,george ,b4 ,griffenhagen  ,,drug       
,,supplies in the ,,american            
,,revolution   ,paper #af1 pages        
#aji-acc1 from  ,,contributions ,,from  
,,the ,,museum ,,of ,,history ,,and     
,,technology    ,united ,states         
,national ,museum   ,,bulletin #bbe     
,,smithsonian ,,institution             
,,washington1 ,d4,c41 #aifa             
,contributions from  ,the ,museum of    
,history and ,technology  ,paper #af    
,drug ,supplies in the ,american        
,revolution                      ,george
 ,b4 ,griffenhagen                      
,,continental ,,medicine ,,chests  #aaa 
,,treason1 ,,poison1 ,,and ,,siege  #aac
                        ,,from ,,bad    
,,to ,,worse  #aae                      
,,medicines--,,none  #aah               
,,privateers ,,to ,,the ,,rescue #aba   
,,brisk ,,business ,,in ,,boston  #abb  
,,the ,,situation ,,improves #abb       
,,valley ,,forge  #abc                  
,,in ,,summary  #abi     ,,drug         
,,supplies ,,in ,,the ,,american        

,,revolution  by ,george ,b4            
,griffenhagen        ,at the start of   
the ,revolution1 the ,colonies were cut 
off from the      source of their usual 
drug supply1 ,england4 ,a few drugs     
trickled      through from the ,west    
,indies1 but by #aggf there was an acute
      shortage4       ,lack of          
coordination and transportation resulted
 in a scarcity of      drugs for the    
army hospitals even while druggists in  
other areas      resorted to advertising
 in order to sell their stocks4 ,some   
relief      came from ,british prize    
ships captured by the ,american navy and
      privateers1 but the chaotic       
condition of drug supply was not eased  
until the alliance with ,france early in
 #aggh4       ,the ,author3 ,george     
,griffenhagen--formerly curator of      
medical      sciences1 ,united ,states  
,national ,museum1 ,smithsonian         
,institution--is director of            
communications1 ,american               
,pharmaceutical      ,association1 and  

managing editor1 ,journal of the        
,american      ,pharmaceutical          
,association4   ,as one historian has   
reminded us1 few fields of history have 
been more intensively cultivated by     
successive generations of historians2   
few offer less reward in the shape of   
fresh facts or theories than does the   
,american ,revolutionary ,war4#a ,this  
is true to some extent even in the      
medical history of the ,revolution4 ,the
 details of the feud within the medical 
department of the army have been told   
and retold4#b ,even accounts of the     
drugs employed and pharmaceutical       
services have been presented1 primarily 
in the form of biographies and as       
reviews of the ,lititz ,pharmacopoeia of
 #aggh4c ,however1 practically nothing  
has been published on the actual        
availability of medical supplies4       
,furthermore1 the discovery of several  
significant but unrecorded account books
 of private druggists who furnished     
sizable quantities of drugs to the      

,continental ,army and a careful        
re-evaluation of the unusually          
significant papers#d of ,dr4 ,jonathan  
,potts1 ,revolutionary ,war surgeon1    
justify a review of the drug supplies   
during the early years of the war4      
,continental ,medicine ,chests  ,as     
early as ,february #ba1 #agge1 the      
,provincial ,congress of ,massachusetts 
appointed a committee to determine what 
medical supplies would be necessary     
should colonial troops be required to   
take the field4 ,three days later the   
,congress voted to make an inquiry where
 fifteen doctor's chests can be got1 and
 on what terms2 and on ,march #g it     
directed the committee of supplies to   
make a draft in favor of ,doct4 ,joseph 
,warren and ,doct4 ,benjamin ,church1   
for five hundred pounds1 lawful money1  
to enable them to purchase such articles
 for the provincial chests of medicine  
as cannot be got on credit4#e  ,a unique
 ledger of the ,greenleaf apothecary    
shop of ,boston#f reveals that this     

pharmacy on ,april #d1 #agge1 supplied  
at least #e of the #ae chests of        
medicines4 ,the account1 in the amount  
of just over ,l#bdg1 is listed in the   
name of the ,province of the            
,massachusetts ,bay1 and shows that     
,l#ea was paid in cash by ,dr4 ,joseph  
,warren4 ,the remaining ,l#aif was not  
paid until ,august #aj1 after ,warren   
had been killed in the ,battle of       
,bunker ,hill4  ,the #ae medicine       
chests1 including presumably the five   
supplied by ,greenleaf1 were distributed
 on ,april #ah--three at ,sudbury and   
two each at ,concord1 ,groton1 ,mendon1 
,stow1 ,worcester1 and ,lancaster4#g ,no
 record has been found to indicate      
whether or not the ,british discovered  
the medical chests at ,concord1 but1    
inasmuch as the patriots were warned of 
the ,british movement1 it is very likely
 that the chests were among the supplies
 that were carried off and hidden4 ,the 
,british destroyed as much of the       
remainder as they could locate4#h       

,illustration3 ,figure #a4--,medicine   
scales and oval box of medicinal herbs  
used by ,dr4 ,solomon ,drowne during the
 ,revolution4 ,preserved at ,fort       
,ticonderoga ,museum1 ,new ,york4  ,two 
days after the battles at ,lexington and
 ,concord1 the ,provincial ,congress    
ordered that a man and horse be made    
available to transport medicines4 ,on   
,april #cj1 ,andrew ,craigie was        
appointed to take care of these medical 
stores and deliver them as ordered4     
,medical supplies were an early source  
of anxiety to the ,provincial ,congress 
of ,massachusetts4 ,the supply of drugs 
in ,boston must have been largely       
controlled by the ,british after        
,lexington-,concord1 and the limited    
supply in the neighboring smaller towns 
was soon exhausted4 ,four days before   
the ,battle of ,bunker ,hill the        
,congress ,ordered that ,doct4 ,whiting1
 ,doct4 ,taylor and ,mr4 ,parks1 be a   
committee to consider some method of    
supplying the several surgeons of the   

army with medicines1 and further        
,ordered that the same committee bring  
in a list of what medicines are in the  
medical store4#i  ,on ,june #aj the     
responsibility of furnishing medical    
supplies to the army at ,cambridge      
shifted to ,philadelphia when the       
,continental ,congress accepted the     
request of the ,massachusetts           
,provincial ,congress to assume control 
and direction of the forces assembled   
around ,boston4 ,the ,continental       
,congress established a ,continental    
,hospital ,plan on ,july #bg1 but it was
 not until ,september #ad that the      
,congress appointed a committee to      
devise ways and means for supplying the 
,continental ,army with medicines4 ,on  
this same day1 the deputy commissary    
general was directed to pay ,dr4 ,samuel
 ,stringer for the medicines he         
purchased1#aj which1 as we learn later1 
were the initial supply for the         
,canadian campaign4  ,the first recorded
 purchase of drugs made directly by     

,congress1 on ,september #bc1 was a     
parcel of ,drugs in the hands of ,mr4   
,rapalje1 which he offers at the prime  
cost4#aa ,then1 on ,november #aj1       
,congress ordered that the medicine     
purchased in ,philadelphia for the army 
at ,cambridge be sent there by land4#ab 
,but difficulties of supply commenced   
early4 ,on ,january #a1 #aggf1          
,eliphalet ,dyer wrote ,joseph ,trumbull
 asking how could the cask of ,rhubarb  
which was sent by order of ,congress and
 was extremely wanted in the ,hospital  
lye by to this time4 ,after you came way
 ,i wrote to ,daniel ,brown to see it   
delivered4#ac  ,in the fall of #agge    
there must have been a reasonably good  
stock of drugs in the hands of private  
,philadelphia druggists1 and until the  
end of summer there were still a number 
of ships from ,jamaica1 ,bermuda1       
,antigua1 and ,barbados putting in at   
,philadelphia with supplies1 much of    
which originally came from ,england4    
,philadelphia druggists included        

,william ,drewet ,smith1 ,chemist and   
,druggist at ,hippocrates's ,head in    
,second ,street2#ad ,dr4 ,george ,weed  
in ,front ,street2#ae ,robert ,bass1    
,apothecary in ,market-,street2 ,dr4    
,anthony ,yeldall at his ,medicinal     
,ware-,house in ,front-,street2#af and  
the firm of ,sharp ,delaney and ,william
 ,smith4#ag ,the largest pharmacy in    
,philadelphia was operated by the       
,marshall brothers--,christopher ,jr4   
and ,charles4 ,this pharmacy had been   
established in #agbi at ,front and      
,chestnut ,streets by ,christopher      
,marshall1 ,sr41 a patriot who took an  
active part in the care of the sick and 
wounded in ,philadelphia hospitals      
during the ,revolution4#ah  ,as the     
plans progressed for raising troops from
 ,new ,jersey1 ,maryland1 ,delaware1    
,pennsylvania1 ,virginia1 ,north        
,carolina1 and ,south ,carolina1        
,congress called on the committee on    
medicines to procure proper medicine    
chests for the battalions4444#ai ,the   

journal of the ,continental ,congress   
fails to indicate the source of these   
medicine chests1 but the ,marshall      
brothers' manuscript waste book 7daily  
record7 for the period ,february #ba to 
,july #f1 #aggf1bj indicates that the   
,marshall apothecary shop was the       
primary supplier4 ,the records show that
 the ,marshalls furnished #bj medicine  
chests to the following battalions from 
,february to ,june3#ba    ,february     
#aggf3 ,pennsylvania #ast ,battalion    
,march #aggf3    ,jersey #c;d ,battalion
   ,april #aggf3    ,pennsylvania #b;d1 
#c;d1 and #fth ,battalions   ,may #aggf3
      ,six ,virginia battalions         
,jersey #ast ,battalion                 
,pennsylvania #dth ,battalion   ,june   
#aggf3     ,six ,north ,carolina        
battalions                  ,virginia   
#ith ,battalion  ,the exact contents of 
each chest are indicated in the         
,marshalls' waste book4 ,the chest      
furnished to the ,pennsylvania #dth     
,battalion is an example of the ones    

supplied by ,congress in the spring of  
#aggf2 its contents are listed on page  
#acj4  ,congress intended that all      
chests be substantially the same1 but   
the amount of medicines demanded        
exceeded the stock of even the largest  
druggists4 ,the first several chests    
were complete as ordered1 but as early  
as ,april the ,marshalls were running   
out of certain drugs4 ,gum opium and    
nitre found by ,congress was included in
 the chest for the ,pennsylvania #dth   
,battalion1 and by ,may #aa the         
,marshalls were out of ,peruvian bark1  
ipecac1 cream of tartar1 gum camphor1   
and red precipitate of mercury4 ,the    
chests outfitted after ,june #a also    
failed to include ,epsom salts1 and the 
last chest lacked jalap as well4 ,thus  
the majority of the battalions traveling
 north were already without some of the 
most necessary drugs in their chests4   
,blithely their medical officers thought
 they could obtain the missing drugs    
when they arrived at the general        

hospital4   ,treason1 ,poison1 and      
,siege  ,after the ,battle of ,bunker   
,hill1 the forces around ,boston settled
 down for a #i-month siege4 ,two days   
after ,general ,washington arrived in   
,cambridge on ,july #b1 #agge1 to take  
command of the army1 the ,provincial    
,congress of ,massachusetts ordered a   
committee to prepare a letter informing 
him of the provisions that had been made
 for the sick and wounded of the army4  
,on the very same day1 ,july #d1 the    
,provincial ,congress appointed ,andrew 
,craigie medical commissary and         
apothecary for the ,massachusetts       
army4#bb  ,following a personal         
inspection by ,washington on ,july #ba  
and the establishment of the general    
hospital plan on ,july #bg1 the         
,continental ,congress elected ,dr4     
,benjamin ,church as director general of
 the newly created medical department4  
,soon after this1 ,church conferred with
 several ,massachusetts officials       
regarding the appointment of            

apothecaries for the medical store at   
,watertown4 ,on ,august #c1 a committee 
of the ,provincial ,congress advised    
that the ,medical ,store in ,watertown  
be continued where it now is1 and that  
,mr4 ,andrew ,craigie1 appointed by the 
late ,congress ,apothecary to the       
,colony1 be directed to take charge     
thereof1 and prepare the necessary      
compositions2 and that ,mr4 ,james      
,miller ,church be appointed ,assistant 
,apothecary to put up and distribute    
said ,medicines4444#bc  ,the medical    
supplies were slow in coming from       
,philadelphia1 as we have already noted4
 ,on the other hand1 troops were        
arriving daily1 placing an increased    
demand on all types of supplies1        
including drugs4 ,one event which       
undoubtedly resulted in delays in       
establishing proper supply depots was   
the startling discovery that ,director  
,general ,church was guilty of holding  
treasonable correspondence with the     
enemy4 ,on ,october #af1 ,congress      

elected ,dr4 ,john ,morgan to replace   
,church4#bd  ,on ,december #b1 by order 
of ,morgan1 ,apothecary ,craigie made an
 inventory of the medical supplies in   
the general hospital at ,cambridge4 ,the
 inventory included #abj different      
items1 but only limited quantities of   
the essential drugs4#be ,there were #eb 
pounds of ,jesuits' bark1 #ah pounds of 
cream of tartar1 #gf pounds of purging  
salts1 #a pound of camphor1 #e pounds of
 jalap1 #a pound of ipecac1 and #a_/b   
pound of tartar emetic4 ,the #dd pounds 
of gum ammoniac was reported damaged1   
and the #hf pounds of rhubarb was       
described as bad4#bf ,an inventory of   
medicines held by the different         
regimental surgeons in ,massachusetts   
indicated that all regiments had but few
 medicines except for ,colonel ,hand's1 
which reported a good supply4#bg        
,however1 this rather meager inventory  
of drugs probably was not inadequate4   
,the siege of ,boston resulted in few   
wounded soldiers1 and there was a       

surprisingly small amount of sickness in
 the army during the winter of #agge-gf2
 furthermore1 towns not too distant     
still had a limited supply of drugs on  
hand4 ,smith and ,coit1 of ,hartford1   
,connecticut1 informed their good       
,customers1 and the public in general1  
that notwithstanding the entire stop to 
,importation which hath long since taken
 place1 they still have on hand1 small  
,quantities of most ,articles of the    
,apothecary ,way 444 which they mean to 
sell at a reasonable retailing          
,price4#bh ,jacob ,isaacks of ,newport1 
,rhode ,island1 similarly advertised a  
complete assortment of genuine          
,medicines1 with furniture for          
containing the same1 to the amount of   
about #cjj pounds sterling2 which       
medicines were purchased with cash1 and 
will be sold1 at the prime cost and     
charges1 without any advance4 ,any of   
the lawful or ,continental bills now    
current will be taken in pay for the    
above medicines4#bi  ,drug supplies also

 were quite adequate in ,boston during  
the ,british occupation4 ,sylvester     
,gardiner at ,the ,sign of the ,unicorn 
and ,mortar in ,marlborow ,street       
reported that all kinds of the best and 
freshest drugs and medicines 444 are    
continued to be sold as usual4 ,however 
a cautionary note was added that drugs  
and medicines had been constantly       
imported every fall and spring to ,june 
last4 ,implicit in the advertising is   
the suggestion that the securing of new 
supplies was highly uncertain4#cj  ,a   
letter dated ,december #b1 #agge1 from a
 ,british officer in ,boston to a friend
 in ,edinburgh observed that many of our
 men are sick1 and fresh provisions very
 dear4 ,however1 the officer added1 but 
the ,rebels must be in a much worse     
condition4444#ca ,drugs were imported   
into ,boston during the siege as        
evidenced by an advertisement on        
,february #bb1 #aggf1 announcing just   
imported from ,,london and to be sold at
 ,mr4 ,dalton's ,store1 on the          

