,cover design after engraving from ,diderot4 ,,contributions ,,from ,,the ,,museum ,,of ,,history ,,and ,,technology3 ,,paper #ea ,,woodworking ,,tools1 #afjj-aijj ,peter ,c4 ,welsh ,,specialization #ahc ,,configuration #aid ,,change #bad ,,bibliography #bbg ,peter ,c ,welsh ,,woodworking ,,tools #afjj-aijj ,this history of woodworking hand tools from the #agth to the #bjth century is one of a very gradual evolution of tools through generations of craftsmen4 ,as a result1 the sources of changes in design are almost impossible to ascertain4 ,published sources1 moreover1 have been concerned primarily with the object shaped by the tool rather than the tool itself4 ,the resulting scarcity of information is somewhat compensated for by collections in museums and restorations4 ,in this paper1 the author spans three centuries in discussing the specialization1 configuration1 and change of woodworking tools in the ,united ,states4 ,,the ,,author3 ,peter ,c4 ,welsh is curator1 ,growth of the ,united ,states1 in the ,smithsonian ,institution's ,museum of ,history and ,technology4 ,in #aiah1 ,,professor ,w4,m4,f4 ,,petrie concluded a brief article on ,history in ,tools with a reminder that the history of this subject has yet to be studied1 and lamented the survival of so few precisely dated specimens4 ,what ,petrie found so discouraging in studying the implements of the ancient world has consistently plagued those concerned with tools of more recent vintage4 ,anonymity is the chief characteristic of hand tools of the last three centuries4 ,the reasons are many3 first1 the tool is an object of daily use1 subjected while in service to hard wear and1 in some cases1 ultimate destruction2 second1 a tool's usefulness is apt to continue through many years and through the hands of several generations of craftsmen1 with the result that its origins become lost2 third1 the achievement of an implement of demonstrated proficiency dictated against radical1 and therefore easily datable1 changes in shape or style2 and fourth1 dated survivals needed to establish a range of firm control specimens for the better identification of unknowns1 particularly the wooden elements of tools--handles1 moldings1 and plane bodies--are frustratingly few in non-arid archaeological sites4 ,when tracing the provenance of ,american tools there is the additional problem of heterogeneous origins and shapes--that is1 what was the appearance of a given tool prior to its standardization in ,england and the ,united ,states8 ,the answer requires a brief summary of the origin of selected tool shapes1 particularly those whose form was common to both the ,british ,isles and the ,continent in the #agth century4 ,beyond this1 when did the shape of ,english tools begin to differ from the shape of tools of the ,continent8 ,finally1 what tool forms predominated in ,american usage and when1 if in fact ever1 did any of these tools achieve a distinctly ,american character8 ,in the process of framing answers to these questions1 one is confronted by a constantly diminishing literature1 coupled with a steadily increasing number of tool types4#a ,illustration3 ,figure #a4--afhe3 ,,the ,,principal ,,tools that the carpenter needed to frame a house1 as listed by ,,johann ,,amos ,,comenius in his ,orbis ,sensualium ,pictus were the felling axe 7#d71 wedge and beetle 7#g and #h71 chip axe 7#aj71 saw 7#ab71 trestle 7#ad71 and pulley 7#ae74 7,charles ,hoole transl41 ,london1 #afhe4 ,courtesy of the ,folger ,shakespeare ,library47 ,illustration3 ,figure #b4--afhe3 ,,the ,,boxmaker ,,and ,,turner as pictured by ,comenius required planes 7#c and #e71 workbench 7#d71 auger 7#f71 knife 7#g71 and lathe 7#ad74 7,from ,johann ,amos ,comenius1 ,orbis ,sensualium ,pictus4 ,courtesy of the ,folger ,shakespeare ,library47 ,the literature of the subject1 both new and old1 is sparse1 with interest always centering upon the object shaped by the craftsman's tool rather than upon the tool itself4 ,henry ,mercer's ,ancient ,carpenters' ,tools1 first published in #aibi1 is an exception4 ,it remains a rich source of information based primarily on the marvelous collections preserved by the ,bucks ,county ,historical ,society4 ,since #aicc1 the ,early ,american ,industries ,association1 both through collecting and through its ,chronicle1 has called attention to the vanishing trades1 their tools and techniques2 the magazine ,antiques has occasionally dealt with this subject4 ,historians of economic and industrial development usually neglect the tools of the woodcrafts1 and when considering the toolmakers1 they have reference only to the inventors and producers of machine tools4 ,the dearth of written material is somewhat compensated for by the collections of hand tools in ,american museums and restorations1 notably those at ,williamsburg1 ,cooperstown1 ,old ,sturbridge ,village1 ,winterthur1 the ,henry ,ford ,museum1 and ,shelburne2 at the latter in particular the extensive collection has been bolstered by ,frank ,h4 ,wildung's museum pamphlet1 ,woodworking ,tools at ,shelburne ,museum4 ,the most informative recent ,american work on the subject is ,eric ,sloane's handsomely illustrated ,a ,museum of ,early ,american ,tools1 published in #aifd4 ,going beyond just the tools of the woodworker1 ,sloane's book also includes agricultural implements4 ,it is a delightful combination of appreciation of early design1 nostalgia1 and useful fact4 ,illustration3 ,figure #c4--agjc3 ,,the ,,tools ,,of ,,the ,,joiner illustrated by ,moxon are the workbench 7,a71 fore plane 7,b4 #a71 jointer 7,b4 #b71 strike-block 7,b4 #c71 smoothing plane 7,b4 #d and ,b4 #g71 rabbet plane 7,b4 #e71 plow 7,b4 #f71 forming chisels 7,c4 #a and ,c4 #c71 paring chisel 7,c4 #b71 skew former 7,c4 #d71 mortising chisel 7sec4 ,c4 #e71 gouge 7,c4 #f71 square 7,d71 bevel 7,f71 gauge 7,g71 brace and bit 7,h71 gimlet 7,i71 auger 7,k71 hatchet 7,l71 pit saw 7,m71 whipsaw 7,n71 frame saw 7,o71 saw set 7,q71 handsaw 7unmarked71 and compass saw 7,e74 7,joseph ,moxon1 ,mechanick ,exercises 4441 #crd ed41 ,london1 #agjc4 ,library of ,congress47 ,illustration3 ,figure #d4--agjc3 ,,only ,,the ,,principal ,,tools used in carpentry are listed by ,moxon3 the axe 7,a71 adz 7,b71 socket chisel 7,c71 ripping chisel 7,d71 drawknife 7,e71 hookpin 7,f71 bevel 7,g71 plumb line 7,h71 hammer 7,i71 commander 7,k71 crow 7,l71 and jack 7,m74 7,moxon1 ,mechanick ,exercises 4441 #agjc4 ,library of ,congress47 ,charles ,hummel's forthcoming ,with ,hammer in ,hand3 ,the ,dominy ,craftsmen of ,east ,hampton--to be published by the ,yale ,university ,press--will be a major contribution to the literature dealing with ,anglo-,american woodworking tools4 ,hummel's book will place in perspective ,winterthur ,museum's uniquely documented ,dominy ,woodshop ,collection4 ,this extensive collection of tools--over a thousand in number--is rich in attributed and dated examples which range from the early #ahth through the mid-#aith century4 ,the literature of the subject has been greatly enhanced by the ,english writer1 ,w4,l4 ,goodman4 ,extending a series of articles that first appeared in the ,journal of ,the ,institute of ,handicraft ,teachers1 ,goodman has put together a well-researched ,history of ,woodworking ,tools 7,london1 #aifd71 one particularly useful for its wealth of illustration from antiquity and the ,middle ,ages4 ,specialization ,given the limitations of precise dating1 uncertain provenance1 and an uneven literature1 what can be learned about woodworking tools after #afjj8 ,in some instances1 design change can be noted and documented to provide at least a general criteria for dating4 ,frequently1 the original appearance of tools can be documented4 ,for some hand tools1 characteristics can be established that denote a national origin4 ,not infrequently a tool's style1 decorative motif1 or similarity to other objects that coexisted at a given time can suggest1 even in relatively modern times1 the values of the society that produced it4 ,the source of such information derived from the hand tool is generally visual1 recorded in the tool itself or in pictures of it and supported by manuscript and printed material4 ,survey the principal printed sources of the #agth1 #ahth1 and #aith centuries4 ,the first thing that is apparent is a remarkable proliferation of tool types without any significant change in the definition and description of the carpenter's or joiner's task4 ,begin in #afhe with ,charles ,hoole's translation of ,johann ,amos ,comenius' ,orbis ,sensualium ,pictus for use as a ,latin grammar4 ,among the occupations chosen to illustrate vocabulary and usage were the carpenter 7fig4 #a71 the boxmaker 7cabinetmaker71 and the turner 7fig4 #b74 ,the ,carpenter1 according to ,hoole's text1 squareth ,timber with a ,chip ax 444 and saweth it with a ,saw while the more specialized ,box-maker1 smootheth hewen-,boards with a ,plain upon a ,work-board1 he maketh them very smooth with a little plain1 he boarth them thorow with an ,augre1 carveth them with a ,knife1 fasteneth them together with ,glew1 and ,cramp-irons1 and maketh ,tables1 ,boards1 ,chests c4 ,hoole repeated ,comenius' plates with the result that the craftsman's tools and his work have the same characteristic medieval flavor as the text4#b ,joseph ,moxon in his well-quoted work on the mechanic arts defined joinery as an ,art ,manual1 whereby several ,pieces of ,wood are so fitted and join'd together by ,straight-line1 ,squares1 ,miters or any ,bevel1 that they shall seem one intire ,piece4 ,including the workbench1 ,moxon described and illustrated #cj tools 7fig4 #c7 needed by the joiner4 ,the carpenter's tools were less favored by illustration2 only #ac were pictured 7fig4 #d74 ,the tools that the carpenter used were the same as those of the joiner except that the carpenter's tools were structurally stronger4 ,the axe serves as a good example of the difference4 ,the joiner's axe was light and short handled with the left side of the cutting edge bezeled to accommodate one-handed use4 ,the carpenter's axe1 on the other hand1 was intended to hew great ,stuff and was made deeper and heavier to facilitate the squaring and beveling of timbers4#c ,by mid-#ahth century the craft of joiner and carpenter had been completely rationalized in ,diderot's ,encyclopedie and by ,andre ,roubo in his ,l',art du menuisier1 a part of ,duhamel's ,descriptions des arts et metiers4 ,diderot1 for example1 illustrates #ad bench planes alone1 generally used by the joiner 7fig4 #e71 while ,roubo suggests the steady sophistication of the art in a plate showing the special planes and irons required for fine molding and paneling 7fig4 #f74 ,illustration3 ,figure #e4--agfi3 ,,the ,,bench ,,planes ,,of ,,the ,,joiner increased in number1 but in appearance they remained much the same as those illustrated by ,moxon4 7,denis ,diderot1 ,recueil de planches sur les science et les arts liberaux1 ,paris1 #agfi1 vol4 #g1 ,menuiserie4 ,smithsonian photo #effcj47 ,despite such thoroughness1 without the addition of the several plates it would be almost impossible to visualize1 through the descriptive text alone1 the work of the carpenter and joiner except1 of course1 in modern terms4 ,this is particularly true of the numerous texts on building1 such as ,batty ,langley's ,the ,builder's ,complete ,assistant 7#agch7 and ,francis ,price's ,the ,british ,carpenter 7#agfe71 where building techniques are well described but illustration of tools is omitted4 ,this inadequacy grows4 ,in two #aith-century ,american editions of ,british works1 ,the ,book of ,trades1 printed at ,philadelphia in #ahjg1 and ,hazen's ,panorama of the ,professions and ,trades 7#ahch71 the descriptions of the carpenter's trade are extremely elementary4 ,thomas ,martin's ,circle of the ,mechanical ,arts 7#ahac71 although far more thorough than many texts1 still defined carpentry as the art of cutting out1 framing1 and joining large pieces of wood1 to be used in building and joinery as small work or what is called by the ,french1 menuiserie4 ,martin enumerated #af tools most useful to the carpenter and #ba commonly used by the joiner2 in summary1 he noted1 as had ,moxon1 that both these arts are subservient to architecture1 being employed in raising1 roofing1 flooring and ornamenting buildings of all kinds 7fig4 #g74d ,in ,peter ,nicholson's ,the ,mechanic's ,companion 7figs4 #h1 #i1 and #aj71 the all-too-familiar definition of carpentry as the art of employing timber in the construction of buildings suggests very little of the carpenter's actual work or the improvement in tool design that had occurred since ,moxon's ,exercises4 ,from ,nicholson's list of the tools required by the carpenter--a ripping saw1 a hand saw1 an axe1 an adze1 a socket chisel1 a firmer chisel1 a ripping chisel1 an auguer1 a gimlet1 a hammer1 a mallet1 a pair of pincers1 and sometimes planes--there would seem at first glance slight advance since the #afjj's4 ,the enumeration of the joiner's tools1 however1 indicates a considerable proliferation1 particularly when compared to earlier writers4 ,by the early #aith century1 the more refined work of joinery required over #ej tools4 ,the bench planes instructed ,nicholson are1 the jack plane1 the fore plane1 the trying plane1 the long plane1 the jointer1 and the smoothing plane2 the cylindric plane1 the compass and forkstaff planes2 the straight block1 for straightening short edges4 ,rebating planes are the moving fillister1 the sash fillister1 the common rebating plane1 the side rebating plane4 ,grooving planes are the plough and dado grooving planes4 ,moulding planes are sinking snipebills1 side snipebills1 beads1 hollows and rounds1 ovolos and ogees4 ,boring tools are3 gimlets1 bradawls1 stock1 and bits4 ,instruments for dividing the wood1 are principally the ripping saw1 the half ripper1 the hand saw1 the panel saw1 the tenon saw1 the carcase saw1 the sash saw1 the compass saw1 the keyhole saw1 and turning saw4 ,tools used for forming the angles of two adjoining surfaces1 are squares and bevels4 ,tools used for drawing parallel lines are gauges4 ,edge tools are the firmer chisel1 the mortise chisel1 the socket chisel1 the gouge1 the hatchet1 the adze1 the drawing knife4 ,tools for knocking upon wood and iron are1 the mallet and hammer4 ,implements for sharpening tools are the grinding stone1 the rub stone1 and the oil or whet stone4#e ,reflecting what the text writers listed1 toolmakers by the end of the #ahth century gave buyers a wide choice4 ,the catalogue of ,sheffield's ,castle ,hill ,works offered #bj combinations of ready-stocked tool chests2 the simplest contained #ab carpenter's tools and the most complex1 #ci1 plus1 if desired1 an additional assortment of gardening implements 7fig4 #aa74 ,in #aheg1 the ,arrowmammett ,works of ,middletown1 ,connecticut1 producers of bench and molding planes1 published an illustrated catalogue that offered #cd distinct types that included everything from hollows and rounds to double jointers and hand-rail planes 7fig4 #ab74f ,illustration3 ,figure #f4--aggd3 ,,andre ,,roubo',s ,l',art du menuisier contains detailed plates and descriptions of the most specialized of woodworking planes3 those used to cut panel moldings4 ,the conformation of these tools was still distinctly in keeping with the ,moxon type and suggests that1 at least in ,europe1 no remarkable change had yet occurred in the shape of planes4 7,andre-,jacob ,roubo1 ,l',art du menuisier3 ,troisieme partie1 troisieme section1 l'art du menuisier ebeniste ,paris1 #aggd4 ,smithsonian photo #digij-;,d47 ,illustration3 ,figure #g4--ahac3 ,,thomas ,,martin ,,illustrated ,,on ,,one ,,plate the tools of the carpenter and joiner dividing them as follows3 the tools most useful to the carpenter1 the axe 7#g71 adz 7#f71 saw 7#bd71 socket chisel 7#ac71 firmer chisel 7#e71 auger 7#a71 gimlet 7#c71 gauge 7#af71 square 7#i71 compass 7#cf71 hammer 7#ba71 mallet 7#bb71 hookpin 7#aa71 crow 7#ab71 plumb rule 7#ah71 and level 7#ai72 and the tools most often associated with joinery1 the jack plane 7#cj71 trying plane 7#ca71 smoothing plane 7#cd71 tenon saw 7#be71 compass saw 7#bf71 keyhole saw 7#bg71 square 7#h71 bevel 7#bc71 gauge 7#ag71 mortise chisel 7#d71 gouge 7#ad71 turnscrew 7#ae71 plow plane 7#bi71 molding plane 7#ce71 pincers 7#cg71 bradawl 7#aj71 stock and bit 7#b71 sidehook 7#bj71 workbench 7#bh71 and rule 7#ch74 ,the planes are of particular interest since they show clearly a change in form from those previously illustrated4 7,thomas ,martin1 ,the ,circle of the ,mechanical ,arts1 ,london1 #ahac47 ,illustration3 ,figure #h4--ahcb3 ,,peter ,,nicholson ,,illustrated an interesting mixture of old and new forms4 ,an updating of ,moxon1 ,nicholson's carpenter required an axe 7#a71 adz 7#b71 socket chisel 7#c71 mortise and tenon gauge 7#d71 square 7#e71 plumb rule 7#f71 level 7#g71 auger 7#h71 hookpin 7#i71 and crow 7#aj74 7,peter ,nicholson1 ,the ,mechanic's ,companion4 #ast ,american ed41 ,philadelphia1 #ahcb4 ,smithsonian photo #effcc47 ,illustration3 ,figure #i4--ahcb3 ,,the ,,workbench ,,delineated ,,by ,,nicholson was little improved over ,moxon's1 although the planes--jack 7#a71 trying plane 7#b71 smoothing plane 7#c71 sash fillister 7#g71 and plow 7#h7--;followed the form seen in ,martin 7fig4 #g74 ,the inception of this shape occurred in the shops of ,sheffield toolmakers in the last half of the #ahth century1 and it persisted until replaced by metallic versions patented by ,american innovators during the last quarter of the #aith century4 7,nicholson1 ,the ,mechanic's ,companion4 ,smithsonian photo #effca47 ,illustration3 ,figure #aj4--ahcb3 ,,the ,,brace ,,and ,,bit1 ,,gimlet1 ,,chisels1 ,,and ,,saws1 having achieved a standard form distinctly different than those of ,moxon's vintage1 were1 like the plane1 slow to change4 ,the metallic version of the brace did not replace the standard ,sheffield type 7#a7 in the ,united ,states until after #ahej4 ,for all intent and purpose the saw still retains the characteristics illustrated in ,nicholson4 ,of interest is ,nicholson's comment regarding the saws2 namely1 that the double handle was peculiar to the hand 7#f7 and tenon saws 7#g71 while the compass 7#i7 and the sash saws 7#h7 had the single handle4 ,in addition the tenon saw was generally backed in iron and the sash saw in brass4 7,nicholson1 ,the ,mechanic's ,companion4 ,smithsonian photo #effcb47 ,illustration3 ,figure #aa4--;,,early #ai,,th ,,century3 ,,the ,,advertisements ,,of ,,toolmakers indicated the diversity of production4 ,the ,castle ,hill ,works at ,sheffield offered to gentlemen #bj choices of tool chests designed to appeal to a wide variety of users and purses4 ,the chest was available in either oak or mahogany1 depending on the gentleman's tastes 7fig4 #di74 7,book #hg1 ,cutler and ,company1 ,castle ,hill ,works1 ,sheffield4 ,courtesy of the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum47 ,illustration3 ,figure #ab4--aheg3 ,,the ,,diversity ,,of ,,tools available to buyers made necessary the illustrated trade catalogue4 ,although few in number in the ,united ,states before #ahej1 tool catalogues became voluminous in the last half of the century as printing costs dropped4 7,smithsonian ,institution ,library4 ,smithsonian photo #digij47 ,american inventories reflect the great increase suggested by the early technical writers and trade catalogues cited above4 ,compare the content of two ,american carpenters' shops--one of #agji1 in ,york ,county1 ,virginia1 and the other of #ahbg1 in ,middleborough1 ,massachusetts4 ,john ,crost1 a ,virginian1 owned1 in addition to sundry shoemaking and agricultural implements1 a dozen gimlets1 chalklines1 bung augers1 a dozen turning tools and mortising chisels1 several dozen planes 7ogees1 hollows and rounds1 and plows71 several augers1 a pair of #b-;foot rules1 a spoke shave1 lathing hammers1 a lock saw1 three files1 compasses1 paring chisels1 a jointer's hammer1 three handsaws1 filling axes1 a broad axe1 and two adzes4 ,nearly #abj years later ,amasa ,thompson listed his tools and their value4 ,thompson's list is a splendid comparison of the tools needed in actual practice1 as opposed to the tools suggested by ,nicholson in his treatise on carpentry or those shown in the catalogues of the toolmakers4#g ,thompson listed the following3 #a set bench planes #f4jj #a ,broad ,axe #c4jj #a ,adze #b4be #a ,panel saw #a4ej #a ,panel saw #a4eh #a fine do-- #a4eh #a ,drawing knife 4#df #a ,trying square 4#ic #a ,shingling hatchet 4#ej #a ,hammer 4#ej #a ,rabbit plane 4#hc #a ,halving do 4#ej #a ,backed fine saw #a4be #a ,inch augre 4#ej #a pr4 dividers or compasses-- 4#ga #a ,panel saw for splitting #b4ge #a ,tennon gauge #a4db #a ,bevel 4#hd #a ,bradd ,hammer 4#ej #a ,architect ,book #f4ej #a ,case ,mathematical ,instruments #c4fb-a_/b #a ,panel saw #b4ge #a ,grafting saw #a4jj #a ,bench screw #a4jj #a ,stamp #b4ej #a ,double joint rule 4#fb-a_/b #a ,sash saw #a4ab-a_/b #a ,oil ,can 4#ag #a ,brace #cf straw cold bits #i4jj #a ,window ,frame tool #d4jj #a ,blind tool #a4cc #a ,glue ,kettle 4#fb-a_/b #a ,grindstone without crank #a4ge #a ,machine for whetting saws 4#ge #a ,tennoning machine #d4ej ,drafting board and square ,bevel-- #a4be #a ,noseing sash plane with templets copes #d4ej #a pr4 clamps for clamping doors #b4ag #a ,set ,bench ,planes--double irons4-- #g4ej #a ,grindstone #cjj lbs #f4be #a ,stove for shop--#g4be1 one elbow 4#cg #dj lbs