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"o t works be/ on y\r text read]4 --,if 80 displays z a s+le "*1 & apo/rophes & quotation m>ks are 8curly0 or angl$1 y h ! utf-#h v]sion 7be/74 ,if any "p ( ?is p>agraph displays z g>bage1 try *ang+ y\r text read]'s 8"* set0 or 8file encod+04 ,if t doesn't "w1 proce$ to3 --,9 ! ,lat9-#a v]sion1 80 is two lett]s1 b ! ^w 8ari=m0 is usually writt5 ) di]esis 7dots7 ov] ! 8e01 & 80 is a s+le lett]4 ,apo/rophes & quotation m>ks w be /raight 78typewrit]0 =m74 ,aga91 if y see any g>bage 9 ?is p>agraph & c't get x to display prop]ly1 use3 --,! ,,ascii-#g or rock-bottom v]sion4 ,all necess>y text w /ill be !re2 x j won't be z pretty4 ,! full caption ( ea* ,plate is giv5 aft] its fir/ m5tion 9 ! text--g5]ally a few pages be=e ! ,plate's physical appe>ance1 z specifi$ 9 ! caption4 ,_m t]ms us$ 9 ?is book are diff]5t f today's /&>d t]m9ology4 ,note 9 p>ticul>3 oxy-muriatic acid ! elem5t *lor9e phosphat ( lime calcium diphosphate or ! elem5t calcium glucium ! elem5t b]yllium muriatic acid hydro*loric acid muriat ( lime calcium *loride oxymuriate ( pota% potassium *lorate c>bonic acid c>bon dioxide ,fur!r details & m examples are at ! end ( ! e-text4 ,ea* ,volume _h its own table ( cont5ts4 ,!y h be5 m]g$ = ?is e-text1 b ! ,vol4 ,,ii title page 0 reta9$4 ,"s ,conv]sations 7 r5umb]$ betwe5 ! #d? & #e? edition1 result+ 9 ! app>5t disappe>ance ( ,conv]sations ,,xi & ,,xii4 ,typographical errors are li/$ at ! end ( ! text4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,,conv]sations ,,on ,,*emi/ry2 ,9 ,:i* ,! ,elem5ts ,( ,t ,sci5ce ,are ,famili>ly ,expla9$ ,& ,illu/rat$ ,by ,exp]im5ts4 ,,9 ,,two ,,volumes4 ,! ,fif? ,edition1 revis$1 correct$1 & consid]ably enl>g$4 ,,vol4 ,i4 ,,on ,,simple ,,bodies4 ,london3 ,pr9t$ ,= ,longman1 ,hur/1 ,rees1 ,orme1 & ,br[n1 ,pat]no/]-,r[4 #ahag4 ,pr9t$ by ,a4 ,/rahan1 ,pr9t]s-,/reet1 ,london4 ,,adv]tisem5t4 ,! ,au?or1 9 ?is fif? edition1 has endeav\r$ to give an acc\nt ( ! pr9cipal discov]ies :i* h be5 made )9 ! la/ f\r ye>s 9 ,*emical ,sci5ce1 & ( ! v>i\s important applications1 su* z ! gas-lights1 & ! m9]'s-lamp1 to :i* !y h giv5 rise4 ,b 9 reg>d to doctr9es or pr9ciples1 ! "w has und]gone no mat]ial alt]ation4 ,london1 ,july1 #ahag4 ,,preface4 ,9 v5tur+ to (f] to ! public1 & m p>ticul>ly to ! female sex1 an ,introduction to ,*emi/ry1 ! au?or1 h]self a woman1 conceives t "s explanation may be requir$2 & %e feels x ! m necess>y to apologise = ! pres5t und]tak+1 z h] k ( ! subject is b rec5t1 & z %e c h no real claims to ! title ( *emi/4 ,on att5d+ = ! fir/ "t exp]im5tal lectures1 ! au?or f\nd x almo/ impossible to d]ive any cle> or satisfactory in=mation f ! rapid demon/rations :i* are usually1 & p]haps necess>ily1 cr[d$ into popul> c\rses ( ?is k9d4 ,b frequ5t opportunities hav+ aft]w>ds occurr$ ( conv]s+ ) a fri5d on ! subject ( *emi/ry1 & ( repeat+ a v>iety ( exp]im5ts1 %e became bett] acqua9t$ ) ! pr9ciples ( t sci5ce1 & began to feel highly int]e/$ 9 its pursuit4 ,x 0 !n t %e p]ceiv$1 9 att5d+ ! excell5t lectures deliv]$ at ! ,royal ,in/itution1 by ! pres5t ,pr(essor ( ,*emi/ry1 ! great advantage :i* h] previ\s k ( ! subject1 slight z x 01 gave h] ov] o!rs :o _h n enjoy$ ! same means ( private in/ruction4 ,e fact or exp]im5t attract$ h] att5tion1 & s]v$ to expla9 "s !ory to :i* %e 0 n a total /rang]2 & %e _h ! gratification to f9d t ! num]\s & elegant illu/rations1 = :i* t s*ool is s mu* di/+ui%$1 seldom fail$ to produce on h] m9d ! effect = :i* !y 7 int5d$4 ,h5ce x 0 natural to inf]1 t famili> conv]sation 01 9 /udies ( ?is k9d1 a mo/ useful auxili>y s\rce ( in=mation2 & m especially to ! female sex1 ^: education is seldom calculat$ to prep>e _! m9ds = ab/ract ideas1 or sci5tific language4 ,z1 h[ev]1 !re are b few wom5 :o h access to ?is mode ( in/ruction2 & z ! au?or 0 n acqua9t$ ) any book t c\ld prove a sub/itute = x1 %e ?\ght t x might be useful = beg9n]s1 z well z satisfactory to h]self1 to trace ! /eps by :i* %e _h acquir$ h] little /ock ( *emical k1 & to record1 9 ! =m ( dialogue1 ^? ideas :i* %e _h fir/ d]iv$ f conv]sation4 ,b to d ?is ) suffici5t me?od1 & to fix ^u a mode ( arrangem5t1 0 an object ( "s difficulty4 ,aft] mu* hesitation1 & a degree ( emb>rassm5t1 :i*1 probably1 ! mo/ compet5t *emical writ]s h (t5 felt 9 common ) ! mo/ sup]ficial1 a mode ( division 0 adopt$1 :i*1 ?\gh ! mo/ natural1 does n always admit ( be+ /rictly pursu$--x is t ( treat+ fir/ ( ! simple/ bodies1 & !n gradually ris+ to ! mo/ intricate comp\nds4 ,x is n ! au?or's int5tion to ent] into a m9ute v9dication ( ?is plan4 ,b :atev] may be its advantages or inconv5i5ces1 ! me?od adopt$ 9 ?is "w is su*1 t a "y pupil1 :o %\ld occasionally recur to x1 ) a view to procure in=mation on p>ticul> subjects1 might (t5 f9d x obscure or un9telligible2 = its v>i\s p>ts are s connect$ ) ea* o!r z to =m an un9t]rupt$ *a9 ( facts & reason+s1 :i* w appe> suffici5tly cle> & consi/5t to ^? only :o may h pati5ce to g ?r\gh ! :ole "w1 or h previ\sly devot$ "s att5tion to ! subject4 ,x w1 no d\bt1 be obs]v$1 t 9 ! c\rse ( ^! ,conv]sations1 rem>ks are (t5 introduc$1 :i* appe> mu* too acute = ! "y pupils1 by :om !y are suppos$ to be made4 ,( ?is fault ! au?or is fully aw>e4 ,b1 9 ord] to avoid x1 x w\ld h be5 necess>y ei!r to omit a v>iety ( useful illu/rations1 or to submit to su* m9ute explanations & frequ5t repetitions1 z w\ld h r5d]$ ! "w t$i\s1 & !re=e less suit$ to its int5d$ purpose4 ,9 writ+ ^! pages1 ! au?or 0 m ?an once *eck$ 9 h] progress by ! appreh5sion t su* an attempt might be consid]$ by "s1 ei!r z unsuit$ to ! ord9>y pursuits ( h] sex1 or ill-ju/ifi$ by h] own rec5t & imp]fect k ( ! subject4 ,b1 on ! "o h&1 %e felt enc\rag$ by ! e/abli%m5t ( ^? public in/itutions1 op5 to bo? sexes1 = ! dissem9ation ( philosophical k1 :i* cle>ly prove t ! g5]al op9ion no long] excludes wom5 f an acqua9tance ) ! elem5ts ( sci5ce2 &1 on ! o!r1 %e flatt]$ h]self t :il/ ! impressions made ^u h] m9d1 by ! wond]s ( ,nature1 /udi$ 9 ?is new po9t ( view1 7 /ill fre% & /rong1 %e might p]haps succe$ ! bett] 9 communicat+ to o!rs ! s5tim5ts %e h]self exp]i5c$4 ,! read] w soon p]ceive1 9 p]us+ ?is "w1 t he is (t5 suppos$ to h previ\sly acquir$ "s slight k ( natural philosophy1 a circum/ance1 inde$1 :i* appe>s v desirable4 ,! au?or's orig9al int5tion 0 to comm5ce ?is "w by a small tract1 expla9+1 on a plan analog\s to ?is1 ! mo/ ess5tial rudim5ts ( t sci5ce4 ,?is idea %e has s9ce ab&on$2 b ! manuscript 0 ready1 & might1 p]haps1 h be5 pr9t$ at "s future p]iod1 _h n an elem5t>y "w ( a simil> description1 "u ! tide ( 8,sci5tific ,dialogues10 be5 po9t$ out to h]1 :i*1 on a rapid p]usal1 %e ?\ght v +5i\s1 & well calculat$ to answ] its int5d$ object4 ,cont5ts ,( ,! ,fir/ ,volume4 ,,on ,,simple ,,bodies4 ,,conv]sation ,i4 ,page ,,on ,,! ,,g5]al ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,*emi/ry4 #a ,connexion betwe5 ,*emi/ry & ,natural ,philosophy4 --,improv$ ,/ate ( mod]n ,*emi/ry4 --,its use 9 ! ,arts4 --,! g5]al ,objects ( ,*emi/ry4 --,def9ition ( ,elem5t>y ,bodies4 --,def9ition ( ,decomposition4 --,integrant & ,con/itu5t ,p>ticles4 --,di/9ction betwe5 ,simple & ,comp\nd ,bodies4 --,classification ( ,simple ,bodies4 --,( ,*emical ,aff9ity1 or ,attraction ( ,composition4 --,examples ( ,composition & ,decomposition4 ,,conv]sation ,,ii4 ,,on ,,light ,,& ,,heat4 #bf ,light & ,heat capable ( be+ sep>at$4 --,dr4 ,h]s*el's ,exp]im5ts4 --,phosphoresc5ce4 --,( ,caloric4 --,its two ,modifications4 --,free ,caloric4 --,( ! ?ree diff]5t ,/ates ( ,bodies1 solid1 fluid1 & a]i=m4 --,dilatation ( solid ,bodies4 --,pyromet]4 --,dilatation ( ,fluids4 --,!rmomet]4 --,dilatation ( ,ela/ic ,fluids4 --,air ,!rmomet]4 --,equal ,diffusion ( ,caloric4 --,cold a ,negative ,quality4 --,pr(essor ,prevo/'s ,!ory ( ! ,radiation ( ,heat4 --,pr(essor ,pictet's ,exp]im5ts on ! ,reflexion ( ,heat4 --,mr4 ,leslie's ,exp]im5ts on ! ,radiation ( ,heat4 ,,conv]sation ,,iii4 ,,cont9uation ,,( ,,! ,,subject4 #gj ,( ! diff]5t ,p[] ( ,bodies to conduct ,heat4 --,attempt to acc\nt = ?is ,p[]4 --,c\nt ,rum=d's ,!ory ( ! non-conduct+ ,p[] ( ,fluids4 --,ph5om5a ( ,boil+4 --,( ,solution 9 g5]al4 --,solv5t ,p[] ( ,wat]4 --,diff]5ce betwe5 ,solution & ,mixture4 --,solv5t ,p[] ( ,caloric4 --,( ,cl\ds1 ,ra91 ,dr4 ,wells' !ory ( ,dew1 ,evaporation1 c4 --,influ5ce ( ,atmosph]ical ,pressure on ,evaporation4 --,ignition4 ,,conv]sation ,,iv4 ,,on ,,comb9$ ,,caloric1 ,,compreh5d+ ,,specific ,,heat ,,& ,,lat5t ,,heat4 #abb ,( ,specific ,heat4 --,( ! diff]5t ,capacities ( ,bodies = ,heat4 --,specific ,heat n p]ceptible by ! ,s5ses4 --,h[ to be asc]ta9$4 --,( ,lat5t ,heat4 --,di/9ction betwe5 ,lat5t & ,specific ,heat4 --,ph5om5a att5d+ ! ,melt+ ( ,ice & ! ,=mation ( ,vap\r4 --,ph5om5a att5d+ ! ,=mation ( ,ice1 & ! ,cond5sation ( ,ela/ic ,fluids4 --,in/ances ( ,cond5sation1 & consequ5t ,dis5gagem5t ( ,heat1 produc$ by ,mixtures1 by ! ,slak+ ( ,lime4 --,g5]al ,rem>ks on ,lat5t ,heat4 --,explanation ( ! ,ph5om5a ( ,e!r boil+1 & ,wat] freez+1 at ! same ,temp]ature4 --,( ! ,production ( ,cold by ,evaporation4 --,calorimet]4 --,meteorological ,rem>ks4 ,,conv]sation ,v4 ,,on ,,! ,,*emical ,,ag5cies ,,( ,,electricity4 #afj ,( ,positive & ,negative ,electricity4 --,galvani's ,discov]ies4 --,voltaic ,batt]y4 --,electrical ,ma*9e4 --,!ory ( ,voltaic ,excitem5t4 ,,conv]sation ,,vi4 ,,on ,,oxyg5 ,,& ,,nitrog54 #aha ,! ,atmosph]e compos$ ( ,oxyg5 & ,nitrog5 9 ! ,/ate ( ,gas4 --,def9ition ( ,gas4 --,di/9ction betwe5 ,gas & ,vap\r4 --,oxyg5 ess5tial to ,combu/ion & ,respiration4 --,decomposition ( ! ,atmosph]e by ,combu/ion4 --,nitrog5 ,gas obta9$ by ?is ,process4 --,( ,oxyg5ation 9 g5]al4 --,( ! ,oxydation ( ,metals4 --,oxyg5 ,gas obta9$ f ,oxyd ( ,manganese4 --,description ( a ,wat]-,ba? = collect+ & pres]v+ ,gases4 --,combu/ion ( ,iron ,wire 9 ,oxyg5 ,gas4 --,fix$ & volatile ,products ( ,combu/ion4 --,pat5t ,lamps4 --,decomposition ( ! ,atmosph]e by ,respiration4 --,recomposition ( ! ,atmosph]e4 ,,conv]sation ,,vii4 ,,on ,,hydrog54 #bad ,( ,hydrog54 --,( ! ,=mation ( ,wat] by ! ,combu/ion ( ,hydrog54 --,( ! ,decomposition ( ,wat]4 --,detonation ( ,hydrog5 ,gas4 --,description ( ,lavoisi]'s ,app>atus = ! =mation ( ,wat]4 --,hydrog5 ,gas ess5tial to ! ,production ( ,flame4 --,musical ,tones produc$ by ! ,combu/ion ( ,hydrog5 ,gas )9 a ,glass ,tube4 --,combu/ion ( ,c&les expla9$4 --,gas lights4 --,detonation ( ,hydrog5 ,gas 9 ,soap ,bubbles4 --,air ,balloons4 --,meteorological ,ph5om5a ascrib$ to ,hydrog5 ,gas4 --,m9]'s ,lamp4 ,transcrib]'s ,note3 ,! f9al two pages ( ! ,table ( ,cont5ts = ,volume ,i 7 miss+2 ev]y?+ aft] 8,decomposition ( ,wat]0 0 suppli$ f e>li] & lat] editions1 comp>$ aga9/ ! body text4 ,! section m>k$ 8,diamond0 7,conv4 ,,ix7 0 call$ 8,diamond is ,c>bon7e7 9 a /ate ( p]fect purity0 9 ! #d? edn41 8,diamond0 alone 9 lat] editions4 ,,conv]sation ,,viii4 ,,on ,,sulphur ,,& ,,phosphorus4 #bef ,natural ,hi/ory ( ,sulphur4 --,sublimation4 --,alembic4 --,combu/ion ( ,sulphur 9 ,atmosph]ic ,air4 --,( ,acidification 9 g5]al4 --,nom5clature ( ! ,acids4 --,combu/ion ( ,sulphur 9 ,oxyg5 ,gas4 --,sulphuric ,acid4 --,sulphur\s ,acid4 --,decomposition ( ,sulphur4 --,sulphurat$ ,hydrog5 ,gas4 --,h>rogate1 or ,hydro-sulphurat$ ,wat]s4 --,phosphorus4 --,hi/ory ( its ,discov]y4 --,its ,combu/ion 9 ,oxyg5 ,gas4 --,phosphoric ,acid4 --,phosphorus ,acid4 --,eudiomet]4 --,comb9ation ( ,phosphorus ) ,sulphur4 --,phosphorat$ ,hydrog5 ,gas4 --,nom5clature ( ,b9>y ,comp\nds4 --,phosphoret ( ,lime burn+ "u ,wat]4 ,,conv]sation ,,ix4 ,,on ,,c>bon4 #bhb ,me?od ( obta9+ pure ,*>coal4 --,me?od ( mak+ common ,*>coal4 --,pure ,c>bon n to be obta9$ by ,art4 --,diamond4 --,prop]ties ( ,c>bon4 --,combu/ion ( ,c>bon4 --,production ( ,c>bonic ,acid ,gas4 --,c>bon susceptible ( only "o ,degree ( ,acidification4 --,gase\s ,oxyd ( ,c>bon4 --,( ,seltz] ,wat] & o!r ,m9]al ,wat]s4 --,eff]vesc5ce4 --,decomposition ( ,wat] by ,c>bon4 --,( ,fix$ & ,ess5tial ,oils4 --,( ! ,combu/ion ( ,lamps & ,c&les4 --,vegetable ,acids4 --,( ! ,p[] ( ,c>bon to revive ,metals4 ,,conv]sation ,x4 ,,on ,,metals4 #cad ,natural ,hi/ory ( ,metals4 --,( ,roa/+1 ,smelt+1 c4 --,oxydation ( metals by ! ,atmosph]e4 --,*ange ( ,col\rs produc$ by diff]5t degrees ( ,oxydation4 --,combu/ion ( ,metals4 --,p]fect ,metals burnt by ,electricity only4 --,"s ,metals reviv$ by ,c>bon & o!r ,combu/ibles4 --,p]fect ,metals reviv$ by ,heat alone4 --,( ! ,oxydation ( c]ta9 ,metals by ! ,decomposition ( ,wat]4 ,p[] ( ,acids to promote ?is ,effect4 --,oxydation ( ,metals by ,acids4 --,metallic ,neutral ,salts4 --,previ\s oxydation ( ! ,metal requisite4 --,cry/allisation4 --,solution di/+ui%$ f ,dissolution4 --,five metals susceptible ( acidification4 --,meteoric ,/ones4 --,alloys1 ,sold]+1 ,plat+1 c4 --,( ,ars5ic1 & ( ! cau/ic ,effects ( ,oxyg54 --,( ,v]digris1 ,sympa!tic ,ink1 c4 --,( ! new ,metals discov]$ by ,sir ,h4 ,davy4 ,cont5ts ,( ,! ,second ,volume4 ,,on ,,comp\nd ,,bodies4 ,,conv]sation ,,xiii4 ,page ,,on ,,! ,,attraction ,,( ,,composition4 #a ,( ! laws :i* regulate ! ,ph5om5a ( ! ,attraction ( ,composition4 --#a4 ,x takes place only betwe5 ,bodies ( a diff]5t ,nature4 --#b4 ,betwe5 ! mo/ m9ute ,p>ticles only4 --#c4 ,betwe5 #b1 #c1 #d1 or m ,bodies4 --,( ,comp\nd or ,neutral ,salts4 --#d4 ,produces a ,*ange ( ,temp]ature4 --#e4 ,! ,prop]ties :i* *>act]ise ,bodies 9 _! sep>ate ,/ate1 de/roy$ by ,comb9ation4 --#f4 ,! ,=ce ( ,attraction e/imat$ by t :i* is requir$ by ! ,sep>ation ( ! ,con/itu5ts4 --#g4 ,bodies h among/ !mselves diff]5t ,degrees ( ,attraction4 --,( simple elective & d\ble elective ,attractions4 --,( quiesc5t & divell5t ,=ces4 --,law ( def9ite ,proportions4 --,decomposition ( ,salts by ,voltaic ,electricity4 ,,conv]sation ,,xiv4 ,,on ,,alkalies4 #ai ,( ! ,composition & g5]al ,prop]ties ( ! ,alkalies4 --,( ,pota%4 --,mann] ( prep>+ x4 --,pe>la%4 --,soap4 --,c>bonat ( ,pota%4 --,*emical ,nom5clature4 --,solution ( ,pota%4 --,( ,glass4 --,( ,nitrat ( ,pota% or ,saltpetre4 --,effect ( ,alkalies on ,vegetable ,col\rs4 --,( ,soda4 --,( ,ammonia or ,volatile ,alkali4 --,muriat ( ,ammonia4 --,ammoniacal ,gas4 --,composition ( ,ammonia4 --,h>t%orn & ,sal ,volatile4 --,combu/ion ( ,ammoniacal ,gas4 ,,conv]sation ,,xv4 ,,on ,,e>?s4 #dd ,composition ( ! ,e>?s4 --,( _! ,incombu/ibility4 --,=m ! ,basis ( all ,m9]als4 --,_! ,alkal9e ,prop]ties4 --,silex2 its ,prop]ties & ,uses 9 ! ,arts4 --,alum9e2 its ,uses 9 ,pott]y1 c4 --,alkal9e ,e>?s4 --,b>ytes4 --,lime2 its ext5sive *emical ,prop]ties & ,uses 9 ! ,arts4 --,magnesia4 --,/rontian4 ,,conv]sation ,,xvi4 ,,on ,,acids4 #fi ,nom5clature ( ! ,acids4 --,( ! ,classification ( ,acids4 --#a/ ,class --,acids ( simple & kn[n ,radicals1 or ,m9]al ,acids4 --#b;d ,class --,acids ( d\ble ,radicals1 or ,vegetable ,acids4 --#c;d ,class --,acids ( triple ,radicals or ,animal ,acids4 --,( ! ,decomposition ( ,acids ( ! #a/ ,class by ,combu/ible bodies4 ,,conv]sation ,,xvii4 ,,( ,,! ,,sulphuric ,,& ,,phosphoric ,,acids3 ,,or1 ,,! ,,comb9ations ,,( ,,oxyg5 ,,) ,,sulphur ,,& ,,) ,,phosphorus2 ,,& ,,( ,,! ,,sulphats ,,& ,,phosphats4 #hj ,( ! ,sulphuric ,acid4 --,combu/ion ( ,animal or ,vegetable ,bodies by ?is ,acid4 --,me?od ( prep>+ x4 -- ,! ,sulphur\s ,acid obta9$ 9 ! ,=m ( ,gas4 --,may be obta9$ f ,sulphuric ,acid4 --,may be r$uc$ to ,sulphur4 --,is absorbable by ,wat]4 --,de/roys ,vegetable ,col\rs4 --,oxyd ( ,sulphur4 --,( ,salts 9 g5]al4 --,sulphats4 --,sulphat ( ,pota%1 or ,sal ,poly*re/4 --,cold produc$ by ! melt+ ( ,salts4 --,sulphat ( ,soda1 or ,glaub]'s ,salt4 --,heat evolv$ dur+ ! ,=mation ( ,salts4 --,cry/allisation ( ,salts4 --,wat] ( ,cry/allisation4 --,effloresc5ce & ,deliquesc5ce ( ,salts4 --,sulphat ( ,lime1 ,gypsum or ,plai/] ( ,p>is4 --,sulphat ( ,magnesia4 --,sulphat ( ,alum9e1 or ,alum4 --,sulphat ( ,iron4 --,( ,ink4 --,( ! ,phosphoric & ,phosphor\s ,acids4 --,phosphorus obta9$ f ,bones4 --,phosphat ( ,lime4 ,,conv]sation ,,xviii4 ,,( ,,! ,,nitric ,,& ,,c>bonic ,,acids3 ,,or ,,! ,,comb9ation ,,( ,,oxyg5 ,,) ,,nitrog5 ,,& ,,) ,,c>bon2 ,,& ,,( ,,! ,,nitrats ,,& ,,c>bonats4 #ajj ,nitrog5 susceptible ( v>i\s ,degrees ( ,acidification4 --,( ! ,nitric ,acid4 --,its ,nature & ,composition discov]$ by ,mr4 ,cav5di%4 --,obta9$ f ,nitrat ( ,pota%4 --,aqua ,=tis4 --,nitric ,acid may be conv]t$ into ,nitr\s ,acid4 --,nitric ,oxyd ,gas4 --,its ,conv]sion into ,nitr\s ,acid ,gas4 --,us$ z an ,eudiometrical ,te/4 --,gase\s ,oxyd ( ,nitrog51 or exhil>at+ ,gas1 obta9$ f ,nitrat ( ,ammonia4 --,its s+ul> ,effects on be+ respir$4 --,nitrats4 --,( ,nitrat ( ,pota%1 ,nitre or ,saltpetre4 --,( ,gunp[d]4 --,causes ( ,detonation4 --,decomposition ( ,nitre4 --,deflagration4 --,nitrat ( ,ammonia4 --,nitrat ( ,silv]4 --,( ! ,c>bonic ,acid4 --,=m$ by ! ,combu/ion ( ,c>bon4 --,con/itutes a compon5t ,"p ( ! ,atmosph]e4 --,exhal$ 9 "s ,cav]ns4 --,grotto del ,cane4 --,great ,weight ( ?is ,gas4 --,produc$ f calc>e\s ,/ones by ,sulphuric ,acid4 --,delet]i\s ,effects ( ?is ,gas :5 respir$4 --,s\rces :i* keep up a ,supply ( ?is ,gas 9 ! ,atmosph]e4 --,its ,effects on ,vegetation4 --,( ! ,c>bonats ( ,lime2 ,m>ble1 ,*alk1 ,%ells1 ,sp>s1 & calc>e\s ,/ones4 ,,conv]sation ,,xix4 ,,on ,,! ,,boracic1 ,,fluoric1 ,,muriatic1 ,,& ,,oxyg5at$ ,,muriatic ,,acids2 ,,& ,,on ,,muriats4 #aca ,on ! ,boracic ,acid4 --,its ,decomposition by ,sir ,h4 ,davy4 --,its ,basis ,boracium4 --,its ,recomposition4 --,its ,uses 9 ! ,arts4 --,borax or ,borat ( ,soda4 --,( ! ,fluoric ,acid4 --,obta9$ f ,fluor2 corrodes ,silice\s ,e>?2 its suppos$ ,composition4 --,fluor9e2 its suppos$ ,basis4 --,( ! ,muriatic ,acid4 --,obta9$ f ,muriats4 --,its gase\s ,=m4 --,is absorbable by ,wat]4 --,its ,decomposition4 --,is susceptible ( a /rong] ,degree ( ,oxyg5ation4 --,oxyg5at$ ,muriatic ,acid4 --,its gase\s ,=m & o!r ,prop]ties4 --,combu/ion ( ,bodies 9 ?is ,gas4 --,x dissolves ,gold4 --,composition ( ,aqua ,regia4 --,oxyg5at$ ,muriatic ,acid de/roys all ,col\rs4 --,sir ,h4 ,davy's ,!ory ( ! ,nature ( ,muriatic & ,oxymuriatic ,acid4 --,*lor9e4 --,us$ = ,blea*+ & = ,fumigations4 --,its (f5sive ,smell1 c4 --,muriats4 --,muriat ( ,soda1 or common ,salt4 --,muriat ( ,ammonia4 --,oxyg5at$ ,muriat ( ,pota%4 --,detonates ) ,sulphur1 ,phosphorus1 c4 --,exp]im5t ( burn+ ,phosphorus "u ,wat] by means ( ?is ,salt & ( ,sulphuric ,acid4 ,,conv]sation ,,xx4 ,,on ,,! ,,nature ,,& ,,composition ,,( ,,vegetables4 #afb ,( organis$ ,bodies4 --,( ! ,functions ( ,vegetables4 --,( ! ,elem5ts ( ,vegetables4 --,( ! ,mat]ials ( ,vegetables4 --,analysis ( ,vegetables4 --,( ,sap4 --,mucilage1 or ,gum4 --,sug>4 --,manna1 & ,honey4 --,glut54 --,vegetable ,oils4 --,fix$ ,oils1 ,l9se$1 ,nut1 & ,olive ,oils4 --,volatile ,oils1 =m+ ,ess5ces & ,p]fumes4 --,camphor4 --,res9s & ,v>ni%es4 --,pit*1 ,t>1 ,copal1 ,ma/ic1 c4 --,gum ,res9s4 --,myrrh1 ,assaftida1 c4 --,ca\t*\c1 or ,gum ,ela/ic4 --,extractive col\r+ ,matt]2 its ,use 9 ! ,arts ( ,dye+ & ,pa9t+4 --,tann92 its ,use 9 ! ,art ( prep>+ ,lea!r4 --,woody ,fibre4 --,vegetable ,acids4 --,! ,alkalies & ,salts conta9$ 9 ,vegetables4 ,,conv]sation ,,xxi4 ,,on ,,! ,,decomposition ,,( ,,vegetables4 #bjb ,( ,f]m5tation 9 g5]al4 --,( ! ,sac*>9e ,f]m5tation1 ! ,product ( :i* is ,sug>4 --,( ! ,v9\s ,f]m5tation1 ! ,product ( :i* is ,w9e4 --,alcohol1 or ,_s ( ,w9e4 --,analysis ( ,w9e by ,di/illation4 --,( ,br&y1 ,rum1 ,arrack1 ,g91 c4 --,t>trit ( ,pota%1 or ,cream ( ,t>t>4 --,liqueurs4 --,*emical ,prop]ties ( ,alcohol4 --,its ,combu/ion4 --,( ,e!r4 --,( ! ,acet\s ,f]m5tation1 ! ,product ( :i* is ,v9eg>4 --,f]m5tation ( ,bread4 --,( ! ,putrid ,f]m5tation1 :i* r$uces ,vegetables to _! ,elem5ts4 --,spontane\s ,succession ( ^! ,f]m5tations4 --,( ,vegetables said to be petrifi$4 --,( ,bitum5s3 ,naph?a1 ,asphaltum1 ,jet1 ,coal1 ,succ91 or ,yell[ ,amb]4 --,( ,fossil ,wood1 ,peat1 & ,turf4 ,,conv]sation ,,xxii4 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,vegetation4 #bdc ,connexion betwe5 ! ,vegetable & ,animal ,k+doms4 --,( ,manures4 --,( ,agriculture4 --,inexhau/ible ,s\rces ( ,mat]ials = ! ,purposes ( ,agriculture4 --,( s[+ ,se$4 --,g]m9ation ( ! ,se$4 --,function ( ! ,leaves ( ,plants4 --,effects ( ,light & ,air on ,vegetation4 --,effects ( ,wat] on ,vegetation4 --,effects ( ,vegetation on ! ,atmosph]e4 --,=mation ( ,vegetable ,mat]ials by ! ,organs ( ,plants4 --,vegetable ,heat4 --,( ! ,organs ( ,plants4 --,( ! ,b>k1 consi/+ ( ,epid]mis1 ,p>5*yma1 & ,cortical ,lay]s4 --,( ,alburnum1 or ,wood4 --,leaves1 ,fl[]s1 & ,se$s4 --,effects ( ! ,season on ,vegetation4 --,vegetation ( ,ev]gre5s 9 ,w9t]4 ,,conv]sation ,,xxiii4 ,,on ,,! ,,composition ,,( ,,animals4 #bgf ,elem5ts ( ,animals4 --,( ! pr9cipal ,mat]ials ( ,animals1 viz4 --,gelat9e1 ,album51 ,fibr9e1 ,mucus4 --,( ,animal ,acids4 --,( ,animal ,col\rs1 ,prussian ,blue1 ,c>m9e1 & ,ivory ,black4 ,,conv]sation ,,xxiv4 ,,on ,,! ,,animal ,,economy4 #big ,( ! pr9cipal ,animal ,organs4 --,( ,bones1 ,tee?1 ,horns1 ,ligam5ts1 & ,c>tilage4 --,( ! ,muscles1 con/itut+ ! ,organs ( ,motion4 --,( ! ,vascul> ,sy/em1 = ! ,conveyance ( ,fluids4 --,( ! ,gl&s1 = ! ,secretion ( ,fluids4 --,( ! ,n]ves1 con/itut+ ! ,organs ( ,s5sation4 --,( ! ,cellul> ,sub/ance :i* connects ! sev]al ,organs4 --,( ! ,sk94 ,,conv]sation ,,xxv4 ,,on ,,animalisation1 ,,nutrition1 ,,& ,,respiration4 #cad ,dige/ion4 --,solv5t ,p[] ( ! ,ga/ric ,juice4 --,=mation ( a ,*yle4 --,its ,assimilation1 or ,conv]sion into ,blood4 --,( ,respiration4 --,me*anical ,process ( ,respiration4 --,*emical ,process ( ,respiration4 --,( ! ,circulation ( ! ,blood4 --,( ! ,functions ( ! ,art]ies1 ! ,ve9s1 & ! ,he>t4 --,( ! ,lungs4 --,effects ( ,respiration on ! ,blood4 ,,conv]sation ,,xxvi4 ,,on ,,animal ,,heat2 ,,& ,,( ,,v>i\s ,,animal ,,products4 #ccf ,( ! ,analogy ( ,combu/ion & ,respiration4 --,animal ,heat evolv$ 9 ! ,lungs4 --,animal ,heat evolv$ 9 ! ,circulation4 --,heat produc$ by ,fev]4 --,p]spiration4 --,heat produc$ by ,ex]cise4 --,equal ,temp]ature ( ,animals at all ,seasons4 --,p[] ( ! ,animal ,body to resi/ ! ,effects ( ,heat4 --,cold produc$ by ,p]spiration4 --,respiration ( ,fi% & ( ,birds4 --,effects ( ,respiration on ,muscul> ,/r5g?4 --,( sev]al ,animal ,products1 viz4 ,milk1 ,butt]1 & ,*eese2 ,sp]maceti2 ,amb]gris2 ,wax2 ,lac2 ,silk2 ,musk2 ,civet2 ,ca/or4 --,( ! putrid ,f]m5tation4 --,conclusion4 ,,conv]sations ,,on ,,*emi/ry4 ,,conv]sation ,i4 ,,on ,,! ,,g5]al ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,*emi/ry4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,z y h n[ acquir$ "s elem5t>y notions ( ,,natural ,,philosophy1 ,i am go+ to propose to y ano!r bran* ( sci5ce1 to :i* ,i am p>ticul>ly anxi\s t y %\ld devote a %>e ( y\r att5tion4 ,?is is ,,*emi/ry1 :i* is s closely connect$ ) ,natural ,philosophy1 t ! /udy ( ! "o mu/ be incomplete )\t "s k ( ! o!r2 =1 x is obvi\s t we c d]ive b a v imp]fect idea ( bodies f ! /udy ( ! g5]al laws by :i* !y are gov]n$1 if we rema9 totally ignorant ( _! intimate nature4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,to confess ! tru?1 ,mrs4 ,b41 ,i am n dispos$ to =m a v fav\rable idea ( *emi/ry1 nor d ,i expect to d]ive mu* ent]ta9m5t f x4 ,i pref] ! sci5ces :i* exhibit nature on a gr& scale1 to ^? t are conf9$ to ! m9uti ( petty details4 ,c ! /udies :i* we h lately pursu$1 ! g5]al prop]ties ( matt]1 or ! revolutions ( ! heav5ly bodies1 be comp>$ to ! mix+ up ( a few insignificant drugs8 ,i grant1 h[ev]1 !re may be ent]ta9+ exp]im5ts 9 *emi/ry1 & %\ld n dislike to try "s ( !m3 ! di/ill+1 = in/ance1 ( lav5d]1 or rose wat] 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i r imag9e1 my de> ,c>ol9e1 t y\r want ( ta/e = *emi/ry proce$s f ! v limit$ idea y ent]ta9 ( its object4 ,y conf9e ! *emi/'s laboratory to ! n>r[ prec9cts ( ! apo!c>y's & p]fum]'s %ops1 :il/ x is subs]vi5t to an imm5se v>iety ( o!r useful purposes4 ,besides1 my de>1 *emi/ry is by no means conf9$ to works ( art4 ,nature also has h] laboratory1 :i* is ! univ]se1 & !re %e is incessantly employ$ 9 *emical op]ations4 ,y are surpris$1 ,c>ol9e1 b ,i assure y t ! mo/ wond]ful & ! mo/ int]e/+ ph5om5a ( nature are almo/ all ( !m produc$ by *emical p[]s4 ,:at ,b]gman1 9 ! introduction to 8 hi/ory ( *emi/ry1 has said ( ?is sci5ce1 w give y a m j & enl>g$ idea ( x4 ,! k ( nature may be divid$1 he obs]ves1 into ?ree p]iods4 ,! fir/ 0 t 9 :i* ! att5tion ( m5 0 occupi$ 9 le>n+ ! ext]nal =ms & *>act]s ( objects1 & ?is is call$ ,natural ,hi/ory4 ,9 ! second1 !y consid]$ ! effects ( bodies act+ on ea* o!r by _! me*anical p[]1 z _! weight & motion1 & ?is con/itutes ! sci5ce ( ,natural ,philosophy4 ,! ?ird p]iod is t 9 :i* ! prop]ties & mutual action ( ! elem5t>y p>ts ( bodies 0 inve/igat$4 ,?is la/ is ! sci5ce ( ,,*emi/ry1 & ,i h no d\bt y w soon agree ) me 9 ?9k+ x ! mo/ int]e/+4 ,y may easily conceive1 !re=e1 t )\t ent]+ into ! m9ute details ( practical *emi/ry1 a woman may obta9 su* a k ( ! sci5ce z w n only ?r[ an int]e/ on ! common occurr5ces ( life1 b w enl>ge ! sph]e ( h] ideas1 & r5d] ! contemplation ( nature a s\rce ( delightful in/ruction4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,if ?is is ! case1 ,i h c]ta9ly be5 mu* mi/ak5 9 ! notion ,i _h =m$ ( *emi/ry4 ,i own t ,i ?\ght x 0 *iefly conf9$ to ! k & prep>ation ( m$ic9es4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t is only a bran* ( *emi/ry :i* is call$ ,ph>macy2 &1 ?\gh ! /udy ( x is c]ta9ly ( great importance to ! _w at l>ge1 x belongs exclusively to pr(essional m51 & is !re=e ! la/ t ,i %\ld advise y to pursue4 ,,emily4 ,b1 did n ! *emi/s =m]ly employ !mselves 9 se>* ( ! philosoph]'s /one1 or ! secret ( mak+ gold8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,^! 7 a p>ticul> set ( misguid$ philosoph]s1 :o dignifi$ !mselves ) ! "n ( ,al*emi/s1 to di/+ui% _! pursuits f ^? ( ! common *emi/s1 ^: /udies 7 conf9$ to ! k ( m$ic9es4 ,b1 s9ce t p]iod1 *emi/ry has und]gone s complete a revolution1 t1 f an obscure & my/]i\s art1 x is n[ become a regul> & beautiful sci5ce1 to :i* art is entirely subs]vi5t4 ,x is true1 h[ev]1 t we are indebt$ to ! al*emi/s = _m v useful discov]ies1 :i* sprung f _! fruitless attempts to make gold1 & :i*1 und\bt$ly1 h prov$ ( inf9itely great] advantage to mank9d ?an all _! *im]ical pursuits4 ,! mod]n *emi/s1 in/ead ( direct+ _! ambition to ! va9 attempt ( produc+ any ( ! orig9al sub/ances 9 nature1 r aim at analys+ & imitat+ h] op]ations1 & h sometimes succe$$ 9 =m+ comb9ations1 or effect+ decompositions1 no in/ances ( :i* occur 9 ! *emi/ry ( ,nature4 ,!y h little reason to regret _! inability to make gold1 :il/1 by _! innum]able inv5tions & discov]ies1 !y h s greatly /imulat$ indu/ry & facilitat$ lab\r1 z prodigi\sly to increase ! luxuries z well z ! necess>ies ( life4 ,,emily4 ,b1 ,i d n und]/& by :at means *emi/ry c facilitate lab\r2 is n t r ! prov9ce ( ! me*anic8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,!re are _m ways by :i* lab\r may be r5d]$ m easy1 indep5d5tly ( me*anics2 b ev5 ! ma*9e1 ! mo/ wond]ful 9 its effects1 ! ,/eam-eng9e1 _c be und]/ood )\t ! assi/ance ( *emi/ry4 ,9 agriculture1 a *emical k ( ! nature ( soils1 & ( vegetation1 is highly useful2 &1 9 ^? arts :i* relate to ! com=ts & conv5i5ces ( life1 x w\ld be endless to enum]ate ! advantages :i* result f ! /udy ( ?is sci5ce4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b1 pray1 tell u m precisely 9 :at mann] ! discov]ies ( *emi/s h prov$ s b5eficial to society8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t w\ld be an injudici\s anticipation2 = y w\ld n compreh5d ! nature ( su* discov]ies & useful applications1 z well z y w d h]eaft]4 ,)\t a due reg>d to me?od1 we _c expect to make any progress 9 *emi/ry4 ,i wi% to direct y\r obs]vations *iefly to ! *emical op]ations ( ,nature2 b ^? ( ,art are c]ta9ly ( too high importance to pass unnotic$4 ,we %all !re=e all[ !m also "s %>e ( our att5tion4 ,,emily4 ,well1 !n1 let u n[ set to "w regul>ly4 ,i am v anxi\s to beg94 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! object ( *emi/ry is to obta9 a k ( ! intimate nature ( bodies1 & ( _! mutual action on ea* o!r4 ,y f9d !re=e1 ,c>ol9e1 t ?is is no n>r[ or conf9$ sci5ce1 :i* compreh5ds e ?+ mat]ial )9 our sph]e4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,on ! contr>y1 x mu/ be inexhau/ible2 & ,i am a loss to conceive h[ any pr(ici5cy c be made 9 a sci5ce ^: objects are s num]\s4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,if e individual sub/ance 7 =m$ ( diff]5t mat]ials1 ! /udy ( *emi/ry w\ld1 inde$1 be endless2 b y mu/ obs]ve t ! v>i\s bodies 9 nature are compos$ ( c]ta9 elem5t>y pr9ciples1 :i* are n v num]\s4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,yes2 ,i "k t all bodies are compos$ ( fire1 air1 e>?1 & wat]2 ,i le>nt t _m ye>s ago4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,b y mu/ n[ endeav\r to =get x4 ,i h already in=m$ y :at a great *ange *emi/ry has und]gone s9ce x has become a regul> sci5ce4 ,)9 ^! ?irty ye>s especially1 x has exp]i5c$ an entire revolution1 & x is n[ prov$1 t nei!r fire1 air1 e>?1 nor wat]1 c be call$ elem5t>y bodies4 ,= an elem5t>y body is "o t has nev] be5 decompos$1 t is to say1 sep>at$ into o!r sub/ances2 & fire1 air1 e>?1 & wat]1 are all ( !m susceptible ( decomposition4 ,,emily4 ,i ?\ght t decompos+ a body 0 divid+ x into its m9ute/ p>ts4 ,& if s1 ,i d n und]/& :y an elem5t>y sub/ance is n capable ( be+ decompos$1 z well z any o!r4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y h misconceiv$ ! idea ( decomposition2 x is v diff]5t f m]e division4 ,! latt] simply r$uces a body into p>ts1 b ! =m] sep>ates x into ! v>i\s +r$i5ts1 or mat]ials1 ( :i* x is compos$4 ,if we 7 to take a loaf ( bread1 & sep>ate ! sev]al +r$i5ts ( :i* x is made1 ! fl\r1 ! yea/1 ! salt1 & ! wat]1 x w\ld be v diff]5t f cutt+ or crumbl+ ! loaf into pieces4 ,,emily4 ,i und]/& y n[ v well4 ,to decompose a body is to sep>ate f ea* o!r ! v>i\s elem5t>y sub/ances ( :i* x consi/s4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b fl\r1 wat]1 & o!r mat]ials ( bread1 accord+ to our def9ition1 are n elem5t>y sub/ances8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no1 my de>2 ,i m5tion$ bread r z a famili> comp>ison1 to illu/rate ! idea1 ?an z an example4 ,! elem5t>y sub/ances ( :i* a body is compos$ are call$ ! con/itu5t p>ts ( t body2 9 decompos+ x1 !re=e1 we sep>ate its con/itu5t p>ts4 ,if1 on ! contr>y1 we divide a body by *opp+ x to pieces1 or ev5 by gr9d+ or p\nd+ x to ! f9e/ p[d]1 ea* ( ^! small p>ticles w /ill consi/ ( a portion ( ! sev]al con/itu5t p>ts ( ! :ole body3 ^! are call$ ! integrant p>ts2 d y und]/& ! diff]5ce8 ,,emily4 ,yes1 ,i ?9k1 p]fectly4 ,we decompose a body into its con/itu5t p>ts2 & divide x into its integrant p>ts4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,exactly s4 ,if !re=e a body consi/s ( only "o k9d ( sub/ance1 ?\gh x may be divid$ into its integrant p>ts1 x is n possible to decompose x4 ,su* bodies are !re=e call$ simple or elem5t>y1 z !y are ! elem5ts ( :i* all o!r bodies are compos$4 ,comp\nd bodies are su* z consi/ ( m ?an "o ( ^! elem5t>y pr9ciples4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b d n fire1 air1 e>?1 & wat]1 consi/1 ea* ( !m1 b ( "o k9d ( sub/ance8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no1 my de>2 !y are e "o ( !m susceptible ( be+ sep>at$ into v>i\s simple bodies4 ,in/ead ( f\r1 *emi/s n[ reckon upw>ds ( =ty elem5t>y sub/ances4 ,! exi/5ce ( mo/ ( ^! is e/abli%$ by ! cle>e/ exp]im5ts2 b1 9 reg>d to a few ( !m1 p>ticul>ly ! mo/ subtle ag5ts ( nature1 heat1 light1 & electricity1 !re is yet mu* unc]ta9ty1 & ,i c only give y ! op9ion :i* seems mo/ probably d$uc$ f ! late/ discov]ies4 ,aft] ,i h giv5 y a li/ ( ! elem5t>y bodies1 class$ accord+ to _! prop]ties1 we %all proce$ to exam9e ea* ( !m sep>ately1 & !n consid] !m 9 _! comb9ations ) ea* o!r4 ,except+ ! m g5]al ag5ts ( nature1 heat1 light1 & electricity1 x w\ld seem t ! simple =m ( bodies is t ( a metal4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,y a/oni% me6 ,i ?\ght ! metals 7 only "o class ( m9]als1 & t !re 7 besides1 e>?s1 /ones1 rocks1 acids1 alkalies1 vap\rs1 fluids1 & ! :ole ( ! animal & vegetable k+doms4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y h made a tol]ably good enum]ation1 ?\gh ,i fe> n arrang$ 9 ! mo/ sci5tific ord]4 ,all ^! bodies1 h[ev]1 x is n[ /rongly believ$1 may be ultimately resolv$ into metallic sub/ances4 ,y\r surprise at ?is circum/ance is n s+ul>1 z ! decomposition ( "s ( !m1 :i* has be5 b lately accompli%$1 has excit$ ! wond] ( ! :ole philosophical _w4 ,b to return to ! li/ ( simple bodies--^! be+ usually f\nd 9 comb9ation ) oxyg51 ,i %all class !m accord+ to _! prop]ties :5 s comb9$4 ,?is w1 ,i ?9k1 facilitate _! future inve/igation4 ,,emily4 ,pray :at is oxyg58 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,a simple body2 at lea/ "o t is suppos$ to be s1 z x has nev] be5 decompos$4 ,x is always f\nd unit$ ) ! negative electricity4 ,x w be "o ( ! fir/ ( ! elem5t>y bodies ^: prop]ties ,i %all expla9 to y1 &1 z y w soon p]ceive1 x is "o ( ! mo/ important 9 nature2 b x w\ld be irrelevant to ent] ^u ?is subject at pres5t4 ,we mu/ n[ conf9e our att5tion to ! enum]ation & classification ( ! simple bodies 9 g5]al4 ,!y may be arrang$ z foll[s3 ,,class ,i4 ,compreh5d+ ! impond]able ag5ts1 viz4 ,,heat or ,,caloric1 ,,light1 ,,electricity4 ,,class ,,ii4 ,compreh5d+ ag5ts capable ( unit+ ) inflammable bodies1 & 9 mo/ in/ances ( effect+ _! combu/ion4 ,,oxyg51 ,,*lor9e1 ,,iod9e499 ,footnote 993 ,x has be5 que/ion$ by "s em95t *emi/s1 :e!r ^! two la/ ag5ts %\ld n be class$ among ! inflammable bodies1 z !y are capable ( comb9+ ) oxyg51 z well z ) inflammable bodies4 ,b !y seem to be m di/9ctly *>act]is$ by _! prop]ty ( support+ combu/ion ?an by any o!r quality4 ,,class ,,iii4 ,compreh5d+ bodies capable ( unit+ ) oxyg51 &1 =m+ ) x v>i\s comp\nds4 ,?is class may be divid$ z foll[s3 ,,division #a4 ,,hydrog51 =m+ wat]4 ,,division #b4 ,bodies =m+ acids4 ,,nitrog51 =m+ nitric acid4 ,,sulphur1 =m+ sulphuric acid4 ,,phosphorus1 =m+ phosphoric acid4 ,,c>bon1 =m+ c>bonic acid4 ,,boracium1 =m+ boracic acid4 ,,fluorium1 =m+ fluoric acid4 ,,muriatium1 =m+ muriatic acid4 ,,division #c4 ,metallic bodies =m+ alkalies4 ,,potassium1 =m+ pota%4 ,,sodium1 =m+ soda4 ,,ammonium1 =m+ ammonia4 ,,division #d4 ,metallic bodies =m+ e>?s4 ,,calcium1 or metal =m+ lime4 ,,magnium1 =m+ magnesia4 ,,b>ium1 =m+ b>ytes4 ,,/rontium1 =m+ /rontites4 ,,silicium1 =m+ silex4 ,,alumium1 =m+ alum9e4 ,,yttrium1 =m+ yttria4 ,,glucium1 =m+ gluc9a4 ,,zirconium1 =m+ zirconi499 ,footnote 993 ,( all ^! e>?s1 ?ree or f\r only h z yet be5 di/9ctly decompos$4 ,,division #e4 ,metals1 ei!r naturally metallic1 or yield+ _! oxyg5 to c>bon or to heat alone4 ,subdivision #a4 ,malleable ,metals4 ,,gold1 ,,plat9a1 ,,palladium1 ,,silv]99 ,,m]cury ,,t91 ,,copp]1 ,,iron1 ,,lead1 ,,nickel1 ,,z9c4 ,footnote 993 ,^! fir/ f\r metals h commonly be5 di/+ui%$ by ! appellation ( p]fect or noble metals1 on acc\nt ( _! possess+ ! *>act]i/ic prop]ties ( ductility1 malleability1 inalt]ability1 & great specific gravity1 9 an em95t degree4 ,footnote 3 ,m]cury1 9 its liquid /ate1 _c1 ( c\rse1 be call$ a malleable metal4 ,b :5 froz51 x possesses a consid]able degree ( malleability4 ,subdiv4 #b4 ,brittle ,metals4 ,,ars5ic1 ,,bismu?1 ,,antimony1 ,,manganese1 ,,tellurium1 ,,cobalt1 ,,tung/51 ,,molybd5um1 ,,titanium1 ,,*rome1 ,,uranium1 ,,columbium or ,,tantalium1 ,,iridium1 ,,osmium1 ,,rhodium499 ,footnote 993 ,^! la/ f\r or five metallic bodies are plac$ "u ?is class = ! sake ( arrangem5t1 ?\gh "s ( _! prop]ties h n be5 yet fully inve/igat$4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,oh1 :at a =midable li/6 ,y w h mu* to d to expla9 x1 ,mrs4 ,b42 = ,i assure y x is p]fectly un9telligible to me1 & ,i ?9k r p]plexes ?an assi/s me4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,d n let t al>m y1 my de>2 ,i hope t h]eaft] ?is classification w appe> q cle>1 &1 s f> f p]plex+ y1 w assi/ y 9 arrang+ y\r ideas4 ,x w\ld be 9 va9 to attempt =m+ a division t w\ld appe> p]fectly cle> to a beg9n]3 = y may easily conceive t a *emical division be+ necess>ily f\nd$ on prop]ties ) :i* y are almo/ :olly unacqua9t$1 x is impossible t y %\ld at once be able to und]/& its mean+ or appreciate its utility4 ,b1 be=e we proce$ fur!r1 x w be necess>y to give y "s idea ( *emical attraction1 a p[] on :i* ! :ole sci5ce dep5ds4 ,*emical ,attraction1 or ! ,attraction ( ,composition1 consi/s 9 ! peculi> t5d5cy :i* bodies ( a diff]5t nature h to unite ) ea* o!r4 ,x is by ?is =ce t all ! compositions1 & decompositions1 are effect$4 ,,emily4 ,:at is ! diff]5ce betwe5 *emical attraction1 & ! attraction ( cohesion1 or ( aggregation1 :i* y (t5 m5tion$ to u1 9 =m] conv]sations8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! attraction ( cohesion exi/s only betwe5 p>ticles ( ! same nature1 :e!r simple or comp\nd2 ?us x unites ! p>ticles ( a piece ( metal :i* is a simple sub/ance1 & likewise ! p>ticles ( a loaf ( bread :i* is a comp\nd4 ,! attraction ( composition1 on ! contr>y1 unites & ma9ta9s1 9 a /ate ( comb9ation1 p>ticles ( a dissimil> nature2 x is ?is p[] t =ms ea* ( ! comp\nd p>ticles ( :i* bread consi/s2 & x is by ! attraction ( cohesion t all ^! p>ticles are connect$ into a s+le mass4 ,,emily4 ,! attraction ( cohesion1 !n1 is ! p[] :i* unites ! integrant p>ticles ( a body3 ! attraction ( composition t :i* comb9es ! con/itu5t p>ticles4 ,is x n s8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,precisely3 & obs]ve t ! attraction ( cohesion unites p>ticles ( a simil> nature1 )\t *ang+ _! orig9al prop]ties2 ! result ( su* an union1 !re=e1 is a body ( ! same k9d z ! p>ticles ( :i* x is =m$2 :il/ ! attraction ( composition1 by comb9+ p>ticles ( a dissimil> nature1 produces comp\nd bodies1 q diff]5t f any ( _! con/itu5ts4 ,if1 = in/ance1 ,i p\r on ! piece ( copp]1 conta9$ 9 ?is glass1 "s ( ?is liquid 7:i* is call$ nitric acid71 = :i* x has a /rong attraction1 e p>ticle ( ! copp] w comb9e ) a p>ticle ( acid1 & toge!r !y w =m a new body1 totally diff]5t f ei!r ! copp] or ! acid4 ,d y obs]ve ! int]nal commotion t already beg9s to take place8 ,x is produc$ by ! comb9ation ( ^! two sub/ances2 & yet ! acid has 9 ?is case to ov]come n only ! resi/ance :i* ! /rong cohesion ( ! p>ticles ( copp] opposes to _! comb9ation ) x1 b also to ov]come ! weight ( ! copp]1 :i* makes x s9k to ! bottom ( ! glass1 & prev5ts ! acid f hav+ su* free access to x z x w\ld if ! metal 7 susp5d$ 9 ! liquid4 ,,emily4 ,! acid seems1 h[ev]1 to ov]come bo? ^! ob/acles )\t difficulty1 & appe>s to be v rapidly dissolv+ ! copp]4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,by ?is means x r$uces ! copp] into m m9ute p>ts ?an c\ld possibly be done by any me*anical p[]4 ,b z ! acid c act only on ! surface ( ! metal1 x w be "s "t be=e ! union ( ^! two bodies w be complet$4 ,y may1 h[ev]1 already see h[ totally diff]5t ?is comp\nd is f ei!r ( its +r$i5ts4 ,x is nei!r col\rless1 l ! acid1 nor h>d1 heavy1 & yell[ l ! copp]4 ,if y ta/$ x1 y w\ld no long] p]ceive ! s\rness ( ! acid4 ,x has at pres5t ! appe>ance ( a blue liquid2 b :5 ! union is complet$1 & ! wat] ) :i* ! acid is dilut$ is evaporat$1 ! comp\nd w assume ! =m ( regul> cry/als1 ( a f9e blue col\r1 & p]fectly transp>5t994 ,( ^! ,i c %ew y a specim51 z ,i h prep>$ "s = t purpose4 ,footnote 993 ,^! cry/als are m easily obta9$ f a mixture ( sulphuric ) a little nitric acid4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,h[ v beautiful !y are1 9 col\r1 =m1 & transp>5cy6 ,,emily4 ,no?+ c be m /rik+ ?an ?is example ( *emical attraction4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! t]m attraction has be5 lately introduc$ into *emi/ry z a sub/itute = ! ^w aff9ity1 to :i* "s *emi/s h object$1 because x orig9at$ 9 ! vague notion t *emical comb9ations dep5d$ ^u a c]ta9 resemblance1 or relation%ip1 betwe5 p>ticles t are dispos$ to unite2 & ?is idea is n only imp]fect1 b errone\s1 z x is g5]ally p>ticles ( ! mo/ dissimil> nature1 t h ! greate/ t5d5cy to comb9e4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,besides1 !re seems to be no advantage 9 us+ a v>iety ( t]ms to express ! same mean+2 on ! contr>y x creates confusion2 & z we are well acqua9t$ ) ! t]m ,attraction 9 natural philosophy1 we _h bett] adopt x 9 *emi/ry likewise4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,if y h a cle> idea ( ! mean+1 ,i %all leave y at lib]ty to express x 9 ! t]ms y pref]4 ,= myself1 ,i confess t ,i ?9k ! ^w ,attraction be/ suit$ to ! g5]al law t unites ! integrant p>ticles ( bodies2 & ,aff9ity bett] adapt$ to t :i* comb9es ! con/itu5t p>ticles1 z x may convey an idea ( ! pref]5ce :i* "s bodies h = o!rs1 :i* ! t]m attraction ( composition does n s well express4 ,,emily4 ,s ,i ?9k2 = ?\gh t pref]5ce may n result f any relation%ip1 or similitude1 betwe5 ! p>ticles 7z y say 0 once suppos$71 yet1 z x really exi/s1 x ought to be express$4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,well1 let x be agre$ t y may use ! t]ms aff9ity1 *emical attraction & attraction ( composition1 indiff]5tly1 provid$ y recollect t !y h all ! same mean+4 ,,emily4 ,i d n conceive h[ bodies c be decompos$ by *emical attraction4 ,t ?is p[] %\ld be ! means ( compos+ !m1 is v obvi\s2 b t x %\ld1 at ! same "t1 produce exactly ! contr>y effect1 appe>s to me v s+ul>4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,to decompose a body is1 y "k1 to sep>ate its con/itu5t p>ts1 :i*1 z we h j obs]v$1 _c be done by me*anical means4 ,,emily4 ,no3 because me*anical means sep>ate only ! integrant p>ticles2 !y act m]ely aga9/ ! attraction ( cohesion1 & only divide a comp\nd into small] p>ts4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! decomposition ( a body is p]=m$ by *emical p[]s4 ,if y pres5t to a body compos$ ( two pr9ciples1 a ?ird1 :i* has a great] aff9ity = "o ( !m ?an ! two fir/ h = ea* o!r1 x w be decompos$1 t is1 its two pr9ciples w be sep>at$ by means ( ! ?ird body4 ,let u call two +r$i5ts1 ( :i* ! body is compos$1 ,a & ,b4 ,if we pres5t to x ano!r +r$i5t ,c1 :i* has a great] aff9ity = ,b ?an t :i* unites ,a & ,b1 x necess>ily foll[s t ,b w quit ,a to comb9e ) ,c4 ,! new +r$i5t1 !re=e1 has effect$ a decomposition ( ! orig9al body ,a ,b2 ,a has be5 left alone1 & a new comp\nd1 ,b ,c1 has be5 =m$4 ,,emily4 ,we might1 ,i ?9k1 use ! comp>ison ( two fri5ds1 :o 7 v happy 9 ea* o!r's society1 till a ?ird disunit$ !m by ! pref]5ce :i* "o ( !m gave to ! new-com]4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,v well4 ,i %all n[ %[ y h[ ?is takes place 9 *emi/ry4 ,let u suppose t we wi% to decompose ! comp\nd we h j =m$ by ! comb9ation ( ! two +r$i5ts1 copp] & nitric acid2 we may d ?is by pres5t+ to x a piece ( iron1 = :i* ! acid has a /rong] attraction ?an = copp]2 ! acid w1 consequ5tly1 quit ! copp] to comb9e ) ! iron1 & ! copp] w be :at ! *emi/s call precipitat$1 t is to say1 x w be ?r[n d[n 9 its sep>ate /ate1 & reappe> 9 its simple =m4 ,9 ord] to produce ?is effect1 ,i %all dip ! blade ( ?is knife into ! fluid1 &1 :5 ,i take x out1 y w obs]ve1 t1 in/ead ( be+ wett$ ) a blui% liquid1 l t conta9$ 9 ! glass1 x w be cov]$ ) a ?9 coat ( copp]4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,s x is really6 b !n is x n ! copp]1 in/ead ( ! acid1 t has comb9$ ) ! iron blade8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no2 y are deceiv$ by appe>ances3 x is ! acid :i* comb9es ) ! iron1 &1 9 s do+1 deposits or precipitates ! copp] on ! surface ( ! blade4 ,,emily4 ,b1 _c ?ree or m sub/ances comb9e toge!r1 )\t any ( !m be+ precipitat$8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t is sometimes ! case2 b1 9 g5]al1 ! /rong] aff9ity de/roys ! weak]2 & x seldom happ5s t ! attraction ( sev]al sub/ances = ea* o!r is s equally balanc$ z to produce su* complicat$ comp\nds4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b1 pray1 ,mrs4 ,b41 :at is ! cause ( ! *emical attraction ( bodies = ea* o!r8 ,x appe>s to me m extraord9>y or unnatural1 if ,i may use ! expression1 ?an ! attraction ( cohesion1 :i* unites p>ticles ( a simil> nature4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,*emical attraction may1 l t ( cohesion or gravitation1 be "o ( ! p[]s inh]5t 9 matt] :i*1 9 our pres5t /ate ( k1 admits ( no o!r satisfactory explanation ?an an imm$iate ref]5ce to a div9e cause4 ,sir ,h4 ,davy1 h[ev]1 ^: important discov]ies h op5$ su* improv$ views 9 *emi/ry1 has sugge/$ an hypo!sis :i* may ?r[ great light ^u t sci5ce4 ,he supposes t !re are two k9ds ( electricity1 ) "o or o!r ( :i* all bodies are unit$4 ,^! we di/+ui% by ! names ( positive & negative electricity2 ^? bodies are dispos$ to comb9e1 :i* possess opposite electricities1 z !y are br\ght toge!r by ! attraction :i* ^! electricities h = ea* o!r4 ,b1 :e!r ?is hypo!sis be altoge!r f\nd$ on tru? or n1 x is impossible to "q ! great influ5ce ( electricity 9 *emical comb9ations4 ,,emily4 ,s1 t we mu/ suppose t ! two electricities always attract ea* o!r1 & ?us compel ! bodies 9 :i* !y exi/ to comb9e8 ,,c>ol9e4 ,& may n ?is be also ! cause ( ! attraction ( cohesion8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no1 = 9 p>ticles ( ! same nature ! same electricities mu/ prevail1 & x is only ! diff]5t or opposite electric fluids t attract ea* o!r4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,^! electricities seem to me to be a k9d ( *emical _s1 :i* animates ! p>ticles ( bodies1 & draws !m toge!r4 ,,emily4 ,if x is kn[n1 !n1 ) :i* ( ! electricities bodies are unit$1 x c be inf]r$ :i* w1 & :i* w n1 comb9e toge!r8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,c]ta9ly4 --,i %\ld n omit to m5tion1 t "s d\bts h be5 ent]ta9$ :e!r electricity be really a mat]ial ag5t1 or :e!r x might n be a p[] inh]5t 9 bodies1 simil> to1 or1 p]haps id5tical )1 attraction4 ,,emily4 ,b :at !n w\ld be ! electric sp>k :i* is visible1 & mu/ !re=e be really mat]ial8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,:at we call ! electric sp>k1 may1 ,sir ,h4 ,davy says1 be m]ely ! heat & light1 or fire produc$ by ! *emical comb9ations ) :i* ^! ph5om5a are always connect$4 ,we w n1 h[ev]1 ent] m fully on ?is important subject at pres5t1 b res]ve ! pr9cipal facts :i* relate to x to a future conv]sation4 ,be=e we "p1 h[ev]1 ,i mu/ recomm5d y to fix 9 y\r memory ! names ( ! simple bodies1 aga9/ our next int]view4 ,,conv]sation ,,ii4 ,,on ,,light ,,& ,,heat ,,or ,,caloric4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,we h le>n$ by he>t ! names ( all ! simple bodies :i* y h enum]at$1 & we are n[ ready to ent] on ! exam9ation ( ea* ( !m successively4 ,y w beg91 ,i suppose1 ) ,,light8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,respect+ ! nature ( light we h little m ?an conjectures4 ,x is consid]$ by mo/ philosoph]s z a real sub/ance1 imm$iately emanat+ f ! sun1 & f all lum9\s bodies1 f :i* x is project$ 9 "r l9es ) prodigi\s velocity4 ,light1 h[ev]1 be+ impond]able1 x _c be conf9$ & exam9$ by itself2 & !re=e x is to ! effects x produces on o!r bodies1 r ?an to its imm$iate nature1 t we mu/ direct our att5tion4 ,! connection betwe5 light & heat is v obvi\s2 inde$1 x is su*1 t x is extremely difficult to exam9e ! "o indep5d5tly ( ! o!r4 ,,emily4 ,b1 is x possible to sep>ate light f heat2 ,i ?\ght !y 7 only diff]5t degrees ( ! same ?+1 fire8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i told y t fire 0 n n[ consid]$ z a simple elem5t4 ,:e!r light & heat be altoge!r diff]5t ag5ts1 or n1 ,i _c pret5d to decide2 b1 9 _m cases1 light may be sep>at$ f heat4 ,! fir/ discov]y ( ?is 0 made by a celebrat$ ,sw$i% *emi/1 ,s*eele4 ,ano!r v /rik+ illu/ration ( ! sep>ation ( heat & light 0 long aft] po9t$ out by ,dr4 ,h]s*ell4 ,?is philosoph] discov]$ t ^! two ag5ts 7 emitt$ 9 ! rays ( ! sun1 & t heat 0 less refrangible ?an light2 =1 9 sep>at+ ! diff]5t col\r$ rays ( light by a prism 7z we did "s "t ago71 he f\nd t ! greate/ heat 0 beyond ! spectrum1 at a little di/ance f ! r$ rays1 :i*1 y may recollect1 are ! lea/ refrangible4 ,,emily4 ,i %\ld l to try t exp]im5t4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is by no means an easy "o3 ! heat ( a ray ( light1 refract$ by a prism1 is s small1 t x requires a v delicate !rmomet] to di/+ui% ! diff]5ce ( ! degree ( heat )9 & )\t ! spectrum4 ,= 9 ?is exp]im5t ! heat is n totally sep>at$ f ! light1 ea* col\r$ ray reta9+ a c]ta9 portion ( x1 ?\gh ! greate/ "p is n suffici5tly refract$ to fall )9 ! spectrum4 ,,emily4 ,i suppose1 !n1 t ^? col\r$ rays :i* are ! lea/ refrangible1 reta9 ! greate/ quantity ( heat8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,!y d s4 ,,emily4 ,?\gh ,i no long] d\bt t light & heat c be sep>at$1 ,dr4 ,h]s*ell's exp]im5t does n appe> to me to af=d suffici5t pro( t !y are ess5tially diff]5t2 = light1 :i* y call a simple body1 may likewise be divid$ into ! v>i\s col\r$ rays4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no d\bt !re mu/ be "s diff]5ce 9 ! v>i\s col\r$ rays4 ,ev5 _! *emical p[]s are diff]5t4 ,! blue rays1 = in/ance1 h ! greate/ effect 9 sep>at+ oxyg5 f bodies1 z 0 f\nd by ,s*eele2 & !re exi/ also1 z ,dr4 ,wolla/on has %[n1 rays m refrangible ?an ! blue1 :i* produce ! same *emical effect1 &1 :at is v rem>kable1 are invisible4 ,,emily4 ,d y ?9k x possible t heat may be m]ely a modification ( light8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t is a supposition :i*1 9 ! pres5t /ate ( natural philosophy1 c nei!r be positively affirm$ nor d5i$4 ,let u1 !re=e1 in/ead ( discuss+ !oretical po9ts1 be cont5t$ ) exam9+ :at is kn[n respect+ ! *emical effects ( light4 ,light is capable ( ent]+ into a k9d ( transitory union ) c]ta9 sub/ances1 & ?is is :at has be5 call$ phosphoresc5ce4 ,bodies t are possess$ ( ?is prop]ty1 aft] be+ expos$ to ! sun's rays1 appe> lum9\s 9 ! d>k4 ,! %ells ( fi%1 ! bones ( l& animals1 m>ble1 lime/one1 & a v>iety ( comb9ations ( e>?s1 are m or less p[]fully phosphoresc5t4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i rememb] be+ mu* surpris$ la/ summ] ) ! phosphoresc5t appe>ance ( "s pieces ( rott5 wood1 :i* _h j be5 dug out ( ! gr\nd2 !y %one s bright t ,i at fir/ suppos$ !m to be gl[-worms4 ,,emily4 ,& is n ! light ( a gl[-worm ( a phosphoresc5t nature8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is a v rem>kable in/ance ( phosphoresc5ce 9 liv+ animals2 ?is prop]ty1 h[ev]1 is n exclusively possess$ by ! gl[-worm4 ,! insect call$ ! lan?orn-fly1 :i* is peculi> to w>m climates1 emits light z x flies1 produc+ 9 ! d>k a rem>kably sp>kl+ appe>ance4 ,b x is m common to see animal matt] 9 a dead /ate possess$ ( a phosphoresc5t quality2 sea fi% is (t5 em95tly s4 ,,emily4 ,i h he>d t ! sea has sometimes _h ! appe>ance ( be+ illum9at$1 & t ! light is suppos$ to proce$ f ! spawn ( fi%es float+ on its surface4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,?is light is probably ow+ to t or "s o!r animal matt]4 ,sea wat] has be5 obs]v$ to become lum9\s f ! sub/ance ( a fre% h]r+ hav+ be5 imm]s$ 9 x2 & c]ta9 insects1 ( ! ,m$usa k9d1 are kn[n to produce simil> effects4 ,b ! /ronge/ phosphoresc5ce is produc$ by *emical compositions prep>$ = ! purpose1 ! mo/ common ( :i* consi/s ( oy/] %ells & sulphur1 & is kn[n by ! "n ( ,canton's ,phosphorus4 ,,emily4 ,i am r surpris$1 ,mrs4 ,b41 t y %\ld h said s mu* ( ! light emitt$ by phosphoresc5t bodies )\t tak+ any notice ( t :i* is produc$ by burn+ bodies4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! light emitt$ by ! latt] is s intimately connect$ ) ! *emical hi/ory ( combu/ion1 t ,i mu/ def] all explanation ( x till we come to ! exam9ation ( t process1 :i* is "o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ 9 *emical sci5ce4 ,light is an ag5t capable ( produc+ v>i\s *emical *anges4 ,x is ess5tial to ! welf>e bo? ( ! animal & vegetable k+doms2 = m5 & plants gr[ pale & sickly if depriv$ ( its salut>y influ5ce4 ,x is likewise rem>kable = its prop]ty ( de/roy+ col\r1 :i* r5d]s x ( great consequ5ce 9 ! process ( blea*+4 ,,emily4 ,is x n s+ul> t light1 :i* 9 /udy+ optics we 7 taught to consid] z ! s\rce & orig9 ( col\rs1 %\ld h also ! p[] ( de/roy+ !m8 ,,c>ol9e4 ,x is a fact1 h[ev]1 t we e day exp]i5ce2 y "k h[ x fades ! col\rs ( l95s & silks4 ,,emily4 ,c]ta9ly4 ,& ,i recollect t endive is made to gr[ :ite in/ead ( gre51 by be+ cov]$ up s z to exclude ! light4 ,b by :at means does light produce ^! effects8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,?is ,i _c attempt to expla9 to y until y h obta9$ a fur!r k ( *emi/ry4 ,z ! *emical prop]ties ( light c be acc\nt$ = only 9 _! ref]5ce to comp\nd bodies1 x w\ld be useless to deta9 y any long] on ?is subject2 we may !re=e pass on to ! exam9ation ( heat1 or caloric1 ) :i* we are some:at bett] acqua9t$4 ,,heat & ,,light may be always di/+ui%$ by ! diff]5t s5sations !y produce1 ,light affects ! s5se ( sight2 ,caloric t ( feel+2 ! "o produces ,vision1 ! o!r ! s5sation ( ,heat4 ,caloric is f\nd to exi/ 9 a v>iety ( =ms or modifications1 & ,i ?9k x w be be/ to consid] x "u ! two foll[+ heads1 viz4 #a4 ,,free ,,or ,,radiant ,,caloric4 #b4 ,,comb9$ ,,caloric4 ,! fir/1 ,,free or ,,radiant ,,caloric1 is also call$ ,,heat ,,( ,,temp]ature2 x compreh5ds all heat :i* is p]ceptible to ! s5ses1 & affects ! !rmomet]4 ,,emily4 ,y mean su* z ! heat ( ! sun1 ( fire1 ( c&les1 ( /oves2 9 %ort1 ( e ?+ t burns8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,& likewise ( ?+s t d n burn1 z1 = in/ance1 ! w>m? ( ! body2 9 a ^w1 all heat t is s5sible1 :atev] may be its degree1 or ! s\rce f :i* x is d]iv$4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,:at !n are ! o!r modifications ( caloric8 ,x mu/ be a /range k9d ( heat t _c be p]ceiv$ by our s5ses4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,none ( ! modifications ( caloric %\ld prop]ly be call$ heat2 = heat1 /rictly speak+1 is ! s5sation produc$ by caloric1 on animat$ bodies2 ?is ^w1 !re=e1 9 ! accurate language ( sci5ce1 %\ld be conf9$ to express ! s5sation4 ,b cu/om has adapt$ x likewise to inanimate matt]1 & we say ! heat ( an ov51 ! heat ( ! sun1 )\t any ref]5ce to ! s5sation :i* !y are capable ( excit+4 ,x 0 9 ord] to avoid ! confusion :i* arose f ?us conf\nd+ ! cause & effect1 t mod]n *emi/s adopt$ ! new ^w caloric1 to d5ote ! pr9ciple :i* produces heat2 yet !y d n always1 9 compliance ) _! own language1 limit ! ^w heat to ! expression ( ! s5sation1 s9ce !y /ill frequ5tly employ x 9 ref]5ce to ! o!r modifications ( caloric :i* are q indep5d5t ( s5sation4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b y h n yet expla9$ to u :at ^! o!r modifications ( caloric are4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,because y are n acqua9t$ ) ! prop]ties ( free caloric1 & y "k t we h agre$ to proce$ ) regul>ity4 ,"o ( ! mo/ rem>kable prop]ties ( free caloric is its p[] ( dilat+ bodies4 ,?is fluid is s extremely subtle1 t x ent]s & p]vades all bodies :atev]1 =ces itself betwe5 _! p>ticles1 & n only sep>ates !m1 b frequ5tly drives !m asund] to a consid]able di/ance f ea* o!r4 ,x is ?us t caloric dilates or exp&s a body s z to make x occupy a great] space ?an x did be=e4 ,,emily4 ,! effect x has on bodies1 !re=e1 is directly contr>y to t ( ! attraction ( cohesion2 ! "o draws ! p>ticles toge!r1 ! o!r drives !m asund]4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,precisely4 ,!re is a cont9ual /ruggle betwe5 ! attraction ( aggregation1 & ! expansive p[] ( caloric2 & f ! action ( ^! two opposite =ces1 result all ! v>i\s =ms ( matt]1 or degrees ( consi/5ce1 f ! solid1 to ! liquid & ari=m /ate4 ,& accord+ly we f9d t mo/ bodies are capable ( pass+ f "o ( ^! =ms to ! o!r1 m]ely 9 consequ5ce ( _! receiv+ diff]5t quantities ( caloric4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,t is v curi\s2 b ,i ?9k ,i und]/& ! reason ( x4 ,if a great quantity ( caloric is add$ to a solid body1 x introduces itself betwe5 ! p>ticles 9 su* a mann] z to ov]come1 9 a consid]able degree1 ! attraction ( cohesion2 & ! body1 f a solid1 is !n conv]t$ into a fluid4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,?is is ! case :5ev] a body is fus$ or melt$2 b if y add caloric to a liquid1 c y tell me :at is ! consequ5ce8 ,,c>ol9e4 ,! caloric =ces itself 9 great] abundance betwe5 ! p>ticles ( ! fluid1 & drives !m to su* a di/ance f ea* o!r1 t _! attraction ( aggregation is :olly de/roy$3 ! liquid is !n trans=m$ into vap\r4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,v well2 & ?is is precisely ! case ) boil+ wat]1 :5 x is conv]t$ into /eam or vap\r1 & ) all bodies t assume an ari=m /ate4 ,,emily4 ,i d n well und]/& ! ^w ari=m8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,any ela/ic fluid :atev]1 :e!r x be m]ely vap\r or p]man5t air1 is call$ ari=m4 ,b ea* ( ^! v>i\s /ates1 solid1 liquid1 & ari=m1 admit ( _m diff]5t degrees ( d5sity1 or consi/5ce1 /ill aris+ 7*iefly at lea/7 f ! diff]5t quantities ( caloric ! bodies conta94 ,solids are ( v>i\s degrees ( d5sity1 f t ( gold1 to t ( a ?9 jelly4 ,liquids1 f ! consi/5ce ( melt$ glue1 or melt$ metals1 to t ( e!r1 :i* is ! lighte/ ( all liquids4 ,! diff]5t ela/ic fluids 7) :i* y are n yet acqua9t$7 are susceptible ( no less v>iety 9 _! degrees ( d5sity4 ,,emily4 ,b does n e individual body also admit ( diff]5t degrees ( consi/5ce1 )\t *ang+ its /ate8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,und\bt$ly2 & ?is ,i c imm$iately %[ y by a v simple exp]im5t4 ,?is piece ( iron n[ exactly fits ! frame1 or r+1 made to receive x2 b if heat$ r$ hot1 x w no long] d s1 = its dim5sions w be s mu* increas$ by ! caloric t has p5etrat$ into x1 t x w be mu* too l>ge = ! frame4 ,! iron is n[ r$ hot2 by apply+ x to ! frame1 we %all see h[ mu* x is dilat$4 ,,emily4 ,consid]ably s inde$6 ,i knew t heat _h ?is effect on bodies1 b ,i did n imag9e t x c\ld be made s conspicu\s4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,by means ( ?is in/rum5t 7call$ a ,pyromet]7 we may e/imate1 9 ! mo/ exact mann]1 ! v>i\s dilatations ( any solid body by heat4 ,! body we are n[ go+ to submit to trial is ?is small iron b>2 ,i fix x to ?is app>atus1 7,,plate ,i4 ,fig4 #a47 & !n heat x by light+ ! ?ree lamps b5ea? x3 :5 ! b> exp&s1 x increases 9 l5g? z well z ?ickness2 &1 z "o end communicates ) ?is :eel-"w1 :il/ ! o!r end is fix$ & immoveable1 no soon] does x beg9 to dilate ?an x presses aga9/ ! :eel-"w1 & sets 9 motion ! index1 :i* po9ts out ! degrees ( dilatation on ! dial-plate4 ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,i4 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #ch4 ,fig4 #a4 ,pyromet]4 ,a4,a ,b> ( ,metal4 #a4b4c ,lamps burn+4 ,b4,b ,:eel "w4 ,c ,index4 ,fig4 #b ,a4,a ,glass tubes ) bulbs4 ,b4,b ,glasses ( wat] 9 :i* !y are imm]s$4 ,,emily4 ,?is is1 inde$1 a v curi\s in/rum5t2 b ,i d n und]/& ! use ( ! :eels3 w\ld x n be m simple1 & answ] ! purpose equally well1 if ! b>1 9 dilat+1 press$ aga9/ ! index1 & put x 9 motion )\t ! int]v5tion ( ! :eels8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! use ( ! :eels is m]ely to multiply ! motion1 & !re=e r5d] ! effect ( ! caloric m obvi\s2 = if ! index mov$ no m ?an ! b> increas$ 9 l5g?1 its motion w\ld sc>cely be p]ceptible2 b by means ( ! :eels x moves 9 a mu* great] proportion1 :i* !re=e r5d]s ! v>iations f> m conspicu\s4 ,by submitt+ diff]5t bodies to ! te/ ( ! pyromet]1 x is f\nd t !y are f> f dilat+ 9 ! same proportion4 ,diff]5t metals exp& 9 diff]5t degrees1 & o!r k9ds ( solid bodies v>y /ill m 9 ?is respect4 ,b ?is diff]5t susceptibility ( dilatation is /ill m rem>kable 9 fluids ?an 9 solid bodies1 z ,i %all %[ y4 ,i h "h two glass tubes1 t]m9at$ at "o end by l>ge bulbs4 ,we %all fill ! bulbs1 ! "o ) _s ( w9e1 ! o!r ) wat]4 ,i h col\r$ bo? liquids1 9 ord] t ! effect may be m conspicu\s4 ,! _s ( w9e1 y see1 dilates by ! w>m? ( my h& z ,i hold ! bulb4 ,,emily4 ,x c]ta9ly does1 = ,i see x is ris+ into ! tube4 ,b wat]1 x seems1 is n s easily affect$ by heat2 = sc>cely any *ange is produc$ on x by ! w>m? ( ! h&4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,true2 we %all n[ plunge ! bulbs into hot wat]1 7,,plate ,i4 ,fig4 #b47 & y w see bo? liquids rise 9 ! tubes2 b ! _s ( w9e w asc5d highe/4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,h[ rapidly x exp&s6 ,n[ x has ne>ly rea*$ ! top ( ! tube1 ?\gh ! wat] has h>dly begun to rise4 ,,emily4 ,! wat] n[ beg9s to dilate4 ,are n ^! glass tubes1 ) liquids ris+ )9 !m1 v l !rmomet]s8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,a !rmomet] is con/ruct$ exactly on ! same pr9ciple1 & ^! tubes require only a scale to answ] ! purpose ( !rmomet]s3 b !y w\ld be r awkw>d 9 _! dim5sions4 ,! tubes & bulbs ( !rmomet]s1 ?\gh ( v>i\s sizes1 are 9 g5]al mu* small] ?an ^!2 ! tube too is h]metically clos$1 & ! air exclud$ f x4 ,! fluid mo/ g5]ally us$ 9 !rmomet]s is m]cury1 commonly call$ quicksilv]1 ! dilatations & contractions ( :i* correspond m exactly to ! additions1 & subtractions1 ( caloric1 ?an ^? ( any o!r fluid4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,yet ,i h (t5 se5 col\r$ _s ( w9e us$ 9 !rmomet]s4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! expansions & contractions ( t liquid are n q s uni=m z ^? ( m]cury2 b 9 cases 9 :i* x is n requisite to asc]ta9 ! temp]ature ) great precision1 _s ( w9e w answ] ! purpose equally well1 & inde$ 9 "s respects bett]1 z ! expansion ( ! latt] is great]1 & !re=e m conspicu\s4 ,?is fluid is us$ likewise 9 situations & exp]im5ts 9 :i* m]cury w\ld be froz52 = m]cury becomes a solid body1 l a piece ( lead or any o!r metal1 at a c]ta9 degree ( cold3 b no degree ( cold has ev] be5 kn[n to freeze _s ( w9e4 ,a !rmomet]1 !re=e1 consi/s ( a tube ) a bulb1 su* z y see "h1 conta9+ a fluid ^: degrees ( dilatation & contraction are indicat$ by a scale to :i* ! tube is fix$4 ,! degree :i* indicates ! boil+ po9t1 simply means t1 :5 ! fluid is suffici5tly dilat$ to rise to ?is po9t1 ! heat is su* t wat] expos$ to ! same temp]ature w boil4 ,:51 on ! o!r h&1 ! fluid is s mu* cond5s$ z to s9k to ! freez+ po9t1 we "k t wat] w freeze at t temp]ature4 ,! extreme po9ts ( ! scales are n ! same 9 all !rmomet]s1 nor are ! degrees always divid$ 9 ! same mann]4 ,9 diff]5t c\ntries philosoph]s h *os5 to adopt diff]5t scales & divisions4 ,! two !rmomet]s mo/ us$ are ^? ( ,fahr5heit1 & ( ,reaumur2 ! fir/ is g5]ally pref]r$ by ! ,engli%1 ! latt] by ! ,fr5*4 ,,emily4 ,! v>iety ( scale mu/ be v inconv5i5t1 & ,i %\ld ?9k liable to occasion confusion1 :5 ,fr5* & ,engli% exp]im5ts are comp>$4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! inconv5i5ce is b v trifl+1 because ! diff]5t gradations ( ! scales d n affect ! pr9ciple ^u :i* !rmomet]s are con/ruct$4 ,:5 we "k1 = in/ance1 t ,fahr5heit's scale is divid$ into #bab degrees1 9 :i* #cb corresponds ) ! freez+ po9t1 & #bab ) ! po9t ( boil+ wat]3 & t ,reaumur's is divid$ only into #hj degrees1 9 :i* #j d5otes ! freez+ po9t1 & #hj t ( boil+ wat]1 x is easy to comp>e ! two scales toge!r1 & r$uce ! "o into ! o!r4 ,b1 = great] conv5i5ce1 !rmomet]s are sometimes con/ruct$ ) bo? ^! scales1 "o on ei!r side ( ! tube2 s t ! correspond5ce ( ! diff]5t degrees ( ! two scales is ?us in/antly se54 ,"h is "o ( ^! scales1 7,,plate ,,ii4 ,fig4 #a47 by :i* y c at once p]ceive t ea* degree ( ,reaumur's corresponds to #b ( ,fahr5heit's division4 ,b ,i believe ! ,fr5* h1 ( late1 giv5 ! pref]5ce to :at !y call ! c5tigrade scale1 9 :i* ! space betwe5 ! freez+ & ! boil+ po9t is divid$ into #ajj degrees4 ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,,ii4 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #db4 ,fig4 #a4 ,!rmomet]4 ,fahr5heit's ,scale4 ,reaumur's ,scale4 ,boil+ po9t ( ,wat] ,freez+ po9t ( ,wat] ,fig4 #b4 ,diff]5tial ,!rmomet]4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,t seems to me ! mo/ reasonable division1 & ,i _c guess :y ! freez+ po9t is call$ #cb1 or :at advantage is d]iv$ f x4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,!re really is no advantage 9 x2 & x orig9at$ 9 a mi/ak5 op9ion ( ! in/rum5t-mak]1 ,fahr5heit1 :o fir/ con/ruct$ ^! !rmomet]s4 ,he mix$ sn[ & salt toge!r1 & produc$ by t means a degree ( cold :i* he conclud$ 0 ! greate/ possible1 & !re=e made 8 scale beg9 f t po9t4 ,betwe5 t & boil+ wat] he made #bab degrees1 & ! freez+ po9t 0 f\nd to be at #cb4 ,,emily4 ,are _s ( w9e1 & m]cury1 ! only liquids us$ 9 ! con/ruction ( !rmomet]s8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i believe !y are ! only liquids n[ 9 use1 ?\gh "s o!rs1 su* z l9se$ oil1 w\ld make tol]able !rmomet]s3 b = exp]im5ts 9 :i* a v quick & delicate te/ ( ! *anges ( temp]ature is requir$1 air is ! fluid sometimes employ$4 ,! bulb ( air !rmomet]s is fill$ ) common air only1 & its expansion & contraction are indicat$ by a small drop ( any col\r$ liquor1 :i* is susp5d$ )9 ! tube1 & moves up & d[n1 accord+ z ! air )9 ! bulb & tube exp&s or contracts4 ,b 9 g5]al1 air !rmomet]s1 h[ev] s5sible to *anges ( temp]ature1 are by no means accurate 9 _! indications4 ,i c1 h[ev]1 %[ y an air !rmomet] ( a v peculi> con/ruction1 :i* is rem>kably well adapt$ = "s *emical exp]im5ts1 z x is equally delicate & accurate 9 its indications4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,x looks l a d\ble !rmomet] rev]s$1 ! tube be+ b5t1 & hav+ a l>ge bulb at ea* ( its extremities4 7,,plate ,,ii4 ,fig4 #b47 ,,emily4 ,:y d y call x an air !rmomet]2 ! tube conta9s a col\r$ liquid8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,b obs]ve t ! bulbs are fill$ ) air1 ! liquid be+ conf9$ to a portion ( ! tube1 & answ]+ only ! purpose ( %[+1 by its motion 9 ! tube1 ! comp>ative dilatation or contraction ( ! air )9 ! bulbs1 :i* af=d an indication ( _! relative temp]ature4 ,?us if y heat ! bulb ,a1 by ! w>m? ( y\r h&1 ! fluid w rise t[>ds ! bulb ,b1 & ! contr>y w happ5 if y rev]se ! exp]im5t4 ,b if1 on ! contr>y1 bo? tubes are ( ! same temp]ature1 z is ! case n[1 ! col\r$ liquid1 suff]+ an equal pressure on ea* side1 no *ange ( level takes place4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,?is in/rum5t appe>s1 inde$1 uncommonly delicate4 ,! fluid is set 9 motion by ! m]e approa* ( my h&4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y mu/ obs]ve1 h[ev]1 t ?is !rmomet] _c indicate ! temp]ature ( any p>ticul> body1 or ( ! m$ium 9 :i* x is imm]s$2 x s]ves only to po9t out ! diff]5ce ( temp]ature betwe5 ! two bulbs1 :5 plac$ "u diff]5t circum/ances4 ,= ?is reason x has be5 call$ diff]5tial !rmomet]4 ,y w see by-&-bye to :at p>ticul> purposes ?is in/rum5t applies4 ,,emily4 ,b d common !rmomet]s indicate ! exact quantity ( caloric conta9$ ei!r 9 ! atmosph]e1 or 9 any body ) :i* !y are 9 contact8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no3 fir/1 because !re are o!r modifications ( caloric :i* d n affect ! !rmomet]2 &1 secondly1 because ! temp]ature ( a body1 z indicat$ by ! !rmomet]1 is only relative4 ,:51 = in/ance1 ! !rmomet] rema9s /ation>y at ! freez+ po9t1 we "k t ! atmosph]e 7or m$ium 9 :i* x is plac$1 :atev] x may be7 is z cold z freez+ wat]2 & :5 x /&s at ! boil+ po9t1 we "k t ?is m$ium is z hot z boil+ wat]2 b we d n "k ! positive quantity ( heat conta9$ ei!r 9 freez+ or boil+ wat]1 any m ?an we "k ! real extremes ( heat & cold2 & consequ5tly we _c det]m9e t ( ! body 9 :i* ! !rmomet] is plac$4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i d n q und]/& ?is explanation4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,let u comp>e a !rmomet] to a well1 9 :i* ! wat] rises to diff]5t heights1 accord+ z x is m or less suppli$ by ! spr+ :i* fe$s x3 if ! dep? ( ! well is unfa?omable1 x mu/ be impossible to "k ! absolute quantity ( wat] x conta9s2 yet we c ) ! greate/ accuracy measure ! numb] ( feet ! wat] has ris5 or fall5 9 ! well at any "t1 & consequ5tly "k ! precise quantity ( its increase or dim9ution1 )\t hav+ ! lea/ k ( ! :ole quantity ( wat] x conta9s4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,n[ ,i compreh5d x v well2 no?+ appe>s to me to expla9 a ?+ s cle>ly z a comp>ison4 ,,emily4 ,b w !rmomet]s be> any degree ( heat8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no2 = if ! temp]ature 7 mu* above ! highe/ degree m>k$ on ! scale ( ! !rmomet]1 ! m]cury w\ld bur/ ! tube 9 an attempt to asc5d4 ,& at any rate1 no !rmomet] c be appli$ to temp]atures high] ?an ! boil+ po9t ( ! liquid us$ 9 its con/ruction1 = ! /eam1 on ! liquid beg9n+ to boil1 w\ld bur/ ! tube4 ,9 furnaces1 or :5ev] any v high temp]ature is to be measur$1 a pyromet]1 inv5t$ by ,w$gwood1 is us$ = t purpose4 ,x is made ( a c]ta9 composition ( bak$ clay1 :i* has ! peculi> prop]ty ( contract+ by heat1 s t ! degree ( contraction ( ?is sub/ance indicates ! temp]ature to :i* x has be5 expos$4 ,,emily4 ,b is x possible = a body to contract by heat8 ,i ?\ght t heat dilat$ all bodies :atev]4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,?is is n an exception to ! rule4 ,y mu/ recollect t ! bulk ( ! clay is n comp>$1 :il/ hot1 ) t :i* x has :5 cold2 b x is f ! *ange :i* ! clay has und]gone by hav+ be5 heat$ t ! indications ( ?is in/rum5t are d]iv$4 ,?is *ange consi/s 9 a beg9n+ fusion :i* t5ds to unite ! p>ticles ( clay m closely1 ?us r5d]+ x less p]vi\s or spongy4 ,clay is to be consid]$ z a spongy body1 hav+ _m int]/ices or pores1 f its hav+ conta9$ wat] :5 s(t4 ,^! int]/ices are by heat less5$1 & w\ld by extreme heat be entirely oblit]at$4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,& h[ d y asc]ta9 ! degrees ( contraction ( ,w$gwood's pyromet]8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! dim5sions ( a piece ( clay are measur$ by a scale graduat$ on ! side ( a tap]$ groove1 =m$ 9 a brass rul]2 ! m ! clay is contract$ by ! heat1 ! fur!r x w desc5d into ! n>r[ "p ( ! tube4 ,be=e we quit ! subject ( expansion1 ,i mu/ obs]ve to y t1 z liquids exp& m readily ?an solids1 s ela/ic fluids1 :e!r air or vap\r1 are ! mo/ expansible ( all bodies4 ,x may appe> extraord9>y t all ela/ic fluids :atev]1 und]go ! same degree ( expansion f equal augm5tations ( temp]ature4 ,,emily4 ,i suppose1 !n1 t all ela/ic fluids are ( ! same d5sity8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,v f> f x2 !y v>y 9 d5sity1 m ?an ei!r liquids or solids4 ,! uni=mity ( _! expansibility1 :i* at fir/ may appe> s+ul>1 is1 h[ev]1 readily acc\nt$ =4 ,= if ! diff]5t susceptibilities ( expansion ( bodies arise f _! v>i\s degrees ( attraction ( cohesion1 no su* diff]5ce c be expect$ 9 ela/ic fluids1 s9ce 9 ^! ! attraction ( cohesion does n exi/1 _! p>ticles be+ on ! contr>y possess$ ( an ela/ic or repulsive p[]2 !y w !re=e all be equally exp&$ by equal degrees ( caloric4 ,,emily4 ,true2 z !re is no p[] oppos$ to ! expansive =ce ( caloric 9 ela/ic bodies1 its effect mu/ be ! same 9 all ( !m4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,let u n[ proce$ to exam9e ! o!r prop]ties ( free caloric4 ,free caloric always t5ds to diffuse itself equally1 t is to say1 :5 two bodies are ( diff]5t temp]atures1 ! w>m] gradually p>ts ) its heat to ! cold]1 till !y are bo? br\ght to ! same temp]ature4 ,?us1 :5 a !rmomet] is appli$ to a hot body1 x receives caloric2 :5 to a cold "o1 x communicates "p ( its own caloric1 & ?is communication cont9ues until ! !rmomet] & ! body arrive at ! same temp]ature4 ,,emily4 ,cold1 !n1 is no?+ b a negative quality1 simply imply+ ! abs5ce ( heat4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,n ! total abs5ce1 b a dim9ution ( heat2 = we "k ( no body 9 :i* "s caloric may n be discov]$4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b :5 ,i lay my h& on ?is m>ble table ,i feel x positively cold1 & _c conceive t !re is any caloric 9 x4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! cold y exp]i5ce consi/s 9 ! loss ( caloric t y\r h& su/a9s 9 an attempt to br+ its temp]ature to an equilibrium ) ! m>ble4 ,if y lay a piece ( ice ^u x1 y w f9d t ! contr>y effect w take place2 ! ice w be melt$ by ! heat :i* x ab/racts f ! m>ble4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,is x n 9 ?is case ! air ( ! room1 :i* be+ w>m] ?an ! m>ble1 melts ! ice8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! air c]ta9ly acts on ! surface :i* is expos$ to x1 b ! table melts t "p ) :i* x is 9 contact4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b :y does caloric t5d to an equilibrium8 ,x _c be on ! same pr9ciple z o!r fluids1 s9ce x has no weight8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,v true1 ,c>ol9e1 t is an excell5t objection4 ,y might also1 ) "s propriety1 object to ! t]m equilibrium be+ appli$ to a body t is )\t weight2 b ,i "k ( no expression t w\ld expla9 my mean+ s well4 ,y mu/ consid] x1 h[ev]1 9 a figurative r ?an a lit]al s5se2 its /rict mean+ is an equal diffusion4 ,we _c1 inde$1 well say by :at p[] x diffuses itself equally1 ?\gh x is n surpris+ t x %\ld g f ! p>ts :i* h ! mo/ to ^? :i* h ! lea/4 ,?is subject is be/ expla9$ by a !ory sugge/$ by ,pr(essor ,prevo/ ( ,g5eva1 :i* is n[1 ,i believe1 g5]ally adopt$4 ,accord+ to ?is !ory1 caloric is compos$ ( p>ticles p]fectly sep>ate f ea* o!r1 e "o ( :i* moves ) a rapid velocity 9 a c]ta9 direction4 ,^! directions v>y z mu* z imag9ation c conceive1 ! result ( :i* is1 t !re are rays or l9es ( ^! p>ticles mov+ ) imm5se velocity 9 e possible direction4 ,caloric is ?us univ]sally diffus$1 s t :5 any portion ( space happ5s to be 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ano!r1 :i* conta9s m caloric1 ! cold] portion receives a quantity ( calorific rays f ! latt]1 suffici5t to re/ore an equilibrium ( temp]ature4 ,?is radiation does n only take place 9 free space1 b ext5ds also to bodies ( e k9d4 ,?us y may suppose all bodies :atev] con/antly radiat+ caloric3 ^? t are ( ! same temp]ature give out & absorb equal quantities1 s t no v>iation ( temp]ature is produc$ 9 !m2 b :5 "o body conta9s m free caloric ?an ano!r1 ! ex*ange is always 9 fav\r ( ! cold] body1 until an equilibrium is effect$2 ?is y f\nd to be ! case :5 ! m>ble table cool$ y\r h&1 & aga9 :5 x melt$ ! ice4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,?is reciprocal radiation surprises me extremely2 ,i ?\ght1 f :at y fir/ said1 t ! hott] bodies alone emitt$ rays ( caloric :i* 7 absorb$ by ! cold]2 = x seems unnatural t a hot body %\ld receive any caloric f a cold "o1 ev5 ?\gh x %\ld return a great] quantity4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x may at fir/ appe> s1 b x is no m extraord9>y ?an t a c&le %\ld s5d =? rays ( light to ! sun1 :i*1 y "k1 mu/ necess>ily happ54 ,,c>ol9e4 ,well1 ,mrs4 ,b--1 ,i believe t ,i mu/ give up ! po9t4 ,b ,i wi% ,i c\ld see ^! rays ( caloric2 ,i %\ld !n h great] fai? 9 !m4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,w y give no cr$it to any s5se b t ( sight8 ,y may feel ! rays ( caloric :i* y receive f any body ( a temp]ature high] ?an y\r own2 ! loss ( ! caloric y "p ) 9 return1 x is true1 is n p]ceptible2 = z y ga9 m ?an y lose1 in/ead ( suff]+ a dim9ution1 y are really mak+ an acquisition ( caloric4 ,x is1 !re=e1 only :5 y are p>t+ ) x to a body ( a l[] temp]ature1 t y are s5sible ( ! s5sation ( cold1 because y !n su/a9 an absolute loss ( caloric4 ,,emily4 ,& 9 ?is case we _c be s5sible ( ! small quantity ( heat we receive 9 ex*ange f ! cold] body1 because x s]ves only to dim9i% ! loss4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,v well1 inde$1 ,emily4 ,pr(essor ,pictet1 ( ,g5eva1 has made "s v int]e/+ exp]im5ts1 :i* prove n only t caloric radiates f all bodies :atev]1 b t ^! rays may be reflect$1 accord+ to ! laws ( optics1 9 ! same mann] z light4 ,i %all repeat ^! exp]im5ts be=e y1 hav+ procur$ mirrors fit = ! purpose2 & x w af=d u an opportunity ( us+ ! diff]5tial !rmomet]1 :i* is p>ticul>ly well adapt$ = ^! exp]im5ts4 --,i place an iron bullet1 7,,plate ,,iii4 ,fig4 #a47 ab\t two in*es 9 diamet]1 & heat$ to a degree n suffici5t to r5d] x lum9\s1 9 ! focus ( ?is l>ge metallic concave mirror4 ,! rays ( heat :i* fall on ?is mirror are reflect$1 agreeably to ! prop]ty ( concave mirrors1 9 a p>allel direction1 s z to fall on a simil> mirror1 :i*1 y see1 is plac$ opposite to ! fir/1 at ! di/ance ( ab\t t5 feet2 !nce ! rays conv]ge to ! focus ( ! second mirror1 9 :i* ,i place "o ( ! bulbs ( ?is !rmomet]4 ,n[1 obs]ve 9 :at mann] x is affect$ by ! caloric :i* is reflect$ on x f ! heat$ bullet4 --,! air is dilat$ 9 ! bulb :i* we plac$ 9 ! focus ( ! mirror1 & ! liquor rises consid]ably 9 ! opposite leg4 ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,,iii4 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #ed ,mr4 ,pictet's ,app>atus = ! ,reflection ( ,heat4 ,fig4 #a4 ,a4,a4 ,b4,b ,concave mirrors fix$ on /&s4 ,c ,heat$ ,bullet plac$ 9 ! focus ( ! mirror ,a4 ,d ,!rmomet]1 ) its bulb plac$ 9 ! focus ( ! mirror ,b4 #a4b4c4d ,rays ( ,caloric radiat+ f ! bullet fall+ on ! mirror ,a4 #e4f4g4h ,! same rays reflect$ f ! mirror ,a to ! mirror ,b4 #i4aj4aa4ab ,! same rays reflect$ by ! mirror ,b to ! ,!rmomet]4 ,,emily4 ,b w\ld n ! same effect take place1 if ! rays ( caloric f ! heat$ bullet fell directly on ! !rmomet]1 )\t ! assi/ance ( ! mirrors8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! effect w\ld 9 t case be s trifl+1 at ! di/ance at :i* ! bullet & ! !rmomet] are f ea* o!r1 t x w\ld be almo/ imp]ceptible4 ,! mirrors1 y "k1 greatly increase ! effect1 by collect+ a l>ge quantity ( rays into a focus2 place y\r h& 9 ! focus ( ! mirror1 & y w f9d x mu* hott] !re ?an :5 y remove x ne>] to ! bullet4 ,,emily4 ,t is v true2 x appe>s extremely s+ul> to feel ! heat dim9i% 9 approa*+ ! body f :i* x proce$s4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,& ! mirror :i* produces s mu* heat1 by conv]g+ ! rays1 is itself q cold4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! same numb] ( rays t are disp]s$ ov] ! surface ( ! mirror are collect$ by x into ! focus2 b1 if y consid] h[ l>ge a surface ! mirror pres5ts to ! rays1 &1 consequ5tly1 h[ mu* !y are diffus$ 9 comp>ison to :at !y are at ! focus1 :i* is little m ?an a po9t1 ,i ?9k y c no long] wond] t ! focus %\ld be s mu* hott] ?an ! mirror4 ,! pr9cipal use ( ! mirrors 9 ?is exp]im5t is1 to prove t ! calorific emanation is reflect$ 9 ! same mann] z light4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,& ! result1 ,i ?9k1 is v conclusive4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! exp]im5t may be repeat$ ) a wax tap] in/ead ( ! bullet1 ) a view ( sep>at+ ! light f ! caloric4 ,= ?is purpose a transp>5t plate ( glass mu/ be int]pos$ betwe5 ! mirrors2 = light1 y "k1 passes ) great facility ?r\gh glass1 :il/ ! transmission ( caloric is almo/ :olly imp$$ by x4 ,we %all f9d1 h[ev]1 9 ?is exp]im5t1 t "s few ( ! calorific rays pass ?r\gh ! glass toge!r ) ! light1 z ! !rmomet] rises a little2 b1 z soon z ! glass is remov$1 & a free passage left to ! caloric1 x w rise consid]ably high]4 ,,emily4 ,?is exp]im5t1 z well z t ( ,dr4 ,h]s*ell's1 proves t light & heat may be sep>at$2 = 9 ! latt] exp]im5t ! sep>ation 0 n p]fect1 any m ?an 9 t ( ,mr4 ,pictet4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i %\ld l to repeat ?is exp]im5t1 ) ! diff]5ce ( sub/itut+ a cold body in/ead ( ! hot "o1 to see :e!r cold w\ld n be reflect$ z well z heat4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t exp]im5t 0 propos$ to ,mr4 ,pictet by an incr$ul\s philosoph] l y\rself1 & he imm$iately tri$ x by sub/itut+ a piece ( ice 9 ! place ( ! heat$ bullet4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,well1 ,mrs4 ,b41 & :at 0 ! result8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t we %all see2 ,i h procur$ "s ice = ! purpose4 ,,emily4 ,! !rmomet] falls consid]ably6 ,,c>ol9e4 ,& does n t prove t cold is n m]ely a negative quality1 imply+ simply an inf]ior degree ( heat8 ,! cold mu/ be positive1 s9ce x is capable ( reflection4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,s x at fir/ appe>$ to ,mr4 ,pictet2 b ^u a little consid]ation he f\nd t x af=d$ only an additional pro( ( ! reflection ( heat3 ?is ,i %all endeav\r to expla9 to y4 ,accord+ to ,mr4 ,prevo/'s !ory1 we suppose t all bodies :atev] radiate caloric2 ! !rmomet] us$ 9 ^! exp]im5ts !re=e emits calorific rays 9 ! same mann] z any o!r sub/ance4 ,:5 its temp]ature is 9 equilibrium ) t ( ! surr\nd+ bodies1 x receives z mu* caloric z x p>ts )1 & no *ange ( temp]ature is produc$4 ,b :5 we introduce a body ( a l[] temp]ature1 su* z a piece ( ice1 :i* p>ts ) less caloric ?an x receives1 ! consequ5ce is1 t its temp]ature is rais$1 :il/ t ( ! surr\nd+ bodies is proportionally l[]$4 ,,emily4 ,if1 = in/ance1 ,i 0 to br+ a l>ge piece ( ice into ?is room1 ! ice w\ld 9 "t be melt$1 by absorb+ caloric f ! g5]al radiation :i* is go+ on ?r\gh\t ! room2 & z x w\ld contribute v little caloric 9 return = :at is absorb$1 ! room w\ld necess>ily be cool$ by x4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,j s2 & z 9 consequ5ce ( ! mirrors1 a m consid]able ex*ange ( rays takes place betwe5 ! ice & ! !rmomet]1 ?an betwe5 ^! & any ( ! surr\nd+ bodies1 ! temp]ature ( ! !rmomet] mu/ be m l[]$ ?an t ( any o!r adjac5t object4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i confess ,i d n p]fectly und]/& y\r explanation4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,?is exp]im5t is exactly simil> to t made ) ! heat$ bullet3 =1 if we consid] ! !rmomet] z ! hot body 7:i* x c]ta9ly is 9 comp>ison to ! ice71 y may !n easily und]/& t x is by ! loss ( ! calorific rays :i* ! !rmomet] s5ds to ! ice1 & n by any cold rays receiv$ f x1 t ! fall ( ! m]cury is occasion$3 = ! ice1 f> f emitt+ rays ( cold1 s5ds =? rays ( caloric1 :i* dim9i% ! loss su/a9$ by ! !rmomet]4 ,let u say1 = in/ance1 t ! radiation ( ! !rmomet] t[>ds ! ice is equal to #bj1 & t ( ! ice t[>ds ! !rmomet] to #aj3 ! ex*ange 9 fav\r ( ! ice is z #bj is to #aj1 or ! !rmomet] absolutely loses #aj1 :il/ ! ice ga9s #aj4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b if ! ice actually s5ds rays ( caloric to ! !rmomet]1 mu/ n ! latt] fall /ill l[] :5 ! ice is remov$8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no2 = ! space t ! ice occupi$1 admits rays f all ! surr\nd+ bodies to pass ?r\gh x2 & ^? be+ ( ! same temp]ature z ! !rmomet]1 w n affect x1 because z mu* heat n[ returns to ! !rmomet] z radiates f x4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i mu/ confess t y h expla9$ ?is 9 s satisfactory a mann]1 t ,i _c help be+ conv9c$ n[ t cold has no real claim to ! rank ( a positive be+4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,be=e ,i conclude ! subject ( radiation ,i mu/ obs]ve to y t diff]5t bodies1 7or r surfaces17 possess ! p[] ( radiat+ caloric 9 v diff]5t degrees4 ,"s v curi\s exp]im5ts h be5 made by ,mr4 ,leslie on ?is subject1 & x 0 = ?is purpose t he inv5t$ ! diff]5tial !rmomet]2 ) its assi/ance he asc]ta9$ t black surfaces radiate mo/1 glass next1 & poli%$ surfaces ! lea/ ( all4 ,,emily4 ,suppos+ ^! surfaces1 ( c\rse1 to be all ( ! same temp]ature4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,und\bt$ly4 ,i w n[ %[ y ! v simple & +5i\s app>atus1 by means ( :i* he made ^! exp]im5ts4 ,?is cubical t9 vessel or cani/]1 has ea* ( its sides ext]nally cov]$ ) diff]5t mat]ials2 ! "o is simply black5$2 ! next is cov]$ ) :ite pap]2 ! ?ird ) a pane ( glass1 & 9 ! f\r? ! poli%$ t9 surface rema9s uncov]$4 ,we %all fill ?is vessel ) hot wat]1 s t !re c be no d\bt b t all its sides w be ( ! same temp]ature4 ,n[ let u place x 9 ! focus ( "o ( ! mirrors1 mak+ ea* ( its sides front x 9 succession4 ,we %all beg9 ) ! black surface4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,x makes ! !rmomet] :i* is 9 ! focus ( ! o!r mirror rise consid]ably4 ,let u turn ! pap] surface t[>ds ! mirror4 ,! !rmomet] falls a little1 !re=e ( c\rse ?is side _c emit or radiate s mu* caloric z ! black5$ side4 ,,emily4 ,?is is v surpris+2 = ! sides are exactly ( ! same size1 & mu/ be ( ! same temp]ature4 ,b let u try ! glass surface4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! !rmomet] cont9ues fall+1 & ) ! pla9 surface x falls /ill l[]2 ^! two surfaces !re=e radiate less & less4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i ?9k ,i h f\nd out ! reason ( ?is4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i %\ld be v happy to he> x1 = x has n yet 7to my k7 be5 acc\nt$ =4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,! wat] )9 ! vessel gradually cools1 & ! !rmomet] 9 consequ5ce gradually falls4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is true t ! wat] cools1 b c]ta9ly 9 mu* less proportion ?an ! !rmomet] desc5ds1 z y w p]ceive if y n[ *ange ! t9 surface = ! black "o4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i 0 mi/ak5 c]ta9ly1 = ! !rmomet] rises aga9 n[ t ! black surface fronts ! mirror4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,& yet ! wat] 9 ! vessel is /ill cool+1 ,c>ol9e4 ,,emily4 ,i am surpris$ t ! t9 surface %\ld radiate ! lea/ caloric1 = a metallic vessel fill$ ) hot wat]1 a silv] teapot1 = in/ance1 feels mu* hott] to ! h& ?an "o ( black e>!n w>e4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t is ow+ to ! diff]5t p[] :i* v>i\s bodies possess = conduct+ caloric1 a prop]ty :i* we %all pres5tly exam9e4 ,?us1 al?\gh a metallic vessel feels w>m] to ! h&1 a vessel ( ?is k9d is kn[n to pres]ve ! heat ( ! liquid )91 bett] ?an "o ( any o!r mat]ials2 x is = ?is reason t silv] teapots make bett] tea ?an ^? ( e>!n w>e4 ,,emily4 ,accord+ to ^! exp]im5ts1 light-col\r$ dresses1 9 cold wea!r1 %\ld keep u w>m] ?an black clo!s1 s9ce ! latt] radiate s mu* m ?an ! =m]4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,& t is actually ! case4 ,,emily4 ,?is prop]ty1 ( diff]5t surfaces to radiate 9 diff]5t degrees1 appe>s to me to be at v>iance ) ! equilibrium ( caloric2 s9ce x w\ld imply t ^? bodies :i* radiate mo/1 mu/ ultimately become colde/4 ,suppose t we 7 to v>y ?is exp]im5t1 by us+ two metallic vessels full ( boil+ wat]1 ! "o black5$1 ! o!r n2 w\ld n ! black "o cool ! fir/8 ,,c>ol9e4 ,true2 b :5 !y 7 bo? br\ght d[n to ! temp]ature ( ! room1 ! int]*ange ( caloric betwe5 ! cani/]s & ! o!r bodies ( ! room be+ !n equal1 _! temp]atures w\ld rema9 ! same4 ,,emily4 ,i d n see :y t %\ld be ! case2 = if diff]5t surfaces ( ! same temp]ature radiate 9 diff]5t degrees :5 heat$1 :y %\ld !y n cont9ue to d s :5 cool$ d[n to ! temp]ature ( ! room8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y h />t$ a difficulty1 ,emily1 :i* c]ta9ly requires explanation4 ,x is f\nd by exp]im5t t ! p[] ( absorption corresponds ) & is proportional to t ( radiation2 s t "u equal temp]atures1 bodies comp5sate = ! great] loss !y su/a9 9 consequ5ce ( _! great] radiation by _! great] absorption2 s t if y 7 to make y\r exp]im5t 9 an atmosph]e heat$ l ! cani/]s1 to ! temp]ature ( boil+ wat]1 ?\gh x is true t ! cani/]s w\ld radiate 9 diff]5t degrees1 no *ange ( temp]ature w\ld be produc$ 9 !m1 because !y w\ld ea* absorb caloric 9 proportion to _! respective radiation4 ,,emily4 ,b w\ld n ! cani/]s ( boil+ wat] also absorb caloric 9 diff]5t degrees 9 a room ( ! common temp]ature8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,und\bt$ly !y w\ld4 ,b ! v>i\s bodies 9 ! room w\ld n1 at a l[] temp]ature1 furni% ei!r ( ! cani/]s ) a suffici5cy ( caloric to comp5sate = ! loss !y und]go2 =1 suppose ! black cani/] to absorb #djj rays ( caloric1 :il/ ! metallic "o absorb$ only #bjj2 yet if ! =m] radiate #hjj1 :il/ ! latt] radiates only #djj1 ! black cani/] w be ! fir/ cool$ d[n to ! temp]ature ( ! room4 ,b f ! mom5t ! equilibrium ( temp]ature has tak5 place1 ! black cani/]1 bo? receiv+ & giv+ out #djj rays1 & ! metallic "o #bjj1 no *ange ( temp]ature w take place4 ,,emily4 ,i n[ und]/& x extremely well4 ,b :at becomes ( ! surplus ( calorific rays1 :i* good radiators emit & bad radiators refuse to receive2 !y mu/ w&] ab\t 9 se>* ( a re/+-place8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,!y really d s2 = !y are reject$ & s5t back1 or1 9 o!r words1 reflect$ by ! bodies :i* are bad radiators ( caloric2 & !y are ?us transmitt$ to o!r bodies :i* happ5 to lie 9 _! way1 by :i* !y are ei!r absorb$ or aga9 reflect$1 accord+ z ! prop]ty ( reflection1 or t ( absorption1 pr$om9ates 9 ^! bodies4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i d n well und]/& ! diff]5ce betwe5 radiat+ & reflect+ caloric1 = ! caloric t is reflect$ f a body proce$s f x 9 /raight l9es1 & may surely be said to radiate f x8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is true t !re at fir/ appe>s to be a great analogy betwe5 radiation & reflection1 z !y equally convey ! idea ( ! transmission ( caloric4 ,b if y consid] a little1 y w p]ceive t :5 a body radiates caloric1 ! heat :i* x emits n only proce$s f1 b has its orig9 9 ! body itself4 ,:il/ :5 a body reflects caloric1 x p>ts ) none ( its own caloric1 b only reflects t :i* x receives f o!r bodies4 ,,emily4 ,( ?is diff]5ce we h v /rik+ examples be=e u1 9 ! t9 vessel ( wat]1 & ! concave mirrors2 ! fir/ radiates its own heat1 ! latt] reflect ! heat :i* !y receive f o!r bodies4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,n[1 t ,i und]/& ! diff]5ce1 x no long] surprises me t bodies :i* radiate1 or "p ) _! own caloric freely1 %\ld n h ! p[] ( transmitt+ ) equal facility t :i* !y receive f o!r bodies4 ,,emily4 ,yet no body c be said to possess caloric ( its own1 if all caloric is orig9ally d]iv$ f ! sun4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,:5 ,i speak ( a body radiat+ its own caloric1 ,i mean t :i* x has absorb$ & incorporat$ ei!r imm$iately f ! sun's rays1 or ?r\gh ! m$ium ( any o!r sub/ance4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,x seems natural en\gh t ! p[] ( absorption %\ld be 9 opposition to t ( reflection1 = ! m caloric a body receives1 ! less x w reject4 ,,emily4 ,& equally s t ! p[] ( radiation %\ld correspond ) t ( absorption4 ,x is1 9 fact1 cause & effect2 = a body _c radiate heat )\t hav+ previ\sly absorb$ x2 j z a spr+ t is well f$ fl[s abundantly4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,fluids are 9 g5]al v bad radiators ( caloric2 & air nei!r radiates nor absorbs caloric 9 any s5sible degree4 ,we h n yet conclud$ our obs]vations on free caloric4 ,b ,i %all def]1 till our next meet+1 :at ,i h fur!r to say on ?is subject4 ,i believe x w af=d u ample conv]sation = ano!r int]view4 ,,conv]sation ,,iii4 ,,cont9uation ,,( ,,! ,,subject4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,9 our la/ conv]sation1 we began to exam9e ! t5d5cy ( caloric to re/ore an equilibrium ( temp]ature4 ,?is prop]ty1 :5 once well und]/ood1 af=ds ! explanation ( a great v>iety ( facts :i* appe>$ =m]ly unacc\ntable4 ,y mu/ obs]ve1 9 ! fir/ place1 t ! effect ( ?is t5d5cy is gradually to br+ all bodies t are 9 contact to ! same temp]ature4 ,?us1 ! fire :i* burns 9 ! grate1 communicates its heat f "o object to ano!r1 till e "p ( ! room has an equal proportion ( x4 ,,emily4 ,& yet ?is book is n s cold z ! table on :i* x lies1 ?\gh bo? are at an equal di/ance f ! fire1 & actually 9 contact ) ea* o!r1 s t1 accord+ to y\r !ory1 !y %\ld be exactly ( ! same temp]ature4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,& ! he>?1 :i* is mu* ne>] ! fire ?an ! c>pet1 is c]ta9ly ! cold] ( ! two4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,if y asc]ta9 ! temp]ature ( ^! sev]al bodies by a !rmomet] 7:i* is a mu* m accurate te/ ?an y\r feel+71 y w f9d t x is exactly ! same4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b if !y are ( ! same temp]ature1 :y %\ld ! "o feel cold] ?an ! o!r8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! he>? & ! table feel cold] ?an ! c>pet or ! book1 because ! latt] are n su* good conductors ( heat z ! =m]4 ,caloric f9ds a m easy passage ?r\gh m>ble & wood1 ?an ?r\gh lea!r & wor/$2 ! two =m] w !re=e absorb heat m rapidly f y\r h&1 & consequ5tly give x a /rong] s5sation ( cold ?an ! two latt]1 al?\gh !y are all ( !m really ( ! same temp]ature4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,s1 !n1 ! s5sation ,i feel on t\*+ a cold body1 is 9 proportion to ! rapidity ) :i* my h& yields its heat to t body8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,precisely2 &1 if y lay y\r h& successively on e object 9 ! room1 y w discov] :i* are good1 & :i* are bad conductors ( heat1 by ! diff]5t degrees ( cold y feel4 ,b1 9 ord] to asc]ta9 ?is po9t1 x is necess>y t ! sev]al sub/ances %\ld be ( ! same temp]ature1 :i* w n be ! case ) ^? t are v ne> ! fire1 or ^? t are expos$ to a curr5t ( cold air f a w9d[ or door4 ,,emily4 ,b :at is ! reason t "s bodies are bett] conductors ( heat ?an o!rs8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,?is is a po9t n well asc]ta9$4 ,x has be5 conjectur$ t a c]ta9 union or adh]5ce takes place betwe5 ! caloric & ! p>ticles ( ! body ?r\gh :i* x passes4 ,if ?is adh]5ce be /rong1 ! body deta9s ! heat1 & p>ts ) x sl[ly & reluctantly2 if slight1 x propagates x freely & rapidly4 ,! conduct+ p[] ( a body is !re=e1 inv]sely1 z its t5d5cy to unite ) caloric4 ,,emily4 ,t is to say1 t ! be/ conductors are ^? t h ! lea/ aff9ity = caloric4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 b ! t]m aff9ity is objectionable 9 ?is case1 because1 z t ^w is us$ to express a *emical attraction 7:i* c be de/roy$ only by decomposition71 x _c be applicable to ! slight & transi5t union t takes place betwe5 free caloric & ! bodies ?r\gh :i* x passes2 an union :i* is s weak1 t x con/antly yields to ! t5d5cy :i* caloric has to an equilibrium4 ,n[ y cle>ly und]/&1 t ! passage ( caloric1 ?r\gh bodies t are good conductors1 is mu* m rapid ?an ?r\gh ^? t are bad conductors1 & t ! =m] bo? give & receive x m quickly1 & !re=e1 9 a giv5 "t1 m abundantly1 ?an bad conductors1 :i* makes !m feel ei!r hott] or cold]1 ?\gh !y may be1 9 fact1 bo? ( ! same temp]ature4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,yes1 ,i und]/& x n[2 ! table1 & ! book ly+ ^u x1 be+ really ( ! same temp]ature1 w\ld ea* receive1 9 ! same space ( "t1 ! same quantity ( heat f my h&1 7 _! conduct+ p[]s equal2 b z ! table is ! be/ conductor ( ! two1 x w absorb ! heat f my h& m rapidly1 & consequ5tly produce a /rong] s5sation ( cold ?an ! book4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,v well1 my de>2 & obs]ve1 likewise1 t if y 7 to heat ! table & ! book an equal numb] ( degrees above ! temp]ature ( y\r body1 ! table1 :i* be=e felt ! cold]1 w\ld n[ feel ! hott] ( ! two2 =1 z 9 ! fir/ case x took ! heat mo/ rapidly f y\r h&1 s x w n[ imp>t heat mo/ rapidly to x4 ,?us ! m>ble table1 :i* seems to u cold] ?an ! mahogany "o1 w prove ! hott] ( ! two to ! ice2 =1 if x takes heat m rapidly f our h&s1 :i* are w>m]1 x w give out heat m rapidly to ! ice1 :i* is cold]4 ,d y und]/& ! reason ( ^! app>5tly opposite effects8 ,,emily4 ,p]fectly4 ,a body :i* is a good conductor ( caloric1 af=ds x a free passage2 s t x p5etrates ?r\gh t body m rapidly ?an ?r\gh "o :i* is a bad conductor2 & consequ5tly1 if x is cold] ?an y\r h&1 y lose m caloric1 & if x is hott]1 y ga9 m ?an ) a bad conductor ( ! same temp]ature4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,b y mu/ obs]ve t ?is is ! case only :5 ! conductors are ei!r hott] or cold] ?an y\r h&2 =1 if y heat diff]5t conductors to ! temp]ature ( y\r body1 !y w all feel equally w>m1 s9ce ! ex*ange ( caloric betwe5 bodies ( ! same temp]ature is equal4 ,n[1 c y tell me :y flannel clo?