,,coral ,,reefs ,by ,*>les ,d>w9 ,,cont5ts ,,detail$ ,,table ,,( ,,cont5ts ,,description ,,( ,,! ,,plates ,,! ,,/ructure ,,& ,,di/ribution ,,( ,,coral ,,reefs ,,introduction ,,*apt] ,i4--,,atolls ,,or ,,lagoon-,,isl&s ,,*apt] ,,ii4--,,b>ri] ,,reefs ,,*apt] ,,iii4--,,fr++ ,,or ,,%ore-,,reefs ,,*apt] ,,iv4--,,on ,,! ,,di/ribution ,,& ,,gr[? ,,( ,,coral-,,reefs ,,*apt] ,v4--,,!ory ,,( ,,! ,,=mation ,,( ,,! ,,diff]5t ,,classes ,,( ,,coral-,,reefs ,,*apt] ,,vi4--,,on ,,! ,,di/ribution ,,( ,,coral-,,reefs ,,) ,,ref]5ce ,,to ,,! ,,!ory ,,( ,,_! ,,=mation ,,app5dix ,,index ,,detail$ ,,table ,,( ,,cont5ts ,,description ,,( ,,! ,,plates ,,introduction ,,*apt] ,i4--,,atolls ,,or ,,lagoon-,,isl&s ,,section ,i4--,,description ,,( ,,keel+ ,,atoll4 ,corals on ! out] m>g94--,zone ( ,nullipor4--,ext]ior reef4--,islets4--,coral-conglom]ate4--,l agoon4--,calc>e\s s$im5t4--,sc>i & ,holu?uri subsi/+ on corals4--,*anges 9 ! condition ( ! reefs & islets4--,probable subsid5ce ( ! atoll4--,future /ate ( ! lagoon4 ,,section ,,ii4--,,g5]al ,,description ,,( ,,atolls4 ,g5]al =m & size ( atolls1 _! reefs & islets4--,ext]nal slope4-- ,zone ( ,nullipor4--,conglom]ate4--,dep? ( lagoons4--,s$im5t4--,reefs subm]g$ :olly or 9 "p4--,brea*es 9 ! reef4--,l$ge-=m$ %ores r\nd c]ta9 lagoons4--,conv]sion ( lagoons into l&4 ,,section ,,iii4--,,atolls ,,( ,,! ,,maldiva ,,ar*ipelago--,,great ,,*agos ,,bank4 ,maldiva ,ar*ipelago4--,r+-=m$ reefs1 m>g9al & c5tral4--,great dep?s 9 ! lagoons ( ! s\!rn atolls4--,reefs 9 ! lagoons all ris+ to ! surface4--,position ( islets & brea*es 9 ! reefs1 ) respect to ! preval5t w9ds & action ( ! waves4--,de/ruction ( islets4--,connection 9 ! position & subm>9e f\ndation ( di/9ct atolls4--,! app>5t dissev]m5t ( l>ge atolls4--,! ,great ,*agos ,bank4--,its subm]g$ condition & extraord9>y /ructure4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4--,,b>ri] ,,reefs ,closely resemble 9 g5]al =m & /ructure atoll-reefs4--,wid? & dep? ( ! lagoon-*annels4--,brea*es ?r\gh ! reef 9 front ( valleys1 & g5]ally on ! leew>d side4--,*ecks to ! fill+ up ( ! lagoon-*annels4--,size & con/itution ( ! encircl$ isl&s4-- ,numb] ( isl&s )9 ! same reef4--,b>ri]-reefs ( ,new ,cal$onia & ,au/ralia4--,position ( ! reef relative to ! slope ( ! adjo9+ l&4--,probable great ?ickness ( b>ri]-reefs4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4--,,fr++ ,,or ,,%ore-,,reefs ,reefs ( ,mauritius4--,%all[ *annel )9 ! reef4--,its sl[ fill+ up4--,curr5ts ( wat] =m$ )9 x4--,uprais$ reefs4--,n>r[ fr++-reefs 9 deep seas4--,reefs on ! coa/ ( ,e4 ,africa & ( ,brazil4--,fr++-reefs 9 v %all[ seas1 r\nd banks ( s$im5t & on worn-d[n isl&s4--,fr++-reefs affect$ by curr5ts ( ! sea4 --,coral coat+ ! bottom ( ! sea1 b n =m+ reefs4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4--,,on ,,! ,,di/ribution ,,& ,,gr[? ,,( ,,coral-,,reefs ,,section ,i4--,,on ,,! ,,di/ribution ,,( ,,coral-,,reefs1 ,,& ,,on ,,! ,,conditions ,,fav\rable ,,to ,,_! ,,increase4 ,,section ,,ii4--,,on ,,! ,,rate ,,( ,,gr[? ,,( ,,coral-,,reefs4 ,,section ,,iii4--,,on ,,! ,,dep?s ,,at ,,:i* ,,reef-,,build+ ,,polypif]s ,,c ,,live4 ,,*apt] ,v4--,,!ory ,,( ,,! ,,=mation ,,( ,,! ,,diff]5t ,,classes ,,( ,,coral-,,reefs ,! atolls ( ! l>g] ar*ipelagoes are n =m$ on subm]g$ crat]s1 or on banks ( s$im5t4--,imm5se areas int]sp]s$ ) atolls4--,rec5t *anges 9 _! /ate4--,! orig9 ( b>ri]-reefs & ( atolls4--,_! relative =ms4--,! /ep-=m$ l$ges & walls r\nd ! %ores ( "s lagoons4--,! r+-=m$ reefs ( ! ,maldiva atolls4--,! subm]g$ condition ( p>ts or ( ! :ole ( "s annul> reefs4--,! dissev]m5t ( l>ge atolls4--,! union ( atolls by l9e> reefs4--,! ,great ,*agos ,bank4--,objections1 f ! area & am\nt ( subsid5ce requir$ by ! !ory1 consid]$4--,! probable composition ( ! l[] p>ts ( atolls4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4--,,on ,,! ,,di/ribution ,,( ,,coral-,,reefs ,,) ,,ref]5ce ,,to ,,! ,,!ory ,,( ,,_! ,,=mation ,description ( ! col\r$ map4--,proximity ( atolls & b>ri]-reefs4-- ,relation 9 =m & position ( atolls ) ord9>y isl&s4--,direct evid5ce ( subsid5ce difficult to be detect$4--,pro(s ( rec5t elevation :]e fr++-reefs occur4--,oscillations ( level4--,abs5ce ( active volcanoes 9 ! areas ( subsid5ce4--,imm5sity ( ! areas :i* h be5 elevat$ & h subsid$4--,_! relation to ! pres5t di/ribution ( ! l&4--,areas ( subsid5ce elongat$1 _! int]section & alt]nation ) ^? ( elevation4--,am\nt & sl[ rate ( ! subsid5ce4--,recapitulation4 ,,app5dix ,,index ,,description ,,( ,,! ,,plates4 ,,plate ,i4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,i4--,,map ,,%[+ ,,! ,,resemblance ,,9 ,,=m ,,betwe5 ,,b>ri] ,,coral-,,reefs ,,surr\nd+ ,,m\nta9\s ,,isl&s1 ,,& ,,atolls ,,or ,,lagoon ,,isl&s4 ,9 ! sev]al orig9al surveys1 f :i* ! small plans on ?is plate h be5 r$uc$1 ! coral-reefs are engrav$ 9 v diff]5t /yles4 ,= ! sake ( uni=mity1 ,i h adopt$ ! /yle us$ 9 ! *>ts ( ! ,*agos ,ar*ipelago1 publi%$ by ! ,ea/ ,indian ,company1 f ! survey by ,capta9 ,moresby & ,lieut5ant ,p[ell4 ,! surface ( ! reef1 :i* dries at l[ wat]1 is repres5t$ by a surface ) small crosses3 ! coral-islets on ! reef are m>k$ by small l9e> spaces1 on :i* a few cocoa-nut trees1 out ( all proportion too l>ge1 h be5 introduc$ = ! sake ( cle>ness4 ,! entire annul> reef1 :i* :5 surr\nd+ an op5 expanse ( wat]1 =ms an 8atoll10 & :5 surr\nd+ "o or m high isl&s1 =ms an encircl+ 8b>ri]-reef10 has a ne>ly uni=m /ructure4 ,! reefs 9 "s ( ! orig9al surveys are repres5t$ m]ely by a s+le l9e ) crosses1 s t _! bread? is n giv52 ,i h _h su* reefs engrav$ ( ! wid? usually atta9$ by coral-reefs4 ,i h n ?\ght x wor? :ile to introduce all ^? small & v num]\s reefs1 :i* occur )9 ! lagoons ( mo/ atolls & )9 ! lagoon-*annels ( mo/ b>ri]-reefs1 & :i* /& ei!r isolat$1 or are atta*$ to ! %ores ( ! reef or l&4 ,at ,p]os ,banhos none ( ! lagoon-reefs rise to ! surface ( ! wat]2 a few ( !m h be5 introduc$1 & are m>k$ by pla9 dott$ circles4 ,a few ( ! deepe/ s\nd+s are laid d[n )9 ea* reef2 !y are 9 fa?oms1 ( six ,engli% feet4 ,figure #a4--,,vanikoro1 situat$ 9 ! we/]n "p ( ! ,s\? ,pacific2 tak5 f ! survey by ,capta9 ,d',urville 9 ! ,a/rolabe2 ! s\nd+s on ! s\!rn side ( ! isl&1 namely1 f ?irty to =ty fa?oms1 are giv5 f ! voyage ( ! ,*ev4 ,dillon2 ! o!r s\nd+s are laid d[n f ! survey by ,d',urville2 height ( ! summit ( ! isl& is #c1jcb feet4 ,! pr9cipal small deta*$ reefs )9 ! lagoon-*annel h 9 ?is in/ance be5 repres5t$4 ,! s\!rn %ore ( ! isl& is n>r[ly fr+$ by a reef3 if ! engrav] _h c>ri$ ?is reef entirely r\nd bo? isl&s1 ?is figure w\ld h s]v$ 7by leav+ out 9 imag9ation ! b>ri]-reef7 z a good specim5 ( an abruptly-sid$ isl&1 surr\nd$ by a reef ( ! fr++ class4 ,figure #b4--;,,hogoleu1 or ,,r\g1 9 ! ,c>ol9e ,ar*ipelago2 tak5 f ! atlas ( ! voyage ( ! ,a/rolabe1 compil$ f ! surveys ( ,capta9s ,dup]rey & ,d',urville2 ! dep? ( ! imm5se lagoon-l space )9 ! reef is n kn[n4 ,figure #c4--,,raiatea1 9 ! ,society ,ar*ipelago2 f ! map giv5 9 ! qu>to edition ( 8,cook's ,fir/ ,voyage20 x is probably n accurate4 ,figure #d4--;,,b[1 or ,,hey\ ,,atoll 7or lagoon-isl&71 9 ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago1 f ! survey by ,capta9 ,bee*ey1 ,r4,n42 ! lagoon is *ok$ up ) reefs1 b ! av]age greate/ dep? ( ab\t tw5ty fa?oms1 is giv5 f ! publi%$ acc\nt ( ! voyage4 ,figure #e4--;,,bolabola1 9 ! ,society ,ar*ipelago1 f ! survey ( ,capta9 ,dup]rey 9 ! ,coquille3 ! s\nd+s 9 ?is & ! foll[+ figures h be5 alt]$ f ,fr5* feet to ,engli% fa?oms2 height ( highe/ po9t ( ! isl& #d1jbf feet4 ,figure #f4--,,maurua1 9 ! ,society ,ar*ipelago2 f ! survey by ,capta9 ,dup]rey 9 ! ,coquille3 height ( l& ab\t eight hundr$ feet4 ,figure #g4--,,p\ynip,,te1 or ,,s5iav9e1 9 ! ,c>ol9e ,ar*ipelago2 f ! survey by ,admiral ,lutk4 ,figure #h4--;,,gambi] ,,isl&s1 9 ! s\!rn "p ( ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago2 f ! survey by ,capta9 ,bee*ey2 height ( highe/ isl&1 #a1bdf feet2 ! isl&s are surr\nd$ by ext5sive & irregul> reefs2 ! reef on ! s\!rn side is subm]g$4 ,figure #i4--,,p]os ,,banhos ,,atoll 7or lagoon-isl&71 9 ! ,*agos gr\p 9 ! ,indian ,ocean2 f ! survey by ,capta9 ,moresby & ,lieut5ant ,p[ell2 n ne>ly all ! small subm]g$ reefs 9 ! lagoon are repres5t$2 ! annul> reef on ! s\!rn side is subm]g$4 ,figure #aj4--,,keel+1 or ,,cocos ,,atoll 7or lagoon-isl&71 9 ! ,indian ,ocean2 f ! survey by ,capta9 ,fitzroy2 ! lagoon s\? ( ! dott$ l9e is v %all[1 & is left almo/ b>e at l[ wat]2 ! "p nor? ( ! l9e is *ok$ up ) irregul> reefs4 ,! annul> reef on ! nor?-we/ side is brok51 & bl5ds into a %oal s&bank1 on :i* ! sea breaks4 ,,plate ,,ii4--,,great ,,*agos ,,bank1 ,,new ,,cal$onia1 ,,m5*ik(f ,,atoll1 ,,etc4 ,illu/ration3 ,plate #b ,figure #a4--;,,great ,,*agos ,,bank1 9 ! ,indian ,ocean2 tak5 f ! survey by ,capta9 ,moresby & ,lieut5ant ,p[ell2 ! p>ts :i* are %ad$1 ) ! exception ( two or ?ree islets on ! we/]n & nor!rn sides1 d n rise to ! surface1 b are subm]g$ f f\r to t5 fa?oms2 ! banks b\nd$ by ! dott$ l9es lie f fifte5 to tw5ty fa?oms b5ea? ! surface1 & are =m$ ( s&2 ! c5tral space is ( mud1 & f ?irty to fifty fa?oms deep4 ,figure #b4--;,a v]tical section1 on ! same scale1 9 an ea/]n & we/]n l9e across ! ,great ,*agos ,bank1 giv5 = ! sake ( exhibit+ m cle>ly its /ructure4 ,figure #c4--,,m5*ik(f ,,atoll 7or lagoon-isl&71 9 ! ,m>%all ,ar*ipelago1 ,nor!rn ,pacific ,ocean2 f ,krus5/]n's 8,atlas ( ! ,pacific20 orig9ally survey$ by ,capta9 ,hagemei/]2 ! dep? )9 ! lagoons is unkn[n4 ,figure #d4--,,mahlos ,,mahdoo ,,atoll1 toge!r ) ,horsburgh atoll1 9 ! ,maldiva ,ar*ipelago2 f ! survey by ,capta9 ,moresby & ,lieut5ant ,p[ell2 ! :ite spaces 9 ! middle ( ! sep>ate small reefs1 bo? on ! m>g9 & 9 ! middle "p1 are meant to repres5t little lagoons2 b x 0 f\nd n possible to di/+ui% !m cle>ly f ! small islets1 :i* h be5 =m$ on ^! same small reefs2 _m ( ! small] reefs c\ld n be introduc$2 ! nautical m>k 7dot ov] a da%7 ov] ! figures #bej & #bjj1 betwe5 ,mahlos ,mahdoo & ,horsburgh atoll & ,p[ell's isl&1 signifies t s\nd+s 7 n obta9$ at ^! dep?s4 ,figure #e4--,,new ,,cal$onia1 9 ! we/]n "p ( ! ,pacific2 f ,krus5/]n's 8,atlas10 compil$ f sev]al surveys2 ,i h slightly alt]$ ! nor!rn po9t ( ! reef1 9 accordance ) ! 8,atlas ( ! ,voyage ( ! ,a/rolabe40 ,9 ,krus5/]n's 8,atlas10 ! reef is repres5t$ by a s+le l9e ) crosses2 ,i h = ! sake ( uni=mity add$ an int]ior l9e4 ,figure #f4--,,maldiva ,,ar*ipelago1 9 ! ,indian ,ocean2 f ! survey by ,capta9 ,moresby & ,lieut5ant ,p[ell4 ,,plate ,,iii4--,,map ,,%[+ ,,! ,,di/ribution ,,( ,,coral-,,reefs ,,& ,,active ,,volcanoes4 ,illu/ration3 ,plate #c ,%ew+ ! ,di/ribution ( ! ,diff]5t ,k9ds ( ,coral ,reefs1 ,toge!r ) ! ,position ( ! ,active ,volcanoes 9 ! ,map4 ,! pr9ciples1 on :i* ?is map 0 col\r$1 are expla9$ 9 ! beg9n+ ( ,*apt] ,,vi42 & ! au?orities = ea* p>ticul> spot are detail$ 9 ! ,app5dix to 8,coral ,reefs40 ,! names n pr9t$ 9 upp] case 9 ! ,index ref] to ! ,app5dix4 ,,! ,,/ructure ,,& ,,di/ribution ,,( ,,coral ,,reefs4 ,,introduction4 ,! object ( ?is volume is to describe f my own obs]vation & ! works ( o!rs1 ! pr9cipal k9ds ( coral-reefs1 m especially ^? occurr+ 9 ! op5 ocean1 & to expla9 ! orig9 ( _! peculi> =ms4 ,i d n "h treat ( ! polypif]s1 :i* con/ruct ^! va/ works1 except s f> z relates to _! di/ribution1 & to ! conditions fav\rable to _! vigor\s gr[?4 ,)\t any di/9ct int5tion to classify coral-reefs1 mo/ voyag]s h spok5 ( !m "u ! foll[+ heads3 8lagoon-isl&s10 or 8atolls10 8b>ri]0 or 8encircl+ reefs10 & 8fr++0 or 8%ore-reefs40 ,! lagoon-isl&s h receiv$ mu* ! mo/ att5tion2 & x is n surpris+1 = e "o mu/ be /ruck ) a/oni%m5t1 :5 he fir/ beholds "o ( ^! va/ r+s ( coral-rock1 (t5 _m leagues 9 diamet]1 "h & !re surm\nt$ by a l[ v]dant isl& ) dazzl+ :ite %ores1 ba!d on ! outside by ! foam+ break]s ( ! ocean1 & on ! inside surr\nd+ a calm expanse ( wat]1 :i* f reflection1 is ( a bright b pale gre5 col\r4 ,! naturali/ w feel ?is a/oni%m5t m deeply aft] hav+ exam9$ ! s(t & almo/ gelat9\s bodies ( ^! app>5tly insignificant creatures1 & :5 he kn[s t ! solid reef increases only on ! out] edge1 :i* day & night is la%$ by ! break]s ( an ocean nev] at re/4 ,well did ,franois ,pyr>d de ,laval1 9 ! ye> #afje1 exclaim1 8,c'e/ une m]ueille de voir *acun de ces atollons1 enuironn d'un gr& banc de pi]re t\t aut\r1 n'y ayant po9t d'artifice huma940 ,! accompany+ sket* ( ,:itsunday isl&1 9 ! ,s\? ,pacific1 tak5 f ,capta9 ,bee*ey's admirable 8,voyage10 al?\gh excell5t ( its k9d1 gives b a fa9t idea ( ! s+ul> aspect ( "o ( ^! lagoon-isl&s4 ,illu/ration ,:itsunday ,isl& is ( small size1 & ! :ole circle has be5 conv]t$ into l&1 :i* is a comp>atively r>e circum/ance4 ,z ! reef ( a lagoon-isl& g5]ally supports _m sep>ate small isl&s1 ! ^w 8isl&10 appli$ to ! :ole1 is (t5 ! cause ( confusion2 h5ce ,i h inv>iably us$ 9 ?is volume ! t]m 8atoll10 :i* is ! "n giv5 to ^! circul> gr\ps ( coral-islets by _! inhabitants 9 ! ,indian ,ocean1 & is synonym\s ) 8lagoon-isl&40 ,illu/ration ,b>ri]-reefs1 :5 encircl+ small isl&s1 h be5 comp>atively little notic$ by voyag]s2 b !y well des]ve att5tion4 ,9 _! /ructure !y are little less m>vell\s ?an atolls1 & !y give a s+ul> & mo/ picturesque "* to ! sc5]y ( ! isl&s !y surr\nd4 ,9 ! accompany+ sket*1 tak5 f ! 8,voyage ( ! #8,coquille'10 ! reef is se5 f )91 f "o ( ! high peaks ( ! isl& ( ,bolabola4#a ,"h1 z 9 ,:itsunday ,isl&1 ! :ole ( t "p ( ! reef :i* is visible is conv]t$ into l&4 ,?is is a circum/ance ( r>e occurr5ce2 m usually a sn[-:ite l9e ( great break]s1 ) "h & !re an islet cr[n$ by cocoa-nut trees1 sep>ates ! smoo? wat]s ( ! lagoon-l *annel f ! waves ( ! op5 sea4 ,! b>ri]-reefs ( ,au/ralia & ( ,new ,cal$onia1 ow+ to _! enorm\s dim5sions1 h excit$ mu* att5tion3 9 /ructure & =m !y resemble ^? encircl+ _m ( ! small] isl&s 9 ! ,pacific ,ocean4 #a ,i h tak5 ! lib]ty ( simplify+ ! =egr\nd1 & leav+ out a m\nta9\s isl& 9 ! f> di/ance4 ,) respect to fr++1 or %ore-reefs1 !re is little 9 _! /ructure :i* ne$s explanation2 & _! "n expresses _! comp>atively small ext5sion4 ,!y diff] f b>ri]-reefs 9 n ly+ s f> f ! %ore1 & 9 n hav+ )9 a broad *annel ( deep wat]4 ,reefs also occur ar\nd subm]g$ banks ( s$im5t & ( worn-d[n rock2 & o!rs are scatt]$ q irregul>ly :]e ! sea is v %all[2 ^! 9 mo/ respects are alli$ to ^? ( ! fr++ class1 b !y are ( comp>atively little int]e/4 ,i h giv5 a sep>ate *apt] to ea* ( ! above classes1 & h describ$ "s "o reef or isl&1 on :i* ,i possess$ mo/ in=mation1 z typical2 & h aft]w>ds comp>$ x ) o!rs ( a l k9d4 ,al?\gh ?is classification is useful f be+ obvi\s1 & f includ+ mo/ ( ! coral-reefs exi/+ 9 ! op5 sea1 x admits ( a m fundam5tal division into b>ri] & atoll-=m$ reefs on ! "o h&1 :]e !re is a great app>5t difficulty ) respect to ! f\ndation on :i* !y mu/ fir/ h gr[n2 & into fr++-reefs on ! o!r1 :]e1 ow+ to ! nature ( ! slope ( ! adjo9+ l&1 !re is no su* difficulty4 ,! two blue t9ts & ! r$ col\r 7replac$ by numb]s 9 ?is edition47 on ! map 7,plate ,,iii471 repres5t ?is ma9 division1 z expla9$ 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! la/ *apt]4 ,9 ! ,app5dix1 e exi/+ coral-reef1 except "s on ! coa/ ( ,brazil n includ$ 9 ! map1 is briefly describ$ 9 geographical ord]1 z f> z ,i possess$ in=mation2 & any p>ticul> spot may be f\nd by consult+ ! ,index4 ,sev]al !ories h be5 advanc$ to expla9 ! orig9 ( atolls or lagoon-isl&s1 b sc>cely "o to acc\nt = b>ri]-reefs4 ,f ! limit$ dep?s at :i* reef-build+ polypif]s c fl\ri%1 tak5 into consid]ation ) c]ta9 o!r circum/ances1 we are compell$ to conclude1 z x w be se51 t bo? 9 atolls & b>ri]-reefs1 ! f\ndation on :i* ! coral 0 prim>ily atta*$1 has subsid$2 & t dur+ ?is d[nw>d movem5t1 ! reefs h gr[n upw>ds4 ,?is conclusion1 x w be fur!r se51 expla9s mo/ satisfactorily ! outl9e & g5]al =m ( atolls & b>ri]-reefs1 & likewise c]ta9 peculi>ities 9 _! /ructure4 ,! di/ribution1 also1 ( ! diff]5t k9ds ( coral-reefs1 & _! position ) relation to ! areas ( rec5t elevation1 & to ! po9ts subject to volcanic eruptions1 fully accord ) ?is !ory ( _! orig94#b #b ,a brief acc\nt ( my views on coral =mations1 n[ publi%$ 9 my ,j\rnal ( ,rese>*es1 0 read ,may #ca/1 #ahcg1 be=e ! ,geological ,society1 & an ab/ract has appe>$ 9 ! ,proce$+s4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,atolls ,,or ,,lagoon-,,isl&s4 ,,section ,i4--,,keel+ ,,atoll4 ,corals on ! out] m>g94--,zone ( ,nullipor4--,ext]ior reef4--,islets4--,coral-conglom]ate4--,l agoon4--,calc>e\s s$im5t4--,sc>i & ,holu?uri subsi/+ on corals4--,*anges 9 ! condition ( ! reefs & islets4--,probable subsid5ce ( ! atoll4--,future /ate ( ! lagoon4 ,illu/ration ,a4--,level ( ! sea at l[ wat]3 :]e ! lett] ,a is plac$1 ! dep? is tw5ty-five fa?oms1 & ! di/ance r m ?an "o hundr$ & fifty y>ds f ! edge ( ! reef4 ,b4--,out] edge ( t flat "p ( ! reef1 :i* dries at l[ wat]3 ! edge ei!r consi/s ( a convex m\nd1 z repres5t$1 or ( rugg$ po9ts1 l ^? a little f>!r seaw>d1 b5ea? ! wat]4 ,c4--,a flat ( coral-rock1 cov]$ at high wat]4 ,d4--,a l[ project+ l$ge ( brecciat$ coral-rock wa%$ by ! waves at high wat]4 ,e4--,a slope ( loose fragm5ts1 rea*$ by ! sea only dur+ gales3 ! upp] "p1 :i* is f six to twelve feet high1 is clo!d ) vegetation4 ,! surface ( ! islet g5tly slopes to ! lagoon4 ,f4--,level ( ! lagoon at l[ wat]4 ,keel+ or ,cocos atoll is situat$ 9 ! ,indian ,ocean1 9 #ab #e ,s41 & longitude #ij #ee ,e43 a r$uc$ *>t ( x 0 made f ! survey ( ,capta9 ,fitzroy & ! ,(fic]s ( ,h4,m4,s4 8,beagle10 is giv5 9 ,plate ,i41 ,figure #aj4 ,! greate/ wid? ( ?is atoll is n9e miles & a half4 ,its /ructure is 9 mo/ respects *>act]i/ic ( ! class to :i* x belongs1 ) ! exception ( ! %all[ness ( ! lagoon4 ,! accompany+ woodcut repres5ts a v]tical section1 suppos$ to be drawn at l[ wat] f ! out] coa/ across "o ( ! l[ islets 7"o be+ tak5 ( av]age dim5sions7 to )9 ! lagoon4 ,! section is true to ! scale 9 a horizontal l9e1 b x c\ld n be made s 9 a v]tical "o1 z ! av]age greate/ height ( ! l& is only betwe5 six & twelve feet above high-wat] m>k4 ,i w describe ! section1 comm5c+ ) ! out] m>g94 ,i mu/ fir/ obs]ve t ! reef-build+ polypif]s1 n be+ tidal animals1 require to be con/antly subm]g$ or wa%$ by ! break]s4 ,i 0 assur$ by ,mr4 ,liesk1 a v intellig5t resid5t on ^! isl&s1 z well z by "s *iefs at ,tahiti 7,otaheite71 t an exposure to ! rays ( ! sun = a v %ort "t inv>iably causes _! de/ruction4 ,h5ce x is possible only "u ! mo/ fav\rable circum/ances1 af=d$ by an unusually l[ tide & smoo? wat]1 to rea* ! out] m>g91 :]e ! coral is alive4 ,i succe$$ only twice 9 ga9+ ?is "p1 & f\nd x almo/ entirely compos$ ( a liv+ ,porites1 :i* =ms great irregul>ly r\nd$ masses 7l ^? ( an ,a/ra1 b l>g]7 f f\r to eight feet broad1 & little less 9 ?ickness4 ,^! m\nds are sep>at$ f ea* o!r by n>r[ crook$ *annels1 ab\t six feet deep1 mo/ ( :i* int]sect ! l9e ( reef at "r angles4 ,on ! fur!/ m\nd1 :i* ,i 0 able to rea* by ! aid ( a leap+-pole1 & ov] :i* ! sea broke ) "s viol5ce1 al?\gh ! day 0 q calm & ! tide l[1 ! polypif]s 9 ! upp]mo/ cells 7 all dead1 b betwe5 ?ree & f\r in*es l[] d[n on its side !y 7 liv+1 & =m$ a project+ bord] r\nd ! upp] & dead surface4 ,! coral be+ ?us *eck$ 9 its upw>d gr[?1 ext5ds lat]ally1 & h5ce mo/ ( ! masses1 especially ^? a little fur!r inw>ds1 _h broad flat dead summits4 ,on ! o!r h& ,i c\ld see1 dur+ ! recoil ( ! break]s1 t a few y>ds fur!r seaw>d1 ! :ole convex surface ( ! ,porites 0 alive2 s t ! po9t :]e we 7 /&+ 0 almo/ on ! exact upw>d & %orew>d limit ( exi/5ce ( ^? corals :i* =m ! out] m>g9 ( ! reef4 ,we %all pres5tly see t !re are o!r organic productions1 fitt$ to be> a some:at long] exposure to ! air & sun4 ,next1 b mu* inf]ior 9 importance to ! ,porites1 is ! ,millepora complanata4#a ,x gr[s 9 ?ick v]tical plates1 int]sect+ ea* o!r at v>i\s angles1 & =ms an exce$+ly /rong honeycomb$ mass1 :i* g5]ally affects a circul> =m1 ! m>g9al plates alone be+ alive4 ,betwe5 ^! plates & 9 ! protect$ crevices on ! reef1 a multitude ( bran*+ zoophytes & o!r productions fl\ri%1 b ! ,porites & ,millepora alone seem able to resi/ ! fury ( ! break]s on its upp] & out] edge3 at ! dep? ( a few fa?oms o!r k9ds ( /ony corals live4 ,mr4 ,liesk1 :o 0 intimately acqua9t$ ) e "p ( ?is reef1 & likewise ) t ( ,nor? ,keel+ atoll1 assur$ me t ^! corals inv>iably compose ! out] m>g94 ,! lagoon is inhabit$ by q a di/9ct set ( corals1 g5]ally brittle & ?9ly bran*$2 b a ,porites1 app>5tly ( ! same species ) t on ! outside1 is f\nd !re1 al?\gh x does n seem to ?rive1 & c]ta9ly does n atta9 ! ?\s&? "p 9 bulk ( ! masses oppos$ to ! break]s4 #a ,?is ,millepora 7,palmipora ( ,bla9ville71 z well z ! ,m4 alcicornis1 possesses ! s+ul> prop]ty ( /++ ! sk9 :]e x is delicate1 z on ! face & arm4 ,! woodcut %[s ! =m ( ! bottom (f ! reef3 ! wat] deep5s = a space betwe5 "o & two hundr$ y>ds wide1 v gradually to tw5ty-five fa?oms 7,a 9 section71 beyond :i* ! sides plunge into ! unfa?omable ocean at an angle ( #de4b ,to ! dep? ( t5 or twelve fa?oms ! bottom is exce$+ly rugg$1 & seems =m$ ( great masses ( liv+ coral1 simil> to ^? on ! m>g94 ,! arm+ ( ! lead "h inv>iably came up q clean1 b deeply ind5t$1 & *a9s & an*ors :i* 7 l[]$1 9 ! hopes ( te>+ up ! coral1 7 brok54 ,_m small fragm5ts1 h[ev]1 ( ,millepora alcicornis 7 br\ght up2 & on ! arm+ f an eight-fa?om ca/1 !re 0 a p]fect impression ( an ,a/ra1 app>5tly alive4 ,i exam9$ ! roll$ fragm5ts ca/ on ! bea* dur+ gales1 9 ord] fur!r to asc]ta9 :at corals grew outside ! reef4 ,! fragm5ts consi/$ ( _m k9ds1 ( :i* ! ,porites already m5tion$ & a ,madrepora1 app>5tly ! ,m4 corymbosa1 7 ! mo/ abundant4 ,z ,i se>*$ 9 va9 9 ! holl[s on ! reef & 9 ! lagoon1 = a liv+ specim5 ( ?is ,madrepore1 ,i conclude t x is conf9$ to a zone outside1 & b5ea? ! surface1 :]e x mu/ be v abundant4 ,fragm5ts ( ! ,millepora alcicornis & ( an ,a/ra 7 also num]\s2 ! =m] is f\nd1 b n 9 proportionate numb]s1 9 ! holl[s on ! reef2 b ! ,a/ra ,i did n see liv+4 ,h5ce we may inf]1 t ^! are ! k9ds ( coral :i* =m ! rugg$ slop+ surface 7repres5t$ 9 ! woodcut by an unev5 l9e71 r\nd & b5ea? ! ext]nal m>g94 ,betwe5 twelve & tw5ty fa?oms ! arm+ came up an equal numb] ( times smoo!d ) s&1 & ind5t$ ) coral3 an an*or & lead 7 lo/ at ! respective dep?s ( ?irte5 & sixte5 fa?oms4 ,out ( tw5ty-five s\nd+s tak5 at a great] dep? ?an tw5ty fa?oms1 e "o %[$ t ! bottom 0 cov]$ ) s&2 :]eas1 at a less dep? ?an twelve fa?oms1 e s\nd+ %[$ t x 0 exce$+ly rugg$1 & free f all extrane\s p>ticles4 ,two s\nd+s 7 obta9$ at ! dep? ( #cfj fa?oms1 & sev]al betwe5 two hundr$ & ?ree hundr$ fa?oms4 ,! s& br\ght up f ^! dep?s consi/$ ( f9ely triturat$ fragm5ts ( /ony zoophytes1 b n1 z f> z ,i c\ld di/+ui%1 ( a p>ticle ( any lamelli=m g5us3 fragm5ts ( %ells 7 r>e4 #b ,! s\nd+s f :i* ?is section is laid d[n 7 tak5 ) great c>e by ,capta9 ,fitzroy himself4 ,he us$ a bell-%ap$ lead1 hav+ a diamet] ( f\r in*es1 & ! arm+s ea* "t 7 cut (f & br\ght on bo>d = me to exam9e4 ,! arm+ is a prep>ation ( tall[1 plac$ 9 ! concavity at ! bottom ( ! lead4 ,s&1 & ev5 small fragm5ts ( rock1 w adh]e to x2 & if ! bottom be ( rock x br+s up an exact impression ( its surface4 ,at a di/ance ( #b1bjj y>ds f ! break]s1 ,capta9 ,fitzroy f\nd no bottom ) a l9e ( #g1bjj feet 9 l5g?2 h5ce ! subm>9e slope ( ?is coral =mation is /eep] ?an t ( any volcanic cone4 ,(f ! m\? ( ! lagoon1 & likewise (f ! nor!rn po9t ( ! atoll1 :]e ! curr5ts act viol5tly1 ! incl9ation1 ow+ to ! accumulation ( s$im5t1 is less4 ,z ! arm+ ( ! lead f all ! great] dep?s %[$ a smoo? s&y bottom1 ,i at fir/ conclud$ t ! :ole consi/$ ( a va/ conical pile ( calc>e\s s&1 b ! sudd5 increase ( dep? at "s po9ts1 & ! circum/ance ( ! l9e hav+ be5 cut1 z if rubb$1 :5 betwe5 five hundr$ & six hundr$ fa?oms 7 out1 indicate ! probable exi/5ce ( subm>9e cliffs4 ,on ! m>g9 ( ! reef1 close )9 ! l9e :]e ! upp] surface ( ! ,porites & ( ! ,millepora is dead1 ?ree species ( ,nullipora fl\ri%4 ,"o gr[s 9 ?9 %eets1 l a li*5 on old trees2 ! second 9 /ony knobs1 z ?ick z a man's f+]1 radiat+ f a common c5tre2 & ! ?ird1 :i* is less common1 9 a moss-l reticulation ( ?91 b p]fectly rigid bran*es4#c ,! ?ree species occur ei!r sep>ately or m+l$ toge!r2 & !y =m by _! successive gr[? a lay] two or ?ree feet 9 ?ickness1 :i* 9 "s cases is h>d1 b :]e =m$ ( ! li*5-l k9d1 readily yields an impression to ! hamm]3 ! surface is ( a r$di% col\r4 ,^! ,nullipor1 al?\gh able to exi/ above ! limit ( true corals1 seem to require to be ba!d dur+ ! great] "p ( ea* tide by break+ wat]1 = !y are n f\nd 9 any abundance 9 ! protect$ holl[s on ! back "p ( ! reef1 :]e !y might be imm]s$ ei!r dur+ ! :ole or an equal proportional "t ( ea* tide4 ,x is rem>kable t organic productions ( su* extreme simplicity1 = ! ,nullipor und\bt$ly belong to "o ( ! l[e/ classes ( ! vegetable k+dom1 %\ld be limit$ to a zone s peculi>ly circum/anc$4 ,h5ce ! lay] compos$ by _! gr[? m]ely fr+es ! reef = a space ( ab\t tw5ty y>ds 9 wid?1 ei!r "u ! =m ( sep>ate mammillat$ projections1 :]e ! out] masses ( coral are sep>ate1 or1 m commonly1 :]e ! corals are unit$ into a solid m>g91 z a cont9u\s smoo? convex m\nd 7,b 9 woodcut71 l an artificial breakwat]4 ,bo? ! m\nd & mammillat$ projections /& ab\t ?ree feet high] ?an any o!r "p ( ! reef1 by :i* t]m ,i d n include ! islets1 =m$ by ! accumulation ( roll$ fragm5ts4 ,we %all h]eaft] see t o!r coral reefs are protect$ by a simil> ?ick gr[? ( ,nullipor on ! out] m>g91 ! "p mo/ expos$ to ! break]s1 & ?is mu/ effectually aid 9 pres]v+ x f be+ worn d[n4 #c ,?is la/ species is ( a beautiful bright pea*-blossom col\r4 ,its bran*es are ab\t z ?ick z cr[-quills2 !y are slightly flatt5$ & knobb$ at ! extremities4 ,! extremities only are alive & brightly col\r$4 ,! two o!r species are ( a dirty purpli%-:ite4 ,! second species is extremely h>d2 its %ort knob-l bran*es are cyl9drical1 & d n gr[ ?ick] at _! extremities4 ,! woodcut repres5ts a section across "o ( ! islets on ! reef1 b if all t "p :i* is above ! level ( ,c 7 remov$1 ! section w\ld be t ( a simple reef1 z x occurs :]e no islet has be5 =m$4 ,x is ?is reef :i* ess5tially =ms ! atoll4 ,x is a r+1 enclos+ ! lagoon on all sides except at ! nor!rn end1 :]e !re are two op5 spaces1 ?r\gh "o ( :i* %ips c ent]4 ,! reef v>ies 9 wid? f two hundr$ & fifty to five hundr$ y>ds1 its surface is level1 or v slightly incl9$ t[>ds ! lagoon1 & at high tide ! sea breaks entirely ov] x3 ! wat] at l[ tide ?r[n by ! break]s on ! reef1 is c>ri$ by ! _m n>r[ & %oal gullies or *annels on its surface1 into ! lagoon3 a return /ream sets out ( ! lagoon ?r\gh ! ma9 entrance4 ,! mo/ frequ5t coral 9 ! holl[s on ! reef is ,pocillopora v]rucosa1 :i* gr[s 9 %ort s9u\s plates1 or bran*es1 & :5 alive is ( a beautiful pale lake-r$3 a ,madrepora1 closely alli$ or id5tical ) ,m4 pocillif]a1 is also common4 ,z soon z an islet is =m$1 & ! waves are prev5t$ break+ entirely ov] ! reef1 ! *annels & holl[s 9 x become fill$ up ) cem5t$ fragm5ts1 & its surface is conv]t$ into a h>d smoo? floor 7,c ( woodcut71 l an artificial "o ( free/one4 ,?is flat surface v>ies 9 wid? f "o hundr$ to two hundr$1 or ev5 ?ree hundr$ y>ds1 & is /rew$ ) a few l>ge fragm5ts ( coral torn up dur+ gales3 x is uncov]$ only at l[ wat]4 ,i c\ld ) difficulty1 & only by ! aid ( a *isel1 procure *ips ( rock f its surface1 & !re=e c\ld n asc]ta9 h[ mu* ( x is =m$ by ! aggregation ( detritus1 & h[ mu* by ! outw>d gr[? ( m\nds ( corals1 simil> to ^? n[ liv+ on ! m>g94 ,no?+ c be m s+ul> ?an ! appe>ance at l[ tide ( ?is 8flat0 ( nak$ /one1 especially :]e x is ext]nally b\nd$ by ! smoo? convex m\nd ( ,nullipor1 appe>+ l a breakwat] built to resi/ ! waves1 :i* are con/antly ?r[+ ov] x %eets ( foam+ wat]4 ,! *>act]i/ic appe>ance ( ?is 8flat0 is %[n 9 ! =ego+ woodcut ( ,:itsunday atoll4 ,! islets on ! reef are fir/ =m$ betwe5 two hundr$ & ?ree hundr$ y>ds f its out] edge1 ?r\gh ! accumulation ( a pile ( fragm5ts1 ?r[n toge!r by "s unusually /rong gale4 ,_! ord9>y wid? is "u a qu>t] ( a mile1 & _! l5g? v>ies f a few y>ds to sev]al miles4 ,^? on ! s\?-ea/ & w9dw>d side ( ! atoll1 increase solely by ! addition ( fragm5ts on _! out] side2 h5ce ! loose blocks ( coral1 ( :i* _! surface is compos$1 z well z ! %ells m+l$ ) !m1 almo/ exclusively consi/ ( ^? k9ds :i* live on ! out] coa/4 ,! highe/ "p ( ! islets 7except+ hillocks ( bl[n s&1 "s ( :i* are ?irty feet high71 is close to ! out] bea* 7,e ( ! woodcut71 & av]ages f six to t5 feet above ord9>y high-wat] m>k4 ,f ! out] bea* ! surface slopes g5tly to ! %ores ( ! lagoon1 :i* no d\bt has be5 caus$ by ! break]s ! fur!r !y h roll$ ov] ! reef1 hav+ _h less p[] to ?r[ up fragm5ts4 ,! little waves ( ! lagoon heap up s& & fragm5ts ( ?9ly-bran*$ corals on ! inn] side ( ! islets on ! leew>d side ( ! atoll2 & ^! islets are broad] ?an ^? to w9dw>d1 "s be+ ev5 eight hundr$ y>ds 9 wid?2 b ! l& ?us add$ is v l[4 ,! fragm5ts b5ea? ! surface are cem5t$ into a solid mass1 :i* is expos$ z a l$ge 7,d ( ! woodcut71 project+ "s y>ds 9 front ( ! out] %ore & f two to f\r feet high4 ,?is l$ge is j rea*$ by ! waves at ord9>y high-wat]3 x ext5ds 9 front ( all ! islets1 & ev]y:]e has a wat]-worn & scoop$ appe>ance4 ,! fragm5ts ( coral :i* are occasionally ca/ on ! 8flat0 are dur+ gales ( unusual viol5ce swept toge!r on ! bea*1 :]e ! waves ea* day at high-wat] t5d to remove & gradually we> !m d[n2 b ! l[] fragm5ts hav+ become firmly cem5t$ toge!r by ! p]colation ( calc>e\s matt]1 resi/ ! daily tides long]1 & h5ce project z a l$ge4 ,! cem5t$ mass is g5]ally ( a :ite col\r1 b 9 "s few p>ts r$di% f f]rug9\s matt]2 x is v h>d1 & is sonor\s "u ! hamm]2 x is obscurely divid$ by seams1 dipp+ at a small angle seaw>d2 x consi/s ( fragm5ts ( ! corals :i* gr[ on ! out] m>g91 "s q & o!rs p>tially r\nd$1 "s small & o!rs betwe5 two & ?ree feet across2 & ( masses ( previ\sly =m$ conglom]ate1 torn up1 r\nd$1 & re-cem5t$2 or x consi/s ( a calc>e\s s&/one1 entirely compos$ ( r\nd$ p>ticles1 g5]ally almo/ bl5d$ toge!r1 ( %ells1 corals1 ! sp9es ( e*9i1 & o!r su* organic bodies2 rocks1 ( ?is latt] k9d1 occur on _m %ores1 :]e !re are no coral reefs4 ,! /ructure ( ! coral 9 ! conglom]ate has g5]ally be5 mu* obscur$ by ! infiltration ( spa?ose calc>e\s matt]2 & ,i collect$ a v int]e/+ s]ies1 beg9n+ ) fragm5ts ( unalt]$ coral1 & end+ ) o!rs1 :]e x 0 impossible to discov] ) ! nak$ eye any trace ( organic /ructure4 ,9 "s specim5s ,i 0 unable1 ev5 ) ! aid ( a l5s1 & by wett+ !m1 to di/+ui% ! b\nd>ies ( ! alt]$ coral & spa?ose lime/one4 ,_m ev5 ( ! blocks ( coral ly+ loose on ! bea*1 _h _! c5tral p>ts alt]$ & infiltrat$4 ,! lagoon alone rema9s to be describ$2 x is mu* %all[] ?an t ( mo/ atolls ( consid]able size4 ,! s\!rn "p is almo/ fill$ up ) banks ( mud & fields ( coral1 bo? dead & alive1 b !re are consid]able spaces1 betwe5 ?ree & f\r fa?oms1 & small] bas9s1 f eight to t5 fa?oms deep4 ,probably ab\t half its area consi/s ( s$im5t1 & half ( coral-reefs4 ,! corals compos+ ^! reefs h a v diff]5t aspect f ^? on ! outside2 !y are v num]\s 9 k9d1 & mo/ ( !m are ?9ly bran*$4 ,me&r9a1 h[ev]1 lives 9 ! lagoon1 & great r\nd$ masses ( ?is coral are num]\s1 ly+ q or almo/ loose on ! bottom4 ,! o!r commone/ k9ds consi/ ( ?ree closely alli$ species ( true ,madrepora 9 ?9 bran*es2 ( ,s]iatapora subulata2 two species ( ,porites#d ) cyl9drical bran*es1 "o ( :i* =ms circul> clumps1 ) ! ext]ior bran*es only alive2 & la/ly1 a coral some?+ l an ,explan>ia1 b ) />s on bo? surfaces1 gr[+ 9 ?91 brittle1 /ony1 foliace\s expansions1 especially 9 ! deep] bas9s ( ! lagoon4 ,! reefs on :i* ^! corals gr[ are v irregul> 9 =m1 are full ( cavities1 & h n a solid flat surface ( dead rock1 l t surr\nd+ ! lagoon2 nor c !y be ne>ly s h>d1 = ! inhabitants made ) cr[b>s a *annel ( consid]able l5g? ?r\gh ^! reefs1 9 :i* a s*oon]1 built on ! ,s4,e4 islet1 0 float$ out4 ,x is a v int]e/+ circum/ance1 po9t$ out to u by ,mr4 ,liesk1 t ?is *annel1 al?\gh made less ?an t5 ye>s be=e our visit1 0 !n1 z we saw1 almo/ *ok$ up ) liv+ coral1 s t fre% excavations w\ld be absolutely necess>y to all[ ano!r vessel to pass ?r\gh x4 #d ,?is ,porites has some:at ! habit ( ,p4 clav>ia1 b ! bran*es are n knobb$ at _! ends4 ,:5 alive x is ( a yell[ col\r1 b aft] hav+ be5 wa%$ 9 fre% wat] & plac$ to dry1 a jet-black slimy sub/ance exud$ f ! entire surface1 s t ! specim5 n[ appe>s z if x _h be5 dipp$ 9 ink4 ,! s$im5t f ! deepe/ p>ts 9 ! lagoon1 :5 wet1 appe>$ *alky1 b :5 dry1 l v f9e s&4 ,l>ge s(t banks ( simil>1 b ev5 f9] gra9$ mud1 occur on ! ,s4,e4 %ore ( ! lagoon1 af=d+ a ?ick gr[? ( a ,fucus1 on :i* turtle fe$3 ?is mud1 al?\gh discol\r$ by vegetable matt]1 appe>s f its entire solution 9 acids to be purely calc>e\s4 ,i h se5 9 ! ,museum ( ! ,geological ,society1 a simil> b m rem>kable sub/ance1 br\ght by ,lieut5ant ,nelson f ! reefs ( ,b]muda1 :i*1 :5 %[n to sev]al exp]i5c$ geologi/s1 0 mi/ak5 by !m = true *alk4 ,on ! outside ( ! reef mu* s$im5t mu/ be =m$ by ! action ( ! surf on ! roll$ fragm5ts ( coral2 b 9 ! calm wat]s ( ! lagoon1 ?is c take place only 9 a small degree4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 o!r & unexpect$ ag5ts at "w "h3 l>ge %oals ( two species ( ,sc>us1 "o inhabit+ ! surf outside ! reef & ! o!r ! lagoon1 subsi/ entirely1 z ,i 0 assur$ by ,mr4 ,liesk1 ! intellig5t resid5t be=e ref]r$ to1 by br[s+ on ! liv+ polypif]s4 ,i op5$ sev]al ( ^! fi%1 :i* are v num]\s & ( consid]able size1 & ,i f\nd _! inte/9es di/5d$ by small pieces ( coral1 & f9ely gr\nd calc>e\s matt]4 ,?is mu/ daily pass f !m z ! f9e/ s$im5t2 mu* also mu/ be produc$ by ! inf9itely num]\s v]mi=m & mollusc\s animals1 :i* make cavities 9 almo/ e block ( coral4 ,dr4 ,j4 ,allan1 ( ,=res1 :o has enjoy$ ! be/ means ( obs]vation1 in=ms me 9 a lett] t ! ,holo?uri 7a family ( ,radiata7 subsi/ on liv+ coral2 & ! s+ul> /ructure ( bone )9 ! ant]ior extremity ( _! bodies1 c]ta9ly appe>s well adapt$ = ?is purpose4 ,! numb] ( ! species ( ,holo?uria1 & ( ! individuals :i* sw>m on e "p ( ^! coral-reefs1 is extraord9>ily great2 & _m %iploads are annually freight$1 z is well-kn[n1 = ,*9a ) ! trepang1 :i* is a species ( ?is g5us4 ,! am\nt ( coral ye>ly consum$1 & gr\nd d[n into ! f9e/ mud1 by ^! sev]al creatures1 & probably by _m o!r k9ds1 mu/ be imm5se4 ,^! facts are1 h[ev]1 ( m importance 9 ano!r po9t ( view1 z %[+ u t !re are liv+ *ecks to ! gr[? ( coral-reefs1 & t ! almo/ univ]sal law ( 8consum$ & be consum$10 holds good ev5 ) ! polypif]s =m+ ^? massive bulw>ks1 :i* are able to )/& ! =ce ( ! op5 ocean4 ,consid]+ t ,keel+ atoll1 l o!r coral =mations1 has be5 entirely =m$ by ! gr[? ( organic be+s1 & ! accumulation ( _! detritus1 "o is naturally l$ to inquire h[ long x has cont9u$1 & h[ long x is likely to cont9ue1 9 its pres5t /ate4 ,mr4 ,liesk in=m$ me t he _h se5 an old *>t 9 :i* ! pres5t long isl& on ! ,s4,e4 side 0 divid$ by sev]al *annels into z _m islets2 & he assures me t ! *annels c /ill be di/+ui%$ by ! small] size ( ! trees on !m4 ,on sev]al islets1 also1 ,i obs]v$ t only "y cocoa-nut trees 7 gr[+ on ! extremities2 & t old] & tall] trees rose 9 regul> succession beh9d !m2 :i* %[s t ^! islets h v lately increas$ 9 l5g?4 ,9 ! upp] & s\?-ea/]n "p ( ! lagoon1 ,i 0 mu* surpris$ by f9d+ an irregul> field ( at lea/ a mile squ>e ( bran*+ corals1 /ill upright1 b entirely dead4 ,!y consi/$ ( ! species already m5tion$2 !y 7 ( a br[n col\r1 & s rott51 t 9 try+ to /& on !m ,i sank halfway up ! leg1 z if ?r\gh decay$ bru%wood4 ,! tops ( ! bran*es 7 b>ely cov]$ by wat] at ! "t ( l[e/ tide4 ,sev]al facts hav+ l$ me to disbelieve 9 any elevation ( ! :ole atoll1 ,i 0 at fir/ unable to imag9e :at cause c\ld h kill$ s l>ge a field ( coral4 ,^u reflection1 h[ev]1 x appe>$ to me t ! clos+ up ( ! above-m5tion$ *annels w\ld be a suffici5t cause2 = be=e ?is1 a /rong breeze by =c+ wat] ?r\gh !m into ! head ( ! lagoon1 w\ld t5d to raise its level4 ,b n[ ?is _c happ51 & ! inhabitants obs]ve t ! tide rises to a less height1 dur+ a high ,s4,e4 w9d1 at ! head ?an at ! m\? ( ! lagoon4 ,! corals1 :i*1 "u ! =m] condition ( ?+s1 _h atta9$ ! utmo/ possible limit ( upw>d gr[?1 w\ld ?us occasionally be expos$ = a %ort "t to ! sun1 & be kill$4 ,besides ! increase ( dry l&1 indicat$ by ! =ego+ facts1 ! ext]ior solid reef appe>s to h gr[n outw>ds4 ,on ! we/]n side ( ! atoll1 ! 8flat0 ly+ betwe5 ! m>g9 ( ! reef & ! bea*1 is v wide2 & 9 front ( ! regul> bea* ) its conglom]ate basis1 !re is1 9 mo/ p>ts1 a b$ ( s& & loose fragm5ts ) trees gr[+ out ( x1 :i* app>5tly is n rea*$ ev5 by ! spray at high wat]4 ,x is evid5t "s *ange has tak5 place s9ce ! waves =m$ ! inn] bea*2 t !y =m]ly beat aga9/ x ) viol5ce 0 evid5t1 f a rem>kably ?ick & wat]-worn po9t ( conglom]ate at "o spot1 n[ protect$ by vegetation & a bank ( s&2 t !y beat aga9/ x 9 ! same peculi> mann] 9 :i* ! swell f w9dw>d n[ obliquely curls r\nd ! m>g9 ( ! reef1 0 evid5t f ! conglom]ate hav+ be5 worn into a po9t project+ f ! bea* 9 a simil>ly oblique mann]4 ,?is retreat 9 ! l9e ( action ( ! break]s might result1 ei!r f ! surface ( ! reef 9 front ( ! islets hav+ be5 subm]g$ at "o "t1 & aft]w>d hav+ gr[n upw>ds1 or f ! m\nds ( coral on ! m>g9 hav+ cont9u$ to gr[ outw>ds4 ,t an outw>d gr[? ( ?is "p is 9 process1 c h>dly be d\bt$ f ! fact already m5tion$ ( ! m\nds ( ,porites ) _! summits app>5tly lately kill$1 & _! sides only ?ree or f\r in*es l[] d[n ?ick5$ by a fre% lay] ( liv+ coral4 ,b !re is a difficulty on ?is supposition :i* ,i mu/ n pass ov]4 ,if ! :ole1 or a l>ge "p ( ! 8flat10 _h be5 =m$ by ! outw>d gr[? ( ! m>g91 ea* successive m>g9 w\ld naturally h be5 coat$ by ! ,nullipor1 & s mu* ( ! surface w\ld h be5 ( equal height ) ! exi/+ zone ( liv+ ,nullipor3 ?is is n ! case1 z may be se5 9 ! woodcut4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 evid5t f ! abrad$ /ate ( ! 8flat10 ) its orig9al inequalities fill$ up1 t its surface has be5 mu* modifi$2 & x is possible t ! h9d] portions ( ! zone ( ,nullipor1 p]i%+ z ! reef gr[s outw>ds1 might be worn d[n by ! surf4 ,if ?is has n tak5 place1 ! reef c 9 no "p h increas$ outw>ds 9 bread? s9ce its =mation1 or at lea/ s9ce ! ,nullipor =m$ ! convex m\nd on its m>g92 = ! zone ?us =m$1 & :i* /&s betwe5 two & ?ree feet above ! o!r p>ts ( ! reef1 is n[h]e mu* above tw5ty y>ds 9 wid?4 ,?us f> we h consid]$ facts1 :i* indicate1 ) m or less probability1 ! increase ( ! atoll 9 its diff]5t p>ts3 !re are o!rs hav+ an opposite t5d5cy4 ,on ! s\?-ea/ side1 ,lieut5ant ,sulivan1 to ^: k9dness ,i am indebt$ = _m int]e/+ obs]vations1 f\nd ! conglom]ate project+ on ! reef ne>ly fifty y>ds 9 front ( ! bea*3 we may inf] f :at we see 9 all o!r p>ts ( ! atoll1 t ! conglom]ate 0 n orig9ally s mu* expos$1 b =m$ ! base ( an islet1 ! front & upp] "p ( :i* has s9ce be5 swept away4 ,! degree to :i* ! conglom]ate1 r\nd ne>ly ! :ole atoll1 has be5 scoop$1 brok5 up1 & ! fragm5ts ca/ on ! bea*1 is c]ta9ly v surpris+1 ev5 on ! view t x is ! (fice ( occasional gales to pile up fragm5ts1 & ( ! daily tides to we> !m away4 ,on ! we/]n side1 also1 ( ! atoll1 :]e ,i h describ$ a b$ ( s& & fragm5ts ) trees gr[+ out ( x1 9 front ( an old bea*1 x /ruck bo? ,lieut5ant ,sulivan & myself1 f ! mann] 9 :i* ! trees 7 be+ wa%$ d[n1 t ! surf _h lately recomm5c$ an attack on ?is l9e ( coa/4 ,appe>ances indicat+ a slight encroa*m5t ( ! wat] on ! l&1 are pla9] )9 ! lagoon3 ,i notic$ 9 sev]al places1 bo? on its w9dw>d & leew>d %ores1 old cocoa-nut trees fall+ ) _! roots und]m9$1 & ! rott5 /umps ( o!rs on ! bea*1 :]e ! inhabitants assur$ u ! cocoa-nut c\ld n n[ gr[4 ,capta9 ,fitzroy po9t$ out to me1 ne> ! settlem5t1 ! f\ndation po/s ( a %$1 n[ wa%$ by e tide1 b :i* ! inhabitants /at$1 _h sev5 ye>s be=e /ood above high wat]m>k4 ,9 ! calm wat]s ( ! lagoon1 directly connect$ ) a great1 & !re=e /able ocean1 x seems v improbable t a *ange 9 ! curr5ts1 suffici5tly great to cause ! wat] to eat into ! l& on all sides1 %\ld h tak5 place )9 a limit$ p]iod4 ,f ^! consid]ations ,i inf]r$1 t probably ! atoll _h lately subsid$ to a small am\nt2 & ?is inf]5ce 0 /r5g!n$ by ! circum/ance1 t 9 #ahcd1 two ye>s be=e our visit1 ! isl& _h be5 %ak5 by a sev]e e>?quake1 & by two slight] ones dur+ ! t5 previ\s ye>s4 ,if1 dur+ ^! subt]ranean di/urbances1 ! atoll did subside1 ! d[nw>d movem5t mu/ h be5 v small1 z we mu/ conclude f ! fields ( dead coral /ill lipp+ ! surface ( ! lagoon1 & f ! break]s on ! we/]n %ore n hav+ yet rega9$ ! l9e ( _! =m] action4 ,! subsid5ce mu/1 also1 h be5 prec$$ by a long p]iod ( re/1 dur+ :i* ! islets ext5d$ to _! pres5t size1 & ! liv+ m>g9 ( ! reef grew ei!r upw>ds1 or z ,i believe outw>ds1 to its pres5t di/ance f ! bea*4 ,:e!r ?is view be correct or n1 ! above facts are wor?y ( att5tion1 z %[+ h[ sev]e a /ruggle is 9 progress on ^! l[ coral =mations betwe5 ! two nicely balanc$ p[]s ( l& & wat]4 ,) respect to ! future /ate ( ,keel+ atoll1 if left undi/urb$1 we c see t ! islets may /ill ext5d 9 l5g?2 b z !y _c resi/ ! surf until brok5 by roll+ ov] a wide space1 _! increase 9 bread? mu/ dep5d on ! increas+ bread? ( ! reef2 & ?is mu/ be limit$ by ! /eepness ( ! subm>9e flanks1 :i* c be add$ to only by s$im5t d]iv$ f ! we> & te> ( ! coral4 ,f ! rapid gr[? ( ! coral 9 ! *annel cut = ! s*oon]1 & f ! sev]al ag5ts at "w 9 produc+ f9e s$im5t1 x might be ?\ght t ! lagoon w\ld necess>ily become quickly fill$ up4 ,"s ( ?is s$im5t1 h[ev]1 is transport$ into ! op5 sea1 z appe>s f ! s\nd+s (f ! m\? ( ! lagoon1 in/ead ( be+ deposit$ )9 x4 ,! deposition1 moreov]1 ( s$im5t1 *ecks ! gr[? ( coral-reefs1 s t ^! two ag5cies _c act toge!r ) full effect 9 fill+ x up4 ,we "k s little ( ! habits ( ! _m diff]5t species ( corals1 :i* =m ! lagoon-reefs1 t we h no m reasons = suppos+ t _! :ole surface w\ld gr[ up z quickly z ! coral did 9 ! s*oon]-*annel1 ?an = suppos+ t ! :ole surface ( a peat-moss w\ld increase z quickly z p>ts are kn[n to d 9 holes1 :]e ! peat has be5 cut away4 ,^! ag5cies1 nev]!less1 t5d to fill up ! lagoon2 b 9 proportion z x becomes %all[]1 s mu/ ! polypif]s be subject to _m injuri\s ag5cies1 su* z impure wat] & loss ( food4 ,= in/ance1 ,mr4 ,liesk in=m$ me1 t "s ye>s be=e our visit unusually heavy ra9 kill$ ne>ly all ! fi% 9 ! lagoon1 & probably ! same cause w\ld likewise injure ! corals4 ,! reefs also1 x mu/ be rememb]$1 _c possibly rise above ! level ( ! l[e/ spr+-tide1 s t ! f9al conv]sion ( ! lagoon into l& mu/ be due to ! accumulation ( s$im5t2 & 9 ! mid/ ( ! cle> wat] ( ! ocean1 & ) no surr\nd+ high l&1 ?is process mu/ be exce$+ly sl[4 ,,section ,,ii4--,,g5]al ,,description ,,( ,,atolls4 ,g5]al =m & size ( atolls1 _! reefs & islets4--,ext]nal slope4-- ,zone ( ,nullipor4--,conglom]ate4--,dep? ( lagoons4--,s$im5t4--,reefs subm]g$ :olly or 9 "p4--,brea*es 9 ! reef4--,l$ge-=m$ %ores r\nd c]ta9 lagoons4--,conv]sion ( lagoons into l&4 ,i w "h give a sket* ( ! g5]al =m & /ructure ( ! _m atolls & atoll-=m$ reefs :i* occur 9 ! ,pacific & ,indian ,oceans1 comp>+ !m ) ,keel+ atoll4 ,! ,maldiva atolls & ! ,great ,*agos ,bank diff] 9 s _m respects1 t ,i %all devote to !m1 besides occasional ref]5ces1 a ?ird section ( ?is *apt]4 ,keel+ atoll may be consid]$ z ( mod]ate dim5sions & ( regul> =m4 ,( ! ?irty-two isl&s survey$ by ,capta9 ,bee*ey 9 ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago1 ! longe/ 0 f\nd to be ?irty miles1 & ! %orte/ less ?an a mile2 b ,vlieg5 atoll1 situat$ 9 ano!r "p ( ! same gr\p1 appe>s to be sixty miles long & tw5ty broad4 ,mo/ ( ! atolls 9 ?is gr\p are ( an elongat$ =m2 ?us ,b[ ,isl& is ?irty miles 9 l5g?1 & on an av]age only six 9 wid? 7,see ,figure #d1 ,plate ,i471 & ,cl]mont ,tonn]e has ne>ly ! same proportions4 ,9 ! ,m>%all ,ar*ipelago 7! ,ralick & ,radack gr\p ( ,kotzebue7 sev]al ( ! atolls are m ?an ?irty miles 9 l5g?1 & ,rimsky ,korsac(f is fifty-f\r long1 & tw5ty wide1 at ! broade/ "p ( its irregul> outl9e4 ,mo/ ( ! atolls 9 ! ,maldiva ,ar*ipelago are ( great size1 "o ( !m 7:i*1 h[ev]1 be>s a d\ble "n7 measur$ 9 a m$ial & slightly curv$ l9e1 is no less ?an eighty-eight geographical miles long1 its greate/ wid? be+ "u tw5ty1 & its lea/ only n9e & a half miles4 ,"s atolls h spurs project+ f !m2 & 9 ! ,m>%all gr\p !re are atolls unit$ toge!r by l9e> reefs1 = in/ance ,m5*ik(f ,isl& 7,see ,figure #c1 ,plate ,,ii471 :i* is sixty miles 9 l5g?1 & consi/s ( ?ree loops ti$ toge!r4 ,9 f> ! great] numb] ( cases an atoll consi/s ( a simple elongat$ r+1 ) its outl9e mod]ately regul>4 ,! av]age wid? ( ! annul> wrea? may be tak5 z ab\t a qu>t] ( a mile4 ,capta9 ,bee*ey#e says t 9 ! atolls ( ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago x exce$$ 9 no in/ance half a mile4 ,! description giv5 ( ! /ructure & proportional dim5sions ( ! reef & islets ( ,keel+ atoll1 appe>s to apply p]fectly to ne>ly all ! atolls 9 ! ,pacific & ,indian ,oceans4 ,! islets are fir/ =m$ "s way back ei!r on ! project+ po9ts ( ! reef1 especially if its =m be angul>1 or on ! sides ( ! ma9 entrances into ! lagoon--t is 9 bo? cases1 on po9ts :]e ! break]s c act dur+ gales ( w9d 9 some:at diff]5t directions1 s t ! matt] ?r[n up f "o side may accumulate aga9/ t be=e ?r[n up f ano!r4 ,9 ,lutk's *>t ( ! ,c>ol9e atolls1 we see _m in/ances ( ! =m] case2 & ! occurr5ce ( islets1 z if plac$ = beacons1 on ! po9ts :]e !re is a gateway or brea* ?r\gh ! reef1 has be5 notic$ by sev]al au?ors4 ,!re are "s atoll-=m$ reefs1 ris+ to ! surface ( ! sea & p>tly dry at l[ wat]1 on :i* f "s cause islets h nev] be5 =m$2 & !re are o!rs on :i* !y h be5 =m$1 b h subsequ5tly be5 worn away4 ,9 atolls ( small dim5sions ! islets frequ5tly become unit$ into a s+le horse-%oe or r+-=m$ /rip2 b ,diego ,g>cia1 al?\gh an atoll ( consid]able size1 be+ ?irte5 miles & a half 9 l5g?1 has its lagoon entirely surr\nd$1 except at ! nor!rn end1 by a belt ( l&1 on an av]age a ?ird ( a mile 9 wid?4 ,to %[ h[ small ! total area ( ! annul> reef & ! l& is 9 isl&s ( ?is class1 ,i may quote a rem>k f ! voyage ( ,lutk1 namely1 t if ! =ty-?ree r+s1 or atolls1 9 ! ,c>ol9e ,ar*ipelago1 7 put "o )9 ano!r1 & ov] a /eeple 9 ! c5tre ( ,/4 ,pet]sburg1 ! :ole _w w\ld n cov] t city & its suburbs4 #e ,bee*ey's 8,voyage to ! ,pacific & ,be]+'s ,/raits10 *apt] viii4 ,! =m ( ! bottom (f ,keel+ atoll1 :i* gradually slopes to ab\t tw5ty fa?oms at ! di/ance ( betwe5 "o & two hundr$ y>ds f ! edge ( ! reef1 & !n plunges at an angle ( #de into unfa?omable dep?s1 is exactly ! same#f ) t ( ! sections ( ! atolls 9 ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago giv5 by ,capta9 ,bee*ey4 ,! nature1 h[ev]1 ( ! bottom seems to diff]1 = ?is (fic]#g in=ms me t all ! s\nd+s1 ev5 ! deepe/1 7 on coral1 b he does n "k :e!r dead or alive4 ,! slope r\nd ,*ri/mas atoll 7,lat4 #a #d ,n41 #aeg #de ,w471 describ$ by ,cook1#h is consid]ably less1 at ab\t half a mile f ! edge ( ! reef1 ! av]age dep? 0 ab\t f\rte5 fa?oms on a f9e s&y bottom1 & at a mile1 only betwe5 tw5ty & =ty fa?oms4 ,x has no d\bt be5 ow+ to ?is g5tle slope1 t ! /rip ( l& surr\nd+ its lagoon1 has increas$ 9 "o "p to ! extraord9>y wid? ( ?ree miles2 x is =m$ ( successive ridges ( brok5 %ells & corals1 l ^? on ! bea*4 ,i "k ( no o!r in/ance ( su* wid? 9 ! reef ( an atoll2 b ,mr4 ,f4,d4 ,b5nett in=ms me t ! incl9ation ( ! bottom r\nd ,c>ol9e atoll 9 ! ,pacific1 is l t (f ,*ri/mas ,isl&1 v g5tle4 ,(f ! ,maldiva & ,*agos atolls1 ! incl9ation is mu* m abrupt2 ?us at ,heaw&oo ,pholo1 ,lieut5ant ,p[ell#i f\nd fifty & sixty fa?oms close to ! edge ( ! reef1 & at #cjj y>ds di/ance !re 0 no bottom ) a #cjj-y>d l9e4 ,capta9 ,moresby in=ms me1 t at #ajj fa?oms f ! m\? ( ! lagoon ( ,diego ,g>cia1 he f\nd no bottom ) #aej fa?oms2 ?is is ! m rem>kable1 z ! slope is g5]ally less abrupt 9 front ( *annels ?r\gh a reef1 ow+ to ! accumulation ( s$im5t4 ,at ,egmont ,isl&1 also1 at #aej fa?oms f ! reef1 s\nd+s 7 /ruck ) #aej fa?oms4 ,la/ly1 at ,c>doo atoll1 only sixty y>ds f ! reef1 no bottom 0 obta9$1 z ,i am in=m$ by ,capta9 ,moresby1 ) a l9e ( #bjj fa?oms6 ,! curr5ts run ) great =ce r\nd ^! atolls1 & :]e !y are /ronge/1 ! incl9ation appe>s to be mo/ abrupt4 ,i am in=m$ by ! same au?ority1 t :]ev] s\nd+s 7 obta9$ (f ^! isl&s1 ! bottom 0 inv>iably s&y3 nor 0 !re any reason to suspect ! exi/5ce ( subm>9e cliffs1 z !re 0 at ,keel+ ,isl&4#aj ,"h !n occurs a difficulty2 c s& accumulate on a slope1 :i*1 9 "s cases1 appe>s to exce$ fifty-five degrees8 ,x mu/ be obs]v$1 t ,i speak ( slopes :]e s\nd+s 7 obta9$1 & n ( su* cases1 z t ( ,c>doo1 :]e ! nature ( ! bottom is unkn[n1 & :]e its incl9ation mu/ be ne>ly v]tical4 ,m4 lie de ,beaumont#aa has argu$1 & !re is no high] au?ority on ?is subject1 f ! incl9ation at :i* sn[ slides d[n 9 avalan*es1 t a b$ ( s& or mud _c be =m$ at a great] angle ?an ?irty degrees4 ,consid]+ ! numb] ( s\nd+s on s&1 obta9$ r\nd ! ,maldiva & ,*agos atolls1 :i* appe>s to indicate a great] angle1 & ! extreme abruptness ( ! s&-banks 9 ! ,we/ ,indies1 z w be m5tion$ 9 ! ,app5dix1 ,i mu/ conclude t ! adhesive prop]ty ( wet s& c\nt]acts its gravity1 9 a mu* great] ratio ?an has be5 all[$ = by ,m4 lie de ,beaumont4 ,f ! facility ) :i* calc>e\s s& becomes agglut9at$1 x is n necess>y to suppose t ! b$ ( loose s& is ?ick4 #f ,! =m ( ! bottom r\nd ! ,m>%all atolls 9 ! ,nor!rn ,pacific is probably simil>3 ,kotzebue 78,fir/ ,voyage10 volume ii41 page #af47 says3 8,we _h at a small di/ance f ! reef1 =ty fa?oms dep?1 :i* increas$ a little fur!r s mu* t we c\ld f9d no bottom407 #g ,i mu/ be p]mitt$ to express my obligation to ,capta9 ,bee*ey1 = ! v k9d mann] 9 :i* he has giv5 me in=mation on sev]al po9ts1 & to own ! great assi/ance ,i h d]iv$ f 8 excell5t publi%$ "w4 #h ,cook's 8,?ird ,voyage10 volume ii41 *apt] #aj4 #i ,?is fact is tak5 f a ,,ms4 acc\nt ( ^! gr\ps l5t me by ,capta9 ,moresby4 ,see also ,capta9 ,moresby's pap] on ! ,maldiva atolls 9 ! 8,geographical ,j\rnal01 volume v41 page #dja4 #aj ,(f "s ( ! isl&s 9 ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago ! bottom appe>s to desc5d by l$ges4 ,(f ,elizabe? ,isl&1 :i*1 h[ev]1 consi/s ( rais$ coral1 ,capta9 ,bee*ey 7p4 #de1 qu>to edition7 describes ?ree l$ges3 ! fir/ _h an easy slope f ! bea* to a di/ance ( ab\t fifty y>ds3 ! second ext5d$ two hundr$ y>ds ) tw5ty-five fa?oms on x1 & !n end$ abruptly1 l ! fir/2 & imm$iately beyond ?is !re 0 no bottom ) two hundr$ fa?oms4 #aa 8,mmoires p\r s]vir une description ,golog4 de ,france10 tome iv41 page #baf4 ,capta9 ,bee*ey has obs]v$1 t ! subm>9e slope is mu* less at ! extremities ( ! m elongat$ atolls 9 ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago1 ?an at _! sides2 9 speak+ ( ,ducie's ,isl& he says#ab ! buttress1 z x may be call$1 :i* 8has ! mo/ p[]ful enemy 7! ,s4,w4 swell7 to oppose1 is c>ri$ out mu* fur!r1 & ) less abruptness ?an ! o!r40 ,9 "s cases1 ! less incl9ation ( a c]ta9 "p ( ! ext]nal slope1 = in/ance ( ! nor!rn extremities ( ! two ,keel+ atolls1 is caus$ by a prevail+ curr5t :i* !re accumulates a b$ ( s&4 ,:]e ! wat] is p]fectly tranquil1 z )9 a lagoon1 ! reefs g5]ally gr[ up p]p5dicul>ly1 & sometimes ev5 ov]hang _! bases2 on ! o!r h&1 on ! leew>d side ( ,mauritius1 :]e ! wat] is g5]ally tranquil1 al?\gh n inv>iably s1 ! reef is v g5tly incl9$4 ,h5ce x appe>s t ! ext]ior angle v>ies mu*2 nev]!less 9 ! close simil>ity 9 =m betwe5 ! sections ( ,keel+ atoll & ( ! atolls 9 ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago1 9 ! g5]al /eepness ( ! reefs ( ! ,maldiva & ,*agos atolls1 & 9 ! p]p5dicul>ity ( ^? ris+ out ( wat] always tranquil1 we may disc]n ! effects ( uni=m laws2 b f ! complex action ( ! surf & curr5ts1 on ! gr[+ p[]s ( ! coral & on ! deposition ( s$im5t1 we c by no means foll[ out all ! results4 #ab ,bee*ey's 8,voyage10 #dto edition1 page #dd4 ,:]e islets h be5 =m$ on ! reef1 t "p :i* ,i h sometimes call$ ! 8flat0 & :i* is p>tly dry at l[ wat]1 appe>s simil> 9 e atoll4 ,9 ! ,m>%all gr\p 9 ! ,nor? ,pacific1 x may be inf]r$ f ,*amisso's description1 t ! reef1 :]e islets h n be5 =m$ on x1 slopes g5tly f ! ext]nal m>g9 to ! %ores ( ! lagoon2 ,fl9d]s /ates t ! ,au/ralian b>ri] has a simil> incl9ation inw>ds1 & ,i h no d\bt x is ( g5]al occurr5ce1 al?\gh1 accord+ to ,ehr5b]g1 ! reefs ( ! ,r$ ,sea (f] an exception4 ,*amisso obs]ves t 8! r$ col\r ( ! reef 7at ! ,m>%all atolls7 "u ! break]s is caus$ by a ,nullipora1 :i* cov]s ! /one :]ev] ! waves beat2 &1 "u fav\rable circum/ances1 assumes a /alactical =m10--a description p]fectly applicable to ! m>g9 ( ,keel+ atoll4#ac ,al?