,illustration     ,,scientific          
,,american ,,supplement ,,no4 #dhh      
,,new ,,york1 ,,may #i1 #ahhe           
,scientific ,american ,supplement4 ,vol4
 ,,xix1 ,no4 #dhh4  ,scientific         
,american established #ahde  ,scientific
 ,american ,supplement1 #e a year4      
,scientific ,american and ,supplement1  
#g a year4         99       99       99 
99       99     ,,table ,,of ,,contents4
                                        
,,page ,i4   ,,chemistry4--,notes on    
,three ,new ,chinese ,fixed ,oils4--,tea
      oil4--,cabbage oil4--,wood        
oil4--,paper read by ,r4 ,h4            
,,davies before the ,pharmaceutical     
,society of ,great      ,britain4       
#ggih  ,,ii4  ,,engineering ,,and       
,,mechanics4--,a ,visit to the ,creusot 
,works4--,giving a description of the   
works and the      projects undertaken  
by the proprietors4--,with full page    
of engravings illustrating the ,hall of 
,forges and the      #ajj ton steam     
hammer4                                 

#gghd       ,le ,creusot4--,extract of  
the report of the visit of the          
,american ,gun ,foundry ,board to these 
works4                #gghd       ,plan 
for the ,elevated ,railway at           
,paris4--#d figures4       #gghe        
,engineering ,inventions since          
#ahfb4--;,by ,sir ,f4 ,j4               
,,bramwell4--,bridge                    
construction4--,pneumatic               
,foundations4--,construction of         
tunnels4--,canals and river             
improvements4--,military engineering    
appliances4--,uses of                   
cement4--,preservation of wood4         
#gghg  ,,iii4 ,,physics1 ,,electricity1 
,,etc4--,electric ,light ,apparatus for 
,military ,purposes4--,with engraving4  
#ggij       ,electricity and            
,magnetism4--,by ,prof4 ,f4 ,e4         
,,nipher4                               
#ggij       ,the ,hydrodynamic          
,researches of ,prof4 ,bjerknes4--,by   
,c4      ,w4 ,,cooke4--#e figures4      
#ggia       ,electrotyping4--,with a    

full description of the process4   #ggic
       ,a ,new ,seismograph4--,with     
engraving4                       #ggic  
,,iv4  ,,art ,,and ,,architecture4--,the
 ,cathedral of the ,incarnation      at 
,garden ,city4                          
#gghg       ,movable ,market            
,buildings4--#g figures and engraving of
      movable flower market at ,paris4  
#gghh       ,dinocrates'                
,project4--,with three engravings of    
landscapes      showing human profiles4 
#gghi       ,the ,babylonian ,palace4   
#ggih  ,v4   ,,horticulture4--,the      
,stone ,pine 7,pinus ,pinea74--,with    
engraving4                              
#ggig  ,,vi4  ,,hygiene1 ,,etc4--,the   
,otoscope4--,with engraving4            
#ggid       ,state ,provision for the   
,insane4--,by ,c4 ,m4      ,,hughes1    
,m4,d4                                  
#ggid  ,,vii4 ,,miscellaneous4--,the    
,xylophone4--#b engravings4             
#ggic       ,the ,courage of            
,originality4                           

#ggie       ,a ,circular ,bowling       
,alley4--,with engraving4               
#ggie       ,patent ,office ,examination
 of ,inventions4                  #ggie 
,the ,universal ,exposition at ,antwerp1
 ,belgium4--,with full      page        
engraving4                              
#ggig       ,the ,art of ,breeding4     
#ggih         99       99       99      
99       99   ,,acknowledgments4  ,we   
give in this number of our ,,supplement 
several articles with illustrations1 for
 which we are indebted to ,la ,nature4  
,they are entitled ,electric ,light     
,apparatus for ,military ,purposes1 ,the
 ,otoscope1 ,a ,new ,seismograph1       
,dinocrates' ,project1 ,the ,xylophone1 
,plan of an ,elevated ,railway for      
,paris4         99       99       99    
99       99     ,a ,,visit ,,to ,,the   
,,creusot ,,works4   ,here we are at the
 great forge 7,fig4 #a71 that wonderful 
creation which has not its like in      
,france1 that gigantic construction     
which iron has wholly paid for1 and     

which covers a space of twenty-four     
acres4 ,we first remark two puddling    
halls1 each of which contains #ej       
furnaces and #i steam hammers4 ,it is in
 these furnaces that the iron is        
puddled4 ,the ball or bloom thus        
obtained is afterward taken to the      
hammer1 which crushes it and expels the 
scori4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,,the
 ,,great ,,hall ,,of ,,forges ,,at ,,the
 ,,creusot ,,works4  ,the puddler's     
trade1 which is without doubt the most  
laborious one in metallurgy1 will surely
 soon be lightened through the use of   
steam4 ,two rotary furnaces actuated by 
this agent have been in operation for a 
few years at ,creusot1 and each is      
yielding #bj tons of iron per day4  ,we 
have but a court of #acj feet in width  
to cross in order to reach the rolling  
mill4 ,at the entrance to this we enjoy 
one of the most beautiful sights that   
the immense works can offer4 ,for a     
length of #a1bdj feet we perceive on one
 side a series of rolling machines1 and 

on the other a row of reverberatory     
furnaces that occasionally give out a   
dazzling light4 ,in the intervals are   
fiery blocks that are being taken to the
 rolling machines1 in order to be given 
the most diverse forms1 according to the
 requirements of commerce4  ,the iron   
obtained by puddling is not as yet in   
its definite state1 but the rolling mill
 completes what the puddling hall does  
in the rough4 ,five hundred and fifty   
thousand tons of iron1 all shaped1 are  
taken from the forge every day4 ,to     
reach such a result it requires no less 
than #c1jjj workmen and a motive power  
of #g1jjj horses4  ,but do not be       
appalled at the cost of the coal1 for1  
thanks to ingenious processes1 the heat 
lost from the furnaces nearly suffices  
to run the boilers4 ,if we remark that a
 power of one horse does in one hour the
 equivalent of a man's labor per day1 we
 conclude that these machines 7which run
 night and day7 represent an army of    
#afj1jjj men that lends its gratuitous  

aid to the workmen of the forge4 ,this  
is what is called progress in industry4 
,we have just seen that iron is obtained
 in small masses4 ,these can be welded  
upon heating them to #a1ejj or #b1jjj   
degrees4 ,it is impossible to           
manufacture a large piece exempt from   
danger from the weldings4 ,cast iron    
always has defects that are inherent to 
its nature1 and these are all the more  
dangerous in that they are hidden4      
,steel is exempt from these defects1    
and1 moreover1 whatever be the size of  
the ingot1 its homogeneousness is       
perfect4 ,this is what has given the    
idea of manufacturing from it enormous  
marine engines and those gigantic guns  
that the genius of destruction has long 
coveted4  ,ah1 if the good sense of men 
does not suffice to put a limit to their
 increasing progress1 bridges1 viaducts1
 and tunnels will take it upon          
themselves1 if need be1 to bar their    
passage4 ,but1 in order to forge large  
ingots1 it became necessary before all  

to increase the power of the steam      
hammer4 ,the ,creusot establishment1    
which endowed metallurgy with this      
valuable machine1 had allowed itself to 
be eclipsed1 not by the number 7for it  
had #eg71 but by the dimensions of the  
largest one4 ,in #ahge1 the ,krupp works
 constructed one of #ej tons1 and their 
example was followed at ,perm1 ,st4     
,petersburg1 and ,woolwich4 ,it was then
 that ,mr4 ,henry ,schneider put in     
execution a bold project that he had    
studied with his father1 that of        
constructing a #ajj ton steam hammer1   
along with the gigantic accessories     
necessary 7,fig4 #b74 ,it became        
necessary to erect a building apart for 
its reception4 ,this structure covers a 
surface of one and three-quarter roods1 
and reaches a height of #ih feet in the 
center4 ,as for the hammer1 imagine     
uprights #be feet in height1 having the 
shape of the letter ,a1 surmounted with 
a cylinder #ai feet in length and of a  
section of #c square yards4             

,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,,the        
,,creusot ,,one ,,hundred ,,ton ,,steam 
,,hammer4  ,the piston which moves in   
this cylinder1 under a pressure of #e   
atmospheres1 is capable of lifting a    
weight of #ajj tons4 ,the hammer1 which 
is fixed to this piston by a rod1 has   
therefore an ascensional force of       
#hh1jjj pounds4 ,it can be raised #af   
feet above the anvil1 and this gives it 
a power three and a third times greater 
than that of the ,prussian hammer4      
,large guns can therefore be made in    
,france just as well as in ,germany4    
,this enormous mass is balanced in space
 at the will of one man1 who1 by means  
of a lever1 opens and closes two valves 
without the least effort4 ,this colossal
 hammer required an anvil worthy of it4 
,this weighs #gbj tons1 and rests upon  
granite in the center of #aif feet of   
masonry4  ,the hammer is surrounded with
 four furnaces heated by gas1 and duty  
is done for each of these by steam      
cranes capable of lifting #cej1jjj      

pounds4 ,these cranes take the glowing  
block from the furnace1 place it upon   
the anvil1 and turn it over on every    
side at the will of the foreman4 ,under 
this hammer a cannon is forged as if it 
were a mere bolt4 ,the piece is merely  
rough-shaped upon the anvil1 and a      
metallic car running upon a #cf foot    
track carries it to the adjusting shop4 
,there the cannon is turned1 bored1 and 
rifled1 and nothing remains but to      
temper it1 that is to say1 to plunge it 
into a bath after it has been heated    
white hot4 ,for this purpose an enormous
 ditch has been dug in which there is a 
cylindrical furnace1 and alongside of it
 there is a well of oil4 ,the car brings
 the cannon to the edge of the ditch1   
and a steam crane performs the operation
 of tempering with as much ease as we   
would temper a knife blade4  ,in the    
presence of such engines of attack it   
was necessary to think of defense4 ,the 
hammer that forges the cannon also gives
 us the armor plate to brave it4 ,this  

time the ingot is flattened under the   
blows of the hammer1 and even takes the 
rounded form of the stern1 if it be so  
desired4 ,thus is obtained the wall of  
steel that we wish4  ,will it be        
possible to keep up the fight long8 ,in 
order that one may get some idea of this
 for himself1 let us rapidly describe an
 entirely peaceful contest that took    
place recently upon the coast of ,italy4
 ,two rival plates1 one of them ,english
 and the other ,french1 were placed in  
the presence of the ,spezia gun1 which  
weighs #ajj tons4 ,these plates were    
strongly braced with planks and old     
armor plate4 ,three shots were to be    
fired at each of the plates4  ,in the   
first shot the ball was of hardened cast
 iron1 and weighed #a1iij pounds4 ,the  
,english plate was filled with fissures1
 while the ,creusot did not show a      
single one4 ,the ball penetrated it     
about seven inches1 and was broken into 
small pieces4  ,in the second shot the  
projectile was the same1 but the charge 

was greater4 ,the shot may be calculated
 from the velocity1 which was #a1ecj    
feet4 ,it was equal to what the great   
hammer would give were it to fall from a
 height of a hundred yards4 ,the        
,english plate was completely shivered1 
while the ,french exhibited but six very
 fine fissures radiating from the point 
struck4 ,the ball entered #h inches1 and
 was broken as in the first experiment4 
,the third shot fired was with a steel  
ball1 against the ,french plate1 the    
,english being hors de combat4 ,the     
penetration was the same2 the ball was  
not broken1 but was flattened at the    
point like the head of a bolt4  ,we     
should like to speak of those           
magnificent workshops in which the      
immense naval pieces are adjusted1 where
 the shafts of helixes #fj feet in      
length are turned1 and of the boiler    
works1 where one may see generators that
 have a heating surface exceeding #b1jjj
 square feet1 for it requires no less   
than that to supply #h1jjj ,h4,p41 and  

thus triumph over the force of inertia  
and those colossal iron-clads4 ,but how 
describe in a magazine article what the 
eye cannot take in in a day8  ,despite  
all our regrets1 we have to pass over   
some things1 but our duty will not have 
been performed if we omit the history of
 the works4  ,creusot1 which to-day is a
 regularly-built city with a population 
of #bh1jjj souls1 was in #aghb but a    
poor hamlet called ,charbonniere4 ,the  
existence there of a coal bed had long  
been known1 and iron ore had been found 
not far off4 ,but how establish works in
 a locality deprived of a water course1 
and distant from the large ways of      
communication8  ,in #aghb the steam     
engine1 which ,watt had just finally    
improved1 removed the first difficulty1 
and the second was soon to disappear1   
thanks to a projected canal4 ,an iron   
foundry was then established there under
 the patronage of ,louis ,,xiv41 while  
the ,queen had glassworks erected4  ,as 
long as the war lasted the foundry      

supported itself through casting cannons
 and balls1 but after the year #ahae it 
became necessary either to transform the
 works or sell them4 ,it was decided to 
do the latter4 ,the ,messrs4 ,chagot1   
who became purchasers in the sum of     
#ahj1jjj1 were in turn obliged to sell  
out in #ahbf4 ,creusot was then ceded to
 ,messrs4 ,manby  ,wilson1 who already  
had works at ,charenton4 ,at the end of 
seven years of efforts this firm made a 
failure1 and1 finally1 in #ahcf1 after  
six million dollars had been swallowed  
up1 ,creusot was bought for #ecf1jjj1 by
 ,messrs4 ,adolphe  ,eugene ,schneider  
,co4 ,the period of reverses was at an  
end1 and one of continued success was   
begun4  ,the new managers had seen that 
carriage by steam was soon to follow1   
and open up to metallurgy an entirely   
new horizon4 ,the works were quickly    
transformed and enlarged1 and in #ahch1 
the first ,french locomotive was turned 
out of them4 ,after locomotives came    
steamboats4 ,it was then that the       

necessity of forging large pieces gave  
the idea of a steam hammer4  ,by a      
coincidence that can only be explained  
by the needs of the epoch1 the ,english 
came upon the same discovery almost at  
the same time1 and the ,creusot patent  
antedated the ,english one by only two  
months4  ,two years afterward1 frigates 
such as the ,labrador1 ,orenoque1       
,albatros1 etc41 of #dej ,h4,p41 were   
rivaling ,english vessels on the ocean4 
,after the death of ,mr4 ,adolphe       
,schneider1 on the #c;d of ,august1     
#ahde1 his brother ,eugene1 left sole   
manager1 displayed an activity that it  
would be difficult to exceed4 ,he made  
himself familiar with the resources and 
productions of foreign countries and of 
,france1 and then made up his mind what 
to do4 ,he desired to make his works the
 finest in the world1 and it has been   
seen from what precedes that1 after     
twenty years of effort1 his aim has been
 attained4 ,what a rapid progress for so
 short a time6 ,in #ahch1 the first     

locomotive that was not of ,english     
origin appeared to us like a true       
phenomenon2 a few years afterward the   
,creusot locomotives were crossing the  
,channel in order to roll proudly over  
the railways of a rival nation4  ,a     
general1 no matter how skillful1 could  
not conquer with an undisciplined army1 
so the education of the workmen's       
children was one of the things that the 
founder of this great industrial center 
had constantly in mind4 ,mr4 ,h4        
,schneider has continued the work of his
 father1 and has considerably extended  
it1 at ,creusot as well as in the       
annexed establishments4 ,the number of  
pupils who frequent the schools exceeded
 #f1jjj in #ahgh4  ,the work is not     
confined to educating the children1 but 
a retreat is afforded the parents1      
without putting them under any          
restraint4  ,after twenty-five years'   
service a workman receives an income of 
#ajj if he is a bachelor1 and #aej if   
married1 but upon one condition1        

however1 and that is that he is a       
,frenchman4 ,for #a4bj a month he is    
lodged in a pretty little house         
surrounded with a garden1 and1 if he is 
sick1 he is attended gratuitously4      
,these benefits are not addressed to    
ingrates1 as was proved by the profound 
sorrow that reigned in the little city  
when the death of the benefactor of     
,creusot was learned4--,science et      
,nature4         99       99       99   
99       99     ,,le ,,creusot4   ,the  
members of the ,american ,gun ,foundry  
,board visited these works in #ahhc1 and
 give the following in their report3    
,the most important steel works in      
,france are situated at ,le ,creusot1   
and bear the name of the location in    
which they are situated4 ,these works   
have advanced year by year in importance
 and in magnitude since their purchase  
by ,mr4 ,eugene ,schneider4  ,this      
gentleman's death1 in #ahge1 was a      
source of mourning to the whole town1   
the inhabitants of which looked up to   

him as a father4 ,the grateful people   
have erected to his memory a monument in
 the market square4  ,under the         
administration of his son1 ,mr4 ,henry  
,schneider1 the fame of the products of 
the works has been enhanced1 and the    
proportions of the establishment have   
been much increased4 ,the whole number  
of workmen now employed here and at     
other points amounts to #ae1jjj2 and it 
is the great center of industry of the  
adjoining region4 ,at no other place in 
the world is steel handled in such      
masses4  ,it would be foreign to the    
purpose of this report to dwell on the  
many objects of commerce which are      
supplied from these works1 but it is    
safe to say that no proposed work can be
 of such magnitude as to exceed the     
resources of the establishment4  ,for   
the preparation of metal for cannon and 
armor-plates ,le ,creusot is thoroughly 
equipped4 ,the iron is produced on the  
premises from the purest imported ores1 
and the manufacture of the steel is     

carried on by the most approved         
application of the open-hearth system   
with the ,siemens furnace2 the chemical 
and mechanical tests are such as to     
satisfy the most exacting demands of    
careful government officials2 and the   
executive ability apparent in all the   
departments and the evident condition of
 discipline that pervades the whole     
establishment inspire confidence in the 
productions of the labor4  ,the capacity
 for casting steel is represented by    
seven open-hearth furnaces of #ah tons  
each1 equal to #abf tons2 and the       
process of casting large ingots is a    
model of order and security4 ,ladles    
capable of holding the contents of one  
furnace1 mounted upon platform cars1 are
 successively filled at a previously    
determined interval of time and run on  
railways to a convenient position over  
the mould2 before the first ladle is    
exhausted the supply from the succeeding
 one has commenced to run1 and so on to 
the completion of the casting1 the      

supply to the mould being uninterrupted 
during the entire process4 ,the         
precision with which the several ladles 
are brought into position in succession 
makes it entirely unnecessary to provide
 a common reservoir into which all the  
furnaces may discharge4 ,by this process
 the casting of a #de ton ingot1 which  
was witnessed by the ,board1 was        
effected in #bc minutes4  ,the process  
of tempering the gun-tubes was also     
witnessed by the ,board4 ,the excavation
 of the pit is1 as at ,st4 ,chamond1 #ae
 meters deep1 with the furnace at one   
end and the oil tank 7#ajj tons7 at the 
other4 ,one side of the upright furnace 
is constructed in the form of a door1   
which1 by a convenient arrangement for  
swinging1 is made to turn on its hinges4
 ,thus1 when the tube is raised to the  
right temperature1 it is seized by the  
traveling crane1 the door of the furnace
 swung open1 and the tube at once       
advanced to the tank in which it is     
immersed4  ,all tubes are immersed in   

oil the second time1 but at a           
temperature much below that to which    
they are raised at the first immersion4 
,this process constitutes the annealing 
after tempering4  ,the manufacture of   
steel-armor plates is a specialty of ,le
 ,creusot1 which is engaged in an active
 competition with the manufacturers of  
compound armor4 ,plates up to #fj       
centimeters in thickness and #c meters  
wide are forged here2 they are tempered 
after forging1 but what subsequent      
treatment they receive was not          
explained4  ,the tempering pit for the  
plates consists of an excavation of     
convenient size1 in the center of which 
is placed a tank containing #ahj tons of
 oil4 ,at the four corners of the pit   
are furnaces in which the plates are    
raised to a proper temperature4 ,when   
sufficiently heated1 a plate is seized  
by a walking crane and immersed in the  
oil4  ,hoops for cannon are manufactured
 here in large quantities4 ,they are cut
 from solid ingots1 and those for guns  

up to #bd centimeters are rolled like   
railway tires2 those for larger calibers
 are forged on a mandrel4 ,jackets of   
large size are also manufactured2 these 
are made from solid ingots1 which1 after
 being forged1 are bored out4  ,at ,le  
,creusot a remarkable test of hoops was 
witnessed1 which exemplifies not only   
the excellence of the manufacture of the
 steel but also the exacting character  
of the ,french requirements4 ,the hoops 
for naval guns are made with the        
interior surface slightly conical4 ,when
 forged1 turned1 and brought under a    
hammer1 a standard mandrel of steel1    
conically shaped to suit the form of the
 cone in the hoop1 but of a slightly    
increased diameter1 is introduced1 the  
smaller end of the mandrel being able to
 enter the larger end of the hoop4 ,the 
mandrel is then forced in by the hammer 
until its lower edge has passed through 
the hoop4 ,the blows are then made to   
operate on the upper edge1 detaching it 
from the mandrel4 ,careful measurements 

are taken of the diameter of the hoop   
before and after this test1 and it is   
required that the measurement subsequent
 to the operation shall show that the   
hoop has partially1 but not entirely1   
returned to the diameter that it had    
before the entrance of the mandrel4     
,this would show that there is left to  
the metal a small margin within its     
elastic limit4 ,a system of manufacture 
which can comply with such a refinement 
of exactitude must be very precise4     
,perhaps the most striking feature at   
,le ,creusot is the forge1 where is     
assembled an array of steam hammers not 
equaled in the world1 viz43    ,one #ajj
 ton hammer with a fall of #e meters4   
,one #dj ton hammer with a fall of #c   
meters4   ,one #ae ton hammer with a    
fall of #c meters4   ,two #aj ton       
hammers with a fall of #b meters4   ,one
 #h ton hammer with a fall of #b meters4
  ,as the #ajj ton hammer at these works
 is the largest in the world1 some      
particulars concerning it will be       

appropriate4  ,the foundations are      
composed of a mass of masonry laid in   
cement resting on bed rock1 which occurs
 at a depth of #aa meters1 an anvil     
block of cast iron1 and a filling-in of 
oak timber designed to diminish by its  
elasticity the vibrations resulting from
 the blows of the hammer4 ,the masonry  
foundation presents a cube of #fjj      
meters4 ,its upper surface is covered   
with a layer of oak about one meter in  
thickness1 placed horizontally1 on which
 rests the anvil block4  ,at the ,perm  
foundry in ,russia the anvil block for  
the #ej ton hammer is made in one piece1
 moulded and cast on the spot it was    
intended to occupy4 ,its weight is #fbb 
tons4 ,at ,le ,creusot1 however1 this   
idea was not approved1 and it was       
determined to construct the block in six
 horizontal courses1 each bedded upon   
plane surfaces4 ,each course is formed  
of two castings1 except the upper one1 a
 single block1 which weighs #abj tons   
and supports the anvil4 ,thus formed in 

#aa pieces1 it is #e4f meters high1 #cc 
square meters at the base1 and #g square
 meters at the top4 ,its entire weight  
is #gbj tons4  ,the space between the   
block and the sides of the masonry in   
which it rests is filled in solidly with
 oak4 ,the block is thus independent of 
the frame of the superstructure4  ,the  
legs of the frame1 inclining toward each
 other in the form of an ,a1 are secured
 at their bases to a foundation plate   
embedded in the masonry4 ,they are      
hollow1 of cast iron1 and of rectangular
 cross section1 each leg in two pieces  
joined midway of their length by flanges
 and bolts4 ,the legs are also bound    
together by four plates of wrought iron1
 which1 at the same time1 holds the     
guides4 ,the height of the legs is      
#aj4be meters1 and their weight1 with   
the guides1 #bej tons4 ,the binding     
plates weigh together about #be tons1   
and the foundation plates #ij tons4     
,the entablature of the frame work      
weighs #cj tons2 on it is placed the    

steam cylinder1 single acting1 made in  
two pieces1 each #c meters long united  
by flanges and bolts4 ,the diameter of  
the cylinder is #a4i meters1 giving a   
surface of #bg1cde square centimeters   
7deducting the section of the rod1 which
 is #cf centimeters in diameter72 which1
 for #e atmospheres1 gives a pressure   
under the piston of about #adj tons4 ,as
 the weight of the hammer is #ajj tons1 
it is evident that it can be raised with
 great velocity4  ,the stroke of the    
piston in the cylinder is #e meters4    
,this height of fall1 multiplied by the 
#ajj1jjj kilogrammes of the mass1 gives 
a working force of #ejj1jjj             
kilogrammeters1 or about #a1fdj foot    
tons4 ,the width between the legs is    
#g4e meters1 and the free height under  
the cross ties #c meters1 thus providing
 ample space for maneuvering large      
masses of metal4  ,the entire height of 
this colossal structure from the base of
 the masonry foundation to the upper    
part of the steam cylinder is #ca meters