+1 :i* is a v bad conductor ( heat1 prev5ts our feel+ cold8 ,,c>ol9e4 ,x prev5ts ! cold f p5etrat+ 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,b y =get t cold is only a negative quality4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,true2 x only prev5ts ! heat ( our bodies f escap+ s rapidly z x w\ld o!rwise d4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,n[ y h expla9$ x "r2 ! flannel r keeps 9 ! heat1 ?an keeps out ! cold4 ,7 ! atmosph]e ( a high] temp]ature ?an our bodies1 x w\ld be equally efficaci\s 9 keep+ _! temp]ature at ! same degree1 z x w\ld prev5t ! free access ( ! ext]nal heat1 by ! difficulty ) :i* x conducts x4 ,,emily4 ,?is1 ,i ?9k1 is v cle>4 ,heat1 :e!r ext]nal or int]nal1 _c easily p5etrate flannel2 !re=e 9 cold wea!r x keeps u w>m2 & if ! wea!r 0 hott] ?an our bodies1 x w\ld keep u cool4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! mo/ d5se bodies are1 g5]ally speak+1 ! be/ conductors ( heat2 probably because ! d5s] ! body ! great] are ! numb] ( po9ts or p>ticles t come 9 contact ) caloric4 ,at ! common temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e a piece ( metal w feel mu* cold] ?an a piece ( wood1 & ! latt] ?an a piece ( wooll5 clo?2 ?is aga9 w feel cold] ?an flannel2 & d[n1 :i* is "o ( ! lighte/1 is at ! same "t "o ( ! w>me/ bodies4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,?is is1 ,i suppose1 ! reason t ! plumage ( birds pres]ves !m s effectually f ! influ5ce ( cold 9 w9t]8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 b ?\gh fea!rs 9 g5]al are an excell5t pres]vative aga9/ cold1 d[n is a k9d ( plumage peculi> to aquatic birds1 & cov]s _! *e/1 :i* is ! "p mo/ expos$ to ! wat]2 = ?\gh ! surface ( ! wat] is n ( a l[] temp]ature ?an ! atmosph]e1 yet1 z x is a bett] conductor ( heat1 x feels mu* cold]1 consequ5tly ! *e/ ( ! bird requires a w>m] cov]+ ?an any o!r "p ( its body4 ,besides1 ! brea/s ( aquatic birds are expos$ to cold n only f ! temp]ature ( ! wat]1 b also f ! velocity ) :i* ! brea/ ( ! bird /rikes aga9/ x2 & likewise f ! rapid evaporation occasion$ 9 t "p by ! air aga9/ :i* x /rikes1 aft] x has be5 moi/5$ by dipp+ f "t to "t into ! wat]4 ,if y hold a f+] ( "o h& motionless 9 a glass ( wat]1 & at ! same "t move a f+] ( ! o!r h& swiftly ?r\gh wat] ( ! same temp]ature1 a diff]5t s5sation w be soon p]ceiv$ 9 ! diff]5t f+]s4 ,mo/ animal sub/ances1 especially ^? :i* ,provid5ce has assign$ z a cov]+ = animals1 su* z fur1 wool1 hair1 sk91 c4 are bad conductors ( heat1 & are1 on t acc\nt1 su* excell5t pres]vatives aga9/ ! inclem5cy ( w9t]1 t our w>me/ app>el is made ( ^! mat]ials4 ,,emily4 ,wood is1 ,i d>e say1 n s good a conductor z metal1 & x is = t reason1 no d\bt1 t silv] teapots h always wood5 h&les4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 & x is ! facility ) :i* metals conduct caloric t made y suppose t a silv] pot radiat$ m caloric ?an an e>!n "o4 ,! silv] pot is 9 fact hott] to ! h& :5 9 contact ) x2 b x is because its conduct+ p[] m ?an c\nt]balances its defici5cy 9 reg>d to radiation4 ,we h obs]v$ t ! mo/ d5se bodies are 9 g5]al ! be/ conductors2 & metals1 y "k1 are ( t class4 ,por\s bodies1 su* z ! e>?s & wood1 are worse conductors1 *iefly1 ,i believe1 on acc\nt ( _! pores be+ fill$ ) air2 = air is a rem>kably bad conductor4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,x is a v =tunate circum/ance t air %\ld be a bad conductor1 z x t5ds to pres]ve ! heat ( ! body :5 expos$ to cold wea!r4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is "o ( ! _m b5evol5t disp5sations ( ,provid5ce1 9 ord] to s(t5 ! inclem5cy ( ! seasons1 & to r5d] almo/ all climates habitable to man4 ,9 fluids ( diff]5t d5sities1 ! p[] ( conduct+ heat v>ies no less rem>kably2 if y dip y\r h& into ?is vessel full ( m]cury1 y w sc>cely conceive t its temp]ature is n l[] ?an t ( ! atmosph]e4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,inde$ ,i "k n h[ to believe x1 x feels s extremely cold4 --,b we may easily asc]ta9 its true temp]ature by ! !rmomet]4 --,x is really n cold] ?an ! air2--! app>5t diff]5ce !n is produc$ m]ely by ! diff]5ce ( ! conduct+ p[] 9 m]cury & 9 air4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 h5ce y may judge h[ little ! s5se ( feel+ is to be reli$ on z a te/ ( ! temp]ature ( bodies1 & h[ necess>y a !rmomet] is = t purpose4 ,x has inde$ be5 d\bt$ :e!r fluids h ! p[] ( conduct+ caloric 9 ! same mann] z solid bodies4 ,c\nt ,rum=d1 a v few ye>s s9ce1 attempt$ to prove1 by a v>iety ( exp]im5ts1 t fluids1 :5 at re/1 7 n at all end[$ ) ?is prop]ty4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,h[ is t possible1 s9ce !y are capable ( imp>t+ cold or heat to u2 = if !y did n conduct heat1 !y w\ld nei!r take x f1 nor give x to u8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,c\nt ,rum=d did n mean to say t fluids w\ld n communicate _! heat to solid bodies2 b only t heat does n p]vade fluids1 t is to say1 is n transmitt$ f "o p>ticle ( a fluid to ano!r1 9 ! same mann] z 9 solid bodies4 ,,emily4 ,b :5 y heat a vessel ( wat] ov] ! fire1 if ! p>ticles ( wat] d n communicate heat to ea* o!r1 h[ does ! wat] become hot ?r\gh\t8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,by con/ant agitation4 ,wat]1 z y h se51 exp&s by heat 9 ! same mann] z solid bodies2 ! heat$ p>ticles ( wat]1 !re=e1 at ! bottom ( ! vessel1 become specifically light] ?an ! re/ ( ! liquid1 & consequ5tly asc5d to ! surface1 :]e1 p>t+ ) "s ( _! heat to ! cold] atmosph]e1 !y are cond5s$1 & give way to a fre% succession ( heat$ p>ticles asc5d+ f ! bottom1 :i* hav+ ?r[n (f _! heat at ! surface1 are 9 _! turn displac$4 ,?us e p>ticle is successively heat$ at ! bottom1 & cool$ at ! surface ( ! liquid2 b z ! fire communicates heat m rapidly ?an ! atmosph]e cools ! succession ( surfaces1 ! :ole ( ! liquid 9 "t becomes heat$4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,?is acc\nts mo/ +5i\sly = ! propagation ( heat upw>ds4 ,b suppose y 7 to heat ! upp] surface ( a liquid1 ! p>ticles be+ specifically light] ?an ^? bel[1 c\ld n desc5d3 h[ !re=e w\ld ! heat be communicat$ d[nw>ds8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,if !re 7 no agitation to =ce ! heat$ surface d[nw>ds1 ,c\nt ,rum=d assures u t ! heat w\ld n desc5d4 ,9 pro( ( ?is he succe$$ 9 mak+ ! upp] surface ( a vessel ( wat] boil & evaporate1 :ile a cake ( ice rema9$ froz5 at ! bottom4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,t is v extraord9>y inde$6 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x appe>s s1 because we are n accu/om$ to heat liquids by _! upp] surface2 b y w und]/& ?is !ory bett] if ,i %[ y ! int]nal motion t takes place 9 liquids :5 !y exp]i5ce a *ange ( temp]ature4 ,! motion ( ! liquid itself is inde$ invisible f ! extreme m9ut5ess ( its p>ticles2 b if y mix ) x any col\r$ du/1 or p[d]1 ( ne>ly ! same specific gravity z ! liquid1 y may judge ( ! int]nal motion ( ! latt] by t ( ! col\r$ du/ x conta9s4 --,d y see ! small pieces ( amb] mov+ ab\t 9 ! liquid conta9$ 9 ?is phial8 ,,c>ol9e4 ,yes1 p]fectly4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,we %all n[ imm]se ! phial 9 a glass ( hot wat]1 & ! motion ( ! liquid w be %[n1 by t :i* x communicates to ! amb]4 ,,emily4 ,i see two curr5ts1 ! "o ris+ along ! sides ( ! phial1 ! o!r desc5d+ 9 ! c5tre3 b ,i d n und]/& ! reason ( ?is4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! hot wat] communicates its caloric1 ?r\gh ! m$ium ( ! phial1 to ! p>ticles ( ! fluid ne>e/ to ! glass2 ^! dilate & asc5d lat]ally to ! surface1 :]e1 9 p>t+ ) _! heat1 !y are cond5s$1 & 9 desc5d+1 =m ! c5tral curr5t4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,?is is inde$ a v cle> & satisfactory exp]im5t2 b h[ mu* sl[] ! curr5ts n[ move ?an !y did at fir/8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is because ! circulation ( p>ticles has ne>ly produc$ an equilibrium ( temp]ature betwe5 ! liquid 9 ! glass & t 9 ! phial4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b ^! communicate lat]ally1 & ,i ?\ght t heat 9 liquids c\ld be propagat$ only upw>ds4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y d n take notice t ! heat is imp>t$ f "o liquid to ! o!r1 ?r\gh ! m$ium ( ! phial itself1 ! ext]nal surface ( :i* receives ! heat f ! wat] 9 ! glass1 :il/ its int]nal surface transmits x to ! liquid x conta9s4 ,n[ take ! phial out ( ! hot wat]1 & obs]ve ! effect ( its cool+4 ,,emily4 ,! curr5ts are rev]s$2 ! ext]nal curr5t n[ desc5ds1 & ! int]nal "o rises4 --,i guess ! reason ( ?is *ange3-- ! phial be+ 9 contact ) cold air in/ead ( hot wat]1 ! ext]nal p>ticles are cool$ in/ead ( be+ heat$2 !y !re=e desc5d & =ce up ! c5tral p>ticles1 :i*1 be+ w>m]1 are consequ5tly light]4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is j s4 ,c\nt ,rum=d h5ce inf]s t no alt]ation ( temp]ature c take place 9 a fluid1 )\t an int]nal motion ( its p>ticles1 & z ?is motion is produc$ only by ! comp>ative levity ( ! heat$ p>ticles1 heat _c be propagat$ d[nw>ds4 ,b ?\gh ,i believe t ,c\nt ,rum=d's !ory z to heat be+ incapable ( p]vad+ fluids is n /rictly correct1 yet !re is1 no d\bt1 mu* tru? 9 8 obs]vation1 t ! communication is mat]ially promot$ by a motion ( ! p>ts2 & ?is acc\nts = ! cold t is f\nd to prevail at ! bottom ( ! lakes 9 ,switz]l&1 :i* are f$ by riv]s issu+ f ! sn[y ,alps4 ,! wat] ( ^! riv]s be+ cold]1 & !re=e m d5se ?an t ( ! lakes1 subsides to ! bottom1 :]e x _c be affect$ by ! w>m] temp]ature ( ! surface2 ! motion ( ! waves may communicate ?is temp]ature to "s little dep?1 b x c desc5d no fur!r ?an ! agitation ext5ds4 ,,emily4 ,b :5 ! atmosph]e is cold] ?an ! lake1 ! cold] surface ( ! wat] w desc5d1 = ! v reason t ! w>m] w n4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,c]ta9ly3 & x is on ?is acc\nt t nei!r a lake1 nor any body ( wat] :atev]1 c be froz5 until e p>ticle ( ! wat] has ris5 to ! surface to give (f its caloric to ! cold] atmosph]e2 !re=e ! deep] a body ( wat] is1 ! long] w be ! "t x requires to be froz54 ,,emily4 ,b if ! temp]ature ( ! :ole body ( wat] be br\ght d[n to ! freez+ po9t1 :y is only ! surface froz58 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! temp]ature ( ! :ole body is l[]$1 b n to ! freez+ po9t4 ,! dim9ution ( heat1 z y "k1 produces a contraction 9 ! bulk ( fluids1 z well z ( solids4 ,?is effect1 h[ev]1 does n take place 9 wat] bel[ ! temp]ature ( #dj degrees1 :i* is #h degrees above ! freez+ po9t4 ,at t temp]ature1 !re=e1 ! int]nal motion1 occasion$ by ! increas$ specific gravity ( ! cond5s$ p>ticles1 ceases2 = :5 ! wat] at ! surface no long] cond5ses1 x w no long] desc5d1 & leave a fre% surface expos$ to ! atmosph]e3 ?is surface alone1 !re=e1 w be fur!r expos$ to its sev]ity1 & w soon be br\ght d[n to ! freez+ po9t1 :5 x becomes ice1 :i* be+ a bad conductor ( heat1 pres]ves ! wat] b5ea? a long "t f be+ affect$ by ! ext]nal cold4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,& ! sea does n freeze1 ,i suppose1 because its dep? is s great1 t a fro/ nev] la/s long en\gh to br+ d[n ! temp]ature ( su* a great body ( wat] to #dj degrees8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t is "o reason :y ! sea1 z a l>ge mass ( wat]1 does n freeze4 ,b1 indep5d5tly ( ?is1 salt wat] does n freeze till x is cool$ mu* bel[ #cb degrees1 & ) respect to ! law ( cond5sation1 salt wat] is an exception1 z x cond5ses ev5 _m degrees bel[ ! freez+ po9t4 ,:5 ! caloric ( fre% wat]1 !re=e1 is imprison$ by ! ice on its surface1 ! ocean /ill cont9ues ?r[+ (f heat into ! atmosph]e1 :i* is a mo/ signal disp5sation ( ,provid5ce to mod]ate ! int5sity ( ! cold 9 w9t]4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,?is !ory ( ! non-conduct+ p[] ( liquids1 does n1 ,i suppose1 hold good ) respect to air1 o!rwise ! atmosph]e w\ld n be heat$ by ! rays ( ! sun pass+ ?r\gh x8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,nor is x heat$ 9 t way4 ,! pure atmosph]e is a p]fectly transp>5t m$ium1 :i* nei!r radiates1 absorbs1 nor conducts caloric1 b transmits ! rays ( ! sun to u )\t 9 any way dim9i%+ _! int5sity4 ,! air is !re=e n m heat$1 by ! sun's rays pass+ ?r\gh x1 ?an diamond1 glass1 wat]1 or any o!r transp>5t m$ium4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,t is v extraord9>y6 ,are glass w9d[s n heat$ !n by ! sun %9+ on !m8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no2 n if ! glass be p]fectly transp>5t4 ,a mo/ conv9c+ pro( t glass transmits ! rays ( ! sun )\t be+ heat$ by !m is af=d$ by ! burn+ l5s1 :i* by conv]g+ ! rays to a focus w set combu/ible bodies on fire1 )\t its own temp]ature be+ rais$4 ,,emily4 ,yet1 ,mrs4 ,b41 if ,i hold a piece ( glass ne> ! fire x is almo/ imm$iately w>m$ by x2 ! glass !re=e mu/ reta9 "s ( ! caloric radiat$ by ! fire8 ,is x t ! sol> rays alone pass freely ?r\gh glass )\t pay+ tribute8 ,x seems unacc\ntable t ! radiation ( a common fire %\ld h p[] to d :at ! sun's rays _c accompli%4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is n because ! rays f ! fire h m p[]1 b r because !y h less1 t !y heat glass & o!r transp>5t bodies4 ,x is true1 h[ev]1 t z y approa* ! s\rce ( heat ! rays be+ ne>] ea* o!r1 ! heat is m cond5s$1 & c produce effects ( :i* ! sol> rays1 f ! great di/ance ( _! s\rce1 are incapable4 ,?us we %\ld f9d x impossible to roa/ a jo9t ( meat by ! sun's rays1 ?\gh x is s easily done by cul9>y heat4 ,yet caloric emanat$ f burn+ bodies1 :i* is commonly call$ cul9>y heat1 has nei!r ! int5sity nor ! velocity ( sol> rays4 ,all caloric1 we h said1 is suppos$ to proce$ orig9ally f ! sun2 b aft] hav+ be5 incorporat$ ) t]re/rial bodies1 & aga9 giv5 out by !m1 ?\gh its nature is n ess5tially alt]$1 x reta9s nei!r ! int5sity nor ! velocity ) :i* x fir/ emanat$ f t lum9>y2 x has !re=e n ! p[] ( pass+ ?r\gh transp>5t m$iums1 su* z glass & wat]1 )\t be+ p>tially reta9$ by ^? bodies4 ,,emily4 ,i recollect t 9 ! exp]im5t on ! reflection ( heat1 ! glass skre5 :i* y int]pos$ betwe5 ! burn+ tap] & ! mirror1 arre/$ ! rays ( caloric1 & suff]$ only ^? ( light to pass ?r\gh x4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,glass w9d[s1 !n1 ?\gh !y _c be heat$ by ! sun %9+ on !m1 may be heat$ int]nally by a fire 9 ! room8 ,b1 ,mrs4 ,b41 s9ce ! atmosph]e is n w>m$ by ! sol> rays pass+ ?r\gh x1 h[ does x obta9 heat2 = all ! fires t are burn+ on ! surface ( ! e>? w\ld contribute v little t[>ds w>m+ x8 ,,emily4 ,! radiation ( heat is n conf9$ to burn+ bodies3 = all bodies1 y "k1 h t prop]ty2 !re=e1 n only e ?+ ^u ! surface ( ! e>?1 b ! e>? itself1 mu/ radiate heat2 & ?is t]re/rial caloric1 n hav+1 ,i suppose1 suffici5t p[] to trav]se ! atmosph]e1 communicates heat to x4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y\r inf]5ce is extremely well drawn1 ,emily2 b ! f\ndation on :i* x re/s is n s\nd2 = ! fact is1 t t]re/rial or cul9>y heat1 ?\gh x _c pass ?r\gh ! d5s] transp>5t m$iums1 su* z glass or wat]1 )\t loss1 trav]ses ! atmosph]e completely3 s t all ! heat :i* ! e>? radiates1 unless x meet ) cl\ds or any =eign body to int]cept its passage1 passes into ! di/ant regions ( ! univ]se4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,:at a pity t s mu* heat %\ld be wa/$6 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,be=e y are tempt$ to object to any law ( nature1 reflect :e!r x may n prove to be "o ( ! numb]less disp5sations ( ,provid5ce = our good4 ,if all ! heat :i* ! e>? has receiv$ f ! sun1 s9ce ! creation _h be5 accumulat$ 9 x1 its temp]ature by ?is "t w\ld1 no d\bt1 h be5 m elevat$ ?an any human be+ c\ld h borne4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i spoke inde$ v inconsid]ately4 ,b1 ,mrs4 ,b41 ?\gh ! e>?1 at su* a high temp]ature1 might h scor*$ our feet1 we %\ld always h _h a cool refre%+ air to brea!1 s9ce ! radiation ( ! e>? does n heat ! atmosph]e4 ,,emily4 ,! cool air w\ld h af=d$ b v insuffici5t refre%m5t1 :il/ our bodies 7 expos$ to ! burn+ radiation ( ! e>?4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,nor %\ld we h brea!d a cool air2 = ?\gh x is true t heat is n communicat$ to ! atmosph]e by radiation1 yet ! air is w>m$ by contact ) heat$ bodies1 9 ! same mann] z solids or liquids4 ,! /ratum ( air :i* is imm$iately 9 contact ) ! e>? is heat$ by x2 x becomes specifically light] & rises1 mak+ way = ano!r /ratum ( air :i* is 9 its turn heat$ & c>ri$ upw>ds2 & ?us ea* successive /ratum ( air is w>m$ by com+ 9 contact ) ! e>?4 ,y may p]ceive ?is effect 9 a sultry day1 if y att5tively obs]ve ! /rata ( air ne> ! surface ( ! e>?2 !y appe> 9 con/ant agitation1 = ?\gh x is true ! air is itself invisible1 yet ! sun %9+ on ! vap\rs float+ 9 x1 r5d] !m visible1 l ! amb] du/ 9 ! wat]4 ,! temp]ature ( ! surface ( ! e>? is !re=e ! s\rce f :5ce ! atmosph]e d]ives its heat1 ?\gh x is communicat$ nei!r by radiation1 nor transmitt$ f "o p>ticle ( x to ano!r by ! conduct+ p[]2 b e p>ticle ( air mu/ come 9 contact ) ! e>? 9 ord] to receive heat f x4 ,,emily4 ,w9d !n by agitat+ ! air %\ld contribute to cool ! e>? & w>m ! atmosph]e1 by br++ a m rapid succession ( fre% /rata ( air 9 contact ) ! e>?1 & yet 9 g5]al w9d feels cool] ?an /ill air8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,because ! agitation ( ! air c>ries (f heat f ! surface ( our bodies m rapidly ?an /ill air1 by occasion+ a great] numb] ( po9ts ( contact 9 a giv5 "t4 ,,emily4 ,s9ce x is f ! e>? & n ! sun t ! atmosph]e receives its heat1 ,i no long] wond] t elevat$ regions %\ld be cold] ?an pla9s & valleys2 x 0 always a subject ( a/oni%m5t to me1 t 9 asc5d+ a m\nta9 & approa*+ ! sun1 ! air became cold] in/ead ( be+ m heat$4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,at ! di/ance ( ab\t a hundr$ million ( miles1 :i* we are f ! sun1 ! approa* ( a few ?\s& feet makes no s5sible diff]5ce1 :il/ x produces a v consid]able effect ) reg>d to ! w>m+ ! atmosph]e at ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,yet z ! w>m air rises f ! e>? & ! cold air desc5ds to x1 ,i %\ld h suppos$ t heat w\ld h accumulat$ 9 ! upp] regions ( ! atmosph]e1 & t we %\ld h felt ! air w>m] z we asc5d$8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! atmosph]e1 y "k1 dim9i%es 9 d5sity1 & consequ5tly 9 weight1 z x is m di/ant f ! e>?2 ! w>m air1 !re=e1 rises only till x meets ) a /ratum ( air ( its own d5sity2 & x w n asc5d into ! upp] regions ( ! atmosph]e until all ! p>ts b5ea? h be5 previ\sly heat$4 ,! l5g? ( summ] ev5 9 w>m climates does n heat ! air suffici5tly to melt ! sn[ :i* has accumulat$ dur+ ! w9t] on v high m\nta9s1 al?\gh !y are almo/ con/antly expos$ to ! heat ( ! sun's rays1 be+ too mu* elevat$ to be (t5 envelop$ 9 cl\ds4 ,,emily4 ,^! explanations are v satisfactory2 b all[ me to ask y "o m "q respect+ ! increas$ levity ( heat$ liquids4 ,y said t :5 wat] 0 heat$ ov] ! fire1 ! p>ticles at ! bottom ( ! vessel asc5d$ z soon z heat$1 9 consequ5ce ( _! specific levity3 :y does n ! same effect cont9ue :5 ! wat] boils1 & is conv]t$ into /eam8 & :y does ! /eam rise f ! surface1 in/ead ( ! bottom ( ! liquid8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! /eam or vap\r does asc5d f ! bottom1 ?\gh x seems to arise f ! surface ( ! liquid4 ,we %all boil "s wat] 9 ?is ,flor5ce flask1 7,,plate ,,iv4 ,fig4 #a47 9 ord] t y may be well acqua9t$ ) ! process ( ebullition2--y w !n see1 ?r\gh ! glass1 t ! vap\r rises 9 bubbles f ! bottom4 ,we %all make x boil by means ( a lamp1 :i* is m conv5i5t = ?is purpose ?an ! *imney fire4 ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,,iv4 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #hd4 ,fig4 #a4 ,pneumatic ,pump4 ,e!r evaporat$ wat] froz5 9 ! air pump4 ,a ,phial ( ,e!r4 ,b ,glass vessel conta9+ wat]4 ,c4,c ,!rmomet]s "o 9 ! ,e!r1 ! o!r 9 ! wat]4 ,fig4 #b4 ,boil+ wat] 9 a flask ov] a ,pat5t lamp4 ,,emily4 ,i see "s small bubbles asc5d1 & a great _m appe> all ov] ! inside ( ! flask2 does ! wat] beg9 to boil already8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no2 :at y n[ see are bubbles ( air1 :i* 7 ei!r dissolv$ 9 ! wat]1 or atta*$ to ! inn] surface ( ! flask1 & :i*1 be+ r>efi$ by ! heat1 asc5d 9 ! wat]4 ,,emily4 ,b ! heat :i* r>efies ! air inclos$ 9 ! wat] mu/ r>efy ! wat] at ! same "t2 !re=e1 if x c\ld rema9 /ation>y 9 ! wat] :5 bo? 7 cold1 ,i d n und]/& :y x %\ld n :5 bo? are equally heat$8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,air be+ mu* less d5se ?an wat]1 is m easily r>efi$2 ! =m]1 !re=e1 exp&s to a great ext5t1 :il/ ! latt] cont9ues to occupy ne>ly ! same space2 = wat] dilates comp>atively b v little )\t *ang+ its /ate & becom+ vap\r4 ,n[ t ! wat] 9 ! flask beg9s to boil1 obs]ve :at l>ge bubbles rise f ! bottom ( x4 ,,emily4 ,i see !m p]fectly2 b ,i wond] t !y h suffici5t p[] to =ce !mselves ?r\gh ! wat]4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,!y mu/ rise1 y "k1 f _! specific levity4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y are "r1 ,c>ol9e2 b vap\r has n 9 all liquids 7:5 br\ght to ! degree ( vaporization7 ! p[] ( ov]com+ ! pressure ( ! less heat$ surface4 ,metals1 = in/ance1 m]cury except$1 evaporate only f ! surface2 !re=e no vap\r w asc5d f !m till ! degree ( heat :i* is necess>y to =m x has rea*$ ! surface2 t is to say1 till ! :ole ( ! liquid is br\ght to a /ate ( ebullition4 ,,emily4 ,i h obs]v$ t /eam1 imm$iately issu+ f ! sp\t ( a teakettle1 is less visible ?an at a fur!r di/ance f x2 yet x mu/ be m d5se :5 x fir/ evaporates1 ?an :5 x beg9s to diffuse itself 9 ! air4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,:5 ! /eam is fir/ =m$1 x is s p]fectly dissolv$ by caloric1 z to be invisible4 ,9 ord] h[ev] to und]/& ?is1 x w be necess>y = me to ent] into "s explanation respect+ ! nature ( ,,solution4 ,solution takes place :5ev] a body is melt$ 9 a fluid4 ,9 ?is op]ation ! body is r$uc$ to su* a m9ute /ate ( division by ! fluid1 z to become invisible 9 x1 & to p>take ( its fluidity2 b 9 common solutions ?is happ5s )\t any decomposition1 ! body be+ only divid$ into its integrant p>ticles by ! fluid 9 :i* x is melt$4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,x is !n a mode ( de/roy+ ! attraction ( aggregation4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,und\bt$ly4 --,! two pr9cipal solv5t fluids are wat]1 & caloric4 ,y may h obs]v$ t if y melt salt 9 wat]1 x totally disappe>s1 & ! wat] rema9s cle>1 & transp>5t z be=e2 yet ?\gh ! union ( ^! two bodies appe>s s p]fect1 x is n produc$ by any *emical comb9ation2 bo? ! salt & ! wat] rema9 un*ang$2 & if y 7 to sep>ate !m by evaporat+ ! latt]1 y w\ld f9d ! salt 9 ! same /ate z be=e4 ,,emily4 ,i suppose t wat] is a solv5t = solid bodies1 & caloric = liquids8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,liquids ( c\rse c only be conv]t$ into vap\r by caloric4 ,b ! solv5t p[] ( ?is ag5t is n at all conf9$ to t class ( bodies2 a great v>iety ( solid sub/ances are dissolv$ by heat3 ?us metals1 :i* are insoluble 9 wat]1 c be dissolv$ by int5se heat1 be+ fir/ fus$ or conv]t$ into a liquid1 & !n r>efi$ into an invisible vap\r4 ,_m o!r bodies1 su* z salt1 gums1 c4 yield to ei!r ( ^! solv5ts4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,& t1 no d\bt1 is ! reason :y hot wat] w melt !m s mu* bett] ?an cold wat]8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is s4 ,caloric may1 inde$1 be consid]$ z hav+1 9 e in/ance1 "s %>e 9 ! solution ( a body by wat]1 s9ce wat]1 h[ev] l[ its temp]ature may be1 always conta9s m or less caloric4 ,,emily4 ,!n1 p]haps1 wat] owes its solv5t p[] m]ely to ! caloric conta9$ 9 x8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t1 probably1 w\ld be c>ry+ ! speculation too f>2 ,i %\ld r ?9k t wat] & caloric unite _! ef=ts to dissolve a body1 & t ! difficulty or facility ( effect+ ?is1 dep5d bo? on ! degree ( attraction ( aggregation to be ov]come1 & on ! arrangem5t ( ! p>ticles :i* are m or less dispos$ to be divid$ & p5etrat$ by ! solv5t4 ,,emily4 ,b h n all liquids ! same solv5t p[] z wat]8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! solv5t p[] ( o!r liquids v>ies accord+ to _! nature1 & t ( ! sub/ances submitt$ to _! action4 ,mo/ ( ^! solv5ts1 inde$1 diff] ess5tially f wat]1 z !y d n m]ely sep>ate ! integrant p>ticles ( ! bodies :i* !y dissolve1 b attack _! con/itu5t pr9ciples by ! p[] ( *emical attraction1 ?us produc+ a true decomposition4 ,^! m complicat$ op]ations we mu/ consid] 9 ano!r place1 & conf9e our att5tion at pres5t to ! solutions by wat] & caloric4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b !re are a v>iety ( sub/ances :i*1 :5 dissolv$ 9 wat]1 make x ?ick & muddy1 & de/roy its transp>5cy4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,9 ?is case x is n a solution1 b simply a mixture4 ,i %all %[ y ! diff]5ce betwe5 a solution & a mixture1 by putt+ "s common salt into "o glass ( wat]1 & "s p[d] ( *alk into ano!r2 bo? ^! sub/ances are :ite1 b _! effect on ! wat] w be v diff]5t4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,v diff]5t inde$6 ,! salt entirely disappe>s & leaves ! wat] transp>5t1 :il/ ! *alk *anges x into an opaque liquid l milk4 ,,emily4 ,& w\ld lumps ( *alk & salt produce simil> effects on wat]8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes1 b n s rapidly2 salt is1 inde$1 soon melt$ ?\gh 9 a lump2 b *alk1 :i* does n mix s readily ) wat]1 w\ld require a mu* great] l5g? ( "t2 ,i !re=e pref]r$ %[+ y ! exp]im5t ) bo? sub/ances r$uc$ to p[d]1 :i* does n 9 any respect alt] _! nature1 b facilitates ! op]ation m]ely by pres5t+ a great] quantity ( surface to ! wat]4 ,i mu/ n =get to m5tion a v curi\s circum/ance respect+ solutions1 :i* is1 t a fluid is n ne>ly s mu* increas$ 9 bulk by hold+ a body 9 solution1 z x w\ld by m]e mixture ) ! body4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,t seems impossible2 = two bodies _c exi/ toge!r 9 ! same space4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,two bodies may1 by cond5sation1 occupy less space :5 9 union ?an :5 sep>ate1 & ?is ,i c %[ y by an easy exp]im5t4 ,?is phial1 :i* conta9s "s salt1 ,i %all fill ) wat]1 p\r+ x 9 quickly1 s z n to dissolve mu* ( ! salt2 & :5 x is q full ,i cork x4 --,if ,i n[ %ake ! phial till ! salt is dissolv$1 y w obs]ve t x is no long] full4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i %all try to add a little m salt4 --,b n[1 y see1 ,mrs4 ,b41 ! wat] runs ov]4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 b obs]ve t ! la/ quantity ( salt y put 9 rema9s solid at ! bottom1 & displaces ! wat]2 = x has already melt$ all ! salt x is capable ( hold+ 9 solution4 ,?is is call$ ! po9t ( saturation2 & ! wat] 9 ?is case is said to be saturat$ ) salt4 ,,emily4 ,i ?9k ,i n[ und]/& ! solution ( a solid body by wat] p]fectly3 b ,i h n s cle> an idea ( ! solution ( a liquid by caloric4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is probably ( a simil> nature2 b z caloric is an invisible fluid1 its action z a solv5t is n s obvi\s z t ( wat]4 ,caloric1 we may conceive1 dissolves wat]1 & conv]ts x into vap\r by ! same process z wat] dissolves salt2 t is to say1 ! p>ticles ( wat] are s m9utely divid$ by ! caloric z to become invisible4 ,?us1 y are n[ enabl$ to und]/& :y ! vap\r ( boil+ wat]1 :5 x fir/ issues f ! sp\t ( a kettle1 is invisible2 x is s1 because x is !n completely dissolv$ by caloric4 ,b ! air ) :i* x comes 9 contact1 be+ mu* cold] ?an ! vap\r1 ! latt] yields to x a quantity ( its caloric4 ,! p>ticles ( vap\r be+ ?us 9 a great measure depriv$ ( _! solv5t1 gradually collect1 & become visible 9 ! =m ( /eam1 :i* is wat] 9 a /ate ( imp]fect solution2 & if y 7 fur!r to deprive x ( its caloric1 x w\ld return to its orig9al liquid /ate4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,t ,i und]/& v well4 ,if y hold a cold plate ov] a tea-urn1 ! /eam issu+ f x w be imm$iately conv]t$ into drops ( wat] by p>t+ ) its caloric to ! plate2 b 9 :at /ate is ! /eam1 :5 x becomes invisible by be+ diffus$ 9 ! air8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is n m]ely diffus$1 b is aga9 dissolv$ by ! air4 ,,emily4 ,! air1 !n1 has a solv5t p[]1 l wat] & caloric8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,?is 0 =m]ly believ$ to be ! case4 ,b x appe>s f m rec5t enquiries t ! solv5t p[] ( ! atmosph]e dep5ds solely ^u ! caloric conta9$ 9 x4 ,sometimes ! wat]y vap\r diffus$ 9 ! atmosph]e is b imp]fectly dissolv$1 z is ! case 9 ! =mation ( cl\ds & fogs2 b if x gets into a region suffici5tly w>m1 x becomes p]fectly invisible4 ,,emily4 ,c any wat] dissolve 9 ! atmosph]e )\t its be+ previ\sly conv]t$ into vap\r by boil+8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,unque/ionably2 & ?is con/itutes ! diff]5ce betwe5 vaporization & evaporation4 ,wat]1 :5 heat$ to ! boil+ po9t1 c no long] exi/ 9 ! =m ( wat]1 & mu/ necess>ily be conv]t$ into vap\r or /eam1 :atev] may be ! /ate & temp]ature ( ! surr\nd+ m$ium2 ?is is call$ vaporization4 ,b ! atmosph]e1 by means ( ! caloric x conta9s1 c take up a c]ta9 portion ( wat] at any temp]ature1 & hold x 9 a /ate ( solution4 ,?is is simply evaporation4 ,?us ! atmosph]e is cont9ually c>ry+ (f moi/ure f ! surface ( ! e>?1 until x is saturat$ ) x4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,t is ! case1 no d\bt1 :5 we feel ! atmosph]e damp4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,on ! contr>y1 :5 ! moi/ure is well dissolv$ x occasions no humidity3 x is only :5 9 a /ate ( imp]fect solution & float+ 9 ! atmosph]e1 9 ! =m ( wat]y vap\r1 t x produces dampness4 ,?is happ5s m frequ5tly 9 w9t] ?an 9 summ]2 = ! l[] ! temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e1 ! less wat] x c dissolve2 & 9 reality x nev] conta9s s mu* moi/ure z 9 a dry hot summ]'s day4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,y a/oni% me6 ,b :y1 !n1 is ! air s dry 9 fro/y wea!r1 :5 its temp]ature is at ! l[e/8 ,,emily4 ,?is1 ,i conjecture1 proce$s n s mu* f ! moi/ure be+ dissolv$1 z f its be+ froz52 is n t ! case8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is2 & ! freez+ ( ! wat]y vap\r :i* ! atmosph]ic heat c\ld n dissolve1 produces :at is call$ a ho> fro/2 = ! p>ticles desc5d 9 freez+1 & atta* !mselves to :atev] !y meet ) on ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,! t5d5cy ( free caloric to an equilibrium1 toge!r ) its solv5t p[]1 are likewise connect$ ) ! ph5om5a ( ra91 ( dew1 c4 ,:5 moi/ air ( a c]ta9 temp]ature happ5s to pass ?r\gh a cold] region ( ! atmosph]e1 x p>ts ) a portion ( its heat to ! surr\nd+ air2 ! quantity ( caloric1 !re=e1 :i* s]v$ to keep ! wat] 9 a /ate ( vap\r1 be+ dim9i%$1 ! wat]y p>ticles approa* ea* o!r1 & =m !mselves into drops ( wat]1 :i* be+ heavi] ?an ! atmosph]e1 desc5d to ! e>?4 ,!re are also o!r circum/ances1 & p>ticul>ly ! v>iation 9 ! weight ( ! atmosph]e1 :i* may contribute to ! =mation ( ra94 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is an intricate subject1 into :i* we _c m fully ent] at pres5t4 ,,emily4 ,9 :at mann] d y acc\nt = ! =mation ( dew8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,dew is a deposition ( wat]y p>ticles or m9ute drops f ! atmosph]e1 precipitat$ by ! coolness ( ! ev5+4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,?is precipitation is ow+1 ,i suppose1 to ! cool+ ( ! atmosph]e1 :i* prev5ts its reta9+ s great a quantity ( wat]y vap\r 9 solution z dur+ ! heat ( ! day4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,su* 01 f "t immemorial1 ! g5]ally receiv$ op9ion respect+ ! cause ( dew2 b x has be5 v rec5tly prov$ by a c\rse ( +5i\s exp]im5ts ( ,dr4 ,wells1 t ! deposition ( dew is produc$ by ! cool+ ( ! surface ( ! e>?1 :i* he has %[n to take place previ\sly to ! cool+ ( ! atmosph]e2 = on exam9+ ! temp]ature ( a plot ( grass j be=e ! dew-fall1 he f\nd t x 0 consid]ably cold] ?an ! air a few feet above x1 f :i* ! dew 0 %ortly aft] precipitat$4 ,,emily4 ,b :y %\ld ! e>? cool 9 ! ev5+ soon] ?an ! atmosph]e8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,because x p>ts ) its heat m readily ?an ! air2 ! e>? is an excell5t radiator ( caloric1 :il/ ! atmosph]e does n possess t prop]ty1 at lea/ 9 any s5sible degree4 ,t[>ds ev5+1 !re=e1 :5 ! sol> heat decl9es1 & :5 aft] sunset x entirely ceases1 ! e>? rapidly cools by radiat+ heat t[>ds ! skies2 :il/ ! air has no means ( p>t+ ) its heat b by com+ into contact ) ! cool$ surface ( ! e>?1 to :i* x communicates its caloric4 ,its solv5t p[] be+ ?us r$uc$1 x is unable to reta9 s l>ge a portion ( wat]y vap\r1 & deposits ^? pe>ly drops :i* we call dew4 ,,emily4 ,if ?is be ! cause ( dew1 we ne$ n be appreh5sive ( receiv+ any injury f x2 = x c be deposit$ only on surfaces t are cold] ?an ! atmosph]e1 :i* is nev] ! case ) our bodies4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,v true2 yet ,i w\ld n advise y = ?is reason to be too confid5t ( escap+ all ! ill effects :i* may arise f exposure to ! dew2 = x may be deposit$ on y\r clo!s1 & *ill y aft]w>ds by its evaporation f !m4 ,besides1 :5ev] ! dew is copi\s1 !re is a *ill 9 ! atmosph]e :i* x is n always safe to enc\nt]4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,w9d1 !n1 mu/ promote ! deposition ( dew1 by br++ a m rapid succession ( p>ticles ( air 9 contact ) ! e>?1 j z x promotes ! cool+ ( ! e>? & w>m+ ( ! atmosph]e dur+ ! heat ( ! day8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 provid$ ! w9d be unatt5d$ ) cl\ds1 = ^! accumulations ( moi/ure n only prev5t ! free radiation ( ! e>? t[>ds ! upp] regions1 b !mselves radiate t[>ds ! e>?2 "u ^! circum/ances mu* less dew is =m$ ?an on f9e cle> nights1 :5 ! radiation ( ! e>? passes )\t ob/acle ?r\gh ! atmosph]e to ! di/ant regions ( space1 :5ce x receives no caloric 9 ex*ange4 ,! dew cont9ues to be deposit$ dur+ ! night1 & is g5]ally mo/ abundant t[>ds morn+1 :5 ! contra/ betwe5 ! temp]ature ( ! e>? & t ( ! air is greate/4 ,aft] sunrise ! equilibrium ( temp]ature betwe5 ^! two bodies is gradually re/or$ by ! sol> rays pass+ freely ?r\gh ! atmosph]e to ! e>?2 & lat] 9 ! morn+ ! temp]ature ( ! e>? ga9s ! asc5d5cy1 & gives out caloric to ! air by contact1 9 ! same mann] z x receives x f ! air dur+ ! night4 --,c y tell me1 n[1 :y a bottle ( w9e tak5 fre% f ! cell> 79 summ] p>ticul>ly71 w soon be cov]$ ) dew2 & ev5 ! glasses into :i* ! w9e is p\r$ w be moi/5$ ) a simil> vap\r8 ,,emily4 ,! bottle be+ cold] ?an ! surr\nd+ air1 mu/ absorb caloric f x2 ! moi/ure !re=e :i* t air conta9$ becomes visible1 & =ms ! dew :i* is deposit$ on ! bottle4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,v well1 ,emily4 ,n[1 ,c>ol9e1 c y in=m me :y1 9 a w>m room1 or close c>riage1 ! contr>y effect takes place2 t is to say1 t ! inside ( ! w9d[s is cov]$ ) vap\r8 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i h he>d t x proce$s f ! brea? ( ^? )9 ! room or ! c>riage2 & ,i suppose x is occasion$ by ! w9d[s :i*1 be+ cold] ?an ! brea?1 deprive x ( "p ( its caloric1 & by ?is means conv]t x into wat]y vap\r4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y h bo? expla9$ x extremely well4 ,bodies attract dew 9 proportion z !y are good radiators ( caloric1 z x is ?is quality :i* r$uces _! temp]ature bel[ t ( ! atmosph]e2 h5ce we f9d t little or no dew is deposit$ on rocks1 s&1 wat]2 :ile grass & liv+ vegetables1 to :i* x is s highly b5eficial1 attract x 9 abundance--ano!r rem>kable in/ance ( ! wise & b\ntiful disp5sations ( ,provid5ce4 ,,emily4 ,& we may aga9 obs]ve x 9 ! abundance ( dew 9 summ]1 & 9 hot climates1 :5 its cool+ effects are s mu* requir$2 b ,i d n und]/& :at natural cause increases ! dew 9 hot wea!r8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! m caloric ! e>? receives dur+ ! day1 ! m x w radiate aft]w>ds1 & consequ5tly ! m rapidly its temp]ature w be r$uc$ 9 ! ev5+1 9 comp>ison to t ( ! atmosph]e4 ,9 ! ,we/-,indies especially1 :]e ! int5se heat ( ! day is /rongly contra/$ ) ! coolness ( ! ev5+1 ! dew is prodigi\sly abundant4 ,dur+ a dr\ght1 ! dew is less pl5tiful1 z ! e>? is n suffici5tly suppli$ ) moi/ure to be able to saturate ! atmosph]e4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i h (t5 obs]v$1 ,mrs4 ,b41 t :5 ,i walk out 9 fro/y wea!r1 ) a veil ov] my face1 my brea? freezes ^u x4 ,pray :at is ! reason ( t8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is because ! cold air imm$iately seizes on ! caloric ( y\r brea?1 &1 by robb+ x ( its solv5t1 r$uces x to a d5s] fluid1 :i* is ! wat]y vap\r t settles on y\r veil1 & !re x cont9ues p>t+ ) its caloric till x is br\ght d[n to ! temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e1 & assumes ! =m ( ice4 ,y may1 p]haps1 h obs]v$ t ! brea? ( animals1 or r ! moi/ure conta9$ 9 x1 is visible 9 damp wea!r1 or dur+ a fro/4 ,9 ! =m] case1 ! atmosph]e be+ ov]-saturat$ ) moi/ure1 c dissolve no m4 ,9 ! latt]1 ! cold cond5ses x into visible vap\r2 & = ! same reason1 ! /eam aris+ f wat] t is w>m] ?an ! atmosph]e1 becomes visible4 ,h y nev] tak5 notice ( ! vap\r ris+ f y\r h&s aft] hav+ dipp$ !m into w>m wat]8 ,,c>ol9e4 ,frequ5tly1 especially 9 fro/y wea!r4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,we h already obs]v$ t pressure is an ob/acle to evaporation3 !re are liquids t conta9 s great a quantity ( caloric1 & ^: p>ticles consequ5tly adh]e s slightly toge!r1 t !y may be rapidly conv]t$ into vap\r )\t any elevation ( temp]ature1 m]ely by tak+ (f ! weight ( ! atmosph]e4 ,9 su* liquids1 y p]ceive1 x is ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e alone t connects _! p>ticles1 & keeps !m 9 a liquid /ate4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i d n well und]/& :y ! p>ticles ( su* fluids %\ld be disunit$ & conv]t$ into vap\r1 )\t any elevation ( temp]ature1 9 spite ( ! attraction ( cohesion4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is because ! degree ( heat at :i* we usually obs]ve ^! fluids is suffici5t to ov]come _! attraction ( cohesion4 ,e!r is ( ?is description2 x w boil & be conv]t$ into vap\r1 at ! common temp]ature ( ! air1 if ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e be tak5 (f4 ,,emily4 ,i ?\ght t e!r w\ld evaporate )\t ei!r ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e be+ tak5 away1 or heat appli$2 & t x 0 = t reason s necess>y to keep x c>efully cork$ up8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is true x w evaporate1 b )\t ebullition2 :at ,i am n[ speak+ ( is ! vaporization ( e!r1 or its conv]sion into vap\r by boil+4 ,i am go+ to %[ y h[ sudd5ly ! e!r 9 ?is phial w be conv]t$ into vap\r1 by means ( ! air-pump4 --,obs]ve ) :at rapidity ! bubbles asc5d1 z ,i take (f ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,x positively boils3 h[ s+ul> to see a liquid boil )\t heat6 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,n[ ,i %all place ! phial ( e!r 9 ?is glass1 :i* x ne>ly fits1 s z to leave only a small space1 :i* ,i fill ) wat]2 & 9 ?is /ate ,i put x aga9 "u ! receiv]4 7,,plate ,,iv4 ,fig4 #a4799 ,y w obs]ve1 z ,i exhau/ ! air f x1 t :il/ ! e!r boils1 ! wat] freezes4 ,footnote 993 ,two pieces ( ?9 glass tubes1 seal$ at "o end1 might answ] ?is purpose bett]4 ,! exp]im5t1 h[ev]1 z "h describ$1 is difficult1 & requires a v nice app>atus4 ,b if1 in/ead ( phials or tubes1 two wat*-glasses be us$1 wat] may be froz5 almo/ in/antly 9 ! same mann]4 ,! two glasses are plac$ ov] "o ano!r1 ) a few drops ( wat] int]pos$ betwe5 !m1 & ! upp]mo/ glass is fill$ ) e!r4 ,aft] work+ ! pump = a m9ute or two1 ! glasses are f\nd to adh]e /rongly toge!r1 & a ?9 lay] ( ice is se5 betwe5 !m4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,x is inde$ wond]ful to see wat] freeze 9 contact ) a boil+ fluid6 ,,emily4 ,i am at a loss to conceive h[ ! e!r c pass to ! /ate ( vap\r )\t an addition ( caloric4 ,does x n conta9 m caloric 9 a /ate ( vap\r1 ?an 9 a /ate ( liquidity8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x c]ta9ly does2 = ?\gh x is ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e :i* cond5ses x into a liquid1 x is by =c+ out ! caloric t belongs to x :5 9 an ari=m /ate4 ,,emily4 ,y h1 !re=e1 two difficulties to expla91 ,mrs4 ,b4 --,fir/1 f :5ce ! e!r obta9s ! caloric necess>y to conv]t x into vap\r :5 x is reliev$ f ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e2 &1 secondly1 :at is ! reason t ! wat]1 9 :i* ! bottle ( e!r /&s1 is froz58 ,,c>ol9e4 ,n[1 ,i ?9k1 ,i c answ] bo? ^! que/ions4 ,! e!r obta9s ! addition ( caloric requir$1 f ! wat] 9 ! glass2 & ! loss ( caloric1 :i* ! latt] su/a9s1 is ! occasion ( its freez+4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y are p]fectly "r2 & if y look at ! !rmomet] :i* ,i h plac$ 9 ! wat]1 :il/ ,i am work+ ! pump1 y w see t e "t bubbles ( vap\r are produc$1 ! m]cury desc5ds2 :i* proves t ! heat ( ! wat] dim9i%es 9 proportion z ! e!r boils4 ,,emily4 ,?is ,i und]/& n[ v well2 b if ! wat] freezes 9 consequ5ce ( yield+ its caloric to ! e!r1 ! equilibrium ( heat mu/1 9 ?is case1 be totally de/roy$4 ,yet y h told u1 t ! ex*ange ( caloric betwe5 two bodies ( equal temp]ature1 0 always equal2 h[1 !n1 is x t ! wat]1 :i* 0 orig9ally ( ! same temp]ature z ! e!r1 gives out caloric to x1 till ! wat] is froz51 & ! e!r made to boil8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i suspect$ t y w\ld make ^! objections2 &1 9 ord] to remove !m1 ,i enclos$ two !rmomet]s 9 ! air-pump2 "o :i* /&s 9 ! glass ( wat]1 ! o!r 9 ! phial ( e!r2 & y may see t ! equilibrium ( temp]ature is n de/roy$2 = z ! !rmomet] desc5ds 9 ! wat]1 t 9 ! e!r s9ks 9 ! same mann]2 s t bo? !rmomet]s indicate ! same temp]ature1 ?\gh "o ( !m is 9 a boil+1 ! o!r 9 a freez+ liquid4 ,,emily4 ,! e!r1 !n1 becomes cold] z x boils8 ,?is is s contr>y to common exp]i5ce1 t ,i confess x a/oni%es me exce$+ly4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,x is1 inde$1 a mo/ extraord9>y circum/ance4 ,b pray1 h[ d y acc\nt = x8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i _c satisfy y\r curiosity at pres5t2 = be=e we c attempt to expla9 ?is app>5t p>adox1 x is necess>y to become acqua9t$ ) ! subject ( ,,lat5t ,,heat3 & t1 ,i ?9k1 we mu/ def] till our next int]view4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i believe1 ,mrs4 ,b41 t y are glad to put (f ! explanation2 = x mu/ be a v difficult po9t to acc\nt =4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i hope1 h[ev]1 t ,i %all d x to y\r complete satisfaction4 ,,emily4 ,b be=e we "p1 give me leave to ask y "o "q4 ,w\ld n wat]1 z well z e!r1 boil ) less heat1 if depriv$ ( ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,und\bt$ly4 ,y mu/ always recollect t !re are two =ces to ov]come1 9 ord] to make a liquid boil or evaporate2 ! attraction ( aggregation1 & ! weight ( ! atmosph]e4 ,on ! summit ( a high m\nta9 7z ,mr4 ,de ,saussure asc]ta9$ on ,m\nt ,blanc7 mu* less heat is requir$ to make wat] boil1 ?an 9 ! pla91 :]e ! weight ( ! atmosph]e is great]499 ,inde$ if ! weight ( ! atmosph]e be entirely remov$ by means ( a good air-pump1 & if wat] be plac$ 9 ! exhau/$ receiv]1 x w evaporate s fa/1 h[ev] cold x maybe1 z to give x ! appe>ance ( boil+ f ! surface4 ,b )\t ! assi/ance ( ! air-pump1 ,i c %[ y a v pretty exp]im5t1 :i* proves ! effect ( ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e 9 ?is respect4 ,obs]ve1 t ?is ,flor5ce flask is ab\t half full ( wat]1 & ! upp] half ( invisible vap\r1 ! wat] be+ 9 ! act ( boil+4 --,i take x f ! lamp1 & cork x c>efully--! wat]1 y see1 imm$iately ceases boil+4 --,i %all n[ dip ! flask into a bason ( cold wat]4 ,footnote 993 ,on ! top ( ,m\nt ,blanc1 wat] boil$ :5 heat$ only to #ahg degrees1 in/ead ( #bab degrees4 ,footnote 3 ,! same effect may be produc$ by wrapp+ a cold wet l95 clo? r\nd ! upp] "p ( ! flask4 ,9 ord] to %[ h[ mu* ! wat] cools :il/ x is boil+1 a !rmomet]1 graduat$ on ! tube itself1 may be introduc$ into ! bottle ?r\gh ! cork4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b look1 ,mrs4 ,b41 ! hot wat] beg9s to boil aga91 al?\gh ! cold wat] mu/ rob x m & m ( its caloric6 ,:at c be ! reason ( t8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,let u exam9e its temp]ature4 ,y see ! !rmomet] imm]s$ 9 x rema9s /ation>y at #ahj degrees1 :i* is ab\t #cj degrees bel[ ! boil+ po9t4 ,:5 ,i took ! flask f ! lamp1 ,i obs]v$ to y t ! upp] "p ( x 0 fill$ ) vap\r2 ?is be+ compell$ to yield its caloric to ! cold wat]1 0 aga9 cond5s$ into wat]-- ,:at1 !n1 fill$ ! upp] "p ( ! flask8 ,,emily4 ,no?+2 = x 0 too well cork$ = ! air to ga9 admittance1 & !re=e ! upp] "p ( ! flask mu/ be a vacuum4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! wat] bel[1 !re=e1 no long] su/a9s ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e1 & w consequ5tly boil at a mu* l[] temp]ature4 ,?us1 y see1 ?\gh x _h lo/ _m degrees ( heat1 x began boil+ aga9 ! in/ant ! vacuum 0 =m$ above x4 ,! boil+ has n[ ceas$1 ! temp]ature ( ! wat] be+ /ill f>!r r$uc$2 if x _h be5 e!r1 in/ead ( wat]1 x w\ld h cont9u$ boil+ mu* long]1 = e!r boils1 "u ! usual atmosph]ic pressure1 at a temp]ature z l[ z #ajj degrees2 & 9 a vacuum x boils at almo/ any temp]ature2 b wat] be+ a m d5se fluid1 requires a m consid]able quantity ( caloric to make x evaporate quickly1 ev5 :5 ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e is remov$4 ,,emily4 ,:at proportion ( vap\r c ! atmosph]e conta9 9 a /ate ( solution8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i d n "k :e!r x has be5 exactly asc]ta9$ by exp]im5t2 b at any rate ?is proportion mu/ v>y1 bo? accord+ to ! temp]ature & ! weight ( ! atmosph]e2 = ! l[] ! temp]ature1 & ! great] ! pressure1 ! small] mu/ be ! proportion ( vap\r t ! atmosph]e c conta94 ,to conclude ! subject ( free caloric1 ,i %\ld m5tion ,ignition1 by :i* is meant t emission ( light :i* is produc$ 9 bodies at a v high temp]ature1 & :i* is ! effect ( accumulat$ caloric4 ,,emily4 ,y mean1 ,i suppose1 t light :i* is produc$ by a burn+ body8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no3 ignition is q indep5d5t ( combu/ion4 ,clay1 *alk1 & inde$ all incombu/ible sub/ances1 may be made r$ hot4 ,:5 a body burns1 ! light emitt$ is ! effect ( a *emical *ange :i* takes place1 :il/ ignition is ! effect ( caloric alone1 & no o!r *ange ?an t ( temp]ature is produc$ 9 ! ignit$ body4 ,all solid bodies1 & mo/ liquids1 are susceptible ( ignition1 or1 9 o!r words1 ( be+ heat$ s z to become lum9\s2 & x is rem>kable t ?is takes place pretty ne>ly at ! same temp]ature 9 all bodies1 t is1 at ab\t #hjj degrees ( ,fahr5heit's scale4 ,,emily4 ,b h[ c liquids atta9 s high a temp]ature1 )\t be+ conv]t$ into vap\r8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,by means ( conf9em5t & pressure4 ,wat] conf9$ 9 a /rong iron vessel 7call$ ,pap9's dige/]7 c h its temp]ature rais$ to upw>ds ( #djj degrees4 ,sir ,james ,hall has made "s v curi\s exp]im5ts on ! effects ( heat assi/$ by pressure2 by means ( /rong gun-b>rels1 he succe$$ 9 melt+ a v>iety ( sub/ances :i* 7 consid]$ z infusible3 & x is n unlikely t1 by simil> me?ods1 wat] itself might be heat$ to r$ness4 ,,emily4 ,i am surpris$ at t3 = ,i ?\ght t ! =ce ( /eam 0 su* z to de/roy almo/ all me*anical resi/ance4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! expansive =ce ( /eam is prodigi\s2 b 9 ord] to subject wat] to su* high temp]atures1 x is prev5t$ by conf9em5t f be+ conv]t$ into /eam1 & ! expansion ( heat$ wat] is comp>atively trifl+4 --,b we h dwelt s long on ! subject ( free caloric1 t we mu/ res]ve ! o!r modifications ( t ag5t to our next meet+1 :5 we %all endeav\r to proce$ m rapidly4 ,,conv]sation ,,iv4 ,,on ,,comb9$ ,,caloric1 ,,compreh5d+ ,,specific ,,& ,,lat5t ,,heat4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,we are n[ to exam9e ! o!r modifications ( caloric4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i am v curi\s to "k ( :at nature !y c be2 = ,i h no notion ( any k9d ( heat t is n p]ceptible to ! s5ses4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,9 ord] to enable y to und]/& !m1 x w be necess>y to ent] into "s previ\s explanations4 ,x has be5 discov]$ by mod]n *emi/s1 t bodies ( a diff]5t nature1 heat$ to ! same temp]ature1 d n conta9 ! same quantity ( caloric4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,h[ c\ld t be asc]ta9$8 ,h y n told u t x is impossible to discov] ! absolute quantity ( caloric :i* bodies conta98 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,true2 b at ! same "t ,i said t we 7 enabl$ to =m a judgm5t ( ! proportions :i* bodies bore to ea* o!r 9 ?is respect4 ,?us x is f\nd t1 9 ord] to raise ! temp]ature ( diff]5t bodies ! same numb] ( degrees1 diff]5t quantities ( caloric are requir$ = ea* ( !m4 ,if1 = in/ance1 y place a p\nd ( lead1 a p\nd ( *alk1 & a p\nd ( milk1 9 a hot ov51 !y w be gradually heat$ to ! temp]ature ( ! ov52 b ! lead w atta9 x fir/1 ! *alk next1 & ! milk la/4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,t is a natural consequ5ce ( _! diff]5t bulks2 ! lead be+ ! smalle/ body1 w be heat$ soone/1 & ! milk1 :i* is ! l>ge/1 w require ! longe/ "t4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t explanation w n d1 = if ! lead be ! lea/ 9 bulk1 x (f]s also ! lea/ surface to ! caloric1 ! quantity ( heat !re=e :i* c ent] into x 9 ! same space ( "t is proportionally small]4 ,,emily4 ,:y1 !n1 d n ! ?ree bodies atta9 ! temp]ature ( ! ov5 at ! same "t8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is suppos$ to be on acc\nt ( ! diff]5t capacity ( ^! bodies = caloric4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,:at d y mean by ! capacity ( a body = caloric8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i mean a c]ta9 disposition ( bodies to require m or less caloric = rais+ _! temp]ature to any degree ( heat4 ,p]haps ! fact may be ?us expla9$3 ,let u put z _m m>bles into ?is glass z x w conta91 & p\r "s s& ov] !m--obs]ve h[ ! s& p5etrates & lodges betwe5 !m4 ,we %all n[ fill ano!r glass ) pebbles ( v>i\s =ms--y see t !y arrange !mselves 9 a m compact mann] ?an ! m>bles1 :i*1 be+ globul>1 c t\* ea* o!r by a s+le po9t only4 ,! pebbles1 !re=e1 w n admit s mu* s& betwe5 !m2 & consequ5tly "o ( ^! glasses w necess>ily conta9 m s& ?an ! o!r1 ?\gh bo? ( !m be equally full4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,?is ,i und]/& p]fectly4 ,! m>bles & ! pebbles repres5t two bodies ( diff]5t k9ds1 & ! s& ! caloric conta9$ 9 !m2 x appe>s v pla91 f ?is comp>ison1 t "o body may admit ( m caloric betwe5 its p>ticles ?an ano!r4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y c no long] be surpris$1 !re=e1 t bodies ( a diff]5t capacity = caloric %\ld require diff]5t proportions ( t fluid to raise _! temp]atures equally4 ,,emily4 ,b ,i d n conceive :y ! body t conta9s ! mo/ caloric %\ld n be ( ! highe/ temp]ature2 t is to say1 feel hot 9 proportion to ! quantity ( caloric x conta9s8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! caloric t is employ$ 9 fill+ ! capacity ( a body1 is n free caloric2 b is imprison$ z x 7 9 ! body1 & is !re=e imp]ceptible3 = we c feel only ! caloric :i* ! body p>ts )1 & n t :i* x reta9s4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,x appe>s to me v extraord9>y t heat %\ld be conf9$ 9 a body 9 su* a mann] z to be imp]ceptible4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,if y lay y\r h& on a hot body1 y feel only ! caloric :i* leaves x1 & ent]s y\r h&2 = x is impossible t y %\ld be s5sible ( t :i* rema9s 9 ! body4 ,! !rmomet]1 9 ! same mann]1 is affect$ only by ! free caloric :i* a body transmits to x1 & n at all by t :i* x does n "p )4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i beg9 to und]/& x3 b ,i confess t ! idea ( ins5sible heat is s new & /range to me1 t x requires "s "t to r5d] x famili>4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,call x ins5sible caloric1 & ! difficulty w appe> mu* less =midable4 ,x is inde$ a sort ( contradiction to call x heat1 :5 x is s situat$ z to be incapable ( produc+ t s5sation4 ,yet ?is modification ( caloric is commonly call$ ,,specific ,,heat4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b x c]ta9ly w\ld h be5 m correct to h call$ x specific caloric4 ,,emily4 ,i d n und]/& h[ ! t]m specific applies to ?is modification ( caloric8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x expresses ! relative quantity ( caloric :i* diff]5t species ( bodies ( ! same weight & temp]ature are capable ( conta9+4 ,?is modification is also frequ5tly call$ heat ( capacity1 a t]m p]haps pref]able1 z x expla9s bett] its own mean+4 ,y n[ und]/&1 ,i suppose1 :y ! milk & *alk requir$ a long] portion ( "t ?an ! lead to raise _! temp]ature to t ( ! ov58 ,,emily4 ,yes3 ! milk & *alk hav+ a great] capacity = caloric ?an ! lead1 a great] proportion ( t fluid became ins5sible 9 ^? bodies3 & ! m sl[ly1 !re=e1 _! temp]ature 0 rais$4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b might n ?is diff]5ce proce$ f ! diff]5t conduct+ p[]s ( heat 9 ^! ?ree bodies1 s9ce t :i* is ! be/ conductor mu/ necess>ily atta9 ! temp]ature ( ! ov5 fir/8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,v well obs]v$1 ,c>ol9e4 ,?is objection w\ld be insurm\ntable1 if we c\ld n1 by rev]s+ ! exp]im5t1 prove t ! milk1 ! *alk1 & ! lead1 actually absorb$ diff]5t quantities ( caloric1 & we "k t if ! diff]5t "t !y took 9 heat+1 proce$$ m]ely f _! diff]5t conduct+ p[]s1 !y w\ld ea* h acquir$ an equal quantity ( caloric4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,c]ta9ly4 ,b h[ c y rev]se ?is exp]im5t8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x may be done by cool+ ! sev]al bodies to ! same degree 9 an app>atus adapt$ to receive & measure ! caloric :i* !y give out4 ,?us1 if y plunge !m into ?ree equal quantities ( wat]1 ea* at ! same temp]ature1 y w be able to judge ( ! relative quantity ( caloric :i* ! ?ree bodies conta9$1 by t1 :i*1 9 cool+1 !y communicat$ to _! respective portions ( wat]3 = ! same quantity ( caloric :i* !y ea* absorb$ to raise _! temp]ature1 w ab&on !m 9 l[]+ x2 & on exam9+ ! ?ree vessels ( wat]1 y w f9d ! "o 9 :i* y imm]s$ ! lead to be ! lea/ heat$2 t :i* held ! *alk w be ! next2 & t :i* conta9$ ! milk w be heat$ ! mo/ ( all4 ,! celebrat$ ,lavoisi] has inv5t$ a ma*9e to e/imate1 ^u ?is pr9ciple1 ! specific heat ( bodies 9 a m p]fect mann]2 b ,i _c expla9 x to y1 till y are acqua9t$ ) ! next modification ( caloric4 ,,emily4 ,! m d5se a body is1 ,i suppose1 ! less is its capacity = caloric8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,?is is n always ! case ) bodies ( diff]5t nature2 iron1 = in/ance1 conta9s m specific heat ?an t91 ?\gh x is m d5se4 ,?is seems to %[ t specific heat does hot m]ely dep5d ^u ! int]/ices betwe5 ! p>ticles2 b1 probably1 also ^u "s peculi> con/itution ( ! bodies :i* we d n compreh5d4 ,,emily4 ,b1 ,mrs4 ,b41 x w\ld appe> to me m prop] to comp>e bodies by measure1 r ?an by weight1 9 ord] to e/imate _! specific heat4 ,:y1 = in/ance1 %\ld we n comp>e p9ts ( milk1 ( *alk1 & ( lead1 r ?an p\nds ( ^? sub/ances2 = equal weights may be compos$ ( v diff]5t quantities8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y are mi/ak51 my de>2 equal weight mu/ conta9 equal quantities ( matt]2 & :5 we wi% to "k :at is ! relative quantity ( caloric1 :i* sub/ances ( v>i\s k9ds are capable ( conta9+ "u ! same temp]ature1 we mu/ comp>e equal weights1 & n equal bulks ( ^? sub/ances4 ,bodies ( ! same weight may und\bt$ly be ( v diff]5t dim5sions2 b t does n *ange _! real quantity ( matt]4 ,a p\nd ( fea!rs does n conta9 "o atom m ?an a p\nd ( lead4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i h ano!r difficulty to propose4 ,x appe>s to me1 t if ! temp]ature ( ! ?ree bodies 9 ! ov5 did n rise equally1 !y w\ld nev] rea* ! same degree2 ! lead w\ld always keep its advantage ov] ! *alk & milk1 & w\ld p]haps be boil+ be=e ! o!rs _h atta9$ ! temp]ature ( ! ov54 ,i ?9k y might z well say t1 9 ! c\rse ( "t1 y & ,i %\ld be ( ! same age8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y\r comp>ison is n correct1 ,c>ol9e4 ,z soon z ! lead rea*$ ! temp]ature ( ! ov51 x w\ld rema9 /ation>y2 = x w\ld !n give out z mu* heat z x w\ld receive4 ,y %\ld recollect t ! ex*ange ( radiat+ heat1 betwe5 two bodies ( equal temp]ature1 is equal3 x w\ld be impossible1 !re=e1 = ! lead to accumulate heat aft] hav+ atta9$ ! temp]ature ( ! ov52 & t ( ! *alk & milk !re=e w\ld ultimately arrive at ! same /&>d4 ,n[ ,i fe> t ?is w n hold good ) respect to our ages1 & t1 z long z ,i live1 ,i %all nev] cease to keep my advantage ov] y4 ,,emily4 ,i ?9k t ,i h f\nd a comp>ison = specific heat1 :i* is v applicable4 ,suppose t two m5 ( equal weight & bulk1 b :o requir$ diff]5t quantities ( food to satisfy _! appetites1 sit d[n to d9n]1 bo? equally hungry2 ! "o w\ld consume a mu* great] quantity ( provisions ?an ! o!r1 9 ord] to be equally satisfi$4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes1 t is v fair2 = ! quantity ( food necess>y to satisfy _! respective appetites1 v>ies 9 ! same mann] z ! quantity ( caloric requisite to raise equally ! temp]ature ( diff]5t bodies4 ,,emily4 ,! !rmomet]1 !n1 af=ds no indication ( ! specific heat ( bodies8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,none at all3 no m ?an satiety is a te/ ( ! quantity ( food eat54 ,! !rmomet]1 z ,i h repeat$ly said1 c be affect$ only by free caloric1 :i* alone raises ! temp]ature ( bodies4 ,b !re is ano!r mode ( prov+ ! exi/5ce ( specific heat1 :i* af=ds a v satisfactory illu/ration ( t modification4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 ,i did n enl>ge ^u be=e1 z ,i ?\ght x might appe> to y r complicat$4 --,if y mix two fluids ( diff]5t temp]atures1 let u say ! "o at #ej degrees1 & ! o!r at #ajj degrees1 ( :at temp]ature d y suppose ! mixture w be8 ,,c>ol9e4 ,x w be no d\bt ! m$ium betwe5 ! two1 t is to say1 #ge degrees4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t w be ! case if ! two bodies happ5 to h ! same capacity = caloric2 b if n1 a diff]5t result w be obta9$4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 if y mix toge!r a p\nd ( m]cury1 heat$ at #ej degrees1 & a p\nd ( wat] heat$ at #ajj degrees1 ! temp]ature ( ! mixture1 in/ead ( be+ #ge degrees1 w be #hj degrees2 s t ! wat] w h lo/ only #ab degrees1 :il/ ! m]cury w h ga9$ #ch degrees2 f :i* y w conclude t ! capacity ( m]cury = heat is less ?an t ( wat]4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i wond] t m]cury %\ld h s little specific heat4 ,did we n see x 0 a mu* bett] conductor ( heat ?an wat]8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,& x is precisely on t acc\nt t its specific heat is less4 ,= s9ce ! conductive p[] ( bodies dep5ds1 z we h obs]v$ be=e1 on _! read9ess to receive heat & "p ) x1 x is natural to expect t ^? bodies :i* are ! wor/ conductors %\ld absorb ! mo/ caloric be=e !y are dispos$ to "p ) x to o!r bodies4 ,b let u n[ proce$ to ,,lat5t ,,heat4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,& pray :at k9d ( heat is t8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is ano!r modification ( comb9$ caloric1 :i* is s analog\s to specific heat1 t mo/ *emi/s make no di/9ction betwe5 !m2 b ,mr4 ,pictet1 9 8 ,essay on ,fire1 has s cle>ly discrim9at$ !m1 t ,i am induc$ to adopt 8 view ( ! subject4 ,we !re=e call lat5t heat t portion ( ins5sible caloric :i* is employ$ 9 *ang+ ! /ate ( bodies2 t is to say1 9 conv]t+ solids into liquids1 or liquids2 into vap\r4 ,:5 a body *anges its /ate f solid to liquid1 or f liquid to vap\r1 its expansion occasions a sudd5 & consid]able increase ( capacity = heat1 9 consequ5ce ( :i* x imm$iately absorbs a quantity ( caloric1 :i* becomes fix$ 9 ! body :i* x has trans=m$2 &1 z x is p]fectly conceal$ f our s5ses1 x has obta9$ ! "n ( lat5t heat4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i ?9k x w\ld be mu* m correct to call ?is modification lat5t caloric in/ead ( lat5t heat1 s9ce x does n excite ! s5sation ( heat4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,?is modification ( heat 0 discov]$ & nam$ by ,dr4 ,black long be=e ! ,fr5* *emi/s introduc$ ! t]m caloric1 & we mu/ n presume to alt] x1 z x is /ill us$ by mu* bett] *emi/s ?an ourselves4 ,&1 besides1 y are n to suppose t ! nature ( heat is alt]$ by be+ v>i\sly modifi$3 = if lat5t heat & specific heat d n excite ! same s5sations z free caloric1 x is ow+ to _! be+ 9 a /ate ( conf9em5t1 :i* prev5ts !m f act+ ^u our organs2 & consequ5tly1 z soon z !y are extricat$ f ! body 9 :i* !y are imprison$1 !y return to _! /ate ( free caloric4 ,,emily4 ,b ,i d n yet cle>ly see 9 :at respect lat5t heat diff]s f specific heat2 = !y are bo? ( !m imprison$ & conceal$ 9 bodies4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,specific heat is t :i* is employ$ 9 fill+ ! capacity ( a body = caloric1 9 ! /ate 9 :i* ?is body actually exi/s2 :ile lat5t heat is t :i* is employ$ only 9 effect+ a *ange ( /ate1 t is1 9 conv]t+ bodies f a solid to a liquid1 or f a liquid to an ari=m /ate4 ,b ,i ?9k t1 9 a g5]al po9t ( view1 bo? ^! modifications might be compreh5d$ "u ! "n ( heat ( capacity1 z 9 bo? cases ! caloric is equally engag$ 9 fill+ ! capacities ( bodies4 ,i %all n[ %[ y an exp]im5t1 :i* ,i hope w give y a cle> idea ( :at is und]/ood by lat5t heat4 ,! sn[ :i* y see 9 ?is phial has be5 cool$ by c]ta9 *emical means 7:i* ,i _c well expla9 to y at pres5t71 to #e or #f degrees bel[ ! freez+ po9t1 z y w f9d indicat$ by ! !rmomet] :i* is plac$ 9 x4 ,we %all expose x to ! heat ( a lamp1 & y w see ! !rmomet] gradually rise1 till x rea*es ! freez+ po9t---- ,,emily4 ,b !re x /ops1 ,mrs4 ,b41 & yet ! lamp burns j z well z be=e4 ,:y is n its heat communicat$ to ! !rmomet]8 ,,c>ol9e4 ,& ! sn[ beg9s to melt1 !re=e x mu/ be ris+ above ! freez+ po9t8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! heat no long] affects ! !rmomet]1 because x is :olly employ$ 9 conv]t+ ! ice into wat]4 ,z ! ice melts1 ! caloric becomes lat5t 9 ! new-=m$ liquid1 & !re=e _c raise its temp]ature2 & ! !rmomet] w consequ5tly rema9 /ation>y1 till ! :ole ( ! ice be melt$4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,n[ x is all melt$1 & ! !rmomet] beg9s to rise aga94 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,because ! conv]sion ( ! ice into wat] be+ complet$1 ! caloric no long] becomes lat5t2 & !re=e ! heat :i* ! wat] n[ receives raises its temp]ature1 z y f9d ! !rmomet] indicates4 ,,emily4 ,b ,i d n ?9k t ! !rmomet] rises s quickly 9 ! wat] z x did 9 ! ice1 previ\s to its beg9n+ to melt1 ?\gh ! lamp burns equally well8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t is ow+ to ! diff]5t specific heat ( ice & wat]4 ,! capacity ( wat] = caloric be+ great] ?an t ( ice1 m heat is requir$ to raise its temp]ature1 & !re=e ! !rmomet] rises sl[] 9 ! wat] ?an 9 ! ice4 ,,emily4 ,true2 y said t a solid body always increas$ its capacity = heat by becom+ fluid2 & ?is is an in/ance ( x4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes1 & ! lat5t heat is t :i* is absorb$ 9 consequ5ce ( ! great] capacity :i* ! wat] has = heat1 9 comp>ison to ice4 ,i mu/ n[ tell y a curi\s calculation f\nd$ on t consid]ation4 ,i h be=e obs]v$ to y t ?\gh ! !rmomet] %[s u ! comp>ative w>m? ( bodies1 & enables u to det]m9e ! same po9t at diff]5t times & places1 x gives u no idea ( ! absolute quantity ( heat 9 any body4 ,we _c tell h[ l[ x ought to fall by ! privation ( all heat1 b an attempt has be5 made to inf] x 9 ! foll[+ mann]4 ,x has be5 f\nd by exp]im5t1 t ! capacity ( wat] = heat1 :5 comp>$ ) t ( ice1 is z #aj to #i1 s t1 at ! same temp]ature1 ice conta9s "o t5? ( caloric less ?an wat]4 ,by exp]im5t also x is obs]v$1 t 9 ord] to melt ice1 !re mu/ be add$ to x z mu* heat1 z w\ld1 if x did n melt x1 raise its temp]ature #adj degrees4 ,?is quantity ( heat is !re=e absorb$ :5 ! ice1 by be+ conv]t$ into wat]1 is made to conta9 "o-n9? m caloric ?an x did be=e4 ,!re=e #adj degrees is a n9? "p ( ! heat conta9$ 9 ice at #cj degrees2 & ! po9t ( z]o1 or ! absolute privation ( heat1 mu/ consequ5tly be #abfj degrees bel[ #cb degrees4 ,?is mode ( inve/igat+ s curi\s a "q is +5i\s1 b its correctness is n yet e/abli%$ by simil> calculations = o!r bodies4 ,! po9ts ( absolute cold1 indicat$ by ?is me?od 9 v>i\s bodies1 are v remote f ea* o!r2 x is h[ev] possible1 t ?is may arise f "s imp]fection 9 ! exp]im5ts4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,x is inde$ v +5i\s--b we mu/ n[ att5d to our pres5t exp]im5t4 ,! wat] beg9s to boil1 & ! !rmomet] is aga9 /ation>y4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,well1 ,c>ol9e1 x is y\r turn to expla9 ! ph5om5on4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,x is wond]fully curi\s6 ,! caloric is n[ busy 9 *ang+ ! wat] into /eam1 9 :i* x hides itself1 & becomes ins5sible4 ,?is is ano!r example ( lat5t heat1 produc+ a *ange ( =m4 ,at fir/ x conv]t$ a solid body into a liquid1 & n[ x turns ! liquid into vap\r6 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y see1 my de>1 h[ easily y h become acqua9t$ ) ^! modifications ( ins5sible heat1 :i* at fir/ appe>$ s un9telligible4 ,if1 n[1 we 7 to rev]se ^! *anges1 & cond5se ! vap\r into wat]1 & ! wat] into ice1 ! lat5t heat w\ld re-appe> entirely1 9 ! =m ( free caloric4 ,,emily4 ,pray d let u see ! effect ( lat5t heat return+ to its free /ate4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,= ! purpose ( %[+ ?is1 we ne$ simply conduct ! vap\r ?r\gh ?is tube into ?is vessel ( cold wat]1 :]e x w "p ) its lat5t heat & return to its liquid =m4 ,,emily4 ,h[ rapidly ! /eam heats ! wat]6 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t is because x does n m]ely imp>t its free caloric to ! wat]1 b likewise its lat5t heat4 ,?is me?od ( heat+ liquids1 has be5 turn$ to advantage1 9 sev]al economical e/abli%m5ts4 ,! /eam-kit*5s1 :i* are gett+ into su* g5]al use1 are ^u ! same pr9ciple4 ,! /eam is convey$ ?r\gh a pipe 9 a simil> mann]1 into ! sev]al vessels :i* conta9 ! provisions to be dress$1 :]e x communicates to !m its lat5t caloric1 & returns to ! /ate ( wat]4 ,c\nt ,rum=d makes great use ( ?is pr9ciple 9 _m ( 8 fire-places3 8 gr& maxim is to avoid all unnecess>y wa/e ( caloric1 = :i* purpose he conf9es ! heat 9 su* a mann]1 t n a p>ticle ( x %all unnecess>ily escape2 & :ile he economises ! free caloric1 he takes c>e also to turn ! lat5t heat to advantage4 ,x is ?us t he is enabl$ to produce a degree ( heat sup]ior to t :i* is obta9$ 9 common fire-places1 ?\gh he employs less fuel4 ,,emily4 ,:5 ! advantages ( su* contrivances are s cle> & pla91 ,i _c und]/& :y !y are n univ]sally us$4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,a long "t is always requir$ be=e innovations1 h[ev] useful1 c be reconcil$ ) ! prejudices ( ! vulg>4 ,,emily4 ,:at a pity x is t !re %\ld be a prejudice aga9/ new inv5tions2 h[ mu* m rapidly ! _w w\ld improve1 if su* useful discov]ies 7 imm$iately & univ]sally adopt$6 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i believe1 my de>1 t !re are z _m novelties attempt$ to be introduc$1 ! adoption ( :i* w\ld be prejudicial to society1 z !re are ( ^? :i* w\ld be b5eficial to x4 ,! well-in=m$1 ?\gh by no means exempt f error1 h an unque/ionable advantage ov] ! illit]ate1 9 judg+ :at is likely or n to prove s]viceable2 & !re=e we f9d ! =m] m ready to adopt su* discov]ies z promise to be really advantage\s1 ?an ! latt]1 :o hav+ no o!r te/ ( ! value ( a novelty b "t & exp]i5ce1 at fir/ oppose its introduction4 ,! well-in=m$1 h[ev]1 are frequ5tly disappo9t$ 9 _! mo/ sangu9e expectations1 & ! prejudices ( ! vulg>1 ?\gh !y (t5 ret>d ! progress ( k1 yet sometimes1 x mu/ be admitt$1 prev5t ! propagation ( error4 --,b we are deviat+ f our subject4 ,we h conv]t$ /eam into wat]1 & are n[ to *ange wat] into ice1 9 ord] to r5d] ! lat5t heat s5sible1 z x escapes f ! wat] on its becom+ solid4 ,= ?is purpose we mu/ produce a degree ( cold t w make wat] freeze4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,t mu/ be v difficult to accompli% 9 ?is w>m room4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,n s mu* z y ?9k4 ,!re are c]ta9 *emical mixtures :i* produce a rapid *ange f ! solid to ! fluid /ate1 or ! rev]se1 9 ! sub/ances comb9$1 9 consequ5ce ( :i* *ange lat5t heat is ei!r extricat$ or absorb$4 ,,emily4 ,i d n q und]/& y4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,?is sn[ & salt1 :i* y see me mix toge!r1 are melt+ rapidly2 heat1 !re=e1 mu/ be absorb$ by ! mixture1 & cold produc$4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,x feels ev5 cold] ?an ice1 & yet ! sn[ is melt$4 ,?is is v extraord9>y4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! cause ( ! int5se cold ( ! mixture is to be attribut$ to ! *ange f a solid to a fluid /ate4 ,! union ( ! sn[ & salt produces a new arrangem5t ( _! p>ticles1 9 consequ5ce ( :i* !y become liquid2 & ! quantity ( caloric1 requir$ to effect ?is *ange1 is seiz$ ^u by ! mixture :]ev] x c be obta9$4 ,?is eag]ness ( ! mixture = caloric1 dur+ its liquefaction1 is su*1 t x conv]ts "p ( its own free caloric into lat5t heat1 & x is ?us t its temp]ature is l[]$4 ,,emily4 ,:atev] y put 9 ?is mixture1 !re=e1 w\ld freeze8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 at lea/ any fluid t is susceptible ( freez+ at t temp]ature4 ,i h prep>$ ?is mixture ( salt & sn[ = ! purpose ( freez+ ! wat] f :i* y are desir\s ( see+ ! lat5t heat escape4 ,i h put a !rmomet] 9 ! glass ( wat] t is to be froz51 9 ord] t y may see h[ x cools4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,! !rmomet] desc5ds1 b ! heat :i* ! wat] is n[ los+1 is its free1 n its lat5t heat4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,c]ta9ly2 x does n "p ) its lat5t heat till x *anges its /ate & is conv]t$ into ice4 ,,emily4 ,b "h is a v extraord9>y circum/ance6 ,! !rmomet] is fall5 bel[ ! freez+ po9t1 & yet ! wat] is n froz54 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t is always ! case previ\s to ! freez+ ( wat] :5 x is 9 a /ate ( re/4 ,n[ x beg9s to congeal1 & y may obs]ve t ! !rmomet] aga9 rises to ! freez+ po9t4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,x appe>s to me v /range t ! !rmomet] %\ld rise ! v mom5t t ! wat] freezes2 = x seems to imply t ! wat] 0 cold] be=e x froze ?an :5 9 ! act ( freez+4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is s2 & aft] our long diss]tation on ?is circum/ance1 ,i did n ?9k x w\ld appe> s surpris+ to y4 ,reflect a little1 & ,i ?9k y w discov] ! reason ( x4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,x mu/ be1 no d\bt1 ! extrications ( lat5t heat1 at ! in/ant ! wat] freezes1 t raises ! temp]ature4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,c]ta9ly2 & if y n[ exam9e ! !rmomet]1 y w f9d t its rise 0 b tempor>y1 & la/$ only dur+ ! dis5gagem5t ( ! lat5t heat--n[ t all ! wat] is froz5 x falls aga91 & w cont9ue to fall till ! ice & mixture are ( an equal temp]ature4 ,,emily4 ,& c y %[ u any exp]im5ts 9 :i* liquids1 by be+ mix$1 become solid1 & dis5gage lat5t heat8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i c\ld %[ y sev]al2 b y are n yet suffici5tly advanc$ to und]/& !m well4 ,i %all1 h[ev]1 try "o1 :i* w af=d y a /rik+ in/ance ( ! fact4 ,! fluid :i* y see 9 ?is phial consi/s ( a quantity ( a c]ta9 salt call$ muriat ( lime1 dissolv$ 9 wat]4 ,n[1 if ,i p\r into x a few drops ( ?is o!r fluid1 call$ sulphuric acid1 ! :ole1 or v ne>ly ! :ole1 w be in/antane\sly conv]t$ into a solid mass4 ,,emily4 ,h[ :ite x turns6 ,i feel ! lat5t heat escap+1 = ! bottle is w>m1 & ! fluid is *ang$ to a solid :ite sub/ance l *alk6 ,,c>ol9e4 ,?is is1 inde$1 ! mo/ curi\s exp]im5t we h se5 yet4 ,b pray :at is t :ite vap\r t asc5ds f ! mixture8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y are n yet en\gh ( a *emi/ to und]/& t4 --,b take c>e1 ,c>ol9e1 d n approa* too ne> x1 = x has a v pung5t smell4 ,i %all %[ y ano!r in/ance simil> to t ( ! wat]1 :i* y obs]v$ to become w>m] z x froze4 ,i h 9 ?is phial a solution ( a salt call$ sulphat ( soda or ,glaub]'s salt1 made v /rong1 & cork$ up :5 x 0 hot1 & kept )\t agitation till x became cold1 z y may feel ! phial is4 ,n[ :5 ,i take out ! cork & let ! air fall ^u x1 7= be+ clos$ :5 boil+1 !re 0 a vacuum 9 ! upp] "p7 obs]ve t ! salt w sudd5ly cry/allize4 4 4 4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,surpris+6 h[ beautifully ! ne$les ( salt h %ot ?r\gh ! :ole phial6 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes1 x is v /rik+--b pray d n =get ! object ( ! exp]im5t4 ,feel h[ w>m ! phial has become by ! conv]sion ( "p ( ! liquid into a solid4 ,,emily4 ,q w>m ,i decl>e6 ?is is a mo/ curi\s exp]im5t ( ! dis5gagem5t ( lat5t heat4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! slake+ ( lime is ano!r rem>kable in/ance ( ! extrication ( lat5t heat4 ,h y nev] obs]v$ h[ quick-lime smokes :5 wat] is p\r$ ^u x1 & h[ mu* heat x produces8 ,,c>ol9e4 ,yes2 b ,i d n und]/& :at *ange ( /ate takes place 9 ! lime t occasions its giv+ out lat5t heat2 = ! quick-lime1 :i* is solid1 is 7if ,i recollect "r7 r$uc$ to p[d]1 by ?is op]ation1 & is1 !re=e1 r exp&$ ?an cond5s$4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is f ! wat]1 n ! lime1 t ! lat5t heat is set free4 ,! wat] incorporates )1 & becomes solid 9 ! lime2 9 consequ5ce ( :i*1 ! heat1 :i* kept x 9 a liquid /ate1 is dis5gag$1 & escapes 9 a s5sible =m4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i always ?\ght t ! heat orig9at$ 9 ! lime4 ,x seems v /range t wat]1 & cold wat] too1 %\ld conta9 s mu* heat4 ,,emily4 ,aft] ?is extrication ( caloric1 ! wat] mu/ exi/ 9 a /ate ( ice 9 ! lime1 s9ce x p>ts ) ! heat :i* kept x liquid4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x _c prop]ly be call$ ice1 s9ce ice implies a degree ( cold1 at lea/ equal to ! freez+ po9t4 ,yet z wat]1 9 comb9+ ) lime1 gives out m heat ?an 9 freez+1 x mu/ be 9 a /ate ( /ill great] solidity 9 ! lime1 ?an x is 9 ! =m ( ice2 & y may h obs]v$ t x does n moi/5 or liquefy ! lime 9 ! smalle/ degree4 ,,emily4 ,b1 ,mrs4 ,b41 ! smoke t rises is :ite2 if x 0 only pure caloric :i* escap$1 we might feel1 b c\ld n see x4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,?is :ite vap\r is =m$ by "s ( ! p>ticles ( lime1 9 a /ate ( f9e du/1 :i* are c>ri$ (f by ! caloric4 ,,emily4 ,9 all *anges ( /ate1 !n1 a body ei!r absorbs or dis5gages lat5t heat8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y _c exactly say absorbs lat5t heat1 z ! heat becomes lat5t only on be+ conf9$ 9 ! body2 b y may say1 g5]ally1 t bodies1 9 pass+ f a solid to a liquid =m1 or f ! liquid /ate to t ( vap\r1 absorb heat2 & t :5 ! rev]se takes place1 heat is dis5gag$499 ,footnote 993 ,?is rule1 if n univ]sal1 admits ( v few exceptions4 ,,emily4 ,we c n[1 ,i ?9k1 acc\nt = ! e!r boil+1 & ! wat] freez+ 9 vacuo1 at ! same temp]ature4 ,footnote 3 ,see page #ajb4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,let me he> h[ y expla9 x4 ,,emily4 ,! lat5t heat1 :i* ! wat] gave out 9 freez+1 0 imm$iately absorb$ by ! e!r1 dur+ its conv]sion into vap\r2 & !re=e1 f a lat5t /ate 9 "o liquid1 x pass$ into a lat5t /ate 9 ! o!r4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,b ?is only p>tly acc\nts = ! result ( ! exp]im5t2 x rema9s to be expla9$ :y ! temp]ature ( ! e!r1 :ile 9 a /ate ( ebullition1 is br\ght d[n to ! freez+ temp]ature ( ! wat]4 --,x is because ! e!r1 dur+ its evaporation1 r$uces its own temp]ature1 9 ! same proportion z t ( ! wat]1 by conv]t+ its free caloric into lat5t heat3 s t1 ?\gh "o liquid boils1 & ! o!r freezes1 _! temp]atures rema9 9 a /ate ( equilibrium4 ,,emily4 ,b :y does n wat]1 z well z e!r1 r$uce its own temp]ature by evaporat+8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! fact is t x does1 ?\gh mu* less rapidly ?an e!r4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 y may (t5 h obs]v$1 9 ! heat ( summ]1 h[ mu* any p>ticul> spot may be cool$ by wat]+1 ?\gh ! wat] us$ = t purpose be z w>m z ! air itself4 ,inde$ s mu* cold may be produc$ by ! m]e evaporation ( wat]1 t ! inhabitants ( ,india1 by avail+ !mselves ( ! mo/ fav\rable circum/ances = ?is process :i* _! w>m climate c af=d1 namely1 ! cool ( ! night1 & situations mo/ expos$ to ! night breeze1 succe$ 9 caus+ wat] to freeze1 ?\gh ! temp]ature ( ! air be z high z #fj degrees4 ,! wat] is put into %all[ e>!n trays1 s z to expose an ext5sive surface to ! process ( evaporation1 & 9 ! morn+1 ! wat] is f\nd cov]$ ) a ?9 cake ( ice1 :i* is collect$ 9 suffici5t quantity to be us$ = purposes ( luxury4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,h[ delici\s x mu/ be to dr9k liquids s cold 9 ^? tropical climates6 ,b1 ,mrs4 ,b41 c\ld we n try t exp]im5t8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,if we 7 9 ! c\ntry1 ,i h no d\bt b t we %\ld be able to freeze wat]1 by ! same means1 & "u simil> circum/ances4 ,b we c d x imm$iately1 ^u a small scale1 9 ?is v room1 9 :i* ! !rmomet] /&s at #gj degrees4 ,= ?is purpose we ne$ only place "s wat] 9 a little cup "u ! receiv] ( ! air-pump 7,,plate ,v4 fig4 #a471 & exhau/ ! air f x4 ,:at w be ! consequ5ce1 ,c>ol9e8 ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,v4 ,vol4 ,i4 page #ach4 ,fig4 #a4 ,! air-pump receiv] = ,mr4 ,leslie's exp]im5t4 ,c a sauc] ) sulphuric ,acid4 ,b a glass or e>!n cup conta9+ ,wat]4 ,d a /& = ! cup ) its legs made ( ,glass4 ,a a ,!rmomet]4 ,fig4 #b4 ,dr4 ,wolla/on's ,cryophorus4 ,fig4 #e4 ,dr4 ,m>cet's mode ( us+ ! ,cryophorus4 ,fig4 #c4 #d4 ! diff]5t p>ts ( ,fig4 #e4 se5 sep>ate4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,( c\rse ! wat] w evaporate m quickly1 s9ce !re w no long] be any atmosph]ic pressure on its surface3 b w ?is be suffici5t to make ! wat] freeze8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,probably n1 because ! vap\r w n be c>ri$ (f fa/ en\gh2 b ?is w be accompli%$ )\t difficulty if we introduce into ! receiv] 7fig4 #a471 9 a sauc]1 or o!r l>ge %all[ vessel1 "s /rong sulphuric acid1 a sub/ance :i* has a great attraction = wat]1 :e!r 9 ! =m ( vap\r1 or 9 ! liquid /ate4 ,?is attraction is su* t ! acid w in/antly absorb ! moi/ure z x rises f ! wat]1 s z to make room = ! =mation ( fre% vap\r2 ?is w ( c\rse ha/5 ! process1 & ! cold produc$ f ! rapid evaporation ( ! wat]1 w1 9 a few m9utes1 be suffici5t to freeze its surface499 ,we %all n[ exhau/ ! air f ! receiv]4 ,footnote 993 ,?is exp]im5t 0 fir/ devis$ by ,mr4 ,leslie1 & has s9ce be5 modifi$ 9 a v>iety ( =ms4 ,,emily4 ,?\s&s ( small bubbles already rise ?r\gh ! wat] f ! int]nal surface ( ! cup2 :at is ! reason ( ?is8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,^! are bubbles ( air :i* 7 p>tly atta*$ to ! vessel1 & p>tly diffus$ 9 ! wat] itself2 & !y exp& & rise 9 consequ5ce ( ! atmosph]ic pressure be+ remov$4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,see1 ,mrs4 ,b42 ! !rmomet] 9 ! cup is s9k+ fa/2 x has already desc5d$ to #dj degrees6 ,,emily4 ,! wat] seems n[ & !n viol5tly agitat$ on ! surface1 z if x 0 boil+2 & yet ! !rmomet] is desc5d+ fa/6 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y may call x boil+1 if y please1 = ?is appe>ance is1 z well z boil+1 ow+ to ! rapid =mation ( vap\r2 b "h1 z y h j obs]v$1 x takes place f ! surface1 = x is only :5 heat is appli$ to ! bottom ( ! vessel t ! vap\r is =m$ !re4 --,n[ cry/als ( ice are actually %oot+ all ov] ! surface ( ! wat]4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,h[ beautiful x is6 ,! surface is n[ entirely froz5--b ! !rmomet] rema9s at #cb degrees4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,& s x w1 con=mably ) our doctr9e ( lat5t heat1 until ! :ole ( ! wat] is froz52 b x w !n aga9 beg9 to desc5d l[] & l[]1 9 consequ5ce ( ! evaporation :i* goes on f ! surface ( ! ice4 ,,emily4 ,?is is a mo/ int]e/+ exp]im5t2 b x w\ld be /ill m /rik+ if no sulphuric acid 7 requir$4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i w %[ y a freez+ in/rum5t1 contriv$ by ,dr4 ,wolla/on1 ^u ! same pr9ciple z ,mr4 ,leslie's exp]im5t1 by :i* wat] may be froz5 by its own evaporation alone1 )\t ! assi/ance ( sulphuric acid4 ,?is tube1 :i*1 z y see 7,,plate ,v4 fig4 #b471 is t]m9at$ at ea* extremity by a bulb1 "o ( :i* is half full ( wat]1 is int]nally p]fectly exhau/$ ( air2 ! consequ5ce ( ?is is1 t ! wat] 9 ! bulb is always mu* dispos$ to evaporate4 ,?is evaporation1 h[ev]1 does n proce$ suffici5tly fa/ to freeze ! wat]2 b if ! empty ball be cool$ by "s artificial means1 s z to cond5se quickly ! vap\r :i* rises f ! wat]1 ! process may be ?us s mu* promot$ z to cause ! wat] to freeze 9 ! o!r ball4 ,dr4 ,wolla/on has call$ ?is in/rum5t ,cryophorus4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,s t cold seems to p]=m "h ! same "p :i* ! sulphuric acid act$ 9 ,mr4 ,leslie's exp]im5t8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,exactly s2 b let u try ! exp]im5t4 ,,emily4 ,h[ w y cool ! in/rum5t8 ,y h nei!r ice nor sn[4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,true3 b we h o!r means ( effect+ ?is499 ,y recollect :at an int5se cold c be produc$ by ! evaporation ( e!r 9 an exhau/$ receiv]4 ,we %all inclose ! bulb 9 ?is little bag ( f9e flannel 7fig4 #c471 !n soke x 9 e!r1 & introduce x into ! receiv] ( ! air-pump4 7,fig4 #e47 ,= ?is purpose we %all f9d x m conv5i5t to use a cryophorus ( ?is %ape 7fig4 #d471 z its elongat$ bulb passes easily ?r\gh a brass plate :i* closes ! top ( ! receiv]4 ,if we n[ exhau/ ! receiv] quickly1 y w see1 9 less ?an a m9ute1 ! wat] freeze 9 ! o!r bulb1 out ( ! receiv]4 ,footnote 993 ,?is mode ( mak+ ! exp]im5t 0 propos$1 & ! p>ticul>s detail$1 by ,dr4 ,m>cet1 9 ! #cd? vol4 ( ,ni*olson's ,j\rnal1 page #aai4 ,,emily4 ,! bulb already looks q dim1 & small drops ( wat] are cond5s+ on its surface4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,& n[ cry/als ( ice %oot all ov] ! wat]4 ,?is is1 inde$1 a v curi\s exp]im5t6 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y w see1 "s o!r day1 t1 by a simil> me?od1 ev5 quicksilv] may be froz54 --,b we _c at pres5t indulge 9 any fur!r digression4 ,hav+ advanc$ s f> on ! subject ( heat1 ,i may n[ give y an acc\nt ( ! calorimet]1 an in/rum5t inv5t$ by ,lavoisi]1 ^u ! pr9ciples j expla9$1 = ! purpose ( e/imat+ ! specific heat ( bodies4 ,x consi/s ( a vessel1 ! inn] surface ( :i* is l9$ ) ice1 s z to =m a sort ( holl[ globe ( ice1 9 ! mid/ ( :i* ! body1 ^: specific heat is to be asc]ta9$1 is plac$4 ,! ice absorbs caloric f ?is body1 till x has br\ght x d[n to ! freez+ po9t2 ?is caloric conv]ts into wat] a c]ta9 portion ( ! ice :i* runs out ?r\gh an ap]ture at ! bottom ( ! ma*9e2 & ! quantity ( ice *ang$ to wat] is a te/ ( ! quantity ( caloric :i* ! body has giv5 out 9 desc5d+ f a c]ta9 temp]ature to ! freez+ po9t4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,9 ?is app>atus1 ,i suppose1 ! milk1 *alk1 & lead1 w\ld melt diff]5t quantities ( ice1 9 proportion to _! diff]5t capacities = caloric8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,c]ta9ly3 & !nce we are able to asc]ta91 ) precision1 _! respective capacities = heat4 ,b ! calorimet] af=ds u no m idea ( ! absolute quantity ( heat conta9$ 9 a body1 ?an ! !rmomet]2 = ?\gh by means ( x we extricate bo? ! free & comb9$ caloric1 yet we extricate !m only to a c]ta9 degree1 :i* is ! freez+ po9t2 & we "k n h[ mu* !y conta9 ( ei!r bel[ t po9t4 ,,emily4 ,accord+ to ! !ory ( lat5t heat1 x appe>s to me t ! wea!r %\ld be w>m :5 x freezes1 & cold 9 a ?aw3 = lat5t heat is lib]at$ f e sub/ance t x freezes1 & su* a l>ge supply ( heat mu/ w>m ! atmosph]e2 :il/1 dur+ a ?aw1 t v quantity ( free heat mu/ be tak5 f ! atmosph]e1 & return to a lat5t /ate 9 ! bodies :i* x ?aws4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y\r obs]vation is v natural2 b consid] t 9 a fro/ ! atmosph]e is s mu* cold] ?an ! e>?1 t all ! caloric :i* x takes f ! freez+ bodies is insuffici5t to raise its temp]ature above ! freez+ po9t2 o!rwise ! fro/ mu/ cease4 ,b if ! quantity ( lat5t heat extricat$ does n de/roy ! fro/1 x s]ves to mod]ate ! sudd5ness ( ! *ange ( temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e1 at ! comm5cem5t bo? ( fro/1 & ( a ?aw4 ,9 ! fir/ in/ance1 its extrication dim9i%es ! sev]ity ( ! cold2 &1 9 ! latt]1 its absorption mod]ates ! w>m? occasion$ by a ?aw3 x ev5 sometimes produces a disc]nible *ill1 at ! break+ up ( a fro/4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b :at are ! g5]al causes t produce ^? sudd5 *anges 9 ! wea!r1 especially f hot to cold1 :i* we (t5 exp]i5ce8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,?is "q w\ld lead u into meteorological discussions1 to :i* ,i am by no means compet5t4 ,"o circum/ance1 h[ev]1 we c easily und]/&4 ,:5 ! air has pass$ ov] cold c\ntries1 x w probably arrive "h at a temp]ature mu* bel[ our own1 & !n x mu/ absorb heat f e object x meets )1 :i* w produce a g5]al fall ( temp]ature4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b pray1 n[ t we "k s mu* ( ! effects ( heat1 w y in=m u :e!r x is really a di/9ct body1 or1 z ,i h he>d1 a peculi> k9d ( motion produc$ 9 bodies8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,z ,i be=e told y1 !re is yet mu* unc]ta9ty z to ! nature ( ^! subtle ag5ts4 ,b ,i am incl9$ to consid] heat n z m]e motion1 b z a sep>ate sub/ance4 ,late exp]im5ts too appe> to make x a comp\nd body1 consi/+ ( ! two electricities1 & 9 our next conv]sation ,i %all in=m y ( ! pr9cipal facts on :i* t op9ion is f\nd$4 ,,conv]sation ,v4 ,,on ,,! ,,*emical ,,ag5cies ,,( ,,electricity4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,be=e we proce$ fur!r x w be necess>y to give y "s acc\nt ( c]ta9 prop]ties ( electricity1 :i* h ( late ye>s be5 discov]$ to h an ess5tial connection ) ! ph5om5a ( *emi/ry4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,x is ,,electricity1 if ,i recollect "r1 :i* comes next 9 our li/ ( simple sub/ances8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i h plac$ electricity 9 t li/1 r f ! necessity ( class+ x some:]e1 ?an f any conviction t x has a "r to t situation1 = we are z yet s ignorant ( its intimate nature1 t we are unable to det]m9e1 n only :e!r x is simple or comp\nd1 b :e!r x is 9 fact a mat]ial ag5t2 or1 z ,sir ,h4 ,davy has h9t$1 :e!r x may n be m]ely a prop]ty inh]5t 9 matt]4 ,z1 h[ev]1 x is necess>y to adopt "s hypo!sis = ! explanation ( ! discov]ies :i* ?is ag5t has enabl$ u to make1 ,i h *os5 ! op9ion1 at pres5t mo/ preval5t1 :i* supposes ! exi/5ce ( two k9ds ( electricity1 di/+ui%$ by ! names ( positive & negative electricity4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,well1 ,i mu/ confess1 ,i d n feel ne>ly s int]e/$ 9 a sci5ce 9 :i* s mu* unc]ta9ty prevails1 z 9 ^? :i* re/ ^u e/abli%$ pr9ciples2 ,i nev] 0 fond ( electricity1 because1 h[ev] beautiful & curi\s ! ph5om5a x exhibits may be1 ! !ories1 by :i* !y 7 expla9$1 appe>$ to me s v>i\s1 s obscure & inadequate1 t ,i always rema9$ dissatisfi$4 ,i 0 9 hopes t ! new discov]ies 9 electricity _h ?r[n s great a light on ! subject1 t e ?+ respect+ x w\ld n[ h be5 cle>ly expla9$4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t is a po9t :i* we are yet f> f hav+ atta9$4 ,b1 9 spite ( ! imp]fection ( our !ories1 y w be amply repaid by ! importance & novelty ( ! subject4 ,! numb] ( new facts :i* h already be5 asc]ta9$1 & ! imm5se prospect ( discov]y :i* has lately be5 op5$ to u1 w1 ,i hope1 ultimately lead to a p]fect elucidation ( ?is bran* ( natural sci5ce2 b at pres5t y mu/ be cont5t$ ) /udy+ ! effects1 & 9 "s degree expla9+ ! ph5om5a1 )\t aspir+ to a precise k ( ! remote cause ( electricity4 ,y h already obta9$ "s notions ( electricity3 9 our pres5t conv]sation1 !re=e1 ,i %all conf9e myself to t "p ( ! sci5ce :i* is ( late discov]y1 & is m p>ticul>ly connect$ ) *emi/ry4 ,x 0 a trifl+ & accid5tal circum/ance :i* fir/ gave rise to ?is new bran* ( physical sci5ce4 ,galvani1 a pr(essor ( natural philosophy at ,bologna1 be+ engag$ 7ab\t tw5ty ye>s ago7 9 "s exp]im5ts on muscul> irritability1 obs]v$1 t :5 a piece ( metal 0 laid on ! n]ve ( a frog1 rec5tly dead1 :il/ ! limb suppli$ by t n]ve re/$ ^u "s o!r metal1 ! limb sudd5ly mov$1 on a communication be+ made betwe5 ! two pieces ( metal4 ,,emily4 ,h[ is ?is communication made8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,ei!r by br++ ! two metals into contact1 or by connect+ !m by means ( a metallic conductor4 ,b )\t subject+ a frog to any cruel exp]im5ts1 ,i c easily make y s5sible ( ?is k9d ( electric action4 ,"h is a piece ( z9c1 7"o ( ! metals ,i m5tion$ 9 ! li/ ( elem5t>y bodies7--put x "u y\r tongue1 & ?is piece ( silv] ^u y\r tongue1 & let bo? ! metals project a little beyond ! tip ( ! tongue--v well--n[ make ! project+ p>ts ( ! metals t\* ea* o!r1 & y w in/antly p]ceive a peculi> s5sation4 ,,emily4 ,inde$ ,i did1 a s+ul> ta/e1 & ,i ?9k a degree ( heat3 b ,i c h>dly describe x4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! action ( ^! two pieces ( metal on ! tongue is1 ,i believe1 precisely simil> to t made on ! n]ve ( a frog4 ,i %all n deta9 y by a detail$ acc\nt ( ! !ory by :i* ,galvani attempt$ to acc\nt = ?is fact1 z 8 explanation 0 soon ov]turn$ by subsequ5t exp]im5ts1 :i* prov$ t ,galvanism 7! "n ?is new p[] _h obta9$7 0 no?+ m ?an electricity4 ,galvani suppos$ t ! virtue ( ?is new ag5t resid$ 9 ! n]ves ( ! frog1 b ,volta1 :o prosecut$ ?is subject ) mu* great] success1 %ew$ t ! ph5om5a did n dep5d on ! organs ( ! frog1 b ^u ! electrical ag5cy ( ! metals1 :i* is excit$ by ! moi/ure ( ! animal1 ! organs ( ! frog be+ only a delicate te/ ( ! pres5ce ( electric influ5ce4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i suppose1 !n1 ! saliva ( ! m\? answ]s ! same purpose z ! moi/ure ( ! frog1 9 excit+ ! electricity ( ! pieces ( silv] & z9c ) :i* ,emily tri$ ! exp]im5t on h] tongue4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,precisely4 ,x does n appe>1 h[ev]1 necess>y t ! fluid us$ = ?is purpose %\ld be ( an animal nature4 ,wat]1 & acids v mu* dilut$ by wat]1 are f\nd to be ! mo/ effectual 9 promot+ ! developem5t ( electricity 9 metals2 &1 accord+ly1 ! orig9al app>atus :i* ,volta fir/ con/ruct$ = ?is purpose1 consi/$ ( a pile or succession ( plates ( z9c & copp]1 ea* pair ( :i* 0 connect$ by pieces ( clo? or pap] impregnat$ ) wat]2 & ?is in/rum5t1 f its orig9al inconv5i5t /ructure & limit$ /r5g?1 has gradually arriv$ at its pres5t /ate ( p[] & improvem5t1 su* z is exhibit$ 9 ! ,voltaic batt]y4 ,9 ?is app>atus1 a specim5 ( :i* y see be=e y 7,,plate ,,vi4 fig4 #a471 ! plates ( z9c & copp] are sold]$ toge!r 9 pairs1 ea* pair be+ plac$ at regul> di/ances 9 wood5 tr\ghs & ! int]/ices be+ fill$ ) fluid4 ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,,vi4 p4 #aea4 ,fig4 #a4 ,voltaic ,batt]y4 ,fig4 #b4 ,fig4 #d4 ,fig4 #a4 #b4 #d4 ,voltaic ,batt]ies ,fig4 #c4 ,electrical ,ma*9e4 ,a ! ,cyl9d]4 ,b ! ,conductor4 ,r ! ,rubb]4 ,c ! ,*a94 ,,c>ol9e4 ,?\gh y w n all[ u to enquire into ! precise cause ( electricity1 may we n ask 9 :at mann] ! fluid acts on ! metals s z to produce x8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! action ( ! fluid on ! metals1 :e!r wat] or acid be us$1 is entirely ( a *emical nature4 ,b :e!r electricity is excit$ by ?is *emical action1 or :e!r x is produc$ by ! contact ( ! two metals1 is a po9t ^u :i* philosoph]s d n yet p]fectly agree4 ,,emily4 ,b c ! m]e contact ( two metals1 )\t any int]v5+ fluid1 produce electricity8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes1 if !y are aft]w>ds sep>at$4 ,x is an e/abli%$ fact1 t :5 two metals are put 9 contact1 & aft]w>ds sep>at$1 t :i* has ! /ronge/ attraction = oxyg5 exhibits signs ( positive1 ! o!r ( negative electricity4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,x seems !n b reasonable to inf] t ! p[] ( ! ,voltaic batt]y %\ld arise f ! contact ( ! plates ( z9c & copp]4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is ^u ?is pr9ciple t ,volta & ,sir ,h4 ,davy expla9 ! ph5om5a ( ! pile2 b not)/&+ ^! two great au?orities1 _m philosoph]s ent]ta9 d\bts on ! tru? ( ?is !ory4 ,! pr9cipal difficulty :i* occurs 9 expla9+ ! ph5om5a ( ! ,voltaic batt]y on ?is pr9ciple1 is1 t two su* plates %[ no signs ( diff]5t /ates ( electricity :il/ 9 contact1 b only on be+ sep>at$ aft] contact4 ,n[ 9 ! ,voltaic batt]y1 ^? plates t are 9 contact always cont9ue s1 be+ sold]$ toge!r3 & !y _c !re=e receive a succession ( *>ges4 ,besides1 if we consid] ! m]e di/urbance ( ! balance ( electricity by ! contact ( ! plates1 z ! sole cause ( ! production ( ,voltaic electricity1 x rema9s to be expla9$ h[ ?is di/urb$ balance becomes an inexhau/ible s\rce ( electrical en]gy1 capable ( p\r+ =? a con/ant & copi\s supply ( electrical fluid1 ?\gh )\t any means ( repl5i%+ itself f o!r s\rces4 ,?is subject1 x mu/ be own$1 is involv$ 9 too mu* obscurity to enable u to speak v decid$ly 9 fav\r ( any !ory4 ,b1 9 ord] to avoid p]plex+ y ) diff]5t explanations1 ,i %all conf9e myself to "o :i* appe>s to me to be lea/ encumb]$ ) difficulties1 & mo/ likely to accord ) tru?499 ,?is !ory supposes ! electricity to be excit$ by ! *emical action ( ! acid on ! z9c2 b y are yet su* novices 9 *emi/ry1 t ,i ?9k x w be necess>y to give y "s previ\s explanation ( ! nature ( ?is action4 ,all metals h a /rong attraction = oxyg51 & ?is elem5t is f\nd 9 great abundance bo? 9 wat] & 9 acids4 ,! action ( ! dilut$ acid on ! z9c consi/s !re=e 9 its oxyg5 comb9+ ) x1 & dissolv+ its surface4 ,footnote 993 ,?is mode ( expla9+ ! ph5om5a ( ! ,voltaic pile is call$ ! *emical !ory ( electricity1 because x ascribes ! cause ( ^! ph5om5a to c]ta9 *emical *anges :i* take place dur+ _! appe>ance4 ,9 ! prec$+ edition ( ?is "w1 ! same !ory 0 pres5t$ 9 a m elaborate1 b less easy =m ?an x is 9 ?is4 ,! mode ( view+ ! subject :i* is "h sket*$ 0 long s9ce sugge/$ by ,dr4 ,bo/ock1 ( ^: !ory1 h[ev]1 ?is is by no means to be consid]$ z a complete /atem5t4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,9 ! same mann] ,i suppose z we saw an acid dissolve copp]8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 b 9 ! ,voltaic batt]y ! dilut$ acid is n /rong en\gh to produce s complete an effect2 x acts only on ! surface ( ! z9c1 to :i* x yields its oxyg51 =m+ ^u x a film or cru/1 :i* is a comp\nd ( ! oxyg5 & ! metal4 ,,emily4 ,s9ce !re is s /rong a *emical attraction betwe5 oxyg5 & metals1 ,i suppose !y are naturally 9 diff]5t /ates ( electricity8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 x appe>s t all metals are unit$ ) ! positive1 & t oxyg5 is ! gr& s\rce ( ! negative electricity4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,does n !n ! acid act on ! plates ( copp]1 z well z on ^? ( z9c8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no2 = ?