nev] ju/ifiable4 
,! h& %\ld nev] be manacl$ if ! head c  
be s influ5c$ z to /ay x1 & we %\ld try 
to /ay ! h& ?r\gh /eady+ ! head4  ,e    
place = ^! un=tunates %\ld provide = !m 
ample room & cong5ial employm5t1 :e!r   
pr(itable to ! ,/ate or n1 & ! labor    
%\ld be induc$1 n en=c$1 & always tim$ &
 suit$ to _! malady4 ,a v>iety ( int]e/+
 occupations t5ds to div]t f delusional 
introspection4  ,mo/ in/itutions attempt
 to give _! pati5ts "s occupation1 b    
,/ate policy %\ld be lib]al 9 ?is       
direction4  ,d$uctions are obvi\s3 ,e   
insane community ( mix$ rec5t & long /&+
 cases1 or ( *ronic cases exclusively1  
%\ld be a home1 & n a m]e place (       
det5tion4 ,x %\ld be z unprison-l &     
attractive z any resid5ce = !           
non-crim9al4 ,x %\ld h = any consid]able

 numb] ( insane p]sons at lea/ a section
 7#fdj acres7 ( gr\nd4 ,x %\ld be 9 !   
c\ntry1 ( c\rse1 b accessible to !      
supplies ( a l>ge city4 ,x %\ld h a     
c5tral ma9 build+1 z ar*itecturally     
beautiful & sub/antial z ! ,/ate may    
*oose to make x1 provid$ ) places (     
security = su* z require !m 9 times (   
excitem5t1 ) a *apel1 amusem5t hall1 &  
hospital 9 easy cov]$ rea* ( ! feeble & 
decrepit1 & accessible1 )\t risk to     
heal?1 9 bad wea!r4  ,ou?\ses %\ld be   
built ) rooms atta*$1 & set ap>t f !    
resid5ce ( tru/wor?y pati5ts1 = f>m]1   
g>d5]1 dairyman1 h]dsman1 %eph]d1 &     
eng9e]1 t ^? :o desir$ to be employ$ )  
!m1 & might safely be intru/$1 & 7      
physically able1 c\ld h opportunity (   
"w4  ,cottages %\ld be scatt]$ ab\t !   
gr\nd = ! use & b5efit ( su* z might    
enjoy a segregate life1 :i* c\ld be us$ 
= isolation 9 case ( epidemic           
visitation4 ,recreation1 games1 drives1 
& walks %\ld be lib]ally provid$4  ,a   
p]fect1 b n direct & (f5sive1           

surveillance %\ld be ex]cis$ ov] all !  
pati5ts1 ) a view to secur+ !m ! l>ge/  
possible lib]ty compatible ) ! s+ul>    
nature ( _! malady4  ,9 %ort1 ! hospital
 home = ! *ronic insane1 or :5 acute &  
*ronic insane are domicil$ toge!r1 %\ld 
be a colonial home1 ) ! liv+ arrangem5ts
 z ne>ly ^? :i* w\ld be mo/ cong5ial to 
a l>ge body ( sane p z ! condition ( !  
insane1 *ang$ by disease1 w all[4  ,x is
 z obvi\s z t exp]i5ce demon/rates x1 t 
! reign+ head or heads ( su* a community
 %\ld be m$ical1 & n t m$ical m$iocrity 
ei!r :i* covets & accepts political     
pref]m5t )\t m$ical qualifications4  ,! 
l>ge/ p]sonal lib]ty to ! *ronic insane 
may be be/ secur$ to !m by provision = !
 sexes 9 widely sep>at$ e/abli%m5ts4  ,x
 is pla9 t ! :ole duty ( man is n       
dis*>g$ t[>d 8 fall5 insane bro!r :5 he 
has accompli%$ 8 seque/ration f society 
at l>ge1 or f$ & h\s$ him well4 ,! /udy 
( ! ne$s ( ! insane & ( ! duty ( ! ,/ate
 9 reg>d to !m is z important &         
imp]ative a /udy z any subject (        

political economy4         99       99  
99       99       99     ,,! ,,c\rage   
,,( ,,orig9ality4   ,mo/ ( u are at     
times consci\s ( he>+ f ! lips ( ano!r1 
or read+ f ! pr9t$ page1 ?\ghts t h     
exi/$ previ\sly 9 our own m9ds4 ,!y may 
h be5 vague & un>rang$1 b /ill !y 7 our 
own1 & we recognize !m z old fri5ds1    
?\gh dress$ 9 a m fitt+ & expressive    
co/ume ?an we ev] gave !m4 ,sometimes an
 inv5tion or a discov]y dawns ^u ! _w to
 bless & improve x1 & :ile all are      
engag$ 9 extoll+ x "s p]sons feel t !y h
 _h its g]ms float+ 9 _! m9ds1 ?\gh f ! 
lack ( favorable conditions1 or "s o!r  
cause1 !y nev] took root or became      
vital4 ,an act ( h]oism is p]=m$1 & a   
by/&] is consci\s t he has t )9 him by  
:i* he c\ld h tak5 ! same /ep1 al?\gh he
 did n4 ,"s "o /eps =w>d & practically  
opposes a social cu/om t is admitt$ to  
be evil1 yet ma9ta9$1 & by 8 influ5ce   
lays ! ax to its root & comm5ces its    
de/ruction2 :ile _m1 comm5d+ 8 c\rage1  
wond] :y !y _h n tak5 ! same c\rse long 

ago4 ,9 numb]less in/ances we are       
consci\s ( hav+ _h ! same p]ceptions1 ! 
same ideas1 ! same p[]s1 & ! same       
desires to put !m into practice t are   
%[n by ! "o :o has s successfully       
express$ !m2 yet !y h1 = "s reason1 la9 
dormant & inop]ative )9 u4  ,:5 we      
consid] ! wa/e ( human p[] t ?is        
involves1 we may well se>* = its cause4 
,d\btless x sometimes results f !       
absorption 7m or less ne$ful7 ( ea* "o  
is 8 individual pursuit4 ,no "o c give  
voice to all he ?9ks1 or accompli% all t
 he sees to be desirable1 :ile /riv+1 z 
he %\ld1 to ga9 excell5ce 9 8 own *os5  
"w4 ,consci\s ( 8 own limitations1 he w 
rejoice to see _m ( 8 vague ideas1      
hopes1 & aspirations rea*$ & c>ri$ out  
by o!rs4 ,b ! same consci\sness t       
reconciles him to ?is also reveals mu* t
 he might h said or done )\t violat+ any
 o!r obligation1 b :i* he has all[$ to  
slip f 8 h&s to ^? ( ano!r1 p]haps ?r\gh
 lack ( en]gy1 or indol5ce1 or          
procra/9ation4 ,! cause1 h[ev]1 mo/     

