file was produced from images produced by ,core ,historical ,literature in ,agriculture 7,,chla71 ,cornell ,university7 ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,inconsistencies with regards to hyphenated words have been left as in the original4 ,inconsistencies in spelling and other unexpected spelling have been retained as in the original book4 ,,the ,,young ,,farmer',s ,,practical ,,library ,,edited ,,by ,,ernest ,,ingersoll ,,health ,,on ,,the ,,farm ,,by ,h4 ,f4 ,,harris ,the ,young ,farmer's ,practical ,library ,,edited ,,by ,,ernest ,,ingersoll ,cloth #afmo ,illustrated #ge cents net each4 ,from ,kitchen to ,garret4 ,by ,,virginia ,,terhune ,,van ,,de ,,water4 ,neighborhood ,entertainments4 ,by ,,renee ,b4 ,,stern1 of the ,congressional ,library4 ,home ,water-works4 ,by ,,carleton ,j4 ,,lynde1 ,professor of ,physics in ,macdonald ,college1 ,quebec4 ,animal ,competitors4 ,by ,,ernest ,,ingersoll4 ,health on the ,farm4 ,by ,,dr4 ,h4 ,f4 ,,harris1 ,secretary1 ,georgia ,state ,board of ,health4 ,co-operation ,among ,farmers4 ,by ,,john ,,lee ,,coulter4 ,roads1 ,paths and ,bridges4 ,by ,l4 ,w4 ,,page1 ,chief of the ,office of ,public ,roads1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture4 ,farm ,management4 ,by ,c4 ,w4 ,,pugsley1 ,professor of ,agronomy and ,farm ,management in the ,university of ,nebraska4 ,electricity on the ,farm4 ,by ,,frederick ,m4 ,,conlee4 ,the ,farm ,mechanic4 ,by ,l4 ,w4 ,,chase1 ,professor of ,farm ,mechanics in the ,university of ,nebraska4 ,the ,satisfactions of ,country ,life4 ,by ,,dr4 ,,james ,w4 ,,robertson1 ,principal of ,macdonald ,college1 ,quebec4 ,,health ,,on ,,the ,,farm ,a ,,manual ,,of ,,rural ,,sanitation ,,and ,,hygiene ,,by ,h4 ,f4 ,,harris ,,secretary ,,of ,,the ,,georgia ,,state ,,board ,,of ,,health ,new ,york ,,sturgis ,,walton ,,company #aiaa ,all rights reserved ,copyright #aiaa ,by ,,sturgis ,,walton ,,company ,set up and electrotyped4 ,published ,july1 #aiaa ,,introduction ,,by ,,the ,,general ,,editor ,this is the day of the small book4 ,there is much to be done4 ,time is short4 ,information is earnestly desired1 but it is wanted in compact form1 confined directly to the subject in view1 authenticated by real knowledge1 and1 withal1 gracefully delivered4 ,it is to fulfill these conditions that the present series has been projected--to lend real assistance to those who are looking about for new tools and fresh ideas4 ,it is addressed especially to the man and woman at a distance from the libraries1 exhibitions1 and daily notes of progress1 which are the main advantage1 to a studious mind1 of living in or near a large city4 ,the editor has had in view1 especially1 the farmer and villager who is striving to make the life of himself and his family broader and brighter1 as well as to increase his bank account2 and it is therefore in the humane1 rather than in a commercial direction1 that the ,library has been planned4 ,the average ,american little needs advice on the conduct of his farm or business2 or1 if he thinks he does1 a large supply of such help in farming and trading as books and periodicals can give1 is available to him4 ,but many a man who is well to do and knows how to continue to make money1 is ignorant how to spend it in a way to bring to himself1 and confer upon his wife and children1 those conveniences1 comforts and niceties which alone make money worth acquiring and life worth living4 ,he hardly realizes that they are within his reach4 ,for suggestion and guidance in this direction there is a real call1 to which this series is an answer4 ,it proposes to tell its readers how they can make work easier1 health more secure1 and the home more enjoyable and tenacious of the whole family4 ,no evil in ,american rural life is so great as the tendency of the young people to leave the farm and the village4 ,the only way to overcome this evil is to make rural life less hard and sordid2 more comfortable and attractive4 ,it is to the solving of that problem that these books are addressed4 ,their central idea is to show how country life may be made richer in interest1 broader in its activities and its outlook1 and sweeter to the taste4 ,to this end men and women who have given each a lifetime of study and thought to his or her specialty1 will contribute to the ,library1 and it is safe to promise that each volume will join with its eminently practical information a still more valuable stimulation of thought4 ,,ernest ,,ingersoll4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents ,,chapter ,,page ,i ,,importance ,,of ,,our ,,subject #c ,,ii ,,care ,,of ,,the ,,person #ab ,,iii ,,sanitation ,,in ,,and ,,about ,,the ,,house #ce ,,iv ,,hygiene ,,of ,,infancy ,,and ,,childhood #fc ,v ,,proper ,,eating--,,the ,,secret ,,of ,,good ,,health #ib ,,vi ,,bread ,,and ,,its ,,relations #ajd ,,vii ,,meats1 ,,sugars ,,and ,,milk #aag ,,viii ,,food-,,value ,,of ,,vegetables #acj ,,ix ,,danger ,,in ,,fruits ,,and ,,pickles #add ,x ,,drinks--,,proper ,,and ,,harmful #adh ,,xi ,,importance ,,of ,,good ,,cooking #afd ,,xii ,,seven ,,avoidable ,,diseases #aga ,,xiii ,,hygiene ,,of ,,the ,,sick ,,room #bag ,,xiv ,,emergencies ,,and ,,accidents #bbc ,,xv ,,what ,,to ,,do ,,when ,,poisoned #bea ,,appendix #bgc ,,health ,,on ,,the ,,farm ,,chapter ,i ,,importance ,,of ,,our ,,subject ,notwithstanding the extraordinary advances in a material way that have been accomplished in this country within the last few decades1 it is a significant and most alarming fact that progress in hygienic matters has lagged far behind4 ,why this is1 it would be very difficult to say1--for the reason that the causes are perhaps many4 ,chief among these1 probably1 is the fact that our progress along industrial lines has occupied the entire time of the majority of our best intellects1 and it is also in no small degree the consequence of a fatalism that regards disease as a direct visitation of providence and therefore a thing which man may not avoid4 ,another cause in some instances is the pride of our people in their homes and respective localities1 which causes them to repel with indignation the suggestion that any special measures are necessary in order to conserve the public health where they reside4 ,ignorant as the average man is of the causes that produce sickness and the means by which this result is accomplished1 he is naturally not in a position to form a correct judgment concerning such matters1 and as a consequence1 sees no reasons for taking the precautions that are necessary in order to ward off disease4 ,this ignorance1 it must be confessed with sorrow1 is in a measure the fault of the medical profession1 which has not in the vast majority of instances lived up to its ideals in this connection4 ,petty and unworthy rivalry has played an extremely important part in this failure of medical men to do their duty in this particular--none of the physicians of a community being1 as a rule1 willing that others should instruct the public1 however vital this might be for the general good4 ,as a consequence1 that class of vultures known as medical quacks has furnished to the laity by far the greater proportion of their instruction on hygienic subjects1 with the result that the average man has a greater misconception and less real knowledge of such matters than of anything else in which he is vitally interested4 ,another1 and very curious explanation for our general disregard of the laws of health is that our strong belief in ourselves impels us to think that however much others may suffer from things generally regarded as unhygienic1 we1 ourselves1 will be immune4 ,this belief is fostered by the fact that in early life there often seems no end to our capacity to endure1 and we find ourselves constantly defying without apparent harm1 what we are told by others is directly contrary to all rules of proper living4 ,but it is unfortunately true also that the reserve force and great power of resistance that enables us to do these things begins to wane towards the end of the third decade of life1 and we1 therefore1 find ourselves sooner or later breaking down after we have become thoroughly convinced that we were made of iron1 and that while other people might not be able to do as we were1 it could not possibly result in evil in our own cases4 ,what a pity it is that the young will not learn from the experience of those who have gone before them6 ,could they only do so1 how much suffering and woe could be avoided in this world4 ,unfortunately1 however1 there are few men so constituted that they are willing to be guided by the experience of those who have preceded them1 and there is but a faint possibility1 therefore1 that any good can be accomplished by warning the coming generation of the troubles in store for them should they not heed the advice of those who have suffered before them4 ,notwithstanding this1 the writer feels that these words of warning should be spoken to the young1 since they1 alas1 are the only ones to be benefited by such advice4 ,as you value your happiness materially1 and as you desire a healthy old age and a long life1 inform yourselves as to the few simple laws that govern human existence1 and attempt so far as lies in your power to follow them4 ,if you do not do this1 disaster will follow as surely as the night follows the day4 ,apathy of the ,public as to ,hygiene4--,as a partial consequence1 probably1 of all the reasons mentioned1 along with others1 there exists in the popular mind a curious apathy concerning hygienic matters--an apathy so great that it is scarcely possible to get the average man to discuss1 much less to put in practice the all-important laws that govern health4 ,as a result of the work of the various ,state boards of health and of the ,public ,health and ,marine ,hospital ,service1 this condition of affairs happily shows some signs of abatement1 and we certainly have reasons to believe that the future promises great things along these lines4 ,no sign of this change is more significant than the awakening of the press of the country to the vast importance of instructing the public in health matters1 and their changed attitude toward the charlatans and quacks who live by promising the impossible4 ,largely subsidized by the infamous vendors of patent medicine1 our newspapers and magazines still lend their columns to these human vampires who prey pre-eminently on the ignorance and credulity of the hopelessly-diseased poor2 but within recent years some of our foremost journals show signs of an awakening of conscience1 and a very few have even gone so far as to exclude advertisements of this character altogether4 ,it has been said1 certainly with more or less truth1 that we are creatures of our surroundings1 but whether we accept this in its broadest sense or not1 there can be no question that our well being is most intimately connected with those things with which we come into every day contact4 ,nothing is more important for us to recognize than that our diseases are contracted from neighboring subjects just in proportion as we are closely associated with them4 ,from our fellowmen we contract1 as everyone knows1 a large number of diseases1 either by direct contact or by means of the air that surrounds us4 ,from the earth we get hook-worms and other animal parasites1 either by coming directly in contact with it or through eating uncooked fruits and vegetables4 ,from water we get typhoid fever1 dysentery1 cholera1 and many other parasitic diseases4 ,from our food we likewise contract dangerous maladies such as tapeworms from uncooked meats and fish and the deadly trichina from raw hog meat4 ,with decomposed breads we take the poisons that produce pellagra1 kak-ke1 ergotism and acrodinia4 ,from uncooked fruits and vegetables we get dysentery1 typhoid fever1 cholera1 and parasitic diseases4 ,spoiled beans give us the deadly lathyrismus4 ,from decomposed meat and fish we get ptomaine poisoning4 ,mosquitoes convey to us malaria1 yellow fever and a parasite known as the filaria4 ,the dreaded sleeping-sickness of ,africa comes through the bites of a small fly2 the bedbug is believed to be the means of conveying a frightful disease known as kala-azar1 and the house-fly often brings to us the germs that produce typhoid fever1 dysentery1 and probably other diseases as well4 ,the bubonic plague1 which is one of the most frightful diseases known1 is conveyed to man by the rat and mouse4#a ,hydrophobia is usually contracted from the bite of the dog1 and it is a well-known fact that this animal often harbors a minute tapeworm1 a single egg of which1 when swallowed by the human being1 is often followed by death4 ,both dogs and cats probably convey diphtheria1 and both unquestionably often have within their intestinal tracts tapeworms that occasionally infect children4 ,with the exception of the rare disease known as glanders1 the horse is not believed to be directly responsible for any of the maladies from which the human being suffers1 but it is well established that fully #ie per cent4 of house-flies hatch in the manure of these animals1 and they1 therefore1 become indirectly responsible for some of the most serious diseases affecting the human being4 ,it is thus seen that almost every object with which man comes in intimate contact is capable of conveying to him the poison of one or more diseases4 ,if it were possible for us to separate ourselves completely from everything with which we are ordinarily associated there can be no question that the span of human life would be greatly increased1 and that death from bacterial and parasitic diseases generally would no longer occur4 ,all this is said not with the object of startling the reader1 but to warn him of the dangers that surround him on every hand1 and to urge a recognition of that which can so materially prolong his life4 ,fortunately these sources of infection may be almost entirely done away with by a few simple rules of life1 and the health and longevity of mankind must necessarily be directly proportionate to the care with which we observe them4 ,it is now in order to discuss in detail the subject of personal hygiene4 ,,footnote3 #a ,see the volume in this ,library1 ,animal ,competitors1 by ,,ernest ,,ingersoll1 for the agency of rats and mice in the introduction and dissemination of plague and other diseases2 and the means of destroying these pests of the farm4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,care ,,of ,,the ,,person ,it is happily the case that in ,america the importance of personal cleanliness is more thoroughly understood1 and is more generally practiced than any of the other important hygienic procedures4 ,while it is true that there are many--particularly those of foreign extraction1 and who live for the most part in the larger cities--to whom an occasional bath appeals only as a painful necessity1 a very large percentage of those born in this country bathe regularly4 ,it should be thoroughly understood that a daily bath is essential1 not only from the standpoint of cleanliness1 but from the fact that this practice is in the highest degree conducive to health4 ,it should never be forgotten that by cleanliness infectious materials are removed from the surface of the body1 and at the same time the skin is put into a condition to eliminate from the system those waste products which it is its special function to remove4 ,the close relationship of the proper activity of the skin to health is perhaps not generally sufficiently appreciated--for it is true that the body cannot remain normal when the secretory power of its glands is impaired1 and that even death quickly follows when they cease to functionate altogether4 ,advice as to ,bathing4--,much difference of opinion exists as to the proper temperature of the water for bathing1 some holding that it should be quite cold1 while others are equally positive that it should be warm4 ,unfortunately it is impossible to give fixed rules concerning this somewhat important matter1 for there is every reason to believe that it should be determined in each individual case according to circumstances1 and that1 therefore1 both may be right4 ,some persons unquestionably do better with one1 and some with the other4 ,it has been established clearly that the cold bath is highly stimulating1 and where not too prolonged1 and when followed by vigorous rubbing1 is undoubtedly healthful for a large number of people4 ,the cold bath is often used by physicians in the treatment of diseases of low vitality4 ,many persons however1 are unpleasantly affected by bathing in water of a temperature much below that of the body2 particularly is this true of women1 and the like may be said of thin and nervous persons of the other sex4 ,it is claimed by the advocates of the cold bath that those who practice this procedure daily are practically immune from colds1 but this1 certainly1 is not always true2 on the contrary the writer has seen instances where the cold bath has unquestionably led to chronic nasal catarrh1 with increased tendency to inflammatory conditions of the air passages4 ,it is also the case that baths of this description tend in some persons to prevent a normal accumulation of fat beneath the skin1 and keep individuals of this kind unnaturally lean4 ,the warm bath is perhaps1 on the whole1 more popular than the cold1 since it is preferred usually by children and women1 and is practiced by a considerable proportion of adult males4 ,it is unquestionably somewhat enervating1 and at best fails entirely to give the agreeable stimulation experienced by those who take a cold plunge4 ,it is1 however1 to be preferred in those instances where cold water produces disagreeable effects1 and if the bath be not too long continued it is followed by no ill results4 ,persons who become lean under cold baths not uncommonly take on flesh when they begin to use warm ones4 ,it is unquestionably true that the latter is to be preferred in hot climates4 ,the sea bath is invigorating not only from the water being cool1 but as a consequence of the pleasurable excitement with which it is attended4 ,its greatest disadvantage lies in the fact that there is a tendency to overdo it1 many persons remaining in the water for hours4 ,ten or fifteen minutes is as long as the average person should indulge in sea-bathing1 and it is a question if even those who are young and vigorous should remain in the water longer than half an hour4 ,bathing of any kind should be indulged in before meals1 the best time being before breakfast in the morning4 ,care of the ,teeth4--,nothing in connection with the subject of personal hygiene is of more importance than keeping the teeth properly cleansed4 ,the fact is not generally appreciated that sound teeth stand in a most intimate relationship with good health1 and that disastrous consequences are sure to follow sooner or later where these most important structures are neglected4 ,while it is true that in a person of vigorous health one or two decayed teeth do not1 as a rule1 occasion obvious trouble at once1 ill effects are sure sooner or later to be felt4 ,for one thing1 a person without good teeth cannot chew his food well4 ,those who begin by neglecting what at first are slight defects in the teeth seem to acquire in the course of time a sort of habit of doing this1 and ultimately disregard and fail to have corrected the more serious diseases of the dental structures4 ,nothing is more common than for the practicing physician to find patients with one or more teeth partially gone1 or1 even worse1 with only the exposed roots remaining4 ,where cavities exist1 food is constantly forced into them1 and undergoing decomposition1 the breath of their owner becomes foul1 and portions of decayed food mixed with multitudes of bacteria are constantly swallowed2 sooner or later there inevitably follows under such circumstances catarrhal conditions of the stomach1 which reaches a point in some individuals where the health is seriously threatened4 ,not only do bad teeth produce trouble in the way just mentioned1 but there is every reason to believe that germs that produce disease--particularly those that cause consumption--not uncommonly find their way to the interior of the body through the resulting cavities4 ,it is the duty of everyone to properly cleanse the teeth at least once daily--to do so after each meal would be even still better4 ,this should be done with a moderately soft brush1 with which it is unnecessary to use tooth-powders or lotions--though many prefer to do so4 ,where something of the kind is desired1 ordinary lime-water is perhaps as satisfactory as anything else2 peroxide of hydrogen1 diluted eight or ten times with water1 to which a pinch or two of ordinary cooking soda has been added1 undoubtedly aids the cleansing process1 and has the advantage that it leaves a pleasant after-taste in the mouth4 ,in brushing the teeth care should be taken that every part of the tooth receives attention1 it being not sufficient1 as is so often done1 merely to brush the front4 ,it should be the practice of everyone to have the teeth looked over at least once a year by a good dentist1 as even where cleansing is diligently performed decay frequently sets in on their inner sides4 ,the utmost care should be taken of the permanent teeth especially1 and as long as it is possible to prevent it no one should be allowed to pull them4 ,there can be no doubt that life is shortened by the early loss of the permanent teeth in most1 if not in all1 cases--not to count loss in health and happiness that follows their absence4 ,clothing1--,material and ,color4--,clothing will be considered in this article only as regards its function of properly protecting the body1 which it does by preventing the escape of heat1 thus keeping the body warm1 or1 under other circumstances1 by keeping out excessive heat or cold4 ,materials of which clothing is made differ very greatly in their ability to accomplish the object just mentioned1 some being comparatively poor conductors of heat and hence fulfill the desired function admirably1 while others1 for opposite reasons1 are of comparatively little value for this purpose4 ,in general it may be said that structures of animal origin1 such as wool and silk1 are much poorer heat conductors than those obtained from the vegetable world1 and as a consequence the former are justly held in much higher esteem as material for clothing than the latter4 ,it should not be forgotten1 however1 that the protective value of a fabric also depends upon the manner in which it is woven1 since those that are loosely constructed are much warmer1 other things being equal1 than those that are put together more closely2 this depends upon the fact that in the former there are innumerable small cavities between the fibers in which air is contained1 and as this substance is a very poor conductor of heat1 it follows that a garment made loosely and containing many such chambers is warmer than where the number is less4 ,it may well be the case that a fabric constructed of a material which is a poor conductor of heat and closely woven may be actually cooler than another composed of a substance which is a much better conductor of heat but of a loose texture4 ,the efficiency of different materials of which clothing is made also depends upon their capacity to absorb water4 ,this may be done in two ways3 the water may simply collect between the fibers1 in which case it may be in a large measure removed by wringing1 or it may be actually absorbed into the substance composing the fabric1 and1 as a consequence1 the latter1 even though containing much moisture1 do not appear damp4 ,fabrics made from vegetable materials1 as cotton or linen1 have little power of actually absorbing water1 and hence they become wet on the slightest addition of moisture1 while on the other hand those of animal origin have the capacity of absorbing water1 and appear dry even after the addition of this substance in considerable amounts4 ,a person1 therefore1 dressed in cotton fabrics will find after active perspiration has begun that his clothing quickly becomes moist1 while if he have on woolen garments this will not occur4 ,it is particularly noteworthy that water is gradually removed by evaporation from animal fabrics1 which causes a general cooling without producing a chill2 it is therefore readily understood that woolen clothing is much to be preferred where active exercise is being taken4 ,color is also of some importance in determining the value of a fabric for protecting the body from the sun's heat4 ,within recent times we have learned a great deal respecting the wonderful penetrating power of the invisible light rays1 and we have every reason to believe that these modify to a very considerable degree every process going on within the body4 ,the violet and ultra-violet rays are those that unquestionably exert most influence1 and it has been suggested that they may be broken up and rendered