\gh copp] has an aff9ity = oxyg51 x is less /rong ?an t ( z9c2 & !re=e ! en]gy ( ! acid is only ex]t$ ^u ! z9c4 ,x w be be/1 ,i believe1 9 ord] to r5d] ! action ( ! ,voltaic batt]y m intelligible1 to conf9e our att5tion at fir/ to ! effect produc$ on two plates only4 7,,plate ,,vi4 fig4 #b47 ,if a plate ( z9c be plac$ opposite to "o ( copp]1 or any o!r metal less attractive ( oxyg51 & ! space betwe5 !m 7suppose ( half an in* 9 ?ickness71 be fill$ ) an acid or any fluid capable ( oxydat+ ! z9c1 ! oxydat$ surface w h its capacity = electricity dim9i%$1 s t a quantity ( electricity w be evolv$ f t surface4 ,?is electricity w be receiv$ by ! contigu\s fluid1 by :i* x w be transmitt$ to ! opposite metallic surface1 ! copp]1 :i* is n oxydat$1 & is !re=e dispos$ to receive x2 s t ! copp] plate w ?us become positive1 :il/ ! z9c plate w be 9 ! negative /ate4 ,?is evolution ( electrical fluid h[ev] w be v limit$2 = z ^! two plates admit ( b v little accumulation ( electricity1 & are suppos$ to h no communication ) o!r bodies1 ! action ( ! acid1 & fur!r developem5t ( electricity1 w be imm$iately /opp$4 ,,emily4 ,?is action1 ,i suppose1 c no m cont9ue to g on1 ?an t ( a common electrical ma*9e1 :i* is n all[$ to communicate ) o!r bodies8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,precisely2 ! common electrical ma*9e1 :5 excit$ by ! friction ( ! rubb]1 gives out bo? ! positive & negative electricities4-- 7,,plate ,,vi4 ,fig4 #c47 ,! positive1 by ! rotation ( ! glass cyl9d]1 is convey$ into ! conductor1 :il/ ! negative goes into ! rubb]4 ,b unless !re is a communication made betwe5 ! rubb] & ! gr\nd1 b a v inconsid]able quantity ( electricity c be excit$2 = ! rubb]1 l ! plates ( ! batt]y1 has too small a capacity to admit ( an accumulation ( electricity4 ,unless !re=e ! electricity c pass out ( ! rubb]1 x w n cont9ue to g into x1 & consequ5tly no additional accumulation w take place4 ,n[ z "o k9d ( electricity _c be giv5 out )\t ! o!r1 ! developem5t ( ! positive electricity is /opp$ z well z t ( ! negative1 & ! conductor !re=e _c receive a succession ( *>ges4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b does n ! conductor1 z well z ! rubb]1 require a communication ) ! e>?1 9 ord] to get rid ( its electricity8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no2 = x is susceptible ( receiv+ & conta9+ a consid]able quantity ( electricity1 z x is mu* l>g] ?an ! rubb]1 & !re=e has a great] capacity2 & ?is cont9u$ accumulation ( electricity 9 ! conductor is :at is call$ a *>ge4 ,,emily4 ,b :5 an electrical ma*9e is furni%$ ) two conductors to receive ! two electricities1 ,i suppose no communication ) ! e>? is requir$8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,c]ta9ly n1 until ! two are fully *>g$2 = ! two conductors w receive equal quantities ( electricity4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i ?\ght ! use ( ! *a9 _h be5 to convey ! electricity f ! gr\nd into ! ma*9e8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t 0 ! idea ( ,dr4 ,frankl91 :o suppos$ t !re 0 b "o k9d ( electricity1 & :o1 by ! t]ms positive & negative 7:i* he fir/ introduc$71 meant only diff]5t quantities ( ! same k9d ( electricity4 ,! *a9 0 9 t case suppos$ to convey electricity f ! gr\nd ?r\gh ! rubb] into ! conductor4 ,b z we h adopt$ ! hypo!sis ( two electricities1 we mu/ consid] ! *a9 z a vehicle to conduct ! negative electricity into ! e>?4 ,,emily4 ,& are bo? k9ds ( electricity produc$ :5ev] electricity is excit$8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes1 inv>iably4 ,if y rub a tube ( glass ) a wooll5 clo?1 ! glass becomes positive1 & ! clo? negative4 ,if1 on ! contr>y1 y excite a /ick ( seal+-wax by ! same means1 x is ! rubb] :i* becomes positive1 & ! wax negative4 ,b ) reg>d to ! ,voltaic batt]y1 9 ord] t ! acid may act freely on ! z9c1 & ! two electricities be giv5 out )\t int]ruption1 "s me?od mu/ be devis$1 by :i* ! plates may "p ) _! electricities z fa/ z !y receive !m4 --,c y ?9k ( any means by :i* ?is might be effect$8 ,,emily4 ,w\ld n two *a9s or wires1 susp5d$ f ei!r plate to ! gr\nd1 conduct ! electricities into ! e>?1 & ?us answ] ! purpose8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x w\ld answ] ! purpose ( c>ry+ (f ! electricity1 ,i admit2 b recollect1 t ?\gh x is necess>y to f9d a v5t = ! electricity1 yet we mu/ n lose x1 s9ce x is ! p[] :i* we are endeav\r+ to obta94 ,in/ead1 !re=e1 ( conduct+ x into ! gr\nd1 let u make ! wires1 f ei!r plate1 meet3 ! two electricities w ?us be br\ght toge!r1 & w comb9e & neutralize ea* o!r2 & z long z ?is communication cont9ues1 ! two plates hav+ a v5t = _! respective electricities1 ! action ( ! acid w g on freely & un9t]rupt$ly4 ,,emily4 ,t is v cle>1 s f> z two plates only are conc]n$2 b ,i _c say ,i und]/& h[ ! en]gy ( ! succession ( plates1 or r pairs ( plates1 ( :i* ! ,galvanic tr\gh is compos$1 is propagat$ & accumulat$ ?r\gh\t a batt]y8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,9 ord] to %ew y h[ ! int5sity ( ! electricity is increas$ by increas+ ! numb] ( plates1 we w exam9e ! action ( f\r plates2 if y und]/& ^!1 y w readily compreh5d t ( any numb] :atev]4 ,9 ?is figure 7,,plate ,,vi4 ,fig4 #d471 y w obs]ve t ! two c5tral plates are unit$2 !y are sold]$ toge!r1 7z we obs]v$ 9 describ+ ! ,voltaic tr\gh17 s z to =m b "o plate :i* (f]s two diff]5t surfaces1 ! "o ( copp]1 ! o!r ( z9c4 ,n[ y recollect t1 9 expla9+ ! action ( two plates1 we suppos$ t a quantity ( electricity 0 evolv$ f ! surface ( ! fir/ z9c plate1 9 consequ5ce ( ! action ( ! acid1 & 0 convey$ by ! int]pos$ fluid to ! copp] plate1 ,no4 #b1 :i* ?us became positive4 ,?is copp] plate communicates its electricity to ! contigu\s z9c plate1 ,no4 #c1 9 :i*1 consequ5tly1 "s accumulation ( electricity takes place4 ,:51 !re=e1 ! fluid 9 ! next cell acts ^u ! z9c plate1 electricity is extricat$ f x 9 l>g] quantity1 & 9 a m conc5trat$ =m1 ?an be=e4 ,?is conc5trat$ electricity is aga9 convey$ by ! fluid to ! next pair ( plates1 ,no4 #d & #e1 :5 x is f>!r increas$ by ! action ( ! fluid 9 ! ?ird cell1 & s on1 to any numb] ( plates ( :i* ! batt]y may consi/2 s t ! electrical en]gy w cont9ue to accumulate 9 proportion to ! numb] ( d\ble plates1 ! fir/ z9c plate ( ! s]ies be+ ! mo/ negative1 & ! la/ copp] plate ! mo/ positive4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b does ! batt]y become m & m /rongly *>g$1 m]ely by be+ all[$ to /& undi/urb$8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no1 = ! action w soon /op1 z 0 expla9$ be=e1 unless a v5t be giv5 to ! accumulat$ electricities4 ,?is is easily done1 h[ev]1 by e/abli%+ a communication by means ( ! wires 7,fig4 #a471 betwe5 ! two ends ( ! batt]y3 ^! be+ br\ght into contact1 ! two electricities meet & neutralize ea* o!r1 produc+ ! %ock & o!r effects ( electricity2 & ! action goes on ) r5ew$ en]gy1 be+ no long] ob/ruct$ by ! accumulation ( ! two electricities :i* imp$$ its progress4 ,,emily4 ,is x ! union ( ! two electricities :i* produces ! electric sp>k8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 & x is1 ,i believe1 ?is circum/ance :i* gave rise to ,sir ,h4 ,davy's op9ion t caloric may be a comp\nd ( ! two electricities4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,yet surely caloric is v diff]5t f ! electrical sp>k8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! diff]5ce may consi/ probably only 9 int5sity3 = ! heat ( ! electric sp>k is consid]ably m int5se1 ?\gh conf9$ to a v m9ute spot1 ?an any heat we c produce by o!r means4 ,,emily4 ,is x q c]ta9 t ! electricity ( ! ,voltaic batt]y is precisely ( ! same nature z t ( ! common electrical ma*9e8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,und\bt$ly2 ! %ock giv5 to ! human body1 ! sp>k1 ! circum/ance ( ! same sub/ances :i* are conductors ( ! "o be+ also conductors ( ! o!r1 & ( ^? bodies1 su* z glass & seal+-wax1 :i* are non-conductors ( ! "o1 be+ also non-conductors ( ! o!r1 are /rik+ pro(s ( x4 ,besides1 ,sir ,h4 ,davy has %ewn 9 8 ,lectures1 t a ,leyd5 j>1 & a common electric batt]y1 c be *>g$ ) electricity obta9$ f a ,voltaic batt]y1 ! effect produc$ be+ p]fectly simil> to t obta9$ by a common ma*9e4 ,dr4 ,wolla/on has likewise prov$ t simil> *emical decompositions are effect$ by ! electric ma*9e & by ! ,voltaic batt]y2 & has made o!r exp]im5ts :i* r5d] x highly probable1 t ! orig9 ( bo? electricities is ess5tially ! same1 z !y %[ t ! rubb] ( ! common electrical ma*9e1 l ! z9c 9 ! ,voltaic batt]y1 produces ! two electricities by comb9+ ) oxyg54 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b ,i d n see :5ce ! rubb] obta9s oxyg51 = !re is nei!r acid nor wat] us$ 9 ! common ma*9e1 & ,i always und]/ood t ! electricity 0 excit$ by ! friction4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x appe>s t by friction ! rubb] obta9s oxyg5 f ! atmosph]e1 :i* is p>tly compos$ ( t elem5t4 ,! oxyg5 comb9es ) ! amalgam ( ! rubb]1 :i* is ( a metallic nature1 mu* 9 ! same way z ! oxyg5 ( ! acid comb9es ) ! z9c 9 ! ,voltaic batt]y1 & x is ?us t ! two electricities are dis5gag$4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b1 if ! electricities ( bo? ma*9es are simil>1 :y n use ! common ma*9e = *emical decompositions8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,?\gh its effects are simil> to ^? ( ! ,voltaic batt]y1 !y are incomp>ably weak]4 ,inde$ ,dr4 ,wolla/on1 9 us+ x = *emical decompositions1 0 oblig$ to act ^u ! mo/ m9ute quantities ( matt]1 & ?\gh ! result 0 satisfactory 9 prov+ ! simil>ity ( its effects to ^? ( ! ,voltaic batt]y1 ^! effects 7 too small 9 ext5t to be 9 any consid]able degree applicable to *emical decomposition4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,h[ t]rible1 !n1 ! %ock mu/ be f a ,voltaic batt]y1 s9ce x is s mu* m p[]ful ?an an electrical ma*9e6 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is n ne>ly s =midable z y ?9k2 at lea/ x is by no means proportional to ! *emical effect4 ,! great sup]iority ( ! ,voltaic batt]y consi/s 9 ! l>ge quantity ( electricity t passes2 b 9 reg>d to ! rapidity or int5sity ( ! *>ge1 x is greatly surpass$ by ! common electrical ma*9e4 ,x w\ld seem t ! %ock or s5sation dep5ds *iefly ^u ! int5sity2 :il/1 on ! contr>y1 = *emical purposes1 x is quantity :i* is requir$4 ,9 ! ,voltaic batt]y1 ! electricity1 ?\gh copi\s1 is s weak z n to be able to =ce its way ?r\gh ! fluid :i* sep>ates ! plates1 :il/ t ( a common ma*9e w pass ?r\gh any space ( wat]4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,w\ld n x be possible to increase ! int5sity ( ! ,voltaic batt]y till x %\ld equal t ( ! common ma*9e8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x c actually be increas$ till x imitates a weak electrical ma*9e1 s z to produce a visible sp>k :5 accumulat$ 9 a ,leyd5 j>4 ,b x c nev] be rais$ suffici5tly to pass ?r\gh any consid]able ext5t ( air1 because ( ! ready communication ?r\gh ! fluids employ$4 ,by increas+ ! numb] ( plates ( a batt]y1 y increase its int5sity1 :il/1 by enl>g+ ! dim5sions ( ! plates1 y augm5t its quantity2 &1 z ! sup]iority ( ! batt]y ov] ! common ma*9e consi/s entirely 9 ! quantity ( electricity produc$1 x 0 at fir/ suppos$ t x 0 ! size1 r ?an ! numb] ( plates t 0 ess5tial to ! augm5tation ( p[]4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 f\nd ^u trial1 t ! quantity ( electricity produc$ by ! ,voltaic batt]y1 ev5 :5 ( a v mod]ate size1 0 suffici5tly copi\s1 & t ! *ief advantage 9 ?is app>atus 0 obta9$ by increas+ ! int5sity1 :i*1 h[ev]1 /ill falls v %ort ( t ( ! common ma*9e4 ,i %\ld n omit to m5tion1 t a v spl5did1 &1 at ! same "t1 mo/ p[]ful batt]y1 01 a few ye>s ago1 con/ruct$ "u ! direction ( ,sir ,h4 ,davy1 :i* he repeat$ly exhibit$ 9 8 c\rse ( electro-*emical lectures4 ,x consi/s ( two ?\s& d\ble plates ( z9c & copp]1 ( six squ>e in*es 9 dim5sions1 arrang$ 9 tr\ghs ( ,w$gwood-w>e1 ea* ( :i* conta9s tw5ty ( ^! plates4 ,! tr\ghs are furni%$ ) a contrivance = lift+ ! plates out ( !m 9 a v conv5i5t & exp$iti\s mann]499 ,footnote 993 ,a model ( ?is mode ( con/ruction is exhibit$ 9 ,,plate ,,xiii4 ,fig4 #a4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,well1 n[ t we und]/& ! nature ( ! action ( ! ,voltaic batt]y1 ,i long to he> an acc\nt ( ! discov]ies to :i* x has giv5 rise4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y mu/ re/ra9 y\r impati5ce1 my de>1 = ,i _c ) any propriety introduce ! subject ( ^! discov]ies till we come to !m 9 ! regul> c\rse ( our /udies4 ,b1 z almo/ e sub/ance 9 nature has already be5 expos$ to ! influ5ce ( ! ,voltaic batt]y1 we %all v soon h occasion to notice its effects4 ,,conv]sation ,,vi4 ,,on ,,oxyg5 ,,& ,,nitrog54 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,to-day we %all exam9e ! *emical prop]ties ( ! ,,atmosph]e4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i ?\ght t we 7 fir/ to le>n ! nature ( ,,oxyg51 :i* come next 9 our table ( simple bodies8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,& s y %all2 ! atmosph]e be+ compos$ ( two pr9ciples1 ,,oxyg5 & ,,nitrog51 we %all proce$ to analyse x1 & consid] its compon5t p>ts sep>ately4 ,,emily4 ,i always ?\ght t ! atmosph]e _h be5 a v complicat$ fluid1 compos$ ( all ! v>iety ( exhalations f ! e>?4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,su* sub/ances may be consid]$ r z het]og5e\s & accid5tal1 ?an z =m+ any ( its compon5t p>ts2 & ! proportion !y be> to ! :ole mass is q inconsid]able4 ,,atmosph]ical ,,air is compos$ ( two gasses1 kn[n by ! names ( ,,oxyg5 ,,gas & ,,nitrog5 or ,,azotic ,,gas4 ,,emily4 ,pray :at is a gas8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! "n ( gas is giv5 to any fluid capable ( exi/+ con/antly 9 an a]i=m /ate1 "u ! pressure & at ! temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,is n wat]1 or any o!r sub/ance1 :5 evaporat$ by heat1 call$ gas8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no1 my de>2 vap\r is1 inde$1 an ela/ic fluid1 & be>s a /rong resemblance to a gas2 !re are1 h[ev]1 sev]al po9ts 9 :i* !y ess5tially diff]1 & by :i* y may always di/+ui% !m4 ,/eam1 or vap\r1 owes its ela/icity m]ely to a high temp]ature1 :i* is equal to t ( boil+ wat]4 ,& x diff]s f boil+ wat] only by be+ unit$ ) m caloric1 :i*1 z we be=e expla9$1 is 9 a lat5t /ate4 ,:5 /eam is cool$1 x in/antly returns to ! =m ( wat]2 b air1 or gas1 has nev] yet be5 r5d]$ liquid or solid by any degree ( cold4 ,,emily4 ,b does n gas1 z well z vap\r1 owe its ela/icity to caloric8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x 0 ! prevail+ op9ion2 & ! diff]5ce ( gas or vap\r 0 ?\ght to dep5d on ! diff]5t mann] 9 :i* caloric 0 unit$ ) ! basis ( ^! two k9ds ( ela/ic fluids4 ,9 vap\r1 x 0 consid]$ z 9 a lat5t /ate2 9 gas1 x 0 said to be *emically comb9$4 ,b ! late rese>*es ( ,sir ,h4 ,davy h giv5 rise to a new !ory respect+ gasses2 & !re is n[ reason to believe t ^! bodies owe _! p]man5tly ela/ic /ate1 n solely to caloric1 b likewise to ! preval5ce ( ei!r ! "o or ! o!r ( ! two electricities4 ,,emily4 ,:5 y speak1 !n1 ( ! simple bodies oxyg5 & nitrog51 y mean to express ^? sub/ances :i* are ! basis ( ! two gasses8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes1 9 /rict propriety1 = !y c prop]ly be call$ gasses only :5 br\ght to an a]i=m /ate4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,9 :at proportions are !y comb9$ 9 ! atmosph]e8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! oxyg5 gas con/itutes a little m ?an "o-fif?1 & ! nitrog5 gas a little less ?an f\r-fif?s4 ,:5 sep>at$1 !y are f\nd to possess qualities totally diff]5t f ea* o!r4 ,= oxyg5 gas is ess5tial bo? to respiration & combu/ion1 :ile nei!r ( ^! processes c be p]=m$ 9 nitrog5 gas4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b if nitrog5 gas is unfit = respiration1 h[ does x happ5 t ! l>ge proportion ( x :i* ent]s into ! composition ( ! atmosph]e is n a great imp$im5t to brea?+8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,we %\ld brea! m freely ?an our lungs c\ld be>1 if we respir$ oxyg5 gas alone4 ,! nitrog5 is no imp$im5t to respiration1 & probably1 on ! contr>y1 answ]s "s useful purpose1 ?\gh we d n "k 9 :at mann] x acts 9 t process4 ,,emily4 ,& by :at means c ! two gasses1 :i* compose ! atmosph]ic air1 be sep>at$8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,!re are _m ways ( analys+ ! atmosph]e3 ! two gasses may be sep>at$ fir/ by combu/ion4 ,,emily4 ,y surprise me6 h[ is x possible t combu/ion %\ld sep>ate !m8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i %\ld previ\sly rem9d y t oxyg5 is suppos$ to be ! only simple body naturally comb9$ ) negative electricity4 ,9 all ! o!r elem5ts ! positive electricity prevails1 & !y h consequ5tly1 all ( !m1 an attraction = oxyg5499 ,footnote 993 ,if *lor9e or oxymuriatic gas be a simple body1 accord+ to ,sir ,h4 ,davy's view ( ! subject1 x mu/ be consid]$ z an exception to ?is /atem5t2 b ?is subject _c be discuss$ till ! prop]ties & nature ( *lor9e come "u exam9ation4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,oxyg5 ! only negatively electrifi$ body6 t surprises me extremely2 h[ !n are ! comb9ations ( ! o!r bodies p]=m$1 if1 accord+ to y\r explanation ( *emical attraction1 bodies are suppos$ only to comb9e 9 virtue ( _! opposite /ates ( electricity8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,obs]ve t ,i said1 t oxyg5 0 ! only simple body1 naturally negative4 ,comp\nd bodies1 9 :i* oxyg5 prevails ov] ! o!r compon5t p>ts1 are also negative1 b _! negative en]gy is great] or less 9 proportion z ! oxyg5 pr$om9ates4 ,^? comp\nds into :i* oxyg5 ent]s 9 less proportion ?an ! o!r con/itu5ts1 are positive1 b _! positive en]gy is dim9i%$ 9 proportion to ! quantity ( oxyg5 :i* ent]s into _! composition4 ,all bodies1 !re=e1 t are n already comb9$ ) oxyg51 w attract x1 &1 "u c]ta9 circum/ances1 w absorb x f ! atmosph]e1 9 :i* case ! nitrog5 gas w rema9 alone1 & may ?us be obta9$ 9 its sep>ate /ate4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i d n und]/& h[ a gas c be absorb$8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is only ! oxyg51 or basis ( ! gas1 :i* is absorb$2 & ! two electricities escap+1 t is to say1 ! negative f ! oxyg51 ! positive f ! burn+ body1 unite & produce caloric4 ,,emily4 ,& :at becomes ( ?is caloric8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,we %all make ?is piece ( dry wood attract oxyg5 f ! atmosph]e1 & y w see :at becomes ( ! caloric4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,y are jok+1 ,mrs4 ,b--2 y d n mean to decompose ! atmosph]e ) a piece ( dry /ick8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,n ! :ole body ( ! atmosph]e1 c]ta9ly2 b if we c make ?is piece ( wood attract any quantity ( oxyg5 f x1 a proportional quantity ( atmosph]ical air w be decompos$4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,if wood has s /rong an attraction = oxyg51 :y does x n decompose ! atmosph]e spontane\sly8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is f\nd by exp]i5ce1 t an elevation ( temp]ature is requir$ = ! comm5cem5t ( ! union ( ! oxyg5 & ! wood4 ,?is elevation ( temp]ature 0 =m]ly ?\ght to be necess>y1 9 ord] to dim9i% ! cohesive attraction ( ! wood1 & enable ! oxyg5 to p5etrate & comb9e ) x m readily4 ,b s9ce ! introduction ( ! new !ory ( *emical comb9ation1 ano!r cause has be5 assign$1 & x is n[ suppos$ t ! high temp]ature1 by exalt+ ! electrical en]gies ( bodies1 & consequ5tly _! =ce ( attraction1 facilitates _! comb9ation4 ,,emily4 ,if x is true1 t caloric is compos$ ( ! two electricities1 an elevation ( temp]ature mu/ necess>ily augm5t ! electric en]gies ( bodies4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i d\bt :e!r t w\ld be a necess>y consequ5ce2 =1 admitt+ ?is composition ( caloric1 x is only by its be+ decompos$ t electricity c be produc$4 ,sir ,h4 ,davy1 h[ev]1 9 8 num]\s exp]im5ts1 has f\nd x to be an almo/ inv>iable rule t ! electrical en]gies ( bodies are increas$ by elevation ( temp]ature4 ,:at means !n %all we employ to raise ! temp]ature ( ! wood1 s z to enable x to attract oxyg5 f ! atmosph]e8 ,,c>ol9e4 ,hold+ x ne> ! fire1 ,i %\ld ?9k1 w\ld answ] ! purpose4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x may1 provid$ y hold x suffici5tly close to ! fire2 = a v consid]able elevation ( temp]ature is requir$4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,x has actually tak5 fire1 & yet ,i did n let x t\* ! coals1 b ,i held x s v close t ,i suppose x caught fire m]ely f ! int5sity ( ! heat4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,or y might say1 9 o!r words1 t ! caloric :i* ! wood imbib$1 s mu* elevat$ its temp]ature1 & exalt$ its electric en]gy1 z to enable x to attract oxyg5 v rapidly f ! atmosph]e4 ,,emily4 ,does ! wood absorb oxyg5 :ile x is burn+8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes1 & ! heat & light are produc$ by ! union ( ! two electricities :i* are set at lib]ty1 9 consequ5ce ( ! oxyg5 comb9+ ) ! wood4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,y a/oni% me6 ! heat ( a burn+ body proce$s !n z mu* f ! atmosph]e z f ! body itself8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x 0 suppos$ t ! caloric1 giv5 out dur+ combu/ion1 proce$$ entirely1 or ne>ly s1 f ! decomposition ( ! oxyg5 gas2 b1 accord+ to ,sir ,h4 ,davy's new view ( ! subject1 bo? ! oxyg5 gas1 & ! combu/ible body1 concur 9 supply+ ! heat & light1 by ! union ( _! opposite electricities4 ,,emily4 ,i h n yet met ) any ?+ 9 *emi/ry t has surpris$ or delight$ me s mu* z ?is explanation ( combu/ion4 ,i 0 at fir/ wond]+ :at connection !re c\ld be betwe5 ! aff9ity ( a body = oxyg5 & its combu/ibility2 b ,i ?9k ,i und]/& x n[ p]fectly4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,combu/ion !n1 y see1 is no?+ m ?an ! rapid comb9ation ( a body ) oxyg51 att5d$ by ! dis5gagem5t ( light & heat4 ,,emily4 ,b are !re no combu/ible bodies ^: attraction = oxyg5 is s /rong1 t !y w comb9e ) x1 )\t ! application ( heat8 ,,c>ol9e4 ,t _c be2 o!rwise we %\ld see bodies burn+ spontane\sly4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,b !re are "s in/ances ( ?is k9d1 su* z phosphorus1 potassium1 & "s comp\nd bodies1 :i* ,i %all h]eaft] make y acqua9t$ )4 ,^! bodies1 h[ev]1 are prep>$ by art1 = 9 g5]al1 all ! combu/ions t c\ld occur spontane\sly1 at ! temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e1 h already tak5 place2 !re=e new combu/ions _c happ5 )\t ! temp]ature ( ! body be+ rais$4 ,"s bodies1 h[ev]1 w burn at a mu* l[] temp]ature ?an o!rs4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b ! common way ( burn+ a body is n m]ely to approa* x to "o already on fire1 b r to put ! "o 9 actual contact ) ! o!r1 z :5 ,i burn ?is piece ( pap] by hold+ x 9 ! flame ( ! fire4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! clos] x is 9 contact ) ! s\rce ( caloric1 ! soon] w its temp]ature be rais$ to ! degree necess>y = x to burn4 ,if y hold x ne> ! fire1 ! same effect w be produc$2 b m "t w be requir$1 z y f\nd to be ! case ) ! piece ( /ick4 ,,emily4 ,b :y is x n necess>y to cont9ue apply+ caloric ?r\gh\t ! process ( combu/ion1 9 ord] to keep up ! electric en]gy ( ! wood1 :i* is requir$ to enable x to comb9e ) ! oxyg58 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! caloric :i* is gradually produc$ by ! two electricities dur+ combu/ion1 keeps up ! temp]ature ( ! burn+ body2 s t :5 once combu/ion has begun1 no fur!r application ( caloric is requir$4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,s9ce ,i h le>nt ?is wond]ful !ory ( combu/ion1 ,i _c take my eyes f ! fire2 & ,i c sc>cely conceive t ! heat & light1 :i* ,i always suppos$ to proce$ entirely f ! coals1 are really produc$ z mu* by ! atmosph]e4 ,,emily4 ,:5 y bl[ ! fire1 y increase ! combu/ion1 ,i suppose1 by supply+ ! coals ) a great] quantity ( oxyg5 gas8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,c]ta9ly2 b ( c\rse no bl[+ w produce combu/ion1 unless ! temp]ature ( ! coals be fir/ rais$4 ,a s+le sp>k1 h[ev]1 is sometimes suffici5t to produce t effect2 =1 z ,i said be=e1 :5 once combu/ion has comm5c$1 ! caloric dis5gag$ is suffici5t to elevate ! temp]ature ( ! re/ ( ! body1 provid$ t !re be a free access ( oxyg54 ,x h[ev] sometimes happ5s t if a fire be ill made1 x w be ext+ui%$ be=e all ! fuel is consum$1 f ! v circum/ance ( ! combu/ion be+ s sl[ t ! caloric dis5gag$ is insuffici5t to keep up ! temp]ature ( ! fuel4 ,y mu/ recollect t !re are ?ree ?+s requir$ 9 ord] to produce combu/ion2 a combu/ible body1 oxyg51 & a temp]ature at :i* ! "o w comb9e ) ! o!r4 ,,emily4 ,y said t combu/ion 0 "o me?od ( decompos+ ! atmosph]e1 & obta9+ ! nitrog5 gas 9 its simple /ate2 b h[ d y secure ?is gas1 & prev5t x f mix+ ) ! re/ ( ! atmosph]e8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is necess>y = ?is purpose to burn ! body )9 a close vessel1 :i* is easily done4 --,we %all introduce a small light$ tap] 7,,plate ,,vii4 ,fig4 #a47 "u ?is glass receiv]1 :i* /&s 9 a bason ov] wat]1 to prev5t all communication ) ! ext]nal air4 ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,,vii4 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #aha4 ,fig4 #a4 ,combu/ion ( a tap] "u a receiv]4 ,fig4 #b4 ,a ,retort on a /&4 ,fig4 #c4 ,prep>ation ( oxyg5 gas4 ,a ,furnace4 ,b ,e>!n ,retort 9 ! furnace4 ,c ,wat] ba?4 ,d ,receiv]4 ,e4,e ,tube convey+ ! gas f ! ,retort ?r\gh ! wat] into ! ,receiv]4 ,f4,f4,f ,%elf p]=at$ on :i* ! ,receiv] /&s4 ,fig4 #d4 ,combu/ion ( iron wire 9 oxyg5 gas4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,h[ dim ! light burns already6 --,x is n[ ext+ui%$4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,c y tell u :y x is ext+ui%$8 ,,c>ol9e4 ,let me consid]4 --,! receiv] 0 full ( atmosph]ical air2 ! tap]1 9 burn+ )9 x1 mu/ h comb9$ ) ! oxyg5 conta9$ 9 t air1 & ! caloric t 0 dis5gag$ produc$ ! light ( ! tap]4 ,b :5 ! :ole ( ! oxyg5 0 absorb$1 ! :ole ( its electricity 0 dis5gag$2 consequ5tly no m caloric c\ld be produc$1 ! tap] ceas$ to burn1 & ! flame 0 ext+ui%$4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y\r explanation is p]fectly correct4 ,,emily4 ,! two con/itu5ts ( ! oxyg5 gas be+ ?us dispos$ (1 :at rema9s "u ! receiv] mu/ be pure nitrog5 gas8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,!re are "s circum/ances :i* prev5t ! nitrog5 gas1 ?us obta9$1 f be+ p]fectly pure2 b we may easily try :e!r ! oxyg5 has disappe>$1 by putt+ ano!r light$ tap] "u x4 --,y see h[ in/antane\sly ! flame is ext+ui%$1 = want ( oxyg5 to supply ! negative electricity requir$ = ! =mation ( caloric2 & 7 y to put an animal "u ! receiv]1 x w\ld imm$iately be suffocat$4 ,b t is an exp]im5t :i* ,i d n ?9k y\r curiosity w tempt y to try4 ,,emily4 ,c]ta9ly n4 --,b look1 ,mrs4 ,b41 ! receiv] is full ( a ?ick :ite smoke4 ,is t nitrog5 gas8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no1 my de>2 nitrog5 gas is p]fectly transp>5t & invisible1 l common air4 ,?is cl\d9ess proce$s f a v>iety ( exhalations1 :i* arise f ! burn+ tap]1 & ! nature ( :i* y _c yet und]/&4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,! wat] )9 ! receiv] has n[ ris5 a little above its level 9 ! bason4 ,:at is ! reason ( ?is8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,) a mom5t's reflection1 ,i d>e say1 y w\ld h expla9$ x y\rself4 ,! wat] rises 9 consequ5ce ( ! oxyg5 gas )9 x hav+ be5 de/roy$1 or r decompos$1 by ! combu/ion ( ! tap]4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,!n :y did n ! wat] rise imm$iately :5 ! oxyg5 gas 0 de/roy$8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,because ! heat ( ! tap]1 :il/ burn+1 produc$ a dilatation ( ! air 9 ! vessel1 :i* at fir/ c\nt]act$ ?is effect4 ,ano!r means ( decompos+ ! atmosph]e is ! oxyg5ation ( c]ta9 metals4 ,?is process is v analog\s to combu/ion2 x is1 inde$1 only a m g5]al t]m to express ! comb9ation ( a body ) oxyg54 ,,c>ol9e4 ,9 :at respect1 !n1 does x diff] f combu/ion8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! comb9ation ( oxyg5 9 combu/ion is always accompani$ by a dis5gagem5t ( light & heat2 :il/ ?is circum/ance is n a necess>y consequ5ce ( simple oxyg5ation4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b h[ c a body absorb oxyg5 )\t ! comb9ation ( ! two electricities :i* produce caloric8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,oxyg5 does n always pres5t itself 9 a gase\s /ate2 x is a con/itu5t "p ( a va/ numb] ( bodies1 bo? solid & liquid1 9 :i* x exi/s 9 a mu* d5s] /ate ?an 9 ! atmosph]e2 & f ^! bodies x may be obta9$ )\t mu* dis5gagem5t ( caloric4 ,x may likewise1 9 "s cases1 be absorb$ f ! atmosph]e )\t any s5sible production ( light & heat2 =1 if ! process be sl[1 ! caloric is dis5gag$ 9 su* small quantities1 & s gradually1 t x is n capable ( produc+ ei!r light or heat4 ,9 ?is case ! absorption ( oxyg5 is call$ oxyg5ation or oxydation1 in/ead ( combu/ion1 z ! production ( s5sible light & heat is ess5tial to ! latt]4 ,,emily4 ,i wond] t metals c unite ) oxyg52 =1 z !y are s d5se1 _! attraction ( aggregation mu/ be v great2 & ,i %\ld h ?\ght t oxyg5 c\ld nev] h p5etrat$ su* bodies4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,_! /rong attraction = oxyg5 c\nt]balances ?is ob/acle4 ,mo/ metals1 h[ev]1 require to be made r$-hot be=e !y are capable ( attract+ oxyg5 9 any consid]able quantity4 ,by ?is comb9ation !y lose mo/ ( _! metallic prop]ties1 & fall into a k9d ( p[d]1 =m]ly call$ calx1 b n[ mu* m prop]ly t]m$ an oxyd2 ?us we h oxyd ( lead1 oxyd ( iron1 c4 ,,emily4 ,& 9 ! ,voltaic batt]y1 x is1 ,i suppose1 an oxyd ( z9c1 t is =m$ by ! union ( ! oxyg5 ) t metal8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes1 x is4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,! ^w oxyd1 !n1 simply means a metal comb9$ ) oxyg58 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 b ! t]m is n conf9$ to metals1 ?\gh *iefly appli$ to !m4 ,any body :atev]1 t has comb9$ ) a c]ta9 quantity ( oxyg51 ei!r by means ( oxydation or combu/ion1 is call$ an oxyd1 & is said to be oxydat$ or oxyg5at$4 ,,emily4 ,metals1 :5 conv]t$ into oxyds1 become1 ,i suppose1 negative8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,n 9 g5]al2 because 9 mo/ oxyds ! positive en]gy ( ! metal m ?an c\nt]balances ! native en]gy ( ! oxyg5 ) :i* x comb9es4 ,?is black p[d] is an oxyd ( manganese1 a metal :i* has s /rong an aff9ity = oxyg51 t x attracts t sub/ance f ! atmosph]e at any kn[n temp]ature3 x is !re=e nev] f\nd 9 its metallic =m1 b always 9 t ( an oxyd1 9 :i* /ate1 y see1 x has v little ( ! appe>ance ( a metal4 ,x is n[ heavi] ?an x 0 be=e oxydation1 9 consequ5ce ( ! additional weight ( ! oxyg5 ) :i* x has comb9$4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i am v glad to he> t2 = ,i confess ,i c\ld n help hav+ "s d\bts :e!r oxyg5 0 really a sub/ance1 z x is n to be obta9$ 9 a simple & palpable /ate2 b its weight is1 ,i ?9k1 a decisive pro( ( its be+ a real body4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is easy to e/imate its weight1 by sep>at+ x f ! manganese1 & f9d+ h[ mu* ! latt] has lo/4 ,,emily4 ,b if y c take ! oxyg5 f ! metal1 %all we n !n h x 9 its palpable simple /ate8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no2 = ,i c only sep>ate ! oxyg5 f ! manganese1 by pres5t+ to x "s o!r body1 = :i* x has a great] aff9ity ?an = ! manganese4 ,caloric af=d+ ! two electricities is decompos$1 & "o ( !m unit+ ) ! oxyg51 re/ores x to ! ari=m /ate4 ,,emily4 ,b y said j n[1 t manganese w\ld attract oxyg5 f ! atmosph]e 9 :i* x is comb9$ ) ! negative electricity2 h[1 !re=e1 c ! oxyg5 h a sup]ior aff9ity = t electricity1 s9ce x ab&ons x to comb9e ) ! manganese8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i give y cr$it = ?is objection1 ,emily2 & ! only answ] ,i c make to x is1 t ! mutual aff9ities ( metals = oxyg51 & ( oxyg5 = electricity1 v>y at diff]5t temp]atures2 a c]ta9 degree ( heat w1 !re=e1 dispose a metal to comb9e ) oxyg51 :il/1 on ! contr>y1 ! =m] w be compell$ to "p ) ! latt]1 :5 ! temp]ature is fur!r increas$4 ,i h put "s oxyd ( manganese into a retort1 :i* is an e>!n vessel ) a b5t neck1 su* z y see "h4 7,,plate ,,vii4 ,fig4 #b47 --,! retort conta9+ ! manganese y _c see1 z ,i h enclos$ x 9 ?is furnace1 :]e x is n[ r$-hot4 ,b1 9 ord] to make y s5sible ( ! escape ( ! gas1 :i* is itself invisible1 ,i h connect$ ! neck ( ! retort ) ?is b5t tube1 ! extremity ( :i* is imm]s$ 9 ?is vessel ( wat]4 7,,plate ,,vii4 ,fig4 #c47 --,d y see ! bubbles ( air rise ?r\gh ! wat]8 ,,c>ol9e4 ,p]fectly4 ,?is1 !n1 is pure oxyg5 gas2 :at a pity x %\ld be lo/6 ,c\ld y n pres]ve x8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,we %all collect x 9 ?is receiv]4 --,= ?is purpose1 y obs]ve1 ,i fir/ fill x ) wat]1 9 ord] to exclude ! atmosph]ical air2 & !n place x ov] ! bubbles t issue f ! retort1 s z to make !m rise ?r\gh ! wat] to ! upp] "p ( ! receiv]4 ,,emily4 ,! bubbles ( oxyg5 gas rise1 ,i suppose1 f _! specific levity8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 = ?\gh oxyg5 =ms r a heavy gas1 x is light comp>$ to wat]4 ,y see h[ x gradually displaces ! wat] f ! receiv]4 ,x is n[ full ( gas1 & ,i may leave x inv]t$ 9 wat] on ?is %elf1 :]e ,i c keep ! gas z long z ,i *oose1 = future exp]im5ts4 ,?is app>atus 7:i* is indisp5sable 9 all exp]im5ts 9 :i* gases are conc]n$7 is call$ a wat]-ba?4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,x is a v clev] contrivance1 inde$2 equally simple & useful4 ,h[ conv5i5t ! %elf is = ! receiv] to re/ ^u "u wat]1 & ! holes 9 x = ! gas to pass into ! receiv]6 ,i long to make "s exp]im5ts ) ?is app>atus4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i %all try y\r skill t way1 :5 y h a little m exp]i5ce4 ,i am n[ go+ to %[ y an exp]im5t1 :i* proves1 9 a v /rik+ mann]1 h[ ess5tial oxyg5 is to combu/ion4 ,y w see t iron itself w burn 9 ?is gas1 9 ! mo/ rapid & brilliant mann]4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,really6 ,i did n "k t x 0 possible to burn iron4 ,,emily4 ,iron is a simple body1 & y "k1 ,c>ol9e1 t all simple bodies are naturally positive1 & !re=e mu/ h an aff9ity = oxyg54 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,iron w1 h[ev]1 n burn 9 atmosph]ical air )\t a v great elevation ( temp]ature2 b x is em95tly combu/ible 9 pure oxyg5 gas2 & :at w surprise y /ill m1 x c be set on fire )\t any consid]able rise ( temp]ature4 ,y see ?is spiral iron wire--,i fa/5 x at "o end to ?is cork1 :i* is made to fit an op5+ at ! top ( ! glass-receiv]4 7,,plate ,,vii4 ,fig4 #d47 ,,emily4 ,i see ! op5+ 9 ! receiv]2 b x is c>efully clos$ by a gr\nd glass-/opp]4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t is 9 ord] to prev5t ! gas f escap+2 b ,i %all take out ! /opp]1 & put 9 ! cork1 to :i* ! wire hangs4 --,n[ ,i mean to burn ?is wire 9 ! oxyg5 gas1 b ,i mu/ fix a small piece ( light$ t9d] to ! extremity ( x1 9 ord] to give ! fir/ impulse to combu/ion2 =1 h[ev] p[]ful oxyg5 is 9 promot+ combu/ion1 y mu/ recollect t x _c take place )\t "s elevation ( temp]ature4 ,i %all n[ introduce ! wire into ! receiv]1 by quickly *ang+ ! /opp]s4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,is !re no dang] ( ! gas escap+ :ile y *ange ! /opp]s8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,oxyg5 gas is a little heavi] ?an atmosph]ical air1 !re=e x w n mix ) x v rapidly2 &1 if ,i d n leave ! op5+ uncov]$1 we %all n lose any---- ,,c>ol9e4 ,oh1 :at a brilliant & beautiful flame6 ,,emily4 ,x is z :ite & dazzl+ z ! sun6 --,n[ a piece ( ! melt$ wire drops to ! bottom3 ,i fe> x is ext+ui%$2 b no1 x burns aga9 z bright z ev]4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x w burn till ! wire is entirely consum$1 provid$ ! oxyg5 is n fir/ exp5d$3 = y "k x c burn only :ile !re is oxyg5 to comb9e ) x4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i nev] saw a m beautiful light4 ,my eyes c h>dly be> x6 ,h[ a/oni%+ to ?9k t all ?is caloric 0 conta9$ 9 ! small quantity ( gas & iron t 0 enclos$ 9 ! receiv]2 & t1 )\t produc+ any s5sible heat6 ,,c>ol9e4 ,h[ wond]fully quick combu/ion goes on 9 pure oxyg5 gas6 ,b pray1 are ^! drops ( burnt iron z heavy z ! wire 0 be=e8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,!y are ev5 heavi]2 = ! iron1 9 burn+1 has acquir$ exactly ! weight ( ! oxyg5 :i* has disappe>$1 & is n[ comb9$ ) x4 ,x has become an oxyd ( iron4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i d n "k :at y mean by say+ t ! oxyg5 has disappe>$1 ,mrs4 ,b41 = x 0 always invisible4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,true1 my de>2 ! expression 0 incorrect4 ,b ?\gh y c\ld n see ! oxyg5 gas1 ,i believe y _h no d\bt ( its pres5ce1 z ! effect x produc$ on ! wire 0 suffici5tly evid5t4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,yes1 inde$2 yet y "k x 0 ! caloric1 & n ! oxyg5 gas itself1 t dazzl$ u s mu*4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y are n q correct 9 y\r turn1 9 say+ ! caloric dazzl$ y2 = caloric is invisible2 x affects only ! s5se ( feel+2 x 0 ! light :i* dazzl$ y4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,true2 b light & caloric are su* con/ant companions1 t x is difficult to sep>ate !m1 ev5 9 idea4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! easi] x is to conf\nd !m1 ! m c>eful y %\ld be 9 mak+ ! di/9ction4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b :y has ! wat] n[ ris51 & fill$ "p ( ! receiv]8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,inde$1 ,c>ol9e1 ,i did n suppose y w\ld h ask$ su* a "q6 ,i d>e say1 ,emily1 y c answ] x4 ,,emily4 ,let me reflect 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,! oxyg5 has comb9$ ) ! wire2 ! caloric has escap$2 consequ5tly no?+ c rema9 9 ! receiv]1 & ! wat] w rise to fill ! vacuum4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i wond] t ,i did n ?9k ( t4 ,i wi% t we _h weigh$ ! wire & ! oxyg5 gas be=e combu/ion2 we might !n h f\nd :e!r ! weight ( ! oxyd 0 equal to t ( bo?4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y might try ! exp]im5t if y p>ticul>ly wi%$ x2 b ,i c assure y1 t1 if accurately p]=m$1 x nev] fails to %[ t ! additional weight ( ! oxyd is precisely equal to t ( ! oxyg5 absorb$1 :e!r ! process has be5 a real combu/ion1 or a simple oxyg5ation4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b ?is _c be ! case ) combu/ions 9 g5]al2 = :5 any sub/ance is burnt 9 ! common air1 s f> f increas+ 9 weight1 x is evid5tly dim9i%$1 & sometimes entirely consum$4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,b :at d y mean by ! expression consum$8 ,y _c suppose t ! smalle/ p>ticle ( any sub/ance 9 nature c be actually de/roy$4 ,a comp\nd body is decompos$ by combu/ion2 "s ( its con/itu5t p>ts fly (f 9 a gase\s =m1 :ile o!rs rema9 9 a concrete /ate2 ! =m] are call$ ! volatile1 ! latt] ! fix$ products ( combu/ion4 ,b if we collect ! :ole ( !m1 we %all always f9d t !y exce$ ! weight ( ! combu/ible body1 by t ( ! oxyg5 :i* has comb9$ ) !m dur+ combu/ion4 ,,emily4 ,9 ! combu/ion ( a coal fire1 !n1 ,i suppose t ! a%es are :at w\ld be call$ ! fix$ product1 & ! smoke ! volatile product8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yet :5 ! fire burns be/1 & ! quantity ( volatile products %\ld be ! greate/1 !re is no smoke2 h[ c y acc\nt = t8 ,,emily4 ,inde$ ,i _c2 !re=e ,i suppose t ,i 0 n "r 9 my conjecture4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,n q3 a%es1 z y suppos$1 are a fix$ product ( combu/ion2 b smoke1 prop]ly speak+1 is n "o ( ! volatile products1 z x consi/s ( "s m9ute undecompos$ p>ticles ( ! coals t are c>ri$ (f by ! heat$ air )\t be+ burnt1 & are ei!r deposit$ 9 ! =m ( soot1 or disp]s$ by ! w9d4 ,smoke1 !re=e1 ultimately1 becomes "o ( ! fix$ products ( combu/ion4 ,& y may easily conceive t ! /rong] ! fire is1 ! less smoke is produc$1 because ! few] p>ticles escape combu/ion4 ,on ?is pr9ciple dep5ds ! inv5tion ( ,arg&'s ,pat5t ,lamps2 a curr5t ( air is made to pass ?r\gh ! cyl9drical wick ( ! lamp1 by :i* means x is s pl5tifully suppli$ ) oxyg51 t sc>cely a p>ticle ( oil escapes combu/ion1 nor is !re any smoke produc$4 ,,emily4 ,b :at !n are ! volatile products ( combu/ion8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,v>i\s new comp\nds1 ) :i* y are n yet acqua9t$1 & :i* be+ conv]t$ by caloric ei!r into vap\r or gas1 are invisible2 b !y c be collect$1 & we %all exam9e !m at "s future p]iod4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,!re are !n o!r gases1 besides ! oxyg5 & nitrog5 gases4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes1 sev]al3 any sub/ance t c assume & ma9ta9 ! =m ( an ela/ic fluid at ! temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e1 is call$ a gas4 ,we %all exam9e ! sev]al gases 9 _! respective places2 b we mu/ n[ conf9e our att5tion to ^? t compose ! atmosph]e4 ,i %all %[ y ano!r me?od ( decompos+ ! atmosph]e1 :i* is v simple4 ,9 brea?+1 we reta9 a portion ( ! oxyg51 & expire ! nitrog5 gas2 s t if we brea! 9 a clos$ vessel1 = a c]ta9 l5g? ( "t1 ! air )9 x w be depriv$ ( its oxyg5 gas4 ,:i* ( y w make ! exp]im5t8 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i %\ld be v glad to try x4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,v well2 brea! sev]al times ?r\gh ?is glass tube into ! receiv] ) :i* x is connect$1 until y feel t y\r brea? is exhau/$4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i am q out ( brea? already6 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,n[ let u try ! gas ) a light$ tap]4 ,,emily4 ,x is v pure nitrog5 gas1 = ! tap] is imm$iately ext+ui%$4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t is n a pro( ( its be+ pure1 b only ( ! abs5ce ( oxyg51 z x is t pr9ciple alone :i* c produce combu/ion1 e o!r gas be+ absolutely incapable ( x4 ,,emily4 ,9 ! me?ods :i* y h %[n u1 = decompos+ ! atmosph]e1 ! oxyg5 always ab&ons ! nitrog52 b is !re no way ( tak+ ! nitrog5 f ! oxyg51 s z to obta9 ! latt] pure f ! atmosph]e8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y mu/ obs]ve1 t :5ev] oxyg5 is tak5 f ! atmosph]e1 x is by decompos+ ! oxyg5 gas2 we _c d ! same ) ! nitrog5 gas1 because nitrog5 has a /rong] aff9ity = caloric ?an = any o!r kn[n pr9ciple3 x appe>s impossible !re=e to sep>ate x f ! atmosph]e by ! p[] ( aff9ities4 ,b if we _c obta9 ! oxyg5 gas1 by ?is means1 9 its sep>ate /ate1 we h no difficulty 7z y h se57 to procure x 9 its gase\s =m1 by tak+ x f ^? sub/ances t h absorb$ x f ! atmosph]e1 z we did ) ! oxyd ( manganese4 ,,emily4 ,c atmosph]ical air be recompos$1 by mix+ due proportions ( oxyg5 & nitrog5 gases8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes3 if ab\t "o "p ( oxyg5 gas be mix$ ) ab\t f\r p>ts ( nitrog5 gas1 atmosph]ical air is produc$499 ,footnote 993 ,! proportion ( oxyg5 9 ! atmosph]e v>ies f #ba to #bb p] c5t4 ,,emily4 ,! air1 !n1 mu/ be an oxyd ( nitrog58 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no1 my de>2 = !re mu/ be a *emical comb9ation betwe5 oxyg5 & nitrog5 9 ord] to produce an oxyd2 :il/ 9 ! atmosph]e ^! two sub/ances are sep>ately comb9$ ) caloric1 =m+ two di/9ct gases1 :i* are simply mix$ 9 ! =mation ( ! atmosph]e4 ,i %all say no?+ m ( oxyg5 & nitrog5 at pres5t1 z we %all cont9ually h occasion to ref] to !m 9 our future conv]sations4 ,!y are bo? v abundant 9 nature2 nitrog5 is ! mo/ pl5tiful 9 ! atmosph]e1 & exi/s also 9 all animal sub/ances2 oxyg5 =ms a con/itu5t "p1 bo? ( ! animal & vegetable k+doms1 f :i* x may be obta9$ by a v>iety ( *emical means4 ,b x is n[ "t to conclude our lesson4 ,i am afraid y h le>nt m to-day ?an y w be able to rememb]4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i assure y t ,i h be5 too mu* int]e/$ 9 x1 ev] to =get x4 ,9 reg>d to nitrog5 !re seems to be b little to rememb]2 x makes a v insignificant figure 9 comp>ison to oxyg51 al?\gh x composes a mu* l>g] portion ( ! atmosph]e4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,p]haps ?is insignificance y compla9 ( may arise f ! comp\nd nature ( nitrog51 = ?\gh ,i h hi!rto consid]$ x z a simple body1 because x is n kn[n 9 any natural process to be decompos$1 yet f "s exp]im5ts ( ,sir ,h4 ,davy1 !re appe>s to be reason = suspect+ t nitrog5 is a comp\nd body1 z we %all see aft]w>ds4 ,b ev5 9 its simple /ate1 x w n appe> s insignificant :5 y are bett] acqua9t$ ) x2 = ?\gh x seems to p]=m b a passive "p 9 ! atmosph]e1 & has no v /rik+ prop]ties1 :5 consid]$ 9 its sep>ate /ate1 yet y w see by-&-bye :at a v important ag5t x becomes1 :5 comb9$ ) o!r bodies4 ,b no m ( ?is at pres5t2 we mu/ res]ve x = its prop] place4 ,,conv]sation ,,vii4 ,,on ,,hydrog54 ,,c>ol9e4 ,! next simple bodies we come to are ,,*lor9e & ,,iod9e4 ,pray :at k9ds ( sub/ances are ^!2 are !y also invisible8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no2 = *lor9e1 9 ! /ate ( gas1 has a di/9ct gre5i% col\r1 & is !re=e visible2 & iod9e1 9 ! same /ate1 has a beautiful cl>et-r$ col\r4 ,! k ( ^! two bodies1 h[ev]1 & ! explanation ( _! prop]ties1 imply v>i\s consid]ations1 :i* y w\ld n yet be able to und]/&2 we %all !re=e def] _! exam9ation to "s future conv]sation1 & we %all pass on to ! next simple sub/ance1 ,,hydrog51 :i* we _c1 any m ?an oxyg51 obta9 9 a visible or palpable =m4 ,we are acqua9t$ ) x only 9 its gase\s /ate1 z we are ) oxyg5 & nitrog54 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b 9 its gase\s /ate x _c be call$ a simple sub/ance1 s9ce x is comb9$ ) heat & electricity8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,true1 my de>2 b z we d n "k 9 nature ( any sub/ance :i* is n m or less comb9$ ) caloric & electricity1 we are apt to say t a sub/ance is 9 its pure /ate :5 comb9$ ) ^? ag5ts only4 ,hydrog5 0 =m]ly call$ inflammable air1 z x is extremely combu/ible1 & burns ) a great flame4 ,s9ce ! inv5tion ( ! new nom5clature1 x has obta9$ ! "n ( hydrog51 :i* is d]iv$ f two ,greek words1 ! mean+ ( :i* is1 to produce wat]4 ,,emily4 ,& h[ does hydrog5 produce wat]8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,by its combu/ion4 ,wat] is compos$ ( eighty-five p>ts1 by weight1 ( oxyg51 comb9$ ) fifte5 p>ts ( hydrog52 or ( two p>ts1 by bulk ( hydrog5 gas1 to "o "p ( oxyg5 gas4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,really6 is x possible t wat] %\ld be a comb9ation ( two gases1 & t "o ( ^! %\ld be inflammable air6 ,hydrog5 mu/ be a mo/ extraord9>y gas t w produce bo? fire & wat]4 ,,emily4 ,b ,i ?\ght y said t combu/ion c\ld take place 9 no gas b oxyg58 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,d y recollect :at ! process ( combu/ion consi/s 98 ,,emily4 ,9 ! comb9ation ( a body ) oxyg51 ) dis5gagem5t ( light & heat4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,!re=e :5 ,i say t hydrog5 is combu/ible1 ,i mean t x has an aff9ity = oxyg52 b1 l all o!r combu/ible sub/ances1 x _c burn unless suppli$ ) oxyg51 & also heat$ to a prop] temp]ature4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,! simply mix+ fifte5 p>ts ( hydrog51 ) eighty-five p>ts ( oxyg5 gas1 w n1 !re=e1 produce wat]8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no2 wat] be+ a mu* d5s] fluid ?an gases1 9 ord] to r$uce ^! gases to a liquid1 x is necess>y to dim9i% ! quantity ( caloric or electricity :i* ma9ta9s !m 9 an ela/ic =m4 ,,emily4 ,t ,i %\ld ?9k might be done by comb9+ ! oxyg5 & hydrog5 toge!r2 = 9 comb9+ !y w\ld give out _! respective electricities 9 ! =m ( caloric1 & by ?is means w\ld be cond5s$4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b y =get1 ,emily1 t 9 ord] to make ! oxyg5 & hydrog5 comb9e1 y mu/ beg9 by elevat+ _! temp]ature1 :i* increases1 in/ead ( dim9i%+1 _! electric en]gies4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,emily is1 h[ev]1 "r2 = ?\gh x is necess>y to raise _! temp]ature1 9 ord] to make !m comb9e1 z t comb9ation af=ds !m ! means ( p>t+ ) _! electricities1 x is ev5tually ! cause ( ! dim9ution ( electric en]gy4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,y love to deal 9 p>adoxes to-day1 ,mrs4 ,b4 --,fire1 !n1 produces wat]8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! combu/ion ( hydrog5 gas c]ta9ly does2 b y d n seem to h rememb]$ ! !ory ( combu/ion s well z y ?\ght y w\ld4 ,c y tell me :at happ5s 9 ! combu/ion ( hydrog5 gas8 ,,c>ol9e4 ,! hydrog5 comb9es ) ! oxyg51 & _! opposite electricities are dis5gag$ 9 ! =m ( caloric4 --,yes1 ,i ?9k ,i und]/& x n[--by ! loss ( ?is caloric1 ! gases are cond5s$ into a liquid4 ,,emily4 ,wat]1 !n1 ,i suppose1 :5 x evaporates & incorporates ) ! atmosph]e1 is decompos$ & conv]t$ into hydrog5 & oxyg5 gases8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no1 my de>--!re y are q mi/ak53 ! decomposition ( wat] is totally diff]5t f its evaporation2 = 9 ! latt] case 7z y %\ld recollect7 wat] is only 9 a /ate ( v m9ute division2 & is m]ely susp5d$ 9 ! atmosph]e1 )\t any *emical comb9ation1 & )\t any sep>ation ( its con/itu5t p>ts4 ,z long z ^! rema9 comb9$1 !y =m ,,wat]1 :e!r 9 a /ate ( liquidity1 or 9 t ( an ela/ic fluid1 z vap\r1 or "u ! solid =m ( ice4 ,9 our exp]im5ts on lat5t heat1 y may recollect t we caus$ wat] successively to pass ?r\gh ^! ?ree =ms1 m]ely by an increase or dim9ution ( caloric1 )\t employ+ any p[] ( attraction1 or effect+ any decomposition4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b are !re no means ( decompos+ wat]8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes1 sev]al3 *>coal1 & metals1 :5 heat$ r$ hot1 w attract ! oxyg5 f wat]1 9 ! same mann] z !y w f ! atmosph]e4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,hydrog51 ,i see1 is l nitrog51 a poor dep5dant fri5d ( oxyg51 :i* is cont9ually =sak5 = great] fav\rites4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! connection1 or fri5d%ip1 z y *oose to call x1 is mu* m intimate betwe5 oxyg5 & hydrog51 9 ! /ate ( wat]1 ?an betwe5 oxyg5 & nitrog51 9 ! atmosph]e2 =1 9 ! fir/ case1 !re is a *emical union & cond5sation ( ! two sub/ances2 9 ! latt]1 !y are simply mix$ toge!r 9 _! gase\s /ate4 ,y w f9d1 h[ev]1 t1 9 "s cases1 nitrog5 is q z intimately connect$ ) oxyg51 z hydrog5 is4 --,b ?is is =eign to our pres5t subject4 ,,emily4 ,wat]1 !n1 is an oxyd1 ?\gh ! atmosph]ical air is n8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is n commonly call$ an oxyd1 ?\gh1 accord+ to our def9ition1 x may1 no d\bt1 be ref]r$ to t class ( bodies4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i %\ld l extremely to see wat] decompos$4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i c gratify y\r curiosity by a mu* m easy process ?an ! oxydation ( *>coal or metals3 ! decomposition ( wat] by ^! latt] means takes up a great deal ( "t1 & is att5d$ ) mu* tr\ble2 = x is necess>y t ! *>coal or metal %\ld be made r$ hot 9 a furnace1 t ! wat] %\ld pass ov] !m 9 a /ate ( vap\r1 t ! gas =m$ %\ld be collect$ ov] ! wat]-ba?1 c4 ,9 %ort1 x is a v complicat$ affair4 ,b ! same effect may be produc$ ) ! greate/ facility1 by ! action ( ! ,voltaic batt]y1 :i* ?is w give me an opportunity ( exhibit+4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i am v glad ( t1 = ,i long$ to see ! p[] ( ?is app>atus 9 decompos+ bodies4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,= ?is purpose ,i fill ?is piece ( glass-tube 7,,plate ,,viii4 fig4 #a47 ) wat]1 & cork x up at bo? ends2 ?r\gh "o ( ! corks ,i introduce t wire ( ! batt]y :i* conveys ! positive electricity2 & ! wire :i* conveys ! negative electricity is made to pass ?r\gh ! o!r cork1 s t ! two wires approa* ea* o!r suffici5tly ne> to give out _! respective electricities4 ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,,viii4 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #bjf ,fig4 #a4 ,app>atus = ! decomposition ( wat] by ! ,voltaic ,batt]y4 ,fig4 #b4 ,app>atus = decompos+ wat] by ,voltaic ,electricity obta9+ ! gasses sep>ate4 ,fig4 #c4 ,app>atus = prep>+ collect+ hydrog5 gas4 ,fig4 #d4 ,receiv] full ( hydrog5 gas inv]t$ ov] wat]4 ,fig4 #e ,sl[ combu/ion ( hydrog5 gas4 ,fig4 #f4 ,app>atus = illu/rat+ ! =mation ( wat] by ! combu/ion ( hydrog5 gas4 ,fig4 #g4 ,app>atus = produc+ h>monic s\nds by ! combu/ion ( hydrog5 gas4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,x does n appe> to me t y approa* ! wires s ne> z y did :5 y made ! batt]y act by itself4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,wat] be+ a bett] conductor ( electricity ?an air1 ! two wires w act on ea* o!r at a great] di/ance 9 ! =m] ?an 9 ! latt]4 ,,emily4 ,n[ ! electrical effect appe>s3 ,i see small bubbles ( air emitt$ f ea* wire4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,ea* wire decomposes ! wat]1 ! positive by comb9+ ) its oxyg5 :i* is negative1 ! negative by comb9+ ) its hydrog5 :i* is positive4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,t is wond]fully curi\s6 ,b :at are ! small bubbles ( air8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,^? t appe> to proce$ f ! positive wire1 are ! result ( ! decomposition ( ! wat] by t wire4 ,t is to say1 ! positive electricity hav+ comb9$ ) "s ( ! oxyg5 ( ! wat]1 ! p>ticles ( hydrog5 :i* 7 comb9$ ) t portion ( oxyg5 are set at lib]ty1 & appe> 9 ! =m ( small bubbles ( gas or air4 ,,emily4 ,& ,i suppose ! negative fluid hav+ 9 ! same mann] comb9$ ) "s ( ! hydrog5 ( ! wat]1 ! p>ticles ( oxyg5 t 7 comb9$ ) x1 are set free1 & emitt$ 9 a gase\s =m4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,precisely s4 ,b ,i %\ld n =get to obs]ve1 t ! wires us$ 9 ?is exp]im5t are made ( plat9a1 a metal :i* is n capable ( comb9+ ) oxyg52 = o!rwise ! wire w\ld comb9e ) ! oxyg51 & ! hydrog5 alone w\ld be dis5gag$4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b c\ld n wat] be decompos$ )\t ! electric circle be+ complet$8 ,if1 = in/ance1 y imm]s$ only ! positive wire 9 ! wat]1 w\ld x n comb9e ) ! oxyg51 & ! hydrog5 gas be giv5 out8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no2 = z y may recollect1 ! batt]y _c act unless ! circle be complet$2 s9ce ! positive wire w n give out its electricity1 unless attract$ by t ( ! negative wire4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i und]/& x n[4 --,b look1 ,mrs4 ,b41 ! decomposition ( ! wat] :i* has n[ be5 go+ on = "s "t1 does n s5sibly dim9i% its quantity--:at is ! reason ( t8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,because ! quantity decompos$ is s extremely small4 ,if y comp>e ! d5sity ( wat] ) t ( ! gases into :i* x is resolv$1 y mu/ be aw>e t a s+le drop ( wat] is suffici5t to produce ?\s&s ( su* small bubbles z ^? y n[ p]ceive4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b 9 ?is exp]im5t1 we obta9 ! oxyg5 & hydrog5 gases mix$ toge!r4 ,is !re any means ( procur+ ! two gases sep>ately8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,!y c be collect$ sep>ately ) great ease1 by modify+ a little ! exp]im5t4 ,?us if in/ead ( "o tube1 we employ two1 z y see "h1 7c1 d1 ,,plate ,,viii4 fig4 #b47 bo? tubes be+ clos$ at "o end1 & op5 at ! o!r2 & if aft] fill+ ^! tubes ) wat]1 we place !m /&+ 9 a glass ( wat] 7e71 ) _! op5 end d[nw>ds1 y w see t ! mom5t we connect ! wires 7a1 b7 :i* proce$ upw>ds f ! int]ior ( ea* tube1 ! "o ) "o end ( ! batt]y1 & ! o!r ) ! o!r end1 ! wat] 9 ! tubes w be decompos$2 hydrog5 w be giv5 out r\nd ! wire 9 ! tube connect$ ) ! positive end ( ! batt]y1 & oxyg5 9 ! o!r2 & ^! gases w be evolv$1 exactly 9 ! proportions :i* ,i h be=e m5tion$1 namely1 two measures ( hydrog5 = "o ( oxyg54 ,we %all n[ beg9 ! exp]im5t1 b x w be "s "t be=e any s5sible quantity ( ! gases c be collect$4 ,,emily4 ,! decomposition ( wat] 9 ?is way1 sl[ z x is1 is c]ta9ly v /rik+2 b ,i confess t ,i %\ld be /ill m gratifi$1 if y c\ld %ew x u on a l>g] scale1 & by a quick] process4 ,i am sorry t ! decomposition ( wat] by *>coal or metals is att5d$ ) s mu* inconv5i5ce4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,wat] may be decompos$ by means ( metals )\t any difficulty2 b = ?is purpose ! int]v5tion ( an acid is requir$4 ,?us1 if we add "s sulphuric acid 7a sub/ance ) ! nature ( :i* y are n yet acqua9t$7 to ! wat] :i* ! metal is to decompose1 ! acid disposes ! metal to comb9e ) ! oxyg5 ( ! wat] s readily & abundantly1 t no heat is requir$ to ha/5 ! process4 ,( ?is ,i am go+ to %ew y an in/ance4 ,i put into ?is bottle ! wat] t is to be decompos$1 z also ! metal t is to effect t decomposition by comb9+ ) ! oxyg51 & ! acid :i* is to facilitate ! comb9ation ( ! metal & ! oxyg54 ,y w see ) :at viol5ce ^! w act on ea* o!r4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b :at metal is x t y employ = ?is purpose8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is iron2 & x is us$ 9 ! /ate ( fil+s1 z ^! pres5t a great] surface to ! acid ?an a solid piece ( metal4 ,= z x is ! surface ( ! metal :i* is act$ ^u by ! acid1 & is dispos$ to receive ! oxyg5 produc$ by ! decomposition ( ! wat]1 x necess>ily foll[s t ! great] is ! surface1 ! m consid]able is ! effect4 ,! bubbles :i* are n[ ris+ are hydrog5 gas---- ,,c>ol9e4 ,h[ disagreeably x smells6 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is inde$ unpleasant1 ?\gh1 ,i believe1 n p>ticul>ly hurtful4 ,we %all n1 h[ev]1 suff] any m to escape1 z x w be want$ = exp]im5ts4 ,i %all1 !re=e1 collect x 9 a glass-receiv]1 by mak+ x pass ?r\gh ?is b5t tube1 :i* w conduct x into ! wat]-ba?4 7,,plate ,,viii4 fig4 #c47 ,,emily4 ,h[ v rapidly ! gas escapes6 x is p]fectly transp>5t1 & )\t any col\r :atev]4 --,n[ ! receiv] is full---- ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,we %all1 !re=e1 remove x1 & sub/itute ano!r 9 its place4 ,b y mu/ obs]ve1 t :5 ! receiv] is full1 x is necess>y to keep x inv]t$ ) ! m\? "u wat]1 o!rwise ! gas w\ld escape4 ,& 9 ord] t x may n be 9 ! way1 ,i introduce )9 ! ba?1 "u ! wat]1 a sauc]1 into :i* ,i slide ! receiv]1 s t x c be tak5 out ( ! ba? & convey$ any :]e1 ! wat] 9 ! sauc] be+ equally effectual 9 prev5t+ its escape z t 9 ! ba?4 7,,plate ,,viii4 fig4 #d47 ,,emily4 ,i am q surpris$ to see :at a l>ge quantity ( hydrog5 gas c be produc$ by su* a small quantity ( wat]1 especially z oxyg5 is ! pr9cipal con/itu5t ( wat]4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,9 weight x is2 b n 9 volume4 ,= ?\gh ! proportion1 by weight1 is ne>ly six p>ts ( oxyg5 to "o ( hydrog51 yet ! proportion ( ! volume ( ! gases1 is ab\t "o "p ( oxyg5 to two ( hydrog52 s mu* heavi] is ! =m] ?an ! latt]4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b :y is ! vessel 9 :i* ! wat] is decompos$ s hot8 ,z ! wat] *anges f a liquid to a gase\s =m1 cold %\ld be produc$ in/ead ( heat4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no2 = if "o ( ! con/itu5ts ( wat] is conv]t$ into a gas1 ! o!r becomes solid 9 comb9+ ) ! metal4 ,,emily4 ,9 ?is case1 !n1 nei!r heat nor cold %\ld be produc$8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,true3 b obs]ve t ! s5sible heat :i* is dis5gag$ 9 ?is op]ation1 is n ow+ to ! decomposition ( ! wat]1 b to an extrication ( heat produc$ by ! mixture ( wat] & sulphuric acid4 ,i w mix "s wat] & sulphuric acid toge!r 9 ?is glass1 t y may feel ! surpris+ quantity ( heat t is dis5gag$ by _! union--n[ take hold ( ! glass---- ,,c>ol9e4 ,inde$ ,i _c2 x feels z hot z boil+ wat]4 ,i %\ld h imag9$ !re w\ld h be5 heat en\gh dis5gag$ to h r5d]$ ! liquid solid4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,z1 h[ev]1 x does n produce t effect1 we _c ref] ?is heat to ! modification call$ lat5t heat4 ,we may1 h[ev]1 ,i ?9k1 consid] x z heat ( capacity1 z ! liquid is cond5s$ by its loss2 & if y 7 to repeat ! exp]im5t1 9 a graduat$ tube1 y w\ld f9d t ! two liquids1 :5 mix$1 occupy consid]ably less space ?an !y did sep>ately4 --,b we w res]ve ?is to ano!r opportunity1 & att5d at pres5t to ! hydrog5 gas :i* we h be5 produc+4 ,if ,i n[ set ! hydrog5 gas1 :i* is conta9$ 9 ?is receiv]1 at lib]ty all at once1 & k9dle x z soon z x comes 9 contact ) ! atmosph]e1 by pres5t+ x to a c&le1 x w s sudd5ly & rapidly decompose ! oxyg5 gas1 by comb9+ ) its basis1 t an explosion1 or a detonation 7z *emi/s commonly call x71 w be produc$4 ,= ?is purpose1 ,i ne$ only take up ! receiv]1 & quickly pres5t its op5 m\? to ! c&le---- s 4 4 4 4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,x produc$ only a sort ( hiss+ noise1 ) a vivid fla% ( light4 ,i _h expect$ a mu* great] report4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,& s x w\ld h be51 _h ! gases be5 closely conf9$ at ! mom5t !y 7 made to explode4 ,if1 = in/ance1 we 7 to put 9 ?is bottle a mixture ( hydrog5 gas & atmosph]ic air2 & if1 aft] cork+ ! bottle1 we %\ld k9dle ! mixture by a v small orifice1 f ! sudd5 dilatation ( ! gases at ! mom5t ( _! comb9ation1 ! bottle mu/ ei!r fly to pieces1 or ! cork be bl[n out ) consid]able viol5ce4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b 9 ! exp]im5t :i* we h j se51 if y did n k9dle ! hydrog5 gas1 w\ld x n equally comb9e ) ! oxyg58 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,c]ta9ly n2 =1 z ,i h j expla9$ to y1 x is necess>y t ! oxyg5 & hydrog5 gases be burnt toge!r1 9 ord] to comb9e *emically & produce wat]4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,t is true2 b ,i ?\ght ?is 0 a diff]5t comb9ation1 = ,i see no wat] produc$4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! wat] result+ f ?is detonation 0 s small 9 quantity1 & 9 su* a /ate ( m9ute division1 z to be invisible4 ,b wat] c]ta9ly 0 produc$2 = oxyg5 is incapable ( comb9+ ) hydrog5 9 any o!r proportions ?an ^? t =m wat]2 !re=e wat] mu/ always be ! result ( _! comb9ation4 ,if1 in/ead ( br++ ! hydrog5 gas into sudd5 contact ) ! atmosph]e 7z we did j n[7 s z to make ! :ole ( x explode ! mom5t x is k9dl$1 we all[ b a v small surface ( gas to burn 9 contact ) ! atmosph]e1 ! combu/ion goes on quietly & gradually at ! po9t ( contact1 )\t any detonation1 because ! surfaces br\ght toge!r are too small = ! imm$iate union ( gases4 ,! exp]im5t is a v easy "o4 ,?is phial1 ) a n>r[ neck1 7,,plate ,,viii4 fig4 #e47 is full ( hydrog5 gas1 & is c>efully cork$4 ,if ,i take out ! cork )\t mov+ ! phial1 & quickly approa* ! c&le to ! orifice1 y w see h[ diff]5t ! result w be---- ,,emily4 ,h[ prettily x burns1 ) a blue flame6 ,! flame is gradually s9k+ )9 ! phial--n[ x has entirely disappe>$4 ,b does n ?is combu/ion likewise produce wat]8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,und\bt$ly4 ,9 ord] to make ! =mation ( ! wat] s5sible to y1 ,i %all procure a fre% supply ( hydrog5 gas1 by putt+ into ?is bottle 7,,plate ,,viii4 fig4 #f47 iron fil+s1 wat]1 & sulphuric acid1 mat]ials simil> to ^? :i* we h j us$ = ! same purpose4 ,i %all !n cork up ! bottle1 leav+ only a small orifice 9 ! cork1 ) a piece ( glass-tube fix$ to x1 ?r\gh :i* ! gas w issue 9 a cont9u$ rapid /ream4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i he> already ! hiss+ ( ! gas ?r\gh ! tube1 & ,i c feel a /rong curr5t aga9/ my h&4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,?is curr5t ,i am go+ to k9dle ) ! c&le--see h[ vividly x burns---- ,,emily4 ,x burns l a c&le ) a long flame4 ,b :y does ?is combu/ion la/ s mu* long] ?an 9 ! =m] exp]im5t8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! combu/ion goes on un9t]rupt$ly z long z ! new gas cont9ues to be produc$4 ,n[ if ,i inv]t ?is receiv] ov] ! flame1 y w soon p]ceive its int]nal surface cov]$ ) a v f9e dew1 :i* is pure wat]---- ,,c>ol9e4 ,yes1 inde$2 ! glass is n[ q dim ) moi/ure6 ,h[ glad ,i am t we c see ! wat] produc$ by ?is combu/ion4 ,,emily4 ,x is exactly :at ,i 0 anxi\s to see2 = ,i confess ,i 0 a little incr$ul\s4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,if ,i _h n held ! glass-bell ov] ! flame1 ! wat] w\ld h escap$ 9 ! /ate ( vap\r1 z x did 9 ! =m] exp]im5t4 ,we h "h1 ( c\rse1 obta9$ b a v small quantity ( wat]2 b ! difficulty ( procur+ a prop] app>atus1 ) suffici5t quantities ( gases1 prev5ts my %[+ x y on a l>g] scale4 ,! composition ( wat] 0 discov]$ ab\t ! same p]iod1 bo? by ,mr4 ,cav5di%1 9 ?is c\ntry1 & by ! celebrat$ ,fr5* *emi/ ,lavoisi]4 ,! latt] inv5t$ a v p]fect & +5i\s app>atus to p]=m1 ) great accuracy1 & ^u a l>ge scale1 ! =mation ( wat] by ! comb9ation ( oxyg5 & hydrog5 gases4 ,two tubes1 convey+ due proportions1 ! "o ( oxyg51 ! o!r ( hydrog5 gas1 are ins]t$ at opposite sides ( a l>ge globe ( glass1 previ\sly exhau/$ ( air2 ! two /reams ( gas are k9dl$ )9 ! globe1 by ! electrical sp>k1 at ! po9t :]e !y come 9 contact2 !y burn toge!r1 t is to say1 ! hydrog5 comb9es ) ! oxyg51 ! caloric is set at lib]ty1 & a quantity ( wat] is produc$ exactly equal1 9 weight1 to t ( ! two gases introduc$ into ! globe4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,& :at 0 ! greate/ quantity ( wat] ev] =m$ 9 ?is app>atus8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,sev]al ounces2 inde$1 v ne>ly a p\nd1 if ,i recollect "r2 b ! op]ation la/$ _m days4 ,,emily4 ,?is exp]im5t mu/ h conv9c$ all ! _w ( ! tru? ( ! discov]y4 ,pray1 if improp] proportions ( ! gases 7 mix$ & set fire to1 :at w\ld be ! result8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,wat] w\ld equally be =m$1 b !re w\ld be a residue ( ei!r "o or o!r ( ! gases1 because1 z ,i h already told y1 hydrog5 & oxyg5 w comb9e only 9 ! proportions requisite = ! =mation ( wat]4 ,,emily4 ,look1 ,mrs4 ,b41 our exp]im5t ) ! ,voltaic batt]y 7,,plate ,,viii4 fig4 #b47 has made great progress2 a quantity ( gas has be5 =m$ 9 ea* tube1 b 9 "o ( !m !re is twice z mu* gas z 9 ! o!r4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 because1 z ,i said be=e1 wat] is compos$ ( two volumes ( hydrog5 to "o ( oxyg5--& if we %\ld n[ mix ^! gases toge!r & set fire to !m by an electrical sp>k1 bo? gases w\ld entirely disappe>1 & a small quantity ( wat] w\ld be =m$4 ,!re is ano!r curi\s effect produc$ by ! combu/ion ( hydrog5 gas1 :i* ,i %all %[ y1 ?\gh ,i mu/ acqua9t y fir/1 t ,i _c well expla9 ! cause ( x4 ,= ?is purpose1 ,i mu/ put "s mat]ials into our app>atus1 9 ord] to obta9 a /ream ( hydrog5 gas1 j z we h done be=e4 ,! process is already go+ on1 & ! gas is ru%+ ?r\gh ! tube--,i %all n[ k9dle x ) ! tap]---- ,,emily4 ,x burns exactly z x did be=e---- ,:at is ! curi\s effect :i* y 7 m5tion+8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,in/ead ( ! receiv]1 by means ( :i* we h j se5 ! drops ( wat] =m1 we %all inv]t ov] ! flame ?is piece ( tube1 :i* is ab\t two feet 9 l5g?1 & "o in* 9 diamet] 7,,plate ,,viii4 fig4 #g472 b y mu/ obs]ve t x is op5 at bo? ends4 ,,emily4 ,:at a /range noise x makes6 some?+ l ! olian h>p1 b n s sweet4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,x is v s+ul>1 inde$2 b ,i ?9k r too p[]ful to be pleas+4 ,& is n ?is s\nd acc\nt$ =8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t ! p]cussion ( glass1 by a rapid /ream ( gas1 %\ld produce a s\nd1 is n extraord9>y3 b ! s\nd "h is s peculi>1 t no o!r gas has a simil> effect4 ,p]haps x is ow+ to a brisk vibratory motion ( ! glass1 occasion$ by ! successive =mation & cond5sation ( small drops ( wat] on ! sides ( ! glass tube1 & ! air ru%+ 9 to replace ! vacuum =m$499 ,footnote 993 ,?is +5i\s explanation 0 fir/ sugge/$ by ,dr4 ,del>ive4 --,see ,j\rnals ( ! ,royal ,in/itution1 vol4 i4 p4 #bei4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,h[ v mu* ?is flame resembles ! burn+ ( a c&le4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! burn+ ( a c&le is produc$ by mu* ! same means4 ,a great deal ( hydrog5 is conta9$ 9 c&les1 :e!r ( tall[ or wax4 ,?is hydrog5 be+ conv]t$ into gas by ! heat ( ! c&le1 comb9es ) ! oxyg5 ( ! atmosph]e1 & flame & wat] result f ?is comb9ation4 ,s t1 9 fact1 ! flame ( a c&le is ow+ to ! combu/ion ( hydrog5 gas4 ,an elevation ( temp]ature1 su* z is produc$ by a light$ mat* or tap]1 is requir$ to give ! fir/ impulse to ! combu/ion2 b aft]w>ds x goes on ( itself1 because ! c&le f9ds a supply ( caloric 9 ! successive quantities ( heat :i* results f ! union ( ! two electricities giv5 out by ! gases dur+ _! combu/ion4 ,b !re are o!r circum/ances connect$ ) ! combu/ion ( c&les & lamps1 :i* ,i _c expla9 to y till y are acqua9t$ ) c>bon1 :i* is "o ( _! con/itu5t p>ts4 ,9 g5]al1 h[ev]1 :5ev] y see flame1 y may inf] t x is ow+ to ! =mation & burn+ ( hydrog5 gas992 = flame is ! peculi> mode ( burn+ hydrog5 gas1 :i*1 ) only "o or two app>5t exceptions1 does n belong to any o!r combu/ible4 ,footnote 993 ,or r1 hydro-c>bonat1 a gas compos$ ( hydrog5 & c>bon1 :i* w be notic$ "u ! head ,c>bon4 ,,emily4 ,y a/oni% me6 ,i und]/ood t flame 0 ! caloric produc$ by ! union ( ! two electricities1 9 all combu/ions :atev]8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y\r error proce$$ f y\r vague & incorrect idea ( flame2 y h conf\nd$ x ) light & caloric 9 g5]al4 ,flame always implies caloric1 s9ce x is produc$ by ! combu/ion ( hydrog5 gas2 b all caloric does n imply flame4 ,_m bodies burn ) int5se heat )\t produc+ flame4 ,coals1 = in/ance1 burn ) flame until all ! hydrog5 :i* !y conta9 is evaporat$2 b :5 !y aft]w>ds become r$ hot1 mu* m caloric is dis5gag$ ?an :5 !y produce flame4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b ! iron wire1 :i* y burnt 9 oxyg5 gas1 appe>$ to me to emit flame2 yet1 z x 0 a simple metal1 x c\ld conta9 no hydrog58 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x produc$ a sp>kl+ dazzl+ blaze ( light1 b no real flame4 ,,emily4 ,& :at is ! cause ( ! regul> %ape ( ! flame ( a c&le8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! regul> /ream ( hydrog5 gas :i* exhales f its combu/ible matt]4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b ! hydrog5 gas mu/1 f its great levity1 asc5d into ! upp] regions ( ! atmosph]e2 :y !re=e does n ! flame cont9ue to accompany x8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! combu/ion ( ! hydrog5 gas is complet$ at ! po9t :]e ! flame t]m9ates2 x !n ceases to be hydrog5 gas1 z x is conv]t$ by its comb9ation ) oxyg5 into wat]y vap\r2 b 9 a /ate ( su* m9ute division z to be invisible4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i d n und]/& :at is ! use ( ! wick ( a c&le1 s9ce ! hydrog5 gas burns s well )\t x8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! combu/ible matt] ( ! c&le mu/ be decompos$ 9 ord] to emit ! hydrog5 gas1 & ! wick is in/rum5tal 9 effect+ ?is decomposition4 ,its combu/ion fir/ melts ! combu/ible matt]1 & 4 4 4 4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b 9 lamps ! combu/ible matt] is already fluid1 & yet !y also require wicks8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i am go+ to add t1 aft]w>ds1 ! burn+ wick 7by ! p[] ( capill>y attraction7 gradually draws up ! fluid to ! po9t :]e combu/ion takes place2 = y mu/ h obs]v$ t ! wick does n burn q to ! bottom4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,yes2 b ,i d n und]/& :y x does n4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,because ! air has n s free an access to t "p ( ! wick :i* is imm$iately 9 contact ) ! c&le1 z to ! "p j above1 s t ! heat !re is n suffici5t to produce its decomposition2 ! combu/ion !re=e beg9s a little above ?is po9t4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b1 ,mrs4 ,b41 9 ^? beautiful lights1 call$ gas-lights1 :i* are n[ se5 9 _m /reets1 & w1 ,i hope1 be soon adopt$ e :]e1 ,i c p]ceive no wick at all4 ,h[ are ^! lights manag$8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i am glad y h put me 9 m9d ( say+ a few words on ?is v useful & int]e/+ improvem5t4 ,9 ?is mode ( light+1 ! gas is convey$ to ! extremity ( a tube1 :]e x is k9dl$1 & burns z long z ! supply cont9ues4 ,!re is1 !re=e1 no occasion = a wick1 or any o!r fuel :atev]4 ,,emily4 ,b h[ is all ?is gas procur$ 9 su* l>ge quantities8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is obta9$ f coal1 by di/illation4 --,coal1 :5 expos$ to heat 9 a close vessel1 is decompos$2 & hydrog51 :i* is "o ( its con/itu5ts1 rises 9 ! /ate ( gas1 comb9$ ) ano!r ( its compon5t p>ts1 c>bon1 =m+ a comp\nd gas1 call$ ,hydroc>bonat1 ! nature ( :i* we %all aga9 h an opportunity ( notic+ :5 we treat ( c>bon4 ,?is gas1 l hydrog51 is p]fectly transp>5t1 invisible1 & highly inflammable2 & 9 burn+ x emits t vivid light :i* y h s (t5 obs]v$4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,& does ! process = procur+ x require no?+ b heat+ ! coals1 & convey+ ! gas ?r\gh tubes8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no?+ else2 except t ! gas mu/ be made to pass1 imm$iately at its =mation1 ?r\gh two or ?ree l>ge vessels ( wat]1 9 :i* x deposits "s o!r +r$i5ts1 & especially wat]1 t>1 & oil1 :i* also arise f ! di/illation ( coals4 ,! gas-light app>atus1 !re=e1 consi/s simply 9 a l>ge iron vessel1 9 :i* ! coals are expos$ to ! heat ( a furnace1--"s res]voirs ( wat]1 9 :i* ! gas deposits its impurities1--& tubes t convey x to ! desir$ spot1 be+ propell$ ) uni=m velocity ?r\gh ! tubes by means ( a c]ta9 degree ( pressure :i* is made ^u ! res]voir4 ,,emily4 ,:at an admirable contrivance6 ,d y n ?9k1 ,mrs4 ,b41 t x w soon get into univ]sal use8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,mo/ probably1 z to ! light+ ( /reets1 (fices1 & public places1 z x f> surpasses any =m] inv5tion = t purpose2 b z to ! int]ior ( private h\ses1 ?is mode ( light+ has n yet be5 suffici5tly tri$ to "k :e!r x w be f\nd g5]ally desirable1 ei!r 9 reg>d to economy or conv5i5ce4 ,x may1 h[ev]1 be consid]$ z "o ( ! happie/ applications ( *emi/ry to ! com=ts ( life2 & !re is e reason to suppose t x w answ] ! full ext5t ( public1 expectation4 ,i h ano!r exp]im5t to %[ y ) hydrog5 gas1 :i* ,i ?9k w ent]ta9 y4 ,h y ev] bl[n bubbles ) soap & wat]8 ,,emily4 ,yes1 (t51 :5 ,i 0 a *ild2 & ,i us$ to make !m float 9 ! air by bl[+ !m upw>ds4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,we %all fill "s su* bubbles ) hydrog5 gas1 in/ead ( atmosph]ic air1 & y w see ) :at ease & rapidity !y w asc5d1 )\t ! assi/ance ( bl[+1 f ! lightness ( ! gas4 --,w y mix "s soap & wat] :il/ ,i fill ?is bladd] ) ! gas conta9$ 9 ! receiv] :i* /&s on ! %elf 9 ! wat]-ba?8 ,,c>ol9e4 ,:at is ! use ( ! brass-/opp] & turn-cock at ! top ( ! receiv]8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is to af=d a passage to ! gas :5 requir$4 ,!re is1 y see1 a simil> /op-cock fa/5$ to ?is bladd]1 :i* is made to fit t on ! receiv]4 ,i screw !m "o on ! o!r1 & n[ turn ! two cocks1 to op5 a communication betwe5 ! receiv] & ! bladd]2 !n1 by slid+ ! receiv] (f ! %elf1 & g5tly s9k+ x into ! ba?1 ! wat] rises 9 ! receiv] & =ces ! gas into ! bladd]4 7,,plate ,,ix4 fig4 #a47 ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,,ix4 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #bbh ,fig4 #a4 ,app>atus = transf]r+ gases f a ,receiv] into a bladd]4 ,fig4 #b4 ,app>atus = bl[+ ,soap bubbles4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,yes1 ,i see ! bladd] swell z ! wat] rises 9 ! receiv]4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i ?9k t we h already a suffici5t quantity 9 ! bladd] = our purpose2 we mu/ be c>eful to /op bo? ! cocks be=e we sep>ate ! bladd] f ! receiv]1 le/ ! gas %\ld escape4 --,n[ ,i mu/ fix a pipe to ! /opp] ( ! bladd]1 & by dipp+ its m\? into ! soap & wat]1 take up a few drops--!n ,i aga9 turn ! cock1 & squeeze ! bladd] 9 ord] to =ce ! gas into ! soap & wat] at ! m\? ( ! pipe4 7,,plate ,,ix4 fig4 #b47 ,,emily4 ,!re is a bubble--b x bur/s be=e x leaves ! m\? ( ! pipe4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,we mu/ h pati5ce & try aga92 x is n s easy to bl[ bubbles by means ( a bladd]1 z simply ) ! brea?4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,p]haps !re is n soap en\gh 9 ! wat]2 ,i %\ld h _h w>m wat]1 x w\ld h dissolv$ ! soap bett]4 ,,emily4 ,does n "s ( ! gas escape betwe5 ! bladd] & ! pipe8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no1 !y are p]fectly air tight2 we %all succe$ pres5tly1 ,i d>e say4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,n[ a bubble asc5ds2 x moves ) ! rapidity ( a balloon4 ,h[ beautifully x refracts ! light6 ,,emily4 ,x has bur/ aga9/ ! ceil+--y succe$ n[ wond]fully2 b :y d !y all asc5d & bur/ aga9/ ! ceil+8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,hydrog5 gas is s mu* light] ?an atmosph]ical air1 t x asc5ds rapidly ) its v light envelope1 :i* is bur/ by ! =ce ) :i* x /rikes ! ceil+4 ,air-balloons are fill$ ) ?is gas1 & if !y c>ri$ no o!r weight ?an _! cov]+1 w\ld asc5d z rapidly z ^! bubbles4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,yet _! cov]+ mu/ be mu* heavi] ?an t ( ^! bubbles8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,n 9 proportion to ! quantity ( gas !y conta94 ,i d n "k :e!r y h ev] be5 pres5t at ! fill+ ( a l>ge balloon4 ,! app>atus = t purpose is v simple4 ,x consi/s ( a numb] ( vessels1 ei!r j>s or b>rels1 9 :i* ! mat]ials = ! =mation ( ! gas are mix$1 ea* ( ^! be+ furni%$ ) a tube1 & communicat+ ) a long flexible pipe1 :i* conveys ! gas into ! balloon4 ,,emily4 ,b ! fire-balloons :i* 7 fir/ inv5t$1 & h be5 s9ce ab&on$1 on acc\nt ( _! be+ s dang]\s1 7 con/ruct$1 ,i suppose1 on a diff]5t pr9ciple4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,!y 7 fill$ simply ) atmosph]ical air1 consid]ably r>efi$ by heat2 & ! necessity ( hav+ a fire und]nea? ! balloon1 9 ord] to pres]ve ! r>efaction ( ! air )9 x1 0 ! circum/ance productive ( s mu* dang]4 ,if y are n yet tir$ ( exp]im5ts1 ,i h ano!r to %[ y4 ,x consi/s 9 fill+ soap-bubbles ) a mixture ( hydrog5 & oxyg5 gases1 9 ! proportions t =m wat]2 & aft]w>ds sett+ fire to !m4 ,,emily4 ,!y w detonate1 ,i suppose8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes1 !y w4 ,z y h se5 ! me?od ( transf]r+ ! gas f ! receiv] into ! bladd]1 x is n necess>y to repeat x4 ,i h !re=e provid$ a bladd] :i* conta9s a due proportion ( oxyg5 & hydrog5 gases1 & we h only to bl[ bubbles ) x4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,"h is a f9e l>ge bubble ris+--%all ,i set fire to x ) ! c&le8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,if y please 4 4 4 4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,heav5s1 :at an explosion6 --,x 0 l ! report ( a gun3 ,i confess x fright5$ me mu*4 ,i nev] %\ld h imag9$ x c\ld be s l\d4 ,,emily4 ,& ! fla% 0 z vivid z lightn+4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! comb9ation ( ! two gases takes place dur+ t in/ant ( "t t y see ! fla%1 & he> ! detonation4 ,,emily4 ,?is has a /rong resemblance to ?und] & lightn+4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,^! ph5om5a1 h[ev]1 are g5]ally ( an electrical nature4 ,yet v>i\s meteorological effects may be attribut$ to accid5tal detonations ( hydrog5 gas 9 ! atmosph]e2 = nature ab\nds ) hydrog53 x con/itutes a v consid]able portion ( ! :ole mass ( wat] belong+ to our globe1 & f t s\rce almo/ e o!r body obta9s x4 ,x ent]s into ! composition ( all animal sub/ances1 & ( a great numb] ( m9]als2 b x is mo/ abundant 9 vegetables4 ,f ?is imm5se v>iety ( bodies1 x is (t5 spontane\sly dis5gag$2 its great levity makes x rise into ! sup]ior regions ( ! atmosph]e2 & :51 ei!r by an electrical sp>k1 or any casual elevation ( temp]ature1 x takes fire1 x may produce su* meteors or lum9\s appe>ances z are occasionally se5 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,( ?is k9d are probably ^? broad fla%es :i* we (t5 see on a summ]-ev5+1 )\t he>+ any detonation4 ,,emily4 ,e fla%1 ,i suppose1 mu/ produce a quantity ( wat]8 ,,c>ol9e4 ,& ?is wat]1 naturally1 desc5ds 9 ! =m ( ra98 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t probably is (t5 ! case1 ?\gh x is n a necess>y consequ5ce2 = ! wat] may be dissolv$ by ! atmosph]e1 z x desc5ds t[>ds ! l[] regions1 & rema9 !re 9 ! =m ( cl\ds4 ,! application ( electrical attraction to *emical ph5om5a is likely to lead to _m v int]e/+ discov]ies 9 meteorology2 = electricity evid5tly acts a mo/ important "p 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,?is subject h[ev]1 is1 z yet1 n suffici5tly develop$ = me to v5ture enl>g+ ^u x4 ,! ph5om5a ( ! atmosph]e are f> f be+ well und]/ood2 & ev5 ) ! little t is kn[n1 ,i am b imp]fectly acqua9t$4 ,b be=e we take leave ( hydrog51 ,i mu/ n omit to m5tion to y a mo/ int]e/+ discov]y ( ,sir ,h4 ,davy1 :i* is connect$ ) ?is subject4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,y allude1 ,i suppose1 to ! new m9]'s lamp1 :i* has ( late be5 s mu* talk$ (8 ,i h long be5 desir\s ( kn[+ :at t discov]y 01 & :at purpose x 0 int5d$ to answ]4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x (t5 happ5s 9 coal-m9es1 t quantities ( ! gas1 call$ by *emi/s hydro-c>bonat1 or by ! m9]s fire-damp1 7! same f :i* ! gas-lights are obta9$17 ooze out f fissures 9 ! b$s ( coal1 & fill ! cavities 9 :i* ! m5 are at "w2 & ?is gas be+ inflammable1 ! consequ5ce is1 t :5 ! m5 approa* ^? places ) a light$ c&le1 ! gas takes fire1 & explosions happ5 :i* de/roy ! m5 & horses employ$ 9 t "p ( ! colli]y1 sometimes 9 great numb]s4 ,,emily4 ,:at trem5d\s accid5ts ^! mu/ be6 ,b :5ce does t gas orig9ate8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,be+ ! *ief product ( ! combu/ion ( coal1 no wond] t inflammable gas %\ld occasionally appe> 9 situations 9 :i* ?is m9]al ab\nds1 s9ce !re c be no d\bt t processes ( combu/ion are frequ5tly tak+ place at a great dep? "u ! surface ( ! e>?2 & !re=e ^? accumulations ( gas may arise ei!r f combu/ions actually go+ on1 or f =m] combu/ions1 ! gas hav+ p]haps be5 conf9$ !re = ages4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,& h[ does ,sir ,h4 ,davy's lamp prev5t ^? dreadful explosions8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,by a contrivance equally simple & +5i\s2 & "o :i* does no less cr$it to ! philosophical views f :i* x 0 d$uc$1 ?an to ! philan?ropic motives f :i* ! enquiry sprung4 ,! pr9ciple ( ! lamp is %ortly ?is3 ,x 0 asc]ta9$1 two or ?ree ye>s ago1 bo? by ,mr4 ,t5nant & by ,sir ,humphry himself1 t ! combu/ion ( inflammable gas c\ld n be propagat$ ?r\gh small tubes2 s t if a jet ( an inflammable gase\s mixture1 issu+ f a bladd] or any o!r vessel1 ?r\gh a small tube1 be set fire to1 x burns at ! orifice ( ! tube1 b ! flame nev] p5etrates into ! vessel4 ,x is ^u ?is fact t ,sir ,humphry's safety-lamp is f\nd$4 ,,emily4 ,b :y does n ! flame ev] p5etrate ?r\gh ! tube into ! vessel f :i* ! gas issues1 s z to explode at once ! :ole ( ! gas8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,because1 no d\bt1 ! inflam$ gas is s mu* cool$ 9 its passage ?r\gh a small tube z to cease to burn be=e ! combu/ion rea*es ! res]voir4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,& h[ c ?is pr9ciple be appli$ to ! con/ruction ( a lamp8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no?+ easi]4 ,y ne$ only suppose a lamp enclos$ all r\nd 9 glass or horn1 b hav+ a numb] ( small op5 tubes at ! bottom1 & o!rs at ! top1 to let ! air 9 & out4 ,n[1 if su* a lamp or lan?orn be c>ri$ into an atmosph]e capable ( explod+1 an explosion or combu/ion ( ! gas w take place )9 ! lamp2 & al?\gh ! v5t af=d$ by ! tubes w save ! lamp f bur/+1 yet1 f ! pr9ciple j expla9$1 ! combu/ion w n be propagat$ to ! ext]nal air ?r\gh ! tubes1 s t no f>!r consequ5ce w ensue4 ,,emily4 ,& is t all ! my/]y ( t valuable lamp8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no2 9 ! e>ly "p ( ! enquiry a lamp ( ?is k9d 0 actually propos$2 b x 0 b a rude sket* comp>$ to its pres5t /ate ( improvem5t4 ,sir ,h4 ,davy1 aft] a succession ( trials1 by :i* he br\ght 8 lamp ne>] & ne>] to p]fection1 at la/ conceiv$ ! happy idea t if ! lamp 7 surr\nd$ ) a wire-"w or wire-gauze1 ( a close texture1 in/ead ( glass or horn1 ! tubul> contrivance ,i h j describ$ w\ld be entirely sup]s$$1 s9ce ea* ( ! int]/ices ( ! gauze w\ld act z a tube 9 prev5t+ ! propagation ( explosions2 s t ?is p]vi\s metallic cov]+ w\ld answ] ! v>i\s purposes ( transp>5cy1 ( p]meability to air1 & ( protection aga9/ explosion4 ,?is idea1 ,sir ,humphry imm$iately submitt$ to ! te/ ( exp]im5t1 & ! result has answ]$ 8 mo/ sangu9e expectations1 bo? 9 8 laboratory & 9 ! colli]ies1 :]e x has already be5 ext5sively tri$4 ,& he has n[ ! happ9ess ( ?9k+ t 8 inv5tion w probably be ! means ( sav+ e ye> a numb] ( lives1 :i* w\ld h be5 lo/ 9 digg+ out ( ! b[els ( ! e>? "o ( ! mo/ valuable necess>ies ( life4 ,"h is "o ( ^! lamps1 e "p ( :i* y w at once compreh5d4 7,see ,,plate ,x4 fig4 #a47 ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,x4 ,fig4 #a4 ,a4 ! ci/]n conta9+ ! ,oil ,b4 ! rim or screw by :i* ! gauze cage is fix$ to ! ci/]n4 ,c4 app]ture = supply+ ,oil4 ,e4 a wire = trimm+ ! wick4 ,d4 ,f4 ! wire gauze cyl9d]4 ,g4 a d\ble top4 ,fig4 #b4 ,a4 ! res]voir ( cond5s$ air4 ,b4 ! cond5s+ ,syr+e4 ,c4 ! bladd] = ,oxyg54 ,d4 ! moveable jet4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,h[ v simple & +5i\s6 ,b ,i d n yet well see :y an explosion tak+ place )9 ! lamp %\ld n communicate to ! ext]nal air ar\nd x1 ?r\gh ! int]/ices ( ! wire8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,?is has be5 & is /ill a subject ( wond]1 ev5 to philosoph]s2 & ! only mode !y h ( expla9+ x is1 t flame or ignition _c pass ?r\gh a f9e wire-"w1 because ! metallic wire cools ! flame suffici5tly to ext+ui% x 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! gauze4 ,?is prop]ty ( ! wire-gauze is q simil> to t ( ! tubes :i* ,i m5tion$ on introduc+ ! subject2 = y may consid] ea* int]/ice ( ! gauze z an extremely %ort tube ( a v small diamet]4 ,,emily4 ,b ,i %\ld expect ! wire w\ld (t5 become r$-hot1 by ! burn+ ( ! gas )9 ! lamp8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,& ?is is actually ! case1 = ! top ( ! lamp is v apt to become r$-hot4 ,b1 =tunately1 inflammable gase\s mixtures _c be explod$ by r$-hot wire1 ! int]v5tion ( actual flame be+ requir$ = t purpose2 s t ! wire does n set fire to ! explosive gas ar\nd x4 ,,emily4 ,i c und]/& t2 b if ! wire be r$-hot1 h[ c x cool ! flame )91 & prev5t its pass+ ?r\gh ! gauze8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! gauze1 ?\gh r$-hot1 is n s hot z ! flame by :i* x has be5 heat$2 & z metallic wire is a good conductor1 ! heat does n mu* accumulate 9 x1 z x passes (f quickly to ! o!r p>ts ( ! lamp1 z well z to any contigu\s bodies4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,?is is inde$ a mo/ int]e/+ discov]y1 & "o :i* %[s at once ! imm5se utility ) :i* sci5ce may be practically appli$ to "s ( ! mo/ important purposes4 ,,conv]sation ,,viii4 ,,on ,,sulphur ,,& ,,phosphorus4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,,sulphur is ! next sub/ance t comes "u our consid]ation4 ,x diff]s 9 "o ess5tial po9t f ! prec$+1 z x exi/s 9 a solid =m at ! temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i am glad t we h at la/ a solid body to exam9e2 "o t we c see & t\*4 ,pray1 is x n ) sulphur t ! po9ts ( mat*es are cov]$1 to make !m easily k9dle8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes1 x is2 & y !re=e already "k t sulphur is a v combu/ible sub/ance4 ,x is seldom discov]$ 9 nature 9 a pure unmix$ /ate2 s great is its aff9ity = o!r sub/ances1 t x is almo/ con/antly f\nd comb9$ ) "s ( !m4 ,x is mo/ commonly unit$ ) metals1 "u v>i\s =ms1 & is sep>at$ f !m by a v simple process4 ,x exi/s likewise 9 _m m9]al wat]s1 & "s vegetables yield x 9 v>i\s proportions1 especially ^? ( ! cruci=m tribe4 ,x is also f\nd 9 animal matt]2 9 %ort1 x may be discov]$ 9 great] or less quantity1 9 ! m9]al1 vegetable1 & animal k+doms4 ,,emily4 ,i h he>d ( fl[]s ( sulphur1 are !y ! produce ( any plant8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,by no means3 !y consi/ ( no?+ m ?an common sulphur1 r$uc$ to a v f9e p[d] by a process call$ sublimation4 --,y see "s ( x 9 ?is phial2 x is exactly ! same sub/ance z ?is lump ( sulphur1 only its col\r is a pal] yell[1 ow+ to its /ate ( v m9ute division4 ,,emily4 ,pray :at is sublimation8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is ! evaporation1 or1 m prop]ly speak+1 ! volatilisation ( solid sub/ances1 :i*1 9 cool+1 cond5se aga9 9 a concrete =m4 ,! process1 9 ?is in/ance1 mu/ be p]=m$ 9 a clos$ vessel1 bo? to prev5t combu/ion1 :i* w\ld take place if ! access ( air 7 n c>efully preclud$1 & likewise 9 ord] to collect ! sub/ance aft] ! op]ation4 ,z x is r a sl[ process1 we %all n try ! exp]im5t n[2 b y w und]/& x p]fectly if ,i %[ y ! app>atus us$ = ! purpose4 7,,plate ,,xi4 fig4 #a47 ,"s lumps ( sulphur are put into a receiv] ( ?is k9d1 :i* is call$ a cucurbit4 ,its %ape1 y see1 some:at resembles t ( a pe>1 & is op5 at ! top1 s z to adapt itself exactly to a k9d ( conical receiv] ( ?is sort1 call$ ! head4 ,! cucurbit1 ?us cov]$ ) its head1 is plac$ ov] a s&-ba?2 ?is is no?+ m ?an a vessel full ( s&1 :i* is kept heat$ by a furnace1 su* z y see "h1 s z to pres]ve ! app>atus 9 a mod]ate & uni=m temp]ature4 ,! sulphur !n soon beg9s to melt1 & imm$iately aft] ?is1 a ?ick :ite smoke rises1 :i* is gradually deposit$ )9 ! head1 or upp] "p ( ! app>atus1 :]e x cond5ses aga9/ ! sides1 some:at 9 ! =m ( a vegetation1 :5ce x has obta9$ ! "n ( fl[]s ( sulphur4 ,?is app>atus1 :i* is call$ an alembic1 is highly useful 9 all k9ds ( di/illations1 z y w see :5 we come to treat ( ^? op]ations4 ,alembics are n commonly made ( glass1 l ?is1 :i* is applicable only to di/illations ^u a v small scale4 ,^? us$ 9 manufactures are g5]ally made ( copp]1 & are1 ( c\rse1 consid]ably l>g]4 ,! pr9cipal con/ruction1 h[ev]1 is always ! same1 al?\gh _! %ape admits ( "s v>iation4 ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,,xi4 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #bcg4 ,fig4 #a4 ,sublimation ( ,sulphur4 ,a ,alembic4 ,b ,s&-ba?4 ,c ,furnace4 ,fig4 #b4 ,eudiomet]4 ,fig4 #c4 ,decomposition ( wat] by ,c>bon4 ,a ,retort conta9+ wat]4 ,b ,lamp to heat ! wat]4 ,c4,c ,porcela9 tube conta9+ ,c>bone4 ,d ,furnace ?r\gh :i* ! tube passes4 ,e ,receiv] = ! gas produc$4 ,f ,wat] ba?4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,:at is ! use ( t neck1 or tube1 :i* b5ds d[n f ! upp] piece ( ! app>atus8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is ( no use 9 sublimations2 b 9 di/illations 7! g5]al object ( :i* is to evaporate1 by heat1 9 clos$ vessels1 ! volatile p>ts ( a comp\nd body1 & to cond5se !m aga9 into a liquid17 x s]ves to c>ry (f ! cond5s$ fluid1 :i* o!rwise w\ld fall back into ! cucurbit4 ,b ?is is r =eign to our pres5t subject4 ,let u return to ! sulphur4 ,y n[ p]fectly und]/&1 ,i suppose1 :at is meant by sublimation8 ,,emily4 ,i believe ,i d4 ,sublimation appe>s to consi/ 9 de/roy+1 by means ( heat1 ! attraction ( aggregation ( ! p>ticles ( a solid body1 :i* are ?us volatilis$2 & z soon z !y lose ! caloric :i* produc$ t effect1 !y are deposit$ 9 ! =m ( a f9e p[d]4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,x seems to me to be some:at simil> to ! trans=mation ( wat] into vap\r1 :i* returns to its liquid /ate :5 depriv$ ( caloric4 ,,emily4 ,!re is ?is diff]5ce1 h[ev]1 t ! sulphur does n return to its =m] /ate1 s9ce1 in/ead ( lumps1 x *anges to a f9e p[d]4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,*emically speak+1 x is exactly ! same sub/ance1 :e!r 9 ! =m ( lump or p[d]4 ,= if ?is p[d] be melt$ aga9 by heat1 x w1 9 cool+1 be re/or$ to ! same solid /ate 9 :i* x 0 be=e its sublimation4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b if !re be no real *ange1 produc$ by ! sublimation ( ! sulphur1 :at is ! use ( t op]ation8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x divides ! sulphur into v m9ute p>ts1 & ?us disposes x to ent] m readily into comb9ation ) o!r bodies4 ,x is us$ also z a means ( purification4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,sublimation appe>s to me l ! beg9n+ ( combu/ion1 = ! completion ( :i* "o circum/ance only is want+1 ! absorption ( oxyg54 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,b t circum/ance is e ?+4 ,no ess5tial alt]ation is produc$ 9 sulphur by sublimation2 :il/ 9 combu/ion x comb9es ) ! oxyg51 & =ms a new comp\nd totally diff]5t 9 e respect f sulphur 9 its pure /ate4 --,we %all n[ burn "s sulphur1 & y w see h[ v diff]5t ! result w be4 ,= ?is purpose ,i put a small quantity ( fl[]s ( sulphur into ?is cup1 & place x 9 a di%1 into :i* ,i h p\r$ a little wat]3 ,i n[ set fire to ! sulphur ) ! po9t ( ?is hot wire2 = its combu/ion w n beg9 unless its temp]ature be consid]ably rais$4 --,y see t x burns ) a fa9t bluei% flame2 & z ,i inv]t ov] x ?is receiv]1 :ite fumes arise f ! sulphur1 & fill ! vessel4 --,y w soon p]ceive t ! wat] is ris+ )9 ! receiv]1 a little above its level 9 ! plate4 --,well1 ,emily1 c y acc\nt = ?is8 ,,emily4 ,i suppose t ! sulphur has absorb$ ! oxyg5 f ! atmosph]ical air )9 ! receiv]1 & t we %all f9d "s oxyg5at$ sulphur 9 ! cup4 ,z = ! :ite smoke1 ,i am q at a loss to guess :at x may be4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y\r fir/ conjecture is v "r3 b y are mi/ak5 9 ! la/2 = no?+ w be left 9 ! cup4 ,! :ite vap\r is ! oxyg5at$ sulphur1 :i* assumes ! =m ( an ela/ic fluid ( a pung5t & (f5sive smell1 & is a p[]ful acid4 ,"h y see a *emical comb9ation ( oxyg5 & sulphur1 produc+ a true gas1 :i* w\ld cont9ue su* "u ! pressure & at ! temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e1 if x did n unite ) ! wat] 9 ! plate1 to :i* x imp>ts its acid ta/e1 & all its acid prop]ties4 --,y see1 n[1 ) :at curi\s effects ! combu/ion ( sulphur is att5d$4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,?is is some?+ q new2 & ,i confess t ,i d n p]fectly und]/& :y ! sulphur turns acid4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is because x unites ) oxyg51 :i* is ! acidify+ pr9ciple4 ,&1 inde$1 ! ^w oxyg5 is d]iv$ f two ,greek words signify+ to produce an acid4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,:y1 !n1 is n wat]1 :i* conta9s su* a quantity ( oxyg51 acid8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,because hydrog51 :i* is ! o!r con/itu5t ( wat]1 is n susceptible ( acidification4 --,i believe x w be necess>y1 be=e we proce$ fur!r1 to say a few words ( ! g5]al nature ( acids1 ?