 7#ajb feet71 but notwithstanding this  
unfavorable condition for stability and 
the enormous effect resulting from a    
shock of #ejj1jjj kilogrammeters1       
everything is so well proportioned that 
there is but slight vibration4  ,the    
workman who maneuvers the hammer is     
placed on a platform on one of the legs1
 about #c meters above the floor4 ,he is
 here protected from the heat reflected 
from the mass of metal during the       
operation of forging4         99        
99       99       99       99     ,,plan
 ,,for ,,an ,,elevated ,,railway ,,at   
,,paris4   ,elevated railways have been 
in operation for a long time in ,new    
,york1 ,berlin1 and ,vienna1 and the    
city of ,paris has decided to have      
recourse to this mode of carriage1 so   
indispensable to large cities4 ,the     
question of establishing a line of      
railways in our capital has been open1  
as well known1 since #ahga4 ,during this
 period of nearly fourteen years this   
grave subject has at various times given

 rise to serious discussions1 in which  
the most competent engineers have taken 
part1 and numerous projects relating to 
the solution that it calls for have been
 put forth4  ,the problem to be solved  
is of the most complex nature1 and the  
engineers who have studied it have not  
been able to come to an agreement except
 as regards a small number of points4   
,it may even be said that unanimity     
exists upon but a single point1 and that
 is that the means of locomotion in     
,paris do not answer the requirements of
 the public1 and that there is an urgent
 necessity for new ones4 ,the capital   
question1 that of knowing whether the   
railway to be built shall be beneath or 
above ground1 is not yet settled2 for1  
up to the present1 no project has been  
prescribed in one direction or the      
other4  ,while some extol the           
underground solution as being the only  
one that1 without interfering with      
circulation in the streets1 permits of  
establishing a double-track railway     

capable of giving passage to ordinary   
rolling stock and of connecting directly
 with the large lines1 others1 objecting
 that such a road could not give        
satisfaction to the taste of ,parisians1
 and that it would necessitate work out 
of proportion to the advantages gained1 
conclude upon the adoption of an open   
air railway4  ,preferences generally are
 evidently for this latter solution4    
,we have received from a learned        
engineer1 ,mr4 ,jules ,garnier1 a       
project for an elevated railway1 which  
appears to us to be very ably conceived1
 very well studied out1 and which we    
hasten to make known4  7#a47 ,the system
 is characterized by the following      
fundamental points3 ,the up and down    
tracks1 instead of being laid alongside 
of each other1 as in an ordinary        
railway1 are superposed upon two        
distinct platforms forming a viaduct1   
which is consequently so arranged as to 
permit of the laying of one of the      
tracks at its lower part and of the     

other at its upper4  7#b47 ,the system  
of constructing the viaduct is so       
combined as to be capable of giving     
passage upon the road to the rolling    
stock of the large lines during the     
stoppage of the daily passenger trains4 
7#c47 ,the tracks are connected at the  
extremities by a curve that has the     
proper incline to compensate for the    
difference in level between the two1 and
 which has a sufficiently large radius  
to allow the slope of the track to be   
kept within the limits admitted4 ,the   
running of the trains is thus           
uninterrupted4  7#d47 ,when two lines of
 different directions bisect one        
another1 a special arrangement permits  
the passengers from one line to pass to 
the other by means of what is called a  
tangent station1 without the trains of  
one line crossing the tracks of another1
 the purpose of which arrangement is to 
avoid those accidents that would        
inevitably occur through the crossing of
 a track by the trains of a transverse  

line4  7#e47 ,the rolling stock is      
arranged in a manner that allows the    
entrance and exit of the passengers to  
be effected with great promptness4  ,in 
ordinary avenues1 comprising a roadway  
and two sidewalks1 the elevated railway 
is placed in the axis of the roadway at 
a sufficient height to prevent it       
interfering with the passage of         
carriages1 say #ad feet above the       
surface1 while in boulevards or avenues 
of great width1 having contre-allees#a  
bordered by a double row of trees1 it is
 installed in one of the contre-allees4 
,footnote #a3 ,paths parallel with the  
public walks4  ,in the first case 7,fig4
 #a71 the viaduct is wholly metallic1   
while in the second it comprises masonry
 arches surmounted by a metallic        
superstructure4 ,the viaduct is formed  
of independent spans supported by       
metallic piers that rest upon masonry   
foundations 7,fig4 #b74  ,illustration3 
,,fig4 #a4--,,project ,,for ,a          
,,parisian ,,elevated ,,railway4        

,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#b4--,,longitudinal ,,elevation4  ,the  
line will have three kinds of stations1 
intermediate1 tangent1 and terminal     
ones4 ,it is at the latter that the two 
superposed lines are connected by the   
circular inclined plane4  ,the waiting  
platforms of the intermediate stations  
will be formed simply by the widening of
 the span corresponding to the station4 
,access to these platforms will be had  
by stairs running up from the edge of   
the sidewalk4 ,the passengers will make 
their exit by means of corresponding    
stairs on the opposite side4 7,figs #c  
and #d47  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--;,a
 ,,station4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4      
#d4--,,transverse ,,section ,,of        
,,station4  ,the tangent stations are   
placed at the meeting point of two      
lines1 which1 instead of crossing each  
other1 are bent inward like an ,x1 the  
two parts of which will be tangent to   
the central point4 ,through such        
arrangements the running of the trains  

will be continuous1 and a traveler      
reaching one of these stations will be  
able1 upon changing train1 to take at   
his option any one of the three other   
directions4  ,as may be seen1 ,mr4      
,garnier's project presents conditions  
which are very favorable to the         
establishment of an elevated road in the
 interior of ,paris4 ,far from injuring 
the aspect of the great arteries of our 
metropolis1 the viaduct1 as it has been 
conceived1 will contribute toward giving
 them a still more imposing look4 ,if   
the beautiful is1 as has been said1 the 
expression of the useful1 an elevated   
railway1 well conceived1 may be         
beautiful4 ,the project of a            
subterranean railway is attended with   
great drawbacks1 not only as regards the
 great expense that it would            
necessitate1 but also the difficulties  
of constructing it4 ,and there is a     
still graver objection to it1 and that  
is that it would oblige travelers to    
move like moles in dark1 cold1 and moist

 tunnels4 ,at ,paris1 where we are      
accustomed to a pleasant climate and    
clear atmosphere1 we like plenty of air 
and broad daylight4--,la ,nature4       
99       99       99       99       99  
,,engineering ,,inventions ,,since      
#ahfb4a     ,footnote #a3 ,address of   
,sir ,frederick ,joseph ,bramwell1      
,f4,r4,s41 on    his election as        
president of the ,institution of ,civil 
,engineers4    ,january #ac1 #ahhe4  ,by
 ,sir ,f4 ,j4 ,,bramwell4   ,i propose  
to devote the very limited time at my   
disposal to the consideration of some of
 the most important of those            
improvements which are obviously and    
immediately connected with civil        
engineering4 ,i am aware of the danger  
there is of making a serious mistake1   
when one excludes any matter which at   
the moment appears to be of but a       
trivial character4 ,for who knows how   
speedily some development may show that 
the judgment which had guided the       
selection was entirely erroneous1 and   

that that which had been passed over was
 in truth the germ of a great           
improvement8 ,nevertheless1 in the      
interests of time some risk must be run1
 and a selection must be made2 ,i       
propose1 therefore1 to ask your         
attention while ,i consider certain of  
7following the full title of ,division  
,i47 ,the apparatus1 appliances1        
processes1 and products invented or     
brought into use since #ahfb4 ,in those 
matters which may be said to involve the
 principles of engineering construction1
 there must of necessity be but little  
progress to note4  ,principles are      
generally very soon determined1 and     
progress ensues1 not by additions to the
 principles1 but by improvement in the  
methods of giving to those principles a 
practical shape1 or by combining in one 
structure principles of construction    
which had been hitherto used apart4     
,therefore1 to avoid the necessity of   
having a pause1 in referring to a work1 
by finding that one is overstepping the 

boundary of principle1 and trenching    
within the domain of construction1 ,i   
think it will be well to treat these two
 heads together4  ,if my record had gone
 back to just before #ahea 7the date of 
the great exhibition71 ,i might have    
described much progress in the          
principles of girder construction2 for  
shortly prior to that date1 the plain   
cast-iron beam1 with the greater part of
 the metal in the web1 and with but     
little in the top and bottom flange1 was
 in common use2 and even in the         
preparation of the building for that    
exhibition1 it is recorded that one of  
the engineers connected therewith had   
great difficulty in understanding how it
 was that the form of open work girder1 
with double diagonals introduced therein
 7a form which was for years afterward  
known as the exhibition girder71 was any
 stronger than a girder with open panels
 separated by uprights1 and without any 
diagonals4 ,but1 long before #ahfb1 the 
,warren and other truss-girders had come

 into use1 and ,i am inclined to say    
that1 so far as novelty in the principle
 of girder-construction is concerned1 ,i
 must confine myself to that combination
 of principles which is represented by  
the suspended cantilever1 of which the  
,forth ,bridge1 only now in course of   
construction1 affords the most notable  
instance4 ,it is difficult to see how a 
rigid bridge1 with #a1gjj foot spans1   
and with the necessity for so much clear
 headway below1 could have been         
constructed without the application of  
this principle4   ,,bridge              
,,construction4  ,pursuing this subject 
of bridge work1 the ,st4 ,louis ,bridge 
of ,mr4 ,eads may1 ,i think1 be fairly  
said to embody a principle of           
construction novel since #ahfb1 that of 
employing for the arch-ribs tubes       
composed of steel staves hooped         
together4 ,further1 in suspension       
bridges there has been introduced that  
which ,i think is fairly entitled to    
rank among principles of construction1  

the light upper chain1 from which are   
suspended the linked truss-rods1 doing  
the actual work of supporting the load1 
the rods being maintained in straight   
lines1 and without the flexure at the   
joints due to their weight4 ,in the     
,east ,river ,bridge1 ,new ,york1 there 
was also introduced that which ,i       
believe was a novelty in the mode of    
applying the wire cables4 ,these were   
not made as untwisted cables and then   
hoisted into place1 thereby imposing    
severe strains upon many of the wires   
composing the cable through their       
flexure over the saddles and elsewhere1 
but the individual wires were led over  
from side to side1 each one having the  
length appropriate to its position1 and 
all1 therefore1 when the bridge was     
erected1 having the same initial strain 
and the same fair play4 ,within the     
period we are considering1 the          
employment of testing-machines has come 
into the daily practice of the engineer2
 by the use of these he is made         

experimentally acquainted with the      
various physical properties of the      
materials he employs1 and is also       
enabled in the largest of these machines
 to test the strength and usefulness of 
these materials1 when assembled into    
forms1 to resist strains1 as columns or 
as girders4 ,i of course do not for one 
moment mean to say that experimental    
machines were unknown or unused prior to
 #ahfb--;chain cable testing-machines   
are of old date1 and were employed by   
our past ,president1 ,mr4 ,barlow1 and  
by others1 in their early experiments   
upon steel2 but ,i speak of it as a     
matter of congratulation that1 in lieu  
of such machines being used by the few1 
and at rare intervals upon small        
specimens1 for experimental purposes1   
they are now employed in daily practice 
and on a large scale4  ,in harbor work  
we have had the principle of            
construction employed by ,mr4 ,stoney at
 ,dublin1 where cement masonry is       
moulded into the form of the wall for   

its whole height and thickness1 and for 
such a length forward as can be         
admitted1 having regard to the practical
 limit of the weight of the block1 and  
then1 the block being carried to its    
place1 is lowered on to the bottom1     
which has been prepared to receive it1  
and is secured to the work already      
executed by groove and tongue4  ,it     
would not be right1 even in this brief  
notice of such a mode of construction1  
to omit mention of the very carefully   
thought out apparatus by which the      
blocks are raised off the seats whereon 
they have been made1 and are transported
 to their destination4 ,it is no simple 
undertaking 7even in these days7 to     
raise 7otherwise than hydraulically7 a  
weight of #cej tons1 which is the weight
 of the blocks with which ,mr4 ,stoney  
deals4 ,but he does this by means of    
pulley-blocks attached to shears built  
on the vessel which is to transport the 
block1 and he contrives to lift the     
weight without putting upon his chains  

the extra strain due to the friction of 
the numerous pulleys over which they    
pass4 ,the height of the lift is only   
the few inches needed to raise the block
 clear of the quay on which it has been 
formed1 and this is obtained by winding 
up the chain by steam gear quite taut1  
so as to take a considerable strain1 but
 not that equal to the weight of the    
block1 and then water is pumped into the
 opposite end of the vessel to that upon
 which the shears are carried1 this     
latter end rises1 and the block is      
raised off the seat on which it was     
formed1 without the chains being put to 
work to do the actual lifting at all4   
,the vessel1 with the block suspended to
 the shear legs and over the bows1 is   
then ready to be removed to the place   
where the block has to be laid4 ,a word 
must here be said about an extremely    
ingenious mode of dealing with the slack
 chain1 to prevent its becoming fouled1 
and not paying out properly1 when the   
block is being lowered4 ,this is        

accomplished by reeving the slack of    
each chain over two fixed sets of       
multiple sheaves4  ,a donkey-engine     
works a little crab having a large drum1
 the chain from which is connected with 
the main chain1 and draws it round the  
multiple sheaves so as to take up the   
slack as fast as the main crab gives it 
out4 ,the steam is always on the donkey1
 which is of such limited dimensions    
that it can do no injury to the chain   
even when its full power is in vain     
endeavoring to draw it any further2     
directly1 however1 the main crab gives  
more slack1 and the chain between it and
 the two sets of sheaves falls into a   
deeper catenary1 and one which therefore
 puts less opposition to the motion of  
the donkey-engine1 that engine goes to  
work and makes a further haul upon the  
slack1 and in this way1 and             
automatically1 the slack is kept clear4 
,,pneumatic ,,foundations4  ,a          
noteworthy instance of the use of       
pneumatic appliances in cylinder sinking

 for foundations is that in progress at 
the ,forth ,bridge4 ,the wrought-iron   
cylinders are #gj feet in diameter at   
the cutting-edge1 and have a taper of   
about #a in #df4 ,they are1 however1 at 
a height of #a foot above low water     
7that is1 at the commencement of the    
masonry work of the pier7 reduced to #fj
 feet in diameter2 at their bottoms     
there is a roofed chamber1 into which   
the air is pumped1 and in which the men 
work when excavating1 this roof being   
supported by ample main and cross       
lattice girders4 ,shafts with air-locks 
and pipes for admitting water and       
ejecting silt are provided4 ,the        
air-locks are fitted with sliding doors1
 worked by hydraulic rams1 or by hand1  
the doors being interlocked in a manner 
similar to that in which railway points 
and signals are interlocked1 so that one
 door cannot be opened until the other  
is closed4 ,the hoisting of the         
excavated material is done by a steam   
engine fixed outside the lock1 this     

engine working a shaft on which there is
 a drum inside the lock1 the shaft      
passing air-tight through a stuffing    
box4 ,a separate air-lock1 with doors1  
ladder1 etc41 complete1 is provided to  
give ingress and egress for the workmen4
 ,i have already adverted to one ,scotch
 bridge2 ,i now have to mention another1
 viz41 the ,tay ,bridge1 also now in    
course of construction4 ,here the       
cylinders are sunk1 while being guided1 
through wrought-iron pontoons1 which are
 floated to their berths1 and are then  
secured at the desired spot by the      
protrusion1 hydraulically1 of four legs1
 which bear upon the bottom1 and thus1  
until they are withdrawn1 convert the   
pontoon from a floating into a fixed    
structure4   ,,subaqueous ,,engineering4
  ,i regret that time will not admit of 
my giving any description of the modes  
of cut and cover which have been        
proposed for the performance of         
subaqueous works2 sometimes the         
proposition has been to do this by means

 of coffer-dams1 and with the work      
therefore open to the day-light during  
execution1 and sometimes by movable     
pneumatic appliances4 ,consideration of 
subaqueous works necessarily leads the  
mind to appliances for diving1 and      
although its date is considerably       
anterior to #ahfb1 ,i feel tempted1 as  
,i believe the construction is known to 
very few of our members1 to say a few   
words about the diving apparatus known  
as the ,bateau-plongeur1 and used at the
 barrage on the ,nile4 ,this consists of
 a barge fitted with an air-tight cabin 
provided with an air-lock1 and having in
 the center of its floor a large oval   
opening1 surrounded by a casing standing
 up above the water-line4 ,in this      
casing1 another casing slides           
telescopically1 the upper part of which 
is connected to the top of the fixed    
casing by a leather sleeve4 ,when it is 
desired to examine the bottom of the    
river1 the telescopic tube is lowered   
till it touches the bottom1 and then air

 is pumped into the cabin until the     
pressure is sufficient to drive out the 
water1 and thus to expose the bottom4   
,this appears to be a very convenient   
arrangement for shallow draughts of     
water4  ,reverting for a moment to ,mr4 
,stoney's work1 ,i may mention that he  
uses for the greatest depths he has to  
deal with1 when preparing the bed to    
receive his blocks1 a diving apparatus  
which 7while easily accessible at all   
times7 dispenses with the necessity of  
raising and lowering1 needed in an      
ordinary diving-bell to allow of the    
entrance and exit of the workmen4 ,mr4  
,stoney employs a bell of adequate size1
 from the summit of which rises a hollow
 cylinder1 furnished at the top with an 
air-lock1 by which access can be        
obtained to the submerged bell4 ,beyond 
the general improvement in detail and in
 the mode of manufacture1 and with the  
exception of the application of the     
telephone1 there is probably not much to
 be said in the way of invention or     

progress in connection with the ordinary
 dress of the diver4   ,,the ,,fleuss   
,,diving ,,apparatus4  ,but one great   
step has been made in the diver's art by
 the introduction of the chemical system
 of respiration1 the invention of ,mr4  
,fleuss4 ,he has succeeded in devising a
 perfectly portable apparatus1          
containing a chemical filter1 by means  
of which the exhaled breath of the diver
 is deprived of its carbonic acid2 the  
diver also carries a supply of          
compressed oxygen from which to add to  
the remaining nitrogen oxygen1 in       
substitution for that which has been    
burnt up in the process of respiration4 
,armed with this apparatus1 a diver is  
enabled to follow his vocation without  
any air-tube connecting with the        
surface1 indeed without any connections 
whatever4 ,a notable instance of a most 
courageous use of this apparatus was    
afforded by a diver named ,lambert1 who1
 during one of the inundations which    
occurred in the construction of the     

,severn tunnel1 descended into the      
heading1 and proceeding along it for    
some #ccj yards 7with the water standing
 some #ce feet above him71 closed a     
sluice door1 through which the water was
 entering the excavations1 and thus     
enabled the pumps to unwater the tunnel4
 ,altogether1 on this occasion1 this man
 was under the water1 and without any   
communication with those above1 for one 
hour and twenty-five minutes4 ,the      
apparatus has also proved to be of great
 utility in cases of explosion in       
collieries1 enabling the wearer to      
safely penetrate the workings1 even when
 they have been filled with the fatal   
choke-damp1 to rescue the injured or to 
remove the dead4   ,,construction ,,of  
,,tunnels4  ,with respect to the subject
 of tunneling thus incidentally         
introduced1 in subaqueous work of this  
kind1 ,i have already alluded to that   
which is done by cut and cover1 but     
where the influx of water is a source of
 great difficulty1 as it was in the old 

,thames tunnel 7though in this case for 
water one should read silt or mud71 ,i  
do not know that anything has been      
devised so ingenious as the ,thames     
tunnel shield2 improvement has1 however1
 been made by the application of        
compressed air4  ,in the instance of the
 ,hudson ,river tunnel1 the work was    
done in the manner proposed so long ago 
as the year #ahcj by ,lord ,cochrane    
7,earl ,dundonald7 in that specification
 of his1 ,no4 #f1jah1 wherein he        
discloses1 not merely the crude idea1   
but the very details needed for         
compressed air cylinder-sinking and     
tunneling1 included air-locks and       
hydraulically-sealed modes for the      
introduction and extraction of          
materials4 ,i may1 perhaps1 be permitted
 to mention that some few years ago ,i  
devised for a tunnel through the        
water-bearing chalk a mode of excavation
 by the use of compressed air to hold   
back the water1 and combined with the   
employment of a tunneling machine4 ,this

 work1 ,i regret to say1 was not carried
 out4 ,but there are1 happily1 cases of 
subaqueous tunneling where the water can
 be dealt with by ordinary pumping      
power1 more or less extensive1 and where
 the material is capable of being cut by
 a tunneling machine4 ,this was so in   
the ,mersey tunnel1 and would be in the 
,channel tunnel4 ,in the ,mersey tunnel1
 and in the experimental work of the    
,channel tunnel1 ,colonel ,beaumont and 
,major ,english's tunneling machine has 
done most admirable work4 ,in the #g    
foot #d inch diameter heading1 in the   
new red sandstone of the ,mersey tunnel1
 a speed of as much as #aj yards forward
 in twenty-four hours has been averaged1
 while a maximum of #aa-b_/c yards has  
been attained2 while in the #g foot     
heading for the ,channel tunnel1 in the 
gray chalk1 a maximum speed of as much  
as #bd yards forward in the twenty-four 
hours has been attained on the ,english 
side2 and with the later machine put to 
work at the ,french end1 a maximum speed

 of as much as #bg-a_/c yards forward in
 the twenty-four hours has been         
effected4 ,in ordinary land tunneling   
since #ahfb there has been great        
progress1 by the substitution of        
dynamite and preparations of a similar  
nature for gunpowder1 and by the        
improvements in the rock-drills worked  
by compressed air1 which are used in    
making the holes into which the         
explosive is charged4 ,for boring for   
water1 and for many other purposes1 the 
diamond drill has proved of great       
service1 and most certainly its advent  
should be welcomed by the geologist1 as 
it has enabled specimens of the stratum 
passed through to be taken in the       
natural1 unbroken condition1 exhibiting 
not only the material and the very      
structure of the rock1 but the direction
 and the angle of the dip of the beds4  
,closely connected with tunneling       
machines are the machines for getting   
coal4 ,this getting1 when practiced by  
manual labor1 involves1 as we know1 the 

conversion into fragments and dust of a 
very considerable portion of the        
underside of the seam of coal1 the      
workman laboring in a confined position1
 and in peril of the block of coal      
breaking away and crushing him beneath  
it4 ,coal-getting machines1 such as     
those of the late ,mr4 ,firth1 worked by
 compressed air1 reduce to a minimum the
 waste of coal1 relieve the workman of a
 most fatiguing labor in a constrained  
position1 and save him from the danger  
to which he is exposed in the hand      
operation4 ,it is a matter of deep      
regret on many grounds1 but especially  
as showing how little the true          
principles of political economy are     
realized by working men1 who are usually
 well informed on many other points1    
that the commercial failure of these    
machines is due to their opposition4 ,in
 connection with colliery work1 and     
indeed in connection with explosives1 in
 the sense of a substitution for them of
 sources of expansion acting more       

slowly1 mention should be made of the   
hydraulic wedges4 ,the employment of    
these in lieu of gunpowder1 to force    
down the block of coal that had been    
undercut1 is one of the means to be     
looked to for diminishing the explosions
 in collieries4 ,another substitute for 
gunpowder is found in the utilization of
 the expansion of lime when wetted4     
,this has given birth to the lime       
cartridge1 the merits of which are now  
universally recognized1 but it is feared
 that trade prejudices may also prevent 
its introduction4 ,while on this subject
 of accidents in mines1 it will be well 
to call attention to the investigations 
that have been made into the causes of  
these disasters1 and into the probable  
part played by the minute dust which    
prevails to so great an extent in dry   
collieries4  ,the experiments of our    
honorary member1 ,sir ,frederick ,abel1 
on this point have been of the most     
striking and conclusive character1 and  
corroborate investigations of the late  

