,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,science ,,the ,,splash ,,of ,a ,,drop ,,by ,,prof4 ,a4,m4 ,,worthington1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,being the reprint of a ,discourse delivered at the ,royal ,institution of ,great ,britain1 ,may #ah1 #ahid4 ,,published ,,under ,,the ,,direction ,,of ,,the ,,general ,,literature ,,committee4 ,,london3 ,,society ,,for ,,promoting ,,christian ,,knowledge1 ,,northumberland ,,avenue1 ,,charing ,,cross1 ,w4,c42 #dc1 ,,queen ,,victoria ,,street1 ,e4,c4 ,,brighton3 #abi1 ,,north ,,street4 ,,new ,,york3 ,e4 ,j4,b4 ,,young ,,co4 #ahie4 ,,the ,,splash ,,of ,a ,,drop ,,instantaneous ,,photographs ,,of ,,the ,,splash ,,of ,a ,,water-,,drop ,,falling ,,about #af ,,inches ,,into ,,milk4 ,illustration3 ,time after contact 4#jbfb sec4 ,illustration3 ,time after contact 4#jcia sec4 ,illustration3 ,time after contact 4#aja sec4 ,,the ,,splash ,,of ,a ,,drop ,the splash of a drop is a transaction which is accomplished in the twinkling of an eye1 and it may seem to some that a man who proposes to discourse on the matter for an hour must have lost all sense of proportion4 ,if that opinion exists1 ,i hope this evening to be able to remove it1 and to convince you that we have to deal with an exquisitely regulated phenomenon1 and one which very happily illustrates some of the fundamental properties of fluids4 ,it may be mentioned also that the recent researches of ,lenard in ,germany and ,j4,j4 ,thomson at ,cambridge1 on the curious development of electrical charges that accompanies certain kinds of splashes1 have invested with a new interest any examination of the mechanics of the phenomenon4 ,it is to the mechanical and not to the electrical side of the question that ,i shall call your attention this evening4 ,the first well-directed and deliberate observations on the subject that ,i am acquainted with were made by a school-boy at ,rugby some twenty years ago1 and were reported by him to the ,rugby ,natural ,history ,society4 ,he had observed that the marks of accidental splashes of ink-drops that had fallen on some smoked glasses with which he was experimenting1 presented an appearance not easy to account for4 ,drops of the same size falling from the same height had made always the same kind of mark1 which1 when carefully examined with a lens1 showed that the smoke had been swept away in a system of minute concentric rings and fine striae4 ,specimens of such patterns1 obtained by letting drops of mercury1 alcohol1 and water fall on to smoked glass1 are thrown on the screen1 and the main characteristics are easily recognized4 ,such a pattern corresponds to the footprints of the dance that has been performed on the surface1 and though the drop may be lying unbroken on the plate1 it has evidently been taking violent exercise1 and were our vision acute enough we might observe that it was still palpitating after its exertions4 ,a careful examination of a large number of such footprints showed that any opinion that could be formed therefrom of the nature of the motion of the drop must be largely conjectural1 and it occurred to me about eighteen years ago to endeavour by means of the illumination of a suitably-timed electric spark to watch a drop through its various changes on impact4 ,the reason that with ordinary continuous light nothing can be satisfactorily seen of the splash1 is not that the phenomenon is of such short duration1 but because the changes are so rapid that before the image of one stage has faded from the eye the image of a later and quite different stage is superposed upon it4 ,thus the resulting impression is a confused assemblage of all the stages1 as in the photograph of a person who has not sat still while the camera was looking at him4 ,the problem to be solved experimentally was therefore this3 to let a drop of definite size fall from a definite height in comparative darkness on to a surface1 and to illuminate it by a flash of exceedingly short duration at any desired stage1 so as to exclude all the stages previous and subsequent to the one thus picked out4 ,the flash must be bright enough for the image of what is seen to remain long enough on the eye for the observer to be able to attend to it1 and even to shift his attention from one part to another1 and thus to make a drawing of what is seen4 ,if necessary the experiment must be capable of repetition1 with an exactly similar drop falling from exactly the same height1 and illuminated at exactly the same stage4 ,then1 when this stage has been sufficiently studied1 we must be able to arrange with another similar drop to illuminate it at a rather later stage1 say #a_/ajjj second later1 and in this way to follow step by step the whole course of the phenomenon4 ,the apparatus by which this has been accomplished is on the table before you4 ,time will not suffice to explain how it grew out of earlier arrangements very different in appearance1 but its action is very simple and easy to follow by reference to the diagram 7,fig4 #a74 ,,aa' is a light wooden rod rather longer and thicker than an ordinary lead pencil1 and pivoted on a horizontal axle ,o4 ,the rod bears at the end ,a a small deep watch-glass1 or segment of a watch-glass1 whose surface has been smoked1 so that a drop even of water will lie on it without adhesion4 ,the end ,a' carries a small strip of tinned iron1 which can be pressed against and held down by an electro-magnet ,,cc'4 ,when the current of the electro-magnet is cut off the iron is released1 and the end ,a' of the rod is tossed up by the action of a piece of india-rubber stretched catapult-wise across two pegs at ,e1 and by this means the drop resting on the watch-glass is left in mid-air free to fall from rest4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,,bb' is a precisely similar rod worked in just the same way1 but carrying at ,b a small horizontal metal ring1 on which an ivory timing sphere of the size of a child's marble can be supported4 ,on cutting off the current of the electro-magnet the ends ,a' and ,b' of the two levers are simultaneously tossed up by the catapults1 and thus drop and sphere begin to fall at the same moment4 ,before1 however1 the drop reaches the surface on which it is to impinge1 the timing sphere strikes a plate ,d attached to one end of a third lever pivoted at ,q1 and thus breaks the contact between a platinum wire bound to the underside of this lever and another wire crossing the first at right angles4 ,this action breaks an electric current which has traversed a second electro-magnet ,f 7,fig4 #b71 and releases the iron armature ,n of the lever ,,np1 pivoted at ,p1 thus enabling a strong spiral spring ,g to lift a stout brass wire ,l out of mercury1 and to break at the surface of the mercury a strong current that has circulated round the primary circuit of a ,ruhmkorff's induction coil2 this produces at the surface of the mercury a bright self-induction spark in the neighbourhood of the splash1 and it is by this flash that the splash is viewed4 ,the illumination is greatly helped by surrounding the place where the splash and flash are produced by a white cardboard enclosure1 seen in ,fig4 #b1 from whose walls the light is diffused4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,it will be observed that the time at which the spark is made will depend upon the distance that the sphere has to fall before striking the plate ,d1 for the subsequent action of demagnetizing ,f and pulling the wire ,l out of the mercury in the cup ,h is the same on each occasion4 ,the modus operandi is consequently as follows3--,the observer1 sitting in comparative but by no means complete darkness1 faces the apparatus as it appears in ,fig4 #b1 presses down the ends ,a',b' of the levers first described1 so that they are held by the electro-magnet ,c 7,fig4 #a72 then he presses the lever ,,np down on the electro-magnet ,f1 sets the timing sphere and drop in place1 and then by means of a bridge between two mercury cups1 short-circuits and thus cuts off the current of the electro-magnet ,c4 ,this lets off drop and sphere1 and produces the flash4 ,the stage of the phenomenon that is thus revealed having been sufficiently studied by repetition of the experiment as often as may be necessary1 he lowers the plate ,d a fraction of an inch and thus obtains a later stage4 ,not only is any desired stage of the phenomenon thus easily brought under examination1 but the apparatus also affords the means of measuring the time interval between any two stages4 ,all that is necessary is to know the distance that the timing sphere falls in the two cases4 ,elementary dynamics then give us the interval required4 ,thus1 if the sphere falls one foot and we then lower ,d #a_/d inch1 the interval between the corresponding stages will be about 4#jjbf second4 ,having thus described the apparatus1 which ,i hope shortly to show you in action1 ,i pass to the information that has been obtained by it4 ,this is contained in a long series of drawings1 of which a selection will be presented on the screen4 ,the ,first ,series that ,i have to show represents the splash of a drop of mercury #j4ae inch in diameter that has fallen #c inches on to a smooth glass plate4 ,it will be noticed that very soon after the first moment of impact1 minute rays are shot out in all directions on the surface4 ,these are afterwards overflowed or united1 until1 as in ,fig4 #h1 the outline is only slightly rippled4 ,then 7,fig4 #i7 main rays shoot out1 from the ends of which in some cases minute droplets of liquid would split off1 to be left lying in a circle on the plate1 and visible in all subsequent stages4 ,by counting these droplets when they were thus left1 the number of rays was ascertained to have been generally about #bd4 ,this exquisite shell-like configuration1 shown in ,fig4 #i1 marks about the maximum spread of the liquid1 which1 subsiding in the middle1 afterwards flows into an annulus or rim with a very thin central film1 so thin1 in fact1 as often to tear more or less irregularly4 ,this annular rim then divides or segments 7,figs4 #ad1 #ae1 #af7 in such a manner as to join up the rays in pairs1 and thus passes into the #ab-lobed annulus of ,fig4 #af4 ,then the whole contracts1 but contracts most rapidly between the lobes1 the liquid then being driven into and feeding the arms1 which follow more slowly4 ,in ,fig4 #ba the end of this stage is reached1 and now the arms continuing to come in1 the liquid rises in the centre2 this is1 in fact1 the beginning of the rebound of the drop from the plate4 ,in the case before us the drops at the ends of the arms now break off 7,fig4 #be71 while the central mass rises in a column which just fails itself to break up into drops1 and falls back into the middle of the circle of satellites which1 it will be understood1 may in some cases again be surrounded by a second circle of the still smaller and more numerous droplets that split off the ends of the rays in ,fig4 #i4 ,the whole of the #cj stages described are accomplished in about #a_/bj second1 so that the average interval between them is about #a_/fjj second4 ,,first ,,series4 ,illustration3 #a ,illustration3 #b ,illustration3 #c ,illustration3 #d ,illustration3 #e ,illustration3 #f ,illustration3 #g ,illustration3 #h ,illustration3 #i ,illustration3 #aj ,illustration3 #aa ,illustration3 #ab ,illustration3 #ac ,illustration3 #ad ,illustration3 #ae ,illustration3 #af ,illustration3 #ag ,illustration3 #ah ,illustration3 #ai ,illustration3 #bj ,illustration3 #ba ,illustration3 #bb ,illustration3 #bc ,illustration3 #bd ,illustration3 #be ,illustration3 #bf ,illustration3 #bg ,illustration3 #bh ,illustration3 #bi ,illustration3 #cj ,it should be mentioned that it is only in rare cases that the subordinate drops seen in the last six figures1 are found lying in a very complete circle after all is over1 for there is generally some slight disturbing lateral velocity which causes many to mingle again with the central drop1 or with each other4 ,but even if only half or a quarter of the circle is left1 it is easy to estimate how many drops1 and therefore how many arms there have been4 ,it may be mentioned that sometimes the surface of the central lake of liquid 7,figs4 #ad1 #ae1 #af1 #ag7 was seen to be covered with beautiful concentric ripples1 not shown in the figures4 ,the question now naturally presents itself1 ,why should the drop behave in this manner8 ,in seeking the answer it will be useful to ask ourselves another question4 ,what should we have expected the drop to do8 ,well1 to this ,i suppose most people would be inclined1 arguing from analogy with a solid1 to reply that it would be reasonable to expect the drop to flatten itself1 and even very considerably flatten itself1 and then1 collecting itself together again1 to rebound1 perhaps as a column such as we have seen1 but not to form this regular system of rays and arms and subordinate drops4 ,now this argument from analogy with a solid is rather misleading1 for the forces that operate in the case of a solid sphere that flattens itself and rebounds1 are due to the bodily elasticity which enables it not only to resist1 but also to recover from any distortion of shape or shearing of its internal parts past each other4 ,but a liquid has no power of recovering from such internal shear1 and the only force that checks the spread1 and ultimately causes the recovery of shape1 is the surface tension1 which arises from the fact that the surface layers are always in a state of extension and always endeavouring to contract4 ,thus we are at liberty when dealing with the motions of the drop to think of the interior liquid as not coherent1 provided we furnish it with a suitable elastic skin4 ,where the surface skin is sharply curved outwards1 as it is at the sharp edge of the flattened disc1 there the interior liquid will be strongly pressed back4 ,in fact the process of flattening and recoil is one in which energy of motion is first expended in creating fresh liquid surface1 and subsequently recovered as the surface contracts4 ,the transformation is1 however1 at all moments accompanied by a great loss of energy as heat4 ,moreover1 it must be remembered that the energy expended in creating the surface of the satellite drops is not restored if these remain permanently separate4 ,thus the surface tension explains the recoil1 and it is also closely connected with the formation of the subordinate rays and arms4 ,to explain this it is only necessary to remind you that a liquid cylinder is an unstable configuration4 ,as you know1 any fine jet becomes beaded and breaks into drops1 but it is not necessary that there should be any flow of liquid along the jet2 if1 for example1 we could realize a rod of liquid of the shape and size of this cylindrical ruler that ,i hold in my hand1 and liberate it in the air1 it would not retain its cylindrical shape1 but would segment or divide