\gh x is r a deviation f our plan ( exam9+ ! simple bodies sep>ately1 be=e we consid] !m 9 a /ate ( comb9ation4 ,acids may be consid]$ z a peculi> class ( burnt bodies1 :i* dur+ _! combu/ion1 or comb9ation ) oxyg51 h acquir$ v *>act]i/ic prop]ties4 ,!y are *iefly disc]nible by _! s\r ta/e1 & by turn+ r$ mo/ ( ! blue vegetable col\rs4 ,^! two prop]ties are common to ! :ole class ( acids2 b ea* ( !m is di/+ui%$ by o!r peculi> qualities4 ,e acid consi/s ( "s p>ticul> sub/ance1 7:i* con/itutes its basis1 & is diff]5t 9 ea*17 & ( oxyg51 :i* is common to !m all4 ,,emily4 ,b ,i d n cle>ly see ! diff]5ce betwe5 acids & oxyds4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,acids 71 9 fact1 oxyds1 :i*1 by ! addition ( a suffici5t quantity ( oxyg51 h be5 conv]t$ into acids4 ,= acidification1 y mu/ obs]ve1 always implies previ\s oxydation1 z a body mu/ h comb9$ ) ! quantity ( oxyg5 requisite to con/itute x an oxyd1 be=e x c comb9e ) ! great] quantity t is necess>y to r5d] x an acid4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,are all oxyds capable ( be+ conv]t$ into acids8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,v f> f x2 x is only c]ta9 sub/ances :i* w ent] into t peculi> k9d ( union ) oxyg5 t produces acids1 & ! numb] ( ^! is proportionally v small2 b all burnt bodies may be consid]$ z belong+ ei!r to ! class ( oxyds1 or to t ( acids4 ,at a future p]iod1 we %all ent] m at l>ge into ?is subject4 ,at pres5t1 ,i h b "o circum/ance fur!r to po9t out to y\r obs]vation respect+ acids3 x is1 t mo/ ( !m are susceptible ( two degrees ( acidification1 accord+ to ! diff]5t quantities ( oxyg5 ) :i* _! basis comb9es4 ,,emily4 ,& h[ are ^! two degrees ( acidification di/+ui%$8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,by ! peculi> prop]ties :i* result f !m4 ,! acid we h j made is ! fir/ or weake/ degree ( acidification1 & is call$ sulphure\s acid2 if x 7 fully saturat$ ) oxyg51 x w\ld be call$ sulphuric acid4 ,y mu/ !re=e rememb]1 t 9 ?is1 z 9 all acids1 ! fir/ degree ( acidification is express$ by ! t]m9ation 9 ous2 ! /rong]1 by ! t]m9ation 9 ic4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,& h[ is ! sulphuric acid made8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,by burn+ sulphur 9 pure oxyg5 gas1 & ?us r5d]+ its combu/ion mu* m complete4 ,i h provid$ "s oxyg5 gas = ?is purpose2 x is 9 t bottle1 b we mu/ fir/ decant ! gas into ! glass receiv] :i* /&s on ! %elf 9 ! ba?1 & is full ( wat]4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,pray1 let me try to d x1 ,mrs4 ,b4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x requires "s little dext]ity--hold ! bottle completely "u wat]1 & d n turn ! m\? upw>ds1 till x is imm$iately "u ! ap]ture 9 ! %elf1 ?r\gh :i* ! gas is to pass into ! receiv]1 & !n turn x up gradually4 --,v well1 y h only let a few bubbles escape1 & t mu/ be expect$ at a fir/ trial4 --,n[ ,i %all put ?is piece ( sulphur into ! receiv]1 ?r\gh ! op5+ at ! top1 & introduce along ) x a small piece ( light$ t9d] to set fire to x4 --,?is requires be+ done v quickly1 le/ ! atmosph]ical air %\ld get 91 & mix ) ! pure oxyg5 gas4 ,,emily4 ,h[ beautifully x burns6 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b x is already buri$ 9 ! ?ick vap\r4 ,?is1 ,i suppose1 is sulphuric acid8 ,,emily4 ,are ^! acids always 9 a gase\s /ate8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,sulphure\s acid1 z we h already obs]v$1 is a p]man5t gas1 & c be obta9$ 9 a liquid =m only by cond5s+ x 9 wat]4 ,9 its pure /ate1 ! sulphure\s acid is invisible1 & x n[ appe>s 9 ! =m ( a :ite smoke1 f its comb9+ ) ! moi/ure4 ,b ! vap\r ( sulphuric acid1 :i* y h j se5 to rise dur+ ! combu/ion1 is n a gas1 b only a vap\r1 :i* cond5ses into liquid sulphuric acid1 by los+ its caloric4 ,b x appe>s f ,sir ,h4 ,davy's exp]im5ts1 t ?is =mation & cond5sation ( sulphuric acid requires ! pres5ce ( wat]1 = :i* purpose ! vap\r is receiv$ into cold wat]1 :i* may aft]w>ds be sep>at$ f ! acid by evaporation4 ,sulphur has hi!rto be5 consid]$ z a simple sub/ance2 b ,sir ,h4 ,davy has suspect$ t x conta9s a small portion ( hydrog51 & p]haps also ( oxyg54 ,on submitt+ sulphur to ! action ( ! ,voltaic batt]y1 he obs]v$ t ! negative wire gave out hydrog52 & ! exi/5ce ( hydrog5 9 sulphur 0 r5d]$ /ill m probable by 8 obs]v+ t a small quantity ( wat] 0 produc$ dur+ ! combu/ion ( sulphur4 ,,emily4 ,& pray ( :at nature is sulphur :5 p]fectly pure8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,sulphur has probably nev] be5 obta9$ p]fectly free f comb9ation1 s t its radical may possibly possess prop]ties v diff]5t f ^? ( common sulphur4 ,x has be5 suspect$ to be ( a metallic nature2 b ?is is m]e conjecture4 ,be=e we quit ! subject ( sulphur1 ,i mu/ tell y t x is susceptible ( comb9+ ) a great v>iety ( sub/ances1 & especially ) hydrog51 ) :i* y are already acqua9t$4 ,hydrog5 gas c dissolve a small portion ( x4 ,,emily4 ,:at6 c a gas dissolve a solid sub/ance8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 a solid sub/ance may be s m9utely divid$ by heat1 z to become soluble 9 a gas3 & !re are sev]al in/ances ( x4 ,b y mu/ obs]ve1 t1 9 ?is case1 a *emical union or comb9ation ( ! sulphur ) ! hydrog5 gas is produc$4 ,9 ord] to effect ?is1 ! sulphur mu/ be /rongly heat$ 9 contact ) ! gas2 ! heat r$uces ! sulphur to su* a /ate ( extreme division1 & diffuses x s ?or\ghly ?r\gh ! gas1 t !y comb9e & incorporate toge!r4 ,& z a pro( t !re mu/ be a *emical union betwe5 ! sulphur & ! gas1 x is suffici5t to rem>k t !y are n sep>at$ :5 ! sulphur loses ! caloric by :i* x 0 volatiliz$4 ,besides1 x is evid5t1 f ! peculi> fetid smell ( ?is gas1 t x is a new comp\nd totally diff]5t f ei!r ( its con/itu5ts2 x is call$ sulphurett$ hydrog5 gas1 & is conta9$ 9 great abundance 9 sulphure\s m9]al wat]s4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,are n ! ,h>rogate wat]s ( ?is nature8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 !y are naturally impregnat$ ) sulphurett$ hydrog5 gas1 & !re are _m o!r spr+s ( ! same k9d1 :i* %[s t ?is gas mu/ (t5 be =m$ 9 ! b[els ( ! e>? by spontane\s processes ( nature4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,& c\ld n su* wat]s be made artificially by impregnat+ common wat] ) ?is gas8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 !y c be s well imitat$1 z p]fectly to resemble ! ,h>rogate wat]s4 ,sulphur comb9es likewise ) phosphorus1 & ) ! alkalies1 & alkal9e e>?s1 sub/ances ) :i* y are yet unacqua9t$4 ,we _c1 !re=e1 ent] into ^! comb9ations at pres5t4 ,9 our next lesson we %all treat ( phosphorus4 ,,emily4 ,may we n beg9 t subject to-day2 ?is lesson has be5 s %ort8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i h no objection1 if y are n tir$4 ,:at d y say1 ,c>ol9e8 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i am z desir\s z ,emily ( prolong+ ! lesson to-day1 especially z we are to ent] on a new subject2 = ,i confess t sulphur has n appe>$ to me s int]e/+ z ! o!r simple bodies4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,p]haps y may f9d phosphorus m ent]ta9+4 ,y mu/ n1 h[ev]1 be disc\rag$ :5 y meet ) "s p>ts ( a /udy less amus+ ?an o!rs2 x w\ld answ] no good purpose to select ! mo/ pleas+ p>ts1 s9ce1 if we did n proce$ ) "s me?od1 9 ord] to acquire a g5]al idea ( ! :ole1 we c\ld sc>cely expect to take int]e/ 9 any p>ticul> subjects4 ,,phosphorus4 ,,phosphorus is consid]$ z a simple body2 ?\gh1 l sulphur1 x has be5 suspect$ ( conta9+ hydrog54 ,x 0 n kn[n by ! e>li] *emi/s4 ,x 0 fir/ discov]$ by ,br&t1 a *emi/ ( ,hamburgh1 :il/ employ$ 9 rese>*es aft] ! philosoph]'s /one2 b ! me?od ( obta9+ x rema9$ a secret till x 0 a second "t discov]$ bo? by ,kunckel & ,boyle1 9 ! ye> #afhj4 ,y see a specim5 ( phosphorus 9 ?is phial2 x is g5]ally m\ld$ into small /icks ( a yell[i% col\r1 z y f9d x "h4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i d n und]/& 9 :at ! discov]y consi/$2 !re may be a secret me?od ( mak+ an artificial composition1 b h[ c y talk ( mak+ a sub/ance :i* naturally exi/s8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,a body may exi/ 9 nature s closely comb9$ ) o!r sub/ances1 z to elude ! obs]vation ( *emi/s1 or r5d] x extremely difficult to obta9 x 9 its sep>ate /ate4 ,?is is ! case ) phosphorus1 :i* is always s intimately comb9$ ) o!r sub/ances1 t its exi/5ce rema9$ unnotic$ till ,br&t discov]$ ! means ( obta9+ x free f o!r comb9ations4 ,x is f\nd 9 all animal sub/ances1 & is n[ *iefly extract$ f bones1 by a *emical process4 ,x exi/s also 9 "s plants1 t be> a /rong analogy to animal matt] 9 _! *emical composition4 ,,emily4 ,b is x nev] f\nd 9 its pure sep>ate /ate8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,nev]1 & ?is is ! reason t x has rema9$ s long undiscov]$4 ,phosphorus is em95tly combu/ible2 x melts & takes fire at ! temp]ature ( "o hundr$ degrees1 & absorbs 9 its combu/ion ne>ly once & a half its own weight ( oxyg54 ,,c>ol9e4 ,:at6 w a p\nd ( phosphorus consume a p\nd & half ( oxyg58 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,s x appe>s f accurate exp]im5ts4 ,i c %[ y ) :at viol5ce x comb9es ) oxyg51 by burn+ "s ( x 9 t gas4 ,we mu/ manage ! exp]im5t 9 ! same mann] z we did ! combu/ion ( sulphur4 ,y see ,i am oblig$ to cut ?is little bit ( phosphorus "u wat]1 o!rwise !re w\ld be dang] ( its tak+ fire by ! heat ( my f+]s4 ,i n[ put into ! receiv]1 & k9dle x by means ( a hot wire4 ,,emily4 ,:at a blaze6 ,i c h>dly look at x4 ,i nev] saw any ?+ s brilliant4 ,does x n hurt y\r eyes1 ,c>ol9e8 ,,c>ol9e4 ,yes2 b /ill ,i _c help look+ at x4 ,a prodigi\s quantity ( oxyg5 mu/ inde$ be absorb$1 :5 s mu* light & caloric are dis5gag$6 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,9 ! combu/ion ( a p\nd ( phosphorus1 a suffici5t quantity ( caloric is set free to melt upw>ds ( a hundr$ p\nds ( ice2 ?is has be5 comput$ by direct exp]im5ts ) ! calorimet]4 ,,emily4 ,& is ! result ( ?is combu/ion1 l t ( sulphur1 an acid8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 phosphoric acid4 ,& _h we duly proportion$ ! phosphorus & ! oxyg51 !y w\ld h be5 completely conv]t$ into phosphoric acid1 weigh+ toge!r1 9 ?is new /ate1 exactly ! sum ( _! weights sep>ately4 ,! wat] w\ld h asc5d$ into ! receiv]1 on acc\nt ( ! vacuum =m$1 & w\ld h fill$ x entirely4 ,9 ?is case1 z 9 ! combu/ion ( sulphur1 ! acid vap\r =m$ is absorb$ & cond5s$ 9 ! wat] ( ! receiv]4 ,b :5 ?is combu/ion is p]=m$ )\t any wat] or moi/ure be+ pres5t1 ! acid !n appe>s 9 ! =m ( concrete :iti% flakes1 :i* are1 h[ev]1 extremely ready to melt ^u ! lea/ admission ( moi/ure4 ,,emily4 ,does phosphorus1 9 burn+ 9 atmosph]ical air1 produce1 l sulphur1 a weak] sort ( ! same acid8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no3 = x burns 9 atmosph]ical air1 ne>ly at ! same temp]ature z 9 pure oxyg5 gas2 & x is 9 bo? cases s /rongly dispos$ to comb9e ) ! oxyg51 t ! combu/ion is p]fect1 & ! product simil>2 only 9 atmosph]ical air1 be+ less rapidly suppli$ ) oxyg51 ! process is p]=m$ 9 a sl[] mann]4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b is !re no me?od ( acidify+ phosphorus 9 a slight] mann]1 s z to =m phosphorus acid8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes1 !re is4 ,:5 simply expos$ to ! atmosph]e1 phosphorus und]goes a k9d ( sl[ combu/ion at any temp]ature above z]o4 ,,emily4 ,b is n ! process 9 ?is case r an oxydation ?an a combu/ion8 ,= if ! oxyg5 is too sl[ly absorb$ = a s5sible quantity ( light & heat to be dis5gag$1 x is n a true combu/ion4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! case is n z y suppose3 a fa9t light is emitt$ :i* is v disc]nible 9 ! d>k2 b ! heat evolv$ is n suffici5tly /rong to be s5sible3 a :iti% vap\r arises f ?is combu/ion1 :i*1 unit+ ) wat]1 cond5ses into liquid phosphorus acid4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,is x n v s+ul> t phosphorus %\ld burn at s l[ a temp]ature 9 atmosph]ical air1 :il/ x does n burn 9 pure oxyg5 )\t ! application ( heat8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,s x at fir/ appe>s4 ,b ?is circum/ance seems to be ow+ to ! nitrog5 gas ( ! atmosph]e4 ,?is gas dissolves small p>ticles ( phosphorus1 :i* be+ ?us m9utely divid$ & diffus$ 9 ! atmosph]ical air1 comb9es ) ! oxyg51 & und]goes ?is sl[ combu/ion4 ,b ! same effect does n take place 9 oxyg5 gas1 because x is n capable ( dissolv+ phosphorus2 x is !re=e necess>y1 9 ?is case1 t heat %\ld be appli$ to effect t division ( p>ticles1 :i*1 9 ! =m] in/ance1 is produc$ by ! nitrog54 ,,emily4 ,i h se5 lett]s writt5 ) phosphorus1 :i* are invisible by day-light1 b may be read 9 ! d>k by _! own light4 ,!y look z if !y 7 writt5 ) fire2 yet !y d n seem to burn4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,b !y d really burn2 = x is by _! sl[ combu/ion t ! light is emitt$2 & phosphorus acid is ! result ( ?is combu/ion4 ,phosphorus is sometimes us$ z a te/ to e/imate ! purity ( atmosph]ical air4 ,= ?is purpose1 x is burnt 9 a graduat$ tube1 call$ an ,eudiomet] 7,,plate ,,xi4 fig4 #b471 & f ! quantity ( air :i* ! phosphorus absorbs1 ! proportion ( oxyg5 9 ! air exam9$ is d$uc$2 = ! phosphorus w absorb all ! oxyg51 & ! nitrog5 alone w rema94 ,,emily4 ,& ! m oxyg5 is conta9$ 9 ! atmosph]e1 ! pur]1 ,i suppose1 x is e/eem$8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,c]ta9ly4 ,phosphorus1 :5 melt$1 comb9es ) a great v>iety ( sub/ances4 ,) sulphur x =ms a comp\nd s extremely combu/ible1 t x imm$iately takes fire on com+ 9 contact ) ! air4 ,x is ) ?is composition t phosphoric mat*es are prep>$1 :i* k9dle z soon z !y are tak5 out ( _! case & are expos$ to ! air4 ,,emily4 ,i h a box ( ^! curi\s mat*es2 b ,i h obs]v$1 t 9 v cold wea!r1 !y w n take fire )\t be+ previ\sly rubb$4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,by rubb+ !m y raise _! temp]ature2 =1 y "k1 friction is "o ( ! means ( extricat+ heat4 ,,emily4 ,w phosphorus comb9e ) hydrog5 gas1 z sulphur does8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 & ! comp\nd gas :i* results f ?is comb9ation has a smell /ill m fetid ?an ! sulphurett$ hydrog52 x resembles t ( g>lic4 ,! phosphorett$ hydrog5 gas has ?is rem>kable peculi>ity1 t x takes fire spontane\sly 9 ! atmosph]e1 at any temp]ature4 ,x is ?us1 probably1 t are produc$ ^? transi5t flames1 or fla%es ( light1 call$ by ! vulg> ,w-(-! ,:isp1 or m prop]ly ,ignes-fatui1 :i* are (t5 se5 9 *ur*-y>ds1 & places :]e ! putrefactions ( animal matt] exhale phosphorus & hydrog5 gas4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,c\ntry p1 :o are s mu* fright5$ by ^? appe>ances1 w\ld soon be reconcil$ to !m1 if !y knew f :at a simple cause !y proce$4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,!re are o!r comb9ations ( phosphorus t h also v s+ul> prop]ties1 p>ticul>ly t :i* results f its union ) lime4 ,,emily4 ,is !re any "n to di/+ui% ! comb9ation ( two sub/ances1 l phosphorus & lime1 nei!r ( :i* are oxyg51 & :i* _c !re=e produce ei!r an oxyd or an acid8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! names ( su* comb9ations are compos$ f ^? ( _! +r$i5ts1 m]ely by a slight *ange 9 _! t]m9ation4 ,?us ! comb9ation ( sulphur ) lime is call$ a sulphuret1 & t ( phosphorus1 a phosphuret ( lime4 ,?is latt] comp\nd1 ,i 0 go+ to say1 has ! s+ul> prop]ty ( decompos+ wat]1 m]ely by be+ ?r[n into x4 ,x effects ?is by absorb+ ! oxyg5 ( wat]1 9 consequ5ce ( :i* bubbles ( hydrog5 gas asc5d1 hold+ 9 solution a small quantity ( phosphorus4 ,,emily4 ,^! bubbles !n are phosphorett$ hydrog5 gas8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 & !y produce ! s+ul> appe>ance ( a fla% ( fire issu+ f wat]1 z ! bubbles k9dle & detonate on ! surface ( ! wat]1 at ! in/ant t !y come 9 contact ) ! atmosph]e4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,is n ?is effect ne>ly simil> to t produc$ by ! comb9ation ( phosphorus & sulphur1 or1 m prop]ly speak+1 ! phosphuret ( sulphur8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 b ! ph5om5on appe>s m extraord9>y 9 ?is case1 f ! pres5ce ( wat]1 & f ! gase\s =m ( ! combu/ible comp\nd4 ,besides1 ! exp]im5t surprises by its great simplicity4 ,y only ?r[ a piece ( phosphoret ( lime into a glass ( wat]1 & bubbles ( fire w imm$iately issue f x4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,_c we try ! exp]im5t8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,v easily3 b we mu/ d x 9 ! op5 air2 = ! smell ( ! phosphorat$ hydrog5 gas is s extremely fetid1 t x w\ld be intol]able 9 ! h\se4 ,b be=e we leave ! room1 we may produce1 by ano!r process1 "s bubbles ( ! same gas1 :i* are mu* less (f5sive4 ,!re is 9 ?is little glass retort a solution ( pota% 9 wat]2 ,i add to x a small piece ( phosphorus4 ,we mu/ n[ heat ! retort ov] ! lamp1 aft] hav+ engag$ its neck "u wat]--y see x beg9s to boil2 9 a few m9utes bubbles w appe>1 :i* take fire & detonate z !y issue f ! wat]4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,!re is "o--& ano!r4 ,h[ curi\s x is6 --,b ,i d n und]/& h[ ?is is produc$4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is ! consequ5ce ( a display ( aff9ities too complicat$1 ,i fe>1 to be made p]fectly intelligible to y at pres5t4 ,9 a few words1 ! reciprocal action ( ! pota%1 phosphorus1 caloric1 & wat] are su*1 t "s ( ! wat] is decompos$1 & ! hydrog5 gas !reby =m$ c>ries (f "s m9ute p>ticles ( phosphorus1 ) :i* x =ms phosphorett$ hydrog5 gas1 a comp\nd :i* spontane\sly takes fire at almo/ any temp]ature4 ,,emily4 ,:at is t circul> r+ ( smoke :i* sl[ly rises f ea* bubble aft] its detonation8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x consi/s ( wat] & phosphoric acid 9 vap\r1 :i* are produc$ by ! combu/ion ( hydrog5 & phosphorus4 ,,conv]sation ,,ix4 ,,on ,,c>bon4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,to-day1 ,mrs4 ,b41 ,i believe we are to le>n ! nature & prop]ties ( ,,c>bon4 ,?is sub/ance is q new to me2 ,i nev] he>d x m5tion$ be=e4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,n s new z y imag9e2 = c>bon is no?+ m ?an *>coal 9 a /ate ( purity1 t is to say1 unmix$ ) any =eign +r$i5ts4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b *>coal is made by art1 ,mrs4 ,b41 & a body consi/+ ( "o simple sub/ance _c be fabricat$8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y aga9 conf\nd ! idea1 ( mak+ a simple body1 ) t ( sep>at+ x f a comp\nd4 ,! *emical processes by :i* a simple body is obta9$ 9 a /ate ( purity1 consi/ 9 unmak+ ! comp\nd 9 :i* x is conta9$1 9 ord] to sep>ate f x ! simple sub/ance 9 "q4 ,! me?od by :i* *>coal is usually obta9$1 is1 inde$1 commonly call$ mak+ x2 b1 ^u exam9ation1 y w f9d ?is process to consi/ simply 9 sep>at+ x f o!r sub/ances ) :i* x is f\nd comb9$ 9 nature4 ,c>bon =ms a consid]able "p ( ! solid matt] ( all organis$ bodies2 b x is mo/ abundant 9 ! vegetable creation1 & x is *iefly obta9$ f wood4 ,:5 ! oil & wat] 7:i* are o!r con/itu5ts ( vegetable matt]7 are evaporat$1 ! black1 por\s1 brittle sub/ance t rema9s1 is *>coal4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b if heat be appli$ to ! wood 9 ord] to evaporate ! oil & wat]1 w n ! temp]ature ( ! *>coal be rais$ s z to make x burn2 & if x comb9es ) oxyg51 c we any long] call x pure8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i 0 go+ to say1 t1 9 ?is op]ation1 ! air mu/ be exclud$4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,h[ !n c ! vap\r ( ! oil & wat] fly (f8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,9 ord] to produce *>coal 9 its pure/ /ate 7:i* is1 ev5 !n1 b a less imp]fect sort ( c>bon71 ! op]ation %\ld be p]=m$ 9 an e>!n retort4 ,heat be+ appli$ to ! body ( ! retort1 ! evaporable "p ( ! wood w escape ?r\gh its neck1 into :i* no air c p5etrate z long z ! heat$ vap\r cont9ues to fill x4 ,& if x be wi%$ to collect ^! volatile products ( ! wood1 ?is c easily be done by introduc+ ! neck ( ! retort into ! wat]-ba? app>atus1 ) :i* y are acqua9t$4 ,b ! prep>ation ( common *>coal1 su* z is us$ 9 kit*5s & manufactures1 is p]=m$ on a mu* l>g] scale1 & by an easi] & less exp5sive process4 ,,emily4 ,i h se5 ! process ( mak+ common *>coal4 ,! wood is rang$ on ! gr\nd 9 a pile ( a pyramidical =m1 ) a fire und]nea?2 ! :ole is !n cov]$ ) clay1 a few holes only be+ left = ! circulation ( air4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,^! holes are clos$ z soon z ! wood is fairly light$1 s t ! combu/ion is *eck$1 or at lea/ cont9ues b 9 a v imp]fect mann]2 b ! heat produc$ by x is suffici5t to =ce out & volatilize1 ?r\gh ! e>?y cov]1 mo/ "p ( ! oily & wat]y pr9ciples ( ! wood1 al?\gh x _c r$uce x to a%es4 ,,emily4 ,is pure c>bon z black z *>coal8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! pure/ *>coal we c prep>e is s2 b *emi/s h nev] yet be5 able to sep>ate x entirely f hydrog54 ,sir ,h4 ,davy says1 t ! mo/ p]fect c>bon t is prep>$ by art conta9s ab\t five p] c5t4 ( hydrog52 he is ( op9ion1 t if we c\ld obta9 x q free f =eign +r$i5ts1 x w\ld be metallic1 9 common ) o!r simple sub/ances4 ,b !re is a =m 9 :i* *>coal appe>s1 t ,i d>e say w surprise y4 --,?is r+1 :i* ,i we> on my f+]1 owes its brilliancy to a small piece ( c>bon4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,surely1 y are je/+1 ,mrs4 ,b48 ,,emily4 ,i ?\ght y\r r+ 0 diamond8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is s4 ,b diamond is no?+ m ?an c>bon 9 a cry/alliz$ /ate4 ,,emily4 ,t is a/oni%+6 ,is x possible to see two ?+s app>5tly m diff]5t ?an diamond & *>coal8 ,,c>ol9e4 ,x is1 inde$1 curi\s to ?9k t we adorn ourselves ) jewels ( *>coal6 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,!re are _m o!r sub/ances1 consi/+ *iefly ( c>bon1 t are rem>kably :ite4 ,cotton1 = in/ance1 is almo/ :olly c>bon4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,t1 ,i own1 ,i c\ld nev] h imag9$6 --,b pray1 ,mrs4 ,b41 s9ce x is kn[n ( :at sub/ance diamond & cotton are compos$1 :y %\ld !y n be manufactur$1 or imitat$1 by "s *emical process1 :i* w\ld r5d] !m mu* *eap]1 & m pl5tiful ?an ! pres5t mode ( obta9+ !m8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y might z well1 my de>1 propose t we %\ld make fl[]s & fruit1 nay1 p]haps ev5 animals1 by a *emical process2 = x is kn[n ( :at ^! bodies consi/1 s9ce e ?+ :i* we are acqua9t$ ) 9 nature is =m$ f ! v>i\s simple sub/ances t we h enum]at$4 ,b y mu/ n suppose t a k ( ! compon5t p>ts ( a body w 9 e case enable u to imitate x4 ,x is mu* less difficult to decompose bodies1 & discov] ( :at mat]ials !y are made1 ?an x is to recompose !m4 ,! fir/ ( ^! processes is call$ analysis1 ! la/ syn!sis4 ,:5 we are able to asc]ta9 ! nature ( a sub/ance by bo? ^! me?ods1 s t ! result ( "o confirms t ( ! o!r1 we obta9 ! mo/ complete k ( x t we are capable ( acquir+4 ,?is is ! case ) wat]1 ) ! atmosph]e1 ) mo/ ( ! oxyds1 acids1 & neutral salts1 & ) _m o!r comp\nds4 ,b ! m complicat$ comb9ations ( nature1 ev5 9 ! m9]al k+dom1 are 9 g5]al beyond our rea*1 & any attempt to imitate organis$ bodies mu/ ev] prove fruitless2 _! =mation is a secret t re/s 9 ! bosom ( ! ,creator4 ,y see1 !re=e1 h[ va9 x w\ld be to attempt to make cotton by *emical means4 ,b1 surely1 we h no reason to regret our inability 9 ?is in/ance1 :5 nature has s cle>ly po9t$ out a me?od ( obta9+ x 9 p]fection & abundance4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i did n imag9e t ! pr9ciple ( life c\ld be imitat$ by ! aid ( *emi/ry2 b x did n appe> to me ridicul\s to suppose t *emi/s might atta9 a p]fect imitation ( inanimate nature4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,!y h succe$$ 9 ?is po9t 9 a v>iety ( in/ances2 b1 z y ju/ly obs]ve1 ! pr9ciple ( life1 or ev5 ! m9ute & intimate organisation ( ! vegetable k+dom1 are secrets t h almo/ entirely elud$ ! rese>*es ( philosoph]s2 nor d ,i imag9e t human art w ev] be capable ( inve/igat+ !m ) complete success4 ,,emily4 ,b diamond1 s9ce x consi/s ( "o simple unorganis$ sub/ance1 might be1 "o w\ld ?9k1 p]fectly imitable by art8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is sometimes z mu* beyond our p[] to obta9 a simple body 9 a /ate ( p]fect purity1 z x is to imitate a complicat$ comb9ation2 = ! op]ations by :i* nature sep>ates bodies are frequ5tly z inimitable z ^? :i* %e uses = _! comb9ation4 ,?is is ! case ) c>bon2 all ! ef=ts ( *emi/s to sep>ate x entirely f o!r sub/ances h be5 fruitless1 & 9 ! pure/ /ate 9 :i* x c be obta9$ by art1 x /ill reta9s a portion ( hydrog51 & probably ( "s o!r =eign +r$i5ts4 ,we are ignorant ( ! means :i* nature employs to cry/allize x4 ,x may probably be ! "w ( ages1 to purify1 arrange1 & unite ! p>ticles ( c>bon 9 ! =m ( diamond4 ,"h is "s *>coal 9 ! pure/ /ate we c procure x3 y see t x is a v black1 brittle1 light1 por\s sub/ance1 entirely de/itute ( ei!r ta/e or smell4 ,heat1 )\t air1 produces no alt]ation 9 x1 z x is n volatile2 b1 on ! contr>y1 x inv>iably rema9s at ! bottom ( ! vessel aft] all ! o!r p>ts ( ! vegetable are evaporat$4 ,,emily4 ,yet c>bon is1 no d\bt1 combu/ible1 s9ce y say t *>coal w\ld absorb oxyg5 if air 7 admitt$ dur+ its prep>ation8 ,,c>ol9e4 ,unque/ionably4 ,besides1 y "k1 ,emily1 h[ mu* x is us$ 9 cook+4 ,b pray :at is ! reason t *>coal burns )\t smoke1 :il/ a wood fire smokes s mu*8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,because1 9 ! conv]sion ( wood into *>coal1 ! volatile p>ticles ( ! =m] h be5 evaporat$4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,yet ,i h frequ5tly se5 *>coal burn ) flame2 !re=e x mu/1 9 t case1 conta9 "s hydrog54 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,v true2 b y mu/ recollect t *>coal1 especially t :i* is us$ = common purposes1 is n p]fectly pure4 ,x g5]ally reta9s "s rema9s ( ! v>i\s o!r compon5t p>ts ( vegetables1 & hydrog5 p>ticul>ly1 :i* acc\nts = ! flame 9 "q4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b :at becomes ( ! c>bon itself dur+ its combu/ion8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x gradually comb9es ) ! oxyg5 ( ! atmosph]e1 9 ! same way z sulphur & phosphorus1 &1 l ^? sub/ances1 x is conv]t$ into a peculi> acid1 :i* flies (f 9 a gase\s =m4 ,!re is ?is diff]5ce1 h[ev]1 t ! acid is n1 9 ?is in/ance1 z 9 ! two cases j m5tion$1 a m]e cond5sable vap\r1 b a p]man5t ela/ic fluid1 :i* always rema9s 9 ! /ate ( gas1 "u any pressure & at any temp]ature4 ,! nature ( ?is acid 0 fir/ asc]ta9$ by ,dr4 ,black1 ( ,ed9burgh2 &1 be=e ! introduction ( ! new nom5clature1 x 0 call$ fix$ air4 ,x is n[ di/+ui%$ by ! m appropriate "n ( c>bonic acid gas4 ,,emily4 ,c>bon1 !n1 c be volatiliz$ by burn+1 ?\gh1 by heat alone1 no su* effect is produc$8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 b !n x is no long] simple c>bon1 b an acid ( :i* c>bon =ms ! basis4 ,9 ?is /ate1 c>bon reta9s no m appe>ance ( solidity or corporeal =m1 ?an ! basis ( any o!r gas4 ,& y may1 ,i ?9k1 f ?is in/ance1 d]ive a m cle> idea ( ! basis ( ! oxyg51 hydrog51 & nitrog5 gases1 ! exi/5ce ( :i*1 z real bodies1 y seem$ to d\bt1 because !y 7 n to be obta9$ simply 9 a solid =m4 ,,emily4 ,t is true2 we may conceive ! basis ( ! oxyg51 & ( ! o!r gases1 to be solid1 heavy sub/ances1 l c>bon2 b s mu* exp&$ by caloric z to become invisible4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b does n ! c>bonic acid gas p>take ( ! blackness ( *>coal8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,n 9 ! lea/4 ,blackness1 y "k1 does n appe> to be ess5tial to c>bon1 & x is pure c>bon1 & n *>coal1 t we mu/ consid] z ! basis ( c>bonic acid4 ,we %all make "s c>bonic acid1 &1 9 ord] to ha/5 ! process1 we %all burn ! c>bon 9 oxyg5 gas4 ,,emily4 ,b d y mean !n to burn diamond8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,*>coal w answ] ! purpose /ill bett]1 be+ s(t] & m easy to inflame2 besides ! exp]im5ts on diamond are r exp5sive4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b is x possible to burn diamond8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes1 x is2 & 9 ord] to effect ?is combu/ion1 no?+ m is requir$ ?an to apply a suffici5t degree ( heat by means ( ! bl[-pipe1 & ( a /ream ( oxyg5 gas4 ,inde$ x is by burn+ diamond t its *emical nature has be5 asc]ta9$4 ,x has long be5 kn[n z a combu/ible sub/ance1 b x is )9 ^! few ye>s only t ! product ( its combu/ion has be5 prov$ to be pure c>bonic acid4 ,?is rem>kable discov]y is due to ,mr4 ,t5nant4 ,n[ let u try to make "s c>bonic acid4 --,w y1 ,emily1 decant "s oxyg5 gas f ?is l>ge j> into ! receiv] 9 :i* we are to burn ! c>bon2 & ,i %all introduce ?is small piece ( *>coal1 ) a little light$ t9d]1 :i* w be necess>y to give ! fir/ impulse to ! combu/ion4 ,,emily4 ,i _c conceive h[ s small a piece ( t9d]1 & t b j light$1 c raise ! temp]ature ( ! c>bon suffici5tly to set fire to x2 = x c produce sc>cely any s5sible heat1 & x h>dly t\*es ! c>bon4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! t9d] ?us k9dl$ has only heat en\gh to beg9 its own combu/ion1 :i*1 h[ev]1 soon becomes s rapid 9 ! oxyg5 gas1 z to raise ! temp]ature ( ! *>coal suffici5tly = ?is to burn likewise1 z y see is n[ ! case4 ,,emily4 ,i am surpris$ t ! combu/ion ( c>bon is n m brilliant2 x does n give out ne> s mu* light or caloric z phosphorus1 or sulphur4 ,yet s9ce x comb9es ) s mu* oxyg51 :y is n a proportional quantity ( light & heat dis5gag$ f ! decomposition ( ! oxyg5 gas1 & ! union ( its electricity ) t ( ! *>coal8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is n surpris+ t less light & heat %\ld be lib]at$ 9 ?is ?an 9 almo/ any o!r combu/ion1 s9ce ! oxyg51 in/ead ( ent]+ into a solid or liquid comb9ation1 z x does 9 ! phosphoric & sulphuric acids1 is employ$ 9 =m+ ano!r ela/ic fluid2 x !re=e p>ts ) less ( its caloric4 ,,emily4 ,true2 &1 on second consid]ation1 x appe>s1 on ! contr>y1 surpris+ t ! oxyg5 %\ld1 9 its comb9ation ) c>bon1 reta9 a suffici5t portion ( caloric to ma9ta9 bo? sub/ances 9 a gase\s /ate4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,we may !n judge ( ! degree ( solidity 9 :i* oxyg5 is comb9$ 9 a burnt body1 by ! quantity ( caloric lib]at$ dur+ its combu/ion8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 provid$ t y take into ! acc\nt ! quantity ( oxyg5 absorb$ by ! combu/ible body1 & obs]ve ! proportion :i* ! caloric be>s to x4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b :y %\ld ! wat]1 aft] ! combu/ion ( c>bon1 rise 9 ! receiv]1 s9ce ! gas )9 x reta9s an ari=m /ate8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,because ! c>bonic acid gas is gradually absorb$ by ! wat]2 & ?is effect w\ld be promot$ by %ak+ ! receiv]4 ,,emily4 ,! *>coal is n[ ext+ui%$1 ?\gh x is n ne>ly consum$2 x has su* an extraord9>y avidity = oxyg51 ,i suppose1 t ! receiv] did n conta9 en\gh to satisfy ! :ole4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t is c]ta9ly ! case2 = if ! combu/ion 7 p]=m$ 9 ! exact proportions ( #bh p>ts ( c>bon to #gb ( oxyg51 bo? ^! +r$i5ts w\ld disappe>1 & #ajj p>ts ( c>bonic acid w\ld be produc$4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,c>bonic acid mu/ be a v /rong acid1 s9ce x conta9s s great a proportion ( oxyg58 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t is a v natural inf]5ce2 yet x is errone\s4 ,= ! c>bonic is ! weake/ ( all ! acids4 ,! /r5g? ( an acid seems to dep5d ^u ! nature ( its basis1 & its mode ( comb9ation1 z well z ^u ! proportion ( ! acidify+ pr9ciple4 ,! same quantity ( oxyg5 t w conv]t "s bodies into /rong acids1 w only be suffici5t simply to oxydate o!rs4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,s9ce ?is acid is s weak1 ,i ?9k *emi/s %\ld h call$ x ! c>bon\s1 in/ead ( ! c>bonic acid4 ,,emily4 ,b1 ,i suppose1 ! c>bon\s acid is /ill weak]1 & is =m$ by burn+ c>bon 9 atmosph]ical air4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x has be5 lately discov]$1 t c>bon may be conv]t$ into a gas1 by unit+ ) a small] proportion ( oxyg52 b z ?is gas does n possess any acid prop]ties1 x is no m ?an an oxyd2 x is call$ gase\s oxyd ( c>bon4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,pray is n c>bonic acid a v :olesome gas to brea!1 z x conta9s s mu* oxyg58 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,on ! contr>y1 x is extremely p]nici\s4 ,oxyg51 :5 9 a /ate ( comb9ation ) o!r sub/ances1 loses1 9 almo/ e in/ance1 its respirable prop]ties1 & ! salubri\s effects :i* x has on ! animal economy :5 9 its unconf9$ /ate4 ,c>bonic acid is n only unfit = respiration1 b extremely delet]i\s if tak5 into ! lungs4 ,,emily4 ,y "k1 ,c>ol9e1 h[ v un:olesome ! fumes ( burn+ *>coal are reckon$4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,yes2 b1 to confess ! tru?1 ,i did n consid] t a *>coal fire produc$ c>bonic acid gas4 --,c ?is gas be cond5s$ into a liquid8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no3 =1 z ,i told y be=e1 x is a p]man5t ela/ic fluid4 ,b wat] c absorb a c]ta9 quantity ( ?is gas1 & c ev5 be impregnat$ ) x1 9 a v /rong degree1 by ! assi/ance ( agitation & pressure1 z ,i am go+ to %[ y4 ,i %all decant "s c>bonic acid gas into ?is bottle1 :i* ,i fill fir/ ) wat]1 9 ord] to exclude ! atmosph]ical air2 ! gas is !n introduc$ ?r\gh ! wat]1 :i* y see x displaces1 = x w n mix ) x 9 any quantity1 unless /rongly agitat$1 or all[$ to /& ov] x = "s "t4 ,! bottle is n[ ab\t half full ( c>bonic acid gas1 & ! o!r half is /ill occupi$ by ! wat]4 ,by cork+ ! bottle1 & !n viol5tly %ak+ x1 9 ?is way1 ,i c mix ! gas & wat] toge!r4 --,n[ w y ta/e x8 ,,emily4 ,x has a di/9ct acid ta/e4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,yes1 x is s5sibly s\r1 & appe>s full ( little bubbles4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x possesses likewise all ! o!r prop]ties ( acids1 b1 ( c\rse1 9 a less degree ?an ! pure c>bonic acid gas1 z x is s mu* dilut$ by wat]4 ,?is is a k9d ( artificial ,seltz] wat]4 ,by analys+ t :i* is produc$ by nature1 x 0 f\nd to conta9 sc>cely any ?+ m ?an common wat] impregnat$ ) a c]ta9 proportion ( c>bonic acid gas4 ,we are1 !re=e1 able to imitate x1 by mix+ ^? proportions ( wat] & c>bonic acid4 ,"h1 my de>1 is an in/ance1 9 :i*1 by a *emical process1 we c exactly copy ! op]ations ( nature2 = ! artificial ,seltz] wat]s c be made 9 e respect simil> to ^? ( nature2 9 "o po9t1 inde$1 ! =m] h an advantage1 s9ce !y may be prep>$ /rong]1 or weak]1 z occasion requires4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i ?\ght ,i _h ta/$ su* wat] be=e4 ,b :at r5d]s x s brisk & sp>kl+8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,?is sp>kl+1 or eff]vesc5ce1 z x is call$1 is always occasion$ by ! action ( an ela/ic fluid escap+ f a liquid2 9 ! artifical ,seltz] wat]1 x is produc$ by ! c>bonic acid1 :i* be+ light] ?an ! wat] 9 :i* x 0 /rongly cond5s$1 flies (f ) great rapidity ! in/ant ! bottle is uncork$2 ?is makes x necess>y to dr9k x imm$iately4 ,! bubbl+ t took place 9 ?is bottle 0 b trifl+1 z ! wat] 0 b v slightly impregnat$ ) c>bonic acid4 ,x requires a p>ticul> app>atus to prep>e ! gase\s artificial m9]al wat]s4 ,,emily4 ,if1 !n1 a bottle ( ,seltz] wat] rema9s = any l5g? ( "t uncork$1 ,i suppose x returns to ! /ate ( common wat]8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! :ole ( ! c>bonic acid gas1 or v ne>ly s1 w soon disappe>2 b !re is likewise 9 ,seltz] wat] a v small quantity ( soda1 & ( a few o!r sal9e or e>?y +r$i5ts1 :i* w rema9 9 ! wat]1 ?\gh x %\ld be kept uncork$ = any l5g? ( "t4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i h (t5 he>d ( p dr9k+ soda-wat]4 ,pray :at sort ( wat] is t8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is a k9d ( artificial ,seltz] wat]1 hold+ 9 solution1 besides ! gase\s acid1 a p>ticul> sal9e sub/ance1 call$ soda1 :i* imp>ts to ! wat] c]ta9 m$ic9al qualities4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b h[ c ^! wat]s be s :olesome1 s9ce c>bonic acid is s p]nici\s8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,a gas1 we may conceive1 ?\gh v prejudicial to brea!1 may be b5eficial to ! /oma*4 --,b x w\ld be ( no use to attempt expla9+ ?is m fully at pres5t4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,are wat]s nev] impregnat$ ) o!r gases8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 !re are sev]al k9ds ( gase\s wat]s4 ,i =got to tell y t wat]s h1 = "s ye>s pa/1 be5 prep>$1 impregnat$ bo? ) oxyg5 & hydrog5 gases4 ,^! are n an imitation ( nature1 b are altoge!r obta9$ by artificial means4 ,!y h be5 lately us$ m$ic9ally1 p>ticul>ly on ! cont95t1 :]e1 ,i und]/&1 !y h acquir$ "s reputation4 ,,emily4 ,if ,i recollect "r1 ,mrs4 ,b41 y told u t c>bon 0 capable ( decompos+ wat]2 ! aff9ity betwe5 oxyg5 & c>bon mu/1 !re=e1 be great] ?an betwe5 oxyg5 & hydrog58 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 b ?is is n ! case unless _! temp]ature be rais$ to a c]ta9 degree4 ,x is only :5 c>bon is r$-hot1 t x is capable ( sep>at+ ! oxyg5 f ! hydrog54 ,?us1 if a small quantity ( wat] be ?r[n on a r$-hot fire1 x w increase r ?an ext+ui% ! combu/ion2 = ! coals or wood 7bo? ( :i* conta9 a quantity ( c>bon7 decompose ! wat]1 & ?us supply ! fire bo? ) oxyg5 & hydrog5 gases4 ,if1 on ! contr>y1 a l>ge mass ( wat] be ?r[n ov] ! fire1 ! dim9ution ( heat ?us produc$ is su*1 t ! combu/ible matt] loses ! p[] ( decompos+ ! wat]1 & ! fire is ext+ui%$4 ,,emily4 ,i h he>d t fire-eng9es sometimes d m h>m ?an good1 & t !y actually increase ! fire :5 !y _c ?r[ wat] en\gh to ext+ui% x4 ,x mu/ be ow+1 no d\bt1 to ! decomposition ( ! wat] by ! c>bon dur+ ! conflagration4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,c]ta9ly4 --,! app>atus :i* y see "h 7,,plate ,,xi4 fig4 #c471 may be us$ to exemplify :at we h j said4 ,x consi/s 9 a k9d ( op5 furnace1 ?r\gh :i* a porcela9 tube1 conta9+ *>coal1 passes4 ,to "o end ( ! tube is adapt$ a glass retort ) wat] 9 x2 & ! o!r end communicates ) a receiv] plac$ on ! wat]-ba?4 ,a lamp be+ appli$ to ! retort1 & ! wat] made to boil1 ! vap\r is gradually convey$ ?r\gh ! r$-hot *>coal1 by :i* x is decompos$2 & ! hydrog5 gas :i* results f ?is decomposition is collect$ 9 ! receiv]4 ,b ! hydrog5 ?us obta9$ is f> f be+ pure2 x reta9s 9 solution a m9ute portion ( c>bon1 & conta9s also a quantity ( c>bonic acid4 ,?is r5d]s x heavi] ?an pure hydrog5 gas1 & gives x "s peculi> prop]ties2 x is di/+ui%$ by ! "n ( c>bonat$ hydrog5 gas4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,& :5ce does x obta9 ! c>bonic acid t is mix$ ) x8 ,,emily4 ,i believe ,i c answ] t "q1 ,c>ol9e4 --,f ! union ( ! oxyg5 7proce$+ f ! decompos$ wat]7 ) ! c>bon1 :i*1 y "k1 makes c>bonic acid4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,true2 ,i %\ld h recollect$ t4 --,! product ( ! decomposition ( wat] by r$-hot *>coal1 !re=e1 is c>bonat$ hydrog5 gas1 & c>bonic acid gas4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y are p]fectly "r n[4 ,c>bon is frequ5tly f\nd comb9$ ) hydrog5 9 a /ate ( solidity1 especially 9 coals1 :i* owe _! combu/ible nature to ^! two pr9ciples4 ,,emily4 ,is x ! hydrog51 !n1 t produces ! flame ( coals8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is s2 & :5 all ! hydrog5 is consum$1 ! c>bon cont9ues to burn )\t flame4 ,b aga91 z ,i m5tion$ :5 speak+ ( ! gas-lights1 ! hydrog5 gas produc$ by ! burn+ ( coals is n pure2 =1 dur+ ! combu/ion1 p>ticles ( c>bon are successively volatiliz$ ) ! hydrog51 ) :i* !y =m :at is call$ a hydro-c>bonat1 :i* is ! pr9cipal product ( ?is combu/ion4 ,c>bon is a v bad conductor ( heat2 = ?is reason1 x is employ$ 79 conjunction ) o!r +r$i5ts7 = coat+ furnaces & o!r *emical app>atus4 ,,emily4 ,pray :at is ! use ( coat+ furnaces8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,9 mo/ cases1 9 :i* a furnace is us$1 x is necess>y to produce & pres]ve a great degree ( heat1 = :i* purpose e possible means are us$ to prev5t ! heat f escap+ by communicat+ ) o!r bodies1 & ?is object is atta9$ by coat+ ov] ! inside ( ! furnace ) a k9d ( pla/]1 compos$ ( mat]ials t are bad conductors ( heat4 ,c>bon1 comb9$ ) a small quantity ( iron1 =ms a comp\nd call$ plumbago1 or black-lead1 ( :i* p5cils are made4 ,?is sub/ance1 agreeably to ! nom5clature1 is a c>buret ( iron4 ,,emily4 ,:y1 !n1 is x call$ black-lead8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is an anci5t "n giv5 to x by ignorant p1 f its %9+ metallic appe>ance2 b x is c]ta9ly a mo/ improp] "n = x1 z !re is n a p>ticle ( lead 9 ! composition4 ,!re is only "o m9e ( ?is m9]al1 :i* is 9 ,cumb]l&4 ,x is suppos$ to approa* z ne>ly to pure c>bon z ! be/ prep>$ *>coal does1 z x conta9s only five p>ts ( iron1 unadult]at$ by any o!r =eign +r$i5ts4 ,!re is ano!r c>buret ( iron1 9 :i* ! iron1 ?\gh unit$ only to an extremely small proportion ( c>bon1 acquires v rem>kable prop]ties2 ?is is /eel4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,really2 & yet /eel is mu* h>d] ?an iron8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,b c>bon is n ductile l iron1 & !re=e may r5d] ! /eel m brittle1 & prev5t its b5d+ s easily4 ,:e!r x is t ! c>bon1 by introduc+ itself into ! pores ( ! iron1 &1 by fill+ !m1 makes ! metal bo? h>d] & heavi]2 or :e!r ?is *ange dep5ds ^u "s *emical cause1 ,i _c pret5d to decide4 ,b !re is a subsequ5t op]ation1 by :i* ! h>dness ( /eel is v mu* increas$1 :i* simply consi/s 9 heat+ ! /eel till x is r$-hot1 & !n plung+ x into cold wat]4 ,c>bon1 besides ! comb9ation j m5tion$1 ent]s into ! composition ( a va/ numb] ( natural productions1 su*1 = in/ance1 z all ! v>i\s k9ds ( oils1 :i* result f ! comb9ation ( c>bon1 hydrog51 & caloric1 9 v>i\s proportions4 ,,emily4 ,i ?\ght t c>bon1 hydrog51 & caloric1 =m$ c>bonat$ hydrog5 gas8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t is ! case :5 a small portion ( c>bonic acid gas is held 9 solution by hydrog5 gas4 ,diff]5t proportions ( ! same pr9ciples1 toge!r ) ! circum/ances ( _! union1 produce v diff]5t comb9ations2 ( ?is y w see innum]able examples4 ,besides1 we are n n[ talk+ ( gases1 b ( c>bon & hydrog51 comb9$ only ) a quantity ( caloric suffici5t to br+ !m to ! consi/5cy ( oil or fat4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b oil & fat are n ( ! same consi/5ce8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,fat is only congeal$ oil2 or oil1 melt$ fat4 ,! "o requires a little m heat to ma9ta9 x 9 a fluid /ate ?an ! o!r4 ,h y nev] obs]v$ ! fat ( meat turn$ to oil by ! caloric x has imbib$ f ! fire8 ,,emily4 ,yet oils 9 g5]al1 z salad-oil1 & lamp-oil1 d n turn to fat :5 cold8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,n at ! common temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e1 because !y reta9 too mu* caloric to congeal at t temp]ature2 b if expos$ to a suffici5t degree ( cold1 _! lat5t heat is extricat$1 & !y become solid fat sub/ances4 ,h y nev] se5 salad oil froz5 9 w9t]8 ,,emily4 ,yes2 b x appe>s to me 9 t /ate v diff]5t f animal fat4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! ess5tial con/itu5t p>ts ( ei!r vegetable or animal oils are ! same1 c>bon & hydrog52 _! v>iety arises f ! diff]5t proportions ( ^! sub/ances1 & f o!r accessory +r$i5ts t may be mix$ ) !m4 ,! oil ( a :ale1 & ! oil ( roses1 are1 9 _! ess5tial con/itu5t p>ts1 ! same2 b ! "o is impregnat$ ) ! (f5sive p>ticles ( animal matt]1 ! o!r ) ! delicate p]fume ( a fl[]4 ,! diff]5ce ( fix$ oils1 & volatile or ess5tial oils1 consi/s also 9 ! v>i\s proportions ( c>bon & hydrog54 ,fix$ oils are ^? :i* w n evaporate )\t be+ decompos$2 ?is is ! case ) all common oils1 :i* conta9 a great] proportion ( c>bon ?an ! ess5tial oils4 ,! ess5tial oils 7:i* compreh5d ! :ole class ( ess5ces & p]fumes7 are light]2 !y conta9 m equal proportions ( c>bon & hydrog51 & are volatiliz$ or evaporat$ )\t be+ decompos$4 ,,emily4 ,:5 y say t "o k9d ( oil w evaporate1 & ! o!r be decompos$1 y mean1 ,i suppose1 by ! application ( heat8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,n necess>ily2 = !re are oils t w evaporate sl[ly at ! common temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e2 b = a m rapid volatilization1 or = _! decomposition1 ! assi/ance ( heat is requir$4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i %all n[ rememb]1 ,i ?9k1 t fat & oil are really ! same sub/ances1 bo? consi/+ ( c>bon & hydrog52 t 9 fix$ oils ! c>bon prepond]ates1 & heat produces a decomposition2 :ile1 9 ess5tial oils1 ! proportion ( hydrog5 is great]1 & heat produces a volatilization only4 ,,emily4 ,i suppose ! reason :y oil burns s well 9 lamps is because its two con/itu5ts are s combu/ible8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,c]ta9ly2 ! combu/ion ( oil is j ! same z t ( a c&le2 if tall[1 x is only oil 9 a concrete /ate2 if wax1 or sp]maceti1 its *ief *emical +r$i5ts are /ill hydrog5 & c>bon4 ,,emily4 ,i wond]1 !n1 !re %\ld be s great a diff]5ce betwe5 tall[ & wax8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i mu/ aga9 repeat1 t ! same sub/ances1 9 diff]5t proportions1 produce results t h sometimes sc>cely any resemblance to ea* o!r4 ,b ?is is r a g5]al rem>k t ,i wi% to impress ^u y\r m9ds1 ?an "o :i* is applicable to ! pres5t case2 = tall[ & wax are f> f be+ v dissimil>2 ! *ief diff]5ce consi/s 9 ! wax be+ a pur] comp\nd ( c>bon & hydrog5 ?an ! tall[1 :i* reta9s m ( ! gross p>ticles ( animal matt]4 ,! combu/ion ( a c&le1 & t ( a lamp1 bo? produce wat] & c>bonic acid gas4 ,c y tell me h[ ^! are =m$8 ,,emily4 ,let me reflect 4 4 4 4 ,bo? ! c&le & lamp burn by means ( fix$ oil--?is is decompos$ z ! combu/ion goes on2 & ! con/itu5t p>ts ( ! oil be+ ?us sep>at$1 ! c>bon unites to a portion ( oxyg5 f ! atmosph]e to =m c>bonic acid gas1 :il/ ! hydrog5 comb9es ) ano!r portion ( oxyg51 & =ms ) x wat]4 --,! products1 !re=e1 ( ! combu/ion ( oils are wat] & c>bonic acid gas4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b we see nei!r wat] nor c>bonic acid produc$ by ! combu/ion ( a c&le4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! c>bonic acid gas1 y "k1 is invisible1 & ! wat] be+ 9 a /ate ( vap\r1 is s likewise4 ,emily is p]fectly correct 9 h] explanation1 & ,i am v mu* pleas$ ) x4 ,all ! vegetable acids consi/ ( v>i\s proportions ( c>bon & hydrog51 acidifi$ by oxyg54 ,gums1 sug>1 & />*1 are likewise compos$ ( ^! +r$i5ts2 b1 z ! oxyg5 :i* !y conta9 is n suffici5t to conv]t !m into acids1 !y are class$ ) ! oxyds1 & call$ vegetable oxyds4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i am v mu* delight$ ) all ^! new ideas2 b1 at ! same "t1 ,i _c help be+ appreh5sive t ,i may =get _m ( !m4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i w\ld advise y to take notes1 or1 :at w\ld answ] bett] /ill1 to write d[n1 aft] e lesson1 z mu* ( x z y c recollect4 ,&1 9 ord] to give y a little assi/ance1 ,i %all l5d y ! heads or index1 :i* ,i occasionally consult = ! sake ( pres]v+ "s me?od & arrangem5t 9 ^! conv]sations4 ,unless y foll[ "s su* plan1 y _c expect to reta9 ne>ly all t y le>n1 h[ great soev] be ! impression x may make on y at fir/4 ,,emily4 ,i w c]ta9ly foll[ y\r advice4 --,hi!rto ,i h f\nd t ,i recollect$ pretty well :at y h taught u2 b ! hi/ory ( c>bon is a m ext5sive subject ?an any ( ! simple bodies we h yet exam9$4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i h little m to say on c>bon at pres5t2 b h]eaft] y w see t x p]=ms a consid]able "p 9 mo/ *emical op]ations4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,t is1 ,i suppose1 ow+ to its ent]+ into ! composition ( s great a v>iety ( sub/ances8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,c]ta9ly2 x is ! basis1 y h se51 ( all vegetable matt]2 & y w f9d t x is v ess5tial to ! process ( animalization4 ,b 9 ! m9]al k+dom also1 p>ticul>ly 9 its =m ( c>bonic acid1 we %all (t5 discov] x comb9$ ) a great v>iety ( sub/ances4 ,9 *emical op]ations1 c>bon is p>ticul>ly useful1 f its v great attraction = oxyg51 z x w absorb ?is sub/ance f _m oxyg5at$ or burnt bodies1 & ?us deoxyg5ate1 or unburn !m1 & re/ore !m to _! orig9al combu/ible /ate4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i d n und]/& h[ a body c be unburnt1 & re/or$ to its orig9al /ate4 ,?is piece ( t9d]1 = in/ance1 t has be5 burnt1 if by any means ! oxyg5 7 extract$ f x1 w\ld n be re/or$ to its =m] /ate ( l952 = its texture is de/roy$ by burn+1 & t mu/ be ! case ) all organiz$ or manufactur$ sub/ances1 z y obs]v$ 9 a =m] conv]sation4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,a comp\nd body is decompos$ by combu/ion 9 a way :i* g5]ally precludes ! possibility ( re/or+ x to its =m] /ate2 ! oxyg51 = in/ance1 does n become fix$ 9 ! t9d]1 b x comb9es ) its volatile p>ts1 & flies (f 9 ! %ape ( gas1 or wat]y vap\r4 ,y see1 !re=e1 h[ va9 x w\ld be to attempt ! recomposition ( su* bodies4 ,b1 ) reg>d to simple bodies1 or at lea/ bodies ^: compon5t p>ts are n di/urb$ by ! process ( oxyg5ation or deoxyg5ation1 x is (t5 possible to re/ore !m1 aft] combu/ion1 to _! orig9al /ate4 --,! metals1 = in/ance1 und]go no o!r alt]ation by combu/ion ?an a comb9ation ) oxyg52 !re=e1 :5 ! oxyg5 is tak5 f !m1 !y return to _! pure metallic /ate4 ,b ,i %all say no?+ fur!r ( ?is at pres5t1 z ! metals w furni% ample subject = ano!r morn+2 & !y are ! class ( simple bodies t come next "u consid]ation4 ,,conv]sation ,x4 ,,on ,,metals4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! ,,metals1 :i* we are n[ to exam9e1 are bodies ( a v diff]5t nature f ^? :i* we h hi!rto consid]$4 ,!y d n1 l ! bases ( gases1 elude ! imm$iate obs]vation ( our s5ses2 = !y are ! mo/ brilliant1 ! mo/ pond]\s1 & ! mo/ palpable sub/ances 9 nature4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i d\bt1 h[ev]1 :e!r ! metals w appe> to u s int]e/+1 & give u s mu* ent]ta9m5t z ^? my/]i\s elem5ts :i* conceal !mselves f our view4 ,besides1 !y _c af=d s mu* novelty2 !y are bodies ) :i* we are already s well acqua9t$4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y are n aw>e1 my de>1 ( ! int]e/+ discov]ies :i* 7 a few ye>s ago made by ,sir ,h4 ,davy respect+ ?is class ( bodies4 ,by ! aid ( ! ,voltaic batt]y1 he has obta9$ f a v>iety ( sub/ances1 metals be=e unkn[n1 ! prop]ties ( :i* are equally new & curi\s4 ,we %all beg91 h[ev]1 by notic+ ^? metals ) :i* y pr(ess to be s well acqua9t$4 ,b ! acqua9tance1 y w soon p]ceive1 is b v sup]ficial2 & ,i tru/ t y w f9d bo? novelty & ent]ta9m5t 9 consid]+ ! metals 9 a *emical po9t ( view4 ,to treat ( ?is subject fully1 w\ld require a :ole c\rse ( lectures2 = metals =m ( !mselves a mo/ important bran* ( practical *emi/ry4 ,we mu/1 !re=e1 conf9e ourselves to a g5]al view ( !m4 ,^! bodies are seldom f\nd naturally 9 _! metallic =m3 !y are g5]ally m or less oxyg5at$ or comb9$ ) sulphur1 e>?s1 or acids1 & are (t5 bl5d$ ) ea* o!r4 ,!y are f\nd buri$ 9 ! b[els ( ! e>? 9 mo/ p>ts ( ! _w1 b *iefly 9 m\nta9\s di/ricts1 :]e ! surface ( ! globe has suff]$ f ! e>?quakes1 volcanos1 & o!r convulsions ( nature4 ,!y are spread 9 /rata or b$s1 call$ ve9s1 & ^! ve9s are compos$ ( a c]ta9 quantity ( metal1 comb9$ ) v>i\s e>?y sub/ances1 ) :i* !y =m m9]als ( diff]5t nature & appe>ance1 :i* are call$ ores4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i n[ feel q at home1 = my fa!r has a lead-m9e 9 ,york%ire1 & ,i h he>d a great deal ab\t ve9s ( ore1 & ( ! roa/+ & smelt+ ( ! lead2 b1 ,i confess1 t ,i d n und]/& 9 :at ^! op]ations consi/4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,roa/+ is ! process by :i* ! volatile p>ts ( ! ore are evaporat$2 smelt+1 t by :i* ! pure metal is aft]w>ds sep>at$ f ! e>?y rema9s ( ! ore4 ,?is is done by ?r[+ ! :ole into a furnace1 & mix+ ) x c]ta9 sub/ances t w comb9e ) ! e>?y p>ts & o!r =eign +r$i5ts ( ! ore2 ! metal be+ ! heavie/1 falls to ! bottom1 & runs out by prop] op5+s 9 its pure metallic /ate4 ,,emily4 ,y told u 9 a prec$+ lesson t metals _h a great aff9ity = oxyg54 ,d !y n1 !re=e1 comb9e ) oxyg51 :5 /rongly heat$ 9 ! furnace1 & run out 9 ! /ate ( oxyds8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no2 = ! scori1 or oxyd1 :i* soon =ms on ! surface ( ! fus$ metal1 :5 x is oxydable1 prev5ts ! air f hav+ any fur!r influ5ce on ! mass2 s t nei!r combu/ion nor oxyg5ation c take place4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,are all ! metals equally combu/ible8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no2 _! attraction = oxyg5 v>ies extremely4 ,!re are "s t w comb9e ) x only at a v high temp]ature1 or by ! assi/ance ( acids2 :il/ !re are o!rs t oxydate spontane\sly & ) great rapidity1 ev5 at ! l[e/ temp]ature2 su* is 9 p>ticul> manganese1 :i* sc>cely ev] exi/s 9 ! metallic /ate1 z x imm$iately absorbs oxyg5 on be+ expos$ to ! air1 & crumbles to an oxyd 9 ! c\rse ( a few h\rs4 ,,emily4 ,is n t ! oxyd f :i* y extract$ ! oxyg5 gas8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is3 s t1 y see1 ?is metal attracts oxyg5 at a l[ temp]ature1 & p>ts ) x :5 /rongly heat$4 ,,emily4 ,is !re any o!r metal t oxydates at ! temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,!y all d1 m or less1 except+ gold1 silv]1 & plat9a4 ,copp]1 lead1 & iron1 oxydate sl[ly 9 ! air1 & cov] !mselves ) a sort ( ru/1 a process :i* dep5ds on ! gradual conv]sion ( ! surface into an oxyd4 ,?is ru/y surface pres]ves ! int]ior metal f oxydation1 z x prev5ts ! air f com+ 9 contact ) x4 ,/rictly speak+1 h[ev]1 ! ^w ru/ applies only to ! oxyd1 :i* =ms on ! surface ( iron1 :5 expos$ to air & moi/ure1 :i* oxyd appe>s to be unit$ ) a small portion ( c>bonic acid4 ,,emily4 ,:5 metals oxydate f ! atmosph]e )\t an elevation ( temp]ature1 "s light & heat1 ,i suppose1 mu/ be dis5gag$1 ?\gh n 9 suffici5t quantities to be s5sible4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,und\bt$ly2 &1 inde$1 x is n surpris+ t 9 ?is case ! light & heat %\ld n be s5sible1 :5 y consid] h[ extremely sl[1 &1 inde$1 h[ imp]fectly1 mo/ metals oxydate by m]e exposure to ! atmosph]e4 ,= ! quantity ( oxyg5 ) :i* metals are capable ( comb9+1 g5]ally dep5ds ^u _! temp]ature2 & ! absorption /ops at v>i\s po9ts ( oxydation1 accord+ to ! degree to :i* _! temp]ature is rais$4 ,,emily4 ,t seems v natural2 = ! great] ! quantity ( caloric introduc$ into a metal1 ! m w its positive electricity be exalt$1 & consequ5tly ! /rong] w be its aff9ity = oxyg54 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,c]ta9ly4 ,:5 ! metal oxyg5ates ) suffici5t rapidity = light & heat to become s5sible1 combu/ion actually takes place4 ,b ?is happ5s only at v high temp]atures1 & ! product is nev]!less an oxyd2 = ?\gh1 z ,i h j said1 metals w comb9e ) diff]5t proportions ( oxyg51 yet ) ! exception ( only five ( !m1 !y are n susceptible ( acidification4 ,metals *ange col\r dur+ ! diff]5t degrees ( oxydation :i* !y und]go4 ,lead1 :5 heat$ 9 contact ) ! atmosph]e1 fir/ becomes grey2 if its temp]ature be !n rais$1 x turns yell[1 & a /ill /rong] heat *anges x to r$4 ,iron becomes successively a gre51 br[n1 & :ite oxyd4 ,copp] *anges f br[n to blue1 & la/ly gre54 ,,emily4 ,pray1 is ! :ite lead ) :i* h\ses are pa9t$ prep>$ by oxydat+ lead8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,n m]ely by oxydat+1 b by be+ also unit$ ) c>bonic acid4 ,x is a c>bonat ( lead4 ,! m]e oxyd ( lead is call$ r$ lead4 ,li?>ge is ano!r oxyd ( lead1 conta9+ less oxyg54 ,almo/ all ! metallic oxyds are us$ z pa9ts4 ,! v>i\s sorts ( o*res consi/ *iefly ( iron m or less oxydat$4 ,& x is a rem>kable circum/ance1 t if y burn metals rapidly1 ! light or flame !y emit dur+ combu/ion p>takes ( ! col\rs :i* ! oxyd successively assumes4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,h[ is t acc\nt$ =1 ,mrs4 ,b48 ,= light1 y "k1 does n proce$ f ! burn+ body1 b f ! decomposition ( ! oxyg5 gas8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! correspond5ce ( ! col\r ( ! light ) t ( ! oxyd :i* emits x1 is1 9 all probability1 ow+ to "s p>ticles ( ! metal :i* are volatilis$ & c>ri$ (f by ! caloric4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,x is !n a sort ( metallic gas4 ,,emily4 ,:y is x reckon$ s un:olesome to brea! ! air ( a place 9 :i* metals are melt+8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,p]haps ! notion is too g5]ally ent]ta9$4 ,b x is true ) respect to lead1 & "s o!r noxi\s metals1 because1 unless c>e be tak51 ! p>ticles ( ! oxyd :i* are volatilis$ by ! heat are inhal$ 9 ) ! brea?1 & may produce dang]\s effects4 ,i mu/ %[ y "s in/ances ( ! combu/ion ( metals2 x w\ld require ! heat ( a furnace to make !m burn 9 ! common air1 b if we supply !m ) a /ream ( oxyg5 gas1 we may easily accompli% x4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b x w /ill1 ,i suppose1 be necess>y 9 "s degree to raise _! temp]ature8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,?is1 z y %all see1 is v easily done1 p>ticul>ly if ! exp]im5t be tri$ ^u a small scale4 --,i beg9 by light+ ?is piece ( *>coal ) ! c&le1 & !n increase ! rapidity ( its combu/ion by bl[+ ^u x ) a bl[-pipe4 7,,plate ,,xii4 fig4 #a47 ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,,xii4 ,app>atus = ! combu/ion ( metals by means ( oxyg5 gas4 ,fig4 #a4 ,ignit+ *>coal ) a tap] bl[-pipe4 ,fig4 #b4 ,combu/ion ( metals by means ( a bl[-pipe convey+ a /ream ( oxyg5 gas f a gas hold]4 ,,emily4 ,t ,i d n und]/&2 = x is n e k9d ( air1 b m]ely oxyg5 gas1 t produces combu/ion4 ,n[ y said t 9 brea?+ we inspir$1 b did n expire oxyg5 gas4 ,:y1 !re=e1 %\ld ! air :i* y brea! ?r\gh ! bl[-pipe promote ! combu/ion ( ! *>coal8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,because ! air1 :i* has b once pass$ ?r\gh ! lungs1 is yet b little alt]$1 a small portion only ( its oxyg5 be+ de/roy$2 s t a great deal m is ga9$ by increas+ ! rapidity ( ! curr5t1 by means ( ! bl[-pipe1 ?an is lo/ 9 consequ5ce ( ! air pass+ once ?r\gh ! lungs1 z y %all see-- ,,emily4 ,yes1 inde$1 x makes ! *>coal burn mu* bright]4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,:il/ x is r$-hot1 ,i %all drop "s iron fil+s on x1 & supply !m ) a curr5t ( oxyg5 gas1 by means ( ?is app>atus1 7,,plate ,,xii4 fig #b47 :i* consi/s simply ( a clos$ t9 cyl9drical vessel1 full ( oxyg5 gas1 ) two ap]tures & /op-cocks1 by "o ( :i* a /ream ( wat] is ?r[n into ! vessel ?r\gh a long funnel1 :il/ by ! o!r ! gas is =c$ out ?r\gh a bl[-pipe adapt$ to x1 z ! wat] ga9s admittance4 --,n[ t ,i p\r wat] into ! funnel1 y may he> ! gas issu+ f ! bl[-pipe--,i br+ ! *>coal close to ! curr5t1 & drop ! fil+s ^u x-- ,,c>ol9e4 ,!y emit mu* ! same vivid light z ! combu/ion ( ! iron wire 9 oxyg5 gas4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! process is1 9 fact1 ! same2 !re is only "s diff]5ce 9 ! mode ( conduct+ x4 ,let u burn "s t9 9 ! same mann]--y see t x is equally combu/ible4 --,let u n[ try "s copp]-- ,,c>ol9e4 ,?is burns ) a gre5i% flame2 x is1 ,i suppose1 ow+ to ! col\r ( ! oxyd8 ,,emily4 ,pray1 %all we n also burn "s gold8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t is n 9 our p[]1 at lea/ 9 ?is way4 ,gold1 silv]1 & plat9a1 are incapable ( be+ oxydat$ by ! greate/ heat t we c produce by ! common me?od4 ,x is f ?is circum/ance1 t !y h be5 call$ p]fect metals4 ,ev5 ^!1 h[ev]1 h an aff9ity = oxyg52 b _! oxydation or combu/ion c be p]=m$ only by means ( acids or by electricity4 ,! sp>k giv5 out by ! ,voltaic batt]y produces at ! po9t ( contact a great] degree ( heat ?an any o!r process2 & x is at ?is v high temp]ature only t ! aff9ity ( ^! metals = oxyg5 w enable !m to act on ea* o!r4 ,i am sorry t ,i _c %[ y ! combu/ion ( ! p]fect metals by ?is process1 b x requires a consid]able ,voltaic batt]y4 ,y w see ^! exp]im5ts p]=m$ 9 ! mo/ p]fect mann]1 :5 y att5d ! *emical lectures ( ! ,royal ,in/itution4 ,b 9 ! mean "t ,i c1 )\t difficulty1 %[ y an +5i\s app>atus lately contriv$ = ! purpose ( produc+ int5se heats1 ! p[] ( :i* ne>ly equals t ( ! l>ge/ ,voltaic batt]ies4 ,x simply consi/s1 y see1 9 a /rong box1 made ( iron or copp]1 7,,plate ,x4 fig4 #b47 to :i* may be adapt$ ?is air-syr+e or cond5s+-pump1 & a /op-cock t]m9at+ 9 a small orifice simil> to t ( a bl[-pipe4 ,by work+ ! cond5s+ syr+e1 up & d[n 9 ?is mann]1 a quantity ( air is accumulat$ 9 ! vessel1 :i* may be increas$ to almo/ any ext5t2 s t if we n[ turn ! /op-cock1 ! cond5s$ air w ru% out1 =m+ a jet ( consid]able =ce2 & if we place ! flame ( a lamp 9 ! curr5t1 y w see h[ viol5tly ! flame is driv5 9 t direction4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,x seems to be exactly ! same effect z t ( a bl[-pipe work$ by ! m\?1 only mu* /rong]4 ,,emily4 ,yes2 & ?is new in/rum5t has ?is additional advantage1 t x does n fatigue ! m\? & lungs l ! common bl[-pipe1 & requires no art 9 bl[+4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,unque/ionably2 b yet ?is bl[-pipe w\ld be ( v limit$ utility1 if its en]gy & p[] c\ld n be greatly increas$ by "s o!r contrivance4 ,c y imag9e any mode ( produc+ su* an effect8 ,,emily4 ,c\ld n ! res]voir be *>g$ ) pure oxyg51 in/ead ( common air1 z 9 ! case ( ! gas-hold]8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,und\bt$ly2 & ?is is precisely ! contrivance ,i allude to4 ,! vessel ne$ only be suppli$ ) air f a bladd] full ( oxyg51 in/ead ( ! air ( ! room1 & ?is1 y see1 may be easily done by screw+ ! bladd] on ! upp] "p ( ! syr+e1 s t 9 work+ ! syr+e ! oxyg5 gas is =c$ f ! bladd] into ! cond5s+ vessel4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,) ! aid ( ?is small app>atus1 !re=e1 we c\ld obta9 ! same effects z ^? we h j produc$ ) ! gas-hold]1 by means ( a column ( wat] =c+ ! gas out ( x8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 & mu* m conv5i5tly s4 ,b !re is a mode ( us+ ?is app>atus by :i* m p[]ful effects /ill may be obta9$4 ,x consi/s 9 cond5s+ 9 ! res]voir1 n oxyg5 alone1 b a mixture ( oxyg5 & hydrog5 9 ! exact proportion 9 :i* !y unite to produce wat]2 & !n k9dl+ ! jet =m$ by ! mix$ gases4 ,! heat dis5gag$ by ?is combu/ion1 )\t ! help ( any lamp1 is probably ! mo/ int5se kn[n2 & v>i\s effects are said to h be5 obta9$ f x :i* exce$ all expectation4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b :y %\ld we n try ?is exp]im5t8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,because x is n exempt f dang]2 ! combu/ion 7not)/&+ v>i\s contrivances :i* h be5 resort$ to ) a view to prev5t accid5t7 be+ apt to p5etrate into ! inside ( ! vessel1 & to produce a dang]\s & viol5t explosion4 --,we %all1 !re=e1 n[ proce$ 9 our subject4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i ?9k y said ! oxyds ( metals c\ld be re/or$ to _! metallic /ate8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 ?is is call$ reviv+ a metal4 ,metals are 9 g5]al capable ( be+ reviv$ by *>coal1 :5 heat$ r$ hot1 *>coal hav+ a great] attraction = oxyg5 ?an ! metals4 ,y ne$ only1 !re=e1 decompose1 or unburn ! oxyd1 by depriv+ x ( its oxyg51 & ! metal w be re/or$ to its pure /ate4 ,,emily4 ,b w ! c>bon1 by ?is op]ation1 be burnt1 & be conv]t$ into c>bonic acid8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,c]ta9ly4 ,!re are o!r combu/ible sub/ances to :i* metals at a high temp]ature w "p ) _! oxyg54 ,!y w also yield x to ea* o!r1 accord+ to _! sev]al degrees ( attraction = x2 & if ! oxyg5 goes into a m d5se /ate 9 ! metal :i* x ent]s1 ?an x exi/$ 9 t :i* x quits1 a proportional dis5gagem5t ( caloric w take place4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,& _c ! oxyds ( gold1 silv]1 & plat9a1 :i* are =m$ by means ( acids or ( ! electric fluid1 be re/or$ to _! metallic /ate8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes1 !y may2 & ! int]v5tion ( a combu/ible body is n requir$2 heat alone w take ! oxyg5 f !m1 conv]t x into a gas1 & revive ! metal4 ,,emily4 ,y said t ru/ 0 an oxyd ( iron2 h[ is x1 !n1 t wat]1 or m]ely dampness1 produces x1 :i*1 y "k1 x v frequ5tly does on /eel grates1 or any iron in/rum5ts8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,9 t case ! metal decomposes ! wat]1 or dampness 7:i* is no?+ b wat] 9 a /ate ( vap\r71 & obta9s ! oxyg5 f x4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i ?\ght t x 0 necess>y to br+ metals to a v high temp]ature to enable !m to decompose wat]4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is s1 if x is requir$ t ! process %\ld be p]=m$ rapidly1 & if any consid]able quantity is to be decompos$4 ,ru/1 y knew1 is sometimes mon?s 9 =m+1 & !n x is only ! surface ( ! metal t is oxydat$4 ,,emily4 ,metals1 !n1 t d n ru/1 are incapable ( spontane\s oxydation1 ei!r by air or wat]8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 & ?is is ! case ) ! p]fect metals1 :i*1 on t acc\nt1 pres]ve _! metallic lu/re s well4 ,,emily4 ,are all metals capable ( decompos+ wat]1 provid$ _! temp]ature be suffici5tly rais$8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no2 a c]ta9 degree ( attraction is requisite1 besides ! assi/ance ( heat4 ,wat]1 y recollect1 is compos$ ( oxyg5 & hydrog52 &1 unless ! aff9ity ( ! metal = oxyg5 be /rong] ?an t ( hydrog51 x is 9 va9 t we raise its temp]ature1 = x _c take ! oxyg5 f ! hydrog54 ,iron1 z9c1 t91 & antimony1 h a /rong] aff9ity = oxyg5 ?an hydrog5 has1 !re=e ^! f\r metals are capable ( decompos+ wat]4 ,b hydrog5 hav+ an advantage ov] all ! o!r metals ) respect to its aff9ity = oxyg51 x n only )holds its oxyg5 f !m1 b is ev5 capable1 "u c]ta9 circum/ances1 ( tak+ ! oxyg5 f ! oxyds ( ^! metals4 ,,emily4 ,i confess t ,i d n q und]/& :y hydrog5 c take oxyg5 f ^? metals t d n decompose wat]4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,n[ ,i ?9k ,i d p]fectly4 ,lead1 = in/ance1 w n decompose wat]1 because x has n s /rong an attraction = oxyg5 z hydrog5 has4 ,well1 !n1 suppose ! lead to be 9 a /ate ( oxyd2 hydrog5 w take ! oxyg5 f ! lead1 & unite ) x to =m wat]1 because hydrog5 has a /rong] attraction = oxyg51 ?an oxyg5 has = lead2 & x is ! same ) all ! o!r metals :i* d n decompose wat]4 ,,emily4 ,i und]/& y\r explanation1 ,c>ol9e1 v well2 & ,i imag9e t x is because lead _c decompose wat] t x is s mu* employ$ = pipes = convey+ t fluid4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,c]ta9ly2 lead is1 on t acc\nt1 p>ticul>ly appropriate to su* purposes2 :il/1 on ! contr>y1 ?is metal1 if x 0 oxydable by wat]1 w\ld imp>t to x v noxi\s qualities1 z all oxyds ( lead are m or less p]nici\s4 ,b1 ) reg>d to ! oxydation ( metals1 ! mo/ p[]ful mode ( effect+ x is by means ( acids4 ,^!1 y "k1 conta9 a mu* great] proportion ( oxyg5 ?an ei!r air or wat]2 & w1 mo/ ( !m1 easily yield x to metals4 ,?us1 y recollect1 ! z9c plates ( ! ,voltaic batt]y are oxydat$ by ! acid & wat]1 mu* m effectually ?an by wat] alone4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,& ,i h (t5 obs]v$ t if ,i drop v9eg>1 lemon1 or any acid on ! blade ( a knife1 or on a pair ( sciss>s1 x w imm$iately produce a spot ( ru/4 ,,emily4 ,metals h1 !n1 ?ree ways ( obta9+ oxyg52 f ! atmosph]e1 f wat]1 & f acids4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! two fir/ y h already witness$1 & ,i %all n[ %[ y h[ metals take ! oxyg5 f an acid4 ,?is bottle conta9s nitric acid2 ,i %all p\r "s ( x ov] ?is piece ( copp]-leaf 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,oh1 :at a disagreeable smell6 ,,emily4 ,& :at is x t produces ! eff]vesc5cy & t ?ick yell[ vap\r8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is ! acid1 :i* be+ ab&on$ by ! greate/ "p ( its oxyg51 is conv]t$ into a weak] acid1 :i* escapes 9 ! =m ( gas4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,& :5ce proce$s ?is heat8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,inde$1 ,c>ol9e1 ,i ?9k y might n[ be able to answ] t "q y\rself4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,p]haps x is t ! oxyg5 ent]s into ! metal 9 a m solid /ate ?an x exi/$ 9 ! acid1 9 consequ5ce ( :i* caloric is dis5gag$4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,if ! comb9ation ( ! oxyg5 & ! metal results f ! union ( _! opposite electricities1 ( c\rse caloric mu/ be giv5 out4 ,,emily4 ,! eff]vesc5ce is ov]2 !re=e ,i suppose t ! metal is n[ oxydat$4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes4 ,b !re is ano!r important connection betwe5 metals & acids1 ) :i* ,i mu/ n[ make y acqua9t$4 ,metals1 :5 9 ! /ate ( oxyds1 are capable ( be+ dissolv$ by acids4 ,9 ?is op]ation !y ent] into a *emical comb9ation ) ! acid1 & =m an entirely new comp\nd4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b :at diff]5ce is !re betwe5 ! oxydation & ! dissolution ( ! metal by an acid8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,9 ! fir/ case1 ! metal m]ely comb9es ) a portion ( oxyg5 tak5 f ! acid1 :i* is ?us p>tly deoxyg5at$1 z 9 ! in/ance y h j se52 9 ! second case1 ! metal1 aft] be+ previ\sly oxydat$1 is actually dissolv$ 9 ! acid1 & ent]s into a *emical comb9ation ) x1 )\t produc+ any fur!r decomposition or eff]vesc5ce4 --,?is complete comb9ation ( an oxyd & an acid =ms a peculi> & important class ( comp\nd salts4 ,,emily4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 an oxyd & a comp\nd salt1 !re=e1 is v obvi\s3 ! "o consi/s ( a metal & oxyg52 ! o!r ( an oxyd & an acid4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,v well3 & y w be c>eful to rememb] t ! metals are incapable ( ent]+ into ?is comb9ation ) acids1 unless !y are previ\sly oxydat$2 !re=e1 :5ev] y br+ a metal 9 contact ) an acid1 x w be fir/ oxydat$ & aft]w>ds dissolv$1 provid$ t !re be a suffici5t quantity ( acid = bo? op]ations4 ,!re are "s metals1 h[ev]1 ^: solution is m easily accompli%$1 by dilut+ ! acid 9 wat]2 & ! metal w1 9 ?is case1 be oxydat$1 n by ! acid1 b by ! wat]1 :i* x w decompose4 ,b 9 proportion z ! oxyg5 ( ! wat] oxydates ! surface ( ! metal1 ! acid comb9es ) x1 wa%es x (f1 & leaves a fre% surface = ! oxyg5 to act ^u3 !n o!r coats ( oxyd are successively =m$1 & rapidly dissolv$ by ! acid1 :i* cont9ues comb9+ ) ! new-=m$ surfaces ( oxyd till ! :ole ( ! metal is dissolv$4 ,dur+ ?is process ! hydrog5 gas ( ! wat] is dis5gag$1 & flies (f ) eff]vesc5ce4 ,,emily4 ,0 n ?is ! mann] 9 :i* ! sulphuric acid assi/$ ! iron fil+s 9 decompos+ wat]8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,exactly2 & x is ?us t sev]al metals1 :i* are incapable alone ( decompos+ wat]1 are enabl$ to d x by ! assi/ance ( an acid1 :i*1 by cont9ually wa%+ (f ! cov]+ ( oxyd1 z x is =m$1 prep>es a fre% surface ( metal to act ^u ! wat]4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,! acid "h seems to act a "p n v diff]5t f t ( a scrubb+-bru%4 --,b pray w\ld n ?is be a good me?od ( clean+ metallic ut5sils8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 on "s occasions a weak acid1 z v9eg>1 is us$ = clean+ copp]4 ,iron plates1 too1 are fre$ f ! ru/ on _! surface by dilut$ muriatic acid1 previ\s to _! be+ cov]$ ) t94 ,y mu/ rememb]1 h[ev]1 t 9 ?is mode ( clean+ metals ! acid %\ld be quickly aft]w>ds wip$ (f1 o!rwise x w\ld produce fre% oxyd4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,let u wat* ! dissolution ( ! copp] 9 ! nitric acid2 = ,i am v impati5t to see ! salt t is to result f x4 ,! mixture is n[ ( a beautiful blue col\r2 b !re is no appe>ance ( ! =mation ( a salt2 x seems to be a t$i\s op]ation4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! cry/allisation ( ! salt requires "s l5g? ( "t to be complet$2 if1 h[ev]1 y are s impati5t1 ,i c easily %[ y a metallic salt already =m$4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b t w\ld n satisfy my curiosity half s well z "o ( our own manufactur+4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is "o ( our own prep>+ t ,i mean to %[ y4 ,:5 we decompos$ wat] a few days s9ce1 by ! oxydation ( iron fil+s ?r\gh ! assi/ance ( sulphuric acid1 9 :at did ! process consi/8 ,,c>ol9e4 ,9 proportion z ! wat] yield$ its oxyg5 to ! iron1 ! acid comb9$ ) ! new-=m$ oxyd1 & ! hydrog5 escap$ alone4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,v well2 ! result1 !re=e1 0 a comp\nd salt1 =m$ by ! comb9ation ( sulphuric acid ) oxyd ( iron4 ,x /ill rema9s 9 ! vessel 9 :i* ! exp]im5t 0 p]=m$4 ,fet* x1 & we %all exam9e x4 ,,emily4 ,:at a v>iety ( processes ! decomposition ( wat]1 by a metal & an acid1 implies2 #a/1 ! decomposition ( ! wat]2 #b;dly1 ! oxydation ( ! metal2 & #c;dly1 ! =mation ( a comp\nd salt4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,"h x is1 ,mrs4 ,b4 --,:at beautiful gre5 cry/als6 ,b we d n p]ceive any cry/als 9 ! solution ( copp] 9 nitr\s acid8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,because ! salt is n[ susp5d$ 9 ! wat] :i* ! nitr\s acid conta9s1 & w rema9 s till x is deposit$ 9 consequ5ce ( re/ & cool+4 ,,emily4 ,i am surpris$ t a body s opake z iron c be conv]t$ into su* transp>5t cry/als4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is ! union ) ! acid t produces ! transp>5cy2 = if ! pure metal 7 melt$1 & aft]w>ds p]mitt$ to cool & cry/allise1 x w\ld be f\nd j z opake z be=e4 ,,emily4 ,i d n und]/& ! exact mean+ ( cry/allisation8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y recollect t :5 a solid body is dissolv$ ei!r by wat] or caloric x is n decompos$2 b t its integrant p>ts are only susp5d$ 9 ! solv5t4 ,:5 ! solution is made 9 wat]1 ! integrant p>ticles ( ! body w1 on ! wat] be+ evaporat$1 aga9 unite into a solid mass by ! =ce ( _! mutual attraction4 ,b :5 ! body is dissolv$ by caloric alone1 no?+ m is necess>y1 9 ord] to make its p>ticles reunite1 ?an to r$uce its temp]ature4 ,&1 9 g5]al1 if ! solv5t1 :e!r wat] or caloric1 be sl[ly sep>at$ by evaporation or by cool+1 & c>e tak5 t ! p>ticles be n agitat$ dur+ _! reunion1 !y w arrange !mselves 9 regul> masses1 ea* individual sub/ance assum+ a peculi> =m or arrangem5t2 & ?is is :at is call$ cry/allisation4 ,,emily4 ,cry/allisation1 !re=e1 is simply ! reunion ( ! p>ticles ( a solid body t has be5 dissolv$ 9 a fluid4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t is a v good def9ition ( x4 ,b ,i mu/ n =get to obs]ve1 t heat & wat] may unite _! solv5t p[]s2 &1 9 ?is case1 cry/allisation may be ha/5$ by cool+1 z well z by evaporat+ ! liquid4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b if ! body dissolv$ is ( a volatile nature1 w x n evaporate ) ! fluid8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,a cry/allis$ body held 9 solution only by wat] is sc>cely ev] s volatile z ! fluid itself1 & c>e mu/ be tak5 to manage ! heat s t x may be suffici5t to evaporate ! wat] only4 ,i %\ld n omit also to m5tion t bodies1 9 cry/allis+ f _! wat]y solution1 always reta9 a small portion ( wat]1 :i* rema9s conf9$ 9 ! cry/al 9 a solid =m1 & does n reappe> unless ! body loses its cry/all9e /ate4 ,?is is call$ ! wat] ( cry/allisation4 ,b y mu/ obs]ve1 t :il/ a body may be sep>at$ f its solution 9 wat] or caloric simply by cool+ or by evaporation1 an acid c be tak5 f a metal ) :i* x is comb9$ only by /rong] aff9ities1 :i* produce a decomposition4 ,,emily4 ,are ! p]fect metals susceptible ( be+ dissolv$ & conv]t$ into comp\nd salts by acids8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,gold is act$ ^u by only "o acid1 ! oxyg5at$ muriatic1 a v rem>kable acid1 :i*1 :5 9 its mo/ conc5trat$ /ate1 dissolves gold or any o!r metal1 by burn+ !m rapidly4 ,gold c1 x is true1 be dissolv$ likewise by a mixture ( two acids1 commonly call$ aqua regia2 b ?is mix$ solv5t d]ives t prop]ty f conta9+ ! peculi> acid :i* ,i h j m5tion$4 ,plat9a is also act$ ^u by ?is acid only2 silv] is dissolv$ by nitric acid4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i ?9k y said t "s ( ! metals might be s /rongly oxydat$ z to become acid8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,!re are five metals1 ars5ic1 molybd5a1 *rome1 tung/51 & columbium1 :i* are susceptible ( comb9+ ) a suffici5t quantity ( oxyg5 to be conv]t$ into acids4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,acids are connect$ ) metals 9 su* a v>iety ( ways1 t ,i am afraid ( "s confusion 9 rememb]+ !m4 --,9 ! fir/ place1 acids w yield _! oxyg5 to metals4 ,secondly1 !y w comb9e ) !m 9 _! /ate ( oxyds1 to =m comp\nd salts2 & la/ly1 sev]al ( ! metals are !mselves susceptible ( acidification4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,v well2 b ?\gh metals h s great an aff9ity = acids1 x is n ) t class ( bodies alone t !y w comb9e4 ,!y are mo/ ( !m1 9 _! simple /ate1 capable ( unit+ ) sulphur1 ) phosphorus1 ) c>bon1 & ) ea* o!r2 ^! comb9ations1 accord+ to ! nom5clature :i* 0 expla9$ to y on a =m] occasion1 are call$ sulphurets1 phosphorets1 c>burets1 c4 ,! metallic phosphorets (f] no?+ v rem>kable4 ,! sulphurets =m ! peculi> k9d ( m9]al call$ pyrites1 f :i* c]ta9 k9ds ( m9]al wat]s1 z ^? ( ,h>rogate1 d]ive _! *ief *emical prop]ties4 ,9 ?is comb9ation1 ! sulphur1 toge!r ) ! iron1 h s /rong an attraction = oxyg51 t !y obta9 x bo? f ! air & f wat]1 & by cond5s+ x 9 a solid =m1 produce ! heat :i* raises ! temp]ature ( ! wat] 9 su* a rem>kable degree4 ,,emily4 ,b if pyrites obta9 oxyg5 f wat]1 t wat] mu/ suff] a decomposition1 & hydrog5 gas be evolv$4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t is actually ! case 9 ! hot spr+s allud$ to1 :i* give out an extremely fetid gas1 compos$ ( hydrog5 impregnat$ ) sulphur4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,if ,i recollect "r1 /eel & plumbago1 :i* y m5tion$ 9 ! la/ lesson1 are bo? c>burets ( iron8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 & !y are ! only c>burets ( mu* consequ5ce4 ,a curi\s comb9ation ( metals has lately v mu* attract$ ! att5tion ( ! sci5tific _w3 ,i mean ! meteoric /ones t fall f ! atmosph]e4 ,!y consi/ pr9cipally ( native or pure iron1 :i* is nev] f\nd 9 t /ate 9 ! b[els ( ! e>?2 & conta9 also a small quantity ( nickel & *rome1 a comb9ation likewise new 9 ! m9]al k+dom4 ,^! circum/ances h l$ _m sci5tific p]sons to believe t ^? sub/ances h fall5 f ! moon1 or "s o!r planet1 :ile o!rs are ( op9ion ei!r t !y are =m$ 9 ! atmosph]e1 or are project$ into x by "s unkn[n volcano on ! surface ( our globe4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i h he>d mu* ( ^! /ones1 b ,i believe _m p are ( op9ion t !y are =m$ on ! surface ( ! e>?1 & laugh at _! pret5d$ cele/ial orig94 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! fact ( _! fall+ is s well asc]ta9$1 t ,i ?9k no p]son :o has at all inve/igat$ ! subject1 c n[ ent]ta9 any d\bt ( x4 ,specim5s ( ^! /ones h be5 discov]$ 9 all p>ts ( ! _w1 & to ea* ( !m "s tradition or /ory ( its fall has be5 f\nd connect$4 ,& z ! analysis ( all ^? specim5s af=ds precisely ! same results1 !re is /rong reason to conjecture t !y all proce$ f ! same s\rce4 ,x is to ,mr4 ,h[>d t philosoph]s are indebt$ = hav+ fir/ analys$ ^! /ones1 & direct$ _! att5tion to ?is int]e/+ subject4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b pray1 ,mrs4 ,b41 h[ c solid masses ( iron & nickel be =m$ f ! atmosph]e1 :i* consi/s ( ! two airs1 nitrog5 & oxyg58 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i really d n see h[ !y c\ld1 & ?9k x mu* m probable t !y fall f ! moon4 --,b we mu/ n suff] ?is digression to take up too mu* ( our "t4 ,! comb9ations ( metals ) ea* o!r are call$ alloys2 ?us brass is an alloy ( copp] & z9c2 bronze1 ( copp] & t91 c4 ,,emily4 ,& is n pewt] also a comb9ation ( metal8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is4 ,! pewt] made 9 ?is c\ntry is mo/ly compos$ ( t91 ) a v small proportion ( z9c & lead4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,block-t9 is a k9d ( pewt]1 ,i believe8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,prop]ly speak+1 block-t9 means t9 9 blocks1 or squ>e massive +ots2 b 9 ! s5se 9 :i* x is us$ by ignorant workm51 x is iron plat$ ) t91 :i* r5d]s x m durable1 z t9 w n s easily ru/4 ,t9 alone1 h[ev]1 w\ld be too s(t a metal to be work$ = common use1 & all t9-vessels & ut5sils are 9 fact made ( plates ( iron1 ?9ly coat$ ) t91 :i* prev5ts ! iron f ru/+4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,say r oxydat+1 ,mrs4 ,b4 --,ru/ is a ^w t %\ld be explod$ 9 *emi/ry4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,take c>e1 h[ev]1 n to introduce ! ^w oxydate1 in/ead ( ru/1 9 g5]al conv]sation2 = y w\ld probably n be und]/ood1 & y might be suspect$ ( affectation4 ,metals diff] v mu* 9 _! aff9ity = ea* o!r2 "s w n unite at all1 o!rs readily comb9e toge!r1 & on ?is prop]ty ( metals ! art ( sold]+ dep5ds4 ,,emily4 ,:at is sold]+8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is jo9+ two pieces ( metal toge!r1 by a m fusible metal int]pos$ betwe5 !m4 ,?us t9 is a sold] = lead2 brass1 gold1 or silv]1 are sold] = iron1 c4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,& is n plat+ metals some?+ ( ! same nature8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,9 ! op]ation ( plat+1 two metals are unit$1 "o be+ cov]$ ) ! o!r1 b )\t ! int]v5tion ( a ?ird2 iron or copp] may ?us be cov]$ ) gold or silv]4 ,,emily4 ,m]cury appe>s to me ( a v diff]5t nature f ! o!r metals4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,"o ( its greate/ peculi>ities is1 t x reta9s a fluid /ate at ! temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e4 ,all metals are fusible at diff]5t degrees ( heat1 & !y h likewise ea* ! prop]ty ( freez+ or becom+ solid at a c]ta9 fix$ temp]ature4 ,m]cury congeals only at sev5ty-two degrees bel[ ! freez+ po9t4 ,,emily4 ,t is to say1 t 9 ord] to freeze1 x requires a temp]ature ( sev5ty-two degrees cold] ?an t at :i* wat] freezes4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,exactly s4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b is ! temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e ev] s l[ z t8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes1 (t5 9 ,sib]ia2 b happily nev] 9 ?is "p ( ! globe4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 m]cury may be congeal$ by artificial cold2 ,i mean su* int5se cold z c be produc$ by "s *emical mixtures1 or by ! rapid evaporation ( e!r "u ! air-pump499 ,footnote 993 ,by a process analog\s to t describ$1 page #aee4 ( ?is volume4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,& c m]cury be made to boil & evaporate8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes1 l any o!r liquid2 only x requires a mu* great] degree ( heat4 ,at ! temp]ature ( six hundr$ degrees1 x beg9s to boil & evaporate l wat]4 ,m]cury comb9es ) gold1 silv]1 t91 & ) sev]al o!r metals2 &1 if mix$ ) any ( !m 9 a suffici5t proportion1 x p5etrates ! solid metal1 s(t5s x1 loses its own fluidity1 & =ms an amalgam1 :i* is ! "n giv5 to ! comb9ation ( any metal ) m]cury1 =m+ a sub/ance m or less solid1 accord+ z ! m]cury or ! o!r metal pr$om9ates4 ,,emily4 ,9 ! li/ ( metals !re are "s ^: names ,i h nev] be=e he>d m5tion$4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,besides ^? :i* ,sir ,h4 ,davy has obta9$1 !re are sev]al t h be5 rec5tly discov]$1 ^: prop]ties are yet b little kn[n1 z = in/ance1 titanium1 :i* 0 discov]$ by ! ,rev4 ,mr4 ,gregor1 9 ! t9-m9es ( ,cornwall2 columbium or tantalium1 :i* has lately be5 discov]$ by ,mr4 ,hat*ett2 & osmium1 iridium1 palladium1 & rhodium1 all ( :i* ,dr4 ,wolla/on & ,mr4 ,t5nant f\nd mix$ 9 m9ute quantities ) crude plat9a1 & ! di/9ct exi/5ce ( :i* !y prov$ by curi\s & delicate exp]im5ts4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,ars5ic has be5 m5tion$ among/ ! metals4 ,i _h no notion t x belong$ to t class ( bodies1 = ,i _h nev] se5 x b z a p[d]1 & nev] ?\ght ( x b z a mo/ deadly poison4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,9 its pure metallic /ate1 ,i believe1 x is n s poison\s2 b x has su* a great aff9ity = oxyg51 t x absorbs x f ! atmosph]e at its natural temp]ature3 y h se5 x1 !re=e1 only 9 its /ate ( oxyd1 :51 f its comb9ation ) oxyg51 x has acquir$ its v poison\s prop]ties4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,is x possible t oxyg5 c imp>t poison\s qualities8 ,t valuable sub/ance :i* produces light & fire1 & :i* all bodies 9 nature are s eag] to obta98 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,mo/ ( ! metallic oxyds are poison\s1 & d]ive ?is prop]ty f _! union ) oxyg54 ,! :ite lead1 s mu* us$ 9 pa9t1 owes its p]nici\s effects to oxyg54 ,9 g5]al1 oxyg51 9 a concrete /ate1 appe>s to be p>ticul>ly de/ructive 9 its effects on fle% or any animal matt]2 & ^? oxyds are mo/ cau/ic t h an acrid burn+ ta/e1 :i* proce$s f ! metal hav+ b a slight aff9ity = oxyg51 & !re=e easily yield+ x to ! fle%1 :i* x corrodes & de/roys4 ,,emily4 ,:at is ! mean+ ( ! ^w cau/ic1 :i* y h j us$8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x expresses t prop]ty :i* "s bodies possess1 ( disorganiz+ & de/roy+ animal matt]1 by op]at+ a k9d ( combu/ion1 or at lea/ a *emical decomposition4 ,y mu/ (t5 h he>d ( cau/ic us$ to burn w>ts1 or o!r animal excresc5ces2 mo/ ( ^! bodies owe _! de/ructive p[] to ! oxyg5 ) :i* !y are comb9$4 ,! common cau/ic1 call$ lun> cau/ic1 is a comp\nd =m$ by ! union ( nitric acid & silv]2 & x is suppos$ to owe its cau/ic qualities to ! oxyg5 conta9$ 9 ! nitric acid4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b1 pray1 are n acids /ill m cau/ic ?an oxyds1 z !y conta9 a great] proportion ( oxyg58 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,"s ( ! acids are2 b ! cau/ic prop]ty ( a body dep5ds n only ^u ! quantity ( oxyg5 :i* x conta9s1 b also ^u its slight aff9ity = t pr9ciple1 & ! consequ5t facility ) :i* x yields x4 ,,emily4 ,is n ?is de/ructive prop]ty ( oxyg5 acc\nt$ =8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x proce$s probably f ! /rong attraction ( oxyg5 = hydrog52 = if ! "o rapidly absorb ! o!r f ! animal fibre1 a disorganisation ( ! sub/ance mu/ ensue4 ,,emily4 ,cau/ics are1 !n1 v prop]ly said to burn ! fle%1 s9ce ! comb9ation ( oxyg5 & hydrog5 is an actual combu/ion4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,n[1 ,i ?9k1 ?is effect w\ld be m prop]ly t]m$ an oxydation1 z !re is no dis5gagem5t ( light & heat4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,b !re really is a s5sation ( heat produc$ by ! action ( cau/ics4 ,,emily4 ,if oxyg5 is s cau/ic1 :y does n t :i* is conta9$ 9 ! atmosph]e burn u8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,because x is 9 a gase\s /ate1 & has a great] attraction = its electricity ?an = ! hydrog5 ( our bodies4 ,besides1 %\ld ! air be slightly cau/ic1 we are 9 a great measure %elt]$ f its effects by ! sk92 y "k h[ mu* a w\nd1 h[ev] trifl+1 sm>ts on be+ expos$ to x4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,x is a curi\s idea1 h[ev]1 t we %\ld live 9 a sl[ fire4 ,b1 if ! air 0 cau/ic1 w\ld x n h an acrid ta/e8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x possibly may h su* a ta/e2 ?\gh 9 s slight a degree1 t cu/om has r5d]$ x ins5sible4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,& :y is n wat] cau/ic8 ,:5 ,i dip my h& into wat]1 ?\gh cold1 x ought to burn me f ! cau/ic nature ( its oxyg54 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y\r h& does n decompose ! wat]2 ! oxyg5 9 t /ate is mu* bett] suppli$ ) hydrog5 ?an x w\ld be by animal matt]1 & if its cau/icity dep5d on its aff9ity = t pr9ciple1 x w be v f> f quitt+ its /ate ( wat] to act ^u y\r h&4 ,y mu/ n =get t oxyds are cau/ic 9 proportion z ! oxyg5 adh]es slightly to !m4 ,,emily4 ,s9ce ! oxyd ( ars5ic is poison\s1 its acid1 ,i suppose1 is fully z mu* s8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 x is "o ( ! /ronge/ poisons 9 nature4 ,,emily4 ,!re is a poison call$ v]digris1 :i* =ms on brass & copp] :5 n kept v clean2 & ?is1 ,i h he>d1 is an objection to ^! metals be+ made into kit*5 ut5sils4 ,is ?is poison likewise occasion$ by oxyg58 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is produc$ by ! int]v5tion ( oxyg52 = v]digris is a comp\nd salt =m$ by ! union ( v9eg> & copp]2 x is ( a beautiful gre5 col\r1 & mu* us$ 9 pa9t+4 ,,emily4 ,b1 ,i believe1 v]digris is (t5 =m$ on copp] :5 no v9eg> has be5 9 contact ) x4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,n real v]digris1 b comp\nd salts1 some:at resembl+ x1 may be produc$ by ! action ( any acid on copp]4 ,! solution ( copp] 9 nitric acid1 if evaporat$1 af=ds a salt :i* produces an effect on t9 t w surprise y1 & ,i h prep>$ "s f ! solution we made be=e1 t ,i might %[ x to y4 ,i %all fir/ spr9kle "s wat] on ?is piece ( t9-foil1 & !n "s ( ! salt4 --,n[ obs]ve t ,i fold x up sudd5ly1 & press x into "o lump4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,:at a prodigi\s vap\r issues f x--& sp>ks ( fire ,i decl>e6 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i ?\ght x w\ld surprise y4 ,! effect1 h[ev]1 ,i d>e say y c\ld acc\nt =1 s9ce x is m]ely ! consequ5ce ( ! oxyg5 ( ! salt rapidly ent]+ into a clos] comb9ation ) ! t94 ,!re is also a beautiful gre5 salt too curi\s to be omitt$2 x is produc$ by ! comb9ation ( cobalt ) muriatic acid1 :i* has ! s+ul> prop]ty ( =m+ :at is call$ sympa!tic ink4 ,*>act]s writt5 ) ?is solution are invisible :5 cold1 b :5 a g5tle heat is appli$1 !y assume a f9e blui% gre5 col\r4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i ?9k "o might draw v curi\s l&scapes ) ! assi/ance ( ?is ink2 ,i w\ld fir/ make a wat]-col\r draw+ ( a w9t]-sc5e1 9 :i* ! trees %\ld be leafless1 & ! grass sc>cely gre53 ,i w\ld !n trace all ! v]dure ) ! invisible ink1 & :5ev] ,i *ose to create spr+1 ,i %\ld hold x be=e ! fire1 & its w>m? w\ld cov] ! l&scape ) a ri* v]dure4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t w be a v amus+ exp]im5t1 & ,i advise y by all means to try x4 ,transcrib]'s ,note3 ,sev]al cobalt comp\nds1 includ+ ! cobalt *loride describ$ "h1 are /ill 9 use z invisible 78sympa!tic07 inks4 ,!y are safe if us$ appropriately4 ,be=e we "p1 ,i mu/ introduce to y\r acqua9tance ! curi\s metals :i* ,sir ,h4 ,davy has rec5tly discov]$4 ,! hi/ory ( ^! extraord9>y bodies is yet s mu* 9 its infancy1 t ,i %all conf9e myself to a v %ort acc\nt ( !m2 x is m important to po9t out to y ! va/1 & app>5tly inexhau/ible1 field ( rese>* :i* has be5 ?r[n op5 to our view by ,sir ,h4 ,davy's memorable discov]ies1 ?an to ent] into a m9ute acc\nt ( p>ticul> bodies or exp]im5ts4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b ,i h he>d t ^! discov]ies1 h[ev] spl5did & extraord9>y1 are n v likely to prove ( any great b5efit to ! _w1 z !y are r objects ( curiosity ?an ( use4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,su* may be ! illib]al conclusions ( ! ignorant & n>r[-m9d$2 b ^? :o c duly e/imate ! advantages ( enl>g+ ! sph]e ( sci5ce1 mu/ be conv9c$ t ! acquisition ( e new fact1 h[ev] unconnect$ x may at fir/ appe> ) practical utility1 mu/ ultimately prove b5eficial to mank9d4 ,b ^! rem>ks are sc>cely applicable to ! pres5t subject2 = "s ( ! new metals h already prov$ em95tly useful z *emical ag5ts1 & are likely soon to be employ$ 9 ! arts4 ,= ! enum]ation ( ^! metals1 ,i mu/ ref] y to our li/ ( simple bodies2 !y are d]iv$ f ! alkalies1 ! e>?s1 & ?ree ( ! acids1 all ( :i* _h be5 hi!rto consid]$ z undecomp\ndable or simple bodies4 ,:5 ,sir ,h4 ,davy fir/ turn$ 8 att5tion to ! effects ( ! ,voltaic batt]y1 he tri$ its p[] on a v>iety ( comp\nd bodies1 & gradually br\ght to light a numb] ( new & int]e/+ facts1 :i* l$ ! way to m important discov]ies4 ,x w\ld be highly int]e/+ to trace 8 /eps 9 ?is new dep>tm5t ( sci5ce1 b x w\ld lead u too f> f our pr9cipal object4 ,a g5]al view ( 8 mo/ rem>kable discov]ies is all t ,i c aim at1 or t y c\ld1 at pres5t1 und]/&4 ,! facility ) :i* comp\nd bodies yield$ to ! ,voltaic electricity1 induc$ him to make trial ( its effects on sub/ances hi!rto consid]$ z simple1 b :i* he suspect$ ( be+ comp\nd1 & 8 rese>*es 7 soon cr[n$ ) ! mo/ complete success4 ,! body :i* he fir/ submitt$ to ! ,voltaic batt]y1 & :i* _h nev] yet be5 decompos$1 0 "o ( ! fix$ alkalies1 call$ pota%4 ,?is sub/ance gave out an ela/ic fluid at ! positive wire1 :i* 0 asc]ta9$ to be oxyg51 & at ! negative wire1 small globules ( a v high metallic lu/re1 v simil> 9 appe>ance to m]cury2 ?us prov+ t pota%1 :i* _h hi!rto be5 consid]$ z a simple incombu/ible body1 0 9 fact a metallic oxyd2 & t its incombu/ibility proce$$ f its be+ already comb9$ ) oxyg54 ,,emily4 ,i suppose ! wires us$ 9 ?is exp]im5t 7 ( plat9a1 z !y 7 :5 y decompos$ wat]2 = if ( iron1 ! oxyg5 w\ld h comb9$ ) ! wire1 in/ead ( appe>+ 9 ! =m ( gas4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,c]ta9ly3 ! metal1 h[ev]1 w\ld equally h be5 dis5gag$4 ,sir ,h4 ,davy has di/+ui%$ ?is new sub/ance by ! "n ( ,,potassium1 :i* is d]iv$ f t ( ! alkali1 f :i* x is procur$4 ,i h "s small pieces ( x 9 ?is phial1 b y h already se5 x1 z x is ! metal :i* we burnt 9 contact ) sulphur4 ,,emily4 ,:at is ! liquid 9 :i* y keep x8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is nap?a1 a bitum9\s liquid1 ) :i* ,i %all h]eaft] make y acqua9t$4 ,x is almo/ ! only fluid 9 :i* potassium c be pres]v$1 z x conta9s no oxyg51 & ?is metal has s p[]ful an attraction = oxyg51 t x w n only absorb x f ! air1 b likewise f wat]1 or any body :atev] t conta9s x4 ,,emily4 ,?is1 !n1 is "o ( ! bodies t oxydates spontane\sly )\t ! application ( heat8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 & x has ?is rem>kable peculi>ity t x attracts oxyg5 mu* m rapidly f wat] ?an f air2 s t :5 ?r[n into wat]1 h[ev] cold1 x actually bur/s into flame4 ,i %all n[ ?r[ a small piece1 ab\t ! size ( a p9's head1 on ?is drop ( wat]4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,x in/antane\sly explod$1 produc+ a little fla% ( light6 ?is is1 inde$1 a mo/ curi\s sub/ance6 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,by its combu/ion x is reconv]t$ into pota%2 & z pota% is n[ decid$ly a comp\nd body1 ,i %all n ent] into any ( its prop]ties till we h complet$ our review ( ! simple bodies2 b we may "h make a few obs]vations on its basis1 potassium4 ,if ?is sub/ance is left 9 contact ) air1 x rapidly returns to ! /ate ( pota%1 ) a dis5gagem5t ( heat1 b )\t any fla% ( light4 ,,emily4 ,b is x n v s+ul> t x %\ld burn bett] 9 wat] ?an 9 air8 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i d n ?9k s3 = if ! attraction ( potassium = oxyg5 is s /rong t x f9ds no m difficulty 9 sep>at+ x f ! hydrog5 9 wat]1 ?an 9 absorb+ x f ! air1 x w no d\bt be m amply & rapidly suppli$ by wat] ?an by air4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t _c1 h[ev]1 be precisely ! reason1 = :5 potassium is introduc$ "u wat]1 )\t contact ( air1 ! combu/ion is n s rapid1 & inde$1 9 t case1 !re is no lum9\s appe>ance2 b a viol5t action takes place1 mu* heat is excit$1 ! pota% is reg5]at$1 & hydrog5 gas is evolv$4 ,potassium is s em95tly combu/ible1 t in/ead ( requir+1 l o!r metals1 an elevation ( temp]ature1 x w burn rapidly 9 contact ) wat]1 ev5 bel[ ! freez+ po9t4 ,?is y may witness by ?r[+ a piece on ?is lump ( ice4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,x aga9 explod$ ) flame1 & has made a deep hole 9 ! ice4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,?is hole conta9s a solution ( pota%2 = ! alkali be+ extremely soluble1 disappe>s 9 ! wat] at ! in/ant x is produc$4 ,its pres5ce1 h[ev]1 may be easily asc]ta9$1 alkalies hav+ ! prop]ty ( *ang+ pap]1 /a9$ ) turm]ic1 to a r$ col\r2 if y dip "o end ( ?is slip ( pap] into ! hole 9 ! ice y w see x *ange col\r1 & ! same1 if y wet x ) ! drop ( wat] 9 :i* ! fir/ piece ( potassium 0 burnt4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,x has inde$ *ang$ ! pap] f yell[ to r$4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,?is metal w burn likewise 9 c>bonic acid gas1 a gas t _h always be5 suppos$ incapable ( support+ combu/ion1 z we 7 unacqua9t$ ) any sub/ance t _h a great] attraction = oxyg5 ?an c>bon4 ,potassium1 h[ev]1 readily decomposes ?is gas1 by absorb+ its oxyg51 z ,i %all %[ y4 ,?is retort is fill$ ) c>bonic acid gas4 --,i w put a small piece ( potassium 9 x2 b = ?is combu/ion a slight elevation ( temp]ature is requir$1 = :i* purpose ,i %all hold ! retort ov] ! lamp4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,n[ x has tak5 fire1 & burns ) viol5ce6 ,x has bur/ ! retort4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,"h is ! piece ( reg5]at$ pota%2 c y tell me :y x is become s black8 ,,emily4 ,no d\bt x is black5$ by ! c>bon1 :i*1 :5 its oxyg5 ent]$ into comb9ation ) ! potassium1 0 deposit$ on its surface4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y are "r4 ,?is metal is p]fectly fluid at ! temp]ature ( "o hundr$ degrees2 at fifty degrees x is solid1 b s(t & malleable2 at ?irty-two degrees x is h>d & brittle1 & its fracture exhibits an appe>ance ( confus$ cry/allization4 ,x is sc>cely m ?an half z heavy z wat]2 its specific gravity be+ ab\t six :5 wat] is reckon$ at t52 s t ?is metal is actually light] ?an any kn[n fluid1 ev5 ?an e!r4 ,potassium comb9es ) sulphur & phosphorus1 =m+ sulphurets & phosphurets2 x likewise =ms alloys ) sev]al metals1 & amalgamates ) m]cury4 ,,emily4 ,b c a suffici5t quantity ( potassium be obta9$1 by means ( ! ,voltaic batt]y1 to admit ( all its prop]ties & relations to o!r bodies be+ satisfactorily asc]ta9$8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,n easily2 b ,i mu/ n neglect to in=m y t a me?od ( obta9+ ?is metal 9 consid]able quantities has s9ce be5 discov]$4 ,two em95t ,fr5* *emi/s1 ,!n>d & ,gay ,lussac1 /imulat$ by ! triumph :i* ,sir ,h4 ,davy _h obta9$1 attempt$ to sep>ate potassium f its comb9ation ) oxyg51 by common *emical means1 & )\t ! aid ( electricity4 ,!y caus$ r$ hot pota% 9 a /ate ( fusion to filt] ?r\gh iron turn+s 9 an iron tube1 heat$ to :it5ess4 ,_! exp]im5t 0 cr[n$ ) ! mo/ complete success2 m potassium 0 obta9$ by ?is s+le op]ation1 t c\ld h be5 collect$ 9 _m weeks by ! mo/ dilig5t use ( ! ,voltaic batt]y4 ,,emily4 ,9 ?is exp]im5t1 ,i suppose1 ! oxyg5 quitt$ its comb9ation ) ! potassium to unite ) ! iron turn+s8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,exactly s2 & ! potassium 0 ?us obta9$ 9 its simple /ate4 ,f t "t x has become a mo/ conv5i5t & p[]ful in/rum5t ( deoxyg5ation 9 *emical exp]im5ts4 ,?is important improvem5t1 engraft$ on ,sir ,h4 ,davy's previ\s discov]ies1 s]v$ b to add to 8 glory1 s9ce ! facts :i* he _h e/abli%$1 :5 possess$ ( only a few atoms ( ?is curi\s sub/ance1 & ! accuracy ( 8 analytical /atem5ts1 7 all confirm$ :5 an opportunity occurr$ ( repeat+ 8 exp]im5ts ^u ?is sub/ance1 :i* c n[ be obta9$ 9 unlimit$ quantities4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,:at a satisfaction ,sir ,h4 ,davy mu/ h felt1 :5 by an ef=t ( g5ius he succe$$ 9 br++ to light & actually giv+ exi/5ce1 to ^! curi\s bodies1 :i* )\t him might p]haps h ev] rema9$ conceal$ f our view6 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! next sub/ance :i* ,sir ,h4 ,davy submitt$ to ! influ5ce ( ! ,voltaic batt]y 0 ,soda1 ! o!r fix$ alkali1 :i* yield$ to ! same p[]s ( decomposition2 f ?is alkali too1 a metallic sub/ance 0 obta9$1 v analog\s 9 its prop]ties to t :i* _h be5 discov]$ 9 pota%2 ,sir ,h4 ,davy has call$ x ,,sodium4 ,x is r heavi] ?an potassium1 ?