,long-,wharf1 a proper assortment of    
,drugs and ,medicines of the ,best      
quality in ,cases4#cb  ,by the end of   
,february #aggf1 ,washington had decided
 to try to end the siege of ,boston by  
seizing ,dorchester ,heights and placing
 his artillery there in a position to   
bombard the town4 ,general ,howe        
believed it was time to leave1 and the  
,british evacuated on ,march #ag4  ,as  
the ,continental ,army moved into       
,boston1 there was an outcry that the   
,british had poisoned a supply of drugs 
left behind4 ,on ,april #ae the ,boston 
,gazette reported that it is absolutely 
fact that the ,doctors of the diabolical
 ministerial butcher when they evacuated
 ,boston1 intermixed and left #bf weight
 of ,arsenick with the medicines which  
they left in the ,alms ,house4#cc ,then1
 a week later1 on ,april #bb1 appeared a
 series of testimonials that had been   
made by ,joseph ,warren1 ,daniel ,scott1
 and ,frederick ,ridgley at ,watertown  
on ,april #c;d by order of the          

,director-,general of the ,continental  
,hospital4 ,warren swore under oath that
 on or about ,march #bi he had gone into
 the workhouse almshouse lately improved
 as an hospital by the ,british troops  
stationed in said town and upon         
examining the state of a large quantity 
of ,medicine left in the medicinal      
storeroom had found about #ab or #ad    
pounds of arsenic intermixed with the   
drugs1 which were found to be chiefly   
capital articles and those most         
generally in demand4#cd  ,despite this  
incident1 we have the word of ,morgan   
that a large1 though unassorted stock of
 medicines was collected in ,boston when
 the ,british evacuated4#ce ,hospital   
,surgeons ,ebenezer ,crosby and         
,frederick ,ridgley reported that at the
 evacuation of ,boston 444 all the      
,mates of the ,hospital that could be   
spared from ,cambridge 444 were employed
 in packing up and sending off to       
,cambridge drugs1 medicines and other   
hospital stores1 collected by order of  

,dr4 ,morgan1 the quantity of which     
appeared great4#cf  ,inasmuch as few    
medicines were listed in the inventory  
of stores left by the ,british on the   
wharfs and in the scuttled ships in the 
harbor1#cg it appears that most of these
 drugs obtained in ,boston were         
confiscated from the homes1 offices1 and
 shops of the ,loyalists who fled when  
the ,british evacuated4 ,morgan reported
 that he had taken possession of the    
medicines and furniture of ,dr4         
,sylvester ,gardiner's shop1 and a small
 stock of drugs from the office of ,dr4 
,william ,perkins1 a private            
practitioner4#ch ,no inventory of these 
supplies has been located thus far1 but 
a contemporary biographer of ,sylvester 
,gardiner records that the confiscated  
drugs from his shop filled from #bj to  
#be wagons4#ci ,this is not unlikely    
because ,gardiner's apothecary shop was 
one of the largest and most prosperous  
in the ,colonies prior to the           
,revolution4#dj  ,soon after the        

,british evacuated ,boston1 the         
,greenleaf apothecary shop in ,boston   
was again supplying medicines to the    
,continental ,army4 ,the ,greenleaf     
ledger#da shows that on ,may #be the    
shop sold nearly ,l#d worth of ,sundry  
,medicines 444 to the ,committee of     
,war1 ,state of ,massachusetts ,bay4    
,then1 on ,june #bj1 the ,massachusetts 
,assembly resolved that ,dr4 ,john      
,greenleaf of ,boston be requested to   
supply the ,chief ,surgeon of 444       
,colonels ,marshall's1 ,whitney's and   
,craft's ,regiments 444 with medicines  
as may be necessary4444#db ,a short time
 later the ,assembly advanced up to     
,l#ej to ,greenleaf for purchasing such 
medicines as he cannot supply from his  
own store4#dc  ,the ,greenleaf ledger   
shows that over ,l#cb worth of medicines
 were sold for ,colonel ,whitney's      
regiment and over ,l#cf worth for       
,colonel ,marshall's regiment between   
,june #ac and ,november #bj1 #aggf4     
,thus1 drugs were available2 but until  

the fall of '#gf1 ,greenleaf was having 
difficulty in obtaining an abundant     
supply4   ,from ,bad to ,worse  ,general
 ,washington1 correctly foretelling that
 ,new ,york ,city would be the next     
,british objective1 marched there from  
,boston with as much of his army as     
could be induced to stay under the      
colors4 ,had it not been for the        
presence of ,washington's forces in ,new
 ,york1 that colony would certainly have
 remained ,loyalist2 as it was1 the     
,patriot committees had the greatest    
difficulty in keeping the ,tories quiet 
by strong-arm methods4#dd  ,the         
availability of drugs in ,new ,york     
prior to the arrival of ,washington's   
forces did not seem to be particularly  
affected by the war4 ,thomas ,attwood at
 his store in ,dock-,street offered for 
sale a wide assortment of drugs and     
medicines1#de while ,william ,stewart   
offered a fresh supply of ,genuine      
,drugs and ,medicines 444 on the most   
reasonable terms either for cash or at  

the usual credit4#df ,the citizens of   
,new ,york did not even have to do      
without their popular ,english patent   
medicines4#dg  ,washington1 however1 had
 to provide for his own medical supplies
 in ,new ,york4 ,in a letter dated      
,april #c he ordered ,director ,general 
,morgan to remove the general hospital  
to ,new ,york with all convenient       
speed4444#dh ,the fixing and completing 
of the regimental chests was to be      
deferred until ,morgan arrived at ,new  
,york4  ,morgan remained behind in      
,boston for another six weeks collecting
 medicines1 furniture1 and hospital     
stores worth thousands of pounds4 ,the  
like quantity 444 could not be procured1
 so ,morgan later claimed1 in any other 
part of ,america4 ,he was also able to  
purchase drugs from ,salem1 ,newport1   
and ,norwich1 and before departing for  
,new ,york he completed a medicine chest
 for each of the five regiments at      
,boston1 ,salem1 and ,marblehead1 as    
ordered by ,washington4#di  ,morgan     

arrived in ,new ,york about ,june #c and
 purchased some additional drugs there4 
,by ,june #ag his staff had made up #cj 
medicine chests for the regiments at    
,new ,york as well as for the branches  
of the ,general ,hospital at ,new-,york1
 in the bowry and neighborhood and at   
,long-,island4 ,but the number of       
regiments requiring medical supplies    
exceeded ,morgan's expectations1        
particularly since he had been advised  
that the ,southward regiments would be  
supplied by ,congress in                
,philadelphia4#ej  ,by the middle of    
,june1 ,morgan must have realized that  
the supply of drugs available was       
inadequate despite the sizable quantity 
brought from ,boston and the small stock
 he was able to obtain in ,new ,york4   
,it appears that many of the ,new ,york 
druggists were ,loyalists1 and somehow  
they and their stock of drugs           
disappeared when needed by ,washington's
 army4 ,for example1 druggist ,thomas   
,attwood removed his store consisting of

 a general assortment of ,drugs and     
,medicines to ,newark in ,may only to   
reappear in ,new ,york again under      
,british occupation with a good stock of
 ,drugs and ,medicines4#ea  ,the ,new   
,york ,committee of ,safety had         
attempted to develop a stock of drugs   
early in the year when they were        
plentiful1#eb but in ,june this supply  
was valued at only ,l#cj4 ,even this    
small stock was not available to ,morgan
 because when he asked permission to    
purchase the medicines at a reasonable  
price 444 for use of the ,continental   
,hospital the ,new ,york ,provincial    
,congress rejected his plea on ,june #bf
 with the explanation that this medicine
 was to be reserved for the use of the  
poor and other inhabitants of this      
city4#ec  ,with increasing demands to   
supply the troops in the ,northern      
,department1 ,morgan turned to          
,philadelphia and the ,continental      
,congress4 ,morgan owned a small stock  
of drugs in ,philadelphia1 and knew of  

another supply in the possession of the 
firm of ,delaney and ,smith1#ed so he   
sent ,dr4 ,barnabus ,binney to          
,philadelphia to forward with all       
dispatch what medicines he had there and
 whatever could be obtained from        
,congress4#ee ,congress resolved on     
,july #ag to purchase the ,medicines    
7now in ,phila7 belonging to ,doctor    
,morgan1#ef but for nearly a month      
,binney was unable to obtain any        
additional supplies either from         
,congress or from private sources4  ,on 
,june #be ,morgan wrote to ,samuel      
,adams asking for power to demand a     
proportion of the ,continental medicines
 left in care of ,messrs4 ,delaney      
,smith1 and he repeated the request in  
,july4 ,however1 ,morgan's only reply   
from ,adams1 dated ,august #e1 made no  
mention of the ,delaney and ,smith drug 
stock4 ,instead ,adams wrote only3 ,i   
have received several letters from you1 
which ,i should have sooner             
acknowledged1 if ,i could only have     

found leisure4 ,i took however1 the     
necessary steps to have what you        
requested effected in ,congress4#eg     
,finally1 on ,august #h1 ,congress      
directed the committee for procuring    
medicines to supply the director general
 of the ,hospital with such medicines as
 he may want4#eh ,by this time1 such a  
resolution was hardly much consolation  
to ,morgan4 ,evidence of the status of  
the supplies in the general hospital at 
,new ,york can be gleaned from an       
advertisement in the ,new-,york ,gazette
 of ,july #bi signed by ,thomas ,carnes1
 ,steward and ,quarter-,master to the   
,general ,hospital3       ,,wanted      
immediately 444 a large quantity of dry 
herbs1 for baths1      fomentations1 c4 
c4 particularly baum hysop1 wormwood and
      mallows1 for which a good price   
will be given4 ,the good people of      
the neighboring towns1 and even those   
who live more remote from      this     
city1 by carefully collecting and curing
 quantities of useful      herbs will   

greatly promote the good of the ,army1  
and considerably      benefit           
themselves4  ,the retreat from ,long    
,island on ,august #bg and the          
subsequent loss of ,new ,york ,city to  
the ,british certainly did not help the 
medical supply problem4 ,despite the    
fact that part of the medical stores    
were shipped to ,stamford1 ,connecticut1
 and another stock of supplies removed  
to ,newark1 ,morgan admits that the most
 valuable part was still left in        
,new-,york when the enemy had effected a
 landing1 drawn a line across the       
island1 and were entering ,new-,york4#ei
 ,general ,knox later told how late in  
the day of the #aeth of ,september1     
#aggf1 after the enemy had beat back    
part of the ,american troops1 ,morgan   
came over from ,powles ,hook in a       
pettiauger1 and had her loaded with     
,hospital stores4#fj ,washington        
personally reported on ,september #af   
that the retreat was effected with but  
little loss of ,men1 tho' a considerable

 part of our ,baggage 444 part of our   
,stores and ,provisions1 which we were  
removing1 was unavoidably left in the   
,city4444#fa  ,one small bundle of      
private drug supplies saved from the    
,british is reported#fb by ,doct4       
,prime1 ,a ,refuge from ,long ,island1  
who announced the opening of a shop in  
,wethersfield4 ,the newspaper           
advertisement reported that ,prime      
444 has saved from the enemy a parcel of
 medicines1 part of which      he would 
barter for such articles as he wants1   
especially shop      utensils of which  
he had unfortunately lost the most of   
his own4444  ,the medical supply problem
 went from bad to worse as ,washington's
 army retreated from ,harlem ,heights to
 ,white ,plains and then finally into   
,new ,jersey4 ,morgan again turned to   
,philadelphia for drugs1 but obtained   
none or next to none4 ,instead of ten   
pounds of tartar emetic which ,morgan   
requested from ,philadelphia druggist   
,robert ,bass and the newly appointed   

,continental ,druggist1 ,william ,smith1
 four ounces was all that he received1  
but with a proper apology4#fc  ,on      
,september #ba1 the supply of bark was  
completely exhausted1 and ,washington   
was furious4 ,on ,september #bd in a    
letter to the ,president of the         
,congress1 ,washington charged that the 
regimental surgeons were aiming to break
 up the ,genl4 ,hospital and that they  
had in numberless ,instances drawn for  
,medicines1 ,stores1 c4 in the most     
profuse and extravagent manner for      
private purposes4#fd  ,to make matters  
worse1 new troops continued to arrive   
without medical supplies4 ,for example1 
those from ,maryland arrived at ,white  
,plains with their regimental surgeons  
fully expecting ,morgan to supply them  
with medicines1 even though the         
,maryland ,convention on ,october #d had
 ordered that these troops be supplied  
with medicines by the ,maryland ,council
 of ,safety before their departure4#fe  
,morgan thought he had at least one     

small but safe stock of drugs4 ,barnabas
 ,binney1 who was sent to ,philadelphia 
in ,july for medical supplies1 was      
successful in obtaining a reasonable    
good order about the middle of ,august1 
including #cj lb4 ,camphor2 #aj lb4     
,ipecac2 #g lb4 ,opium2 #ej lb4         
,quicksilver2 #dj lb4 ,jalap2 #fh lb4   
,manna2 #ahf lb4 ,nitre2 #bjj lb4 ,cream
 of ,tartar2 #bfi lb4 ,bark2 and other  
important articles4#ff ,however1 since  
these supplies arrived at ,newark just  
as ,washington was beginning to pull out
 of ,long ,island1 they were deposited  
at a newly established hospital under   
,cutting1 the assistant apothecary4#fg  
,when ,morgan finally began drawing on  
these supplies1 ,dr4 ,william ,shippen  
had been placed in charge of the        
hospitals in ,new ,jersey and the       
medicines had been turned over to him by
 a vote of ,congress4#fh ,finally1 on   
,january #i1 #aggg1 ,congress dismissed 
,morgan as director general without     
giving any reasons except to indicate   

indirectly that it was due to his       
inability to provide adequate medical   
supplies4#fi ,to add insult to injury1  
on ,february #e ,congress asked what is 
become of the medicines which ,dr4      
,morgan took from ,boston 444 and       
resolved to take measures to have them  
secured1 and applied to the use of the  
army4#gj  ,illustration3 ,figure        
#b4--,set of surgical instruments used  
by ,dr4 ,benjamin ,treadwell during the 
,revolution4 ,included are three        
amputation knives1 forceps1 a ball      
extractor1 and two surgical hooks4      
,preserved at the ,medical ,museum of   
the ,armed ,forces ,institute of        
,pathology4 7,photo courtesy of ,armed  
,forces ,institute of ,pathology47      
,meanwhile1 in ,new ,york ,city the     
supply of drugs had returned to normal  
or near normal within a few weeks after 
the ,british occupation4 ,on ,september 
#cj1 #aggf1 ,thomas ,brownejohn         
announced the opening of his medicinal  
store at the corner of ,hanover-,square 