innocuous by covering the body with materials having a reddish-yellow color4 ,it is not necessary to put these materials on the outside where they would be conspicuous1 but they may be used as lining for hats and clothing2 and there are good reasons to believe that if their use were generally adopted suffering and actual loss of life from overheating would be greatly reduced1 particularly in warm countries4 ,work and ,rest4--,very slowly the people of our country are beginning to realize that it is quite as necessary to rest as to work1 though unfortunately in some quarters a strenuous life is urged as being only secondary in importance to possessing a big family2 that there is an intimate association between the two there can be no doubt1 since the latter beyond peradventure would entail the former4 ,it has ever been the habit and misfortune of sages now and then to desert the field of their own peculiar activities and to make incursions into unknown regions--generally giving advice with a dogmatism and finality proportionate to their ignorance of the subject under discussion4 ,as a matter of fact the average ,american works entirely too much1 and while he sometimes accumulates an immense fortune with astounding rapidity1 to his sorrow he often learns later that he has likewise acquired a damaged heart1 premature thickening of his blood-vessels or nervous dyspepsia with all of its attendant evils4 ,descended as we are in a large measure from the most vigorous and adventurous ,europeans of the last few centuries1 and coming into possession of a new world where everything was to be done1 this tendency to overwork is most natural1--and for this reason is all the more to be combated4 ,that we have been able so successfully to carry the burden for several generations is indeed remarkable1 but there are not wanting numerous indications that the strain is beginning to tell4 ,if we do not call a halt1 and devote more time to rest and agreeable pastimes1 disastrous consequences are sure to follow1 and we will become in the course of time a race of neurasthenics and degenerates4 ,attention should likewise be directed to the fact that men do not develop to the highest point of mentality who devote their entire time to work1 as leisure is absolutely essential for thought and the development of all that is best in man4 ,let us then cast aside the shallow and ignorant preachments of those who do not understand the subject1 and devote a reasonable time to the reading of good books1 to thought1 to the cultivation of the arts and sciences1 and to pleasurable pastimes4 ,in these particulars we are far behind ,europe1 and we shall never take our place as an intellectual people until we radically change our method of life4 ,a nation must dream before becoming great4 ,let it not be understood from the foregoing that the writer would in the slightest degree minimize the necessity for a reasonable amount of work1 for he thoroughly appreciates that without labor neither the individual nor the nation itself could remain sound--it is only urged that excessive work is quite as much to be feared as none at all4 ,health and ,labor4--,as to the number of hours that should be devoted to labor no rule can be laid down4 ,it all depends on the age1 physical and mental vigor of the individual1 and likewise1 to a considerable degree1 on the character of the work4 ,occupations requiring intense mental or physical strain can only be kept up for short periods of continuous application1 while1 on the other hand1 quite naturally1 those of a less strenuous nature would permit longer hours4 ,the young man1 in pride of perfect bodily and mental vigor1 too often assumes1 because he has been able in the past to do pretty much anything that pleased him without ill-effect1 that he can continue to do the same through life4 ,no greater mistake could be made4 ,anything that has a tendency to undermine the health1 repeated sufficiently often1 will ultimately cause a complete breakdown4 ,how often do we see the strength and beauty of early manhood blighted and turned to premature old age and death as a consequence of disregarding the warnings that have just been given6 ,how frequently do we observe young men rejoicing in the emancipation from home and school and spurred on by the fatal delusion that while others might suffer they will not1 becoming in the end the victim of that arch enemy of early manhood1 consumption6 ,every practicing doctor has seen this1 not once1 but hundreds of times1 and in the vast majority of instances he can say with truth that the frightful result is a consequence of overwork--too often associated with nocturnal dissipation4 ,the man who works during the day1 and devotes his nights to alcohol and gay company when he should be sleeping1 will assuredly1 sooner or later--and usually sooner--suffer the inevitable consequences4 ,to those who live sedentary lives1 active out-door exercise is very essential1 but inasmuch as this little volume is being written for those who live a saner and more healthful existence1 it is not deemed necessary to discuss here this phase of the subject4 ,value of ,sleep4--,closely connected with the subject just discussed is sleep4 ,here also we have no rules1 or laws1 from which we can clearly determine the amount required in individual cases4 ,overwise philosophers have asserted that seven hours for a man1 eight hours for a woman1 and nine hours for a fool1 was the allotted time for sleep4 ,as a matter of fact1 the necessity for repose varies greatly in different individuals1 some of them requiring less while others demand more4 ,it is a safe rule to follow that every man should sleep as long as he naturally desires1 for nature is a much better mentor than any man could be--however learned4 ,the majority of men require at least eight hours of sleep for the day and night1 and this should be secured if possible at such a time as will permit it to be undisturbed2 hence it is that man usually prefers to sleep at night1 and1 all things considered1 it is probably the time best suited for his repose4 ,we read many marvelous stories of certain great men who required little or no sleep4 ,within recent years the press has frequently contained articles recounting the extraordinary fact that a certain prominent inventor of this country lived daily on a mere spoonful or so of food1 and only slept a few hours now and then when there was nothing else particularly to do4 ,such stories should be accepted only on absolute proof1 as1 irrespective of their utter improbability1 one may observe that they are generally insisted upon in and out of season with a pertinacity that would indicate that they were conceived and are scattered abroad with the sole idea of impressing the general public with what a marvelous and unusual person the individual in question is4 ,there can be no reasonable doubt that they are merely evidences of childish vanity and puerile mendacity1 and are only referred to here for the reason that young persons1 ignorant of the laws of health1 might attempt to emulate them1 with results that could be but disastrous4 ,nothing so preserves youth1 health1 and good looks as a sufficient amount of sleep1 and it is pre-eminently the secret of long life4 ,reference will be made in the chapter on the ,hygiene of ,infancy to the necessity of children sleeping as much as is possible4 ,it will do no harm to say again here that nothing is so essential for the proper development of the body as sleep1 and that it is absolutely a crime to awaken a child except under circumstances of absolute necessity4 ,precautions in ,respect to ,eating4--,a sufficient amount of sleep1 and a proper quantity of digestible and nutritious food1 thoroughly cooked and carefully masticated1 are the things which above all others are most important for the maintenance of health4 ,in the chapter on ,foods1 the nutritive values and digestibility of the various articles eaten by man will be discussed with sufficient thoroughness to instruct the reader as to a wholesome dietary2 it is1 therefore1 not necessary here to go into the matter fully1 but the subject is so important that a few general remarks will not be out of place4 ,eating should never1 so far as is possible1 be hurried4 ,nothing is more important for the proper digestion of food than its thorough mastication1 and this can only be accomplished when sufficient time is allowed for eating4 ,it is not necessary that this be done to the extreme advocated by some1 but it is certainly of the highest importance that the food be so thoroughly chewed that it is reduced to fine particles1 and that it should be so soaked in saliva that it may be swallowed without the aid of liquids of any kind4 ,it is also desirable that food should not be taken while the individual is tired1 so that it is a good plan where this condition exists for one to lie down for a short time before eating4 ,regularity in eating is likewise of importance1 it being best to take the meals at stated periods2 the consumption of food at irregular hours often leads to indigestion and is a practice which should not be indulged in4 ,it is highly desirable to have food served under agreeable circumstances1 digestion being accomplished in a much more satisfactory manner if pleasant conversation be indulged in during the meal1 and if the food be of an appetizing character4 ,nothing is of more importance in connection with this subject than to have the food properly prepared4 ,not only is thorough cooking important from the standpoint of making foods digestible1 but as is shown in another part of this volume1 grave and sometimes fatal diseases are contracted by a neglect of this important procedure4 ,fruits1 contrary to what is generally thought1 contain but little nourishment1 and severely tax the digestive powers of those who have a tendency to dyspepsia4 ,when eaten at all1 they should be perfectly ripe and fresh1 and should always be taken after meals rather than before4 ,drinks1--,coffee1 ,tea1 ,milk1 etc4--,much misconception exists1 among people generally1 and even among the medical profession1 concerning the proper amount of water that should be drunk4 ,while this substance is unquestionably the most wholesome of all drinks1 there exists no necessity for taking it in great quantities at times when the system does not call for it4 ,it would perhaps be a good rule for all to form the habit of drinking little while eating1 the reason for which will be explained hereafter4 ,coffee is exceedingly popular both on account of its delicious odor and taste when properly made1 and for the reason that it is highly stimulating4 ,while it is borne by young and vigorous persons of either sex with apparent impunity1 there frequently comes a time in life when it can no longer be drunk without ill effects4 ,as a general rule1 dyspeptics do not bear it well4 ,tea1 if properly prepared1 is a most palatable beverage1 and one that is generally better borne than coffee4 ,it is more wholesome when taken without lemon juice1 and like coffee it is less disposed to produce trouble if largely diluted with milk1 or if taken without cream or sugar4 ,cocoa and chocolate are often used as substitutes for tea or coffee1 and where they agree with the individual are perhaps as wholesome as either4 ,both1 however1 contain considerable quantities of fat1 and as they are frequently prepared with cream1 or very rich milk1 they are not as a rule well borne4 ,while milk might be considered as being almost as much a food as a drink still the fact that it is fluid1 and that it contains a very large percentage of water1 causes it to be regarded as a beverage4 ,when taken slowly--and this precaution is particularly necessary where it is fresh and sweet--milk is a drink that should be regarded as being on a par with water4 ,it contains no injurious substances1 but sour milk should1 as a rule1 be avoided by dyspeptics4 ,the cardinal principle in taking beverages of any kind at mealtime is that they should be drunk alone after the food has been swallowed1 as when they are taken with the purpose of softening the latter1 mastication is seriously interfered with and the proper soaking of the food in the saliva prevented4 ,alcoholic ,beverages4--,alcoholic drinks are so fully discussed in a latter part of this book that here it may merely be stated that they cannot be regarded as having food-value to any degree1 and so far as the matter is at present understood1 appear to be entirely superfluous1 and even positively injurious4 ,if taken at all1 they should be consumed in extreme moderation1 after meals rather than before4 ,the young especially should be particularly warned against the use of all beverages of this class4 ,a ,word on ,soft ,drinks4--,mention should also be made of those drinks commonly sold at soda-fountains4 ,the vast majority of them may be taken occasionally without any appreciable ill effects1 but the habitual use of beverages containing considerable quantities of syrup is not entirely wholesome4 ,particularly is this true where the drink contains stimulating drugs1 such as do some of those most advertised4 ,some of them are1 if no worse1 the equivalent of a strong cup of coffee1 and should1 therefore1 no more be taken every hour or two during the day than a cup of the substance just mentioned4 ,if their use is persisted in1 it is sure to be followed by indigestion1 and in many instances nervous disorders of even a serious character4 ,the reader should also be warned against the use of drinks containing medicine for the relief of pain--particularly those that are advertised as remedies for headache4 ,practically without exception1 all such drinks contain coal-tar preparations that greatly depress the heart1 and have in a number of instances been followed by death4 ,drugs of this character should be taken with the utmost circumspection1 and only on the prescription of a competent physician4 ,tobacco4--,tobacco1 of all nerve sedatives1 is the most universally used4 ,in moderation it could not be said that it is followed by any apparent ill effects in the majority of people1 but if used in excess oftentimes sets up serious disturbances4 ,it is peculiarly injurious to boys1 and should never be indulged in until manhood is reached4 ,some persons seem to possess a natural immunity to the ill effects of nicotine1 and appear to be able throughout their lives to chew or smoke tobacco in any amount without harmful results2 such instances are1 however1 rare--its excessive use being usually followed by symptoms that may be of a serious nature4 ,of the two methods of use perhaps smoking is less open to objection1 though it is unquestionably true that chewing is not so apt to cause disturbances of the heart4 ,smoking affects the stomach1 but not to the extent that chewing does4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,sanitation ,,in ,,and ,,about ,,the ,,house ,the bearing of intelligently located houses of proper construction on health is not so generally understood1 even by physicians1 as the facts warrant1 and1 of course1 is even less well recognized by the non-medical public4 ,it is true that some attention has been given to the matter of location1 but even in this connection there prevails a woful ignorance among all classes as to just how the diseases are transmitted that are most influenced in this way4 ,as a result of recent advances in medicine it has been clearly shown that at least some of the diseases that are most influenced by locality may be easily avoided1 and as a consequence we find that the views of the modern sanitarians have necessarily undergone a certain amount of change in this direction4 ,on the other hand recognition of the necessity of hygienic construction has not been sufficiently accentuated1--since it is possible by proper attention to the details of building to do away entirely with at least two of the diseases that have heretofore been the principal drawbacks to life in all tropical and sub-tropical countries4 ,much importance likewise attaches to houses being thoroughly ventilated1 and to their being sufficiently roomy to properly accommodate their inmates4 ,the following table shows the striking relationship that mortality bears to over-crowding3-- ,,relation ,,of ,,death-,,rate ,,to ,,density ,,of ,,population4 ,city4 ,mean number ,average death-rate of inhabitants per #a1jjj inhabitants4 to each house4 ,london #h #bd ,berlin #cb #be ,paris #ce #bh ,st4 ,petersburg #eb #da ,vienna #ee #dg ,many other statistics could be quoted1 but all follow the general trend of those just given4 ,choice of ,site4--,in our rural districts the inhabitants have a wide latitude in the matter of the selection of the location for their houses1 and it is usually the case that our people are sufficiently intelligent to make the best use of their opportunities in this direction4 ,it may1 however1 be mentioned that it is generally considered that building-sites in the neighborhood of cemeteries are not favorable locations1 nor should houses be erected in the vicinity of a manufacturing plant that gives off injurious gases1 or obnoxious materials of other kinds4 ,inasmuch as we now know that malaria is transmitted by a certain mosquito1 and that by properly screening the house their attacks may be avoided1 the necessity no longer exists for avoiding the vicinity of lakes and rivers as building-sites2 such localities being as a rule pleasant and often picturesque1 they would naturally under ordinary circumstances be selected1 and there now remains no reason why this may not be done1--provided that the house is so constructed that mosquitoes can be effectually prevented from gaining entrance4 ,of much importance is the selection of a locality where good and pure water can be easily procured1 as otherwise disastrous consequences are sure to follow4 ,the soil should be of a light and porous character1 easily permeable by water1 and free from the decomposing remains of excretions of man or animals4 ,there is much reason for the belief also that the level of the ground-water plays a somewhat important part in the salubrity of any given locality1 and it is generally considered that this should be at least ten feet below the surface4 ,it is generally thought1 and probably with truth1 that those sites are most healthful which have their location on a basis of granite1 or other rock-foundation2 in such localities there is usually a considerable slope of the general surface of the ground1 with the result that water rapidly runs off after rains1 and consequently stagnant pools1 which might serve as a breeding place for mosquitoes and bacteria1 do not form4 ,soils through which water easily permeates are likewise1 as a rule1 healthy1 though this depends in a measure upon whether or not they contain a very considerable proportion of vegetable matter4 ,clay foundations are healthful where there is a considerable slope to the surface of the ground1 but where this does not exist the soil is damp1 owing to its impermeability1 and often has stagnant pools upon its surface4 ,marls and alluvial soils are not regarded as being wholesome1 but it is not unlikely that their bad reputation is largely due to the fact that they generally exist in the neighborhood of rivers and other considerable bodies of water where mosquitoes are numerous4 ,there are no reasons going to show that cultivated lands are unhealthy--even where they receive yearly abundant additions of manure4 ,where it is necessary to build in damp localities the site should be thoroughly drained1 and the space upon which the house is constructed should be carefully covered with some impermeable cement4 ,building ,materials4--,of all building materials1 the one most commonly employed in ,america is wood4 ,this arises from the fact that in the past we have had unlimited quantities of timber from which lumber could be procured at a price so reasonable that no other material could ordinarily be considered4 ,that the wooden house has some advantages cannot be denied2 its walls rapidly cool following the torrid days that so commonly occur during the summer in almost all portions of the ,united ,states1 and it is usually well ventilated as a result of the numerous fissures naturally existing in its structure4 ,next to wood1 bricks are most commonly used for building purposes1 and have many advantages1 among which are their handsome effect1 their stability1 and their being poor conductors of heat2 the last mentioned is of considerable importance1 since it keeps both heat and frost from rapidly permeating the interior1 and as a consequence houses constructed of this material are cooler in summer and warmer in winter4 ,other materials occasionally used are concrete1 granite1 marble1 and sandstone1 any of which1 on account of their durable character and the beauty that they lend to structures made from them1 may be selected for building purposes1 but inasmuch as they are rarely used in rural districts1 a detailed consideration of their peculiar advantages for building purposes is not deemed here necessary4 ,the internal wall-coating of houses deserves more consideration than is commonly accorded it1 since the dyes used for coloring wall-paper and curtains in some instances contain noxious materials4 ,chief among those that are dangerous are the bright green pigments which commonly contain arsenic as their principal constituent2 where these or other poisonous substances are employed in interior decorations the air1 wherever the room is kept closed1 may become more or less impregnated with poisonous gases1 and serious consequences to the inmates may ensue4 ,screening ,indispensable to ,health4--,nothing is more important in connection with house construction than having every opening thoroughly screened4 ,we have learned that both malaria and yellow fever are transmitted always by certain kinds of mosquitoes1 and it therefore1 becomes a matter of the greatest importance to effectually prevent the entrance of these insects4 ,it cannot be too strongly insisted upon that we absolutely know that the statement just made is correct1 and that avoiding the diseases referred to becomes as a consequence entirely a matter of preventing the entrance of mosquitoes into houses4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,,anopheles4 7,malarial ,mosquito47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,,culex4 7,common ,mosquito47 ,the ,anopheles mosquito1 which is the one that transmits malaria1 often exists in localities where the more common varieties do not occur1 and on account of the habits of this insect their presence is liable to be overlooked4 ,they seldom attempt to bite during the day1 and it is only rarely the case that they try to do so at night in a well lighted room2--particularly where movement of any kind is going on4 ,during the day this mosquito remains perfectly quiet in the dark corners of the house1 and is very fond of resting on cobwebs1 presenting1 when doing so1 an appearance strikingly similar to that of fragments of leaves1 soot or of other natural objects that are frequently found suspended on such structures4 ,on account of these peculiarities and for the further reason that the insect bites mainly just following daybreak1 when the victim is profoundly unconscious in sleep1 its presence often remains undetected1 and as a consequence we occasionally hear from those who do not take the trouble to inform themselves that malaria exists in this or that locality where mosquitoes do not occur4 ,the yellow-fever mosquito bites for the most part during the day1 but will do so at any time when there is light4 ,in districts where this disease occurs it is quite as important to prevent its entrance as that of the malarial mosquito4 ,not only does screening prevent malaria and yellow fever1 but it keeps out flies and other insects that unquestionably bring with them the germs of other diseases4 ,there now remains no doubt that several affections1 notably typhoid fever and dysentery1 are frequently communicated by means of the common house-fly1 which spends its time alternately on the fecal material around privies or in other filth1 and in our kitchens and dining-rooms2 it is one of the most astounding evidences of the power of habit1 in the face of common sense and ordinary decency1 that we have not long ago taken active steps to rid ourselves of its disgusting presence4 ,fortunately in screens we have a perfect barrier to the entrance of flies1 and no house can be considered complete without being thoroughly equipped with these all-necessary appliances4 ,it is scarcely possible to overestimate the economy that results from the use of screens2 among the various means employed for conserving the public health they take first rank1 and undoubtedly insure those who live in houses to which they have been added an immunity against the costly effects of disease that could scarcely be computed4 ,a house would be more