op]ative 9 ?is direction is a /range    
disloyalty to our own convictions4 ,we  
look to o!rs1 especially to :at we call 
great m51 = ?\ghts1 sugge/ions1 &       
op9ions1 & gladly adopt !m on _!        
au?ority4 ,b our own ?\ghts we ignore or
 treat ) indiff]5ce4 ,we admire & honor 
orig9ality 9 o!rs1 b we value x n 9     
ourselves4 ,on ! contr>y1 we are        
satisfi$ to make poor imitations ( ^? we
 rev]e1 miss+ ! only resemblance t is   
wor? any?+1 t ( a simple & s9c]e        
indep5d5t life4  ,we w\ld n und]value   
mode/y or recomm5d self-suffici5cy4 ,we 
%\ld always be le>n]s1 gladly welcom+ e 
help1 & respect+ e p]sonality4 ,b we    
%\ld also respect our own1 & be> 9 m9d1 
t ?\gh ! wide univ]se is full ( good1 no
 k]nel ( n\ri%+ corn c come to u b ?r\gh
 our toil be/[$ on t plot ( gr\nd :i* is
 giv5 to u to till4 ,to und]value our   
own ?\ght because x is ours1 to         
depreciate our own p[]s or faculties    
because "s "o else's are m vigor\s1 to  
%r9k f do+ :at we c because we ?9k we c 

d s little1 is to h9d] our own          
developm5t & ! progress ( ! _w4 ,= x is 
only by ex]cise t any faculty is        
/r5g!n$1 & only by ea* "o putt+ 8 %\ld] 
to ! :eel t ! _w moves & humanity       
advances4  ,!re is no?+ m insidi\s ?an !
 _s ( con=mity1 & no?+ m quickly        
p>alyzes ! be/ p>ts ( a man4 ,a gleam ( 
tru? illum9ates 8 m9d1 & =?) he proce$s 
to comp>e x ) ! prevail+ tone ( 8       
community or 8 set4 ,if x agree n ) t1  
he di/ru/s & p]haps dis[ns x2 x is left 
to p]i%1 & he to t ext5t p]i%es ) x4 ,by
 & by1 :5 "s "o m indep5d5t1 m          
tru?-lov+1 m c\rage\s ?an himself arises
 to proclaim & urge ! same ?+ t he 0    
half a%am$ to ackn[l$ge1 he w regret 8  
+lori\s fe> ( be+ 9 ! m9ority4 ,we are  
accu/om$ to ?9k t greatness always      
d5otes exceptional p[]s1 yet mo/ ( !    
_w's great m5 h r be5 di/+ui%$ by an    
inv9cible det]m9ation to "w out ! be/ t 
0 )9 !m4 ,!y h act$1 spok51 or ?\ght    
accord+ to _! own natures & judgm5t1 )\t
 any wav]+ hesitation z to ! probable   

v]dict ( ! _w4 ,!y 7 loyal to ! tru? t 0
 9 !m1 & _h fai? 9 its ultimate triumph2
 !y _h a mission to fulfill1 & x did n  
occur to !m to pause or to falt]4 ,h[ _m
 m great m5 %\ld we h 7 ?is _s univ]sal1
 & h[ mu* great] w\ld ea* "o ( u be if1 
9 a simple /raight=w>d mann]1 we frankly
 said & did ! be/ t we knew1 )\t fe> or 
favor8 ,soon w\ld be f\nd gifts t none  
_h dream$ (1 p[]s t none _h imag9$1 &   
h]oism t 0 ?\ght impossible4 ,z ,em]son 
well says1 ,he :o kn[s t p[] is inborn1 
t he is weak because he has look$ = good
 out ( him & else:]e1 & s p]ceiv+ ?r[s  
himself unhesitat+ly on 8 ?\ght1        
in/antly rights himself1 /&s 9 ! erect  
position1 comm&s 8 limbs1 works         
miracles1 j z a man :o /&s on 8 feet is 
/rong] ?an a man :o /&s on 8            
head4--,phil4 ,l$g]4         99       99
       99       99       99     ,a      
,,circul> ,,b[l+ ,,alley4   ,! arcades  
"u ! elevat$ railroad :i* runs          
transv]sely ?r\gh ,b]l9 are us$ z       
/oreh\ses1 /ores1 saloons1 re/aurants1  

etc41 & are a s\rce ( consid]able income
 to ! railway company4 ,! own] ( "o ( ! 
re/aurants 9 ! arcades decid$ to provide
 8 place ) a b[l+ alley1 b f\nd t he    
c\ld n comm& ! requisite l5g?1 #ge ft41 
& s he _h to arrange x 9 "s o!r way4 ,a 
civil eng9e] nam$ ,kiebitz con/ruct$ a  
circul> b[l+ alley = him1 :i* is %[n 9 !
 annex$ cut tak5 f ! ,illu/rirte        
,zeitung4 ,! alley is built 9 ! %ape ( a
 horse-%oe1 & ! bottom or b$ on :i* !   
balls roll is holl[$ out on a curv$ l9e1
 ! out] edge ( ! b$ be+ rais$ to prev5t 
! balls f be+ ?r[n (f ! alley by        
c5trifugal =ce4  ,illu/ration3 ,a       
,,circul> ,,b[l+ ,,alley4  ,! balls are 
roll$ f "o end ( ! alley1 describe a    
curv$ l9e1 & !n /rike ! p9s plac$ at !  
opposite end ( ! alley4 ,no return track
 = ! balls is requir$1 & all t is       
necess>y is to roll ! balls f "o end ( !
 alley to ! o!r4 ,a record+ slate1 !    
tables = ! gue/s1 etc41 are arrang$     
betwe5 ! two %anks or legs ( ! alley4   
,x is evid5t t a p]son _c play z        

accurately on an alley ( ?is k9d z on a 
/raight alley2 b if a ball is ?r[n ) m  
or less =ce1 x w roll along ! inn] or   
out] edge ( ! alley & /rike ! gr\p ( p9s
 a great] or less di/ance f ! middle4 ,a
 room #cf ft4 9 l5g? is ( suffici5t size
 = "o ( ^! alleys4         99       99  
99       99       99     ,,pat5t ,,(fice
 ,,exam9ation ,,( ,,inv5tions4   ,to !  
,editor ( ! ,sci5tific ,am]ican3  ,x is 
) consid]able surprise t ! writ] has j  
p]us$ ! editorial article 9 y\r issue ( 
,m>* ! #bh?--,pat5t ,(fice ,exam9ations 
( ,novelty ( ,inv5tions ,x seems to me t
 ! gr\nd tak5 !re9 is diametrically     
oppos$ to ! views h]et(ore promulgat$ 9 
y\r j\rnal on ?is subject1 & no less s  
to ! int]e/s ( ,am]ican inv5tors2 & x   
appe>s difficult to und]/& :y !         
abolition ( exam9ations = novelty by !  
,pat5t ,(fice %\ld be recomm5d$ 9 face (
 ! fact t ! ackn[l$g$ small fees n[     
exact$ f inv5tors are suffici5t to      
provide a mu* great] =ce ( exam9]s ?an  
are n[ employ$ on t "w4 ,if inv5tors 7  

