,transcriber's note3 ,obvious printer's errors have been corrected1 all other inconsistencies are as in the original4 ,the author's spelling has been maintained4 ,some printed caracters could not be reproduce in this file and have been described ,,tn3 description4 ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,nature2 ,,or1 ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,society4 ,t4 ,bensley1 ,printer1 ,bolt ,court1 ,fleet ,street1 ,london4 ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,nature2 ,,or1 ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,society3 ,a ,,poem1 ,,with ,,philosophical ,,notes4 ,,by ,,erasmus ,,darwin1 ,m4,d4 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,author ,,of ,,the ,,botanic ,,garden1 ,,of ,,zoonomia1 ,,and ,,of ,,phytologia4 ,unde hominum pecudumque genus1 vitaeque volantum1 ,et quae marmoreo fert monstra sub aequore pontus8 ,igneus est illis vigor1 caelestis origo4 ,,virg4 ,a,en4 ,,vi4 #gbh4 ,,london3 ,,printed ,,for ,j4 ,,johnson1 ,,st4 ,,paul',s ,,churchyard1 ,,by ,t4 ,,bensley1 ,,bolt ,,court1 ,,fleet ,,street4 #ahjc4 ,,preface4 ,the ,poem1 which is here offered to the ,public1 does not pretend to instruct by deep researches of reasoning2 its aim is simply to amuse by bringing distinctly to the imagination the beautiful and sublime images of the operations of ,nature in the order1 as the ,author believes1 in which the progressive course of time presented them4 ,the ,deities of ,egypt1 and afterwards of ,greece1 and ,rome1 were derived from men famous in those early times1 as in the ages of hunting1 pasturage1 and agriculture4 ,the histories of some of their actions recorded in ,scripture1 or celebrated in the heathen mythology1 are introduced1 as the ,author hopes1 without impropriety into his account of those remote periods of human society4 ,in the ,eleusinian mysteries the philosophy of the works of ,nature1 with the origin and progress of society1 are believed to have been taught by allegoric scenery explained by the ,hierophant to the initiated1 which gave rise to the machinery of the following ,poem4 ,,priory ,,near ,,derby1 ,jan4 #a1 #ahjb4 ,,origin ,,of ,,society4 ,,canto ,i4 ,,production ,,of ,,life4 ,,contents4 ,i4 ,subject proposed4 ,life1 ,love1 and ,sympathy #a4 ,four past ,ages1 a fifth beginning #i4 ,invocation to ,love #ae4 ,,ii4 ,bowers of ,eden1 ,adam and ,eve #cc4 ,temple of ,nature #fe4 ,time chained by ,sculpture #ge4 ,proteus bound by ,menelaus #hc4 ,bowers of ,pleasure #hi4 ,school of ,venus #ig4 ,court of ,pain #aje4 ,den of ,oblivion #aac4 ,muse of ,melancholy #aba4 ,cave of ,trophonius #abe4 ,shrine of ,nature #abi4 ,eleusinian ,mysteries #acg4 ,,iii4 ,morning #aee4 ,procession of ,virgins #aei4 ,address to the ,priestess #afg4 ,descent of ,orpheus into ,hell #ahe4 ,,iv4 ,urania #bje4 ,,god the ,first ,cause #bbc4 ,life began beneath the ,sea #bcc4 ,repulsion1 ,attraction1 ,contraction1 ,life #bce4 ,spontaneous ,production of ,minute ,animals #bdg4 ,irritation1 ,appetency #bea4 ,life enlarges the ,earth #bfe4 ,sensation1 ,volition1 ,association #bfi4 ,scene in the ,microscope2 ,mucor1 ,monas1 ,vibrio1 ,vorticella1 ,proteus1 ,mite #bha4 ,v4 ,vegetables and ,animals improve by ,reproduction #bie4 ,have all arisen from ,microscopic ,animalcules #cjc4 ,rocks of ,shell and ,coral #cae4 ,islands and ,continents raised by ,earthquakes #cba4 ,emigration of ,animals from the ,sea #cbg4 ,trapa #cce4 ,tadpole1 ,musquito #cdc4 ,diodon1 ,lizard1 ,beaver1 ,lamprey1 ,remora1 ,whale #cea4 ,venus rising from the ,sea1 emblem of ,organic ,nature #cga4 ,all animals are first ,aquatic #che4 ,fetus in the ,womb #chi4 ,animals from the ,mud of the ,nile #dja4 ,the ,hierophant and ,muse #dba-dej4 ,,canto ,i4 ,,production ,,of ,,life4 ,i4 ,by firm immutable immortal laws ,impress'd on ,nature by the ,,great ,,first ,,cause1 ,say1 ,,muse6 how rose from elemental strife ,organic forms1 and kindled into life2 ,how ,love and ,sympathy with potent charm ,warm the cold heart1 the lifted hand disarm2 ,allure with pleasures1 and alarm with pains1 ,and bind ,society in golden chains4 ,four past eventful ,ages then recite1 ,and give the fifth1 new-born of ,time1 to light2 #aj ,the silken tissue of their joys disclose1 ,swell with deep chords the murmur of their woes2 ,their laws1 their labours1 and their loves proclaim1 ,and chant their virtues to the trump of ,fame4 ,,immortal ,,love6 who ere the morn of ,time1 ,on wings outstretch'd1 o'er ,chaos hung sublime2 ,warm'd into life the bursting egg of ,night1 ,and gave young ,nature to admiring ,light6-- ,,you6 whose wide arms1 in soft embraces hurl'd ,round the vast frame1 connect the whirling world6 #bj ,whether immers'd in day1 the ,sun your throne1 ,you gird the planets in your silver zone2 ,or warm1 descending on ethereal wing1 ,the ,earth's cold bosom with the beams of spring2 ,press drop to drop1 to atom atom bind1 ,link sex to sex1 or rivet mind to mind2 ,attend my song6--,with rosy lips rehearse1 ,and with your polish'd arrows write my verse6-- ,so shall my lines soft-rolling eyes engage1 ,and snow-white fingers turn the volant page2 #cj ,the smiles of ,beauty all my toils repay1 ,and youths and virgins chant the living lay4 ,,ii4 ,,where ,,eden',s sacred bowers triumphant sprung1 ,by angels guarded1 and by prophets sung1 ,wav'd o'er the east in purple pride unfurl'd1 ,and rock'd the golden cradle of the ,world2 ,four sparkling currents lav'd with wandering tides ,their velvet avenues1 and flowery sides2 ,on sun-bright lawns unclad the ,graces stray'd1 ,and guiltless ,cupids haunted every glade2 #dj ,till the fair ,bride1 forbidden shades among1 ,heard unalarm'd the ,tempter's serpent-tongue2 ,eyed the sweet fruit1 the mandate disobey'd1 ,and her fond ,lord with sweeter smiles betray'd4 ,conscious awhile with throbbing heart he strove1 ,spread his wide arms1 and barter'd life for love6-- ,now rocks on rocks1 in savage grandeur roll'd1 ,steep above steep1 the blasted plains infold2 ,the incumbent crags eternal tempest shrouds1 ,and livid light'nings cleave the lambent clouds2 #ej ,round the firm base loud-howling whirlwinds blow1 ,and sands in burning eddies dance below4 ,footnote3 ,cradle of the world1 l4 #cf4 ,the nations1 which possess ,europe and a part of ,asia and of ,africa1 appear to have descended from one family2 and to have had their origin near the banks of the ,mediterranean1 as probably in ,syria1 the site of ,paradise1 according to the ,mosaic history4 ,this seems highly probable from the similarity of the structure of the languages of these nations1 and from their early possession of similar religions1 customs1 and arts1 as well as from the most ancient histories extant4 ,the two former of these may be collected from ,lord ,monboddo's learned work on the ,origin of ,language1 and from ,mr4 ,bryant's curious account of ,ancient ,mythology4 ,the use of iron tools1 of the bow and arrow1 of earthen vessels to boil water in1 of wheels for carriages1 and the arts of cultivating wheat1 of coagulating milk for cheese1 and of spinning vegetable fibres for clothing1 have been known in all ,european countries1 as long as their histories have existed2 besides the similarity of the texture of their languages1 and of many words in them2 thus the word sack is said to mean a bag in all of them1 as ,greek3 sakkon in ,greek1 saccus in ,latin1 sacco in ,italian1 sac in ,french1 and sack in ,english and ,german4 ,other families of mankind1 nevertheless1 appear to have arisen in other parts of the habitable earth1 as the language of the ,chinese is said not to resemble those of this part of the world in any respect4 ,and the inhabitants of the islands of the ,south-,sea had neither the use of iron tools nor of the bow1 nor of wheels1 nor of spinning1 nor had learned to coagulate milk1 or to boil water1 though the domestication of fire seems to have been the first great discovery that distinguished mankind from the bestial inhabitants of the forest4 ,hence ye profane6--the warring winds exclude ,unhallow'd throngs1 that press with footstep rude2 ,but court the ,muse's train with milder skies1 ,and call with softer voice the good and wise4 --,charm'd at her touch the opening wall divides1 ,and rocks of crystal form the polish'd sides2 ,through the bright arch the ,loves and ,graces tread1 ,innocuous thunders murmuring o'er their head2 #fj ,pair after pair1 and tittering1 as they pass1 ,view their fair features in the walls of glass2 ,leave with impatient step the circling bourn1 ,and hear behind the closing rocks return4 ,,here1 high in air1 unconscious of the storm4 ,thy temple1 ,,nature1 rears it's mystic form2 ,from earth to heav'n1 unwrought by mortal toil1 ,towers the vast fabric on the desert soil2 ,o'er many a league the ponderous domes extend4 ,and deep in earth the ribbed vaults descend2 #gj ,a thousand jasper steps with circling sweep ,lead the slow votary up the winding steep2 ,ten thousand piers1 now join'd and now aloof1 ,bear on their branching arms the fretted roof4 ,unnumber'd ailes connect unnumber'd halls1 ,and sacred symbols crowd the pictur'd walls2 ,with pencil rude forgotten days design1 ,and arts1 or empires1 live in every line4 ,while chain'd reluctant on the marble ground1 ,indignant ,,time reclines1 by ,sculpture bound2 #hj ,and sternly bending o'er a scroll unroll'd1 ,inscribes the future with his style of gold4 --,so erst1 when ,,proteus on the briny shore1 ,new forms assum'd of eagle1 pard1 or boar2 ,the wise ,,atrides bound in sea-weed thongs ,the changeful god amid his scaly throngs2 ,till in deep tones his opening lips at last ,reluctant told the future and the past4 ,footnote3 ,pictur'd walls1 l4 #gf4 ,the application of mankind1 in the early ages of society1 to the imitative arts of painting1 carving1 statuary1 and the casting of figures in metals1 seems to have preceded the discovery of letters2 and to have been used as a written language to convey intelligence to their distant friends1 or to transmit to posterity the history of themselves1 or of their discoveries4 ,hence the origin of the hieroglyphic figures which crowded the walls of the temples of antiquity2 many of which may be seen in the tablet of ,isis in the works of ,montfaucon2 and some of them are still used in the sciences of chemistry and astronomy1 as the characters for the metals and planets1 and the figures of animals on the celestial globe4 ,footnote3 ,so erst1 when ,proteus1 l4 #hc4 ,it seems probable that ,proteus was the name of a hieroglyphic figure representing ,time2 whose form was perpetually changing1 and who could discover the past events of the world1 and predict the future4 ,herodotus does not doubt but that ,proteus was an ,egyptian king or deity2 and ,orpheus calls him the principle of all things1 and the most ancient of the gods2 and adds1 that he keeps the keys of ,nature1 ,danet's ,dict41 all which might well accord with a figure representing ,time4 ,,here o'er piazza'd courts1 and long arcades1 ,the bowers of ,,pleasure root their waving shades2 #ij ,shed o'er the pansied moss a checker'd gloom1 ,bend with new fruits1 with flow'rs successive bloom4 ,pleas'd1 their light limbs on beds of roses press'd1 ,in slight undress recumbent ,beauties rest2 ,on tiptoe steps surrounding ,graces move1 ,and gay ,desires expand their wings above4 ,,here young ,,dione arms her quiver'd ,loves1 ,schools her bright ,nymphs1 and practises her doves2 ,calls round her laughing eyes in playful turns1 ,the glance that lightens1 and the smile that burns2 #ajj ,her dimpling cheeks with transient blushes dies1 ,heaves her white bosom with seductive sighs2 ,or moulds with rosy lips the magic words1 ,that bind the heart in adamantine cords4 ,behind in twilight gloom with scowling mien ,the demon ,,pain1 convokes his court unseen2 ,whips1 fetters1 flames1 pourtray'd on sculptur'd stone1 ,in dread festoons1 adorn his ebon throne2 ,each side a cohort of diseases stands1 ,and shudd'ring ,fever leads the ghastly bands2 #aaj ,o'er all ,despair expands his raven wings1 ,and guilt-stain'd ,conscience darts a thousand stings4 ,deep-whelm'd beneath1 in vast sepulchral caves1 ,,oblivion dwells amid unlabell'd graves2 ,the storied tomb1 the laurell'd bust o'erturns1 ,and shakes their ashes from the mould'ring urns4-- ,no vernal zephyr breathes1 no sunbeams cheer1 ,nor song1 nor simper1 ever enters here2 ,o'er the green floor1 and round the dew-damp wall1 ,the slimy snail1 and bloated lizard crawl2 #abj ,while on white heaps of intermingled bones ,the muse of ,,melancholy sits and moans2 ,showers her cold tears o'er ,beauty's early wreck1 ,spreads her pale arms1 and bends her marble neck4 ,so in rude rocks1 beside the ,a,egean wave1 ,,trophonius scoop'd his sorrow-sacred cave2 ,unbarr'd to pilgrim feet the brazen door1 ,and the sad sage returning smil'd no more4 ,footnote3 ,trophonius scoop'd1 l4 #abf4 ,plutarch mentions1 that prophecies of evil events were uttered from the cave of ,trophonius2 but the allegorical story1 that whoever entered this cavern were never again seen to smile1 seems to have been designed to warn the contemplative from considering too much the dark side of nature4 ,thus an ancient poet is said to have written a poem on the miseries of the world1 and to have thence become so unhappy as to destroy himself4 ,when we reflect on the perpetual destruction of organic life1 we should also recollect1 that it is perpetually renewed in other forms by the same materials1 and thus the sum total of the happiness of the world continues undiminished2 and that a philosopher may thus smile again on turning his eyes from the coffins of nature to her cradles4 ,,shrin',d in the midst majestic ,,nature stands1 ,extends o'er earth and sea her hundred hands2 #acj ,tower upon tower her beamy forehead crests1 ,and births unnumber'd milk her hundred breasts2 ,drawn round her brows a lucid veil depends1 ,o'er her fine waist the purfled woof descends2 ,her stately limbs the gather'd folds surround1 ,and spread their golden selvage on the ground4 ,footnote3 ,fam'd ,eleusis stole1 l4 #acg4 ,the ,eleusinian mysteries were invented in ,egypt1 and afterwards transferred into ,greece along with most of the other early arts and religions of ,europe4 ,they seem to have consisted of scenical representations of the philosophy and religion of those times1 which had previously been painted in hieroglyphic figures to perpetuate them before the discovery of letters2 and are well explained in ,dr4 ,warburton's divine legation of ,moses2 who believes with great probability1 that ,virgil in the sixth book of the ,a,eneid has described a part of these mysteries in his account of the ,elysian fields4 ,in the first part of this scenery was represented ,death1 and the destruction of all things2 as mentioned in the note on the ,portland ,vase in the ,botanic ,garden4 ,next the marriage of ,cupid and ,psyche seems to have shown the reproduction of living nature2 and afterwards the procession of torches1 which is said to have constituted a part of the mysteries1 probably signified the return of light1 and the resuscitation of all things4 ,lastly1 the histories of illustrious persons of the early ages seem to have been enacted2 who were first represented by hieroglyphic figures1 and afterwards became the gods and goddesses of ,egypt1 ,greece1 and ,rome4 ,might not such a dignified pantomime be contrived1 even in this age1 as might strike the spectators with awe1 and at the same time explain many philosophical truths by adapted imagery1 and thus both amuse and instruct8 ,from this first altar fam'd ,,eleusis stole ,her secret symbols and her mystic scroll2 ,with pious fraud in after ages rear'd ,her gorgeous temple1 and the gods rever'd4 #adj --,first in dim pomp before the astonish'd throng1 ,silence1 and ,night1 and ,chaos1 stalk'd along2 ,dread scenes of ,death1 in nodding sables dress'd1 ,froze the broad eye1 and thrill'd the unbreathing breast4 ,then the young ,spring1 with winged ,zephyr1 leads ,the queen of ,beauty to the blossom'd meads2 ,charm'd in her train admiring ,hymen moves1 ,and tiptoe ,graces hand in hand with ,loves4 ,next1 while on pausing step the masked mimes ,enact the triumphs of forgotten times1 #aej ,conceal from vulgar throngs the mystic truth1 ,or charm with ,wisdom's lore the initiate youth2 ,each shifting scene1 some patriot hero trod1 ,some sainted beauty1 or some saviour god4 ,,iii4 ,now rose in purple pomp the breezy dawn1 ,and crimson dew-drops trembled on the lawn2 ,blaz'd high in air the temple's golden vanes1 ,and dancing shadows veer'd upon the plains4-- ,long trains of virgins from the sacred grove1 ,pair after pair1 in bright procession move1 #afj ,with flower-fill'd baskets round the altar throng1 ,or swing their censers1 as they wind along4 ,the fair ,,urania leads the blushing bands1 ,presents their offerings with unsullied hands2 ,pleas'd to their dazzled eyes in part unshrouds ,the goddess-form2--the rest is hid in clouds4 ,,priestess ,,of ,,nature6 while with pious awe ,thy votary bends1 the mystic veil withdraw2 ,charm after charm1 succession bright1 display1 ,and give the ,,goddess to adoring day6 #agj ,so kneeling realms shall own the ,power divine1 ,and heaven and earth pour incense on her shrine4 ,oh grant the ,,muse with pausing step to press ,each sun-bright avenue1 and green recess2 ,led by thy hand survey the trophied walls1 ,the statued galleries1 and the pictur'd halls2 ,scan the proud pyramid1 and arch sublime1 ,earth-canker'd urn1 medallion green with time1 ,stern busts of ,gods1 with helmed heroes mix'd1 ,and ,beauty's radiant forms1 that smile betwixt4 #ahj ,footnote3 ,the statued galleries1 l4 #agf4 ,the art of painting has appeared in the early state of all societies before the invention of the alphabet4 ,thus when the ,spanish adventurers1 under ,cortez1 invaded ,america1 intelligence of their debarkation and movements was daily transmitted to ,montezuma1 by drawings1 which corresponded with the ,egyptian hieroglyphics4 ,the antiquity of statuary appears from the ,memnon and sphinxes of ,egypt2 that of casting figures in metals from the golden calf of ,aaron2 and that of carving in wood from the idols or household gods1 which ,rachel stole from her father ,laban1 and hid beneath her garments as she sat upon the straw4 ,gen4 c4 xxxi4 v4 #cd4 ,waked by thy voice1 transmuted by thy wand1 ,their lips shall open1 and their arms expand2 ,the love-lost lady1 and the warrior slain1 ,leap from their tombs1 and sigh or fight again4 --,so when ill-fated ,,orpheus tuned to woe ,his potent lyre1 and sought the realms below2 ,charm'd into life unreal forms respir'd1 ,and list'ning shades the dulcet notes admir'd4-- ,,love led the ,sage through ,death's tremendous porch1 ,cheer'd with his smile1 and lighted with his torch2-- #aij ,hell's triple ,dog his playful jaws expands1 ,fawns round the ,,god1 and licks his baby hands2 ,in wondering groups the shadowy nations throng1 ,and sigh or simper1 as he steps along2 ,sad swains1 and nymphs forlorn1 on ,lethe's brink1 ,hug their past sorrows1 and refuse to drink2 ,night's dazzled ,empress feels the golden flame ,play round her breast1 and melt her frozen frame2 ,charms with soft words1 and sooths with amorous wiles1 ,her iron-hearted ,lord1--and ,,pluto smiles4-- #bjj ,his trembling ,bride the ,bard triumphant led ,from the pale mansions of the astonish'd dead2 ,gave the fair phantom to admiring light1-- ,ah1 soon again to tread irremeable night6 ,footnote3 ,love led the ,sage1 l4 #ahi4 ,this description is taken from the figures on the ,barbarini1 or ,portland ,vase1 where ,eros1 or ,divine ,love1 with his torch precedes the manes through the gates of ,death1 and reverting his smiling countenance invites him into the ,elysian fields4 ,footnote3 ,fawns round the ,god1 l4 #aib4 ,this idea is copied from a painting of the descent of ,orpheus1 by a celebrated ,parisian artist4 ,,iv4 ,,her snow-white arm1 indulgent to my song1 ,waves the fair ,hierophant1 and moves along4-- ,high plumes1 that bending shade her amber hair1 ,nod1 as she steps1 their silver leaves in air2 ,bright chains of pearl1 with golden buckles brac'd1 ,clasp her white neck1 and zone her slender waist2 #baj ,thin folds of silk in soft meanders wind ,down her fine form1 and undulate behind2 ,the purple border1 on the pavement roll'd1 ,swells in the gale1 and spreads its fringe of gold4 ,,first1 if you can1 celestial ,guide6 disclose ,from what fair fountain mortal life arose1 ,whence the fine nerve to move and feel assign'd1 ,contractile fibre1 and ethereal mind3 ,how ,love and ,sympathy the bosom warm1 ,allure with pleasure1 and with pain alarm1 #bbj ,with soft affections weave the social plan1 ,and charm the listening ,savage into ,man4 ,,god ,,the ,,first ,,cause6--in this terrene abode ,young ,nature lisps1 she is the child of ,,god4 ,from embryon births her changeful forms improve1 ,grow1 as they live1 and strengthen as they move4 ,footnote3 ,god the first cause1 l4 #bbc4 ,a ,jove principium1 musae6 ,jovis omnia plena4 ,,virgil4 ,in him we live1 and move1 and have our being4 ,,st4 ,,paul4 ,footnote3 ,young ,nature lisps1 l4 #bbd4 ,the perpetual production and increase of the strata of limestone from the shells of aquatic animals2 and of all those incumbent on them from the recrements of vegetables and of terrestrial animals1 are now well understood from our improved knowledge of geology2 and show1 that the solid parts of the globe are gradually enlarging1 and consequently that it is young2 as the fluid parts are not yet all converted into solid ones4 ,add to this1 that some parts of the earth and its inhabitants appear younger than others2 thus the greater height of the mountains of ,america seems to show that continent to be less ancient than ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,africa2 as their summits have been less washed away1 and the wild animals of ,america1 as the tigers and crocodiles1 are said to be less perfect in respect to their size and strength2 which would show them to be still in a state of infancy1 or of progressive improvement4 ,lastly1 the progress of mankind in arts and sciences1 which continues slowly to extend1 and to increase1 seems to evince the youth of human society2 whilst the unchanging state of the societies of some insects1 as of the bee1 wasp1 and ant1 which is usually ascribed to instinct1 seems to evince the longer existence1 and greater maturity of those societies4 ,the juvenility of the earth shows1 that it has had a beginning or birth1 and is a strong natural argument evincing the existence of a cause of its production1 that is of the ,deity4 ,ere ,time began1 from flaming ,chaos hurl'd ,rose the bright spheres1 which form the circling world2 ,earths from each sun with quick explosions burst1 ,and second planets issued from the first4 #bcj ,then1 whilst the sea at their coeval birth1 ,surge over surge1 involv'd the shoreless earth2 ,nurs'd by warm sun-beams in primeval caves ,organic ,life began beneath the waves4 ,footnote3 ,earths from each sun1 l4 #bbi4 ,see ,botan4 ,garden1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,cant4 ,i4 l4 #ajg4 ,first ,,heat from chemic dissolution springs1 ,and gives to matter its eccentric wings2 ,with strong ,,repulsion parts the exploding mass1 ,melts into lymph1 or kindles into gas4 ,,attraction next1 as earth or air subsides1 ,the ponderous atoms from the light divides1 #bdj ,approaching parts with quick embrace combines1 ,swells into spheres1 and lengthens into lines4 ,last1 as fine goads the gluten-threads excite1 ,cords grapple cords1 and webs with webs unite2 ,and quick ,,contraction with ethereal flame ,lights into life the fibre-woven frame4-- ,hence without parent by spontaneous birth ,rise the first specks of animated earth2 ,from ,nature's womb the plant or insect swims1 ,and buds or breathes1 with microscopic limbs4 #bej ,footnote3 ,first ,heat from chemic1 l4 #bce4 ,the matter of heat is an ethereal fluid1 in which all things are immersed1 and which constitutes the general power of repulsion2 as appears in explosions which are produced by the sudden evolution of combined heat1 and by the expansion of all bodies by the slower diffusion of it in its uncombined state4 ,without heat all the matter of the world would be condensed into a point by the power of attraction2 and neither fluidity nor life could exist4 ,there are also particular powers of repulsion1 as those of magnetism and electricity1 and of chemistry1 such as oil and water2 which last may be as numerous as the particular attractions which constitute chemical affinities2 and may both of them exist as atmospheres round the individual particles of matter2 see ,botanic ,garden1 ,vol4 ,i4 additional note ,,vii4 on elementary heat4 ,footnote3 ,attraction next1 l4 #bci4 ,the power of attraction may be divided into general attraction1 which is called gravity2 and into particular attraction1 which is termed chemical affinity4 ,as nothing can act where it does not exist1 the power of gravity must be conceived as extending from the sun to the planets1 occupying that immense space2 and may therefore be considered as an ethereal fluid1 though not cognizable by our senses like heat1 light1 and electricity4 ,particular attraction1 or chemical affinity1 must likewise occupy the spaces between the particles of matter which they cause to approach each other4 ,the power of gravity may therefore be called the general attractive ether1 and the matter of heat may be called the general repulsive ether2 which constitute the two great agents in the changes of inanimate matter4 ,footnote3 ,and quick ,contraction1 l4 #bde4 ,the power of contraction1 which exists in organized bodies1 and distinguishes life from inanimation1 appears to consist of an ethereal fluid which resides in the brain and nerves of living bodies1 and is expended in the act of shortening their fibres4 ,the attractive and repulsive ethers require only the vicinity of bodies for the exertion of their activity1 but the contractive ether requires at first the contact of a goad or stimulus1 which appears to draw it off from the contracting fibre1 and to excite the sensorial power of irritation4 ,these contractions of animal fibres are afterwards excited or repeated by the sensorial powers of sensation1 volition1 or association1 as explained at large in ,zoonomia1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,there seems nothing more wonderful in the ether of contraction producing the shortening of a fibre1 than in the ether of attraction causing two bodies to approach each other4 ,the former indeed seems in some measure to resemble the latter1 as it probably occasions the minute particles of the fibre to approach into absolute or adhesive contact1 by withdrawing from them their repulsive atmospheres2 whereas the latter seems only to cause particles of matter to approach into what is popularly called contact1 like the particles of fluids2 but which are only in the vicinity of each other1 and still retain their repulsive atmospheres1 as may be seen in riding through shallow water by the number of minute globules of it thrown up by the horses feet1 which roll far on its surface2 and by the difficulty with which small globules of mercury poured on the surface of a quantity of it can be made to unite with it4 ,footnote3 ,spontaneous birth1 l4 #bdg4 ,see additional ,note1 ,no4 ,i4 ,,in earth1 sea1 air1 around1 below1 above1 ,life's subtle woof in ,nature's loom is wove2 ,points glued to points a living line extends1 ,touch'd by some goad approach the bending ends2 ,rings join to rings1 and irritated tubes ,clasp with young lips the nutrient globes or cubes2 ,and urged by appetencies new select1 ,imbibe1 retain1 digest1 secrete1 eject4 ,in branching cones the living web expands1 ,lymphatic ducts1 and convoluted glands2 #bfj ,aortal tubes propel the nascent blood1 ,and lengthening veins absorb the refluent flood2 ,leaves1 lungs1 and gills1 the vital ether breathe ,on earth's green surface1 or the waves beneath4 ,so ,life's first powers arrest the winds and floods1 ,to bones convert them1 or to shells1 or woods2 ,stretch the vast beds of argil1 lime1 and sand1 ,and from diminish'd oceans form the land6 ,footnote3 ,in branching cones1 l4 #bei4 ,the whole branch of an artery or vein may be considered as a cone1 though each distinct division of it is a cylinder4 ,it is probable that the amount of the areas of all the small branches from one trunk may equal that of the trunk1 otherwise the velocity of the blood would be greater in some parts than in others1 which probably only exists when a part is compressed or inflamed4 ,footnote3 ,absorb the refluent flood1 l4 #bfb4 ,the force of the arterial impulse appears to cease1 after having propelled the blood through the capillary vessels2 whence the venous circulation is owing to the extremities of the veins absorbing the blood1 as those of the lymphatics absorb the fluids4 ,the great force of absorption is well elucidated by ,dr4 ,hales's experiment on the rise of the sap-juice in a vine-stump2 see ,zoonomia1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,sect4 ,,xxiii4 ,footnote3 ,and from diminish'd oceans1 l4 #bfh4 ,the increase of the solid parts of the globe by the recrements of organic bodies1 as limestone rocks from shells and bones1 and the beds of clay1 marl1 coals1 from decomposed woods1 is now well known to those who have attended to modern geology2 and ,dr4 ,halley1 and others1 have endeavoured to show1 with great probability1 that the ocean has decreased in quantity during the short time which human history has existed4 ,whence it appears1 that the exertions of vegetable and animal life convert the fluid parts of the globe into solid ones2 which is probably effected by combining the matter of heat with the other elements1 instead of suffering it to remain simply diffused amongst them1 which is a curious conjecture1 and deserves further investigation4 ,next the long nerves unite their silver train1 ,and young ,,sensation permeates the brain2 #bgj ,through each new sense the keen emotions dart1 ,flush the young cheek1 and swell the throbbing heart4 ,from pain and pleasure quick ,,volitions rise1 ,lift the strong arm1 or point the inquiring eyes2 ,with ,reason's light bewilder'd ,man direct1 ,and right and wrong with balance nice detect4 ,last in thick swarms ,,associations spring1 ,thoughts join to thoughts1 to motions motions cling2 ,whence in long trains of catenation flow ,imagined joy1 and voluntary woe4 #bhj ,footnote3 ,and young ,sensation1 l4 #bgj4 ,both sensation and volition consist in an affection of the central part of the sensorium1 or of the whole of it2 and hence cannot exist till the nerves are united in the brain4 ,the motions of a limb of any animal cut from the body1 are therefore owing to irritation1 not to sensation or to volition4 ,for the definitions of irritation1 sensation1 volition1 and association1 see additional ,note ,,ii4 ,so1 view'd through crystal spheres in drops saline1 ,quick-shooting salts in chemic forms combine2 ,or ,mucor-stems1 a vegetative tribe1 ,spread their fine roots1 the tremulous wave imbibe4 ,next to our wondering eyes the focus brings ,self-moving lines1 and animated rings2 ,first ,monas moves1 an unconnected point1 ,plays round the drop without a limb or joint2 ,then ,vibrio waves1 with capillary eels1 ,and ,vorticella whirls her living wheels2 #bij ,while insect ,proteus sports with changeful form ,through the bright tide1 a globe1 a cube1 a worm4 ,last o'er the field the ,mite enormous swims1 ,swells his red heart1 and writhes his giant limbs4 ,footnote3 ,or ,mucor-stems1 l4 #bhc4 ,mucor or mould in its early state is properly a microscopic vegetable1 and is spontaneously produced on the scum of all decomposing organic matter4 ,the ,monas is a moving speck1 the ,vibrio an undulating wire1 the ,proteus perpetually changes its shape1 and the ,vorticella has wheels about its mouth1 with which it makes an eddy1 and is supposed thus to draw into its throat invisible animalcules4 ,these names are from ,linneus and ,muller2 see ,appendix to ,additional ,note ,i4 ,v4 ,,organic ,,life beneath the shoreless waves ,was born and nurs'd in ,ocean's pearly caves2 ,first forms minute1 unseen by spheric glass1 ,move on the mud1 or pierce the watery mass2 ,these1 as successive generations bloom1 ,new powers acquire1 and larger limbs assume2 #cjj ,whence countless groups of vegetation spring1 ,and breathing realms of fin1 and feet1 and wing4 ,footnote3 ,beneath the shoreless waves1 l4 #bie4 ,the earth was originally covered with water1 as appears from some of its highest mountains1 consisting of shells cemented together by a solution of part of them1 as the limestone rocks of the ,alps2 ,ferber's ,travels4 ,it must be therefore concluded1 that animal life began beneath the sea4 ,nor is this unanalogous to what still occurs1 as all quadrupeds and mankind in their embryon state are aquatic animals2 and thus may be said to resemble gnats and frogs4 ,the fetus in the uterus has an organ called the placenta1 the fine extremities of the vessels of which permeate the arteries of the uterus1 and the blood of the fetus becomes thus oxygenated from the passing stream of the maternal arterial blood2 exactly as is done by the gills of fish from the stream of water1 which they occasion to pass through them4 ,but the chicken in the egg possesses a kind of aerial respiration1 since the extremities of its placental vessels terminate on a membranous bag1 which contains air1 at the broad end of the egg2 and in this the chick in the egg differs from the fetus in the womb1 as there is in the egg no circulating maternal blood for the insertion of the extremities of its respiratory vessels1 and in this also ,i suspect that the eggs of birds differ from the spawn of fish2 which latter is immersed in water1 and which has probably the extremities of its respiratory organ inserted into the soft membrane which covers it1 and is in contact with the water4 ,footnote3 ,first forms minute1 l4 #big4 ,see ,additional ,note ,i4 on ,spontaneous ,vitality4 ,thus the tall ,oak1 the giant of the wood1 ,which bears ,britannia's thunders on the flood2 ,the ,whale1 unmeasured monster of the main1 ,the lordly ,lion1 monarch of the plain1 ,the ,eagle soaring in the realms of air1 ,whose eye undazzled drinks the solar glare1 ,imperious man1 who rules the bestial crowd1 ,of language1 reason1 and reflection proud1 #caj ,with brow erect who scorns this earthy sod1 ,and styles himself the image of his ,god2 ,arose from rudiments of form and sense1 ,an embryon point1 or microscopic ens6 ,now in vast shoals beneath the brineless tide1 ,on earth's firm crust testaceous tribes reside2 ,age after age expands the peopled plain1 ,the tenants perish1 but their cells remain2 ,whence coral walls and sparry hills ascend ,from pole to pole1 and round the line extend4 #cbj ,footnote3 ,an embryon point1 l4 #cad4 ,the arguments showing that all vegetables and animals arose from such a small beginning1 as a living point or living fibre1 are detailed in ,zoonomia1 ,sect4 ,,xxxix4 #d4 #h4 on ,generation4 ,footnote3 ,brineless tide1 l4 #cae4 ,as the salt of the sea has been gradually accumulating1 being washed down into it from the recrements of animal and vegetable bodies1 the sea must originally have been as fresh as river water2 and as it is not saturated with salt1 must become annually saline4 ,the sea-water about our island contains at this time from about one twenty-eighth to one thirtieth part of sea salt1 and about one eightieth of magnesian salt2 ,brownrigg on ,salt4 ,footnote3 ,whence coral walls1 l4 #cai4 ,an account of the structure of the earth is given in ,botanic ,garden1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,additional ,notes1 ,,xvi4 ,,xviii4 ,,xix4 ,,xx4 ,,xxiii4 ,,xxiv4 ,next when imprison'd fires in central caves ,burst the firm earth1 and drank the headlong waves2 ,and1 as new airs with dread explosion swell1 ,form'd lava-isles1 and continents of shell2 ,pil'd rocks on rocks1 on mountains mountains raised1 ,and high in heaven the first volcanoes blazed2 ,in countless swarms an insect-myriad moves ,from sea-fan gardens1 and from coral groves2 ,leaves the cold caverns of the deep1 and creeps ,on shelving shores1 or climbs on rocky steeps4 #ccj ,as in dry air the sea-born stranger roves1 ,each muscle quickens1 and each sense improves2 ,cold gills aquatic form respiring lungs1 ,and sounds aerial flow from slimy tongues4 ,footnote3 ,drunk the headlong waves1 l4 #cbb4 ,see ,additional ,note ,,iii4 ,footnote3 ,an insect-myriad moves1 l4 #cbg4 ,after islands or continents were raised above the primeval ocean1 great numbers of the most simple animals would attempt to seek food at the edges or shores of the new land1 and might thence gradually become amphibious2 as is now seen in the frog1 who changes from an aquatic animal to an amphibious one2 and in the gnat1 which changes from a natant to a volant state4 ,at the same time new microscopic animalcules would immediately commence wherever there was warmth and moisture1 and some organic matter1 that might induce putridity4 ,those situated on dry land1 and immersed in dry air1 may gradually acquire new powers to preserve their existence2 and by innumerable successive reproductions for some thousands1 or perhaps millions of ages1 may at length have produced many of the vegetable and animal inhabitants which now people the earth4 ,as innumerable shell-fish must have existed a long time beneath the ocean1 before the calcareous mountains were produced and elevated2 it is also probable1 that many of the insect tribes1 or less complicate animals1 existed long before the quadrupeds or more complicate ones1 which in some measure accords with the theory of ,linneus in respect to the vegetable world2 who thinks1 that all the plants now extant arose from the conjunction and reproduction of about sixty different vegetables1 from which he constitutes his natural orders4 ,as the blood of animals in the air becomes more oxygenated in their lungs1 than that of animals in water by their gills2 it becomes of a more scarlet colour1 and from its greater stimulus the sensorium seems to produce quicker motions and finer sensations2 and as water is a much better vehicle for vibrations or sounds than air1 the fish1 even when dying in pain1 are mute in the atmosphere1 though it is probable that in the water they may utter sounds to be heard at a considerable distance4 ,see on this subject1 ,botanic ,garden1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,canto ,,iv4 l4 #agf1 ,note4 ,so ,trapa rooted in pellucid tides1 ,in countless threads her breathing leaves divides1 ,waves her bright tresses in the watery mass1 ,and drinks with gelid gills the vital gas2 ,then broader leaves in shadowy files advance1 ,spread o'er the crystal flood their green expanse2 #cdj ,and1 as in air the adherent dew exhales1 ,court the warm sun1 and breathe ethereal gales4 ,footnote3 ,so ,trapa rooted1 l4 #cce4 ,the lower leaves of this plant grow under water1 and are divided into minute capillary ramifications2 while the upper leaves are broad and round1 and have air bladders in their footstalks to support them above the surface of the water4 ,as the aerial leaves of vegetables do the office of lungs1 by exposing a large surface of vessels with their contained fluids to the influence of the air2 so these aquatic leaves answer a similar purpose like the gills of fish1 and perhaps gain from water a similar material4 ,as the material thus necessary to life seems to be more easily acquired from air than from water1 the subaquatic leaves of this plant and of sisymbrium1 oenanthe1 ranunculus aquatilis1 water crow-foot1 and some others1 are cut into fine divisions to increase the surface1 whilst those above water are undivided2 see ,botanic ,garden1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,canto ,,iv4 l4 #bjd4 ,note4 ,few of the water plants of this country are used for economical purposes1 but the ranunculus fluviatilis may be worth cultivation2 as on the borders of the river ,avon1 near ,ringwood1 the cottagers cut this plant every morning in boats1 almost all the year round1 to feed their cows1 which appear in good condition1 and give a due quantity of milk2 see a paper from ,dr4 ,pultney in the ,transactions of the ,linnean ,society1 ,vol4 ,v4 ,so still the ,tadpole cleaves the watery vale ,with balanc'd fins1 and undulating tail2 ,new lungs and limbs proclaim his second birth1 ,breathe the dry air1 and bound upon the earth4 ,so from deep lakes the dread ,musquito springs1 ,drinks the soft breeze1 and dries his tender wings1 ,in twinkling squadrons cuts his airy way1 ,dips his red trunk in blood1 and man his prey4 #cej ,footnote3 ,so still the ,tadpole1 l4 #cdc4 ,the transformation of the tadpole from an aquatic animal into an aerial one is abundantly curious1 when first it is hatched from the spawn by the warmth of the season1 it resembles a fish2 it afterwards puts forth legs1 and resembles a lizard2 and finally losing its tail1 and acquiring lungs instead of gills1 becomes an aerial quadruped4 ,the rana temporaria of ,linneus lives in the water in spring1 and on the land in summer1 and catches flies4 ,of the rana paradoxa the larva or tadpole is as large as the frog1 and dwells in ,surinam1 whence the mistake of ,merian and of ,seba1 who call it a frog fish4 ,the esculent frog is green1 with three yellow lines from the mouth to the anus2 the back transversely gibbous1 the hinder feet palmated2 its more frequent croaking in the evenings is said to foretell rain4 ,linnei ,syst4 ,nat4 ,art4 rana4 ,linneus asserts in his introduction to the class ,amphibia1 that frogs are so nearly allied to lizards1 lizards to serpents1 and serpents to fish1 that the boundaries of these orders can scarcely be ascertained4 ,footnote3 ,the dread ,musquito springs1 l4 #cdg4 ,see ,additional ,note ,,iv4 ,so still the ,diodons1 amphibious tribe1 ,with two-fold lungs the sea or air imbibe2 ,allied to fish1 the lizard cleaves the flood ,with one-cell'd heart1 and dark frigescent blood2 ,half-reasoning ,beavers long-unbreathing dart ,through ,erie's waves with perforated heart2 ,with gills and lungs respiring ,lampreys steer1 ,kiss the rude rocks1 and suck till they adhere2 ,the lazy ,remora's inhaling lips1 ,hung on the keel1 retard the struggling ships2 #cfj ,with gills pulmonic breathes the enormous ,whale1 ,and spouts aquatic columns to the gale2 ,sports on the shining wave at noontide hours1 ,and shifting rainbows crest the rising showers4 ,footnote3 ,so still the ,diodon1 l4 #cea4 ,see ,additional ,note ,v4 ,footnote3 ,at noontide hours1 l4 #cfc4 ,the rainbows in our latitude are only seen in the mornings or evenings1 when the sun is not much more than forty-two degrees high4 ,in the more northern latitudes1 where the meridian sun is not more than forty-two degrees high1 they are also visible at noon4 ,so erst1 ere rose the science to record ,in letter'd syllables the volant word2 ,whence chemic arts1 disclosed in pictured lines1 ,liv'd to mankind by hieroglyphic signs2 ,and clustering stars1 pourtray'd on mimic spheres1 ,assumed the forms of lions1 bulls1 and bears2 #cgj --,so erst1 as ,egypt's rude designs explain1 ,rose young ,,dione from the shoreless main2 ,type of organic ,nature6 source of bliss6 ,emerging ,beauty from the vast abyss6 ,sublime on ,chaos borne1 the ,goddess stood1 ,and smiled enchantment on the troubled flood2 ,the warring elements to peace restored1 ,and young ,reflection wondered and adored4 ,footnote3 ,as ,egypt's rude design1 l4 #cga4 ,see ,additional ,note ,,vi4 ,footnote3 ,rose young ,dione1 l4 #cgb4 ,the hieroglyphic figure of ,venus rising from the sea supported on a shell by two tritons1 as well as that of ,hercules armed with a club1 appear to be remains of the most remote antiquity4 ,as the former is devoid of grace1 and of the pictorial art of design1 as one half of the group exactly resembles the other2 and as that of ,hercules is armed with a club1 which was the first weapon4 ,the ,venus seems to have represented the beauty of organic ,nature rising from the sea1 and afterwards became simply an emblem of ideal beauty2 while the figure of ,adonis was probably designed to represent the more abstracted idea of life or animation4 ,some of these hieroglyphic designs seem to evince the profound investigations in science of the ,egyptian philosophers1 and to have outlived all written language2 and still constitute the symbols1 by which painters and poets give form and animation to abstracted ideas1 as to those of strength and beauty in the above instances4 ,now paused the ,nymph1--,the ,muse responsive cries1 ,sweet admiration sparkling in her eyes1 #chj ,drawn by your pencil1 by your hand unfurl'd1 ,bright shines the tablet of the dawning world2 ,amazed the ,sea's prolific depths ,i view1 ,and ,,venus rising from the waves in ,,you6 ,still ,nature's births enclosed in egg or seed ,from the tall forest to the lowly weed1 ,her beaux and beauties1 butterflies and worms1 ,rise from aquatic to aerial forms4 ,thus in the womb the nascent infant laves ,its natant form in the circumfluent waves2 #cij ,with perforated heart unbreathing swims1 ,awakes and stretches all its recent limbs2 ,with gills placental seeks the arterial flood1 ,and drinks pure ether from its ,mother's blood4 ,erewhile the landed ,stranger bursts his way1 ,from the warm wave emerging into day2 ,feels the chill blast1 and piercing light1 and tries ,his tender lungs1 and rolls his dazzled eyes2 ,gives to the passing gale his curling hair1 ,and steps a dry inhabitant of air4 #djj ,footnote3 ,awakes and stretches1 l4 #cib4 ,during the first six months of gestation1 the embryon probably sleeps1 as it seems to have no use for voluntary power2 it then seems to awake1 and to stretch its limbs1 and change its posture in some degree1 which is termed quickening4 ,footnote3 ,with gills placental1 l4 #cic4 ,the placenta adheres to any side of the uterus in natural gestation1 or of any other cavity in extra-uterine gestation2 the extremities of its arteries and veins probably permeate the arteries of the mother1 and absorb from thence through their fine coats the oxygen of the mother's blood2 hence when the placenta is withdrawn1 the side of the uterus1 where it adhered1 bleeds2 but not the extremities of its own vessels4 ,footnote3 ,his dazzled eyes1 l4 #cih4 ,though the membrana pupillaris described by modern anatomists guards the tender retina from too much light2 the young infant nevertheless seems to feel the presence of it by its frequently moving its eyes1 before it can distinguish common objects4 ,creative ,nile1 as taught in ancient song1 ,so charm'd to life his animated throng2 ,o'er his wide realms the slow-subsiding flood ,left the rich treasures of organic mud2 ,while with quick growth young ,vegetation yields ,her blushing orchards1 and her waving fields2 ,pomona's hand replenish'd ,plenty's horn1 ,and ,ceres laugh'd amid her seas of corn4-- ,bird1 beast1 and reptile1 spring from sudden birth1 ,raise their new forms1 half-animal1 half-earth2 #daj ,the roaring lion shakes his tawny mane1 ,his struggling limbs still rooted in the plain2 ,with flapping wings assurgent eagles toil ,to rend their talons from the adhesive soil2 ,the impatient serpent lifts his crested head1 ,and drags his train unfinish'd from the bed4-- ,as ,warmth and ,moisture blend their magic spells1 ,and brood with mingling wings the slimy dells2 ,contractile earths in sentient forms arrange1 ,and ,life triumphant stays their chemic change4 #dbj ,footnote3 ,as warmth and moisture1 l4 #dag4 ,in eodem corpore saepe ,altera pars vivit2 rudis est pars altera tellus4 ,quippe ubi temperiem sumpsere humorque calorque1 ,concipiunt2 ab his oriuntur1 cuncta duobus4 ,,ovid4 ,,met4 l4 #a4 #dcj4 ,this story from ,ovid of the production of animals from the mud of the ,nile seems to be of ,egyptian origin1 and is probably a poetical account of the opinions of the magi or priests of that country2 showing that the simplest animations were spontaneously produced like chemical combinations1 but were distinguished from the latter by their perpetual improvement by the power of reproduction1 first by solitary1 and then by sexual generation2 whereas the products of natural chemistry are only enlarged by accretion1 or purified by filtration4 ,then hand in hand along the waving glades ,the virgin ,sisters pass beneath the shades2 ,ascend the winding steps with pausing march1 ,and seek the ,portico's susurrant arch2 ,whose sculptur'd architrave on columns borne ,drinks the first blushes of the rising morn1 ,whose fretted roof an ample shield displays1 ,and guards the ,beauties from meridian rays4 ,while on light step enamour'd ,zephyr springs1 ,and fans their glowing features with his wings1 #dcj ,imbibes the fragrance of the vernal flowers1 ,and speeds with kisses sweet the dancing ,hours4 ,urania1 leaning with unstudied grace1 ,rests her white elbow on a column's base2 ,awhile reflecting takes her silent stand1 ,her fair cheek press'd upon her lily hand2 ,then1 as awaking from ideal trance1 ,on the smooth floor her pausing steps advance1 ,waves high her arm1 upturns her lucid eyes1 ,marks the wide scenes of ocean1 earth1 and skies2 #ddj ,and leads1 meandering as it rolls along ,through ,nature's walks1 the shining stream of ,song4 ,first her sweet voice in plaintive accents chains ,the ,muse's ear with fascinating strains2 ,reverts awhile to elemental strife1 ,the change of form1 and brevity of life2 ,then tells how potent ,love with torch sublime ,relights the glimmering lamp1 and conquers ,time4 --,the polish'd walls reflect her rosy smiles1 ,and sweet-ton'd echoes talk along the ailes4 #dej ,,end ,,of ,,canto ,i4 ,,origin ,,of ,,society4 ,,canto ,,ii4 ,,reproduction ,,of ,,life4 ,,contents4 ,i4 ,brevity of ,life #a4 ,reproduction #ac4 ,animals improve #ca4 ,life and ,death alternate #cg4 ,adonis emblem of ,mortal ,life #de4 ,,ii4 ,solitary reproduction #fa4 ,buds1 ,bulbs1 ,polypus #fe4 ,truffle2 ,buds of trees how generated #ga4 ,volvox1 ,polypus1 ,taenia1 ,oysters1 ,corals1 are without ,sex #hc4 ,storge goddess of ,parental ,love2 ,first chain of ,society #ib4 ,,iii4 ,female sex produced #ajc4 ,tulip bulbs1 ,aphis #abe4 ,eve from ,adam's rib #ace4 ,,iv4 ,hereditary diseases #aei4 ,grafted trees1 bulbous roots degenerate #afg4 ,gout1 ,mania1 ,scrofula1 ,consumption #agg4 ,time and ,nature #ahe4 ,v4 ,urania and the ,muse lament #bje4 ,cupid and ,psyche1 the deities of sexual love #bba4 ,speech of ,hymen #bci4 ,second chain of ,society #bej4 ,young ,desire #bea4 ,love and ,beauty save the world #beg4 ,vegetable sexes1 ,anthers and ,stigmas salute #bfc4 ,vegetable sexual generation #bga4 ,anthers of ,vallisneria float to the ,stigmas #bgi4 ,ant1 ,lampyris1 ,glow-,worm1 ,snail #bhg4 ,silk-,worm #bic4 ,,vi4 ,demon of ,jealousy #cjg4 ,cocks1 ,quails1 ,stags1 ,boars #cac4 ,knights of ,romance #cbg4 ,helen and ,paris #ccc4 ,connubial love #cda4 ,married ,birds1 nests of the ,linnet and ,nightingale #cdc4 ,lions1 ,tigers1 ,bulls1 ,horses #ceg4 ,triumphal car of ,cupid #cfa4 ,fish1 ,birds1 ,insects #cga4 ,vegetables #chi4 ,march of ,hymen #daa4 ,his lamp #dai4 ,,vii4 ,urania's advice to her ,nymphs #dbe4 ,dines with the ,muse on forbidden ,fruit #dce4 ,angels visit ,abraham #ddg-deh4 ,,canto ,,ii4 ,,reproduction ,,of ,,life4 ,i4 ,how short the span of ,,life6 some hours possess'd1 ,warm but to cool1 and active but to rest6-- ,the age-worn fibres goaded to contract1 ,by repetition palsied1 cease to act2 ,when ,time's cold hands the languid senses seize1 ,chill the dull nerves1 the lingering currents freeze2 ,organic matter1 unreclaim'd by ,life1 ,reverts to elements by chemic strife4 ,thus ,heat evolv'd from some fermenting mass ,expands the kindling atoms into gas2 #aj ,which sink ere long in cold concentric rings1 ,condensed1 on ,gravity's descending wings4 ,footnote3 ,how short the span of ,life1 l4 #a4 ,the thinking few in all ages have complained of the brevity of life1 lamenting that mankind are not allowed time sufficient to cultivate science1 or to improve their intellect4 ,hippocrates introduces his celebrated aphorisms with this idea2 ,life is short1 science long1 opportunities of knowledge rare1 experiments fallacious1 and reasoning difficult4--,a melancholy reflection to philosophers6 ,footnote3 ,the age-worn fibres1 l4 #c4 ,why the same kinds of food1 which enlarge and invigorate the body from infancy to the meridian of life1 and then nourish it for some years unimpaired1 should at length gradually cease to do so1 and the debility of age and death supervene1 would be liable to surprise us if we were not in the daily habit of observing it2 and is a circumstance which has not yet been well understood4 ,before mankind introduced civil society1 old age did not exist in the world1 nor other lingering diseases2 as all living creatures1 as soon as they became too feeble to defend themselves1 were slain and eaten by others1 except the young broods1 who were defended by their mother2 and hence the animal world existed uniformly in its greatest strength and perfection2 see ,additional ,note ,,vii4 ,but ,,reproduction with ethereal fires ,new ,life rekindles1 ere the first expires2 ,calls up renascent ,youth1 ere tottering age ,quits the dull scene1 and gives him to the stage2 ,bids on his cheek the rose of beauty blow1 ,and binds the wreaths of pleasure round his brow2 ,with finer links the vital chain extends1 ,and the long line of ,being never ends4 #bj ,footnote3 ,but ,reproduction1 l4 #ac4 ,see ,additional ,note ,,viii4 ,self-moving ,engines by unbending springs ,may walk on earth1 or flap their mimic wings2 ,in tubes of glass mercurial columns rise1 ,or sink1 obedient to the incumbent skies2 ,or1 as they touch the figured scale1 repeat ,the nice gradations of circumfluent heat4 ,but ,,reproduction1 when the perfect ,elf ,forms from fine glands another like itself1 ,gives the true character of life and sense1 ,and parts the organic from the chemic ,ens4-- #cj ,where milder skies protect the nascent brood1 ,and earth's warm bosom yields salubrious food2 ,each new ,descendant with superior powers ,of sense and motion speeds the transient hours2 ,braves every season1 tenants every clime1 ,and ,nature rises on the wings of ,time4 ,footnote3 ,unbending springs1 l4 #ba4 ,see ,additional ,note ,i4 #d4 ,as ,,life discordant elements arrests1 ,rejects the noxious1 and the pure digests2 ,combines with ,heat the fluctuating mass1 ,and gives a while solidity to gas2 #dj ,organic forms with chemic changes strive1 ,live but to die1 and die but to revive6 ,immortal matter braves the transient storm1 ,mounts from the wreck1 unchanging but in form4-- ,footnote3 ,combines with ,heat1 l4 #ci4 ,it was shown in note on line #bdh of the first ,canto1 that much of the aerial and liquid parts of the terraqueous globe was converted by the powers of life into solid matter2 and that this was effected by the combination of the fluid1 heat1 with other elementary bodies by the appetencies and propensities of the parts of living matter to unite with each other4 ,but when these appetencies and propensities of the parts of organic matter to unite with each other cease1 the chemical affinities of attraction and the aptitude to be attracted1 and of repulsion and the aptitude to be repelled1 succeed1 and reduce much of the solid matters back to the condition of elements2 which seems to be effected by the matter of heat being again set at liberty1 which was combined with other matters by the powers of life2 and thus by its diffusion the solid bodies return into liquid ones or into gasses1 as occurs in the processes of fermentation1 putrefaction1 sublimation1 and calcination4 ,whence solidity appears to be produced in consequence of the diminution of heat1 as the condensation of steam into water1 and the consolidation of water into ice1 or by the combination of heat with bodies1 as with the materials of gunpowder before its explosion4 ,footnote3 ,immortal matter1 l4 #dc4 ,the perpetual mutability of the forms of matter seems to have struck the philosophers of great antiquity2 the system of transmigration taught by ,pythagoras1 in which the souls of men were supposed after death to animate the bodies of a variety of animals1 appears to have arisen from this source4 ,he had observed the perpetual changes of organic matter from one creature to another1 and concluded1 that the vivifying spirit must attend it4 ,so1 as the sages of the ,east record ,in sacred symbol1 or unletter'd word2 ,emblem of ,life1 to change eternal doom'd1 ,the beauteous form of fair ,,adonis bloom'd4-- ,on ,syrian hills the graceful ,hunter slain ,dyed with his gushing blood the shuddering plain2 #ej ,and1 slow-descending to the ,elysian shade1 ,a while with ,,proserpine reluctant stray'd2 ,soon from the yawning grave the bursting clay ,restor'd the ,beauty to delighted day2 ,array'd in youth's resuscitated charms1 ,and young ,,dione woo'd him to her arms4-- ,pleased for a while the assurgent youth above ,relights the golden lamp of life and love2 ,ah1 soon again to leave the cheerful light1 ,and sink alternate to the realms of night4 #fj ,footnote3 ,emblem of ,life1 l4 #dg4 ,the ,egyptian figure of ,venus rising from the sea seems to have represented the ,beauty of organic ,nature2 which the philosophers of that country1 the magi1 appear to have discovered to have been elevated by earthquakes from the primeval ocean4 ,but the hieroglyphic figure of ,adonis seems to have signified the spirit of animation or life1 which was perpetually wooed or courted by organic matter1 and which perished and revived alternately4 ,afterwards the fable of ,adonis seems to have given origin to the first religion promising a resurrection from the dead2 whence his funeral and