habitable without chairs1 beds1 or tables than screens1 since in the absence of the former we may be healthy1 though somewhat uncomfortable1 but without the latter serious disorders are pretty certain1 sooner or later1 to make their appearance4 ,it is of considerable importance to use a screen the mesh of which is sufficiently fine4 ,where mosquitoes exist1 the screen should be of such fineness that at least sixteen1 or better eighteen meshes be in each inch of the gauze4 ,where it is absolutely certain that mosquitoes are not to be feared1 the spaces may be somewhat larger--but always of such size as will prevent the entrance of the smallest fly4 ,air-space ,required4--,it is of much importance from a hygienic standpoint that the rooms of dwellings should be sufficiently large4 ,the height should never be less than eight feet1 and the living-room should be made as large as circumstances will permit4 ,bed-chambers should contain at least #a1jjj cubic feet of air space for each adult1 with somewhat less for children1 though it should never be forgotten that the more the better2 this means that each person should have the equivalent of a room which is at least #aj x #ab x #i feet4 ,heating4--,americans are extravagant in the matter of heating to a degree that astonishes the average foreigner1 and it is by no means sure that we do not go to unhygienic extremes in this direction4 ,it is not1 perhaps1 true that the excessive heat itself could be considered as especially hurtful1 but it is too often the case that the conditions required to secure the degree of heat preferred by us are incompatible with proper ventilation1 and hence are to be condemned4 ,it is generally considered that the temperature of living-rooms should be somewhere about #gj deg4,f42 for many persons this is lower than would be entirely comfortable1 and as a consequence our houses in the winter are frequently kept nearer #hj deg4,f4 than the figure just given4 ,the reader should be urged to see to it that1 at whatever temperature his habitation is kept1 a sufficient amount of ventilation be secured4 ,there are many different methods of heating1 the most satisfactory of which are by means of hot water or steam2 a modified form of the latter is the so-called vapor method1 which in recent years has proven extremely satisfactory4 ,hot air1 supplied by a furnace is also extensively used1 and for the reason that by this method fresh air from the outside is constantly brought into the house1 it is theoretically to be commended2 practically1 however1 a considerable difficulty is experienced in securing an equable distribution of this heat throughout the various parts of the house1 and as a consequence it has not achieved the popularity that it would otherwise have done4 ,inasmuch as the installation of plants for heating by the methods just referred to entails quite an expense1 and for the further reason that they require coal for satisfactory operating1 they have not been employed in the rural districts of ,america to any considerable extent4 ,the farmer1 for the most part1 depends on the old open fireplace where wood is plentiful and the weather does not become excessively cold1 while in those portions of the country where the temperatures in winter go very low1 the stove is generally employed4 ,of the two methods1 the former is much the more hygienic where it can be used successfully1 but over a greater portion of the ,united ,states this cannot be done owing to the cold winter climate4 ,the principal objection to the stove lies in the fact that the heat that comes from it is very dry1 and that where its walls have to be heated excessively1 unpleasant odors are apt to be generated2 the former is usually and ought always to be obviated by keeping upon the stove a vessel of water1 the vapors from which moisten the atmosphere1 and the latter by having the stove of such size that it will not require excessive heating in order to warm the room in which it is placed4 ,wherever possible the open fireplace is to be preferred to the stove for the reason that it very thoroughly ventilates the room4 ,ventilation4--,in order that the health of the inmates may be conserved proper ventilation of all habitations is essential4 ,however cold the weather may be1 an abundance of fresh air should be allowed to enter all parts of the house4 ,in the average wooden dwelling there are so many cracks that good ventilation is generally secured without opening doors or windows1 but where the construction does not permit this1 openings for the entrance of air should be left in the most convenient and suitable places4 ,windows may be slightly raised and draughts prevented by proper screening1 or what is even better1 rooms should be so constructed that they have openings at the top and at the bottom to allow free ventilation4 ,openings towards the upper portion of rooms are especially important in hot weather1 as the warm air rises to the ceiling and escapes only very slowly where such exits do not exist4 ,lowering windows from the top aids materially in allowing the hot air to escape1 but this is not altogether so satisfactory as having openings higher up on the walls1 or in the ceiling4 ,disposal of ,sewage4--,no problem that confronts the dweller in the rural district is of greater importance than the proper disposal of sewage4 ,it is unfortunately impossible in most instances for the farmer to have in his house a system of water-works1 and1 therefore1 all dish-waters and slops are thrown into the yard1 and a privy is used instead of a modern water-closet4 ,where the lay of the land is such that water readily runs off1 or the soil is of a character that permits rapid absorption1 throwing slops on the ground around the house may not constitute a danger to the inmates1 but nothing is more certain than that the old fashioned privy is a dire menace to the health of all those in its vicinity4 ,not only are infectious materials brought into houses by flies1 from fecal matter and other excretions1 but they are carried away by the rains and sometimes contaminate sources of water-supply4 ,it is furthermore extremely probable that bacteria in particles of dust from dried fecal material may be carried by the winds from privies into wells and houses1 and as a consequence diseases may be spread2 of perhaps still more importance--and certainly of far greater moment all over the southern portions of the country--is the fact that hook-worm disease and other infections caused by animal parasites are transmitted from man to man as the result of our adherence to the old fashioned privy4 ,as will be explained in the chapter devoted to the common communicable diseases1 the eggs of the hook-worm pass from the intestine along with the feces of those who are victims of this parasite and reaching the ground1 hatch out in the course of a few days minute hook-worm embryos1 which crawl away and permeate the soil in the vicinity2 later collecting in little pools that form after rains1 or in dew-drops during the night1 they attach themselves to the skin of barefooted children who come in contact with such collections of water1 and boring into the body ultimately1 through a circuitous route1 reach the intestines4 ,here they undergo further development1 and in a short time become mature hook-worms1 which in their turn lay eggs1 and the life cycle begins over again4 ,it is thus seen that a child having hook-worm disease becomes a menace1 on account of the privy1 to its brothers and sisters1 and of course quite commonly receives back into its own body1 worms that had previously escaped as eggs4 ,in the same way eggs of the two common tapeworms pass out with the feces1 and the offal containing them being eaten by hogs in the one case1 or being scattered in the vicinity and taken in with grass by cows in the other1 have their shells dissolved off as soon as they reach the stomachs of these animals1 and there are liberated small embryos that bore through the walls of the stomach and later find their way into the muscular tissues of these beasts1 and there lie dormant until eaten by man with imperfectly cooked meat2 after being swallowed1 the embryo parasite passes to the intestine and soon becomes a fully developed tapeworm4 ,particular reference at this point should be directed to the evil effects1 which are even still greater than those that come from the privy1 of permitting children and hired helpers to scatter their feces indiscriminately in corners of the yard1 the apple-orchard1 or in the horse-lot2 under such circumstances1 where hook-worm disease is once introduced1 the soil in the course of a short time becomes thoroughly permeated with the embryos of this worm1 and1 as a consequence1 all of the children who play in the infected area barefooted1 as is customary in the country1 are sooner or later infected with these parasites4 ,it is thus seen that soil-pollution from fecal material is a most dangerous thing1 and1 particularly in the southern portion of the ,united ,states1 deserves the most earnest consideration of everyone4 ,we should see to it that our children only evacuate their bowels in properly constructed closets2 and it is the duty of the head of every family to provide such a place for the accommodation of those who are dependent on him4 ,proper ,construction of ,out-door ,privies4--,the most practical and generally satisfactory device heretofore invented for the disposal of the sewage of communities unprovided with water-works is what is known as the ,rochdale1 or dry-closet1 system4 ,by this system a privy1 at a distance from the dwelling1 is constructed in the ordinary manner1 with the exception that instead of being open at the back it is tightly closed4 ,in the space beneath the seat receptacles are placed for receiving the urine and feces4 ,these may consist of pails of wood or better of galvanized iron2 or a single box occupying the whole space4 ,if wooden receptacles are used1 they should be thoroughly coated on the inside with tar1 to prevent both leakage and the soaking of the liquids into the wood4 ,one such structure1 which the writer knows has been wholly satisfactory has a brick foundation with walls two feet high around the front and sides1 within which rests a shallow tarred box4 ,it ensures perfect cleanliness4 ,in any case this space under the seat is tightly closed1 being guarded by doors that open outward1 through which the pails or box may be introduced and removed for emptying4 ,each privy contains a box in which is placed either wood ashes or dry powdered earth1 with a small shovel by which a sufficient quantity of the dust to cover the deposit is thrown into the pail after each evacuation4 ,it is remarkable how completely this shovelful of earth or ashes destroys all disagreeable smell4 ,the privy should be provided with at least two opposite windows1 both of which should be thoroughly screened4 ,the entrance should have a door that is closed with a spring1 so that it cannot be carelessly or accidentally left open when vacant4 ,at intervals the pails containing the feces are removed1 and the contents are carried to a distance and buried4 ,another plan that is quite satisfactory where iron pails are used1 is to place a quantity of water in the vessels for receiving the feces1 and then to pour in a small quantity of kerosene2 the latter substance forms a layer over the water that keeps out flies1 and does away largely with the disagreeable odors that are likely to emanate4 ,if any contagious disease exists among those who use such a closet1 the fecal material should be carefully sterilized before being removed1 as by means of corrosive sublimate1 carbolic acid1 chlorinated lime1 or any one of the many commercial disinfectants containing crysylic acid1 all of which may be obtained at any drug store4 ,if carbolic acid or other liquid antiseptics be used the amount by volume should be equal to about five per cent4 of the material to be treated2 the proportion of corrosive sublimate should be at least #a to #a1jjj where this disinfectant is used4 ,along with whatever antiseptic is chosen1 water should be added in sufficient quantity to permit the whole to be rendered semi-fluid1 and the mixture should then be thoroughly stirred1 and the chemical left to act for some hours before emptying the receptacle4 ,by far the most satisfactory method of sterilizing infected material1 however1 is by boiling1 since disease-germs are killed by such a temperature in a few moments4 ,where iron receptacles are used1 therefore1 the simplest method is to set them upon an open fire in the yard for a little while4 ,a privy constructed after the manner just described possesses some advantages even over the regulation water-closets that are used in cities1 since they are cheaper in original cost1 require less repairs1 and are uninjured by a freezing temperature4 ,the amount of care required to keep them in proper condition is not excessive1 and they are so infinitely superior from a hygienic standpoint to the old-time privy that no sort of comparison is possible4 ,it should always be remembered that the principal advantages of this closet are that where it is used we are able to collect all of the evacuations1 which may then be properly deodorized with soil or ashes1 and that it may then be finally disposed of in such a way that it cannot be reached by hogs or other animals2 of very great importance also is the screening of the closet1 since only in this way is it possible to prevent flies from gaining entrance to the fecal material in the receiving pails4 ,water supply4#b--;,in the location of houses and schools an eye should always be had to selecting a site where it is possible to obtain good1 pure water4 ,to those fortunate dwellers in the mountainous regions of our country this is usually a matter of little difficulty1 since it is always possible to find a location in the neighborhood of which the purest spring water may be obtained4 ,in less favored regions the well becomes the main reliance1 while cisterns are used in some portions of our country1 in which water is collected during the rainy seasons of the year4 ,of the two1 the former is undoubtedly to be preferred1 provided a pump be used instead of the old fashioned bucket4 ,the writer is strongly of the opinion that a very large proportion of the contamination to which sources of water-supply are subject comes from the bucket being drunk from or handled by persons with contagious diseases1 or from germs being blown into the well with dust1 or carried in by means of insects and small animals4 ,it is inconceivable that any appreciable amount of contamination from the surface can reach the underground streams that supply wells in localities that are thinly populated1 though it is unquestionably true that a well might be infected as a result of the entrance of surface-water where its top is not properly protected4 ,on the other hand we have in an open well or cistern every facility afforded for the entrance of bacteria4 ,it is unquestionably of the utmost importance that wells be carefully covered over1 and every precaution should be taken to prevent surface-water leaking into them around their edges4 ,in order to comply with these conditions a pump is essential1 since it is the only means by which water can be brought to the surface without exposing the contents of the well to contamination4 ,it is likewise of the first importance to have the walls of the well curbed to a sufficient depth to prevent the possibility of seepage from the surface4 ,it is1 of course1 also quite necessary that the well be of sufficient depth--the lower we go the more likely are we to secure a perfectly pure water4 ,in regions where the water rises to within eight or ten feet1 or less1 of the surface1 the possibility of the well being contaminated during the rainy season by seepage is considerably increased1 and the waters of such wells should be used only after analyses have shown that they are pure2 where this cannot be done1 the water should be boiled before being drunk4 ,of course1 the possibilities of contamination are greatly increased if the locality be thickly inhabited4 ,as has been before remarked1 cisterns are more liable to contamination from the air than are wells1 chiefly owing to the fact that they are supplied by water that is conducted into them by gutters from the tops of houses4 ,there is no question that during the dry seasons dust containing many kinds of bacteria is deposited all over the tops of houses and remains there until washed away by the rains4 ,while it is true that the sunlight quickly kills most germs that produce disease a certain number of them would inevitably escape1 and having gained entrance to a cistern1 would be likely to multiply and later cause trouble4 ,it is thus seen that however pure the rain-water may originally have been--and it is among the purest of all waters--it is likely to become contaminated in the process of collection1 and may ultimately in this way become the source of disease4 ,where any doubt exists as to the purity of such water it should be boiled before use4 ,surface-streams also occasionally supply drinking-water in rural districts1 and while the use of such waters may not always be attended by danger1 their contamination by disease-producing germs is much more to be feared than when they are derived from wells or springs2 where streams arise from and keep their course through uninhabited districts the probabilities are strong that their waters are pure and fit for use1 but where they run through cultivated fields1 and particularly where they pass in the neighborhood of houses1 their waters should never be looked upon as being drinkable1--except after being boiled or properly filtered4 ,inasmuch as adequate filtration is exceedingly difficult to carry out1 and requires a somewhat extensive and costly plant1 this is1 as a rule1 not feasible for the dweller in country districts1 and boiling1 therefore1 remains the only satisfactory method of rendering the water fit for use where doubt exists as to its purity4 ,location of ,pens and ,stables for ,animals4--,animals should always be housed at some little distance from the dwelling4 ,while it is true that man does not often contract directly diseases from hogs1 sheep1 horses and cattle1 there are some maladies of a most serious character that come to us in this way1 and we should1 therefore1 always guard against their occurrence by removing ourselves as far as is possible from sources of possible infection4 ,the matter also has an aesthetic side1 as odors of a disagreeable character may prove very annoying where animals are kept too close to the house4 ,it is likewise of importance that stables should be1 if possible1 on lower ground than the dwelling1 since during rains materials from their dung may be washed around and under the house1 and may possibly gain access to the well4 ,every care should be taken to keep hog-pens and stables clean1 since otherwise very foul smells are engendered that oftentimes find their way to neighboring houses4 ,there is also a suspicion that some of the germs that produce disease find the conditions suitable for their stables and pig-sties4 ,in this connection it might be well to warn those unacquainted with the subject against the all too common practice of close association with dogs1 since it is well established that in addition to hydrophobia they may transmit1 while apparently in perfect health1 maladies of a deadly character to the human being4 ,it cannot be too often emphasized that the less intimate our association with the lower animals is1 the greater the likelihood of our escaping many serious diseases4 ,,footnote3 #b ,this subject is fully treated in another volume of this ,library1 entitled ,home ,water-works1 written by ,,prof4 ,,carleton ,j4 ,,lynde4 ,it shows where water should be sought1 and how it may be supplied under perfectly safe conditions to the household1 with descriptions of machinery1 estimates of expense1 etc4 ,this thoroughly practical book meets a widely recognized need for information1 and is written by a specialist4 ,thousands of men living in rural parts of the ,united ,states and ,canada1 out of reach of a public water-system1 have equipped their homes with water-supply conveniences equal to any found in the cities4 ,thousands more who could well afford to do so and who could do so advantageously1 have not done so for various reasons--because the idea has not occurred to them1 or because they did not know how to go about it1 or because they mistakenly thought the expense too great4 ,to all such this book should prove of the greatest practical help4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,hygiene ,,of ,,infancy ,,and ,,childhood ,no characteristic of the ,caucasian mind is more marked1 and none more universally affects his actions than a constant1 gnawing suspicion that the things going on around him are not being done in the proper way1 and consequently an irrepressible desire to experiment1 and if possible1 to change everything4 ,such a spirit is unquestionably the basis of what we call progress1 and1 in so far as it conduces to the health and happiness of mankind1 is entitled to our most hearty commendation4 ,on the other hand1 it cannot be denied that too often we endeavor to bring about changes with but an imperfect understanding of the basic principles at issue1 and naturally1 under such circumstances1 our efforts are crowned with anything but success4 ,in other words1 an enlightened investigation of the whys and wherefores of any existing state of affairs may and often does1 lead to improvement1 while1 on the other hand1 ignorant meddling is likely to be followed by disastrous consequences4 ,nowhere do we see the bad results of false conceptions more marked than in our treatment of infants and children4 ,particularly do young infants suffer in this way1 as they are pounced upon as soon as they enter the world by every old granny and negro mammy in the neighborhood1 and plied with abominable concoctions that would be productive of homicide if we were to attempt forcibly to administer them to grown men1 and whose only effect on the defenseless little sufferer is to cause colic and indigestion4 ,many times has the writer seen a wee1 tiny little mortal1 who was too young and weak to even protest1 bundled up with a mountain of flannels in the hottest weather of ,july and ,august4 ,true to the superstition that the warmer we kept an infant the better1 too frequently we see them confined to hot stuffy rooms when they should be out in the sunshine1 or under the trees4 ,instead of being allowed to gain health and strength in the forests1 which are the schoolhouses of nature1 the miserable little wretch is later sent to a public school as soon as he or she can be trusted to go alone on the streets1 and the tiny victim too frequently contracts diphtheria1 scarlet fever1 whooping-cough1 measles1 or some other disease as a reward of merit4 ,truly we see to it that the helpless innocents early realize the truth of the melancholy and hopeless biblical lament that man's days here are few and full of trouble4 ,we should rear our children with as little interference as possible1 allowing them the utmost freedom compatible with their safety1 and permitting them to do those things that nature and instinct demand4 ,above all let them sleep as much and as long as they will1 insist that they live in the open air1 and encourage them in every possible way to perfect their physical education by those active amusements that they instinctively prefer4 ,after they have established a sound and rugged constitution ample time will be left for them to develop mentally4 ,feeding of ,nursing ,infants4--,the most important thing in connection with the feeding of infants is to always remember that nature has provided in their mother's milk1 when sufficiently abundant and normal in quality1 everything in the way of food and drink that they require4 ,during the three days that usually intervene between birth and the coming of the milk in the mother's breast1 infants may be given from time to time small quantities of pure water1 but under no circumstances should anything else be allowed4 ,during this period the child may be put to the breast four or five times in the twenty-four hours1 for1 while it gets but little in the way of nourishment1 there is even at this time a watery fluid secreted in the breast that goes far towards supplying everything that the infant needs for the time being4 ,a child should never nurse longer than twenty minutes at one time4 ,it is likewise of importance that the time of nursing be strictly regulated4 ,particularly during the first year it is of the utmost importance to watch with an intelligent eye the growth and development of the child4 ,where the milk agrees with it it has a good color and gains regularly in weight2 it cries but little1 and is good natured1 and