444 where gentlemen of the army and navy
 can be supplied at the shortest notice 
with all kinds of medicines on the most 
reasonable terms4 ,on ,december #af     
,richard ,speaight announced that he has
 once again opened his ,shop at the sign
 of the ,elaboratory in ,queen-,street1 
and a week later ,thomas ,attwood       
returned from ,newark to open his store 
of ,drugs and ,medicines in             
,dock-,street4 ,to touch upon the       
sympathy of the ,loyalists1 ,donald     
,mc,lean1 ,surgeon of the late          
,seventy-,seventh ,regiment1 reported in
 ,january #aggg that he was now happily 
delivered from his late captivity and   
again opening a shop in ,water-,street  
for drugs and medicines4#ga             
,importations from ,london commenced as 
early as ,december #aggf when the ,brig 
,friendship lying at ,beaches ,wharf    
offered for sale ,an ,assortment of     
,drugs1 ,consisting of ,bark1 ,opium1   
,rhubarb1 c4 ,in ,april #aggg ,speaight 
advertised a fresh ,importation 444 from

 the original ware-houses in ,london1   
and1 in ,june1 ,attwood advertised ,a   
large and general ,assortment of ,drugs 
and ,medicines freshly imported4444     
,several ,medicine ,chests complete1    
fitted up in ,london1 with printed      
,directions4#gb  ,importation by the    
,british was not without its problems1  
however4 ,joseph ,gurney ,bevan1 owner  
of the ,plough ,court ,pharmacy in      
,london1 wrote ,dr4 ,traser in ,jamaica 
on ,october #be1 #aggg3       ,i hope   
thou will be pleased with the ,bark4 ,it
 is very good and the      best ,i have 
seen this year1 but ,i do not think any 
,bark in town is      equal to what ,i  
have seen in former years4 ,thou wilt   
note the snake      root to be very     
dear4 ,the cause is the stoppage of the 
,american      trade4 ,opium is also    
much higher than ,i ever knew it4 ,the  
insurance      is raised on account of  
the ,american privateers4  ,answering a 
letter from ,william ,stewart of ,new   
,york1 ,bevan wrote on ,march #e1 #aggg3

       ,i wish it were yet in my power  
to 444 forward the medicines and        
utensils thou hast written for4 ,but on 
inquiry ,i am informed that      it is  
not permitted that anything shall yet be
 sent to ,new ,york in      a           
merchantile way4 ,therefore ,i must     
defer till the wanted      intercourse  
between us and you is re-established4444
 ,i want to      advise thee to buy what
 snake root thou cans't pick up which ,i
      believe if sent hither at the     
first opening of the trade1 will turn   
to good ,account4  ,bevan was still     
reluctant to make any shipments in      
,april because the ships and cargoes on 
their arrival at ,new ,york will be at  
the mercy of the persons in command     
there1 but on ,september #d he shipped a
 large order to ,mc,lean4#gc ,during the
 remainder of the war1 the ,plough      
,court ,pharmacy continued regular      
shipments to ,mc,lean as well as to     
,stewart and to ,brownejohn4            
,medicines--,none  ,morgan's chaotic    

situation at ,new ,york was mild        
compared to the conditions at ,fort     
,george and ,ticonderoga in the         
,northern ,department4 ,dr4 ,samuel     
,stringer1 medical director of the      
,northern ,department1 wrote ,general   
,washington on ,may #aj1 #aggf1 that the
 majority of the regimental surgeons had
 neither medicines nor instruments1 and 
that there was no possibility of getting
 them in ,canada4 ,washington replied   
that he would direct ,dr4 ,morgan to    
send the required supplies1 and ask for 
additional help from ,congress4#gd      
,however1 until early in ,june1 ,morgan 
was in no position to outfit medicine   
chests for any of the troops at ,new    
,york1 much less for the army in the    
north2 and ,congress didn't even get    
around to directing the committee       
appointed to provide medicines 444 to   
send a proper assortment of medicine to 
,canada until ,june #ag4ge  ,after      
,morgan had established the general     
hospital at ,new ,york1 he wrote to     

,samuel ,adams on ,june #be that        
444 the state of the ,army in ,canada   
444 for a supply of medicines      is   
truly deplorable4 ,general ,gates sets  
out to-morrow to take      command of   
the ,army in ,canada4 ,dr4 ,potts will  
accompany him4 ,i have      therefore   
given orders to supply him from the     
,general ,hospital with      a large    
chest of such medicines as ,i can best  
spare1 and which can      be got ready  
to-morrow before his departure4#gf      
,until ,july #bd1 the only medicines to 
arrive at ,fort ,george were the few    
that ,dr4 ,potts brought with him even  
though ,morgan had1 according to        
,stringer1 promised to send by the first
 sloop twenty half-chests of medicines  
put up at ,new ,york for ten battalions 
in the north4 ,stringer therefore asked 
permission of ,general ,gates at        
,ticonderoga to go forth to ,york and   
see the medicines forthwith forwarded by
 land1 until they can be safely conveyed
 by water4 ,permission was granted on   

,july #bi and ,stringer departed for    
,new ,york4#gg ,meanwhile1 ,morgan had  
written ,potts on ,july #bh that he had 
sent ,dr4 ,james ,mc,henry to           
,philadelphia for drugs1 and that he was
 sending ,andrew ,craigie to ,fort      
,george to act as an ,apothecary4       
,morgan also asked for an inventory of  
drugs on hand in the ,northern          
,department4#gh  ,stringer spent only a 
day or two in ,new ,york with           
,morgan--just long enough to intensify  
their personal feud over                
responsibilities and authority4         
,stringer determined that the twenty    
half-chests apparently were a figment of
 someone's imagination1 because supplies
 in ,new ,york were almost as bad as    
they were in the north4 ,also1 he       
learned that ,morgan was sending a box  
of medicine northward under the care of 
the ,surgeon of ,col4 ,wayne ,regt4#gi  
that was undoubtedly intended to serve  
only as a regimental chest4 ,stringer   
then hurried on to ,philadelphia just in

 time to intercept ,mc,henry1 who had   
obtained an order from the ,committee of
 ,congress for #dj lb4 ,bark1 #aj lb4   
,camphire and some other articles4#hj   
,stringer wrote ,potts on ,august #ag   
that at last he had obtained an order   
for medicines that would be packed in   
two days1 but added when you'll receive 
them ,god knows4 ,he also reported that 
there will also arrive another ,box     
under the care of ,doct4 ,mc,henry      
containing only #e articles of which    
there is but #cj lbs4 ,bark and ,i think
 not a purgative except some few pounds 
of ,rhubarb and a little ,fol4          
,senae4#ha ,mc,henry1 however1 only got 
as far as ,new ,york with his meager    
supplies1 because ,stringer discharged  
him from the service in an attempt to   
show both ,morgan and ,potts who had the
 most authority4#hb  ,stringer's        
inexcusably long absence from his       
hospital post and failure to send the   
needed medicines so aroused ,general    
,gates that he wrote the ,president of  

the ,congress on ,august #ca as         
follows3#hc       ,the ,director of the 
,general ,hospital in this department1  
,doctor      ,stringer1 was sent to     
,new-,york three and thirty days ago1   
with      positive orders to return the 
instant he had provided the drugs and   
medicines so much wanted4 ,since then1  
repeated letters have been      wrote to
 ,new-,york and ,philadelphia1 setting  
forth in the strongest      terms the   
pressing necessity of an immediate      
supply of these      articles4          
,finally1 almost a month after his      
arrival in ,philadelphia1 ,stringer set 
out for ,albany with a small stock of   
drugs4 ,on ,september #g he wrote ,potts
 from ,albany that he hoped the small   
supply that he obtained and the chest of
 medicines that ,morgan had just sent   
would hold out until he could obtain    
additional supplies in ,new ,england1   
where he was then headed to ransack that
 ,country of those articles we want4#hd 
,meanwhile1 ,potts at ,fort ,george had 

started making the desired inventory of 
medicines4 ,it came as no surprise to   
anyone that the situation was           
deplorable--indeed1 it was worse than   
that4 ,on ,august #ca a committee of    
surgeons at ,ticonderoga prepared at    
,general ,gates' order ,a ,catalogue of 
,medicines ,most ,necessary for the     
,army4 ,this list1 undoubtedly          
representing the minimum requirements of
 each battalion1 called for #bj pounds  
of bark1 #d pounds of gum camphor1 #b   
pounds of gum opium1 #c pounds of       
powdered ipecac1 #d pounds of powdered  
jalap1 #b pounds of powdered rhubarb1   
#ae pounds of ,epsom salts1 and #c      
pounds of tartar emetic among two dozen 
different medicines4#he ,instead of     
these minimum requirements1 regimental  
surgeons at ,ticonderoga1 ,crown ,point1
 ,mount ,independence1 and ,fort ,george
 presented inventories 7mostly dated    
,september #h7 that clearly emphasized  
their destitute condition4  ,the first  
,new ,jersey battalion at ,ticonderoga  

reported ,no ,jallap1 ,rhubarb1 ,salts1 
or ,ipecac2 while ,colonel ,whilocks'   
regiment at ,ticonderoga reported ,no   
medicines exclusive of private property4
 ,the five companies of artillery at    
,fort ,george reported                  
,medicines--,none1 as did the #bdth     
,regiment at ,mount ,independence4      
,others reported small or tollerable    
assortments of medicine4 ,a close       
examination of the inventory of the     
,pennsylvania #fth ,battalion at ,crown 
,point shows it to have been lacking    
bark1 ipecac1 rhubarb1 camphor1 and     
salts2 and only one-half ounce of jalap 
and #b ounces of gum opium remained in  
the chest outfitted by ,christopher and 
,charles ,marshall on ,april #be in     
,philadelphia4 ,the #aeth ,regiment of  
,foot at ,mount ,independence claimed #b
 ounces of bark and #a-a_/b ounces of   
gum opium1 while the #fth ,regiment at  
,ticonderoga was as well off as any with
 one-half pound of bark and #d ounces of
 gum opium4#hf ,compared with the       

minimum need of #bj pounds of bark and  
#b pounds of gum opium1 even this was   
not of much comfort4  ,the inventory of 
the ,medicines in the ,continental      
,store at ,fort ,george dated ,september
 #i was not very comforting either4     
,while the store included #acg different
 items1 including equipment and         
containers of all the capital medicines1
 only ,epsom salts appeared to be       
available in a sufficient quantity4     
,seven pounds of rhubarb were also on   
hand1 but conspicuous by their absence  
were bark1 ipecac1 jalap1 gum camphor1  
and gum opium4#hg  ,with their          
continuous requests and demands1 the    
regimental surgeons made life miserable 
for ,potts4 ,surgeon ,mate of the       
,pennsylvania #ast wrote that the ,chest
 of ,medicine 444 is not yet arrived but
 expect it hourly4444 ,trumbull asked3  
,have your ,medicines arriv'd8 ,have    
,stringer or ,mc,henry made their       
appearance yet8 ,our people fall sick by
 ,dozens4 ,i not a ,pennys worth of     

,medicine have for them1 even in the    
most virulent disorders4 ,surgeon       
,johnston begged3 ,pray if possible send
 me #d pounds ,pulv4 ,cort4 ,peruv4     
,bark and #c ounces ,tartar ,emetic4    
,with those medicines ,i think ,i could 
restore a number of our best ,men to    
perfect ,health4#hh  ,in those instances
 where some drugs were on hand1 the     
shortage of pharmaceutical equipment    
hampered1 if not prevented1 the         
preparation of proper dosage forms4     
,surgeon ,mc,crea on board the ,royal   
,savage wrote on ,september #b that he  
found a great inconvenience for want of 
scales  waits1#hi and the surgeon at    
,crown ,point wrote on ,september #ai   
that the ,medicines which ,i rec'd a few
 days ago will be of very little        
,benefit as ,i have no fit ,mortar c to 
prepare them with  must use them in     
,decoction4#ij  ,it wasn't until        
,october that any relief arrived1 and   
even then there were disappointments4   
,andrew ,craigie1 at ,fort ,george1     

received a wagonload of herbs on        
,october #c1 but1 as ,craigie reported  
to ,potts1 one half the load is entirely
 useless1 containing ,saffron1 ,pink    
flower1 and whole ,headed ,pennyroyal1  
c4 c4 ,dr4 ,brown thinks his broad      
shoulders would carry all the articles  
that are worth anything4 ,craigie       
recommended to ,potts that payment      
should not be made for all the useless  
articles4#ia  ,the long-lost ,stringer  
finally arrived at ,albany from ,boston 
on ,october #e and reported to ,gates   
that he had met the greatest success in 
procuring ,l#e1jjj of medicines4#ib ,ten
 days later1 ,stringer wrote ,potts that
 he was now forwarding by waggon two    
,barrels  #a ,box of ,medicines 444     
which will suffice for the present1 not 
thinking it prudent to send up the      
whole1 especially as we can always get  
them up as they are wanted4#ic  ,even   
after the long delay1 most of the       
supplies were still held in ,albany     
instead of being distributed among the  

surgeons who needed them4 ,this         
infuriated ,potts to a point that even  
,stringer found it necessary1 on        
,october #be1 to explain3       ,i      
received yesterday a letter from you 444
 before this time you      will have    
rec'd such of the articles you desired  
as we had to spare      from the        
,medicines ,i purchased at ,boston 444  
,i thought it not      proper to risque 
them up here2 neither were any of them  
in      powder1 and all that were so at 
this place we sent you1 and have        
two hands busy in preparing more for our
 own use4 ,i hope that the      shipment
 sent will be sufficient for your       
purpose4#id  ,andrew ,craigie had sent  
three barrels and four boxes of supplies
 to ,ticonderoga on ,october #bb1ie but 
the shipment obviously did not suffice4 
,on ,november #g ,stringer wrote that as
 soon as possible the ,medicines you    
wrote for shall be prepared and sent1   
but they are chiefly to be pulverized4  
,in his typical style he added1 ,i      

cannot conceive what use you will have  
for five sieves when you have no large  
mortar4#if  ,the ,november #bg report of
 the committee of ,congress on the      
conditions in the general hospital at   
,fort ,george indicates that the supply 
situation was at last reasonably        
good1#ig but by this time the season was
 far advanced and the forces had to     
retire to winter quarters4 ,stringer was
 relieved of his command along with     
,morgan early the following year4       
,unlike that of ,morgan1 ,stringer's    
dismissal appears to have been based on 
reasonably good grounds4   ,privateers  
to the ,rescue  ,despite ,congress' slow
 start in providing medical supplies1   
its members realized as early as        
,december #agge that additional sources 
of supply outside the ,colonies would be
 required4 ,on ,december #bc they heard 
that ,l#b1jjj of medicines1 surgeon's   
instruments1 and lint and bandages were 
required by the army1 and on ,january   
#c1 #aggf1 the ,secret ,committee       

reported to ,congress that these        
supplies should be imported as soon as  
possible4#ih  ,in ,september #agge      
,congress had created the ,secret       
,committee to supervise the export and  
import of vital materials required for  
the war4 ,licenses to leave port were   
given shipmasters on the condition that 
they would return with vital military   
stores4 ,under this dispensation1       
,american ships set out for ,europe1    
,africa1 and the ,west ,indies in search
 of essential supplies4#ii ,many months 
were required1 however1 to establish    
such importation as a significant source
 of supply1 and this was especially true
 with regard to medical supplies4  ,the 
delay in initiating importation can     
hardly be charged as the only or even   
the main reason for medical supply      
shortages in #aggf4 ,for example1 in    
,august of that year1 when at least a   
half-dozen medical supply officers were 
pleading for drugs from ,congress in    
,philadelphia1 ,john ,thomson of        