\gh ,*amisso does n /ate t ! masses ( ,nullipor =m po9ts or a m\nd1 high] ?an ! flat1 yet ,i believe t ?is is ! case2 = ,kotzebue1#ad 9 ano!r "p1 speaks ( ! rocks on ! edge ( ! reef 8z visible = ab\t two feet at l[ wat]10 & ^! rocks we may feel q c]ta9 are n =m$ ( true coral4#ae ,:e!r a smoo? convex m\nd ( ,nullipor1 l t :i* appe>s z if artificially con/ruct$ to protect ! m>g9 ( ,keel+ ,isl&1 is ( frequ5t occurr5ce r\nd atolls1 ,i "k n2 b we %all pres5tly meet ) x1 "u precisely ! same =m1 on ! out] edge ( ! 8b>ri]-reefs0 :i* encircle ! ,society ,isl&s4 #ac ,kotzebue's 8,fir/ ,voyage10 volume iii41 page #adb4 ,ne> ,porto ,praya1 9 ! ,cape de ,v]de ,isl&s1 "s basaltic rocks1 la%$ by no inconsid]able surf1 7 completely envelop$ ) a lay] ( ,nullipor4 ,! entire surface ov] _m squ>e in*es1 0 col\r$ ( a pea*-blossom$ r$2 ! lay]1 h[ev]1 0 ( no great] ?ickness ?an pap]4 ,ano!r k9d1 9 ! =m ( project+ knobs1 grew 9 ! same situation4 ,^! ,nullipor are closely relat$ to ^? describ$ on ! coral-reefs1 b ,i believe are ( diff]5t species4 #ad ,kotzebue1 8,fir/ ,voyage10 volume ii41 page #af4 ,lieut5ant ,nelson1 9 8 excell5t memoir 9 ! ,geological ,transactions 7volume ii41 page #aje71 alludes to ! rocky po9ts m5tion$ by ,kotzebue1 & inf]s t !y consi/ ( ,s]pul1 :i* compose incru/+ masses on ! reefs ( ,b]mudas1 z !y likewise d on a s&/one b> (f ! coa/ ( ,brazil 7:i* ,i h describ$ 9 8,london ,phil4 ,j\rnal10 ,octob] #ahda74 ,^! masses ( ,s]pul hold ! same position1 relatively to ! action ( ! sea1 ) ! ,nullipor on ! coral-reefs 9 ! ,indian & ,pacific ,oceans4 #ae ,capta9 ,moresby1 9 8 valuable pap] 8on ! ,nor!rn atolls ( ,maldivas0 78,geographical ,j\rnal01 volume v471 says t ! edges ( ! reefs !re /& above wat] at l[ spr+-tides4 ,!re appe>s to be sc>cely a feature 9 ! /ructure ( ,keel+ reef1 :i* is n ( common1 if n ( univ]sal occurr5ce1 9 o!r atolls4 ,?us ,*amisso describes#af a lay] ( co>se conglom]ate1 outside ! islets r\nd ! ,m>%all atolls :i* 8appe>s on its upp] surface unev5 & eat5 away40 ,f draw+s1 ) app5d$ rem>ks1 ( ,diego ,g>cia 9 ! ,*agos gr\p & ( sev]al ( ! ,maldiva atolls1 %[n me by ,capta9 ,moresby1#ag x is evid5t t _! out] coa/s are subject to ! same r\nd ( decay & r5ovation z ^? ( ,keel+ atoll4 ,f ! description ( ! atolls 9 ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago1 giv5 9 ,capta9 ,bee*ey's 8,voyage10 x is n app>5t t any conglom]ate coral-rock 0 !re obs]v$4 #af ,kotzebue's 8,fir/ ,voyage10 volume iii41 page #add4 #ag ,see also ,moresby on ! ,nor!rn atolls ( ! ,maldivas1 8,geographical ,j\rnal01 volume v41 page #djj4 ,! lagoon 9 ,keel+ atoll is %all[2 9 ! atolls ( ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago ! dep? v>ies f #bj to #ch fa?oms1 & 9 ! ,m>%all ,gr\p1 accord+ to ,*amisso1 f #cj to #ce2 9 ! ,c>ol9e atolls x is only a little less4 ,)9 ! ,maldiva atolls !re are l>ge spaces ) #de fa?oms1 & "s s\nd+s are laid d[n ( #di fa?oms4 ,! great] "p ( ! bottom 9 mo/ lagoons1 is =m$ ( s$im5t2 l>ge spaces h exactly ! same dep?1 or ! dep? v>ies s ins5sibly1 t x is evid5t t no o!r means1 except+ aque\s deposition1 c\ld h level$ ! surface s equally4 ,9 ! ,maldiva atolls ?is is v conspicu\s1 & likewise 9 "s ( ! ,c>ol9e & ,m>%all ,isl&s4 ,9 ! =m] l>ge spaces consi/ ( s& & s(t clay2 & ,kotzebue speaks ( clay hav+ be5 f\nd )9 "o ( ! ,m>%all atolls4 ,no d\bt ?is clay is calc>e\s mud1 simil> to t at ,keel+ ,isl&1 & to t at ,b]muda already ref]r$ to1 z undi/+ui%able f dis9tegrat$ *alk1 & :i* ,lieut5ant ,nelson says is call$ !re pipe-clay4#ah #ah ,i may "h obs]ve t on ! coa/ ( ,brazil1 :]e !re is mu* coral1 ! s\nd+s ne> ! l& are describ$ by ,admiral ,r\ss91 9 ! ,pilote du ,brsil1 z silice\s s&1 m+l$ ) mu* f9ely comm9ut$ p>ticles ( %ells & coral4 ,fur!r 9 ! (f+1 = a space ( #a1cjj miles along ! coa/1 f ! ,abrolhos ,isl&s to ,m>anham1 ! bottom 9 _m places is compos$ ( 8tuf blanc1 ml ou =m de madrpores broys40 ,?is :ite sub/ance1 probably1 is analog\s to t :i* occurs )9 ! above-m5tion$ lagoons2 x is sometimes1 accord+ to ,r\ss91 firm1 & he comp>es x to mort>4 ,:]e ! waves act ) unequal =ce on ! two sides ( an atoll1 ! islets appe> to be fir/ =m$1 & are g5]ally ( great] cont9uity on ! m expos$ %ore4 ,! islets1 also1 :i* are plac$ to leew>d1 are 9 mo/ p>ts ( ! ,pacific liable to be occasionally swept entirely away by gales1 equall+ hurricanes 9 viol5ce1 :i* bl[ 9 an opposite direction to ! ord9>y trade-w9d4 ,! abs5ce ( ! islets on ! leew>d side ( atolls1 or :5 pres5t _! less] dim5sions comp>$ ) ^? to w9dw>d1 is a comp>atively unimportant fact2 b 9 sev]al in/ances ! reef itself on ! leew>d side1 reta9+ its usual def9$ outl9e1 does n rise to ! surface by sev]al fa?oms4 ,?is is ! case ) ! s\!rn side ( ,p]os ,banhos 7,plate ,i41 ,figure #i7 9 ! ,*agos gr\p1 ) ,m\rileu atoll#ai 9 ! ,c>ol9e ,ar*ipelago1 & ) ! b>ri]-reef 7,plate ,i41 ,figure #h7 ( ! ,gambi] ,isl&s4 ,i allude to ! latt] reef1 al?\gh belong+ to ano!r class1 because ,capta9 ,bee*ey 0 fir/ l$ by x to obs]ve ! peculi>ity 9 ! "q4 ,at ,p]os ,banhos ! subm]g$ "p is n9e miles 9 l5g?1 & lies at an av]age dep? ( ab\t five fa?oms2 its surface is ne>ly level1 & consi/s ( h>d /one1 ) a ?9 cov]+ ( loose s&4 ,!re is sc>cely any liv+ coral on x1 ev5 on ! out] m>g91 z ,i h be5 p>ticul>ly assur$ by ,capta9 ,moresby2 x is1 9 fact1 a wall ( dead coral-rock1 hav+ ! same wid? & transv]se section ) ! reef 9 its ord9>y /ate1 ( :i* x is a cont9u\s portion4 ,! liv+ & p]fect p>ts t]m9ate abruptly1 & abut on ! subm]g$ portions1 9 ! same mann] z on ! sides ( an ord9>y passage ?r\gh ! reef4 ,! reef to leew>d 9 o!r cases is ne>ly or q oblit]at$1 & "o side ( ! lagoon is left op52 = in/ance1 at ,oulleay 7,c>ol9e ,ar*ipelago71 :]e a cresc5t-=m$ reef is front$ by an irregul> bank1 on :i* ! o!r half ( ! annul> reef probably once /ood4 ,at ,namon\to1 9 ! same ,ar*ipelago1 bo? ^! modifications ( ! reef concur2 x consi/s ( a great flat bank1 ) f tw5ty to tw5ty-five fa?oms wat] on x2 = a l5g? ( m ?an =ty miles on its s\!rn side x is op5 & )\t any reef1 :il/ on ! o!r sides x is b\nd$ by a reef1 9 p>ts ris+ to ! surface & p]fectly *>act]is$1 9 p>ts ly+ "s fa?oms subm]g$4 ,9 ! ,*agos gr\p !re are annul> reefs1 entirely subm]g$1 :i* h ! same /ructure z ! subm]g$ & def9$ portions j describ$4 ,! ,speak]'s ,bank (f]s an excell5t example ( ?is /ructure2 its c5tral expanse1 :i* is ab\t tw5ty-two fa?oms deep1 is tw5ty-f\r miles across2 ! ext]nal rim is ( ! usual wid? ( annul> reefs1 & is well-def9$2 x lies betwe5 six & eight fa?oms b5ea? ! surface1 & at ! same dep? !re are scatt]$ knolls 9 ! lagoon4 ,capta9 ,moresby believes ! rim consi/s ( dead rock1 ?9ly cov]$ ) s&1 & he is c]ta9 ?is is ! case ) ! ext]nal rim ( ! ,great ,*agos ,bank1 :i* is also ess5tially a subm]g$ atoll4 ,9 bo? ^! cases1 z 9 ! subm]g$ portion ( ! reef at ,p]os ,banhos1 ,capta9 ,moresby feels sure t ! quantity ( liv+ coral1 ev5 on ! out] edge ov]hang+ ! deep-sea wat]1 is q insignificant4 ,la/ly1 9 sev]al p>ts ( ! ,pacific & ,indian ,oceans !re are banks1 ly+ at great] dep?s ?an 9 ! cases j m5tion$1 ( ! same =m & size ) ! neighb\r+ atolls1 b ) _! atoll-l /ructure :olly oblit]at$4 ,x appe>s f ! survey ( ,freyc9et1 t !re are banks ( ?is k9d 9 ! ,c>ol9e ,ar*ipelago1 &1 z is report$1 9 ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago4 ,:5 we discuss ! orig9 ( ! diff]5t classes ( coral =mations1 we %all see t ! subm]g$ /ate ( ! :ole ( "s atoll-=m$ reefs1 & ( portions ( o!rs1 g5]ally b n inv>iably on ! leew>d side1 & ! exi/5ce ( m deeply subm]g$ banks n[ possess+ little or no signs ( _! orig9al atoll-l /ructure1 are probably ! effects ( a uni=m cause1--namely1 ! dea? ( ! coral1 dur+ ! subsid5ce ( ! area1 9 :i* ! atolls or banks are situat$4 #ai ,fr$]ick ,lutk's 8,voyage aut\r du ,monde10 volume ii41 page #bia4 ,see also 8 acc\nt ( ,namon\to1 bel[1 & ! *>t ( ,oulleay 9 ! ,atlas4 ,!re is seldom1 ) ! exception ( ! ,maldiva atolls1 m ?an two or ?ree *annels1 & g5]ally only "o lead+ into ! lagoon1 ( suffici5t dep? = a %ip to ent]4 9 small atolls1 !re is usually n ev5 "o4 ,:]e !re is deep wat]1 = in/ance above tw5ty fa?oms1 9 ! middle ( ! lagoon1 ! *annels ?r\gh ! reef are seldom z deep z ! c5tre1--x may be said t ! rim only ( ! sauc]-%ap$ holl[ =m+ ! lagoon is not*$4 ,mr4 ,lyell#bj has obs]v$ t ! gr[? ( ! coral w\ld t5d to ob/ruct all ! *annels ?r\gh a reef1 except ^? kept op5 by dis*>g+ ! wat]1 :i* dur+ high tide & ! great] "p ( ea* ebb is ?r[n ov] its circumf]5ce4 ,sev]al facts indicate t a consid]able quantity ( s$im5t is likewise dis*>g$ ?r\gh ^! *annels2 & ,capta9 ,moresby in=ms me t he has obs]v$1 dur+ ! *ange ( ! monsoon1 ! sea discol\r$ to a di/ance (f ! entrances into ! ,maldiva & ,*agos atolls4 ,?is1 probably1 w\ld *eck ! gr[? ( ! coral 9 !m1 f> m effectually ?an a m]e curr5t ( wat]4 ,9 ! _m small atolls )\t any *annel1 ^! causes h n prev5t$ ! entire r+ atta9+ ! surface4 ,! *annels1 l ! subm]g$ & effac$ p>ts ( ! reef1 v g5]ally ?\gh n inv>iably occur on ! leew>d side ( ! atoll1 or on t side1 accord+ to ,bee*ey1#ba :i*1 f runn+ 9 ! same direction ) ! preval5t w9d1 is n fully expos$ to x4 ,passages betwe5 ! islets on ! reef1 ?r\gh :i* boats c pass at high wat]1 mu/ n be conf\nd$ ) %ip-*annels1 by :i* ! annul> reef itself is brea*$4 ,! passages betwe5 ! islets occur1 ( c\rse1 on ! w9dw>d z well z on ! leew>d side2 b !y are m frequ5t & broad] to leew>d1 ow+ to ! less] dim5sions ( ! islets on t side4 #bj 8,pr9ciples ( ,geology10 volume iii41 page #bhi4 #ba ,bee*ey's 8,voyage10 #dto edition1 volume i41 page #ahi4 ,at ,keel+ atoll ! %ores ( ! lagoon %elve gradually1 :]e ! bottom is ( s$im5t1 & irregul>ly or abruptly :]e !re are coral-reefs2 b ?is is by no means ! univ]sal /ructure 9 o!r atolls4 ,*amisso1#bb speak+ 9 g5]al t]ms ( ! lagoons 9 ! ,m>%all atolls1 says ! lead g5]ally s9ks 8f a dep? ( two or ?ree fa?oms to tw5ty or tw5ty-f\r1 & y may pursue a l9e 9 :i* on "o side ( ! boat y may see ! bottom1 & on ! o!r ! azure-blue deep wat]40 ,! %ores ( ! lagoon-l *annel )9 ! b>ri]-reef at ,vanikoro h a simil> /ructure4 ,capta9 ,bee*ey has describ$ a modification ( ?is /ructure 7& he believes x is n uncommon7 9 two atolls 9 ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago1 9 :i* ! %ores ( ! lagoon desc5d by a few1 broad1 slightly incl9$ l$ges or /eps3 ?us at ,matilda atoll1#bc ! great ext]ior reef1 ! surface ( :i* is g5tly incl9$ t[>ds & b5ea? ! surface ( ! lagoon1 ends abruptly 9 a little cliff ?ree fa?oms deep2 at its foot1 a l$ge =ty y>ds wide ext5ds1 %elv+ g5tly inw>ds l ! surface-reef1 & t]m9at$ by a second little cliff five fa?oms deep2 beyond ?is1 ! bottom ( ! lagoon slopes to tw5ty fa?oms1 :i* is ! av]age dep? ( its c5tre4 ,^! l$ges seem to be =m$ ( coral-rock2 & ,capta9 ,bee*ey says t ! lead (t5 desc5d$ sev]al fa?oms ?r\gh holes 9 !m4 ,9 "s atolls1 all ! coral reefs or knolls 9 ! lagoon come to ! surface at l[ wat]2 9 o!r cases ( r>] occurr5ce1 all lie at ne>ly ! same dep? b5ea? x1 b mo/ frequ5tly !y are q irregul>1--"s ) p]p5dicul>1 "s ) slop+ sides1--"s ris+ to ! surface1 & o!rs ly+ at all int]m$iate dep?s f ! bottom upw>ds4 ,i _c1 !re=e1 suppose t ! union ( su* reefs c\ld produce ev5 "o uni=mly slop+ l$ge1 & mu* less two or ?ree1 "o b5ea? ! o!r1 & ea* t]m9at$ by an abrupt wall4 ,at ,matilda ,isl&1 :i* (f]s ! be/ example ( ! /ep-l /ructure1 ,capta9 ,bee*ey obs]ves t ! coral-knolls )9 ! lagoon are q irregul> 9 _! height4 ,we %all h]eaft] see t ! !ory :i* acc\nts = ! ord9>y =m ( atolls1 app>5tly includes ?is occasional peculi>ity 9 _! /ructure4 #bb ,kotzebue's 8,fir/ ,voyage10 volume iii41 page #adb4 #bc ,bee*ey's 8,voyage10 #dto edition1 volume i1 page #afj4 ,at ,:itsunday ,isl& ! bottom ( ! lagoon slopes gradually t[>ds ! c5tre1 & !n deep5s sudd5ly1 ! edge ( ! bank be+ ne>ly p]p5dicul>4 ,?is bank is =m$ ( coral & dead %ells4 ,9 ! mid/ ( a gr\p ( atolls1 !re sometimes occur small1 flat1 v l[ isl&s ( coral =mation1 :i* probably once includ$ a lagoon1 s9ce fill$ up ) s$im5t & coral-reefs4 ,capta9 ,bee*ey ent]ta9s no d\bt t ?is has be5 ! case ) ! two small isl&s1 :i* alone ( ?irty-"o survey$ by him 9 ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago1 did n conta9 lagoons4 ,romanz(f ,isl& 79 lat4 #ae ,s47 is describ$ by ,*amisso#bd z =m$ by a dam ( madreporitic rock inclos+ a flat space1 ?9ly cov]$ ) trees1 into :i* ! sea on ! leew>d side occasionally breaks4 ,nor? ,keel+ atoll appe>s to be 9 a r less =w>d /age ( conv]sion into l&2 x consi/s ( a horse-%oe %ap$ /rip ( l& surr\nd+ a muddy flat1 "o mile 9 its longe/ axis1 :i* is cov]$ by ! sea only at high wat]4 ,:5 describ+ ,s\? ,keel+ atoll1 ,i endeav\r$ to %[ h[ sl[ ! f9al process ( fill+ up a lagoon mu/ be2 nev]!less1 z all causes d t5d to produce ?is effect1 x is v rem>kable t n "o in/ance1 z ,i believe1 is kn[n ( a mod]ately siz$ lagoon be+ fill$ up ev5 to ! l[ wat]-l9e at spr+-tides1 mu* less ( su* a "o be+ conv]t$ into l&4 ,x is1 likewise1 9 "s degree rem>kable1 h[ few atolls1 except small ones1 are surr\nd$ by a s+le l9e> /rip ( l&1 =m$ by ! union ( sep>ate islets4 ,we _c suppose t ! _m atolls 9 ! ,pacific & ,indian ,oceans all h _h a late orig91 & yet %\ld !y rema9 at _! pres5t level1 subject$ only to ! action ( ! sea & to ! gr[+ p[]s ( ! coral1 dur+ z _m c5turies z mu/ h elaps$ s9ce any ( ! e>li] t]ti>y epo*s1 x _c1 ,i ?9k1 be d\bt$ t _! lagoons & ! islets on _! reef1 w\ld pres5t a totally diff]5t appe>ance f :at !y n[ d4 ,?is consid]ation leads to ! suspicion t "s r5ovat+ ag5cy 7namely subsid5ce7 comes into play at int]vals1 & p]petuates _! orig9al /ructure4 #bd ,kotzebue's 8,fir/ ,voyage10 volume iii41 page #bba4 ,,section ,,iii4--,,atolls ,,( ,,! ,,maldiva ,,ar*ipelago--,,great ,,*agos ,,bank4 ,maldiva ,ar*ipelago4--,r+-=m$ reefs1 m>g9al & c5tral4--,great dep?s 9 ! lagoons ( ! s\!rn atolls4--,reefs 9 ! lagoons all ris+ to ! surface4--,position ( islets & brea*es 9 ! reefs1 ) respect to ! preval5t w9ds & action ( ! waves4--,de/ruction ( islets4--,connection 9 ! position & subm>9e f\ndation ( di/9ct atolls4--,! app>5t dissev]m5t ( l>ge atolls4--,! ,great ,*agos ,bank4--,its subm]g$ condition & extraord9>y /ructure4 ,al?\gh occasional ref]5ces h be5 made to ! ,maldiva atolls1 & to ! banks 9 ! ,*agos gr\p1 "s po9ts ( _! /ructure des]ve fur!r consid]ation4 ,my description is d]iv$ f an exam9ation ( ! admirable *>ts lately publi%$ f ! survey ( ,capta9 ,moresby & ,lieut5ant ,p[ell1 & m especially f in=mation :i* ,capta9 ,moresby has communicat$ to me 9 ! k9de/ mann]4 ,! ,maldiva ,ar*ipelago is #dgj miles 9 l5g?1 ) an av]age bread? ( ab\t #ej miles4 ,! =m & dim5sions ( ! atolls1 & _! s+ul> position 9 a d\ble l9e1 may be se51 b n well1 9 ! greatly r$uc$ *>t 7,figure #f7 9 ,plate ,,ii4 ,! dim5sions ( ! longe/ atoll 9 ! gr\p 7call$ by ! d\ble "n ( ,milla-d\-,mad\ & ,tilla-d\-,matte7 h already be5 giv52 x is #hh miles 9 a m$ial & slightly curv$ l9e1 & is less ?an #bj miles 9 its broade/ "p4 ,suadiva1 also1 is a noble atoll1 be+ #dd miles across 9 "o direction1 & #cd 9 ano!r1 & ! great includ$ expanse ( wat] has a dep? ( betwe5 #bej & #cjj feet4 ,! small] atolls 9 ?is gr\p diff] 9 no respect f ord9>y ones2 b ! l>g] ones are rem>kable f be+ brea*$ by num]\s deep-wat] *annels lead+ into ! lagoon2 = in/ance1 !re are #db *annels1 ?r\gh :i* a %ip c\ld ent] ! lagoon ( ,suadiva4 ,9 ! ?ree s\!rn l>ge atolls1 ! sep>ate portions ( reef betwe5 ^! *annels h ! ord9>y /ructure1 & are l9e>2 b 9 ! o!r atolls1 especially ! m nor!rn ones1 ^! portions are r+- =m$1 l m9iature atolls4 ,o!r r+-=m$ reefs rise out ( ! lagoons1 9 ! place ( ^? irregul> ones :i* ord9>ily occur !re4 ,9 ! r$uction ( ! *>t ( ,mahlos ,mahdoo 7,plate ,,ii41 ,figure #d71 x 0 n f\nd easy to def9e ! islets & ! little lagoons )9 ea* reef1 s t ! r+-=m$ /ructure is v imp]fectly %[n2 9 ! l>ge publi%$ *>ts ( ,tilla-d\-,matte1 ! appe>ance ( ^! r+s1 f /&+ fur!r ap>t f ea* o!r1 is v rem>kable4 ,! r+s on ! m>g9 are g5]ally elongat$2 _m ( !m are ?ree1 & "s ev5 five miles1 9 diamet]2 ^? )9 ! lagoon are usually small]1 few be+ m ?an two miles across1 & ! great] numb] r less ?an "o4 ,! dep? ( ! little lagoon )9 ^! small annul> reefs is g5]ally f five to sev5 fa?oms1 b occasionally m2 & 9 ,ari atoll _m ( ! c5tral ones are twelve1 & "s ev5 m ?an twelve fa?oms deep4 ,^! r+s rise abruptly f ! plat=m or bank1 on :i* !y are plac$2 _! out] m>g9 is inv>iably bord]$ by liv+ coral#be )9 :i* !re is a flat surface ( coral rock2 ( ?is flat1 s& & fragm5ts h 9 _m cases accumulat$ & be5 conv]t$ into islets1 clo!d ) vegetation4 ,i c1 9 fact1 po9t out no ess5tial diff]5ce betwe5 ^! little r+-=m$ reefs 7:i*1 h[ev]1 are l>g]1 & conta9 deep] lagoons ?an _m true atolls t /& 9 ! op5 sea71 & ! mo/ p]fectly *>act]is$ atolls1 except+ t ! r+-=m$ reefs are bas$ on a %all[ f\ndation1 in/ead ( on ! floor ( ! op5 sea1 & t in/ead ( be+ scatt]$ irregul>ly1 !y are gr\p$ closely toge!r on "o l>ge plat=m1 ) ! m>g9al r+s arrang$ 9 a rudely =m$ circle4 #be ,capta9 ,moresby in=ms me t ,millepora complanata is "o ( ! commone/ k9ds on ! out] m>g91 z x is at ,keel+ atoll4 ,! p]fect s]ies :i* c be trac$ f portions ( simple l9e> reef1 to o!rs includ+ long l9e> lagoons1 & f ^! aga9 to oval or almo/ circul> r+s1 r5d]s x probable t ! latt] are m]ely modifications ( ! l9e> or normal /ate4 ,x is con=mable ) ?is view1 t ! r+-=m$ reefs on ! m>g91 ev5 :]e mo/ p]fect & /&+ fur!/ ap>t1 g5]ally h _! longe/ axes direct$ 9 ! l9e :i* ! reef w\ld h held1 if ! atoll _h be5 b\nd$ by an ord9>y wall4 ,we may also inf] t ! c5tral r+-=m$ reefs are modifications ( ^? irregul> ones1 :i* are f\nd 9 ! lagoons ( all common atolls4 ,x appe>s f ! *>ts on a l>ge scale1 t ! r+-l /ructure is cont+5t on ! m>g9al *annels or brea*es be+ wide2 &1 consequ5tly1 on ! :ole int]ior ( ! atoll be+ freely expos$ to ! wat]s ( ! op5 sea4 ,:5 ! *annels are n>r[ or few 9 numb]1 al?\gh ! lagoon be ( great size & dep? 7z 9 ,suadiva71 !re are no r+-=m$ reefs2 :]e ! *annels are some:at broad]1 ! m>g9al portions ( reef1 & especially ^? close to ! l>g] *annels1 are r+-=m$1 b ! c5tral ones are n s2 :]e !y are broade/1 almo/ e reef ?r\gh\t ! atoll is m or less p]fectly r+-=m$4 ,al?\gh _! pres5ce is ?us cont+5t on ! op5ness ( ! m>g9al *annels1 ! !ory ( _! =mation1 z we %all h]eaft] see1 is includ$ 9 t ( ! p>5t atolls1 ( :i* !y =m ! sep>ate portions4 ,! lagoons ( all ! atolls 9 ! s\!rn "p ( ! ,ar*ipelago are f t5 to tw5ty fa?oms deep] ?an ^? 9 ! nor!rn "p4 ,?is is well exemplifi$ 9 ! case ( ,addoo1 ! s\!rnmo/ atoll 9 ! gr\p1 = al?\gh only n9e miles 9 its longe/ diamet]1 x has a dep? ( ?irty-n9e fa?oms1 :]eas all ! o!r small atolls h comp>atively %all[ lagoons2 ,i c assign no adequate cause = ?is diff]5ce 9 dep?4 ,9 ! c5tral & deepe/ "p ( ! lagoons1 ! bottom consi/s1 z ,i am in=m$ by ,capta9 ,moresby1 ( /iff clay 7probably a calc>e\s mud72 ne>] ! bord] x consi/s ( s&1 & 9 ! *annels ?r\gh ! reef1 ( h>d s&-banks1 s&/one1 conglom]ate rubble1 & a little live coral4 ,close outside ! reef & ! l9e jo9+ its deta*$ portions 7:]e int]sect$ by _m *annels71 ! bottom is s&y1 & x slopes abruptly into unfa?omable dep?s4 ,9 mo/ lagoons ! dep? is consid]ably great] 9 ! c5tre ?an 9 ! *annels2 b 9 ,tilla-d\-,matte1 :]e ! m>g9al r+-=m$ reefs /& f> ap>t1 ! same dep? is c>ri$ across ! entire atoll1 f ! deep-wat] l9e on "o side to t on ! o!r4 ,i _c refra9 f once aga9 rem>k+ on ! s+ul>ity ( ^! atolls1--a great s&y & g5]ally concave disc rises abruptly f ! unfa?omable ocean1 ) its c5tral expanse /udd$ & its bord] symmetrically fr+$ ) oval bas9s ( coral-rock1 j lipp+ ! surface ( ! sea1 sometimes clo!d ) vegetation1 & ea* conta9+ a little lake ( cle> wat]6 ,9 ! s\!rn ,maldiva atolls1 ( :i* !re are n9e l>ge ones1 all ! small reefs )9 ! lagoons come to ! surface1 & are dry at l[ wat] spr+-tides2 h5ce 9 navigat+ !m1 !re is no dang] f subm>9e banks4 ,?is circum/ance is v rem>kable1 z )9 "s atolls1 = in/ance ^? ( ! neighb\r+ ,*agos gr\p1 n a s+le reef comes to ! surface1 & 9 mo/ o!r cases a few only d1 & ! re/ lie at all int]m$iate dep?s f ! bottom upw>ds4 ,:5 treat+ ( ! gr[? ( coral ,i %all aga9 ref] to ?is subject4 ,al?\gh 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! ,maldiva ,ar*ipelago ! w9ds1 dur+ ! monsoons1 bl[ dur+ ne>ly an equal "t f opposite qu>t]s1 & al?\gh1 z ,i am in=m$ by ,capta9 ,moresby1 ! we/]ly w9ds are ! /ronge/1 yet ! islets are almo/ all plac$ on ! ea/]n side ( ! nor!rn atolls1 & on ! s\?-ea/]n side ( ! s\!rn atolls4 ,t ! =mation ( ! islets is due to detritus ?r[n up f ! outside1 z 9 ! ord9>y mann]1 & n f ! int]ior ( ! lagoons1 may1 ,i ?9k be safely inf]r$ f sev]al consid]ations1 :i* x is h>dly wor? :ile to detail4 ,z ! ea/]ly w9ds are n ! /ronge/1 _! action probably is aid$ by "s prevail+ swell or curr5t4 ,9 gr\ps ( atolls1 expos$ to a trade-w9d1 ! %ip-*annels into ! lagoons are almo/ inv>iably situat$ on ! leew>d or less expos$ side ( ! reef1 & ! reef itself is sometimes ei!r want+ !re1 or is subm]g$4 ,a /rictly analog\s1 b diff]5t fact1 may be obs]v$ at ! ,maldiva atolls--namely1 t :]e two atolls /& 9 front ( ea* o!r1 ! brea*es 9 ! reef are ! mo/ num]\s on _! ne>1 & !re=e less expos$1 sides4 ,?us on ! ne> sides ( ,ari & ! two ,nill&oo atolls1 :i* face ,s4 ,mle1 ,phale$oo1 & ,moloque atolls1 !re are sev5ty-?ree deep-wat] *annels1 & only tw5ty-five on _! out] sides2 on ! ne> side ( ! ?ree latt] nam$ atolls !re are fifty- six op5+s1 & only ?irty-sev5 on _! outsides4 ,x is sc>cely possible to attribute ?is diff]5ce to any o!r cause ?an ! some:at diff]5t action ( ! sea on ! two sides1 :i* w\ld ensue f ! protection af=d$ by ! two r[s ( atolls to ea* o!r4 ,i may "h rem>k t 9 mo/ cases1 ! conditions fav\rable to ! great] accumulation ( fragm5ts on ! reef & to its m p]fect cont9uity on "o side ( ! atoll ?an on ! o!r1 h concurr$1 b ?is has n be5 ! case ) ! ,maldivas2 = we h se5 t ! islets are plac$ on ! ea/]n or s\?-ea/]n sides1 :il/ ! brea*es 9 ! reef occur indiff]5tly on any side1 :]e protect$ by an opposite atoll4 ,! reef be+ m cont9u\s on ! out] & m expos$ sides ( ^? atolls :i* /& ne> ea* o!r1 accords ) ! fact1 t ! reef ( ! s\!rn atolls is m cont9u\s ?an t ( ! nor!rn ones2 = ! =m]1 z ,i am in=m$ by ,capta9 ,moresby1 are m con/antly expos$ ?an ! nor!rn atolls to a heavy surf4 ,! date ( ! fir/ =mation ( "s ( ! islets 9 ?is ,ar*ipelago is kn[n to ! inhabitants2 on ! o!r h&1 sev]al islets1 & ev5 "s ( ^? :i* are believ$ to be v old1 are n[ fa/ we>+ away4 ,! "w ( de/ruction has1 9 "s in/ances1 be5 complet$ 9 t5 ye>s4 ,capta9 ,moresby f\nd on "o wat]-wa%$ reef ! m>ks ( wells & graves1 :i* 7 excavat$ :5 x support$ an islet4 ,9 ,s\? ,nill&oo atoll1 ! natives say t ?ree ( ! islets 7 =m]ly l>g]3 9 ,nor? ,nill&oo !re is "o n[ be+ wa%$ away2 & 9 ?is latt] atoll ,lieut5ant ,pr5tice f\nd a reef1 ab\t six hundr$ y>ds 9 diamet]1 :i* ! natives positively affirm$ 0 lately an isl& cov]$ ) cocoa-nut trees4 ,x is n[ only p>tially dry at l[ wat] spr+-tides1 & is 79 ,lieut5ant ,pr5tice's words7 8entirely cov]$ ) live coral & madrepore40 ,9 ! nor!rn "p1 also1 ( ! ,maldiva ,ar*ipelago & 9 ! ,*agos gr\p1 x is kn[n t "s ( ! islets are disappe>+4 ,! natives attribute ^! effects to v>iations 9 ! curr5ts ( ! sea4 ,= my own "p ,i _c avoid suspect+ t !re mu/ be "s fur!r cause1 :i* gives rise to su* a cycle ( *ange 9 ! action ( ! curr5ts ( ! great & op5 ocean4 ,sev]al ( ! atolls 9 ?is ,ar*ipelago are s relat$ to ea* o!r 9 =m & position1 t at ! fir/ glance "o is l$ to suspect t !y h orig9at$ 9 ! dissev]m5t ( a s+le "o4 ,mle consi/s ( ?ree p]fectly *>act]is$ atolls1 ( :i* ! %ape & relative position are su*1 t a l9e drawn closely r\nd all ?ree1 gives a symmetrical figure2 to see ?is cle>ly1 a l>g] *>t is requir$ ?an t ( ! ,ar*ipelago 9 ,plate ,,ii42 ! *annel sep>at+ ! two nor!rn ,mle atolls is only little m ?an a mile wide1 & no bottom 0 f\nd 9 x ) #ajj fa?oms4 ,p[ell's ,isl& is situat$ at ! di/ance ( two miles & a half (f ! nor!rn end ( ,mahlos ,mahdoo 7see ,figure #d1 ,plate ,,ii471 at ! exact po9t :]e ! two sides ( ! latt]1 if prolong$1 w\ld meet2 no bottom1 h[ev]1 0 f\nd 9 ! *annel ) #bjj fa?oms2 9 ! wid] *annel betwe5 ,horsburgh atoll & ! s\!rn end ( ,mahlos ,mahdoo1 no bottom 0 f\nd ) #bej fa?oms4 ,9 ^! & simil> cases1 ! relation consi/s only 9 ! =m & position ( ! atolls4 ,b 9 ! *annel betwe5 ! two ,nill&oo atolls1 al?\gh ?ree miles & a qu>t] wide1 s\nd+s 7 /ruck at ! dep? ( #bjj fa?oms2 ! *annel betwe5 ,ross & ,ari atolls is f\r miles wide1 & only #aej fa?oms deep4 ,"h !n we h1 besides ! relation ( =m1 a subm>9e connection4 ,! fact ( s\nd+s hav+ be5 obta9$ betwe5 two sep>ate & p]fectly *>act]is$ atolls is 9 itself int]e/+1 z x has nev]1 ,i believe1 be5 effect$ 9 any ( ! _m o!r gr\ps ( atolls 9 ! ,pacific & ,indian seas4 ,9 cont9u+ to trace ! connection ( adjo9+ atolls1 if a ha/y glance be tak5 at ! *>t 7,figure #d41 ,plate ,,ii47 ( ,mahlos ,mahdoo1 & ! l9e ( unfa?omable wat] be foll[$1 no "o w hesitate to consid] x z "o atoll4 ,b a second look w %[ t x is divid$ by a bifurcat+ *annel1 ( :i* ! nor!rn arm is ab\t "o mile & ?ree-qu>t]s 9 wid?1 ) an av]age dep? ( #abe fa?oms1 & ! s\!rn "o ?ree-qu>t]s ( a mile wide1 & r less deep4 ,^! *annels resemble 9 ! slope ( _! sides & g5]al =m1 ^? :i* sep>ate atolls 9 e respect di/9ct2 & ! nor!rn arm is wid] ?an t divid+ two ( ! ,mle atolls4 ,! r+-=m$ reefs on ! sides ( ?is bifurcat+ *annel are elongat$1 s t ! nor!rn & s\!rn portions ( ,mahlos ,mahdoo may claim1 z f> z _! ext]nal outl9e is conc]n$1 to be consid]$ z di/9ct & p]fect atolls4 ,b ! int]m$iate portion1 ly+ 9 ! =k ( ! *annel1 is bord]$ by reefs less p]fect ?an ^? :i* surr\nd any o!r atoll 9 ! gr\p ( equally small dim5sions4 ,mahlos ,mahdoo1 !re=e1 is 9 e respect 9 s int]m$iate a condition1 t x may be consid]$ ei!r z a s+le atoll ne>ly dissev]$ into ?ree portions1 or z ?ree atolls almo/ p]fect & intimately connect$4 ,?is is an in/ance ( a v e>ly /age ( ! app>5t dissev]m5t ( an atoll1 b a /ill e>li] "o 9 _m respects is exhibit$ at ,tilla-d\- ,matte4 ,9 "o "p ( ?is atoll1 ! r+-=m$ reefs /& s f> ap>t f ea* o!r1 t ! inhabitants h giv5 diff]5t names to ! nor!rn & s\!rn halves2 ne>ly all ! r+s1 moreov]1 are s p]fect & /& s sep>ate1 & ! space f :i* !y rise is s level & unlike a true lagoon1 t we c easily imag9e ! conv]sion ( ?is "o great atoll1 n into two or ?ree portions1 b into a :ole gr\p ( m9iature atolls4 ,a p]fect s]ies su* z we h "h trac$1 impresses ! m9d ) an idea ( actual *ange2 & x w h]eaft] be se51 t ! !ory ( subsid5ce1 ) ! upw>d gr[? ( ! coral1 modifi$ by accid5ts ( probable occurr5ce1 w acc\nt = ! occasional dissev]m5t ( l>ge atolls4 ,! ,great ,*agos bank alone rema9s to be describ$4 ,9 ! ,*agos gr\p !re are "s ord9>y atolls1 "s annul> reefs ris+ to ! surface b )\t any islets on !m1 & "s atoll-=m$ banks1 ei!r q subm]g$1 or ne>ly s4 ,( ! latt]1 ! ,great ,*agos ,bank is mu* ! l>ge/1 & diff]s 9 its /ructure f ! o!rs3 a plan ( x is giv5 9 ,plate ,,ii41 ,figure #a1 9 :i*1 = ! sake ( cle>ness1 ,i h _h ! p>ts "u t5 fa?oms deep f9ely %ad$3 an ea/ & we/ v]tical section is giv5 9 ,figure #b1 9 :i* ! v]tical scale has be5 necess>ily exagg]at$4 ,its longe/ axis is n9ety nautical miles1 & ano!r l9e drawn at "r angles to ! fir/1 across ! broade/ "p1 is sev5ty4 ,! c5tral "p consi/s ( a level muddy flat1 betwe5 =ty & fifty fa?oms deep1 :i* is surr\nd$ on all sides1 ) ! exception ( "s brea*es1 by ! /eep edges ( a set ( banks1 rudely arrang$ 9 a circle4 ,^! banks consi/ ( s&1 ) a v little live coral2 !y v>y 9 bread? f five to twelve miles1 & on an av]age lie ab\t sixte5 fa?oms b5ea? ! surface2 !y are bord]$ by ! /eep edges ( a ?ird n>r[ & upp] bank1 :i* =ms ! rim to ! :ole4 ,?is rim is ab\t a mile 9 wid?1 & ) ! exception ( two or ?ree spots :]e islets h be5 =m$1 is subm]g$ betwe5 five & t5 fa?oms4 ,x consi/s ( smoo? h>d rock1 cov]$ ) a ?9 lay] ( s&1 b ) sc>cely any live coral2 x is /eep on bo? sides1 & outw>ds slopes abruptly into unfa?omable dep?s4 ,at ! di/ance ( less ?an half a mile f "o "p1 no bottom 0 f\nd ) #aij fa?oms2 & (f ano!r po9t1 at a some:at great] di/ance1 !re 0 none ) #baj fa?oms4 ,small /eep-sid$ banks or knolls1 cov]$ ) luxuriantly gr[+ coral1 rise f ! int]ior expanse to ! same level ) ! ext]nal rim1 :i*1 z we h se51 is =m$ only ( dead rock4 ,x is impossible to look at ! plan 7,figure #a1 ,plate ,,ii471 al?\gh r$uc$ to s small a scale1 )\t at once p]ceiv+ t ! ,great ,*agos ,bank is1 9 ! words ( ,capta9 ,moresby1#bf 8no?+ m ?an a half-dr[n$ atoll40 ,b ( :at great dim5sions1 & ( h[ extraord9>y an int]nal /ructure8 ,we %all h]eaft] h to consid] bo? ! cause ( its subm]g$ condition1 a /ate common to o!r banks 9 ! gr\p1 & ! orig9 ( ! s+ul> subm>9e t]races1 :i* b\nd ! c5tral expanse3 ^!1 ,i ?9k1 x c be %[n1 h result$ f a cause analog\s to t :i* has produc$ ! bifurcat+ *annel across ,mahlos ,mahdoo4 #bf ,?is (fic] has _h ! k9dness to l5d me an excell5t ,,ms4 acc\nt ( ! ,*agos ,isl&s2 f ?is pap]1 f ! publi%$ *>ts1 & f v]bal in=mation communicat$ to me by ,capta9 ,moresby1 ! above acc\nt ( ! ,great ,*agos ,bank is tak54 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,b>ri] ,,reefs4 ,closely resemble 9 g5]al =m & /ructure atoll-reefs4--,wid? & dep? ( ! lagoon-*annels4--,brea*es ?r\gh ! reef 9 front ( valleys1 & g5]ally on ! leew>d side4--,*ecks to ! fill+ up ( ! lagoon-*annels4--,size & con/itution ( ! encircl$ isl&s4-- ,numb] ( isl&s )9 ! same reef4--,b>ri]-reefs ( ,new ,cal$onia & ,au/ralia4--,position ( ! reef relative to ! slope ( ! adjo9+ l&4--,probable great ?ickness ( b>ri]-reefs4 ,! t]m 8b>ri]0 has be5 g5]ally appli$ to t va/ reef :i* fronts ! ,n4,e4 %ore ( ,au/ralia1 & by mo/ voyag]s likewise to t on ! we/]n coa/ ( ,new ,cal$onia4 ,at "o "t ,i ?\ght x conv5i5t ?us to re/rict ! t]m1 b z ^! reefs are simil> 9 /ructure1 & 9 position relatively to ! l&1 to ^?1 :i*1 l a wall ) a deep moat )91 encircle _m small] isl&s1 ,i h class$ !m toge!r4 ,! reef1 also1 on ! we/ coa/ ( ,new ,cal$onia1 circl+ r\nd ! extremities ( ! isl&1 is an int]m$iate =m betwe5 a small encircl+ reef & ! ,au/ralian b>ri]1 :i* /ret*es = a ?\s& miles 9 ne>ly a /raight l9e4 ,! geograph] ,balbi has 9 effect describ$ ^? b>ri]-reefs1 :i* encircle mod]ately siz$ isl&s1 by call+ !m atolls ) high l& ris+ f )9 _! c5tral expanse4 ,! g5]al resemblance betwe5 ! reefs ( ! b>ri] & atoll classes may be se5 9 ! small1 b accurately r$uc$ *>ts on ,plate ,i41#a & ?is resemblance c be fur!r %[n to ext5d to e "p ( ! /ructure4 ,beg9n+ ) ! outside ( ! reef2 _m scatt]$ s\nd+s (f ,gambi]1 ,oualan1 & "s o!r encircl$ isl&s1 %[ t close to ! break]s !re exi/s a n>r[ %elv+ m>g91 beyond :i* ! ocean becomes sudd5ly unfa?omable2 b (f ! we/ coa/ ( ,new ,cal$onia1 ,capta9 ,k5t#b f\nd no bottom ) #aej fa?oms1 at two %ips' l5g? f ! reef2 s t ! slope "h mu/ be ne>ly z precipit\s z (f ! ,maldiva atolls4 #a ,! au?orities f :i* ^! *>ts h be5 r$uc$1 toge!r ) "s rem>ks on !m & descriptive ( ! ,plates1 are giv5 sep>ately4 #b ,dalrymple1 8,hydrog4 ,mem40 volume iii4 ,i c give little in=mation reg>d+ ! k9ds ( corals :i* live on ! out] m>g94 ,:5 ,i visit$ ! reef at ,tahiti1 al?\gh x 0 l[ wat]1 ! surf 0 too viol5t = me to see ! liv+ masses2 b1 accord+ to :at ,i he>d f "s intellig5t native *iefs1 !y resemble 9 _! r\nd$ & bran*less =ms1 ^? on ! m>g9 ( ,keel+ atoll4 ,! extreme v]ge ( ! reef1 :i* 0 visible betwe5 ! break+ waves at l[ wat]1 consi/$ ( a r\nd$1 convex1 artificial-l breakwat]1 entirely coat$ ) ,nullipor1 & absolutely simil> to t :i* ,i h describ$ at ,keel+ atoll4 ,f :at ,i he>d :5 at ,tahiti1 & f ! writ+s ( ! ,revs4 ,w4 ,ellis & ,j4 ,williams1 ,i conclude t ?is peculi> /ructure is common to mo/ ( ! encircl$ isl&s ( ! ,society ,ar*ipelago4 ,! reef )9 ?is m\nd or breakwat]1 has an extremely irregul> surface1 ev5 m s ?an betwe5 ! islets on ! reef ( ,keel+ atoll1 ) :i* alone 7z !re are no islets on ! reef ( ,tahiti7 x c prop]ly be comp>$4 ,at ,tahiti1 ! reef is v irregul> 9 wid?2 b r\nd _m o!r encircl$ isl&s1 = in/ance1 ,vanikoro or ,gambi] ,isl&s 7,figures #a & #h1 ,plate ,i471 x is q z regul>1 & ( ! same av]age wid?1 z 9 true atolls4 ,mo/ b>ri]-reefs on ! inn] side slope irregul>ly into ! lagoon-*annel 7z ! space ( deep wat] sep>at+ ! reef f ! includ$ l& may be call$71 b at ,vanikoro ! reef slopes only = a %ort di/ance1 & !n t]m9ates abruptly 9 a subm>9e wall1 =ty feet high1--a /ructure absolutely simil> to t describ$ by ,*amisso 9 ! ,m>%all atolls4 ,9 ! ,society ,ar*ipelago1 ,ellis#c /ates1 t ! reefs g5]ally lie at ! di/ance ( f "o to "o & a half miles1 &1 occasionally1 ev5 at m ?an ?ree miles1 f ! %ore4 ,! c5tral m\nta9s are g5]ally bord]$ by a fr+e ( flat1 & (t5 m>%y1 alluvial l&1 f "o to f\r miles 9 wid?4 ,?is fr+e consi/s ( coral-s& & detritus ?r[n up f ! lagoon-*annel1 & ( soil wa%$ d[n f ! hills2 x is an encroa*m5t on ! *annel1 analog\s to t l[ & inn] "p ( ! islets 9 _m atolls :i* is =m$ by ! accumulation ( matt] f ! lagoon4 ,at ,hogoleu 7,figure #b1 ,plate ,i471 9 ! ,c>ol9e ,ar*ipelago1#d ! reef on ! s\? side is no less ?an tw5ty miles2 on ! ea/ side1 five2 & on ! nor? side1 f\rte5 miles f ! encircl$ high isl&s4 #c ,consult1 on ?is & o!r po9ts1 ! 8,polynesian ,rese>*es10 by ! ,rev4 ,w4 ,ellis1 an admirable "w1 full ( curi\s in=mation4 #d ,see 8,hydrographical ,mem40 & ! 8,atlas ( ! ,voyage ( ! ,a/rolabe10 by ,capta9 ,dumont ,d',urville1 page #dbh4 ,! lagoon *annels may be comp>$ 9 e respect ) true lagoons4 ,9 "s cases !y are op51 ) a level bottom ( f9e s&2 9 o!rs !y are *ok$ up ) reefs ( delicately bran*$ corals1 :i* h ! same g5]al "* z ^? )9 ! ,keel+ atoll4 ,^! int]nal reefs ei!r /& sep>ately1 or m commonly skirt ! %ores ( ! includ$ high isl&s4 ,! dep? ( ! lagoon-*annel r\nd ! ,society ,isl&s v>ies f two or ?ree to ?irty fa?oms2 9 ,cook's#e *>t ( ,ulieta1 h[ev]1 !re is "o s\nd+ laid d[n ( =ty-eight fa?oms2 at ,vanikoro !re are sev]al ( fifty-f\r & "o ( fifty-six & a half fa?oms 7,engli%71 a dep? :i* ev5 exce$s by a little t ( ! int]ior ( ! great ,maldiva atolls4 ,"s b>ri]-reefs h v few islets on !m2 :il/ o!rs are surm\nt$ by num]\s ones2 & ^? r\nd "p ( ,bolabola 7,plate ,i41 ,figure #e7 =m a s+le l9e> /rip4 ,! islets fir/ appe> ei!r on ! angles ( ! reef1 or on ! sides ( ! brea*es ?r\gh x1 & are g5]ally mo/ num]\s on ! w9dw>d side4 ,! reef to leew>d reta9+ its usual wid?1 sometimes lies subm]g$ sev]al fa?oms b5ea? ! surface2 ,i h already m5tion$ ,gambi] ,isl& z an in/ance ( ?is /ructure4 ,subm]g$ reefs1 hav+ a less def9$ outl9e1 dead1 & cov]$ ) s&1 h be5 obs]v$ 7see ,app5dix7 (f "s p>ts ( ,huahe9e & ,tahiti4 ,! reef is m frequ5tly brea*$ to leew>d ?an to w9dw>d2 ?us ,i f9d 9 ,krus5/]n's 8,memoir on ! ,pacific10 t !re are passages ?r\gh ! encircl+ reef on ! leew>d side ( ea* ( ! sev5 ,society ,isl&s1 :i* possess %ip-h>b\rs2 b t !re are op5+s to w9dw>d ?r\gh ! reef ( only ?ree ( !m4 ,! brea*es 9 ! reef are seldom z deep z ! int]ior lagoon-l *annel2 !y g5]ally occur 9 front ( ! ma9 valleys1 a circum/ance :i* c be acc\nt$ =1 z w be se5 9 ! f\r? *apt]1 )\t mu* difficulty4 ,! brea*es be+ situat$ 9 front ( ! valleys1 :i* desc5d indiff]5tly on all sides1 expla9s _! m frequ5t occurr5ce ?r\gh ! w9dw>d side ( b>ri]-reefs ?an ?r\gh ! w9dw>d side ( atolls1--= 9 atolls !re is no includ$ l& to influ5ce ! position ( ! brea*es4 #e ,see ! *>t 9 volume i4 ( ,hawkeswor?'s #dto edition ( 8,cook's ,fir/ ,voyage40 ,x is rem>kable1 t ! lagoon-*annels r\nd m\nta9\s isl&s h n 9 e in/ance be5 long ago fill$ up ) coral & s$im5t2 b x is m easily acc\nt$ = ?an appe>s at fir/ sight4 ,9 cases l t ( ,hogoleu & ! ,gambi] ,isl&s1 :]e a few small peaks rise out ( a great lagoon1 ! conditions sc>cely diff] f ^? ( an atoll1 & ,i h already %[n1 at "s l5g?1 t ! fill+ up ( a true lagoon mu/ be an extremely sl[ process4 ,:]e ! *annel is n>r[1 ! ag5cy1 :i* on unprotect$ coa/s is mo/ productive ( s$im5t1 namely ! =ce ( ! break]s1 is "h entirely exclud$1 & ! reef be+ brea*$ 9 ! front ( ! ma9 valleys1 mu* ( ! f9] mud f ! riv]s mu/ be transport$ into ! op5 sea4 ,z a curr5t is =m$ by ! wat] ?r[n ov] ! edge ( atoll-=m$ reefs1 :i* c>ries s$im5t ) x ?r\gh ! deep-wat] brea*es1 ! same ?+ probably takes place 9 b>ri]-reefs1 & ?is w\ld greatly aid 9 prev5t+ ! lagoon-*annel f be+ fill$ up4 ,! l[ alluvial bord]1 h[ev]1 at ! foot ( ! encircl$ m\nta9s1 %[s t ! "w ( fill+ up is 9 progress2 & at ,maura 7,plate ,i41 ,figure #f71 9 ! ,society gr\p1 x has be5 almo/ effect$1 s t !re rema9s only "o h>b\r = small craft4 ,if we look at a set ( *>ts ( b>ri]-reefs1 & leave out 9 imag9ation ! encircl$ l&1 we %all f9d t1 besides ! _m po9ts already notic$ ( resemblance1 or r ( id5tity 9 /ructure ) atolls1 !re is a close g5]al agreem5t 9 =m1 av]age dim5sions1 & gr\p+4 ,encircl+ b>ri]-reefs1 l atolls1 are g5]ally elongat$1 ) an irregul>ly r\nd$1 ?\gh sometimes angul> outl9e4 ,!re are atolls ( all sizes1 f less ?an two miles 9 diamet] to sixty miles 7exclud+ ,tilla-d\-,matte1 z x consi/s ( a numb] ( almo/ indep5d5t atoll-=m$ reefs72 & !re are encircl+ b>ri]-reefs f ?ree miles & a half to =ty-six miles 9 diamet]1--,turtle ,isl& be+ an in/ance ( ! =m]1 & ,hogoleu ( ! latt]4 ,at ,tahiti ! encircl$ isl& is ?irty-six miles 9 its longe/ axis1 :il/ at ,maurua x is only a little m ?an two miles4 ,x w be %[n1 9 ! la/ *apt] 9 ?is volume1 t !re is ! /ricte/ resemblance 9 ! gr\p+ ( atolls & ( common isl&s1 & consequ5tly !re mu/ be ! same resemblance 9 ! gr\p+ ( atolls & ( encircl+ b>ri]-reefs4 ,! isl&s ly+ )9 reefs ( ?is class1 are ( v v>i\s heights4 ,tahiti#f is #g1jjj feet2 ,maurua ab\t #hjj2 ,aitutaki #cfj1 & ,man\ai only #ej4 ,! geological nature ( ! includ$ l& v>ies3 9 mo/ cases x is ( anci5t volcanic orig91 ow+ app>5tly to ! fact t isl&s ( ?is nature are mo/ frequ5t )9 all great seas2 "s1 h[ev]1 are ( madreporitic lime/one1 & o!rs ( prim>y =mation1 ( :i* latt] k9d ,new ,cal$onia (f]s ! be/ example4 ,! c5tral l& consi/s ei!r ( "o isl&1 or ( sev]al3 ?us1 9 ! ,society gr\p1 ,eimeo /&s by itself2 :ile ,taha & ,raiatea 7,figure #c1 ,plate ,i471 bo? mod]ately l>ge isl&s ( ne>ly equal size1 are includ$ 9 "o reef4 ,)9 ! reef ( ! ,gambi] gr\p !re are f\r l>ge & "s small] isl&s 7,figure #h1 ,plate ,i472 )9 t ( ,hogoleu 7,figure #b1 ,plate ,i47 ne>ly a doz5 small isl&s are scatt]$ ov] ! expanse ( "o va/ lagoon4 #f ,! height ( ,tahiti is giv5 f ,capta9 ,bee*ey2 ,maurua f ,mr4 ,f4,d4 ,b5nett 78,geograph4 ,j\rn40 volume viii41 page #bbj72 ,aitutaki f measurem5ts made on bo>d ! ,beagle2 & ,man\ai or ,h>vey ,isl&1 f an e/imate by ! ,rev4 ,j4 ,williams4 ,! two latt] isl&s1 h[ev]1 are n 9 "s respects well *>act]is$ examples ( ! encircl$ class4 ,aft] ! details n[ giv51 x may be ass]t$ t !re is n "o po9t ( ess5tial diff]5ce betwe5 encircl+ b>ri]-reefs & atolls3 ! latt] enclose a simple %eet ( wat]1 ! =m] encircle an expanse ) "o or m isl&s ris+ f x4 ,i 0 mu* /ruck ) ?is fact1 :5 view+1 f ! heights ( ,tahiti1 ! di/ant isl& ( ,eimeo /&+ )9 smoo? wat]1 & encircl$ by a r+ ( sn[-:ite break]s4 ,remove ! c5tral l&1 & an annul> reef l t ( an atoll 9 an e>ly /age ( its =mation is left2 remove x f ,bolabola1 & !re rema9s a circle ( l9e> coral-islets1 cr[n$ ) tall cocoa-nut trees1 l "o ( ! _m atolls scatt]$ ov] ! ,pacific & ,indian ,oceans4 ,! b>ri]-reefs ( ,au/ralia & ( ,new ,cal$onia des]ve a sep>ate notice f _! great dim5sions4 ,! reef on ! we/ coa/ ( ,new ,cal$onia 7,figure #e1 ,plate ,,ii47 is #djj miles 9 l5g?2 & = a l5g? ( _m leagues x seldom approa*es )9 eight miles ( ! %ore2 & ne> ! s\!rn end ( ! isl&1 ! space betwe5 ! reef & ! l& is sixte5 miles 9 wid?4 ,! ,au/ralian b>ri] ext5ds1 ) a few int]ruptions1 = ne>ly a ?\s& miles2 its av]age di/ance f ! l& is betwe5 tw5ty & ?irty miles2 & 9 "s p>ts f fifty to sev5ty4 ,! great arm ( ! sea ?us includ$1 is f t5 to tw5ty-five fa?oms deep1 ) a s&y bottom2 b t[>ds ! s\!rn end1 :]e ! reef is fur!r f ! %ore1 ! dep? gradually increases to =ty1 & 9 "s p>ts to m ?an sixty fa?oms4 ,fl9d]s#g has describ$ ! surface ( ?is reef z consi/+ ( a h>d :ite agglom]ate ( diff]5t k9ds ( coral1 ) r\gh project+ po9ts4 ,! out] edge is ! highe/ "p2 x is trav]s$ by n>r[ gullies1 & at r>e int]vals is brea*$ by %ip-*annels4 ,! sea close outside is pr(\ndly deep2 b1 9 front ( ! ma9 brea*es1 s\nd+s c sometimes be obta9$4 ,"s l[ islets h be5 =m$ on ! reef4 #g ,fl9d]s' 8,voyage to ,t]ra ,au/ralis10 volume ii41 page #hh4 ,illu/ration #a4 ,,vanikoro1 f ! 8,atlas ( ! ,voyage ( ! ,a/rolabe10 by ,d4 ,d',urville4 #b4 ,,gambi] ,,isl&1 f ,bee*ey4 #c4 ,,maurua1 f ! 8,atlas ( ! ,voyage ( ! ,coquille10 by ,dup]rey4 ,! horizontal l9e is ! level ( ! sea1 f :i* on ! "r h& a plummet desc5ds1 repres5t+ a dep? ( #bjj fa?oms1 or #a1bjj feet4 ,! v]tical %ad+ %[s ! section ( ! l&1 & ! horizontal %ad+ t ( ! encircl+ b>ri]-reef3 f ! smallness ( ! scale1 ! lagoon-*annel c\ld n be repres5t$4 ,,aa4--,out] edge ( ! coral-reefs1 :]e ! sea breaks4 ,,bb4--,! %ore ( ! encircl$ isl&s47 ,!re is "o important po9t 9 ! /ructure ( b>ri]-reefs :i* mu/ "h be consid]$4 ,! accompany+ diagrams repres5t nor? & s\? v]tical sections1 tak5 ?r\gh ! highe/ po9ts ( ,vanikoro1 ,gambi]1 & ,maurua ,isl&s1 & ?r\gh _! encircl+ reefs4 ,! scale bo? 9 ! horizontal & v]tical direction is ! same1 namely1 a qu>t] ( an in* to a nautical mile4 ,! height & wid? ( ^! isl&s is kn[n2 & ,i h attempt$ to repres5t ! =m ( ! l& f ! %ad+ ( ! hills 9 ! l>ge publi%$ *>ts4 ,x has long be5 rem>k$1 ev5 f ! "t ( ,dampi]1 t consid]able degree ( relation subsi/s betwe5 ! incl9ation ( t "p ( ! l& :i* is b5ea? wat] & t above x2 h5ce ! dott$ l9e 9 ! ?ree sections1 probably1 does n widely diff] 9 incl9ation f ! actual subm>9e prolongation ( ! l&4 ,if we n[ look at ! out] edge ( ! reef 7,,aa71 & be> 9 m9d t ! plummet on ! "r h& repres5ts a dep? ( #a1bjj feet1 we mu/ conclude t ! v]tical ?ickness ( ^! b>ri] coral-reefs is v great4 ,i mu/ obs]ve t if ! sections _h be5 tak5 9 any o!r direction across ^! isl&s1 or across o!r encircl$ isl&s1#h ! result w\ld h be5 ! same4 ,9 ! succe$+ *apt] x w be %[n t reef-build+ polypif]s _c fl\ri% at great dep?s1--= in/ance1 x is highly improbable t !y c\ld exi/ at a qu>t] ( ! dep? repres5t$ by ! plummet on ! "r h& ( ! woodcut4 ,"h !re is a great app>5t difficulty--h[ 7 ! basal p>ts ( ^! b>ri]-reef =m$8 ,x w1 p]haps1 occur to "s1 t ! actual reefs =m$ ( coral are n ( great ?ickness1 b t be=e _! fir/ gr[?1 ! coa/s ( ^! encircl$ isl&s 7 deeply eat5 into1 & a broad b %all[ subm>9e l$ge ?us left1 on ! edge ( :i* ! coral grew2 b if ?is _h be5 ! case1 ! %ore w\ld h be5 inv>iably b\nd$ by l(ty cliffs1 & n h slop$ d[n to ! lagoon-*annel1 z x does 9 _m in/ances4 ,on ?is view1#i moreov]1 ! cause ( ! reef spr++ up at su* a great di/ance f ! l&1 leav+ a deep & broad moat )91 rema9s altoge!r unexpla9$4 ,a supposition ( ! same nature1 & appe>+ at fir/ m probable is1 t ! reefs sprung up f banks ( s$im5t1 :i* _h accumulat$ r\nd ! %ore previ\sly to ! gr[? ( ! coral2 b ! ext5sion ( a bank to ! same di/ance r\nd an unbrok5 coa/1 & 9 front ( ^? deep arms ( ! sea 7z 9 ,raiatea1 see ,plate ,,ii41 ,figure #c7 :i* p5etrate ne>ly to ! he>t ( "s encircl$ isl&s1 is exce$+ly improbable4 ,& :y1 aga91 %\ld ! reef spr+ up1 9 "s cases /eep on bo? sides l a wall1 at a di/ance ( two1 ?ree or m miles f ! %ore1 leav+ a *annel (t5 betwe5 two hundr$ & ?ree hundr$ feet deep1 & ris+ f a dep? :i* we h reason to believe is de/ructive to ! gr[? ( coral8 ,an admission ( ?is nature _c possibly be made4 ,! exi/5ce1 also1 ( ! deep *annel1 utt]ly precludes ! idea ( ! reef hav+ gr[n outw>ds1 on a f\ndation sl[ly =m$ on its outside1 by ! accumulation ( s$im5t & coral detritus4 ,nor1 aga91 c x be ass]t$1 t ! reef-build+ corals w n gr[1 except+ at a great di/ance f ! l&2 =1 z we %all soon see1 !re is a :ole class ( reefs1 :i* take _! "n f gr[+ closely atta*$ 7especially :]e ! sea is deep7 to ! bea*4 ,at ,new ,cal$onia 7see ,plate ,,ii41 ,figure #e7 ! reefs :i* run 9 front ( ! we/ coa/ are prolong$ 9 ! same l9e #aej miles beyond ! nor!rn extremity ( ! isl&1 & ?is %[s t "s explanation1 q diff]5t f any ( ^? j sugge/$1 is requir$4 ,! cont9uation ( ! reefs on ea* side ( ! subm>9e prolongation ( ,new ,cal$onia1 is an exce$+ly int]e/+ fact1 if ?is "p =m]ly exi/$ z ! nor!rn extremity ( ! isl&1 & be=e ! atta*m5t ( ! coral _h be5 worn d[n by ! action ( ! sea1 or if x orig9ally exi/$ at its pres5t height1 ) or )\t b$s ( s$im5t on ea* flank1 h[ c we possibly acc\nt = ! reefs1 n gr[+ on ! cre/ ( ?is subm>9e portion1 b front+ its sides1 9 ! same l9e ) ! reefs :i* front ! %ores ( ! l(ty isl&8 ,we %all h]eaft] see1 t !re is "o1 & ,i believe only "o1 solution ( ?is difficulty4 #h ,9 ! fif? *apt] an ea/ & we/ section across ! ,isl& ( ,bolabola & its b>ri]-reefs is giv51 = ! sake ( illu/rat+ ano!r po9t4 ,! unbrok5 l9e 9 x 7woodcut ,no4 #e7 is ! section ref]r$ to4 ,! scale is 4#eg ( an in* to a mile2 x is tak5 f ! 8,atlas ( ! ,voyage ( ! ,coquille10 by ,dup]rey4 ,! dep? ( ! lagoon-*annel is exagg]at$4 #i ,! ,rev4 ,d4 ,ty]man & ,mr4 ,b5nett 78,j\rnal ( ,voyage & ,travels10 volume i41 page #bae7 h briefly sugge/$ ?is explanation ( ! orig9 ( ! encircl+ reefs ( ! ,society ,isl&s4 ,"o o!r supposition to acc\nt = ! position ( encircl+ b>ri]-reefs rema9s1 b x is almo/ too prepo/]\s to be m5tion$2 namely1 t !y re/ on enorm\s subm>9e crat]s1 surr\nd+ ! includ$ isl&s4 ,:5 ! size1 height1 & =m ( ! isl&s 9 ! ,society gr\p are consid]$1 toge!r ) ! fact t all are ?us encircl$1 su* a notion w be reject$ by almo/ e "o4 ,new ,cal$onia1 moreov]1 besides its size1 is compos$ ( primitive =mations1 z are "s ( ! ,comoro ,isl&s2#aj & ,aitutaki consi/s ( calc>e\s rock4 ,we mu/1 !re=e1 reject ^! sev]al explanations1 & conclude t ! v]tical ?ickness ( b>ri]-reefs1 f _! out] edges to ! f\ndation on :i* !y re/ 7f ,,aa 9 ! section to ! dott$ l9es7 is really great2 b 9 ?is1 !re is no difficulty1 = x is n necess>y to suppose t ! coral has sprung up f an imm5se dep?1 z w be evid5t :5 ! !ory ( ! upw>d gr[? ( coral-reefs1 dur+ ! sl[ subsid5ce ( _! f\ndation1 is discuss$4 #aj ,i h be5 in=m$ t ?is is ! case by ,dr4 ,allan ( ,=res1 :o has visit$ ?is gr\p4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,fr++ ,,or ,,%ore-,,reefs4 ,reefs ( ,mauritius4--,%all[ *annel )9 ! reef4--,its sl[ fill+ up4--,curr5ts ( wat] =m$ )9 x4--,uprais$ reefs4--,n>r[ fr++-reefs 9 deep seas4--,reefs on ! coa/ ( ,ea/ ,africa & ( ,brazil4--,fr++-reefs 9 v %all[ seas1 r\nd banks ( s$im5t & on worn-d[n isl&s4--,fr++-reefs affect$ by curr5ts ( ! sea4-- ,coral coat+ ! bottom ( ! sea1 b n =m+ reefs4 ,fr++-reefs1 or1 z !y h be5 call$ by "s voyag]s1 %ore-reefs1 :e!r skirt+ an isl& or "p ( a cont95t1 might at fir/ be ?\ght to diff] little1 except 9 g5]ally be+ ( less bread?1 f b>ri]-reefs4 ,z f> z ! sup]ficies ( ! actual reef is conc]n$ ?is is ! case2 b ! abs5ce ( an int]ior deep-wat] *annel1 & ! close relation 9 _! horizontal ext5sion ) ! probable slope b5ea? ! sea ( ! adjo9+ l&1 pres5t ess5tial po9ts ( diff]5ce4 ,! reefs :i* fr+e ! isl& ( ,mauritius (f] a good example ( ?is class4 ,!y ext5d r\nd its :ole circumf]5ce1 ) ! exception ( two or ?ree p>ts1#a :]e ! coa/ is almo/ precipit\s1 & :]e1 if z is probable ! bottom ( ! sea has a simil> incl9ation1 ! coral w\ld h no f\ndation on :i* to become atta*$4 ,a simil> fact may sometimes be obs]v$ ev5 9 reefs ( ! b>ri] class1 :i* foll[ mu* less closely ! outl9e ( ! adjo9+ l&2 z1 = in/ance1 on ! s\?-ea/ & precipit\s side ( ,tahiti1 :]e ! encircl+ reef is int]rupt$4 ,on ! we/]n side ( ! ,mauritius1 :i* 0 ! only "p ,i visit$1 ! reef g5]ally lies at ! di/ance ( ab\t half a mile f ! %ore2 b 9 "s p>ts x is di/ant f "o to two1 & ev5 ?ree miles4 ,b ev5 9 ?is la/ case1 z ! coa/-l& is g5tly incl9$ f ! foot ( ! m\nta9s to ! sea-bea*1 & z ! s\nd+s outside ! reef indicate an equally g5tle slope b5ea? ! wat]1 !re is no reason = suppos+ t ! basis ( ! reef1 =m$ by ! prolongation ( ! /rata ( ! isl&1 lies at a great] dep? ?an t at :i* ! polypif]s c\ld beg9 con/ruct+ ! reef4 ,"s all[ance1 h[ev]1 mu/ be made = ! outw>d ext5sion ( ! corals on a f\ndation ( s& & detritus1 =m$ f _! own we>1 :i* w\ld give to ! reef a some:at great] v]tical ?ickness1 ?an w\ld o!rwise be possible4 #a ,?is fact is /at$ on ! au?ority ( ! ,(fici] du ,roi1 9 8 extremely int]e/+ 8,voyage l',isle de ,france10 und]tak5 9 #agfh4 ,accord+ to ,capta9 ,c>mi*ael 7,hook]'s 8,bot4 ,misc40 volume ii41 page #caf7 on "o "p ( ! coa/ !re is a space = sixte5 miles )\t a reef4 ,! out] edge ( ! reef on ! we/]n or leew>d side ( ! isl& is tol]ably well def9$1 & is a little high] ?an any o!r "p4 ,x *iefly consi/s ( l>ge /rongly bran*$ corals1 ( ! g5us ,madrepora1 :i* also =m a slop+ b$ "s way out to sea3 ! k9ds ( coral gr[+ 9 ?is "p w be describ$ 9 ! ensu+ *apt]4 ,betwe5 ! out] m>g9 & ! bea*1 !re is a flat space ) a s&y bottom & a few tufts ( liv+ coral2 9 "s p>ts x is s %all[1 t p1 by avoid+ ! deep] holes & gullies1 c wade across x at l[ wat]2 9 o!r p>ts x is deep]1 seldom h[ev] exce$+ t5 or twelve feet1 s t x (f]s a safe coa/+ *annel = boats4 ,on ! ea/]n & w9dw>d side ( ! isl&1 :i* is expos$ to a heavy surf1 ! reef 0 describ$ to me z hav+ a h>d smoo? surface1 v slightly incl9$ inw>ds1 j cov]$ at l[-wat]1 & trav]s$ by gullies2 x appe>s to be q simil> 9 /ructure to ! reefs ( ! b>ri] & atoll classes4 ,! reef ( ,mauritius1 9 front ( e riv] & /reamlet1 is brea*$ by a /raight passage3 at ,gr& ,port1 h[ev]1 !re is a *annel l t )9 a b>ri]-reef2 x ext5ds p>allel to ! %ore = f\r miles1 & has an av]age dep? ( t5 or twelve fa?oms2 its pres5ce may probably be acc\nt$ = by two riv]s :i* ent] at ea* end ( ! *annel1 & b5d t[>ds ea* o!r4 ,! fact ( reefs ( ! fr++ class be+ always brea*$ 9 front ( /reams1 ev5 ( ^? :i* are dry dur+ ! great] "p ( ! ye>1 w be expla9$1 :5 ! conditions unfav\rable to ! gr[? ( coral are consid]$4 ,l[ coral-islets1 l ^? on b>ri]-reefs & atolls1 are seldom =m$ on reefs ( ?is class1 ow+ app>5tly 9 "s cases to _! n>r[ness1 & 9 o!rs to ! g5tle slope ( ! reef outside n yield+ _m fragm5ts to ! break]s4 ,on ! w9dw>d side1 h[ev]1 ( ! ,mauritius1 two or ?ree small islets h be5 =m$4 ,x appe>s1 z w be %[n 9 ! ensu+ *apt]1 t ! action ( ! surf is fav\rable to ! vigor\s gr[? ( ! /rong] corals1 & t s& or s$im5t1 if agitat$ by ! waves1 is injuri\s to !m4 ,h5ce x is probable t a reef on a %elv+ %ore1 l t ( ,mauritius1 w\ld at fir/ gr[ up1 n atta*$ to ! actual bea*1 b at "s little di/ance f x2 & ! corals on ! out] m>g9 w\ld be ! mo/ vigor\s4 ,a %all[ *annel w\ld ?us be =m$ )9 ! reef1 & z ! break]s are prev5t$ act+ on ! %ores ( ! isl&1 & z !y d n ord9>ily te> up _m fragm5ts f ! outside1 & z e /reamlet has its b$ prolong$ 9 a /raight l9e ?r\gh ! reef1 ?is *annel c\ld be fill$ up only v sl[ly ) s$im5t4 ,b a bea* ( s& & ( fragm5ts ( ! small] k9ds ( coral seems1 9 ! case ( ,mauritius1 to be sl[ly encroa*+ on ! %all[ *annel4 ,on _m %elv+ & s&y coa/s1 ! break]s t5d to =m a b> ( s& a little way f ! bea*1 ) a slight increase ( dep? )9 x2 = in/ance1 ,capta9 ,grey#b /ates t ! we/ coa/ ( ,au/ralia1 9 latitude #bd1 is front$ by a s& b> ab\t two hundr$ y>ds 9 wid?1 on :i* !re is only two feet ( wat]2 b )9 x ! dep? increases to two fa?oms4 ,simil> b>s1 m or less p]fect1 occur on o!r coa/s4 ,9 ^! cases ,i suspect t ! %all[ *annel 7:i* no d\bt dur+ /orms is occasionally oblit]at$7 is scoop$ out by ! fl[+ away ( ! wat] ?r[n beyond ! l9e1 on :i* ! waves break ) ! greate/ =ce4 ,at ,p]nambuco a b> ( h>d s&/one1#c :i* has ! same ext]nal =m & height z a coral-reef1 ext5ds ne>ly p>allel to ! coa/2 )9 ?is b> curr5ts1 app>5tly caus$ by ! wat] ?r[n ov] x dur+ ! great] "p ( ea* tide1 run /rongly1 & are we>+ away its inn] wall4 ,f ^! facts x c h>dly be d\bt$1 t )9 mo/ fr++-reefs1 especially )9 ^? ly+ "s di/ance f ! l&1 a return /ream mu/ c>ry away ! wat] ?r[n ov] ! out] edge2 & ! curr5t ?us produc$1 w\ld t5d to prev5t ! *annel be+ fill$ up ) s$im5t1 & might ev5 deep5 x "u c]ta9 circum/ances4 ,to ?is latt] belief ,i am l$1 by f9d+ t *annels are almo/ univ]sally pres5t )9 ! fr++-reefs ( ^? isl&s :i* h und]gone rec5t elevatory movem5ts2 & ?is c\ld h>dly h be5 ! case1 if ! conv]sion ( ! v %all[ *annel into l& _h n be5 c\nt]act$ to a c]ta9 ext5t4 #b ,capta9 ,grey's 8,j\rnal ( ,two ,exp$itions10 volume i4 page #cfi4 #c ,i h describ$ ?is s+ul> /ructure 9 ! 