itself up into a row of drops regularly disposed according to a definite and very simple numerical law1 viz4 that the distances between the centres of contiguous drops would be equal to the circumference of the cylinder4 ,this can be shown by calculation to be a consequence of the surface tension1 and the calculation has been closely verified by experiment4 ,if the liquid cylinder were liberated on a plate1 it would still topple into a regular row of drops1 but they would be further apart2 this was shown by ,plateau4 ,now imagine the cylinder bent into an annulus4 ,it will still follow the same law1#a i4e4 it will topple into drops just as if it were straight4 ,this ,i can show you by a direct experiment4 ,i have here a small thick disc of iron1 with an accurately planed face and a handle at the back4 ,in the face is cut a circular groove1 whose cross section is a semi-circle4 ,i now lay this disc face downwards on the horizontal face of the lantern condenser1 and through one of two small holes bored through to the back of the disc ,i fill the groove with quicksilver4 ,now1 suddenly lifting the disc from the plate1 ,i release an annulus of liquid1 which splits into the circle of very equal drops which you see projected on the screen4 ,you will notice that the main drops have between them still smaller ones1 which have come from the splitting up of the thin cylindrical necks of liquid which connected the larger drops at the last moment4 ,now this tendency to segment or topple into drops1 whether of a straight cylinder or of an annulus1 is the key to the formation of the arms and satellites1 and indeed to much that happens in all the splashes that we shall examine4 ,thus in ,fig4 #ab we have an annular rim1 which in ,figs4 #ac and #ad is seen to topple into lobes by which the rays are united in pairs1 and even the special rays that are seen in ,fig4 #i owe their origin to the segmentation of the rim of the thin disc into which the liquid has spread4 ,the proceeding is probably exactly analogous to what takes place in a sea wave that curls over in calm weather on a slightly sloping shore4 ,any one may notice how1 as it curls over1 the wave presents a long smooth edge1 from which at a given instant a multitude of jets suddenly shoot out1 and at once the back of the wave1 hitherto smooth1 is seen to be furrowed or combed4 ,there can be no doubt that the cylindrical edge topples into alternate convexities and concavities2 at the former the flow is helped1 at the latter hindered1 and thus the jets begin1 and special lines of flow are determined4 ,in precisely the same way the previously smooth circular edge of ,fig4 #h topples1 and determines the rays and lines of flow of ,fig4 #i4 ,before going on to other splashes ,i will now endeavour to reproduce a mercury splash of the kind ,i have described1 in a manner that shall be visible to all4 ,for this purpose ,i have reduplicated the apparatus which you have seen1 and have it here so arranged that ,i can let the drop fall on to the horizontal condenser plate of the lantern1 through which the light passes upwards1 to be afterwards thrown upon this screen4 ,the illuminating flash will be made inside the lantern1 where the arc light would ordinarily be placed4 ,i have now set a drop of mercury in readiness and put the timing sphere in place1 and now if you will look intently at the middle of the screen ,i will darken the room and let off the splash4 7,the experiment was repeated four or five times1 and the figures seen were like those of ,series ,x47 ,of course all that can be shown in this way is the outline1 or rather a horizontal section of the splash2 but you are able to recognize some of the configurations already described1 and will be the more willing to believe that a momentary view is after all sufficient to give much information if one is on the alert and has acquired skill by practice4 ,the general features of the splash that we have examined are not merely characteristic of the liquid mercury1 but belong to all splashes of a liquid falling on to a surface which it does not wet1 provided the height of fall or size of the drop are not so great as to cause complete disruption1#b in which case there is no recovery and rebound4 ,thus a drop of milk falling on to smoked glass will1 if the height of fall and size of drop are properly adjusted1 give forms very similar to those presented by a drop of mercury4 ,the whole course of the phenomenon depends1 in fact1 mainly on four quantities only3 7#a7 the size of the drop2 7#b7 the height of fall2 7#c7 the value of the surface tension2 7#d7 the viscosity of the liquid4 ,the next series of drawings illustrates the splash of a drop of water falling into water4 ,in order the better to distinguish the liquid of the original drop from that into which it falls1 the latter was coloured with ink or with an aniline dye1 and the drop itself was of water rendered turbid with finely-divided matter in suspension4 ,finally drops of milk were found to be very suitable for the purpose1 the substitution of milk for water not producing any observable change in the phenomenon4 ,in ,series ,,ii4 the drop fell #c inches1 and was #a_/e inch in diameter4 ,in most of the figures of this and of succeeding series the central white patch represents the original drop1 and the white parts round it represent those raised portions of the liquid which catch the light4 ,the numbers under each figure give the time interval in seconds from the occurrence of the first figure1 or of the figure marked ,tau #j4 ,,series ,,ii4 ,the ,splash of a ,drop1 followed in detail by ,instantaneous ,illumination4 ,diameter of ,drop1 #a_/e inch4 ,height of ,fall1 #c-a_/e inches4 ,illustration3 #a ,tau #j sec4 ,illustration3 #b ,tau #j sec4 ,illustration3 #c ,tau 4#jjig sec4 ,illustration3 #d ,tau 4#jcib sec4 ,illustration3 #e ,tau 4#jcib sec4 ,illustration3 #f ,illustration3 #g ,tau 4#jigi sec4 ,illustration3 #h ,tau 4#ajie sec4 ,illustration3 #i ,tau 4#afg sec4 ,it will be observed that the drop flattens itself out somewhat1 and descends at the bottom of a hollow with a raised beaded edge 7,fig4 #b74 ,this edge would be smooth and circular but for the instability which causes it to topple into drops4 ,as the drop descends the hollow becomes wider and deeper1 and finally closes over the drop 7,fig4 #c71 which1 however1 soon again emerges as the hollow flattens out1 appearing first near1 but still below the surface 7,fig4 #d71 in a flattened1 lobed form1 afterwards rising as a column somewhat mixed with adherent water1 in which traces of the lobes are at first very visible4 ,the rising column1 which is nearly cylindrical1 breaks up into drops before or during its subsequent descent into the liquid4 ,as it disappears below the surface the outward and downward flow causes a hollow to be again formed1 up the sides of which an annulus of milk is carried1 while the remainder descends to be torn again a second time into a vortex ring1 which1 however1 is liable to disturbance from the falling in of the drops which once formed the upper part of the rebounding column4 ,it is not difficult to recognize some features of this splash without any apparatus beyond a cup of tea and a spoonful of milk4 ,any drinker of afternoon tea1 after the tea is poured out and before the milk is put in1 may let the milk fall into it drop by drop from one or two inches above it4 ,the rebounding column will be seen to consist almost entirely of milk1 and