return to life were celebrated for many ages in ,egypt and ,syria1 the ceremonies of which ,ezekiel complains as idolatrous1 accusing the women of ,israel of lamenting over ,thammus2 which ,st4 ,cyril interprets to be ,adonis1 in his ,commentaries on ,isaiah2 ,danet's ,diction4 ,,ii4 ,,hence ere ,vitality1 as time revolves1 ,leaves the cold organ1 and the mass dissolves2 ,the ,reproductions of the living ,ens ,from sires to sons1 unknown to sex1 commence4 ,new buds and bulbs the living fibre shoots ,on lengthening branches1 and protruding roots2 ,or on the father's side from bursting glands ,the adhering young its nascent form expands2 ,in branching lines the parent-trunk adorns1 ,and parts ere long like plumage1 hairs1 or horns4 #gj ,so the lone ,truffle1 lodged beneath the earth1 ,shoots from paternal roots the tuberous birth2 ,no stamen-males ascend1 and breathe above1 ,no seed-born offspring lives by female love4 ,from each young tree1 for future buds design'd ,organic drops exsude beneath the rind2 ,while these with appetencies nice invite1 ,and those with apt propensities unite2 ,new embryon fibrils round the trunk combine ,with quick embrace1 and form the living line3 #hj ,whose plume and rootlet at their early birth ,seek the dry air1 or pierce the humid earth4 ,footnote3 ,so the lone ,truffle1 l4 #ga4 ,lycoperdon tuber4 ,this plant never rises above the earth1 is propagated without seed by its roots only1 and seems to require no light4 ,perhaps many other fungi are generated without seed by their roots only1 and without light1 and approach on the last account to animal nature4 ,footnote3 ,while these with appetencies1 l4 #gg4 ,see ,additional ,note ,,viii4 ,so safe in waves prolific ,volvox dwells1 ,and five descendants crowd his lucid cells2 ,so the male ,polypus parental swims1 ,and branching infants bristle all his limbs2 ,so the lone ,taenia1 as he grows1 prolongs ,his flatten'd form with young adherent throngs2 ,unknown to sex the pregnant oyster swells1 ,and coral-insects build their radiate shells2 #ij ,parturient ,sires caress their infant train1 ,and heaven-born ,,storge weaves the social chain2 ,successive births her tender cares combine1 ,and soft affections live along the line4 ,footnote3 ,prolific ,volvox1 l4 #hc4 ,the volvox globator dwells in the lakes of ,europe1 is transparent1 and bears within it children and grandchildren to the fifth generation2 ,syst4 ,nat4 ,footnote3 ,the male polypus1 l4 #he4 ,the ,hydra viridis and fusca of ,linneus dwell in our ditches and rivers under aquatic plants2 these animals have been shown by ingenious observers to revive after having been dried1 to be restored when mutilated1 to be multiplied by dividing them1 and propagated from portions of them1 parts of different ones to unite1 to be turned inside outwards and yet live1 and to be propagated by seeds1 to produce bulbs1 and vegetate by branches4 ,syst4 ,nat4 ,footnote3 ,the lone ,taenia1 l4 #hg4 ,the tape-worm dwells in the intestines of animals1 and grows old at one extremity1 producing an infinite series of young ones at the other2 the separate joints have been called ,gourd-worms1 each of which possesses a mouth of its own1 and organs of digestion4 ,syst4 ,nat4 ,footnote3 ,the pregnant oyster1 l4 #hi4 ,ostrea edulis dwells in the ,european oceans1 frequent at the tables of the luxurious1 a living repast6 ,new-born oysters swim swiftly by an undulating movement of fins thrust out a little way from their shells4 ,syst4 ,nat4 ,but they do not afterwards change their place during their whole lives1 and are capable of no other movement but that of opening the shell a little way3 whence ,professor ,beckman observes1 that their offspring is probably produced without maternal organs2 and that those1 who speak of male and female oysters1 must be mistaken3 ,phil4 ,magaz4 ,march #ahjj4 ,it is also observed by ,h4 ,i4 le ,beck1 that on nice inspection of the ,pearl oysters in the gulf of ,manar1 he could observe no distinction of sexes4 ,nicholson's ,journal4 ,april #ahjj4 ,footnote3 ,and coral insects1 l4 #ij4 ,the coral habitation of the ,madrepora of ,linneus consists of one or more star-like cells2 a congeries of which form rocks beneath the sea2 the animal which constructs it is termed ,medusa2 and as it adheres to its calcareous cavity1 and thence cannot travel to its neighbours1 is probably without sex4 ,i observed great masses of the limestone in ,shropshire1 which is brought to ,newport1 to consist of the cells of these animals4 ,footnote3 ,and heaven-born ,storge1 l4 #ib4 ,see ,additional ,note ,,ix4 ,on angel-wings the ,,goddess ,,form descends1 ,round her fond broods her silver arms she bends2 ,white streams of milk her tumid bosom swell1 ,and on her lips ambrosial kisses dwell4 ,light joys on twinkling feet before her dance ,with playful nod1 and momentary glance2 #ajj ,behind1 attendant on the pansied plain1 ,young ,,psyche treads with ,,cupid in her train4 ,,iii4 ,,in these lone births no tender mothers blend ,their genial powers to nourish or defend2 ,no nutrient streams from ,beauty's orbs improve ,these orphan babes of solitary love2 ,birth after birth the line unchanging runs1 ,and fathers live transmitted in their sons2 ,each passing year beholds the unvarying kinds1 ,the same their manners1 and the same their minds4 #aaj ,till1 as erelong successive buds decay1 ,and insect-shoals successive pass away1 ,increasing wants the pregnant parents vex ,with the fond wish to form a softer sex2 ,whose milky rills with pure ambrosial food ,might charm and cherish their expected brood4 ,the potent wish in the productive hour ,calls to its aid ,imagination's power1 ,o'er embryon throngs with mystic charm presides1 ,and sex from sex the nascent world divides1 #abj ,with soft affections warms the callow trains1 ,and gives to laughing ,love his nymphs and swains2 ,whose mingling virtues interweave at length ,the mother's beauty with the father's strength4 ,footnote3 ,a softer sex1 l4 #aad4 ,the first buds of trees raised from seed die annually1 and are succeeded by new buds by solitary reproduction2 which are larger or more perfect for several successive years1 and then they produce sexual flowers1 which are succeeded by seminal reproduction4 ,the same occurs in bulbous rooted plants raised from seed2 they die annually1 and produce others rather more perfect than the parent for several years1 and then produce sexual flowers4 ,the ,aphis is in a similar manner hatched from an egg in the vernal months1 and produces a viviparous offspring without sexual intercourse for nine or ten successive generations2 and then the progeny is both male and female1 which cohabit1 and from these new females are produced eggs1 which endure the winter2 the same process probably occurs in many other insects4 ,footnote3 ,imagination's power1 l4 #aah4 ,the manner in which the similarity of the progeny to the parent1 and the sex of it1 are produced by the power of imagination1 is treated of in ,zoonomia4 ,sect4 #ci4 #f4 #c4 ,it is not to be understood1 that the first living fibres1 which are to form an animal1 are produced by imagination1 with any similarity of form to the future animal2 but with appetencies or propensities1 which shall produce by accretion of parts the similarity of form and feature1 or of sex1 corresponding with the imagination of the father4 ,footnote3 ,his nymphs and swains1 l4 #abb4 ,the arguments which have been adduced to show1 that mankind and quadrupeds were formerly in an hermaphrodite state1 are first deduced from the present existence of breasts and nipples in all the males2 which latter swell on titillation like those of the females1 and which are said to contain a milky fluid at their birth2 and it is affirmed1 that some men have given milk to their children in desert countries1 where the mother has perished2 as the male pigeon is said to give a kind of milk from his stomach along with the regurgitated food1 to the young doves1 as mentioned in ,additional ,note ,,ix4 on ,storge4 ,secondly1 from the apparent progress of many animals to greater perfection1 as in some insects1 as the flies with two wings1 termed ,diptera2 which have rudiments of two other wings1 called halteres1 or poisers2 and in many flowers which have rudiments of new stamina1 or filaments without anthers on them4 ,see ,botanic ,garden1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,curcuma1 ,note1 and the ,note on l4 #bjd of ,canto ,i4 of this work4 ,it has been supposed by some1 that mankind were formerly quadrupeds as well as hermaphrodites2 and that some parts of the body are not yet so convenient to an erect attitude as to a horizontal one2 as the fundus of the bladder in an erect posture is not exactly over the insertion of the urethra2 whence it is seldom completely evacuated1 and thus renders mankind more subject to the stone1 than if he had preserved his horizontality3 these philosophers1 with ,buffon and ,helvetius1 seem to imagine1 that mankind arose from one family of monkeys on the banks of the ,mediterranean2 who accidentally had learned to use the adductor pollicis1 or that strong muscle which constitutes the ball of the thumb1 and draws the point of it to meet the points of the fingers2 which common monkeys do not2 and that this muscle gradually increased in size1 strength1 and activity1 in successive generations2 and by this improved use of the sense of touch1 that monkeys acquired clear ideas1 and gradually became men4 ,perhaps all the productions of nature are in their progress to greater perfection6 an idea countenanced by modern discoveries and deductions concerning the progressive formation of the solid parts of the terraqueous globe1 and consonant to the dignity of the ,creator of all things4 ,so tulip-bulbs emerging from the seed1 ,year after year unknown to sex proceed2 ,erewhile the stamens and the styles display ,their petal-curtains1 and adorn the day2 ,the beaux and beauties in each blossom glow ,with wedded joy1 or amatorial woe4 #acj ,unmarried ,aphides prolific prove ,for nine successions uninform'd of love2 ,new sexes next with softer passions spring1 ,breathe the fond vow1 and woo with quivering wing4 ,so erst in ,paradise creation's ,,lord1 ,as the first leaves of holy writ record1 ,from ,adam's rib1 who press'd the flowery grove1 ,and dreamt delighted of untasted love1 ,to cheer and charm his solitary mind1 ,form'd a new sex1 the ,,mother ,,of ,,mankind4 #adj --,buoy'd on light step the ,beauty seem'd to swim1 ,and stretch'd alternate every pliant limb2 ,pleased on ,euphrates' velvet margin stood1 ,and view'd her playful image in the flood2 ,own'd the fine flame of love1 as life began1 ,and smiled enchantment on adoring ,man4 ,down her white neck and o'er her bosom roll'd1 ,flow'd in sweet negligence her locks of gold2 ,round her fine form the dim transparence play'd1 ,and show'd the beauties1 that it seem'd to shade4 #aej --,enamour'd ,,adam gaz'd with fond surprise1 ,and drank delicious passion from her eyes2 ,felt the new thrill of young ,desire1 and press'd ,the graceful ,virgin to his glowing breast4-- ,the conscious ,fair betrays her soft alarms1 ,sinks with warm blush into his closing arms1 ,yields to his fond caress with wanton play1 ,and sweet1 reluctant1 amorous1 delay4 ,footnote3 ,the mother of mankind1 l4 #adj4 ,see ,additional ,note ,x4 ,,iv4 ,,where no new ,sex with glands nutritious feeds1 ,nurs'd in her womb1 the solitary breeds2 #afj ,no ,mother's care their early steps directs1 ,warms in her bosom1 with her wings protects2 ,the clime unkind1 or noxious food instills ,to embryon nerves hereditary ills2 ,the feeble births acquired diseases chase1 ,till ,death extinguish the degenerate race4 ,footnote3 ,acquired diseases1 l4 #afe4 ,see ,additional ,note ,,xi4 ,so grafted trees with shadowy summits rise1 ,spread their fair blossoms1 and perfume the skies2 ,till canker taints the vegetable blood1 ,mines round the bark1 and feeds upon the wood4 #agj ,so1 years successive1 from perennial roots ,the wire or bulb with lessen'd vigour shoots2 ,till curled leaves1 or barren flowers1 betray ,a waning lineage1 verging to decay2 ,or till1 amended by connubial powers1 ,rise seedling progenies from sexual flowers4 ,footnote3 ,so grafted trees1 l4 #afg4 ,mr4 ,knight first observed that those apple and pear trees1 which had been propagated for above a century by ingraftment were now so unhealthy1 as not to be worth cultivation4 ,i have suspected the diseases of potatoes attended with the curled leaf1 and of strawberry plants attended with barren flowers1 to be owing to their having been too long raised from roots1 or by solitary reproduction1 and not from seeds1 or sexual reproduction1 and to have thence acquired those hereditary diseases4 ,e'en where unmix'd the breed1 in sexual tribes ,parental taints the nascent babe imbibes2 ,eternal war the ,gout and ,mania wage ,with fierce uncheck'd hereditary rage2 #ahj ,sad ,beauty's form foul ,scrofula surrounds ,with bones distorted1 and putrescent wounds2 ,and1 fell ,consumption6 thy unerring dart ,wets its broad wing in ,youth's reluctant heart4 ,footnote3 ,and1 fell ,consumption1 l4 #ahc4 444 ,haeret lateri lethalis arundo4 ,,virgil4 ,with pausing step1 at night's refulgent noon1 ,beneath the sparkling stars1 and lucid moon1 ,plung'd in the shade of some religious tower1 ,the slow bell counting the departed hour1 ,o'er gaping tombs where shed umbrageous ,yews ,on mouldering bones their cold unwholesome dews2 #aij ,while low aerial voices whisper round1 ,and moondrawn spectres dance upon the ground2 ,poetic ,,melancholy loves to tread1 ,and bend in silence o'er the countless ,dead2 ,marks with loud sobs infantine ,sorrows rave1 ,and wring their pale hands o'er their ,mother's grave2 ,hears on the new-turn'd sod with gestures wild ,the kneeling ,beauty call her buried child2 ,upbraid with timorous accents ,heaven's decrees1 ,and with sad sighs augment the passing breeze4 #bjj ',stern ,time1' ,she cries1 'receives from ,nature's womb ,her beauteous births1 and bears them to the tomb2 ,calls all her sons from earth's remotest bourn1 ,and from the closing portals none return6' ,v4 ,,urania paused1--upturn'd her streaming eyes1 ,and her white bosom heaved with silent sighs2 ,with her the ,,muse laments the sum of things1 ,and hides her sorrows with her meeting wings2 ,long o'er the wrecks of lovely ,life they weep1 ,then pleased reflect1 to die is but to sleep2 #baj ,from ,nature's coffins to her cradles turn1 ,smile with young joy1 with new affection burn4 ,and now the ,muse1 with mortal woes impress'd1 ,thus the fair ,hierophant again address'd4 --,ah me6 celestial ,guide1 thy words impart ,ills undeserved1 that rend the nascent heart6 ,o1 ,goddess1 say1 if brighter scenes improve ,air-breathing tribes1 and births of sexual love8-- ,the smiling ,fair obeys the inquiring ,muse1 ,and in sweet tones her grateful task pursues4 #bbj ,now on broad pinions from the realms above ,descending ,,cupid seeks the ,cyprian grove2 ,to his wide arms enamour'd ,,psyche springs1 ,and clasps her lover with aurelian wings4 ,a purple sash across ,,his shoulder bends1 ,and fringed with gold the quiver'd shafts suspends2 ,the bending bow obeys the silken string1 ,and1 as he steps1 the silver arrows ring4 ,thin folds of gauze with dim transparence flow ,o'er ,,her fair forehead1 and her neck of snow2 #bcj ,the winding woof her graceful limbs surrounds1 ,swells in the breeze1 and sweeps the velvet grounds2 ,as hand in hand along the flowery meads ,his blushing bride the quiver'd hero leads2 ,charm'd round their heads pursuing ,zephyrs throng1 ,and scatter roses1 as they move along2 ,bright beams of ,spring in soft effusion play1 ,and halcyon ,hours invite them on their way4 ,footnote3 ,enamoured ,psyche1 l4 #bbc4 ,a butterfly was the ancient emblem of the soul after death as rising from the tomb of its former state1 and becoming a winged inhabitant of air from an insect creeping upon earth4 ,at length the wings only were given to a beautiful nymph under the name of ,psyche1 which is the greek word for the soul1 and also became afterwards to signify a butterfly probably from the popularity of this allegory4 ,many allegorical designs of ,cupid or ,love warming a butterfly or the ,soul with his torch may be seen in ,spence's ,polymetis1 and a beautiful one of their marriage in ,bryant's ,mythology2 from which this description is in part taken4 ,delighted ,,hymen hears their whisper'd vows1 ,and binds his chaplets round their polish'd brows1 #bdj ,guides to his altar1 ties the flowery bands1 ,and as they kneel1 unites their willing hands4 ',behold1 he cries1 ,earth6 ,ocean6 ,air above1 ',and hail the ,,deities ,,of ,,sexual ,,love6 ',all forms of ,life shall this fond ,pair delight1 ',and sex to sex the willing world unite2 ',shed their sweet smiles in ,earth's unsocial bowers1 ',fan with soft gales1 and gild with brighter hours2 ',fill ,pleasure's chalice unalloy'd with pain1 ',and give ,,society his golden chain4' #bej ,now young ,,desires1 on purple pinions borne1 ,mount the warm gales of ,manhood's rising morn2 ,with softer fires through virgin bosoms dart1 ,flush the pale cheek1 and goad the tender heart4 ,ere the weak powers of transient ,life decay1 ,and ,heaven's ethereal image melts away2 ,,love with nice touch renews the organic frame1 ,forms a young ,ens1 another and the same2 ,gives from his rosy lips the vital breath1 ,and parries with his hand the shafts of death2 #bfj ,while ,,beauty broods with angel wings unfurl'd ,o'er nascent life1 and saves the sinking world4 ,footnote3 ,while ,beauty broods1 l4 #bfa4 ,alma ,venus6 per te quoniam genus omne animantum ,concipitur1 visitque exortum lumina coeli4 ,,lucret4 ,,hence on green leaves the sexual ,pleasures dwell1 ,and ,loves and ,beauties crowd the blossom's bell2 ,the wakeful ,anther in his silken bed ,o'er the pleased ,stigma bows his waxen head2 ,with meeting lips and mingling smiles they sup ,ambrosial dewdrops from the nectar'd cup2 ,or buoy'd in air the plumy ,lover springs1 ,and seeks his panting bride on ,hymen-wings4 #bgj ,footnote3 ,from the nectar'd cup1 l4 #bfh4 ,the anthers and stigmas of flowers are probably nourished by the honey1 which is secreted by the honey-gland called by ,linneus the nectary2 and possess greater sensibility or animation than other parts of the plant4 ,the corol of the flower appears to be a respiratory organ belonging to these anthers and stigmas for the purpose of further oxygenating the vegetable blood for the production of the anther dust and of this honey1 which is also exposed to the air in its receptacle or honey-cup2 which1 ,i suppose1 to be necessary for its further oxygenation1 as in many flowers so complicate an apparatus is formed for its protection from insects1 as in aconitum1 delphinium1 larkspur1 lonicera1 woodbine2 and because the corol and nectary fall along with the anthers and stigmas1 when the pericarp is impregnated4 ,dr4 ,b4 ,s4 ,barton in the ,american ,transactions has lately shown1 that the honey collected from some plants is intoxicating and poisonous to men1 as from rhododendron1 azalea1 and datura2 and from some other plants that it is hurtful to the bees which collect it2 and that from some flowers it is so injurious or disagreeable1 that they do not collect it1 as from the fritillaria or crown imperial of this country4 ,the ,stamen males1 with appetencies just1 ,produce a formative prolific dust2 ,with apt propensities1 the ,styles recluse ,secrete a formative prolific juice2 ,these in the pericarp erewhile arrive1 ,rush to each other1 and embrace alive4 --,form'd by new powers progressive parts succeed1 ,join in one whole1 and swell into a seed4 ,footnote3 ,with appetencies just1 l4 #bga4 ,as in the productions by chemical affinity one set of particles must possess the power of attraction1 and the other the aptitude to be attracted1 as when iron approaches a magnet2 so when animal particles unite1 whether in digestion or reproduction1 some of them must possess an appetite to unite1 and others a propensity to be united4 ,the former of these are secreted by the anthers from the vegetable blood1 and the latter by the styles or pericarp2 see the ,additional ,note ,,viii4 on ,reproduction4 ,so in fond swarms the living ,anthers shine ,of bright ,vallisner on the wavy ,rhine2 #bhj ,break from their stems1 and on the liquid glass ,surround the admiring stigmas as they pass2 ,the love-sick ,beauties lift their essenced brows1 ,sigh to the ,cyprian queen their secret vows1 ,like watchful ,hero feel their soft alarms1 ,and clasp their floating lovers in their arms4 ,footnote3 ,of bright ,vallisner1 l4 #bhj4 ,vallisneria1 of the class of dioecia4 ,the flowers of the male plant are produced under water1 and as soon as their farina or dust is mature1 they detach themselves from the plant1 rise to the surface and continue to flourish1 and are wafted by the air or borne by the current to the female flowers4 ,in this they resemble those tribes of insects1 where the males at certain seasons acquire wings1 but not the females1 as ants1 coccus1 lampyris1 phalaena1 brumata1 lichanella2 ,botanic ,garden1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,note on ,vallisneria4 ,hence the male ,ants their gauzy wings unfold1 ,and young ,lampyris waves his plumes of gold2 ,the ,glow-,worm sparkles with impassion'd light ,on each green bank1 and charms the eye of night2 #bij ,while new desires the painted ,snail perplex1 ,and twofold love unites the double sex4 ,footnote3 ,and young ,lampyris1 l4 #bhh4 ,the fire-fly is at some seasons so luminous1 that ,m4 ,merian says1 that by putting two of them under a glass1 she was able to draw her figures of them by night4 ,whether the light of this and of other insects be caused by their amatorial passion1 and thus assists them to find each other2 or is caused by respiration1 which is so analogous to combustion2 or to a tendency to putridity1 as in dead fish and rotten wood1 is still to be investigated2 see ,botanic ,garden1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,additional ,note ,,ix4 ,hence1 when the ,morus in ,italia's lands ,to spring's warm beam its timid leaf expands2 ,the ,silk-,worm broods in countless tribes above ,crop the green treasure1 uninform'd of love2 ,erewhile the changeful worm with circling head ,weaves the nice curtains of his silken bed2 ,web within web involves his larva form1 ,alike secured from sunshine and from storm2 #cjj ,for twelve long days ,he dreams of blossom'd groves1 ,untasted honey1 and ideal loves2 ,wakes from his trance1 alarm'd with young ,desire1 ,finds his new sex1 and feels ecstatic fire2 ,from flower to flower with honey'd lip he springs1 ,and seeks his velvet loves on silver wings4 ,footnote3 ,untasted honey1 l4 #cjb4 ,the numerous moths and butterflies seem to pass from a reptile leaf-eating state1 and to acquire wings to flit in air1 with a proboscis to gain honey for their food along with their organs of reproduction1 solely for the purpose of propagating their species by sexual intercourse1 as they die when that is completed4 ,by the use of their wings they have access to each other on different branches or on different vegetables1 and by living upon honey probably acquire a higher degree of animation1 and thus seem to resemble the anthers of flowers1 which probably are supported by honey only1 and thence acquire greater sensibility2 see ,note on ,vallisneria1 l4 #bhj of this ,canto4 ,a naturalist1 who had studied this subject1 thought it not impossible that the first insects were the anthers and stigmas of flowers1 which had by some means loosened themselves from their parent plant1 like the male flowers of vallisneria1 and that other insects in process of time had been formed from these1 some acquiring wings1 others fins1 and others claws1 from their ceaseless efforts to procure food or to secure themselves from injury4 ,he contends1 that none of these changes are more incomprehensible than the transformation of caterpillars into butterflies2 see ,botanic ,garden1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,additional ,note ,,xxxix4 ,,vi4 ,the ,demon1 ,jealousy1 with ,gorgon frown ,blasts the sweet flowers of ,pleasure not his own1 ,rolls his wild eyes1 and through the shuddering grove ,pursues the steps of unsuspecting ,love2 #caj ,or drives o'er rattling plains his iron car1 ,flings his red torch1 and lights the flames of war4 ,here ,cocks heroic burn with rival rage1 ,and ,quails with ,quails in doubtful fight engage2 ,of armed heels and bristling plumage proud1 ,they sound the insulting clarion shrill and loud1 ,with rustling pinions meet1 and swelling chests1 ,and seize with closing beaks their bleeding crests2 ,rise on quick wing above the struggling foe1 ,and aim in air the death-devoting blow4 #cbj ,there the hoarse stag his croaking rival scorns1 ,and butts and parries with his branching horns2 ,contending ,boars with tusk enamell'd strike1 ,and guard with shoulder-shield the blow oblique2 ,while female bands attend in mute surprise1 ,and view the victor with admiring eyes4-- ,footnote3 ,there the hoarse stag1 l4 #cba4 ,a great want of one part of the animal world has consisted in the desire of the exclusive possession of the females2 and these have acquired weapons to combat each other for this purpose1 as the very thick shield-like horny skin on the shoulder of the boar is a defence only against animals of his own species1 who strike obliquely upwards1 nor are his tushes for other purposes1 except to defend himself1 as he is not naturally a carnivorous animal4 ,so the horns of the stag are sharp to offend his adversary1 but are branched for the purpose of parrying or receiving the thrusts of horns similar to his own1 and have therefore been formed for the purpose of combating other stags for the exclusive possession of the females1 who are observed1 like the ladies in the times of chivalry1 to attend the car of the victor4 ,the birds1 which do not carry food to their young1 and do not therefore marry1 are armed with spurs for the purpose of fighting for the exclusive possession of the females1 as cocks and quails4 ,it is certain that these weapons are not provided for their defence against other adversaries1 because the females of these species are without this armour2 ,zoonomia1 ,sect4 ,,xxxix4 #d1 #h4 ,so ,knight on ,knight1 recorded in romance1 ,urged the proud steed1 and couch'd the extended lance2 ,he1 whose dread prowess with resistless force1 ,o'erthrew the opposing warrior and his horse1 #ccj ,bless'd1 as the golden guerdon of his toils1 ,bow'd to the ,beauty1 and receiv'd her smiles4 ,so when fair ,,helen with ill-fated charms1 ,by ,,paris wooed1 provoked the world to arms1 ,left her vindictive ,lord to sigh in vain ,for broken vows1 lost love1 and cold disdain2 ,fired at his wrongs1 associate to destroy ,the realms unjust of proud adulterous ,troy1 ,unnumber'd ,heroes braved the dubious fight1 ,and sunk lamented to the shades of night4 #cdj ,now vows connubial chain the plighted pair1 ,and join paternal with maternal care2 ,the married birds with nice selection cull ,soft thistle-down1 gray moss1 and scattered wool1 ,line the secluded nest with feathery rings1 ,meet with fond bills1 and woo with fluttering wings4 ,week after week1 regardless of her food1 ,the incumbent ,linnet warms her future brood2 ,each spotted egg with ivory lips she turns1 ,day after day with fond expectance burns1 #cej ,hears the young prisoner chirping in his cell1 ,and breaks in hemispheres the obdurate shell4 ,loud trills sweet ,philomel his tender strain1 ,charms his fond bride1 and wakes his infant train2 ,perch'd on the circling moss1 the listening throng ,wave their young wings1 and whisper to the song4 ,footnote3 ,the incumbent ,linnet1 l4 #cdh4 ,the affection of the unexperienced and untaught bird to its egg1 which induces it to sit days and weeks upon it to warm the enclosed embryon1 is a matter of great difficulty to explain2 ,see ,additional ,note ,,ix4 on ,storge4 ,concerning the fabrication of their nests1 see ,zoonomia1 ,sect4 ,,xvi4 #ac4 on instinct4 ,footnote3 ,hears the young prisoner1 l4 #cea4 ,the air-vessel at the broad end of an incubated egg gradually extends its edges along the sides of the shell1 as the chick enlarges1 but is at the same time applied closer to the internal surface of the shell2 when the time of hatching approaches the chick is liable to break this air-bag with its beak1 and thence begin to breathe and to chirp2 at this time the edges of the enlarged air-bag extend so as to cover internally one hemisphere of the egg2 and as one half of the external shell is thus moist1 and the other half dry1 as soon as the mother hearing the chick chirp1 or the chick itself wanting respirable air1 strikes the egg1 about its equatorial line1 it breaks into two hemispheres1 and liberates the prisoner4 ,footnote3 ,and whisper to the song1 l4 #cef4 ,a curious circumstance is mentioned by ,kircherus de ,musurgia1 in his ,chapter de ,lusciniis4 ,that the young nightingales1 that are hatched under other birds1 never sing till they are instructed by the company of other nightingales4 ,and ,johnston affirms1 that the nightingales that visit ,scotland1 have not the same harmony as those of ,italy1 7,pennant's ,zoology1 octavo1 p4 #bee71 which would lead us to suspect1 that the singing of birds1 like human music1 is an artificial language rather than a natural expression of passion4 ,the ,lion-,king forgets his savage pride1 ,and courts with playful paws his tawny bride2 ,the listening ,tiger hears with kindling flame ,the love-lorn night-call of his brinded dame4 #cfj ,despotic ,,love dissolves the bestial war1 ,bends their proud necks1 and joins them to his car2 ,shakes o'er the obedient pairs his silken thong1 ,and goads the humble1 or restrains the strong4-- ,slow roll the silver wheels1--in beauty's pride ,celestial ,,psyche blushing by his side4-- ,the lordly ,bull behind and warrior ,horse ,with voice of thunder shake the echoing course1 ,chain'd to the car with herds domestic move1 ,and swell the triumph of despotic ,,love4 #cgj ,pleased as they pass along the breezy shore ,in twinkling shoals the scaly realms adore1 ,move on quick fin with undulating train1 ,or lift their slimy foreheads from the main4 ,high o'er their heads on pinions broad display'd ,the feather'd nations shed a floating shade2 ,pair after pair enamour'd shoot along1 ,and trill in air the gay impassion'd song4 ,with busy hum in playful swarms around ,emerging insects leave the peopled ground1 #chj ,rise in dark clouds1 and borne in airy rings ,sport round the car1 and wave their golden wings4 ,admiring ,fawns pursue on dancing hoof1 ,and bashful ,dryads peep from shades aloof2 ,emerging ,nereids rise from coral cells1 ,enamour'd ,tritons sound their twisted shells2 ,from sparkling founts enchanted ,naiads move1 ,and swell the triumph of despotic ,,love4 ,footnote3 ,with undulating train1 l4 #cgc4 ,the side fins of fish seem to be chiefly used to poise them2 as they turn upon their backs immediately when killed1 the air-bladder assists them perhaps to rise or descend by its possessing the power to condense the air in it by muscular contraction2 and it is possible1 that at great depths in the ocean the air in this receptacle may by the great pressure of the incumbent water become condensed into so small a space1 as to cease to be useful to the animal1 which was possibly the cause of the death of ,mr4 ,day in his diving ship4 ,see note on ,ulva1 ,botan4 ,gard4 ,v4 ,,ii4 ,the progressive motion of fish beneath the water is produced principally by the undulation of their tails4 ,one oblique plain of a part of the tail on the right side of the fish strikes the water at the same time that another oblique plain strikes it on the left side1 hence in respect to moving to the right or left these percussions of the water counteract each other1 but they coincide in respect to the progression of the fish2 this power seems to be better applied to push forwards a body in water1 than the oars of boats1 as the particles of water recede from the stroke of the oar1 whence the comparative power acquired is but as the difference of velocity between the striking oar and the receding water4 ,so a ship moves swifter with an oblique wind1 than with a wind of the same velocity exactly behind it2 and the common windmill sail placed obliquely to the wind is more powerful than one which directly recedes from it4 ,might not some machinery resembling the tails of fish be placed behind a boat1 so as to be moved with greater effect than common oars1 by the force of wind or steam1 or perhaps by hand8 ,footnote3 ,on pinions broad display'd1 l4 #cge4 ,the progressive motion of birds in the air is principally performed by the movement of their wings1 and not by that of their tails as in fish4 ,the bird is supported in an element so much lighter than itself by the resistance of the air as it moves horizontally against the oblique plain made by its breast1 expanded tail and wings1 when they are at rest2 the change of this obliquity also assists it to rise1 and even directs its descent1 though this is owing principally to its specific gravity1 but it is in all situations kept upright or balanced by its wings4 ,as the support of the bird in the air1 as well as its progression1 is performed by the motion of the wings2 these require strong muscles as are seen on the breasts of partridges4 ,whence all attempts of men to fly by wings applied to the weak muscles of their arms have been ineffectual2 but it is not certain whether light machinery so contrived as to be moved by their feet1 might not enable them to fly a little way1 though not so as to answer any useful purpose4 ,delighted ,flora1 gazing from afar1 ,greets with mute homage the triumphal car2 #cij ,on silvery slippers steps with bosom bare1 ,bends her white knee1 and bows her auburn hair2 ,calls to her purple heaths1 and blushing bowers1 ,bursts her green gems1 and opens all her flowers2 ,o'er the bright ,pair a shower of roses sheds1 ,and crowns with wreathes of hyacinth their heads4-- --,slow roll the silver wheels with snowdrops deck'd1 ,and primrose bands the cedar spokes connect2 ,round the fine pole the twisting woodbine clings1 ,and knots of jasmine clasp the bending springs2 #djj ,bright daisy links the velvet harness chain1 ,and rings of violets join each silken rein2 ,festoon'd behind1 the snow-white lilies bend1 ,and tulip-tassels on each side depend4 --,slow rolls the car1--the enamour'd ,flowers exhale ,their treasured sweets1 and whisper to the gale2 ,their ravelled buds1 and wrinkled cups unfold1 ,nod their green stems1 and wave their bells of gold2 ,breathe their soft sighs from each enchanted grove1 ,and hail ,,the ,,deities ,,of ,,sexual ,,love4 #daj ,,onward with march sublime in saffron robe ,young ,,hymen steps1 and traverses the globe2 ,o'er burning sands1 and snow-clad mountains1 treads1 ,blue fields of air1 and ocean's briny beds2 ,flings from his radiant torch celestial light ,o'er ,day's wide concave1 and illumes the ,night4 ,with dulcet eloquence his tuneful tongue ,convokes and captivates the ,fair and ,young2 ,his golden lamp with ray ethereal dyes ,the blushing cheek1 and lights the laughing eyes2 #dbj ,with secret flames the virgin's bosom warms1 ,and lights the impatient bridegroom to her arms2 ,with lovely life all ,nature's frame inspires1 ,and1 as they sink1 rekindles all her fires4 ,,vii4 ,now paused the beauteous ,teacher1 and awhile ,gazed on her train with sympathetic smile4 ',beware of ,love6 she cried1 ye ,nymphs1 and hear ',his twanging bowstring with alarmed ear2 ',fly the first whisper of the distant dart1 ',or shield with adamant the fluttering heart2 #dcj ',to secret shades1 ye ,virgin trains1 retire1 ',and in your bosoms guard the vestal fire4' --,the obedient ,beauties hear her words1 advised1 ,and bow with laugh repress'd1 and smile chastised4 ,footnote3 ,with laugh repress'd1 l4 #dcd4 ,the cause of the violent actions of laughter1 and of the difficulty of restraining them1 is a curious subject of inquiry4 ,when pain afflicts us1 which we cannot avoid1 we learn to relieve it by great voluntary exertions1 as in grinning1 holding the breath1 or screaming2 now the pleasurable sensation1 which excites laughter1 arises for a time so high as to change its name1 and become a painful one2 and we excite the convulsive motions of the respiratory muscles to relieve this pain4 ,we are however unwilling to lose the pleasure1 and presently put a stop to this exertion2 and immediately the pleasure recurs1 and again as instantly rises into pain4 ,which is further explained in ,zoonomia1 ,sect4 #cd4 #a4 #d4 ,when this pleasurable sensation rises into a painful one1 and the customs of society will not permit us to laugh aloud1 some other violent voluntary exertion is used instead of it to alleviate the pain4 ,footnote3 ,with smile chastised1 l4 #dcd4 ,the origin of the smile has generally been ascribed to inexplicable instinct1 but may be deduced from our early associations of actions and ideas4 ,in the act of sucking1 the lips of the infant are closed round the nipple of its mother1 till it has filled its stomach1 and the pleasure of digesting this grateful food succeeds2 then the sphincter of the mouth1 fatigued by the continued action of sucking1 is relaxed2 and the antagonist muscles of the face gently acting1 produce the smile of pleasure1 which is thus during our lives associated with gentle pleasure1 which is further explained in ,zoonomia1 ,sect4 #af4 #h4 #d4 ,now at her nod the ,nymphs attendant bring ,translucent water from the bubbling spring2 ,in crystal cups the waves salubrious shine1 ,unstain'd untainted with immodest wine4 ,next1 where emerging from its ancient roots ,its widening boughs the ,tree of ,knowledge shoots2 #ddj ,pluck'd with nice choice before the ,muse they placed ,the now no longer interdicted taste4 ,awhile they sit1 from higher cares released1 ,and pleased partake the intellectual feast4 ,of good and ill they spoke1 effect and cause1 ,celestial agencies1 and ,nature's laws4 ,so when angelic ,forms to ,syria sent ,sat in the cedar shade by ,,abraham',s tent2 ,a spacious bowl the admiring ,patriarch fills ,with dulcet water from the scanty rills2 #dej ,sweet fruits and kernels gathers from his hoard1 ,with milk and butter piles the plenteous board2 ,while on the heated hearth his ,consort bakes ,fine flour well kneaded in unleaven'd cakes4 ,the ,guests ethereal quaff the lucid flood1 ,smile on their hosts1 and taste terrestrial food2 ,and while from seraph-lips sweet converse springs1 ,lave their fair feet1 and close their silver wings4 ,,end ,,of ,,canto ,,ii4 ,,origin ,,of ,,society4 ,,canto ,,iii4 ,,progress ,,of ,,the ,,mind4 ,,contents4 ,i4 ,urania and the ,muse converse #a4 ,progress of the ,mind #db4 ,,ii4 ,the ,four sensorial powers of ,irritation1 ,sensation1 ,volition1 and ,association #ee4 ,some finer senses given to ,brutes #ic4 ,and ,armour #ajh4 ,finer ,organ of ,touch given to ,man #aba4 ,whence clear ideas of ,form #abe4 ,vision is the ,language of the ,touch #aca4 ,magic ,lantern #aci4 ,surprise1 ,novelty1 ,curiosity #ade4 ,passions1 ,vices #adi4 ,philanthropy #aei4 ,shrine of ,virtue #afj4 ,,iii4 ,ideal ,beauty from the ,female ,bosom #afc4 ,eros the ,god of ,sentimental ,love #agg4 ,young ,dione idolized by ,eros #ahf4 ,third chain of ,society #bjf4 ,,iv4 ,ideal ,beauty from curved ,lines #bjg4 ,taste for the ,beautiful #bbb4 ,taste for the ,sublime #bbc4 ,for poetic ,melancholy #bca4 ,for ,tragedy #bda4 ,for artless ,nature #bdg4 ,the ,genius of ,taste #bei4 ,v4 ,the ,senses easily form and repeat ideas #bfi4 ,imitation from clear ideas #bgi4 ,the ,senses imitate each other #bic4 ,in dancing #bie4 ,in drawing naked ,nymphs #bii4 ,in ,architecture1 as at ,st4 ,peter's at ,rome #cjc4 ,mimickry #cai4 ,,vi4 ,natural ,language from imitation #cce4 ,language of ,quails1 ,cocks1 ,lions1 ,boxers #cdc4 ,pantomime ,action #ceg4 ,verbal ,language from ,imitation and ,association #cfc4 ,symbols of ideas #cga4 ,gigantic form of ,time #che4 ,wings of ,hermes #cia4 ,,vii4 ,recollection from clear ideas #cie4 ,reason and ,volition #dja4 ,arts of the ,wasp1 ,bee1 ,spider1 ,wren1 ,silk-,worm #daa4 ,volition concerned about ,means or ,causes #dce4 ,man distinguished by ,language1 by using ,tools1 labouring for ,money1 praying to the ,deity #dch4 ,the ,tree of ,knowledge of ,good and ,evil #dde4 ,,viii4 ,emotions from ,imitation #dfa4 ,the ,seraph2 ,sympathy #dfg4 ,christian ,morality the great bond of ,society #dhc-dif4 ,,canto ,,iii4 ,,progress ,,of ,,the ,,mind4 ,i4 ,now rose1 adorn'd with ,beauty's brightest hues1 ,the graceful ,,hierophant1 and winged ,,muse2 ,onward they step around the stately piles1 ,o'er porcelain floors1 through laqueated ailes1 ,eye ,nature's lofty and her lowly seats1 ,her gorgeous palaces1 and green retreats1 ,pervade her labyrinths with unerring tread1 ,and leave for future guests a guiding thread4 ,first with fond gaze blue fields of air they sweep1 ,or pierce the briny chambers of the deep2 #aj ,earth's burning line1 and icy poles explore1 ,her fertile surface1 and her caves of ore2 ,or mark how ,oxygen with ,azote-,gas ,plays round the globe in one aerial mass1 ,or fused with ,hydrogen in ceaseless flow ,forms the wide waves1 which foam and roll below4 ,footnote3 ,how ,oxygen1 l4 #ac4 ,the atmosphere which surrounds us1 is composed of twenty-seven parts of oxygen gas and seventy-three of azote or nitrogen gas1 which are simply diffused together1 but which1 when combined1 become nitrous acid4 ,water consists of eighty-six parts oxygen1 and fourteen parts of hydrogen or inflammable air1 in a state of combination4 ,it is also probable1 that much oxygen enters the composition of glass2 as those materials which promote vitrification1 contain so much of it1 as minium and manganese2 and that glass is hence a solid acid in the temperature of our atmosphere1 as water is a fluid one4 ,next with illumined hands through prisms bright ,pleased they untwist the sevenfold threads of light2 ,or1 bent in pencils by the lens1 convey ,to one bright point the silver hairs of ,day4 #bj ,then mark how two electric streams conspire ,to form the resinous and vitreous fire2 ,beneath the waves the fierce ,gymnotus arm1 ,and give ,torpedo his benumbing charm2 ,or1 through ,galvanic chain-work as they pass1 ,convert the kindling water into gas4 ,footnote3 ,two electric streams1 l4 #ba4 ,it is the opinion of some philosophers1 that the electric ether consists of two kinds of fluids diffused together or combined2 which are commonly known by the terms of positive and negative electricity1 but are by these electricians called vitreous and resinous electricity4 ,the electric shocks given by the torpedo and by the gymnotus1 are supposed to be similar to those of the ,galvanic pile1 as they are produced in water4 ,which water is decomposed by the ,galvanic pile and converted into oxygen and hydrogen gas2 see ,additional ,note ,,xii4 ,the magnetic ether may also be supposed to consist of two fluids1 one of which attracts the needle1 and the other repels it2 and1 perhaps1 chemical affinities1 and gravitation itself1 may consist of two kinds of ether surrounding the particles of bodies1 and may thence attract at one distance and repel at another2 as appears when two insulated electrised balls are approached to each other1 or when two small globules of mercury are pressed together4 ,how at the poles opposing ,ethers dwell1 ,attract the quivering needle1 or repel4 ,how ,gravitation by immortal laws ,surrounding matter to a centre draws2 #cj ,how ,heat1 pervading oceans1 airs1 and lands1 ,with force uncheck'd the mighty mass expands2 ,and last how born in elemental strife ,beam'd the first spark1 and lighten'd into ,life4 ,now in sweet tones the inquiring ,muse express'd ,her ardent wish2 and thus the ,fair address'd4 ,priestess of ,nature6 whose exploring sight ,pierces the realms of ,chaos and of ,night2 ,of space unmeasured marks the first and last1 ,of endless time the present1 future1 past2 #dj ,immortal ,guide6 ,o1 now with accents kind ,give to my ear the progress of the ,mind4 ,how loves1 and tastes1 and sympathies commence ,from evanescent notices of sense8 ,how from the yielding touch and rolling eyes ,the piles immense of human science rise8-- ,with mind gigantic steps the puny ,elf1 ,and weighs and measures all things but himself6 ,the indulgent ,beauty hears the grateful ,muse1 ,smiles on her pupil1 and her task renews4 #ej ,attentive ,nymphs in sparkling squadrons throng1 ,and choral ,virgins listen to the song2 ,pleased ,fawns and ,naiads crowd in silent rings1 ,and hovering ,cupids stretch their purple wings4 ,,ii4 ,,first the new actions of the excited sense1 ,urged by appulses from without1 commence2 ,with these exertions pain or pleasure springs1 ,and forms perceptions of external things4 ,thus1 when illumined by the solar beams1 ,yon waving woods1 green lawns1 and sparkling streams1 ,in one bright point by rays converging lie #fa ,plann'd on the moving tablet of the eye2 ,the mind obeys the silver goads of light1 ,and ,,irritation moves the nerves of sight4 ,footnote3 ,and ,irritation moves1 l4 #fd4 ,irritation is an exertion or change of some extreme part of the sensorium residing in the muscles or organs of sense in consequence of the appulses of external bodies4 ,the word perception includes both the action of the organ of sense in consequence of the impact of external objects and our attention to that action2 that is1 it expresses both the motion of the organ of sense1 or idea1 and the pain or pleasure that succeeds or accompanies it4 ,irritative ideas are those which are preceded by irritation1 which is excited by objects external to the organs of sense3 as the idea of that tree1 which either ,i attend to1 or which ,i shun in walking near it without attention4 ,in the former case it is termed perception1 in the latter it is termed simply an irritative idea4 ,these acts repeated rise from joys or pains1 ,and swell ,imagination's flowing trains2 ,so in dread dreams amid the silent night ,grim spectre-forms the shuddering sense affright2 ,or ,beauty's idol-image1 as it moves1 ,charms the closed eye with graces1 smiles1 and loves2 #gj ,each passing form the pausing heart delights1 ,and young ,,sensation every nerve excites4 ,footnote3 ,and young ,sensation1 l4 #gb4 ,sensation is an exertion or change of the central parts of the sensorium or of the whole of it1 beginning at some of those extreme parts of it which reside in the muscles or organs of sense4 ,sensitive ideas are those which are preceded by the sensation of pleasure or pain1 are termed ,imagination1 and constitute our dreams and reveries4 ,oft from sensation quick ,,volition springs1 ,when pleasure thrills us1 or when anguish stings2 ,hence ,recollection calls with voice sublime ,immersed ideas from the wrecks of ,time1 ,with potent charm in lucid trains displays ,eventful stories of forgotten days4 ,hence ,reason's efforts good with ill contrast1 ,compare the present1 future1 and the past2 #hj ,each passing moment1 unobserved restrain ,the wild discordancies of ,fancy's train2 ,but leave uncheck'd the ,night's ideal streams1 ,or1 sacred ,muses6 your meridian dreams4 ,footnote3 ,quick ,volition springs1 l4 #gc4 ,volition is an exertion or change of the central parts of the sensorium1 or of the whole of it terminating in some of those extreme parts of it which reside in the muscles and organs of sense4 ,the vulgar use of the word memory is too unlimited for our purpose3 those ideas which we voluntarily recall are here termed ideas of recollection1 as when we will to repeat the alphabet backwards4 ,and those ideas which are suggested to us by preceding ideas are here termed ideas of suggestion1 as whilst we repeat the alphabet in the usual order2 when by habits previously acquired ,b is suggested by ,a1 and ,c by ,b1 without any effort of deliberation4 ,reasoning is that operation of the sensorium by which we excite two or many tribes of ideas1 and then reexcite the ideas in which they differ or correspond4 ,if we determine this difference1 it is called judgment2 if we in vain endeavour to determine it1 it is called doubting4 ,if we reexcite the ideas in which they differ1 it is called distinguishing4 ,if we reexcite those in which they correspond1 it is called comparing4 ,footnote3 ,each passing moment1 l4 #ha4 ,during our waking hours1 we perpetually compare the passing trains of our ideas with the known system of nature1 and reject those which are incongruous with it2 this is explained in ,zoonomia1 ,sect4 ,,xvii4 #c4 #g4 and is there termed ,intuitive ,analogy4 ,when we sleep1 the faculty of volition ceases to act1 and in consequence the uncompared trains of ideas become incongruous and form the farrago of our dreams2 in which we never experience any surprise1 or sense of novelty4 ,and last ,suggestion's mystic power describes ,ideal hosts arranged in trains or tribes4 ,so when the ,nymph with volant finger rings ,her dulcet harp1 and shakes the sounding strings2 ,as with soft voice she trills the enamour'd song1 ,successive notes1 unwill'd1 the strain prolong2 #ij ,the transient trains ,,association steers1 ,and sweet vibrations charm the astonish'd ears4 ,footnote3 ,association steers1 l4 #ia4 ,association is an exertion or change of some extreme part of the sensorium residing in the muscles and organs of sense in consequence of some antecedent or attendant fibrous contractions4 ,associate ideas1 therefore1 are those which are preceded by other ideas or muscular motions1 without the intervention of irritation1 sensation1 or volition between them2 these are also termed ideas of suggestion4 ,,on rapid feet o'er hills1 and plains1 and rocks1 ,speed the scared leveret and rapacious fox2 ,on rapid pinions cleave the fields above ,the hawk descending1 and escaping dove2 ,with nicer nostril track the tainted ground ,the hungry vulture1 and the prowling hound2 ,converge reflected light with nicer eye ,the midnight owl1 and microscopic fly2 #ajj ,with finer ear pursue their nightly course ,the listening lion1 and the alarmed horse4 ,the branching forehead with diverging horns ,crests the bold bull1 the jealous stag adorns2 ,fierce rival boars with side-long fury wield ,the pointed tusk1 and guard with shoulder-shield2 ,bounds the dread tiger o'er the affrighted heath ,arm'd with sharp talons1 and resistless teeth2 ,the pouncing eagle bears in clinched claws ,the struggling lamb1 and rends with ivory jaws2 #aaj ,the tropic eel1 electric in his ire1 ,alarms the waves with unextinguish'd fire2 ,the fly of night illumes his airy way1 ,and seeks with lucid lamp his sleeping prey2 ,fierce on his foe the poisoning serpent springs1 ,and insect armies dart their venom'd stings4 ,footnote3 ,the branching forehead1 l4 #ajc4 ,the peculiarities of the shapes of animals which distinguish them from each other1 are enumerated in ,zoonomia1 ,sect4 ,,xxxix4 #d4 #h4 on ,generation1 and are believed to have been gradually formed from similar living fibres1 and are varied by reproduction4 ,many of these parts of animals are there shown to have arisen from their three great desires of lust1 hunger1 and security4 ,footnote3 ,the tropic eel1 l4 #aaa4 ,gymnotus electricus4 ,footnote3 ,the fly of night1 l4 #aac4 ,lampyris noctiluca4 ,fire-fly4 ,proud ,man alone in wailing weakness born1 ,no horns protect him1 and no plumes adorn2 ,no finer powers of nostril1 ear1 or eye1 ,teach the young ,reasoner to pursue or fly4-- #abj ,nerved with fine touch above the bestial throngs1 ,the hand1 first gift of ,heaven6 to man belongs2 ,untipt with claws the circling fingers close1 ,with rival points the bending thumbs oppose1 ,trace the nice lines of ,form with sense refined1 ,and clear ideas charm the thinking mind4 ,whence the fine organs of the touch impart ,ideal figure1 source of every art2 ,time1 motion1 number1 sunshine or the storm1 ,but mark varieties in ,nature's form4 #acj ,footnote3 ,the hand1 first gift of ,heaven1 l4 #abb4 ,the human species in some of their sensations are much inferior to animals1 yet the accuracy of the sense of touch1 which they possess in so eminent a degree1 gives them a great superiority of understanding2 as is well observed by the ingenious ,mr4 ,buffon4 ,the extremities of other animals terminate in horns1 and hoofs1 and claws1 very unfit for the sensation of touch2 whilst the human hand is finely adapted to encompass its object with this organ of sense4 ,those animals who have clavicles or collar-bones1 and thence use their forefeet like hands1 as cats1 squirrels1 monkeys1 are more ingenious than other quadrupeds1 except the elephant1 who has a fine sense at the extremity of his proboscis2 and many insects from the possessing finer organs of touch have greater ingenuity1 as spiders1 bees1 wasps4 ,footnote3 ,trace the nice lines of form1 l4 #abe4 ,when the idea of solidity is excited a part of the extensive organ of touch is compressed by some external body1 and this part of the sensorium so compressed exactly resembles in figure the figure of the body that compressed it4 ,hence when we acquire the idea of solidity1 we acquire at the same time the idea of figure2 and this idea of figure1 or motion of a part of the organ of touch1 exactly resembles in its figure the figure of the body that occasions it2 and thus exactly acquaints us with this property of the external world4 ,now1 as the whole universe with all its parts possesses a certain form or figure1 if any part of it moves1 that form or figure of the whole is varied4 ,hence1 as motion is no other than a perpetual variation of figure1 our idea of motion is also a real resemblance of the motion that produced it4 ,hence arises the certainty of the mathematical sciences1 as they explain these properties of bodies1 which are exactly resembled by our ideas of them1 whilst we are obliged to collect almost all our other knowledge from experiment2 that is1 by observing the effects exerted by one body upon another4 ,slow could the tangent organ wander o'er ,the rock-built mountain1 and the winding shore2 ,no apt ideas could the pigmy mite1 ,or embryon emmet to the touch excite2 ,but as each mass the solar ray reflects1 ,the eye's clear glass the transient beams collects2 ,bends to their focal point the rays that swerve1 ,and paints the living image on the nerve4 ,so in some village-barn1 or festive hall ,the spheric lens illumes the whiten'd wall2 #adj ,o'er the bright field successive figures fleet1 ,and motley shadows dance along the sheet4-- ,symbol of solid forms is colour'd light1 ,and the mute language of the touch is sight4 ,footnote3 ,the mute language of the touch1 l4 #add4 ,our eyes observe a difference of colour1 or of shade1 in the prominences and depressions of objects1 and that those shades uniformly vary when the sense of touch observes any variation4 ,hence when the retina becomes stimulated by colours or shades of light in a certain form1 as in a circular spot1 we know by experience that this is a sign that a tangible body is before us2 and that its figure is resembled by the miniature figure of the part of the organ of vision that is thus stimulated4 ,here whilst the stimulated part of the retina resembles exactly the visible figure of the whole in miniature1 the various kinds of stimuli from different colours mark the visible figures of the minuter parts2 and by habit we instantly recall the tangible figures4 ,so that though our visible ideas resemble in miniature the outline of the figure of coloured bodies1 in other respects they serve only as a language1 which by acquired associations introduce the tangible ideas of bodies4 ,hence it is1 that this sense is so readily deceived by the art of the painter to our amusement and instruction4 ,the reader will find much very curious knowledge on this subject in ,bishop ,berkeley's ,essay on ,vision1 a work of great ingenuity4 ,,hence in ,life's portico starts young ,surprise ,with step retreating1 and expanded eyes2 ,the virgin1 ,novelty1 whose radiant train ,soars o'er the clouds1 or sinks beneath the main1 ,with sweetly-mutable seductive charms ,thrills the young sense1 the tender heart alarms4 #aej ,then ,curiosity with tracing hands ,and meeting lips the lines of form demands1 ,buoy'd on light step1 o'er ocean1 earth1 and sky1 ,rolls the bright mirror of her restless eye4 ,while in wild groups tumultuous ,passions stand1 ,and ,lust and ,hunger head the ,motley band2 ,then ,love and ,rage succeed1 and ,hope and ,fear2 ,and nameless ,vices close the gloomy rear2 ,or young ,philanthropy with voice divine ,convokes the adoring ,youth to ,virtue's shrine2 #afj ,who with raised eye and pointing finger leads ,to truths celestial1 and immortal deeds4 ,footnote3 ,starts young ,surprise1 l4 #ade4 ,surprise is occasioned by the sudden interruption of the usual trains of our ideas by any violent stimulus from external objects1 as from the unexpected discharge of a pistol1 and hence does not exist in our dreams1 because our external senses are closed or inirritable4 ,the fetus in the womb must experience many sensations1 as of resistance1 figure1 fluidity1 warmth1 motion1 rest1 exertion1 taste2 and must consequently possess trains both of waking and sleeping ideas4 ,surprise must therefore be strongly excited at its nativity1 as those trains of ideas must instantly be dissevered by the sudden and violent sensations occasioned by the dry and cold atmosphere1 the hardness of external bodies1 light1 sound1 and odours2 which are accompanied with pleasure or pain according to their quantity or intensity4 ,as some of these sensations become familiar by repetition1 other objects not previously attended to present themselves1 and produce the idea of novelty1 which is a less degree of surprise1 and like that is not