---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,transcrib]'s ,note3 ,all ,greek words h be5 translit]at$ into ,engli%1 & are conta9$ )9 brackets4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,,! ,,cult ,,( ,,incompet5ce ,,fir/ ,,edition ,novemb]1 #aiaa4 ,,second ,,edition ,july1 #aiab4 ,,! ,,cult ,,( ,,incompet5ce ,by ,,emile ,,faguet ,( ! ,fr5* ,academy ,,translat$ ,,f ,,! ,,fr5* ,,by ,,beatrice ,,b>/[ ,,) ,,an ,,introduction ,,by ,,?omas ,,mackay ,,new ,,york3 ,e4 ,p4 ,,dutton ,,company #aiab ,,cont5ts4 ,,page ,,introduction #a ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,! ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,=ms ,,( ,,gov]nm5t #ab ,,ii4 ,,confusion ,,( ,,functions #cg ,,iii4 ,,! ,,refuges ,,( ,,effici5cy #ei ,,iv4 ,,! ,,compet5t ,,legislator #ff ,v4 ,,laws ,,"u ,,democracy #hb ,,vi4 ,,! ,,incompet5ce ,,( ,,gov]nm5t #ib ,,vii4 ,,judicial ,,incompet5ce #if ,,viii4 ,,examples ,,( ,,incompet5ce #abc ,,ix4 ,,mann]s #aef ,x4 ,,pr(essional ,,cu/oms #afb ,,xi4 ,,attempt$ ,,rem$ies #agb ,,xii4 ,,! ,,dream #baf ,,index #bcg ,,! ,,cult ,,( ,,incompet5ce4 ,,introduction4 ,?\gh x may n h be5 possible 9 ! foll[+ pages to reproduce ! elegant & incisive /yle ( a ma/] ( ,fr5* prose1 n ev5 ! inadequacies ( a translation c obscure ! =ce ( 8 argum5t4 ,! only introduction1 !re=e1 t seems possible mu/ take ! =m ( a reque/ to ! read] to /udy ,m4 ,faguet's criticism ( mod]n democracy ) ! daily pap] 9 8 h&4 ,he w !n see1 tak+ *apt] by *apt]1 h[ 9 "s aspects ! ph5om5a ( ,engli% democracy are id5tical ) ^? describ$ 9 ! text1 & h[ 9 o!rs our ,engli% wor%ip ( incompet5ce1 moral & te*nical1 diff]s consid]ably f t :i* prevails 9 ,france4 ,x might h be5 possible1 z a "p ( ! s*eme ( ?is volume1 to note on ea* page1 by way ( illu/ration1 in/ances f contempor>y ,engli% practice1 b an adequate execution ( ?is plan w\ld h ov]load$ ! text1 or ev5 requir$ an additional volume4 ,su* a volume1 imp>tially work$ out ) in/ances drawn f ! programme ( all political p>ties1 w\ld be an int]e/+ comm5t>y on curr5t political controv]sy1 & x is to be hop$ t ,m4 ,faguet's sugge/ive pages w inspire "s compet5t h& to und]take ! task4 ,if ,m4 ,faguet _h *os5 to ref] to ,engl&1 he might1 p]haps1 h cit$ ! con/itution ( ?is c\ntry1 z x exi/$ "s sev5ty ye>s ago1 z an example ( a demophil ari/ocracy1 rais$ to p[] by an ari/ocracy-respect+ democracy4 ,x is n p]haps wise 9 political controv]sy to compromise our lib]ty ( action 9 respect ( ! problems ( ! pres5t "t1 by too def]5tial a ref]5ce to a gold5 age :i* probably1 l ,lycurgus 9 ! text1 p4 #gc1 nev] exi/$ at all1 b x has be5 (t5 /at$1 & und\bt$ly ) a c]ta9 am\nt ( tru?1 t ! ye>s betwe5 #ahcb & #ahff 7 ! only p]iod 9 ,engli% hi/ory dur+ :i* philosophical pr9ciples 7 all[$ an important1 we _c say a p>am\nt1 au?ority ov] ,engli% legislation4 ,! *>act]i/ic features ( ! p]iod 7 a det]m9ation to aboli% ! privileges ( ! few1 :i*1 h[ev]1 involv$ no desire to emb>k on ! impossible & inequitable task ( creat+ privileges = ! _m2 a delib]ate attempt to extirpate ! s]vile dep5d5ce ( ! old poor law1 & a def9ite ab&onm5t ( ! plan ( di/ribut+ economic advantages by eleemosyn>y /ate action4 ,?is policy 0 bas$ on ! conviction t p]sonal lib]ty & fre$om ( private ent]prise 7 ! adequate1 con/ructive influ5ces ( a progressive civilisation4 ,too mu* importance has p]haps be5 atta*$ to ! relatively unimportant "q ( ! fre$om ( int]national trade1 = ?is 0 only "p ( a g5]al policy ( emancipation :i* _h a mu* m f>-rea*+ scope4 ,rightly und]/ood ! political philosophy ( t "t1 put =w>d by ! compet5t /atesm5 :o 7 !n tru/$ by ! democracy1 proclaim$ ! pr9ciple ( lib]ty & fre$om ( ex*ange z ! true solv5ts ( ! economic problems ( ! day4 ,?is policy rema9$ 9 =ce dur+ ! m9i/ry ( ,sir ,r4 ,peel & la/$ "r d[n to ! "t ( ! great budgets ( ,mr4 ,glad/one4 ,if we might v5ture1 !re=e1 to add ano!r to ! def9itions ( ,montesquieu1 we might say t ! pr9ciple animat+ a lib]al con/itutional gov]nm5t 0 lib]ty1 & t ?is involv$ a def9ite plan = enl>g+ ! sph]e ( lib]ty z ! organis+ pr9ciple ( civil society4 ,to :at !n are we to impute ! decad5ce f ?is type into :i* p>liam5t>y gov]nm5t seems n[ to h fall58 ,c we attribute ?is to neglect or to exagg]ation ( its animat+ pr9ciple1 z sugge/$ 9 ! =mula ( ,montesquieu8 ,x is a "q :i* ! read] may f9d leisure to inve/igate2 we conf9e ourselves to m>k+ :at seem to be "s ( ! /ages ( decay4 ,:5 ! =ces ( de/ructive radicalism _h done _! legitimate "w1 x seem$ a "t = re/ & pati5ce1 = adm9i/ration r ?an = fre% legislation & = a pause dur+ :i* ! pr9ciples ( lib]ty & free ex*ange might h be5 left to organise ! equitable di/ribution ( ! inevitably increas+ weal? ( ! c\ntry4 ,! pati5ce & ! conviction :i* 7 ne$$ to all[ ( su* a developm5t1 rightly or wrongly1 7 n =?com+1 & politicians & p>ties h n be5 want+ to give effect to rem$ies ha/ily sugge/$ to & adopt$ by ! p4 ,political lead]s soon came to realise t rec5t enfran*isem5ts _h add$ a new electorate = :om philosophical pr9ciples _h no *>m4 ,at a lat] date also1 ,mr4 ,glad/one1 yield+ to a p[]ful & n ov]-scrupul\s political agitation1 sudd5ly det]m9$ to attempt a great con/itutional *ange 9 ! relations betwe5 ! ,unit$ ,k+dom & ,irel&4 ,:e!r ! transf]5ce ( ! misgov]nm5t ( ,irel& f ,london to ,dubl9 w\ld h _h results z disa/r\s or z b5eficial z disputants h ass]t$1 may be matt] = d\bt1 b ! mann] 9 :i* ! proposal 0 made c]ta9ly _h "o un=tunate consequ5ce4 ,mr4 ,glad/one's action /ruck a bl[ at ! indep5d5ce & self-respect1 or z ,m4 ,faguet t]ms x1 ! moral compet5ce ( our p>liam5t>y repres5tation f :i* x has nev] recov]$4 ,m5 7 call$ on to ab&on1 9 ! c\rse ( a few h\rs1 op9ions :i* !y _h pr(ess$ = a lifetime & ?is n z ! result ( conviction b on ! pressure ( p>ty discipl9e4 ,political feel+ ran high4 ,! ,caucus 0 call$ into m active op]ation4 ,political p>ties began to inv5t programmes to capture ! gr\ndl+s4 ,! cons]vative p>ty1 rel9qui%+ its useful function ( critic1 reviv$ ! old policy ( eleemosyn>y doles1 &1 9 an unlucky mom5t = its future1 has encumb]$ itself ) an advocacy ( ! policy ( protection4 ,= /rangely en\gh ! democracy1 ! be/[] ( p[]1 ?\gh develop+ symptoms ( fiscal tyranny & a hatr$ ( lib]ty 9 o!r directions cl+s t5aci\sly to fre$om ( int]national trade--= ! pres5t at lea/--& x w\ld seem t ! electione]+ caucus has1 9 ?is in/ance1 fail$ to und]/& its own bus9ess4 ,! doles ( ! new ,/ate-*>ity 7 to be giv5 to meet contributions f ! b5efici>ies1 b z ! class :i* = "o reason or ano!r is ev] 9 a de/itute condition1 c\ld n or w\ld n contribute1 ! only way 9 :i* ! b5evol5t purpose ( ! agitation c\ld be c>ri$ out 0 by be/[+ ! dole gratuit\sly4 ,! flood gates1 !re=e1 _h to be op5$ wid]1 & we h be5 & /ill are expos$ to a ru% ( philan?ropic legislation :i* is gradually transf]r+ all ! responsibilities ( life f ! individual to ! /ate4 ,free trade = ! mom5t rema9s1 & x is suppos$ to be /rongly entr5*$ 9 ! convictions ( ! lib]al p>ty4 ,its position1 h[ev]1 is obvi\sly v prec>i\s 9 view ( ! dem&s made by ! militant trade unions4 ,^!1 9 _! v>i\s sph]es1 claim a monopoly ( employm5t = _! memb]s1 to ! exclusion ( ^? :o d n belong to _! associations4 ,logic has some?+1 p]haps n mu*1 to d ) political action1 & x is almo/ inconceivable t a p>ty c g on = long hold+ ^! two contradictory op9ions4 ,:i* ( !m w be ab&on$1 ! future only c tell4 ,! result ( all ?is is a gr[+ dis9cl9ation on ! "p ( ! p to limit _! responsibilities to _! means ( dis*>g+ !m1 ! creation ( a prolet>iate :i* 9 se>* ( ma9t5ance drifts along ! l9e ( lea/ resi/ance1 dep5d5ce on ! gov]nm5t dole4 ,9 ! end too x mu/ br+ ab\t ! impov]i%m5t ( ! /ate1 :i* is ev] be+ call$ on to und]take new burd5s2 = ! individual1 ?us releas$ f obligation to dis*>ge1 is /ill left free to create responsibilities1 = :i* x is n[ ! bus9ess ( ! ,/ate to make provision4 ,"u su* a sy/em ! ability to pay z well z ! numb] ( ! solv5t citiz5s mu/ cont9u\sly decl9e4 ,! prop] reply to ?is legislation :i* we describe z pr$atory 9 ! s5se t we describe ! b5evol5t habits ( ,rob9 ,hood z pr$atory1 _c be made by ! (ficial opposition :i* 0 itself ! fir/ to /ep on ! d[n grade1 & :i* only waits ! *ances ( p>ty w>f>e to take its turn 9 provid+ panem et circ5ses at ! *>ge ( ! public ex*equ]4 ,9 ?is way1 progress is br\ght to a /&/ill by ! *ronic unwill+ness ( ! rate- & tax-pay]s to f9d ! money4 ,a tru] policy1 bas$ on ! volunt>y action ( citiz5s & capable ( indef9ite & cont9u\s expansion1 f9ds no support among politicians1 = all political p>ties seem to be held 9 ! grip ( ! moral & te*nical incompet5ce :i* ,m4 ,faguet has s wittily describ$4 ,! only reply to a gov]nm5t b5t on su* c\rses is t :i* above has be5 imput$--p]haps )\t suffici5t ju/ification--to ! gov]nm5ts ( ! p]iod #ahcb-ahff2 & t reply democracy1 z at pres5t advis$1 w all[ no political p>ty to make4 ,!re does n appe>1 !re=e1 to be mu* diff]5ce betwe5 ! situation "h & 9 ,france1 & x is v int]e/+ to notice h[ 9 v>i\s details !re is a v close p>allelism betwe5 ev5ts 9 ?is c\ntry & ^? :i* ,m4 ,faguet has describ$4 ,! position ( our ,"l ,*ancellor1 :o has be5 bitt]ly attack$ by 8 own p>ty1 9 respect ( 8 appo9tm5t ( magi/rates1 is v simil> to t ( ,m4 ,b>?\1 quot$ on p4 #aah4 ,our judicial sy/em has hi!rto be5 consid]$ free f political p>tisan%ip1 b v rec5tly & = ! fir/ "t a m9i/] 9 8 place 9 p>liam5t1 has rightly or wrongly se5 fit to call 9 "q ! imp>tiality ( our judicial b5*1 & ! suspicion1 if1 z appe>s to be ! case1 x is widely ent]ta9$ by p]sons heat$ 9 political /rife1 w probably lead to appo9tm5ts calculat$ to ensure reprisals4 ,a/ute politicians d n commit !mselves to an attack on a v5]at$ in/itution1 till !y ?9k !y "k t t in/itution is becom+ unpopul> ) ! foll[]s :o direct _! policy4 ,crim9al v]dicts also1 especially on ! eve ( an election1 are n[ made liable to revision by m9i/]s sc\r+ ! gaols ( ! c\ntry 9 se>* ( picturesque malefactors :om1 ) an accompanim5t ( mu* philan?ropic spee*1 !y proce$ to set at lib]ty4 ,ev5 ! fir/ pr9ciples ( equity1 z ord9>ily und]/ood1 seem to h lo/ _! au?ority1 :5 weigh$ 9 ! balance aga9/ ! vote ( ! majority4 ,v rec5tly ! memb]s ( an hon\rable & useful pr(ession repres5t$ to a m9i/] t 8 ext5sion ( a s*eme ( m or less gratuit\s relief to a class :i* hi!rto _h be5 able & will+ to pay its way1 0 likely to deprive !m ( _! livelihood4 ,8 reply1 int] alia1 conta9$ ! argum5t t ! class 9 "q 0 v num]\s & _h _m votes1 & t he d\bt$ :e!r any "o w\ld v5ture to propose its exclusion except p]haps a memb] = a univ]sity2 z a matt] ( fact "s su* proposal _h be5 made by "o ( ! univ]sity memb]s ^: con/itu5ts 7 affect$ by ! proposal4 ,! m9i/] fur!r decl>$ t he did n ?9k t su* an am5dm5t c\ld obta9 a second]4 ,! argum5t seems to impute to our national repres5tatives a cynical disreg>d ( equity1 & a bl9d wor%ip ( numb]s1 :i* if true1 is an in/ance ( moral incompet5ce q z rem>kable z any?+ conta9$ 9 ,m4 ,faguet's n>rative4 ,if read]s ( ?is volume w take ! tr\ble to annotate _! copies ) a record ( ! relevant incid5ts :i* meet !m e day ( _! lives1 !y _c fail to ackn[l$ge h[ t]ribly inevitable is ! rise ( incompet5ce to political p[]4 ,! trag$y is all ! m dreadful1 :5 we recognise1 z we all mu/1 ! high "* & ability ( ! /atesm5 & politicians :o lie "u ! ?rall ( ?is compell+ necessity4 ,?is sy/ematic corruption ( ! be/ ?reat5s to assume ! proportions ( a national disa/]4 ,x is ! sy/em1 n ! actors 9 x1 :i* ,m4 ,faguet analyses & invites u to deplore4 ,t4 ,,mackay4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,! ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,=ms ,,( ,,gov]nm5t4 ,! "q has (t5 be5 ask$1 :at is ! animat+ pr9ciple ( diff]5t =ms ( gov]nm5t1 = ea*1 x is assum$1 has its own pr9ciple4 ,9 o!r words1 :at is ! g5]al idea :i* inspires ea* political sy/em8 ,montesquieu1 = in/ance1 prov$ t ! pr9ciple ( mon>*y is hon\r1 ! pr9ciple ( despotism fe>1 ! pr9ciple ( a republic virtue or patriotism1 & he add$ ) mu* ju/ice t gov]nm5ts decl9e & fall z (t5 by c>ry+ _! pr9ciple to excess1 z by neglect+ x altoge!r4 ,& ?is1 ?\gh a p>adox1 is true4 ,at fir/ sight x may n be obvi\s h[ a despotism c fall by inspir+ too mu* fe>1 or a con/itutional mon>*y by develop+ too highly ! s5tim5t ( hon\r1 or a republic by hav+ too mu* virtue4 ,x is nev]!less true4 ,to make too common a use ( fe> is to de/roy its efficacy4 ,z ,edg> ,qu9et happily puts x3 ,if we want to make use ( fe> we mu/ be c]ta9 t we c use x always4 ,we _c h too mu* hon\r1 b :5 we c appeal to ?is s5tim5t only & :5 di/9ctions1 decorations1 ord]s1 ribbons--9 a ^w hon\rs--are multipli$1 inasmu* z we _c increase su* ?+s indef9itely1 ^? :o h none become z discont5t$ z ^? :o1 hav+ "s1 want m4 ,f9ally we _c1 ( c\rse1 h too mu* virtue1 & naturally "h gov]nm5ts w fall n by exagg]at+ b by ab&on+ _! guid+ pr9ciple4 ,yet is x n sometimes true t by dem&+ f citiz5s too great a devotion to _! c\ntry1 we end by exhau/+ human p[]s ( endurance & sacrifice8 ,?is is :at happ5$ 9 ! case ( ,napoleon1 :o1 p]haps unwitt+ly1 requir$ too mu* f ,france1 = ! build+ up ( a ',great] ,france4' ,b t1 "s "o w object1 0 n a republic6 ,f ! po9t ( view ( ! sacrifices requir$ f ! citiz51 x 0 a republic1 simil> to ! ,roman ,republic & to ! ,fr5* ,republic ( #agib4 ,all ! talk 0 '= ! glory ( our c\ntry1' 'h]oism1 h]oism1 no?+ b h]oism'6 ,if too mu* is requir$ ( x1 civic virtue c be exhau/$4 ,x is1 !n1 v true t gov]nm5ts p]i% j z mu* f an excess z f a neglect ( _! appropriate pr9ciple4 ,montesquieu )\t d\bt borr[$ 8 g5]al idea f ,ari/otle1 :o rem>ks n )\t hum\r1 ,^?1 :o ?9k t !y h discov]$ ! basis ( good gov]nm5t1 are apt to pu% ! consequ5ces ( _! new f\nd pr9ciple too f>4 ,!y d n rememb] t disproportion 9 su* matt]s is fatal4 ,!y =get t a nose :i* v>ies slightly f ! ideal l9e ( beauty appropriate = noses1 t5d+ slightly t[>ds becom+ a hook or a snub1 may /ill be ( fair %ape & n disagreeable to ! eye1 b if ! excess be v great1 all symmetry is lo/1 & ! nose at la/ ceases to be a nose at all4 ,?is law ( proportion holds good ) reg>d to e =m ( gov]nm5t4 99 99 99 99 99 ,/>t+ f ^! g5]al ideas1 ,i h (t5 wond]$ :at pr9ciple democrats h adopt$ = ! =m ( gov]nm5t :i* !y fav\r1 & x has n requir$ a great ef=t on my "p to arrive at ! conclusion t ! pr9ciple 9 "q is ! wor%ip & cultivation1 or1 briefly '! cult' ( incompet5ce or ineffici5cy4 ,let u exam9e any well-manag$ & successful bus9ess firm or factory4 ,e employee does ! "w he kn[s & does be/1 ! skill$ workman1 ! acc\ntant1 ! manag] & ! secret>y1 ea* 9 8 place4 ,no "o w\ld dream ( mak+ ! acc\ntant *ange places ) a comm]cial travell] or a me*anic4 ,look too at ! animal _w4 ,! high] we g 9 ! scale ( organic exi/5ce1 ! great] ! division ( lab\r1 ! m m>k$ ! specialisation ( physiological function4 ,"o organ ?9ks1 ano!r acts1 "o dige/s1 ano!r brea!s4 ,n[ is !re su* a ?+ z an animal ) only "o organ1 or r is !re any animal1 consi/+ ( only "o organ1 :i* brea!s & ?9ks & dige/s all at ! same "t8 ,yes1 !re is4 ,x is call$ ! amoeba1 & ! amoeba is ! v l[e/ ?+ 9 ! animal _w1 v inf]ior ev5 to a vegetable4 ,9 ! same way1 )\t d\bt1 9 a well con/itut$ society1 ea* organ has its def9ite function1 t is to say1 adm9i/ration is c>ri$ on by ^? :o h le>nt h[ to adm9i/]1 legislation & ! am5dm5t ( laws by ^? :o h le>nt h[ to legislate1 ju/ice by ^? :o h /udi$ jurisprud5ce1 & ! functions ( a c\ntry po/man are n giv5 to a p>alytic4 ,society %\ld model itself on nature1 ^: plan is specialisation4 ,=1 z ,ari/otle says1 %e is n nigg>dly1 l ! ,delphian smi?s ^: knives h to s]ve = _m purposes1 %e makes ea* ?+ = a s+le purpose1 & ! be/ in/rum5t is t :i* s]ves "o & n _m uses4 ,else:]e he says1 ,at ,c>?age x is ?\ght an hon\r to hold _m (fices1 b a man only does "o ?+ well4 ,! legislator %\ld see to ?is1 & prev5t ! same man f be+ set to make %oes & play ! flute4 ,a well-con/itut$ society1 we may sum up1 is "o :]e e function is n confid$ to e "o1 :]e ! cr[d itself1 ! :ole body social1 is n told3 ,x is y\r bus9ess to gov]n1 to adm9i/]1 to make ! laws1 c4 ,a society1 :]e ?+s are s arrang$1 is an amoebic society4 ,t society1 !re=e1 /&s highe/ 9 ! scale1 :]e ! division ( lab\r is greate/1 :]e specialisation is mo/ def9ite1 & :]e ! di/ribution ( functions accord+ to effici5cy is mo/ ?or\ghly c>ri$ out4 99 99 99 99 99 ,n[ democracies1 f> f %>+ ?is view1 are incl9$ to take ! opposite view4 ,at ,a!ns !re 0 a great tribunal compos$ ( m5 le>n$ 91 & compet5t to int]pret1 ! law4 ,! p c\ld n tol]ate su* an in/itution1 s lab\r$ to de/roy x & to usurp its functions4 ,! cr[d reason$ ?us4 ,we c int]pret & c>ry out laws1 because we make !m4 ,! conclusion 0 "r1 b ! m9or premise 0 disputable4 ,! retort c be made3 ,true1 y c int]pret & c>ry out laws because y make !m1 b p]haps y h no bus9ess to be mak+ laws4 ,be t z x may1 ! ,a!nian p n only int]pret$ & appli$ its own laws1 b x insi/$ on be+ paid = s do+4 ,! result 0 t ! poore/ citiz5s sat judg+ all day long1 z all o!rs 7 unwill+ to sacrifice _! :ole "t = a paym5t ( six dra*mas4 ,?is plebeian tribunal cont9u$ = _m ye>s4 ,its mo/ celebrat$ feat 0 ! judgm5t :i* condemn$ ,socrates to dea?4 ,?is 0 p]haps matt] = regret1 b ! great pr9ciple1 ! sov]eignty ( incompet5ce1 0 v9dicat$4 ,mod]n democracies seem to h adopt$ ! same pr9ciple1 9 =m !y are ess5tially amoebic4 ,a democracy1 well-kn[n to u all1 has be5 evolv$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]4 ,x began ) ?is idea2 k+ & p1 democratic royalty1 royal democracy4 ,! p makes1 ! k+ c>ries out1 ! law2 ! p legislates1 ! k+ gov]ns1 reta9+1 h[ev]1 a c]ta9 control ov] ! law1 = he c susp5d ! c>ry+ out ( a new law :5 he consid]s t x t5ds to ob/ruct ! function ( gov]nm5t4 ,"h !n 0 a sort ( specialisation ( functions4 ,! same p]son1 or collective body ( p]sons1 did n bo? legislate & gov]n4 ,?is did n la/ long4 ,! k+ 0 suppress$4 ,democracy rema9$1 b a c]ta9 am\nt ( respect = effici5cy rema9$ too4 ,! p1 ! masses1 did n1 e s+le man ( !m1 claim ! "r to gov]n & to legislate directly4 ,x did n ev5 claim ! "r to nom9ate ! legislature directly4 ,x adopt$ indirect election1 a deux degres1 t is1 x nom9at$ electors :o 9 turn nom9at$ ! legislature4 ,x ?us left two ari/ocracies above itself1 ! fir/ electors & ! elect$ legislature4 ,?is 0 /ill f> remov$ f democracy on ! ,a!nian model :i* did ev]y?+ itself4 ,?is does n mean t mu* att5tion 0 paid to effici5cy4 ,! electors 7 n *os5 because !y 7 p>ticul>ly fitt$ to elect a legislature1 nor 0 ! legislature itself elect$ ) any ref]5ce to its legislative capacity4 ,/ill !re 0 a c]ta9 pret5ce ( a desire = effici5cy1 a d\ble pseudo-effici5cy4 ,! cr[d1 or r ! con/itution1 assum$ t legislators elect$ by ! delegates ( ! cr[d 7 m compet5t to make laws ?an ! cr[d itself4 ,?is some:at curi\s =m ( effici5cy ,i h call$ compet5ce p> collation1 effici5cy or compet5ce conf]r$ by ?is =m ( selection4 ,!re is absolutely no?+ to %[ t s-&-s has ! slighte/ legislative or juridical faculty1 s ,i conf] on him a c]tificate ( effici5cy by ! confid5ce ,i repose 9 him :5 nom9at+ him = ! (fice1 or r ,i %[ my confid5ce 9 ! electors & !y conf] a c]tificate ( effici5cy on ^? :om !y nom9ate = ! legislature4 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 is devoid ( all common s5se1 b appe>ances1 & ev5 some?+ m1 are 9 its fav\r4 ,x is n common s5se = x involves some?+ be+ made out ( no?+1 ineffici5cy produc+ effici5cy & z]o extract+ '"o' out ( itself4 ,?is =m ( selection1 ?\gh x does n appeal to me "u any circum/ances1 is legitimate en\gh :5 x is ex]cis$ by a compet5t body4 ,a univ]sity c conf] a degree ^u a di/+ui%$ man because x c judge :e!r 8 degreeless condition is due to accid5t or n4 ,x w\ld1 h[ev]1 be highly ridicul\s & p>adoxical if ! g5]al public 7 to conf] ma!matical degrees4 ,a degree ( effici5cy conf]r$ by an ineffici5t body is contr>y to common s5se4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 "s plausibility & inde$ a little m ?an plausibility 9 fav\r ( ?is plan4 ,degrees 9 lit]ature & 9 dramatic art are conf]r$1 giv5 by 'collation1' by incompet5t p1 t is by ! public4 ,we c say to ! public3 ,y "k no?+ ( lit]>y & dramatic art4 ,x w retort3 ,true1 ,i "k no?+1 b c]ta9 ?+s move me & ,i conf] ! degree on ^? :o evoke my emotions4 ,9 ?is x is n altoge!r wrong4 ,9 ! same way ! degree ( doctor ( political sci5ce is conf]r$ by ! p on ^? :o /ir its emotions & :o express mo/ =cibly its own passions4 ,^! doctors ( political sci5ce are ! empassion$ repres5tatives ( its own passions4 --,9 o!r words1 ! wor/ legislators6-- ,yes1 v ne>ly s1 b n q4 ,x is v useful t we %\ld h an expon5t ( popul> passion at ! cre/ ( ! social wave1 to tell u n inde$ :at ! cr[d is ?9k+1 = ! cr[d nev] ?9ks1 b :at ! cr[d is feel+1 9 ord] t we may n cross x too viol5tly or obey x too obsequi\sly4 ,an eng9e] w\ld call x ! sci5ce ( ! /r5g? ( mat]ials4 ,a m$ium assures me t he _h a conv]sation ) ,l\is ,,xiv1 :o said to him3 ,univ]sal suffrage is an excell5t ?+ 9 a mon>*y4 ,x is a s\rce ( in=mation4 ,:5 x recomm5ds a c]ta9 c\rse ( action x %[s u t ?is is a ?+ :i* we mu/ n d4 ,if ,i c\ld h consult$ x ov] ! ,revocation ( ! ,edict ( ,nantes1 x w\ld h giv5 me a cle> m&ate = t ,revocation & ,i %\ld h kn[n :at to d1 & t ,edict w\ld n h be5 revok$4 ,i act$ z ,i did1 because ,i 0 advis$ by m9i/]s :om ,i consid]$ exp]i5c$ /atesm54 ,_h ,i be5 aw>e ( ! /ate ( public op9ion ,i %\ld h kn[n t ,france 0 tir$ ( w>s & new palaces & extravagance4 ,b ?is 0 n an expression ( passion & prejudice1 b a cry ( suff]+4 ,z f> z passion & prejudice are conc]n$ we mu/ g "r 9 ! tee? ( public op9ion1 & univ]sal suffrage w tell y :at t is4 ,on ! o!r h& we mu/ pay he$1 s]i\s he$ to e cry ( pa91 & "h too univ]sal suffrage w come to our aid4 ,univ]sal suffrage is necess>y to a mon>*y z a s\rce ( in=mation4 ,?is1 ,i am told1 is ,l\is ,,xiv's pres5t op9ion on ! subject4 ,z f> z legislation !re=e is conc]n$1 ! attempt to secure compet5ce by 'collation' is an absurdity4 ,yet x is an inv]t$ sort ( compet5ce useful = indicat+ ! /ate ( a nation's temp]4 ,f ?is x foll[s t ?is sy/em is z mis*iev\s 9 a republic z x w\ld be :olesome 9 a mon>*y4 ,x is n !re=e altoge!r bad4 ,! democracy :i* we h 9 view1 aft] hav+ be5 gov]n$ by ! repres5tatives ( its repres5tatives = t5 ye>s1 submitt$ = ! next fifte5 ye>s to ! rule ( "o repres5tative & took no p>ticul> advantage !refrom4 ,!n = ?irty ye>s x adopt$ a s*eme :i* aim$ at a c]ta9 measure ( effici5cy4 ,x assum$ t ! electors ( ! legislature ought n to be nom9at$1 b m>k$ out by _! social position1 t is _! =tune4 ,^? :o possess$ s _m dra*mas 7 to be electors4 ,:at sort ( a basis = effici5cy is ?is8 ,x is a basis b c]ta9ly a some:at n>r[ "o4 ,x is a basis1 fir/1 because a man :o owns a c]ta9 =tune has a great] int]e/ ?an o!rs 9 a s\nd managem5t ( public bus9ess1 & self-int]e/ op5s & quick5s ! eye2 & aga9 a man :o has money & does n lose x _c be altoge!r a fool4 ,on ! o!r h& x is a n>r[ basis1 because ! possession ( money is ( itself no gu>antee ( political ability1 & ! sy/em leads to ! v que/ionable proposition t e ri* man is a compet5t social re=m]4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 a sort ( compet5ce1 b a compet5ce v prec>i\sly e/abli%$ & on a v n>r[ basis4 ,?is sy/em disappe>$ & our democracy1 aft] a %ort int]regnum1 repeat$ its previ\s exp]im5t & submitt$ = eighte5 ye>s to ! rule ( "o delegate ) no great cause to congratulate itself on ! result4 ,x !n adopt$ democracy 9 a =m almo/ pure & simple4 ,i say almo/1 = ! democratic sy/em pure & simple involves ! direct gov]nm5t ( ! p )\t any int]v5+ repres5tatives1 by means ( a cont9u\s plebiscite4 ,our democracy !n set up & /ill ma9ta9s a democratic sy/em almo/ pure & simple1 t is to say1 x e/abli%$ gov]nm5t ( ! nation by delegates :om x itself elect$ & by ^! delegates /rictly & exclusively4 ,?is "t we h rea*$ an apo!osis ( incompet5ce t is well nigh absolute4 ,?is1 our pres5t sy/em1 purports to be ! rule ( effici5cy *os5 by ! arbitr>y =m ( selection :i* has be5 describ$4 ,j z ! bi%op 9 ! /ory1 address+ a haun* ( v5ison1 exclaim$3 ,i baptise !e c>p1 s ! p says to its repres5tatives3 ,i baptise y ma/]s ( law1 ,i baptise y /atesm51 ,i baptise y social re=m]s4 ,we %all see lat] on t ?is baptism goes v mu* fur!r ?an ?is4 ,if ! p 7 capable ( judg+ ( ! legal & psy*ological k possess$ by ^? :o pres5t !mselves = election1 ?is =m ( selection ne$ n be prohibitive ( effici5cy & might ev5 be satisfactory2 b 9 ! fir/ place1 ! electors are n capable ( judg+1 & secondly1 ev5 if !y 71 no?+ w\ld be ga9$4 ,no?+ w\ld be ga9$1 because ! p nev] places itself at ?is po9t ( view4 ,emphatically nev]6 ,x looks at ! qualifications ( ! c&idate n f a sci5tific b f a moral po9t ( view4 --,well t surely is some?+1 &1 9 a way1 a gu>antee ( effici5cy4 ,! legislators are n capable ( mak+ laws1 x is true2 b at lea/ !y are hone/ m54 ,?is gu>antee ( moral effici5cy1 "s critic w say1 gives me mu* satisfaction4 ,please be c>eful1 ,i reply1 we %\ld nev] ?9k ( giv+ ! managem5t ( a railway /ation to ! mo/ hone/ man1 b to an hone/ man :o1 besides1 und]/ood ?or\ghly railway adm9i/ration4 ,s we mu/ put into our laws n only hone/ int5tions1 b j pr9ciples ( law1 politics1 & society4 ,secondly1 if ! c&idates are consid]$ f ! po9t ( view ( _! moral wor? x is 9 a peculi> fa%ion4 ,high morality is imput$ to ^? :o %>e ! dom9ant passions ( ! p & :o express !mselves !reon m viol5tly ?an o!rs4 ,ah6 ^! are our hone/ m51 x cries1 & ,i d n say t ! m5 ( its *oice are di%one/1 ,i only say t by ?is crit]ion !y are n infallibly m>k$ out ev5 z hone/4 --,/ill1 "s "o replies1 !y are probably dis9t]e/$1 = !y foll[ popul> prejudices1 & n _! own p>ticul>1 individual wi%es4 ,yes1 t is j :at ! masses believe1 :ile !y =get t !re is no?+ easi] ?an to simulate popul> passion 9 ord] to w9 popul> confid5ce & become a political p]sonage4 ,if dis9t]e/$ness is really s ess5tial to ! p1 only ^? %\ld be elect$ :o oppose ! popul> w & :o %[ !reby t !y d n want to be elect$4 ,or bett] /ill only ^? :o d n /& = election %\ld be elect$1 s9ce n to /& is ! und5iable sign ( dis9t]e/$ness4 ,b ?is is nev] done4 ,t :i* %\ld always be done is nev] done4 --,b1 "s "o w say1 y\r public bodies :i* recruit _! numb]s by co-optation1 ,academies & le>n$ societies1 d n elect _! memb]s 9 ?is way4-- ,q s1 & !y are "r4 ,su* bodies d n want _! memb]s to be dis9t]e/$ b sci5tific4 ,!y h no reason to pref] an unwill+ memb] to "o :o is eag] to be elect$4 ,_! po9t ( view is entirely diff]5t4 ,! p1 :i* pret5ds to set /ore by high moral "*1 %\ld exclude f p[] ^? :o are ambiti\s ( p[]1 or at lea/ ^? :o covet x ) a ke5ness t sugge/s o!r ?an dis9t]e/$ motives4 ,^! consid]ations %[ u :at ! cr[d und]/&s by ! moral wor? ( a man4 ,! moral wor? ( a man consi/s1 z f> z ! cr[d is conc]n$1 9 8 ent]ta9+ or pret5d+ to ent]ta9 ! same s5tim5ts z itself1 & x is j = ?is reason t ! repres5tatives ( ! multitude are excell5t z docum5ts = in=mation1 b dete/able1 or at lea/1 useless1 & !re=e dete/able1 z legislators4 ,montesquieu1 :o is seldom wrong1 errs 9 my op9ion :5 he says1 ,! p is well-fitt$ to *oose its own magi/rates4 ,he1 x is true1 did n live "u a democracy4 ,= consid]1 h[ c\ld ! p be fitt$ to *oose its own magi/rates & legislators1 :5 ,montesquieu himself1 ?is "t ) ample ju/ification1 lays d[n z "o ( 8 pr9ciples t morals %\ld correct climate1 & t law %\ld correct morals1 & ! p1 z we "k1 only ?9ks ( *oos+ z its delegates m5 :o %>e1 9 e p>ticul>1 its own mann] ( ?9k+8 ,climate c be p>tially resi/$ by ! p2 b if ! law %\ld correct morals1 legislators %\ld be *os5 :o h tak5 up an attitude ( reaction aga9/ curr5t morality4 ,x w\ld be v curi\s if su* a *oice 7 ev] made1 & n only is x nev] made b ! contr>y inv>iably happ5s4 ,to sum x all up1 x is intellectual incompet5ce1 nay moral incompet5ce :i* is s\ght in/9ctively 9 ! p's *oice4 99 99 99 99 99 ,if possible1 x is m ?an ?is4 ,! p fav\rs incompet5ce1 n only because x is no judge ( intellectual compet5ce & because x looks on moral compet5ce f a wrong po9t ( view1 b because x desires be=e ev]y?