8,london & ,ed9burgh ,phil4 ,mag40 ,octob] #ahda4 ,a fr++-reef1 if elevat$ 9 a p]fect condition above ! level ( ! sea1 ought to pres5t ! s+ul> appe>ance ( a broad dry moat )9 a l[ m\nd4 ,! au?or#d ( an int]e/+ p$e/rian t\r r\nd ! ,mauritius1 seems to h met ) a /ructure ( ?is k9d3 he says 8,j'obs]vai que l1 o la m] tale1 indp5damm5t des rescifs du l>ge1 il y t]re une espce d'effoncem5t ou *em9 c\v]t naturel4 ,on y p\rrait mettre du canon10 etc4 ,9 ano!r place he adds1 8,avant de pass] le ,cap1 on rem>que un gros banc de corail elv de plus de qu9ze pi$s3 c'e/ une espce de rescif1 que la m] ab&onn1 il regne au pi$ une longue flaque d'eau1 dont on p\rrait faire un bass9 p\r de petits vaisseaux40 ,b ! m>g9 ( ! reef1 al?\gh ! highe/ & mo/ p]fect "p1 f be+ mo/ expos$ to ! surf1 w\ld g5]ally dur+ a sl[ rise ( ! l& be ei!r p>tially or entirely worn d[n to t level1 at :i* corals c\ld r5ew _! gr[? on its upp] edge4 ,on "s p>ts ( ! coa/-l& ( ,mauritius !re are little hillocks ( coral-rock1 :i* are ei!r ! la/ remnants ( a cont9u\s reef1 or ( l[ islets =m$ on x4 ,i obs]v$ t two su* hillocks betwe5 ,tam>9 ,bay & ! ,great ,black ,riv]2 !y 7 ne>ly tw5ty feet high1 ab\t two hundr$ y>ds f ! pres5t bea*1 & ab\t ?irty feet above its level4 ,!y rose abruptly f a smoo? surface1 /rew$ ) worn fragm5ts ( coral4 ,!y consi/$ 9 _! l[] "p ( h>d calc>e\s s&/one1 & 9 _! upp] ( great blocks ( sev]al species ( ,a/ra & ,madrepora1 loosely aggregat$2 !y 7 divid$ into irregul> b$s1 dipp+ seaw>d1 9 "o hillock at an angle ( #h1 & 9 ! o!r at #ah ,i suspect t ! sup]ficial p>ts ( ! reefs1 :i* h be5 uprais$ toge!r ) ! isl&s !y fr+e1 h g5]ally be5 mu* m modifi$ by ! we>+ action ( ! sea1 ?an ^? ( ,mauritius4 #d 8,voyage l',isle de ,france1 p> un ,(fici] du ,roi10 "p i41 pages #aib1 #bjj4 ,_m isl&s#e are fr+$ by reefs q simil> to ^? ( ,mauritius2 b on coa/s :]e ! sea deep5s v sudd5ly ! reefs are mu* n>r[]1 & _! limit$ ext5sion seems evid5tly to dep5d on ! high incl9ation ( ! subm>9e slope2 a relation1 :i*1 z we h se51 does n exi/ 9 reefs ( ! b>ri] class4 ,! fr++-reefs on /eep coa/s are frequ5tly n m ?an f fifty to "o hundr$ y>ds 9 wid?2 !y h a ne>ly smoo?1 h>d surface1 sc>cely uncov]$ at l[ wat]1 & )\t any int]ior %oal *annel1 l t )9 ^? fr++-reefs1 :i* lie at a great] di/ance f ! l&4 ,! fragm5ts torn up dur+ gales f ! out] m>g9 are ?r[n ov] ! reef on ! %ores ( ! isl&4 ,i may give z in/ances1 ,wateeo1 :]e ! reef is describ$ by ,cook z be+ a hundr$ y>ds wide2 & ,mauti & ,elizabe? ,isl&s1#f :]e x is only fifty y>ds 9 wid?3 ! sea r\nd ^! isl&s is v deep4 #e ,i may give ,cuba1 z ano!r in/ance2 ,mr4 ,taylor 7,l\don's ,mag4 ( ,nat4 ,hi/4 volume ix41 page #ddi7 has describ$ a reef sev]al miles 9 l5g? betwe5 ,gib>a & ,vj>o1 :i* ext5ds p>allel to ! %ore at ! di/ance ( betwe5 half & ! ?ird "p ( a mile1 & encloses a space ( %all[ wat]1 ) a s&y bottom & tufts ( coral4 ,outside ! edge ( ! reef1 :i* is =m$ ( great bran*+ corals1 ! dep? is six & sev5 fa?oms4 ,?is coa/ has be5 upheav$ at no v di/ant geological p]iod40 #f ,mauti is describ$ by ,"l ,byron 9 ! voyage ( ,h4,m4,s4 ,blonde1 & ,elizabe? ,isl& by ,capta9 ,bee*ey4 ,fr++-reefs1 l b>ri]-reefs1 bo? surr\nd isl&s1 & front ! %ores ( cont95ts4 ,9 ! *>ts ( ! ea/]n coa/ ( ,africa1 by ,capta9 ,ow51 _m ext5sive fr++-reefs are laid d[n2 ?us1 = a space ( ne>ly =ty miles1 f latitude #a #ae to #a #de ,s41 a reef fr+es ! %ore at an av]age di/ance ( r m ?an "o mile1 & !re=e at a great] di/ance ?an is usual 9 reefs ( ?is class2 b z ! coa/-l& is n l(ty1 & z ! bottom %oals v gradually 7! dep? be+ only f eight to f\rte5 fa?oms at a mile & a half outside ! reef71 its ext5sion ?us f> f ! l& (f]s no difficulty4 ,! ext]nal m>g9 ( ?is reef is describ$1 z =m$ ( project+ po9ts1 )9 :i* !re is a space1 f six to twelve feet deep1 ) pat*es ( liv+ coral on x4 ,at ,mukdee%a 7latitude #b #a ,n47 8! port is =m$10 x is said1#g 8by a long reef ext5d+ ea/w>d1 f\r or five miles1 )9 :i* !re is a n>r[ *annel1 ) t5 to twelve feet ( wat] at l[ spr+-tides20 x lies at ! di/ance ( a qu>t] ( a mile f ! %ore4 ,aga91 9 ! plan ( ,mombas 7latitude #d ,s471 a reef ext5ds = ?irty-six miles1 at ! di/ance ( f half a mile to "o mile & a qu>t] f ! %ore2 )9 x1 !re is a *annel navigable 8= canoes & small craft10 betwe5 six & fifte5 feet deep3 outside ! reef ! dep? is ab\t ?irty fa?oms at ! di/ance ( ne>ly half a mile4 ,"p ( ?is reef is v symmetrical1 & has a uni=m bread? ( two hundr$ y>ds4 #g ,ow5's 8,africa10 volume i41 page #ceg1 f :i* "w ! =ego+ facts are likewise tak54 ,! coa/ ( ,brazil is 9 _m p>ts fr+$ by reefs4 ,( ^!1 "s are n ( coral =mation2 = in/ance1 ^? ne> ,bahia & 9 front ( ,p]nambuco2 b a few miles s\? ( ?is latt] city1 ! reef foll[s#h s closely e turn ( ! %ore1 t ,i c h>dly d\bt x is ( coral2 x runs at ! di/ance ( ?ree-qu>t]s ( a mile f ! l&1 & )9 x ! dep? is f t5 to fifte5 feet4 ,i 0 assur$ by an intellig5t pilot t at ,ports ,frances & ,maceio1 ! out] "p ( ! reef consi/s ( liv+ coral1 & ! inn] ( a :ite /one1 full ( l>ge irregul> cavities1 communicat+ ) ! sea4 ,! bottom ( ! sea (f ! coa/ ( ,brazil %oals gradually to betwe5 ?irty & =ty fa?oms1 at ! di/ance ( betwe5 n9e & t5 leagues f ! l&4 #h ,see ,b>on ,r\ss9's 8,pilote du ,brsil10 & accompany+ hydrographical memoir4 ,f ! description n[ giv51 we mu/ conclude t ! dim5sions & /ructure ( fr++-reefs dep5d entirely on ! great] or less incl9ation ( ! subm>9e slope1 conjo9$ ) ! fact t reef-build+ polypif]s c exi/ only at limit$ dep?s4 ,x foll[s f ?is1 t :]e ! sea is v %all[1 z 9 ! ,p]sian ,gulf & 9 p>ts ( ! ,ea/ ,indian ,ar*ipelago1 ! reefs lose _! fr++ "*1 & appe> z sep>ate & irregul>ly scatt]$ pat*es1 (t5 ( consid]able area4 ,f ! m vigor\s gr[? ( ! coral on ! outside1 & f ! conditions be+ less fav\rable 9 sev]al respects )91 su* reefs are g5]ally high] & m p]fect 9 _! m>g9al ?an 9 _! c5tral p>ts2 h5ce ^! reefs sometimes assume 7& ?is circum/ance ought n to be ov]look$7 ! appe>ance ( atolls2 b !y diff] f atolls 9 _! c5tral expanse be+ mu* less deep1 9 _! =m be+ less def9$1 & 9 be+ bas$ on a %all[ f\ndation4 ,b :5 9 a deep sea reefs fr+e banks ( s$im5t1 :i* h accumulat$ b5ea? ! surface1 r\nd ei!r isl&s or subm]g$ rocks1 !y are di/+ui%$ ) difficulty on ! "o h& f encircl+ b>ri]-reefs1 & on ! o!r f atolls4 ,9 ! ,we/ ,indies !re are reefs1 :i* ,i %\ld probably h arrang$ "u bo? ^! classes1 _h n ! exi/5ce ( l>ge & level banks1 ly+ a little b5ea? ! surface1 ready to s]ve z ! basis = ! atta*m5t ( coral1 be5 occasionally br\ght into view by ! entire or p>tial abs5ce ( reefs on !m1 & _h n ! =mation ( su* banks1 ?r\gh ! accumulation ( s$im5t n[ 9 progress1 be5 suffici5tly evid5t4 ,fr++-reefs sometimes coat1 & ?us protect ! f\ndations ( isl&s1 :i* h be5 worn d[n by ! surf to ! level ( ! sea4 ,accord+ to ,ehr5b]g1 ?is has be5 ext5sively ! case ) ! isl&s 9 ! ,r$ ,sea1 :i* =m]ly rang$ p>allel to ! %ores ( ! ma9l&1 ) deep wat] )9 !m3 h5ce ! reefs n[ coat+ _! bases are situat$ relatively to ! l& l b>ri]-reefs1 al?\gh n belong+ to t class2 b !re are1 z ,i believe1 9 ! ,r$ ,sea "s true b>ri]-reefs4 ,! reefs ( ?is sea & ( ! ,we/ ,indies w be describ$ 9 ! ,app5dix4 ,9 "s cases1 fr++-reefs appe> to be consid]ably modifi$ 9 outl9e by ! c\rse ( ! prevail+ curr5ts4 ,dr4 ,j4 ,allan in=ms me t on ! ea/ coa/ ( ,madagasc> almo/ e headl& & l[ po9t ( s& has a coral-reef ext5d+ f x 9 a ,s4,w4 & ,n4,e4 l9e1 p>allel to ! curr5ts on t %ore4 ,i %\ld ?9k ! influ5ce ( ! curr5ts *iefly consi/$ 9 caus+ an ext5sion1 9 a c]ta9 direction1 ( a prop] f\ndation = ! atta*m5t ( ! coral4 ,r\nd _m int]tropical isl&s1 = in/ance ! ,abrolhos on ! coa/ ( ,brazil survey$ by ,capta9 ,fitzroy1 &1 z ,i am in=m$ by ,mr4 ,cum+1 r\nd ! ,philipp9es1 ! bottom ( ! sea is entirely coat$ by irregul> masses ( coral1 :i* al?\gh (t5 ( l>ge size1 d n rea* ! surface & =m prop] reefs4 ,?is mu/ be ow+1 ei!r to insuffici5t gr[?1 or to ! abs5ce ( ^? k9ds ( corals :i* c )/& ! break+ ( ! waves4 ,! ?ree classes1 atoll-=m$1 b>ri]1 & fr++-reefs1 toge!r ) ! modifications j describ$ ( ! latt]1 include all ! mo/ rem>kable coral =mations any:]e exi/+4 ,at ! comm5cem5t ( ! la/ *apt] 9 ! volume1 :]e ,i detail ! pr9ciples on :i* ! map 7,plate ,,iii47 is col\r$1 ! exceptional cases w be enum]at$4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,on ,,! ,,di/ribution ,,& ,,gr[? ,,( ,,coral-,,reefs4 ,9 ?is *apt] ,i w give all ! facts :i* ,i h collect$1 relat+ to ! di/ribution ( coral-reefs1--to ! conditions fav\rable to _! increase1--to ! rate ( _! gr[?1--& to ! dep? at :i* !y are =m$4 ,^! subjects h an important be>+ on ! !ory ( ! orig9 ( ! diff]5t classes ( coral-reefs4 ,,section ,i4--,,on ,,! ,,di/ribution ,,( ,,coral-,,reefs1 ,,& ,,on ,,! ,,conditions ,,fav\rable ,,to ,,_! ,,increase4 ,) reg>d to ! limits ( latitude1 ov] :i* coral-reefs ext5d1 ,i h no?+ new to add4 ,! ,b]muda ,isl&s1 9 #cb #ae ,n41 is ! po9t fur!/ remov$ f ! equator1 9 :i* !y appe> to exi/2 & x has be5 sugge/$ t _! ext5sion s f> nor?w>d 9 ?is in/ance is ow+ to ! w>m? ( ! ,gulf ,/ream4 ,9 ! ,pacific1 ! ,loo ,*oo ,isl&s1 9 latitude #bg ,n41 h reefs on _! %ores1 & !re is an atoll 9 #bh #cj1 situat$ ,n4,w4 ( ! ,s&wi* ,ar*ipelago4 ,9 ! ,r$ ,sea !re are coral-reefs 9 latitude #cj4 ,9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e coral-reefs d n ext5d s f> f ! equatorial sea4 ,9 ! ,s\!rn ,pacific !re are only a few reefs beyond ! l9e ( ! tropics1 b ,h\tmans ,abrolhos1 on ! we/]n %ores ( ,au/ralia 9 latitude #bi ,s41 are ( coral =mation4 ,! proximity ( volcanic l&1 ow+ to ! lime g5]ally evolv$ f x1 has be5 ?\ght to be fav\rable to ! increase ( coral-reefs4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 n mu* f\ndation = ?is view2 = n[h]e are coral-reefs m ext5sive ?an on ! %ores ( ,new ,cal$onia1 & ( nor?-ea/]n ,au/ralia1 :i* consi/ ( prim>y =mations2 & 9 ! l>ge/ gr\ps ( atolls1 namely ! ,maldiva1 ,*agos1 ,m>%all1 ,gilb]t1 & ,l[ ,ar*ipelagoes1 !re is no volcanic or o!r k9d ( rock1 except+ t =m$ ( coral4 ,! entire abs5ce ( coral-reefs 9 c]ta9 l>ge areas )9 ! tropical seas1 is a rem>kable fact4 ,?us no coral-reefs 7 obs]v$1 dur+ ! survey+ voyages ( ! 8,beagle0 & h] t5d] on ! we/ coa/ ( ,s\? ,am]ica s\? ( ! equator1 or r\nd ! ,galapagos ,isl&s4 ,x appe>s1 also1 t !re are none#a nor? ( ! equator2 ,mr4 ,lloyd1 :o survey$ ! ,i/hmus ( ,panama1 rem>k$ to me1 t al?\gh he _h se5 corals liv+ 9 ! ,bay ( ,panama1 yet he _h nev] obs]v$ any reefs =m$ by !m4 ,i at fir/ attribut$ ?is abs5ce ( reefs on ! coa/s ( ,p]u & ( ! ,galapagos ,isl&s1#b to ! coldness ( ! curr5ts f ! s\?1 b ! ,gulf ( ,panama is "o ( ! hotte/ pelagic di/ricts 9 ! _w4#c ,9 ! c5tral p>ts ( ! ,pacific !re are isl&s entirely free f reefs2 9 "s few ( ^! cases ,i h ?\ght t ?is 0 ow+ to rec5t volcanic action2 b ! exi/5ce ( reefs r\nd ! great] "p ( ,hawaii1 "o ( ! ,s&wi* ,isl&s1 %[s t rec5t volcanic action does n necess>ily prev5t _! gr[?4 #a ,i h be5 in=m$ t ?is is ! case1 by ,lieut5ant ,ryd]1 ,r4,n41 & o!rs :o h _h ample opportunities = obs]vation4 #b ,! mean temp]ature ( ! surface sea f obs]vations made by ! direction ( ,capta9 ,fitzroy on ! %ores ( ! ,galapagos ,isl&s1 betwe5 ! #af? ( ,septemb] & ! #bj? ( ,octob]1 #ahce1 0 #fh ,fahr4 ,! l[e/ temp]ature obs]v$ 0 #eh4e at ! s\?-we/ end ( ,albem>le ,isl&2 & on ! we/ coa/ ( ?is isl&1 x 0 sev]al times #fb & #fc4 ,! mean temp]ature ( ! sea 9 ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago ( atolls1 & ne> ,tahiti1 f simil> obs]vations made on bo>d ! ,beagle1 0 7al?\gh fur!r f ! equator7 #gg4e1 ! l[e/ any day be+ #gf4e4 ,!re=e we h "h a diff]5ce ( #i4e 9 mean temp]ature1 & #ah 9 extremes2 a diff]5ce d\btless q suffici5t to affect ! di/ribution ( organic be+s 9 ! two areas4 #c ,humboldt's 8,p]sonal ,n>rative10 volume vii41 page #dcd4 ,9 ! la/ *apt] ,i /at$ t ! bottom ( ! sea r\nd "s isl&s is ?ickly coat$ ) liv+ corals1 :i* nev]!less d n =m reefs1 ei!r f insuffici5t gr[?1 or f ! species n be+ adapt$ to cont5d ) ! break+ waves4 ,i h be5 assur$ by sev]al p1 t !re are no coral-reefs on ! we/ coa/ ( ,africa1#d or r\nd ! isl&s 9 ! ,gulf ( ,gu9ea4 ,?is p]haps may be attribut$1 9 "p1 to ! s$im5t br\ght d[n by ! _m riv]s deb\*+ on t coa/1 & to ! ext5sive mud-banks1 :i* l9e great "p ( x4 ,b ! isl&s ( ,/4 ,hel5a1 ,asc5sion1 ! ,cape ,v]des1 ,/4 ,paul's1 & ,f]n&o ,noronha1 are1 also1 entirely )\t reefs1 al?\gh !y lie f> out at sea1 are compos$ ( ! same anci5t volcanic rocks1 & h ! same g5]al =m1 ) ^? isl&s 9 ! ,pacific1 ! %ores ( :i* are surr\nd$ by gigantic walls ( coral-rock4 ,) ! exception ( ,b]muda1 !re is n a s+le coral-reef 9 ! c5tral expanse ( ! ,atlantic ,ocean4 ,x w1 p]haps1 be sugge/$ t ! quantity ( c>bonate ( lime 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! sea1 may regulate ! pres5ce ( reefs4 ,b ?is _c be ! case1 = at ,asc5sion1 ! waves *>g$ to excess precipitate a ?ick lay] ( calc>e\s matt] on ! tidal rocks2 & at ,/4 ,jago1 9 ! ,cape ,v]des1 c>bonate ( lime n only is abundant on ! %ores1 b x =ms ! *ief "p ( "s uprais$ po/-t]ti>y /rata4 ,! app>5tly caprici\s di/ribution1 !re=e1 ( coral-reefs1 _c be expla9$ by any ( ^! obvi\s causes2 b z ! /udy ( ! t]re/rial & bett] kn[n half ( ! _w mu/ conv9ce e "o t no /ation capable ( support+ life is lo/1--nay m1 t !re is a /ruggle = ea* /ation1 betwe5 ! diff]5t ord]s ( nature1--we may conclude t 9 ^? p>ts ( ! int]tropical sea1 9 :i* !re are no coral-reefs1 !re are o!r organic bodies supply+ ! place ( ! reef-build+ polypif]s4 ,x has be5 %[n 9 ! *apt] on ,keel+ atoll t !re are "s species ( l>ge fi%1 & ! :ole tribe ( ,holo?uri :i* prey on ! t5d]] p>ts ( ! corals4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! polypif]s 9 _! turn mu/ prey on "s o!r organic be+s2 ! decrease ( :i* f any cause w\ld cause a proportionate de/ruction ( ! liv+ coral4 ,! relations1 !re=e1 :i* det]m9e ! =mation ( reefs on any %ore1 by ! vigor\s gr[? ( ! effici5t k9ds ( coral1 mu/ be v complex1 & ) our imp]fect k q inexplicable4 ,f ^! consid]ations1 we may inf] t *anges 9 ! condition ( ! sea1 n obvi\s to our s5ses1 might de/roy all ! coral-reefs 9 "o area1 & cause !m to appe> 9 ano!r3 ?us1 ! ,pacific or ,indian ,ocean might become z b>r5 ( coral-reefs z ! ,atlantic n[ is1 )\t our be+ able to assign any adequate cause = su* a *ange4 #d ,x might be conclud$1 f a pap] by ,capta9 ,ow5 78,geographical ,j\rnal01 volume ii41 page #hi71 t ! reefs (f ,cape ,/4 ,anne & ! ,%]boro' ,isl&s 7 ( coral1 al?\gh ! au?or /ates t !y are n purely corall9e4 ,b ,i h be5 assur$ by ,lieut5ant ,holl&1 ,r4,n41 t ^! reefs are n ( coral1 or at lea/ t !y d n at all resemble ^? 9 ! ,we/ ,indies4 ,x has be5 a "q ) "s naturali/s1 :i* "p ( a reef is mo/ fav\rable to ! gr[? ( coral4 ,! great m\nds ( liv+ ,porites & ( ,millepora r\nd ,keel+ atoll occur exclusively on ! extreme v]ge ( ! reef1 :i* is wa%$ by a con/ant succession ( break]s2 & liv+ coral n[h]e else =ms solid masses4 ,at ! ,m>%all isl&s ! l>g] k9ds ( coral 7*iefly species ( ,a/ra1 a g5us closely alli$ to ,porites7 8:i* =m rocks measur+ sev]al fa?oms 9 ?ickness10 pref]1 accord+ to ,*amisso1#e ! mo/ viol5t surf4 ,i h /at$ t ! out] m>g9 ( ! ,maldiva atolls consi/s ( liv+ corals 7"s ( :i*1 if n all1 are ( ! same species ) ^? at ,keel+ atoll71 & "h ! surf is s trem5d\s1 t ev5 l>ge %ips h be5 ?r[n1 by a s+le heave ( ! sea1 high & dry on ! reef1 all on bo>d ?us escap+ ) _! lives4 #e ,kotzebue's 8,fir/ ,voyage0 7,engli% ,translation7 volume iii41 pages #adb1 #adc1 #cca4 ,ehr5b]g#f rem>ks1 t 9 ! ,r$ ,sea ! /ronge/ corals live on ! out] reefs1 & appe> to love ! surf2 he adds1 t ! m bran*$ k9ds ab\nd a little way )91 b t ev5 ^! 9 /ill m protect$ places1 become small]4 ,_m o!r facts hav+ a simil> t5d5cy might be adduc$4#g ,x has1 h[ev]1 be5 d\bt$ by ,,mm4 ,quoy & ,gaim>d1 :e!r any k9d ( coral c ev5 )/&1 mu* less fl\ri% 91 ! break]s ( an op5 sea3#h !y affirm t ! saxig5\s li?ophytes fl\ri% only :]e ! wat] is tranquil1 & ! heat int5se4 ,?is /atem5t has pass$ f "o geological "w to ano!r2 nev]!less1 ! protection ( ! :ole reef und\bt$ly is due to ^? k9ds ( coral1 :i* _c exi/ 9 ! situations ?\ght by ^! naturali/s to be mo/ fav\rable to !m4 ,= %\ld ! out] & liv+ m>g9 p]i%1 ( any "o ( ! _m l[ coral-isl&s1 r\nd :i* a l9e ( great break]s is incessantly foam+1 ! :ole1 x is sc>cely possible to d\bt1 w\ld be wa%$ away & de/roy$1 9 less ?an half a c5tury4 ,b ! vital en]gies ( ! corals conqu] ! me*anical p[] ( ! waves2 & ! l>ge fragm5ts ( reef torn up by e /orm1 are replac$ by ! sl[ b /eady gr[? ( ! innum]able polypif]s1 :i* =m ! liv+ zone on its out] edge4 #f ,ehr5b]g1 8b] die ,natr und ,bildung d] ,corall5 ,bnke im ro!n ,me]e10 page #di4 #g ,9 ! ,we/ ,indies1 z ,i am in=m$ by ,capta9 ,bird ,all51 ,r4,n41 x is ! common belief ( ^?1 :o are be/ acqua9t$ ) ! reefs1 t ! coral fl\ri%es mo/1 :]e freely expos$ to ! swell ( ! op5 sea4 #h 8,annales des ,sci5ces ,naturelles10 tome vi41 pages #bgf1 #bgh4--8,l o les ondes sont agites1 les ,lytophyts ne peuv5t travaill]1 p>ce qu'elles dtruirai5t leurs fragiles difices10 c4 ,f ^! facts1 x is c]ta91 t ! /ronge/ & mo/ massive corals fl\ri%1 :]e mo/ expos$4 ,! less p]fect /ate ( ! reef ( mo/ atolls on ! leew>d & less expos$ side1 comp>$ ) its /ate to w9dw>d2 & ! analog\s case ( ! great] numb] ( brea*es on ! ne> sides ( ^? atolls 9 ! ,maldiva ,ar*ipelago1 :i* af=d "s protection to ea* o!r1 are obvi\sly expla9$ by ?is circum/ance4 ,if ! "q _h be51 "u :at conditions ! great] numb] ( species ( coral1 n reg>d+ _! bulk & /r5g?1 7 develop$1 ,i %\ld answ]1--probably 9 ! situations describ$ by ,,mm4 ,quoy & ,gaim>d1 :]e ! wat] is tranquil & ! heat int5se4 ,! total numb] ( species ( coral 9 ! circumtropical seas mu/ be v great3 9 ! ,r$ ,sea alone1 #abj k9ds1 accord+ to ,ehr5b]g1#i h be5 obs]v$4 #i ,ehr5b]g1 8b] die ,natr10 etc41 etc41 page #df4 ,! same au?or has obs]v$ t ! recoil ( ! sea f a /eep %ore is injuri\s to ! gr[? ( coral1 al?\gh waves break+ ov] a bank are n s4 ,ehr5b]g also /ates1 t :]e !re is mu* s$im5t1 plac$ s z to be liable to be mov$ by ! waves !re is little or no coral2 & a collection ( liv+ specim5s plac$ by him on a s&y %ore di$ 9 ! c\rse ( a few days4#aj ,an exp]im5t1 h[ev]1 w pres5tly be relat$ 9 :i* "s l>ge masses ( liv+ coral increas$ rapidly 9 size1 aft] hav+ be5 secur$ by /akes on a s&bank4 ,t loose s$im5t %\ld be injuri\s to ! liv+ polypif]s1 appe>s1 at fir/ sight1 probable2 & accord+ly1 9 s\nd+ (f ,keel+ atoll1 & 7z w h]eaft] be %[n7 (f ,mauritius1 ! arm+ ( ! lead inv>iably came up clean1 :]e ! coral 0 gr[+ vigor\sly4 ,?is same circum/ance has probably giv5 rise to a /range belief1 :i*1 accord+ to ,capta9 ,ow51#aa is g5]al among/ ! inhabitants ( ! ,maldiva atolls1 namely t corals h roots1 & !re=e t if m]ely brok5 d[n to ! surface1 !y gr[ up aga92 b1 if root$ out1 !y are p]man5tly de/roy$4 ,by ?is means ! inhabitants keep _! h>b\rs cle>2 & ?us ! ,fr5* ,gov]nor ( ,/4 ,m>y's 9 ,madagasc>1 8cle>$ out & made a beautiful little port at t place40 ,= x is probable t s& w\ld accumulate 9 ! holl[s =m$ by te>+ out ! corals1 b n on ! brok5 & project+ /umps1 & !re=e1 9 ! =m] case1 ! fre% gr[? ( ! coral might be ?us prev5t$4 #aj ,ibid41 page #di4 #aa ,capta9 ,ow5 on ! ,geography ( ! ,maldiva ,isl&s1 8,geographical ,j\rnal01 volume ii41 page #hh4 ,9 ! la/ *apt] ,i rem>k$ t fr++-reefs are almo/ univ]sally brea*$1 :]e /reams ent] ! sea4#ab ,mo/ au?ors h attribut$ ?is fact to ! injuri\s effects ( ! fre% wat]1 ev5 :]e x ent]s ! sea only 9 small quantity1 & dur+ a "p ( ! ye>4 ,no d\bt bracki% wat] w\ld prev5t or ret>d ! gr[? ( coral2 b ,i believe t ! mud & s& :i* is deposit$1 ev5 by rivulets :5 flood$1 is a mu* m effici5t *eck4 ,! reef on ea* side ( ! *annel lead+ into ,port ,l\is at ,mauritius1 ends abruptly 9 a wall1 at ! foot ( :i* ,i s\nd$ & f\nd a b$ ( ?ick mud4 ,?is /eepness ( ! sides appe>s to be a g5]al "* 9 su* brea*es4 ,cook1#ac speak+ ( "o at ,raiatea1 says1 8l all ! re/1 x is v /eep on bo? sides40 ,n[1 if x 7 ! fre% wat] m+l+ ) ! salt :i* prev5t$ ! gr[? ( coral1 ! reef c]ta9ly w\ld n t]m9ate abruptly1 b z ! polypif]s ne>e/ ! impure /ream w\ld gr[ less vigor\sly ?an ^? f>!r (f1 s w\ld ! reef gradually ?9 away4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! s$im5t br\ght d[n f ! l& w\ld only prev5t ! gr[? ( ! coral 9 ! l9e ( its deposition1 b w\ld n *eck x on ! side1 s t ! reefs might increase till !y ov]hung ! b$ ( ! *annel4 ,! brea*es are mu* few] 9 numb]1 & front only ! l>g] valleys 9 reefs ( ! encircl+ b>ri] class4 ,!y probably are kept op5 9 ! same mann] z ^? into ! lagoon ( an atoll1 namely1 by ! =ce ( ! curr5ts & ! drift+ outw>ds ( f9e s$im5t4 ,_! position 9 front ( valleys1 al?\gh (t5 sep>at$ f ! l& by deep wat] lagoon-*annels1 :i* x might be ?\ght w\ld entirely remove ! injuri\s effects bo? ( ! fre% wat] & ! s$im5t1 w receive a simple explanation :5 we discuss ! orig9 ( b>ri]-reefs4 #ab ,lieut5ant ,well/ead & o!rs h rem>k$ t ?is is ! case 9 ! ,r$ ,sea2 ,dr4 ,rppell 78,reise 9 ,abyss40 ,b&4 i41 page #adb7 says t !re are pe>-%ap$ h>b\rs 9 ! uprais$ coral-coa/1 into :i* p]iodical /reams ent]4 ,f ?is circum/ance1 ,i presume1 we mu/ inf] t be=e ! upheaval ( ! /rata n[ =m+ ! coa/-l&1 fre% wat] & s$im5t ent]$ ! sea at ^! po9ts2 & ! coral be+ ?us prev5t$ gr[+1 ! pe>-%ap$ h>b\rs 7 produc$4 #ac ,cook's 8,fir/ ,voyage10 volume ii41 page #bga 7,hawkeswor?'s edition747 ,9 ! vegetable k+dom e diff]5t /ation has its peculi> gr\p ( plants1 & simil> relations appe> to prevail ) corals4 ,we h already describ$ ! great diff]5ce betwe5 ! corals )9 ! lagoon ( an atoll & ^? on its out] m>g94 ,! corals1 also1 on ! m>g9 ( ,keel+ ,isl& occurr$ 9 zones2 ?us ! ,porites & ,millepora complanata gr[ to a l>ge size only :]e !y are wa%$ by a heavy sea1 & are kill$ by a %ort exposure to ! air2 :]eas1 ?ree species ( ,nullipora also live amid/ ! break]s1 b are able to survive uncov]$ = a "p ( ea* tide2 at great] dep?s1 a /rong ,madrepora & ,millepora alcicornis are ! commone/ k9ds1 ! =m] appe>+ to be conf9$ to ?is "p1 b5ea? ! zone ( massive corals1 m9ute encru/+ corall9es & o!r organic bodies live4 ,if we comp>e ! ext]nal m>g9 ( ! reef at ,keel+ atoll ) t on ! leew>d side ( ,mauritius1 :i* are v diff]5tly circum/anc$1 we %all f9d a correspond+ diff]5ce 9 ! appe>ance ( ! corals4 ,at ! latt] place1 ! g5us ,madrepora is prepond]ant ov] e o!r k9d1 & b5ea? ! zone ( massive corals !re are l>ge b$s ( ,s]iatopora4 ,!re is also a m>k$ diff]5ce1 accord+ to ,capta9 ,moresby1#ad betwe5 ! great bran*+ corals ( ! ,r$ ,sea1 & ^? on ! reefs ( ! ,maldiva atolls4 #ad ,capta9 ,moresby on ! ,nor!rn ,maldiva atolls1 8,geographical ,j\rnal01 volume v41 page #dja4 ,^! facts1 :i* 9 !mselves are des]v+ ( notice1 be>1 p]haps1 n v remotely1 on a rem>kable circum/ance :i* has be5 po9t$ out to me by ,capta9 ,moresby1 namely1 t ) v few exceptions1 none ( ! coral-knolls )9 ! lagoons ( ,p]os ,banhos1 ,diego ,g>cia1 & ! ,great ,*agos ,bank 7all situat$ 9 ! ,*agos gr\p71 rise to ! surface ( ! wat]2 :]eas all ^?1 ) equally few exceptions1 )9 ,solomon & ,egmont atolls 9 ! same gr\p1 & likewise )9 ! l>ge s\!rn ,maldiva atolls1 rea* ! surface4 ,i make ^! /atem5ts1 aft] hav+ exam9$ ! *>ts ( ea* atoll4 ,9 ! lagoon ( ,p]os ,banhos1 :i* is ne>ly tw5ty miles across1 !re is only "o s+le reef :i* rises to ! surface2 9 ,diego ,g>cia !re are sev51 b sev]al ( ^! lie close to ! m>g9 ( ! lagoon1 & ne$ sc>cely h be5 reckon$2 9 ! ,great ,*agos ,bank !re is n "o4 ,on ! o!r h&1 9 ! lagoons ( "s ( ! great s\!rn ,maldiva atolls1 al?\gh ?ickly /udd$ ) reefs1 e "o )\t exception rises to ! surface2 & on an av]age !re are less ?an two subm]g$ reefs 9 ea* atoll2 9 ! nor!rn atolls1 h[ev]1 ! subm]g$ lagoon-reefs are n q s r>e4 ,! subm]g$ reefs 9 ! ,*agos atolls g5]ally h f "o to sev5 fa?oms wat] on !m1 b "s h f sev5 to t54 ,mo/ ( !m are small ) v /eep sides2#ae at ,p]os ,banhos !y rise f a dep? ( ab\t ?irty fa?oms1 & "s ( !m 9 ! ,great ,*agos ,bank f above =ty fa?oms2 !y are cov]$1 ,capta9 ,moresby in=ms me1 ) liv+ & heal?y coral1 two & ?ree feet high1 consi/+ ( sev]al species4 ,:y !n h n ^! lagoon-reefs rea*$ ! surface1 l ! innum]able ones 9 ! atolls above nam$8 ,if we attempt to assign any diff]5ce 9 _! ext]nal conditions1 z ! cause ( ?is div]sity1 we are at once baffl$4 ,! lagoon ( ,diego ,g>cia is n deep1 & is almo/ :olly surr\nd$ by its reef2 ,p]os ,banhos is v deep1 mu* l>g]1 ) _m wide passages communicat+ ) ! op5 sea4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ( ^? atolls1 9 :i* all or ne>ly all ! lagoon-reefs h rea*$ ! surface1 "s are small1 o!rs l>ge1 "s %all[1 o!rs deep1 "s well-enclos$1 & o!rs op54 #ae ,"s ( ^! /atem5ts 7 n communicat$ to me v]bally by ,capta9 ,moresby1 b are tak5 f ! ,,ms4 acc\nt be=e allud$ to1 ( ! ,*agos ,gr\p4 ,capta9 ,moresby in=ms me t he has se5 a ,fr5* *>t ( ,diego ,g>cia made eighty ye>s be=e 8 survey1 & app>5tly v accurate2 & f x he inf]s1 t dur+ ?is int]val !re has n be5 ! smalle/ *ange 9 ! dep? on any ( ! knolls )9 ! lagoon4 ,x is also kn[n t dur+ ! la/ fifty-"o ye>s1 ! ea/]n *annel into ! lagoon has nei!r become n>r[]1 nor decreas$ 9 dep?2 & z !re are num]\s small knolls ( liv+ coral )9 x1 "s *ange might h be5 anticipat$4 ,moreov]1 z ! :ole reef r\nd ! lagoon ( ?is atoll has be5 conv]t$ into l&--an unp>allel$ case1 ,i believe1 9 an atoll ( su* l>ge size1--& z ! /rip ( l& is = consid]able spaces m ?an half a mile wide--also a v unusual circum/ance1--we h ! be/ possible evid5ce1 t ,diego ,g>cia has rema9$ at its pres5t level = a v long p]iod4 ,) ?is fact1 & ) ! k t no s5sible *ange has tak5 place dur+ eighty ye>s 9 ! coral-knolls1 & consid]+ t e s+le reef has rea*$ ! surface 9 o!r atolls1 :i* d n pres5t ! smalle/ appe>ance ( be+ old] ?an ,diego ,g>cia & ,p]os ,banhos1 & :i* are plac$ "u ! same ext]nal conditions ) !m1 "o is l$ to conclude t ^! subm]g$ reefs1 al?\gh cov]$ ) luxuriant coral1 h no t5d5cy to gr[ upw>ds1 & t !y w\ld rema9 at _! pres5t levels = an almo/ indef9ite p]iod4 ,f ! numb] ( ^! knolls1 f _! position1 size1 & =m1 _m ( !m be+ only "o or two hundr$ y>ds across1 ) a r\nd$ outl9e1 & precipit\s sides1--x is indisputable t !y h be5 =m$ by ! gr[? ( coral2 & ?is makes ! case mu* m rem>kable4 ,9 ,p]os ,banhos & 9 ! ,great ,*agos ,bank1 "s ( ^! almo/ column> masses are #bjj feet high1 & _! summits lie only f two to eight fa?oms b5ea? ! surface2 !re=e1 a small proportional am\nt m ( gr[? w\ld cause !m to atta9 ! surface1 l ^? num]\s knolls1 :i* rise f an equally great dep? )9 ! ,maldiva atolls4 ,we c h>dly suppose t "t has be5 want+ = ! upw>d gr[? ( ! coral1 :il/ 9 ,diego ,g>cia1 ! broad annul> /rip ( l&1 =m$ by ! cont9u$ accumulation ( detritus1 %[s h[ long ?is atoll has rema9$ at its pres5t level4 ,we mu/ look to "s o!r cause ?an ! rate ( gr[?2 & ,i suspect x w be f\nd 9 ! reefs be+ =m$ ( diff]5t species ( corals1 adapt$ to live at diff]5t dep?s4 ,! ,great ,*agos ,bank is situat$ 9 ! c5tre ( ! ,*agos ,gr\p1 & ! ,pitt & ,speak] ,banks at its two extreme po9ts4 ,^! banks resemble atolls1 except 9 _! ext]nal rim be+ ab\t eight fa?oms subm]g$1 & 9 be+ =m$ ( dead rock1 ) v little liv+ coral on x3 a portion n9e miles long ( ! annul> reef ( ,p]os ,banhos atoll is 9 ! same condition4 ,^! facts1 z w h]eaft] be %[n1 r5d] x v probable t ! :ole gr\p at "s =m] p]iod subsid$ sev5 or eight fa?oms2 & t ! coral p]i%$ on ! out] m>g9 ( ^? atolls :i* are n[ subm]g$1 b t x cont9u$ alive1 & grew up to ! surface on ^? :i* are n[ p]fect4 ,if ^! atolls did subside1 & if f ! sudd5ness ( ! movem5t or f any o!r cause1 ^? corals :i* are bett] adapt$ to live at a c]ta9 dep? ?an at ! surface1 once got possession ( ! knolls1 supplant+ ! =m] occupants1 !y w\ld ex]t little or no t5d5cy to gr[ upw>ds4 ,to illu/rate ?is1 ,i may obs]ve1 t if ! corals ( ! upp] zone on ! out] edge ( ,keel+ atoll 7 to p]i%1 x is improbable t ^? ( ! l[] zone w\ld gr[ to ! surface1 & ?us become expos$ to conditions = :i* !y d n appe> to be adapt$4 ,! conjecture1 t ! corals on ! subm]g$ knolls )9 ! ,*agos atolls h analog\s habits ) ^? ( ! l[] zone outside ,keel+ atoll1 receives "s support f a rem>k by ,capta9 ,moresby1 namely1 t !y h a diff]5t appe>ance f ^? on ! reefs 9 ! ,maldiva atolls1 :i*1 z we h se51 all rise to ! surface3 he comp>es ! k9d ( diff]5ce to t ( ! vegetation "u diff]5t climates4 ,i h ent]$ at consid]able l5g? into ?is case1 al?\gh unable to ?r[ mu* light on x1 9 ord] to %[ t an equal t5d5cy to upw>d gr[? ought n to be attribut$ to all coral-reefs1--to ^? situat$ at diff]5t dep?s1--to ^? =m+ ! r+ ( an atoll or ^? on ! knolls )9 a lagoon1--to ^? 9 "o area & ^? 9 ano!r4 ,! inf]5ce1 !re=e1 t "o reef c\ld n gr[ up to ! surface )9 a giv5 "t1 because ano!r1 n kn[n to be cov]$ ) ! same species ( corals1 & n kn[n to be plac$ "u conditions exactly ! same1 has n )9 ! same "t rea*$ ! surface1 is uns\nd4 ,,section ,,ii4--,,on ,,! ,,rate ,,( ,,gr[? ,,( ,,coral-,,reefs4 ,! rem>k made at ! close ( ! la/ section1 naturally leads to ?is division ( our subject1 :i* has n1 ,i ?9k1 hi!rto be5 consid]$ "u a "r po9t ( view4 ,ehr5b]g#af has /at$1 t 9 ! ,r$ ,sea1 ! corals only coat o!r rocks 9 a lay] f "o to two feet 9 ?ickness1 or at mo/ to a fa?om & a half2 & he disbelieves t1 9 any case1 !y =m1 by _! own prop] gr[?1 great masses1 /ratum ov] /ratum4 ,a ne>ly simil> obs]vation has be5 made by ,,mm4 ,quoy & ,gaim>d1#ag ) respect to ! ?ickness ( "s uprais$ b$s ( coral1 :i* !y exam9$ at ,timor & "s o!r places4 ,ehr5b]g#ah saw c]ta9 l>ge massive corals 9 ! ,r$ ,sea1 :i* he imag9es to be ( su* va/ antiquity1 t !y might h be5 beheld by ,ph>aoh2 & accord+ to ,mr4 ,lyell#ai !re are c]ta9 corals at ,b]muda1 :i* are kn[n by tradition1 to h be5 liv+ = c5turies4 ,to %[ h[ sl[ly coral-reefs gr[ upw>ds1 ,capta9 ,bee*ey#bj has adduc$ ! case ( ! ,dolph9 ,reef (f ,tahiti1 :i* has rema9$ at ! same dep? b5ea? ! surface1 namely ab\t two fa?oms & a half1 = a p]iod ( sixty-sev5 ye>s4 ,!re are reefs 9 ! ,r$ ,sea1 :i* c]ta9ly d n appe>#ba to h increas$ 9 dim5sions dur+ ! la/ half-c5tury1 & f ! comp>ison ( old *>ts ) rec5t surveys1 probably n dur+ ! la/ two hundr$ ye>s4 ,^!1 & o!r simil> facts1 h s /rongly impress$ _m ) ! belief ( ! extreme sl[ness ( ! gr[? ( corals1 t !y h ev5 d\bt$ ! possibility ( isl&s 9 ! great oceans hav+ be5 =m$ by _! ag5cy4 ,o!rs1 aga91 :o h n be5 ov]:elm$ by ?is difficulty1 h admitt$ t x w\ld require ?\s&s1 & t5s ( ?\s&s ( ye>s1 to =m a mass1 ev5 ( inconsid]able ?ickness2 b ! subject has n1 ,i believe1 be5 view$ 9 ! prop] light4 #af ,ehr5b]g1 z be=e cit$1 pages #ci1 #df1 & #ej4 #ag 8,annales des ,sci5ces ,nat40 tom4 vi41 page #bh4 #ah ,ehr5b]g1 ut sup41 page #db4 #ai ,lyell's 8,pr9ciples ( ,geology10 book iii41 *apt] xviii4 #bj ,bee*ey's 8,voyage to ! ,pacific10 *apt] viii4 #ba ,ehr5b]g1 ut sup41 page #dc4 ,t masses ( consid]able ?ickness h be5 =m$ by ! gr[? ( coral1 may be inf]r$ ) c]ta9ty f ! foll[+ facts4 ,9 ! deep lagoons ( ,p]os ,banhos & ( ! ,great ,*agos ,bank1 !re are1 z already describ$1 small /eep-sid$ knolls cov]$ ) liv+ coral4 ,!re are simil> knolls 9 ! s\!rn ,maldiva atolls1 "s ( :i*1 z ,capta9 ,moresby assures me1 are less ?an a hundr$ y>ds 9 diamet]1 & rise to ! surface f a dep? ( betwe5 two hundr$ & fifty & ?ree hundr$ feet4 ,consid]+ _! numb]1 =m1 & position1 x w\ld be prepo/]\s to suppose t !y are bas$ on p9nacles ( any rock1 n ( coral =mation2 or t s$im5t c\ld h be5 heap$ up into su* small & /eep isolat$ cones4 ,z no k9d ( liv+ coral gr[s above ! height ( a few feet1 we are compell$ to suppose t ^! knolls h be5 =m$ by ! successive gr[? & dea? ( _m individuals1--fir/ "o be+ brok5 (f or kill$ by "s accid5t1 & !n ano!r1 & "o set ( species be+ replac$ by ano!r set ) diff]5t habits1 z ! reef rose ne>] ! surface1 or z o!r *anges sup]v5$4 ,! spaces betwe5 ! corals w\ld become fill$ up ) fragm5ts & s&1 & su* matt] w\ld probably soon be consolidat$1 = we le>n f ,lieut5ant ,nelson1#bb t at ,b]muda a process ( ?is k9d takes place b5ea? wat]1 )\t ! aid ( evaporation4 ,9 reefs1 also1 ( ! b>ri] class1 we may feel sure1 z ,i h %[n1 t masses ( great ?ickness h be5 =m$ by ! gr[? ( ! coral2 9 ! case ( ,vanikoro1 judg+ only f ! dep? ( ! moat betwe5 ! l& & ! reef1 ! wall ( coral-rock mu/ be at lea/ ?ree hundr$ feet 9 v]tical ?ickness4 #bb 8,geological ,transactions10 volume v41 page #aac4 ,x is un=tunate t ! uprais$ coral-isl&s 9 ! ,pacific h n be5 exam9$ by a geologi/4 ,! cliffs ( ,elizabe? ,isl&1 9 ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago1 are eighty feet high1 & appe>1 f ,capta9 ,bee*ey's description1 to consi/ ( a homog5e\s coral-rock4 ,f ! isolat$ position ( ?is isl&1 we may safely inf] t x is an uprais$ atoll1 & !re=e t x has be5 =m$ by masses ( coral1 gr[n toge!r4 ,savage ,isl& seems1 f ! description ( ! y\ng] ,=/]1#bc to h a simil> /ructure1 & its %ores are ab\t =ty feet high3 "s ( ! ,cook ,isl&s also appe>#bd to be simil>ly compos$4 ,capta9 ,bel*]1 ,r4,n41 9 a lett] :i* ,capta9 ,beau=t %[$ me at ! admiralty1 speak+ ( ,b[ atoll1 says1 8,i h succe$$ 9 bor+ =ty-five feet ?r\gh coral-s&1 :5 ! aug] became jamm$ by ! fall+ 9 ( ! surr\nd+ creamy matt]40 ,on "o ( ! ,maldiva atolls1 ,capta9 ,moresby bor$ to a dep? ( tw5ty-six feet1 :5 8 aug] also broke3 he has _h ! k9dness to give me ! matt] br\ght up2 x is p]fectly :ite1 & l f9ely triturat$ coral-rock4 #bc ,=/]'s 8,voyage r\nd ! ,_w ) ,cook10 volume ii41 pages #afc1 #afg4 #bd ,williams's 8,n>rative ( ,mission>y ,ent]prise10 page #cj4 ,9 my description ( ,keel+ atoll1 ,i h giv5 "s facts1 :i* %[ t ! reef probably has gr[n outw>ds2 & ,i h f\nd1 j )9 ! out] m>g91 ! great m\nds ( ,porites & ( ,millepora1 ) _! summits lately kill$1 & _! sides subsequ5tly ?ick5$ by ! gr[? ( ! coral3 a lay]1 also1 ( ,nullipora _h already coat$ ! dead surface4 ,z ! ext]nal slope ( ! reef is ! same r\nd ! :ole ( ?is atoll1 & r\nd _m o!r atolls1 ! angle ( incl9ation mu/ result f an adaption betwe5 ! gr[+ p[]s ( ! coral1 & ! =ce ( ! break]s1 & _! action on ! loose s$im5t4 ,! reef1 !re=e1 c\ld n increase outw>ds1 )\t a ne>ly equal addition to e "p ( ! slope1 s t ! orig9al incl9ation might be pres]v$1 & ?is w\ld require a l>ge am\nt ( s$im5t1 all d]iv$ f ! we> ( corals & %ells1 to be add$ to ! l[] "p4 ,moreov]1 at ,keel+ atoll1 & probably 9 _m o!r cases1 ! diff]5t k9ds ( corals w\ld h to encroa* on ea* o!r2 ?us ! ,nullipor _c increase outw>ds )\t encroa*+ on ! ,porites & ,millepora complanata1 z is n[ tak+ place2 nor ^! latt] )\t encroa*+ on ! /rongly bran*$ ,madreporet1 ! ,millepora alcicornis1 & "s ,a/rz2 nor ^! aga9 )\t a f\ndation be+ =m$ = !m )9 ! requisite dep?1 by ! accumulation ( s$im5t4 ,h[ sl[1 !n1 mu/ be ! ord9>y lat]al or outw>d gr[? ( su* reefs4 ,b (f ,*ri/mas atoll1 :]e ! sea is mu* m %all[ ?an is usual1 we h good reason to believe t1 )9 a p]iod n v remote1 ! reef has increas$ consid]ably 9 wid?4 ,! l& has ! extraord9>y bread? ( ?ree miles2 x consi/s ( p>allel ridges ( %ells & brok5 corals1 :i* furni% 8an inconte/able pro(10 z obs]v$ by ,cook1#be 8t ! isl& has be5 produc$ by accessions f ! sea1 & is 9 a /ate ( increase40 ,! l& is front$ by a coral-reef1 & f ! mann] 9 :i* islets are kn[n to be =m$1 we may feel confid5t t ! reef 0 n ?ree miles wide1 :5 ! fir/1 or mo/ backw>d ridge1 0 ?r[n up2 &1 !re=e1 we mu/ conclude t ! reef has gr[n outw>ds dur+ ! accumulation ( ! successive ridges4 ,"h !n1 a wall ( coral-rock ( v consid]able bread? has be5 =m$ by ! outw>d gr[? ( ! liv+ m>g91 )9 a p]iod dur+ :i* ridges ( %ells & corals1 ly+ on ! b>e surface1 h n decay$4 ,!re c be little d\bt1 f ! acc\nt giv5 by ,capta9 ,bee*ey1 t ,matilda atoll1 9 ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago1 has be5 conv]t$ 9 ! space ( ?irty-f\r ye>s1 f be+1 z describ$ by ! crew ( a wreck$ :al+ vessel1 a 8reef ( rocks0 into a lagoon-isl&1 f\rte5 miles 9 l5g?1 ) 8"o ( its sides cov]$ ne>ly ! :ole way ) high trees40#bf ,! islets1 also1 on ,keel+ atoll1 x has be5 %[n1 h increas$ 9 l5g?1 & s9ce ! con/ruction ( an old *>t1 sev]al ( !m h become unit$ into "o long islet2 b 9 ?is case1 & 9 t ( ,matilda atoll1 we h no pro(1 & c only inf] z probable1 t ! reef1 t is ! f\ndation ( ! islets1 has increas$ z well z ! islets !mselves4 #be ,cook's 8,?ird ,voyage10 book ,,iii41 *apt] x4 #bf ,bee*ey's 8,voyage to ! ,pacific10 *apt] vii4 & viii4 ,aft] ^! consid]ations1 ,i atta* little importance1 z indicat+ ! ord9>y & /ill less ! possible rate ( outw>d gr[? ( coral-reefs1 to ! fact t c]ta9 reefs 9 ! ,r$ ,sea h n increas$ dur+ a long int]val ( "t2 or to o!r su* cases1 z t ( ,oulu?y atoll 9 ! ,c>ol9e gr\p1 :]e e islet1 describ$ a ?\s& ye>s be=e by ,cantova 0 f\nd 9 ! same /ate by ,lutk1#bg--)\t x c\ld be %[n t1 9 ^! cases1 ! conditions 7 fav\rable to ! vigor\s & unoppos$ gr[? ( ! corals liv+ 9 ! diff]5t zones ( dep?1 & t a prop] basis = ! ext5t ( ! reef 0 pres5t4 ,! =m] conditions mu/ dep5d on _m cont+5cies1 & 9 ! deep oceans :]e coral =mations mo/ ab\nd1 a basis )9 ! requisite dep? c r>ely be pres5t4 #bg ,f4 ,lutk's 8,voyage aut\r du ,monde40 ,9 ! gr\p ,elato1 h[ev]1 x appe>s t :at is n[ ! islet ,falipi1 is call$ 9 ,cantova's ,*>t1 ! ,banc de ,falipi4 ,x is n /at$ :e!r ?is has be5 caus$ by ! gr[? ( coral1 or by ! accumulation ( s&4 ,nor d ,i atta* any importance to ! fact ( c]ta9 subm]g$ reefs1 z ^? (f ,tahiti1 or ^? )9 ,diego ,g>cia n n[ be+ ne>] ! surface ?an !y 7 _m ye>s ago1 z an indication ( ! rate "u fav\rable circum/ances ( ! upw>d gr[? ( reefs2 aft] x has be5 %[n1 t all ! reefs h gr[n to ! surface 9 "s ( ! ,*agos atolls1 b t 9 neighb\r+ atolls :i* appe> to be ( equal antiquity & to be expos$ to ! same ext]nal conditions1 e reef rema9s subm]g$2 = we are almo/ driv5 to attribute ?is to a diff]5ce1 n 9 ! rate ( gr[?1 b 9 ! habits ( ! corals 9 ! two cases4 ,9 an old-/&+ reef1 ! corals1 :i* are s diff]5t 9 k9d on diff]5t p>ts ( x1 are probably all adapt$ to ! /ations !y occupy1 & hold _! places1 l o!r organic be+s1 by a /ruggle "o ) ano!r1 & ) ext]nal nature2 h5ce we may inf] t _! gr[? w\ld g5]ally be sl[1 except "u peculi>ly fav\rable circum/ances4 ,almo/ ! only natural condition1 all[+ a quick upw>d gr[? ( ! :ole surface ( a reef1 w\ld be a sl[ subsid5ce ( ! area 9 :i* x /ood2 if1 = in/ance1 ,keel+ atoll 7 to subside two or ?ree feet1 c we d\bt t ! project+ m>g9 ( live coral1 ab\t half an in* 9 ?ickness1 :i* surr\nds ! dead upp] surfaces ( ! m\nds ( ,porites1 w\ld 9 ?is case =m a conc5tric lay] ov] !m1 & ! reef ?us increase upw>ds1 in/ead (1 z at pres5t1 outw>ds8 ,! ,nullipor are n[ encroa*+ on ! ,porites & ,millepora1 b 9 ?is case might we n confid5tly expect t ! latt] w\ld1 9 _! turn1 encroa* on ! ,nullipor8 ,aft] a subsid5ce ( ?is k9d1 ! sea w\ld ga9 on ! islets1 & ! great fields ( dead b upright corals 9 ! lagoon1 w\ld be cov]$ by a %eet ( cle> wat]2 & might we n !n expect t ^! reefs w\ld rise to ! surface1 z !y anci5tly did :5 ! lagoon 0 less conf9$ by islets1 & z !y did )9 a p]iod ( t5 ye>s 9 ! s*oon]-*annel1 cut by ! inhabitants8 ,9 "o ( ! ,maldiva atolls1 a reef1 :i* )9 a v few ye>s exi/$ z an islet be>+ cocoa-nut trees1 0 f\nd by ,lieut5ant ,pr5tice 8entirely cov]$ ) live coral & ,madrepore40 ,! natives believe t ! islet 0 wa%$ away by a *ange 9 ! curr5ts1 b if1 in/ead ( ?is1 x _h quietly subsid$1 surely e "p ( ! isl& :i* (f]$ a solid f\ndation1 w\ld 9 a l mann] h become coat$ ) liv+ coral4 ,?r\gh /eps su* z ^!1 any ?ickness ( rock1 compos$ ( a s+ul> int]mixture ( v>i\s k9ds ( corals1 %ells1 & calc>e\s s$im5t1 might be =m$2 b )\t subsid5ce1 ! ?ickness w\ld necess>ily be det]m9$ by ! dep? at :i* ! reef-build+ polypif]s c exi/4 ,if x be ask$1 at :at rate 9 ye>s ,i suppose a reef ( coral fav\rably circum/anc$ c\ld gr[ up f a giv5 dep?2 ,i %\ld answ]1 t we h no precise evid5ce on ?is po9t1 & comp>atively little conc]n ) x4 ,we see1 9 innum]able po9ts ov] wide areas1 t ! rate has be5 suffici5t1 ei!r to br+ up ! reefs f v>i\s dep?s to ! surface1 or1 z is m probable1 to keep !m at ! surface1 dur+ progressive subsid5ces2 & ?is is a mu* m important /&>d ( comp>ison ?an any cycle ( ye>s4 ,x may1 h[ev]1 be inf]r$ f ! foll[+ facts1 t ! rate 9 ye>s "u fav\rable circum/ances w\ld be v f> f sl[4 ,dr4 ,allan1 ( ,=res1 has1 9 8 ,,ms4 ,!sis deposit$ 9 ! libr>y ( ! ,ed9burgh ,univ]sity 7extracts f :i* ,i owe to ! k9dness ( ,dr4 ,malcolmson71 ! foll[+ acc\nt ( "s exp]im5ts1 :i* he tri$ dur+ 8 travels 9 ! ye>s #ahcj to #ahcb on ! ea/ coa/ ( ,madagasc>4 8,to asc]ta9 ! rise & progress ( ! coral-family1 & fix ! numb] ( species met ) at ,f\l ,po9t 7latitude #ag #dj7 tw5ty species ( coral 7 tak5 (f ! reef & plant$ ap>t on a s&-bank ?ree feet deep at l[ wat]4 ,ea* portion weigh$ t5 p\nds1 & 0 kept 9 its place by /akes4 ,simil> quantities 7 plac$ 9 a clump & secur$ z ! re/4 ,?is 0 done 9 ,decemb] #ahcj4 ,9 ,july foll[+1 ea* deta*$ mass 0 ne>ly level ) ! sea at l[ wat]1 q immovable1 & sev]al feet long1 /ret*+ z ! p>5t reef1 ) ! coa/ curr5t f nor? to s\?4 ,! masses accumulat$ 9 a clump 7 f\nd equally increas$1 b "s ( ! species 9 su* unequal ratios1 z to be gr[+ ov] ea* o!r40 ,! loss ( ,dr4 ,allan's magnific5t collection by %ipwreck1 un=tunately prev5ts its be+ kn[n to :at g5]a ^! corals belong$2 b f ! numb]s exp]im5t$ on1 x is c]ta9 t all ! m conspicu\s k9ds mu/ h be5 includ$4 ,dr4 ,allan in=ms me1 9 a lett]1 t he believes x 0 a ,madrepora1 :i* grew mo/ vigor\sly4 ,"o may be p]mitt$ to suspect t ! level ( ! sea might possibly h be5 some:at diff]5t at ! two /at$ p]iods2 nev]!less1 x is q evid5t t ! gr[? ( ! t5-p\nd masses1 dur+ ! six or sev5 mon?s1 at ! end ( :i* !y 7 f\nd immovably fix$#bh & sev]al feet 9 l5g?1 mu/ h be5 v great4 ,! fact ( ! diff]5t k9ds ( coral1 :5 plac$ 9 "o clump1 hav+ increas$ 9 extremely unequal ratios1 is v int]e/+1 z x %[s ! mann] 9 :i* a reef1 support+ _m species ( coral1 w\ld probably be affect$ by a *ange 9 ! ext]nal conditions fav\r+ "o k9d m ?an ano!r4 ,! gr[? ( ! masses ( coral 9 ,n4 & ,s4 l9es p>allel to ! prevail+ curr5ts1 :e!r due to ! drift+ ( s$im5t or to ! simple movem5t ( ! wat]1 is1 also1 a v int]e/+ circum/ance4 #bh ,x is /at$ by ,de la ,be*e 78,geological ,manual10 page #adc71 on ! au?ority ( ,mr4 ,lloyd1 :o survey$ ! ,i/hmus ( ,panama1 t "s specim5s ( ,polypif]s1 plac$ by him 9 a %elt]$ pool ( wat]1 7 f\nd 9 ! c\rse ( a few days firmly fix$ by ! secretion ( a /ony matt]1 to ! bottom4 ,a fact1 communicat$ to me by ,lieut5ant ,well/ead1 ,i4,n41 9 "s degree corroborates ! result ( ,dr4 ,allan's exp]im5ts3 x is1 t 9 ! ,p]sian ,gulf a %ip _h h] copp] bottom encru/$ 9 ! c\rse ( tw5ty mon?s ) a lay] ( coral1 two feet 9 ?ickness1 :i* x requir$ great =ce to remove1 :5 ! vessel 0 dock$3 x 0 n asc]ta9$ to :at ord] ?is coral belong$4 ,! case ( ! s*oon]-*annel *ok$ up ) coral 9 an int]val ( less ?an t5 ye>s1 9 ! lagoon ( ,keel+ atoll1 %\ld be "h borne 9 m9d4 ,we may also inf]1 f ! tr\ble :i* ! inhabitants ( ! ,maldiva atolls take to root out1 z !y express x1 ! coral-knolls f _! h>b\rs1 t _! gr[? c h>dly be v sl[4#bi #bi ,mr4 ,/ut*bury 78,we/ ( ,engl& ,j\rnal01 ,no4 ,i41 page #ej47 has describ$ a specim5 ( ,ag>icia1 8weigh+ #b lbs4 #i oz41 :i* surr\nds a species ( oy/]1 ^: age c\ld n be m ?an two ye>s1 & yet is completely envelop$ by ?is d5se coral40 ,i presume t ! oy/] 0 liv+ :5 ! specim5 0 procur$2 o!rwise ! fact tells no?+4 ,mr4 ,/ut*bury also m5tions an an*or1 :i* _h become entirely encru/$ ) coral 9 fifty ye>s2 o!r cases1 h[ev]1 are record$ ( an*ors :i* h long rema9$ amid/ coral-reefs )\t hav+ become coat$4 ,! an*or ( ! ,beagle1 9 #ahcb1 aft] hav+ be5 d[n exactly "o mon? at ,rio de ,janeiro1 0 s ?ickly coat$ by two species ( ,tubul>ia1 t l>ge spaces ( ! iron 7 entirely conceal$2 ! tufts ( ?is horny zoophyte 7 betwe5 two & ?ree in*es 9 l5g?4 ,x has be5 attempt$ to compute1 b ,i believe errone\sly1 ! rate ( gr[? ( a reef1 f ! fact m5tion$ by ,capta9 ,bee*ey1 ( ! ,*ama gigas be+ emb$d$ 9 coral-rock4 ,b x %\ld be rememb]$1 t "s species ( ?is g5us inv>iably live1 bo? :il/ "y & old1 9 cavities1 :i* ! animal has ! p[] ( enl>g+ ) its gr[?4 ,i saw _m ( ^! %ells ?us emb$d$ 9 ! out] 8flat0 ( ,keel+ atoll1 :i* is compos$ ( dead rock2 & !re=e ! cavities 9 ?is case _h no relation :atev] ) ! gr[? ( coral4 ,m4 ,lesson1 also1 speak+ ( ?is %ell 7,p>tie ,zoolog4 8,voyage de la #8,coquille'071 has rem>k$1 8que con/amm5t ses valves tai5t engags compltem5t dans la masse des ,madrepores40 ,f ! facts giv5 9 ?is section1 x may be conclud$1 fir/1 t consid]able ?icknesses ( rock h c]ta9ly be5 =m$ )9 ! pres5t geological area by ! gr[? ( coral & ! accumulation ( its detritus2 &1 secondly1 t ! increase ( individual corals & ( reefs1 bo? outw>ds or horizontally & upw>ds or v]tically1 "u ! peculi> conditions fav\rable to su* increase1 is n sl[1 :5 ref]r$ ei!r to ! /&>d ( ! av]age oscillations ( level 9 ! e>?'s cru/1 or to ! m precise b less important "o ( a cycle ( ye>s4 ,,section ,,iii4--,,on ,,! ,,dep?s ,,at ,,:i* ,,reef-,,build+ ,,polypif]s ,,c ,,live4 ,i h already describ$ 9 detail1 :i* might h appe>$ trivial1 ! nature ( ! bottom ( ! sea imm$iately surr\nd+ ,keel+ atoll2 & ,i w n[ describe ) almo/ equal c>e ! s\nd+s (f ! fr++-reefs ( ,mauritius4 ,i h pref]r$ ?is arrangem5t1 = ! sake ( gr\p+ toge!r facts ( a simil> nature4 ,i s\nd$ ) ! wide bell-%ap$ lead :i* ,capta9 ,fitzroy us$ at ,keel+ ,isl&1 b my exam9ation ( ! bottom 0 conf9$ to a few miles ( coa/ 7betwe5 ,port ,l\is & ,tomb ,bay7 on ! leew>d side ( ! isl&4 ,! edge ( ! reef is =m$ ( great %apeless masses ( bran*+ ,madrepores1 :i* *iefly consi/ ( two species1--app>5tly ,m4 corymbosa & pocillif]a1-- m+l$ ) a few o!r k9ds ( coral4 ,^! masses are sep>at$ f ea* o!r by ! mo/ irregul> gullies & cavities1 into :i* ! lead s9ks _m feet4 ,outside ?is irregul> bord] ( ,madrepores1 ! wat] deep5s gradually to tw5ty fa?oms1 :i* dep? g5]ally is f\nd at ! di/ance ( f half to ?ree-qu>t]s ( a mile f ! reef4 ,a little fur!r out ! dep? is ?irty fa?oms1 & !nce ! bank slopes rapidly into ! dep?s ( ! ocean4 ,?is incl9ation is v g5tle comp>$ ) t outside ,keel+ & o!r atolls1 b comp>$ ) mo/ coa/s x is /eep4 ,! wat] 0 s cle> outside ! reef1 t ,i c\ld di/+ui% e object =m+ ! rugg$ bottom4 ,9 ?is "p1 & to a dep? ( eight fa?oms1 ,i s\nd$ repeat$ly1 & at ea* ca/ p\nd$ ! bottom ) ! broad lead1 nev]!less ! arm+ inv>iably came up p]fectly clean1 b deeply ind5t$4 ,f eight to fifte5 fa?oms a little calc>e\s s& 0 occasionally br\ght up1 b m frequ5tly ! arm+ 0 simply ind5t$4 ,9 all ?is space ! two ,madrepores above m5tion$1 & two species ( ,a/ra1 ) r l>ge#cj />s1 seem$ ! commone/ k9ds2 & x mu/ be notic$ t twice at ! dep? ( fifte5 fa?oms1 ! arm+ 0 m>k$ ) a clean impression ( an ,a/ra4 ,besides ^! li?ophytes1 "s fragm5ts ( ! ,millepora alcicornis1 :i* occurs 9 ! same relative position at ,keel+ ,isl&1 7 br\ght up2 & 9 ! deep] p>ts !re 7 l>ge b$s ( a ,s]iatopora1 diff]5t f ,s4 subulata1 b closely alli$ to x4 ,on ! bea* )9 ! reef1 ! roll$ fragm5ts consi/$ *iefly ( ! corals j m5tion$1 & ( a massive ,porites1 l t at ,keel+ atoll1 ( a ,me&r9a1 ,pocillopora v]rucosa1 & ( num]\s fragm5ts ( ,nullipora4 ,f fifte5 to tw5ty fa?oms ! bottom 01 ) few exceptions1 ei!r =m$ ( s&1 or ?ickly cov]$ ) ,s]iatopora3 ?is delicate coral seems to =m at ^! dep?s ext5sive b$s unm+l$ ) any o!r k9d4 ,at tw5ty fa?oms1 "o s\nd+ br\ght up a fragm5t ( ,madrepora app>5tly ,m4 pocillif]a1 & ,i believe x is ! same species 7= ,i neglect$ to br+ specim5s f bo? /ations7 :i* ma9ly =ms ! upp] m>g9 ( ! reef2 if s1 x gr[s 9 dep?s v>y+ f #j to #bj fa?oms4 ,betwe5 #bj & #bc fa?oms ,i obta9$ sev]al s\nd+s1 & !y all %[$ a s&y bottom1 ) "o exception at #cj fa?oms1 :5 ! arm+ came up scoop$ out1 z if by ! m>g9 ( a l>ge ,c>yophyllia4 ,beyond #cc fa?oms ,i s\nd$ only once2 & f #hf fa?oms1 at ! di/ance ( "o mile & a ?ird f ! edge ( ! reef1 ! arm+ br\ght up calc>e\s s& ) a pebble ( volcanic rock4 ,! circum/ance ( ! arm+ hav+ inv>iably come up q clean1 :5 s\nd+ )9 a c]ta9 numb] ( fa?oms (f ! reefs ( ,mauritius & ,keel+ atoll 7eight fa?oms 9 ! =m] case1 & twelve 9 ! latt]7 & ( its hav+ always come up 7) "o exception7 smoo!d & cov]$ ) s&1 :5 ! dep? exce$$ tw5ty fa?oms1 probably indicates a crit]ion1 by :i* ! limits ( ! vigor\s gr[? ( coral might 9 all cases be readily asc]ta9$4 ,i d n1 h[ev]1 suppose t if a va/ numb] ( s\nd+s 7 obta9$ r\nd ^! isl&s1 ! limit above assign$ w\ld be f\nd nev] to v>y1 b ,i conceive ! facts are suffici5t to %[1 t ! exceptions w\ld be few4 ,! circum/ance ( a gradual *ange1 9 ! two cases1 f a field ( clean coral to a smoo? s&y bottom1 is f> m important 9 indicat+ ! dep? at :i* ! l>g] k9ds ( coral fl\ri% ?an almo/ any numb] ( sep>ate obs]vations on ! dep?1 at :i* c]ta9 species h be5 dr$g$ up4 ,= we c und]/& ! gradation1 only z a prolong$ /ruggle aga9/ unfav\rable conditions4 ,if a p]son 7 to f9d ! soil clo!d ) turf on ! banks ( a /ream ( wat]1 b on go+ to "s di/ance on "o side ( x1 he obs]v$ ! blades ( grass gr[+ ?9n] & ?9n]1 ) int]v5+ pat*es ( s&1 until he ent]$ a des]t ( s&1 he w\ld safely conclude1 especially if *anges ( ! same k9d 7 notic$ 9 o!r places1 t ! pres5ce ( ! wat] 0 absolutely necess>y to ! =mation ( a ?ick b$ ( turf3 s may we conclude1 ) ! same feel+ ( c]ta9ty1 t ?ick b$s ( coral are =m$ only at small dep?s b5ea? ! surface ( ! sea4 #cj ,s9ce ! prec$+ pages 7 pr9t$ (f1 ,i h receiv$ f ,mr4 ,lyell a v int]e/+ pamphlet1 entitl$ 8,rem>ks ^u ,coral ,=mations10 etc41 by ,j4 ,c\?\y1 ,bo/on1 ,unit$ ,/ates1 #ahdb4 ,!re is a /atem5t 7page #f71 on ! au?ority ( ! ,rev4 ,j4 ,williams1 corroborat+ ! rem>ks made by ,ehr5b]g & ,lyell 7page #ga ( ?is volume71 on ! antiquity ( c]ta9 individual corals 9 ! ,r$ ,sea & at ,b]muda2 namely1 t at ,upolu1 "o ( ! ,navigator ,isl&s1 8p>ticul> clumps ( coral are kn[n to ! fi%]m5 by "n1 d]iv$ f ei!r "s p>ticul> configuration or tradition atta*$ to !m1 & h&$ d[n f "t immemorial40 ,) respect to ! ?ickness ( masses ( coral-rock1 x cle>ly appe>s1 f ! descriptions giv5 by ,mr4 ,c\?\y 7pages #cd1 #eh7 t ,mangaia & ,aurora ,isl&s are uprais$ atolls1 compos$ ( coral rock3 ! level summit ( ! =m] is ab\t ?ree hundr$ feet1 & t ( ,aurora ,isl& is two hundr$ feet above ! sea-level4 ,i h endeav\r$ to collect e fact1 :i* might ei!r invalidate or corroborate ?is conclusion4 ,capta9 ,moresby1 ^: opportunities = obs]vation dur+ 8 survey ( ! ,maldiva & ,*agos ,ar*ipelagoes h be5 unrivall$1 in=ms me1 t ! upp] "p or zone ( ! /eep-sid$ reefs1 on ! inn] & out] coa/s ( ! atolls 9 bo? gr\ps1 inv>iably consi/s ( coral1 & ! l[] p>ts ( s&4 ,at sev5 or eight fa?oms dep?1 ! bottom is =m$1 z c\ld be se5 ?r\gh ! cle> wat]1 ( great liv+ masses ( coral1 :i* at ab\t t5 fa?oms g5]ally /& "s way ap>t f ea* o!r1 ) pat*es ( :ite s& betwe5 !m1 & at a little great] dep? ^! pat*es become unit$ into a smoo? /eep slope1 )\t any coral4 ,capta9 ,moresby1 also1 in=ms me 9 support ( 8 /atem5t1 t he f\nd only decay$ coral on ! ,padua ,bank 7nor!rn "p ( ! ,laccadive gr\p7 :i* has an av]age dep? betwe5 tw5ty-five & ?irty-five fa?oms1 b t on "s o!r banks 9 ! same gr\p ) only t5 or twelve fa?oms wat] on !m 7= in/ance1 ! ,tillacap5i bank71 ! coral 0 liv+4 ,) reg>d to ! coral-reefs 9 ! ,r$ ,sea1 ,ehr5b]g has ! foll[+ passage3--8,! liv+ corals d n desc5d !re into great dep?s4 ,on ! edges ( islets & ne> reefs1 :]e ! dep? 0 small1 v _m liv$2 b we f\nd no m ev5 at six fa?oms4 ,! pe>l-fi%]s at ,yem5 & ,massaua ass]t$ t !re 0 no coral ne> ! pe>l-banks at n9e fa?oms dep?1 b only s&4 ,we 7 n able to in/itute any m special rese>*es40#ca ,i am1 h[ev]1 assur$ bo? by ,capta9 ,moresby & ,lieut5ant ,well/ead1 t 9 ! m nor!rn p>ts ( ! ,r$ ,sea1 !re are ext5sive b$s ( liv+ coral at a dep? ( tw5ty-five fa?oms1 9 :i* ! an*ors ( _! vessels 7 frequ5tly entangl$4 ,capta9 ,moresby attributes ! less dep?1 at :i* ! corals are able to live 9 ! places m5tion$ by ,ehr5b]g1 to ! great] quantity ( s$im5t !re2 & ! situations1 :]e !y 7 fl\ri%+ at ! dep? ( tw5ty-five fa?oms1 7 protect$1 & ! wat] 0 extraord9>ily limpid4 ,on ! leew>d side ( ,mauritius :]e ,i f\nd ! coral gr[+ at a some:at great] dep? ?an at ,keel+ atoll1 ! sea1 ow+ app>5tly to its tranquil /ate1 0 likewise v cle>4 ,)9 ! lagoons ( "s ( ! ,m>%all atolls1 :]e ! wat] c be b little agitat$1 !re are1 accord+ to ,kotzebue1 liv+ b$s ( coral 9 tw5ty-five fa?oms4 ,f ^! facts1 & consid]+ ! mann] 9 :i* ! b$s ( clean coral (f ,mauritius1 ,keel+ ,isl&1 ! ,maldiva & ,*agos atolls1 graduat$ into a s&y slope1 x appe>s v probable t ! dep?1 at :i* reef-build+ polypif]s c exi/1 is p>tly det]m9$ by ! ext5t ( incl9$ surface1 :i* ! curr5ts ( ! sea & ! recoil+ waves h ! p[] to keep free f s$im5t4 #ca ,ehr5b]g1 8b] die ,natr10 c41 page #ej4 ,,mm4 ,quoy & ,gaim>d#cb believe t ! gr[? ( coral is conf9$ )9 v limit$ dep?s2 & !y /ate t !y nev] f\nd any fragm5t ( an ,a/ra 7! g5us !y consid] mo/ effici5t 9 =m+ reefs7 at a dep? above tw5ty-five or ?irty feet4 ,b we h se5 t 9 sev]al places ! bottom ( ! sea is pav$ ) massive corals at m ?an twice ?is dep?2 & at fifte5 fa?oms 7or twice ?is dep?7 (f ! reefs ( ,mauritius1 ! arm+ 0 m>k$ ) ! di/9ct impression ( a liv+ ,a/ra4 ,millepora alcicornis lives 9 f #j to #ab fa?oms1 & ! g5]a ,madrepora & ,s]iatopora f #j to #bj fa?oms4 ,capta9 ,moresby has giv5 me a specim5 ( ,sid]opora scabra 7,porites ( ,lam>ck7 br\ght up alive f #ag fa?oms4 ,mr4 ,c\?