perceived in our dreams1 though for another reason2 because in sleep we possess no voluntary power to compare our trains of ideas with our previous knowledge of nature1 and do not therefore perceive their difference by intuitive analogy from what usually occurs4 ,as the novelty of our ideas is generally attended with pleasurable sensation1 from this arises ,curiosity1 or a desire of examining a variety of objects1 hoping to find novelty1 and the pleasure consequent to this degree of surprise2 see ,additional ,note ,,vii4 #c4 ,footnote3 ,and meeting lips1 l4 #aeb4 ,young children put small bodies into their mouths1 when they are satiated with food1 as well as when they are hungry1 not with design to taste them1 but use their lips as an organ of touch to distinguish the shape of them4 ,puppies1 whose toes are terminated with nails1 and who do not much use their forefeet as hands1 seem to have no other means of acquiring a knowledge of the forms of external bodies1 and are therefore perpetually playing with things by taking them between their lips4 ,,iii4 ,as the pure language of the ,sight commands ,the clear ideas furnish'd by the hands2 ,beauty's fine forms attract our wondering eyes1 ,and soft alarms the pausing heart surprise4 ,warm from its cell the tender infant born ,feels the cold chill of ,life's aerial morn2 ,seeks with spread hands the bosoms velvet orbs1 ,with closing lips the milky fount absorbs2 #agj ,and1 as compress'd the dulcet streams distil1 ,drinks warmth and fragrance from the living rill2 ,eyes with mute rapture every waving line1 ,prints with adoring kiss the ,paphian shrine1 ,and learns erelong1 the perfect form confess'd1 ,,ideal ,,beauty from its ,mother's breast4 ,footnote3 ,seeks with spread hands1 l4 #afi4 ,these eight beautiful lines are copied from ,mr4 ,bilsborrow's ,address prefixed to ,zoonomia1 and are translated from that work2 ,sect4 ,,xvi4 #f4 ,footnote3 ,ideal ,beauty1 l4 #agf4 ,sentimental ,love1 as distinguished from the animal passion of that name1 with which it is frequently accompanied1 consists in the desire or sensation of beholding1 embracing1 and saluting a beautiful object4 ,the characteristic of beauty therefore is that it is the object of love2 and though many other objects are in common language called beautiful1 yet they are only called so metaphorically1 and ought to be termed agreeable4 ,a ,grecian temple may give us the pleasurable idea of sublimity1 a ,gothic temple may give us the pleasurable idea of variety1 and a modern house the pleasurable idea of utility2 music and poetry may inspire our love by association of ideas2 but none of these1 except metaphorically1 can be termed beautiful1 as we have no wish to embrace or salute them4 ,our perception of beauty consists in our recognition by the sense of vision of those objects1 first1 which have before inspired our love by the pleasure1 which they have afforded to many of our senses2 as to our sense of warmth1 of touch1 of smell1 of taste1 hunger and thirst2 and1 secondly1 which bear any analogy of form to such objects4 ,now on swift wheels descending like a star ,alights young ,,eros from his radiant car2 ,on angel-wings attendant ,graces move1 ,and hail the ,god of ,,sentimental ,,love4 #ahj ,earth at his feet extends her flowery bed1 ,and bends her silver blossoms round his head2 ,dark clouds dissolve1 the warring winds subside4 ,and smiling ocean calms his tossing tide1 ,o'er the bright morn meridian lustres play1 ,and ,heaven salutes him with a flood of day4 ,footnote3 ,alights young ,eros1 l4 #agh4 ,there were two deities of ,love belonging to the heathen mythology1 the one said to be celestial1 and the other terrestrial4 ,aristophanes says1 ,sable-winged ,night produced an egg1 from which sprung up like a blossom ,eros1 the lovely1 the desirable1 with his glossy golden wings4 ,see ,botanic ,garden1 ,canto ,i4 l4 #dab4 ,note4 ,the other deity of ,love1 ,cupido1 seems of much later date1 as he is not mentioned in the works of ,homer1 where there were so many apt situations to have introduced him4 ,footnote3 ,earth at his feet1 l4 #aha4 ,te1 ,dea1 te fugiunt venti1 te nubila coeli1 ,adventumque tuum2 tibi suaves daedala tellus ,submittit flores2 tibi rident aequora ponti2 ,placatumque nitet diffuso lumine coelum4 ,,lucret4 ,warm as the sun-beam1 pure as driven snows1 ,the enamour'd ,,god for young ,,dione glows2 ,drops the still tear1 with sweet attention sighs1 ,and woos the ,goddess with adoring eyes2 #aij ,marks her white neck beneath the gauze's fold1 ,her ivory shoulders1 and her locks of gold2 ,drinks with mute ecstacy the transient glow1 ,which warms and tints her bosom's rising snow4 ,with holy kisses wanders o'er her charms1 ,and clasps the ,beauty in ,platonic arms2 ,or if the dewy hands of ,sleep1 unbid1 ,o'er her blue eye-balls close the lovely lid1 ,watches each nascent smile1 and fleeting grace1 ,that plays in day-dreams o'er her blushing face2 #bjj ,counts the fine mazes of the curls1 that break ,round her fair ear1 and shade her damask cheek2 ,drinks the pure fragrance of her breath1 and sips ,with tenderest touch the roses of her lips2-- ,o'er female hearts with chaste seduction reigns1 ,and binds ,,society in silken chains4 ,,iv4 ,,if the wide eye the wavy lawns explores1 ,the bending woodlands1 or the winding shores1 ,hills1 whose green sides with soft protuberance rise1 ,or the blue concave of the vaulted skies2-- #baj ,or scans with nicer gaze the pearly swell ,of spiral volutes round the twisted shell2 ,or undulating sweep1 whose graceful turns ,bound the smooth surface of ,etrurian urns1 ,when on fine forms the waving lines impress'd ,give the nice curves1 which swell the female breast2 ,the countless joys the tender ,mother pours ,round the soft cradle of our infant hours1 ,in lively trains of unextinct delight ,rise in our bosoms recognized by sight2 #bbj ,fond ,fancy's eye recalls the form divine1 ,and ,,taste sits smiling upon ,beauty's shrine4 ,footnote3 ,the wavy lawns1 l4 #bjg4 ,when the babe1 soon after it is born into this cold world1 is applied to its mother's bosom2 its sense of perceiving warmth is first agreeably affected2 next its sense of smell is delighted with the odour of her milk2 then its taste is gratified by the flavour of it2 afterwards the appetites of hunger and of thirst afford pleasure by the possession of their objects1 and by the subsequent digestion of the aliment2 and lastly1 the sense of touch is delighted by the softness and smoothness of the milky fountain1 the source of such variety of happiness4 ,all these various kinds of pleasure at length become associated with the form of the mother's breast2 which the infant embraces with its hands1 presses with its lips1 and watches with its eyes2 and thus acquires more accurate ideas of the form of its mother's bosom1 than of the odour and flavour or warmth1 which it perceives by its other senses4 ,and hence at our maturer years1 when any object of vision is presented to us1 which by its waving or spiral lines bears any similitude to the form of the female bosom1 whether it be found in a landscape with soft gradations of rising and descending surface1 or in the forms of some antique vases1 or in other works of the pencil or the chisel1 we feel a general glow of delight1 which seems to influence all our senses2 and if the object be not too large1 we experience an attraction to embrace it with our arms1 and to salute it with our lips1 as we did in our early infancy the bosom of our mother4 ,and thus we find1 according to the ingenious idea of ,hogarth1 that the waving lines of beauty were originally taken from the temple of ,venus4 ,where ,egypt's pyramids gigantic stand1 ,and stretch their shadows o'er the shuddering sand2 ,or where high rocks o'er ocean's dashing floods ,wave high in air their panoply of woods2 ,admiring ,,taste delights to stray beneath ,with eye uplifted1 and forgets to breathe2 ,or1 as aloft his daring footsteps climb1 ,crests their high summits with his arm sublime4 #bcj ,footnote3 ,with his arm sublime1 l4 #bcj4 ,objects of taste have been generally divided into the beautiful1 the sublime1 and the new2 and lately to these have been added the picturesque4 ,the beautiful so well explained in ,hogarth's analysis of beauty1 consists of curved lines and smooth surfaces1 as expressed in the preceding note2 any object larger than usual1 as a very large temple or a very large mountain1 gives us the idea of sublimity2 with which is often confounded the terrific1 and the melancholic3 what is now termed picturesque includes objects1 which are principally neither sublime nor beautiful1 but which by their variety and intricacy joined with a due degree of regularity or uniformity convey to the mind an agreeable sentiment of novelty4 ,many other agreeable sentiments may be excited by visible objects1 thus to the sublime and beautiful may be added the terrific1 tragic1 melancholic1 artless1 c4 while novelty superinduces a charm upon them all4 ,see ,additional ,note ,,xiii4 ,where mouldering columns mark the lingering wreck ,of ,thebes1 ,palmyra1 ,babylon1 ,balbec2 ,the prostrate obelisk1 or shatter'd dome1 ,uprooted pedestal1 and yawning tomb1 ,on loitering steps reflective ,,taste surveys ,with folded arms and sympathetic gaze2 ,charm'd with poetic ,melancholy treads ,o'er ruin'd towns and desolated meads2 ,or rides sublime on ,time's expanded wings1 ,and views the fate of ever-changing things4 #bdj ,footnote3 ,poetic melancholy treads1 l4 #bcg4 ,the pleasure arising from the contemplation of the ruins of ancient grandeur or of ancient happiness1 and here termed poetic melancholy1 arises from a combination of the painful idea of sorrow with the pleasurable idea of the grandeur or happiness of past times2 and becomes very interesting to us by fixing our attention more strongly on that grandeur and happiness1 as the passion of ,pity mentioned in the succeeding note is a combination of the painful idea of sorrow with the pleasurable one of beauty1 or of virtue4 ,when ,beauty's streaming eyes her woes express1 ,or ,virtue braves unmerited distress2 ,love sighs in sympathy1 with pain combined1 ,and new-born ,pity charms the kindred mind2 ,the enamour'd ,sorrow every cheek bedews1 ,and ,,taste impassion'd woos the tragic ,muse4 ,footnote3 ,the tragic ,muse1 l4 #bdf4 ,why we are delighted with the scenical representations of ,tragedy1 which draw tears from our eyes1 has been variously explained by different writers4 ,the same distressful circumstance attending an ugly or wicked person affects us with grief or disgust2 but when distress occurs to a beauteous or virtuous person1 the pleasurable idea of beauty or of virtue becomes mixed with the painful one of sorrow and the passion of ,pity is produced1 which is a combination of love or esteem with sorrow2 and becomes highly interesting to us by fixing our attention more intensely on the beauteous or virtuous person4 ,other distressful scenes have been supposed to give pleasure to the spectator from exciting a comparative idea of his own happiness1 as when a shipwreck is viewed by a person safe on shore1 as mentioned by ,lucretius1 ,l4 #c4 ,but these dreadful situations belong rather to the terrible1 or the horrid1 than to the tragic2 and may be objects of curiosity from their novelty1 but not of ,taste1 and must suggest much more pain than pleasure4 ,the rush-thatch'd cottage on the purple moor1 ,where ruddy children frolic round the door1 ,the moss-grown antlers of the aged oak1 ,the shaggy locks that fringe the colt unbroke1 #bej ,the bearded goat with nimble eyes1 that glare ,through the long tissue of his hoary hair2-- ,as with quick foot he climbs some ruin'd wall1 ,and crops the ivy1 which prevents its fall2-- ,with rural charms the tranquil mind delight1 ,and form a picture to the admiring sight4 ,while ,,taste with pleasure bends his eye surprised ,in modern days at ,nature unchastised4 ,footnote3 ,nature unchastised1 l4 #beh4 ,in cities or their vicinity1 and even in the cultivated parts of the country we rarely see undisguised nature2 the fields are ploughed1 the meadows mown1 the shrubs planted in rows for hedges1 the trees deprived of their lower branches1 and the animals1 as horses1 dogs1 and sheep1 are mutilated in respect to their tails or ears2 such is the useful or ill-employed activity of mankind6 all which alterations add to the formality of the soil1 plants1 trees1 or animals2 whence when natural objects are occasionally presented to us1 as an uncultivated forest and its wild inhabitants1 we are not only amused with greater variety of form1 but are at the same time enchanted by the charm of novelty1 which is a less degree of ,surprise1 already spoken of in note on l4 #ade of this ,canto4 ,the ,,genius-,,form1 on silver slippers born1 ,with fairer dew-drops gems the rising morn2 #bfj ,sheds o'er meridian skies a softer light1 ,and decks with brighter pearls the brow of night2 ,with finer blush the vernal blossom glows1 ,with sweeter breath enamour'd ,zephyr blows1 ,the limpid streams with gentler murmurs pass1 ,and gayer colours tinge the watery glass1 ,charm'd round his steps along the enchanted groves ,flit the fine forms of ,beauties1 ,graces1 ,loves4 ,v4 ,alive1 each moment of the transient hour1 ,when ,rest accumulates sensorial power1 #bgj ,the impatient ,senses1 goaded to contract1 ,forge new ideas1 changing as they act2 ,and1 in long streams dissever'd1 or concrete ,in countless tribes1 the fleeting forms repeat4 ,which rise excited in ,volition's trains1 ,or link the sparkling rings of ,fancy's chains2 ,or1 as they flow from each translucent source1 ,pursue ,association's endless course4 ,footnote3 ,when rest accumulates1 l4 #bgj4 ,the accumulation of the spirit of animation1 when those parts of the system rest1 which are usually in motion1 produces a disagreeable sensation4 ,whence the pain of cold and of hunger1 and the irksomeness of a continued attitude1 and of an indolent life3 and hence the propensity to action in those confined animals1 which have been accustomed to activity1 as is seen in the motions of a squirrel in a cage2 which uses perpetual exertion to exhaust a part of its accumulated sensorial power4 ,this is one source of our general propensity to action2 another perhaps arises from our curiosity or expectation of novelty mentioned in the note on l4 #ade4 of this canto4 ,but the immediate cause of our propensity to imitation above that of other animals arises from the greater facility1 with which by the sense of touch we acquire the ideas of the outlines of objects1 and afterwards in consequence by the sense of sight2 this seems to have been observed by ,aristotle1 who calls man1 the imitative animal2 see ,zoonomia1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,sect4 ,,xxii4 ,hence when the inquiring hands with contact fine ,trace on hard forms the circumscribing line2 #bhj ,which then the language of the rolling eyes ,from distant scenes of earth and heaven supplies2 ,those clear ideas of the touch and sight ,rouse the quick sense to anguish or delight2 ,whence the fine power of ,,imitation springs1 ,and apes the outlines of external things2 ,with ceaseless action to the world imparts ,all moral virtues1 languages1 and arts4 ,first the charm'd ,mind mechanic powers collects1 ,means for some end1 and causes of effects2 #bij ,then learns from other ,minds their joys and fears1 ,contagious smiles and sympathetic tears4 ,footnote3 ,all moral virtues1 l4 #bhh4 ,see the sequel of this canto l4 #dec on sympathy2 and l4 #cca on language2 and the subsequent lines on the arts of painting and architecture4 ,what one fine stimulated ,sense discerns1 ,another ,sense by ,,imitation learns4-- ,so in the graceful dance the step sublime ,learns from the ear the concordance of ,time4 ,so1 when the pen of some young artist prints ,recumbent ,nymphs in ,,titian',s living tints2 ,the glowing limb1 fair cheek1 and flowing hair1 ,respiring bosom1 and seductive air1 #cjj ,he justly copies with enamour'd sigh ,from ,beauty's image pictured on his eye4 ,footnote3 ,another sense1 l4 #bid4 ,as the part of the organs of touch or of sight1 which is stimulated into action by a tangible or visible object1 must resemble in figure at least the figure of that object1 as it thus constitutes an idea2 it may be said to imitate the figure of that object2 and thus imitation may be esteemed coeval with the existence both of man and other animals3 but this would confound perception with imitation2 which latter is better defined from the actions of one sense copying those of another4 ,thus when great ,,angelo in wondering ,rome ,fix'd the vast pillars of ,saint ,peter's dome1 ,rear'd rocks on rocks sublime1 and hung on high ,a new ,pantheon in the affrighted sky4 ,each massy pier1 now join'd and now aloof1 ,the figured architraves1 and vaulted roof1 ,ailes1 whose broad curves gigantic ribs sustain1 ,where holy echoes chant the adoring strain2 #caj ,the central altar1 sacred to the ,lord1 ,admired by ,sages1 and by ,saints ador'd1 ,whose brazen canopy ascends sublime ,on spiral columns unafraid of ,time1 ,were first by ,fancy in ethereal dyes ,plann'd on the rolling tablets of his eyes2 ,and his true hand with imitation fine ,traced from his ,retina the grand design4 ,footnote3 ,thus when great ,angelo1 l4 #cjc4 ,the origin of this propensity to imitation has not been deduced from any known principle2 when any action presents itself to the view of a child1 as of whetting a knife1 or threading a needle2 the parts of this action in respect of time1 motion1 figure1 are imitated by parts of the retina of his eye2 to perform this action therefore with his hands is easier to him than to invent any new action2 because it consists in repeating with another set of fibres1 viz4 with the moving muscles1 what he had just performed by some parts of the retina2 just as in dancing we transfer the times of the motions from the actions of the auditory nerves to the muscles of the limbs4 ,imitation therefore consists of repetition1 which is the easiest kind of animal action2 as the ideas or motions become presently associated together2 which adds to the facility of their production2 as shown in ,zoonomia1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,sect4 ,,xxii4 #b4 ,it should be added1 that as our ideas1 when we perceive external objects1 are believed to consist in the actions of the immediate organs of sense in consequence of the stimulus of those objects2 so when we think of external objects1 our ideas are believed to consist in the repetitions of the actions of the immediate organs of sense1 excited by the other sensorial powers of volition1 sensation1 or association4 ,the ,muse of ,,mimicry in every age ,with silent language charms the attentive stage2 #cbj ,the ,monarch's stately step1 and tragic pause1 ,the ,hero bleeding in his country's cause1 ,o'er her fond child the dying ,mother's tears1 ,the ,lover's ardor1 and the ,virgin's fears2 ,the tittering ,nymph1 that tries her comic task1 ,bounds on the scene1 and peeps behind her mask1 ,the ,punch and ,harlequin1 and graver throng1 ,that shake the theatre with dance and song1 ,with endless trains of ,angers1 ,loves1 and ,mirths1 ,owe to the ,muse of ,mimicry their births4 #ccj ,footnote3 ,the ,muse of ,mimicry1 l4 #cai4 ,much of the pleasure received from the drawings of flowers finely finished1 or of portraits1 is derived from their imitation or resemblance of the objects or persons which they represent4 ,the same occurs in the pleasure we receive from mimicry on the stage2 we are surprised at the accuracy of its enacted resemblance4 ,some part of the pleasure received from architecture1 as when we contemplate the internal structure of gothic temples1 as of ,king's ,college chapel in ,cambridge1 or of ,lincoln ,cathedral1 may arise also from their imitation or resemblance of those superb avenues of large trees1 which were formerly appropriated to religious ceremonies4 ,hence to clear images of form belong ,the sculptor's statue1 and the poet's song1 ,the painter's landscape1 and the builder's plan1 ,and ,,imitation marks the mind of ,man4 ,footnote3 ,imitation marks1 l4 #ccd4 ,many other curious instances of one part of the animal system imitating another part of it1 as in some contagious diseases2 and also of some animals imitating each other1 are given in ,zoonomia1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,sect4 ,,xxii4 #c4 ,to which may be added1 that this propensity to imitation not only appears in the actions of children1 but in all the customs and fashions of the world2 many thousands tread in the beaten paths of others1 who precede or accompany them1 for one who traverses regions of his own discovery4 ,,vi4 ,,when strong desires or soft sensations move ,the astonish'd ,intellect to rage or love2 ,associate tribes of fibrous motions rise1 ,flush the red cheek1 or light the laughing eyes4 ,whence ever-active ,imitation finds ,the ideal trains1 that pass in kindred minds2 #cdj ,her mimic arts associate thoughts excite ,and the first ,,language enters at the sight4 ,footnote3 ,and the first ,language1 l4 #cdb4 ,there are two ways by which we become acquainted with the passions of others3 first1 by having observed the effects of them1 as of fear or anger1 on our own bodies1 we know at sight when others are under the influence of these affections4 ,so children long before they can speak1 or understand the language of their parents1 may be frightened by an angry countenance1 or soothed by smiles and blandishments4 ,secondly1 when we put ourselves into the attitude that any passion naturally occasions1 we soon in some degree acquire that passion2 hence when those that scold indulge themselves in loud oaths and violent actions of the arms1 they increase their anger by the mode of expressing themselves2 and1 on the contrary1 the counterfeited smile of pleasure in disagreeable company soon brings along with it a portion of the reality1 as is well illustrated by ,mr4 ,burke4 7,essay on the ,sublime and ,beautiful47 ,these are natural signs by which we understand each other1 and on this slender basis is built all human language4 ,for without some natural signs no artificial ones could have been invented or understood1 as is very ingeniously observed by ,dr4 ,reid4 7,inquiry into the ,human ,mind47 ,thus jealous quails or village-cocks inspect ,each other's necks with stiffen'd plumes erect2 ,smit with the wordless eloquence1 they know ,the rival passion of the threatening foe4 ,so when the famish'd wolves at midnight howl1 ,fell serpents hiss1 or fierce hyenas growl2 ,indignant ,lions rear their bristling mail1 ,and lash their sides with undulating tail4 #cej ,or when the ,savage-,man with clenched fist ,parades1 the scowling champion of the list2 ,with brandish'd arms1 and eyes that roll to know ,where first to fix the meditated blow2 ,association's mystic power combines ,internal passions with external signs4 ,from these dumb gestures first the exchange began ,of viewless thought in bird1 and beast1 and man2 ,and still the stage by mimic art displays ,historic pantomime in modern days2 #cfj ,and hence the enthusiast orator affords ,force to the feebler eloquence of words4 ,thus the first ,,language1 when we frown'd or smiled1 ,rose from the cradle1 ,imitation's child2 ,next to each thought associate sound accords1 ,and forms the dulcet symphony of words2 ,the tongue1 the lips articulate2 the throat ,with soft vibration modulates the note2 ,love1 pity1 war1 the shout1 the song1 the prayer ,form quick concussions of elastic air4 #cgj ,hence the first accents bear in airy rings ,the vocal symbols of ideal things1 ,name each nice change appulsive powers supply ,to the quick sense of touch1 or ear or eye4 ,or in fine traits abstracted forms suggest ,of ,beauty1 ,wisdom1 ,number1 ,motion1 ,rest2 ,or1 as within reflex ideas move1 ,trace the light steps of ,reason1 ,rage1 or ,love4 ,the next new sounds adjunctive thoughts recite1 ,as hard1 odorous1 tuneful1 sweet1 or white4 #chj ,the next the fleeting images select ,of action1 suffering1 causes and effect2 ,or mark existence1 with the march sublime ,o'er earth and ocean of recording ,,time4 ,footnote3 ,hence the first accents1 l4 #cga4 ,words were originally the signs or names of individual ideas2 but in all known languages many of them by changing their terminations express more than one idea1 as in the cases of nouns1 and the moods and tenses of verbs4 ,thus a whip suggests a single idea of that instrument2 but to whip1 suggests an idea of action1 joined with that of the instrument1 and is then called a verb2 and to be whipped1 suggests an idea of being acted upon or suffering4 ,thus in most languages two ideas are suggested by one word by changing its termination2 as amor1 love2 amare1 to love2 amari1 to be loved4 ,nouns are the names of the ideas of things1 first as they are received by the stimulus of objects1 or as they are afterwards repeated2 secondly1 they are names of more abstracted ideas1 which do not suggest at the same time the external objects1 by which they were originally excited2 or thirdly1 of the operations of our minds1 which are termed reflex ideas by metaphysical writers2 or lastly1 they are the names of our ideas of parts or properties of objects2 and are termed by grammarians nouns adjective4 ,verbs are also in reality names of our ideas of things1 or nouns1 with the addition of another idea to them1 as of acting or suffering2 or of more than one other annexed idea1 as of time1 and also of existence4 ,these with the numerous abbreviations1 so well illustrated by ,mr4 ,horne ,tooke in his ,diversions of ,purley1 make up the general theory of language1 which consists of the symbols of ideas represented by vocal or written words2 or by parts of those words1 as their terminations2 or by their disposition in respect to their order or succession2 as further explained in ,additional ,note ,,xiv4 ,the ,,giant ,,form on ,nature's centre stands1 ,and waves in ether his unnumber'd hands2 ,whirls the bright planets in their silver spheres1 ,and the vast sun round other systems steers2 ,till the last trump amid the thunder's roar ,sound the dread ,sentence ,,time ,,shall ,,be ,,no ,,more6 ,last steps ,abbreviation1 bold and strong1 #cia ,and leads the volant trains of words along2 ,with sweet loquacity to ,,hermes springs1 ,and decks his forehead and his feet with wings4 ,,vii4 ,as the soft lips and pliant tongue are taught ,with other minds to interchange the thought2 ,and sound1 the symbol of the sense1 explains ,in parted links the long ideal trains2 ,from clear conceptions of external things ,the facile power of ,recollection springs4 #djj ,footnote3 ,in parted links1 l4 #cih4 ,as our ideas consist of successive trains of the motions1 or changes of figure1 of the extremities of the nerves of one or more of our senses1 as of the optic or auditory nerves2 these successive trains of motion1 or configuration1 are in common life divided into many links1 to each of which a word or name is given1 and it is called an idea4 ,this chain of ideas may be broken into more or fewer links1 or divided in different parts of it1 by the customs of different people4 ,whence the meanings of the words of one language cannot always be exactly expressed by those of another2 and hence the acquirement of different languages in their infancy may affect the modes of thinking and reasoning of whole nations1 or of different classes of society2 as the words of them do not accurately suggest the same ideas1 or parts of ideal trains2 a circumstance which has not been sufficiently analysed4 ,whence ,,reason',s empire o'er the world presides1 ,and man from brute1 and man from man divides2 ,compares and measures by imagined lines ,ellipses1 circles1 tangents1 angles1 sines2 ,repeats with nice libration1 and decrees ,in what each differs1 and in what agrees2 ,with quick ,volitions unfatigued selects ,means for some end1 and causes of effects2 ,all human science worth the name imparts1 ,and builds on ,nature's base the works of ,arts4 #daj ,footnote3 ,whence ,reason's empire1 l4 #dja4 ,the facility of the use of the voluntary power1 which is owing to the possession of the clear ideas acquired by our superior sense of touch1 and afterwards of vision1 distinguishes man from brutes1 and has given him the empire of the world1 with the power of improving nature by the exertions of art4 ,reasoning is that operation of the sensorium by which we excite two or many tribes of ideas1 and then reexcite the ideas in which they differ or correspond4 ,if we determine this difference1 it is called judgment2 if we in vain endeavour to determine it1 it is called doubting4 ,if we reexcite the ideas in which they differ1 it is called distinguishing4 ,if we reexcite those in which they correspond1 it is called comparing4 ,the ,wasp1 fine architect1 surrounds his domes ,with paper-foliage1 and suspends his combs2 ,secured from frost the ,bee industrious dwells1 ,and fills for winter all her waxen cells2 ,the cunning ,spider with adhesive line ,weaves his firm net immeasurably fine2 ,the ,wren1 when embryon eggs her cares engross1 ,seeks the soft down1 and lines the cradling moss2 ,conscious of change the ,silkworm-,nymphs begin ,attach'd to leaves their gluten-threads to spin2 #dbj ,then round and round they weave with circling heads ,sphere within ,sphere1 and form their silken beds4 --,say1 did these fine volitions first commence ,from clear ideas of the tangent sense2 ,from sires to sons by imitation caught1 ,or in dumb language by tradition taught8 ,or did they rise in some primeval site ,of larva-gnat1 or microscopic mite2 ,and with instructive foresight still await ,on each vicissitude of insect-state8-- #dcj ,wise to the present1 nor to future blind1 ,they link the reasoning reptile to mankind6 --,stoop1 selfish ,pride6 survey thy kindred forms1 ,thy brother ,emmets1 and thy sister ,worms6 ,footnote3 ,the ,wasp1 fine architect1 l4 #daa4 ,those animals which possess a better sense of touch are1 in general1 more ingenious than others4 ,those which have claviculae1 or collar-bones1 and thence use the forefeet as hands1 as the monkey1 squirrel1 rat1 are more ingenious in seizing their prey or escaping from danger4 ,and the ingenuity of the elephant appears to arise from the sense of touch at the extremity of his proboscis1 which has a prominence on one side of its cavity like a thumb to close against the other side of it1 by which ,i have seen him readily pick up a shilling which was thrown amongst the straw he stood upon4 ,hence the excellence of the sense of touch in many insects seems to have given them wonderful ingenuity so as to equal or even excel mankind in some of their arts and discoveries2 many of which may have been acquired in situations previous to their present ones1 as the great globe itself1 and all that it inhabit1 appear to be in a perpetual state of mutation and improvement2 see ,additional ,note ,,ix4 ,thy potent acts1 ,,volition1 still attend ,the means of pleasure to secure the end2 ,to express his wishes and his wants design'd ,language1 the means1 distinguishes ,mankind2 ,for future works in ,art's ingenious schools ,his hands unwearied form and finish tools2 #ddj ,he toils for money future bliss to share1 ,and shouts to ,heaven his mercenary prayer4 ,sweet ,hope delights him1 frowning ,fear alarms1 ,and ,vice and ,virtue court him to their arms4 ,footnote3 ,thy potent acts1 ,volition1 l4 #dce4 ,it was before observed1 how much the superior accuracy of our sense of touch contributes to increase our knowledge2 but it is the greater energy and activity of the power of volition1 that marks mankind1 and has given them the empire of the world4 ,there is a criterion by which we may distinguish our voluntary acts or thoughts from those that are excited by our sensations3 ,the former are always employed about the means to acquire pleasurable objects1 or to avoid painful ones2 while the latter are employed about the possession of those that are already in our power4 ,the ideas and actions of brutes1 like those of children1 are almost perpetually produced by their present pleasures or their present pains2 and they seldom busy themselves about the means of procuring future bliss1 or of avoiding future misery4 ,whilst the acquiring of languages1 the making of tools1 and the labouring for money1 which are all only the means of procuring pleasure2 and the praying to the ,deity1 as another means to procure happiness1 are characteristic of human nature4 ,unenvied eminence1 in ,nature's plan ,rise the reflective faculties of ,man6 ,labour to ,rest the thinking ,few prefer6 ,know but to mourn6 and reason but to err6-- ,in ,eden's groves1 the cradle of the world1 ,bloom'd a fair tree with mystic flowers unfurl'd2 #dej ,on bending branches1 as aloft it sprung1 ,forbid to taste1 the fruit of ,,knowledge hung2 ,flow'd with sweet ,innocence the tranquil hours1 ,and ,love and ,beauty warm'd the blissful bowers4 ,till our deluded ,parents pluck'd1 erelong1 ,the tempting fruit1 and gather'd ,right and ,wrong2 ,whence ,good and ,evil1 as in trains they pass1 ,reflection imaged on her polish'd glass2 ,and ,conscience felt1 for blood by ,hunger spilt1 ,the pains of shame1 of sympathy1 and guilt6 #dfj ,footnote3 ,and gather'd ,right and ,wrong1 l4 #def4 ,some philosophers have believed that the acquisition of knowledge diminishes the happiness of the possessor2 an opinion which seems to have been inculcated by the history of our first parents1 who are said to have become miserable from eating of the tree of knowledge4 ,but as the foresight and the power of mankind are much increased by their voluntary exertions in the acquirement of knowledge1 they may undoubtedly avoid many sources of evil1 and procure many sources of good2 and yet possess the pleasures of sense1 or of imagination1 as extensively as the brute or the savage4 ,,viii4 ,,last1 as observant ,imitation stands1 ,turns her quick glance1 and brandishes her hands1 ,with mimic acts associate thoughts excites1 ,and storms the soul with sorrows or delights2 ,life's shadowy scenes are brighten'd and refin'd1 ,and soft emotions mark the feeling mind4 ,footnote3 ,and soft emotions1 l4 #dff4 ,from our aptitude to imitation arises what is generally understood by the word sympathy1 so well explained by ,dr4 ,smith of ,glasgow4 ,thus the appearance of a cheerful countenance gives us pleasure1 and of a melancholy one makes us sorrowful4 ,yawning1 and sometimes vomiting1 are thus propagated by sympathy2 and some people of delicate fibres1 at the presence of a spectacle of misery1 have felt pain in the same parts of their bodies1 that were diseased or mangled in the object they saw4 ,the effect of this powerful agent in the moral world1 is the foundation of all our intellectual sympathies with the pains and pleasures of others1 and is in consequence the source of all our virtues4 ,for in what consists our sympathy with the miseries or with the joys of our fellow creatures1 but in an involuntary excitation of ideas in some measure similar or imitative of those which we believe to exist in the minds of the persons whom we commiserate or congratulate6 ,the ,seraph1 ,,sympathy1 from ,heaven descends1 ,and bright o'er earth his beamy forehead bends2 ,on ,man's cold heart celestial ardor flings1 ,and showers affection from his sparkling wings2 #dgj ,rolls o'er the world his mild benignant eye1 ,hears the lone murmur1 drinks the whisper'd sigh2 ,lifts the closed latch of pale ,misfortune's door1 ,opes the clench'd hand of ,avarice to the poor1 ,unbars the prison1 liberates the slave1 ,sheds his soft sorrows o'er the untimely grave1 ,points with uplifted hand to realms above1 ,and charms the world with universal love4 ,o'er the thrill'd frame his words assuasive steal1 ,and teach the selfish heart what others feel2 #dhj ,with sacred truth each erring thought control1 ,bind sex to sex1 and mingle soul with soul2 ,from heaven1 ,he cried1 descends the moral plan1 ,and gives ,society to savage man4 ,high on yon scroll1 inscribed o'er ,nature's shrine1 ,live in bright characters the words divine4 ,,in ,,life',s ,,disastrous ,,scenes ,,to ,,others ,,do1 ,,what ,,you ,,would ,,wish ,,by ,,others ,,done ,,to ,,you4 --,winds6 wide o'er earth the sacred law convey1 ,ye ,nations1 hear it6 and ye ,kings1 obey6 #dij ,footnote3 ,high on yon scroll1 l4 #dhe4 ,the famous sentence of ,socrates ,know thyself1 so celebrated by writers of antiquity1 and said by them to have descended from ,heaven1 however wise it may be1 seems to be rather of a selfish nature2 and the author of it might have added ,know also other people4 ,but the sacred maxims of the author of ,christianity1 ,do as you would be done by1 and ,love your neighbour as yourself1 include all our duties of benevolence and morality2 and1 if sincerely obeyed by all nations1 would a thousandfold multiply the present happiness of mankind4 ,unbreathing wonder hush'd the adoring throng1 ,froze the broad eye1 and chain'd the silent tongue2 ,mute was the wail of ,want1 and ,misery's cry1 ,and grateful ,pity wiped her lucid eye2 ,peace with sweet voice the ,seraph-form address'd1 ,and ,virtue clasp'd him to her throbbing breast4 ,,end ,,of ,,canto ,,iii4 ,,origin ,,of ,,society4 ,,canto ,,iv4 ,,of ,,good ,,and ,,evil4 ,,contents4 ,i4 ,few affected by ,sympathy #a4 ,cruelty of ,war #aa4 ,of brute animals1 ,wolf1 ,eagle1 ,lamb1 ,dove1 ,owl1 ,nightingale #ag4 ,of insects1 ,oestrus1 ,ichneumon1 ,libellula #bi4 ,wars of ,vegetables #da4 ,of fish1 the ,shark1 ,crocodile1 ,whale #ee4 ,the ,world a ,slaughter-house #ff4 ,pains from ,defect and from ,excess of ,stimulus #ga4 ,ebriety and ,superstition #gg4 ,mania #hi4 ,association #ic4 ,avarice1 ,imposture1 ,ambition1 ,envy1 ,jealousy #ig4 ,floods1 ,volcanoes1 ,earthquakes1 ,famine #aji4 ,pestilence #aag4 ,pains from ,sympathy #abc4 ,,ii4 ,good outbalances ,evil #ace4 ,life combines inanimate ,matter1 and produces happiness by ,irritation #ade4 ,as in viewing a ,landscape #aei4 ,in hearing ,music #aga4 ,by ,sensation or ,fancy in ,dreams #ahc4 ,the ,patriot and the ,nun #aig4 ,howard1 ,moira1 ,burdett #bje4 ,by ,volition #bbc4 ,newton1 ,herschel #bcc4 ,archimedes1 ,savery #bda4 ,isis1 ,arkwright #bec4 ,letters and ,printing #bfe4 ,freedom of the ,press #bgc4 ,by ,association #bia4 ,ideas of ,contiguity1 ,resemblance1 and of ,cause and ,effect #bii4 ,antinous #cai4 ,cecilia #cbi4 ,,iii4 ,life soon ceases1 ,births and ,deaths alternate #ccg4 ,acorns1 ,poppy-seeds1 ,aphises1 ,snails1 ,worms1 ,tadpoles1 ,herrings innumerable #cdg4 ,so ,mankind #cfi4 ,all ,nature teems with ,life #cge4 ,dead ,organic ,matter soon revives #chc4 ,death is but a change of ,form #cic4 ,exclamation of ,st4 ,paul #djc4 ,happiness of the ,world increases #dje4 ,the ,phoenix #daa4 ,system of ,pythagoras #dag4 ,rocks and ,mountains produced by ,organic ,life #dbi4 ,are ,monuments of past ,felicity #ddg4 ,munificence of the ,deity #dee4 ,,iv4 ,procession of ,virgins #dfi4 ,hymn to ,heaven #dha4 ,of ,chaos #dhi4 ,of ,celestial ,love #dii4 ,offering of ,urania #eag-ebd4 ,,canto ,,iv4 ,,of ,,good ,,and ,,evil4 ,i4 ,,how ,,few1 the ,,muse in plaintive accents cries1 ,and mingles with her words pathetic sighs4-- ,how few1 alas6 in ,nature's wide domains ,the sacred charm of ,,sympathy restrains6 ,uncheck'd desires from appetite commence1 ,and pure reflection yields to selfish sense6 --,blest is the ,sage1 who learn'd in ,nature's laws ,with nice distinction marks effect and cause2 ,who views the insatiate ,grave with eye sedate1 ,nor fears thy voice1 inexorable ,fate6 #aj ,footnote3 ,blest is the ,sage1 l4 #g4 ,felix1 qui potuit rerum cognoscere causas2 ,quique metus omnes1 et inexorabile fatum1 ,subjecit pedibus1 strepitumque ,acherontis avari4 ,,virg4 ,georg4 ,,ii4 #dij4 ,,when ,war1 the ,demon1 lifts his banner high1 ,and loud artillery rends the affrighted sky2 ,swords clash with swords1 on horses horses rush1 ,man tramples man1 and nations nations crush2 ,death his vast sithe with sweep enormous wields1 ,and shuddering ,pity quits the sanguine fields4 ,the wolf1 escorted by his milk-drawn dam1 ,unknown to mercy1 tears the guiltless lamb2 ,the towering eagle1 darting from above1 ,unfeeling rends the inoffensive dove2 #bj ,the lamb and dove on living nature feed1 ,crop the young herb1 or crush the embryon seed4 ,nor spares the loud owl in her dusky flight1 ,smit with sweet notes1 the minstrel of the night2 ,nor spares1 enamour'd of his radiant form1 ,the hungry nightingale the glowing worm2 ,who with bright lamp alarms the midnight hour1 ,climbs the green stem1 and slays the sleeping flower4 ,footnote3 ,the towering eagle1 l4 #ai4 ,torva leaena lupum sequitur1 lupus ipse capellam1 ,florentem cytisum sequitur lasciva capella4 ,,virg4 ,fell ,oestrus buries in her rapid course ,her countless brood in stag1 or bull1 or horse2 #cj ,whose hungry larva eats its living way1 ,hatch'd by the warmth1 and issues into day4 ,the wing'd ,ichneumon for her embryon young ,gores with sharp horn the caterpillar throng4 ,the cruel larva mines its silky course1 ,and tears the vitals of its fostering nurse4 ,while fierce ,libellula with jaws of steel ,ingulfs an insect-province at a meal2 ,contending bee-swarms rise on rustling wings1 ,and slay their thousands with envenom'd stings4 #dj ,footnote3 ,fell ,oestrus buries1 l4 #bi4 ,the gadfly1 bot-fly1 or sheep-fly3 the larva lives in the bodies of cattle throughout the whole winter2 it is extracted from their backs by an ,african bird called ,buphaga4 ,adhering to the anus it artfully introduces itself into the intestines of horses1 and becomes so numerous in their stomachs1 as sometimes to destroy them2 it climbs into the nostrils of sheep and calves1 and producing a nest of young in a transparent hydatide in the frontal sinus1 occasions the vertigo or turn of those animals4 ,in ,lapland it so attacks the rein deer that the natives annually travel with the herds from the woods to the mountains4 ,lin4 ,syst4 ,nat4 ,footnote3 ,the wing'd ,ichneumon1 l4 #cc4 ,linneus describes seventy-seven species of the ichneumon fly1 some of which have a sting as long and some twice as long as their bodies4 ,many of them insert their eggs into various caterpillars1 which when they are hatched seem for a time to prey on the reservoir of silk in the backs of those animals designed for their own use to spin a cord to support them1 or a bag to contain them1 while they change from their larva form to a butterfly2 as ,i have seen in above fifty cabbage-caterpillars4 ,the ichneumon larva then makes its way out of the caterpillar1 and spins itself a small cocoon like a silk worm2 these cocoons are about the size of a small pin's head1 and ,i have seen about ten of them on each cabbage caterpillar1 which soon dies after their exclusion4 ,other species of ichneumon insert their eggs into the aphis1 and into the larva of the aphidivorous fly3 others into the bedeguar of rose trees1 and the gall-nuts of oaks2 whence those excrescences seem to be produced1 as well as the hydatides in the frontal sinus of sheep and calves by the stimulus of the larvae deposited in them4 ,footnote3 ,while fierce ,libellula1 l4 #cg4 ,the ,libellula or ,dragon-fly is said to be a most voracious animal2 ,linneus says in their perfect state they are the hawks to naked winged flies2 in their larva state they run beneath the water1 and are the cruel crocodiles of aquatic insects4 ,syst4 ,nat4 ,footnote3 ,contending bee-swarms1 l4 #ci4 ,stronger bee-swarms frequently attack weak hives1 and in two or three days destroy them and carry away their honey2 this ,i once prevented by removing the attacked hive after the first day's battle to a distinct part of the garden4 ,see ,phytologia1 ,sect4 ,,xiv4 #c4 #g4 ,yes6 smiling ,flora drives her armed car ,through the thick ranks of vegetable war2 ,herb1 shrub1 and tree1 with strong emotions rise ,for light and air1 and battle in the skies2 ,whose roots diverging with opposing toil ,contend below for moisture and for soil2 ,round the tall ,elm the flattering ,ivies bend1 ,and strangle1 as they clasp1 their struggling friend2 ,envenom'd dews from ,mancinella flow1 ,and scald with caustic touch the tribes below2 #ej ,dense shadowy leaves on stems aspiring borne ,with blight and mildew thin the realms of corn2 ,and insect hordes with restless tooth devour ,the unfolded bud1 and pierce the ravell'd flower4 ,in ocean's pearly haunts1 the waves beneath ,sits the grim monarch of insatiate ,death2 ,the shark rapacious with descending blow ,darts on the scaly brood1 that swims below2 ,the crawling crocodiles1 beneath that move1 ,arrest with rising jaw the tribes above2 #fj ,with monstrous gape sepulchral whales devour ,shoals at a gulp1 a million in an hour4 --,air1 earth1 and ocean1 to astonish'd day ,one scene of blood1 one mighty tomb display6 ,from ,hunger's arm the shafts of ,death are hurl'd1 ,and one great ,slaughter-house the warring world6 ,footnote3 ,the shark rapacious1 l4 #eg4 ,the shark has three rows of sharp teeth within each other1 which he can bend downwards internally to admit larger prey1 and raise to prevent its return2 his snout hangs so far over his mouth1 that he is necessitated to turn upon his back1 when he takes fish that swim over him1 and hence seems peculiarly formed to catch those that swim under him4 ,footnote3 ,the crawling crocodiles1 l4 #ei4 ,as this animal lives chiefly at the bottom of the rivers1 which he frequents1 he has the power of opening the upper jaw as well as the under one1 and thus with greater facility catches the fish or water-fowl which swim over him4 ,footnote3 ,one great slaughter-house1 l4 #ff4 ,as vegetables are an inferior order of animals fixed to the soil2 and as the locomotive animals prey upon them1 or upon each other2 the world may indeed be said to be one great slaughter-house4 ,as the digested food of vegetables consists principally of sugar1 and from this is produced again their mucilage1 starch1 and oil1 and since animals are sustained by these vegetable productions1 it would seem that the sugar-making process carried on in vegetable vessels was the great source of life to all organized beings4 ,and that if our improved chemistry should ever discover the art of making sugar from fossile or aerial matter without the assistance of vegetation1 food for animals would then become as plentiful as water1 and they might live upon the earth without preying on each other1 as thick as blades of grass1 with no restraint to their numbers but the want of local room4 ,it would seem that roots fixed in the earth and leaves innumerable waving in the air were necessary for the decomposition of water and air1 and the conversion of them into saccharine matter1 which would have been not only cumberous but totally incompatible with the locomotion of animal bodies4 ,for how could a man or quadruped have carried on his head or back a forest of leaves1 or have had long branching lacteal or absorbent vessels terminating in the earth8 ,animals therefore subsist on vegetables2 that is they take the matter so prepared1 and have organs to prepare it further for the purposes of higher animation and greater sensibility4 ,,the brow of ,man erect1 with thought elate1 ,ducks to the mandate of resistless fate2 ,nor ,love retains him1 nor can ,virtue save ,her sages1 saints1 or heroes from the grave4 #gj ,while cold and hunger by defect oppress1 ,repletion1 heat1 and labour by excess1 ,the whip1 the sting1 the spur1 the fiery brand1 ,and1 cursed ,slavery6 thy iron hand2 ,and led by ,luxury ,disease's trains1 ,load human life with unextinguish'd pains4 ,footnote3 ,while cold and hunger1 l4 #ga4 ,those parts of our system1 which are in health excited into perpetual action1 give us pain1 when they are not excited into action3 thus when the hands are for a time immersed in snow1 an inaction of the cutaneous capillaries is induced1 as is seen from the paleness of the skin1 which is attended with the pain of coldness4 ,so the pain of hunger is probably produced by the inaction of the muscular fibres of the stomach from the want of the stimulus of food4 ,thus those1 who have used much voluntary exertion in their early years1 and have continued to do so1 till the decline of life commences1 if they then lay aside their employment1 whether that of a minister of state1 a general of an army1 or a merchant1 or manufacturer2 they cease to have their faculties excited into their usual activity1 and become unhappy1 ,i suppose from the too great accumulation of the sensorial power of volition2 which wants the accustomed stimulus or motive to cause its expenditure4 ,here laughs ,ebriety more fell than arms1 ,and thins the nations with her fatal charms1 ,with ,gout1 and ,hydrops groaning in her train1 ,and cold ,debility1 and grinning ,pain1 #hj ,with harlot's smiles deluded man salutes1 ,revenging all his cruelties to brutes6 ,there the curst spells of ,superstition blind1 ,and fix her fetters on the tortured mind2 ,she bids in dreams tormenting shapes appear1 ,with shrieks that shock ,imagination's ear1 ,e'en o'er the grave a deeper shadow flings1 ,and maddening ,conscience darts a thousand stings4 ,footnote3 ,here laughs ,ebriety1 l4 #gg4 ,saevior armis ,luxuria incubuit1 victumque ulciscitur orbem4 ,,horac4 ,footnote3 ,e'en o'er the grave1 l4 #hg4 ,many theatric preachers among the ,methodists successfully inculcate the fear of death and of ,hell1 and live luxuriously on the folly of their hearers3 those who suffer under this insanity1 are generally most innocent and harmless people1 who are then liable to accuse themselves of the greatest imaginary crimes2 and have so much intellectual cowardice1 that they dare not reason about those things1 which they are directed by their priests to believe4 ,where this intellectual cowardice is great1 the voice of reason is ineffectual2 but that of ridicule may save many from these mad-making doctors1 as the farces of ,mr4 ,foot2 though it is too weak to cure those who are already hallucinated4 ,there writhing ,mania sits on ,reason's throne1 ,or ,melancholy marks it for her own1 #ij ,sheds o'er the scene a voluntary gloom1 ,requests oblivion1 and demands the tomb4 ,and last ,association's trains suggest ,ideal ills1 that harrow up the breast1 ,call for the dead from ,time's o'erwhelming main1 ,and bid departed ,sorrow live again4 ,footnote3 ,and last association1 l4 #ic4 ,the miseries and the felicities of life may be divided into those which arise in consequence of irritation1 sensation1 volition1 and association2 and consist in the actions of the extremities of the nerves of sense1 which constitute our ideas2 if they are much more exerted than usual1 or much less exerted than usual1 they occasion pain2 as when the finger is burnt in a candle2 or when we go into a cold bath3 while their natural degree of exertion produces the pleasure of life or existence4 ,this pleasure is nevertheless increased1 when the system is stimulated into rather stronger action than usual1 as after a copious dinner1 and at the beginning of intoxication2 and diminished1 when it is only excited into somewhat less activity than usual1 which is termed ennui1 or irksomeness of life4 ,footnote3 ,ideal ills1 l4 #id4 ,the tooth-edge is an instance of bodily pain occasioned by association of ideas4 ,every one in his childhood has repeatedly bit a part of the glass or earthen vessel1 in which his food has been given him1 and has thence had a disagreeable sensation in his teeth1 attended at the same time with a jarring sound3 and ever after1 when such a sound is accidentally produced1 the disagreeable sensation of the teeth follows by association of ideas2 this is further elucidated in ,zoonomia1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,sect4 ,,xvi4 #aj4 ,here ragged ,avarice guards with bolted door ,his useless treasures from the starving poor2 ,loads the lorn hours with misery and care1 ,and lives a beggar to enrich his heir4 #ajj ,unthinking crowds thy forms1 ,imposture1 gull1 ,a ,saint in sackcloth1 or a ,wolf in wool4 ,while mad with foolish fame1 or drunk with power1 ,ambition slays his thousands in an hour2 ,demoniac ,envy scowls with haggard mien1 ,and blights the bloom of other's joys1 unseen2 ,or wrathful ,jealousy invades the grove1 ,and turns to night meridian beams of ,love6 ,footnote3 ,enrich his heir1 l4 #ajj4 ,cum furor haud dubius1 cum sit manifesta phrenitis1 ,ut locuples moriaris1 egenti vivere fato4 ,,juvenal4 ,footnote3 ,a ,wolf in wool1 l4 #ajb4 ,a wolf in sheep's clothing4 ,here wide o'er earth impetuous waters sweep1 ,and fields and forests rush into the deep2 #aaj ,or dread ,volcano with explosion dire ,involves the mountains in a flood of fire2 ,or yawning ,earth with closing jaws inhumes ,unwarned nations1 living in their tombs2 ,or ,famine seizes with her tiger-paw1 ,and swallows millions with unsated maw4 ,there livid ,pestilence in league with ,dearth ,walks forth malignant o'er the shuddering earth1 ,her rapid shafts with airs volcanic wings1 ,or steeps in putrid vaults her venom'd stings4 #abj ,arrests the young in ,beauty's vernal bloom1 ,and bears the innocuous strangers to the tomb6-- ,footnote3 ,with airs volcanic1 l4 #aai4 ,those epidemic complaints1 which are generally termed influenza1 are believed to arise from vapours thrown out from earthquakes in such abundance as to affect large regions of the atmosphere1 see ,botanic ,garden1 ,v4 ,i4 ,canto ,,iv4 l4 #fe4 while the diseases properly termed contagious originate from the putrid effluvia of decomposing animal or vegetable matter4 ,,and now1 e'en ,i1 whose verse reluctant sings ,the changeful state of sublunary things1 ,bend o'er ,mortality with silent sighs1 ,and wipe the secret tear-drops from my eyes1 ,hear through the night one universal groan1 ,and mourn unseen for evils not my own1 ,with restless limbs and throbbing heart complain1 ,stretch'd on the rack of sentimental pain6 #acj --,ah where can ,sympathy reflecting find ,one bright idea to console the mind8 ,one ray of light in this terrene abode ,to prove to ,man the ,goodness of his ,,god8 ,footnote3 ,sentimental pain1 l4 #acj4 ,children should be taught in their early education to feel for all the remediable evils1 which they observe in others2 but they should at the same time be taught sufficient firmness of mind not intirely to destroy their own happiness by their sympathizing with too great sensibility with the numerous irremediable evils1 which exist in the present system of the world3 as by indulging that kind of melancholy they decrease the sum total of public happiness2 which is so far rather reprehensible than commendable4 ,see ,plan for ,female ,education by ,dr4 ,darwin1 ,johnson1 ,london1 ,sect4 ,,xvii4 ,this has been carried to great excess in the ,east by the disciples of ,confucius2 the ,gentoos during a famine in ,india refused to eat the flesh of cows and of other animals to satisfy their hunger1 and save themselves from death4 ,and at other times they have been said to permit fleas and musquitoes to feed upon them from this erroneous sympathy4 ,,ii4 ,,hear1 ,o ,,ye ,,sons ,,of ,,time6 the ,nymph replies1 ,quick indignation darting from her eyes2 ,when in soft tones the ,muse lamenting sings1 ,and weighs with tremulous hand the sum of things2 ,she loads the scale in melancholy mood1 ,presents the evil1 but forgets the good4 #adj ,but if the beam some firmer hand suspends1 ,and good and evil load the adverse ends2 ,with strong libration1 where the ,good abides1 ,quick nods the beam1 the ponderous gold subsides4 ,,hear1 ,o ye ,sons of ,time6 the powers of ,life ,arrest the elements1 and stay their strife2 ,from wandering atoms1 ethers1 airs1 and gas1 ,by combination form the organic mass2 ,and1--as they seize1 digest1 secrete1--dispense ,the bliss of ,being to the vital ,ens4 #aej ,hence in bright groups from ,,irritation rise ,young ,pleasure's trains1 and roll their azure eyes4 ,footnote3 ,from wandering atoms1 l4 #adg4 ,had those ancient philosophers1 who contended that the world was formed from atoms1 ascribed their combinations to certain immutable properties received from the hand of the ,creator1 such as general gravitation1 chemical affinity1 or animal appetency1 instead of ascribing them to a blind chance2 the doctrine of atoms1 as constituting or composing the material world by the variety of their combinations1 so far from leading the mind to atheism1 would strengthen the demonstration of the existence of a ,deity1 as the first cause of all things2 because the analogy resulting from our perpetual experience of cause and effect would have thus been exemplified through universal nature4 ,with fond delight we feel the potent charm1 ,when ,zephyrs cool us1 or when sun-beams warm2 ,with fond delight inhale the fragrant flowers1 ,taste the sweet fruits1 which bend the blushing bowers1 ,admire the music of the vernal grove1 ,or drink the raptures of delirious love4 ,so with long gaze admiring eyes behold ,the varied landscape all its lights unfold2 #afj ,huge rocks opposing o'er the stream project ,their naked bosoms1 and the beams reflect2 ,wave high in air their fringed crests of wood1 ,and checker'd shadows dance upon the flood2 ,green sloping lawns construct the sidelong scene1 ,and guide the sparkling rill that winds between2 ,conduct on murmuring wings the pausing gale1 ,and rural echoes talk along the vale2 ,dim hills behind in pomp aerial rise1 ,lift their blue tops1 and melt into the skies4 #agj ,footnote3 ,the varied landscape1 l4 #afj4 ,the pleasure1 we feel on examining a fine landscape1 is derived from various sources2 as first the excitement of the retina of the eye into certain quantities of action2 which when there is in the optic nerve any accumulation of sensorial power1 is always agreeable4 #b4 ,when it is excited into such successive actions1 as relieve each other2 as when a