+1 z inde$ is v natural1 t its repres5tatives %\ld resemble itself4 ,?is x does = two reasons4 ,fir/1 z a matt] ( s5tim5t1 ! p desires1 z we h se51 t its repres5tatives %\ld %>e its feel+s & prejudices4 ,^! repres5tatives c %>e its prejudices & yet n absolutely resemble x 9 morals1 habits1 mann]s & appe>ance2 b naturally ! p nev] feels s c]ta9 t a man %>es its prejudices & is n m]ely pret5d+ to d s1 z :5 ! man resembles x feature by feature4 ,x is a sign & a gu>antee4 ,! p is in/9ctively impell$ !re=e to elect m5 ( ! same habits1 mann]s & ev5 education z itself1 or %all we say ( an education slightly sup]ior1 ! education ( a man :o c talk1 b only sup]ior 9 a v slight degree4 ,9 addition to ?is s5tim5tal reason1 !re is ano!r1 :i* is extremely important1 = x goes to ! v root ( ! democratic idea4 ,:at is ! p's "o desire1 :5 once x has be5 /ung by ! democratic t>antula8 ,x is t all m5 %\ld be equal1 & 9 consequ5ce t all inequalities natural z well z artificial %\ld disappe>4 ,x w n h artificial inequalities1 nobility ( bir?1 royal fav\rs1 inh]it$ weal?1 & s x is ready to aboli% nobility1 royalty1 & inh]itance4 ,nor does x l natural inequalities1 t is to say a man m intellig5t1 m active1 m c\rage\s1 m skilful ?an 8 neighb\rs4 ,x _c de/roy ^! inequalities1 = !y are natural1 b x c neutralise !m1 /rike !m ) impot5ce by exclud+ !m f ! employm5ts "u its control4 ,democracy is ?us l$ q naturally1 irresi/ibly "o may say1 to exclude ! compet5t precisely because !y are compet5t1 or if ! phrase pleases bett] & z ! popul> advocate w\ld put x1 n because !y are compet5t b because !y are unequal1 or1 z he w\ld probably g on to say1 if he wi%$ to excuse su* action1 n because !y are unequal1 b because be+ unequal !y are suspect$ ( be+ oppon5ts ( equality4 ,s x all comes to ! same ?+4 ,?is x is t made ,ari/otle say t :]e m]it is despis$1 !re is democracy4 ,he does n say s 9 s _m words1 b he wrote3 ,:]e m]it is n e/eem$ be=e ev]y?+ else1 x is n possible to h a firmly e/abli%$ ari/ocracy1 & t am\nts to say+ t :]e m]it is n e/eem$1 we ent] at once on a democratic regime & nev] escape f x4 ,! *ance1 !n1 ( effici5cy com+ to ! front 9 ?is /ate ( affairs is inde$ deplorable4 ,fir/ & la/1 democracy--& x is natural en\gh--wi%es to d ev]y?+ itself1 x is ! enemy ( all specialisation ( functions1 p>ticul>ly x wi%es to gov]n1 )\t delegates or int]m$i>ies4 ,its ideal is direct gov]nm5t z x exi/$ at ,a!ns1 its ideal is democracy1 9 ! t]m9ology ( ,r\sseau1 :o appli$ ! ^w to direct gov]nm5t & to direct gov]nm5t only4 ,=c$ by hi/orical ev5ts & p]haps by necessity to gov]n by delegates1 h[ c\ld democracy /ill contrive to gov]n directly or ne>ly s1 al?\gh cont9u+ to gov]n ?r\gh delegates8 ,its fir/ alt]native is1 p]haps1 to impose on its delegates an imp]ative m&ate4 ,delegates "u ?is condition become m]e ag5ts ( ! p4 ,!y att5d ! legislative assembly to regi/] ! w ( ! p j z !y receive x1 & ! p 9 reality gov]ns directly4 ,?is is :at is meant by ! imp]ative m&ate4 ,democracy has (t5 consid]$ x1 b nev] ) p]si/5ce4 ,h]e9 x %[s good s5se4 ,x has a %rewd suspicion t ! imp]ative m&ate is nev] m ?an a sn>e & a delusion4 ,repres5tatives ( ! p meet & discuss1 ! int]e/s ( p>ty become def9$4 ,h5ce=w>d !y are ! prey ( ! goddess ,opportunity1 ! ,greek ,kairos4 ,!n x happ5s "o day t to vote accord+ to _! m&ate w\ld be v unfav\rable to ! int]e/ ( _! p>ty4 ,!y are !re=e oblig$ to be fai?less to _! p>ty by reason ( _! fidelity to _! m&ate1 or disob$i5t to _! m&ate by reason ( _! ob$i5ce to _! p>ty2 & 9 any case to h betray$ _! m&ate ) ?is v praisewor?y & excell5t int5tion is a ?+ = :i* !y c take cr$it or at lea/ obta9 excuse ) ! electors--& on su* a matt] x w be v difficult to refute !m4 ,! imp]ative m&ate is !re=e a v clumsy in/rum5t = "w ( a v delicate "*4 ,! democracy1 in/9ctively1 kn[s ?is v well1 & sets no great /ore by ! imp]ative m&ate4 ,:at o!r alt]native is !re = x8 ,some?+ v mu* f9]1 ! sub/ance in/ead ( ! %ad[4 ,x c elect m5 :o resemble x closely1 :o foll[ its s5tim5ts closely1 :o are 9 fact s ne>ly id5tical ) itself t !y may be tru/$ to d surely1 in/9ctively1 almo/ me*anically t :i* x w\ld itself d1 if x 7 itself an imm5se legislative assembly4 ,!y w\ld vote1 )\t d\bt1 accord+ to circum/ances1 b also z _! electors w\ld vote if !y 7 gov]n+ directly4 ,9 ?is way democracy pres]ves its legislative p[]4 ,x makes ! law1 & ?is is ! only way x c make x4 ,democracy1 !re=e1 has ! greate/ inducem5t to elect repres5tatives :o are repres5tative1 :o1 9 ! fir/ place1 resemble x z closely z possible1 :o1 9 ! second place1 h no individuality ( _! own1 :o f9ally1 hav+ no =tune ( _! own1 h no sort ( indep5d5ce4 ,we deplore t democracy surr5d]s itself to politicians1 b f its own po9t ( view1 a po9t ( view :i* x _c avoid tak+ up1 x is absolutely "r4 ,:at is a politician8 ,he is a man :o1 9 respect ( 8 p]sonal op9ions1 is a nullity1 9 respect ( education1 a m$iocrity1 he %>es ! g5]al s5tim5ts & passions ( ! cr[d1 8 sole occupation is politics1 & if t c>e] 7 clos$ to him1 he w\ld die ( />vation4 ,he is precisely ! ?+ ( :i* ! democracy has ne$4 ,he w nev] be l$ away by 8 education to develop ideas ( 8 own2 & hav+ no ideas ( 8 own1 he w n all[ !m to ent] into conflict ) 8 prejudices4 ,8 prejudices w be1 at fir/ by a feeble sort ( conviction1 aft]w>ds by reason ( 8 own int]e/1 id5tical ) ^? ( ! cr[d2 & la/ly1 8 pov]ty & ! impossibility ( 8 gett+ a liv+ outside ( politics make x c]ta9 t he w nev] break out ( ! n>r[ circle :]e 8 political employ]s h conf9$ him2 8 imp]ative m&ate is ! mat]ial necessity :i* obliges him to obey2 8 imp]ative m&ate is 8 inability to qu>rel ) 8 bread & butt]4 ,democracy obvi\sly has ne$ ( politicians1 has ne$ ( no?+ else b politicians1 & has ne$ inde$ t !re %all be 9 politics no?+ else b politicians4 ,its enemy1 or r ! man :om democracy dreads because he means to gov]n & does n int5d to all[ ! mob to gov]n ?r\gh him1 is ! man :o succe$s 9 gett+ elect$ = "s con/itu5cy or o!r1 ei!r by ! influ5ce ( 8 weal? or by ! pre/ige ( 8 tal5t & notoriety4 ,su* a man is n dep5d5t on democracy4 ,if a legislative assembly 7 entirely or by a majority compos$ ( ri* m51 m5 ( sup]ior intellig5ce1 m5 :o _h an int]e/ 9 att5d+ to ! trades or pr(essions 9 :i* !y _h succe$$ r ?an 9 play+ at politics1 !y w\ld vote accord+ to _! own ideas1 & !n--:at w\ld happ58 ,:y !n democracy w\ld be simply suppress$4 ,x w\ld no long] legislate & gov]n2 !re w\ld be1 to speak exactly1 an ari/ocracy1 n v p]man5tly e/abli%$ p]haps1 b /ill an ari/ocracy :i* w\ld elim9ate ! influ5ce ( ! p f public affairs4 ,cle>ly x is almo/ impossible = ! democracy1 if x means to survive1 to enc\rage effici5cy1 nay x is almo/ impossible = x to refra9 f attempt+ to de/roy effici5cy4 ,?us1 we may sum up1 only ^? are elect$ z ! repres5tatives ( ! p1 :o are its exact c\nt]p>ts & con/ant dep5d5ts4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,confusion ,,( ,,functions4 ,& :at is ! result ( all ?is8 ,! result1 :i* is v logical1 v j f ! democratic po9t ( view1 & precisely t :i* ! democracy desires & _c d o!rwise ?an desire1 is t ! national repres5tatives d exactly :at ! p w\ld wi% !m to d1 & :at ! p w\ld d itself if x und]took to gov]n directly itself4 ,! repres5tative gov]nm5t wi%es to d ev]y?+ itself1 j z ! p w\ld l to d1 if x 7 itself ex]cis+ ! functions ( gov]nm5t directly1 j z x did 9 old5 times on ! ,pnyx at ,a!ns4 ,montesquieu realis$ ?is fully1 ?\gh naturally he _h no exp]i5ce ( h[ ! !ory work$ "u a repres5tative & p>liam5t>y sy/em4 ,! pr9ciple ( x all is at bottom ! same1 & only ! *ange ( a s+le phrase is ne$$ to make ! foll[+ quotation /rictly applicable4 ,! pr9ciple ( democracy1 he says1 is p]v]t$ n only :5 x loses ! _s ( equality1 b /ill m :5 x c>ries ! _s ( equality to an extreme1 & :5 e "o wi%es to be ! equal ( ^? :om he *ooses to gov]n him4 ,= !n ! p1 n be+ able to tol]ate ! au?ority :i* x has creat$1 wi%es to d ev]y?+ itself1 to delib]ate = ! ,s5ate1 to act = ! magi/rates1 & to usurp ! functions ( ! judges4 ,! p wi%es to exclude ! magi/rates f _! functions1 & ! magi/rates naturally are no long] respect$4 ,! delib]ations ( ! ,s5ate are all[$ to h no weight1 & s5ators naturally fall into contempt4 ,let u translate ! =ego+ passage into ! language ( to-day4 ,"u democratic p>liam5t>y gov]nm5t ! repres5tatives ( ! p are det]m9$ to d ev]y?+ !mselves4 ,!y mu/ be equal to ^? :om !y *oose = _! rul]s4 ,!y _c tol]ate ! au?ority :i* !y h entru/$ to ! ,gov]nm5t4 ,!y mu/ !mselves gov]n 9 ! place ( ! ,gov]nm5t1 adm9i/] 9 ! place ( ! executive /aff1 sub/itute _! own au?ority = t ( all ! b5* ( judges1 p]=m ! duties ( magi/rates1 &1 9 a ^w1 ?r[ (f all reg>d & respect = p]sons & ?+s4 ,?is is ! true inw>dness ( ! popul> _s1 ! w ( ! p :i* wi%es to d ev]y?+ itself1 or :at is ! same ?+1 ?r\gh its repres5tatives1 its fai?ful & s]vile creatures4 ,f ?is po9t onw>ds effici5cy is hunt$ & ext]m9at$ 9 e direction2 j z x 0 exclud$ 9 ! election ( repres5tatives1 s ! repres5tatives labori\sly & cont9u\sly exclude x f e sort ( (fice & employm5t "u ! public s]vice4 ,! ,gov]nm5t1 to beg9 our analysis ( functional confusion at ! top1 ought to be wat*$ & advis$ by ! national repres5tatives1 b x ought to be indep5d5t ( ! national repres5tatives1 at lea/ x ought n to be inextricably mix$ up ) !m1 9 o!r words ! national repres5tatives ought n to gov]n4 ,"u democracy ?is is precisely :at !y want to d4 ,!y elect ! ,gov]nm5t1 a privilege :i* ne$ n be d5i$ !m2 b1 n be+ able to tol]ate ! au?ority :i* !y h creat$1 z soon z !y h set x up1 !y put pressure on x & insi/ on gov]n+ cont9u\sly 9 its place4 ,! assembly ( national repres5tatives is n a body :i* makes laws1 b a body :i*1 by a nev] end+ /r+ ( que/ions & int]ruptions1 dictates f day to day to ! ,gov]nm5t :at x ought to d1 t is to say1 x is a body :i* gov]ns4 ,! c\ntry is gov]n$1 lit]ally1 by ! ,*amb] ( ,deputies4 ,?is is absolutely necess>y if1 z ! true _s ( ! sy/em requires1 ! p is to be gov]n$ by no "o b itself1 if !re is to be no w at "w o!r ?an ! w ( ! p1 emanat+ f itself & br++ back a sort ( h>ve/ ( executive acts4 ,aga91 ,i repeat1 ?is is absolutely necess>y1 9 ord] t !re %all be no?+1 n ev5 orig9at+ ) ! p1 :i*1 = a s+le mom5t & )9 ! mo/ n>r[ly def9$ limits1 %all ex]cise ! functions ( sov]eignty ov] ! sov]eign p4 ,?is is all v well1 b gov]nm5t is an art & we assume t !re is a sci5ce ( gov]nm5t1 & "h we h ! p gov]n$ by p]sons :o h nei!r sci5ce nor art1 & :o are *os5 precisely because !y h n ^! qualifications & on ! gu>antee t !y h none ( !m6 ,aga91 9 a democracy ( ?is k9d1 if !re exi/1 z a result ( tradition or ( "s necessity aris+ out ( =eign relations1 an au?ority1 indep5d5t = a c]ta9 t]m ( ye>s ( ! legislative assembly1 :i* has no acc\nts to r5d] to x & :i* _c be que/ion$ or con/itutionally ov]?r[n1 t au?ority is s /range1 &1 if ! phrase may pass1 s mon/r\s an anomaly1 t x d>es n ex]cise its p[]1 & dreads ! sc&al :i* x w\ld raise by act+ on its rights1 & seems z x 7 p>alys$ ) t]ror at ! v ?\ght ( its own exi/5ce4 ,& its attitude is "r2 = if x ex]cis$ its p[]s1 or ev5 l5t itself to any appe>ance ( s do+1 !re at once w\ld be an act ( w :i* 0 n an act ( ! popul> w1 a !ory altoge!r contr>y to ! _s ( ?is sy/em4 ,= 9 ?is sy/em ! *ief ( ! /ate c only be ! nom9al *ief ( ! /ate4 ,a w ( 8 own w\ld be an abuse ( p[]1 an idea ( 8 own w\ld be an encroa*m5t1 & a ^w ( 8 own w\ld be an act ( high treason4 ,x foll[s t1 if ! con/itution has =mally conf]r$ ^! p[]s1 ! con/itution on ^! po9ts is a dead lett]1 because x contrav5es an unwritt5 con/itution ( high] au?ority1 viz41 ! inn] inspiration ( ! political in/itution4 ,"o ( ^! honor>y *iefs ( ! /ate has said3 ,dur+ all my t]m z presid5t1 ,i 0 con/itutionally sil5t4 ,?is is n correct1 = ! con/itution gave him leave to speak & ev5 to act4 ,at bottom x 0 true1 = ! con/itution1 9 all[+ him to act & speak1 0 act+ uncon/itutionally4 ,9 speak+ he w\ld h be5 con/itutional1 9 hold+ 8 tongue he 0 in/itutional4 ,he _h be5 9 fact in/itutionally sil5t4 ,he disobey$ ! lett] ( ! con/itution1 b he _h admirably extract$ its mean+ f x1 & und]/ood & respect$ its _s4 ,"u democracy1 !n1 ! national repres5tatives gov]n z directly & z really z possible1 dictat+ a policy to ! executive & neutralis+ ! supreme *ief ( ! executive to :om x is n able to dictate4 ,! national repres5tatives are n cont5t ) gov]n+1 !y wi% to adm9i/]4 ,n[ consid] h[ x w\ld be if ! p]man5t (ficials ( f9ance1 ju/ice & police1 etc41 dep5d$ solely on _! p>liam5t>y *iefs1 :o are m9i/]s only because !y are ! creatures ( ! popul> assembly1 liable to in/ant & frequ5t dismissal2 surely !n1 ^! (ficials1 m p]man5t ?an _! *iefs1 w\ld =m an ari/ocracy1 & w\ld adm9i/] ! /ate indep5d5tly ( ! popul> w & accord+ to _! own ideas4 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 mu/ n be all[$ to happ54 ,!re mu/ n be any w b ! p's w1 no o!r p[]1 h[ev] limit$1 b its own4 ,?is causes a dilemma :i* is suffici5tly rem>kable4 ,"h we seem to h contr>y results f ! same cause4 ,s9ce ! popul> assembly gov]ns m9i/]s1 & frequ5tly dismisses !m1 !y are n able to gov]n _! subord9ates z did ,colb]t & ,l\vois1 & ^! subord9ates accord+ly are v indep5d5t2 s x comes ab\t t ! great] ! au?ority :i* ! popul> assembly wields ov] m9i/]s1 ! m x is likely to lose 9 its control ov] ! subord9ates ( m9i/]s1 & 9 de/roy+ "o rival p[] x creates ano!r4 ,! dilemma1 h[ev]1 is avoid$ easily en\gh4 ,no public (ficial is appo9t$ )\t receiv+ its visa1 & x contrives ev5 to elect ! adm9i/rative (ficials4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! national repres5tatives1 9 _! corporate capacity1 & 9 ! c5tral (fices ( gov]nm5t1 wat* mo/ att5tively ! appo9tm5t ( ! p]man5t /aff1 & fur!r ea* s+le memb] ( ! repres5tative gov]nm5t 9 8 prov9ce1 9 8 dep>tm5t1 9 8 arrondissem5t picks & *ooses ! c&idates & really appo9ts ! p]man5t /aff4 ,?is is1 ( c\rse1 necess>y1 if ! national w is to be p>am\nt "h z well z else:]e1 & if ! p is to secure s]vants ( its own type1 if x is to *oose its own magi/rates1 z ,montesquieu said4 ,! p1 !n1 *ooses its s]vants ?r\gh ! int]v5tion ( its repres5tatives2 & consid]1 to return to our po9t1 h[ absolutely necess>y x is = x to secure repres5tatives :o are intellectually ! exact image & imitation ( itself4 ,ev]y?+ dovetails neatly toge!r4 ,"h !n we h ! p int]f]+ influ5tially 9 ! appo9tm5t ( ! civil s]vice4 ,x cont9ues to d ev]y?+ itself4 ,compla9ts are rais$ on all sides ( ?is confusion ( politics ) ! bus9ess ( adm9i/ration1 & inde$ we he> cont9ually t politics p]vade ev]y?+4 ,b :at is ! reason ( ?is8 ,x is ! pr9ciple ( ! national sov]eignty ass]t+ itself4 ,politics1 political p[]1 means ! w ( ! majority ( ! nation1 & is x n fitt+ t ! w ( ! majority %\ld make itself felt--inde$ ne$ we be surpris$ t x insi/s on mak+ itself felt--9 ! details ( public bus9ess1 z adm9i/]$ by ! p]man5t /aff1 z well z else:]e8 ,! ideal ( democracy is t ! p %\ld elect its own rul]s1 or1 if ?is is n its ideal1 x is its idea1 & ?is is :at x does "u a p>liam5t>y democracy ?r\gh ! int]v5tion ( its repres5tatives4 ,?is is all v well1 b effici5cy has be5 dealt ano!r bl[4 ,= h[ is a c&idate to recomm5d himself = an (fice to :i* appo9tm5t is made by ! p & its repres5tatives8 ,by 8 m]it8 ,8 *iefs & 8 fell[ civil s]vants might be good judges ( t2 b ! p or its repres5tatives are mu* less capable ( judg+4 ,! p is admirably fitt$ to *oose ^? to :om x has to entru/ "s "p ( its au?ority2 s ,montesquieu2 we mu/ n[ exam9e ?is say+ a little m closely4 ,:at reasons does ! philosoph] give8 ,! p c only be guid$ by ?+s ( :i* x _c be ignorant1 & :i* fall1 s to speak1 )9 its own obs]vation4 ,x kn[s v well t a man has exp]i5ce 9 w>1 & t he has _h su* & su* successes2 x is !re=e q capable ( elect+ a g5]al4 ,x kn[s t a judge is indu/ri\s1 t _m ( ^? :o are litigants 9 8 c\rt g away satisfi$1 & t he has nev] be5 convict$ ( brib]y1 & ?is is en\gh to w>rant x 9 appo9t+ to any judicial (fice4 ,x has be5 impress$ by ! magnific5ce or ri*es ( "s citiz51 & ?is fits x = appo9t+ an a$ile4 ,all ^! ?+s are matt]s ( fact ab\t :i* ! man 9 ! /reet has bett] k ?an ! k+ 9 8 palace4 ,?is passage1 ,i confess1 does n appe> to be conv9c+4 ,:y %\ld n a k+ 9 8 palace "k ( ! ri*es ( a f9anci]1 ! reputation ( a judge or ! success ( a colonel j z well z ! man 9 ! /reet8 ,!re is no difficulty 9 gett+ in=mation ab\t su* ?+s4 ,! p kn[s t su* an "o 0 always a good judge & su* ano!r always an excell5t (fic]4 ,!re=e x is qualifi$ to appo9t a g5]al or a high-c\rt judge or o!r (fic] ( ! law4 ,s be x1 b = ! selection ( a "y judge or a "y & untri$ (fic] :at special s\rce ( in=mation has ! p8 ,i _c f9d t x has any4 ,9 ?is v argum5t1 ,montesquieu limits ! compet5ce ( ! p to ! election ( ! great *iefs1 & ( ! mo/ exalt$ magi/rates1 & inde$ fur!r conf9es ! popul> pr]ogative 9 ?is matt] to assign+ an (fice & c>e] to "o :o has already giv5 pro( ( 8 capacity4 ,b = putt+ ! compet5t man = ! fir/ "t 9 ! place :]e he is want$1 h[ has ! p any special in/9ct or in=mation8 ,montesquieu %[s t ! p c recognise ability :5 x has be5 prov$1 b he says no?+ to %[ t x recognises readily nasc5t1 unprov$ tal5t4 ,! argum5t ( ,montesquieu is n "h conclusive4 ,he has be5 l$ a/ray1 x seems to me1 by 8 desire to pres5t 8 argum5t anti!tically 7us+ ! t]m 9 its logical s5se74 ,:at he really wi%$ to prove 0 n s mu* ! tru? ( ! proposition t he 0 !n advanc+1 b ! falsity ( q ano!r proposition4 ,! "q = him1 ! "q :i* he _h 9 8 m9d1 0 z foll[s3 ,is ! p capable ( gov]n+ ! /ate1 ( tak+ measures be=eh&1 & ( und]/&+ & solv+ ! difficulties ( home & =eign affairs8 ,by no means4 ,!n is x fit to elect its own magi/rates8 ,well1 x might d t4 ,?us he _h be5 l$ away by ?is anti!sis s f> z to say3 ,able to gov]n8--,c]ta9ly n6 ,able to elect its own magi/rates8 ,admirably6 ,! explanation ( ! :ole p>agraph :i* ,i h j quot$ lies 9 ! conclusion1 :i* runs z foll[s3 ,all ^! ?+s are matt]s ( fact ab\t :i* ! man 9 ! /reet has bett] k ?an ! k+ 9 8 palace4 ,b c ! p pursue a policy & "k h[ to avail itself ( ! places1 occasions1 & times :5 action w be pr(itable8 ,no6 c]ta9ly n4 ,! tru? is t ! p is a little bett] fitt$ to *oose a magi/rate ?an to und]take a policy = ! gradual humbl+ ( ! ,h\se ( ,au/ria4 ,b n v mu* s1 z x is only a little m difficult to humble ! ,h\se ( ,au/ria1 ?an x is to discov] ! man :o is able to d x4 ,! masses are p>ticul>ly incapable ( mak+ initial appo9tm5ts & ( giv+ promotion 9 ! e>ly /ages ( a c>e] to ^? :o des]ve x4 ,yet 9 a democracy ?is is :at !y are con/antly do+4 ,aga91 by :at means has ! c&idate = civil s]vice employm5t1 :o is fav\r$ by ! p & its repres5tatives1 e>n$ _! approval8 ,by 8 m]it1 ( :i* ! p & its repres5tatives are v bad judges8 ,no6 ,by :at !n8 ,by 8 con=mity to ! g5]al views ( ! p2 t is1 by ! subs]vi5cy ( 8 political op9ions4 ,! political op9ions ( a c&idate = civil s]vice employm5t are ! only ?+s :i* m>k him out to ! popul> *oice because !y are ! only subjects on :i* ! p is a good judge4 ,yes1 b ! subs]vi5cy ( 8 political op9ions may be comb9$ ) real m]it4 ,true1 b ?is is a m]e matt] ( *ance4 ,! p is n1 p]haps1 9 ?is p>ticul> matt] consci\sly ho/ile to effici5cy1 r x is indiff]5t1 or ignores ! qualification altoge!r4 ,inde$1 !re is no great complim5t paid to effici5cy 9 su* transactions4 ,"h is :at inevitably happ5s4 ,! c&idate = a p]man5t appo9tm5t :o is n consci\s ( possess+ any p>ticul> m]it is n sl[ to realise t x is by 8 political op9ions t he w succe$1 & he naturally pr(esses ^? :i* are want$4 ,! c&idate :o is consci\s ( m]it1 v (t5 kn[+ v well :at less m]itori\s competitors are ab\t1 & n wi%+ to be beat51 also pr(esses ! same useful op9ions4 ,!re we h t infection ( evil1 :i* ,m4 ,r5\vi] has expla9$ s admirably 9 8 ,sci5ce de la ,morale4 ,fir/1 !n1 we see h[ mo/ ( ! c&idates *os5 by ! m&atories ( ! p are incapable2 o!rs :o are *os5 9 spite ( _! capacity are m5 ( indiff]5t "*2 & "*1 we mu/ admit1 9 all or ne>ly all public c>e]s is a necess>y "p ( effici5cy4 ,!re rema9s a small numb] ( m]itori\s p]sons :o h nev] id5tifi$ !mselves ) curr5t political op9ions1 & :o h slipp$ into public employm5t1 ?anks to "s brief mom5t ( inatt5tion on ! "p ( ! politicians4 ,^! intrud]s sometimes get on by ! m]e =ce ( circum/ances1 b !y nev] rea* ! highe/ po/s :i* are always res]v$1 z inde$ is prop] & fitt+1 = ^? 9 :om ! p has put its tru/4 ,?is is h[ ! p adm9i/]s z well z gov]ns ?r\gh ! int]v5tion ( ! repres5tative sy/em1 dictat+ to m9i/]s ! policy & ! details ( gov]nm5t4 --,i realise1 "s "o "h w object1 t adm9i/rators are nom9at$ by ! p1 b ,i d n see h[ ! affairs ( ! c\ntry are actually adm9i/]$ by ! p4-- ,well1 ,i w tell y4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 by nom9at+ (ficials x is already f> on ! road to controll+ !m1 = x infuses into ! body ( ! p]man5t civil s]vice ! _s ( ! p to ! exclusion ( e o!r s\rce ( inspiration1 & effectually prev5ts ! civil s]vice f becom+ an ari/ocracy z o!rwise x has always a t5d5cy to d4 ,next1 ! p does n conf9e itself to elect+ its adm9i/rators1 x wat*es & spies on !m1 keeps !m 9 lead+ /r+s1 & j z ! popul> repres5tatives dictate to m9i/]s ! details ( gov]nm5t1 s also !y dictate to adm9i/rators ! details ( adm9i/ration4 ,a prefet1 a procureur-g5]al1 an eng9e]-9-*ief "u democratic rule is a mu* h>ass$ man4 ,he has to play 8 own h& aga9/ 8 m9i/]ial *ief & ! deputies ( 8 di/rict4 ,he ought to obey ! m9i/]1 b he has also to obey ! deputies ( ! di/rict :i* he adm9i/]s4 ,9 ?is connection curi\s po9ts arise & situations n a little complicat$4 ,! prefet owes ob$i5ce to ! deputies & to ! m9i/]1 & ! m9i/] obeys ! deputies1 & x might !re=e h be5 suppos$ t !re 0 only "o w1 ! w :i* ! prefet obey$4 ,b :at ! m9i/] has to obey is ! g5]al w ( ! popul> repres5tatives1 & x is ?is w t he transmits = ! allegiance ( ! prefet2 b !n ! prefet f9ds himself collid+ aga9/ ! individual wills ( ! deputies ( 8 di/rict4 ,! result is :at we may call conflicts ( ob$i5ce :i* h extraord9>y int]e/ = ! psy*ologi/1 b :i* are less agreeable = ! prefet1 ! eng9e]-9-*ief1 or ! procureur-g5]al4 ,we note !n1 9 ! fir/ place1 h[ ev]y?+ concurs to make ! repres5tative ( ! popul> w z incompet5t z he is omnipot5t4 ,incompet5t he und\bt$ly is1 z we h already se51 to />t )1 & if he 7 n s already1 he w\ld c]ta9ly become s by reason ( ! trade or r ( ! miscellane\s assortm5t ( trades :i* are ?ru/ ^u him4 ,! sure/ way ( mak+ a man incompet5t is to make him ,jack-(-all-trades1 = !n he w be ma/] ( none4 ,9 ! next place1 ! repres5tative ( ! popul> w & _s1 besides 8 trade ( legislator1 has to cross-exam9e m9i/]s & to dictate to !m ! details ( _! duty1 t is to say1 he has to busy himself 9 all home & =eign politics4 ,he has also to adm9i/]1 by *oos+ & wat*+ adm9i/rators & by controll+ & inspir+ _! actions4 ,)\t say+ any?+ ( ! small individual s]vices :i* x is 8 int]e/ to r5d] to 8 con/itu5ts & :i* 8 con/itu5ts are by no means backw>d 9 dem&+1 he looks on himself z responsible = ! conduct ( ?+s 9 g5]al4 ,he becomes a sort ( univ]sal =eman1 n a man1 b a man-or*e/ra1 a busybody1 s busy t he c apply himself to no?+4 ,he _c /udy1 or ?9k1 or inve/igate1 or1 to speak accurately1 acquire any s5se at all4 ,if he be effici5t 9 "s p>ticul> subject1 :5 he ent]s on 8 public c>e]1 he becomes hopelessly ineffici5t 9 all subjects aft] a few ye>s ( public life1 & !n1 void ( all individuality1 he rema9s no?+ b a public man1 t is1 a man repres5t+ ! popul> w & nev] ?9k+1 or able to ?9k1 ( any?+ b h[ to make t w prevail4 ,&1 to press ! po9t aga91 ?is is all t is want$ ( him2 = c y conceive a repres5tative ( ! popul> w1 :o _h someh[ pres]v$ a measure ( compet5ce 9 f9ancial or judicial adm9i/ration1 :o w\ld pref]1 be=e o!r c&idates1 n a political p>tisan b a man ( m]it1 k & aptitude1 & :o w\ld ev5 approve 9 an adm9i/rator n acts ( political p>tiality b acts t are j & 9 con=mity ) ! int]e/s ( ! /ate8 ,:y6 ,su* a man w\ld be a dete/able s]vant 9 ! eyes ( democracy4 ,yes1 & ,i h kn[n su* a man4 ,he 0 n want+ 9 intellig5ce or wit & he 0 hone/4 ,a lawy]1 he 0 naturally int]e/$ 9 politics4 ,= local reasons he _h fail$ to be elect$ z deputy or z s5ator4 ,tir$ ( fight+1 he obta9$ a judicial appo9tm5t by ! influ5ce ( 8 political fri5ds4 ,he became presid5t ( c\rt4 ,a case 0 br\ght be=e him :]e ! accus$1 a p]son n p]haps ( altoge!r blameless life1 0 cle>ly n guilty ( any indictable (f5ce4 ,! accus$1 h[ev]1 a =m] prefet1 appo9t$ by a gov]nm5t n[ become v unpopul>1 & kn[n z a reaction>y & an ari/ocrat1 0 pursu$ by ! animosity ( ! :ole democratic population ( ! t[n & prov9ce4 ,! presid5t1 9 ! face ( op5ly express$ ho/ility 9 c\rt1 acquitt$ him4 ,9 ! ev5+ ! presid5t rem>k$1 n )\t a t\* ( hum\r3 ,!re1 t s]ves !m "r = n mak+ me a s5ator6 ,9 o!r words3 ,if !y _h accept$ me z a politician1 !y w\ld h made me a fool1 or at lea/ p>alys$ my effici5cy4 ,b !y w\ld n h x2 s "h ,i am1 a man :o kn[s ! law & applies x4 ,s mu* ! worse = !m6 ,by mak+ a man a slave ,zeus took f him half 8 s\l4 ,s ,hom]4 ,by mak+ a man a politician1 ,demos takes f him 8 :ole s\l1 & 9 omitt+ to make him a politician1 x is fooli% en\gh to leave him 8 s\l4 ,?is is :y ,demos hates a p]man5t civil s]vice4 ,an irremovable magi/rate or function>y is a man :om ! con/itution sets free f ! grip ( ! populace4 ,an irremovable (ficial is a man enfran*is$1 a free man4 ,demos does n love free m54 ,?is w expla9 :y 9 e nation :]e x is p>am\nt1 democracy susp5ds f "t to "t ! irremovable indep5d5t (ficial elem5t :]ev] x is f\nd4 ,! object is nom9ally to cl>ify & filt] ! p]sonnel ( ! (ficial _w2 b really x is int5d$ to tea* ! (ficials :om x sp>es1 t _! p]man5ce is only v relative & t1 l e "o else1 !y h to reckon ) ! sov]eignty ( ! p :i* w turn & r5d !m if !y v5ture to be too indep5d5t4 ,accord+ to ! con/itution ( #ahgc !re 7 irremovable s5ators 9 ,france4 ,9 ! int]e/ ( good gov]nm5t1 ?is 0 p]haps a s\nd arrangem5t4 ,! irremovable s5ators1 9 ! s*eme ( ! con/itution1 7 int5d$ to be1 & 9 fact 71 political & adm9i/rative vet]ans f ^: k1 effici5cy & exp]i5ce _! colleagues 7 to pr(it4 ,! plan1 f ?is po9t ( view1 might h work$ well if ! irremovable s5ators _h n be5 elect$ by _! colleagues b _h become s by "r2 = example e =m] ,presid5t ( ! ,republic1 e =m] presid5t ( ! ,c\r de ,cassation1 e =m] presid5t ( ! ,c\rt ( ,appeal1 e admiral1 e ar*bi%op might ex (ficio h be5 rais$ to ! rank ( s5ator = life4 ,f ! democratic po9t ( view1 h[ev]1 x 0 reg>d$ z a positive outrage t !re %\ld exi/ a repres5tative ( ! p :o _h n to r5d] acc\nt to ! p1 a repres5tative ( ! p :o _h no?+ to fe> f ! accid5ts ( re-election1 no risk ( fail+ to secure re-election1 9 o!r words t a man %\ld be elect$ = 8 suppos$ effici5cy1 9 no s5se repres5t+ ! p b himself alone4 ,p]man5t s5ators 7 aboli%$4 ,obvi\sly !y con/itut$ a political ari/ocracy1 f\nd$ on ! pret5ce ( s]vices r5d]$1 & ! ,s5ate :i* elect$ !m also fell "u ! ta9t ( ari/ocratic lean+s s9ce at t "t x recruit$ its memb]s by co-optation4 ,?is ( c\rse c\ld n be tol]at$4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,! ,,refuges ,,( ,,effici5cy4 ,w effici5cy !n1 y may well ask1 :5 driv5 out ( all public employm5t1 f9d refuge some:]e8 ,c]ta9ly x w4 ,9 private employm5ts & 9 employm5ts paid by public companies4 ,b>ri/]s1 solicitors1 doctors1 bus9ess m51 manufactur]s & au?ors are n paid by ! /ate1 nor are eng9e]s1 me*anics1 railway employees2 & s f> f _! effici5cy be+ a b> to _! employm5t1 x is _! mo/ valuable asset4 ,:5 a man consults 8 lawy] or 8 m$ical advis] he obvi\sly has no int]e/ 9 _! politics1 & :5 a railway company *ooses an eng9e]1 x enquires into 8 qualifications & ability & is q indiff]5t z to :e!r 8 political views co9cide ) ! g5]al m5tality ( ! p4 ,x is = ?is reason1 or at lea/ p>tly = ?is reason1 t democracy tries to nationalise all employm5t1 z a /ep 9 ! direction ( ! nationalisation ( ev]y?+4 ,= in/ance x c p>tly nationalise ! m$ical pr(ession by e/abli%+ appo9tm5ts = doctors1 at relief (fices1 s*ools1 & lycees4 ,x c also p>tly nationalise ! legal pr(ession by appo9t+ /ate-paid pr(essors ( law4 ,already ! ,/ate has consid]able control ov] ?is class ( p]son1 = mo/ ( !m h relations 9 gov]nm5t employm5t1 :om !y d n wi% to br+ into bad od\r by seem+ ho/ile to ! op9ions ( ! majority4 ,! ,/ate1 h[ev]1 wants to hold !m 9 /ill tight] control by seiz+ e opportunity ( nationalis+ & socialis+ !m m completely4 ,! ,/ate wants also to de/roy all l>ge associations1 & to absorb _! activities4 ,! /ate pur*ase ( a railway1 = in/ance1 is1 9 ! fir/ place1 a means ( exploit+ ! company2 = !re is always a hope t ! ,/ate w be able to fil* some?