second hand pipe #d4jj #aa4fb #a ,bed moulding #b4jj #a ,pr4 shears for cutting tin4-- 4#ag #a ,morticing ,machine #aj4ge #a ,grecian ,ovilo #a4ac #a-c_/af beed 4#fg #a ,spirit level #b4be #a ,oil stone 4#db #a ,small trying square 4#dh #a pareing chisel 4#cg #a ,screw driver 4#bi #a ,bench screw 4#ge #a ,box rule 4#ej #a-c_/d ,augre 4#da #aa ,gouges #a4ai #ac ,chisels #a4ag #a small iron vice 4#eb #a pr4 ,hollow ,rounds 4#hf #d ,framing chisels #a4je #a ,grove plough ,irons--,sold at #d4ej #e4jj #a ,sash plane for #a-a_/d stuff #a4ej #a ,copeing plane 4#fg #a ,bead #a_/d-- 4#ge #a ,bead #c_/d #a4jj #a ,rabbit 7,sold at 4#ib7 4#ib #a ,smooth plane #a4ej #a ,strike ,block 4#ib #a ,compass saw 4#db #f ,gauges #a4hc #a ,dust brush 4#be #a ,rasp1 or wood file 4#be #a ,augre #b in4 4#gf #a ,augre #a in4 4#dj #a ,do #c_/d 4#cj #a ,spoke shave 4#ej #a ,bevel-- 4#be #a ,box rule 4#hd #a ,iron square #a4db #a ,box rule #a4be #a ,spur ,rabbit 7,sold--#a4ag7 #a4cc #a ,pannel plane #a4be #a ,sash plane #a4be #a pr4 ,match planes #b4be #a ,two inch chisel or firmer-- 4#db #a ,morticing chisel #c_/h 4#be #a ,large screw driver #a4jj #a ,pr4 small clamps 4#ej #a pr4 ,spring dividers 4#ib #a do-nippers 4#bj #a ,morticing chisel #a_/b in4 4#bh #a ,ovilo ,ostrigal #c_/d-- #a4be #a ,scotia ,ostrigal #e_/h-- #a4jh #a ,noseing-- #a4jh #a ,pr4 ,hollow rounds #a4cc #a ,ogee-- #a_/b inch #a4jj #a ,ostrigal #g_/h inch #a4jj #a ,bit-- 4#ae #a ,beed #a_/b inch 4#hc #a ,claw hammer 4#fg #a ,fillister #b4ej #b ,beeds at #e_/h #a4hc #a ,pair ,quirk tools #a4ej #a ,side ,rabbit plane 4#hc #a ,large steel tongued sq4 #a4ga #a ,saw ,pad 4#fg #a pr4 fire stones 4#ej #a small trying sq4 4#ej #a ,set ,bench planes double ironed without smooth plane #f4jj #a ,bench screw 4#ge ,illustration3 ,figure #ac4--;,,early #ah,,th ,,century3 ,in addition to their special function and importance as survivals documenting an outmoded technology1 the hand tool often combines a gracefulness of line and a sense of proportion that makes it an object of great decorative appeal4 ,the dividers of the builder or shipwright illustrated here are of ,french origin and may be valued as much for their cultural significance as for their technical importance4 7,smithsonian photo #digib-;,g47 ,by #aijj1 the carpenter's tool chest1 fully stocked and fit for the finest craftsman1 contained #ij or more tools4 ,specialization is readily apparent2 the change in1 and achievement of1 the ultimate design of a specific tool is not so easily pinpointed4 ,only by comparing illustrations and surviving examples can such an evolution be appreciated and in the process1 whether pondering the metamorphosis of a plane1 a brace and bit1 or an auger1 the various stages of change encountered coincide with the rise of modern industrial society4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ad4--afhh3 ,,frontispiece ,,from ,,john ,,brown1 ,the ,description and ,use of the ,carpenter's ,rule1 ,london1 #afhh4 7,library of ,congress47 ,configuration ,hand tools are often neglected in the search for the pleasing objects of the past4 ,considered too utilitarian1 their decorative appeal--the mellow patina of the wood plane or the delicately tapered legs of a pair of dividers--often goes unnoticed4 ,surprisingly modern in design1 the ancient carpenter's or cabinetmaker's tool has a vitality of line that can1 without reference to technical significance1 make it an object of considerable grace and beauty4 ,the hand tool is frequently a lively and decorative symbol of a society at a given time--a symbol1 which1 according to the judges at ,london's ,crystal ,palace ,exhibition in #ahea1 gives indications of the peculiar condition and habits of the people whence they come1 of their social and industrial wants and aims1 as well as their natural or acquired advantages4#h ,the hand tool1 therefore1 should be considered both as an object of appealing shape and a document illustrative of society and its progress4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ae4--ah,,th ,,century3 ,cabinetmaker's dividers of ,english origin4 7,private collection4 ,smithsonian photo #dighi-;,b47 ,illustration3 ,figure #af4--aghc3 ,,cabinetmaker',s dividers of ,english manufacture1 dated1 and marked ,t4 ,pearmain4 ,see detail1 figure #ag4 7,smithsonian photo #digib-;,c47 ,illustration3 ,figure #ag4--aghc3 ,,detail ,,of ,,cabinetmaker',s ,,dividers showing name and date4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ah4--ah,,th ,,century3 ,carpenter's dividers of ,english origin1 undated4 7,smithsonian photo #digib-;,b47 ,on first sight1 it is the conformation rather than any facet of its technical or social significance that strikes the eye2 perhaps the most decorative of tools are early dividers and calipers which1 prior to their standardization1 existed in seemingly endless variety4 ,the great dividers used by the shipbuilder and architect for scribing and measuring timbers not only indicate building techniques 7accession #fa4edh7 but also document #agth-and early #ahth-century decorative metalwork1 as seen in figure #ac4 ,well before the #agth century1 artists and engravers recognized them as intriguing shapes to include in any potpourri of instruments1 either in cartouches or the frontispieces of books 7fig4 #ad74 ,illustration3 ,figure #ai4--ahee3 ,,the ,,frontispiece ,,from ,,edward ,,shaw1 ,the ,modern ,architect 7,boston1 #ahee71 shows the carpenter's dividers in the foreground unchanged in form from those illustrated in figure #ah4 ,of further interest in ,shaw's plate is the dress of the workmen and the balloon frame of the house under construction4 7,smithsonian photo #digib-;,a47 ,the two pairs of cabinetmaker's dividers illustrated in figures #ae and #af suggest significant changes in the design of a basic tool4 ,the dividers shown in figure #ae are ,english and would seem to be of early #ahth-century origin1 perhaps even earlier4 ,they are ,renaissance in feeling with decorated legs and a heart-shaped stop on the end of the slide-arm4 ,in character1 they are like the great dividers shown in figure #ac3 functional1 but at the same time preserving in their decoration the features common to a wide variety of ironwork and wares beyond the realm of tools alone4 ,the dividers pictured in figure #af are a decided contrast4 ,dated #aghc1 they are strongly suggestive of ,sheffield origin4 ,gone is the superfluous decoration2 in its place is the strong1 crisp line of a tool that has reached nearly the ultimate of function and manufacture1 a device which both in general appearance and precise design is very modern in execution4 ,equally intriguing are the smaller1 more slender dividers 7accession #caieeg7 of the #ahth-century house-builder as seen in figure #ah1 a form that changed very little1 if at all1 until after #ahej--;a fact confirmed by the frontispiece of ,edward ,shaw's ,the ,modern ,architect1 published in ,boston in #ahee 7fig4 #ai74 ,the double calipers of the woodturner 7fig4 #bj7 have by far the most appealing and ingenious design of all such devices4 ,designed for convenience1 few tools illustrate better the aesthetic of the purely functional than this pair of #aith-century ,american calipers4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bj4--;,,early #ai,,th ,,century3 ,,the ,,double ,,calipers of the woodturner permitted double readings to be taken without changing the set of the tool4 ,inherent in this practical design is a gracefulness of line seldom surpassed4 7,private collection4 ,smithsonian photo #digic-;,c47 ,illustration3 ,figure #ba4--agjd3 ,,the ,,floor ,,plane ,,or ,,long ,,joiner of ,norwegian origin exhibits the characteristic decoration of the stock and mouth1 patterns common on tools of northern ,european and ,scandinavian origin4 7,courtesy of the ,norsk ,folkemuseum1 ,oslo1 ,norway47 ,intended to establish proportion and to insure precision1 it seems a natural consequence that dividers and calipers should in themselves reflect the same sense of balance and grace that they were designed to govern4 ,still1 even the most prosaic examples of woodworking tools1 completely divorced from the quasi-mathematical devices of measure and proportion1 have this quality and can be admired solely as decorative objects4 ,this is most evident in the three ,european bench planes illustrated in figures #ba1 #bb1 and #bc3 one ,norwegian1 dated #agjd2 one ,dutch 7accession #caiefb71 dated #agef2 and one ,german1 dated #ahji4 ,the ,norwegian and ,german examples1 with their elaborately carved bodies and heart-shaped mouths1 are typical of the type that ,swedish and ,german colonists in ,america might have used in the #agth and #ahth centuries4 ,they are important for that reason4 ,also1 all three exhibit elaboration found on other material survivals from these countries in their respective periods4 ,for example1 the incised rosette of the ,dutch plane 7fig4 #bb7 is especially suggestive of the rosettes found on ,english and ,american furniture of the #agej's and #agfj's1 specifically on high chests4 ,the decorative motifs that characterized ,european tools of the #agth and #ahth centuries obscured technical improvement4 ,by contrast1 in ,england and ,america1 tools gained distinction through the directness of their design4 ,following ,english patterns1 tools of ,american make were straightforward4 ,only later1 in new tool types1 did they imitate the rococo flourish of their ,european predecessors4 ,in ,america1 as in ,england1 the baroque for things functional seemingly had little appeal4 ,this is particularly true of woodworking planes on which1 unlike their continental cousins1 embellishment is rarely seen4 ,exemplifying this tradition are three early #aith-century ,american planes3 a plow1 for cutting channels of various widths on board edges1 marked ,g4 ,white1 ,philda 7fig4 #bd72 a rabbet1 for notching the margin of boards2 made by ,e4,w4 ,carpenter of ,lancaster1 ,pennsylvania 7fig4 #be72 and a jack or foreplane1 for rough surfacing 7accession #fa4edg71 made by ,a4 ,klock and dated #ahah as seen in figure #bf4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bb4--agef3 ,,the ,,highly elaborated stock and rosette-incised wedge of the smoothing plane recall the decoration on furniture of the period4 ,the plane is of ,dutch origin4 7,smithsonian photo #digib-;,f47 ,illustration3 ,figure #bc4--ahji3 ,,this ,,bench ,,plane of ,german origin is dated #ahji4 ,it is of a traditional form that persists to the present day4 ,the planes pictured in figures #ba1 #bb1 and #bc are similar to the type brought to ,north ,america by non-,english colonists4 7,private collection4 ,smithsonian photo #digic-;,f47 ,illustration3 ,figure #bd4--;,,about #ahah3 ,this plow plane1 used to cut narrow channels on the edges of boards1 was made by ,g4 ,white of ,philadelphia in the early #aith century4 ,it is essentially the same tool depicted in the catalogues of ,sheffield manufactures and in the plates from ,martin and ,nicholson4 ,the pattern of the basic bench tools used in ,america consistently followed ,british design1 at least until the last quarter of the #aith century4 7,private collection4 ,smithsonian photo #digid-;,e47 ,illustration3 ,figure #be4 #ahcj-ahdj3 ,,the ,,design ,,of the rabbet plane1 used to cut a groove of fixed width and depth on the edge of a board1 was not improved upon in the #aith century4 ,the carpenter's dependence on this tool lessened only after the perfection of multipurpose metallic planes that could be readily converted to cut a rabbet4 7,private collection4 ,smithsonian photo #didghi-;,h74 ,the question of dating arises1 since only the ,klock piece is firmly fixed4 ,how1 for example1 is the early #aith-century attribution arrived at for the planes inscribed ,white and ,carpenter8 ,first1 the nature of the stamped name ,g4 ,white is of proper character for the period4 ,second1 ,g4 ,white is listed in the ,philadelphia city directories as a plane-maker between the years #ahah and #ahbj1 working at the back of #e ,filbert ,street and later at #cd ,juliana ,street4 ,third1 internal evidence on the plane itself gives a clue4 ,in this case1 the hardware--rivets and furrels--is similar if not identical to that found on firearms of the period1 weapons whose dates of manufacture are known4 ,the decorative molding on the fence of this plane is proper for the period2 this is not a reliable guide1 however1 since similar moldings are retained throughout the century4 ,finally1 the plane is equipped with a fence controlled by slide-arms1 fixed with wedges and not by adjustable screw arms4 ,after #ahcj1 tools of high quality1 such as ,white's1 invariably have the screw arms4 ,the rabbet plane1 made by ,carpenter1 is traceable via another route1 the ,u4,s4 ,patent ,office records4 ,carpenter1 self-designated toolmaker of ,lancaster1 submitted patents for the improvement of wood planes between #ahca and #ahdi4 ,examples of ,carpenter's work1 always stamped as shown in figure #bg1 survive1 both dated and undated4 ,there are several of his planes in the collections of the ,bucks ,county ,historical ,society1 and dated pieces are known in private collections4 ,inherent in the bench planes is a feeling of motion1 particularly in the plow and the rabbet where basic design alone conveys the idea that they were meant to move over fixed surfaces4 ,of the three examples1 only the brass tippings and setscrew of the plow plane suggest any enrichment1 and of course these were not intended for decoration2 in later years1 however1 boxwood1 fruitwood1 and even ivory tips were added to the more expensive factory models4 ,also unintentional1 but pleasing1 is the distinctive throat of the rabbet plane--a design that developed to permit easy discharge of shavings1 and one that mass manufacture did not destroy4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bf4--ahah3 ,,the ,,jack ,,plane1 used first by the carpenter for rapid surfacing1 is distinguished primarily by the bezeled and slightly convex edge of its cutting iron4 ,as with the plow and the rabbet1 its shape is ubiquitous4 ,dated and marked ,a4 ,klock1 this ,american example follows precisely those detailed in ,sheffield pattern books4 7,smithsonian photo #digid-;,c47 ,illustration3 ,figure #bg4--ahcj-ahdj3 ,,detail ,,of the rabbet plane 7fig4 #be7 showing the characteristic stamp of ,e4,w4 ,carpenter4 7,smithsonian photo #digid-;,d47 ,illustration3 ,figure #bh4--;,,about #afca3 ,,the ,,preceding ,,illustrations emphasize the divergent appearance of ,european and ,anglo-,american tools4 ,this1 however1 was not always the case4 ,the woodworker's shop by the ,dutch engraver ,jan ,van ,vliet suggests the similarity between ,english and ,european tool types in the #agth century4 ,note in particular the planes1 axe1 brace1 and auger as compared to ,moxon4 7,library of ,congress1 ,division of ,prints and ,photographs47 ,illustration3 ,figure #bi4--afij3 ,,the ,,cabinetmaker',s ,,shop from ,elias ,pozelius1 ,orbus ,pictus nach ,zeichnugen der ,susanna ,maria ,sandrart1 ,nuernberg1 #afij4 7,library of ,congress47 ,illustration3 ,figure #cj4--aefh3 ,,the ,,woodworker',s ,,shop from ,hans ,sachs1 ,eygentliche ,beschrerbung ,aller ,stande 444 mit ,kunstreichen ,figuren by ,jost ,amman1 ,frankfurt1 #aefh4 7,library of ,congress47 ,the divergence from ,european to an ,anglo-,american hand-tool design and the approximate date that it occurred can be suggested by a comparison of contemporary illustrations4 ,the change in the wooden bench plane can be followed from the early #agth century through its standardization at the end of the #ahth century4 ,examine first the planes as drawn in the #afcj's by the ,dutchman ,jan ,van ,vliet 7fig4 #bh71 an etcher of ,rembrandt's school at ,leiden1 and also the examples illustrated by ,porzelius 7fig4 #bi7 and by ,jost ,amman 7fig4 #cj74 ,compare them to ,moxon's plate 7fig4 #ca7 from the ,mechanick ,exercises 7#crd ed41 #agjc7 and to the splendid drawing of the bench plane from ,andre-,jacob ,roubo's ,l',art du menuisier1 published in #agfi 7fig4 #cb74 ,in all of them1 the rounded handle1 or tote1 and the fore-horn appear1 characteristics of both ,european and ,english planes of the period before #agej4 ,the similarity ends with the mass production of hand tools from the shops of the ,english toolmaking centers1 principally ,sheffield4 ,an illustration from a pattern and design book of the ,castle ,hill ,works1 ,sheffield1 dating from the last quarter of the #ahth century 7fig4 #cc71 shows the achieved1 familiar form of the bench planes1 as well as other tools4 ,the use of this form in ,america is readily documented in ,lewis ,miller's self-portrait while working at his trade in ,york1 ,pennsylvania1 in #ahaj 7fig4 #cd7 and by the shop sign carved by ,isaac ,fowle in #ahbj for ,john ,bradford 7fig4 #ce74 ,in each example1 the bench plane clearly follows the ,english prototype4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ca4--agjc3 ,,detail ,,of ,,the ,,bench ,,planes from ,moxon's ,mechanick ,exercises4 ,illustration3 ,figure #cb4--agfi3 ,,andre-,,jacob ,,roubo',s ,,precise ,,rendering of the bench plane retains the essential features shown by ,moxon--the rounded tote or handle and the curved fore-horn4 7,andre-,jacob ,roubo1 ,l',art du menuisier1 #agfi47 ,illustration3 ,figure #cc4--;,,early #ai,,th ,,century3 ,the bench plane illustrated in ,roubo or ,moxon is seldom seen in ,american tool collections4 ,the bench planes1 smoothing planes1 rabbets1 and plows universally resemble those shown in this illustration from the pattern book of the ,castle ,hill ,works1 ,sheffield4 7,book #hg1 ,cutler and ,company1 ,castle ,hill ,works1 ,sheffield4 ,courtesy of the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum47 ,illustration3 ,figure #cd4--;,,about #ahaj3 ,,lewis ,,miller ,,working ,,at ,,his ,,bench in ,york1 ,pa4 ,in a predominantly ,pennsylvania-,german settlement1 the plane used by ,miller conforms to the ,sheffield type illustrated in the catalogue of the ,castle ,hill ,works as shown in figure #cc4 7,york ,county ,historical ,society1 ,york1 ,pa47 ,illustration3 ,figure #ce4--ahbj3 ,,john ,,bradford',s shop sign carved by ,isaac ,fowle is a unique documentary of early #aith-century tool shapes and is in the ,bostonian ,society1 ,boston1 ,mass4 7,index of ,american ,design1 ,the ,national ,gallery1 ,washington1 ,d4,c47 ,illustration3 ,figure #cf4--agjc3 ,,the ,,joiner',s brace and bit--a detail from ,moxon1 ,mechanick ,exercises 4441 ,london1 #agjc4 7,library of ,congress1 ,smithsonian photo #effce47 ,illustration3 ,figure #cg4--agfi3 ,,roubo',s ,,illustration ,,of ,,the ,,brace and bit differs from ,moxon's only in the precision of the delineation4 ,contrast this form with that of the standard ,sheffield version in figure #ch and the metallic braces illustrated in figures #dj through #dd4 ,from these plates can be seen the progression of the bitstock toward its ultimate perfection in the late #aith century4 7,andre-,jacob ,roubo1 ,l',art du menuisier1 #agfi47 ,illustration3 ,figure #ch4--;,,early #ai,,th ,,century3 ,,the ,,mass-,,produced ,,version of the wooden brace and bit took the form illustrated in ,book #hg of ,cutler's ,castle ,hill ,works4 7,courtesy of the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum47 ,illustration3 ,figure #ci4--ah,,th ,,century3 ,,the ,,transitional ,,form of the wooden brace and bit incorporated the overall shape of the mass-produced version but retained the archaic method of fastening the bit to the chuck4 ,the tool is of ,dutch origin and suggests the influence of ,sheffield design on ,european tools4 7,smithsonian photo #digib-;,e47 ,illustration3 ,figure #dj4--agfi3 ,,roubo ,,illustrated ,,the ,,metallic ,,brace and1 in addition1 suggested its use as a screwdriver4 7,andre-,jacob ,roubo1 ,l',art du menuisier1#agfi47 ,illustration3 ,figure #da4--;,,about #agge3 ,,ford1 ,,whitmore ,,and ,,brunton made and sold clockmaker's braces of metal with a sweep and shank that was imitated by ,american patentees in the #aith century4 7,catalogue of ,ford1 ,whitmore and ,brunton1 ,birmingham1 ,england4 ,courtesy of the ,birmingham ,reference ,library47 ,illustration3 ,figure #db4--aheb3 ,,nearly ,,one ,,hundred ,,years after ,roubo's plate appeared1 ,jacob ,switzer applied for a patent for an ,improved ,self ,holding ,screw ,driver4 ,the similarity of ,switzer's drawing and ,roubo's plate is striking4 7,original patent drawing #i1deg1 ,u4,s4 ,patent ,office1 ,record ,group #bda1 the ,national ,archives47 ,illustration3 ,figure #dc4--ahff3 ,,the ,,simplicity ,,and ,,strength of the brace proposed by ,j4 ,parker ,gordon is in sharp contrast to the heavily splinted sides of the wooden brace commonly used in mid-#aith-century ,america4 7,original patent drawing #eb1jdb1 ,u4,s4 ,patent ,office1 ,record ,group #bda1 the ,national ,archives47 ,illustration3 ,figure #dd4--ahfe3 ,,milton ,,nobles' ,,patent perfecting the chuck which held the auger bit was an important step along the path which led ultimately to the complete acceptance of the metallic brace4 ,barber's ratchet brace shown in figure #ff completes the metamorphosis of this tool form in the ,united ,states4 7,original patent drawing #ea1ffj1 ,u4,s4 ,patent ,office1 ,record ,group #bda1 the ,national ,archives47 ,the carpenter's brace is another instance of divergent design after a common origin4 ,refer again to ,van ,vliet's etching