\gh consid]ably light] ?an wat]2 x is n s easily fusible z potassium4 ,enc\rag$ by ^! extraord9>y results1 ,sir ,h4 ,davy next p]=m$ a s]ies ( beautiful exp]im5ts on ,ammonia1 or ! volatile alkali1 :i*1 f analogy1 he 0 l$ to suspect might also conta9 oxyg54 ,?is he soon asc]ta9$ to be ! fact1 b he has n yet succe$$ 9 obta9+ ! basis ( ammonia 9 a sep>ate /ate2 x is f analogy1 & f ! p[] :i* ! volatile alkali has1 9 its gase\s =m1 to oxydate iron1 & also f ! amalgams :i* c be obta9$ f ammonia by v>i\s processes1 t ! pro(s ( t alkali be+ also a metallic oxyd are d$uc$4 ,?us1 !n1 ! ?ree alkalies1 two ( :i* _h always be5 consid]$ z simple bodies1 h n[ lo/ all claim to t title1 & ,i h accord+ly class$ ! alkalies among/ ! comp\nds1 ^: prop]ties we %all treat ( 9 a future conv]sation4 ,,emily4 ,:at are ! o!r newly discov]$ metals :i* y h allud$ to 9 y\r li/ ( simple bodies8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,!y are ! metals ( ! e>?s :i* became next ! object ( ,sir ,h4 ,davy's rese>*es2 ^! bodies _h nev] yet be5 decompos$1 ?\gh !y 7 /rongly suspect$ n only ( be+ comp\nds1 b ( be+ metallic oxyds4 ,f ! circum/ance ( _! incombu/ibility x 0 conjectur$1 ) "s plausibility1 t !y might possibly be bodies t _h be5 already burnt4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,& metals1 :5 oxydat$1 become1 to all appe>ance1 a k9d ( e>?y sub/ance4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,!y h1 besides1 sev]al features ( resemblance ) metallic oxyds2 ,sir ,h4 ,davy _h !re=e great reason to be sangu9e 9 8 expectations ( decompos+ !m1 & he 0 n disappo9t$4 ,he c\ld n1 h[ev]1 succe$ 9 obta9+ ! basis ( ! e>?s 9 a pure sep>ate /ate2 b metallic alloys 7 =m$ ) o!r metals1 :i* suffici5tly prov$ ! exi/5ce ( ! metallic basis ( ! e>?s4 ,! la/ class ( new metallic bodies :i* ,sir ,h4 ,davy discov]$ 0 obta9$ f ! ?ree undecomp\nd$ acids1 ! boracic1 ! fluoric1 & ! muriatic acids2 b z y are entirely unacqua9t$ ) ^! bodies1 ,i %all res]ve ! acc\nt ( _! decomposition till we come to treat ( _! prop]ties z acids4 ,?us 9 ! c\rse ( two ye>s1 by ! unp>allel$ ex]tions ( a s+le individual1 *emical sci5ce has assum$ a new aspect4 ,bodies h be5 br\ght to light :i* ! human eye nev] be=e beheld1 & :i* might h rema9$ et]nally conceal$ "u _! imp5etrable disguise4 ,x is impossible at ! pres5t p]iod to appreciate to _! full ext5t ! consequ5ces :i* sci5ce or ! arts may d]ive f ^! discov]ies2 we may1 h[ev]1 anticipate ! mo/ important results4 ,9 *emical analysis we are n[ 9 possession ( m en]getic ag5ts ( decomposition ?an 7 ev] be=e kn[n4 ,9 geology new views are op5$1 :i* w probably op]ate a revolution 9 t obscure & difficult sci5ce4 ,x is already prov$ t all ! e>?s1 &1 9 fact1 ! solid surface ( ?is globe1 are metallic bodies m9]aliz$ by oxyg51 & z our planet has be5 calculat$ to be consid]ably m d5se ^u ! :ole ?an on ! surface1 x is reasonable to suppose t ! int]ior "p is compos$ ( a metallic mass1 ! surface ( :i* only has be5 m9]aliz$ by ! atmosph]e4 ,! eruptions ( volcanos1 ^? /up5d\s problems ( nature1 admit n[ ( an easy explanation4 ,= if ! b[els ( ! e>? are ! gr& recess ( ^! newly discov]$ inflammable bodies1 :5ev] wat] p5etrates into !m1 combu/ions & explosions mu/ take place2 & x is rem>kable t ! lava :i* is ?r[n out1 is ! v k9d ( sub/ance :i* might be expect$ to result f ^! combu/ions4 ,i mu/ n[ take my leave ( y2 we h _h a v long conv]sation to-day1 & ,i hope y w be able to recollect :at y h le>nt4 ,at our next int]view we %all ent] on a new subject4 ,,end ,,( ,,! ,,fir/ ,,volume4 ,pr9t$ by ,a4 ,/rahan1 ,pr9t]s-,/reet1 ,london4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,,conv]sations ,,on ,,*emi/ry2 ,9 ,:i* ,! ,elem5ts ,( ,t ,sci5ce ,are ,famili>ly ,expla9$ ,& ,illu/rat$ ,by ,exp]im5ts4 ,,9 ,,two ,,volumes4 ,! ,fif? ,edition1 revis$1 correct$1 & consid]ably enl>g$4 ,,vol4 ,,ii4 ,,on ,,comp\nd ,,bodies4 ,london3 ,pr9t$ ,= ,longman1 ,hur/1 ,rees1 ,orme1 & ,br[n1 ,pat]no/]-,r[4 #ahag4 ,,conv]sation ,,xiii4 ,,on ,,! ,,attraction ,,( ,,composition4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,hav+ complet$ our exam9ation ( ! simple or elem5t>y bodies1 we are n[ to proce$ to ^? ( a comp\nd nature2 b be=e we ent] on ?is ext5sive subject1 x w be necess>y to make y acqua9t$ ) ! pr9cipal laws by :i* *emical comb9ations are gov]n$4 ,y recollect1 ,i hope1 :at we =m]ly said ( ! nature ( ! attraction ( composition1 or *emical attraction1 or aff9ity1 z x is also call$8 ,,emily4 ,yes1 ,i ?9k p]fectly2 x is ! attraction t subsi/s betwe5 bodies ( a diff]5t nature1 :i* occasions !m to comb9e & =m a comp\nd1 :5 !y come 9 contact1 &1 accord+ to ,sir ,h4 ,davy's op9ion1 ?is effect is produc$ by ! attraction ( ! opposite electricities1 :i* prevail 9 bodies ( diff]5t k9ds4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,v well2 y\r def9ition compreh5ds ! fir/ law ( *emical attraction1 :i* is1 t x takes place only betwe5 bodies ( a diff]5t nature2 z1 = in/ance1 betwe5 an acid & an alkali2 betwe5 oxyg5 & a metal1 c4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,t we und]/& ( c\rse2 = ! attraction betwe5 p>ticles ( a simil> nature is t ( aggregation1 or cohesion1 :i* is indep5d5t ( any *emical p[]4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! #b;d law ( *emical attraction is1 t x takes place only betwe5 ! mo/ m9ute p>ticles ( bodies2 !re=e1 ! m y divide ! p>ticles ( ! bodies to be comb9$1 ! m readily !y act ^u ea* o!r4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,t is aga9 a circum/ance :i* we might h suppos$1 = ! f9] ! p>ticles ( ! two sub/ances are1 ! m easily & p]fectly !y w come 9 contact ) ea* o!r1 :i* mu/ greatly facilitate _! union4 ,x 0 = ?is purpose1 y said1 t y us$ iron fil+s1 9 pref]5ce to wires or pieces ( iron1 = ! decomposition ( wat]4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x 0 once suppos$ t no me*anical p[] c\ld divide bodies into p>ticles suffici5tly m9ute = !m to act on ea* o!r2 & t1 9 ord] to produce ! extreme division requisite = a *emical action1 "o1 if n bo? ( ! bodies1 %\ld be 9 a fluid /ate4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 a few in/ances 9 :i* two solid bodies1 v f9ely pulv]iz$1 ex]t a *emical action on "o ano!r2 b su* exceptions to ! g5]al rule are v r>e inde$4 ,,emily4 ,9 all ! comb9ations t we h hi!rto se51 "o ( ! con/itu5ts has1 ,i believe1 be5 ei!r liquid or ari=m4 ,9 combu/ions1 = in/ance1 ! oxyg5 is tak5 f ! atmosph]e1 9 :i* x exi/$ 9 ! /ate ( gas2 & :5ev] we h se5 acids comb9e ) metals or ) alkalies1 !y 7 ei!r 9 a liquid or an ari=m /ate4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! #c;d law ( *emical attraction is1 t x c take place betwe5 two1 ?ree1 f\r1 or ev5 a great] numb] ( bodies4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,oxyds & acids are bodies compos$ ( two con/itu5ts2 b ,i recollect no in/ance ( ! comb9ation ( a great] numb] ( pr9ciples4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! comp\nd salts1 =m$ by ! union ( ! metals ) acids1 are compos$ ( ?ree pr9ciples4 ,& !re are salts =m$ by ! comb9ation ( ! alkalies ) ! e>?s :i* are ( a simil> description4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,are !y ( ! same k9d z ! metallic salts8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 !y are v analog\s 9 _! nature1 al?\gh diff]5t 9 _m ( _! prop]ties4 ,a me?odical nom5clature1 simil> to t ( ! acids1 has be5 adopt$ = ! comp\nd salts4 ,ea* individual salt d]ives its "n f its con/itu5t p>ts1 s t e "n implies a k ( ! composition ( ! salt4 ,! ?ree alkalies1 ! alkal9e e>?s1 & ! metals1 are call$ salifiable bases or radicals2 & ! acids1 salify+ pr9ciples4 ,! "n ( ea* salt is compos$ bo? ( t ( ! acid & ! salifiable base2 & x t]m9ates 9 at or x1 accord+ to ! degree ( ! oxyg5ation ( ! acid4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 all ^? salts :i* are =m$ by ! comb9ation ( ! sulphuric acid ) any ( ! salifiable bases are call$ sulphats1 & ! "n ( ! radical is add$ = ! specific di/9ction ( ! salt2 if x be pota%1 x w compose a sulphat ( pota%2 if ammonia1 sulphat ( ammonia1 c4 ,,emily4 ,! cry/als :i* we obta9$ f ! comb9ation ( iron & sulphuric acid 7 !re=e sulphat ( iron8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,precisely2 & ^? :i* we prep>$ by dissolv+ copp] 9 nitric acid1 nitrat ( copp]1 & s on4 --,b ?is is n all2 if ! salt be =m$ by t class ( acids :i* ends 9 ous1 7:i* y "k indicates a less degree ( oxyg5ation17 ! t]m9ation ( ! "n ( ! salt w be 9 x1 z sulphit ( pota%1 sulphit ( ammonia1 c4 ,,emily4 ,!re mu/ be an imm5se numb] ( comp\nd salts1 s9ce !re is s great a v>iety ( salifiable radicals1 z well z ( salify+ pr9ciples4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,_! real numb] _c be asc]ta9$1 s9ce x increases e day4 ,b we mu/ n proce$ fur!r 9 ! inve/igation ( ! comp\nd salts1 until we h complet$ ! exam9ation ( ! nature ( ! +r$i5ts ( :i* !y are compos$4 ,! #d? law ( *emical attraction is1 t a *ange ( temp]ature always takes place at ! mom5t ( comb9ation4 ,?is arises f ! extrication ( ! two electricities 9 ! =m ( caloric1 :i* takes place :5 bodies unite2 & also sometimes 9 "p f a *ange ( capacity ( ! bodies = heat1 :i* always takes place :5 ! comb9ation is att5d$ ) an increase ( d5sity1 b m especially :5 ! comp\nd passes f ! liquid to ! solid =m4 ,i %all n[ %[ y a /rik+ in/ance ( a *ange ( temp]ature f *emical union1 m]ely by p\r+ "s nitr\s acid on ?is small quantity ( oil ( turp5t9e--! oil w in/antly comb9e ) ! oxyg5 ( ! acid1 & produce a consid]able *ange ( temp]ature4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,:at a blaze6 ,! temp]ature ( ! oil & ! acid mu/ be greatly rais$1 inde$1 to produce su* a viol5t combu/ion4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a peculi>ity 9 ?is combu/ion1 :i* is1 t ! oxyg51 in/ead ( be+ d]iv$ f ! atmosph]e alone1 is pr9cipally suppli$ by ! acid itself4 ,,emily4 ,& are n all combu/ions in/ances ( ! *ange ( temp]ature produc$ by ! *emical comb9ation ( two bodies8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,und\bt$ly2 :5 oxyg5 loses its gase\s =m1 9 ord] to comb9e ) a solid body1 x becomes cond5s$1 & ! caloric evolv$ produces ! elevation ( temp]ature4 ,! specific gravity ( bodies is at ! same "t alt]$ by *emical comb9ation2 = 9 consequ5ce ( a *ange ( capacity = heat1 a *ange ( d5sity mu/ be produc$4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,t 0 ! case ) ! sulphuric acid & wat]1 :i*1 by be+ mix$ toge!r1 gave out a great deal ( heat1 & increas$ 9 d5sity4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! #e? law ( *emical attraction is1 t ! prop]ties :i* *>act]ise bodies1 :5 sep>ate1 are alt]$ or de/roy$ by _! comb9ation4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,c]ta9ly2 :at1 = in/ance1 c be s diff]5t f wat] z ! hydrog5 & oxyg5 gases8 ,,emily4 ,or :at m unlike sulphat ( iron ?an iron or sulphuric acid8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,e *emical comb9ation is an illu/ration ( ?is rule4 ,b let u proce$-- ,! #f? law is1 t ! =ce ( *emical aff9ity betwe5 ! con/itu5ts ( a body is e/imat$ by t :i* is requir$ = _! sep>ation4 ,?is =ce is n always proportional to ! facility ) :i* bodies unite2 = manganese1 = in/ance1 :i*1 y "k1 is s mu* dispos$ to unite ) oxyg5 t x is nev] f\nd 9 a metallic /ate1 yields x m easily ?an any o!r metal4 ,,emily4 ,b1 ,mrs4 ,b41 y speak ( e/imat+ ! =ce ( attraction betwe5 bodies1 by ! =ce requir$ to sep>ate !m2 h[ c y measure ^! =ces8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,!y _c be precisely measur$1 b !y are comp>atively asc]ta9$ by exp]im5t1 & c be repres5t$ by numb]s :i* express ! relative degrees ( attraction4 ,! #g? law is1 t bodies h among/ !mselves diff]5t degrees ( attraction4 ,^u ?is law1 7:i* y may h discov]$ y\rselves long s9ce17 ! :ole sci5ce ( *emi/ry dep5ds2 = x is by means ( ! v>i\s degrees ( aff9ity :i* bodies h = ea* o!r1 t all ! *emical compositions & decompositions are effect$4 ,e *emical fact or exp]im5t is an in/ance ( ! same k9d2 & :5ev] ! decomposition ( a body is p]=m$ by ! addition ( any s+le new sub/ance1 x is said to be effect$ by simple elective attractions4 ,b x (t5 happ5s t no simple sub/ance w decompose a body1 & t1 9 ord] to effect ?is1 y mu/ (f] to ! comp\nd a body :i* is itself compos$ ( two1 or sometimes ?ree pr9ciples1 :i* w\ld n1 ea* sep>ately1 p]=m ! decomposition4 ,9 ?is case !re are two new comp\nds =m$ 9 consequ5ce ( a reciprocal decomposition & recomposition4 ,all in/ances ( ?is k9d are call$ d\ble elective attractions4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i confess ,i d n und]/& ?is cle>ly4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y w easily compreh5d x by ! assi/ance ( ?is diagram1 9 :i* ! reciprocal =ces ( attraction are repres5t$ by numb]s3 ,orig9al ,comp\nd ,sulphat ( ,soda4 ,soda #h ,sulphuric ,acid ,quies- c5t ,result ,result ,nitrat #g ,divell5t ,attractions #f #ac ,sulphat ( ,soda ( ,lime ,attrac- tions ,nitric ,acid #d ,lime -- #ab ,orig9al ,comp\nd ,nitrat ( ,lime4 ,we "h suppose t we are to decompose sulphat ( soda2 t is1 to sep>ate ! acid f ! alkali2 if1 = ?is purpose1 we add "s lime1 9 ord] to make x comb9e ) ! acid1 we %all fail 9 our attempt1 because ! soda & ! sulphuric acid attract ea* o!r by a =ce :i* is sup]ior1 & 7by way ( supposition7 is repres5t$ by ! numb] #h2 :ile ! lime t5ds to unite ) ?is acid by an aff9ity equal only to ! numb] #f4 ,x is pla91 !re=e1 t ! sulphat ( soda w n be decompos$1 s9ce a =ce equal to #h _c be ov]come by a =ce equal only to #f4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,s f>1 ?is appe>s v cle>4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 we endeav\r to decompose ?is salt by nitric acid1 :i* t5ds to comb9e ) soda1 we %all be equally unsuccessful1 z nitric acid t5ds to unite ) ! alkali by a =ce equal only to #g4 ,9 nei!r ( ^! cases ( simple elective attraction1 !re=e1 c we accompli% our purpose4 ,b let u previ\sly comb9e toge!r ! lime & nitric acid1 s z to =m a nitrat ( lime1 a comp\nd salt1 ! con/itu5ts ( :i* are unit$ by a p[] equal to #d4 ,if !n we pres5t ?is comp\nd to ! sulphat ( soda1 a decomposition w ensue1 because ! sum ( ! =ces :i* t5d to pres]ve ! two salts 9 _! actual /ate is n equal to t ( ! =ces :i* t5d to decompose !m1 & to =m new comb9ations4 ,! nitric acid1 !re=e1 w comb9e ) ! soda1 & ! sulphuric acid ) ! lime4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i und]/& y n[ v well4 ,?is d\ble effect takes place because ! numb]s #h & #d1 :i* repres5t ! degrees ( attraction ( ! con/itu5ts ( ! two orig9al salts1 make a sum less ?an ! numb]s #g & #f1 :i* repres5t ! degrees ( attraction ( ! two new comp\nds t w 9 consequ5ce be =m$4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,precisely s4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b :at is ! mean+ ( quiesc5t & divell5t =ces1 :i* are writt5 9 ! diagram8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,quiesc5t =ces are ^? :i* t5d to pres]ve comp\nds 9 a /ate ( re/1 or su* z !y actually are3 divell5t =ces1 ^? :i* t5d to de/roy t /ate ( comb9ation1 & to =m new comp\nds4 ,^! are ! pr9cipal circum/ances relative to ! doctr9e ( *emical attractions1 :i* h be5 laid d[n z rules by mod]n *emi/s2 a few o!rs might be m5tion$ respect+ ! same !ory1 b ( less importance1 & su* z w\ld take u too f> f our plan4 ,i %\ld1 h[ev]1 n omit to m5tion t ,mr4 ,b]?ollet1 a celebrat$ ,fr5* *emi/1 has que/ion$ ! uni=m op]ation ( elective attraction1 & has advanc$ ! op9ion1 t1 9 *emical comb9ations1 ! *anges :i* take place dep5d n only ^u ! aff9ities1 b also1 9 "s degree1 on ! respective quantities ( ! sub/ances conc]n$1 on ! heat appli$ dur+ ! process1 & "s o!r circum/ances4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,9 t case1 ,i suppose1 !re w\ld h>dly be two comp\nds exactly simil>1 ?\gh compos$ ( ! same mat]ials8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,on ! contr>y1 x is f\nd t a rem>kable uni=mity prevails1 z to proportions1 betwe5 ! +r$i5ts ( bodies ( simil> composition4 ,?us wat]1 z y may recollect to h se5 9 a =m] conv]sation1 is compos$ ( two volumes ( hydrog5 gas to "o ( oxyg51 & ?is is always f\nd to be precisely ! proportion ( its con/itu5ts1 f :atev] s\rce ! wat] be d]iv$4 ,! same uni=mity prevails ) reg>d to ! v>i\s salts2 ! acid & alkali1 9 ea* k9d ( salt1 be+ always f\nd to comb9e 9 ! same proportions4 ,sometimes1 x is true1 ! same acid1 & ! same alkali1 are capable ( mak+ two di/9ct k9ds ( salts2 b 9 all ^! cases x is f\nd t "o ( ! salts conta9s j twice1 or 9 "s in/ances1 ?rice z mu* acid1 or alkali1 z ! o!r4 ,,emily4 ,if ! proportions 9 :i* bodies comb9e are s con/ant & s well def9$1 h[ c ,mr4 ,b]?ollet's rem>k be reconcil$ ) ?is uni=m sy/em ( comb9ation8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,great z t philosoph]'s au?ority is 9 *emi/ry1 x is n[ g5]ally suppos$ t 8 d\bts on ?is subject 7 9 a great degree gr\ndless1 & t ! exceptions he has obs]v$ 9 ! laws ( def9ite proportions1 h be5 only app>5t1 & may be acc\nt$ = consi/5tly ) ^? laws4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,pray1 ,mrs4 ,b41 c y decompose a salt by means ( electricity1 9 ! same way z we decompose wat]8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,und\bt$ly2 & ,i am glad ?is "q occurr$ to y1 because x gives me an opportunity ( %[+ y "s v int]e/+ exp]im5ts on ! subject4 ,if we dissolve a quantity1 h[ev] small1 ( any salt 9 a glass ( wat]1 & if we plunge into x ! extremities ( ! wires :i* proce$ f ! two ends ( ! ,voltaic batt]y1 ! salt w be gradually decompos$1 ! acid be+ attract$ by ! positive1 & ! alkali by ! negative wire4 ,,emily4 ,b h[ c y r5d] t decomposition p]ceptible8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,by plac+ 9 contact ) ! extremities ( ea* wire1 9 ! solution1 pieces ( pap] /a9$ ) c]ta9 vegetable col\rs1 :i* are alt]$ by ! contact ( an acid or an alkali4 ,?us ?is blue vegetable prep>ation call$ litmus becomes r$ :5 t\*$ by an acid2 & ! juice ( violets becomes gre5 by ! contact ( an alkali4 ,b ! exp]im5t c be made 9 a mu* m di/9ct mann]1 by receiv+ ! extremities ( ! wires into two diff]5t vessels1 s t ! alkali %all appe> 9 "o vessel & ! acid 9 ! o!r4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b !n ! ,voltaic circle w n be complet$2 h[ c any effect be produc$8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y are "r2 ,i ought to h add$ t ! two vessels mu/ be connect$ toge!r by "s int]pos$ sub/ance capable ( conduct+ electricity4 ,a piece ( moi/5$ cotton-wick answ]s ?is purpose v well4 ,y see t ! cotton 7,,plate ,,xiii4 fig4 #b4 c47 has "o end imm]s$ 9 "o glass & ! o!r end 9 ! o!r1 s z to e/abli% a communication betwe5 any fluids conta9$ 9 !m4 ,we %all n[ put into ea* ( ! glasses a little glaub] salt1 or sulphat ( soda1 7:i* consi/s ( an acid & an alkali17 & !n we %all fill ! glasses ) wat]1 :i* w dissolve ! salt4 ,let u n[ connect ! glasses by means ( ! wires 7e1 d17 ) ! two ends ( ! batt]y1 ?us 4 4 4 4 ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,,xiii4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 page #af4 ,fig4 #a4 ,voltaic ,batt]y ( improv$ con/ruction ) ! ,plates out ( ! ,cells4 ,fig4 #b4 #c #d4 ,in/ances ( ,*emical decomposition by ! ,voltaic ,batt]y4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,! wires are already giv+ out small bubbles2 is ?is ow+ to ! decomposition ( ! salt8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no2 ^! are bubbles produc$ by ! decomposition ( ! wat]1 z y saw 9 a =m] exp]im5t4 ,9 ord] to r5d] ! sep>ation ( ! acid f ! alkali visible1 ,i p\r into ! glass 7a71 :i* is connect$ ) ! positive wire1 a few drops ( a solution ( litmus1 :i* ! lea/ quantity ( acid turns r$2 & into ! o!r glass 7b71 :i* is connect$ ) ! negative wire1 ,i p\r a few drops ( ! juice ( violets 4 4 4 4 ,,emily4 ,! blue solution is already turn+ r$ all r\nd ! wire4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,& ! violet solution is beg9n+ to turn gre54 ,?is is inde$ v s+ul>6 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y w be /ill m a/oni%$ :5 we v>y ! exp]im5t 9 ?is mann]3-- ,^! ?ree glasses 7fig4 #c4 f1 g1 h17 are1 z 9 ! =m] in/ance1 connect$ toge!r by wett$ cotton1 b ! middle "o alone conta9s a sal9e solution1 ! two o!rs conta9+ only di/ill$ wat]1 col\r$ z be=e by vegetable infusions4 ,yet1 on mak+ ! connection ) ! batt]y1 ! alkali w appe> 9 ! negative glass 7h71 & ! acid 9 ! positive glass 7f71 ?\gh nei!r ( !m conta9$ any sal9e matt]4 ,,emily4 ,s t ! acid & alkali mu/ be convey$ "r & left f ! c5tral glass1 into ! o!r glasses1 by means ( ! connect+ moi/5$ cotton8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,exactly s2 & y may r5d] ! exp]im5t /ill m /rik+1 by putt+ into ! c5tral glass 7k1 fig4 #c47 an alkal9e solution1 ! glaub] salt be+ plac$ into ! negative glass 7l71 & ! positive glass 7i7 conta9+ only wat]4 ,! acid w be attract$ by ! positive wire 7m71 & w actually appe> 9 ! vessel 7i71 aft] pass+ ?r\gh ! alkal9e solution 7k71 )\t comb9+ ) x1 al?\gh1 y "k1 acids & alkalies are s mu* dispos$ to comb9e4 --,b ?is conv]sation has already mu* exce$$ our usual limits1 & we _c enl>ge m ^u ?is int]e/+ subject at pres5t4 ,,conv]sation ,,xiv4 ,,on ,,alkalies4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,hav+ n[ giv5 y "s idea ( ! laws by :i* *emical attractions are gov]n$1 we may proce$ to ! exam9ation ( bodies :i* are =m$ 9 consequ5ce ( ^! attractions4 ,! fir/ class ( comp\nds t pres5t !mselves to our notice1 9 our gradual asc5t to ! mo/ complicat$ comb9ations1 are bodies compos$ ( only two pr9ciples4 ,! sulphurets1 phosphurets1 c>burets1 c4 are ( ?is description2 b ! mo/ num]\s & important ( ^! comp\nds are ! comb9ations ( oxyg5 ) ! v>i\s simple sub/ances ) :i* x has a t5d5cy to unite4 ,( ^! y h already acquir$ "s k1 b x w be necess>y to ent] into fur!r p>ticul>s respect+ ! nature & prop]ties ( ^? mo/ des]v+ our notice4 ,( ?is class are ! ,,alkalies & ! ,,e>?s1 :i* we %all successively exam9e4 ,we %all fir/ take a view ( ! alkalies1 ( :i* !re are ?ree1 viz4 ,,pota%1 ,,soda1 & ,,ammonia4 ,! two fir/ are call$ fix$ alkalies1 because !y exi/ 9 a solid =m at ! temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e1 & require a great heat to be volatilis$4 ,!y consi/1 z y already "k1 ( metallic bases comb9$ ) oxyg54 ,9 pota%1 ! proportions are ab\t eighty-six p>ts ( potassium to f\rte5 ( oxyg52 & 9 soda1 sev5ty-sev5 p>ts ( sodium to tw5ty-?ree ( oxyg54 ,! ?ird alkali1 ammonia1 has be5 di/+ui%$ by ! "n ( volatile alkali1 because its natural =m is t ( gas4 ,its composition is ( a m complicat$ nature1 ( :i* we %all speak h]eaft]4 ,"s ( ! e>?s be> s /rong a resemblance 9 _! prop]ties to ! alkalies1 t x is difficult to "k "u :i* head to place !m4 ,! celebrat$ ,fr5* *emi/1 ,f\rcroy1 has class$ two ( !m 7b>ytes & /rontites7 ) ! alkalies2 b z lime & magnesia h almo/ an equal title to t rank1 ,i ?9k x bett] n to sep>ate !m1 & !re=e h adopt$ ! common me?od ( class+ !m ) ! e>?s1 & ( di/+ui%+ !m by ! "n ( alkal9e e>?s4 ,! g5]al prop]ties ( alkalies are1 an acrid burn+ ta/e1 a pung5t smell1 & a cau/ic action on ! sk9 & fle%4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i wond] !y %\ld be cau/ic1 ,mrs4 ,b41 s9ce !y conta9 s little oxyg54 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,:atev] sub/ance has an aff9ity = any "o ( ! con/itu5ts ( animal matt]1 suffici5tly p[]ful to decompose x1 is entitl$ to ! appellation ( cau/ic4 ,! alkalies1 9 _! pure /ate1 h a v /rong attraction = wat]1 = hydrog51 & = c>bon1 :i*1 y "k1 are ! con/itu5t pr9ciples ( oil1 & x is *iefly by absorb+ ^! sub/ances f animal matt] t !y effect its decomposition2 =1 :5 dilut$ ) a suffici5t quantity ( wat]1 or comb9$ ) any oily sub/ance1 !y lose _! cau/icity4 ,b1 to return to ! g5]al prop]ties ( alkalies--!y *ange1 z we h already se51 ! col\r ( syrup ( violets1 & o!r blue vegetable infusions1 to gre52 & h1 9 g5]al1 a v great t5d5cy to unite ) acids1 al?\gh ! respective qualities ( ^! two classes ( bodies =m a rem>kable contra/4 ,we %all exam9e ! result ( ! comb9ation ( acids & alkalies m p>ticul>ly h]eaft]4 ,x w be suffici5t at pres5t to in=m y1 t :5ev] acids are br\ght 9 contact ) alkalies1 or alkal9e e>?s1 !y unite ) a rem>kable eag]ness1 & =m comp\nds p]fectly diff]5t f ei!r ( _! con/itu5ts2 ^! bodies are call$ neutral or comp\nd salts4 ,! dry :ite p[d] :i* y see 9 ?is phial is pure cau/ic ,,pota%2 x is v difficult to pres]ve x 9 ?is /ate1 z x attracts1 ) extreme avidity1 ! moi/ure f ! atmosph]e1 & if ! air 7 n p]fectly exclud$1 x w\ld1 9 a v %ort "t1 be actually melt$4 ,,emily4 ,x is !n1 ,i suppose1 always f\nd 9 a liquid /ate8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no2 x exi/s 9 nature 9 a great v>iety ( =ms & comb9ations1 b is nev] f\nd 9 its pure sep>ate /ate2 x is comb9$ ) c>bonic acid1 ) :i* x exi/s 9 e "p ( ! vegetable k+dom1 & is mo/ commonly obta9$ f ! a%es ( vegetables1 :i* are ! residue t rema9s aft] all ! o!r p>ts h be5 volatilis$ by combu/ion4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b y once said1 t aft] all ! volatile p>ts ( a vegetable 7 evaporat$1 ! sub/ance t rema9$ 0 *>coal8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i am surpris$ t y %\ld /ill conf\nd ! processes ( volatilisation & combu/ion4 ,9 ord] to procure *>coal1 we evaporate su* p>ts z c be r$uc$ to vap\r by ! op]ation ( heat alone2 b :5 we burn ! vegetable1 we burn ! c>bon also1 & conv]t x into c>bonic acid gas4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,t is true2 ,i hope ,i %all make no m mi/akes 9 my fav\rite !ory ( combu/ion4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,pota% d]ives its "n f ! pots 9 :i* ! vegetables1 f :i* x 0 obta9$1 us$ =m]ly to be burnt2 ! alkali rema9$ mix$ ) ! a%es at ! bottom1 & 0 !nce call$ pota%4 ,,emily4 ,! a%es ( a wood-fire1 !n1 are pota%1 s9ce !y are vegetable a%es8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,!y always conta9 m or less pota%1 b are v f> f consi/+ ( t sub/ance alone1 z !y are a mixture ( v>i\s e>?s & salts :i* rema9 aft] ! combu/ion ( vegetables1 & f :i* x is n easy to sep>ate ! alkali 9 its pure =m4 ,! process by :i* pota% is obta9$1 ev5 9 ! imp]fect /ate 9 :i* x is us$ 9 ! arts1 is mu* m complicat$ ?an simple combu/ion4 ,x 0 once deem$ impossible to sep>ate x entirely f all =eign sub/ances1 & x is only 9 *emical laboratories t x is to be met ) 9 ! /ate ( purity 9 :i* y f9d x 9 ?is phial4 ,wood-a%es are1 h[ev]1 valuable = ! alkali :i* !y conta91 & are us$ = "s purposes )\t any fur!r prep>ation4 ,purifi$ 9 a c]ta9 degree1 !y make :at is commonly call$ pe>la%1 :i* is ( great efficacy 9 tak+ out grease1 9 wa%+ l951 c42 = pota% comb9es readily ) oil or fat1 ) :i* x =ms a comp\nd well kn[n to y "u ! "n ( soap4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,really6 ,!n ,i %\ld ?9k x w\ld be bett] to wa% all l95 ) pe>la% ?an ) soap1 z1 9 ! latt] case1 ! alkali be+ already comb9$ ) oil1 mu/ be less efficaci\s 9 extract+ grease4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,its effect w\ld be too p[]ful on f9e l951 & w\ld injure its texture2 pe>la% is !re=e only us$ = t :i* is ( a /rong co>se k9d4 ,= ! same reason y _c wa% y\r h&s ) pla9 pota%2 b1 :5 mix$ ) oil 9 ! =m ( soap1 x is s(t z well z cleans+1 & is !re=e mu* bett] adapt$ to ! purpose4 ,cau/ic pota%1 z we already obs]v$1 acts on ! sk91 & animal fibre1 9 virtue ( its attraction = wat] & oil1 & conv]ts all animal matt] into a k9d ( saponace\s jelly4 ,,emily4 ,are vegetables ! only s\rce f :i* pota% c be d]iv$8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no3 = ?\gh f> mo/ abundant 9 vegetables1 x is by no means conf9$ to t class ( bodies1 be+ f\nd also on ! surface ( ! e>?1 mix$ ) v>i\s m9]als1 especially ) e>?s & /ones1 :5ce x is suppos$ to be convey$ into vegetables by ! roots ( ! plant4 ,x is also met )1 ?\gh 9 v small quantities1 9 "s animal sub/ances4 ,! mo/ common /ate ( pota% is t ( c>bonat2 ,i suppose y und]/& :at t is8 ,,emily4 ,i believe s2 ?\gh ,i d n recollect t y ev] m5tion$ ! ^w be=e4 ,if ,i am n mi/ak51 x mu/ be a comp\nd salt1 =m$ by ! union ( c>bonic acid ) pota%4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,v true2 y see h[ admirably ! nom5clature ( mod]n *emi/ry is adapt$ to assi/ ! memory2 :5 y he> ! "n ( a comp\nd1 y necess>ily le>n :at are its con/itu5t p>ts2 & :5 y are acqua9t$ ) ^! con/itu5ts1 y c imm$iately "n ! comp\nd :i* !y =m4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,pray1 h[ 7 bodies arrang$ & di/+ui%$ be=e ?is nom5clature 0 introduc$8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,*emi/ry 0 !n a mu* m difficult /udy2 = e sub/ance _h an arbitr>y "n1 :i* x d]iv$ ei!r f ! p]son :o discov]$ x1 z ,glaub]'s salts = in/ance2 or f "s o!r circum/ance relative to x1 ?\gh q unconnect$ ) its real nature1 z pota%4 ,^! names h be5 reta9$ = "s ( ! simple bodies2 = z ?is class is n num]\s1 & !re=e c easily be rememb]$1 x has n be5 ?\ght necess>y to *ange !m4 ,,emily4 ,yet ,i ?9k x w\ld h r5d]$ ! new nom5clature m complete to h me?odis$ ! names ( ! elem5t>y1 z well z ( ! comp\nd bodies1 ?\gh x c\ld n h be5 done 9 ! same mann]4 ,b ! names ( ! simple sub/ances might h indicat$ _! nature1 or1 at lea/1 "s ( _! pr9cipal prop]ties2 & if1 l ! acids & comp\nd salts1 all ! simple bodies _h a simil> t]m9ation1 !y w\ld h be5 imm$iately kn[n z su*4 ,s complete & regul> a nom5clature w\ld1 ,i ?9k1 h giv5 a cle>] & m compreh5sive view ( *emi/ry ?an ! pres5t1 :i* is a m$ley ( ! old & new t]ms4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,b y are n aw>e ( ! difficulty ( introduc+ into sci5ce an entire set ( new t]ms2 x obliges all ! tea*]s & pr(essors to g to s*ool aga91 & if "s ( ! old names1 t are lea/ exceptionable1 7 n left z an introduction to ! new ones1 few p w\ld h _h indu/ry & p]sev]ance en\gh to submit to ! /udy ( a completely new language2 & ! inf]ior classes ( arti/s1 :o c only act f habit & r\t9e1 w\ld1 at lea/ = a "t1 h felt mat]ial inconv5i5ce f a total *ange ( _! habitual t]ms4 ,f ^! consid]ations1 ,lavoisi] & 8 colleagues1 :o inv5t$ ! new nom5clature1 ?\ght x mo/ prud5t to leave a few l9ks ( ! old *a91 9 ord] to connect x ) ! new "o4 ,besides1 y may easily conceive ! inconv5i5ce :i* might arise f giv+ a regul> nom5clature to sub/ances1 ! simple nature ( :i* is always unc]ta92 = ! new names might1 p]haps1 h prov$ to h be5 f\nd$ 9 error4 ,&1 inde$1 cauti\s z ! inv5tors ( ! mod]n *emical language h be51 x has already be5 f\nd necess>y to modify x 9 _m respects4 ,9 ^? few cases1 h[ev]1 9 :i* new t]ms h be5 adopt$ to designate simple bodies1 ^! names h be5 s contriv$ z to indicate "o ( ! *ief prop]ties ( ! body 9 "q2 ?is is ! case ) oxyg51 :i*1 z ,i expla9$ to y1 signifies g5]ator ( acids2 & hydrog5 g5]ator ( wat]4 ,if all ! elem5t>y bodies _h a simil> t]m9ation1 z y propose1 x w\ld be necess>y to *ange ! "n ( any t might h]eaft] be f\nd ( a comp\nd nature1 :i* w\ld be v inconv5i5t 9 ?is age ( discov]y4 ,b to return to ! alkalies4 --,we %all n[ try to melt "s ( ?is cau/ic pota% 9 a little wat]1 z a circum/ance occurs dur+ its solution v wor?y ( obs]vation4 --,d y feel ! heat t is produc$8 ,,c>ol9e4 ,yes1 ,i d2 b is n ?is directly contr>y to our !ory ( lat5t heat1 accord+ to :i* heat is dis5gag$ :5 fluids become solid1 & cold produc$ :5 solids are melt$8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! latt] is really ! case 9 all solutions2 & if ! solution ( cau/ic alkalies seems to make an exception to ! rule1 x does n1 ,i believe1 =m any solid objection to ! !ory4 ,! matt] may be expla9$ ?us3 ,:5 wat] fir/ comes 9 contact ) ! pota%1 x produces an effect simil> to ! slak+ ( lime1 t is1 ! wat] is solidifi$ 9 comb9+ ) ! pota%1 & ?us loses its lat5t heat2 ?is is ! heat t y n[ feel1 & :i* is1 !re=e1 produc$ n by ! melt+ ( ! solid1 b by ! solidification ( ! fluid4 ,b :5 !re is m wat] ?an ! pota% c absorb & solidify1 ! latt] !n yields to ! solv5t p[] ( ! wat]2 & if we d n p]ceive ! cold produc$ by its melt+1 x is because x is c\nt]balanc$ by ! heat previ\sly dis5gag$499 ,a v rem>kable prop]ty ( pota% is ! =mation ( glass by its fusion ) silice\s e>?4 ,y are n yet acqua9t$ ) ?is la/ sub/ance1 fur!r ?an its be+ 9 ! li/ ( simple bodies4 ,x is suffici5t1 = ! pres5t1 t y %\ld "k t s& & fl9t are *iefly compos$ ( x2 alone1 x is infusible1 b mix$ ) pota%1 x melts :5 expos$ to ! heat ( a furnace1 comb9es ) ! alkali1 & runs into glass4 ,footnote 993 ,?is def5ce ( ! g5]al !ory1 h[ev] plausible1 is liable to "s obvi\s objections4 ,! ph5om5on might p]haps be bett] acc\nt$ = by suppos+ t a solution ( alkali 9 wat] has less capacity = heat ?an ei!r wat] or alkali 9 _! sep>ate /ate4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,:o w\ld ev] h suppos$ t ! same sub/ance :i* conv]ts transp>5t oil into su* an opake body z soap1 %\ld trans=m t opake sub/ance1 s&1 into transp>5t glass6 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! transp>5cy1 or opacity ( bodies1 does n1 ,i conceive1 dep5d s mu* ^u _! intimate nature1 z ^u ! arrangem5t ( _! p>ticles3 we _c h a m /rik+ in/ance ( ?is1 ?an is af=d$ by ! diff]5t /ates ( c>bon1 :i*1 ?\gh x commonly appe>s 9 ! =m ( a black opake body1 sometimes assumes ! mo/ dazzl+ transp>5t =m 9 nature1 t ( diamond1 :i*1 y recollect1 is c>bon1 & :i*1 9 all probability1 d]ives its beautiful transp>5cy f ! peculi> arrangem5t ( its p>ticles dur+ _! cry/allisation4 ,,emily4 ,i nev] %\ld h suppos$ t ! =mation ( glass 0 s simple a process z y describe x4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is by no means an easy op]ation to make p]fect glass2 = if ! s&1 or fl9t1 f :i* ! silice\s e>? is obta9$1 be mix$ ) any metallic p>ticles1 or o!r sub/ance1 :i* _c be vitrifi$1 ! glass w be discol\r$1 or defac$1 by opake specks4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,t1 ,i suppose1 is ! reason :y objects s (t5 appe> irregul> & %apeless ?r\gh a common glass-w9d[4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,?is species ( imp]fection proce$s1 ,i believe1 f ano!r cause4 ,x is extremely difficult to prev5t ! l[] "p ( ! vessels1 9 :i* ! mat]ials ( glass are fus$1 f conta9+ a m d5se vitre\s matt] ?an ! upp]1 on acc\nt ( ! heavi] +r$i5ts fall+ to ! bottom4 ,:5 ?is happ5s1 x occasions ! appe>ance ( ve9s or waves 9 ! glass1 f ! diff]5ce ( d5sity 9 its sev]al p>ts1 :i* produces an irregul> refraction ( ! rays ( light t pass ?r\gh x4 ,ano!r species ( imp]fection sometimes arises f ! fusion n be+ cont9u$ = a l5g? ( "t suffici5t to comb9e ! two +r$i5ts completely1 or f ! due proportion ( pota% & silex 7:i* are z two to "o7 n be+ c>efully obs]v$2 ! glass1 9 ^? cases1 w be liable to alt]ation f ! action ( ! air1 ( salts1 & especially ( acids1 :i* w effect its decomposition by comb9+ ) ! pota%1 & =m+ comp\nd salts4 ,,emily4 ,:at an extremely useful sub/ance pota% is6 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,besides ! great importance ( pota% 9 ! manufactures ( glass & soap1 x is ( v consid]able utility 9 _m ( ! o!r arts1 & 9 its comb9ations ) sev]al acids1 p>ticul>ly ! nitric1 ) :i* x =ms saltpetre4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,!n saltpetre mu/ be a nitrat ( pota%8 ,b we are n yet acqua9t$ ) ! nitric acid8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,we %all !re=e def] ent]+ into ! p>ticul>s ( ^! comb9ations till we come to a g5]al review ( ! comp\nd salts4 ,9 ord] to avoid confusion1 x w be bett] at pres5t to conf9e ourselves to ! alkalies4 ,,emily4 ,_c y %[ u ! *ange ( col\r :i* y said ! alkalies produc$ on blue vegetable infusions8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 v easily4 ,i %all dip a piece ( :ite pap] into ?is syrup ( violets1 :i*1 y see1 is ( a deep blue1 & dyes ! pap] ( ! same col\r4 --,z soon z x is dry1 we %all dip x into a solution ( pota%1 :i*1 ?\gh itself col\rless1 w turn ! pap] gre5-- ,,c>ol9e4 ,s x has1 inde$6 ,& d ! o!r alkalies produce a simil> effect8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,exactly ! same4 --,we may n[ proce$ to ,,soda1 :i*1 h[ev] important1 w deta9 u b a v %ort "t2 z 9 all its g5]al prop]ties x v /rongly resembles pota%2 inde$1 s great is _! similitude1 t !y h be5 long conf\nd$1 & !y c n[ sc>cely be di/+ui%$1 except by ! diff]5ce ( ! salts :i* !y =m ) acids4 ,! great s\rce ( ?is alkali is ! sea1 :]e1 comb9$ ) a peculi> acid1 x =ms ! salt ) :i* ! wat]s ( ! ocean are s /rongly impregnat$4 ,,emily4 ,is n t ! common table salt8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! v same2 b aga9 we mu/ po/pone ent]+ into ! p>ticul>s ( ?is int]e/+ comb9ation1 till we treat ( ! neutral salts4 ,soda may be obta9$ f common salt2 b ! easie/ & mo/ usual me?od ( procur+ x is by ! combu/ion ( m>9e plants1 an op]ation p]fectly analog\s to t by :i* pota% is obta9$ f vegetables4 ,,emily4 ,f :at does soda d]ive its "n8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,f a plant call$ by u soda1 & by ! ,arabs kali1 :i* af=ds x 9 great abundance4 ,kali has1 inde$1 giv5 its "n to ! alkalies 9 g5]al4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,does soda =m glass & soap 9 ! same mann] z pota%8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes1 x does2 x is ( equal importance 9 ! arts1 & is ev5 pref]r$ to pota% = "s purposes2 b y w n be able to di/+ui% _! prop]ties till we exam9e ! comp\nd salts :i* !y =m ) acids2 we mu/ !re=e leave soda = ! pres5t1 & proce$ to ,,ammonia1 or ! ,,volatile ,,alkali4 ,,emily4 ,i long to he> some?+ ( ?is alkali2 is x n ( ! same nature z h>t%orn8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes1 x is1 z y w see by-&-bye4 ,?is alkali is seldom f\nd 9 nature 9 its pure /ate2 x is mo/ commonly extract$ f a comp\nd salt1 call$ sal ammoniac1 :i* 0 =m]ly import$ f ,ammonia1 a region ( ,libya1 f :i* bo? ^! salts & ! alkali d]ive _! names4 ,! cry/als conta9$ 9 ?is bottle are specim5s ( ?is salt1 :i* consi/s ( a comb9ation ( ammonia & muriatic acid4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,!n x %\ld be call$ muriat ( ammonia2 = ?\gh ,i am ignorant :at muriatic acid is1 yet ,i "k t its comb9ation ) ammonia _c b be s call$2 & ,i am surpris$ to see sal ammoniac inscrib$ on ! label4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t is ! "n by :i* x has be5 s long kn[n1 t ! mod]n *emi/s h n yet succe$$ 9 bani%+ x altoge!r2 & x is /ill sold "u t "n by druggi/s1 ?\gh by sci5tific *emi/s x is m prop]ly call$ muriat ( ammonia4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,bo? ! popul> & ! common "n %\ld be inscrib$ on labels--?is w\ld soon introduce ! new nom5clature4 ,,emily4 ,by :at means c ! ammonia be sep>at$ f ! muriatic acid8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,by *emical attractions2 b ?is op]ation is too complicat$ = y to und]/&1 till y are bett] acqua9t$ ) ! ag5cy ( aff9ities4 ,,emily4 ,& :5 extract$ f ! salt1 :at k9d ( sub/ance is ammonia8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,its natural =m1 at ! temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e1 :5 free f comb9ation1 is t ( gas2 & 9 ?is /ate x is call$ ammoniacal gas4 ,b x mixes v readily ) wat]1 & c be ?us obta9$ 9 a liquid =m4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,y said t ammonia 0 m complicat$ 9 its composition ?an ! o!r alkalies2 pray ( :at pr9ciples does x consi/8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x 0 discov]$ a few ye>s s9ce1 by ,b]?ollet1 a celebrat$ ,fr5* *emi/1 t x consi/$ ( ab\t "o "p ( hydrog5 to f\r p>ts ( nitrog54 ,hav+ heat$ ammoniacal gas "u a receiv]1 by caus+ ! electrical sp>k to pass repeat$ly ?r\gh x1 he f\nd t x increas$ consid]ably 9 bulk1 lo/ all its alkal9e prop]ties1 & 0 actually conv]t$ into hydrog5 & nitrog5 gases2 & f ! late/ & mo/ accurate exp]im5ts1 ! proportions appe> to be1 "o volume ( nitrog5 gas to ?ree ( hydrog5 gas4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,ammonia1 !re=e1 has n1 l ! two o!r alkalies1 a metallic basis8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is believ$ x has1 ?\gh x is extremely difficult to reconcile t idea ) :at ,i h j /at$ ( its *emical nature4 ,b ! fact is1 t al?\gh ?is suppos$ metallic basis ( ammonia has nev] be5 obta9$ di/9ct & sep>ate1 yet bo? ,pr(essor ,b]zelius1 ( ,/ockholm1 & ,sir ,h4 ,davy1 h succe$$ 9 =m+ a comb9ation ( m]cury ) ! basis ( ammonia1 :i* has s mu* ! appe>ance ( an amalgam1 t x /rongly corroborates ! idea ( ammonia hav+ a metallic basis499 ,b ^! !oretical po9ts are full ( difficulties & d\bts1 & x w\ld be useless to dwell any long] ^u !m4 ,let u !re=e return to ! prop]ties ( volatile alkali4 ,ammoniacal gas is consid]ably light] ?an oxyg5 gas1 & only ab\t half ! weight ( atmosph]ical air4 ,x possesses mo/ ( ! prop]ties ( ! fix$ alkalies2 b _c be ( s mu* use 9 ! arts on acc\nt ( its volatile nature4 ,x is1 !re=e1 nev] employ$ 9 ! manufacture ( glass1 b x =ms soap ) oils equally z well z pota% & soda2 x resembles !m likewise 9 its /rong attraction = wat]2 = :i* reason x c be collect$ 9 a receiv] ov] m]cury only4 ,footnote 993 ,?is amalgam is easily obta9$1 by plac+ a globule ( m]cury ^u a piece ( muriat1 or c>bonat ( ammonia1 & electrify+ ?is globule by ! ,voltaic batt]y4 ,! globule in/antly beg9s to exp& to ?ree or f\r times its =m] size1 & becomes mu* less fluid1 ?\gh )\t los+ its metallic lu/re1 a *ange :i* is ascrib$ to ! metallic basis ( ammonia unit+ ) ! m]cury4 ,?is is an extremely curi\s exp]im5t4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i d n und]/& ?is8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,d y recollect ! me?od :i* we us$ to collect gases 9 a glass-receiv] ov] wat]8 ,,c>ol9e4 ,p]fectly4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,ammoniacal gas has s /rong a t5d5cy to unite ) wat]1 t1 in/ead ( pass+ ?r\gh t fluid1 x w\ld be in/antane\sly absorb$ by x4 ,we c !re=e nei!r use wat] = t purpose1 nor any o!r liquid ( :i* wat] is a compon5t "p2 s t1 9 ord] to collect ?is gas1 we are oblig$ to h rec\rse to m]cury1 7a liquid :i* has no action ^u x17 & a m]curial ba? is us$ in/ead ( a wat] ba?1 su* z we employ$ on =m] occasions4 ,wat] impregnat$ ) ?is gas is no?+ m ?an ! fluid :i* y m5tion$ at ! beg9n+ ( ! conv]sation--h>t%orn2 x is ! ammoniacal gas escap+ f ! wat] :i* gives x s p[]ful a smell4 ,,emily4 ,b !re is no appe>ance ( eff]vesc5ce 9 h>t%orn4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,because ! p>ticles ( gas t rise f ! wat] are too subtle & m9ute = _! effect to be visible4 ,wat] dim9i%es 9 d5sity1 by be+ impregnat$ ) ammoniacal gas2 & ?is augm5tation ( bulk increases its capacity = caloric4 ,,emily4 ,9 mak+ h>t%orn1 !n1 or impregnat+ wat] ) ammonia1 heat mu/ be absorb$1 & cold produc$8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t effect w\ld take place if x 0 n c\nt]act$ by ano!r circum/ance2 ! gas is liquefi$ by incorporat+ ) ! wat]1 & gives out its lat5t heat4 ,! cond5sation ( ! gas m ?an c\nt]balances ! expansion ( ! wat]2 !re=e1 ^u ! :ole1 heat is produc$4 --,b if y dissolve ammoniacal gas ) ice or sn[1 cold is produc$4 --,c y acc\nt = t8 ,,emily4 ,! gas1 9 be+ cond5s$ into a liquid1 mu/ give out heat2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 ! sn[ or ice1 9 be+ r>efi$ into a liquid1 mu/ absorb heat2 s t1 betwe5 ! opposite effects1 ,i %\ld h suppos$ ! orig9al temp]ature w\ld h be5 pres]v$4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,b y h =gott5 to take into ! acc\nt ! r>efaction ( ! wat] 7or melt$ ice7 by ! impregnation ( ! gas2 & ?is is ! cause ( ! cold :i* is ultimately produc$4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,is ! sal volatile 7! smell ( :i* s /rongly resembles h>t%orn7 likewise a prep>ation ( ammonia8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is c>bonat ( ammonia dissolv$ 9 wat]2 & :i*1 9 its concrete /ate1 is commonly call$ salts ( h>t%orn4 ,ammonia is cau/ic1 l ! fix$ alkalies1 z y may judge by ! pung5t effects ( h>t%orn1 :i* _c be tak5 int]nally1 nor appli$ to delicate ext]nal p>ts1 )\t be+ pl5tifully dilut$ ) wat]4 --,oil & acids are v excell5t antidotes = alkal9e poisons2 c y guess :y8 ,,c>ol9e4 ,p]haps1 because ! oil comb9es ) ! alkali1 & =ms soap1 & ?us de/roys its cau/ic prop]ties2 & ! acid conv]ts x into a comp\nd salt1 :i*1 ,i suppose1 is n s p]nici\s z cau/ic alkali4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,precisely s4 ,ammoniacal gas1 if x be mix$ ) atmosph]ical air1 & a burn+ tap] repeat$ly plung$ into x1 w burn ) a l>ge flame ( a peculi> yell[ col\r4 ,,emily4 ,b pray tell me1 c ammonia be procur$ f ?is ,lybian salt only8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,s f> f x1 t x is conta9$ 91 & may be extract$ f1 all animal sub/ances :atev]4 ,hydrog5 & nitrog5 are two ( ! *ief con/itu5ts ( animal matt]2 x is !re=e n surpris+ t !y %\ld occasionally meet & comb9e 9 ^? proportions t compose ammonia4 ,b ?is alkali is m frequ5tly g5]at$ by ! spontane\s decomposition ( animal sub/ances2 ! hydrog5 & nitrog5 gases t arise f putrefi$ bodies comb9e1 & =m ! volatile alkali4 ,muriat ( ammonia1 in/ead ( be+ exclusively br\ght f ,lybia1 z x orig9ally 01 is n[ *iefly prep>$ 9 ,europe1 by *emical processes4 ,ammonia1 al?\gh pr9cipally extract$ f ?is salt1 c also be produc$ by a great v>iety ( o!r sub/ances4 ,! horns ( cattle1 especially ^? ( de]1 yield x 9 abundance1 & x is f ?is circum/ance t a solution ( ammonia 9 wat] has be5 call$ h>t%orn4 ,x may likewise be procur$ f wool1 fle%1 & bones2 9 a ^w1 any animal sub/ance :atev] yields x by decomposition4 ,we %all n[ lay aside ! alkalies1 h[ev] important ! subject may be1 till we treat ( _! comb9ation ) acids4 ,! next "t we meet we %all exam9e ! e>?s4 ,,conv]sation ,,xv4 ,,on ,,e>?s4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! ,,e>?s1 :i* we are to-day to exam9e1 are n9e 9 numb]3 ,,silex1 ,,alum9e1 ,,b>ytes1 ,,lime1 ,,magnesia1 ,,/rontites1 ,,yttria1 ,,gluc9a1 ,,zirconia4 ,! la/ ?ree are ( late discov]y2 _! prop]ties are b imp]fectly kn[n2 &1 z !y h n yet be5 appli$ to use1 x w be unnecess>y to ent] into any p>ticul>s respect+ !m2 we %all conf9e our rem>ks1 !re=e1 to ! fir/ five4 ,!y are compos$1 z y h already le>nt1 ( a metallic basis comb9$ ) oxyg52 &1 f ?is circum/ance1 are incombu/ible4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,yet ,i h se5 turf burnt 9 ! c\ntry1 & x makes an excell5t fire2 ! e>? becomes r$ hot1 & produces a v great quantity ( heat4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is n ! e>? t burns1 my de>1 b ! roots1 grass1 & o!r remnants ( vegetables t are int]mix$ ) x4 ,! caloric1 :i* is produc$ by ! combu/ion ( ^! sub/ances1 makes ! e>? r$ hot1 & ?is be+ a bad conductor ( heat1 reta9s its caloric a long "t2 b 7 y to exam9e x :5 cool$1 y w\ld f9d t x _h n absorb$ "o p>ticle ( oxyg51 nor suff]$ any alt]ation f ! fire4 ,e>? is1 h[ev]1 f ! circum/ance j m5tion$1 an excell5t radiator ( heat1 & owes its utility1 :5 mix$ ) fuel1 solely to t prop]ty4 ,x is 9 ?is po9t ( view t ,c\nt ,rum=d has recomm5d$ balls ( incombu/ible sub/ances to be arrang$ 9 fire-places1 & mix$ ) ! coals1 by :i* means ! caloric dis5gag$ by ! combu/ion ( ! latt] is m p]fectly reflect$ into ! room1 & an exp5se ( fuel is sav$4 ,,emily4 ,i expect$ t ! li/ ( e>?s w\ld be mu* m consid]able4 ,:5 ,i ?9k ( ! great v>iety ( soils1 ,i am a/oni%$ t !re is n a great] numb] ( e>?s to =m !m4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y might1 inde$1 almo/ conf9e t numb] to f\r2 = b>ytes1 /rontites1 & ! o!rs ( late discov]y1 act b s small a "p 9 ?is great !atre1 t !y _c be reckon$ z ess5tial to ! g5]al =mation ( ! globe4 ,& y mu/ n conf9e y\r idea ( e>?s to ! =mation ( soil2 = rock1 m>ble1 *alk1 slate1 s&1 fl9t1 & all k9ds ( /ones1 f ! preci\s jewels to ! commone/ pebbles2 9 a ^w1 all ! imm5se v>iety ( m9]al products1 may be ref]r$ to "s ( ^! e>?s1 ei!r 9 a simple /ate1 or comb9$ ! "o ) ! o!r1 or bl5d$ ) o!r +r$i5ts4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,preci\s /ones compos$ ( e>?6 ,t seems v difficult to conceive4 ,,emily4 ,is x m extraord9>y ?an t ! mo/ preci\s ( all jewels1 diamond1 %\ld be compos$ ( c>bon8 ,b diamond =ms an exception1 ,mrs4 ,b42 =1 ?\gh a /one1 x is n compos$ ( e>?4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i did n specify ! exception1 z ,i knew y 7 s well acqua9t$ ) x4 ,besides1 ,i w\ld call a diamond a m9]al r ?an a /one1 z ! latt] t]m always implies ! pres5ce ( "s e>?4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i _c conceive h[ su* co>se mat]ials c be conv]t$ into su* beautiful productions4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,we are v f> f und]/&+ all ! secret res\rces ( nature2 b ,i d n ?9k ! spontane\s =mation ( ! cry/als1 :i* we call preci\s /ones1 "o ( ! mo/ difficult ph5om5a to compreh5d4 ,by ! sl[ & regul> "w ( ages1 p]haps ( hundr$s ( ages1 ^! e>?s may be gradually dissolv$ by wat]1 & z gradually deposit$ by _! solv5t 9 ! undi/urb$ process ( cry/allisation4 ,! regul> arrangem5t ( _! p>ticles1 dur+ _! reunion 9 a solid mass1 gives !m t brilliancy1 transp>5cy1 & beauty1 = :i* !y are s mu* admir$2 & r5d]s !m 9 appe>ance s totally diff]5t f _! rude & primitive +r$i5ts4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b h[ does x happ5 t !y are spontane\sly dissolv$1 & aft]w>ds cry/allis$8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! sc>city ( _m k9ds ( cry/als1 z rubies1 em]alds1 topazes1 c4 %[s t _! =mation is n an op]ation v easily c>ri$ on 9 nature4 ,b _c y imag9e t :5 wat]1 hold+ 9 solution "s p>ticles ( e>?1 filt]s ?r\gh ! crevices ( hills or m\nta9s1 & at l5g? dribbles into "s cav]n1 ea* successive drop may be sl[ly evaporat$1 leav+ beh9d x ! p>ticle ( e>? :i* x held 9 solution8 ,y "k t cry/allisation is m regul> & p]fect1 9 proportion z ! evaporation ( ! solv5t is sl[ & uni=m2 nature1 !re=e1 :o kn[s no limit ( "t1 has1 9 all works ( ?is k9d1 an inf9ite advantage ov] any arti/ :o attempts to imitate su* productions4 ,,emily4 ,i c n[ conceive t ! arrangem5t ( ! p>ticles ( e>?1 dur+ cry/allisation1 may be su* z to occasion transp>5cy1 by admitt+ a free passage to ! rays ( light2 b ,i _c und]/& :y cry/allis$ e>?s %\ld assume su* beautiful col\rs z mo/ ( !m d4 ,sapphire1 = in/ance1 is ( a cele/ial blue2 ruby1 a deep r$2 topaz1 a brilliant yell[8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no?+ is m simple ?an to suppose t ! arrangem5t ( _! p>ticles is su*1 z to transmit "s ( ! col\r$ rays ( light1 & to reflect o!rs1 9 :i* case ! /one mu/ appe> ( ! col\r ( ! rays :i* x reflects4 ,b besides1 x frequ5tly happ5s t ! col\r ( a /one is ow+ to a mixture ( "s metallic matt]4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,pray1 are ! diff]5t k9ds ( preci\s /ones ea* compos$ ( "o individual e>?1 or are !y =m$ ( a comb9ation ( sev]al e>?s8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,a great v>iety ( mat]ials ent]s into ! composition ( mo/ ( !m2 n only sev]al e>?s1 b sometimes salts & metals4 ,! e>?s1 h[ev]1 9 _! simple /ate1 frequ5tly =m v beautiful cry/als2 &1 inde$1 x is 9 t /ate only t !y c be obta9$ p]fectly pure4 ,,emily4 ,is n ! ,d]by%ire sp> produc$ by ! cry/allisation ( e>?s1 9 ! way y h j expla9$8 ,i h be5 9 "s ( ! subt]rane\s cav]ns :]e x is f\nd1 :i* are simil> to ^? y h describ$4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 b ?is sp> is a v imp]fect specim5 ( cry/allisation2 x consi/s ( a v>iety ( +r$i5ts confus$ly bl5d$ toge!r1 z y may judge by its opacity1 & by ! v>i\s col\rs & appe>ances :i* x exhibits4 ,b1 9 exam9+ ! e>?s 9 _! mo/ p]fect & agreeable =m1 we mu/ n lose sight ( t /ate 9 :i* !y are commonly f\nd1 & :i*1 if less pleas+ to ! eye1 is f> m int]e/+ by its utility4 ,all ! e>?s are m or less end[$ ) alkal9e prop]ties2 b !re are f\r1 b>ytes1 magnesia1 lime1 & /rontites1 :i* are call$ alkal9e e>?s1 because !y possess ^? qualities 9 s great a degree1 z to entitle !m1 9 mo/ respects1 to ! rank ( alkalies4 ,!y comb9e & =m comp\nd salts ) acids1 9 ! same way z alkalies2 !y are1 l !m1 susceptible ( a consid]able degree ( cau/icity1 & are act$ ^u 9 a simil> mann] by *emical te/s4 --,! rema9+ e>?s1 silex & alum9e1 ) "o or two o!rs ( late discov]y1 are 9 "s degree m e>?y1 t is to say1 !y possess m completely ! prop]ties common to all ! e>?s1 :i* are1 insipidity1 dryness1 unalt]abl5ess 9 ! fire1 infusibility1 c4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,yet1 did y n tell u t silex1 or silice\s e>?1 :5 mix$ ) an alkali1 0 fusible1 & run into glass8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes1 my de>2 b ! *>act]i/ic prop]ties ( e>?s1 :i* ,i h m5tion$1 are to be consid]$ z belong+ to !m 9 a /ate ( purity only2 a /ate 9 :i* !y are v seldom to be met ) 9 nature4 --,besides ^! g5]al prop]ties1 ea* e>? has its own specific *>act]s1 by :i* x is di/+ui%$ f any o!r sub/ance4 --,let u !re=e review !m sep>ately4 ,,silex1 or ,,silica1 ab\nds 9 fl9t1 s&1 s&/one1 agate1 jasp]1 c42 x =ms ! basis ( _m preci\s /ones1 & p>ticul>ly ( ^? :i* /rike fire ) /eel4 ,x is r\gh to ! t\*1 scrat*es & we>s away metals2 x is act$ ^u by no acid b ! fluoric1 & is n soluble 9 wat] by any kn[n process2 b nature c]ta9ly dissolves x by means ) :i* we are unacqua9t$1 & ?us produces a v>iety ( silice\s cry/als1 & among/ ^! rock cry/al1 :i* is ! pure/ specim5 ( ?is e>?4 ,silex appe>s to h be5 int5d$ by ,provid5ce to =m ! solid basis ( ! globe1 to s]ve z a f\ndation = ! orig9al m\nta9s1 & give !m t h>dness & durability :i* has enabl$ !m to resi/ ! v>i\s revolutions :i* ! surface ( ! e>? has successively und]gone4 ,f ^! m\nta9s silice\s rocks h1 dur+ ! c\rse ( ages1 be5 gradually deta*$ by torr5ts ( wat]1 & br\ght d[n 9 fragm5ts2 ^!1 9 ! viol5ce & rapidity ( _! desc5t1 are sometimes crumbl$ to s&1 & 9 ?is /ate =m ! b$s ( riv]s & ( ! sea1 *iefly compos$ ( silice\s mat]ials4 ,sometimes ! fragm5ts are brok5 )\t be+ pulv]is$ by _! fall1 & assume ! =m ( pebbles1 :i* gradually become r\nd$ & poli%$4 ,,emily4 ,pray :at is ! true col\r ( silex1 :i* =ms su* a v>iety ( diff]5t col\r$ sub/ances8 ,s& is br[n1 fl9t is ne>ly black1 & preci\s /ones are ( all col\rs4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,pure silex1 su* z is f\nd only 9 ! *emi/'s laboratory1 is p]fectly :ite1 & ! v>i\s col\rs :i* x assumes1 9 ! diff]5t sub/ances y h j m5tion$1 proce$ f ! diff]5t +r$i5ts ) :i* x is mix$ 9 !m4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i wond] t silex is n m valuable1 s9ce x =ms ! basis ( s _m preci\s /ones4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y mu/ n =get t ! value we set ^u preci\s /ones dep5ds 9 a great measure ^u ! sc>city ) :i* nature af=ds !m2 =1 7 ^? productions ei!r common or p]fectly imitable by art1 !y w\ld no long]1 not)/&+ _! beauty1 be s highly e/eem$4 ,b ! real value ( silice\s e>?1 9 _m ( ! mo/ useful arts1 is v ext5sive4 ,mix$ ) clay1 x =ms ! basis ( all ! v>i\s k9ds ( e>!n w>e1 f ! mo/ common ut5sils to ! mo/ ref9$ ornam5ts4 ,,emily4 ,& we mu/ recollect its importance 9 ! =mation ( glass ) pota%4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,nor %\ld we omit to m5tion1 likewise1 _m o!r important uses ( silex1 su* z be+ ! *ief +r$i5t ( "s ( ! mo/ durable cem5ts1 ( mort>1 c4 ,i said be=e1 t silice\s e>? comb9$ ) no acid b ! fluoric2 x is = ?is reason t glass is liable to be attack$ by t acid only1 :i*1 f its /rong aff9ity = silex1 =ces t sub/ance f its comb9ation ) ! pota%1 & ?us de/roys ! glass4 ,we w n[ ha/5 to proce$ to ! o!r e>?s1 = ,i am r appreh5sive ( y\r gr[+ we>y ( ?is "p ( our subject4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,! hi/ory ( ! e>?s is n q s ent]ta9+ z t ( ! simple sub/ances4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,p]haps n2 b x is absolutely indisp5sable t y %\ld "k some?+ ( !m2 = !y =m ! basis ( s _m int]e/+ & important comp\nds1 t _! total omission w\ld ?r[ great obscurity on our g5]al outl9e ( *emical sci5ce4 ,we %all1 h[ev]1 review !m 9 z cursory a mann] z ! subject c admit (4 ,,alum9e d]ives its "n f a comp\nd salt call$ alum1 ( :i* x =ms ! basis4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b x ought to be j ! contr>y1 ,mrs4 ,b42 ! simple body %\ld give1 in/ead ( tak+1 its "n f ! comp\nd4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t is true2 b z ! comp\nd salt 0 kn[n long be=e its basis 0 discov]$1 x 0 v natural t :5 ! e>? 0 at l5g? sep>at$ f ! acid1 x %\ld d]ive its "n f ! comp\nd f :i* x 0 obta9$4 ,h[ev]1 to remove y\r scruples1 we w call ! salt accord+ to ! new nom5clature1 sulphat ( alum9e4 ,f ?is comb9ation1 alum9e may be obta9$ 9 its pure /ate2 x is !n s(t to ! t\*1 makes a pa/e ) wat]1 & h>d5s 9 ! fire4 ,9 nature1 x is f\nd *iefly 9 clay1 :i* conta9s a consid]able proportion ( ?is e>?2 x is v abundant 9 full]'s e>?1 slate1 & a v>iety ( o!r m9]al productions4 ,!re is inde$ sc>cely any m9]al sub/ance m useful to mank9d ?an alum9e4 ,9 ! /ate ( clay1 x =ms l>ge /rata ( ! e>?1 gives consi/5cy to ! soil ( valleys1 & ( all l[ & damp spots1 su* z swamps & m>%es4 ,! b$s ( lakes1 ponds1 & spr+s1 are almo/ entirely ( clay2 in/ead ( all[+ ( ! filtration ( wat]1 z s& does1 x =ms an imp5etrable bottom1 & by ?is means wat] is accumulat$ 9 ! cav]ns ( ! e>?1 produc+ ^? res]voirs :5ce spr+s issue1 & sp\t out at ! surface4 ,,emily4 ,i always ?\ght t ^! subt]rane\s res]voirs ( wat] 7 b$d$ by "s h>d /one1 or rock1 :i* ! wat] c\ld n p5etrate4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t is n ! case2 = 9 ! c\rse ( "t wat] w\ld p5etrate1 or we> away silex1 or any o!r k9d ( /one1 :ile x is effectually /opp$ by clay1 or alum9e4 ,! solid compact soils1 su* z are fit = corn1 owe _! consi/5ce 9 a great measure to alum9e2 ?is e>? is !re=e us$ to improve s&y or *alky soils1 :i* d n reta9 a suffici5t quantity ( wat] = ! purpose ( vegetation4 ,alum9e is ! mo/ ess5tial +r$i5t 9 all pott]ies4 ,x ent]s into ! composition ( brick1 z well z t ( ! f9e/ porcela92 ! addition ( silex & wat] h>d5s x1 r5d]s x susceptible ( a degree ( vitrification1 & makes x p]fectly fit = its v>i\s purposes4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i c sc>cely conceive t brick & *9a %\ld be made ( ! same mat]ials4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,brick consi/s almo/ entirely ( bak$ clay2 b a c]ta9 proportion ( silex is ess5tial to ! =mation ( e>!n or /one w>e4 ,9 common pott]ies s& is us$ = t purpose2 a m pure silex is1 ,i believe1 necess>y = ! composition ( porcela91 z well z a f9] k9d ( clay2 & ^! mat]ials are1 no d\bt1 m c>efully prep>$1 & curi\sly wr\ght1 9 ! "o case ?an 9 ! o!r4 ,porcela9 owes its beautiful semitransp>5cy to a comm5cem5t ( vitrification4 ,,emily4 ,b ! commone/ e>!n-w>e1 ?\gh n transp>5t1 is cov]$ ) a k9d ( glaz+4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t precaution is equally necess>y = use z = beauty1 z ! w>e w\ld be liable to be spoil$ & corrod$ by a v>iety ( sub/ances1 if n cov]$ ) a coat+ ( ?is k9d4 ,9 porcela9 x consi/s ( enamel1 :i* is a f9e :ite opake glass1 =m$ ( metallic oxyds1 s&1 salts1 & su* o!r mat]ials z are susceptible ( vitrification4 ,! glaz+ ( common e>!n-w>e is made *iefly ( oxyd ( lead1 or sometimes m]ely ( salt1 :i*1 :5 ?9ly spread ov] e>!n vessels1 w1 at a c]ta9 heat1 run into opake glass4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,& ( :at nature are ! col\rs :i* are us$ = pa9t+ porcela98 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,!y are all compos$ ( metallic oxyds1 s t ^! col\rs1 in/ead ( receiv+ injury f ! application ( fire1 are /r5g!n$ & develop$ by its action1 :i* causes !m to und]go diff]5t degrees ( oxydation4 ,alum9e & silex are n only (t5 comb9$ by art1 b !y h 9 nature a v /rong t5d5cy to unite1 & are f\nd comb9$1 9 diff]5t proportions1 9 v>i\s gems & o!r m9]als4 ,inde$1 _m ( ! preci\s /ones1 su* z ruby1 ori5tal sapphire1 ame?y/1 c4 consi/ *iefly ( alum9e4 ,we may n[ proce$ to ! alkal9e e>?s1 ,i %all say b a few words on ,,b>ytes1 z x is h>dly ev] us$1 except 9 *emical laboratories4 ,x is rem>kable = its great weight1 & its /rong alkal9e prop]ties1 su* z de/roy+ animal sub/ances1 turn+ gre5 "s blue vegetable col\rs1 & %[+ a p[]ful attraction = acids2 ?is la/ prop]ty x possesses to su* a degree1 p>ticul>ly ) reg>d to ! sulphuric acid1 t x w always detect its pres5ce 9 any sub/ance or comb9ation :atev]1 by imm$iately unit+ ) x1 & =m+ a sulphat ( b>ytes4 ,?is r5d]s x a v valuable *emical te/4 ,x is f\nd pretty abundantly 9 nature 9 ! /ate ( c>bonat1 f :i* ! pure e>? c be easily sep>at$4 ,! next e>? we h to consid] is ,,lime4 ,?is is a sub/ance ( too great & g5]al importance to be pass$ ov] s slightly z ! la/4 ,lime is /rongly alkal9e4 ,9 nature x is n met ) 9 its simple /ate1 z its aff9ity = wat] & c>bonic acid is s great1 t x is always f\nd comb9$ ) ^! sub/ances1 ) :i* x =ms ! common lime-/one2 b x is sep>at$ 9 ! kiln f ^! +r$i5ts1 :i* are volatilis$ :5ev] a suffici5t degree ( heat is appli$4 ,,emily4 ,pure lime1 !n1 is no?+ b lime-/one1 :i* has be5 depriv$1 9 ! kiln1 ( its wat] & c>bonic acid8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,precisely3 9 ?is /ate x is call$ quick-lime1 & x is s cau/ic1 t x is capable ( decompos+ ! dead bodies ( animals v rapidly1 )\t _! und]go+ ! process ( putrefaction4 --,i h "h "s quick lime1 :i* is kept c>efully cork$ up 9 a bottle to prev5t ! access ( air2 = 7 x at all expos$ to ! atmosph]e1 x w\ld absorb bo? moi/ure & c>bonic acid gas f x1 & be soon slak$4 ,"h is also "s lime-/one--we %all p\r a little wat] on ea*1 & obs]ve ! effects t result f x4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,h[ ! quick-lime hisses6 ,x is become excessively hot6 --,x swells1 & n[ x bur/s & crumbles to p[d]1 :ile ! wat] appe>s to produce no k9d ( alt]ation on ! lime-/one4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,because ! lime-/one is already saturat$ ) wat]1 :il/ ! quick-lime1 :i* has be5 depriv$ ( x 9 ! kiln1 comb9es ) x ) v great avidity1 & produces ?is prodigi\s dis5gagem5t ( heat1 ! cause ( :i* ,i =m]ly expla9$ to y2 d y recollect x8 ,,emily4 ,yes2 y said t ! heat did n proce$ f ! lime1 b f ! wat] :i* 0 solidifi$1 & ?us p>t$ ) its heat ( liquidity4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,v well4 ,if we cont9ue to add successive quantities ( wat] to ! lime aft] be+ slak$ & crumbl$ z y see1 x w !n gradually be diffus$ 9 ! wat]1 till x w at l5g? be dissolv$ 9 x1 & entirely disappe>2 b = ?is purpose x requires no less ?an #gjj times its weight ( wat]4 ,?is solution is call$ lime-wat]4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,h[ v small1 !n1 is ! proportion ( lime dissolv$6 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,b>ytes is /ill ( m difficult solution2 x dissolves only 9 #ijj times its weight ( wat]3 b x is mu* m soluble 9 ! /ate ( cry/als4 ,! liquid conta9$ 9 ?is bottle is lime-wat]2 x is (t5 us$ z a m$ic9e1 *iefly1 ,i believe1 = ! purpose ( comb9+ )1 & neutralis+1 ! sup]abundant acid :i* x meets ) 9 ! /oma*4 ,,emily4 ,i am surpris$ t x is s p]fectly cle>2 x does n at all p>take ( ! :it5ess ( ! lime4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,h y =gott5 t1 9 solutions1 ! solid body is s m9utely subdivid$ by ! fluid z to become invisible1 & !re=e w n 9 ! lea/ degree impair ! transp>5cy ( ! solv5t8 ,i said t ! attraction ( lime = c>bonic acid 0 s /rong1 t x w\ld absorb x f ! atmosph]e4 ,we may see ?is effect by expos+ a glass ( lime-wat] to ! air2 ! lime w !n sep>ate f ! wat]1 comb9e ) ! c>bonic acid1 & re-appe> on ! surface 9 ! =m ( a :ite film1 :i* is c>bonat ( lime1 commonly call$ *alk4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,*alk is1 !n1 a comp\nd salt6 ,i nev] %\ld h suppos$ t ^? imm5se b$s ( *alk1 t we see 9 _m p>ts ( ! c\ntry1 7 a salt4 --,n[1 ! :ite film beg9s to appe> on ! surface ( ! wat]2 b x is f> f resembl+ h>d solid *alk4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t is ow+ to its /ate ( extreme division2 9 a little "t x w collect into a m compact mass1 & subside at ! bottom ( ! glass4 ,if y brea! into lime-wat]1 ! c>bonic acid1 :i* is mix$ ) ! air t y expire1 w produce ! same effect4 ,x is an exp]im5t v easily made2 --,i %all p\r "s lime-wat] into ?is glass tube1 &1 by brea?+ repeat$ly into x1 y w soon p]ceive a precipitation ( *alk-- ,,emily4 ,i see already a small :ite cl\d =m$4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is compos$ ( m9ute p>ticles ( *alk2 at pres5t x floats 9 ! wat]1 b x w soon subside4 ,c>bonat ( lime1 or *alk1 y see1 is insoluble 9 wat]1 s9ce ! lime :i* 0 dissolv$ re-appe>s :5 conv]t$ into *alk2 b y mu/ take notice ( a v s+ul> circum/ance1 :i* is1 t *alk is soluble 9 wat] impregnat$ ) c>bonic acid4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,x is v curi\s1 inde$1 t c>bonic acid gas %\ld r5d] lime soluble 9 "o in/ance1 & insoluble 9 ! o!r6 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i h "h a bottle ( ,seltz] wat]1 :i*1 y "k1 is /rongly impregnat$ ) c>bonic acid3-- let u p\r a little ( x into a glass ( lime-wat]4 ,y see t x imm$iately =ms a precipitation ( c>bonat ( lime8 ,,emily4 ,yes1 a :ite cl\d appe>s4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i %all n[ p\r an additional quantity ( ! ,seltz] wat] into ! lime-wat]-- ,,emily4 ,h[ s+ul>6 ,! cl\d is re-dissolv$1 & ! liquid is aga9 transp>5t4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,all ! my/]y dep5ds ^u ?is circum/ance1 t c>bonat ( lime is soluble 9 c>bonic acid1 :il/ x is insoluble 9 wat]2 ! fir/ quantity ( c>bonic acid1 !re=e1 :i* ,i introduce into ! lime-wat]1 0 employ$ 9 =m+ ! c>bonat ( lime1 :i* rema9$ visible1 until an additional quantity ( c>bonic acid dissolv$ x4 ,?us1 y see1 :5 ! lime & c>bonic acid are 9 prop] proportions to =m *alk1 ! :ite cl\d appe>s1 b :5 ! acid pr$om9ates1 ! *alk is no soon] =m$ ?an x is dissolv$4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,t is n[ ! case2 b let u try :e!r a fur!r addition ( lime-wat] w aga9 precipitate ! *alk4 ,,emily4 ,x does1 inde$6 ,! cl\d re-appe>s1 because1 ,i suppose1 !re is n[ no m ( ! c>bonic acid ?an is necess>y to =m *alk2 &1 9 ord] to dissolve ! *alk1 a sup]abundance ( acid is requir$4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,we h1 ,i ?9k1 c>ri$ ?is exp]im5t f> en\gh2 e repetition w\ld b exhibit ! same appe>ances4 ,lime comb9es ) mo/ ( ! acids1 to :i* ! c>bonic 7z be+ ! weake/7 readily yields x2 b ^! comb9ations we %all h an opportunity ( notic+ m p>ticul>ly h]eaft]4 ,x unites ) phosphorus1 & ) sulphur1 9 _! simple /ate2 9 %ort1 ( all ! e>?s1 lime is t :i* nature employs mo/ frequ5tly1 & mo/ abundantly1 9 its innum]able comb9ations4 ,x is ! basis ( all calc>e\s e>?s & /ones2 we f9d x likewise 9 ! animal & ! vegetable creations4 ,,emily4 ,& 9 ! arts is n lime ( v great utility8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,sc>cely any sub/ance m s2 y "k t x is a mo/ ess5tial requisite 9 build+1 z x con/itutes ! basis ( all cem5ts1 su* z mort>1 /ucco1 plai/]1 c4 ,lime is also ( inf9ite importance 9 agriculture2 x light5s & w>ms soils t are too cold1 & compact1 9 consequ5ce ( too great a proportion ( clay4 --,b x w\ld be endless to enum]ate ! v>i\s purposes = :i* x is employ$2 & y "k en\gh ( x to =m "s idea ( its importance2 we %all1 !re=e1 n[ proce$ to ! ?ird alkal9e e>?1 ,,magnesia4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i am already pretty well acqua9t$ ) t e>?2 x is a m$ic9e4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is 9 ! /ate ( c>bonat t magnesia is usually employ$ m$ic9ally2 x !n diff]s b little 9 appe>ance f its simple =m1 :i* is t ( a v f9e light :ite p[d]4 ,x dissolves 9 #bjjj times its weight ( wat]1 b =ms ) acids extremely soluble salts4 ,x has n s great an attraction = acids z lime1 & consequ5tly yields !m to ! latt]4 ,x is f\nd 9 a great v>iety ( m9]al comb9ations1 su* z slate1 mica1 amian?us1 & m p>ticul>ly 9 a c]ta9 lime /one1 :i* has lately be5 discov]$ by ,mr4 ,t5nant to conta9 x 9 v great quantities4 ,x does n attract & solidify wat]1 l lime3 b :5 mix$ ) wat] & expos$ to ! atmosph]e1 x sl[ly absorbs c>bonic acid f ! latt]1 & ?us loses its cau/icity4 ,its *ief use 9 m$ic9e is1 l t ( lime1 d]iv$ f its read9ess to comb9e )1 & neutralise1 ! acid :i* x meets ) 9 ! /oma*4 ,,emily4 ,yet1 y said t x 0 tak5 9 ! /ate ( c>bonat1 9 :i* case x has already comb9$ ) an acid8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 b ! c>bonic is ! la/ ( all ! acids 9 ! ord] ( aff9ities2 x w !re=e yield ! magnesia to any ( ! o!rs4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 frequ5tly tak5 9 its cau/ic /ate z a rem$y = flatul5ce4 ,comb9$ ) sulphuric acid1 magnesia =ms ano!r & m p[]ful m$ic9e1 commonly call$ ,epsom salt4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,& prop]ly1 sulphat ( magnesia1 ,i suppose8 ,pray :y 0 x ev] call$ ,epsom salt8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,because !re is a spr+ 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,epsom :i* conta9s ?is salt 9 great abundance4 ,! la/ alkal9e e>? :i* we h to m5tion is ,,/rontian1 or ,,/rontites1 discov]$ by ,dr4 ,hope a few ye>s ago4 ,x s /rongly resembles b>ytes 9 its prop]ties1 & is s sp>+ly f\nd 9 nature1 & ( s little use 9 ! arts1 t x w n be necess>y to ent] into any p>ticul>s respect+ x4 ,"o ( ! rem>kable *>act]i/ic prop]ties ( /rontites is1 t its salts1 :5 dissolv$ 9 _s ( w9e1 t+e ! flame ( a deep r$1 or blood col\r4 ,,conv]sation ,,xvi4 ,,on ,,acids4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,we may n[ proce$ to ! acids4 ,( ! metallic oxyds1 y h already acquir$ "s g5]al notions4 ,?is subject1 ?\gh highly int]e/+ 9 its details1 is n ( suffici5t importance to our concise view ( *emi/ry1 to be p>ticul>ly treat$ (2 b x is absolutely necess>y t y %\ld be bett] acqua9t$ ) ! acids1 & likewise ) _! comb9ations ) ! alkalies1 :i* =m ! triple comp\nds call$ ,,neutral ,,salts4 ,! class ( acids is *>act]is$ by v di/9ct prop]ties4 ,!y all *ange blue vegetable infusions to a r$ col\r3 !y are all m or less s\r to ! ta/e2 & h a g5]al t5d5cy to comb9e ) ! e>?s1 alkalies1 & metallic oxyds4 ,y h1 ,i believe1 a cle> idea ( ! nom5clature by :i* ! base 7or radical7 ( ! acid1 & ! v>i\s degrees ( acidification1 are express$8 ,,emily4 ,yes1 ,i ?9k s2 ! acid is di/+ui%$ by ! "n ( its base1 & its degree ( oxydation1 t is1 ! quantity ( oxyg5 x conta9s1 by ! t]m9ation ( t "n 9 ous or ic2 ?us sulphureous acid is t =m$ by ! smalle/ proportion ( oxyg5 comb9$ ) sulphur2 sulphuric acid t :i* results f ! comb9ation ( sulphur ) ! greate/ quantity ( oxyg54 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,a /ill great] latitude may1 9 _m cases1 be all[$ to ! proportions ( oxyg5 ?an c be comb9$ ) acidifiable radicals2 = sev]al ( ^! radicals are susceptible ( unit+ ) a quantity ( oxyg5 s small z to be insuffici5t to give !m ! prop]ties ( acids2 9 ^! cases1 !re=e1 !y are conv]t$ into oxyds4 ,su* is sulphur1 :i* by exposure to ! atmosph]e ) a degree ( heat inadequate to produce inflammation1 absorbs a small proportion ( oxyg51 :i* col\rs x r$ or br[n4 ,?is1 !re=e1 is ! fir/ degree ( oxyg5ation ( sulphur2 ! #b;d conv]ts x into sulphurous acid2 ! #c;d into ! sulphuric acid2 & #d?ly1 if x 0 f\nd capable ( comb9+ ) a /ill l>g] proportion ( oxyg51 x w\ld !n be t]m$ sup]-oxyg5at$ sulphuric acid4 ,,emily4 ,are ^! v>i\s degrees ( oxyg5ation common to all ! acids8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no2 !y v>y mu* 9 ?is respect3 "s are susceptible ( only "o degree ( oxyg5ation2 o!rs1 ( two1 or ?ree2 !re are b v few t w admit ( m4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,! mod]n nom5clature mu/ be ( imm5se advantage 9 po9t+ out s easily ! nature ( ! acids1 & _! v>i\s degrees ( oxyg5ation4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,till lately _m ( ! acids _h n be5 decompos$2 b analogy af=d$ s /rong a pro( ( _! comp\nd nature1 t ,i nev] c\ld reconcile myself to class+ !m ) ! simple bodies1 ?\gh ?is division has be5 adopt$ by sev]al *emical writ]s4 ,at pres5t !re are only ! muriatic & ! fluoric acids1 :i* h n _h _! bases di/9ctly sep>at$4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,we h he>d ( a great v>iety ( acids2 pray h[ _m are !re 9 all8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i believe !re are reckon$ at pres5t ?irty-f\r1 & _! numb] is con/antly increas+1 z ! sci5ce improves2 b ! mo/ important1 & ^? to :i* we %all almo/ entirely conf9e our att5tion1 are b few4 ,i %all1 h[ev]1 give y a g5]al view ( ! :ole2 & !n we %all m p>ticul>ly exam9e ^? t are ! mo/ ess5tial4 ,?is class ( bodies 0 =m]ly divid$ into m9]al1 vegetable1 & animal acids1 accord+ to ! sub/ances f :i* !y 7 commonly obta9$4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,t1 ,i %\ld ?9k1 mu/ h be5 an excell5t arrangem5t2 :y 0 x alt]$8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,because 9 _m cases x produc$ confusion4 ,9 :i* class1 = in/ance1 w\ld y place c>bonic acid8 ,,c>ol9e4 ,n[ ,i see ! difficulty4 ,i %\ld be at a loss :]e to place x1 z y h told u t x exi/s 9 ! animal1 vegetable1 & m9]al k+doms4 ,,emily4 ,!re w\ld be ! same objection ) respect to phosphoric acid1 :i*1 ?\gh obta9$ *iefly f bones1 c also1 y said1 be f\nd 9 small quantities 9 /ones1 & likewise 9 "s plants4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y see1 !re=e1 ! propriety ( *ang+ ?is mode ( classification4 ,^! objections d n exi/ 9 ! pres5t nom5clature2 = ! composition & nature ( ea* individual acid is 9 "s degree po9t$ out1 in/ead ( ! class ( bodies f :i* x is extract$2 &1 ) reg>d to ! m g5]al division ( acids1 !y are class$ "u ^! ?ree heads3 ,fir/1 ,acids ( kn[n or suppos$ simple bases1 :i* are =m$ by ! union ( ^! bases ) oxyg54 ,!y are ! foll[+3 ,! ,sulphuric ,c>bonic ,nitric ,phosphoric ,ars5ical ,acids1 ( kn[n & simple bases4 ,tung/5ic ,molybd5ic ,boracic ,fluoric ,muriatic ,?is class compreh5ds ! mo/ anci5tly kn[n & mo/ important acids4 ,! sulphuric1 nitric1 & muriatic 7 =m]ly1 & are /ill frequ5tly1 call$ m9]al acids4 #b;dly1 ,acids t h d\ble or b9>y radicals1 & :i* consequ5tly consi/ ( triple comb9ations4 ,^! are ! vegetable acids1 ^: common radical is a comp\nd ( hydrog5 & c>bon4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b if ! basis ( all ! vegetable acids be ! same1 x %\ld =m b "o acid2 x may inde$ comb9e ) diff]5t proportions ( oxyg51 b ! nature ( ! acid mu/ be ! same4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! only diff]5ce t exi/s 9 ! basis ( vegetable acids1 is ! v>i\s proportions ( hydrog5 & c>bon f :i* !y are sev]ally compos$4 ,b ?is is en\gh to produce a numb] ( acids app>5tly v dissimil>4 ,t !y d n1 h[ev]1 diff] ess5tially1 is prov$ by _! susceptibility ( be+ conv]t$ into ea* o!r1 by ! addition or subtraction ( a portion ( hydrog5 or ( c>bon4 ,! names ( ^! acids are1 ,! ,acetic ,oxalic ,t>t>\s ,citric ,malic ,acids1 ( d\ble bases1 be+ ( vegetable orig94 ,gallic ,muc\s ,b5zoic ,succ9ic ,camphoric ,sub]ic ,! #c;d class ( acids consi/s ( ^? :i* h triple radicals1 & are !re=e ( a /ill m comp\nd nature4 ,?is class compreh5ds ! animal acids1 :i* are1 ,! ,lactic ,prussic ,=mic ,acids1 ( triple bases1 or animal acids4 ,bombic ,sebacic ,zoonic ,li?ic ,i h giv5 y ?is summ>y acc\nt or enum]ation ( ! acids1 z y may f9d x m satisfactory to h at once an outl9e or a g5]al notion ( ! ext5t ( ! subject2 b we %all n[ conf9e ourselves to ! fir/ class1 :i* requires our m imm$iate att5tion2 & def] ! few rem>ks :i* we %all h to make on ! o!rs1 till we treat ( ! *emi/ry ( ! animal & vegetable k+doms4 ,! acids ( simple & kn[n radicals are all capable ( be+ decompos$ by combu/ible bodies1 to :i* !y yield _! oxyg54 ,if1 = in/ance1 ,i p\r a drop ( sulphuric acid on ?is piece ( iron1 x w produce a spot ( ru/1 y "k :at t is8 ,,c>ol9e4 ,yes2 x is an oxyd1 =m$ by ! oxyg5 ( ! acid comb9+ ) ! iron4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,9 ?is case y see ! sulphur deposits ! oxyg5 by :i* x 0 acidifi$ on ! metal4 ,& aga91 if we p\r "s acid on a comp\nd combu/ible sub/ance1 7we %all try x on ?is piece ( wood17 x w comb9e ) "o or m ( ! con/itu5ts ( t sub/ance1 & occasion a decomposition4 ,,emily4 ,x has *ang$ ! col\r ( ! wood to black4 ,h[ is t8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! oxyg5 deposit$ by ! acid has burnt x2 y "k t wood 9 burn+ becomes black be=e x is r$uc$ to a%es4 ,:e!r x d]ives ! oxyg5 :i* burns x f ! atmosph]e1 or f any o!r s\rce1 ! *emical effect on ! wood is ! same4 ,9 ! case ( real combu/ion1 wood becomes black1 because x is r$uc$ to ! /ate ( *>coal by ! evaporation ( its o!r con/itu5ts4 ,b c y tell me ! reason :y wood turns black :5 burnt by ! application ( an acid8 ,,c>ol9e4 ,fir/1 tell me :at are ! +r$i5ts ( wood8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,hydrog5 & c>bon are ! *ief con/itu5ts ( wood1 z ( all o!r vegetable sub/ances4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,well1 !n1 ,i suppose t ! oxyg5 ( ! acid comb9es ) ! hydrog5 ( ! wood1 to =m wat]2 & t ! c>bon ( ! wood1 rema9+ alone1 appe>s ( its usual black col\r4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,v well inde$1 my de>2 t is c]ta9ly ! mo/ plausible explanation4 ,,emily4 ,w\ld n ?is be a good me?od ( mak+ *>coal8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x w\ld be an extremely exp5sive1 &1 ,i believe1 v imp]fect me?od2 = ! action ( ! acid on ! wood1 & ! heat produc$ by x1 are f> f suffici5t to deprive ! wood ( all its evaporable p>ts4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,:at is ! reason t v9eg>1 lemon1 & ! acid ( fruits1 d n produce ?is effect on wood8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,!y are vegetable acids1 ^: bases are compos$ ( hydrog5 & c>bon2 ! oxyg51 !re=e1 w n be dispos$ to quit ?is radical1 :]e x is already unit$ ) hydrog54 ,! /ronge/ ( ^! may1 p]haps1 yield a little ( _! oxyg5 to ! wood1 & produce a /a9 ^u x2 b ! c>bon w n be suffici5tly uncov]$ to assume its black col\r4 ,inde$1 ! sev]al m9]al acids !mselves possess ?is p[] ( *>r+ wood 9 v diff]5t degrees4 ,,emily4 ,_c vegetable acids be decompos$1 by any combu/ibles8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no2 because _! radical is compos$ ( two sub/ances :i* h a great] attraction = oxyg5 ?an any kn[n body4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,& are ^? /rong acids1 :i* burn & decompose wood1 capable ( produc+ simil> effects on ! sk9 & fle% ( animals8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 all ! m9]al acids1 & "o ( !m m especially1 possess p[]ful cau/ic qualities4 ,!y actually corrode & de/roy ! sk9 & fle%2 b !y d n produce ^u ^! exactly ! same alt]ation !y d on wood1 probably because !re is a great proportion ( nitrog5 & o!r sub/ances 9 animal matt]1 :i* prev5ts ! sep>ation ( c>bon f be+ s conspicu\s4 ,,conv]sation ,,xvii4 ,,( ,,! ,,sulphuric ,,& ,,phosphoric ,,acids2 ,,or ,,! ,,comb9ations ,,( ,,oxyg5 ,,) ,,sulphur ,,& ,,phosphorus2 ,,& ,,( ,,! ,,sulphats ,,& ,,phosphats4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,9 addition to ! g5]al survey :i* we h tak5 ( acids1 ,i ?9k y w f9d x int]e/+ to exam9e individually a few ( ! mo/ important ( !m1 & likewise "s ( _! pr9cipal comb9ations ) ! alkalies1 alkal9e e>?s1 & metals4 ,! fir/ ( ! acids1 9 po9t ( importance1 is ! ,,sulphuric1 =m]ly call$ oil ( vitriol4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i h kn[n x a long "t by t "n1 b _h no idea t x 0 ! same fluid z sulphuric acid4 ,:at resemblance or connection c !re be betwe5 oil ( vitriol & ?is acid8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,vitriol is ! common "n = sulphat ( iron1 a salt :i* is =m$ by ! comb9ation ( sulphuric acid & iron2 ! sulphuric acid 0 =m]ly obta9$ by di/illation f ?is salt1 & x v naturally receiv$ its "n f ! sub/ance :i* af=d$ x4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b x is /ill usually call$ oil ( vitriol8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 a suffici5t l5g? ( "t has n yet elaps$1 s9ce ! inv5tion ( ! new nom5clature1 = x to be g5]ally dissem9at$2 b1 z x is adopt$ by all sci5tific *emi/s1 !re is e reason to suppose t x w gradually become univ]sal4 ,:5 ,i receiv$ ?is bottle f ! *emi/s1 oil ( vitriol 0 inscrib$ on ! label2 b1 z ,i knew y 7 v punctili\s 9 reg>d to ! nom5clature1 ,i *ang$ x1 & sub/itut$ ! words sulphuric acid4 ,,emily4 ,?is acid has nei!r col\r nor smell1 b x appe>s mu* ?ick] ?an wat]4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is ne>ly twice z heavy z wat]1 & has1 y see1 an oily consi/5ce4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,& x is probably f ?is circum/ance t x has be5 call$ an oil1 = x c h no real claim to t "n1 z x does n conta9 ei!r hydrog5 or c>bon1 :i* are ! ess5tial con/itu5ts ( oil4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,c]ta9ly2 & !re=e x w\ld be ! m absurd to reta9 a "n :i* ow$ its orig9 to su* a mi/ak5 analogy4 ,sulphuric acid1 9 its pure/ /ate1 w\ld probably be a concrete sub/ance1 b its attraction = wat] is su*1 t x is impossible to obta9 t acid p]fectly free f x2 x is1 !re=e1 always se5 9 a liquid =m1 su* z y "h f9d x4 ,"o ( ! mo/ /rik+ prop]ties ( sulphuric acid is t ( evolv+ a consid]able quantity ( heat :5 mix$ ) wat]2 ?is ,i h already %[n y4 ,,emily4 ,yes1 ,i recollect x2 b :at 0 ! degree ( heat produc$ by t mixture8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! !rmomet] may be rais$ by x to #cjj degrees1 :i* is consid]ably above ! temp]ature ( boil+ wat]4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,!n wat] might be made to boil 9 t mixture8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no?+ m easy1 provid$ t y employ suffici5t quantities ( acid & ( wat]1 & 9 ! due proportions4 ,! greate/ heat is produc$ by a mixture ( "o "p ( wat] to f\r ( ! acid3 we %all make a mixture ( ^! proportions1 & imm]se 9 x ?is ?9 glass tube1 :i* is full ( wat]4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,! vessel feels extremely hot1 b ! wat] does n boil yet4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y mu/ all[ "s "t = ! heat to p5etrate ! tube1 & raise ! temp]ature ( ! wat] to ! boil+ po9t-- ,,c>ol9e4 ,n[ x boils--& ) increas+ viol5ce4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,b x w n cont9ue boil+ long2 = ! mixture gives out heat only :ile ! p>ticles ( ! wat] & ! acid are mutually p5etrat+ ea* o!r3 z soon z ! new arrangem5t ( ^? p>ticles is effect$1 ! mixture w gradually cool1 & ! wat] return to its =m] temp]ature4 ,y h se5 ! mann] 9 :i* sulphuric acid decomposes all combu/ible sub/ances1 :e!r animal1 vegetable1 or m9]al1 & burns !m by means ( its oxyg58 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i h v un9t5tionally repeat$ ! exp]im5t on my g[n1 by lett+ a drop ( ! acid fall ^u x1 & x has made a /a91 :i*1 ,i suppose1 w nev] wa% out4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no1 c]ta9ly2 = be=e y c put x into wat]1 ! spot w become a hole1 z ! acid has lit]ally burnt ! musl94 ,,c>ol9e4 ,s x has1 inde$6 ,well1 ,i w fa/5 ! /opp]1 & put ! bottle away1 = x is a dang]\s sub/ance4 --,oh1 n[ ,i h done worse /ill1 = ,i h spilt "s on my h&6 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is !n burn$1 z well z y\r g[n1 = y "k t oxyg5 de/roys animal z well z vegetable matt]s2 &1 z f> z ! decomposition ( ! sk9 ( y\r f+] is effect$1 !re is no rem$y2 b by wa%+ x imm$iately 9 wat]1 y w dilute ! acid1 & prev5t any fur!r injury4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,x feels extremely hot1 ,i assure y4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y h n[ le>n$1 by exp]i5ce1 h[ cauti\sly ?is acid mu/ be us$4 ,y w soon become acqua9t$ ) ano!r acid1 ! nitric1 :i*1 ?\gh x produces less heat on ! sk91 de/roys x /ill quick]1 & makes ^u x an indelible /a94 ,y %\ld nev] h&le any sub/ances ( ?is k9d1 )\t previ\sly dipp+ y\r f+]s 9 wat]1 :i* w weak5 _! cau/ic effects4 ,b1 s9ce y w n repeat ! exp]im5t1 ,i mu/ put 9 ! /opp]1 = ! acid attracts ! moi/ure f ! atmosph]e1 :i* w\ld de/roy its /r5g? & purity4 ,,emily4 ,pray1 h[ c sulphuric acid be extract$ f sulphat ( iron by di/illation8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! process ( di/illation1 y "k1 consi/s 9 sep>at+ sub/ances f "o ano!r by means ( _! diff]5t degrees ( volatility1 & by ! introduction ( a new *emical ag5t1 caloric4 ,?us1 if sulphat ( iron be expos$ 9 a retort to a prop] degree ( heat1 x w be decompos$1 & ! sulphuric acid w be volatilis$4 ,,emily4 ,b n[ t ! process ( =m+ acids by ! combu/ion ( _! radicals is kn[n1 :y %\ld n ?is me?od be us$ = mak+ sulphuric acid8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,?is is actually done 9 mo/ manufactures2 b ! usual me?od ( prep>+ sulphuric acid does n consi/ 9 burn+ ! sulphur 9 oxyg5 gas 7z we =m]ly did by ! way ( exp]im5t71 b 9 heat+ x toge!r ) ano!r sub/ance1 nitre1 :i* yields oxyg5 9 suffici5t abundance to r5d] ! combu/ion 9 common air rapid & complete4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,?is sub/ance1 !n1 answ]s ! same purpose z oxyg5 gas8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,exactly4 ,9 manufactures ! combu/ion is p]=m$ 9 a lead5 *amb]1 ) wat] at ! bottom1 to receive ! vap\r & assi/ its cond5sation4 ,! combu/ion is1 h[ev]1 nev] s p]fect b t a quantity ( sulphure\s acid is =m$ at ! same "t2 = y recollect t ! sulphure\s acid1 accord+ to ! *emical nom5clature1 diff]s f ! sulphuric only by conta9+ less oxyg54 ,f its own p[]ful prop]ties1 & f ! v>i\s comb9ations into :i* x ent]s1 sulphuric acid is ( great importance 9 _m ( ! arts4 ,x is us$ also 9 m$ic9e 9 a /ate ( great dilution2 = 7 x tak5 int]nally1 9 a conc5trat$ /ate1 x w\ld prove a mo/ dang]\s poison4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i am sure x w\ld burn ! ?roat & /oma*4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,c y ?9k ( any ?+ t w\ld prove an antidote to ?is poison8 ,,c>ol9e4 ,a l>ge draught ( wat] to dilute x4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t w\ld c]ta9ly weak5 ! cau/ic p[] ( ! acid1 b x w\ld increase ! heat to an intol]able degree4 ,d y recollect no?+ t w\ld de/roy its delet]i\s prop]ties m effectually8 ,,emily4 ,an alkali might1 by comb9+ ) x2 b1 !n1 a pure alkali is itself a poison1 on acc\nt ( its cau/icity4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,!re is no necessity t ! alkali %\ld be cau/ic4 ,soap1 9 :i* x is comb9$ ) oil2 or magnesia1 ei!r 9 ! /ate ( c>bonat1 or mix$ ) wat]1 w\ld prove ! be/ antidotes4 ,,emily4 ,9 ^? cases !n1 ,i suppose1 ! pota% & ! magnesia w\ld quit _! comb9ations to =m salts ) ! sulphuric acid8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,precisely4 ,we may n[ make a few obs]vations on ! sulphureous acid1 :i* we h f\nd to be ! product ( sulphur sl[ly & imp]fectly burnt4 ,?is acid is di/+ui%$ by its pung5t smell1 & its gase\s =m4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,its ari=m /ate is1 ,i suppose1 ow+ to ! small] proportion ( oxyg51 :i* r5d]s x light] ?an sulphuric acid8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,probably2 = by add+ oxyg5 to ! weak] acid1 x may be conv]t$ into ! /rong] k9d4 ,b ?is *ange ( /ate may also be connect$ ) a *ange ( aff9ity ) reg>d to caloric4 ,,emily4 ,& may sulphure\s acid be obta9$ f sulphuric acid by a dim9ution ( oxyg58 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 x c be done by br++ any combu/ible sub/ance 9 contact ) ! acid4 ,?is decomposition is mo/ easily p]=m$ by "s ( ! metals2 ^! absorb a portion ( ! oxyg5 f ! sulphuric acid1 :i* is ?us conv]t$ into ! sulphure\s1 & flies (f 9 its gase\s =m4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,& _c ! sulphure\s acid itself be decompos$ & r$uc$ to sulphur8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 if ?is gas be heat$ 9 contact ) *>coal1 ! oxyg5 ( ! gas w comb9e ) x1 & ! pure sulphur is reg5]at$4 ,sulphure\s acid is readily absorb$ by wat]2 & 9 ?is liquid /ate x is f\nd p>ticul>ly useful 9 blea*+ l95 & wooll5 clo?s1 & is mu* us$ 9 manufactures = ^? purposes4 ,i c %[ y its effect 9 de/roy+ col\rs1 by tak+ out vegetable /a9s--,i ?9k ,i see a spot on y\r g[n1 ,emily1 on :i* we may try ! exp]im5t4 ,,emily4 ,x is ! /a9 ( mulb]ries2 b ,i %all be almo/ afraid ( expos+ my g[n to ! exp]im5t1 aft] see+ ! effect :i* ! sulphuric acid produc$ on t ( ,c>ol9e-- ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,!re is no su* dang] f ! sulphure\s2 b ! exp]im5t mu/ be made ) great caution1 =1 dur+ ! =mation ( sulphure\s acid by combu/ion1 !re is always "s sulphuric produc$4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b :]e is y\r sulphure\s acid8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,we may easily prep>e "s ourselves1 simply by burn+ a mat*2 we mu/ fir/ wet ! /a9 ) wat]1 & n[ hold x 9 ?is way1 at a little di/ance1 ov] ! light$ mat*3 ! vap\r t arises f x is sulphure\s acid1 & ! /a91 y see1 gradually disappe>s4 ,,emily4 ,i h frequ5tly tak5 out /a9s by ?is means1 )\t und]/&+ ! nature ( ! process4 ,b :y is x necess>y to wet ! /a9 be=e x is expos$ to ! acid fumes8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! moi/ure attracts & absorbs ! sulphure\s acid2 & x s]ves likewise to dilute any p>ticles ( sulphuric acid :i* might injure ! l954 ,sulphur is susceptible ( a ?ird comb9ation ) oxyg51 9 :i* ! proportion ( ! latt] is too small to r5d] ! sulphur acid4 ,x acquires ?is slight oxyg5ation by m]e exposure to ! atmosph]e1 )\t any elevation ( temp]ature3 9 ?is case1 ! sulphur does n *ange its natural =m1 b is only discol\r$1 be+ *ang$ to r$ or br[n2 & 9 ?is /ate x is an oxyd ( sulphur4 ,be=e we take leave ( ! sulphuric acid1 we %all say a few words ( its pr9cipal comb9ations4 ,x unites ) all ! alkalies1 alkal9e e>?s & metals1 to =m comp\nd salts4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,pray1 give me leave to int]rupt y = a mom5t3 y h nev] m5tion$ any o!r salts ?an ! comp\nd or neutral salts2 is !re no o!r k9d8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! t]m salt has be5 us$1 f "t immemorial1 z a k9d ( g5]al "n = any sub/ance t has sav\r1 od\r1 is soluble 9 wat]1 & cry/allisable1 :e!r x be ( an acid1 an alkal9e1 or comp\nd nature2 b ! comp\nd salts alone reta9 t appellation 9 mod]n *emi/ry4 ,! mo/ important ( ! salts1 =m$ by ! comb9ations ( ! sulphuric acid1 are1 fir/1 sulphat ( pota%1 =m]ly call$ sal poly*re/3 ?is is a v bitt] salt1 mu* us$ 9 m$ic9e2 x is f\nd 9 ! a%es ( mo/ vegetables1 b x may be prep>$ artificially by ! imm$iate comb9ation ( sulphuric acid & pota%4 ,?is salt is easily soluble 9 boil+ wat]4 ,solubility is1 inde$1 a prop]ty common to all salts2 & !y always produce cold 9 melt+4 ,,emily4 ,t mu/ be ow+ to ! caloric :i* !y absorb 9 pass+ f a solid to a fluid =m4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t is1 c]ta9ly1 ! mo/ probable explanation4 ,sulphat ( soda1 commonly call$ ,glaub]'s salt1 is ano!r m$ic9al salt1 :i* is /ill m bitt] ?an ! prec$+4 ,we mu/ prep>e "s ( ^! comp\nds1 t y may obs]ve ! ph5om5a :i* take place dur+ _! =mation4 ,we ne$ only p\r "s sulphuric acid ov] ! soda :i* ,i h put into ?is glass4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,:at an amaz+ heat is dis5gag$6 --,i ?\ght y said t cold 0 produc$ by ! melt+ ( salts8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,b y mu/ obs]ve t we are n[ mak+1 n melt+ a salt4 ,heat is dis5gag$ dur+ ! =mation ( comp\nd salts1 & a fa9t light is also emitt$1 :i* may sometimes be p]ceiv$ 9 ! d>k4 ,,emily4 ,& is ?is heat & light produc$ by ! union ( ! opposite electricities ( ! alkali & ! acid8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no d\bt x is1 if t !ory be true4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,! union ( an acid & an alkali is !n an actual combu/ion8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,n precisely1 ?