+ out ( ! transaction2 b its *ief recomm5dation lies 9 ! fact t x suppresses a :ole army ( ! company's (ficials & employees1 :o 7 "u no obligation to please ! ,gov]nm5t1 & :o _h no o!r int]e/ b to d _! "w prop]ly4 ,! ,/ate w ?us trans=m ?is free population into gov]nm5t employees1 ^: prim>y duty is to be docile & subs]vi5t4 ,"u ! extreme =m & "u ! complete =m ( ?is regime1 t is to say "u socialism1 ev]yone w be a gov]nm5t (ficial4 ,consequ5tly1 say ! ,sociali/ !ori/s1 all ! alleg$ drawbacks above m5tion$ w disappe>4 ,! ,/ate1 ! democracy1 ! dom9ant p>ty1 :atev] y *oose to call x1 w no long] be oblig$ to select its s]vants1 z y say x does1 by reason ( _! subs]vi5ce & _! incompet5ce1 because e citiz5 w be an (ficial4 ,?us too w disappe> t dual social sy/em1 "u :i* half ! population lives on ! ,/ate1 :ile ! o!r half is indep5d5t1 & prides itself on its sup]iority 9 "*1 9 intellig5ce & 9 effici5cy4 ,socialism solves ! problem4 ,i d n agree4 ,"u socialism1 ! electoral sy/em1 &1 !re=e1 ! p>ty sy/em w /ill exi/4 ,! citiz5s w *oose ! legislators1 ! legislators w *oose ! ,gov]nm5t1 & ! ,gov]nm5t w *oose ! directors ( lab\r & ! di/ributors ( ! means ( subsi/5ce4 ,p>ties1 t is1 comb9ations ( int]e/s1 w /ill exi/1 & ea* p>ty w want to capture ! legislature 9 ord] to secure ! election1 f its own numb]1 ( ! directors ( lab\r & ! di/ributors ( ! means ( subsi/5ce4 ,^! directors & di/ributors w be ! new ari/ocrats ( socialism1 & !y w be expect$ to arrange s(t jobs & ampl] rations = ! memb]s ( _! own gr\p or p>ty4 ,except t weal? & ! la/ ve/iges ( lib]ty h be5 suppress$1 no?+ has be5 *ang$1 & all ! objections above m5tion$ /ill hold4 ,!re is no solution "h4 ,if x 7 a solution1 !n ! sociali/ gov]nm5t c\ld n long rema9 elective4 ,x w\ld h to reign by div9e "r1 l ! ,jesuits 9 ,p>aguay4 ,x w\ld h to be a despotism1 n only 9 its policy b 9 its orig91 9 fact a mon>*y4 ,no intellig5t k+ has any inducem5t to *oose incompet5t m5 z 8 (ficials4 ,8 int]e/ w\ld lead him to d exactly ! opposite4 ,y w say t an intellig5t k+ is a v r>e1 ev5 an abnormal ?+4 ,i readily agree4 ,except 9 a v few in/ances1 :i* hi/ory records ) amazem5t1 a k+ has exactly ! same reasons z ! p = select+ z 8 fav\rites m5 :o w n eclipse nor contradict him1 & :o consequ5tly seldom turn out to be ! be/ ( citiz5s ei!r 9 respect ( intellig5ce or "*4 ,elective socialism & despotic socialism h ! same faults z democracy z we und]/& ! t]m4 ,besides1 9 tru?1 ! drift ( democracy t[>ds socialism is no?+ b a rev]sion to despotism4 ,if socialism 7 e/abli%$1 x w\ld beg9 by be+ elective1 & z e elective sy/em lives & brea!s & has its be+ 9 ! p>ty sy/em1 ! dom9ant p>ty w\ld elect ! legislature1 consequ5tly x w\ld con/itute ! ,gov]nm5t & w\ld extort f t ,gov]nm5t1 simply because x has ! p[] to extort x1 e conceivable =m ( privilege4 ,exploitation ( ! c\ntry by ! majority w\ld result1 z 9 e c\ntry :]e elective gov]nm5t prevails4 ,a sociali/ gov]nm5t !re=e is prim>ily an olig>*y ( directors ( lab\r & di/ributors ( subsi/5ce4 ,x is a v close olig>*y1 = ^? b5ea? x are q def5celess1 levell$ d[n to an equality ( pov]ty & mis]y4 ,x is a =m ( gov]nm5t v difficult to replace1 = x holds 9 its h&s ! ?reads ( su* an intricate organisation t x mu/ be protect$ aga9/ crude attempts to *ange x1 & s x t5ds to be a p]man5t olig>*y4 ,x w\ld !re=e conc5trate v quickly r\nd a lead]1 or at any rate1 relegate to ! second rank ! national repres5tatives & ! electorate4 ,su* a c\rse ( ev5ts w\ld be v simil> to :at occurr$ "u ! ,fir/ ,empire 9 ,france1 :5 ! milit>y ca/e eclips$ & dom9e]$ ov] ev]y?+4 ,x became cont9u\sly necess>y to ! ,/ate1 & ?\gh t necessity pass$ away1 x 0 soon recall$4 ,! ca/e !n clos$ its ranks r\nd ! lead] :o gave x unity1 & ! /r5g? ( unity4 99 99 99 99 99 ,s "u socialism1 m sl[ly & p]haps aft] ! lapse ( a g5]ation1 ! directors ( lab\r & ! di/ributors ( food1 peaceful ,janiss>ies ( ! new ord]1 w\ld =m !mselves into a ca/e1 v close1 v coh]5t1 & 7unlike legislators = :om an executive c\ncil c always be sub/itut$71 q indisp5sable1 & w\ld close _! ranks r\nd a *ief :o w\ld give !m unity & ! /r5g? ( unity4 ,be=e we knew socialism1 we us$ to say t democracy t5d$ naturally to despotism4 ,! situation seems some:at *ang$1 & we might n[ say t x t5ds to socialism3 really no?+ has *ang$4 ,= 9 t5d+ t[>ds socialism x is t[>ds despotism t x t5ds4 ,socialism is n consci\s ( ?is1 = x imag9es t x is j\rney+ t[>ds equality1 b out ( ^! utopias ( equality x is ev] despotism t em]ges4 ,b ?is is a digression :i* ref]s to ! future2 let u return to ! matt] 9 h&4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,! ,,compet5t ,,legislator4 ,democracy1 9 its mod]n =m1 encroa*es fir/ ^u ! executive & !n ^u ! adm9i/rative au?orities1 & r$uces !m to subjection by means ( its delegates1 ! legislators1 :om x *ooses 9 its own image1 t is to say1 because !y are incompet5t & gov]n$ by passion1 j z 9 ! words ( ,montesquieu1 ?\gh he p]haps contradicts himself a little3 ,! p is mov$ only by its passions4 ,:at ought !n ! "* ( ! legislator to be8 ,! v opposite1 x seems to me1 ( ! democratic legislator1 = he ought to be well in=m$ & entirely devoid ( prejudice4 ,he ought to be well in=m$1 b 8 in=mation %\ld n consi/ only ( book le>n+1 al?\gh an ext5sive legal k is ( ! greate/ use1 z x w prev5t him f do+1 z s (t5 happ5s1 ! exact opposite ( :at he int5ds to d4 ,he %\ld also und]/& intimately ! temp]am5t & "* ( ! p = :om he legislates4 ,= a nation %\ld only be giv5 ! laws & comm&m5ts t x c tol]ate1 z ,solon said3 ,i h giv5 !m ! be/ laws t !y c\ld endure1 & ! ,god ( ,israel said to ! ,jews3 ,i h giv5 y precepts :i* are n good1 t is to say1 !y h only ! goodness :i* y\r wick$ness w tol]ate4 ,?is is ! sponge1 says ,montesquieu1 :i* wipes out all ! difficulties t c be rais$ aga9/ ! laws ( ,moses4 ,! legislator1 !n1 ought to und]/& ! temp]am5t & g5ius ( ! p because he has to frame its laws4 ,z ! ,g]mans say1 he ought to be an exp]t on ! psy*ology ( races4 ,fur!r1 he ought to und]/& ! temp]am5t1 peculi>ities & "* ( ! p1 )\t %>+ its temp]am5t himself4 ,= :]e ! passions & incl9ations are conc]n$1 exp]i5ce is n k4 ,on ! contr>y1 exp]i5ce prev5ts u f really kn[+2 & inde$ "o ( ! conditions ( k is abs5ce ( an exp]i5ce :i* may be ano!r ^w = bias4 ,! ideal legislator1 or inde$ any legislator wor?y ( ! "n1 ought to und]/& ! g5]al t5d5cies ( 8 p1 b he ought to be able to view !m f a position ( deta*m5t & to be able to control !m1 because x is 8 bus9ess p>tly to satisfy & p>tly to combat ^! t5d5cies4 ,he has p>tly to satisfy !m1 or at lea/1 to consid] !m1 because a law :i* outrag$ ! national temp]am5t w\ld be l ,rol&'s m>e1 :i* _h e conceivable good quality ) ?is "o s]i\s defect1 t %e 0 dead1 & born dead4 ,suppose ! ,romans _h be5 giv5 an int]national law decree+ respect = conqu]$ peoples1 x w\ld h be5 a dead lett]1 & by a sort ( contagion x w\ld h l$ to ! neglect ( o!r laws4 ,suppose ! ,fr5* 7 giv5 a lib]al law1 a law prescrib+ respect = ! individual rights ( ! man & ! citiz54 ,lib]ty1 ! object ( su* a law1 is = ! ,fr5*1 z ,b>on ,joannes has rem>k$3 ,! "r ( ea* man to d :at he likes & to prev5t o!r m5 f do+ :at !y l4 ,9 ,france su* a law w\ld nev] obta9 any b a v grudg+ allegiance1 & x w\ld c]ta9ly lead to ! neglect ( o!r laws4 ,! legislator ought !re=e to und]/& ! natural idiosyncrasies ( 8 p 9 ord] to "k h[ f> he d>e v5ture to oppose !m4 ,p>tly he mu/ combat !m1 because law %\ld be to a nation1 or o!rwise x is m]ely a police regulation1 :at ! moral law is to an individual4 ,law %\ld be a re/ra9t impos$ cont9u\sly 9 ! hope ( future improvem5ts4 ,x %\ld be a curb on dang]\s passions & injuri\s desires4 ,x %\ld aid ! w>f>e ( enlight5$ selfi%ness aga9/ ! selfi%ness ( :i* all are a%am$4 ,t is :at ,montesquieu meant :5 he said t morals %\ld correct climate1 & laws %\ld correct morals4 ,! law1 !re=e1 to a c]ta9 ext5t %\ld correct national t5d5cies1 x %\ld be lov$ a little because x is felt to be j1 fe>$ a little because x is sev]e1 hat$ a little because x is to a c]ta9 degree out ( sympa?y ) ! preval5t temp] ( ! day1 & respect$ because x is felt to be necess>y4 ,?is is ! law t ! legislator has to frame1 & !re=e he ought to h exp]t k ( ! g5ius ( ! p = :om he legislates4 ,he mu/ und]/& bo? ^? t5d5cies :i* w resi/ & ^? :i* w welcome him4 ,he mu/ "k h[ f> he c g unoppos$ & h[ mu* he c v5ture )\t =feit+ 8 au?ority4 ,?is is ! pr9cipal & ess5tial qualification = ! legislator4 ,! second1 z we said be=e1 is t he mu/ be imp>tial4 ,! v ess5ce ( ! legislator is t he %\ld h mod]ation1 t virtue on :i* ,cic]o set s high a value1 :i* is s r>e1 if we look to its real mean+1 ! p]fect balance ( s\l & m9d4 ,x seems to me1 said ,montesquieu3 & ,i h writt5 ?is book solely to prove x1 t ! _s ( mod]ation is ess5tial 9 a legislator1 = political1 z well z moral "r1 lies betwe5 two extremes4 ,no?+ is m difficult = a man ?an to control 8 passions1 or m difficult = a legislator ?an to control ! passions ( ! p ( :om he =ms a "p1 to say no?+ ( 8 own4 ,ari/otle1 says ,montesquieu1 want$ to gratify1 fir/1 8 jeal\sy ( ,plato & !n 8 love = ,alex&]4 ,plato 0 horrifi$ at ! tyranny ( ! ,a!nians4 ,ma*iavel 0 full ( 8 idol1 ! ,duke ( ,val5t9ois4 ,?omas ,m1 :o 0 wont to speak ( :at he _h read r ?an ( :at he _h ?\ght1 want$ to gov]n e /ate ^u ! model ( a ,greek city4 ,h>r+ton c\ld ?9k ( no?+ b an ,engli% republic1 :ile ho/s ( writ]s ?\ght confusion mu/ reign :]ev] !re 0 no mon>*y4 ,laws are always 9 contact ) ! passions & prejudices ( ! legislator1 :e!r ^! are 8 alone1 or common to him & to 8 p4 ,sometimes !y pass ?r\gh & m]ely take col\r f ! prejudice ( ! day1 sometimes !y succumb to x & make x "p ( !mselves4 ,?is is j ! opposite ( :at %\ld be4 ,! legislator %\ld be to ! p :at consci5ce is to ! he>t ( ! individual4 ,he %\ld und]/& its besett+ passions 9 all _! be>+s & n be deceiv$ by subt]fuge or hypocrisy4 ,sometimes he mu/ attack !m boldly1 sometimes play (f "o aga9/ ano!r1 or fav\r "o at ! exp5se ( ano!r :i* is less influ5tial1 n[ yield+ gr\nd1 n[ recov]+ x1 b he mu/ ev] be skilful & imp>tial & nev] be intimidat$1 div]t$ f 8 purpose1 nor deceiv$ by 8 natural enemies4 ,he %\ld be1 s to speak1 m consci5ti\s ?an consci5ce itself1 because he mu/ nev] =get t he has to obey to-morr[ ! law :i* he makes to-day--semel jussit semp] p>uit4 ,he mu/1 !re=e1 be absolutely dis9t]e/$1 a ?+ mo/ difficult = him1 b = :i* consci5ce requires no ef=t4 ,n only mu/ he be )\t passion1 b he mu/ h tra9$ himself to be imp]vi\s to passion1 :i* is mu* m4 ,we mu/ conceive ( him z a consci5ce t has ris5 f ! a%es ( passion4 ,z ,r\sseau said1 to discov] ! p]fect rul] = human society we mu/ f9d a sup]ior intellig5ce :o has se5 all ! passions ( man b has exp]i5c$ none ( !m1 :o has _h no sort ( relations ) our nature b :o kn[s x to ! core1 ^: happ9ess is n dep5d5t on u1 b :o wi%es to promote our welf>e1 9 a ^w1 "o :o aims at a di/ant r5[n1 9 a remote future1 & :o is cont5t to lab\r 9 "o age & to enjoy 9 ano!r4 ,?is is :y ! +5i\s ,greeks imag9$ c]ta9 legislators go+ into exile to "s remote & unkn[n retreat1 z soon z !y _h made ! p adopt & swe> ob$i5ce to _! laws until _! return4 ,x may h be5 to b9d ! citiz5s by ?is oa?1 b is x n equally probable t !y wi%$ to escape f ! laws :i* !y !mselves _h made8 ,possibly !y felt t !y c\ld make !m all ! /rict] ) ! prospect ( be+ able to evade ob$i5ce ( !m by flight4 ,pr\dhon said3 ,i dream ( a republic s lib]al t 9 x ,i %all be guillot9$ z a reaction>y4 ,lycurgus 0 p]haps l ,pr\dhon1 9 t he f\nd$ s sev]e a republic t he knew he c\ld n live "u x & resolv$ to leave x z soon z x 0 e/abli%$4 ,solon & ,sylla rema9$ 9 ! /ates to :i* !y _h giv5 laws2 we mu/ !re=e place !m high] ?an ,lycurgus :o has p]haps ?is excuse = himself t 9 all probability he nev] exi/$ at all4 ,b ! leg5d rema9s to %[ t ! legislator %\ld be s sup]ior to 8 own passions & to ! passions ( 8 p1 t1 z legislator1 he %\ld make laws be=e :i*1 z a man1 he %\ld /& 9 awe4 ,?is mod]ation1 9 ! s5se 9 :i* we use ! t]m1 has sometimes l$ ! legislator to sugge/ or ins9uate laws r ?an impose !m4 ,?is is n always possible1 b x is s occasionally4 ,montesquieu tells u ! foll[+ ( ,/4 ,l\is3 ,see+ ! manifold abuses ( ju/ice 9 8 "t he endeav\r$ to make !m unpopul>4 ,he made _m regulations = ! c\rts 9 8 own doma91 & 9 ^? ( 8 b>ons1 & he 0 s successful1 t only a %ort "t aft] 8 dea? 8 me?ods 7 adopt$ 9 ! c\rts by _m ( 8 nobles4 ,?us ?is pr9ce atta9$ 8 object1 al?\gh 8 regulations 7 n promulgat$ z a g5]al law = ! :ole k+dom1 b m]ely z an example :i* any "o might foll[ 9 8 own int]e/4 ,he got rid ( an evil by mak+ pat5t ! bett] way4 ,:5 m5 saw 9 8 c\rts & 9 ^? ( 8 nobles m reasonable & natural =ms ( proc$ure1 m con=mable to religion & morality1 m fav\rable to public tranquillity & to ! security ( p]sons & prop]ty1 !y adopt$ ! sub/ance & ab&on$ ! %ad[4 ,to sugge/ :]e y _c compel1 to guide :]e y _c dem&1 t is ! supreme =m ( skill4 ,montesquieu adds ) "s optimism ?\gh no d\bt ! idea is enc\rag+3 ,reason has a natural empire1 we resi/ x1 b x triumphs ov] our resi/ance2 we p]si/ 9 error = a "t b we always h to return to x4 ,! in/ance above quot$ is v remote1 & c h>dly be appli$ to any?+ 9 our day4 ,b consid]1 = in/ance1 ! law ( ,sunday obs]vance :i* has be5 reviv$ f ! ecclesia/ical law4 ,x 0 a mi/ake to include x 9 ! ,code because x 0 antagoni/ic to _m ,fr5* cu/oms1 &1 9 _m ways1 to ! national temp]am5t4 ,! result is :at might h be5 expect$1 namely1 t x has only be5 c>ri$ out 9 r>e in/ances1 & ) an inf9ity ( tr\ble4 ,x might h be5 made ! subject ( an edict )\t be+ includ$ 9 ! ,code4 ,! ,/ate might h giv5 a holiday on ,sunday to all its (ficials1 employees & workm54 ,x might h be5 made q cle> simply by a circul> f ! ,m9i/] ( ,ju/ice t a workman w\ld n be puni%$ = brea* ( contract by refus+ to "w on a ,sunday4 ,! law ( a weekly day ( re/ w\ld !n h exi/$1 )\t be+ =mally promulgat$1 & w\ld h be5 limit$ precisely :]e x %\ld be1 by agreem5t betwe5 ma/]s & m5 :o w\ld submit to work+ on ,sundays :5 !y saw t x 0 necess>y & inevitable4 ,moreov] ?is law w\ld be /rong en\gh to modify )\t de/roy+ ! anci5t cu/oms ( ! p4 ,"h is ano!r in/ance :i* occurs )9 ! law laid d[n by ! ,code1 :]e ! legislator makes use ( a me?od ( sugge/ion & recomm5dation4 ,e>ly 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury ! legislator consid]$ t x 0 seemly = a husb& :o surpris$ 8 wife 9 adult]y to kill bo? h] & h] accomplice4 ,! s5tim5t is p]haps que/ionable1 b at all ev5ts1 x 0 curr5t4 ,0 x giv5 legal sanction8 ,no1 n precisely4 ,x is ins]t$ 9 ! law 9 ! =m ( an ins9uation1 a discreet recomm5dation & affectionate enc\ragem5t4 ,! legislator wrote ^! words3 ,9 flagrante delicto murd] is excusable4 ,i am n approv+ ! s5tim5t1 b only ?is mann] ( indicat+ r ?an en=c+ ! law & :at is ?\ght to be a :olesome practice1 & 9 o!r in/ances ,i %\ld ?9k x excell5t4 ,f9ally1 "o ( ! ess5tial qualities ( ! legislator is to %[ discretion 9 *ang+ exi/+ laws1 & = ?is purpose he %\ld be immune f ! passions ( m5 or at all ev5ts complete ma/] ( ^? :i* beset him4 ,= law has no real au?ority unless x is anci5t4 ,:]e a law is m]ely a cu/om :i* has become law1 x is inve/$ ) consid]able au?ority f ! fir/1 because x ga9s /r5g? by ! antiquity ( ! orig9al cu/om4 ,:5 on ! o!r h& a law is n an old cu/om b runs c\nt] to cu/om1 !n1 be=e x c h any au?ority1 x mu/ gr[ old & become a cu/om itself4 ,9 bo? cases x is on its antiquity t ! law mu/ dep5d = its /r5g?4 ,! law is l a tree1 at fir/ x is a t5d] sapl+1 !n x gr[s up1 its b>k h>d5s1 & its roots g deep into ! gr\nd & cl+ to ! rock4 ,we ought to consid] c>efully be=e we v5ture to replace ! =e/ tree by ! "y sapl+4 ,mo/ legislators1 said ,usbek to ,rh$i1,a h be5 m5 ( limit$ abilities1 ow+ _! position to a /roke ( =tune1 & consult+ no?+ b _! own :ims & prejudices4 ,!y h (t5 aboli%$ e/abli%$ laws q unnecess>ily1 & plung$ nations into ! *aos t is insep>able f *ange4 ,x is true t1 ow+ to "s odd *ance aris+ out ( ! nature r ?an out ( ! intellig5ce ( mank9d1 x is sometimes necess>y to alt] laws1 b ! case is v r>e & :5 x does arise x %\ld be h&l$ ) a rev]5t t\*4 ,:5 x is a "q ( *ang+ ! law1 mu* c]emony %\ld be obs]v$1 & _m precautions tak51 9 ord] t ! p may be naturally p]suad$ t laws are sacr$ ?+s1 & t _m =malities mu/ prec$e any attempt to alt] !m4 ,9 ?is passage1 z s (t5 else:]e1 ,montesquieu is q ,ari/otelian1 = ,ari/otle wrote3 ,x is evid5t t at times c]ta9 laws mu/ be *ang$1 b ?is requires great circumspection =1 :5 !re is little to be ga9$ !reby1 inasmu* z x is dang]\s t citiz5s %\ld be accu/om$ to f9d x easy to *ange ! law1 x is bett] to leave a few errors 9 our magi/]ial & legislative arrangem5ts ?an to accu/om ! p to con/ant *ange4 ,! disadvantage ( hav+ con/ant *anges 9 ! law is great] ?an any risk t we run ( contract+ a habit ( disob$i5ce to ! law4 ,= ! law assur$ly w be disobey$1 if we reg>d x z ephem]al1 un/able1 & always on ! po9t ( be+ *ang$4 ,"s k ( ! laws ( ! mo/ important nations1 a pr(\nd k ( ! temp]am5t1 "*1 s5tim5ts1 passions1 op9ions1 prejudices & cu/oms ( ! nation to :i* he belongs1 mod]ation ( he>t & m9d1 judgm5t1 imp>tiality1 coolness1 nay ev5 a measure ( /olidity1 ^! are ! attributes ( ! ideal legislator4 ,r !y are ! necess>y qualifications ( e man :o purposes to frame a good law2 !y are1 inde$1 ! elem5t>y attributes ( a legislator4 ,we h se5 t x is ! v opposite quality t democracy likes & expects ( its legislators4 ,x selects incompet5t & almo/ inv>iably ignorant m51 ,i h expla9$ :y2 & its nom9ees are ( a d\ble di/ill$ incompet5ce 9 t _! passions w\ld c]ta9ly neutralise _! effici5cy if !y possess$ any4 ,fur!r we h to obs]ve ?is curi\s fact4 ,s entirely does democracy *oose its legislators1 because !y are dom9at$ by passion1 & n 9 spite ( ! fact1 *ooses !m inde$ precisely = ! reasons = :i* x ought to reject !m1 t any mod]ate1 cle>-head$1 practical man :o wants to be elect$ & make use ( 8 p[]s1 has to />t by dissembl+ 8 mod]ation1 & by mak+ a noisy display ( facti\s viol5ce4 ,if he wants to be nom9at$ to a po/ :]e x w be 8 bus9ess to def5d & gu>antee public security1 he has to beg9 by advocat+ civil w>3 to become a peacemak] he mu/ fir/ pose z a rebel4 ,e popul> fav\rite passes ?r\gh ^! two phases1 & has to complete "o /age be=e he />ts on ! next4 ,is x n bett]1 y w ask1 t a man's :ole c>e] %\ld be sp5t 9 def5ce ( law & ord] r ?an ! latt] "p ( x8 ,n at all1 because y _c ex]cise any influ5ce z a fri5d ( law & ord] unless y h begun z an an>*i/4 ,^! *anges ( op9ion occur s frequ5tly t !y m]ely raise a smile4 ,!y h1 h[ev]1 ?is drawback1 t ! fri5d ( law & ord]1 ) a s$iti\s pa/1 nev] has an undisput$ au?ority1 & he sp5ds half 8 "t expla9+ ! reasons = 8 defection1 & ?is is a sore let & h9drance to 8 subsequ5t c>e]4 ,! p always elects m5 sway$ by real or simulat$ passion4 ,^! w ei!r always rema9 9 a /ate ( fr5zi$ excitem5t1 & !y are ! great majority1 or !y w become mod]ate m51 l>gely disqualifi$ & h&icapp$1 z we h above %[n1 = _! new c>e]4 ,! va/ majority ( ^! s5tim5tali/s ru% into politics in/ead ( /udy+ !m ) delib]ation1 judgm5t & wisdom4 ,! canons ( good gov]nm5t z above set out are entirely subv]t$4 ,! law does n control & re/ra9 ! passions ( ! populace4 ,legislation becomes little m ?an an expression ( _! fr5zy1 a s]ies ( p>ty measures levell$ by "o faction aga9/ ! o!r4 ,! introduction ( a bill is a *all5ge2 ! pass+ ( an act is a victory2 def9itions :i* at once damn ! legislator1 & convict ! sy/em4 ,a ,*>act]s 9 ,montesquieu's ,lettres ,p]sanes4 ,lett] cxxix4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,laws ,,"u ,,democracy4 ,! tru? ( my cont5tion is prov$ by ! fact t n[adays all our laws are em]g5cy laws1 a ?+ t no law %\ld ev] be4 ,montesquieu advis$ p to be v *>y & to ?9k twice be=e !y de/roy$ old laws or pull$ d[n an old h\se to run up a t5t1 b 8 advice is completely ignor$4 ,new laws are made = e *ange 9 ! wea!r1 = e little daily incid5t 9 politics4 ,we are gett+ us$ to ?is h&-to-m\? legislation4 ,l ! b>b>ian w>rior1 ( :om ,demo/h5es tells u1 :o always protect$ t portion ( 8 p]son :i* _h j receiv$ a bl[1 hold+ 8 %ield up to 8 %\ld]1 :5 8 %\ld] _h be5 /ruck1 d[n aga9 to 8 ?igh :5 ! bl[ fell !re1 ! dom9ant faction only makes laws to protect itself aga9/ an adv]s>y :o is1 or is ?\ght to be1 already 9 ! field1 or x introduces a hurri$1 ill-dige/$ re=m "u ! pressure ( an alleg$ sc&al4 ,if an aspirant to ! tyranny1 z !y us$ to say 9 ,a!ns1 is nom9at$ deputy 9 too _m con/itu5cies1 in/antly a law is pass$ prohibit+ multiple c&idatures4 ,= ! same reason1 = fe> ( ! same man1 scrut9 de li/e is hurri$ly replac$ by scrut9 d'arrondissem5t4,b ,if an accus$ woman is suppos$ to h be5 ill-treat$ at h] exam9ation1 tak5 too abruptly be=e ! int]rogatory ( ! presid5t1 or if ! c\nts are ineptly set out by ! public prosecutor1 in/antly ! :ole ( ! crim9al proc$ure is radically re=m$4 ,x is ! same ev]y:]e4 ,! legislative work%ops turn out only ! late/ novelties ( ! season4 ,or p]haps a newspap] w\ld be a /ill bett] simile4 ,fir/ !re is ! 'int]pellation1',c once at lea/ e day2 t corresponds to ! lead+ article4 ,!n !re are que/ions = m9i/]s on ?is1 t & ! o!r trivial occurr5ce2 t is ! s]ial or %ort /ory4 ,!n !re is a bill br\ght 9 ab\t some?+ t happ5$ ! night be=e1 t is ! special article4 ,!n "s deputy assaults 8 neighb\r1 ?is is ! g5]al news column4 ,y c\ld n h a m fai?ful repres5tation ( ! c\ntry4 ,ev]y?+ t happ5s 9 ! morn+ is dealt ) 9 ! ev5+ z x might be 9 ! village pot-h\se4 ,! legislative *amb] is an exagg]at$ reflection ( ! gossip+ public4 ,n[ x ought n to be a copy ( ! c\ntry1 x ought to be its s\l & bra94 ,b :5 a national repres5tative assembly repres5ts only ! passions ( ! populace x _c be o!rwise ?an :at x is4 ,9 o!r words mod]n democracy is n gov]n$ by laws b by decrees1 = em]g5cy laws are no bett] ?an decrees4 ,a law is an anci5t h]itage1 consecrat$ by long usage1 :i* m5 obey )\t /opp+ to ?9k :e!r x be law or cu/om4 ,x =ms "p ( a coh]5t1 h>moni\s & logical :ole4 ,a law improvis$ = an em]g5cy is m]ely a decree4 ,?is is "o ( ! ?+s t ,ari/otle saw bett] ?an any "o4 ,he comm5ts frequ5tly ^u ! ess5tial & fundam5tal di/9ction betwe5 ! two1 & expla9s h[ x is z dang]\s to misund]/& z to ignore x4 ,i quote ! passage 9 :i* he br+s ?is out mo/ =cibly3 ,a fif? =m ( democracy is t 9 :i* n ! law b ! multitude has ! supreme p[]1 & sup]s$es ! law by its decrees4 ,?is is a /ate ( affairs br\ght ab\t by ! demagogues4 ,= 9 democracies :i* are subject to ! law1 ! be/ citiz5s hold ! fir/ place & !re are no demagogues2 b :]e ! laws are n supreme1 !re demagogues spr+ up4 ,= ! p becomes a mon>* & is _m 9 "o2 & ! _m h ! p[] 9 _! h&s1 n z individuals b collectively4444 ,& ! p1 :o is n[ a mon>*1 & no long] "u ! control ( law1 seeks to ex]cise mon>*ical sway1 & gr[s into a despot2 ! flatt]] is held 9 hon\r2 ?is sort ( democracy be+ relatively to o!r democracies :at tyranny is to o!r =ms ( mon>*y4 ,! _s ( bo? is ! same1 & !y alike ex]cise a despotic rule ov] ! bett] citiz5s4 ,! decrees ( ! ,demos correspond to ! edicts ( ! tyrant1 & ! demagogue is to ! "o :at ! flatt]] is to ! o!r4 ,bo? h great p[]--! flatt]] ) ! tyrant1 ! demagogue ) democracies ( ! k9d :i* we are describ+4 ,! demagogues make ! decrees ( ! p ov]ride ! laws1 & ref] all ?+s to ! popul> assembly4 ,& !re=e !y gr[ great1 because ! p has all ?+s 9 its h&s & !y hold 9 _! h&s ! votes ( ! p1 :o is too ready to li/5 to !m4 ,su* a democracy is fairly op5 to ! objection t x is n a con/itution at all2 = :]e ! laws h no au?ority !re is no con/itution4 ,! law ought to be supreme ov] all4 ,s t if democracy be a real =m ( gov]nm5t1 ! sort ( con/itution 9 :i* all ?+s are regulat$ by decrees is cle>ly n a democracy 9 ! true s5se ( ! ^w1 = decrees relate only to p>ticul>s4 ,?is di/9ction betwe5 true law1 t is to say1 v5]able law1 fram$ to endure1 "p ( a co-ord9ate s*eme ( legislation1 & an em]g5cy law :i* is m]ely a decree l ! wi%es ( a tyrant1 con/itutes ! :ole diff]5ce1 if we c\ld realise x1 betwe5 ! sociologi/s ( antiquity & ^? ( to-day4 ,by ! t]m ,law1 ! anci5t & ! mod]n sociologi/s mean two diff]5t ?+s & ?is is ! reason = s _m misund]/&+s4 ,:5 he speaks ( law1 ! mod]n sociologi/ means ! expression ( ! g5]al w at su* & su* a date1 #aiaj = in/ance4 ,! anci5t sociologi/ w\ld consid] t ! expression ( ! g5]al w 9 ! second ye> ( ! #gcrd ,olympiad 0 n law at all1 b a decree4 ,a law to him w\ld be a p>agraph ( ! legislation ( ,solon1 ,lycurgus or ,*>ondas4 ,:5ev] 9 a ,greek or ,roman political treatise we meet ! expression--a ,/ate gov]n$ by laws1 ! only way to translate x is--a ,/ate gov]n$ by a v anci5t & immutable legislation4 ,?is gives ! true mean+ to ! fam\s p]sonification ( laws 9 ! ,pha$o1 :i* w\ld be q mean+less if ! ,greeks _h und]/ood :at we d by ! t]m4 ,are laws ! expression ( ! g5]al w ( ! p8 ,if s :y %\ld ,socrates h respect$ !m1 he :o despis$ ! p to ! day he 0 condemn$8 ,x w\ld be absurd4 ,^! laws :i* ,socrates respect$ 7 n ! decrees ( ! p contempor>y ) ,socrates2 !y 7 ! anci5t gods ( ! city1 :i* _h protect$ x f ! e>lie/ days4 ,^! laws may err 9 t !y seem$ to sanction ! v]dict t condemn$ ,socrates to dea?1 b !y 7 hon\rable1 v5]able & inviolate1 because !y _h be5 ! gu>dians ( ! city = c5turies1 & gu>dians ( ,socrates himself until ! day :5 !y 7 misappli$ aga9/ him4 ,a con/itution1 !re=e1 to adopt ,ari/otle's t]m9ology1 is a ,/ate :i* obeys laws1 t is to say1 laws fram$ by its ance/ors4 ,x is1 !n1 an ari/ocracy1 = x is ev5 m ari/ocratic to obey our ance/ors !mselves by obey+ ! ?\ghts :i* !y emb$d$ 9 legislation1 five c5turies ago1 ?an to obey ! inh]itors ( _! tradition1 ! ari/ocrats ( to-day4 ,= ari/ocrats ( to-day belong only p>tly to tradition1 9 t !y live 9 ! pres5t4 ,:]eas a fifte5? c5tury law belongs to ! fifte5? c5tury & to no o!r p]iod4 ,to obey law z und]/ood by ! anci5t sociologi/s1 did n mean obey+ ,scipio :o has j pass$ u on ! ,via ,sacra4 ,x meant to obey 8 gr&fa!r's great gr&fa!r6 ,all ?is is ultra-ari/ocratic4 ,precisely6 ,law is an ari/ocratic ?+2 only ! em]g5cy law1 ! decree1 is democratic4 ,= ?is reason ,montesquieu always speaks ( a mon>*y z be+ limit$1 &1 at ! same "t1 ma9ta9$ by its law4 ,:at did ?is mean 9 8 day1 :5 !re 0 no expression ( ! g5]al w to limit mon>*y1 & :5 royalty possess$ legislative p[]1 & c\ld at w make & remake laws8 ,x c\ld only mean "o ?+1 namely1 t ,montesquieu's conception ( law 0 ! same z t ( ! anci5t sociologi/s1--law f> old] ?an 8 "t1 fundam5tal laws z he calls !m1 ( ! anci5t mon>*y1 :i* /ill b9d & ought s to b9d ! mon>*1 ^: rule )\t !m w\ld be despotism or an>*y4 ,law is ess5tially ari/ocratic4 ,x orda9s t rul]s %\ld gov]n ! p1 & t ! dead %\ld gov]n ! rul]s4 ,! v ess5ce ( ari/ocracy is ! rule ( ^? :o h liv$ ov] ^? :o live1 = ! b5efit ( ^? :o %all live h]eaft]4 ,ari/ocracy1 prop]ly s call$1 is an ari/ocracy 9 ! fle%4 ,law is a spiritual ari/ocracy4 ,ari/ocracy1 z repres5t$ by ! ari/ocrats ( to-day1 only repres5ts ! dead by tradition1 inh]itance1 education1 physiological h]$ity ( temp]am5t & *>act]i/ics4 ,law does n repres5t ! dead1 x is ! dead !mselves1 x is _! v ?\ght p]petuat$ 9 immutable script4 ,a nation is ari/ocratic bo? 9 =m & _s :i* pres]ves its old ari/ocracy & ma9ta9s its vitality by c>eful infusions ( new blood4 ,/ill m is t nation ari/ocratic :i* ma9ta9s its old legislation inviolate1 add+ to x1 rev]5tly & discreetly1 new laws :i* comb9e some?+ ( ! mod]n _s ) ! _s ( ! old4 ,hom9es novi1 novae res4 ,homo novus means ! man )\t ance/ors :o is wor?y to be add$ to ! ranks ( ! nobly born4 ,novae res are ?+s )\t antec$5ts1 nay revolution itself4 ,novae res %\ld only be introduc$ p>tially gradually1 ins5sibly & progressively into anci5t ?+s1 z new m5 into ! community ( ! old nobility4 ,law is m ari/ocratic ?an ari/ocracy itself1 h5ce democracy is ! natural enemy ( laws & c only tol]ate decrees4 ,our exam9ation ( mod]n democracy has br\ght u to ! foll[+ conclusions4 ,! repres5tation ( ! c\ntry is res]v$ = ! incompet5t & also = ^? biass$ by passion1 :o are d\bly incompet5t4 ,! repres5tatives ( ! p want to d ev]y?+ !mselves4 ,!y d ev]y?