thoroughly contented4 ,should it1 on the other hand1 lose weight1 appear fretful and listless1 and sleep badly1 there is something wrong1 and the mother should at once have her milk examined by a competent physician4 ,in case the mother does not give sufficient nourishment there is no objection to partially feeding the infant on modified cow's milk--the method of the preparation of which will be considered later on4 ,where colic occurs it generally means that the infant is getting a diet too rich in albuminous foods1 which should be corrected by advising the mother to take an abundance of out-door exercise1 and to avoid all causes of worry so far as is possible4 ,vomiting freely is a very common occurrence in small children1 and is usually the result of too much food being taken at a time4 ,it also occurs1 particularly some time after feeding1 as a result of indigestion1 which is frequently the consequence of the milk being too rich in fats4 ,wherever an infant shows signs of trouble it is well to advise the mother to use a diet less rich in meats1 and to caution her against over-eating4 ,children should be weaned at the end of their first year4 ,this had best be brought about gradually1 by1 in the beginning1 feeding the child once daily1 and then gradually increasing the frequency1 at the same time proportionately leaving off the nursing4 ,where children are not thriving1 it is often a good practice to wean earlier1 in which case modified cow's milk1 taken from a bottle1 must be substituted4 ,artificial ,feeding4--,while it is true that children often thrive for a time on the various baby-foods with which the market is so abundantly supplied1 it is1 nevertheless1 the case that where fed in this way they are very apt to develop rickets or scurvy1 and not uncommonly show evidences of bad nutrition in loss of weight and strength1 becoming peevish and fretful1 and sleeping badly4 ,much better than any of the artificial foods is properly modified cow's milk1 which1 with care1 may be prepared in such a manner as to take the place of mother's milk in the vast majority of instances4 ,in order1 however1 that this be successfully carried out1 much care and attention is necessary4 ,at this point it is well to stress the fact that the mother's milk differs from that of the cow in some quite important particulars1 and it is only by intelligently taking these differences into consideration that it is possible for us to prepare an artificial food that will be satisfactory4 ,principal among these differences are that cow's milk contains three times as much albuminous material as that of the human being1 and that it is less rich by about half in milk-sugar2 furthermore1 the former is acid in reaction1 while the latter is neutral1 or faintly alkaline4 ,it will be seen1 then1 that in order to prepare a modified cow's milk that will approximate that of the human being it is necessary to dilute it with water sufficiently to cause the albumin to approach in proportion that of mother's milk1 and at the same time some alkali must be added to neutralize the excessive acidity4 ,modified milk prepared1 however1 from the whole cow's milk1 would contain much less fat than is desirable1 so that we must use in making it the upper third of the whole milk after it has been allowed to remain undisturbed for a number of hours2 in other words1 in making modified cow's milk we use a large proportion of the cream1 with a less amount of the other constituents4 ,the following table for calculating the proper proportion of milk to be used at the various periods of the infant's life may be recommended1 as it gives quite as satisfactory results as those that are more elaborate2 it also gives the frequency of feeding and the proper amounts that should be used4 ,the table was devised by ,dr4 ,c4 ,e4 ,boynton1 of ,atlanta1 ,georgia4 ,fat ,quantity ,no4 of percentage ounces at feedings in ,intervals desired4 feeding4 #bd hours4 by day4 ,premature #a4jj #a_/d to #c_/d #ab-ah #a to #a-a_/b hrs4 #a-d day #a4jj #a to #a-a_/b #f-aj #b to #d #e-g #a4ej #a to #b #aj #b #b- week #b4jj #b to #b-a_/b #aj #b #c- #b4ej #b to #b-a_/b #aj #b #d-h #c4jj #b-a_/b to #d #i #b-a_/b #b- month #c4jj #c to #e #h #b-a_/b #d- #c4ej #c to #e-a_/b #g #c #e- #c4ej #d to #f #g #c #f-aj month #d4jj #e to #h #f #c #aa- month #d4jj #f to #i #e #d #ab- #d4jj #g to #i #e #d #ac- #d4jj #g to #aj #e #d ,in making calculations from this table it is assumed that the milk from the upper third of the bottle1 after it has been allowed to sit for at least four hours1 contains #aj of fat1 and this is therefore called #aj milk4 ,the calculation is made as follows3--#aj milk is to the fat percentage desired1 as the amount which we wish to make up is to ,x4 ,for example1 if we wish to prepare twenty ounces of milk for an infant two months old1 we will note by referring to the table that #c is the amount of fat that is desirable for a milk for a child of this age1 and the formula will be constructed as follows3-- #aj3c33bj3,x4 ,x #fj_/aj4 ,x #f4 ,six ounces is then the amount of #aj milk that must be used for making twenty ounces of modified milk1--this being mixed with one ounce of lime-water and thirteen ounces of boiled water4 ,it should never be forgotten that while milk modified by the foregoing formula is suitable for most children1 it is by no means always satisfactory1 and we may1 therefore1 be compelled to do a considerable amount of experimenting in some cases before arriving at the correct formula4 ,suppose the infant is twelve months old1 we would get according to the rules just stated the following equation3-- #aj3d33bj3,x4 ,x #hj_/aj4 ,x #h4 ,eight ounces would then be the amount of milk required for preparing twenty ounces of modified milk for an infant of this age4 ,in preparing modified milk according to the formulas just given1 it must be remembered that in all instances only that portion is to be used which collects in the upper third of a bottle of milk that has been allowed to sit undisturbed in a refrigerator for at least four hours4 ,the lime-water is for the purpose of correcting the acidity of the milk4 ,it is of much importance to select the milk from a healthy cow in all instances where it is to be fed to infants1 and where possible1 it should be examined by a competent laboratory man in order to determine if it answers the proper requirements4 ,the writer has often seen milk from apparently healthy cows1 which seemed in every way good1 that showed on microscopic examination pus cells and a harmful germ 7streptococcus74 ,it is not desirable to have a milk for this purpose that is too rich in fats1 and for this reason a cow of the ordinary mixed breed is more satisfactory than the blooded ,jerseys or ,alderneys4 ,not only is it essential to get the proper kind of milk1 but the utmost care is necessary in handling it4 ,it should1 of course1 be as free as possible from every source of contamination1 and should be strained thoroughly as soon as milked4 ,it should then be bottled1 and chilled at once by being placed in cold water1 and after being properly sealed1 should be placed in a refrigerator at a temperature of about #ej deg4,f41 where it should remain undisturbed for four hours before the top portion is skimmed off for making the modified milk4 ,after the modified milk has been prepared it should be returned to the refrigerator1 where it should be kept until required for feeding4 ,it is best not to use milk that has been in the refrigerator longer than twenty-four hours1 or at most forty-eight hours1 and then only if kept at a proper temperature4 ,the modified milk should be poured directly from the receptacle in which it is kept into the feeding-bottle1 and the latter should then be placed in warm water until its content is milk-warm1 at which time it is ready to be given to the child4 ,it is highly necessary in feeding infants by the bottle to remember that cleanliness in everything connected with the process only makes success possible1 and in no particular does this apply with greater force than in connection with the proper care of the bottle and nipple4 ,in every case immediately after use they should both be put in water1 which should then be brought to a boiling temperature1 and both should then be kept in a saturated solution of boric acid4 ,the nipple1 after being placed on the bottle1 should not come in contact with anything but the infant's mouth4 ,bottles that have no neck are much to be preferred to others1 as they can be readily cleansed4 ,there is on the market at the present time a bottle called the ,hygeia1 which possesses the necessary qualifications in a perfectly satisfactory way4 ,when children who have nursed at the mother's breast reach the age of weaning it is of importance to remember that they cannot eat without digestive disturbances the modified cow's milk of a strength that would otherwise correspond to their age2 they should invariably under such circumstances begin with a milk prepared by the formula used for a child several months younger1 after which the proportion of milk may be gradually increased until it is used in a pure state4 ,during very warm weather it is well to reduce the amount of fat by using the whole milk instead of the top portions1 as heretofore described4 ,the same precaution should be followed where children have acute diseases1 and the total quantity taken should be less than under ordinary circumstances4 ,where infants have acute indigestion1 accompanied by vomiting and diarrhoea1 all milk should be for the time withheld1--boiled water being substituted2 some hours later barley water may be given1 but no milk for at least twenty-four hours4 ,where children have loss of appetite1 it is well to give less cream1 and the intervals between food should be increased4 ,sterilized 7,pasteurized7 ,milk4--,during epidemics of dysentery1 diarrhoea1 typhoid fever1 scarlet fever1 and diphtheria1 as well as in those instances where it is suspected that the cow is not healthy1 or where the milk has to be kept for considerable periods of time1 it is well to sterilize it by heating4 ,the most effective method of accomplishing this is by boiling the milk for an hour or so1 but inasmuch as it is believed to be then not quite so wholesome as when less heat is employed1 a process known as pasteurization is frequently used2 this consists in heating the milk for thirty minutes to from #aee deg4 to #afj deg4,f41--such temperatures killing all of the ordinary germs1 but not altering the milk so completely as when it is boiled4 ,peptonized ,milk4--,it now and then happens that children fail to thrive where all of the precautions heretofore referred to have been strictly adhered to1 and under such circumstances good results are frequently secured by subjecting the milk to a process known as peptonization4 ,this consists in the addition of a digestive ferment1 obtained from the pancreas of lower animals1 together with ordinary cooking-soda4 ,in carrying out the process the milk1 whether whole or modified1 is placed in a clean bottle1 and the peptonizing powder added after having been rubbed up with a teaspoonful of milk4 ,the container is then placed in a pitcher of water at a temperature of #aaj deg4,f41 which is about as warm as the hand can bear comfortably1 and is here left for from ten to twenty minutes if only partial peptonization is desired1 or for a couple of hours should it be wished to complete the process4 ,the peptonized milk may be prepared at each feeding1 or the whole amount for the day may be made at one time in the morning2 in the latter case1 where it is desired to have the milk only partially peptonized1 the ferment should be destroyed by boiling after it has been allowed to act for from ten to twenty minutes4 ,feeding after the ,first ,year4--,as the infant is weaned other food should be gradually added2 this should still consist largely of milk1 to which some time later may be added gruels prepared from well-cooked oats or barley1 beef-juice1 or the white of an egg slightly cooked4 ,the various broths may also be allowed4 ,children relish very much all fruit-juices1 and they may be given in moderation without harm1 and even with benefit in many cases4 ,as the child grows older1 the various cereals should form a greater and greater proportion of its diet1 but due care should be exercised in always seeing to it that they are thoroughly cooked2 in order to be digestible for children such substances should be cooked at least three or four hours before eaten4 ,general ,hygiene of ,infant ,life4--,in order for children to be healthy1 the greatest regularity is necessary in their habits4 ,they should arise at a certain hour in the morning and go to bed at a fixed time at night4 ,their clothing should be loose1 and not too tight fitting1 and should at all times correspond to the state of the weather4 ,nothing is more common1 and nothing produces irritability1 loss of sleep1 and even serious general disturbances in infants1 more frequently than too much clothing4 ,it is generally customary to use from the time of birth and during the period of infancy a flannel band around the child's abdomen4 ,just how this acts is not clear1 but there seems good reason for the belief that in some unexplained way the practice has the effect of warding off intestinal disturbances1 and is1 therefore1 to be recommended4 ,napkins should be changed when soiled1 and then should be immediately placed in water1 in which they should remain until washed out2 under no circumstances should they be left lying around the nursery4 ,when the weather permits1 the child should be kept as much out-of-doors as is possible4 ,for the first few days of the infant's life1 particularly if the weather be cool1 it should1 of course1 be kept indoors1 but even then free access of air should be allowed4 ,there is no objection whatever to the infant sleeping out-of-doors--in fact1 where this is feasible1 it generally shows improvement as soon as the practice is commenced4 ,when out-of-doors1 it is of course necessary to see that the sun does not shine directly into the infant's face1 and wetting should1 of course1 be avoided2 also the hood of the carriage should be arranged to prevent strong winds from blowing on the child4 ,the nursery should be well aired1 a window being left up at night except during severe weather4 ,sleep4--,nothing is more important for the proper development of a child than for it to have an abundance of sleep4 ,during the first few months of its life it sleeps practically all of the time--the period becoming gradually lessened as it grows older4 ,infants should be suffered to sleep just as much as is possible1 it being not only unjustifiable but absolutely criminal to interfere with them in this particular in the slightest degree4 ,not only is it necessary that infants have all the sleep that they desire1 but it is true throughout childhood1 a fact to which many foolish parents seem utterly oblivious4 ,how often do we see a child scarcely more than an infant aroused in the morning and sent off to school1 and how frequently do we hear misguided parents boast of their inflexible rules in enforcing such evil practices4 ,truly man comes hard by the knowledge that nature is much wiser than he1 and the vast majority never learn the fact at all4 ,as soon as the child is able to crawl1 it should be placed on a clean quilt or blanket on the floor1 and allowed to move about to its heart's content4 ,when it is able to walk1 allow it to run about and play to its full capacity--as in such exercises consists the great school of its physical being1 the school upon which will depend its strength and health in after life4 ,allow the child to keep up his play as long as he has any inclination to do so1 and never be so foolish as to confine him in the house when he wishes to be out under the blue heavens1 for here only will it be possible for him or her to develop into a real man or woman4 ,allow this to go on until the child of its own accord comes and asks to be taught other things1 for not until then is its outside education nearing completion1 and not until then is it possible for him to take interest in and learn things connected with books4 ,no boy should ever be sent to school before he is twelve or fourteen years of age2 girls1 on account of their maturing earlier1 may begin a couple of years sooner4 ,the whole science and art of properly raising children consists in feeding them good clean food in proper amounts1 in never allowing them to be awakened1 and in permitting them to play in the open air to their hearts' content4 ,teething4--,teething is a subject which has at all times interested both doctor and layman1 and in its supposed relation to all kinds of disorders of infancy has undoubtedly exercised an influence over the popular imagination out of all proportion to its real importance4 ,too often it has happened that this perfectly normal1 and usually by no means serious1 process1 has been held responsible for grave diseases in children--diseases which in reality were the consequence of neglect and mismanagement in the far more serious matters of food1 sleep1 out-of-door exercises1 and general hygiene4 ,it cannot1 however1 be denied--particularly in respect to nervous children--that teething appears occasionally to induce unpleasant disturbances1 such as fretfulness1 broken sleep1 digestive disorders1 and occasionally fever2 as a rule such symptoms persist only for a few days1 if the infant be properly looked after4 ,the treatment should consist in lancing the gums should they become much swollen1 and the withholding of the usual amount of food1 particularly where intestinal disturbances occur4 ,the ages at which the teeth usually come are as follows3 #b ,middle ,lower ,teeth #e to #i months4 #d ,upper ,front ,teeth #h to #ab months4 ,remaining ,lower ,front ,teeth #ab to #ah months4 #d ,front ,jaw ,teeth #ab to #ah months4 ,stomach ,teeth 7,canine7 #ah to #bd months4 ,eye ,teeth 7,canine7 #ah to #bd months4 #d ,back ,jaw ,teeth #bd to #cj months4 ,bowel ,diseases4--,digestive disturbances1 accompanied by diarrhoea1 are the bane of infancy1 and are responsible for a very large part of the frightful mortality among babies4 ,the subject1 therefore1 is one of tremendous importance1 but is so complicated that the limits of this little volume will only permit its being touched upon4 ,as already mentioned1 indigestion accompanied by looseness of the bowels may be and often is the result of milk being used from diseased cows1 or it may be the consequence of such carelessness in handling it that disease-producing bacteria are later allowed to contaminate it4 ,it should also never be forgotten that where children are eating artificially prepared food improper mixing of the different components may result in serious disturbances1 and we should1 therefore1 exercise the utmost care always in seeing to it that the food is prepared strictly according to the table which has already been given--not forgetting that in a certain number of instances we can go by no rule1 and will have to experiment until we ascertain the proper proportion of the ingredients4 ,after a diarrhoea begins we should at once reduce the quantity of fat in the milk that is being given to the infant1 and if the trouble be at all severe it is best to take it off of all food for twenty-four hours1 and substitute boiled water or barley-water4 ,as soon as the trouble is checked we may then begin to feed cautiously with largely diluted milk1 and1 gradually increasing its strength1 in the course of a few days return to the food that was being given before the disturbance occurred4 ,a dose of calomel or castor oil in the beginning of diarrhoeal troubles often has a very salutary effect2 the parent should not hesitate to administer this if a doctor is not at hand4 ,in warm climates during the time of teething children very commonly develop chronic diarrhoeal conditions which often end fatally2 wherever possible the parent should under such circumstances at once remove the little sufferer to a colder climate where recovery is generally rapid and complete4 ,even the most careful nursing under the most competent physician is often fruitless in combating disorders of this character as long as the infant remains in a warm climate4 ,colic4--,colic is always due to indigestion1 and is the result of the food undergoing fermentative changes1 with the production of gases4 ,this goes on even under normal conditions to a certain extent1 but when it is excessive the intestines become greatly distended1 and pain of a severe or even agonizing character is produced4 ,in the treatment of this condition warm applications should be made to the abdomen1 and as quickly as possible an enema 7injection71 consisting of a few ounces of warm solution of salt water should be given2 the salt should be in the proportion of a level teaspoonful to the quart of water4 ,parents will find the little ear syringe1 which may be purchased at any drug store1 a most satisfactory instrument for giving enemas to infants1 as they do not hold too much1 and being soft1 are incapable of tearing the delicate tissues of the child4 ,it is of the utmost importance to remember that the salt solution should be tepid1 yet not sufficiently hot to scald the infant4 ,as the water when given in this way is expelled very quickly the enemas may be repeated any number of times desired4 ,where these measures fail1 a physician should be sent for at once1 but in the meantime if it be evident that the infant is suffering very much1 a small dose of paregoric may be given2 it should not however be forgotten that opiates are exceedingly hurtful to nervous children1 and that soothing syrups and other mixtures containing drugs of this class should be avoided4 ,constipation4--,constipation among very young children generally passes off as the food becomes richer1 but should it occur at a later time1 the trouble may be more difficult to remedy4 ,of first importance is having the bowels of the infant move at a certain time each day1 which may be quickly accomplished in many little children by placing them upon a small chamber daily at a given hour2 usually the baby very quickly learns what this procedure means1 and in this way a regular habit is established which is of the utmost value to the child throughout its infancy1 and every effort1 therefore1 should be made to bring it about as quickly as possible4 ,the addition of malted milk or ,mellin's ,food may also have the effect of diminishing constipation2--the result being brought about by the maltose contained in these preparations4 ,the same thing may be accomplished by substituting for a part of the milk sugar in the baby's food a similar quantity of maltose4 ,milk of magnesia may be used in preparing the baby's food in the place of lime-water1 with the result oftentimes of relieving a tendency to constipation4 ,croup4--,by croup is meant a spasmodic condition which usually affects children at night1 and is in no way to be confounded with that really dangerous disease1 membranous croup1 or diphtheria1 to which so many children fall victims4 ,spasmodic croup is a condition which has as its basis digestive disturbances1 and is almost always relieved as soon as the stomach is emptied4 ,vomiting may be brought about by making the child swallow a small quantity of mustard stirred up in water1 or by the use of ipecac4 ,such severe and extremely unpleasant remedies are rarely necessary1 however1 since the disease may be in almost all instances at once relieved by placing around the victim's throat a cloth wrung out of cold water1 which may itself be covered by a dry bandage to prevent the bed from getting wet4 ,children will usually go to sleep in a few minutes after the cold cloth is applied1 and suffer no ill consequences as a result of its remaining around their throats throughout the night4 ,where the croup is very severe the little sufferer's feet may be placed in hot water1 in addition to the cold cloth around the neck--the combination practically always resulting in the rapid relief of the unpleasant symptoms4 ,great care should be exercised in the diet of children who are subject to croup1 as by intelligent supervision the tendency to this very annoying trouble may be in a short time entirely overcome4 ,nervousness4--,children of neurotic parents1 particularly where they are reared in cities1 are exceedingly prone to nervousness in one form or another4 ,the condition is undoubtedly often due to heredity1 but may be induced in otherwise healthy children by unhygienic surroundings and improper food4 ,infants exhibiting symptoms that indicate trouble of this kind should not be played with1 and every care should be exercised to so direct their lives that the trouble may be gradually overcome4 ,in all cases where nervousness persists an intelligent physician should be consulted4 ,vaccination4--,the only safe method that we