,macquorn ,rankine into the origin of   
explosions in flour mills and rice      
mills1 which had previously been so     
obscure4 ,the name of ,mr4 ,galloway    
should also be mentioned as one of the  
earliest workers in this direction4 ,at 
first sight1 pile driving appears to    
have but little connection with         
explosives1 but it will be well to      
notice an invention which has been      
brought into practical use1 although not
 largely 7in this country at all        
events71 for driving piles1 by allowing 
the monkey to fall on a cartridge placed
 in the cavity in the cap on top of the 
pile2 the cartridge is exploded by the  
fall1 and in the act of explosion drives
 down the pile and raises the monkey2   
during its ascent1 and before the       
completion of its descent1 time is found
 for the removal of the empty cartridge 
and the insertion of a new one4         
,,canals ,,and ,,river ,,improvements4  
,in the days of ,brindley and of        
,smeaton1 and of the other fathers of   

our profession1 whose portraits are on  
these walls1 canals and canalized rivers
 formed the only mode of internal       
transit which was less costly than horse
 traction1 and1 thanks to their labors1 
the country has been very well provided 
with canals2 but the introduction of    
railways proved1 in the first instance1 
a practical bar to the extension of the 
canal system1 and1 eventually1 a too    
successful competitor with the canals   
already made4 ,frequently the route that
 had been selected by the canal engineer
 was found 7as was to be expected7 a    
favorable one for the competing railway1
 and the result was1 the towns that had 
been served by the canal were served by 
the railway1 which was thus in a        
position to take away even the local    
traffic of the canal4 ,for some time it 
looked as though canal and canalized    
river navigations must come to an end2  
for although heavy goods could be       
carried very cheaply on canals1 and with
 respect to the many works and factories

 erected on the canal banks1 or on bases
 connected therewith1 there was with    
canal navigation no item of expense     
corresponding to the cost of cartage to 
the railway stations1 yet the smallness 
of the railway rates for heavy goods1   
and the greater speed of transit1 were  
found to be more than countervailing    
advantages4 ,but when private           
individuals have embarked their capital 
in an undertaking1 they do not calmly   
see that capital made unproductive1 nor 
do they refrain from efforts to preserve
 their dividends1 and thus canal        
companies set themselves to work to add 
to their position of mere owners of     
water highways1 entitled to take toll   
for the use of those highways1 the      
function of common carriers1 thus       
putting themselves on a par with the    
railway companies1 who1 as no doubt is  
within the recollection of our older    
members1 were in the outset legalized   
only as mere owners of iron highways1   
and as the receivers of toll from any   

persons who might choose to run engines 
and trains thereon1 a condition of      
things which was altered as soon as it  
was pointed out that it was utterly     
incompatible either with punctuality or 
with safe working4 ,this addition to the
 legal powers of the canal companies1   
made by the acts of #ahde and #ahdg1 has
 had a very beneficial effect upon the  
value of their property1 and has        
assisted to preserve a mode of transport
 competing with that afforded by the    
railways4 ,further1 the canal           
proprietors have from time to time      
endeavored to improve the rate of       
transport1 and with this object have    
introduced steam in lieu of horse       
haulage1 and by structural improvements 
have diminished the number of lockages4 
,many years before the period we are    
considering1 there was employed1 to save
 time in the lockages and to economize  
water1 the system of inclined planes1   
where1 either water-borne in a traveling
 caisson1 as on the ,monklands incline1 

or supported on a cradle1 as in the     
incline at ,newark1 in the ,state of    
,new ,jersey1 the barges were           
transferred from one level to another2  
but an important improvement on either  
of these modes of overcoming a great    
difference of level is the application  
of direct vertically lifting hydraulic  
power4 ,a notable instance of this      
system was brought before the           
,institution in a paper read on the     
,hydraulic ,canal ,lift at ,anderton1 on
 the ,river ,weaver1 by ,s4 ,duer1#b and
 another instance exists on the ,canal  
de ,new ,fosse1 at ,fontinettes1 in     
,france1 the engineers being ,messrs4   
,clark and ,standfield1 who have other  
lifts in progress4 ,this system reduces 
the consumption of water and the        
expenditure of time to a minimum4       
,footnote #b3 ,minutes of ,proceedings  
,inst4 ,c4 ,e41 vol4 xlv41 p4 #ajg4     
,with respect to canalized rivers1 the  
difficulty that must always have existed
 when these rivers 7as was mostly the   

case7 were provided with weirs to dam up
 the water for giving power to mills has
 been augmented of late years by the    
change in the character of floods4 ,it  
has frequently been suggested that in   
these days of steam motors in lieu of   
water power1 and of railways in lieu of 
water carriage1 the injury done by      
obstructing the delivery of floods is by
 no means compensated by the otherwise  
all but costless power obtained1 or by  
the preservation of a mode of transport 
competing with railways4 ,it has        
thereupon been suggested that it would  
be in the interests of the community to 
purchase and extinguish both the        
manufacturing and the navigating rights1
 so as to enable the weirs to be        
removed1 and free course to be provided 
for floods4 ,it need hardly be said1    
however1 that if means could be devised 
for giving full effect to the river     
channels for flood purposes1 while      
maintaining them for the provision of   
motive power and of navigation1 it is   

desirable that this should be done4 ,the
 great step in this direction appears to
 be the employment of readily or1 it may
 be1 of automatically movable weirs4    
,two very interesting papers on this    
subject by ,messrs4 ,vernon-,harcourt   
and ,e4 ,b4 ,buckley were read and      
discussed in the session #ahgi-ahhj4    
,these dealt1 ,i fear exclusively1 with 
foreign1 notably with ,french and       
,indian1 examples4 ,i say ,i fear1 not  
in the way of imputing blame to the     
authors for not having noticed ,english 
weirs1 but because the absence of such  
notice amounts to a confession of       
backwardness in the adoption of remedial
 measures on ,english rivers4 ,an       
instance1 however1 of improvement since 
then has been the construction by ,mr4  
,wiswall1 the engineer to the           
,bridgewater ,navigation ,company 7on   
the ,mersey and ,irwell section of that 
navigation71 of the movable ,throstle   
,nest weir at ,manchester4 ,it does seem
 to me that by the adoption of movable  

weirs1 rivers in ordinary times may be  
dammed up to retain sufficient water to 
admit of a paying navigation and water  
for the mills on their banks2 while in  
time of flood they shall allow channels 
as efficient for relief as if every weir
 had been swept away4  ,but the great   
feature of late years in canal          
engineering is not the preservation or  
improvement of the ordinary internal    
canal1 but the provision of canals1 such
 as the completed ,suez canal1 the      
,panama canal in course of construction1
 the contemplated ,isthmus of ,corinth  
canal--all for saving circuitous        
journeys in passing from one sea to     
another2 or in the case nearer home of  
the ,manchester ship canal1 for taking  
ocean steamers many miles inland4  ,but 
the old fight between the canal engineer
 and the railway engineer1 or1 more     
properly speaking1 between the engineer 
when he had his canal stop on and the   
same individual when he has his railway 
stop--you will see that ,i am borrowing 

a figure1 either from ,dombey  ,son1    
where ,mr4 ,feeder1 ,b4,a41 is shown to 
us with his ,herodotus stop on1 or1 as  
is more likely1 ,i am thinking of the   
organs to be exhibited in the ,second   
division1 ,music1 of that exhibition of 
which ,i have the honor to be           
chairman--,i am afraid this is a long   
parenthesis breaking the continuity of  
my observations1 which related to the   
old rivalry between canal and railway   
engineering4 ,i was about to say that   
this rivalry was revived1 even in the   
case of the transporting of ocean       
vessels from sea to sea1 for we know    
that our distinguished member1 ,mr4     
,eads1 is proposing to connect the      
,atlantic and ,pacific oceans by means  
of a ship railway across the ,isthmus of
 ,panama4 ,he suggests that the largest 
vessels should be raised out of the     
water1 in the manner commonly employed  
in floating docks1 and should then be   
transferred to a truck-like cradle on   
wheels1 fitted with hydraulic bearing   

blocks 7this being1 however1 not a new  
proposition as applied to graving       
docks71 so as to obtain practical       
equality of support for the ship1       
notwithstanding slight irregularities in
 the roadway1 while he proposes to deal 
with the question of changes of         
direction by the avoidance of curves and
 by the substitution of angles1 having  
at the point of junction of the two     
sides turntables on which the cradle and
 ship will be drawn2 these can be moved 
with perfect ease1 notwithstanding the  
heavy load1 because the turntable will  
be floating in water carried in circular
 tanks4  ,the question of preserving the
 level of the turntable1 whether        
unloaded1 partially loaded1 or loaded1  
is happily met by an arrangement of     
water ballast and pumping4 ,i cannot    
pass away from the mention of ,mr4      
,eads' work without just reminding you  
of the successful manner in which he has
 dealt with the mouth of the            
,mississippi1 by which he has caused    

that river to scour and maintain a      
channel #cj feet deep at low water1     
instead of that #h feet deep which      
prevailed there before his skillful     
treatment4 ,neither can ,i refrain from 
mentioning the successful labors of our 
friend ,sir ,charles ,hartley1 in       
improving the navigation of that great  
,european river1 the ,danube4 ,i am sure
 we are all rejoiced to see that one of 
the lectures of the forthcoming series1 
that on ,inland ,navigation1 is to be   
delivered by him1 and ,i do earnestly   
trust he will remember it is his duty to
 the ,institution not to leave important
 and successful works unreferred to     
because those works happen to be his    
own4  ,i regret that time does not admit
 of my noticing the many improved       
machines for excavating1 to be used     
either below water or on dry land4 ,i   
also regret1 for similar reasons1 ,i    
must omit all mention of ship           
construction1 whether for the purpose of
 commerce or of war1 a subject that     

would naturally follow that of rivers   
and of ship railways and canals1 and    
would have enabled me to speak of the   
great debt this branch of civil         
engineering owes to the labors of our   
late member1 ,william ,froude1 and would
 have enabled me also to deal with the  
question of material for ships1 and with
 the question of armor plating1 in      
which1 and in the construction of       
ordnance1 our past president1 ,mr4      
,barlow1 and myself1 as the two lay     
members of the ,ordnance ,committee1 are
 so specially interested4   ,,military  
,,engineering ,,appliances4  ,the       
mention of armor plates inevitably      
brings to our minds the consideration of
 ordnance1 but ,i do not intend to say  
even a few words on this head of        
invention and improvement--a topic to   
which a whole evening might well be     
devoted--because only three years ago my
 talented predecessor in this chair1    
,sir ,william ,armstrong1 made it the   
subject of his inaugural address1 and   

dealt with it in so masterly and        
exhaustive a style as to render it      
absolutely impossible for me to usefully
 add anything to his remarks4 ,i cannot1
 however1 leave this branch of the      
subject without mentioning1 not a piece 
of ordnance1 but a small arm1 invented  
since the date of ,sir ,william's       
address4 ,i mean the ,maxim machine gun4
 ,this is not only one of the latest1   
but is certainly one of the most        
ingenious pieces of mechanism that has  
been devised4 ,the single barrel fires  
the ,martini-,henry ammunition2 the     
cartridges are placed in loops upon a   
belt1 and when this belt is introduced  
to the gun1 and some five or six        
cartridges have been drawn in by as many
 reciprocations of a handle1 the gun is 
ready to commence firing4 ,after the    
first shot1 which must be fired by the  
pulling of a trigger in the ordinary    
way1 the gun will automatically continue
 to send out shot after shot1 until the 
whole of the cartridges on the belt are 

exhausted2 and if care is taken before  
this happens to link on to the tail of  
the first belt the head of a second one1
 and another belt to this1 and so on1   
the firing will be automatically        
continuous1 and at a rate anywhere      
between one shot per minute and six     
hundred shots per minute1 dependent on  
the will of the person in charge of the 
gun1 the whole of the operations of     
loading1 firing1 and ejecting the       
cartridge being performed by the energy 
of the recoil4 ,this perfectly automatic
 action enables the man who works the   
gun to devote his whole attention to    
directing it1 and as it is carried on a 
pivot and can be elevated and depressed1
 he can1 while the gun is firing1 aim   
the bullets to any point he may choose4 
,since #ahfb the power of defending     
seaports has been added to by the       
application of submarine mines1 arranged
 to be fired by impact alone1 or to be  
fired on impact when 7under electrical  
control7 the firing arrangement is set  

for the purpose1 or to be fired         
electrically from the shore by two      
persons stationed on cross-bearings1    
both of whom must concur in the act of  
explosion4 ,these mines are charged with
 gun-cotton1 the development of which   
owes so much to ,sir ,frederick ,abel1  
while for purposes of attack the same   
material1 not yet in practical use for  
shells1 is taken as the charge for      
torpedoes1 which are either affixed to a
 spar or are carried in the head of a   
submerged cigar-shaped body4 ,by a      
compressed air or by a direct steam     
impulse arrangement these weapons are   
started on their course and are         
directed1 and then the running is taken 
up by their own engines operating on    
screw propellers1 driven by a magazine  
of compressed air contained in the body 
of the torpedo4 ,means are also provided
 to maintain the designed level below   
the water surface4 ,the torpedo may     
either be projected from the war ship   
itself or from one of those launches    

which owe their origin to our member1   
,mr4 ,john ,isaac ,thornycroft1 who     
first demonstrated the feasibility of   
that which was previously considered to 
be impossible1 viz41 the obtaining a    
speed of twenty miles and over from a   
vessel not more than #hj feet long4     
,experiments have been carried on in the
 ,united ,states by ,captain ,ericsson  
to dispense with the internal machinery 
of the torpedo1 and to rely for its     
traverse through the water upon the     
original impulse given to it by a       
breech-loading gun1 carried at the      
requisite depth below the water level in
 a torpedo boat4 ,this gun1 having a    
feeble charge of powder at a low        
gravimetric density1 fires the torpedo1 
and1 it is said1 succeeds in sending it 
many yards1 and with a sufficient       
terminal velocity to explode the charge 
by impact4 ,also1 in the ,united        
,states1 experiments have been made with
 a compressed air gun of #dj feet in    
length and #d inches in diameter        

7probably by this time replaced by a gun
 of #h inches in diameter71 to propel a 
dart through the air1 in the front of   
which dart there is a metallic chamber  
containing dynamite4 ,although no doubt 
the best engineer is the man who does   
good work with bad materials1 yet ,i    
presume we should not recommend any     
member of our profession to select      
unsuitable materials with the object of 
showing how skillfully he can employ    
them4 ,on the contrary1 an engineer     
shows his ability by the choice of those
 materials which are the very best for  
his purpose1 having regard1 however1 to 
the relative facilities of carriage1 to 
the power of supply in sufficiently     
large quantities1 to the ease with which
 they can be worked up or built in1 and 
to the cost4   ,,uses ,,of ,,cement4    
,probably few materials have been found 
more generally useful to the civil      
engineer1 in works which are not of     
metal1 than has been ,portland cement4  
,it should be noticed that during the   

last twenty-two years great improvements
 have been made in the grinding and in  
the quality of the cement4 ,these have  
been largely due to the labors in       
,england of our member1 ,mr4 ,john      
,grant1 to the labors of foreign        
engineers following in his footsteps1   
and to the zeal and intelligence with   
which the manufacturers have followed up
 the question1 from a scientific as well
 as from a practical point of view1 not 
resting until they were able with       
certainty to produce a cement such as   
the engineer needed4 ,i do not know that
 there is very much to be said in the   
way of progress 7so far as the finished 
results are concerned7 in the materials 
which ,portland cement and other mortars
 are intended to unite4 ,clean gravel   
and ballast and clean sand are1 ,i      
presume1 very much the same in the year 
#ahhd as they were not only in the year 
#ahfb1 but as they were in the year #a4 
,the same remark applies to stone and to
 all other natural building materials2  

and1 indeed1 even the artificial        
material brick cannot in these days be  
said to surpass in quality the bricks   
used by the ,romans in this island      
nineteen hundred years ago1 but as      
regards the mode of manufacture and the 
materials employed there is progress to 
be noted4 ,the brick-making machine and 
the ,hoffmann kiln have economized labor
 and fuel1 while attempts have been     
made1 which ,i trust may prove          
successful1 for utilizing the clay which
 is to be found in the form of slate in 
those enormous mounds of waste which    
disfigure the landscape in the          
neighborhood of slate quarries4 ,certain
 artificial stones1 moreover1 appear at 
last to be made with a uniformity and a 
power of endurance1 and in respect of   
these qualities compare favorably with  
the best natural stone1 and still more  
favorably having regard to the fact that
 they can be made of the desired        
dimensions and shape1 thus being ready  
for use without labor of preparation4   

,,preservation ,,of ,,wood4  ,reverting 
to natural materials1 there remains to  
be mentioned that great class1 timber4  
,in new countries the engineer is       
commonly glad to avail himself of this  
material to an extent which among us is 
unknown4 ,for here1 day by day1 owing to
 the ready adaptability of metals to the
 uses of the engineer1 the employment of
 wood is decreasing4 ,far1 indeed1 are  
we from the practice of not more than a 
hundred years ago1 when it was not      
thought improper to make the shell of a 
steam engine boiler of wooden staves4   
,the engineer of to-day1 in a country   
like ,england1 refrains from using wood4
 ,he cannot cast it into form1 he cannot
 weld it4 ,glue 7even if marine7 would  
hardly be looked upon as an efficient   
substitute for a sound weld2 and the    
fact is1 that it is practically         
impossible to lay hold of timber when   
employed for tensile purposes so as to  
obtain anything approaching to the full 
tensile strength4 ,if it be desired to  

utilize metals for such a purpose1 they 
can be swollen out into appropriate eyes
 to receive the needed connection2 but  
this cannot be done with wood1 for the  
only way of making an enlarged eye in   
wood is by taking a piece that is big   
enough to form the eye1 and then cutting
 away the superfluous portion of the    
body4 ,moreover1 when too much exposed  
to the weather1 and when too much       
covered up1 wood has an evil habit of   
rotting1 compared with the rapidity of  
which mode of decay the oxidizing of    
metals is unimportant4 ,further1 one's  
daily experience of the way in which a  
housemaid prepares a fire for lighting  
is suggestive of the undesirability of  
the introduction of resinous sticks of  
timber1 even although they may be large 
sticks1 into our buildings4 ,many       
attempts1 as we know1 have been made to 
render timber proof against these two   
great defects of rapid decay and of     
ready combustibility1 and1 as it appears
 to me1 it is in these directions alone 

one can look for progress in connection 
with timber4 ,with respect to the first1
 it was only at the last meeting of the 
,institution we presented a ,telford    
medal and a ,telford premium to ,mr4 ,s4
 ,b4 ,boulton for his paper ,on the     
,antiseptic ,treatment of ,timber1 to   
which ,i desire to refer all those who  
seek information on this point4 ,with   
respect to the preservation from fire of
 inflammable building materials1 the    
processes1 more or less successful1 that
 have been tried are so numerous that ,i
 cannot even pretend to enumerate them4 
,i will1 however1 just mention one1 the 
asbestos paint1 because it is used to   
coat the wooden structures of the       
,inventions ,exhibition4 ,to the        
employment of this1 ,i think1 it is not 
too much to say those buildings owed    
their escape1 in last year's very dry   
summer1 from being consumed by a fire   
that broke out in an exhibitor's stand1 
destroying every object on that stand1  
but happily not setting the painted     

woodwork on fire1 although it was       
charred below the surface4 ,i do not    
pretend to say that a surface           
application can enable wood to resist   
the effects of a continued exposure to  
fire1 but it does appear that it can    
prevent its ready ignition4  7,to be    
continued47         99       99       99
       99       99     ,,the ,,cathedral
 ,,of ,,the ,,incarnation4   ,the       
,cathedral of the ,incarnation1 at      
,garden ,city1 ,n4 ,y41 the memorial of 
,mrs4 ,cornelia ,m4 ,stewart to her     
husband1 ,alexander ,t4 ,stewart1 was   
opened ,april #i1 #ahhe1 by impressive  
religious ceremonies4 ,at precisely #aa 
o'clock the chimes in the cathedral     
tower rang out a clear and resonant     
peal1 and the people thronged into the  
building through its tower and transept 
entrances4  ,the effort has been made to
 reproduce in the cathedral a pure type 
of the ,gothic architecture of the      
thirteenth century1 without its ruder   
and less refined characteristics4 ,the  

strained and coarse images designed to  
illustrate the world1 the flesh1 and the
 devil1 which seem so strange and unapt 
to ,american visitors to the great      
,continental cathedrals1 are almost     
entirely omitted in this reproduction4  
,the carving1 too1 in deference to the  
more sensitive tastes and better skill  
of this age1 is far more artistic and   
natural than in the old originals4      
,flowers in stone are made to resemble  
flowers1 and heads are fashioned after a
 human pattern1 and clusters of figures 
are modeled in a congruous and modern   
manner4 ,but aside from changes of this 
kind1 the new and magnificent edifice   
upon ,hempstead ,plains is a perfect    
example of the elaborate and picturesque
 ,gothic structures of medival days4    
,it is built of brown sandstone raised  
in colossal blocks4 ,the spire1         
floriated richly and graduated with a   
precise symmetry1 rises to an extreme   
altitude of #bbj feet #f inches4 ,the   
extreme length is about #agj ft4 ,the   

massive oaken front doors are carved    
handsomely1 and contain the arms of the 
,stewart family1 the ,clinch family     
7,mrs4 ,stewart's maiden name71 the     
,hilton family1 and those of ,bishop    
,littlejohn1 the ,episcopal head of the 
,long ,island ,diocese4 ,the porch or   
tower entrance1 which is the main       
entrance to the building1 is paved with 
white marble4 ,in the center of the     
floor the ,stewart arms are enameled in 
brass1 showing a shield with a white and
 blue check1 supported by the figures of
 a wild ,briton and a lion4 ,the crest  
is a pelican feeding its young1 and the 
motto is ,prudentia et ,constantia4     
,these heraldic figures are made a      
special feature of the main aisle4      
,directly in the center of the          
auditorium floor the ,stewart and       
,clinch arms are impaled1 enameled in   
brass4 ,on the floor in the choir the   
,hilton arms are placed4 ,they bear the 
patriotic motto ,ubi libertas ibi       
patria1 with a deer for a crest4 ,the   

floor of the ante-chancel presents the  
arms of the diocese4 ,its insular       
character is especially prominent4 ,the 
shield of barry wavy contains three     
crosslets1 the peculiar sign of the     
cathedral4 ,it is supported by dolphins4
 ,the crest is a ship1 and under all is 
the sacred motto1 ,i will set his       
dominion in the sea4 ,the workmanship of
 all these arms is superb4  ,by far the 
most wonderful works of art in the      
edifice are the windows of stained glass
 and the musical facilities4 ,every     
window presents a theme suggestive of   
the ,incarnation4 ,the windows of the   
porch present several of the ,old       
,testament characters and events which  
prefigured the birth of ,christ1 and    
over the door leading to the nave are   
figures of ,adam and ,eve and of        
,abraham and ,sarah4 ,the four windows  
on the south side of the nave show the  
,annunciation1 the dream of ,joseph1 the
 salutation of ,elizabeth1 and the      
refusal of the stable to the parents of 

the infant ,redeemer4 ,in the first     
window of the transept is presented the 
inn-keeper's refusal of refuge to       
,joseph and ,mary4 ,the great window of 
the south transept1 in all about thirty 
feet high1 one of the largest windows in
 the world1 shows the family of ,jesse1 
the ancestor of ,jesus4 ,jesse is       
resting at full length2 above him is    
,king ,david1 and all around are figures
 of his descendants leading up to the   
,virgin ,mary with the ,holy ,child in  
her arms4 ,above all1 in the apex of the
 windows1 are the emblems used in       
prophecies of ,christ's coming4 ,the    
third window of the south transept shows
 the ,nativity1 with the ,babe in the   
manger4 ,two windows in the choir are   
chosen with special reference to the    
regular service of the church4 ,the     
first represents the appearance of the  
star in the east to the shepherds of    
,bethlehem1 introducing the ,gloria in  
,excelsis1 and the second shows the     
presentation of ,christ in the temple1  

suggesting the ,nunc ,dimittis1 the     
,magnificat1 and the ,benedictus4 ,then 
beautiful representations are given in  
the north transept windows of the ,magi 
bringing gifts to the infant ,saviour1  
and the wise men before ,king ,herod4   
,the windows of the nave show the flight
 into ,egypt1 the massacre of the       
innocents1 and the return to ,nazareth4 
,the north window of the transept is the
 most magnificent of all4 ,it presents  
,christ in glory1 thus suggesting the   
,te ,deum4 ,jesus sits enthroned with   
the angels and archangels1 prophets1    
apostles and martyrs of the church in   
all ages bending in adoration before    
,him1 while the heavenly choir are      
waving palms and chanting music in honor
 of ,heaven's ,king4 ,the smaller       
windows under the roof show the         
hierarchy of heaven indicating by music 
and dances the joy of the celestial     
world at the scenes of the ,incarnation 
depicted below4 ,upon a bright1 sunny   
day the cathedral is made exquisitely   

beautiful by the mellowed radiance of   
these windows4 ,they were designed and  
manufactured by ,clayton  ,bell1 of     
,london1 and are esteemed to present the
 perfection of their work4 ,their       
colors1 rich and varied1 blend in       
perfect harmony1 and the intricacy of   
the groupings makes each one as         
interesting as an oil painting4  ,six   
different organs have been built in     
different parts of the building4 ,the   
most important of these is the great    
organ in the north apse4 ,it is         
furnished with four keyboards and #abd  
stops1 with twenty-four combination     
stops that admit of more than a million 
combinations of sound4 ,on either side  
of the choir is another organ1 with a   
fourth of great power in the crypt1 a   
fifth in the tower1 and an echo organ   
built under the vaulting of the roof4   
,this produces a soft and weird music4  
,all the organs are operated from the   
keyboard of the great apse organ1 which 
also plays the chimes of thirteen bells 

in the tower4 ,the choir instruments are
 made to correspond by means of iron    
tubes filled with wind by a bellows     
engine in the crypt of the apse4 ,a     
second engine in the crypt of the tower 
operates the bellows that inflate the   
instruments in the crypt1 the tower1 and
 the vaulting4 ,all the organs and the  
chimes are connected by electric wires1 
about twenty-six miles of which are     
employed1 supplied with electricity by a
 motor in the tower engine room4        
,sublime and grand are the only terms   
which can suggest the effect of the     
volume of harmony produced by these     
instruments in united action4 ,they were
 made by ,hilborne ,l4 ,roosevelt1 of   
this city4  ,the ante-chancel contains  
the bishop's throne1 the dean's seat1   
and the stalls of the clergy and canons1
 all of carved mahogany4 ,a superb work 
of art is the altar1 in the chancel1    
which is separated from the ante-chancel
 by a heavy bronze railing4 ,the altar  
is of statuary marble manufactured by   