of the woodworker's shop 7fig4 #bh71 to the detail from ,moxon 7fig4 #cf71 and from ,roubo 7fig4 #cg74 ,all show the brace in a form familiar since the ,middle ,ages1 a shape common to both delineators and craftsmen of the ,continent and the ,british ,isles4 ,but1 as the plane changed1 so changed the brace4 ,the standard form of this tool as it was used and produced in the ,united ,states in the #aith century can be seen in another plate from the catalogue of the ,castle ,hill ,works at ,sheffield 7fig4 #ch74 ,this ,english influence on ,american tool design is no surprise1 since as early as #afcd ,william ,wood in ,new ,england's ,prospect suggested that colonists take to the ,new ,world ,all manner of ,ironwares1 as all manner of nailes for houses 444 with ,axes both broad and pitching 444 ,all manners of ,augers1 piercing bits1 ,whip-saws1 ,two handed saws1 ,froes 4441 rings for ,bettle heads1 and ,iron-wedges4 ,illustration3 ,figure #de4--ai,,th ,,century3 ,,the ,,upholsterer',s ,,hammer is an unknown2 it is not dated1 its maker is anonymous1 as is its user4 ,it is of ,american origin1 yet of a style that might have been used in ,england or on the ,continent4 ,this lack of provenance need not detract from its significance as a material survival4 ,this hammer1 the brace 7fig4 #df71 the bevel 7fig4 #dg71 and the compass saw 7fig4 #dh7 are sufficiently provocative in their design to conjure some image of a technology dependent upon the skilled hand of craftsmen working in wood and of the relationship between the hand1 the tool1 and the finished product4 7,smithsonian photo #digic-;,a47 ,illustration3 ,figure #df4--ah,,th ,,century3 ,,the ,,brace ,,and ,,bit in its nonfactory form conforms to a general design pattern in which none of the components are ever precisely alike4 ,this aspect of variety of detail--sophistication1 crudeness1 decorative qualities or the like--reflects something of the individuality of the toolmaker1 a quality completely lost in the standardization of the carpenter's brace4 7,smithsonian photo #digid-;,a47 ,english tool design in the #ahth century also influenced the continental toolmakers4 ,this can be seen in figure #ci in a transitional-type bitstock 7accession #caieef7 from the ,low ,countries4 ,adopting an ,english shape1 but still preserving the ancient lever device for holding the bit in place1 the piece with its grapevine embellishment is a marked contrast to the severely functional brass chucks on braces of ,english manufacture4 ,no less a contrast are metallic versions of the brace4 ,these begin to appear with some regularity in the ,u4,s4 patent specifications of the #ahdj's2 their design is apparently derived from #ahth-century precedents4 ,roubo 7fig4 #dj7 illustrated a metal bitstock in #agfi1 as did ,ford1 ,whitmore ,brunton1 makers of jewelers' and watchmakers' tools1 of ,birmingham1 ,england1 in their trade catalogue of #agge 7fig4 #da74 ,each suggests a prototype of the patented forms of the #ahdj's4 ,for example1 in #aheb1 ,jacob ,switzer of ,basil1 ,ohio1 suggested1 as had ,roubo a hundred years earlier1 that the bitstock be used as a screwdriver 7fig4 #db72 but far more interesting than ,switzer's idea was his delineation of the brace itself1 which he described as an ordinary brace and bit stock 7,u4,s4 pat4 #i1deg74 ,the inference is that such a tool form was already a familiar one among the woodworking trades in the ,united ,states4 ,disregarding the screwdriver attachment1 which is not without merit1 ,switzer's stock represents an accurate rendering of what was then a well-known form if not as yet a rival of the older wooden brace4 ,likewise1 ,j4 ,parker ,gordon's patent #eb1jdb of #ahff exemplifies the strengthening of a basic tool by the use of iron 7fig4 #dc7 and1 as a result1 the achievement of an even greater functionalism in design4 ,the complete break with the medieval1 however1 is seen in a drawing submitted to the ,commissioner of ,patents in #ahfe 7pat4 #ea1ffj7 by ,milton ,v4 ,nobles of ,rochester1 ,new ,york4#i ,nobles' creation was of thoroughly modern design and appearance in which1 unlike earlier types1 the bit was held in place by a solid socket1 split sleeve1 and a tightening ring 7fig4 #dd74 ,in three centuries1 three distinct design changes occurred in the carpenter's brace4 ,first1 about #agej1 the so-called ,english or ,sheffield bitstock appeared4 ,this was followed in the very early #aith century by the reinforced ,english type whose sides were splinted by brass strips4 ,not only had the medieval form largely disappeared by the end of the #ahth century1 but so had the ancient lever-wedge method of fastening the bit in the stock1 a device replaced by the pressure-spring button on the side of the chuck4 ,finally1 in this evolution1 came the metallic stock1 not widely used in ,america until after the ,civil ,war1 that embodied in its design the influence of mass manufacture and in its several early versions all of the features of the modern brace and bit4 ,illustration3 ,figure #dg4--ah,,th ,,century3 ,the visually pleasing qualities of walnut and brass provide a level of response to this joiner's bevel quite apart from its technical significance4 7,private collection4 ,smithsonian photo #digic-;,b47 ,illustration3 ,figure #dh4--ah,,th ,,century3 ,,the ,,handle ,,of ,,the ,,compass ,,saw1 characteristically ,dutch in shape1 is an outstanding example of a recurring functional design1 one which varied according to the hand of the sawer4 7,smithsonian photo #dighi-;,c47 ,henry ,ward ,beecher1 impressed by the growing sophistication of the toolmakers1 described the hand tool in a most realistic and objective manner as an extension of a man's hand4 ,the antiquarian1 attuned to more subjective and romantic appraisals1 will find this hardly sufficient4 ,look at the upholsterer's hammer 7accession #fa4ce7 seen in figure #de3 there is no question that it is a response to a demanding task that required an efficient and not too forceful extension of the workman's hand4 ,but there is another response to this implement3 namely1 the admiration for an unknown toolmaker who combined in an elementary striking tool a hammerhead of well-weighted proportion to be wielded gently through the medium of an extremely delicate handle4 ,in short1 here is an object about whose provenance one need know very little in order to enjoy it aesthetically4 ,in a like manner1 the #ahth-century bitstock of ,flemish origin 7fig4 #df71 the ,english cabinetmaker's bevel of the same century 7fig4 #dg71 and the compass saw 7accession #fa4eb1 fig4 #dh7 capture in their basic design something beyond the functional extension of the craftsman's hand4 ,the slow curve of the bitstock1 never identical from one early example to another1 is lost in later factory-made versions2 so too1 with the coming of cheap steel1 does the combination of wood 7walnut7 and brass used in the cabinetmaker's bevel slowly disappear2 and1 finally1 in the custom-fitted pistol-like grip of the saw1 there is an identity1 in feeling at least1 between craftsman and tool never quite achieved in later mass-produced versions4 ,illustration3 ,figure #di4--;,,early #ai,,th ,,century3 ,,the ,,designation ,,gentleman',s ,,tool ,,chest required a chest of high-style but necessitated no change in the tools it held4 7,book #hg1 ,cutler and ,company1 ,castle ,hill ,works1 ,sheffield4 ,courtesy of the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum47 ,illustration3 ,figure #ej4--ai,,th ,,century3 ,,the ,,screwdriver1 which began to appear regularly on the woodworker's bench after #ahjj1 did not share the long evolution and tradition of other ,anglo-,american tool designs4 ,the screwdriver in its early versions frequently had a scalloped blade for no other purpose than decoration4 7,smithsonian photo #digid47 ,illustration3 ,figure #ea4--ahgj3 ,,the ,,use of a new material prompted a departure from the traditional in shape and encouraged surface elaboration4 ,the tendency1 however1 was short lived and the mass-produced metallic plane rapidly achieved a purity of design as pleasing as its wooden predecessors4 7,private collection4 ,smithsonian photo #dighi47 ,occasionally1 ruling taste is reflected in the design of the carpenter's equipment4 ,notable is the gentleman's tool chest 7fig4 #di7 advertised in the pattern book of the ,castle ,hill ,works4 ,the bracket feet1 brass pulls1 and inlaid keyholes imitate the style of the domestic chest of drawers of the period #agij to #ahaj--undoubtedly1 features included by the manufacturer to appeal to a gentleman of refined taste4 ,in contrast to this ,sheffield product is the plate from ,shaw's ,the ,modern ,architect4 ,the concept of the builder-carpenter as a gentleman still prevails1 although the idea in this ,american scene is conveyed in the mid-#aith century through fashionable dress4 ,the tools and in particular the tool chest reflect only the severest of functional lines 7fig4 #ai1 p4 #aif74 ,in deference to ruling taste1 some tools lost for a time the clean lines that had long distinguished them4 ,the screwdriver1 simple in shape 7accession #fa4df7 but in little demand until the #ahdj's1 occasionally became most elaborate in its factory-made form 7fig4 #ej7 and departed noticeably from the unadorned style of traditional ,english and ,american tools4 ,the scalloped blade1 influenced by the rival styles rather than a technical need1 seemed little related to the purpose of the tool4#aj ,no less archaic in decoration was the iron-bodied version of the plow plane 7fig4 #ea74 ,the ,anglo-,american tradition seems completely put aside4 ,in its place is a most functional object1 but one elaborately covered with a shell and vine motif6 ,patented in #ahgj by ,charles ,miller and manufactured by the ,stanley ,rule and ,level ,company1 this tool in its unadorned version is of a type that was much admired by the ,british experts at ,philadelphia's ,centennial ,exhibition in #ahgf4 ,what prompted such superfluous decoration on the plow plane8 ,perhaps it was to appeal to the flood of newly arrived ,american craftsmen who might find in the rococo something reminiscent of the older tools they had known in ,europe4 ,perhaps it was simply the transference to the tool itself of the decorative work then demanded of the wood craftsmen4 ,or was it mainly a compulsion to dress1 with little effort1 a lackluster material that seemed stark and cold to ,victorians accustomed to the ornateness being achieved elsewhere with the jigsaw and wood8 ,whatever the cause1 the result did not persist long as a guide to hand-tool design4 ,instead1 the strong1 plain lines that had evolved over two centuries won universal endorsement at the ,centennial ,exhibition4 ,the prize tools reflected little of the ornateness apparent in the wares of most of the other exhibitors4 ,american makers of edge tools exhibiting at the ,centennial showed the world not only examples of quality but of attractiveness as well4 ,illustration3 ,figure #eb4--ai,,th ,,century3 ,,the ,,american ,,axe ,,was ,,unexcelled in design and ease of use4 ,european observers praised it as distinctly ,american4 ,at the ,centennial ,exhibition in #ahgf ,collins and ,company of ,new ,york ,city was singled out as one of the outstanding manufacturers exhibiting these axes1 a reputation that persisted4 7,tools for all ,trades1 ,hammacher1 ,schlemmer and ,company1 ,new ,york1 #ahif4 ,smithsonian photo #effbe47 ,illustration3 ,figure #ec4--ahgf3 ,,disston ,,and ,,sons ,,long ,,continued to remind prospective buyers of the company's success at the ,philadelphia ,centennial ,exhibition by retaining the ,centennial ,saw1 ,no4 #gf as a brand name4 7,illustrated ,catalogue1 ,baldwin1 ,robbins and ,company1 ,boston1 #ahid4 ,smithsonian photo #effbg47 ,change ,american hand tools in #ahgf did not achieve the popular acclaim accorded the ,corliss engine1 yet few products shown by ,american exhibitors were more highly praised by foreign experts4 ,it seems justified to suggest that ,american edge tools displayed at the ,centennial had reached their high point of development--a metamorphosis that began with the medieval ,european tool forms1 moved through a period of reliance on ,english precedents1 and ended1 in the last quarter of the #aith century1 with the production of ,american hand tools occupying an enviable position before the world4#aa ,illustration3 ,figure #ed4--ahji3 ,,the ,,introduction of the gimlet-pointed auger followed ,ezra ,l',hommedieu's patent of #ahji4 ,from this date until its general disuse in the early #bjth century1 the conformation of the tool remained unchanged1 although the quality of steel and the precision of the twist steadily improved4 7,wash drawing from the restored patent drawings awarded ,july #ca1 #ahji1 ,u4,s4 ,patent ,office1 ,record ,group #bda1 the ,national ,archives4 ,smithsonian photo #digij-;,a47 ,illustration3 ,figure #ee4--ahee3 ,,russell ,,jennings' improved auger bits1 first patented in #ahee1 received superior citation at the ,philadelphia ,centennial2 in the years following1 the trade name ,jennings was seldom omitted from trade catalogues4 7,original wash drawing1 patent drawing submitted by ,r4 ,jennings1 ,u4,s4 ,patent ,office1 ,record ,group #bda1 the ,national ,archives47 ,the tool most highly praised at ,philadelphia was the ,american felling axe 7fig4 #eb7 made out of a solid piece of cast steel with the eye punched out of the solid4 ,when compared to other forms1 the ,american axe was more easily worked1 and its shape permitted an easier withdrawal after striking4#ab ,sawmakers1 too1 were singled out for praise--in particular ,disston ,sons 7fig4 #ec7 for improvements in the form of the handles1 and in the mode of fixing them to the saw4 ,the ,disston saw also embodied an improved blade shape which made it lighter and more convenient by giving it a greater taper to the point4 ,sheffield saws1 once supplied to most of the world1 were not exhibited at ,philadelphia1 and the ,british expert lamented that our monopoly remains with us no longer4#ac ,illustration3 ,figure #ef4--ahid3 ,,the ,,persistence ,,of ,,jennings ,,as ,a ,,trade ,,name is suggested by the vignette from the ,illustrated ,catalogue of ,baldwin1 ,robbins and ,company1 published in #ahid4 7,smithsonian photo #effbh47 ,augers1 essential to the heavier branches of the building trade 444 and in the workshops of joiners1 carpenters1 cabinetmakers1 turners1 carvers1 and by amateurs and others1 were considered a most important exhibit at the ,centennial4 ,the auger had attained a perfection in the accuracy of the twist1 the various forms of the cutters1 the quality of the steel1 and fine finish of the twist and polish4 ,the ancient pod or shell auger had nearly disappeared from use1 to be replaced by the screwed form of the tool considerably refined by comparison to ,l',hommedieu's prototype1 patented in #ahji 7fig4 #ed74 ,russell ,jennings' patented auger bits 7figs4 #ee-ef7 were cited for their workmanship and quality1 and1 collectively1 the ,exhibition fully established the reputation of ,american augers4#ad ,likewise1 makers of braces and bits were commended for the number of excellent examples shown4 ,some were a departure from the familiar design with an expansive chuck for the bit1 but others were simply elegant examples of the traditional brace1 in wood1 japanned and heavily reinforced with highly polished brass sidings4 ,an example exhibited by ,e4 ,mills and ,company1 of ,philadelphia1 received a certification from the judges as being of the best quality and finish 7fig4 #eg74 ,the ,mills brace1 together with other award-winning tools of the company--drawknives1 screwdrivers1 and spokeshaves--is preserved in the collections of the ,smithsonian ,institution 7accession #caicbf74 ,today as a group they confirm the remarkably fine quality of 444 both iron and steel that characterized the manufacture of ,american edge tools in the second half of the #aith century4#ae ,illustration3 ,figure #eg4--ahgf3 ,,japanned ,,and ,,splinted ,,with ,,heavy ,,brass1 this brace was among the award-winning tools exhibited at the ,centennial by ,e4 ,mills and ,company of ,philadelphia4 7,smithsonian photo #digib-;,d47 ,illustration3 ,figure #eh4--ahbg3 ,,the ,,bench ,,planes exhibited at ,philadelphia in #ahgf were a radical departure from the traditional4 ,in #ahbg ,h4 ,knowles patented an iron-bodied bench plane that portended a change in form that would witness a substitution of steel for wood in all critical areas of the tool's construction1 and easy adjustment of the cutting edge by a setscrew1 and an increased flexibility that allowed one plane to be used for several purposes4 7,wash drawing from the restored patent drawings1 ,august #bd1 #ahbg1 ,u4,s4 ,patent ,office1 ,record ,group #bda1 the ,national ,archives47 ,illustration3 ,figure #ei4--aheg3 ,,the ,,addition ,,of ,,metallic ,,parts to critical areas of wear as suggested by ,m4,b4 ,tidey did not at first radically alter the design of the bench plane4 7,wash drawing from ,u4,s4 ,patent ,office1 ,march #bd1 #aheg1 ,record ,group #bda1 the ,national ,archives47 ,it is the plane1 however1 that best exemplifies the progress of tool design4 ,in #ahgf1 ,american planemakers were enthusiastically credited with having achieved an important change in the structure of the tool4#af ,although change had been suggested by ,american patentees as early as the #ahbj's1 mass production lagged until after the ,civil ,war1 and the use of this new tool form was not widespread outside of the ,united ,states4 ,hazard ,knowles of ,colchester1 ,connecticut1 in #ahbg1 patented a plane stock of cast iron which in many respects was a prototype of later ,centennial models 7fig4 #eh74ag ,it is evident1 even in its earliest manifestation1 that the quest for improvement of the bench plane did not alter its sound design4 ,in #aheg1 ,m4,b4 ,tidey 7fig4 #ei7 listed several of the goals that motivated planemakers3 ,first to simplify the manufacturing of planes2 second to render them more durable2 third to retain a uniform mouth2 fourth to obviate their clogging2 and fifth the retention of the essential part of the plane when the stock is worn out4#ah ,by far the greatest number of patents was concerned with perfecting an adjustable plane iron and methods of constructing the sole of a plane so that it would always be true4 ,obviously the use of metal rather than the older medium1 wood1 was a natural step1 but in the process of changing from the wood to the iron-bodied bench plane there were many transitional suggestions that combined both materials4 ,seth ,howes of ,south ,chatham1 ,massachusetts1 in ,u4,s4 patent #cg1fid1 specified3 ,this invention relates to an improvement in that class of planes which are commonly termed bench-planes1 comprising the foreplane1 smoothing plane1 jack plane1 jointer1 c4 ,the invention consists in a novel and improved mode of adjusting the plane-iron to regulate the depth of the cut of the same1 in connection with an adjustable cap1 all being constructed and arranged in such a manner that the plane-iron may be set with the greatest facility and firmly retained in position by the adjustment simply of the cap to the plane-iron1 after the latter is set1 and the cap also rendered capable of being adjusted to compensate for the wear of the sole or face of the plane stock4 ,the stock of ,howes' plane was wood combined with metal plates1 caps1 and screws4 ,thomas ,worrall of ,lowell was issued patent #ag1feg for a plane based on the same general principle 7fig4 #fj74 ,worrall claimed in his specifications of ,june #bc1 #aheg3 the improved manufacture of the carpenter's bench plane or jointer as made with its handle1 its wooden stock to which said handle is affixed1 and a separate metallic cutter holder1 and cutter clamping devices arranged together substantially as specified4 ,finally patentees throughout the #aith century1 faced with an increasing proliferation of tool types1 frequently sought to perfect multipurpose implements of a type best represented later by the ubiquitous ,stanley plane4 ,the evolution of the all-purpose idea1 which is incidentally not peculiar to hand tools alone1 can be seen from random statements selected from ,u4,s4 patents for the improvement of bench planes4 ,in #ahfd ,stephen ,williams in the specifications of his patent #dc1cfj stated3 ,i denominate my improvement the universal smoothing plane1 because it belongs to that variety of planes in which the face is made changeable1 so that it may be conveniently adapted to the planing of curved as well as straight surfaces4 ,by the use of my improvement surfaces that are convex1 concave1 or straight may be easily worked1 the face of the tool being readily changed from one form to another to suit the surface to which it is to be applied4 ,the announced object of ,theodore ,duval's improved grooving plane 7pat4 #ig1agg7 was to produce in one tool all that is required to form grooves of several different widths4 ,none was more appealing than ,daniel ,d4 ,whitker's saw-rabbet plane 7pat4 #eb1dgh7 which combined an adjustable saw with an adjustable fence or gage1 both being attached to a stock with handle similar to a plane1 forming together a tool combining the properties of the joiner's plow and fillister 7fig4 #fa74 ,nor was ,whitker's idea simply a drawing-board exercise4 ,it was produced commercially and was well advertised1 as seen in the circular