\gh !re is c]ta9ly mu* analogy 9 ^! processes4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,w ?is sulphat ( soda become solid8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,we h n1 ,i suppose1 mix$ ! acid & ! alkali 9 ! exact proportions t are requir$ = ! =mation ( ! salt1 o!rwise ! mixture w\ld h be5 almo/ imm$iately *ang$ to a solid mass2 b1 9 ord] to obta9 x 9 cry/als1 z y see x 9 ?is bottle1 x w\ld be necess>y fir/ to dilute x ) wat]1 & aft]w>ds to evaporate ! wat]1 dur+ :i* op]ation ! salt w\ld gradually cry/allise4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b ( :at use is ! addition ( wat]1 if x is aft]w>ds to be evaporat$8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,:5 susp5d$ 9 wat]1 ! acid & ! alkali are m at lib]ty to act on ea* o!r1 _! union is m complete1 & ! salt assumes ! regul> =m ( cry/als dur+ ! sl[ evaporation ( its solv5t4 ,sulphat ( soda liquefies by heat1 & effloresces 9 ! air4 ,,emily4 ,pray :at is ! mean+ ( ! ^w effloresces8 ,i d n recollect y\r hav+ m5tion$ x be=e4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,a salt is said to effloresce :5 x loses its wat] ( cry/allisation on be+ expos$ to ! atmosph]e1 & is ?us gradually conv]t$ into a dry p[d]3 y may obs]ve t ^! cry/als ( sulphat ( soda are f> f possess+ ! transp>5cy :i* belongs to _! cry/all9e /ate2 !y are cov]$ ) a :ite p[d]1 occasion$ by _! hav+ be5 expos$ to ! atmosph]e1 :i* has depriv$ _! surface ( its lu/re1 by absorb+ its wat] ( cry/allisation4 ,salts are1 9 g5]al1 ei!r effloresc5t or deliquesc5t3 ?is latt] prop]ty is precisely ! rev]se ( ! =m]2 t is to say1 deliquesc5t salts absorb wat] f ! atmosph]e1 & are moi/5$ & gradually melt$ by x4 ,muriat ( lime is an in/ance ( great deliquesc5ce4 ,,emily4 ,b are !re no salts t h ! same degree ( attraction = wat] z ! atmosph]e1 & t w consequ5tly n be affect$ by x8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 !re are _m su* salts1 z1 = in/ance1 common salt1 sulphat ( magnesia1 & a v>iety ( o!rs4 ,sulphat ( lime is v frequ5tly met ) 9 nature1 & con/itutes ! well-kn[n sub/ance call$ gypsum1 or pla/] ( ,p>is4 ,sulphat ( magnesia1 commonly call$ ,epsom salt1 is ano!r v bitt] m$ic9e1 :i* is obta9$ f sea-wat] & f sev]al spr+s1 or may be prep>$ by ! direct comb9ation ( its +r$i5ts4 ,we h =m]ly m5tion$ sulphat ( alum9e z con/itut+ ! common alum2 x is f\nd 9 nature *iefly 9 ! neighb\rhood ( volcanos1 & is p>ticul>ly useful 9 ! arts1 f its /rong a/r+5t qualities4 ,x is *iefly employ$ by dy]s & calico-pr9t]s1 to fix col\rs2 & is us$ also 9 ! manufacture ( "s k9ds ( lea!r4 ,sulphuric acid comb9es also ) ! metals4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,"o ( ^! comb9ations1 sulphat ( iron1 we are already well acqua9t$ )4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t is ! mo/ important metallic salt =m$ by sulphuric acid1 & ! only "o t we %all "h notice4 ,x is ( great use 9 ! arts2 &1 9 m$ic9e1 x af=ds a v valuable tonic3 x is ( ?is salt t mo/ ( ^? prep>ations call$ /eel m$ic9es are compos$4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b does any c>bon ent] into ^! compositions to =m /eel8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,n an atom3 !y are1 !re=e1 v improp]ly call$ /eel3 b x is ! vulg> appellation1 & m$ical m5 !mselves (t5 comply ) ! g5]al cu/om4 ,sulphat ( iron may be prep>$1 z y h se51 by dissolv+ iron 9 sulphuric acid2 b x is g5]ally obta9$ f ! natural production call$ ,pyrites1 :i* be+ a sulphuret ( iron1 requires only exposure to ! atmosph]e to be oxydat$1 9 ord] to =m ! salt2 ?is1 !re=e1 is mu* ! mo/ easy way ( procur+ x on a l>ge scale4 ,,emily4 ,i am surpris$ to f9d t bo? acids & comp\nd salts are g5]ally obta9$ f _! v>i\s comb9ations1 r ?an f ! imm$iate union ( _! +r$i5ts4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,7 ! simple bodies always at h&1 _! comb9ations w\ld naturally be ! mo/ conv5i5t me?od ( =m+ comp\nds2 b y mu/ consid] t1 9 mo/ in/ances1 !re is great difficulty & exp5se 9 obta9+ ! simple +r$i5ts f _! comb9ations2 x is1 !re=e1 (t5 m exp$i5t to procure comp\nds f ! decomposition ( o!r comp\nds4 ,b1 to return to ! sulphat ( iron4 --,!re is a c]ta9 vegetable acid call$ ,gallic acid1 :i* has ! rem>kable prop]ty ( precipitat+ ?is salt black--,i %all p\r a few drops ( ! gallic acid into ?is solution ( sulphat ( iron-- ,,c>ol9e4 ,x is become z black z ink6 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,& x is ink 9 reality4 ,common writ+ ink is a precipitate ( sulphat ( iron by gallic acid2 ! black col\r is ow+ to ! =mation ( gallat ( iron1 :i* be+ insoluble1 rema9s susp5d$ 9 ! fluid4 ,?is acid has also ! prop]ty ( alt]+ ! col\r ( iron 9 its metallic /ate4 ,y may frequ5tly see its effect on ! blade ( a knife1 t has be5 us$ to cut c]ta9 k9ds ( fruits4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,true2 & t is1 p]haps1 ! reason t a silv] knife is pref]r$ to cut fruits2 ! gallic acid1 ,i suppose1 does n act ^u silv]4 --,is ?is acid f\nd 9 all fruits8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is conta9$1 m or less1 9 ! r9d ( mo/ fruits & roots1 especially ! radi%1 :i*1 if scrap$ ) a /eel or iron knife1 has its bright r$ col\r *ang$ to a deep purple1 ! knife be+ at ! same "t black5$4 ,b ! vegetable sub/ance 9 :i* ! gallic acid mo/ ab\nds is nutgall1 a k9d ( excresc5ce t gr[s on oaks1 & f :i* ! acid is commonly obta9$ = its v>i\s purposes4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,we n[ come to ! ,,phosphoric & ,,phosphor\s ,,acids4 ,9 treat+ ( phosphorus1 y h se5 h[ ^! acids may be obta9$ f x by combu/ion8 ,,emily4 ,yes2 b ,i %\ld be mu* surpris$ if x 0 ! usual me?od ( obta9+ !m1 s9ce x is s v difficult to procure phosphorus 9 its pure /ate4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y are "r1 my de>2 ! phosphoric acid1 = g5]al purposes1 is extract$ f bones1 9 :i* x is conta9$ 9 ! /ate ( phosphat ( lime2 f ?is salt ! phosphoric acid is sep>at$ by means ( ! sulphuric1 :i* comb9es ) ! lime4 ,9 its pure /ate1 phosphoric acid is ei!r liquid or solid1 accord+ to its degree ( conc5tration4 ,among ! salts =m$ by ?is acid1 phosphat ( lime is ! only "o t af=ds mu* int]e/2 & ?is1 we h already obs]v$1 con/itutes ! basis ( all bones4 ,x is also f\nd 9 v small quantities 9 "s vegetables4 ,,conv]sation ,,xviii4 ,,( ,,! ,,nitric ,,& ,,c>bonic ,,acids3 ,,or ,,! ,,comb9ations ,,( ,,oxyg5 ,,) ,,nitrog5 ,,& ,,c>bon2 ,,& ,,( ,,! ,,nitrats ,,& ,,c>bonats4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i am almo/ afraid ( introduc+ ! subject ( ! ,,nitric ,,acid1 z ,i am sure t ,i %all be blam$ by ,c>ol9e = n hav+ made h] acqua9t$ ) x be=e4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,:y s1 ,mrs4 ,b48 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,because y h long kn[n its radical1 :i* is nitrog5 or azote2 & 9 treat+ ( t elem5t1 ,i did n ev5 h9t t x 0 ! basis ( an acid4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,& :at c\ld be y\r reason = n m5tion+ ?is acid soon]8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i d n "k :e!r y w ?9k ! reason suffici5tly good to acquit me2 b ! omission1 ,i assure y1 did n proce$ f neglig5ce4 ,y may recollect t nitrog5 0 "o ( ! fir/ simple bodies :i* we exam9$2 y 7 !n ignorant ( ! !ory ( combu/ion1 :i* ,i believe 01 = ! fir/ "t1 m5tion$ 9 t lesson2 & !re=e x w\ld h be5 9 va91 at t "t1 to h attempt$ to expla9 ! nature & =mation ( acids4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i wond]1 h[ev]1 t x nev] occurr$ to u to enquire :e!r nitrog5 c\ld be acidifi$2 =1 z we knew x 0 class$ among ! combu/ible bodies1 x 0 natural to suppose t x might produce an acid4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t is n a necess>y consequ5ce2 = x might comb9e ) oxyg5 only 9 ! degree requisite to =m an oxyd4 ,b y w f9d t nitrog5 is susceptible ( v>i\s degrees ( oxyg5ation1 "s ( :i* conv]t x m]ely into an oxyd1 & o!rs give x all ! acid prop]ties4 ,! acids1 result+ f ! comb9ation ( oxyg5 & nitrog51 are call$ ! ,,nitr\s & ,,nitric acids4 ,we w beg9 ) ! ,,nitric1 9 :i* nitrog5 is 9 ! highe/ /ate ( oxyg5ation4 ,?is acid naturally exi/s 9 ! =m ( gas2 b is s v soluble 9 wat]1 & has s great an aff9ity = x1 t "o gra9 ( wat] w absorb & cond5se t5 gra9s ( acid gas1 & =m ! limpid fluid :i* y see 9 ?is bottle4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,:at a /rong (f5sive smell x has6 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,?is acid conta9s a great] abundance ( oxyg5 ?an any o!r1 b x reta9s x ) v little =ce4 ,,emily4 ,!n x mu/ be a p[]ful cau/ic1 bo? f ! facility ) :i* x p>ts ) its oxyg51 & ! quantity :i* x af=ds8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,v well1 ,emily2 bo? cause & effect are exactly su* z y describe3 nitric acid burns & de/roys all k9ds ( organis$ matt]4 ,x ev5 sets fire to "s ( ! mo/ combu/ible sub/ances4 --,we %all p\r a little ( x ov] ?is piece ( dry w>m *>coal--y see x inflames x imm$iately2 x w\ld d ! same ) oil ( turp5t9e1 phosphorus1 & sev]al o!r v combu/ible bodies4 ,?is %[s y h[ easily ?is acid is decompos$ by combu/ible bodies1 s9ce ^! effects mu/ dep5d ^u ! absorption ( its oxyg54 ,nitric acid has be5 us$ 9 ! arts f "t immemorial1 b x is only )9 ^! tw5ty-five ye>s t its *emical nature has be5 asc]ta9$4 ,! celebrat$ ,mr4 ,cav5di% discov]$ t x consi/$ ( ab\t #aj p>ts ( nitrog5 & #be ( oxyg5499 ,^! pr9ciples1 9 _! gase\s /ate1 comb9e at a high temp]ature2 & ?is may be effect$ by repeat$ly pass+ ! electrical sp>k ?r\gh a mixture ( ! two gases4 ,footnote 993 ,! proportion /at$ by ,sir ,h4 ,davy1 9 8 ,*emical ,rese>*es1 is z #a to #b4chi4 ,,emily4 ,! nitrog5 & oxyg5 gases1 ( :i* ! atmosph]e is compos$1 d n comb9e1 ,i suppose1 because _! temp]ature is n suffici5tly elevat$8 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b 9 a ?und]-/orm1 :5 ! lightn+ repeat$ly passes ?r\gh !m1 may x n produce nitric acid8 ,we %\ld be 9 a /range situation1 if a viol5t /orm %\ld at once conv]t ! atmosph]e into nitric acid4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,!re is no dang] ( x1 my de>2 ! lightn+ c affect b a v small portion ( ! atmosph]e1 & ?\gh x 7 occasionally to produce a little nitric acid1 yet ?is nev] c\ld happ5 to su* an ext5t z to be p]ceivable4 ,,emily4 ,b h[ c\ld ! nitric acid be kn[n1 & us$1 be=e ! me?od ( comb9+ its con/itu5ts 0 discov]$8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,be=e t p]iod ! nitric acid 0 obta9$1 & x is inde$ /ill extract$1 = ! common purposes ( art1 f ! comp\nd salt :i* x =ms ) pota%1 commonly call$ nitre4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,:y is x s call$8 ,pray1 ,mrs4 ,b41 let ^! old unmean+ names be entirely giv5 up1 by u at lea/2 & let u call ?is salt nitrat ( pota%4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,) all my he>t2 b x is necess>y t ,i %\ld1 at lea/1 m5tion ! old names1 & m especially ^? :i* are yet 9 common use2 o!rwise1 :5 y meet ) !m1 y w\ld n be able to und]/& _! mean+4 ,,emily4 ,& h[ is ! acid obta9$ f ?is salt8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,by ! int]v5tion ( sulphuric acid1 :i* comb9es ) ! pota%1 & sets ! nitric acid at lib]ty4 ,?is ,i c easily %[ y1 by mix+ "s nitrat ( pota% & sulphuric acid 9 ?is retort1 & heat+ x ov] a lamp2 ! nitric acid w come ov] 9 ! =m ( vap\r1 :i* we %all collect 9 a glass bell4 ,?is acid1 dilut$ 9 wat]1 is commonly call$ aqua =tis1 if ,c>ol9e w all[ me to m5tion t "n4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i h (t5 he>d t aqua =tis w dissolve almo/ all metals2 x is no d\bt because x yields its oxyg5 s easily4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 & f ?is p[]ful solv5t prop]ty1 x d]iv$ ! "n ( aqua =tis1 or /rong wat]4 ,d y n recollect t we oxydat$1 & aft]w>ds dissolv$1 "s copp] 9 ?is acid8 ,,emily4 ,if ,i rememb] "r1 ! nitrat ( copp] 0 ! fir/ in/ance y gave u ( a comp\nd salt4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,c ! nitric acid be completely decompos$ & conv]t$ into nitrog5 & oxyg58 ,,emily4 ,t _c be ! case1 ,c>ol9e2 s9ce ! acid c be decompos$ only by ! comb9ation ( its con/itu5ts ) o!r bodies4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,true2 b caloric is suffici5t = ?is purpose4 ,by mak+ ! acid pass ?r\gh a r$ hot porcela9 tube1 x is decompos$2 ! nitrog5 & oxyg5 rega9 ! caloric :i* !y _h lo/ 9 comb9+1 & are ?us bo? re/or$ to _! gase\s /ate4 ,! nitric acid may also be p>tly decompos$1 & is by ?is means conv]t$ into ,,nitr\s ,,acid4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,?is conv]sion mu/ be easily effect$1 z ! oxyg5 is s slightly comb9$ ) ! nitrog54 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! p>tial decomposition ( nitric acid is readily effect$ by mo/ metals2 b x is suffici5t to expose ! nitric acid to a v /rong light to make x give out oxyg5 gas1 & ?us be conv]t$ into nitr\s acid4 ,( ?is acid !re are v>i\s degrees1 accord+ to ! proportions ( oxyg5 :i* x conta9s2 ! /ronge/1 & t into :i* ! nitric is fir/ conv]t$1 is ( a yell[ col\r1 z y see 9 ?is bottle4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,h[ x fumes :5 ! /opp] is tak5 out6 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! acid exi/s naturally 9 a gase\s /ate1 & is "h s /rongly conc5trat$ 9 wat]1 t x is con/antly escap+4 ,"h is ano!r bottle ( nitr\s acid1 :i*1 y see1 is ( an orange r$2 ?is acid is weak]1 ! nitrog5 be+ comb9$ ) a small] quantity ( oxyg52 & ) a /ill less proportion ( oxyg5 x is an olive-gre5 col\r1 z x appe>s 9 ?is ?ird bottle4 ,9 %ort1 ! weak] ! acid1 ! deep] is its col\r4 ,nitr\s acid acts /ill m p[]fully on "s inflammable sub/ances ?an ! nitric4 ,,emily4 ,i am surpris$ at t1 z x conta9s less oxyg54 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 x p>ts ) its oxyg5 mu* m readily3 y may recollect t we once inflam$ oil ) ?is acid4 ,! next comb9ations ( nitrog5 & oxyg5 =m only oxyds ( nitrog51 ! fir/ ( :i* is commonly call$ nitr\s air2 or m prop]ly nitric oxyd gas4 ,?is may be obta9$ f nitric acid1 by expos+ ! latt] to ! action ( metals1 z 9 dissolv+ !m x does n yield ! :ole ( its oxyg51 b reta9s a portion ( ?is pr9ciple suffici5t to conv]t x into ?is peculi> gas1 a specim5 ( :i* ,i h prep>$1 & pres]v$ )9 ?is inv]t$ glass bell4 ,,emily4 ,x is a p]fectly invisible ela/ic fluid4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 & x may be kept any l5g? ( "t 9 ?is mann] ov] wat]1 z x is n1 l ! nitric & nitr\s acids1 absorbable by x4 ,x is r heavi] ?an atmosph]ical air1 & is incapable ( support+ ei!r combu/ion or respiration4 ,i am go+ to incl9e ! glass g5tly on "o side1 s z to let "s ( ! gas escape-- ,,emily4 ,h[ v curi\s6 --,x produces orange fumes l ! nitr\s acid6 t is ! m extraord9>y1 z ! gas )9 ! glass is p]fectly invisible4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x w\ld give me mu* pleasure if y c\ld make out ! reason ( ?is curi\s *ange )\t requir+ any fur!r explanation4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,x seems1 by ! col\r & smell1 z if x 7 conv]t$ into nitr\s acid gas3 yet t _c be1 unless x comb9es ) m oxyg52 & h[ c x obta9 oxyg5 ! v in/ant x escapes f ! glass8 ,,emily4 ,f ! atmosph]e1 no d\bt4 ,is x n s1 ,mrs4 ,b48 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y h guess$ x2 z soon z x comes 9 contact ) ! atmosph]e1 x absorbs f x ! additional quantity ( oxyg5 necess>y to conv]t x into nitr\s acid gas4 ,&1 if ,i n[ remove ! bottle entirely f ! wat]1 s z to br+ at once ! :ole ( ! gas into contact ) ! atmosph]e1 ?is conv]sion w appe> /ill m /rik+-- ,,emily4 ,look1 ,c>ol9e1 ! :ole capacity ( ! bottle is in/antly t+$ ( an orange col\r6 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,?us1 y see1 x is ! mo/ easy process imag9able to conv]t nitr\s oxyd gas into nitr\s acid gas4 ,! prop]ty ( attract+ oxyg5 f ! atmosph]e1 )\t any elevation ( temp]ature1 has occasion$ ?is gase\s oxyd be+ us$ z a te/ = asc]ta9+ ! degree ( purity ( ! atmosph]e4 ,i am go+ to %[ y h[ x is appli$ to ?is purpose4 --,y see ?is graduat$ glass tube1 :i* is clos$ at "o end1 7,,plate ,x4 ,fig4 #b47 --,i fir/ fill x ) wat]1 & !n introduce a c]ta9 measure ( nitr\s gas1 :i*1 n be+ absorbable by wat]1 passes ?r\gh x1 & occupies ! upp] "p ( ! tube4 ,i mu/ n[ add r above two-?irds ( oxyg5 gas1 :i* w j be suffici5t to conv]t ! nitr\s oxyd gas into nitr\s acid gas4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,s x has6 --,i saw x turn ( an orange col\r2 b x imm$iately aft]w>ds disappe>$ entirely1 & ! wat]1 y see1 has ris51 & almo/ fill$ ! tube4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t is because ! acid gas is absorbable by wat]1 & 9 proportion z ! gas impregnates ! wat]1 ! latt] rises 9 ! tube4 ,:5 ! oxyg5 gas is v pure1 & ! requir$ proportion ( nitr\s oxyd gas v exact1 ! :ole is absorb$ by ! wat]2 b if any o!r gas be mix$ ) ! oxyg51 in/ead ( comb9+ ) ! nitr\s oxyg51 x w rema9 & occupy ! upp] "p ( ! tube2 or1 if ! gases be n 9 ! due proportion1 !re w be a residue ( t :i* pr$om9ates4 --,be=e we leave ?is subject1 ,i mu/ n =get to rem>k t nitr\s acid may be =m$ by dissolv+ nitr\s oxyd gas 9 nitric acid4 ,?is solution may be effect$ simply by mak+ bubbles ( nitr\s oxyd gas pass ?r\gh nitric acid4 ,,emily4 ,t is to say1 t nitrog5 at its highe/ degree ( oxyg5ation1 be+ mix$ ) nitrog5 at its l[e/ degree ( oxyg5ation1 w produce a k9d ( int]m$iate sub/ance1 :i* is nitr\s acid4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y h /at$ ! fact ) great precision4 --,!re are v>i\s o!r me?ods ( prep>+ nitr\s oxyd1 & ( obta9+ x f comp\nd bodies2 b x is n necess>y to ent] into ^! p>ticul>s4 ,x rema9s = me only to m5tion ano!r curi\s modification ( oxyg5at$ nitrog51 :i* has be5 di/+ui%$ by ! "n ( gase\s oxyd ( nitrog54 ,x is b lately t ?is gas has be5 accurately exam9$1 & its prop]ties h be5 inve/igat$ *iefly by ,sir ,h4 ,davy4 ,x has obta9$ also ! "n ( exhil>at+ gas1 f ! v s+ul> prop]ty :i* t g5tleman has discov]$ 9 x1 ( elevat+ ! animal spirits1 :5 inhal$ into ! lungs1 to a degree sometimes resembl+ delirium or intoxication4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,is x respirable1 !n8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x c sc>cely be call$ respirable1 z x w\ld n support life = any l5g? ( "t2 b x may be brea!d = a few mom5ts )\t any o!r effects1 ?an ! s+ul> exhil>ation ( spirits ,i h j m5tion$4 ,x affects diff]5t p1 h[ev]1 9 a v diff]5t mann]4 ,"s become viol5t1 ev5 outrage\s3 o!rs exp]i5ce a languor1 att5d$ ) fa9tness2 b mo/ agree 9 op9ion1 t ! s5sations x excites are extremely pleasant4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i ?9k ,i %\ld l to try x--h[ d y brea! x8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,by collect+ ! gas 9 a bladd]1 to :i* a %ort tube ) a /op-cock is adapt$2 ?is is appli$ to ! m\? ) "o h&1 :il/ ! no/rils are kept clos$ ) ! o!r1 t ! common air may h no access4 ,y !n alt]nately inspire1 & expire ! gas1 till y p]ceive its effects4 ,b ,i _c cons5t to y\r mak+ ! exp]im5t2 = ! n]ves are sometimes unpleasantly affect$ by x1 & ,i w\ld n run any risk ( t k9d4 ,,emily4 ,i %\ld l1 at lea/1 to see somebody brea! x2 b pray by :at means is ?is curi\s gas obta9$8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is procur$ f nitrat ( ammonia1 an artificial salt :i* yields ?is gas on ! application ( a g5tle heat4 ,i h put "s ( ! salt into a retort1 & by ! aid ( a lamp ! gas w be extricat$4-- ,,c>ol9e4 ,bubbles ( air beg9 to escape ?r\gh ! neck ( ! retort into ! wat] app>atus2 w y n collect !m8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! gas t fir/ comes ov] ne$ n be pres]v$1 z x consi/s ( little m ?an ! common air t 0 9 ! retort2 besides1 !re is always 9 ?is exp]im5t a quantity ( wat]y vap\r :i* mu/ come away be=e ! nitr\s oxyd appe>s4 ,,emily4 ,wat]y vap\r6 ,:5ce does t proce$8 ,!re is no wat] 9 nitrat ( ammonia8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y mu/ recollect t !re is 9 e salt a quantity ( wat] ( cry/allisation1 :i* may be evaporat$ by heat alone4 ,b1 besides ?is1 wat] is actually g5]at$ 9 ?is exp]im5t1 z y w see pres5tly4 ,fir/ tell me1 :at are ! con/itu5t p>ts ( nitrat ( ammonia8 ,,emily4 ,ammonia1 & nitric acid3 ?is salt1 !re=e1 conta9s ?ree diff]5t elem5ts1 nitrog5 & hydrog51 :i* produce ! ammonia2 & oxyg51 :i*1 ) nitrog51 =ms ! acid4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,well !n1 9 ?is process ! ammonia is decompos$2 ! hydrog5 quits ! nitrog5 to comb9e ) "s ( ! oxyg5 ( ! nitric acid1 & =ms ) x ! wat]y vap\r :i* is n[ com+ ov]4 ,:5 t is effect$1 :at w y expect to f9d8 ,,emily4 ,nitr\s acid in/ead ( nitric acid1 & nitrog5 in/ead ( ammonia4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,exactly s2 & ! nitr\s acid & nitrog5 comb9e1 & =m ! gase\s oxyd ( nitrog51 9 :i* ! proportion ( oxyg5 is #cg p>ts to #fc ( nitrog54 ,y may h obs]v$1 t = a little :ile no bubbles ( air h come ov]1 & we h p]ceiv$ only a /ream ( vap\r cond5s+ z x issu$ into ! wat]4 --,n[ bubbles ( air aga9 make _! appe>ance1 & ,i imag9e t by ?is "t all ! wat]y vap\r is come away1 & t we may beg9 to collect ! gas4 ,we may try :e!r x is pure1 by fill+ a phial ) x1 & plung+ a tap] into x--yes1 x w d n[1 = ! tap] burns bright] ?an 9 ! common air1 & ) a gre5i% flame4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b h[ is t8 ,i ?\ght no gas w\ld support combu/ion b oxyg5 or *lor9e4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,or any gas t conta9s oxyg51 & is ready to yield x1 :i* is ! case ) ?is 9 a consid]able degree2 x is n1 !re=e1 surpris+ t x %\ld accel]ate ! combu/ion ( ! tap]4 ,y see t ! gas is n[ produc$ 9 great abundance2 we %all collect a l>ge quantity ( x1 & ,i d>e say t we %all f9d "s ( ! family :o w be curi\s to make ! exp]im5t ( respir+ x4 ,:il/ ?is process is go+ on1 we may take a g5]al survey ( ! mo/ important comb9ations ( ! nitric & nitr\s acids ) ! alkalies4 ,! fir/ ( ^! is nitrat ( pota%1 commonly call$ nitre or saltpetre4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,is n t ! salt ) :i* gunp[d] is made8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes4 ,gunp[d] is a mixture ( five p>ts ( nitre to "o ( sulphur1 & "o ( *>coal4 --,nitre f its great proportion ( oxyg51 & f ! facility ) :i* x yields x1 is ! basis ( mo/ detonat+ compositions4 ,,emily4 ,b :at is ! cause ( ! viol5t detonation ( gunp[d] :5 set fire to8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,detonation may proce$ f two causes2 ! sudd5 =mation or de/ruction ( an ela/ic fluid4 ,9 ! fir/ case1 :5 ei!r a solid or liquid is in/antane\sly conv]t$ into an ela/ic fluid1 ! prodigi\s & sudd5 expansion ( ! body /rikes ! air ) great viol5ce1 & ?is concussion produces ! s\nd call$ detonation4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,t ,i compreh5d v well2 b h[ c a simil> effect be produc$ by ! de/ruction ( a gas8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,a gas c be de/roy$ only by cond5s+ x to a liquid or solid /ate2 :5 ?is takes place sudd5ly1 ! gas1 9 assum+ a new & m compact =m1 produces a vacuum1 into :i* ! surr\nd+ air ru%es ) great impetuosity2 & x is by t rapid & viol5t motion t ! s\nd is produc$4 ,9 all detonations1 !re=e1 gases are ei!r sudd5ly =m$1 or de/roy$4 ,9 t ( gunp[d]1 c y tell me :i* ( ^! two circum/ances takes place8 ,,emily4 ,z gunp[d] is a solid1 x mu/1 ( c\rse1 produce ! gases 9 its detonation2 b h[1 ,i _c tell4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! con/itu5ts ( gunp[d]1 :5 heat$ to a c]ta9 degree1 ent] into a numb] ( new comb9ations1 & are in/antane\sly conv]t$ into a v>iety ( gases1 ! sudd5 expansion ( :i* gives rise to ! detonation4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,& 9 :at in/ance does ! de/ruction or cond5sation ( gases produce detonation8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i c give y "o ) :i* y are well acqua9t$2 ! sudd5 comb9ation ( ! oxyg5 & hydrog5 gases4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,true2 ,i recollect p]fectly t hydrog5 detonates ) oxyg5 :5 ! two gases are conv]t$ into wat]4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,b let u return to ! nitrat ( pota%4 --,?is salt is decompos$ :5 expos$ to heat1 & mix$ ) any combu/ible body1 su* z c>bon1 sulphur1 or metals1 ^! sub/ances oxydat+ rapidly at ! exp5se ( ! nitrat4 ,i mu/ %[ y an in/ance ( ?is4 --,i expose to ! fire "s ( ! salt 9 a small iron ladle1 &1 :5 x is suffici5tly heat$1 add to x "s p[d]$ *>coal2 ?is w attract ! oxyg5 f ! salt1 & be conv]t$ into c>bonic acid4-- ,,emily4 ,b :at occasions t crackl+ noise1 & ^? vivid fla%es t accompany x8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! rapidity ) :i* ! c>bonic acid gas is =m$ occasions a succession ( small detonations1 :i*1 toge!r ) ! emission ( flame1 is call$ deflagration4 ,nitrat ( ammonia we h already notic$1 on acc\nt ( ! gase\s oxyd ( nitrog5 :i* is obta9$ f x4 ,nitrat ( silv] is ! lun> cau/ic1 s rem>kable = its prop]ty ( de/roy+ animal fibre1 = :i* purpose x is (t5 us$ by surgeons4 --,we h said s mu* on a =m] occasion1 on ! mode 9 :i* cau/ics act on animal matt]1 t ,i %all n deta9 y any long] on ?is subject4 ,we n[ come to ! ,,c>bonic ,,acid1 :i* we h already _h _m opportunities ( notic+4 ,y recollect t ?is acid may be =m$ by ! combu/ion ( c>bon1 :e!r 9 its imp]fect /ate ( *>coal1 or 9 its pure/ =m ( diamond4 ,& x is n necess>y1 = ?is purpose1 to burn ! c>bon 9 oxyg5 gas1 z we did 9 ! prec$+ lecture2 = y ne$ only light a piece ( *>coal & susp5d x "u a receiv] on ! wat] ba?4 ,! *>coal w soon be ext+ui%$1 & ! air 9 ! receiv] w be f\nd mix$ ) c>bonic acid4 ,! process1 h[ev]1 is mu* m exp$iti\s if ! combu/ion be p]=m$ 9 pure oxyg5 gas4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b h[ c y sep>ate ! c>bonic acid1 obta9$ 9 ?is mann]1 f ! air ) :i* x is mix$8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! readie/ mode is to introduce "u ! receiv] a quantity ( cau/ic lime1 or cau/ic alkali1 :i* soon attracts ! :ole ( ! c>bonic acid to =m a c>bonat4 --,! alkali is f\nd increas$ 9 weight1 & ! volume ( ! air is dim9i%$ by a quantity equal to t ( ! c>bonic acid :i* 0 mix$ ) x4 ,,emily4 ,pray is !re no me?od ( obta9+ pure c>bon f c>bonic acid8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,= a long "t x 0 suppos$ t c>bonic acid 0 n decomp\ndable2 b ,mr4 ,t5nant discov]$1 a few ye>s ago1 t ?is acid may be decompos$ by burn+ phosphorus 9 a clos$ vessel ) c>bonat ( soda or c>bonat ( lime3 ! phosphorus absorbs ! oxyg5 f ! c>bonat1 :il/ ! c>bon is sep>at$ 9 ! =m ( a black p[d]4 ,?is decomposition1 h[ev]1 is n effect$ simply by ! attraction ( ! phosphorus = oxyg51 s9ce x is weak] ?an t ( *>coal2 b ! attraction ( ! alkali ( lime = ! phosphoric acid1 unites its p[] at ! same "t4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,_c we make t exp]im5t8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,n easily2 x requires be+ p]=m$ ) extreme nicety1 9 ord] to obta9 any s5sible quantity ( c>bon1 & ! exp]im5t is mu* too delicate = me to attempt x4 ,b !re c be no d\bt ( ! accuracy ( ,mr4 ,t5nant's results2 & all *emi/s n[ agree1 t "o hundr$ p>ts ( c>bonic acid gas consi/s ( ab\t tw5ty-eight p>ts ( c>bon to sev5ty-two ( oxyg5 gas4 ,b if y recollect1 we decompos$ c>bonic acid gas ! o!r day by burn+ potassium 9 x4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,true1 s we did2 & f\nd ! c>bon precipitat$ on ! reg5]at$ pota%4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,c>bonic acid gas is f\nd v abundantly 9 nature2 x is suppos$ to =m ab\t "o ?\s&? "p ( ! atmosph]e1 & is con/antly produc$ by ! respiration ( animals2 x exi/s 9 a great v>iety ( comb9ations1 & is exhal$ f _m natural decompositions4 ,x is conta9$ 9 a /ate ( great purity 9 c]ta9 caves1 su* z ! ,grotto del ,cane1 ne> ,naples4 ,,emily4 ,i recollect hav+ read an acc\nt ( t grotto1 & ( ! cruel exp]im5ts made on ! poor dogs1 to gratify ! curiosity ( /rang]s4 ,b ,i und]/ood t ! vap\r exhal$ by ?is cave 0 call$ fix$ air4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t is ! "n by :i* c>bonic acid 0 kn[n be=e its *emical composition 0 discov]$4 --,?is gas is m de/ructive ( life ?an any o!r2 & if ! poor animals t are submitt$ to its effects are n plung$ into cold wat] z soon z !y become s5seless1 !y d n recov]4 ,x ext+ui%es flame in/antane\sly4 ,i h collect$ "s 9 ?is glass1 :i* ,i w p\r ov] ! c&le4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,?is is extremely s+ul>--x seems to ext+ui% x z x 7 by en*antm5t1 z ! gas is invisible4 ,i nev] %\ld h imag9$ t gas c\ld h be5 p\r$ l a liquid4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x c be done ) c>bonic acid only1 z no o!r gas is suffici5tly heavy to be susceptible ( be+ p\r$ out 9 ! atmosph]ical air )\t mix+ ) x4 ,,emily4 ,pray by :at means did y obta9 ?is gas8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i procur$ x f m>ble4 ,c>bonic acid gas has s /rong an attraction = all ! alkalies & alkal9e e>?s1 t ^! are always f\nd 9 nature 9 ! /ate ( c>bonats4 ,comb9$ ) lime1 ?is acid =ms *alk1 :i* may be consid]$ z ! basis ( all k9ds ( m>bles1 & calc>e\s /ones4 ,f ^! sub/ances c>bonic acid is easily sep>at$1 z x adh]es s slightly to its comb9ations1 t ! c>bonats are all decomposable by any ( ! o!r acids4 ,i c easily %[ y h[ ,i obta9$ ?is gas2 ,i p\r$ "s dilut$ sulphuric acid ov] pulv]is$ m>ble 9 ?is bottle 7! same :i* we us$ ! o!r day to prep>e hydrog5 gas71 & ! gas escap$ ?r\gh ! tube connect$ ) x2 ! op]ation /ill cont9ues1 z y may easily p]ceive-- ,,emily4 ,yes1 x does2 !re is a great f]m5tation 9 ! glass vessel4 ,:at s+ul> commotion is excit$ by ! sulphuric acid tak+ possession ( ! lime1 & driv+ out ! c>bonic acid6 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b did ! c>bonic acid exi/ 9 a gase\s /ate 9 ! m>ble8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,c]ta9ly n2 ! acid1 :5 9 a /ate ( comb9ation1 is capable ( exi/+ 9 a solid =m4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,:5ce1 !n1 does x obta9 ! caloric necess>y to conv]t x into gas8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x may be suppli$ 9 ?is case f ! mixture ( sulphuric acid & wat]1 :i* produces an evolution ( heat1 ev5 great] ?an is requir$ = ! purpose2 s9ce1 z y may p]ceive by t\*+ ! glass vessel1 a consid]able quantity ( ! caloric dis5gag$ becomes s5sible4 ,b a supply ( caloric may be obta9$ also f a dim9ution ( capacity = heat1 occasion$ by ! new comb9ation :i* takes place2 &1 inde$1 ?is mu/ be ! case :5 o!r acids are employ$ = ! dis5gagem5t ( c>bonic acid gas1 :i* d n1 l ! sulphuric1 produce heat on be+ mix$ ) wat]4 ,c>bonic acid may likewise be dis5gag$ f its comb9ations by heat alone1 :i* re/ores x to its gase\s /ate4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,x appe>s to me v extraord9>y t ! same gas1 :i* is produc$ by ! burn+ ( wood & coals1 %\ld exi/ also 9 su* bodies z m>ble1 & *alk1 :i* are incombu/ible sub/ances4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i w n answ] t objection1 ,c>ol9e1 because ,i ?9k ,i c put y 9 a way ( do+ x y\rself4 ,is c>bonic acid combu/ible8 ,,c>ol9e4 ,:y1 no--because x is a body t has be5 already burnt2 x is c>bon only1 & n ! acid1 t is combu/ible4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,well1 & :at inf]5ce d y draw f ?is8 ,,c>ol9e4 ,t c>bonic acid _c r5d] ! bodies ) :i* x is unit$ combu/ible2 b t simple c>bon does1 & t x is 9 ?is elem5t>y /ate t x exi/s 9 wood1 coals1 & a great v>iety ( o!r combu/ible bodies4 --,inde$1 ,mrs4 ,b41 y are v ung5]\s2 y are n satisfi$ ) conv9c+ me t my objections are frivol\s1 b y oblige me to prove !m s myself4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y mu/ confess1 h[ev]1 t ,i make ample am5ds = ! detection ( error1 :5 ,i enable y to discov] ! tru?4 ,y1 und]/&1 n[1 ,i hope1 t c>bonic acid is equally produc$ by ! decomposition ( *alk1 or by ! combu/ion ( *>coal4 ,^! processes are c]ta9ly ( a v diff]5t nature2 9 ! fir/ case ! acid is already =m$1 & requires no?+ m ?an heat to re/ore x to its gase\s /ate2 :il/1 9 ! latt]1 ! acid is actually made by ! process ( combu/ion4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i und]/& x n[ p]fectly4 ,b ,i h j be5 ?9k+ ( ano!r difficulty1 :i*1 ,i hope1 y w excuse my n be+ able to remove myself4 ,h[ does ! imm5se quantity ( calc>e\s e>?1 :i* is spread all ov] ! globe1 obta9 ! c>bonic acid ) :i* x is comb9$8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! "q is1 inde$1 n v easy to answ]2 b ,i conceive t ! g5]al c>bonisation ( calc>e\s matt] may h be5 ! effect ( a g5]al combu/ion1 occasion$ by "s revolution ( our globe1 & produc+ an imm5se supply ( c>bonic acid1 ) :i* ! calc>e\s matt] became impregnat$2 or t ?is may h be5 effect$ by a gradual absorption ( c>bonic acid f ! atmosph]e4 --,b ?is w\ld lead u to discussions :i* we _c indulge 91 )\t deviat+ too mu* f our subject4 ,,emily4 ,h[ does x happ5 t we d n p]ceive ! p]nici\s effects ( ! c>bonic acid :i* is float+ 9 ! atmosph]e8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,because ( ! /ate ( v great dilution 9 :i* x exi/s !re4 ,b c y tell me1 ,emily1 :at are ! s\rces :i* keep ! atmosph]e con/antly suppli$ ) ?is acid8 ,,emily4 ,i suppose ! combu/ion ( wood1 coals1 & o!r sub/ances1 t conta9 c>bon4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,& also ! brea? ( animals4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,! brea? ( animals6 ,i ?\ght y said t ?is gas 0 n at all respirable1 b on ! contr>y1 extremely poison\s4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,s x is2 b al?\gh animals _c brea! 9 c>bonic acid gas1 yet1 9 ! process ( respiration1 !y h ! p[] ( =m+ ?is gas 9 _! lungs2 s t ! air :i* we expire1 or reject f ! lungs1 always conta9s a c]ta9 proportion ( c>bonic acid1 :i* is mu* great] ?an t :i* is commonly f\nd 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b :at is x t r5d]s c>bonic acid su* a deadly poison8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! mann] 9 :i* ?is gas de/roys life1 seems to be m]ely by prev5t+ ! access ( respirable air2 = c>bonic acid gas1 unless v mu* dilut$ ) common air1 does n p5etrate into ! lungs1 z ! w9dpipe actually contracts & refuses x admittance4 --,b we mu/ dismiss ?is subject at pres5t1 z we %all h an opportunity ( treat+ ( respiration mu* m fully1 :5 we come to ! *emical functions ( animals4 ,,emily4 ,is c>bonic acid z de/ructive to ! life ( vegetables z x is to t ( animals8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,if a vegetable be completely imm]s$ 9 x1 ,i believe x g5]ally proves fatal to x2 b mix$ 9 c]ta9 proportions ) atmosph]ical air1 x is1 on ! contr>y1 v fav\rable to vegetation4 ,y rememb]1 ,i suppose1 our m5tion+ ! m9]al wat]s1 bo? natural & artificial1 :i* conta9 c>bonic acid gas8 ,,c>ol9e4 ,y mean ! ,seltz] wat]8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t is "o ( ^? :i* are ! mo/ us$2 !re are1 h[ev]1 a v>iety ( o!rs into :i* c>bonic acid ent]s z an +r$i5t3 all ^! wat]s are usually di/+ui%$ by ! "n ( acidul\s or gase\s m9]al wat]s4 ,! class ( salts call$ c>bonats is ! mo/ num]\s 9 nature2 we mu/ pass ov] !m 9 a v cursory mann]1 z ! subject is f> too ext5sive = u to ent] on x 9 detail4 ,! /ate ( c>bonat is ! natural /ate ( a va/ numb] ( m9]als1 & p>ticul>ly ( ! alkalies & alkal9e e>?s1 z !y h s great an attraction = ! c>bonic acid1 t !y are almo/ always f\nd comb9$ ) x2 & y may recollect t x is only by sep>at+ !m f ?is acid1 t !y acquire t cau/icity & ^? /rik+ qualities :i* ,i h =m]ly describ$4 ,all m>bles1 *alks1 %ells1 calc>e\s sp>s1 & lime-/ones ( e description1 are neutral salts1 9 :i* lime1 _! common basis1 has lo/ all its *>act]i/ic prop]ties4 ,,emily4 ,b if all ^! v>i\s sub/ances are =m$ by ! union ( lime ) c>bonic acid1 :5ce arises _! div]sity ( =m & appe>ance8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,bo? f ! diff]5t proportions ( _! compon5t p>ts1 & f a v>iety ( =eign +r$i5ts :i* may be occasionally bl5d$ ) !m3 ! ve9s & col\rs ( m>bles1 = in/ance1 proce$ f a mixture ( metallic sub/ances2 silex & alum9e also frequ5tly ent] into ^! comb9ations4 ,! v>i\s c>bonats1 !re=e1 t ,i h enum]at$1 _c be consid]$ z pure unadult]at$ neutral salts1 al?\gh !y c]ta9ly belong to t class ( bodies4 ,,conv]sation ,,xix4 ,,on ,,! ,,boracic1 ,,fluoric1 ,,muriatic1 ,,& ,,oxyg5at$ ,,muriatic ,,acids2 ,,& ,,on ,,muriats4 --,,on ,,iod9e ,,& ,,iodic ,,acid4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,we n[ come to ! ?ree rema9+ acids ) simple bases1 ! comp\nd nature ( :i*1 ?\gh long suspect$1 has be5 b rec5tly prov$4 ,! *ief ( ^! is ! muriatic2 b ,i %all fir/ describe ! two o!rs1 z _! bases h be5 obta9$ m di/9ctly ?an t ( ! muriatic acid4 ,y may recollect ,i m5tion$ ! ,,boracic ,,acid4 ,?is is f\nd v sp>+ly 9 "s p>ts ( ,europe1 b = ! use ( manufactures we h always receiv$ x f ! remote c\ntry ( ,?ibet1 :]e x is f\nd 9 "s lakes1 comb9$ ) soda4 ,x is easily sep>at$ f ! soda by sulphuric acid1 & appe>s 9 ! =m ( %9+ scales1 z y see "h4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i am glad to meet ) an acid :i* we ne$ n be afraid to t\*2 = ,i p]ceive1 f y\r keep+ x 9 a piece ( pap]1 t x is m innoc5t ?an our late acqua9tance1 ! sulphuric & nitric acids4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,c]ta9ly2 b be+ m in]t1 y w n f9d its prop]ties s int]e/+4 ,h[ev]1 its decomposition1 & ! brilliant spectacle x af=ds :5 its basis aga9 unites ) oxyg51 atones = its want ( o!r /rik+ qualities4 ,sir ,h4 ,davy succe$$ 9 decompos+ ! boracic acid1 7:i* _h till !n be5 consid]$ z undecomp\ndable17 by v>i\s me?ods4 ,on expos+ ?is acid to ! ,voltaic batt]y1 ! positive wire gave out oxyg51 & on ! negative wire 0 deposit$ a black sub/ance1 9 appe>ance resembl+ *>coal4 ,?is 0 ! basis ( ! acid1 :i* ,sir ,h4 ,davy has call$ ,boracium1 or ,boron4 ,! same sub/ance 0 obta9$ 9 m consid]able quantities1 by expos+ ! acid to a great heat 9 an iron gun-b>rel4 ,a ?ird me?od ( decompos+ ! boracic acid consi/$ 9 burn+ potassium 9 contact ) x 9 vacuo4 ,! potassium attracts ! oxyg5 f ! acid1 & leaves its basis 9 a sep>ate /ate4 ,! recomposition ( ?is acid ,i %all %[ y1 by burn+ "s ( its basis1 :i* y see "h1 9 a retort full ( oxyg5 gas4 ,! heat ( a c&le is all t is requir$ = ?is combu/ion4-- ,,emily4 ,! light is a/oni%+ly brilliant1 & :at beautiful sp>ks x ?r[s out6 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! result ( ?is combu/ion is ! boracic acid1 ! nature ( :i*1 y see1 is prov$ bo? by analytic & syn!tic means4 ,its basis has n1 x is true1 a metallic appe>ance2 b x makes v h>d alloys ) o!r metals4 ,,emily4 ,b pray1 ,mrs4 ,b41 = :at purpose is ! boracic acid us$ 9 manufactures8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,its pr9cipal use is 9 conjunction ) soda1 t is1 9 ! /ate ( borat ( soda1 :i* 9 ! arts is commonly call$ borax4 ,?is salt has a peculi> p[] ( dissolv+ metallic oxyds1 & ( promot+ ! fusion ( sub/ances capable ( be+ melt$2 x is accord+ly employ$ 9 v>i\s metallic arts2 x is us$1 = example1 to remove ! oxyd f ! surface ( metals1 & is (t5 employ$ 9 ! assay+ ( metallic ores4 ,let u n[ proce$ to ! ,,fluoric ,,acid4 ,?is acid is obta9$ f a sub/ance :i* is f\nd frequ5tly 9 m9es1 & p>ticul>ly 9 ^? ( ,d]by%ire1 call$ fluor1 a "n :i* x acquir$ f ! circum/ance ( its be+ us$ to r5d] ! ores ( metals m fluid :5 heat$4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,pray is n ?is ! ,d]by%ire sp>1 ( :i* s _m ornam5ts are made8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! same2 b ?\gh x has long be5 employ$ = a v>iety ( purposes1 its nature 0 unkn[n until ,s*eele1 ! great ,sw$i% *emi/1 discov]$ t x consi/$ ( lime unit$ ) a peculi> acid1 :i* obta9$ ! "n ( fluoric acid4 ,x is easily sep>at$ f ! lime by ! sulphuric acid1 & unless cond5s$ 9 wat]1 asc5ds 9 ! =m ( gas4 ,a v peculi> prop]ty ( ?is acid is its union ) silice\s e>?s1 :i* ,i h already m5tion$4 ,if ! di/illation ( ?is acid is p]=m$ 9 glass vessels1 !y are corrod$1 & ! silice\s "p ( ! glass comes ov]1 unit$ ) ! gas2 if wat] is !n admitt$1 "p ( ! silex is deposit$1 z y may obs]ve 9 ?is j>4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i see :ite flakes =m+ on ! surface ( ! wat]2 is t silex8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes x is4 ,?is p[] ( corrod+ glass has be5 us$ = engrav+1 or r et*+1 ^u x4 ,! glass is fir/ cov]$ ) a coat ( wax1 ?r\gh :i* ! figures to be engrav$ are to be scrat*$ ) a p92 !n p\r+ ! fluoric acid ov] ! wax1 x corrodes ! glass :]e ! scrat*es h be5 made4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i %\ld l to h a bottle ( ?is acid1 to make engrav+s4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,b y c\ld n h x 9 a glass bottle1 = 9 t case ! acid w\ld be saturat$ ) silex1 & incapable ( execut+ an engrav+2 ! same ?+ w\ld happ5 7 ! acid kept 9 vessels ( porcela9 or e>!n-w>e2 ?is acid mu/ !re=e be bo? prep>$ & pres]v$ 9 vessels ( silv]4 ,if x be di/ill$ f fluor sp> & vitriolic acid1 9 silv] or lead5 vessels1 ! receiv] be+ kept v cold dur+ ! di/illation1 x assumes ! =m ( a d5se fluid1 & 9 t /ate is ! mo/ int5sely corrosive sub/ance kn[n4 ,?is seems to be ! acid comb9$ ) a little wat]4 ,x may be call$ hydro-fluoric acid2 & ,sir ,h4 ,davy has be5 l$1 f "s late exp]im5ts on ! subject1 to consid] pure fluoric acid z a comp\nd ( a c]ta9 unkn[n pr9ciple1 :i* he calls fluor9e1 ) hydrog54 ,sir ,h4 ,davy has also attempt$ to decompose ! fluoric acid by burn+ potassium 9 contact ) x2 b he has n yet be5 able by ?is or any o!r me?od1 to obta9 its basis 9 a di/9ct sep>ate /ate4 ,we %all conclude our acc\nt ( ! acids ) t ( ! ,,muriatic ,,acid1 :i* is p]haps ! mo/ curi\s & int]e/+ ( all ( !m4 ,x is f\nd 9 nature comb9$ ) soda1 lime1 & magnesia4 ,muriat ( soda is ! common sea-salt1 & f ?is sub/ance ! acid is usually dis5gag$ by means ( ! sulphuric acid4 ,! natural /ate ( ! muriatic acid is t ( an invisible p]man5t gas1 at ! common temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e2 b x has a rem>kably /rong attraction = wat]1 & assumes ! =m ( a :iti% cl\d :5ev] x meets any moi/ure to comb9e )4 ,?is acid is rem>kable = its peculi> & v pung5t smell1 & possesses1 9 a p[]ful degree1 mo/ ( ! acid prop]ties4 ,"h is a bottle conta9+ muriatic acid 9 a liquid /ate4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,& h[ is x liquefi$8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,by impregnat+ wat] ) x2 its /rong attraction = wat] makes x v easy to obta9 x 9 a liquid =m4 ,n[1 if ,i op5 ! phial1 y may obs]ve a k9d ( vap\r ris+ f x1 :i* is muriatic acid gas1 ( itself invisible1 b made app>5t by comb9+ ) ! moi/ure ( ! atmosph]e4 ,,emily4 ,h y n any ( ! pure muriatic acid gas8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,?is j> is full ( t acid 9 its gase\s /ate--x is inv]t$ ov] m]cury in/ead ( wat]1 because1 be+ absorbable by wat]1 ?is gas _c be conf9$ by x4 --,i %all n[ raise ! j> a little on "o side1 & suff] "s ( ! gas to escape4 --,y see t x imm$iately becomes visible 9 ! =m ( a cl\d4 ,,emily4 ,x mu/ be1 no d\bt1 f its unit+ ) ! moi/ure ( ! atmosph]e1 t x is conv]t$ into ?is dewy vap\r4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,c]ta9ly2 & = ! same reason1 t is to say1 its extreme eag]ness to unite ) wat]1 ?is gas w cause sn[ to melt z rapidly z an int5se fire4 ,?is acid prov$ mu* m refractory :5 ,sir ,h4 ,davy attempt$ to decompose x ?an ! o!r two undecomp\nd$ acids4 ,x is s+ul> t potassium w burn 9 muriatic acid1 & be conv]t$ into pota%1 )\t decompos+ ! acid1 & ! result ( ?is combu/ion is a muriat ( pota%2 = ! pota%1 z soon z x is reg5]at$1 comb9es ) ! muriatic acid4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b h[ c ! pota% be reg5]at$ if ! muriatic acid does n oxydate ! potassium8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! potassium1 9 ?is process1 obta9s oxyg5 f ! moi/ure ) :i* ! muriatic acid is always comb9$1 & accord+ly hydrog51 result+ f ! decomposition ( ! moi/ure1 is inv>iably evolv$4 ,,emily4 ,b :y n make ^! exp]im5ts ) dry muriatic acid8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,dry acids _c be act$ on by ! ,voltaic batt]y1 because acids are non-conductors ( electricity1 unless moi/5$4 ,9 ! c\rse ( a numb] ( exp]im5ts :i* ,sir ,h4 ,davy made ^u acids 9 a /ate ( dryness1 he obs]v$ t ! pres5ce ( wat] appe>$ always necess>y to develop ! acid prop]ties1 s t acids are n ev5 capable ( r$d5+ vegetable blues if !y h be5 c>efully depriv$ ( moi/ure4 ,?is rem>kable circum/ance l$ him to suspect1 t wat]1 in/ead ( oxyg51 may be ! acidify+ pr9ciple2 b ?is he ?rew out r z a conjecture ?an z an e/abli%$ po9t4 ,sir ,h4 ,davy obta9$ v curi\s results f burn+ potassium 9 a mixture ( phosphorus & muriatic acid1 & also ( sulphur & muriatic acid2 ! latt] detonates ) great viol5ce4 ,all 8 exp]im5ts1 h[ev]1 fail$ 9 pres5t+ to 8 view ! basis ( ! muriatic acid1 ( :i* he 0 9 se>*2 & he 0 at la/ induc$ to =m an op9ion respect+ ! nature ( ?is acid1 :i* ,i %all pres5tly expla94 ,,emily4 ,is ?is acid susceptible ( diff]5t degrees ( oxyg5ation8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes1 = ?\gh we _c deoxyg5ate ?is acid1 yet we may add oxyg5 to x4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,:y1 !n1 is n ! lea/ degree ( oxyg5ation ( ! acid call$ ! muriat\s1 & ! high] degree ! muriatic acid8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,because1 in/ead ( becom+1 l o!r acids1 m d5se1 & m acid by an addition ( oxyg51 x is r5d]$ on ! contr>y m volatile1 m pung5t1 b less acid1 & less absorbable by wat]4 ,^! circum/ances1 !re=e1 seem to indicate ! propriety ( mak+ an exception to ! nom5clature4 ,! highe/ degree ( oxyg5ation ( ?is acid has be5 di/+ui%$ by ! additional epi!t ( oxyg5at$1 or1 = ! sake ( brevity1 oxy1 s t x is call$ ! oxyg5at$1 or oxy-muriatic acid4 ,?is likewise exi/s 9 a gase\s =m1 at ! temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e2 x is also susceptible ( be+ absorb$ by wat]1 & c be congeal$1 or solidifi$1 by a c]ta9 degree ( cold4 ,,emily4 ,& h[ d y obta9 ! oxy-muriatic acid8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,9 v>i\s ways2 b x may be mo/ conv5i5tly obta9$ by di/ill+ liquid muriatic acid ov] oxyd ( manganese1 :i* supplies ! acid ) ! additional oxyg54 ,"o "p ( ! acid be+ put into a retort1 ) two p>ts ( ! oxyd ( manganese1 & ! heat ( a lamp appli$1 ! gas is soon dis5gag$1 & may be receiv$ ov] wat]1 z x is b sp>+ly absorb$ by x4 --,i h collect$ "s 9 ?is j>-- ,,c>ol9e4 ,x is n invisible1 l ! g5]ality ( gases2 = x is ( a yell[i% col\r4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! muriatic acid ext+ui%es flame1 :il/1 on ! contr>y1 ! oxy-muriatic makes ! flame l>g]1 & gives x a d>k r$ col\r4 ,c y acc\nt = ?is diff]5ce 9 ! two acids8 ,,emily4 ,yes1 ,i ?9k s2 ! muriatic acid w n supply ! flame ) ! oxyg5 necess>y = its support2 b :5 ?is acid is fur!r oxyg5at$1 x w "p ) its additional quantity ( oxyg51 & 9 ?is way support combu/ion4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t is exactly ! case2 inde$ ! oxyg5 add$ to ! muriatic acid1 adh]es s slightly to x1 t x is sep>at$ by m]e exposure to ! sun's rays4 ,?is acid is decompos$ also by combu/ible bodies1 _m ( :i* x burns1 & actually inflames1 )\t any previ\s increase ( temp]ature4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,t is extraord9>y1 inde$6 ,i hope y mean to indulge u ) "s ( ^! exp]im5ts8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i h prep>$ sev]al glass j>s ( oxy-muriatic acid gas = t purpose4 ,9 ! fir/ we %all introduce "s ,dut* gold leaf4 --,d y obs]ve t x takes fire8 ,,emily4 ,yes1 inde$ x does--h[ wond]ful x is6 ,x became imm$iately r$ hot1 b 0 soon smo!r$ 9 a ?ick vap\r4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,:at a disagreeable smell6 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,we %all try ! same exp]im5t ) phosphorus 9 ano!r j> ( ?is acid4 --,y _h bett] keep y\r h&k]*ief to y\r nose :5 ,i op5 x--n[ let u drop into x ?is little piece ( phosphorus-- ,,c>ol9e4 ,x burns really2 & almo/ z brilliantly z 9 oxyg5 gas6 ,b1 :at is mo/ extraord9>y1 ^! combu/ions take place )\t ! metal or phosphorus be+ previ\sly light$1 or ev5 9 ! lea/ heat$4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,all ^! curi\s effects are ow+ to ! v great facility ) :i* ?is acid yields oxyg5 to su* bodies z are /rongly dispos$ to comb9e ) x4 ,x appe>s extraord9>y inde$ to see bodies1 & metals 9 p>ticul>1 melt$ d[n & inflam$1 by a gas )\t any increase ( temp]ature1 ei!r ( ! gas1 or ( ! combu/ible4 ,! ph5om5on1 h[ev]1 is1 y see1 well acc\nt$ =4 ,,emily4 ,:y did y burn a piece ( ,dut* gold leaf r ?an a piece ( any o!r metal8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,because1 9 ! fir/ place1 x is a composition ( metals 7consi/+ *iefly ( copp]7 :i* burns readily2 & ,i use a ?9 metallic leaf 9 pref]5ce to a lump ( metal1 because x (f]s to ! action ( ! gas b a small quantity ( matt] "u a l>ge surface4 ,fil+s1 or %av+s1 w\ld answ] ! purpose ne>ly z well2 b a lump ( metal1 ?\gh ! surface w\ld oxydate ) great rapidity1 w\ld n take fire4 ,pure gold is n inflam$ by oxy-muriatic acid gas1 b x is rapidly oxydat$1 & dissolv$ by x2 inde$1 ?is acid is ! only "o t w dissolve gold4 ,,emily4 ,?is1 ,i suppose1 is :at is commonly call$ aqua regia1 :i* y "k is ! only ?+ t w act ^u gold4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t is n exactly ! case ei!r2 = aqua regia is compos$ ( a mixture ( muriatic acid & nitric acid4 --,b1 9 fact1 ! result ( ?is mixture is ! =mation ( oxy-muriatic acid1 z ! muriatic acid oxyg5ates itself at ! exp5ce ( ! nitric2 ?is mixture1 !re=e1 ?\gh x be>s ! "n ( nitro-muriatic acid1 acts on gold m]ely 9 virtue ( ! oxy-muriatic acid :i* x conta9s4 ,sulphur1 volatile oils1 & _m o!r sub/ances1 w burn 9 ! same mann] 9 oxy-muriatic acid gas2 b ,i h n prep>$ a suffici5t quantity ( x1 to %[ y ! combu/ion ( all ^! bodies4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,!re are sev]al j>s ( ! gas yet rema9+4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,we mu/ res]ve ^! = future exp]im5ts4 ,! oxy-muriatic acid does n1 l o!r acids1 r$d5 ! blue vegetable col\rs2 b x totally de/roys any col\r1 & turns all vegetables p]fectly :ite4 ,let u collect "s vegetable sub/ances to put into ?is glass1 :i* is full ( gas4 ,,emily4 ,"h is a sprig ( myrtle-- ,,c>ol9e4 ,& "h "s col\r$ pap]-- ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,we %all also put 9 ?is piece ( sc>let rib&1 & a rose-- ,,emily4 ,_! col\rs beg9 to fade imm$iately6 ,b h[ does ! gas produce ?is effect8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! oxyg5 comb9es ) ! col\r+ matt] ( ^! sub/ances1 & de/roys x2 t is to say1 de/roys ! prop]ty :i* ^! col\rs _h ( reflect+ only "o k9d ( rays1 & r5d]s !m capable ( reflect+ !m all1 :i*1 y "k1 w make !m appe> :ite4 ,old pr9ts may be clean$ by ?is acid1 = ! pap] w be :it5$ )\t injury to ! impression1 z pr9t]'s ink is made ( mat]ials 7oil & lamp black7 :i* are n act$ ^u by acids4 ,?is prop]ty ( ! oxy-muriatic acid has lately be5 employ$ 9 manufactures 9 a v>iety ( blea*+ processes2 b = ^! purposes ! gas mu/ be dissolv$ 9 wat]1 z ! acid is ?us r5d]$ mu* mild] & less p[]ful 9 its effects2 =1 9 a gase\s /ate1 x w\ld de/roy ! texture1 z well z ! col\r ( ! sub/ance submitt$ to its action4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,look at ! ?+s :i* we put into ! gas2 !y h n[ entirely lo/ _! col\r6 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! effect ( ! acid is almo/ complet$2 &1 if we 7 to exam9e ! quantity t rema9s1 we %\ld f9d x to consi/ *iefly ( muriatic acid4 ,! oxy-muriatic acid has be5 us$ to purify ! air 9 fev] hospitals & prisons1 z x burns & de/roys putrid effluvia ( e k9d4 ,! infection ( ! small-pox is likewise de/roy$ by ?is gas1 & matt] t has be5 submitt$ to its influ5ce w no long] g5]ate t disord]4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,inde$1 ,i ?9k ! rem$y mu/ be ne>ly z bad z ! disease2 ! oxy-muriatic acid has su* a dreadfully suffocat+ smell4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is c]ta9ly extremely (f5sive2 b by keep+ ! m\? %ut1 & wett+ ! no/rils ) liquid ammonia1 9 ord] to neutralize ! vap\r z x rea*es ! nose1 its prejudicial effects may be 9 "s degree prev5t$4 ,at any rate1 h[ev]1 ?is mode ( dis9fection c h>dly be us$ 9 places t are inhabit$4 ,& z ! vap\r ( nitric acid1 :i* is sc>cely less efficaci\s = ?is purpose1 is n at all prejudicial1 x is usually pref]r$ on su* occasions4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,y h n told u yet :at is ,sir ,h4 ,davy's new op9ion respect+ ! nature ( muriatic acid1 to :i* y allud$ a few m9utes ago8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,true2 ,i avoid$ notic+ x !n1 because y c\ld n h und]/ood x )\t "s previ\s k ( ! oxy-muriatic acid1 :i* ,i h b j introduc$ to y\r acqua9tance4 ,sir ,h4 ,davy's idea is t muriatic acid1 in/ead ( be+ a comp\nd1 consi/+ ( an unkn[n basis & oxyg51 is =m$ by ! union ( oxy-muriatic gas ) hydrog54 ,,emily4 ,h y n told u j n[ t oxy-muriatic gas 0 itself a comp\nd ( muriatic acid & oxyg58 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 b accord+ to ,sir ,h4 ,davy's hypo!sis1 oxy-muriatic gas is consid]$ z a simple body1 :i* conta9s no oxyg5--z a sub/ance ( its own k9d1 :i* has a great analogy to oxyg5 9 mo/ ( its prop]ties1 ?\gh 9 o!rs x diff]s entirely f x4 --,accord+ to ?is view ( ! subject1 ! "n ( oxy-muriatic acid c no long] be prop]1 & !re=e ,sir ,h4 ,davy has adopt$ t ( *lor9e1 or *lor9e gas1 a "n :i* is simply expressive ( its gre5i% col\r2 & 9 compliance ) t philosoph]'s !ory1 we h plac$ *lor9e 9 our table among ! simple bodies4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b :at 0 ,sir ,h4 ,davy's reason = adopt+ an op9ion s contr>y to t :i* _h hi!rto prevail$8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,!re are _m circum/ances :i* are fav\rable to ! new doctr9e2 b ! cle>e/ & simple/ fact 9 its support is1 t if hydrog5 gas & oxy-muriatic gas be mix$ toge!r1 bo? ^! gases disappe>1 & muriatic acid gas is =m$4 ,,emily4 ,t seems to be a complete pro(2 is x n consid]$ z p]fectly conclusive8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,n s decisive z x appe>s at fir/ sight2 because x is argu$ by ^? :o /ill incl9e to ! old doctr9e1 t muriatic acid gas1 h[ev] dry x may be1 always conta9s a c]ta9 quantity ( wat]1 :i* is suppos$ ess5tial to its =mation4 ,s t1 9 ! exp]im5t j m5tion$1 ?is wat] is suppli$ by ! union ( ! hydrog5 gas ) ! oxyg5 ( ! oxy-muriatic acid2 & !re=e ! mixture resolves itself into ! base ( muriatic acid & wat]1 t is1 muriatic acid gas4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i ?9k ! old !ory mu/ be ! true "o2 = o!rwise h[ c\ld y expla9 ! =mation ( oxy-muriatic gas1 f a mixture ( muriatic acid & oxyd ( manganese8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,v easily2 y ne$ only suppose t 9 ?is process ! muriatic acid is decompos$2 its hydrog5 unites ) ! oxyg5 ( ! manganese to =m wat]1 & ! *lor9e appe>s 9 its sep>ate /ate4 ,,emily4 ,b h[ c y expla9 ! v>i\s combu/ions :i* take place 9 oxy-muriatic gas1 if y consid] x z conta9+ no oxyg58 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,we ne$ only suppose t combu/ion is ! result ( int5se *emical action2 s t *lor9e1 l oxyg51 9 comb9+ ) bodies1 =ms comp\nds :i* h less capacity = caloric ?an _! con/itu5t pr9ciples1 &1 !re=e1 caloric is evolv$ at ! mom5t ( _! comb9ation4 ,,emily4 ,if1 !n1 we may expla9 e ?+ by ei!r !ory1 to :i* ( ! two %all we give ! pref]5ce8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x w1 p]haps1 be bett] to wait = m positive pro(s1 if su* c be obta9$1 be=e we decide positively ^u ! subject4 ,! new doctr9e has c]ta9ly ga9$ gr\nd v rapidly1 & may be consid]$ z ne>ly e/abli%$2 b sev]al compet5t judges /ill refuse _! ass5t to x1 & until t !ory is v g5]ally adopt$1 x may be z well = u /ill occasionally to use ! language to :i* *emi/s h long be5 accu/om$4 --,b let u proce$ to ! exam9ation ( salts =m$ by muriatic acid4 ,among ! comp\nd salts =m$ by muriatic acid1 ! muriat ( soda1 or common salt1 is ! mo/ int]e/+499 ,! uses & prop]ties ( ?is salt are too well kn[n to require mu* comm5t4 ,besides ! pleasant flav\r x imp>ts to ! food1 x is v :olesome1 :5 n us$ to excess1 z x assi/s ! process ( dige/ion4 ,sea-wat] is ! great s\rce f :i* muriat ( soda is extract$ by evaporation4 ,b x is also f\nd 9 l>ge solid masses 9 ! b[els ( ! e>?1 9 ,engl&1 & 9 _m o!r p>ts ( ! _w4 ,footnote 993 ,accord+ to ,sir ,h4 ,davy's views ( ! nature ( ! muriatic & oxy-muriatic acids1 dry muriat ( soda is a comp\nd ( sodium & *lor9e1 = x may be =m$ by ! direct comb9ation ( oxy-muriatic gas & sodium4 ,9 8 op9ion1 !re=e1 :at we commonly call muriat ( soda conta9s nei!r soda nor muriatic acid4 ,,emily4 ,i ?\ght t salts1 :5 solid1 7 always 9 ! /ate ( cry/als2 b ! common table-salt is 9 ! =m ( a co>se :ite p[d]4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,cry/allisation dep5ds1 z y may recollect1 on ! sl[ & regul> reunion ( p>ticles dissolv$ 9 a fluid2 common sea-salt is only 9 a /ate ( imp]fect cry/allisation1 because ! process by :i* x is prep>$ is n fav\rable to ! =mation ( regul> cry/als4 ,b if y dissolve x1 & aft]w>ds evaporate ! wat] sl[ly1 y w obta9 a regul> cry/allisation4 ,muriat ( ammonia is ano!r comb9ation ( ?is acid1 :i* we h already m5tion$ z ! pr9cipal s\rce f :i* ammonia is d]iv$4 ,i c at once %[ y ! =mation ( ?is salt by ! imm$iate comb9ation ( muriatic acid ) ammonia4 --,^! two glass j>s conta91 ! "o muriatic acid gas1 ! o!r ammoniacal gas1 bo? ( :i* are p]fectly invisible--n[1 if ,i mix !m toge!r1 y see !y imm$iately =m an opake :ite cl\d1 l smoke4 --,if a !rmomet] 0 plac$ 9 ! j> 9 :i* ^! gases are mix$1 y w\ld p]ceive t "s heat is at ! same "t produc$4 ,,emily4 ,! effects ( *emical comb9ations are1 inde$1 wond]ful6 --,h[ extraord9>y x is t two invisible bodies %\ld become visible by _! union6 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,?is /rikes y ) a/oni%m5t1 because x is a ph5om5on :i* nature seldom exhibits to our view2 b ! mo/ common ( h] op]ations are z wond]ful1 & x is _! frequ5cy only t prev5ts our reg>d+ !m ) equal admiration4 ,:at w\ld be m surpris+1 = in/ance1 ?an combu/ion1 7 x n r5d]$ s famili> by cu/om8 ,,emily4 ,t is true4 --,b pray1 ,mrs4 ,b41 is ?is :ite cl\d ! salt t produces ammonia8 ,h[ diff]5t x is f ! solid muriat ( ammonia :i* y once %[$ u6 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is ! same sub/ance :i* fir/ appe>s 9 ! /ate ( vap\r1 b w soon be cond5s$ by cool+ aga9/ ! sides ( ! j>1 9 ! =m ( v m9ute cry/als4 ,we may n[ proce$ to ! oxy-muriats4 ,9 ?is class ( salts ! oxy-muriat ( pota% is ! mo/ wor?y ( our att5tion1 = its /rik+ prop]ties4 ,! acid1 9 ?is /ate ( comb9ation1 conta9s a /ill great] proportion ( oxyg5 ?an :5 alone4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b h[ c ! oxy-muriatic acid acquire an increase ( oxyg5 by comb9+ ) pota%8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x does n really acquire an additional quantity ( oxyg51 b x loses "s ( ! muriatic acid1 :i* produces ! same effect1 z ! acid :i* rema9s is proportionably sup]-oxyg5at$499 ,if ?is salt be mix$1 & m]ely rubb$ toge!r ) sulphur1 phosphorus1 *>coal1 or inde$ any o!r combu/ible1 x explodes /rongly4 ,footnote 993 ,accord+ to ,sir ,h4 ,davy's new views1 j expla9$1 oxy-muriat ( pota% is a comp\nd ( *lor9e ) oxyd ( potassium4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,l gun-p[d]1 ,i suppose1 x is sudd5ly conv]t$ into ela/ic fluids8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 b ) ?is rem>kable diff]5ce1 t no increase ( temp]ature1 any fur!r ?an is produc$ by g5tle friction1 is requir$ 9 ?is in/ance4 ,c y tell me :at gases are g5]at$ by ! detonation ( ?is salt ) *>coal8 ,,emily4 ,let me consid] 4 4 4 4 4 ,! oxy-muriatic acid p>ts ) its excess ( oxyg5 to ! *>coal1 by :i* means x is conv]t$ into muriatic acid gas2 :il/ ! *>coal1 be+ burnt by ! oxyg51 is *ang$ to c>bonic acid gas4 --,:at becomes ( ! pota% ,i _c tell4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t is a fix$ product :i* rema9s 9 ! vessel4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b s9ce ! pota% does n ent] into ! new comb9ations1 ,i d n und]/& ( :at use x is 9 ?is op]ation4 ,w\ld n ! oxy-muriatic acid & ! *>coal produce ! same effect )\t x8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no2 because !re w\ld n be t v great conc5tration ( oxyg5 :i* ! comb9ation ) ! pota% produces1 z ,i h j expla9$4 ,i mean to %[ y ?is exp]im5t1 b ,i w\ld advise y n to repeat x alone2 = if c>e be n tak5 to mix only v small quantities at a "t1 ! detonation w be extremely viol5t1 & may be att5d$ ) dang]\s effects4 ,y see ,i mix an exce$+ly small quantity ( ! salt ) a little p[d]$ *>coal1 9 ?is ,w$gwood mort>1 & rub !m toge!r ) ! pe/le-- ,,c>ol9e4 ,heav5s6 ,h[ c su* a l\d explosion be produc$ by s small a quantity ( matt]8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y mu/ consid] t an extremely small quantity ( solid sub/ance may produce a v great volume ( gases2 & x is ! sudd5 evolution ( ^! :i* occasions ! s\nd4 ,,emily4 ,w\ld n oxy-muriat ( pota% make /rong] gunp[d] ?an nitrat ( pota%8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 b ! prep>ation1 z well z ! use ( ?is salt1 is att5d$ ) s mu* dang]1 t x is nev] employ$ = t purpose4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,!re is no cause to regret x1 ,i ?9k2 = ! common gunp[d] is q suffici5tly de/ructive4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i c %[ y a v curi\s exp]im5t ) ?is salt2 b x mu/ aga9 be on condition t y w nev] attempt to repeat x by y\rselves4 ,i ?r[ a small piece ( phosphorus into ?is glass ( wat]2 !n a little oxy-muriat ( pota%2 &1 la/ly1 ,i p\r 9 7by means ( ?is funnel1 s z to br+ x 9 contact ) ! two o!r +r$i5ts at ! bottom ( ! glass7 a small quantity ( sulphuric acid-- ,,c>ol9e4 ,?is is1 inde$1 a beautiful exp]im5t6 ,! phosphorus takes fire & burns f ! bottom ( ! wat]4 ,,emily4 ,h[ wond]ful x is to see flame bur/+ out "u wat]1 & ris+ ?r\gh x6 ,pray1 h[ is ?is acc\nt$ =8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,_c y f9d x out1 ,c>ol9e8 ,,emily4 ,/op--,i ?9k ,i c expla9 x4 ,is x n because ! sulphuric acid decomposes ! salt by comb9+ ) ! pota%1 s z to lib]ate ! oxy-muriatic acid gas by :i* ! phosphoric is set on fire8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,v well1 ,emily2 & ) a little m reflection y w\ld h discov]$ ano!r concurr+ circum/ance1 :i* is1 t an increase ( temp]ature is produc$ by ! mixture ( ! sulphuric acid & wat]1 :i* assi/s 9 promot+ ! combu/ion ( ! phosphorus4 ,i mu/1 be=e we "p1 introduce to y\r acqua9tance ! newly-discov]$ sub/ance ,,iod9e1 :i* y may recollect we plac$ next to oxyg5 & *lor9e 9 our table ( simple bodies4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,is ?is also a body capable ( ma9ta9+ combu/ion l oxyg5 & *lor9e8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is2 & al?\gh x does n s g5]ally dis5gage light & heat f inflammable bodies1 z oxyg5 & *lor9e d1 yet x is capable ( comb9+ ) mo/ ( !m2 & sometimes1 z 9 ! in/ance ( potassium & phosphorus1 ! comb9ation is att5d$ ) an actual appe>ance ( light & heat4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b :at sort ( a sub/ance is iod9e3 :at is its =m1 & col\r8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is a v s+ul> body1 9 _m respects4 ,at ! ord9>y temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e1 x commonly appe>s 9 ! =m ( bluei% black cry/all9e scales1 su* z y see 9 ?is tube4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,!y %9e l black lead1 & "s ( ! scales h ! %ape ( loz5ges4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t is actually ! =m :i* ! cry/als ( iod9e (t5 assume4 ,b if we heat !m g5tly1 by hold+ ! tube ov] ! flame ( a c&le1 see :at a *ange takes place 9 !m4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,h[ curi\s6 ,!y seem to melt1 & ! tube imm$iately fills ) a beautiful violet vap\r4 ,b look1 ,mrs4 ,b41 ! same scales are n[ appe>+ at ! o!r end ( ! tube4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,?is is 9 fact a sublimation ( iod9e1 f "o "p ( ! tube to ano!r2 b ) ?is rem>kable peculi>ity1 t1 :ile 9 ! gase\s /ate1 iod9e assumes t bright violet col\r1 :i*1 z y may already p]ceive1 x loses z ! tube cools1 & ! sub/ance resumes its usual solid =m4 --,x is f ! violet col\r ( ! gas t iod9e has obta9$ its "n4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b h[ is ?is curi\s sub/ance obta9$8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is f\nd 9 ! ley ( a%es ( sea-we$s1 aft] ! soda has be5 sep>at$ by cry/allisation2 & x is dis5gag$ by means ( sulphuric acid1 :i* expels x f ! alkal9e ley 9 ! =m ( a violet gas1 :i* may be collect$ & cond5s$ 9 ! way y h j se54 --,?is int]e/+ discov]y 0 made 9 ! ye> #ahab1 by ,m4 ,c\rtois1 a manufactur] ( saltpetre at ,p>is4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,& pray1 ,mrs4 ,b41 :at is ! pro( ( iod9e be+ a simple body8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is consid]$ z a simple body1 bo? because x is n capable ( be+ resolv$ into o!r +r$i5ts2 & because x is itself capable ( comb9+ ) o!r bodies1 9 a mann] analog\s to oxyg5 & *lor9e4 ,! mo/ curi\s ( ^! comb9ations is t :i* x =ms ) hydrog5 gas1 ! result ( :i* is a peculi> gase\s acid4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,j z *lor9e & hydrog5 gas =m muriatic acid8 ,9 ?is respect *lor9e & iod9e seem to be> a /rong analogy to ea* o!r4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t is inde$ ! case2 s t if ! !ory ( ! con/itution ( ei!r ( ^! two bodies be true1 x mu/ be true also 9 reg>d to ! o!r2 if errone\s 9 ! "o1 ! !ory mu/ fall 9 bo?4 ,b x is n[ "t to conclude2 we h exam9$ su* ( ! acids & salts z ,i conceiv$ w\ld appe> to y mo/ int]e/+4 --,i %all n ent] into any p>ticul>s respect+ ! metallic acids1 z !y (f] no?+ suffici5tly /rik+ = our pres5t purpose4 ,,conv]sation ,,xx4 ,,on ,,! ,,nature ,,& ,,composition ,,( ,,vegetables4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,we h hi!rto treat$ only ( ! simple/ comb9ations ( elem5ts1 su* z alkalies1 e>?s1 acids1 comp\nd salts1 /ones1 c42 all ( :i* belong to ! m9]al k+dom4 ,x is "t n[ to turn our att5tion to a m complicat$ class ( comp\nds1 t ( ,,organis$ ,,bodies1 :i* w furni% u ) a new s\rce ( in/ruction & amusem5t4 ,,emily4 ,by organis$ bodies1 ,i suppose1 y mean ! vegetable & animal creation8 ,i h1 h[ev]1 b a v vague idea ( ! ^w organisation1 & ,i h (t5 wi%$ to "k m precisely :at x means4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,organis$ bodies are su* z are end[$ by nature ) v>i\s p>ts1 peculi>ly con/ruct$ & adapt$ to p]=m c]ta9 functions connect$ ) life4 ,?us y may obs]ve1 t m9]al comp\nds are =m$ by ! simple effect ( me*anical or *emical attraction1 & may appe> to "s to be 9 a great measure ! productions ( *ance2 :il/ organis$ bodies be> ! mo/ /rik+ & impressive m>ks ( design1 & are em95tly di/+ui%$ by t unkn[n pr9ciple1 call$ life1 f :i* ! v>i\s organs d]ive ! p[] ( ex]cis+ _! respective functions4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b 9 :at mann] does life enable ^! organs to p]=m _! sev]al functions8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t is a my/]y :i*1 ,i fe>1 is envelop$ 9 su* pr(\nd d>kness t !re is v little hope ( our ev] be+ able to unfold x4 ,we mu/ cont5t ourselves ) exam9+ ! effects ( ?is pr9ciple2 z = ! cause1 we h be5 able only to give x a "n1 )\t atta*+ any o!r mean+ to x ?an ! vague & unsatisfactory idea ( au unkn[n ag5t4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,& yet ,i ?9k ,i c =m a v cle> idea ( life4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,pray let me he> h[ y w\ld def9e x8 ,,c>ol9e4 ,x is p]haps m easy to conceive ?an to express--let me consid]-- ,is n life ! p[] :i* enables bo? ! animal & ! vegetable creation to p]=m ! v>i\s functions :i* nature has assign$ to !m8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i h no?+ to object to y\r def9ition2 b y w all[ me to obs]ve1 t y h only m5tion$ ! effects :i* ! unkn[n cause produces1 )\t giv+ u any notion ( ! cause itself4 ,,emily4 ,yes1 ,c>ol9e1 y h told u :at life does1 b y h n told u :at x is4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,we may /udy its op]ations1 b we %\ld puzzle ourselves to no purpose by attempt+ to =m an idea ( its real nature4 ,we %all beg9 ) exam9+ its effects 9 ! vegetable _w1 :i* con/itutes ! simple/ class ( organis$ bodies2 ^! we %all f9d di/+ui%$ f ! m9]al creation1 n only by _! m complicat$ nature1 b by ! p[] :i* !y possess )9 !mselves1 ( =m+ new *emical arrangem5ts ( _! con/itu5t p>ts1 by means ( appropriate organs4 ,?us1 ?\gh all vegetables are ultimately compos$ ( hydrog51 c>bon1 & oxyg51 7) a few o!r occasional +r$i5ts17 !y sep>ate & comb9e ^! pr9ciples by _! v>i\s organs1 9 a ?\s& ways1 & =m1 ) !m1 diff]5t k9ds ( juices & solid p>ts1 :i* exi/ ready made 9 vegetables1 & may1 !re=e1 be consid]$ z _! imm$iate mat]ials4 ,^! are3 ,sap1 ,mucilage1 ,sug>1 ,fecula1 ,glut51 ,fix$ ,oil1 ,volatile ,oil1 ,camphor1 ,res9s1 ,gum ,res9s1 ,balsams1 ,ca\t*\c1 ,extractive col\r+ ,matt]1 ,tann91 ,woody ,fibre1 ,vegetable ,acids1 c4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,:at a long li/ ( names6 ,i did n suppose t a vegetable 0 compos$ ( half s _m +r$i5ts4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y mu/ n imag9e t e "o ( ^! mat]ials is =m$ 9 ea* individual plant4 ,i only mean to say1 t !y are all d]iv$ exclusively f ! vegetable k+dom4 ,,emily4 ,b does ea* p>ticul> "p ( ! plant1 su* z ! root1 ! b>k1 ! /em1 ! se$s1 ! leaves1 consi/ ( "o ( ^! +r$i5ts only1 or ( sev]al ( !m comb9$ toge!r8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i believe !re is no "p ( a plant :i* c be said to consi/ solely ( any "o p>ticul> +r$i5t2 a c]ta9 numb] ( vegetable mat]ials mu/ always be comb9$ = ! =mation ( any p>ticul> "p1 7( a se$ = in/ance17 & ^! comb9ations are c>ri$ on by sets ( vessels1 or m9ute organs1 :i* select f o!r p>ts1 & br+ toge!r1 ! sev]al pr9ciples requir$ = ! developm5t & gr[? ( ^? p>ticul> p>ts :i* !y are int5d$ to =m & to ma9ta94 ,,emily4 ,& are n ^! comb9ations always regulat$ by ! laws ( *emical attraction8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no d\bt2 ! organs ( plants _c =ce pr9ciples to comb9e t h no attraction = ea* o!r2 nor c !y compel sup]ior attractions to yield to ^? ( inf]ior p[]2 !y probably act r me*anically1 by br++ into contact su* pr9ciples1 & 9 su* proportions1 z w1 by _! *emical comb9ation1 =m ! v>i\s vegetable products4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,we may !n consid] ea* ( ^! organs z a curi\sly con/ruct$ app>atus1 adapt$ = ! p]=mance ( a v>iety ( *emical processes4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,exactly s4 ,z long z ! plant lives & ?rives1 ! c>bon1 hydrog51 & oxyg51 7! *ief con/itu5ts ( its imm$iate mat]ials17 are s balanc$ & connect$ toge!r1 t !y are n susceptible ( ent]+ into o!r comb9ations2 b no soon] does dea? take place1 ?an ?is /ate ( equilibrium is de/roy$1 & new comb9ations produc$4 ,,emily4 ,b :y %\ld dea? de/roy x2 = ^! pr9ciples mu/ rema9 9 ! same proportions1 & consequ5tly1 ,i %\ld suppose1 9 ! same ord] ( attractions8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y mu/ rememb]1 t 9 ! vegetable1 z well z 9 ! animal k+dom1 x is by ! pr9ciple ( life t ! organs are enabl$ to act2 :5 depriv$ ( t ag5t or /imulus1 _! p[] ceases1 & an ord] ( attractions succe$s simil> to t :i* w\ld take place 9 m9]al or unorganis$ matt]4 ,,emily4 ,x is ?is new ord] ( attractions1 ,i suppose1 t de/roys ! organisation ( ! plant aft] dea?2 = if ! same comb9ations /ill cont9u$ to prevail1 ! plant w\ld always rema9 9 ! /ate 9 :i* x di$8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,& t1 y "k1 is nev] ! case2 plants may be p>tially pres]v$ = "s "t aft] dea?1 by dry+2 b 9 ! natural c\rse ( ev5ts !y all return to ! /ate ( simple elem5ts2 a wise & admirable disp5sation ( ,provid5ce1 by :i* dead plants are r5d]$ fit to enri* ! soil1 & become subs]vi5t to ! n\ri%m5t ( liv+ vegetables4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b we are talk+ ( ! dissolution ( plants1 be=e we h exam9$ !m 9 _! liv+ /ate4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t is true1 my de>4 ,b ,i wi%$ to give y a g5]al idea ( ! nature ( vegetation1 be=e we ent]$ into p>ticul>s4 ,besides1 x is n s irrelevant z y suppose to talk ( vegetables 9 _! dead /ate1 s9ce we _c analyse !m )\t de/roy+ life2 & x is only by ha/5+ to submit !m to exam9ation1 imm$iately aft] !y h ceas$ to live1 t we c anticipate _! natural decomposition4 ,!re are two k9ds ( analysis ( :i* vegetables are susceptible2 fir/1 t :i* sep>ates !m into _! imm$iate mat]ials1 su* z sap1 res91 mucilage1 c42 secondly1 t :i* decomposes !m into _! primitive elem5ts1 z c>bon1 hydrog51 & oxyg54 ,,emily4 ,is !re n a ?ird k9d ( analysis ( plants1 :i* consi/s 9 sep>at+ _! v>i\s p>ts1 z ! /em1 ! leaves1 & ! sev]al organs ( ! fl[]8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t1 my de>1 is r ! dep>tm5t ( ! botani/2 we %all consid] ^! diff]5t p>ts ( plants only1 z ! organs by :i* ! v>i\s secretions or sep>ations are p]=m$2 b we mu/ fir/ exam9e ! nature ( ^! secretions4 ,! sap is ! pr9cipal mat]ial ( vegetables1 s9ce x conta9s ! +r$i5ts t n\ri% e "p ( ! plant4 ,! basis ( ?is juice1 :i* ! roots suck up f ! soil1 is wat]2 ?is holds 9 solution ! v>i\s o!r +r$i5ts requir$ by ! sev]al p>ts ( ! plant1 :i* are gradually secret$ f ! sap by ! diff]5t organs appropriat$ to t purpose1 z x passes !m 9 circulat+ ?r\gh ! plant4 ,mucus1 or mucilage1 is a vegetable sub/ance1 :i*1 l all ! o!rs1 is secret$ f ! sap2 :5 9 excess1 x exudes f trees 9 ! =m ( gum4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,is t ! gum s frequ5tly us$ in/ead ( pa/e or glue8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is2 almo/ all fruit-trees yield "s sort ( gum1 b t mo/ commonly us$ 9 ! arts is obta9$ f a species ( acacia-tree 9 ,arabia1 & is call$ gum arabic2 x =ms ! *ief n\ri%m5t ( ! natives ( ^? p>ts1 :o obta9 x 9 great quantities f incisions :i* !y make 9 ! trees4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i did n "k t gum 0 eatable4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,!re is an acc\nt ( a :ole %ip's company be+ sav$ f />v+ by fe$+ on ! c>go1 :i* 0 gum s5egal4 ,i %\ld n1 h[ev]1 imag9e1 t x w\ld be ei!r a pleasant or a p>ticul>ly eligible diet to ^? :o h n1 f _! bir?1 be5 accu/om$ to x4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 frequ5tly tak5 m$ic9ally1 & consid]$ z v n\ri%+4 ,sev]al k9ds ( vegetable acids may be obta9$1 by p>ticul> processes1 f gum or mucilage1 ! pr9cipal ( :i* is call$ ! muc\s acid4 ,sug> is n f\nd 9 its simple /ate 9 plants1 b is always mix$ ) gum1 sap1 or o!r +r$i5ts2 ?is sac*>9e matt] is to be met ) 9 e vegetable1 b ab\nds mo/ 9 roots1 fruits1 & p>ticul>ly 9 ! sug>-cane4 ,,emily4 ,if all vegetables conta9 sug>1 :y is x extract$ exclusively f ! sug>-cane8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,because x is bo? mo/ abundant 9 t plant1 & mo/ easily obta9$ f x4 ,besides1 ! sug>s produc$ by o!r vegetables diff] a little 9 _! nature4 ,dur+ ! late tr\bles 9 ! ,we/-,indies1 :5 ,europe 0 b imp]fectly suppli$ ) sug>1 sev]al attempts 7 made to extract x f o!r vegetables1 & v good sug> 0 obta9$ f p>snips & f c>rots2 b ! process 0 too exp5sive to c>ry ?is ent]prize to any ext5t4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i %\ld ?9k t sug> might be m easily obta9$ f sweet fruits1 su* z figs1 dates1 c4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,probably2 b x w\ld be /ill m exp5sive1 f ! high price ( ^? fruits4 ,,emily4 ,pray1 9 :at mann] is sug> obta9$ f ! sug>-cane8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! juice ( ?is plant is fir/ express$ by pass+ x betwe5 two cyl9d]s ( iron4 ,x is !n boil$ ) lime-wat]1 :i* makes a ?ick scum rise to ! surface4 ,! cl>ifi$ liquor is let (f bel[ & evaporat$ to a v small quantity1 aft] :i* x is suff]$ to cry/allise by /&+ 9 a vessel1 ! bottom ( :i* is p]=at$ ) holes1 t are imp]fectly /opp$1 9 ord] t ! syrup may dra9 (f4 ,! sug> obta9$ by ?is process is a co>se br[n p[d]1 commonly call$ raw or moi/ sug>2 x und]goes ano!r op]ation to be ref9$ & conv]t$ into loaf sug>4 ,= ?is purpose x is dissolv$ 9 wat]1 & aft]w>ds purifi$ by an animal fluid call$ album54 ,:ite ( eggs *iefly consi/ ( ?is fluid1 :i* is also "o ( ! con/itu5t p>ts ( blood2 & consequ5tly eggs1 or bullocks' blood1 are commonly us$ = ?is purpose4 ,! album9\s fluid be+ diffus$ ?r\gh ! syrup1 comb9es ) all ! solid impurities conta9$ 9 x1 & rises ) !m to ! surface1 :]e x =ms a ?ick scum2 ! cle> liquor is !n aga9 evaporat$ to a prop] consi/5ce1 & p\r$ into m\lds1 9 :i*1 by a confus$ cry/allisation1 x =ms loaf-sug>4 ,b an additional process is requir$ to :it5 x2 to ?is effect ! m\ld is inv]t$1 & its op5 base is cov]$ ) clay1 ?r\gh :i* wat] is made to pass2 ! wat] sl[ly trickl+ ?r\gh ! sug>1 comb9es ) & c>ries (f ! col\r+ matt]4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i am v glad to he> t ! blood t is us$ to purify sug> does n rema9 9 x2 x w\ld be a disgu/+ idea4 ,i h he>d ( "s improvem5ts by ! late ,mr4 ,h[>d1 9 ! process ( ref9+ sug>4 ,pray :at are !y8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x w\ld be mu* too long to give y an acc\nt ( ! process 9 detail4 ,b ! pr9cipal improvem5t relates to ! mode ( evaporat+ ! syrup1 9 ord] to br+ x to ! consi/5cy ( sug>4 ,in/ead ( boil+ ! syrup 9 a l>ge copp]1 ov] a /rong fire1 ,mr4 ,h[>d c>ries (f ! wat] by means ( a l>ge air-pump1 9 a way simil> to t us$ 9 ,mr4 ,leslie's exp]im5t = freez+ wat] by evaporation2 t is1 ! syrup be+ expos$ to a vacuum1 ! wat] evaporates quickly1 ) no great] heat ?an t ( a little /eam1 :i* is introduc$ r\nd ! boil]4 ,! air-pump is ( c\rse ( l>ge dim5sions1 & is work$ by a /eam eng9e4 ,a great sav+ is ?us obta9$1 & a /rik+ in/ance af=d$ ( ! p[] ( sci5ce 9 sugge/+ useful economical improvem5ts4 ,,emily4 ,& pray h[ is sug>-c&y & b>ley-sug> prep>$8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,c&i$ sug> is no?+ m ?an ! regul> cry/als1 obta9$ by sl[ evaporation f a solution ( sug>4 ,b>ley-sug> is sug> melt$ by heat1 & aft]w>ds cool$ 9 m\lds ( a spiral =m4 ,sug> may be decompos$ by a r$ heat1 &1 l all o!r vegetable sub/ances1 resolv$ into c>bonic acid & hydrog54 ,! =mation & ! decomposition ( sug> af=d _m v int]e/+ p>ticul>s1 :i* we %all fully exam9e1 aft] hav+ gone ?r\gh ! o!r mat]ials ( vegetables4 ,we %all f9d t !re is reason to suppose t sug> is n1 l ! o!r mat]ials1 secret$ f ! sap by appropriate organs2 b t x is =m$ by a peculi> process ) :i* y are n yet acqua9t$4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,pray1 is n honey ( ! same nature z sug>8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,honey is a mixture ( sac*>9e matt] & gum4 ,,emily4 ,i ?\ght t honey 0 9 "s measure an animal sub/ance1 z x is prep>$ by ! bees4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is r collect$ by !m f fl[]s1 & convey$ to _! /ore-h\ses1 ! hives4 ,x is ! wax only t und]goes a real alt]ation 9 ! body ( ! bee1 & is !nce conv]t$ into an animal sub/ance4 ,manna is ano!r k9d ( sug>1 :i* is unit$ ) a nause\s extractive matt]1 to :i* x owes its peculi> ta/e & col\r4 ,x exudes l gum f v>i\s trees 9 hot climates1 "s ( :i* h _! leaves glaz$ by x4 ,! next ( ! vegetable mat]ials is fecula2 ?is is ! g5]al "n giv5 to ! f>9ace\s sub/ance conta9$ 9 all se$s1 & 9 "s roots1 z ! potatoe1 p>snip1 c4 ,x is int5d$ by nature = ! fir/ alim5t ( ! "y vegetable2 b t ( "o p>ticul> gra9 is become a fav\rite & mo/ common food ( a l>ge "p ( mank9d4 ,,emily4 ,y allude1 ,i suppose1 to bread1 :i* is made ( :eat-fl[]8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes4 ,! fecula ( :eat conta9s also ano!r vegetable sub/ance :i* seems peculi> to t se$1 or at lea/ has n z yet be5 obta9$ f any o!r4 ,?is is glut51 :i* is ( a /icky1 ropy1 ela/ic nature2 & x is suppos$ to be ow+ to ! visc\s qualities ( ?is sub/ance1 t :eat-fl\r =ms a mu* bett] pa/e ?an any o!r4 ,,emily4 ,glut51 by y\r description1 mu/ be v l gum8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,9 _! /icky nature !y c]ta9ly h "s resemblance2 b glut5 is ess5tially diff]5t f gum 9 o!r po9ts1 & especially 9 its be+ insoluble 9 wat]1 :il/ gum1 y "k1 is extremely soluble4 ,! oils conta9$ 9 vegetables all consi/ ( hydrog5 & c>bon 9 v>i\s proportions4 ,!y are ( two k9ds1 fix$ & volatile1 bo? ( :i* we =m]ly m5tion$4 ,d y rememb] 9 :at ! diff]5ce betwe5 fix$ & volatile oil consi/s8 ,,emily4 ,if ,i recollect rightly1 ! =m] are decompos$ by heat1 :il/ ! latt] are m]ely volatilis$ by x4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,v well4 ,fix$ oil is conta9$ only 9 ! se$s ( plants1 except+ 9 ! olive1 9 :i* x is produc$ 91 & express$ f1 ! fruit4 ,we h already obs]v$ t se$s conta9 also fecula2 ^! two sub/ances1 unit$ ) a little mucilage1 =m ! :ite sub/ance conta9$ 9 ! se$s or k]nels ( plants1 & is de/9$ = ! n\ri%m5t ( ! "y plant1 to :i* ! se$ gives bir?4 ,! milk ( almonds1 :i* is express$ f ! se$ ( t "n1 is compos$ ( ^! ?ree sub/ances4 ,,emily4 ,pray1 ( :at nature is ! l9se$ oil :i* is us$ 9 pa9t+8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is a fix$ oil1 obta9$ f ! se$ ( flax4 ,nut oil1 :i* is frequ5tly us$ = ! same purpose1 is express$ f walnuts4 ,olive oil is t :i* is be/ adapt$ to cul9>y purposes4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,& :at are ! oils us$ = burn+8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,animal oils mo/ commonly2 b ! pref]5ce giv5 to !m is ow+ to _! be+ less exp5sive2 = vegetable oils burn equally well1 & are m pleasant1 z _! smell is n (f5sive4 ,,emily4 ,s9ce oil is s good a combu/ible1 :at is ! reason t lamps s frequ5tly require trimm+8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,?is sometimes proce$s f ! con/ruction ( ! lamp1 :i* may n be suffici5tly fav\rable to a p]fect combu/ion2 b !re is c]ta9ly a defect 9 ! nature ( oil itself1 :i* r5d]s x necess>y = ! be/-con/ruct$ lamps to be occasionally trimm$4 ,?is defect arises f a portion ( mucilage :i* x is extremely difficult to sep>ate f ! oil1 & :i* be+ a bad combu/ible1 ga!rs r\nd ! wick1 & ?us imp$es its combu/ion1 & consequ5tly dims ! light4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b w n oils burn )\t a wick8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,n unless _! temp]ature be elevat$ to five or six hundr$ degrees2 ! wick answ]s ?is purpose1 z ,i ?9k ,i once be=e expla9$ to y4 ,! oil rises betwe5 ! fibres ( ! cotton by capill>y attraction1 & ! heat ( ! burn+ wick volatilises x1 & br+s x successively to ! temp]ature at :i* x is combu/ible4 ,,emily4 ,i suppose ! explanation :i* y h giv5 ) reg>d to ! necessity ( trimm+ lamps1 applies also to c&les1 :i* s (t5 require snuff+8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i believe x does2 at lea/1 9 "s degree4 ,b besides ! circum/ance j expla9$1 ! common sorts ( oils are n v highly combu/ible1 s t ! heat produc$ by a c&le1 :i* is a co>se k9d ( animal oil1 be+ insuffici5t to volatilise !m completely1 a quantity ( soot is gradually deposit$ on ! wick1 :i* dims ! light1 & ret>ds ! combu/ion4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,wax c&les !n conta9 no incombu/ible matt]1 s9ce !y d n require snuff+8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,wax is a mu* bett] combu/ible ?an tall[1 b /ill n p]fectly s1 s9ce x likewise conta9s "s p>ticles t are unfit = burn+2 b :5 ^! ga!r r\nd ! wick1 7:i* 9 a wax light is comp>atively small17 !y weigh x d[n on "o side1 & fall (f toge!r ) ! burnt "p ( ! wick4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,z oils are su* good combu/ibles1 ,i wond] t !y %\ld require s great an elevation ( temp]ature be=e !y beg9 to burn8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,?\gh fix$ oils w n ent] into actual combu/ion bel[ ! temp]ature ( ab\t f\r hundr$ degrees1 yet !y w sl[ly absorb oxyg5 at ! common temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e4 ,h5ce arises a v>iety ( *anges 9 oils :i* modify _! prop]ties & uses 9 ! arts4 ,if oil simply absorbs1 & comb9es ) oxyg51 x ?ick5s & *anges to a k9d ( wax4 ,?is *ange is obs]v$ to take place on ! ext]nal p>ts ( c]ta9 vegetables1 ev5 dur+ _! life4 ,b x happ5s 9 _m in/ances t ! oil does n reta9 all ! oxyg5 :i* x attracts1 b t "p ( x comb9es )1 or burns1 ! hydrog5 ( ! oil1 ?us =m+ a quantity ( wat]1 :i* gradually goes (f by evaporation4 ,9 ?is case ! alt]ation ( ! oil consi/s n only 9 ! addition ( a c]ta9 quantity ( oxyg51 b 9 ! dim9ution ( ! hydrog54 ,^! oils are di/+ui%$ by ! "n ( dry+ oils4 ,l9se$1 poppy1 & nut-oils1 are ( ?is description4 ,,emily4 ,i am well acqua9t$ ) dry+ oils1 z ,i cont9ually use !m 9 pa9t+4 ,b ,i d n und]/& :y ! acquisition ( oxyg5 on "o h&1 & a loss ( hydrog5 on ! o!r1 %\ld r5d] !m dry+8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,?is1 ,i conceive1 may arise f two reasons2 ei!r f ! oxyg5 :i* is add$ be+ less fav\rable to ! /ate ( fluidity ?an ! hydrog51 :i* is subtract$2 or f ?is additional quantity ( oxyg5 giv+ rise to new comb9ations1 9 consequ5ce ( :i* ! mo/ fluid p>ts ( ! oil are lib]at$ & volatilis$4 ,= ! purpose ( pa9t+1 ! dry+ quality ( oil is fur!r increas$ by add+ a quantity ( oxyd ( lead to x1 by :i* means x is m rapidly oxyg5at$4 ,! rancidity ( oil is likewise ow+ to _! oxyg5ation4 ,9 ?is case a new ord] ( attraction takes place1 f :i* a peculi> acid is =m$1 call$ ! sebacic acid4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,s9ce ! nature & composition ( oil is s well kn[n1 pray c\ld n oil be actually made1 by comb9+ its pr9ciples8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t is by no means a necess>y consequ5ce2 = !re are innum]able v>ieties ( comp\nd bodies :i* we c decompose1 al?\gh we are unable to reunite _! +r$i5ts4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is n ! case ) oil1 z x has v lately be5 discov]$1 t x is possible to =m oil1 by a peculi> process1 f ! action ( oxyg5at$ muriatic acid gas on hydro-c>bonate4 ,we n[ pass to ! volatile or ess5tial oils4 ,^! =m ! basis ( all ! vegetable p]fumes1 & are conta9$1 m or less1 9 e "p ( ! plant except+ ! se$2 !y are1 at lea/1 nev] f\nd 9 t "p ( ! se$ :i* conta9s ! embrio plant4 ,,emily4 ,! smell ( fl[]s1 !n1 proce$s f volatile oil8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,c]ta9ly2 b ?is oil is (t5 mo/ abundant 9 ! r9d ( fruits1 z 9 oranges1 lemons1 c4 f :i* x may be extract$ by ! slighte/ pressure2 x is f\nd also 9 ! leaves ( plants1 & ev5 9 ! wood4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,is x n v pl5tiful 9 ! leaves ( m9t1 & ( ?yme1 & all ! sweet-smell+ h]bs8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes1 rem>kably s2 & 9 g]anium leaves also1 :i* h a mu* m p[]ful od\r ?an ! fl[]s4 ,! p]fume ( s&al fans is an in/ance ( its exi/5ce 9 wood4 ,9 %ort1 all vegetable od\rs or p]fumes are produc$ by ! evaporation ( p>ticles ( ^! volatile oils4 ,,emily4 ,!y are1 ,i suppose1 v light1 & ( v ?9 consi/5ce1 s9ce !y are s volatile8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,!y v>y v mu* 9 ?is respect1 "s ( !m be+ z ?ick z butt]1 :il/ o!rs are z fluid z wat]4 ,9 ord] to be prep>$ = p]fumes1 or ess5ces1 ^! oils are fir/ prop]ly purifi$1 & !n ei!r di/ill$ ) _s ( w9e1 z 9 ! case ) lav5d] wat]1 or simply mix$ ) a l>ge proportion ( wat]1 z is (t5 done ) reg>d to pepp]m9t4 ,frequ5tly1 also1 ^! odorif]\s wat]s are prep>$ m]ely by soak+ ! plants 9 wat]1 & di/ill+4 ,! wat] !n comes ov] impregnat$ ) ! volatile oil4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,su* wat]s are frequ5tly us$ to take spots ( grease out ( clo?1 or silk2 h[ d !y produce t effect8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,by comb9+ ) ! sub/ance t =ms ^! /a9s2 = volatile oils1 & likewise ! _s 9 :i* !y are di/ill$1 w dissolve wax1 tall[1 sp]maceti1 & res9s2 if1 !re=e1 ! spot proce$s f any ( ^! sub/ances1 x w remove x4 ,insects ( e k9d h a great av]sion to p]fumes1 s t volatile oils are employ$ ) success 9 museums = ! pres]vation ( /uff$ birds & o!r species ( animals4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,pray does n ! p[]ful smell ( camphor proce$ f a volatile oil8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,camphor seems to be a sub/ance ( its own k9d1 rem>kable by _m peculi>ities4 ,b if n exactly ( ! same nature z volatile oil1 x is at lea/ v analog\s to x4 ,x is obta9$ *iefly f ! camphor-tree1 a species ( laurel :i* gr[s 9 ,*9a1 & 9 ! ,indian isles1 f ! /em & roots ( :i* x is extract$4 ,small quantities h also be5 di/ill$ f ?yme1 sage1 & o!r aromatic plants2 & x is deposit$ 9 pretty l>ge quantities by "s volatile oils aft] long /&+4 ,x is extremely volatile & inflammable4 ,x is insoluble 9 wat]1 b is soluble 9 oils1 9 :i* /ate1 z well z 9 its solid =m1 x is frequ5tly appli$ to m$ic9al purposes4 ,among/ ! p>ticul> prop]ties ( camphor1 !re is "o too s+ul> to be pass$ ov] 9 sil5ce4 ,if y take a small piece ( camphor1 & place x on ! surface ( a bason ( pure wat]1 x w imm$iately beg9 to move r\nd & r\nd ) great rapidity2 b if y p\r into ! bason a s+le drop ( any odorif]\s fluid1 x w in/antly put a /op to ?is motion4 ,y c at any "t try ?is v simple exp]im5t2 b y mu/ n expect t ,i %all be able to acc\nt = ?is ph5om5on1 z no?+ satisfactory has yet be5 advanc$ = its explanation4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,x is v s+ul> inde$2 & ,i w c]ta9ly try ! exp]im5t4 ,pray :at are res9s1 :i* y j n[ m5tion$8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,!y are volatile oils1 t h be5 act$ on1 & peculi>ly modifi$1 by oxyg54 ,,c>ol9e4 ,!y are1 !re=e1 oxyg5at$ volatile oils8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,n exactly2 = ! process does n appe> to consi/ s mu* 9 ! oxyg5ation ( ! oil1 z 9 ! combu/ion ( a portion ( its hydrog51 & a small portion ( its c>bon4 ,= :5 res9s are artificially made by ! comb9ation ( volatile oils ) oxyg51 ! vessel 9 :i* ! process is p]=m$ is b$ew$ ) wat]1 & ! air includ$ )9 is load$ ) c>bonic acid4 ,,emily4 ,?is process mu/ be1 9 "s respects1 simil> to t = prep>+ dry+ oils8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 & x is by ?is op]ation t bo? ( !m acquire a great] degree ( consi/5ce4 ,pit*1 t>1 & turp5t9e1 are ! mo/ common res9s2 !y exude f ! p9e & fir trees4 ,copal1 ma/ic1 & frank9c5se1 are also ( ?is class ( vegetable sub/ances4 ,,emily4 ,is x ( ^! res9s t ! ma/ic & copal v>ni%es1 s mu* us$ 9 pa9t+1 are made8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes4 ,dissolv$ ei!r 9 oil1 or 9 alcohol1 res9s =m v>ni%es4 ,f ^! solutions !y may be precipitat$ by wat]1 9 :i* !y are insoluble4 ,?is ,i c easily %[ y4 --,if y w p\r "s wat] into ?is glass ( ma/ic v>ni%1 x w comb9e ) ! alcohol 9 :i* ! res9 is dissolv$1 & ! latt] w be precipitat$ 9 ! =m ( a :ite cl\d-- ,,emily4 ,x is s4 ,& yet h[ is x t pictures or draw+s1 v>ni%$ ) ?is solution1 may safely be wa%$ ) wat]8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,z ! v>ni% dries1 ! alcohol evaporates1 & ! dry v>ni% or res9 :i* rema9s1 n be+ soluble 9 wat]1 w n be act$ on by x4 ,!re is a class ( comp\nd res9s call$ gum-res9s1 :i* are precisely :at _! "n d5otes1 t is to say1 res9s comb9$ ) mucilage4 ,myrrh & assaftida are ( ?is description4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,is x possible t a sub/ance ( s disagreeable a smell z assaftida c be =m$ f a volatile oil8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! od\r ( volatile oils is by no means always grateful4 ,onions & g>lic d]ive _! smell f volatile oils1 z well z roses & lav5d]4 ,!re is /ill ano!r =m "u :i* volatile oils pres5t !mselves1 :i* is t ( balsams4 ,^! consi/ ( res9\s juices comb9$ ) a peculi> acid1 call$ ! b5zoic acid4 ,balsams appe> to h be5 orig9ally volatile oils1 ! oxyg5ation ( :i* has conv]t$ "o "p into a res91 & ! o!r "p into an acid1 :i*1 comb9$ toge!r1 =m a balsam2 su* are ! balsams ( ,p]u1 ,tolu1 c4 ,we %all n[ take leave ( ! oils & _! v>i\s modifications1 & proce$ to ! next vegetable sub/ance1 :i* is ca\t*\c4 ,?is is a :ite milky glut9\s fluid1 :i* acquires consi/5ce1 & black5s 9 dry+1 9 :i* /ate x =ms ! sub/ance ) :i* y are s well acqua9t$1 "u ! "n ( gum-ela/ic4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i am surpris$ to he> t gum-ela/ic 0 ev] :ite1 or ev] fluid6 ,& f :at vegetable is x procur$8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is obta9$ f two or ?ree diff]5t species ( trees1 9 ! ,ea/-,indies1 & ,s\?-,am]ica1 by mak+ incisions 9 ! /em4 ,! juice is collect$ z x trickles f ^! incisions1 & m\lds ( clay1 9 ! =m ( little bottles ( gum-ela/ic1 are dipp$ into x4 ,a lay] ( ?is juice adh]es to ! clay & dries on x2 & sev]al lay]s are successively add$ by repeat+ ?is till ! bottle is ( suffici5t ?ickness4 ,x is !n beat5 to break d[n ! clay1 :i* is easily %ak5 out4 ,! natives ( ! c\ntries :]e ?is sub/ance is produc$ sometimes make %oes & boots ( x by a simil> process1 & !y are said to be extremely pleasant & s]viceable1 bo? f _! ela/icity1 & _! be+ wat]-pro(4 ,! sub/ance :i* comes next 9 our enum]ation ( ! imm$iate +r$i5ts ( vegetables1 is extractive matt]4 ,?is is a t]m1 :i*1 9 a g5]al s5se1 may be appli$ to any sub/ance extract$ f vegetables2 b x is m p>ticul>ly und]/ood to relate to ! extractive col\r+ matt] ( plants4 ,a great v>iety ( col\rs are prep>$ f ! vegetable k+dom1 bo? = ! purposes ( pa9t+ & ( dy+2 all ! col\rs call$ lakes are ( ?is description2 b !y are less durable ?an m9]al col\rs1 =1 by long exposure to ! atmosph]e1 !y ei!r d>k5 or turn yell[4 ,,emily4 ,i "k t 9 pa9t+1 ! lakes are reckon$ f> less durable col\rs ?an ! o*res2 b :at is ! reason ( x8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! *ange :i* takes place 9 vegetable col\rs is ow+ *iefly to ! oxyg5 ( ! atmosph]e sl[ly burn+ _! hydrog51 & leav+1 9 "s measure1 ! blackness ( ! c>bon expos$4 ,su* *ange _c take place 9 o*re1 :i* is altoge!r a m9]al sub/ance4 ,vegetable col\rs h a /rong] aff9ity = animal ?an = vegetable sub/ances1 & ?is is suppos$ to be ow+ to a small quantity ( nitrog5 :i* !y conta94 ,?us1 silk & wor/$ w take a mu* f9] vegetable dye ?an l95 & cotton4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,dy+1 !n1 is q a *emical process8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,und\bt$ly4 ,! condition requir$ to =m a good dye is1 t ! col\r+ matt] %\ld be precipitat$1 or fix$1 on ! sub/ance to be dy$1 & %\ld =m a comp\nd n soluble 9 ! liquids to :i* x w probably be expos$4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 pr9t$ or dy$ l95s or cottons mu/ be able to resi/ ! action ( soap & wat]1 to :i* !y mu/ necess>ily be subject 9 wa%+2 & wooll5s & silks %\ld )/& ! action ( grease & acids1 to :i* !y may accid5tally be expos$4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b if l95 & cotton h n a suffici5t aff9ity = col\r+ matt]1 h[ are !y made to resi/ ! action ( wa%+1 :i* !y always d :5 !y are well pr9t$8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,:5 ! sub/ance to be dy$ has ei!r no aff9ity = ! col\r+ matt]1 or n suffici5t p[] to reta9 x1 ! comb9ation is effect$1 or /r5g!n$1 by ! int]v5tion ( a ?ird sub/ance1 call$ a mordant1 or basis4 ,! mordant mu/ h a /rong aff9ity bo? = ! col\r+ matt] & ! sub/ance to be dy$1 by :i* means x causes !m to comb9e & adh]e toge!r4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,& :at are ! sub/ances t p]=m ! (fice ( ?us reconcil+ ! two adv]se p>ties8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! mo/ common mordant is sulphat ( alum9e1 or alum4 ,oxyds ( t9 & iron1 9 ! /ate ( comp\nd salts1 are likewise us$ = t purpose4 ,tann9 is ano!r vegetable +r$i5t ( great importance 9 ! arts4 ,x is obta9$ *iefly f ! b>k ( trees2 b x is f\nd also 9 nut-galls1 & 9 "s o!r vegetables4 ,,emily4 ,is t ! sub/ance commonly call$ tan1 :i* is us$ 9 hot-h\ses8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,tan is ! prep>$ b>k 9 :i* ! peculi> sub/ance1 tann91 is conta9$4 ,b ! use ( tan 9 hot-h\ses is ( mu* less importance ?an 9 ! op]ation ( tann+1 by :i* sk9 is conv]t$ into lea!r4 ,,emily4 ,pray1 h[ is ?is op]ation p]=m$8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,v>i\s me?ods are employ$ = ?is purpose1 :i* all consi/ 9 expos+ sk9 to ! action ( tann91 or ( sub/ances conta9+ ?is pr9ciple1 9 suffici5t quantities1 & dispos$ to yield x to ! sk94 ,! mo/ usual way is to infuse co>sely p[d]$ oak b>k 9 wat]1 & to keep ! sk9 imm]s$ 9 ?is infusion = a c]ta9 l5g? ( "t4 ,dur+ ?is process1 :i* is sl[ & gradual1 ! sk9 is f\nd to h increas$ 9 weight1 & to h acquir$ a consid]able t5acity & imp]meability to wat]4 ,?is effect may be mu* accel]at$ by us+ /rong saturations ( ! tann+ pr9ciple 7:i* c be extract$ f b>k71 in/ead ( employ+ ! b>k itself4 ,b ?is quick mode ( prep>ation does n appe> to make equally good lea!r4 ,tann9 is conta9$ 9 a great v>iety ( a/r+5t vegetable sub/ances1 z galls1 ! rose-tree1 & w9e2 b x is n[h]e s pl5tiful z 9 b>k4 ,all ^! sub/ances yield x to wat]1 f :i* x may be precipitat$ by a solution ( is+lass1 or glue1 ) :i* x /rongly unites & =ms an insoluble comp\nd4 ,h5ce its valuable prop]ty ( comb9+ ) sk9 7:i* consi/s *iefly ( glue71 & ( enabl+ x to resi/ ! action ( wat]4 ,,emily4 ,might we n see t effect by p\r+ a little melt$ is+lass into a glass ( w9e1 :i* y say conta9s tann98 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes4 ,i h prep>$ a solution ( is+lass = t v purpose4 --,d y obs]ve ! ?ick muddy precipitate8 --,t is ! tann9 comb9$ ) ! is+lass4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,?is precipitate mu/ !n be ( ! same nature z lea!r8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is compos$ ( ! same +r$i5ts2 b ! organisation & texture ( ! sk9 be+ want+1 x has nei!r ! consi/5ce nor ! t5acity ( lea!r4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,"o might suppose t m5 :o dr9k l>ge quantities ( r$ w9e /& a *ance ( hav+ ! coats ( _! /oma*s conv]t$ into lea!r1 s9ce tann9 has s /rong an aff9ity = sk94 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is n impossible b t ! coats ( _! /oma*s may be1 9 "s measure1 tann$1 or h>d5$ by ! con/ant use ( ?is liquor2 b y mu/ rememb] t :]e a numb] ( o!r *emical ag5ts are conc]n$1 &1 above all1 :]e life exi/s1 no c]ta9 *emical inf]5ce c be drawn4 ,i mu/ n dismiss ?is subject1 )\t m5tion+ a rec5t discov]y ( ,mr4 ,hat*ett1 :i* relates to x4 ,?is g5tleman f\nd t a sub/ance v simil> to tann91 possess+ all its lead+ prop]ties1 & actually capable ( tann+ lea!r1 may be produc$ by expos+ c>bon1 or any sub/ance conta9+ c>bonace\s matt]1 :e!r vegetable1 animal1 or m9]al1 to ! action ( nitric acid4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,& is n ?is discov]y v likely to be ( use to manufactures8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t is v d\btful1 because tann91 ?us artificially prep>$1 mu/ probably always be m exp5sive ?an t :i* is obta9$ f b>k4 ,b ! fact is extremely curi\s1 z x af=ds "o ( ^? v r>e in/ances ( *emi/ry be+ able to imitate ! proximate pr9ciples ( organis$ bodies4 ,! la/ ( ! vegetable mat]ials is woody fibre2 x is ! h>de/ "p ( plants4 ,! *ief s\rce f :i* ?is sub/ance is d]iv$ is wood1 b x is also conta9$1 m or less1 9 e solid "p ( t plant4 ,x =ms a k9d ( skeleton ( ! "p to :i* x belongs1 & reta9s its %ape aft] all ! o!r mat]ials h disappe>$4 ,x consi/s *iefly ( c>bon1 unit$ ) a small proportion ( salts1 & ! o!r con/itu5ts common to all vegetables4 ,,emily4 ,x is ( woody fibre1 !n1 t ! common *>coal is made8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes4 ,*>coal1 z y may recollect1 is obta9$ f wood1 by ! sep>ation ( all its evaporable p>ts4 ,be=e we take leave ( ! vegetable mat]ials1 x w be prop]1 at lea/1 to enum]ate ! sev]al vegetable acids :i* we ei!r h _h1 or may h occasion to m5tion4 ,i believe ,i =m]ly told y t _! basis1 or radical1 0 uni=mly compos$ ( hydrog5 & c>bon1 & t _! diff]5ce consi/$ only 9 ! v>i\s proportions ( oxyg5 :i* !y conta9$4 ,! foll[+ are ! names ( ! vegetable acids3 ,! ,muc\s ,acid1 obta9$ f gum or mucilage2 ,sub]ic - - - f cork2 ,camphoric - - - f camphor2 ,b5zoic - - - f balsams2 ,gallic - - - f galls1 b>k1 c4 ,malic - - - f ripe fruits2 ,citric - - - f lemon juice2 ,oxalic - - - f sorrel2 ,succ9ic - - - f amb]2 ,t>t>\s - - - f t>trit ( pota%3 ,acetic - - - f v9eg>4 ,!y are all decomposable by heat1 soluble 9 wat]1 & turn vegetable blue col\rs r$4 ,! succ9ic1 ! t>t>\s1 & ! acet\s acids1 are ! products ( ! decomposition ( vegetables2 we %all1 !re=e1 res]ve _! exam9ation = a future p]iod4 ,! oxalic acid1 di/ill$ f sorrel1 is ! highe/ t]m ( vegetable acidification2 =1 if m oxyg5 be add$ to x1 x loses its vegetable nature1 & is resolv$ into c>bonic acid & wat]2 !re=e1 ?