,cox  ,sons1 of ,london4 ,its corner    
columns are of black marble1 supported  
by others of flecked marble1 with panels
 of ,sienna and ,griote4 ,between the   
panels are rich carvings1 done in       
,antwerp1 representing the temptation   
and fall in ,eden2 ,abraham's offering  
of his son ,isaac2 ,moses raising the   
brazen serpent in the wilderness2 the   
annunciation to the ,virgin2 the birth  
scene in the stable2 the ,crucifixion   
and the ,resurrection4 ,the slab of the 
altar is inlaid with five crosslets1    
representing the five wounds1 and the   
symbol ,i4 ,h4 ,s4  ,none of the        
cathedral windows are richer than those 
which circle the chancel4 ,they present 
,christ as the ,good ,shepherd and the  
apostolic college4 ,an excellent piece  
of chiseling is done by ,sibbel1 the    
sculptor of this city1 in the panels    
over the credence4 ,they are figures of 
the high priest with a slain lamb1 the  
type of the bloody sacrifice1 and       
,christ with sheaves of wheat and       

clusters of grapes1 the unbloody        
sacrifice4 ,beneath them is the text1   
,thou art a prophet forever after the   
order of ,melchisedec4 ,the chancel is  
paved with red and yellow ,sienna marble
 as center pieces1 flanked with squares 
of red ,griote and white marble1 the    
whole bordered with strips of red and   
black marble4 ,the ante-chancel is paved
 with blocks of red ,griote and verd    
antique4 ,two magnificent pieces of     
statuary stand on either side of the    
transept4 ,the first represents         
,religion holding a little model of the 
cathedral4 ,the other is an image of    
,hope4 ,they were done by ,park1 the    
,florentine sculptor4  ,in the south    
apse is the baptistery1 built with a    
tower furnished with chimes4 ,its       
supporting columns are of ,languedoc    
marble clustered with smaller ones of   
,sienna and verd antique4 ,six columns  
support the dome4 ,each is of a         
different marble1 crowned with          
sculptured capitals in high relief4 ,the

 windows are appropriate in theme4 ,they
 represent ,noah with the ark2 the      
building of the ark2 ,moses holding the 
tables of the law2 the passage of the   
,red ,sea2 ,john the ,baptist2 the      
,baptism of the eunuch2 ,st4 ,philip1   
the deacon2 and the ,baptism of ,christ4
 ,in the center of the room stands the  
font upon an octagonal base of two      
steps4 ,its pedestal and bowl are traced
 with symbolic carvings4 ,over it is a  
canopy of elaborately carved mahogany   
drawn into a spire bearing a gold crown1
 studded with rubies and amethysts4  ,at
 the foot of the chancel is the pulpit1 
of bronze1 designed by ,sibbel4 ,its    
base is surrounded by figures           
representing hearers of the ,word4 ,mr4 
,sibbel has incorporated an anachronism 
in one of these figures that will be    
exceedingly interesting in coming years4
 ,it shows the features of ,henry ,g4   
,harrison1 of this city1 the architect  
of the cathedral4 ,the lectern stands on
 the other side of the ante-chancel1    

representing ,christ blessing little    
children4 ,superb bronze columns with   
brass coronas of natural flowers support
 the roof of the building4 ,the         
triforium is carved in the richest style
 with passion flowers1 fuchsias1 roses1 
and lilies4  ,in the crypt below are the
 robing rooms of the clergy and the     
choir and the ,sunday-school room4 ,its 
windows show the arms of every ,american
 diocese4 ,beneath the choir is the     
chantry1 furnished in carved oak4       
,adjoining this room is the famous      
mausoleum erected to the memory of      
,alexander ,t4 ,stewart4 ,it is         
constructed of statuary marble1 and     
consists of fourteen bays1 at the angles
 of which are triple columns of the most
 richly colored imported marbles arched 
above the elegantly carved capitals1    
with open tracery1 through which the    
headlights of the colored glass are     
seen4 ,the subjects of the thirteen     
windows relate to the passion1 death1   
resurrection1 and subsequent appearances

 of ,christ1 and are executed in        
admirable design and color4 ,they were  
made by ,heaton1 ,butler  ,bayne1 of    
,london4 ,above the window openings     
rises a dome-shaped ceiling1 in carved  
marble1 with a pendent canopy in the    
center4 ,the pavement1 of black and     
white marbles1 radiates from the center 
of the sides of this polygonal          
structure1 and a large white urn1       
delicately draped after ,sibbel's       
designs1 stands under the pendent       
canopy4 ,it bears ,mr4 ,stewart's name4 
,the two entrances to the mausoleum are 
guarded by open-work bronze gates of    
elegant design and workmanship4--,n4 ,y4
 ,tribune4         99       99       99 
99       99     ,,movable ,,market      
,,buildings4   ,the furnishing of food  
supplies has always been a question of  
great importance to cities1 and there   
are few of the latter1 great or small1  
where the establishment of markets is   
not the order of the day4  ,at ,paris   
especially1 by reason of the massing of 

the population1 which is annually       
increasing1 the multiplicity of the     
wants to be satisfied renders the       
solution of this question more and more 
difficult4 ,the old markets1 some of the
 types of which still exist in various  
parts of ,paris1 were built of masonry  
and wood4 ,they were massive structures 
into which the air and light penetrated 
with difficulty1 and which consequently 
formed a dangerous focus of infection   
for those who occupied them1 and for the
 inhabitants of the neighboring houses4 
,so the introduction of iron into the   
construction of markets will bring about
 a genuine revolution whose influence   
will soon make itself felt in all       
branches of the builder's art4  ,the    
,central ,markets were to have been     
built of masonry1 and the work had even 
been begun1 when1 under the pressure of 
public opinion1 the architect1 ,mr4     
,baltard1 was led to use iron4          
,evidently1 the metal that permits of   
covering vast spaces with the use of    

distant bearing points that present a   
small surface in plan1 and leaves       
between them wide openings that the sun 
and air can enter in quantity1 was the  
only thing that was capable of giving   
the solution sought4 ,so it has been    
said1 and rightly1 that the ,central    
,markets are1 as regards the            
distribution and rational use of        
materials1 the most beautiful of the    
structures of modern ,paris4 ,this      
system of construction at once met with 
great success1 and the old markets are  
everywhere gradually disappearing1 in   
order to give place to the new style of 
buildings4  ,notwithstanding their      
number1 the ,parisian markets long ago  
became insufficient1 and wants increased
 with such rapidity that it became      
impossible to supply them4 ,the         
municipal administration was therefore  
obliged1 especially in populous         
quarters1 to tolerate perambulating     
peddlers1 who carried their wares in    
hand carts4 ,this system has the        

drawback that it interferes considerably
 with travel1 and especially in streets 
where the latter is most active4        
,moreover1 the merchants and their goods
 are exposed to the inclemency of the   
weather4 ,in other places1 where large  
spaces were utilizable1 such as squares 
and avenues1 very light structures1 that
 could be easily put together and taken 
apart1 were erected1 and markets were   
opened in these once or twice a week4   
,this method presents serious           
advantages4 ,iron markets1 in fact1     
despite the immense progress that they  
mark1 present disadvantages that are    
inherent to all stationary structures4  
,it is necessary to erect them in       
populous centers1 where land is         
consequently of great value2 and the    
structure itself is costly4  ,the result
 is that the prime cost is very great1  
and this forces the city to charge the  
merchants high rents1 and the consumer  
has to pay for it4 ,with movable        
markets1 on the contrary1 the city can  

utilize large areas of unproductive     
ground1 and find new resources1 although
 renting the stalls at a minimum price4 
,the expense connected with the         
structure itself is very small4 ,in     
fact1 the distinguishing character of   
such structures is their portability--so
 that the same shed can be used in any  
number of different places4  ,the       
principal expense1 then1 will be for    
carriage2 but it is easy to see that    
there will always be an economy in their
 use4 ,this is a fact1 moreover1 that   
practice has verified1 for it is well   
known that ,paris does not get her      
expenses back from her stationary       
markets1 while the movable ones yield a 
revenue4  ,on another hand1 as          
stationary markets are costly1 it       
results that they cannot be multiplied  
as much as necessary1 and so a portion  
of the inhabitants are daily submitted  
to a loss of time in reaching the one   
nearest them4  ,finally1 from a hygienic
 standpoint1 movable markets present a  

very great advantage over stationary    
ones4 ,the latter1 in fact1             
notwithstanding their large open spaces1
 never get rid of the vitiated air that 
they contain1 and the bad odors that    
emanate from them are also a source of  
annoyance and danger to the             
neighborhood4 ,in movable ones1 on the  
contrary1 when the structure is taken   
apart1 the air1 sun1 and rain disperse  
all bad odors1 and the place is rendered
 wholesome in an instant4  ,we have now 
demonstrated what great advantages the  
city of ,paris and her population might 
derive from the establishing of movable 
markets4  ,it is easy to see that well  
established structures of this kind     
would render great services in small    
towns also4 ,they might entirely replace
 stationary iron markets1 the high cost 
of which often causes municipalities to 
preserve their old1 inconvenient1 and   
unhealthy structures4 ,as a general     
thing1 market is held but once or twice 
a week in small towns4 ,in the interior 

the structure could be taken apart1 and 
the place rendered free4  ,the question1
 then1 is to have a system of           
construction that shall satisfy the     
different parts of the programme that we
 have just laid out1 that is to say1    
strength1 lightness1 rapidity of        
erection1 and ease of carriage4 ,the    
shelters that are at present employed   
for movable markets at ,paris are very  
primitive1 and are wanting in solidity  
and convenience4 ,they consist simply of
 wooden uprights to which are affixed   
cross-pieces that support an impermeable
 canvas4  ,in order to render it        
possible to extend the system of movable
 markets1 it became necessary to first  
find and study the proper material4     
,during the year #ahhc the city of      
,paris resolved to make some            
experiments1 and the ,direction of      
,municipal ,affairs commissioned ,mr4   
,andre1 director of the ,neuilly works1 
to submit to him a plan for a structure 
that could be easily taken apart4 ,the  

plan finally proposed seemed to meet all
 the requirements of the case1 and a    
group of ten structures was erected4    
,the trial that was made of these proved
 entirely satisfactory4 ,the city then  
made concession to the ,neuilly company1
 for six years1 of the market in        
,boulevard ,richard-,lenoir1 of those of
 ,la ,reine ,park1 and of the ,madeleine
 flower markets4 ,a six months' trial   
has shown the great resistance of the   
materials that we are about to describe 
in detail4  ,the structure is supported 
by cylindrical hollow iron uprights that
 are firmly connected with the ground as
 follows3 ,at the places where they are 
to be fixed1 small catches are inserted 
in the ground so that their upper       
surface comes flush therewith4 ,these   
catches consist of two cast iron sides  
bolted together1 and of a bottom and    
ends formed of flat iron--the end pieces
 being bent so as to form cramp irons4  
,each of the sides is provided          
internally with a projecting piece1 and 

an inclined plane as a wedge4 ,in case  
the catch becomes filled with dirt1 it  
can be easily cleaned out with a        
scraper4 ,the iron upright terminates in
 a malleable cast iron shoe1 which is   
screwed on to it1 and which is provided 
beneath with a projection in the form of
 a reversed ,t1 the upper part of the   
horizontal branches of which is beveled 
off in a direction opposite that of the 
inclined planes of the catch4 ,this     
projection enters through the slit and  
fits into the two wedges1 and a simple  
blow of a hammer suffices to make the   
adherence perfect4  ,the front and hind 
uprights differ only in length1 and the 
roof timbers are joined at their upper  
extremities4 ,the figures so well show  
how the parts are fitted together as to 
render an explanation unnecessary4  ,the
 dimensions of these structures vary    
from #f4e to #e4ge feet in length by    
#f4e in width and #f in height4 ,the    
rafters are prolonged so as to project  
#d4be feet in front1 in order to form a 

protection for the purchaser4 ,this part
 of the rafters1 as well as the         
longitudinals1 is supported by three    
curved iron braces1 which are put in    
place as follows3 ,the timbers are      
provided with a ring fixed by a screw1  
and one extremity of the brace is       
inserted into this1 while the other is  
held against the upright by a sliding   
iron socket4 ,the longitudinal timbers  
are supported between each two uprights 
by an iron rod that rests upon a block  
of stone fixed in the ground4  ,the     
front ends of the rafters are connected 
by a longitudinal1 #ah feet in length4  
,the structure is covered with          
waterproof canvas held in place by      
wooden rods1 to which it is attached4   
,the wood employed is pitch pine4  ,an  
entire market of #cjj stalls can be put 
up in three hours by one workman and    
four assistants4--,le ,genie ,civil4    
,illustration3 ,,the ,,movable          
,,madeleine ,,flower ,,market ,,at      
,,paris4                ,,fig4          

#a4--;,,general ,,view ,,of ,a ,,movable
 ,,market4                ,,fig4        
#b4--,,shoes4                ,,fig4     
#c4--,,mode ,,of ,,joining ,,the ,,roof 
,,timbers4                ,,fig4        
#d4--;,,iron ,,support4                 
,,fig4 #e4--,,section ,,of ,a ,,shoe    
,,inserted ,,in ,,the ,,catch4          
,,fig4 #f4--;,,catches4                 
,,fig4 #g4--,,waterproof ,,canvas4      
99       99       99       99       99  
,,dinocrates' ,,project4   ,vitruvius   
relates that the architect ,dinocrates  
proposed to ,alexander the ,great to    
carve ,mount ,athos in such a way as to 
give it the shape of a man1 whose one   
hand should support an entire city1 and 
whose other should carry a cup which    
received all the waters from the        
mountain1 and from which they overflowed
 into the sea4  ,alexander1 charmed with
 the idea1 asked him if this city was to
 be surrounded by land capable of       
supplying it with the grain necessary   
for its subsistence4 ,having ascertained

 that the provisioning could only be    
done by sea1 ,alexander said3           
,dinocrates1 ,i grant the beauty of your
 project2 it pleases me1 but ,i think   
that any one who should take it into his
 head to establish a colony in the place
 you propose would run the risk of being
 taxed with want of foresight2 for1 just
 as a child can neither feed nor develop
 without the milk of a nurse1 so a city 
cannot increase without fertile fields1 
have a large population without plenty  
of food1 and allow its inhabitants to   
subsist without rich harvests2 so1 while
 giving the originality of your plan my 
approval1 ,i have to say to you that ,i 
disapprove of the place that you have   
selected for putting it into execution4 
,but ,i want you to stay near me1       
because ,i shall have need of your      
services4  ,this gigantic project had   
doubtless been suggested to the         
,macedonian architect by the singular   
forms that certain mountains affect4 ,it
 is not rare1 in fact1 to see human     

profiles delineated upon the sky1 and   
this phenomenon especially happens in   
countries where the folded limestone    
strata have been broken up in such a way
 as to give rise to deep valleys        
perpendicular to the direction of the   
chain4 ,if we look at these folds from  
below in an oblique direction1 we shall 
see them superposed upon one another in 
such a way as to represent figures that 
recall a human profile4  ,illustration3 
,,fig4 #a4 ,,landscape ,,by ,,father    
,,kircher4  ,in the seventeenth century1
 ,father ,kircher conceived the idea of 
taking up ,dinocrates' plan upon a small
 scale1 and composed the landscape shown
 in ,fig4 #a4 ,the drawing remained     
engraved for a long time upon a marble  
tablet set into the wall of ,cardinal   
,montalte's garden at ,rome4 ,later on1 
artists improved and varied this        
project1 as shown in ,figs4 #b and #c4  
,by looking at these cuts from the sides
 of the page1 it will be seen that they 
form human profiles4 ,fig4 #b represents

 an old woman1 and ,fig4 #c a man whose 
beard and hair are formed by shrubbery4 
,illustration3 ,,figs4 #b ,,and         
#c4--,,landscapes ,,showing ,,profiles  
,,of ,,human ,,face4  ,we do not think  
that these conceptions have ever been   
realized1 although ,heron in his        
treatise on ,dioptra1 and ,father ,scott
 in his ,parastatic ,magic1 have        
described instruments that permit of    
making the necessary outlines to cause  
grounds to present a given aspect from a
 given point4 ,these instruments consist
 essentially of a vertical transparent  
frame upon which is drawn a vertical    
projection of the landscape that it is  
desired to obtain4         99       99  
99       99       99   ,in the island of
 ,goa1 near ,bombay1 there is a singular
 vegetable called the sorrowful tree1   
because it only flourishes in the night4
 ,at sunset no flowers are to be seen1  
and yet after half an hour it is full of
 them4 ,they yield a sweet smell1 but   
the sun no sooner begins to shine upon  

them than some of them fall off1 and    
others close up2 and thus it continues  
flowering in the night during the whole 
year4         99       99       99      
99       99     ,,the ,,cruto           
,,incandescent ,,lamp4   ,an electrical 
exhibition on a comparatively small     
scale was opened in ,paris1 ,march #bb1 
#ahhe1 with considerable eclat1 the     
,president of the ,republic being       
present4 ,engines to the extent of #bjj 
,h4,p4 are employed to work the lights4 
,among the exhibits is the ,cruto light4
 ,engineering says3 ,at the first glance
 it presents the same appearance as an  
,edison lamp1 having the same form of   
globe1 and apparently a similar luminous
 filament4 ,but this latter is made in  
an entirely different manner4 ,a        
platinum wire is employed1 #a_/ajj of a 
millimeter in diameter4 ,this is        
obtained by the ,wollaston process1 that
 is to say1 a piece of coarse platinum  
wire is covered with a stout coating of 
silver1 and drawn down till the outside 

diameter is #a_/aj millimeter4 ,the     
silver coating is then dissolved in a   
bath of nitric acid1 and the platinum   
wire is left behind4 ,this wire is then 
cut into lengths1 bent into a ,u form1  
and placed in a glass globe1 in which   
circulates a current of bicarbonated    
hydrogen obtained by the action of      
sulphuric acid on alcohol4 ,this gas1   
previously purified1 circulates around  
the platinum filament1 through which an 
electric current is passed sufficient to
 bring it to a red heat4 ,this          
decomposes the gas1 and a thin coating  
of absolutely pure carbon is deposited  
on the wire4 ,the operation is continued
 until a sufficient thickness of carbon 
has been deposited for each type of     
lamp1 and the method of regulating the  
amount of deposit is effected very      
simply1 and1 in fact1 almost            
automatically4 ,indeed1 one of the most 
interesting features of the process is  
its great simplicity1 although it is    
somewhat more costly than the ordinary  

methods of producing incandescence      
lamps4 ,after having been subjected to  
the action of the gas for two or three  
hours1 the filament is taken from the   
glass globe1 its diameter is carefully  
measured1 the length is calibrated1 and 
it is set on a platinum support1 to     
which it is soldered by a very ingenious
 process4 ,the filament is then         
introduced into a second glass globe    
charged with bicarbonate of hydrogen2 it
 is placed between pincers that hold the
 carbon near its union with the         
platinum1 and the platinum some         
millimeters below4 ,these pincers are   
then thrown into circuit1 and a powerful
 current is passed through the part     
which is to be soldered4 ,the platinum  
and carbon become incandescent1 the     
bicarbonate is decomposed1 and a fresh  
deposit of carbon solders the filament  
to its support4 ,the system thus mounted
 is placed within the permanent globe1  
and a vacuum is obtained in the ordinary
 way1 while the testing and finishing   

details present nothing of special      
interest4 ,the finished lamp is then    
photometrically tested1 and placed on a 
support something like the ,edison      
mounting4 ,upon it are engraved the     
working constants4 ,as an ordinary      
practical result1 these lamps1 working  
with #ej volts and #a4ae amperes1 give a
 luminous intensity of #bj candles1 or  
the equivalent in luminous spherical    
intensity of #a4a ,edison ,a lamps4     
,this result is interesting1 especially 
as the life of the lamp ranges from #ijj
 to #a1ajj hours1 as was demonstrated by
 various careful tests made with some   
#bej lamps2 the most valuable trials    
having taken place at the ,turin        
,exhibition4 ,after prolonged use1 a    
diminution in the fall of potential is  
produced1 to a more marked degree than  
in the ,edison lamp1 and the light can  
be maintained constant by increasing the
 strength of the current in a proportion
 that can be determined by means of     
resistances4 ,the ,cruto filament       

examined under the microscope appears to
 be uniformly magnetic1 and is very     
regular1 except at the curved parts     
where the diameter is slightly          
diminished1 and it is here that rupture 
generally takes place4 ,the great       
structural regularity of the filament   
probably accounts for its high          
durability1 and from the fact that it   
may be worked with a higher current than
 probably any other form of             
incandescence lamp4 ,m4 ,desroziers in a
 series of experiments obtained as much 
as #bej carcel spherical luminous value 
per horse-power2 this characteristic is 
one likely to be of great value in      
electric lighting by incandescence of   
high intensity4 ,at present only        
#bj-;candle lamps are made on the ,cruto
 system4 ,the carbon filament1 when     
properly prepared1 is gray in hue and of
 metallic appearance2 it is built up in 
very fine lamin indicating the mode of  
manufacture4 ,the results obtained with 
these lamps vary as much as #be per     

cent41 according to the care bestowed in
 producing the filament4 ,if traces of  
air exist in the globe1 they very       
quickly manifest themselves by the      
surface of the glass becoming blackened1
 while an increased energy is required  
to maintain the brightness of the light4
  ,in the early days of this lamp it was
 thought necessary to remove the        
delicate platinum wire which forms the  
core of the filament1 by raising the    
strength of the current sufficiently to 
destroy it in the course of manufacture4
 ,this1 however1 was given up1 and the  
platinum now remains either as a        
continuous wire or as a series of small 
separated granules4         99       99 
99       99       99     ,,electric     
,,light ,,apparatus ,,for ,,military    
,,purposes4   ,in the first period of   
the siege of a stronghold it is of very 
great importance for the besieged to    
embarrass the first progress of the     
attack1 in order to complete their own  
armament1 and to perform certain        

operations which are of absolute        
necessity for the safety of the place1  
but which are only then possible4 ,in   
order to retard the completion of the   
first parallel1 and the opening of the  
fire1 it is necessary to try to discover
 the location of such parallel1 as well 
as that of the artillery1 and to ply    
them with projectiles4 ,but1 on their   
side1 the besiegers will do all in their
 power to hide their works1 and those   
that they are unable to begin behind    
natural coverts they will execute at    
night4 ,it will be seen from this how   
important it is for the besieged to     
possess at this stage of events an      
effective means of lighting up the      
external country4 ,later on1 such means 
will be of utility to them in the       
night-firing of long-range rifled guns1 
as well as for preventing surprises1 and
 also for illuminating the breach and   
the ditches at the time of an assault1  
and the entire field of battle at the   
time of a sortie4  ,illustration3       

,,electric ,,light ,,apparatus ,,for    
,,army ,,use4  ,on a campaign it will   
prove none the less useful to be        
provided with movable apparatus that    
follow the army4 ,a few years ago4      
,lieut4 ,a4 ,cuvelier1 in a very        
remarkable article in the ,revue        
,militaire ,belge1 pointed out the large
 number of night operations of the war  
of #ahgg1 and predicted the frequent use
 of such apparatus in future wars4  ,the
 accompanying engraving represents a    
very fine electric light apparatus1     
especially designed for military use in 
mountainous countries4 ,it consists of a
 two-wheeled carriage1 drawn by one     
horse and carrying all the apparatus    
necessary for illuminating the works of 
the enemy4 ,the machine consists of the 
following parts3 7#a7 ,a field boiler4  
7#b7 ,a ,gramme electric machine1 type  
,m1 actuated directly by a ,brotherhood 
#c-;cylinder motor4 7#c7 ,a ,mangin     
projector1 #ab inches in diameter1      
suspended for carriage from a movable   

support4 ,this latter1 when the place is
 reached where the apparatus is to      
operate1 may be removed from the        
carriage and placed on the ground at a  
distance of about a hundred yards from  
the machine1 and be connected therewith 
by a conductor4 ,col4 ,mangin's         
projector consists of a glass mirror    
with double curvature1 silvered upon its
 convex face4 ,it possesses so          
remarkable optical properties that it   
has been adopted by nearly all powers4  
,the fascicle of light that it emits has
 a perfect concentration4 ,in front of  
the projector there are two doors4 ,the 
first of these1 which is plane and      
simple1 is used when it is desired to   
give the fascicle all the concentration 
possible2 the other1 which consists of  
cylindrical lenses1 spreads the fascicle
 horizontally1 so as to make it cover a 
wider space4  ,the range of the         
concentrated fascicle is about #hf1jjj  
feet4 ,the projector may be pointed in  
all directions1 so as to bring it to    

bear in succession upon all the points  
that it is desired to illuminate4 ,the  
#ab-;inch projector is the smallest size
 made for this purpose4 ,the            
constructors1 ,messrs4 ,sautter1        
,lemonnier  ,co41 are making more       
powerful ones1 up to #cf inches in      
diameter1 with a corresponding increase 
in the size of the electric machines1   
motors1 and boilers4  ,the various      
powers make use of these apparatus for  
the defense of fortresses and coasts1   
for campaign service1 etc4  ,the various
 parts of the apparatus can be easily   
taken apart and loaded upon the backs of
 mules4 ,the only really heavy piece is 
the boiler1 which weighs about #iij     
pounds4         99       99       99    
99       99     ,,electricity ,,and     
,,magnetism4#a     ,footnote #a3        
,introductory to the course of ,lectures
 on ,physics at    ,washington          
,university1 ,st4 ,louis1               
,missouri--,kansas ,city    ,review4    
,prof4 ,,francis ,e4 ,,nipher4   ,it was

 known six hundred years before ,christ 
that when amber is rubbed it acquires   
the power of attracting light bodies4   
,the ,greek name for amber1 elektron1   
was afterward applied to the phenomenon4
 ,it was also known to the ancients that
 a certain kind of iron ore1 first found
 at ,magnesia1 in ,asia ,minor1 had the 
property of attracting iron4 ,this      
phenomenon was called magnetism4 ,this  
is the history of electricity and       
magnetism for two thousand years1 during
 which these facts stood alone1 like    
isolated mountain peaks1 with summits   
touched and made visible by the morning 
sun1 while the region surrounding and   
connecting them lay hidden and          
unexplored4  ,in fact1 it is only in    
more recent times that men could be     
found possessing the necessary mental   
qualities to insure success in physical 
investigation4 ,some of the ancients    
were acute observers1 and made valuable 
observations in descriptive natural     
history4 ,they also observed and        

described phenomena which they saw      
around them1 although often in vague and
 mystical terms4  ,they1 however1 were  
greatly lacking in power to discriminate
 between the possible and the absurd1   
and so old wives' tales1 acute          
speculations1 and truthful observations 
are strangely jumbled together4 ,with   
rare exceptions they did not contrive   
new conditions to bring about phenomena 
which ,nature did not spontaneously     
exhibit--they did not experiment4 ,they 
attempted to solve the universe in their
 heads1 and made little progress4  ,in  
medival times intellectual men were busy
 in trying to set each other right1 and 
in disputing and arguing with those who 
believed themselves to be right4 ,it was
 an era of intellectual pugilism1 and   
nothing was done in physics4 ,in fact1  
this frame of mind is incompatible with 
any marked success in scientific work4  
,the physical investigator cannot take  
up his work in the spirit of            
controversy2 for the phenomena and laws 

of ,nature will not argue with him4 ,he 
must come as a learner1 and the true man
 of science is content to learn1 is     
content to lay his results before his   
fellows1 and is willing to profit by    
their criticisms4 ,in so far as he      
permits himself to assume the mental    
attitude of one who defends a position1 
in so far does he reveal a grave        
disqualification for the most useful    
scientific work4 ,scientific truth needs
 no man's defense1 but our individual   
statements of what we believe to be     
truth frequently need criticism4 ,it is 
hardly necessary to remark1 also1 that  
critics are of various degrees of       
excellence1 and it seems that those in  
whom the habit of criticism has become  
chronic are of comparatively little     
service to the world4  ,the great       
harbinger of the new era was ,galileo4  
,there had been prophets before him1 and
 after him came a greater one--,newton4 
,they did nothing of note in electricity
 and magnetism1 but they were filled    

with the true spirit of science1 they   
introduced proper and reasonable methods
 of investigation1 and by their great   
ability and distinguished success they  
have produced a revolution in the       
intellectual world4 ,other great men had
 also appeared1 such as ,leibnitz and   
,huyghens2 and it became very clear that
 the methods of investigation which had 
borne such fruit in the days of ,galileo
 were not disposed of completely by his 
unwilling recantation2 it became very   
clear that the new civilization which   
was dawning upon ,europe was not        
destined to the rude fate which had     
overwhelmed the brilliant scientific    
achievements of the ,spanish ,moors of a
 half century before4  ,already in      
#aehj1 about the time when ,galileo     
entered ,pisa as a student1 ,borroughs  
had determined the variation of the     
magnetic needle at ,london1 and we have 
upon the screen a view of his           
instrument1 which seems rude enough1 in 
comparison with the elaborate apparatus 