possess of preventing small-pox is by means of vaccination4 ,its great value has been so thoroughly tested that the writer does not deem it necessary to go into a discussion as to its merits4 ,a child should be vaccinated in at least three places during its early infancy1--there being no danger in doing the operation immediately after birth4 ,persons ignorant of aseptic surgery should not do this operation1 but should always call in the services of some person prepared to do the work in a cleanly manner4 ,either the leg or the arm may be selected2 and children should be revaccinated whenever small-pox breaks out in the community4 ,kissing ,babies to be ,avoided4--,kissing infants in the mouth is a very bad practice1 as in this way disease may be quite innocently conveyed to them4 ,the public should be taught to understand that it is not infrequently the case that bacteria may be present in the mouths of individuals who are quite immune to their ill effects1 and who are1 therefore1 perfectly well1 but who may1 by conveying them to others1 particularly children1 induce in them serious disease4 ,when caressed in this way at all children should be kissed upon their necks or feet1 and never in their mouths or on their hands4 ,juvenile ,contagious ,diseases4--,children are peculiarly prone to a class of highly contagious diseases1 the exact nature of which is not yet understood1 and we possess therefore little knowledge as to the proper means of preventing their spread4 ,practically all that is known about them is that they are conveyed by contact1 or even by the air1 particularly where a child suffering from one of them is placed in a confined place with another who is susceptible2 these diseases likewise may be carried by means of clothing and other articles that have been in close contact with a child suffering with any of them4 ,the lesson of importance to be learned1 therefore1 is that if we wish our children to escape maladies of this class we should not permit their indiscriminate association with others4 ,as these diseases cease to be a serious menace after children have passed through their earlier years it does not at a later time matter so much as to whether they are exposed to them or not4 ,as a general thing children develop these affections in from ten to fifteen days after having been exposed1 though one of the most severe of them1 scarlet fever1 may make its appearance as early as twenty-four hours after it is contracted4 ,these diseases are usually ushered in by a severe headache1 pains in the head1 back1 and limbs1 high fever1 and oftentimes a chill4 ,as soon as a child develops such symptoms the advice of a competent medical man should be at once sought1 and the little sufferer should be at once completely isolated4 ,in concluding1 the writer would particularly exhort parents to obey to the letter the instructions of their physicians1 and never under any circumstances to dose their helpless off-spring with patent or proprietary medicines1 which contain no man knows what1 and which unquestionably are often highly injurious1 especially to children4 ,,chapter ,v ,,proper ,,eating--,,the ,,secret ,,of ,,good ,,health ,very slowly the world is awakening to the fact that no agencies play such an important part in the preservation of health as the consumption of reasonable quantities of well-cooked and properly selected food1 and the habitual taking of wholesome drinks4 ,on all sides the observant medical man sees constant and reckless disregard of the simplest and most fundamental laws governing this subject4 ,nothing is more common than to hear of men in the prime of life being seized with what is called a nervous breakdown1--which generally means a digestive breakdown--to be followed by an era of misery for the unfortunate subject and his scarcely happier family4 ,nervous and irritable1 the slightest inconveniences are magnified into terrible calamities1 he constantly fears death1 and his sleepless nights become a saturnalia of gloomy thoughts and abject fears4 ,of course1 not everyone guilty of dietetic sins goes through such sad experiences1 for the naturally strong frequently escape the consequences of their rashness1 particularly where they live in the rural districts and take plenty of out-door exercise4 ,let not such1 however1 flatter themselves that their disregard of hygienic laws will go unpunished4 ,after indiscretions in eating they will all1 at one time or another1 have acute indigestion with diarrhoea2 and how often does the previously well and hearty man after indiscretion in eating wake up with a dull headache1 furred tongue1 foul breath1 and a general feeling of sluggishness and mental depression8 ,is it his liver8 ,our unscientific medical ancestors--at a loss to account for the state of affairs in any other way--answered in the affirmative1 and1 believing it was produced by a collection of bile in the liver1 called the condition biliousness4 ,how absurd modern science has shown this assumption to be6 ,we now know that the liver is rarely diseased1 and that it furnishes its secretion1 called bile1 for the purpose of aiding digestion rather than hindering it1 and that this substance is rarely1 if ever1 produced in excess4 ,it is undigested1 putrefying food in the intestinal tract that produces the trouble4 ,under such circumstances one usually takes a dose of calomel1 which1 being perhaps the most satisfactory and perfect purgative that we possess1 relieves the condition promptly by getting rid of the offending material2 but the drug does not act on the liver4 ,unfortunately ill results of quite a different and a much more serious character often follow in the wake of dietetic errors2 in those who have a tendency to consumption1 particularly where they overwork1 this dread disease frequently makes its appearance as a consequence of bad eating and drinking4 ,many1 if not all1 of the degenerative diseases that appear in the latter half of life are produced in this way1 and nothing is more certain than that the peace1 happiness and longevity of mankind could be incalculably increased by the simple observance of what is known concerning proper eating and drinking4 ,we will now consider the very important subject of the quantity and character of foods which should be taken in health1 with suggestions as to those most suitable for dyspeptics4 ,over-eating too ,prevalent4--,the majority of us take much more food than is necessary1 with the result that we suffer from indigestion4 ,when we consume more than a reasonable amount of food habitually serious digestive disturbances are sure to result1--to be often followed at a later time by tuberculosis1 morbid alterations in the blood-vessels1 ,bright's disease1 and other serious maladies of a chronic nature4 ,professor ,chittenden1 who is ,america's greatest physiological chemist1 has demonstrated that in all probability previous workers along these lines have been excessive in their estimates as to the amount of food required4 ,he showed that a man could live for a period of nine months on a daily ration which contained about one-third of the usual amount of proteids generally thought to be necessary1 and at the same time the fats and carbohydrates were reduced to such a degree that the total number of heat units1 or calories1 liberated from the food scarcely exceeded in number one-half of the standard requirements4 ,he also experimented on thirteen volunteers from the hospital corps of the ,united ,states ,army1 to whom he daily fed rations of only #b1jjj calories1 and1 notwithstanding that they engaged in physical work1 all were found to be in better condition at the end of six months than they were at the beginning4 ,these results strongly point to the conclusion that previous estimates as to the quantity of food required are erroneous1 and that man can not only live1 but may continue in strength and health on much smaller amounts4 ,it is highly probable that this discrepancy may be accounted for1 at least to a considerable extent1 by the assumption that much of the food ordinarily taken is rejected by the system1 and passes out as waste1 while1 when small quantities are eaten1 it is for the most part absorbed4 ,mastication4--,thorough chewing of the food is absolutely essential for proper digestion4 ,while it is true that this1 like all other good things in life1 may be1 and often is1 carried to an unnecessary extreme1 it is certainly true that we would be infinitely better off if we were to go to the extent in this direction of so called ,fletcherism rather than perform this most important function in an indifferent manner4 ,this rule applies with especial force to food of a starchy nature1--bread1 potatoes1 oatmeal1 rice1 etc4 ,in order to digest food of this character it must be very thoroughly cooked and when finally placed upon the table it should be of such consistence that it requires chewing before it can be swallowed4 ,not only is this necessary from the standpoint of breaking up the larger particles into smaller ones1 thus permitting the food to pass freely through the stomach and intestine1 but it is of the greatest importance for it to be thoroughly soaked with the saliva during the process4 ,it is thus of no advantage for starches to be served in a finely divided form--in fact it is directly the contrary1 since under such circumstances it is almost always the case that such foods are swallowed without having been insalivated4 ,what has been said concerning the mastication of starches applies with almost equal force to other foods4 ,without exception their digestibility is much increased by thorough chewing4 ,as the result of recent experiments carried out by means of the ,x-ray1 it has been shown that particles of food of any considerable size will not pass from the stomach into the intestine2 as often as an object of this kind attempts to force its way from the former into the latter the opening between the two closes1 and as a consequence the food is retained in the stomach longer than it is in health--resulting in the course of time in catarrhal conditions of the organ just named1 and an unnatural relaxation of its muscular walls4 ,under such circumstances the patient quickly develops symptoms of indigestion1 and if his habits be not corrected the trouble gradually grows worse until the sufferer becomes a chronic dyspeptic4 ,classes of ,nutritive ,substances4--,all substances that are of any appreciable value in nutrition may be divided into those that are nitrogenous in character 7albumins1 legumins71 the carbohydrates 7starches and sugars7 and compound ethers 7fats74 ,of all these the nitrogenous foods are the most important1 since they contain the material from which the great bulk of the body is largely composed1 and at the same time there is every evidence that in case of need they may be broken up into chemical substances that may take the place of any of the other kinds of foods2 upon nitrogenous food1 then1 a man may live alone1 while this cannot be done on other articles of diet4 ,the fats1 starches and sugars are very closely related to each other1 and it is generally believed that they subserve much the same end in the economy2 by undergoing chemical change they furnish energy 7heat and muscular force7 and are undoubtedly largely responsible for the formation of the fats of the body4 ,while there is some evidence that under certain conditions alcohol may be a food1 its value is certainly very small1 and it is not of sufficient importance to be considered in this connection4 ,the ideal diet then for a healthy man is a proper proportion of nitrogenous 7albuminous7 food1 along with a reasonable portion of fats1 starches and sugars4 ,professors ,voight and ,atwater have calculated the following table1 which fairly represents the amount of proteids1 fats and carbohydrates that should compose the rations for twenty-four hours for the ordinary adult male4 ,,adult ,,male ,,of ,,average ,,weight4 ,at ,rest4 ,moderate ,labor4 ,severe ,labor4 ,proteids #aaj grammes #aah grammes #ade grammes4 ,fats #ej #ej #ajj ,carbohydrates #dej #ejj #ejj ,the tables that follow1 which were arranged by ,hutchinson1 give a very good idea of the generally accepted views as to the relative quantities of the different foods that are thought necessary for the average adult engaged in ordinary muscular work3-- ,fuel ,food ,materials4 ,amount4 ,albumins4 ,fats4 ,starches4 ,value4 #a4 ,ozs4 ,lbs4 ,lbs4 ,lbs4 ,calories4 ,beef1 round st'k #ac #j4ad #j4ab 4444 #fie ,butter #c 4444 #j4af 4444 #fhj ,potatoes #f #j4jb 4444 #j4ae #cbj ,bread #bb #j4ab #j4jb #j4ge #agfj -- ---- ---- ---- ---- ,totals #dd #j4bh #j4cj #j4ij #cdee #b4 ,pork1 salt #d 4444 #j4ba 4444 #hhj ,butter #b 4444 #j4aa 4444 #dej ,beans #af #j4bc #j4jb #j4ei #afae ,bread #h #j4jd #j4ja #j4bh #fdj -- ---- ---- ---- ---- ,totals #cj #j4bg #j4ce #j4hg #cehe #c4 ,beef1 neck #aj #j4aj #j4ji 4444 #eej ,butter #a 4444 #j4je 4444 #bbe ,milk1 one pint #af #j4jd #j4jd #j4je #cbe ,potatoes #af #j4jb 4444 #j4ae #cbj ,oatmeal #d #j4jd #j4jb #j4ag #dfj ,bread #af #j4ji #j4jb #j4ef #abhj ,sugar #c 4444 4444 #j4ai #cde -- ---- ---- ---- ---- ,totals #ff #j4bi #j4bb #a4ab #ceje #d4 ,beef1 up4 sh'lder #aj #j4ji #j4ac 4444 #hjj ,ham #f #j4jf #j4ac 4444 #fej ,eggs1 two #c #j4jc #j4jb 4444 #ace ,butter #b 4444 #j4aa 4444 #dej ,milk1 one pint #af #j4jd #j4jd #j4je #cbe ,potatoes #ab #j4ja 4444 #j4aa #bdj ,flour #i #j4je #j4ja #j4ch #hbe ,sugar #a 4444 4444 #j4jf #aae -- ---- ---- ---- ---- ,totals #ei #j4bh #j4dd #j4fj #cedj #e4 ,sausage #d #j4jc #j4aa 4444 #eaj ,codfish #ad #j4jg 4444 4444 #adj ,butter #b 4444 #j4aa 4444 #dej ,milk1 one pint #af #j4jd #j4jd #j4je #cbe ,beans #e #j4ja 4444 #j4ah #eje ,rice #b #j4ja 4444 #j4aj #bje ,potatoes #af #j4ja 4444 #j4bc #dbj ,bread #i #j4jd #j4ja #j4bh #fdj ,sugar #c 4444 4444 #j4ai #cde -- ---- ---- ---- ---- ,totals #ga #j4bg #j4bh #a4jc #cedj #f4 ,beef #h #j4jh #j4aj 4444 #efj ,mackerel1 salt #d #j4jd #j4jd 4444 #bcj ,eggs1 two #c #j4jc #j4jb 4444 #ace ,butter #b-a_/b 4444 #j4ac 4444 #efe ,cheese #a #j4jb #j4jb 4444 #acj ,milk1 one pint #af #j4jd #j4jd #j4je #cbe ,potatoes #h #j4ja 4444 #j4jh #afj ,rice #b #j4ja 4444 #j4aj #bje ,bread #i #j4je #j4ja #j4cb #gbj ,sugar #a-a_/b 4444 4444 #j4ji #age -- ---- ---- ---- ---- ,totals #ee #j4bh #j4cf #j4fd #cbje ,calories ,defined4--,it should be explained that the term calorie is one which has been adopted as a scientific expression for the fuel-value of substances undergoing oxidation1 and in this connection refers to the heat-producing capacity of foods4 ,the calorie is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gramme of water #a deg4,c4 ,it has been estimated that starches1 sugars and albumins liberate during combustion #d4a calories per gramme1 while fats produce #i4c calories4 ,it will be noted that in the tables just given the total number of calories is in each instance somewhere in the neighborhood of #c1ejj1 which is considered to be about the number of heat units required by the average man at moderate muscular work4 ,the weight of the average woman being less than that of the adult male1 a reduction of about #bj per cent4 from the foregoing figures would approximate the amount of food required by the former4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,bread ,,and ,,its ,,relations ,at all times1 and among all peoples1 bread has been recognized as one of the great staple articles of diet4 ,although its commonly quoted designation1 the staff of life1 would more appropriately belong to the albumins1 there can be no question that breads of one kind or another are among the most wholesome and necessary of all food-substances4 ,not alone is this true on account of the starch of which they are largely composed1 but they contain more or less vegetable albumin2 it is thus seen that bread is a mixture of the two most important food-stuffs1 starch and albumin1 but the quantity of the latter is so small that an individual would have to eat an enormous amount of the mixture to secure enough of this ingredient to meet the needs of the body4 ,for practical purposes1 then1 we may regard bread as being starch4 ,within recent years quacks have disseminated very widely throughout this country the error that foods are more digestible when raw4 ,it was long ago demonstrated that pure albumins1 of which eggs and milk are the nearest natural examples among foods1 are assimilated somewhat better when eaten raw1 but this applies to no other foods except sugars4 ,any success that has followed the teachings just referred to undoubtedly rests purely on the fact that their followers are instructed to live largely on raw eggs and milk1 and as the patient usually discovers in a short time that these two foods agree with him while other uncooked ones do not1 he naturally eats them to the exclusion of the rest and where he takes a sufficient quantity increases in weight and strength4 ,the idea that starches are more digestible when eaten raw could be easily refuted by any intelligent farm-boy who recalls one or more sad experiences from over-indulgence in raw sweet potatoes4 ,what shall we look upon as bread8 ,of course all such food-stuffs as are commonly included within this designation are to be accepted2 such as wheat-bread1 graham-bread1 whole-wheat bread1 biscuits1 rolls1 light bread1 bakers' bread1 waffles and batter-cakes1 rye bread1 corn bread1 preparations of corn-starch1 with which we should place those articles of diet so commonly used in the south1 usually called grits1 hominy1 egg-bread1 muffins1 corn-meal cakes1 potatoes1 both sweet and ,irish1 arrowroot and the so-called cereals or breakfast-foods1 including oatmeal4 ,now which of these is the most wholesome8 ,this inquiry cannot be answered conclusively for the reason that the digestibility of this1 as of other foods1 depends largely on the individual4 ,for the sake of clearness the various breads will now be considered in detail4 ,wheat-bread the ,best4--,it may be confidently asserted that well-cooked and perfectly dry wheat-breads are to be regarded as being generally the most digestible of all bread-stuffs4 ,this is not dependent on any inherent property in wheaten starch as a result of which it is acted upon more readily by the juices whose office it is to render it fit for absorption in the body1 but is wholly due to the fact that breads of wheat-flour may be made very dry and light4 ,as has been already explained1 it is particularly necessary that starches should be thoroughly soaked in saliva1 and this can only be accomplished when the bread is of such consistence that it must be chewed for a time1 and so dry that it will readily absorb the salivary secretion4 ,the writer1 then1 would advocate well cooked light-bread or bakers' bread1 or toast made from either1 as being the best of all food-stuffs of this character4 ,the crusts of biscuit a day or so old are quite digestible1 as are also waffles1 if made with little grease and cooked thoroughly4 ,the soft inner portion of biscuit and that of hot rolls1 as well as batter-cakes1 is decidedly unwholesome4 ,graham-bread should not be constantly indulged in for the reason that it contains multitudes of sharp particles of the husk of the grain that cut the delicate mucous membrane of the stomach and intestines as it passes along1 and if its use be long and continued1 severe ill effects necessarily follow4 ,in this connection attention should also be called to the common error that particles of husk are of advantage to breads of all sorts2 the former consist chemically of exactly the same thing as sand1 and are quite as indigestible1 and this1 in connection with what has just been said of their action on the delicate mucous membranes of the intestinal tract1 should be quite enough to convince anyone that they are not only useless1 but injurious4 ,it is true that the irritation produced by the husk will oftentimes cause the bowels to act1 but results of the same character may be induced by many other agencies1 within themselves less harmful4 ,rye-bread4--,there is no reason why rye-bread should not be prepared in quite as wholesome a way as is wheaten-bread1 and this grain should undoubtedly rank as one of the best of the cereals4 ,its use1 however1 is so limited in this country that it is scarcely necessary to go into a lengthy discussion as to its merits4 ,it may be remarked that the ergot fungus frequently grows on this grain1 and when ground up with it occasionally poisons the consumer where the quantity of the substance is large and the bread is eaten in considerable quantities4 ,instances of this kind are not uncommon among the peasantry of ,europe1 where a black bread made from rye is the staple article of diet4 ,of course1 when making food-preparations of rye1 we should be careful to have the flour thoroughly winnowed1 and to cook the bread until sufficiently dry to acquire a proper consistency for chewing4 ,corn-bread and ,corn ,food-products4--,when made from perfectly sound grain1 and if not allowed to undergo fermentative changes afterward1 there can be no question that food-products of corn are entirely wholesome1 and1 from the standpoint of chemical composition1 quite as nourishing as similar articles of diet prepared from other grains4 ,it is1 however1 unfortunately true that we cannot1 in the majority of instances1 definitely assure ourselves that our corn-bread is made from grain that comes up to the above specification1 nor can we be sure that the meal is fresh1 or preserved at such a temperature as would forbid the growth of various germs4 ,it has long been known that bad corn would kill horses1 but notwithstanding this1 we have accepted the view that no amount of deterioration in the grain could result harmfully to man4 ,that this latter assumption is incorrect seems now in the highest degree probable4 ,pellagra4--,it is known that a very curious and fatal disease called pellagra is prevalent to a considerable degree at the present time in the ,united ,states1 and it is not going too far to say that all of those best capable of judging are of the opinion that the malady is the result of eating just such corn as we know kills horses4 ,it is likewise true that the nutritive power of this grain could in no way be increased by allowing it to decay before consumption2 indeed1 the contrary must be the case1 and1 if it were in no manner actually harmful1 our sense of the aesthetic and of what is proper to eat1 should make us reject in this case1 as with other foods1 that which is unsightly to the eye and unpleasant to the taste4 ,we should no more eat bad grain than a rotten apple1 or putrefying meat4 ,the increased prevalence of pellagra is exciting attention all over the ,united ,states1 and is very generally assumed to be the result of lack of care in the harvesting and preservation of our corn4 ,instead of being cut before it is ripe1 and shocked in the field during the latter part of the summer1 it should be allowed to ripen on the stalk1 and after cold weather sets in gathered while dry1 and preserved in well-covered and well-ventilated barns4 ,every care should be taken to keep it dry while being shipped from one part of the country to another1 and similar precaution should be observed with the various food-products made from it4 ,if kept in a cold place1 meal or grits made of good corn may be preserved in excellent condition for eating throughout the winter2 but as soon as the warm weather begins they should be stored in the refrigerator1 and should there remain during the summer2 similar precaution should be taken with meal or other corn-products during the hot months4 ,over a large area of the ,united ,states corn-bread is an article of daily diet with a great majority of the inhabitants1 and its wholesomeness as compared with other breads becomes1 therefore1 an important question4 ,unfortunately1 corn-meal does not lend itself to the preparation of a dry bread having sufficient consistency to require chewing4 ,it is true that the crusts of the bread made from this grain answer these requirements fairly well1 and there is therefore no reason why this part of it should not be used to any extent1 provided it be prepared from good meal4 ,we should endeavor to cook thin pones of the bread rather than the thicker ones so common in the south4 ,the objection that corn-bread can only be masticated with difficulty applies to the other preparations of this cereal1 such as egg-bread1 muffins1 etc41 and they are not1 therefore1 with the exception of the crusts1 to be looked upon as being the best form of bread4 ,corn-cakes1 like all batter-bread1 are to be mentioned only to be condemned4 ,grits and hominy are soft and moist and cannot be properly chewed1 and are1 therefore1 not to be recommended as good breads4 ,corn-starch preparations are likewise entirely lacking in the elements required to make good bread1 and should only be used occasionally and in small amounts4 ,disadvantages of ,potatoes4--,irish potatoes are eaten almost as commonly in some portions of the ,united ,states as are corn-products in others1 and therefore deserve the careful consideration of the hygienist4 ,while it is not believed that1 like the latter1 potatoes give rise to any definite disease1 it is unfortunately true that they are theoretically worse breads than those made from the grain just referred to4 ,in whatever way cooked1 they are moist and require no chewing1 and as a consequence many persons with delicate digestions do not assimilate them properly4 ,arrowroot4--,the preparations of arrowroot are considered digestible1 though here again we find that such articles of diet are generally moist and of not proper consistence to be chewed1 and they are1 therefore1 not as valuable as are breads made from wheaten flour4 ,rice4--,rice is used by a large portion of the world's inhabitants4 ,when cooked thoroughly and very dry1 it is perhaps almost as good bread as is that made from wheat4 ,the starch granules of the former1 like those of arrowroot1 are somewhat smaller than those of wheat4 ,if it were possible to keep rice-flour in good condition1 and if it could be made into light-bread1 it is likely that it would be superior to wheaten flour1 but this does not appear feasible4 ,a peculiar and very fatal disease prevails in the ,east1 known as kak-ke or beri-beri1 which is now generally regarded as being the result of eating decomposed rice4 ,the writer has seen one or two examples of what he considers ,american beri-beri1 but as our rice-eating population is small1 it is not likely that this disease will ever become a serious problem in the ,united ,states4 ,cereals or ,breakfast-foods4--,lastly we will consider the so-called breakfast-foods1 which are neither more nor less than various preparations of the different varieties of starch4 ,they are generally made from oats or corn-starch4 ,they are nothing more than bread1 and as some of them have been put through a sort of fermentation it is difficult to understand how they could be regarded as being quite as wholesome as the original products from which they were made4 ,this1 however1 is not the principal objection to them4 ,the real trouble lies in the fact that they are1 in the majority of instances1 served with cream and sugar4 ,when we remember what has already been said about starches that are soft and cannot be chewed1 and of the ill effects of sweets on persons who have any inclination towards dyspepsia1 it will be seen that these foods are not to be regarded as being wholesome4 ,the real reason that would appear to explain the coming into existence of these preparations is that they are mixed with cream and sugar1 which appeals strongly to the sweet-tooth of the average person4 ,they are nothing but bread1 and very bad bread at that4 ,the remarks made concerning breakfast-foods apply with equal force to oatmeal1 which1 as generally used1 has the additional disadvantage of containing particles of husk4 ,in concluding this discussion on starchy foods the writer desires particularly to call attention to a very common error in the way they are eaten4 ,mention has already been made of the fact that fats after being melted are by no means so wholesome as in their natural state1 and produce1 when heated with starches1 a very indigestible mixture4 ,thus1 theoretically1 it is bad to use any great amount of lard1 butter or other fat in the preparation of breads1 and it is likewise undesirable to spread butter on heated breads1 as is so often done just before eating biscuits1 waffles and batter-cakes4 ,the combination is certainly a seductive one1 and pleasing to the taste of most persons1 but this in no way invalidates the fact that the mixture is exceedingly indigestible4 ,pastries and ,cakes4--,peculiarly unwholesome are pastries containing any considerable proportion of fat1 and also most varieties of cake4 ,with the exception possibly of hot batter-cakes served with an abundance of butter and syrup1 cooks have so far produced no compound so heinous and totally depraved as pound-cake4 ,fruit-cake also stands high up in the list of undesirable sweets4 ,it certainly passes all understanding why cooks should continue to persecute the stomachs of a dependent world with such highly obnoxious concoctions2 the only excuse that can be given for them is that the mixtures are palatable4 ,where a housekeeper feels it necessary to prepare cake1 she should select some receipt free from butter or other fat1 such as angel-cake or sponge-cake1 both of which when properly made are exceedingly good to the taste1 and lack the undesirable quality of containing fats4 ,explanation for the peculiarly unwholesome character of food containing melted grease lies probably in the fact that the grains of starch under such circumstances must be to a greater or less extent covered by a thin layer of the fatty substances1 and as a consequence it is impossible for the saliva to penetrate to the starch and perform its normal digestive function4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,meats1 ,,sugars ,,and ,,milk ,first in the list of foods the writer would place those nitrogenous substances commonly eaten that belong to the class of albumins4 ,that these substances are in reality the most important of all food-stuffs there can be no sort of question1 since they1 of all things eaten by the human being1 are alone absolutely essential for his well being and even his existence4 ,they are the substances that almost exclusively go to make up the muscle and tendons4 ,along with the lime-salts they enter largely into the composition of the bones and cartilages1 brain1 spinal cord and nerves4 ,other foods are incapable of taking the place of the albumins1 so that they are absolutely essential for normal life in the human being4 ,the amount of albumin necessary for the normal adult has been variously estimated1 the tendency at the present time being to place the quantity needed somewhat lower than was at one time done4 ,it is probable that about two ounces of pure albumins is somewhere near the amount required in twenty-four hours by a normal adult4 ,it is well1 since we are so dependent on foods of this class1 that we have two quite distinct sources from which they may be taken4 ,the great bulk comes to us in the form of meats1 including poultry1 game1 oysters and fish of various kinds1 in addition to beef1 mutton1 and hog-meat in its several forms4 ,of animal origin also we have eggs1 which are among the most valuable of all foods of this class on account of their high digestibility4 ,from the vegetable world we get albumins known as legumins1 which differ somewhat from those obtained from animal sources1 though taking their place in the economy in all essential particulars4 ,unfortunately the legumins are usually so mixed with starches and other vegetable substances less digestible1 that it is necessary to take a large bulk of foods of this latter class in order to secure anything like the requisite amount of the former4 ,before taking up individually the various albuminous foods1 the writer would again direct attention to the chapter on cooking1 and would strongly urge upon the reader the proper methods of preparing nitrogenous foods therein stated4 ,where the albumins are in a nearly pure state1 as in milk and eggs1 they are slightly more digestible when raw1 but all meats should be cooked until only the faintest tinge of red remains if we wish to have them prepared in the most wholesome way for those with delicate digestions4 ,meats are1 as a rule1 most wholesome when cooked very done4 ,it has long been the cry of sentimentalists that no living being should die in order that man might exist4 ,unfortunately for such theories1 the stern and unbending edict of nature has negatived views of this kind ages before the altruistic philosopher came on the scene1 and we are daily constrained to bow to this mandate of one of the primal laws of existence4 ,however much we might desire it otherwise1 it has been written that only in death is there life2 nor may any animal being disobey and continue to exist4 ,as has been already explained1 the human being cannot thrive on vegetable substances alone2 from them he may get a certain amount of nitrogen in the form of legumin1 but there is not enough to make up for the waste of this substance that constantly goes on in the body4 ,theoretically it is of very little importance which of the meats are selected to supply our nitrogenous food1 but it is unfortunately true that such foods vary much in digestibility1 and it will therefore be necessary to consider them separately4 ,beef4--,when tender and cooked to a proper degree1 beef is considered one of our most wholesome of meats4 ,like other foods of this kind1 it should not be fried1 but should be broiled or roasted1 and a certain amount of fat may be eaten along with the lean portions without injury1 and in many persons unquestionably with benefit4 ,mutton4--,of all the coarser meats1 mutton is unquestionably the most digestible1 and when cooked in the same way as directed for beef is eminently wholesome4 ,hog-meats4--,on account of the large portion of fat between the muscle-fibers1 hog-meat1 particularly when fresh1 is not usually regarded as being digestible4 ,some persons eat it with impunity1 but for the vast majority it should be taken only in small quantities4 ,it should not be fried4 ,in the form of ham1 hog meat is more wholesome than when fresh1 but even in this condition many dyspeptics find much difficulty in digesting it4 ,the best method of cooking it is to boil thoroughly4 ,after being cooked in this way and then broiled1 it is most appetizing1 and is much more wholesome than when broiled without being previously cooked4 ,as bacon1 hog-meat enters largely into the dietary of a great portion of the laborers of this country1 and there can be no doubt that on the whole it answers the purpose of a staple food admirably4 ,it contains even more fat than nitrogenous substances1 and may therefore be looked upon as a mixture of butter and meat4 ,dyspeptics cannot eat it with impunity in many instances1 though it agrees far better with them than does ham or the fresh meat4 ,if it were generally eaten boiled it would provoke less trouble than when fried4 ,at this point the writer would repeat his warning concerning the indigestible character of melted grease1 of which the gravy from bacon is a striking example4 ,when cured in a somewhat different way hog-meat as breakfast-bacon is very generally used throughout the civilized world1 and is one of its most wholesome forms4 ,this when broiled is both appetizing and wholesome1 and should form a part of the daily dietary of everyone able to afford it4 ,poultry and ,game4--,among the more delicate and most wholesome forms in which albumins are taken we find poultry and game well up toward the head of the list4 ,meats of this character should be very thoroughly cooked by being either baked1 smothered or broiled4 ,fish4--,fish of almost all kinds are wholesome provided they be fresh and properly cooked4 ,the culinary artist prepares of them most appetizing and nutritious dishes1 and they are therefore properly to be recommended as among the best of the albuminous foods4 ,oysters and ,clams4--,oysters and clams are usually considered somewhat apart from the generality of the foods of this character4 ,when fresh they are wholesome and delicious when eaten raw1 and may be cooked in a great variety of ways4 ,the reader should be especially warned that fried oysters are not so wholesome as when they are prepared by other methods1 for the reason that they are surrounded by a batter containing quantities of melted grease4 ,eggs4--,among the most delicate1 digestible1 and nutritious of all foods we may place eggs4 ,though somewhat more digestible when raw1 they agree1 as a rule1 even with the most fastidious stomach1 however cooked1 even when hard-boiled4 ,eggs lend themselves readily to the formation of many delicious dishes1 such as omelets1 souffles1 etc42 but unfortunately they do not contain nutriment in a very concentrated form1 and where an adult is living on them alone it requires from one and a half to two dozen daily to furnish the necessary amount of food4 ,fats4--,under the term fats are included all oily substances1 such as butter1 lard1 olive and cotton-seed oils1 and to a great extent the fat contained in meats4 ,these substances are closely related to starches and sugars1 and undoubtedly play a more or less similar role when taken into the body as food4 ,from the standpoint of heat-producing capacity they more than double1 weight for weight1 meats and starches1 and are1 therefore1 instinctively highly prized by dwellers in cold countries where much heat is necessary4 ,in warmer countries the necessity for excessive heat-production in the body does not exist4 ,while oily substances are certainly capable of adding to the cushion of fat commonly found beneath the skin in normal individuals1 they are not looked upon as being to any extent tissue-builders1 resembling in this particular the starches and sugars4 ,when fats are to be eaten1 care should be taken that they be as fresh as possible1 or1 if this is not feasible1 they should be preserved in such a way as to prevent their becoming rancid--a condition which is the result of the formation of fatty acids1 lending a peculiarly unpleasant odor and taste1 and producing a decided decrease in food-value4 ,this alteration may be largely prevented by keeping fats in a refrigerator at a low temperature1 and may also be greatly retarded by the addition of salt4 ,in this country butter is usually treated with a very considerable amount of salt1 but in ,europe it is universally served fresh4 ,within recent years facts have been established that show that ,americans use an excessive amount of this substance--possibly causing disease in some cases2 and doubtless we would be better off if we were to follow the ,european practice4 ,oily substances when in good condition are certainly of high value as foods1 but should be taken more or less with an eye to the climate1 and to the season of the year4 ,when placed on cold bread and eaten along with it they are extremely palatable1 and may be taken in reasonable amounts with decided benefit to the whole body4 ,in temperate climates it is generally estimated that about three ounces is a desirable amount for the average adult4 ,in this connection it may not be out of place to mention that the various preparations of cod-liver oil1 advertised so freely in the lay press1 in some instances actually do not contain a single particle of the substance that they are supposed to be principally composed of2 and it may be further stated that there is no good reason to believe that bulk for bulk oils of this kind are in any way superior to those fats commonly eaten4 ,the writer often recalls the saying of a very wise old physician of his acquaintance that cod-liver oil is nearly as good as butter4 ,sugars4--,this term includes the large number of different substances of a more or less sweetish taste that belong to the group of carbohydrates4 ,they are closely related to the starches1 and it is generally assumed that they play much the same part after being taken into the body4 ,some of these are of animal and some of vegetable origin--but except the sugar found in milk1 the only ones commonly consumed are those derived from cane1 beets1 and fruits2 the sugar from the first two is known as cane sugar or dextrose1 and that from the latter as grape sugar or glucose4 ,like albumins they may be eaten without having been previously cooked1 and are unique in that they undergo no chemical change whatever as a result of ordinary degrees of heat4 ,while the consumption of sugars in all civilized nations is rapidly increasing1 there can be no question that1 irrespective of fruits1 they are1 of all foods1 the most frequent causes of digestive disturbances4 ,it is only within comparatively recent times that mankind has possessed means of separating sugars in any great bulk from the plants containing them1 and as a consequence they have only entered prominently into our every-day diet for a relatively short period of time4 ,before this1 it is true1 they were consumed to a greater or less extent in various fruits1 but the quantity was insignificant as compared with the amount now universally eaten4 ,as a result of this we are now confronted with a new dietetic problem4 ,for ages the human stomach has been accustomed to deal with only small quantities of these substances1 and developed accordingly a capacity to digest them proportionate to the amounts then eaten4 ,now1 however1 we constantly call upon our digestive organs to deal with large quantities of such foods1 and it is not strange that there has been more or less rebellion on their part4 ,experiments have shown that a small amount of sugar assists in the normal chemical changes that go on in the body1 and it is1 therefore1 obvious that nature intends us to take a certain quantity of it4 ,moreover it is true that sugars while being burned in the body give off much energy--mainly manifested in muscular power2 where then we are taking active physical exercise foods of this kind are peculiarly appropriate4 ,it would1 therefore1 not be wise for us to leave this food entirely out of the dietetic list1 but to use it only in small amounts--particularly where we lead sedentary lives4 ,sugar and alcohol play a more or less similar role in the animal economy4 ,it is well known that those who do not use alcohol are peculiarly prone to consume considerable quantities of sugar2 and it is equally a matter of common observation that those who habitually take alcohol rarely eat sweets to any extent4 ,when sugar is properly assimilated1 as seems to be done most easily by children1 it is an excellent food1 but where sweets are over-eaten1 and not properly digested1 they give rise to a great accumulation of gas in the intestine1 and produce in many persons a marked acidity of the stomach1 frequently accompanied by severe insomnia4 ,nothing so quickly relieves such sleeplessness1 caused by a sour stomach1 as allowing ten or fifteen grains of ordinary cooking-soda to slowly dissolve in the mouth and swallowing the saliva rendered alkaline in this way4 ,milk4--,milk may be looked upon as an ideal food1 it being composed of water carrying in solution the three great natural foods--albumins in the form of casein1 carbohydrates as milk-sugar or lactose1 and fat4 ,mixed in the proportion in which they here occur1 they are most admirably adapted to the delicate digestive apparatus of the infant--the relative proportion of the different substances even gradually changing as the assimilative powers of the youthful organism increase2 it is thus seen that milk itself is not of constant composition1 even in the same animal1 and that it alters in such a manner as to meet best the needs of the delicate being depending upon it for proper sustenance4 ,it is also the case that the composition of milk varies in different animals--showing again how admirably nature exerts its powers in meeting desired ends4 ,the lesson of practicable importance that we learn from this is that the milk of one of the lower animals is not in its natural state quite suited to the delicate stomach of the growing infant1 and that if it be substituted for the mother's milk it must be more or less altered1 depending upon the age of the child4 ,it is particularly important that sweet milk be taken slowly1 as otherwise large curds1 difficult of digestion1 form as soon as it gets into the stomach4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,food-,,value ,,of ,,vegetables ,in recent times we hear much of vegetarianism1 which has its advocates among many highly intelligent people1 and which1 as a consequence1 has achieved a certain vogue throughout the civilized world4 ,it is rarely the case1 however1 that those who affect to practice this cult in reality live exclusively on a vegetable diet4 ,as a rule it will be found that they are milk-drinkers1 and not infrequently add eggs to their dietary4 ,it is1 of course1 absurd to regard as vegetarians those who simply avoid meat1 since it is true that the nitrogenous substances contained in milk and eggs differ in no essential particular from similar substances found in flesh of all kinds4 ,experiments on a somewhat extended scale have shown within recent years that young and vigorous individuals at least may live and thrive on a diet composed largely of vegetables2 no one has yet shown that a strict vegetable diet is that best adapted to the average individual1 and no competent authority on this subject at the present time advocates a diet purely of this kind4 ,it is true that the vegetables ordinarily eaten contain all of the elements that are essential to the animal system1 such as starch1 sugar1 fat and albumins4 ,unfortunately1 however1 the amount of the last-named substance is usually so small in food-plants that the quantity that would have to be eaten by a normal individual taking active exercise would cost considerably more than if a reasonable proportion of animal food were included1 and--which is of even greater importance--the digestive powers of the individual who attempted to live only on food of this character would be severely taxed1 and1 in the long run1 probably seriously impaired4 ,furthermore1 vegetables and fruits contain substances1 usually in great quantity1 that are scarcely acted upon at all by the digestive juices4 ,chief among the latter is cellulose1 which1 while forming the great bulk of the food of herbivorous animals1 is scarcely suited to the weaker digestive capacity of the human being2 practically none of it is converted to the uses of the body4 ,it is thus seen that in the average man or woman a dietary consisting largely of vegetables would result in the presence in the intestines of a greater or less bulk of indigestible materials1 which could subserve no good purpose other than that they would by their mechanical presence have a tendency to cause the bowels to act2 as is the case with fruits1 however1 it is unfortunately true that this large residue of undigested food1 in one way or another1 often gives rise to considerable irritation of the mucous membrane of the intestine1 and frequently produces dyspeptic disturbances1 among which looseness of the bowels is common4 ,this brings us to a consideration of the digestibility of vegetables in general1 which is always the paramount consideration when dealing with the value of any substance to be used as a food4 ,it has been before remarked that young and vigorous persons seem to thrive on a dietary largely of vegetable character1 but the case is certainly quite different with older people1 particularly where their digestive powers are impaired4 ,in the latter we often find that severe intestinal disturbances follow even after moderate indulgence in vegetable foods--particularly where they are served with vinegar1 or some other fruit acid4 ,another peculiarity of foods of this kind that makes decidedly against their digestibility lies in the fact that1 being soft and containing a large proportion of water1 they are scarcely ever properly chewed1 and as a consequence they are swallowed in comparatively large masses without having been adequately insalivated4 ,vegetables may be roughly classified as legumes1 roots and tubers1 and green vegetables1 and will now be considered briefly in the order named4 ,legumes1--,beans1 ,peas1 ,lentils1 and ,peanuts4--,with the exception of the cereals1 the legumes are the most valuable of all vegetable foods4 ,their nutritious properties are mainly due to their relatively high percentage of nitrogenous material1 though they also contain starch and fat4 ,hence these vegetables contain the ingredients necessary to supply all the needs of the human economy2 unfortunately1 however1 when eaten alone in sufficient bulk to furnish the nourishment required1 they often--even in healthy individuals--give rise after a little time to dyspeptic disturbances4 ,of beans1 a large number of different varieties are in common use including string-beans 7or snap-beans71 lima-beans1 kidney-beans1 red beans1 the frijole1 and the ,soya bean4 ,string-beans are exceedingly palatable1 and are very much prized as an article of diet by the peoples of all countries4 ,when gathered young and thoroughly cooked while still fresh they are exceedingly wholesome1 and are very well assimilated1 when properly chewed1 by even those whose digestions are considerably impaired4 ,the other beans named are generally eaten dry after having been removed from the pod in which they grow4 ,when they are soaked in water until they become soft and then thoroughly cooked they make an excellent food1 and1 when not taken in too great quantities1 are fairly digestible4 ,when cooked with onions1 