\y#cc /ates t he has dr$g$ up on ! ,bahama banks consid]able masses ( ,me&r9a f #af fa?oms1 & he has se5 ?is coral gr[+ 9 #bj fa?oms4 ,a ,c>yophyllia1 half an in* 9 diamet]1 0 dr$g$ up alive f #hj fa?oms (f ,juan ,f]n&ez 7latitude #cc ,s47 by ,capta9 ,p4,p4 ,k+3#cd ?is is ! mo/ rem>kable fact ) :i* ,i am acqua9t$1 %[+ ! dep? at :i* a g5us ( corals (t5 f\nd on reefs1 c exi/4#ce ,we ought1 h[ev]1 to feel less surprise at ?is fact1 z ,c>yophyllia alone ( ! lamelli=m g5]a1 ranges f> beyond ! tropics2 x is f\nd 9 ,zetl& 7,flem+'s 8,briti% ,animals10 g5us ,c>yophyllia47 9 ,latitude #fj ,n4 9 deep wat]1 & ,i procur$ a small species f ,ti]ra del ,fuego 9 ,latitude #ec ,s4 ,capta9 ,bee*ey in=ms me1 t bran*es ( p9k & yell[ coral 7 frequ5tly br\ght up f betwe5 tw5ty & tw5ty-five fa?oms (f ! ,l[ atolls2 & ,lieut5ant ,/okes1 writ+ to me f ! ,n4,w4 coa/ ( ,au/ralia1 says t a /rongly bran*$ coral 0 procur$ !re f ?irty fa?oms2 un=tunately x is n kn[n to :at g5]a ^! corals belong4 #cb 8,annales des ,sci4 ,nat40 tom4 vi4 #cc 8,rem>ks on ,coral ,=mations10 page #ab4 #cd ,i am indebt$ to ,mr4 ,/okes = hav+ k9dly communicat$ ?is fact to me1 toge!r ) mu* o!r valuable in=mation4 #ce ,i w record 9 ! =m ( a note all ! facts t ,i h be5 able to collect on ! dep?s1 bo? )9 & )\t ! tropics1 at :i* ^? corals & corall9es c live1 :i* !re is no reason to suppose ev] mat]ially aid 9 ! con/ruction ( a reef4 ,,"n ,,( ,,zoophyte ,dep? 9 fa?oms ,,c\ntry & ,s4 ,,latitude ,,au?ority ,,s]tul>ia #dj ,cape ,horn #ff ,:]e none is giv51 ! obs]vation is my own ,,cell>ia ditto ,ditto ,,cell>ia1 ,a m9ute #aij ,keel+ ,atoll1 #ab sc>let encru/+ species f\nd liv+ ,,cell>ia1 ,an alli$1 #dh ,/ ,cruz ,riv4 #ej small /ony sub-g5]ic =m ,a coral alli$ to #dj ,cape ,horn ,,v9cul>ia1 ) eight r[s ( cells ,,tubulipora1 ne> to #dj ,cape ,horn ,t4 pat9a ,,tubulipora1 ne> to #id ,ea/ ,*iloe #dc ,t4 pat9a ,,cellepora1 sev]al #dj ,cape ,horn species1 & alli$ sub-g5]ic =ms ,,cellepora1 sev]al #dj & #eg ,*onos ,ar*ipelago #de species1 & alli$ sub-g5]ic =ms ,,cellepora1 sev]al #dh ,/ ,cruz #ej species1 & alli$ sub-g5]ic =ms ,,es*>a #cj ,ti]ra del ,fuego #ec ,,es*>a #dh ,/ ,cruz ,r4 #ej ,,retepora #dj ,cape ,horn ,,retepora #ajj ,cape ( ,good ,hope #cd ,quoy & ,gaim>d1 8,ann4 ,sci54 ,nat40 tome vi41 page #bhd4 ,,millepora1 a /rong #id & #cj ,e4 ,*iloe #dc coral ) cyl9drical bran*es1 ( a p9k col\r1 ab\t two in*es high1 resembl+ 9 ! =m ( its orifices ,m4 asp]a ( ,lam>ck ,ti]ra del ,fuego #ec ,,coralium #abj ,b>b>y #cc ,n4 ,peyssonel 9 pap] read to ,royal ,society ,may #ageb4 ,,antipa!s #af ,*onos #de ,,gorgonia 7or an alli$ #afj ,abrolhos on ! ,capta9 ,bee*ey in=m$ me ( ?is fact 9 a lett]4 =m7 coa/ ( ,brazil #ah ,ellis 78,nat4 ,hi/4 ( ,corall9e10 page #if7 /ates t ,ombellul>ia 0 procur$ 9 latitude #gi ,n4 /ick+ to a l9e f ! dep? ( #bcf fa?oms2 h5ce ?is coral ei!r mu/ h be5 float+ loose1 or 0 entangl$ 9 /ray l9e at ! bottom4 ,(f ,keel+ atoll a comp\nd ,ascidia 7,sigill9a7 0 br\ght up f #ci fa?oms1 & a piece ( sponge1 app>5tly liv+1 f #gj1 & a fragm5t ( ,nullipora also app>5tly liv+ f #ib fa?oms4 ,at a great] dep? ?an #ij fa?oms (f ?is coral isl&1 ! bottom 0 ?ickly /rew$ ) jo9ts ( ,halim$a & small fragm5ts ( o!r ,nullipor1 b all dead4 ,capta9 ,b4 ,all51 ,r4,n41 in=ms me t 9 ! survey ( ! ,we/ ,indies x 0 notic$ t betwe5 ! dep? ( #aj & #bjj fa?oms1 ! s\nd+ lead v g5]ally came up coat$ ) ! dead jo9ts ( a ,halim$a1 ( :i* he %[$ me specim5s4 ,(f ,p]nambuco1 9 ,brazil1 9 ab\t twelve fa?oms1 ! bottom 0 cov]$ ) fragm5ts dead & alive ( a dull r$ ,nullipora1 & ,i inf] f ,r\ss9's *>t1 t a bottom ( ?is k9d ext5ds ov] a wide area4 ,on ! bea*1 )9 ! coral-reefs ( ,mauritius1 va/ quantities ( fragm5ts ( ,nullipor 7 pil$ up4 ,f ^! facts x appe>s1 t ^! simply organiz$ bodies are among/ ! mo/ abundant productions ( ! sea47 ,al?\gh ! limit ( dep?1 at :i* ea* p>ticul> k9d ( coral ceases to exi/1 is f> f be+ accurately kn[n2 yet :5 we be> 9 m9d ! mann] 9 :i* ! clumps ( coral gradually became infrequ5t at ab\t ! same dep?1 & :olly disappe>$ at a great] dep? ?an tw5ty fa?oms1 on ! slope r\nd ,keel+ atoll1 on ! leew>d side ( ! ,mauritius1 & at r less dep?1 bo? )\t & )9 ! atolls ( ! ,maldiva & ,*agos ,ar*ipelagoes2 & :5 we "k t ! reefs r\nd ^! isl&s d n diff] f o!r coral =mations 9 _! =m & /ructure1 we may1 ,i ?9k1 conclude t 9 ord9>y cases1 reef-build+ polypif]s d n fl\ri% at great] dep?s ?an betwe5 tw5ty & ?irty fa?oms4 ,x has be5 argu$#cf t reefs may possibly rise f v great dep?s ?r\gh ! means ( small corals1 fir/ mak+ a plat=m = ! gr[? ( ! /rong] k9ds4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is an arbitr>y supposition3 x is n always rememb]$1 t 9 su* cases !re is an antagoni/ p[] 9 action1 namely1 ! decay ( organic bodies1 :5 n protect$ by a cov]+ ( s$im5t1 or by _! own rapid gr[?4 ,we h1 moreov]1 no "r to calculate on unlimit$ "t = ! accumulation ( small organic bodies into great masses4 ,e fact 9 geology proclaims t nei!r ! l&1 nor ! b$ ( ! sea reta9 = indef9ite p]iods ! same level4 ,z well might x be imag9$ t ! ,briti% ,seas w\ld 9 "t become *ok$ up ) b$s ( oy/]s1 or t ! num]\s small corall9es (f ! inhospitable %ores ( ,ti]ra del ,fuego w\ld 9 "t =m a solid & ext5sive coral-reef4 #cf 8,j\rnal ( ! ,royal ,geographical ,society10 #ahca1 page #bah4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,!ory ,,( ,,! ,,=mation ,,( ,,! ,,diff]5t ,,classes ,,( ,,coral-,,reefs4 ,! atolls ( ! l>g] ar*ipelagoes are n =m$ on subm]g$ crat]s1 or on banks ( s$im5t4--,imm5se areas int]sp]s$ ) atolls4--,_! subsid5ce4--,! effects ( /orms & e>?quakes on atolls4--,rec5t *anges 9 _! /ate4--,! orig9 ( b>ri]-reefs & ( atolls4--,_! relative =ms4--,! /ep-=m$ l$ges & walls r\nd ! %ores ( "s lagoons4--,! r+-=m$ reefs ( ! ,maldiva atolls4--,! subm]g$ condition ( p>ts or ( ! :ole ( "s annul> reefs4--,! dissev]m5t ( l>ge atolls4--,! union ( atolls by l9e> reefs4--,! ,great ,*agos ,bank4--,objections f ! area & am\nt ( subsid5ce requir$ by ! !ory1 consid]$4--,! probable composition ( ! l[] p>ts ( atolls4 ,! naturali/s :o h visit$ ! ,pacific1 seem to h _h _! att5tion rivet$ by ! lagoon-isl&s1 or atolls1--^? s+ul> r+s ( coral-l& :i* rise abruptly out ( ! unfa?omable ocean--& h pass$ ov]1 almo/ unnotic$1 ! sc>cely less wond]ful encircl+ b>ri]-reefs4 ,! !ory mo/ g5]ally receiv$ on ! =mation ( atolls1 is t !y are bas$ on subm>9e crat]s2 b :]e c we f9d a crat] ( ! %ape ( ,b[ atoll1 :i* is five times z long z x is broad 7,plate ,i41 ,figure #d72 or l t ( ,m5*ik(f ,isl& 7,plate ,,ii41 ,figure #c471 ) its ?ree loops1 toge!r sixty miles 9 l5g?2 or l ,rimsky ,korsac(f1 n>r[1 crook$1 & fifty-f\r miles long2 or l ! nor!rn ,maldiva atolls1 made up ( num]\s r+-=m$ reefs1 plac$ on ! m>g9 ( a disc1--"o ( :i* discs is eighty-eight miles 9 l5g?1 & only f t5 to tw5ty 9 bread?8 ,x is1 also1 n a little improbable1 t !re %\ld h exi/$ z _m crat]s ( imm5se size cr[d$ toge!r b5ea? ! sea1 z !re are n[ 9 "s p>ts atolls4 ,b ?is !ory lies "u a great] difficulty1 z w be evid5t1 :5 we consid] on :at f\ndations ! atolls ( ! l>g] ar*ipelagoes re/3 nev]!less1 if ! rim ( a crat] af=d$ a basis at ! prop] dep?1 ,i am f> f d5y+ t a reef l a p]fectly *>act]is$ atoll might n be =m$2 "s su*1 p]haps1 n[ exi/2 b ,i _c believe 9 ! possibility ( ! great] numb] hav+ ?us orig9at$4 ,an e>li] & bett] !ory 0 propos$ by ,*amisso2#a he supposes t z ! m massive k9ds ( corals pref] ! surf1 ! out] portions1 9 a reef ris+ f a subm>9e basis1 w\ld fir/ rea* ! surface & consequ5tly =m a r+4 ,b on ?is view x mu/ be assum$1 t 9 e case ! basis consi/s ( a flat bank2 = if x 7 conically =m$1 l a m\nta9\s mass1 we c see no reason :y ! coral %\ld spr+ up f ! flanks1 in/ead ( f ! c5tral & highe/ p>ts3 consid]+ ! numb] ( ! atolls 9 ! ,pacific & ,indian ,oceans1 ?is assumption is v improbable4 ,z ! lagoons ( atolls are sometimes ev5 m ?an =ty fa?oms deep1 x mu/1 also1 be assum$ on ?is view1 t at a dep? at :i* ! waves d n break1 ! coral gr[s m vigor\sly on ! edges ( a bank ?an on its c5tral "p2 & ?is is an assumption )\t any evid5ce 9 support ( x4 ,i rem>k$1 9 ! ?ird *apt]1 t a reef1 gr[+ on a deta*$ bank1 w\ld t5d to assume an atoll-l /ructure2 if1 !re=e1 corals 7 to gr[ up f a bank1 ) a level surface "s fa?oms subm]g$1 hav+ /eep sides & be+ situat$ 9 a deep sea1 a reef n to be di/+ui%$ f an atoll1 might be =m$3 ,i believe "s su* exi/ 9 ! ,we/ ,indies4 ,b a difficulty ( ! same k9d ) t affect+ ! crat] !ory1 runn]s1 z we %all pres5tly see1 ?is view inapplicable to ! great] numb] ( atolls4 #a ,kotzebue's 8,fir/ ,voyage10 volume iii41 page #cca4 ,no !ory wor?y ( notice has be5 advanc$ to acc\nt = ^? b>ri]-reefs1 :i* encircle isl&s ( mod]ate dim5sions4 ,! great reef :i* fronts ! coa/ ( ,au/ralia has be5 suppos$1 b )\t any special facts1 to re/ on ! edge ( a subm>9e precipice1 ext5d+ p>allel to ! %ore4 ,! orig9 ( ! ?ird class or ( fr++-reefs pres5ts1 ,i believe1 sc>cely any difficulty1 & is simply consequ5t on ! polypif]s n gr[+ up f great dep?s1 & _! n fl\ri%+ close to g5tly %elv+ bea*es :]e ! wat] is (t5 turbid4 ,:at cause1 !n1 has giv5 to atolls & b>ri]-reefs _! *>act]i/ic =ms8 ,let u see :e!r an important d$uction w n foll[ f ! consid]ation ( ^! two circum/ances1 fir/1 ! reef-build+ corals fl\ri%+ only at limit$ dep?s2 & secondly1 ! va/ness ( ! areas int]sp]s$ ) coral-reefs & coral-islets1 none ( :i* rise to a great] height above ! level ( ! sea1 ?an t atta9$ by matt] ?r[n up by ! waves & w9ds4 ,i d n make ?is latt] /atem5t vaguely2 ,i h c>efully s\ght = descriptions ( e isl& 9 ! int]tropical seas2 & my task has be5 9 "s degree abridg$ by a map ( ! ,pacific1 correct$ 9 #ahcd by ,,mm4 ,d',urville & ,lott91 9 :i* ! l[ isl&s are di/+ui%$ f ! high ones 7ev5 f ^? mu* less ?an a hundr$ feet 9 height7 by be+ writt5 )\t a capital lett]2 ,i h detect$ a few errors 9 ?is map1 respect+ ! height ( "s ( ! isl&s1 :i* w be notic$ 9 ! ,app5dix1 :]e ,i treat ( coral =mations 9 geographical ord]4 ,to ! ,app5dix1 also1 ,i mu/ ref] = a m p>ticul> acc\nt ( ! data on :i* ! /atem5ts on ! next page are gr\nd$4 ,i h asc]ta9$1 & *iefly f ! writ+s ( ,cook1 ,kotzebue1 ,bell+haus51 ,dup]rey1 ,bee*ey1 & ,lutk1 reg>d+ ! ,pacific2 & f ,moresby#b ) respect to ! ,indian ,ocean1 t 9 ! foll[+ cases ! t]m 8l[ isl&0 /rictly means l& ( ! height commonly atta9$ by matt] ?r[n up by ! w9ds & ! waves ( an op5 sea4 ,if we draw a l9e 7! plan ,i h always adopt$7 jo9+ ! ext]nal atolls ( t "p ( ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago 9 :i* ! isl&s are num]\s1 ! figure w be a po9t$ ellipse 7rea*+ f ,hood to ,laz>ef ,isl&71 ( :i* ! long] axis is #hdj geographical miles1 & ! %ort] #dbj miles2 9 ?is space#c none ( ! innum]able islets unit$ into great r+s rise above ! /at$ level4 ,! ,gilb]t gr\p is v n>r[1 & #cjj miles 9 l5g?4 ,9 a prolong$ l9e f ?is gr\p1 at ! di/ance ( #bdj miles1 is ! ,m>%all ,ar*ipelago1 ! figure ( :i* is an irregul> squ>e1 "o end be+ broad] ?an ! o!r2 its l5g? is #ebj miles1 ) an av]age wid? ( #bdj2 ^! two gr\ps toge!r are #a1jdj miles 9 l5g?1 & all _! islets are l[4 ,betwe5 ! s\!rn end ( ! ,gilb]t & ! nor!rn end ( ,l[ ,ar*ipelago1 ! ocean is ?9ly /rew$ ) isl&s1 all ( :i*1 z f> z ,i h be5 able to asc]ta91 are l[2 s t f ne>ly ! s\!rn end ( ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago1 to ! nor!rn end ( ! ,m>%all ,ar*ipelago1 !re is a n>r[ b& ( ocean1 m ?an #d1jjj miles 9 l5g?1 conta9+ a great numb] ( isl&s1 all ( :i* are l[4 ,9 ! we/]n "p ( ! ,c>ol9e ,ar*ipelago1 !re is a space ( #dhj miles 9 l5g?1 & ab\t #ajj broad1 ?9ly int]sp]s$ ) l[ isl&s4 ,la/ly1 9 ! ,indian ,ocean1 ! ar*ipelago ( ! ,maldivas is #dgj miles 9 l5g?1 & #fj 9 bread?2 t ( ! ,laccadives is #aej by #ajj miles2 z !re is a l[ isl& betwe5 ^! two gr\ps1 !y may be consid]$ z "o gr\p ( #a1jjj miles 9 l5g?4 ,to ?is may be add$ ! ,*agos gr\p ( l[ isl&s1 situat$ #bhj miles di/ant1 9 a l9e prolong$ f ! s\!rn extremity ( ! ,maldivas4 ,?is gr\p1 includ+ ! subm]g$ banks1 is #agj miles 9 l5g? & #hj 9 bread?4 ,s /rik+ is ! uni=mity 9 direction ( ^! ?ree ar*ipelagoes1 all ! isl&s ( :i* are l[1 t ,capta9 ,moresby1 9 "o ( 8 pap]s1 speaks ( !m z p>ts ( "o great *a91 ne>ly #a1ejj miles long4 ,i am1 !n1 fully ju/ifi$ 9 repeat+1 t enorm\s spaces1 bo? 9 ! ,pacific & ,indian ,oceans1 are int]sp]s$ ) isl&s1 ( :i* n "o rises above t height1 to :i* ! waves & w9ds 9 an op5 sea c heap up matt]4 #b ,see also ,capta9 ,ow5's & ,lieut5ant ,wood's pap]s 9 ! 8,geographical ,j\rnal01 on ! ,maldiva & ,laccadive ,ar*ipelagoes4 ,^! (fic]s p>ticul>ly ref] to ! l[ness ( ! islets2 b ,i *iefly gr\nd my ass]tion respect+ ^! two gr\ps1 & ! ,*agos gr\p1 f in=mation communicat$ to me by ,capta9 ,moresby4 #c ,i f9d f ,mr4 ,c\?\y's pamphlet 7page #eh7 t ,aurora ,isl& is ab\t two hundr$ feet 9 height2 x consi/s ( coral-rock1 & seems to h be5 =m$ by ! elevation ( an atoll4 ,x lies nor?-ea/ ( ,tahiti1 close )\t ! l9e b\nd+ ! space col\r$ d>k blue 9 ! map app5d$ to ?is volume4 ,hond5 ,isl&1 :i* is situat$ 9 ! extreme nor?-we/ "p ( ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago1 accord+ to measurem5ts made on bo>d ! ,beagle1 :il/ sail+ by1 is #aad feet f ! summit ( ! trees to ! wat]'s edge4 ,?is isl& appe>$ to resemble ! o!r atolls ( ! gr\p4 ,on :at f\ndations1 !n1 h ^! reefs & islets ( coral be5 con/ruct$8 ,a f\ndation mu/ orig9ally h be5 pres5t b5ea? ea* atoll at t limit$ dep?1 :i* is indisp5sable = ! fir/ gr[? ( ! reef-build+ polypif]s4 ,a conjecture w p]haps be haz>d$1 t ! requisite bases might h be5 af=d$ by ! accumulation ( great banks ( s$im5t1 :i* ow+ to ! action ( sup]ficial curr5ts 7aid$ possibly by ! undulatory movem5t ( ! sea7 did n q rea* ! surface1--z actually appe>s to h be5 ! case 9 "s p>ts ( ! ,we/ ,indian ,sea4 ,b 9 ! =m & disposition ( ! gr\ps ( atolls1 !re is no?+ to c\nt5ance ?is notion2 & ! assumption )\t any pro(1 t a numb] ( imm5se piles ( s$im5t h be5 heap$ on ! floor ( ! great ,pacific & ,indian ,oceans1 9 _! c5tral p>ts f> remote f l&1 & :]e ! d>k blue col\r ( ! limpid wat] bespeaks its purity1 _c = "o mom5t be admitt$4 ,! _m widely-scatt]$ atolls mu/1 !re=e1 re/ on rocky bases4 ,b we _c believe t ! broad summit ( a m\nta9 lies buri$ at ! dep? ( a few fa?oms b5ea? e atoll1 & nev]!less ?r\gh\t ! imm5se areas above-nam$1 ) n "o po9t ( rock project+ above ! level ( ! sea2 = we may judge ) "s accuracy ( m\nta9s b5ea? ! sea1 by ^? on ! l&2 & :]e c we f9d a s+le *a9 sev]al hundr$ miles 9 l5g? & ( consid]able bread?1 mu* less sev]al su* *a9s1 ) _! _m broad summits atta9+ ! same height1 )9 f #abj to #ahj feet8 ,if ! data be ?\ght insuffici5t1 on :i* ,i h gr\nd$ my belief1 respect+ ! dep? at :i* ! reef-build+ polypif]s c exi/1 & x be assum$ t !y c fl\ri% at a dep? ( ev5 "o hundr$ fa?oms1 yet ! weight ( ! above argum5t is b little dim9i%$1 = x is almo/ equally improbable1 t z _m subm>9e m\nta9s1 z !re are l[ isl&s 9 ! sev]al great & widely sep>at$ areas above specifi$1 %\ld all rise )9 six hundr$ feet ( ! surface ( ! sea & n "o above x1 z t !y %\ld be ( ! same height )9 ! small] limit ( "o or two hundr$ feet4 ,s highly improbable is ?is supposition1 t we are compell$ to believe1 t ! bases ( ! _m atolls did nev] at any "o p]iod all lie subm]g$ )9 ! dep? ( a few fa?oms b5ea? ! surface1 b t !y 7 br\ght into ! requisite position or level1 "s at "o p]iod & "s at ano!r1 ?r\gh movem5ts 9 ! e>?'s cru/4 ,b ?is c\ld n h be5 effect$ by elevation1 = ! belief t po9ts s num]\s & s widely sep>at$ 7 successively uplift$ to a c]ta9 level1 b t n "o po9t 0 rais$ above t level1 is q z improbable z ! =m] supposition1 & inde$ diff]s little f x4 ,x w probably occur to ^? :o h read ,ehr5b]g's acc\nt ( ! ,reefs ( ! ,r$ ,sea1 t _m po9ts 9 ^! great areas may h be5 elevat$1 b t z soon z rais$1 ! protub]ant p>ts 7 cut (f by ! de/roy+ action ( ! waves3 a mom5t's reflection1 h[ev]1 on ! bas9-l =m ( ! atolls1 w %[ t ?is is impossible2 = ! upheaval & subsequ5t abrasion ( an isl& w\ld leave a flat disc1 :i* might become coat$ ) coral1 b n a deeply concave surface2 moreov]1 we %\ld expect to see1 9 "s p>ts at lea/1 ! rock ( ! f\ndation br\ght to ! surface4 ,if1 !n1 ! f\ndations ( ! _m atolls 7 n uplift$ into ! requisite position1 !y mu/ ( necessity h subsid$ into x2 & ?is at once solves e difficulty1#d = we may safely inf]1 f ! facts giv5 9 ! la/ *apt]1 t dur+ a gradual subsid5ce ! corals w\ld be fav\rably circum/anc$ = build+ up _! solid frame works & rea*+ ! surface1 z isl& aft] isl& sl[ly disappe>$4 ,?us areas ( imm5se ext5t 9 ! c5tral & mo/ pr(\nd p>ts ( ! great oceans1 might become int]sp]s$ ) coral-islets1 none ( :i* w\ld rise to a great] height ?an t atta9$ by detritus heap$ up by ! sea1 & nev]!less !y might all h be5 =m$ by corals1 :i* absolutely requir$ = _! gr[? a solid f\ndation )9 a few fa?oms ( ! surface4 #d ,! additional difficulty on ! crat] hypo!sis be=e allud$ to1 w n[ be evid5t2 = on ?is view ! volcanic action mu/ be suppos$ to h =m$ )9 ! areas specifi$ a va/ numb] ( crat]s1 all ris+ )9 a few fa?oms ( ! surface1 & n "o above x4 ,! supposition t ! crat]s 7 at diff]5t times uprais$ above ! surface1 & 7 !re abrad$ by ! surf & subsequ5tly coat$ by corals1 is subject to ne>ly ! same objections ) ^? giv5 above 9 ?is p>agraph2 b ,i consid] x sup]flu\s to detail all ! argum5ts oppos$ to su* a notion4 ,*amisso's !ory1 f assum+ ! exi/5ce ( s _m banks1 all ly+ at ! prop] dep? b5ea? ! wat]1 is also vitally defective4 ,! same obs]vation applies to an hypo!sis ( ,lieut5ant ,nelson's 78,geolog4 ,trans40 volume v41 page #abb71 :o supposes t ! r+-=m$ /ructure is caus$ by a great] numb] ( g]ms ( corals becom+ atta*$ to ! declivity1 ?an to ! c5tral plateau ( a subm>9e bank3 x likewise applies to ! notion =m]ly ent]ta9$ 7,=/]'s 8,obs]v40 page #aea71 t lagoon-isl&s owe _! peculi> =m to ! in/9ctive t5d5cies ( ! polypif]s4 ,accord+ to ?is latt] view1 ! corals on ! out] m>g9 ( ! reef in/9ctively expose !mselves to ! surf 9 ord] to af=d protection to corals liv+ 9 ! lagoon1 :i* belong to o!r g5]a1 & to o!r families6 ,x w\ld be out ( place "h to d m ?an allude to ! _m facts1 %[+ t ! supposition ( a gradual subsid5ce ov] l>ge areas is by no means improbable4 ,we h ! cle>e/ pro( t a movem5t ( ?is k9d is possible1 9 ! upright trees buri$ "u ! /rata _m ?\s& feet 9 ?ickness2 we h also e reason = believ+ t !re are n[ l>ge areas gradually s9k+1 9 ! same mann] z o!rs are ris+4 ,& :5 we consid] h[ _m p>ts ( ! surface ( ! globe h be5 elevat$ )9 rec5t geological p]iods1 we mu/ admit t !re h be5 subsid5ces on a correspond+ scale1 = o!rwise ! :ole globe w\ld h swoll54 ,x is v rem>kable t ,mr4 ,lyell1#e ev5 9 ! fir/ edition ( 8 8,pr9ciples ( ,geology10 inf]r$ t ! am\nt ( subsid5ce 9 ! ,pacific mu/ h exce$$ t ( elevation1 f ! area ( l& be+ v small relatively to ! ag5ts !re t5d+ to =m x1 namely1 ! gr[? ( coral & volcanic action4 ,b x w be ask$1 are !re any direct pro(s ( a subsid+ movem5t 9 ^? areas1 9 :i* subsid5ce w expla9 a ph5om5on o!rwise inexplicable8 ,?is1 h[ev]1 c h>dly be expect$1 = x mu/ ev] be mo/ difficult1 except+ 9 c\ntries long civilis$1 to detect a movem5t1 ! t5d5cy ( :i* is to conceal ! "p affect$4 ,9 b>b>\s & semi-civilis$ nations h[ long might n a sl[ movem5t1 ev5 ( elevation su* z t n[ affect+ ,sc&9avia1 h escap$ att5tion6 #e 8,pr9ciples ( ,geology10 six? edition1 volume iii41 page #chf4 ,mr4 ,williams#f insi/s /rongly t ! traditions ( ! natives1 :i* he has tak5 mu* pa9s 9 collect+1 d n indicate ! appe>ance ( any new isl&s3 b on ! !ory ( a gradual subsid5ce1 all t w\ld be app>5t w\ld be1 ! wat] sometimes encroa*+ sl[ly on ! l&1 & ! l& aga9 recov]+ by ! accumulation ( detritus its =m] ext5t1 & p]haps sometimes ! conv]sion ( an atoll ) coral islets on x1 into a b>e or into a sunk5 annul> reef4 ,su* *anges w\ld naturally take place at ! p]iods :5 ! sea rose above its usual limits1 dur+ a gale ( m ?an ord9>y /r5g?2 & ! effects ( ! two causes w\ld be h>dly di/+ui%able4 ,9 ,kotzebue's 8,voyage0 !re are acc\nts ( isl&s1 bo? 9 ! ,c>ol9e & ,m>%all ,ar*ipelagoes1 :i* h be5 p>tly wa%$ away dur+ hurricanes2 & ,kadu1 ! native :o 0 on bo>d "o ( ! ,russian vessels1 said 8he saw ! sea at ,radack rise to ! feet ( ! cocoa-nut trees2 b x 0 conjur$ 9 "t40#g ,a /orm lately entirely swept away two ( ! ,c>ol9e isl&s1 & conv]t$ !m into %oals2 x p>tly1 also1 de/roy$ two o!r isl&s4#h ,accord+ to a tradition :i* 0 communicat$ to ,capta9 ,fitzroy1 x is believ$ 9 ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago1 t ! arrival ( ! fir/ %ip caus$ a great inundation1 :i* de/roy$ _m lives4 ,mr4 ,/ut*bury relates1 t 9 #ahbe1 ! we/]n side ( ,*a9 ,atoll1 9 ! same gr\p1 0 completely deva/at$ by a hurricane1 & n less ?an #cjj lives lo/3 89 ?is in/ance x 0 evid5t1 ev5 to ! natives1 t ! hurricane alone 0 n suffici5t to acc\nt = ! viol5t agitation ( ! ocean40#i ,t consid]able *anges h tak5 place rec5tly 9 "s ( ! atolls 9 ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago1 appe>s c]ta9 f ! case already giv5 ( ,matilda ,isl&3 ) respect to ,:itsunday & ,gl\ce/] ,isl&s 9 ?is same gr\p1 we mu/ ei!r attribute great inaccuracy to _! discov]]1 ! fam\s circumnavigator ,wallis1 or believe t !y h und]gone a consid]able *ange 9 ! p]iod ( fifty-n9e ye>s1 betwe5 8 voyage & t ( ,capta9 ,bee*ey's4 ,:itsunday ,isl& is describ$ by ,wallis z 8ab\t f\r miles long1 & ?ree wide10 n[ x is only "o mile & a half long4 ,! appe>ance ( ,gl\ce/] ,isl&1 9 ,capta9 ,bee*ey's words1#aj 8has be5 accurately describ$ by its discov]]1 b its pres5t =m & ext5t diff] mat]ially40 ,bl5heim reef1 9 ! ,*agos gr\p1 consi/s ( a wat]-wa%$ annul> reef1 ?irte5 miles 9 circumf]5ce1 surr\nd+ a lagoon t5 fa?oms deep3 on its surface !re 7 a few worn pat*es ( conglom]ate coral-rock1 ( ab\t ! size ( hovels2 & ^! ,capta9 ,moresby consid]$ z be+1 )\t d\bt1 ! la/ remnants ( islets2 s t "h an atoll has be5 conv]t$ into an atoll-=m$ reef4 ,! inhabitants ( ! ,maldiva ,ar*ipelago1 z long ago z #afje1 decl>$1 8t ! high tides & viol5t curr5ts 7 dim9i%+ ! numb] ( ! isl&s30#aa & ,i h already %[n1 on ! au?ority ( ,capta9 ,moresby1 t ! "w ( de/ruction is /ill 9 progress2 b t on ! o!r h& ! fir/ =mation ( "s islets is kn[n to ! pres5t inhabitants4 ,9 su* cases1 x w\ld be exce$+ly difficult to detect a gradual subsid5ce ( ! f\ndation1 on :i* ^! mutable /ructures re/4 #f ,williams's 8,n>rative ( ,mission>y ,ent]prise10 page #ca4 #g ,kotzebue's 8,fir/ ,voyage10 volume iii41 page #afh4 #h ,m4 ,desm\l9s 9 8,comptes ,r5dus10 #ahdj1 page #hcg4 #i 8,we/ ( ,engl& ,j\rnal01 ,no4 ,i41 page #ce4 #aj ,bee*ey's 8,voyage to ! ,pacific10 *apt] vii41 & ,wallis's 8,voyage 9 ! #8,dolph9'10 *apt] iv4 #aa ,see an extract f ,pyr>d's ,voyage 9 ,capta9 ,ow5's pap] on ! ,maldiva ,ar*ipelago1 9 ! 8,geographical ,j\rnal01 volume ii41 page #hd4 ,"s ( ! ar*ipelagoes ( l[ coral-isl&s are subject to e>?quakes3 ,capta9 ,moresby in=ms me t !y are frequ5t1 ?\gh n v /rong1 9 ! ,*agos gr\p1 :i* occupies a v c5tral position 9 ! ,indian ,ocean1 & is f> f any l& n ( coral =mation4 ,"o ( ! isl&s 9 ?is gr\p 0 =m]ly cov]$ by a b$ ( m\ld1 :i*1 aft] an e>?quake1 disappe>$1 & 0 believ$ by ! resid5ts to h be5 wa%$ by ! ra9 ?r\gh ! brok5 masses ( und]ly+ rock2 ! isl& 0 ?us r5d]$ unproductive4 ,*amisso#ab /ates1 t e>?quakes are felt 9 ! ,m>%all atolls1 :i* are f> f any high l&1 & likewise 9 ! isl&s ( ! ,c>ol9e ,ar*ipelago4 ,on "o ( ! latt]1 namely ,oulleay atoll1 ,admiral ,lutk1 z he _h ! k9dness to in=m me1 obs]v$ sev]al /raight fissures ab\t a foot 9 wid?1 runn+ = "s hundr$ y>ds obliquely across ! :ole wid? ( ! reef4 ,fissures indicate a /ret*+ ( ! e>?'s cru/1 &1 !re=e1 probably *anges 9 its level2 b ^! coral-isl&s1 :i* h be5 %ak5 & fissur$1 c]ta9ly h n be5 elevat$1 &1 !re=e1 probably !y h subsid$4 ,9 ! *apt] on ,keel+ atoll1 ,i attempt$ to %[ by direct evid5ce1 t ! isl& und]w5t a movem5t ( subsid5ce1 dur+ ! e>?quakes lately felt !re4 #ab ,see ,*amisso1 9 ,kotzebue's 8,fir/ ,voyage10 volume iii41 pages #ahb & #acf4 ,! facts /& ?us2--!re are _m l>ge tracts ( ocean1 )\t any high l&1 int]sp]s$ ) reefs & islets1 =m$ by ! gr[? ( ^? k9ds ( corals1 :i* _c live at great dep?s2 & ! exi/5ce ( ^! reefs & l[ islets1 9 su* numb]s & at su* di/ant po9ts1 is q inexplicable1 except+ on ! !ory1 t ! bases on :i* ! reefs fir/ became atta*$1 sl[ly & successively sank b5ea? ! level ( ! sea1 :il/ ! corals cont9u$ to gr[ upw>ds4 ,no positive facts are oppos$ to ?is view1 & "s g5]al consid]ations r5d] x probable4 ,!re is evid5ce ( *ange 9 =m1 :e!r or n f subsid5ce1 on "s ( ^! coral-isl&s2 & !re is evid5ce ( subt]ranean di/urbances b5ea? !m4 ,w !n ! !ory1 to :i* we h ?us be5 l$1 solve ! curi\s problem1--:at has giv5 to ea* class ( reef its peculi> =m8 ,illu/ration ,,aa--,out] edge ( ! reef at ! level ( ! sea4 ,,bb--,%ores ( ! isl&4 ,a,a--,out] edge ( ! reef1 aft] its upw>d gr[? dur+ a p]iod ( subsid5ce4 ,,cc--,! lagoon-*annel betwe5 ! reef & ! %ores ( ! n[ encircl$ l&4 ,b,b--,! %ores ( ! encircl$ isl&4 ,n4,b4--,9 ?is1 & ! foll[+ woodcut1 ! subsid5ce ( ! l& c\ld only be repres5t$ by an app>5t rise 9 ! level ( ! sea4 ,illu/ration ,a,a--,out] edges ( ! b>ri]-reef at ! level ( ! sea4 ,! cocoa-nut trees repres5t coral-islets =m$ on ! reef4 ,,cc--,! lagoon-*annel4 ,b,b--,! %ores ( ! isl&1 g5]ally =m$ ( l[ alluvial l& & ( coral detritus f ! lagoon-*annel4 ,a,a--,! out] edges ( ! reef n[ =m+ an atoll4 ,c--,! lagoon ( ! newly =m$ atoll4 ,accord+ to ! scale1 ! dep? ( ! lagoon & ( ! lagoon-*annel is exagg]at$4 ,let u 9 imag9ation place )9 "o ( ! subsid+ areas1 an isl& surr\nd$ by a 8fr++-reef10--t k9d1 :i* alone (f]s no difficulty 9 ! explanation ( its orig94 ,let ! unbrok5 l9es & ! oblique %ad+ 9 ! woodcut 7,no4 #d7 repres5t a v]tical section ?r\gh su* an isl&2 & ! horizontal %ad+ w repres5t ! section ( ! reef4 ,n[1 z ! isl& s9ks d[n1 ei!r a few feet at a "t or q ins5sibly1 we may safely inf] f :at we "k ( ! conditions fav\rable to ! gr[? ( coral1 t ! liv+ masses ba!d by ! surf on ! m>g9 ( ! reef1 w soon rega9 ! surface4 ,! wat]1 h[ev]1 w encroa*1 little by little1 on ! %ore1 ! isl& becom+ l[] & small]1 & ! space betwe5 ! edge ( ! reef & ! bea* proportionately broad]4 ,a section ( ! reef & isl& 9 ?is /ate1 aft] a subsid5ce ( sev]al hundr$ feet1 is giv5 by ! dott$ l9es3 coral-islets are suppos$ to h be5 =m$ on ! new reef1 & a %ip is an*or$ 9 ! lagoon-*annel4 ,?is section is 9 e respect t ( an encircl+ b>ri]-reef2 x is1 9 fact1 a section tak5#ac ,e4 & ,w4 ?r\gh ! highe/ po9t ( ! encircl$ isl& ( ,bolabola2 ( :i* a plan is giv5 9 ,plate ,i41 ,figure #e4 ,! same section is m cle>ly %[n 9 ! foll[+ woodcut 7,no4 #e7 by ! unbrok5 l9es4 ,! wid? ( ! reef1 & its slope1 bo? on ! out] & inn] side1 w h be5 det]m9$ by ! gr[+ p[]s ( ! coral1 "u ! conditions 7= in/ance ! =ce ( ! break]s & ( ! curr5ts7 to :i* x has be5 expos$2 & ! lagoon-*annel w be deep] or %all[]1 9 proportion to ! gr[? ( ! delicately bran*$ corals )9 ! reef1 & to ! accumulation ( s$im5t1 relatively1 also1 to ! rate ( subsid5ce & ! l5g? ( ! int]v5+ /ation>y p]iods4 #ac ,! section has be5 made f ! *>t giv5 9 ! 8,atlas ( ! ,voyage ( ! ,coquille40 ,! scale is 4#eg ( an in* to a mile4 ,! height ( ! isl&1 accord+ to ,m4 ,lesson1 is #d1jbf feet4 ,! deepe/ "p ( ! lagoon-*annel is #afb feet2 its dep? is exagg]at$ 9 ! woodcut = ! sake ( cle>ness4 ,x is evid5t 9 ?is section1 t a l9e drawn p]p5dicul>ly d[n f ! out] edge ( ! new reef to ! f\ndation ( solid rock1 exce$s by z _m feet z !re h be5 feet ( subsid5ce1 t small limit ( dep? at :i* ! effective polypif]s c live--! corals hav+ gr[n up1 z ! :ole sank d[n1 f a basis =m$ ( o!r corals & _! consolidat$ fragm5ts4 ,?us ! difficulty on ?is head1 :i* be=e seem$ s great1 disappe>s4 ,z ! space betwe5 ! reef & ! subsid+ %ore cont9u$ to increase 9 bread? & dep?1 & z ! injuri\s effects ( ! s$im5t & fre% wat] borne d[n f ! l& 7 consequ5tly less5$1 ! great] numb] ( ! *annels1 ) :i* ! reef 9 its fr++ /ate mu/ h be5 brea*$1 especially ^? :i* front$ ! small] /reams1 w h become *ok$ up ) ! gr[? ( coral3 on ! w9dw>d side ( ! reef1 :]e ! coral gr[s mo/ vigor\sly1 ! brea*es w probably h fir/ be5 clos$4 ,9 b>ri]-reefs1 !re=e1 ! brea*es kept op5 by dra9+ ! tidal wat]s ( ! lagoon-*annel1 w g5]ally be plac$ on ! leew>d side1 & !y w /ill face ! m\?s ( ! l>g] /reams1 al?\gh remov$ beyond ! influ5ce ( _! s$im5t & fre% wat]2--& ?is1 x has be5 %[n1 is commonly ! case4 ,ref]r+ to ! diagram %[n above1 9 :i* ! newly =m$ b>ri]-reef is repres5t$ by unbrok5 l9es1 in/ead ( by dots z 9 ! =m] woodcut1 let ! "w ( subsid5ce g on1 & ! d\bly po9t$ hill w =m two small isl&s 7or m1 accord+ to ! numb] ( ! hills7 includ$ )9 "o annul> reef4 ,let ! isl& cont9ue subsid+1 & ! coral-reef w cont9ue gr[+ up on its own f\ndation1 :il/ ! wat] ga9s in* by in* on ! l&1 until ! la/ & highe/ p9nacle is cov]$1 & !re rema9s a p]fect atoll4 ,a v]tical section ( ?is atoll is %[n 9 ! woodcut by ! dott$ l9es2--a %ip is an*or$ 9 its lagoon1 b islets are n suppos$ yet to h be5 =m$ on ! reef4 ,! dep? ( ! lagoon & ! wid? & slope ( ! reef1 w dep5d on ! circum/ances j ref]r$ to "u b>ri]-reefs4 ,any fur!r subsid5ce w produce no *ange 9 ! atoll1 except p]haps a dim9ution 9 its size1 f ! reef n gr[+ v]tically upw>ds2 b %\ld ! curr5ts ( ! sea act viol5tly ^u x1 & %\ld ! corals p]i% on "p or on ! :ole ( its m>g91 *anges w\ld result dur+ subsid5ce :i* w be pres5tly notic$4 ,i may "h obs]ve1 t a bank ei!r ( rock or ( h>d5$ s$im5t1 level ) ! surface ( ! sea1 & fr+$ ) liv+ coral1 w\ld 7if n s small z to all[ ! c5tral space to be quickly fill$ up ) detritus7 by subsid5ce be conv]t$ imm$iately into an atoll1 )\t pass+1 z 9 ! case ( a reef fr++ ! %ore ( an isl&1 ?r\gh ! int]m$iate =m ( a b>ri]-reef4 ,if su* a bank lay a few fa?oms subm]g$1 ! simple gr[? ( ! coral 7z rem>k$ 9 ! ?ird *apt]7 )\t ! aid ( subsid5ce1 w\ld produce a /ructure sc>cely to be di/+ui%$ f a true atoll2 = 9 all cases ! corals on ! out] m>g9 ( a reef1 f hav+ space & be+ freely expos$ to ! op5 sea1 w gr[ vigor\sly & t5d to =m a cont9u\s r+ :il/ ! gr[? ( ! less massive k9ds on ! c5tral expanse1 w be *eck$ by ! s$im5t =m$ !re1 & by t wa%$ inw>ds by ! break]s2 & z ! space becomes %all[]1 _! gr[? w1 also1 be *eck$ by ! impurities ( ! wat]1 & probably by ! small am\nt ( food br\ght by ! enfeebl$ curr5ts1 9 proportion to ! surface ( liv+ reefs /udd$ ) innum]able crav+ m\?s3 ! subsid5ce ( a reef bas$ on a bank ( ?is k9d1 w\ld give dep? to its c5tral expanse or lagoon1 /eepness to its flanks1 & ?r\gh ! free gr[? ( ! coral1 symmetry to its outl9e3--,i may "h repeat t ! l>g] gr\ps ( atolls 9 ! ,pacific & ,indian ,oceans _c be suppos$ to be f\nd$ on banks ( ?is nature4 ,if1 in/ead ( ! isl& 9 ! diagram1 ! %ore ( a cont95t fr+$ by a reef _h subsid$1 a great b>ri]-reef1 l t on ! nor?-ea/ coa/ ( ,au/ralia1 w\ld h necess>ily result$2 & x w\ld h be5 sep>at$ f ! ma9 l& by a deep-wat] *annel1 broad 9 proportion to ! am\nt ( subsid5ce1 & to ! less or great] incl9ation ( ! neighb\r+ coa/-l9e4 ,! effect ( ! cont9u$ subsid5ce ( a great b>ri]-reef ( ?is k9d1 & its probable conv]sion into a *a9 ( sep>ate atolls1 w be notic$1 :5 we discuss ! app>5t progressive dissev]m5t ( ! l>g] ,maldiva atolls4 ,we n[ are able to p]ceive t ! close simil>ity 9 =m1 dim5sions1 /ructure1 & relative position 7:i* latt] po9t w h]eaft] be m fully notic$7 betwe5 fr++ & encircl+ b>ri]-reefs1 & betwe5 ^! latt] & atolls1 is ! necess>y result ( ! trans=mation1 dur+ subsid5ce ( ! "o class into ! o!r4 ,on ?is view1 ! ?ree classes ( reefs ought to graduate into ea* o!r4 ,reefs hav+ int]m$iate "* betwe5 ^? ( ! fr++ & b>ri] classes d exi/2 = in/ance1 on ! s\?-we/ coa/ ( ,madagasc>1 a reef ext5ds = sev]al miles1 )9 :i* !re is a broad *annel f sev5 to eight fa?oms deep1 b ! sea does n deep5 abruptly outside ! reef4 ,su* cases1 h[ev]1 are op5 to "s d\bts1 = an old fr++-reef1 :i* _h ext5d$ itself a little on a basis ( its own =mation1 w\ld h>dly be di/+ui%able f a b>ri]-reef1 produc$ by a small am\nt ( subsid5ce1 & ) its lagoon-*annel ne>ly fill$ up ) s$im5t dur+ a long /ation>y p]iod4 ,betwe5 b>ri]-reefs1 encircl+ ei!r "o l(ty isl& or sev]al small l[ ones1 & atolls includ+ a m]e expanse ( wat]1 a /rik+ s]ies c be %[n3 9 pro( ( ?is1 ,i ne$ only ref] to ! fir/ plate 9 ?is volume1 :i* speaks m pla9ly to ! eye1 ?an any description c\ld to ! e>4 ,! au?orities f :i* ! *>ts h be5 engrav$1 toge!r ) "s rem>ks on !m & descriptive ( ! plates1 are giv5 above4 ,at ,new ,cal$onia 7,plate ,,ii41 ,figure #e47 ! b>ri]-reefs ext5d = #aej miles on ea* side ( ! subm>9e prolongation ( ! isl&2 & at _! nor!rn extremity !y appe> brok5 up & conv]t$ into a va/ atoll-=m$ reef1 support+ a few l[ coral-islets3 we may imag9e t we "h see ! effects ( subsid5ce actually 9 progress1 ! wat] always encroa*+ on ! nor!rn end ( ! isl&1 t[>ds :i* ! m\nta9s slope d[n1 & ! reefs /eadily build+ up _! massive fabrics 9 ! l9es ( _! anci5t gr[?4 ,we h z yet only consid]$ ! orig9 ( b>ri]-reefs & atolls 9 _! simple/ =m2 b !re rema9 "s peculi>ities 9 /ructure & "s special cases1 describ$ 9 ! two fir/ *apt]s1 to be acc\nt$ = by our !ory4 ,^! consi/--9 ! incl9$ l$ge t]m9at$ by a wall1 & sometimes succe$$ by a second l$ge ) a wall1 r\nd ! %ores ( c]ta9 lagoons & lagoon-*annels2 a /ructure :i* _c1 z ,i endeav\r$ to %[1 be expla9$ by ! simple gr[+ p[]s ( ! corals1--9 ! r+ or bas9-l =ms ( ! c5tral reefs1 z well z ( ! sep>ate m>g9al portions ( ! nor!rn ,maldiva atolls1--9 ! subm]g$ condition ( ! :ole1 or ( p>ts ( c]ta9 b>ri] & atoll-=m$ reefs2 :]e only a "p is subm]g$1 ?is be+ g5]ally to leew>d1--9 ! app>5t progressive dissev]m5t ( "s ( ! ,maldiva atolls1--9 ! exi/5ce ( irregul>ly =m$ atolls1 "s be+ ti$ toge!r by l9e> reefs1 & o!rs ) spurs project+ f !m1--&1 la/ly1 9 ! /ructure & orig9 ( ! ,great ,*agos bank4 ,/ep-=m$ l$ges r\nd c]ta9 lagoons4--,if we suppose an atoll to subside at an extremely sl[ rate1 x is difficult to foll[ out ! complex results4 ,! liv+ corals w\ld gr[ up on ! out] m>g92 & likewise probably 9 ! gullies & deep] p>ts ( ! b>e surface ( ! annul> reef2 ! wat] w\ld encroa* on ! islets1 b ! accumulation ( fre% detritus might possibly prev5t _! entire subm]g5ce4 ,aft] a subsid5ce ( ?is v sl[ nature1 ! surface ( ! annul> reef slop+ g5tly into ! lagoon1 w\ld probably become unit$ ) ! irregul> reefs & banks ( s&1 :i* l9e ! %ores ( mo/ lagoons4 ,%\ld1 h[ev]1 ! atoll be c>ri$ d[n by a m rapid movem5t1 ! :ole surface ( ! annul> reef1 :]e !re 0 a f\ndation ( solid matt]1 w\ld be fav\rably circum/anc$ = ! fre% gr[? ( coral2 b z ! corals grew upw>ds on its ext]ior m>g91 & ! waves broke heavily on ?is "p1 ! increase ( ! massive polypif]s on ! inn] side w\ld be *eck$ f ! want ( wat]4 ,consequ5tly1 ! ext]ior p>ts w\ld fir/ rea* ! surface1 & ! new annul> reef ?us =m$ on ! old "o1 w\ld h its summit incl9$ inw>ds1 & be t]m9at$ by a subaque\s wall1 =m$ by ! upw>d gr[? ( ! coral 7be=e be+ mu* *eck$71 f ! inn] edge ( ! solid p>ts ( ! old reef4 ,! inn] portion ( ! new reef1 f n hav+ gr[n to ! surface1 w\ld be cov]$ by ! wat]s ( ! lagoon4 ,%\ld a subsid5ce ( ! same k9d be repeat$1 ! corals w\ld aga9 gr[ up 9 a wall1 f all ! solid p>ts ( ! resunk5 reef1 &1 !re=e1 n f )9 ! s&y %ores ( ! lagoon2 & ! inn] "p ( ! new annul> reef w\ld1 f be+ z be=e *eck$ 9 its upw>d gr[?1 be ( less height ?an ! ext]ior p>ts1 & !re=e w\ld n rea* ! surface ( ! lagoon4 ,9 ?is case ! %ores ( ! lagoon w\ld be surr\nd$ by two incl9$ l$ges1 "o b5ea? ! o!r1 & bo? abruptly t]m9at$ by subaque\s cliffs4#ad #ad ,accord+ to ,mr4 ,c\?\y 7page #bf7 ! ext]nal reef r\nd _m atolls desc5ds by a succession ( l$ges or t]races4 ,he attempts1 ,i d\bt :e!r successfully1 to expla9 ?is /ructure some:at 9 ! same mann] z ,i h attempt$1 ) respect to ! int]nal l$ges r\nd ! lagoons ( "s atolls4 ,m facts are want$ reg>d+ ! nature bo? ( ! int]ior & ext]ior /ep-l l$ges3 are all ! l$ges1 or only ! upp] ones1 cov]$ ) liv+ coral8 ,if !y are all cov]$1 are ! k9ds diff]5t on ! l$ges accord+ to ! dep?8 ,d ! int]ior & ext]ior l$ges occur toge!r 9 ! same atolls2 if s1 :at is _! total wid?1 & is ! int]v5+ surface-reef n>r[1 etc48 ,! r+ or bas9-=m$ reefs ( ! nor!rn ,maldiva atolls4--,i may fir/ obs]ve1 t ! reefs )9 ! lagoons ( atolls & )9 lagoon-*annels1 w\ld1 if fav\rably circum/anc$1 gr[ upw>ds dur+ subsid5ce 9 ! same mann] z ! annul> rim2 &1 !re=e1 we might expect t su* lagoon-reefs1 :5 n surr\nd$ & buri$ by an accumulation ( s$im5t m rapid ?an ! rate ( subsid5ce1 w\ld rise abruptly f a great] dep? ?an t at :i* ! effici5t polypif]s c fl\ri%3 we see ?is well exemplifi$ 9 ! small abruptly-sid$ reefs1 ) :i* ! deep lagoons ( ! ,*agos & ,s\!rn ,maldiva atolls are /udd$4 ,) respect to ! r+ or bas9-=m$ reefs ( ! ,nor!rn ,maldiva atolls1 x is evid5t1 f ! p]fectly cont9u\s s]ies :i* exi/s t ! m>g9al r+s1 al?\gh wid] ?an ! ext]ior or b\nd+ reef ( ord9>y atolls1 are only modifi$ portions ( su* a reef2 x is also evid5t t ! c5tral r+s1 al?\gh wid] ?an ! knolls or reefs :i* commonly occur 9 lagoons1 occupy _! place4 ,! r+-l /ructure has be5 %[n to be cont+5t on ! brea*es into ! lagoon be+ broad & num]\s1 s t all ! reefs :i* are ba!d by ! wat]s ( ! lagoon are plac$ "u ne>ly ! same conditions ) ! out] coa/ ( an atoll /&+ 9 ! op5 sea4 ,h5ce ! ext]ior & liv+ m>g9s ( ^! reefs mu/ h be5 fav\rably circum/anc$ = gr[+ outw>ds1 & increas+ beyond ! usual bread?2 & !y mu/ likewise h be5 fav\rably circum/anc$ = gr[+ vigor\sly upw>ds1 dur+ ! subsid+ movem5ts1 to :i* by our !ory ! :ole ar*ipelago has be5 subject$2 & subsid5ce ) ?is upw>d gr[? ( ! m>g9s w\ld conv]t ! c5tral space ( ea* little reef into a small lagoon4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 c\ld only take place ) ^? reefs1 :i* _h increas$ to a bread? suffici5t to prev5t _! c5tral spaces f be+ almo/ imm$iately fill$ up ) ! s& & detritus driv5 inw>ds f all sides3 h5ce x is t few reefs1 :i* are less ?an half a mile 9 diamet]1 ev5 9 ! atolls :]e ! bas9-l /ructure is mo/ /rik+ly exhibit$1 include lagoons4 ,?is rem>k1 ,i may add1 applies to all coral-reefs :]ev] f\nd4 ,! bas9-=m$ reefs ( ! ,maldiva ,ar*ipelago may1 9 fact1 be briefly describ$1 z small atolls =m$ dur+ subsid5ce ov] ! sep>ate portions ( l>ge & brok5 atolls1 9 ! same mann] z ^! latt] 7 =m$ ov] ! b>ri]-reefs1 :i* encircl$ ! isl&s ( a l>ge ar*ipelago n[ :olly subm]g$4 ,subm]g$ & ,dead ,reefs4--,9 ! second section ( ! fir/ *apt]1 ,i h %[n t !re are 9 ! neighb\rhood ( atolls1 "s deeply subm]g$ banks1 ) level surfaces2 t !re are o!rs1 less deeply b yet :olly subm]g$1 hav+ all ! *>act]s ( p]fect atolls1 b consi/+ m]ely ( dead coral-rock2 t !re are b>ri]-reefs & atolls ) m]ely a portion ( _! reef1 g5]ally on ! leew>d side1 subm]g$2 & t su* portions ei!r reta9 _! p]fect outl9e1 or !y appe> to be q effac$1 _! =m] place be+ m>k$ only by a bank1 con=m+ 9 outl9e ) t "p ( ! reef :i* rema9s p]fect4 ,^! sev]al cases are1 ,i believe1 intimately relat$ toge!r1 & c be expla9$ by ! same means4 ,!re1 p]haps1 exi/ "s subm]g$ reefs1 cov]$ ) liv+ coral & gr[+ upw>ds1 b to ^! ,i d n "h ref]4 ,z we see t 9 ^? p>ts ( ! ocean1 :]e coral-reefs are mo/ abundant1 "o isl& is fr+$ & ano!r neighb\r+ "o is n fr+$2 z we see 9 ! same ar*ipelago1 t all ! reefs are m p]fect 9 "o "p ( x ?an 9 ano!r1 = in/ance1 9 ! s\!rn half comp>$ ) ! nor!rn half ( ! ,maldiva ,ar*ipelago1 & likewise on ! out] coa/s comp>$ ) ! inn] coa/s ( ! atolls 9 ?is same gr\p1 :i* are plac$ 9 a d\ble r[2 z we "k t ! exi/5ce ( ! innum]able polypif]s =m+ a reef1 dep5ds on _! su/5ance1 & t !y are prey$ on by o!r organic be+s2 &1 la/ly1 z we "k t "s inorganic causes are highly injuri\s to ! gr[? ( coral1 x _c be expect$ t dur+ ! r\nd ( *ange to :i* e>?1 air1 & wat] are expos$1 ! reef-build+ polypif]s %\ld keep alive = p]petuity 9 any "o place2 & /ill less c ?is be expect$1 dur+ ! progressive subsid5ces1 p]haps at "s p]iods m rapid ?an at o!rs1 to :i* by our !ory ^! reefs & isl&s h be5 subject$ & are liable4 ,x is1 !n1 n improbable t ! corals %\ld sometimes p]i% ei!r on ! :ole or on "p ( a reef2 if on "p1 ! dead portion1 aft] a small am\nt ( subsid5ce1 w\ld /ill reta9 its prop] outl9e & position b5ea? ! wat]4 ,aft] a m prolong$ subsid5ce1 x w\ld probably =m1 ow+ to ! accumulation ( s$im5t1 only ! m>g9 ( a flat bank1 m>k+ ! limits ( ! =m] lagoon4 ,su* dead portions ( reef w\ld g5]ally lie on ! leew>d side1#ae = ! impure wat] & f9e s$im5t w\ld m easily fl[ out f ! lagoon ov] ?is side ( ! reef1 :]e ! =ce ( ! break]s is less ?an to w9dw>d2 & !re=e ! corals w\ld be less vigor\s on ?is side1 & be less able to resi/ any de/roy+ ag5t4 ,x is likewise ow+ to ?is same cause1 t reefs are m frequ5tly brea*$ to leew>d by n>r[ *annels1 s]v+ z by %ip-*annels1 ?an to w9dw>d4 ,if ! corals p]i%$ entirely1 or on ! great] "p ( ! circumf]5ce ( an atoll1 an atoll-%ap$ bank ( dead rock1 m or less entirely subm]g$1 w\ld be produc$2 & fur!r subsid5ce1 toge!r ) ! accumulation ( s$im5t1 w\ld (t5 oblit]ate its atoll-l /ructure1 & leave only a bank ) a level surface4 #ae ,mr4 ,lyell1 9 ! fir/ edition ( 8 8,pr9ciples ( ,geology10 (f]$ a some:at diff]5t explanation ( ?is /ructure4 ,he supposes t !re has be5 subsid5ce2 b he 0 n aw>e t ! subm]g$ portions ( reef 7 9 mo/ cases1 if n 9 all1 dead2 & he attributes ! diff]5ce 9 height 9 ! two sides ( mo/ atolls1 *iefly to ! great] accumulation ( detritus to w9dw>d ?an to leew>d4 ,b z matt] is accumulat$ only on ! backw>d "p ( ! reef1 ! front "p w\ld rema9 ( ! same height on bo? sides4 ,i may "h obs]ve t 9 mo/ cases 7= in/ance1 at ,p]os ,banhos1 ! ,gambi] gr\p & ! ,great ,*agos ,bank71 & ,i suspect 9 all cases1 ! dead & subm]g$ portions d n bl5d or slope into ! liv+ & p]fect p>ts1 b are sep>at$ f !m by an abrupt l9e4 ,9 "s in/ances small pat*es ( liv+ reef rise to ! surface f ! middle ( ! subm]g$ & dead p>ts4 ,9 ! ,*agos gr\p ( atolls1 )9 an area ( #afj miles by #fj1 !re are two atoll-=m$ banks ( dead rock 7besides ano!r v imp]fect "o71 entirely subm]g$2 a ?ird1 ) m]ely two or ?ree v small pieces ( liv+ reef ris+ to ! surface2 & a f\r?1 namely1 ,p]os ,banhos 7,plate ,i41 ,figure #i71 ) a portion n9e miles 9 l5g? dead & subm]g$4 ,z by our !ory ?is area has subsid$1 & z !re is no?+ improbable 9 ! dea?1 ei!r f *anges 9 ! /ate ( ! surr\nd+ sea or f ! subsid5ce be+ great or sudd51 ( ! corals on ! :ole1 or on portions ( "s ( ! atolls1 ! case ( ! ,*agos gr\p pres5ts no difficulty4 ,s f> inde$ are any ( ! above-m5tion$ cases ( subm]g$ reefs f be+ inexplicable1 t _! occurr5ce might h be5 anticipat$ on our !ory1 & z fre% atolls are suppos$ to be 9 progressive =mation by ! subsid5ce ( encircl+ b>ri]-reefs1 a weighty objection1 namely t ! numb] ( atolls mu/ be increas+ inf9itely1 might ev5 h be5 rais$1 if pro(s ( ! occasional de/ruction & loss ( atolls c\ld n h be5 adduc$4 ,! dissev]m5t ( ! l>g] ,maldiva atolls4--,! app>5t progressive dissev]m5t 9 ! ,maldiva ,ar*ipelago ( l>ge atolls into small] ones1 is1 9 _m respects1 an important consid]ation1 & requires an explanation4 ,! graduat$ s]ies :i* m>ks1 z ,i believe1 ?is process1 c be obs]v$ only 9 ! nor!rn half ( ! gr\p1 :]e ! atolls h exce$+ly imp]fect m>g9s1 consi/+ ( deta*$ bas9-=m$ reefs4 ,! curr5ts ( ! sea fl[ across ^! atolls1 z ,i am in=m$ by ,capta9 ,moresby1 ) consid]able =ce1 & drift ! s$im5t f side to side dur+ ! monsoons1 transport+ mu* ( x seaw>d2 yet ! curr5ts sweep ) great] =ce r\nd _! flanks4 ,x is hi/orically kn[n t ^! atolls h long exi/$ 9 _! pres5t /ate2 & we c believe1 t ev5 dur+ a v sl[ subsid5ce !y might ?us rema91 ! c5tral expanse be+ kept at ne>ly its orig9al dep? by ! accumulation ( s$im5t4 ,b 9 ! action ( su* nicely balanc$ =ces dur+ a progressive subsid5ce 7l t1 to :i* by our !ory ?is ar*ipelago has be5 subject$71 x w\ld be /range if ! curr5ts ( ! sea %\ld nev] make a direct passage across "s "o ( ! atolls1 ?r\gh ! _m wide brea*es 9 _! m>g9s4 ,if ?is 7 once effect$1 a deep-wat] *annel w\ld soon be =m$ by ! removal ( ! f9] s$im5t1 & ! *eck to its fur!r accumulation2 & ! sides ( ! *annel w\ld be worn into a slope l t on ! out] coa/s1 :i* are expos$ to ! same =ce ( ! curr5ts4 ,9 fact1 a *annel precisely l t bifurcat+ "o :i* divides ,mahlos ,mahdoo 7,plate ,,ii41 ,figure #d471 w\ld almo/ necess>ily be =m$4 ,! scatt]$ reefs situat$ ne> ! bord]s ( ! new ocean-*annel1 f be+ fav\rably plac$ = ! gr[? ( coral1 w\ld1 by _! ext5sion1 t5d to produce fre% m>g9s to ! dissev]$ portions2 su* a t5d5cy is v evid5t 7z may be se5 9 ! l>ge publi%$ *>t7 9 ! elongat$ reefs on ! bord]s ( ! two *annels int]sect+ ,mahlos ,mahdoo4 ,su* *annels w\ld become deep] ) cont9u$ subsid5ce1 & probably f ! reefs n gr[+ up p]p5dicul>ly1 some:at broad]4 ,9 ?is case1 & m especially if ! *annels _h be5 =m$ orig9ally ( consid]able bread?1 ! dissev]$ portions w\ld become p]fect & di/9ct atolls1 l ,ari & ,ross atolls 7,plate ,,ii41 ,figure #f71 or l ! two ,nill&oo atolls1 :i* mu/ be consid]$ z di/9ct1 al?\gh relat$ 9 =m & position1 & sep>at$ f ea* o!r by *annels1 :i* ?\gh deep h be5 s\nd$4 ,fur!r subsid5ce w\ld r5d] su* *annels unfa?omable1 & ! dissev]$ portions w\ld !n resemble ,phale$oo & ,moluque atolls1 or ,mahlos ,mahdoo & ,horsburgh atolls 7,plate ,,ii41 ,figure #d71 :i* are relat$ to ea* o!r 9 no respect except 9 proximity & position4 ,h5ce1 on ! !ory ( subsid5ce1 ! dissev]m5t ( l>ge atolls1 :i* h imp]fect m>g9s 7= o!rwise _! dissev]m5t w\ld be sc>cely possible71 & :i* are expos$ to /rong curr5ts1 is f> f be+ an improbable ev5t2 & ! sev]al /ages1 f close relation to entire isolation 9 ! atolls ( ! ,maldiva ,ar*ipelago1 are readily explicable4 ,we might g ev5 fur!r1 & ass]t z n improbable1 t ! fir/ =mation ( ! ,maldiva ,ar*ipelago 0 due to a b>ri]-reef1 ( ne>ly ! same dim5sions ) t ( ,new ,cal$onia 7,plate ,,ii41 ,figure #e71 = if1 9 imag9ation1 we complete ! subsid5ce ( t great isl&1 we might anticipate f ! pres5t brok5 condition ( ! nor!rn portion ( ! reef1 & f ! almo/ entire abs5ce ( reefs on ! ea/]n coa/1 t ! b>ri]-reef aft] repeat$ subsid5ces1 w\ld become dur+ its upw>d gr[? sep>at$ into di/9ct portions2 & ^! portions w\ld t5d to assume an atoll-l /ructure1 f ! coral gr[+ ) vig\r r\nd _! entire circumf]5ces1 :5 freely expos$ to an op5 sea4 ,z we h "s l>ge isl&s p>tly subm]g$ ) b>ri]-reefs m>k+ _! =m] limits1 su* z ,new ,cal$onia1 s our !ory makes x probable t !re %\ld be o!r l>ge isl&s :olly subm]g$2 & ^!1 we may n[ inf]1 w\ld be surm\nt$1 n by "o enorm\s atoll1 b by sev]al l>ge elongat$ ones1 l ! atolls 9 ! ,maldiva gr\p2 & ^! aga91 dur+ long p]iods ( subsid5ce1 w\ld sometimes become dissev]$ into small] atolls4 ,i may add1 t bo? 9 ! ,m>%all & ,c>ol9e ,ar*ipelagoes1 !re are atolls /&+ close toge!r1 :i* h an evid5t relation%ip 9 =m3 we may suppose1 9 su* cases1 ei!r t two or m encircl$ isl&s orig9ally /ood close toge!r1 & af=d$ bases = two or m atolls1 or t "o atoll has be5 dissev]$4 ,f ! position1 z well z =m1 ( ?ree atolls 9 ! ,c>ol9e ,ar*ipelago 7! ,nam\rrek & ,elato gr\p71 :i* are plac$ 9 an irregul> circle1 ,i am /rongly tempt$ to believe t !y h orig9at$ by ! process ( dissev]m5t4#af #af ,! same rem>k is1 p]haps1 applicable to ! isl&s ( ,ollap1 ,fanadik1 & ,tamatam 9 ! ,c>ol9e ,ar*ipelago1 ( :i* *>ts are giv5 9 ! atlas ( ,dup]rey's voyage3 a l9e drawn ?r\gh ! l9e> reefs & lagoons ( ^! ?ree isl&s =ms a semicircle4 ,consult also1 ! atlas ( ,lutk's voyage2 & = ! ,m>%all gr\p t ( ,kotzebue2 = ! ,gilb]t gr\p consult ! atlas ( ,dup]rey's voyage4 ,mo/ ( ! po9ts "h ref]r$ to may1 h[ev]1 be se5 9 ,krus5/]n's g5]al ,atlas ( ! ,pacific4 ,irregul>ly =m$ ,atolls4--,9 ! ,m>%all gr\p1 ,musquillo atoll consi/s ( two loops unit$ 9 "o po9t2 & ,m5*ik(f atoll is =m$ ( ?ree loops1 two ( :i* 7z may be se5 9 ,figure #c1 ,plate ,,ii47 are connect$ by a m]e ribbon-%ap$ reef1 & ! ?ree toge!r are sixty miles 9 l5g?4 ,9 ! ,gilb]t gr\p "s ( ! atolls h n>r[ /rips ( reef1 l spurs1 project+ f !m4 ,!re occur also 9 p>ts ( ! op5 sea1 a few l9e> & /raight reefs1 /&+ by !mselves2 & likewise "s few reefs 9 ! =m ( cresc5ts1 ) _! extremities m or less curl$ inw>ds4 ,n[1 ! upw>d gr[? ( a b>ri]-reef :i* front$ only "o side ( an isl&1 or "o side ( an elongat$ isl& ) its extremities 7( :i* cases exi/71 w\ld produce aft] ! complete subsid5ce ( ! l&1 m]e /rips or cresc5t or hook-=m$ reefs3 if ! isl& ?us p>tially front$ became divid$ dur+ subsid5ce into two or m isl&s1 ^! isl&s w\ld be unit$ toge!r by l9e> reefs2 & f ! fur!r gr[? ( ! coral along _! %ores toge!r ) subsid5ce1 reefs ( v>i\s =ms might ultimately be produc$1 ei!r atolls unit$ toge!r by l9e> reefs1 or atolls ) spurs project+ f !m4 ,"s1 h[ev]1 ( ! m simple =ms above specifi$1 might1 z we h se51 be equally well produc$ by ! coral p]i%+ dur+ subsid5ce on "p ( ! circumf]5ce ( an atoll1 :il/ on ! o!r p>ts x cont9u$ to gr[ up till x rea*$ ! surface4 ,! ,great ,*agos ,bank4--,i h already %[n t ! subm]g$ condition ( ! ,great ,*agos ,bank 7,plate ,,ii41 ,figure #a1 ) its section ,figure #b71 & ( "s o!r banks 9 ! ,*agos gr\p1 may 9 all probability be attribut$ to ! coral hav+ p]i%$ be=e or dur+ ! movem5ts ( subsid5ce1 to :i* ?is :ole area by our !ory has be5 subject$4 ,! ext]nal rim or upp] l$ge 7%ad$ 9 ! *>t71 consi/s ( dead coral-rock ?9ly cov]$ ) s&2 x lies at an av]age dep? ( betwe5 five & eight fa?oms1 & p]fectly resembles 9 =m ! annul> reef ( an atoll4 ,! banks ( ! second level1 ! b\nd>ies ( :i* are m>k$ by dott$ l9es 9 ! *>t1 lie f ab\t fifte5 to tw5ty fa?oms b5ea? ! surface2 !y are sev]al miles broad1 & t]m9ate 9 a v /eep slope r\nd ! c5tral expanse4 ,?is c5tral expanse ,i h already describ$1 z consi/+ ( a level muddy flat betwe5 ?irty & =ty fa?oms deep4 ,! banks ( ! second level1 might at fir/ sight be ?\ght analog\s to ! int]nal /ep-l l$ge ( coral-rock :i* bord]s ! lagoons ( "s atolls1 b _! mu* great] wid?1 & _! be+ =m$ ( s&1 are po9ts ( ess5tial diff]5ce4 ,on ! ea/]n side ( ! atoll "s ( ! banks are l9e> & p>allel1 resembl+ islets 9 a great riv]1 & po9t$ directly t[>ds a great brea* on ! opposite side ( ! atoll2 ^! are be/ se5 9 ! l>ge publi%$ *>t4 ,i inf]r$ f ?is circum/ance1 t /rong curr5ts sometimes set directly across ?is va/ bank2 & ,i h s9ce he>d f ,capta9 ,moresby t ?is is ! case4 ,i obs]v$1 also1 t ! *annels or brea*es ?r\gh ! rim1 7 all ( ! same dep? z ! c5tral lagoon-l space into :i* !y lead2 :]eas ! *annels into ! o!r atolls ( ! ,*agos gr\p1 & z ,i believe into mo/ o!r l>ge atolls1 are n ne>ly z deep z _! lagoons3 = in/ance at ,p]os ,banhos1 ! *annels are only ( ! same dep?1 namely betwe5 t5 & tw5ty fa?oms1 z ! bottom ( ! lagoon = a space ab\t a mile & a half 9 wid? r\nd its %ores1 :il/ ! c5tral expanse ( ! lagoon is f ?irty-five to =ty fa?oms deep4 ,n[1 if an atoll dur+ a gradual subsid5ce once became entirely subm]g$1 l ! ,great ,*agos ,bank1 & !re=e no long] expos$ to ! surf1 v little s$im5t c\ld be =m$ f x2 & consequ5tly ! *annels lead+ into ! lagoon f n be+ fill$ up ) drift$ s& & coral detritus1 w\ld cont9ue increas+ 9 dep?1 z ! :ole sank d[n4 ,9 ?is case1 we might expect t ! curr5ts ( ! op5 sea1 in/ead ( any long] sweep+ r\nd ! subm>9e flanks1 w\ld fl[ directly ?r\gh ! brea*es across ! lagoon1 remov+ 9 _! c\rse ! f9] s$im5t1 & prev5t+ its fur!r accumulation4 ,we %\ld !n h ! subm]g$ reef =m+ an ext]nal & upp] rim ( rock1 & b5ea? ?is portion ( ! s&y bottom ( ! old lagoon1 int]sect$ by deep-wat] *annels or brea*es1 & ?us =m$ into sep>ate m>g9al banks2 & ^! w\ld be cut (f by /eep slopes1 ov]hang+ ! c5tral space1 worn d[n by ! passage ( ! oceanic curr5ts4 ,by ^! means1 ,i h sc>cely any d\bt t ! ,great ,*agos ,bank has orig9at$1--a /ructure :i* at fir/ appe>$ to me f> m anomal\s ?an any ,i _h met )4 ,! process ( =mation is ne>ly ! same ) t1 by :i* ,mahlos ,mahdoo _h be5 trisect$2 b 9 ! ,*agos ,bank ! *annels ( ! oceanic curr5ts ent]+ at sev]al diff]5t qu>t]s1 h unit$ 9 a c5tral space4 ,?is great atoll-=m$ bank appe>s to be 9 an e>ly /age ( dissev]m5t2 %\ld ! "w ( subsid5ce g on1 f ! subm]g$ & dead condition ( ! :ole reef1 & ! imp]fection ( ! s\?