to break up into drops in the manner described1 while the vortex ring1 whose core is of milk1 may be seen to shoot down into the liquid4 ,but this is better observed by dropping ink into a tumbler of clear water4 ,let us now increase the height of fall to #ag inches4 ,series ,,iii4 exhibits the result4 ,all the characteristics of the last splash are more strongly marked4 ,in ,fig4 #a we have caught sight of the little raised rim of the hollow before it was headed1 but in ,fig4 #b special channels of easiest flow have been already determined4 ,the number of ribs and rays in this basket-shaped hollow seemed to vary a good deal with different drops1 as also did the number of arms and lobes seen in later figures1 in a somewhat puzzling manner1 and ,i made no attempt to select drawings which are in agreement in this respect4 ,it will be understood that these rays contain little or none of the liquid of the drop1 which remains collected together in the middle4 ,drops from these rays or from the larger arms and lobes of subsequent figures are often thrown off high into the air4 ,in ,figs4 #c and #d the drop is clean gone below the surface of the hollow1 which is now deeper and larger than before4 ,the beautiful beaded annular edge then subsides1 and in ,fig4 #e we see the drop again1 and in ,fig4 #f it begins to emerge4 ,but although the drop has fallen from a greater height than in the previous splash1 the energy of the impact1 instead of being expended in raising the same amount of liquid to a greater height1 is now spent in lifting a much thicker adherent column to about the same height as in the last splash4 ,there was sometimes noticed1 as seen in ,fig4 #i1 a tendency in the water to flow up past the milk1 which1 still comparatively unmixed with water1 rides triumphant on the top of the emergent column4 ,the greater relative thickness of this column prevents it splitting into drops1 and ,figs4 #aj and #aa show it descending below the surface to form the hollow of ,fig4 #ab1 up the sides of which an annular film of milk is carried 7,figs4 #ab and #ac71 having been detached from the central mass1 which descends to be torn again1 this time centrally into a well-marked vortex ring4 ,,series ,,iii4 ,the ,splash of a ,drop1 followed in detail by ,instantaneous ,illumination4 ,diameter of ,drop1 #a_/e inch4 ,height of ,fall1 #a ft4 #e in4 ,illustration3 #a ,tau #j sec4 ,illustration3 #b ,tau 4#jcad sec4 ,illustration3 #c ,tau 4#jcag sec4 ,illustration3 #d ,tau 4#jchi sec4 ,illustration3 #e ,tau 4#jdih sec4 ,illustration3 #f ,tau 4#jeea sec4 ,illustration3 #g ,tau 4#jgei sec4 ,illustration3 #h ,tau 4#jija sec4 ,illustration3 #i ,illustration3 #aj ,illustration3 #aa ,illustration3 #ab ,tau 4#bie sec4 ,illustration3 #ac ,illustration3 #ad ,if we keep to the same size of drop and increase the fall to something over a yard1 no great change occurs in the nature of the splash1 but the emergent column is rather higher and thinner and shows a tendency to split into drops4 ,when1 however1 we double the volume of the drop and raise the height of fall to #eb inches1 the splash of ,series ,,iv4 is obtained1 which is beginning to assume quite a different character4 ,the raised rim of the previous series is now developed into a hollow shell of considerable height1 which tends to close over the drop4 ,this shell or dome is a characteristic feature of all splashes made by large drops falling from a considerable height1 and is extremely beautiful4 ,in the splash at present under consideration it does not always succeed in closing permanently1 but opens out as it subsides1 and is followed by the emergence of the drop 7,fig4 #h74 ,in ,fig4 #i the return wave overwhelms the drop for an instant1 but it is again seen at the summit of the column in ,fig4 #aj4 ,,series ,,iv4 ,the ,splash of a ,drop1 followed in detail by ,instantaneous ,illumination4 ,diameter of ,drop1 #a_/d inch4 ,height of ,fall1 #d ft4 #d in4 ,illustration3 #a ,tau #j sec4 ,illustration3 #b ,tau 4#jjba sec4 ,illustration3 #c ,tau 4#jjdb sec4 ,illustration3 #d ,tau 4#jafe sec4 ,illustration3 #e ,tau 4#jbjf sec4 ,illustration3 #f ,tau 4#jddc sec4 ,illustration3 #g ,tau 4#jdhb sec4 ,illustration3 #h ,tau 4#jeie sec4 ,illustration3 #i ,tau 4#jgjg sec4 ,illustration3 #aj ,illustration3 #aa ,but on other occasions the shell or dome of ,figs4 #d and #e closes permanently over the imprisoned air1 the liquid then flowing down the sides1 which become thinner and thinner1 till at length we are left with a large bubble floating on the water 7see ,series ,v474 ,it will be observed that the flow of liquid down the sides is chiefly along definite channels1 which are probably determined by the arms thrown up at an earlier stage4 ,the bubble is generally creased by the weight of the liquid along these channels4 ,it must be remembered that the base of the bubble is in a state of oscillation1 and that the whole is liable to burst at any moment1 when such figures as #f and #g of the previous series will be seen4 ,illustration3 ,,series ,v4 ,the ,splash of a ,drop1 followed in detail by ,instantaneous ,illumination4 ,the ,size of ,drop and ,height of ,fall are the same as before1 but the hollow shell 7see figs4 #d and #e of the previous ,series7 does not succeed in opening1 but is left as a bubble on the surface4 ,this explains the formation of bubbles when big rain-drops fall into a pool of water4 ,such is the history of the building of the bubbles which big rain-drops leave on the smooth water of a lake1 or pond1 or puddle4 ,only the bigger drops can do it1 and reference to the number at the side of ,fig4 #e of ,series ,,iv4 shows that the dome is raised in about two-hundredths of a second4 ,should the domes fail to close1 or should they open again1 we have the emergent columns which any attentive observer will readily recognize1 and which have never been better described than by ,mr4 ,r4,l4 ,stevenson1 who1 in his delightful ,inland ,voyage1 speaks of the surface of the ,belgian canals along which he was canoeing1 as thrown up by the rain into an infinity of little crystal fountains4 ,very beautiful forms of the same type indeed1 but different in detail1 are those produced by a drop of water falling into the lighter and more mobile liquid1 petroleum4 ,it will now be interesting to turn to the splash that is produced when a solid sphere1 such as a child's marble1 falls into water4 ,i found to my great surprise that the character of the splash1 at any rate up to a height of #d or #e feet1 depends entirely on the state of the surface of the sphere4 ,a polished sphere of marble about #j4f of an inch in diameter1 rubbed very dry with a cloth just beforehand and dropped from a height of #b feet into water1 gave the figures of ,series ,,vi41 in which it is seen that the water spreads over the sphere so rapidly1 that it is sheathed with the liquid even before it has passed below the general level of the surface4 ,the splash is insignificantly small and of very short duration4#c ,if the drying and polishing be not so perfect1 the configurations of ,series ,,vii4 are produced2 while if the sphere be roughened with sandpaper1 or left wet1 ,series ,,viii4 is obtained1 in which it will be perceived that1 as was the case with the liquid drop1 the water is driven away laterally1 forming the ribbed basket-shaped hollow1 which1 however1 is now prolonged to a great depth1 the drop being followed by a cone of air1 while the water seems to find great difficulty