,petersburg1 ,virginia1 advertised that 
he had for sale ,rhubarb and ,jalap1    
,glauber and ,epsom ,salts1 ,jesuits    
,bark and a host of other supplies4#ajj 
,whether or not ,thomson's supplies     
constituted any significant amount1 the 
very fact that he had to advertise them 
indicates a lack of coordination and    
communication between those urgently    
seeking supplies and those selling them4
  ,even more frustrating were those     
suppliers right under ,congress's nose  
advertising essential drugs4 ,suppliers 
like ,dr4 ,anthony ,yeldall at his      
,medicinal ,ware-,house were still      
advertising ,bark1 ,camphire1 ,rhubarb1 
c in ,july of '#gf4aja ,philadelphia was
 second only to ,new ,york for          
,loyalists1 and ,yeldall was later      
proven to be a strong ,tory4 ,then there
 were those who were neither ,patriot   
nor ,loyalist2 they were just           
indifferent to the cause for ,american  
independence1 and thus insisted on cash1
 even though six months' credit was the 

common practice just prior to the war4  
,in #agga in ,philadelphia one druggist 
regularly gave a #ae percent discount on
 all purchases if paid within six months
 and #g-a_/b percent discount was       
allowed for payments between six and    
nine months1 but interest was expected  
on all debts over a year's standing4#ajb
  ,the business-minded members of       
,congress tried to follow prewar methods
 by seeking credit4 ,merchants who sold 
on credit found that1 when they finally 
were paid1 they received paper money    
backed only by a promise to exchange for
 gold and silver at some future time4   
,furthermore1 they were caught in a     
spiraling inflation1 and often found    
that when they finally received their   
money from ,congress it then would cost 
them twice as much to replenish their   
stocks4 ,medical supply officers        
therefore found it necessary to pay     
ready cash for merchandise out of their 
own pocket1 and sometimes they had to   
wait six months for reimbursement from  

,congress4  ,as we have noted1 by the   
fall of #aggf ,boston had become a      
better source of supply of drugs than   
,philadelphia1 although it had been     
occupied by the ,british for nine months
 and ,morgan had removed most of the    
drugs left there the previous ,may4     
,this was primarily due to a single     
factor--the ,american privateer4        
,british shipping was vulnerable to the 
,american privateers1 which were fast   
vessels well suited to this kind of     
enterprise4 ,well over #a1jjj captures  
were made during the war by             
,massachusetts privateers alone1 and the
 arrivals of rich prize ships at ,new   
,england ports became frequent4#ajc     
,the ,greenleaf ledger confirms that    
drugs were included in some of these    
prize ships4 ,on ,december #ad1 #aggf1  
,greenleaf records the receipt of ,l#fb 
from the ,massachusetts government in   
payment for an invoice of ,druggs taken 
from the prize ship ,julius ,caesar4    
,greenleaf received an even larger stock

 of druggs taken in the prize ,brig     
,three ,friends in ,march #aggg4 ,this  
was valued at over ,l#agj1 and was also 
used by ,massachusetts to pay on its    
account with ,greenleaf1 largely for    
outfitting its privateers4#ajd  ,on     
,june #cj1 #aggg1 ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer of    
,boston wrote ,dr4 ,potts1 still at     
,ticonderoga1 as follows3#aje       ,i  
have the pleasure to give you this      
,early notice of a prize ship      being
 sent into ,casco ,bay last week with   
four tons of ,jesuits ,bark      on     
board for one valuable article besides a
 great quantity of other      stores for
 the ,british ,army at ,new-,york4      
,brisk ,business in ,boston  ,a series  
of letters to ,director ,general ,potts 
from ,apothecary ,andrew ,craigie1 who  
was on a purchasing trip through ,new   
,england1 gives us an interesting       
glimpse into the situation4 ,on ,august 
#bi1 #aggg1 ,craigie wrote ,potts from  
,springfield#ajf that he had just       
arrived from ,wethersfield where he     

purchased #bbb pounds of bark of        
excellent quality4 ,he saw it weighed   
and repacked1 and left the necessary    
instructions for shipment to ,albany4   
,having heard that a quantity of ,bark  
other articles are arrived at some      
eastern ports ,craigie took off for     
,boston where he wrote ,potts on        
,september #a as follows3#ajg       ,i  
wrote you from ,springfield aquainting  
you that ,i had engaged #bbb      lb4   
,bark at the ,price ,l#e per pound ,mr4 
,livingston mentioned to      you2 it   
being very dear induced me to engage a  
less quantity than      you proposed    
'til ,i should make enquiry here4 ,i    
find to my great      mortification that
 it is #dj_/shillings less than that in 
,wethersfield4 ,i wish we could get     
clear of that engagement1 and at        
least think some adjustment should be   
made as ,i am informed it cost      ,mr4
 ,livingston who bought it at publick   
sale only #c ,pounds at which      price
 ,i expect to engage #a or #bjj lb4     

tomorrow4444 ,in the morning ,i      go 
to ,cape ,anne about #dj miles from     
this1 after medicines that have         
lately arrived4444  ,recalling          
,stringer's long absence of the previous
 year1 ,craigie concluded3       ,i     
shall pay particular attention to1 and  
if to be had1 procure the      articles1
 but everything is very dear4 ,i hope   
not to exceed the      time you have    
limited4  ,craigie returned to ,albany  
on ,september #bj and advised ,potts    
that he succeeded in procuring medicines
 as expected and that he had on the road
 #b covered waggons of capital medicines
 c4#ajh ,the shipment included #bjj     
pounds of bark that ,craigie bought at  
,l#c a pound1 and waiting for him in    
,albany were also the #bbb pounds of    
bark1 for which he was billed at ,l#e a 
pound plus ,l#bc_/aj ,carting and       
,expenses4#aji ,payment had not been    
made by ,november #aj1aaj nor was there 
any evidence of an adjustment4  ,at the 
same time that ,craigie was in ,boston  

purchasing supplies for the ,northern   
,department1 ,apothecary ,jonathan ,b4  
,cutting of the ,middle ,department was 
also there1 competing with him4#aaa     
,furthermore1 several agents for the    
,congress 7,thomas ,cushing1 ,daniel    
,tillinghast1 and ,john ,bradford7 were 
purchasing drugs for the ,continental   
,navy4 ,greenleaf's ledger records that 
between ,january #bc and ,may #bh over  
,l#ejj worth of medicine chests and     
sundry medicines were sold to ,the      
,united ,american ,states for the       
,continental frigates ,boston1 ,hancock1
 ,providence1 and ,columbus4  ,this     
competition among various branches of   
the army and navy led to a brisk        
business in ,boston4 ,druggists in      
nearby communities chanced the ,british 
blockade to send supplies which they had
 on hand4 ,for example1 ,jonathan       
,waldo1 an apothecary at ,salem1        
,massachusetts1 recorded in his account 
book#aab on ,april #h1 #aggg1 that #ac  
packages and #d cases of medicines are  

ship'd on ,board the ,sloop called the  
,two ,brothers ,saml ,west ,master4 ,an 
,account and illegible word of ,mr4     
,oliver ,smith of ,boston ,apothecary   
and to him consigned4 ,evidence of the  
war appears in the footnote to the      
entry1 however4 ,it reads3 ,the cases   
are unmarked being ship'd at ,night4    
,error ,excepted4 ,jon4 ,waldo4   ,the  
,situation ,improves  ,oliver ,smith1   
advertising in a ,boston newspaper in   
,october #aggg1 clearly emphasized the  
fact that ,a ,large and ,valuable       
,assortment of ,drugs and ,medicines    
were on hand4 ,included in the listing  
were bark1 gum camphor1 gum opium1      
jalap1 rhubarb1 and salts4#aac  ,back in
 ,philadelphia1 the supply situation was
 also improving4 ,william ,smith1       
,continental ,druggists1 received over  
#e1jjj from ,congress for drug          
purchases1#aad and the ,marshalls also  
continued to furnish ,congress with a   
variety of medical supplies in amounts  
upwards of #d1jjj4aae ,drugs were       

occasionally being imported into        
,philadelphia despite the ,british      
blockade4 ,in ,january #aggg1 ,robert   
,bass1 an apothecary in ,market ,street1
 advertised#aaf ,a ,quantity of         
,peruvian ,bark1 just imported 444      
together with ,drugs and ,medicines of  
most kinds4 ,bass was supplying the     
,northern ,department with drugs in     
,february #aggg1 but1 according to a    
letter from ,john ,warren to ,potts1 he 
is determined not even to pack them     
untill he shall receive the money in    
payment for them4#aag ,in ,march1 ,bass 
wrote ,potts directly that       444 if 
in future you want any compositions let 
me know in time that      ,i may have   
them ready4 ,i cou'd not send a full    
quantity of fly      ,plasters1 but am  
this week making a large quantity of    
most kinds      and shall send of       
deficiency in your next order4#aah  ,in 
,june1 ,christopher and ,charles        
,marshall also received a small         
assortment of valuable medicines1 just  

imported and to be sold#aai to replenish
 their stock4 ,even ,congress purchased 
directly certain of the importations1 on
 ,may #bh1 #aggh1 for example1 ordering 
that #gee #db_/ij dollars be advanced to
 the ,committee of ,commerce1 to enable 
them to pay ,andrew and ,james          
,caldwell1 the freight of sundry        
medicines imported in their sloop from  
,martinico4#abj ,many of the ,british   
prize ships were carried to the ,french 
island of ,martinique in the ,west      
,indies for trans-shipment of their     
cargoes4  ,these shipments however did  
not meet with the requirements for      
medical supplies4 ,in ,march1           
,apothecary ,cutting1 then stationed at 
the ,continental ,medicine ,store in    
,fourth-,street1 ,philadelphia1         
advertised that any price will be given 
for old sheets1 or half worn linen      
proper for lint and bandages1 while1 in 
,may1 ,commissary ,hugh ,james          
advertised that a handsome price will be
 given for ,vials and ,corks4#aba ,the  

problems of medical supplies were often 
brought to the attention of the public4 
,thomas ,carnes1 ,quarter ,master and   
,steward of the ,american hospital in   
,new ,england1 advertised in several    
papers that he       is authorized to   
make known in this public manner1 that  
no ,expense      shall be spared in     
future in making the most ample         
,provision for      the sick and wounded
 of the ,army4444 ,proper medicines will
 be      prepared1 not only by ,general 
,hospitals1 but by ,regimental          
,surgeons4 ,the ,difficulties the ,sick 
and ,wounded met with the last          
,campaign arose from the unsettled      
,state of the ,army1 and the            
,distance ,medicines1 and other         
,necessaries used to be sent4#abb  ,the 
reorganization of the medical department
 by ,congress1 including the            
establishment of two ,apothecaries and  
their duties1 was published in the      
,pennsylvania ,packet on ,april #ae1 and
 a front page account presenting        

directions for preserving the ,health of
 ,soldiers was featured in the next     
issue4#abc  ,dr4 ,potts wrote the       
,medical ,committee in ,congress on     
,april #c1 #aggg3       ,i have the     
,honour to enclose you a ,return of the 
,medicines  ,stores      belonging to   
the ,general ,hospital in the           
,department1 which ,i have      received
 from ,doctor ,samuel ,stringer1 these  
with what ,i brought      with me from  
,philadelphia  some few ,i expect from  
,boston will be      quite sufficient   
for this campaign4  ,in contrast to the 
time when stores were short in '#gf1 the
 chairman of the ,medical ,committee1   
,m4 ,thornton1 was quick to reply on    
,april #ab that       444 we are highly 
pleased with your having the prospect of
 a      sufficient supply of medicines  
in your ,department for the ensuing     
,campaign1  approve of the returns you  
have made us4#abd   ,valley ,forge      
,washington's forces were defeated at   
,brandywine on ,september #aa1 #aggg1   

and on ,september #be the ,british army 
occupied ,philadelphia4 ,washington1    
after trying without success to dislodge
 them by a sudden attack at ,germantown 
on ,october #d1 retreated to ,valley    
,forge4  ,business in ,philadelphia     
under ,british occupation continued much
 as it had under ,american control1     
except for a few missing suppliers and a
 few new ones4 ,one druggist who was    
little in evidence after the war        
commenced was back in business          
advertising within two weeks after the  
,british occupied ,philadelphia4 ,it was
 ,william ,drewet ,smith 7not to be     
confused with ,william ,smith7 who      
advised friends and customers 444 that  
they can be supplied with ,medicine and 
,drugs as usual1 at his shop in         
,second-,street4 ,to indicate that he   
was expecting an active business1 ,smith
 also advertised for a person who can be
 well recommended for honesty and       
sobriety 444 to attend a ,druggist's    
,shop4#abe  ,illustration3 ,figure      