-ea/ qu>t] a m]e wreck w\ld probably be left4 ,! ,pitt's ,bank1 situat$ n f> s\?w>d1 appe>s to be precisely 9 ?is /ate2 x consi/s ( a mod]ately level1 oblong bank ( s&1 ly+ f #aj to #bj fa?oms b5ea? ! surface1 ) two sides protect$ by a n>r[ l$ge ( rock :i* is subm]g$ betwe5 #e & #h fa?oms4 ,a little fur!r s\?1 at ab\t ! same di/ance z ! s\!rn rim ( ! ,great ,*agos ,bank is f ! nor!rn rim1 !re are two o!r small banks ) f #aj to #bj fa?oms on !m2 & n f> ea/w>d s\nd+s 7 /ruck on a s&y bottom1 ) betwe5 #aaj & #ade fa?oms4 ,! nor!rn portion ) its l$ge-l m>g91 closely resembles any "o segm5t ( ! ,great ,*agos ,bank1 betwe5 two ( ! deep-wat] *annels1 & ! scatt]$ banks1 s\?w>d appe> to be ! la/ wrecks ( less p]fect portions4 ,i h exam9$ ) c>e ! *>ts ( ! ,indian & ,pacific ,oceans1 & h n[ br\ght be=e ! read] all ! examples1 :i* ,i h met )1 ( reefs diff]+ f ! type ( ! class to :i* !y belong2 & ,i ?9k x has be5 satisfactorily %[n1 t !y are all includ$ 9 our !ory1 modifi$ by occasional accid5ts :i* might h be5 anticipat$ z probable4 ,9 ?is c\rse we h se51 t 9 ! lapse ( ages encircl+ b>ri]-reefs are occasionally conv]t$ into atolls1 ! "n ( atoll be+ prop]ly applicable1 at ! mom5t :5 ! la/ p9nacle ( encircl$ l& s9ks b5ea? ! surface ( ! sea4 ,we h1 also1 se5 t l>ge atolls dur+ ! progressive subsid5ce ( ! areas 9 :i* !y /&1 sometimes become dissev]$ into small] ones2 at o!r times1 ! reef-build+ polypif]s hav+ entirely p]i%$1 atolls are conv]t$ into atoll-=m$ banks ( dead rock2 & ^! aga9 ?r\gh fur!r subsid5ce & ! accumulation ( s$im5t modifi$ by ! =ce ( ! oceanic curr5ts1 pass into level banks ) sc>cely any di/+ui%+ "*4 ,?us may ! hi/ory ( an atoll be foll[$ f its fir/ orig91 ?r\gh ! occasional accid5ts ( its exi/5ce1 to its de/ruction & f9al oblit]ation4 ,objections to ! !ory ( ! =mation ( ,atolls & ,b>ri]-reefs4--,! va/ am\nt ( subsid5ce1 bo? horizontally or 9 area1 & v]tically or 9 dep?1 necess>y to h subm]g$ e m\nta91 ev5 ! highe/1 ?r\gh\t ! imm5se spaces ( ocean int]sp]s$ ) atolls1 w probably /rike mo/ p z a =midable objection to my !ory4 ,b z cont95ts1 z l>ge z ! spaces suppos$ to h subsid$1 h be5 rais$ above ! level ( ! sea1--z :ole regions are n[ ris+1 = in/ance1 9 ,sc&9avia & ,s\? ,am]ica1--& z no reason c be assign$1 :y subsid5ces %\ld n h occurr$ 9 "s p>ts ( ! e>?'s cru/ on z great a scale bo? 9 ext5t & am\nt z ^? ( elevation1 objections ( ?is nature /rike me z ( little =ce4 ,! rem>kable po9t is t movem5ts to su* an ext5t %\ld h tak5 place )9 a p]iod1 dur+ :i* ! polypif]s h cont9u$ add+ matt] on & above ! same reefs4 ,ano!r & less obvi\s objection to ! !ory w p]haps be advanc$ f ! circum/ance1 ( ! lagoons )9 atolls & )9 b>ri]-reefs nev] hav+ become 9 any "o in/ance dur+ prolong$ subsid5ces ( a great] dep? ?an sixty fa?oms1 & seldom m ?an =ty fa?oms2 b we already admit1 if ! !ory be wor? consid]+1 t ! rate ( subsid5ce has n exce$$ t ( ! upw>d gr[? ( ! coral on ! ext]ior m>g92 we are1 !re=e1 only fur!r requir$ to admit1 t ! subsid5ce has n exce$$ 9 rate ! fill+ up ( ! int]ior spaces by ! gr[? ( ! corals liv+ !re1 & by ! accumulation ( s$im5t4 ,z ?is fill+ up mu/ take place v sl[ly )9 b>ri]-reefs ly+ f> f ! l&1 & )9 atolls :i* are ( l>ge dim5sions & :i* h op5 lagoons ) v few reefs1 we are l$ to conclude t ! subsid5ce ?us c\nt]-balanc$1 mu/ h be5 sl[ 9 an extraord9>y degree2 a conclusion :i* accords ) our only means1 namely1 ) :at is kn[n ( ! rate & mann] ( rec5t elevatory movem5ts1 ( judg+ by analogy :at is ! probable rate ( subsid5ce4 ,9 ?is *apt] x has1 ,i ?9k1 be5 %[n1 t ! !ory ( subsid5ce1 :i* we 7 compell$ to receive f ! necessity ( giv+ to ! corals1 9 c]ta9 l>ge areas1 f\ndations at ! requisite dep?1 expla9s bo? ! normal /ructure & ! less regul> =ms ( ^? two great classes ( reefs1 :i* h ju/ly excit$ ! a/oni%m5t ( all p]sons :o h sail$ ?r\gh ! ,pacific & ,indian ,oceans4 ,b fur!r to te/ ! tru? ( ! !ory1 a cr[d ( que/ions w occur to ! read]3 ,d ! diff]5t k9ds ( reefs1 :i* h be5 produc$ by ! same k9d ( movem5t1 g5]ally lie )9 ! same areas8 ,:at is _! relation ( =m & position1--= in/ance1 d adjo9+ gr\ps ( atolls1 & ! sep>ate atolls 9 ^! gr\ps1 be> ! same relation to ea* o!r :i* isl&s d 9 common ar*ipelagoes8 ,h we reason to believe1 t :]e !re are fr++-reefs1 !re has n lately be5 subsid5ce2 or1 = x is almo/ our only way ( asc]ta9+ ?is po9t1 are !re frequ5tly pro(s ( rec5t elevation8 ,c we by ?is means acc\nt = ! pres5ce ( c]ta9 classes ( reefs 9 "s l>ge areas1 & _! entire abs5ce 9 o!rs8 ,d ! areas :i* h subsid$1 z indicat$ by ! pres5ce ( atolls & b>ri]-reefs1 & ! areas :i* h rema9$ /ation>y or h be5 uprais$1 z %[n by fr++-reefs1 be> any det]m9ate relation to ea* o!r2 & are ! dim5sions ( ^! areas su* z h>monise ) ! greatness ( ! subt]ranean *anges1 :i*1 x mu/ be suppos$1 h lately tak5 place b5ea? !m8 ,is !re any connection betwe5 ! movem5ts ?us indicat$1 & rec5t volcanic action8 ,all ^! que/ions ought to receive answ]s 9 accordance ) ! !ory2 & if ?is c be satisfactorily %[n1 n only is ! !ory confirm$1 b z d$uctions1 ! answ]s are 9 !mselves important4 ,"u ?is latt] po9t ( view1 ^! que/ions w be *iefly consid]$ 9 ! foll[+ *apt]4#ag #ag ,i may take ?is opportunity ( briefly consid]+ ! appe>ances1 :i* w\ld probably be pres5t$ by a v]tical & deep section across a coral =mation 7ref]r+ *iefly to an atoll71 =m$ by ! upw>d gr[? ( coral dur+ successive subsid5ces4 ,?is is a subject wor?y ( att5tion1 z a means ( comp>ison ) anci5t coral-/rata4 ,! circumf]5tial p>ts w\ld consi/ ( massive species1 9 a v]tical position1 ) _! int]/ices fill$ up ) detritus2 b ?is w\ld be ! "p mo/ subject to subsequ5t d5udation & removal4 ,x is useless to speculate h[ l>ge a portion ( ! ext]ior annul> reef w\ld consi/ ( upright coral1 & h[ mu* ( fragm5t>y rock1 = ?is w\ld dep5d on _m cont+5cies1--su* z on ! rate ( subsid5ce1 occasionally all[+ a fre% gr[? ( coral to cov] ! :ole surface1 & on ! break]s hav+ =ce suffici5t to ?r[ fragm5ts ov] ?is same space4 ,! conglom]ate :i* composes ! base ( ! islets1 w\ld 7if n remov$ by d5udation toge!r ) ! ext]ior reef on :i* x re/s7 be conspicu\s f ! size ( ! fragm5ts1--! diff]5t degrees 9 :i* !y h be5 r\nd$1--! pres5ce ( fragm5ts ( conglom]ate torn up1 r\nd$1 & recem5t$1--& f ! oblique /ratification4 ,! corals :i* liv$ 9 ! lagoon-reefs at ea* successive level1 w\ld be pres]v$ upright1 & !y w\ld consi/ ( _m k9ds1 g5]ally mu* bran*$4 ,9 ?is "p1 h[ev]1 a v l>ge proportion ( ! rock 7& 9 "s cases ne>ly all ( x7 w\ld be =m$ ( s$im5t>y matt]1 ei!r 9 an excessively f9e1 or 9 a mod]ately co>se /ate1 & ) ! p>ticles almo/ bl5d$ toge!r4 ,! conglom]ate :i* 0 =m$ ( r\nd$ pieces ( ! bran*$ corals1 on ! %ores ( ! lagoon1 w\ld diff] f t =m$ on ! islets & d]iv$ f ! out] coa/2 yet bo? might h accumulat$ v ne> ea* o!r4 ,i h se5 a conglom]ate lime/one f ,devon%ire l a conglom]ate n[ =m+ on ! %ores ( ! ,maldiva atolls4 ,! /ratification tak5 z a :ole1 w\ld be horizontal2 b ! conglom]ate b$s re/+ on ! ext]ior reef1 & ! b$s ( s&/one on ! %ores ( ! lagoon 7& no d\bt on ! ext]nal flanks7 w\ld probably be divid$ 7z at ,keel+ atoll & at ,mauritius7 by num]\s lay]s dipp+ at consid]able angles 9 diff]5t directions4 ,! calc>e\s s&/one & coral-rock w\ld almo/ necess>ily conta9 innum]able %ells1 e*9i1 & ! bones ( fi%1 turtle1 & p]haps ( birds2 possibly1 also1 ! bones ( small saurians1 z ^! animals f9d _! way to ! isl&s f> remote f any cont95t4 ,! l>ge %ells ( "s species ( ,tridacna w\ld be f\nd v]tically imb$d$ 9 ! solid rock1 9 ! position 9 :i* !y liv$4 ,we might expect also to f9d a mixture ( ! rema9s ( pelagic & littoral animals 9 ! /rata =m$ 9 ! lagoon1 = pumice & ! se$s ( plants are float$ f di/ant c\ntries into ! lagoons ( _m atolls3 on ! out] coa/ ( ,keel+ atoll1 ne> ! m\? ( ! lagoon1 ! case ( a pelagic ,pt]opod\s animal 0 br\ght up on ! arm+ ( ! s\nd+ lead4 ,all ! loose blocks ( coral on ,keel+ atoll 7 burr[$ by v]mi=m animals2 & z e cavity1 no d\bt1 ultimately becomes fill$ ) spa?ose lime/one1 slabs ( ! rock tak5 f a consid]able dep?1 w\ld1 if poli%$1 probably exhibit ! excavations ( su* burr[+ animals4 ,! conglom]ate & f9e-gra9$ b$s ( coral-rock w\ld be h>d1 sonor\s1 :ite & compos$ ( ne>ly pure calc>e\s matt]2 9 "s few p>ts1 judg+ f ! specim5s at ,keel+ atoll1 !y w\ld probably conta9 a small quantity ( iron4 ,float+ pumice & scoriae1 & occasionally /ones transport$ 9 ! root ( trees 7see my 8,j\rnal ( ,rese>*es10 page #edi7 appe> ! only s\rces1 ?r\gh :i* =eign matt] is br\ght to coral-=mations /&+ 9 ! op5 ocean4 ,! area ov] :i* s$im5t is transport$ f coral-reefs mu/ be consid]able3 ,capta9 ,moresby in=ms me t dur+ ! *ange ( monsoons ! sea is discol\r$ to a consid]able di/ance (f ! ,maldiva & ,*agos atolls4 ,! s$im5t ( fr++ & b>ri] coral-reefs mu/ be m+l$ ) ! mud1 :i* is br\ght d[n f ! l&1 & is transport$ seaw>d ?r\gh ! brea*es1 :i* occur 9 front ( almo/ e valley4 ,if ! atolls ( ! l>g] ar*ipelagoes 7 uprais$1 ! b$ ( ! ocean be+ conv]t$ into l&1 !y w\ld =m flat-topp$ m\nta9s1 v>y+ 9 diamet] f a few miles 7! smalle/ atolls be+ worn away7 to sixty miles2 & f be+ horizontally /ratifi$ & ( simil> composition1 !y w\ld1 z ,mr4 ,lyell has rem>k$1 falsely appe> z if !y _h orig9ally be5 unit$ into "o va/ cont9u\s mass4 ,su* great /rata ( coral-rock w\ld r>ely be associat$ ) erupt$ volcanic matt]1 = ?is c\ld only take place1 z may be inf]r$ f :at foll[s 9 ! next *apt]1 :5 ! area1 9 :i* !y 7 situat$1 comm5c$ to rise1 or at lea/ ceas$ to subside4 ,dur+ ! enorm\s p]iod necess>y to effect an elevation ( ! k9d j allud$ to1 ! surface w\ld necess>ily be d5ud$ to a great ?ickness2 h5ce x is highly improbable t any fr++-reef1 or ev5 any b>ri]-reef1 at lea/ ( ^? encircl+ small isl&s1 w\ld be pres]v$4 ,f ?is same cause1 ! /rata :i* 7 =m$ )9 ! lagoons ( atolls & lagoon-*annels ( b>ri]-reefs1 & :i* mu/ consi/ 9 a l>ge "p ( s$im5t>y matt]1 w\ld m (t5 be pres]v$ to future ages1 ?an ! ext]ior solid reef1 compos$ ( massive corals 9 an upright position2 al?\gh x is on ?is ext]ior "p t ! pres5t exi/5ce & fur!r gr[? ( atolls & b>ri]-reefs entirely dep5d4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,on ,,! ,,di/ribution ,,( ,,coral-,,reefs ,,) ,,ref]5ce ,,to ,,! ,,!ory ,,( ,,_! ,,=mation4 ,description ( ! col\r$ map4--,proximity ( atolls & b>ri]-reefs4-- ,relation 9 =m & position ( atolls ) ord9>y isl&s4--,direct evid5ce ( subsid5ce difficult to be detect$4--,pro(s ( rec5t elevation :]e fr++-reefs occur4--,oscillations ( level4--,abs5ce ( active volcanoes 9 ! areas ( subsid5ce4--,imm5sity ( ! areas :i* h be5 elevat$ & h subsid$4--,_! relation to ! pres5t di/ribution ( ! l&4--,areas ( subsid5ce elongat$1 _! int]section & alt]nation ) ^? ( elevation4--,am\nt & sl[ rate ( ! subsid5ce4--,recapitulation4 ,x w be conv5i5t to give "h a %ort acc\nt ( ! app5d$ map 7,plate ,,iii47 ,inasmu* z ! col\r$ map w\ld h prov$ too co/ly to be giv5 9 ?is s]ies1 ! indications ( col\r h be5 replac$ by numb]s ref]r+ to ! dott$ gr\ps ( reefs1 etc4 ,! au?or's orig9al word+1 h[ev]1 is reta9$ 9 full1 z x w be easy to ref] to ! map by ! numb]s1 & ?us ! fl[ ( ! n>rative is undi/urb$43 a full] "o1 ) ! data = col\r+ ea* spot1 is res]v$ = ! ,app5dix2 & e place !re ref]r$ to may be f\nd 9 ! ,index4 ,a l>g] *>t w\ld h be5 desirable2 b1 small z ! adjo9$ "o is1 x is ! result ( _m mon?s' lab\r4 ,i h consult$1 z f> z ,i 0 able1 e orig9al voyage & map2 & ! col\rs 7 fir/ laid d[n on *>ts on a l>g] scale4 ,! same blue col\r1 ) m]ely a diff]5ce 9 ! dep? ( t9t1 is us$ = atolls or lagoon-isl&s1 & b>ri]-reefs1 = we h se51 t z f> z ! actual coral-=mation is conc]n$1 !y h no di/+ui%+ "*4 ,fr++-reefs h be5 col\r$ r$1 = betwe5 !m on ! "o h&1 & b>ri]-reefs & atolls on ! o!r1 !re is an important di/9ction ) respect to ! dep? b5ea? ! surface1 at :i* we are compell$ to believe _! f\ndations lie4 ,! two di/9ct col\rs1 !re=e1 m>k two great types ( /ructure4 ,! d>k blue col\r repres5t$ by 7#c7 9 our plate repres5ts atolls & subm]g$ annul> reefs1 ) deep wat] 9 _! c5tres4 ,i h col\r$ z atolls1 a few l[ & small coral-isl&s1 )\t lagoons2 b ?is has be5 done only :5 x cle>ly appe>$ t !y orig9ally conta9$ lagoons1 s9ce fill$ up ) s$im5t3 :5 !re 7 n good gr\nds = ?is belief1 !y h be5 left uncol\r$4 ,! pale blue col\r repres5t$ by 7#b7 repres5ts b>ri]-reefs4 ,! mo/ obvi\s "* ( reefs ( ?is class is ! broad & deep-wat] moat )9 ! reef3 b ?is1 l ! lagoons ( small atolls1 is liable to become fill$ up ) detritus & ) reefs ( delicately bran*$ corals3 :51 !re=e1 a reef r\nd ! entire circumf]5ce ( an isl& ext5ds v f> into a pr(\ndly deep sea1 s t x c h>dly be conf\nd$ ) a fr++-reef :i* mu/ re/ on a f\ndation ( rock )9 a small dep?1 x has be5 col\r$ pale blue1 al?\gh x does n include a deep-wat] moat3 b ?is has only be5 done r>ely1 & ea* case is di/9ctly m5tion$ 9 ! ,app5dix4 ,! r$ col\r 7#d7 repres5ts reefs fr++ ! l& q closely :]e ! sea is deep1 & :]e ! bottom is g5tly incl9$ ext5d+ to a mod]ate di/ance f x1 b n hav+ a deep-wat] moat or lagoon-l space p>allel to ! %ore4 ,x mu/ be rememb]$ t fr++-reefs are frequ5tly brea*$ 9 front ( riv]s & valleys by deepi% *annels1 :]e mud has be5 deposit$4 ,a space ( ?irty miles 9 wid? has be5 col\r$ r\nd or 9 front ( ! reefs ( ea* class1 9 ord] t ! col\rs might be conspicu\s on ! app5d$ map1 :i* is r$uc$ to s small a scale4 ,! v]million spots1 & /reaks 7#a7 repres5t volcanoes n[ 9 action1 or hi/orically kn[n to h be5 s4 ,!y are *iefly laid d[n f ,von ,bu*'s "w on ! ,can>y ,isl&s2 & my reasons = mak+ a few alt]ations are giv5 9 ! note bel[4#a #a ,i h also made consid]able use ( ! geological "p ( ,b]ghaus' 8,physical ,atlas40 ,beg9n+ at ! ea/]n side ( ! ,pacific1 ,i h add$ to ! numb] ( ! volcanoes 9 ! s\!rn "p ( ! ,cordill]a1 & h col\r$ ,juan ,f]n&ez accord+ to obs]vations collect$ dur+ ! voyage ( ! ,beagle 78,geological ,transactions10 volume v41 page #fja47 ,i h add$ a volcano to ,albem>le ,isl&1 "o ( ! ,galapagos ,ar*ipelago 7! au?or's 8,j\rnal ( ,rese>*es10 page #deg74 ,9 ! ,s&wi* gr\p !re are no active volcanoes1 except at ,hawaii2 b ! ,rev4 ,w4 ,ellis in=ms me1 !re are /reams ( lava app>5tly mod]n on ,maui1 hav+ a v rec5t appe>ance1 :i* c be trac$ to ! crat]s :5ce !y fl[$4 ,! same g5tleman in=ms me1 t !re is no reason to believe t any active volcano exi/s 9 ! ,society ,ar*ipelago2 nor are !re any kn[n 9 ! ,samoa or ,navigator gr\p1 al?\gh "s ( ! /reams ( lava & crat]s !re appe> rec5t4 ,9 ! ,fri5dly gr\p1 ! ,rev4 ,j4 ,williams says 78,n>rative ( ,mission>y ,ent]prise10 page #bi7 t ,to(oa & ,proby ,isl&s are active volcanoes4 ,i inf] f ,hamilton's 8,voyage 9 ! #8,p&ora'0 7,page #ie71 t ,proby ,isl& is synonym\s ) ,on\af\1 b ,i h n v5tur$ to col\r x4 ,!re c be no d\bt respect+ ,to(oa1 & ,capta9 ,edw>ds 7,von ,bu*1 page #chf7 f\nd ! lava ( rec5t eruption at ,am>gura /ill smok+4 ,b]ghaus m>ks f\r active volcanoes actually )9 ! ,fri5dly gr\p2 b ,i d n "k on :at au?ority3 ,i may m5tion t ,maurelle describes ,latte z hav+ a burnt-up appe>ance3 ,i h m>k$ only ,to(oa & ,am>gura4 ,s\? ( ! ,new ,hebrides lies ,mat!ws ,rock1 :i* is drawn & describ$ z an active crat] 9 ! 8,voyage ( ! ,a/rolabe40 ,betwe5 x & ! volcano on ! ea/]n side ( ,new ,zeal&1 lies ,brim/one ,isl&1 :i* f ! high temp]ature ( ! wat] 9 ! crat]1 may be rank$ z active 7,b]ghaus 8,vorbem]k10 ,,ii ,lief4 ,s4 #ef74 ,malte ,brun1 volume xii41 page #bca1 says t !re is a volcano ne> port ,/4 ,v9c5t 9 ,new ,cal$onia4 ,i believe ?is to be an error1 aris+ f a smoke se5 on ! opposite coa/ by ,cook 78,second ,voyage10 volume ii41 page #bc7 :i* smoke w5t out at night4 ,! ,m>iana ,isl&s1 especially ! nor!rn ones1 conta9 _m crat]s 7see ,freyc9et's 8,hydrog4 ,descript407 :i* are n active4 ,von ,bu*1 h[ev]1 /ates 7page #dfb7 on ! au?ority ( ,la ,peyr\se1 t !re are no less ?an sev5 volcanoes betwe5 ^! isl&s & ,japan4 ,gemelli ,cr]i 7,*ur*ill's 8,collect40 volume iv41 page #deh71 says !re are two active volcanoes 9 latitude #bc #cj1 & 9 latitude #bd3 b ,i h n col\r$ !m4 ,f ! /atem5ts 9 ,bee*ey's 8,voyage0 7page #eah1 #dto edition7 ,i h col\r$ "o 9 ! nor!rn "p ( ! ,bon9 gr\p4 ,m4 ,s4 ,juli5 has cle>ly made out f ,*9ese manuscripts n v anci5t 78,comptes ,r5dus10 #ahdj1 page #hcb71 t !re are two active volcanoes on ! ea/]n side ( ,=mosa4 ,9 ,torres ,/raits1 on ,cap ,isl& 7#i #dh ,s41 #adb #ci ,e47 a volcano 0 se5 burn+ ) great viol5ce 9 #agic by ,capta9 ,bampton 7see ,introduction to ,fl9d]s' 8,voyage10 page #da74 ,mr4 ,m',clell& 7,report ( ,committee = inve/igat+ ,coal 9 ,india1 page #ci7 has %[n t ! volcanic b& pass+ ?r\gh ,b>r5 ,isl& mu/ be ext5d$ nor?w>ds4 ,x appe>s by an old *>t1 t ,*$uba 0 once an active volcano 7see also 8,silliman's ,nor? ,am]ican ,j\rnal01 volume xxxviii41 page #che74 ,9 ,b]ghaus' 8,physical ,atlas10 #ahdj1 ,no4 #g ( ,geological ,"p1 a volcano on ! coa/ ( ,pondi*]ry is said to h bur/ =? 9 #ageg4 ,ord9aire 78,hi/4 ,nat4 des ,volcans10 page #bah7 says t !re is "o at ! m\? ( ! ,p]sian ,gulf1 b ,i h n col\r$ x1 z he gives no p>ticul>s4 ,a volcano 9 ,am/]dam1 or ,/4 ,paul's1 9 ! s\!rn "p ( ! ,indian ,ocean1 has be5 se5 78,naut4 ,mag40 #ahch1 page #hdb7 9 action4 ,dr4 ,j4 ,allan1 ( ,=res1 in=ms me 9 a lett]1 t :5 he 0 at ,joanna1 he saw at night flames app>5tly volcanic1 issu+ f ! *ief ,comoro ,isl&1 & t ! ,arabs assur$ him t !y 7 volcanic1 add+ t ! volcano burn$ m dur+ ! wet season4 ,i h m>k$ ?is z a volcano1 ?\gh ) "s hesitation1 on acc\nt ( ! possibility ( ! flame aris+ f gase\s s\rces4 ,! uncol\r$ coa/s consi/1 fir/ & *iefly1 ( ^?1 :]e !re are no coral-reefs1 or su* small portions z to be q insignificant4 ,secondly1 ( ^? coa/s :]e !re are reefs1 b :]e ! sea is v %all[1 = 9 ?is case ! reefs g5]ally lie f> f ! l&1 & become v irregul>1 9 _! =ms3 :]e !y h n become irregul>1 !y h be5 col\r$4 ?irdly1 if ,i _h ! means ( asc]ta9+ ! fact1 ,i %\ld n col\r a reef m]ely coat+ ! edges ( a subm>9e crat]1 or ( a level subm]g$ bank2 = su* sup]ficial =mations diff] ess5tially1 ev5 :5 n 9 ext]nal appe>ance1 f reefs ^: f\ndations z well z sup]ficies h be5 :olly =m$ by ! gr[? ( coral4 ,f\r?ly1 9 ! ,r$ ,sea1 & )9 "s p>ts ( ! ,ea/ ,indian ,ar*ipelago 7if ! imp]fect *>ts ( ! latt] c be tru/$71 !re are _m scatt]$ reefs1 ( small size1 repres5t$ 9 ! *>t by m]e dots1 :i* rise out ( deep wat]3 ^! _c be arrang$ "u ei!r ( ! ?ree classes3 9 ! ,r$ ,sea1 h[ev]1 "s ( ^! little reefs1 f _! position1 seem once to h =m$ p>ts ( a cont9u\s b>ri]4 ,!re exi/1 also1 scatt]$ 9 ! op5 ocean1 "s l9e> & irregul>ly =m$ /rips ( coral-reef1 :i*1 z %[n 9 ! la/ *apt]1 are probably alli$ 9 _! orig9 to atolls2 b z !y d n belong to t class1 !y h n be5 col\r$2 !y are v few 9 numb] & ( insignificant dim5sions4 ,la/ly1 "s reefs are left uncol\r$ f ! want ( in=mation respect+ !m1 & "s because !y are ( an int]m$iate /ructure betwe5 ! b>ri] & fr++ classes4 ,! value ( ! map is less5$1 9 proportion to ! numb] ( reefs :i* ,i h be5 oblig$ to leave uncol\r$1 al?\gh1 9 a !oretical po9t ( view1 few ( !m pres5t any great difficulty3 b _! numb] is n v great1 z w be f\nd by comp>+ ! map ) ! /atem5ts 9 ! ,app5dix4 ,i h exp]i5c$ m difficulty 9 col\r+ fr++-reefs ?an 9 col\r+ b>ri]-reefs1 z ! =m]1 f _! mu* less dim5sions1 h less attract$ ! att5tion ( navigators4 ,z ,i h _h to seek my in=mation f all k9ds ( s\rces1 & (t5 f indirect ones1 ,i d n v5ture to hope t ! map is free f _m errors4 ,nev]!less1 ,i tru/ x w give an approximately correct view ( ! g5]al di/ribution ( ! coral-reefs ov] ! :ole _w 7) ! exception ( "s fr++-reefs on ! coa/ ( ,brazil1 n includ$ )9 ! limits ( ! map71 & ( _! arrangem5t into ! ?ree great classes1 :i*1 ?\gh necess>ily v imp]fect f ! nature ( ! objects classifi$1 h be5 adopt$ by mo/ voyag]s4 ,i may fur!r rem>k1 t ! d>k blue col\r repres5ts l& entirely compos$ ( coral-rock2 ! pale blue1 l& ) a wide & ?ick bord] ( coral-rock2 & ! r$1 a m]e n>r[ fr+e ( coral-rock4 ,look+ n[ at ! map "u ! !oretical po9t ( view indicat$ 9 ! la/ *apt]1 ! two blue t9ts signify t ! f\ndations ( ! reefs ?us col\r$ h subsid$ to a consid]able am\nt1 at a sl[] rate ?an t ( ! upw>d gr[? ( ! corals1 & t probably 9 _m cases !y are /ill subsid+4 ,! r$ signifies t ! %ores :i* support fr++-reefs h n subsid$ 7at lea/ to any consid]able am\nt1 = ! effects ( a subsid5ce on a small scale w\ld 9 no case be di/+ui%able72 b t !y h rema9$ ne>ly /ation>y s9ce ! p]iod :5 !y fir/ became fr+$ by reefs2 or t !y are n[ ris+ or h be5 uprais$1 ) new l9es ( reefs successively =m$ on !m3 ^! latt] alt]natives are obvi\sly impli$1 z newly =m$ l9es ( %ore1 aft] elevations ( ! l&1 w\ld be 9 ! same /ate ) respect to ! gr[? ( fr++-reefs1 z /ation>y coa/s4 ,if dur+ ! prolong$ subsid5ce ( a %ore1 coral-reefs grew = ! fir/ "t on x1 or if an old b>ri]-reef 7 de/roy$ & subm]g$1 & new reefs became atta*$ to ! l&1 ^! w\ld necess>ily at fir/ belong to ! fr++ class1 &1 !re=e1 be col\r$ r$1 al?\gh ! coa/ 0 s9k+3 b ,i h no reason to believe1 t f ?is s\rce ( error1 any coa/ has be5 col\r$ wrongly ) respect to movem5t indicat$4 ,well *>act]is$ atolls & encircl+ b>ri]-reefs1 :]e sev]al occur 9 a gr\p1 or a s+le b>ri]-reef if ( l>ge dim5sions1 leave sc>cely any d\bt on ! m9d respect+ ! movem5t by :i* !y h be5 produc$2 & ev5 a small am\nt ( subsequ5t elevation is soon betray$4 ,! evid5ce f a s+le atoll or a s+le encircl+ b>ri]-reef1 mu/ be receiv$ ) "s caution1 = ! =m] may possibly be bas$ ^u a subm]g$ crat] or bank1 & ! latt] on a subm]g$ m>g9 ( s$im5t1 or ( worn-d[n rock4 ,f ^! rem>ks we may ) great] c]ta9ty inf] t ! spaces1 especially ! l>g] ones1 t9t$ blue 9 ! map1 h subsid$1 ?an t ! r$ spaces h rema9$ /ation>y1 or h be5 uprais$4 ,on ! gr\p+ ( ! diff]5t classes ( reefs4--,hav+ made ^! prelim9>y rem>ks1 ,i w consid] fir/ h[ f> ! gr\p+ ( ! diff]5t k9ds ( coral-isl&s & reefs is corroborative ( ! tru? ( ! !ory4 ,a glance at ! map %[s t ! reefs1 col\r$ blue & r$1 produc$ "u widely diff]5t conditions1 are n indiscrim9ately mix$ toge!r4 ,atolls & b>ri]-reefs1 on ! o!r h&1 z may be se5 by ! two blue t9ts1 g5]ally lie ne> ea* o!r2 & ?is w\ld be ! natural result ( bo? hav+ be5 produc$ dur+ ! subsid5ce ( ! areas 9 :i* !y /&4 ,?us1 ! l>ge/ gr\p ( encircl$ isl&s is t ( ! ,society ,ar*ipelago2 & ^! isl&s are surr\nd$ by atolls1 & only sep>at$ by a n>r[ space f ! l>ge gr\p ( ,l[ atolls4 ,9 ! mid/ ( ! ,c>ol9e atolls1 !re are ?ree f9e encircl$ isl&s4 ,! nor!rn po9t ( ! b>ri]-reef ( ,new ,cal$onia seems itself1 z be=e rem>k$1 to =m a complete l>ge atoll4 ,! great ,au/ralian b>ri] is describ$ z includ+ bo? atolls & small encircl$ isl&s4 ,capta9 ,k+#b m5tions _m atoll-=m$ & encircl+ coral-reefs1 "s ( :i* lie )9 ! b>ri]1 & o!rs may be said 7= in/ance betwe5 latitude #af & #ac7 to =m "p ( x4 ,fl9d]s#c has describ$ an atoll-=m$ reef 9 latitude #aj1 sev5 miles long & f "o to ?ree broad1 resembl+ a boot 9 %ape1 ) app>5tly v deep wat] )94 ,eight miles we/w>d ( ?is1 & =m+ "p ( ! b>ri]1 lie ! ,murray ,isl&s1 :i* are high & are encircl$4 ,9 ! ,corallian ,sea1 betwe5 ! two great b>ri]s ( ,au/ralia & ,new ,cal$onia1 !re are _m l[ islets & coral-reefs1 "s ( :i* are annul>1 or horse-%oe %ap$4 ,obs]v+ ! smallness ( ! scale ( ! map1 ! p>allels ( latitude be+ n9e hundr$ miles ap>t1 we see t none ( ! l>ge gr\ps ( reefs & isl&s suppos$ to h be5 produc$ by long-cont9u$ subsid5ce1 lie ne> ext5sive l9es ( coa/ col\r$ r$1 :i* are suppos$ to h rema9$ /ation>y s9ce ! gr[? ( _! reefs1 or to h be5 uprais$ & new l9es ( reefs =m$ on !m4 ,:]e ! r$ & blue circles d occur ne> ea* o!r1 ,i am able1 9 sev]al in/ances1 to %[ t !re h be5 oscillations ( level1 subsid5ce hav+ prec$$ ! elevation ( ! r$ spots2 & elevation hav+ prec$$ ! subsid5ce ( ! blue spots3 & 9 ?is case ! juxtaposition ( reefs belong+ to ! two great types ( /ructure is little surpris+4 ,we may1 !re=e1 conclude t ! proximity 9 ! same areas ( ! two classes ( reefs1 :i* owe _! orig9 to ! subsid5ce ( ! e>?'s cru/1 & _! sep>ation f ^? =m$ dur+ its /ation>y or upris+ condition1 holds good to ! full ext5t1 :i* might h be5 anticipat$ by our !ory4 #b ,sail+ directions1 app5d$ to volume ii4 ( 8 8,survey+ ,voyage to ,au/ralia40 #c 8,voyage to ,t]ra ,au/ralis10 volume ii4 page #ccf4 ,z gr\ps ( atolls h orig9at$ 9 ! upw>d gr[?1 at ea* fre% s9k+ ( ! l&1 ( ^? reefs :i* prim>ily fr+$ ! %ores ( "o great isl&1 or ( sev]al small] ones2 s we might expect t ^! r+s ( coral-rock1 l s _m rude outl9e *>ts1 w /ill reta9 "s traces ( ! g5]al =m1 or at lea/ g5]al range1 ( ! l&1 r\nd :i* !y 7 fir/ modell$4 ,t ?is is ! case ) ! atolls 9 ! ,s\!rn ,pacific z f> z _! range is conc]n$1 seems highly probable1 :5 we obs]ve t ! ?ree pr9cipal gr\ps are direct$ 9 nor?-we/ & s\?-ea/ l9es1 & t ne>ly all ! l& 9 ! ,s4 ,pacific ranges 9 ?is same direction2 namely1 ,n4 ,we/]n ,au/ralia1 ,new ,cal$onia1 ! nor!rn half ( ,new ,zeal&1 ! ,new ,hebrides1 ,saloman1 ,navigator1 ,society1 ,m>quesas1 & ,au/ral ar*ipelagoes3 9 ! ,nor!rn ,pacific1 ! ,c>ol9e atolls abut aga9/ ! nor?-we/ l9e ( ! ,m>%all atolls1 mu* 9 ! same mann] z ! ea/ & we/ l9e ( isl&s f ,c]am to ,new ,brita9 d on ,new ,irel&3 9 ! ,indian ,ocean ! ,laccadive & ,maldiva atolls ext5d ne>ly p>allel to ! we/]n & m\nta9\s coa/ ( ,india4 ,9 mo/ respects1 !re is a p]fect resemblance ) ord9>y isl&s 9 ! gr\p+ ( atolls & 9 _! =m3 ?us ! outl9e ( all ! l>g] gr\ps is elongat$2 & ! great] numb] ( ! individual atolls are elongat$ 9 ! same direction ) ! gr\p1 9 :i* !y /&4 ,! ,*agos gr\p is less elongat$ ?an is usual ) o!r gr\ps1 & ! individual atolls 9 x are likewise b little elongat$2 ?is is /rik+ly se5 by comp>+ !m ) ! neighb\r+ ,maldiva atolls4 ,9 ! ,m>%all & ,maldiva ar*ipelagoes1 ! atolls are rang$ 9 two p>allel l9es1 l ! m\nta9s 9 a great d\ble m\nta9-*a94 ,"s ( ! atolls1 9 ! l>g] ar*ipelagoes1 /& s ne> to ea* o!r1 & h su* an evid5t relation%ip 9 =m1 t !y compose little sub-gr\ps3 9 ! ,c>ol9e ,ar*ipelago1 "o su* sub-gr\p consi/s ( ,p\ynipte1 a l(ty isl& encircl$ by a b>ri]-reef1 & sep>at$ by a *annel only f\r miles & a half wide f ,&eema atoll1 ) a second atoll a little fur!r (f4 ,9 all ^! respects an exam9ation ( a s]ies ( *>ts w %[ h[ p]fectly gr\ps ( atolls resemble gr\ps ( common isl&s4 ,on ! direct evid5ce ( ! blue spaces 9 ! map hav+ subsid$ dur+ ! upw>d gr[? ( ! reefs s col\r$1 & ( ! r$ spaces hav+ rema9$ /ation>y1 or hav+ be5 uprais$4--,) respect to subsid5ce1 ,i h %[n 9 ! la/ *apt]1 t we _c expect to obta9 9 c\ntries inhabit$ only by semi-civilis$ races1 demon/rative pro(s ( a movem5t1 :i* inv>iably t5ds to conceal its own evid5ce4 ,b on ! coral-isl&s suppos$ to h be5 produc$ by subsid5ce1 we h pro(s ( *anges 9 _! ext]nal appe>ance--( a r\nd ( decay & r5ovation--( ! la/ ve/iges ( l& on "s--( its fir/ comm5cem5t on o!rs3 we he> ( /orms desolat+ !m to ! a/oni%m5t ( _! inhabitants3 we "k by ! great fissures ) :i* "s ( !m are trav]s$1 & by ! e>?quakes felt "u o!rs1 t subt]ranean di/urbances ( "s k9d are 9 progress4 ,^! facts1 if n directly connect$ ) subsid5ce1 z ,i believe !y are1 at lea/ %[ h[ difficult x w\ld be to discov] pro(s ( su* movem5t by ord9>y means4 ,at ,keel+ atoll1 h[ev]1 ,i h describ$ "s appe>ances1 :i* seem directly to %[ t subsid5ce did take place !re dur+ ! late e>?quakes4 ,vanikoro1 accord+ to ,*evali] ,dillon1#d is (t5 viol5tly %ak5 by e>?quakes1 & !re1 ! unusual dep? ( ! *annel betwe5 ! %ore & ! reef1--! almo/ entire abs5ce ( islets on ! reef1-- its wall-l /ructure on ! inn] side1 & ! small quantity ( l[ alluvial l& at ! foot ( ! m\nta9s1 all seem to %[ t ?is isl& has n rema9$ long at its pres5t level1 ) ! lagoon-*annel subject$ to ! accumulation ( s$im5t1 & ! reef to ! we> & te> ( ! break]s4 ,at ! ,society ,ar*ipelago1 on ! o!r h&1 :]e a slight tremor is only r>ely felt1 ! %oal9ess ( ! lagoon-*annels r\nd "s ( ! isl&s1 ! numb] ( islets =m$ on ! reefs ( o!rs1 & ! broad belt ( l[ l& at ! foot ( ! m\nta9s1 indicate t1 al?\gh !re mu/ h be5 great subsid5ce to h produc$ ! b>ri]-reefs1 !re has s9ce elaps$ a long /ation>y p]iod4#e #d ,see ,capta9 ,dillon's 8,voyage 9 se>* ( ,la ,peyr\se40 ,m4 ,cordi] 9 8 8,report on ! ,voyage ( ! #8,a/rolabe'0 7page cxi41 volume i471 speak+ ( ,vanikoro1 says ! %ores are surr\nd$ by reefs ( madrepore1 8qu'on assure tre de =mation t\t-a-fait mod]ne40 ,i h 9 va9 endeav\r$ to le>n "s fur!r p>ticul>s ab\t ?is rem>kable passage4 ,i may "h add1 t accord+ to our !ory1 ! isl& ( ,p\ynipte 7,plate ,i41 ,figure #g71 9 ! ,c>ol9e ,ar*ipelago1 be+ encircl$ by a b>ri]-reef1 mu/ h subsid$4 ,9 ! 8,new ,s4 ,wales ,lit4 ,adv]t40 ,febru>y #ahce 7:i* ,i h se5 ?r\gh ! fav\r ( ,dr4 ,lloghtsky71 !re is an acc\nt ( ?is isl& 7subsequ5tly confirm$ by ,mr4 ,campbell71 9 :i* x is said1 8,at ! ,n4,e4 end1 at a place call$ ,tam51 !re are ru9s ( a t[n1 n[ only accessible by boats1 ! waves rea*+ to ! /eps ( ! h\ses40 ,judg+ f ?is passage1 "o w\ld be tempt$ to conclude t ! isl& mu/ h subsid$1 s9ce ^! h\ses 7 built4 ,i may1 also1 "h app5d a /atem5t 9 ,malte ,brun 7volume ix41 page #gge1 giv5 )\t any au?ority71 t ! sea ga9s 9 an extraord9>y mann] on ! coa/ ( ,co*9 ,*9a1 :i* lies 9 front & ne> ! subsid+ coral-reefs 9 ! ,*9a ,sea3 z ! coa/ is granitic1 & n alluvial1 x is sc>cely possible t ! encroa*m5t ( ! sea c be ow+ to ! wa%+ away ( ! l&2 & if s1 x mu/ be due to subsid5ce4 #e ,mr4 ,c\?\y /ates 78,rem>ks10 page #dd7 t at ,tahiti & ,eimeo ! space betwe5 ! reef & ! %ore has be5 ne>ly fill$ up by ! ext5sion ( ^? coral-reefs1 :i* )9 mo/ b>ri]-reefs m]ely fr+e ! l&4 ,f ?is circum/ance1 he arrives at ! same conclusion z ,i h done1 t ! ,society ,isl&s s9ce _! subsid5ce1 h rema9$ /ation>y dur+ a long p]iod2 b he fur!r believes t !y h rec5tly comm5c$ ris+1 z well z ! :ole area ( ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago4 ,he does n give any detail$ pro(s reg>d+ ! elevation ( ! ,society ,isl&s1 b ,i %all ref] to ?is subject 9 ano!r "p ( ?is *apt]4 ,be=e mak+ "s fur!r comm5ts1 ,i may obs]ve h[ satisfactory x is to me1 to f9d ,mr4 ,c\?\y affirm+1 t 8hav+ p]sonally exam9$ a l>ge numb] ( coral-isl&s1 & also resid+ eight mon?s among ! volcanic class1 hav+ %ore & p>tially encircl+ reefs1 ,i may be p]mitt$ to /ate t my own obs]vations h impress$ a conviction ( ! correctness ( ! !ory ( ,mr4 ,d>w940 ,?is g5tleman believes1 t subsequ5tly to ! subsid5ce by :i* ! atolls 9 ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago 7 produc$1 ! :ole area has be5 elevat$ to ! am\nt ( a few feet2 ?is w\ld inde$ be a rem>kable fact2 b z f> z ,i am able to judge1 ! gr\nds ( 8 conclusion are n suffici5tly /rong4 ,he /ates t he f\nd 9 almo/ e atoll :i* he visit$1 ! %ores ( ! lagoon rais$ f eighte5 to ?irty in*es above ! sea-level1 & conta9+ imb$d$ ,tridacnae & corals /&+ z !y grew2 "s ( ! corals 7 dead 9 _! upp] p>ts1 b bel[ a c]ta9 l9e !y cont9u$ to fl\ri%4 ,9 ! lagoons1 also1 he frequ5tly met ) clu/]s ( ,madrepore1 ) _! extremities /&+ f "o in* to a foot above ! surface ( ! wat]4 ,n[1 ^! appe>ances are exactly :at ,i %\ld h expect$1 )\t any subsequ5t elevation hav+ tak5 place2 & ,i ?9k ,mr4 ,c\?\y has n borne 9 m9d ! indisputable fact1 t corals1 :5 con/antly ba!d by ! surf1 c exi/ at a high] level ?an 9 q tranquil wat]1 z 9 a lagoon4 ,z long1 !re=e1 z ! waves cont9u$ at l[ wat] to break entirely ov] p>ts ( ! annul> reef ( an atoll1 subm]g$ to a small dep?1 ! corals & %ells atta*$ on ^! p>ts might cont9ue liv+ at a level above ! smoo? surface ( ! lagoon1 into :i* ! waves roll$2 b z soon z ! out] edge ( ! reef grew up to its utmo/ possible height1 or if ! reef 7 v broad ne>ly to t height1 ! =ce ( ! break]s w\ld be *eck$1 & ! corals & %ells on ! inn] p>ts ne> ! lagoon w\ld occasionally be left dry1 & ?us be p>tially or :olly de/roy$4 ,ev5 9 atolls1 :i* h n lately subsid$1 if ! out] m>g9 ( ! reef cont9u$ to increase 9 bread? seaw>d 7ea* fre% zone ( corals ris+ to ! same v]tical height z at ,keel+ atoll71 ! l9e :]e ! waves broke mo/ heavily w\ld advance outw>ds1 & !re=e ! corals1 :i* :5 liv+ ne> ! m>g91 7 wa%$ by ! break+ waves dur+ ! :ole ( ea* tide1 w\ld cease be+ s1 & w\ld !re=e be left on ! backw>d "p ( ! reef /&+ expos$ & dead4 ,! case ( ! madrepores 9 ! lagoons ) ! tops ( _! bran*es expos$1 seems to be an analog\s fact1 to ! great fields ( dead b upright corals 9 ! lagoon ( ,keel+ atoll2 a condition ( ?+s :i* ,i h endeav\r$ to %[1 has result$ f ! lagoon hav+ become m & m enclos$ & *ok$ up ) reefs1 s t dur+ high w9ds1 ! ris+ ( ! tide 7z obs]v$ by ! inhabitants7 is *eck$1 & ! corals1 :i* _h =m]ly gr[n to ! greate/ possible height1 are occasionally expos$1 & ?us are kill$3 & ?is is a condition ( ?+s1 t[>ds :i* almo/ e atoll 9 ! int]vals ( its subsid5ce mu/ be t5d+4 ,or if we look to ! /ate ( an atoll directly aft] a subsid5ce ( "s fa?oms1 ! waves w\ld roll heavily ov] ! entire circumf]5ce ( ! reef1 & ! surface ( ! lagoon w\ld1 l ! ocean1 nev] be q at re/1 & !re=e ! corals 9 ! lagoon1 f be+ con/antly lav$ by ! rippl+ wat]1 might ext5d _! bran*es to a little great] height ?an !y c\ld1 :5 ! lagoon became enclos$ & protect$4 ,*ri/mas atoll 7#b ,n4 latitude7 :i* has a v %all[ lagoon1 & diff]s 9 sev]al respects f mo/ atolls1 possibly may h be5 elevat$ rec5tly2 b its highe/ "p appe>s 7,c\?\y1 page #df7 to be only t5 feet above ! sea-level4 ,! facts ( a second class1 adduc$ by ,mr4 ,c\?\y1 9 support ( ! alleg$ rec5t elevation ( ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago1 are n all 7especially ^? ref]r+ to a %elf ( rock7 q intelligible to me2 he believes t c]ta9 enorm\s fragm5ts ( rock on ! reef1 mu/ h be5 mov$ into _! pres5t position1 :5 ! reef 0 at a l[] level2 b "h aga9 ! =ce ( ! break]s on any inn] po9t ( ! reef be+ dim9i%$ by its outw>d gr[? )\t any *ange 9 its level1 has n1 ,i ?9k1 be5 borne 9 m9d4 ,we %\ld1 also1 n ov]look ! occasional ag5cy ( waves caus$ by e>?quakes & hurricanes4 ,mr4 ,c\?\y fur!r argues1 t s9ce ^! great fragm5ts 7 deposit$ & fix$ on ! reef1 !y h be5 elevat$2 he inf]s ?is f ! greate/ am\nt ( erosion n be+ ne> _! bases1 :]e !y are unceas+ly wa%$ by ! reflux ( ! tides1 b at "s height on _! sides1 ne> ! l9e ( high-wat] m>k1 z %[n 9 an accompany+ diagram4 ,my =m] rem>k aga9 applies "h1 ) ?is fur!r obs]vation1 t z ! waves h to roll ov] a wide space ( reef be=e !y rea* ! fragm5ts1 _! =ce mu/ be greatly increas$ ) ! increas+ dep? ( wat] z ! tide rises1 & !re=e ,i %\ld h expect$ t ! *ief l9e ( pres5t erosion w\ld h co9cid$ ) ! l9e ( high-wat] m>k2 & if ! reef _h gr[n outw>ds1 t !re w\ld h be5 l9es ( erosion at great] heights4 ,! conclusion1 to :i* ,i am f9ally l$ by ! int]e/+ obs]vations ( ,mr4 ,c\?\y is1 t ! atolls 9 ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago h1 l ! ,society ,isl&s1 rema9$ at a /ation>y level = a long p]iod3 & ?is probably is ! ord9>y c\rse ( ev5ts1 subsid5ce sup]v5+ aft] long int]vals ( re/4 ,turn+ n[ to ! r$ col\r2 z on our map1 ! areas :i* h sunk sl[ly d[nw>ds to great dep?s are _m & l>ge1 we might naturally h be5 l$ to conjecture1 t ) su* great *anges ( level 9 progress1 ! coa/s :i* h be5 fr+$ probably = ages 7= we h no reason to believe t coral-reefs are ( %ort duration71 w\ld n h rema9$ all ?is "t /ation>y1 b w\ld frequ5tly h und]gone movem5ts ( elevation4 ,?is supposition1 we %all imm$iately see1 holds good to a rem>kable ext5t2 & al?\gh a /ation>y condition ( ! l& c h>dly ev] be op5 to pro(1 f ! evid5ce be+ only negative1 we are1 9 "s degree1 enabl$ to asc]ta9 ! correctness ( ! p>ts col\r$ r$ on ! map1 by ! direct te/imony ( uprais$ organic rema9s ( a mod]n date4 ,be=e go+ into ! details on ?is head 7pr9t$ 9 small type71 ,i may m5tion1 t :5 read+ a memoir on coral =mations by ,,mm4 ,quoy & ,gaim>d#f ,i 0 a/oni%$ to f9d1 = ,i knew t !y _h cross$ bo? ! ,pacific & ,indian ,oceans1 t _! descriptions 7 applicable only to reefs ( ! fr++ class2 b my a/oni%m5t end$ satisfactorily1 :5 ,i discov]$ t1 by a /range *ance1 all ! isl&s :i* ^! em95t naturali/s _h visit$1 ?\gh sev]al 9 numb]1 namely1 ! ,mauritius1 ,timor1 ,new ,gu9ea1 ! ,m>iana1 & ,s&wi* ,ar*ipelagoes1 c\ld be %[n by _! own /atem5ts to h be5 elevat$ )9 a rec5t geological era4 #f 8,annales des ,sci5ces ,nat40 tom4 vi41 page #bgi1 etc4 ,9 ! ea/]n half ( ! ,pacific1 ! ,s&wi* ,isl&s are all fr+$1 & almo/ e naturali/ :o has visit$ !m1 has rem>k$ on ! abundance ( elevat$ corals & %ells1 app>5tly id5tical ) liv+ species4 ,! ,rev4 ,w4 ,ellis in=ms me1 t he has notic$ r\nd sev]al p>ts ( ,hawaii1 b$s ( coral-detritus1 ab\t tw5ty feet above ! level ( ! sea1 & :]e ! coa/ is l[ !y ext5d f> inl&4 ,uprais$ coral-rock =ms a consid]able "p ( ! bord]s ( ,oahu2 & at ,elizabe? ,isl&#g x composes ?ree /rata1 ea* ab\t t5 feet ?ick4 ,nihau1 :i* =ms ! nor!rn1 z ,hawaii does ! s\!rn end ( ! gr\p 7#cej miles 9 l5g?71 likewise seems to consi/ ( coral & volcanic rocks4 ,mr4 ,c\?\y#h has lately describ$ ) int]e/+ details1 sev]al uprais$ bea*es1 anci5t reefs ) _! surfaces p]fectly pres]v$1 & b$s ( rec5t %ells & corals1 at ! isl&s ( ,maui1 ,morokai1 ,oahu1 & ,tauai 7or ,kauai7 9 ?is gr\p4 ,mr4 ,pi]ce1 an intellig5t resid5t at ,oahu1 is conv9c$1 f *anges :i* h tak5 place )9 8 memory1 dur+ ! la/ sixte5 ye>s1 8t ! elevation is at pres5t go+ =w>d at a v p]ceptible rate40 ,! natives at ,kauai /ate t ! l& is !re ga9+ rapidly on ! sea1 & ,mr4 ,c\?\y has no d\bt1 f ! nature ( ! /rata1 t ?is has be5 effect$ by an elevation ( ! l&4 #g 8,zoology ( ,capta9 ,bee*ey's ,voyage10 page #agf4 ,see also ,,mm4 ,quoy & ,gaim>d 9 8,annales de ,sci54 ,nat40 tom4 vi4 #h 8,rem>ks on ,coral ,=mations10 page #ea4 ,9 ! s\!rn "p ( ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago1 ,elizabe? ,isl& is describ$ by ,capta9 ,bee*ey1#i z be+ q flat1 & ab\t eighty feet 9 height2 x is entirely compos$ ( dead corals1 =m+ a honeycomb$1 b compact rock4 ,9 cases l ?is1 ( an isl& hav+ exactly ! appe>ance1 :i* ! elevation ( any "o ( ! small] surr\nd+ atolls ) a %all[ lagoon w\ld pres5t1 "o is l$ to conclude 7) little bett] reason1 h[ev]1 ?an ! improbability ( su* small & l[ fabrics la/+1 = an imm5se p]iod1 expos$ to ! _m de/roy+ ag5ts ( nature71 t ! elevation has tak5 place at an epo* n geologically remote4 ,:5 m]ely ! surface ( an isl& ( ord9>y =mation is /rew$ ) m>9e bodies1 & t cont9u\sly1 or ne>ly s1 f ! bea* to a c]ta9 height1 & n above t height1 x is exce$+ly improbable t su* organic rema9s1 al?\gh !y may n h be5 specially exam9$1 %\ld belong to any anci5t p]iod4 ,x is necess>y to be> ^! rem>ks 9 m9d1 9 consid]+ ! evid5ce ( ! elevatory movem5ts 9 ! ,pacific & ,indian ,oceans1 z x does n (t5 re/ on specific det]m9ations1 & !re=e %\ld be receiv$ ) caution4 ,six ( ! ,cook & ,au/ral ,isl&s 7,s4,w4 ( ! ,society gr\p71 are fr+$2 ( ^!1 five 7 describ$ to me by ! ,rev4 ,j4 ,williams1 z =m$ ( coral-rock1 associat$ ) "s basalt 9 ,mangaia71 & ! six? z l(ty & basaltic4 ,mangaia is ne>ly ?ree hundr$ feet high1 ) a level summit2 & accord+ to ,mr4 ,s4 ,wilson#aj x is an uprais$ reef2 8& !re are 9 ! c5tral holl[1 =m]ly ! b$ ( ! lagoon1 _m scatt]$ pat*es ( coral-rock1 "s ( !m rais$ to a height ( =ty feet40 ,^! knolls ( coral-rock 7 evid5tly once sep>ate reefs 9 ! lagoon ( an atoll4 ,mr4 ,m>t5s1 at ,sydney1 in=m$ me t ?is isl& is surr\nd$ by a t]race-l pla9 at ab\t ! height ( a hundr$ feet1 :i* probably m>ks a pause 9 its elevation4 ,f ^! facts we may inf]1 p]haps1 t ! ,cook & ,au/ral ,isl&s h be5 upheav$ at a p]iod probably n v remote4 #i ,bee*ey's 8,voyage 9 ! ,pacific10 page #df1 #dto edition4 #aj ,c\?\y's 8,rem>ks10 page #cd4 ,savage ,isl& 7,s4,e4 ( ! ,fri5dly gr\p71 is ab\t =ty feet 9 height4 ,=/]#aa describes ! plants z already gr[+ out ( ! dead1 b /ill upright & spread+ trees ( coral2 & ! y\ng] ,=/]#ab believes t an anci5t lagoon is n[ repres5t$ by a c5tral pla92 "h we _c d\bt t ! elevatory =ces h rec5tly act$4 ,! same conclusion may be ext5d$1 ?\gh ) some:at less c]ta9ty1 to ! isl&s ( ! ,fri5dly ,gr\p1 :i* h be5 well describ$ 9 ! second & ?ird voyages ( ,cook4 ,! surface ( ,tongatab\ is l[ & level1 b ) "s p>ts a hundr$ feet high2 ! :ole consi/s ( coral-rock1 8:i* yet %[s ! cavities & irregul>ities worn into x by ! action ( ! tides40#ac ,on ,e\a ! same appe>ances 7 notic$ at an elevation ( betwe5 two hundr$ & ?ree hundr$ feet4 ,vavao1 also1 at ! opposite or nor!rn end ( ! gr\p1 consi/s1 accord+ to ! ,rev4 ,j4 ,williams1 ( coral-rock4 ,tongatab\1 ) its nor!rn ext5sive reefs1 resembles ei!r an uprais$ atoll ) "o half orig9ally imp]fect1 or "o unequally elevat$2 & ,anam\ka1 an atoll equally elevat$4 ,?is latt] isl& conta9s#ad 9 its c5tre a salt-wat] lake1 ab\t a mile-&-a-half 9 diamet]1 )\t any communication ) ! sea1 & ar\nd x ! l& rises gradually l a bank2 ! highe/ "p is only betwe5 tw5ty & ?irty feet2 b on ?is "p1 z well z on ! re/ ( ! l& 7:i*1 z ,cook obs]ves1 rises above ! height ( true lagoon-isl&s71 coral-rock1 l t on ! bea*1 0 f\nd4 ,9 ! ,navigator ,ar*ipelago1 ,mr4 ,c\?\y#ae f\nd on ,manua _m & v l>ge fragm5ts ( coral at ! height ( eighty feet1 8on a /eep hill-side1 ris+ half a mile inl& f a l[ s&y pla9 ab\nd+ 9 m>9e rema9s40 ,! fragm5ts 7 emb$d$ 9 a mixture ( decompos$ lava & s&4 ,x is n /at$ :e!r !y 7 accompani$ by %ells1 or :e!r ! corals resembl$ rec5t species2 z ^! rema9s 7 emb$d$ !y possibly may belong to a remote epo*2 b ,i presume ?is 0 n ! op9ion ( ,mr4 ,c\?\y4 ,e>?quakes are v frequ5t 9 ?is ar*ipelago4 #aa 8,obs]vations made dur+ ,voyage r\nd ! ,_w10 page #adg4 #ab 8,voyage10 volume ii41 page #afc4 #ac ,cook's 8,?ird ,voyage0 7#dto edition71 volume i41 page #cad4 #ad ,ibid41 volume i41 page #bce4 #ae 8,rem>ks on ,coral-,=mations10 page #ej4 ,/ill proce$+ we/w>d we come to ! ,new ,hebrides2 on ^! isl&s1 ,mr4 ,g4 ,b5nett 7au?or ( 8,w&]+s 9 ,new ,s\? ,wales071 in=ms me he f\nd mu* coral at a great altitude1 :i* he consid]$ ( rec5t orig94 ,respect+ ,santa ,cruz1 & ! ,salomon ,ar*ipelago1 ,i h no in=mation2 b at ,new ,irel&1 :i* =ms ! nor!rn po9t ( ! latt] *a91 bo? ,labill>dire & ,lesson h describ$ l>ge b$s ( an app>5tly v mod]n madreporitic rock1 ) ! =m ( ! corals little alt]$4 ,! latt] au?or#af /ates t ?is =mation composes a new] l9e ( coa/1 modell$ r\nd an anci5t "o4 ,!re only rema9s to be describ$ 9 ! ,pacific1 t curv$ l9e ( fr+$ isl&s1 ( :i* ! ,m>ianas =m ! ma9 "p4 ,( ^! ,guam1 ,rota1 ,t9iam1 ,saypan1 & "s islets f>!r nor?1 are describ$ by ,quoy & ,gaim>d1#ag & ,*amisso1#ah z *iefly compos$ ( madreporitic lime/one1 :i* atta9s a consid]able elevation1 & is 9 sev]al cases worn into successively ris+ cliffs3 ! two =m] naturali/s seem to h comp>$ ! corals & %ells ) ! exi/+ ones1 & /ate t !y are ( rec5t species4 ,fais1 :i* lies 9 ! prolong$ l9e ( ! ,m>ianas1 is ! only isl& 9 ?is "p ( ! sea :i* is fr+$2 x is n9ety feet high1 & consi/s entirely ( madreporitic rock4#ai #af 8,voyage de la #8,coquille'10 ,"p4 ,zoolog4 #ag ,freyc9et's 8,voyage aut\r du ,monde40 ,see also ! 8,hydrographical ,memoir10 page #bae4 #ah ,kotzebue's 8,fir/ ,voyage40 #ai ,lutk's 8,voyage10 volume ii41 page #cjd4 ,9 ! ,ea/ ,indian ,ar*ipelago1 _m au?ors h record$ pro(s ( rec5t elevation4 ,m4 ,lesson#bj /ates1 t ne> ,port ,dory1 on ! nor? coa/ ( ,new ,gu9ea1 ! %ores are flank$1 to ! height ( #aej feet1 by madreporitic /rata ( mod]n date4 ,he m5tions simil> =mations at ,waigi\1 ,ambo9a1 ,b\r\1 ,c]am1 ,sonda1 & ,timor3 at ?is latt] place1 ,,mm4 ,quoy & ,gaim>d#ba h likewise describ$ ! primitive rocks1 z coat$ to a consid]able height ) coral4 ,"s small islets ea/w>d ( ,timor are said 9 ,kolff's 8,voyage10#bb to resemble small coral islets uprais$ "s feet above ! sea4 ,dr4 ,malcolmson in=ms me t ,dr4 ,h>die f\nd 9 ,java an ext5sive =mation1 conta9+ an abundance ( %ells1 ( :i* ! great] "p appe> to be ( exi/+ species4 ,dr4 ,jack#bc has describ$ "s uprais$ %ells & corals1 app>5tly rec5t1 on ,pulo ,nias (f ,sumatra2 & ,m>sd5 relates 9 8 hi/ory ( ?is great isl&1 t ! names ( _m promontories1 %[ t !y 7 orig9ally isl&s4 ,on "p ( ! we/ coa/ ( ,borneo & at ! ,sooloo ,isl&s1 ! =m ( ! l&1 ! nature ( ! soil1 & ! wat]-wa%$ rocks1 pres5t appe>ances#bd 7al?\gh x is d\btful :e!r su* vague evid5ce is wor?y ( m5tion71 ( hav+ rec5tly be5 cov]$ by ! sea2 & ! inhabitants ( ! ,sooloo ,isl&s believe t ?is has be5 ! case4 ,mr4 ,cum+1 :o has lately inve/igat$1 ) s mu* success1 ! natural hi/ory ( ! ,phillipp9es1 f\nd ne> ,cabagan1 9 ,luzon1 ab\t fifty feet above ! level ( ! ,r4 ,cagayan1 & sev5ty miles f its m\?1 a l>ge b$ ( fossil %ells3 ^!1 he in=ms me1 are ( ! same species ) ^? n[ exi/+ on ! %ores ( ! neighb\r+ isl&s4 ,f ! acc\nts giv5 u by ,capta9 ,basil ,hall & ,capta9 ,bee*ey#be ( ! l9es ( inl& reefs1 & walls ( coral-rock worn into caves1 above ! pres5t rea* ( ! waves1 at ! ,loo ,*oo ,isl&s1 !re c be little d\bt t !y h be5 uprais$ at no v remote p]iod4 #bj ,p>tie ,zoolog41 8,voyage de la #8,coquille'40 #ba 8,ann4 des ,sci54 ,nat40 tom4 vi41 page #bha4 #bb ,translat$ by ,w9dsor ,e>l1 *apt]s vi41 vii4 #bc 8,geolog4 ,transact40 #bnd s]ies1 volume i41 page #djc4 ,on ! ,p59sula ( ,malacca1 9 front ( ,p9ang1 #e #cj ,n41 ,dr4 ,w>d collect$ "s %ells1 :i* ,dr4 ,malcolmson in=ms me1 al?\gh n comp>$ ) exi/+ species1 _h a rec5t appe>ance4 ,dr4 ,w>d describes 9 ?is neighb\rhood 78,trans4 ,asiat4 ,soc40 volume xviii41 "p ii41 page #aff7 a s+le wat]-worn rock1 ) a conglom]ate ( sea-%ells at its base1 situat$ six miles inl&1 :i*1 accord+ to ! traditions ( ! natives1 0 once surr\nd$ by ! sea4 ,capta9 ,l[ has also describ$ 7,ibid41 "p i41 page #aca7 m\nds ( %ells ly+ two miles inl& on ?is l9e ( coa/4 #bd 8,notices ( ! ,ea/ ,indian ,ar*40 ,s+apore1 #ahbh1 page #f1 & ,app5d41 page #dc4 #be ,capta9 ,b4 ,hall1 8,voyage to ,loo ,*oo10 ,app5d41 pages xxi4 & xxv4 ,capta9 ,bee*ey's 8,voyage10 page #dif4 ,dr4 ,davy#bf describes ! nor!rn prov9ce ( ,ceylon z be+ v l[1 & consi/+ ( a lime/one ) %ells & corals ( v rec5t orig92 he adds1 t x does n admit ( a d\bt t ! sea has retir$ f ?is di/rict ev5 )9 ! memory ( man4 ,!re is also "s reason = believ+ t ! we/]n %ores ( ,india1 nor? ( ,ceylon1 h be5 uprais$ )9 ! rec5t p]iod4#bg ,mauritius has c]ta9ly be5 uprais$ )9 ! rec5t p]iod1 z ,i h /at$ 9 ! *apt] on fr++-reefs4 ,! nor!rn extremity ( ,madagasc> is describ$ by ,capta9 ,ow5#bh z =m$ ( madreporitic rock1 z likewise are ! %ores & outly+ isl&s along an imm5se space ( ,ea/]n ,africa1 f a little nor? ( ! equator = n9e hundr$ miles s\?w>d4 ,no?+ c be m vague ?an ! expression 8madreporitic rock20 b at ! same "t x is1 ,i ?9k1 sc>cely possible to look at ! *>t ( ! l9e> islets1 :i* rise to a great] height ?an c be acc\nt$ = by ! gr[? ( coral1 9 front ( ! coa/1 f ! equator to #b ,s41 )\t feel+ conv9c$ t a l9e ( fr++-reefs has be5 elevat$ at a p]iod s rec5t1 t no great *anges h s9ce tak5 place on ! surface ( ?is "p ( ! globe4 ,"s1 also1 ( ! high] isl&s ( madreporitic rock on ?is coa/1 = in/ance ,pemba1 h v s+ul> =ms1 :i* seem to %[ ! comb9$ effect ( ! gr[? ( coral r\nd subm]g$ banks1 & _! subsequ5t upheaval4 ,dr4 ,allan in=ms me t he nev] obs]v$ any elevat$ organic rema9s on ! ,sey*elles1 :i* come "u our fr+$ class4 #bf 8,travels 9 ,ceylon10 page #ac4 ,?is madreporitic =mation is m5tion$ by ,m4 ,cordi] 9 8 report to ! ,in/itute 7,may #d?1 #ahci71 on ! voyage ( ! 8,*evrette01 z "o ( imm5se ext5t1 & belong+ to ! late/ t]ti>y p]iod4 #bg ,dr4 ,b5za1 9 8 8,j\rney ?r\gh ! ,n4 ,circ>s0 7! 8,madras ,lit4 & ,sci5t4 ,j\rn40 volume v47 has describ$ a =mation ) rec5t fre%-wat] & m>9e %ells1 occurr+ at ! di/ance ( ?ree or f\r miles f ! pres5t %ore4 ,dr4 ,b5za1 9 conv]sation ) me1 attribut$ _! position to a rise ( ! l&4 ,dr4 ,malcolmson1 h[ev] 7& !re _c be a high] au?ority on ! geology ( ,india7 in=ms me t he suspects t ^! b$s may h be5 =m$ by ! m]e action ( ! waves & curr5ts accumulat+ s$im5t4 ,f analogy ,i %\ld mu* incl9e to ,dr4 ,b5za's op9ion4 #bh ,ow5's 8,africa10 volume ii41 page #cg1 = ,madagasc>2 & = ,s4 ,africa1 volume i41 pages #dab & #dbf4 ,lieut5ant ,botel]'s n>rative conta9s full] p>ticul>s reg>d+ ! coral-rock1 volume i41 page #agd1 & volume ii41 pages #da & #ed4 ,see also ,rus*5b]g]'s 8,voyage r\nd ! ,_w10 volume i41 page #fj4 ,! nature ( ! =mations r\nd ! %ores ( ! ,r$ ,sea1 z describ$ by sev]al au?ors1 %[s t ! :ole ( ?is l>ge area has be5 elevat$ )9 a v rec5t t]ti>y epo*4 ,a "p ( ?is space 9 ! app5d$ map1 is col\r$ blue1 indicat+ ! pres5ce ( b>ri]-reefs3 on :i* circum/ance ,i %all pres5tly make "s rem>ks4 ,rppell#bi /ates t ! t]ti>y =mation1 ( :i* he has exam9$ ! organic rema9s1 =ms a fr+e along ! %ores ) a uni=m height ( f ?irty & =ty feet f ! m\? ( ! ,gulf ( ,suez to ab\t latitude #bf2 b t s\? ( #bf1 ! b$s atta9 only ! height ( f twelve to fifte5 feet4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 c h>dly be q accurate2 al?\gh possibly !re may be a decrease 9 ! elevation ( ! %ores 9 ! middle p>ts ( ! ,r$ ,sea1 = ,dr4 ,malcolmson 7z he in=ms me7 collect$ f ! cliffs ( ,cam>an ,isl& 7latitude #ae #cj ,s47 %ells & corals1 app>5tly rec5t1 at a height betwe5 ?irty & =ty feet2 & ,mr4 ,salt 78,travels 9 ,abyss9ia07 describes a simil> =mation a little s\?w>d on ! opposite %ore at ,amphila4 ,moreov]1 ne> ! m\? ( ! ,gulf ( ,suez1 al?\gh on ! coa/ opposite to t on :i* ,dr4 ,rppell says t ! mod]n b$s atta9 a height ( only ?irty to =ty feet1 ,mr4 ,burton#cj f\nd a deposit replete ) exi/+ species ( %ells1 at ! height ( #bjj feet4 ,9 an admirable s]ies ( draw+s by ,capta9 ,moresby1 ,i c\ld see h[ cont9u\sly ! cliff-b\nd$ l[ pla9s ( ?is =mation ext5d$ ) a ne>ly equable height1 bo? on ! ea/]n & we/]n %ores4 ,! s\!rn coa/ ( ,arabia seems to h be5 subject$ to ! same elevatory movem5t1 = ,dr4 ,malcolmson f\nd at ,sah> l[ cliffs conta9+ %ells & corals1 app>5tly ( rec5t species4 #bi ,rppell1 8,reise 9 ,abyss9i510 ,b& i41 s4 #ada4 #cj ,lyell's 8,pr9ciples ( ,geology10 #e? edition1 volume iv41 page #be4 ,! ,p]sian ,gulf ab\nds ) coral-reefs2 b z x is difficult to di/+ui% !m f s&-banks 9 ?is %all[ sea1 ,i h col\r$ only "s ne> ! m\?2 t[>ds ! head ( ! gulf ,mr4 ,a9swor?#ca says t ! l& is worn into t]races1 & t ! b$s conta9 organic rema9s ( exi/+ =ms4 ,! ,we/ ,indian ,ar*ipelago ( 8fr+$0 isl&s1 alone rema9s to be m5tion$2 evid5ce ( an elevation )9 a late t]ti>y epo* ( ne>ly ! :ole ( ?is great area1 may be f\nd 9 ! works ( almo/ all ! naturali/s :o h visit$ x4 ,i w give "s ( ! pr9cipal ref]5ces 9 a note4#cb #ca ,a9swor?'s 8,assyria & ,babylon10 page #bag4 #cb ,on ,florida & ! nor? %ores ( ! ,gulf ( ,mexico1 ,rog]s' 8,report to ,brit4 ,assoc40 volume iii41 page #ad4--,on ! %ores ( ,mexico1 ,humboldt1 8,polit4 ,essay on ,new ,spa910 volume i41 page #fb4 7,i h also "s corroborative facts ) respect to ! %ores ( ,mexico47--,honduras & ! ,antilles1 ,lyell's 8,pr9ciples10 #e? edition1 volume iv41 page #bb4--,santa ,cruz & ,b>badoes1 ,pr(4 ,hovey1 8,silliman's ,j\rnal01 volume xxxv41 page #gd4--,/4 ,dom+o1 ,c\rrojolles1 8,j\rn de ,phys40 tom4 liv41 page #ajf4--;,bahamas1 8,unit$ ,s]vice ,j\rnal01 ,no4 lxxi41 pages #bah & #bbd4 ,jamaica1 ,de la ,be*e1 8,geol4 ,man40 page #adb4--;,cuba1 ,taylor 9 8,lond4 & ,ed94 ,mag40 volume xi41 page #ag4 ,dr4 ,daub5y also1 at a meet+ ( ! ,geolog4 ,soc41 orally describ$ "s v mod]n b$s ly+ on ! ,n4,w4 p>ts ( ,cuba4 ,i might h add$ _m o!r less important ref]5ces4 ,x is v rem>kable on review+ ^! details1 to obs]ve 9 h[ _m in/ances fr++-reefs r\nd ! %ores1 h co9cid$ ) ! exi/5ce on ! l& ( uprais$ organic rema9s1 :i* seem1 f evid5ce m or less satisfactory1 to belong to a late t]ti>y p]iod4 ,x may1 h[ev]1 be object$1 t simil> pro(s ( elevation1 p]haps1 occur on ! coa/s col\r$ blue 9 our map3 b ?is c]ta9ly is n ! case ) ! few foll[+ & d\btful exceptions4 ,! entire area ( ! ,r$ ,sea appe>s to h be5 uprais$ )9 a mod]n p]iod2 nev]!less ,i h be5 compell$ 7?