+ badly & infect ! gov]nm5t & ! adm9i/ration ) _! passion & incompet5ce4 ,b ,see ,france1 by ,j4 ,e4 ,c4 ,bodley1 #ahii1 pp4 #ccd1 #cce4 ,"u ,scrut9 de li/e ! dep>tm5t is ! electoral unit1 ea* hav+ its complem5t ( deputies allott$ to x 9 proportion to its population1 & ea* elector hav+ z _m votes z !re are seats ascrib$ to 8 dep>tm5t1 )\t1 h[ev]1 ! p[] to cumulate4 ,scrut9 d'arrondissem5t is election by s+le-memb] con/itu5cies4 ,! arrondissem5t is ! electoral unit4 ,c ,?is is a "q put to a m9i/] by a deputy4 ,! effect 444 is some:at simil> to a motion to adj\rn ! h\se 9 ! ,engli% ,p>liam5t4 ,bodley1 p4 #dde4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,! ,,incompet5ce ,,( ,,gov]nm5t4 ,?is is n all4 ,! law ( incompet5ce spreads /ill fur!r1 ei!r by "s process ( logical necessity or by a sort ( contagion4 ,x has (t5 be5 made ! subject ( m]rim5t1 =1 l all trag$y1 :5 we reg>d x ) good hum\r ! matt] has its comic side1 t x is v r>e = any high (fice to be giv5 to a man :o is compet5t = ! po/4 ,g5]ally ! ,m9i/] ( ,education is a lawy]2 ! ,m9i/] ( ,comm]ce1 an au?or2 ! ,w> ,m9i/]1 a doctor2 ! ,m9i/] = ! ,navy1 a j\rnali/4 ,beaum>*ais' epigram ,! po/ requir$ a ma!matician--x 0 giv5 to a danc+ ma/]6 /rikes ! keynote mu* m ( a democracy ?an ( an absolute mon>*y4 ,! matt] is s g5]ally recognis$ t x has a sort ( retroactive effect ^u ! hi/orical ideas ( ! masses4 ,?ree ,fr5*m5 out ( e f\r are conv9c$ t ,c>not 0 a civilian1 & ! /atem5t has (t5 appe>$ 9 pr9t4 ,:y8 because x is inconceivable t "u a democracy ! ,w> ,m9i/] c\ld possibly be a soldi]1 or1 t ! memb]s ( ! ,conv5tion c\ld possibly h giv5 ! ,w> ,(fice to a soldi]4 ,?is appe>$ too p>adoxical to be true4 ,at fir/ sight ?is extraord9>y me?od ( mak+ incompet5t m5 into m9i/]s seems m]ely a joke1 m]ely ! subtle & ent]ta9+ vag>ies ( ! goddess ,incompet5ce4 ,p>tly x is s b n entirely4 ,! man ^: bus9ess x is to appo9t m9i/]s has to divide ! *oice/ plums ( (fice among ! v>i\s gr\ps ( ! majority :i* supports him4 ,z all ( ^! gr\ps d n conta9 speciali/s1 ! highe/ (fices are dispos$ ( on political gr\nds1 & n on gr\nds ( pr(essional aptitude4 ,i h %[n :at ! result is2 ! only m9i/]ial appo9tm5t :i* is made 9 a rational mann] is t :i* ! ,presid5t ( ! ,c\ncil res]ves = himself1 & ev5 9 ?is case 9 ord] to conciliate "s important political p]sonage he v (t5 gives x up & takes "s po/ = :i* he is n s well suit$4 ,see :at foll[s3 ea* dep>tm5t is direct$ by an incompet5t man1 :o1 if he be consci5ti\s1 sets himself to le>n ! "w 9 :i* he ought to be a fully tra9$ exp]t1 or1 if he be n consci5ti\s1 & be press$ = "t1 z he always is1 he directs 8 dep>tm5t accord+ to 8 g5]al political !ories & n accord+ to practical common s5se--a d\ble di/illation ( incompet5ce4 ,we "k ! k9d ( spee* a new ,m9i/] ( ,agriculture makes to 8 /aff4 ,he h>angues !m on ! pr9ciples ( ! revolution ( #aghi4 ,moreov]1 9 a highly c5tralis$ c\ntry1 ! m9i/] does ev]y?+ 9 8 own dep>tm5t4 ,he has to d ev]y?+ "u ! pressure1 x is true1 ( ! national repres5tatives2 b /ill 8 is ! supreme au?ority4 ,x is easy to see :at sort ( decisions he w make4 ,!y are (t5 v little support$ by law1 & sometimes are ev5 contr>y to law1 & !n !y rema9 a dead lett] f ! fir/4 ,m9i/]ial circul>s (t5 h a rem>kable "* = illegality4 ,9 t case !y fall & are =gott51 b n always be=e !y h introduc$ a va/ am\nt ( tr\ble ?r\gh\t ! entire adm9i/ration4 ,z to appo9tm5ts1 !y are made1 z ,i h said1 by political influ5ce1 & ev5 :5 !y are flagrantly improp] & corrupt1 !re is no *ance ( _! be+ correct$ by ! compet5ce ( a m9i/]1 :o1 hold+ enlight5$ views on ! bus9ess & subord9ates ( 8 (fice1 is able to put 8 foot d[n & say ,no6 ?is w n d1 we mu/ draw ! l9e some:]e4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,judicial ,,incompet5ce4 ,"h we f9d incompet5ce spread+ its influ5ce by ! logical necessity ( ! case4 ,!re are o!r qu>t]s 9 :i* x gr[s by a sort ( contagion4 ,h y ev] notic$ t ! anci5 regime1 9 spite ( griev\s %ortcom+s1 by a sort ( hi/orical tradition1 ma9ta9$ a c]ta9 respect = effici5cy 9 its diff]5t =ms8 ,= in/ance 9 matt]s ( jurisdiction1 !re 7 seignorial1 ecclesia/ical & milit>y c\rts4 ,^! 7 n f\nd$ z ! result ( argum5t & pr(\nd consid]ation1 b by ! natural c\rse ( ev5ts1 by hi/ory itself1 & !y 7 ma9ta9$ & approv$ by a mon>*y :i* 0 v]g+ on despotism4 ,seignorial jurisdiction1 )\t mu* rational ju/ification1 0 none ! less ( consid]able utility2 x b\nd1 or 0 capable ( b9d+1 ! noble to 8 l&1 x prev5t$ him f los+ sight ( 8 vassals1 & 8 vassals f los+ sight ( him1 & 0 9 fact a cons]vative =ce 9 ! ari/ocratic con/itution ( ! k+dom4 ,i submit t if ?is jurisdiction _h be5 prop]ly def9$1 limit$ & modifi$1 :i* 0 nev] done1 x w\ld h be5 consonant ) ! law ( compet5ce4 ,!re are v>i\s local matt]s :i* come q prop]ly )9 ! prov9ce ( ! noble1 :o 9 ^? days took ! place ( ! magi/rate4 ,all t 0 want$ 0 t su* matt]s %\ld h be5 def9$ ) precision & t 9 e case appeal %\ld h be5 all[$4 ,ecclesia/ical jurisdiction 0 p]fectly reasonable1 z (f5ces committ$ by ecclesia/ics h a special "* ( :i* ecclesia/ics alone c judge4 ,?is seems /range to mod]n ideas1 al?\gh n[adays !re are comm]cial c\rts & conciliation bo>ds1 because litigation betwe5 m5 ( bus9ess1 betwe5 workm5 & wom5 work]s1 & betwe5 employ]s & employ$1 c only be decid$ by m5 :o h te*nical k ( ! subject 9 dispute4 ,appeal1 moreov]1 to a high] c\rt is always all[$4 ,f9ally1 9 ! old days !re us$ to be milit>y jurisdiction = precisely ! same reason4 ,all ^! exceptional jurisdictions are objects ( ! livelie/ appreh5sion to democracy1 because !y infr+e ! rule ( uni=mity1 :i* is ! image & (t5 ! c>icature ( equality1 & also because !y are a /ronghold ( effici5cy4 ,democracy ( c\rse demoli%$ ari/ocratic c\rts toge!r ) ! ari/ocracy itself1 & ecclesia/ical c\rts toge!r ) ! ,*ur* :5 x ceas$ to be an e/ate ( ! realm4 ,any special jurisdictions :i* /ill rema9 are look$ ^u z in/rum5ts ( ari/ocracy2 c\rts-m>tial are held 9 abhorr5ce because !y h ideas ( _! own 9 respect ( milit>y hon\r & duty1 & milit>y (f5ces4 ,!re9 lies _! effici5cy1 a ?+ absolutely necess>y1 if we are to ma9ta9 milit>y _s & discipl9e 9 a /rong army4 ,! private soldi] or (fic]1 :o is only judg$ & puni%$ z a civilian1 w n be well judg$ nor adequately puni%$1 consid]+ ! special duties & s]vices :i* are requir$ ( ! army4 ,?is is a "q ( moral z well z te*nical effici5cy & to ?is ! democracy pays no he$1 because x is conv9c$ t no special effici5cy is necess>y & t common s5se is all t is requir$4 ,common s5se1 h[ev]1 is l wit2 x is useful 9 e walk ( life1 b is n suffici5t 9 any "o ( !m4 ,?is is j :at democracy _c or w n und]/&4 ,x makes j z great a mi/ake 9 its civil & crim9al jurisdiction1 ?\gh x has1 up to n[1 s f> dep>t$ f its pr9ciples z to appo9t qualifi$ juri/s to civil judge%ips4 ,no "o d5ies t ?is body ( m5 is effici5t4 ,^? :o act z judges "k _! law4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 z ,i h (t5 _h occasion to po9t out1 a moral z well z a te*nical effici5cy1 & 9 limit+ ! indep5d5ce t is ess5tial to moral effici5cy1 democracy neutralises ! te*nical effici5cy ( its s]vants4 ,let me expla9 my mean+ fur!r4 ,=m]ly ! magi/racy 0 a recognis$ & autonom\s bran* ( ! public s]vice1 & z a result1 save z x 0 affect$ by revolution & 9 normal times by ! fe> ( revolution1 enjoy$ an absolute indep5d5ce4 ,?is gave1 or r pres]v$ intact1 its moral effici5cy4 ,= moral effici5cy consi/s 9 an ability to act accord+ to ! dictates ( consci5ce1 & is equival5t to a sort ( moral indep5d5ce4 ,n[1 ! magi/rates =m a dep>tm5t ( ! adm9i/ration & are a body ( (ficials4 ,! ,/ate appo9ts1 promotes or refuses to promote & pays !m4 ,9 %ort ! ,/ate has !m at its m]cy1 j z milit>y (fic]s are controll$ by ! ,w> ,(fice1 or tax-collectors by ! ,treasury4 ,h5ce !y are depriv$ ( _! indep5d5ce & moral effici5cy1 = !y are always tempt$ to give judgm5t z ! ,gov]nm5t w\ld wi%4 ,!re is1 x is true1 a gu>antee = _! indep5d5ce 9 ! p]man5ce ( _! appo9tm5ts1 b ?is only applies to ^? :o h rea*$ ! summit ( _! pr(ession1 or are on ! po9t ( retir+1 or h no fur!r int]e/ 9 promotion4 ,! "y magi/rate :o wants to get on1 a p]fectly legitimate ambition1 is by no means indep5d5t1 = if he does n give satisfaction1 he may enjoy a peculi> k9d ( p]man5ce1 ! p]man5ce ( /&+ /ill at ! />t+ po9t4 ,! only indep5d5t judges1 to :om ju/ice is ! sole int]e/1 are ei!r ^? :o h s]v$ = =ty ye>s or ! ,presid5t ( ! ,c\r de ,cassation4 ,i may add also ! man ( indep5d5t means :o is indiff]5t to promotion & cont5t to sp5d all 8 "t at ! place ( 8 fir/ appo9tm5t4 ,he is exactly l ! magi/rates 9 old days1 b he & 8 k9d get r>] e ye>4 ,at be/1 moreov]1 ?is p]man5ce1 ( :i* s mu* is ?\ght1 is an illusory gu>antee1 = x is (t5 susp5d$ by "o ,gov]nm5t or ano!r1 & ! magi/rates are con/antly at ! m]cy ( political crises4 ,_! moral effici5cy is inde$ sorely tri$4 ,i affirm1 !re=e1 t ?is dim9ution ( moral effici5cy affects te*nical effici5cy1 because magi/rates d>e n insi/ on te*nical exactitude :5 cases arise betwe5 ! ,/ate & individuals1 or betwe5 ^? :o are protect$ by ,gov]nm5t & ^? :o are n4 ,?\gh cases 9 :i* ! ,/ate is a p>ty d n occur v (t51 ^? 9 :i* fri5ds ( ! ,gov]nm5t are involv$ are ( daily occurr5ce 9 a c\ntry :]e ,gov]nm5t is a faction wag+ incessant w>f>e aga9/ all o!r factions4 ,x has be5 said ) mu* reason t p>liam5t>y gov]nm5t on a basis ( univ]sal suffrage is legalis$ & cont9u\s civil w>4 ,x is usually a bloodless civil w>1 b its weapons are insults1 provocations1 calumnies1 p]sonalities1 libel actions4 ,^! g on f "o ye>'s end to ! o!r4 ,9 a c\ntry :]e su* a /ate ( affairs is preval5t1 ! magi/racy ought to be absolutely indep5d5t 9 ord] to be imp>tial4 ,yet x is precisely 9 a c\ntry l ?is t ! magi/racy1 n be+ indep5d5t & autonom\s1 is oblig$ to avoid (f5d+ ! p>ty 9 (fice :i*1 moreov]1 is extremely exact+1 = x lives 9 con/ant fe> t x may be turn$ out ( p[]4 --,is !re no?+ to be done8 ,w\ld y advocate a return to ! practice ( pur*as+ judicial appo9tm5ts8-- ,9 ! fir/ place1 ?is w\ld n be any?+ s v t]rible1 & secondly1 x might be q possible to secure all ! advantages ( pur*ase )\t its actual practice4 ,i c %[ y t x is n s v t]rible1 = ! case is p>allel ) t ( ! exceptional jurisdictions1 ! m5tion ( :i* fill$ y ) horror till y rememb]$ ! comm]cial c\rts & ! c\ncils ( exp]ts1 all excell5t in/itutions4 ,we are appall$ at ! idea ( a magi/rate pur*as+ 8 (fice1 & yet we employ advocates & solicitors & o!r legal (ficials & tru/ !m ) our mo/ preci\s int]e/s1 yet !y h1 _m ( !m1 ei!r b\ght or inh]it$ _! practice4 ,"u a sy/em ( pur*ase1 we %\ld be judg$ by lawy]s ( :om we requir$ m ext5sive legal k ?an is at pres5t requir$ ( ! pr(ession4 ,we %\ld be judg$ 9 fact by solicitors & advocates ( a sup]ior ord]4 ,!re is no?+ v al>m+ ab\t t4 ,montesquieu 0 9 fav\r ( a sy/em ( pur*ase4 ,voltaire oppos$ x /rongly4 ,!y 7 bo? "r & 7 inde$ agre$ on g5]al pr9ciples4 ,montesquieu says3 ,v5ality1--! pur*ase sy/em1--is a good ?+ "u a mon>*ical =m ( gov]nm5t1 because "w :i* w\ld n be done f m]e civic virtue is !n und]tak5 z a family bus9ess4 ,ea* man's duty is laid d[n = him1 & ! ord]s ( ! ,/ate are giv5 great] p]man5ce4 ,suidas says v aptly ( ,ana/asius t he turn$ ! ,empire into an ari/ocracy by sell+ magi/]ial (fices4 ,voltaire replies3 ,is x z a matt] ( civic virtue t 9 ,engl& a judge ( ! ,k+'s ,b5* accepts 8 appo9tm5t8 7,x is ei!r a matt] ( civic virtue or ( pr(it & int]e/1 & if x is n pr(it1 x c]ta9ly mu/ require consid]able civic virtue47 ,:at6 c we n f9d m5 9 ,france will+ to judge if we be/[ _! appo9tm5ts ^u !m gratuit\sly8 7,we c]ta9ly c3 b !y might be too grateful67 ,c ! "w ( adm9i/]+ ju/ice1 dispos+ ( ! lives & =tunes ( m51 become a family bus9ess8 7,well1 ! bus9ess ( be>+ arms & dispos+ ( m5's lives & =tunes 9 civil w> 0 9 #agfj a family bus9ess4 ,s too ! bus9ess ( be+ k+1 & y d n prote/ aga9/ t67 ,x is a pity t ,montesquieu %\ld di%on\r 8 "w by su* p>adoxes1 b we mu/ =give him2 8 uncle pur*as$ a prov9cial magi/rate's (fice & left x to him4 ,human nature comes 9 ev]y:]e4 ,none ( u is )\t weaknesses4 ,montesquieu ?9ks ari/ocratic bodies are good ?+s4 ,voltaire is 9 fav\r ( absolute p[]4 ,montesquieu w\ld l ! judicature to be a family (fice1 t is to say h]$it>y l ! pr(ession ( a soldi]2 ?is w\ld make ! judicial pr(ession p]man5t l o!r pr(essions4 ,he demon/rates1 z does ,suidas1 t ! pur*ase sy/em creates an ari/ocracy4 ,voltaire1 l ,napoleon ,i41 w\ld make 8 soldi]s1 8 prie/s1 & 8 judges1 k+'s m54 ,!y %\ld all belong to ! k+1 body & s\l4 ,montesquieu _h a great] antagoni/ ?an ,voltaire 9 ,plato4 ,plato wrote 9 8 ,republic1 ref]r+ to all judicial (fices3 ,x is z if on bo>d %ip a man 7 made a pilot = 8 weal?4 ,c x be t su* a rule is bad 9 e o!r call+1 & good only 9 respect ( ! gov]n+ ( a republic8 ,montesquieu answ]s ,plato 7& 9 anticipation ,voltaire7 v wittily3 ,plato is speak+ ( a virtu\s republic & ,i ( a m]e mon>*y4 ,"u a mon>*y if (fices 7 n sold by rule1 ! pov]ty & gre$ ( c\rti]s w\ld sell !m all ! same1 & *ance aft] all w give a bett] result ?an ! *oice ( a pr9ce4 ,to sum up1 ,montesquieu wants ! magi/racy to be p>tly h]$it>y1 & p>tly recruit$ f ! weal?y classes1 an indep5d5t1 ari/ocratic body analog\s to ! army or ! cl]gy1 adm9i/]+ ju/ice ) t te*nical effici5cy :i* univ]sity /&>ds c gu>antee1 & ) ! moral effici5cy :i* is f\nd$ on indep5d5ce1 dignity1 public _s & imp>tiality4 ,i said above t v5ality1 or ! sy/em ( pur*ase1 0 n necess>y to obta9 ^! results4 ,! pr9ciple is ?is1 t ! magi/racy mu/ be indep5d5t1 & to be indep5d5t x mu/ h a propriet>y "r 9 its duties4 ,?is c only be obta9$ if x hold its (fice by inh]itance or pur*ase z 0 done "u ! anci5 regime2 or1 if x 7 someh[ contriv$ t magi/rates %\ld n be *os5 by ! ,gov]nm5t4 ,! pur*ase or inh]itance plan is n popul>1 !n ! only alt]native is t ! magi/rates %\ld be *os5 by "s body o!r ?an ! ,gov]nm5t4 ,by :om !n8 ,! p8 ,!n ! judges w\ld be dep5d5t ^u ! p & ! electors4 --,t w\ld be bett]1 or less bad4-- ,n at all4 ,if ! judges 7 *os5 by ! electors1 !y w\ld be ev5 less imp>tial ?an if !y 7 elect$ by ! ,gov]nm5t4 ,! judge !n w\ld ?9k ( no?+ b ( be+ re-elect$4 ,he w\ld always give judgm5t 9 fav\r ( ! p>ty :i* _h elect$ him4 ,w\ld y c>e to be judg$ be=e a c\rt compos$ ( ! deputies ( y\r dep>tm5t8 ,c]ta9ly n1 if y belong to ! weak] p>ty4 ,yes1 if y belong to ! majority1 b !n only if y are c]ta9 t y\r adv]s>y belongs to ! m9ority1 or1 if he belong to y\r own p>ty1 t he is a less influ5tial elector ?an y\rself4 ,to sum up1 !re is no gu>antee ( imp>tiality if ! judges are elect$4 ,fur!r1 if ! sy/em ( elect+ judges by ^? liable to _! jurisdiction 7 adopt$1 !re w\ld be an ext5sive &1 ,i might add1 a mo/ ent]ta9+ v>iety ( ju/ice4 ,judges1 :o 7 elect$ by a blue or republican majority1 & :o 7 anxi\s = re-election1 w\ld always deliv] judgm5t 9 fav\r ( ! blues4 ,! same ?+ w\ld happ5 9 ! :ite or royali/s di/ricts4 ,ju/ice has h] epo*s1 ,pascal said ironically1 & 9 ?is case ju/ice w\ld h h] di/ricts4 ,x w\ld n be ! same 9 ! ,alpes-,m>itimes z 9 ! ,cotes-du-,nord4 ,! ,c\rt ( ,appeal1 if x attempt$ to be imp>tial1 w\ld sp5d its "t s5d+ cases back f a blue di/rict to be revis$ 9 a :ite1 & ! decisions deliv]$ 9 a :ite c\ntry to be revis$ 9 a blue4 ,!re w\ld be judicial & legal an>*y4 --,if ! b5* is n to be inh]it$1 nor b\ght1 nor *os5 by ! ,gov]nm5t1 nor elect$ by ! p1 by :om is x to be nom9at$8-- ,by itself2 ,i see no o!r solution4 ,= in/ance ,i c sugge/ "o good me?od1 ?\gh !re may be sev]al4 ,all ! doctors ( law 9 ,france c\ld *oose ! judges ( appeal & ! judges ( appeal c\ld *oose & promote all ! judges4 ,?is is an ari/ocratic-democratic s*eme on a v broad basis4 ,or else ! judges alone might *oose ! judges ( appeal1 & ! judges ( appeal might appo9t & promote ! judges4 ,t is an olig>*ical me?od4 ,or aga91 "h is a plan = pass+ f ! sy/em t is1 to t :i* ought to be4 ,= ! fir/ "t ! doctors ( law might *oose ! ,c\r de ,cassation1 & x c\ld *oose ! judges4 ,aft]w>ds ! judges c\ld fill ! vacancies 9 ! ,c\r de ,cassation1 :i* w\ld nom9ate & promote ! judges4 ,! ,gov]nm5t w\ld /ill g on1 & cont9ue to nom9ate ! p]sons eligible to s]ve z magi/rates4 ,"u all ^! sy/ems ! judges w\ld =m an autonom\s1 self-creative body1 dep5d5t ^u & responsible to !mselves alone1 & by reason ( _! absolute indep5d5ce1 /rictly imp>tial4 --,b !y w\ld =m a ca/e6-- ,!y w\ld =m a ca/e4 ,i am sorry = x1 b x is ! case4 ,y w nev] be well judg$ until y h a judicial ca/e1 :i* is nei!r ! ,gov]nm5t1 nor ! _w at l>ge4 ,= ! ,gov]nm5t _c judge prop]ly :5 x is bo? judge & p>ty to ! suit4 ,fur!r1 if x be litigi\s2 x w nev] be out ( c\rt4 ,aga91 ! _w at l>ge _c judge prop]ly1 because1 9 practice1 ! _w at l>ge means ! majority1 & ! majority is a p>ty1 & by def9ition a p>ty c h>dly be imp>tial4 ,b democracy does n want to be judg$ by a ca/e4 ,9 ! fir/ place because x abhors ca/es1 & secondly because x does n c>e ab\t imp>tial ju/ice4 ,d n exclaim at ! p>adox4 ,democracy does want to be judg$ imp>tially 9 little e-day cases1 b 9 all important cases 9 :i* a political "q is involv$ & 9 :i* "o ( ! majority is oppos$ to "o ( ! m9ority1 ! v]dict !n has to be = ! /rong] side4 ,x says to ! judicial b5* :at a simple-m9d$ deputy said to ! ,presid5t ( ! ,*amb]3 ,x is y\r duty to protect ! majority4 ,?is is :y democracy cl+s to its (ficial magi/racy1 :i* conta9s "s good elem5ts ?\gh its memb]s _c always be imp>tial4 ,!y 7 condemn$ by ! m\? ( "o ( _! highe/ dignit>ies :o answ]$ :5 que/ion$ ab\t "s illegal proce$+3 ,!re are reasons ( high ,/ate policy1 ?us ?r[+ bo? ! law & ! judges at ! feet ( ! ,gov]nm5t4 ,on ano!r occasion1 ) ! v be/ int5tions1 9 ord] to put an end to an int]m9able affair1 !y turn$ & twi/$ ! law & set a bad example2 = by n apply+ ! law correctly1 !y laid !mselves op5 to endless & ju/ifiable attacks ^u _! decision2 !y did n procure ! long$-= settlem5t1 &1 in/ead1 left ! matt] op5 to int]m9able dispute4 ,!y h k1 good s5se & intellig5ce1 b z _! want ( indep5d5ce1 9 o!r words _! moral ineffici5cy1 neutralises _! te*nical effici5cy1 !y d n & _c possess au?ority4 ,democracy w inevitably g fur!r along ! road t[>ds its ideal1 :i* is direct gov]nm5t4 ,x w want to elect ! judges4 ,already x *ooses !m remotely 9 ! ?ird degree2 = x *ooses ! deputies :o *oose ! ,gov]nm5t1 :i* *ooses ! judges2 & to "s ext5t1 9 ! second degree1 = x *ooses ! deputies :o br+ pressure to be> ^u ! nom9ation ( ! judges & int]f]e ) _! promotion & _! decisions4 ,?is also is remote4 ,&1 z by ?is con/itution1 or1 r by ?is practice1 recognition is giv5 to ! pr9ciple t x is ! p :o really appo9ts ! judges ?r\gh its int]m$i>ies1 democracy1 always logical & matt] ( fact1 w\ld l to see ! pr9ciple appli$ )\t concealm5t1 & ! p mak+ ! appo9tm5ts directly4 ,!n endless que/ions w arise ab\t ! be/ way ( vot+ & elect+4 ,if unip]sonal ballot is adopt$1 ! canton w nom9ate its juge de paix1 ! di/rict its tribunal1 ! region its ,c\rt1 & ! :ole c\ntry ! ,c\rt ( ,appeal4 ,9 ?is arrangem5t !re w be ! d\ble drawback m5tion$ above2 t is1 v>y+ int]pretations ( ju/ice accord+ to di/ricts1 & no imp>tiality4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 scrut9 de li/e is adopt$1 ! :ole c\ntry w *oose all ! magi/rates & !y w belong to ! majority4 ,9 ?is case !re w\ld be uni=mity ( ju/ice b no imp>tiality4 ,any int]m$iate sy/em w\ld comb9e ! disadvantage ( bo? plans4 ,= in/ance1 if nom9ations are made 9 ea* division1 all ! magi/rates 9 ,brittany w be :ite p>tisans1 :ile 9 ,prov5ce !y w be blue p>tisans4 ,9 bo? cases !y w be biass$1 & su* div]sity z !re is w be m]ely a div]sity ( p>tiality & bias4 ,we are talk+ ( ! future1 ?\gh n p]haps ( a v di/ant "o4 ,let u deal ) ! pres5t4 ,! jury is /ill ) u4 ,n[ ! jury comb9es absolute moral compet5ce ) absolute te*nical incompet5ce4 ,democracy mu/ always h incompet5ce 9 "o =m or ano!r4 ,a jury is indep5d5t ( ev]ybody1 bo? ( ! ,gov]nm5t & ( ! p1 & 9 ! be/ possible way1 because x is ! ag5t ( ! p )\t be+ elect$4 ,x does n seek re-election & is r vex$ ?an o!rwise at be+ summon$ to p]=m a disagreeable duty4 ,on ! o!r h& x always vacillates betwe5 two emotions1 betwe5 pity & self-pres]vation1 betwe5 feel+s ( humanity & ! necessity = social protection2 x is equally s5sitive to ! eloqu5ce ( ! def5d+ advocate1 & ! summ+ up ( ! prosecutor1 & z ^! two influ5ces balance ea* o!r x is 9 a p]fect moral condition = deliv]+ an equitable v]dict4 ,= ?is reason ! jury is ( anci5t orig91 & has always be5 an in/itution 9 ! l&4 ,at ,a!ns ! tribunal ( ! ,helia/s =m$ a k9d ( jury1 too num]\s inde$ & m l a public meet+1 b /ill a sort ( jury4 ,at ,rome1 a bett] regulat$ republic1 !re 7 c]ta9 citiz5s *os5 by ! praetor :o settl$ que/ions ( fact1 t is to say1 decid$ :e!r an act _h or _h n be5 committ$1 :e!r a sum ( money _h or _h n be5 paid2 & ! "q ( law 0 res]v$ = ! c5tumvirs4 ,9 ,engl& ! jury /ill exi/s & has exi/$ = c5turies4 ,^! v>i\s peoples h consid]$ v prop]ly t juries are excell5tly adapt$ = =m+ equitable decisions1 s9ce !y possess a great] moral compet5ce = ?is p>ticul> function1 ?an is to be f\nd else:]e4 ,?is is true2 b on ! o!r h& a jury has no intellig5ce4 ,9 ,novemb] #aiji1 a jury 9 ! ,cote d',or be=e :om a murd]] 0 be+ tri$1 decl>$ 7#a7 t ?is man did n /rike ! bl[s1 7#b7 t ! bl[s :i* he /ruck result$ 9 dea?4 ,!reupon ! man 0 acquitt$1 al?\gh 8 viol5ce1 :i* nev] took place1 _h a murd]\s result4 ,9 ! ,/e9heil case 9 ! same mon? & ye>1 ! jury's v]dict involv$ 7#a7 t no "o _h be5 assass9at$ 9 ! ,/e9heils' h\se1 & 7#b7 t ,mme ,/e9heil 0 n ! daught] ( ,mme ,japy4 ,if a v]dict 7 a judgm5t ?is w\ld h put an end to all attempts to discov] ! assass9s ( ,m4 ,/e9heil & ,mme ,japy1 & on ! o!r h& !re w\ld h be5 t]rible social complications4 ,b ! v]dict ( a jury is n a judgm5t4 ,:y8 ,because ! legislator =esaw ! al>m+ absurdity ( v]dicts4 ,x is presum$ 9 law t all juries' v]dicts are absurd1 & exp]i5ce proves t ?is is (t5 ! case4 ,juries' v]dicts always seem to h be5 decid$ by lot l ^? ( ! fam\s judge 9 ,rabelais1 & x is prov]bial at ! law c\rts t x is impossible to =esee ! issue ( any case t comes be=e a jury4 ,x looks z if ! jury reason$ ?us3 ,i am a *ance judge1 & x is only "r t my judgm5t %\ld be dictat$ by *ance4 ,voltaire 0 9 fav\r ( ! jury sy/em1 pr9cipally because he _h su* a v l[ op9ion ( ! magi/rates ( 8 day1 :om he us$ to comp>e to ,busiris4 ,b1 ) 8 usual inconsequ5ce1 he takes no pa9s to conceal ! fact t ! populations ( ,abbeville & its neighb\rhood 7 unanim\sly exasp]at$ aga9/ ,la ,b>re & ,d',etalonde1 & ! p ( ,t\l\se aga9/ ,calas1 & all ( !m w\ld h be5 condemn$ by juries summon$ f ^? di/ricts z surely z !y 7 by ! magi/]ial ,busiris4 ,! jury sy/em is no?+ b a ref9$ example ( ! cult ( incompet5ce4 ,society1 hav+ to def5d itself aga9/ ?ieves & murd]]s1 lays ! duty ( def5d+ x on "s ( its citiz5s1 & arms !m ) ! weapon ( ! law4 ,un=tunately x *ooses = ! purpose citiz5s :o d n "k h[ to use ! weapon4 ,x !n fondly imag9es t x is adequately protect$4 ,! jury is l an unskill$ gladiator entangl$ 9 ! me%es ( 8 own net4 ,i ne$ h>dly say t democracy ) its usual p]t9acity is n[ try+ to r$uce ! jury a /ep l[]1 & draw x f ! l[] in/ead ( ! l[] middle classes4 ,i see no h>m 9 ?is myself1 = 9 ! matt] ( law ! ignorance & inexp]i5ce ( ! l[] middle class & ! ignorance ( ! work+ class are mu* ! same4 ,i h only m5tion$ x to %[ ! t5d5cy ( democracy t[>ds :at is presumably great] incompet5ce4 ,n[ comes ! turn ( ! juges de paix4 ,at pres5t we /ill h juges de paix4 ,"h we h a mo/ int]e/+ example ( ! way democracy /rives aft] incompet5ce 9 matt]s judicial4 ,ow+ to ! exp5se entail$ by an appeal ! jurisdiction ( a juge de paix is v (t5 f9al4 ,he ought to be an in/ruct$ p]son ) "s k ( law & jurisprud5ce4 ,he is !re=e usually *os5 f m5 :o h a degree 9 law or f lawy]s' cl]ks :o h a c]tificate ( ability4 ,to be q hone/ ?is is b a feeble gu>antee4 ,by ! law ( ,july #ab?1 #aije1 ! ,fr5* ,s5ate1 anxi\s to f9d m5 ( /ill gross] incompet5ce1 decid$ t juges de paix might be nom9at$ f ^?1 :o1 n hav+ ! requir$ degree or c]tificate1 _h occupi$ ! po/s ( mayor1 deputy-mayor or c\ncillor = t5 ye>s4 ,! object ( ?is decision 0 ! v hone/ & legitimate "o ( giv+ s5ators & deputies ! opportunity ( rew>d+ ! electoral s]vices ( ! village mayors & _! assi/ants4 ,& rememb] s5ators especially are nom9at$ by ^! (ficials4 ,fur!r x 0 an opportunity n to be miss$ = apply+ our pr9ciple--& our pr9ciple is ?is3 we ask1 :]e is absolute incompet5ce to be f\nd1 = to him :o c lay indisputable claim to x we mu/ confide au?ority4 ,n[ mayors & _! assi/ants answ] ?is description exactly4 ,!y mu/ be able to sign _! names1 b !y are n oblig$ to "k h[ to read1 & eighty p] c5t4 ( !m are totally illit]ate4 ,_! "w is done = !m v usually by ! local s*oolma/]4 ,! ,s5ate1 !re=e1 0 q sure ( f9d+ among !m m5 absolutely incompet5t = ! po/ ( juge de paix1 & x has f\nd :at x want$4 ,incompet5ce s colossal des]v$ an appo9tm5t1 & an appo9tm5t has be5 giv5 to x4 ,! magi/rature & ! p[]s t be1 seem to h be5 some:at di/urb$ by c]ta9 consequ5ces ( ?is highly democratic in/itution4 ,m4 ,b>?\1 ! ,m9i/] ( ,ju/ice1 compla9$ bitt]ly ( ! "w :i* ?is new in/itution caus$ him4 ,he made ! foll[+ spee* 9 ! ,*amb] ( ,deputies3 ,we are "h to tell ea* o!r ! tru?1 &1 ) all ! due mod]ation & prud5ce t is fitt+1 ,i feel x my duty to w>n ! *amb] aga9/ ! results ( ! law ( #aije4 ,at ! pres5t mom5t ,i am besieg$ ) applications = ! po/ ( juge de paix4 ,i ne$ h>dly m5tion t !re are "s #i1jjj ( !m 9 my (fice1 because a c]ta9 numb] are n eligible = consid]ation1 b !re are 9 r\nd numb]s #e1ejj applications :i* are recomm5d$ & exam9$4 7,:at he means to say is1 t ^! are exam9$ because !y h be5 recomm5d$1 =1 z is only "r1 ^? t are n back$ by "s political p]sonage are n look$ at47 ,z ! av]age annual numb] ( vacancies is a hundr$ & eighty1 y w readily see :at a qu&>y ,i am 94 ,"s ( ^! applications are made ) ! mo/ extraord9>y p]si/5cy1 ,i might ev5 call x f]ocity1 & ^! inv>iably come f m5 :o h held ! (fice ( mayor or deputy-mayor = t5 ye>s1 (t5 9 ! mo/ insignificant places4 ,! ,m9i/] ( ,ju/ice !n read a report made on ! subject by a procureur-g5]al4 ,9 ?is dep>tm5t !re are =ty-sev5 juges de paix1 tw5ty ( :om1 z ,i le>n f an enquiry1 7 mayors at ! "t ( _! appo9tm5t4 ,x is n to be wond]$ at t ! numb] ( prov9cial magnates :o aspire to ! po/ is on ! increase1 = x seems to be g5]ally recognis$ 9 ?is dep>tm5t t elective (fice irrespective ( all pr(essional aptitude is ! normal means ( access to a paid appo9tm5t1 m especially to t ( juge de paix4 ,once !y are appo9t$1 ! mayors comb9e bo? _! municipal & judicial duties1 & _! int]e/s lie f> m 9 ! commune :i* !y adm9i/] ?an 9 ! di/rict 9 :i* !y disp5se ju/ice & :i*1 )\t p]mission1 !y %\ld nev] leave4 ,sometimes ^! di/rict magi/rates w g to any l5g? to obta9 moral support f ! politicians ( ! neighb\rhood4 ,!y extort ?is z a sort ( blackmail giv5 9 ex*ange = ! electoral influ5ce :i* !y c br+ to be> 9 _! municipal capacity4 ,!y atta* f> less importance to be+ qua%$ by ! b5*1 ?an to ! ev5tual support ( ! deputy4 ,^? :o come into _! c\rts are ! un=tunate victims ( ^! compromis+ arrangem5ts :i* are giv+ ! ,republican sy/em a bad "n4 ,i ?9k ! ,m9i/] ( ,ju/ice & 8 procureur-g5]al h v little gr\nd = ^! lam5tations4 ,aft] all ! m9i/] only compla9s ( hav+ #i1jjj applications = (fice4 ,x w\ld surely be q easy = him1 9 compliance ) ! g5]ally recognis$ pr9ciple1 to *oose ^? ^: incompet5ce seems to be mo/ ?or\gh1 or ^? :o are mo/ influ5tially support$1 accord+ to ! prevail+ cu/om4 ,z = ! procureur-g5]al's s>casms1 :i* he ?9ks s witty1 !y are q delightfully div]t+ & +5u\s4 ,x seems to be g5]ally recognis$ t elective (fice1 irrespective ( all pr(essional aptitude1 is ! normal means ( access to a paid appo9tm5t4 ,:at else does he expect8 ,x is em95tly democratic t ! m>k$ abs5ce ( pr(essional capacity %\ld s+le a man out = employm5t4 ,t is ! v _s ( democracy4 ,he surely does n ?9k t a man is an elector by reason ( 8 legislative & adm9i/rative capacity8 ,x is likewise ess5tially democratic t elective (fice %\ld lead to paid appo9tm5ts1 = ! democratic !ory is t all (fice1 paid & unpaid1 %\ld be elective4 ,:y1 ?is procureur-g5]al mu/ be an ari/ocrat6 ,z = ! mutual s]vices r5d]$ by ! ju/ice1 z mayor1 to ! deputy1 & by ! deputy to ! ju/ice1 ?is is democracy pure & simple4 ,! deputies di/ribute fav\rs t !y may be return$ to p[]2 ! influ5tial electors put all _! int]e/1 bo? p]sonal & (ficial1 at ! s]vice ( ! deputies 9 ord] to obta9 ^? fav\rs4 ,!y are h& 9 glove ) ea* o!r1 & =m a solid union ( int]e/s4 ,:at m does ! procureur-g5]al want8 ,does he want a diff]5t sy/em8 ,if he wants ano!r sy/em1 :atev] else x may be1 x w n be democracy1 or at lea/ x w n be a democratic democracy4 ,nor h ,i any idea :at he means :5 he says ! ,republican sy/em w get a bad "n4 ,! good "n ( ! ,republic dep5ds ^u its putt+ into practice e democratic pr9ciple2 & democratic pr9ciples h c]ta9ly nev] be5 m precisely realis$ ?an 9 ! prec$+ example1 :i* ,i h _h great pleasure 9 rescu+ f oblivion & pres5t+ to ! notice ( sociologi/s4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,examples ,,( ,,incompet5ce4 ,i h already comp>$ ?is1 our desire to wor%ip incompet5ce1 to an infecti\s disease4 ,x has attack$ ! ,/ate at ! v core1 9 its con/itution1 & x is n surpris+ t x is spread+ rapidly to ! cu/oms & to ! morals ( ! c\ntry4 ,! /age1 we "k1 is an imitation ( life4 ,life also1 to p]haps an ev5 great] ext5t1 is an imitation ( ! /age4 ,simil>ly laws spr+ f morals1 & morals spr+ f law4 ,m5 are gov]n$ by _m ?