limb has been long exerted in one direction1 by stretching it in another2 as described in ,zoonomia1 ,sect4 ,,xl4 #f4 on ocular spectra4 #c4 ,and lastly by the associations of its parts with some agreeable sentiments or tastes1 as of sublimity1 beauty1 utility1 novelty2 and the objects suggesting other sentiments1 which have lately been termed picturesque as mentioned in the note to ,canto ,,iii1 l4 #bcj of this work4 ,the two former of these sources of pleasure arise from irritation1 the last from association4 ,so when by ,,handel tuned to measured sounds ,the trumpet vibrates1 or the drum rebounds2 ,alarm'd we listen with ecstatic wonder ,to mimic battles1 or imagined thunder4 ,when the soft lute in sweet impassion'd strains ,of cruel nymphs or broken vows complains2 ,as on the breeze the fine vibration floats1 ,we drink delighted the melodious notes4 ,but when young ,beauty on the realms above ,bends her bright eye1 and trills the tones of love2 #ahj ,seraphic sounds enchant this nether sphere2 ,and listening angels lean from ,heaven to hear4 ,footnote3 ,we drink delighted1 l4 #agh4 ,the pleasure we experience from music1 is1 like that from viewing a landscape1 derived from various sources2 as first from the excitement of the auditory nerve into certain quantities of action1 when there exists any accumulation of sensorial power4 #b4 ,when the auditory nerve is exerted in such successive actions as relieve each other1 like stretching or yawning1 as described in ,botanic ,garden1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,interlude the third1 these successions of sound are termed melody1 and their combinations harmony4 #c4 ,from the repetition of sounds at certain intervals of time2 as we hear them with greater facility and accuracy1 when we expect them2 because they are then excited by volition1 as well as by irritation1 or at least the tympanum is then better adapted to assist their production2 hence the two musical times or bars2 and hence the rhimes in poetry give pleasure1 as well as the measure of the verse3 and lastly the pleasure we receive from music1 arises from the associations of agreeable sentiments with certain proportions1 or repetitions1 or quantities1 or times of sounds which have been previously acquired2 as explained in ,zoonomia ,vol4 ,i4 ,sect4 ,,xvi4 #aj4 and ,sect4 ,,xxii4 #b4 ,next by ,,sensation led1 new joys commence ,from the fine movements of the excited sense2 ,in swarms ideal urge their airy flight1 ,adorn the day-scenes1 and illume the night4 ,her spells o'er all the hand of ,fancy flings1 ,gives form and substance to unreal things2 ,with fruits and foliage decks the barren waste1 ,and brightens ,life with sentiment and taste2 #aij ,pleased o'er the level and the rule presides1 ,the painter's brush1 the sculptor's chisel guides1 ,with ray ethereal lights the poet's fire1 ,tunes the rude pipe1 or strings the heroic lyre3 ,charm'd round the nymph on frolic footsteps move ,the angelic forms of ,beauty1 ,grace1 and ,love4 ,so dreams the ,patriot1 who indignant draws ,the sword of vengeance in his ,country's cause2 ,bright for his brows unfading honours bloom1 ,or kneeling ,virgins weep around his tomb4 #bjj ,so holy transports in the cloister's shade ,play round thy toilet1 visionary maid6 ,charm'd o'er thy bed celestial voices sing1 ,and ,seraphs hover on enamour'd wing4 ,so ,,howard1 ,,moira1 ,,burdett1 sought the cells1 ,where want1 or woe1 or guilt in darkness dwells2 ,with ,pity's torch illumed the dread domains1 ,wiped the wet eye1 and eased the galling chains2 ,with ,hope's bright blushes warm'd the midnight air1 ,and drove from earth the ,demon of ,despair4 #baj ,erewhile emerging from the caves of night ,the ,friends of ,man ascended into light2 ,with soft assuasive eloquence address'd ,the ear of ,power to stay his stern behest2 ,at ,mercy's call to stretch his arm and save ,his tottering victims from the gaping grave4 ,these with sweet smiles ,imagination greets1 ,for these she opens all her treasured sweets1 ,strews round their couch1 by ,pity's hand combined1 ,bright flowers of joy1 the sunshine of the mind2 #bbj ,while ,fame's loud trump with sounds applausive breathes ,and ,virtue crowns them with immortal wreathes4 ,thy acts1 ,,volition1 to the world impart ,the plans of ,science with the works of art2 ,give to proud ,reason her comparing power1 ,warm every clime1 and brighten every hour4 ,in ,life's first cradle1 ere the dawn began ,of young ,society to polish man2 ,the staff that propp'd him1 and the bow that arm'd1 ,the boat that bore him1 and the shed that warm'd1 #bcj ,fire1 raiment1 food1 the ploughshare1 and the sword1 ,arose1 ,,volition1 at thy plastic word4 ,by thee instructed1 ,,newton',s eye sublime ,mark'd the bright periods of revolving time2 ,explored in ,nature's scenes the effect and cause1 ,and1 charm'd1 unravell'd all her latent laws4 ,delighted ,,herschel with reflected light ,pursues his radiant journey through the night2 ,detects new guards1 that roll their orbs afar ,in lucid ringlets round the ,georgian star4 #bdj ,inspired by thee1 with scientific wand ,pleased ,,archimedes mark'd the figured sand2 ,seized with mechanic grasp the approaching decks1 ,and shook the assailants from the inverted wrecks4 --,then cried the ,sage1 with grand effects elate1 ,and proud to save the ,syracusian state2 ,while crowds exulting shout their noisy mirth1 ',give where to stand1 and ,i will move the earth4' ,so ,,savery guided his explosive steam ,in iron cells to raise the balanced beam2 #bej ,the ,giant-form its ponderous mass uprears1 ,descending nods and seems to shake the spheres4 ,footnote3 ,mark'd the figur'd sand1 l4 #bdb4 ,the ancient orators seem to have spoken disrespectfully of the mechanic philosophers4 ,cicero mentioning ,archimedes1 calls him ,homunculus e pulvere et radio1 alluding to the custom of drawing problems on the sand with a staff4 ,footnote3 ,so ,savery guided1 l4 #bdi4 ,captain ,savery first applied the pressure of the atmosphere to raise water in consequence of a vacuum previously produced by the condensation of steam1 though the ,marquis of ,worcester had before proposed to use for this purpose the expansive power of steam2 see ,botanic ,garden1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,canto ,i4 l4 #bec4 ,note4 ,led by ,,volition on the banks of ,nile ,where bloom'd the waving flax on ,delta's isle1 ,pleased ,,isis taught the fibrous stems to bind1 ,and part with hammers from the adhesive rind2 ,with locks of flax to deck the distaff-pole1 ,and whirl with graceful bend the dancing spole4 ,in level lines the length of woof to spread1 ,and dart the shuttle through the parting thread4 #bfj ,so ,,arkwright taught from ,cotton-pods to cull1 ,and stretch in lines the vegetable wool2 ,with teeth of steel its fibre-knots unfurl'd1 ,and with the silver tissue clothed the world4 ,footnote3 ,the waving flax1 l4 #bed4 ,flax is said to have been first discovered on the banks of the ,nile1 and ,isis to have been the inventress of spinning and weaving4 ,footnote3 ,so ,arkwright taught1 l4 #bfa4 ,see ,botanic ,garden1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,canto ,,ii4 l4 #hg1 ,note4 ,ages remote by thee1 ,,volition1 taught ,chain'd down in characters the winged thought2 ,with silent language mark'd the letter'd ground1 ,and gave to sight the evanescent sound4 ,now1 happier lot6 enlighten'd realms possess ,the learned labours of the immortal ,press2 #bgj ,nursed on whose lap the births of science thrive1 ,and rising ,arts the wrecks of ,time survive4 ,footnote3 ,the immortal ,press1 l4 #bgj4 ,the discovery of the art of printing has had so great influence on human affairs1 that from thence may be dated a new aera in the history of mankind4 ,as by the diffusion of general knowledge1 both of the arts of taste and of useful sciences1 the public mind has become improved to so great a degree1 that though new impositions have been perpetually produced1 the arts of detecting them have improved with greater rapidity4 ,hence since the introduction of printing1 superstition has been much lessened by the reformation of religion2 and necromancy1 astrology1 chiromancy1 witchcraft1 and vampyrism1 have vanished from all classes of society2 though some are still so weak in the present enlightened times as to believe in the prodigies of animal magnetism1 and of metallic tractors2 by this general diffusion of knowledge1 if the liberty of the press be preserved1 mankind will not be liable in this part of the world to sink into such abject slavery as exists at this day in ,china4 ,ye patriot heroes6 in the glorious cause ,of ,justice1 ,mercy1 ,liberty1 and ,laws1 ,who call to ,virtue's shrine the ,british youth1 ,and shake the senate with the voice of ,truth2 ,rouse the dull ear1 the hoodwink'd eye unbind1 ,and give to energy the public mind2 ,while rival realms with blood unsated wage ,wide-wasting war with fell demoniac rage2 #bhj ,in every clime while army army meets1 ,and oceans groan beneath contending fleets2 ,oh save1 oh save1 in this eventful hour ,the tree of knowledge from the axe of power2 ,with fostering peace the suffering nations bless1 ,and guard the freedom of the immortal ,press6 ,so shall your deathless fame from age to age ,survive recorded in the historic page2 ,and future bards with voice inspired prolong ,your sacred names immortalized in song4 #bij ,thy power ,,association next affords ,ideal trains annex'd to volant words1 ,conveys to listening ears the thought superb1 ,and gives to ,language her expressive verb2 ,which in one changeful sound suggests the fact ,at once to be1 to suffer1 or to act2 ,and marks on rapid wing o'er every clime ,the viewless flight of evanescent ,time4 ,footnote3 ,her expressive verb1 l4 #bid4 ,the verb1 or the word1 has been so called from its being the most expressive term in all languages2 as it suggests the ideas of existence1 action or suffering1 and of time2 see the ,note on ,canto ,,iii4 l4 #cga1 of this work4 ,call'd by thy voice contiguous thoughts embrace ,in endless streams arranged by ,time or ,place2 #cjj ,the ,muse historic hence in every age ,gives to the world her interesting page2 ,while in bright landscape from her moving pen ,rise the fine tints of manners and of men4 ,footnote3 ,call'd by thy voice1 l4 #bii4 ,the numerous trains of associated ideas are divided by ,mr4 ,hume into three classes1 which he has termed contiguity1 causation1 and resemblance4 ,nor should we wonder to find them thus connected together1 since it is the business of our lives to dispose them into these three classes2 and we become valuable to ourselves and our friends as we succeed in it4 ,those who have combined an extensive class of ideas by the contiguity of time or place1 are men learned in the history of mankind1 and of the sciences they have cultivated4 ,those who have connected a great class of ideas of resemblances1 possess the source of the ornaments of poetry and oratory1 and of all rational analogy4 ,while those who have connected great classes of ideas of causation1 are furnished with the powers of producing effects4 ,these are the men of active wisdom who lead armies to victory1 and kingdoms to prosperity2 or discover and improve the sciences which meliorate and adorn the condition of humanity4 ,call'd by thy voice ,resemblance next describes ,her sister-thoughts in lucid trains or tribes2 ,whence pleased ,imagination oft combines ,by loose analogies her fair designs2 ,each winning grace of polish'd wit bestows ,to deck the ,nymphs of ,poetry and ,prose4 #caj ,footnote3 ,polish'd wit bestows1 l4 #cji4 ,mr4 ,locke defines wit to consist of an assemblage of ideas1 brought together with quickness and variety1 wherein can be found any resemblance or congruity1 thereby to make up pleasant pictures and agreeable visions in the fancy4 ,to which ,mr4 ,addison adds1 that these must occasion surprise as well as delight2 ,spectator1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,no4 ,,lxii4 ,see ,note on ,canto ,,iii4 l4 #ade4 and ,additional ,note1 ,,vii4 #c4 ,perhaps wit in the extended use of the word may mean to express all kinds of fine writing1 as the word ,taste is applied to all agreeable visible objects1 and thus wit may mean descriptive sublimity1 beauty1 the pathetic1 or ridiculous1 but when used in the confined sense1 as by ,mr4 ,locke and ,mr4 ,addison as above1 it may probably be better defined a combination of ideas with agreeable novelty1 as this may be effected by opposition as well as by resemblance4 ,last1 at thy potent nod1 ,effect and ,cause ,walk hand in hand accordant to thy laws2 ,rise at ,volition's call1 in groups combined1 ,amuse1 delight1 instruct1 and serve ,mankind2 ,bid raised in air the ponderous structure stand1 ,or pour obedient rivers through the land2 ,with cars unnumber'd crowd the living streets1 ,or people oceans with triumphant fleets4 ,thy magic touch imagined forms supplies ,from colour'd light1 the language of the eyes2 #cbj ,on ,memory's page departed hours inscribes1 ,sweet scenes of youth1 and ,pleasure's vanish'd tribes4 ,by thee ,,antinous leads the dance sublime ,on wavy step1 and moves in measured time2 ,charm'd round the ,youth successive ,graces throng1 ,and ,ease conducts him1 as he moves along2 ,unbreathing crowds the floating form admire1 ,and ,vestal bosoms feel forbidden fire4 ,when rapp'd ,,cecilia breathes her matin vow1 ,and lifts to ,heaven her fair adoring brow2 #ccj ,from her sweet lips1 and rising bosom part ,impassion'd notes1 that thrill the melting heart2 ,tuned by thy hand the dulcet harp she rings1 ,and sounds responsive echo from the strings2 ,bright scenes of bliss in trains suggested move1 ,and charm the world with melody and love4 ,,iii4 ,,soon the fair forms with vital being bless'd1 ,time's feeble children1 lose the boon possess'd2 ,the goaded fibre ceases to obey1 ,and sense deserts the uncontractile clay2 #cdj ,while births unnumber'd1 ere the parents die1 ,the hourly waste of lovely life supply2 ,and thus1 alternating with death1 fulfil ,the silent mandates of the ,almighty ,will2 ,whose hand unseen the works of nature dooms ,by laws unknown--,,who ,,gives1 ,,and ,,who ,,resumes4 ,footnote3 ,the goaded fibre1 l4 #cci4 ,old age consists in the inaptitude to motion from the inirritability of the system1 and the consequent want of fibrous contraction2 see ,additional ,note ,,vii4 ,each pregnant ,oak ten thousand acorns forms ,profusely scatter'd by autumnal storms2 ,ten thousand seeds each pregnant poppy sheds ,profusely scatter'd from its waving heads2 #cej ,the countless ,aphides1 prolific tribe1 ,with greedy trunks the honey'd sap imbibe2 ,swarm on each leaf with eggs or embryons big1 ,and pendent nations tenant every twig4 ,amorous with double sex1 the snail and worm1 ,scoop'd in the soil1 their cradling caverns form2 ,heap their white eggs1 secure from frost and floods1 ,and crowd their nurseries with uncounted broods4 ,ere yet with wavy tail the tadpole swims1 ,breathes with new lungs1 or tries his nascent limbs2 #cfj ,her countless shoals the amphibious frog forsakes1 ,and living islands float upon the lakes4 ,the migrant herring steers her myriad bands ,from seas of ice to visit warmer strands2 ,unfathom'd depths and climes unknown explores1 ,and covers with her spawn unmeasured shores4 --,all these1 increasing by successive birth1 ,would each o'erpeople ocean1 air1 and earth4 ,footnote3 ,ten thousand seeds1 l4 #cdi4 ,the fertility of plants in respect to seeds is often remarkable2 from one root in one summer the seeds of zea1 maize1 amount to #bjjj2 of inula1 elecampane1 to #cjjj2 of helianthus1 sunflower1 to #djjj2 of papaver1 poppy1 #cbjjj2 of nicotiana1 tobacco1 to #djcbj2 to this must be added the perennial roots1 and the buds4 ,buds1 which are so many herbs1 in one tree1 the trunk of which does not exceed a span in thickness1 frequently amount to #ajjjj2 ,lin4 ,phil4 ,bot4 p4 #hf4 ,footnote3 ,the countless ,aphides1 l4 #cea4 ,the aphises1 pucerons1 or vine-fretters1 are hatched from an egg in the early spring1 and are all called females1 as they produce a living offspring about once in a fortnight to the ninth generation1 which are also all of them females2 then males are also produced1 and by their intercourse the females become oviparous1 and deposite their eggs on the branches1 or in the bark to be hatched in the ensuing spring4 ,this double mode of reproduction1 so exactly resembling the buds and seeds of trees1 accounts for the wonderful increase of this insect1 which1 according to ,dr4 ,richardson1 consists of ten generations1 and of fifty at an average in each generation2 so that the sum of fifty multiplied by fifty1 and that product again multiplied by fifty nine times1 would give the product of one egg only in countless millions2 to which must be added the innumerable eggs laid by the tenth generation for the renovation of their progeny in the ensuing spring4 ,footnote3 ,the honey'd sap1 l4 #ceb4 ,the aphis punctures with its fine proboscis the sap-vessels of vegetables without any visible wound1 and thus drinks the sap-juice1 or vegetable chyle1 as it ascends4 ,hence on the twigs of trees they stand with their heads downwards1 as ,i have observed1 to acquire this ascending sap-juice with greater facility4 ,the honey-dew on the upper surface of leaves is evacuated by these insects1 as they hang on the underside of the leaves above2 when they take too much of this saccharine juice during the vernal or midsummer sap-flow of most vegetables2 the black powder on leaves is also their excrement at other times4 ,the vegetable world seems to have escaped total destruction from this insect by the number of flies1 which in their larva state prey upon them2 and by the ichneumon fly1 which deposits its eggs in them4 ,some vegetables put forth stiff bristles with points round their young shoots1 as the moss-rose1 apparently to prevent the depredation of these insects1 so injurious to them by robbing them of their chyle or nourishment4 ,footnote3 ,the tadpole swims1 l4 #cei4 ,the progress of a tadpole from a fish to a quadruped by his gradually putting forth his limbs1 and at length leaving the water1 and breathing the dry air1 is a subject of great curiosity1 as it resembles so much the incipient state of all other quadrupeds1 and men1 who are aquatic animals in the uterus1 and become aerial ones at their birth4 ,so human progenies1 if unrestrain'd1 ,by climate friended1 and by food sustain'd1 #cgj ,o'er seas and soils1 prolific hordes6 would spread ,erelong1 and deluge their terraqueous bed2 ,but war1 and pestilence1 disease1 and dearth1 ,sweep the superfluous myriads from the earth4 ,thus while new forms reviving tribes acquire ,each passing moment1 as the old expire2 ,like insects swarming in the noontide bower1 ,rise into being1 and exist an hour2 ,the births and deaths contend with equal strife1 ,and every pore of ,nature teems with ,life2 #chj ,which buds or breathes from ,indus to the ,poles1 ,and ,earth's vast surface kindles1 as it rolls6 ,footnote3 ,which buds or breathes1 l4 #cha4 ,organic bodies1 besides the carbon1 hydrogen1 azote1 and the oxygen and heat1 which are combined with them1 require to be also immersed in loose heat and loose oxygen to preserve their mutable existence2 and hence life only exists on or near the surface of the earth2 see ,botan4 ,garden1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,canto ,,iv4 l4 #dai4 ,l'organisation1 le sentiment1 le movement spontane1 la vie1 n'existent qu'a la surface de la terre1 et dans les lieux exposes a la lumiere4 ,traite de ,chimie par ,m4 ,lavoisier1 ,tom4 ,i4 p4 #bjb4 ,,hence when a ,monarch or a mushroom dies1 ,awhile extinct the organic matter lies2 ,but1 as a few short hours or years revolve1 ,alchemic powers the changing mass dissolve2 ,born to new life unnumber'd insects pant1 ,new buds surround the microscopic plant2 ,whose embryon senses1 and unwearied frames1 ,feel finer goads1 and blush with purer flames2 #cij ,renascent joys from irritation spring1 ,stretch the long root1 or wave the aurelian wing4 ,footnote3 ,born to new life1 l4 #chg4 ,from the innumerable births of the larger insects1 and the spontaneous productions of the microscopic ones1 every part of organic matter from the recrements of dead vegetable or animal bodies1 on or near the surface of the earth1 becomes again presently reanimated2 which by increasing the number and quantity of living organizations1 though many of them exist but for a short time1 adds to the sum total of terrestrial happiness4 ,when thus a squadron or an army yields1 ,and festering carnage loads the waves or fields2 ,when few from famines or from plagues survive1 ,or earthquakes swallow half a realm alive2-- ,while ,nature sinks in ,time's destructive storms1 ,the wrecks of ,death are but a change of forms2 ,emerging matter from the grave returns1 ,feels new desires1 with new sensations burns2 #djj ,with youth's first bloom a finer sense acquires1 ,and ,loves and ,pleasures fan the rising fires4-- ,thus sainted ,,paul1 ',o ,death6' exulting cries1 ',where is thy sting8 ,o ,grave6 thy victories8' ,footnote3 ,thus sainted ,paul1 l4 #djc4 ,the doctrine of ,st4 ,paul teaches the resurrection of the body in an incorruptible and glorified state1 with consciousness of its previous existence2 he therefore justly exults over the sting of death1 and the victory of the grave4 ,immortal ,happiness from realms deceased ,wakes1 as from sleep1 unlessen'd or increased2 ,calls to the wise in accents loud and clear1 ,sooths with sweet tones the sympathetic ear2 ,informs and fires the revivescent clay1 ,and lights the dawn of ,life's returning day4 #daj ,footnote3 ,and lights the dawn1 l4 #daj4 ,the sum total of the happiness of organized nature is probably increased rather than diminished1 when one large old animal dies1 and is converted into many thousand young ones2 which are produced or supported with their numerous progeny by the same organic matter4 ,linneus asserts1 that three of the flies1 called musca vomitoria1 will consume the body of a dead horse1 as soon as a lion can2 ,syst4 ,nat4 ,so when ,arabia's ,bird1 by age oppress'd1 ,consumes delighted on his spicy nest2 ,a filial ,phoenix from his ashes springs1 ,crown'd with a star1 on renovated wings2 ,ascends exulting from his funeral flame1 ,and soars and shines1 another and the same4 ,footnote3 ,so when ,arabia's bird1 l4 #daa4 ,the story of the ,phoenix rising from its own ashes with a star upon its head seems to have been an hieroglyphic emblem of the destruction and resuscitation of all things2 see ,botan4 ,garden1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,canto ,,iv4 l4 #chi4 ,so erst the ,sage with scientific truth ,in ,grecian temples taught the attentive youth2 ,with ceaseless change how restless atoms pass ,from life to life1 a transmigrating mass2 #dbj ,how the same organs1 which to day compose ,the poisonous henbane1 or the fragrant rose1 ,may with to morrow's sun new forms compile1 ,frown in the ,hero1 in the ,beauty smile4 ,whence drew the enlighten'd ,sage the moral plan1 ,that man should ever be the friend of man2 ,should eye with tenderness all living forms1 ,his brother-emmets1 and his sister-worms4 ,footnote3 ,so erst the ,sage1 l4 #dag4 ,it is probable1 that the perpetual transmigration of matter from one body to another1 of all vegetables and animals1 during their lives1 as well as after their deaths1 was observed by ,pythagoras2 which he afterwards applied to the soul1 or spirit of animation1 and taught1 that it passed from one animal to another as a punishment for evil deeds1 though without consciousness of its previous existence2 and from this doctrine he inculcated a system of morality and benevolence1 as all creatures thus became related to each other4 ,,hear1 ,o ye ,sons of ,time6 your final doom1 ,and read the characters1 that mark your tomb3 #dcj ,the marble mountain1 and the sparry steep1 ,were built by myriad nations of the deep1-- ,age after age1 who form'd their spiral shells1 ,their sea-fan gardens and their coral cells2 ,till central fires with unextinguished sway ,raised the primeval islands into day2-- ,the sand-fill'd strata stretch'd from pole to pole2 ,unmeasured beds of clay1 and marl1 and coal1 ,black ore of manganese1 the zinky stone1 ,and dusky steel on his magnetic throne1 #ddj ,in deep morass1 or eminence superb1 ,rose from the wrecks of animal or herb2 ,these from their elements by ,life combined1 ,form'd by digestion1 and in glands refined1 ,gave by their just excitement of the sense ,the ,bliss of ,being to the vital ,ens4 ,footnote3 ,the marble mountain1 l4 #dca4 ,from the increased knowledge in ,geology during the present century1 owing to the greater attention of philosophers to the situations of the different materials1 which compose the strata of the earth1 as well as to their chemical properties1 it seems clearly to appear1 that the nucleus of the globe beneath the ocean consisted of granite2 and that on this the great beds of limestone were formed from the shells of marine animals during the innumerable primeval ages of the world2 and that whatever strata lie on these beds of limestone1 or on the granite1 where the limestone does not cover it1 were formed after the elevation of islands and continents above the surface of the sea by the recrements of vegetables and of terrestrial animals2 see on this subject ,botanic ,garden1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,additional ,note ,,xxiv4 ,thus the tall mountains1 that emboss the lands1 ,huge isles of rock1 and continents of sands1 ,whose dim extent eludes the inquiring sight1 ,,are ,,mighty ,,monuments ,,of ,,past ,,delight2 #dej ,shout round the globe1 how ,reproduction strives ,with vanquish'd ,death1--and ,happiness survives2 ,how ,life increasing peoples every clime1 ,and young renascent ,nature conquers ,time2 --,and high in golden characters record ,the immense munificence of ,,nature',s ,,lord6-- ,footnote3 ,are mighty monuments1 l4 #dej4 ,the reader is referred to a few pages on this subject in ,phytologia1 ,sect4 ,,xix4 #g4 #a1 where the felicity of organic life is considered more at large2 but it is probable that the most certain way to estimate the happiness and misery of organic beings2 as it depends on the actions of the organs of sense1 which constitute ideas2 or of the muscular fibres which perform locomotion2 would be to consider those actions1 as they are produced or excited by the four sensorial powers of irritation1 sensation1 volition1 and association4 ,a small volume on this subject by some ingenious writer1 might not only amuse1 as an object of curiosity2 but by showing the world the immediate sources of their pains and pleasures might teach the means to avoid the one1 and to procure the other1 and thus contribute both ways to increase the sum total of organic happiness4 ,footnote3 ,how ,life increasing1 l4 #dec4 ,not only the vast calcareous provinces1 which form so great a part of the terraqueous globe1 and also whatever rests upon them1 as clay1 marl1 sand1 and coal1 were formed from the fluid elements of heat1 oxygen1 azote1 and hydrogen along with carbon1 phosphorus1 and perhaps a few other substances1 which the science of chemistry has not yet decomposed2 and gave the pleasure of life to the animals and vegetables1 which formed them2 and thus constitute monuments of the past happiness of those organized beings4 ,but as those remains of former life are not again totally decomposed1 or converted into their original elements1 they supply more copious food to the succession of new animal or vegetable beings on their surface2 which consists of materials convertible into nutriment with less labour or activity of the digestive powers2 and hence the quantity or number of organized bodies1 and their improvement in size1 as well as their happiness1 has been continually increasing1 along with the solid parts of the globe2 and will probably continue to increase1 till the whole terraqueous sphere1 and all that inhabit it shall dissolve by a general conflagration1 and be again reduced to their elements4 ,thus all the suns1 and the planets1 which circle round them1 may again sink into one central chaos2 and may again by explosions produce a new world2 which in process of time may resemble the present one1 and at length again undergo the same catastrophe6 these great events may be the result of the immutable laws impressed on matter by the ,great ,cause of ,causes1 ,parent of ,parents1 ,ens ,entium6 ,he gives and guides the sun's attractive force1 ,and steers the planets in their silver course2 ,with heat and light revives the golden day1 ,and breathes his spirit on organic clay2 #dfj ,with hand unseen directs the general cause ,by firm immutable immortal laws4 ,charm'd with her words the ,muse astonish'd stands1 ,the ,nymphs enraptured clasp their velvet hands2 ,applausive thunder from the fane recoils1 ,and holy echoes peal along the ailes2 ,o'er ,,nature',s shrine celestial lustres glow1 ,and lambent glories circle round her brow4 ,,iv4 ,now sinks the golden sun1--the vesper song ,demands the tribute of ,,urania',s tongue2 #dgj ,onward she steps1 her fair associates calls ,from leaf-wove avenues1 and vaulted halls4 ,fair virgin trains in bright procession move1 ,trail their long robes1 and whiten all the grove2 ,pair after pair to ,nature's temple sweep1 ,thread the broad arch1 ascend the winding steep2 ,through brazen gates along susurrant ailes ,stream round their ,,goddess the successive files2 ,curve above curve to golden seats retire1 ,and star with beauty the refulgent quire4 #dhj ,,and first to ,,heaven the consecrated throng ,with chant alternate pour the adoring song1 ,swell the full hymn1 now high1 and now profound1 ,with sweet responsive symphony of sound4 ,seen through their wiry harps1 below1 above1 ,nods the fair brow1 the twinkling fingers move2 ,soft-warbling flutes the ruby lip commands1 ,and cymbals ring with high uplifted hands4 ,,to ,,chaos next the notes melodious pass1 ,how suns exploded from the kindling mass1 #dij ,waved o'er the vast inane their tresses bright1 ,and charm'd young ,nature's opening eyes with light4 ,next from each sun how spheres reluctant burst1 ,and second planets issued from the first4 ,and then to ,,earth descends the moral strain1 ,how isles1 emerging from the shoreless main1 ,with sparkling streams and fruitful groves began1 ,and form'd a ,paradise for mortal man4 ,footnote3 ,to ,chaos next1 l4 #dhi4 ,namque canebat uti magnum per inane coacta ,semina terrarumque1 animaeque1 marisque fuissent2 ,et liquidi simul ignis2 ut his exordia primis ,omnia1 et ipse tener mundi concreverit orbis4 ,,virg4 ,,ec4 ,,vi4 l4 #ca4 ,sublimer notes record ,,celestial ,,love1 ,and high rewards in brighter climes above2 #ejj ,how ,virtue's beams with mental charm engage ,youth's raptured eye1 and warm the frost of age1 ,gild with soft lustre ,death's tremendous gloom1 ,and light the dreary chambers of the tomb4 ,how fell ,remorse shall strike with venom'd dart1 ,though mail'd in adamant1 the guilty heart2 ,fierce furies drag to pains and realms unknown ,the blood-stain'd tyrant from his tottering throne4 ,by hands unseen are struck aerial wires1 ,and ,angel-tongues are heard amid the quires2 #eaj ,from aile to aile the trembling concord floats1 ,and the wide roof returns the mingled notes1 ,through each fine nerve the keen vibrations dart1 ,pierce the charm'd ear1 and thrill the echoing heart4-- ,,mute the sweet voice1 and still the quivering strings1 ,now ,silence hovers on unmoving wings4-- --,slow to the altar fair ,,urania bends ,her graceful march1 the sacred steps ascends1 ,high in the midst with blazing censer stands1 ,and scatters incense with illumined hands3 #ebj ,thrice to the ,,goddess bows with solemn pause1 ,with trembling awe the mystic veil withdraws1 ,and1 meekly kneeling on the gorgeous shrine1 ,lifts her ecstatic eyes to ,,truth ,,divine6 #ebd ,,end ,,of ,,canto ,,iv4 ,,contents ,,of ,,the ,,notes4 ,,canto ,i4 ,line4 #cf ,origin of ,european ,nations4 #gf ,early use of ,painting and ,hieroglyphics4 #hc ,proteus represents ,time4 #abf ,cave of ,trophonius4 #acg ,eleusinian ,mysteries4 #agf ,antiquity of ,statuary1 casting ,figures1 and ,carving4 #bbd ,infancy of the present ,world4 #bce ,of ,heat4 #bci ,of ,attraction4 #bde ,of ,contraction4 #bei ,arteries not conical4 #bfb ,venous ,absorption4 #bfh ,decrease of the ,ocean4 #bgj ,sensation and ,volition4 #bhc ,mucor1 ,vibrio4 #bie ,animals are first aquatic4 #cae ,sea1 originally was not ,salt4 #cbg ,animals from the ,sea4 #cce ,aquatic ,plants4 #cdc ,frogs4 #cfc ,rainbow in ,northern ,latitudes4 #cgb ,venus rising from the ,sea4 #cib ,the ,fetus in the ,womb4 #dag ,animals from the ,mud of the ,nile4 ,,canto ,,ii4 #a ,shortness of ,life4 #c ,old ,age surprising4 #ci ,organic and chemical ,properties4 #dc ,immortality of ,matter4 #dg ,adonis emblem of ,life4 #ga ,the ,truffle1 ,lycoperdon4 #hc ,volvox4 #he ,polypus4 #hg ,taenia4 #hi ,oysters4 #ij ,coral-,insect4 #aad ,female ,sex produced4 #aah ,power of ,imagination4 #abb ,mankind were formerly ,hermaphrodites and ,quadrupeds4 #afg ,hereditary ,diseases of ,vegetables4 #bbc ,psyche and ,cupid4 #bfh ,some ,honey poisonous4 #bga ,appetency and ,propensity4 #bhj ,vallisneria4 #bhh ,lampyris4 #cjb ,insects from ,anthers and ,stigmas4 #cba ,horns of ,stags1 and ,tusks of ,boars1 ,spurs of ,cocks4 #cea ,chick in the ,egg4 #cef ,songs of ,birds4 #cgc ,how ,fish swim4 #cge ,how ,birds fly4 #dcd ,of ,smiles1 and of ,laughter4 ,,canto ,,iii4 #ac ,oxygen1 and ,hydrogen1 and ,azote4 #ba ,two electric ,ethers4 #fd ,irritation4 #gb ,sensation4 #gc ,volition1 ,memory4 #ha ,intuitive ,analogy4 #ia ,association4 #ajc ,armour of ,brutes4 #abb ,of the ,human ,hand4 #abe ,perception of ,figure4 #add ,sight the ,language of the ,touch4 #ade ,surprise1 ,novelty1 ,curiosity4 #aeb ,the ,lips an ,organ of ,touch4 #agf ,ideal ,beauty4 #agh ,two ,deities of ,love4 #bjg ,idea of ,beauty from the ,female ,bosom4 #bcj ,taste for ,sublimity4 #bcg ,poetic ,melancholy4 #bdf ,taste for ,tragedy4 #beh ,taste for uncultivated ,nature4 #bgj ,accumulation of sensorial ,power4 #bid ,imitation described4 #cjc ,imitation of one ,sense by another4 #cai ,mimickry or ,resemblance4 #ccd ,the ,parts of the ,system imitate each other4 #cdb ,external ,signs of ,passions4 #cga ,theory of ,language4 #cih ,ideas so called are parts of a train of ,actions4 #dja ,of ,reason4 #daa ,reasoning of ,insects4 #dce ,volition distinguishes ,mankind4 #def ,if ,knowledge produces ,happiness4 #dff ,sympathy the source of ,virtue4 #dhe ,maxim of ,socrates4 ,,canto ,,iv4 #bi ,oestrus or ,gadfly4 #cc ,ichneumon fly4 #cg ,libellula4 #ci ,bees4 #eg ,shark4 #ei ,crocodile #ff ,animals prey on ,vegetables4 #ga ,defect of ,stimulus4 #hg ,theatric ,preachers4 #ic ,pleasure of ,life1 ,ennui4 #id ,of ,tooth-edge4 #aai ,epidemic ,complaints4 #acj ,compassion may be too great4 #adg ,doctrine of ,atoms4 #afj ,pleasure of viewing a ,landscape4 #agh ,pleasure from ,music4 #bdb ,ancient ,orators spoke disrespectfully of the mechanic ,philosophers4 #bgj ,influence of ,printing4 #bii ,associated ideas of three ,classes4 #cji ,wit defined4 #cdi ,surprising number of ,seeds4 #cea ,of the ,aphis1 its ,numbers4 #ceb ,aphis drinks the ,sap-juice4 #cei ,the ,mutation of the ,tadpole4 #chg ,animation near the ,surface of the ,earth4 #chg ,all dead animal and vegetable ,bodies become animated4 #djc ,doctrine of ,st4 ,paul4 #daa ,happiness increased4 #dag ,doctrine of ,pythagoras4 #dca ,geology4 #dej ,method of investigation of ,organic happiness4 #dec ,organic ,life increases4 ,,additional ,,notes4 ,,additional ,,notes4 ,,spontaneous ,,vitality ,,of ,,microscopic ,,animals4 ,hence without parent by spontaneous birth ,rise the first specks of animated earth4 ,,canto ,i4 l4 #bbg4 ,prejudices against this doctrine4 ,i4 ,from the misconception of the ignorant or superstitious1 it has been thought somewhat profane to speak in favour of spontaneous vital production1 as if it contradicted holy writ2 which says1 that ,god created animals and vegetables4 ,they do not recollect that ,god created all things which exist1 and that these have been from the beginning in a perpetual state of improvement2 which appears from the globe itself1 as well as from the animals and vegetables1 which possess it4 ,and lastly1 that there is more dignity in our idea of the supreme author of all things1 when we conceive him to be the cause of causes1 than the cause simply of the events1 which we see2 if there can be any difference in infinity of power6 ,another prejudice which has prevailed against the spontaneous production of vitality1 seems to have arisen from the misrepresentation of this doctrine1 as if the larger animals had been thus produced2 as ,ovid supposes after the deluge of ,deucalion1 that lions were seen rising out of the mud of the ,nile1 and struggling to disentangle their hinder parts4 ,it was not considered1 that animals and vegetables have been perpetually improving by reproduction2 and that spontaneous vitality was only to be looked for in the simplest organic beings1 as in the smallest microscopic animalcules2 which perpetually1 perhaps hourly1 enlarge themselves by reproduction1 like the roots of tulips from seed1 or the buds of seedling trees1 which die annually1 leaving others by solitary reproduction rather more perfect than themselves for many successive years1 till at length they acquire sexual organs or flowers4 ,a third prejudice against the existence of spontaneous vital productions has been the supposed want of analogy2 this has also arisen from the expectation1 that the larger or more complicated animals should be thus produced2 which have acquired their present perfection by successive generations during an uncounted series of ages4 ,add to this1 that the want of analogy opposes the credibility of all new discoveries1 as of the magnetic needle1 and coated electric jar1 and ,galvanic pile2 which should therefore certainly be well weighed and nicely investigated before distinct credence is given them2 but then the want of analogy must at length yield to repeated ocular demonstration4 ,preliminary observations4 ,,ii4 ,concerning the spontaneous production of the smallest microscopic animals it should be first observed1 that the power of reproduction distinguishes organic being1 whether vegetable or animal1 from inanimate nature4 ,the circulation of fluids in vessels may exist in hydraulic machines1 but the power of reproduction belongs alone to life4 ,this reproduction of plants and of animals is of two kinds1 which may be termed solitary and sexual4 ,the former of these1 as in the reproduction of the buds of trees1 and of the bulbs of tulips1 and of the polypus1 and aphis1 appears to be the first or most simple mode of generation1 as many of these organic beings afterwards acquire sexual organs1 as the flowers of seedling trees1 and of seedling tulips1 and the autumnal progeny of the aphis4 ,see ,phytologia4 ,secondly1 it should be observed1 that by reproduction organic beings are gradually enlarged and improved2 which may perhaps more rapidly and uniformly occur in the simplest modes of animated being2 but occasionally also in the more complicated and perfect kinds4 ,thus the buds of a seedling tree1 or the bulbs of seedling tulips1 become larger and stronger in the second year than the first1 and thus improve till they acquire flowers or sexes2 and the aphis1 ,i believe1 increases in bulk to the eighth or ninth generation1 and then produces a sexual progeny4 ,hence the existence of spontaneous vitality is only to be expected to be found in the simplest modes of animation1 as the complex ones have been formed by many successive reproductions4 ,experimental facts4 ,,iii4 ,by the experiments of ,buffon1 ,reaumur1 ,ellis1 ,ingenhouz1 and others1 microscopic animals are produced in three or four days1 according to the warmth of the season1 in the infusions of all vegetable or animal matter4 ,one or more of these gentlemen put some boiling veal broth into a phial previously heated in the fire1 and sealing it up hermetically or with melted wax1 observed it to be replete with animalcules in three or four days4 ,these microscopic animals are believed to possess a power of generating others like themselves by solitary reproduction without sex2 and these gradually enlarging and improving for innumerable successive generations4 ,mr4 ,ellis in ,phil4 ,transact4 ,v4 ,,lix4 gives drawings of six kinds of animalcula infusoria1 which increase by dividing across the middle into two distinct animals4 ,thus in paste composed of flour and water1 which has been suffered to become acescent1 the animalcules called eels1 vibrio anguillula1 are seen in great abundance2 their motions are rapid and strong2 they are viviparous1 and produce at intervals a numerous progeny3 animals similar to these are also found in vinegar2 ,naturalist's ,miscellany by ,shaw and ,nodder1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,these eels were probably at first as minute as other microscopic animalcules2 but by frequent1 perhaps hourly reproduction1 have gradually become the large animals above described1 possessing wonderful strength and activity4 ,to suppose the eggs of the former microscopic animals to float in the atmosphere1 and pass through the sealed glass phial1 is so contrary to apparent nature1 as to be totally incredible6 and as the latter are viviparous1 it is equally absurd to suppose1 that their parents float universally in the atmosphere to lay their young in paste or vinegar6 ,not only microscopic animals appear to be produced by a spontaneous vital process1 and then quickly improve by solitary generation like the buds of trees1 or like the polypus and aphis1 but there is one vegetable body1 which appears to be produced by a spontaneous vital process1 and is believed to be propagated and enlarged in so short a time by solitary generation as to become visible to the naked eye2 ,i mean the green matter first attended to by ,dr4 ,priestley1 and called by him conferva fontinalis4 ,the proofs1 that this material is a vegetable1 are from its giving up so much oxygen1 when exposed to the sunshine1 as it grows in water1 and from its green colour4 ,dr4 ,ingenhouz asserts1 that by filling a bottle with well-water1 and inverting it immediately into a basin of well-water1 this green vegetable is formed in great quantity2 and he believes1 that the water itself1 or some substance contained in the water1 is converted into this kind of vegetation1 which then quickly propagates itself4 ,m4 ,girtanner asserts1 that this green vegetable matter is not produced by water and heat alone1 but requires the sun's light for this purpose1 as he observed by many experiments1 and thinks it arises from decomposing water deprived of a part of its oxygen1 and laughs at ,dr4 ,priestley for believing that the seeds of this conferva1 and the parents of microscopic animals1 exist universally in the atmosphere1 and penetrate the sides of glass jars2 ,philos4 ,magazine for ,may #ahjj4 ,besides this green vegetable matter of ,dr4 ,priestley1 there is another vegetable1 the minute beginnings of the growth of which ,mr4 ,ellis observed by his microscope near the surface of all putrefying vegetable or animal matter1 which is the mucor or mouldiness2 the vegetation of which was amazingly quick so as to be almost seen1 and soon became so large as to be visible to the naked eye4 ,it is difficult to conceive how the seeds of this mucor can float so universally in the atmosphere as to fix itself on all putrid matter in all places4 ,theory of ,spontaneous ,vitality4 ,,iv4 ,in animal nutrition the organic matter of the bodies of dead animals1 or vegetables1 is taken into the stomach1 and there suffers decompositions and new combinations by a chemical process4 ,some parts of it are however absorbed by the lacteals as fast as they are produced by this process of digestion2 in which circumstance this process differs from common chemical operations4 ,in vegetable nutrition the organic matter of dead animals1 or vegetables1 undergoes chemical decompositions and new combinations on or beneath the surface of the earth2 and parts of it1 as they are produced1 are perpetually absorbed by the roots of the plants in contact with it2 in which this also differs from common chemical processes4 ,hence the particles which are produced from dead organic matter by chemical decompositions or new consequent combinations1 are found proper for the purposes of the nutrition of living vegetable and animal bodies1 whether these decompositions and new combinations are performed in the stomach or beneath the soil4 ,for the purposes of nutrition these digested or decomposed recrements of dead animal or vegetable matter are absorbed by the lacteals of the stomachs of animals or of the roots of vegetables1 and carried into the circulation of their blood1 and these compose new organic parts to replace others which are destroyed1 or to increase the growth of the plant or animal4 ,it is probable1 that as in inanimate or chemical combinations1 one of the composing materials must possess a power of attraction1 and the other an aptitude to be attracted2 so in organic or animated compositions there must be particles with appetencies to unite1 and other particles with propensities to be united with them4 ,thus in the generation of the buds of trees1 it is probable that two kinds of vegetable matter1 as they are separated from the solid system1 and float in the circulation1 become arrested by two kinds of vegetable glands1 and are then deposed beneath the cuticle of the tree1 and there join together forming a new vegetable1 the caudex of which extends from the plumula at the summit to the radicles beneath the soil1 and constitutes a single fibre of the bark4 ,these particles appear to be of two kinds2 one of them possessing an appetency to unite with the other1 and the latter a propensity to be united with the former2 and they are probably separated from the vegetable blood by two kinds of glands1 one representing those of the anthers1 and the others those of the stigmas1 in the sexual organs of vegetables2 which is spoken of at large in ,phytologia1 ,sect4 ,,vii4 and in ,zoonomia1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,sect4 ,,xxxix4 #h4 of the third edition1 in octavo2 where it is likewise shown1 that none of these parts which are deposited beneath the cuticle of the tree1 is in itself a complete vegetable embryon1 but that they form one by their reciprocal conjunction4 ,so in the sexual reproduction of animals1 certain parts separated from the living organs1 and floating in the blood1 are arrested by the sexual glands of the female1 and others by those of the male4 ,of these none are complete embryon animals1 but form an embryon by their reciprocal conjunction4 ,there hence appears to be an analogy between generation and nutrition1 as one is the production of new organization1 and the other the restoration of that which previously existed2 and which may therefore be supposed to require materials somewhat similar4 ,now the food taken up by animal lacteals is previously prepared by the chemical process of digestion in the stomach2 but that which is taken up by vegetable lacteals1 is prepared by chemical dissolution of organic matter beneath the surface of the earth4 ,thus the particles1 which form generated animal embryons1 are prepared from dead organic matter by the chemico-animal processes of sanguification and of secretion2 while those which form spontaneous microscopic animals or microscopic vegetables are prepared by chemical dissolutions and new combinations of organic matter in watery fluids with sufficient warmth4 ,it may be here added1 that the production and properties of some kinds of inanimate matter1 are almost as difficult to comprehend as those of the simplest degrees of animation4 ,thus the elastic gum1 or caoutchouc1 and some fossile bitumens1 when drawn out to a great length1 contract themselves by their elasticity1 like an animal fibre by stimulus4 ,the laws of action of these1 and all other elastic bodies1 are not yet understood2 as the laws of the attraction of cohesion1 to produce these effects1 must be very different from those of general attraction1 since the farther the particles of elastic bodies are drawn from each other till they separate1 the stronger they seem to attract2 and the nearer they are pressed together1 the more they seem to repel2 as in bending a spring1 or in extending a piece of elastic gum2 which is the reverse to what occurs in the attractions of disunited bodies2 and much wants further investigation4 ,so the spontaneous production of alcohol or of vinegar1 by the vinous and acetous fermentations1 as well as the production of a mucus by putrefaction which will contract when extended1 seems almost as difficult to understand as the spontaneous production of a fibre from decomposing animal or vegetable substances1 which will contract when stimulated1 and thus constitutes the primordium of life4 ,some of the microscopic animals are said to remain dead for many days or weeks1 when the fluid in which they existed is dried up1 and quickly to recover life and motion by the fresh addition of water and warmth4 ,thus the chaos redivivum of ,linnaeus dwells in vinegar and in bookbinders paste3 it revives by water after having been dried for years1 and is both oviparous and viviparous2 ,syst4 ,nat4 ,thus the vorticella or wheel animal1 which is found in rain water that has stood some days in leaden gutters1 or in hollows of lead on the tops of houses1 or in the slime or sediment left by such water1 though it discovers no sign of life except when in the water1 yet it is capable of continuing alive for many months though kept in a dry state4 ,in this state it is of a globulous shape1 exceeds not the bigness of a grain of sand1 and no signs of life appear2 but being put into water1 in the space of half an hour a languid motion begins1 the globule turns itself about1 lengthens itself by slow degrees1 assumes the form of a lively maggot1 and most commonly in a few minutes afterwards puts out its wheels1 swimming vigorously through the water as if in search of food2 or else1 fixing itself by the tail1 works the wheels in such a manner as to bring its food to its mouth2 ,english ,encyclopedia1 ,art4 ,animalcule4 ,thus some shell-snails in the cabinets of the curious have been kept in a dry state for ten years or longer1 and have revived on being moistened with warmish water2 ,philos4 ,transact4 ,so eggs and seeds after many months torpor1 are revived by warmth and moisture2 hence it may be concluded1 that even the organic particles of dead animals may1 when exposed to a due degree of warmth and moisture1 regain some degree of vitality1 since this is done by more complicate animal organs in the instances above mentioned4 ,the hydra of ,linnaeus1 which dwells in the rivers of ,europe under aquatic plants1 has been observed by the curious of the present time1 to revive after it has been dried1 to be restored after being mutilated1 to multiply by being divided1 to be propagated from small portions1 to live after being inverted2 all which would be best explained by the doctrine of spontaneous reproduction from organic particles not yet completely decomposed4 ,to this should be added1 that these microscopic animals are found in all solutions of vegetable or animal matter in water2 as black pepper steeped in water1 hay suffered to become putrid in water1 and the water of dunghills1 afford animalcules in astonishing numbers4 ,see ,mr4 ,ellis's curious account of ,animalcules produced from an infusion of ,potatoes and ,hempseed2 ,philos4 ,transact4 ,vol4 ,,lix4 from all which it would appear1 that organic particles of dead vegetables and animals during their usual chemical changes into putridity or acidity1 do not lose all their organization or vitality1 but retain so much of it as to unite with the parts of living animals in the process of nutrition1 or unite and produce new complicate animals by secretion as in generation1 or produce very simple microscopic animals or microscopic vegetables1 by their new combinations in warmth and moisture4 ,and finally1 that these microscopic organic bodies are multiplied and enlarged by solitary reproduction without sexual intercourse till they acquire greater perfection or new properties4 ,lewenhoek observed in rain-water which had stood a few days1 the smallest scarcely visible microscopic animalcules1 and in a few more days he observed others eight times as large2 ,english ,encyclop4 ,art4 ,animalcule4 ,conclusion4 ,there is therefore no absurdity in believing that the most simple animals and vegetables may be produced by the congress of the parts of decomposing organic matter1 without what can properly be termed generation1 as the genus did not previously exist2 which accounts for the endless varieties1 as well as for the immense numbers of microscopic animals4 ,the green vegetable matter of ,dr4 ,priestley1 which is universally produced in stagnant water1 and the mucor1 or mouldiness1 which is seen on the surface of all putrid vegetable and animal matter1 have probably no parents1 but a spontaneous origin from the congress of the decomposing organic particles1 and afterwards propagate themselves4 ,some other fungi1 as those growing in close wine-vaults1 or others which arise from decaying trees1 or rotten timber1 may perhaps be owing to a similar spontaneous production1 and not previously exist as perfect organic beings in the juices of the wood1 as some have supposed4 ,in the same manner it would seem1 that the common esculent mushroom is produced from horse dung at any time and in any place1 as is the common practice of many gardeners2 ,kennedy on ,gardening4 ,appendix4 ,the knowledge of microscopic animals is still in its infancy3 those already known are arranged by ,mr4 ,muller into the following classes2 but it is probable1 that many more classes1 as well as innumerable individuals1 may be discovered by improvements of the microscope1 as ,mr4 ,herschell has discovered so many thousand stars1 which were before invisible1 by improvements of the telescope4 ,mr4 ,muller's classes consist of ,i4 ,such as have no ,external ,organs4 #a4 ,monas3 ,punctiformis4 ,a mere point4 #b4 ,proteus3 ,mutabilis4 ,mutable4 #c4 ,volvox3 ,sphaericum4 ,spherical4 #d4 ,enchelis3 ,cylindracea4 ,cylindrical4 #e4 ,vibrio3 ,elongatum4 ,long4 99,membranaceous4 #f4 ,cyclidium3 ,ovale4 ,oval4 #g4 ,paramecium3 ,oblongum4 ,oblong4 #h4 ,kolpoda3 ,sinuatum4 ,sinuous4 #i4 ,gonium3 ,angulatum4 ,with angles4 #aj4 ,bursaria4 ,hollow like a purse4 ,,ii4 ,those that have ,external ,organs4 99,naked1 or not enclosed in a shell4 #a4 ,cercaria3 ,caudatum4 ,with a tail4 #b4 ,trichoda3 ,crinitum4 ,hairy4 #c4 ,kerona3 ,corniculatum4 ,with horns4 #d4 ,himantopus3 ,cirratum4 ,cirrated4 #e4 ,leucophra3 ,ciliatum undique4 ,every part ciliated4 #f4 ,vorticella3 ,ciliatum apice4 ,the apex ciliated4 99,covered with a shell4 #g4 ,brachionus3 ,ciliatum apice4 ,the apex ciliated4 #a4 ,these animalcules are discovered in two or three days in all decompositions of organic matter1 whether vegetable or animal1 in moderate degrees of warmth with sufficient moisture4 #b4 ,they appear to enlarge in a few days1 and some to change their form2 which are probably converted from more simple into more complicate animalcules by repeated reproductions4 ,see ,note ,,viii4 #c4 ,in their early state they seem to multiply by viviparous solitary reproduction1 either by external division1 as the smaller ones1 or by an internal progeny1 as the eels in paste or vinegar2 and lastly1 in their more mature state1 the larger ones are said to appear to have sexual connexion4 ,engl4 ,encyclop4 #d4 ,those animalcules discovered in pustules of the itch1 in the feces of dysenteric patients1 and in semine masculino1 ,i suppose to be produced by the stagnation and incipient decomposition of those materials in their receptacles1 and not to exist in the living blood or recent secretions2 as none1 ,i believe1 have been discovered in blood when first drawn from the arm1 or in fluids newly secreted from the glands1 which have not previously stagnated in their reservoirs4 #e4 ,they are observed to move in all directions with ease and rapidity1 and to avoid obstacles1 and not to interfere with each other in their motions4 ,when the water is in part evaporated1 they are seen to flock towards the remaining part1 and show great agitation4 ,they sustain a great degree of cold1 as some insects1 and perish in much the same degree of heat as destroys insects2 all which evince that they are living animals4 ,and it is probable1 that other or similar animalcules may be produced in the air1 or near the surface of the earth1 but it is not so easy to view them as in water2 which as it is transparent1 the creatures produced in it can easily be observed by applying a drop to a microscope4 ,i hope that microscopic researches may again excite the attention of philosophers1 as unforeseen advantages may probably be derived from them1 like the discovery of a new world4 ,,additional ,,notes4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,faculties ,,of ,,the ,,sensorium4 ,next the long nerves unite their silver train1 ,and young ,sensation permeates the brain4 ,,cant4 ,i4 l4 #bej4 ,i4 ,the fibres1 which constitute the muscles and organs of sense1 possess a power of contraction4 ,the circumstances attending the exertion of this power of contraction constitute the laws of animal motion1 as the circumstances attending the exertion of the power of attraction constitute the laws of motion of inanimate matter4 ,,ii4 ,the spirit of animation is the immediate cause of the contraction of animal fibres1 it resides in the brain and nerves1 and is liable to general or