in wetting the surface completely4 ,part of this column of air was carried down at least #af inches1 and then only detached when the sphere struck the bottom of the vessel4 ,,series ,,vi41 ,,vii4 ,splash of a ,solid ,sphere 7a marble #a_/b inch in diameter falling #b feet into water74 ,illustration3 ,,series ,,vi4 ,when the sphere is dry and polished4 ,illustration3 ,,series ,,vii4 ,when the sphere is not well dried and polished4 ,illustration3 ,,series ,,viii4 ,the ,splash of a ,solid ,sphere--7continued47 ,when the sphere is rough or wet4 ,illustration3 ,,series ,,ix4 ,the ,splash of a ,solid ,sphere--7continued47 ,when the sphere is rough or wet1 and falls above #e feet4 ,figs4 #f and #g show the crater falling in1 but this did not always happen1 for the walls often closed over the hollow exactly as in ,figs4 #d and #e of ,series ,,iv4 ,meanwhile the long and nearly cylindrical portion below breaks up into bubbles which rise quickly to the surface4 ,by increasing the fall to #e feet we obtain the figures of ,series ,,ix4 ,the tube of ,fig4 #a corresponds to the dome of ,series ,,iv4 and ,v41 and is not only elevated to a surprising height1 but is also in the act of cleaving 7the outline being approximately that of the unduloid of ,m4 ,plateau74 ,figs4 #b and #c show the bubble formed by the closing up of this tube1 weighed down in the centre as in ,figs4 #e and #f of ,series ,v4 ,similar results were obtained with other liquids1 such as petroleum and alcohol4 ,it is easy to show in a very striking manner the paramount influence of the condition of the solid surface4 ,i have here a number of similar marbles2 this set has been well polished by rubbing with wash leather4 ,i drop them one by one through a space of about #a foot into this deep1 wide1 cylindrical glass vessel1 lighted up by a lamp placed behind it4 ,you see each marble enters noiselessly and with hardly a visible trace of splash4 ,now ,i pick them out and drop them in again 7or to save trouble1 ,i drop in the place of these other wet ones71 everything is changed4 ,you see how the air is carried to the very bottom of the vessel1 and you hear the phloisbos of the bubbles as they rise to the surface and burst4 ,these dry but rough marbles behave in much the same way4 ,such are the main features of the ,natural ,history of ,splashes1 as ,i made it out between thirteen and eighteen years ago4 ,before passing on to the photographs that ,i have since obtained1 ,i desire to add a few words of comment4 ,i have not till now alluded to any imperfections in the timing apparatus4 ,but no apparatus of the kind can be absolutely perfect1 and1 as a matter of fact1 when everything is adjusted so as to display a particular stage1 it will happen that in a succession of observations there is a certain variation in what is seen4 ,thus the configuration viewed may be said to oscillate slightly about the mean for which the apparatus is adjusted4 ,now this is due both to small imperfections in the timing apparatus and to the fact that the splashes themselves do actually vary within certain limits4 ,the reasons are not very far to seek4 ,in the first place the rate of demagnetization of the electro-magnets varies slightly1 being partly dependent on the varying resistance of the contacts of crossed wires1 partly on the temperature of the magnet1 which is affected by the length of time for which the current has been running4 ,but a much more important reason is the variation of the slight adhesion of the drop to the smoked watch-glass that has supported it1 and consequently of the oscillations to which1 as we shall see1 the drop is subjected as it descends4 ,thus the drop will sometimes strike the surface in a flattened form1 at others in an elongated form1 and there will be a difference1 not only in the time of impact1 but in the nature of the ensuing splash2 consequently some judgment is required in selecting a consecutive series of drawings4 ,the only way is to make a considerable number of drawings of each stage1 and then to pick out a consecutive series4 ,now1 whenever judgment has to be used1 there is room for error of judgment1 and moreover1 it is impossible to put together the drawings so as to tell a consecutive story1 without being guided by some theory1 such as ,i have already sketched1 as to the nature of the motion and the conditions that govern it4 ,you will therefore be good enough to remember that this chronicle of the events of a tenth of a second is not a mechanical record but is presented by a fallible human historian1 whose account1 like that of any other contemporary observer1 will be none the worse for independent confirmation4 ,that confirmation is fortunately obtainable4 ,in an attempt made eighteen years ago to photograph the splash of a drop of mercury1 ,i was unable to procure plates sufficiently sensitive to respond to the very short exposures that were required1 and consequently abandoned the endeavour4 ,but in recent years plates of exquisite sensitiveness have been produced1 and such photographs as those taken by ,mr4 ,boys of a flying rifle bullet have shown that difficulties on the score of sensitiveness have been practically overcome4 ,within the last few weeks1 with the valuable assistance of my colleague at ,devonport1 ,mr4 ,r4,s4 ,cole1 ,i have succeeded in obtaining photographs of various splashes4 ,following ,prof4 ,boys' suggestion1 we employed ,thomas's cyclist plates1 or occasionally the less sensitive extra-rapid plates of the same makers1 and as a developer1 ,eikonogen solution of triple strength1 in which the plates were kept for about #dj minutes1 the development being conducted in complete darkness4 ,a few preliminary trials with the self-induction spark produced at the surface of mercury by the apparatus that you have seen at work1 showed that the illumination1 though ample for direct vision1 was not sufficient for photography4 ,when the current strength was increased1 so as to make the illumination bright enough for the camera1 then the spark became of too great duration1 for it lasted for between #d and #e thousandths of a second1 within which time there was very perceptible motion of the drop and consequent blurring4 ,it was therefore necessary to modify the apparatus so as to employ a ,leyden-jar spark whose duration was probably less than #aj-millionths of a second4 ,a very slight change in the apparatus rendered it suitable for the new conditions1 but time does not permit me to describe the arrangements in detail4 ,it is1 however1 less necessary to do so as the method is in all essentials the same as that described in this room two years ago by ,lord ,rayleigh in connection with the photography of a breaking soap-film4#d ,i therefore pass at once to the photographs themselves4 ,the first two series 7,x4 and ,,xi47 may be described as shadow photographs2 they were obtained by allowing a drop of mercury to fall on to the naked photographic plate itself1 the illuminating spark being produced vertically above it1 and they give only a horizontal section of the drop in various stages1 revealing the form of the outline of the part in contact with the plate1 but of course telling nothing about the shape of the parts above4 ,the first series corresponds to a mercury splash very similar to that first described1 and the second to the splash of a larger drop such as was not described4 ,in each series1 the tearing of the thin central film to which allusion was made is well