\gh all ! o!r acids may be conv]t$ into ! oxalic by an addition ( oxyg51 ! oxalic itself is n susceptible ( a fur!r degree ( oxyg5ation2 nor c x be made1 by any *emical processes1 to return to a /ate ( l[] acidification4 ,to conclude ?is subject1 ,i h only to add a few words on ! gallic acid4 4 4 4 4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,is n ?is ! same acid be=e m5tion$1 :i* =ms ink1 by precipitat+ sulphat ( iron f its solution8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes4 ,?\gh x is usually extract$ f galls1 on acc\nt ( its be+ mo/ abundant 9 t vegetable sub/ance1 x may also be obta9$ f a great v>iety ( plants4 ,x con/itutes :at is call$ ! a/r+5t pr9ciple ( vegetables2 x is g5]ally comb9$ ) tann91 & y w f9d t an infusion ( tea1 c(fee1 b>k1 r$-w9e1 or any vegetable sub/ance t conta9s ! a/r+5t pr9ciple1 w make a black precipitate ) a solution ( sulphat ( iron4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b pray :at are galls8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,!y are excresc5ces :i* gr[ on ! b>k ( "y oaks1 & are occasion$ by an insect :i* w\nds ! b>k ( trees1 & lays its eggs 9 ! ap]ture4 ,! lac]at$ vessels ( ! tree !n dis*>ge _! cont5ts1 & =m an excresc5ce1 :i* af=ds a def5sive cov]+ = ^! eggs4 ,! insect1 :5 come to life1 fir/ fe$s on ?is excresc5ce1 & "s "t aft]w>d eats its way out1 z x appe>s f a hole :i* is =m$ 9 all gall-nuts t no long] conta9 an insect4 ,x is 9 hot climates only t /rongly a/r+5t gall-nuts are f\nd2 ^? :i* are us$ = ! purpose ( mak+ ink are br\ght f ,aleppo4 ,,emily4 ,b are n ! oak-apples1 :i* gr[ on ! leaves ( ! oak 9 ?is c\ntry1 ( a simil> nature8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 only !y are an inf]ior species ( galls1 conta9+ less ( ! a/r+5t pr9ciple1 & !re=e less applicable to useful purposes4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,are ! vegetable acids nev] f\nd b 9 _! pure uncomb9$ /ate8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,by no means2 on ! contr>y1 !y are frequ5tly met ) 9 ! /ate ( comp\nd salts2 ^!1 h[ev]1 are 9 g5]al n fully saturat$ ) ! salifiable bases1 s t ! acid pr$om9ates2 &1 9 ?is /ate1 !y are call$ acidul\s salts4 ,( ?is k9d is ! salt call$ cream ( t>t>4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,is n ! salt ( lemon1 commonly us$ to take out ink-spots & /a9s1 ( ?is nature8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no2 t salt consi/s ( ! oxalic acid1 comb9$ ) a little pota%4 ,x is f\nd 9 t /ate 9 sorrel4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,& pray h[ does x take out ink-spots8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,by unit+ ) ! iron1 & r5d]+ x soluble 9 wat]4 ,besides ! vegetable mat]ials :i* we h enum]at$1 a v>iety ( o!r sub/ances1 common to ! ?ree k+doms1 are f\nd 9 vegetables1 su* z pota%1 :i* 0 =m]ly suppos$ to belong exclusively to plants1 & 01 9 consequ5ce1 call$ ! vegetable alkali4 ,sulphur1 phosphorus1 e>?s1 & a v>iety ( metallic oxyds1 are also f\nd 9 vegetables1 b only 9 small quantities4 ,& we meet sometimes ) neutral salts1 =m$ by ! comb9ation ( ^! +r$i5ts4 ,,conv]sation ,,xxi4 ,,on ,,! ,,decomposition ,,( ,,vegetables4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,! acc\nt :i* y h giv5 u1 ,mrs4 ,b41 ( ! mat]ials ( vegetables1 is1 d\btless1 v in/ructive2 b x does n completely satisfy my curiosity4 ,i wi% to "k h[ plants obta9 ! pr9ciples f :i* _! v>i\s mat]ials are =m$2 by :at means ^! are conv]t$ into vegetable matt]1 & h[ !y are connect$ ) ! life ( ! plant8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,?is implies no?+ less ?an a complete hi/ory ( ! *emi/ry & physiology ( vegetation1 subjects on :i* we h yet b v imp]fect notions4 ,/ill ,i hope t ,i %all be able1 9 "s measure1 to satisfy y\r curiosity4 ,b1 9 ord] to r5d] ! subject m intelligible1 ,i mu/ fir/ make y acqua9t$ ) ! v>i\s *anges :i* vegetables und]go1 :5 ! vital p[] no long] enables !m to resi/ ! common laws ( *emical attraction4 ,! composition ( vegetables be+ m complicat$ ?an t ( m9]als1 ! =m] m readily und]go *emical *anges ?an ! latt]3 = ! great] ! v>iety ( attractions1 ! m easily is ! equilibrium de/roy$1 & a new ord] ( comb9ations introduc$4 ,,emily4 ,i am surpris$ t vegetables %\ld be s easily susceptible ( decomposition2 = ! pres]vation ( ! vegetable k+dom is c]ta9ly f> m important ?an t ( m9]als4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y mu/ consid]1 on ! o!r h&1 h[ mu* m easily ! =m] is r5ew$ ?an ! latt]4 ,! decomposition ( ! vegetable takes place only aft] ! dea? ( ! plant1 :i*1 9 ! common c\rse ( nature1 happ5s :5 x has yield$ fruit & se$s to propagate its species4 ,if1 in/ead ( ?us f9i%+ its c>e]1 ea* plant 0 to reta9 its =m & vegetable /ate1 x w\ld become an useless burd5 to ! e>? & its inhabitants4 ,:5 vegetables1 !re=e1 cease to be productive1 !y cease to live1 & nature !n beg9s h] process ( decomposition1 9 ord] to resolve !m into _! *emical con/itu5ts1 hydrog51 c>bon1 & oxyg52 ^? simple & primitive +r$i5ts1 :i* %e keeps 9 /ore = all h] comb9ations4 ,,emily4 ,b s9ce no sy/em ( comb9ation c be de/roy$1 except by ! e/abli%m5t ( ano!r ord] ( attractions1 h[ c ! decomposition ( vegetables r$uce !m to _! simple elem5ts8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is a v long process1 dur+ :i* a v>iety ( new comb9ations are successively e/abli%$ & successively de/roy$3 b1 9 ea* ( ^! *anges1 ! +r$i5ts ( vegetable matt] t5d to unite 9 a m simple ord] ( comp\nds1 till !y are at l5g? br\ght to _! elem5t>y /ate1 or1 at lea/1 to _! mo/ simple ord] ( comb9ations4 ,?us y w f9d t vegetables are 9 ! end almo/ entirely r$uc$ to wat] & c>bonic acid2 ! hydrog5 & c>bon divid+ ! oxyg5 betwe5 !m1 s z to =m ) x ^! two sub/ances4 ,b ! v>iety ( int]m$iate comb9ations t take place dur+ ! sev]al /ages ( ! decomposition ( vegetables1 pres5t u ) a new set ( comp\nds1 well wor?y ( our exam9ation4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,h[ is x possible t vegetables1 :ile putrefy+1 %\ld produce any ?+ wor?y ( obs]vation8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,!y are susceptible ( und]go+ c]ta9 *anges be=e !y arrive at ! /ate ( putrefaction1 :i* is ! f9al t]m ( decomposition2 & ( ^! *anges we avail ourselves = p>ticul> & important purposes4 ,b1 9 ord] to make y und]/& ?is subject1 :i* is ( consid]able importance1 ,i mu/ expla9 x m 9 detail4 ,! decomposition ( vegetables is always att5d$ by a viol5t int]nal motion1 produc$ by ! disunion ( "o ord] ( p>ticles1 & ! comb9ation ( ano!r4 ,?is is call$ ,,f]m5tation4 ,!re are sev]al p]iods at :i* ?is process /ops1 s t a /ate ( re/ appe>s to be re/or$1 & ! new ord] ( comp\nds fairly e/abli%$4 ,b1 unless means be us$ to secure ^! new comb9ations 9 _! actual /ate1 _! duration w be b transi5t1 & a new f]m5tation w take place1 by :i* ! comp\nd la/ =m$ w be de/roy$2 & ano!r1 & less complex ord]1 w succe$4 ,,emily4 ,! f]m5tations1 !n1 appe> to be only ! successive /eps by :i* a vegetable desc5ds to its f9al dissolution4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,precisely s4 ,y\r def9ition is p]fectly correct4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,& h[ _m f]m5tations1 or new arrangem5ts1 does a vegetable und]go be=e x is r$uc$ to its simple +r$i5ts8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,*emi/s d n exactly agree 9 ?is po9t2 b !re are1 ,i ?9k1 f\r di/9ct f]m5tations1 or p]iods1 at :i* ! decomposition ( vegetable matt] /ops & *anges its c\rse4 ,b e k9d ( vegetable matt] is n equally susceptible ( und]go+ all ^! f]m5tations4 ,!re are likewise sev]al circum/ances requir$ to produce f]m5tation4 ,wat] & a c]ta9 degree ( heat are bo? ess5tial to ?is process1 9 ord] to sep>ate ! p>ticles1 & ?us weak5 _! =ce ( cohesion1 t ! new *emical aff9ities may be br\ght into action4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,9 froz5 climates1 !n1 h[ c ! spontane\s decomposition ( vegetables take place8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x c]ta9ly _c2 &1 accord+ly1 we f9d sc>cely any ve/iges ( vegetation :]e a con/ant fro/ prevails4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,"o w\ld imag9e t1 on ! contr>y1 su* spots w\ld be cov]$ ) vegetables2 =1 s9ce !y _c be decompos$1 _! numb] mu/ always increase4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,b1 my de>1 heat & wat] are q z ess5tial to ! =mation ( vegetables1 z !y are to _! decomposition4 ,besides1 x is f ! dead vegetables1 r$uc$ to _! elem5t>y pr9ciples1 t ! ris+ g5]ation is suppli$ ) su/5ance4 ,no "y plant1 !re=e1 c gr[ unless its pr$ecessors contribute bo? to its =mation & support2 & ^! n only furni% ! se$ f :i* ! new plant spr+s1 b likewise ! food by :i* x is n\ri%$4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,"u ! torrid zone1 !re=e1 :]e wat] is nev] froz51 & ! heat is v great1 bo? ! processes ( vegetation & ( f]m5tation mu/1 ,i suppose1 be extremely rapid8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,n s mu* z y imag9e3 = 9 su* climates great "p ( ! wat] :i* x requires = ^! processes is 9 an ari=m /ate1 :i* is sc>cely m conducive ei!r to ! gr[? or =mation ( vegetables ?an t ( ice4 ,9 ^? latitudes1 !re=e1 x is only 9 l[ damp situations1 %elt]$ by woods f ! sun's rays1 t ! small] tribes ( vegetables c gr[ & ?rive dur+ ! dry season1 z dead vegetables seldom reta9 wat] en\gh to produce f]m5tation1 b are1 on ! contr>y1 soon dri$ up by ! heat ( ! sun1 :i* enables !m to resi/ t process2 s t x is n till ! fall ( ! autumnal ra9s 7:i* are v viol5t 9 su* climates71 t spontane\s f]m5tation c take place4 ,! sev]al f]m5tations d]ive _! names f _! pr9cipal products4 ,! fir/ is call$ ! sac*>9e f]m5tation1 because its product is sug>4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b sug>1 y h told u1 is f\nd 9 all vegetables2 x _c1 !re=e1 be ! product ( _! decomposition4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is true t ?is f]m5tation is n conf9$ to ! decomposition ( vegetables1 z x cont9ually takes place dur+ _! life2 &1 inde$1 ?is circum/ance has1 till lately1 prev5t$ x f be+ consid]$ z "o ( ! f]m5tations4 ,b ! process appe>s s analog\s to ! o!r f]m5tations1 & ! =mation ( sug>1 :e!r 9 liv+ or dead vegetable matt] is s evid5tly a new comp\nd1 proce$+ f ! de/ruction ( ! previ\s ord] ( comb9ations1 & ess5tial to ! subsequ5t f]m5tations1 t x is n[1 ,i believe1 g5]ally e/eem$ ! fir/ /ep1 or necess>y prelim9>y1 to decomposition1 if n an actual comm5cem5t ( t process4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i recollect y\r h9t+ to u t sug> 0 suppos$ n to be secret$ f ! sap1 9 ! same mann] z mucilage1 fecula1 oil1 & ! o!r +r$i5ts ( vegetables4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is r f ^! mat]ials1 ?an f ! sap itself1 t sug> is =m$2 & x is develop$ at p>ticul> p]iods1 z y may obs]ve 9 fruits1 :i* become sweet 9 rip5+1 sometimes ev5 aft] !y h be5 ga!r$4 ,life1 !re=e1 is n ess5tial to ! =mation ( sug>1 :il/ on ! contr>y1 mucilage1 fecula1 & ! o!r vegetable mat]ials t are secret$ f ! sap by appropriate organs1 ^: p[]s imm$iately dep5d on ! vital pr9ciple1 _c be produc$ b dur+ ! exi/5ce ( t pr9ciple4 ,,emily4 ,! rip5+ ( fruits is1 !n1 _! fir/ /ep to de/ruction1 z well z _! la/ t[>ds p]fection8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,exactly4 --,a process analog\s to ! sac*>9e f]m5tation takes place also dur+ ! cook+ ( c]ta9 vegetables4 ,?is is ! case ) p>snips1 c>rots1 potatoes1 c4 9 :i* sweetness is develop$ by heat & moi/ure2 & we "k t if we c>ri$ ! process a little f>!r1 a m complete decomposition w\ld ensue4 ,! same process takes place also 9 se$s previ\s to _! spr\t+4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,h[ d y reconcile ?is to y\r !ory1 ,mrs4 ,b48 ,c y suppose t a decomposition is ! necess>y precursor ( life8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t is inde$ ! case4 ,! mat]ials ( ! se$ mu/ be decompos$1 & ! se$ disorganiz$1 be=e a plant c spr\t f x4 ,se$s1 besides ! embrio plant1 conta9 7z we h already obs]v$7 fecula1 oil1 & a little mucilage4 ,^! sub/ances are de/9$ = ! n\ri%m5t ( ! future plant2 b !y und]go "s *ange be=e !y c be fit = ?is function4 ,! se$s1 :5 buri$ 9 ! e>?1 ) a c]ta9 degree ( moi/ure & ( temp]ature1 absorb wat]1 :i* dilates !m1 sep>ates _! p>ticles1 & introduces a new ord] ( attractions1 ( :i* sug> is ! product4 ,! sub/ance ( ! se$ is ?us s(t5$1 sweet5$1 & conv]t$ into a sort ( :ite milky pulp1 fit = ! n\ri%m5t ( ! embrio plant4 ,! sac*>9e f]m5tation ( se$s is artificially produc$1 = ! purpose ( mak+ malt1 by ! foll[+ process3-- ,a quantity ( b>ley is fir/ soak$ 9 wat] = two or ?ree days3 ! wat] be+ aft]w>ds dra9$ (f1 ! gra9 heats spontane\sly1 swells1 bur/s1 sweet5s1 %[s a disposition to g]m9ate1 & actually spr\ts to ! l5g? ( an in*1 :5 ! process is /opp$ by putt+ x into a kiln1 :]e x is well dri$ at a g5tle heat4 ,9 ?is /ate x is crisp & friable1 & con/itutes ! sub/ance call$ malt1 :i* is ! pr9cipal +r$i5t ( be]4 ,,emily4 ,b ,i hope y w tell u h[ malt is made into be]8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,c]ta9ly2 b ,i mu/ fir/ expla9 to y ! nature ( ! second f]m5tation1 :i* is ess5tial to t op]ation4 ,?is is call$ ! v9\s f]m5tation1 because its product is w9e4 ,,emily4 ,h[ v diff]5t ! decomposition ( vegetables is f :at ,i _h imag9$6 ,! products ( _! disorganisation appe> almo/ sup]ior to ^? :i* !y yield dur+ _! /ate ( life & p]fection4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,& d y n1 at ! same "t1 admire ! beautiful economy ( ,nature1 :i*1 :e!r %e creates1 or :e!r %e de/roys1 directs all h] op]ations to "s useful & b5evol5t purpose8 --,x appe>s t ! sac*>9e f]m5tation is extremely fav\rable1 if n absolutely ess5tial1 z a previ\s /ep1 to ! v9\s f]m5tation2 s t if sug> be n develop$ dur+ ! life ( ! plant1 ! sac*>9e f]m5tation mu/ be artificially produc$ be=e ! v9\s f]m5tation c take place4 ,?is is ! case ) b>ley1 :i* does n yield any sug> until x is made into malt2 & x is 9 t /ate only t x is susceptible ( und]go+ ! v9\s f]m5tation by :i* x is conv]t$ into be]4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b if ! product ( ! v9\s f]m5tation is always w9e1 be] _c h und]gone t process1 = be] is c]ta9ly n w9e4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,*emically speak+1 be] may be consid]$ z ! w9e ( gra94 ,= x is ! product ( ! f]m5tation ( malt1 j z w9e is t ( ! f]m5tation ( grapes1 or o!r fruits4 ,! consequ5ce ( ! v9\s f]m5tation is ! decomposition ( ! sac*>9e matt]1 & ! =mation ( a spiritu\s liquor f ! con/itu5ts ( ! sug>4 ,b1 9 ord] to promote ?is f]m5tation1 n only wat] & a c]ta9 degree ( heat are necess>y1 b also "s o!r vegetable +r$i5ts1 besides ! sug>1 z fecula1 mucilage1 acids1 salts1 extractive matt]1 c4 all ( :i* seem to contribute to ?is process2 & give to ! liquor its peculi> ta/e4 ,,emily4 ,x is1 p]haps1 = ?is reason t w9e is n obta9$ f ! f]m5tation ( pure sug>2 b t fruits are *os5 = t purpose1 z !y conta9 n only sug>1 b likewise ! o!r vegetable +r$i5ts :i* promote ! v9\s f]m5tation1 & give ! peculi> flav\r4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,c]ta9ly4 ,& y mu/ obs]ve also1 t ! relative quantity ( sug> is n ! only circum/ance to be consid]$ 9 ! *oice ( vegetable juices = ! =mation ( w9e2 o!rwise ! sug>-cane w\ld be be/ adapt$ = t purpose4 ,x is r ! mann] & proportion 9 :i* ! sug> is mix$ ) o!r vegetable +r$i5ts t influ5ces ! production & qualities ( w9e4 ,& x is f\nd t ! juice ( ! grape n only yields ! mo/ consid]able proportion ( w9e1 b t x likewise af=ds x ( ! mo/ grateful flav\r4 ,,emily4 ,i h se5 a v9tage 9 ,switz]l&1 & ,i d n recollect t heat 0 appli$1 or wat] add$1 to produce ! f]m5tation ( ! grapes4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! common temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e 9 ! cell>s 9 :i* ! juice ( ! grape is f]m5t$ is suffici5tly w>m = ?is purpose2 & z ! juice conta9s an ample supply ( wat]1 !re is no occasion = any addition ( x4 ,b :5 f]m5tation is produc$ 9 dry malt1 a quantity ( wat] mu/ necess>ily be add$4 ,,emily4 ,b :at are precisely ! *anges t happ5 dur+ ! v9\s f]m5tation8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! sug> is decompos$1 & its con/itu5ts are recomb9$ into two new sub/ances2 ! "o a peculi> liquid sub/ance1 call$ alcohol or _s ( w9e1 :i* rema9s 9 ! fluid2 ! o!r1 c>bonic acid gas1 :i* escapes dur+ ! f]m5tation4 ,w9e1 !re=e1 z ,i be=e obs]v$1 9 a g5]al po9t ( view1 may be consid]$ z a liquid ( :i* alcohol con/itutes ! ess5tial "p4 ,& ! v>ieties ( /r5g? & flav\r ( ! diff]5t k9ds ( w9e are to be attribut$ to ! diff]5t qualities ( ! fruits f :i* !y are obta9$1 indep5d5tly ( ! sug>4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i am a/oni%$ to he> t s p[]ful a liquid z _s ( w9e %\ld be obta9$ f s mild a sub/ance z sug>4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,c y tell me 9 :at ! pr9cipal diff]5ce consi/s betwe5 alcohol & sug>8 ,,c>ol9e4 ,let me reflect 4 4 4 4 4 ,sug> consi/s ( c>bon1 hydrog51 & oxyg54 ,if c>bonic acid be subtract$ f x1 dur+ ! =mation ( alcohol1 ! latt] w conta9 less c>bon & oxyg5 ?an sug> does2 !re=e hydrog5 mu/ be ! prevail+ pr9ciple ( alcohol4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is exactly s4 ,& ?is v l>ge proportion ( hydrog5 acc\nts = ! lightness & combu/ible prop]ty ( alcohol1 & ( spirits 9 g5]al1 all ( :i* consi/ ( alcohol v>i\sly modifi$4 ,,emily4 ,& c sug> be recompos$ f ! comb9ation ( alcohol & c>bonic acid8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,*emi/s h nev] be5 able to succe$ 9 effect+ ?is2 b f analogy1 ,i %\ld suppose su* a recomposition possible4 ,let u n[ obs]ve m p>ticul>ly ! ph5om5a t take place dur+ ! v9\s f]m5tation4 ,at ! comm5cem5t ( ?is process1 heat is evolv$1 & ! liquor swells consid]ably f ! =mation ( ! c>bonic acid1 :i* is dis5gag$ 9 su* prodigi\s quantities z w\ld be fatal to any p]son :o %\ld unaw>es inspire x2 an accid5t :i* has sometimes happ5$4 ,if ! f]m5tation be /opp$ by putt+ ! liquor into b>rels1 be=e ! :ole ( ! c>bonic acid is evolv$1 ! w9e is brisk1 l ,*ampagne1 f ! c>bonic acid imprison$ 9 x1 & x ta/es sweet1 l cyd]1 f ! sug> n be+ completely decompos$4 ,,emily4 ,b ,i d n und]/& :y heat %\ld be evolv$ dur+ ?is op]ation4 ,=1 z !re is a consid]able =mation ( gas1 9 :i* a proportionable quantity ( heat mu/ become ins5sible1 ,i %\ld h imag9$ t cold1 r ?an heat1 w\ld h be5 produc$4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x appe>s s on fir/ consid]ation2 b y mu/ recollect t f]m5tation is a complicat$ *emical process2 & t1 dur+ ! decompositions & recompositions att5d+ x1 a quantity ( *emical heat may be dis5gag$1 suffici5t bo? to develope ! gas1 & to effect an increase ( temp]ature4 ,:5 ! f]m5tation is complet$1 ! liquid cools & subsides1 ! eff]vesc5ce ceases1 & ! ?ick1 sweet1 /icky juice ( ! fruit is conv]t$ into a cle>1 transp>5t1 spiritu\s liquor1 call$ w9e4 ,,emily4 ,h[ mu* ,i regret n hav+ be5 acqua9t$ ) ! nature ( ! v9\s f]m5tation1 :5 ,i _h an opportunity ( see+ ! process6 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y h an easy me?od ( satisfy+ y\rself 9 t respect by obs]v+ ! process ( brew+1 :i*1 9 e ess5tial circum/ance1 is simil> to t ( mak+ w9e1 & is really a v curi\s *emical op]ation4 ,al?\gh we _c actually make w9e at ?is mom5t1 x w be easy to %[ y ! mode ( analyz+ x4 ,?is is done by di/illation4 ,:5 w9e ( any k9d is submitt$ to ?is op]ation1 x is f\nd to conta9 br&y1 wat]1 t>t>1 extractive col\r+ matt]1 & "s vegetable acids4 ,i h put a little port w9e into ?is alembic ( glass 7,,plate ,,xiv4 ,fig4 #a471 & on plac+ ! lamp "u x1 y w soon see ! _s & wat] successively come ov]-- ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,,xiv4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #bac4 ,fig4 #a4 ,a ,alembic4 ,b ,lamp4 ,c ,w9e glass4 ,fig4 #b4 ,alcohol bl[pipe4 ,d ! ,lamp4 ,e ! vessel 9 :i* ! ,alcohol is boil+4 ,f a safety valve4 ,g ! inflam$ jet or /eam ( alcohol direct$ t[>ds a glass tube ,h4 ,,emily4 ,b y d n m5tion alcohol among/ ! products ( ! di/illation ( w9e2 & yet t is its mo/ ess5tial +r$i5t8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! alcohol is conta9$ 9 ! br&y :i* is n[ com+ ov]1 & dropp+ f ! /ill4 ,br&y is no?+ m ?an a mixture ( alcohol & wat]2 & 9 ord] to obta9 ! alcohol pure1 we mu/ aga9 di/il x f br&y4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i h j tak5 a drop on my f+]2 x ta/es l /rong br&y1 b x is )\t col\r1 :il/ br&y is ( a deep yell[4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is n s naturally2 9 its pure /ate br&y is col\rless1 & x obta9s ! yell[ t9t y obs]ve1 by extract+ ! col\r+ matt] f ! new oak5 casks 9 :i* x is kept4 ,b if x does n acquire ! usual t+e 9 ?is way1 x is ! cu/om to col\r ! br&y us$ 9 ?is c\ntry artificially1 ) a little burnt sug>1 9 ord] to give x ! appe>ance ( hav+ be5 long kept4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,& is rum also di/ill$ f w9e8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,by no means2 x is di/ill$ f ! sug>-cane1 a plant :i* conta9s s great a quantity ( sug>1 t x yields m alcohol ?an almo/ any o!r vegetable4 ,aft] ! juice ( ! cane has be5 press$ out = mak+ sug>1 :at /ill rema9s 9 ! bruis$ cane is extract$ by wat]1 & ?is wat]y solution ( sug> is f]m5t$1 & produces rum4 ,! spiritu\s liquor call$ arack is 9 a simil> mann] di/ill$ f ! product ( ! v9\s f]m5tation ( rice4 ,,emily4 ,b rice has no sweetness2 does x conta9 any sug>8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,l b>ley & mo/ o!r se$s1 x is insipid until x has und]gone ! sac*>9e f]m5tation2 & ?is1 y mu/ recollect1 is always a previ\s /ep to ! v9\s f]m5tation 9 ^? vegetables 9 :i* sug> is n already =m$4 ,br&y may 9 ! same mann] be obta9$ f malt4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,y mean f be]1 ,i suppose2 = ! malt mu/ h previ\sly und]gone ! v9\s f]m5tation4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,be] is n precisely ! product ( ! v9\s f]m5tation ( malt4 ,= hops are a necess>y +r$i5t = ! =mation ( t liquor2 :il/ br&y is di/ill$ f pure f]m5t$ malt4 ,b br&y might1 no d\bt1 be di/ill$ f be] z well z f any o!r liquor t has und]gone ! v9\s f]m5tation2 = s9ce ! basis ( br&y is alcohol1 x may be obta9$ f any liquid t conta9s t spiritu\s sub/ance4 ,,emily4 ,& pray1 f :at vegetable is ! fav\rite _s ( ! l[] ord]s ( p1 g91 extract$8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! _s 7:i* is ! same 9 all f]m5t$ liquors7 may be obta9$ f any k9d ( gra92 b ! peculi> flav\r :i* di/+ui%es g9 is t ( junip] b]ries1 :i* are di/ill$ toge!r ) ! gra9-- ,i ?9k ! br&y conta9$ 9 ! w9e :i* we are di/ill+ mu/1 by ?is "t1 be all come ov]4 ,yes--ta/e ! liquid t is n[ dropp+ f ! alembic-- ,,c>ol9e4 ,x is p]fectly insipid1 l wat]4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is wat]1 :i*1 z ,i 0 tell+ y1 is ! second product ( w9e1 & comes ov] aft] all ! _s1 :i* is ! lighte/ "p1 is di/ill$4 --,! t>t> & extractive col\r+ matt] we %all f9d 9 a solid =m at ! bottom ( ! alembic4 ,,emily4 ,!y look v l ! lees ( w9e4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,& 9 _m respects !y are ( a simil> nature2 = lees ( w9e consi/ *iefly ( t>trit ( pota%2 a salt :i* exi/s 9 ! juice ( ! grape1 & 9 _m o!r vegetables1 & is develop$ only by ! v9\s f]m5tation4 ,dur+ ?is op]ation x is precipitat$1 & deposits itself on ! int]nal surface ( ! cask 9 :i* ! w9e is conta9$4 ,x is mu* us$ 9 m$ic9e1 & 9 v>i\s arts1 p>ticul>ly dy+1 "u ! "n ( cream ( t>t>1 & x is f ?is salt t ! t>t>\s acid is obta9$4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b ! m$ic9al cream ( t>t> is 9 appe>ance q diff]5t f ^! d>k-col\r$ dregs2 x is p]fectly col\rless4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,because x consi/s ( ! pure salts only1 9 its cry/allis$ =m2 :il/ 9 ! in/ance be=e u x is mix$ ) ! deep-col\r$ extractive matt]1 & o!r =eign +r$i5ts4 ,,emily4 ,pray _c we n[ obta9 pure alcohol f ! br&y :i* we h di/ill$8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,we might2 b ! process w\ld be t$i\s3 = 9 ord] to obta9 alcohol p]fectly free f wat]1 x is necess>y to di/il1 or1 z ! di/ill]s call x1 rectify x sev]al times4 ,y mu/ !re=e all[ me to produce a bottle ( alcohol t has be5 ?us purifi$4 ,?is is a v important +r$i5t1 :i* has _m /rik+ prop]ties1 besides its =m+ ! basis ( all spiritu\s liquors4 ,,emily4 ,x is alcohol1 ,i suppose1 t produces intoxication8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,c]ta9ly2 b ! /imulus & mom5t>y en]gy x gives to ! sy/em1 & ! intoxication x occasions :5 tak5 9 excess1 are circum/ances n yet acc\nt$ =4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i ?\ght t x produc$ ^! effects by increas+ ! rapidity ( ! circulation ( ! blood2 = dr9k+ w9e or spirits1 ,i h he>d1 always quick5s ! pulse4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no d\bt2 ! _s1 by /imulat+ ! n]ves1 increases ! action ( ! muscles2 & ! he>t1 :i* is "o ( ! /ronge/ muscul> organs1 beats ) augm5t$ vig\r1 & propels ! blood ) accel]at$ quickness4 ,aft] su* a /rong excitation ! frame naturally suff]s a proportional degree ( depression1 s t a /ate ( debility & languor is ! inv>iable consequ5ce ( intoxication4 ,b ?\gh ^! circum/ances are well asc]ta9$1 !y are f> f expla9+ :y alcohol %\ld produce su* effects4 ,,emily4 ,liqueurs are ! only k9d ( spirits :i* ,i ?9k pleasant4 ,pray ( :at d !y consi/8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,!y are compos$ ( alcohol1 sweet5$ ) syrup1 & flav\r$ ) volatile oil4 ,! diff]5t k9ds ( odorif]\s spiritu\s wat]s are likewise solutions ( volatile oil 9 alcohol1 z lav5d] wat]1 eau de ,cologne1 c4 ,! *emical prop]ties ( alcohol are important & num]\s4 ,x is "o ( ! mo/ p[]ful *emical ag5ts1 & is p>ticul>ly useful 9 dissolv+ a v>iety ( sub/ances1 :i* are soluble nei!r by wat] nor heat4 ,,emily4 ,we h se5 x dissolve copal & ma/ic to =m v>ni%es2 & ^! res9s are c]ta9ly n soluble 9 wat]1 s9ce wat] precipitates !m f _! solution 9 alcohol4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i am happy to f9d t y recollect ^! circum/ances s well4 ,! same exp]im5t af=ds also an in/ance ( ano!r prop]ty ( alcohol1--its t5d5cy to unite ) wat]2 = ! res9 is precipitat$ 9 consequ5ce ( los+ ! alcohol1 :i* ab&ons x f its pref]5ce = wat]4 ,x is att5d$ also1 z y may recollect1 ) ! same peculi> circum/ance ( a dis5gagem5t ( heat & consequ5t dim9ution ( bulk1 :i* we h suppos$ to be produc$ by a me*anical p5etration ( p>ticles by :i* lat5t heat is =c$ out4 ,alcohol unites ?us readily n only ) res9s & ) wat]1 b ) oils & balsams2 ^! comp\nds =m ! ext5sive class ( elixirs1 t9ctures1 qu9tess5ces1 c4 ,,emily4 ,i suppose t alcohol mu/ be highly combu/ible1 s9ce x conta9s s l>ge a proportion ( hydrog58 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,extremely s2 & x w burn at a v mod]ate temp]ature4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i h (t5 se5 bo? br&y & _s ( w9e burnt2 !y produce a great deal ( flame1 b n a proportional quantity ( heat1 & no smoke :atev]4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! la/ circum/ance arises f _! combu/ion be+ complete2 & ! disproportion betwe5 ! flame & heat %[s y t ^! are by no means synonym\s4 ,! great quantity ( flame proce$s f ! combu/ion ( ! hydrog5 to :i*1 y "k1 t mann] ( burn+ is peculi>4 --,h y n rem>k$ also t br&y & alcohol w burn )\t a wick8 --,!y take fire at s l[ a temp]ature1 t ?is assi/ance is n requir$ to conc5trate ! heat & volatilise ! fluid4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i h sometimes se5 br&y burnt by m]ely heat+ x 9 a spoon4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! rapidity ( ! combu/ion ( alcohol may1 h[ev]1 be prodigi\sly increas$ by fir/ volatilis+ x4 ,an +5i\s in/rum5t has be5 con/ruct$ on ?is pr9ciple to answ] ! purpose ( a bl[-pipe1 :i* may be us$ = melt+ glass1 or o!r *emical purposes4 ,x consi/s ( a small metallic vessel 7,,plate ,,xiv4 ,fig4 #b471 ( a sph]ical %ape1 :i* conta9s ! alcohol1 & is heat$ by ! lamp b5ea? x2 z soon z ! alcohol is volatilis$1 x passes ?r\gh ! sp\t ( ! vessel1 & issues j above ! wick ( ! lamp1 :i* imm$iately sets fire to ! /ream ( vap\r1 z ,i %all %[ y-- ,,emily4 ,) :at amaz+ viol5ce x burns6 ,! flame ( alcohol1 9 ! /ate ( vap\r1 is1 ,i fancy1 mu* hott] ?an :5 ! _s is m]ely burnt 9 a spoon8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 because 9 ?is way ! combu/ion goes on mu* quick]1 &1 ( c\rse1 ! heat is proportionally increas$4 --,obs]ve its effect on ?is small glass tube1 ! middle ( :i* ,i pres5t to ! extremity ( ! flame1 :]e ! heat is greate/4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,! glass1 9 t spot1 is become r$ hot1 & b5ds f its own weight4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i h n[ drawn x asund]1 & am go+ to bl[ a ball at "o ( ! heat$ ends2 b ,i mu/ previ\sly close x up1 & flatt5 x ) ?is little metallic in/rum5t1 o!rwise ! brea? w\ld pass ?r\gh ! tube )\t dilat+ any "p ( x4 --,n[1 ,c>ol9e1 w y bl[ /rongly into ! tube :il/ ! clos$ end is r$ hot4 ,,emily4 ,y bl[$ too h>d2 = ! ball sudd5ly dilat$ to a great size1 & !n bur/ 9 pieces4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y w be m exp]t ano!r "t2 b ,i mu/ caution y1 %\ld y ev] use ?is bl[-pipe1 to be v c>eful t ! combu/ion ( ! alcohol does n g on ) too great viol5ce1 = ,i h se5 ! flame sometimes d>t out ) su* =ce z to rea* ! opposite wall ( ! room1 & set ! pa9t on fire4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 no dang] ( ! vessel bur/+1 z x is provid$ ) a safety tube1 :i* af=ds an additional v5t = ! vap\r ( alcohol :5 requir$4 ,! products ( ! combu/ion ( alcohol consi/ 9 a great proportion ( wat]1 & a small quantity ( c>bonic acid4 ,!re is no smoke or fix$ rema9s :atev]4 --,h[ d y acc\nt = t1 ,emily8 ,,emily4 ,i suppose t ! oxyg5 :i* ! alcohol absorbs 9 burn+1 conv]ts its hydrog5 into wat] & its c>bon into c>bonic acid gas1 & ?us x is completely consum$4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,v well4 --,e!r1 ! lighte/ ( all fluids1 & ) :i* y are well acqua9t$1 is obta9$ f alcohol1 ( :i* x =ms ! lighte/ & mo/ volatile "p4 ,,emily4 ,e!r1 !n1 is to alcohol1 :at alcohol is to br&y8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no3 !re is an ess5tial diff]5ce4 ,9 ord] to obta9 alcohol f br&y1 y ne$ only deprive ! latt] ( its wat]2 b = ! =mation ( e!r1 ! alcohol mu/ be decompos$1 & "o ( its con/itu5ts p>tly subtract$4 ,i leave y to guess :i* ( !m x is-- ,,emily4 ,x _c be hydrog51 z e!r is m volatile ?an alcohol1 & hydrog5 is ! lighte/ ( all its +r$i5ts3 nor d ,i suppose t x c be oxyg51 z alcohol conta9s s small a proportion ( t pr9ciple2 x is1 !re=e1 mo/ probably1 c>bon1 a dim9ution ( :i* w\ld n fail to r5d] ! new comp\nd m volatile4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y are p]fectly "r4 ,! =mation ( e!r consi/s simply 9 subtract+ f ! alcohol a c]ta9 proportion ( c>bon2 ?is is effect$ by ! action ( ! sulphuric1 nitric1 or muriatic acids1 on alcohol4 ,! acid & c>bon rema9 at ! bottom ( ! vessel1 :il/ ! dec>bonis$ alcohol flies (f 9 ! =m ( a cond5sable vap\r1 :i* is e!r4 ,e!r is ! mo/ inflammable ( all fluids1 & burns at s sl[ a temp]ature t ! heat evolv$ dur+ its combu/ion is m ?an is requir$ = its support1 s t a quantity ( e!r is volatilis$1 :i* takes fire1 & gradually increases ! viol5ce ( ! combu/ion4 ,sir ,humphry ,davy has lately discov]$ a v s+ul> fact respect+ ! vap\r ( e!r4 ,if a few drops ( e!r be p\r$ into a w9e-glass1 & a f9e plat9a wire1 heat$ almo/ to r$ness1 be held susp5d$ 9 ! glass1 close to ! surface ( ! e!r1 ! wire soon becomes int5sely r$-hot1 & rema9s s = any l5g? ( "t4 ,we may easily try ! exp]im5t4 4 4 4 4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,h[ v curi\s6 ,! wire is almo/ :ite hot1 & a pung5t smell rises f ! glass4 ,pray h[ is ?is acc\nt$ =8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,?is is ow+ to a v peculi> prop]ty ( ! vap\r ( e!r1 & inde$ ( _m o!r combu/ible gase\s bodies4 ,at a c]ta9 temp]ature l[] ?an t ( ignition1 ^! vap\rs und]go a sl[ & imp]fect combu/ion1 :i* does n give rise1 9 any s5sible degree1 to ! ph5om5a ( light & flame1 & yet extricates a quantity ( caloric suffici5t to react ^u ! wire & make x r$-hot1 & ! wire 9 its turn keeps up ! effect z long z ! emission ( vap\r cont9ues4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b :y %\ld n an iron or silv] wire produce ! same effect8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,because ei!r iron or silv]1 be+ mu* bett] conductors ( heat ?an plat9a1 ! heat is c>ri$ (f too fa/ by ^? metals to all[ ! accumulation ( caloric necess>y to produce ! effect 9 "q4 ,e!r is s light t x evaporates at ! common temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e2 x is !re=e necess>y to keep x conf9$ by a well gr\nd glass /opp]4 ,no degree ( cold kn[n has ev] froz5 x4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,is x n (t5 tak5 m$ic9ally8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 x is "o ( ! mo/ effectual antispasmodic m$ic9es1 & ! quickness ( its effects1 z su*1 probably dep5ds on its be+ in/antly conv]t$ into vap\r by ! heat ( ! /oma*1 ?r\gh ! int]v5tion ( :i* x acts on ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,b ! frequ5t use ( e!r1 l t ( spiritu\s liquors1 becomes prejudicial1 &1 if tak5 to excess1 x produces effects simil> to ^? ( intoxication4 ,we may n[ take our leave ( ! v9\s f]m5tation1 ( :i*1 ,i hope1 y h acquir$ a cle> idea2 z well z ( ! sev]al products t are d]iv$ f x4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,?\gh ?is process appe>s1 at fir/ sight1 s mu* complicat$1 x may1 ,i ?9k1 be summ$ up 9 a few words1 z x consi/s 9 ! conv]sion ( sug> & f]m5table bodies into alcohol & c>bonic acid1 :i* give rise bo? to ! =mation ( w9e1 & ( all k9ds ( spiritu\s liquors4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,we %all n[ proce$ to ! acet\s f]m5tation1 :i* is ?us call$1 because x conv]ts w9e into v9eg>1 by ! =mation ( ! acet\s acid1 :i* is ! basis or radical ( v9eg>4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b is n ! acidify+ pr9ciple ( ! acet\s acid ! same z t ( all o!r acids1 oxyg58 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,c]ta9ly2 & on t acc\nt ! contact ( air is ess5tial to ?is f]m5tation1 z x af=ds ! necess>y supply ( oxyg54 ,v9eg>1 9 ord] to obta9 pure acet\s acid f x1 mu/ be di/ill$ & rectifi$ by c]ta9 processes4 ,,emily4 ,b pray1 ,mrs4 ,b41 is n ! acet\s acid frequ5tly =m$ )\t ?is f]m5tation tak+ place8 ,is x n1 = in/ance1 conta9$ 9 acid fruits1 & 9 e sub/ance t becomes s\r8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no1 n 9 fruits2 y conf\nd x ) ! citric1 ! malic1 ! oxalic1 & o!r vegetable acids1 to :i* liv+ vegetables owe _! acidity4 ,b :5ev] a vegetable sub/ance turns s\r1 aft] x has ceas$ to live1 ! acet\s acid is develop$ by means ( ! acet\s f]m5tation1 9 :i* ! sub/ance advances a /ep t[>ds its f9al decomposition4 ,among/ ! v>i\s in/ances ( acet\s f]m5tation1 t ( bread is usually class$4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b ! f]m5tation ( bread is produc$ by yea/2 h[ does t effect x8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is f\nd by exp]i5ce t any sub/ance t has already und]gone a f]m5tation1 w readily excite x 9 "o t is susceptible ( t process4 ,if1 = in/ance1 y mix a little v9eg> ) w9e1 t is int5d$ to be acidifi$1 x w absorb oxyg5 m rapidly1 & ! process be complet$ mu* soon]1 ?an if left to f]m5t spontane\sly4 ,?us yea/1 :i* is a product ( ! f]m5tation ( be]1 is us$ to excite & accel]ate ! f]m5tation ( malt1 :i* is to be conv]t$ into be]1 z well z t ( pa/e :i* is to be made into bread4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b if bread und]goes ! acet\s f]m5tation1 :y is x n s\r8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x acquires a c]ta9 sav\r :i* corrects ! heavy insipidity ( fl\r1 & may be reckon$ a fir/ degree ( acidification2 or if ! process 7 c>ri$ fur!r1 ! bread w\ld become decid$ly acid4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 "s *emi/s :o d n consid] ! f]m5tation ( bread z be+ ( ! acet\s k9d1 b suppose t x is a process ( f]m5tation peculi> to t sub/ance4 ,! putrid f]m5tation is ! f9al op]ation ( ,nature1 & h] la/ /ep t[>ds r$uc+ organis$ bodies to _! simple/ comb9ations4 ,all vegetables spontane\sly und]go ?is f]m5tation aft] dea?1 provid$ !re be a suffici5t degree ( heat & moi/ure1 toge!r ) access ( air2 = x is well kn[n t dead plants may be pres]v$ by dry+1 or by ! total exclusion ( air4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b d dead plants und]go ! o!r f]m5tation previ\s to ?is la/2 or d !y imm$iately suff] ! putrid f]m5tation8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t dep5ds on a v>iety ( circum/ances1 su* z ! degrees ( temp]ature & ( moi/ure1 ! nature ( ! plant itself1 c4 ,b if y 7 c>efully to foll[ & exam9e ! decomposition ( plants f _! dea? to _! f9al dissolution1 y w\ld g5]ally f9d a sweetness develop$ 9 ! se$s1 & a spiritu\s flav\r 9 ! fruits 7:i* h und]gone ! sac*>9e f]m5tation71 previ\s to ! total disorganisation & sep>ation ( ! p>ts4 ,,emily4 ,i h sometimes rem>k$ a k9d ( spiritu\s ta/e 9 fruits t 7 ov] ripe1 especially oranges2 & ?is 0 j be=e !y became rott54 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x 0 !n ! v9\s f]m5tation :i* _h succe$$ ! sac*>9e1 & _h y foll[$ up ^! *anges att5tively1 y w\ld probably h f\nd ! spiritu\s ta/e foll[$ by acidity1 previ\s to ! fruit pass+ to ! /ate ( putrefaction4 ,:5 ! leaves fall f ! trees 9 autumn1 !y d n 7if !re is no great moi/ure 9 ! atmosph]e7 imm$iately und]go a decomposition1 b are fir/ dri$ & )]$2 z soon1 h[ev]1 z ! ra9 sets 91 f]m5tation comm5ces1 _! gase\s products are imp]ceptibly evolv$ into ! atmosph]e1 & _! fix$ rema9s mix$ ) _! k9dr$ e>?4 ,wood1 :5 expos$ to moi/ure1 also und]goes ! putrid f]m5tation & becomes rott54 ,,emily4 ,b ,i h he>d t ! dry rot1 :i* is s liable to de/roy ! beams ( h\ses1 is prev5t$ by a curr5t ( air2 & yet y said t air 0 ess5tial to ! putrid f]m5tation8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,true2 b x mu/ n be 9 su* a proportion to ! moi/ure z to dissolve ! latt]1 & ?is is g5]ally ! case :5 ! rott+ ( wood is prev5t$ or /opp$ by ! free access ( air4 ,:at is commonly call$ dry rot1 h[ev]1 is n ,i believe a true process ( putrefaction4 ,x is suppos$ to dep5d on a peculi> k9d ( vegetation1 :i*1 by fe$+ on ! wood1 gradually de/roys x4 ,/raw & all o!r k9ds ( vegetable matt] und]go ! putrid f]m5tation m rapidly :5 mix$ ) animal matt]4 ,mu* heat is evolv$ dur+ ?is process1 & a v>iety ( volatile products are dis5gag$1 z c>bonic acid & hydrog5 gas1 ! latt] ( :i* is frequ5tly ei!r sulphurat$ or phosphorat$4 --,:5 all ^! gases h be5 evolv$1 ! fix$ products1 consi/+ ( c>bon1 salts1 pota%1 c4 =m a k9d ( vegetable e>?1 :i* makes v f9e manure1 z x is compos$ ( ^? elem5ts :i* =m ! imm$iate mat]ials ( plants4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,pray are n vegetables sometimes pres]v$ f decomposition by petrification8 ,i h se5 v curi\s specim5s ( petrifi$ vegetables1 9 :i* /ate !y p]fectly pres]ve _! =m & organisation1 ?\gh 9 appe>ance !y are *ang$ to /one4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t is a k9d ( metamorphosis1 :i*1 n[ t y are tol]ably well v]s$ 9 ! hi/ory ( m9]al & vegetable sub/ances1 ,i leave to y\r judgm5t to expla94 ,d y imag9e t vegetables c be conv]t$ into /one8 ,,emily4 ,no1 c]ta9ly2 b !y might p]haps be *ang$ to a sub/ance 9 appe>ance resembl+ /one4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is n s1 h[ev]1 ) ! sub/ances t are call$ petrifi$ vegetables2 = ^! are really /one1 & g5]ally ( ! h>de/ k9d1 consi/+ *iefly ( silex4 ,! case is ?is3 :5 a vegetable is buri$ "u wat]1 or 9 wet e>?1 x is sl[ly & gradually decompos$4 ,z ea* successive p>ticle ( ! vegetable is de/roy$1 its place is suppli$ by a p>ticle ( silice\s e>?1 convey$ ?i!r by ! wat]4 ,9 ! c\rse ( "t ! vegetable is entirely de/roy$1 b ! silex has completely replac$ x1 hav+ assum$ its =m & app>5t texture1 z if ! vegetable itself 7 *ang$ to /one4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,t is v curi\s6 & ,i suppose t petrifi$ animal sub/ances are ( ! same nature8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,precisely4 ,x is equally impossible = ei!r animal or vegetable sub/ances to be conv]t$ into /one4 ,!y may be r$uc$1 z we f9d !y are1 by decomposition1 to _! con/itu5t elem5ts1 b _c be *ang$ to elem5ts1 :i* d n ent] into _! composition4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 circum/ances :i* frequ5tly prev5t ! regul> & f9al decomposition ( vegetables2 z1 = in/ance1 :5 !y are buri$ ei!r 9 ! sea1 or 9 ! e>?1 :]e !y _c und]go ! putrid f]m5tation = want ( air4 ,9 ^! cases !y are subject to a peculi> *ange1 by :i* !y are conv]t$ into a new class ( comp\nds1 call$ bitum5s4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,^! are sub/ances ,i nev] he>d ( be=e4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y w f9d1 h[ev]1 t "s ( !m are v famili> to y4 ,bitum5s are vegetables s f> decompos$ z to reta9 no organic appe>ance2 b _! orig9 is easily detect$ by _! oily nature1 _! combu/ibility1 ! products ( _! analysis1 & ! impressions ( ! =ms ( leaves1 gra9s1 fibres ( wood1 & ev5 ( animals1 :i* !y frequ5tly be>4 ,!y are sometimes ( an oily liquid consi/5ce1 z ! sub/ance call$ nap?a1 9 :i* we pres]v$ potassium2 x is a f9e transp>5t col\rless fluid1 t issues out ( clays 9 "s p>ts ( ,p]sia4 ,b m frequ5tly bitum5s are solid1 z asphaltum1 a smoo?1 h>d1 brittle sub/ance1 :i* easily melts1 & =ms1 9 its liquid /ate1 a beautiful d>k br[n col\r = oil pa9t+4 ,jet1 :i* is ( a /ill h>d] texture1 is a peculi> bitum51 susceptible ( s f9e a poli%1 t x is us$ = _m ornam5tal purposes4 ,coal is also a bitum9\s sub/ance1 to ! composition ( :i* bo? ! m9]al & animal k+doms seem to concur4 ,?is mo/ useful m9]al appe>s to consi/ *iefly ( vegetable matt]1 mix$ ) ! rema9s ( m>9e animals & m>9e salts1 & occasionally conta9+ a quantity ( sulphuret ( iron1 commonly call$ pyrites4 ,,emily4 ,x is1 ,i suppose1 ! e>?ly1 ! metallic1 & ! sal9e p>ts ( coals1 t compose ! c9d]s or fix$ products ( _! combu/ion2 :il/ ! hydrog5 & c>bon1 :i* !y d]ive f vegetables1 con/itute _! volatile products4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,pray is n coke1 7:i* ,i h he>d is mu* us$ 9 "s manufactures17 also a bitum9\s sub/ance8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no2 x is a k9d ( fuel artificially prep>$ f coals4 ,x consi/s ( coals r$uc$ to a sub/ance analog\s to *>coal1 by ! evaporation ( _! bitum9\s p>ts4 ,coke1 !re=e1 is compos$ ( c>bon1 ) "s e>?y & sal9e +r$i5ts4 ,succ91 or yell[ amb]1 is a bitum5 :i* ! anci5ts call$ electrum1 f :5ce ! ^w electricity is d]iv$1 z t sub/ance is peculi>ly1 & 0 once suppos$ to be exclusively1 electric4 ,x is f\nd ei!r deeply buri$ 9 ! b[els ( ! e>?1 or float+ on ! sea1 & is suppos$ to be a res9\s body :i* has be5 act$ on by sulphuric acid1 z its analysis %[s x to consi/ ( ah oil & an acid4 ,! oil is call$ oil ( amb]1 ! acid ! succ9ic4 ,,emily4 ,t oil ,i h sometimes us$ 9 pa9t+1 z x is reckon$ to *ange less ?an ! o!r k9ds ( oils4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! la/ class ( vegetable sub/ances t h *ang$ _! nature are fossil-wood1 peat1 & turf4 ,^! are compos$ ( wood & roots ( %rubs1 t are p>tly decompos$ by be+ expos$ to moi/ure "u gr\nd1 & yet1 9 "s measure1 pres]ve _! =m & organic appe>ance4 ,! peat1 or black e>? ( ! moors1 reta9s b few ve/iges ( ! roots to :i* x owes its ri*ness & combu/ibility1 ^! sub/ances be+ 9 ! c\rse ( "t r$uc$ to ! /ate ( vegetable e>?4 ,b 9 turf ! roots ( plants are /ill disc]nible1 & x equally answ]s ! purpose ( fuel4 ,x is ! combu/ible us$ by ! poor 9 hea?y c\ntries1 :i* supply x abundantly4 ,x is too late ?is morn+ to ent] ^u ! hi/ory ( vegetation4 ,we %all res]ve ?is subject1 !re=e1 = our next int]view1 :5 ,i expect t x w furni% u ) ample matt] = ano!r conv]sation4 ,,conv]sation ,,xxii4 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,vegetation4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! ,,vegetable ,,k+dom may be consid]$ z ! l9k :i* unites ! m9]al & animal creation into "o common *a9 ( be+s2 = x is ?r\gh ! means ( vegetation alone t m9]al sub/ances are introduc$ into ! animal sy/em1 s9ce1 g5]ally speak+1 x is f vegetables t all animals ultimately d]ive _! su/5ance4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i d n und]/& t2 ! human species subsi/s z mu* on animal z on vegetable food1 & !re are "s c>nivor\s animals t w eat only animal food4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t is true2 b y d n consid] t ^? t live on animal food1 d]ive _! su/5ance equally1 ?\gh n s imm$iately1 f vegetables4 ,! meat t we eat is =m$ f ! h]bs ( ! field1 & ! prey ( c>nivor\s animals proce$s1 ei!r directly or indirectly1 f ! same s\rce4 ,x is1 !re=e1 ?r\gh ?is *annel t ! simple elem5ts become a "p ( ! animal frame4 ,we %\ld 9 va9 attempt to d]ive n\ri%m5t f c>bon1 hydrog51 & oxyg51 ei!r 9 _! sep>ate /ate1 or comb9$ 9 ! m9]al k+dom2 = x is only by be+ unit$ 9 ! =m ( vegetable comb9ation1 t !y become capable ( convey+ n\ri%m5t4 ,,emily4 ,vegetation1 !n1 seems to be ! me?od :i* ,nature employs to prep>e ! food ( animals8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t is c]ta9ly its pr9cipal object4 ,! vegetable creation does n exhibit m wisdom 9 t admirable sy/em ( organisation1 by :i* x is enabl$ to answ] its own imm$iate ends ( pres]vation1 nutrition1 & propagation1 ?an 9 its gr& & ultimate object ( =m+ ^? arrangem5ts & comb9ations ( pr9ciples1 :i* are s well adapt$ = ! n\ri%m5t ( animals4 ,,emily4 ,b ,i am v curi\s to "k :5ce vegetables obta9 ^? pr9ciples :i* =m _! imm$iate mat]ials8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,?is is a po9t on :i* we are yet s mu* 9 ! d>k1 t ,i _c hope fully to satisfy y\r curiosity2 b :at little ,i "k on ?is subject1 ,i w endeav\r to expla9 to y4 ,! soil1 :i*1 at fir/ view1 appe>s to be ! alim5t ( vegetables1 is f\nd1 on a clos] inve/igation1 to be little m ?an ! *annel ?r\gh :i* !y receive _! n\ri%m5t2 s t x is v possible to re> plants )\t any e>? or soil4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,( t we h an in/ance 9 ! hyac9? & o!r bulb\s roots1 :i* w gr[ & blossom beautifully 9 glasses ( wat]4 ,b ,i confess ,i %\ld ?9k x w\ld be difficult to re> trees 9 a simil> mann]4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no d\bt x w\ld1 z x is ! bury+ ( ! roots 9 ! e>? t supports ! /em ( ! tree4 ,b ?is (fice1 besides t ( af=d+ a vehicle = food1 is f> ! mo/ important "p :i* ! e>?y portion ( ! soil p]=ms 9 ! process ( vegetation2 = we c discov]1 by analysis1 b an extremely small proportion ( e>? 9 vegetable comp\nds4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b if e>?s d n af=d n\ri%m5t1 :y is x necess>y to be s att5tive to ! prep>ation ( ! soil8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,9 ord] to imp>t to x ^? qualities :i* r5d] x a prop] vehicle = ! food ( ! plant4 ,wat] is ! *ief n\ri%m5t ( vegetables2 if1 !re=e1 ! soil be too s&y1 x w n reta9 a quantity ( wat] suffici5t to supply ! roots ( ! plants4 ,if1 on ! contr>y1 x ab\nd too mu* ) clay1 ! wat] w lodge 9 su* quantities z to ?reat5 a decomposition ( ! roots4 ,calc>e\s soils are1 ^u ! :ole1 ! mo/ fav\rable to ! gr[? ( plants3 soils are1 !re=e1 usually improv$ by *alk1 :i*1 y may recollect1 is a c>bonat ( lime4 ,diff]5t vegetables1 h[ev]1 require diff]5t k9ds ( soils4 ,?us rice dem&s a moi/ ret5tive soil2 potatoes a s(t s&y soil2 :eat a firm & ri* soil4 ,=e/ trees gr[ bett] 9 f9e s& ?an 9 a /iff clay2 & a light f]rug9\s soil is be/ suit$ to fruit-trees4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b pray :at is ! use ( manur+ ! soil8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,manure consi/s ( all k9ds ( sub/ances1 :e!r ( vegetable or animal orig91 :i* h und]gone ! putrid f]m5tation1 & are consequ5tly decompos$1 or ne>ly s1 into _! elem5t>y pr9ciples4 ,& x is requisite t ^! vegetable matt]s %\ld be 9 a /ate ( decay1 or approa*+ decomposition4 ,! addition ( calc>e\s e>?1 9 ! /ate ( *alk or lime1 is b5eficial to su* soils1 z x accel]ates ! dissolution ( vegetable bodies4 ,n[1 ,i ask y1 :at is ! utility ( supply+ ! soil ) ^! decompos$ sub/ances8 ,,c>ol9e4 ,x is1 ,i suppose1 9 ord] to furni% vegetables ) ! pr9ciples :i* ent] into _! composition4 ,= manures n only conta9 c>bon1 hydrog51 & oxyg51 b by _! decomposition supply ! soil ) ^! pr9ciples 9 _! elem5t>y =m4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,und\bt$ly2 & x is = ?is reason t ! f9e/ crops are produc$ 9 fields t 7 =m]ly cov]$ ) woods1 because _! soil is compos$ ( a ri* m\ld1 a k9d ( vegetable e>?1 :i* ab\nds 9 ^? pr9ciples4 ,,emily4 ,?is acc\nts = ! pl5tifulness ( ! crops produc$ 9 ,am]ica1 :]e ! c\ntry 0 b a few ye>s s9ce cov]$ ) wood4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b h[ is x t animal sub/ances are reckon$ to produce ! be/ manure8 ,does x n appe> mu* m natural t ! decompos$ elem5ts ( vegetables %\ld be ! mo/ appropriate to ! =mation ( new vegetables8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! addition ( a mu* great] proportion ( nitrog51 :i* con/itutes ! *ief diff]5ce betwe5 animal & vegetable matt]1 r5d]s ! composition ( ! =m] m complicat$1 & consequ5tly m fav\rable to decomposition4 ,! use ( animal sub/ances is *iefly to give ! fir/ impulse to ! f]m5tation ( ! vegetable +r$i5ts t ent] into ! composition ( manures4 ,! manure ( a f>m-y>d is ( t description2 b !re is sc>cely any sub/ance susceptible ( und]go+ ! putrid f]m5tation t w n make good manure4 ,! heat produc$ by ! f]m5tation ( manure is ano!r circum/ance :i* is extremely fav\rable to vegetation2 yet ?is heat w\ld be too great if ! manure 0 laid on ! gr\nd dur+ ! height ( f]m5tation2 x is us$ 9 ?is /ate only = hot-b$s1 to produce melons1 cucumb]s1 & su* vegetables z require a v high temp]ature4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,a difficulty has j occurr$ to me :i* ,i d n "k h[ to remove4 ,s9ce all organis$ bodies are1 9 ! common c\rse ( nature1 ultimately r$uc$ to _! elem5t>y /ate1 !y mu/ necess>ily 9 t /ate enri* ! soil1 & af=d food = vegetation4 ,h[ is x1 !n1 t agriculture1 :i* _c increase ! quantity ( ^? elem5ts t are requir$ to manure ! e>?1 c increase its produce s wond]fully z is f\nd to be ! case 9 all cultivat$ c\ntries8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is by suff]+ none ( ^! decay+ bodies to be dissipat$1 b 9 apply+ !m duly to ! soil4 ,x is by a judici\s prep>ation ( ! soil1 :i* consi/s 9 fitt+ x ei!r = ! g5]al purposes ( vegetation1 or = t ( ! p>ticul> se$ :i* is to be s[n4 ,?us1 if ! soil be too wet1 x may be dra9$2 if too loose & s&y1 x may be r5d]$ m consi/5t & ret5tive ( wat] by ! addition ( clay or loam2 x may be enri*$ by *alk1 or any k9d ( calc>e\s e>?4 ,on soils ?us improv$1 manures w act ) d\ble efficacy1 & if att5tion be paid to spread !m on ! gr\nd at a prop] season ( ! ye>1 to mix !m ) ! soil s t !y may be g5]ally diffus$ ?r\gh x1 to de/roy ! we$s :i* might appropriate ^! nutritive pr9ciples to _! own use1 to remove ! /ones :i* w\ld imp$e ! gr[? ( ! plant1 c4 we may obta9 a produce an hundr$ fold m abundant ?an ! e>? w\ld spontane\sly supply4 ,,emily4 ,we h a v /rik+ in/ance ( ?is 9 ! scanty produce ( uncultivat$ commons1 comp>$ to ! ri* crops ( mead[s :i* are occasionally manur$4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b1 ,mrs4 ,b41 ?\gh exp]i5ce daily proves ! advantage ( cultivation1 !re is /ill a difficulty :i* ,i _c get ov]4 ,a c]ta9 quantity ( elem5t>y pr9ciples exi/ 9 nature1 :i* x is n 9 ! p[] ( man ei!r to augm5t or dim9i%4 ,( ^! pr9ciples y h taught u t bo? ! animal & vegetable creation are compos$4 ,n[ ! m ( !m is tak5 up by ! vegetable k+dom1 ! less1 x w\ld seem1 w rema9 = animals2 &1 !re=e1 ! m popul\s ! e>? becomes1 ! less x w produce4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y\r reason+ is v plausible2 b exp]i5ce e :]e contradicts ! inf]5ce y w\ld draw f x2 = we f9d t ! animal & vegetable k+doms1 in/ead ( ?riv+1 z y w\ld suppose1 at ea* o!r's exp5se1 always increase & multiply toge!r4 ,= y %\ld recollect t animals c d]ive ! elem5ts ( :i* !y are =m$ only ?r\gh ! m$ium ( vegetables4 ,& y mu/ all[ t y\r conclusion w\ld be valid only if e p>ticle ( ! sev]al pr9ciples t c\ld possibly be sp>$ f o!r purposes 7 employ$ 9 ! animal & vegetable creations4 ,n[ we h reason to believe t a mu* great] proportion ( ^! pr9ciples ?an is requir$ = su* purposes rema9s ei!r 9 an elem5t>y /ate1 or engag$ 9 a less useful mode ( comb9ation 9 ! m9]al k+dom4 ,possess$ ( su* imm5se res\rces z ! atmosph]e & ! wat]s af=d u1 = oxyg51 hydrog51 & c>bon1 s f> f be+ 9 dang] ( work+ up all our simple mat]ials1 we _c suppose t we %all ev] br+ agriculture to su* a degree ( p]fection z to require ! :ole ( :at ^! res\rces c\ld supply4 ,nature1 h[ev]1 9 ?us furni%+ u ) an inexhau/ible /ock ( raw mat]ials1 leaves x 9 "s measure to ! +5uity ( man to appropriate !m to its own purposes4 ,b1 l a k9d p>5t1 %e /imulates him to ex]tion1 by sett+ ! example & po9t+ out ! way4 ,= x is on ! op]ations ( nature t all ! improvem5ts ( art are f\nd$4 ,! art ( agriculture consi/s1 !re=e1 9 discov]+ ! readie/ me?od ( obta9+ ! sev]al pr9ciples1 ei!r f _! gr& s\rces1 air & wat]1 or f ! decomposition ( organis$ bodies2 & 9 appropriat+ !m 9 ! be/ mann] to ! purposes ( vegetation4 ,,emily4 ,b1 among ! s\rces ( nutritive pr9ciples1 ,i am surpris$ t y d n m5tion ! e>? itself1 z x conta9s abundance ( coals1 :i* are *iefly compos$ ( c>bon4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,?\gh coals ab\nd 9 c>bon1 !y _c1 on acc\nt ( _! h>dness & imp]meable texture1 be imm$iately subs]vi5t to ! purposes ( vegetation4 ,,emily4 ,no2 b by _! combu/ion c>bonic acid is produc$2 & ?is ent]+ into v>i\s comb9ations on ! surface ( ! e>?1 may1 p]haps1 assi/ 9 promot+ vegetation4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,probably x may 9 "s degree2 b at any rate ! quantity ( n\ri%m5t :i* vegetables may d]ive f t s\rce c be b v trifl+1 & mu/ entirely dep5d on local circum/ances4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,p]haps ! smoky atmosph]e ( ,london is ! cause ( vegetation be+ s =w>d & s ri* 9 its vic9ity8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i r believe t ?is circum/ance proce$s f ! v ample supply ( manure1 assi/$1 p]haps1 by ! w>m? & %elt] :i* ! t[n af=ds4 ,f> f attribut+ any good to ! smoky atmosph]e ( ,london1 ,i confess ,i l to anticipate ! "t :5 we %all h made su* progress 9 ! art ( manag+ combu/ion1 t e p>ticle ( c>bon w be consum$1 & ! smoke de/roy$ at ! mom5t ( its production4 ,we may !n expect to h ! satisfaction ( see+ ! atmosph]e ( ,london z cle> z t ( ! c\ntry4 --,b to return to our subject3 ,i hope t y are n[ conv9c$ t we %all n easily exp]i5ce a defici5cy ( nutritive elem5ts to f]tilise ! e>?1 & t1 provid$ we are b indu/ri\s 9 apply+ !m to ! be/ advantage by improv+ ! art ( agriculture1 no limits c be assign$ to ! fruits t we may expect to reap f our lab\rs4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,yes2 ,i am p]fectly satisfi$ 9 t respect1 & ,i c assure y t ,i feel already mu* m int]e/$ 9 ! progress & improvem5t ( agriculture4 ,,emily4 ,i h frequ5tly ?\ght t ! culture ( ! l& 0 n consid]$ z a conc]n ( suffici5t importance4 ,manufactures always take ! lead2 & heal? & innoc5ce are frequ5tly sacrific$ to ! prospect ( a m pr(itable employm5t4 ,x has (t5 griev$ me to see ! poor manufactur]s cr[d$ toge!r 9 close rooms1 & conf9$ = ! :ole day to ! mo/ uni=m & s$5t>y employm5t1 in/ead ( be+ engag$ 9 t innoc5t & salut>y k9d ( lab\r1 :i* ,nature seems to h assign$ to man = ! imm$iate acquirem5t ( com=t1 & = ! pres]vation ( 8 exi/5ce4 ,i am sure t y agree ) me 9 ?9k+ s1 ,mrs4 ,b48 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i am entirely ( y\r op9ion1 my de>1 9 reg>d to ! importance ( agriculture2 b z ! conv5i5ces ( life1 :i* we are all enjoy+1 are n d]iv$ m]ely f ! soil1 ,i am f> f wi%+ to depreciate manufactures4 ,besides1 z ! lab\r ( "o man is suffici5t to produce food = sev]al1 ^? ^: indu/ry is n requir$ 9 tillage mu/ d some?+ 9 return = ! food t is provid$ = !m4 ,!y ex*ange1 consequ5tly1 ! accommodations = ! necess>ies ( life4 ,?us ! c>p5t] & ! weav] lodge & clo! ! peasant1 :o supplies !m ) _! daily bread4 ,! great] /ock ( provisions1 !re=e1 :i* ! husb&man produces1 ! great] is ! quantity ( accommodation :i* ! artific] prep>es4 ,su* are ! happy effects :i* naturally result f civilis$ society4 ,x w\ld be wis]1 !re=e1 to endeav\r to improve ! situation ( ^? :o are engag$ 9 manufactures1 ?an to indulge 9 va9 declamations on ! h>d%ips to :i* !y are too frequ5tly expos$4 ,b we mu/ n yet take our leave ( ! subject ( agriculture2 we h prep>$ ! soil1 x rema9s = u n[ to s[ ! se$4 ,9 ?is op]ation we mu/ be c>eful n to bury x too deep 9 ! gr\nd1 z ! access ( air is absolutely necess>y to its g]m9ation2 ! e>? mu/1 !re=e1 lie loose & light ov] x1 9 ord] t ! air may p5etrate4 ,h5ce ! use ( pl\gh+ & digg+1 h>r[+ & rak+1 c4 ,a c]ta9 degree ( heat & moi/ure1 su* z usually takes place 9 ! spr+1 is likewise necess>y4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,"o w\ld imag9e y 7 go+ to describe ! decomposition ( an old plant1 r ?an ! =mation ( a new "o2 = y h enum]at$ all ! requisites ( f]m5tation4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,d y =get1 my de>1 t ! "y plant d]ives its exi/5ce f ! de/ruction ( ! se$1 & t x is actually by ! sac*>9e f]m5tation t ! latt] is decompos$8 ,,c>ol9e4 ,true2 ,i wond] t ,i did n recollect t4 ,! temp]ature & moi/ure requir$ = ! g]m9ation ( ! se$ is !n employ$ 9 produc+ ! sac*>9e f]m5tation )9 x8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,c]ta9ly4 ,b1 9 ord] to und]/& ! nature ( g]m9ation1 y %\ld be acqua9t$ ) ! diff]5t p>ts ( :i* ! se$ is compos$4 ,! ext]nal cov]+ or envelope conta9s1 besides ! g]m ( ! future plant1 ! sub/ance :i* is to con/itute its fir/ n\ri%m5t2 ?is sub/ance1 :i* is call$ ! p>5*yma1 consi/s ( fecula1 mucilage1 & oil1 z we =m]ly obs]v$4 ,! se$ is g5]ally divid$ into two comp>tm5ts1 call$ lobes1 or cotyl$ons1 z is exemplifi$ by ?is bean 7,,plate ,,xv4 ,fig4 #a47--! d>k-col\r$ k9d ( /r+ :i* divides ! lobes is call$ ! radicle1 z x =ms ! root ( ! plant1 & x is f a contigu\s sub/ance1 call$ plumula1 :i* is enclos$ )9 ! lobes1 t ! /em arises4 ,! figure & size ( ! se$ dep5d v mu* ^u ! cotyl$ons2 ^! v>y 9 numb] 9 diff]5t se$s2 "s h only "o1 z :eat1 oats1 b>ley1 & all ! grasses2 "s h ?ree1 o!rs six4 ,b mo/ se$s1 z1 = in/ance1 all ! v>ieties ( beans1 h two cotyl$ons4 ,:5 ! se$ is buri$ 9 ! e>?1 at any temp]ature above #dj degrees1 x imbibes wat]1 :i* s(t5s & swells ! lobes2 x !n absorbs oxyg51 :i* comb9es ) "s ( its c>bon1 & is return$ 9 ! =m ( c>bonic acid4 ,?is loss ( c>bon increases ! comp>ative proportion ( hydrog5 & oxyg5 9 ! se$1 & excites ! sac*>9e f]m5tation1 by :i* ! p>5*ymat\s matt] is conv]t$ into a k9d ( sweet emulsion4 ,9 ?is =m x is c>ri$ into ! radicle by vessels appropriat$ to t purpose2 & 9 ! mean "t1 ! f]m5tation hav+ caus$ ! se$ to bur/1 ! cotyl$ons are r5t asund]1 ! radicle /rikes into ! gr\nd & becomes ! root ( ! plant1 & h5ce ! f]m5t$ liquid is convey$ to ! plumula1 ^: vessels h be5 previ\sly di/5d$ by ! heat ( ! f]m5tation4 ,! plumula be+ ?us swell$1 z x 71 by ! emulsive fluid1 raises itself & spr+s up to ! surface ( ! e>?1 be>+ ) x ! cotyl$ons1 :i*1 z soon z !y come 9 contact ) ! air1 spread !mselves1 & are trans=m$ into leaves4 --,if we g into ! g>d51 we %all probably f9d "s se$s 9 ! /ate :i* ,i h describ$-- ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,,xv4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #bej ,g]m9ation4 ,fig4 #a #b4 ,a4,b ,cotyl$ons4 ,c ,envelope4 ,d ,radicle4 ,fig4 #c4 ,a4,b ,cotyl$ons4 ,c ,plumula4 ,d ,radicle4 ,fig4 #d4 ,a4,b4 ,cotyl$ons4 ,c ,plumula4 ,d ,radicle4 ,fig4 #e4 ,app>atus to illu/rate ! me*anism ( brea?+4 ,a4,a ,glass ,bell4 ,b ,bladd] repres5t+ ! lungs4 ,c ,bladd] repres5t+ ! ,diaphragm4 ,,emily4 ,"h are "s lup9es t are j mak+ _! appe>ance above gr\nd4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,we %all take up sev]al ( !m to obs]ve _! diff]5t degrees ( progress 9 vegetation4 ,"h is "o t has b rec5tly bur/ its envelope--d y see ! little radicle /rik+ d[nw>ds8 7,,plate ,,xv4 ,fig4 #b47 ,9 ?is ! plumula is n yet visible4 ,b "h is ano!r 9 a great] /ate ( =w>dness--! plumula1 or /em1 has ris5 out ( ! gr\nd1 & ! cotyl$ons are conv]t$ into se$ leaves4 7,,plate ,,xv4 ,fig4 #c47 ,,c>ol9e4 ,^! leaves are v ?ick & clumsy1 & unlike ! o!r leaves1 :i* ,i p]ceive are j beg9n+ to appe>4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is because !y reta9 ! rema9s ( ! p>5*yma1 ) :i* !y /ill cont9ue to n\ri% ! "y plant1 z x has n yet suffici5t roots & /r5g? to provide = its su/5ance f ! soil4 --,b1 9 ?is ?ird lup9e 7,,plate ,,xv4 ,fig4 #d471 ! radicle _h sunk deep into ! e>?1 & s5t out sev]al %oots1 ea* ( :i* is furni%$ ) a m\? to suck up n\ri%m5t f ! soil2 ! function ( ! orig9al leaves1 !re=e1 be+ no long] requir$1 !y are gradually decay+1 & ! plumula is become a regul> /em1 %oot+ out small bran*es1 & spread+ its foliage4 ,,emily4 ,!re seems to be a v /rik+ analogy betwe5 a se$ & an egg2 bo? require an elevation ( temp]ature to be br\ght to life2 bo? at fir/ supply ) alim5t ! organis$ be+ :i* !y produce2 & z soon z ?is has atta9$ suffici5t /r5g? to procure its own n\ri%m5t1 ! egg-%ell breaks1 :il/ 9 ! plant ! se$-leaves fall (f4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,!re is c]ta9ly "s resemblance betwe5 ^! processes2 & :5 y become acqua9t$ ) animal *emi/ry1 y w frequ5tly be /ruck ) its analogy to t ( ! vegetable k+dom4 ,z soon z ! "y plant fe$s f ! soil1 x requires ! assi/ance ( leaves1 :i* are ! organs by :i* x ?r[s (f its sup]-abundant fluid2 ?is secretion is mu* m pl5tiful 9 ! vegetable ?an 9 ! animal creation1 & ! great ext5t ( surface ( ! foliage ( plants is admirably calculat$ = c>ry+ x on 9 suffici5t quantities4 ,?is transpir$ fluid consi/s ( little m ?an wat]4 ,! sap1 by ?is process1 is conv]t$ into a liquid ( great] consi/5ce1 :i* is fit to be assimilat$ to its sev]al p>ts4 ,,emily4 ,vegetation1 !n1 mu/ be ess5tially injur$ by de/roy+ ! leaves ( ! plant8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,und\bt$ly2 x n only dim9i%es ! transpiration1 b also ! absorption by ! roots2 = ! quantity ( sap absorb$ is always 9 proportion to ! quantity ( fluid ?r[n (f by transpiration4 ,y see1 !re=e1 ! necessity t a "y plant %\ld unfold its leaves z soon z x beg9s to d]ive its n\ri%m5t f ! soil2 &1 accord+ly1 y w f9d t ^? lup9es :i* h dropp$ _! se$-leaves1 & are no long] f$ by ! p>5*yma1 h spread _! foliage1 9 ord] to p]=m ! (fice j describ$4 ,b ,i %\ld in=m y t ?is function ( transpiration seems to be conf9$ to ! upp] surface ( ! leaves1 :il/1 on ! contr>y1 ! l[] surface1 :i* is m r\gh & unev51 & furni%$ ) a k9d ( hair or d[n1 is de/9$ to absorb moi/ure1 or su* o!r +r$i5ts z ! plant d]ives f ! atmosph]e4 ,z soon z a "y plant makes its appe>ance above gr\nd1 light1 z well z air1 becomes necess>y to its pres]vation4 ,light is ess5tial to ! developm5t ( ! col\rs1 & to ! ?riv+ ( ! plant4 ,y may h (t5 obs]v$ :at a pr$ilection vegetables h = ! light4 ,if y make any plants gr[ 9 a room1 !y all spread _! leaves1 & ext5d _! bran*es t[>ds ! w9d[s4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,& _m plants close up _! fl[]s z soon z x is d>k4 ,,emily4 ,b may n ?is be ow+ to ! cold & dampness ( ! ev5+ air8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t does n appe> to be ! case2 = 9 a c\rse ( curi\s exp]im5ts1 made by ,mr4 ,s5ebi]1 ( ,g5eva1 on plants :i* he re>$ by lamp-light1 he f\nd t ! fl[]s clos$ _! petals :5ev] ! lamps 7 ext+ui%$4 ,,emily4 ,b pray1 :y is air ess5tial to vegetation1 plants d n brea! x l animals8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,at lea/ n 9 ! same mann]2 b !y c]ta9ly d]ive "s pr9ciples f ! atmosph]e1 & yield o!rs to x4 ,inde$1 x is *iefly ow+ to ! action ( ! atmosph]e & ! vegetable k+dom on ea* o!r1 t ! air cont9ues always fit = respiration4 ,b y w und]/& ?is bett] :5 ,i h expla9$ ! effect ( wat] on plants4 ,i h said t wat] =ms ! *ief n\ri%m5t ( plants2 x is ! basis n only ( ! sap1 b ( all ! vegetable juices4 ,wat] is ! vehicle :i* c>ries into ! plant ! v>i\s salts & o!r +r$i5ts requir$ = ! =mation & support ( ! vegetable sy/em4 ,nor is ?is all2 "p ( ! wat] itself is decompos$ by ! organs ( ! plant2 ! hydrog5 becomes a con/itu5t "p ( oil1 ( extract1 ( col\r+ matt]1 c4 :il/ a portion ( ! oxyg5 ent]s into ! =mation ( mucilage1 ( fecula1 ( sug>1 & ( vegetable acids4 ,b ! great] "p ( ! oxyg51 proce$+ f ! decomposition ( ! wat]1 is conv]t$ into a gase\s /ate by ! caloric dis5gag$ f ! hydrog5 dur+ its cond5sation 9 ! =mation ( ! vegetable mat]ials4 ,9 ?is /ate ! oxyg5 is transpir$ by ! leaves ( plants :5 expos$ to ! sun's rays4 ,?us y f9d t ! decomposition ( wat]1 by ! organs ( ! plant1 is n only a means ( supply+ x ) its *ief +r$i5t1 hydrog51 b at ! same "t ( repl5i%+ ! atmosph]e ) oxyg51 a pr9ciple :i* requires cont9ual r5ovation1 to make up = ! great consumption ( x occasion$ by ! num]\s oxyg5ations1 combu/ions1 & respirations1 t are con/antly tak+ place on ! surface ( ! globe4 ,,emily4 ,:at a /rik+ in/ance ( ! h>mony ( nature4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,& h[ admirable ! design ( ,provid5ce1 :o makes e diff]5t "p ( ! creation ?us contribute to ! support & r5ovation ( ea* o!r6 ,b ! int]c\rse ( ! vegetable & animal k+doms ?r\gh ! m$ium ( ! atmosph]e ext5ds /ill fur!r4 ,animals1 9 brea?+1 n only consume ! oxyg5 ( ! air1 b load x ) c>bonic acid1 :i*1 if accumulat$ 9 ! atmosph]e1 w\ld1 9 a %ort "t1 r5d] x totally unfit = respiration4 ,"h ! vegetable k+dom aga9 int]f]es2 x attracts & decomposes ! c>bonic acid1 reta9s ! c>bon = its own purposes1 & returns ! oxyg5 = ours4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,h[ int]e/+ ?is is6 ,i d n "k a m beautiful illu/ration ( ! wisdom :i* is display$ 9 ! laws ( nature4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,fa9t & imp]fect z are ! ideas :i* our limit$ p]ceptions enable u to =m ( div9e wisdom1 /ill !y _c fail to inspire u ) awe & admiration4 ,:at1 !n1 w\ld be our feel+s1 7 ! complete sy/em ( nature at once display$ be=e u6 ,s magnific5t a sc5e w\ld probably be too great = our limit$ & imp]fect compreh5sion1 & x is no d\bt among ! wise disp5sations ( ,provid5ce1 to veil ! spl5d\r ( a glory ) :i* we %\ld be ov]p[]$4 ,b x is well suit$ to ! nature ( a rational be+ to explore1 /ep by /ep1 ! works ( ! creation1 to endeav\r to connect !m into h>moni\s sy/ems2 &1 9 a ^w1 to trace 9 ! *a9 ( be+s1 ! k9dr$ ties & b5evol5t design :i* unites its v>i\s l9ks1 & secure its pres]vation4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b ( :at nature are ! organs ( plants :i* are endu$ ) su* wond]ful p[]s8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,!y are s m9ute t _! /ructure1 z well z ! mode 9 :i* !y p]=m _! functions1 g5]ally elude our exam9ation2 b we may consid] !m z s _m vessels or app>atus appropriat$ to p]=m1 ) ! assi/ance ( ! pr9ciple ( life1 c]ta9 *emical processes1 by means ( :i* ^! vegetable comp\nds are g5]at$4 ,we may1 h[ev]1 trace ! tann91 res9s1 gum1 mucilage1 & "s o!r vegetable mat]ials1 9 ! organis$ arrangem5t ( plants1 9 :i* !y =m ! b>k1 ! wood1 ! leaves1 fl[]s1 & se$s4 ,! b>k is compos$ ( ! epid]mis1 ! p>5*yma1 & ! cortical lay]s4 ,! epid]mis is ! ext]nal cov]+ ( ! plant4 ,x is a ?9 transp>5t membrane1 consi/+ ( a numb] ( sl5d] fibres1 cross+ ea* o!r1 & =m+ a k9d ( net-"w4 ,:5 ( a :ite glossy nature1 z 9 sev]al species ( trees1 9 ! /ems ( corn & ( se$s1 x is compos$ ( a ?9 coat+ ( silice\s e>?1 :i* acc\nts = ! /r5g? & h>dness ( ^? long & sl5d] /ems4 ,sir ,h4 ,davy 0 l$ to ! discov]y ( ! silice\s nature ( ! epid]mis ( su* plants1 by obs]v+ ! s+ul> ph5om5on ( sp>ks ( fire emitt$ by ! collision ( ratan canes ) :i* two boys 7 fight+ 9 a d>k room4 ,on analys+ ! epid]mis ( ! cane1 he f\nd x to be almo/ entirely silice\s4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,) iron !n1 a cane1 ,i suppose1 w /rike fire v easily8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i und]/& t x w4 --,9 ev]-gre5s ! epid]mis is mo/ly res9\s1 & 9 "s few plants is =m$ ( wax4 ,! res91 f its want ( aff9ity = wat]1 t5ds to pres]ve ! plant f ! de/ructive effects ( viol5t ra9s1 sev]e climates1 or inclem5t seasons1 to :i* ?is species ( vegetables is peculi>ly expos$4 ,,emily4 ,res9 mu/ pres]ve wood j l a v>ni%1 z x is ! ess5tial +r$i5t ( v>ni%es8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 & by ?is means x prev5ts likewise all unnecess>y exp5diture ( moi/ure4 ,! p>5*yma is imm$iately b5ea? ! epid]mis2 x is t gre5 r9d :i* appe>s :5 y /rip a bran* ( any tree or %rub ( its ext]nal coat ( b>k4 ,! p>5*yma is n conf9$ to ! /em or bran*es1 b ext5ds ov] e "p ( ! plant4 ,x =ms ! gre5 matt] ( ! leaves1 & is compos$ ( tubes fill$ ) a peculi> juice4 ,! cortical lay]s are imm$iately 9 contact ) ! wood2 !y ab\nd ) tann9 & gallic acid1 & consi/ ( small vessels ?r\gh :i* ! sap desc5ds aft] be+ elaborat$ 9 ! leaves4 ,! cortical lay]s are annually r5ew$1 ! old b>k be+ conv]t$ into wood4 ,,emily4 ,b ?r\gh :at vessels does ! sap asc5d8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t function is p]=m$ by ! tubes ( ! alburnum1 or wood1 :i* is imm$iately b5ea? ! cortical lay]s4 ,! wood is compos$ ( woody fibre1 mucilage1 & res94 ,! fibres are dispos$ 9 two ways2 "s ( !m longitud9ally1 & ^! =m :at is call$ ! silv] gra9 ( ! wood4 ,! o!rs1 :i* are conc5tric1 are call$ ! spuri\s gra94 ,^! la/ are dispos$ 9 lay]s1 f ! numb] ( :i* ! age ( ! tree may be comput$1 a new "o be+ produc$ annually by ! conv]sion ( ! b>k into wood4 ,! olde/1 & consequ5tly mo/ int]nal "p ( ! alburnum1 is call$ he>t-wood2 x appe>s to be dead1 at lea/ no vital functions are disc]nible 9 x4 ,x is ?r\gh ! tubes ( ! liv+ alburnum t ! sap rises4 ,^!1 !re=e1 spread into ! leaves1 & !re communicate ) ! extremities ( ! vessels ( ! cortical lay]s1 into :i* !y p\r _! cont5ts4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,( :at use1 !n1 are ! tubes ( ! p>5*yma1 s9ce nei!r ! asc5d+ nor desc5d+ sap passes ?r\gh !m8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,!y are suppos$ to p]=m ! important function ( secret+ f ! sap ! peculi> juices f :i* ! plant m imm$iately d]ives its n\ri%m5t4 ,^! juices are v conspicu\s1 z ! vessels :i* conta9 !m are mu* l>g] ?an ^? ?r\gh :i* ! sap circulates4 ,! peculi> juices ( plants diff] mu* 9 _! nature1 n only 9 diff]5t species ( vegetables1 b frequ5tly 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! same individual plant3 !y are sometimes sac*>9e1 z 9 ! sug>-cane1 sometimes res9\s1 z 9 firs & ev]gre5s1 sometimes ( a milky appe>ance1 z 9 ! laurel4 ,,emily4 ,i h (t5 obs]v$1 t 9 break+ a "y %oot1 or 9 bruis+ a leaf ( laurel1 a milky juice w ooze out 9 great abundance4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,& x is by mak+ incisions 9 ! b>k t pit*1 t>1 & turp5t9e are obta9$ f fir-trees4 ,! durability ( ?is species ( wood is *iefly ow+ to ! res9\s nature ( its peculi> juices4 ,! volatile oils h1 9 a great measure1 ! same pres]vative effects1 z !y def5d ! p>ts1 ) :i* !y are connect$1 f ! attack ( insects4 ,?is tribe seems to h z great an av]sion to p]fumes1 z ! human species h delight 9 !m4 ,!y sc>cely ev] attack any odorif]\s p>ts ( plants1 & x is n uncommon to see e leaf ( a tree de/roy$ by a blight1 :il/ ! blossoms rema9 unt\*$4 ,c$>1 s&al1 & all aromatic woods1 are on ?is acc\nt ( great durability4 ,,emily4 ,b ! wood ( ! oak1 :i* is s mu* e/eem$ = its durability1 has1 ,i believe1 no smell4 ,does x d]ive ?is quality f its h>dness alone8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,n entirely2 = ! *esnut1 ?\gh consid]ably h>d] & firm] ?an ! oak1 is n s la/+4 ,! durability ( ! oak is1 ,i believe1 9 a great measure ow+ to its hav+ v little he>t-wood1 ! alburnum pres]v+ its vital functions long] ?an 9 o!r trees4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,if incisions are made into ! alburnum & cortical lay]s1 may n ! asc5d+ & desc5d+ sap be procur$ 9 ! same mann] z ! peculi> juice is f ! vessels ( ! p>5*yma8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 b 9 ord] to obta9 specim5s ( ^! fluids1 9 any quantity1 ! exp]im5t mu/ be made 9 ! spr+1 :5 ! sap circulates ) ! greate/ en]gy4 ,= ?is purpose a small b5t glass tube %\ld be introduc$ into ! incision1 ?r\gh :i* ! sap may fl[ )\t mix+ ) any ( ! o!r juices ( ! tree4 ,f ! b>k ! sap w fl[ mu* m pl5tifully ?an f ! wood1 z ! asc5d+ sap is mu* m liquid1 m abundant1 & m rapid 9 its motion ?an t :i* desc5ds2 = ! latt] hav+ be5 depriv$ by ! op]ation ( ! leaves ( a consid]able "p ( its moi/ure1 conta9s a mu* great] proportion ( solid matt]1 :i* ret>ds its motion4 ,x does n appe> t !re is any excess ( desc5d+ sap1 z none ev] exudes f ! roots ( plants2 ?is process1 !re=e1 seems to be c>ri$ on only 9 proportion to ! wants ( ! plant1 & ! sap desc5ds no fur!r1 & 9 no great] quantity1 ?an is requir$ to n\ri% ! sev]al organs4 ,!re=e1 ?\gh ! sap rises & desc5ds 9 ! plant1 x does n appe> to und]go a real circulation4 ,! la/ ( ! organs ( plants is ! fl[]1 or blossom1 :i* produces ! fruits & se$4 ,^! may be consid]$ z ! ultimate purpose ( nature 9 ! vegetable creation4 ,f fruits & se$s animals d]ive bo? a pl5tiful s\rce ( imm$iate n\ri%m5t1 & an ample provision = ! reproduction ( ! same means ( subsi/5ce4 ,! se$ :i* =ms ! f9al product ( mature plants1 we h already exam9$ z con/itut+ ! fir/ rudim5ts ( future vegetation4 ,^! are ! pr9cipal organs ( vegetation1 by means ( :i* ! sev]al *emical processes :i* are c>ri$ on dur+ ! life ( ! plant are p]=m$4 ,,emily4 ,b h[ are ! sev]al pr9ciples :i* ent] into ! composition ( vegetables s comb9$ by ! organs ( ! plant z to be conv]t$ into vegetable matt]8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,by *emical processes1 no d\bt2 b ! app>atus 9 :i* !y are p]=m$ is s extremely m9ute z completely to elude our exam9ation4 ,we c =m an op9ion1 !re=e1 only by ! result ( ^! op]ations4 ,! sap is evid5tly compos$ ( wat]1 absorb$ by ! roots1 & hold+ 9 solution ! v>i\s pr9ciples :i* x d]ives f ! soil4 ,f ! roots ! sap asc5ds ?r\gh ! tubes ( ! alburnum into ! /em1 & !nce bran*es out to e extremity ( ! plant4 ,toge!r ) ! sap circulates a c]ta9 quantity ( c>bonic acid1 :i* is gradually dis5gag$ f ! =m] by ! int]nal heat ( ! plant4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,:at6 h vegetables a peculi> heat1 analog\s to animal heat8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is a circum/ance t has long be5 suspect$2 b late exp]im5ts h decid$ beyond a d\bt t vegetable heat is consid]ably above t ( unorganis$ matt] 9 w9t]1 & bel[ x 9 summ]4 ,! wood ( a tree is ab\t sixty degrees1 :5 ! !rmomet] is sev5ty or eighty degrees4 ,& ! b>k1 ?\gh s mu* expos$1 is seldom bel[ =ty 9 w9t]4 ,x is f ! sap1 aft] x has be5 elaborat$ by ! leaves1 t vegetables d]ive _! n\ri%m5t2 9 its progress ?r\gh ! plant f ! leaves to ! roots1 x deposits 9 ! sev]al sets ( vessels ) :i* x communicates1 ! mat]ials on :i* ! gr[? & n\ri%m5t ( ea* plant dep5ds4 ,x is ?us t ! v>i\s peculi> juices1 sac*>9e1 oily1 muc\s1 acid1 & col\r+1 are =m$2 z also ! m solid p>ts1 fecula1 woody fibre1 tann91 res9s1 concrete salts2 9 a ^w1 all ! imm$iate mat]ials ( vegetables1 z well z ! organis$ p>ts ( plants1 :i* latt]1 besides ! p[] ( secret+ ^! f ! sap = ! g5]al purpose ( ! plant1 h also t ( apply+ !m to _! own p>ticul> n\ri%m5t4 ,,emily4 ,b :y %\ld ! process ( vegetation take place only at "o season ( ! ye>1 :il/ a total inaction prevails dur+ ! o!r8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,heat is su* an important *emical ag5t1 t its effect1 z su*1 might p]haps alone acc\nt = ! impulse :i* ! spr+ gives to vegetation4 ,b1 9 ord] to expla9 ! me*anism ( t op]ation1 x has be5 suppos$ t ! w>m? ( ! spr+ dilates ! vessels ( plants1 & produces a k9d ( vacuum1 into :i* ! sap 7:i* _h rema9$ 9 a /ate ( inaction 9 ! trunk dur+ ! w9t]7 rises3 ?is is foll[$ by ! asc5t ( ! sap conta9$ 9 ! roots1 & room is ?us made = fre% sap1 :i* ! roots1 9 _! turn1 pump up f ! soil4 ,?is process goes on till ! plant blossoms & be>s fruit1 :i* t]m9ates its summ] c>e]3 b :5 ! cold wea!r sets 91 ! fibres & vessels contract1 ! leaves )]1 & are no long] able to p]=m _! (fice ( transpiration2 &1 z ?is secretion /ops1 ! roots cease to absorb sap f ! soil4 ,if ! plant be an annual1 its life !n t]m9ates2 if n1 x rema9s 9 a /ate ( torpid inaction dur+ ! w9t]2 or ! only int]nal motion t takes place is t ( a small quantity ( res9\s juice1 :i* sl[ly rises f ! /em into ! bran*es1 & enl>ges _! buds dur+ ! w9t]4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,yet1 9 ev]gre5s1 vegetation mu/ cont9ue ?r\gh\t ! ye>4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 b 9 w9t] x goes on 9 a v imp]fect mann]1 comp>$ to ! vegetation ( spr+ & summ]4 ,we h dwelt mu* long] on ! hi/ory ( vegetable *emi/ry ?an ,i _h int5d$2 b we h at l5g?1 ,i ?9k1 br\ght ! subject to a conclusion4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i r wond] t y did n res]ve ! acc\nt ( ! f]m5tations = ! conclusion2 = ! decomposition ( vegetables naturally foll[s _! dea?1 & c h>dly1 x seems1 be introduc$ ) s mu* propriety at any o!r p]iod4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is difficult to det]m9e at :at po9t precisely x may be mo/ eligible to ent] on ! hi/ory ( vegetation2 e "p ( ! subject is s closely connect$1 & =ms su* an un9t]rupt$ *a91 t x is by no means easy to divide x4 ,_h ,i begun ) ! g]m9ation ( ! se$1 :i*1 at fir/ view1 seems to be ! mo/ prop] arrangem5t1 ,i c\ld n h expla9$ ! nature & f]m5tation ( ! se$1 or h describ$ ! *anges :i* manure mu/ und]go1 9 ord] to yield ! vegetable elem5ts4 ,to und]/& ! nature ( g]m9ation1 x is necess>y1 ,i ?9k1 previ\sly to decompose ! p>5t plant1 9 ord] to become acqua9t$ ) ! mat]ials requir$ = t purpose4 ,i hope1 !re=e1 t1 ^u second consid]ation1 y w f9d t ! ord] :i* ,i h adopt$1 ?\gh app>5tly less correct1 is 9 fact ! be/ calculat$ = ! elucidation ( ! subject4 ,,conv]sation ,,xxiii4 ,,on ,,! ,,composition ,,( ,,animals4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,we are n[ come to ! la/ bran* ( *emi/ry1 :i* compreh5ds ! mo/ complicat$ ord] ( comp\nd be+s4 ,?is is ! animal creation1 ! hi/ory ( :i* _c b excite ! highe/ degree ( curiosity & int]e/1 ?\gh we (t5 fail 9 attempt+ to expla9 ! laws by :i* x is gov]n$4 ,,emily4 ,b s9ce all animals ultimately d]ive _! n\ri%m5t f vegetables1 ! *emi/ry ( ?is ord] ( be+s mu/ consi/ m]ely 9 ! conv]sion ( vegetable into animal matt]4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,v true2 b ! mann] 9 :i* ?is is effect$ is1 9 a great measure1 conceal$ f our obs]vation4 ,?is process is call$ animalisation1 & is p]=m$ by peculi> organs4 ,! diff]5ce ( ! animal & vegetable k+doms does n h[ev] dep5d m]ely on a diff]5t arrangem5t ( comb9ations4 ,a new pr9ciple ab\nds 9 ! animal k+dom1 :i* is b r>ely & 9 v small quantities f\nd 9 vegetables2 ?is is nitrog54 ,!re is likewise 9 animal sub/ances a great] & m con/ant proportion ( phosphoric acid1 & o!r sal9e matt]s4 ,b ^! are n ess5tial to ! =mation ( animal matt]4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,animal comp\nds conta91 !n1 f\r fundam5tal pr9ciples2 oxyg51 hydrog51 c>bon1 & nitrog58 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 & ^! =m ! imm$iate mat]ials ( animals1 :i* are gelat9e1 album51 & fibr9e4 ,,emily4 ,are ^? all8 ,i am surpris$ t animals %\ld be compos$ ( few] k9ds ( mat]ials ?an vegetables2 = !y appe> mu* m complicat$ 9 _! organisation4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,_! organisation is c]ta9ly m p]fect & intricate1 & ! +r$i5ts t occasionally ent] into _! composition are m num]\s4 ,b not)/&+ ! wond]ful v>iety obs]vable 9 ! texture ( ! animal organs1 we f9d t ! orig9al comp\nds1 f :i* all ! v>ieties ( animal matt] are d]iv$1 may be r$uc$ to ! ?ree heads j m5tion$4 ,animal sub/ances be+ ! mo/ complicat$ ( all natural comp\nds1 are mo/ easily susceptible ( decomposition1 z ! scale ( attractions increases 9 proportion to ! numb] ( con/itu5t pr9ciples4 ,_! analysis is1 h[ev]1 bo? difficult & imp]fect2 = z !y _c be exam9$ 9 _! liv+ /ate1 & are liable to alt]ation imm$iately aft] dea?1 x is probable t1 :5 submitt$ to ! inve/igation ( a *emi/1 !y are always m or less alt]$ 9 _! comb9ations & prop]ties1 f :at !y 71 :il/ !y made "p ( ! liv+ animal4 ,,emily4 ,! m]e dim9ution ( temp]ature1 :i* !y exp]i5ce by ! privation ( animal heat1 mu/1 ,i %\ld suppose1 be suffici5t to d]ange ! ord] ( attractions t exi/$ dur+ life4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t is "o ( ! causes1 no d\bt3 b !re are _m o!r circum/ances :i* prev5t u f /udy+ ! nature ( liv+ animal sub/ances4 ,we mu/ !re=e1 9 a consid]able degree1 conf9e our rese>*es to ! ph5om5a ( ^! comp\nds 9 _! inanimate /ate4 ,^! ?ree k9ds ( animal matt]1 gelat9e1 album51 & fibr9e1 =m ! basis ( all ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! animal sy/em2 ei!r solid1 z ! sk91 fle%1 n]ves1 membranes1 c>tilages1 & bones2 or fluid1 z blood1 *yle1 milk1 mucus1 ! ga/ric & pancreatic juices1 bile1 p]spiration1 saliva1 te>s1 c4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,is x n surpris+ t s great a v>iety ( sub/ances1 & s diff]5t 9 _! nature1 %\ld yet all arise f s few mat]ials1 & f ! same orig9al elem5ts8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! diff]5ce 9 ! nature ( v>i\s bodies dep5ds1 z ,i h (t5 obs]v$ to y1 r on _! /ate ( comb9ation1 ?an on ! mat]ials ( :i* !y are compos$4 ,?us1 9 consid]+ ! *emical nature ( ! creation 9 a g5]al po9t ( view1 we obs]ve t x is ?r\gh\t compos$ ( a v small numb] ( elem5ts4 ,b :5 we divide x into ! ?ree k+doms1 we f9d t1 9 ! m9]al1 ! comb9ations seem to result f ! union ( elem5ts casually br\ght toge!r2 :il/ 9 ! vegetable & animal k+doms1 ! attractions are peculi>ly & regul>ly produc$ by appropriate organs1 ^: action dep5ds on ! vital pr9ciple4 ,& we may fur!r obs]ve1 t by means ( c]ta9 spontane\s *anges & decompositions1 ! elem5ts ( "o k9d ( matt] become subs]vi5t to ! reproduction ( ano!r2 s t ! ?ree k+doms are intimately connect$1 & con/antly contribut+ to ! pres]vation ( ea* o!r4 ,,emily4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 "o v consid]able class ( elem5ts1 :i* seems to be conf9$ to ! m9]al k+dom3 ,i mean metals4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,n entirely2 !y are f\nd1 ?\gh 9 v m9ute quantities1 bo? 9 ! vegetable & animal k+doms4 ,a small portion ( e>?s & sulphur ent]s also into ! composition ( organis$ bodies4 ,phosphorus1 h[ev]1 is almo/ entirely conf9$ to ! animal k+dom2 & nitrog51 b ) few exceptions1 is extremely sc>ce 9 vegetables4 ,let u n[ proce$ to exam9e ! nature ( ! ?ree pr9cipal mat]ials ( ! animal sy/em4 ,gelat9e1 or jelly1 is ! *ief +r$i5t ( sk91 & ( all ! membran\s p>ts ( animals4 ,x may be obta9$ f ^! sub/ances1 by means ( boil+ wat]1 "u ! =ms ( glue1 size1 is+lass1 & transp>5t jelly4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b ^! are ( a v diff]5t nature2 !y _c !re=e be all pure gelat9e4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,n entirely1 b v ne>ly s4 ,glue is extract$ f ! sk9 ( animals4 ,size is obta9$ ei!r f sk9 9 its natural /ate1 or f lea!r4 ,is+lass is gelat9e procur$ f a p>ticul> species ( fi%2 x is1 y "k1 ( ?is sub/ance t ! f9e/ jelly is made1 & ?is is done by m]ely dissolv+ ! is+lass 9 boil+ wat]1 & all[+ ! solution to congeal4 ,,emily4 ,! w9e1 lemon1 & spices1 are1 ,i suppose1 add$ only to flav\r ! jelly8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,exactly s4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b jelly is (t5 made ( h>t%orn %av+s1 & ( calves' feet2 d ^! sub/ances conta9 gelat9e8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes4 ,gelat9e may be obta9$ f almo/ any animal sub/ance1 z x ent]s m or less into ! composition ( all ( !m4 ,! process = obta9+ x is extremely simple1 z x consi/s m]ely 9 boil+ ! sub/ance t conta9s x ) wat]4 ,! gelat9e dissolves 9 wat]1 & may be atta9$ ( any degree ( consi/5ce or /r5g?1 by evaporat+ ?is solution4 ,bones 9 p>ticul> produce x v pl5tifully1 z !y consi/ ( phosphat ( lime comb9$ or cem5t$ by gelat9e4 ,horns1 :i* are a species ( bone1 w yield abundance ( gelat9e4 ,! horns ( ! h>t are reckon$ to produce gelat9e ( ! f9e/ quality2 !y are r$uc$ to ! /ate ( %av+s 9 ord] t ! jelly may be m easily extract$ by ! wat]4 ,x is ( h>t%orn %av+s t ! jellies = invalids are usually made1 z !y are ( v easy dige/ion4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,x appe>s s+ul> t h>t%orn1 :i* yields su* a p[]ful +r$i5t z ammonia1 %\ld at ! same "t produce s mild & insipid a sub/ance z jelly8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,& 7:at is m surpris+7 x is f ! gelat9e ( bones t ammonia is produc$4 ,y mu/ obs]ve1 h[ev]1 t ! processes by :i* ^! two sub/ances are obta9$ f bones are v diff]5t4 ,by ! simple action ( wat] & heat1 ! gelat9e is sep>at$2 b 9 ord] to procure ! ammonia1 or :at is commonly call$ h>t%orn1 ! bones mu/ be di/ill$1 by :i* means ! gelat9e is decompos$1 & hydrog5 & nitrog5 comb9$ 9 ! =m ( ammonia4 ,s t ! fir/ op]ation is a m]e sep>ation ( +r$i5ts1 :il/ ! second requires a *emical decomposition4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b :5 jelly is made f h>t%orn %av+s1 :at becomes ( ! phosphat ( lime :i* con/itutes ! o!r "p ( bones8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is easily sep>at$ by /ra9+4 ,b ! jelly is aft]w>ds m p]fectly purifi$1 & r5d]$ transp>5t1 by add+ :ite ( egg1 :i* be+ coagulat$ by heat1 rises to ! surface along ) any impurities4 ,,emily4 ,i wond] t bones are n us$ by ! common p to make jelly2 a great deal ( :olesome n\ri%m5t1 might1 ,i %\ld suppose1 be procur$ f !m1 ?\gh ! jelly w\ld p]haps n be q s good z if made f h>t%orn %av+s8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,!re is a prejudice among ! poor aga9/ a species ( food t is usually ?r[n to ! dogs2 & z we _c expect !m to ent] into *emical consid]ations1 x is 9 "s degree excusable4 ,besides1 x requires a prodigi\s quantity ( fuel to dissolve bones & obta9 ! gelat9e f !m4 ,! solution ( bones 9 wat] is greatly promot$ by an accumulation ( heat4 ,?is may be effect$ by means ( an extremely /rong metallic vessel1 call$ ,pap9's dige/]1 9 :i* ! bones & wat] are enclos$1 )\t any possibility ( ! /eam mak+ its escape4 ,a heat c ?us be appli$ mu* sup]ior to t ( boil+ wat]2 & bones1 by ?is means1 are completely r$uc$ to a pulp4 ,b ! process /ill consumes too mu* fuel to be g5]ally adopt$ among ! l[] classes4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,& :y %\ld n a manufacture be e/abli%$ = gr9d+ or mac]at+ bones1 or at lea/ = r$uc+ !m to ! /ate ( %av+s1 :5 ,i suppose !y w\ld dissolve z readily z h>t%orn %av+s8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,!y c\ld n be collect$ clean = su* a purpose1 b !y are n lo/1 z !y are us$ = mak+ h>t%orn & sal ammoniac2 & su* is ! sup]ior sci5ce & indu/ry ( ?is c\ntry1 t we n[ s5d sal ammoniac to ! ,levant1 ?\gh x orig9ally came to u f ,egypt4 ,,emily4 ,:5 jelly is made ( is+lass1 does x leave no s$im5t8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no2 nor does x s mu* require cl>ify+1 z x consi/s almo/ entirely ( pure gelant9e1 & any =eign matt] t is mix$ ) x1 is ?r[n (f dur+ ! boil+ 9 ! =m ( scum4 --,^! are processes :i* y may see p]=m$ 9 great p]fection 9 ! cul9>y laboratory1 by t v able & mo/ useful *emi/ ! cook4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,to :at an imm5se v>iety ( purposes *emi/ry is subs]vi5t6 ,,emily4 ,x appe>s1 9 t respect1 to h an advantage ov] mo/ o!r arts & sci5ces2 = ^!1 v (t51 h a t5d5cy to conf9e ! imag9ation to _! own p>ticul> object1 :il/ ! pursuit ( *emi/ry is s ext5sive & div]sifi$1 t x inspires a g5]al curiosity1 & a desire ( enquir+ into ! nature ( e object4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i suppose t s\p is likewise compos$ ( gelat9e2 =1 :5 cold1 x (t5 assumes ! consi/5ce ( jelly8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,n entirely2 = ?\gh s\ps g5]ally conta9 a quantity ( gelat9e1 ! mo/ ess5tial +r$i5t is a muc\s or extractive matt]1 a peculi> animal sub/ance1 v soluble 9 wat]1 :i* has a /rong ta/e1 & is m n\ri%+ ?an gelat9e4 ,! v>i\s k9ds ( portable s\p consi/ ( ?is extractive matt] 9 a dry /ate1 :i*1 9 ord] to be made into s\p1 requires only to be dissolv$ 9 wat]4 ,gelat9e1 9 its solid /ate1 is a semiductile transp>5t sub/ance1 )\t ei!r ta/e or smell4 --,:5 expos$ to heat1 9 contact ) air & wat]1 x fir/ swells1 !n fuses1 & f9ally burns4 ,y may h se5 ! fir/ "p ( ?is op]ation p]=m$ 9 ! c>p5t]'s glue-pot4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b y said t gelat9e _h no smell1 & glue has a v disagreeable "o4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,glue is n pure gelat9e2 z x is n design$ = eat+1 x is prep>$ )\t att5d+ to ! /ate ( ! +r$i5ts1 :i* are m or less contam9at$ by p>ticles t h become putrid4 ,gelat9e may be precipitat$ f its solution 9 wat] by alcohol4 --,we %all try ?is exp]im5t ) a glass ( w>m jelly4 --,y see t ! gelat9e subsides by ! union ( ! alcohol & ! wat]4 ,,emily4 ,h[ is x1 !n1 t jelly is flav\r$ ) w9e1 )\t produc+ any precipitation8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,because ! alcohol conta9$ 9 w9e is already comb9$ ) wat]1 & o!r +r$i5ts1 & is !re=e n at lib]ty to act ^u ! jelly z :5 9 its sep>ate /ate4 ,gelat9e is soluble bo? 9 acids & 9 alkalies2 ! =m]1 y "k1 are frequ5tly us$ to season jellies4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,among ! comb9ations ( gelat9e we mu/ n =get "o :i* y =m]ly m5tion$2 t ) tann91 to =m lea!r4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,true2 b y mu/ obs]ve t lea!r c be produc$ only by gelat9e 9 a membran\s /ate2 = ?\gh pure gelat9e & tann9 w produce a sub/ance *emically simil> to lea!r1 yet ! texture ( ! sk9 is requisite to make x answ] ! useful purposes ( t sub/ance4 ,! next animal sub/ance we are to exam9e is album52 ?is1 al?\gh con/itut+ a "p ( mo/ ( ! animal comp\nds1 is frequ5tly f\nd insulat$ 9 ! animal sy/em2 ! :ite ( egg1 = in/ance1 consi/s almo/ entirely ( album52 ! sub/ance t composes ! n]ves1 ! s]um1 or :ite "p ( ! blood1 & ! curds ( milk1 are little else ?an album5 v>i\sly modifi$4 ,9 its mo/ simple /ate1 album5 appe>s 9 ! =m ( a transp>5t visc\s fluid1 possess$ ( no di/9ct ta/e or smell2 x coagulates at ! l[ temp]ature ( #afe degrees1 &1 :5 once solidifi$1 x w nev] return to its fluid /ate4 ,sulphuric acid & alcohol are ea* ( !m capable ( coagulat+ album5 9 ! same mann] z heat1 z ,i am go+ to %[ y4 ,,emily4 ,exactly s4 --,pray1 ,mrs4 ,b41 :at k9d ( action is !re betwe5 album5 & silv]8 ,i h sometimes obs]v$1 t if ! spoon ) :i* ,i eat an egg happ5s to be wett$1 x becomes t>ni%$4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is because ! :ite ( egg 7&1 inde$1 album5 9 g5]al7 conta9s a little sulphur1 :i*1 at ! temp]ature ( an egg j boil$1 w decompose ! drop ( wat] t wets ! spoon1 & produce sulphurat$ hydrog5 gas1 :i* has ! prop]ty ( t>ni%+ silv]4 ,we may n[ proce$ to fibr9e4 ,?is is an insipid & inodor\s sub/ance1 hav+ some:at ! appe>ance ( f9e :ite ?reads adh]+ toge!r2 x is ! ess5tial con/itu5t ( muscles or fle%1 9 :i* x is mix$ ) & s(t5$ by gelat9e4 ,x is insoluble bo? 9 wat] & alcohol1 b sulphuric acid conv]ts x into a sub/ance v analog\s to gelat9e4 ,^! are ! ess5tial & g5]al +r$i5ts ( animal matt]2 b !re are o!r sub/ances1 :i*1 ?