partial diminution or accumulation4 ,,iii4 ,the stimulus of bodies external to the moving organ is the remote cause of the original contractions of animal fibres4 ,,iv4 ,a certain quantity of stimulus produces irritation1 which is an exertion of the spirit of animation exciting the fibres into contraction4 ,v4 ,a certain quantity of contraction of animal fibres1 if it be perceived at all1 produces pleasure2 a greater or less quantity of contraction1 if it be perceived at all1 produces pain2 these constitute sensation4 ,,vi4 ,a certain quantity of sensation produces desire or aversion2 these constitute volition4 ,,vii4 ,all animal motions which have occurred at the same time1 or in immediate succession1 become so connected1 that when one of them is reproduced1 the other has a tendency to accompany or succeed it4 ,when fibrous contractions succeed or accompany other fibrous contractions1 the connexion is termed association2 when fibrous contractions succeed sensorial motions1 the connexion is termed causation2 when fibrous and sensorial motions reciprocally introduce each other1 it is termed catenation of animal motions4 ,,viii4 ,these four faculties of the sensorium during their inactive state are termed irritability1 sensibility1 voluntarily1 and associability2 in their active state they are termed as above irritation1 sensation1 volition1 association4 ,irritation is an exertion or change of some extreme part of the sensorium residing in the muscles or organs of sense1 in consequence of the appulses of external bodies4 ,sensation is an exertion or change of the central parts of the sensorium1 or of the whole of it1 beginning at some of those extreme parts of it1 which reside in the muscles or organs of sense4 ,volition is an exertion or change of the central parts of the sensorium1 or of the whole of it1 terminating in some of those extreme parts of it1 which reside in the muscles or organs of sense4 ,association is an exertion or change of some extreme part of the sensorium residing in the muscles or organs of sense1 in consequence of some antecedent or attendant fibrous contractions2 see ,zoonomia1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,the word sensorium is used to express not only the medullary part of the brain1 spinal marrow1 nerves1 organs of sense and muscles1 but also at the same time that living principle1 or spirit of animation1 which resides throughout the body1 without being cognizable to our senses except by its effects4 ,,additional ,,notes4 ,,iii4 ,next when imprison'd fires in central caves ,burst the firm earth1 and drank the headlong waves4 ,,canto ,i4 l4 #cjb4 ,the great and repeated explosions of volcanoes are shown by ,mr4 ,mitchell in the ,philosoph4 ,transact4 to arise from their communication with the sea1 or with rivers1 or inundations2 and that after a chink or crack is made1 the water rushing into an immense burning cavern1 and falling on boiling lava1 is instantly expanded into steam1 and produces irresistible explosions4 ,as the first volcanic fires had no previous vent1 and were probably more central1 and larger in quantity1 before they burst the crust of the earth then intire1 and as the sea covered the whole1 it must rapidly sink down into every opening chink2 whence these primeval earthquakes were of much greater extent1 and of much greater force1 than those which occur in the present era4 ,it should be added1 that there may be other elastic vapours produced by great heat from whatever will evaporate1 as mercury1 and even diamonds2 which may be more elastic1 and consequently exert greater force than the steam of water even though heated red hot4 ,which may thence exert a sufficient power to raise islands and continents1 and even to throw the moon from the earth4 ,if the moon be supposed to have been thus thrown out of the great cavity which now contains the ,south ,sea1 the immense quantity of water flowing in from the primeval ocean1 which then covered the earth1 would much contribute to leave the continents and islands1 which might be raised at the same time above the surface of the water4 ,in later days there are accounts of large stones falling from the sky1 which may have been thus thrown by explosion from some distant earthquake1 without sufficient force to cause them to circulate round the earth1 and thus produce numerous small moons or satellites4 ,mr4 ,mitchell observes1 that the agitations of the earth from the great earthquake at ,lisbon were felt in this country about the same time after the shock1 as sound would have taken in passing from ,lisbon hither2 and thence ascribes these agitations to the vibrations of the solid earth1 and not to subterraneous caverns of communication2 ,philos4 ,transact4 ,but from the existence of warm springs at ,bath and ,buxton1 there must certainly be unceasing subterraneous fires at some great depth beneath those parts of this island2 see on this subject ,botanic ,garden1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,canto ,,iv4 l4 #gi1 note4 ,for an account of the noxious vapours emitted from volcanoes1 see ,botanic ,garden1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,cant4 ,,iv4 l4 #cbh1 note4 ,for the milder effects of central fires1 see ,botanic ,garden1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,cant4 ,i4 l4 #aci1 and ,additional ,note ,,vi4 ,,additional ,,notes4 ,,iv4 ,so from deep lakes the dread musquito springs1 ,drinks the soft breeze1 and dries his tender wings4 ,,canto ,i4 l4 #cbg4 ,the gnat1 or musquito1 culex pipiens4 ,the larva of this insect lives chiefly in water1 and the pupa moves with great agility4 ,it is fished for by ducks2 and1 when it becomes a fly1 is the food of the young of partridges1 quails1 sparrows1 swallows1 and other small birds4 ,the females wound us1 and leave a red point2 and in ,india their bite is more venomous4 ,the male has its antennae and feelers feathered1 and seldom bites or sucks blood2 ,lin4 ,syst4 ,nat4 ,it may be driven away by smoke1 especially by that from inula helenium1 elecampane2 and by that of cannabis1 hemp4 ,kalm4 ,it is said that a light in a chamber will prevent their attack on sleeping persons4 ,the gnats of this country are produced in greater numbers in some years than others1 and are then seen in swarms for many evenings near the lakes or rivers whence they arise2 and1 ,i suppose1 emigrate to upland situations1 where fewer of them are produced4 ,about thirty years ago such a swarm was observed by ,mr4 ,whitehurst for a day or two about the lofty tower of ,derby church1 as to give a suspicion of the fabric being on fire4 ,many other kinds of flies have their origin in the water1 as perhaps the whole class of neuroptera4 ,thus the libellula1 dragon fly3 the larva of which hurries amid the water1 and is the cruel crocodile of aquatic insects4 ,after they become flies1 they prey principally on the class of insects termed lepidoptera1 and diptera of ,linneus4 ,the ephemera is another of this order1 which rises from the lakes in such quantities in some countries1 that the rustics have carried cart-loads of them to manure their corn lands2 the larva swims in the water3 in its fly-state the pleasures of life are of short duration1 as its marriage1 production of its progeny1 and funeral1 are often celebrated in one day4 ,the phryganea is another fly of this order2 the larva lies concealed under the water in moveable cylindrical tubes of their own making4 ,in the fly-state they institute evening dances in the air in swarms1 and are fished for by the swallows4 ,many other flies1 who do not leave their eggs in water1 contrive to lay them in moist places1 as the oestros bovis2 the larvae of which exist in the bodies of cattle1 where they are nourished during the winter1 and are occasionally extracted by a bird of the crow-kind called buphaga4 ,these larvae are also found in the stomachs of horses1 whom they sometimes destroy2 another species of them adhere to the anus of horses1 and creep into the lowest bowel1 and are called botts2 and another species enters the frontal sinus of sheep1 occasioning a vertigo called the turn4 ,the musca pendula lives in stagnant water2 the larva is suspended by a thread-form respiratory tube2 of the musca chamaeleon1 the larva lives in fountains1 and the fly occasionally walks upon the water4 ,the musca vomitoria is produced in carcases2 three of these flies consume the dead body of a horse as soon as a lion4 ,lin4 ,syst4 ,nat4 ,,additional ,,note4 ,v4 ,,amphibious ,,animals4 ,so still the ,diodons1 amphibious tribe1 ,with twofold lungs the sea and air imbibe4 ,,cant4 ,i4 l4 #cca4 ,d4 ,d4 ,garden dissected the amphibious creature called diodon by ,linneus1 and was amazed to find that it possessed both external gills and internal lungs1 which he described and prepared and sent to ,linneus2 who thence put this animal into the order nantes of his class amphibia4 ,he adds also1 in his account of polymorpha before the class amphibia1 that some of this class breathe by lungs only1 and others by both lungs and gills4 ,some amphibious quadrupeds1 as the beaver1 water rat1 and otter1 are said to have the foramen ovale of the heart open1 which communicates from one cavity of it to the other2 and that1 during their continuance under water1 the blood can thus for a time circulate without passing through the lungs2 but as it cannot by these means acquire oxygen either from the air or water1 these creatures find it frequently necessary to rise to the surface to respire4 ,as this foramen ovale is always open in the foetus of quadrupeds1 till after its birth that it begins to respire1 it has been proposed by some to keep young puppies three or four times a day for a minute or two under warm water to prevent this communication from one cavity of the heart to the other from growing up2 whence it has been thought such dogs might become amphibious4 ,it is also believed that this circumstance has existed in some divers for pearl2 whose children are said to have been thus kept under water in their early infancy to enable them afterwards to succeed in their employment4 ,but the most frequent distinction of the amphibious animals1 that live much in the water1 is1 that their heart consists but of one cell2 and as they are pale creatures with but little blood1 and that colder and darker coloured1 as frogs and lizards1 they require less oxygen than the warmer animals with a greater quantity and more scarlet blood2 and thence1 though they have only lungs1 they can stay long under water without great inconvenience2 but are all of them1 like frogs1 and crocodiles1 and whales1 necessitated frequently to rise above the surface for air4 ,in this circumstance of their possessing a one-celled heart1 and colder and darker blood1 they approach to the state of fish2 which thus appear not to acquire so much oxygen by their gills from the water as terrestrial animals do by their lungs from the atmosphere2 whence it may be concluded that the gills of fish do not decompose the water which passes through them1 and which contains so much more oxygen than the air1 but that they only procure a small quantity of oxygen from the air which is diffused in the water2 which also is further confirmed by an experiment with the air-pump1 as fish soon die when put in a glass of water into the exhausted receiver1 which they would not do if their gills had power to decompose the water and obtain the oxygen from it4 ,the lamprey1 petromyzon1 is put by ,linneus amongst the nantes1 which are defined to possess both gills and lungs4 ,it has seven spiracula1 or breathing holes1 on each side of the neck1 and by its more perfect lungs approaches to the serpent kind2 ,syst4 ,nat4 ,the means by which it adheres to stones1 even in rapid streams1 is probably owing to a partial vacuum made by its respiring organs like sucking1 and may be compared to the ingenious method by which boys are seen to lift large stones in the street1 by applying to them a piece of strong moist leather with a string through the centre of it2 which1 when it is forcibly drawn upwards1 produces a partial vacuum under it1 and thus the stone is supported by the pressure of the atmosphere4 ,the leech1 hirudo1 and the remora1 echeneis1 adhere strongly to objects probably by a similar method4 ,i once saw ten or twelve leeches adhere to each foot of an old horse a little above his hoofs1 who was grazing in a morass1 and which did not lose their hold when he moved about4 ,the bare-legged travellers in ,ceylon are said to be much infested by leeches2 and the sea-leech1 hirudo muricata1 is said to adhere to fish1 and the remora is said to adhere to ships in such numbers as to retard their progress4 ,the respiratory organ of the whale1 ,i suppose1 is pulmonary in part1 as he is obliged to come frequently to the surface1 whence he can be pursued after he is struck with the harpoon2 and may nevertheless be in part like the gills of other fish1 as he seems to draw in water when he is below the surface1 and emits it again when he rises above it4 ,,additional ,,note4 ,,vi4 ,,hieroglyphic ,,characters4 ,so erst as ,egypt's rude designs explain4 ,,canto ,i4 l4 #cea4 ,the outlines of animal bodies1 which gave names to the constellations1 as well as the characters used in chemistry for the metals1 and in astronomy for the planets1 were originally hieroglyphic figures1 used by the magi of ,egypt before the invention of letters1 to record their discoveries in those sciences4 ,other hieroglyphic figures seem to have been designed to perpetuate the events of history1 the discoveries in other arts1 and the opinions of those ancient philosophers on other subjects4 ,thus their figures of ,venus for beauty1 ,minerva for wisdom1 ,mars and ,bellona for war1 ,hercules for strength1 and many others1 became afterwards the deities of ,greece and ,rome2 and together with the figures of ,time1 ,death1 and ,fame1 constitute the language of the painters to this day4 ,from the similarity of the characters which designate the metals in chemistry1 and the planets in astronomy1 it may be concluded that these parts of science were then believed to be connected2 whence astrology seems to have been a very early superstition4 ,these1 so far1 constitute an universal visible language in those sciences4 ,so the glory1 or halo1 round the head is a part of the universal language of the eye1 designating a holy person2 wings on the shoulders denote a good angel2 and a tail and hoof denote the figure of an evil demon2 to which may be added the cap of liberty and the tiara of popedom4 ,it is to be wished that many other universal characters could be introduced into practice1 which might either constitute a more comprehensive language for painters1 or for other arts2 as those of ciphers and signs have done for arithmetic and algebra1 and crotchets for music1 and the alphabets for articulate sounds2 so a zigzag line made on white paper by a black-lead pencil1 which communicates with the surface of the mercury in the barometer1 as the paper itself is made constantly to move laterally by a clock1 and daily to descend through the space necessary1 has ingeniously produced a most accurate visible account of the rise and fall of the mercury in the barometer every hour in the year4 ,mr4 ,grey's ,memoria ,technica was designed as an artificial language to remember numbers1 as of the eras1 or dates of history4 ,this was done by substituting one consonant and one vowel for each figure of the ten cyphers used in arithmetic1 and by composing words of these letters2 which words ,mr4 ,grey makes into hexameter verses1 and produces an audible jargon1 which is to be committed to memory1 and occasionally analysed into numbers when required4 ,an ingenious ,french botanist1 ,monsieur ,bergeret1 has proposed to apply this idea of ,mr4 ,grey to a botanical nomenclature1 by making the name of each plant to consist of letters1 which1 when analysed1 were to signify the number of the class1 order1 genus1 and species1 with a description also of some particular part of the plant1 which was designed to be both an audible and visible language4 ,bishop ,wilkins in his elaborate ,essay towards a ,real ,character and a ,philosophical ,language1 has endeavoured to produce1 with the greatest simplicity1 and accuracy1 and conciseness1 an universal language both to be written and spoken1 for the purpose of the communication of all our ideas with greater exactness and less labour than is done in common languages1 as they are now spoken and written4 ,but we have to lament that the progress of general science is yet too limited both for his purpose1 and for that even of a nomenclature for botany2 and that the science of grammar1 and even the number and manner of the pronunciation of the letters of the alphabet1 are not yet determined with such accuracy as would be necessary to constitute ,bishop ,wilkins's grand design of an universal language1 which might facilitate the acquirement of knowledge1 and thus add to the power and happiness of mankind4 ,,additional ,,note4 ,,vii4 ,,old ,,age ,,and ,,death4 ,the age-worn fibres goaded to contract ,by repetition palsied1 cease to act4 ,,canto ,,ii4 l4 #d ,i4 ,effects of ,age4 ,the immediate cause of the infirmities of age1 or of the progress of life to death1 has not yet been well ascertained4 ,the answer to the question1 why animals become feeble and diseased after a time1 though nourished with the same food which increased their growth from infancy1 and afterwards supported them for many years in unimpaired health and strength1 must be sought for from the laws of animal excitability1 which1 though at first increased1 is afterwards diminished by frequent repetitions of its adapted stimulus1 and at length ceases to obey it4 #a4 ,there are four kinds of stimulus which induce the fibres to contract1 which constitute the muscles or the organs of sense2 as1 first1 ,the application of external bodies1 which excites into action the sensorial power of irritation2 #b;dly1 ,pleasure and pain1 which excite into action the sensorial power of sensation2 #c;dly1 ,desire and aversion1 which excite into action the power of volition2 and lastly1 ,the fibrous contractions1 which precede association1 which is another sensorial power2 see ,zoonomia1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,sect4 ,,ii4 #ac4 ,many of the motions of the organic system1 which are necessary to life1 are excited by more than one of these stimuli at the same time1 and some of them occasionally by them all4 ,thus respiration is generally caused by the stimulus of blood in the lungs1 or by the sensation of the want of oxygen2 but is also occasionally voluntary4 ,the actions of the heart also1 though generally owing to the stimulus of the blood1 are also inflamed by the association of its motions with those of the stomach1 whence sometimes arises an inequality of the pulse1 and with other parts of the system1 as with the capillaries1 whence heat of the skin in fevers with a feeble pulse1 see ,zoonomia4 ,they are also occasionally influenced by sensation1 as is seen in the paleness occasioned by fear1 or the blush of shame and anger2 and lastly the motions of the heart are sometimes assisted by volition2 thus in those who are much weakened by fevers1 the pulse is liable to stop during their sleep1 and to induce great distress2 which is owing at that time to the total suspension of voluntary power2 the same occurs during sleep in some asthmatic patients4 #b4 ,the debility of approaching age appears to be induced by the inactivity of many parts of the system1 or their disobedience to their usual kinds and quantities of stimulus3 thus the pallid appearance of the skin of old age is owing to the inactivity of the heart1 which ceases to obey the irritation caused by the stimulus of the blood1 or its association with other moving organs with its former energy2 whence the capillary arteries are not sufficiently distended in their diastole1 and consequently contract by their elasticity1 so as to close the canal1 and their sides gradually coalesce4 ,of these1 those which are most distant from the heart1 and of the smallest diameters1 will soonest close1 and become impervious2 hence the hard pulse of aged patients is occasioned by the coalescence of the sides of the vasa vasorum1 or capillary arteries of the coats of the other arteries4 ,the veins of elderly people become turgid or distended with blood1 and stand prominent on the skin2 for as these do not possess the elasticity of the arteries1 they become distended with accumulation of blood2 when the heart by its lessened excitability does not contract sufficiently forcibly1 or frequently1 to receive1 as fast as usual1 the returning blood2 and their apparent prominence on the skin is occasioned by the deficient secretion of fat or mucus in the cellular membrane2 and also to the contraction and coalescence and consequent less bulk of many capillary arteries4 #c4 ,not only the muscular fibres lose their degree of excitability from age1 as in the above examples2 and as may be observed in the tremulous hands and feeble step of elderly persons2 but the organs of sense become less excitable by the stimulus of external objects2 whence the sight and hearing become defective2 the stimulus of the sensorial power of sensation also less affects the aged1 who grieve less for the loss of friends or for other disappointments2 it should nevertheless be observed1 that when the sensorial power of irritation is much exhausted1 or its production much diminished2 the sensorial power of sensation appears for a time to be increased2 as in intoxication there exists a kind of delirium and quick flow of ideas1 and yet the person becomes so weak as to totter as he walks2 but this delirium is owing to the defect of voluntary power to correct the streams of ideas by intuitive analogy1 as in dreams3 see ,zoonomia3 and thus also those who are enfeebled by habits of much vinous potation1 or even by age alone1 are liable to weep at shaking hands with a friend1 whom they have not lately seen2 which is owing to defect of voluntary power to correct their trains of ideas caused by sensation1 and not to the increased quantity of sensation1 as ,i formerly supposed4 ,the same want of voluntary power to keep the trains of sensitive ideas consistent1 and to compare them by intuitive analogy with the order of nature1 is the occasion of the starting at the clapping to of a door1 or the fall of a key1 which occasions violent surprise with fear and sometimes convulsions1 in very feeble hysterical patients1 and is not owing ,i believe 7as ,i formerly supposed7 to increased sensation2 as they are less sensible to small stimuli than when in health4 ,old people are less able also to perform the voluntary exertions of exercise or of reasoning1 and lastly the association of their ideas becomes more imperfect1 as they are forgetful of the names of persons and places2 the associations of which are less permanent1 than those of the other words of a language1 which are more frequently repeated4 #d4 ,this disobedience of the fibres of age to their usual stimuli1 has generally been ascribed to repetition or habit1 as those who live near a large clock1 or a mill1 or a waterfall1 soon cease to attend to the perpetual noise of it in the day1 and sleep dining the night undisturbed4 ,thus all medicines1 if repeated too frequently1 gradually lose their effect2 as wine and opium cease to intoxicate3 some disagreeable tastes as tobacco1 by frequent repetition cease to be disagreeable2 grief and pain gradually diminish and at length cease altogether2 and hence life itself becomes tolerable4 ,this diminished power of contraction of the fibres of the muscles or organs of sense1 which constitutes permanent debility or old age1 may arise from a deficient secretion of sensorial power in the brain1 as well as from the disobedience of the muscles and organs of sense to their usual stimuli2 but this less production of sensorial power must depend on the inactivity of the glands1 which compose the brain1 and are believed to separate it perpetually from the blood2 and is thence owing to a similar cause with the inaction of the fibres of the other parts of the system4 ,it is finally easy to understand how the fibres may cease to act by the usual quantity of stimulus after having been previously exposed to a greater quantity of stimulus1 or to one too long continued2 because the expenditure of sensorial power has then been greater than its production2 but it is not easy to explain why the repetition of fibrous contractions1 which during the meridian of life did not expend the sensorial power faster than it was produced2 or only in such a degree as was daily restored by rest and sleep1 should at length in the advance of life expend too much of it2 or otherwise1 that less of it should be produced in the brain2 or reside in the nerves2 lastly that the fibres should become less excitable by the usual quantity of it4 #e4 ,but these facts would seem to show1 that all parts of the system are not changed as we advance in life1 as some have supposed2 as in that case it might have preserved for ever its excitability2 and it might then perhaps have been easier for nature to have continued her animals and vegetables for ever in their mature state1 than perpetually by a complicate apparatus to have produced new ones1 and suffer the old ones to perish2 for a further account of stimulus and the consequent animal exertion1 see ,zoonomia1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,sect4 #ab4 ,,ii4 ,means of preventing old age4 ,the means of preventing the approach of age must therefore consist in preventing the inexcitability of the fibres1 or the diminution of the production of sensorial power4 #a4 ,as animal motion cannot be performed without the fluid matter of heat1 in which all things are immersed1 and without a sufficient quantity of moisture to prevent rigidity3 nothing seems so well adapted to both these purposes as the use of the warm bath2 and especially in those1 who become thin or emaciated with age1 and who have a hard and dry skin1 with hardness of the coat of the arteries2 which feels under the finger like a cord2 the patient should sit in warm water for half an hour every day1 or alternate days1 or twice a week2 the heat should be about ninety-eight degrees on ,fahrenheit's scale1 or of such a warmth1 as may be most agreeable to his sensation2 but on leaving the bath he should always be kept so cool1 whether he goes into bed1 or continues up1 as not sensibly to perspire4 ,there is a popular prejudice1 that the warm bath relaxes people1 and that the cold bath braces them2 which are mechanical terms belonging to drums and fiddle-strings1 but not applicable except metaphorically to animal bodies1 and then commonly mean weakness and strength3 during the continuance in the bath the patient does not lose weight1 unless he goes in after a full meal1 but generally weighs heavier as the absorption is greater than the perspiration2 but if he suffers himself to sweat on his leaving the bath1 he will undoubtedly be weakened by the increased action of the system1 and its exhaustion3 the same occurs to those who are heated by exercise1 or by wine1 or spice1 but not during their continuance in the warm bath3 whence we may conclude1 that the warm bath is the most harmless of all those stimuli1 which are greater than our natural habits have accustomed us to2 and that it particularly counteracts the approach of old age in emaciated people with dry skins4 ,it may be here observed in favour of bathing1 that some fish are believed to continue to a great age1 and continually to enlarge in size1 as they advance in life2 and that long after their state of puberty4 ,i have seen perch full of spawn1 which were less than two inches long2 and it is known1 that they will grow to six or eight times that size2 it is said1 that the whales1 which have been caught of late years1 are much less in size than those1 which were caught1 when first the whale-fishery was established2 as the large ones1 which were supposed to have been some hundred years old1 are believed to be already destroyed4 ,all cold-blooded amphibious animals more slowly waste their sensorial power2 as they are accustomed to less stimulus from their respiring less oxygen2 and their movements in water are slower than those of aerial animals from the greater resistance of the element4 ,there besides seems to be no obstacle to the growth of aquatic animals2 as by means of the air-bladder1 they can make their specific gravity the same as that of the water in which they swim4 ,and the moisture of the element seems well adapted to counteract the rigidity of their fibres2 and as their exertions in locomotion1 and the pressure of some parts on others1 are so much less than in the bodies of land animals4 #b4 ,but as all excessive stimuli exhaust the sensorial power1 and render the system less excitable for a time till the quantity of sensorial power is restored by sleep1 or by the diminution or absence of stimulus2 which is seen by the weakness of inebriates for a day at least after intoxication4 ,and as the frequent repetition of this great and unnatural stimulus of fermented liquors produces a permanent debility1 or disobedience of the system to the usual and natural kinds and quantities of stimulus1 as occurs in those who have long been addicted to the ingurgitation of fermented liquors4 ,and as1 secondly1 the too great deficiency of the quantity of natural stimuli1 as of food1 and warmth1 or of fresh air1 produces also diseases2 as is often seen in the children of the poor in large towns1 who become scrofulous from want of due nourishment1 and from cold1 damp1 unairy lodgings4 ,the great and principal means to prevent the approach of old age and death1 must consist in the due management of the quantity of every kind of stimulus1 but particularly of that from objects external to the moving organ2 which may excite into action too great or too small a quantity of the sensorial power of irritation1 which principally actuates the vital organs4 ,whence the use of much wine1 or opium1 or spice1 or of much salt1 by their unnatural stimulus induces consequent debility1 and shortens life1 on the one hand1 by the exhaustion of sensorial power2 so on the other hand1 the want of heat1 food1 and fresh air1 induces debility from defect of stimulus1 and a consequent accumulation of sensorial power1 and a general debility of the system4 ,whence arise the pains of cold and hunger1 and those which are called nervous2 and which are the cause of hysteric1 epileptic1 and perhaps of asthmatic paroxysms1 and of the cold fits of fever4 #c4 ,though all excesses of increase and decrease of stimulus should be avoided1 yet a certain variation of stimulus seems to prolong the excitability of the system2 as during any diminution of the usual quantity of stimulus1 an accumulation of sensorial power is produced2 and in consequence the excitability1 which was lessened by the action of habitual stimulus1 becomes restored4 ,thus those1 who are uniformly habituated to much artificial heat1 as in warm parlours in the winter months1 lose their irritability in some degree1 and become feeble like hot-house plants2 but by frequently going for a time into the cold air1 the sensorial power of irritability is accumulated and they become stronger4 ,whence it may be deduced1 that the variations of the cold and heat of this climate contribute to strengthen its inhabitants1 who are more active and vigorous1 and live longer1 than those of either much warmer or much colder latitudes4 ,this accumulation of sensorial power from diminution of stimulus any one may observe1 who in severe weather may sit by the fire-side till he is chill and uneasy with the sensation of cold2 but if he walks into the frosty air for a few minutes1 an accumulation of sensorial power is produced by diminution of the stimulus of heat1 and on his returning into the room where he was chill before1 his whole skin will now glow with warmth4 ,hence it may be concluded1 that the variations of the quantity of stimuli within certain limits contribute to our health2 and that those houses which are kept too uniformly warm1 are less wholesome than where the inhabitants are occasionally exposed to cold air in passing from one room to another4 ,nevertheless to those weak habits with pale skins and large pupils of the eyes1 whose degree of irritability is less than health requires1 as in scrofulous1 hysterical1 and some consumptive constitutions1 a climate warmer than our own may be of service1 as a greater stimulus of heat may be wanted to excite their less irritability4 ,and also a more uniform quantity of heat may be serviceable to consumptive patients than is met with in this country1 as the lungs cannot be clothed like the external skin1 and are therefore subject to greater extremes of heat and cold in passing in winter from a warm room into the frosty air4 #d4 ,it should nevertheless be observed1 that there is one kind of stimulus1 which though it be employed in quantity beyond its usual state1 seems to increase the production of sensorial power beyond the expenditure of it 7unless its excess is great indeed7 and thence to give permanent strength and energy to the system2 ,i mean that of volition4 ,this appears not only from the temporary strength of angry or insane people1 but because insanity even cures some diseases of debility1 as ,i have seen in dropsy1 and in some fevers2 but it is also observable1 that many who have exerted much voluntary effort during their whole lives1 have continued active to great age4 ,this however may be conceived to arise from these great exertions being performed principally by the organs of sense1 that is by exciting and comparing ideas2 as in those who have invented sciences1 or have governed nations1 and which did not therefore exhaust the sensorial power of those organs which are necessary to life1 but perhaps rather prevented them from being sooner impaired1 their sensorial power not having been so frequently exhausted by great activity1 for very violent exercise of the body1 long continued1 forwards old age2 as is seen in post-horses that are cruelly treated1 and in many of the poor1 who with difficulty support their families by incessant labour4 ,,iii4 ,theory of the ,approach of ,age4 ,the critical reader is perhaps by this time become so far interested in this subject as to excuse a more prolix elucidation of it4 ,in early life the repetition of animal actions occasions them to be performed with greater facility1 whether those repetitions are produced by volition1 sensation1 or irritation2 because they soon become associated together1 if as much sensorial power is produced between every reiteration of action1 as is expended by it4 ,but if a stimulus be repeated at uniform intervals of time1 the action1 whether of our muscles or organs of sense1 is performed with still greater facility and energy2 because the sensorial power of association mentioned above1 is combined with the sensorial power of irritation1 and forms part of the diurnal chain of animal motions2 that is1 in common language1 the acquired habit assists the power of the stimulus2 see ,zoonomia1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,sect4 ,,xxii4 #b4 and ,sect4 ,,xii4 #c4 #c4 ,on this circumstance depends the easy motions of the fingers in performing music1 and of the feet and arms in dancing and fencing1 and of the hands in the use of tools in mechanic arts1 as well as all the vital motions which animate and nourish organic bodies4 ,on the contrary1 many animal motions by perpetual repetition are performed with less energy2 as those who live near a waterfall1 or a smith's forge1 after a time1 cease to hear them4 ,and in those infectious diseases which are attended with fever1 as the small-pox and measles1 violent motions of the system are excited1 which at length cease1 and cannot again be produced by application of the same stimulating material2 as when those are inoculated for the small-pox1 who have before undergone that malady4 ,hence the repetition1 which occasions animal actions for a time to be performed with greater energy1 occasions them at length to become feeble1 or to cease entirely4 ,to explain this difficult problem we must more minutely consider the catenations of animal motions1 as described in ,zoonomia1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,sect4 ,,xvii4 ,the vital motions1 as suppose of the heart and arterial system1 commence from the irritation occasioned by the stimulus of the blood1 and then have this irritation assisted by the power of association2 at the same time an agreeable sensation is produced by the due actions of the fibres1 as in the secretions of the glands1 which constitutes the pleasure of existence2 this agreeable sensation is intermixed between every link of this diurnal chain of actions1 and contributes to produce it by what is termed animal causation4 ,but there is also a degree of the power of volition excited in consequence of this vital pleasure1 which is also intermixed between the links of the chain of fibrous actions2 and thus also contributes to its uniform easy and perpetual production4 ,the effects of surprise and novelty must now be considered by the patient reader1 as they affect the catenations of action2 and1 ,i hope1 the curiosity of the subject will excuse the prolixity of this account of it4 ,when any violent stimulus breaks the passing current or catenation of our ideas1 surprise is produced1 which is accompanied with pain or pleasure1 and consequent volition to examine the object of it1 as explained in ,zoonomia1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,sect4 ,,xviii4 #ag1 and which never affects us in sleep4 ,in our waking hours whenever an idea of imagination occurs1 which is incongruous to our former experience1 we feel another kind of surprise1 and instantly dissever the train of imagination by the power of volition1 and compare the incongruous idea with our previous knowledge of nature1 and reject it by an act of reasoning1 of which we are unconscious1 termed in ,zoonomia1 ,intuitive ,analogy1 ,vol4 ,i ,sect4 ,,xvii4 #g4 ,the novelty of any idea may be considered as affecting us with another kind of surprise1 or incongruity1 as it differs from the usual train of our ideas1 and forms a new link in this perpetual chain2 which1 as it thus differs from the ordinary course of nature1 we instantly examine by the voluntary efforts of intuitive analogy2 or by reasoning1 which we attend to2 and compare it with the usual appearances of nature4 ,these ideas which affect us with surprise1 or incongruity1 or novelty1 are attended with painful or pleasurable sensation2 which we mentioned before as intermixing with all catenations of animal actions1 and contributing to strengthen their perpetual and energetic production2 and also exciting in some degree the power of volition1 which also intermixes with the links of the chain of animal actions1 and contributes to produce it4 ,now by frequent repetition the surprise1 incongruity1 or novelty ceases2 and1 in consequence1 the pleasure or pain which accompanied it1 and also the degree of volition which was excited by that sensation of pain or pleasure2 and thus the sensorial power of sensation and of volition are subducted from the catenation of vital actions1 and they are in consequence produced much weaker1 and at length cease entirely4 ,whence we learn why contagious matters induce their effects on the circulation but once2 and why1 in process of time1 the vital movements are performed with less energy1 and at length cease2 whence the debilities of age1 and consequent death4 ,,additional ,,notes4 ,,viii4 ,,reproduction4 ,but ,reproduction with ethereal fires ,new life rekindles1 ere the first expires4 ,,canto ,,ii4 l4 #ac4 ,i4 ,the reproduction or generation of living organized bodies1 is the great criterion or characteristic which distinguishes animation from mechanism4 ,fluids may circulate in hydraulic machines1 or simply move in them1 as mercury in the barometer or thermometer1 but the power of producing an embryon which shall gradually acquire similitude to its parent1 distinguishes artificial from natural organization4 ,the reproduction of plants and animals appears to be of two kinds1 solitary and sexual2 the former occurs in the formation of the buds of trees1 and the bulbs of tulips2 which for several successions generate other buds1 and other bulbs1 nearly similar to the parent1 but constantly approaching to greater perfection1 so as finally to produce sexual organs1 or flowers1 and consequent seeds4 ,the same occurs in some inferior kinds of animals2 as the aphises in the spring and summer are viviparous for eight or nine generations1 which successively produce living descendants without sexual intercourse1 and are themselves1 ,i suppose1 without sex2 at length in the autumn they propagate males and females1 which copulate and lay eggs1 which lie dormant during the winter1 and are hatched by the vernal sun2 while the truffle1 and perhaps mushrooms amongst vegetables1 and the polypus and taenia amongst insects1 perpetually propagate themselves by solitary reproduction1 and have not yet acquired male and female organs4 ,philosophers have thought these viviparous aphides1 and the taenia1 and volvox1 to be females2 and have supposed them to have been impregnated long before their nativity within each other2 so the taenia and volvox still continue to produce their offspring without sexual intercourse4 ,one extremity of the taenia1 is said by ,linneus to grow old1 whilst at the other end new ones are generated proceeding to infinity like the roots of grass4 ,the volvox globator is transparent1 and carries within itself children and grandchildren to the fifth generation like the aphides2 so that the taenia produces children and grandchildren longitudinally in a chain-like series1 and the volvox propagates an offspring included within itself to the fifth generation2 ,syst4 ,nat4 ,many microscopic animals1 and some larger ones1 as the hydra or polypus1 are propagated by splitting or dividing2 and some still larger animals1 as oysters1 and perhaps eels1 have not yet acquired sexual organs1 but produce a paternal progeny1 which requires no mother to supply it with a nidus1 or with nutriment and oxygenation2 and1 therefore1 very accurately resemble the production of the buds of trees1 and the wires of some herbaceous plants1 as of knot-grass and of strawberries1 and the bulbs of other plants1 as of onions and potatoes2 which is further treated of in ,phytologia1 ,sect4 ,,vii4 ,the manner in which ,i suspect the solitary reproduction of the buds of trees to be effected1 may also be applied to the solitary generation of the insects mentioned above1 and probably of many others1 perhaps of all the microscopic ones4 ,it should be previously observed1 that many insects are hermaphrodite1 possessing both male and female organs of reproduction1 as shell-snails and dew-worms2 but that these are seen reciprocally to copulate with each other1 and are believed not to be able to impregnate themselves2 which belongs1 therefore1 to sexual generation1 and not to the solitary reproduction of which ,i am now speaking4 ,as in the chemical production of any new combination of matter1 two kinds of particles appear to be necessary2 one of which must possess the power of attraction1 and the other the aptitude to be attracted1 as a magnet and a piece of iron2 so in vegetable or animal combinations1 whether for the purpose of nutrition or for reproduction1 there must exist also two kinds of organic matter2 one possessing the appetency to unite1 and the other the propensity to be united2 7see ,zoonomia1 octavo edition1 ,sect4 ,,xxxix4 #h47 ,hence in the generation of the buds of trees1 there are probably two kinds of glands1 which acquire from the vegetable blood1 and deposite beneath the cuticle of the tree two kinds of formative organic matter1 which unite and form parts of the new vegetable embryon2 which again uniting with other such organizations form the caudex1 or the plumula1 or the radicle1 of a new vegetable bud4 ,a similar mode of reproduction by the secretion of two kinds of organic particles from the blood1 and by depositing them either internally as in the vernal and summer aphis or volvox1 or externally as in the polypus and taenia1 probably obtains in those animals2 which are thence propagated by the father only1 not requiring a cradle1 or nutriment1 or oxygenation from a mother2 and that the five generations1 said to be seen in the transparent volvox globator within each other1 are perhaps the successive progeny to be delivered at different periods of time from the father1 and erroneously supposed to be mothers impregnated before their nativity4 ,,ii4 ,sexual as well as solitary reproduction appears to be effected by two kinds of glands2 one of which collects or secretes from the blood formative organic particles with appetencies to unite1 and the other formative organic particles with propensities to be united4 ,these probably undergo some change by a kind of digestion in their respective glands2 but could not otherwise unite previously in the mass of blood from its perpetual motion4 ,the first mode of sexual reproduction seems to have been by the formation of males into hermaphrodites2 that is1 when the numerous formative glands1 which existed in the caudex of the bud of a tree1 or on the surface of a polypus1 became so united as to form but two glands2 which might then be called male and female organs4 ,but they still collect and secrete their adapted particles from the same mass of blood as in snails and dew-worms1 but do not seem to be so placed as to produce an embryon by the mixture of their secreted fluids1 but to require the mutual assistance of two hermaphrodites for that purpose4 ,from this view-of the subject1 it would appear that vegetables and animals were at first propagated by solitary generation1 and afterwards by hermaphrodite sexual generation2 because most vegetables possess at this day both male and female organs in the same flower1 which ,linneus has thence well called hermaphrodite flowers2 and that this hermaphrodite mode of reproduction still exists in many insects1 as in snails and worms2 and1 finally1 because all the male quadrupeds1 as well as men1 possess at this day some remains of the female apparatus1 as the breasts with nipples1 which still at their nativity are said to be replete with a kind of milk1 and the nipples swell on titillation4 ,afterwards the sexes seem to have been formed in vegetables as in flowers1 in addition to the power of solitary reproduction by buds4 ,so in animals the aphis is propagated both by solitary reproduction as in spring1 or by sexual generation as in autumn2 then the vegetable sexes began to exist in separate plants1 as in the classes monoecia and dioecia1 or both of them in the same plant also1 as in the class polygamia2 but the larger and more perfect animals are now propagated by sexual reproduction only1 which seems to have been the chef-d'oeuvre1 or capital work of nature2 as appears by the wonderful transformations of leaf-eating caterpillars into honey-eating moths and butterflies1 apparently for the sole purpose of the formation of sexual organs1 as in the silk-worm1 which takes no food after its transformation1 but propagates its species and dies4 ,,iii4 ,recapitulation4 ,the microscopic productions of spontaneous vitality1 and the next most inferior kinds of vegetables and animals1 propagate by solitary generation only2 as the buds and bulbs raised immediately from seeds1 the lycoperdon tuber1 with probably many other fungi1 and the polypus1 volvox1 and taenia4 ,those of the next order propagate both by solitary and sexual reproduction1 as those buds and bulbs which produce flowers as well as other buds or bulbs2 and the aphis1 and probably many other insects4 ,whence it appears1 that many of those vegetables and animals1 which are produced by solitary generation1 gradually become more perfect1 and at length produce a sexual progeny4 ,a third order of organic nature consists of hermaphrodite vegetables and animals1 as in those flowers which have anthers and stigmas in the same corol2 and in many insects1 as leeches1 snails1 and worms2 and perhaps all those reptiles which have no bones1 according to the observation of ,m4 ,poupart1 who thinks1 that the number of hermaphrodite animals exceeds that of those which are divided into sexes2 ,mem4 de l',acad4 des ,sciences4 ,these hermaphrodite insects ,i suspect to be incapable of impregnating themselves for reasons mentioned in ,zoonomia1 ,sect4 ,,xxxix4 #f4 #b4 ,and1 lastly1 the most perfect orders of animals are propagated by sexual intercourse only2 which1 however1 does not extend to vegetables1 as all those raised from seed produce some generations of buds or bulbs1 previous to their producing flowers1 as occurs not only in trees1 but also in the annual plants4 ,thus three or four joints of wheat grow upon each other1 before that which produces a flower2 which joints are all separate plants growing over each other1 like the buds of trees1 previous to the uppermost2 though this happens in a few months in annual plants1 which requires as many years in the successive buds of trees2 as is further explained in ,phytologia1 ,sect4 ,,ix4 #c4 #a4 ,,iv4 ,conclusion4 ,where climate is favourable1 and salubrious food plentiful1 there is reason to believe1 that the races of animals perpetually improve by reproduction4 ,the smallest microscopic animals become larger ones in a short time1 probably by successive reproductions1 as is so distinctly seen in the buds of seedling apple-trees1 and in the bulbs of tulips raised from seed2 both which die annually1 and leave behind them one or many1 which are more perfect than themselves1 till they produce a sexual progeny1 or flowers4 ,to which may be added1 the rapid improvement of our domesticated dogs1 horses1 rabbits1 pigeons1 which improve in size1 or in swiftness1 or in the sagacity of the sense of smell1 or in colour1 or other properties1 by sexual reproduction4 ,the great ,linneus having perceived the changes produced in the vegetable world by sexual reproduction1 has supposed that not more than about sixty plants were at first created1 and that all the others have been formed by their solitary or sexual reproductions2 and adds1 ,suadent haec ,creatoris leges a simplicibus ad composita2 ,gen4 ,plant4 preface to the natural orders1 and ,amenit4 ,acad4 ,,vi4 #bgi4 ,this mode of reasoning may be extended to the most simple productions of spontaneous vitality4 ,there is one curious circumstance of animal life analogous in some degree to this wonderful power of reproduction2 which is seen in the propagation of some contagious diseases4 ,thus one grain of variolous matter1 inserted by inoculation1 shall in about seven days stimulate the system into unnatural action2 which in about seven days more produces ten thousand times the quantity of a similar material thrown out on the skin in pustules6 ,the mystery of reproduction1 which alone distinguishes organic life from mechanic or chemic action1 is yet wrapt in darkness4 ,during the decomposition of organic bodies1 where there exists a due degree of warmth with moisture1 new microscopic animals of the most minute kind are produced2 and these possess the wonderful power of reproduction1 or of producing animals similar to themselves in their general structure1 but with frequent additional improvements2 which the preceding parent might in some measure have acquired by his habits of life or accidental situation4 ,but it may appear too bold in the present state of our knowledge on this subject1 to suppose that all vegetables and animals now existing were originally derived from the smallest microscopic ones1 formed by spontaneous vitality8 and that they have by innumerable reproductions1 during innumerable centuries of time1 gradually acquired the size1 strength1 and excellence of form and faculties1 which they now possess8 and that such amazing powers were originally impressed on matter and spirit by the great ,parent of ,parents6 ,cause of ,causes6 ,ens ,entium6 ,,additional ,,notes4 ,,ix4 ,,storge4 ,and ,heaven-born ,,storge weaves the social chain4 ,,canto ,,ii4 l4 #ib4 ,the ,greek word ,storge is used for the affection of parents to children2 which was also visibly represented by the ,stork or ,pelican feeding her young with blood taken from her own wounded bosom4 ,a number of ,pelicans form a semicircle in shallow parts of the sea near the coast1 standing on their long legs2 and thus including a shoal of small fish1 they gradually approach the shore2 and seizing the fish as they advance1 receive them into a pouch under their throats2 and bringing them to land regurgitate them for the use of their young1 or for their future support4 ,adanson1 ,voyage to ,senegal4 ,in this country the parent ,pigeons both male and female swallow the grain or other seeds1 which they collect for their young1 and bring it up mixed with a kind of milk from their stomachs1 with their bills inserted into the mouths of the young doves4 ,j4 ,hunter's works4 ,the affection of the parent to the young in experienced mothers may be in part owing to their having been relieved by them from the burden of their milk2 but it is difficult to understand1 how this affection commences in those mothers of the bestial world1 who have not experienced this relief from the sucking of their offspring2 and still more so to understand how female birds were at first induced to incubate their eggs for many weeks2 and lastly how caterpillars1 as of the silk-worm1 are induced to cover themselves with a well-woven house of silk before their transformation4 ,these as well as many other animal facts1 which are difficult to account for1 have been referred to an inexplicable instinct2 which is supposed to preclude any further investigation3 but as animals seem to have undergone great changes1 as well as the inanimate parts of the earth1 and are probably still in a state of gradual improvement2 it is not unreasonable to conclude1 that some of these actions both of large animals and of insects1 may have been acquired in a state preceding their present one2 and have been derived from the parents to their offspring by imitation1 or other kind of tradition2 thus the eggs of the crocodile are at this day hatched by the warmth of the sun in ,egypt2 and the eggs of innumerable insects1 and the spawn of fish1 and of frogs1 in this climate are hatched by the vernal warmth3 this might be the case of birds in warm climates1 in their early state of existence2 and experience might have taught them to incubate their eggs1 as they became more perfect animals1 or removed themselves into colder climates3 thus the ostrich is said to sit upon its eggs only in the night in warm situations1 and both day and night in colder ones4 ,this love of the mother in quadrupeds to the offspring1 whom she licks and cleans1 is so allied to the pleasure of the taste or palate1 that nature seems to have had a great escape in the parent quadruped not devouring her offspring4 ,bitches1 and cats1 and sows1 eat the placenta2 and if a dead offspring occurs1 ,i am told1 that also is sometimes eaten1 and yet the living offspring is spared2 and by that nice distinction the progenies of those animals are saved from destruction6 ,certior factus sum a viro rebus antiquissimis docto1 quod legitur in ,berosi operibus homines ante diluvium mulierum puerperarum placentam edidisse1 quasi cibum delicatum in epulis luxuriosis2 et quod hoc nefandissimo crimine movebatur ,deus diluvio submergere terrarum incolas4 ,,anon4 ,it may be finally concluded1 that this affection from the parent to the progeny existed before animals were divided into sexes1 and produced the beginning of sympathetic society1 the source of which may perhaps be thus well accounted for2 whenever the glandular system is stimulated into greater natural action within certain limits1 an addition of pleasure is produced along with the increased secretion2 this pleasure arising from the activity of the system is supposed to constitute the happiness of existence1 in contradistinction to the ennui or taedium vitae2 as shown in ,zoonomia1 ,sect4 ,,xxxiii4 #a4 ,hence the secretion of nutritious juices occasioned by the stimulus of an embryon or egg in the womb gives pleasure to the parent for a length of time2 whence by association a similar pleasure may be occasioned to the parent by seeing and touching the egg or fetus after its birth2 and in lactescent animals an additional pleasure is produced by the new secretion of milk1 as well as by its emission into the sucking lips of the infant4 ,this appears to be one of the great secrets of ,nature1 one of those fine1 almost invisible cords1 which have bound one animal to another4 ,the females of lactiferous animals have thus a passion or inlet of pleasure in their systems more than the males1 from their power of giving suck to their offspring2 the want of the object of this passion1 either owing to the death of the progeny1 or to the unnatural fashion of their situation in life1 not only deprives them of this innocent and virtuous source of pleasure2 but has occasioned diseases1 which have been fatal to many of them4 ,,additional ,,notes4 ,x4 ,,eve ,,from ,,adam',s ,,rib4 ,form'd a new sex1 the mother of mankind4 ,,canto ,,ii4 l4 #adj4 ,the mosaic history of ,paradise and of ,adam and ,eve has been thought by some to be a sacred allegory1 designed to teach obedience to divine commands1 and to account for the origin of evil1 like ,jotham's fable of the trees2 ,judges ix4 #h4 or ,nathan's fable of the poor man and his lamb2 #b ,sam4 xii4 #a4 or like the parables in the ,new ,testament2 as otherwise knowledge could not be said to grow