illustrated4 ,i think the first comment that any one would make is that the photographs1 while they bear out the drawings in many details1 show greater irregularity than the drawings would have led one to expect4 ,on this point ,i shall presently have something to say4 ,,series ,x4 7#a7 ,instantaneous ,shadow ,photographs 7life size7 of the ,splash of a ,drop of ,mercury falling #h cm4 on to the ,photographic ,plate4 ,illustration3 #a ,actual size of the ,drop1 #d4hc mm4 ,illustration3 #b ,tau #j ,illustration3 #c ,illustration3 #d ,illustration3 #e ,illustration3 #f ,illustration3 #g ,tau 4#jdh sec4 ,,series ,,xi4 7#b7 ,instantaneous ,shadow ,photographs 7life size7 of the ,splash of a ,drop of ,mercury falling #ae cm4 on to ,glass4 ,illustration3 #a ,actual size1 #d4hc mm4 in diameter4 ,illustration3 #b ,tau #j sec4 ,illustration3 #c ,illustration3 #d #d;,a ,tau 4#jjcb sec4 ,illustration3 #e ,tau 4#jjfc sec4 ,illustration3 #e;,a ,tau 4#jjid sec4 ,illustration3 #f ,tau 4#jacd sec4 ,comparing the first set of drawings 7pp4 #bj-bd7 with the photographs of ,series ,x41 it will be seen that ,photograph #b corresponds to drawing #d or #e #c #i #d #ah #f #bj #g #bd but the irregularity of the last photograph almost masks the resemblance4 ,,series ,,xii4 ,engravings from ,instantaneous ,photographs 7#af_/ag of the real size7 of the ,splash of a ,drop of ,mercury1 #d4hc mm4 in diameter1 falling #h4i cm4 on to a hard polished surface4 ,illustration3 #a ,illustration3 #b ,tau #j sec4 ,illustration3 #c ,illustration3 #d ,illustration3 #e ,illustration3 #f ,tau 4#jaie sec4 ,series ,,xii4 gives an objective view of a mercury splash as taken by the camera4 ,only the first of this series shows any detail in the interior4 ,the polished surface of the mercury is1 in fact1 very troublesome to illuminate1 and this splash proved the most difficult of all to photograph4 ,series ,,xiii4 shows the splash of a drop of milk falling on to a smoked glass plate1 on which it runs about without adhesion just as mercury would4 ,here there is more of detail4 ,in ,fig4 #d the central film is so thin in the middle that the black plate beneath it is seen through the liquid4 ,in ,fig4 #h this film has been torn4 ,series ,,xiv4 exhibits the splash of a water drop falling into milk4 ,the first four photographs show the oscillations of the drop about a mean spherical figure as it approaches the surface4 ,in the subsequent figures it will be noticed that the arms which are thrown up at first1 afterwards segment into drops which fly off and subside 7see ,fig4 #h71 to be followed by a second series which again subside 7,fig4 #aa71 to be again succeeded by a third set4 ,in fact1 so long as there is any downward momentum the drop and the air behind it are penetrating the liquid1 and so long must there be an upward flow of displaced liquid4 ,much of this flow is seen to be directed into the arms along the channels determined by the segmentation of the annular rim4 ,this reproduction of the lobes and arms time after time on a varying scale goes far to explain the puzzling variations in their number which ,i mentioned in connection with the drawings4 ,i had not1 indeed1 suspected this1 which is one of the few new points that the photographs have so far revealed4#e ,,series ,,xiii4 ,engravings of ,instantaneous ,photographs 7#af_/ag of the real size7 of the ,splash of a ,drop of ,milk falling #bj cm4 on to smoked glass4 ,illustration3 #a ,illustration3 #b ,tau #j sec4 ,illustration3 #c ,tau 4#jjbe sec4 7,it was not found possible to reproduce satisfactorily the missing figures of this series47 ,illustration3 #g ,tau 4#jabh sec4 ,illustration3 #h ,tau 4#jadi sec4 ,illustration3 #i ,tau 4#jadi sec4 ,,series ,,xiv4 ,engravings of ,instantaneous ,photographs of the ,splash of a ,drop of ,water falling #dj cm4 into ,milk4 ,scale about #f_/aj of actual size4 ,illustration3 #a ,illustration3 #b ,illustration3 #c ,illustration3 #d ,tau #j sec4 ,illustration3 #e ,illustration3 #f ,tau 4#jjef sec4 ,illustration3 #g ,tau 4#jafc sec4 ,illustration3 #h ,illustration3 #i ,tau 4#jahb sec4 ,illustration3 #aj ,tau 4#jaig sec4 ,illustration3 #aa ,tau 4#jbfb sec4 ,illustration3 #ab ,tau 4#jcia sec4 ,illustration3 #ac ,tau 4#jead sec4 ,illustration3 #ad ,tau 4#jfja sec4 ,illustration3 #ae ,illustration3 #af ,tau 4#jhj sec4 ,illustration3 #ag ,illustration3 #ah ,tau 4#aja sec4 ,with respect to these photographs1#f the credit of which ,i hope you will attribute firstly to the inventors of the sensitive plates1 and secondly to the skill and experience of ,mr4 ,cole1 ,i desire to add that they are1 as far as we know1 the first really detailed objective views that have been obtained with anything approaching so short an exposure4 ,even ,mr4 ,boys' wonderful photographs of flying bullets were after all but shadow-photographs1 and did not so strikingly illustrate the extreme sensitiveness of the plates1 and ,i want you to distinguish between such and what 7to borrow ,mr4 ,f4,j4 ,smith's phrase7 ,i call an objective view4 ,it remains only to speak of the greater irregularity in the arms and rays as shown by the photographs4 ,the point is a curious and interesting one4 ,in the first place ,i have to confess that in looking over my original drawings ,i find records of many irregular or unsymmetrical figures1 yet in compiling the history it has been inevitable that these should be rejected1 if only because identical irregularities never recur4 ,thus the mind of the observer is filled with an ideal splash--an ,auto-,splash--whose perfection may never be actually realized4 ,but in the second place1 when the splash is nearly regular it is very difficult to detect irregularity4 ,this is easily proved by projecting on the screen with instantaneous illumination such a photograph as that of ,series ,x41 ,fig4 #f4 ,my experience is that most persons pronounce what they have seen to be a regular and symmetrical star-shaped figure1 and they are surprised when they come to examine it by detail in continuous light to find how far this is from the truth4 ,especially is this the case if no irregularity is suspected beforehand4 ,i believe that the observer1 usually finding himself unable to attend to more than a portion of the rays in the system1 is liable instinctively to pick out for attention a part of the circumference where they are regularly spaced1 and to fill up the rest in imagination1 and that where a ray may be really absent he prefers to consider that it has been imperfectly viewed4 ,this opinion is confirmed by the fact that in several cases1 ,i have been able to observe with the naked eye a splash that was also simultaneously photographed1 and have made the memorandum quite regular1 though the photograph subsequently showed irregularity4 ,it must1 however1 be observed that the absolute darkness and other conditions necessary for photography are not very favourable for direct vision4 ,and now my tale is told1 or rather as much of it as the limits of the time allowed me will permit4 ,i think you will agree that the phenomena are very beautiful1 and that the subject1 commonplace and familiar though it is1 has yet proved worthy of an hour's attention4 ,,the ,,end4 ,richard ,clay ,sons1 ,limited1 ,london ,bungay4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,see ,worthington on the ,spontaneous ,segmentation of a ,liquid ,annulus1 ,proceedings ,royal ,society1 ,no4 #bjj1 p4 #di 7#ahgi74 #b ,readers who wish a more detailed account of a