of our times4 ,the first great work on  
electricity and magnetism was the ,de   
,magnete of ,gilbert1 physician of      
,queen ,elizabeth1 published in #afjj4  
,galileo1 already famous in ,europe1    
recognized in the methods of            
investigation used by ,gilbert the ones 
which he had found so fruitful1 and     
wrote of him1 ,i extremely praise1      
admire1 and envy this author4  ,gilbert 
made many interesting contributions to  
magnetism1 which we shall notice in     
another lecture1 and he also found that 
sulphur1 glass1 wax1 and other bodies   
share with amber the property of being  
electrified by friction4 ,he concluded  
that many bodies could not be thus      
electrified4 ,gray1 however1 found in   
#agbi that these bodies were conductors 
of electricity1 and his discoveries and 
experiments were explained and described
 to the president of the ,royal ,society
 while on his death bed1 and only a few 
hours before his death4 ,if precautions 
are taken to properly insulate          

conductors1 all bodies which differ in  
any way1 either in structure1 in        
smoothness of surface1 or even in       
temperature1 are apparently electrified 
by friction4 ,in all cases the friction 
also produces heat1 and if the bodies   
rubbed are exactly alike1 heat only is  
produced4  ,an electrified body will    
attract all light bodies4 ,this gutta   
percha when rubbed with a cat's skin    
attracts these bits of paper1 and this  
pith ball1 and this copper ball2 it     
moves this long lath balanced on its    
center1 and deflects this vertical jet  
of water into a beautiful curve4  ,if a 
conductor is to be electrified1 it must 
be supported by bad conductors4 ,this   
brass cylinder standing on a glass      
column has become electrified by        
friction with cat's-skin4 ,my assistant 
will stand upon this insulating stool1  
and by stroking his hand you will       
observe that with his other hand he can 
attract this suspended rod of wood1 and 
you will hear a feeble spark when ,i    

apply my knuckle to his4  ,du ,fay1 of  
,paris1 discovered what he called two   
kinds of electricity4 ,he found that a  
glass rod rubbed with silk will repel   
another glass rod similarly rubbed1 but 
that the silk would attract a rubbed    
glass rod4 ,we express the facts in the 
well-known law that like electricities  
repel each other1 and unlike attract4   
,for a long time the nature of the      
distinctions between the two            
electricities was not understood4 ,it   
was found later that when the two bodies
 are rubbed together they become        
oppositely electrified1 and that the two
 electricities are always generated in  
equal quantity2 so that if the two      
bodies are held in contact after the    
rubbing has ceased the two electricities
 come together again and the electrical 
phenomena disappear4 ,they have been    
added together1 and the result is zero4 
,franklin proposed to call these        
electricities positive and negative4    
,these names are well chosen1 but we do 

not know any reason why one should be   
called positive rather than the other4  
,the electricity generated on glass when
 rubbed with silk is called positive4   
,let us now examine the distinction     
between positive and negative           
electricities somewhat more closely1    
aiding ourselves by two cases which are 
somewhat analogous4  ,two air-tight     
cylinders1 ,a and ,b1 contain air at    
ordinary pressure4 ,the cylinders are   
connected by a tube containing an       
air-pump in such a way that1 when the   
pump is worked1 air is taken from ,a and
 forced into ,b4 ,to use the language of
 the electricians1 we at once generate  
two kinds of pressure4 ,the vessels have
 acquired new properties4 ,if we open a 
cock in the side of either vessel1 we   
hear a hissing sound1 if a light body is
 placed before the opening in ,a it     
would be attracted1 and before the      
opening in ,b it would be repelled4 ,now
 this is only roughly analogous to the  
case of the electrified bodies1 but the 

analogy will nevertheless aid us in our 
study4 ,if the two vessels are first    
connected with the air1 and then closed 
up and the pump is set to work1 we      
increase the pressure in ,b and diminish
 the pressure in ,a4 ,to do this        
requires the expenditure of a quantity  
of work4 ,if the cylinders are connected
 by an open tube--a conductor--the      
difference in pressure disappears by    
reason of a flow of gas from one vessel 
to the other4  ,if we had a pump by     
means of which we could pump heat from  
one body into another1 starting with two
 bodies at the same temperature1 the    
temperature of one body would increase  
and that of the other would diminish4   
,if we knew less than we do of heat1 we 
might well discuss whether the plus sign
 should be applied to the heat or to the
 cold1 because these names were coined  
by people who knew very little about the
 subject except that these bodies       
produce different sensations when they  
come in contact with the human body4    

,furthermore1 we find that whether the  
hand is applied to a very hot body or to
 a very cold body1 the physiological    
effect is the same4 ,in each case the   
tissue is destroyed and a burn is       
produced4 ,shall we now say that this   
burn is produced by an unusual flow of  
heat from the hot body to the hand1 or  
from the hand to the cold body1 or shall
 we say that it is due to an unusual    
flow of cold from the cold body to the  
hand1 or from the hand to the hot body8 
,logically these expressions are        
identical2 still we have come to prefer 
one of them4 ,it is because we have     
learned that in those bodies which our  
fathers called hot1 the particles are   
vibrating with greater energy than in   
cold bodies1 that we prefer to say that 
heat is added and not cold subtracted1  
when a cold body becomes less cold4     
,now to come back to our electrified    
bodies4 ,let us suppose that this gutta 
percha1 and this cat's-skin are not     
electrified4 ,that means that their     

electrical condition is the same as that
 of surrounding bodies4 ,let us also    
suppose that their thermal condition is 
the same as surrounding bodies1         
ourselves included--that is1 they are   
neither hot nor cold4 ,we express these 
conditions in other words by saying that
 the bodies have the same electrical    
potential and the same temperature4     
,temperature in heat is analogous to    
potential in electricity4 ,as soon as   
adjacent bodies are at different        
temperatures1 we have the phenomena     
which reveal to us the existence of     
heat4 ,as soon as adjacent bodies have  
different electrical potentials1 we have
 the phenomena which reveal the         
existence of electricity4 ,as soon as   
adjacent regions in the air are at      
different pressures1 we have phenomena  
which reveal the existence of air4      
,bodies all tend to preserve the same   
temperature and also the same electrical
 potential4 ,any disturbances in        
electrical equilibrium are much more    

quickly obliterated than in case of     
thermal equilibrium1 and we therefore   
see less of electrical phenomena than of
 thermal4 ,in thunder storms we see such
 disturbances1 and with delicate        
instruments we find them going on       
continuously4 ,changes in temperature   
occurring on a large scale in our       
atmosphere1 occurring in these gas jets1
 in our fires1 in the axles of          
machinery1 and in thousands of other    
places1 are so familiar that we have    
ceased to wonder at them4  ,if we rub   
these two bodies together1 the potential
 of the two is no longer the same4 ,we  
do not know which one has become        
greater1 and in this respect our        
knowledge of electricity is less        
complete than of heat4 ,we assume that  
the gutta percha has become negative4   
,if we now leave these bodies in        
contact1 the potential of the cat's skin
 will diminish and that of the gutta    
percha will increase until they have    
again reached a common potential--that  

of the earth4 ,as in the case of heat   
and cold1 we may say either that this   
has come about by a flow of positive    
electricity from the cat's skin to the  
gutta percha1 or by a flow of negative  
electricity in the opposite direction1  
for these statements are identical4  ,in
 case of our gas cylinders1 the gas     
tends to leak out of the vessel where   
the pressure is great into the vessel   
where it is small4 ,the heat tends to   
leak out of a body of high temperature  
into the colder one1 or the cold tends  
to go in the opposite direction4        
,similarly1 the plus electricity tends  
to flow from the body having a high     
potential1 to the body having a low     
potential1 or the minus electricity     
tends to go in the opposite direction4  
99       99       99       99       99  
,,engineering4     ,,the ,,hydrodynamic 
,,researches ,,of ,,professor           
,,bjerknes4  ,,by ,,conrad ,w4 ,,cooke4 
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4  ,we have in  
former articles described the highly    

interesting series of experimental      
researches of ,dr4 ,c4 ,a4 ,bjerknes1   
,professor of ,mathematics in the       
,university of ,christiania1 which      
formed so attractive a feature in the   
,electrical ,exhibition of ,paris in    
#ahha1 and which constituted the        
practical development of a theoretical  
research which had extended over a      
previous period of more than twenty     
years4 ,the experiments which we        
described in those articles were1 as our
 readers will remember1 upon the        
influence of pulsating and rectilinear  
vibrating bodies upon one another and   
upon bodies in their neighborhood1 as   
well as upon the medium in which they   
are immersed4 ,this medium1 in the      
majority of ,professor ,bjerknes earlier
 experiments1 was water1 although he    
demonstrated mathematically1 and to a   
small extent experimentally1 that the   
phenomena1 which bear so striking an    
analogy to those of magnetism1 may be   
produced in air4  ,our readers will     

recollect that in the spring of #ahhb   
,mr4 ,stroh1 by means of some very      
delicate and beautifully designed       
apparatus1 was able to demonstrate a    
large number of the same phenomena in   
atmospheric air of the ordinary density2
 and about the same time ,professor     
,bjerknes1 in ,christiania1 was         
extending his researches to phenomena   
produced by a different class of        
vibrations1 namely1 those of bodies     
moving in oscillations of a circular    
character1 such1 for example1 as a      
cylinder vibrating about its own axis or
 a sphere around one of its diameters2  
some of these experiments were brought  
by ,professor ,bjerknes before the      
,physical ,society of ,london in the    
following ,june4 ,since that time1      
however1 ,professor ,bjerknes1 with the 
very important assistance of his son1   
,mr4 ,vilhelm ,bjerknes1 has been       
extending these experimental researches 
in the same direction1 and with the     
results which it is the object of the   

present series of articles to describe4 
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4  ,the especial
 feature of interest in all ,professor  
,bjerknes experiments has been the      
remarkably close analogy which exists   
between the phenomena exhibited in his  
mechanical experiments in water and     
other media and those of magnetism and  
of electricity1 and it may be of some   
interest if we here recapitulate some of
 the more striking of these analogies4  
7#a47 ,in the first place1 the vibrating
 or pulsating bodies1 by setting the    
water or other medium in which they are 
immersed into vibration1 set up in their
 immediate neighborhood a field of      
mechanical force very closely analogous 
to the field of magnetic force with     
which magnetized bodies are surrounded4 
,the lines of vibration have precisely  
the same directions and form the same   
figures1 while at the same time the     
decrease of the intensity of vibration  
by an increase of distance obeys        
precisely the same law as does that of  

magnetic intensity at increasing        
distances from a magnetic body4  7#b47  
,when two or more vibrating bodies are  
immersed in a fluid1 they set up around 
them fields of vibration1 and act and   
react upon one another in a manner      
closely analogous to the action and     
reaction of magnets upon one another1   
producing the phenomena of attraction   
and repulsion4 ,in this respect1        
however1 the analogy appears to be      
inverse1 repulsion being produced where1
 from the magnetic analogy1 one would   
expect to find attraction1 and vice     
versa4  7#c47 ,if a neutral body1 that  
is to say a body having no vibration of 
its own1 be immersed in the fluid and   
within the field of vibration1 phenomena
 are produced exactly analogous to the  
magnetic and diamagnetic phenomena      
produced by the action of a magnet upon 
soft iron or bismuth1 its apparently    
magnetic or diamagnetic properties being
 determined by the specific gravity of  
the neutral body as compared to that of 

the medium in which it is immersed4 ,if 
the neutral body be lighter than the    
medium1 it exhibits the magnetic        
induction of iron with respect to       
polarity1 but is nevertheless repelled2 
while if it be heavier than the medium1 
its direction is similar to that of     
diamagnetic bodies such as bismuth1 but 
on the other hand exhibits the phenomena
 of attraction4  ,in this way ,professor
 ,bjerknes has been able to reproduce   
analogues of all the phenomena of       
magnetism and diamagnetism1 those       
phenomena which may be classed as       
effects of induction being directly     
reproduced1 while those which may be    
classed as effects of mechanical action1
 and resulting in change of place1 are  
analogous inversely4 ,this fact has been
 so much misunderstood both in this     
country and on the ,continent that it   
will be well1 before describing the     
experiments1 to enter more fully into an
 explanation of these most interesting  
and instructive phenomena4  ,for the    

sake of clearness we will speak of      
magnetic induction as that property of a
 magnet by which it is surrounded by a  
field of force1 and by which pieces of  
iron1 within that field1 are converted  
into magnets1 and pieces of bismuth into
 diamagnets1 and we will speak of       
magnetic action as the property of a    
magnet by which it attracts or repels   
another magnet1 or by which it attacks  
or repels a piece of iron or bismuth    
magnetized by magnetic induction4       
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4  ,the         
corresponding hydrodynamic phenomena may
 be regarded in a similar manner2 thus1 
when a vibrating or pulsating body      
immersed in a liquid surrounds itself   
with a field of vibrations1 or          
communicates vibrations to other        
immersed bodies within that vibratory   
field1 the phenomena so produced may be 
looked upon as phenomena of hydrodynamic
 induction1 while on the other hand1    
when a vibrating or pulsating body      
attracts or repels another pulsating or 

vibratory body 7whether such vibrations 
be produced by outside mechanical agency
 or by hydrodynamical induction71 then  
the phenomena so produced are those of  
hydrodynamical action1 and it is in this
 way that we shall treat the phenomena  
throughout this article1 using the words
 induction and direct action in these   
somewhat restricted meanings4           
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4               
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4  ,in the      
hydrodynamical experiments of ,professor
 ,bjerknes all the phenomena of magnetic
 induction can be reproduced directly   
and perfectly1 but the phenomena of     
magnetic action are not so exactly      
reproduced1 that is to say1 they are    
subject to a sort of inversion4 ,thus   
when two bodies are pulsating together  
and in the same phase 7i4 e41 both      
expanding and both contracting at the   
same time71 they mutually attract each  
other3 but if they are pulsating in     
opposite phases1 repulsion is the       
result4 ,from this one experiment taken 

by itself we might be led to infer that 
bodies pulsating in similar phases are  
the hydrodynamic analogues of magnets   
having their opposite poles presented to
 one another1 and that bodies pulsating 
in opposite phases are analogous to a   
presentation of similar magnetic poles2 
but it will be seen at once that this   
cannot be the case if three magnetic    
poles or three pulsating bodies be      
considered instead of only two4 ,it is  
clear1 on the one hand1 that three      
similar magnet poles will all repel one 
another1 while1 on the other1 of three  
pulsating bodies1 two of them must      
always attract one another1 while a     
third would be repelled2 and1 moreover1 
two similarly pulsating bodies set up   
around them the same lines of force as  
two similar magnetic poles1 and two     
oppositely pulsating bodies produce     
lines of force identically the same as  
those set up by two magnets of opposite 
polarity4 ,thus it will be seen that    
there is a break in the analogy between 

the hydrodynamical and the magnetic     
phenomena 7if a uniform inversion of the
 effects can be called a break1 for it  
is1 as far as ,professor ,bjerknes'     
experiments go1 without an exception72  
and if by any means this inversion could
 be reinverted1 all the phenomena of    
magnetism and diamagnetism could be     
exactly reproduced by hydrodynamical    
analogues2 there would thus be grounds  
for forming a theory of magnetism on the
 basis of mechanical phenomena1 and a   
very important link in the chain of the 
correlation of the physical forces would
 be supplied4  ,while the experiments of
 ,professor ,bjerknes upon pulsating and
 rectilinearly vibrating bodies and     
their influence upon one another        
illustrate by very close analogies the  
phenomena of magnetism1 those upon      
circularly vibrating bodies and their   
mutual influences bear a remarkable     
analogy to electrical phenomena2 and it 
is a significant fact that exactly as in
 the case of magnetic illustration1 the 

analogies are direct as regards the     
phenomena of induction1 and inverse in  
their illustration of direct electrical 
action4  ,if we examine the figure      
produced by the field of force          
surrounding a conductor through which a 
current of electricity is being         
transmitted 7see ,fig4 #a71 we see that 
iron filings within that field arrange  
themselves in more or less concentric   
circles around the conductor conveying  
the current4 ,from this fact ,professor 
,bjerknes and his son1 reasoning that1  
to produce a similar field of energy    
around a vibrating body1 the vibrations 
of that body must partake of a circular 
or rotary character1 constructed        
apparatus for producing the hydrodynamic
 analogue of electric currents1 in which
 a conductor transmitting a current of  
electricity is represented by a cylinder
 to which oscillations in circles around
 its axis are given by suitable         
mechanical means1 so as to cause the    
enveloping medium to follow its motion  

and make similar rotative vibrations4   
,in some of the earlier experiments in  
this direction1 cylinders carrying      
radial veins 7,a1 ,fig4 #b7 or fluted   
longitudinally around their surfaces    
7,b1 ,fig4 #b7 were employed with the   
object of giving the vibrating cylinder 
a greater hold of the liquid in which   
they were immersed2 but it was found    
that these vanes or flutings had but    
little or no effect upon water or       
liquids of similar viscosity1 and       
,professor ,bjerkes was led to adopt    
highly viscous fluids1 such as ,glycerin
 or maize sirup1 both of which          
substances are well adapted for the     
experiments1 being at the same time both
 highly viscous and perfectly           
transparent and colorless4 ,in seeking1 
for the purpose of this research1 a     
fluid medium which shall possess        
analogous properties to the luminiferous
 ether1 or whatever may be the medium   
whose vibrations render manifest certain
 physical phenomena1 it might be        

considered at first sight that          
substances so dense as glycerin and     
sirup could have but little in common   
with the ether1 and that an analogy     
between experiments made within it and  
phenomena associated with ethereal      
vibrations would be of a very feeble    
description3 but ,professor ,bjerknes   
has shown that the chief requisite in   
such a medium is that its viscosity     
should be great1 not absolutely1 but    
large only in proportion to its density1
 and if the density be small1 the       
necessary viscosity may be small also4  
,neither is it necessary for the fluid  
medium to possess great internal        
friction1 but what is necessary to the  
experiments is that the medium shall be 
one which is readily set into vibration 
by the action of the circularly         
vibrating cylinder2 this property       
appears to be possessed exclusively by  
the more viscous fluids1 and is1        
moreover1 in complete accord with what  
is known of the luminiferous ether      

according to the theory of light4  ,the 
property is rather a kind of elasticity1
 which ordinary fluids do not possess1  
but which facilitates the propagation of
 transverse vibrations4  ,one form of   
apparatus for the propagation of        
rotative oscillations is shown to the   
left of ,fig4 #c1 and consists of a     
cylinder1 ,a1 mounted on a tubular      
spindle1 and which is set into circular 
oscillations around its axis by the     
little vibrating membrane1 ,c1 which is 
attached to the axis of the cylinder by 
a little crank and connecting rod shown 
in detail in ,fig4 #d4 ,this membrane is
 set into vibration by a rapidly        
pulsating column of air contained in a  
flexible tube ,m1 by which apparatus is 
connected to the pulsation pump which   
was employed by ,professor ,bjerknes in 
his earlier experiments4 ,in ,fig4 #e1 a
 somewhat similar apparatus for         
producing horizontal vibrations is      
shown1 and marked ,n ,h ,c1 the only    
difference between them being one of    

mechanical detail necessitated by the   
change in the position of axis of       
vibration from the vertical to the      
horizontal4  ,if circularly vibrating   
cylinders1 such as we have described1 be
 immersed in a viscous fluid and set    
into action1 the following phenomena may
 be observed3 #a4 ,the effect upon the  
fluid itself1 setting up therein a field
 of vibration1 and corresponding by     
analogy with the production of a field  
of force around a wire conveying an     
electric current4 #b4 ,the effect upon  
other circularly vibrating bodies within
 that field of force corresponding to   
the action and reaction of electric     
currents upon one another4 #c4 ,the     
effect on pulsating and oscillating     
bodies similarly immersed1 illustrating 
the mutual effects upon one another of  
magnets and electric currents4 ,the     
first of these effects is one of        
induction1 and1 from what has been said 
from an earlier part of this article1 it
 will be understood that the analogy    

between the hydrodynamic and the        
electric phenomena is direct and        
complete4 ,the effects classified under 
the second and third heads1 being       
phenomena of direct action 7in the      
restricted use of the word71 are        
uniformly analogous to the magnetic and 
electric phenomena which they           
illustrate4  7,to be continued47        
99       99       99       99       99  
,,the ,,xylophone4   ,like most musical 
instruments1 the xylophone1 had its     
origin in very remote times4 ,the       
,hebrews and ,greeks had instruments    
from which the one of to-day was        
derived1 although the latter has        
naturally undergone many                
transformations4 ,along about #agdb we  
find it widely in use in ,sicily under  
the name of ,xylonganum4 ,the ,russians1
 ,cossacks1 and ,tartars1 and especially
 the mountain population of the         
,carpathians and ,ural1 played much upon
 an instrument of the same nature that  
they called ,diereva and ,saloma4  ,it  

appears that the xylophone was played in
 ,germany as early as the beginning of  
the #afth century4 ,after this epoch it 
was in use for quite a long period1 but 
gradually fell into oblivion until the  
beginning of the present century4 ,it   
was toward #ahcj that the celebrated    
,russian ,gussikow undertook a grand    
artistic voyage through ,europe1 and    
gained a certain renown and received    
many honors due to his truly original   
productions4 ,gussikow possessed a      
remarkable technique that permitted the 
musical instrument which he brought into
 fashion to be appreciated for all its  
worth4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4           
#a4--,,method ,,of ,,playing ,,upon     
,,the ,,xylophone4  ,as the name1       
instrument of wood and straw1 indicates1
 the xylophone 7which ,fig4 #a shows the
 mode of using7 consists of small pieces
 of wood of varying length1 and narrow  
or wide according to the tone that it is
 desired to get from them4 ,these pieces
 of wood are connected with each other  

by cords so as to form a triangular     
figure 7,fig4 #b7 that may be managed   
without fear of displacing the parts4   
,the whole is laid upon bands of straw  
designed to bring out the sounds and    
render them stronger and purer4 ,the    
sounds are produced by striking the     
pieces of wood with a couple of small   
hammers4 ,they are short and jerky1 and1
 as they cannot be prolonged1 nothing   
but pieces possessing a quick rhythm can
 be executed upon the instrument4       
,dances1 marches1 variations1 etc41 are 
played upon it by preference1 and with  
the best effect4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 
#b4--,,plan ,,view ,,of ,,the           
,,xylophone4  ,the popularity of this   
instrument is making rapid progress1 and
 it is beginning to be played in        
orchestras in ,france as it has been in 
,america for many years4 ,a method of   
using it has just been published1 as    
well as pieces of music adapted to it1  
with piano1 violin1 orchestra1 etc41    
accompaniment4         99       99      