parsley1 and red pepper in proper proportions they make a very delicious dish4 ,in ,japan the ,soya bean forms the basis for a kind of vegetable cheese which is eaten with rice1 and furnishes the nitrogenous materials in which the latter is deficient4 ,peas are wholesome when young and fresh and when properly cooked1 and as they come on in the early spring when other fresh vegetables cannot be obtained1 they furnish a most acceptable addition to the dietary4 ,when old1 after their skins become tough1 they cease to be digestible1 and should not be eaten except in the form of purees1 during the preparation of which the hull is removed4 ,lentils are scarcely eaten at all in ,america1 but are much prized in some portions of the ,old ,world1 as the basis of soups4 ,peanuts belong to the group of legumes1 though1 unlike the others that serve as food1 they grow beneath the surface of the ground4 ,they are highly nutritious1 but are1 unfortunately1 indigestible1 owing largely to the high percentage of oil that they contain4 ,the latter is extracted1 and is sometimes sold as olive-oil2 in a somewhat different form it is made into a sort of butter which is quite palatable4 ,roots1 ,tubers1 and ,yams4--,sweet and ,irish potatoes1 which constitute the most important members of this group1 have already been discussed under the head of breads4 ,of those that remain1 some few1 as beets and artichokes1 may be regarded as related to those just referred to1 while others1 such as carrots1 turnips1 radishes1 parsnips1 etc41 are generally reckoned among the succulent tubers on account of the large proportion of juice that they contain4 ,irrespective of the beet1 which furnishes a considerable portion of the sugar of commerce1 none of them may be looked upon as foods of a very important character1 as they contain only relatively small proportions of sugars1 starches1 and nitrogenous materials4 ,beets1 however1 do contain a very high percentage of that which makes potatoes so popular1--about eighty-five per cent4 of starches and sugars1 with only a trifle of nitrogenous material4 ,when young and tender they are often eaten as a salad1 either alone or mixed with other vegetables1 and are generally regarded as being wholesome and highly nutritious4 ,they should not be eaten by dyspeptics when pickled1 on account of the vinegar4 ,artichokes are occasionally eaten1 but are not nutritious1 although they agree well with many persons4 ,carrots1 when young and fresh1 are fairly digestible1 but like other vegetables are exceedingly apt1 particularly if old1 to produce intestinal disturbances in dyspeptics4 ,they are not very commonly eaten in the ,united ,states1 but where selected with care we would profit by their more frequent use4 ,they contain a small percentage of starches1 with an insignificant proportion of vegetable albumin4 ,turnips are exceedingly unwholesome1 contain very little nourishment1 and may be eaten with impunity only by persons in vigorous health4 ,the same remarks apply to radishes1 and to parsnips4 ,green ,vegetables4--,vegetables of this class are of much more value from the standpoint of their agreeable taste1 and the consequent stimulating effect upon the appetite1 than from the nutritive materials that they contain4 ,some of them are eaten cooked1 while others are usually consumed in a raw state4 ,they are all much less indigestible if eaten when quite young and fresh--drying seemingly having the effect of producing alterations in them that predispose to dyspeptic disturbances in those so inclined4 ,spinach is one of the most digestible of the entire group1 and is much eaten in all parts of the world4 ,turnip-tops differ in no essential particular from spinach4 ,they have a somewhat bitter taste1 but when young and fresh are highly palatable1 and if thoroughly cooked cause comparatively little intestinal trouble1 but like spinach they contain practically no nourishment4 ,the same may be said of the leaves of various other plants commonly served as greens1 among them beet-tops1 and dandelion-tops4 ,cabbages1 many different kinds of which are habitually eaten as food in civilized countries1 have comparatively little nutritive value1 and are1 generally speaking1 decidedly indigestible1 although young and vigorous persons1 particularly where they take abundant out-door exercise1 find no difficulty in assimilating the inner portions of the fresh cabbage head4 ,as in the case with other vegetables1 the soil and locality in which the cabbage is grown largely influences its taste1 and to some extent its digestibility4 ,it should never be given to infants4 ,sauerkraut is a preparation of cabbage leaves produced by adding salt1 and later crushing them with considerable pressure2 after a time alterations occur of a fermentative character1 and the product is generally regarded as more wholesome than fresh cabbage4 ,cauliflower consists of masses of the somewhat modified flowers of a plant closely related to the cabbage1 and is1 when properly prepared1 palatable1 and perhaps somewhat more digestible than cabbage4 ,cole1 and ,brussels sprouts1 are plants of the cabbage family1 and are perhaps even more indigestible4 ,salad ,plants4--,the leaves of the lettuce are usually eaten raw1 most commonly being served as a salad in combination with oil and vinegar1 or lemon juice4 ,that the leaves possess1 when treated in this way1 a very palatable taste all will perhaps agree1 but they cannot be said to be of any nutritive value1 nor are the acids just referred to conducive to their digestibility4 ,on account of their somewhat pungent taste1 watercresses are used in many parts of the world as ingredients of salads1 but they are1 of all vegetables1 the ones that are most liable to transmit disease to man1 for in addition to the possibility of contracting in this way typhoid fever1 dysentery1 cholera1 and the ordinary intestinal worms1 the human being is apt to receive with them the eggs of the flukes1 and the spores of the amoebae that produce chronic tropical dysentery4 ,as they are probably never grown under such conditions as to preclude the possibility of this danger1 it would be the part of wisdom to absolutely refrain from their use4 ,onions1 ,leeks1 ,shallots1 and ,garlic4--,vegetables of this group are eaten either raw or cooked1 and of all those consumed in the former state are least liable to transmit disease1 owing to the fact that they are nearly always thoroughly peeled before being eaten4 ,they have the advantage1 furthermore1 that they may be preserved for long periods of time in such a way as to be fit for food1 and when properly cooked have a delicate flavor1 and are quite wholesome although furnishing little food for the body4 ,garlic is never eaten as a vegetable1 but serves as the basis for many of the delicate sauces for which the ,french cooks are so justly celebrated4 ,the tomato has been used as a food only within comparatively recent times1 it having been formerly thought to be poisonous4 ,like the onion it may be eaten either raw or cooked1 and if taken in moderation does not1 as a rule1 produce any serious harm4 ,when eaten in greater quantities1 both on account of the acid that it contains and its relatively small proportion of assimilable nutriment1 the tomato is exceedingly prone to cause intestinal disturbances1 and should rather be regarded as a fruit than a vegetable4 ,growing at some distance from the ground1 it is rather less apt to convey diseases than the majority of vegetables eaten in a raw state4 ,while celery is generally eaten raw1 it furnishes a palatable dish when cooked in milk4 ,it should not be eaten by dyspeptics or children1 particularly if raw4 ,similarly the cucumber has a well-merited reputation for producing dyspeptic disturbances4 ,it is only eaten raw1 is frequently served as a salad1 and should be used only when very young and fresh1 and eaten only by persons of sound digestion4 ,okra is much prized in the ,southern ,states as the principal ingredient of a very palatable soup1 but is not as a rule looked upon with favor by the uninitiated4 ,it is also much eaten boiled and served with a little butter and pepper4 ,when fresh and young it is fairly digestible1 and furnishes a very agreeable addition to the dinner4 ,in addition to those already referred to1 there are a number of vegetables that are very popular either alone1 or in combination as salads--particularly in the ,south2 among them are green peppers1 parsley1 mint1 capers1 endive1 and chicory4 ,the remarks already made concerning green vegetables apply equally to these just mentioned1 and it should here again be particularly insisted upon that salads containing acids are unwholesome for infants and children1 and should be used sparingly even by those in health4 ,none contains much nourishment4 ,among easily digestible vegetables asparagus probably takes front rank1 and in addition to this has the merit of being exceedingly agreeable to the taste4 ,it possesses little nutritive value1 but when young1 fresh1 and well cooked1 it may be taken even by infants without harm4 ,rhubarb1 or pie plant1 is eaten stewed1 and made into pie4 ,it is said to be somewhat laxative1 and is decidedly more wholesome than many others4 ,the squash1 when properly cooked is comparatively wholesome1 but contains little nourishment1 and is of no particular value as a food1 and the pumpkin is not much better1 although useful during the winter for making pies after the ordinary vegetables and fruits are gone4 ,cranberries1 when thoroughly cooked and separated from the hulls1 form the basis of a delicious jelly that is widely eaten in the winter over all portions of the ,united ,states4 ,like all sweets it is not entirely wholesome for dyspeptics or infants1 but as it is usually eaten with meats and not in great quantities1 it may be looked upon as being one of the most wholesome of all foods of this class4 ,it does not seem to have such a tendency to produce sour stomach in many dyspeptics as is so frequently done by other foods containing vegetable acids4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,danger ,,in ,,fruits ,,and ,,pickles ,it is an error shared almost universally by both medical men and the laity that fruits and raw foods are wholesome4 ,everyone is familiar with the fact that fruits produce intestinal disturbances in children1--not only when they are very young1 but after their digestive apparatus is fully developed4 ,rather curiously1 however1 instead of ascribing the disturbances that follow to the real cause1 we generally dismiss the matter with the assertion that early fruits are unhealthy1 or trace the resulting ill effects to some other equally imaginary factor4 ,in reality the reason why diarrhoea and other intestinal troubles so often occur after eating fruits in the early spring is that the boy or girl after a winter's fast greedily devours enormous quantities of them when they first ripen1 and disturbances follow in proportion to the amount and character of these substances taken4 ,there can be no question that fruits1 while extremely palatable1 usually produce trouble in dyspeptics1 and even in those who still possess unimpaired digestive organs ill effects quite constantly follow on the heels of the taking of food of this character4 ,unfortunately1 however1 the great majority of dyspeptics have symptoms that in no way outwardly point toward digestive errors2 as common examples1 we might refer to the blackheads1 pimples and small boils1 so frequently observed on the faces of young boys and girls1 or the rheumatic pains1 and1 at a later time1 the ,bright's disease1 that occur in older people4 ,when you tell such patients that their trouble is indigestion1 they are often mildly indignant1 and loudly protest that they can eat anything with impunity2 that they never have heart-burn1 feelings of heaviness after eating1 pains in the abdomen1 or other symptoms referable to the stomach and intestines4 ,we are rather disposed to be proud of our digestive powers1 just as we are of our bodily strength1 and nothing is more common than for chronic dyspeptics to maintain that they have never had indigestion in their lives1 and to resent any insinuation to the contrary4 ,another popular error1 almost universally accepted1 is that fruits are highly nutritious2 as a matter of fact they consist almost wholly of water1 and of materials that are utterly indigestible4 ,the latter substances pass through the alimentary tract1 therefore1 in much the same condition that they enter and serve no better purpose than to promote1 somewhat1 activity in the bowels4 ,nevertheless the writer does not wish to be misunderstood as advocating total abstinence from such a palatable class of foods2 no harm results in most people if they only take perfectly ripe and fresh fruits in moderation now and then2 and these should be always eaten after meals rather than before4 ,the fruits that contain comparatively little acid are1 as a rule1 more wholesome than those that are rich in substance of this kind4 ,for example1 perfectly fresh and ripe figs or peaches may be taken by most persons with impunity if they be eaten after meals1 and at intervals of at least two or three days4 ,acid fruits1 particularly lemons1 seem to be peculiarly unwholesome2 apples are prone to cause trouble and can rarely be eaten without ill effects1 however mellow and palatable they may be4 ,it sometimes happens that persons take grape-fruit with less harm than others4 ,closely akin to fruits in their deleterious action on the digestive apparatus are sours in any form whatever4 ,women1 especially1 indulge freely and at irregular hours in foods containing much vinegar1 lemon-juice1 etc41--usually in the form of pickles or salads4 ,in healthy persons1 in moderation1 foods of this character perhaps produce no appreciable trouble1 but nothing is more thoroughly established than that they act harmfully on the general run of dyspeptics1 such as most of us are to a greater or less degree after thirty years of age4 ,this leads to the remark that here1 as in everything else1 we must regard individual peculiarities--it being true that one person can eat without ill effects what may produce decided disturbances in others1 or suffer from excess when moderation would entail no ill-effects4 ,,chapter ,x ,,drinks--,,proper ,,and ,,harmful ,an immense amount of rubbish has been written during the last few decades concerning the supposed good effect of excessive water-drinking on the human economy4 ,something like a quarter of a century ago a ,london physician by the name of ,haig brought forward and strenuously advocated the view that a large number of minor ailments were the result of the presence in the body of excessive quantities of uric acid2 applying the well known fact that the substance just mentioned requires a large amount of water to dissolve it he conceived the idea that the proper remedy was to flood the body with enormous quantities of liquids1 and thus1 as it were1 wash the offending substance out of the system4 ,so plausible did he make this theory appear that it was accepted very largely by medical men1 who in turn taught it to the general public4 ,within recent times it has been fortunately shown that ,haig's theory was wholly chimerical1 and that quantities of uric acid greatly in excess of the normal amount could collect in the body1 or might be injected into the blood-vessels1 without the least harm resulting2 thus1 at one blow1 this widely accepted theory was annihilated1 and there now remains no sort of reason for attempting to remove uric acid by excessive water-drinking1 or by other means4 ,it is fortunate that the uric-acid theory has been disproved1 for the excessive use of water is not only unnecessary1 but highly injurious to the digestive organs1 particularly when the fluids are taken at or about meals4 ,experience has shown that excessive stomach-acidity1 which is the most common form of indigestion1 is in a large degree dependent on the taking of liquids while eating1 and that even in those who are healthy any more than small quantities cannot be looked upon as being wholesome4 ,in dyspeptics liquids seem to act in a hurtful way in several different directions4 ,for example1 where persons constantly take liquids while eating the necessity of properly chewing the food is largely done away with2 in addition to this the mere presence of water in the stomach seems to tend to the production of increased acidity1 for it has often been observed by the writer that even where food was eaten dry indigestion would follow in many dyspeptics if they took water just before or immediately after eating4 ,the only sensible advice that can be given in this connection is that persons should take no more liquids that they feel a desire for1 and they should avoid taking them in any quantity about meal time4 ,what has just been said concerning water applies equally well to milk4 ,when taken alone it very frequently agrees with patients much better than does solid food1 but when mixed with the latter is prone to produce indigestion1 just as does water4 ,fermented milk in the form of buttermilk is a very popular beverage in some parts of the world1 but it may be well doubted as to whether it deserves the reputation for wholesomeness generally accorded it2 being a liquid1 and at the same time acid1 it is peculiarly prone to increase acidity1 and is not tolerated by persons who suffer with sour stomach4 ,it should1 however1 be said that it1 on the other hand1 seems to agree particularly well with some people1 and has been known when taken alone1 at least temporarily1 to relieve obstinate forms of indigestion4 ,coffee4--,the most universal beverage taken at meal time in ,america is undoubtedly coffee4 ,each morning countless thousands are cheered and stimulated by its invigorating properties to undertake their daily tasks1 but1 as is always the case after taking drugs that have such action the system has to pay the penalty in a reaction following later1 during which the capacity for work is diminished4 ,it is1 however1 true that the effect last referred to is not of such importance as to constitute in itself a serious objection to the use of coffee1 but other ill results are rather prone to ensue that in many instances change the aspect of the question entirely4 ,in a great many people1 particularly after the first vigor of youth has passed1 coffee produces anything but pleasant effects1 and on some it seems to act as a downright poison4 ,like all liquids taken at meal time1 it predisposes to acid indigestion1 particularly when it is sweetened4 ,it is likewise true that when it contains any considerable quantity of cream the liability to dyspeptic disturbances following its use are particularly great--doubtless as a result of the considerable quantity of melted fats that it contains under such circumstances4 ,from the foregoing it appears then that coffee without either cream or sugar is less unwholesome than when these substances are added to it1 but even when it is taken in this way it causes decided symptoms of indigestion in many persons4 ,the writer is not of the opinion that the habitual taking of coffee is to be commended1 and would1 therefore1 not advise its constant use2 it1 however1 must be admitted--as is the case with all other substances that cause indigestion--that in many people1 and particularly in those who live out-of-doors and are actively engaged in physical occupations1 the use of coffee seems to result in no harm4 ,like other substances that cause indigestion in a concentrated form1 coffee when largely diluted is less apt to produce disturbances of this kind2 for example1 a beverage consisting of two-thirds of hot skimmed milk and one-third coffee may be taken by many dyspeptics in reasonable amounts without any particular harm4 ,parents should be warned against allowing growing children to drink coffee2 it seriously interferes with the normal chemical changes going on in their bodies1 and is almost certain to be followed in later life by nervous dyspepsia4 ,tea4--,the stimulating principle of tea is chemically so nearly like that of coffee that they are generally considered as being one and the same4 ,that they differ decidedly in their action on the stomach and the body generally there can1 however1 be no doubt4 ,the stimulating action of tea comes on more slowly than that of coffee1 and is correspondingly prolonged4 ,in most persons it is not so apt to produce nervousness1 nor is its action in preventing sleep so pronounced4 ,on the stomach it also produces effects that are diametrically opposed to those induced by coffee1 since1 instead of stimulating1 it seems actually to retard the secretion of acids4 ,it is1 therefore1 probably true that we should look upon tea as a beverage with much less disfavor than we do coffee--though1 of course1 it should always be remembered that there may be1 and unquestionably are1 many exceptions to this judgment4 ,probably no other daily article of food or drink is so commonly prepared in an improper manner as tea--which is all the more curious when we consider that perhaps none other that requires heat for its preparation is so easily made4 ,it should be brewed by simply pouring boiling water upon the leaves1 but the vessel containing the decoction should not be placed over the fire while the tea is being prepared4 ,of even greater importance is the necessity of allowing the water to remain in contact with the leaves only a few moments--never more than a minute if we wish the tea to be good4 ,the reason for the latter precaution lies in the fact that tea-leaves contain a considerable amount of tannic acid1 and1 as the longer the water and leaves remain together the more of this substance is extracted from the latter1 it is not difficult to see that we should be careful to allow only a brief contact between the two2 the presence of this acid is undesirable1 not only on account of the fact that it gives to the decoction a bitter and unpleasant taste1 but because it has a tendency to cause digestive disturbances4 ,it is seemingly not generally known that there are many varieties of tea1 and that some of them are so superior in flavor and bouquet to others that they might well be entirely different substances4 ,the best of all 7in the writer's opinion7 are those that are composed largely of leaves grown in ,ceylon1 usually mixed with ,india tea4 ,if we will demand of our grocer a first-class ,ceylon tea we will find that a beverage may be made from it that will appeal quite as much to the palate as a good coffee4 ,before dismissing this subject finally1 some reference should be made to ice-tea4 ,this beverage is exceedingly palatable when properly prepared1 and under such circumstances by no means deserves the disfavor with which it is regarded by many4 ,the latter circumstance is entirely due to two things2 first1 we find too frequently that it is the habit of house-keepers to pour boiling water on the leaves when the midday meal is cooked and to allow them to soak together until night1 and second1 the fact that lemon-juice is very commonly added to the tea before being drunk4 ,the ice that the tea contains has little or nothing to do with the dyspeptic disturbances that frequently follow the drinking of cold tea4 ,if we will leave out the lemon and pour off the water after it has been in contact with the tea leaves for something like a minute1 it will be discovered that practically all of the ill effects usually ascribed to this palatable beverage have been done away with4 ,alcohol4--,a discussion of beverages would not be complete without some mention of those containing alcohol4 ,this at once brings us face to face with the bitter controversy on this subject that has been waged so long throughout the ,united ,states1 and which can only be considered here from the standpoint of the effects of alcohol on the human economy1 and to draw corresponding conclusions4 ,that alcohol1 even in very small quantities1 reduces the general strength and capacity for work there can be no question1 and in addition we find from experiments carefully conducted on the lower animals that the liability to infection by various disease-producing germs is greatly increased by the administration of even minute amounts of the drug4 ,a man then who is a habitual user of alcoholic drinks not only thereby diminishes his capacity to labor effectually1 but at the same time renders himself more liable to disease4 ,no more striking example of this could be brought forward than the well established fact that persons who use alcohol are exceedingly prone to consumption--so true is this1 indeed1 that we might almost look upon the drug as being practically the cause of this disease in most instances4 ,of course the bacillus of tuberculosis must be present in order for the malady to develop1 but we find that the alcohol has prepared a soil for the growth of the germ which would