+s1 said ,montesquieu1 by climate1 religion1 laws1 precept1 example1 morals & mann]s1 :i* act & react ^u ea* o!r & all comb9e to =m a g5]al temp]am5t4 ,morals1 m (t5 ?an n1 det]m9e ! nature ( our laws1 p>ticul>ly 9 a democracy1 :i* is deplorable1 b ,montesquieu 0 "r 9 say+3 ,morals take _! col\r f laws1 & mann]s f morals1 = laws c]ta9ly help to =m morals1 mann]s & ev5 national "*4 ,= in/ance 9 ,rome "u ! ,empire ! code ( morals 0 to "s ext5t ! result ( arbitr>y p[]1 z to-day ! moral "* ( ! ,engli% is to "s ext5t due to ! laws & con/itution ( _! c\ntry4 ,we "k t by 8 laws ,pet] ! ,great *ang$ if n ! "* at lea/ ! mann]s & cu/oms ( 8 p4 ,cu/om is ! (fspr+ ( law1 & morals are ! (fspr+ ( cu/om4 ,national "* is n really *ang$1 = "*1 ,i believe1 is a ?+ incapable ( *ange1 b x appe>s to be *ang$1 & x c]ta9ly und]goes "s modifications2 "o set ( t5d5cies is *eck$1 :ile o!rs are enc\rag$4 ,! law aboli%+ ! "r ( primog5iture has obvi\sly affect$ national morals1 ?\gh x has n o!rwise alt]$ national "*4 ,= a peculi> m5tal attitude is evolv$ by ! con/ant dom9ation ( an eld] bro!r1 ^: bir?right gives him prec$5ce & au?ority second only to t ( ! fa!r4 ,9 c\ntries :]e ! "r ( unre/rict$ te/am5t>y beque/s is /ill ma9ta9$1 family morals are v diff]5t f ^? :i* obta9 :]e ! *ild is consid]$ a jo9t proprietor ( ! patrimony4 ,s9ce ! pass+ ( ! law p]mitt+ divorce1 a sad b necess>y evil1 !re h be5 f> m applications = divorce ?an !re ev] 7 = sep>ation4 ,c ?is be acc\nt$ = solely by ! fact t =m]ly x seem$ h>dly wor? :ile to take /eps to obta9 ! qualifi$ fre$om ( sep>ation8 ,i ?9k n4 ,= :5 a yoke is unbe>able1 ef=ts to relax x w\ld naturally be q z /r5u\s & z unremitt+ z ef=ts to get rid ( x altoge!r4 ,! tru? is1 ,i ?9k1 t :5 bo? civil & ecclesia/ical law agre$ 9 prohibit+ divorce1 p held a diff]5t view ( m>riage2 x 0 look$ ^u z some?+ sacr$1 z a tie t x 0 %ameful to break1 & t c\ld n be brok5 except z a la/ res\rce & !n almo/ "u pa9 ( dea?4 ,! law p]mitt+ divorce 0 :at our =efa!rs w\ld h call$ a legal indiscretion4 ,x has aboli%$ ! feel+ ( %ame4 ,except :]e !re is /rong religi\s feel+1 !re is n[ no scruple nor %ame 9 seek+ divorce4 ,! old ord] has pass$ away2 mode/y has be5 sup]s$$ by a desire = lib]ty1 or = ano!r union4 ,?is *ange has be5 br\ght ab\t by a law :i* 0 ! result ( a new moral code2 b ! law itself has help$ to enl>ge & exp& ! code4 ,?us democracy ext5ds t love ( incompet5ce :i* is its mo/ imp]i\s *>act]i/ic4 ,greek philosoph]s us$ to delight 9 imag9+ :at morals1 especially dome/ic morals1 w\ld be l "u a democracy4 ,!y all vi$ ) ,ari/ophanes4 ,"o ( ,x5ophon's *>act]s says3 ,i am pleas$ ) myself1 because ,i am poor4 ,:5 ,i 0 ri* ,i _h to pay c\rt to my calumniators1 :o knew full well t !y c\ld h>m me m ?an ,i c\ld !m4 ,!n ! ,republic 0 always impos+ fre% taxes & ,i c\ld n escape4 ,n[ t ,i am poor1 ,i am inve/$ ) au?ority2 no "o ?reat5s me4 ,i ?reat5 o!rs4 ,i am free to come & g z ,i *oose4 ,! ri* rise at my approa* & give me place4 ,i 0 a slave1 n[ ,i am a k+2 ,i us$ to pay tribute1 n[ ! ,/ate fe$s me4 ,i no long] fe> mis=tunes1 & ,i hope to acquire weal?4 ,plato too is quietly humor\s at democracy's exp5se4 ,?is =m ( gov]nm5t c]ta9ly seems ! mo/ beautiful ( all1 & ! great v>iety ( types has an excell5t effect4 ,at fir/ sight does x n appe> a privilege mo/ delightful & conv5i5t t we _c be =c$ to accept any public (fice h[ev] eligible we may be1 t we ne$ n submit to au?ority & t e "o ( u c become a judge or magi/rate z our fancy dictates8 ,is !re n some?+ delightful 9 ! b5evol5ce %[n to crim9als8 ,h y ev] notic$ h[1 9 su* a ,/ate z ?is1 m5 condemn$ to dea? or exile rema9 9 ! c\ntry & walk abroad ) ! demean\r ( h]oes8 ,see ) :at condesc5sion & tol]ance democrats despise ! maxims :i* we h be5 br\ght up f *ildhood to rev]e & associate ) ! welf>e ( ! ,republic4 ,we believe t unless a man is born virtu\s1 he w nev] acquire virtue1 unless he has always liv$ 9 an environm5t ( hone/y & probity & giv5 x 8 e>ne/ att5tion4 ,see ) :at contempt democrats trample ^! doctr9es "u foot & nev] /op to ask :at tra9+ a man has _h = public (fice4 ,on ! contr>y1 anyone :o m]ely pr(esses zeal 9 ! public int]e/s is welcom$ ) op5 arms4 ,x is in/antly assum$ t he is q dis9t]e/$4 ,^! are only a few ( ! _m advantages ( democracy4 ,x is a pleasant =m ( gov]nm5t 9 :i* equality reigns among unequal z well z among equal ?+s4 ,moreov]1 :5 a democratic ,/ate1 a?ir/ = lib]ty1 is controll$ by unpr9cipl$ cupbe>]s1 :o give x to dr9k ( ! pure w9e ( lib]ty & all[ x to dr9k till x is drunk51 !n if its rul]s d n %[ !mselves complaisant & all[ x to dr9k its fill1 !y are accus$ & ov]?r[n "u ! pretext t !y are traitors aspir+ to an olig>*y2 = ! p prides itself on & loves ! equality t confuses & w n di/+ui% betwe5 ^? :o %\ld rule & ^? :o %\ld obey4 ,is x any wond] t ! _s ( lic5ce1 insubord9ation1 & an>*y %\ld invade ev]y?+1 ev5 ! in/itution ( ! family8 ,fa!rs le>n to treat _! *ildr5 z equals & are half afraid ( !m1 :ile *ildr5 nei!r fe> nor respect _! p>5ts4 ,all ! citiz5s & resid5ts & ev5 /rang]s aspire to equal rights ( citiz5%ip4 ,ma/]s /& 9 awe ( _! disciples & treat !m ) ! greate/ consid]ation & are je]$ at = _! pa9s4 ,"y m5 want to be on ! same t]ms z _! eld]s & bett]s1 & old m5 ape ! mann]s ( ! "y1 = fe> ( be+ ?\ght morose & dictatorial4 ,obs]ve too to :at l5g?s ( lib]ty & equality ! relations betwe5 ! sexes are c>ri$4 ,y w\ld h>dly believe h[ mu* fre] dome/ic animals are !re ?an else:]e4 ,x is prov]bial t little lap-dogs are on ! same foot+ z _! mi/resses1 or z horses & asses2 !y walk ab\t ) _! noses 9 ! air & get out ( nobody's way4 ,ari/otle1 fai?less at ?is po9t to 8 fav\rite me?od ( always contradict+ ,plato1 has no p>ticul> lik+1 z we h said1 = democracy4 ,he does n sp>e x ?\gh he does n imitate ,plato's sca?+ s>casm4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ,ari/otle is frankly 9 fav\r ( slav]y1 z 0 e anci5t philosoph] except p]haps ,s5eca2 b he is m insi/5t on ?is po9t ?an anyone else1 = he looks ^u slav]y1 n z "o ( _m f\ndations1 b z ! v f\ndation ( society4 ,he consid]s artisans z belong+ to a high] e/ate b /ill z a class ( half-slaves4 ,he ass]ts z an hi/orical fact t only extreme & decad5t democracies gave !m rights ( citiz5%ip1 & !oretically he ma9ta9s t no s\nd gov]nm5t w\ld give !m ! fran*ise ( ! city4 ,h5ce 9 anci5t times1 & among "s nations1 ! work+ classes _h no %>e 9 ! gov]nm5t--a privilege :i* !y only acquir$ "u ! extreme democracy4444 ,d\btless 9 anci5t times & among "s nations ! artisan class 7 slaves or =eign]s1 & !re=e ! majority ( !m are s n[4 ,! be/ =m ( ,/ate w n admit !m to citiz5%ip4444 ,he admits t democracy may be consid]$ z a =m ( gov]nm5t 7444 if democracy be a real =m ( gov]nm5t444471 & he admits too t 444 multitudes1 ( :i* ea* individual is b an ord9>y p]son1 :5 !y meet toge!r1 may v likely be bett] ?an ! few good1 if reg>d$ n individually b collectively4444 ,h5ce ! _m are bett] judges ?an a s+le man ( music & poetry2 = "s und]/& "o "p1 & "s ano!r1 & among !m !y und]/& ! :ole4 ,obs]ve t he is /ill speak+ ( a democracy 9 :i* slaves & artisans are n citiz5s4 ,d\btless too democracy is ! mo/ tol]able ( p]v]t$ gov]nm5ts1 & ,plato has already made ^! di/9ctions1 b 8 po9t ( view is n ! same z m9e4 ,= he lays d[n ! pr9ciple t ( all good con/itutions democracy is ! wor/1 b ! be/ ( bad ones4 ,b /ill ,ari/otle _c help ?9k+ t democracy is a sociological mi/ake 444 ,x mu/ be admitt$ t we _c raise to ! rank ( citiz5s all ^?1 ev5 ! mo/ useful1 :o are necess>y to ! exi/5ce ( ! ,/ate4 ,democracy has ?is drawback t x _c con/itutionally reta9 )9 itself & enc\rage em95t m54 ,9 a democracy if !re be "s "o p]son or m ?an "o1 al?\gh n en\gh to make up ! :ole complem5t ( a ,/ate1 ^: virtue is s pre-em95t t ! virtues or ! capacity ( all ! re/ admit ( no comp>ison ) 8 or !irs1 he or !y c be no long] reg>d$ z "p ( a ,/ate2 = ju/ice w n be done to ! sup]ior1 if he is reckon$ only z ! equal ( ^? :o are s f> inf]ior to him 9 virtue & 9 political capacity4 ,su* an "o may truly be deem$ a ,god among m54 ,h5ce we see t legislation is necess>ily conc]n$ only ) ^? :o are equal 9 bir? & 9 p[]2 & t = m5 ( pre-em95t virtue !re is no law--!y are !mselves a law4 ,anyone w\ld be ridicul\s :o attempt$ to make laws = !m3 !y w\ld probably retort :at1 9 ! fable ( ,anti/h5es1 ! lions said to ! h>es--':]e are y\r claws8'--:5 9 ! c\ncil ( ! bea/s ! latt] began h>angu+ & claim+ equality = all4 ,& = ?is reason democratic ,/ates h in/itut$ o/racism2 equality is above all ?+s _! aim1 & !re=e !y o/racise & bani% f ! city = a "t ^? :o seem to pr$om9ate too mu* ?r\gh _! weal?1 or ! numb] ( _! fri5ds1 or ?r\gh any o!r political influ5ce4 ,my?ology tells u t ! ,argonauts left ,h]acles beh9d = a simil> reason2 ! %ip ,argo w\ld n take him because %e fe>$ t he w\ld h be5 too mu* = ! re/ ( ! crew4 ,?rasybulus1 ! tyrant ( ,miletus1 ask$ ,p]i&]1 ! tyrant ( ,cor9?1 "o ( ! sev5 sages ( ,greece1 = advice on ! art ( gov]nm5t4 ,p]i&] made no reply b proce$$ to br+ a field ( corn to a level by cutt+ (f ! talle/ e>s4 ,?is is a policy n only exp$i5t = tyrants or 9 practice conf9$ to !m1 b equally necess>y 9 olig>*ies & democracies4 ,o/racism is a measure ( ! same k9d1 :i* acts by disabl+ & bani%+ ! mo/ prom95t citiz5s4 ,?is is :at we may call a con/itutional necessity = ! democracy4 ,to be q hone/1 x is n always oblig$ to cut (f ! e>s ( corn4 ,x has a simpl] me?od4 ,x c sy/ematically prev5t any man :o betrays any sup]iority :atsoev]1 ei!r ( bir?1 =tune1 virtue or tal5t1 f obta9+ any au?ority or social responsibility4 ,x c s5d to ,cov5try4 ,i h (t5 po9t$ out t "u ! fir/ democracy ,l\is ,,xvi 0 guillot9$ = hav+ wi%$ to leave ! c\ntry1 :ile "u ! ?ird democracy 8 great-nephews 7 exil$ = wi%+ to rema9 9 x4 ,o/racism is1 9 ^! in/ances1 /ill feel+ its way1 & its action is contradictory because x has n made up its m9d4 ,?is w cont9ue till x has be5 r$uc$ to a sci5ce1 :5 x w contrive to level1 by "o me?od or ano!r1 e individual em95ce1 great & small1 t d>es to v>y by ! m]e/ fraction f ! regulation /&>ds4 ,?is is o/racism1 & o/racism1 s to speak1 is a physiological organ ( democracy4 ,democracy by us+ x mutilates ! nation1 )\t x democracy w\ld mutilate itself4 ,ari/otle (t5 tries to solve ! problem ( ! em95t man4 ,good m51 he says1 diff] f any individual ( ! _m1 z ! beautiful are said to diff] f ^? :o are n beautiful1 & works ( art f realities1 because 9 !m ! scatt]$ elem5ts are comb9$4444 ,:e!r ?is pr9ciple c apply to e democracy & to all bodies ( m5 is n cle>4444 ,b !re may be bodies ( m5 ab\t :om our /atem5t is nev]!less true4 ,& if s1 ! difficulty :i* has be5 already rais$--viz41 :at p[] %\ld be assign$ to ! mass ( freem5 & citiz5s--is solv$4 ,!re is /ill a dang] 9 all[+ !m to %>e ! great (fices ( ,/ate1 = _! folly w lead !m into error & _! di%one/y into crime4 ,b !re is a dang] also 9 n lett+ !m %>e1 = a ,/ate 9 :i* _m poor m5 are exclud$ f (fice w necess>ily be full ( enemies4 ,! only way ( escape is to assign to !m "s delib]ative & judicial functions4444 ,b ea* individual left to himself1 =ms an imp]fect judgm5t4 ,x is n only ! em95t man t is ! ?orn 9 ! fle% ( democracies1 b e =m ( sup]iority1 :e!r individual or collective1 :i* exi/s outside ! ,/ate & ! ,gov]nm5t4 ,if we recollect t ,ari/otle c\pl$ extreme democracy ) tyranny1 x w be int]e/+ to recall 8 summ>y ( ! anci5t prescriptions = ! pres]vation ( a tyranny4444 ,! tyrant %\ld lop (f ^? :o are too high2 he mu/ put to dea? m5 ( _s3 he mu/ n all[ common meals1 clubs1 education & ! l2 he mu/ be ^u 8 gu>d aga9/ any?+ :i* is likely to inspire ei!r c\rage or confid5ce among 8 subjects2 he mu/ prohibit lit]>y assemblies or o!r meet+s = discussion1 & he mu/ take e means to prev5t p f kn[+ "o ano!r 7= acqua9tance begets mutual confid5ce74 ,ari/otle's conclusions are subjectively ari/ocratic3 ,9 ! p]fect ,/ate !re w\ld be great d\bts ab\t ! use ( o/racism1 n :5 appli$ to excess 9 /r5g?1 weal?1 popul>ity or ! l1 b :5 us$ aga9/ "s "o :o is pre-em95t 9 virtue4 ,:at is to be done ) him8 ,mank9d w n say t su* an "o is to be expell$ & exil$2 on ! o!r h& he ought n to be a subject1 t w\ld be z if m5 %\ld claim to rule ov] ,zeus on ! pr9ciple ( rotation ( (fice4 ,! only alt]native is t all %\ld joyfully obey su* a rule1 accord+ to :at seems to be ! ord] ( nature1 & t m5 l him %\ld be k+s 9 _! ,/ate = life4 ,b :5 he speaks objectively1 ,ari/otle comes to ano!r conclusion1 :i* we %all h occasion to m5tion lat] on4 ,among mod]ns1 ,r\sseau decl>$ t he 0 n a democrat1 & he 0 "r1 because by democracy he meant ! ,a!nian sy/em ( direct gov]nm5t1 ( :i* he did n = an in/ant approve4 ,9 ! ,social ,contract he has drawn up a mo/ detail$ s*eme1 :i*1 9 spite ( "s contradictions & obscure passages1 is an exact description ( democracy z we und]/& ! ^w2 b /ill we _c tell if he is actually a democrat1 because we d n "k :at he means by citiz5s1 :e!r he means ev]ybody or only "o class1 ?\gh t a num]\s "o4 ,r\sseau has writt5 m fully ?an anyone else1 n s mu* ( ! influ5ce ( democracy on morals1 z ( ! co9cid5ce betwe5 democracy & good morals4 ,equality1 frugality & simplicity c all be f\nd1 accord+ to ,r\sseau1 9 ,/ates :]e !re is nei!r royalty nor ari/ocracy nor plutocracy4 ,z ,i und]/& x1 8 mean+ is t ! same virtue :i* makes c]ta9 nations love equality1 frugality & simplicity is also productive ( a =m ( gov]nm5t :i* excludes ari/ocracy1 plutocracy & royalty4 ,if y h simplicity1 frugality & equality1 y w probably live 9 a republic t is democratic or virtually democratic4 ,?is is1 ,i ?9k1 ! cle>e/ & mo/ imp>tial summ>y t we c make ( ,r\sseau's doctr9e1 :i*1 ?\gh set =? 9 rigid =mulae1 is /ill extremely vague4 ,9 ?is he is a f> m fai?ful foll[] ( ,montesquieu ?an he w all[4 ,all t ,i h quot$ is to be f\nd lit]ally 9 ,montesquieu's *apt]s on democracy4 ,ev5 8 fam\s say+1 ! rul+ pr9ciple ( democracy is virtue1 means1 :5 he uses x 9 "o s5se1 no m ?an t x is ! syn!sis ( ^! ?ree p]fections1 equality1 simplicity & frugality4 ,= ,montesquieu sometimes uses virtue 9 a n>r[1 & sometimes 9 a broad s5se1 sometimes 9 ! s5se ( political & civic virtue or patriotism1 sometimes 9 ! s5se ( virtue prop]ly speak+ 7simplicity1 frugality1 ?rift1 equality74 ,9 ?is latt] case he & ,r\sseau are absolutely agre$4 ,montesquieu only consid]s democracy 9 decad5ce1 z 8 cu/om is 9 respect ( o!r =ms ( gov]nm5t1 & ?\gh he does n actually cite ,plato1 he really gives ! sub/ance ( :at we h already quot$4 ,:5 ! p wi%es to d ! "w ( ! magi/rates1 ! dignity ( ! (fice disappe>s & :5 ! delib]ations ( ! ,s5ate c>ry no weight1 nei!r s5ators nor old m5 are treat$ ) respect4 ,:5 old m5 d n receive respect1 fa!rs _c expect x f _! *ildr51 husb&s f _! wives1 nor ma/]s f _! m54 ,at l5g? ev]yone w le>n to rejoice 9 ?is untrammell$ lib]ty1 & w gr[ z we>y ( comm&+ z ( obey+4 ,wom51 *ildr5 & slaves w submit to no au?ority4 ,!re w be an end ( morals1 no m love ( ord]1 no m virtue4 ,n[ z to ?is transition1 ?is passage f ! public morals ( a democracy to ! private1 dome/ic1 p]sonal morals :i* exi/ "u t =m ( gov]nm5t1 h y obs]v$ :at is ! common root ( our fail+s bo? public & private8 ,! common root ( bo? is misund]/&+1 =getfulness & contempt ( compet5ce4 ,if pupils despise _! ma/]s1 "y m5 despise old m51 if wives d n respect _! husb&s & ! un5fran*is$ d n respect ! citiz5s1 if ! condemn$ d n /& 9 awe ( _! judges1 nor sons 9 awe ( _! p>5ts1 ! pr9ciple ( effici5cy has vani%$4 ,pupils no long] admit ! sci5tific sup]iority ( _! tea*]s1 "y m5 h no reg>d = ! exp]i5ce ( ! old1 wom5 w n recognise ! supremacy ( _! husb&s 9 practical matt]s1 ! un5fran*is$ h no s5se ( ! sup]iority ( ! citiz5s f ! po9t ( view ( national tradition1 ! condemn$ d n feel ! moral supremacy ( _! judges1 & sons d n realise ! sci5tific1 practical1 civic & moral sup]iority ( _! fa!rs4 ,inde$1 :y %\ld !y8 ,h[ c\ld we expect ^! feel+s to be ( any?+ b ! mo/ transi5t description s9ce ! ,/ate itself is organis$ on a basis ( contempt = compet5ce1 or ( :at is ev5 worse1 a rev]5ce = incompet5ce1 & an insatiable crav+ = ! guidance & gov]nm5t ( ! incompet5t8 ,?us public morals h a great influ5ce on private morals2 & gradually into family & social life !re comes t laxity 9 ! daily relations ( ! citiz5s :i* ,plato has wittily t]m$1 equality betwe5 ?+s t are equal & ^? t are n4 ,! fir/ innovation :i* democracy br+s into family life is ! equality ( ! sexes1 & ?is is foll[$ by woman's disrespect = man4 ,?is idea1 be x admitt$1 is sub/antially correct1 x only ceases to be true :5 x is view$ relatively to ! v>y+ compet5ces ( ! two sexes4 ,woman is man's equal 9 c]ebral capacity1 & 9 civilis$ societies1 :]e intellect is ! only ?+ t matt]s1 ! woman is ! equal ( ! man4 ,%e %\ld be admitt$ to ! same employm5ts z m5 9 society1 & "u ! same conditions ( capacity & education1 b 9 family life ! same rules %\ld apply z 9 e o!r ent]prise2 7#a7 division ( lab\r accord+ to ! compet5ce ( ea*2 7#b7 recognition ( a lead] accord+ to ! compet5ce ( ea*4 ,?is is ! law :i* wom5 are con/antly l$ to misund]/& 9 a democracy4 ,!y w n admit ! pr9ciple ( ! division ( lab\r ei!r 9 ! _w at l>ge or 9 ! dome/ic circle4 ,!y try to encroa* ^u m5's "w1 :i* p]haps !y might d v successfully1 if !y 7 oblig$ to d x & _h no?+ else at all to d2 b :i* !y really spoil by und]tak+ :5 !y h o!r obvi\s duties to p]=m4 ,!y w n admit t m5 %\ld be at ! head ( affairs2 !y aspire to be n only p>tn]s b manag+ directors4 ,?is implies a contemptu\s rejection ( t =m ( social compet5ce :i* comes f ! acceptance ( conv5tion or contract4 ,no d\bt a woman w\ld be j z good a tax-collector z h] husb&1 b s9ce !y h ent]$ into p>tn]%ip1 ! "o to adm9i/] ! collection ( taxes1 ! o!r to look aft] ! h\se1 x is j z bad = ! "o ^: bus9ess x is to keep h\se to beg9 collect+ taxes1 z x is = ! tax-collector to int]f]e ) ! h\sekeep+4 ,x is necess>y to respect ! effici5cy t arises out ( ! obs]vance ( conv5tion & contract4 ,?is1 ) practice & exp]i5ce1 w quickly become a v real & a v valuable effici5cy1 b if ?w>t$ f outside w lead to friction1 insecurity & disorganisation4 ,x is p>ticul>ly by _! contempt1 :i* !y are at no pa9s to disguise1 = ! compet5ce t comes f contract & lat] f habit1 by _! refusal to recognise ! position ( ! head ( ! family1 t wom5 e day & 9 e m9ute p>ticul> are tra9+ _! *ildr5 to despise _! fa!r4 ,democracy seems b5t on br++ up its *ildr5 to despise _! p>5ts4 ,no o!r con/ruction c be put ^u ! facts1 h[ev] good & innoc5t ! motives4 ,j sum up ! facts4 ,9 ! fir/ place democracy d5ies t ! liv+ c be guid$ by ! dead2 x is "o ( its fundam5tal axioms t no g5]ation %\ld be ti$ & b\nd by its pr$ecessor4 ,:at inf]5ce c *ildr5 be expect$ to draw f ?is except t !y owe no ob$i5ce to _! fa!r & "m8 ,*ildr5 h naturally only too great a t5d5cy to look d[n on _! p>5ts4 ,!y are pr\d ( _! physical sup]iority2 !y "k t _! /> is ris+ :ile t ( _! p>5ts is sett+4 ,!y are imbu$ ) ! univ]sal prejudice ( mod]n humanity t progress is con/ant & t !re=e :atev] is ( ye/]day is ex hypo!si inf]ior to t :i* is ( to-day4 ,!y are driv5 also1 z ,i am con/ra9$ to believe1 by a sort ( ,nemesis inspir$ by fe> le/ human sci5ce & p[] %\ld hurry =w>d too fa/ if ! *ildr5 7 cont5t to pick up ! burd5 ( life :]e _! p>5ts left x1 & simply foll[$ _! fa!rs & did n insi/ on effac+ all t _! fa!rs _h done & beg9n+ aga9--) ! result t ! edifice nev] rises f> above its f\ndations1 & t *ildr5 = ?is & o!r reasons h a natural incl9ation to treat _! p>5ts z ,cass&ras4 ,!n1 z x 7 to cl5* ! argum5t1 democracy is ready ) its tea*+ t ea* g5]ation is indep5d5t ( ! o!r1 & t ! dead h no lesson to imp>t to ! liv+4 ,9 ! second place1 democracy1 apply+ ! pr9ciple /ill fur!r & proclaim+ ! doctr9e t ! ,/ate is ma/] ( all1 )draws ! *ild f ! family1 z (t5 & z completely z x c4 ,democracy1 said ,socrates1 9 "o ( 8 humor\s dialogues1 is a m\ntebank1 a kidnapp] ( *ildr54 ,x snat*es ! *ild f its family :ile he is play+1 takes him f> away1 all[s him no m to see 8 family1 tea*es him _m /range languages1 drills him till 8 jo9ts are supple1 pa9ts 8 face & dresses him 9 ridicul\s clo!s1 & imp>ts to him all ! my/]ies ( ! acrobat's trade until he is suffici5tly dext]\s to appe> 9 public & amuse ! company by 8 tricks4 ,at all ev5ts democracy is det]m9$ to take ! *ild away f 8 family1 to give him ! education :i* x has *os5 & n t :i* ! p>5ts h *os51 & to tea* him t he mu/ n believe :at 8 p>5ts tea* him4 ,x d5ies ! compet5ce ( p>5ts to re> _! *ildr5 & puts =w>d its own compet5ce1 ass]t+ t x is only its own t has any value4 ,?is is "o ( ! pr9cipal causes ( ! divisions betwe5 fa!rs & *ildr5 9 a democracy4 ,y may retort t democracy does n always succe$ 9 its ef=ts to sep>ate *ildr5 f _! p>5ts1 because !re is no?+ to prev5t ! *ildr5 ext5d+ ! contempt1 :i* = su* excell5t reasons !y h be5 taught to ent]ta9 = _! p>5ts1 to _! ,/ate-appo9t$ tea*]s4 ,?is is a mo/ p]t95t obs]vation1 = ! g5]al maxims ( democracy are j z likely to make pupils despise _! ma/]s z to make sons despise _! fa!rs4 ,! ma/]1 too1 repres5ts 9 ! eyes ( 8 pupil t pa/ :i* has no connection ) ! pres5t & :i* by ! law ( progress is v inf]ior to ! pres5t4 ,?is is true2 b ! end ( all is t betwe5 ! s*ool :i* c\nt]acts ! influ5ce ( ! p>5ts & ! home :i* c\nt]acts ! influ5ce ( ! s*ool1 ! *ild becomes a p]sonage :o is nev] educat$ at all4 ,he is 9 l case ) a *ild :o 9 ! family itself receives lessons1 & :at is m important1 example1 f a "m :o is religi\s & f a fa!r :o is an a!i/4 ,he is n educat$1 he has _h no sort ( education4 ,! only real education1 t is to say1 ! only transmission to ! *ildr5 ( ! ideas ( _! p>5ts consi/s ( an education at home :i* is re9=c$ by ! in/ruction ( ma/]s *os5 by ! p>5ts 9 accordance ) _! own views4 ,?is is precisely ! =m ( education to :i* democracy refuses to be reconcil$4 99 99 99 99 99 ,!re is a /ill m cog5t reason :y old m5 are nei!r respect$ nor hon\r$ 9 a democracy4 ,"h is yet ano!r effici5cy =mally d5i$ & =mally set aside4 ,an int]e/+ treatise might be writt5 on ! rise & fall ( old m54 ,civilization has n be5 k9d to !m4 ,9 primitive times1 z among savage races to-day1 old m5 7 k+s4 ,g]ontocracy1 t is1 gov]nm5t by ! ag$1 is ! mo/ anci5t =m ( gov]nm5t4 ,x is easy to und]/& :y ?is %\ld be4 ,9 primitive ages1 all k 0 exp]i5ce & ! old m5 possess$ all ! hi/orical1 social & political exp]i5ce ( ! ,/ate4 ,!y 7 held 9 great hon\r & li/5$ to ) ! pr(\nde/ respect & v5]ation1 9 fact ) an almo/ sup]/iti\s rev]5ce4 ,nietzs*e 0 ?9k+ ( ^? days :5 he said3 ,respect = ! ag$ is ! symbol ( ari/ocracy1 & :5 he add$3 ,respect = ! ag$ is respect = tradition1 he 0 ?9k+ ( ! reason = ?is assumption4 ,t ! dead %\ld rule ! liv+ 0 accept$ in/9ctively1 & x 0 _! ne>ness to dea? :i* evok$ hon\r = ! ag$4 ,at a lat] /age ! old man %>$ 9 ! civil gov]nm5t ) mon>*y1 ari/ocracy or olig>*y1 & reta9$ an almo/ complete control ( judicial affairs4 ,8 moral & te*nical effici5cy 7 /ill appreciat$4 ,8 moral effici5cy to 8 contempor>ies consi/$ 9 ! fact t 8 passions 7 dead5$ & 8 judgm5t z dis9t]e/$ z 0 humanly possible4 ,ev5 8 ob/9acy is r an advantage ?an o!rwise4 ,he is n liable to :ims & fancies & sudd5 gu/s ( temp] or to ext]nal influ5ce4 ,8 te*nical effici5cy is consid]able1 because he has se5 & rememb]$ mu* & 8 m9d has unconsci\sly drawn up a ref]5ce book ( cases4 ,z hi/ory repeats itself ) v slight alt]ations1 e fre% case :i* arises is already well kn[n to him2 x does n take him by surprise & he has a solution at h& :i* only requires v slight modification4 ,all ?is1 h[ev]1 is v anci5t hi/ory4 ,t :i* und]m9$ ! au?ority ( old m5 0 ! book4 ,books conta9 all sci5ce1 equity1 jurisprud5ce & hi/ory bett]1 x mu/ be confess$1 ?an ! memories ( old m54 ,"o f9e day ! "y m5 said3 ,! old m5 7 our books2 n[ t we h books we h no fur!r ne$ = old m54 ,?is 0 a mi/ake2 ! k :i* is accumulat$ 9 books c nev] be any?+ b ! h&maid5 ( liv+ sci5ce1 ! sci5ce :i* is be+ con/antly remodell$ & correct$ by liv+ ?\ght4 ,a book is a wise man p>alys$2 ! wise man is a book :i* /ill ?9ks & writes4 ,^! ideas did n hold2 ! book sup]s$$ ! old man1 & ! old man no long] 0 a libr>y to ! nation4 ,lat] /ill1 = v>i\s reasons1 ! old m5 drift$ f a position ( respect to "o ( ridicule4 ,und\bt$ly !y l5d !mselves to ?is2 !y are ob/9ate1 fooli%1 prosy1 bor+1 crot*ety & unpleasant to look ^u4 ,comic writ]s pok$ fun at ^! fail+s :i* are only too self-evid5t & %[]$ ridicule ^u !m4 ,!n z ! majority ( audi5ces is compos$ ( "y m51 fir/ ( all because !re are m "y m5 ?an old1 & secondly because old m5 d n (t5 g to ! !atre1 au?ors ( comic plays 7 c]ta9 ( rais+ a laugh by turn+ old m5 into ridicule1 or r by expos+ only _! ridicul\s *>act]i/ics4 ,at ,a!ns & at ,rome & probably else:]e1 ! old man 0 "o ( ! pr9cipal grotesque *>act]s4 ,^! ?+s1 z ,r\sseau po9t$ out1 h a great effect ^u morals4 ,once ! old man became a recognis$ traditional /age-butt1 8 social au?ority _h come to an end4 ,9 ! de ,s5ectute x is obvi\s t ,cic]o is runn+ c\nt] to ! /ream 9 seek+ to re/ore to fav\r a "* ab\t :om ! public is indiff]5t & = :om all he c d is to plead ext5uat+ circum/ances4 ,x is a rem>kable fact t ev5 9 m$iaeval epics1 ,*>lemagne himself1 ! emp]or ( ! fl[+ be>d1 (t5 plays a comic "p4 ,! epic is invad$ by ! atmosph]e ( ! fable4 ,dur+ ! ,r5aissance1 ! sev5te5? & eighte5? c5turies1 ! old man is g5]ally1 ?\gh n inv>iably1 held up to ridicule4 ,moli]e takes 8 lead f ,ari/ophanes & ,plautus r ?an f ,t]5ce & is ! sc\rge ( old age z well z ! sc\rge ( ! ridicul\s2 he pursues ! old z a h\nd 8 prey & nev] leaves !m 9 peace ei!r 9 8 poetry or 8 prose4 ,we mu/ d ?is mu* ju/ice to ,r\sseau t bo? he & 8 *ild1 ! ,revolution1 tri$ to re/ore ! old man to 8 =m] glory2 he makes hon\rable m5tion ( him 9 8 writ+s1 & %e gives him important po/s 9 public c]emonies & national fetes4 ,!re9 7 receiv$ ! anci5t memories ( ,lac$aemon & ( e>ly ,rome1 comb9$ ) a =m ( reaction aga9/ ! days ( ,l\is ,,xiv & ,l\is ,,xv4 ,b ) ! triumph ( democracy ! old man 0 f9ally bani%$ to ! limbo ( discr$it$ ?+s4 ,montesquieu's advice 0 q =gott5 7see ! context ,laws1 v1 #h74 ,he said t 9 a democracy no?+ kept ! /&>d ( morals s high z t "y m5 %\ld v5]ate ! old4 ,bo? pr(it by x1 ! "y because !y respect ! old1 & ! old because !y are confirm$ 9 _! respect = !mselves 7= ! respect ( ! "y is an assi/ance to ! self-respect ( ! ag$74 ,democracy has =gott5 ?is advice1 because x no long] believes 9 tradition & believes too mu* 9 progress4 ,old m5 are ! natural uphold]s ( tradition1 & we mu/ confess t an en?usia/ic fai? 9 ! value ( :at we call progress is n commonly _! fail+4 ,= ?is v reason _! influ5ce w\ld be a mo/ :olesome corrective to ! sy/em1 or r to ! attitude ( m9d1 :i* despises ! pa/ & sees 9 e *ange a /ep 9 ! pa? ( progress4 ,b democracy w n all[ t x ne$s a corrective1 & ! old man1 to x1 is only an enemy4 ,! old man upholds tradition & has no en?usiasm = progress1 b beyond ?is he appeals = respect1 fir/ = himself1 !n = religion1 = glory1 = 8 c\ntry & = ! hi/ory ( 8 nation4 ,democracy is indiff]5t to ! s5tim5t ( respect1 or r x lives 9 con/ant fe> t ! s5tim5t may be appli$ else:]e4 ,!n :at does democracy want = itself8 ,n respect1 b adoration1 passion1 devotion4 ,we all l to see our own s5tim5ts z to ourselves repeat$ 9 ! m9ds ( o!rs4 ,! cr[d nev] respects1 x loves1 x yields to passion1 en?usiasm1 fanaticism4 ,x nev] respects ev5 t :i* x loves4 ,x is q natural t ! masses %\ld n c>e = old m54 ,! masses are "y4 ,h[ aptly does ,horace's description ( ! "y man apply to ! p6 ,imb]bis juv5is1 t&em cu/ode remoto ,gaudet equis1 canibusque et aprici gram9e campi2 ,c]eus 9 vitium flecti1 monitoribus asp]1 ,utilium t>dus provisor1 prodigus a]is1 ,sublimis1 cupidusque et amata rel9qu]e p]nix4 ,once free f ! control ( 8 tutors1 ! "y man ?9ks ( no?+ b horses1 dogs & ! ,campus ,m>tius1 impressionable z wax to e temptation1 impati5t ( correction1 un?rifty1 extravagant1 presumptu\s & light ( love4 ,at all ev5ts respect has no mean+ = ! cr[d1 & :5 x rules1 we _c f its example le>n ! lessons ( respect4 ,democracy has no love = ! old2 & x is int]e/+ to note t ! ^w g]ontocracy to :i* ! anci5ts atta*$ ! mo/ hon\rable mean+ is n[ only a t]m ( ridicule1 & is appli$ only to a gov]nm5t :i*1 because x is 9 ! h&s ( old m51 is !re=e grotesque4 99 99 99 99 99 ,?is disappe>ance ( respect1 not$ z we h se5 by ,plato1 ,ari/otle & ,montesquieu z a morbid sy/em1 is1 reg>d x h[ we w1 a fact ( ! grave/ import4 ,kant has ask$ ! "q1 :at mu/ we obey8 ,:at crit]ion is !re to tell u :at to obey8 ,:at is !re )9 u :i* comm&s respect1 :i* does n ask = love or fe>1 b = respect alone8 ,he has giv5 u ! answ]4 ,! feel+ ( respect is ! only ?