ask+ ! gov]nm5t to appropriate money =  
?is purpose1 ! case w\ld be q diff]5t2  
al?\gh x may be %[n1 ,i ?9k1 t ,congress
 w\ld be fully ju/ifi$ 9 dispos+ ( no   
inconsid]able portion ( ! public money 9
 ?is way1 %\ld x ev] become necess>y4   
,recogniz+ ! fact t ! pat5t records (   
all c\ntries1 z well z cognate          
publications1 are rapidly on !          
increase--& p>ticul>ly 9 ?is            
c\ntry--mak+ an exam9ation = novelty a  
cont9u\sly increas+ task1 & t ! "t mu/  
come :5 su* an exam9ation _c be made at 
all conclusively )\t a va/ly increas$   
am\nt ( labor1 f ! v magnitude ( !      
op]ation1 x is nev]!less true t ?is     
difficulty m5aces ! inv5tor to a mu*    
great] ext5t1 if impos$ ^u him to make1 
?an x c ev] possibly d an in/itution l !
 ,pat5t ,(fice4  ,divid+ & subdivid+    
pat5t subjects into classes &           
sub-classes1 & sy/ematiz+ exam9ations to
 ! ext5t x may be made to rea* 9 !      
,pat5t ,(fice1 may1 = a v long "t to    
come1 place ?is matt] )9 ! possibility (

 a reasonably good & conclusive se>* be+
 made )\t additional co/ to ! inv5tor1  
provid$ :at he n[ pays is all devot$ to 
! fur!rance ( ! ,pat5t ,(fice bus9ess4  
,if1 h[ev]1 we h]eaft] make no          
exam9ations = novelty1 an inv5tor is    
oblig$ to ei!r make su* a se>* =        
himself--) all ! disadvantages (        
unfamili>ity ) ! be/ me?ods1            
inaccessibility to records1 & incurr+   
imm5sely m "w ?an is requir$ ( ! ,pat5t 
,(fice exam9]1 :o has ev]y?+ p]ta9+     
!reto at 8 f+]s' ends--or bl9dly pay 8  
fees & take 8 pat5t "u ! impression t he
 is ! fir/ inv5tor1 & run e risk ( be+  
beat5 9 ! c\rts %\ld any "o essay to    
conte/ 8 claims2 ! probabilities ( 8 be+
 s beat5 increas+ 9 proportion z ! numb]
 ( inv5tions increase4  ,! inv5tor pays 
to h ?is "w done = him at ! ,pat5t      
,(fice 9 ! only feasible way x c be     
?or\ghly done2 & ! av]age inv5tor w\ld1 
or %\ld1 be will+ to h ! pres5t fees v  
l>gely increas$1 if necess>y1 r ?an h ! 
exam9ations = novelty aboli%$ at !      

,pat5t ,(fice2 =1 9 ! ev5t ( _!         
abolition1 x w\ld co/ him imm5sely m    
money to secure himself1 z be=e ! c\rts1
 by 8 own unaid$ & be/ atta9able me?ods4
  ,! inv5tor n[1 h[ev]1 pays to ! ,pat5t
 ,(fice1 z y well "k1 a good deal m     
money e ye> ?an ! pres5t co/ (          
exam9ations1 includ+ ( c\rse all o!r    
,pat5t ,(fice bus9ess2 see+ a "p ( :at  
he pays ye>ly cov]$ into ! ,treasury z  
surplus1 :ile 8 application is          
unreasonably delay$ = ! lack ( exam9]   
=ce 9 ! ,pat5t ,(fice4  ,let ! gov]nm5t 
fir/ apply all ! moneys receiv$ at !    
,pat5t ,(fice to its legitimate purpose1
 includ+ ! mak+ ( ^! exam9ations1 &1 :5 
?is proves insuffici5t1 y may dep5d t e 
inv5tor w *e]fully cons5t to ! increase 
( fees1 suffici5t to insure ! cont9uance
 ( ?or\gh exam9ations = novelty1 r ?an  
attempt to d ?is "w himself or take !   
*ances ( 8 hav+ re9v5t$ "s old device   
7:i* x is v well kn[n occurs ov] & ov]  
aga9 e day71 & be+ beat5 ^u ! v fir/    
conte/ 9 ! c\rts1 aft]1 p]haps1 inve/+  

l>ge am\nts ( money1 "t1 & anxiety ov]  
some?+ :i* he ?us discov]s 0 inv5t$1    
p]haps1 be=e he 0 born4  ,= an inv5tor  
to obta9 a pat5t wor? hav+1 & "o t is n 
m likely to be a s\rce ( exp5diture ?an 
income to him1 if conte/$1 x goes )\t   
say+ t exam9ation = novelty mu/ be made 
ei!r by himself or "s compet5t p]son or 
p]sons = him2 & x is /rictly prop] & j t
 ! inv5tor %\ld pay = x2 & x is too     
self-evid5t a proposition to admit (    
argum5t t ! organiz$ & sy/ematiz$ me?ods
 ( ! ,pat5t ,(fice c d x at a ti! ( !   
exp5se :i* w\ld be incurr$ 9 do+ x 9 any
 o!r way2 9 po9t ( fact1 x w\ld be      
impossible to d x by any o!r means s    
effectually or s well )9 any reasonable 
am\nt ( co/4  ,y\r summ+ up ( ! case    
%\ld1 in/ead ( ! way y put x1 read3 ,!  
,commission] ( ,pat5ts attempts to p]=m 
= two-?irds ! sum paid z fees by        
inv5tors :at he is paid ?ree-?irds to   
accompli%1 s t "o-?ird ( x may g to     
swell ! surplus ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates       
,treasury1 & f9ds x an impracticable    

task to asc]ta9 ! novelty ( an inv5tion 
9 a reasonable "t = su* a sum4 ,to p]=m 
x1 h[ev] imp]fectly1 he feels au?oriz$  
to delay ! grant+2 ( pat5ts1 sometimes =
 sev]al mon?s1 simply because ,congress 
w n all[ him to apply ! moneys paid by  
inv5tors to _! legitimate purpose4  ,i h
 _h1 = sev]al ye>s1 always m or less    
applications on file at ! ,pat5t ,(fice 
= inv5tions 9 my p>ticul> l9e1 & n[ h   
sev]al p5d+2 & probably !re are few1 if 
any1 :o h suff]$ m f ! great delays     
lately obta9+ at t in/itution ?an       
myself1 p>ticul>ly 9 connection ) tak+  
out =eign pat5ts = ! same inv5tions1 & s
 tim+ ! issue ( !m "h & abroad z n to   
prejudice ei!r "o4 ,b great z !         
annoyance & co/ h be5 9 consequ5ce ( ^! 
delays1 ,i w\ld inf9itely pref] t x 7 t5
 times z great1 r ?an see ! exam9ations 
= novelty aboli%$ by ! ,unit$ ,/ates    
,pat5t ,(fice2 &1 s f> z ,i "k &        
believe1 9 ?is pref]5ce ,i mo/          
completely voice t ( inv5tors 9 g5]al4  
,,john ,t4 ,,hawk9s4   ,taunton1 ,mass41