99       99       99                    
,,electrotyping4   ,this eminently      
useful application of the art of        
electrotyping originated with ,volta1   
,cruickshank1 and ,wollaston about #ahjj
 or #ahja4 ,in #ahch1 ,spencer1 of      
,london1 made casts of coins1 and cast  
in intaglio from the matrices thus      
formed2 in the same year ,jacobi1 of    
,dorpat1 in ,russia1 made casts by      
electro deposit1 which caused him to be 
put in charge of the work of gilding the
 dome of ,st4 ,isaac at ,st4            
,petersburg4  ,electrotyping for the    
purposes of printing originated with    
,mr4 ,joseph ,a4 ,adams1 a wood-engraver
 of ,new ,york1 who made casts          
7#ahci-da7 from wood-cuts1 some         
engravings being printed from           
electrotype plates in the latter year4  
,many improvements in detail have been  
added since1 in the processes as well as
 the appliances4 ,robert ,murray        
introduced graphite as a coating for the
 form moulds4 ,he first communicated his

 discovery to the ,royal ,institution of
 ,london1 and afterward received a      
silver medal from the ,society of ,arts4
   ,,blackleading ,,the ,,form4  ,the   
process of electrotyping is as follows3 
,the form is locked up very tightly1 and
 is then coated with a surface of       
graphite1 commonly known as blacklead1  
but it is a misnomer4 ,this is put on   
with a brush1 and may be done very      
evenly and speedily by a machine in     
which the brush is reciprocated over the
 type by hand-wheel1 crank1 and pitman4 
,a soft brush and very finely powdered  
graphite are used2 the superfluous      
powder being removed1 and the face of   
the type cleaned by the palm of the     
hand4   ,,taking ,,the ,,mould4  ,a     
shallow pan1 known as a moulding pan1 is
 then filled with melted yellow wax1    
making a smooth1 even surface1 which is 
blackleaded4 ,the pan is then secured to
 the head of the press1 and the form    
placed on the bed1 which is then raised1
 delivering an impression of the type   

upon the wax4  ,the pan is removed from 
the head of the press1 placed on a      
table1 and then built up1 as it is      
termed4 ,this consists in running wax   
upon the portions where large spaces    
occur between type1 in order that       
corresponding portions in the           
electrotype may not be touched by the   
inking roller1 or touched by the sagging
 down of the paper in printing4         
,,making ,,the ,,deposit4  ,the wax     
mould being built1 is ready for         
blackleading1 to give it a conducting   
surface upon which the metal may be     
deposited in the bath1 superfluous      
blacklead being removed with a bellows4 
,blacklead1 being nearly pure carbon1 is
 a poor conductor1 and a part of the    
metal of the pan is scraped clean1 to   
form a place for the commencement of the
 deposit4 ,the back of the moulding is  
waxed1 to prevent deposit of copper     
thereon1 and the face of the matrix is  
wetted to drive away all films or       
bubbles of air which may otherwise be   

attached to the blackleaded surface of  
the type4  ,the mould is then placed in 
the bath1 containing a solution of      
sulphate of copper1 and is made a part  
of an electric circuit1 in which is also
 included the zinc element in the       
sulphuric-acid solution in the other    
bath4 ,a film of copper is deposited on 
the blacklead surface of the mould2 and 
when this shell is sufficiently thick1  
it is taken from the bath1 the wax      
removed1 the shell trimmed1 the back    
tinned1 straightened1 backed with an    
alloy of type-metal1 then shaved to a   
thickness1 and mounted on a block to    
make it type-high4   ,a ,,recent        
,,improvement4  has been introduced in  
which there is added finely pulverized  
tin to the graphite for facing the wax  
mould2 the effect in the sulphate of    
copper bath is to cause a rapid         
deposition of copper by the substitution
 of copper for the tin1 the latter being
 seized by the oxygen1 while the copper 
is deposited upon the graphite4 ,the    

film is after increased by the usual    
means4 ,knight's expeditious process    
consists in dusting fine iron filings on
 the wet graphite surface of the wax    
mould1 and then pouring upon it a       
solution of sulphate of copper4         
,stirring with a brush expedites the    
contact1 and a decomposition takes      
place2 the acid leaves the copper and   
forms with the iron sulphate a solution 
which floats off1 while the copper is   
freed and deposited in a pure metallic  
form upon the graphite4 ,the black      
surface takes on a muddy tinge with     
marvelous rapidity4 ,the                
electric-connection gripper is designed 
to hold and sustain the moulding pan and
 make an electric connection with the   
prepared conducting pan of the mould    
only1 while the metallic pan itself is  
out of the current of electricity1 and  
receives no deposit4   ,,backing-,,up4  
,the thin copper-plate1 when removed    
from the wax mould1 is just as minutely 
correct in the lines and points as was  

the wax mould1 and the original page of 
type4 ,but it is obvious that the copper
 sheet is no use to get a print from4   
,you must have something as solid as the
 type itself before it can be reproduced
 on paper4 ,so a basis of metal is      
affixed to the copper film1 and this    
again is backed up with wood thick      
enough to make the whole type-high4 ,to 
get this1 a man melts some tinfoil in a 
shallow iron tray1 which he places on   
the surface of molten lead1 kept to that
 heat in square tanks over ordinary     
fires4 ,the tinfoil sticks to the back  
of the copper1 and on the back of this  
is poured melted type-metal1 until a    
solid plate has been formed1 the surface
 of which is the copper facsimile and   
the body white metal4 ,the electro metal
 plate1 copper colored and bright on its
 surface1 has now to go to the          
,,finishing ,,room4  ,here are two      
departments4 ,in one the plates are     
shaved and trimmed down to fit the wood 
blocks1 which are made in the other     

department4 ,some of these operations   
are done by hand1 but it is very        
interesting to see self-working machines
 planing the sheets of metal to         
precisely the required thinness with    
mathematical exactness4 ,a pointed tool 
is set to a certain pitch1 and the plate
 of metal is made to revolve in such a  
way that one continuous curl shaving    
falls until the whole surface 7back7 has
 been planed perfectly true4 ,the wood  
blocks are treated in the same way1     
after being sawn into the required sizes
 by a number of circular saws4 ,another 
set of workmen fit and join the metal to
 the wood1 trim the edges1 and turn the 
blocks out type-high and ready for      
working on the printing press4   ,a     
,,wet ,,blackleading ,,process4  ,in    
,messrs4 ,harper's establishment in ,new
 ,york1 an improved wet process of      
blackleading is adopted4 ,the wax mould 
is laid face upward on the floor of an  
inclosed box1 and a torrent of finely   
pulverized graphite suspended in water  

is poured upon it by means of a rotary  
pump1 a hose1 and a distributing nozzle 
which dashes the liquid equally over the
 whole surface of the mould4            
,superfluous graphite is then removed by
 copious washing1 an extremely fine film
 of graphite adhering to the wax4 ,this 
answers a triple purpose2 it coats the  
mould with graphite1 wets it ready for  
the bath1 and expels air bubbles from   
the letters4 ,this process prevents     
entirely the circulation of blacklead in
 the air1 which has heretofore been so  
objectionable in the process of         
electrotyping4   ,a ,,new ,,foreign     
,,process4  ,the galvanoplastic process 
of ,m4 ,coblence for obtaining          
electrotypes of wood-engravings is as   
follows3 ,a frame is laid upon a marble 
block1 and then covered with a solution 
of wax1 colophane1 and turpentine4 ,this
 mixture on the frame1 after cooling1   
becomes hard1 and presents a smooth1    
even surface4 ,an engraved wooden block 
is then placed upon the surface of the  

frame1 and subjected to a strong        
pressure4 ,the imprint on matrix in     
cameo1 having been coated with graphite1
 is then placed vertically in a         
galvanoplastic bath1 and a cast1 an     
exact reproduction of the               
wood-engraving1 is obtained4 ,the shell 
is then backed with type metal and      
finished in the usual way4--,printer and
 ,stationer4         99       99        
99       99       99     ,a ,,new       
,,seismograph4   ,all the seismographs  
that have hitherto been employed have   
two grave disadvantages3 they are either
 too simple1 so that their indications  
are valueless1 or too complicated1 so   
that their high cost and delicacy1 and  
the difficulty of mounting them and     
keeping them in order1 tend to prevent  
them from being generally used4         
,seismology will not be able to make any
 serious progress until it has at its   
disposal very certain and very numerous 
data as to telluric movements registered
 at a large number of points at once by 

accurate instruments4 ,i have endeavored
 to construct a simple apparatus capable
 of automatically registering such facts
 as it is most necessary to know in     
scientific researches on the movements  
of the earth4 ,after numerous           
experiments ,i believe that ,i have     
succeeded in solving this delicate      
problem1 since my apparatus1 put to the 
test of experience1 has given me        
satisfactory results4 ,i have           
consequently decided to submit it to the
 approval of men of science4  ,my       
seismograph is capable of registering   
7#a7 vertical shocks1 7#b7 horizontal   
ones1 7#c7 the order in which all the   
shocks manifest themselves1 7#d7 their  
direction1 and 7#e7 the hour of the     
first movement4  ,illustration3         
,,cordenons' ,,seismograph4  ,the       
apparatus is represented in the         
accompanying cut4 ,the horizontal shocks
 are indicated by the front portion of  
the system1 and the vertical ones by the
 back portion4 ,the hour of the first   

shock is indicated as follows3 ,the     
elastic strip of steel1 ,c1 is fixed by 
one of its extremities to a stationary  
support1 d4 ,when1 as a consequence of a
 vertical motion1 the free extremity of 
this strip oscillates1 the leaden ball1 
x1 drops into the tube1 c1 and1 on      
reaching the bottom of this1 acts by its
 shock upon a cord1 i1 which actuates   
the pendulum of a clock that has        
previously been stopped at #ab4 ,the    
other strip1 ,b1 is very similar to the 
one just described1 but1 instead of     
carrying a ball1 it holds a small       
metallic cylinder1 u1 so balanced that a
 vertical shock in an upward direction  
causes it to drop forward into the      
anterior half of the tube to the left4  
,a second vertical shock in a downward  
direction causes it to drop into the    
other half4 ,the cylinder1 u1 and the   
ball1 x1 are regulated in their         
positions by means of screws affixed to 
a stationary support4  ,the portion of  
the apparatus designed to register      

horizontal 7undulatory7 motions consists
 of four vertical pendulums1 z z z z1   
each of which is capable of moving in   
but one direction1 since1 in the other1 
it rests against a fixed column4        
,telluric waves1 according to modern    
observations1 almost invariably in every
 region follow two directions that cross
 each other at right angles4 ,when the  
seismograph has been arranged according 
to such directions1 no matter from what 
part the first horizontal shock comes1  
one of the four pendulums will be set in
 motion4 ,if1 after the first undulation
 in one direction1 another occurs in the
 opposite1 the pendulum facing the first
 will in its turn begin to move2 and if 
other undulations make themselves felt  
in diametrically opposite directions1   
the other pendulums will begin to act4  
,these pendulums1 in their motion1 carry
 along the appendages1 e e e e1 which   
are so arranged as to fall in the center
 of the marble or iron table1 one upon  
another1 and thus show the order        

according to which the telluric waves   
manifested themselves4 ,the part of the 
apparatus that records vertical shocks  
has a winch1 r1 which falls at the same 
place when the lead ball drops4  ,the   
apparatus as a whole may be inclosed in 
a case4 ,when it is desired to employ   
it1 it should be mounted in a cellar1   
while the clock that is connected with  
it can be located in one of the upper   
stories of the house4--,f4 ,cordenons1  
in ,la ,nature4         99       99     
99       99       99     ,,notes ,,on   
,,three ,,new ,,chinese ,,fixed         
,,oils4#a     ,footnote #a3 ,read at an 
evening meeting of the ,pharmaceutical  
,society of ,great ,britain1 ,feb1 #d1  
#ahhe4  ,by ,,robert ,h4 ,,davies1      
,f4,i4,c41 ,f4,c4,s41 ,general          
,superintendent of ,apothecaries' ,hall4
   ,the three oils that form the subject
 of the examination detailed in this    
paper were consigned to a ,london       
broker1 with a view to their being      
regularly exported from ,china if a     

market could be found for them here3 it 
was1 therefore1 necessary to ascertain  
what commercial oils they resembled in  
character1 so as to estimate to what    
uses they might be applied4   ,,tea     
,,oil 7,camellia oleifera74  ,in color1 
transparency1 and mobility1 this oil    
considerably resembles olive oil4 ,the  
odor and taste1 though characteristic1  
are not easy to describe4  7#a47        
,specific ,gravity4--,the specific      
gravity at #fj ,f4 is #iag4e71 water at 
#fj ,f4 being taken as #a1jjj4  7#b47   
,action of ,cold4--,on subjecting to the
 cold produced by a mixture of pounded  
ice and salt1 some solid fatty matter1  
probably stearine1 separates1 adhering  
to the side of the tube4 ,it takes a    
longer exposure and a lower temperature 
than is necessary with olive oil4 ,i did
 not succeed in solidifying it1 but only
 in causing some deposit4 ,olive oil    
became solid1 while almond and castor   
oil on the other hand did not deposit at
 all under similar circumstances4 ,the  

lowest temperature observed was -#ac4c  
,c4 7#h ,f471 the thermometer bulb being
 immersed in the oil4  ,a few           
qualitative tests1 viz41 the action of  
sulphuric acid1 nitric acid 7sp4 gr4    
#a4db71 and digestion1 with more dilute 
nitric acid 7#a4b sp4 gr47 and a globule
 of mercury1 were first tried4  ,when   
one drop of sulphuric acid is added to  
eight or ten drops of tea oil on a white
 plate1 the change of color observed is 
more like that when almond oil is       
similarly treated than with any other   
oil1 olive oil coming next in order of  
similarity4  ,when a few drops of tea   
oil are boiled with thirty drops or so  
of nitric acid in a small tube1 the     
layer of oily matter1 when the brisk    
action has moderated1 is of a light     
yellow color1 similar in tint to that   
produced from almond and olive oil under
 similar circumstances4 ,when the oil is
 digested with an equal volume of nitric
 acid 7#a4b sp4 gr471 and a globule of  
mercury added1 the whole becomes        

converted into a mass of elaidin in     
about two hours1 of the same tint as    
that produced from almond oil when      
similarly treated4  ,these tests point  
to the fact that the oil may be         
considered as resembling almond or olive
 oil in composition1 a conclusion which 
is borne out by the subsequent          
experiments4  7#c47 ,free ,acidity of   
,oil4--,the oil was found to contain    
free acid in small quantity1 which was  
estimated by agitating a weighed        
quantity with alcohol1 in which the free
 acid dissolves while the neutral fat   
does not1 and titrating the alcoholic   
liquid with decinormal alkali1 using    
solution of phenol-phthalein as an      
indicator4  ,it was thus found that #ajj
 grammes of the oil require #j4cd gramme
 of caustic potash to neutralize the    
free acid4 ,mr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,deering        
7,journ4 ,soc4 of ,chem4 ,industry1     
,nov41 #ahhd7 states that in seven      
samples of olive oil examined by him1   
the minimum number for acidity was #j4hf

 per cent41 and the maximum #a4fd per   
cent41 the mean being #a4bh per cent4   
,tea oil compares favorably with olive  
oil1 therefore1 in respect of acidity1 a
 quality of which note has to be taken  
when considering the employment of oil  
as a lubricating agent4  7#d47          
,saponification of the                  
,oil4--,considerable light is thrown on 
the composition of a fixed oil by       
ascertaining how much alkali is required
 to saponify it4 ,in order to estimate  
this1 a known excess of alcoholic       
solution of potash is added to a weighed
 quantity of the oil1 contained in a    
stout1 well-closed bottle 7an           
,india-rubber stopper is the most       
convenient71 which is then heated in a  
water oven until the liquid is clear1 no
 oil bubbles being visible4             
,phenol-phthalein solution being added1 
the excess of potash is estimated by    
carefully titrating with standard       
hydrochloric acid solution4  ,it was    
thus found that #a1jjj grammes of oil   

would require #aie4e grammes of caustic 
potash to convert it entirely into      
potash soap4  ,koettstorfer1 to whom    
this method of analysis is due1 gives   
#aia4h1 and ,messrs4 ,f4 ,w4 and ,a4 ,f4
 ,stoddart the numbers #aia to #aif1 as 
the amounts of caustic potash required  
by #a1jjj parts of olive oil4 ,the      
numbers given by niger seed1 cotton     
seed1 and linseed oils are very similar 
to these4 ,these oils differ from olive 
and tea oil1 however1 in having a higher
 specific gravity1 and in the property  
they possess of drying to a greater or  
less extent on exposure to air4  7#e47  
,the ,fatty ,acids ,produced4--,a       
solution of the potash soap was treated 
with excess of hydrochloric acid1 and   
after being well washed with hot water1 
the cake of fatty acids was dried       
thoroughly and weighed4 ,these1         
insoluble in water1 amounted to #ic4id  
per cent1 of the fat taken4 ,the        
proportion dissolved in the water used  
for washing was estimated by titration  

with alkali2 the quantity of ,,koh      
required was insignificant1 equaling    
#j4ga per cent1 of the fat originally   
used4 ,this portion was not further     
examined4  ,the insoluble fatty acids   
amounted1 as last stated1 to #ic4id per 
cent4 ,pure olein1 supposing none of the
 liberated acid to be dissolved in      
water1 would yield #ie4g per cent4 of   
fatty acid4  ,the acid was evidently a  
mixture1 and had no definite melting    
point4 ,it was solid at #i ,c41 and     
sufficiently soft to flow at #ab ,c41   
but did not entirely liquefy under #bb  
,c4 ,to test its neutralizing power1    
#j4iege gramme dissolved in alcohol was 
titrated with decinormal alkali2 it     
required #cd4je c4c4 ,this amount of    
pure oleic acid would require #cc4ie    
c4c42 of pure stearic acid1 which has   
almost the same molecular weight as     
oleic acid1 #cc4ga c4c42 or of pure     
palmitic acid1 #cg4d c4c4 ,this1 taken  
in conjunction with the way in which the
 acid melted1 makes it extremely        

probable that it is a mixture of oleic  
and stearic acids4  ,additional evidence
 of the large proportion of oleic acid  
was furnished by forming the lead salt1 
and treating with ether1 in which lead  
oleate is soluble1 the stearate and     
palmitate being insoluble4 ,in this way 
it was found that the oleic acid        
obtained from the ethereal solution of  
the lead salt amounted to #hc4ae per    
cent4 of the oil4  ,this acid was proved
 to be oleic1 by its saturating power   
and its melting point1 which were fairly
 concordant with those of the pure acid4
   ,,cabbage ,,oil 7,brassica1 sp474    
,appearance1 etc4--,the sample was of a 
deep brown color1 of a fluidity         
intermediate between olive and castor   
oil1 and possessed a strong1 rather     
disagreeable odor4  ,the ,specific      
,gravity at #fj ,fahr41 #iad4j4--,the   
specific gravity of rape oil and colza  
oil1 both of which are obtained from    
species of the genius ,brassica1 varies 
from #iac4f to #iaf4  ,exposure to      

,cold4--,this oil by exposure to a      
temperature of -#ab ,c4 7#aj ,f47       
becomes solidified in course of an hour1
 a bright orange-yellow mass resulting4 
,qualitative ,examination4--,the three  
reagents before indicated were applied  
to this oil4  7a47 ,sulphuric           
,acid4--,the color produced was very    
marked and characteristic2 it differed  
considerably from any of the others     
simultaneously tested1 the nearest to it
 being olive end rape oil4  7b47 ,strong
 ,nitric ,acid4--,the reaction was more 
violent than before1 the stratum of oil 
after cooling being darker in color than
 in the three cases before mentioned4   
,the reaction with rape oil was similar 
in all respects4  7c47 ,elaidin         
,test4--,the solid mass of elaidin      
formed was of a darker color than that  
from olive1 almond1 and tea oil1 but    
closely resembled that from rape oil4   
,free ,acidity4--,this was estimated as 
above described4 #ajj grammes of oil    
would require #j4abe gramme caustic     

potash4 ,the samples of rape oil        
examined by ,deering 7loc4 cit47 were   
found to require from #j4ba to #j4gh    
,,koh per #ajj grammes oil4             
,saponification of the ,oil4--,upon     
saponifying with alcoholic potash1 it   
was found that #a1jjj grammes of oil    
required #age4b grammes of potash for   
complete saponification4  ,the number   
obtained by ,koettstorfer for colza was 
#agh4g1 by ,messrs4 ,stoddart for rape  
oil1 #age-agi1 and by ,deering for rape 
oil1 #agj4h-age4e4 ,the only other oil  
of which ,i can find figures resembling 
these is castor oil1 which requires     
#agf-agh grammes per kilo 7,messrs4     
,stoddart74 ,the difference in specific 
gravity between this 7cabbage7 oil and  
castor oil and the solubility of the    
latter in alcohol point to a wide       
distinction between them4 ,hence ,i     
think the numbers above given           
conclusively demonstrate the resemblance
 between this oil and rape oil in       
composition4  ,the ,fatty ,acids4--,the 

acids produced by adding ,h,cl to the   
potash soap were almost entirely        
insoluble in water4 ,the actual amount  
of potash required to neutralize the    
acid in the wash water equaled #j4bj per
 cent4 of the oil originally taken4     
,the insoluble fatty acid amounted to   
#ie4cae per cent4 of the oil taken4 ,it 
was evidently a mixture of two or more  
fatty acids4 ,on trying to take its     
melting point1 ,i found that it         
commenced to soften at #ag ,c41 was     
distinctly liquid at #ai1 but not       
completely melted until #bb ,c4         
,according to ,o4 ,bach 7,year ,book    
,pharm41 #ahhd1 p4 #bej71 the fatty     
acids from rape seed oil melt at #bj4g  
,c41 which is fairly concordant with the
 result obtained for cabbage oil acids4 
,the neutralizing power of these acids  
was then tested4 #j4fih gramme dissolved
 in alcohol required #bj4eb c4c4        
decinormal alkali4 ,it is a singular    
coincidence that brassic acid           
7,c#bb;,h#db,o#b71 which is a           

characteristic acid of colza and rape   
oils1 would have required almost exactly
 this quantity of alkali for            
neutralization1 #j4fih brassic acid     
theoretically saturating #bj4fi c4c4 of 
decinormal alkali4 ,i am disposed to    
regard this as a coincidence1 since a   
subsequent experiment showed that the   
lead salts formed were partially soluble
 in ether1 whereas the lead salt of     
brassic acid is said to be insoluble in 
this liquid4   ,,wood ,,oil 7,elococcus 
cordata74  ,appearance1 etc4--,this oil 
has a decided brown color and a         
persistent and disagreeable odor4 ,it is
 rather more fluid than castor oil4     
,glass vessels containing it soon show a
 film of apparently resinous material1  
which forms whenever a portion of the   
oil flows from the lip or edge down the 
outside of the vessel1 and is thus      
exposed to the air in a thin stream4    
,this drying power is one of its most   
prominent characters4 ,if a few drops be
 exposed in a flat dish1 in the water   

oven1 the oil dries rapidly1 so that in 
two hours the gain in weight will be    
appreciable1 and in four hours the whole
 will have become solid4  ,the ,specific
 ,gravity at #fj ,fahr41 #idj4ae4--,this
 is an unusually high gravity for a     
fixed oil4 ,the only two which exceed it
 are castor oil1 which is #ifj1 about1  
and croton oil1 which is very similar to
 this1 #idb to #idc 7,a4 ,h4 ,allen74   
,it is interesting to note that both    
these oils are yielded by plants of the 
natural order ,euphorbiace1 to which the
 plant yielding so-called wood oil      
belongs4  ,exposure to ,cold4--,this oil
 is apparently unaffected by exposure to
 a temperature of -#ac4c ,c4 7#h ,f74   
,qualitative ,examination4--,the action 
of sulphuric acid is remarkable4 ,when a
 drop comes in contact with the oil1 the
 latter apparently solidifies round the 
drop of acid1 forming a black envelope  
which grows in size and gradually       
absorbs and acts upon so much of the    
surrounding oil as to assume the        

appearance of a large dried currant of  
somewhat irregular shape4  ,when a drop 
of the oil is added to nitric acid1 it  
solidifies1 and on heating very readily 
changes into an orange yellow solid1    
which appears to soften1 though not to  
liquefy1 at the temperature of boiling  
water4 ,this substance is readily       
soluble in hot solution of potash or    
soda1 producing a deep brown liquid1    
from which it is again deposited in     
flocks on acidifying4 ,i have not yet   
found any solvent for it4 ,the action of
 nitric acid with linseed oil is more   
similar to this than that with any other
 oil ,i have tried1 but the nitro       
products of the two1 if ,i may so call  
them1 are quite different from one      
another4 ,that from linseed oil produced
 as indicated remains liquid at ordinary
 temperatures1 as does the oil upon its 
addition to the acid4  ,elaidin         
,test4--,by the action of nitric acid in
 presence of mercury1 a semi-solid mass 
is produced of a much deeper color than 

in the preceding cases4 ,a portion of   
the oil remains in the liquid state1 as 
is usually the case with drying oils4   
,free ,acidity4--,by the method         
indicated1 it was found that #ajj       
grammes of oil required #j4ci grammes   
caustic potash to neutralize the acid   
occurring in a free state4              
,saponification of the ,oil4--,the oil  
saponifies readily on being heated with 
potash in presence of alcohol1 and the  
amount required to convert it entirely  
into potash soap was #baa grammes of    
caustic potash per thousand grammes of  
oil4 ,there are no saponification       
numbers for oils that can be considered 
close to this4 ,i can find no record of 
any having been obtained between #aig   
and #bba1 so that the further           
examination on which ,i am now engaged  
may show this unusual number to be due  
to this oil containing some new fatty   
acid in combination4  ,the ,fatty       
,acid4--,the acids produced by adding   
acid to the potash soap formed in this  

case a cake on cooling1 of a much deeper
 color than ,i have before obtained4    
,after washing well they amounted to    
#id4aj per cent4 of the oil4 ,the amount
 dissolved by the water in washing was  
in this case also very small1 the potash
 required for neutralizing equaling     
#a4jb per cent4 of the weight of oil4   
,i found that the cakes of acids were   
solid at #cf ,c41 and were completely   
melted at #ci4  ,on solution in alcohol1
 and digestion for two days with animal 
charcoal1 the color was much diminished1
 and on the liquid being filtered and   
cooled to #j ,c41 an abundance of small 
white crystalline plates separated out1 
which1 when dried1 melted at #fg ,c4    
,the crude fatty acids turn black with  
sulphuric acid1 as the oil does1 and    
yield a similar substance with nitric   
acid4 ,it is similar in appearance1 but 
differs in that it melts at about #ej   
,c41 and is soluble in glacial acetic   
acid1 which is not the case with the    
substance from the oil4  ,these fatty   

acids crystallize on cooling1 in a most 
characteristic and beautiful way1       
forming wavy circular plates totally    
unlike any that ,i have seen before4    
,the above experiments may1 ,i think1 be
 taken as conclusive as to the nature of
 tea oil and cabbage oil4 ,the former   
may certainly be considered a useful    
lubricating agent for the finer kinds of
 machinery4 ,the work upon wood oil is  
not yet sufficiently complete to show us
 the nature of its proximate            
constituents4 ,i am continuing the      
examination of this oil4 ,perhaps ,i    
need scarcely add that there is no      
connection between this wood oil and the
 ,gurgun balsam1 the product of         
,dipterocarpus turbinatus1 which is also
 known as wood oil4         99       99 
99       99       99     ,,the          
,,otoscope4   ,prof4 ,leon ,le ,fort has
 recently presented to the ,academy of  
,medicine1 in the name of ,dr4 ,rattel1 
a new otoscope1 which we illustrate     
herewith4  ,the first person to whom the

 idea occurred to illuminate the ear was
 ,fabricius d',acquapendentus 7#afjj74  
,to do this he placed the patient in    
front of a window in such a way as to   
cause the luminous rays to enter the    
external auditory canal4 ,it was he     
likewise who conceived the idea of      
placing a light behind a bottle filled  
with water1 and of projecting its       
concentrated rays into the ear4  ,in    
#aehe ,fabricius de ,hilden invented the
 speculum auris4 ,this instrument was   
employed by him for the first time under
 the following circumstances3 ,a girl   
ten years of age had in playing         
introduced a small glass ball into her  
left ear1 and four surgeons1 called in  
successively and at different times1 had
 been unable to extract it4 ,meanwhile  
the little patient was suffering from an
 earache that extended over almost the  
entire head1 and that increased at night
 and especially in cold and damp        
weather4 ,to these symptoms were added  
strokes of epilepsy and an atrophy of   

the left arm4 ,finally1 in ,november1   
#aeie1 ,de ,hilden1 being called in1    
acquainted himself with the cause of the
 trouble1 and decided to remove the     
foreign body4 ,to do this1 he selected1 
as he tells us1 a well lighted place1   
caused the solar light to enter the     
ailing ear1 lubricated the sides of the 
auditory canal with oil of almonds1 and 
introduced his apparatus4 ,then1 passing
 a scoop with some violence between the 
side of the auditory canal and the glass
 ball1 he succeeded in extracting the   
latter4  ,at the beginning of the #agth 
century1 then1 physicians had at their  
disposal all that was necessary for     
making an examination of the ear1 viz43 
7#a7 a luminous source2 7#b7 a means of 
concentrating the light2 and 7#c7 an    
instrument which1 entering the auditory 
canal1 held its sides apart4  ,the      
improvements which succeeded were       
connected with each of these three      
points4 ,to solar light1 an artificial  
one has been preferred4                 