+ t we c tru/1 & t w nev] fail u4 ,9 society ! only feel+s we obey are ^? :i* w9 our respect1 & ! m5 to :om we li/51 & :om we hon\r1 are ^? :o inspire respect4 ,?is is ! only crit]ion :i* enables u to gauge correctly ! m5 & ?+s to :om we owe1 if n absolute ob$i5ce1 at lea/ att5tion & def]5ce4 ,old m5 are ! nation's consci5ce1 & x is a consci5ce at times sev]e1 morose1 tiresome1 ob/9ate1 ov]-scrupul\s1 dictatorial1 & x repeats = ev] ! same old saws2 9 o!r words a consci5ce2 b consci5ce x is4 ,! comp>ison might be c>ri$ fur!r ) results t w\ld be advantage\s z well z curi\s4 ,we degrade & f9ally vitiate our consci5ce if we d n respect its behe/s4 ,consci5ce !n itself becomes small & timid & humble1 %amefac$1 & at l5g? a m]e :isp]4 ,absolutely sil5t x c nev] be made4 ,x becomes sophi/icat$1 x beg9s to employ ! language ( passion1 n ( ! vile/ passions ( our nature1 b /ill ! voice ( passion2 x ceases to use ! categoric imp]ative & tries to be p]suasive4 ,x no long] raises ! f+] ( comm&1 b x seeks to cajole ) c>ess+ h&4 ,!n x falls /ill l[]1 x affects indiff]5ce & scepticism & x puts on ! air ( ! trifl] 9 ord] to ins9uate a ^w ( wisdom into ! s$uctive talk t is he>d ar\nd x1 & x holds language some:at z foll[s3 ,probably ev]y?+ has its good po9ts & !re is some?+ to be said = bo? vice & virtue1 crime & hone/y1 s9 & innoc5ce1 rud5ess & polit5ess1 lic5ce & purity4 ,^! are all simply diff]5t =ms ( an activity :i* _c be :olly wrong 9 any ( its manife/ations2 & x is precisely because e "o ( ^! has its value t !re may be no?+ to lose 9 be+ hone/1 nay1 p]haps some?+ to ga94 ,nev]!less1 a nation t does n respect its old m5 *anges _! nature & despoils !m ( _! beauty & integrity4 ,h[ true is ,montesquieu's say+ t ! respect paid !m by ! "y helps old m5 to respect !mselves6 ,old m5 :o are n respect$ take no int]e/ 9 _! natural duties2 !y cease to advise1 or else !y only v5ture to advise indirectly1 z ?\gh !y 7 apologis+ = _! wisdom1 or !y affect a laxity ( morals to enable !m to ins9uate a surreptiti\s dose ( worldly wisdom2--& wor/ ( all 9 view ( ! insignificant "p assign$ to !m 9 society1 old m5 w n[adays decl9e to be old4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,mann]s4 ,if ! wor%ip ( incompet5ce rev]b]ates ) a j>r+ note ?r\gh our dome/ic morals1 x has an effect h>dly less h>mful on ! social relations ( m5 9 ! wid] !atre ( public life4 ,we (t5 ask :y polit5ess is out ( date1 & ev]yone replies ) a smile3 ,?is is democratic4 ,s x is1 b :y %\ld x be8 ,montesquieu rem>ks t to ca/ (f ! conv5tions ( civility is to seek a me?od = putt+ our faults at _! ease4 ,he adds ! r subtle di/9ction t polit5ess flatt]s ! vices ( o!rs1 & civility prev5ts u f display+ our own4 ,x is a b>ri] rais$ by m5 to prev5t !m f corrupt+ ea* o!r4 ,t :i* flatt]s vice c h>dly be call$ polit5ess1 b is r adulation4 ,civility & polit5ess are only slightly diff]5t 9 degree2 civility is cold & v respectful1 polit5ess has a sugge/ion ( flatt]y4 ,x graci\sly draws into evid5ce ! good qualities ( our neighb\r1 n 8 fail+s1 mu* less 8 vices4 ,!re is no d\bt t civility & polit5ess are a delicate means ( %[+ respect to our fell[-m51 & ( communicat+ a wi% to be respect$ 9 turn4 ,^! ?+s !n are b>ri]s1 b b>ri]s f :i* we d]ive support1 :i* sep>ate & /r5g!n u1 b :i*1 ?\gh hold+ u ap>t1 d n keep u e/rang$ f our neighb\rs4 ,x is also v true t if we release ourselves f ^! rules1 :e!r !y are civility or polit5ess1 we set our faults at lib]ty4 ,! basis ( civility & polit5ess is respect = o!rs & respect = ourselves4 ,z ,abbe ,b>!lemy has v ju/ly rem>k$3 ,9 ! fir/ class ( citiz5s is to be f\nd a _s ( decorum :i* makes x evid5t t m5 respect !mselves1 & a _s ( polit5ess :i* makes x evid5t t !y also respect o!rs4 ,?is is :at ,pascal meant by say+ t respect is our own inconv5i5ce1 & he expla9s x ?us1 t to /& :5 our neighb\r is seat$1 to remove our hat :5 he is cov]$1 ?\gh trifl+ acts ( c\rtesy1 are tok5s ( ! ef=ts we w\ld will+ly make on 8 behalf if an opportunity ( be+ really s]viceable to him pres5t$ itself4 ,polit5ess is a m>k ( respect & a promise ( devotion4 ,all ?is is anti-democratic1 because democracy does n recognise any sup]iority1 & !re=e has no sympa?y ) respect & p]sonal devotion4 ,respect to o!rs involves a recognition f u t we are ( less importance ?an !y1 & polit5ess to an equal requires f u a c\rte\s affectation t we consid] him z our sup]ior4 ,?is is entirely contr>y to ! democratic ideal1 :i* ass]ts t !re is no sup]iority any:]e4 ,z = pret5d+ to treat y\r equal z ?\gh he 7 y\r sup]ior1 t involves a d\ble hypocrisy1 because x requires a reciprocal hypocrisy on ! "p ( y\r neighb\r4 ,y praise 8 wit1 only 9 ord] t he may return ! complim5t4 ,)\t1 h[ev]1 insi/+ on ?is po9t1 democracy w argue t polit5ess is to be deprecat$1 because x n only recognises b actually creates sup]iority4 ,x treats an equal z a sup]ior1 z ?\gh !re 7 n en\gh discrepancies already )\t inv5t+ any m4 ,x seems to imply t if inequality did n exi/1 x w\ld be necess>y to inv5t x4 ,x is tantam\nt to proclaim+ t !re _c be too mu* ari/ocracy4 ,t is an op9ion :i* democracy _c endure4 ,consid]$ z a promise ( future devotion1 polit5ess is equally anti-democratic4 ,! citiz5 owes no devotion to any p]son1 he owes x only to ! community4 ,x is no small matt] to /yle y\rself y\r mo/ humble s]vant2 x means t y s+le out "o man f among _m o!rs & promise to s]ve him2 x means t y ackn[l$ge 9 him "s natural or social sup]iority1 & accord+ to democracy !re are no sup]iorities1 social or natural1 & if !re 7 su* a ?+ z natural sup]iority1 nature has no bus9ess to all[ x4 ,?is is tantam\nt to proclaim+ a =m ( vassalage--a ?+ :i* is n to be tol]at$4 ,z to ! abs5ce ( polit5ess consid]$ z a means ( giv+ free play to "o's feel+s1 we recognise t 9 "o s5se ?is also is ess5tially democratic4 ,! democrat is n pr\d ( or pleas$ ) 8 faults2 n at all2 only ex hypo!si he does n believe 9 _! exi/5ce4 ,a fail+ is an inf]iority ( "o man 9 relation to ano!r2 ! ^w itself implies x2 x means t some?+ is lack+1 t "o man has a ?+ :i* ano!r has n4 ,b all m5 are equal1 !re=e1 argues ! democrat1 ,i h no fail+2 !re=e ,i ne$ n try to conceal & control my alleg$ fail+s1 z !y are at wor/ m]ely mann]isms1 & are possibly virtues4 ,! democrat1 9 fact1 l "y m51 l mo/ wom51 & l all human be+s :o h begun to ?9k b d n ?9k v pr(\ndly1 kn[s 8 fail+s & assumes t !y are virtues4 ,?is is v natural1 = our faults are ! mo/ conspicu\s p>ts ( our "*1 & :5 we are /ill at ! self-satisfi$ /age x is our faults t we *]i% & admire4 ,consequ5tly1 polit5ess1 9 t x consi/s 9 conceal+ our faults1 is intol]able to a man :o is impati5t to display qualities t to him appe> comm5dable & wor?y4 ,! usual reason :y we d n correct our faults is t we mi/ake !m = qualities1 & ?9k t any practice :i* requires _! concealm5t mu/ be q absurdly tyrannical4 ,! democrat is !re=e pr(\ndly conv9c$ ( two ?+s2 fir/1 t all m5 are equal & t !re is no su* ?+ z inf]iority or fail+1 & secondly1 t :at m5 call faults are really natural *>act]i/ics ( great int]e/4 ,he believes t faults are popul> prejudices inv5t$ by intrigu]s1 prie/s1 nobles & rul]s1 = _! own base purposes to inspire ! poor ) humility4 ,he looks ^u ?is s5se ( inf]iority z a curb on ! p's p[]1 all ! m pot5t t x works f )9 & has a p>alys+ effect on its en]gy4 ,he is p]suad$ t1 f ?is po9t ( view1 polit5ess is an ari/ocratic in/rum5t ( tyranny4 ,?is expla9s :y1 :5 ! wave ( democracy swept ov] ,france1 x br\ght ) x a p]fect fr5zy ( rud5ess1 all ! m curi\s 9 a nation rem>kable = c\rtesy4 ,x 0 an affirmation t1 appe>ances not)/&+1 nei!r sup]iorities nor excell5ces ( human "* _h any real exi/5ce4 ,rud5ess is democratic4 ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,pr(essional ,,cu/oms4 ,! contempt = effici5cy is c>ri$ f> ev5 9 ! lib]al pr(essions & 9 pr(essional cu/oms4 ,we all "k ! /ory1 p]haps a my?ical "o1 ( ! judge :o said to an e>ne/ "y b>ri/] :o 0 consci5ti\sly elaborat+ a "q ( law3 ,n[1 ,mr4 ,s & ,s1 we are n "h to discuss que/ions ( law b to settle ?is bus9ess4 ,he did n say ?is by way ( je/2 he wi%$ to say3 ,! c\rts no long] deliv] judgm5t on ! m]its ( a case accord+ to law1 b accord+ to equity & common s5se4 ,! intricacies ( ! law are left to pr(essors1 s please :5 conduct+ a case d n behave l a pr(essor ( law4 ,?is !ory1 :i* ev5 9 ?is mild =m w\ld h horrifi$ ! anci5ts1 is v preval5t n[adays 9 legal circles4 ,x has crept 9 z an infiltration1 z "o might call x1 f ! democratic sy/em4 ,a magi/rate1 n[adays1 :atev] remnant ( ! anci5t feel+ ( ca/e he may h reta9$1 c]ta9ly does n consid] himself b\nd by ! lett] ( ! law1 or by jurisprud5ce1 ! writt5 tradition2 :5 he is any?+ m ?an a subord9ate ) no o!r idea ( duty ?an subs]vi5ce to ! ,gov]nm5t1 he is a democratic magi/rate1 a ,helia/ ( ,a!ns2 he deliv]s judgm5t accord+ to ! dictates ( 8 individual consci5ce2 he does n consid] himself z a memb] ( a le>n$ body1 b\nd to apply ! decisions ( t body1 b z an indep5d5t expon5t ( ! tru?4 ,an ecc5tric1 b 9 tru? v significant1 example ( ! new attitude ( m9d is to be f\nd 9 ! judge1 :o =mally attribut$ to himself ! "r to make law & :o 9 8 judgm5ts made ref]5ces1 n to exi/+ laws1 b to su* vague g5]alities z appeal$ to him1 or to doctr9es :i* he prophesi$ w\ld lat] on be embodi$ 9 ! law4 ,8 ,code 0 ! ,code ( ! future4 ,! m]e exi/5ce ( su* a man is ( no p>ticul> importance1 b ! fact t _m p1 ev5 ^? p>tially enlight5$1 took him s]i\sly1 t he 0 popul>1 & t a consid]able faction ?\ght him a good judge1 is mo/ significant4 ,!re is ano!r mu* common] sign ( ! times4 ,! wor/ =m ( incompet5ce is p]haps t :i* all[s a man to be compet5t )\t realis+ x1 &1 9 crim9al cases at lea/1 ?is seems to be ! normal attitude ( ! majority ( our magi/rates4 ,we %\ld read on ?is po9t a v curi\s pamphlet call$ ,le ,pli ,pr(essionnel 7#aiji71 by ,m>cel ,le/rang]1 a prov9cial magi/rate4 ,x is v p]t95t to our subject4 ,x %[s pla9ly t ! magi/racy n[adays1 bo? ! qualifi$ /ip5di>ies & ! b5* ( magi/rates1 has lo/ all confid5ce 9 itself & is t]rifi$ ( public op9ion z repres5t$ by newspap]s1 associations1 political clubs & ! man 9 ! /reet2 ! magi/rate kn[s too1 or ?9ks he kn[s1 t promotion dep5ds1 n on a reputation = sev]ity z x us$ to d1 b on a reputation = indulg5ce4 ,he is confront$ 9 ! execution ( 8 duty by =ces :i* are always 9 coalition aga9/ him2 ! public1 almo/ always fav\rable to ! accus$1 ! press1 bo? local & ,p>isian1 ! s-call$ sci5ce ( judicial m$ic9e1 :i* is almo/ always dispos$ to consid] ! accus$ z p]sons n responsible = _! actions4 ,he lives1 too1 9 con/ant t]ror ( be+ mix$ up 9 a misc>riage ( ju/ice1 = misc>riage ( ju/ice is n[ a sort ( craze1 & ) a consid]able section ( ! public e conviction is a misc>riage ( ju/ice4 ,& s ! magi/rate ( fir/ in/ance nev] d>es to sum up sev]ely1 & ! /ip5di>y nev] d>es press 8 int]rogations ) firmness4 ,!re are exceptions ( c\rse2 b ^! exceptions1 by ! a/oni%m5t :i* !y excite1 & by ! reaction to :i* !y give rise1 %[ suffici5tly1 inde$ conclusively1 t !y are abnormal1 outside ! new ord] ( ?+s1 outside ! new habits ( ! p4 ,m (t5 ?an n ! subord9ate magi/rate1 ^: bus9ess x is to commit ! prison] = trial1 acts ) timidity & res]ve1 apologetically att5uat+ ! crime2 he leaves loopholes ( escape1 appeals 9 audible asides = indulg5ce1 dwells on ! unc]ta9ty ( evid5ce4 ,he dem&s inde$ ! prison]'s head b lives 9 t]ror le/ he obta9 x4 ,! fact is :at bo? he & ! /ip5di>y desire is t ! affair %\ld be settl$ by an acquittal1 = an affair settl$ by an acquittal is an affair buri$4 ,/one-dead has no fell[2 x is consign$ to oblivion4 ,x c nev] be made ! sort ( affair :i* someone is sure to decl>e is a misc>riage ( ju/ice1 or :i* someone1 animat$ by private & political spite or m]ely = ! sake ( a je/1 c make into a gho/ to haunt = t5 or ev5 fifte5 ye>s ! un=tunate magi/rate :o _h to deal ) x4 ,m4 ,le/rang] tells a /ory :i*1 f all ! in=mation ,i c glean & f :at ,i c rememb] he>+ at ! "t1 is absolutely true & a p]fect illu/ration ( ?\s&s ( simil> cases4 ,a poa*]1 ag$ n9ete51 fir/ outrag$ & !n /rangl$ 9 ! woods a peasant woman1 ! "m ( a family4 ,on ?is occasion !re c\ld be no "q ( a misc>riage ( ju/ice or ev5 ( any sugge/ion ( su* a ?+1 because ! prison] plead$ guilty4 ,t is a great po9t4 ,9 ,france e conviction t is n bas$ ^u ! prison]'s confession is a misc>riage ( ju/ice2 b :5 ! prison] pleads guilty !re c be no incrim9ations ( ?is sort1 al?\gh !re might be1 = false confessions are n unkn[n1 b no?+ ( ! sort is ev] put =w>d1 & ! case seem$ to be q /raight=w>d4 ,b ! magi/rates 7 t]rifi$ t ! prison] w\ld be condemn$ to dea?4 ,! crime 0 horrible1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! eyes ( a village jury1 ^: wives & daught]s 7 (t5 oblig$ to "w "s di/ance f ! village4 ,moreov]1 !re 0 a tiresome man1 ! wid[] ( ! victim1 ?ir/+ = v5geance1 :o sang ! praises ( 8 wife & br\ght 8 weep+ son into c\rt :ile he gave 8 evid5ce4 ,! presid5t & ! public prosecutor 7 9 despair4 ,i h done all ,i c1 said ! presid5t to ! public prosecutor4 ,i h made ! mo/ ( 8 y\?4 ,i h repeat$ 'only n9ete5 ye>s ( age4' ,i h inde$ done all ,i c4 ,i h done all ,i c1 said ! public prosecutor to ! presid5t4 ,i h n said a ^w ab\t ! puni%m5t4 ,i m]ely accus$4 ,i c\ld n plead = ! def5ce4 ,i h done my be/4 ,at ! close ( ! he>+ ! *ief con/able 0 v reassur+ to ^! g5tlem54 ,he is "u tw5ty & he look$ s respectable at ! enquiry4 ,x is q impossible t he %\ld be condemn$ to dea? 9 ?is quiet village4 ,y w see1 he w n be s5t5c$ to capital puni%m5t4 ,he 0 n4 ,! jury br\ght 9 a v]dict ( guilty ) ext5uat+ circum/ances4 ,! magi/rates recov]$ _! tranquillity4 ,m4 ,le/rang]'s facts are support$ by figures4 ,^? :o commit crimes :i* excite pity1 su* z infanticide & abortion1 are less & less likely to be prosecut$1 & if !y are1 !y are frequ5tly let (f1 h[ev] flagrant ! (f5ce4 ,! av]age numb] ( acquittals dur+ ! la/ twelve ye>s is tw5ty-six p] c5t4 ,a magi/rate n[adays is a ,/4 ,francis ( ,assize4 ,ei!r ! magi/rate does n believe 9 8 own effici5cy1 or he sacrifices x to 8 peace ( m9d1 & he c>es m = 8 own peace ( m9d ?an = ! public safety4 ,! magi/racy w soon be no m ?an a facade1 /ill impos+ b n at all al>m+4 ,!re is already a v s]i\s symptom ( h[ little confid5ce ! cr[d has 9 ! :olesome sev]ities ( ju/ice2 ! crim9al caught 9 ! act is (t5 lyn*$ or almo/ lyn*$1 because x is well kn[n t if he is n puni%$ imm$iately1 he is v likely to escape puni%m5t altoge!r4 --,yet ?is same cr[d1 9 ! =m ( a jury1 is (t51 almo/ always1 v indulg5t4--,true1 & t is because betwe5 ! crime & ! assizes !re is (t5 an int]val ( six mon?s4 ,at ! date ( ! crime x is ! mis=tune ( ! victim t excites ! cr[d1 at ! date ( ! assize x is ! mis=tune ( ! accus$4 ,be ?is z x may1 ! practice ( lyn*+ am\nts to a =mal accusation t bo? magi/rates & juries are ov] indulg5t4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! cl]gy ev51 :o are m t5aci\s ( tradition ?an any o!r ord] 9 ! ,/ate1 are gradually becom+ democratic to ?is ext5t1 t ?\gh by pr(ession tea*]s ( dogmas & my/]ies1 !y n[ tea* only morality4 ,9 ?is way !y try to get into clos] t\* ) ! poor1 & s h a great] hold ^u !m4 ,evid5tly !y are n altoge!r to blame4 ,only1 :5 !y cease to tea* dogma & int]pret my/]ies1 !y cease to be a le>n$ body or to h ! pre/ige ( a le>n$ body4 ,on ! o!r h& !y s9k to ! level ( any o!r philosophy1 :i* tea*es & expla9s morality1 & illu/rates x by sacr$ examples j z well z any prie/hood4 ,! result is t ! p say to !mselves ,:at ne$ h we ( prie/s8 ,moral philosoph]s are good en\gh = u4 ,?is ,am]icanism is n v dang]\s1 9 fact x does n matt]1 9 ,am]ica1 :]e !re are v few lay moral philosoph]s2 b x is a v great dang] 9 ,france1 ,italy & ,belgium :]e _! "n is legion4 99 99 99 99 99 ,9 e pr(ession1 to sum x all up1 ! root ( ! evil is ?is1 t we believe t m]e dext]ity & cunn+ are incomp>ably sup]ior to k & t clev]ness is inf9itely m valuable ?an s\nd le>n+4 ,^? :o foll[ pr(essions believe ?is1 & ! lay public t employs ! pr(essions is n dismay$ by ?is attitude ( ! pr(essional class2 & s ?+s t5d to t equality ( *>latanry to :i* democracy in/9ctively t5ds4 ,democracy does n respect effici5cy1 b x soon w h no opportunity to respect x2 = effici5cy is be+ de/roy$ & be=e long w h disappe>$ altoge!r4 ,!re w soon be no diff]5ce betwe5 ! judge & ! suitor1 betwe5 ! layman & ! prie/1 ! sick man & ! physician4 ,! contempt :i* is felt = effici5cy de/roys x little by little1 & effici5cy1 accept+ ! situation1 outruns ! contempt t is felt = x4 ,! end w be t we %all all be only too mu* ( "o op9ion4 ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,attempt$ ,,rem$ies4 ,we h s\ght v consci5ti\sly1 & democrats !mselves h s\ght v consci5ti\sly1 to f9d rem$ies = ?is con/itutional disease ( democracy4 ,we h pres]v$ c]ta9 bodies1 relatively ari/ocratic1 z refuges1 we w\ld fa9 believe1 ( effici5cy4 ,we h pres]v$ = in/ance a ,s5ate1 elect$ by univ]sal suffrage1 n directly1 b 9 ! second degree4 ,we h pres]v$ also a ,p>liam5t 7a ,s5ate & a ,*amb] ( ,deputies71 a float+ ari/ocracy :i* is cont9ually be+ r5ew$4 ,?is is1 h[ev]1 9 a s5se an ari/ocracy inasmu* z x /&s betwe5 u & a direct & imm$iate gov]nm5t ( ! p by ! p4 ,^! rem$ies are by no means to be despis$1 b we recognise t !y are v feeble1 = ! reason t democracy always eludes !m4 ,by ! c>e x takes to exclude effici5cy1 x has made ! ,*amb] ( ,deputies 7) "s few exceptions7 a body resembl+ itself ) absolute fidelity bo? 9 respect ( ! sup]ficial "* ( its k & ! viol5ce ( its prejudices2 ) ! result 9 my op9ion t ! cr[d might j z well gov]n directly &1 )\t ! int]v5tion ( repres5tatives1 by means ( ! plebiscite4 ,! same ?+ applies to ! ,s5ate1 ?\gh p]haps 9 a m direct fa%ion4 ,! ,s5ate is *os5 by ! delegates ( univ]sal suffrage4 ,^! delegates1 h[ev]1 are n *os5 by a g5]al univ]sal suffrage :]e ea* dep>tm5t w\ld *oose f\r or five hundr$ delegates1 b by ! t[n c\ncillors ( ea* commune or p>i%4 ,9 ^! communes1 especially 9 ! rural communes1 ! municipal c\ncillors :o are by f> ! mo/ num]\s &1 ) reg>d to elections1 ! mo/ influ5tial1 are m or less completely dep5d5t on ! prefets4 ,! result is t ! ,s5ate is1 practically1 *os5 by ! prefets1 t is1 by ! ,gov]nm5t1 z us$ to be ! case "u ! ,fir/ & ,second ,empire4 ,! mak] ( ! con/itution made ?is arrangem5t = ! b5efit ( 8 own p>ty1 = he upheld au?ority2 & he want$ ! ,c5tral ,gov]nm5t to control ! elections ( ! ,s5ate4 ,x has n turn$ out z he int5d$4 ,vos non vobis1 o!rs h pr(it$ by 8 device1 z ! foll[+ consid]ations w %[4 ,x is well kn[n t 9 ,france a deputy belong+ to ! opposition1 ?\gh sure ( 8 con/itu5ts1 & c]ta9 to be re-elect$ indef9itely1 :o = private reasons wi%es to be a s5ator1 is oblig$ to be civil to ! ,gov]nm5t 9 p[]1 to abate 8 opposition1 & to make himself pleasant1 if he wi%es to avoid failure 9 8 new ambition4 ,x is v inconv5i5t to h a /rong & active opposition 9 ! ,s5ate4 ,x comes back aga9 to ?is1 t we h a ,s5ate n f> remov$ f "o elect$ by univ]sal suffrage4 ,univ]sal suffrage elects ! ,*amb] ( ,deputies1 ! ,*amb] elects ! ,gov]nm5t1 & ! ,gov]nm5t elects ! ,s5ate4 ,! ,s5ate is !re=e an extremely feeble anti-democratic rem$y1 & if x 7 int5d$ z a *eck on democracy1 x has n be5 a /rik+ success4 ,if we really wi% to h an upp] *amb] z compet5t z possible1 indep5d5t ( ! c5tral au?ority1 & relatively indep5d5t ( univ]sal suffrage1 we mu/ e/abli% a *amb] elect$ by ! great con/itu5t bodies ( ! nation1 & also 9 my op9ion1 by univ]sal suffrage1 b ) modifications some:at z foll[s4 ,! :ole nation1 divid$ = practical purposes into five or six l>ge di/ricts1 %\ld elect five or six ?\s& delegates :o 9 turn %\ld elect ?ree hundr$ s5ators4 ,!re w\ld !n be no pressure f ,gov]nm5t nor any manufacture by ! cr[d ( a repres5tation fa%ion$ 9 its own image1 & we %\ld h a really select body compos$ ( z mu* compet5ce z c\ld be got 9 ! c\ntry4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 exactly ! opposite ( ?is t is done1 & ! ,fr5* ,s5ate is an extremely feeble1 anti-democratic rem$y4 ,x repres5ts ! rural democracy1 arbitr>ily guid$ & gov]n$ by ! democratic ,gov]nm5t4 99 99 99 99 99 ,ano!r rem$y :i* has be5 giv5 an equally consci5ti\s trial is ! sy/em ( competitive exam9ation1 :i* is suppos$ to be a gu>antee = ! ability ( ^? :o seek admission into gov]nm5t s]vice4 ,! object ( ^! exam9ations1 :i* are extremely detail$ & complicat$1 is to te/ ! ability ( ! c&idate 9 e p>ticul>1 to give employm5t to m]it & to exclude fav\ritism4 --,y call t an anti-democratic rem$y6 ,x is z democratic z well c be6-- ,nay1 p>don6 ,x w\ld be anti-mon>*ical if we liv$ "u a mon>*y1 anti-ari/ocratic if we liv$ "u an ari/ocracy1 & x is anti-democratic because our lot is ca/ 9 a democracy4 ,competition = public (fices is a sort ( co-optation4 ,9 fact x is co-optation pure & simple4 ,:5 ,i sugge/$ t ! magi/racy %\ld be *os5 by ! magi/rates1 t is1 ! ,c\r de ,cassation by ! magi/rates & ! magi/rates 9 turn by ! ,c\r de ,cassation1 ,i 0 ( c\rse accus$ ( be+ p>adoxical1 z is always ! case1 :5 "o sugge/s some?+ contr>y to ! usual cu/om4 ,i 01 h[ev]1 only c>ry+ a little fur!r ! pr9ciple :i* is already appli$ to (ficials4 ,9 a c]ta9 s5se & to a l>ge ext5t (ficials recruit _! numb]s by co-optation4 ,x is true1 !y d n actually *oose ! (ficials1 b !y elim9ate ! c&idates :om !y d n wi% to h4 ,exam9ation is o/racism ( ! ineffici5t4 ,! ,gov]nm5t1 ( c\rse1 has to decide :o may be c&idates1 b its selection = employm5t is limit$ to ^? ( :om o!r (ficials 7! (ficials :o conduct ! exam9ation7 c approve4 ,x is 9 fact co-optation4 ,! committee ( exam9]s :i* admits a c&idate to ,/4 ,cyr appo9ts an (fic]4 ,! committee :i* admits a c&idate to ! ,ecole ,polyte*nique appo9ts an (fic] or an eng9e]4 ,a committee also :i* refuses a c&idate at ei!r ( ^! places is encroa*+ on ! ,national ,sov]eignty1 because x is =bidd+ ! ,national ,sov]eignty to make ( ?is "y man an (fic] or an eng9e]4 ,?is is co-optation4 ,?is is a gu>antee ( effici5cy4 ,"h a wall is rais$ aga9/ incompet5ce1 & aga9/ ! jobb]y "u :i* incompet5ce w\ld pr(it4 ,x is h>dly necess>y = me to add t ?is co-optation is limit$ to a v n>r[ field ( op]ation4 ,x is conf9$ 9 fact to ! ?re%old ( a man's c>e]4 ,once ! c&idate has be5 consecrat$ (ficial1 by a bo>d ( exam9+ (ficials1 he belongs1 bo? z reg>ds advancem5t1 promotion & ! rev]se1 to ! c5tral au?ority alone1 except 9 c]ta9 cases4 ,! co-optation ( (ficials is m]ely a co-optation by elim9ation4 ,! elim9ation is made once & = all1 & ! non-elim9at$ 7i4e41 ! successful c&idate7 /eps at once into ! toils ( ! ,gov]nm5t1 t is1 into ! toils ( popul> electione]+ & p>ty politics1 :5 all ! abuses :i* ,i h enum]at$ c & d arise4 ,to be fair ,i _h ( c\rse to po9t out t we _h tri$ to inv5t "s slight b>ri]s aga9/ ! omnipot5ce ( incompet5ce1 :i* prev5t x be+ absolutely supreme4 ,un=tunately ^! prophylactic measures are v badly organis$1 &1 f> f be+ capable ( am5dm5t1 ought to be completely revolutionis$4 ,! exam9ation sy/em 9 our c\ntry is f\nd$ on a misconception1 ,i mean on ! confusion betwe5 k & compet5ce4 ,we se>* consci5ti\sly = compet5ce or effici5cy1 & we believe t we h f\nd x :5 we f9d k1 b t is an error4 ,an exam9ation requires f a c&idate t he %all "k1 & competition dem&s t he %all "k m ?an ! o!rs1 b t is almo/ all t exam9ation & competition require ( him4 ,!refrom results "o ( ! mo/ pa9ful op5 sores ( our civilisation1--prep>ation = exam9ations4 ,prep>ation = exam9ation is responsible = intellectual indige/ion1 = m9ds ov]load$ ) useless in=mation1 & = a sy/em ( cramm+1 :i* at once takes ! he>t out ( m51 p]haps ) good ability1 j at ! age :5 _! m5tal activity is mo/ ke52 :i*1 fur!r1 z ! result ( ?is surfeit1 disgu/s = ! re/ ( 8 life & r5d]s impot5t = all intellectual ef=t1 ! un=tunate pati5t :o has be5 condemn$ to und]go ?is treatm5t = five1 eight1 & sometimes t5 ye>s ( 8 y\?4 ,i am satisfi$1 if ,i may be all[$ to speak ( myself 9 ord] to support my argum5t by an in/ance well kn[n to me1 t1 if ,i h be5 able to "w f ! age ( tw5ty-five to t ( sixty-?ree1 x is because ,i h nev] succe$$ except v mod]ately1 & ,i am pr\d ( x1 9 competitive exam9ations4 ,be+ ( a curi\s turn ( m9d ,i h be5 int]e/$ 9 ! subject set 9 ! syllabus1 b 9 o!r matt]s also1 & ! syllabus has be5 neglect$4 ,i sometimes pass$1 m (t5 ,i fail$1 ) ! result t at tw5ty-six ,i 0 beh9d my contempor>ies1 b ,i 0 n ov]work$1 brok5 d[n1 & utt]ly sick ( all intellectual ef=t4 ,i admit t "s ( my contempor>ies :o nev] fail$ 9 an exam9ation1 & :o pass$ !m all ) great brilliance1 h work$ z h>d z ,i h up to sixty1 b !y are extremely few4 ,! curi\s ?+ is t ! results1 n p]haps disa/r\s1 b obvi\sly v unsatisfactory1 ( ?is exam9ation sy/em d n lead u to ab&on x 7t p]haps w\ld be an extreme measure71 b make u aggravate & complicate x4 ,legal & m$ical exam9ations are mu* /iff] ?an !y us$ to be1 & !y require a great] physical ef=t1 b )\t requir+ or obta9+ any great] intellectual value4 ,9 tru?1 "o might say1 exam9ation is no?+ m ?an a te/ ( good heal?1 & x is a v se>*+ te/1 = x (t5 succe$s 9 de/roy+ x4 ,"h is an example :i* ,i "k well4 ,x is necess>y1 if a man desire to ga9 di/9ction z a pr(essor ( second>y education1 t he %\ld be a ba*elor1 a lic5tiate1 an agrege or a doctor4 ,?is is a qualification t c\nts1 & x means t5 exam9ations or competitions1 two = ! fir/ half ( ! ba*elor's degree1 two = ! second1 two = ! lic5tiate1 two = agrege1 two = ! doctor's degree4 ,?is1 moreov]1 does n appe> to be en\gh4 ,betwe5 ! second "p ( ! ba*elor's degree & ! lic5tiate's degree !re is normally an int]val ( two ye>s2 betwe5 ! lic5tiate & ! agregation two ye>s1 & betwe5 ! agregation & ! doctor's degree !re is g5]ally ?ree or f\r ye>s4 ,y p]ceive ! dang]6 ,betwe5 ! lic5ce & ! agregation1 to g no fur!r at pres5t1 ! future pr(essor has two :ole ye>s to himself4 ,t is to say1 t dur+ ! fir/ ( ^! two ye>s he w "w alone4 ,he c "w freely1 he c /udy 9 :at direction he pleases1 )\t ?9k+ ( an exam9ation at ! end ( twelve mon?s2 he has escap$ = ! mom5t f ! s]vitude ( ! syllabus4 ,! prospect makes u %udd] ) appreh5sion4 ,x is sadly to be fe>$ t ! "y man may take a re/ & draw brea?1 or worse /ill he may be c>ri$ into "s extrane\s /udy by 8 p]sonal aptitudes or ta/es4 ,! p]sonality ( ! c&idate has "h an op5+1 a mom5t at :i* x has a possibility ( ass]t+ itself4 ,t mu/ be /opp$ at all co/s4 ,! au?orities1 !re=e1 h put 9 an int]m$iate exam9ation betwe5 ! lic5ce & ! agregation4 ,! exam9ation1 x is true1 is on a subject *os5 by ! c&idate himself2 s mu* x is only fair to admit4 ,! subject *os51 h[ev]1 mu/ be submitt$ to ! pr(essors4 ,_! advice & inde$ assi/ance mu/ be invit$4 ,! result1 if n ! object1 ( ?is exam9ation is to prev5t ! c&idate1 dur+ ?is p]il\s ye> ( lib]ty1 f develop+ orig9al ideas ( 8 own & act+ on !m4 ,"o exam9ation e ye> = t5 ye>s--t is ! ideal ( ! mod]n pr(essor = ! future pr(essors :o are 9 c\rse ( be+ tra9$4 ,betwe5 ! second "p ( ! ba*elor's degree & ! lic5tiate1 z !re is !re an int]val ( two ye>s1 !y w pres5tly p]ceive t !re ought to be an exam9ation at ! end ( ! fir/ ye>1 & we %all h c]tificates ( /udy 9 int]m$iate1 second>y1 high] subjects4 ,betwe5 ! agregation & ! doctorat1 !re are f\r ye>s1 & naturally we %all want ?ree exam9ations j to see h[ ! future pr(essor is gett+ on ) 8 !ses1 to encumb] him ) assi/ance & to prev5t him do+ !m alone2 fir/ exam9ation call$ ! ,bibliography ( ! ,!ses = ! ,doctorat1 second exam9ation call$ ! ,me?odology ( ! ,doctorat1 ?ird exam9ation call$ ! ,prep>ation = ! ,su/a9+ ( ! ,!sis1 & !n ! exam9ation = ! doctor's degree itself4 ,9 ?is way ! desir$ object is atta9$4 ,betwe5 ! ages ( sev5te5 & tw5ty-sev5 or ?irty ! exam9ee w h _h to und]go sixte5 exam9ations4 ,he w nev] h work$ alone4 ,he w always h work$1 = p]iods ( twelve mon?s1 on a syllabus1 = an exam9ation1 ) a view ( pleas+ su* & su* pr(essors1 modell+ himself on _! views1 _! conceptions1 _! g5]al ideas1 _! ecc5tricities1 aid$ by !m1 influ5c$ by !m1 nev] kn[+1 & feel+ he ought n to "k1 n wi%+ to "k1 & runn+ a great risk if he did "k1 & =m+ habits = 8 :ole life s t he may nev] "k :at he ?9ks himself1 :at he imag9es himself1 :at he seeks & w\ld l to seek ( 8 own motion1 or :at he ought himself to try to be4 ,he w take up all ?is aft] he is ?irty4 ,n a ve/ige ( p]sonality or orig9al ?