 ,m>* #bh?1 #ahhe4   ,! writ] ( ! above 
communication gives a v cle> /atem5t (  
our orig9al premises4 ,he sees z we d ! 
difficulty1 e ye> on ! increase1 ( mak+ 
satisfactory se>*es 9 ! matt] ( novelty4
 ,b 8 d$uctions v>y f ours4 ,to u x     
appe>s on its face an impossibility =   
satisfactory se>*es to be made 9 ! case 
( e individual pat5t by ! ,pat5t ,(fice4
 ,! exam9ations h repeat$ly be5 prov$   
valueless4 ,we "k by our own & o!rs'    
exp]i5ce t ! se>*es z at pres5t conduct$
 are ( comp>atively little accuracy4    
,pat5ts are decl>$ to be anticipat$     
cont9ually by our c\rts4 ,! aw>d+ ( a   
pat5t 9 fact weighs = no?+ 9 a judge's  
m9d z prov+ its orig9ality4 ,!          
,commission] ( ,pat5ts is really exhau/+
 ! en]gies ( ! ,(fice employees ov] a   
multitude ( se>*es t h no /&+ :atev] 9  
c\rt1 & t no lawy] w\ld accept z any    
gu>antee ( novelty ( inv5tion4 ,if e    
inv5tor w\ld se>* ! records = 8 own     
b5efit1 we %\ld !n h tw5ty ?\s& exam9]s 
in/ead ( ! pres5t small numb]4 ,?is w\ld

 be some?+4 ,b if x be advanc$ t !      
inv5tor is n a compet5t se>*]1 !n he c  
engage an exp]t to d x = him4 ,e day1   
se>*es ( equal value to ! ,pat5t ,(fice 
ones are execut$ = b a fraction ( !     
gov]nm5t fees on grant+ a pat5t4  ,our  
correspond5t speaks ( an evil t he ?9ks 
w\ld be incid5tal to ! sy/em we propos$ 
9 our article criticis$ by him1 namely1 
t 7 ! ,pat5t ,(fice to make no se>* an  
inv5tor w\ld run e risk ( be+ beat5 9 ! 
c\rts %\ld any "o essay to conte/ 8     
claims4 ,! fact is t 9 spite ( ! ,(fice 
exam9ation = novelty ?is risk always has
 to be enc\nt]$1 & =ms a crit]ion by :i*
 to judge ( ! exact value ( t           
exam9ation4 ,fur!rmore1 we take decid$  
issue ) our correspond5t :5 he says t ! 
pres5t is ! only feasible way ( execut+ 
^! se>*es ?or\ghly4 ,!y are n s execut$ 
z a matt] ( fact1 & c\ld be done bett] &
 *eap] by private individuals1 exp]ts1  
or lawy]s1 engag$ = ! purpose by        
inv5tors4  ,we agree t all money receiv$
 by ! ,pat5t ,(fice %\ld be appli$ to   

its legitimate end4 ,x seems to u a     
great inju/ice to make "o g5]ation (    
pat5tees accumulate money 9 ! ,treasury 
= ! b5efit ( "s com+ g5]ation4          
,application ( ! :ole ( ea* ye>'s fees  
to ! exp$it+ ( t ye>'s bus9ess w\ld be  
simple ju/ice4 ,b we d n lose sight (   
our ma9 po9t1 t 7 ! inv5tor unable to   
make a satisfactory se>*1 x c\ld be done
 = him by private p>ties bett] & *eap]  
?an x is n[ done 9 ! ,(fice4  ,we are v 
glad to h ! "q s intellig5tly discuss$ z
 by our correspond5t1 & we feel t x is  
"o well wor?y ( consid]ation4 ,! future 
w1 we are sure1 br+ ab\t "s *ange1 by   
:i* inv5tors w be induc$ to be/[ m      
p]sonal c>e on _! pat5ts1 at lea/ to !  
ext5t ( secur+ se>*es = novelty to be   
made by _! own attorneys1 & ev5 at a    
little additional exp5se to ab&on any   
bl9d dep5d5ce on ! ,pat5t ,(fice z a    
prov] ( novelty4--,ed4 ,sc4 ,am4        
99       99       99       99       99  
,,! ,,univ]sal ,,exposition ,,at        
,,antw]p 7,,anv]s71 ,,belgium4   ,nev]  

be=e 0 !re s /rik+ & rem>kable an       
example ( :at c be accompli%$ by private
 ent]prise :5 appli$ to a great & useful
 object4 ,la/ ye> "s prom95t citiz5s (  
,antw]p--ju/ly pr\d ( ! rapid & m>vel\s 
progress made by _! city--conceiv$ !    
idea ( invit+ ! civiliz$ _w to come &   
admire ! trans=mation :i*1 9 half a     
c5tury1 _h conv]t$ ! comm]cial          
metropolis ( ,belgium into ! fir/ port (
 ! ,european cont95t4 ,?is audaci\s     
project has be5 c>ri$ into execution1 & 
! build+s ( ! ,univ]sal ,exposition1    
includ+ ! ,hall ( ,indu/ry1 ! ,gall]y ( 
,ma*9]y1 & ! innum]able annexes1 cov]   
#b1cfh1jee sq4 ft4 ( gr\nd4 ,ev5 ?is    
l>ge space has prov$ too limit$4 ,^!    
build+s are %[n 9 ! accompany+ cut4     
,all nations h respond$ to ! call ( !   
citiz5s ( ,antw]p1 :o are support$ by ! 
patronage ( a sov]eign devot$ to        
progress1 ,leopold ,,ii41 ,k+ ( !       
,belgians4 ,among ! c\ntries repres5t$ 9
 ! exposition1 ,france takes ! fir/     
rank4 ,%e is repres5t$ by ov] #b1jjj    

exhibits1 & h] products occupy "o-fif?  
"p ( ! ,hall ( ,indu/ry & ! ,gall]y (   
,ma*9]y4 ,! pavilion ( ! ,fr5* ,colonies
 is an exact repres5tation ( a palace ( 
,co*9 ,*9a4  ,belgium is repres5t$ by   
#b1djj exhibits4 ,! ,fr5* & ,belgian    
comp>tm5ts toge!r occupy "o-half ( !    
,hall ( ,indu/ry & ! ,gall]y ( ,ma*9]y4 
,?is latt] build+ repres5ts a gr&       
spectacle1 especially 9 ! ev5+1 :5 x is 
light$ by electricity4 ,9 excavat+ "u   
?is gall]y1 ru9s 7 br\ght to light :i*  
prov$ to be ! f\ndations ( ! citadel ( !
 ,duke d',albe1 ! t]rible lieut5ant (   
,philip ,,ii4 ( ,spa94 ,?us1 on ! same  
site :]e once /ood ?is monum5t (        
oppression & torture1 electricity1 t    
bright /> ( mod]n times1 w illum9ate !  
mo/ wond]ful inv5tions ( human          
progress4--,l',illu/ration4             
,illu/ration3 ,,bird',s-,,eye ,,view ,,(
 ,,! ,,univ]sal ,,exposition ,,at       
,d',,anv]s1 ,,belgium4         99       
99       99       99       99     ,,!   
,,/one ,,p9e4  7,,p9us ,,p9ea47         