,d',acquapendentus' bottle has given way
 to the convex lens1 and to concave1    
spherical1 and parabolic mirrors1 etc4  
,de ,hilden's speculum has been replaced
 by cylindrical1 conical1 bivalve1 and  
other forms of the instrument4  ,the    
apparatus that we illustrate herewith   
offers some arrangements that are all   
its own as regards the process of       
concentrating the light4 ,it is lighted1
 in fact1 by a small incandescent lamp  
of #b candle-power1 placed within the   
apparatus and supplied by an            
accumulator4 ,the reflector is          
represented by a portion of an ellipse  
so calculated that one of the foci      
corresponds to the lamp and the other to
 the extremity of the instrument4 ,a    
commutator1 ,b1 permits of establishing 
or interrupting the current at will4 ,a 
rheostat added to the accumulator makes 
it possible to graduate the light at    
one's leisure and cause it to pass      
through all the shades comprised between
 cherry-red and incandescence4 ,finally1

 the orifice through which the observer 
looks is of such dimensions that it     
gives passage to all the instruments    
necessary for treating complaints of the
 middle and internal ear4               
,illustration3 ,,rattel',s ,,otoscope4  
,this mode of lighting and reflection   
may be adapted to a ,brunton otoscope1  
utilized for examining other natural    
cavities1 such as the nose1 pharynx1    
etc4 ,elliptical reflectors do not      
appear to have been employed up to the  
present4         99       99       99   
99       99     ,,state ,,provision     
,,for ,,the ,,insane4#a     ,footnote   
#a3 ,remarks following ,definition of   
,insanity1    published in the ,october 
number of ,the ,alienist and            
,neurologist1 and read before the       
,association of ,charities and          
,corrections at ,st4 ,louis1 ,oct4 #ae1 
#ahhd4  ,by ,c4 ,h4 ,,hughes1 ,m4,d4    
,we live in an age when every uttered   
sentiment of charity toward the insane  
is applauded to its remotest echo2 an   

age in which the chains and locks and   
bars and dismal dungeon cells and       
flagellations and manifold tortures of  
the less humane and less enlightened    
past are justly abhorrent2 an age which 
measures its magnificent philanthropy by
 munificent millions1 bestowed without  
stint upon monumental mansions for the  
indwelling of the most pitiable and     
afflicted of the children of men1 safe  
from the pitiless storms of adverse     
environment without which are so harshly
 violent to the morbidly sensitive and  
unstable insane mind2 an age in which he
 who strikes a needless shackle from    
human form or heart1 or removes a cause 
of human torture1 psychical or physical1
 is regarded as a greater moral hero    
than he who1 by storm or strategy of war
 taketh a resisting fortress2 an age    
when the ,chiarugis and ,pinels1 the    
,yorks and ,tukes1 of not remotely past 
history1 and the ,florence ,nightingales
 and ,dorothea ,dixes of our own time1  
are enshrined in the hearts of a        

philanthropic world with greater than   
monumental memory4  ,noble1 ,christlike 
sentiment of human charity6 ,let it be  
cherished and fostered still1 toward the
 least of the children of affliction and
 misfortune1 as man in his immortal     
aspirations moves nearer and nearer to  
the loving1 charitable heart of ,god1   
imaging in his work the example of the  
divinely incarnate ,master6  ,but let us
 always couple this exalted             
sentimentality with the stern logic of  
fact1 and never misdirect or misapply it
 in any of our charitable work4         
,imperfect knowledge perverts the       
noblest sentiments2 widened and         
perfected knowledge strengthens their   
power4 ,a truly philanthropic sentiment 
is most potent for good in the power of 
knowledge1 and may be made most powerful
 for evil through misconception of or   
inadequate comprehension of facts4 ,as  
we grow in aspirations after the highest
 welfare of the insane1 let us widen our
 knowledge of the real nature of        

insanity and the necessities for its    
amelioration1 prevention1 and cure4  ,it
 is a long time since ,grotius wrote1   
,the study of the human mind is the     
noblest branch of medicine2 and we      
realize to-day that it is the noblest   
study of man1 regardless of vocation4   
,aye6 it is the imperative study of our 
generation and of those who are to      
follow us1 if we would continue1 as we  
wish to be1 the conservators of the good
 and great1 and promoters of advancing  
capability for great and good deeds in  
our humanity4  ,one known and           
acknowledged insane person to every five
 hundred sane persons1 and among those  
are unreckoned numbers of unstably      
endowed and too mildly mannered lunatics
 to require public restraint1 but none  
the less dangerous to the perpetuation  
of the mental stability of the race1 is 
an appalling picture of fact for        
philanthropic conservators of the race  
to contemplate4  ,the insane temperament
 and its pathological twin brother1 the 

neuropathic diathesis1 roams at large   
unrestrained from without or that       
self-restraint which1 bred of adequate  
self-knowledge1 might come from within1 
and contaminates with neurotic and      
mental instability the innocent unborn1 
furnishing histogenic factors which the 
future will formulate in minds dethroned
 to become helpless wards of the state  
or family4  ,the insane temperament is  
more enduringly fatal to the welfare of 
humanity than the deadly comma bacillus 
which is supposed to convey the scourge 
of ,asia to our shores4 ,the latter     
comes at stated periods1 and disappears 
after a season or two of devastation1 in
 which the least fit to survive of our  
population1 by reason of feeble organic 
resisting power1 are destroyed2 while   
resisting tolerance is established in   
the remainder4 ,but this scourge is with
 us always1 transmitting weakness unto  
coming generations4  ,it is the insanity
 in chronic form which escapes asylum   
care and custody except in its          

exacerbations2 it is the insanity of    
organism which gives so much of the     
erratic and unstable to society1 in its 
manifestations of mind and morals2 it is
 the form of unstable mental organism   
which1 like an unstrung instrument      
jangling out of tune and harsh1 when    
touched in a manner to elicit in men of 
stable organisms only concord of sweet1 
harmonious sounds2 it is the form of    
mental organism out of which1 by slight 
exciting causes largely imaginary1 the  
,guiteaus and ,joan d',arcs of history  
are made1 the ,hawisons and ,passanantis
 and ,freemans1 and names innumerable1  
whose deeds of blood have stained the   
pages of history1 and whose doings in   
our day contribute so largely to the    
awful calendar of crime which blackens  
and spreads with gore the pages of our  
public press4  ,we may cherish the      
sentiment that it were base cowardice to
 lay hand upon the lunatic save in      
kindness2 and yet restrain him from     
himself and the community from him4 ,we 

may couple his restraints with the      
largest liberty compatible with his     
welfare and ours2 we may not always     
abolish the bolts and bars1 indeed we   
cannot1 either to his absolute personal 
liberty in asylums or to his entire     
moral freedom without their walls1 yet  
we may keep them largely out of sight4  
,let him be manacled when he must and   
only when he must1 and then only with   
silken cords bound by affectionate      
hands1 and not by chains4 ,we may not   
open all the doors1 indeed we cannot1   
but we can and do1 thanks to the        
humanitarian spirit of the age in which 
we live1 open many of them and so shut  
them1 when it must need be done1 that   
they close for his welfare and ours     
only2 that he may not feel that hope is 
gone or humanity barred out with the    
shutting of the door that separates him 
from the world4  ,we may not always     
swing the door of the lunatic as        
facilely outward as inward--the nature  
of his malady will not always admit of  

this--but we should do it whenever we   
can1 and never1 when we must1 should we 
close it harshly4 ,and while we must    
needs narrow his liberty among          
ourselves1 we should enlarge it in the  
community to which his affliction       
assigns him1 to the fullest extent      
permissible by the nature of his malady4
  ,liberty need not necessarily be      
denied him2 and to the glory of our age 
it is not in the majority of ,american  
asylums for the insane1 because the     
conditions under which he may safely    
enjoy liberty1 to his own and the       
community's welfare1 are changed by     
disease4 ,the free sunlight and the     
fresh air belong as much to him in his  
changed mental estate as to you or me1  
and more1 because his affliction needs  
their invigorating power1 and the man   
who would chain1 in this enlightened    
age1 an insane man in a dungeon1 because
 he is diseased and troublesome or      
dangerous1 would be unworthy the name of
 human4 ,effective restraint may be     

employed without the use of either iron 
manacles or dismal light and air        
excluding dungeons4  ,the insane man is 
one of our comrades who has fallen      
mentally maimed in the battle of life4  
,it may be our turn next to follow him  
to the rear2 but because we must carry  
him from the battlefield1 where he may  
have fought even more valiantly than    
ourselves1 we need not forget or neglect
 him4 ,the duty is all the more         
imperative that we care for him1 and in 
such a manner that he may1 if possible1 
be restored4 ,simple sequestration of   
the insane man is an outrage upon him   
and upon our humanity4 ,whatsoever ye   
would that men should do unto you1 do ye
 even so to them1 is the divine precept1
 which1 if we follow it as we ought1    
will lead us to search for our fallen   
comrades in the alms-houses and penal   
institutions and reformatories1 and     
sometimes in the outhouses or cellars of
 private homes1 to our shame1 where     
errors of judgment or cruelty have      

placed them1 and to transfer them to    
places of larger liberty and hopes of   
happiness and recovery4 ,the chronic    
insane are entitled to our care1 not to 
our neglect1 and to all the comforts    
they earned while battling with us1 when
 in their best mental estate1 for their 
common welfare and ours4  ,almshouses   
and neglected outhouses are not proper  
places for them4 ,they are entitled to  
our protection and to be so cared for1  
if we cannot cure them1 as that they may
 not do those things1 to their own harm 
or the harm of the race1 which they     
would not do if they were sound in mind4
 ,society must be protected against the 
spread of hereditary insanity1 hence    
such kindly surveillance1 coupled with  
the largest possible liberty1 should be 
exercised over them as will save        
posterity1 so far as practicable1 from  
the entailment of a heritage more fatal 
than cancer or consumption4  ,the insane
 man is a changed man1 and his life is  
more or less delusional4 ,in view of    

this fact1 we should endeavor always to 
so surround him that his environments   
may not augment the morbid change in him
 and intensify his perverted1 delusioned
 character4  ,realizing the fact that   
mind in insanity is rather perverted    
than lost1 we should so deport ourselves
 toward the victims of this disease as  
in no wise to intensify or augment the  
malady1 but always1 if possible1 so as  
to ameliorate or remove it4  ,realizing 
that the insane man in his best estate  
may have walked the earth a king1 and in
 this free country of ours have been an 
honored sovereign weighted with the     
welfare of his people1 and contributing 
of his substance toward our charities1  
we should1 with unstinting hand1 cater  
to his comfort when this affliction     
comes upon him4  ,we should give him a  
home worthy of our own sovereign selves1
 and such as would suit us were we      
providing for ourselves1 with the       
knowledge we have of the needs of this  
affliction1 pending its approach to us4 

,that his home should be as unirritating
 and restful to him as possible it      
should be unprison-like always1 and only
 be an imprisonment when the violent    
phases of his malady imperatively demand
 restraint4 ,an hour of maniacal        
excitement does not justify a month of  
chains4 ,mechanical restraint is a      
remedy of easy resort1 but the fettered 
man frets away strength essential to his
 recovery4 ,outside of asylums direct   
restraint is often a stern necessity4   
,it is sometimes so in them1 but in many
 of them and outside of all of them it  
may be greatly diminished1 and asylums  
may be so constructed as to make the    
reduction of direct restraint           
practicable to the smallest minimum4    
,direct mechanical restraint for the    
insane1 save to avert an act of violence
 not otherwise preventable1 is never    
justifiable4 ,the hand should never be  
manacled if the head can be so          
influenced as to stay it1 and we should 
try to stay the hand through steadying  

the head4  ,every place for these       
unfortunates should provide for them    
ample room and congenial employment1    
whether profitable to the ,state or not1
 and the labor should be induced1 not   
enforced1 and always timed and suited to
 their malady4 ,a variety of interesting
 occupations tends to divert from       
delusional introspection4  ,most        
institutions attempt to give their      
patients some occupation1 but ,state    
policy should be liberal in this        
direction4  ,deductions are obvious3    
,every insane community of mixed recent 
and long standing cases1 or of chronic  
cases exclusively1 should be a home1 and
 not a mere place of detention4 ,it     
should be as unprison-like and          
attractive as any residence for the     
non-criminal4 ,it should have for any   
considerable number of insane persons at
 least a section 7#fdj acres7 of ground4
 ,it should be in the country1 of       
course1 but accessible to the supplies  
of a large city4 ,it should have a      

central main building1 as               
architecturally beautiful and           
substantial as the ,state may choose to 
make it1 provided with places of        
security for such as require them in    
times of excitement1 with a chapel1     
amusement hall1 and hospital in easy    
covered reach of the feeble and         
decrepit1 and accessible1 without risk  
to health1 in bad weather4  ,outhouses  
should be built with rooms attached1 and
 set apart from the residence of        
trustworthy patients1 for farmer1       
gardener1 dairyman1 herdsman1 shepherd1 
and engineer1 that those who desired to 
be employed with them1 and might safely 
be intrusted1 and were physically able1 
could have opportunity of work4         
,cottages should be scattered about the 
ground for the use and benefit of such  
as might enjoy a segregate life1 which  
could be used for isolation in case of  
epidemic visitation4 ,recreation1 games1
 drives1 and walks should be liberally  
provided4  ,a perfect1 but not direct   

and offensive1 surveillance should be   
exercised over all the patients1 with a 
view to securing them the largest       
possible liberty compatible with the    
singular nature of their malady4  ,in   
short1 the hospital home for the chronic
 insane1 or when acute and chronic      
insane are domiciled together1 should be
 a colonial home1 with the living       
arrangements as nearly those which would
 be most congenial to a large body of   
sane people as the condition of the     
insane1 changed by disease1 will allow4 
,it is as obvious as that experience    
demonstrates it1 that the reigning head 
or heads of such a community should be  
medical1 and not that medical mediocrity
 either which covets and accepts        
political preferment without medical    
qualifications4  ,the largest personal  
liberty to the chronic insane may be    
best secured to them by provision for   
the sexes in widely separated           
establishments4  ,it is plain that the  
whole duty of man is not discharged     

toward his fallen insane brother when he
 has accomplished his sequestration from
 society at large1 or fed and housed him
 well4 ,the study of the needs of the   
insane and of the duty of the ,state in 
regard to them is as important and      
imperative a study as any subject of    
political economy4         99       99  
99       99       99     ,,the ,,courage
 ,,of ,,originality4   ,most of us are  
at times conscious of hearing from the  
lips of another1 or reading from the    
printed page1 thoughts that have existed
 previously in our own minds4 ,they may 
have been vague and unarranged1 but     
still they were our own1 and we         
recognize them as old friends1 though   
dressed in a more fitting and expressive
 costume than we ever gave them4        
,sometimes an invention or a discovery  
dawns upon the world to bless and       
improve it1 and while all are engaged in
 extolling it some persons feel that    
they have had its germs floating in     
their minds1 though from the lack of    

favorable conditions1 or some other     
cause1 they never took root or became   
vital4 ,an act of heroism is performed1 
and a bystander is conscious that he has
 that within him by which he could have 
taken the same step1 although he did    
not4 ,some one steps forward and        
practically opposes a social custom that
 is admitted to be evil1 yet maintained1
 and by his influence lays the ax to its
 root and commences its destruction2    
while many1 commending his courage1     
wonder why they had not taken the same  
course long ago4 ,in numberless         
instances we are conscious of having had
 the same perceptions1 the same ideas1  
the same powers1 and the same desires to
 put them into practice that are shown  
by the one who has so successfully      
expressed them2 yet they have1 for some 
reason1 lain dormant and inoperative    
within us4  ,when we consider the waste 
of human power that this involves1 we   
may well search for its cause4          
,doubtless it sometimes results from the

 absorption 7more or less needful7 of   
each one is his individual pursuit4 ,no 
one can give voice to all he thinks1 or 
accomplish all that he sees to be       
desirable1 while striving1 as he should1
 to gain excellence in his own chosen   
work4 ,conscious of his own limitations1
 he will rejoice to see many of his     
vague ideas1 hopes1 and aspirations     
reached and carried out by others4 ,but 
the same consciousness that reconciles  
him to this also reveals much that he   
might have said or done without         
violating any other obligation1 but     
which he has allowed to slip from his   
hands to those of another1 perhaps      
through lack of energy1 or indolence1 or
 procrastination4 ,the cause1 however1  
most operative in this direction is a   
strange disloyalty to our own           
convictions4 ,we look to others1        
especially to what we call great men1   
for thoughts1 suggestions1 and opinions1
 and gladly adopt them on their         
authority4 ,but our own thoughts we     

ignore or treat with indifference4 ,we  
admire and honor originality in others1 
but we value it not in ourselves4 ,on   
the contrary1 we are satisfied to make  
poor imitations of those we revere1     
missing the only resemblance that is    
worth anything1 that of a simple and    
sincere independent life4  ,we would not
 undervalue modesty or recommend        
self-sufficiency4 ,we should always be  
learners1 gladly welcoming every help1  
and respecting every personality4 ,but  
we should also respect our own1 and bear
 in mind1 that though the wide universe 
is full of good1 no kernel of nourishing
 corn can come to us but through our    
toil bestowed on that plot of ground    
which is given to us to till4 ,to       
undervalue our own thought because it is
 ours1 to depreciate our own powers or  
faculties because some one else's are   
more vigorous1 to shrink from doing what
 we can because we think we can do so   
little1 is to hinder our own development
 and the progress of the world4 ,for it 

is only by exercise that any faculty is 
strengthened1 and only by each one      
putting his shoulder to the wheel that  
the world moves and humanity advances4  
,there is nothing more insidious than   
the spirit of conformity1 and nothing   
more quickly paralyzes the best parts of
 a man4 ,a gleam of truth illuminates   
his mind1 and forthwith he proceeds to  
compare it with the prevailing tone of  
his community or his set4 ,if it agree  
not with that1 he distrusts and perhaps 
disowns it2 it is left to perish1 and he
 to that extent perishes with it4 ,by   
and by1 when some one more independent1 
more truth-loving1 more courageous than 
himself arises to proclaim and urge the 
same thing that he was half ashamed to  
acknowledge1 he will regret his         
inglorious fear of being in the         
minority4 ,we are accustomed to think   
that greatness always denotes           
exceptional powers1 yet most of the     
world's great men have rather been      
distinguished by an invincible          

determination to work out the best that 
was within them4 ,they have acted1      
spoken1 or thought according to their   
own natures and judgment1 without any   
wavering hesitation as to the probable  
verdict of the world4 ,they were loyal  
to the truth that was in them1 and had  
faith in its ultimate triumph2 they had 
a mission to fulfill1 and it did not    
occur to them to pause or to falter4    
,how many more great men should we have 
were this spirit universal1 and how much
 greater would each one of us be if1 in 
a simple straightforward manner1 we     
frankly said and did the best that we   
knew1 without fear or favor8 ,soon would
 be found gifts that none had dreamed   
of1 powers that none had imagined1 and  
heroism that was thought impossible4 ,as
 ,emerson well says1 ,he who knows that 
power is inborn1 that he is weak because
 he has looked for good out of him and  
elsewhere1 and so perceiving throws     
himself unhesitatingly on his thought1  
instantly rights himself1 stands in the 

erect position1 commands his limbs1     
works miracles1 just as a man who stands
 on his feet is stronger than a man who 
stands on his head4--,phil4 ,ledger4    
99       99       99       99       99  
,a ,,circular ,,bowling ,,alley4   ,the 
arcades under the elevated railroad     
which runs transversely through ,berlin 
are used as storehouses1 stores1        
saloons1 restaurants1 etc41 and are a   
source of considerable income to the    
railway company4 ,the owner of one of   
the restaurants in the arcades decided  
to provide his place with a bowling     
alley1 but found that he could not      
command the requisite length1 #ge ft41  
and so he had to arrange it in some     
other way4 ,a civil engineer named      
,kiebitz constructed a circular bowling 
alley for him1 which is shown in the    
annexed cut taken from the ,illustrirte 
,zeitung4 ,the alley is built in the    
shape of a horse-shoe1 and the bottom or
 bed on which the balls roll is hollowed
 out on a curved line1 the outer edge of

 the bed being raised to prevent the    
balls from being thrown off the alley by
 centrifugal force4  ,illustration3 ,a  
,,circular ,,bowling ,,alley4  ,the     
balls are rolled from one end of the    
alley1 describe a curved line1 and then 
strike the pins placed at the opposite  
end of the alley4 ,no return track for  
the balls is required1 and all that is  
necessary is to roll the balls from one 
end of the alley to the other4 ,a       
recording slate1 the tables for the     
guests1 etc41 are arranged between the  
two shanks or legs of the alley4  ,it is
 evident that a person cannot play as   
accurately on an alley of this kind as  
on a straight alley2 but if a ball is   
thrown with more or less force1 it will 
roll along the inner or outer edge of   
the alley and strike the group of pins a
 greater or less distance from the      
middle4 ,a room #cf ft4 in length is of 
sufficient size for one of these alleys4
         99       99       99       99  
99     ,,patent ,,office ,,examination  

,,of ,,inventions4   ,to the ,editor of 
the ,scientific ,american3  ,it is with 
considerable surprise that the writer   
has just perused the editorial article  
in your issue of ,march the             
#bhth--,patent ,office ,examinations of 
,novelty of ,inventions ,it seems to me 
that the ground taken therein is        
diametrically opposed to the views      
heretofore promulgated in your journal  
on this subject1 and no less so to the  
interests of ,american inventors2 and it
 appears difficult to understand why the
 abolition of examinations for novelty  
by the ,patent ,office should be        
recommended in face of the fact that the
 acknowledged small fees now exacted    
from inventors are sufficient to provide
 a much greater force of examiners than 
are now employed on that work4 ,if      
inventors were asking the government to 
appropriate money for this purpose1 the 
case would be quite different2 although 
it may be shown1 ,i think1 that         
,congress would be fully justified in   

disposing of no inconsiderable portion  
of the public money in this way1 should 
it ever become necessary4  ,recognizing 
the fact that the patent records of all 
countries1 as well as cognate           
publications1 are rapidly on the        
increase--and particularly in this      
country--making an examination for      
novelty a continuously increasing task1 
and that the time must come when such an
 examination cannot be made at all      
conclusively without a vastly increased 
amount of labor1 from the very magnitude
 of the operation1 it is nevertheless   
true that this difficulty menaces the   
inventor to a much greater extent1 if   
imposed upon him to make1 than it can   
ever possibly do an institution like the
 ,patent ,office4  ,dividing and        
subdividing patent subjects into classes
 and sub-classes1 and systematizing     
examinations to the extent it may be    
made to reach in the ,patent ,office1   
may1 for a very long time to come1 place
 this matter within the possibility of a

 reasonably good and conclusive search  
being made without additional cost to   
the inventor1 provided what he now pays 
is all devoted to the furtherance of the
 ,patent ,office business4 ,if1 however1
 we hereafter make no examinations for  
novelty1 an inventor is obliged to      
either make such a search for           
himself--with all the disadvantages of  
unfamiliarity with the best methods1    
inaccessibility to records1 and         
incurring immensely more work than is   
required of the ,patent ,office         
examiner1 who has everything pertaining 
thereto at his fingers' ends--or blindly
 pay his fees and take his patent under 
the impression that he is the first     
inventor1 and run every risk of being   
beaten in the courts should any one     
essay to contest his claims2 the        
probabilities of his being so beaten    
increasing in proportion as the number  
of inventions increase4  ,the inventor  
pays to have this work done for him at  
the ,patent ,office in the only feasible

 way it can be thoroughly done2 and the 
average inventor would1 or should1 be   
willing to have the present fees very   
largely increased1 if necessary1 rather 
than have the examinations for novelty  
abolished at the ,patent ,office2 for1  
in the event of their abolition1 it     
would cost him immensely more money to  
secure himself1 as before the courts1 by
 his own unaided and best attainable    
methods4  ,the inventor now1 however1   
pays to the ,patent ,office1 as you well
 know1 a good deal more money every year
 than the present cost of examinations1 
including of course all other ,patent   
,office business2 seeing a part of what 
he pays yearly covered into the         
,treasury as surplus1 while his         
application is unreasonably delayed for 
the lack of examiner force in the       
,patent ,office4  ,let the government   
first apply all the moneys received at  
the ,patent ,office to its legitimate   
purpose1 including the making of these  
examinations1 and1 when this proves     

insufficient1 you may depend that every 
inventor will cheerfully consent to the 
increase of fees1 sufficient to insure  
the continuance of thorough examinations
 for novelty1 rather than attempt to do 
this work himself or take the chances of
 his having reinvented some old device  
7which it is very well known occurs over
 and over again every day71 and being   
beaten upon the very first contest in   
the courts1 after1 perhaps1 investing   
large amounts of money1 time1 and       
anxiety over something which he thus    
discovers was invented1 perhaps1 before 
he was born4  ,for an inventor to obtain
 a patent worth having1 and one that is 
not more likely to be a source of       
expenditure than income to him1 if      
contested1 it goes without saying that  
examination for novelty must be made    
either by himself or some competent     
person or persons for him2 and it is    
strictly proper and just that the       
inventor should pay for it2 and it is   
too self-evident a proposition to admit 

of argument that the organized and      
systematized methods of the ,patent     
,office can do it at a tithe of the     
expense which would be incurred in doing
 it in any other way2 in point of fact1 
it would be impossible to do it by any  
other means so effectually or so well   
within any reasonable amount of cost4   
,your summing up of the case should1    
instead of the way you put it1 read3    
,the ,commissioner of ,patents attempts 
to perform for two-thirds the sum paid  
as fees by inventors what he is paid    
three-thirds to accomplish1 so that     
one-third of it may go to swell the     
surplus of the ,united ,states          
,treasury1 and finds it an impracticable
 task to ascertain the novelty of an    
invention in a reasonable time for such 
a sum4 ,to perform it1 however          
imperfectly1 he feels authorized to     
delay the granting2 of patents1         
sometimes for several months1 simply    
because ,congress will not allow him to 
apply the moneys paid by inventors to   