\ght till ! mom5t :5 x is too late = x to appe>1 t is ! maxim6 ,:5ce comes ?is fr5zy1 ?is exam9o mania8 ,:5 "o comes to ?9k ( x1 x seems to be a simple case ( ,d&9o-mania4 ,d&9 says ) great det]m9ation ,i mean to g & judge4 ,! pr(essor ( a c]ta9 age means to g & exam9e4 ,he no long] loves to pr(ess1 he loves to be always exam9+4 ,?is is v natural4 ,pr(ess+1 he is judg$2 exam9+1 he judges4 ,! "o is always mu* pleasant] ?an ! o!r4 ,= a pr(essor1 to sweat 9 h>ness1 to feel oneself be+ exam9$1 t is1 criticis$1 discuss$1 held up to judgm5t1 & *aff$ by an audi5ce ( /ud5ts & amateurs1 ceases at a c]ta9 age to be altoge!r pleasant2 on ! o!r h& to exam9e1 to sit on ! ?rone ) all ! maje/y ( a judge1 to h only to criticise & n to produce1 to int]v5e only :5 ! victim /umbles1 & to let him "k t he has made a slip1 to hold ! /ud5t = ! :ole ye> "u ! salut>y t]ror ( an approa*+ exam9ation1 to rem9d him t he may ne$ help & mu/ by no means displease 8 pr(essor--all ?is is v agreeable & makes up = _m ( ! worries ( ! tea*+ pr(ession4 ,! exam9ation mania proce$s p>tly f ! t]ror ( be+ oneself exam9$1 & p>tly f ! pleasure ( exam9+ o!rs4 ,all ?is is true1 b !re is m ?an ?is4 ,! precoci\s developm5t ( e>ly tal5t & orig9ality is ! ?+ :i* /rangely t]rifies ^! exam9ation-maniacs4 ,!y h a horror ( ! man :o tea*es himself4 ,!y h a horror ( any "o :o v5tures to ?9k = himself & to enquire = himself at tw5ty-five ye>s ( age4 ,!y want1 l an old h51 to "m ! "y m9d z long z possible4 ,!y w n let x f9d its own feet1 till v late1 & till1 z ! sc(f] might well say1 its limbs are absolutely atrophi$4 ,i d n say t !y are wrong4 ,! man :o has taught himself is apt to be a va91 conceit$ fell[ :o takes pleasure 9 ?9k+ = himself1 & has an absolute delight 9 despis+ ! ?\ghts ( o!rs4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 no less ! fact1 t x is among ^! self-taught m5 t we f9d ^? vigor\s spirits :o v5ture boldly beyond ! doma9 ( human sci5ce & ext5d its fronti]4 ,! "q !n is :i* is be/1 to fav\r all ^! tr\blesome self-taught p 9 ! hope ( f9d+ "s good ones among !m1 or by cross+ & worry+ !m to run ! risk ( de/roy+ ! good z well z ! bad4 ,i am myself /rongly 9 fav\r ( ! fir/ ( ^! alt]natives4 ,x is bett] to let all g _! own way1 ev5 ?\gh pret5d]s to orig9ality come to grief1 a ?+ t matt]s v little4 ,m9ds t are truly orig9al w develop !mselves & f9d room = ! expansion ( all _! p[]s4 ,b "h1--take note h[ ! democratic _s comes 9 ev]y:]e--! "q ( numb]s is rais$4 ,t5 times m num]\s1 ,i am told1 are ! pret5d]s to orig9ality :om we save f !mselves by discipl9e ?an ! true g5iuses ^: w+s we clip4 ,i reply t1 9 matt]s intellectual1 que/ions ( figures d n c\nt4 ,an orig9al _s /rangl$ is a loss :i* is n comp5sat$ by ! rescue ( t5 fools f worse excesses ( folly4 ,an orig9al _s left free to be himself is wor? m ?an t5 fools ^: folly is p>tially re/ra9$4 ,nietzs*e has well said3 ,mod]n education consi/s 9 smo!r+ ! exceptional 9 fav\r ( ! normal4 ,x consi/s 9 direct+ ! m9d away f ! exceptional into ! *annel ( ! av]age4 ,?is ought n to be4 ,i d n say t education %\ld d ! opposite ( all ?is4 ,oh no1 f> f t4 ,x is n ! bus9ess ( education to look = exceptional g5ius1 or to help 9 its creation4 ,exceptional g5ius is born ( itself & x has no ne$ ( su* assi/ance4 ,b ev5 less is x ! bus9ess ( education to reg>d ! exceptional ) t]ror1 & to take e means possible1 ev5 ! mo/ b>b>\s & mo/ detail$1 to prev5t x z long z possible f com+ to ! light4 ,education ought to draw all t x c out ( m$iocrity1 & to respect orig9ality z mu* z x c4 ,x ought nev] to attempt to turn m$iocrity into orig9ality1 nor to r$uce orig9ality to ! level ( m$iocrity4 ,& h[ c all ?is be done8 ,by an int]v5tion t is always discreet1 & sometimes by non-int]v5tion4 ,at ! pres5t mom5t its policy is equally di/ant f non-int]v5tion & f an int]v5tion t is discreet4 ,x is 9 ?is way t ! v in/itution :i* we h inv5t$ to safegu>d effici5cy contributes n a little to ! triumph ( its opposite4 ,^! victims ( exam9ation are compet5t 9 respect ( k1 in/ruction & te*nical pr(ici5cy4 ,!y are incompet5t 9 respect ( intellectual value1 (t51 ?\gh p]haps n s (t5 z =m]ly1 9 respect ( moral value4 ,z f> z _! intellectual value is conc]n$1 !y h v frequ5tly no m5tal initiative4 ,x has be5 cramp$1 hidd5 away1 & trampl$ d[n4 ,if x ev] exi/$1 x exi/s n[ no long]4 ,!y are all _! days m]ely in/rum5ts4 ,!y h be5 taught _m ?+s1 especially intellectual ob$i5ce4 ,!y cont9ue to obey intellectually1 _! bra9 acts l well made & well lubricat$ ma*9]y4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! novel & ! play1 said ,bruneti]e1 is t 9 ! play ! *>act]s act1 9 ! novel !y are act$4 ,i d n "k if ?is be true1 b ( ! function>y we might say z (t5 z n1 he does n ?9k1 he is ?\ght4 ,! (ficial also is incompet5t1 ?\gh less & less (t51 9 respect ( moral wor?4 ,by ! ex]cise ( intellectual ob$i5ce1 he has be5 tra9$ to moral ob$i5ce also & he is little dispos$ to ass]t 8 indep5d5ce4 ,obs]ve h[ ev]y?+ t5ds to ?is end4 ,?is me?od ( co-opt+ (ficials by means ( elim9ation1 z ,i h said1 op]ates only1 z ,i h also %[n1 at ! outset ( ! (ficial's c>e]4 ,f ?is mom5t onw>ds ! function>y mu/ dep5d on ! ,gov]nm5t only1 8 :ole prep>ation dur+ t5 ye>s ( education has be5 calculat$ to ensure 8 absolute dep5d5ce on 8 (ficial directors4 ,s f> good1 p]haps a little too good4 ,x w\ld h be5 well if ! education ( ! function>y _h left him1 toge!r ) a little orig9ality ( m9d1 a little orig9ality ( "* z well4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we h s\ght1 v consci5ti\sly also1 &1 ,i may ev5 say1 ) an admirable en?usiasm1 yet ano!r rem$y = ! faults ( democracy1 ano!r rem$y = its incompet5ce4 ,x is said3 ,! cr[d is incompet5t1 s be x1 x is necess>y to enlight5 x4 ,prim>y education1 spread broadca/1 is ! solution ( e difficulty1 & provides an answ] to e "q4 ,f ?is argum5t ari/ocrats h d]iv$ "s little amusem5t4 ,h[ is ?is8 !y exclaim$1 :at is ! mean+ ( ?is p>adox8 ,y are democrats & t means t y attribute political excell5ce1 'political virtue1' z we us$ to say1 to ! cr[d1 t is to ignorance4 ,:y !n d y wi% to enlight5 ! cr[d1 t is to de/roy ! v virtue :i*1 on y\r own %[+1 is ! cause ( its sup]iority8 ,! democrats reply t ! cr[d1 ev5 z x is1 is already v pref]able to ari/ocracy1 & t x w be /ill m s :5 x has receiv$ in/ruction4 ,!y resolve ! app>5t contradiction by ! argum5t a =tiori4 ,at all ev5ts1 ! democrats set to "w mo/ vigor\sly on ! education ( ! p4 ,! result is t ! p is mu* bett] educat$ ?an =m]ly1 & ,i am "o ( ^? :o reg>d ?is result z excell5t2 b ! fur!r result is1 t ! p is saturat$ ) false ideas1 & ?is is less com=t+4 ,anci5t republics _h _! demagogues1 _! orators1 :o inflam$ ! evil qualities ( ! p1 by be/[+ on !m high-s\nd+ names & by flatt]y4 ,! great democracy ( mod]n times has its demagogues4 ,^! are its elem5t>y s*ool tea*]s4 ,!y come ( ! p1 are pr\d to belong to x1 = :i* ( c\rse no "o c blame !m1 !y di/ru/ ev]y?+ t is n ! p1 !y are all ! m ( ! p because among ! p !y are intellectually 9 ! fir/ rank :ile else:]e !y are ( second>y importance2 & :at m5 love is n ! gr\p ( :i* !y =m a "p1 b ! gr\p ( :i* !y are ! *ief4 ,!y are1 !re=e1 pr(\ndly democratic4 ,s f> no?+ c\ld be bett]4 ,b x is a n>r[ =m ( democratic s5tim5t :i* !y hold1 = !y are only half-educat$1 or r 7= :o is completely educat$ or ev5 well educat$871 because !y h only receiv$ a rudim5t>y education4 ,rudim5t>y education may p]haps make u capable ( hav+ "o idea1 x c]ta9ly r5d]s u incapable ( hav+ two4 ,! man ( rudim5t>y education is always ! man ( "o s+le idea & ( "o fix$ idea4 ,he has few d\bts4 ,n[ ! wise man d\bts (t51 ! ignorant man seldom1 ! fool nev]4 ,! man ( "o idea is m or less imp]meable to any process ( reason+ t is =eign to ?is idea4 ,an ,indian au?or has said3 ,y c conv9ce ! wise2 y c conv9ce1 ) m difficulty1 ! ignorant2 ! half-educat$1 nev]4 ,n[ no "o ev] conv9ces ! elem5t>y s*oolma/]4 ,he is confirm$ 9 8 convictions by def5d+1 & /ill m by discuss+ !m4 ,he is ! slave ( 8 op9ion4 ,he does n possess x always q cle>ly1 b x possesses him4 ,he loves x ) all 8 s\l1 z a prie/ 8 religion1 because x is ! tru?1 because x is beautiful1 because x has be5 p]secut$1 & because x means ! salvation ( ! _w4 ,he w\ld enjoy its triumph b he ye>ns /ill m to be a m>tyr 9 its cause4 ,he is a conv9c$ democrat & a s5tim5tal democrat4 ,8 conviction =ms a solid basis = 8 s5tim5t1 & 8 s5tim5t k9dles to a :ite heat 8 conviction4 ,8 conviction makes him turn a deaf e> to e objection1 8 s5tim5t inspires him ) hatr$ = 8 adv]s>y4 ,= him ! man :o is n a democrat is wrong1 & fur!r1 to him an object ( hatr$4 ,9 8 eyes ! di/ance betwe5 himself & ! ari/ocrat is z ! di/ance betwe5 tru? & error1 nay betwe5 good & evil1 betwe5 hon\r & di%on\r4 ,! s*oolma/] is ! fanatic vassal ( democracy4 ,!n1 z he is a man ( "o idea1 he is s+le-m9d$1 n>r[ly logical1 & logical to ! utmo/ extreme4 ,he goes /raight =w>d :]e 8 argum5t leads4 ,an idea :i* admits nei!r qualification nor "q c g f> 9 a v %ort space ( "t4 ,& ! s*oolma/] drives all 8 democratic pr9ciples to _! natural & logical conclusion4 ,he develops ^! pr9ciples & all t !y imply by ! %e] =ce ( :at he calls 8 reason+ reason1 & x appe>s to him to be n only natural b salut>y to seek _! realisation4 ,ev]y?+ ( :i* ! pr9ciple is good is good itself1 & no "o b ,montesquieu c\ld ev] believe t an in/itution c\ld be ru9$ by ! excess ( ! pr9ciple 9 :i* its m]it consi/s4 ,! s*oolma/]1 !re=e1 d$uces _! logical consequ5ces f ! two great democratic pr9ciples1 ! sov]eignty ( ! nation1 & equality2 he d$uces !m rigor\sly1 & arrives at ! foll[+ conclusions4 ,! p alone is sov]eign4 ,!re=e1 ?\gh !re c be individual lib]ty & lib]ty ( association1 !re ought to be only su* individual lib]ty & lib]ty ( association z ! p p]mits4 ,lib]ty _c be & ought n to be any?+ m ?an a ?+ tol]at$ by ! sov]eign p4 ,! individual may ?9k1 speak1 write1 & act z he pleases1 b only s f> z ! p w all[ him2 = if he c d ^! ?+s ) absolute fre$om1 or ev5 ) limitations :i* are n impos$ by ! p1 he becomes ! sov]eign p[]1 or ! p[] :i* fix$ ! limits ( 8 fre$om becomes ! sov]eign1 & ! sov]eignty ( ! p disappe>s4 ,?is br+s u back to ! simple def9ition t lib]ty is ! "r to d :at we please )9 ! limits ( ! law4 ,& :o makes ! law8 ,! p4 ,lib]ty is !n ! "r to d ev]y?+ :i* ! p p]mits u to d4 ,no?+ m2 if we attempt to g beyond ?is1 ! sov]eignty ( ! individual beg9s1 & ! sov]eignty ( ! p disappe>s4 --,b to h lib]ty to d only :at ! p p]mits1 ?is is to be free z we 7 "u ,l\is ,,xiv4--& t is n to be free at all6 ,s be x4 ,!re w inde$ be no lib]ty unless ! law p]mit x4 ,surely y d n wi% to be free 9 opposition to ! law8 --,! law may be tyrannical4 ,x is tyrannical if x is unju/4-- ,! law has ! "r to be unju/4 ,o!rwise ! sov]eignty ( ! p w\ld be limit$ & ?is mu/ n be4 --,fundam5tal & con/itutional laws might be devis$ to limit ?is sov]eignty ( ! p 9 ord] to gu>antee su* & su* ( ! lib]ties = ! individual4-- ,& ! p w\ld !n be ti$6 ,! sov]eignty ( ! p w\ld be suppress$6 ,no1 ! p _c be ti$4 ,! sov]eignty ( ! p is fundam5tal & mu/ be left intact4 --,!n !re w be no individual lib]ty8-- ,only su* a measure z ! p w tol]ate4 --,!n !re w be no lib]ty ( association8 ,/ill less2 = an association is 9 itself a limitation ( ! sov]eignty ( ! nation4 ,x has its own laws1 :i* f a democratic po9t ( view is an absurd & mon/r\s incongruity4 ,! "r ( association limits ! national sov]eignty1 j z w\ld a free t[n or sanctu>y ( refuge4 ,x limits ! nation1 & pulls x up %ort 9 face ( its clos$ doors4 ,x is a ,/ate )9 a ,/ate2 :]e !re is association1 !re arises at once a s\rce ( organisation o!r ?an ! great organism ( ! popul> w4 ,x is l an animal :i* lives "s sort ( indep5d5t life )9 ano!r animal l>g] ?an itself & :i*1 liv+ on t o!r animal1 is /ill indep5d5t ( x4 ,9 fact !re c be only "o association1 ! association ( ! nation1 o!rwise ! sov]eignty ( ! nation is limit$1 t is1 de/roy$4 ,no lib]ty ( association c !n exi/4 ,associations ( c\rse w exi/ :i* ! p w tol]ate1 b _! "r ( exi/5ce is always revocable & !y are always liable to be dissolv$ & de/roy$4 ,o!rwise ! national sov]eignty w\ld be held to abdicate & x c nev] abdicate4 --,ah6 b !re is "o association1 at lea/1 :i* to "s ext5t is sacr$1 & :i* ! sov]eignty ( ! p is b\nd to respect4 ,i mean ! family4 ,! fa!r is ! head ( ! family1 he educates 8 *ildr5 & br+s !m up z he ?9ks be/1 till !y come to man's e/ate4-- ,nay1 t w n pass6 ,= "h aga9 we h a limitation ( ! sov]eignty ( ! nation4 ,! *ild does n belong to 8 fa!r4 ,if ?is 7 s1 at ! ?re%old ( ea* home ! sov]eignty ( ! p w\ld be arre/$1 :i* means t x w\ld cease to exi/ any:]e4 ,! *ild1 l ! man1 belongs to ! p4 ,he belongs to x1 9 ! s5se t he mu/ n be a memb] ( an association :i* might d>e to ?9k diff]5tly f ! p1 or p]haps ev5 h>b\r ideas 9 contradiction to ! ?\ght ( ! p4 ,x w\ld inde$ be dang]\s to leave our future citiz5s = tw5ty ye>s outside ! national ?\ght1 :i* is ! same ?+ z be+ outside ! community4 ,imag9e five or six bees br\ght up ap>t1 outside ! laws1 regulations1 & con/itution ( ! hive2 imag9e fur!r t ( ^! gr\ps ( bees !re 7 sev]al hundr$s 9 ! hive4 ,! result w\ld be ! de/ruction ( ! hive4 ,x is above all ?+s 9 ! family t ! sov]eignty ( ! p ought to prevail4 ,x ought above all ?+s to refuse to recognise ! association ( ! family1 & to wage w> aga9/ x :]ev] x f9ds x4 ,x %\ld leave to p>5ts ! "r ( embrac+ _! *ildr51 b no?+ m4 ,! "r to educate !m 9 ideas p]haps contr>y to ^? ( _! p>5ts belongs to ! p1 :i*1 "h z well z else:]e1 p]haps ev5 m ?an else:]e = ! int]e/s at /ake are m important1 mu/ be absolutely sov]eign4 ,?is1 !n1 is :at ! s*oolma/]1 ) a rel5tless logic :i* appe>s to me to be irresi/ible1 d$uces f ! pr9ciple ( ! national sov]eignty4 ,f ! pr9ciple ( equality he d$uces ano!r po9t4 ,all m5 are equal by nature & be=e ! law4 ,t is to say1 if !re 7 ju/ice1 all m5 ought to h be5 equal by nature1 & fur!r1 if !re is to be ju/ice1 all m5 ought to be equal be=e ! law4 ,v obvi\sly1 h[ev]1 all m5 are n equal be=e ! law1 & !y are n equal by nature4 ,v well !n1 we mu/ make !m s4 ,!y are n equal be=e ! law4 ,!y appe> to be s1 b !y are n4 ,! ri* man1 ev5 suppos+ t ! magi/rates are p]fectly & /rictly hone/1 by reason ( ! fact t he c remun]ate ! be/ solicitors1 advocates1 & witnesses1 by reason fur!r ( ! fact t he intimidates by 8 influ5ce all ^? :o c\ld appe> aga9/ him1 is n 9 e respect ! equal ( ! poor man be=e ! law4 ,ev5 less does ?is equality exi/ 9 ! pres5ce ( t union ( con/itut$ social =ces :i* we call society4 ,9 ?is respect ! ri* man w be ! influ5tial man2 ! man well connect$1 ! man on :om no "o dep5ds1 b :om no "o likes to cross or to contradict4 ,!re is1 betwe5 ! ri* & ! poor man1 h[ev] equal we may pret5d !m to be be=e ! law1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! man :o gives ord]s & ! man :o is oblig$ to obey4 ,real equality1 9 society1 9 pres5ce ( society & ev5 9 pres5ce ( ! law1 only exi/s :]e !re is nei!r ri* nor poor4 ,b !re w always be ri* & poor1 z long z ! in/itution ( inh]itance rema9s4 ,aboli% inh]itance !re=e6 ,b1 ev5 ) inh]itance aboli%$1 !re w /ill be ri* & poor4 ,! man :o c make 8 =tune rapidly w be a /rong man relatively to ! man :o c n make a =tune1 &1 ,i w\ld h y note x1 ev5 :5 we h aboli%$ inh]itance1 ! son ( ! /rong man1 dur+ ! life ( 8 fa!r1 w be /rong himself1 s t ev5 if we aboli% inh]itance1 a privilege1 namely1 ! privilege ( bir? w /ill exi/ & equality w n exi/4 ,!re is only "o /ate ( affairs "u :i* equality is possible1 t is :5 no "o possesses & no "o c acquire any?+4 ,! only social policy s devis$ t no "o c possess & no "o c acquire any?+ is ! policy ( a community ( goods1 t is ,communism or ,collectivism4 ,collectivism is no?+ v wond]ful4 ,collectivism is equality2 & equality is collectivism1 o!rwise our equality w be no?+ b a phantom & an hypocrisy4 ,e "o :o is a conv9c$ & s9c]e egalit>ian1 & :o takes ! tr\ble to ?9k1 is =c$ to be a collectivi/4 ,bonald ask$ v wittily3 ,d y "k :at is a dei/8 ,x is a man :o has n liv$ long en\gh to be an a!i/4 ,we 9 our turn ask3 ,d y "k :at is an anti-collectivi/ democrat8 ,x is a man :o has n liv$ long en\gh to be a collectivi/1 or :o1 hav+ liv$ long en\gh1 has nev] tak5 ! tr\ble to ?9k1 & to p]ceive :at are ! necess>y consequ5ces ( 8 own pr9ciples4 ,b surely collectivism is a *ima]a1 an utopia1 a ?+ impossible4 ,c]ta9ly x is impossible 9 ! s5se t 9 ! c\ntry :i* adopts x ! s\rce ( all initiative w be de/roy$4 ,no man w make an ef=t to improve 8 position1 s9ce x mu/ nev] be improv$4 ,! :ole c\ntry w become "o ( ^? /agnant pools to :i* "o ( our m9i/]s lately ref]r$4 ,ev]yone hav+ become an (ficial1 ev]yone w realise ! ideal ( ! (ficial :i* ! ,gonc\rts h v neatly describ$4 ,! good (ficial1 !y say1 is ! man :o comb9es laz9ess ) extreme accuracy4 ,x is a def9itive def9ition4 ,! c\ntry t re=m$ itself 9 ?is way w\ld be conqu]$ at ! end ( t5 ye>s by "s neighb\r+ p m or less ambiti\s4 ,t admits ( no "q2 b :at does x prove8 ,t collectivism is only impossible because x is only possible if e/abli%$ 9 e c\ntry at once4 ,v well1 & 9 ord] to e/abli% x 9 e c\ntry at once1 only "o ?+ is ne$ful1 namely1 t !re %all no long] be di/9ct & sep>ate c\ntries & no long] any nationalities4 ,x surely w n answ] to e/abli% collectivism be=e ! abolition ( nationalities1 s9ce1 once e/abli%$1 x w s]ve no purpose except to br+ into prom95t relief ! va/ sup]iority ( c\ntries :i* h n adopt$ collectivism4 ,we mu/1 !re=e1 take our problems 9 ord] & aboli% nationalities be=e we c e/abli% collectivism4 ,n[ if nations organise !mselves aga9/ nature 7! nature t1 ! s*oolma/] assumes1 makes all m5 equal71 if in/9ctively !y organise !mselves 9 a hi]>*y :i* is ari/ocratic1 if !y h _! lead]s & _! subord9ates1 _! /rong] & _! weak] memb]s1 x is because ?is arrangem5t is necess>y 9 a camp1 & ea* nation feels t x is a camp4 ,if ea* feels t x is a camp1 x is simply because !re are o!r nations r\nd x1 because x feels & kn[s t !re are o!rs r\nd x4 ,:5 !re are no long] o!r nations1 ea* nation w organise itself no long] aga9/ nature1 b naturally1 t is to say on egalit>ian pr9ciples4 ,nature p]haps /rictly speak+ is n egalit>ian1 b x t5ds t[>ds equality 9 ! s5se t x produces _m m1 inde$ inf9itely m1 m$iocrities ?an sup]ior intellig5ces4 ,?us equality dem&s ! abolition ( inh]itance1 & ! equality ( possessions4 ,equality ( possessions necessitates collectivism1 & collectivism requires ! abolition ( nationalities4 ,we are egalit>ians1 !n collectivi/s1 & by logical consequ5ce anti-patriots4 ,s argue ! great majority ( s*ool tea*]s1 ) an absolute logic1 9 my op9ion1 irrefutable1 ) ! logic :i* takes no acc\nt ( facts1 & :i* only takes acc\nt ( its own pr9ciple & ( itself4 ,s !y w all argue to-morr[1 if !y cont9ue1 z x is probable !y w cont9ue1 to be v excell5t dialecticians4 ,w !y g back to ! premises & say1 t if ! sov]eignty ( ! p & equality lead logically & imp]atively to ^! conclusions1 x is p]haps because ! sov]eignty ( ! p & equality are false ideas1 & because ^! conclusions prove !m to be false8 ,?is is a c\rse n likely to be tak51 = ! sov]eignty ( ! p & ! pr9ciple ( equality are some?+ m ?an g5]al ideas1 !y are s5tim5ts4 ,!y are s5tim5ts :i* h become ideas1 z is ! case d\btless ) all g5]al ideas1 & !y are s5tim5ts ( great /r5g?4 ,! sov]eignty ( ! p is ! tru? = him :o believes 9 x1 because x ought to be true1 because x is a ?+ z full ( maje/y = him z 0 ,caes> 9 all 8 pomp = ! anci5t ,roman1 or ,l\is ,,xiv4 9 all 8 glory = ! man ( ! sev5te5? c5tury4 ,equality is tru? = him :o believes1 because x ought to be true1 because x is ju/ice1 & because x w\ld be infam\s if ju/ice & tru? 7 n "o4 ,= ! democrat1 ! _w has ev] be5 ris+ gradually1 s9ce its creation1 t[>ds ! sov]eignty ( ! p & ! doctr9e ( equality2 ! latt] conta9s ! =m]1 ! =m] is de/9$ to f\nd ! latt] & has ?is mission = its purpose 9 life2 toge!r !y con/itute civilisation1 & if !y are n atta9$1 !re is a relapse into b>b>ism4 ,!y are dogmas ( fai?4 ,a dogma is an ov]ma/]+ s5tim5t :i* has f\nd expression 9 a =mula4 ,f ^! two dogmas ev]y?+ t c be d$uc$ )\t brea* ( logic is tru? :i* x is our "r & duty to proclaim4 ,we mu/ add t ! s*oolma/] is urg$ 9 ?is same direction by s5tim5ts ( a less g5]al "*1 :i* nev]!less h an influ5ce ( _! own4 ,he is plac$ 9 8 commune 9 direct opposition to ! prie/1 ! only p]son v (t5 :o is1 l himself1 9 t place a man ( "s little education4 ,h5ce rivalry & a /ruggle = influ5ce4 ,n[ ! prie/1 by a s]ies ( hi/orical incid5ts1 is a m or less w>m p>tisan sometimes ( mon>*y b almo/ always ( ari/ocracy4 ,he is a memb] ( a body t once 0 an e/ate ( ! realm1 & he is p]suad$ t 8 corporation is /ill an e/ate ( ! realm1 not)/&+ all t has happ5$4 ,if ! exi/+ ord] is regulat$ by ! concordat1 ! exi/+ ord] recognises 8 corporation z a body legitimatis$ by ! ,/ate1 s9ce x treats x on ! same t]ms z ! magi/racy & ! army4 ,if ! exi/+ ord] is "o bas$ on ! sep>ation ( ,/ate & ,*ur*1 8 corporation appe>s to him /ill m to be an e/ate ( ! realm1 because be+ =c$ into an attitude ( solid organisation1 & recognis+ no limitations ( fronti]1 x becomes a collective p]sonage :i*1 n )\t p]il1 b also n )\t a c]ta9 measure ( success1 has (t5 v5tur$ to cross swords ) ! ,/ate itself4 ,z ! prie/ !n belongs to an ord] end[$ ) an hi/oric au?ority :i* is nev]!less di/9ct f1 & 9 no wise a delegation f1 ! au?ority ( ! p1 ! prie/ _c fail m or less def9itely & consci\sly to adopt an attitude ( m9d fav\rable to ari/ocracy4 ,! s*ool tea*]1 8 rival1 is ?r[n !n all ! m inevitably t[>ds ! adoption ( democratic pr9ciples1 & he embraces !m ) a f]v\r into :i* ent]s jeal\sy q z mu* z conviction4 ,!y mean m to him ?an ev5 to an eighte5? c5tury philosoph]1 because he has a mu* great] p]sonal int]e/ 9 believ+ !m1 ! int]e/ ( p]sonal dislike & animosity2 = x is 8 belief t ev]y?+ taught by ! prie/ is ! pure inv5tion ( +5i\s oppressors :o wi% to enslave ! p 9 ord] to consolidate _! own tyranny2 & t is 8 reason = pr(ess+ philosophical ideas resuscitat$ f ! tea*+ ( ,did]ot1 & ,holba*4 ,= ! s*ool tea*] x is almo/ inconceivable t ! prie/ %\ld be any?+ b a rascal4 ,a!ism is ari/ocratic1 said ,robespi]re1 ?9k+ ( ,r\sseau4 ,a!ism is democratic1 say our pres5t-day s*ool tea*]s4 ,:5ce comes ?is diff]5ce ( op9ion8 ,fir/ because x 0 fa%ionable among ! great lords ( ! eighte5? c5tury to be lib]t9es & free-?9k]s1 b among ! p ! belief 9 ,god 0 unanim\s4 ,secondly1 because ! prie/s ( our day1 = ! reasons :i* ,i h giv5 & f remembrance ( ! p]secutions suff]$ by _! ,*ur* at ! date ( ! fir/ triumphs ( democracy1 h rema9$ ari/ocrats or h become s ev5 m firmly ?an !y ev] 7 be=e4 ,a!ism !n has become democratic z a weapon aga9/ ! dei/s :o are g5]ally ari/ocrats4 ,besides1 a!ism fits 9 v well1 :atev] ,robespi]re may h ?\ght1 ) ! g5]al s5tim5ts ( ! bas] demagogy4 ,to be re/ra9$ by no?+1 to be limit$ by no?+1 t is ! dom9ant idea ( ! p1 or r x is ! dom9ant idea ( ! democrat = ! p1 t x %\ld be re/ra9$ by no?+ & limit$ by no?+ 9 its sov]eign p[]4 ,n[ ,god is a limit1 ,god is a re/ra9t4 ,& j z ! democrat w n admit ( a secul> con/itution :i* ! p c\ld n de/roy & :i* w\ld prev5t him f mak+ bad laws2 j z ! democrat w n submit--if we may adopt ! t]m9ology ( ,ari/otle--to be+ gov]n$ by laws1 to be gov]n$ t is by an anci5t body ( law :i* w\ld *eck ! p & ob/ruct x 9 its daily fabrication ( decrees2 s j 9 ! same _s ! democrat does n admit ( a ,god ,:o has issu$ ,8 comm&m5ts1 ,:o has issu$ ,8 body ( laws1 ant]ior & sup]ior to all ! laws & all ! decrees ( m51 & ,:o sets ,8 limit on ! legislative ecc5tricities ( ! p1 on its caprici\s omnipot5ce1 9 a ^w1 on ! sov]eignty ( ! p4 ,aft] ,s$an1 ,bism>ck 0 ask$3 ,n[ t ,napoleon has fall51 on :om d y make w>8 ,he repli$3 ,on ,l\is ,,xiv4 ,s ! democrat que/ion$ on 8 a!ism c\ld reply3 ,i am w>r+ aga9/ ,moses4 ,?is is ! orig9 ( ! a!ism ( democrats & s*oolma/]s4 ,?is is ! orig9 ( ! =mula3 ,nei!r ,god nor ,ma/]1 :i* = ! an>*i/ requires no correction nor supplem5t1 :i* = ! democrat has only to be modifi$3 ,nei!r ,god nor ,ma/]1 save ! ,p4 ,at ! end ( "o ( 8 great political spee*es 9 #ahdi or #ahej1 ,victor ,hugo said3 ,9 ! future !re w only be two p[]s2 ! ,p & ,god4 ,! mod]n democrat has p]suad$ himself t if !re be a ,god1 ! sov]eignty ( ! p is infr+$1 if he believe 9 ,him4 ,la/ly1 ! s*ool tea*] is confirm$ 9 8 democratic s5tim5ts1 9 all 8 democratic s5tim5ts1 by ! political position :i* has be5 made = him 9 ,france4 ,x is a /range ?+1 a disconc]t+ anomaly1 t ! ,gov]nm5ts ( ! n9ete5? c5tury 7especially1 we mu/ d x ?is ju/ice1 ! pres5t ,gov]nm5t71 h v h&somely respect$ ! lib]ty ( pr(essors ( high] education1 & ( second>y education1 & h n 9 ! v slighte/ degree respect$ ! lib]ty ( ! tea*]s ( elem5t>y education4 ,! pr(essor ( high] education1 especially s9ce #ahgj1 c tea* exactly :at he pleases1 except immorality & contempt ( our c\ntry & its laws4 ,he c ev5 discuss our laws1 provid$ always t he ma9ta9s ! pr9ciple t1 su* z !y are1 !y ought to be obey$ till !y are repeal$4 ,8 lib]ty z to 8 op9ions political1 social & religi\s is complete4 ,x is only occasionally con/ra9$ by ! disord]ly demon/rations ( 8 /ud5ts4 ,! pr(essor ( second>y education enjoys a lib]ty almo/ equally wide4 ,he is subject1 b only 9 an extremely lib]al fa%ion1 to a programme or syllabus ( /udies4 ,z to ! _s 9 :i* he conducts 8 "w he is practically nev] mole/$4 ,he is giv5 a free h&4 ,nor has x ev] occurr$ to any ,gov]nm5t to ask a pr(essor ( high] & second>y education h[ he votes at political elections1 /ill less to require him to canvass 9 fav\r ( ! c&idates agreeable to ! ,gov]nm5t4 ,:51 h[ev]1 we pass to elem5t>y education we see ev]y?+ is *ang$4 ,! elem5t>y tea*] is n appo9t$ by 8 natural *ief1 ! recteur or ,m9i/] ( ,public ,education1 he is appo9t$ by ! prefet1 t is by ! ,m9i/] ( ! ,int]ior1 ! political head ( ! ,gov]nm5t4 ,9 o!r words1 ?is is ! same process z ! appo9tm5t ( (ficials by ! p1 describ$ a few pages back1 b ) "o int]m$i>y ! less4 ,x is pre-em95tly ! ,m9i/] ( ! ,int]ior :o repres5ts ! political w ( ! nation at any giv5 date4 ,& x is ! ,m9i/] ( ! ,int]ior :o ?r\gh 8 prefets appo9ts ! elem5t>y s*ool tea*]4 ,x is !n ! political w ( ! nation :i* *ooses ! s*ool tea*]s4 ,x w\ld be impossible to convey to !m m cle>ly 7:i* is only fair1 = p %\ld be made to und]/& _! duties7 t !y are *os5 = consid]ations ( politics & t !y ought to consid] !mselves z political ag5ts4 ,& inde$ !y are no?+ else1 or p]haps we %\ld say !y are some?+ else b above all !y are politicians4 ,! s*ooltea*]s dep5d on ! prefets & ! prefets dep5d mu* on ! deputies1 yet x is n ! deputies :o appo9t !m1 b x is !y :o c remove !m1 :o c get !m promot$ or disgrac$1 :o by con/ant removals c r$uce !m to de/itution4 ,surely1 e c&id p]son w exclaim1 giv5 ! difficult & sc&al\s situation 9 :i* !y are put by ! h& :i* appo9ts !m1 !y ought at lea/ to h ! gu>antee & assurance1 v relative & ineffectual ?\gh x be1 ( irremovability4 ,b !y h n got x4 ,! pr(essors ( high] education :o d n require x h got x1 ! pr(essors ( second>y education h x to all int5ts & purposes4 ,! elem5t>y s*ool tea*] has x n4 ,he is1 !re=e1 deliv]$ ov] to ! politicians :o make ( him an electione]+ ag5t1 :o reckon him z su*1 & :o w\ld nev] p>don him if he fail$ !m4 ,! result is t ! majority ( s*ool tea*]s are demagogues because !y l x1 & ) magnific5t en?usiasm & passion4 ,! m9ority :o h no turn = demagogy are demagogues ?\gh !y d n l x1 & because !y are =c$ by necessity4 ,ev5 ^? :o h no disposition t way become demagogues 9 ! end1 = t is ! way ( ! _w4 ,9 ! heat ( ! melee1 said ,augi]1 !re are no m]c5>ies4 ,our s*ool tea*]s1 ?r[n1 sometimes aga9/ _! w1 into ! battle1 =c$ at lea/ to appe> to be fight+1 receive knocks & :5 !y h receiv$ !m1 !y become atta*$ to ! cause on ^: behalf !y h suff]$4 ,we always end by hav+ ! op9ions :i* are attribut$ to u1 & be+ tak5 = a demagogue ! mom5t he arrives at 8 village1 ! "y s*ool tea*]1 n d>+ to say any?+ to ! contr>y1 & be+ v ill receiv$ by all o!r p>ties1 naturally becomes a demagogue ) "s %[ ( conviction ! v next ye>4 99 99 99 99 99 ,s ! democracy receives no in/ruction t does n confirm & /r5g!n x 9 its errors4 ,= its good "s "o ought to tea* x n to believe itself omnipot5t1 to h scruples z to its omnipot5ce1 & to believe t ?is omnipot5ce %\ld h def9$ limits2 x is taught )\t res]ve ! dogma ( ! unlimit$ sov]eignty ( ! p4 ,= its good x %\ld believe t equality is s contr>y to nature t we h no "r to torture nature 9 ord] to e/abli% real equality among m51 & t ! p :i* has e/abli%$ su* a /ate ( ?