#c4--,page from the ,waste ,book        
manuscript of the ,christopher          
,marshall1 ,jr41 and ,charles ,marshall 
apothecary shop in ,philadelphia4 ,this 
is the first page of the contents of a  
medicine chest furnished on order of the
 ,continental ,congress for the         
,pennsylvania #dth ,battalion4          
,preserved at the ,historical ,society  
of ,pennsylvania1 in ,philadelphia4     
,illustration3 ,figure #d4--,page from  
the ledger of the ,greenleaf apothecary 
shop in ,boston1 showing the accounts   
between ,september #c1 #aggf1 and ,may  
#bh1 #aggg1 with the ,united ,american  
,states for outfitting ships of the     
,continental ,navy4 ,preserved at the   
,american ,antiquarian ,society1        
,worcester1 ,mass4  ,during the ,british
 occupation there was a large number of 
thefts and losses--perhaps aided by the 
,american patriots who remained in      
,philadelphia--that included drugs and  
surgical instruments4 ,in ,november an  
advertisement reported the loss of a    

sett of ,surgeons ,pocket instruments in
 a crimson chequered covering1 with a   
silver clasp4 ,whoever will bring them  
to the bar of the coffee-house or to    
,mr4 ,allman1 surgeons mate of the      
,royal ,artillery1 shall have a ,guinea 
reward1 and no questions asked4 ,in     
,april an unidentified druggist         
advertised3 ,stolen yesterday afternoon 
out of an apothecary's shop ,three      
,specie ,glasses1 with brass caps2 one  
contained two pounds of native cinnabar4
 ,whoever discovers the thief and goods 
shall have ,twenty ,shillings reward    
from the printer4#abf  ,a sign of the   
times is evident from the advertisement 
by ,dr4 ,anthony ,yeldall1 who offered  
his ,anti-,venereal ,essence at only    
,two ,dollars4 ,this nostrum1 it was    
claimed1 would not only cure the        
disease1 but would absolutely prevent   
catching the infection4 ,each bottle    
came with printed instructions so that  
no questions need be asked4 ,the fact   
that the advertisement appeared no less 

than #aj times from ,january through    
,april speaks for its success4#abg ,it  
is interesting to note that1 after the  
,british evacuated ,philadelphia1       
,anthony ,yeldall1 ,surgeon1 late of the
 city of ,philadelphia1 was included    
among those who were charged as having  
knowingly and willingly aided and       
assisted the enemies and who would be   
brought to trial for high treason4#abh  
,while the ,british forces rested1 well 
nourished1 warm1 and relatively secure  
in ,philadelphia1 ,washington's troops1 
hardly more than #bj miles away1 were   
tortured by cold1 hunger1 and disease4  
,on ,december #bc there were #b1hih men 
at ,valley ,forge reported sick or unfit
 for duty because of lack of            
clothing4#abi ,even so1 the lack of     
medical supplies was nowhere near as bad
 as the conditions that existed in '#gf4
 ,under the command of ,director        
,general ,shippen and ,purveyor ,general
 ,potts1#acj the medical department     
operated a series of hospitals in such  

,pennsylvania communities as ,easton1   
,bethlehem1 ,lancaster1 ,ephrata1 and   
,lititz4 ,the principal hospital for    
,valley ,forge was established #aj miles
 away at ,yellow ,springs 7now ,chester 
,springs74  ,the largest drain on       
medical supplies appears not to have    
been during the height of winter but    
rather in the early spring when the     
medicine chests of various regiments and
 hospitals were being restocked for the 
expected spring offensive4 ,the first   
step was to supplement the supply of    
medical supplies on hand4 ,in late      
,february or early ,march1 ,dr4 ,william
 ,brown sent ,purveyor ,general ,potts a
 list of needs of the entire medical    
department that included ,l#bj1jjj worth
 of medicines1 vials1 corks1 etc4#aca   
,dr4 ,brown supplemented this list with 
a letter to ,potts dated ,march #aa in  
which he itemized the following         
equipment3#acb    #c doz4 ,boxes ,small 
,apothecary's ,weights  ,scales   #c    
doz4 ,bolus knives   #c doz4 ,pot       

,spathulae   #b doz4 ,marble ,mortars1  
of one pint1  ,pestles   #b doz4 ,setts 
,measures1 from #a_/b ounce to #a pint8 
#f doz4 ,earthen ,vessels 7deep7 with   
handles--of different     sizes1 from #b
 quarts to #b galls1 for boiling        
,decoctions1 or     #b doz4 copper ,do4 
of one gallon--for that purpose4   #f   
doz4 ,delft ,ware ,tiles1 for mixing    
,boluses c4 on4  ,while ,dr4 ,brown was 
completing his report on medical        
supplies1 he was also concluding his    
compilation of an emergency military    
hospital formulary which has become     
known as the ,lititz ,pharmacopoeia1 so 
named because ,brown was making ,lititz 
his headquarters at the time4 ,the      
preface is dated ,lititz1 ,march #ab1   
#aggh4 ,the actual title 7translated    
from ,latin7 reads3 ,formulary of simple
 and yet efficacious remedies for the   
use of the military hospital1 belonging 
to the army of the ,federated ,states of
 ,america4 ,especially adapted to our   
poverty and straitened circumstances1   

caused by the ferocious inhumanity of   
the enemy1 and the cruel war            
unexpectedly brought upon our           
fatherland4 ,this formulary was         
published by ,styner  ,cist of          
,philadelphia in #aggh1 which means that
 it was not actually printed until      
sometime after ,june #ah1 when the      
,british evacuated ,philadelphia4  ,in  
the preface ,brown explained that there 
were two types of formulas contained in 
the ,lititz ,pharmacopoeia2 one was the 
medicaments which must be prepared and  
compounded in a general laboratory2 the 
others are to be mixed1 as needed1 in   
our hospital dispensaries4  ,the main   
store of drugs was housed at ,manheim   
until late ,march1 when ,shippen ordered
 ,apothecary ,cutting to pack the       
medical stores there and proceed on to  
,yellow ,springs4#acc ,cutting wrote    
,potts on ,march #cj that       444 the 
articles that we have in store are now  
ready to put on      board the waggons  
excepting the want of cases to contain  

them4444      ,paper1 ,twine1 ,square   
,snuff ,bottles  ,corks are so          
essentially      necessary to take with 
us1 to fit up the ,regimental ,chests   
that ,i      wish your order to buy them
 at ,lancaster immediately4 ,i never    
heard      what place in the vicinity of
 ,camp has been chosen for our          
temporary ,medicine ,shop1 nor what     
quantities the ,regimental              
,surgeons are to be supply'd when we get
 there4444#acd  ,on ,april #af          
,cutting#ace wrote that the       444   
dispensing store is open'd here at      
,yellow ,springs and we have      begun 
to supply the ,regiments in ,camp4444   
,dr4 ,cochran has given      orders to  
the ,division on the left to bring their
 ,chests first1 and      we propose     
going through the whole ,army in the    
order in which they      lay4444 ,the   
best method ,i can think of is to act   
immediately about      preparing new    
,chests upon the ,northern ,plan at some
 convenient      place for all such     

,battallions as did not get chests from 
,dr4      ,craigie in the last campaign4
 ,when these new parcels are ready1     
let us call all the large chests into   
the ,stores 444 which are too           
compleat  capacious for ,field ,service1
  in lieu of them give out      our     
smaller ones4 ,by this exchange1 the    
,genl4 ,hospital will be      well      
supplied with standing ,chests  acquire 
a great variety of      useful articles 
which are not essential in ,camp4       
,apothecary ,cutting was concerned1     
however1 over supplies and       444    
very apprehensive that the several      
,hospitals in this vicinity      will   
render a further reinforcement necessary
 before we shall be      able to        
compleat the whole4444 ,to give only a  
few of the ,capitals      to each will  
be a work of ,time1  a much more        
intensive piece of      business than ,i
 at first imagined4  ,meanwhile1 ,potts 
had sent ,apothecary ,craigie to        
,baltimore to obtain a fresh stock of   

drugs1 and probably to prevent further  
friction between ,craigie and ,cutting4 
,this feud started early in #aggg when  
,apothecary ,cutting1 serving with      
,shippen in ,philadelphia1 was named1   
over his preceptor ,craigie1 to head the
 newly organized ,apothecary department 
of the army4#acf ,on ,march #bg ,craigie
 wrote from ,annapolis advising ,potts  
that he had been in ,baltimore       444
 not long since and waited on ,messrs4  
,lux  ,bowly4 ,the medicines      were  
not come to hand but were expected4444  
,i have engaged the      whole invoice  
which contains several important        
medicines not      mentioned in your    
list4 ,i think the prices are full high1
 tho'      somewhat less than ,dr4      
,shippen affixed1 and it was not in my  
power      to procure them at a cheaper 
rate4 ,they were offered ,l#bj per lb4  
for all the ,cantharides and much higher
 price for the ,bark4 ,they      are not
 yet arrived from some place in         
,virginia where they were      first    

landed4 ,i shall examine them           
immediately on their arrival1      and  
if good forward them on to ,manheim1 if 
they prove not good      shall reject   
them1 as the engagement is              
conditional4#acg  ,then on ,april #d1   
,craigie wrote from ,chester ,town3#ach 
,i this day received a letter from      
,messrs4 ,lux  ,bowley informing        
me1 the waggons were arrived1 but to    
their great surprise with only      two 
packages of medicines1 the others being 
seized near      ,williamsburg for the  
use of ,virginia ,state4 ,those arrived 
contain      but a very small share of  
any of the articles mentioned in your   
list and ,i believe none of the ,bark   
and ,cantharides4 ,i shall              
immediately proceed to ,baltimore and   
examine those two packages       if good
 send them on to ,manheim1 provided the 
price is      agreeable4444 ,i shall    
inquire into the circumstances of the   
seizure      and endeavor to find out if
 there has been any unfair play which ,i

      can hardly suspect from the       
character of the ,gentlemen4  ,just     
prior to ,may #a1 ,craigie returned to  
,carlisle1 where the ,elaboratory and   
,stores for the reception of the        
medicines c4 belonging to the military  
hospitals was established1#aci and      
complained that he did not find the     
medicinal store in the order which he   
expected to find it3       ,we have many
 important medicines but by no means an 
assortment      sufficient for the      
,army4 ,i speak only of what is now in  
store4      ,there are ,medicines in    
different places of which ,i have no    
list4  ,craigie further noted that      
,cutting had come up from ,yellow       
,springs on ,may #a to confer regarding 
plans for completing medicine chests1   
and would leave the following day for   
,baltimore where he obviously was going 
to try to purchase more drugs4  ,craigie
 was puzzled by the establishment of a  
dispensing store at ,yellow ,springs1   
and asked whether or not the plan was   

444 to have the principle ,store at     
,carlisle1 where all the      medicines 
shall be prepared1 and the ,chests      
compleated supposing      the ,genl4    
,hospitals will be more collected1 and  
the number      lessened4 ,i would      
propose that an ,apothecary attend each 
with a      compleate ,chest of         
,medicines2 that the ,surgeon           
,physician ,genl of      the ,army be   
attended by an ,apothecary with good    
,chest1 and the      ,regiments supply'd
 upon the ,northern ,plan4 ,i would have
 an ,issuing      ,store established at 
a convenient distance from the ,army1   
from      which the ,hospital and       
,regimental ,chests might occasionally  
be      replenished4#adj  ,a sizable    
stock of drugs was finally received from
 ,baltimore1#ada and a fairly good stock
 was brought down from the stores in the
 ,northern ,department1 which were left 
well supplied by ,craigie and           
,potts4#adb ,an improved plan for       
obtaining lint from the ,moravian       

,sisters at ,bethlehem and ,lititz was  
proposed by ,dr4 ,brown1#adc and the    
propriety of setting the glass works at 
,manheim agoing was offered as a        
solution by ,craigie for obtaining much 
needed vials4#add ,local manufacturing  
at ,carlisle#ade and in the ,jersies#adf
 was used as a source of volatile and   
purging salts4  ,gibson records#adg that
 between ,april #ai and ,may #c1 #aggh1 
the commands of ,generals ,patterson1   
,leonard1 ,poor1 ,glover1 ,scott1 and   
,woodward turned in their medicine      
chests to ,apothecary ,cutting at       
,yellow ,springs1 and that every        
regiment received a standardized field  
box containing a definite list and      
quantity of necessary drugs and         
supplies4 ,however1 it appears likely   
that the project started by ,cutting and
 continued by ,craigie was not completed
 until late ,june at the earliest4#adh  
,the invoice of those things thought    
essential for the protection and health 
of soldiers in the field or camp        

presented by ,gibson#adi is actually an 
,invoice of a ,chest of medicines c4    
compleated in the medicinal ,store1     
,northern ,department for ,thos4        
,tillotson ,esq4#aej ,inasmuch as the   
plan used in the ,northern ,department  
was employed by both ,craigie and       
,cutting1 the items on this invoice may 
serve as a reasonably good picture of   
the medicine chests of '#gh as compared 
with those of '#gf 7see page #acj74     
,one of the reasons for better supplies 
at a time when other conditions were    
even worse than they were in #aggf is   
the fact that ,congress was advancing   
sizable1 if not always completely       
adequate1 amounts of money for the cash 
purchase of supplies instead of seeking 
credit or expecting those responsible to
 procure supplies by using their        
personal money and waiting on ,congress 
to reimburse them4 ,during #aggh1       
,congress advanced some #idj1jjj to     
,purveyor ,general ,potts alone for the 
exclusive use of the hospital           

department1 and these funds were in turn
 distributed to the proper medical      
procurement officers1 including the     
apothecaries4 ,it is significant to     
compare the sum of #a1jie1jjj provided  
by ,congress in #aggh with ,l#aj1jjj    
7about #bg1jjj7 which1 according to     
,morgan1 was the limit for medical and  
hospital supplies in #aggf4aea ,true1   
inflation had set in by #aggh1 and the  
value of money had declined greatly4    
,for example1 cantharides purchased from
 the ,marshalls' apothecary shop in     
,philadelphia in #aggf cost #aj         
shillings per pound as compared with the
 cantharides ,craigie purchased in      
,baltimore in #aggh at ,l#bj per pound4 
,however1 the worst of the inflation was
 yet to come4#aeb   ,in ,summary        
,initially the drug supplies for the    
,american ,revolutionary ,army had come 
from stocks largely in the hands of     
private druggists4 ,however1 this source
 of supply was totally inadequate for a 
war that attained such proportions as   

the ,revolution4 ,even if stocks of     
drugs in the ,colonies had been far     
greater than they were1 there is little 
reason to believe that shortages would  
not have developed4 ,after all1 a good  
many of the suppliers were ,loyalists1  
and others were indifferent to the cause
 of ,american liberty4 ,even the most   
patriotic pharmacists were faced with a 
complete financial suicide1 caught      
between a spiraling inflation and a     
,congress that had no money and only a  
promise for the future4  ,as if all     
these problems were not bad enough1 the 
internal organization of the medical    
department of the army was so chaotic   
that1 even if adequate supplies were    
available and if the almost             
insurmountable problems of              
communications and transportation were  
solved1 it is almost certain that       
shortages would have developed at least 
during the campaign of #aggf4 ,add to   
this the fact that any retreating army  
is subject to loss of supplies and the  

reasons for the shortages become very   
obvious4  ,the encouragement which      
,congress1 through its ,secret          
,committee1 gave to private shippers for
 the importation of vital war materials 
offered little relief in the field of   
medical supplies4 ,importation was1 of  
course1 cut off from ,england1 and      
,france did not directly export any     
quantity of medical supplies1 at least  
until #aggh4 ,american privateers found 
it much more profitable to prey on      
,british shipping than initiating trade 
channels with countries which prior to  
the ,revolution were prohibited from    
shipping directly to the ,colonies4     
,these channels of commerce did not     
develop extensively until well after the
 ,revolution4  ,hence the most immediate
 relief from medical supply shortages   
was provided by the ,american           
privateers4 ,drug cargoes from ,british 
prize ships1 many of which were en route
 to ,new ,york1 served as a most        
important source of supply1 particularly

 in #aggg and #aggh4  ,however1 even    
with the most adequate supplies1        
competition between different branches  
of the army and navy and the            
confiscation of supplies destined for   
,continental troops by state militias   
further encouraged inflationary trends4 
,the number of individual drugs         
mentioned in various inventories was    
considerable1 as evidenced by the       
listing on page #acj4 ,however1 of      
these1 only about a dozen constituted   
the really critical shortages4 ,heading 
the list of these capital articles was  
,peruvian or ,jesuits' bark1 the same   
cinchona from which quinine was later   
discovered4 ,tons of bark were used     
during the ,revolutionary ,war1 and the 
price more than quandrupled between     
,june #aggf and ,september #aggg4  ,the 
most prominent group of drugs on the    
list of capital articles consisted of   
cathartics and purgatives4 ,jalap1      
ipecac1 and rhubarb were the botanical  
favorites1 while bitter purging salts   