,al?\gh n su* an important tree 9 ?is   
c\ntry z _m o!r conif]s1 ! ,/one p9e    
possesses a peculi> int]e/ beyond t (   
any o!r ,european conif]4 ,f ! e>lie/   
p]iods x has be5 ! !me ( classical      
writ]s4 ,ovid & ,pl9y describe x2       
,virgil alludes to x z a mo/ beautiful  
ornam5t2 & ,horace m5tions a p9e agree+ 
9 "* ) ! ,/one p9e2 :ile 9 ,pompeii &   
,h]culaneum we f9d figures ( p9e cones 9
 draw+s & on ! arabesques2 & ev5 k]nels 
( *>r$ p9es h be5 discov]$4 ,! ,p9a/] ( 
! anci5ts does n appe> to be ! same z t 
( ! mod]ns2 ! =m] 0 said to be (        
extraord9>y height1 :ile ! latt] is     
almo/ z l[ z ! ,/one p9e4 ,no =e/ is    
fraught ) m poetical & classical int]e/ 
?an ! p9e wood ( ,rav5na1 ! glories (   
:i* h be5 especially sung by ,dante1    
,boccacio1 ,dryd5 & ,byron1 & x is /ill 
kn[n z ! ,vicolo de' ,poeti4  ,! ,/one  
p9e is f\nd 9 a wild /ate on ! s&y coa/s
 & hills ( ,tuscany1 to ! we/ ( !       
,ap5n9es1 & on ! hills ( ,g5oa1 usually 
accompani$ by1 & frequ5tly =m+ =e/s )1 !

 ,p9us p9a/]4 ,x is g5]ally cultivat$   
?r\gh\t ! :ole ( ,italy1 f ! foot ( !   
,alps to ,sicily4 ,x is n commonly f\nd 
high] ?an f #a1jjj feet to #a1ejj feet1 
b x occurs 9 ! s\? ( ,italy z high z    
#b1jjj feet4 ,x is f\nd1 accord+ to     
,sib?orp1 on ! s&y coa/s ( ! ,we/]n     
,peloponnesus1 9 ! same conditions1     
probably1 z 9 ! middle ( ,italy2 x is   
also met ) 9 ! isl& ( ,melida4          
,cultivat$1 x is f\nd on all ! %ores ( !
 ,m$it]ranean4 ,9 nor!rn ,europe1 &     
especially 9 ,engl&1 its g5]al appe>ance
 is c]ta9ly t ( a l[-gr[+ tree1 its     
d5sely clo!d bran*es =m+ almo/ a        
sph]ical mass2 b 9 ! sunny s\? x atta9s 
a height ( #ge feet to #ajj feet1 los+1 
z x asc5ds1 all its bran*es1 except ^?  
t[>d ! summit1 :i*1 9 maturity1 assume a
 mu%room =m4  ,se5 9 ! s(t clime (      
,italy 9 all its native vigor1 ! ,/one  
p9e is always maje/ic & /rangely        
impressive to a nor!rn eye1 :e!r 9 d5se 
=e/s1 z ne> ,flor5ce1 9 m op5 masses1 z 
at ,rav5na1 9 picturesque gr\ps1 z ab\t 

,rome1 or 9 occasional s+le trees1 su* z
 may be se5 ?r\gh\t ! c\ntry1 b r m     
frequ5tly t[>d ! coa/4 ,9 ^! isolat$    
trees _! impos+ "* c be be/ appreciat$1 
! great trunk c>ry+ ! massive head      
p]fectly pois$1 an int]e/+ example (    
pond]\s weight gracefully balanc$4 ,!   
solid1 weighty appe>ance ( ! head ( !   
tree is increas$ by its ev5 & g5]ally   
symmetrical outl9e1 ?is especially 9 !  
examples ne> ! coa/1 ! mass ( foliage   
be+ s close & d5se t x looks l velvet1 &
 9 color a w>m ri* olive gre51 /rangely 
diff]5t f ! blue gre5s & black gre5s (  
our nor!rn p9es4 ,! l(ty or normal type 
) ! umbrella-=m$ top is almo/ peculi> to
 ,c5tral & ,s\!rn ,italy4 ,9 o!r p>ts ( 
! s\? ( ,europe1 ?\gh (t5 atta9+ l>ge   
dim5sions1 x rema9s m dw>f & rotund 9   
%ape4  ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,/one ,,p9e   
7,,p9us ,,p9ea7 ,,at ,,ca/el ,,g&olfo1  
,,9 ,,italy4  ,?is p9e has n be5 mu*    
plant$ 9 ?is c\ntry1 ow+1 no d\bt1 to   
its sl[ gr[? & want ( h>d9ess 9 a "y    
/ate4 ,consequ5tly !re are n _m l>ge    

specim5s1 & c]ta9ly none to comp>e ) ^? 
( ,italy = size or picturesque beauty4  
,mr4 ,a4 ,d4 ,web/]1 ! =e/] at ,p5rhyn  
,ca/le1 ,nor? ,wales1 :o has k9dly s5t u
 a f9e cone ( ?is p9e1 writes ?us       
respect+ x3 ,a fair-siz$ specim5 ( ?is  
p9e /&s on ! slop+ gr\nd to ! s\?we/ (  
,p5rhyn ,ca/le4 ,x %[s (f to advantage !
 peculi> outl9e ( ?is p9e1 :i* is s m>k$
 a *>act]i/ic ( ^? gr[n 9 ! ,m$it]ranean
 region4 ,! trunk1 :i* is ab\t #d feet 9
 gir? at a y>d up1 rises = ?ree-f\r?s   
its height )\t bran*es1 aft] :i* x      
divides into a numb] ( limbs1 !         
extremities ( :i* are well cov]$ )      
foliage1 ?us giv+ to ! tree a bu%y1     
well-=m$1 &1 ,i might almo/ add1 r\nd$  
appe>ance4 ,at a casual glance ! :ole   
tree might readily be mi/ak5 = ! p9a/]1 
b ! leaves are %ort]1 less tuft$1 &     
always m erect4 ,! b>k ( ! ,/one p9e is 
some:at r\gh & unev51 ( a dull gray     
color1 unless betwe5 ! furr[s1 :i* is ( 
a bright br[n4 ,t on ! bran*es is m     
smoo? & ( a light r$di% br[n color4 ,:5 