reproduced in figure #fb4 ,illustration3 ,figure #fj4--aheg3 ,,in ,a ,,variety ,,of ,,arrangements1 the addition of metal plates1 caps1 and screws at the mouth of the plane1 as shown in ,thomas ,worrall's drawing1 proved a transitional device that preserved the ancient shape of the tool and slowed the introduction of bench planes made entirely of iron4 7,wash drawing from ,u4,s4 ,patent ,office1 ,june #bc1 #aheg1 ,record ,group #bda1 the ,national ,archives47 ,illustration3 ,figure #fa4--ahfe3 ,,not ,,all ,,multipurpose ,,innovations resulted from the use of new materials4 ,daniel ,d4 ,whitker patented a combination saw and rabbet plane little different from one illustrated by ,andre-,jacob ,roubo in his ,l',art du menuisier in #agfi4 7,wash drawing from ,u4,s4 ,patent ,office1 ,october #d1 #ahfe1 ,record ,group #bda1 the ,national ,archives47 ,in sum1 these ideas produced a major break with the traditional shape of the bench plane4 ,william ,foster in #ahdc 7pat4 #c1cee71 ,birdsill ,holly in #aheb 7pat4 #i1jid71 and ,w4,s4 ,loughborough in #ahei 7pat4 #bc1ibh7 are particularly good examples of the radical departure from the wooden block4 ,and1 in the period after the ,civil ,war1 ,c4,g4 ,miller 7discussed on p4 #bac and in fig4 #fc71 ,b4,a4 ,blandin 7fig4 #fd71 and ,russell ,phillips 7pat4 #ajf1hfh7 patented multipurpose metallic bench planes of excellent design4 ,it should be pointed out that the patentees mentioned above represent only a few of the great number that tried to improve the plane4 ,only the trend of change is suggested by the descriptions and illustrations presented here4 ,the cumulative effect awaited a showcase1 and the planemakers found it at the ,centennial ,exhibition of #ahgf held in ,philadelphia4 ,illustration3 ,figure #fb4--;,,about #ahfe3 ,,the ,,progress ,,of ,,an ,,idea from an #ahth-century encyclopedia through an ,american patentee to commercial reality can be seen in this flier advertising ,whitker's saw-rabbet4 7,smithsonian ,institution ,library4 ,smithsonian photo #effbi47 ,the impact of these new planes at the ,exhibition caused some retrospection among the judges3 ,the planes manufactured in ,great ,britain and in other countries fifty years ago were formed of best beech-wood2 the plane irons were of steel and iron welded together2 the jointer plane1 about #ba inches long1 was a bulky tool2 the jack and hand planes were of the same materials4 ,very little change has been made upon the plane in ,great ,britain1 unless in the superior workmanship and higher quality of the plane iron4#ai ,the solid wood-block plane1 varying from country to country only in the structure of its handles and body decoration1 had preserved its integrity of design since the ,middle ,ages4 ,at the ,centennial1 however1 only a few examples of the old-type plane were exhibited4 ,a new shape dominated the cases4 ,designated by foreign observers as the ,american plane1 it received extended comment4 ,here was a tool constructed with a skeleton iron body1 having a curved wooden handle2 the plane iron is of the finest cast-steel2 the cover is fitted with an ingenious trigger at the top1 which1 with a screw below the iron1 admits of the plane iron being removed for sharpening and setting without the aid of the hammer1 and with the greatest ease4 ,the extensive varieties of plane iron in use are fitted for every requirement2 a very ingenious arrangement is applied to the tools for planing the insides of circles or other curved works1 such as stair-rails1 etc4 ,the sole of the plane is formed of a plate of tempered steel about the thickness of a handsaw1 according to the length required1 and this plate is adapted to the curve1 and is securely fixed at each end4 ,with this tool the work is not only done better but in less time than formerly4 ,in some exhibits the face of the plane was made of beech or of other hard wood1 secured by screws to the stock1 and the tool becomes a hybrid1 all other parts remaining the same as in the iron plane4#bj ,the popularity of ,bailey's patented planes 7fig4 #fe71 the type so praised above1 was by no means transitory4 ,in #ahhd the ,boston firm of ,goodnow ,wightman1 ,importers1 ,manufacturers and ,dealers in ,tools of all kinds1 illustrated the several planes just described and assured prospective buyers that ,these tools meet with universal approbation from the best ,mechanics4 ,for beauty of style and finish they are unequalled1 and the great convenience in operating renders them the cheapest ,planes in use2 they are ,,self-,,adjusting in every respect2 and each part being made ,,interchangeable1 can be replaced at a trifling expense4#ba ,by #aijj an advertisement for ,bailey's planes published in the catalogue of another ,boston firm1 ,chandler and ,farquhar1 indicated that over #ijj1jjj had already been sold4#bb ,other mass-produced edge tools--axes1 adzes1 braces and bits1 augers1 saws1 and chisels--illustrated in the trade literature of the toolmakers became1 as had the iron-bodied bench plane1 standard forms4 ,in the last quarter of the #aith century the tool catalogue replaced ,moxon1 ,duhamel1 ,diderot1 and the builders' manuals as the primary source for the study and identification of hand tools4 ,the ,centennial had called attention to the superiority of certain ,american tools and toolmakers4 ,the result was that until the end of the century1 trade literature faithfully drummed the products that had proven such an attraction to the numerous artisans who visited the ,centennial ,exhibition from the ,united ,states and other countries4#bc ,illustration3 ,figure #fc4--ahgj3 ,,the ,,metallic ,,version ,,of ,,the ,,plow ,,plane later produced by ,stanley and ,company was patented by ,charles ,g4 ,miller as a tool readily convertible into a grooving1 rabbeting1 or smoothing plane4 ,in production this multipurpose plow gained an elaborate decoration 7fig4 #ea7 nowhere suggested in ,miller's specification4 7,wash drawing from ,u4,s4 ,patent ,office1 ,june #bh1 #ahgj1 ,record ,group #bda1 the ,national ,archives47 ,illustration3 ,figure #fd4--ahfg3 ,,the ,,drawing accompanying ,b4,a4 ,blandin's specification for an ,improvement in ,bench ,planes retained only the familiarly shaped handle or tote of the traditional wood-bodied plane4 ,this new shape rapidly became the standard form of the tool with later variations chiefly related to the adjustability of the plane-iron and sole4 7,wash drawing from ,u4,s4 ,patent ,office1 ,may #g1 #ahfg1 ,record ,group #bda1 the ,national ,archives47 ,collins and ,company of ,new ,york ,city had been given commendation for the excellence of their axes2 through the end of the century1 ,collins' brand felling axes1 broad axes1 and adzes were standard items1 as witness ,hammacher1 ,schlemmer and ,company's catalogue of #ahif4bd ,disston saws were a byword1 and the impact of their exhibit at ,philadelphia was still strong1 as judged from ,baldwin1 ,robbins' catalogue of #ahid4 ,highly recommended was the ,disston no4 #gf1 the ,centennial handsaw with its skew back and apple handle4 ,jennings' patented auger bits were likewise standard fare in nearly every tool catalogue4#be ,so were bench planes manufactured by companies that had been cited at ,philadelphia for the excellence of their product2 namely1 ,the ,metallic ,plane ,company1 ,auburn1 ,new ,york2 ,the ,middletown ,tool ,company1 ,middletown1 ,connecticut2 ,bailey1 ,leonard1 and ,company1 ,hartford2 and ,the ,sandusky ,tool ,company1 ,sandusky1 ,ohio4#bf ,an excellent indication of the persistence of the ,centennial influence1 and of the tool catalogue as source material1 is seen in ,chandler and ,farquhar's illustrated pamphlet of #aijj4 ,their advertisement for ,barber's improved ratchet brace 7fig4 #ff71 a tool much admired by the ,centennial judges1 amply illustrates the evolution of design of a basic implement present in ,american society since the first years of settlement4 ,the ,barber brace represents the ultimate sophistication of a tool1 achieved through an expanded industrial technology rather than by an extended or newly found use for the device itself4 ,it is a prime example of the transition of a tool from ,moxon to its perfected form in the #bjth century3 ,these ,braces possess the following points of superiority3 ,the ,sweep is made from ,steel2 the ,jaws are forged from ,steel2 the ,wood ,handle has brass rings inserted in each end so it cannot split off2 the ,chuck has a hardened ,steel antifriction washer between the two sockets1 thus reducing the wear4 ,the ,head has a bearing of steel balls1 running on hard steel plates1 so no wear can take place1 as the friction is reduced to the minimum4 ,the ,brace is heavily nickel-plated and warranted in every particular4 ,we endeavor to make these goods as nearly perfection as is possible in durability1 quality of material and workmanship1 and fineness and beauty of finish4#bg ,illustration3 ,figure #fe4--aijj3 ,,american ,,planemakers had been cited at the ,philadelphia ,centennial as having introduced a dramatic change in the nature of the tool4 ,although wood-bodied planes continued to be used1 they were outdated and in fact anachronistic by the close of the #aith century4 ,from the #ahgj's forward1 it was the iron-bodied plane1 most frequently ,bailey's1 that enlivened the trade literature4 7,catalogue of ,chandler and ,farquhar1 ,boston1 #aijj4 ,smithsonian photo #eegih47 ,illustration3 ,figure #ff4--aijj3 ,,few ,,tools ,,suggest ,,more ,,clearly the influence of modern industrial society upon the design and construction of traditional implements than ,barber's ratchet brace4 ,it is not without interest that as the tools of the wood craftsman became crisply efficient1 his work declined correspondingly in individuality and character4 ,the brace and the plane1 as followed from ,moxon through the trade literature of the late #aith century1 achieved perfection in form and operation at a time when their basic functions had been usurped by machines4 7,catalogue of ,chandler and ,farquhar1 ,boston1 #aijj4 ,smithsonian photo #effbf47 ,the description of ,barber's brace documents a major technical change3 wood to steel1 leather washers to ball bearings1 and natural patina to nickel plate4 ,it is also an explanation for the appearance and shape of craftmen's tools1 either hand forged or mass produced4 ,in each case1 the sought-after result in the form of a finished product has been an implement of fineness and beauty4 ,this quest motivated three centuries of toolmakers and brought vitality to hand-tool design4 ,moxon had advised3 ,he that will a good ,edge win1 ,must ,forge thick and ,grind thin4#bh ,if heeded1 the result would be an edge tool that assured its owner ease and delight4#bi ,throughout the period considered here1 the most praiseworthy remarks made about edge tools were variations of either unsurpassed in quality1 finish1 and beauty of style or1 more simply1 commendation for excellent design and superior workmanship4#cj ,the hand tool thus provoked the same value words in the #aith as in the #agth century4 ,the aesthetics of industrial art1 whether propounded by ,moxon or by an official at the ,philadelphia ,centennial1 proved the standard measure by which quality could be judged4 ,today these values are particularly valid when applied to a class of artifacts that changed slowly and have as their prime characteristics anonymity of maker and date4 ,with such objects the origin1 transition1 and variation of shape are of primary interest4 ,consider the common auger whose ,office ,moxon declared is to make great round holes and whose importance was so clearly stressed at ,philadelphia in #ahgf4ca ,neither its purpose nor its gross appearance 7a ,t-handled boring tool7 had changed4 ,the tool did1 however1 develop qualitatively through #bjj years1 from a pod or shell to a spiral bit1 from a blunt to a gimlet point1 and from a hand-fashioned to a geometrically exact1 factory-made implement3 innovations associated with ,cooke 7#aggj71 ,l',hommedieu 7#ahji71 and ,jennings 7#ahej's74 ,in each instance the tool was improved--a double spiral facilitated the discharge of shavings1 a gimlet point allowed the direct insertion of the auger1 and machine precision brought mathematical accuracy to the degree of twist4 ,still1 overall appearance did not change4 ,at the ,centennial1 ,moxon would have recognized an auger1 and1 further1 his lecture on its uses would have been singularly current4 ,the large-bore spiral auger still denoted a mortise1 tenon1 and trenail mode of building in a wood-based technology2 at the same time its near cousin1 the wheelwright's reamer1 suggested the reliance upon a transport dependent upon wooden hubs4 ,the auger in its perfected form--fine steel1 perfectly machined1 and highly finished--contrasted with an auger of earlier vintage will clearly show the advance from forge to factory1 but will indicate little new in its method of use or its intended purpose4 ,persons neither skilled in the use of tools nor interested in technical history will find that there is another response to the common auger1 as there was to the upholsterer's hammer1 the #ahth-century brace1 or the saw with the custom-fitted grip4 ,this is a subjective reaction to a pleasing form4 ,it is the same reaction that prompted artists to use tools as vehicles to help convey lessons in perspective1 a frequent practice in #aith-century art manuals4 ,the harmony of related parts--the balance of shaft and handle or the geometry of the twist--makes the auger a decorative object4 ,this is not to say that the ancient woodworker's tool is not a document attesting a society's technical proficiency--ingenuity1 craftsmanship1 and productivity4 ,it is only to suggest again that it is something more2 a survival of the past whose intrinsic qualities permit it to stand alone as a bridge between the craftsman's hand and his work2 an object of considerable appeal in which integrity of line and form is not dimmed by the skill of the user nor by the quality of the object produced by it4 ,in ,america1 this integrity of design is derived from three centuries of experience3 one of heterogeneous character1 the mid-#agth to the mid-#ahth2 one of predominately ,english influence1 from #agej to #ahej2 and one that saw the perfection of basic tools1 by native innovators1 between #ahej and the early #bjth century4 ,in the two earlier periods1 the woodworking tool and the products it finished had a natural affinity owing largely to the harmony of line that both the tool and finished product shared4 ,the later period1 however1 presents a striking contrast4 ,hand-tool design1 with few exceptions1 continued vigorous and functional amidst the confusion of an eclectic architecture1 a flurry of rival styles1 the horrors of the jigsaw1 and the excesses of ,victorian taste4 ,in conclusion1 it would seem that whether seeking some continuous thread in the evolution of a national style1 or whether appraising ,american contributions to technology1 such a search must rest1 at least in part1 upon the character and quality of the hand tools the society has made and used1 because they offer a continuity largely unknown to other classes of material survivals4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,w4,m4 ,,flinders ,,petrie1 ,history in ,tools1 ,annual ,report ,smithsonian ,institution1 #aiah1 pp4 #efc-egb reprint4 #b ,,johann ,,amos ,,comenius1 ,orbis ,sensualium ,pictus1 transl4 ,charles ,hoole 7,london1 #afhe71 pp4 #acj1 #adc4 #c ,,joseph ,,moxon1 ,mechanick ,exercises or the ,doctrine of ,handy-,works1 #crd4 ed4 7,london1 #agjc71 pp4 #fc1 #aai4 #d ,,martin1 ,circle of the ,mechanical ,arts 7#ahac71 p4 #abc4 #e ,,peter ,,nicholson1 ,the ,mechanic's ,companion 7,philadelphia1 #ahcb71 pp4 #ca1 #hi-ij4 #f ,catalog1 ,book #hg1 ,cutler and ,co41 ,castle ,hill ,works1 ,sheffield in the collections of the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 ,london2 and ,illustrated ,supplement to the ,catalogue of ,bench ,planes1 ,arrowmammett ,works 7,middletown1 ,conn41 #aheg7 in the ,smithsonian ,institution ,library4 #g ,york ,county ,records1 ,virginia ,deeds1 ,orders1 and ,wills1 no4 #ac 7#agjf-agaj71 p4 #bdh2 and the inventory of ,amasa ,thompson in ,,lawrence ,b4 ,,romaine1 ,a ,yankee ,carpenter and ,his ,tools1 ,the ,chronicle of the ,early ,american ,industries ,association 7,july #aiec71 vol4 #f1 no4 #c1 pp4 #cc-cd4 #h ,reports by the ,juries3 ,exhibition of the ,works of ,industry of ,all ,nations1 #ahea 7,london1 #aheb71 p4 #dhe4 #i ,u4,s4 patent specifications cited in this paragraph may be found at the ,u4,s4 ,patent ,office1 ,washington1 ,d4,c4 #aj ,in #ahfe ,george ,parr in his application for an improved screwdriver stated categorically that the scalloped blade served no purpose other than decoration4 ,see ,u4,s4 patent #de1hed1 dated ,january #aj1 #ahfe4 #aa ,francis ,a4 ,walker1 ed41 ,united ,states ,centennial ,commission1 ,international ,exhibition1 #ahgf1 ,reports and ,awards1 ,group ,,xv 7,philadelphia1 #ahgg71 p4 #e4 #ab ,ibid41 p4 #f4 #ac ,ibid41 pp4 #i-aj4 #ad ,ibid41 pp4 #aa-ab4 #ae ,ibid41 pp4 #ad1 #dd1 #e4 #af ,ibid41 p4 #ac4 #ag ,restored patent #d1hei,x1 ,august #bd1 #ahbg1 ,national ,archives1 ,washington1 ,d4,c4 #ah ,u4,s4 pat4 #af1hhi1 ,u4,s4 ,patent ,office1 ,washington1 ,d4,c4 ,the numbered specifications that follow may be found in the same place4 #ai ,walker1 ed41 ,reports and ,awards1 group #ae1 p4 #ac4 #bj ,ibid4 #ba ,tools 7,boston1 #ahhd71 p4 #ed in the ,smithsonian ,institution ,library4 #bb ,tools and ,supplies 7,june #aijj71 no4 #he in the ,smithsonian ,institution ,library4 #bc ,walker1 op4 cit4 7footnote #ai71 p4 #ad4 #bd ,tools for ,all ,trades 7,new ,york1 #ahif71 item #ge in the ,smithsonian ,institution ,library4 #be ,see ,baldwin1 ,robbins ,co43 ,illustrated ,catalogue 7,boston1 #ahid71 pp4 #ied1 #iic in the ,smithsonian ,institution ,library4 #bf ,walker1 op4 cit4 7footnote #ai71 p4 #ad4 #bg ,tools and ,supplies1 op4 cit4 7footnote #bb74 #bh ,mechanick ,exercise 4441 p4 #fb4 #bi ,ibid41 p4 #ie4 #cj ,walker1 op4 cit4 7footnote #ai71 pp4 #ca-di4 #ca ,mechanick ,exercises 4441 p4 #id4 ,,bibliography ,book of trades1 or library of the useful arts4 #ast ,amer4 ed4 ,whitehall1 ,n4,y41 #ahjg4 ,boy's book of trades4 ,london1 #ahff4 ,the cabinetmaker in eighteenth-century ,williamsburg4 7,williamsburg ,craft ,series47 ,williamsburg1 ,va41 #aifc4 ,,comenius1 ,,johann ,,amos4 ,orbis sensualium pictus4 ,transl4 ,charles ,hoole4 ,london1 #affd1 #afhe1 #aggg1 et al4 ,,cotter1 ,,john ,l4 ,archeological excavations at ,jamestown1 ,virginia4 7,no4 #d in ,archeological ,research ,series47 ,washington3 ,national ,park ,service1 #aieh4 ,,diderot1 ,,denis4 ,l'encyclopedie1 ou dictionnaire raisonne des sciences1 des arts et des metiers4 ,paris1 #agea-agfe4 ,,early ,,american ,,industries ,,association4 ,chronicle4 ,williamsburg1 ,va41 #aicc4 ,,gillispie1 ,,charles ,,coulston1 ed4 ,a ,diderot pictorial encyclopedia of trades and industry4 ,new ,york3 ,dover ,publications1 ,inc41 #aiei4 ,,goodman1 ,w4,l4 ,the history of woodworking tools4 ,london3 ,g4 ,bell and ,sons1 ,ltd41 #aifd4 ,,holtzapffel1 ,,charles4 ,turning and mechanical manipulations4 ,london #ahdf4 ,,knight1 ,,edward ,,henry4 ,knight's ,american mechanical dictionary4 ,new ,york1 #ahgd-ahgf4 ,,martin1 ,,thomas4 ,the circle of the mechanical arts4 ,london1 #ahac4 ,,mercer1 ,,henry ,c4 ,ancient carpenters' tools4 ,doylestown1 ,pennsylvania3 ,the ,bucks ,county ,historical ,society1 #aiea4 ,,moxon1 ,,joseph4 ,mechanick exercises4 #crd ed4 ,london1 #agjc4 ,,nicholson1 ,,peter4 ,the mechanic's companion4 ,philadelphia1 #ahcb4 ,,petersen1 ,,eugene ,t4 ,gentlemen on the frontier3 ,a pictorial record of the culture of ,michilimackinac4 ,mackinac ,island1 ,mich41 #aifd4 ,,petrie1 ,,sir ,,william ,,matthew ,,flinders4 ,tools and weapons illustrated by the ,egyptian collection in ,university ,college1 ,london4 ,london1 #aiag4 ,,roubo1 ,,andre-,,jacob4 ,l'art du menuisier4 7,in ,henri-,louis ,duhamel du ,monceau1 ,descriptions des arts et metiers47 ,paris1 #agfa-aghh4 ,,sachs1 ,,hans4 ,das ,staendebuch3 #aad ,holzschnitte von ,jost ,amman1 mit ,reimen von ,hans ,sachs4 ,leipzig3 ,insel-,verlag1 #aicd4 ,,singer1 ,,charles1 et al4 ,a history of technology4 #e vols4 ,new ,york and ,london3 ,oxford ,university ,press1 #aied-aieh4 ,,sloane1 ,,eric4 ,a museum of early ,american tools4 ,new ,york3 ,wilfred ,funk1 ,inc41 #aifd4 ,,tomlinson1 ,,charles4 ,illustrations of trades4 #bnd ed4 ,london1 #ahfg4 ,,welsh1 ,,peter ,c4 ,the ,decorative ,appeal of ,hand ,tools1 ,antiques1 vol4 #hg1 no4 #b1 ,february #aife1 pp4 #bjd-bjg4 ---- ,u4,s4 patents1 #agij-ahgj3 ,new uses for old ideas4 ,paper #dh in ,contributions from the ,museum of ,history and ,technology3 ,papers #de-ec 7,u4,s4 ,national ,museum ,bulletin #bda71 by various authors2 ,washington3 ,smithsonian ,institution1 #aife4 ,,wildung1 ,,frank ,h4 ,woodworking tools at ,shelburne ,museum4 7,no4 #c in ,museum ,pamphlet ,series47 ,shelburne1 ,vermont3 ,the ,shelburne ,museum1 #aieg4 ,u4,s4 ,government ,printing ,office3 #aiff ,for sale by the ,superintendent of ,documents1 ,u4,s4 ,government ,printing ,office ,washington1 ,d4,c41 #bjdjb--,price #gj cents ,paper #ea1 pages #agh-bbh1 from ,,united ,,states ,,national ,,museum ,,bulletin ,illustration ,,contributions ,,from ,,the ,,museum ,,of ,,history ,,and ,,technology ,,smithsonian ,,institution 4 ,,washington1 ,d4,c4