their legitimate purpose4  ,i have had1 
for several years1 always more or less  
applications on file at the ,patent     
,office for inventions in my particular 
line1 and now have several pending2 and 
probably there are few1 if any1 who have
 suffered more from the great delays    
lately obtaining at that institution    
than myself1 particularly in connection 
with taking out foreign patents for the 
same inventions1 and so timing the issue
 of them here and abroad as not to      
prejudice either one4 ,but great as the 
annoyance and cost have been in         
consequence of these delays1 ,i would   
infinitely prefer that it were ten times
 as great1 rather than see the          
examinations for novelty abolished by   
the ,united ,states ,patent ,office2    
and1 so far as ,i know and believe1 in  
this preference ,i most completely voice
 that of inventors in general4          
,,john ,t4 ,,hawkins4   ,taunton1       
,mass41 ,march #bhth1 #ahhe4   ,the     
writer of the above communication gives 

a very clear statement of our original  
premises4 ,he sees as we do the         
difficulty1 every year on the increase1 
of making satisfactory searches in the  
matter of novelty4 ,but his deductions  
vary from ours4 ,to us it appears on its
 face an impossibility for satisfactory 
searches to be made in the case of every
 individual patent by the ,patent       
,office4 ,the examinations have         
repeatedly been proved valueless4 ,we   
know by our own and others' experience  
that the searches as at present         
conducted are of comparatively little   
accuracy4 ,patents are declared to be   
anticipated continually by our courts4  
,the awarding of a patent in fact weighs
 for nothing in a judge's mind as       
proving its originality4 ,the           
,commissioner of ,patents is really     
exhausting the energies of the ,office  
employees over a multitude of searches  
that have no standing whatever in court1
 and that no lawyer would accept as any 
guarantee of novelty of invention4 ,if  

every inventor would search the records 
for his own benefit1 we should then have
 twenty thousand examiners instead of   
the present small number4 ,this would be
 something4 ,but if it be advanced that 
the inventor is not a competent         
searcher1 then he can engage an expert  
to do it for him4 ,every day1 searches  
of equal value to the ,patent ,office   
ones are executed for but a fraction of 
the government fees on granting a       
patent4  ,our correspondent speaks of an
 evil that he thinks would be incidental
 to the system we proposed in our       
article criticised by him1 namely1 that 
were the ,patent ,office to make no     
search an inventor would run every risk 
of being beaten in the courts should any
 one essay to contest his claims4 ,the  
fact is that in spite of the ,office    
examination for novelty this risk always
 has to be encountered1 and forms a     
criterion by which to judge of the exact
 value of that examination4             
,furthermore1 we take decided issue with

 our correspondent when he says that the
 present is the only feasible way of    
executing these searches thoroughly4    
,they are not so executed as a matter of
 fact1 and could be done better and     
cheaper by private individuals1 experts1
 or lawyers1 engaged for the purpose by 
inventors4  ,we agree that all money    
received by the ,patent ,office should  
be applied to its legitimate end4 ,it   
seems to us a great injustice to make   
one generation of patentees accumulate  
money in the ,treasury for the benefit  
of some coming generation4 ,application 
of the whole of each year's fees to the 
expediting of that year's business would
 be simple justice4 ,but we do not lose 
sight of our main point1 that were the  
inventor unable to make a satisfactory  
search1 it could be done for him by     
private parties better and cheaper than 
it is now done in the ,office4  ,we are 
very glad to have the question so       
intelligently discussed as by our       
correspondent1 and we feel that it is   

one well worthy of consideration4 ,the  
future will1 we are sure1 bring about   
some change1 by which inventors will be 
induced to bestow more personal care on 
their patents1 at least to the extent of
 securing searches for novelty to be    
made by their own attorneys1 and even at
 a little additional expense to abandon 
any blind dependence on the ,patent     
,office as a prover of novelty4--,ed4   
,sc4 ,am4         99       99       99  
99       99     ,,the ,,universal       
,,exposition ,,at ,,antwerp 7,,anvers71 
,,belgium4   ,never before was there so 
striking and remarkable an example of   
what can be accomplished by private     
enterprise when applied to a great and  
useful object4 ,last year some prominent
 citizens of ,antwerp--justly proud of  
the rapid and marvelous progress made by
 their city--conceived the idea of      
inviting the civilized world to come and
 admire the transformation which1 in    
half a century1 had converted the       
commercial metropolis of ,belgium into  

the first port of the ,european         
continent4 ,this audacious project has  
been carried into execution1 and the    
buildings of the ,universal ,exposition1
 including the ,hall of ,industry1 the  
,gallery of ,machinery1 and the         
innumerable annexes1 cover #b1cfh1jee   
sq4 ft4 of ground4 ,even this large     
space has proved too limited4 ,these    
buildings are shown in the accompanying 
cut4  ,all nations have responded to the
 call of the citizens of ,antwerp1 who  
are supported by the patronage of a     
sovereign devoted to progress1 ,leopold 
,,ii41 ,king of the ,belgians4 ,among   
the countries represented in the        
exposition1 ,france takes the first     
rank4 ,she is represented by over #b1jjj
 exhibits1 and her products occupy      
one-fifth part of the ,hall of ,industry
 and the ,gallery of ,machinery4 ,the   
pavilion of the ,french ,colonies is an 
exact representation of a palace of     
,cochin ,china4  ,belgium is represented
 by #b1djj exhibits4 ,the ,french and   

,belgian compartments together occupy   
one-half of the ,hall of ,industry and  
the ,gallery of ,machinery4 ,this latter
 building represents a grand spectacle1 
especially in the evening1 when it is   
lighted by electricity4 ,in excavating  
under this gallery1 ruins were brought  
to light which proved to be the         
foundations of the citadel of the ,duke 
d',albe1 the terrible lieutenant of     
,philip ,,ii4 of ,spain4 ,thus1 on the  
same site where once stood this monument
 of oppression and torture1 electricity1
 that bright star of modern times1 will 
illuminate the most wonderful inventions
 of human progress4--,l',illustration4  
,illustration3 ,,bird',s-,,eye ,,view   
,,of ,,the ,,universal ,,exposition ,,at
 ,d',,anvers1 ,,belgium4         99     
99       99       99       99     ,,the 
,,stone ,,pine4  7,,pinus ,,pinea47     
,although not such an important tree in 
this country as many other conifers1 the
 ,stone pine possesses a peculiar       
interest beyond that of any other       

,european conifer4 ,from the earliest   
periods it has been the theme of        
classical writers4 ,ovid and ,pliny     
describe it2 ,virgil alludes to it as a 
most beautiful ornament2 and ,horace    
mentions a pine agreeing in character   
with the ,stone pine2 while in ,pompeii 
and ,herculaneum we find figures of pine
 cones in drawings and on the           
arabesques2 and even kernels of charred 
pines have been discovered4 ,the        
,pinaster of the ancients does not      
appear to be the same as that of the    
moderns2 the former was said to be of   
extraordinary height1 while the latter  
is almost as low as the ,stone pine4 ,no
 forest is fraught with more poetical   
and classical interest than the pine    
wood of ,ravenna1 the glories of which  
have been especially sung by ,dante1    
,boccacio1 ,dryden and ,byron1 and it is
 still known as the ,vicolo de' ,poeti4 
,the ,stone pine is found in a wild     
state on the sandy coasts and hills of  
,tuscany1 to the west of the ,apennines1

 and on the hills of ,genoa1 usually    
accompanied by1 and frequently forming  
forests with1 the ,pinus pinaster4 ,it  
is generally cultivated throughout the  
whole of ,italy1 from the foot of the   
,alps to ,sicily4 ,it is not commonly   
found higher than from #a1jjj feet to   
#a1ejj feet1 but it occurs in the south 
of ,italy as high as #b1jjj feet4 ,it is
 found1 according to ,sibthorp1 on the  
sandy coasts of the ,western            
,peloponnesus1 in the same conditions1  
probably1 as in the middle of ,italy2 it
 is also met with in the island of      
,melida4 ,cultivated1 it is found on all
 the shores of the ,mediterranean4 ,in  
northern ,europe1 and especially in     
,england1 its general appearance is     
certainly that of a low-growing tree1   
its densely clothed branches forming    
almost a spherical mass2 but in the     
sunny south it attains a height of #ge  
feet to #ajj feet1 losing1 as it        
ascends1 all its branches1 except those 
toward the summit1 which1 in maturity1  

assume a mushroom form4  ,seen in the   
soft clime of ,italy in all its native  
vigor1 the ,stone pine is always        
majestic and strangely impressive to a  
northern eye1 whether in dense forests1 
as near ,florence1 in more open masses1 
as at ,ravenna1 in picturesque groups1  
as about ,rome1 or in occasional single 
trees1 such as may be seen throughout   
the country1 but rather more frequently 
toward the coast4 ,in these isolated    
trees their imposing character can be   
best appreciated1 the great trunk       
carrying the massive head perfectly     
poised1 an interesting example of       
ponderous weight gracefully balanced4   
,the solid1 weighty appearance of the   
head of the tree is increased by its    
even and generally symmetrical outline1 
this especially in the examples near the
 coast1 the mass of foliage being so    
close and dense that it looks like      
velvet1 and in color a warm rich olive  
green1 strangely different from the blue
 greens and black greens of our northern

 pines4 ,the lofty or normal type with  
the umbrella-formed top is almost       
peculiar to ,central and ,southern      
,italy4 ,in other parts of the south of 
,europe1 though often attaining large   
dimensions1 it remains more dwarf and   
rotund in shape4  ,illustration3 ,,the  
,,stone ,,pine 7,,pinus ,,pinea7 ,,at   
,,castel ,,gandolfo1 ,,in ,,italy4      
,this pine has not been much planted in 
this country1 owing1 no doubt1 to its   
slow growth and want of hardiness in a  
young state4 ,consequently there are not
 many large specimens1 and certainly    
none to compare with those of ,italy for
 size or picturesque beauty4 ,mr4 ,a4   
,d4 ,webster1 the forester at ,penrhyn  
,castle1 ,north ,wales1 who has kindly  
sent us a fine cone of this pine1 writes
 thus respecting it3 ,a fair-sized      
specimen of this pine stands on the     
sloping ground to the southwest of      
,penrhyn ,castle4 ,it shows off to      
advantage the peculiar outline of this  
pine1 which is so marked a              

characteristic of those grown in the    
,mediterranean region4 ,the trunk1 which
 is about #d feet in girth at a yard up1
 rises for three-fourths its height     
without branches1 after which it divides
 into a number of limbs1 the extremities
 of which are well covered with foliage1
 thus giving to the tree a bushy1       
well-formed1 and1 ,i might almost add1  
rounded appearance4 ,at a casual glance 
the whole tree might readily be mistaken
 for the pinaster1 but the leaves are   
shorter1 less tufted1 and always more   
erect4 ,the bark of the ,stone pine is  
somewhat rough and uneven1 of a dull    
gray color1 unless between the furrows1 
which is of a bright brown4 ,that on the
 branches is more smooth and of a light 
reddish brown color4 ,when closely      
examined1 there is something remarkably 
pleasing and distinct from the          
generality of pines in the appearance of
 this tree1 the leaves1 which are of a  
deep olive-green1 being1 from their     
regularity and usual closeness1 when    

seen in good light1 like the finest     
network4  ,there is a moderately large  
specimen in the arboretum at ,kew1 and  
if this is the tree which ,loudon in his
 ,arboretum alluded to as a mere bush1  
it has made good growth during the past 
thirty years4 ,according to ,veitch's   
,manual of ,conifer1 a fine specimen1   
one of the largest in the country1 is at
 ,glenthorn1 in ,north ,devon4 ,it is   
#cc feet high1 and has a spread of      
branches some #bb feet1 while the trunk 
is clear of branches for #ae feet4      
,loudon enumerates several fine trees in
 these islands at that date 7#ahed71    
only one of which was #de feet high4    
,this one was at ,ballyleady1 in ,county
 ,down1 and had been planted about #fj  
years4 ,even where planted in the most  
favored localities1 we can never expect 
the ,stone pine to assume its true      
character1 and that is the reason why so
 few plant it4  ,as a timber tree it is 
of not much value4 ,mr4 ,webster says1  
,the wood is worthless except for very  

ordinary purposes4 ,the timber grown    
here 7,penrhyn7 is1 from the few        
specimens ,i have had the chance of     
examining1 very clean1 light1 from the  
small quantity of resin it contains1 and
 in color very nearly approaches the    
yellow pine of commerce4 ,it cuts clean 
and works well under the tools of the   
carpenter4 ,in its native country the   
wood has been used for boat-building1   
but is now1 ,i believe1 almost entirely 
discarded4 ,this pine thrives best on a 
soil that is deep1 sandy1 and dry4 ,it  
should be well sheltered and nursed1 as 
it is rather tender while in its young  
state4 ,it is best to keep the seedlings
 under glass1 though they may be planted
 out in the open air after their fourth 
or fifth year4  ,the cones of this pine 
supply the pignoli of commerce4 ,the    
,italian cooks use these seeds in their 
soups and ragouts1 and in the ,maritozzi
 buns of ,rome4 ,sometimes the ,italians
 roast the barely ripe cone1 dashing it 
on the ground to break it open1 but the 

ripe seeds of the older cone when it    
naturally opens are better worth eating4
 ,they are soft and rich1 and have a    
slightly resinous flavor4 ,the empty    
cones are used by the ,italians for fire
 lighting1 and being full of resinous   
matter they burn rapidly and emit a     
delightful fragrance4                   
,description4--,pinus pinea belongs to  
the ,pinaster section of the genus4 ,in 
the south of ,europe it is a lofty tree1
 with a spreading head forming a kind of
 parasol1 and a trunk #ej feet or #fj   
feet high1 clear of branches4 ,the bark 
of the trunk is reddish and sometimes   
cracked1 but the general surface of the 
bark is smooth except on the smaller    
branches1 where it long retains the     
marks of the fallen leaves1 in the shape
 of bristly scales4 ,the leaves are of a
 dull green1 but not quite so dark as   
those of the ,pinaster2 they are        
semi-cylindrical1 #f inches or #g inches
 long and one-twelfth of an inch broad1 
two in a sheath1 and disposed in such a 

manner as to form a triple spiral round 
the branches4  ,the catkins of the male 
flowers are yellowish2 and being placed 
on slender shoots of the current year1  
near the extremity1 twenty or thirty    
together1 they form bundles1 surmounted 
by some scarcely developed leaves4 ,each
 catkin is not more than half an inch   
long1 on a very short peduncle1 and with
 a rounded denticulated crest4 ,the     
female catkins are whitish1 and are     
situated two or three together1 at the  
extremity of the strongest and most     
vigorous shoots4 ,each female catkin has
 a separate peduncle1 charged with      
reddish1 scarious1 lanceolate scales1   
and is surrounded at its base with a    
double row of the same scales1 which    
served to envelop it before it expanded2
 its form is perfectly oval1 and its    
total length about half an inch4 ,the   
scales which form the female catkin are 
of a whitish green2 the bractea on the  
back is slightly reddish on its upper   
side2 and the stigma1 which has two     

points1 is of a bright red4 ,after      
fertilization1 the scales augment in    
thickness2 and1 becoming firmly pressed 
against each other1 they form by their  
aggregation a fruit1 which is three     
years before it ripens4 ,during the     
first year it is scarcely larger than   
the female catkin2 and during the second
 year it becomes globular1 and about the
 size of a walnut4 ,the third year the  
cones increase rapidly in size2 the     
scales lose their reddish tinge1 and    
become of a beautiful green1 the point  
alone remaining red2 and at last1 about 
the end of the third year1 they attain  
maturity4 ,at this period the cones are 
about four inches long and three inches 
in diameter1 and they have assumed a    
general reddish hue4 ,the convex part of
 the scales forms a depressed pyramid1  
with rounded angles1 the summit of which
 is umbilical4 ,each scale is hollow at 
its base2 and in its interior are two   
cavities1 each containing a seed much   
larger than that of any other kind of   

,european pine1 but the wing of which   
is1 on the contrary1 much shorter4 ,the 
woody shell which envelops the kernel is
 hard and difficult to break in the     
common kind1 but in the variety fragilis
 it is tender1 and easily broken by the 
fingers4 ,in both the kernel is white1  
sweet1 and agreeable to the taste4 ,the 
taproot of the stone pine is nearly as  
strong as that of ,p4 pinaster2 and1    
like that species1 the trees1 when      
transplanted1 generally lean to one     
side1 from the head not being correctly 
balanced4 ,hence1 in full-grown trees of
 the ,stone pine there is often a       
similar curvature at the base of the    
trunk to that of the pinaster4 ,the     
palmate form of the cotyledons of the   
genus ,pinus is particularly conspicuous
 in those of ,p4 pinea4 ,when one of the
 ripe kernels is split in two1 the      
cotyledons separate1 so as to represent 
roughly the form of a hand2 and this1 in
 some parts of ,france1 the country     
people call la main de ,dieu1 and       

believed to be a remedy in cases of     
intermittent fever if swallowed in      
uneven numbers1 such as #c1 #e1 or #g4  
,the duration of the tree is much       
greater than that of the pinaster1 and  
the timber is whiter and somewhat more  
durable4 ,in the climate of ,london     
trees of from fifteen to twenty years'  
growth produce cones4  ,there are no    
well-marked varieties of the ,stone     
pine1 though in its native districts    
geographical forms may occur4 ,for      
instance1 ,loudon describes a variety   
cretica1 which is said to have larger   
cones and more slender leaves4 ,duhamel 
also describes a variety fragilis1      
having thinner shells to the seeds or   
kernels4 ,neither of these varieties is 
in this country1 so far as we are aware4
 ,there are various synonyms for ,p4    
pinea1 the chief being ,p4 sativa of    
,bauhin1 ,p4 aracanensis of ,knight1 ,p4
 domestica1 ,p4 chinensis of ,knight1   
and ,p4 tarentina of ,manetti4--,the    
,garden4         99       99       99   

99       99     ,,the ,,art ,,of        
,,breeding4   ,from a paper read by ,c4 
,m4 ,winslow1 ,brandon1 ,vt41 before the
 ,ayrshire ,breeders1 at their annual   
meeting1 in ,boston1 ,feb4 #d1 #ahhe3   
,sometimes we meet with breeders whose  
only aim in their stock seem to be to   
produce animals that shall be entitled  
to registry4 ,to such ,i have little to 
say1 as their work is comparatively     
easy1 and has but few hindrances to     
success2 but to those breeders who are  
possessed of an ideal type of           
perfection1 which they are striving to  
impress upon their stock1 ,i have a few 
words to say upon the hindrances they   
may find in the way of satisfactory     
results4 ,it is a law of nature that the
 offspring resembles some one or more of
 its ancestors1 not only in the outward 
appearance1 but in the construction of  
the vital organism and mental           
peculiarities1 and is simply a          
reproduction1 with the accidental or    
intentional additions that from time to 

time are accumulating as the stock      
passes through the hands of more or less
 skillful breeders4  ,the aim of the    
breeder is to not only produce an animal
 which shall in its own person possess  
the highest type of excellence sought1  
but shall have the power to transmit to 
its offspring those qualities of value  
possessed by himself4 ,a breeder may1 by
 chance1 produce a superior animal1 or  
it may be the result of carefully laid  
plans and artfully controlling the      
forces of nature and subjecting them to 
his will4  ,it is comparatively easy to 
accidentally produce an animal of value1
 but to steadily breed to one type is   
the test of the skill of the breeder and
 the value of his stock4 ,however well  
he may lay his plans1 or however        
desirable his stock may appear1 his     
ability to perpetuate their desirable   
qualities will depend upon the          
prepotence of the animals1 and this     
prepotence depends1 to a great extent1  
upon the length of the line in which the

 stock has been bred with one definite  
end in view4 ,a man may1 in his efforts 
to breed stock excelling in a certain   
line1 produce stock that shows          
excellence in other qualities1 but this 
will not compensate for a deficiency in 
the qualification he is attempting to   
impress1 nor is it safe to breed from   
any animal that does not show1 in a     
marked degree1 those desired qualities4 
,there is one qualification without     
which there can be no success1 and that 
is a sound1 healthy constitution1 with  
good vital organs and vigorous          
digestion2 and any amount of success in 
other directions will not compensate for
 lack of constitution1 and              
disappointment is always sure to attend 
the breeder who does not guard this1 the
 foundation of all success4444  ,the    
very finest type of breeding and surest 
plans of success may be entirely        
defeated by improper feed and care4 ,a  
valuable herd may be entirely ruined by 
a change of food and care2 for those    

conditions which have conspired to      
produce a certain type must be          
continued1 or the type changes1 it may  
be for the better or it may be for the  
worse1 since stock very readily adapt   
themselves to their surroundings2 and it
 is just here that so many are          
disappointed in buying blood stock from 
a successful breeder2 for a successful  
breeder is necessarily a good feeder and
 a kind handler1 and stock may give good
 results in his hands1 and1 if removed  
to starvation and harshness1 quickly    
degenerate4 ,so1 too1 stock that has    
been bred on poor pasturage will readily
 improve if transplanted to richer      
pastures and milder climate4  ,therefore
 he who would prove himself an artist in
 moulding his herd at will1 must not    
only bring together into his herd many  
choice lines of goodness1 but must ever 
seek1 by kind treatment and good care1  
to change their qualities for the       
better1 and by right selection and      
careful breeding so impress these       

changes for the better as to make them  
hereditary4 ,if this course is          
persistently adhered to1 the stock will 
gradually improve1 retaining the good   
qualities of the ancestry1 and          
developing new ones1 generation by      
generation1 under the hand of the artist
 breeder4         99       99       99  
99       99     ,,the ,,babylonian      
,,palace4   ,in a recent lecture on     
,babylonian and ,assyrian ,antiquities1 
at the ,british ,museum by ,mr4 ,w4 ,st4
 ,chad ,boscawen1 the architecture and  
ornaments of a typical palace were      
described4 ,the palace1 next to the     
local temple1 was1 the lecturer said1   
the most important edifice in the       
ancient city1 and the explorations      
conducted by ,sir ,henry ,layard1 ,mr4  
,rassam1 ,m4 ,botta1 and others1 had    
resulted in the discovery of the ruins  
of many of the most famous of royal     
residences in ,nineveh and ,babylon4    
,the palace was called in the           
inscriptions the great house1 as the    

temple was ,god's house1 though in later
 times it was also named the abode of   
royalty1 the dwelling-place of kings1   
while the great palace of               
,nebuchadnezzar at ,babylon1 the ruins  
of which are marked by the ,kasr mound1 
was called the wonder of the earth4 ,the
 arrangement of the palace was one which
 varied but little in ancient and modern
 times1 the same grouping of            
quadrangles1 with intermural gardens1   
being alike common to the ,assyrian     
palace and the ,turkish serai4  ,the    
earliest of the ,assyrian palaces were  
those built in ,assur1 which dated      
probably from the nineteenth century    
before the ,christian era2 but the seat 
of royalty was at an early period       
transferred from ,assur to ,calah1 the  
site of which is marked by the great    
mounds of ,nimroud at the junction of   
the greater ,lab and the ,tigris4 ,here 
large palaces were erected by the kings 
of the ,middle ,assyrian ,empire1 the   
most lavish of royal builders being     

,assur-nazir-pal and ,shalmanisar2 while
 a third palace was built by ,tiglath   
,pileser ,,ii4 7,b4 ,c4 #gdb74 ,mr4     
,boscawen described the explorations    
carried out by ,sir ,henry ,layard on   
this site4  ,the most important chamber 
in the building was the long gallery or 
saloon1 which had been called the ,hall 
of ,assembly4 ,the various parts of this
 palace included the royal apartments1  
the harem1 and the temple1 with its     
great seven-stage tower or observatory4 
,the very extensive and systematic      
explorations carried out by the ,french 
explorer ,m4 ,botta had restored the    
remains of one of the most beautiful of 
the ,assyrian palaces4 ,the usurpation  
of the ,assyrian throne by ,sargon the  
,tartar in ,b4 ,c4 #gba placed in power 
a new dynasty1 who were lavish patrons  
of the arts and who made ,nineveh a city
 of palaces4 ,probably on account of his
 violent seizure of the throne1 ,sargon 
was afraid to reside in any of the      
existing places at ,nineveh--though he  

appears for a short time to have        
occupied the old palace2 he built for   
himself ,calah1 at a short distance to  
the northeast of ,nineveh1 the palace   
town of ,dun ,sargina1 the fort of      
,sargon1 one of the most luxurious      
palaces--the ,versailles of ,nineveh4   
,the ruins of this palace were buried   
beneath the mound of ,korsabad1 and were
 explored by ,m4 ,botta on behalf of the
 ,french ,government1 and the sculptures
 and inscriptions are now deposited in  
the ,louvre4 ,compared with all the     
,assyrian palaces1 later or earlier1    
this royal abode of ,sargon stands      
alone4 ,the sculptures were more        
magnificent1 while warmth and color were
 obtained by the extensive use of       
colored bricks4 ,some of the cornices   
and friezes of painted bricks1 of which 
,mr4 ,boscawen exhibited drawings1 were 
most rich in ornament4 ,the chief colors
 employed were blue and yellow1 and     
sometimes red and green4 ,having        
described the general construction of   

this remarkable building1 ,mr4 ,boscawen
 proceeded to speak of the character of 
,assyrian art during the golden age     
7,b4,c4 #gba-fbe71 and he illustrated   
his remarks by the exhibition of several
 large drawings4 ,one of the most       
elaborate of these was the embroidery on
 the royal robe4 ,the pectoral was      
covered with scenes taken from          
,babylonian myths4 ,on the upper part   
was ,isdubar or ,nimrod struggling with 
the lion2 below this a splendid         
representation of ,merodach1 as the     
warrior of the gods armed for combat    
against the demon of evil1 while the    
lower part was covered with             
representations of the worship of the   
sacred tree4 ,the general character of  
,assyrian art1 its attention to detail1 
and the wonderful skill in representing 
animal life1 as exhibited in the hunting
 scenes1 was next spoken of1 and ,mr4   
,boscawen concluded by a brief          
description of the royal library1 a most
 important part of the great palace at  

,nineveh4         99       99       99  
99       99  ,a catalogue containing    
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at this office4         99       99     
99       99       99  ,,the ,,scientific
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