closely exam9$1 !re is some?+ rem>kably 
pleas+ & di/9ct f ! g5]ality ( p9es 9 ! 
appe>ance ( ?is tree1 ! leaves1 :i* are 
( a deep olive-gre51 be+1 f _! regul>ity
 & usual clos5ess1 :5 se5 9 good light1 
l ! f9e/ network4  ,!re is a mod]ately  
l>ge specim5 9 ! arboretum at ,kew1 & if
 ?is is ! tree :i* ,l\don 9 8 ,arboretum
 allud$ to z a m]e bu%1 x has made good 
gr[? dur+ ! pa/ ?irty ye>s4 ,accord+ to 
,veit*'s ,manual ( ,conif]1 a f9e       
specim51 "o ( ! l>ge/ 9 ! c\ntry1 is at 
,gl5?orn1 9 ,nor? ,devon4 ,x is #cc feet
 high1 & has a spread ( bran*es "s #bb  
feet1 :ile ! trunk is cle> ( bran*es =  
#ae feet4 ,l\don enum]ates sev]al f9e   
trees 9 ^! isl&s at t date 7#ahed71 only
 "o ( :i* 0 #de feet high4 ,?is "o 0 at 
,ballyleady1 9 ,c\nty ,d[n1 & _h be5    
plant$ ab\t #fj ye>s4 ,ev5 :]e plant$ 9 
! mo/ favor$ localities1 we c nev]      
expect ! ,/one p9e to assume its true   
"*1 & t is ! reason :y s few plant x4   
,z a timb] tree x is ( n mu* value4 ,mr4
 ,web/] says1 ,! wood is wor?less except

 = v ord9>y purposes4 ,! timb] gr[n "h  
7,p5rhyn7 is1 f ! few specim5s ,i h _h !
 *ance ( exam9+1 v clean1 light1 f !    
small quantity ( res9 x conta9s1 & 9    
color v ne>ly approa*es ! yell[ p9e (   
comm]ce4 ,x cuts clean & works well "u !
 tools ( ! c>p5t]4 ,9 its native c\ntry 
! wood has be5 us$ = boat-build+1 b is  
n[1 ,i believe1 almo/ entirely disc>d$4 
,?is p9e ?rives be/ on a soil t is deep1
 s&y1 & dry4 ,x %\ld be well %elt]$ &   
nurs$1 z x is r t5d] :ile 9 its "y /ate4
 ,x is be/ to keep ! se$l+s "u glass1   
?\gh !y may be plant$ out 9 ! op5 air   
aft] _! f\r? or fif? ye>4  ,! cones (   
?is p9e supply ! pignoli ( comm]ce4 ,!  
,italian cooks use ^! se$s 9 _! s\ps &  
rag\ts1 & 9 ! ,m>itozzi buns ( ,rome4   
,sometimes ! ,italians roa/ ! b>ely ripe
 cone1 da%+ x on ! gr\nd to break x op51
 b ! ripe se$s ( ! old] cone :5 x       
naturally op5s are bett] wor? eat+4 ,!y 
are s(t & ri*1 & h a slightly res9\s    
flavor4 ,! empty cones are us$ by !     
,italians = fire light+1 & be+ full (   

res9\s matt] !y burn rapidly & emit a   
delightful fragrance4                   
,description4--,p9us p9ea belongs to !  
,p9a/] section ( ! g5us4 ,9 ! s\? (     
,europe x is a l(ty tree1 ) a spread+   
head =m+ a k9d ( p>asol1 & a trunk #ej  
feet or #fj feet high1 cle> ( bran*es4  
,! b>k ( ! trunk is r$di% & sometimes   
crack$1 b ! g5]al surface ( ! b>k is    
smoo? except on ! small] bran*es1 :]e x 
long reta9s ! m>ks ( ! fall5 leaves1 9 !
 %ape ( bri/ly scales4 ,! leaves are ( a
 dull gre51 b n q s d>k z ^? ( ! ,p9a/]2
 !y are semi-cyl9drical1 #f in*es or #g 
in*es long & "o-twelf? ( an in* broad1  
two 9 a %ea?1 & dispos$ 9 su* a mann] z 
to =m a triple spiral r\nd ! bran*es4   
,! catk9s ( ! male fl[]s are yell[i%2 & 
be+ plac$ on sl5d] %oots ( ! curr5t ye>1
 ne> ! extremity1 tw5ty or ?irty toge!r1
 !y =m bundles1 surm\nt$ by "s sc>cely  
develop$ leaves4 ,ea* catk9 is n m ?an  
half an in* long1 on a v %ort p$uncle1 &
 ) a r\nd$ d5ticulat$ cre/4 ,! female   
catk9s are :iti%1 & are situat$ two or  

?ree toge!r1 at ! extremity ( ! /ronge/ 
& mo/ vigor\s %oots4 ,ea* female catk9  
has a sep>ate p$uncle1 *>g$ ) r$di%1    
sc>i\s1 lanceolate scales1 & is surr\nd$
 at its base ) a d\ble r[ ( ! same      
scales1 :i* s]v$ to envelop x be=e x    
exp&$2 its =m is p]fectly oval1 & its   
total l5g? ab\t half an in*4 ,! scales  
:i* =m ! female catk9 are ( a :iti%     
gre52 ! bractea on ! back is slightly   
r$di% on its upp] side2 & ! /igma1 :i*  
has two po9ts1 is ( a bright r$4 ,aft]  
f]tilization1 ! scales augm5t 9         
?ickness2 &1 becom+ firmly press$ aga9/ 
ea* o!r1 !y =m by _! aggregation a      
fruit1 :i* is ?ree ye>s be=e x rip5s4   
,dur+ ! fir/ ye> x is sc>cely l>g] ?an !
 female catk92 & dur+ ! second ye> x    
becomes globul>1 & ab\t ! size ( a      
walnut4 ,! ?ird ye> ! cones increase    
rapidly 9 size2 ! scales lose _! r$di%  
t+e1 & become ( a beautiful gre51 ! po9t
 alone rema9+ r$2 & at la/1 ab\t ! end (
 ! ?ird ye>1 !y atta9 maturity4 ,at ?is 
p]iod ! cones are ab\t f\r in*es long & 