upon one tree1 and life upon another1 or a serpent to converse2 and lastly that this account originated with the magi or philosophers of ,egypt1 with whom ,moses was educated1 and that this part of the history1 where ,eve is said to have been made from a rib of ,adam might have been an hieroglyphic design of the ,egyptian philosophers1 showing their opinion that ,mankind was originally of both sexes united1 and was afterwards divided into males and females3 an opinion in later times held by ,plato1 and ,i believe by ,aristotle1 and which must have arisen from profound inquiries into the original state of animal existence4 ,,additional ,,notes4 ,,xi4 ,,hereditary ,,diseases4 ,the feeble births acquired diseases chase1 ,till ,death extinguish the degenerate race4 ,,canto ,,ii4 l4 #afe4 ,as all the families both of plants and animals appear in a state of perpetual improvement or degeneracy1 it becomes a subject of importance to detect the causes of these mutations4 ,the insects1 which are not propagated by sexual intercourse1 are so few or so small1 that no observations have been made on their diseases2 but hereditary diseases are believed more to affect the offspring of solitary than of sexual generation in respect to vegetables2 as those fruit trees1 which have for more than a century been propagated only by ingrafting1 and not from seeds1 have been observed by ,mr4 ,knight to be at this time so liable to canker1 as not to be worth cultivation4 ,from the same cause ,i suspect the degeneracy of some potatoes and of some strawberries to have arisen2 where the curled leaf has appeared in the former1 and barren flowers in the latter4 ,this may arise from the progeny by solitary reproduction so much more exactly resembling the parent1 as is well seen in grafted trees compared with seedling ones2 the fruit of the former always resembling that of the parent tree1 but not so of the latter4 ,the grafted scion also accords with the branch of the tree from whence it was taken1 in the time of its bearing fruit2 for if a scion be taken from a bearing branch of a pear or apple tree1 ,i believe1 it will produce fruit even the next year1 or that succeeding2 that is1 in the same time that it would have produced fruit1 if it had continued growing on the parent tree2 but if the parent pear or apple tree has been cut down or headed1 and scions are then1 taken from the young shoots of the stem1 and ingrafted2 ,i believe those grafted trees will continue to grow for ten or twelve years1 before they bear fruit1 almost as long as seedling trees1 that is they will require as much time1 as those new shoots from the lopped trunk would require1 before they produce fruit4 ,it should thence be inquired1 when grafted fruit trees are purchased1 whether the scions were taken from bearing branches1 or from the young shoots of a lopped trunk2 as the latter1 ,i believe1 are generally sold1 as they appear stronger plants4 ,this greater similitude of the progeny to the parent in solitary reproduction must certainly make them more liable to hereditary diseases1 if such have been acquired by the parent from unfriendly climate or bad nourishment1 or accidental injury4 ,in respect to the sexual progeny of vegetables it has long been thought1 that a change of seed or of situation is in process of time necessary to prevent their degeneracy2 but it is now believed1 that it is only changing for seed of a superior quality1 that will better the product4 ,at the same time it may be probably useful occasionally to intermix seeds from different situations together2 as the anther-dust is liable to pass from one plant to another in its vicinity2 and by these means the new seeds or plants may be amended1 like the marriages of animals into different families4 ,as the sexual progeny of vegetables are thus less liable to hereditary diseases than the solitary progenies2 so it is reasonable to conclude1 that the sexual progenies of animals may be less liable to hereditary diseases1 if the marriages are into different families1 than if into the same family2 this has long been supposed to be true1 by those who breed animals for sale2 since if the male and female be of different temperaments1 as these are extremes of the animal system1 they may counteract each other2 and certainly where both parents are of families1 which are afflicted with the same hereditary disease1 it is more likely to descend to their posterity4 ,the hereditary diseases of this country have many of them been the consequence of drinking much fermented or spirituous liquor2 as the gout always1 most kinds of dropsy1 and1 ,i believe1 epilepsy1 and insanity4 ,but another material1 which is liable to produce diseases in its immoderate use1 ,i believe to be common salt2 the sea-scurvy is evidently caused by it in long voyages2 and ,i suspect the scrofula1 and consumption1 to arise in the young progeny from the debility of the lymphatic and venous absorption produced in the parent by this innutritious fossile stimulus4 ,the petechiae and vibices in the sea-scurvy and occasional haemorrhages evince the defect of venous absorption2 the occasional haemoptoe at the commencement of pulmonary consumption1 seems also to arise from defect of venous absorption2 and the scrofula1 which arises from the inactivity of the lymphatic absorbent system1 frequently exists along with pulmonary as well as with mesenteric consumption4 ,a tendency to these diseases is certainly hereditary1 though perhaps not the diseases themselves2 thus a less quantity of ale1 cyder1 wine1 or spirit1 will induce the gout and dropsy in those constitutions1 whose parents have been intemperate in the use of those liquors2 as ,i have more than once had occasion to observe4 ,finally the art to improve the sexual progeny of either vegetables or animals must consist in choosing the most perfect of both sexes1 that is the most beautiful in respect to the body1 and the most ingenious in respect to the mind2 but where one sex is given1 whether male or female1 to improve a progeny from that person may consist in choosing a partner of a contrary temperament4 ,as many families become gradually extinct by hereditary diseases1 as by scrofula1 consumption1 epilepsy1 mania1 it is often hazardous to marry an heiress1 as she is not unfrequently the last of a diseased family4 ,,additional ,,notes4 ,,xii4 ,,chemical ,,theory ,,of ,,electricity ,,and ,,magnetism4 ,then mark how two electric streams conspire ,to form the resinous and vitreous fire4 ,,canto ,,iii4 l4 #ba4 ,i4 ,of ,attraction and ,repulsion4 ,the motions1 which accomplish the combinations and decompositions of bodies1 depend on the peculiar attractions and repulsions of the particles of those bodies1 or of the sides and angles of them2 while the motions of the sun and planets1 of the air and ocean1 and of all bodies approaching to a general centre or retreating from it1 depend on the general attraction or repulsion of those masses of matter4 ,the peculiar attractions above mentioned are termed chemical affinities1 and the general attraction is termed gravitation2 but the peculiar repulsions of the particles of bodies1 or the general repulsion of the masses of matter1 have obtained no specific names1 nor have been sufficiently considered2 though they appear to be as powerful agents as the attractions4 ,the motions of ethereal fluids1 as of magnetism and electricity1 are yet imperfectly understood1 and seem to depend both on chemical affinity1 and on gravitation2 and also on the peculiar repulsions of the particles of bodies1 and on the general repulsion of the masses of matter4 ,in what manner attraction and repulsion are produced has not yet been attempted to be explained by modern philosophers2 but as nothing can act1 where it does not exist1 all distant attraction of the particles of bodies1 as well as general gravitation1 must be ascribed to some still finer ethereal fluid2 which fills up all space between the suns and their planets1 as well as the interstices of coherent matter4 ,repulsion in the same manner must consist of some finer ethereal fluid2 which at first projected the planets from the sun1 and ,i suppose prevents their return to it2 and which occasionally volatilizes or decomposes solid bodies into fluid or aerial ones1 and perhaps into ethereal ones4 ,may not the ethereal matter which constitutes repulsion1 be the same as the matter of heat in its diffused state2 which in its quiescent state is combined with various bodies1 as appears from many chemical explosions1 in which so much heat is set at liberty8 ,the ethereal matter1 which constitutes attraction1 we are less acquainted with2 but it may also exist combined with bodies1 as well as in its diffused state2 since the specific gravities of some metallic mixtures are said not to accord with what ought to result from the combination of their specific gravities1 which existed before their mixture2 but their absolute gravities have not been attended to sufficiently2 as these have always been supposed to depend on their quantity of matter1 and situation in respect to the centre of the earth4 ,the ethereal fluids1 which constitute peculiar repulsions and attractions1 appear to gravitate round the particles of bodies mixed together2 as those1 which constitute the general repulsion or attraction1 appear to gravitate round the greater masses of matter mixed together2 but that which constitutes attraction seems to exist in a denser state next to the particles or masses of matter2 and that which constitutes repulsion to exist more powerfully in a sphere further from them2 whence many bodies attract at one distance1 and repel at another4 ,this may be observed by approaching to each other two electric atmospheres round insulated cork-balls2 or by pressing globules of mercury1 which roll on the surface1 till they unite with it2 or by pressing the drops of water1' which stand on a cabbage leaf1 till they unite with it1 and hence light is reflected from the surface of a mirror without touching it4 ,thus the peculiar attractions and repulsions of the particles of bodies1 and the general ones of the masses of matter1 perpetually oppose and counteract each other2 whence if the power of attraction should cease to act1 all matter would be dissipated by the power of repulsion into boundless space2 and if heat1 or the power of repulsion1 should cease to act1 the whole world would become one solid mass1 condensed into a point4 ,,ii4 ,preliminary ,propositions4 ,the following propositions concerning ,electricity and ,galvanism will either be proved by direct experiments1 or will be rendered probable by their tending to explain or connect the variety of electric facts1 to which they will be applied4 #a4 ,there are two kinds of electric ether1 which exist either separately or in combination4 ,that which is accumulated on the surface of smooth glass1 when it is rubbed with a cushion1 is here termed vitreous ether2 and that which is accumulated on the surface of resin or sealing-wax1 when it is rubbed with a cushion1 is here termed resinous ether2 and a combination of them1 as in their usual state1 may be termed neutral electric ethers4 #b4 ,atmospheres of vitreous or of resinous or of neutral electricity surround all separate bodies1 are attracted by them1 and permeate those1 which are called conductors1 as metallic and aqueous and carbonic ones2 but will not permeate those1 which are termed nonconductors1 as air1 glass1 silk1 resin1 sulphur4 #c4 ,the particles of vitreous electric ether strongly repel each other as they surround other bodies2 but strongly attract the particles of resinous electric ether3 in similar manner the particles of the resinous ether powerfully repel each other1 and as powerfully attract those of the vitreous ether4 ,hence in their separate state they appear to occupy much greater space1 as they1 gravitate round insulated bodies1 and are then only cognizable by our senses or experiments4 ,they rush violently together through conducting substances1 and then probably possess much less space in this their combined state4 ,they thus resemble oxygen gas and nitrous gas2 which rush violently together when in contact2 and occupy less space when united1 than either of them possessed separately before their union4 ,when the two electric ethers thus unite1 a chemical explosion occurs1 like an ignited train of gunpowder2 as they give out light and heat2 and rend or fuse the bodies they occupy2 which cannot be accounted for on the mechanical theory of ,dr4 ,franklin4 #d4 ,glass holds within it in combination much resinous electric ether1 which constitutes a part of it1 and which more forcibly attracts vitreous electric ether from surrounding bodies1 which stands on it mixed with a less proportion of resinous ether like an atmosphere1 but cannot unite with the resinous ether1 which is combined with the glass2 and resin1 on the contrary1 holds within it in combination much vitreous electric ether1 which constitutes a part of it1 and which more forcibly attracts resinous electric ether from surrounding bodies1 which stands on it mixed with a less proportion of vitreous ether like an atmosphere1 but cannot unite with the vitreous ether1 which is combined with the resin4 ,as in the production of vitrification1 those materials are necessary which contain much oxygen1 as minium1 and manganese2 there is probably much oxygen combined with glass1 which may thence be esteemed a solid acid1 as water may be esteemed a fluid one4 ,it is hence not improbable1 that one kind of electric ether may also be combined with it1 as it seems to affect the oxygen of water in the ,galvanic experiments4 ,the combination of the other kind of electric ether with wax or sulphur1 is countenanced from those bodies1 when heated or melted1 being said to part with much electricity as they cool1 and as it appears to affect the hydrogen in the decomposition of water by ,galvanism4 #e4 ,hence the nonconductors of electricity are of two kinds2 such as are combined with vitreous ether1 as resin1 and sulphur2 and such as are combined with resinous ether1 as glass1 air1 silk4 ,but both these kinds of nonconductors are impervious to either of the electric ethers2 as those ethers being already combined with other bodies will not unite with each other1 or be removed from their situations by each other4 ,whereas the perfect conducting bodies1 as metals1 water1 charcoal1 though surrounded with electric atmospheres1 as they have neither of the electric ethers combined with them1 suffer them to permeate and pass through them1 whether separately or in their neutral state of reciprocal combination4 ,but it is probable1 that imperfect conductors may possess more or less of either the vitreous or resinous ether combined with them1 since their natural atmospheres are dissimilar as mentioned below2 and that this makes them more or less imperfect conductors4 #f4 ,those bodies which are perfect conductors1 have probably neutral electric atmospheres gravitating round them consisting of an equal or saturated mixture of the two electric ethers1 whereas the atmospheres round the nonconducting bodies probably consist of an unequal mixture of the electric ethers1 as more of the vitreous one round glass1 and more of the resinous one round resin2 and1 it is probable1 that these mixed atmospheres1 which surround imperfect conducting bodies1 consist also of different proportions of the vitreous and resinous ethers1 according to their being more or less perfect conductors4 ,these minute degrees of the difference of these electric atmospheres are evinced by ,mr4 ,bennet's ,doubler of ,electricity1 as shown in his work1 and are termed by him ,adhesive ,electric ,atmospheres1 to distinguish them from those accumulated by art2 thus the natural adhesive electricity of silver is more of the vitreous kind compared with that of zinc1 which consists of a greater proportion of the resinous2 that is1 in his language1 silver is positive and zinc negative4 ,this experiment ,i have successfully repeated with ,mr4 ,bennet's ,doubler along with ,mr4 ,swanwick4 #g4 ,great accumulation or condensation of the separate electric ethers attract each other so strongly1 that they will break a passage through nonconducting bodies1 as through a plate of glass1 or of air1 and will rend bodies which are less perfect conductors1 and give out light and heat like the explosion of a train of gunpowder2 whence1 when a strong electric shock is passed through a quire of paper1 a bur1 or elevation of the sheets1 is seen on both sides of it occasioned by the explosion4 ,whence trees and stone walls are burst by lightning1 and wires are fused1 and inflammable bodies burnt1 by the heat given out along with the flash of light1 which cannot be explained by the mechanic theory4 #h4 ,when artificial or natural accumulations of these separate ethers are very minute in quantity or intensity1 they pass slowly and with difficulty from one body to another1 and require the best conductors for this purpose2 whence many of the phenomena of the torpedo or gymnotus1 and of ,galvanism4 ,thus after having discharged a coated jar1 if the communicating wire has been quickly withdrawn1 a second small shock may be taken after the principal discharge1 and this repeatedly two or three times4 ,hence the charge of the ,galvanic pile being very minute in quantity or intensity1 will not readily pass through the dry cuticle of the hands1 though it so easily passes through animal flesh or nerves1 as this combination of charcoal with water seems to constitute the most perfect conductor yet known4 #i4 ,as light is reflected from the surface of a mirror before it actually touches it1 and as drops of water are repelled from cabbage leaves without touching them1 and as oil lies on water without touching it1 and also as a fine needle may be made to lie on water without touching it1 as shown by ,mr4 ,melville in the ,literary ,essays of ,edinburgh2 there is reason to believe1 that the vitreous and resinous electric ethers are repelled by1 or will not pass through1 the surfaces of glass or resin1 to which they are applied4 ,but though neither of these electric ethers passes through the surfaces of glass or resin1 yet their attractive or repulsive powers pass through them3 as the attractive or repulsive power of the magnet to iron passes through the atmosphere1 and all other bodies which exist between them4 ,so an insulated cork-ball1 when electrised either with vitreous or resinous ether1 repels another insulated cork-ball electrised with the same kind of ether1 through half an inch of common air1 though these electric atmospheres do not unite4 ,whence it may be concluded1 that the general attractive and repulsive ethers accompany the electric ethers as well as they accompany all other bodies2 and that the electric ethers do not themselves attract or repel through glass or resin1 as they cannot pass through them1 but strongly attract each other when they come into contact1 rush together1 and produce an explosion of the sudden liberation of heat and light4 ,,iii4 ,effect of ,metallic ,points4 #a4 ,when a pointed wire is presented by a person standing on the ground to an insulated conductor1 on which either vitreous or resinous electricity is accumulated1 the accumulated electricity will pass off at a much greater distance than if a metallic knob be fixed on the wire and presented in its stead4 #b4 ,the same occurs if the metallic point be fixed on the electrised conductor1 and the finger of a person standing on the ground be presented to it1 the accumulated electricity will pass off at a much greater distance1 and indeed will soon discharge itself by communicating the accumulated electricity to the atmosphere4 #c4 ,if a metallic point be fixed on the prime conductor1 and the flame of a candle be presented to it1 on electrising the conductor either with vitreous or resinous ether1 the flame of the candle is blown from the point1 which must be owing to the electric fluid in its passage from the point carrying along with it a stream of atmospheric air4 ,the manner in which the accumulated electricity so readily passes off by a metallic point may be thus understood2 when a metallic point stands erect from an electrised metallic plane1 the accumulated electricity which exists on the extremity of the point1 is attracted less than that on the other parts of the electrised surface4 ,for the particle of electric matter immediately over the point is attracted by that point only1 whereas the particles of electric matter over every other part of the electrised plane1 is not only attracted by the parts of the plane immediately under them1 but also laterally by the circumjacent parts of it2 whence the accumulated electric fluid is pushed off at this point by that over the other parts being more strongly attracted to the plane4 ,thus if a light insulated horizontal fly be constructed of wire with points fixed as tangents to the circle1 it will revolve the way contrary to the direction of the points as long as it continues to be electrised4 ,for the same reason as when a circle of cork1 with a point of the cork standing from it like a tangent1 is smeared with oil1 and thrown upon a lake1 it will continue to revolve backwards in respect to the direction of the point till all the oil is dispersed upon the lake1 as first observed by ,dr4 ,franklin2 for the oil being attracted to all the other parts of the cork-circle more than towards the pointed tangent1 that part over the point is pushed off and diffuses itself on the water1 over which it passes without touching1 and consequently without friction2 and thus the cork revolves in the contrary direction4 ,as the flame of a candle is blown from a point fixed on an electrised conductor1 whether vitreous or resinous electricity is accumulated on it1 it shows that in both cases electricity passes from the point1 which is a forcible argument against the mechanical theory of positive and negative electricity2 because then the flame should be blown towards the point in one case1 and from it in the other4 ,so the electric fly1 as it turns horizontally1 recedes from the direction of the points of the tangents1 whether it be electrised with vitreous or resinous electricity2 whereas if it was supposed to receive electricity1 when electrised by resin1 and to part with it when electrised by glass1 it ought to revolve different ways2 which also forcibly opposes the theory of positive and negative electricity4 ,as an electrised point with either kind of electricity causes a stream of air to pass from it in the direction of the point1 it seems to affect the air much in the same manner as the fluid matter of heat affects it2 that is1 it will not readily pass through it1 but will adhere to the particles of air1 and is thus carried away with them4 ,from this it will also appear1 that points do not attract electricity1 properly speaking1 but suffer it to depart from them2 as it is there less attracted to the body which it surrounds1 than by any other part of the surface4 ,and as a point presented to an electrised conductor facilitates the discharge of it1 and blows the flame of a candle towards the conductor1 whether vitreous or resinous electricity be accumulated upon it2 it follows1 that in both cases some electric matter passes from the point to the conductor1 and that hence there are two electric ethers2 and that they combine or explode when they meet together1 and give out light and heat1 and occupy less space in this their combined state1 like the union of nitrous gas with oxygen gas4 ,,iv4 ,accumulation of ,electric ,ethers by ,contact4 ,the electric ethers may be separately accumulated by contact of conductors with nonconductors1 by vicinity of the two ethers1 by heat1 and by decomposition4 ,glass is believed to consist in part of consolidated resinous ether1 and thence to attract an electric atmosphere round it1 which consists of a greater proportion of vitreous ether compared to the quantity of the resinous1 as mentioned in ,proposition ,no4 #d4 ,this atmosphere may stand off a line from the surface of the glass1 though its attractive or repulsive power may extend to a much greater distance2 and a more equally mixed electric atmosphere may stand off about the same distance from the surface of a cushion4 ,now when a cushion is forcibly pressed upon the surface of a glass cylinder or plane1 the atmosphere of the cushion is forced within that of the glass1 and consequently the vitreous part of it is brought within the sphere of the attraction of the resinous ether combined with the glass1 and therefore becomes attracted by it in addition to the vitreous part of the spontaneous atmosphere of the glass2 and the resinous part of the atmosphere of the cushion is at the same time repelled by its vicinity to the combined resinous ether of the glass4 ,from both which circumstances a vitreous ether alone surrounds the part of the glass on which the cushion is forcibly pressed2 which does not1 nevertheless1 resemble an electrised coated jar2 as this accumulation of vitreous ether on one side of the glass is not so violently condensed1 or so forcibly attracted to the glass by the loose resinous ether on the other side of it1 as occurs in the charged coated jar4 ,hence as weak differences of the kinds or quantities of electricity do not very rapidly change place1 if the cushion be suddenly withdrawn1 with or without friction1 ,i suppose an accumulation of vitreous electric ether will be left on the surface of the glass1 which will diffuse itself on an insulated conductor by the assistance of points1 or will gradually be dissipated in the air1 probably like odours by the repulsion of its own particles1 or may be conducted away by the surrounding air as it is repelled from it1 or by the moisture or other impurities of the atmosphere4 ,and hence ,i do not suppose the friction of the glass-globe to be necessary1 except for the purpose of more easily removing the parts of the surface from the pressure of the cushion to the points of the prime conductor1 and to bring them more easily into reciprocal contact4 ,when sealing wax or sulphur is rubbed by a cushion1 exactly the same circumstance occurs1 but with the different ethers2 as the resinous ether of the spontaneous atmosphere of the cushion1 when it is pressed within the spontaneous atmosphere of the sealing wax1 is attracted by the solid vitreous ether1 which is combined with it2 and at the same time the vitreous ether of the cushion is repelled by it2 and hence an atmosphere of resinous ether alone exists between the sealing wax and the cushion thus pressed together4 ,it is nevertheless possible1 that friction on both sealing wax and glass may add some facility to the accumulations of their opposite ethers by the warmth which it occasions4 ,as most electric machines succeed best after being warmed1 ,i think even in dry frosty seasons4 ,though when a cushion is applied to a smooth surfaced glass1 so as to intermix their electric atmospheres1 the vitreous ether of the cushion is attracted by the resinous ether combined with the glass2 but does not intermix with it1 but only adheres to it3 and as the glass turns round1 the vitreous electric atmosphere stands on the solid resinous electric ether combined with the glass2 and is taken away by the metallic points of the prime conductor4 ,yet if the surface of the glass be roughened by scratching it with a diamond or with hard sand1 a new event occurs2 which is1 that the vitreous ether attracted from the cushion by the resinous ether combined with the glass becomes adhesive to it2 and stands upon the roughened glass1 and will not quit the glass to go to the prime conductor2 whence the surface of the glass having a vitreous electric atmosphere united1 as it were1 to its inequalities1 becomes similar to resin2 and will now attract resinous electric ether1 like a stick of sealing wax1 without combining with it4 ,whence this curious and otherwise unintelligible phenomenon1 that smooth surfaced glass will give vitreous electric ether to an insulated conductor1 and glass with a roughened surface will give resinous ether to it4 ,v4 ,accumulation of electric ethers by vicinity4 ,though the contact of a cushion on the whirling glass is the easiest method yet in use for the accumulation of the vitreous electric ether on an insulated conductor2 yet there are other methods of effecting this1 as by the vicinity of the two electric ethers with a nonconductor between them4 ,thus ,i believe a great quantity of both vitreous and resinous electric ether may be accumulated in the following manner4 ,let a glass jar be coated within in the usual manner2 but let it have a loose external coating1 which can easily be withdrawn by an insulating handle4 ,then charge the jar1 as highly as it may be1 by throwing into it vitreous electric ether2 and in this state hermetically seal it1 if practicable1 otherwise close it with a glass stopple and wax4 ,when the external coating is drawn off by an insulating handle1 having previously had a communication with the earth1 it will possess an accumulation of resinous electric ether2 and then touching it with your finger1 a spark will be seen1 and there will cease to be any accumulated ether4 ,thus by alternately replacing this loose coating1 and withdrawing it from the sealed charged jar1 by means of an insulating handle2 and by applying it to one insulated conductor1 when it is in the vicinity of the jar2 and to another insulated conductor1 when it is withdrawn2 vitreous electric ether may be accumulated on one of them1 and resinous on the other2 and thus ,i suspect an immense quantity of both ethers may be produced without friction or much labour1 if a large electric battery was so contrived2 and that it might be applied to many mechanical purposes1 where other explosions are now used1 as in the place of steam engines1 or to rend rocks1 or timber1 or destroy invading armies6 ,the principle of this mode of accumulating the two electric ethers in some measure resembles that of ,volta's ,electrophorus and ,bennet's ,doubler4 ,,vi4 ,accumulation of electric ethers by heat and by decomposition4 ,when glass or amber is heated by the fire in a dry season1 ,i suspect that it becomes in some degree electric2 as either of the electric ethers which is combined with them may have its combination with those materials loosened by the application of heat2 and that on this account they may more forcibly attract the opposite one from the air in their vicinity4 ,it has long been known1 that a siliceous stone called the tourmalin1 when its surfaces are polished1 if it be laid down before the fire1 will become electrified with vitreous1 or what is called positive electricity on its upper surface2 and resinous1 or what is called negative electricity on its under surface2 which ,i suppose lay in contact with somewhat which supported it near the fire4 ,in this experiment ,i suppose the tourmalin to be naturally combined with resinous electric ether like glass2 which on one side next towards the fire by the increase of its attractive power1 owing to the heat having loosened its combination with the earth of the stone1 more strongly attracts vitreous electric ether from the atmosphere2 which now stands on its surface3 and then as the lower surface of the stone lies in contact with the hearth1 the less quantity of vitreous ether is there repelled by the greater quantity of it on the upper surface2 while the resinous ether is attracted by it3 and the stone is thus charged like a coated jar with vitreous electric ether condensed on one side of it1 and resinous on the other4 ,so cats1 as they lie by the fire in a frosty day1 become so electric as frequently to give a perceptible spark to one's finger from their ears without friction4 ,a fourth method of separating the two ethers would seem to be by the decomposition of metallic bodies1 as in the experiment with ,volta's ,galvanic pile2 which is said by ,mr4 ,davy to act so much more powerfully1 when an acid is added to the water used in the experiment2 as will be spoken of below4 ,from experiments made by ,m4 ,saussure on the electricity of evaporated water from hot metallic vessels1 and from those of china and glass1 he found when the vessel was calcined or made rusty by the evaporating water1 that the electricity of it was positive 7or vitreous71 and that from china or glass was negative 7or resinous71 ,encyclop4 ,britan4 ,art4 ,elect4 ,no4 #bjf1 which seems also to show1 that vitreous electric ether was given out or produced by the corrosion of metals1 and resinous ether from the evaporation of water4 ,,vii4 ,the spark from the conductor1 and of electric light4 ,when either the vitreous or resinous electric ether is accumulated on an insulated conductor1 and an uninsulated conductor1 as the finger of an attendant1 is applied nearly in contact with it1 what happens8 ,the attractive and repulsive powers of the accumulated electric ether pass through the nonconducting plate of air1 and if it be of the vitreous kind1 it attracts the resinous electric ether of the finger towards it1 and repels the vitreous electric ether of the finger from it4 ,hence there exists for an instant a charged plate of air between the finger and the prime conductor1 with an accumulation of vitreous ether on one side of it1 and of resinous ether on the other side of it2 and lastly these two kinds of electric ethers suddenly unite by their powerful attraction of each other1 explode1 and give out heat and light1 and rupture the plate of nonconducting air1 which separated them4 ,the rupture or disjunction of the plate of air is known by the sound of the spark1 as of thunder2 which shows that a vacuum of air was previously produced by the explosion of the electric fluids1 and a vibration of the air in consequence of the sudden joining again of the sides of the vacuum4 ,the light which attends electric sparks and shocks1 is not accounted for by the ,theory of ,dr4 ,franklin4 ,i suspect that it is owing to the combination of the two electric ethers1 from which as from all chemical explosions both light and heat are set at liberty1 and because a smell is said to be perceptible from electric sparks1 and even a taste which must be deduced from new combinations1 or decompositions1 as in other explosions3 add to this that the same thing occurs1 when electric shocks are passed through eggs in the dark1 or through water1 a luminous line is seen like the explosion of a train of gunpowder2 lastly1 whether light is really produced in the passage of the ,galvanic electricity through the eyes1 or that the sensation alone of light is perceived by its stimulating the optic nerve1 has not yet been investigated2 but ,i suspect the former1 as it emits light from its explosion even in passing through eggs and through water1 as mentioned above4 ,,viii4 ,the shock from the coated jar1 and of electric condensation4 #a4 ,when a glass jar is coated on both sides1 and either vitreous or resinous electricity is thrown upon the coating on one side1 and there is a communication to the earth from the other side1 the same thing happens as in the plate of air between the finger and prime conductor above described2 that is1 the accumulated electricity1 if it be of the vitreous kind1 on one coating of the glass jar will attract the resinous part of the electricity1 which surrounds or penetrates the coating on the other side of the jar1 and also repel the vitreous part of it2 but this occurs on a much more extensive surface than in the instance of the plate of air between the finger and prime conductor4 ,the difference between electric sparks and shocks consists in this circumstance1 that in the former the insulating medium1 whether of air1 or of thin glass1 is ruptured in one part1 and thus a communication is made between the vitreous and resinous ethers1 and they unite immediately1 like globules of quicksilver1 when pressed forcibly together3 but in the electric shock a communication is made by some conducting body applied to the other extremities of the vitreous1 and of the resinous atmospheres1 through which they pass and unite1 whether both sides of the coated jar are insulated1 or only one side of it4 ,and in this line1 as they reciprocally meet1 they appear to explode and give out light and heat1 and a new combination of the two ethers is produced1 as a residuum after the explosion1 which probably occupies much less space than either the vitreous or resinous ethers did separately before4 ,at the same time there may be another unrestrainable ethereal fluid yet unobserved1 given out from this explosion1 which rends oak trees1 bursts stone-walls1 lights inflammable substances1 and fuses metals1 or dissipates them in a calciform smoak1 along with which great light and much heat are emitted1 or these effects are produced by the heat and light only thus set at liberty by their synchronous and sudden evolution4 #b4 ,the curious circumstance of electric condensation appears from the violence of the shock of the coated jar compared with the strongest spark from an insulated conductor1 though the latter possesses a much greater surface2 when vitreous electric ether is thrown on one side of a coated jar1 it attracts the resinous electric ether of the other side of the coated jar2 and the same occurs1 when resinous ether is thrown on one side of it1 it attracts the vitreous ether of the other side of it1 and thus the vitreous electric ether on one side of the jar1 and the resinous ether on the other side of it become condensed1 that is accumulated in less space1 by their reciprocal attraction of each other4 ,this condensation of the two electric ethers owing to their reciprocal attraction appears from another curious event1 that the thinner the glass jar is1 the stronger will the charge be on the same quantity of surface1 as then the two ethers approaching nearer without their intermixing attract each other stronger1 and consequently condense each other more4 ,and when the glass jar is very thin the reciprocal attractive powers of the vitreous and resinous ether attract each other so violently as at length to pass through the glass by rupturing it1 in the same manner as a less forcible attraction of them ruptures and passes through the plate of air in the production of sparks from the prime conductor4 ,as these two ethers on each side of a charged coated jar so powerfully attract each other1 when a communication is made between them by some conducting substance as in the common mode of discharging an electrised coated jar1 they reciprocally pass to each other for the purpose of combining1 as some chemical fluids are known to do2 as when nitrous gas and oxygen gas are mixed together2 whence as these fluids pass both ways to intermix with each other1 and then explode2 a bur appears on each side of a quire of paper well pressed together1 when a strong electric shock is passed through it2 which is occasioned by their explosion1 like a train of gunpowder1 and consequent emission of some other ethereal fluid1 either those of heat and light or of some new one not yet observed4 ,whence it becomes difficult to explain1 according to the theory of ,dr4 ,franklin1 which way the electric fluid passed2 and which side of the coated jar contained positive and which the negative charge according to that doctrine4 ,but the theory of the ingenious ,dr4 ,franklin failed also in explaining other phenomena of the coated jar2 since if the positive electricity accumulated on one side of the jar repelled the electricity from the coating on the other side of it1 so as to produce an electric vacuum2 why should it be so eager1 when a communication is made by some conducting body1 to run into that vacuum by its attraction or gravitation1 which has been made by its repulsion2 as thus it seems to be violently attracted by the vacuum1 from which it had previously repelled a fluid similar to itself1 which is not easily to be comprehended4 #c4 ,there is another mode by which either vitreous or resinous electric ether is capable of condensation2 which consists in contracting the volume1 so as to diminish the surface of the electrised body2 as was ingeniously shown by ,dr4 ,franklin's experiment of electrising a silver tankard with a length of chain rolled up within it2 and then drawing up the chain by a silk string1 which weakened the electric attraction of the tankard2 which was strengthened again by returning the chain into it2 thus the condensation of an electrised cloud is believed to condense the electric ether1 which it contains1 and thus to occasion the lightning passing from one cloud to another1 or from a cloud into the earth4 ,this experiment of the chain and tankard is said to succeed as well with what is termed negative electricity in the theory of ,dr4 ,franklin1 as with what is termed positive electricity2 but in that theory the negative electricity means a less quantity or total deprivation or vacuity of that fluid2 now to condense negative electricity by lowering the suspended chain into the tankard ought to make it less negative2 whereas in this experiment ,i am told it becomes more so1 as appears by its stronger repulsion of cork balls suspended on silk strings1 and previously electrised by rubbed sealing wax3 and if the negative electricity be believed to be a perfect vacuum of it1 the condensation of a vacuum of electricity is totally incomprehensible2 and this experiment alone seems to demonstrate the existence of two electric ethers4 ,,ix4 ,of ,galvanic ,electricity4 #a4 ,the conductors of electricity1 as well as the nonconductors of it1 have probably a portion of the vitreous and resinous ethers combined with them1 and have also another portion of these ethers diffused round them1 which forms their natural or spontaneous adhesive atmospheres2 and which exists in different proportions round them correspondent in quantity to those which are combined with them1 but opposite in kind4 ,these adhesive spontaneous atmospheres of electricity are shown to consist of different proportions or quantities of the electric ethers by ,mr4 ,bennet's ,doubler of ,electricity1 as mentioned in his work called ,new ,experiments on ,electricity1 sold by ,johnson4 ,in this work1 p4 #ia1 the blade of a steel knife was evidently1 in his language1 positive1 compared to a soft iron wire which was comparatively negative2 so the adhesive electricity of gold1 silver1 copper1 brass1 bismuth1 mercury1 and various kinds of wood and stone1 were what he terms positive or vitreous2 and that of tin and zinc1 what he terms negative or resinous4 ,where these spontaneous atmospheres of diffused electricity surrounding two conducting bodies1 as two pieces of silver1 are perfectly similar1 they probably do not intermix when brought into the vicinity of each other2 but if these spontaneous atmospheres of diffused electricity are different in respect to the proportion of the two ethers1 or perhaps in respect to their quantity1 in however small degree either of these circumstances exists1 they may be made to unite but with some difficulty2 as the two metallic plates1 suppose one of silver1 and another of zinc1 which they surround1 must be brought into absolute or adhesive contact2 or otherwise these atmospheres may be forced together so as to be much flattened1 and compress each other where they meet1 like small globules of quicksilver when pressed together1 but without uniting4 ,this curious phenomenon may be seen in more dense electric atmospheres accumulated by art1 as in the following experiment ascribed to ,mr4 ,canton4 ,lay a wooden skewer the size of a goose-quill across a dry wine-glass1 and another across another wine-glass2 let the ends of them touch each other1 as they lie in a horizontal line2 call them ,x and ,y2 approach a rubbed glass-tube near the external end of the skewer ,x1 but not so as to touch it2 then separate the two skewers by removing the wine-glasses further from each other2 and lastly1 withdraw the rubbed glass-tube1 and the skewer ,x will now be found to possess resinous electricity1 which has been generally called negative or minus electricity2 and the skewer ,y will be found to possess vitreous1 or what is generally termed positive or plus electricity4 ,the same phenomenon will occur if rubbed sealing wax be applied near to1 but not in contact with1 the skewer ,x1 as the skewer ,x will then be left with an atmosphere of vitreous ether1 and the skewer ,y with one of resinous ether4 ,these experiments also evince the existence of two electric fluids1 as they cannot be understood from an idea of one being a greater or less quantity of the same material2 as a vacuum of electric ether1 brought near to one end of the skewer1 cannot be conceived so to attract the ether as to produce a vacuum at the other end4 ,in this experiment the electric atmospheres1 which are nearly of similar kinds1 do not seem to touch1 as there may remain a thin plate of air between them1 in the same manner as small globules of mercury may be pressed together so as to compress each other1 long before they intermix2 or as plates of lead or brass require strongly to be pressed together before they acquire the attraction of cohesion2 that is1 before they come into real contact4 #b4 ,it is probable1 that all bodies are more or less perfect conductors1 as they have less or more of either of the electric ethers combined with them2 as mentioned in ,preliminary ,proposition1 ,no4 ,,vi4 as they may then less resist the passage of either of the ethers through them4 ,whence some conducting bodies admit the junction of these spontaneous electric atmospheres1 in which the proportions or quantities of the two ethers are not very different1 with greater facility than others4 ,thus in the common experiments1 where the vitreous or resinous ether is accumulated by art1 metallic bodies have been esteemed the best conductors1 and next to these water1 and all other moist bodies2 but it was lately discovered1 that dry charcoal1 recently burnt1 was a more perfect conductor than metals2 and it appears from the experiments discovered by ,galvani1 which have thence the name of ,galvanism1 that animal flesh1 and particularly perhaps the nerves of animals1 both which are composed of much carbon and water1 are the most perfect conductors yet discovered2 that is1 that they give the least resistance to the junction of the spontaneous electric atmospheres1 which exist round metallic bodies1 and which differ very little in respect to the proportions of their vitreous and resinous ingredients4 ,thus also1 though where the accumulated electricities are dense1 as in charging a coated glass-jar1 the glass1 which intervenes1 may be of considerable thickness1 and may still become charged by the stronger attraction of the secondary electric ethers2 but where the spontaneous adhesive electric atmospheres are employed to charge plates of air1 as in the ,galvanic pile1 or probably to charge thin animal membranes or cuticles1 as perhaps in the shock given by the torpedo or gymnotus1 it seems necessary that the intervening nonconducting plate must be extremely thin1 that it may become charged by the weaker attraction of these small quantities or difference of the spontaneous electric atmospheres2 and in this circumstance only1 ,i suppose1 the shocks from the ,galvanic pile1 and from the torpedo and gymnotus1 differ from those of the coated jar4 #c4 ,when atmospheres of electricity1 which do not differ much in the quantity or proportion of their vitreous and resinous ethers1 approach each other1 they are not easily or rapidly united2 but the predominant vitreous or resinous ether of one of them repels the similar ether of the opposed atmosphere1 and attracts the contrary kind of ether4 ,the slowness or difficulty with1 which atmospheres1 which differ but little in kind or in density1 unite with each other1 appears not only from the experiment of ,mr4 ,canton above related1 but also from the repeated smaller shocks1 which may be taken from a charged coated jar after the first or principal discharge1 if the conducting medium has not been quickly removed1 as is also mentioned above4 ,hence those atmospheres of either kind of electric matter1 which differ but very little from each other in kind or quantity1 require the most perfect conductors to cause them to unite4 ,thus it appears by ,mr4 ,bennet's doubler1 as mentioned in the ,preliminary ,proposition1 ,no4 ,,vi4 that the natural adhesive atmosphere round silver contains more vitreous electricity than that naturally round zinc2 but when thin plates of these metals1 each about an ounce in weight1 are laid on each other1 or moderately pressed together1 their atmospheres do not unite4 ,for metallic plates1 which when laid on each other1 do not adhere1 cannot be said to be in real contact1 of which their not adhering is a proof2 and in consequence a thin plate of air1 or of their own repulsive ethers exists between them4 ,hence when two plates of zinc and silver are thus brought in to the vicinity of each other1 the plate of air between them1 as they are not in adhesive contact1 becomes like a charged coated jar2 and if these two metallic plates are touched by your dry hands1 they do not unite their electricities1 as the dry cuticle is not a sufficiently good conductor2 but if one of the metals be put above1 and another under the tongue1 the saliva and moist mucous membrane1 muscular fibres1 and nerves1 supply so good a conductor1 that this very minute electric shock is produced1 and a kind of pungent taste is perceived4 ,when a plate or pencil of silver is put between the upper lip and the gum1 and a plate or pencil of zinc under the tongue1 a sensation of light is perceived in the eyes1 as often as the exterior extremities of these metals are brought into contact2 which is owing in like manner to the discharge of a very minute electric shock1 which would not have been produced but by the intervention of such good conductors as moist membranes1 muscular fibres1 and nerves4 ,in this situation1 a sensation of light is produced in the eyes2 which seems to show1 that these ethers pass through nerves more easily1 than through muscular flesh simply2 since the passage of them through the retina of the eyes from the upper gum to the parts beneath the tongue is a more distant one1 than would otherwise appear necessary4 ,it is not so easy to give the sensation of light in the eyes by passing a small shock of artificially accumulated electricity through1 the eyes 7though this may1 ,i believe1 be done7 because this artificial accumulated electricity1 as it passes with greater velocity than the spontaneous accumulations of it1 will readily permeate the muscles or other moist parts of animal bodies2 whereas the spontaneous accumulations of electricity seem to require the best of all conductors1 as animal nerves1 to facilitate their passage4 #d4 ,in the ,galvanic pile of ,volta this electric shock becomes so much increased1 as to pass by less perfect conductors1 and to give shocks to the arms of the conducting person1 if the cuticle of his hands be moistened1 and even to show sparks like the coated jar2 which appears to be effected in this manner4 ,when a plate of silver is laid horizontally on a plate of zinc1 the plate of air between them becomes charged like a coated jar2 as the silver1 naturally possessing more vitreous electric ether1 repels the vitreous ether1 which the zinc possesses in less quantity1 and attracts the resinous ether of the zinc4 ,whence the inferior surface of the plate of zinc abounds now with vitreous ether1 and its upper surface with resinous ether4 ,beneath this pair of plates lay a cloth moistened with water1 or with some better conductor1 as salt and water1 or a slight acid mixed with water1 or volatile alcali of ammoniac mixed with water1 and this vitreous electric ether on the lower surface of the zinc plate will be given to the second silver plate which lies beneath it2 and thus this second silver plate will possess not only its own natural vitreous atmosphere1 which was denser or in greater quantity than that of the zinc plate next beneath it1 but now acquires an addition of vitreous ether from the zinc plate above it1 conducted to it through the moist cloth4 ,this then will repel more vitreous ether from the second zinc plate into the third silver one2 and so on till the plates of air between the zincs and silvers are all charged1 and each stronger and stronger1 as they descend in the pile4 ,if the reader still prefers the ,franklinian theory of positive and negative electricity1 he will please to put the word positive for vitreous1 and negative for resinous1 and he will find the theory of the ,galvanic pile equally thus accounted for4 #e4 ,when a ,galvanic pile is thus placed1 and a communication between the two ends of it is made by wires1 so that the electric shocks pass through water1 the water becomes decomposed in some measure1 and oxygen is liberated from it at the point of one wire1 and hydrogen at the point of the other2 and this though a syphon of water be interposed between them4 ,this curious circumstance seems to evince the existence of two electric ethers1 which enter the water at different ends of the syphon1 and have chemical affinities to the component parts of it2 the resinous ether sets at liberty the hydrogen at one end1 and the vitreous ether the oxygen at the other end of the conducting medium4 ,hence it must appear1 that the longer the ,galvanic pile1 or the greater the number of the alternate pieces of silver and zinc that it consists of1 the stronger will be the ,galvanic shock2 but there is another circumstance1 difficult to explain1 which is the perpetual decomposition of water by the ,galvanic pile2 when water is made the conducting medium between the two extremities of the pile4 ,as no conductors of electricity are absolutely perfect1 there must be produced a certain accumulation of vitreous ether on one side of each charged plate of the ,galvanic pile1 and of resinous ether on the other side of it1 before the discharge takes place1 even though the conducting medium be in apparent contact4 ,when the discharge does take place1 the whole of the accumulated electricity explodes and vanishes2 and then an instant of time is required for the silver and zinc again to attract from the air1 or other bodies in their vicinity1 their spontaneous natural atmospheres1 and then another discharge ensues2 and so repeatedly and perpetually till the surface of one of the metallic plates becomes so much oxydated or calcined1 that it ceases to act4 ,hence a perpetual motion may be said to be produced1 with an incessant decomposition of water into the two gasses of oxygen and hydrogen2 which must probably be constantly proceeding on all moist ,surfaces1 where a chain of electric conductors exists1 surrounded with different proportions of the two electric ethers4 ,whence the ceaseless liberation of oxygen from the water has oxydated or calcined the ores of metals near the surface of the earth1 as of manganese1 of zinc into lapis calaminaris1 of iron into various ochres1 and other calciform ores4 ,from this source also the corrosion of some metals may be traced1 when they are immersed in water in the vicinity of each other1 as when the copper sheathing of ships was held on by iron nails4 ,and hence another great operation of nature is probably produced1 ,i mean the restoration of oxygen to the atmosphere from the surface of the earth in dewy mornings1 as well as from the perspiration of vegetable leaves2 which atmospheric oxygen is hourly destructible by the respiration of animals and plants1 by combustion1 and by other oxydations4 #f4 ,the combination of the electric ethers with metallic bodies1 before mentioned appears from the ,galvanic pile2 since1 according to the experiments of ,mr4 ,davy1 when an acid is mixed with the water placed between the alternate pairs of silver and zinc plates1 a much greater electric shock is produced by the same pile2 and an anonymous writer in the ,phil4 ,magaz4 ,no4 #cf1 for ,may #ahja1 asserts1 that when the intervening cloths or papers are moistened with pure alcali1 as a solution of pure ammonia1 the effect is greater than by any other material4 ,it must here be observed1 that both the acid and the alcaline solution1 or common salt and water1 and even water alone1 in these experiments much erodes the plates of zinc1 and somewhat tarnishes those of silver4 ,whence it would appear1 that as by the repeated explosions of the two electric ethers in the conducting water1 both oxygen and hydrogen are liberated2 the oxygen erodes the zinc plates1 and thus increases the ,galvanic shock by liberating their combined electric ethers3 and that this erosion is much increased by a mixture either of acid or of volatile alcali with the water4 ,further experiments are wanting on this subject to show whether metallic bodies emit either or both of the electric ethers at the time of their solution or erosion in acids or in alcalies4 ,x4 ,of the two ,magnetic ,ethers4 #a4 ,magnetism coincides with electricity in so many important points1 that the existence of two magnetic ethers1 as well as of two electric ones1 becomes highly probable4 ,we shall suppose1 that in a common bar of iron or steel the two magnetic ethers exist intermixed or in their neutral state2 which for the greater ease of speaking of them may be called arctic ether and antarctic ether2 and in this state like the two electric fluids they are not cognizable by our senses of experiments4 ,when these two magnetic ethers are separated from each other1 and the arctic ether is accumulated on one end of an iron or steel bar1 which is then called the north pole of the magnet1 and the antarctic ether is accumulated on the other end of the bar1 and is then termed the south pole of the magnet2 they become capable of attracting other pieces of iron or steel1 