7,epsom salts7 and ,glauber's purging   
salts were the chemical choices for     
purging4 ,tartar emetic 7antimony and   
potassium tartrate7 was the choice for a
 vomit1 and cantharides 7,spanish flies7
 was the most important ingredient of   
blistering plasters4 ,gum opium was     
administered for its narcotic effects1  
while gum camphor1 nitre 7saltpetre or  
potassium nitrate71 and mercury 7pure   
metal as well as certain salts7 were    
employed for a variety of purposes4     
,lint1 a form of absorbent material made
 by scraping or picking apart old woven 
material1 also often was short in       
supply4  ,equipment shortages included  
surgical instruments and mortar and     
pestles for pulverizing the crude drugs4
 ,glass vials for holding compounded    
medicines were also a supply problem1   
especially after essential drugs were   
again available4  ,some of the shortages
 were eased1 if not solved1 by local    
manufacture4 ,lint was produced in large
 quantities in the ,colonies1 and glass 

vials were manufactured in numerous     
glasshouses4 ,even local manufacture of 
the purging salts and nitre aided in    
eliminating shortages of these essential
 items1 and at the same time initiated  
the first large-scale pharmaceutical    
manufacturing in ,america4  ,numerous   
botanicals indigenous to the ,colonies  
were widely employed in medicine of the 
period1 and certain ones such as        
snakeroot 7seneka71 which was widely    
found growing in ,virginia1 would have  
been very scarce had not an adequate    
supply been immediately at hand4        
,however1 attempts to substitute other  
indigenous plants for scarce drugs like 
,peruvian bark were largely             
unsuccessful4 ,there is no indication   
that hysop1 wormwood1 and mallows called
 for during the ,new ,york crisis were  
ever found to be suitable replacements  
for any of the capital articles4 ,wine  
apparently was more useful as a         
substitute for bark than the bark of    
butternut recommended by the ,lititz    

,pharmacopoeia4 ,peruvian bark1 jalap1  
ipecac1 camphor1 opium1                 
cantharides--these are the drugs which  
the ,american army physicians wanted1   
and these constituted the most serious  
shortage problems4  ,the medical supply 
problem was placed on relatively firm   
ground by the summer of #aggh1 having   
been established on the principles      
proven in the ,northern ,department     
under the guidance of ,drs4 ,potts and  
,craigie4 ,furthermore1 the turning     
point in the war had been reached4 ,even
 before ,washington's forces went into  
winter quarters at ,valley ,forge1      
,burgoyne#aec had surrendered at        
,saratoga1 on ,october #ag1 #aggg2 and1 
before the cold bleak winter at ,valley 
,forge was over1 the treaty of ,french  
alliance was signed on ,february #f1    
#aggh4 ,the torments at ,valley ,forge  
proved to be the birth of a new         
,continental ,army4  ,the ,war was still
 a long way from being over1 and a      
variety of problems were yet to face the

 ,continental ,army4 ,inflation was yet 
to deal its hardest blow to the supply  
problem1 but not even this could produce
 the chaos of #aggf4 ,the worst of the  
drug supply problem was over4           
,contents of ,army ,medicine ,chests    
,the following listing is an example of 
the contents of medicine chests ordered 
by the ,continental ,congress4 ,the     
chest for the ,pennsylvania #dth        
,battalion was filled for ,samuel       
,kennedy ,surgeon by the pharmacy of    
,christopher ,jr4 and ,charles ,marshall
 of ,philadelphia in ,may #aggf4 ,the   
medicines are listed on an invoice in   
the ,marshalls' waste book in the       
possession of ,the ,historical ,society 
of ,pennsylvania4 ,the contents of the  
,northern ,department chest1 compiled in
 the ,northern ,department's ,medicinal 
,store for ,thos4 ,tillotson ,esq4      
,surgeon  ,physician ,general to the    
,army1 probably was filled by ,andrew   
,craigie at ,fort ,george in #aggh4     
7,italics denote capital article2       

asterisk indicates that the drug is     
mentioned in ,lititz ,pharmacopoeia4    
,contemporary ,english names are in     
parentheses following the ,latin        
listings47                              
,pennsylvania    ,northern              
#dth ,battalion   ,department           
,chest         ,chest ,,botanicals      
99,cortex ,peruvianum       7,peruvian  
bark2 ,jesuits' bark2 or bark7          
#d lb4   99,pulvis ,corticis ,peruviani 
7,powdered ,peruvian bark7              
#b lb4 ,opt42     #f lb4                
#b lb4 #bnd   99,pulvis ,radix ,jalapii 
7,powdered jalap7                       
#b lb4           #b lb4   99,pulvis     
,radix ,ipecacuanhae       7,powdered   
ipecac7                               #h
 oz4           #ab oz4   99,pulvis      
,radix ,rhaei 7,powdered rhubarb7       
#a lb4 #d oz4     #d lb4    ,radix      
,rhaei 7,rhubarb root7                  
#b lb4   99,folia ,sennae 7,sennae or   
sena7                                   
#b lb4   99,radix ,gentianae 7,gentian  

root7                 #a lb4            
#b-a_/b lb4   99,radix ,seneka          
7,senega2 rattlesnake root2 or snake    
root7       #a lb4   99,radix ,scillae  
,sict4 7,squill2 or sea-onion7       #f 
oz4    ,cinnamomi 7,cinnamon7           
#a lb4    ,cortex ,aurantorium 7,orange 
peel7                               #c  
lb4    ,flores ,chamomeli 7,camomile    
flower7                             #b  
oz4    ,mellisae ,folia 7,balm7         
#a_/b lb4   99,gummi ,camphora          
7,camphor2 or camphire7        #aj oz4  
#b-a_/b lb4   99,gummi ,opium also ,opii
 7,opium7              #h oz4           
#a lb4   99,gummi ,arabicum 7,gum       
,arabic7                    #b lb4 ,opt4
      #b lb4   99,gummi ,aloe ,socotrina
 7,aloe2 or aloes7          #h oz4      
#a lb4    ,gummi ,aloe ,hepatica 7,aloe2
 or aloes7           #a lb4   99,gummi  
,ammoniacum 7,gum ammoniac7             
#ab oz4   99,gummi ,guaiacum 7,gum      
guaiac7                    #h oz4       
#c_/d lb4   99,gummi ,myrrhae 7,myrrh7  

#d oz4           #b oz4   99,balsamum   
,capivi 7,balsam of copaiba7            
#a lb4 #d oz4     #b lb4   99,balsamum  
,peruvianum 7,balsam of ,peru7          
#c oz4    ,balsamum ,tolutanum 7,balsam 
of tolu7            #h oz4   99,oleum   
,olivarum 7,olive oil7                  
#b-a_/b lb4   99,oleum ,ricini 7,castor 
oil7                        #a lb4 #d   
oz4     #b lb4   ,,drugs ,,of ,,animal  
,,origin    99,cantharides 7,spanish    
flies2 or flies7            #d oz4      
#c_/d lb4   99,cera ,flava 7,yellow     
beeswax7                      #a lb4    
#d lb4   99,mellis ,communis 7,honey7   
#c lb4    ,pulvis ,oculi ,cancorum      
7,powdered crabs' eyes7                 
#a lb4   99,spermatis ,ceti             
7,spermaceti7                           
#c lb4   ,,chemicals    99,alumen       
,communis or ,credem 7,alum or rock     
alum7  #a lb4   99,creta ppt            
precipitated or praeparata 7,chalk7     
#f lb4   99,pulvis ,cremor ,tartari     
7,cream of tartar7    #d lb4            

#b lb4   99,tartarus ,emeticum 7,tartar 
emetic7            #f oz4               
#a_/b lb4   99,sal ,nitri or ,nitrum    
7,nitre or saltpetre7     #d lb4        
#d lb4    ,sal ,absinthii 7,salt of     
wormwood7                   #h oz4      
99,sal ,catharticus ,amarus 7,epsom     
salts2       bitter purging salts2 or   
bitter       cathartic salts7           
#aj lb4   99,sal ,catharticus ,glauberi 
or ,sal       ,mirabile ,glauberi       
7,glauber's salts2 ,glauber's           
purging salts2 or ,glauber's wonderful  
salts74   #aj lb4   99,sal ,tartarisatus
 7,salt of tartar7                      
#b lb4   99,sal ,ammoniacum 7,sal       
ammoniac7                               
#a_/b lb4 ,cd4   99,mercurius           
,corrosivus ,sublimatus                 
7,corrosive sublimate of mercury7       
#b oz4           #b oz4   99,mercurius  
,praecipitatus ,ruber       7,red       
precipitate of mercury7                 
#d oz4           #b oz4   99,mercurius  
,dulcis ,ppt4 7,calomel7              #h

 oz4    ,flores ,sulphuris 7,flowers of 
sulphur7          #d lb4           #b   
lb4   99,oleum ,vitriolum 7,oil of      
vitriol7               #f oz4    ,oleum 
,terebinthinae 7,oil of turpentine7     
#a-a_/b lb4    ,terebinthina ,venetian  
7,turpentine7             #a lb4 #d oz4 
99,vitriolum ,album 7,white vitriol7    
#d oz4           #b oz4   99,elixir     
,vitrioli 7,elixir of vitriol7          
#c lb4           #b lb4    ,vitriolum   
,romanum 7,roman vitriol7               
#d oz4    ,saccharum ,saturni 7,sugar of
 lead7                #d oz4    ,vitrum 
,antomonii ,ceratum       7,cerated     
glass of antimony7                      
#c oz4   99,extractum ,saturni also     
,acetum ,lithargyrites       7,litharge 
of lead2 litharge vinegar2 or           
extract of ,saturn74                    
#aa oz4  ,,tinctures    99,tinctura     
,thebaica or ,tinctura ,opii       or   
,laudani ,liquidi 7,tincture            
#ab oz4          #b lb4       of opium2 
thebaic tincture2 liquid       laudanum2

 and ,sydenham's laudanam74             
99,tinctura ,myrrhae  ,aloes 7,tincture 
of       myrrh and aloes74              
#a lb4 #ab oz4    ,tinctura ,cinnamomi  
7,tincture of cinnamon7                 
#b lb4   ,,spirits     ,spiritus ,salis 
,ammoniaci 7,spirit of sal              
ammoniac7                               
#a lb4 #e oz4    ,spiritus ,nitri       
,dulcis also ,salis       ,volatilis    
7,sweet spirit of nitre7                
#b-a_/b lb4       #a lb4 #ab oz4        
,spiritus ,lavendula ,compositus        
7,compound spirit of lavender7          
#a lb4 #d oz4     #a-a_/b lb4           
,spiritus ,vini ,rectificatus           
7,rectified       spirit of wine7       
#a lb4 #d oz4   ,,miscellaneous         
,,preparations    99,conserva ,rosarum  
,rubrarum 7,conserves       of red      
roses7                                  
#a lb4    ,confectio ,cardiaca 7,cordial
 confection7                        #a  
lb4    ,electuarium ,asthmaticum        
7,asthmatic       electuary7            

#a lb4 #a oz4   99,elixir ,paregoricum  
7,paregoric elixir7                     
#b lb4    ,pillulae ,purgant 7,purgative
 pills7               #h oz4    ,pulvis 
e ,bolo ,compositus 7,compound powder   
of bole with opium7                     
#b lb4    ,linimentum ,saponaceum 7,soap
       liniment7                        
#c-a_/b lb4    ,saponis ,venetian       
7,venetian soap7               #b lb4   
#f lb4   ,,ointments    99,ungeuntum    
,lapide ,calaminari 7,ointment          
from calamine stone7                    
#aj lb4          #d lb4   99,unguentum  
,basilicum ,flavum 7,yellow             
basilicon ointment7                     
#aj lb4   99,unguentum ,mercurale       
,fortis 7,strong       mercurial        
ointment7                             #f
 lb4    ,unguentum e ,gummi ,elemi      
7,ointment of       gum elemi7          
#c lb4    ,unguentum ,album ,camphoratum
 7,camphorated       white ointment7    
#c lb4   ,,plasters    99,emplastrum    
,adhesivum 7,adhesive plaster7        #f

 lb4    ,emplastrum ,diachylon 7,simple 
diachylon       plaster7                
#f lb4           #b lb4    ,emplastrum  
,diachylon cum ,gummi       7,diachylon 
plaster with gum7                       
#a lb4   99,emplastrum ,epispasticum    
also ,epithema       ,vesicatorium      
7,blistering plaster2       vesicatory  
plaster74                               
#a lb4    ,emplastrum ,stomachicum      
,majest4 7,stomach       plaster7       
#a lb4   ,,surgical ,,dressings1 ,,etc4 
99,linteum ,praeparatum 7,lint7         
#a lb4 fine    ,tow                     
#ab lb4 fine    ,sponge                 
#d oz4 fine    ,twine                   
#a lb4 fine      #a_/b lb4    ,tape     
#a piece         #b pieces    ,fracture 
pillows                                 
#b    ,splints                          
#b p4 ,sharps     #cd doz4    ,thread   
#d oz4    ,needles                      
#g common    ,pins                      
#a_/b thousand    ,compresses           
#f doz4    ,bandages                    

#gjj    ,flannel                        
#f yds4    ,shears                      
#b pr4    ,rags                         
#a bundle   ,,surgical ,,instruments    
,director                               
#a               #a steel   ,probe1     
silver                                  
#a               #a   ,forceps          
#a   ,catheters                         
#a silver   ,amputating instruments     
#a set   ,trepanning instruments        
#a ,trepan        #a set   ,lancets     
#b best crown1                          
#d common   ,tourniquets                
#a ,brass         #h common             
with                                    
ligatures   ,syringe1 pewter            
#d               #b   ,syringe1 ivory   
#b   ,glyster pipe arm'd                
#f   ,tooth-drawing instrument          
#a ,crow ,bill   ,,pharmaceutical       
,,equipment    ,scales and weights      
#a box           #a set   ,mortar and   
pestle                                  
#a ,brass1                              