?ree in*es 9 diamet]1 & !y h assum$ a   
g5]al r$di% hue4 ,! convex "p ( ! scales
 =ms a depress$ pyramid1 ) r\nd$ angles1
 ! summit ( :i* is umbilical4 ,ea* scale
 is holl[ at its base2 & 9 its int]ior  
are two cavities1 ea* conta9+ a se$ mu* 
l>g] ?an t ( any o!r k9d ( ,european    
p9e1 b ! w+ ( :i* is1 on ! contr>y1 mu* 
%ort]4 ,! woody %ell :i* envelops !     
k]nel is h>d & difficult to break 9 !   
common k9d1 b 9 ! v>iety fragilis x is  
t5d]1 & easily brok5 by ! f+]s4 ,9 bo? !
 k]nel is :ite1 sweet1 & agreeable to ! 
ta/e4 ,! taproot ( ! /one p9e is ne>ly z
 /rong z t ( ,p4 p9a/]2 &1 l t species1 
! trees1 :5 transplant$1 g5]ally lean to
 "o side1 f ! head n be+ correctly      
balanc$4 ,h5ce1 9 full-gr[n trees ( !   
,/one p9e !re is (t5 a simil> curvature 
at ! base ( ! trunk to t ( ! p9a/]4 ,!  
palmate =m ( ! cotyl$ons ( ! g5us ,p9us 
is p>ticul>ly conspicu\s 9 ^? ( ,p4     
p9ea4 ,:5 "o ( ! ripe k]nels is split 9 
two1 ! cotyl$ons sep>ate1 s z to        
repres5t r\ghly ! =m ( a h&2 & ?is1 9 "s

 p>ts ( ,france1 ! c\ntry p call la ma9 
de ,dieu1 & believ$ to be a rem$y 9     
cases ( int]mitt5t fev] if swall[$ 9    
unev5 numb]s1 su* z #c1 #e1 or #g4 ,!   
duration ( ! tree is mu* great] ?an t ( 
! p9a/]1 & ! timb] is :it] & some:at m  
durable4 ,9 ! climate ( ,london trees ( 
f fifte5 to tw5ty ye>s' gr[? produce    
cones4  ,!re are no well-m>k$ v>ieties (
 ! ,/one p9e1 ?\gh 9 its native di/ricts
 geographical =ms may occur4 ,= in/ance1
 ,l\don describes a v>iety cretica1 :i* 
is said to h l>g] cones & m sl5d]       
leaves4 ,duhamel also describes a v>iety
 fragilis1 hav+ ?9n] %ells to ! se$s or 
k]nels4 ,nei!r ( ^! v>ieties is 9 ?is   
c\ntry1 s f> z we are aw>e4 ,!re are    
v>i\s synonyms = ,p4 p9ea1 ! *ief be+   
,p4 sativa ( ,bauh91 ,p4 aracan5sis (   
,knight1 ,p4 dome/ica1 ,p4 *95sis (     
,knight1 & ,p4 t>5t9a ( ,manetti4--,!   
,g>d54         99       99       99     
99       99     ,,! ,,art ,,( ,,bre$+4  
,f a pap] read by ,c4 ,m4 ,w9sl[1       
,br&on1 ,vt41 be=e ! ,ayr%ire ,bre$]s1  

at _! annual meet+1 9 ,bo/on1 ,feb4 #d1 
#ahhe3  ,sometimes we meet ) bre$]s ^:  
only aim 9 _! /ock seem to be to produce
 animals t %all be entitl$ to regi/ry4  
,to su* ,i h little to say1 z _! "w is  
comp>atively easy1 & has b few h9drances
 to success2 b to ^? bre$]s :o are      
possess$ ( an ideal type ( p]fection1   
:i* !y are /riv+ to impress ^u _! /ock1 
,i h a few words to say ^u ! h9drances  
!y may f9d 9 ! way ( satisfactory       
results4 ,x is a law ( nature t ! (fspr+
 resembles "s "o or m ( its ance/ors1 n 
only 9 ! outw>d appe>ance1 b 9 !        
con/ruction ( ! vital organism & m5tal  
peculi>ities1 & is simply a             
reproduction1 ) ! accid5tal or          
int5tional additions t f "t to "t are   
accumulat+ z ! /ock passes ?r\gh ! h&s (
 m or less skillful bre$]s4  ,! aim ( ! 
bre$] is to n only produce an animal :i*
 %all 9 its own p]son possess ! highe/  
type ( excell5ce s\ght1 b %all h ! p[]  
to transmit to its (fspr+ ^? qualities (
 value possess$ by himself4 ,a bre$]    

may1 by *ance1 produce a sup]ior animal1
 or x may be ! result ( c>efully laid   
plans & artfully controll+ ! =ces (     
nature & subject+ !m to 8 w4  ,x is     
comp>atively easy to accid5tally produce
 an animal ( value1 b to /eadily bre$ to
 "o type is ! te/ ( ! skill ( ! bre$] & 
! value ( 8 /ock4 ,h[ev] well he may lay
 8 plans1 or h[ev] desirable 8 /ock may 
appe>1 8 ability to p]petuate _!        
desirable qualities w dep5d ^u !        
prepot5ce ( ! animals1 & ?is prepot5ce  
dep5ds1 to a great ext5t1 ^u ! l5g? ( ! 
l9e 9 :i* ! /ock has be5 br$ ) "o       
def9ite end 9 view4 ,a man may1 9 8     
ef=ts to bre$ /ock excell+ 9 a c]ta9    
l9e1 produce /ock t %[s excell5ce 9 o!r 
qualities1 b ?is w n comp5sate = a      
defici5cy 9 ! qualification he is       
attempt+ to impress1 nor is x safe to   
bre$ f any animal t does n %[1 9 a m>k$ 
degree1 ^? desir$ qualities4  ,!re is "o
 qualification )\t :i* !re c be no      
success1 & t is a s\nd1 heal?y          
con/itution1 ) good vital organs &      

vigor\s dige/ion2 & any am\nt ( success 
9 o!r directions w n comp5sate = lack ( 
con/itution1 & disappo9tm5t is always   
sure to att5d ! bre$] :o does n gu>d    
?is1 ! f\ndation ( all success4444  ,! v
 f9e/ type ( bre$+ & sure/ plans (      
success may be entirely defeat$ by      
improp] fe$ & c>e4 ,a valuable h]d may  
be entirely ru9$ by a *ange ( food &    
c>e2 = ^? conditions :i* h conspir$ to  
produce a c]ta9 type mu/ be cont9u$1 or 
! type *anges1 x may be = ! bett] or x  
may be = ! worse1 s9ce /ock v readily   
adapt !mselves to _! surr\nd+s2 & x is j
 "h t s _m are disappo9t$ 9 buy+ blood  
/ock f a successful bre$]2 = a          
successful bre$] is necess>ily a good   
fe$] & a k9d h&l]1 & /ock may give good 
results 9 8 h&s1 &1 if remov$ to        
/>vation & h>%ness1 quickly deg5]ate4   
,s1 too1 /ock t has be5 br$ on poor     
pa/urage w readily improve if           
transplant$ to ri*] pa/ures & mild]     
climate4  ,!re=e he :o w\ld prove       
himself an arti/ 9 m\ld+ 8 h]d at w1 mu/

 n only br+ toge!r into 8 h]d _m *oice  
l9es ( goodness1 b mu/ ev] seek1 by k9d 
treatm5t & good c>e1 to *ange _!        
qualities = ! bett]1 & by "r selection &
 c>eful bre$+ s impress ^! *anges = !   
bett] z to make !m h]$it>y4 ,if ?is     
c\rse is p]si/5tly adh]$ to1 ! /ock w   
gradually improve1 reta9+ ! good        
qualities ( ! ance/ry1 & develop+ new   
ones1 g5]ation by g5]ation1 "u ! h& ( ! 
arti/ bre$]4         99       99        
99       99       99     ,,!            
,,babylonian ,,palace4   ,9 a rec5t     
lecture on ,babylonian & ,assyrian      
,antiquities1 at ! ,briti% ,museum by   
,mr4 ,w4 ,/4 ,*ad ,boscaw51 !           
ar*itecture & ornam5ts ( a typical      
palace 7 describ$4 ,! palace1 next to ! 
local temple1 01 ! lectur] said1 ! mo/  
important edifice 9 ! anci5t city1 & !  
explorations conduct$ by ,sir ,h5ry     
,lay>d1 ,mr4 ,rassam1 ,m4 ,botta1 &     
o!rs1 _h result$ 9 ! discov]y ( ! ru9s (
 _m ( ! mo/ fam\s ( royal resid5ces 9   
,n9eveh & ,babylon4 ,! palace 0 call$ 9 