and are thus cognizable by experiments4 ,it seems probable1 that it is not the magnetic ether itself which attracts or repels particles of iron1 but that an attractive and repulsive ether attends the magnetic ethers1 as was shown to attend the electric ones in ,no4 ,,ii4 #i4 of this ,note2 because magnetism does not pass through other bodies1 as it does not escape from magnetised steel when in contact with other bodies2 just as the electric fluids do not pass through glass1 but the attractive and repellent ethers1 which attend both the magnetic and electric ethers1 pass through all bodies4 #b4 ,the prominent articles of analogical coincidence between magnetism and electricity are first1 that when one end of an iron bar possesses an accumulation of arctic magnetic ether1 or northern polarity2 the other end possesses an accumulation of antarctic magnetic ether1 or southern polarity2 in the same manner as when vitreous electric ether is accumulated on one side of a coated glass jar1 resinous electric ether becomes accumulated on the other side of it2 as the vitreous and resinous ethers strongly attract each other1 and strongly repel the ethers of the same denomination1 but are prevented from intermixing by the glass plane between them2 so the arctic and antarctic ethers attract each other1 and repel those of similar denomination1 but are prevented from intermixing by the iron or steel being a bad conductor of them2 they will1 nevertheless1 sooner combine1 when the bar is of soft iron1 than when it is of hardened steel2 and then they slowly combine without explosion1 that is1 without emitting heat and light like the electric ethers1 and therefore resemble a mixture of oxygen and pure ammonia2 which unite silently producing a neutral fluid without emitting any other fluids previously combined with them4 ,secondly1 ,if the north pole of a magnetic bar be approached near to the eye of a sewing needle1 the arctic ether of the magnet attracts the antarctic ether1 which resides in the needle towards the eye of it1 and repels the arctic ether1 which resides in the needle towards the point1 precisely in the same manner as occurs in presenting an electrised1 glass tube1 or a rubbed stick of sealing wax to one extremity of two skewers insulated horizontally on wine-glasses in the experiment ascribed to ,mr4 ,canton1 and described in ,no4 ,,ix4 #a1 of this ,additional ,note1 and also so exactly resembles the method of producing a separation and consequent accumulation of the two electric ethers by pressing a cushion on glass or on sealing wax1 described in ,no4 #d of this ,note1 that their analogy is evidently apparent4 ,thirdly1 ,when much accumulated electricity is approached to one end of a long glass tube by a charged prime conductor1 there will exist many divisions of the vitreous and resinous electricity alternately2 as the vitreous ether attracts the resinous ether from a certain distance on the surface of the glass tube1 and repels the vitreous ether2 but1 as this surface is a bad conductor1 these reciprocal attractions and repulsions do not extend very far along it1 but cease and recur in various parts of it4 ,exactly similar to this1 when a magnetic bar is approximated to the end of a common bar of iron or steel1 as described in ,mr4 ,cavallo's valuable ,treatise on ,magnetism2 the arctic ether of the north pole of the magnetic bar attracts the antarctic ether of the bar of common iron towards the end in contact1 and repels the arctic ether2 but1 as iron and steel are as bad conductors of magnetism1 as glass is of electricity1 this accumulation of arctic ether extends but a little way1 and then there exists an accumulation of antarctic ether2 and thus reciprocally in three or four divisions of the bar1 which now becomes magnetised1 as the glass tube became electrised4 ,another striking feature1 which shows the sisterhood of electricity and magnetism1 consists in the origin of both of them from the earth1 or common mass of matter4 ,the eduction of electricity from the earth is shown by an insulated cushion soon ceasing to supply either the vitreous or resinous ether to the whirling globe of glass or of sulphur2 the eduction of magnetism from the earth appears from the following experiment3 if a bar of iron be set upright on the earth in this part of the world1 it becomes in a short time magnetical2 the lower end possessing northern polarity1 or arctic ether1 and the higher end in consequence possessing southern polarity or antarctic ether2 which may be well explained1 if we suppose with ,mr4 ,cavallo1 that the earth itself is one great magnet1 with its southern polarity or antarctic ether at the northern end of its axis2 and1 in consequence1 that it attracts the arctic ether of the iron bar into that end of it which touches the earth1 and repels the antarctic ether of the iron bar to the other end of it1 exactly the same as when the southern pole of an artificial magnet is brought into contact with one end of a sewing needle4 #c4 ,the magnetic and electric ethers agree in the characters above mentioned1 and perhaps in many others1 but differ in the following ones4 ,the electric ethers pass readily through metallic1 aqueous1 and carbonic bodies1 but do not permeate vitreous or resinous ones2 though on the surfaces of these they are capable of adhering1 and of being accumulated by the approach or contact of other bodies2 while the magnetic ethers will not permeate any bodies1 and are capable of being accumulated only on iron and steel by the approach or contact of natural or artificial magnets1 or of the earth2 at the same time the attractive and repulsive powers both of the magnetic and electric ethers will act through all bodies1 like those of gravitation and heat4 ,secondly1 ,the two electric ethers rush into combination1 when they can approach each other1 after having been separated and condensed1 and produce a violent explosion emitting the heat and light1 which were previously combined with them2 whereas the two magnetic ethers slowly combine1 after having been separated and accumulated on the opposite ends of a soft iron bar1 and without emitting heat and light produce a neutral mixture1 which1 like the electric combination1 ceases to be cognizable by our senses or experiments4 ,thirdly1 ,the wonderful property of the magnetic ethers1 when separately accumulated on the ends of a needle1 endeavouring to approach the two opposite poles of the earth2 nothing similar to which has been observed in the electric ethers4 ,from these strict analogies between electricity and magnetism1 we may conclude that the latter consists of two ethers as well as the former2 and that they both1 when separated by art or nature1 combine by chemical affinity when they approach1 the one exploding1 and then consisting of a residuum after having emitted heat and light2 and the other producing simply a neutralised fluid by their union4 ,,xi4 ,conclusion4 #a4 ,when two fluids are diffused together without undergoing any change of their chemical properties1 they are said simply to be mixed1 and not combined2 as milk and water when poured together1 or as oxygen and azote in the common atmosphere4 ,so when salt or sugar is diffused in water1 it is termed solution1 and not combination2 as no change of their chemical properties succeeds4 ,but when an acid is mixed with a pure alcali a combination is produced1 and the mixture is said to become neutral1 as it does not possess the chemical properties which either of the two ingredients possessed in their separate state1 and is therefore similar to neither of them4 ,but when a carbonated alcali1 as mild salt of tartar1 is mixed with a mineral acid1 they presently combine as above1 but now the carbonic acid flies forcibly away in the form of gas2 this1 therefore1 may be termed a kind of explosion1 but cannot properly be so called1 as the ethereal fluids of heat and light are not principally emitted1 but an aerial one or gas2 which may probably acquire a small quantity of heat from the combining matters4 ,but when strong acid of nitre is poured upon charcoal in fine powder1 or upon oil of cloves1 a violent explosion ensues1 and the ethereal matters of heat and light are emitted in great abundance1 and are dissipated2 while in the former instance the oxygen of the nitrous acid unites with the carbone forming carbonic acid gas1 and the azote escapes in its gaseous form2 which may be termed a residuum after the explosion1 and may be confined in a proper apparatus1 which the heat and light cannot2 for the former1 if its production be great and sudden1 bursts the vessels1 or otherwise it passes slowly through them2 and the latter passes through transparent bodies1 and combines with opake ones4 ,but where ethers only are concerned in an explosion1 as the two electric ones1 which are previously difficult to confine in vessels2 the repulsive ethers of heat and light are given out2 and what remains is a combination of the two electric ethers2 which in this state are attracted by all bodies1 and form atmospheres round them4 ,these combined electric atmospheres must possess less heat and light after their explosion2 which they seem afterwards to acquire at the time they are again separated from each other1 probably from the combined heat and combined light of the cushion and glass1 or of the cushion and resin2 by the contact of which they are separated2 and not from the diffused heat of them2 but no experiments have yet been made to ascertain this fact1 this combination of the vitreous and resinous ethers may be esteemed the residuum after their explosion4 #b4 ,hence the essence of explosion consists in two bodies1 which are previously united with heat and light1 so strongly attracting each other1 as to set at liberty those two repulsive ethers2 but it happens1 that these explosive materials cannot generally be brought into each other's vicinity in a state of sufficient density2 unless they are also previously combined with some other material beside the light and heat above spoken of3 as in the nitrous acid1 the oxygen is previously combined with azote2 and is thus in a condensed state1 before it is brought into the contact or vicinity of the carbone2 there are however bodies which will slowly explode2 or give out heat and light1 without being previously combined with other bodies2 as phosphorus in the common atmosphere1 some dead fish in a certain degree of putridity1 and some living insects probably by their respiration in transparent lungs1 which is a kind of combustion4 ,but the two electric ethers are condensed by being brought into vicinity with each other with a nonconductor between them2 and thus explode1 violently as soon as they communicate1 either by rupturing the interposed nonconductor1 or by a metallic communication4 ,this curious method of a previous condensation of the two exploding matters1 without either of them being combined with any other material except with the ethers of heat and light1 distinguishes1 this ethereal explosion from that of most other bodies2 and seems to have been the cause1 which prevented the ingenious ,dr4 ,franklin1 and others since his time1 from ascribing the powerful effects of the electric battery1 and of lightning in bursting trees1 inflaming combustible materials1 and fusing metals1 to chemical explosion2 which it resembles in every other circumstance1 but in the manner of the previous condensation of the materials1 so as violently to attract each other1 and suddenly set at liberty the heat and light1 with which one or both of them were combined4 #c4 ,this combination of vitreous and resinous electric ethers is again destroyed or weakened by the attractions of other bodies2 as they separate intirely1 or exist in different proportions1 forming atmospheres round conducting and nonconducting bodies2 and in this they resemble other combinations of matters2 as oxygen and azote1 when united in the production of nitrous acid1 are again separated by carbone2 which attracts the oxygen more powerfully1 than that attracts the azote1 with which it is combined4 ,this mode of again separating the combined electric ethers by pressing them1 as they surround bodies in different proportions1 into each other's atmospheres1 as by the glass and cushion1 has not been observed respecting the decomposition of other bodies2 when their minute particles are brought so near together as to decompose each other2 which has thence probably contributed to prevent this decomposition of the two combined electric ethers from being ascribed to chemical laws2 but1 as far as we know1 the attractive and repulsive atmospheres round the minute particles of bodies in chemical operations may act in a similar manner2 as the attractive and repulsive atmospheres1 which accompany the electric ethers surrounding the larger masses of matter1 and that hence both the electric and the chemical explosions are subject to the same laws1 and also the decomposition again of those particles1 which were combined in the act of explosion4 #d4 ,it is probable that this theory of electric and magnetic attractions and repulsions1 which so visibly exist in atmospheres round larger masses of matter1 may be applied to explain the invisible attractions and repulsions of the minute particles of bodies in chemical combinations and decompositions1 and also to give a clear idea of the attractions of the great masses of matter1 which form the gravitations of the universe4 ,we are so accustomed to see bodies attract each other1 when they are in absolute contact1 as dew drops or particles of quicksilver forming themselves into spheres1 as water rising in capillary tubes1 the solution of salts and sugar in water1 and the cohesion with which all hard bodies are held together1 that we are not surprised at the attractions of bodies in contact with each other1 but ascribe them to a law affecting all matter4 ,in similar manner when two bodies in apparent contact repel each other1 as oil thrown on water2 or when heat converts ice into water and water into steam2 or when one hard body in motion pushes another hard body out of its place2 we feel no surprise1 as these events so perpetually occur to us1 but ascribe them as well as the attractions of bodies in contact with each other1 to a general law of nature4 ,but when distant bodies appear to attract or repel each other1 as we believe that nothing can act where it does not exist1 we are struck with astonishment2 which is owing to our not seeing the intermediate ethers1 the existence of which is ascertained by the electric and magnetic facts above related4 ,from the facts and observations above mentioned electricity and magnetism consist each of them of two ethers1 as the vitreous and resinous electric ethers1 and the arctic and antarctic magnetic ethers4 ,but as neither of the electric ethers will pass through glass or resin2 and as neither of the magnetic ethers will pass through any bodies except iron2 and yet the attractive and repulsive powers accompanying all these ethers permeate bodies of all kinds2 it follows1 that ethers more subtile than either the electric or magnetic ones attend those ethers forming atmospheres round them2 as those electric and magnetic ethers themselves form atmospheres round other bodies4 ,this secondary atmosphere of the electric one appears to consist of two ethers1 like the electric one which it surrounds3 but these ethers are probably more subtile as they permeate all bodies2 and when they unite by the reciprocal approach of the bodies1 which they surround1 they do not appear to emit heat and light1 as the primary electric atmospheres do2 and therefore they are simpler fluids1 as they are not previously combined with heat and light4 ,the secondary magnetic atmospheres are also probably more subtile or simple than the primary ones4 ,hence we may suppose1 that not only all the larger insulated masses of matter1 but all the minute particles also1 which constitute those masses1 are surrounded by two ethereal fluids2 which like the electric and magnetic ones attract each other forcibly1 and as forcibly repel those of the same denomination2 and at the same time strongly adhere to the bodies1 which they surround4 ,secondly that these ethers are of the finer kind1 like those secondary ones1 which surround the primary electric and magnetic ethers2 and that therefore they do not explode giving out heat and light when they unite1 but simply combine1 and become neutral2 and lastly1 that they surround different bodies in different proportions1 as the vitreous and resinous electric ethers were shown to surround silver and zinc and many other metals in different proportions in ,no4 ,,ix4 of this note4 #e4 ,for the greater ease of conversing on this subject1 we shall call these two ethers1 with which all bodies are surrounded1 the masculine and the feminine ethers2 and suppose them to possess the properties above mentioned4 ,we should here however previously observe1 that in chemical processes it is necessary1 that the bodies1 which are to combine or unite with each other1 should be in a fluid state1 and the particles in contact with each other2 thus when salt is dissolving in water1 the particles of salt unite with those of the water1 which touch them2 these particles of water become saturated1 and thence attract some of the saline particles with less force2 which are therefore attracted from them by those behind2 and the first particles of water are again saturated from the solid salt2 or in some similar processes the saturated combinations may subside or evaporate1 as in the union of the two electric ethers1 or in the explosion of gunpowder1 and thus those in their vicinity may approach each other4 ,this necessity of a liquid form for the purpose of combination appears in the lighting of gunpowder1 as well as in all other combustion1 the spark of fire applied dissolves the sulphur1 and liquifies the combined heat2 and by these means a fluidity succeeds1 and the consequent attractions and repulsions1 which form the explosion4 ,the whole mixed mass of matter1 of which the earth is composed1 we suppose to be surrounded and penetrated by the two ethers1 but with a greater proportion of the masculine ether than of the feminine4 ,when a stone is elevated above the surface of the earth1 we suppose it also to be surrounded with an atmosphere of the two ethers1 but with a greater proportion of the feminine than of the masculine1 and that these ethers adhere strongly by cohesion both to the earth and to the stone elevated above it4 ,now the greater quantity of the masculine ether of the earth becomes in contact with the greater quantity of the feminine ether of the stone above it2 which it powerfully attracts1 and at the same time repels the less quantity of the masculine ether of the stone4 ,the reciprocal attractions of these two fluids1 if not restrained by counter attractions1 bring them together as in chemical combination1 and thus they bring together the solid bodies1 which they reciprocally adhere to2 if they be not immovable2 which solid bodies1 when brought into contact1 cohere by their own reciprocal attractions1 and hence the mysterious affair of distant attraction or gravitation becomes intelligible1 and consonant to the chemical combinations of fluids4 ,to further elucidate these various attractions1 if the patient reader be not already tired1 he will please to attend to the following experiment3 let a bit of sponge suspended on a silk line be moistened with a solution of pure alcali1 and another similar piece of sponge be moistened with a weak acid1 and suspended near the former2 electrize one of them with vitreous ether1 and the other with resinous ether2 as they hang with a thin plate of glass between them3 now as these two electric ethers appear to attract each other without intermixing2 as neither of them can pass through glass2 they must be themselves surrounded with secondary ethers1 which pass through the glass1 and attract each other1 as they become in contact2 as these secondary ethers adhere to the primary vitreous and resinous ethers1 these primary ones are drawn by them into each other's vicinity by the attraction of cohesion1 and become condensed on each side of the glass plane2 and then when the glass plane is withdrawn1 the two electric ethers being now in contact rush violently together1 and draw along with them the pieces of moistened sponge1 to which they adhere2 and finally the acid and alcaline liquids being now brought into contact combine by their chemical affinity4 ,the repulsions of distant bodies are also explicable by this idea of their being surrounded with two ethers1 which we have termed masculine and feminine for the ease of conversing about them2 and have compared them to vitreous and resinous electricity1 and to arctic and antarctic magnetism4 ,as when two particles of matter1 or two larger masses of it1 are surrounded both with their masculine ethers1 these ethers repel each other or refuse to intermix2 and in consequence the bodies to which they adhere1 recede from each other2 as two cork-balls suspended near each other1 and electrised both with vitreous or both with resinous ether1 repel each other2 or as the extremities of two needles magnetised both with arctic1 or both with antarctic ether1 repel each other2 or as oil and water surrounded both with their masculine1 or both with their feminine ethers1 repel each other without touching2 so light is believed to be reflected from a mirror without touching its surface1 and to be bent towards the edge of a knife1 or refracted by its approach from a rarer medium into a denser one1 by the repulsive ether of the mirror1 and the attractive ones of the knife-edge1 and of the denser medium4 ,thus a polished tea-cup slips on the polished saucer probably without their actual contact with each other1 till a few drops of water are interposed between them by capillary attraction1 and prevent its sliding by their tenacity4 ,and so1 lastly1 one hard body in motion pushes another hard body out of its place by their repulsive ethers without being in contact2 as appears from their not adhering to each other1 which all bodies in real contact are believed to do4 ,whence also may be inferred the reason why bodies have been supposed to repel at one distance and attract at another1 because they attract when their particles are in contact with each other1 and either attract or repel when at a distance by the intervention of their attractive or repulsive ethers4 ,thus have ,i endeavoured to take one step further back into the mystery of the gravitation and repulsion of bodies1 which appeared to be distant from each other1 as of the sun and planets1 as ,i before endeavoured to take one step further back into the mysteries of generation in my account of the production of the buds of vegetables in ,phytologia4 ,with what success these have been attended ,i now leave to the judgment of philosophical readers1 from which ,i can make no appeal4 ,,additional ,,notes4 ,,xiii4 ,,analysis ,,of ,,taste4 ,fond ,fancy's eye recalls the form divine1 ,and ,taste sits smiling upon ,beauty's shrine4 ,,canto ,,iii4 l4 #bba4 ,the word ,taste in its extensive application may express the pleasures received by any of our senses1 when excited into action by the stimulus of external objects2 as when odours stimulate the nostrils1 or flavours the palate2 or when smoothness1 or softness1 are perceived by the touch1 or warmth by its adapted organ of sense4 ,the word ,taste is also used to signify the pleasurable trains of ideas suggested by language1 as in the compositions of poetry and oratory4 ,but the pleasures1 consequent to the exertions of our sense of vision only1 are designed here to be treated of1 with occasional references to those of the ear1 when they elucidate each other4 ,when any of our organs of sense are excited into their due quantity of action1 a pleasurable sensation succeeds1 as shown in ,zoonomia1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,sect4 ,,iv4 ,these are simply the pleasures attending perception1 and not those which are termed the pleasures of ,taste2 which consist of additional pleasures arising from the peculiar forms or colours of objects1 or of their peculiar combinations or successions1 or from other agreeable trains of ideas previously associated with them4 ,there are four sources of pleasure attendant on the excitation of the nerves of vision by light and colours1 besides that simply of perception above mentioned2 the first is derived from a degree of novelty of the forms1 colours1 numbers1 combinations1 or successions1 and visible objects4 ,the second is derived from a degree of repetition of their forms1 colours1 numbers1 combinations1 or successions4 ,where these two circumstances exist united in certain quantities1 and compose the principal part of a landscape1 it is termed picturesque by modern writers4 ,the third source of pleasure from the perception of the visible world may be termed the melody of colours1 which will be shown to coincide with melody of sounds3 this circumstance may also accompany the picturesque1 and will add to the pleasure it affords4 ,the fourth source of pleasure from the perception of visible objects is derived from the previous association of other pleasurable trains of ideas with certain forms1 colours1 combinations1 or successions of them4 ,whence the beautiful1 sublime1 romantic1 melancholic1 and other emotions1 which have not acquired names to express them4 ,we may add1 that all these four sources of pleasure from perceptions are equally applicable to those of sounds as of sights4 ,i4 ,novelty or infrequency of visible objects4 ,the first circumstance1 which suggests an additional pleasure in the contemplation of visible objects1 besides that of simple perception1 arises from their novelty or infrequency2 that is from the unusual combinations or successions of their forms or colours4 ,from this source is derived the perpetual cheerfulness of youth1 and the want of it is liable to add a gloom to the countenance of age4 ,it is this which produces variety in landscape compared with the common course of nature1 an intricacy which incites investigation1 and a curiosity which leads to explore the works of nature4 ,those who travel into foreign regions instigated by curiosity1 or who examine and unfold the intricacies of sciences at home1 are led by novelty2 which not only supplies ornament to beauty or to grandeur1 but adds agreeable surprise to the point of the epigram1 and to the double meaning of the pun1 and is courted alike by poets and philosophers4 ,it should be here premised1 that the word ,novelty1 as used in these pages1 admits of degrees or quantities1 some objects1 or the ideas excited by them1 possessing more or less novelty1 as they are more or less unusual4 ,which the reader will please to attend to1 as we have used the word ,infrequency of objects1 or of the ideas excited by them1 to express the degrees or quantities of their novelty4 ,the source1 from which is derived the pleasure of novelty1 is a metaphysical inquiry of great curiosity1 and will on that account excuse my here introducing it4 ,in our waking hours whenever an idea occurs1 which is incongruous to our former experience1 we instantly dissever the train of imagination by the power of volition2 and compare the incongruous idea with our previous knowledge of nature1 and reject it4 ,this operation of the mind has not yet acquired a specific name1 though it is exerted every minute of our waking hours1 unless it may be termed ,,intuitive ,,analogy4 ,it is an act of reasoning of which we are unconscious except by its effects in preserving the congruity of our ideas2 ,zoonomia1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,sect4 ,,xvii4 #e4 #g4 ,in our sleep as the power of volition is suspended1 and consequently that of reason1 when any incongruous ideas occur in the trains of imagination1 which compose our dreams2 we cannot compare them with our previous knowledge of nature and reject them2 whence arises the perpetual inconsistency of our sleeping trains of ideas2 and whence in our dreams we never feel the sentiment of novelty2 however different the ideas1 which present themselves1 may be from the usual course of nature4 ,but in our waking hours1 whenever any object occurs which does not accord with the usual course of nature1 we immediately and unconsciously exert our voluntary power1 and examine it by intuitive analogy1 comparing it with our previous knowledge of nature4 ,this exertion of our volition excites many other ideas1 and is attended with pleasurable sensation2 which constitutes the sentiment of novelty4 ,but when the object of novelty stimulates us so forcibly as suddenly to disunite our passing trains of ideas1 as if a pistol be unexpectedly discharged1 the emotion of surprise is experienced2 which by exciting violent irritation and violent sensation1 employs for a time the whole sensorial energy1 and thus dissevers the passing trains of ideas2 before the power of volition has time to compare them with the usual phenomena of nature2 but as the painful emotion of fear is then generally added to that of surprise1 as every one experiences1 who hears a noise in the dark1 which he cannot immediately account for2 this great degree of novelty1 when it produces much surprise1 generally ceases to be pleasurable1 and does not then belong to objects of taste4 ,in its less degree surprise is generally agreeable1 as it simply expresses the sentiment occasioned by the novelty of our ideas2 as in common language we say1 we are agreeably surprised at the unexpected meeting with a friend1 which not only expresses the sentiment of novelty1 but also the pleasure from other agreeable ideas associated with the object of it4 ,it must appear from hence1 that different persons must be affected more or less agreeably by different degrees or quantities of novelty in the objects of taste2 according to their previous knowledge of nature1 or their previous habits or opportunities of attending to the fine arts4 ,thus before its nativity the fetus experiences the perceptions of heat and cold1 of hardness and softness1 of motion and rest1 with those perhaps of hunger and repletion1 sleeping and waking1 pain and pleasure2 and perhaps some other perceptions1 which may at this early time of its existence have occasioned perpetual trains of ideas4 ,on its arrival into the world the perceptions of light and sound must by their novelty at first dissever its usual trains of ideas and occasion great surprise2 which after a few repetitions will cease to be disagreeable1 and only excite the emotion from novelty1 which has not acquired a separate name1 but is in reality a less degree of surprise2 and by further experience the sentiment of novelty1 or any degree of surprise1 will cease to be excited by the sounds or sights1 which at first excited perhaps a painful quantity of surprise4 ,it should here be observed1 that as the pleasure of novelty is produced by the exertion of our voluntary power in comparing uncommon objects with those which are more usually exhibited2 this sentiment of novelty is less perceived by those who do not readily use the faculty of volition1 or who have little previous knowledge of nature1 as by very ignorant or very stupid people1 or by brute animals2 and that therefore to be affected with this circumstance of the objects of ,taste requires some previous knowledge of-such kinds of objects1 and some degree of mental exertion4 ,hence when a greater variety of objects than usual is presented to the eye1 or when some intricacy of forms1 colours1 or reciprocal locality more than usual accompanies them1 it is termed novelty if it only excites the exertion of intuitive comparison with the usual order of nature1 and affects us with pleasurable sensation2 but is termed surprise1 if it suddenly dissevers our accustomed habits of motion1 and is then more generally attended with disagreeable sensation4 ,to this circumstance attending objects of taste is to be referred what is termed wild and irregular in landscapes1 in contradistinction to the repetition of parts or uniformity spoken of below4 ,we may add1 that novelty of notes and tones in music1 or of their combinations or successions1 are equally agreeable to the ear1 as the novelty of forms and colours1 and of their combinations or successions are to the eye2 but that the greater quantity or degree of novelty1 the sentiment of which is generally termed ,surprise1 is more frequently excited by unusual or unexpected sounds2 which are liable to alarm us with fear1 as well as surprise us with novelty4 ,,ii4 ,repetition of visible objects4 ,the repeated excitement of the same or similar ideas with certain intervals of time1 or distances of space between them1 is attended with agreeable sensations1 besides that simply of perception2 and1 though it appears to be diametrically opposite to the pleasure arising from the novelty of objects above treated of1 enters into the compositions of all the agreeable arts4 ,the pleasure arising from the repetition of similar ideas with certain intervals of time or distances of space between them is a subject of great metaphysical curiosity1 as well as the source of the pleasure derived from novelty1 which will ,i hope excuse its introduction in this place4 ,the repetitions of motions may be at first produced either by volition1 or by sensation1 or by irritation1 but they soon become easier to perform than any other kinds of action1 because they soon become associated together2 and thus their frequency of repetition1 if as much sensorial power be produced during every reiteration1 as is expended1 adds to the facility of their production4 ,if a stimulus be repeated at uniform intervals of time1 the action1 whether of our muscles or organs of sense1 is produced with still greater facility or energy2 because the sensorial power of association1 mentioned above1 is combined with the sensorial power of irritation2 that is in common language1 the acquired habit assists the power of the stimulus4 ,this not only obtains in the annual1 lunar1 and diurnal catenations of animal motions1 as explained in ,zoonomia1 ,sect4 ,,xxxvi4 which are thus performed with great facility and energy2 but in every less circle of actions or ideas1 as in the burden of a song1 or the reiterations of a dance4 ,to the facility and distinctness1 with which we hear sounds at repeated intervals1 we owe the pleasure1 which we receive from musical time1 and from poetic time1 as described in ,botanic ,garden1 ,v4 ,,ii4 ,interlude ,,iii4 ,and to this the pleasure we receive from the rhimes and alliterations of modern versification2 the source of which without this key would be difficult to discover4 ,there is no variety of notes referable to the gamut in the beating of a drum1 yet if it be performed in musical time1 it is agreeable to our ears2 and therefore this pleasurable sensation must be owing to the repetition of the divisions of the sounds at certain intervals of time1 or musical bars4 ,whether these times or bars are distinguished by a pause1 or by an emphasis1 or accent1 certain it is1 that this distinction is perpetually repeated2 otherwise the ear could not determine instantly1 whether the successions of sound were in common or in triple time4 ,but besides these little circles of musical time1 there are the greater returning periods1 and the still more distinct choruses2 which1 like the rhimes at the end of verses1 owe their beauty to repetition2 that is1 to the facility and distinctness with which we perceive sounds1 which we expect to perceive or have perceived before2 or in the language of this work1 to the greater ease and energy with which our organ is excited by the combined sensorial powers of association and irritation1 than by the latter singly4 ,this kind of pleasure arising from repetition1 that is from the facility and distinctness with which we perceive and understand repeated sensations1 enters into all the agreeable arts2 and when it is carried to excess is termed formality4 ,the art of dancing like that of music depends for a great part of the pleasure1 it affords1 on repetition2 architecture1 especially the ,grecian1 consists of one part being a repetition of another1 and hence the beauty of the pyramidal outline in landscape-painting2 where one side of the picture may be said in some measure to balance the other4 ,so universally does repetition contribute to our pleasure in the fine arts1 that beauty itself has been defined by some writers to consist in a due combination of uniformity and variety3 ,zoonomia1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,sect4 ,,xxii4 #b4 #a4 ,where these repetitions of form1 and reiterations of colour1 are produced in a picture or a natural landscape1 in an agreeable quantity1 it is termed simplicity1 or unity of character2 where the repetition principally is seen in the disposition or locality of the divisions1 it is called symmetry1 proportion1 or grouping the separate parts2 where this repetition is most conspicuous in the forms of visible objects1 it is called regularity or uniformity2 and where it affects the colouring principally1 the artists call it breadth of colour4 ,there is nevertheless1 an excess of the repetition of the same or similar ideas1 which ceases to please1 and must therefore be excluded from compositions of ,taste in painted landscapes1 or in ornamented gardens2 which is then called formality1 monotony1 or insipidity4 ,why the excitation of ideas should give additional pleasure by the facility and distinctness of their production for a certain time1 and then cease to give additional pleasure2 and gradually to give less pleasure than that1 which attends simple exertion of them2 is another curious metaphysical problem1 and deserves investigation4 ,in our waking hours a perpetual voluntary exertion1 of which we are unconscious1 attends all our new trains of ideas1 whether those of imagination or of perception2 which by comparing them with our former experience preserves the consistency of the former1 by rejecting such as are incongruous2 and adds to the credibility of the latter1 by their analogy to objects of our previous knowledge3 and this exertion is attended with pleasurable sensation4 ,after very frequent repetition these trains of ideas do not excite the exertion of this intuitive analogy1 and in consequence are not attended with additional pleasure to that simply of perception2 and by continued repetition they at length lose even the pleasure simply of perception1 and thence finally cease to be excited2 whence one cause of the torpor of old age1 and of death1 as spoken of in ,additional ,note1 ,no4 ,,vii4 #c4 of this work4 ,when there exists in any landscape a certain number and diversity of forms and colours1 or of their combinations or successions1 so as to produce a degree of novelty2 and that with a certain repetition1 or arrangement of parts1 so as to render them gradually comprehensible or easily compared with the usual course of nature2 if this agreeable combination of visible objects be on a moderate scale1 in respect to magnitude1 and form the principal part of the landscape1 it is termed ,,picturesque by modern artists2 and when such a combination of forms and colours contains many easy flowing curves and smooth surfaces1 the delightful sentiment of ,,beauty becomes added to the pleasure of the ,picturesque4 ,if the above agreeable combination of novelty and repetition exists on a larger scale with more projecting rocks1 and deeper dells1 and perhaps with a somewhat greater proportion of novelty than repetition1 the landscape assumes the name of ,,romantic2 and if some of these forms or combinations are much above the usual magnitude of similar objects1 the more interesting sentiment of ,,sublimity becomes mixed with the pleasure of the romantic4 ,,iii4 ,melody of ,colours4 ,a third source of pleasure arising from the inspection of visible objects1 besides that of simple perception1 arises from what may be termed melody of colours1 as certain colours are more agreeable1 when they succeed each other2 or when they are disposed in each other's vicinity1 so as successively to affect the organ of vision4 ,in a paper on the colours seen in the eye after looking for some time on luminous objects1 published by ,dr4 ,darwin of ,shrewsbury in the ,philos4 ,trans4 ,vol4 #gf1 it is evidently shown1 that we see certain colours not only with greater ease and distinctness1 but with relief and pleasure1 after having for some time inspected other certain colours2 as green after red1 or red after green2 orange after blue1 or blue after orange2 yellow after violet1 or violet after yellow2 this1 he shows1 arises from the ocular spectrum of the colour last viewed coinciding with the irritation of the colour now under contemplation4 ,thus if you make a dot with ink in the centre of a circle of red silk the size of a letter-wafer1 and place it on a sheet of white paper1 and look on it for a minute without moving your eyes2 and then gently turn them on the white paper in its vicinity1 or gently close them1 and hold one hand an inch or two before them1 to prevent too much light from passing through the eyelids1 a circular spot of pale green will be seen on the white paper1 or in the closed eye2 which is called the ocular spectrum of the red silk1 and is formed as ,dr4 ,darwin shows by the pandiculation or stretching of the fine fibrils1 which constitute the extremities of the optic nerve1 in a direction contrary to that1 in which they have been excited by previously looking at a luminous object1 till they become fatigued2 like the yawning or stretching of the larger muscles after acting long in one direction4 ,if at this time the eye1 fatigued by looking long at the centre of the red silk1 be turned on paper previously coloured with pale green2 the circular spot or ocular spectrum will appear of a much darker green2 as now the irritation from the pale green paper coincides with the pale green spectrum remaining in the eye1 and thus excites those fibres of the retina into stronger action2 on this account some colours are seen more distinctly1 and consequently more agreeably after others2 or when placed in the vicinity of others2 thus if orange-coloured letters are painted on a blue ground1 they may be read at as great distance as black on white1 perhaps at a greater4 ,the colours1 which are thus more distinct when seen in succession are called opposite colours by ,sir ,isaac ,newton in his optics1 ,book ,i4 ,part #b1 and may be easily discovered by any one1 by the method above described2 that is by laying a coloured circle of paper or silk on a sheet of white paper1 and inspecting it some time with steady eyes1 and then either gently closing them1 or removing them on another part of the white paper1 and the ocular spectrum or opposite colour becomes visible in the eye4 ,sir ,isaac ,newton has observed1 that the breadths of the seven primary colours in the sun's image refracted by a prism1 are proportioned to the seven musical notes of the gamut2 or to the intervals of the eight sounds contained in an octave4 ,from this curious coincidence1 it has been proposed to produce a luminous music1 consisting of successions or combinations of colours1 analogous to a tune in respect to the proportions above mentioned4 ,this might be performed by a strong light1 made by means of ,mr4 ,argand's lamps1 passing through coloured glasses1 and falling on a defined part of the wall1 with moveable blinds before them1 which might communicate with the keys of a harpsichord1 and thus produce at the same time visible and audible music in unison with each other4 ,now as the pleasure we receive from the sensation of melodious notes1 independent of musical time1 and of the previous associations of agreeable ideas with them1 must arise from our hearing some proportions of sounds after others more easily1 distinctly1 or agreeably2 and as there is a coincidence between the proportions of the primary colours1 and the primary sounds1 if they may be so called2 the same laws must probably govern the sensations of both4 ,in this circumstance therefore consists the sisterhood of ,music and ,painting2 and hence they claim a right to borrow metaphors from each other3 musicians to speak of the brilliancy of sounds1 and the light and shade of a concerto2 and painters of the harmony of colours1 and the tone of a picture4 ,this source of pleasure received from the melodious succession of colours or of sounds must not be confounded with the pleasure received from the repetition of them explained above1 though the repetition1 or division of musical notes into bars1 so as to produce common or triple time1 contributes much to the pleasure of music2 but in viewing a fixed landscape nothing like musical time exists2 and the pleasure received therefore from certain successions of colours must depend only on the more easy or distinct action of the retina in perceiving some colours after others1 or in their vicinity1 like the facility or even pleasure with which we act with contrary muscles in yawning or stretching after having been fatigued with a long previous exertion in the contrary direction4 ,hence where colours are required to be distinct1 those which are opposite to each other1 should be brought into succession or vicinity2 as red and green1 orange and blue1 yellow and violet2 but where colours are required to intermix imperceptibly1 or slide into each other1 these should not be chosen2 as they might by contrast appear too glaring or tawdry4 ,these gradations and contrasts of colours have been practically employed both by the painters of landscape1 and by the planters of ornamental gardens2 though the theory of this part of the pleasure derived from visible objects was not explained before the publication of the paper on ocular spectra above mentioned2 which is reprinted at the end of the first part of ,zoonomia1 and has thrown great light on the actions of the nerves of sense in consequence of the stimulus of external bodies4 ,,iv4 ,association of agreeable sentiments with visible objects4 ,besides the pleasure experienced simply by the perception of visible objects1 it has been already shown1 that there is an additional pleasure arising from the inspection of those1 which possess novelty1 or some degree of it2 a second additional pleasure from those1 which possess in some degree a repetition of their parts2 and a third from those1 which possess a succession of particular colours1 which either contrast or slide into each other1 and which we have termed melody of colours4 ,we now step forward to the fourth source of the pleasures arising from the contemplation of visible objects besides that simply of perception1 which consists in our previous association of some agreeable sentiment with certain forms or combinations of them4 ,these four kinds of pleasure singly or in combination constitute what is generally understood by the word ,taste in respect to the visible world2 and by parity of reasoning it is probable1 that the pleasurable ideas received by the other senses1 or which are associated with language1 may be traced to similar sources4 ,it has been shown by ,bishop ,berkeley in his ingenious essay on vision1 that the eye only acquaints us with the perception of light and colours2 and that our idea of the solidity of the bodies1 which reflect them1 is learnt by the organ of touch3 he therefore calls our vision the language of touch1 observing that certain gradations of the shades of colour1 by our previous experience of having examined similar bodies by our hands or lips1 suggest our ideas of solidity1 and of the forms of solid bodies2 as when we view a tree1 it would otherwise appear to us a flat green surface1 but by association of ideas we know it to be a cylindrical stem with round branches4 ,this association of the ideas acquired by the sense of touch with those of vision1 we do not allude to in the following observations1 but to the agreeable trains or tribes of ideas and sentiments connected with certain kinds of visible objects4 ,v4 ,sentiment of ,beauty4 ,of these catenations of sentiments with visible objects1 the first is the sentiment of ,beauty or ,loveliness2 which is suggested by easy-flowing curvatures of surface1 with smoothness2 as is so well illustrated in ,mr4 ,burke's ,essay on the ,sublime and ,beautiful1 and in ,mr4 ,hogarth's analysis of ,beauty2 a new edition of which is much wanted separate from his other works4 ,the sentiment of ,beauty appears to be attached from our cradles to the easy curvatures of lines1 and smooth surfaces of visible objects1 and to have been derived from the form of the female bosom2 as spoken of in ,zoonomia1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,section ,,xvi4 on ,instinct4 ,sentimental love1 as distinguished from the animal passion of that name1 with which it is frequently accompanied1 consists in the desire or sensation of beholding1 embracing1 and saluting1 a beautiful object4 ,the characteristic of beauty therefore is that it is the object of love2 and though many other objects are in common language called beautiful1 yet they are only called so metaphorically1 and ought to be termed agreeable4 ,a ,grecian temple may give us the pleasurable idea of sublimity2 a ,gothic temple may give us the pleasurable idea of variety2 and a modern house the pleasurable idea of utility2 music and poetry may inspire our love by association of ideas2 but none of these1 except metaphorically1 can be termed beautiful2 as we have no wish to embrace or salute them4 ,our perception of beauty consists in our recognition by the sense of vision of those objects1 first which have before inspired our love by the pleasure1 which they have afforded to many of our senses3 as to our sense of warmth1 of touch1 of smell1 of taste1 hunger and thirst2 and secondly1 which bear any analogy of form to such objects4 ,when the babe1 soon after it is born into this cold world1 is applied to its mother's bosom1 its sense of perceiving warmth is first agreeably affected2 next its sense of smell is delighted with the odour of her milk2 then its taste is gratified by the flavour of it1 afterwards the appetites of hunger and of thirst afford pleasure by the possession of their objects1 and by the subsequent digestion of the aliment2 and lastly1 the sense of touch is delighted by the softness and smoothness of the milky fountain1 the source of such variety of happiness4 ,,additional ,,notes4 ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,theory ,,and ,,structure ,,of ,,language ,next to each thought associate sound accords1 ,and forms the dulcet symphony of words4 ,,canto ,,iii4 l4 #cfe4 ,ideas consist of synchronous motions or configurations of the extremities of the organs of sense2 these when repeated by sensation1 volition1 or association1 are either simple or complex1 as they were first excited by irritation2 or have afterwards some parts abstracted from them1 or some parts added to them4 ,language consists of words1 which are the names or symbols of ideas4 ,words are therefore properly all of them nouns or names of things4 ,little had been done in the investigation of the theory of language from the time of ,aristotle to the present aera1 till ,mr4 ,horne ,tooke1 the ingenious and learned author of the ,diversions of ,purley1 explained those undeclined words of all languages1 which had puzzled the grammarians1 and evinced from their etymology1 that they were abbreviations of other modes of expression4 ,mr4 ,tooke observes1 that the first aim of language was to communicate our thoughts1 and the second to do it with dispatch2 and hence he divides words into those1 which were necessary to express our thoughts1 and those which are abbreviations of the former2 which he ingeniously styles the wings of ,hermes4 ,for the greater dispatch of conversation many words suggest more than one idea2 ,i shall therefore arrange them according to the number and kinds of ideas1 which they suggest2 and am induced to do this1 as a new distribution of the objects of any science may advance the knowledge of it by developing another analogy of its constituent parts4 ,and in thus endeavouring to analyze the theory of language ,i mean to speak primarily of the ,english1 and occasionally to add what may occur concerning the structure of the ,greek and ,latin4 ,i4 ,conjunctions and ,prepositions4 ,the first class of words consists of those1 which suggest but one idea1 and suffer no change of termination2 which have been termed by grammarians ,,conjunctions and ,,prepositions2 the former of which connect sentences1 and the latter words4 ,both which have been ingeniously explained by ,mr4 ,horne ,tooke from their etymology to be abbreviations of other modes of expression4 #a4 ,thus the conjunction if and an1 are shown by ,mr4 ,tooke to be derived from the imperative mood of the verbs to give and to grant2 but both of these conjunctions by long use appear to have become the name of a more abstracted idea1 than the words give or grant suggest1 as they do not now express any ideas of person1 or of number1 or of time2 all which are generally attendant upon the meaning of a verb2 and perhaps all the words of this class are the names of ideas much abstracted1 which has caused the difficulty of explaining them4 #b4 ,the number of ,prepositions is very great in the ,english language1 as they are used before the cases of nouns1 and the infinitive mood of verbs1 instead of the numerous changes of termination of the nouns and verbs of the ,greek and ,latin2 which gives greater simplicity to our language1 and greater facility of acquiring it4 ,the prepositions1 as well as the preceding conjunctions1 have been well explained by ,mr4 ,horne ,tooke2 who has developed the etymology of many of them4 ,as the greatest number of the ideas1 we receive from external objects1 are complex ones1 the names of these constitute a great part of language1 as the proper names of persons and places2 which are complex terms4 ,now as these complex terms do not always exactly suggest the quantity of combined ideas we mean to express1 some of the prepositions are prefixed to them to add or to deduct something1 or to limit their general meaning2 as a house with a party wall1 or a house without a roof4 ,these words are also derived by ,mr4 ,tooke1 as abbreviations of the imperative moods of verbs2 but which appear now to suggest ideas further abstracted than those generally suggested by verbs1 and are all of them properly nouns1 or names of ideas4 ,,ii4 ,nouns ,substantive4 ,the second class of words consists of those1 which in their simplest state suggest but one idea1 as the word man2 but which by two changes of termination in our language suggest one secondary idea of number1 as the word men2 or another secondary idea of the genitive case1 as man's mind1 or the mind of man4 ,these words by other changes of termination in the ,greek and ,latin languages suggest many other secondary ideas1 as of gender1 as well as of number1 and of all the other cases described in their grammars2 which in ,english are expressed by prepositions4 ,this class of words includes the ,,nouns ,,substantive1 or names of things1 of common grammars1 and may be conveniently divided into three kinds4 #a4 ,those which suggest the ideas of things believed to possess hardness and figure1 as a house or a horse4 #b4 ,those which suggest the ideas of things1 which are not supposed to possess hardness and figure1 except metaphorically1 as virtue1 wisdom2 which have therefore been termed abstracted ideas4 #c4 ,those which have been called by metaphysical writers reflex ideas1 and mean those of the operations of the mind1 as sensation1 volition1 association4 ,another convenient division of these nouns substantive or names of things may be first into general terms1 or the names of classes of ideas1 as man1 quadruped1 bird1 fish1 animal4 #b4 ,into the names of complex ideas1 as this house1 that dog4 #c4 ,into the names of simple ideas1 as whiteness1 sweetness4 ,a third convenient division of the names of things may be into the names of intire things1 whether of real or imaginary being2 these are the nouns substantive of grammars4 #b4 ,into the names of the qualities or properties of the former2 these are the nouns adjective of grammars4 #c4 ,the names of more abstracted ideas as the conjunctions and prepositions of grammarians4 ,these nouns substantive1 or names of intire things1 suggest but one idea in their simplest form1 as in the nominative case singular of grammars4 ,as the word a stag is the name of a single complex idea2 but the word stags by a change of termination adds to this a secondary idea of number2 and the word stag's1 with a comma before the final s1 suggests1 in ,english1 another secondary idea of something appertaining to the stag1 as a stag's horn2 which is1 however1 in our language1 as frequently expressed by the preposition of1 as the horn of a stag4 ,in the ,greek and ,latin languages an idea of gender is joined with the names of intire things1 as well as of number2 but in the ,english language the nouns1 which express inanimate objects1 have no genders except metaphorically2 and even the sexes of many animals have names so totally different from each other1 that they rather give an idea of the individual creature than of the sex1 as bull and cow1 horse and mare1 boar and sow1 dog and bitch4 ,this constitutes another circumstance1 which renders our language more simple1 and more easy to acquire2 and at the same time contributes to the poetic excellence of it2 as by adding a masculine or feminine pronoun1 as he1 or she1 other nouns substantive are so readily personified4 ,in the ,latin language there are five cases besides the nominative1 or original word1 and in the ,greek four4 ,whence the original noun substantive by change of its termination