\gh on unsatisfactory evid5ce1 z giv5 9 ! ,app5dix7 to class ! reefs 9 ! middle "p1 z b>ri]-reefs2 %\ld1 h[ev]1 ! /atem5ts prove accurate to ! less height ( ! t]ti>y b$ 9 ?is middle "p1 comp>$ ) ! nor!rn & s\!rn di/ricts1 we might well suspect t x _h subsid$ subsequ5tly to ! g5]al elevation by :i* ! :ole area has be5 uprais$4 ,sev]al au?ors#cc h /at$ t !y h obs]v$ %ells & corals high up on ! m\nta9s ( ! ,society ,isl&s1--a gr\p encircl$ by b>ri]-reefs1 &1 !re=e1 suppos$ to h subsid$3 at ,tahiti ,mr4 ,/ut*bury f\nd on ! apex ( "o ( ! highe/ m\nta9s1 betwe5 #e1jjj & #g1jjj feet above ! level ( ! sea1 8a di/9ct & regul> /ratum ( semi-fossil coral40 ,at ,tahiti1 h[ev]1 o!r naturali/s1 z well z myself1 h se>*$ 9 va9 at a l[ level ne> ! coa/1 = uprais$ %ells or masses ( coral-reef1 :]e if pres5t !y c\ld h>dly h be5 ov]look$4 ,f ?is fact1 ,i conclud$ t probably ! organic rema9s /rew$ high up on ! surface ( ! l&1 _h orig9ally be5 emb$d$ 9 ! volcanic /rata1 & _h subsequ5tly be5 wa%$ out by ! ra94 ,i h s9ce he>d f ! ,rev4 ,w4 ,ellis1 t ! rema9s :i* he met )1 7 7z he believes7 int]/ratifi$ ) an argillace\s tuff2 ?is likewise 0 ! case ) ! %ells obs]v$ by ! ,rev4 ,d4 ,ty]man at ,huahe9e4 ,^! rema9s h n be5 specifically exam9$2 !y may1 !re=e1 & especially ! /ratum obs]v$ by ,mr4 ,/ut*bury at an imm5se height1 be contemporane\s ) ! fir/ =mation ( ! ,society ,isl&s1 & be ( any degree ( antiquity2 or !y may h be5 deposit$ at "s subsequ5t1 b probably n v rec5t1 p]iod ( elevation2 = if ! p]iod _h be5 rec5t1 ! entire surface ( ! coa/ l& ( ^! isl&s1 :]e ! reefs are s ext5sive1 w\ld h be5 coat$ ) uprais$ coral1 :i* c]ta9ly is n ! case4 ,two ( ! ,h>vey1 or ,cook ,isl&s1 namely1 ,aitutaki & ,man\ai1 are encircl$ by reefs1 :i* ext5d s f> f ! l&1 t ,i h col\r$ !m blue1 al?\gh ) mu* hesitation1 z ! space )9 ! reef is %all[1 & ! outl9e ( ! l& is n abrupt4 ,^! two isl&s consi/ ( coral-rock2 b ,i h no evid5ce ( _! rec5t elevation1 besides1 ! improbability ( ,mangaia1 a fr+$ isl& 9 ! same gr\p 7b di/ant #agj miles71 hav+ reta9$ its ne>ly p]fect atoll-l /ructure1 dur+ any imm5se lapse ( "t aft] its upheaval4 ,! ,r$ ,sea1 !re=e1 is ! only area 9 :i* we h cle> pro(s ( ! rec5t elevation ( a di/rict1 :i*1 by our !ory 7al?\gh ! b>ri]-reefs are !re n well *>act]is$71 has lately subsid$4 ,b we h no reason to be surpris$ at oscillation1 ( level ( ?is k9d hav+ occasionally tak5 place4 ,!re c be sc>cely any d\bt t ,savage1 ,aurora1#cd & ,mangaia ,isl&s1 & sev]al ( ! isl&s 9 ! ,fri5dly gr\p1 exi/$ orig9ally z atolls1 & ^! h und\bt$ly s9ce be5 uprais$ to "s height above ! level ( ! sea2 s t by our !ory1 !re has "h1 also1 be5 an oscillation ( level1 --elevation hav+ succe$$ subsid5ce1 in/ead (1 z 9 ! middle "p ( ! ,r$ ,sea & at ! ,h>vey ,isl&s1 subsid5ce hav+ probably succe$$ rec5t elevation4 #cc ,ellis1 9 8 8,polynesian ,rese>*es10 0 ! fir/ to call att5tion to ^! rema9s 7volume i41 page #ch71 & ! tradition ( ! natives conc]n+ !m4 ,see also ,williams1 8,n>4 ( ,mission>y ,ent]prise10 page #ba2 also ,ty]man & ,g4 ,b5nett1 8,j\rnal ( ,voyage10 volume i41 page #bac2 also ,mr4 ,c\?\y's 8,rem>ks10 page #ea2 b ?is pr9cipal fact1 namely1 t !re is a mass ( uprais$ coral on ! n>r[ p59sula ( ,ti>ubu1 is f he>say evid5ce2 also ,mr4 ,/ut*bury1 8,we/ ( ,engl& ,j\rnal10 ,no4 i41 page #ed4 ,!re is a passage 9 ,von ,za*1 8,corres4 ,a/ronom40 volume x41 page #bff1 inf]r+ an upris+ at ,tahiti1 f a footpa? n[ us$1 :i* 0 =m]ly impassable2 b ,i p>ticul>ly inquir$ f sev]al native *iefs1 :e!r !y knew ( any *ange ( ?is k9d1 & !y 7 unanim\s 9 giv+ me an answ] 9 ! negative4 #cd ,aurora ,isl& is describ$ by ,mr4 ,c\?\y 78,rem>ks10 page #eh72 x lies #abj miles nor?-ea/ ( ,tahiti2 x is n col\r$ 9 ! app5d$ map1 because x does n appe> to be fr+$ by liv+ reefs4 ,mr4 ,c\?\y describes its summit z 8pres5t+ a broad table-l& :i* decl9es a few feet t[>ds ! c5tre1 :]e we may suppose ! lagoon to h be5 plac$40 ,x is ab\t two hundr$ feet 9 height1 & consi/s ( reef-rock & conglom]ate1 ) exi/+ species ( coral emb$d$ 9 x4 ,! isl& has be5 elevat$ at two successive p]iods2 ! cliffs be+ m>k$ halfway up ) a horizontal wat]-worn l9e ( deep excavations4 ,aurora ,isl& seems closely to resemble 9 /ructure ,elizabe? ,isl&1 at ! s\!rn end ( ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago4 ,x is an int]e/+ fact1 t ,fais1 :i*1 f its composition1 =m1 height1 & situation at ! we/]n end ( ! ,c>ol9e ,ar*ipelago1 "o is /rongly induc$ to believe exi/$ be=e its upheaval z an atoll1 lies exactly 9 ! prolongation ( ! curv$ l9e ( ! ,m>iana gr\p1 :i* we "k to be a l9e ( rec5t elevation4 ,i may add1 t ,elizabe? ,isl&1 9 ! s\!rn "p ( ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago1 :i* seems to h _h ! same k9d ( orig9 z ,fais1 lies ne> ,pitcairn ,isl&1 ! only "o 9 ?is "p ( ! ocean :i* is high1 & at ! same "t n surr\nd$ by an encircl+ b>ri]-reef4 ,on ! abs5ce ( active ,volcanoes 9 ! areas ( subsid5ce1 & on _! frequ5t pres5ce 9 ! areas ( elevation4--,be=e mak+ "s conclud+ rem>ks on ! relations ( ! spaces col\r$ blue & r$1 x w be conv5i5t to consid] ! position on our map ( ! volcanoes hi/orically kn[n to h be5 9 action4 ,x is impossible n to be /ruck1 fir/ ) ! abs5ce ( volcanoes 9 ! great areas ( subsid5ce t9t$ pale & d>k blue1--namely1 9 ! c5tral p>ts ( ! ,indian ,ocean1 9 ! ,*9a ,sea1 9 ! sea betwe5 ! b>ri]s ( ,au/ralia & ,new ,cal$onia1 9 ! ,c>ol9e1 ,m>%all1 ,gilb]t1 & ,l[ ,ar*ipelagoes2 &1 secondly1 ) ! co9cid5ce ( ! pr9cipal volcanic *a9s ) ! p>ts col\r$ r$1 :i* indicates ! pres5ce ( fr++-reefs2 &1 z we h j se51 ! pres5ce 9 mo/ cases ( uprais$ organic rema9s ( a mod]n date4 ,i may "h rem>k t ! reefs 7 all col\r$ be=e ! volcanoes 7 add$ to ! map1 or inde$ be=e ,i knew ( ! exi/5ce ( sev]al ( !m4 ,! volcano 9 ,torres ,/rait1 at ! nor!rn po9t ( ,au/ralia1 is t :i* lies ne>e/ to a l>ge subsid+ area1 al?\gh situat$ #abe miles )9 ! out] m>g9 ( ! actual b>ri]-reef4 ,! ,great ,comoro ,isl&1 :i* probably conta9s a volcano1 is only tw5ty miles di/ant f ! b>ri]-reef ( ,mohila2 ,ambil volcano1 9 ! ,philipp9es1 is di/ant only a little m ?an sixty miles f ! atoll-=m$ ,appoo reef3 & !re are two o!r volcanoes 9 ! map )9 n9ety miles ( circles col\r$ blue4 ,^! few cases1 :i* ?us (f] p>tial exceptions to ! rule1 ( volcanoes be+ plac$ remote f ! areas ( subsid5ce1 lie ei!r ne> s+le & isolat$ atolls1 or ne> small gr\ps ( encircl$ isl&s2 & ^! by our !ory c h1 9 few in/ances1 subsid$ to ! same am\nt 9 dep? or area1 z gr\ps ( atolls4 ,!re is n "o active volcano )9 sev]al hundr$ miles ( an ar*ipelago1 or ev5 a small gr\p ( atolls4 ,x is1 !re=e1 a /rik+ fact t 9 ! ,fri5dly ,ar*ipelago1 :i* owes its orig9 to ! elevation ( a gr\p ( atolls1 two volcanoes1 &1 p]haps1 o!rs#ce are kn[n to be 9 action3 on ! o!r h&1 on sev]al ( ! encircl$ isl&s 9 ! ,pacific1 suppos$ by our !ory to h subsid$1 !re are old crat]s & /reams ( lava1 :i* %[ ! effects ( pa/ & anci5t eruptions4 ,9 ^! cases1 x w\ld appe> z if ! volcanoes _h come into action1 & _h become ext+ui%$ on ! same spots1 accord+ z ! elevat+ or subsid+ movem5ts prevail$4 #ce ,see ! note at p4 #aba1 on ! au?orities = col\r+ ! volcanoes 9 ! app5d$ map4 ,!re are "s o!r coa/s on ! map1 :]e volcanoes 9 a /ate ( action concur ) pro(s ( rec5t elevation1 besides ^? col\r$ r$ f be+ fr+$ by coral-reefs4 ,?us ,i hope to %[ 9 a future volume1 t ne>ly ! :ole l9e ( ! we/ coa/ ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 :i* =ms ! greate/ volcanic *a9 9 ! _w1 f ne> ! equator = a space ( betwe5 #b1jjj & #c1jjj miles s\?w>d1 has und]gone an upw>d movem5t dur+ a late geological p]iod4 ,! isl&s on ! nor?-we/]n %ores ( ! ,pacific1 :i* =m ! second greate/ volcanic *a91 are v imp]fectly kn[n2 b ,luzon1 9 ! ,philipp9es1 & ! ,loo ,*oo ,isl&s1 h be5 rec5tly elevat$2 & at ,kamts*atka#cf !re are ext5sive t]ti>y b$s ( mod]n date4 ,evid5ce ( ! same nature1 b n v satisfactory1 may be detect$ 9 ,nor!rn ,new ,zeal& :]e !re are two volcanoes4 ,! co-exi/5ce 9 o!r p>ts ( ! _w ( active volcanoes1 ) uprais$ b$s ( a mod]n t]ti>y orig91 w occur to e geologi/4#cg ,nev]!less1 until x c\ld be %[n t volcanoes 7 inactive1 or did n exi/ 9 subsid+ areas1 ! conclusion t _! di/ribution dep5d$ on ! nature ( ! subt]ranean movem5ts 9 progress1 w\ld h be5 haz>d\s4 ,b n[1 view+ ! app5d$ map1 x may1 ,i ?9k1 be consid]$ z almo/ e/abli%$1 t volcanoes are (t5 7n necess>ily always7 pres5t 9 ^? areas :]e ! subt]ranean motive p[] has lately =c$1 or is n[ =c+ outw>ds1 ! cru/ ( ! e>?1 b t !y are inv>iably abs5t 9 ^?1 :]e ! surface has lately subsid$ or is /ill subsid+4#ch #cf ,at ,s$anka1 9 latitude #eh ,n4 7,von ,bu*'s 8,descrip4 des ,isles ,can>ies10 page #dee74 ,9 a =?com+ "p1 ,i %all give ! evid5ce ref]r$ to ) respect to ! elevation ( ,new ,zeal&4 #cg ,dur+ ! subt]ranean di/urbances :i* took place 9 ,*ile1 9 #ahce1 ,i h %[n 78,geolog4 ,trans40 #bnd ,s]41 vol4 v41 page #fjf7 t at ! same mom5t t a l>ge di/rict 0 uprais$1 volcanic matt] bur/ =? at widely sep>at$ po9ts1 ?r\gh bo? new & old v5ts4 #ch ,we may inf] f ?is rule1 t 9 any old deposit1 :i* conta9s int]/ratifi$ b$s ( erupt$ matt]1 !re 0 at ! p]iod1 & 9 ! area ( its =mation1 a t5d5cy to an upw>d movem5t 9 ! e>?'s surface1 & c]ta9ly no movem5t ( subsid5ce4 ,on ! relations ( ! areas ( ,subsid5ce & ,elevation4--,! imm5se surfaces on ! map1 :i*1 bo? by our !ory & by ! pla9 evid5ce ( uprais$ m>9e rema9s1 h und]gone a *ange ( level ei!r d[nw>ds or upw>ds dur+ a late p]iod1 is a mo/ rem>kable fact4 ,! exi/5ce ( cont95ts %[s t ! areas h be5 imm5se :i* at "s p]iod h be5 uprais$2 9 ,s\? ,am]ica we may feel sure1 & on ! nor?-we/]n %ores ( ! ,indian ,ocean we may suspect1 t ?is ris+ is ei!r n[ actually 9 progress1 or has tak5 place q rec5tly4 ,by our !ory1 we may conclude t ! areas are likewise imm5se :i* h lately subsid$1 or1 judg+ f ! e>?quakes occasionally felt & f o!r appe>ances1 are n[ subsid+4 ,! smallness ( ! scale ( our map %\ld n be ov]look$3 ea* ( ! squ>es on x conta9s 7n all[+ = ! curvature ( ! e>?7 #haj1jjj squ>e miles4 ,look at ! space ( ocean f ne> ! s\!rn end ( ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago to ! nor!rn end ( ! ,m>%all ,ar*ipelago1 a l5g? ( #d1ejj miles1 9 :i*1 z f> z is kn[n1 e isl&1 except ,aurora :i* lies j )\t ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago1 is atoll-=m$4 ,! ea/]n & we/]n b\nd>ies ( our map are cont95ts1 & !y are ris+ areas3 ! c5tral spaces ( ! great ,indian & ,pacific ,oceans1 are mo/ly subsid+2 betwe5 !m1 nor? ( ,au/ralia1 lies ! mo/ brok5 l& on ! globe1 & !re ! ris+ p>ts are surr\nd$ & p5etrat$ by areas ( subsid5ce1#ci s t ! prevail+ movem5ts n[ 9 progress1 seem to accord ) ! actual /ates ( surface ( ! great divisions ( ! _w4 #ci ,i suspect t ! ,arru & ,timor-laut ,isl&s pres5t an includ$ small area ( subsid5ce1 l t ( ! ,*9a ,sea1 b ,i h n v5tur$ to col\r !m f my imp]fect in=mation1 z giv5 9 ! ,app5dix4 ,! blue spaces on ! map are ne>ly all elongat$2 b x does n necess>ily foll[ f ?is 7a caution1 = :i* ,i am indebt$ to ,mr4 ,lyell71 t ! areas ( subsid5ce 7 likewise elongat$2 = ! subsid5ce ( a long1 n>r[ space ( ! b$ ( ! ocean1 includ+ 9 x a transv]se *a9 ( m\nta9s1 surm\nt$ by atolls1 w\ld only be m>k$ on ! map by a transv]se blue b&4 ,b :]e a *a9 ( atolls & b>ri]-reefs lies 9 an elongat$ area1 betwe5 spaces col\r$ r$1 :i* !re=e h rema9$ /ation>y or h be5 uprais$1 ?is mu/ h result$ ei!r f ! area ( subsid5ce hav+ orig9ally be5 elongat$ 7ow+ to "s t5d5cy 9 ! e>?'s cru/ ?us to subside71 or f ! subsid+ area hav+ orig9ally be5 ( an irregul> figure1 or z broad z long1 & hav+ s9ce be5 n>r[$ by ! elevation ( neighb\r+ di/ricts4 ,?us ! areas1 :i* subsid$ dur+ ! =mation ( ! great nor? & s\? l9es ( atolls 9 ! ,indian ,ocean1--( ! ea/ & we/ l9e ( ! ,c>ol9e atolls1--& ( ! nor?-we/ & s\?-ea/ l9e ( ! b>ri]-reefs ( ,new ,cal$onia & ,l\isiade1 mu/ h orig9ally be5 elongat$1 or if n s1 !y mu/ h s9ce be5 made elongat$ by elevations1 :i* we "k to belong to a rec5t p]iod4 ,i inf] f ,mr4 ,hopk9s' rese>*es1#dj t = ! =mation ( a long *a9 ( m\nta9s1 ) few lat]al spurs1 an area elongat$ 9 ! same direction ) ! *a91 mu/ h be5 subject$ to an elevatory movem5t4 ,m\nta9-*a9s1 h[ev]1 :5 already =m$1 al?\gh runn+ 9 v diff]5t directions1 x seems1#da may be rais$ toge!r by a widely-act+ =ce3 s1 p]haps1 m\nta9-*a9s may subside toge!r4 ,h5ce1 we _c tell1 :e!r ! ,c>ol9e & ,m>%all ,ar*ipelagoes1 two gr\ps ( atolls runn+ 9 diff]5t directions & meet+ ea* o!r1 h be5 =m$ by ! subsid5ce ( two areas1 or ( "o l>ge area1 includ+ two di/9ct l9es ( m\nta9s4 ,we h1 h[ev]1 9 ! s\!rn prolongation ( ! ,m>iana ,isl&s1 probable evid5ce ( a l9e ( rec5t elevation hav+ int]sect$ "o ( rec5t subsid5ce4 ,a view ( ! map w %[ t1 g5]ally1 !re is a t5d5cy to alt]nation 9 ! p>allel areas und]go+ opposite k9ds ( movem5t2 z if ! s9k+ ( "o area balanc$ ! ris+ ( ano!r4 #dj 8,rese>*es 9 ,physical ,geology10 ,transact4 ,cambridge ,phil4 ,soc41 volume vi1 "p i4 #da ,= in/ance 9 ,s4 ,am]ica f latitude #cd1 = v _m degrees s\?w>d !re are uprais$ b$s conta9+ rec5t species ( %ells1 on bo? ! ,atlantic & ,pacific side ( ! cont95t1 & f ! gradual asc5t ( ! l&1 al?\gh ) v unequal slopes1 on bo? sides t[>ds ! ,cordill]a1 ,i ?9k x c h>dly be d\bt$ t ! entire wid? has be5 uprais$ 9 mass )9 ! rec5t p]iod4 ,9 ?is case ! two ,w4,n4,w4 & ,e4,s4,e4 m\nta9-l9es1 namely ! ,si]ra ,v5tana & ! ,s4 ,tapalgu51 & ! great nor? & s\? l9e ( ! ,cordill]a h be5 toge!r rais$4 ,9 ! ,we/ ,indies ! ,n4 & ,s4 l9e ( ! ,ea/]n ,antilles1 & ! ,e4 & ,w4 l9e ( ,jamaica1 appe> bo? to h be5 uprais$ )9 ! late/ geological p]iod4 ,! exi/5ce 9 _m p>ts ( ! _w ( high table-l&1 proves t l>ge surfaces h be5 uprais$ 9 mass to consid]able heights above ! level ( ! ocean2 al?\gh ! highe/ po9ts 9 almo/ e c\ntry consi/ ( upturn$ /rata1 or erupt$ matt]3 & f ! imm5se spaces scatt]$ ) atolls1 :i* indicate t l& orig9ally exi/$ !re1 al?\gh n "o p9nacle n[ rema9s above ! level ( ! sea1 we may conclude t wide areas h subsid$ to an am\nt1 suffici5t to bury n only any =m]ly exi/+ table-l&1 b ev5 ! heights =m$ by fractur$ /rata1 & erupt$ matt]4 ,! effects produc$ on ! l& by ! lat] elevatory movem5ts1 namely1 successively ris+ cliffs1 l9es ( erosion1 & b$s ( lit]al %ells & pebbles1 all requir+ "t = _! production1 prove t ^! movem5ts h be5 v sl[2 we c1 h[ev]1 inf] ?is ) safety1 only ) respect to ! few la/ hundr$ feet ( rise4 ,b ) ref]5ce to ! :ole va/ am\nt ( subsid5ce1 necess>y to h produc$ ! _m atolls widely scatt]$ ov] imm5se spaces1 x has already be5 %[n 7& x is1 p]haps1 ! mo/ int]e/+ conclusion 9 ?is volume71 t ! movem5ts mu/ ei!r h be5 uni=m & exce$+ly sl[1 or h be5 effect$ by small /eps1 sep>at$ f ea* o!r by long int]vals ( "t1 dur+ :i* ! reef-con/ruct+ polypif]s 7 able to br+ up _! solid frameworks to ! surface4 ,we h little means ( judg+ :e!r _m consid]able oscillations ( level h g5]ally occurr$ dur+ ! elevation ( l>ge tracts2 b we "k1 f cle> geological evid5ce1 t ?is has frequ5tly tak5 place2 & we h se5 on our map1 t "s ( ! same isl&s h bo? subsid$ & be5 uprais$4 ,i conclude1 h[ev]1 t mo/ ( ! l>ge blue spaces1 h subsid$ )\t _m & great elevatory oscillations1 because only a few uprais$ atolls h be5 obs]v$3 ! supposition t su* elevations h tak5 place1 b t ! uprais$ p>ts h be5 worn d[n by ! surf1 & ?us h escap$ obs]vation1 is ov]rul$ by ! v consid]able dep? ( ! lagoons ( all ! l>g] atolls2 = ?is c\ld n h be5 ! case1 if !y _h suff]$ repeat$ elevations & abrasion4 ,f ! comp>ative obs]vations made 9 ^! latt] pages1 we may f9ally conclude1 t ! subt]ranean *anges :i* h caus$ "s l>ge areas to rise1 & o!rs to subside1 h act$ 9 a v simil> mann]4 ,recapitulation4--,9 ! ?ree fir/ *apt]s1 ! pr9cipal k9ds ( coral-reefs 7 describ$ 9 detail1 & !y 7 f\nd to diff] little1 z f> z relates to ! actual surface ( ! reef4 ,an atoll diff]s f an encircl+ b>ri]-reef only 9 ! abs5ce ( l& )9 its c5tral expanse2 & a b>ri]-reef diff]s f a fr++-reef1 9 be+ plac$ at a mu* great] di/ance f ! l& ) ref]5ce to ! probable incl9ation ( its subm>9e f\ndation1 & 9 ! pres5ce ( a deep-wat] lagoon-l space or moat )9 ! reef4 ,9 ! f\r? *apt] ! gr[+ p[]s ( ! reef-con/ruct+ polypif]s 7 discuss$2 & x 0 %[n1 t !y _c fl\ri% b5ea? a v limit$ dep?4 ,9 accordance ) ?is limit1 !re is no difficulty respect+ ! f\ndations on :i* fr++-reefs are bas$2 :]eas1 ) b>ri]-reefs & atolls1 !re is a great app>5t difficulty on ?is head2 9 b>ri]-reefs f ! improbability ( ! rock ( ! coa/ or ( banks ( s$im5t ext5d+1 9 e in/ance1 s f> seaw>d )9 ! requir$ dep?2--& 9 atolls1 f ! imm5sity ( ! spaces ov] :i* !y are int]sp]s$1 & ! app>5t necessity = believ+ t !y are all support$ on m\nta9-summits1 :i* al?\gh ris+ v ne> to ! surface-level ( ! sea1 9 no "o in/ance em]ge above x4 ,to escape ?is latt] mo/ improbable admission1 :i* implies ! exi/5ce ( subm>9e *a9s ( m\nta9s ( almo/ ! same height1 ext5d+ ov] areas ( _m ?\s& squ>e miles1 !re is b "o alt]native2 namely1 ! prolong$ subsid5ce ( ! f\ndations1 on :i* ! atolls 7 prim>ily bas$1 toge!r ) ! upw>d gr[? ( ! reef-con/ruct+ corals4 ,on ?is view e difficulty vani%es2 fr++ reefs are ?us conv]t$ into b>ri]-reefs2 & b>ri]-reefs1 :5 encircl+ isl&s1 are ?us conv]t$ into atolls1 ! in/ant ! la/ p9nacle ( l& s9ks b5ea? ! surface ( ! ocean4 ,?us ! ord9>y =ms & c]ta9 peculi>ities 9 ! /ructure ( atolls & b>ri]-reefs c be expla9$2--namely1 ! wall-l /ructure on _! inn] sides1 ! bas9 or r+-l %ape bo? ( ! m>g9al & c5tral reefs 9 ! ,maldiva atolls--! union ( "s atolls z if by a ribbon--! app>5t dissev]m5t ( o!rs--& ! occurr5ce1 9 atolls z well z 9 b>ri]-reefs1 ( portions ( reef1 & ( ! :ole ( "s reefs1 9 a dead & subm]g$ /ate1 b reta9+ ! outl9e ( liv+ reefs4 ,?us c be expla9$ ! exi/5ce ( brea*es ?r\gh b>ri]-reefs 9 front ( valleys1 ?\gh sep>at$ f !m by a wide space ( deep wat]2 ?us1 also1 ! ord9>y outl9e ( gr\ps ( atolls & ! relative =ms ( ! sep>ate atolls "o to ano!r2 ?us c be expla9$ ! proximity ( ! two k9ds ( reefs =m$ dur+ subsid5ce1 & _! sep>ation f ! spaces :]e fr++-reefs ab\nd4 ,on se>*+ = o!r evid5ce ( ! movem5ts suppos$ by our !ory1 we f9d m>ks ( *ange 9 atolls & 9 b>ri]-reefs1 & ( subt]ranean di/urbances "u !m2 b f ! nature ( ?+s1 x is sc>cely possible to detect any direct pro(s ( subsid5ce1 al?\gh "s appe>ances are /rongly 9 fav\r ( x4 ,on ! fr+$ coa/s1 h[ev]1 ! pres5ce ( uprais$ m>9e bodies ( a rec5t epo*1 pla9ly %[1 t ^! coa/s1 in/ead ( hav+ rema9$ /ation>y1 :i* is all t c be directly inf]r$ f our !ory1 h g5]ally be5 elevat$4 ,f9ally1 :5 ! two great types ( /ructure1 namely b>ri]-reefs & atolls on ! "o h&1 & fr++-reefs on ! o!r1 7 laid d[n 9 col\rs on our map1 a magnific5t & h>moni\s picture ( ! movem5ts1 :i* ! cru/ ( ! e>? has )9 a late p]iod und]gone1 is pres5t$ to u4 ,we !re see va/ areas ris+1 ) volcanic matt] e n[ & !n bur/+ =? ?r\gh ! v5ts or fissures ) :i* !y are trav]s$4 ,we see o!r wide spaces sl[ly s9k+ )\t any volcanic outbur/1 & we may feel sure1 t ?is s9k+ mu/ h be5 imm5se 9 am\nt z well z 9 area1 ?us to h buri$ ov] ! broad face ( ! ocean e "o ( ^? m\nta9s1 above :i* atolls n[ /& l monum5ts1 m>k+ ! place ( _! =m] exi/5ce4 ,reflect+ h[ p[]ful an ag5t ) respect to d5udation1 & consequ5tly to ! nature & ?ickness ( ! deposits 9 accumulation1 ! sea mu/ ev] be1 :5 act+ = prolong$ p]iods on ! l&1 dur+ ei!r its sl[ em]g5ce or subsid5ce2 reflect+1 also1 on ! f9al effects ( ^! movem5ts 9 ! int]*ange ( l& & ocean-wat] on ! climate ( ! e>?1 & on ! di/ribution ( organic be+s1 ,i may be p]mitt$ to hope1 t ! conclusions d]iv$ f ! /udy ( coral-=mations1 orig9ally attempt$ m]ely to expla9 _! peculi> =ms1 may be ?\ght wor?y ( ! att5tion ( geologi/s4 ,,app5dix4 ,,conta9+ ,a ,,detail$ ,,description ,,( ,,! ,,reefs ,,& ,,isl&s ,,9 ,,plate ,,iii4 ,9 ! beg9n+ ( ! la/ *apt] ,i /at$ ! pr9ciples on :i* ! map is col\r$4 ,!re only rema9s to be said1 t x is an exact copy ( "o by ,m4 ,c4 ,gressi]1 publi%$ by ! ,dpt gnral de la ,m>9e1 9 #ahce4 ,! names h be5 alt]$ into ,engli%1 & ! longitude has be5 r$uc$ to t ( ,gre5wi*4 ,! col\rs 7 fir/ laid d[n on accurate *>ts1 on a l>ge scale4 ,! data1 on :i* ! volcanoes hi/orically kn[n to h be5 9 action1 h be5 m>k$ ) v]million1 7 giv5 9 a note to ! la/ *apt]4 ,i w comm5ce my description on ! ea/]n side ( ! map1 & w describe ea* gr\p ( isl&s consecutively1 proce$+ we/w>d across ! ,pacific & ,indian ,oceans1 b end+ ) ! ,we/ ,indies4 ,! ,,we/]n ,,%ores ,,( ,,am]ica appe> to be entirely )\t coral-reefs2 s\? ( ! equator ! survey ( ! 8,beagle01 & nor? ( x1 ! publi%$ *>ts %[ t ?is is ! case4 ,ev5 9 ! ,bay ( ,panama1 :]e corals fl\ri%1 !re are no true coral-reefs1 z ,i h be5 in=m$ by ,mr4 ,lloyd4 ,!re are no coral-reefs 9 ! ,galapagos ,ar*ipelago1 z ,i "k f p]sonal inspection2 & ,i believe !re are none on ! ,cocos1 ,revilla-gig$o1 & o!r neighb\r+ isl&s4 ,clipp]ton rock1 #aj ,n41 #aji ,w41 has lately be5 survey$ by ,capta9 ,bel*]2 9 =m x is l ! crat] ( a volcano4 ,f a draw+ app5d$ to ! ,,ms4 plan 9 ! ,admiralty1 x evid5tly is n an atoll4 ,! ea/]n p>ts ( ! ,pacific pres5t an enorm\s area1 )\t any isl&s1 except ,ea/]1 & ,sala1 & ,gomez ,isl&s1 :i* d n appe> to be surr\nd$ by reefs4 ,! ,,l[ ,,ar*ipelago4--,?is gr\p consi/s ( ab\t eighty atolls3 x w be q sup]flu\s to ref] to descriptions ( ea*4 ,9 ,d',urville & ,lott9's *>t1 "o isl& 7,wol*onsky7 is writt5 ) a capital lett]1 signify+1 z expla9$ 9 a =m] *apt]1 t x is a high isl&2 b ?is mu/ be a mi/ake1 z ! orig9al *>t by ,bell+haus5 %[s t x is a true atoll4 ,capta9 ,bee*ey says ( ! ?irty-two gr\ps :i* he exam9$ 7( ! great] numb] ( :i* ,i h se5 beautiful ,,ms4 *>ts 9 ! ,admiralty71 t tw5ty-n9e n[ conta9 lagoons1 & he believes ! o!r ?ree orig9ally did4 ,bell+haus5 7see an acc\nt ( 8 ,russian voyage1 9 ! 8,biblio?4 des ,voyages10 #ahcd1 page #ddc7 says1 t ! sev5te5 isl&s :i* he discov]$ resembl$ ea* o!r 9 /ructure1 & he has giv5 *>ts on a l>ge scale ( all ( !m4 ,kotzebue has giv5 plans ( sev]al2 ,cook & ,bligh m5tion o!rs2 a few 7 se5 dur+ ! voyage ( ! 8,beagle02 & notices ( o!r atolls are scatt]$ ?r\gh sev]al publications4 ,! ,acton gr\p 9 ?is ar*ipelago has lately be5 discov]$ 78,geographical ,j\rnal01 volume vii41 page #ded72 x consi/s ( ?ree small & l[ islets1 "o ( :i* has a lagoon4 ,ano!r lagoon-isl& has be5 discov]$ 78,naut4 ,mag40 #ahci1 page #ggj71 9 #bb #d ,s41 & #acf #bj ,w4 ,t[>ds ! ,s4,e4 "p ( ! gr\p1 !re are "s isl&s ( diff]5t =mation3 ,elizabe? ,isl& is describ$ by ,bee*ey 7page #df1 #dto edition7 z fr+$ by reefs1 at ! di/ance ( betwe5 two & ?ree hundr$ y>ds2 col\r$ r$4 ,pitcairn ,isl&1 9 ! imm$iate neighb\rhood1 accord+ to ! same au?ority1 has no reefs ( any k9d1 al?\gh num]\s pieces ( coral are ?r[n up on ! bea*2 ! sea close to its %ore is v deep 7see 8,zool4 ( ,bee*ey's ,voyage10 page #afd72 x is left uncol\r$4 ,gambi] ,isl&s 7see ,plate ,i41 ,figure #h71 are encircl$ by a b>ri]-reef2 ! greate/ dep? )9 is ?irty-eight fa?oms2 col\r$ pale blue4 ,aurora ,isl&1 :i* lies ,n4,e4 ( ,tahiti close to ! l>ge space col\r$ d>k blue 9 ! map1 has be5 already describ$ 9 a note 7page #ga71 on ! au?ority ( ,mr4 ,c\?\y2 x is an uprais$ atoll1 b z x does n appe> to be fr+$ by liv+ reefs1 x is left uncol\r$4 ,! ,,society ,ar*ipelago is sep>at$ by a n>r[ space f ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago2 & 9 _! p>allel direction !y manife/ "s relation to ea* o!r4 ,i h already describ$ ! g5]al "* ( ! reefs ( ^! f9e encircl$ isl&s4 ,9 ! 8,atlas ( ! #8,coquille's' ,voyage0 !re is a good g5]al *>t ( ! gr\p1 & sep>ate plans ( "s ( ! isl&s4 ,tahiti1 ! l>ge/ isl& 9 ! gr\p1 is almo/ surr\nd$1 z se5 9 ,cook's *>t1 by a reef f half a mile to a mile & a half f ! %ore1 ) f t5 to ?irty fa?oms )9 x4 ,"s consid]able subm]g$ reefs ly+ p>allel to ! %ore1 ) a broad & deep space )91 h lately be5 discov]$ 78,naut4 ,mag40 #ahcf1 page #bfd7 on ! ,n4,e4 coa/ ( ! isl&1 :]e none are laid d[n by ,cook4 ,at ,eimeo ! reef 8:i* l a r+ surr\nds x1 is 9 "s places "o or two miles di/ant f ! %ore1 9 o!rs unit$ to ! bea*0 7,ellis1 8,polynesian ,rese>*es10 volume i41 page #ah1 #abmo edition74 ,cook f\nd deep wat] 7tw5ty fa?oms7 9 "s ( ! h>b\rs )9 ! reef4 ,mr4 ,c\?\y1 h[ev]1 /ates 78,rem>ks10 page #de7 t bo? at ,tahiti & ,eimeo1 ! space betwe5 ! b>ri]-reef & ! %ore1 has be5 almo/ fill$ up1--8a ne>ly cont9u\s fr++-reef surr\nd+ ! isl&1 & v>y+ f a few y>ds to r m ?an a mile 9 wid?1 ! lagoons m]ely =m+ canals betwe5 ?is & ! sea-reef10 t is ! b>ri]-reef4 ,tapamanoa is surr\nd$ by a reef at a consid]able di/ance f ! %ore2 f ! isl& be+ small x is brea*$1 z ,i am in=m$ by ! ,rev4 ,w4 ,ellis1 only by a n>r[ & crook$ boat *annel4 ,?is is ! l[e/ isl& 9 ! gr\p1 its height probably n exce$+ #ejj feet4 ,a little way nor? ( ,tahiti1 ! l[ coral-islets ( ,teturoa are situat$2 f ! description ( !m giv5 me by ! ,rev4 ,j4 ,williams 7! au?or ( ! 8,n>rative ( ,mission>y ,ent]prise071 ,i %\ld h ?\ght !y _h =m$ a small atoll1 & likewise f ! description giv5 by ! ,rev4 ,d4 ,ty]man & ,g4 ,b5nett 78,j\rnal ( ,voyage & ,travels10 volume i41 page #ahc71 :o say t t5 l[ coral-islets 8are compreh5d$ )9 "o g5]al reef1 & sep>at$ f ea* o!r by int]jac5t lagoons20 b z ,mr4 ,/ut*bury 78,we/ ( ,engl& ,j\rnal10 volume i41 page #ed7 describes x z consi/+ ( a m]e n>r[ ridge1 ,i h left x uncol\r$4 ,maitea1 ea/w>d ( ! gr\p1 is class$ by ,=/] z a high encircl$ isl&2 b f ! acc\nt giv5 by ! ,rev4 ,d4 ,ty]man & ,g4 ,b5nett 7volume i41 page #eg7 x appe>s to be an exce$+ly abrupt cone1 ris+ f ! sea )\t any reef2 ,i h left x uncol\r$4 ,x w\ld be sup]flu\s to describe ! nor!rn isl&s 9 ?is gr\p1 z !y may be well se5 9 ! *>t accompany+ ! #dto edition ( ,cook's 8,voyages10 & 9 ! 8,atlas ( ! #8,coquille's' ,voyage40 ,maurua is ! only "o ( ! nor!rn isl&s1 9 :i* ! wat] )9 ! reef is n deep1 be+ only f\r & a half fa?oms2 b ! great wid? ( ! reef1 /ret*+ ?ree miles & a half s\?w>d ( ! l& 7:i* is repres5t$ 9 ! draw+ 9 ! 8,atlas ( ! #8,coquille's' ,voyage0 z desc5d+ abruptly to ! wat]7 %[s1 on ! pr9ciple expla9$ 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! la/ *apt]1 t x belongs to ! b>ri] class4 ,i may "h m5tion1 f in=mation communicat$ to me by ! ,rev4 ,w4 ,ellis1 t on ! ,n4,e4 side ( ,huahe9e !re is a bank ( s&1 ab\t a qu>t] ( a mile wide1 ext5d+ p>allel to ! %ore1 & sep>at$ f x by an ext5sive & deep lagoon2 ?is bank ( s& re/s on coral-rock1 & und\bt$ly 0 orig9ally a liv+ reef4 ,nor? ( ,bolabola lies ! atoll ( ,t\bai 7,mot\-iti ( ! 8#8,coquille's' ,atlas07 :i* is col\r$ d>k blue2 ! o!r isl&s1 surr\nd$ by b>ri]-reefs1 are pale blue2 ?ree ( !m are repres5t$ 9 ,figures #c1 #d1 & #e1 9 ,plate ,i4 ,!re are ?ree l[ coral-gr\ps ly+ a little ,e4 ( ! ,society ,ar*ipelago1 & almo/ =m+ "p ( x1 namely ,bell+haus51 :i* is said by ,kotzebue 78,second ,voyage10 volume ii41 page #bee71 to be a lagoon-isl&2 ,mopeha1 :i*1 f ,cook's description 78,second ,voyage10 book iii41 *apt] i471 no d\bt is an atoll2 & ! ,scilly ,isl&s1 :i* are said by ,wallis 78,voyage10 *apt] ix47 to =m a gr\p ( l[ islets & %oals1 &1 !re=e1 probably1 !y compose an atoll3 ! two =m] h be5 col\r$ blue1 b n ! latt]4 ,,m5dana or ,,m>quesas ,gr\p4--,^! isl&s are entirely )\t reefs1 z may be se5 9 ,krus5/]n's ,atlas1 mak+ a rem>kable contra/ ) ! adjac5t gr\p ( ! ,society ,isl&s4 ,mr4 ,f4,d4 ,b5nett has giv5 "s acc\nt ( ?is gr\p1 9 ! sev5? volume ( ! 8,geographical ,j\rnal04 ,he in=ms me t all ! isl&s h ! same g5]al "*1 & t ! wat] is v deep close to _! %ores4 ,he visit$ ?ree ( !m1 namely1 ,dom9icana1 ,*ri/iana1 & ,roapoa2 _! bea*es are /rew$ ) r\nd$ masses ( coral1 & al?\gh no regul> reefs exi/1 yet ! %ore is 9 _m places l9$ by coral-rock1 s t a boat gr\nds on ?is =mation4 ,h5ce ^! isl&s ought probably to come )9 ! class ( fr+$ isl&s & be col\r$ r$2 b z ,i am det]m9$ to err on ! cauti\s side1 ,i h left !m uncol\r$4 ,,cook or ,,h>vey & ,,au/ral ,,isl&4--,palm]/on ,isl& is m9utely describ$ z an atoll by ,capta9 ,cook dur+ 8 voyage 9 #aggd2 col\r$ blue4 ,aitutaki 0 p>tially survey$ by ! 8,beagle0 7see map accompany+ 8,voyages ( #8,adv5ture' & #8,beagle'072 ! l& is hilly1 slop+ g5tly to ! bea*2 ! highe/ po9t is #cfj feet2 on ! s\!rn side ! reef projects five miles f ! l&3 (f ?is po9t ! 8,beagle0 f\nd no bottom ) #bgj fa?oms3 ! reef is surm\nt$ by _m l[ coral-islets4 ,al?\gh )9 ! reef ! wat] is exce$+ly %all[1 n be+ m ?an a few feet deep1 z ,i am in=m$ by ! ,rev4 ,j4 ,williams1 nev]!less1 f ! great ext5sion ( ?is reef into a pr(\ndly deep ocean1 ?is isl& probably belongs1 on ! pr9ciple lately adv]t$ to1 to ! b>ri] class1 & ,i h col\r$ x pale blue2 al?\gh ) mu* hesitation4--,man\ai or ,h>vey ,isl&4 ,! highe/ po9t is ab\t fifty feet3 ! ,rev4 ,j4 ,williams in=ms me t ! reef "h1 al?\gh x lies f> f ! %ore1 is less di/ant ?an at ,aitutaki1 b ! wat] )9 ! reef is r deep]3 ,i h also col\r$ ?is pale blue ) _m d\bts4--,r\nd ,miti>o ,isl&1 z ,i am in=m$ by ,mr4 ,williams1 ! reef is atta*$ to ! %ore2 col\r$ r$4 --,mauki or ,ma\ti2 ! reef r\nd ?is isl& 7"u ! "n ( ,p>ry ,isl&1 9 ! 8,voyage ( ,h4,m4,s4 #8,blonde'10 page #bji7 is describ$ z a coral-flat1 only fifty y>ds wide1 & two feet "u wat]4 ,?is /atem5t has be5 corroborat$ by ,mr4 ,williams1 :o calls ! reef atta*$2 col\r$ r$4--,aitu1 or ,wateeo2 a mod]ately elevat$ hilly isl&1 l ! o!rs ( ?is gr\p4 ,! reef is describ$ 9 ,cook's 8,voyage10 z atta*$ to ! %ore1 & ab\t "o hundr$ y>ds wide2 col\r$ r$4--,f5\a-iti2 ,cook describes ?is isl& z v l[1 n m ?an six or sev5 feet high 7volume i41 book ii41 *apt] iii1 #aggg72 9 ! *>t publi%$ 9 ! 8#8,coquille's' ,atlas10 a reef is engrav$ close to ! %ore3 ?is isl& is n m5tion$ 9 ! li/ giv5 by ,mr4 ,williams 7page #af7 9 ! 8,n>rative ( ,mission>y ,ent]prise20 nature d\btful4 ,z x is s ne> ,atiu1 x has be5 unavoidably col\r$ r$4-- ,r>otonga2 ,mr4 ,williams in=ms me t x is a l(ty basaltic isl& ) an atta*$ reef2 col\r$ r$4--,!re are ?ree isl&s1 ,r\r\ti1 ,roxburgh1 & ,hull1 ( :i* ,i h n be5 able to obta9 any acc\nt1 & h left !m uncol\r$4 ,hull ,isl&1 9 ! ,fr5* *>t1 is writt5 ) small lett]s z be+ l[4--,mangaia2 height ab\t ?ree hundr$ feet2 8! surr\nd+ reef jo9s ! %ore0 7,williams1 8,n>rative10 page #ah72 col\r$ r$4--,rimet>a2 ,mr4 ,williams in=ms me t ! reef is r close to ! %ore2 b1 f in=mation giv5 me by ,mr4 ,ellis1 ! reef does n appe> to be q s closely atta*$ to x z 9 ! =ego+ cases3 ! isl& is ab\t ?ree hundr$ feet high 78,naut4 ,mag40 #ahci1 page #gch72 col\r$ r$4--,rurutu2 ,mr4 ,williams & ,mr4 ,ellis in=m me t ?is isl& has an atta*$ reef2 col\r$ r$4 ,x is describ$ by ,cook "u ! "n ( ,ohet]oa3 he says x is n surr\nd$1 l ! neighb\r+ isl&s by a reef2 he mu/ h meant a di/ant reef4--,t\b\ai2 9 ,cook's *>t 78,second ,voyage10 volume ii41 page #b7 ! reef is laid d[n 9 "p "o mile1 & 9 "p two miles f ! %ore4 ,mr4 ,ellis 78,polynes4 ,res40 volume iii41 page #cha7 says ! l[ l& r\nd ! base ( ! isl& is v ext5sive2 & ?is g5tleman in=ms me t ! wat] )9 ! reef appe>s deep2 col\r$ blue4--,raivaivai1 or ,vivitao2 ,mr4 ,williams in=ms me t ! reef is "h di/ant3 ,mr4 ,ellis1 h[ev]1 says t ?is is c]ta9ly n ! case on "o side ( ! isl&2 & he believes t ! wat] )9 ! reef is n deep2 h5ce ,i h left x uncol\r$4--,lanca/] ,reef1 describ$ 9 8,naut4 ,mag40 #ahcc 7page #fic71 z an ext5sive cresc5t-=m$ coral-reef4 ,i h n col\r$ x4--,rapa1 or ,op>ree2 f ! acc\nts giv5 ( x by ,ellis & ,vanc\v]1 !re does n appe> to be any reef4--,i4 de ,bass is an adjo9+ isl&1 ( :i* ,i _c f9d any acc\nt4--,kem9 ,isl&2 ,krus5/]n seems h>dly to "k its position1 & gives no fur!r p>ticul>s4 ,,isl&s ,,betwe5 ! ,l[ & ,gilb]t ,ar*ipelagoes4 ,c>ol9e ,isl& 7#aj ,s41 #aej ,w47 is describ$ by ,mr4 ,f4,d4 ,b5nett 78,geographical ,j\rnal01 volume vii41 page #bbe7 z conta9+ a f9e lagoon2 col\r$ blue4--,fl9t ,isl& 7#aa ,s41 #aea ,w472 ,krus5/]n believes t x is ! same ) ,p]egr9o1 :i* is describ$ by ,quiros 7,burney's 8,*ron4 ,hi/40 volume ii41 page #bhc7 z 8a clu/] ( small isl&s connect$ by a reef1 & =m+ a lagoon 9 ! middle20 col\r$ blue4--,wo/ock is an isl& a little m ?an half a mile 9 diamet]1 & app>5tly q flat & l[1 & 0 discov]$ by ,bell+haus52 x is situat$ a little we/ ( ,c>ol9e ,isl&1 b x is n plac$ on ! ,fr5* *>ts2 ,i h n col\r$ x1 al?\gh ,i ent]ta9 little d\bt f ! *>t ( ,bell+haus51 t x orig9ally conta9$ a small lagoon4--,p5rhyn ,isl& 7#i ,s41 #aeh ,w472 a plan ( x 9 ! 8,atlas ( ! ,fir/ ,voyage0 ( ,kotzebue1 %[s t x is an atoll2 blue4-- ,/>buck ,isl& 7#e ,s41 #aef ,w47 is describ$ 9 ,byron's 8,voyage 9 ! #8,blonde'0 7page #bjf7 z =m$ ( a flat coral-rock1 ) no trees2 ! height n giv52 n col\r$4--,mald5 ,isl& 7#d ,s41 #aed ,w472 9 ! same voyage 7page #bje7 ?is isl& is said to be ( coral =mation1 & no "p above =ty feet high2 ,i h n v5tur$ to col\r x1 al?\gh1 f be+ ( coral-=mation1 x is probably fr+$2 9 :i* case x %\ld be r$4--,j>vis1 or ,bunk] ,isl& 7#j #bj ,s41 #afj ,w47 is describ$ by ,mr4 ,f4,d4 ,b5nett 78,geographical ,j\rnal01 volume vii41 page #bbg7 z a n>r[1 l[ /rip ( coral-=mation2 n col\r$4--,brook1 is a small l[ isl& betwe5 ! two latt]2 ! position1 & p]haps ev5 ! exi/5ce ( x is d\btful2 n col\r$4--,pescado & ,humphrey ,isl&s2 ,i c f9d out no?+ ab\t ^! isl&s1 except t ! latt] appe>s to be small & l[2 n col\r$4--,re>son1 or ,gr& ,duke ,alex&]'s 7#aj ,s41 #afa ,w472 an atoll1 ( :i* a plan is giv5 by ,bell+haus52 blue4-- ,s\vor(f ,isl&s 7#ac ,s41 #afc ,w472 ,admiral ,krus5/]n1 9 ! mo/ oblig+ mann]1 obta9$ = me an acc\nt ( ^! isl&s f ,admiral ,laz>eff1 :o discov]$ !m4 ,!y consi/ ( five v l[ isl&s ( coral-=mation1 two ( :i* are connect$ by a reef1 ) deep wat] close to x4 ,!y d n surr\nd a lagoon1 b are s plac$ t a l9e drawn ?r\gh !m includes an oval space1 "p ( :i* is %all[2 ^! islets1 !re=e1 probably once 7z is ! case ) "s ( ! isl&s 9 ! ,c>ol9e ,ar*ipelago7 =m$ a s+le atoll2 b ,i h n col\r$ !m4--,dang] ,isl& 7#aj ,s41 #aff ,w472 describ$ z l[ by ,commodore ,byron1 & m lately survey$ by ,bell+haus52 x is a small atoll ) ?ree islets on x2 blue4--,cl>5ce ,isl& 7#i ,s41 #agb ,w472 discov]$ 9 ! 8,p&ora0 7,g4 ,hamilton's 8,voyage10 page #ge73 x is said1 89 runn+ along ! l&1 we saw sev]al canoes cross+ ! lagoons20 z ?is isl& is 9 ! close vic9ity ( o!r l[ isl&s1 & z x is said1 t ! natives make res]voirs ( wat] 9 old cocoa-nut trees 7:i* %[s ! nature ( ! l&71 ,i h no d\bt x is an atoll1 & h col\r$ x blue4 ,york ,isl& 7#h ,s41 #agb ,w47 is describ$ by ,commodore ,byron 7*apt] x4 ( 8 8,voyage07 z an atoll2 blue4--,sydney ,isl& 7#d ,s41 #agb ,w47 is ab\t ?ree miles 9 diamet]1 ) its int]ior occupi$ by a lagoon 7,capta9 ,tromel91 8,annal4 ,m>it40 #ahbi1 page #big72 blue4--,phnix ,isl& 7#d ,s41 #aga ,w47 is ne>ly circul>1 l[1 s&y1 n m ?an two miles 9 diamet]1 & v /eep outside 7,tromel91 8,annal4 ,m>it40 #ahbi1 page #big72 x may be inf]r$ t ?is isl& orig9ally conta9$ a lagoon1 b ,i h n col\r$ x4--,new ,nantucket 7#j #ae ,n41 #agd ,w474 ,f ! ,fr5* *>t x mu/ be a l[ isl&2 ,i c f9d no?+ m ab\t x or ab\t ,m>y ,isl&2 bo? uncol\r$4--,g>dn] ,isl& 7#e ,s41 #agd ,w47 f its position is c]ta9ly ! same z ,kem9 ,isl& describ$ 7,krus5/]n1 page #dce1 ,app54 to ,mem41 publi%$ #ahbg7 z hav+ a lagoon 9 its c5tre2 blue4 ,,isl&s ,,s\? ( ! ,s&wi* ,ar*ipelago4 ,*ri/mas ,isl& 7#b ,n41 #aeg ,w474 ,capta9 ,cook1 9 8 8,?ird ,voyage0 7,volume ii41 *apt] x471 has giv5 a detail$ acc\nt ( ?is atoll4 ,! bread? ( ! islets on ! reef is unusually great1 & ! sea ne> x does n deep5 s sudd5ly z is g5]ally ! case4 ,x has m lately be5 visit$ by ,mr4 ,f4,d4 ,b5nett 78,geographical ,j\rnal10 volume vii41 page #bbf72 & he assures me t x is l[ & ( coral-=mation3 ,i p>ticul>ly m5tion ?is1 because x is engrav$ ) a capital lett]1 signify+ a high isl&1 9 ,d',urville & ,lott9's *>t4 ,mr4 ,c\?\y1 also1 has giv5 "s acc\nt ( x 78,rem>ks10 page #df7 f ! ,hawaiian 8,spectator02 he believes x has lately und]gone a small elevation1 b 8 evid5ce does n appe> to me satisfactory2 ! deepe/ "p ( ! lagoon is said to be only t5 feet2 nev]!less1 ,i h col\r$ x blue4--,fann+ ,isl& 7#d ,n41 #aeh ,w47 accord+ to ,capta9 ,tromel9 78,ann4 ,m>itim40 #ahbi1 page #bhc71 is an atoll3 8 acc\nt z obs]v$ by ,krus5/]n1 diff]s f t giv5 9 ,fann+'s 8,voyage0 7page #bbd71 :i*1 h[ev]1 is f> f cle>2 col\r$ blue4-- ,wa%+ton ,isl& 7#d ,n41 #aei ,w47 is engrav$ z a l[ isl& 9 ,d',urville's *>t1 b is describ$ by ,fann+ 7page #bbf7 z hav+ a mu* great] elevation ?an ,fann+ ,isl&1 & h5ce ,i presume x is n an atoll2 n col\r$4--,palmyra ,isl& 7#f ,n41 #afb ,w47 is an atoll divid$ into two p>ts 7,krus5/]n's 8,mem4 ,suppl40 page #ej1 also ,fann+'s 8,voyage10 page #bcc72 blue4--,smy?'s or ,john/on's ,isl&s 7#ag ,n41 #agj ,w474 ,capta9 ,smy?1 ,r4,n41 has _h ! k9dness to in=m me t !y consi/ ( two v l[1 small isl&s1 ) a dang]\s reef (f ! ea/ end ( !m4 ,capta9 ,smy? does n recollect :e!r ^! islets1 toge!r ) ! reef1 surr\nd$ a lagoon2 uncol\r$4 ,,s&wi* ,,ar*ipelago4--,hawaii2 9 ! *>t 9 ,freyc9et's 8,atlas10 small portions ( ! coa/ are fr+$ by reefs2 & 9 ! accompany+ 8,hydrog4 ,memoir10 reefs are m5tion$ 9 sev]al places1 & ! coral is said to injure ! cables4 ,on "o side ( ! islet ( ,kohaihai !re is a bank ( s& & coral ) five feet wat] on x1 runn+ p>allel to ! %ore1 & leav+ a *annel ( ab\t fifte5 feet deep )94 ,i h col\r$ ?is isl& r$1 b x is v mu* less p]fectly fr+$ ?an o!rs ( ! gr\p4--,maui2 9 ,freyc9et's *>t ( ! an*orage ( ,rahe9a1 two or ?ree miles ( coa/ are se5 to be fr+$2 & 9 ! 8,hydrog4 ,memoir10 8banks ( coral along %ore0 are spok5 (4 ,mr4 ,f4,d4 ,b5nett in=ms me t ! reefs1 on an av]age1 ext5d ab\t a qu>t] ( a mile f ! bea*2 ! l& is n v /eep1 & outside ! reefs ! sea does n become deep v sudd5ly2 col\r$ r$4--,morotoi1 ,i presume1 is fr+$3 ,freyc9et speaks ( ! break]s ext5d+ along ! %ore at a little di/ance f x4 ,f ! *>t1 ,i believe x is fr+$2 col\r$ r$4--,oahu2 ,freyc9et1 9 8 8,hydrog4 ,memoir10 m5tions "s ( ! reefs4 ,mr4 ,f4,d4 ,b5nett in=ms me t ! %ore is skirt$ = =ty or fifty miles 9 l5g?4 ,!re is ev5 a h>b\r = %ips =m$ by ! reefs1 b x is at ! m\? ( a valley2 r$4--,atooi1 9 ,la ,peyr\se's *>ts1 is repres5t$ z fr+$ by a reef1 9 ! same mann] z ,oahu & ,morotoi2 & ?is1 z ,i h be5 in=m$ by ,mr4 ,ellis1 on "p at lea/ ( ! %ore1 is ( coral-=mation3 ! reef does n leave a deep *annel )92 r$4--,oneeh[2 ,mr4 ,ellis believes t ?is isl& is also fr+$ by a coral-reef3 consid]+ its close proximity to ! o!r isl&s1 ,i h v5tur$ to col\r x r$4 ,i h 9 va9 consult$ ! works ( ,cook1 ,vanc\v]1 ,la ,peyr\se1 & ,lisiansky1 = any satisfactory acc\nt ( ! small isl&s & reefs1 :i* lie scatt]$ 9 a ,n4,w4 l9e prolong$ f ! ,s&wi* gr\p1 & h5ce h left !m uncol\r$1 ) "o exception2 = ,i am indebt$ to ,mr4 ,f4,d4 ,b5nett = in=m+ me ( an atoll-=m$ reef1 9 latitude #bh #bb1 longitude #agh #cj ,w41 on :i* ! 8,gl$/anes0 0 wreck$ 9 #ahcg4 ,x is app>5tly ( l>ge size1 & ext5ds 9 a ,n4,w4 & ,s4,e4 l9e3 v few islets h be5 =m$ on x4 ,! lagoon seems to be %all[2 at lea/1 ! deepe/ "p :i* 0 survey$ 0 only ?ree fa?oms4 ,mr4 ,c\?\y 78,rem>ks10 page #ch7 describes ?is isl& "u ! "n ( ,ocean isl&4 ,consid]able d\bts %\ld be ent]ta9$ reg>d+ ! nature ( a reef ( ?is k9d1 ) a v %all[ lagoon1 & /&+ f> f any o!r atoll1 on acc\nt ( ! possibility ( a crat] or flat bank ( rock ly+ at ! prop] dep? b5ea? ! surface ( ! wat]1 ?us af=d+ a f\ndation = a r+-=m$ coral-reef4 ,i h1 h[ev]1 ?\ght myself compell$1 f its l>ge size & symmetrical outl9e1 to col\r x blue4 ,,samoa or ,,navigator ,,gr\p4--,kotzebue1 9 8 8,second ,voyage10 contra/s ! /ructure ( ^! isl&s ) _m o!rs 9 ! ,pacific1 9 n be+ furni%$ ) h>b\rs = %ips1 =m$ by di/ant coral-reefs4 ,! ,rev4 ,j4 ,williams1 h[ev]1 in=ms me1 t coral-reefs d occur 9 irregul> pat*es on ! %ores ( ^! isl&s2 b t !y d n =m a cont9u\s b&1 z r\nd ,mangaia1 & o!r su* p]fect cases ( fr+$ isl&s4 ,f ! *>ts accompany+ ,la ,peyr\se's 8,voyage10 x appe>s t ! nor? %ore ( ,savaii1 ,ma\na1 ,oros5ga1 & ,mannua1 are fr+$ by reefs4 ,la ,peyr\se1 speak+ ( ,ma\na 7page #abf71 says t ! coral-reef surr\nd+ its %ores1 almo/ t\*es ! bea*2 & is brea*$ 9 front ( ! little coves & /reams1 =m+ passages = canoes1 & probably ev5 = boats4 ,fur!r on 7page #aei71 he ext5ds ! same obs]vation to all ! isl&s :i* he visit$4 ,mr4 ,williams 9 8 8,n>rative10 speaks ( a reef go+ r\nd a small isl& atta*$ to ,oyolava1 & return+ aga9 to x3 all ^! isl&s h be5 col\r$ r$4--,a *>t ( ,rose ,isl&1 at ! extreme we/ end ( ! gr\p1 is giv5 by ,freyc9et1 f :i* ,i %\ld h ?\ght t x _h be5 an atoll2 b accord+ to ,mr4 ,c\?\y 78,rem>ks10 page #dc71 x consi/s ( a reef1 only a league 9 circuit1 surm\nt$ by a v few l[ islets2 ! lagoon is v %all[1 & is /rew$ ) num]\s l>ge b\ld]s ( volcanic rock4 ,?is isl&1 !re=e1 probably consi/s ( a bank ( rock1 a few feet subm]g$1 ) ! out] m>g9 ( its upp] surface fr+$ ) reefs2 h5ce x _c be prop]ly class$ ) atolls1 9 :i* ! f\ndations are always suppos$ to lie at a dep?1 great] ?an t at :i* ! reef-con/ruct+ polypif]s c live2 n col\r$4 ,bev]idge ,reef1 #bj ,s41 #afg ,w41 is describ$ 9 ! 8,naut4 ,mag40 7,may #ahcc1 page #ddb7 z t5 miles long 9 a ,n4 & ,s4 l9e1 & eight wide2 89 ! inside ( ! reef !re appe>s deep wat]20 !re is a passage ne> ! ,s4,w4 corn]3 ?is !re=e seems to be a subm]g$ atoll1 & is col\r$ blue4 ,savage ,isl&1 #ai ,s41 #agj ,w41 has be5 describ$ by ,cook & ,=/]4 ,! y\ng] ,=/] 7volume ii41 page #afc7 says x is ab\t =ty feet high3 he suspects t x conta9s a l[ pla91 :i* =m]ly 0 ! lagoon4 ,! ,rev4 ,j4 ,williams in=ms me t ! reef fr++ its %ores1 resembles t r\nd ,mangaia2 col\r$ r$4 ,,fri5dly ,,ar*ipelago4 ,pyl/a>t ,isl&4 ,judg+ f ! *>t 9 ,freyc9et's 8,atlas10 ,i %\ld h suppos$ t x _h be5 regul>ly fr+$2 b z no?+ is said 9 ! 8,hydrog4 ,memoir0 7or 9 ! 8,voyage0 ( ,tasman1 ! discov]]7 ab\t coral-reefs1 ,i h left x uncol\r$4--,tongatab\3 ,9 ! 8,atlas ( ! ,voyage ( ! #8,a/rolabe'10 ! :ole s\? side ( ! isl& is repres5t$ z n>r[ly fr+$ by ! same reef :i* =ms an ext5sive plat=m on ! nor!rn side4 ,! orig9 ( ?is latt] reef1 :i* might h be5 mi/ak5 = a b>ri]-reef1 has already be5 attempt$ to be expla9$1 :5 giv+ ! pro(s ( ! rec5t elevation ( ?is isl&4-- ,9 ,cook's *>ts ! little outly+ isl& also ( ,eoaigee1 is repres5t$ z fr+$2 col\r$ r$4--,e\a4 ,i _c make out f ,capta9 ,cook's *>ts & descriptions1 t ?is isl& has any reef1 al?\gh ! bottom ( ! neighb\r+ sea seems to be corally1 & ! isl& itself is =m$ ( coral-rock4 ,=/]1 h[ev]1 di/9ctly 78,obs]vations10 page #ad7 classes x ) high isl&s hav+ reefs1 b x c]ta9ly is n encircl$ by a b>ri]-reef & ! y\ng] ,=/] 78,voyage10 volume i41 page #dbf7 says1 t 8a b$ ( coral-rocks surr\nd$ ! coa/ t[>ds ! l&+-place40 ,i h !re=e class$ x ) ! fr+$ isl&s & col\r$ x r$4 ,! sev]al isl&s ly+ ,n4,w4 ( ,tongatab\1 namely ,anam\ka1 ,komango1 ,kot\1 ,lef\ga1 ,foa1 c41 are se5 9 ,capta9 ,cook's *>t to be fr+$ by reefs1 9 sev]al ( !m are connect$ toge!r4 ,f ! v>i\s /atem5ts 9 ! fir/ volume ( ,cook's 8,?ird ,voyage10 & especially 9 ! f\r? & six? *apt]s1 x appe>s t ^! reefs are ( coral-=mation1 & c]ta9ly d n belong to ! b>ri] class2 col\r$ r$4--,t\f\a ,kao1 =m+ ! we/]n "p ( ! gr\p1 accord+ to ,=/] h no reefs2 ! =m] is an active volcano4--,vavao4 ,!re is a *>t ( ?is s+ul>ly =m$ isl&1 by ,esp9oza3 accord+ to ,mr4 ,williams x consi/s ( coral-rock3 ! ,*evali] ,dillon in=ms me t x is n fr+$2 n col\r$4 ,nor are ! isl&s ( ,latte & ,am>gura1 = ,i h n se5 plans on a l>ge scale ( !m1 & d n "k :e!r !y are fr+$4 ,ni\ha1 #af ,s41 #agd ,w41 or ,keppel ,isl& ( ,wallis1 or ,cocos ,isl&4 ,f a view & *>t ( ?is isl& giv5 9 ,wallis's 8,voyage0 7#dto edition7 x is evid5tly encircl$ by a reef2 col\r$ blue3 x is h[ev] rem>kable t ,boscaw5 ,isl&1 imm$iately adjo9+1 has no reef ( any k9d2 uncol\r$4 ,wallis ,isl&1 #ac ,s41 #agf ,w41 a *>t & view ( ?is isl& 9 ,wallis's 8,voyage0 7#dto edition7 %[s t x is encircl$4 ,a view ( x 9 ! 8,naut4 ,mag40 ,july #ahcc1 page #cgf1 %[s ! same fact2 blue4 ,all\fat\1 or ,horn ,isl&1 ,on\afu1 or ,proby ,isl&1 & ,hunt] ,isl&s1 lie betwe5 ! ,navigator & ,fidji gr\ps4 ,i c f9d no di/9ct acc\nts ( !m4 ,,fidji or ,,viti ,,gr\p4--,! be/ *>t ( ! num]\s isl&s ( ?is gr\p1 w be f\nd 9 ! 8,atlas ( ! #8,a/rolabe's' ,voyage40 ,f ?is1 & f ! description giv5 9 ! 8,hydrog4 ,memoir10 accompany+ x1 x appe>s t _m ( ^! isl&s are bold & m\nta9\s1 ris+ to ! height ( betwe5 #c1jjj & #d1jjj feet4 ,mo/ ( ! isl&s are surr\nd$ by reefs1 ly+ f> f ! l&1 & outside ( :i* ! ocean appe>s v deep4 ,! 8,a/rolabe0 s\nd$ ) n9ety fa?oms 9 sev]al places ab\t a mile f ! reefs1 & f\nd no bottom4 ,al?\gh ! dep? )9 ! reef is n laid d[n1 x is evid5t f sev]al expressions1 t ,capta9 ,d',urville believes t %ips c\ld an*or )91 if passages exi/$ ?r\gh ! out] b>ri]s4 ,! ,*evalli] ,dillon in=ms me t ?is is ! case3 h5ce ,i h col\r$ ?is gr\p blue4 ,9 ! ,s4,e4 "p lies ,batoa1 or ,turtle ,isl& ( ,cook 78,second ,voyage10 volume ii41 page #bc1 & *>t1 #dto edition7 surr\nd$ by a coral-reef1 8:i* 9 "s places ext5ds two miles f ! %ore20 )9 ! reef ! wat] appe>s to be deep1 & outside x is unfa?omable2 col\r$ pale blue4 ,at ! di/ance ( a few miles1 ,capta9 ,cook 7,ibid41 page #bd7 f\nd a circul> coral-reef1 f\r or five leagues 9 circuit1 ) deep wat] )92 89 %ort1 ! bank wants only a few little islets to make x exactly l "o ( ! half-dr[n$ isles s (t5 m5tion$10--namely1 atolls4 ,s\? ( ,batoa1 lies ! high isl& ( ,ono1 :i* appe>s 9 ,bell+haus5's 8,atlas0 to be encircl$2 z d "s o!r small isl&s to ! s\?2 col\r$ pale blue2 ne> ,ono1 !re is an annul> reef1 q simil> to ! "o j describ$ 9 ! words ( ,capta9 ,cook2 col\r$ d>k blue4 ,rot\mah1 #ac ,s41 #agi ,e4--,f ! *>t 9 ,dup]rey's 8,atlas10 ,i ?\ght ?is isl& 0 encircl$1 & _h col\r$ x blue1 b ! ,*evalli] ,dillon assures me t ! reef is only a %ore or fr++ "o2 r$4 ,indep5d5ce ,isl&1 #aj ,s41 #agi ,e41 is describ$ by ,mr4 ,g4 ,b5nett1 78,unit$ ,s]vice ,j\rnal10 #ahca1 "p ii41 page #aig7 z a l[ isl& ( coral-=mation1 x is small1 & does n appe> to conta9 a lagoon1 al?\gh an op5+ ?r\gh ! reef is ref]r$ to4 ,a lagoon probably once exi/$1 & has s9ce be5 fill$ up2 left uncol\r$4 ,,ellice ,,gr\p4--,osc>1 ,pey/]1 & ,ellice ,isl&s are figur$ 9 ,arr[smi?'s 8,*>t ( ! ,pacific0 7correct$ to #ahcb7 z atolls1 & are said to be v l[2 blue4--,n$]l&is* ,isl&4 ,i am greatly indebt$ to ! k9dness ( ,admiral ,krus5/]n1 = s5d+ me ! orig9al docum5ts conc]n+ ?is isl&4 ,f ! plans giv5 by ,capta9s ,eeg & ,khremt%5ko1 & f ! detail$ acc\nt giv5 by ! =m]1 x appe>s t x is a n>r[ coral-isl&1 ab\t two miles long1 conta9+ a small lagoon4 ,! sea is v deep close to ! %ore1 :i* is front$ by %>p coral-rocks4 ,capta9 ,eeg comp>es ! lagoon ) t ( o!r coral-isl&s2 & he di/9ctly says1 ! l& is 8v l[40 ,i h !re=e col\r$ x blue4 ,admiral ,krus5/]n 78,memoir on ! ,pacific10 ,app5d41 #ahce7 /ates t its %ores are eighty feet high2 ?is probably arose f ! height ( ! cocoa-nut trees1 ) :i* x is cov]$1 be+ mi/ak5 = l&4 --,gran ,cocal is said 9 ,krus5/]n's 8,memoir10 to be l[1 & to be surr\nd$ by a reef2 x is small1 & !re=e probably once conta9$ a lagoon2 uncol\r$4--,/4 ,augu/94 ,f a *>t & view ( x1 giv5 9 ! 8,atlas ( ! #8,coquille's' ,voyage10 x appe>s to be a small atoll1 ) its lagoon p>tly fill$ up2 col\r$ blue4 ,,gilb]t ,,gr\p4--,! *>t ( ?is gr\p1 giv5 9 ! 8,atlas ( ! #8,coquille's' ,voyage10 at once %[s t x is compos$ ( t5 well *>act]is$ atolls4 ,9 ,d',urville & ,lott9's *>t1 ,syd5ham is writt5 ) a capital lett]1 signify+ t x is high2 b ?is c]ta9ly is n ! case1 = x is a p]fectly *>act]is$ atoll1 & a sket*1 %[+ h[ l[ x is1 is giv5 9 ! 8#8,coquille's' ,atlas40 ,"s n>r[ /rip-l reefs project f ! s\!rn side ( ,drummond atoll1 & r5d] x irregul>4 ,! s\!rn isl& ( ! gr\p is call$ ,*ase 79 "s *>ts1 ,rot*es72 ( ?is ,i c f9d no acc\nt1 b ,mr4 ,f4,d4 ,b5nett discov]$ 78,geographical ,j\rnal01 volume vii41 page #bbi71 a l[ ext5sive isl& 9 ne>ly ! same latitude1 ab\t ?ree degrees we/w>d ( ! longitude assign$ to ,rot*es1 b v probably x is ! same isl&4 ,mr4 ,b5nett in=ms me t ! man at ! ma/head report$ an appe>ance ( lagoon-wat] 9 ! c5tre2 &1 !re=e1 consid]+ its position1 ,i h col\r$ x blue4 --,pitt ,isl&1 at ! extreme nor!rn po9t ( ! gr\p1 is left uncol\r$1 z its exact position & nature is n kn[n4--,byron ,isl&1 :i* lies a little to ! ea/w>d1 does n appe> to h be5 visit$ s9ce ,commodore ,byron's voyage1 & x 0 !n se5 only f a di/ance ( eighte5 miles2 x is said to be l[2 uncol\r$4 ,ocean1 ,pleasant1 & ,atlantic ,isl&s all lie consid]ably to ! we/ ( ! ,gilb]t gr\p3 ,i h be5 unable to f9d any di/9ct acc\nt ( !m4 ,ocean ,isl& is writt5 ) small lett]s 9 ! ,fr5* *>t1 b 9 ,krus5/]n's 8,memoir0 x is said to be high4 ,,m>%all ,,gr\p4--,we are well acqua9t$ ) ?is gr\p f ! excell5t *>ts ( ! sep>ate isl&s1 made dur+ ! two voyages ( ,kotzebue3 a r$uc$ "o ( ! :ole gr\p may be easily se5 9 ,krus5/]n's 8,atlas10 & 9 ,kotzebue's 8,second ,voyage40 ,! gr\p consi/s 7) ! exception ( two little isl&s :i* probably h _h _! lagoon fill$ up7 ( a d\ble r[ ( tw5ty-?ree l>ge & well-*>act]is$ atolls1 f ! exam9ation ( :i* ,*amisso has giv5 u 8 well-kn[n acc\nt ( coral-=mations4 ,i include ,gasp>-,rico1 or ,cornwallis ,isl& 9 ?is gr\p1 :i* is describ$ by ,*amisso 7,kotzebue's 8,fir/ ,voyage10 volume iii41 page #agi7 8z a l[ sickle-=m$ gr\p1 ) m\ld only on ! w9dw>d side40 ,gasp>d ,isl& is consid]$ by "s geograph]s z a di/9ct isl& ly+ ,n4,e4 ( ! gr\p1 b x is n ent]$ 9 ! *>t by ,krus5/]n2 left uncol\r$4 ,9 ! ,s4,w4 "p ( ?is gr\p lies ,b>+ ,isl&1 ( :i* little is kn[n 7see ,krus5/]n's 8,app5dix10 #ahce1 page #adi74 ,i h left x uncol\r$2 b ,bo/on ,isl& ,i h col\r$ blue1 z x is describ$ 7,ibid47 z consi/+ ( f\rte5 small isl&s1 :i*1 no d\bt1 enclose a lagoon1 z repres5t$ 9 a *>t 9 ! 8#8,coquille's' ,atlas40--,two isl&s1 ,aur ,kaw5 & ,gasp> ,rico1 are writt5 9 ! ,fr5* *>t ) capital lett]s2 b ?is is an error1 = f ! acc\nt giv5 by ,*amisso 9 ,kotzebue's 8,fir/ ,voyage10 !y are c]ta9ly l[4 ,! nature1 position1 & ev5 exi/5ce1 ( ! %oals & small isl&s nor? ( ! ,m>%all gr\p1 are d\btful4 ,,new ,,hebrides4--,any *>t1 on ev5 a small scale1 ( ^! isl&s1 w %[ t _! %ores are almo/ )\t reefs1 pres5t+ a rem>kable contra/ ) ^? ( ,new ,cal$onia on ! "o h&1 & ! ,fidji gr\p on ! o!r4 ,nev]!less1 ,i h be5 assur$ by ,mr4 ,g4 ,b5nett1 t coral gr[s vigor\sly on _! %ores2 z inde$1 w be fur!r %[n 9 "s ( ! foll[+ notices4 ,z1 !re=e1 ^! isl&s are n encircl$1 & z coral gr[s vigor\sly on _! %ores1 we might almo/ conclude1 )\t fur!r evid5ce1 t !y 7 fr+$1 & h5ce ,i h appli$ ! r$ col\r ) r great] fre$om ?an 9 o!r in/ances4--,mat!w's ,rock1 an active volcano1 "s way s\? ( ! gr\p 7( :i* a plan is giv5 9 ! 8,atlas ( ! #8,a/rolabe's' ,voyage07 does n appe> to h reefs ( any k9d ab\t x4--,annatom1 ! s\!rnmo/ ( ! ,hebrides2 f a r\gh woodcut giv5 9 ! 8,unit$ ,s]vice ,j\rnal0 7#ahca1 "p iii41 page #aij71 accompany+ a pap] by ,mr4 ,b5nett1 x appe>s t ! %ore is fr+$2 col\r$ r$4--,tanna4 ,=/]1 9 8 8,obs]vations0 7page #bb71 says ,tanna has on its %ores coral-rock & madrepores2 & ! y\ng] ,=/]1 9 8 acc\nt 7volume ii41 page #bfi7 speak+ ( ! h>b\r says1 ! :ole ,s4,e4 side consi/s ( coral-reefs1 :i* are ov]fl[$ at high-wat]2 "p ( ! s\!rn %ore 9 ,cook's *>t is repres5t$ z fr+$2 col\r$ r$4--,imm] is describ$ 78,unit$ ,s]vice ,j\rnal10 #ahca1 "p iii41 page #aib7 by ,mr4 ,b5nett z be+ ( mod]ate elevation1 ) cliffs appe>+ l s&/one3 coral gr[s 9 pat*es on its %ore1 b ,i h n col\r$ x2 & ,i m5tion ^! facts1 because ,imm] might h be5 ?\ght f ,=/]'s classification 78,obs]vations10 page #ad71 to h be5 a l[ isl& or ev5 an atoll4-- ,erromango ,isl&2 ,cook 78,second ,voyage10 volume ii41 page #de1 #dto edition7 speaks ( rocks ev]y:]e l9+ ! coa/1 & ! natives (f]$ to haul 8 boat ov] ! break]s to ! s&y bea*3 ,mr4 ,b5nett1 9 a lett] to ! ,editor ( ! 8,s+apore ,*ron410 alludes to ! reefs on its %ores4 ,x may1 ,i ?9k1 be safely inf]r$ f ^! passages t ! %ore is fr+$ 9 p>ts by coral-reefs2 col\r$ r$4--,s&wi* ,isl&4 ,! ea/ coa/ is said 7,cook's 8,second ,voyage10 volume ii41 page #da7 to be l[1 & to be gu>d$ by a *a9 ( break]s4 ,9 ! accompany+ *>t x is se5 to be fr+$ by a reef2 col\r$ r$4--,mallicollo2 ,=/] speaks ( ! reef-b\nd$ %ore3 ! reef is ab\t ?irty y>ds wide1 & s %all[ t a boat _c pass ov] x4 ,=/] also 78,obs]vations10 page #bc7 says1 t ! rocks ( ! sea-%ore consi/ ( madrepore4 ,9 ! plan ( ,s&wi* h>b\r1 ! headl&s are repres5t$ z fr+$2 col\r$ r$4--,aurora & ,p5teco/ ,isl&s1 accord+ to ,b\ga9ville1 app>5tly h no reefs2 nor has ! l>ge isl& ( ,s4 ,espiritu1 nor ,bligh ,isl& or ,banks' ,isl&s1 :i* latt] lie to ! ,n4,e4 ( ! ,hebrides4 ,b 9 none ( ^! cases1 h ,i met ) any detail$ acc\nt ( _! %ores1 or se5 plans on a l>ge scale2 & x w be evid5t1 t a fr++-reef ( only ?irty or ev5 a few hundr$ y>ds 9 wid?1 is ( s little importance to navigation1 t x w seldom be notic$1 except+ by *ance2 & h5ce ,i d n d\bt t sev]al ( ^! isl&s1 n[ left uncol\r$1 ought to be r$4 ,,santa-,,cruz ,,gr\p4--,vanikoro 7,figure #a1 ,plate ,i47 (f]s a /rik+ example ( a b>ri]-reef3 x 0 fir/ describ$ by ! ,*evali] ,dillon1 9 8 voyage1 & 0 survey$ 9 ! 8,a/rolabe02 col\r$ pale blue4--,tikopia & ,fataka ,isl&s appe>1 f ! descriptions ( ,dillon & ,d',urville1 to h no reefs2 ,an\da is a l[1 flat isl&1 surr\nd$ by cliffs 78#8,a/rolabe' ,hydrog40 & ,krus5/]n1 8,mem40 volume ii41 page #dcb72 ^! are uncol\r$4 ,t\p\a 7,otooboa ( ,dillon7 is /at$ by ,capta9 ,tromel9 78,annales ,m>it40 #ahbi1 page #bhi7 to be almo/ entirely includ$ 9 a reef1 ly+ at ! di/ance ( two miles f ! %ore4 ,!re is a space ( ?ree miles )\t any reef1 :i*1 al?