+s1 :i* is q possible1 mu/ succumb to ! fate ( ^? :o try to live exactly 9 opposition to ! laws ( nature4 ,in/ead1 x is taught1 & x is true en\gh1 t equality is n possible1 if x is n complete1 if x is n ?or\gh1 t x ought to be appli$ to diff]5ces ( =tune1 social position1 intellig5ce1 p]haps ev5 to our /ature & p]sonal appe>ance1 & t no ef=t %\ld be sp>$ to br+ all ?+s to "o absolute level4 ,= its good1 s9ce x is natural en\gh t x %\ld dislike heavy taxation1 s5tim5ts ( patriotism %\ld be re9=c$2 x is taught on ! contr>y t milit>y s]vice is a pa9ful legacy left by a hateful & b>b>\s pa/1 & t x ought to disappe> v soon be=e ! w>m+ rays ( a peaceful civilisation4 ,9 a ^w1 to use aga9 ! language ( ,ari/otle1 ! pure w9e ( democracy is p\r$ out to ! p z x 0 by ! demagogues to ! ,a!nians2 & f ! qu>t] :5ce a rem$y might h be5 expect$ !re come only incitem5ts to deep] intoxication4 ,ari/otle has made yet ano!r wise & pr(\nd obs]vation on ! "q ( equality3 ,we mu/ e/abli% equality1 he said1 9 ! passions r ?an 9 ! =tunes ( m54 ,& he adds3 ,& ?is equality c only be ! fruit ( education d]iv$ f ! influ5ce ( good laws4 ,t is inde$ ! po9t4 ,education %\ld h b "o object2 to r$uce ! passions to equality1 or r to equanimity1 & to a c]ta9 equilibrium ( m9d4 ,! education giv5 to mod]n democracy does n lead to ?is1 b leads 9 ! opposite direction4 ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,! ,,dream4 ,:at rem$ies c we apply to ?is mod]n disease1 ! wor%ip ( intellectual & moral incompet5ce8 ,:at is1 z ,m4 ,f\illee puts x1 ! be/ way ( avoid+ ! hidd5 rocks :i* ?reat5 democracies8 ,x is h>d to say1 = we h to d ) an evil :i* c only be cur$ by itself1 ) an evil :i* is m ?an cont5t ) itself4 ,m4 ,f\illee 79 ! ,revue des ,deux ,mondes ( ,novemb]1 #aiji7 proposes an ari/ocratic ,upp] ,*amb]1 t is to say1 "o t w\ld repres5t all ! compet5ce ( ! c\ntry1 inasmu* z x w\ld be appo9t$ by ev]y?+ :i* is bas$ on "s p>ticul> =m ( excell5ce1 ! magi/racy1 ! army1 ! univ]sity1 ! *amb]s ( comm]ce1 & s on4 ,no?+ c\ld be bett]2 b ! cons5t ( ! democracy w\ld be necess>y1 & x is precisely ^! incorporations ( effici5cy t ! democracy _c abide1 look+ on !m1 n )\t reason1 z be+ 9 a s5se ari/ocracies4 ,he proposes also an en]getic int]v5tion on ! "p ( ! ,/ate to re/ore public morality1 action = ! suppression ( alcoholism1 gambl+ & pornography4 ,beyond ! fact t 8 argum5t sav\rs ( reaction1 = x recalls to u ! programme ( moral ord] ( #ahgc1 we mu/ rem>k1 z inde$ ,m4 ,f\illee himself ackn[l$ges1 t ! democratic ,/ate c h>dly af=d to kill ! ?+ :i* enables x to live1 to de/roy its pr9cipal s\rce ( rev5ue4 ,democracy1 z its mo/ au?oritative repres5tatives h admitt$1 is n a *eap =m ( gov]nm5t4 ,x has always be5 in/itut$ ) ! hope1 & p>tly ) ! express$ design1 ( be+ an economical gov]nm5t1 & x has always be5 ru9\s1 because x requires a mu* l>g] numb] ( p>tisans ?an o!r =ms ( gov]nm5t1 & a small] numb] ( malcont5ts ?an o!r =ms ( gov]nm5t1 & ^! p>tisans h to be remun]at$ 9 "o fa%ion or ano!r & ! malcont5ts h to be sil5c$ & b\ght 9 "o way or ano!r4 ,democracy1 :e!r anci5t or mod]n1 lives always 9 t]ror ( tyrants :o are always imm95t or ?\ght by x to be imm95t4 ,aga9/ ?is possible tyrant :o w\ld gov]n ) an en]getic m9ority1 ! democracy requires an imm5se majority :i* x has to b9d to x by ! grant ( _m fav\rs2 x has also to deta* f ?is tyrant ! malcont5ts :o w\ld be 8 support]s if x did n dis>m !m by a /ill m lavi% di/ribution ( fav\rs4 ,democracy requires !re=e pl5ty ( money4 ,x w f9d ?is by despoil+ ! weal?y z mu* z possible2 b ?is is a v limit$ s\rce ( rev5ue1 = ! weal?y are n a num]\s class4 ,x w f9d x m easily1 m abundantly also1 by exploit+ ! vices ( all1 = all is a v num]\s gr\p4 ,h5ce ! complaisance %[n to dr9k+ %ops1 :i*1 z ,m4 ,f\illee rem>ks1 x w\ld be m dang]\s = ! ,gov]nm5t to close ?an to close ! *ur*es4 ,z ! ne$s ( ! ,gov]nm5t increase1 z ,m4 ,f\illee pr$icts1 )\t mu* d\bt x w claim a monopoly 9 h\ses ( ill-fame & 9 ! publication ( indec5t lit]ature2 ent]prises 9 :i* !re w\ld be money4 ,& aft] all1 tol]at+ su* ?+s = ! pr(it ( c]ta9 trad]s & annex+ !m to be work$ = ! pr(it ( ! ,/ate1 is surely mu* ! same ?+ f a moral po9t ( view4 ,& ! f9ancial op]ation w\ld be mu* m b5efic5t 9 ! second case ?an 9 ! fir/4 ,m4 ,f\illee also argues t re=m mu/ come f above & n f bel[1 & t ! movem5t = reg5]ation c come f above & n f bel[4 ,i ask no?+ bett]1 b ,i ask also h[ is x go+ to be done8 ,inasmu* z ev]y?+ dep5ds ^u ! p1 :o1 :at1 c influ5ce ! p except ! p itself8 ,ev]y?+ dep5ds on ! p1 by :at !n c x be mov$ except by a =ce t is innate4 ,we are "h confront$--we are talk+ to a philosoph] & c make use ( sci5tific t]ms--) a ,k9etes ak9etos ) a motive =ce :i* causes b does n receive motives4 ,a pr9ciple has disappe>$1 a prejudice if y l to call x s1 ! prejudice 9 fav\r ( compet5ce4 ,we no long] ?9k t ! man :o und]/&s h[ to d a ?+ ought to be do+ t ?+1 or ought to be *os5 to d x4 ,h5ce1 n only is ev]y?+ mismanag$1 b x seems impossible by any device to h&le ! matt] effectually4 ,we see no solution4 ,nietzs*e really has a horror ( democracy2 only l all en]getic pessimi/s1 :o are n m]e trifl]s1 he us$ to say f "t to "t3 ,!re are pessimi/s :o are resign$ & c[>dly4 ,we d n wi% to be l !m4 ,:5 he w\ld n take ?is view he p]suad$ himself to look at democracy ?r\gh rose-col\r$ spectacles4 ,at times1 look+ at ! matt] f an ae/hetic po9t ( view1 he us$ to say3 ,int]c\rse ) ! p is z indisp5sable & refre%+ z ! contemplation ( vigor\s & heal?y vegetation1 & al?\gh ?is is 9 flagrant contradiction to all he has else:]e said ( ! be/ial flock & ! inhabitants ( ! swamp1 ! ?\ght has a c]ta9 am\nt ( s5se 9 x4 ,x signifies t in/9ct is a =ce1 & t e =ce mu/ be int]e/+ to /udy2 & fur!r t1 z su*1 x conta9s an active virtue1 a pr9ciple ( life1 a nucleus ( gr[?4 ,?is1 ?\gh vaguely express$1 is v possible4 ,aft] all ! cr[d is only p[]ful by reason ( numb]s1 & because x has be5 decid$ t numb]s %all decide4 ,x is an exp$i5t2 b an exp$i5t _c imp>t =ce to a ?+ t _h x n be=e4 ,motive p[]1 initiative1 belongs to ! man :o has a plan1 :o makes 8 comb9ation to a*ieve x1 :o p]sev]es & is pati5t & does n rel9qui% pursuit4 ,if he is elim9at$ & r$uc$ to impot5ce or to a m9imum ( usefulness1 "o does n see h[ ! cr[d1 )\t him1 c obta9 its p[] ( initiation4 ,fur!r explanation is ne$$4 ,at ano!r "t1 ,nietzs*e asks :e!r we ought n to respect ! "r1 :i* aft] all belongs to ! multitude1 to direct itself accord+ to an ideal--!re are ( c\rse _m ideals--& accord+ to ! ideal :i* is its own4 ,ought we to refuse to ! masses ! "r to se>* out tru? = !mselves1 ! "r to believe t !y h f\nd x :5 !y come ^u a fai? t seems to !m vital1 a fai? t is to !m z _! v life8 ,! masses are ! f\ndation on :i* all humanity re/s1 ! basis ( all culture4 ,depriv$ ( !m1 :at w\ld become ( ! ma/]s8 ,x is to _! int]e/ t ! masses %\ld be happy4 ,let u be pati5t2 let u grant to our insurg5t slaves1 our ma/]s = ! mom5t1 ! enjoym5t ( illusions :i* seem fav\rable to !m4 ,s ,nietzs*e argues1 b m (t51 = he returns on v>i\s occasions to ?is idea1 l$ !reto by 8 cu/om>y ari/ocratic lean+s1 he speaks ( democracy z ( a =m ( decad5ce1 z a necess>y prelude to an ari/ocracy ( ! future4 ,a high civilisation c only be built ^u a wide expanse ( t]ritory1 ^u a heal?y & firmly consolidat$ m$iocrity4 ,s he wrote 9 #ahhg4 ,t5 ye>s e>li] he held t slav]y _h be5 ! necess>y condition ( ! high civilisation ( ,greece & ,rome4 ,! only end1 !re=e1 :i* at pres5t1 provisionally ( c\rse b /ill = a long "t to come1 we h to expect1 mu/ be ! decad5ce ( mank9d--g5]al decad5ce to a level m$iocrity1 = x is necess>y to h a wide f\ndation on :i* a race ( /rong m5 c be re>$4 ,! decad5ce ( ! ,european is ! great process :i* we _c h9d]1 :i* we ought r to accel]ate4 ,x is ! active cause at "w :i* gives u hope ( see+ ! rise ( a /rong] race1 a race :i* w possess 9 abundance ^? same qualities :i* are lack+ to ! deg5]ate vani%+ species1 /r5g? ( w1 responsibility1 self-reliance1 ! p[] ( conc5tration4444 ,b h[1 out ( ?is m$iocrity ( ! cr[d1 a m$iocrity :i*1 z ,nietzs*e says1 is always increas+1 by :at process natural or artificial c a new & sup]ior race be creat$8 ,nietzs*e seems to be recall+ ! !ory1 v disrespectful & v devoid ( filial piety1 by :i* ,r5an s\ght to expla9 8 own g5ius4 ,a long l9e ( obscure ance/ors1 he says1 has economis$ = me a /ore ( intellectual en]gy1 & he jots d[n 9 8 note book c]ta9 sugge/ions1 a little immature b /ill emitt+ a ray ( light4 ,x is absurd1 he says1 to imag9e t ?is victory or survival ( values 7t is l[ values1 values1 t is1 t seem to be m$iocrity7 c be antibiological3 we mu/ look = an explanation 9 ! fact t !y are probably ( "s vital importance to ! ma9t5ance ( ! type 'man' 9 ! ev5t ( its be+ ?reat5$ by a prepond]ance ( ! feeble-m9d$ & deg5]ate4 ,p]haps if ?+s w5t o!rwise1 man w\ld n[ be an ext9ct animal4 ,! elevation ( type is dang]\s = ! pres]vation ( ! species4 ,:y8 ,/rong races are wa/eful1 we f9d ourselves "h confront$ ) a problem ( economy4 ,we p]ceive1 9 ?is tra9 ( reason+1 "s inkl+ ( :at ,nietzs*e is try+ to =mulate z 8 solution ( ! difficulty4 ,:at is ne$$ mu/ be a natural process1 a vis m$icatrix naturae4 ,9 ! process ( decl9+ & fall+1 races practise a sort ( ?rift2 !y save & !y economise4 ,!n1 if we may suppose t ! quantity ( en]gy ( intellectual & moral p[]1 i4e41 ( human values at ! disposal ( ! race is con/ant1 ! races t s act are creat+ 9 !mselves a res]ve :i* "o day w irresi/ibly take %ape 9 a *os5 class4 ,!y are creat+ 9 _! own bosom an elite :i* w "o day em]ge1 !y h conceiv$ all unconsci\sly an ari/ocracy :i* w "o day be born to be _! rul]4 ,we always f9d 9 ,nietzs*e ! !ory ( ,s*op5hau]1 ! !ory ( ! great deceiv] :o leads ! human race by ! nose & :o makes x d &1 z if x lik$ x1 t :i* x w\ld nev] d if x knew :]e x 0 be+ l$4 ,x is v possible2 /ill x rema9s t economy c>ri$ to an extreme1 ?\gh x c lead to a res]ve ( =ce1 may also lead1 & p]haps mu* m surely1 to a condition ( anaemia2 ! annihilation ( "o set ( compet5t p 9 ord] to prep>e ! way = races ( compet5t p 9 ! future1 ,i d n "k if ?is is a game inspir$ by ! great deceiv]1 b x is a game :i* to me appe>s dang]\s4 ,we ought to be sure 7& :o is sure87 t ! great deceiv] does n ab&on ^? :o ab&on !mselves4 ,i h (t5 said1 )\t ?9k+ ( any metaphysical my?ology1 ?9k+ inde$ ( ! ambiti\s p :om we meet ev]y:]e1 & ?9k+ only ( giv+ !m "s good advice3 ,! be/ way to get !re is to come d[n4 ,no?+ c\ld be m philosophical1 ,nietzs*e w\ld reply2 x is ev5 m true ( peoples ?an ( individuals3 ! be/ way = peoples to become "o day great is to beg9 by gr[+ small]4 ,i r d\bt x4 ,!re is no really solid reason to support ! !ory t feebl5ess cultivat$ ) p]sev]ance results 9 /r5g?4 ,nei!r ,greece nor ,rome supply examples1 nor did ! democratic republic ( ,a!ns nor ! democratic ,caes>ism ( ,rome ev] succe$ 9 giv+ bir? to an ari/ocracy ( compet5ce by a prolong$ economy ( values4 --,!y did n h ! "t4-- ,ah yes1 !re is always t to be said4 ,x w\ld p]haps be bett] to try to put ! brake on democracy ?an to enc\rage ?is process ( deg5]ation on ! *ance ( a fav\rable resurrection4 ,at lea/ ?is is ! c\rse :i* pres5ts itself mo/ naturally to our m9d1 & :i* seems mo/ consonant ) duty4 ,:5 ,i say put ! brake on democracy1 x mu/ be und]/ood t ,i mean t x %\ld put ! brake on itself1 = no?+ else c /op x1 :5 once x has made up its m9d4 ,x mu/ be p]suad$ or left alone1 & ev5 p]suasion is a ra% exp]im5t1 = x dislikes be+ p]suad$ ( any?+ b ( its own omnipot5ce4 ,x mu/ be p]suad$ or left alone1 = e o!r me?od w\ld be /ill m useless4 ,x mu/ be rem9d$ t =ms ( gov]nm5t p]i% f ! ab&onm5t & also f ! exagg]ation ( ! pr9ciple f :i* _! m]it is d]iv$1 ?\gh ?is is a v sup]annuat$ maxim2 t !y p]i% by an ab&onm5t ( _! pr9ciple because t pr9ciple is ! hi/orical reason ( _! com+ into exi/5ce1 & !y p]i% by c>ry+ _! pr9ciple to excess1 because !re is no su* ?+ z a pr9ciple t is absolutely good & suffici5t 9 itself = regulat+ ! complexity ( ! social ma*9e4 ,:at d we und]/& by ! pr9ciple ( a gov]nm5t8 ,x is n t :i* makes x be su* & su* a ?+1 b t :i* makes x act 9 a p>ticul> way1 z ,montesquieu has rem>k$2 t is1 ! human passions :i* supply ! motive =ces ( life4 ,x is cle> !n t ! passion = sov]eignty1 = equality1 = incompet5ce1 is n suffici5t to give to a gov]nm5t a life :i* is at once complete & /rong4 ,x is necess>y to give to compet5ce its "p1 or r x is necess>y to give compet5ce "o "p1 = ,i d n wi% to argue t !re is any "q ( "r involv$1 ,i only affirm t x is a social necessity4 ,x is necess>y t compet5ce1 te*nical1 intellectual1 moral compet5ce %\ld be assign$ its "p to play1 ev5 ?\gh ! sov]eignty ( ! p %\ld be limit$ & ! pr9ciple ( equality be some:at abridg$ !reby4 ,a democratic elem5t is ess5tially necess>y to a p1 an ari/ocratic elem5t also is ess5tially necess>y to a p4 ,a democratic elem5t is ess5tially necess>y to a p 9 ord] t ! p %\ld n feel itself to be a m]e onlook]1 b %\ld realise t x is a "p & an important "p ( ! body social1 & t ! words ,y are ! nation1 def5d x1 h a mean+4 ,o!rwise ! argum5t ( ! anti-patriot demagogues w\ld be j4 ,:at is ! good ( fight+ = "o set ( ma/]s aga9/ ano!r set1 s9ce x w make no diff]5ce1 only a *ange ( ma/]s8 ,a democratic elem5t is requir$ 9 ! gov]nm5t ( a p1 because x is v dang]\s t ! p %\ld be an enigma4 ,x is necess>y to "k :at x ?9ks1 :at x feels1 :at x suff]s1 :at x desires1 :at x fe>s1 & :at x hopes1 & z ?is c only be le>nt f ! p itself1 x is necess>y t x %\ld h a voice :i* c make itself he>d4 ,?is %\ld be done 9 "o way or ano!r1 ei!r by a ,*amb] ( its own :i* %\ld be end[$ ) great au?ority1 or by ! pres5ce 9 a s+le *amb] ( a consid]able numb] ( repres5tatives ( ! p1 or by plebiscites con/itutionally in/itut$ z necess>y = ! revision ( ! con/itution & = laws ( univ]sal int]e/1 or by ! lib]ty ( ! press & ! lib]ty ( association & public meet+4 ,?is w\ld n p]haps be en\gh1 b x w\ld be almo/ en\gh4 ,x is necess>y t ! p %\ld be able to make kn[n its wants1 & to influ5ce ! decisions ( ! ,gov]nm5t1 9 a ^w its voice %\ld be he>d & consid]$4 ,an ari/ocratic elem5t is also necess>y 9 a nation & 9 ! gov]nm5t ( a nation s t all t admits ( precision %all n be smo!r$ by t :i* is confus$2 s t :at is exact %all n be obscur$ by :at is vague1 & s t its firm resolves %all n be %ak5 by vacillat+ & incoh]5t caprice4 ,sometimes hi/ory itself makes an ari/ocracy--a =tunate circum/ance = a nation6 ,?is =ms a ca/e m or less exclusive1 x has traditions1 traditions m cons]vative ( ! laws ?an ! laws !mselves1 & x embodies 9 itself all t !re is ( life1 & en]gy & gr[? 9 ! s\l ( a p4 ,sometimes hi/ory has fail$ to give u an ari/ocracy or t :i* hi/ory has made has disappe>$4 ,x is !n t ! p ought to draw "o out ( itself1 x is !n its duty to appropriate & pres]ve ! high qualities to be f\nd 9 m5 :o h r5d]$ s]vice to ! ,/ate or ^: ance/ors h r5d]$ s]vice to ! ,/ate1 :o h special qualifications = ea* p>ticul> (fice & a moral effici5cy = e =m ( public s]vice4 ,^! qualities con/itute ! acquir$ aptitude ( an ari/ocracy = tak+ a "p 9 ! gov]nm5t2 ^! qualities con/itute its adaptation to its social environm5t1 & to its special function 9 our social ma*9]y & organisation4 ,"o might say t x is by ^! qualities t x ent]s into & becomes "p ( ! organism ( :i* x is ! mat]ial4 ,z ,john ,/u>t ,mill has ju/ly rem>k$1 !re _c be an exp]t1 well-manag$ democracy if democracy w n all[ ! exp]t to d ! "w :i* he alone c d4 ,:at is want$ !n & w always be want$1 ev5 "u socialism :]e1 z ,i po9t$ out1 !re w /ill be an ari/ocracy ?\gh a m num]\s "o1 is a bl5d+ ( democracy & ari/ocracy2 & "h1 ?\gh he wrote a long "t ago1 we %all f9d ,ari/otle is always "r = he /udi$ 9 a sci5tific _s "s hundr$ & fifty diff]5t con/itutions4 ,he is an ari/ocrat1 )\t concealm5t1 z we h se51 b 8 f9al conclusions1 :e!r he is speak+ ( ,lac$aemon1 :i* he did n l1 or ( ,c>?age1 or 9 g5]al t]ms1 h always be5 9 fav\r ( mix$ con/itutions z ev] ! be/4 ,!re is1 he says1 a mann] ( comb9+ democracy & ari/ocracy--:i* consi/s 9 s arrang+ matt]s t bo? ! di/+ui%$ citiz5s & ! masses h :at !y want4 ,! "r ( e man to aspire to magi/]ial appo9tm5ts is a democratic pr9ciple1 b ! admission ( di/+ui%$ citiz5s only is an ari/ocratic pr9ciple4 ,?is bl5d+ ( democracy & ari/ocracy makes a good con/itution1 b ! union mu/ n be "o ( m]e juxtaposition :i* w\ld s]ve only to put ho/ile elem5ts )9 /rik+ di/ance4 ,i said a bl5d+ b ! bl5d+ mu/ be a real fusion4 ,our ne$ is t 9 ! managem5t ( public bus9ess ari/ocracy & democracy %\ld be comb9$4 ,h[8 ,well = _m ye>s ,i h be5 say+ x & ,i hope ,i may live = _m ye>s long] to say x aga94 ,a heal?y nation is "o 9 :i* ! ari/ocracy is demophil1 t is a lov] ( ! p1 & :]e ! p is ari/ocratic 9 its lean+s4 ,e p :]e ! ari/ocracy is ari/ocratic & :]e ! democracy is democratic is a p de/9$ to p]i% promptly1 because x does n und]/& :at a p is1 x has n got beyond ! /age ( kn[+ :at is a class & p]haps n ev5 z f> z t4 ,montesquieu praises highly ! ,a!nians & ! ,romans = ! foll[+ reason4 ,at ,rome1 al?\gh ! p _h ! "r ( elevat+ plebeians to (fice1 x c\ld nev] br+ itself to elect !m2 & al?\gh at ,a!ns1 x c\ld by ! law ( ,ari/ides1 *oose magi/rates f all classes1 x nev] happ5$ accord+ to ,x5ophon1 t ! l[] p dem&$ ! election ( rul]s :o c\ld injure its safety & its glory4 ,! two in/ances are id5tical2 only1 z f> z ,a!ns is conc]n$1 x signifies no?+1 = at ,a!ns ev]y?+ 0 decid$ by plebiscite & 9 consequ5ce ! real rul]s ( ,a!ns 7 ! orators1 9 :om ! p tru/$1 :o en=c$ _! decisions & really gov]n$ ! city4 ,at ,rome ! fact is ( great importance = x 0 ! elect$ magi/rates :o gov]n$4 ,republican ,rome 0 inde$ a c\ntry ari/ocratically gov]n$ :i* _h1 h[ev]1 a democratic elem5t 9 its con/itution1 & ?is democratic elem5t1 up to ! "t ( ! civil w>s1 0 itself pr(\ndly ari/ocratic1 j z ! ari/ocracy :i* 0 always op5 to an accession ( memb]s f ! plebs 0 pr(\ndly demophil4 ,! in/itution ( patron & cli5t1 ev5 9 ! /ate ( deg5]acy :i* ov]took x1 is a ph5om5on :i* ,i believe is well-nigh unique4 ,x %[s to :at ext5t two classes felt ! social necessity1 ! patriotic necessity ( mutual support & ( a recognition ( an id5tity ( int]e/4 ,a nation ^: p is ari/ocratic & ^: ari/ocracy is demophil is a heal?y nation4 ,rome succe$$ 9 ! _w because = five hundr$ ye>s %e enjoy$ ?is social heal?4 ,an ari/ocratic p & a p-lov+ ari/ocracy4 ,i _h long believ$ ! =mula 0 ( my own inv5tion4 ,i h j discov]$1 & ,i am 9 no way surpris$1 t ,ari/otle 0 be=e me4 ,he quotes ! oa? :i* olig>*s take 9 c]ta9 cities4 ,i swe> to be always ! enemy ( ! p & nev] to c\nsel any ?+ t ,i d n "k to be injuri\s to !m4 ,?is1 he cont9ues1 is ! v opposite ( :at !y ought to d or to pret5d to d 444 ,x is a political fault :i* is (t5 committ$ 9 olig>*ies z well z 9 democracies1 & :]e ! multitude has control ( ! laws1 ! demagogues make ?is mi/ake4 ,9 _! combat aga9/ ! ri*1 !y always divide ! ,/ate into two oppos+ p>ties4 ,9 a democracy1 on ! contr>y1 ! ,gov]nm5t %\ld pr(ess to speak = ! ri*1 & 9 olig>*ies x %\ld pr(ess to speak 9 fav\r ( ! p4 ,x is a ,ma*iavelian c\nsel4 ,ari/otle seems conv9c$ t democrats c only pr(ess to speak = ! ri* & t all we c expect f olig>*s is an appe>ance ( speak+ 9 fav\r ( ! p4 ,nev]!less he recognises cle>ly t = ! peace & well-be+ ( ! commonweal? su* %\ld be _! attitude4 ,!re is some?+ m pr(\nd ?an ?is4 ,ari/ocrats ought n only to appe> b to be v]ily fav\rable to ! demos1 if !y und]/& ! int]e/s ( ari/ocracy itself1 = ari/ocracy requires a base4 ,democrats also ought n only to appe> b to be ari/ocratic if !y und]/& ! int]e/s ( democracy :i* requires a guide4 ,?is reciprocity ( good (fices1 ?is reciprocity ( devotion1 & ?is comb9ation ( ef=t are z necess>y 9 mod]n z !y 7 9 anci5t republics4 ,x is1 & we mu/ co9 a ^w to express x1 a social syn]gy t is want$4 ,a union ( all ! vitaliz+ elem5ts is z necess>y 9 society z 9 ! family4 ,e family t is divid$ mu/ p]i%1 e k+dom t is divid$ mu/ p]i%4 ,i h said little ( royalty :i* only indirectly conc]ns my subject4 ,if we h se5 in/ances ( ! in/itution ( royalty firmly e/abli%$1 x is :]e ! s5tim5t ( royalty1 appeal+ at once bo? to ! ari/ocracy & to ! p1 has realis$ t syn]gy ( ! :ole community ( :i* we speak2 x is :]e bo?1 be+ unit$ 9 devotion to "o object1 are l$ to be devot$ to ea* o!r by reason ( ?is conv]g5ce ( _! wills4 ,eadem velle1 eadem nolle amicitia e/4 ,!re is no ne$ ( royalty = ?is4 ,royalty is our c\ntry itself p]sonifi$ 9 "o man4 ,9 ! id5tification ( c\ntry & k+dom1 we c & mu/ arrive at ?is same union ( ! sep>ate vitalities ( ! nation1 at ?is same community & conv]g5ce ( w4 ,! humble mu/ love _! c\ntry 9 lov+ ! great & ! great mu/ love _! c\ntry 9 lov+ ! humble2 & s all classes mu/ be at "o 9 _! hopes & 9 _! fe>s4 ,amicitia sit6 ,,index4 ,abbeville1 #aae ,abolition ( ,inh]itance1 #bjj1 #bjc ,academies1 #bg ,am]ica1 #agj ,amoeba1 #ae et seq4 ,anti/h5es1 #acb ,ari/ides1 law (1 #bcb ,ari/ocracy1 #cf1 #ij1 #acg1 #aei ---- aptitude = gov]nm5t1 #bcj ---- con/itution :i* obeys laws1 #hh ---- demophil1 #b1 #bcb1 #bcc ---- education "u1 #aij ---- & exam9ation sy/em1 #agf ---- fusion ) democracy1 #bca-bcc ---- impossible )\t m]it1 #ca ---- old m5 "u1 #adg ---- ( ,p>liam5t1 #agb ---- p]man5t s5ators =m1 #eh ---- & religion1 #bje1 #bjg ---- result ( indirect election1 #ai ----- & special jurisdictions1 #ih ,ari/ophanes1 #abf1 #aej ,ari/otle1 #ad1 #af1 #ca1 #gj1 #gh1 #he1 #hh1 #abi1 #aca1 #acd-acf1 #aec1 #bjh1 #bae1 #bca1 #bcd1 #bce ,arrondissem5t1 #dd ---- scrut9 d'1 #hc ,a!ism1 #bjg1 #bjh ,a!ns1 #ag1 #ca1 #cg1 #hc1 #aac1 #adi1 #afc1 #bbf1 #bcb ,augi]1 #bac ,au/ria1 #di ,b>!lemy1 ,abbe1 #aeg ,b>?\1 ,m41 #i1 #aah ,belgium1 #agj ,bism>ck1 #bji ,bonald1 #bja ,bruneti]e1 #ahh ,busiris1 #aae ,calas1 #aae ,c>not1 #ic ,c>?age1 #af1 #bca ,caucus1 #f ,*amb] ( ,deputies1 #dd1 #aah1 #agb-agd ,*>lemagne1 #adi ,*>ondas1 #hg ,*ur*1 !1 #ih1 #bjf ,cic]o1 #gj ---- de ,s5ectute1 #adi ,civility1 #aef et seq4 ,civil ,s]vice1 !1 appo9tm5ts to1 #de-ea ---- exam9ations =1 #agf et seq4 ,cl]gy1 !1 #afi ,code1 !1 #ge1 #gf1 #afc ,colb]t1 #dc ,collectivism1 #bjj-bjc ,communism1 #bjj ,compet5ce p> collation1 #ai1 #bb ,competitive exam9ation1 #age et seq4 ,conciliation ,bo>ds1 #ig ,concordat1 #bjf ,con/itution ( #ahgc1 #eg ---- mix$1 #bca ,co-optation1 #agf ,c\r de ,cassation1 #eg1 #aja1 #ajh1 #agf ,c\rt ( ,appeal1 #eg1 #ajg ,c\rts1 ecclesia/ical1 #ih ---- m>tial1 #ih ,crim9al proc$ure1 #hc ---- jurisdiction1 #ii ,d&91 #ahd ,d&9o-mania1 #ahd ,decad5ce1 #bbb1 #bbc ,decrees1 #hd1 #ia1 #bjh1 #bji ,demagogues1 #he1 #aia1 #bac ,democracy1 ,ari/otle on1 #abi-acf ---- ,a!nian1 #ag ---- *ildr5 "u1 #adb-adf ---- & direct gov]nm5t1 #cg et seq4 ,democracy1 enc\ragem5t ( incompet5ce "u1 #cj1 #ib1 #abf ---- ,engli%1 #agj ---- evolution ( a mod]n1 #ah et seq4 ---- fusion ) ari/ocracy1 #bca-bce ---- gov]n$ by decrees1 #cd1 #ia ---- & imp]ative m&ate1 #cb ---- lack ( respect "u1 #aeh-afa ---- legislation "u1 #ff1 #gi-ha ---- magi/rature1 #aaj-abb ---- ,montesquieu on1 #acg-aci ---- morality "u1 #aci ---- ,nietzs*e on1 #bbj-bbf ---- old m5 "u1 #adf-aec ---- ,plato on1 #abg-abi ---- & politicians1 #cd1 #cf ---- position ( wom5 "u1 #adj-adb ---- pr9ciple (1 #ad1 #ae ---- & private ent]prise1 #ei-fa ---- & re=m1 #baf-bai ---- ,r\sseau on1 #acf1 #acg ---- & s*oolma/]s1 #aia-bae ---- & socialism1 #fa-fe ---- & special jurisdictions1 #ih1 #ii ,demos1 #ef1 #hf ,demo/h5es1 #hb ,deputy1 #ee1 #agd ---- mayors1 #aai ,despotism1 pr9ciple (1 #ab ---- t5d5cy ( democracy t[>ds1 #fb1 #fe1 #if ,d',etalonde1 #aae ,did]ot1 #bjg ,division ( lab\r1 #ae ---- ---- 9 dome/ic life1 #ada ,divorce1 #abe ,g]mans1 #fg ,g]ontocracy1 #adf1 #aec ,glad/one1 ,mr41 #c1 #e ,gonc\rt1 #bja ,greece1 #bbb1 #bbf ,greeks1 #ga1 #gc1 #hg ,greek philosoph]s1 #abf ,holba*1 #bjg ,hom]1 #ef ,horace1 #aeb ,hugo1 ,victor1 #bji ,ideal legislator1 !1 #gi ,imp]ative m&ate1 #cb1 #cc ,indirect election1 #ai ,inequalities1 artificial & natural1 #cj ,int]pellation1 #hc ,italy1 #agj ,japy1 ,mme41 #aad ,jesuits 9 ,p>aguay1 #fb ,joannes1 ,b>on1 #fh ,judges1 appo9tm5t (1 #df1 #ajj-aab ---- int]pretation ( ! law1 #afc ,juge de paix1 #aaa1 #aaf et seq4 ,jurisdiction1 crim9al1 #ii ---- ecclesia/ical1 #ig ---- milit>y1 #ig ---- seignorial1 #ig ,jury1 ! #aab-aae1 #afh1 #afi ,kant1 #aec ,la ,b>re1 #aae ,lac$aemon1 #aej1 #bca ,law1 aboli%+ primog5iture1 #abd ---- abuse (1 #aaj ---- ( compet5ce1 #ig ---- & decrees1 #hd-ia ---- degree 91 #aaf ---- doctors (1 #ajh ---- ecclesia/ical1 #abe ---- em]g5cy1 #hb-hi ---- fundam5tal1 #hi ---- gov]ns m51 #aba ---- ( ,july #ab?1 #aije1 #aag ---- made by ! ideal legislator1 #fg-gd ---- made by ! p1 #ag1 #ah1 #be1 #dj1 #aid-aif1 #bcd ---- mu/ be anci5t & un*ang$1 #gg-gi ---- n ! same = ri* & poor1 #aii ---- p]mitt+ divorce1 #abe ---- ( proportion1 #ad ---- que/ions (1 #aac1 #afb ---- ( ,sunday obs]vance1 #ge1 #gf ---- & tradition1 #bcj ,legal pr(ession1 !1 #fj ,legislation1 anci5t1 #hg ---- ,engli%1 #b1 #d ---- p>ty1 #ha-hb ---- philan?ropic1 #f ---- pr$atory1 #h ---- requires special k1 #ah1 #fg ,legislator1 ess5tial qualifications =1 #ff-ha ---- ,greek1 #gc ,le/rang]1 ,m4 ,m>cel1 #afd1 #aff ,lib]ty ( association1 #aid1 #aif ,l\is ,,xiv1 #ba1 #bb1 #aej1 #aie1 #bjd1 #bji ---- ,,xv1 #aej ---- ,,xvi1 #acc ,l\vois1 #dc ,lycurgus1 #b1 #gc1 #hg ,lyn*+1 #afh1 #afi ,ma*iavel1 #ga ,ma*iavelian c\nsel1 #bcd ,magi/racy1 h]$it>y sy/em advocat$ =1 #aje1 #afc1 #afh ,magi/rates1 election (1 #dh1 #ajj-aab ---- incompet5ce (1 #afd-afh ---- subs]vi5ce to gov]nm5t1 #afc ,mayors1 #aag ,m$ical exam9ations1 #ahj ---- pr(ession1 #fj ,mill1 ,john ,/u>t1 #bcj ,m9i/] ( ,agriculture1 #id ---- ( ,comm]ce1 #ib ---- ( ,education1 #ib1 #baa ,m9i/] ( ,int]ior1 #baa ---- ( ,ju/ice1 #gf1 #aah-abj ---- ( ,navy1 #ib ---- ( ,w>1 #ib1 #ic ,misc>riage ( ju/ice1 #afe ,mon>*y1 old m5 "u1 #adg ---- pr9ciple (1 #ab1 #fb1 #if ,montesquieu1 #d1 #ab1 #ad1 #bh1 #cg1 #dd-dg1 #ff-gj1 #gd-hi1 #ajc-aje1 #abc1 #acg1 #ach1 #aej-aef1 #aic1 #bbg1 #bcb ,moral effect ( law1 #abe ---- ord]1 #bag ,morals1 high /&>d (1 #aej ---- laxity (1 #aee ---- private1 #aci1 #adj ---- public1 #abc1 #abd1 #aci ,m1 ,?omas1 #ga ,moses1 #fg1 #bji ,napoleon1 #ac1 #aje1 #bji ,nationalisation1 #fj ,nietzs*e1 #adg1 #ahg1 #bbj-bbe ,olig>*y1 #fc1 #abh1 #adg ,olympiad1 #hg ,o/racism1 #acc ,p>aguay1 #fb ,p>5tal au?ority1 #adc ,p>liam5t1 #agb ,p>ty sy/em "u ,socialism1 #fa ,pascal1 #ajg1 #aeg ,patriotism1 #ab1 #bad ,peel1 ,sir ,r41 #c ,p]i&]1 #acb ,pet] ! ,great1 #abd ,pha$o1 p]sonification ( laws 91 #hg ,plato1 #ga1 #aje1 #abf-abi1 #ach1 #adj1 #aec ,plautus1 #aej ,plebiscite1 #bd1 #agc ,pli ,pr(essionnel1 ,le1 #afd ,pnyx1 !1 #cg ,polit5ess1 #aef et seq4 ,politician1 def9ition (1 #cd ---- democracy's ne$ (1 #ce1 #ea ---- z s*oolma/]1 #bab ,prefet1 #fb-ee1 #agc1 #bab ,presid5t ( ! ,*amb]1 #aaj ---- ( ! ,c\ncil1 #ic ---- ( ! ,republic1 #db1 #eg ,primog5iture1 #abd ,procureur-g5]al1 #eb1 #ec1 #aai-abb ,pr\dhon1 #gc ,public (ficials1 appo9tm5t (1 #dc-ea ---- "u ,socialism1 #bja ,pur*ase sy/em1 !1 #ajc ,qu9et1 ,edg>1 #ac ,rabelais1 #aae ,republic1 #ab1 #ac1 #gc ,r5aissance1 #adi ,r5an1 #bbc ,r5\vi]1 #ej ,revocation ( ! ,edict ( ,nantes1 #bb ,rh$i1 #gh ,robespi]re1 #bjg1 #bjh ,roman ,republic1 #ac1 #aac1 #bjd1 #bcc ,romans1 !1 #fh1 #hg1 #bcb ,rome1 #abd1 #adi1 #bbb1 #bbf1 #bcb-bcd ,r\sseau1 #cb1 #gb1 #acf-ach1 #adi1 #aej1 #bjg1 #bjh ,royalty1 #acg1 #bhf ---- democratic1 #ah ,/4 ,cyr1 #agg ,/4 ,l\is1 #gd ,s*op5hau]1 #bbd ,scrut9 de li/e1 #hc1 #aab1 & note ---- d'arrondissem5t1 #hc ,s5ate1 #ch1 #eh1 #aag1 #aah1 #agb-age ,s5ators1 #ee1 #agb-age ---- irremovable1 #eg ,s5eca1 #abi ,socialism1 #fa-fe1 #bca ,socrates1 #ah1 #hh ---- on democracy1 #add ,solon1 #fg1 #gc ,sov]eignty ( ! ,p1 #dj1 #de1 #ef1 #agg1 #aid-aih1 #bjd-bji1 #bad ,specialisation ( functions1 #ae-ah1 #ca ,special jurisdictions1 #ig1 #ih ,/ate control ( *ildr51 #add ---- ---- ( magi/rates1 #ajj1aja ---- ---- ( private ent]prise1 #fj-fa ---- dang] ( em95t man to1 #aca-acg ---- int]v5tion to re/ore public morality1 #bag-bai ,/ate policy1 #aaj ---- s]vices r5d]$ to1 #bcj ---- )9 a ,/ate1 #aif ,/e9heil case1 #aad ,suidas1 #ajc1 #aje ,sunday obs]vance1 #ge ,sylla1 #gc ,syn]gy1 #bce1 #bcf ,t]5ce1 #aej ,?rasybulus1 #acb ,t\l\se1 #aae ,tyranny1 #ace ,univ]sal suffrage1 #ba1 #agc-age ,univ]sity degrees1 #bj1 #aha-ahc ,upp] *amb]1 sugge/ions = /rong1 #agd ,usbek1 #gh ,virtue1 civic1 #ad1 #ajc1 #ajd ---- ! pr9ciple ( a republic1 #ab1 #ac ,voltaire1 #ajc-aje1 #aaf ,wom51 _! position 9 a democracy1 #adj-adc ,x5ophon1 #abf1 #bcc ,"y man1 ,horace's description (1 #aeb ,pr9t$ by ,%]ratt ,hughes1 ,london & ,man*e/]4