suggests a secondary idea either corresponding with the genitive1 dative1 accusative1 vocative1 or ablative cases1 besides the secondary ideas of number and gender above mentioned4 ,the ideas suggested by these changes of termination1 which are termed cases1 are explained in the grammars of these languages1 and are expressed in ours by prepositions1 which are called the signs of those cases4 ,thus the word ,domini1 of the ,lord1 suggests beside the primary idea a secondary one of something appertaining to it1 as templum domini1 the temple of the ,lord1 or the ,lord's temple2 which in ,english is either effected by an addition of the letter s1 with a comma before it1 or by the preposition of4 ,this genitive case is said to be expressed in the ,hebrew language simply by the locality of the words in succession to each other2 which must so far add to the conciseness of that language4 ,thus the word ,domino1 in the dative case1 to the ,lord1 suggests besides the primary idea a secondary one of something being added to the primary one2 which is effected in ,english by the preposition to4 ,the accusative case1 or ,dominum1 besides the primary idea implies something having acted upon the object of that primary idea2 as felis edit murem1 the cat eats the mouse4 ,this is thus effected in the ,greek and ,latin by a change of termination of the noun acted upon1 but is managed in a more concise way in our language by its situation in the sentence1 as it follows the verb4 ,thus if the mouse in the above sentence was placed before the verb1 and the cat after it1 in ,english the sense would be inverted1 but not so in ,latin2 this necessity of generally placing the accusative case after the verb is inconvenient in poetry2 though it adds to the conciseness and simplicity of our language1 as it saves the intervention of a preposition1 or of a change of termination4 ,the vocative case of the ,latin language1 or ,domine1 besides the primary idea suggests a secondary one of appeal1 or address2 which in our language is either marked by its situation in the sentence1 or by the preposition ,o preceding it4 ,whence this interjection ,o conveys the idea of appeal joined to the subsequent noun1 and is therefore properly another noun1 or name of an idea1 preceding the principal one like other prepositions4 ,the ablative case in the ,latin language1 as ,domino1 suggests a secondary idea of something being deducted from or by the primary one4 ,which is perhaps more distinctly expressed by one of those prepositions in our language2 which1 as it suggests somewhat concerning the adjoined noun1 is properly another noun1 or name of an idea1 preceding the principal one4 ,when to these variations of the termination of nouns in the singular number are added those equally numerous of the plural1 and the great variety of these terminations correspondent to the three genders1 it is evident that the prepositions of our own and other modern languages instead of the changes of termination add to the simplicity of these languages1 and to the facility of acquiring them4 ,hence in the ,latin language1 besides the original or primary idea suggested by each noun substantive1 or name of an entire thing1 there attends an additional idea of number1 another of gender1 and another suggested by each change of termination1 which constitutes the cases2 so that in this language four ideas are suggested at the same time by one word2 as the primary idea1 its gender1 number1 and case2 the latter of which has also four or five varieties4 ,these nouns therefore may properly be termed the abbreviation of sentences2 as the conjunctions and prepositions are termed by ,mr4 ,tooke the abbreviation of words2 and if the latter are called the wings affixed to the feet of ,hermes1 the former may be called the wings affixed to his cap4 ,,iii4 ,adjectives1 ,articles1 ,participles1 ,adverbs4 #a4 ,the third class of words consists of those1 which in their simplest form suggest two ideas2 one of them is an abstracted idea of the quality of an object1 but not of the object itself2 and the other is an abstracted idea of its appertaining to some other noun called a substantive1 or a name of an entire thing4 ,these words are termed ,,adjectives1 are undeclined in our language in respect to cases1 number1 or gender2 but by three changes of termination they suggest the secondary ideas of greater1 greatest1 and of less2 as the word sweet changes into sweeter1 sweetest1 and sweetish2 which may be termed three degrees of comparison besides the positive meaning of the word2 which terminations of er and est are seldom added to words of more than two syllables2 as those degrees are then most frequently denoted by the prepositions more and most4 ,adjectives seem originally to have been derived from nouns substantive1 of which they express a quality1 as a musky rose1 a beautiful lady1 a stormy day4 ,some of them are formed from the correspondent substantive by adding the syllable ly1 or like1 as a lovely child1 a warlike countenance2 and in our language it is frequently only necessary to put a hyphen between two nouns substantive for the purpose of converting the former one into an adjective1 as an eagle-eye1 a ,mayday4 ,and many of our adjectives are substantives unchanged1 and only known by their situation in a sentence1 as a ,german1 or a ,german gentleman4 ,adjectives therefore are names of qualities1 or parts of things2 as substantives are the names of entire things4 ,in the ,latin and ,greek languages these adjectives possess a great variety of terminations2 which suggest occasionally the ideas of number1 gender1 and the various cases1 agreeing in all these with the substantive1 to which they belong2 besides the two original or primary ideas of quality1 and of their appertaining to some other word1 which must be adjoined to make them sense4 ,insomuch that some of these adjectives1 when declined through all their cases1 and genders1 and numbers1 in their positive1 comparative1 and superlative degrees1 enumerate fifty or sixty terminations4 ,all which to one1 who wishes to learn these languages1 are so many new words1 and add much to the difficulty of acquiring them4 ,though the ,english adjectives are undeclined1 having neither case1 gender1 nor number2 and with this simplicity of form possess a degree of comparison by the additional termination of ish1 more than the generality of ,latin or ,greek adjectives1 yet are they less adapted to poetic measure1 as they must accompany their corresponding substantives2 from which they are perpetually separated in ,greek and ,latin poetry4 #b4 ,there is a second kind of adjectives1 which abound in our language1 and in the ,greek1 but not in the ,latin1 which are called ,,articles by the writers of grammar1 as the letter a1 and the word the4 ,these1 like the adjectives above described1 suggest two primary ideas1 and suffer no change of termination in our language1 and therefore suggest no secondary ideas4 ,mr4 ,locke observes1 that languages consist principally of general terms2 as it would have been impossible to give a name to every individual object1 so as to communicate an idea of it to others2 it would be like reciting the name of every individual soldier of an army1 instead of using the general term1 army4 ,now the use of the article a1 and the in ,english1 and o in ,greek1 converts general terms into particular ones2 this idea of particularity as a quality1 or property of a noun1 is one of the primary ideas suggested by these articles2 and the other is1 that of its appertaining to some particular noun substantive1 without which it is not intelligible4 ,in both these respects these articles correspond with adjectives2 to which may be added1 that our article a may be expressed by the adjective one or any2 and that the ,greek article o is declined like other adjectives4 ,the perpetual use of the article1 besides its converting general terms into particular ones1 contributes much to the force and beauty of our language from another circumstance1 that abstracted ideas become so readily personified simply by the omission of it2 which perhaps renders the ,english language better adapted to poetry than any other ancient or modern3 the following prosopopoeia from ,shakspeare is thus beautiful4 ,she let ,concealment like a worm i' th' bud ,feed on her damask cheek4 ,and the following line1 translated from ,juvenal by ,dr4 ,johnson1 is much superior to the original1 owing to the easy personification of ,worth and ,poverty1 and to the consequent conciseness of it4 ,difficile emergunt1 quorum virtutibus obstat ,res angusta domi4 ,slow rises ,worth by ,poverty depress'd4 #c4 ,a third class of adjectives includes what are termed ,,participles1 which are allied to the infinitive moods of verbs1 and are formed in our language by the addition only of the syllable ing or ed2 and are of two kinds1 active and passive1 as loving1 loved1 from the verb to love4 ,the verbs suggest an idea of the noun1 or thing spoken of2 and also of its manner of existence1 whether at rest1 in action1 or in being acted upon2 as ,i lie still1 or ,i whip1 or ,i am whipped2 and1 lastly1 another idea of the time of resting1 acting1 or suffering2 but these adjectives called participles1 suggest only two primary ideas1 one of the noun1 or thing spoken of1 and another of the mode of existence1 but not a third idea of time2 and in this respect participles differ from the verbs1 from which they originate1 or which originated from them1 except in their infinitive moods4 ,nor do they resemble adjectives only in their suggesting but two primary ideas2 but in the ,latin and ,greek languages they are declined through all the cases1 genders1 and numbers1 like other adjectives2 and change their terminations in the degrees of comparison4 ,in our language the participle passive1 joined to the verb to be1 for the purpose of adding to it the idea of time1 forms the whole of the passive voice2 and is frequently used in a similar manner in the ,latin language1 as ,i am loved is expressed either by amor1 or amatus sum4 ,the construction of the whole passive voice from the verb to be and the participles passive of other verbs1 contributes much to the simplicity of our language1 and the ease of acquiring it2 but renders it less concise than perhaps it might have been by some simple variations of termination1 as in the active voice of it4 #d4 ,a fourth kind of adjective is called by the grammarians an ,,adverb2 which has generally been formed from the first kind of adjectives1 as these were frequently formed from correspondent substantives2 or it has been formed from the third kind of adjectives1 called participles2 and this is effected in both cases by the addition1 of the syllable ly1 as wisely1 charmingly4 ,this kind of adjective suggests two primary ideas1 like the adjectives1 and participles1 from which they are derived2 but differ from them in this curious circumstance1 that the other adjectives relate to substantives1 and are declined like them in the ,latin and ,greek languages1 as a lovely boy1 a warlike countenance2 but these relate to verbs1 and are therefore undeclined1 as to act boldly1 to suffer patiently4 ,,iv4 ,verbs4 ,the fourth class of words consists of those which are termed ,,verbs1 and which in their simplest state suggest three ideas2 first an idea of the noun1 or name of the thing spoken of1 as a whip4 #b4 ,an idea of its mode of existence1 whether at rest1 or in action1 or in being acted upon4 #c4 ,an idea of the time of its existence4 ,thus the beadle whipped the beggar1 in prolix language might be expressed1 the beadle with a whip struck in time past the beggar4 ,which three ideas are suggested by the one word whipped4 ,verbs are therefore nouns1 or names of intire ideas1 with the additional ideas of their mode of existence and of time2 but the participles suggest only the noun1 and the mode of existence1 without any idea of time2 as whipping1 or whipped4 ,the infinitive moods of verbs correspond in their signification with the participles2 as they also suggest only the noun1 or name of the thing spoken of1 and an idea of its mode of existence1 excluding the idea of time2 which is expressed by all the other moods and tenses2 whence it appears1 that the infinitive mood1 as well as the participle1 is not truly a part of the verb2 but as the participle resembles the adjective in its construction2 so the infinitive mood may be said to resemble the substantive1 and it is often used as a nominative case to another verb4 ,thus in the words a charming lady with a smiling countenance1 the participle acts as an adjective2 and in the words to talk well commands attention1 the infinitive mood acts as the nominative case of a noun substantive2 and their respective significations are also very similar1 as whipping1 or to whip1 mean the existence of a person acting with a whip4 ,in the ,latin language the verb in its simplest form1 except the infinitive mood1 and the participle1 both which we mean to exclude from complete verbs1 suggests four primary ideas1 as amo1 suggests the pronoun ,i1 the noun love1 its existence in its active state1 and the present time2 which verbs in the ,greek and ,latin undergo an uncounted variation of termination1 suggesting so many different ideas in addition to the four primary ones4 ,we do not mean to assert1 that all verbs are literally derived from nouns in any language2 because all languages have in process of time undergone such great variation2 many nouns having become obsolete or have perished1 and new verbs have been imported from foreign languages1 or transplanted from ancient ones2 but that this has originally been the construction of all verbs1 as well as those to whip and to love above mentioned1 and innumerable others4 ,thus there may appear some difficulty in analyzing from what noun substantive were formed the verbs to stand or to lie2 because we have not properly the name of the abstract ideas from which these verbs arose1 except we use the same word for the participle and the noun substantive1 as standing1 lying4 ,but the verbs1 to sit1 and to walk1 are less difficult to trace to their origin2 as we have names for the nouns substantive1 a seat1 and a walk4 ,but there is another verb of great consequence in all languages1 which would appear1 in its simplest form in our language to suggest but two primary ideas1 as the verb to be1 but that it suggests three primary ideas like other verbs maybe understood1 if we use the synonymous term to exist instead of to be4 ,thus ,i exist suggests first the abstract idea of existence1 not including the mode of existence1 whether at rest1 or in action1 or in suffering2 secondly it adds to that abstracted idea of existence its real state1 or actual resting1 acting1 or suffering1 existence2 and thirdly the idea of the present time3 thus the infinitive mood to be1 and the participle1 being1 suggest both the abstract idea of existence1 and the actual state of it1 but not the time4 ,the verb to be is also used irregularly to designate the parts of time and actual existence2 and is then applied to either the active or passive participles of other verbs1 and called an auxiliary verb2 while the mode of existence1 whether at rest1 or in action1 or being acted upon1 is expressed by the participle1 as ,i am loving is nearly the same as ,i love1 amo2 and ,i am loved1 amatus sum1 is nearly the same as amor4 ,this mode of application of the verb to be is used in ,french as well as in ,english1 and in the passive voice of the ,latin1 and perhaps in many other languages2 and is by its perpetual use in conversation rendered irregular in them all1 as ,i am1 thou art1 he is1 would not seem to belong to the infinitive mood to be1 any more than sum1 fui1 sunt1 fuerunt1 appear to belong to esse4 ,the verb to have affords another instance of irregular application2 the word means in its regular sense to possess1 and then suggests three ideas like the above verb of existence3 first the abstracted idea of the thing spoken of1 or possession2 secondly1 the actual existence of possession1 and lastly the time1 as ,i have or possess4 ,this verb to have like the verb to be is also used irregularly to denote parts of past time1 and is then joined to the passive participles alone1 as ,i have eaten2 or it is accompanied with the passive participle of the verb to be1 and then with the active participle of another verb1 as ,i have been eating4 ,there is another word will used in the same irregular manner to denote the parts of future time1 which is derived from the verb to will2 which in its regular use signifies to exert our volition4 ,there are other words used to express other circumstances attending upon verbs1 as may1 can1 shall1 all which are probably the remains of verbs otherwise obsolete4 ,lastly1 when we recollect1 that in the moods and tenses of verbs one word expresses never less than three ideas in our language1 and many more in the ,greek and ,latin2 as besides those three primary ideas the idea of person1 and of number1 are always expressed in the indicative mood1 and other ideas suggested in the other moods1 we cannot but admire what excellent abbreviations of language are thus achieved2 and when we observe the wonderful intricacy and multiplicity of sounds in those languages1 especially in the ,greek verbs1 which change both the beginning and ending of the original word through three voices1 and three numbers1 with uncounted variations of dialect2 we cannot but admire the simplicity of modern languages compared to these ancient ones2 and must finally perceive1 that all language consists simply of nouns1 or names of ideas1 disposed in succession or in combination1 all of which are expressed by separate words1 or by various terminations of the same word4 ,conclusion4 ,the theory of the progressive production of language in the early times of society1 and its gradual improvements in the more civilized ones1 may be readily induced from the preceding pages4 ,in the commencement of ,society the names of the ideas of entire things1 which1 it was necessary most frequently to communicate1 would first be invented1 as the names of individual persons1 or places1 fire1 water1 this berry1 that root2 as it was necessary perpetually to announce1 whether one or many of such external things existed1 it was soon found more convenient to add this idea of number by a change of termination of the word1 than by the addition of another word4 ,as many of these nouns soon became general terms1 as bird1 beast1 fish1 animal2 it was next convenient to distinguish them when used for an individual1 from the same word used as a general term2 whence the two articles a and the1 in our language1 derive their origin4 ,next to these names of the ideas of entire things1 the words most perpetually wanted in conversation would probably consist of the names of the ideas of the parts or properties of things2 which might be derived from the names of some things1 and applied to others which in these respects resembled them2 these are termed adjectives1 as rosy cheek1 manly voice1 beastly action2 and seem at first to have been formed simply by a change of termination of their correspondent substantives4 ,the comparative degrees of greater and less were found so frequently necessary to be suggested1 that a change of termination even in our language for this purpose was produced2 and is as frequently used as an additional word1 as wiser or more wise4 ,the expression of general similitude1 as well as partial similitude1 becomes so frequently used in conversation1 that another kind of adjective1 called an adverb1 was expressed by a change of termination1 or addition of the syllable ly or like2 and as adjectives of the former kind are applied to substantives1 and express a partial similitude1 these are applied to verbs and express a general similitude1 as to act heroically1 to speak boldly1 to think freely4 ,the perpetual chain of causes and effects1 which constitute the motions1 or changing configurations1 of the universe1 are so conveniently divided into active and passive1 for expressing the exertions or purposes of common life1 that it became particularly convenient in all languages to substitute changes of termination1 instead of additional nouns1 to express1 whether the thing spoken of was in a state of acting or of being acted upon4 ,this change of termination betokening action or suffering constitutes the participle1 as loving1 loved2 which1 as it expresses a property of bodies1 is classed amongst adjectives in the preceding pages4 ,besides the perpetual allusions to the active or passive state of things1 the comparative times of these motions1 or changes1 were also perpetually required to be expressed2 it was therefore found convenient in all languages to suggest them by changes of terminations in preference to doing it by additional nouns4 ,at the same time the actual or real existence of the thing spoken of was perpetually required1 as well as the times of their existence1 and the active or passive state of that existence4 ,and as no conversation could be carried on without unceasingly alluding to these circumstances1 they became in all languages suggested by changes of termination2 which are termed moods and tenses in grammars1 and convert the participle above mentioned into a verb2 as that participle had originally been formed by adding a termination to a noun1 as chaining1 and chained1 from chain4 ,the great variety of changes of termination in all languages consists therefore of abbreviations used instead of additional words2 and adds much to the conciseness of language1 and the quickness with which we are enabled to communicate our ideas2 and may be said to add unnumbered wings to every limb of the ,god of ,eloquence4 ,,additional ,,notes4 ,,xv4 ,,analysis ,,of ,,articulate ,,sounds4 ,the tongue1 the lips articulate2 the throat ,with soft vibration modulates the note4 ,,canto ,,iii4 l4 #cfg4 ,having explained in the preceding account of the theory of language that it consists solely of nouns1 or the names of ideas1 disposed in succession or combination2 ,i shall now attempt to investigate the number of the articulate sounds1 which constitute those names of ideas by their successions and combinations2 and to show by what parts of the organs of speech they are modulated and articulated2 whence may be deduced the precise number of letters or symbols necessary to suggest those sounds1 and form an alphabet1 which may spell with accuracy the words of all languages4 ,i4 ,imperfections of the present ,alphabet4 ,it is much to be lamented1 that the alphabet1 which has produced and preserved almost all the improvements in other arts and sciences1 should have itself received no improvement in modern times2 which have added so much elucidation to almost every branch of knowledge1 that can meliorate the condition of humanity4 ,thus in our present alphabets many letters are redundant1 others are wanted2 some simple articulate sounds have two letters to suggest them2 and in other instances two articulate sounds are suggested by one letter4 ,some of these imperfections in the alphabet of our own language shall be enumerated4 ,x4 ,thus the letter x is compounded of ks1 or of gz1 as in the words excellent1 example3 eksellent1 egzample4 ,c4 is sometimes k1 at other times s1 as in the word access4 ,g4 is a single letter in go2 and suggests the letters d and the ,french ,j in pigeon4 ,qu is kw1 as quality is kwality4 ,,ng in the words long and in king is a simple sound like the ,french n1 and wants a new character4 ,,sh is a simple sound1 and wants a new character4 ,,th is either sibilant as in thigh2 or semivocal as in thee2 both of which are simple sounds1 and want two new characters4 ,j ,french exists in our words confusion1 and conclusion1 judge1 pigeon1 and wants a character4 ,j consonant1 in our language1 expresses the letters d1 and the ,french j conjoined1 as in ,john1 ,djon4 ,,ch is either k as in ,arch-angel1 or is used for a sound compounded of ,tsh1 as in ,children1 ,tshildren4 ,,gl is dl1 as ,glove is pronounced by polite people dlove4 ,,cl is tl1 as ,cloe is pronounced by polite speakers ,tloe4 ,the spelling of our language in respect to the pronunciation is also wonderfully defective1 though perhaps less so than that of the ,french2 as the words slaughter and laughter are pronounced totally different1 though spelt alike4 ,the word sough1 now pronounced suff1 was formerly called sow2 whence the iron fused and received into a sough acquired the name of sowmetal2 and that received into less soughs from the former one obtained the name of pigs of iron or of lead2 from the pun on the word sough1 into sow and pigs4 ,our word jealousies contains all the vowels1 though three of them only were necessary2 nevertheless in the two words abstemiously and facetiously the vowels exist all of them in their usual order1 and are pronounced in their most usual manner4 ,some of the vowels of our language are diphthongs1 and consist of two vocal sounds1 or vowels1 pronounced in quick succession2 these diphthongs are discovered by prolonging the sound1 and observing1 if the ending of it be different from the beginning2 thus the vowel i in in our language1 as in the word high1 if drawn put ends in the sound of the letter e as used in ,english2 which is expressed by the letter i in most other languages3 and the sound of this vowel i begins with ah1 and consists therefore of ah and ee4 ,whilst the diphthong on in our language1 as in the word how1 begins with ah also and ends in oo1 and the vowel u of our language1 as in the word use1 is likewise a diphthong2 which begins with e and ends with oo1 as eoo4 ,the ,french u is also a diphthong compounded of a and oo1 as aoo4 ,and many other defects and redundancies in our alphabet will be seen by perusing the subsequent structure of a more perfect one4 ,,ii4 ,production of ,sounds4 ,by our organ of hearing we perceive the vibrations of the air2 which vibrations are performed in more or in less time1 which constitutes high or low notes in respect to the gammut2 but the tone depends on the kind of instrument which produces them4 ,in speaking of articulate sounds they may be conveniently divided first into clear continued sounds1 expressed by the letters called vowels2 secondly1 ,into hissing sounds1 expressed by the letters called sibilants2 thirdly1 ,into semivocal sounds1 which consist of a mixture of the two former2 and1 lastly1 ,into interrupted sounds1 represented by the letters properly termed consonants4 ,the clear continued sounds are produced by the streams of air passing from the lungs in respiration through the larynx2 which is furnished with many small muscles1 which by their action give a proper tension to the extremity of this tube2 and the sounds1 ,i suppose1 are produced by the opening and closing of its aperture2 something like the trumpet stop of an organ1 as may be observed by blowing through the wind-pipe of a dead goose4 ,these sounds would all be nearly similar except in their being an octave or two higher or lower2 but they are modulated again1 or acquire various tones1 in their passage through the mouth2 which thus converts them into eight vowels1 as will be explained below4 ,the hissing sounds are produced by air forcibly pushed through certain passages of the mouth without being previously rendered sonorous by the larynx2 and obtain their sibilancy from their slower vibrations1 occasioned by the mucous membrane1 which lines those apertures or passages1 being less tense than that of the larynx4 ,i suppose the stream of air is in both cases frequently interrupted by the closing of the sides or mouth of the passages or aperture2 but that this is performed much slower in the production of sibilant sounds1 than in the production of clear ones4 ,the semivocal sounds are produced by the stream of air having received quick vibrations1 or clear sound1 in passing through the larynx1 or in the cavity of the mouth2 but apart of it1 as the outsides of this sonorous current of air1 afterwards receives slower vibrations1 or hissing sound1 from some other passages of the lips or mouth1 through which it then flows4 ,lastly the stops1 or consonants1 impede the current of air1 whether sonorous or sibilant1 for a perceptible time2 and probably produce some change of tone in the act of opening and closing their apertures4 ,there are other clear sounds besides those formed by the larynx2 some of them are formed in the mouth1 as may be heard previous to the enunciation of the letters b1 and d1 and ga2 or during the pronunciation of the semivocal letters1 v4 z4 j4 and others in sounding the liquid letters r and l2 these sounds we shall term orisonance4 ,the other clear sounds are formed in the nostrils1 as in pronouncing the liquid letters m1 n1 and ng1 these we shall term narisonance4 ,thus the clear sounds1 except those above mentioned1 are formed in the larynx along with the musical height or lowness of note2 but receive afterward a variation of tone from the various passages of the mouth3 add to these that as the sibilant sounds consist of vibrations slower than those formed by the larynx1 so a whistling through the lips consists of vibrations quicker than those formed by the larynx4 ,as all sound consists in the vibrations of the air1 it may not be disagreeable to the reader to attend to the immediate causes of those vibrations4 ,when any sudden impulse is given to an elastic fluid like the air1 it acquires a progressive motion of the whole1 and a condensation of the constituent particles1 which first receive the impulse2 on this account the currents of the atmosphere in stormy seasons are never regular1 but blow and cease to blow by intervals2 as a part of the moving stream is condensed by the projectile force2 and the succeeding part1 being consequently rarefied1 requires some time to recover its density1 and to follow the former part3 this elasticity of the air is likewise the cause of innumerable eddies in it2 which are much more frequent than in streams of water2 as when it is impelled against any oblique plane1 it results with its elastic force added to its progressive one4 ,hence when a vacuum is formed in the atmosphere1 the sides of the cavity forcibly rush together both by the general pressure of the superincumbent air1 and by the expansion of the elastic particles of it2 and thus produce a vibration of the atmosphere to a considerable distance3 this occurs1 whether this vacuity of air be occasioned by the discharge of cannon1 in which the air is displaced by the sudden evolution of heat1 which as suddenly vanishes2 or whether the vacuity be left by a vibrating string1 as it returns from each side of the arc1 in which it vibrates2 or whether it be left under the lid of the valve in the trumpet stop of an organ1 or of a child's play trumpet1 which continues perpetually to open and close1 when air is blown through it2 which is caused by the elasticity of the currents1 as it occasions the pausing gusts of wind mentioned above4 ,hence when a quick current of air is suddenly broken by any intervening body1 a vacuum is produced by the momentum of the proceeding current1 between it and the intervening body2 as beneath the valve of the trumpet-stop above mentioned2 and a vibration is in consequence produced2 which with the great facility1 which elastic fluids possess of forming eddies1 may explain the production of sounds by blowing through a fissure upon a sharp edge in a common organ-pipe or child's whistle2 which has always appeared difficult to resolve2 for the less vibration an organ-pipe itself possesses1 the more agreeable1 ,i am informed1 is the tone2 as the tone is produced by the vibration of the air in the organ pipe1 and not by that of the sides of it2 though the latter1 when it exists1 may alter the tone though1 not the note1 like the belly of a harpsichord1 or violin4 ,when a stream of air is blown on the edge of the aperture of an organ-pipe about two thirds of it are believed to pass on the outside of this edge1 and one third to pass on the inside of it2 but this current of air on the inside forms an eddy1 whether the bottom of the pipe be closed or not2 which eddy returns upwards1 and strikes by quick intervals against the original stream of air1 as it falls on the edge of the aperture1 and forces outwards this current of air with quick repetitions1 so as to make more than two thirds of it1 and less than two thirds alternately pass on the outside2 whence a part of this stream of air1 on each side of the edge of the aperture is perpetually stopped by that edge2 and thus a vacuum and vibration in consequence1 are reciprocally produced on each side of the edge of the aperture4 ,the quickness or slowness of these vibrations constitute the higher and lower notes of music1 but they all of them are propagated to distant places in the same time2 as the low notes of a distant ring of bells are heard in equal times with the higher ones3 hence in speaking at a distance from the auditors1 the clear sounds produced in the larynx by the quick vibrations of its aperture1 which form the vowels2 the tremulous sounds of the ,l4 ,r4 ,m4 ,n4 ,,ng4 which are owing to vibrations of certain apertures of the mouth and nose1 and are so slow1 that the intervals between them are perceived2 the sibilant sounds1 which ,i suppose are occasioned by the air not rushing into a complete vacuum1 whence the vibrations produced are defective in velocity2 and lastly the very high notes made by the quickest vibrations of the lips in whistling2 are all heard in due succession without confusion2 as the progressive motions of all sounds ,i believe travel with equal velocity1 notwithstanding the greater or less quickness of their vibrations4 ,,iii4 ,,structure ,,of ,,the ,,alphabet4 ,mute and antesonant ,consonants1 and nasal ,liquids4 ,p4 ,if the lips be pressed close together and some air be condensed in the mouth behind them1 on opening the lips the mute consonant ,p begins a syllable2 if the lips be closed suddenly during the passage of a current of air through them1 the air becomes condensed in the mouth behind them1 and the mute consonant ,p terminates a syllable4 ,b4 ,if in the above situation of the lips a sound is previously produced in the mouth1 which may be termed orisonance1 the semisonant consonant ,b is produced1 which like the letter ,p above described may begin or terminate a syllable4 ,m4 ,in the above situation of the lips1 if a sound is produced through the nostrils1 which sound is termed narisonance1 the nasal letter ,m is formed2 the sound of which may be lengthened in pronunciation like those of the vowels4 ,t4 ,if the point of the tongue be applied to the forepart of the palate1 at the roots of the upper teeth1 and some air condensed in the mouth behind1 on withdrawing the tongue downwards the mute consonant ,t is formed2 which may begin or terminate a syllable4 ,d4 ,if the tongue be placed as above described1 and a sound be previously produced in the mouth1 the semisonant consonant ,d is formed1 which may begin or terminate a syllable4 ,n4 ,if in the above situation of the tongue and palate a sound be produced through the nostrils1 the nasal letter ,n is formed1 the sound of which may be elongated like those of the vowels4 ,k4 ,if the point of the tongue be retracted1 and applied to the middle part of the palate2 and some air condensed in the mouth behind2 on withdrawing the tongue downwards the mute consonant ,k is produced1 which may begin or terminate a syllable4 ,ga4 ,if in the above situation of the tongue and palate a sound be previously produced in the mouth behind1 the semisonant consonant ,g is formed1 as pronounced in the word go1 and may begin or terminate a syllable4 ,,ng4 ,if in the above situation of the tongue and palate a sound be produced through the nostrils2 the nasal letter ng is produced1 as in king and throng2 which is the french n1 the sound of which may be elongated like a vowel2 and should have an appropriated character1 as thus v4 ,three of these letters1 ,p1 ,t1 ,k1 are stops to the stream of vocal air1 and are called mutes by grammarians2 three1 ,b1 ,d1 ,ga1 are preceded by a little orisonance2 and three1 ,m1 ,n1 ,,ng1 possess continued narisonance1 and have been called liquids by grammarians4 ,sibilants and ,sonisibilants4 ,w4 ,of the ,germans2 if the lips be appressed together1 as informing the letter ,p2 and air from the mouth be forced between them2 the ,w sibilant is produced1 as pronounced by the ,germans1 and by some of the inferiour people of ,london1 and ought to have an appropriated character as thus ,m4,,tn3 ,upside down ,w4 ,w4 ,if in the above situation of the lips a sound be produced in the mouth1 as in the letter ,b1 and the sonorous air be forced between them2 the sonisibilant letter ,w is produced2 which is the common ,w of our language4 ,f4 ,if the lower lip be appressed to the edges of the upper teeth1 and air from the mouth be forced between them1 the sibilant letter ,f is formed4 ,v4 ,if in the above situation of the lip and teeth a sound be produced in the mouth1 and the sonorous air be forced between them1 the sonisibilant letter ,v is formed4 ,th4 ,sibilant4 ,if the point of the tongue be placed between the teeth1 and air from the mouth be forced between them1 the ,th sibilant is produced1 as in thigh1 and should have a proper character1 as ,,tn3 ,looks like the ,greek 'phi'4 ,th4 ,sonisibilant4 ,if in the above situation of the tongue and teeth a sound be produced in the mouth1 and the sonorous air be forced between them1 the sonisibilant ,th is formed1 as in ,thee2 and should have an appropriated character as ,,tn3 ,looks like the ,greek 'theta'4 ,s4 ,if the point of the tongue be appressed to the forepart of the palate1 as in forming the letter ,t1 and air from the mouth be forced between them1 the sibilant letter ,s is produced4 ,z4 ,if in the above situation of the tongue and palate a sound be produced in the mouth1 as in the letter ,d1 and the sonorous air be forced between them1 the sonisibilant letter ,z is formed4 ,,sh4 ,if the point of the tongue be retracted and applied to the middle part of the palate1 as in forming the letter ,k1 and air from the mouth be forced between them1 the letter ,sh is produced1 which is a simple sound and ought to have a single character1 thus ,,tn3 ,looks like the ,greek 'lambda'4 ,j4 ,french4 ,if in the above situation of the tongue and palate a sound be produced in the mouth1 as in the letter ,ga2 and the sonorous air be forced between them2 the ,j consonant of the ,french is formed2 which is a sonisibilant letter1 as in the word conclusion1 confusion1 pigeon2 it should be called ,je1 and should have a different character from the vowel i1 with which it has an analogy1 as thus ,v4 ,h4 ,if the back part of the tongue be appressed to the pendulous curtain of the palate and uvula2 and air from behind be forced between them2 the sibilant letter ,h is produced4 ,ch ,spanish4 ,if in the above situation of the tongue and palate a sound be produced behind2 and the sonorous air be forced between them2 the ,ch ,spanish is formed2 which is a sonisibilant letter1 the same as the ,ch ,scotch in the words ,buchanan and loch3 it is also perhaps the ,welsh guttural expressed by their double ,l as in ,lloyd1 ,lluellen2 it is a simple sound1 and ought to have a single character as ,,tn3 ,looks like an ,h on its side4 ,the sibilant and sonisibilant letters may be elongated in pronunciation like the vowels2 the sibilancy is probably occasioned by the vibrations of the air being slower than those of the lowest musical notes4 ,i have preferred the word sonisibilants to the word semivocal sibilants2 as the sounds of these sonisibilants are formed in different apertures of the mouth1 and not in the larynx like the vowels4 ,orisonant ,liquids4 ,r4 ,if the point of the tongue be appressed to the forepart of the palate1 as in forming the letters ,t1 ,d1 ,n1 ,s1 ,z1 and air be pushed between them so as to produce continued sound1 the letter ,r is formed4 ,l4 ,if the retracted tongue be appressed to the middle of the palate1 as in forming the letters ,k1 ,ga1 ,,ng1 ,sh1 ,j ,french1 and air be pushed over its edges so as to produce continued sound1 the letter ,l is formed4 ,the nasal letters m1 n1 and ng1 are clear tremulous sounds like ,r and ,l1 and have all of them been called liquids by grammarians4 ,besides the ,r and ,l1 above described1 there is another orisonant sound produced by the lips in whistling2 which is not used in this country as a part of language1 and has therefore obtained no character1 but is analogous to the ,r and ,l2 it is also possible1 that another orisonant letter may be formed by the back part of the tongue and back part of the palate1 as in pronouncing ,h and ,ch1 which may perhaps be the ,welch ,ll in ,lloyd1 ,lluellin4 ,four pairs of ,vowels4 ,a pronounced like au1 as in the word call4 ,if the aperture1 made by approximating the back part of the tongue to the uvula and pendulous curtain of the palate1 as in forming the sibilant letter ,h1 and the sonisibilant letter ,ch ,spanish1 be enlarged just so much as to prevent sibilancy2 and a continued sound produced by the larynx be modulated in passing through it2 the letter ,a is formed1 as in ball1 wall1 which is sounded like aw in the word awkward2 and is the most usual sound of the letter ,a in foreign languages2 and to distinguish it from the succeeding ,a might be called ,a micron2 as the aperture of the fauces1 where it is produced1 is less than in the next ,a4 ,a pronounced like ah1 as in the word hazard4 ,if the aperture of the fauces above described1 between the back part of the tongue and the back part of the palate1 be enlarged as much as convenient1 and a continued sound1 produced in the larynx1 be modulated in passing through it2 the letter ,a is formed1 as in animal1 army1 and ought to have an appropriated character in our language1 as thus ,,tn3 ,looks like an ,a on its head4 ,as this letter ,a is formed by a larger aperture than the former one1 it may be called ,a mega4 ,a pronounced as in the words cake1 ale4 ,if the retracted tongue by approximation to the middle part of the palate1 as in forming the letters ,r1 ,ga1 ,,ng1 ,sh1 ,j ,french1 ,l1 leaves an aperture just so large as to prevent sibilancy1 and sonorous air from the larynx be modulated in passing through it2 the letter ,a is produced1 as pronounced in the words whale1 sale1 and ought to have an appropriated character in our language1 as thus ,,tn3 ,looks like a handwritten #i2 this is expressed by the letter ,e in some modern languages1 and might be termed ,e micron2 as it is formed by a less aperture of the mouth than the succeeding ,e4 ,e pronounced like the vowel a1 when short1 as in the words emblem1 dwelling4 ,if the aperture above described between the retracted tongue and the middle of the palate be enlarged as much as convenient1 and sonorous air from the larynx be modulated in passing through it1 the letter ,e is formed1 as in the words egg1 herring2 and as it is pronounced in most foreign languages1 and might be called ,e mega to distinguish it from the preceding ,e4 ,i pronounced like e in keel4 ,if the point of the tongue by approximation to the forepart of the palate1 as in forming the letters ,t1 ,d1 ,n1 ,s1 ,z1 ,r1 leaves an aperture just so large as to prevent sibilancy1 and sonorous air from the larynx be modulated in passing through it2 the vowel ,i is produced1 which is in our language generally represented by e when long1 as in the word keel2 and by i when1 short1 as in the word it1 which is the sound of this letter in most foreign languages2 and may be called ,e micron to distinguish it from the succeeding ,e or ,y4 ,y1 when it begins a word1 as in youth4 ,if the aperture above described between the point of the tongue1 and the forepart of the palate be enlarged as much as convenient1 and sonorous air from the larynx be modulated in passing through it1 the letter ,y is formed2 which1 when it begins a word1 has been called ,y consonant by some1 and by others has been thought only a quick pronunciation of our e1 or the i of foreign languages2 as in the word year1 yellow2 and may be termed ,e mega1 as it is formed by a larger aperture than the preceding e or i4 ,o pronounced like oo1 as in the word fool4 ,if the lips by approximation to each other1 as in forming the letters ,p1 ,b1 ,m1 ,w sibilant1 ,w sonisibilant1 leave an aperture just so wide as to prevent sibilancy2 and sonorous air from the larynx be modulated in passing through it2 the letter ,o is formed1 as in the words cool1 school1 and ought to have an appropriated character as thus ,,tn3 ,looks like the infinity symbol1 and may be termed o micron to distinguish it from the succeeding o4 ,o pronounced as in the word cold4 ,if the aperture above described between the approximated lips be enlarged as much as convenient2 and sonorous air from the larynx be modulated in passing through it1 the letter o is formed1 as in sole1 coal1 which may be termed o mega1 as it is formed in a larger aperture than the preceding one4 ,conclusion4 ,the alphabet appears from this analysis of it to consist of thirty-one letters1 which spell all ,european languages4 ,three mute consonants1 ,p1 ,t1 ,k4 ,three antesonant consonants1 ,b1 ,d1 ,ga4 ,three narisonant liquids1 ,m1 ,n1 ,,ng4 ,six sibilants1 ,w ,german1 ,f1 ,th1 ,s1 ,sh1 ,h4 ,six sonisibilants1 ,w1 ,v1 ,th1 ,z1 ,j ,french1 ,ch ,spanish4 ,two orisonant liquids1 ,r1 ,l4 ,eight vowels1 ,aw1 ah1 a1 e1 i1 y1 oo1 o4 ,to these thirty-one characters might perhaps be added one for the ,welsh ,l1 and another for whistling with the lips2 and it is possible1 that some savage nations1 whose languages are said to abound with gutturals1 may pronounce a mute consonant1 as well as an antesonant one1 and perhaps another narisonant letter1 by appressing the back part of the tongue to the back part of the palate1 as in pronouncing the ,h1 and ,ch ,spanish4 ,the philosophical reader will perceive that these thirty-one sounds might be expressed by fewer characters referring to the manner of their production4 ,as suppose one character was to express the antesonance of ,b1 ,d1 ,ga2 another the orisonance of ,r1 ,l2 another the sibilance of ,w1 ,s1 ,sh1 ,h2 another the sonisibilance of ,w1 ,z1 ,j ,french1 ,ch ,spanish2 another to express the more open vowels2 another the less open vowels2 for which the word micron is here used1 and for which the word mega is here used4 ,then the following characters only might be necessary to express them all2 ,p alone1 or with antesonance ,b2 with narisonance ,m2 with sibilance ,w ,german2 with sonisibilance ,w2 with vocality1 termed micron ,,oo2 with vocality1 termed mega ,o4 ,t alone1 or with the above characters added to it1 would in the same manner suggest ,d1 ,n1 ,s1 ,z1 ,,ee1 ,y1 and ,r with a mark for orisonance4 ,k alone1 or with the additional characters1 would suggest ,ga1 ,,ng1 ,sh1 ,j ,french1 ,a1 ,e1 and ,l1 with a mark for orisonance4 ,f alone1 or with a mark for sonisibilance1 ,v4 ,th alone1 or with a mark for sonisibilance1 ,th4 ,h alone1 or with a mark for sonisibilance1 ,ch ,spanish1 and with a mark for less open vocality1 aw1 with another for more open vocality ah4 ,whence it appears that six single characters1 for the letters ,p1 ,t1 ,k1 ,f1 ,th1 ,h1 with seven additional marks joined to them for antesonance1 narisonance1 orisonance1 sibilance1 sonisibilance1 less open vocality1 and more open vocality2 being in all but thirteen characters1 may spell all the ,european languages4 ,i have found more difficulty in analyzing the vowels than the other letters2 as the apertures1 through which they are modulated1 do not close2 and it was therefore less easy to ascertain exactly1 in what part of the mouth they were modulated2 but recollecting that those parts of the mouth must be more ready to use for the purpose of forming the vowels1 which were in the habit of being exerted in forming the other letters2 ,i rolled up some tin foil into cylinders about the size of my finger2 and speaking the vowels separately through them1 found by the impressions made on them1 in what part of the mouth each of the vowels was formed with somewhat greater accuracy1 but not so as perfectly to satisfy myself4 ,the parts of the mouth appeared to me to be those in which the letters ,p1 ,i1 ,k1 and ,h1 are produced2 as those1 where the letters ,f and ,th are formed1 do not suit the production of mute or antesonant consonants2 as the interstices of the teeth would occasion some sibilance2 and these apertures are not adapted to the formation of vowels on the same account4 ,the two first vowels aw and ah being modulated in the back part of the mouth1 it is necessary to open wide the lips and other passages of the mouth in pronouncing them2 that those passages may not again alter their tone2 and that more so in pronouncing ah1 than aw2 as the aperture of the fauces is opened wider1 where it is formed1 and from the greater or less size of these apertures used in forming the vowels by different persons1 the tone of all of them may be somewhat altered as spoken by different orators4 ,i have treated with greater confidence on the formation of articulate sounds1 as ,i many years ago gave considerable attention to this subject for the purpose of improving shorthand2 at that time ,i contrived a wooden mouth with lips of soft leather1 and with a valve over the back part of it for nostrils1 both which could be quickly opened or closed by the pressure of the fingers1 the vocality was given by a silk ribbon about an inch long and a quarter of an inch wide stretched between two bits of smooth wood a little hollowed2 so that when a gentle current of air from bellows was blown on the edge of the ribbon1 it gave an agreeable tone1 as it vibrated between the wooden sides1 much like a human voice4 ,this head pronounced the p1 b1 m1 and the vowel a1 with so great nicety as to deceive all who heard it unseen1 when it pronounced the words mama1 papa1 map1 and pam2 and had a most plaintive tone1 when the lips were gradually closed4 ,my other occupations prevented me from proceeding in the further construction of this machine2 which might have required but thirteen movements1 as shown in the above analysis1 unless some variety of musical note was to be added to the vocality produced in the larynx2 all of which movements might communicate with the keys of a harpsichord or forte piano1 and perform the song as well as the accompaniment2 or which if built in a gigantic form1 might speak so loud as to command an army or instruct a crowd4 ,i conclude this with an agreeable hope1 that now war is ceased1 the active and ingenious of all nations will attend again to those sciences1 which better the condition of human nature2 and that the alphabet will undergo a perfect reformation1 which may indeed make it more difficult to trace the etymologies of words1 but will much facilitate the acquisition of modern languages2 which as science improves and becomes more generally diffused1 will gradually become more distinct and accurate than the ancient ones2 as metaphors will cease to be necessary in conversation1 and only be used as the ornaments of poetry4 ,,the ,,end4 ,,contents ,,of ,,the ,,additional ,,notes4 ,,note ,i4 ,,spontaneous ,,vitality ,,of ,,microscopic ,,animals4 ,i4 ,spontaneous vital production not contrary to scripture2 to be looked for only in the simplest organic beings2 supposed want of analogy no argument against it1 as this equally applies to all new discoveries4 ,,ii4 ,the power of reproduction distinguishes organic beings2 which are gradually enlarged and improved by it4 ,,iii4 ,microscopic animals produced from all vegetable and animal infusions2 generate others like themselves by solitary reproduction2 not produced from eggs2 conferva fontinalis2 mucor4 ,,iv4 ,theory of spontaneous vitality4 ,animal nutrition2 vegetable2 some organic particles have appetencies to unite1 others propensities to be united2 buds of trees2 sexual reproduction3 analogy between generation and nutrition2 laws of elasticity not understood2 dead animalcules recover life by heat and moisture2 chaos redivivum2 vorticella2 shell-snails2 eggs and seeds3 hydra4 ,classes of microscopic animals2 general remarks4 ,,note ,,ii4 ,,faculties ,,of ,,the ,,sensorium4 ,fibres possess a power of contraction2 spirit of animation immediate cause of their contracting2 stimulus of external bodies the remote cause2 stimulus produces irritation2 due contraction occasions pleasure2 too much1 or too little1 pain2 sensation produces desire or aversion1 which constitute volition3 associated motions2 irritation2 sensation2 volition2 association2 sensorium4 ,,note ,,iii4 ,,volcanoes4 ,their explosions occasioned by water falling on boiling lava2 primeval earthquakes of great extent2 more elastic vapours might raise islands and continents1 or even throw the moon from the earth2 stones falling from the sky2 earthquake at1 ,lisbon2 subterraneous fires under this island4 ,,note ,,iv4 ,,musquito4 ,the larva lives chiefly in water2 it may be driven away by smoke2 gnats2 libelulla2 aestros bovis2 bolts3 musca chamaeleon2 vomitoria4 ,,note ,v4 ,,amphibious ,,animals4 ,diodon has both lungs and gills2 some amphibious quadrupeds have the foramen ovale open2 perhaps it may be kept open in dogs by frequent immersion so as to render them amphibious2 pearl divers2 distinctions of amphibious animals2 lamprey1 leech2 remora2 whale4 ,,note ,,vi4 ,,hieroglyphic ,,characters4 ,used by the magi of ,egypt to record discoveries in science1 and historical events2 astrology an early superstition2 universal characters desirable2 ,grey's ,memoria ,technica2 ,bergeret's ,botanical ,nomenclature2 ,bishop ,wilkins's ,real ,character and ,philosophical ,language4 ,,note ,,vii4 ,,old ,,age ,,and ,,death4 ,i4 ,immediate cause of the infirmities of age not yet well ascertained2 must be sought in the laws of animal excitability2 debility induced by inactivity of many parts of the system2 organs of sense become less excitable2 this ascribed to habit2 may arise from deficient secretion of sensorial power2 all parts of the system not changed as we advance in life4 ,,ii4 ,means of preventing old age2 warm bath2 fishes2 cold-blooded amphibious animals2 fermented liquors injurious2 also want of heat1 food1 and fresh air2 variation of stimuli2 volition2 activity4 ,,iii4 ,theory of the approach of age2 surprise3 novelty2 why contagious diseases affect a person but once2 debility2 death4 ,,note ,,viii4 ,,reproduction4 ,i4 ,distinguishes animation from mechanism2 solitary and sexual2 buds and bulbs2 aphises2 tenia2 volvox2 polypus2 oyster2 eel2 hermaphrodites4 ,,ii4 ,sexual4 ,,iii4 ,inferior vegetables and animals propagate by solitary generation only2 next order by both2 superior by sexual generation alone4 ,,iv4 ,animals are improved by reproduction2 contagious diseases2 reproduction a mystery4 ,,note ,,ix4 ,,storge4 ,pelicans2 pigeons2 instincts of animals acquired by a previous state1 and transmitted by tradition2 parental love originates from pleasure4 ,,note ,x4 ,,eve ,,from ,,adam',s ,,rib4 ,mosaic history of ,paradise supposed by some to be an allegory2 ,egyptian philosophers1 and others1 supposed mankind to have been originally of both sexes united4 ,,note ,,xi4 ,,hereditary ,,diseases4 ,most affect the offspring of solitary reproduction3 grafted trees1 strawberries1 potatoes2 changing seed2 intermarriages2 hereditary diseases owing to indulgence in fermented liquors2 immoderate use of common salt2 improvement of progeny2 hazardous to marry an heiress4 ,,note ,,xii4 ,,chemical ,,theory ,,of ,,electricity ,,and ,,magnetism4 ,i4 ,attraction and repulsion4 ,,ii4 ,two kinds of electric ether2 atmospheres of electricity surround all separate bodies2 atmospheres of similar kinds repel1 of different kinds attract each other strongly2 explode on uniting2 nonconductors2 imperfect conductors2 perfect conductors2 torpedo1 gymnotus1 galvanism4 ,,iii4 ,effect of metallic points4 ,,iv4 ,accumulation of electric ethers by contact4 ,v4 ,by vicinity2 ,volta's electrophorus and ,rennet's doubler4 ,,vi4 ,by heat and by decomposition2 the tourmalin2 cats2 galvanic pile2 evaporation of water4 ,,vii4 ,the spark from the conductor2 electric light2 not accounted for by ,franklin's theory4 ,,viii4 ,shock from a coated jar2 perhaps an unrestrainable ethereal fluid yet unobserved2 electric condensation4 ,,ix4 ,galvanic electricity4 ,x4 ,two magnetic ethers2 analogy between magnetism and electricity2 differences between them4 ,,xi4 ,conclusion4 ,,note ,,xiii4 ,,analysis ,,of ,,taste4 ,taste may signify the pleasures received by any of the senses1 but not those which simply attend perception2 four sources of pleasure in vision4 ,i4 ,novelty or infrequency of visible objects2 surprise4 ,,ii4 ,repetition2 beating of a drum2 dancing2 architecture2 landscapes2 picturesque2 beautiful2 romantic2 sublime4 ,,iii4 ,melody of colours4 ,,iv4 ,association of agreeable sentiments with visible objects2 vision the language of touch2 sentiment of beauty4 ,,note ,,xiv4 ,,theory ,,and ,,structure ,,of ,,language4 ,ideas2 words the names or symbols of ideas4 ,i4 ,conjunctions and prepositions2 abbreviations of other words4 ,,ii4 ,nouns substantive4 ,,iii4 ,adjectives1 articles2 participles1 adverbs4 ,,iv4 ,verbs2 progressive production of language4 ,,note ,,xv4 ,,analysis ,,of ,,articulate ,,sounds4 ,i4 ,imperfections of the present alphabet2 of our orthography4 ,,ii4 ,production of sounds4 ,,iii4 ,structure of the alphabet2 mute and antesonant consonants1 and nasal liquids2 sibilants and sonisibilants2 orisonant liquids2 four pairs of vowels2 alphabet consists of thirty-one letters2 speaking figure4 ,,erratum4 ,additional ,notes1 p4 #dc1 l4 #c1 for ,canto ,,ii1 l4 #abi1 read ,canto ,,ii1 l4 #afe4 ,t4 ,bensley1 ,printer1 ,bolt ,court2 ,fleet ,street1 ,london4