\gh ind5t$ ) bays1 (f]s no an*orage f ! extreme dep? ( ! wat] close to ! %ore3 ,capta9 ,dillon also speaks ( ! reefs front+ ?is isl&2 col\r$ blue4-- ,santa-,cruz4 ,i h c>efully exam9$ ! works ( ,c>t]et1 ,d',entreca/eaux1 ,wilson1 & ,tromel91 & ,i _c discov] any m5tion ( reefs on its %ores2 left uncol\r$4--,t9akoro is a con/antly active volcano )\t reefs4--,m5dana ,isles 7m5tion$ by ,dillon "u ! "n ( ,mammee1 etc472 said by ,krus5/]n to be l[1 & int]tw9$ ) reefs4 ,i d n believe !y include a lagoon2 ,i h left !m uncol\r$4--,duff's ,isl&s compose a small gr\p direct$ 9 a ,n4,w4 & ,s4,e4 b&2 !y are describ$ by ,wilson 7page #bif1 8,miss4 ,voy40 #dto edition71 z =m$ by bold-peak$ l&1 ) ! isl&s surr\nd$ by coral-reefs1 ext5d+ ab\t half a mile f ! %ore2 at a di/ance ( a mile f ! reefs he f\nd only sev5 fa?oms4 ,z ,i h no reason = suppos+ !re is deep wat] )9 ^! reefs1 ,i h col\r$ !m r$4 ,k5n$y ,isl&1 ,n4,e4 ( ,duff's4 ,i h be5 unable to f9d any acc\nt ( x4 ,,new ,,cal$onia4--,! great b>ri]-reefs on ! %ores ( ?is isl& h already be5 describ$ 7,figure #e1 ,plate ,,ii474 ,!y h be5 visit$ by ,labill>dire1 ,cook1 & ! nor!rn po9t by ,d',urville2 ?is latt] "p s closely resembles an atoll t ,i h col\r$ x d>k blue4 ,! ,loyalty gr\p is situat$ ea/w>d ( ?is isl&2 f ! *>t & description giv5 9 ! 8,voyage ( ! #8,a/rolabe'10 !y d n appe> to h any reefs2 nor? ( ?is gr\p1 !re are "s ext5sive l[ reefs 7call$ ,a/rolabe & ,beaupr17 :i* d n seem to be atoll-=m$2 ^! are left uncol\r$4 ,,au/ralian ,,b>ri]-,,reef4--,! limits ( ?is great reef1 :i* has already be5 describ$1 h be5 col\r$ f ! *>ts ( ,fl9d]s & ,k+4 ,9 ! nor!rn p>ts1 an atoll-=m$ reef1 ly+ outside ! b>ri]1 has be5 describ$ by ,bligh1 & is col\r$ d>k blue4 ,9 ! space betwe5 ,au/ralia & ,new ,cal$onia1 call$ by ,fl9d]s ! ,corallian ,sea1 !re are num]\s reefs4 ,( ^!1 "s are repres5t$ 9 ,krus5/]n's 8,atlas0 z hav+ an atoll-l /ructure2 namely1 ,bampton %oal1 ,fr$]ic1 ,v9e or ,horse-%oe1 & ,al]t reefs2 ^! h be5 col\r$ d>k blue4 ,,l\isiade3 ! dang]\s reefs :i* front & surr\nd ! we/]n1 s\!rn1 & nor!rn coa/s ( ?is s-call$ p59sula & ar*ipelago1 seem evid5tly to belong to ! b>ri] class4 ,! l& is l(ty1 ) a l[ fr+e on ! coa/2 ! reefs are di/ant1 & ! sea outside !m pr(\ndly deep4 ,ne>ly all t is kn[n ( ?is gr\p is d]iv$ f ! lab\rs ( ,d',entreca/eaux & ,b\ga9ville3 ! latt] has repres5t$ "o cont9u\s reef n9ety miles long1 p>allel to ! %ore1 & 9 places z mu* z t5 miles f x2 col\r$ pale blue4 ,a little di/ance nor?w>d we h ! ,laughlan ,isl&s1 ! reefs r\nd :i* are engrav$ 9 ! 8,atlas ( ! ,voyage ( ! #8,a/rolabe'10 9 ! same mann] z 9 ! encircl$ isl&s ( ! ,c>ol9e ,ar*ipelago1 ! reef is1 9 p>ts1 a mile & a half f ! %ore1 to :i* x does n appe> to be atta*$2 col\r$ blue4 ,at "s little di/ance f ! extremity ( ! ,l\isiade lies ! ,wells reef1 describ$ 9 ,g4 ,hamilton's 8,voyage 9 ,h4,m4,s4 #8,p&ora'0 7page #ajj73 x is said1 8,we f\nd we _h got embay$ 9 a d\ble reef1 :i* w soon be an isl&40 ,z ?is /atem5t is only intelligible on ! supposition ( ! reef be+ cresc5t or horse-%oe =m$1 l s _m o!r subm]g$ annul> reefs1 ,i h v5tur$ to col\r x blue4 ,,salomon ,,ar*ipelago3 ! *>t 9 ,krus5/]n's 8,atlas0 %[s t ^! isl&s are n encircl$1 & z coral appe>s f ! works ( ,surville1 ,b\ga9ville1 & ,labill>dire1 to gr[ on _! %ores1 ?is circum/ance1 z 9 ! case ( ! ,new ,hebrides1 is a presumption t !y are fr+$4 ,i _c f9d out any?+ f ,d',entreca/eaux's 8,voyage10 reg>d+ ! s\!rn isl&s ( ! gr\p1 s h left !m uncol\r$4--,malayta ,isl& 9 a r\gh ,,ms4 *>t 9 ! ,admiralty has its nor!rn %ore fr+$4--,ysabel ,isl&1 ! ,n4,e4 "p ( ?is isl&1 9 ! same *>t1 is also fr+$3 ,m5dana1 speak+ 7,burney1 volume i41 page #bhj7 ( an islet adjo9+ ! nor!rn coa/1 says x is surr\nd$ by reefs2 ! %ores1 also ( ,port ,prasl9 appe> regul>ly fr+$4--,*oiseul ,isl&4 ,9 ,b\ga9ville's 8,*>t ( ,*oiseul ,bay10 p>ts ( ! %ores are fr+$ by coral-reefs4-- ,b\ga9ville ,isl&4 ,accord+ to ,d',entreca/eaux ! we/]n %ore ab\nds ) coral-reefs1 & ! small] isl&s are said to be atta*$ to ! l>g] ones by reefs2 all ! be=e-m5tion$ isl&s h be5 col\r$ r$4--,b\ka ,isl&s4 ,capta9 ,dup]rey has k9dly in=m$ me 9 a lett] t he pass$ close r\nd ! nor!rn side ( ?is isl& 7( :i* a plan is giv5 9 8 8,atlas ( ! #8,coquille's' ,voyage071 & t x 0 8g>nie d'une b&e de rcifs fleur d'eau adh]5tes au rivage20 & he inf]s1 f ! abundance ( coral on ! isl&s nor? & s\? ( ,b\ka1 t ! reef probably is ( coral2 col\r$ r$4 ,(f ! nor? coa/ ( ! ,solomon ,ar*ipelago !re are sev]al small gr\ps :i* are little kn[n2 !y appe> to be l[1 & ( coral-=mation2 & "s ( !m probably h an atoll-l /ructure2 ! ,*evalli] ,dillon1 h[ev]1 in=ms me t ?is is n ! case ) ! ,b4 de ,c&el>ia4--,outong ,java1 accord+ to ! ,spani% navigator1 ,maurelle1 is ?us *>act]is$2 b ?is is ! only "o :i* ,i h v5tur$ to col\r blue4 ,,new ,,irel&4--,! %ores ( ! ,s4,w4 po9t ( ?is isl& & "s adjo9+ islets1 are fr+$ by reefs1 z may be se5 9 ! 8,atlases ( ! ,voyages ( ! #8,coquille' & #8,a/rolabe'40 ,m4 ,lesson obs]ves t ! reefs are op5 9 front ( ea* /reamlet4 ,! ,duke ( ,york's ,isl& is also fr+$2 b ) reg>d to ! o!r p>ts ( ,new ,irel&1 ,new ,hanov]1 & ! small isl&s ly+ nor?w>d1 ,i h be5 unable to obta9 any in=mation4 ,i w only add t no "p ( ,new ,irel& appe>s to be front$ by di/ant reefs4 ,i h col\r$ r$ only ! above specifi$ portions4 ,,new ,,brita9 & ! ,,nor!rn ,,%ore ( ,,new ,,gu9ea4--,f ! *>ts 9 ! 8,voyage ( ! #8,a/rolabe'10 & f ! 8,hydrog4 ,memoir10 x appe>s t ^! coa/s are entirely )\t reefs1 z are ! ,s*\t5 ,isl&s1 ly+ close to ! nor!rn %ore ( ,new ,gu9ea4 ,! we/]n & s\?-we/]n p>ts ( ,new ,gu9ea1 w be treat$ ( :5 we come to ! isl&s ( ! ,ea/ ,indian ,ar*ipelago4 ,,admiralty ,,gr\p4--,f ! acc\nts by ,b\ga9ville1 ,maurelle1 ,d',entreca/eaux1 & ! scatt]$ notices collect$ by ,horsburgh1 x appe>s1 t "s ( ! _m isl&s compos+ x1 are high1 ) a bold outl9e2 & o!rs are v l[1 small & int]lac$ ) reefs4 ,all ! high isl&s appe> to be front$ by di/ant reefs ris+ abruptly f ! sea1 & )9 "s ( :i* !re is reason to believe t ! wat] is deep4 ,i h !re=e little d\bt !y are ( ! b>ri] class4--,9 ! s\!rn "p ( ! gr\p we h ,elizabe? ,isl&1 :i* is surr\nd$ by a reef at ! di/ance ( a mile2 & two miles ea/w>d ( x 7,krus5/]n1 8,app5d40 #ahce1 page #db7 !re is a little isl& conta9+ a lagoon4--,ne> "h1 also lies ,circul>-reef 7,horsburgh1 8,direct40 volume i41 page #fia1 #d? edition71 8?ree or f\r miles 9 diamet] hav+ deep wat] inside ) an op5+ at ! ,n4,n4,w4 "p1 & on ! outside /eep to40 ,i h f ^! data1 col\r$ ! gr\p pale blue1 & circul>-reef d>k blue4--! ,ana*orites1 ,e*equi]1 & ,h]mites1 consi/ ( innum]able l[ isl&s ( coral-=mation1 :i* probably h atoll-l =ms2 b n be+ able to asc]ta9 ?is1 ,i h n col\r$ !m1 nor ,dur\r ,isl&1 :i* is describ$ by ,c>t]et z l[4 ,! ,,c>ol9e ,,ar*ipelago is n[ well-kn[n1 *iefly f ! hydrographical lab\rs ( ,lutk2 x conta9s ab\t =ty gr\ps ( atolls1 & ?ree encircl$ isl&s1 two ( :i* are engrav$ 9 ,figures #b & #g1 ,plate ,i4 ,comm5c+ ) ! ea/]n "p2 ! encircl+ reef r\nd ,ual5 appe>s to be only ab\t half a mile f ! %ore2 b z ! l& is l[ & cov]$ ) mangroves 78,voyage aut\r du ,monde10 p> ,f4 ,lutk1 volume i41 page #cci71 ! real m>g9 has n probably be5 asc]ta9$4 ,! extreme dep? 9 "o ( ! h>b\rs )9 ! reef is ?irty-?ree fa?oms 7see *>ts 9 8,atlas ( #8,coquille's' ,voyage071 & outside at half a mile di/ant f ! reef1 no bottom 0 obta9$ ) two hundr$ & fifty fa?oms4 ,! reef is surm\nt$ by _m islets1 & ! lagoon-l *annel )9 is mo/ly %all[1 & appe>s to h be5 mu* encroa*$ on by ! l[ l& surr\nd+ ! c5tral m\nta9s2 ^! facts %[ t "t has all[$ mu* detritus to accumulate2 col\r$ pale blue4-- ,p\ynipte1 or ,s5iav9e4 ,9 ! great] "p ( ! circumf]5ce ( ?is isl&1 ! reef is ab\t "o mile & ?ree qu>t]s di/ant2 on ! nor? side x is five miles (f ! includ$ high islets4 ,! reef is brok5 9 sev]al places2 & j )9 x1 ! dep? 9 "o place is ?irty fa?oms1 & 9 ano!r1 tw5ty-eight1 beyond :i*1 to all appe>ance1 !re 0 8un porte va/e et sur0 7,lutk1 volume ii41 page #d72 col\r$ pale blue4--,hogoleu or ,r\g4 ,?is wond]ful gr\p conta9s at lea/ sixty-two isl&s1 & its reef is "o hundr$ & ?irty-five miles 9 circuit4 ,( ! isl&s1 only a few1 ab\t six or eight 7see 8,hydrog4 ,descrip40 page #dbh1 ( ! 8,voyage ( ! #8,a/rolabe'10 & ! l>ge accompany+ *>t tak5 *iefly f t giv5 by ,dup]rey7 are high1 & ! re/ are all small1 l[1 & =m$ on ! reef4 ,! dep? ( ! great int]ior lake has n be5 asc]ta9$2 b ,capta9 ,d',urville appe>s to h ent]ta9$ no d\bt ab\t ! possibility ( tak+ 9 a frigate4 ,! reef lies no less ?an f\rte5 miles di/ant f ! nor!rn coa/s ( ! int]ior high isl&s1 sev5 f _! we/]n sides1 & tw5ty f ! s\!rn2 ! sea is deep outside4 ,?is isl& is a lik5ess on a gr& scale to ! ,gambi] gr\p 9 ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago4 ,( ! gr\ps ( l[#a isl&s =m+ ! *ief "p ( ! ,c>ol9e ,ar*ipelago1 all ^? ( l>g] size1 h ! true atoll-/ructure 7z may be se5 9 ! 8,atlas0 by ,capta9 ,lutk71 & "s ev5 ( ! v small ones1 z ,macaskill & ,dup]rey1 ( :i* plans are giv5 9 ! 8,atlas ( ! #8,coquille's' ,voyage40 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 "s l[ small isl&s ( coral-=mation1 namely ,ollap1 ,tamatam1 ,bigali1 ,satah\al1 :i* d n conta9 lagoons2 b x is probable t lagoons orig9ally exi/$1 b h s9ce fill$ up3 ,lutk 7volume ii41 page #cjd7 seems to h ?\ght t all ! l[ isl&s1 ) only "o exception1 conta9$ lagoons4 ,f ! sket*es1 & f ! mann] 9 :i* ! m>g9s ( ^! isl&s are engrav$ 9 ! 8,atlas ( ! ,voyage ( ! #8,coquille'10 x might h be5 ?\ght t !y 7 n l[2 b by a comp>ison ) ! rem>ks ( ,lutk 7volume ii41 page #ajg1 reg>d+ ,bigali7 & ( ,freyc9et 78,hydrog4 ,memoir #8,l',uranie' ,voyage10 page #ahh1 reg>d+ ,tamatam1 ,ollap1 etc471 x w be se5 t ! arti/ mu/ h repres5t$ ! l& incorrectly4 ,! mo/ s\!rn isl& 9 ! gr\p1 namely ,piguiram1 is n col\r$1 because ,i h f\nd no acc\nt ( x4 ,n\g\or1 or ,monte ,v]dison1 :i* 0 n visit$ by ,lutk1 is describ$ & figur$ by ,mr4 ,b5nett 78,unit$ ,s]vice ,j\rnal10 ,janu>y #ahcb7 z an atoll4 ,all ! above-m5tion$ isl&s h be5 col\r$ blue4 #a ,9 ,d',urville & ,lott9's *>t1 ,pes]>e is writt5 ) capital lett]s2 b ?is evid5tly is an error1 = x is "o ( ! l[ islets on ! reef ( ,namon\yto 7see ,lutk's *>ts7--a regul> atoll4 ,,we/]n ,,"p ,,( ,,! ,,c>ol9e ,,ar*ipelago4--,fais ,isl& is n9ety feet high1 & is surr\nd$1 z ,i h be5 in=m$ by ,admiral ,lutk1 by a n>r[ reef ( liv+ coral1 ( :i* ! broade/ "p1 z repres5t$ 9 ! *>ts1 is only #aej y>ds2 col\r$ r$4-- ,philip ,isl&41 ,i believe1 is l[2 b ,hunt]1 9 8 8,hi/orical ,j\rnal10 gives no cle> acc\nt ( x2 uncol\r$4--,elivi2 f ! mann] 9 :i* ! islets on ! reefs are engrav$1 9 ! 8,atlas ( ! #8,a/rolabe's' ,voyage10 ,i %\ld h ?\ght !y 7 above ! ord9>y height1 b ,admiral ,lutk assures me ?is is n ! case3 !y =m a regul> atoll2 col\r$ blue4--,g\ap 7,eap ( ,*amisso71 is a high isl& ) a reef 7see *>t 9 8,voyage ( ! #8,a/rolabe'071 m ?an a mile di/ant 9 mo/ p>ts f ! %ore1 & two miles 9 "o "p4 ,capta9 ,d',urville ?9ks t !re w\ld be an*orage 78,hydrog4 ,descript4 #8,a/rolabe' ,voyage10 page #dcf7 = %ips )9 ! reef1 if a passage c\ld be f\nd2 col\r$ pale blue4--,g\l\1 f ! *>t 9 ! 8#8,a/rolabe's' ,atlas10 appe>s to be an atoll4 ,d',urville 78,hydrog4 ,descript40 page #dcg7 speaks ( ! l[ islets on ! reef2 col\r$ d>k blue4 ,,pelew ,,isl&s4--,krus5/]n speaks ( "s ( ! isl&s be+ m\nta9\s2 ! reefs are di/ant f ! %ore1 & !re are spaces )9 !m1 & n opposite valleys1 ) f t5 to fifte5 fa?oms4 ,accord+ to a ,,ms4 *>t ( ! gr\p by ,lieut5ant ,elm] 9 ! ,admiralty1 !re is a l>ge space )9 ! reef ) deepi% wat]2 al?\gh ! high l& does n hold a c5tral position ) respect to ! reefs1 z is g5]ally ! case1 ,i h little d\bt t ! reefs ( ! ,pelew ,isl&s ought to be rank$ ) ! b>ri] class1 & ,i h col\r$ !m pale blue4 ,9 ,lieut5ant ,elm]'s *>t !re is a horse%oe-=m$ %oal1 laid d[n ?irte5 miles ,n4,w4 ( ,pelew1 ) fifte5 fa?oms )9 ! reef1 & "s dry banks on x2 col\r$ d>k blue4--,spani%1 ,m>tires1 ,sans]ot1 ,pulo ,anna & ,m>i]e ,isl&s are n col\r$1 because ,i "k no?+ ab\t !m1 except+ t accord+ to ,krus5/]n1 ! second1 ?ird1 & f\r? m5tion$1 are l[1 plac$ on coral-reefs1 & !re=e1 p]haps1 conta9 lagoons2 b ,pulo ,m>i]e is a little high]4 ,,m>iana ,,ar*ipelago1 or ,,ladrones4--,guahan4 ,almo/ ! :ole ( ?is isl& is fr+$ by reefs1 :i* ext5d 9 mo/ p>ts ab\t a ?ird ( a mile f ! l&4 ,ev5 :]e ! reefs are mo/ ext5sive1 ! wat] )9 !m is %all[4 ,9 sev]al p>ts !re is a navigable *annel = boats & canoes )9 ! reefs4 ,9 ,freyc9et's 8,hydrog4 ,mem40 !re is an acc\nt ( ^! reefs1 & 9 ! 8,atlas10 a map on a l>ge scale2 col\r$ r$4--,rota4 8,l'ile e/ presque entirem5t ent\re des rcifs0 7page #bab1 ,freyc9et's 8,hydrog4 ,mem4074 ,^! reefs project ab\t a qu>t] ( a mile f ! %ore2 col\r$ r$4--,t9ian4 ,! ea/]n coa/ is precipit\s1 & is )\t reefs2 b ! we/]n side is fr+$ l ! la/ isl&2 col\r$ r$4--,saypan4 ,! ,n4,e4 coa/1 & likewise ! we/]n %ores appe> to be fr+$2 b !re is a great1 irregul>1 horn-l reef project+ f> f ?is side2 col\r$ r$4--,f>allon de ,m$9illa1 appe>s s regul>ly & closely fr+$ 9 ,freyc9et's *>ts1 t ,i h v5tur$ to col\r x r$1 al?\gh no?+ is said ab\t reefs 9 ! 8,hydrographical ,memoir40 ,! sev]al isl&s :i* =m ! nor!rn "p ( ! gr\p are volcanic 7) ! exception p]haps ( ,torres1 :i* resembles 9 =m ! madreporitic isl& ( ,m$9illa71 & appe> to be )\t reefs4--,mangs1 h[ev]1 is describ$ 7by ,freyc9et1 page #bai1 8,hydrog407 f "s ,spani% *>ts1 z =m$ ( small isl&s plac$ 8au milieu des nombreux rcifs20 & z ^! reefs 9 ! g5]al *>t ( ! gr\p d n project s mu* z a mile2 & z !re is no appe>ance f a d\ble l9e1 ( ! exi/5ce ( deep wat] )91 ,i h v5tur$1 al?\gh ) mu* hesitation1 to col\r !m r$4 ,respect+ ,folg] & ,m>%all ,isl&s :i* lie "s way ea/ ( ! ,m>ianas1 ,i c f9d out no?+1 except+ t !y are probably l[4 ,krus5/]n says ?is ( ,m>%all ,isl&2 & ,folg] ,isl& is writt5 ) small lett]s 9 ,d',urville's *>t2 uncol\r$4 ,,bon9 or ,,arzobispo ,,gr\p4--,peel ,isl& has be5 exam9$ by ,capta9 ,bee*ey1 to ^: k9dness ,i am mu* indebt$ = giv+ me in=mation reg>d+ x3 8,at ,port ,lloyd !re is a great deal ( coral2 & ! inn] h>b\r is entirely =m$ by coral-reefs1 :i* ext5d outside ! port along ! coa/40 ,capta9 ,bee*ey1 9 ano!r "p ( 8 lett] to me1 alludes to ! reefs fr++ ! isl& 9 all directions2 b at ! same "t x mu/ be obs]v$ t ! surf wa%es ! volcanic rocks ( ! coa/ 9 ! great] "p ( its circumf]5ce4 ,i d n "k :e!r ! o!r isl&s ( ! ,ar*ipelago are fr+$2 ,i h col\r$ ,peel ,isl& r$4--,grampus ,isl& to ! ea/w>d1 does n appe> 7,me>e's 8,voyage10 page #ie7 to h any reefs1 nor does ,ros>io ,isl& 7f ,lutk's *>t71 :i* lies to ! we/w>d4 ,respect+ ! few o!r isl&s 9 ?is "p ( ! sea1 namely ! ,sulphur ,isl&s1 ) an active volcano1 & ^? ly+ betwe5 ,bon9 & ,japan 7:i* are situat$ ne> ! extreme limit 9 latitude1 at :i* reefs are =m$71 ,i h n be5 able to f9d any cle> acc\nt4 ,,we/ ,,end ,,( ,,new ,,gu9ea4--,port ,dory4 ,f ! *>ts 9 ! 8,voyage ( ! #8,coquille'10 x w\ld appe> t ! coa/ 9 ?is "p is fr+$ by coral-reefs2 ,m4 ,lesson1 h[ev]1 rem>ks t ! coral is sickly2 col\r$ r$4--,waigi\4 ,a consid]able portion ( ! nor!rn %ores ( ^! isl&s is se5 9 ! *>ts 7on a l>ge scale7 9 ,freyc9et's 8,atlas0 to be fr+$ by coral-reefs4 ,=re/ 7page #ba1 8,voyage to ,new ,gu9ea07 alludes to ! coral-reefs l9+ ! heads ( ,piapis ,bay2 & ,horsburgh 7volume ii41 page #eii1 #d? edition71 speak+ ( ! isl&s 9 ,dampi] ,/rait1 says 8%>p coral-rocks l9e _! %ores20 col\r$ r$4--,9 ! sea nor? ( ^! isl&s1 we h ,gu$es 7or ,freewill1 or ,/4 ,david's71 :i* f ! *>t giv5 9 ! #dto edition ( ,c>t]et's 8,voyage10 mu/ be an atoll4 ,krus5/]n says ! islets are v l[2 col\r$ blue4--,c>t]et's ,%oals1 9 #b #ec ,n41 are describ$ z circul>1 ) /ony po9ts %[+ all r\nd1 ) deep] wat] 9 ! middle2 col\r$ blue4--,ai\2 ! plan ( ?is gr\p1 giv5 9 ! 8,atlas ( ! ,voyage ( ! #8,a/rolabe'10 %[s t x is an atoll2 &1 f a *>t 9 ,=re/'s 8,voyage10 x appe>s t !re is twelve fa?oms )9 ! circul> reef2 col\r$ blue4--,! ,s4,w4 coa/ ( ,new ,gu9ea appe>s to be l[1 muddy1 & devoid ( reefs4 ,! ,arru1 ,timor laut1 & ,t5imb] gr\ps h lately be5 exam9$ by ,capta9 ,kolff1 ! ,,ms4 translation ( :i*1 by ,mr4 ,w4 ,e>l1 ,i h be5 p]mitt$ to read1 ?r\gh ! k9dness ( ,capta9 ,wa%+ton1 ,r4,n4 ,^! isl&s are mo/ly r l[1 & are surr\nd$ by di/ant reefs 7! ,ki ,isl&s1 h[ev]1 are l(ty1 &1 f ,mr4 ,/anley's survey1 appe> )\t reefs72 ! sea 9 "s p>ts is %all[1 9 o!rs pr(\ndly deep 7z ne> ,l>rat74 ,f ! imp]fection ( ! publi%$ *>ts1 ,i h be5 unable to decide to :i* class ^! reefs belong4 ,f ! di/ance to :i* !y ext5d f ! l&1 :]e ! sea is v deep1 ,i am /rongly incl9$ to believe !y ought to come )9 ! b>ri] class1 & be col\r$ blue2 b ,i h be5 =c$ to leave !m uncol\r$4--,! la/-m5tion$ gr\ps are connect$ ) ! ea/ end ( ,c]am by a *a9 ( small isl&s1 ( :i* ! small gr\ps ( ,c]am-laut1 ,goram & ,keff+ are surr\nd$ by v ext5sive reefs1 project+ into deep wat]1 :i*1 z 9 ! la/ case1 ,i /rongly suspect belong to ! b>ri] class2 b ,i h n col\r$ !m4 ,f ! s\? side ( ,keff+1 ! reefs project five miles 7,w9dsor ,e>l's 8,sail+ ,direct4 = ! ,arafura ,sea10 page #i74 ,,c]am4--,9 v>i\s *>ts :i* ,i h exam9$1 sev]al p>ts ( ! coa/ are repres5t$ z fr+$ by reefs4--,manipa ,isl&1 betwe5 ,c]am & ,b\r\1 9 an old ,,ms4 *>t 9 ! ,admiralty1 is fr+$ by a v irregul> reef1 p>tly dry at l[ wat]1 :i* ,i d n d\bt is ( coral-=mation2 bo? isl&s col\r$ r$4--,b\r\2 p>ts ( ?is isl& appe> fr+$ by coral-reefs1 namely1 ! ea/]n coa/1 z se5 9 ,freyc9et's *>t2 & ,cajeli ,bay1 :i* is said by ,horsburgh 7volume ii41 page #fcj7 to be l9$ by coral-reefs1 t /ret* out a little way1 & h only a few feet wat] on !m4 ,9 sev]al *>ts1 portions ( ! isl&s =m+ ! ,,ambo9a ,,gr\p are fr+$ by reefs2 = in/ance1 ,noessa1 ,h>5ca1 & ,uca/]1 9 ,freyc9et's *>ts4 ,! above-m5tion$ isl&s h be5 col\r$ r$1 al?\gh ! evid5ce is n v satisfactory4--,nor? ( ,b\r\ ! p>allel l9e ( ! ,xulla ,isles ext5ds3 ,i h n be5 able to f9d out any?+ ab\t !m1 except+ t ,horsburgh 7volume ii41 page #edc7 says t ! nor!rn %ore is surr\nd$ by a reef at ! di/ance ( two or ?ree miles2 uncol\r$4--,mysol ,gr\p2 ! ,kan>y ,isl&s are said by ,=re/ 78,voyage10 page #acj7 to be divid$ f ea* o!r by deep /raits1 & are l9$ ) coral-rocks2 col\r$ r$4--,guebe1 ly+ betwe5 ,waigi\ & ,gilolo1 is engrav$ z if fr+$2 & x is said by ,freyc9et1 t all ! s\nd+s "u five fa?oms 7 on coral2 col\r$ r$4--,gilolo4 ,9 a *>t publi%$ by ,dalrymple1 ! num]\s isl&s on ! we/]n1 s\!rn 7,bat*ian & ! ,/rait ( ,pati5tia71 & ea/]n sides appe> fr+$ by n>r[ reefs2 ^! reefs1 ,i suppose1 are ( coral1 = x is said 9 8,malte ,brun0 7volume xii41 page #aef71 8,sur les cotes 7( ,bat*ian7 comme dans le plup>t des iles de cet ar*ipel1 il y a de rocs de m$repores d'une beaut et d'une v>it inf9ies40 ,=re/1 also 7page #ej71 says ,sel&1 ne> ,bat*ian1 is a little isl& ) reefs ( coral2 col\r$ r$4--,morty ,isl& 7nor? ( ,gilolo74 ,horsburgh 7volume ii41 page #ejf7 says ! nor!rn coa/ is l9$ by reefs1 project+ "o or two miles1 & hav+ no s\nd+s close to !m2 ,i h left x uncol\r$1 al?\gh1 z 9 "s =m] cases1 x ought probably to be pale blue4--,celebes4 ,! we/]n & nor!rn coa/s appe> 9 ! *>ts to be bold & )\t reefs4 ,ne> ! extreme nor!rn po9t1 h[ev]1 an islet 9 ! ,/raits ( ,limbe1 & p>ts ( ! adjo9+ %ore1 appe> to be fr+$3 ! ea/ side ( ! bay ( ,manado1 has deep wat]1 & is fr+$ by s& & coral 78#8,a/rol4' ,voyage10 ,hydrog4 ,"p1 pages #dec-d72 ?is extreme po9t1 !re=e1 ,i h col\r$ r$4--,( ! isl&s lead+ f ?is po9t to ,mag9danao1 ,i h n be5 able to f9d any acc\nt1 except ( ,s]angani1 :i* appe>s surr\nd$ by n>r[ reefs2 & ,=re/ 78,voyage10 page #afd7 speaks ( coral on its %ores2 ,i h1 !re=e1 col\r$ ?is isl& r$4 ,to ! ea/w>d ( ?is *a9 lie sev]al isl&s2 ( :i* ,i _c f9d any acc\nt1 except ( ,k>kalang1 :i* is said by ,horsburgh 7volume ii41 page #ejd7 to be l9$ by a dang]\s reef1 project+ sev]al miles f ! nor!rn %ore2 n col\r$4 ,,isl&s ,,ne> ,,timor4--,! acc\nt ( ! foll[+ isl&s is tak5 f ,capta9 ,d4 ,kolff's 8,voyage10 9 #ahbe1 translat$ by ,mr4 ,w4 ,e>l1 f ! ,dut*4--,lette has 8reefs ext5d+ along %ore at ! di/ance ( half a mile f ! l&40--,moa has reefs on ! ,s4,w4 "p4--,lakor has a reef l9+ its %ore2 ^! isl&s are col\r$ r$4--,/ill m ea/w>d1 ,luan has1 diff]5tly f ! la/-m5tion$ isl&s1 an ext5sive reef2 x is /eep outside1 & )9 !re is a dep? ( twelve feet2 f ^! facts1 x is impossible to decide to :i* class ?is isl& belongs4--,kissa1 (f ! po9t ( ,timor1 has its 8%ore front$ by a reef1 /eep too on ! out] side1 ov] :i* small proahs c g at ! "t ( high wat]20 col\r$ r$4--,timor2 mo/ ( ! po9ts1 & "s consid]able spaces ( ! nor!rn %ore1 are se5 9 ,freyc9et's *>t to be fr+$ by coral-reefs2 & m5tion is made ( !m 9 ! accompany+ 8,hydrog4 ,memoir20 col\r$ r$4--,savu1 ,s4,e4 ( ,timor1 appe>s 9 ,fl9d]s' *>t to be fr+$2 b ,i h n col\r$ x1 z ,i d n "k t ! reefs are ( coral4-- ,s&alwood ,isl& has1 accord+ to ,horsburgh 7volume ii41 page #fjg71 a reef on its s\!rn %ore1 f\r miles di/ant f ! l&2 z ! neighb\r+ sea is deep1 & g5]ally bold1 ?is probably is a b>ri]- reef1 b ,i h n v5tur$ to col\r x4 ,n4,w4 ,,coa/ ,,( ,,au/ralia4--,x appe>s1 9 ,capta9 ,k+'s ,sail+ ,directions 78,n>rative ( ,survey10 volume ii1 pages #cbe-cfi71 t !re are _m ext5sive coral-reefs skirt+1 (t5 at consid]able di/ances1 ! ,n4,w4 %ores1 & encompass+ ! small adjo9+ islets4 ,deep wat]1 9 no in/ance1 is repres5t$ 9 ! *>ts betwe5 ^! reefs & ! l&2 &1 !re=e1 !y probably belong to ! fr++ class4 ,b z !y ext5d f> into ! sea1 :i* is g5]ally %all[1 ev5 9 places :]e ! l& seems to be some:at precipit\s2 ,i h n col\r$ !m4 ,h\tman's ,abrolhos 7latitude #bh ,s4 on we/ coa/7 h lately be5 survey$ by ,capta9 ,wickham 7z describ$ 9 8,naut4 ,mag40 #ahda1 page #eaa73 !y lie on ! edge ( a /eeply %elv+ bank1 :i* ext5ds ab\t ?irty miles seaw>d1 along ! :ole l9e ( coa/4 ,! two s\!rn reefs1 or isl&s1 enclose a lagoon-l space ( wat]1 v>y+ 9 dep? f five to fifte5 fa?oms1 & 9 "o spot ) tw5ty-?ree fa?oms4 ,! great] "p ( ! isl& has be5 =m$ on _! inl& sides1 by ! accumulation ( fragm5ts ( coral2 ! seaw>d face consi/+ ( ne>ly b>e l$ges ( rock4 ,"s ( ! specim5s1 br\ght home by ,capta9 ,wickham1 conta9$ fragm5ts ( m>9e %ells1 b o!rs did n2 & ^! closely resembl$ a =mation at ,k+ ,george's ,s\nd1 pr9cipally due to ! action ( ! w9d on calc>e\s du/1 :i* ,i %all describe 9 a =?com+ "p4 ,f ! extreme irregul>ity ( ^! reefs ) _! lagoons1 & f _! position on a bank1 ! usual dep? ( :i* is only ?irty fa?oms1 ,i h n v5tur$ to class !m ) atolls1 & h5ce h left !m uncol\r$4--,r[ley ,%oals4 ,^! lie "s way f ! ,n4,w4 coa/ ( ,au/ralia3 accord+ to ,capta9 ,k+ 78,n>rative ( ,survey10 volume i41 page #fj71 !y are ( coral-=mation4 ,!y rise abruptly f ! sea1 & ,capta9 ,k+ _h no bottom ) #agj fa?oms close to !m4 ,?ree ( !m are cresc5t-%ap$2 !y are m5tion$ by ,mr4 ,lyell1 on ! au?ority ( ,capta9 ,k+1 ) ref]5ce to ! direction ( _! op5 sides4 8,a ?ird oval reef ( ! same gr\p is entirely subm]g$0 78,pr9ciples ( ,geology10 book iii4 *apt] xviii472 col\r$ blue4--,scott's ,reefs1 ly+ nor? ( ,r[ley ,%oals1 are briefly describ$ by ,capta9 ,wickham 78,naut4 ,mag40 #ahda1 page #ddj73 !y appe> to be ( great size1 ( a circul> =m1 & 8) smoo? wat] )91 =m+ probably a lagoon ( great ext5t40 ,!re is a break on ! we/]n side1 :]e !re probably is an entrance3 ! wat] is v deep (f ^! reefs2 col\r$ blue4 ,proce$+ we/w>d along ! great volcanic *a9 ( ! ,ea/ ,indian ,ar*ipelago1 ,solor ,/rait is repres5t$ 9 a *>t publi%$ by ,dalrymple f a ,dut* ,,ms41 z fr+$2 z are p>ts ( ,flores1 ( ,ad5>a1 & ( ,solor4 ,horsburgh speaks ( coral gr[+ on ^! %ores2 & !re=e ,i h no d\bt t ! reefs are ( coral1 & accord+ly h col\r$ !m r$4 ,we he> f ,horsburgh 7volume ii41 page #fjb7 t a coral-flat b\nds ! %ores ( ,sapy ,bay4 ,f ! same au?ority x appe>s 7page #faj7 t reefs fr+e ! isl& ( ,timor-,"y1 on ! ,n4 %ore ( ,sumbawa2 &1 likewise 7page #fjj71 t ,bally t[n 9 ,lombock1 is front$ by a reef1 /ret*+ along ! %ore at a di/ance ( a hundr$ fa?oms1 ) *annels ?r\gh x = boats2 ^! places1 !re=e1 h be5 col\r$ r$4--,bally ,isl&4 ,9 a ,dut* ,,ms4 *>t on a l>ge scale ( ,java1 :i* 0 br\ght f t isl& by ,dr4 ,horsfield1 :o _h ! k9dness to %[ x me at ! ,india ,h\se1 its we/]n1 nor!rn1 & s\!rn %ores appe> v regul>ly fr+$ by a reef 7see also ,horsburgh1 volume ii41 page #eic72 & z coral is f\nd abundantly !re1 ,i h n ! lea/ d\bt t ! reef is ( coral1 & !re=e h col\r$ x r$4 ,,java4--,my in=mation reg>d+ ! reefs ( ?is great isl& is d]iv$ f ! *>t j m5tion$4 ,! great] "p ( ,madura is repres5t$ 9 x z regul>ly fr+$1 & likewise portions ( ! coa/ ( ,java imm$iately s\? ( x4 ,dr4 ,horsfield in=ms me t coral is v abundant ne> ,s\rabaya4 ,! islets & p>ts ( ! ,n4 coa/ ( ,java1 we/ ( ,po9t ,buang1 or ,jap>a1 are fr+$ by reefs1 said to be ( coral4 ,lubeck1 or ,bavian ,isl&s1 ly+ at "s di/ance f ! %ore ( ,java1 are regul>ly fr+$ by coral-reefs4 ,c>imon ,java appe>s equally s1 ?\gh x is n directly said t ! reefs are ( coral2 !re is a dep? betwe5 ?irty & =ty fa?oms r\nd ^! isl&s4 ,p>ts ( ! %ores ( ,sunda ,/rait1 :]e ! wat] is f =ty to eighty fa?oms deep1 & ! islets ne> ,batavia appe> 9 sev]al *>ts to be fr+$4 ,9 ! ,dut* *>t ! s\!rn %ore1 9 ! n>r[e/ "p ( ! isl&1 is 9 two places fr+$ by reefs ( coral4 ,we/ ( ,segorr[odee ,bay1 & ! extreme ,s4,e4 & ,e4 portions are likewise fr+$ by coral-reefs2 all ! above-m5tion$ places col\r$ r$4 ,macass> ,/rait2 ! ea/ coa/ ( ,borneo appe>s1 9 mo/ p>ts1 free f reefs1 & :]e !y occur1 z on ! ea/ coa/ ( ,pam>oong1 ! sea is v %all[2 h5ce no "p is col\r$4 ,9 ,macass> ,/rait itself1 9 ab\t latitude #b ,s41 !re are _m small isl&s ) coral-%oals project+ f> f !m4 ,!re are also 7old *>ts by ,dalrymple7 num]\s little flats ( coral1 n ris+ to ! surface ( ! wat]1 & %elv+ sudd5ly f five fa?oms to no bottom ) fifty fa?oms2 !y d n appe> to h a lagoon-l /ructure4 ,!re are simil> coral-%oals a little f>!r s\?2 & 9 latitude #d #ee !re are two1 :i* are engrav$ f mod]n surveys1 9 a mann] :i* might repres5t an annul> reef ) deep wat] inside3 ,capta9 ,moresby1 h[ev]1 :o 0 =m]ly 9 ?is sea1 d\bts ?is fact1 s t ,i h left !m uncol\r$3 at ! same "t ,i may rem>k1 t ^! two %oals make a ne>] approa* to ! atoll-l /ructure ?an any o!r )9 ! ,e4 ,indian ,ar*ipelago4 ,s\?w>d ( ^! %oals !re are o!r l[ isl&s & irregul> coral-reefs2 & 9 ! space ( sea1 nor? ( ! great volcanic *a91 f ,timor to ,java1 we h also o!r isl&s1 su* z ! ,po/illions1 ,kalatoa1 ,tokan-,bessees1 c41 :i* are *iefly l[1 & are surr\nd$ by v irregul> & di/ant reefs4 ,f ! imp]fect *>ts ,i h se51 ,i h n be5 able to decide :e!r !y belong to ! atoll or b>ri]-classes1 or :e!r !y m]ely fr+e subm>9e banks1 & g5tly slop+ l&4 ,9 ! ,bay ( ,bon91 betwe5 ! two s\!rn arms ( ,celebes1 !re are num]\s coral- reefs2 b none ( !m seem to h an atoll-l /ructure4 ,i h1 !re=e1 n col\r$ any ( ! isl&s 9 ?is "p ( ! sea2 ,i ?9k x1 h[ev]1 exce$+ly probable t "s ( !m ought to be blue4 ,i may add t !re is a h>b\r on ! ,s4,e4 coa/ ( ,b\ton :i*1 accord+ to an old *>t1 is =m$ by a reef1 p>allel to ! %ore1 ) deep wat] )92 & 9 ! 8,voyage ( ! #8,coquille'10 "s neighb\r+ isl&s are repres5t$ ) reefs a good way di/ant1 b ,i d n "k :e!r ) deep wat] )94 ,i h n ?\ght ! evid5ce suffici5t to p]mit me to col\r !m4 ,,sumatra4--,comm5c+ ) ! we/ coa/ & outly+ isl&s1 ,engano ,isl& is repres5t$ 9 ! publi%$ *>t z surr\nd$ by a n>r[ reef1 & ,napi]1 9 8 8,sail+ ,directions10 speaks ( ! reef be+ ( coral 7also ,horsburgh1 volume ii41 page #aae72 col\r$ r$4--,rat ,isl& 7#c #ea ,s47 is surr\nd$ by reefs ( coral1 p>tly dry at l[ wat]1 7,horsburgh1 volume ii41 page #if74--,trie/e ,isl& 7#d #b ,s474 ,! %ore is repres5t$ 9 a *>t :i* ,i saw at ! ,india ,h\se1 z fr+$ 9 su* a mann]1 t ,i feel sure ! fr+e consi/s ( coral2 b z ! isl& is s l[1 t ! sea sometimes fl[s q ov] x 7,dampi]1 8,voyage10 volume i41 page #dgd71 ,i h n col\r$ x4--,pulo ,dooa 7latitude #c74 ,9 an old *>t x is said !re are *asms 9 ! reefs r\nd ! isl&1 admitt+ boats to ! wat]+-place1 & t ! s\!rn islet consi/s ( a mass ( s& & coral4--,pulo ,pisang2 ,horsburgh 7volume ii41 page #hf7 says t ! rocky coral-bank1 :i* /ret*es ab\t =ty y>ds f ! %ore1 is /eep to all r\nd3 9 a *>t1 also1 :i* ,i h se51 ! isl& is repres5t$ z regul>ly fr+$4--,pulo ,m9tao is l9$ ) reefs on its we/ side 7,horsburgh1 volume ii41 page #ajg74--,pulo ,baniak2 ! same au?ority 7volume ii41 page #aje71 speak+ ( a "p1 says x is fac$ ) coral-rocks4--,m+u9 7#c #cf ,n474 ,a coral-reef fronts ?is place1 & projects into ! sea ne>ly a qu>t] ( a mile 78,notices ( ! ,indian ,ar*40 publi%$ at ,s+apore1 page #aje74--,pulo ,brassa 7#e #df ,n474 ,a reef surr\nds x at a cable's l5g? 7,horsburgh1 volume ii41 page #fj74 ,i h col\r$ all ! above-specifi$ po9ts r$4 ,i may "h add1 t bo? ,horsburgh & ,mr4 ,moor 79 ! 8,notices0 j allud$ to7 frequ5tly speak ( ! num]\s reefs & banks ( coral on ! we/ coa/ ( ,sumatra2 b ^! n[h]e h ! /ructure ( a b>ri]-reef1 & ,m>sd5 78,hi/ory ( ,sumatra07 /ates1 t :]e ! coa/ is flat1 ! fr++-reefs ext5d fur!/ f x4 ,! nor!rn & s\!rn po9ts1 & ! great] "p ( ! ea/ coa/1 are l[1 & fac$ ) mud banks1 & !re=e )\t coral4 ,,nicob> ,,isl&s4--,! *>t repres5ts ! isl&s ( ?is gr\p z fr+$ by reefs4 ,) reg>d to ,great ,nicob>1 ,capta9 ,moresby in=ms me1 t x is fr+$ by reefs ( coral1 ext5d+ betwe5 two & ?ree hundr$ y>ds f ! %ore4 ,! ,nor!rn ,nicob>s appe> s regul>ly fr+$ 9 ! publi%$ *>ts1 t ,i h no d\bt ! reefs are ( coral4 ,?is gr\p1 !re=e1 is col\r$ r$4 ,,&aman ,,isl&s4--,f an exam9ation ( ! ,,ms4 *>t1 on a l>ge scale1 ( ?is isl&1 by ,capta9 ,ar*4 ,blair1 9 ! ,admiralty1 sev]al portions ( ! coa/ appe> fr+$2 & z ,horsburgh speaks ( coral-reefs be+ num]\s 9 ! vic9ity ( ^! isl&s1 ,i %\ld h col\r$ !m r$1 _h n "s expressions 9 a pap] 9 ! 8,asiatic ,rese>*es0 7volume iv41 page #djb7 l$ me to d\bt ! exi/5ce ( reefs2 uncol\r$4 ,! coa/ ( ,malacca1 ,t5ass]im & ! coa/s nor?w>d1 appe> 9 ! great] "p to be l[ & muddy3 :]e reefs occur1 z 9 p>ts ( ,malacca ,/raits1 & ne> ,s+apore1 !y are ( ! fr++ k9d2 b ! wat] is s %oal1 t ,i h n col\r$ !m4 ,9 ! sea1 h[ev]1 betwe5 ,malacca & ! we/ coa/ ( ,borneo1 :]e !re is a great] dep? f =ty to fifty fa?oms1 ,i h col\r$ r$ "s ( ! gr\ps1 :i* are regul>ly fr+$4 ,! nor!rn ,natunas & ! ,anambas ,isl&s are repres5t$ 9 ! *>ts on a l>ge scale1 publi%$ 9 ! 8,atlas ( ! ,voyage ( ! #8,fav\rite'10 z fr+$ by reefs ( coral1 ) v %oal wat] )9 !m4--,tumbelan & ,bunoa ,isl&s 7#a ,n47 are repres5t$ 9 ! ,engli% *>ts z surr\nd$ by a v regul> fr+e4-- ,/4 ,b>bes 7#j #ae ,n47 is said by ,horsburgh 7volume ii41 page #bgi7 to be front$ by a reef1 ov] :i* boats c l& only at high wat]4--,! %ore ( ,borneo at ,tunjong ,apee is also front$ by a reef1 ext5d+ n f> f ! l& 7,horsburgh1 volume ii41 page #dfh74 ,^! places ,i h col\r$ r$2 al?\gh ) "s hesitation1 z ! wat] is %all[4 ,i might p]haps h add$ ,pulo ,leat1 9 ,gasp> ,/rait1 ,lucep>a1 & ,c>imata2 b z ! sea is conf9$ & %all[1 & ! reefs n v regul>1 ,i h left !m uncol\r$4 ,! wat] %oals gradually t[>ds ! :ole we/ coa/ ( ,borneo3 ,i _c make out t x has any reefs ( coral4 ,! isl&s1 h[ev]1 (f ! nor!rn extremity1 & ne> ! ,s4,w4 end ( ,palawan1 are fr+$ by v di/ant coral-reefs2 ?us ! reefs 9 ! case ( ,balabac are no less ?an five miles f ! l&2 b ! sea1 9 ! :ole ( ?is di/rict1 is s %all[1 t ! reefs might be expect$ to ext5d v f> f ! l&4 ,i h n1 !re=e1 ?\ght myself au?oris$ to col\r !m4 ,! ,n4,e4 po9t ( ,borneo1 :]e ! wat] is v %oal1 is connect$ ) ,mag9danao by a *a9 ( isl&s call$ ! ,sooloo ,ar*ipelago1 ab\t :i* ,i h be5 able to obta9 v little in=mation2 ,pangoot>an1 al?\gh t5 miles long1 entirely consi/s ( a b$ ( coral-rock 78,notices ( ,e4 ,indian ,ar*40 page #eh73 ,i believe f ,horsburgh t ! isl& is l[2 n col\r$4--,tah[ ,bank1 9 "s old *>ts1 appe>s l a subm]g$ atoll2 n col\r$4 ,=re/ 78,voyage10 page #ba7 /ates t "o ( ! isl&s ne> ,sooloo is surr\nd$ by coral-rocks2 b !re is no di/ant reef4 ,ne> ! ,s4 end ( ,basselan1 "s ( ! islets 9 ! *>t accompany+ ,=re/'s 8,voyage10 appe> fr+$ ) reefs2 h5ce ,i h col\r$1 ?\gh unwill+ly1 p>ts ( ! ,sooloo gr\p r$4 ,! sea betwe5 ,sooloo & ,palawan1 ne> ! %oal coa/ ( ,borneo1 is int]sp]s$ ) irregul> reefs & %oal pat*es2 n col\r$3 b 9 ! nor!rn "p ( ?is sea1 !re are two l[ islets1 ,cagayanes & ,cavilli1 surr\nd$ by ext5sive coral-reefs2 ! break]s r\nd ! latt] 7,horsburgh1 volume ii41 page #eac7 ext5d five or six miles f a s&bank1 :i* =ms ! only dry "p2 ^! break]s are /eep to outside2 !re appe>s to be an op5+ ?r\gh !m on "o side1 ) f\r or five fa?oms )93 f ?is description1 ,i /rongly suspect t ,cavilli ought to be consid]$ an atoll2 b1 z ,i h n se5 any *>t ( x1 on ev5 a mod]ately l>ge scale1 ,i h n col\r$ x4 ,! islets (f ! nor!rn end ( ,palawan1 are 9 ! same case z ^? (f ! s\!rn end1 namely !y are fr+$ by reefs1 "s way di/ant f ! %ore1 b ! wat] is exce$+ly %all[2 uncol\r$4 ,! we/]n %ore ( ,palawan w be treat$ ( "u ! head ( ,*9a ,sea4 ,,philipp9e ,,ar*ipelago4--,a *>t on a l>ge scale ( ,appoo %oal1 :i* lies ne> ! ,s4,e4 coa/ ( ,m9doro1 has be5 execut$ by ,capta9 ,d4 ,ross3 x appe>s atoll-=m$1 b ) r an irregul> outl9e2 its diamet] is ab\t t5 miles2 !re are two well-def9$ passages lead+ into ! int]ior lagoon1 :i* appe>s op52 close outside ! reef all r\nd1 !re is no bottom ) sev5ty fa?oms2 col\r$ blue4--,m9doro3 ! ,n4,w4 coa/ is repres5t$ 9 sev]al *>ts1 z fr+$ by a reef1 & ,luban ,isl& is said1 by ,horsburgh 7volume ii41 page #dcf71 to be 8l9$ by a reef40--,luzon3 ,mr4 ,cum+1 :o has lately inve/igat$ ) s mu* success ! ,natural ,hi/ory ( ! ,philipp9es1 in=ms me1 t ab\t ?ree miles ( ! %ore nor? ( ,po9t ,/4 ,jago1 is fr+$ by a reef2 z are 7,horsburgh1 volume ii41 page #dcg7 ! ,?ree ,fri>s (f ,silangu9 ,bay4 ,betwe5 ,po9t ,capones & ,playa ,honda1 ! coa/ is 8l9$ by a coral-reef1 /ret*+ out ne>ly a mile 9 "s places10 7,horsburgh72 & ,mr4 ,cum+ visit$ "s fr++- reefs on p>ts ( ?is coa/1 namely1 ne> ,puebla1 ,iba1 & ,mans+lor4 ,9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,solon-solon ,bay1 ! %ore is l9$ 7,horsburgh ii41 page #dci7 by coral-reefs1 /ret*+ out a great way3 !re are also reefs ab\t ! islets (f ,solamague2 & z ,i am in=m$ by ,mr4 ,cum+1 ne> ,/4 ,catal9a1 & a little nor? ( x4 ,! same g5tleman in=ms me !re are reefs on ! ,s4,e4 po9t ( ?is isl& 9 front ( ,sam>1 ext5d+ f ,malalabon to ,bulusan4 ,^! appe> to be ! pr9cipal fr++-reefs on ! coa/s ( ,luzon2 & !y h all be5 col\r$ r$4 ,mr4 ,cum+ in=ms me t none ( !m h deep wat] )92 al?\gh x appe>s f ,horsburgh t "s few ext5d to a consid]able di/ance f ! %ore4 ,)9 ! ,philipp9e ,ar*ipelago1 ! %ores ( ! isl&s d n appe> to be commonly fr+$1 ) ! exception ( ! ,s4 %ore ( ,masbate1 & ne>ly ! :ole ( ,bohol2 :i* are bo? col\r$ r$4 ,on ! ,s4 %ore ( ,mag9danao1 ,bunwoot ,isl& is surr\nd$ 7accord+ to ,=re/1 8,voyage10 page #bec71 by a coral-reef1 :i* 9 ! *>t appe>s "o ( ! fr++ class4 ,) respect to ! ea/]n coa/s ( ! :ole ,ar*ipelago1 ,i h n be5 able to obta9 any acc\nt4 ,,babuyan ,,isl&s4--,horsburgh says 7volume ii41 page #ddb71 coral-reefs l9e ! %ores ( ! h>b\r 9 ,fuga2 & ! *>ts %[ !re are o!r reefs ab\t ^! isl&s4 ,camigu9 has its %ore 9 p>ts l9$ by coral-rock 7,horsburgh1 page #ddc72 ab\t a mile (f %ore !re is betwe5 ?irty & ?irty-five fa?oms4 ,! plan ( ,port ,san ,pio ,qu9to %[s t its %ores are fr+$ ) coral2 col\r$ r$4--,,babuyan ,,isl&s3 ,horsburgh1 speak+ ( ! s\!rn "p ( ! gr\p 7volume ii41 page #dde7 says ! %ores ( bo? isl&s are =tifi$ by a reef1 & ?r\gh "s ( ! gaps 9 x1 ! natives c pass 9 _! boats 9 f9e wea!r2 ! bottom ne> ! l& is coral-rock4 ,f ! publi%$ *>ts1 x is evid5t t sev]al ( ^! isl&s are mo/ regul>ly fr+$2 col\r$ r$4 ,! nor!rn isl&s are left uncol\r$1 z ,i h be5 unable to f9d any acc\nt ( !m4--,,=mosa4 ,! %ores1 especially ! we/]n "o1 seem *iefly compos$ ( mud & s&1 & ,i _c make out t !y are any:]e l9$ by reefs2 except 9 a h>b\r 7,horsburgh1 volume ii41 page #ddi7 at ! extreme nor!rn po9t3 h5ce1 ( c\rse1 ! :ole ( ?is isl& is left uncol\r$4 ,! small adjo9+ isl&s are 9 ! same case4-- ,,pat*[1 or ,,madjiko-,,sima ,,gr\ps4 ,pat*uson has be5 describ$ by ,capta9 ,br\ghton 78,voy4 to ! ,n4 ,pacific10 page #aia72 he says1 ! boats1 ) "s difficulty1 f\nd a passage ?r\gh ! coral-reefs1 :i* ext5d along ! coa/1 ne>ly half a mile (f x4 ,! boats 7 well %elt]$ )9 ! reef2 b x does n appe> t ! wat] is deep !re4 ,outside ! reef ! dep? is v irregul>1 v>y+ f five to fifty fa?oms2 ! =m ( ! l& is n v abrupt2 col\r$ r$4--,tayp9-san2 f ! description giv5 7page #aie7 by ! same au?or1 x appe>s t a v irregul> reef ext5ds1 to ! di/ance ( sev]al miles1 f ! s\!rn isl&2 b :e!r x encircles a space ( deep wat] is n evid5t2 nor1 inde$1 :e!r ^! outly+ reefs are connect$ ) ^? m imm$iately adjo9+ ! l&2 left uncol\r$4 ,i may "h j add t ! %ore ( ,kumi 7ly+ we/ ( ,pat*[71 has a n>r[ reef atta*$ to x 9 ! plan ( x1 9 ,la ,peyr\se's 8,atlas20 b x does n appe> 9 ! acc\nt ( ! voyage t x is ( coral2 uncol\r$4--,,loo ,,*oo4 ,! great] "p ( ! coa/ ( ?is mod]ately hilly isl&1 is skirt$ by reefs1 :i* d n ext5d f> f ! %ore1 & :i* d n leave a *annel ( deep wat] )9 !m1 z may be se5 9 ! *>ts accompany+ ,capta9 ,b4 ,hall's voyage to ,loo ,*oo 7see also rem>ks 9 ,app5dix1 pages xxi4 & xxv474 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 "s ports ) deep wat]1 =m$ by reefs 9 front ( valleys1 9 ! same mann] z happ5s at ,mauritius4 ,capta9 ,bee*ey1 9 a lett] to me1 comp>es ^! reefs ) ^? encircl+ ! ,society ,isl&s2 b !re appe>s to me a m>k$ diff]5ce betwe5 !m1 9 ! less di/ance at :i* ! ,loo ,*oo reefs lie f ! l& ) relation to ! probable subm>9e incl9ation1 & 9 ! abs5ce ( an int]ior deep wat]-moat or *annel1 p>allel to ! l&4 ,h5ce1 ,i h class$ ^! reefs ) fr++-reefs1 & col\r$ !m r$4--,,pescadores 7we/ ( ,=mosa74 ,dampi] 7volume i41 page #daf71 has comp>$ ! appe>ance ( ! l& to ! s\!rn p>ts ( ,engl&4 ,! isl&s are int]lac$ ) coral-reefs2 b z ! wat] is v %oal1 & z spits ( s& & gravel 7,horsburgh1 volume ii41 page #dej7 ext5d f> out f !m1 x is impossible to draw any inf]5ces reg>d+ ! nature ( ! reefs4 ,,*9a ,,sea4--,proce$+ f nor? to s\?1 we fir/ meet ! ,pratas ,%oal 7latitude #bj ,n47 :i*1 accord+ to ,horsburgh 7volume ii41 page #cce71 is compos$ ( coral1 is ( a circul> =m1 & has a l[ islet on x4 ,! reef is on a level ) ! wat]'s edge1 & :5 ! sea runs high1 !re are break]s mo/ly all r\nd1 8b ! wat] )9 seems pretty deep 9 "s places2 al?\gh /eep-to 9 mo/ p>ts outside1 !re appe> to be sev]al p>ts :]e a %ip might f9d an*orage outside ! break]s20 col\r$ blue4--,! ,p>acells h be5 accurately survey$ by ,capta9 ,d4 ,ross1 & *>ts on a l>ge scale publi%$3 b few l[ islets h be5 =m$ on ^! %oals1 & ?is seems to be a g5]al circum/ance 9 ! ,*9a ,sea2 ! sea close outside ! reefs is v deep2 sev]al ( !m h a lagoon-l /ructure2 or sep>ate islets 7,prattle1 ,rob]t1 ,drummond1 etc47 are s arrang$ r\nd a mod]ately %all[ space1 z to appe> z if !y _h once =m$ "o l>ge atoll4-- ,bombay ,%oal 7"o ( ! ,p>acells7 has ! =m ( an annul> reef1 & is 8app>5tly deep )920 x seems to h an entrance 7,horsburgh1 volume ii41 page #ccb7 on its we/ side2 x is v /eep outside4--,discov]y ,%oal1 also is ( an oval =m1 ) a lagoon-l space )91 & ?ree op5+s lead+ into x1 9 :i* !re is a dep? f two to tw5ty fa?oms4 ,outside1 at ! di/ance 7,horsburgh1 volume ii41 page #ccc7 ( only tw5ty y>ds f ! reef1 s\nd+s c\ld n be obta9$4 ,! ,p>acells are col\r$ blue4--,macclesfield ,bank3 ?is is a coral-bank ( great size1 ly+ ea/ ( ! ,p>acells2 "s p>ts ( ! bank are level1 ) a s&y bottom1 b1 g5]ally1 ! dep? is v irregul>4 ,x is int]sect$ by deep cuts or *annels4 ,i am n able to p]ceive 9 ! publi%$ *>ts 7its limits1 h[ev]1 are n v accurately kn[n7 :e!r ! c5tral "p is deep]1 :i* ,i suspect is ! case1 z 9 ! ,great ,*agos ,bank1 9 ! ,indian ,ocean2 n col\r$4--,sc>bor\gh ,%oal3 ?is coral-%oal is engrav$ ) a d\ble r[ ( crosses1 =m+ a circle1 z if !re 0 deep wat] )9 ! reef3 close outside !re 0 no bottom1 ) a hundr$ fa?oms2 col\r$ blue4--,! sea (f ! we/ coa/ ( ,palawan & ! nor!rn "p ( ,borneo is /rew$ ) %oals3 ,swall[ ,%oal1 accord+ to ,horsburgh 7volume ii41 page #dca7 8is =m$1 l mo/ ( ! %oals h]eab\ts1 ( a belt ( coral-rocks1 8) a bas9 ( deep wat] )940--,half-,moon ,%oal has a simil> /ructure2 ,capta9 ,d4 ,ross describes x1 z a n>r[ belt ( coral-rock1 8) a bas9 ( deep wat] 9 ! c5tre10 & deep sea close outside4--,bombay ,%oal appe>s 7,horsburgh1 volume ii41 page #dcb7 8to be a bas9 ( smoo? wat] surr\nd$ by break]s40 ,^! ?ree %oals ,i h col\r$ blue4--,! ,p>aquas ,%oals are ( a circul> =m1 ) deep gaps runn+ ?r\gh !m2 n col\r$4--,a bank gradually %oal+ to ! dep? ( ?irty fa?oms1 ext5ds to a di/ance ( ab\t tw5ty miles f ! nor!rn "p ( ,borneo1 & to ?irty miles f ! nor!rn "p ( ,palawan4 ,ne> ! l& ?is bank appe>s tol]ably free f dang]1 b a little fur!r out x is ?ickly /udd$ ) coral-%oals1 :i* d n g5]ally rise q to ! surface2 "s ( !m are v /eep-to1 & o!rs h a fr+e ( %oal-wat] r\nd !m4 ,i %\ld h ?\ght t ^! %oals _h level surfaces1 _h x n be5 = ! /atem5t made by ,horsburgh 8t mo/ ( ! %oals h]eab\ts are =m$ ( a belt ( coral40 ,b1 p]haps t expression 0 m p>ticul>ly appli$ to ! %oals fur!r 9 ! (f+4 ,if ^! reefs ( coral h a lagoon-l /ructure1 !y %\ld h be5 col\r$ blue1 & !y w\ld h =m$ an imp]fect b>ri] 9 front ( ,palawan & ! nor!rn "p ( ,borneo4 ,b1 z ! wat] is n v deep1 ^! reefs may h gr[n up f inequalities on ! bank3 ,i h n col\r$ !m4--,! coa/ ( ,*9a1 ,tonqu91 & ,co*9-,*9a1 =m+ ! we/]n b\nd>y ( ! ,*9a ,sea1 appe> to be )\t reefs3 ) reg>d to ! two la/-m5tion$ coa/s1 ,i speak aft] exam9+ ! *>ts on a l>ge scale 9 ! 8,atlas ( ! ,voyage ( ! #8,fav\rite'40 ,,indian ,,ocean4--,s\? ,keel+ has be5 specially describ$3 n9e miles nor? ( x lies ,nor? ,keel+1 a v small atoll1 survey$ by ! 8,beagle10 ! lagoon ( :i* is dry at l[ wat]4--,*ri/mas ,isl&1 ly+ to ! ea/1 is a high isl&1 )\t1 z ,i h be5 in=m$ by a p]son :o pass$ x1 any reefs at all4--,,ceylon3 a space ab\t eighty miles 9 l5g? ( ! s\?-we/]n & s\!rn %ores ( ^! isl&s has be5 describ$ by ,mr4 ,twynam 78,naut4 ,mag40 #ahcf1 pages #cfe & #eah72 p>ts ( ?is space appe> to be v regul>ly fr+$ by coral-reefs1 :i* ext5d f a qu>t] to half a mile f ! %ore4 ,^! reefs are 9 places brea*$1 & af=d safe an*orage = ! small trad+ craft4 ,outside1 ! sea gradually deep5s2 !re is =ty fa?oms ab\t six miles (f %ore3 ?is "p ,i h col\r$ r$4 ,9 ! publi%$ *>ts ( ,ceylon !re appe> to be fr++-reefs 9 sev]al p>ts ( ! s\?-ea/]n %ores1 :i* ,i h also col\r$ r$4--,at ,v5loos ,bay ! %ore is likewise fr+$4 ,nor? ( ,tr9comalee !re are also reefs ( ! same k9d4 ,! sea (f ! nor!rn "p ( ,ceylon is exce$+ly %all[2 & !re=e ,i h n col\r$ ! reefs :i* fr+e portions ( its %ores1 & ! adjo9+ islets1 z well z ! ,indian promontory ( ,madura4 ,,*agos1 ,,maldiva1 & ,,laccadive ,,ar*ipelagoes4--,^! ?ree great gr\ps :i* h already be5 (t5 notic$1 are n[ well-kn[n f ! admirable surveys ( ,capta9 ,moresby & ,lieut5ant ,p[ell4 ,! publi%$ *>ts1 :i* are wor?y ( ! mo/ att5tive exam9ation1 at once %[ t ! ,*agos & ,maldiva gr\ps are entirely =m$ ( great atolls1 or lagoon-=m$ reefs1 surm\nt$ by islets4 ,9 ! ,laccadive gr\p1 ?is /ructure is less evid5t2 ! islets are l[1 n exce$+ ! usual height ( coral-=mations 7see ,lieut5ant ,wood's acc\nt1 8,geographical ,j\rnal01 volume vi41 page #bi71 & mo/ ( ! reefs are circul>1 z may be se5 9 ! publi%$ *>ts2 & )9 sev]al ( !m1 z ,i am in=m$ by ,capta9 ,moresby1 !re is deepi% wat]2 ^!1 !re=e1 h be5 col\r$ blue4 ,directly nor?1 & almo/ =m+ "p ( ?is gr\p1 !re is a long1 n>r[1 slightly curv$ bank1 ris+ out ( ! dep?s ( ! ocean1 compos$ ( s&1 %ells1 & decay$ coral1 ) f tw5ty-?ree to ?irty fa?oms on x4 ,i h no d\bt t x has _h ! same orig9 ) ! o!r ,laccadive banks2 b z x does n deep5 t[>ds ! c5tre ,i h n col\r$ x4 ,i might h ref]r$ to o!r au?orities reg>d+ ^! ?ree ar*ipelagoes2 b aft] ! publication ( ! *>ts by ,capta9 ,moresby1 to ^: p]sonal k9dness 9 giv+ me mu* in=mation ,i am exce$+ly indebt$1 x w\ld h be5 sup]flu\s4 ,sahia de ,malhabank consi/s ( a s]ies ( n>r[ banks1 ) f eight to sixte5 fa?oms on !m2 !y are arrang$ 9 a semicircul> mann]1 r\nd a space ab\t =ty fa?oms deep1 :i* slopes on ! ,s4,e4 qu>t] to unfa?omable dep?s2 !y are /eep-to on bo? sides1 b m especially on ! ocean-side4 ,h5ce ?is bank closely resembles 9 /ructure1 & ,i may add f ,capta9 ,moresby's in=mation 9 composition1 ! ,pitt's ,bank 9 ! ,*agos gr\p2 & ! ,pitt's ,bank1 mu/1 aft] :at has be5 %[n ( ! ,great ,*agos ,bank1 be consid]$ z a sunk51 half-de/roy$ atoll2 h5ce col\r$ blue4--,c>gados ,c>ajos ,bank4 ,its s\!rn portion consi/s ( a l>ge1 curv$1 coral-%oal1 ) "s l[ islets on its ea/]n edge1 & likewise "s on ! we/]n side1 betwe5 :i* !re is a dep? ( ab\t twelve fa?oms4 ,nor?w>d1 a great bank ext5ds4 ,i _c 7probably ow+ to ! want ( p]fect *>ts7 ref] ?is reef & bank to any class2--!re=e n col\r$4--,ile de ,sable is a little isl&1 ly+ we/ ( ,c4 ,c>ajos1 only "s toises 9 height 78,voyage ( ! #8,fav\rite'10 volume i41 page #acj72 x is surr\nd$ by reefs2 b its /ructure is un9telligible to me4 ,!re are "s small banks nor? ( x1 ( :i* ,i c f9d no cle> acc\nt4--,mauritius4 ,! reefs r\nd ?is isl& h be5 describ$ 9 ! *apt] on fr++-reefs2 col\r$ r$4 --,rodriguez4 ,! coral-reefs "h are exce$+ly ext5sive2 9 "o "p !y project ev5 five miles f ! %ore4 ,z f> z ,i c make out1 !re is no deep-wat] moat )9 !m2 & ! sea outside does n deep5 v sudd5ly4 ,! outl9e1 h[ev]1 ( ! l& appe>s to be 78,life ( ,sir ,j4 ,mak9to%10 volume ii41 page #afe7 hilly & rugg$4 ,i am unable to decide :e!r ^! reefs belong to ! b>ri] class2 z seems probable f _! great ext5sion1 or to ! fr++ class2 uncol\r$4 --,b\rbon4 ,! great] "p ( ! %ores ( ?is isl& are )\t reefs2 b ,capta9 ,c>mi*ael 7,hook]'s 8,bot4 ,misc407 /ates t a portion1 fifte5 miles 9 l5g?1 on ! ,s4,e4 side1 is imp]fectly fr+$ ) coral reefs3 ,i h n ?\ght ?is suffici5t to col\r ! isl&4 ,,sey*elles4--,! rocky isl&s ( prim>y =mation1 compos+ ?is gr\p1 rise f a v ext5sive & tol]ably level bank1 hav+ a dep? betwe5 tw5ty & =ty fa?oms4 ,9 ,capta9 ,ow5's *>t1 & 9 t 9 ! 8,atlas ( ! ,voyage ( ! #8,fav\rite'10 x appe>s t ! ea/ side ( ,mah & ! adjo9+ isl&s ( ,/4 ,anne & ,c]f1 are regul>ly fr+$ by coral-reefs4 ,a portion ( ! ,s4,e4 "p ( ,curieuse ,isl&1 ! ,n41 & "p ( ! ,s4,w4 %ore ( ,prasl9 ,isl&1 & ! :ole we/ side ( ,digue ,isl&1 appe> fr+$4 ,f a ,,ms4 acc\nt ( ^! isl&s by ,capta9 ,f4 ,moresby1 9 ! ,admiralty1 x appe>s t ,silh\ette is also fr+$2 he /ates t all ^! isl&s are =m$ ( granite & qu>tz1 t !y rise abruptly f ! sea1 & t 8coral-reefs h gr[n r\nd !m1 & project = "s di/ance40 ,dr4 ,allan1 ( ,=res1 :o visit$ ^! isl&s1 in=ms me t !re is no deep wat] betwe5 ! reefs & ! %ore4 ,! above specifi$ po9ts h be5 col\r$ r$4 ,amirantes ,isl&s3 ,! small isl&s ( ?is neighb\r+ gr\p1 accord+ to ! ,,ms4 acc\nt ( !m by ,capta9 ,f4 ,moresby1 are situat$ on an ext5sive bank2 !y consi/ ( ! debris ( corals & %ells2 are only ab\t tw5ty feet 9 height1 & are environ$ by reefs1 "s atta*$ to ! %ore1 & "s r di/ant f x4--,i h tak5 great pa9s to procure plans & in=mation reg>d+ ! sev]al isl&s ly+ betwe5 ,s4,e4 & ,s4,w4 ( ! ,amirantes1 & ! ,sey*elles2 rely+ *iefly on ,capta9 ,f4 ,moresby & ,dr4 ,allan1 x appe>s t ! great] numb]1 namely--,platte1 ,alphonse1 ,coetivi1 ,galega1 ,provid5ce1 ,/4 ,pi]re1 ,a/ova1 ,assomption1 & ,glorioso1 are l[1 =m$ ( s& or coral-rock1 & irregul>ly %ap$2 !y are situat$ on v ext5sive banks1 & are connect$ ) great coral-reefs4 ,galega is said by ,dr4 ,allan1 to be r high] ?an ! o!r isl&s2 & ,/4 ,pi]re is describ$ by ,capta9 ,f4 ,moresby1 z be+ cav]n\s ?r\gh\t1 & z n consi/+ ( ei!r lime/one or granite4 ,^! isl&s1 z well z ! ,amirantes1 c]ta9ly are n atoll-=m$1 & !y diff] z a gr\p f e o!r gr\p ) :i* ,i am acqua9t$2 ,i h n col\r$ !m2 b probably ! reefs belong to ! fr++ class4 ,_! =mation is attribut$1 bo? by ,dr4 ,allan & ,capta9 ,f4 ,moresby1 to ! action ( ! curr5ts1 "h exce$+ly viol5t1 on banks1 :i* no d\bt h _h an indep5d5t geological orig94 ,!y resemble 9 _m respects "s isl&s & banks 9 ! ,we/ ,indies1 :i* owe _! orig9 to a simil> ag5cy1 9 conjunction ) an elevation ( ! entire area4 ,9 close vic9ity to ! sev]al isl&s1 !re are ?ree o!rs ( an app>5tly diff]5t nature3 fir/1 ,juan de ,nova1 :i* appe>s f "s plans & acc\nts to be an atoll2 b f o!rs does n appe> to be s2 n col\r$4 ,secondly ,cosmol$o2 8?is gr\p consi/s ( a r+ ( coral1 t5 leagues 9 circumf]5ce1 & a qu>t] ( a mile broad 9 "s places1 enclos+ a magnific5t lagoon1 into :i* !re did n appe> a s+le op5+0 7,horsburgh1 volume i41 page #aea72 col\r$ blue4 ,?irdly1 ,aldabra2 x consi/s ( ?ree islets1 ab\t tw5ty-five feet 9 height1 ) r$ cliffs 7,horsburgh1 volume i41 page #agf7 surr\nd+ a v %all[ bas9 or lagoon4 ,! sea is pr(\ndly deep close to ! %ore4 ,view+ ?is isl& 9 a *>t1 x w\ld be ?\ght an atoll2 b ! =ego+ description %[s t !re is some?+ diff]5t 9 its nature2 ,dr4 ,allan also /ates t x is cav]n\s1 & t ! coral-rock has a vitrifi$ appe>ance4 ,is x an upheav$ atoll1 or ! crat] ( a volcano8--uncol\r$4 ,,comoro ,,gr\p4--,mayotta1 accord+ to ,horsburgh 7volume i41 page #baf1 #d? edition71 is completely surr\nd$ by a reef1 :i* runs at ! di/ance ( ?ree1 f\r1 & 9 "s places ev5 five miles f ! l&2 9 an old *>t1 publi%$ by ,dalrymple1 a dep? 9 _m places ( ?irty-six & ?irty-eight fa?oms is laid d[n )9 ! reef4 ,9 ! same *>t1 ! space ( op5 wat] )9 ! reef 9 "s p>ts is ev5 m ?an ?ree miles wide3 ! l& is bold & peak$2 ?is isl&1 !re=e1 is encircl$ by a well-*>act]is$ b>ri]-reef1 & is col\r$ pale blue4--,johanna2 ,horsburgh says 7volume ,i4 page #bag7 ?is isl& f ! ,n4,w4 to ! ,s4,w4 po9t1 is b\nd$ by a reef1 at ! di/ance ( two miles f ! %ore2 9 "s p>ts1 h[ev]1 ! reef mu/ be atta*$1 s9ce ,lieut5ant ,botel] 78,n>r40 volume i41 page #afa7 describes a passage ?r\gh x1 )9 :i* !re is room only = a few boats4 ,its height1 z ,i am in=m$ by ,dr4 ,allan1 is ab\t #c1ejj feet2 x is v precipit\s1 & is compos$ ( granite1 gre5/one1 & qu>tz2 col\r$ blue4--,mohilla2 on ! ,s4 side ( ?is isl& !re is an*orage1 9 f ?irty to =ty-five fa?oms1 betwe5 a reef & ! %ore 7,horsburgh1 volume i41 page #bad72 9 ,capta9 ,ow5's *>t ( ,madagasc>1 ?is isl& is repres5t$ z encircl$2 col\r$ blue4--,great ,comoro ,isl& is1 z ,i am in=m$ by ,dr4 ,allan1 ab\t #h1jjj feet high1 & app>5tly volcanic2 x is n regul>ly encircl$2 b reefs ( v>i\s %apes & dim5sions1 jut out f e headl& on ! ,w41 ,s41 & ,s4,e4 coa/s1 inside ( :i* reefs !re are *annels1 (t5 p>allel ) ! %ore1 ) deep wat]4 ,on ! nor?