greater variety of splashes are referred to papers by the author4 ,proceedings ,royal ,society1 vol4 xxv4 pp4 #bfa and #dih 7#ahgg72 and vol4 xxxiv4 p4 #bag 7#ahhb74 #c ,photographs obtained since this was written show that much may happen after the stages here traced4 #d ,a detailed account of the optical1 mechanical1 and electrical arrangements employed1 written by ,mr4 ,cole1 will be found in ,nature1 vol4 i41 p4 #bbb 7,july #e1 #ahid74 #e ,the black streaks1 seen especially in ,figs4 #aa1 #ae1 and #af1 are due to particles of lamp-black carried down by the drop from the surface of the smoked watch-glass on which it rested4 #f ,three of these photographs1 viz4 ,nos4 #aa1 #ab1 and #ag1 are reproduced full size1 as a frontispiece1 by a photographic process1 to enable the reader to form a more correct idea than can be gathered from the engravings1 of the amount of detail actually obtained1 though even in these reproductions much is inevitably lost4 ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,science4 ,small post #hvo4 ,illustrated4 ,cloth boards4 s4 d4 ,coal2 and ,what ,we get from ,it4 ,by ,professor ,,raphael ,,meldola1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,f4,i4,c4 #b #f ,colour ,measurement and ,mixture4 ,by ,captain ,w4 ,,de ,w4 ,,abney1 ,c4,b41 ,r4,e41 ,f4,r4,s4 #b #f ,diseases of ,plants4 ,by ,h4 ,,marshall ,,ward1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,f4,l4,s4 #b #f ,our ,secret ,friends and ,foes4 ,by ,,percy ,,faraday ,,frankland1 ,ph4,d41 ,b4,sc4 7,lond471 ,f4,r4,s4 ,second ,edition1 revised and enlarged #c #j ,soap ,bubbles and the ,forces which ,mould ,them4 ,by ,c4,v4 ,,boys1 ,a4,r4,s4,m41 ,f4,r4,s4 #b #f ,spinning ,tops4 ,by ,professor ,j4 ,,perry1 ,m4,e41 ,d4,sc1 ,f4,r4,s4 #b #f ,the ,birth and ,growth of ,worlds4 ,by ,professor ,,green1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s4 #b #f ,the ,making of ,flowers4 ,by the ,rev4 ,professor ,,george ,,henslow1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,l4,s41 ,f4,g4,s4 #b #f ,the ,story of a ,tinder-,box4 ,by the late ,c4 ,,meymott ,,tidy1 ,m4,b41 ,m4,s41 ,f4,c4,s4 #b #j ,time and ,tide3 a ,romance of the ,moon4 ,by ,sir ,,robert ,s4 ,,ball1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,third ,edition revised #b #f ,,publications ,,of ,,the ,society for ,promoting ,christian ,knowledge4 ,publications of ,the ,society for ,promoting ,christian ,knowledge4 ,early ,britain4 ,this is a ,series of books which has for its aim the presentation of ,early ,britain at great ,historic ,periods4 ,anglo-,saxon ,britain4 ,by the late ,,grant ,,allen4 ,with ,map4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 ,cloth boards1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,celtic ,britain4 ,by ,professor ,,rhys4 ,with two ,maps4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 ,cloth boards1 #cs4 ,norman ,britain4 ,by the ,rev4 ,w4 ,,hunt4 ,with ,map4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 ,cloth boards1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,post-,norman ,britain4 ,by ,,henry ,g4 ,,hewlett4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 ,cloth boards1 #cs4 ,roman ,britain4 ,by the ,rev4 ,,edward ,,conybeare4 ,with ,map4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,roman ,roads in ,britain4 ,by ,,thomas ,,codrington1 ,m4,inst4,c4,e41 ,f4,g4,s4 ,with several ,maps4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 ,cloth boards1 #es4 ,,the ,,heathen ,,world ,,and ,,st4 ,,paul4 ,this ,series is intended to throw light upon the ,writings and ,labours of the ,apostle of the ,gentiles4 ,fcap4 #hvo1 cloth boards1 #bs4 each4 ,st4 ,paul in ,damascus and ,arabia4 ,by the late ,rev4 ,,george ,,rawlinson1 ,m4,a41 ,canon of ,canterbury4 ,with ,map4 ,st4 ,paul at ,rome4 ,by the ,very ,rev4 ,,charles ,,merivale1 ,d4,d41 ,d4,c4,l41 ,dean of ,ely4 ,with ,map4 ,st4 ,paul in ,asia ,minor and at the ,syrian ,antioch4 ,by the late ,rev4 ,e4,h4 ,,plumptre1 ,d4,d4 ,with ,map4 ,,ancient ,,history ,,from ,,the ,,monuments ,this ,series of ,books is chiefly intended to illustrate the ,sacred ,scriptures by the results of recent ,monumental ,researches in the ,east4 ,fcap4 #hvo1 cloth boards1 #bs4 each4 ,assyria1 from the ,earliest ,times to the ,fall of ,nineveh4 ,by the late ,,george ,,smith1 of the ,british ,museum4 ,new and ,revised ,edition by the ,rev4 ,professor ,a4,h4 ,,sayce4 ,sinai1 from the ,fourth ,egyptian ,dynasty to the ,present ,day4 ,by the late ,,henry ,s4 ,,palmer1 ,major ,r4,e41 ,f4,r4,a4,s4 ,with ,map4 ,a ,new ,edition1 revised throughout4 ,by the ,rev4 ,professor ,a4,h4 ,,sayce4 ,babylonia 7,the ,history of74 ,by the late ,,george ,,smith4 ,edited by the ,rev4 ,professor ,a4,h4 ,,sayce4 ,persia1 from the ,earliest ,period to the ,arab ,conquest4 ,by the late ,w4,s4,w4 ,,vaux1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,a ,new ,edition4 ,revised by the ,rev4 ,professor ,a4,h4 ,,sayce4 ,,books ,,by ,,the ,,author ,,of ,the ,chronicles of the ,schoenberg-,cotta ,family4 ,by the ,mystery of ,thy ,holy ,incarnation4 ,post #hvo4 ,cloth boards1 #as4 ,by ,thy ,cross and ,passion4 ,thoughts on the words spoken around and on the ,cross4 ,post #hvo4 ,cloth boards1 #as4 ,by ,thy ,glorious ,resurrection and ,ascension4 ,easter ,thoughts4 ,post #hvo4 ,cloth boards1 #as4 ,by the ,coming of the ,holy ,ghost4 ,thoughts for ,whitsuntide4 ,post #hvo4 ,cloth boards1 #as4 ,the ,true ,vine4 ,post #hvo4 ,cloth boards1 #as4 ,the ,great ,prayer of ,christendom4 ,post #hvo4 ,cloth boards1 #as4 ,an ,old ,story of ,bethlehem4 ,one link in the great ,pedigree4 ,fcap4 #dto1 with six plates beautifully printed in colours4 ,cloth boards1 #bs4 ,three ,martyrs of the ,nineteenth ,century4 ,studies from the ,lives of ,livingstone1 ,gordon1 and ,patteson4 ,crown #hvo4 ,cloth boards1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,martyrs and ,saints of the ,first ,twelve ,centuries4 ,studies from the ,lives of the ,black-letter ,saints of the ,english ,calendar4 ,crown #hvo4 ,cloth boards1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,against the ,stream4 ,the ,story of an ,heroic ,age in ,england4 ,with eight page woodcuts4 ,crown #hvo4 ,cloth boards1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,conquering and to ,conquer4 ,a ,story of ,rome in the days of ,st4 ,jerome4 ,with four page woodcuts4 ,crown #hvo4 ,cloth boards1 #bs4 ,lapsed not ,lost4 ,a ,story of ,roman ,carthage4 ,crown #hvo4 ,cloth boards1 #bs4 ,sketches of the ,women of ,christendom4 ,crown #hvo4 ,cloth boards1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,thoughts and ,characters4 ,being ,selections from the ,writings of the ,author of ,the ,schoenberg-,cotta ,family4 ,crown #hvo4 ,cloth bds41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,the ,fathers for ,english ,readers4 ,fcap4 #hvo1 cloth boards1 #bs4 each4 ,boniface4 ,by the ,rev4 ,canon ,,gregory ,,smith1 ,m4,a4 7#as4 #f;d47 ,clement of ,alexandria4 ,by the ,rev4 ,f4,r4 ,,montgomery ,,hitchcock4 7#cs47 ,gregory the ,great4 ,by the late ,rev4 ,j4 ,,barmby1 ,b4,d4 ,leo the ,great4 ,by the ,right ,rev4 ,c4 ,,gore1 ,d4,d4 ,saint ,ambrose3 his ,life1 ,times1 and ,teaching4 ,by the ,ven4 ,,archdeacon ,,thornton1 ,d4,d4 ,saint ,athanasius3 his ,life and ,times4 ,by the ,rev4 ,r4 ,,wheler ,,bush4 7#bs4 #f;d47 ,saint ,augustine4 ,by the late ,rev4 ,e4,l4 ,,cutts1 ,d4,d4 ,saint ,basil the ,great4 ,by the ,rev4 ,,richard ,t4 ,,smith1 ,b4,d4 ,saint ,bernard3 ,abbot of ,clairvaux1 ,a4,d4 #ajia-aaec4 ,by the ,rev4 ,s4,j4 ,,eales1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,c4,l4 7#bs4 #f;d47 ,saint ,hilary of ,poitiers1 and ,saint ,martin of ,tours4 ,by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,,gibson ,,cazenove1 ,d4,d4 ,saint ,jerome4 ,by the late ,rev4 ,,edward ,l4 ,,cutts1 ,d4,d4 ,saint ,john of ,damascus4 ,by the ,rev4 ,j4,h4 ,,lupton1 ,m4,a4 ,saint ,patrick3 his ,life and ,teaching4 ,by the ,rev4 ,e4,j4 ,,newell1 ,m4,a4 7#bs4 #f;d47 ,synesius of ,cyrene1 ,philosopher and ,bishop4 ,by ,,alice ,,gardner4 ,the ,apostolic ,fathers4 ,by the ,rev4 ,canon ,h4,s4 ,,holland4 ,the ,defenders of the ,faith2 or1 ,the ,christian ,apologists of the ,second and ,third ,centuries4 ,by the ,rev4 ,f4 ,,watson1 ,d4,d4 ,the ,venerable ,bede4 ,by the ,right ,rev4 ,g4,f4 ,,browne1 ,d4,d4 ,diocesan ,histories4 ,bath and ,wells4 ,by the ,rev4 ,w4 ,,hunt4 ,with ,map1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,canterbury4 ,by the late ,rev4 ,r4,c4 ,,jenkins4 ,with ,map1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,carlisle4 ,by the late ,,richard ,s4 ,,ferguson4 ,with ,map1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,chester4 ,by the ,rev4 ,,rupert ,h4 ,,morris1 ,d4,d4 ,with ,map1 #cs4 ,chichester4 ,by the late ,very ,rev4 ,w4,r4,w4 ,,stephens4 ,with ,map and ,plan1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,durham4 ,by the ,rev4 ,j4,l4 ,,low4 ,with ,map and ,plan1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,hereford4 ,by the ,rev4 ,canon ,,phillott4 ,with ,map1 #cs4 ,lichfield4 ,by the late ,rev4 ,w4 ,,beresford4 ,with ,map1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,lincoln4 ,by the late ,canon ,e4 ,,venables1 and the late ,ven4 ,archdeacon ,,perry4 ,with ,map1 #ds4 ,llandaff4 ,by the ,rev4 ,e4,j4 ,,newell1 ,m4,a4 ,with ,map1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,norwich4 ,by the ,rev4 ,a4 ,,jessop1 ,d4,d4 ,with ,map1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,oxford4 ,by the ,rev4 ,e4 ,,marshall4 ,with ,map1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,peterborough4 ,by the ,rev4 ,g4,a4 ,,poolem1 ,m4,a4 ,with ,map1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,rochester4 ,by the ,rev4 ,a4,j4 ,,pearman1 ,m4,a4 ,with ,map1 #ds4 ,salisbury4 ,by the ,rev4 ,w4,h4 ,,jones4 ,with ,map and ,plan1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,sodor and ,man4 ,by ,a4,w4 ,,moore1 ,m4,a4 ,with ,map1 #cs4 ,st4 ,asaph4 ,by the ,ven4 ,archdeacon ,,thomas4 ,with ,map1 #bs4 ,st4 ,davids4 ,by the ,rev4 ,canon ,,bevan4 ,with ,map1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,winchester4 ,by the ,rev4 ,w4 ,,benham1 ,b4,d4 ,with ,map1 #cs4 ,worcester4 ,by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,,gregory ,,smith1 ,m4,a41 and the ,rev4 ,,phipps ,,onslow1 ,m4,a4 ,with ,map1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,york4 ,by ,rev4 ,canon ,,ornsby1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,s4,a4 ,with ,map1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,miscellaneous ,publications4 ,a ,dictionary of the ,church of ,england4 ,by the late ,rev4 ,,edward ,l4 ,,cuttsm1 ,d4,d4 ,with numerous ,woodcuts4 ,crown #hvo4 #es4 ,third ,edition1 revised4 ,aids to ,prayer4 ,by the ,rev4 ,,daniel ,,moore4 ,printed in red and black4 ,post #hvo4 #as4 #f;d4 ,being of ,god 7,six ,addresses on the74 ,by ,c4,j4 ,,ellicott1 ,d4,d41 ,bishop of ,gloucester4 ,post #hvo4 #as4 #f;d4 ,bible ,places2 or1 ,the ,topography of the ,holy ,land4 ,by the ,rev4 ,canon ,,tristram4 ,with ,map and numerous ,woodcuts4 ,new ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #es4 ,called to be ,saints4 ,the ,minor ,festivals ,devotionally ,studied4 ,by the late ,,christina ,g4 ,,rossetti1 ,author of ,seek and ,find4 ,post #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,case for ,establishment stated 7,the74 ,by the ,rev4 ,t4 ,,moore1 ,m4,a4 ,post #hvo4 ,paper boards1 #f;d4 ,christians under the ,crescent in ,asia4 ,by the late ,rev4 ,e4,l4 ,,cutts1 ,d4,d4 ,with numerous ,illustrations4 ,crown #hvo4 #e;d4 ,daily ,readings for a ,year4 ,by ,,elizabeth ,,spooner4 ,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,devotional 7,a7 ,life of ,our ,lord4 ,by the late ,rev4 ,,edward ,l4 ,,cutts1 ,d4,d41 ,author of ,pastoral ,counsels1 c4 ,post #hvo4 #es4 ,golden ,year1 ,the4 ,thoughts for every month4 ,original and ,selected4 ,by ,,emily ,c4 ,,orr1 ,author of ,thoughts for ,working ,days4 ,printed in red and black4 ,post #hvo4 #as4 ,gospels 7,the ,four74 ,arranged in the ,form of an ,english ,harmony1 from the ,text of the ,authorized ,version4 ,by the late ,rev4 ,j4,m4 ,,fuller4 ,with ,analytical ,table of ,contents and ,four ,maps4 #as4 ,holy ,eucharist1 ,the ,evidential ,value of the4 ,being the ,boyle ,lectures for #ahgi and #ahhj4 ,by the late ,rev4 ,g4,f4 ,,maclear1 ,d4,d4 ,crown #hvo4 ,cloth boards1 #ds4 ,land of ,israel 7,the74 ,a ,journal of ,travel in ,palestine1 undertaken with special reference to its ,physical ,character4 ,by the ,rev4 ,canon ,,tristram4 ,with ,two ,maps and numerous ,illustrations4 ,large ,post #hvo4 ,cloth boards1 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,lectures on the ,historical and ,dogmatical ,position of the ,church of ,england4 ,by the ,rev4 ,w4 ,,baker1 ,d4,d4 ,post #hvo4 ,cloth boards1 #as4 #f;d4 ,paley's ,evidences4 ,a ,new ,edition1 with ,notes1 ,appendix1 and ,preface4 ,by the ,rev4 ,e4,a4 ,,litton4 ,post #hvo4 ,cloth boards1 #ds4 ,paley's ,horae ,paulinae4 ,a ,new ,edition1 with ,notes1 ,appendix1 and ,preface4 ,by the late ,rev4 ,j4,s4 ,,howson1 ,d4,d4 ,post #hvo4 ,cloth boards1 #cs4 ,peace with ,god4 ,a ,manual for the ,sick4 ,by the ,rev4 ,e4 ,,burbidge1 ,m4,a4 ,post #hvo4 ,cloth boards1 #as4 #f;d4 ,plain ,words for ,christ4 ,being a ,series of ,readings for ,working ,men4 ,by the late ,rev4 ,r4,g4 ,,dutton4 ,post #hvo4 ,cloth boards1 #as4 ,readings on the ,first ,lessons for ,sundays and ,chief ,holy ,days4 ,according to the ,new ,table4 ,by the late ,rev4 ,,peter ,,young4 ,crown #hvo4 ,in two volumes1 #es4 ,reflected ,lights4 ,from ,,christina ,,rossetti',s ,the ,face of the ,deep4 ,selected and arranged by ,w4,m4,l4 ,,jay4 ,small post #hvo4 ,cloth boards1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,some ,chief ,truths of ,religion4 ,by the late ,rev4 ,,edward ,l4 ,,cutts1 ,d4,d41 ,author of ,st4 ,cedd's ,cross1 c4 ,crown #hvo4 ,cloth boards1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,thoughts for ,men and ,women4 ,,the ,,lord',s ,,prayer4 ,by ,,emily ,c4 ,,orr4 ,post #hvo4 ,limp cloth1 #as4 ,thoughts for ,working ,days4 ,original and ,selected4 ,by ,,emily ,c4 ,,orr4 ,post #hvo4 ,limp cloth1 #as4 ,time ,flies2 a ,reading ,diary4 ,by the late ,,christina ,g4 ,,rossetti4 ,post #hvo4 ,cloth boards1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,turning ,points of ,english ,church ,history4 ,by the late ,rev4 ,,edward ,l4 ,,cutts1 ,d4,d4 ,crown #hvo4 ,cloth boards1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,turning ,points of ,general ,church ,history4 ,by the late ,rev4 ,e4,l4 ,,cutts1 ,d4,d41 ,author of ,pastoral ,counsels4 ,crown #hvo4 ,cloth boards1 #ds4 ,verses4 ,by the late ,,christina ,g4 ,,rossetti4 ,printed on hand-made paper4 ,small ,post #hvo4 ,cloth1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,london3 ,,northumberland ,,avenue1 ,,charing ,,cross1 ,w4,c42 #dh1 ,,queen ,,victoria ,,street1 ,e4,c4 ,,brighton3 #abi1 ,,north ,,street4