! inscriptions ! great h\se1 z ! temple 
0 ,god's h\se1 ?\gh 9 lat] times x 0    
also nam$ ! abode ( royalty1 !          
dwell+-place ( k+s1 :ile ! great palace 
( ,nebu*adnezz> at ,babylon1 ! ru9s (   
:i* are m>k$ by ! ,kasr m\nd1 0 call$ ! 
wond] ( ! e>?4 ,! arrangem5t ( ! palace 
0 "o :i* v>i$ b little 9 anci5t & mod]n 
times1 ! same gr\p+ ( quadrangles1 )    
int]mural g>d5s1 be+ alike common to !  
,assyrian palace & ! ,turki% s]ai4  ,!  
e>lie/ ( ! ,assyrian palaces 7 ^? built 
9 ,assur1 :i* dat$ probably f ! n9ete5? 
c5tury be=e ! ,*ri/ian era2 b ! seat (  
royalty 0 at an e>ly p]iod transf]r$ f  
,assur to ,calah1 ! site ( :i* is m>k$  
by ! great m\nds ( ,nimr\d at ! junction
 ( ! great] ,lab & ! ,tigris4 ,"h l>ge  
palaces 7 erect$ by ! k+s ( ! ,middle   
,assyrian ,empire1 ! mo/ lavi% ( royal  
build]s be+ ,assur-nazir-pal &          
,%almanis>2 :ile a ?ird palace 0 built  
by ,tigla? ,piles] ,,ii4 7,b4 ,c4 #gdb74
 ,mr4 ,boscaw5 describ$ ! explorations  
c>ri$ out by ,sir ,h5ry ,lay>d on ?is   

site4  ,! mo/ important *amb] 9 ! build+
 0 ! long gall]y or saloon1 :i* _h be5  
call$ ! ,hall ( ,assembly4 ,! v>i\s p>ts
 ( ?is palace includ$ ! royal ap>tm5ts1 
! h>em1 & ! temple1 ) its great         
sev5-/age t[] or obs]vatory4 ,! v       
ext5sive & sy/ematic explorations c>ri$ 
out by ! ,fr5* explor] ,m4 ,botta _h    
re/or$ ! rema9s ( "o ( ! mo/ beautiful (
 ! ,assyrian palaces4 ,! usurpation ( ! 
,assyrian ?rone by ,s>gon ! ,t>t> 9 ,b4 
,c4 #gba plac$ 9 p[] a new dyna/y1 :o 7 
lavi% patrons ( ! arts & :o made ,n9eveh
 a city ( palaces4 ,probably on acc\nt (
 8 viol5t seizure ( ! ?rone1 ,s>gon 0   
afraid to reside 9 any ( ! exi/+ places 
at ,n9eveh--?\gh he appe>s = a %ort "t  
to h occupi$ ! old palace2 he built =   
himself ,calah1 at a %ort di/ance to !  
nor!a/ ( ,n9eveh1 ! palace t[n ( ,dun   
,s>g9a1 ! =t ( ,s>gon1 "o ( ! mo/       
luxuri\s palaces--! ,v]sailles (        
,n9eveh4 ,! ru9s ( ?is palace 7 buri$   
b5ea? ! m\nd ( ,korsabad1 & 7 explor$ by
 ,m4 ,botta on behalf ( ! ,fr5*         

,gov]nm5t1 & ! sculptures & inscriptions
 are n[ deposit$ 9 ! ,l\vre4 ,comp>$ )  
all ! ,assyrian palaces1 lat] or e>li]1 
?is royal abode ( ,s>gon /&s alone4 ,!  
sculptures 7 m magnific5t1 :ile w>m? &  
color 7 obta9$ by ! ext5sive use (      
color$ bricks4 ,"s ( ! cornices &       
friezes ( pa9t$ bricks1 ( :i* ,mr4      
,boscaw5 exhibit$ draw+s1 7 mo/ ri* 9   
ornam5t4 ,! *ief colors employ$ 7 blue &
 yell[1 & sometimes r$ & gre54 ,hav+    
describ$ ! g5]al con/ruction ( ?is      
rem>kable build+1 ,mr4 ,boscaw5 proce$$ 
to speak ( ! "* ( ,assyrian art dur+ !  
gold5 age 7,b4,c4 #gba-fbe71 & he       
illu/rat$ 8 rem>ks by ! exhibition (    
sev]al l>ge draw+s4 ,"o ( ! mo/         
elaborate ( ^! 0 ! embroid]y on ! royal 
robe4 ,! pectoral 0 cov]$ ) sc5es tak5 f
 ,babylonian my?s4 ,on ! upp] "p 0      
,isdub> or ,nimrod /ruggl+ ) ! lion2    
bel[ ?is a spl5did repres5tation (      
,m]oda*1 z ! w>rior ( ! gods arm$ =     
combat aga9/ ! demon ( evil1 :ile ! l[] 
"p 0 cov]$ ) repres5tations ( ! wor%ip (

 ! sacr$ tree4 ,! g5]al "* ( ,assyrian  
art1 its att5tion to detail1 & !        
wond]ful skill 9 repres5t+ animal life1 
z exhibit$ 9 ! hunt+ sc5es1 0 next spok5
 (1 & ,mr4 ,boscaw5 conclud$ by a brief 
description ( ! royal libr>y1 a mo/     
important "p ( ! great palace at        
,n9eveh4         99       99       99   
99       99  ,a catalogue conta9+ brief 
notices ( _m important sci5tific pap]s  
h]et(ore publi%$ 9 ! ,,supplem5t1 may be
 _h gratis at ?is (fice4         99     
99       99       99       99  ,,!      
,,sci5tific ,,am]ican ,,supplem5t4      
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,subscription1 #e a ye>4  ,s5t by mail1 
po/age prepaid1 to subscrib]s 9 any "p (
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 a ye>1 s5t1 prepaid1 to any =eign      
c\ntry4         99       99       99    
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,,supplem5t1 f ! comm5cem5t1 ,janu>y #a1
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,all ! back volumes ( ,,! ,,supplem5t c 

likewise be suppli$4 ,two volumes are   
issu$ ye>ly4 ,price ( ea* volume1 #b4ej 
/it*$ 9 pap]1 or #c4ej b\nd 9 /iff      
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