-we/]n coa/s ! reefs appe> atta*$ to ! %ores4 ,! l& ne> ! coa/ is 9 "s places bold1 b g5]ally speak+ x is flat2 ,horsburgh says 7volume i41 page #bad7 ! wat] is pr(\ndly deep close to ! %ore1 f :i* expression ,i presume "s p>ts are )\t reefs4 ,f ?is description ,i appreh5d ! reef belongs to ! b>ri] class2 b ,i h n col\r$ x1 z mo/ ( ! *>ts :i* ,i h se51 repres5t ! reefs r\nd x z v mu* less ext5sive ?an r\nd ! o!r isl&s 9 ! gr\p4 ,,madagasc>4--,my in=mation is *iefly d]iv$ f ! publi%$ *>ts by ,capta9 ,ow51 & ! acc\nts giv5 by him & by ,lieut5ant ,botel]4 ,comm5c+ at ! ,s4,w4 extremity ( ! isl&2 t[>ds ! nor!rn "p ( ! ,/> ,bank 79 latitude #be ,s47 ! coa/ = t5 miles is fr+$ by a reef2 col\r$ r$4 ,! %ore imm$iately ,s4 ( ,/4 ,augu/9e's ,bay appe>s fr+$2 b ,tulle> ,h>b\r1 directly ,n4 ( x1 is =m$ by a n>r[ reef t5 miles long1 ext5d+ p>allel to ! %ore1 ) f f\r to t5 fa?oms )9 x4 ,if ?is reef _h be5 m ext5sive1 x mu/ h be5 class$ z a b>ri]-reef2 b z ! l9e ( coa/ falls inw>ds "h1 a subm>9e bank p]haps ext5ds p>allel to ! %ore1 :i* has (f]$ a f\ndation = ! gr[? ( ! coral2 ,i h left ?is "p uncol\r$4 ,f lat4 #bb #af to #ba #cg1 ! %ore is fr+$ by coral-reefs 7see ,lieut5ant ,botel]'s 8,n>rative10 volume ii41 page #ajf71 less ?an a mile 9 wid?1 & ) %all[ wat] )94 ,!re are outly+ coral-%oals 9 sev]al p>ts ( ! (f+1 ) ab\t t5 fa?oms betwe5 !m & ! %ore1 & ! dep? ( ! sea "o mile & a half seaw>d1 is ab\t ?irty fa?oms4 ,! "p above specifi$ is engrav$ on a l>ge scale2 & z 9 ! *>ts on r a small] scale ! same fr+e ( reef ext5ds z f> z latitude #cc #ae2 ,i h col\r$ ! :ole ( ?is "p ( ! coa/ r$4 ,! isl&s ( ,juan de ,nova 79 latitude #ag ,s47 appe> 9 ! *>ts on a l>ge scale to be fr+$1 b ,i h n be5 able to asc]ta9 :e!r ! reefs are ( coral2 uncol\r$4 ,! ma9 "p ( ! we/ coa/ appe>s to be l[1 ) outly+ s&banks1 :i*1 ,lieut5ant ,botel] 7volume ii41 page #ajf7 says1 8are fac$ on ! edge ( deep wat] by a l9e ( %>p-po9t$ coral-rocks40 ,nev]!less ,i h n col\r$ ?is "p1 z ,i _c make out by ! *>ts t ! coa/ itself is fr+$4 ,! headl&s ( ,n>r5da & ,pass&ava ,bays 7#ad #dj7 & ! isl&s 9 front ( ,radama h>b\r are repres5t$ 9 ! plans z regul>ly fr+$1 & h accord+ly be5 col\r$ r$4 ,) respect to ! ,ea/ coa/ ( ,madagasc>1 ,dr4 ,allan in=ms me 9 a lett]1 t ! :ole l9e ( coa/1 f ,tamatave1 9 #ah #ab1 to ,c4 ,amb]1 at ! extreme nor!rn po9t ( ! isl&1 is bord]$ by coral-reefs4 ,! l& is l[1 unev51 & gradually ris+ f ! coa/4 ,f ,capta9 ,ow5's *>ts1 also1 ! exi/5ce ( ^! reefs1 :i* evid5tly belong to ! fr++ class1 on "s p>ts1 namely ,n4 ( ,briti% ,s\nd1 & ne> ,ngoncy1 ( ! above l9e ( coa/ might h be5 inf]r$4 ,lieut5ant ,botel] 7volume i41 page #aee7 speaks ( 8! reef surr\nd+ ! isl& ( ,/4 ,m>y's at a small di/ance f ! %ore40 ,9 a previ\s *apt] ,i h describ$1 f ! in=mation ( ,dr4 ,allan1 ! mann] 9 :i* ! reefs ext5d 9 ,n4,e4 l9es f ! headl&s on ?is coa/1 ?us sometimes =m+ r deep *annels )9 !m1 ?is seems caus$ by ! action ( ! curr5ts1 & ! reefs spr+ up f ! subm>9e prolongations ( ! s&y headl&s4 ,! above specifi$ portion ( ! coa/ is col\r$ r$4 ,! rema9+ ,s4,e4 portions d n appe> 9 any publi%$ *>t to possess reefs ( any k9d2 & ! ,rev4 ,w4 ,ellis1 ^: means ( in=mation reg>d+ ?is side ( ,madagasc> h be5 ext5sive1 in=ms me he believes !re are none4 ,,ea/ ,,coa/ ,,( ,,africa4--,proce$+ f ! nor!rn "p1 ! coa/ appe>s1 = a consid]able space1 )\t reefs4 ,my in=mation1 ,i may "h obs]ve1 is d]iv$ f ! survey by ,capta9 ,ow51 toge!r ) 8 n>rative2 & t by ,lieut5ant ,botel]4 ,at ,mukdee%a 7#aj #a ,n47 !re is a coral-reef ext5d+ f\r or five miles along ! %ore 7,ow5's 8,n>r40 volume i1 page #ceg7 :i* 9 ! *>t lies at ! di/ance ( a qu>t] ( a mile f ! %ore1 & has )9 x f six to t5 feet wat]3 ?is !n is a fr++-reef1 & is col\r$ r$4 ,f ,juba1 a little ,s4 ( ! equator1 to ,lamoo 79 #b #bj ,s47 8! coa/ & isl&s are =m$ ( madrepore0 7,ow5's 8,n>rative10 volume i41 page #cfc74 ,! *>t ( ?is "p 7entitl$ ,dundas ,isl&s71 pres5ts an extraord9>y appe>ance2 ! coa/ ( ! ma9l& is q /raight & x is front$ at ! av]age di/ance ( two miles1 by exce$+ly n>r[1 /raight islets1 fr+$ ) reefs4 ,)9 ! *a9 ( islets1 !re are ext5sive tidal flats & muddy bays1 into :i* _m riv]s ent]2 ! dep?s ( ^! spaces v>ies f "o to f\r fa?oms--! latt] dep? n be+ common1 & ab\t twelve feet ! av]age4 ,outside ! *a9 ( islets1 ! sea1 at ! di/ance ( a mile1 v>ies 9 dep? f eight to fifte5 fa?oms4 ,lieut5ant ,botel] 78,n>r40 volume i41 page #cfi7 describes ! muddy bay ( ,patta1 :i* seems to resemble o!r p>ts ( ?is coa/1 z front$ by small1 n>r[1 level islets =m$ ( decompos+ coral1 ! m>g9 ( :i* is seldom ( great] height ?an twelve feet1 ov]hang+ ! rocky surface f :i* ! islets rise4 ,kn[+ t ! islets are =m$ ( coral1 x is1 ,i ?9k1 sc>cely possible to view ! coa/1 & n at once conclude t we "h see a fr++-reef1 :i* has be5 uprais$ a few feet3 ! unusual dep? ( f two to f\r fa?oms )9 "s ( ^! islets1 is probably due to muddy riv]s hav+ prev5t$ ! gr[? ( coral ne> ! %ore4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 "o difficulty on ?is view1 namely1 t be=e ! elevation took place1 :i* conv]t$ ! reef into a *a9 ( islets1 ! wat] mu/ app>5tly h be5 /ill deep]2 on ! o!r h& x may be suppos$ t ! =mation ( a ne>ly p]fect b>ri] 9 front1 ( s l>ge an ext5t ( coa/1 w\ld cause ! curr5ts 7especially 9 front ( ! riv]s71 to deep5 _! muddy b$s4 ,:5 describ+ 9 ! *apt] on fr++-reefs1 ^? ( ,mauritius1 ,i h giv5 my reasons = believ+ t ! %oal spaces )9 reefs ( ?is k9d1 mu/1 9 _m in/ances1 h be5 deep5$4 ,h[ev] ?is may be1 z sev]al p>ts ( ?is l9e ( coa/ are und\bt$ly fr+$ by liv+ reefs1 ,i h col\r$ x r$4-- ,male5da 7#c #bj ,s474 ,9 ! plan ( ! h>b\r1 ! s\? headl& appe>s fr+$2 & 9 ,ow5's *>t on a l>g] scale1 ! reefs are se5 to ext5d ne>ly ?irty miles s\?w>d2 col\r$ r$4--,mombas 7#d #e ,s474 ,! isl& :i* =ms ! h>b\r1 8is surr\nd$ by cliffs ( madrepore1 capable ( be+ r5d]$ almo/ impregnable0 7,ow5's 8,n>r40 volume i41 page #dab74 ,! %ore ( ! ma9l& ,n4 & ,s4 ( ! h>b\r1 is mo/ regul>ly fr+$ by a coral-reef at a di/ance f half a mile to "o mile & a qu>t] f ! l&2 )9 ! reef ! dep? is f n9e to fifte5 feet2 outside ! reef ! dep? at r less ?an half a mile is ?irty fa?oms4 ,f ! *>ts x appe>s t a space ab\t ?irty-six miles 9 l5g?1 is "h fr+$2 col\r$ r$4--,pemba 7#e ,s47 is an isl& ( coral-=mation1 level1 & ab\t two hundr$ feet 9 height 7,ow5's 8,n>r40 volume i41 page #dbe72 x is ?irty-five miles long1 & is sep>at$ f ! ma9l& by a deep sea4 ,! out] coa/ is repres5t$ 9 ! *>t z regul>ly fr+$2 col\r$ r$4 ,! ma9l& 9 front ( ,pemba is likewise fr+$2 b !re also appe> to be "s outly+ reefs ) deep wat] betwe5 !m & ! %ore4 ,i d n und]/& _! /ructure1 ei!r f ! *>ts or ! description1 !re=e h n col\r$ !m4--,zanzib> resembles ,pemba 9 mo/ respects2 its s\!rn half on ! we/]n side & ! neighb\r+ islets are fr+$2 col\r$ r$4 ,on ! ma9l&1 a little ,s4 ( ,zanzib>1 !re are "s banks p>allel to ! coa/1 :i* ,i %\ld h ?\ght _h be5 =m$ ( coral1 _h x n be5 said 7,botel]'s 8,n>r40 volume ii41 page #ci7 t !y 7 compos$ ( s&2 n col\r$4--,la?am's ,bank is a small isl&1 fr+$ by coral-reefs2 b be+ only t5 feet high1 x has n be5 col\r$4--,monfeea is an isl& ( ! same "* z ,pemba2 its out] %ore is fr+$1 & its s\!rn extremity is connect$ ) ,keelwa ,po9t on ! ma9l& by a *a9 ( isl&s fr+$ by reefs2 col\r$ r$4 ,! f\r la/-m5tion$ isl&s resemble 9 _m respects "s ( ! isl&s 9 ! ,r$ ,sea1 :i* w pres5tly be describ$4-- ,keelwa4 ,9 a plan ( ! %ore1 a space ( tw5ty miles ,n4 & ,s4 ( ?is place is fr+$ by reefs1 app>5tly ( coral3 ^! reefs are prolong$ /ill fur!r s\?w>d 9 ,ow5's g5]al *>t4 ,! coa/ 9 ! plans ( ! riv]s ,l9dy & ,mongh[ 7#i #ei & #aj #g ,s47 has ! same /ructure2 col\r$ r$4--,qu]imba ,isl&s 7f #aj #dj to #ac ,s474 ,a *>t on a l>ge scale is giv5 ( ^! isl&s2 !y are l[1 & ( coral-=mation 7,botel]'s 8,n>r40 volume ii41 page #ed72 & g5]ally h ext5sive reefs project+ f !m :i* are dry at l[ wat]1 & :i* on ! outside rise abruptly f a deep sea3 on _! insides !y are sep>at$ f ! cont95t by a *annel1 or r a succession ( bays1 ) an av]age dep? ( t5 fa?oms4 ,! small headl&s on ! cont95t also h coral-banks atta*$ to !m2 & ! ,qu]imba isl&s & banks are plac$ on ! l9es ( prolongation ( ^! headl&s1 & are sep>at$ f !m by v %all[ *annels4 ,x is evid5t t :atev] cause1 :e!r ! drift+ ( s$im5t or subt]ranean movem5ts1 produc$ ! headl&s1 likewise produc$1 z might h be5 expect$1 subm>9e prolongations to !m2 & ^! t[>ds _! out] extremities1 h s9ce af=d$ a fav\rable basis = ! gr[? ( coral-reefs1 & subsequ5tly = ! =mation ( islets4 ,z ^! reefs cle>ly belong to ! fr++ class1 ! ,qu]imba isl&s h be5 col\r$ r$4--,monabila 7#ac #cb ,s474 ,9 ! plan ( ?is h>b\r1 ! headl&s outside are fr+$ by reefs app>5tly ( coral2 col\r$ r$4--,mozambique 7#aej ,s47 ,! out] "p ( ! isl& on :i* ! city is built1 & ! neighb\r+ isl&s1 are fr+$ by coral-reefs2 col\r$ r$4 ,f ! description giv5 9 ,ow5's 8,n>r40 7volume i41 page #afb71 ! %ore f ,mozambique to ,delagoa ,bay appe>s to be l[ & s&y2 _m ( ! %oals & islets (f ?is l9e ( coa/ are ( coral-=mation2 b f _! small size & l[ness1 x is n possible1 f ! *>ts1 to "k :e!r !y are truly fr+$4 ,h5ce ?is portion ( coa/ is left uncol\r$1 z are likewise ^? p>ts m nor?w>d1 ( :i* no m5tion has be5 made 9 ! =ego+ pages f ! want ( in=mation4 ,,p]sian ,,gulf4--,f ! *>ts lately publi%$ on a l>ge scale by ! ,ea/ ,india ,company1 x appe>s t sev]al p>ts1 especially ! s\!rn %ores ( ?is gulf1 are fr+$ by coral-reefs2 b z ! wat] is v %all[1 & z !re are num]\s s&banks1 :i* are difficult to di/+ui% on ! *>t f reefs1 ,i h n col\r$ ! upp] "p r$4 ,t[>ds ! m\?1 h[ev]1 :]e ! wat] is r deep]1 ! isl&s ( ,ormuz & ,l>rack1 appe> s regul>ly fr+$1 t ,i h col\r$ !m r$4 ,!re are c]ta9ly no atolls 9 ! ,p]sian ,gulf4 ,! %ores ( ,immaum1 & ( ! promontory =m+ ! s\!rn headl& ( ! ,p]sian ,gulf1 seem to be )\t reefs4 ,! :ole ,s4,w4 "p 7except "o or two small pat*es7 ( ,arabia ,felix1 & ! %ores ( ,socotra appe> f ! *>ts & memoir ( ,capta9 ,ha9es 78,geographical ,j\rnal10 #ahci1 page #abe7 to be )\t any reefs4 ,i believe !re are no ext5sive coral-reefs on any "p ( ! coa/s ( ,india1 except on ! l[ promontory ( ,madura 7z already m5tion$7 9 front ( ,ceylon4 ,,r$ ,,sea4--,my in=mation is *iefly d]iv$ f ! admirable *>ts publi%$ by ! ,ea/ ,india ,company 9 #ahcf1 f p]sonal communication ) ,capta9 ,moresby1 "o ( ! surveyors1 & f ! excell5t memoir1 8b] die ,natur d] ,corall5-,bnk5 des ,ro!n ,me]es10 by ,ehr5b]g4 ,! pla9s imm$iately bord]+ ! ,r$ ,sea seem *iefly to consi/ ( a s$im5t>y =mation ( ! new] t]ti>y p]iod4 ,! %ore is1 ) ! exception ( a few p>ts1 fr+$ by coral-reefs4 ,! wat] is g5]ally pr(\ndly deep close to ! %ore2 b ?is fact1 :i* has attract$ ! att5tion ( mo/ voyag]s1 seems to h no necess>y connection ) ! pres5ce ( reefs2 = ,capta9 ,moresby p>ticul>ly obs]v$ to me1 t1 9 latitude #bd #aj on ! ea/]n side1 !re is a piece ( coa/1 ) v deep wat] close to x1 )\t any reefs1 b n diff]+ 9 o!r respects f ! usual nature ( ! coa/-l9e4 ,! mo/ rem>kable feature 9 ! ,r$ ,sea is ! *a9 ( subm]g$ banks1 reefs1 & isl&s1 ly+ "s way f ! %ore1 *iefly on ! ea/]n side2 ! space )9 be+ deep en\gh to admit a safe navigation 9 small vessels4 ,! banks are g5]ally ( an oval =m1 & "s miles 9 wid?2 b "s ( !m are v long 9 proportion to _! wid?4 ,capta9 ,moresby in=ms me t any "o1 :o _h n made actual plans ( !m1 w\ld be apt to ?9k t !y 7 mu* m elongat$ ?an !y really are4 ,_m ( !m rise to ! surface1 b ! great] numb] lie f five to ?irty fa?oms b5ea? x1 ) irregul> s\nd+s on !m4 ,!y consi/ ( s& & liv+ coral2 coral on mo/ ( !m1 accord+ to ,capta9 ,moresby1 cov]+ ! great] "p ( _! surface4 ,!y ext5d p>allel to ! %ore1 & !y are n unfrequ5tly connect$ 9 _! middle p>ts by %ort transv]se banks ) ! ma9l&4 ,! sea is g5]ally pr(\ndly deep q close to !m1 z x is ne> mo/ p>ts ( ! coa/ ( ! ma9l&2 b ?is is n univ]sally ! case1 = betwe5 latitude #ae & #ag ! wat] deep5s q gradually f ! banks1 bo? on ! ea/]n & we/]n %ores1 t[>ds ! middle ( ! sea4 ,isl&s 9 _m p>ts arise f ^! banks2 !y are l[1 flat-topp$1 & consi/ ( ! same horizontally /ratifi$ =mation ) t =m+ ! pla9-l m>g9 ( ! ma9l&4 ,"s ( ! small] & l[] isl&s consi/ ( m]e s&4 ,capta9 ,moresby in=ms me1 t small masses ( rock1 ! remnants ( isl&s1 are left on _m banks :]e !re is n[ no dry l&4 ,ehr5b]g also ass]ts t mo/ ( ! islets1 ev5 ! l[e/1 h a flat abrad$ basis1 compos$ ( ! same t]ti>y =mation3 he believes t z soon z ! surf we>s d[n ! protub]ant p>ts ( a bank1 j b5ea? ! level ( ! sea1 ! surface becomes protect$ f fur!r abrasion by ! gr[? ( coral1 & he ?us acc\nts = ! exi/5ce ( s _m banks /&+ on a level ) ! surface ( ?is sea4 ,x appe>s t mo/ ( ! isl&s are c]ta9ly decreas+ 9 size4 ,! =m ( ! banks & isl&s is mo/ s+ul> 9 ! "p j ref]r$ to1 namely1 f latitude #ae to #ag1 :]e ! sea deep5s q gradually3 ! ,dhalac gr\p1 on ! we/]n coa/1 is surr\nd$ by an intricate ar*ipelago ( islets & %oals2 ! ma9 isl& is v irregul>ly %ap$1 & x includes a bay sev5 miles long1 by f\r across1 9 :i* no bottom 0 f\nd ) #beb feet3 !re is only "o entrance into ?is bay1 half a mile wide1 & ) an isl& 9 front ( x4 ,! subm]g$ banks on ! ea/]n coa/1 )9 ! same latitudes1 r\nd ,f>san ,isl&1 are1 likewise1 p5etrat$ by _m n>r[ creeks ( deep wat]2 "o is twelve miles long1 9 ! =m ( a hat*et1 9 :i*1 close to its broad upp] end1 s\nd+s 7 n /ruck ) #cfj feet1 & its entrance is only half a mile wide3 9 ano!r creek ( ! same nature1 b ev5 ) a m irregul> outl9e1 !re 0 no bottom ) #dhj feet4 ,! isl& ( ,f>san1 itself1 has z s+ul> a =m z any ( its surr\nd+ banks4 ,! bottom ( ! sea r\nd ! ,dhalac & ,f>san ,isl&s consi/s *iefly ( s& & agglut9at$ fragm5ts1 b1 9 ! deep & n>r[ creeks1 x consi/s ( mud2 ! isl&s !mselves consi/ ( ?91 horizontally /ratifi$1 mod]n t]ti>y b$s1 conta9+ b little brok5 coral2#b _! %ores are fr+$ by liv+ coral-reefs4 #b ,rppell1 8,reise 9 ,abyss9ie10 ,b&4 i41 ,s4 #bdg4 ,f ! acc\nt giv5 by ,rppell#c ( ! mann] 9 :i* ,dhalac has be5 r5t by fissures1 ! opposite sides ( :i* h be5 unequally elevat$ 79 "o in/ance to ! am\nt ( fifty feet71 x seems probable t its irregul> =m1 z well z probably t ( ,f>san1 may h be5 p>tly caus$ by unequal elevations2 b1 consid]+ ! g5]al =m ( ! banks1 & ( ! deep-wat] creeks1 toge!r ) ! composition ( ! l&1 ,i ?9k _! configuration is m probably due 9 great "p to /rong curr5ts hav+ drift$ s$im5t ov] an unev5 bottom3 x is almo/ c]ta9 t _! =m _c be attribut$ to ! gr[? ( coral4 ,:atev] may h be5 ! precise orig9 ( ! ,dhalac & ,f>san ,ar*ipelagoes1 ! great] numb] ( ! banks on ! ea/]n side ( ! ,r$ ,sea seem to h orig9at$ ?r\gh ne>ly simil> means4 ,i judge ( ?is f _! simil>ity 9 configuration 79 pro( ( :i* ,i may in/ance a bank on ! ea/ coa/ 9 latitude #bb2 & al?\gh x is true t ! nor!rn banks g5]ally h a less complicat$ outl9e71 & f _! simil>ity 9 composition1 z may be obs]v$ 9 _! uprais$ portions4 ,! dep? )9 ! banks nor?w>d ( latitude #ag1 is usually great]1 & _! out] sides %elve m abruptly 7circum/ances :i* seem to g toge!r7 ?an 9 ! ,dhalac & ,f>san ,ar*ipelagoes2 b ?is might easily h be5 caus$ by a diff]5ce 9 ! action ( ! curr5ts dur+ _! =mation3 moreov]1 ! great] quantity ( liv+ coral1 :i*1 accord+ to ,capta9 ,moresby1 exi/s on ! nor!rn banks1 w\ld t5d to give !m /eep] m>g9s4 #c ,rppell1 8,reise 9 ,abyss9ie10 ,b&4 i41 ,s4 #bde4 ,f ?is acc\nt1 brief & imp]fect z x is1 we c see t ! great *a9 ( banks on ! ea/]n coa/1 & on ! we/]n side 9 ! s\!rn portion1 diff] greatly f true b>ri]-reefs :olly =m$ by ! gr[? ( coral4 ,x is inde$ ! direct conclusion ( ,ehr5b]g 78,ub] die10 etc41 pages #de & #ea71 t !y are connect$ 9 _! orig9 q second>ily ) ! gr[? ( coral2 & he rem>ks t ! isl&s (f ! coa/ ( ,norway1 if worn d[n level ) ! sea1 & m]ely coat$ ) liv+ coral1 w\ld pres5t a ne>ly simil> appe>ance4 ,i _c1 h[ev]1 avoid suspect+1 f in=mation giv5 me by ,dr4 ,malcolmson & ,capta9 ,moresby1 t ,ehr5b]g has r "u-rat$ ! influ5ce ( corals1 9 "s places at lea/1 on ! =mation ( ! t]ti>y deposits ( ! ,r$ ,sea4 ,! ,we/ ,coa/ ( ! ,r$ ,sea betwe5 lat4 #ai & #bb4--,!re are1 9 ?is space1 reefs1 :i*1 if ,i _h kn[n no?+ ( ^? 9 o!r p>ts ( ! ,r$ ,sea1 ,i %\ld unhesitat+ly h consid]$ z b>ri]-reefs2 &1 aft] delib]ation1 ,i h come to ! same conclusion4 ,"o ( ^! reefs1 9 #bj #ae1 is tw5ty miles long1 less ?an a mile 9 wid? 7b exp&+ at ! nor!rn end into a disc71 slightly s9u\s1 & ext5d+ p>allel to ! ma9l& at ! di/ance ( five miles f x1 ) v deep wat] )92 9 "o spot s\nd+s 7 n obta9$ ) #bje fa?oms4 ,"s leagues fur!r s\?1 !re is ano!r l9e> reef1 v n>r[1 t5 miles long1 ) o!r small portions ( reef1 nor? & s\?1 almo/ connect$ ) x2 & )9 ?is l9e ( reefs 7z well z outside7 ! wat] is pr(\ndly deep4 ,!re are also "s small l9e> & sickle-=m$ reefs1 ly+ a little way out at sea4 ,all ^! reefs are cov]$1 z ,i am in=m$ by ,capta9 ,moresby1 by liv+ corals4 ,"h1 !n1 we h all ! *>act]s ( reefs ( ! b>ri] class2 & 9 "s outly+ reefs we h an approa* to ! /ructure ( atolls4 ,! s\rce ( my d\bts ab\t ! classification ( ^! reefs1 arises f hav+ obs]v$ 9 ! ,dhalac & ,f>san gr\ps ! n>r[ness & /raightness ( sev]al spits ( s& & rock3 "o ( ^! spits 9 ! ,dhalac gr\p is ne>ly fifte5 miles long1 only two broad1 & x is bord]$ on ea* side ) deep wat]2 s t1 if worn d[n by ! surf1 & coat$ ) liv+ corals1 x w\ld =m a reef ne>ly simil> to ^? )9 ! space "u consid]ation4 ,!re is1 also1 9 ?is space 7latitude #ba7 a p59sula1 bord]$ by cliffs1 ) its extremity worn d[n to ! level ( ! sea1 & its basis fr+$ ) reefs3 9 ! l9e ( prolongation ( ?is p59sula1 !re lies ! isl& ( ,mac[a 7=m$1 accord+ to ,capta9 ,moresby1 ( ! usual t]ti>y deposit71 & "s small] isl&s1 l>ge p>ts ( :i* likewise appe> to h be5 worn d[n1 & are n[ coat$ ) liv+ corals4 ,if ! removal ( ! /rata 9 ^! sev]al cases _h be5 m complete1 ! reefs ?us =m$ w\ld h ne>ly resembl$ ^? b>ri]-l ones n[ "u discussion4 ,not)/&+ ^! facts1 ,i _c p]suade myself t ! _m v small1 isolat$1 & sickle-=m$ reefs & o!rs1 long1 ne>ly /raight1 & v n>r[1 ) ! wat] unfa?omably deep close r\nd !m1 c\ld possibly h be5 =m$ by corals m]ely coat+ banks ( s$im5t1 or ! abrad$ surfaces ( irregul>ly %ap$ isl&s4 ,i feel compell$ to believe t ! f\ndations ( ^! reefs h subsid$1 & t ! corals1 dur+ _! upw>d gr[?1 h giv5 to ^! reefs _! pres5t =ms3 ,i may rem>k t ! subsid5ce ( n>r[ & irregul>ly-%ap$ p59sulas & isl&s1 su* z ^? exi/+ on ! coa/s ( ! ,r$ ,sea1 w\ld af=d ! requisite f\ndations = ! reefs 9 "q4 ,! ,we/ ,coa/ f lat4 #bb to #bd4--,?is "p ( ! coa/ 7nor? ( ! space col\r$ blue on ! map7 is front$ by an irregul>ly %elv+ bank1 f ab\t t5 to ?irty fa?oms deep2 num]\s little reefs1 "s ( :i* h ! mo/ s+ul> %apes1 rise f ?is bank4 ,x may be obs]v$1 respect+ "o ( !m1 9 latitude #bc #aj1 t if ! promontory 9 latitude #bd 7 worn d[n to ! level ( ! sea1 & coat$ ) corals1 a v simil> & grotesquely =m$ reef w\ld be produc$4 ,_m ( ! reefs on ?is "p ( ! coa/ may ?us h orig9at$2 b !re are "s sickle1 & almo/ atoll-=m$ reefs ly+ 9 deep wat] (f ! promontory 9 latitude #bd1 :i* lead me to suppose t all ^! reefs are m probably alli$ to ! b>ri] or atoll classes4 ,i h n1 h[ev]1 v5tur$ to col\r ?is portion ( coa/4--,on ! we/ coa/ f lat4 #ai to #ag 7s\? ( space col\r$ blue on ! map71 !re are _m l[ islets ( v small dim5sions1 n mu* elongat$1 & ris+ out ( great dep?s at a di/ance f ! coa/2 ^! _c be class$ ei!r ) atolls1 or b>ri]- or fr++-reefs4 ,i may "h rem>k t ! outly+ reefs on ! we/ coa/1 betwe5 latitude #ai & #bd1 are ! only ones 9 ! ,r$ ,sea1 :i* approa* 9 /ructure to ! true atolls ( ! ,indian & ,pacific ,oceans1 b !y pres5t only imp]fect m9iature lik5esses ( !m4 ,ea/]n ,coa/4--,i h felt ! greate/ d\bt ab\t col\r+ any portion ( ?is coa/1 nor? ( ! fr++-reefs r\nd ! ,f>san ,isl&s 9 #af #aj4 ,!re are _m small outly+ coral-reefs along ! :ole l9e ( coa/2 b z ! great] numb] rise f banks n v deeply subm]g$ 7! =mation ( :i* has be5 %[n to be only second>ily connect$ ) ! gr[? ( coral71 _! orig9 may be due simply to ! gr[? ( knolls ( corals1 f an irregul> f\ndation situat$ )9 a limit$ dep?4 ,b betwe5 latitude #ah & #bj1 !re are s _m l9e>1 elliptic1 & extremely small reefs1 ris+ abruptly out ( pr(\nd dep?s1 t ! same reasons1 :i* l$ me to col\r blue a portion ( ! we/ coa/1 h induc$ me to d ! same 9 ?is "p4 ,!re exi/ "s small outly+ reefs ris+ f deep wat]1 nor? ( latitude #bj 7! nor!rn limit col\r$ blue71 on ! ea/ coa/2 b z !y are n v num]\s & sc>cely any ( !m l9e>1 ,i h ?\ght x "r to leave !m uncol\r$4 ,9 ! s\!rn p>ts ( ! ,r$ ,sea1 consid]able spaces ( ! ma9l&1 & ( "s ( ! ,dhalac isl&s1 are skirt$ by reefs1 :i*1 z ,i am in=m$ by ,capta9 ,moresby1 are ( liv+ coral1 & h all ! *>act]s ( ! fr++ class4 ,z 9 ^! latitudes1 !re are no outly+ l9e> or sickle-=m$ reefs1 ris+ out ( unfa?omable dep?s1 ,i h col\r$ ^! p>ts ( ! coa/ r$4 ,on simil> gr\nds1 ,i h col\r$ r$ ! nor!rn p>ts ( ! we/]n coa/ 7nor? ( latitude #bd #cj71 & likewise ! %ores ( ! *ief "p ( ! ,gulf ( ,suez4 ,9 ! ,gulf ( ,acaba1 z ,i am in=m$ by ,capta9 ,moresby !re are no coral-reefs1 & ! wat] is pr(\ndly deep4 ,,we/ ,,indies4--,my in=mation reg>d+ ! reefs ( ?is area1 is d]iv$ f v>i\s s\rces1 & f an exam9ation ( num]\s *>ts2 especially ( ^? lately execut$ dur+ ! survey "u ,capta9 ,ow51 ,r4,n4 ,i lay "u p>ticul> obligation to ,capta9 ,bird ,all51 ,r4,n41 "o ( ! memb]s ( ! late survey1 = _m p]sonal communications on ?is subject4 ,z 9 ! case ( ! ,r$ ,sea1 x is necess>y to make "s prelim9>y rem>ks on ! subm]g$ banks ( ! ,we/ ,indies1 :i* are 9 "s degree connect$ ) coral-reefs1 & cause consid]able d\bts 9 _! classification4 ,t l>ge accumulations ( s$im5t are 9 progress on ! ,we/ ,indian %ores1 w be evid5t to any "o :o exam9es ! *>ts ( t sea1 especially ( ! portion nor? ( a l9e jo9+ ,yucutan & ,florida4 ,! area ( deposition seems less intimately connect$ ) ! deb\*em5t ( ! great riv]s1 ?an ) ! c\rse ( ! sea-curr5ts2 z is evid5t f ! va/ ext5sion ( ! banks f ! promontories ( ,yucutan & ,mosquito4 ,besides ! coa/-banks1 !re are _m ( v>i\s dim5sions :i* /& q isolat$2 ^! closely resemble ea* o!r1 !y lie f two or ?ree to tw5ty or ?irty fa?oms "u wat]1 & are compos$ ( s&1 sometimes firmly agglut9at$1 ) little or no coral2 _! surfaces are smoo? & ne>ly level1 %elv+ only to ! am\nt ( a few fa?oms1 v gradually all r\nd t[>ds _! edges1 :]e !y plunge abruptly into ! unfa?omable sea4 ,?is /eep incl9ation ( _! sides1 :i* is likewise *>act]i/ic ( ! coa/-banks1 is v rem>kable3 ,i may give z an in/ance1 ! ,mi/]iosa ,bank1 on ! edges ( :i* ! s\nd+s *ange 9 #bej fa?oms horizontal di/ance1 f #aa to #baj fa?oms2 (f ! nor!rn po9t ( ! bank ( ,old ,provid5ce1 9 #bjj fa?oms horizontal di/ance1 ! *ange is f #ai to #aeb fa?oms2 (f ! ,great ,bahama ,bank1 9 #afj fa?oms horizontal di/ance1 ! incl9ation is 9 _m places f #aj fa?oms to no bottom ) #aij fa?oms4 ,on coa/s 9 all p>ts ( ! _w1 :]e s$im5t is accumulat+1 some?+ ( ?is k9d may be obs]v$2 ! banks %elve v g5tly f> out to sea1 & !n t]m9ate abruptly4 ,! =m & composition ( ! banks /&+ 9 ! middle p>ts ( ! ,w4 ,indian ,sea1 cle>ly %[ t _! orig9 mu/ be *iefly attribut$ to ! accumulation ( s$im5t2 & ! only obvi\s explanation ( _! isolat$ position is ! pres5ce ( a nucleus1 r\nd :i* ! curr5ts h collect$ f9e drift matt]4 ,any "o :o w comp>e ! "* ( ! bank surr\nd+ ! hilly isl& ( ,old ,provid5ce1 ) ^? banks 9 its neighb\rhood :i* /& isolat$1 w sc>cely d\bt t !y surr\nd subm]g$ m\nta9s4 ,we are l$ to ! same conclusion by exam9+ ! bank call$ ,?und] ,knoll1 :i* is sep>at$ f ! ,great ,mosquito ,bank by a *annel only sev5 miles wide1 & #ade fa?oms deep4 ,!re _c be any d\bt t ! ,mosquito ,bank has be5 =m$ by ! accumulation ( s$im5t r\nd ! promontory ( ! same "n2 & ,?und] ,knoll resembles ! ,mosquito ,bank1 9 ! /ate ( its surface subm]g$ tw5ty fa?oms1 9 ! incl9ations ( its sides1 9 composition1 & 9 e o!r respect4 ,i may obs]ve1 al?\gh ! rem>k is "h irrelevant1 t geologi/s %\ld be cauti\s 9 conclud+ t all ! outly]s ( any =mation h once be5 connect$ toge!r1 = we "h see t deposits1 d\btless ( exactly ! same nature1 may be deposit$ ) l>ge valley-l spaces betwe5 !m4 ,l9e> /rips ( coral-reefs & small knolls project f _m ( ! isolat$1 z well z coa/-banks2 sometimes !y occur q irregul>ly plac$1 z on ! ,mosquito ,bank1 b m g5]ally !y =m cresc5ts on ! w9dw>d side1 situat$ "s little di/ance )9 ! out] edge ( ! banks3--?us on ! ,s]ranilla ,bank !y =m an int]rupt$ *a9 :i* ranges betwe5 two & ?ree miles )9 ! w9dw>d m>g93 g5]ally !y occur1 z on ,roncador1 ,c\rt[n1 & ,anegada ,banks1 ne>] ! l9e ( deep wat]4 ,_! occurr5ce on ! w9dw>d side is con=mable to ! g5]al rule1 ( ! effici5t k9ds ( corals fl\ri%+ be/ :]e mo/ expos$2 b _! position "s way )9 ! l9e ( deep wat] ,i _c expla91 )\t x be1 t a dep? some:at less ?an t close to ! out] m>g9 ( ! banks1 is mo/ fav\rable to _! gr[?4 ,:]e ! corals h =m$ a ne>ly cont9u\s rim1 close to ! w9dw>d edge ( a bank "s fa?oms subm]g$1 ! reef closely resembles an atoll2 b if ! bank surr\nds an isl& 7z 9 ! case ( ,old ,provid5ce71 ! reef resembles an encircl+ b>ri]-reef4 ,i %\ld und\bt$ly h class$ "s ( ^! fr+$ banks z imp]fect atolls1 or b>ri]-reefs1 if ! s$im5t>y nature ( _! f\ndations _h n be5 evid5t f ! pres5ce ( o!r neighb\r+ banks1 ( simil> =ms & ( simil> composition1 b )\t ! cresc5t-l m>g9al reef3 9 ! ?ird *apt]1 ,i obs]v$ t probably "s atoll-l reefs did exi/1 :i* _h orig9at$ 9 ! mann] "h suppos$4 ,pro(s ( elevation )9 rec5t t]ti>y p]iods ab\nd1 z ref]r$ to 9 ! six? *apt]1 ov] ne>ly ! :ole area ( ! ,we/ ,indies4 ,h5ce x is easy to und]/& ! orig9 ( ! l[ l& on ! coa/s1 :]e s$im5t is n[ accumulat+2 = in/ance on ! nor!rn "p ( ,yucutan1 & on ! ,n4,e4 "p ( ,mosquito1 :]e ! l& is l[1 & :]e ext5sive banks appe> to be 9 progressive =mation4 ,h5ce1 also1 ! orig9 ( ! ,great ,bahama ,banks1 :i* are bord]$ on _! we/]n & s\!rn edges by v n>r[1 long1 s+ul>ly %ap$ isl&s1 =m$ ( s&1 %ells1 & coral-rock1 & "s ( !m ab\t a hundr$ feet 9 height1 is easily expla9$ by ! elevation ( banks fr+$ on _! w9dw>d 7we/]n & s\!rn7 sides by coral-reefs4 ,on ?is view1 h[ev]1 we mu/ suppose ei!r t ! *ief "p ( ! surfaces ( ! great ,bahama s&banks 7 all orig9ally deeply subm]g$1 & 7 br\ght up to _! pres5t level by ! same elevatory action1 :i* =m$ ! l9e> isl&s2 or t dur+ ! elevation ( ! banks1 ! sup]ficial curr5ts & swell ( ! waves cont9u$ we>+ !m d[n & keep+ !m at a ne>ly uni=m level3 ! level is n q uni=m2 =1 9 proce$+ f ! ,n4,w4 end ( ! ,bahama gr\p t[>ds ! ,s4,e4 end1 ! dep? ( ! banks increases1 & ! area ( l& decreases1 9 a v gradual & rem>kable mann]4 ,! latt] view1 namely1 t ^! banks h be5 worn d[n by ! curr5ts & swell dur+ _! elevation1 seems to me ! mo/ probable "o4 ,x is1 also1 ,i believe1 applicable to _m banks1 situat$ 9 widely di/ant p>ts ( ! ,we/ ,indian ,sea1 :i* are :olly subm]g$2 =1 on any o!r view1 we mu/ suppose1 t ! elevatory =ces h act$ ) a/oni%+ uni=mity4 ,! %ore ( ! ,gulf ( ,mexico1 = ! space ( _m hundr$ miles1 is =m$ by a *a9 ( lagoons1 f "o to tw5ty miles 9 bread? 78,columbian ,navigator10 page #agh1 etc471 conta9+ ei!r fre% or salt wat]1 & sep>at$ f ! sea by l9e> /rips ( s&4 ,great spaces ( ! %ores ( ,s\!rn ,brazil4#d & ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates f ,long ,isl& 7z obs]v$ by ,pr(essor ,rog]s7 to ,florida h ! same "*4 ,pr(essor ,rog]s1 9 8 8,report to ! ,briti% ,association0 7volume iii41 page #ac71 speculates on ! orig9 ( ^! l[1 s&y1 l9e> islets2 he /ates t ! lay]s ( :i* !y are compos$ are too homog5e\s1 & conta9 too l>ge a proportion ( %ells1 to p]mit ! common supposition ( _! =mation be+ simply due to matt] ?r[n up1 :]e x n[ lies1 by ! surf3 he consid]s ^! isl&s z upheav$ b>s or %oals1 :i* 7 deposit$ 9 l9es :]e oppos$ curr5ts met4 ,x is evid5t t ^! isl&s & spits ( s& p>allel to ! coa/1 & sep>at$ f x by %all[ lagoons1 h no necess>y connection ) coral-=mations4 ,b 9 ,s\!rn ,florida1 f ! acc\nts ,i h receiv$ f p]sons :o h resid$ !re1 ! uprais$ isl&s seem to be =m$ ( /rata1 conta9+ a good deal ( coral1 & !y are ext5sively fr+$ by liv+ reefs2 ! *annels )9 ^! isl&s are 9 "s places betwe5 two & ?ree miles wide1 & five or six fa?oms deep1 ?\gh g5]ally#e !y are less 9 dep? ?an wid?4 ,aft] hav+ se5 h[ frequ5tly banks ( s$im5t 9 ! ,we/ ,indian ,sea are fr+$ by reefs1 we c readily conceive t b>s ( s$im5t might be greatly aid$ 9 _! =mation along a l9e ( coa/1 by ! gr[? ( corals2 & su* b>s w\ld1 9 t case1 h a deceptive resemblance ) true b>ri]-reefs4 #d ,9 ! 8,london & ,ed9burgh ,philosophical ,j\rnal10 #ahda1 page #beg1 ,i h describ$ a s+ul> b> ( s&/one ly+ p>allel to ! coa/ (f ,p]nambuco 9 ,brazil1 :i* probably is an analog\s =mation4 #e ,9 ! ord9>y sea-*>ts1 no lagoons appe> on ! coa/ ( ,florida1 nor? ( #bf2 b ,major ,:it+ 78,silliman's ,j\rnal10 volume xxxv41 page #ed7 says t _m are =m$ by s& ?r[n up along ! :ole l9e ( coa/ f ,/4 ,augu/9e's to ,jupit] ,inlet4 ,hav+ n[ endeav\r$ to remove "s s\rces ( d\bt 9 classify+ ! reefs ( ! ,we/ ,indies1 ,i w give my au?orities = col\r+ su* portions ( ! coa/ z ,i h ?\ght myself w>rant$ 9 do+4 ,capta9 ,bird ,all5 in=ms me1 t mo/ ( ! isl&s on ! ,bahama ,banks are fr+$1 especially on _! w9dw>d sides1 ) liv+ reefs2 & h5ce ,i h col\r$ ^?1 :i* are ?us repres5t$ 9 ,capta9 ,ow5's late *>t1 r$4 ,! same (fic] in=ms me1 t ! isl&s along ! s\!rn "p ( ,florida are simil>ly fr+$2 col\r$ r$4 ,,cuba3 ,proce$+ along ! nor!rn coa/1 at ! di/ance ( =ty miles f ! extreme ,s4,e4 po9t1 ! %ores are fr+$ by reefs1 :i* ext5d we/w>d = a space ( #afj miles1 ) only a few breaks4 ,p>ts ( ^! reefs are repres5t$ 9 ! plans ( ! h>b\rs on ?is coa/ by ,capta9 ,ow52 & an excell5t description is giv5 ( !m by ,mr4 ,taylor 7,l\don's 8,mag4 ( ,nat4 ,hi/40 volume ix41 page #ddi72 he /ates t !y enclos$ a space call$ ! 8baxo10 f half to ?ree-qu>t]s ( a mile 9 wid?1 ) a s&y bottom1 & a little coral4 ,9 mo/ p>ts p c wade1 at l[ wat]1 to ! reef2 b 9 "s p>ts ! dep? is betwe5 two & ?ree fa?oms4 ,close outside ! reef1 ! dep? is betwe5 six & sev5 fa?oms2 ^! well-*>act]is$ fr++-reefs are col\r$ r$4 ,we/w>d ( longitude #gg #cj1 on ! nor!rn side ( ,cuba1 a great bank comm5ces1 :i* ext5ds along ! coa/ = ne>ly f\r degrees ( longitude4 ,9 ! place ( its comm5cem5t1 9 its /ructure1 & 9 ! 8cays10 or l[ isl&s on its edge1 !re is a m>k$ correspond5ce 7z obs]v$ by ,humboldt1 8,p]s4 ,n>r40 volume vii41 page #hh7 betwe5 x & ! ,great ,bahama & ,sal ,banks1 :i* lie directly 9 front4 ,h5ce "o is l$ to attribute ! same orig9 to bo? ^! sets ( banks2 namely1 ! accumulation ( s$im5t1 conjo9$ ) an elevatory movem5t1 & ! gr[? ( coral on _! outw>d edges2 ^? p>ts :i* appe> fr+$ by liv+ reefs are col\r$ r$4 ,we/w>d ( ^! banks1 !re is a portion ( coa/ app>5tly )\t reefs1 except 9 ! h>b\rs1 ! %ores ( :i* seem 9 ! publi%$ plans to be fr+$4 ,! ,colorado ,%oals 7see ,capta9 ,ow5's *>ts71 & ! l[ l& at ! we/]n end ( ,cuba1 correspond z closely 9 relative position & /ructure to ! banks at ! extreme po9t ( ,florida1 z ! banks above describ$ on ! nor? side ( ,cuba1 d to ! ,bahamas1 ! dep? )9 ! islets & reefs on ! out] edge ( ! ,colorados1 is g5]ally betwe5 two & ?ree fa?oms1 increas+ to twelve fa?oms 9 ! s\!rn "p1 :]e ! bank becomes ne>ly op51 )\t islets or coral-reefs2 ! portions :i* are fr+$ are col\r$ r$4 ,! s\!rn %ore ( ,cuba is deeply concave1 & ! includ$ space is fill$ up ) mud & s&banks1 l[ isl&s & coral-reefs4 ,betwe5 ! m\nta9\s ,isle ( ,p9es & ! s\!rn %ore ( ,cuba1 ! g5]al dep? is only betwe5 two & ?ree fa?oms2 & 9 ?is "p small isl&s1 =m$ ( fragm5t>y rock & brok5 madrepores 7,humboldt1 8,p]s4 ,n>r40 volume vii4 pages #ea1 #hf to #ij1 #bia1 #cji1 #cbj71 rise abruptly1 & j rea* ! surface ( ! sea4 ,f "s expressions us$ 9 ! 8,columbian ,navigator0 7volume i41 "p ii41 page #id71 x appe>s t consid]able spaces along ! out] coa/ ( ,s\!rn ,cuba are b\nd$ by cliffs ( coral-rock1 =m$ probably by ! upheaval ( coral-reefs & s&banks4 ,! *>ts repres5t ! s\!rn "p ( ! ,isle ( ,p9es z fr+$ by reefs1 :i* ! 8,columb4 ,navig40 says ext5d "s way f ! coa/1 b h only f n9e to twelve feet wat] on !m2 ^! are col\r$ r$4--,i h n be5 able to procure any detail$ description ( ! l>ge gr\ps ( banks & 8cays0 fur!r ea/w>d on ! s\!rn side ( ,cuba2 )9 !m !re is a l>ge expanse1 ) a muddy bottom1 f eight to twelve fa?oms deep2 al?\gh "s p>ts ( ?is l9e ( coa/ are repres5t$ 9 ! g5]al *>ts ( ! ,we/ ,indies1 z fr+$1 ,i h n ?\ght x prud5t to col\r !m4 ,! rema9+ portion ( ! s\? coa/ ( ,cuba appe>s to be )\t coral-reefs4 ,,yucutan4--,! ,n4,e4 "p ( ! promontory appe>s 9 ,capta9 ,ow5's *>ts to be fr+$2 col\r$ r$4 ,! ea/]n coa/1 f #bj to #ah is fr+$4 ,s\? ( latitude #ah1 !re comm5ces ! mo/ rem>kable reef 9 ! ,we/ ,indies3 x is ab\t "o hundr$ & ?irty miles 9 l5g?1 rang+ 9 a ,n4 & ,s4 l9e1 at an av]age di/ance ( fifte5 miles f ! coa/4 ,! islets on x are all l[1 z ,i h be5 in=m$ by ,capta9 ,b4 ,all52 ! wat] deep5s sudd5ly on ! outside ( ! reef1 b n m abruptly ?an (f _m ( ! s$im5t>y banks3 )9 its s\!rn extremity 7(f ,honduras7 ! dep? is tw5ty-five fa?oms2 b 9 ! m nor!rn p>ts1 ! dep? soon increases to t5 fa?oms1 & )9 ! nor!rnmo/ "p1 = a space ( tw5ty miles1 ! dep? is only f "o to two fa?oms4 ,9 mo/ ( ^! respects we h ! *>act]i/ics ( a b>ri]-reef2 nev]!less1 f obs]v+1 fir/1 t ! *annel )9 ! reef is a cont9uation ( a great irregul> bay1 :i* p5etrates ! ma9l& to ! dep? ( fifty miles2 & secondly1 t consid]able spaces ( ?is b>ri]-l reef are describ$ 9 ! *>ts 7= in/ance1 9 latitude #af #de & #af #ab7 z =m$ ( pure s&2 & ?irdly1 f kn[+ t s$im5t is accumulat+ 9 _m p>ts ( ! ,we/ ,indies 9 banks p>allel to ! %ore2 ,i h n v5tur$ to col\r ?is reef z a b>ri]1 )\t fur!r evid5ce t x has really be5 =m$ by ! gr[? ( corals1 & t x is n m]ely 9 p>ts a spit ( s&1 & 9 o!r p>ts a worn d[n promontory1 p>tially coat$ & fr+$ by reefs2 ,i lean1 h[ev]1 to ! probability ( its be+ a b>ri]-reef1 produc$ by subsid5ce4 ,to add to my d\bts1 imm$iately on ! outside ( ?is b>ri]-l reef1 ,turneffe1 ,ligh?\se1 & ,glov] reefs are situat$1 & ^! reefs h s completely ! =m ( atolls1 t if !y _h occurr$ 9 ! ,pacific1 ,i %\ld n h hesitat$ ab\t col\r+ !m blue4 turneffe ,reef seems almo/ entirely fill$ up ) l[ mud islets2 & ! dep? )9 ! o!r two reefs is only f "o to ?ree fa?oms4 ,f ?is circum/ance & f _! simil>ity 9 =m1 /ructure1 & relative position1 bo? to ! bank call$ ,nor!rn ,triangles1 on :i* !re is an islet betwe5 sev5ty & eighty feet1 & to ,cozumel ,isl&1 ! level surface ( :i* is likewise betwe5 sev5ty & eighty feet 9 height1 ,i consid] x m probable t ! ?ree =ego+ banks are ! worn d[n bases ( upheav$ %oals1 fr+$ ) corals1 ?an t !y are true atolls1 :olly produc$ by ! gr[? ( coral dur+ subsid5ce2 left uncol\r$4 ,9 front ( ! ea/]n ,mosquito coa/1 !re are betwe5 latitude #ab & #af "s ext5sive banks 7already m5tion$1 page #adh71 ) high isl&s ris+ f _! c5tres2 & !re are o!r banks :olly subm]g$1 bo? ( :i* k9ds ( banks are bord]$1 ne> _! w9dw>d m>g9s1 by cresc5t-%ap$ coral-reefs4 ,b x c h>dly be d\bt$1 z 0 obs]v$ 9 ! prelim9>y rem>ks1 t ^! banks owe _! orig91 l ! great bank ext5d+ f ! ,mosquito promontory1 almo/ entirely to ! accumulation ( s$im5t1 & n to ! gr[? ( corals2 h5ce ,i h n col\r$ !m4 ,cayman ,isl&3 ?is isl& appe>s 9 ! *>ts to be fr+$2 & ,capta9 ,b4 ,all5 in=ms me t ! reefs ext5d ab\t a mile f ! %ore1 & h only f five to twelve feet wat] )9 !m2 col\r$ r$4--,jamaica3 judg+ f ! *>ts1 ab\t fifte5 miles ( ! ,s4,e4 extremity1 & ab\t twice t l5g? on ! ,s4,w4 extremity1 & "s portions on ! ,s4 side ne> ,k+/on & ,port ,royal1 are regul>ly fr+$1 & !re=e are col\r$ r$4 ,f ! plans ( "s h>b\rs on ! ,n4 side ( ,jamaica1 p>ts ( ! coa/ appe> to be fr+$2 b z ^! are n repres5t$ 9 ! *>ts ( ! :ole isl&1 ,i h n col\r$ !m4--,/4 ,dom+o3 ,i h n be5 able to obta9 suffici5t in=mation1 ei!r f plans ( ! h>b\rs1 or f g5]al *>ts1 to enable me to col\r any "p ( ! coa/1 except sixty miles f ,port de ,plata we/w>d1 :i* seems v regul>ly fr+$2 _m o!r p>ts1 h[ev]1 ( ! coa/ are probably fr+$1 especially t[>ds ! ea/]n end ( ! isl&4--,pu]to ,rico3 consid]able portions ( ! s\!rn1 we/]n1 & ea/]n coa/s1 & "s p>ts ( ! nor!rn coa/1 appe> 9 ! *>ts to be fr+$2 col\r$ r$4--,"s miles 9 l5g? ( ! s\!rn side ( ! ,isl& ( ,/1 ,?omas is fr+$2 mo/ ( ! ,virg9 ,gorda ,isl&s1 z ,i am in=m$ by ,mr4 ,s*omburgk1 are fr+$2 ! %ores ( ,anegada1 z well z ! bank on :i* x /&s1 are likewise fr+$2 ^! isl&s h be5 col\r$ r$4 ,! great] "p ( ! s\!rn side ( ,santa ,cruz appe>s 9 ! ,dani% survey to be fr+$ 7see also ,pr(4 ,hovey's acc\nt ( ?is isl&1 9 8,silliman's ,j\rnal10 volume xxxv41 page #gd72 ! reefs ext5d along ! %ore = a consid]able space1 & project r m ?an a mile2 ! dep? )9 ! reef is ?ree fa?oms2 col\r$ r$4--,! ,antilles1 z rem>k$ by ,von ,bu* 78,descrip4 ,iles ,can>ies10 page #did71 may be divid$ into two l9e> gr\ps1 ! we/]n r[ be+ volcanic1 & ! ea/]n ( mod]n calc>e\s orig92 my in=mation is v defective on ! :ole gr\p4 ,( ! ea/]n isl&s1 ,b>buda & ! we/]n coa/s ( ,antigua & ,m>iagalante appe> to be fr+$3 ?is is also ! case ) ,b>badoes1 z ,i h be5 in=m$ by a resid5t2 ^! isl&s are col\r$ r$4 ,on ! %ores ( ! ,we/]n ,antilles1 ( volcanic orig91 v few coral-reefs appe> to exi/4 ,! isl& ( ,m>t9ique1 ( :i* !re are beautifully execut$ ,fr5* *>ts1 on a v l>ge scale1 alone pres5ts any appe>ance wor?y ( special notice4 ,! s\?-we/]n1 s\!rn1 & ea/]n coa/s1 toge!r =m+ ab\t half ! circumf]5ce ( ! isl&1 are skirt$ by v irregul> banks1 project+ g5]ally r less ?an a mile f ! %ore1 & ly+ f two to five fa?oms subm]g$4 ,9 front ( almo/ e valley1 !y are brea*$ by n>r[1 crook$1 /eep-sid$ passages4 ,! ,fr5* eng9e]s asc]ta9$ by bor+1 t ^! subm]g$ banks consi/$ ( madreporitic rocks1 :i* 7 cov]$ 9 _m p>ts by ?9 lay]s ( mud or s&4 ,f ?is fact1 & especially f ! /ructure ( ! n>r[ brea*es1 ,i ?9k !re c be little d\bt t ^! banks once =m$ liv+ reefs1 :i* fr+$ ! %ores ( ! isl&1 & l o!r reefs probably rea*$ ! surface4 ,f "s ( ^! subm]g$ banks reefs ( liv+ coral rise abruptly1 ei!r 9 small deta*$ pat*es1 or 9 l9es p>allel to1 b "s way )9 ! out] edges ( ! banks on :i* !y are bas$4 ,besides ! above banks :i* skirt ! %ores ( ! isl&1 !re is on ! ea/]n side a range ( l9e> banks1 simil>ly con/itut$1 tw5ty miles 9 l5g?1 ext5d+ p>allel to ! coa/ l9e1 & sep>at$ f x by a space betwe5 two & f\r miles 9 wid?1 & f five to fifte5 fa?oms 9 dep?4 ,f ?is range ( deta*$ banks1 "s l9e> reefs ( liv+ coral likewise rise abruptly2 & if !y _h be5 ( great] l5g? 7= !y d n front m ?an a six? "p ( ! circumf]5ce ( ! isl&71 !y w\ld necess>ily f _! position h be5 col\r$ z b>ri]-reefs2 z ! case /&s !y are left uncol\r$4 ,i suspect t aft] a small am\nt ( subsid5ce1 ! corals 7 kill$ by s& & mud be+ deposit$ on !m1 & ! reefs be+ ?us prev5t$ f gr[+ upw>ds1 ! banks ( madreporitic rock 7 left 9 _! pres5t subm]g$ condition4 ,,! ,,b]muda ,,isl&s h be5 c>efully describ$ by ,lieut5ant ,nelson1 9 an excell5t ,memoir 9 ! 8,geological ,transactions0 7volume v41 "p i41 page #ajc74 ,9 ! =m ( ! bank or reef1 on "o side ( :i* ! isl&s /&1 !re is a close g5]al resemblance to an atoll2 b 9 ! foll[+ respects !re is a consid]able diff]5ce1--fir/1 9 ! m>g9 ( ! reef n =m+ 7z ,i h be5 in=m$ by ,mr4 ,*aff]s1 ,r4,n47 a flat1 solid surface1 laid b>e at l[ wat]1 & regul>ly b\nd+ ! int]nal space ( %all[ wat] or lagoon2 secondly1 9 ! bord] ( gradually %oal+ wat]1 ne>ly a mile & a half 9 wid?1 :i* surr\nds ! entire outside ( ! reef 7z is laid d[n 9 ,capta9 ,hurd's *>t72 & ?irdly1 9 ! size1 height1 & extraord9>y =m ( ! isl&s1 :i* pres5t little resemblance to ! long1 n>r[1 simple islets1 seldom exce$+ half a mile 9 bread?1 :i* surm\nt ! annul> reefs ( almo/ all ! atolls 9 ! ,indian & ,pacific ,oceans4 ,moreov]1 !re are evid5t pro(s 7,nelson1 ,ibid41 page #aah71 t isl&s simil> to ! exi/+ ones1 =m]ly ext5d$ ov] o!r p>ts ( ! reef4 ,x w\ld1 ,i believe1 be difficult to f9d a true atoll ) l& exce$+ ?irty feet 9 height2 :]eas1 ,mr4 ,nelson e/imates ! highe/ po9t ( ! ,b]muda ,isl&s to be #bfj feet2 if1 h[ev]1 ,mr4 ,nelson's view1 t ! :ole ( ! l& consi/s ( s& drift$ by ! w9ds1 & agglut9at$ toge!r1 7 prov$ correct1 ?is diff]5ce w\ld be immat]ial2 b1 f 8 own acc\nt 7page #aah71 !re occur 9 "o place1 five or six lay]s ( r$ e>?1 int]/ratifi$ ) ! ord9>y calc>e\s rock1 & includ+ /ones too heavy = ! w9d to h mov$1 )\t hav+ at ! same "t utt]ly disp]s$ e gra9 ( ! accompany+ drift$ matt]4 ,mr4 ,nelson attributes ! orig9 ( ^! sev]al lay]s1 ) _! emb$d$ /ones1 to z _m viol5t cata/rophes2 b fur!r inve/igation 9 su* cases has g5]ally succe$$ 9 expla9+ ph5om5a ( ?is k9d by ord9>y & simpl] means4 ,f9ally1 ,i may rem>k1 t ^! isl&s h a consid]able resemblance 9 %ape to ,b>buda 9 ! ,we/ ,indies1 & to ,pemba on ! ea/]n coa/ ( ,africa1 :i* latt] isl& is ab\t two hundr$ feet 9 height1 & consi/s ( coral-rock4 ,i believe t ! ,b]muda ,isl&s1 f be+ fr+$ by liv+ reefs1 ought to h be5 col\r$ r$2 b ,i h left !m uncol\r$1 on acc\nt ( _! g5]al resemblance 9 ext]nal =m to a lagoon-isl& or atoll4 ,,index4 ,! names n 9 capitals are all names ( places1 & ref] exclusively to ! ,app5dix3 9 well-def9$ ar*ipelagoes1 or gr\ps ( isl&s1 ! "n ( ea* sep>ate isl& is n giv54 ,,abrolhos1 ,brazil1 coat$ by corals4 ,abrolhos 7,au/ralia74 ,,abs5ce ( coral-reefs f c]ta9 coa/s4 ,acaba1 gulf (4 ,admiralty gr\p4 ,,africa1 ea/ coa/1 fr++-reef (4 ,madreporitic rock (4 ,africa1 ea/ coa/4 ,,age ( individual corals4 ,ai\4 ,aitutaki4 ,aldabra4 ,al]t reef4 ,alex&]1 ,gr& ,duke1 isl&4 ,,allan1 ,dr41 on ,holu?uri fe$+ on corals4 ,on quick gr[? ( corals at ,madagasc>4 ,on reefs affect$ by curr5ts4 ,all\fat\4 ,alphonse4 ,am>g\ra4 7,am>gura47 ,ambo9a4 ,am]ica1 we/ coa/4 ,amirantes4 ,ana*orites4 ,anambas4 ,,anam\ka1 description (4 ,anam\ka4 ,anadaman isl&s4 ,antilles4 ,appoo reef4 ,arabia ,felix4 ,,areas1 great ext5t (1 int]sp]s$ ) l[ isl&s4 ,( subsid5ce & ( elevation4 ,( subsid5ce appe> to be elongat$4 ,( subsid5ce alt]nat+ ) areas ( elevation4 ,arru gr\p4 ,arzobispo4 ,,ascidia1 dep? at :i* f\nd4 ,assomption4 ,a/ova4 ,atlantic isl&s4 ,,atolls1 brea*es 9 _! reefs4 ,dim5sions (4 ,dim5sions ( gr\ps (4 ,n bas$ on crat]s or on banks ( s$im5t1 or ( rock4 ,( irregul> =ms4 ,/eepness ( _! flanks4 ,wid? ( _! reef & islets4 ,_! l[ness4 ,lagoons4 ,g5]al range4 ,) "p ( _! reef subm]g$1 & !ory (4 ,augu/9e1 ,/4 ,,aurora isl&1 an uprais$ atoll4 ,aurora4 ,,au/ral isl&s1 rec5tly elevat$4 ,au/ral isl&s4 ,au/ralia1 ,n4,w4 coa/4 ,,au/ralian b>ri]-reef4 ,au/ralian b>ri]4 ,babuyan gr\p4 ,bahama banks4 ,balahac4 ,bally4 ,b>+4 ,,b>ri]-,,reef ( ,au/ralia4 ,( ,new ,cal$onia4 ,,b>ri]-,,reefs1 brea*es ?r\gh4 ,n bas$ on worn d[n m>g9 ( rock4 ,on banks ( s$im5t4 ,on subm>9e crat]s4 ,/eepness ( _! flanks4 ,_! probable v]tical ?ickness4 ,!ory ( _! =mation4 ,bampton %oal4 ,banks isl&s4 ,banks 9 ! ,we/ ,indies4 ,ba%ee isl&s4 ,bass isl&4 ,batoa4 ,beaupre reef4 ,,bee*ey1 ,capta91 obligations ( ! au?or to4 ,on subm]g$ reefs4 ,acc\nt ( ,matilda isl&4 ,,bel*]1 ,capta91 on bor+ ?r\gh coral-reef4 ,belize reef1 (f4 ,bell+haus54 ,b]muda isl&s4 ,bev]idge reef4 ,bligh4 ,,bolabola1 view (4 ,bombay %oal4 ,bon9 ,bay4 ,bon9 gr\p4 ,,bor+s ?r\gh coral-reefs4 ,,borneo1 ,w4 coa/1 rec5tly elevat$4 ,borneo1 ,e4 coa/4 ,s4,w4 & ,w4 coa/ ,n4 coa/4 ,we/]n bank4 ,boscaw54 ,bo/on4 ,b\ka4 ,b\rbon4 ,b\r\4 ,b\ton4 ,,brazil1 fr++-reefs on coa/ (4 ,,brea*es ?r\gh b>ri]-reefs4 ,brook4 ,bunk]4 ,bunoa4 ,,byron4 ,cagayanes4 ,c&el>ia4 ,c>gados ,c>ajos4 ,c>ol9e ar*ipelago4 ,c>ol9e isl&4 ,c>t]et %oal4 ,,c>yophyllia1 dep? at :i* x lives4 ,cavilli4 ,cayman isl&4 ,celebes4 ,c]am4 ,,ceylon1 rec5tly elevat$4 ,ceylon4 ,,*agos ,great ,bank1 description & !ory (4 ,,*agos gr\p4 ,*agos gr\p4 ,,*ama-,,%ells emb$d$ 9 coral-rock4 ,,*amisso1 on corals pref]r+ ! surf4 ,,*anges 9 ! /ate ( ,keel+ atoll4 ,( atolls4 ,,*annels lead+ into ! lagoons ( atolls4 ,into ! ,maldiva atolls4 ,?r\gh b>ri]-reefs4 ,*ase4 ,*9a sea4 ,,*ri/mas atoll4 ,*ri/mas atoll4 ,*ri/mas isl& 7,indian ,ocean74 ,cl>5ce4 ,clipp]ton rock4 ,,cocos1 or ,keel+ atoll4 ,cocos 7or ,keel+74 ,cocos isl& 7,pacific74 ,,co*9 ,*9a1 encroa*m5ts ( ! sea on ! coa/4 ,co*9 ,*9a4 ,coetivi4 ,comoro gr\p4 ,,composition ( coral-=mations4 ,,conglom]ate coral-rock on ,keel+ atoll4 ,on o!r atolls4 ,coral-rock4 ,,cook isl&s1 rec5tly elevat$4 ,cook isl&s4 ,,coral-,,blocks bor$ by v]mi=m animals4 ,,coral-,,reefs1 _! di/ribution & abs5ce f c]ta9 areas4 ,de/roy$ by loose s$im5t4 ,,coral-,,rock at ,keel+ atoll4 ,mauritius4 ,organic rema9s (4 ,,corals dead b upright 9 ,keel+ lagoon4 ,dep?s at :i* !y live4 ,(f ,keel+ atoll4 ,kill$ by a %ort exposure4 ,liv+ 9 ! lagoon ( ,keel+ atoll4 ,quick gr[? (1 9 ,keel+ lagoon4 ,m]ely coat+ ! bottom ( ! sea4 ,/&+ expos$ 9 ! ,l[ ar*ipelago4 ,,corallian sea4 ,corallian sea4 ,cornwallis4 ,cosmol$o4 ,,c\?\y1 ,mr41 alleg$ pro(s ( rec5t elevation ( ! ,l[ ar*ipelago4 ,on coral-rock at ,mangaia & ,aurora isl&s4 ,on ext]nal l$ges r\nd coral-isl&s4 ,rem>ks confirmatory ( ! au?or's !ory4 ,,cresc5t-,,=m$ reefs4 ,cuba4 ,,cum+1 ,mr41 on ! rec5t elevation ( ! ,philipp9es4 ,dang]\s1 or ,l[ ar*ipelago4 ,dang] isl&s4 ,,dep?s at :i* reef-build+ corals live4 ,at ,mauritius1 ! ,r$ ,sea1 & 9 ! ,maldiva ar*ipelago4 ,at :i* o!r corals & corall9es c live4 ,dhalac gr\p4 ,,diego ,,g>cia1 sl[ gr[? ( reef4 ,,dim5sions ( ! l>g] gr\ps ( atolls4 ,,dissev]m5t ( ! ,maldiva atolls1 & !ory (4 ,,di/ribution ( coral-reefs4 ,dom+o1 ,/4 ,,dory1 ,port1 rec5tly elevat$4 ,dory1 ,port4 ,duff isl&s4 ,dur\r4 ,eap4 ,,e>?quakes at ,keel+ atoll4 ,9 gr\ps ( atolls4 ,9 ,navigator ar*ipelago4 ,,ea/ ,,indian ,,ar*ipelago1 rec5tly elevat$4 ,ea/]4 ,e*equi]4 ,,ehr5b]g1 on ! banks ( ! ,r$ ,sea4 ,on dep?s at :i* corals live 9 ! ,r$ ,sea4 ,on corals pref]r+ ! surf4 ,on ! antiquity ( c]ta9 corals4 ,eimeo4 ,,elevat$ reef ( ,mauritius4 ,,elevations1 rec5t pro(s (4 ,imm5se areas (4 ,elivi4 ,,elizabe? isl&4 ,rec5tly elevat$4 ,elizabe? isl&4 ,ellice gr\p4 ,,encircl$ ,,isl&s1 _! height4 ,geological composition4 ,,e\a1 description (4 ,e\a4 ,,erupt$ ,,matt] probably n associat$ ) ?ick masses ( coral-rock4 ,,fais1 rec5tly elevat$4 ,fais4 ,fann+4 ,f>allon de ,m$9illa4 ,f>son gr\p4 ,fataka4 ,,fiji ar*ipelago4 ,,fi%1 fe$+ on corals4 ,kill$ 9 ,keel+ lagoon by heavy ra94 ,,fissures across coral-isl&s4 ,,fitzroy1 ,capta91 on a subm]g$ %$ at ,keel+ atoll4 ,on an inundation 9 ! ,l[ ar*ipelago4 ,fl9t4 ,flores4 ,florida4 ,folg]4 ,=mosa4 ,,=/]1 !ory ( coral-=mations4 ,fr$]ick reef4 ,freewill4 ,,fri5dly gr\p rec5tly elevat$4 ,fri5dly ar*ipelago4 ,,fr++-,,reefs1 abs5t :]e coa/ precipit\s4 ,brea*$ 9 front ( /reams4 ,describ$ by ,,mm4 ,quoy & ,gaim>d4 ,n closely atta*$ to %elv+ coa/s4 ,( ea/ coa/ ( ,africa4 ,( ,cuba4 ,( ,mauritius4 ,on worn d[n banks ( rock4 ,on banks ( s$im5t4 ,_! appe>ance :5 elevat$4 ,_! gr[? influ5c$ by curr5ts4 ,by %all[ness ( sea4 ,galapagos ar*ipelago4 ,galega4 ,,gambi] isl&s1 section (4 ,gambi] isl&s4 ,g>dn]4 ,gasp> rico4 ,,geological ,,composition ( coral-=mations4 ,gilb]t ar*ipelago4 ,gilolo4 ,glorioso4 ,,gl\ce/] ,isl&4 ,glov] reef4 ,gomez4 ,g\ap4 ,g\l\4 ,grampus4 ,gran ,cocal4 ,,great ,,*agos ,,bank1 description & !ory (4 ,,grey1 ,capta91 on s&b>s4 ,,gr\p+ ( ! diff]5t classes ( reefs4 ,gu$es4 ,,hall1 ,capta9 ,b41 on ,loo ,*oo4 ,,h>vey isl&s1 rec5tly elevat$4 ,,height ( encircl$ isl&s4 ,h]mites4 ,h]vey or ,cook isl&s4 ,hogoleu4 ,,holo?uriae 7,holu?uri7 fe$+ on coral4 ,,h\d5 isl&1 height (4 ,honduras1 reef (f4 ,horn4 ,h\tman ,abrolhos4 ,,huahe9e2 alleg$ pro(s ( its rec5t elevation4 ,huahe9e4 ,humphrey4 ,hunt]4 ,,hurricanes1 effects (1 on coral-isl&s4 ,immaum4 ,indep5d5ce4 ,,india1 we/ coa/1 rec5tly elevat$4 ,india4 ,,irregul> ,,reefs 9 %all[ seas4 ,,islets ( coral-rock1 _! =mation4 ,_! de/ruction 9 ! ,maldiva atolls4 ,jamaica4 ,j>vis4 ,,java1 rec5tly elevat$4 ,java4 ,john/on isl&4 ,juan de ,nova4 ,juan de ,nova 7,madagasc>74 ,kalatoa4 ,,kamts*atka1 pro(s ( its rec5t elevation4 ,k>kalang4 ,,keel+ atoll1 section ( reef4 ,keel+1 s\? atoll4 ,nor? atoll4 ,keff+4 ,kem94 ,k5n$y4 ,keppel4 ,kumi4 ,laccadive gr\p4 ,,ladrones1 or ,m>ianas1 rec5tly elevat$4 ,ladrones ar*ipelago4 ,,lagoon ( ,keel+ atoll4 ,,lagoons bord]$ by incl9$ l$ges & walls1 & !ory ( _! =mation4 ,( small atolls fill$ up ) s$im5t4 ,,lagoon-,,*annels )9 b>ri]-reefs4 ,,lagoon-,,reefs1 all subm]g$ 9 "s atolls1 & ris+ to ! surface 9 o!rs4 ,lanca/] reef4 ,latte4 ,lauglan isl&s4 ,,l$ges r\nd c]ta9 lagoons4 ,lette4 ,ligh?\se reef4 ,,lloyd1 ,mr41 on corals refix+ !mselves4 ,,loo ,,*oo1 rec5tly elevat$4 ,loo ,*oo4 ,l\isiade4 ,,l[ ,,ar*ipelago1 alleg$ pro(s ( its rec5t elevation4 ,l[ ar*ipelago4 ,,l[ness ( coral-isl&s4 ,loyalty gr\p4 ,lucep>a4 ,,lutke1 ,admiral1 on fissures across coral-isl&s4 ,,luzon1 rec5tly elevat$4 ,luzon4 ,,lyell1 ,mr41 on *annels into ! lagoons ( atolls4 ,on ! l[ness ( _! leew>d sides4 ,on ! antiquity ( c]ta9 corals4 ,on ! app>5t cont9uity ( di/9ct coral-isl&s4 ,on ! rec5tly elevat$ b$s ( ! ,r$ ,sea4 ,on ! outl9e ( ! areas ( subsid5ce4 ,macass> /rait4 ,macclesfield bank4 ,,madagasc>1 quick gr[? ( corals at4 ,madreporitic rock (4 ,madagasc>4 ,madjiko-sima4 ,madura 7,java74 ,madura 7,india74 ,,mahlos ,,mahdoo1 !ory ( =mation4 ,,malacca1 rec5tly elevat$4 ,malacca4 ,,malcolmson1 ,dr41 on rec5t elevation ( ,w4 coa/ ( ,india4 ,on rec5t elevation ( ,cam>an isl&4 ,mald54 ,,maldiva atolls1 & !ory ( _! =mation4 ,/eepness ( _! flanks4 ,gr[? ( coral at4 ,maldiva ar*ipelago4 ,,mangaia isl&4 ,rec5tly elevat$4 ,mangaia4 ,mangs4 ,,m>ianas1 rec5tly elevat$4 ,m>iana ar*ipelago4 ,m>i]e4 ,m>quesas ar*ipelago4 ,m>%all ar*ipelago4 ,m>%all isl&4 ,m>t9ique4 ,m>tires4 ,,m>y',s ,,/41 9 ,madagasc>1 h>b\r made 9 reefs4 ,m>y isl&4 ,matia1 or ,aurora4 ,,matilda atoll4 ,,mauritius1 fr++-reefs (4 ,dep?s at :i* corals live !re4 ,rec5tly elevat$4 ,mauritius4 ,,maurua1 section (4 ,maurua4 ,,m5*ik(f atoll4 ,m5dana ar*ipelago4 ,m5dana isles4 ,mexico1 gulf (4 ,,millepora ,,complanata at ,keel+ atoll4 ,m9doro4 ,mohilla4 7,mohila47 ,,molucca isl&s1 rec5tly elevat$4 ,mopeha4 ,,moresby1 ,capta91 on bor+ ?r\gh coral-reefs4 ,morty4 ,mosquito coa/4 ,,musquillo atoll4 ,mysol4 ,,nam\rrek gr\p4 ,natunas4 ,,navigator ar*ipelago1 elevation (4 ,navigator ar*ipelago4 ,n$]l&is*4 ,,nelson1 ,lieut5ant1 on ! consolidation ( coral-rocks "u wat]4 ,!ory ( coral-=mations4 ,on ! ,b]muda isl&s4 ,new ,brita94 ,,new ,,cal$onia1 /eepness ( its reefs4 ,b>ri]-reef (4 ,new ,cal$onia4 ,new ,gu9ea 7,e4 end74 ,new ,gu9ea 7,w4 end74 ,new ,hanov]4 ,,new ,,hebrides1 rec5tly elevat$4 ,new ,hebrides4 ,,new ,,irel&1 rec5tly elevat$4 ,new ,irel&4 ,new ,nantucket4 ,nicob> isl&s4 ,ni\ha4 ,,nulliporae at ,keel+ atoll4 ,on ! reefs ( atolls4 ,on b>ri]-reefs4 ,_! wide di/ribution & abundance4 ,,objections to ! !ory ( subsid5ce4 ,ocean isl&s4 ,ono4 ,on\afu4 7,on\af\47 ,ormuz4 ,osc> gr\p4 ,,oscillations ( level4 ,ouallan1 or ,ualan4 7,oualan47 ,,oulu?y atoll4 ,outong ,java4 ,palawan1 ,s4,w4 coa/4 ,n4,w4 coa/4 ,we/]n bank4 ,palm]/on4 ,palmyra4 ,p>acells4 ,p>aquas4 ,pat*[4 ,pelew isl&s4 ,,pemba isl&1 s+ul> =m (4 ,pemba4 ,p5rhyn4 ,p]egr9o4 ,,p]nambuco1 b> ( s&/one at4 ,,p]sian gulf1 rec5tly elevat$4 ,p]sian gulf4 ,,pescado4 ,pescadores4 ,pey/] gr\p4 ,philip4 ,,philipp9e ar*ipelago1 rec5tly elevat$4 ,philipp9e ar*ipelago4 ,phnix4 ,piguiram4 ,pitcairn4 ,,pitt',s bank4 ,pitt isl&4 ,platte4 ,pleasant4 ,,porites1 *ief coral on m>g9 ( ,keel+ atoll4 ,po/illions4 ,,p\ynipete4 ,its probable subsid5ce4 ,p\ynipte4 ,pratas %oal4 ,proby4 ,provid5ce4 ,pu]to ,rico4 ,pulo ,anna4 ,,pumice float$ to coral-isl&s4 ,pyl/a>t4 ,,pyr>d ,,de ,,laval1 a/oni%m5t at ! atolls 9 ! ,indian ,ocean4 ,,quoy ,,& ,,gaim>d1 dep?s at :i* corals live4 ,description ( reefs applicable only to fr++-reefs4 ,,range ( atolls4 ,rapa4 ,re>son4 ,,r$ ,,sea1 banks ( rock coat$ by reefs4 ,pro(s ( its rec5t elevation4 ,suppos$ subsid5ce (4 ,r$ ,sea4 ,,reefs1 irregul> 9 %all[ seas4 ,ris+ to ! surface 9 "s lagoons & all subm]g$ 9 o!rs4 ,_! di/ribution4 ,_! abs5ce f "s coa/s4 ,revilla-gig$o4 ,,r+-,,=m$ ,,reefs ( ! ,maldiva atolls1 & !ory (4 ,rodriguez4 ,ros>io4 ,rose isl&4 ,rot*es4 ,rot\mah4 ,r\g4 ,r[ley %oals4 ,,ruppell1 ,dr41 on ! rec5t deposits ( ,r$ ,sea4 ,sable1 ile de4 ,sahia de ,malha4 ,/4 ,pi]re4 ,sala4 ,salomon ar*ipelago4 7,solomon47 ,,samoa1 or ,navigator ar*ipelago1 elevation (4 ,samoa ar*ipelago4 ,,s&-,,b>s p>allel to coa/s4 ,s&al-wood4 ,,s&wi* ar*ipelago1 rec5tly elevat$4 ,s&wi* ar*ipelago4 ,sans]ot4 ,santa-,cruz gr\p4 ,,savage isl&1 rec5tly elevat$4 ,savage4 ,savu4 ,saya1 or ,sahia de ,malha4 ,sc>bor\gh %oal4 ,,sc>us fe$+ on corals4 ,s*\t54 ,scilly4 ,,scoriae float$ to coral-isl&s4 ,scott's reef4 ,,sections ( isl&s encircl$ by b>ri]-reefs4 ,( ,bolabola4 ,,s$im5t 9 ,keel+ lagoon4 ,9 o!r atolls4 ,injuri\s to corals4 ,transport$ f coral-isl&s f> seaw>d4 ,s5iav9e4 ,s]angani4 ,sey*elles4 ,,%ip-,,bottom quickly coat$ ) coral4 ,,smy? isl&4 ,,society ar*ipelago1 /ation>y condition (4 ,alleg$ pro(s ( rec5t elevation4 ,society ar*ipelago4 ,socotra4 ,solor4 ,,sooloo isl&s1 rec5tly elevat$4 ,sooloo isl&s4 ,s\v>(f4 ,spani%4 ,,sponge1 dep?s at :i* f\nd4 ,/>buck4 7,sl>buck47 ,,/ones transport$ 9 roots ( trees4 ,,/orms1 effects (1 on coral-isl&s4 ,,/ut*bury1 ,mr41 on ! gr[? ( an ,ag>icia4 ,on uprais$ corals 9 ,society ar*ipelago4 ,,subsid5ce ( ,keel+ atoll4 ,extreme sl[ness (4 ,areas (1 app>5tly elongat$4 ,areas ( imm5se4 ,great am\nt (4 ,suez1 gulf (4 ,sulphur isl&s4 ,,sumatra1 rec5tly elevat$4 ,sumatra4 ,sumbawa4 ,,surf fav\rable to ! gr[? ( massive corals4 ,swall[ %oal4 ,sydney isl&4 ,,tahiti1 alleg$ pro(s ( its rec5t elevation4 ,tahiti4 ,,temp]ature ( ! sea at ! ,galapagos ar*ipelago4 ,t5ass]im4 ,t5imb] isl&4 ,teturoa4 ,,!ories on coral-=mations4 ,,!ory ,,( subsid5ce1 & objections to4 ,,?ickness1 v]tical1 ( b>ri]-reefs4 ,?omas1 ,/4 ,tikopia4 ,,timor1 rec5tly elevat$4 ,timor4 ,timor-laut4 ,tokan-,bessees4 ,tongatab\4 ,tonqu94 ,t\bai4 ,t\foa4 7,to(oa47 ,t\p\a4 ,,traditions ,,( ,,*ange 9 coral-isl&s4 ,,tridacnae emb$d$ 9 coral-rock4 ,left expos$ 9 ! ,l[ ar*ipelago4 ,,tubul>ia1 quick gr[? (4 ,tumbelan4 ,turneffe reef4 ,turtle4 ,ualan4 ,,vanikoro1 section (4 ,its /ate & *anges 9 its reefs4 ,vanikoro4 ,v9e reef4 ,virg9 ,gorda4 ,viti ar*ipelago4 ,,volcanic isl&s1 ) liv+ corals on _! %ores4 ,matt]1 probably n associat$ ) ?ick masses ( coral-rock4 ,,volcanoes1 au?orities = _! position on ! map4 ,_! pres5ce det]m9$ by ! movem5ts 9 progress4 ,abs5t or ext9ct 9 ! areas ( subsid5ce4 ,waigi\4 ,wallis isl&4 ,wa%+ton4 ,well's reef4 ,,well/ead1 ,lieut5ant1 acc\nt ( a %ip coat$ ) corals4 ,,we/ ,,indies1 banks ( s$im5t fr+$ by reefs4 ,rec5tly elevat$4 ,we/ ,indies4 ,,:itsunday isl&1 view (4 ,*anges 9 its /ate4 ,,williams1 ,rev4 ,j41 on traditions ( ! natives reg>d+ coral-isl&s4 ,on antiquity ( c]ta9 corals4 ,wol*onsky4 ,wo/ock4 ,xulla isl&s4 ,york isl&4 ,yucutan1 coa/ (4 ,,zones ( diff]5t k9ds ( corals outside ! same reefs4