\gh n peculi> to ! animal sy/em1 usually ent] into its composition1 su* z oils1 acids1 salts1 c4 ,animal oil is ! *ief con/itu5t ( fat2 x is conta9$ 9 abundance 9 ! cream ( milk1 :5ce x is obta9$ 9 ! =m ( butt]4 ,,emily4 ,is animal oil ! same 9 its composition z vegetable oils8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,n ! same1 b v analog\s4 ,! *ief diff]5ce is t animal oil conta9s nitrog51 a pr9ciple :i* seldom ent]s into ! composition ( vegetable oils1 & nev] 9 s l>ge a proportion4 ,!re are a few animal acids1 t is to say1 acids peculi> to animal matt]1 f :i* !y are almo/ exclusively obta9$4 ,! animal acids h triple bases ( hydrog51 c>bon1 & nitrog54 ,"s ( !m are f\nd native 9 animal matt]2 o!rs are produc$ dur+ its decomposition4 ,^? t we f9d ready =m$ are3 ,! bombic acid1 :i* is obta9$ f silk-worms4 ,! =mic acid1 f ants4 ,! lactic acid1 f ! :ey ( milk4 ,! sebacic1 f oil or fat4 ,^? produc$ dur+ ! decomposition ( animal sub/ances by heat1 are ! prussic & zoonic acids4 ,?is la/ is produc$ by ! roa/+ ( meat1 & gives x a brisk flav\r4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,! class ( animal acids is n v ext5sive8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no2 nor are !y1 g5]ally speak+1 ( great importance4 ,! prussic acid is1 ,i ?9k1 ! only "o suffici5tly int]e/+ to require any fur!r comm5t4 ,x c be =m$ by any artificial process1 )\t ! pres5ce ( any animal matt]2 & x may likewise be obta9$ f a v>iety ( vegetables1 p>ticul>ly ^? ( ! n>cotic k9d1 su* z poppies1 laurel1 c4 ,b x is commonly obta9$ f blood1 by /rongly heat+ t sub/ance ) cau/ic pota%2 ! alkali attracts ! acid f ! blood1 & =ms ) x a prussiat ( pota%4 ,f ?is /ate ( comb9ation ! prussic acid c be obta9$ pure by means ( o!r sub/ances :i* h ! p[] ( sep>at+ x f ! alkali4 ,,emily4 ,b if ?is acid does n exi/ ready =m$ 9 blood1 h[ c ! alkali attract x f x8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is ! triple basis only ( ?is acid t exi/s 9 ! blood2 & ?is is develop$ & br\ght to ! /ate ( acid1 dur+ ! combu/ion4 ,! acid !re=e is fir/ =m$1 & x aft]w>ds comb9es ) ! pota%4 ,,emily4 ,n[ ,i compreh5d x4 ,b h[ c ! prussic acid be artificially made8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,by pass+ ammoniacal gas ov] r$-hot *>coal2 & h5ce we le>n t ! con/itu5ts ( ?is acid are hydrog51 nitrog51 & c>bon4 ,! two fir/ are d]iv$ f ! volatile alkali1 ! la/ f ! combu/ion ( ! *>coal4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b ?is does n accord ) ! sy/em ( oxyg5 be+ ! pr9ciple ( acidity4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! col\r+ matt] ( prussian blue is call$ an acid1 because x unites ) alkalies & metals1 & n f any o!r *>act]i/ic prop]ties ( acids2 p]haps ! "n is n /rictly appropriate4 ,b ?is circum/ance1 toge!r ) "s o!rs ( ! same k9d1 has induc$ sev]al *emi/s to ?9k t oxyg5 may n be ! exclusive g5]ator ( acids4 ,sir ,h4 ,davy1 ,i h already in=m$ y1 0 l$ by 8 exp]im5ts on dry acids to suspect t wat] might be ess5tial to acidity4 ,& x is ! op9ion ( "s *emi/s t acidity may possibly dep5d r on ! arrangem5t ?an on ! pres5ce ( any p>ticul> pr9ciples4 ,b we h n yet done ) ! prussic acid4 ,x has a /rong aff9ity = metallic oxyds1 & precipitates ! solutions ( iron 9 acids ( a blue col\r4 ,?is is ! prussian blue1 or prussiat ( iron1 s mu* us$ 9 ! arts1 & ) :i* ,i ?9k y mu/ be acqua9t$4 ,,emily4 ,yes1 ,i am2 x is mu* us$ 9 pa9t+1 bo? 9 oil & 9 wat] col\rs2 b x is n reckon$ a p]man5t oil-col\r4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t defect arises1 ,i believe1 9 g5]al1 f its be+ badly prep>$1 :i* is ! case :5 ! iron is n s fully oxydat$ z to =m a r$ oxyd4 ,= a solution ( gre5 oxyd ( iron 79 :i* ! metal is m slightly oxydat$71 makes only a pale gre51 or ev5 a :ite precipitate1 ) prussiat ( pota%2 & ?is gradually *anges to blue by be+ expos$ to ! air1 z ,i c imm$iately %[ y4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,x already beg9s to assume a pale blue col\r4 ,b h[ does ! air produce ?is *ange8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,by oxydat+ ! iron m p]fectly4 ,if we p\r "s nitr\s acid on x1 ! prussian blue col\r w be imm$iately produc$1 z ! acid w yield its oxyg5 to ! precipitate1 & fully saturate x ) ?is pr9ciple1 z y %all see4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,x is v curi\s to see a col\r *ange s in/antane\sly4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,h5ce y p]ceive t prussian blue _c be a p]man5t col\r1 unless prep>$ ) r$ oxyd ( iron1 s9ce by exposure to ! atmosph]e x gradually d>k5s1 & 9 a %ort "t is no long] 9 h>mony ) ! o!r col\rs ( ! pa9t+4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b x c nev] become d>k]1 by exposure to ! atmosph]e1 ?an ! true prussian blue1 9 :i* ! oxyd is p]fectly saturat$8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,c]ta9ly n4 ,b 9 pa9t+1 ! arti/ n reckon+ ^u p>tial alt]ations 9 8 col\rs1 gives 8 blue t9ts t p>ticul> %ade :i* h>monises ) ! re/ ( ! picture4 ,if1 aft]w>ds1 ^? t9ts become d>k]1 ! h>mony ( ! col\r+ mu/ necess>ily be de/roy$4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,pray1 ( :at nature is ! pa9t call$ c>m9e8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is an animal col\r prep>$ f co*9eal1 an insect1 ! infusion ( :i* produces a v beautiful r$4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,:il/ we are on ! subject ( col\rs1 ,i %\ld l to le>n :at ivory black is8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is a c>bonace\s sub/ance obta9$ by ! combu/ion ( ivory4 ,a m common species ( black is obta9$ f ! burn+ ( bone4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b dur+ ! combu/ion ( ivory or bone1 ! c>bon1 ,i %\ld h imag9$1 mu/ be conv]t$ into c>bonic acid gas1 in/ead ( ?is black sub/ance8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,9 ?is1 z 9 mo/ combu/ions1 a consid]able "p ( ! c>bon is simply volatilis$ by ! heat1 & aga9 obta9$ concrete on cool+4 ,?is col\r1 !re=e1 may be call$ ! soot produc$ by ! burn+ ( ivory or bone4 ,,conv]sation ,,xxiv4 ,,on ,,! ,,animal ,,economy4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,we h n[ acquir$ "s idea ( ! v>i\s mat]ials t compose ! animal sy/em2 b if y are curi\s to "k 9 :at mann] ^! sub/ances are =m$ by ! animal organs1 f vegetable1 z well z f animal sub/ances1 x w be necess>y to h "s previ\s k ( ! nature & functions ( ^! organs1 )\t :i* x is impossible to =m any di/9ct idea ( ! process ( animalisation & nutrition4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i d n exactly und]/& ! mean+ ( ! ^w animalisation8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,animalisation is ! process by :i* ! food is assimilat$1 t is to say1 conv]t$ into animal matt]2 & nutrition is t by :i* ! food ?us assimilat$ is r5d]$ subs]vi5t to ! purposes ( n\ri%+ & ma9ta9+ ! animal sy/em4 ,,emily4 ,?is1 ,i am sure1 mu/ be ! mo/ int]e/+ ( all ! bran*es ( *emi/ry6 ,,c>ol9e4 ,s ,i ?9k2 p>ticul>ly z ,i expect t we %all he> some?+ ( ! nature ( respiration1 & ( ! circulation ( ! blood8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,^! functions und\bt$ly occupy a mo/ important place 9 ! hi/ory ( ! animal economy4 --,b ,i mu/ previ\sly give y a v %ort acc\nt ( ! pr9cipal organs by :i* ! v>i\s op]ations ( ! animal sy/em are p]=m$4 ,^! are3 ,! ,bones2 ,muscles1 ,blood vessels1 ,lymphatic vessels1 ,gl&s1 & ,n]ves4 ,! bones are ! mo/ solid "p ( ! animal frame1 & 9 a great measure det]m9e its =m & dim5sions4 ,y recollect1 ,i suppose1 :at are ! +r$i5ts :i* ent] into _! composition8 ,,c>ol9e4 ,yes2 phosphat ( lime1 cem5t$ by gelat9e4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,dur+ ! e>lie/ p]iod ( animal life1 !y consi/ almo/ entirely ( gelat9\s membrane hav+ ! =m ( ! bones1 b ( a loose spongy texture1 ! cells or cavities ( :i* are de/9$ to be fill$ ) phosphat ( lime2 x is ! gradual acquisition ( ?is salt :i* gives to ! bones _! subsequ5t h>dness & durability4 ,infants fir/ receive x f _! "m's milk1 & aft]w>ds d]ive x f all animal & f mo/ vegetable food1 especially f>9ace\s sub/ances1 su* z :eat-fl\r1 :i* conta9 x 9 s5sible quantities4 ,a portion ( ! phosphat1 aft] ! bones ( ! infant h be5 suffici5tly exp&$ & solidifi$1 is deposit$ 9 ! tee?1 :i* consi/ at fir/ only ( a gelat9\s membrane or case1 fitt$ = ! reception ( ?is salt2 & :i*1 aft] acquir+ h>dness )9 ! gum1 gradually protrude f x4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,h[ v curi\s ?is is2 & h[ +5i\sly nature has fir/ provid$ = ! solidification ( su* bones z are imm$iately want$1 & aft]w>ds = ! =mation ( ! tee?1 :i* w\ld n only be useless1 b detrim5tal 9 infancy6 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,9 quadrup$s ! phosphat ( lime is deposit$ likewise 9 _! horns1 & 9 ! hair or wool ) :i* !y are g5]ally clo!d4 ,9 birds x s]ves also to h>d5 ! beaks & ! quills ( _! fea!rs4 ,:5 animals are arriv$ at a /ate ( maturity1 & _! bones h acquir$ a suffici5t degree ( solidity1 ! phosphat ( lime :i* is tak5 ) ! food is seldom assimilat$1 except+ :5 ! female n\ri%es h] "y2 x is !n all secret$ into ! milk1 z a provision = ! t5d] bones ( ! nursl+4 ,,emily4 ,s t :atev] becomes sup]flu\s to "o be+1 is imm$iately want$ by ano!r2 & ! *ild acquires /r5g? precisely by ! species ( n\ri%m5t :i* is no long] necess>y to ! "m4 ,nature is1 inde$1 an admirable economi/6 ,,c>ol9e4 ,pray1 ,mrs4 ,b41 does n ! disease 9 ! bones ( *ildr51 call$ ! rickets1 proce$ f a defici5cy ( phosphat ( lime8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i h he>d t ?is disease may arise f two causes2 x is sometimes occasion$ by ! gr[? ( ! muscles be+ too rapid 9 proportion to t ( ! bones4 ,9 ?is case ! weight ( ! fle% is great] ?an ! bones c support1 & presses ^u !m s z to produce a swell+ ( ! jo9ts1 :i* is ! great indication ( ! rickets4 ,! o!r cause ( ?is disord] is suppos$ to be an imp]fect dige/ion & assimilation ( ! food1 att5d$ ) an excess ( acid1 :i* c\nt]acts ! =mation ( phosphat ( lime4 ,9 bo? in/ances1 !re=e1 c>e %\ld be tak5 to alt] ! *ild's diet1 n m]ely by increas+ ! quantity ( alim5t conta9+ phosphat ( lime1 b also by avoid+ all food t is apt to turn acid on ! /oma*1 & to produce indige/ion4 ,b ! be/ pres]vative aga9/ compla9ts ( ?is k9d is1 no d\bt1 good nurs+3 :5 a *ild has pl5ty ( air & ex]cise1 ! dige/ion & assimilation w be prop]ly p]=m$1 no acid w be produc$ to int]rupt ^! functions1 & ! muscles & bones w gr[ toge!r 9 j proportions4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i h (t5 he>d ! rickets attribut$ to bad nurs+1 b ,i nev] c\ld h guess$ :at connection !re 0 betwe5 ex]cise & ! =mation ( ! bones4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,ex]cise is g5]ally b5eficial to all ! animal functions4 ,if man is de/9$ to lab\r = 8 subsi/5ce1 ! bread :i* he e>ns is sc>cely m ess5tial to 8 heal? & pres]vation ?an ! ex]tions by :i* he obta9s x4 ,^? :om ! gifts ( =tune h plac$ above ! necessity ( bodily lab\r are compell$ to take ex]cise 9 "s mode or o!r1 & :5 !y _c conv]t x into an amusem5t1 !y mu/ submit to x z a task1 or _! heal? w soon exp]i5ce ! effects ( _! indol5ce4 ,,emily4 ,t w nev] be my case3 = ex]cise1 unless x becomes fatigue1 always gives me pleasure2 &1 s f> f be+ a task1 is to me a s\rce ( daily enjoym5t4 ,i (t5 ?9k :at a bless+ x is1 t ex]cise1 :i* is s conducive to heal?1 %\ld be s delightful2 :il/ fatigue1 :i* is r hurtful1 in/ead ( pleasure1 occasions pa9ful s5sations4 ,s t fatigue1 no d\bt1 0 int5d$ to mod]ate our bodily ex]tions1 z satiety puts a limit to our appetites4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,c]ta9ly4 --,b let u n deviate too f> f our subject4 --,! bones are connect$ toge!r by ligam5ts1 :i* consi/ ( a :ite ?ick flexible sub/ance1 adh]+ to _! extremities1 s f> z to secure ! jo9ts firmly1 ?\gh )\t imp$+ _! motion4 ,& ! jo9ts are moreov] cov]$ by a solid1 smoo?1 ela/ic1 :ite sub/ance1 call$ c>tilage1 ! use ( :i* is to all[1 by its smoo?ness & ela/icity1 ! bones to slide easily ov] "o ano!r1 s t ! jo9ts may p]=m _! (fice )\t difficulty or detrim5t4 ,ov] ! bones ! muscles are plac$2 !y consi/ ( bundles ( fibres :i* t]m9ate 9 a k9d ( /r+1 or ligam5t1 by :i* !y are fa/5$ to ! bones4 ,! muscles are ! organs ( motion2 by _! p[] ( dilatation & contraction !y put into action ! bones1 :i* act z lev]s1 9 all ! motions ( ! body1 & =m ! solid support ( its v>i\s p>ts4 ,! muscles are ( v>i\s degrees ( /r5g? or consi/5ce 9 diff]5t species ( animals4 ,! mammif]\s tribe1 or ^? t suckle _! "y1 seem 9 ?is respect to occupy an int]m$iate place betwe5 birds & cold-blood$ animals1 su* z reptiles & fi%es4 ,,emily4 ,! diff]5t degrees ( firmness & solidity 9 ! muscles ( ^! sev]al species ( animals proce$1 ,i imag9e1 f ! diff]5t nature ( ! food on :i* !y subsi/8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no2 t is n suppos$ to be ! case3 = ! human species1 :o are ( ! mammif]\s tribe1 live on m sub/antial food ?an birds1 & yet ! latt] exce$ !m 9 muscul> /r5g?4 ,we %all h]eaft] attempt to acc\nt = ?is diff]5ce2 b let u n[ proce$ 9 ! exam9ation ( ! animal functions4 ,! next class ( organs is t ( ! vessels ( ! body1 ! (fice ( :i* is to convey ! v>i\s fluids ?r\gh\t ! frame4 ,^! vessels are innum]able4 ,! mo/ consid]able ( !m are ^? ?r\gh :i* ! blood circulates1 :i* are ( two k9ds3 ! art]ies1 :i* convey x f ! he>t to ! extremities ( ! body1 & ! ve9s1 :i* br+ x back into ! he>t4 ,besides ^!1 !re are a num]\s set ( small transp>5t vessels1 de/9$ to absorb & convey diff]5t fluids into ! blood2 !y are g5]ally call$ ! absorb5t or lymphatic vessels3 b x is to a portion ( !m only t ! function ( convey+ into ! blood ! fluid call$ lymph is assign$4 ,,emily4 ,pray :at is ! nature ( t fluid8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! nature & use ( ! lymph h1 ,i believe1 nev] be5 p]fectly asc]ta9$2 b x is suppos$ to consi/ ( matt] t has be5 previ\sly animalis$1 & :i*1 aft] answ]+ ! purpose = :i* x 0 int5d$1 mu/1 9 regul> rotation1 make way = ! fre% supplies produc$ by n\ri%m5t4 ,! lymphatic vessels pump up ?is fluid f e "p ( ! sy/em1 & convey x into ! ve9s to be mix$ ) ! blood :i* runs ?r\gh !m1 & :i* is commonly call$ v5\s blood4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b does x n aga9 ent] into ! animal sy/em ?r\gh t *annel8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,n entirely2 = ! v5\s blood does n return into ! circulation until x has und]gone a peculi> *ange1 9 :i* x ?r[s (f :atev] is become useless4 ,ano!r set ( absorb5t vessels pump up ! *yle f ! /oma* & inte/9es1 & convey x1 aft] _m circumvolutions1 into ! great ve9 ne> ! he>t4 ,,emily4 ,pray :at is *yle8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is ! sub/ance into :i* food is conv]t$ by dige/ion4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,"o set ( ! absorb5t vessels1 !n1 is employ$ 9 br++ away ! old mat]ials t are no long] fit = use2 :il/ ! o!r set is busy 9 convey+ into ! blood ! new mat]ials t are to replace !m4 ,,emily4 ,:at a great v>iety ( +r$i5ts mu/ ent] into ! composition ( ! blood8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y mu/ obs]ve t !re is also a great v>iety ( sub/ances to be secret$ f x4 ,we may comp>e ! blood to a g5]al receptacle or /oreh\se = all k9ds ( commodities1 :i* are aft]w>ds fa%ion$1 arrang$1 & dispos$ ( z circum/ances require4 ,!re is ano!r set ( absorb5t vessels 9 females :i* is de/9$ to secrete milk = ! n\ri%m5t ( ! "y4 ,,emily4 ,pray is n milk v analog\s 9 its composition to blood2 =1 s9ce ! nursl+ d]ives its n\ri%m5t f t s\rce only1 x mu/ conta9 e pr9ciple :i* ! animal sy/em requires8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,v true4 ,milk is f\nd1 by its analysis1 to conta9 ! pr9cipal mat]ials ( animal matt]1 album51 oil1 & phosphat ( lime2 s t ! suckl+ has b little tr\ble to dige/ & assimilate ?is n\ri%m5t4 ,b we %all exam9e ! composition ( milk m fully aft]w>ds4 ,9 _m p>ts ( ! body numb]s ( small vessels are collect$ toge!r 9 little bundles call$ gl&s1 f a ,lat9 ^w mean+ acorn1 on acc\nt ( ! resemblance :i* "s ( !m be> 9 %ape to t fruit4 ,! function ( ! gl&s is to secrete1 or sep>ate c]ta9 matt]s f ! blood4 ,! secretions are n only me*anical1 b *emical sep>ations f ! blood2 = ! sub/ances ?us =m$1 ?\gh conta9$ 9 ! blood1 are n ready comb9$ 9 t fluid4 ,! secretions are ( two k9ds1 ^? :i* =m peculi> animal fluids1 z bile1 te>s1 saliva1 c42 & ^? :i* produce ! g5]al mat]ials ( ! animal sy/em1 = ! purpose ( recruit+ & n\ri%+ ! sev]al organs ( ! body2 su* z album51 gelat9e1 & fibr9e2 ! latt] may be di/+ui%$ by ! "n ( nutritive secretions4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i am q a/oni%$ to he> t all ! secretions %\ld be d]iv$ f ! blood4 ,,emily4 ,i ?\ght t ! bile 0 produc$ by ! liv]8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,s x is2 b ! liv] is no?+ m ?an a v l>ge gl&1 :i* secretes ! bile f ! blood4 ,! la/ ( ! animal organs :i* we h m5tion$ are ! n]ves2 ^! are ! vehicles ( s5sation1 e o!r "p ( ! body be+1 ( itself1 totally ins5sible4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,!y mu/ !n be spread ?r\gh e "p ( ! frame1 = we are e :]e susceptible ( feel+4 ,,emily4 ,except+ ! nails & ! hair4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,& ^? are almo/ ! only p>ts 9 :i* n]ves _c be discov]$4 ,! common s\rce ( all ! n]ves is ! bra92 !nce !y desc5d1 "s ( !m ?r\gh diff]5t holes ( ! skull1 b ! greate/ "p ?r\gh ! back bone1 & ext5d !mselves by innum]able ramifications ?r\gh\t ! :ole body4 ,!y spread !mselves ov] ! muscles1 p5etrate ! gl&s1 w9d r\nd ! vascul> sy/em1 & ev5 pi]ce into ! int]ior ( ! bones4 ,x is mo/ probably ?r\gh !m t ! communication is c>ri$ on betwe5 ! m9d & ! o!r p>ts ( ! body2 b 9 :at mann] !y are act$ on by ! m9d1 & made to re-act on ! body1 is /ill a pr(\nd secret4 ,_m hypo!ses h be5 =m$ on ?is v obscure subject1 b !y are all equally improbable1 & x w\ld be useless = u to wa/e our "t 9 conjectures on an enquiry1 :i*1 9 all probability1 is beyond ! rea* ( human capacity4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b y h n m5tion$ ^? p>ticul> n]ves t =m ! s5ses ( he>+1 see+1 smell+1 & ta/+8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,!y are consid]$ z be+ ( ! same nature z ^? :i* are disp]s$ ov] e "p ( ! body1 & con/itute ! g5]al s5se ( feel+4 ,! diff]5t s5sations :i* !y produce arise f _! peculi> situation & connection ) ! sev]al organs ( ta/e1 smell1 & he>+4 ,,emily4 ,b ^! s5ses appe> totally diff]5t f t ( feel+8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,!y are all ( !m s5sations1 b v>i\sly modifi$ accord+ to ! nature ( ! diff]5t organs 9 :i* ! n]ves are situat$4 ,=1 z we h =m]ly obs]v$1 x is by contact only t ! n]ves are affect$4 ,?us odorif]\s p>ticles mu/ /rike ^u ! n]ves ( ! nose1 9 ord] to excite ! s5se ( smell+2 9 ! same mann] t ta/e is produc$ by ! p>ticul> sub/ance com+ 9 contact ) ! n]ves ( ! palate4 ,x is ?us also t ! s5sation ( s\nd is produc$ by ! concussion ( ! air /rik+ aga9/ ! auditory n]ve2 & sight is ! effect ( ! light fall+ ^u ! optic n]ve4 ,^! v>i\s s5ses1 !re=e1 are affect$ only by ! actual contact ( p>ticles ( matt]1 9 ! same mann] z t ( feel+4 ,! diff]5t organs ( ! animal body1 ?\gh easily sep>at$ & p]fectly di/9ct1 are loosely connect$ toge!r by a k9d ( spongy sub/ance1 9 texture some:at resembl+ net-"w1 call$ ! cellul> membrane2 & ! :ole is cov]$ by ! sk94 ,! sk91 z well z ! b>k ( vegetables1 is =m$ ( ?ree coats4 ,! ext]nal "o is call$ ! cuticle or epid]mis2 ! second1 :i* is call$ ! muc\s membrane1 is ( a ?9 s(t texture1 & consi/s ( a muc\s sub/ance1 :i* 9 negroes is black1 & is ! cause ( _! sk9 appe>+ ( t col\r4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,is !n ! ext]nal sk9 ( negroes :ite l ours8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 b z ! cuticle is transp>5t1 z well z por\s1 ! blackness ( ! muc\s membrane is visible ?r\gh x4 ,! extremities ( ! n]ves are spread ov] ?is sk91 s t ! s5sation ( feel+ is transmitt$ ?r\gh ! cuticle4 ,! int]nal cov]+ ( ! muscles1 :i* is prop]ly ! sk91 is ! ?icke/1 ! t\ghe/1 & mo/ resi/+ ( ! :ole2 x is ?is membrane :i* is s ess5tial 9 ! arts1 by =m+ lea!r :5 comb9$ ) tann94 ,! sk9 :i* cov]s ! animal body1 z well z ^? membranes t =m ! coats ( ! vessels1 consi/s almo/ exclusively ( gelat9e2 & is capable ( be+ conv]t$ into glue1 size1 or jelly4 ,! cavities betwe5 ! muscles & ! sk9 are usually fill$ ) fat1 :i* lodges 9 ! cells ( ! membran\s net be=e m5tion$1 & gives to ! ext]nal =m 7especially 9 ! human figure7 t r\ndness1 smoo?ness1 & s(tness1 s ess5tial to beauty4 ,,emily4 ,& ! sk9 itself is1 ,i ?9k1 a v ornam5tal "p ( ! human frame1 bo? f ! f95ess ( its texture1 & ! v>iety & delicacy ( its t9ts4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,?is v>iety & h>moni\s graduation ( col\rs1 proce$1 n s mu* f ! sk9 itself1 z f ! int]nal organs :i* transmit _! sev]al col\rs ?r\gh x1 ^! be+ only s(t5$ & bl5d$ by ! col\r ( ! sk91 :i* is uni=mly ( a yell[i% :ite4 ,?us modifi$1 ! d>kness ( ! ve9s appe>s ( a pale blue col\r1 & ! floridness ( ! art]ies is *ang$ to a delicate p9k4 ,9 ! mo/ transp>5t p>ts1 ! sk9 exhibits ! bloom ( ! rose1 :il/ :]e x is m opake its own col\r pr$om9ates2 & at ! jo9ts1 :]e ! bones are mo/ prom95t1 _! :it5ess is (t5 disc]nible4 ,9 a ^w1 e "p ( ! human frame seems to contribute to its ext]nal grace2 & ?is n m]ely by produc+ a pleas+ v>iety ( t9ts1 b by a peculi> k9d ( beauty :i* belongs to ea* individual "p4 ,?us x is to ! solidity & arrangem5t ( ! bones t ! human figure owes ! gr&eur ( its /ature1 & its firm & dignifi$ deportm5t4 ,! muscles del9eate ! =m1 & /amp x ) en]gy & grace2 & ! s(t sub/ance :i* is spread ov] !m smoo?s _! rugg$ness1 & gives to ! cont\rs ! g5tle undulations ( ! l9e ( beauty4 ,e organ ( s5se is a peculi> & sep>ate ornam5t2 & ! sk91 :i* poli%es ! surface1 & gives x t *>m ( col\r+ s inimitable by art1 f9ally conspires to r5d] ! :ole ! faire/ "w ( ! creation4 ,b n[ t we h se5 9 :at mann] ! animal frame is =m$1 let u obs]ve h[ x provides = its support1 & h[ ! sev]al organs1 :i* =m s complete a :ole1 are n\ri%$ & ma9ta9$4 ,?is w lead u to a m p>ticul> explanation ( ! int]nal organs3 "h we %all n meet ) s mu* app>5t beauty1 because ^! p>ts 7 n int5d$ by nature to be exhibit$ to view2 b ! beauty ( design1 9 ! int]nal organisation ( ! animal frame1 is1 if possible1 /ill m rem>kable ?an t ( ! ext]nal p>ts4 ,we %all def] ?is subject till our next int]view4 ,,conv]sation ,,xxv4 ,,on ,,animalisation1 ,,nutrition1 ,,& ,,respiration4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,we h n[ le>nt ( :at mat]ials ! animal sy/em is compos$1 & h =m$ "s idea ( ! nature ( its organisation4 ,9 ord] to complete ! subject1 x rema9s = u to exam9e 9 :at mann] x is n\ri%$ & support$4 ,vegetables1 we h obs]v$1 obta9 _! n\ri%m5t f v>i\s sub/ances1 ei!r 9 _! elem5t>y /ate1 or 9 a v simple /ate ( comb9ation2 z c>bon1 wat]1 & salts1 :i* !y pump up f ! soil2 & c>bonic acid & oxyg51 :i* !y absorb f ! atmosph]e4 ,animals1 on ! contr>y1 fe$ on sub/ances ( ! mo/ complicat$ k9d2 = !y d]ive _! su/5ance1 "s f ! animal creation1 o!rs f ! vegetable k+dom1 & "s f bo?4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,& !re is "o species ( animals1 :i*1 n satisfi$ ) enjoy+ ei!r k9d ( food 9 its simple /ate1 has inv5t$ ! art ( comb9+ !m toge!r 9 a ?\s& ways1 & ( r5d]+ ev5 ! m9]al k+dom subs]vi5t to its ref9em5ts4 ,,emily4 ,nor is ?is all2 = our delicacies are collect$ f ! v>i\s climates ( ! e>?1 s t ! f\r qu>t]s ( ! globe are (t5 oblig$ to contribute to ! prep>ation ( our simple/ di%es4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b ! v complicat$ sub/ances :i* con/itute ! n\ri%m5t ( animals1 d n1 ,i suppose1 ent] into _! sy/em 9 _! actual /ate ( comb9ation8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,s f> f x1 t !y n only und]go a new arrangem5t ( _! p>ts1 b a selection is made ( su* z are mo/ prop] = ! n\ri%m5t ( ! body1 & ^? only ent] into ! sy/em1 & are animalis$4 ,,emily4 ,& by :at organs is ?is process p]=m$8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,*iefly by ! /oma*1 :i* is ! organ ( dige/ion1 & ! prime regulator ( ! animal frame4 ,dige/ion is ! fir/ /ep t[>ds nutrition4 ,x consi/s 9 r$uc+ into "o homog5e\s mass ! v>i\s sub/ances t are tak5 z n\ri%m5t2 x is p]=m$ by fir/ *ew+ & mix+ ! solid alim5t ) ! saliva1 :i* r$uces x to a s(t mass1 9 :i* /ate x is convey$ into ! /oma*1 :]e x is m completely dissolv$ by ! ga/ric juice4 ,?is fluid 7:i* is secret$ into ! /oma* by appropriate gl&s7 is s p[]ful a solv5t t sc>cely any sub/ances w resi/ its action4 ,,emily4 ,! coats ( ! /oma*1 h[ev]1 _c be attack$ by x1 o!rwise we %\ld be 9 dang] ( hav+ !m de/roy$ :5 ! /oma* 0 empty4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,!y are probably n subject to its action2 z long1 at lea/1 z life cont9ues4 ,b x appe>s1 t :5 ! ga/ric juice has no =eign sub/ance to act ^u1 x is capable ( occasion+ a degree ( irritation 9 ! coats ( ! /oma*1 :i* produces ! s5sation ( hung]4 ,! ga/ric juice1 toge!r ) ! heat & muscul> action ( ! /oma*1 conv]ts ! alim5t into an uni=m pulpy mass call$ *yme4 ,?is passes into ! inte/9es1 :]e x meets ) ! bile & "s o!r fluids1 by ! ag5cy ( :i*1 & by ! op]ation ( o!r causes hi!rto unkn[n1 ! *yme is *ang$ into *yle1 a mu* ?9n] sub/ance1 some:at resembl+ milk1 :i* is pump$ by imm5se numb]s ( small absorb5t vessels spread ov] ! int]nal surface ( ! inte/9es4 ,^!1 aft] _m circumvolutions1 gradually meet & unite into l>ge bran*es1 till !y at l5g? collect ! *yle into "o vessel1 :i* p\rs its cont5ts into ! great ve9 ne> ! he>t1 by :i* means ! food1 ?us prep>$1 ent]s into ! circulation4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b ,i d n yet cle>ly und]/& h[ ! blood1 ?us =m$1 n\ri%es ! body & supplies all ! secretions8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,be=e ?is c be expla9$ to y1 y mu/ fir/ all[ me to complete ! =mation ( ! blood4 ,! *yle may1 inde$1 be consid]$ z =m+ ! *ief +r$i5t ( blood2 b ?is fluid is n p]fect until x has pass$ ?r\gh ! lungs1 & und]gone 7toge!r ) ! blood t has already circulat$7 c]ta9 necess>y *anges t are effect$ by ,,respiration4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i am v glad t y are go+ to expla9 ! nature ( respiration3 ,i h (t5 long$ to und]/& x1 = ?\gh we talk incessantly ( brea?+1 ,i nev] knew precisely :at purpose x answ]$4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is inde$ "o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ processes imag9able2 b1 9 ord] to und]/& ?is function well1 x w be necess>y to ent] into "s previ\s explanations4 ,tell me1 ,emily1 --:at d y und]/& by respiration8 ,,emily4 ,respiration1 ,i conceive1 consi/s simply 9 alt]nately inspir+ air into ! lungs1 & expir+ x f !m4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y\r answ] w d v well z a g5]al def9ition4 ,b1 9 ord] to =m a tol]ably cle> notion ( ! v>i\s ph5om5a ( respiration1 !re are _m circum/ances to be tak5 into consid]ation4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 !re are two ?+s to be di/+ui%$ 9 respiration1 ! me*anical & ! *emical "p ( ! process4 ,! me*anism ( brea?+ dep5ds on ! alt]nate expansions & contractions ( ! *e/1 9 :i* ! lungs are conta9$4 ,:5 ! *e/ dilates1 ! cavity is enl>g$1 & ! air ru%es 9 at ! m\?1 to fill up ! vacuum =m$ by ?is dilatation2 :5 x contracts1 ! cavity is dim9i%$1 & ! air =c$ out aga94 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i ?\ght t x 0 ! lungs t contract$ & exp&$ 9 brea?+8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,!y d likewise2 b _! action is only ! consequ5ce ( t ( ! *e/4 ,! lungs1 toge!r ) ! he>t & l>ge/ blood vessels1 9 a mann] fill up ! cavity ( ! *e/2 !y c\ld n1 !re=e1 dilate if ! *e/ did n previ\sly exp&2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 :5 ! *e/ contracts1 x compresses ! lungs & =ces ! air out ( !m4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,! lungs1 !n1 are l bell[s1 & ! *e/ is ! p[] t works !m4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,precisely s4 ,"h is a curi\s little figure 7,,plate ,,xv4 ,fig4 #e471 t w assi/ me 9 expla9+ ! me*anism ( brea?+4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,:at a droll figure6 a little head fix$ ^u a glass bell1 ) a bladd] ti$ ov] ! bottom ( x6 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y mu/ obs]ve t !re is ano!r bladd] )9 ! glass1 ! neck ( :i* communicates ) ! m\? ( ! figure--?is repres5ts ! lungs conta9$ )9 ! *e/2 ! o!r bladd]1 :i* y see is ti$ loose1 repres5ts a muscul> membrane1 call$ ! diaphragm1 :i* sep>ates ! *e/ f ! l[] "p ( ! body4 ,by ! *e/1 !re=e1 ,i mean t l>ge cavity 9 ! upp] "p ( ! body conta9$ )9 ! ribs1 ! neck1 & ! diaphragm2 ?is membrane is muscul>1 & capable ( contraction & dilatation4 ,! contraction may be imitat$ by draw+ ! bladd] tight ov] ! bottom ( ! receiv]1 :5 ! air 9 ! bladd]1 :i* repres5ts ! lungs1 w be =c$ out ?r\gh ! m\? ( ! figure-- ,,emily4 ,see1 ,c>ol9e1 h[ x bl[s ! flame ( ! c&le 9 brea?+6 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,by lett+ ! bladd] loose aga91 we imitate ! dilatation ( ! diaphragm1 & ! cavity ( ! *e/ be+ enl>g$1 ! lungs exp&1 & ! air ru%es 9 to fill !m4 ,,emily4 ,?is figure1 ,i ?9k1 gives a v cle> idea ( ! process ( brea?+4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x illu/rates tol]ably well ! action ( ! lungs & diaphragm2 b ^? are n ! only p[]s t are conc]n$ 9 enl>g+ or dim9i%+ ! cavity ( ! *e/2 ! ribs are also possess$ ( a muscul> motion = ! same purpose2 !y are alt]nately drawn 91 edgeways1 to assi/ ! contraction1 & /ret*$ out1 l ! hoops ( a b>rel1 to contribute to ! dilatation ( ! *e/4 ,,emily4 ,i always suppos$ t ! elevation & depression ( ! ribs 7 ! consequ5ce1 n ! cause ( brea?+4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is exactly ! rev]se4 ,! muscul> action ( ! diaphragm1 toge!r ) t ( ! ribs1 are ! causes ( ! contraction & expansion ( ! *e/2 & ! air ru%+ into1 & be+ expell$ f ! lungs1 are only consequ5ces ( ^? actions4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i confess t ,i ?\ght ! act ( brea?+ began by op5+ ! m\? = ! air to ru% 91 & t x 0 ! air alone1 :i*1 by alt]nately ru%+ 9 & out1 occasion$ ! dilatations & contractions ( ! lungs & *e/4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,try ! exp]im5t ( m]ely op5+ y\r m\?2 ! air w n ru% 91 till by an int]ior muscul> action y produce a vacuum--yes1 j s1 y\r diaphragm is n[ dilat$1 & ! ribs exp&$4 ,b y w n be able to keep !m long 9 t /ate4 ,y\r lungs & *e/ are already resum+ _! =m] /ate1 & expell+ ! air ) :i* !y _h j be5 fill$4 ,?is me*anism goes on m or less rapidly1 b1 9 g5]al1 a p]son at re/ & 9 heal? w brea! betwe5 fifte5 & tw5ty-five times 9 a m9ute4 ,we may n[ proce$ to ! *emical effects ( respiration2 b1 = ?is purpose1 x is necess>y t y %\ld previ\sly h "s notion ( ! circulation ( ! blood4 ,tell me1 ,c>ol9e1 :at d y und]/& by ! circulation ( ! blood8 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i am delight$ t y come to t subject1 = x is "o t has long excit$ my curiosity4 ,b ,i _c conceive h[ x is connect$ ) respiration4 ,! idea ,i h ( ! circulation is1 t ! blood runs f ! he>t ?r\gh ! ve9s all ov] ! body1 & back aga9 to ! he>t4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i c\ld h>dly h expect$ a bett] def9ition f y2 x is1 h[ev]1 n q correct1 = y d n di/+ui% ! art]ies f ! ve9s1 :i*1 z we h already obs]v$1 are two di/9ct sets ( vessels1 ea* hav+ its own peculi> functions4 ,! art]ies convey ! blood f ! he>t to ! extremities ( ! body2 & ! ve9s br+ x back into ! he>t4 ,?is sket* w give y an idea ( ! mann] 9 :i* "s ( ! pr9cipal ve9s & art]ies ( ! human body bran* out ( ! he>t1 :i* may be consid]$ z a common c5tre to bo? sets ( vessels4 ,! he>t is a k9d ( /rong ela/ic bag1 or muscul> cavity1 :i* possesses a p[] ( dilat+ & contract+ itself1 = ! purposes ( alt]nately receiv+ & expell+ ! blood1 9 ord] to c>ry on ! process ( circulation4 ,,emily4 ,:y are ! art]ies 9 ?is draw+ pa9t$ r$1 & ! ve9s purple8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is to po9t out ! diff]5ce ( ! col\r ( ! blood 9 ^! two sets ( vessels4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b if x is ! same blood t fl[s f ! art]ies into ! ve9s1 h[ c its col\r be *ang$8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,?is *ange arises f v>i\s circum/ances4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 dur+ its passage ?r\gh ! art]ies1 ! blood und]goes a consid]able alt]ation1 "s ( its con/itu5t p>ts be+ gradually sep>at$ f x = ! purpose ( n\ri%+ ! body1 & ( supply+ ! v>i\s secretions4 ,! consequ5ce ( ?is is1 t ! florid art]ial col\r ( ! blood *anges by degrees to a deep purple1 :i* is its con/ant col\r 9 ! ve9s4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! blood is recruit$ dur+ its return ?r\gh ! ve9s by ! fre% *yle1 or imp]fect blood1 :i* has be5 produc$ by food2 & x receives also lymph f ! absorb5t vessels1 z we h be=e m5tion$4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ^! sev]al *anges1 ! blood returns to ! he>t 9 a /ate v diff]5t f t 9 :i* x left x4 ,x is load$ ) a great] proportion ( hydrog5 & c>bon1 & is no long] fit = ! n\ri%m5t ( ! body1 or o!r purposes ( circulation4 ,,emily4 ,& 9 ?is /ate does x mix 9 ! he>t ) ! pure florid blood t runs into ! art]ies8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no4 ,! he>t is divid$ into two cavities or comp>titions1 call$ ! "r & left v5tricles4 ,! left v5tricle is ! receptacle = ! pure art]ial blood previ\s to its circulation2 :il/ ! v5\s1 or impure blood1 :i* returns to ! he>t aft] hav+ circulat$1 is receiv$ into ! "r v5tricle1 previ\s to its purification1 :i* ,i %all pres5tly expla94 ,,c>ol9e4 ,= my "p1 ,i always ?\ght t ! same blood circulat$ aga9 & aga9 ?r\gh ! body1 )\t und]go+ any *ange4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yet y mu/ h suppos$ t ! blood circulat$ = "s purpose8 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i knew t x 0 indisp5sable to life2 b _h no idea ( its real functions4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,b n[ t y und]/& t ! blood conveys n\ri%m5t to e "p ( ! body1 & supplies ! v>i\s secretions1 y mu/ be s5sible t x _c con/antly answ] ^! objects )\t be+ proportionally r5ovat$ & purifi$4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b does n ! *yle answ] ?is purpose8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,only 9 "p4 ,x r5ovates ! nutritive pr9ciples ( ! blood1 b does n relieve x f ! sup]abundance ( wat] & c>bon ) :i* x is encumb]$4 ,,emily4 ,h[1 !n1 is ?is effect$8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,by ,,respiration4 ,?is is "o ( ! gr& my/]ies :i* mod]n *emi/ry has disclos$4 ,:5 ! v5\s blood ent]s ! "r v5tricle ( ! he>t1 x contracts by its muscul> p[]1 & ?r[s ! blood ?r\gh a l>ge vessel into ! lungs1 :i* are contigu\s1 & ?r\gh :i* x circulates by millions ( small ramifications4 ,"h x comes 9 contact ) ! air :i* we brea!4 ,! action ( ! air on ! blood 9 ! lungs is1 inde$1 conceal$1 f our imm$iate obs]vation2 b we are able to =m a tol]ably accurate judgm5t ( x f ! *anges :i* x effects n only 9 ! blood1 b also on ! air expir$4 ,! air1 aft] pass+ ?r\gh ! lungs1 is f\nd to conta9 all ! nitrog5 inspir$1 b to h lo/ "p ( its oxyg51 & to h acquir$ a portion ( wat]y vap\r & ( c>bonic acid gas4 ,h5ce x is inf]r$1 t :5 ! air comes 9 contact ) ! v5\s blood 9 ! lungs1 ! oxyg5 attracts f x ! sup]abundant quantity ( c>bon ) :i* x has impregnat$ itself dur+ ! circulation1 & conv]ts x into c>bonic acid4 ,?is gase\s acid1 toge!r ) ! r$undant moi/ure f ! lungs991 be+ !n expir$1 ! blood is re/or$ to its =m] purity1 t is1 to ! /ate ( art]ial blood1 & is ?us aga9 enabl$ to p]=m its v>i\s functions4 ,footnote 993 ,! quantity ( moi/ure dis*>g$ by ! lungs 9 #bd h\rs1 may be comput$ at eight or n9e ounces4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,?is is truly wond]ful6 ,( all t we h yet le>n$1 ,i d n recollect any ?+ t has appe>$ to me s curi\s & int]e/+4 ,i almo/ believe t ,i %\ld l to /udy anatomy n[1 ?\gh ,i h hi!rto _h s disgu/+ an idea ( x4 ,pray1 to :om are we indebt$ = ^! beautiful discov]ies8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,prie/ley & ,craw=d1 9 ?is c\ntry1 & ,lavoisi]1 9 ,france1 are ! pr9cipal inv5tors ( ! !ory ( respiration4 ,( late ye>s ! subject has be5 f>!r illu/rat$ & simplifi$ by ! accurate exp]im5ts ( ,messrs4 ,all5 & ,pepys4 ,b ! /ill m important & m admirable discov]y ( ! circulation ( ! blood 0 made long be=e by our immortal c\ntryman ,h>vey4 ,,emily4 ,inde$ ,i nev] he>d any ?+ t delight$ me s mu* z ?is !ory ( respiration4 ,b ,i hope1 ,mrs4 ,b41 t y w ent] a little m into p>ticul>s be=e y dismiss s int]e/+ a subject4 ,we left ! blood 9 ! lungs to und]go ! salut>y *ange3 b h[ does x !nce spread to all ! p>ts ( ! body8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,aft] circulat+ ?r\gh ! lungs1 ! blood is collect$ into f\r l>ge vessels1 by :i* x is convey$ into ! left v5tricle ( ! he>t1 :5ce x is propell$ to all ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! body by a l>ge art]y1 :i* gradually ramifies into millions ( small art]ies ?r\gh ! :ole frame4 ,f ! extremities ( ^! little ramifications ! blood is transmitt$ to ! ve9s1 :i* br+ x back to ! he>t & lungs1 to g r\nd aga9 & aga9 9 ! mann] we h j describ$4 ,y see1 !re=e1 t ! blood actually und]goes two circulations2 ! "o1 ?r\gh ! lungs1 by :i* x is conv]t$ into pure art]ial blood2 ! o!r1 or g5]al circulation1 by :i* n\ri%m5t is convey$ to e "p ( ! body2 & ^! are bo? equally indisp5sable to ! support ( animal life4 ,,emily4 ,b :5ce proce$s ! c>bon ) :i* ! blood is impregnat$ :5 x comes into ! lungs8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,c>bon exi/s 9 a great] proportion 9 blood ?an 9 organis$ animal matt]4 ,! blood1 !re=e1 aft] supply+ its v>i\s secretions1 becomes load$ ) an excess ( c>bon1 :i* is c>ri$ (f by respiration2 & ! =mation ( new *yle f ! food af=ds a con/ant supply ( c>bonace\s matt]4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i wond] :at quantity ( c>bon may be expell$ f ! blood by respiration 9 ! c\rse ( #bd h\rs8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x appe>s by ! exp]im5ts ( ,messrs4 ,all5 & ,pepys t ab\t #dj1jjj cubic in*es ( c>bonic acid gas are emitt$ f ! lungs ( a heal?y p]son1 daily2 :i* is equival5t to elev5 ounces ( solid c>bon e #bd h\rs4 ,,emily4 ,:at an imm5se quantity6 ,& pray h[ mu* ( c>bonic acid gas d we expel f our lungs at ea* expiration8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! quantity ( air :i* we take into our lungs at ea* inspiration1 is ab\t #dj cubic in*es1 :i* conta9 a little less ?an #aj cubic in*es ( oxyg52 & ( ^? #aj in*es1 "o-eigh? is conv]t$ into c>bonic acid gas on pass+ once ?r\gh ! lungs991 a *ange :i* is suffici5t to prev5t air :i* has only be5 brea!d once f suff]+ a tap] to burn 9 x4 ,footnote 993 ,! bulk ( c>bonic acid gas =m$ by respiration1 is exactly ! same z t ( ! oxyg5 gas :i* disappe>s4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,pray1 h[ does ! air come 9 contact ) ! blood 9 ! lungs8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i _c answ] ?is "q )\t ent]+ into an explanation ( ! nature & /ructure ( ! lungs4 ,y recollect t ! v5\s blood1 on be+ expell$ f ! "r v5tricle1 ent]s ! lungs to g ?r\gh :at we may call ! less] circulation2 ! l>ge trunk or vessel t conveys x bran*es out1 at its entrance into ! lungs1 into an inf9ite numb] ( v f9e ramifications4 ,! w9dpipe1 :i* conveys ! air f ! m\? into ! lungs1 likewise spreads out into a correspond+ numb] ( air vessels1 :i* foll[ ! same c\rse z ! blood vessels1 =m+ millions ( v m9ute air-cells4 ,^! two sets ( vessels are s int]wov5 z to =m a sort ( net-"w1 connect$ into a k9d ( spongy mass1 9 :i* e p>ticle ( blood mu/ necess>ily come 9 contact ) a p>ticle ( air4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b s9ce ! blood & ! air are conta9$ 9 diff]5t vessels1 h[ c !y come into contact8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,!y act on ea* o!r ?r\gh ! membrane :i* =ms ! coats ( ^! vessels2 = al?\gh ?is membrane prev5ts ! blood & ! air f mix+ toge!r 9 ! lungs1 yet x is no imp$im5t to _! *emical action on ea* o!r4 ,,emily4 ,are ! lungs compos$ entirely ( blood vessels & air vessels8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i believe !y are1 ) ! addition only ( n]ves & ( a small quantity ( ! cellul> sub/ance be=e m5tion$1 :i* connects ! :ole into an uni=m mass4 ,,emily4 ,pray1 :y are ! lungs always spok5 ( 9 ! plural numb]8 ,are !re m ?an "o8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 = ?\gh !y =m b "o organ1 !y really consi/ ( two comp>tm5ts call$ lobes1 :i* are enclos$ 9 sep>ate membranes or bags1 ea* occupy+ "o side ( ! *e/1 & be+ 9 close contact ) ea* o!r1 b )\t communicat+ toge!r4 ,?is is a beautiful provision ( nature1 9 consequ5ce ( :i*1 if "o ( ! lobes be w\nd$1 ! o!r p]=ms ! :ole process ( respiration till ! fir/ is heal$4 ,! blood1 ?us complet$1 by ! process ( respiration1 =ms ! mo/ complex ( all animal comp\nds1 s9ce x conta9s n only ! num]\s mat]ials necess>y to =m ! v>i\s secretions1 z saliva1 te>s1 c4 b likewise all ^? t are requir$ to n\ri% ! sev]al p>ts ( ! body1 z ! muscles1 bones1 n]ves1 gl&s1 c4 ,,emily4 ,!re seems to be a s+ul> analogy betwe5 ! blood ( animals & ! sap ( vegetables2 = ea* ( ^! fluids conta9s ! sev]al mat]ials de/9$ = ! nutrition ( ! num]\s class ( bodies to :i* !y respectively belong4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,nor is ! production ( ^! fluids 9 ! animal & vegetable sy/ems entirely diff]5t2 = ! absorb5t vessels1 :i* pump up ! *yle f ! /oma* & inte/9es1 may be comp>$ to ! absorb5ts ( ! roots ( plants1 :i* suck up ! n\ri%m5t f ! soil4 ,& ! analogy betwe5 ! sap & ! blood may be /ill fur!r trac$1 if we foll[ ! latt] 9 ! c\rse ( its circulation2 =1 9 ! liv+ animal1 we f9d e :]e organs :i* are possess$ ( a p[] to secrete f ! blood & appropriate to !mselves ! +r$i5ts requisite = _! support4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b :5ce d ^! organs d]ive _! respective p[]s8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,f a peculi> organisation1 ! secret ( :i* no "o has yet be5 able to unfold4 ,b x mu/ be ultimately by means ( ! vital pr9ciple t bo? _! me*anical & *emical p[]s are br\ght into action4 ,i _c dismiss ! subject ( circulation )\t m5tion+ p]spiration1 a secretion :i* is imm$iately connect$ ) x1 & acts a mo/ important "p 9 ! animal economy4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,is n ?is secretion likewise made by appropriate gl&s8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no2 x is p]=m$ by ! extremities ( ! art]ies1 :i* p5etrate ?r\gh ! sk9 & t]m9ate "u ! cuticle1 ?r\gh ! pores ( :i* ! p]spiration issues4 ,:5 ?is fluid is n secret$ 9 excess1 x is ins5sible1 because x is dissolv$ by ! air z x exudes f ! pores2 b :5 x is secret$ fa/] ?an x c be dissolv$1 x becomes s5sible1 z x assumes its liquid /ate4 ,,emily4 ,?is secretion be>s a /rik+ resemblance to ! transpiration ( ! sap ( plants4 ,!y bo? consi/ ( ! mo/ fluid "p1 & bo? exude f ! surface by ! extremities ( ! vessels ?r\gh :i* !y circulate4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,& ! analogy does n /op !re2 =1 s9ce x has be5 asc]ta9$ t ! sap returns into ! roots ( ! plants1 ! resemblance betwe5 ! animal & vegetable circulation is become /ill m obvi\s4 ,! latt]1 h[ev]1 is f> f be+ complete1 s9ce1 z we obs]v$ be=e1 x consi/s only 9 a ris+ & desc5d+ ( ! sap1 :il/ 9 animals ! blood actually circulates ?r\gh e "p ( ! sy/em4 ,we h n[1 ,i ?9k1 trac$ ! process ( nutrition1 f ! introduction ( ! food into ! /oma* to its f9ally becom+ a con/itu5t "p ( ! animal frame4 ,?is w1 !re=e1 be a fit p]iod to conclude our pres5t conv]sation4 ,:at fur!r rem>ks we h to make on ! animal economy %all be res]v$ = our next int]view4 ,,conv]sation ,,xxvi4 ,,on ,,animal ,,heat2 ,,& ,,on ,,v>i\s ,,animal ,,products4 ,,emily4 ,s9ce our la/ int]view1 ,i h be5 ?9k+ mu* ( ! !ory ( respiration2 & ,i _c help be+ /ruck ) ! resemblance :i* x appe>s to be> to ! process ( combu/ion4 ,= 9 respiration1 z 9 mo/ cases ( combu/ion1 ! air suff]s a *ange1 & a portion ( its oxyg5 comb9es ) c>bon1 produc+ c>bonic acid gas4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i am mu* pleas$ t ?is idea has occurr$ to y3 ^! two processes appe> s v analog\s1 t x has be5 suppos$ t a k9d ( combu/ion actually takes place 9 ! lungs2 n ( ! blood1 b ( ! sup]flu\s c>bon :i* ! oxyg5 attracts f x4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,a combu/ion 9 our lungs6 t is a curi\s idea inde$6 ,b1 ,mrs4 ,b41 h[ c y call ! action ( ! air on ! blood 9 ! lungs combu/ion1 :5 nei!r light nor heat are produc$ by x8 ,,emily4 ,i 0 go+ to make ! same objection4 --,yet ,i d n conceive h[ ! oxyg5 c comb9e ) ! c>bon1 & produce c>bonic acid1 )\t dis5gag+ heat8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! fact is1 t heat is dis5gag$499 ,:e!r any light be evolv$1 ,i _c pret5d to det]m9e2 b t heat is produc$ 9 consid]able & v s5sible quantities is c]ta91 & ?is is ! pr9cipal1 if n ! only s\rce ( ,,animal ,,heat4 ,footnote 993 ,x has be5 calculat$ t ! heat produc$ by respiration 9 #ab h\rs1 9 ! lungs ( a heal?y p]son1 is su* z w\ld melt ab\t #ajj p\nds ( ice4 ,,emily4 ,h[ wond]ful6 t ! v process :i* purifies & elaborates ! blood1 %\ld af=d an inexhau/ible supply ( int]nal heat8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,?is is ! !ory ( animal heat 9 its orig9al simplicity1 su* ne>ly z x 0 fir/ propos$ by ,black & ,lavoisi]4 ,x 0 equally cle> & +5i\s2 & 0 at fir/ g5]ally adopt$4 ,b x 0 object$1 on second consid]ation1 t if ! :ole ( ! animal heat 0 evolv$ 9 ! lungs1 x w\ld necess>ily be mu* less 9 ! extremities ( ! body ?an imm$iately at its s\rce2 :i* is n f\nd to be ! case4 ,?is objection1 h[ev]1 :i* 0 by no means frivol\s1 is n[ satisfactorily remov$ by ! foll[+ consid]ation3-- ,v5\s blood has be5 f\nd by exp]im5t to h less capacity = heat ?an art]ial blood2 :5ce x foll[s t ! blood1 9 gradually pass+ f ! art]ial to ! v5\s /ate1 dur+ ! circulation1 p>ts ) a portion ( caloric1 by means ( :i* heat is diffus$ ?r\gh e "p ( ! body4 ,,emily4 ,m & m admirable6 ,,c>ol9e4 ,! cause ( animal heat 0 always a p]fect my/]y to me1 & ,i am delight$ ) its explanation4 --,b pray1 ,mrs4 ,b41 c y tell me :at is ! reason ( ! increase ( heat t takes place 9 a fev]8 ,,emily4 ,is x n because we !n brea! quick]1 & !re=e m heat is dis5gag$ 9 ! sy/em8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t may be "o reason3 b ,i %\ld ?9k t ! pr9cipal cause ( ! heat exp]i5c$ 9 fev]s1 is1 t !re is no v5t = ! caloric :i* is g5]at$ 9 ! body4 ,"o ( ! mo/ consid]able secretions is ! ins5sible p]spiration2 ?is is con/antly c>ry+ (f caloric 9 a lat5t /ate2 b dur+ ! hot /age ( a fev]1 ! pores are s contract$1 t all p]spiration ceases1 & ! accumulation ( caloric 9 ! body occasions ^? burn+ s5sations :i* are s pa9ful4 ,,emily4 ,?is is1 no d\bt1 ! reason :y ! p]spiration t (t5 succe$s ! hot /age ( a fev] af=ds s mu* relief4 ,if ,i _h kn[n ?is !ory ( animal heat :5 ,i _h a fev] la/ summ]1 ,i ?9k ,i %\ld h f\nd "s amusem5t 9 wat*+ ! *emical processes t 7 go+ on )9 me4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b ex]cise likewise produces animal heat1 & t mu/ be q 9 a diff]5t mann]4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,n s mu* s z y ?9k2 = ! m ex]cise y take1 ! m ! body is /imulat$1 & requires recruit+4 ,= ?is purpose ! circulation ( ! blood is quick5$1 ! brea? proportionably accel]at$1 & consequ5tly a great] quantity ( caloric evolv$4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,true2 aft] runn+ v fa/1 ,i gasp = brea?1 my respiration is quick & h>d1 & x is j !n t ,i beg9 to feel hot4 ,,emily4 ,x w\ld seem1 !n1 t viol5t ex]cise %\ld produce fev]4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,n if ! p]son is 9 a good /ate ( heal?2 = ! additional caloric is !n c>ri$ (f by ! p]spiration :i* succe$s4 ,,emily4 ,:at admirable res\rces nature has provid$ = u6 ,by ! production ( animal heat %e has enabl$ u to keep up ! temp]ature ( our bodies above t ( inanimate objects2 & :5ev] ?is s\rce becomes too abundant1 ! excess is c>ri$ (f by p]spiration4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is by ! same law ( nature t we are enabl$1 9 all climates1 & 9 all seasons1 to pres]ve our bodies ( an equal temp]ature1 or at lea/ v ne>ly s4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,y _c mean to say t our bodies are ( ! same temp]ature 9 summ]1 & 9 w9t]1 9 ,engl&1 & 9 ! ,we/-,indies4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes1 ,i d2 at lea/ if y speak ( ! temp]ature ( ! blood1 & ! int]nal p>ts ( ! body2 = ^? p>ts t are imm$iately 9 contact ) ! atmosph]e1 su* z ! h&s & face1 w occasionally get w>m]1 or cold]1 ?an ! int]nal or m %elt]$ p>ts4 ,b if y put ! bulb ( a !rmomet] 9 y\r m\?1 :i* is ! be/ way ( asc]ta9+ ! real temp]ature ( y\r body1 y w sc>cely p]ceive any diff]5ce 9 its indication1 :atev] may be ! diff]5ce ( temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,& :5 ,i feel ov]come by heat1 ,i am really n hott] ?an :5 ,i am %iv]+ ) cold8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,:5 a p]son 9 heal? feels v hot1 :e!r f int]nal heat1 f viol5t ex]cise1 or f ! temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e1 8 body is c]ta9ly a little w>m] ?an :5 he feels v cold2 b ?is diff]5ce is mu* small] ?an our s5sations w\ld make u believe2 & ! natural /&>d is soon re/or$ by re/ & by p]spiration4 ,x is *iefly ! ext]nal p>ts t are w>m]1 & ,i am sure t y w be surpris$ to he> t ! int]nal temp]ature ( ! body sc>cely ev] desc5ds bel[ n9ety-five or n9ety-six degrees1 & seldom atta9s "o hundr$ & f\r or "o hundr$ & five degrees1 ev5 9 ! mo/ viol5t fev]s4 ,,emily4 ,! great] quantity ( caloric1 !re=e1 t we receive f ! atmosph]e 9 summ]1 _c raise ! temp]ature ( our bodies beyond c]ta9 limits1 z x does t ( inanimate bodies1 because an excess ( caloric is c>ri$ (f by p]spiration4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b ! temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e1 & consequ5tly t ( inanimate bodies1 is surely nev] s high z t ( animal heat8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,i beg y\r p>don4 ,frequ5tly 9 ! ,ea/ & ,we/ ,indies1 & sometimes 9 ! s\!rn p>ts ( ,europe1 ! atmosph]e is above n9ety-eight degrees1 :i* is ! common temp]ature ( animal heat4 ,inde$1 ev5 9 ?is c\ntry1 x occasionally happ5s t ! sun's rays1 sett+ full on an object1 elevate its temp]ature above t po9t4 ,9 illu/ration ( ! p[] :i* our bodies h to resi/ ! effects ( ext]nal heat1 ,sir ,*>les ,blagd51 ) "s o!r g5tlem51 made sev]al v curi\s exp]im5ts4 ,he rema9$ = "s "t 9 an ov5 heat$ to a temp]ature n mu* inf]ior to t ( boil+ wat]1 )\t suff]+ any o!r inconv5i5ce ?an a pr(use p]spiration1 :i* he support$ by dr9k+ pl5tifully4 ,,emily4 ,he c\ld sc>cely consid] ! p]spiration z an inconv5i5ce1 s9ce x sav$ him f be+ bak$ by giv+ v5t to ! excess ( caloric4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i always ?\ght1 ,i confess1 t x 0 f ! heat ( ! p]spiration t we suff]$ 9 summ]4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,y n[ f9d t y are q mi/ak54 ,:5ev] evaporation takes place1 cold1 y "k1 is produc$ 9 consequ5ce ( a quantity ( caloric be+ c>ri$ (f 9 a lat5t /ate2 ?is is ! case ) p]spiration1 & x is 9 ?is way t x af=ds relief4 ,x is on t acc\nt also t we are s apt to cat* cold1 :5 9 a /ate ( pr(use p]spiration4 ,x is = ! same reason t tea is (t5 refre%+ 9 summ]1 ?\gh x appe>s to heat y at ! mom5t y dr9k x4 ,,emily4 ,& 9 w9t]1 on ! contr>y1 tea is pleasant on acc\nt ( its heat4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 = we h !n r to gu>d aga9/ a defici5cy ?an an excess ( caloric1 & y d n f9d t tea w excite p]spiration 9 w9t]1 unless aft] danc+1 or any o!r viol5t ex]cise4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,:at is ! reason t x is dang]\s to eat ice aft] danc+1 or to dr9k any ?+ cold :5 "o is v hot8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,because ! loss ( heat aris+ f ! p]spiration1 conjo9tly ) ! *ill occasion$ by ! cold draught1 produce m cold ?an c be borne ) safety1 unless y cont9ue to use ! same ex]cise aft] dr9k+ t y did be=e2 = ! heat occasion$ by ! ex]cise w c\nt]act ! effects ( ! cold dr9k1 & ! dang] w be remov$4 ,y may1 h[ev]1 contr>y to ! common notion1 consid] x z a rule1 t cold liquids may1 at all times1 be drunk ) p]fect safety1 h[ev] hot y may feel1 provid$ y are n at ! mom5t 9 a /ate ( great p]spiration1 & on condition t y keep y\rself 9 g5tle ex]cise aft]w>ds4 ,,emily4 ,b s9ce we are furni%$ ) su* res\rces aga9/ ! extremes ( heat or cold1 ,i %\ld h ?\ght t all climates w\ld h be5 equally :olesome4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t is true1 9 a c]ta9 degree1 ) reg>d to ^? :o h be5 accu/om$ to !m f bir?2 = we f9d t ! natives ( ^? climates1 :i* we consid] z mo/ delet]i\s1 are z heal?y z ourselves2 & if su* climates are un:olesome to ^? :o are habituat$ to a m mod]ate temp]ature1 x is because ! animal economy does n easily accu/om itself to consid]able *anges4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b pray1 ,mrs4 ,b41 if ! circulation pres]ves ! body ( an uni=m temp]ature1 h[ does x happ5 t animals are sometimes froz58 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,because1 if m heat be c>ri$ (f by ! atmosph]e ?an ! circulation c supply1 ! cold w f9ally prevail1 ! he>t w cease to beat1 & ! animal w be froz54 ,&1 likewise1 if ! body rema9$ long expos$ to a degree ( heat1 great] ?an ! p]spiration c\ld c>ry (f1 x w\ld at la/ lose ! p[] ( resi/+ its de/ructive influ5ce4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,fi%1 ,i suppose1 h no animal heat1 b only p>take ( ! temp]ature ( ! wat] 9 :i* !y live8 ,,emily4 ,& _! coldness1 no d\bt1 proce$s f _! n brea?+8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,all k9ds ( fi% brea! m or less1 ?\gh 9 a mu* small] degree ?an l& animals4 ,nor are !y entirely de/itute ( animal heat1 ?\gh1 = ! same reason1 !y are mu* cold] ?an o!r creatures4 ,!y h comp>atively b a v small quantity ( blood1 !re=e b v little oxyg5 is requir$1 & a proportionally small quantity ( animal heat is g5]at$4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b h[ c fi% brea! "u wat]8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,!y brea! by means ( ! air :i* is dissolv$ 9 ! wat]1 & if y put !m into wat] depriv$ ( air by boil+1 !y are soon suffocat$4 ,if a fi% is conf9$ 9 a vessel ( wat] clos$ f ! air1 x soon dies2 & any fi% put 9 aft]w>ds w\ld be kill$ imm$iately1 z all ! air _h be5 previ\sly consum$4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,are !re any species ( animals t brea! m ?an we d8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,yes2 birds1 ( all animals1 brea! ! greate/ quantity ( air 9 proportion to _! size2 & x is to ?is t !y are suppos$ to owe ! peculi> firmness & /r5g? ( _! muscles1 by :i* !y are enabl$ to support ! viol5t ex]tion ( fly+4 ,?is diff]5ce betwe5 birds & fi%1 :i* may be consid]$ z ! two extremes ( ! scale ( muscul> /r5g?1 is well wor? obs]v+4 ,birds resid+ con/antly 9 ! atmosph]e1 surr\nd$ by oxyg51 & respir+ x 9 great] proportions ?an any o!r species ( animals1 are end[$ ) a sup]ior degree ( muscul> /r5g?1 :il/ ! muscles ( fi%1 on ! contr>y1 are flaccid & oily2 ^! animals are comp>atively feeble 9 _! motions1 & _! temp]ature is sc>cely above t ( ! wat] 9 :i* !y live4 ,?is is1 9 all probability1 ow+ to _! imp]fect respiration2 ! quantity ( hydrog5 & c>bon1 t is 9 consequ5ce accumulat$ 9 _! bodies1 =ms ! oil :i* is s /rongly *>act]i/ic ( t species ( animals1 & :i* relaxes & s(t5s ! small quantity ( fibr9e :i* _! muscles conta94 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b1 ,mrs4 ,b41 !re are "s species ( birds t frequ5t bo? elem5ts1 z1 = in/ance1 ducks & o!r wat] f[l4 ,( :at nature is ! fle% ( ^!8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,su* birds1 9 g5]al1 make b little use ( _! w+s2 if !y fly1 x is b feebly1 & only to a %ort di/ance4 ,_! fle%1 too1 p>takes ( ! oily nature1 & ev5 9 ta/e sometimes resembles t ( fi%4 ,?is is ! case n only ) ! v>i\s k9ds ( wat] f[ls1 b ) all o!r amphibi\s animals1 z ! ott]1 ! crocodile1 ! liz>d1 c4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,& :at is ! reason t reptiles are s defici5t 9 muscul> /r5g?8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,x is because !y usually live "u gr\nd1 & seldom come into ! atmosph]e4 ,!y h imp]fect1 & sometimes no disc]nible organs ( respiration2 !y p>take !re=e ( ! s(t oily nature ( fi%2 inde$1 _m ( !m are amphibi\s1 z frogs1 toads1 & snakes1 & v few ( !m f9d any difficulty 9 rema9+ a l5g? ( "t "u wat]4 ,:il/1 on ! contr>y1 ! insect tribe1 t are s /rong 9 proportion to _! size1 & al]t 9 _! motions1 p>take ( ! nature ( birds1 air be+ _! peculi> elem5t1 & _! organs ( respiration be+ comp>atively l>g] ?an 9 o!r classes ( animals4 ,i h n[ giv5 y a %ort acc\nt ( ! pr9cipal animal functions4 ,h[ev] int]e/+ ! subject may appe> to y1 a full] inve/igation ( x w\ld1 ,i fe>1 lead u too f> f our object4 ,,emily4 ,yet ,i %all n quit x )\t mu* regret2 = ( all ! bran*es ( *emi/ry1 x is c]ta9ly ! mo/ curi\s & mo/ int]e/+4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b1 ,mrs4 ,b41 ,i mu/ rem9d y t y promis$ to give u "s acc\nt ( ! nature ( milk4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,true4 ,!re are sev]al o!r animal productions t des]ve likewise to be m5tion$4 ,we %all beg9 ) milk1 :i* is c]ta9ly ! mo/ important & ! mo/ int]e/+ ( all ! animal secretions4 ,milk1 l all o!r animal sub/ances1 ultimately yields by analysis oxyg51 hydrog51 c>bon1 & nitrog54 ,^! are comb9$ 9 x "u ! =ms ( album51 gelat9e1 oil1 & wat]4 ,b milk conta9s1 besides1 a consid]able portion ( phosphat ( lime1 ! purposes ( :i* ,i h already po9t$ out4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,yes2 x is ?is salt :i* s]ves to n\ri% ! t5d] bones ( ! suckl+4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,to r$uce milk to its elem5ts1 w\ld be a v complicat$1 z well z useless op]ation2 b ?is fluid1 )\t any *emical assi/ance1 may be decompos$ into ?ree p>ts1 cream1 curds1 & :ey4 ,^! con/itu5ts ( milk h b a v slight aff9ity = ea* o!r1 & y f9d accord+ly t cream sep>ates f milk by m]e /&+4 ,x consi/s *iefly ( oil1 :i* be+ light] ?an ! o!r p>ts ( ! milk1 gradually rises to ! surface4 ,x is ( ?is1 y "k1 t butt] is made1 :i* is no?+ m ?an oxyg5at$ cream4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,butt]1 !n1 is some:at analog\s to ! waxy sub/ance =m$ by ! oxyg5ation ( vegetable oils4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,v mu* s4 ,,emily4 ,b is ! cream oxyg5at$ by *urn+8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,its oxyg5ation comm5ces previ\s to *urn+1 m]ely by /&+ expos$ to ! atmosph]e1 f :i* x absorbs oxyg54 ,! process is aft]w>ds complet$ by *urn+2 ! viol5t motion :i* ?is op]ation occasions br+s e p>ticle ( cream 9 contact ) ! atmosph]e1 & ?us facilitates its oxyg5ation4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,b ! effect ( *urn+1 ,i h (t5 obs]v$ 9 ! dairy1 is to sep>ate ! cream into two sub/ances1 butt] & butt]-milk4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,t is to say1 9 proportion z ! oily p>ticles ( ! cream become oxyg5at$1 !y sep>ate f ! o!r con/itu5t p>ts ( ! cream 9 ! =m ( butt]4 ,s by *urn+ y produce1 on ! "o h&1 butt]1 or oxyg5at$ oil2 &1 on ! o!r1 butt]-milk1 or cream depriv$ ( oil4 ,b if y make butt] by *urn+ new milk in/ead ( cream1 ! butt]-milk w !n be exactly simil> 9 its prop]ties to cream$ or skimm$ milk4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,yet butt]-milk is v diff]5t f common skimm$ milk4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,because y "k x is cu/om>y1 9 ord] to save "t & lab\r1 to make butt] f cream alone4 ,9 ?is case1 !re=e1 ! butt]-milk is depriv$ ( ! cream$ milk1 :i* conta9s bo? ! curd & :ey4 ,besides1 9 consequ5ce ( ! milk rema9+ expos$ to ! atmosph]e dur+ ! sep>ation ( ! cream1 ! latt] becomes m or less acid1 z well z ! butt]-milk :i* x yields 9 *urn+4 ,,emily4 ,:y %\ld n ! butt] be equally acidifi$ by oxyg5ation8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,animal oil is n s easily acidifi$ z ! o!r +r$i5ts ( milk4 ,butt]1 !re=e1 ?\gh usually made ( s\r cream1 is n s\r itself1 because ! oily "p ( ! cream _h n be5 acidifi$4 ,butt]1 h[ev]1 is susceptible ( becom+ acid by an excess ( oxyg52 x is !n said to be rancid1 & produces ! sebacic acid1 ! same z t :i* is obta9$ f fat4 ,,emily4 ,if t be ! case1 might n rancid butt] be sweet5$ by mix+ ) x "s sub/ance t w\ld take ! acid f x8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,?is idea has be5 sugge/$ by ,sir ,h4 ,davy1 :o supposes1 t if rancid butt] 7 well wa%$ 9 an alkal9e solution1 ! alkali w\ld sep>ate ! acid f ! butt]4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,y said j n[ t cream$ milk consi/$ ( curd & :ey4 ,pray h[ are ^! sep>at$8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,!y may be sep>at$ by /&+ = a c]ta9 l5g? ( "t expos$ to ! atmosph]e2 b ?is decomposition may be almo/ in/antane\sly effect$ by ! *emical ag5cy ( a v>iety ( sub/ances4 ,alkalies1 r5net991 & inde$ almo/ all animal sub/ances1 decompose milk by comb9+ ) ! curds4 ,acids & spiritu\s liquors1 on ! o!r h&1 produce a decomposition by comb9+ ) ! :ey4 ,9 ord]1 !re=e1 to obta9 ! :ey pure1 r5net1 or alkal9e sub/ances1 mu/ be us$ to attract ! curds f x4 ,b if x be wi%$ to obta9 ! curds pure1 ! :ey mu/ be sep>at$ by acids1 w9e1 or o!r spiritu\s liquors4 ,footnote 993 ,r5net is ! "n giv5 to a wat]y infusion ( ! coats ( ! /oma* ( a suck+ calf4 ,its rem>kable efficacy 9 promot+ coagulation is suppos$ to dep5d on ! ga/ric juice ) :i* x is impregnat$4 ,,emily4 ,?is is a v useful piece ( in=mation2 = ,i f9d :ite-w9e :ey1 :i* ,i sometimes take :5 ,i h a cold1 extremely heat+2 n[1 if ! :ey 7 sep>at$ by means ( an alkali in/ead ( w9e1 x w\ld n produce t effect4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,p]haps n4 ,b ,i w\ld /r5u\sly advise y n to place too mu* reliance on y\r slight *emical k 9 m$ical matt]s4 ,i d n "k :y :ey is n sep>at$ f curd by r5net1 or by an alkali1 = ! purpose :i* y m5tion2 b ,i /rongly suspect t !re mu/ be "s good reason :y ! prep>ation by means ( w9e is g5]ally pref]r$4 ,i c1 h[ev]1 safely po9t out to y a me?od ( obta9+ :ey )\t ei!r alkali1 r5net1 or w9e2 x is by sub/itut+ lemon juice1 a v small quantity ( :i* w sep>ate x f ! curds4 ,:ey1 z an article ( diet1 is v :olesome1 be+ rem>kable light ( dige/ion4 ,b its effect1 tak5 m$ic9ally1 is *iefly1 ,i believe1 to excite p]spiration1 by be+ drunk w>m on go+ to b$4 ,f :ey a sub/ance may be obta9$ 9 cry/als by evaporation1 call$ sug> ( milk4 ,?is sub/ance is sweet to ! ta/e1 & 9 its composition is s analog\s to common sug>1 t x is susceptible ( und]go+ ! v9\s f]m5tation4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,:y !n is n w9e1 or alcohol1 made f :ey8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,! quantity ( sug> conta9$ 9 milk is s trifl+1 t x c h>dly answ] t purpose4 ,i h he>d ( only "o in/ance ( its be+ us$ = ! production ( a spiritu\s liquor1 & ?is is by ! ,t>tan ,arabs2 _! abundance ( horses1 z well z _! sc>city ( fruits1 has introduc$ ! f]m5tation ( m>es' milk1 by :i* !y produce a liquor call$ k\miss4 ,:ey is likewise susceptible ( be+ acidifi$ by comb9+ ) oxyg5 f ! atmosph]e4 ,x !n produces ! lactic acid1 :i* y may recollect is m5tion$ among/ ! animal acids1 z ! acid ( milk4 ,let u n[ see :at are ! prop]ties ( curds4 ,,emily4 ,i "k t !y are made into *eese2 b ,i h he>d t = t purpose !y are sep>at$ f ! :ey by r5net1 & yet ?is y h j told u is n ! me?od ( obta9+ pure curds8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,nor are pure curds s well adapt$ = ! =mation ( *eese4 ,= ! nature & flav\r ( ! *eese dep5d1 9 a great measure1 ^u ! cream or oily matt] :i* is left 9 ! curds2 s t if e p>ticle ( cream be remov$ f ! curds1 ! *eese is sc>cely eatable4 ,ri* *eeses1 su* z cream & ,/ilton *eeses1 d]ive _! excell5ce f ! quantity1 z well z ! quality1 ( ! cream t ent]s into _! composition4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,i _h no idea t milk 0 su* an int]e/+ comp\nd4 ,9 _m respects !re appe>s to me to be a v /rik+ analogy betwe5 milk & ! cont5ts ( an egg1 bo? 9 respect to _! nature & _! use4 ,!y are1 ea* ( !m1 compos$ ( ! v>i\s sub/ances necess>y = ! n\ri%m5t ( ! "y animal1 & equally de/9$ = t purpose4 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a v ess5tial diff]5ce4 ,! "y animal is =m$1 z well z n\ri%$1 by ! cont5ts ( ! egg-%ell2 :il/ milk s]ves z nutrim5t to ! suckl+1 only aft] x is born4 ,!re are sev]al peculi> animal sub/ances :i* d n ent] into ! g5]al enum]ation ( animal comp\nds1 & :i*1 h[ev]1 des]ve to be m5tion$4 ,sp]maceti is ( ?is class2 x is a k9d ( oily sub/ance obta9$ f ! head ( ! :ale1 :i*1 h[ev]1 mu/ und]go a c]ta9 prep>ation be=e x is 9 a fit /ate to be made into c&les4 ,x is n mu* m combu/ible ?an tall[1 b x is pleasant] to burn1 z x is less fusible & less greasy4 ,amb]gris is ano!r peculi> sub/ance d]iv$ f a species ( :ale4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 seldom obta9$ f ! animal itself1 b is g5]ally f\nd float+ on ! surface ( ! sea4 ,wax1 y "k1 is a concrete oil1 ! peculi> product ( ! bee1 "p ( ! con/itu5ts ( :i* may probably be d]iv$ f fl[]s1 b s prep>$ by ! organs ( ! bee1 & s mix$ ) its own sub/ance1 z to be decid$ly an animal product4 ,bees' wax is naturally ( a yell[ col\r1 b x is blea*$ by long exposure to ! atmosph]e1 or may be in/antane\sly :it5$ by ! oxy-muriatic acid4 ,! combu/ion ( wax is f> m p]fect ?an t ( tall[1 & consequ5tly produces a great] quantity ( light & heat4 ,lac is a sub/ance v simil> to wax 9 ! mann] ( its =mation2 x is ! product ( an insect1 :i* collects its +r$i5ts f fl[]s1 app>5tly = ! purpose ( protect+ its eggs f injury4 ,x is =m$ into cells1 fabricat$ ) z mu* skill z ^? ( ! honey-comb1 b diff]5tly arrang$4 ,! pr9cipal use ( lac is 9 ! manufacture ( seal+-wax1 & 9 mak+ v>ni%es & lacqu]s4 ,musk1 civet1 & ca/or1 are o!r p>ticul> productions1 f diff]5t species ( quadrup$s4 ,! two fir/ are v p[]ful p]fumes2 ! latt] has a nause\s smell & ta/e1 & is only us$ m$ic9ally4 ,,c>ol9e4 ,is x f ?is sub/ance t ca/or oil is obta9$8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,no4 ,f> f x1 = ca/or oil is a vegetable oil1 express$ f ! se$s ( a p>ticul> plant2 & has n ! lea/ resemblance to ! m$ic9al sub/ance obta9$ f ! ca/or4 ,silk is a peculi> secretion ( ! silk-worm1 ) :i* x builds its ne/ or cocoon4 ,?is insect 0 orig9ally br\ght to ,europe f ,*9a4 ,silk1 9 its *emical nature1 is v simil> to ! hair & wool ( animals2 :il/ 9 ! insect x is a fluid1 :i* is coagulat$1 app>5tly by unit+ ) oxyg51 z soon z x comes 9 contact ) ! air4 ,! mo? ( ! silk-worm ejects a liquor :i* appe>s to conta9 a p>ticul> acid1 call$ bombic1 ! prop]ties ( :i* are b v little kn[n4 ,,emily4 ,be=e we conclude ! subject ( ! animal economy1 %all we n le>n by :at /eps dead animals return to _! elem5t>y /ate8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,animal matt]1 al?\gh ! mo/ complicat$ ( all natural sub/ances1 returns to its elem5t>y /ate by "o s+le spontane\s process1 ! putrid f]m5tation4 ,by ?is1 ! album51 fibr9e1 c4 are sl[ly r$uc$ to ! /ate ( oxyg51 hydrog51 nitrog51 & c>bon2 & ?us ! circle ( *anges ?r\gh :i* ^! pr9ciples h pass$ is f9ally complet$4 ,!y fir/ quitt$ _! elem5t>y =m1 or _! comb9ation ) unorganis$ matt]1 to ent] into ! vegetable sy/em4 ,h5ce !y 7 transmitt$ to ! animal k+dom2 & f ?is !y return1 aga9 to _! primitive simplicity1 soon to re-ent] ! sph]e ( organis$ exi/5ce4 ,:5 all ! circum/ances necess>y to produce f]m5tation d n take place1 animal1 l vegetable matt]1 is liable to a p>tial or imp]fect decomposition1 :i* conv]ts x into a combu/ible sub/ance v l sp]maceti4 ,i d>e say t ,c>ol9e1 :o is s fond ( analogies1 w consid] ?is z a k9d ( animal bitum54 ,,c>ol9e4 ,& :y %\ld ,i n1 s9ce ! processes :i* produce ^! sub/ances are s simil>8 ,,mrs4 ,b4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 "o consid]able diff]5ce2 ! /ate ( bitum5 seems p]man5t1 :il/ t ( animal sub/ances1 ?us imp]fectly decompos$1 is only transi5t2 & unless precautions be tak5 to pres]ve !m 9 t /ate1 a total dissolution infallibly ensues4 ,?is circum/ance1 ( ! occasional conv]sion ( animal matt] into a k9d ( sp]maceti1 is ( late discov]y4 ,a manufacture has 9 consequ5ce be5 e/abli%$ ne> ,bri/ol1 9 :i*1 by expos+ ! c>cases ( horses & o!r animals = a l5g? ( "t "u wat]1 ! muscul> p>ts are conv]t$ into ?is sp]maceti-l sub/ance4 ,! bones aft]w>ds und]go a diff]5t process to produce h>t%orn1 or1 m prop]ly1 ammonia1 & phosphorus2 & ! sk9 is prep>$ = lea!r4 ,?us art contrives to enl>ge ! sph]e ( useful purposes1 = :i* ! elem5ts 7 int5d$ by nature2 & ! productions ( ! sev]al k+doms are frequ5tly arre/$ 9 _! c\rse1 & v>i\sly modifi$1 by human skill1 :i* compels !m to contribute1 "u new =ms1 to ! necessities or luxuries ( man4 ,b all t we enjoy1 :e!r produc$ by ! spontane\s op]ations ( nature1 or ! +5i\s ef=ts ( art1 proce$ alike f ! goodness ( ,provid5ce4 --,to ,,god alone man owes ! admirable faculties :i* enable him to improve & modify ! productions ( nature1 no less ?an ^? productions !mselves4 ,9 contemplat+ ! works ( ! creation1 or /udy+ ! inv5tions ( art1 let u1 !re=e1 nev] =get ! ,div9e ,s\rce f :i* !y proce$2 & ?us e acquisition ( k w prove a lesson ( piety & virtue4 ,,index4 ,a ,absorb5t vessels1 ii4 #cjd ,absorption ( caloric1 i4 #ei4 #ff ,acetic acid1 ii4 #ge4 #aig ,acet\s f]m5tation1 ii4 #bcb ---- acid1 ii4 #aic4 #bcb ,acidul\s gase\s m9]al wat]s1 ii4 #abi ---- salts1 ii4 #bjj ,acids1 i4 #bfb4 ii4 #fi ,a]i=m1 i4 #cf ,aff9ity1 i4 #ai4 ii4 #a ,agate1 ii4 #ea ,agriculture1 ii4 #beb ,air1 i4 #ahb4 ii4 #bfb ,album51 ii4 #bgg4 #bhh ,alburnum1 ii4 #bfg ,al*emi/s1 i4 #d ,alcohol1 or _s ( w9e1 ii4 #bae4 #bbb ,alembic1 i4 #beh ,alkalies1 ii4 #ai ,alkal9e e>?s1 ii4 #ej4 #eh ,alloys1 i4 #cdd ,alum1 or sulphat ( alum9e1 ii4 #ee4 #ie ,alum9e1 ii4 #ed ,alumium1 i4 #ac ,amalgam1 i4 #cdg ,amb]gris1 ii4 #ceh ,ame?y/1 ii4 #eh ,amian?us1 ii4 #ff ,ammonia1 or volatile alkali1 i4 #cfc4 ii4 #bj4 #ce ,ammoniacal gas1 ii4 #cf ,ammonium1 i4 #ac ,analysis1 i4 #bhg ---- ( vegetables1 ii4 #afe ,animals1 ii4 #bgf ,animal acids1 ii4 #ge4 #bij ---- col\rs1 ii4 #bib ---- heat1 ii4 #ccg ---- oil1 ii4 #agh4 #bhc ,animalization1 ii4 #bgf4 #big4 #cae ,antidotes1 ii4 #da4 #hg ,antimony1 i4 #ad ,aqua =tis1 ii4 #aje ---- regia1 i4 #cdj4 ii4 #add ,arrack1 ii4 #bbj ,arg&'s ,lamp1 i4 #bjh ,ars5ic1 i4 #ad4 #cdj4 #cdh ,art]ies1 ii4 #cjd4 #cbc ,art]ial blood1 ii4 #cje4 #cbf4 #cch ,asphaltum1 ii4 #bdj ,assaftida1 ii4 #ahh ,assimilation1 ii4 #bih ,a/r+5t pr9ciple1 ii4 #aih ,atmosph]e1 i4 #ij4 #aha4 ii4 #bfb ,atmosph]ical air1 i4 #ahb ,attraction ( aggregation1 or cohesion1 i4 #af4 ii4 #b ---- ( composition1 i4 #af4 ii4 #a ,azot1 or nitrog51 i4 #ahb1 ii4 #ajj ,azotic gas1 i4 #ahb ,b ,balsams1 ii4 #afe4 #ahh ,balloons1 i4 #bde ,b>k1 ii4 #aic4 #bfe ,b>ytes1 ii4 #dd4 #eh4 #fa ,bases ( acids1 i4 #bfc4 ii4 #fi ---- gases1 i4 #ahc ---- salts1 ii4 #e ,be]1 ii4 #bab4 #bbj ,b5zoic acid1 ii4 #gd4 #aig ,bile1 ii4 #cjh ,birds1 ii4 #cdg ,bismu?1 i4 #ad ,bitum5s1 ii4 #bci ,black lead1 or plumbago1 i4 #cjd ,blea*+1 i4 #cb4 ii4 #hi4 #adj4 ,bl[-pipe1 i4 #cbd4 ii4 #bbf ,blood1 ii4 #cjf4 #cag ,blood-vessels1 ii4 #bih ,boil+ wat]1 i4 #ic ,bombic acid1 ii4 #ge4 #bij ,bones1 ii4 #bih1 #bii ,boracic acid1 i4 #cfe4 ii4 #aca ,boracium1 i4 #ac4 ii4 #acb ,borat ( soda1 ii4 #acc ,br&y1 ii4 #bah ,brass1 i4 #cdd ,bread1 ii4 #bcc ,bricks1 ii4 #ef ,brittle-metals1 i4 #ad ,bronze1 i4 #cda ,butt]1 ii4 #cea ,butt]-milk1 ii4 #ceb ,c ,calc>e\s e>?s1 ii4 #fe ---- /ones1 ii4 #abc ,calcium1 i4 #ac ,caloric1 i4 #ab4 #cc ----1 absorption (1 i4 #ff ----1 conductors (1 i4 #gj ----1 comb9$1 i4 #abb ----1 expansive p[] ( i4 #ce ----1 equilibrium (1 i4 #ej ----1 reflexion (1 i4 #ed4 #fg ----1 radiation (1 i4 #eb4 #fa ----1 solv5t p[] (1 i4 #if4 #ajb ----1 capacity =1 i4 #abd ,calorimet]1 i4 #aef ,calx1 i4 #ahc ,camphor1 ii4 #afe4 #ahe ,camphoric acid1 ii4 #gd4 #aig ,ca\t*\c1 ii4 #afe4 #ahi ,c>bonats1 ii4 #be4 #abi ,c>bonat ( ammonia1 ii4 #da ---- lead1 i4 #cbj ---- lime1 ii4 #ei4 #acj ---- magnesia1 ii4 #fg ---- pota%1 ii4 #be ,c>bonat$ hydrog5 gas1 i4 #cjb ,c>bon1 i4 #bhb4 ii4 #cbi ,c>bonic acid1 i4 #bij4 #cei4 ii4 #cbg ,c>buret ( iron1 i4 #cjd4 #cdb ,c>m9e1 ii4 #bie ,c>tilage1 ii4 #cjc ,ca/or1 ii4 #cei ,cellul> membrane1 ii4 #caa ,cau/ics1 i4 #cdi ,*alk1 ii4 #fb4 #abc ,*>coal1 i4 #bhb ,*eese1 ii4 #cef ,*emical attraction1 i4 #ae4 ii4 #i ,*emi/ry1 i4 #c ,*e/1 ii4 #cah ,*9a1 ii4 #ed ,*lor9e1 i4 #bad ,*rome1 i4 #ad4 #cdj ,*yle1 ii4 #cje4 #cag ,*yme1 ii4 #caf ,citric acid1 ii4 #gd4 #aig ,circulation ( ! blood1 ii4 #cbb ,civet1 ii4 #cei ,clay1 i4 #dh4 ii4 #ee ,coke1 ii4 #bda ,coal1 ii4 #bdj4 #beb ,cobalt1 i4 #ad ,co*9eal1 ii4 #bie ,cold1 i4 #ej4 #eh ---- f evaporation1 i4 #ajb4 #aac4 #aej ,col\rs ( metallic oxyds1 i4 #cai ,columbium1 i4 #ad4 #cdj4 #cdh ,comb9$ caloric1 i4 #abb ,combu/ion1 i4 #aij ----1 volatile products (1 i4 #bjg ----1 fix$ products (1 i4 #bjg ----1 ( alcohol1 ii4 #bbe ----1 ( ammoniacal gas1 ii4 #db ----1 ( boracium1 ii4 #acc ----1 by oxymuriatic acid or *lor9e1 ii4 #adb ----1 ( c>bon1 i4 #bhi ----1 ( coals1 i4 #bjg4 #big ----1 ( *>coal by nitric acid1 ii4 #ajb ----1 ( c&les1 i4 #bcf4 #cji4 ii4 #agi ----1 ( diamonds1 i4 #bib ----1 ( e!r1 ii4 #bcj ----1 ( hydrog51 i4 #bbi4 ----1 ( iron1 i4 #bjj4 #cbb ----1 ( metals1 i4 #cba ----1 ( oils1 i4 #bjh4 ii4 #agh4 #cji ----1 ( oil ( turp5t9e by nitr\s acid1 ii4 #f ----1 ( phosphorus1 i4 #bgb ----1 ( sulphur1 i4 #bfa ---- ( potassium1 i4 #ceh4 ii4 #acb4 #ach1 #aci ,comp\nd bodies1 i4 #i4 ii4 #ad ---- or neutral salts i4 #ccc4 ii4 #d ,conductors ( heat1 i4 #ga ----1 solids1 i4 #gc ----1 fluids1 i4 #gh ----1 ,c\nt ,rum=d's !ory1 i4 #gi ,con/itu5t p>ts1 i4 #i ,copp]1 i4 #ad4 #cca ,copal1 ii4 #ahg4 #bbd ,cortical lay]s1 ii4 #bfe4 #bfg ,cotyl$ons1 or lobes1 ii4 #bef ,cream1 ii4 #cea ,cream ( t>t>1 or t>trit ( pota%1 ii4 #bjj4 #bbb ,cryophorus1 i4 #aed ,cry/allisation1 i4 #cch4 ii4 #dg ,cucurbit1 i4 #beh ,cul9>y heat1 i4 #hh ,curd1 ii4 #cea4 #ced ,cuticle1 or epid]mis1 ii4 #caj ,d ,decomposition1 i4 #h4 #bj ---- ( atmosph]ical air1 i4 #aha4 #bji ---- ( wat] by ! ,voltaic batt]y1 i4 #bbj ---- ( salts by ! ,voltaic batt]y1 ii4 #ad ---- ( wat] by metals1 i4 #bbe4 #ccd ---- ---- by c>bon1 i4 #cja ---- ( vegetables1 ii4 #bjb ---- ( pota%1 i4 #cef ---- ( soda1 i4 #ef ---- ( ammonia1 i4 #cfc4 ii4 #cg ---- ( ! boracic acid1 ii4 #acb ---- ( ! fluoric acid1 ii4 #acf ---- ( ! muriatic acid1 ii4 #aci ,deflagration1 ii4 #aah ,def9ite proportions1 ii4 #ac ,deliquesc5ce1 ii4 #ie ,detonation1 i4 #bai4 ii4 #aaf ,dew1 i4 #aje ,diamond1 i4 #bhe ,diaphragm1 ii4 #cbj ,dige/ion1 ii4 #caf ,dissolution ( metals1 i4 #afe4 #caf4 #ccc ,di/illation1 i4 #bei4 ii4 #bah ---- ( r$ w9e1 ii4 #bah ,divell5t =ces1 ii4 #ab ,division1 i4 #g ,dry+ oils1 ii4 #aha ,dy+1 ii4 #aia ,e ,e>?s1 ii4 #dd ,e>!n-w>e1 ii4 #ec4 #eg ,eff]vesc5ce1 i4 #bih ,effloresc5ce1 ii4 #id ,ela/ic fluids1 i4 #cg ,electricity1 i4 #ab4 #be4 #afj4 #bbj4 ii4 #aci ,electric ma*9e1 i4 #afi ,elective attractions1 ii4 #i ,elem5t>y bodies1 i4 #h4 #ab ,elixirs1 t9ctures1 or qu9tess5ces1 ii4 #bbe ,enamel1 ii4 #eg ,epid]mis ( vegetables1 ii4 #bfi ---- ( animals1 ii4 #caj ,epsom salts1 ii4 #fc4 #ie ,equilibrium ( caloric1 i4 #ej ,ess5ces1 i4 #cjg4 ii4 #ahc4 #bbd ,ess5tial1 or volatile oils1 i4 #cjg4 ii4 #ahc ,e!r1 i4 #aaa4 ii4 #bbi ,evaporation1 i4 #ajc ,ev]gre5s1 ii4 #bgd ,eudiomet]1 i4 #bgf ,expansion ( caloric1 i4 #cf ,extractive col\r+ matt]1 ii4 #afe4 #aij ,f ,fall+ /ones1 i4 #cai ,fat1 i4 #cjf4 ii4 #caa ,fea!rs1 ii4 #cjj ,fecula1 ii4 #agf ,f]m5tation1 ii4 #bje ,fibr9e1 ii4 #bgg4 #bhi ,fire1 i4 #g4 #bg ,fi%1 ii4 #cdf ,fix$ air1 or c>bonic acid1 i4 #bij4 ii4 #abe ---- alkalies1 ii4 #bj ---- oils1 i4 #cjg4 ii4 #afe4 #agg ---- products ( combu/ion1 i4 #bjg ,flame1 i4 #bcg ,fl9t1 ii4 #cj4 #ea ,fl[] or blossom1 ii4 #bga ,fluoric acid1 ii4 #ed4 #acd ,fluorium1 or ,fluor9e1 i4 #ab4 ii4 #acf ,=mic acid1 ii4 #bij ,fossil wood1 ii4 #bdb ,frank9c5se1 ii4 #ahg ,free or radiant caloric1 or heat ( temp]ature1 i4 #cc ,freez+ mixtures1 i4 #adb ---- by evaporation1 i4 #ajd4 #aej1 c4 ,fro/1 i4 #id ,fruit1 ii4 #bga ,full]'s e>?1 ii4 #ee ,furnace1 i4 #cjd ,g ,galls1 ii4 #aii ,gallat ( iron1 ii4 #ih ,gallic acid1 ii4 #gd4 #aig1 #aih ,galvanism1 i4 #afc ,gas1 i4 #ahb ,gas-lights1 i4 #bdj ,gase\s oxyd ( c>bon1 i4 #bif ---- nitrog51 ii4 #aaa ,ga/ric juice1 ii4 #caf ,gelat9e1 or jelly1 ii4 #bgg4 #bhj ,g]m9ation1 ii4 #bef ,g91 ii4 #bba ,gl&s1 ii4 #bih4 #cjg ,glass1 ii4 #cj ,glaub]'s salts1 or sulphat ( soda1 ii4 #ib ,glaz+1 ii4 #eg ,glucium1 i4 #ac ,glue1 ii4 #bha4 #bhg ,glut51 ii4 #afe4 #agg ,gold1 i4 #ad4 #cbc ,gum1 ii4 #agj ---- arabic1 ii4 #agj ---- ela/ic1 or ca\t*\c1 ii4 #ahi ---- res9s1 ii4 #afe4 #ahh ,gunp[d]1 ii4 #aaf ,gypsum1 or plai/] ( ,p>is1 or sulphat ( lime1 ii4 #ie ,h ,hair1 ii4 #cjj ,h>rogate wat]1 i4 #bfh4 #cda ,h>t%orn1 ii4 #ce4 #ci4 #bha4 #bhe ,he>t1 ii4 #cbc ---- wood1 ii4 #bfh ,heat1 i4 #bf4 #cc ---- ( capacity1 i4 #abg4 #ace ---- ( temp]ature1 i4 #cc ,honey1 ii4 #age ,horns1 ii4 #bhb4 #cjj ,hydro-c>bonat1 i4 #bda4 #cjc ,hydrog51 i4 #bad ---- gas1 i4 #bae ,i ,jasp]1 ii4 #ea ,ice1 i4 #ach ,jelly1 ii4 #bha ,jet1 ii4 #bdj ,ignes fatui1 i4 #bgg ,ignition1 i4 #aai ,impond]able ag5ts1 i4 #ab ,inflammable air1 i4 #bae ,ink1 ii4 #ih4 #aii ,insects1 ii4 #cdi ,integrant pans1 i4 #i ,iridium1 i4 #ad ,iron1 i4 #ad4 #cai4 #cbh ,is+lass1 ii4 #aid4 #bhe ,ivory black1 ii4 #bie ,iod9e1 i4 #bad4 ii4 #aeg ,k ,kali1 ii4 #cd ,k\miss1 ii4 #cef ,l ,lac1 ii4 #ceh ,lactic acid1 ii4 #ge4 #bij4 #cef ,lakes1 col\rs1 ii4 #aij ,lat5t heat1 i4 #acc ,lav5d] wat]1 ii4 #ahd4 #bbd ,lead1 i4 #ad4 #cah4 #ccj ,lea!r1 ii4 #aic4 #bhg ,leaves1 ii4 #bfj ,life1 ii4 #aei4 #afh ,ligam5ts1 ii4 #cjc ,light1 i4 #ab4 #bf4 ii4 #bfa ,lightn+1 i4 #bdh ,lime1 ii4 #ei ---- wat]1 ii4 #fa ,lime/one1 ii4 #fj ,l9se$ oil1 ii4 #agh ,liqueurs1 ii4 #bbd ,liv]1 ii4 #cjh ,lobes1 ii4 #bef4 #ccb ,lun> cau/ic1 or nitrat ( silv]1 i4 #cej4 ii4 #aai ,lungs1 ii4 #cai4 #ccj ,lymph1 ii4 #cjd ,lymphatic vessels1 ii4 #cjd ,m ,magnesia1 ii4 #dd4 #ff ,magnium1 i4 #ac ,malic acid1 ii4 #gd4 #aig ,malt1 ii4 #baa ,malleable metals1 i4 #ad ,manganese1 i4 #ad4 #cag ,manna1 ii4 #agf ,manure1 ii4 #bdg ,m>ble1 ii4 #abc ,m>9e acid1 or muriatic acid1 ii4 #acf ,ma/ic1 ii4 #ahg4 #bbd ,mat]ials ( animals1 ii4 #bgg ---- ( vegetables1 ii4 #afe ,m]cury1 i4 #ad4 #cdf ----1 new mode ( freez+1 i4 #aee4 #cdg ,metallic acids1 i4 #cdj ---- oxyds1 i4 #caf ,metals1 i4 #ab4 #cad ,meteoric /ones1 i4 #cdb ,mica1 ii4 #ff ,milk1 ii4 #bii4 #cjf4 #cej ,m9]als1 i4 #cae4 ii4 #dd4 #aeh ,m9]al wat]s1 i4 #bif4 ii4 #abi ---- acids1 ii4 #gc ,m9]'s lamp1 i4 #bdi ,mixture1 i4 #ii ,molybd5a1 i4 #ad4 #cdj ,mordant1 ii4 #afe4 #aib ,mort>1 ii4 #ec4 #fe ,mucilage1 ii4 #agj ,muc\s acid1 ii4 #gd4 #aga4 #aig ---- membrane1 ii4 #caa ,muriatic acid1 or m>9e acid1 ii4 #acf ,muriats1 ii4 #aea ,muriat ( ammonia1 ii4 #ce4 #aeb ---- lime1 i4 #ajj ---- soda1 or common salt1 ii4 #acf4 #aea ---- pota%1 ii4 #ach ,muriatium1 i4 #ac ,muscles ( animals1 ii4 #bih4 #cjc ,musk1 ii4 #cei ,myrrh1 ii4 #ahh ,n4 ,naph?a1 i4 #ceg4 ii4 #bdj ,negative electricity1 i4 #be4 #afa4 #ahe ,n]ves1 ii4 #bgi4 #bih4 #cjh ,neutral1 or comp\nd salts1 i4 #ccc4 ii4 #d4 #bb4 #fi ,nickel1 i4 #ac4 #cdc ,nitre1 or nitrat ( pota%1 or saltpetre1 ii4 #cb4 #ajd4 #aaf ,nitric acid1 ii4 #ajj ,nitrog51 or azot1 i4 #aha4 ii4 #ajj ---- gas1 i4 #ahb4 #baa ,nitro-muriatic acid1 or aqua regia1 ii4 #add ,nitr\s acid gas1 ii4 #aja4 #ajf ---- air1 or nitrit oxyd gas1 ii4 #ajg ,nitrats1 ii4 #aaf ,nitrat ( copp]1 ii4 #e ---- ammonia1 ii4 #aac4 #aah ---- pota%1 or nitre1 or saltpetre1 ii4 #cb4 #ajd4 #aaf ---- silv]1 or lun> cau/ic1 ii4 #ai ,nom5clature ( acids1 i4 #bfd4 ii4 #fi ---- comp\nd salts1 ii4 #d4 #bb ---- o!r b9>y comp\nds1 i4 #bgh ,nut-galls1 ii4 #ih4 #aii ,nut-oil1 ii4 #agh ,nutrition1 ii4 #big ,o ,o*res1 i4 #cbj ,oils1 i4 #bhe4 ii4 #cjf ,oil ( amb]1 ii4 #bda ---- vitriol1 or sulphuric acid1 ii4 #hj ,olive oil1 ii4 #agh ,ores1 i4 #cae ,organiz$ bodies1 ii4 #aei ,organs ( animals1 ii4 #bij4 #caj ---- vegetables1 ii4 #aei4 #bfe4 #bga ,osmium1 i4 #ad4 #cdh ,oxalic acid1 ii4 #gd4 #aig ,oxyds1 i4 #aih ,oxyd ( manganese1 i4 #aag4 #cag ---- iron1 i4 #bjd4 #cai ---- lead1 i4 #cai ---- sulphur1 ii4 #ia ,oxydation1 or oxyg5ation1 i4 #aif ,oxyg51 i4 #aa4 #aha4 #bja4 #baa ---- gas1 or vital air1 i4 #ahb4 #bja ,oxy-muriatic acid1 ii4 #adj ,oxy-muriats1 ii4 #aec ,oxy-muriat ( pota%1 ii4 #aee ,p ,palladium1 i4 #ac4 #cdh ,pap9's dige/]1 i4 #abj4 ii4 #bhd ,p>5*yma1 ii4 #bef4 #bff ,p>ticles1 i4 #af ,pe>la%1 ii4 #bd ,peat1 ii4 #bdb ,peculi> juice ( plants1 ii4 #bfh ,p]fect metals1 i4 #ad4 #cbd ,p]fumes1 i4 #cjh4 ii4 #ahc ,p]spiration1 ii4 #ccc4 #cbi ,petrification1 ii4 #bcg ,pewt]1 i4 #cdd ,ph>macy1 i4 #ad ,phosphat ( lime1 ii4 #ii4 #bii ,phosphorat$ hydrog5 gas1 i4 #bgg ,phosphoresc5ce1 i4 #bi ,phosphoric acid1 i4 #bgc4 ii4 #ii ,phosphor\s acid1 i4 #bgd4 ii4 #ii ,phosphorus1 i4 #bgj ,phosphoret ( lime1 i4 #bgh4 #cda ---- sulphur1 i4 #bgi4 #cda ,pit*1 ii4 #ahg ,pla/]1 ii4 #fe ,plat9a1 i4 #ad4 #cbc ,plat+1 i4 #cde ,plumbago1 or black lead1 i4 #cjd ,plumula1 ii4 #beg ,porcela91 ii4 #ef ,positive electricity1 i4 #be4 #afa4 #ahe ,potassium1 i4 #ac4 #ceg4 ii4 #ae ,pott]y1 ii4 #ef ,pota%1 i4 #cef4 ii4 #bb ,precipitate1 i4 #bb ,pressure ( ! atmosph]e1 i4 #aab4 #aaf ,pr9t]'s ink1 ii4 #add ,prussiat ( iron1 or prussian blue1 ii4 #bia ---- pota%1 ii4 #bia ,prussic acid1 ii4 #ge4 #bij ,putrid f]m5tation1 ii4 #bce4 #cfj ,pyrites1 i4 #cda4 ii4 #ig ,pyromet]1 i4 #ch4 #db ,q ,quick lime1 ii4 #ei ,quiesc5t =ces1 ii4 #ab ,r ,radiation ( caloric1 i4 #eb ----1 ,prevo/'s !ory1 i4 #eb ----1 ,pictet's explanations1 i4 #ed ----1 ,leslie's illu/rations1 i4 #fa ,radicals1 ii4 #e4 #fi ,radicle2 or root1 ii4 #beg ,ra91 i4 #ajd ,rancidity1 ii4 #ahb ,rectification1 ii4 #bbc ,reflexion ( caloric1 i4 #ed4 #fd ,reptiles1 ii4 #cdi ,res9s1 ii4 #afe1 #ahf4 #bff ,respiration1 ii4 #cag4 #cbf ,reviv+ ( metals1 i4 #cbg ,rhodium1 i4 #ad4 #cdh ,roa/+ metals1 i4 #caf ,rock cry/al1 ii4 #fa ,ruby1 ii4 #ec ,rum1 ii4 #bai ,ru/1 i4 #cah4 #cbh ,s ,sac*>9e f]m5tation1 ii4 #bjh ,sal ammoniac1 or muriat ( ammonia1 ii4 #ce ---- poly*re/1 or sulphat ( pota%1 ii4 #ia ---- volatile1 or c>bonat ( ammonia1 ii4 #da ,salifiable bases1 ii4 #e ,salify+ pr9ciples1 ii4 #e ,saltpetre1 or nitre1 or nitrat ( pota%1 ii4 #cb4 #ajd4 #aaf ,salt1 ii4 #ia ,s&1 ii4 #cj4 #ea ,s&/one1 ii4 #ea ,sap ( plants1 ii4 #afe4 #bfj4 #bfb4 #bgj4 #bgb ,sapphire1 ii4 #eh ,saturation1 i4 #aja4 ,sapphire1 ii4 #eh ,saturation1 i4 #aja ,seas1 temp]ature (1 i4 #cc4 ,sebacic acid1 ii4 #ge4 #ahb4 #bij4 #cec ,secretions1 ii4 #cjg ,se$s ( plants1 ii4 #baj4 #bga ,seltz] wat]1 i4 #bhi4 ii4 #fc4 #abi ,s5ses1 ii4 #caj ,silex1 or silica1 ii4 #cj4 #ea ,silicium1 i4 #ac4 ,silk1 ii4 #cei ,silv]1 i4 #cba ,simple bodies1 i4 #aj4 #ab ,size1 ii4 #bha ,sk91 ii4 #bgi4 #caj4 #aic ,slake+ ( lime1 i4 #adg4 ii4 #ef ,slate1 ii4 #ea4 #ff ,smelt+ metals1 i4 #caf ,smoke i4 #bjh ,soap1 ii4 #bd ,soda1 i4 #cfc4 ii4 #cc ---- wat]1 i4 #bii ,sodium1 i4 #ac4 #cfc ,soils1 i4 #db4 ii4 #bde ,sold]+1 i4 #cde ,solubility1 ii4 #ib ,solution1 i4 #if ---- by ! air1 i4 #ajb ---- ( pota%1 ii4 #bh ,specific heat1 i4 #abf ,sp]maceti1 ii4 #ceh ,spirits1 ii4 #cac ,/eam1 i4 #adj4 #ahb ,/eel1 i4 #cje ,/oma*1 ii4 #cae ,/ones1 ii4 #df ,/ucco1 ii4 #fe ,/rontites1 ii4 #dd4 #fh ,/rontium1 i4 #ac ,sub]ic acid1 ii4 #gd4 #aig ,sublimation1 i4 #beg ,succ91 or yell[ amb]1 ii4 #bda ,succ9ic acid1 ii4 #gd4 #aig4 #bda ,sug>1 ii4 #afe4 #agd4 #bjh ---- ( milk1 ii4 #cee ,sulphats1 ii4 #e4 #ia ,sup] oxyg5at$ sulphuric acid1 ii4 #gj4 ,sulphat ( alum9e1 or alum1 ii4 #ed4 #ie ---- b>ytes1 ii4 #eh ---- iron1 ii4 #if ---- lime1 or gypsum1 or pla/] ( ,p>is1 ii4 #ie ---- magnesia1 or ,epsom salt1 ii4 #fg4 #ie ---- pota%1 or sal poly*re/1 ii4 #ia ---- soda1 or ,glaub]'s salts1 ii4 #ib ,sulphur1 i4 #bef ---- fl[]s (1 i4 #beg ,sulphurat$ hydrog5 gas1 i4 #afe4 #bfh ,sulphurets1 i4 #cda ,sulphur\s acid1 i4 #bed4 ii4 #hh ,sulphuric acid1 i4 #gd4 ii4 #bfe ,sympa!tic ink1 i4 #ced ,syn!sis1 i4 #bhg ,t ,tan1 ii4 #aib ,tann91 ii4 #afe4 #aib ,t>1 ii4 #ahg ,t>t>\s acid1 ii4 #gd4 #aig ,t>trit ( pota%1 ii4 #bbb ,tee?1 ii4 #cjj ,tellurium1 i4 #ad ,temp]ature1 i4 #cc ,?aw1 i4 #aeh ,!rmomet]s1 i4 #dj ----1 ,fahr5heit's1 i4 #db ----1 ,reaumur's1 i4 #db ----1 ,c5tigrade1 i4 #dc ----1 air1 i4 #dd ----1 diff]5tial1 i4 #df ,?und]1 i4 #bdh ,t91 i4 #ad4 #cdd ,titanium1 i4 #ad4 #cdh ,turf1 ii4 #bdb ,turp5t9e1 ii4 #ahg ,transpiration ( plants1 ii4 #bfj ,tung/51 i4 #ad4 #cdj ,v ,vap\r1 i4 #cf4 #di4 #ic4 #ahb ,vaporisation1 i4 #ajc ,v>ni%es1 ii4 #ahg ,vegetables1 ii4 #aeh ,vegetable acid1 i4 #caj4 ii4 #gd4 #aig ---- col\rs1 ii4 #aij ---- heat1 ii4 #bgb ---- oils1 ii4 #agg ,ve9s1 ii4 #cjd4 #cbc4 ,v5\s blood1 ii4 #cje4 #cbf4 #cch ,v5tricles1 ii4 #cbd ,v]digris1 i4 #ceb ,vessels1 ii4 #cjd ,v9eg>1 ii4 #bcb ,v9\s f]m5tation1 ii4 #bab ,vital air1 or oxyg5 gas1 i4 #ahb ,vitriol1 or sulphat ( iron1 ii4 #ha ,volatile oils1 i4 #cjg4 ii4 #afe4 #ahc4 #bbd4 #bfi ---- products ( combu/ion1 i4 #bjg ---- alkali1 i4 #cfc4 ii4 #bj4 #ce ,voltaic batt]y1 i4 #afd4 #bbj4 #cef4 ii4 #ae ,u ,uranium1 i4 #ad ,w ,wat]1 i4 #bae4 ii4 #bfb ----1 decomposition (1 by electricity1 i4 #bjj4 #bbe ----1 cond5sation (1 i4 #cb ---- ( ! sea1 i4 #hf ----1 boil+1 i4 #ic ----1 solution by1 i4 #if ---- ( cry/allisation1 i4 #cci ,wax1 i4 #cji4 ii4 #ahj4 #ceh ,:ey1 ii4 #cea ,w9e1 ii4 #bab ,wood1 ii4 #bfg ,woody fibre1 ii4 #aef4 #aif4 #bfg ,wool1 ii4 #cjj ,y ,yea/1 ii4 #bcd4 ,yttria1 ii4 #dd4 ,yttrium1 i4 #ac4 ,z ,z9c1 ii4 #ad4 #cdd ,zirconia1 ii4 #dd ,zirconium1 i4 #ad ,zoonic acid1 ii4 #ge4 #bbj ,,end4 ,pr9t$ by ,a4 ,/rahan1 ,pr9t]s-,/reet1 ,london 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,t]m9ology oxy-muriatic acid *lor9e 7propos$ z an elem5t 9 #ahae3 see ,conv]sation ,,xix7 8columbium or tantalium0 niobium & tantalum 7! two elem5ts always occur toge!r1 & 7 n recogniz$ z sep>ate until mu* lat] 9 ! #ai? c5tury7 phosphat ( lime calcium diphosphate or calcium 7! elem5t calcium 0 isolat$ 9 #ahjh1 b is nam$ only once 9 ?is #ahag edition7 glucium b]yllium 7,humphry ,davy's "n = ! elem5t7 muriatic acid hydro*loric acid 7/ill call$ 8muriatic acid0 = "s comm]cial uses7 muriat ( lime calcium *loride oxymuriate ( pota% potassium *lorate muriat ( soda sodium *loride 7table salt7 c>bonic acid c>bon dioxide ,note also3 simple body1 fundam5tal pr9ciple elem5t fecula />* 7usually spell$ 8fcula07 _s ( w9e alcohol philosoph] sci5ti/ arts indu/ry1 manufacture1 crafts etc4 7seldom 8f9e arts07 ,"s ess5tial concepts relat+ to liv+ ?+s--photosyn!sis1 microorganisms1 ! cell1 prote9s--are ei!r unkn[n or n m5tion$4 ,! atom !ory _h be5 propos$1 b n by ,humphry ,davy2 x is n m5tion$ 9 ?is book4 ,! ^w 8explode0 is us$ at lea/ once 9 its org9al1 figurative s5se 78a ^w t %\ld be explod$ 9 *emi/ry07 b f> m (t5 9 its lat]1 concrete "o4 ,! ^w 8explosion0 is always us$ concretely 78an explosion1 or a detonation z *emi/s commonly call x074 ,calculat$ ,values3 8! po9t ( z]o1 or ! absolute privation ( heat1 mu/ consequ5tly be #abfj degrees bel[ #cb degrees0 -#abbh ,f4 ,! calculation is bas$ on wrong premises2 ! correct figure is ab\t -#dfj ,f or -#bgc ,c4 8,m]cury congeals only at sev5ty-two degrees bel[ ! freez+ po9t40 -#dj ,f1 :i* is also -#dj ,c4 ,?is figure is correct1 ?\gh approximate4 8,! proportion /at$ by ,sir ,h4 ,davy1 9 8 ,*emical ,rese>*es1 is z #a to #b4chi40 8ammonia consi/$ ( ab\t "o "p ( hydrog5 to f\r p>ts ( nitrog54444 & f ! late/ & mo/ accurate exp]im5ts1 ! proportions appe> to be1 "o volume ( nitrog5 gas to ?ree ( hydrog5 gas0 ,^! & simil> calculations involv+ weight & volume make m s5se :5 "o kn[s ! elem5ts' atomic weights4 ,= nitric acid1 ,,hno#c1 ! figures are #a3ad3dh1 giv+ a proportion clos] to #a3c4e4 ,= ammonia1 ,,nh#c 7n #d71 ! figures are #ad3c4 8,! oxalic acid1 di/ill$ f sorrel1 is ! highe/ t]m ( vegetable acidification2 =1 if m oxyg5 be add$ to x1 x loses its vegetable nature1 & is resolv$ into c>bonic acid & wat]20 ,oxalic acid ,h#b;,c#b,o#d2 c>bonic acid 7c>bon dioxide7 ,,co#b4 ,h#b;,c#b,o#d ,o becomes ,h#b,o ,,co#b ,,co#b4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,cont5ts3 ,numb]+ & ,*anges ,! #crd & #d? editions us$ ! same ,conv]sation numb]+4 ,*anges betwe5 ! #d? & #e? 7pres5t text7 edition are %[n4 ,"s illu/rations 7 also *ang$4 ,volume ,i3 ,on ,simple ,bodies 7,i1 ,,ii1 ,,iii no *ange7 ,,iv4 ,on ,specific ,heat1 ,lat5t ,heat1 & ,*emical ,heat4 ,,iv4 ,on ,comb9$ ,caloric1 ,compreh5d+ ,specific ,heat & ,lat5t ,heat4 -- ,v4 ,new ,*apt] ,on ,! ,*emical ,ag5cies ,( ,electricity4 ,v4 ,,vi4 ,on ,oxyg5 ,& ,nitrog54 ,,vi4 ,,vii4 ,on ,hydrog54 #e? edn3 adds sections on ,gas lights & ,m9]'s ,lamp ,,vii4 ,,viii4 ,on ,sulphur ,& ,phosphorus4 #e? edn3 adds section on ,decomposition ( ,sulphur ,,viii4 ,on ,c>bone4 ,,ix4 ,on ,c>bon4 #d? edn3 ,section 8,diamond is ,c>bon 9 a ,/ate ( p]fect purity02 lat] edn3 8,diamond0 alone ,,ix4 ,x4 ,on ,metals4 ,x4 ,,xiv4 ,on ,alkalies4 ,,xi4 ,,xv4 ,on ,e>?s4 #e? edn3 bo? mov$ to ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,volume ,,ii4 ,on ,comp\nd ,bodies ,,xii4 ,,xiii4 ,on ,! ,attraction ,( ,composition4 #e? edn4 ,,xiv1 ,,xv #d? edn4 ,x1 ,,xi ,,xiii4 ,on ,comp\nd ,bodies4 ,,xvi4 ,on ,acids4 ,mo/ ( ,,xiii1 ,on ,comp\nd ,bodies1 became ,,xvi1 ,on ,acids4 ,"s introductory mat]ial 0 mov$ to ,,xiv1 ,on ,alkalies4 ,,xiv4 ,on ,! ,comb9ations ( ,oxyg5 ) ,sulphur & ) ,phosphorus2 & ( ! ,sulphats ,& ,phosphats4 ,,xvii4 ,( ! ,sulphuric & ,phosphoric ,acids3 or1 ,! ,comb9ations ( 4444 ,,xv4 ,on ,! ,comb9ation ( ,oxyg5 ,) ,nitrog5 & ) ,c>bone2 & ( ,! ,nitrats ,& ,c>bonats4 ,,xviii4 ,( ,! ,nitric ,& ,c>bonic ,acids3 ,or ,! ,comb9ation 444 ,,xvi4 ,on ,muriatic ,& ,oxyg5at$ ,muriatic ,acids2 & on ,muriats4 ,,xix4 ,on ,! ,boracic1 ,fluoric1 ,muriatic1 & ,oxyg5at$ ,muriatic ,acids2 & on ,muriats4 ,,xvii4 ,,xx4 ,on ,! ,nature ,& ,composition ,( ,vegetables4 7rema9+ ,conv]sations3 #d? edn4 #c #e? edn47 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,,errata ,inconsi/5cies are g5]ally un*ang$2 see end ( ,errata li/4 ,two items are not$ 9 ! pr9t$ ,errata1 imm$iately aft] ! ,cont5ts = ,vol4 ,i3 ,vol4 ,i4 page #ef4 la/ l9e b "o1 = 8caloric10 read 8calorific40 #agi4 ,note1 = 8,plate ,,xii40 r4 8,plate ,,xiii40 ,i4#ef ,! pr9cipal use ( ! mirrors 9 ?is exp]im5t is1 to prove t ! calorific emanation 444 ,i4#agi fn4 ,a model ( ?is mode ( con/ruction is exhibit$ 9 ,,plate ,,xiii4 ,fig4 #a4 ,errata ,not$ by ,transcrib]3 ,cont5ts ,,ii 444 ,dr4 ,h]s*el's ,exp]im5ts body text has 8,h]s*ell0 ,,xiv 444 ,h>t%orn & ,sal ,volatile ad ,conv]sation ,i ,emily ! electric sp>k :i* is visible1 & aud ,conv]sation ,,ii ,mrs4 ,b41 p>5!sis 7,,plate ,i4 ,fig4 #a47 ,fig4 ,i4 ,mrs4 ,b4 x has be5 call$ diff]5tial !rmomet] miss+ 8!08 ,mrs4 ,b41 p>5!sis 7,,plate ,,iii4 ,fig4 #a47 ,fig4 ,i4 ,emily ! t9 surface %\ld radiate ! lea/ caloric c>olic ,conv]sation ,,iii ,emily ! glass skre5 spell+ un*ang$ ,mrs4 ,b41 p>5!sis 7,,plate ,,iv4 ,fig4 #a47 error = ,fig4 #b4 ,plate ,,iv caption ,!rmomet]s "o 9 ! ,e!r1 ! o!r invisible comma aft] 8,!rmomet]s08 ,mrs4 ,b4 he f\nd t x 0 consid]ably cold] is 0 ,conv]sation ,,iv ,c>ol9e ,b h[ c y rev]se ?is exp]im5t8 pr9t$ 8expe-_/p]im5t0 at l9e break ,mrs4 ,b4 in/ead ( be+ #ge degrees1 w be #hj degrees error = #hh8 ,emily1 footnote ,see page #ajb4 9 ,conv]sation ,,iii ,mrs4 ,b4 !n soke x 9 e!r spell+ un*ang$ ,conv]sation ,v ,mrs4 ,b4 at regul> di/ances 9 wood5 tr\ghs ?r\ghs ,c>ol9e ! nature ( ! action ( ! ,voltaic batt]y ,votaic ,conv]sation ,,vi ,c>ol9e ! nature ( ,,oxyg51 :i* come next 9 our table error = 8comes08 ,conv]sation ,,vii ,mrs4 ,b41 p>5!sis 7c1 d1 ,,plate ,,viii4 fig4 #b47 fig4 #b1 ,c>ol9e be soon adopt$ e :]e1 e :]e4 ,plate ,x ,c4 app]ture = supply+ ,oil4 spell+ un*ang$ ,conv]sation ,,viii ,mrs4 ,b4 sulphur is a v combu/ible sub/ance sulpur ,mrs4 ,b4 ,i n[ put into ! receiv] miss+ 8x08 ,emily ,:at is 444 aft] its detonation8 4 = 8 ,conv]sation ,,ix ,mrs4 ,b4 we are to burn ! c>bon bnrn ,mrs4 ,b4 s9ce !y may be prep>$ ?ay ,mrs4 ,b4 artificial ,seltz] wat] artifical ,conv]sation ,x ,mrs4 ,b4 increase ! rapidity ( its combu/ion ( ( ,c>ol9e a pair ( sciss>s spell+ un*ang$ ,mrs4 ,b4 z well z by evaporat+ ! liquid4 8 = 4 ,mrs4 ,b41 footnote page #aee4 ( ?is volume ne> ! end ( ,conv]sation ,,iv ,c>ol9e among/ ! metals4 ,i _h no notion 1 = 4 ,emily ,b is x n v s+ul> s+ulr ,mrs4 ,b4 ,!n>d & ,gay ,lussac usually hyph5at$3 8,gay-,lussac0 ,conv]sation ,,xiii ,emily 444 r5d] t decomposition p]ceptible8 4 = 8 ,conv]sation ,,xiv ,mrs4 ,b4 an acrid burn+ ta/e on acrid ,c>ol9e accord+ to :i* heat is dis5gag$ t 9 8heat0 invisible ,mrs4 ,b4 "o volume ( nitrog5 gas to ?ree ( hydrog5 gas text has 8oxyg50 = 8hydrog50 ,conv]sation ,,xv ,mrs4 ,b4 s _m int]e/+ & important comp\nds int]es+ ,c>ol9e ,& ( :at nature 444 pa9t+ porcela98 4 = 8 speak]'s "n miss+2 suppli$ f o!r editions ,conv]sation ,,xvi ,mrs4 ,b4 comb9$ ) acidifiable radicals acidificiable ,mrs4 ,b4 ?is p[] ( *>r+ wood *>+ ,conv]sation ,,xviii ,c>ol9e n m5tion+ ?is acid pr9t$ 8m5tion-_/?is0 at l9e break ,mrs4 ,b4 7footnote7 #a to #b4chi4 pr9t$ 8#b1chi03 no o!r decimal numb]s occur 9 ! text1 b a comma appe>s once z a ?\s&s sep>ator ,mrs4 ,b4 ,y1 und]/&1 n[1 ,i hope1 all commas 9 orig9al ,conv]sation ,,xx ,mrs4 ,b4 ( vegetables2 we %all1 !re=e 1 = 2 ,conv]sation ,,xxi ,mrs4 ,b4 ! comp\nd la/ =m$ w be de/roy$2 detroy$ ,mrs4 ,b4 9 su* climates great "p ( ! wat] miss+ 8a0 be=e 8great08 ,mrs4 ,b4 a /ate ( debility & languor lang\r ,mrs4 ,b41 p>5!sis 7,,plate ,,xiv4 ,fig4 #b47 ,,plate ,,xiii4 ,mrs4 ,b4 burns at s sl[ a temp]ature text un*ang$3 error = 8l[0 or correct z pr9t$8 ,mrs4 ,b4 ! poor 9 hea?y c\ntries n an error3 8hea?-y01 n 8heal?y0 ,conv]sation ,,xxii ,mrs4 ,b41 p>5!sis 7,,plate ,,xv4 ,fig4 #d47 ,,plate ,,xiv4 ,mrs4 ,b4 s _m vessels or app>atus n an error3 8app>atus0 is ! ,lat9 plural =m ,mrs4 ,b4 *esnut common v>iant spell+ ,conv]sation ,,xxiii ,mrs4 ,b4 pure gelat9e gelant9e ,conv]sation ,,xxv ,mrs4 ,b4 ,! muscul> action ( ! diaphragm diaphram ,conv]sation ,,xxvi ,mrs4 ,b4 ! air _h be5 previ\sly consum$ previ\ly ,mrs4 ,b4 ?is is by ! ,t>tan ,arabs text un*ang$3 ,t>t>8 ,mrs4 ,b4 or /udy+ ! inv5tions ( art1 let u1 !re=e 2 = 1 ,index ,arrack body text has 8arack0 ,cold ---- f evaporation1 i4 #ajb4 #aac4 #aej volume numb] miss+ ,cul9>y heat1 i4 #hh volume numb] miss+ ,decomposition ---- ( ammonia1 i4 #cfc4 ii4 #cg ammonnia2 8i0 invisible ,frank9c5se ,franc9c5se ,freez+ mixtures ---- by evaporation1 i4 #ajd4 #aej1 c4 volume numb] invisible ,glue1 ii4 #bha4 #bhg volume numb] miss+ ,n4 anomal\s 4 un*ang$ ,phosphor\s acid1 i4 #bgd4 ii4 #ii volume ,i body text always has 8,phosphorus acid0 ,sulphat ---- lime1 or gypsum1 or gypsum ( ,sulphur ---- fl[]s (1 i4 #beg volume numb] miss+ ,!rmomet]s ----1 ,c5tigrade1 i4 #dc ,c5trigade ,!rmomet]s ----1 diff]5tial1 i4 #df diff]5tiial ,v1 ,u alphabetiz$ z %[n ,zirconia1 ii4 #dd ,zicornia ,zirconium1 i4 #ad ,zicornium 444 #ac ,inconsi/5cies & v>iant spell+s3 ,/&>d spell+s 9 ?is book include3 bason1 judgm5t1 embrio1 volcanos 7plural71 potatoe 7s+ul>7 ,inconsi/5cies include3 capitalization ( 8,fig40 or 8fig40 hyph5ization ( words su* z 8oxy-muriatic0 8glaub] salt0 & 8,glaub]'s salt0 bo? occur ,v>iant =ms include3 opake1 opaque ari=m1 a]i=m 7) & )\t di]esis7 gasses1 gases phosphoret1 phosphuret 7b always c>buret7 ,libya1 ,lybia dy7e7+ f 8dye0 nap7h7?a pla7i7/] slak7e7+ e>!n-w>e1 e>!n w>e 8sulphur\s01 8naph?a0 are us$ 9 ! ,cont5ts & ! ,index2 8sulphure\s01 8nap?a0 9 ! body text =ms 9 8-xion0 7su* z 8connexion07 appe> only 9 ! ,cont5ts & ! ,index ,volume ,i has m ar*aic =ms ?an ,volume ,,ii3 8%ew01 8inclose0 are sometimes us$ in/ead ( 8%[01 8enclose0 8c>bone0 ) f9al 8e0 appe>s 9 "o ,plate caption4 7,9 ! same plate's head]1 ! 8e0 appe>s to h be5 remov$ by ! engrav]47 8develope7m5t70 is m common 9 ,volume ,i1 8develop7m5t70 9 ,volume ,,ii 8-ize0 & 8-yze0 =ms 7= lat] 8-ise0 & 8-yse07 are common 9 ,volume ,i1 r>e 9 ,volume ,,ii except 9 ! ,index ,! 8,dr4 ,m>cet0 m5tion$ 9 a few footnotes & figure captions is ! au?or's husb&4 ,humphry ,davy 78,sir ,h4 ,davy07 0 knight$ 9 #ahab1 betwe5 ! #crd & #d? editions ( ! book4 ,rem9d]3 ,,d ,,n ,,try ,,?is ,,at ,,home4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99