#a ,glass   ,tyles 7pill tiles7         
#b   ,spatulas                          
#a wooden        #a large1              
handle1 #a       #a pocket              
iron handle   ,bolus knife              
#a   ,plaister knife 7plaster spatula7  
#a   ,leather skins                     
#b lb4   ,,miscellaneous ,,supplies     
,bottles                                
,assortment      ,assortment            
,gallypots                              
#a doz4          ,assortment   ,vials   
#f doz4 sorted   ,corks                 
#aj doz4   ,pillboxes                   
#a pacg4   ,wrapping paper              
#d quire   ,writing paper               
#a quire         #f quire   ,ink powder 
#b papers   ,quiles 7quills7            
#ad hundred          99       99        
99       99       99  ,u4,s4 ,government
 ,printing ,office3 #aifa   ,for sale by
 the ,superintendent of ,documents1     
,u4,s4 ,government ,printing ,office    
,washington #be1 ,d4,c4--,price #be     
cents         99       99       99      

99       99   ,,footnotes3  #a ,john ,c4
 ,miller1 ,triumph of ,freedom1         
#agge-aghc1 ,boston1 #aidh1 preface4  #b
 ,louis ,c4 ,duncan1 ,medical ,men in   
the ,american ,revolution1 #agge-aghc1  
,carlisle ,barracks1 ,pa41 #aica2       
,william ,o4 ,owen1 ,the ,medical       
,department of the ,united ,states ,army
 during the ,period of the ,revolution1 
,new ,york1 #aibj2 ,james ,e4 ,gibson1  
,dr4 ,bodo ,otto and the ,medical       
,background of the ,american            
,revolution1 ,springfield1 ,ill41 #aicg2
 ,james ,thomas ,flexner1 ,doctors on   
,horseback1 ,new ,york1 #aici4  #c      
,lyman ,f4 ,kebler1 ,andrew ,craigie1   
the ,first ,apothecary ,general of the  
,united ,states1 ,journal of the        
,american ,pharmaceutical ,association1 
#aibh1 vol4 #ag1 pp4 #fc-gd1 #afg-agh2  
,frederick ,haven ,pratt1 ,the          
,craigies1 ,proceedings of the          
,cambridge ,historical ,society 7#aida71
 #aidb1 vol4 #bg1 pp4 #dc-hf2 ,edward   
,kremers and ,george ,urdang1 ,a        

,history of ,pharmacy1 ,philadelphia1   
#aiea edition1 chap4 #aa2 ,edward       
,kremers1 ,the ,lititz ,pharmacopoeia1  
,the ,badger ,pharmacist1 nos4 #bb-be1  
,june-,december #aich2 ,j4 ,w4 ,england1
 ed41 ,the ,first ,century of the       
,philadelphia ,college of ,pharmacy1    
,philadelphia1 #aibb1 pp4 #hd-id2       
,american ,journal of ,pharmacy1 #ahhd1 
vol4 #ef1 pp4 #dhc-dia4  #d ,jonathan   
,potts ,papers1 four volumes of         
miscellaneous manuscripts at ,the       
,historical ,society of ,pennsylvania1  
,philadelphia 7hereinafter referred to  
as ,potts ,papers74  #e ,journals of the
 ,provincial ,congress of ,massachusetts
 ,bay1 quoted in ,owen1 op4 cit4        
7footnote #b71 pp4 #bb-bc4  #f          
,greenleaf ,ledger1 #agfe-aggh1 at the  
,american ,antiquarian ,society1        
,worcester1 ,mass4 7,the ,greenleaf     
pharmacy was established by ,elizabeth  
,greenleaf in #agbf or #agbg4 ,see ,j4  
,l4 ,sibley1 ,biographical ,sketches of 
,graduates of ,harvard ,university1 in  

,cambridge1 ,massachusetts1 ,cambridge1 
#aibj1 vol4 #e1 pp4 #dgb-dgf2 ,jonathan 
,greenleaf1 ,a ,genealogy of the        
,greenleaf ,family1 ,new ,york1 #ahed1  
pp4 #hi1 #ia1 #bje1 #bjg2 ,boston       
,post-,boy and ,boston ,gazette1        
,november #h1 #agfb1 obituary of        
,elizabeth ,greenleaf47  #g ,owen1 op4  
cit4 7footnote #b71 p4 #bc4  #h ,j4 ,r4 
,alden1 ,the ,american ,revolution1 ,new
 ,york1 #aied p4 #bc4  #i ,owen1 op4    
cit4 7footnote #b71 pp4 #ab-ac4  #aj    
,journals of the ,continental ,congress1
 #aggd-aghi1 edited by ,worthington ,c4 
,ford1 ,washington1 ,d4,c41 #aije1 vol4 
#b1 p4 #bej4 ,nearly all excerpts from  
,ford also appear in ,owen1 op4 cit4    
7footnote #b74  #aa ,ibid41 vol4 #c1 p4 
#bfa4 ,the ,samuel ,ward diary for      
,september #bc records that a parcel of 
medicines for the hospital was to be    
bought 7,e4 ,c4 ,burnett1 ,letters of   
,members of the ,continental ,congress1 
,washington1 ,d4,c41 #aiba1 vol4 #a1 p4 
#bje74  #ab ,ford1 op4 cit4 7footnote   

#aj71 vol4 #c1 p4 #cdd4  #ac ,burnett1  
op4 cit4 7footnote #aa71 vol4 #a1 p4    
#bib4  #ad ,pennsylvania ,ledger1 ,may  
#f1 #agge4 ,william ,smith in           
,philadelphia was selling drugs in #aggb
 7,potts ,papers1 vol4 #a1 folio #eb74  
#ae ,pennsylvania ,evening ,post1       
,december #bf1 #agge4  #af ,pennsylvania
 ,packet1 ,september #aa1 #agge2        
,pennsylvania ,journal1 ,september #f1  
#agge2 ,pennsylvania ,gazette1 ,october 
#d1 #agge4  #ag ,the ,marshalls sold    
drugs to ,sharp ,delaney and ,william   
,smith in ,april #aggf 7,marshall ,waste
 ,book1 see footnote #bj74  #ah ,e4 ,t4 
,ellis1 ,the ,story of a ,very ,old     
,philadelphia ,drug ,store1 ,american   
,journal of ,pharmacy1 #aijh1 vol4 #ge1 
p4 #eg2 ,england1 op4 cit4 7footnote    
#c71 pp4 #cdh-cej2 ,parke1 ,davis  ,co41
 ,a ,history of ,pharmacy in ,pictures1 
undated booklet edited by ,george       
,bender4  #ai ,ford1 op4 cit4 7footnote 
#aj71 vol4 #c1 p4 #ddb2 vol4 #d1 pp4    
#ahh1 #aig4  #bj ,christopher ,jr4 and  

,charles ,marshall ,waste ,book1        
,february #ba to ,july #f1 #aggf1 at    
,the ,historical ,society of            
,pennsylvania1 ,philadelphia4  #ba      
,ford1 op4 cit4 7footnote #aj71 vol4 #c1
 p4 #ddb2 vol4 #d1 pp4 #ahh1 #aig2      
,burnett1 op4 cit4 7footnote #aa71 vol4 
#a4  #bb ,owen1 op4 cit4 7footnote #b71 
pp4 #ah-ai4  #bc ,american ,archives 444
 ,peter ,force1 ed41 ,washington1 ser4  
#d1 vol4 #a-f1 #ahcg-df2 ser4 #e1 vol4  
#a-c1 #ahdh-ec4 ,ser4 #d1 vol4 #c1 p4   
#cjf4  #bd ,duncan1 op4 cit4 7footnote  
#b71 pp4 #fb-fd4  #be ,pennsylvania     
,packet1 ,june #bd1 #aggi4  #bf ,it is  
quite possible that the designation bad 
was a typographical error for radix4    
#bg ,american ,archives1 ser4 #d1 vol4  
#e1 p4 #aae4  #bh ,connecticut ,courant1
 ,february #ab1 #aggf4  #bi ,newport    
,mercury1 ,january #ae1 #aggf4  #cj     
,massachusetts ,gazette1 ,september #g1 
#agge4  #ca ,american ,archives1 ser4   
#d1 vol4 #d1 p4 #aei4  #cb              
,massachusetts ,gazette1 ,february #bb1 

#aggf4  #cc ,boston ,gazette1 ,april    
#ae1 #aggf4  #cd ,ibid41 ,april #bb1    
#aggf4 ,it is worth noting that ,morgan 
did not think this important enough to  
include in his ,vindication 7see        
footnote #ce74  #ce ,john ,morgan1 ,a   
,vindication of ,his ,public ,character 
in the ,station of ,director-,general of
 the ,military ,hospital1 and ,physician
 in ,chief of the ,american ,army2      
,anno1 #aggf1 ,boston1 #aggg4  #cf      
,pennsylvania ,packet1 ,june #bd1 #aggi4
  #cg ,american ,archives1 ser4 #d1 vol4
 #e1 p4 #dhh4  #ch ,morgan1 op4 cit4    
7footnote #ce71 pp4 #ajb1 #add2 and     
,independent ,chronicle1 ,april #aj1    
#aggg4  #ci ,james ,thacher1 ,american  
,medical ,biography1 ,boston1 #ahbh1    
vol4 #a1 pp4 #bgj-bgc4  #dj ,for        
biographies of ,sylvester ,gardiner see 
,dictionary of ,american ,biography1    
,new ,york1 #aica1 vol4 #h1 pp4         
#aci-adj2 ,appleton's ,cyclopedia of    
,american ,biography1 ,new ,york1 #ahhg1
 vol4 #b2 ,h4 ,a4 ,kelly and ,w4 ,l4    

,burrage1 ,dictionary of ,american      
,medical ,biography1 ,new ,york1 #aibh1 
pp4 #dej-deb2 ,james ,h4 ,stark1 ,the   
,loyalists of ,massachusetts1 ,boston1  
#aiaj1 pp4 #cac-cae4  #da ,greenleaf    
,ledger 7see footnote #f74  #db         
,american ,archives1 ser4 #e1 vol4 #a1  
pp4 #bhb1 #bhd4  #dc ,ibid41 p4 #cad4   
#dd ,s4 ,e4 ,morison and ,h4 ,s4        
,commager1 ,the ,growth of the ,american
 ,republic1 ,new ,york1 #aiej1 vol4 #a1 
p4 #baj4  #de ,new-,york ,journal1 ,july
 #ac1 #agge4  #df ,ibid41 ,may #aa1     
#agge4  #dg ,new-,york ,gazette1        
,january #a and ,january #bi1 #aggf4    
,for a history of the ,english patent   
medicines in ,america1 see ,g4 ,b4      
,griffenhagen and ,j4 ,h4 ,young in ,the
 ,chemist and ,druggist1 #aieg1 vol4    
#afg1 pp4 #gad-gbb1 and in ,u4,s4       
,national ,museum ,bulletin #bah1 #aiei1
 pp4 #aee-ahc 7,contributions from the  
,museum of ,history and ,technology1    
,paper #aj74  #dh ,george ,washington1  
,the ,writings of ,george ,washington1  

edited by ,john ,c4 ,fitzpatrick1       
,washington1 #aica1 vol4 #d1 pp4        
#dfd-dfe4  #di ,morgan1 op4 cit4        
7footnote #ce71 pp4 #d1 #i1 #fh2        
,pennsylvania ,packet1 ,june #ai1 #aggi2
 and ,washington1 op4 cit4 7footnote    
#dh71 vol4 #d1 pp4 #dfd-dfe4  #ej       
,duncan1 op4 cit4 7footnote #b71 p4     
#ace2 ,morgan1 op4 cit4 7footnote #ce71 
p4 #aa4  #ea ,new-,york ,gazette1 ,may  
#f and ,december #bc1 #aggf4  #eb       
,american ,archives1 ser4 #d1 vol4 #d1  
p4 #ajbf4  #ec ,ibid41 vol4 #f1 p4      
#adca4  #ed ,morgan misspelled ,delaney 
as ,delancey in his letter of ,june #be 
to ,adams4  #ee ,morgan1 op4 cit4       
7footnote #ce71 p4 #abh4  #ef ,ford1 op4
 cit4 7footnote #aj71 vol4 #e1 p4 #egj4 
#eg ,american ,archives1 ser4 #d1 vol4  
#f1 p4 #ajfi4  #eh ,ford1 op4 cit4      
7footnote #aj71 vol4 #e1 p4 #fcc4  #ei  
,morgan1 op4 cit4 7footnote #ce71 p4    
#ab4  #fj ,pennsylvania ,packet1 ,june  
#bf1 #aggi4  #fa ,washington1 op4 cit4  
7footnote #dh71 vol4 #f1 pp4 #eh-ei4    

#fb ,connecticut ,courant1 ,january #f1 
#aggg4  #fc ,morgan1 op4 cit4 7footnote 
#ce71 pp4 #ac1 #acf1 #adf4 ,william     
,smith was appointed ,continental       
,druggist on ,august #bj2 see ,ford1 op4
 cit4 7footnote #aj71 vol4 #d1 pp4      
#bib-bic4  #fd ,washington1 op4 cit4    
7footnote #dh71 vol4 #f1 pp4 #hf1 #aac4 
#fe ,american ,archives1 ser4 #e1 vol4  
#c1 pp4 #aaf1 #hcg4  #ff ,pennsylvania  
,packet1 ,june #bd1 #aggi4  #fg ,morgan1
 op4 cit4 7footnote #ce71 p4 #abi4  #fh 
,ibid41 p4 xxv4 ,for details of the     
manner in which ,shippen moved in on    
,morgan to replace him eventually as    
director general1 see ,flexner1 op4 cit4
 7footnote #b71 pp4 #c-ec4  #fi ,ibid41 
p4 xxxv2 ,owen1 op4 cit4 7footnote #b71 
p4 #ee4  #gj ,ford1 op4 cit4 7footnote  
#aj71 vol4 #g1 p4 #ia4  #ga ,new-,york  
,gazette1 ,september #cj1 ,december #af1
 #bc1 #aggf1 ,january #bj1 #aggg4  #gb  
,ibid41 ,december #i1 #aggf1 ,april #bh1
 ,june #i1 #aggg4  #gc ,plough ,court   
,pharmacy letterbook dated ,april #g1   

#aggh1 through ,december #h1 #aggi1 in  
possession of ,allen and ,hanburys1     
,london4 ,see also ,chapman-,huston and 
,ernest ,c4 ,gripps1 ,through a ,city   
,archway3 ,the ,story of ,allen and     
,hanburys1 #agae-aied1 ,london1 #aied4  
#gd ,duncan1 op4 cit4 7footnote #b71 p4 
#ig4  #ge ,owen1 op4 cit4 7footnote #b71
 p4 #ci4  #gf ,american ,archives1 ser4 
#d1 vol4 #f1 p4 #ajfi4  #gg ,american   
,archives1 ser4 #e1 vol4 #a1 pp4        
#fea-feb1 #aaad4  #gh ,potts ,papers1   
vol4 #a1 folio #gg2 ,morgan to ,potts1  
,july #bh1 #aggf4  #gi ,ibid41 folio    
#hi2 ,stringer to ,potts1 ,august #ag1  
#aggf4 ,see also ,gibson1 op4 cit4      
7footnote #b71 pp4 #ajh-aji4 ,washington
 mentions ,stringer's visit with ,morgan
 in a letter to ,gates dated ,august #ad
 7,washington1 op4 cit4 footnote #dh1   
vol4 #e1 pp4 #dcc-dce74  #hj ,ibid42    
,mc,henry to ,potts1 ,august #c1 #aggf4 
,stringer arrived in ,philadelphia on   
the evening of ,august #b4  #ha ,ibid42 
,stringer to ,potts1 ,august #ag1 #aggf4

  #hb ,ibid42 ,mc,henry to ,potts1      
,august #ba1 #aggf4  #hc ,american      
,archives1 ser4 #e1 vol4 #a1 p4 #abga4  
,for a similarly worded letter to       
,egbert ,benson dated ,august #bb1 see  
,gibson1 op4 cit4 7footnote #b71 p4     
#aab4  #hd ,potts ,papers1 vol4 #a1     
folio #ih2 ,stringer to ,potts1         
,september #g1 #aggf4 ,stringer arrived 
in ,albany on ,september #e 7,potts     
,papers1 vol4 #a1 folio #ig74  #he      
,american ,archives1 ser4 #e1 vol4 #a1  
p4 #abff4 ,other items included ,acet4  
,com4 six barrels2 ,alo4 ,hepta4 #c lb42
 ,calomel #b lb42 ,emp4 ,diachyl #aj    
lb42 ,cantharid4 #b lb42 ,gm4 ,guiac #a 
lb42 ,myrrh #a lb42 ,hord4 ,com4 #ajj   
lb42 ,jerc4 ,precip4 ,rub4 #a_/b lb42   
,merc4 ,cor4 ,sublim4 #a lb42 ,rad4     
,serpent4 ,virg4 #c lb42 ,sal4 ,nit4 #e 
lb42 ,spirit ,sal4 ,ammo4 #d lb42 ,ung4 
,diath4 #c lb42 ,elix4 ,asthmat4 #e lb42
 and ,elix4 ,vitriol4 #aj lb4 ,also     
included were six gross of vials and    
corks and three reams of wrapping paper4

  #hf ,potts ,papers1 vol4 #a1 folios   
#ajb-ajf1 #ajh-aaa1 #aad1 #aai4  #hg    
,ibid41 folio #ii4 ,there was a listing 
for #agj pounds of ,cathart3 ,am 7,epsom
 salts74 ,the #g pounds of rhubarb was  
listed as #c lb4 ,rad4 ,rhaei and #d lb4
 ,pul4 ,rhaei4 ,also on hand were       
#a-a_/b pounds of ,mithridat 7opium74   
#hh ,ibid41 folios #gc1 #id1 #abd4  #hi 
,ibid41 folio #d2 ,mc,crea to ,potts1   
,september #b1 #aggf4  #ij ,ibid41 folio
 #abd2 ,johnston to ,potts1 ,september  
#ai1 #aggf4  #ia ,ibid41 folio #abe2    
,craigie to ,potts1 ,october #c1 #aggf4 
#ib ,american ,archives1 ser4 #e1 vol4  
#b1 p4 #ibc4 ,stringer also wrote ,potts
 on ,october #f to advise him of the    
stock 7,potts ,papers1 vol4 #a1 folio   
#abf74  #ic ,potts ,papers1 vol4 #a1    
folio #aca2 ,stringer to ,potts1        
,october #ae1 #aggf4  #id ,ibid41 folio 
#acc2 ,stringer to ,potts1 ,october #be1
 #aggf4  #ie ,ibid41 folio #acb2        
,craigie to ,potts1 ,october #bb1 #aggf4
  #if ,ibid41 folio #ach2 ,stringer to  

,potts1 ,november #g1 #aggf4  #ig       
,duncan1 op4 cit4 7footnote #b71 p4     
#aaj4  #ih ,ford1 op4 cit4 7footnote    
#aj71 vol4 #c1 p4 #dec1 vol4 #d1 pp4    
#bd-be4  #ii ,miller1 op4 cit4 7footnote
 #a71 pp4 #ajc-aac4  #ajj ,virginia     
,gazette1 ,august #bd1 #aggf4  #aja     
,pennsylvania ,evening ,post1 ,july #ah1
 #aggf4  #ajb ,g4 ,b4 ,griffenhagen1    
,the ,day-,dunlap #agga ,pharmaceutical 
,catalogue1 ,american ,journal of       
,pharmacy1 #aiee1 vol4 #abg1 pp4        
#bif-cjb4  #ajc #ajc ,miller1 op4 cit4  
7footnote #a71 pp4 #aaj-aab4  #ajd      
,greenleaf ,ledger1 op4 cit4 7footnote  
#f74  #aje ,potts ,papers1 vol4 #b1     
folio #bac4  #ajf ,ibid41 vol4 #c1 folio
 #cje4  #ajg ,ibid41 folio #cca4  #ajh  
,ibid41 folio #cdf4  #aji ,ibid41 folio 
#ccf4  #aaj ,ibid41 folio #cfi4  #aaa   
,ibid41 folio #cca2 ,craigie to ,potts1 
,september #a1 #aggg4  #aab ,preserved  
at the ,essex ,institute1 ,salem1       
,massachusetts4  #aac ,independent      
,chronicle1 ,october #cj1 #aggg4  #aad  

,ford1 op4 cit4 7footnote #aj71 vol4 #e1
 p4 #gdh1 vol4 #g1 p4 #bgd1 vol4 #h1 p4 
#ech4 7,smith received #b1dij on        
,september #i1 #aggf1 #b1ieb on ,april  
#ag1 #aggg1 for sundry medicines1 and   
,caldwell  ,co4 received #fff on ,july  
#g1 #aggg1 for sundry medicine delivered
 ,william ,smith47  #aae ,ibid41 vol4   
#g1 p4 #cba4 7,christopher and ,charles 
,marshall received #d1aea on ,may #b1   
#aggg1 for sundry medicines and         
chirurgical instruments supplied by them
 for the use of different battalions of 
continental forces47  #aaf ,pennsylvania
 ,journal1 ,january #bi1 #aggg4  #aag   
,potts ,papers1 vol4 #b1 folio #aej4    
#aah ,ibid41 folio #aec2 ,bass to       
,potts1 ,march #ag1 #aggg4  #aai        
,pennsylvania ,journal1 ,june #aa1 ,july
 #i1 #bc1 #aggg4  #abj ,ford1 op4 cit4  
7footnote #aj71 vol4 #aa1 p4 #edf4  #aba
 ,pennsylvania ,evening ,post1 ,march   
#ah1 ,may #bg1 #aggg4  #abb ,boston     
,gazette1 ,february #c1 #aggg2          
,connecticut ,courant1 ,april #g1 #aggg4

  #abc ,pennsylvania ,packet1 ,april    
#ae1 #bb1 #aggg4 ,this anonymous article
 was written by ,dr4 ,benjamin ,rush and
 reprinted as a pamphlet4  #abd ,potts  
,papers1 vol4 #b1 folios #aeh1 #aei4    
#abe ,pennsylvania ,ledger1 ,october    
#aj1 #aggg2 ,pennsylvania ,evening      
,post1 ,october #ad1 #ah1 #aggg4  #abf  
,pennsylvania ,evening ,post1 ,november 
#a1 #h1 #ac1 #aggg1 ,april #bi1 #aggh4  
7,a large number of advertisements      
announcing thefts appeared during the   
,british occupation47  #abg             
,pennsylvania ,evening ,post1 ,january  
#aj through ,april #bj1 #aggh1 and      
,pennsylvania ,ledger1 ,april #d1 #ae1  
#aggh4 ,yeldall advertised his          
,anti-,venereal ,essence only once under
 ,american occupation1 but at #d4jj per 
bottle 7,pennsylvania ,evening ,post1   
,august #bf1 #aggg74  #abh ,pennsylvania
 ,evening ,post1 ,june #be1 #aggg4  #abi
 ,gibson1 op4 cit4 7footnote #b71 p4    
#adi4  #acj ,it was in ,february #aggh  
that ,dr4 ,potts assumed his office as  

purveyor general for the hospital       
department of the ,continental ,army    
with the duty of purchasing and         
distributing all supplies and medicines 
7ibid41 p4 #aed74  #aca ,potts ,papers1 
vol4 #a1 folio #bd4 7,this apparently is
 the list prepared by ,brown1 even      
though it is not signed by him4 ,the    
item ,medicines1 ,vials1 ,cork c        
,l#bj1jjj was added with the statement  
,the above enumerated articles should be
 purchased immediately1 and both were in
 the handwriting of ,w4 ,shippen1 ,d4,g4
 ,the document is undated47  #acb       
,ibid41 vol4 #d1 folio #dai2 ,brown to  
,potts1 ,march #aa1 #aggh4  #acc ,ibid41
 folio #dbh2 ,cutting to ,potts1 ,march 
#be1 #aggh4  #acd ,ibid41 folio #dcb2   
,cutting to ,potts1 ,march #cj1 #aggh4  
#ace ,ibid41 folio #dda2 ,cutting to    
,potts1 ,april #af1 #aggh4  #acf ,ibid41
 vol4 #b1 folio #aea2 ,tillotson to     
,potts1 ,february #bb1 #aggg4 ,cutting  
served as ,assistant ,apothecary under  
,craigie at ,cambridge and ,roxbury4    

,the feud has not been explored in any  
of ,craigie's biographies4  #acg ,ibid41
 vol4 #d1 folio #dbi2 ,craigie to       
,potts1 ,march #bg1 #aggh4  #ach ,ibid41
 folio #dcg2 ,craigie to ,potts1 ,april 
#d1 #aggh4  #aci ,ibid41 folio #daa2    
,potts to ,gates1 ,february #bd1 #aggh4 
#adj ,ibid41 folio #dda2 ,craigie to    
,potts1 ,may #a1 #aggh4  #ada ,ibid41   
vol4 #a1 folios #da1 #dd2 undated       
invoices from ,lux  ,bowly that         
undoubtedly were supplied during the    
spring or summer of #aggh4 ,also1 vol4  
#d1 folio #dgf2 letter from ,james      
,caldwell to ,potts advising ,i sent    
forward from ,baltimore a case of       
medicine  five cases of ,bark 444 ,i    
have three cases more of ,bark not yet  
up from ,williamsburg where it arrived4 
#adb ,ibid41 vol4 #d1 folio #deh2       
,craigie to ,potts1 ,may #a1 #aggh4     
,craigie advises3 ,enclosed is a small  
,list directed to ,mr4 ,root ,israel    
,root or ,josiah ,root1 both            
apothecaries from ,connecticut which ,i 

think may well be spared from the       
,northward1 and are much wanted here4 ,i
 wish therefore they may be ordered4    
,andrew ,atekin our assistant there     
might come with them--he would make a   
good ,hospital ,apothecary4 ,also1 vol4 
#d1 folio #dca1 an undated ,invoice of  
,medicines c4 to be forwared for ,head  
,quarters to ,compleat ye ,regimental   
,assortments for the ,army of the       
,united ,states in the ,middle          
,department for the ,campaign #aggh4    
#adc ,ibid41 folio #dai2 ,brown to      
,potts1 ,march #aa1 #aggh4  #add ,ibid41
 folio #deh2 ,craigie to ,potts1 ,may   
#a1 #aggh4  #ade ,ibid41 folio #dbh2    
,cutting to ,potts1 ,march #be1 #aggh4  
,cutting notes3 as to volatile salts1 ,i
 expect a fine parcel manufactured at   
,carlisle by tomorrow4  #adf ,ibid41    
folio #dga2 ,craik to ,potts1 ,may #bd1 
#aggh4 ,dr4 ,craik1 a regimental        
surgeon1 advises3 ,i wish you could     
procure some ,cathartic salts4 ,the     
,regimental surgeons complain greatly   

for want of them4444 ,you may engage any
 quantity at the salt works in the      
,jersies4  #adg ,gibson1 op4 cit4       
7footnote #b71 pp4 #aff-afg4  #adh      
,potts ,papers1 vol4 #d1 folios #dfb1   
#dfg2 ,craik to ,potts1 ,may #b and ,may
 #ae4 ,on ,may #b1 ,craik advises that  
the medicine chests are much wanted in  
the ,regiments4 ,doctr4 ,cutting had    
best have them filled up as soon as     
possible to prevent complaints4 ,on ,may
 #ae ,craik commented3 ,i am sorry      
,doctr4 ,cutting went away before the   
,regiment ,chests were finished2 there  
is great clamour about them tho ,doctr4 
,layman is as busy as possible4444 ,i   
hope ,doctr4 ,craigie will soon have his
 chests ready4  #adi ,gibson1 op4 cit4  
7footnote #b71 pp4 #afg-afh4  #aej      
,potts ,papers1 vol4 #a1 folio #be1     
undated4  #aea ,gibson1 op4 cit4        
7footnote #b71 p4 #agh1 and ,duncan1 op4
 cit4 7footnote #b71 pp4 #aae-aaf1 #bge4
  #aeb ,miller1 op4 cit4 7footnote #a71 
pp4 #dbe-dgg4  #aec ,an interesting     

account of the medical aspects of       
,burgoyne's campaign is recorded by ,r4 
,m4 ,gorssline in ,canadian ,defense    
,quarterly1 #aibi1 vol4 #f1 pp4         
#cef-cfc4         99       99       99  
99       99  ,transcriber's ,notes3     
,the marker for footnote #c is missing1 
but it appears to belong after   of the 
,lititz ,pharmacopoeia of #aggh4  ,in   
footnote #ae ,i corrected a typo1       
,pennslyvania for ,pennsylvania  ,on    
page #aae ,i removed an extra quotation 
mark   7purchasing such medicines as7   
,on page #aah ,i corrected a typo1      
capitivity for captivity   7happily     
delivered from his late capitivity7  ,on
 page #aah ,i removed an extra quotation
 mark   7will turn to good ,account47   
,on page #abj ,i corrected a typo1      
enitrely for entirely   7one half the   
load is enitrely7  ,on page #abh ,i     
corrected a typo1 mediicines for        
medicines   7,invoice of a ,chest of    
mediicines7  ,on page #abi ,i corrected 
a typo1 quandrupled for quadrupled      

7price more than quandrupled7  ,on page 
#acc ,i corrected a typo1 instument for 
instrument   7,tooth-drawing instument7 
,these words occur both ways in the text
 and ,i have not changed them3   ,bowly 
and ,bowley1 ,barnabas and ,barnabus