not otherwise exist4 ,this holds with equal force as regards other infectious diseases4 ,again1 it is true that maladies that result from bad digestion and improper assimilation are frequently produced by the habitual use of alcoholic liquors4 ,gout and ,bright's disease are in the vast majority of cases the indirect off-spring of habitual drinking4 ,it should be noted--and the distinction is of importance--that the affections of a grave character most frequently produced by the alcoholic habit do not ensue as a consequence of what could be rightly called intemperate taking of the drug1--its moderate use more commonly resulting in serious disease than when it is taken in great excess4 ,the explanation of this probably lies1 at least in part1 in the fact that the majority of drunkards only take alcohol at greater or less intervals1 and as a consequence the system has time to recuperate between sprees4 ,the typical dipsomaniac goes weeks1 months1 and even years without drinking at all1 but when he is seized by the desire for drink he throws everything else aside and spends days and weeks in a prolonged debauch2 during this period he eats very little1 and as a consequence largely avoids the grave dyspeptic disturbances that would otherwise inevitably result4 ,alcoholics of this class acquire catarrhal conditions of their stomachs1 and if seized with some acute disease1 like pneumonia1 during or just after a spree1 quickly die in a large proportion of cases1 but they do not develop gout or ,bright's disease as a rule1 nor do they very commonly become consumptive1 as is the case with those who take the drug in small quantities day by day4 ,furthermore1 it would appear that the grave disorders that so frequently follow the long-continued use of alcohol cannot be said to be the direct result of the use of the drug1 but ensue as a consequence of the stimulating action of the alcohol on the appetite1 leading to over-eating4 ,under such circumstances indigestion follows from excessive over-feeding1 and this is added to by the naturally irritating effect of the alcohol on the stomach4 ,when this is continued through a series of years1 the assimilating power of the organism gradually deteriorates1 and we begin to meet with chronic dyspepsia1 acute ,bright's disease1 and cirrhosis of the liver4 ,let no one then consider that he is not misusing alcohol for the reason that he only takes a drink before meals--it would be far better if he were to go on a moderate spree occasionally4 ,in this connection mention should be made of the great evil of patent medicines containing1 and in reality essentially consisting1 of alcohol4 ,a vast number of them are widely sold under the misleading statement that they relieve catarrh1 cure diseases of the kidneys1 and that they act as tonics and general invigorants of the entire system4 ,masquerading under one guise or another they are sold to the unsuspecting public--prohibitionists for the most part--who fondly imagine that their glass of bitters1 liver-regulator1 or safe cure for the kidneys1 is entirely harmless4 ,let all such be warned that with scarcely an exception patent medicines of this class are nothing more nor less than poor whisky containing some bitter to disguise the taste1 and that they are in fact taking a drink when they use nostrums of this kind4 ,the ultimate effect of this kind of drinking is to produce serious and grave diseases4 ,this discussion of the effect of alcohol on the human body would not be complete without calling attention to the extraordinary fact that those peoples to whom we owe our modern civilization have from time immemorial1 most of all others1 consumed the greatest amount of alcohol4 ,explain it as we may1 the fact remains that the greatest achievements of the world were brought about by a society in which a very large proportion of its members were in the habit of more or less constantly taking alcoholic beverages4 ,naturally1 the query is forced upon us whether this drug may not have played some important part in the great results achieved4 ,unfortunately1 no one can answer one way or another1 but our very ignorance should emphasize the importance of looking at the question from every side1 and not jumping at conclusions before they are warranted by facts4 ,it is true that most of our positive knowledge on this subject would condemn alcohol as being the greatest curse of the ages1 but it may be that it has played a beneficent part in the affairs of mankind through devious paths impossible to trace4 ,unquestionably a drug1 the taking of which assists us in momentarily throwing our troubles aside1 must be of a certain positive value to mankind4 ,if only it possessed these good qualities with none of its bad ones6 ,having considered very briefly the general effects of alcohol on the system a few remarks may be appropriately made concerning the several beverages commonly consumed in the ,united ,states for which it serves as a basis4 ,whisky4--,under the term whisky will here be included all of those stronger alcoholic beverages that are the product of distillation4 ,in addition to those commonly designated as such we may reckon brandy1 gin1 and rum1 and at the same time those subtle combinations called mixed-drinks1 for which they serve as a basis4 ,it will1 perhaps1 startle the average reader when the statement is made that whisky and its near relatives just referred to1 particularly when diluted by water1 are by far the least harmful of all alcoholic drinks4 ,their bad reputation lies in the fact that on account of their large percentage of alcohol they are usually preferred by drunkards1 and that when consumed in excessive amounts by those unaccustomed to their use there often follow those frightful crimes with which these particular forms of alcohol are so odiously associated4 ,the facts are1 however1 that when taken in moderation they are much less prone to produce indigestion than wines or malt liquors1 and where one is determined to drink1 they should unquestionably receive the preference4 ,it should not be understood that the writer is in any way advocating their use1 but the facts of experience compel him to state frankly that the least harmful of all alcoholic beverages is whisky1 or its near relatives4 ,wines4--,there are a large number of fermented juices of fruits that are known as wines4 ,they are either sweet or acid in taste1 and both are peculiarly prone to induce dyspepsia in persons with delicate stomachs4 ,irrespective of their delicate flavor1 which1 in many instances1 appeals strongly to the palate1 the only virtue that they may be said to possess is that they contain alcohol in small amounts2 this1 however1 is off-set entirely by their large percentage of sugars and acids1 causing them to be much more unwholesome than plain whisky4 ,beers and ,malt ,liquors4--,it is very fortunate that in those states of the ,american ,union that have recently enacted prohibition laws1 beer and other malt liquors are now being widely sold under the plea that they are non-intoxicating and that they are in no way unwholesome4 ,while it is true that the former claim is in a measure correct1 it is a fact well understood by those who have given the matter study that they are perhaps the most unwholesome of all alcoholic beverages4 ,those in the habit of using them are almost universally under the impression that they are harmless1 and as the taste for them is easily cultivated1 those who once acquire the habit are very apt to take them in greater or less quantities daily4 ,as a result of this1 chronic digestive disturbances are always sooner or later set up1 and the victim in the course of time often acquires a gouty tendency1 which is all the more dangerous for the reason that in ,america it scarcely ever manifests itself in acute joint inflammations4 ,the patient gets into what has been called a lithemic state1 which is but another name for gout1 and sooner or later is exceedingly apt to develop a chronic form of ,bright's disease4 ,it is greatly to be deplored that some of our professional national school-masters do not address themselves to this subject rather than to appealing to the worst passions of the ignorant in attacking the great institutions of our country1 and in assailing the fundamental principles of our government that come down to us as a priceless heritage from the wise and patriotic statesmen who first brought our nation into life4 ,in addition to the three great classes of alcoholic beverages already considered there are innumerable others1 fortunately but little known to the general public1 and prized only by connoisseurs in such matters4 ,as we happily have no problem confronting us in any way similar to the absinthe-habit1 so common in ,france1 it is not deemed necessary here to do more than merely to refer to them4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,importance ,,of ,,good ,,cooking ,reference has already been made to certain misconceptions concerning cooking diligently circulated in recent years by various quacks4 ,the victim is advised that he must take large quantities of raw eggs and milk1 and at the same time is instructed to eat a number of other specially prepared articles furnished at a stiff price and certified as being raw by the medical company furnishing the treatment4 ,since it is quickly discovered by those who are entrapped by charlatans of this kind that the only raw foods that they can take with comfort and without disgust are milk and eggs1 they naturally practically live on these alone1 and as these foods are extremely digestible and nutritious1 improvement in the patient's condition not uncommonly results4 ,nevertheless1 it is unquestionably true that the vast majority of foods are greatly improved in digestibility1 and are rendered much more palatable by thorough cooking4 ,after being properly cooked there develop in foods certain flavors and odors that are highly appetizing1 and unquestionably aid in the subsequent digestion of the same4 ,with but few exceptions1 foods are so altered by heat that their proper mastication becomes much easier1 and cooking1 therefore1 materially aids in reducing them to a state in which they are much more readily acted upon by the digestive juices4 ,it should never be forgotten1 also1 that cooking is of the utmost importance from the standpoint of killing bacteria and animal parasites that may be present in food4 ,if we were to adopt universally the habit of eating everything raw1 the general mortality would certainly be considerably increased4 ,cooking of ,starchy ,foods4--,nothing in the whole art and science of preparing food for the human being is of so much importance as the proper cooking of starches4 ,as a result of the heat employed1 certain chemical changes are induced in the starch-granules1 as a consequence of which they are rendered digestible4 ,it is of fundamental importance that at all times and under all circumstances the cooking of this class of foods should be as thorough as is possible1 for when this is not done digestive disturbances are sure to follow1 and much of the food is actually wasted4 ,there are but few cardinal principles in the ordinary hygiene of life that are so commonly neglected as this1 since it is the habit of a large proportion of the ,american people to consume three times a day masses of tenacious starch which has not been acted upon by heat sufficiently to render it digestible4 ,of all the different methods of cooking starches1 by far the most common1 and1 therefore1 the most important1 is the process called baking4 ,while it is not possible in this volume to go into the subject with the thoroughness that it deserves1 the principal points deserve some mention4 ,they may be briefly stated as follows3 7#a7 ,the flour must be made into a dough in which are incorporated substances that produce a gas called carbon dioxide1 which1 forming in innumerable small bubbles throughout the mass1 cause the whole to swell2 when this is completed the bread is said to have risen4 ,of course the object of this is to produce a thorough breaking up of the sticky dough--with the result that when the bread is finally cooked it is light and fluffy1 and can be readily masticated4 7#b7 ,after the process just described has been completed the bread should be thoroughly cooked1 for reasons which have already been explained4 7#c7 ,after cooking has been accomplished the bread should be thoroughly dried1 either by keeping it hot until this occurs1 or1 what is better1 permitting it to remain warm for a time and then allowing the process to be completed in a natural way by putting the bread aside for several days4 ,it is necessary for bread to be dried in order that it may be thoroughly soaked in saliva during the process of chewing4 ,if the principles above enunciated be properly followed out1 good wholesome bread will result4 ,there are1 of course1 many details connected with the preparation of food known to expert cooks into which it will not be possible for us to go here1 and for which the reader is referred to any good cook-book4 ,some starchy foods such as rice and potatoes1 do not lend themselves readily to the production of breads1 and are consequently usually cooked in some other manner4 ,it cannot be too strongly insisted upon that they should be rather steamed than boiled1--the process being usually carried out by placing a small amount of water with them and allowing it to boil away2 we should remember also that the principles just insisted upon in connection with making bread apply here with equal force--we should cook thoroughly and serve both as dry as is possible4 ,cooking of ,meats4--,here again it is necessary to insist upon the necessity of thorough cooking4 ,the error has long prevailed that raw meats are wholesome1 but within recent years it has been clearly demonstrated that this old view is erroneous4 ,the muscle-fibers that constitute the bulk of the nourishment of meats are separated from each other by a substance which cannot be acted upon by the juices of the stomach until it has been heated to a temperature which results in the cooking of the entire mass4 ,it is true that the muscular substance proper may be digested without heat--resembling in this way the white of the egg1 to which it is chemically closely related2 by scraping meat with some dull instrument the muscle fibers may be separated in a more or less pure state--leaving the substance that requires heat in order to become digestible behind--and after having been removed in this way1 of course1 may be eaten in a raw or semi-cooked condition without ill effects4 ,in preparing meat it is not absolutely essential that it be cooked until thoroughly done--a slight tinge of red being allowable4 ,healthful ,recipes4--,in an ,appendix to this volume will be found a series of recipes for the preparation of common foods1 for which the author is indebted to ,dr4 ,mary ,e4 ,lapham1 of ,highlands1 ,n4 ,c4 ,they will be found extremely practicable for making not only very palatable but thoroughly wholesome dishes2 and are earnestly recommended to young housewives1 who err through ignorance1 as a rule1 rather than because of carelessness or of lack of good materials4 ,it has often been said that the road to a man's heart lies through his stomach4 ,it would not be surprising to learn that this aphorism fell first from the lips of some wise woman who had observed that in a great number of cases unhappiness in home-life had resulted primarily from lack of home-comfort1 and chiefly from unvaried1 unappetizing meals and table-service4 ,another point is well worth remembering1 especially by young married women3 a man whose home is pleasant and comfortable is likely to spend as much of his time there as he can--if it is otherwise1 he will seek some place that has these desirable qualities1 such as his club1 or an arm-chair in some corner saloon4 ,furthermore1 a man who is not only abundantly1 but nicely fed1 has far less desire for the stimulants which lead to drunkenness1 than the man who is denied at home the properly cooked and seasonably varied food which his system craves4 ,no better work in the ,temperance cause can be done than to make an attractive home4 ,these are facts which many a young housewife needs to learn and keep in mind2 and it is for her benefit that ,dr4 ,lapham has prepared her simple but excellent cooking directions presented in the ,appendix4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,seven ,,avoidable ,,diseases ,,malaria ,,fever4 ,malaria1 in its various manifestations1 has ever constituted the principal obstacle to the civilization of all tropical and semi-tropical countries1 and as a consequence vast tracts of the richest and fairest portions of the world have remained uncultivated and unredeemed from their primitive savage state4 ,recent investigations have shown that this disease can be easily prevented if the matter is taken up intelligently4 ,malaria is a disease produced by a parasite belonging to the very lowest order of animal life--the ,plasmodium malaria1 which is conveyed from man to man by that genus of mosquitoes called the ,anopheles4 ,the parasite attacks and destroys the red cells of the blood1 and produces a poison that causes the symptoms characteristic of malaria4 ,course of the ,disease4--,the most common and well-recognized symptoms of malaria are those that occur in that variety of the disease which is known as malarial or intermittent fever4 ,in this type the patient--who may or may not have at intervals for some days noticed chilly sensations1 a feeling of fullness in the head1 and general bodily depression--is suddenly seized with a chill followed by a high fever and subsequent profuse perspiration2 after these symptoms subdue1 which generally requires several hours1 the patient returns to a practically normal condition and feels1 on the whole1 well until the next attack occurs4 ,these chills-and-fever paroxysms occur at various intervals depending upon the character of the parasite inducing them1 the most common form being that which produces a chill every day4 ,in some instances the malady comes on more insidiously1 there being no marked chills but only periodical elevations of temperature4 ,in the more chronic forms of the disease the unfortunate victim is frequently subjected for years to attacks of fever coming on at irregular intervals1 the patient being more or less of an invalid throughout the course of the disease4 ,in other instances the brain becomes affected1 producing very alarming symptoms2 and in quite a proportion of cases the malady ultimately terminates in chronic ,bright's disease4 ,treatment of the ,disease4--,most fortunately1 we have in quinine1 when properly administered1 a medicine that in practically all instances acts as a specific in this affection2 but it should be used only on the advice and under the directions of a physician4 ,in the more chronic forms of the disease1 combinations of arsenic1 with such tonics as nux vomica1 iron1 and small doses of some of the preparations of mercury1 produce permanent cures where quinine has failed4 ,it is of the utmost importance that attention be given to the treatment1 as1 so long as the patient remains with the parasites in his blood1 so long is he a menace to his friends and neighbors4 ,mode of ,infection ,through ,mosquitoes4--,the most brilliant triumph in modern medicine1 and one of the most creditable achievements of human ingenuity1 has been the absolute demonstration that malaria is carried from man to man by means of the ,anopheles mosquito1 and that the disease can1 in nature1 be produced in absolutely no other way4 ,this is not a theory1 but it is a fact which has been demonstrated in its every detail beyond dispute1 and we are now happily in a condition to reject our venerable notions concerning bad air1 miasma1 etc4 ,before describing the method by which infection takes place1 it is well to say a few words concerning the mosquito that acts as a carrier of the disease1 which may be easily differentiated from other similar gnats4 ,the malarial mosquito has a body which is placed parallel to and almost on the same plane with the front portions of the insect1 and as a consequence1 when at rest on walls or other objects1 the back of the body sticks out almost or quite at right angles with the surface upon which it is resting4 ,the back portion of the common mosquito forms an angle with the front part of its body1 with the effect that both ends of the insect point toward the object upon which it rests4 ,there are still other differences that clearly differentiate the malarial from the common mosquito1 but the one given ordinarily serves to distinguish between them4 ,the malarial mosquito is pre-eminently a house-gnat1 being scarcely ever seen in the woods or open1 but may be found--oftentimes in great numbers--in all malarial localities1 lying quietly during the day in dark corners of rooms or stables4 ,this mosquito practically never bites in the day1 but will do so in a darkened room1 if a person will remain perfectly quiet2 their favorite time for feeding is in the early parts of the night and about daybreak--all of which accounts for the fact1 long observed1 that malarial fever is almost invariably contracted at night4 ,the malarial mosquito bites and then goes back to some dark corner where it remains quiescent for forty-eight hours1 at the end of which time it again descends to feed4 ,contrary to the general opinion mosquitoes bite many times1 and frequently remain alive for months--the malarial mosquito particularly living in cellars and attics oftentimes throughout the entire winter4 ,if one of these mosquitoes bite a person with malaria1 the parasites are sucked in along with the blood and pass into the stomach of the gnat1 making their way ultimately into the body substance2 here the parasites undergo a series of multiplications1 a single one of them sometimes producing as many as ten thousand young malarial parasites4 ,after the parasites have developed fully1 which requires eight days in warm weather1 they make their way to the venom-gland of the mosquito and there remain until it bites1 when they are injected into the body of the individual attacked along with the poison4 ,after getting into the human blood1 each parasite attacks a red-blood cell1 bores into it1 and grows at the expense of the cell until it reaches maturity1 at which time it divides up into from seven to twenty-five young parasites which are liberated and each in turn attacks a new cell4 ,this process goes on until a sufficient number of parasites are produced in the individual to cause the symptoms of malaria1 and the new subject of the disease thereafter becomes a source of danger to others in the vicinity through the intervention of still other malarial mosquitoes4 ,malaria ,avoidable4--,from the foregoing it is seen that the proper way to avoid malaria is so to screen houses that mosquitoes cannot enter them4 ,persons in malarial districts should not sit on open porches at night1 and should be careful to sleep under properly constructed nets4 ,if this be done1 there is absolutely no danger of anyone ever contracting the disease4 ,it will be well observed that these precautions are not necessary in the daytime1 as the malarial mosquito rarely attempts to bite during this period4 ,it should be remembered by those who have the disease that they are a constant source of danger to people living in the vicinity1 and they should be doubly careful as long as the disease persists to avoid being bitten by mosquitoes at night4 ,it is furthermore their duty to vigorously treat the disease until the parasites are no longer present in their bodies1 at which time they cease to be a menace to others4 ,many children have malaria without showing symptoms1 and1 if allowed to sleep without being properly covered with a net1 are very apt to infect a large number of malarial mosquitoes2 the blood of children in malarial localities should be examined from time to time1 and if the parasites be found1 the children should be given the proper remedies until a cure is effected4 ,particular attention should also be directed to the fact that almost all ,negroes in malarial localities of the ,south harbor the parasites1 though very few of them show symptoms of their attacks4 ,it is1 therefore1 very important that they be treated properly1 and their white neighbors should see to it1 for their own safety1 that they do not sleep in houses unprotected by nets4 ,if the precautions herein detailed were properly carried out1 for even a few months1 malaria would practically cease to exist wherever this was done1 and would not recur unless individuals from other places suffering from the disease were to come into the districts where the ,anopheles mosquito is present1 and so give it to the gnats--to be by them recommunicated to humanity4 ,,tuberculosis4 ,of all the enemies of mankind1 tuberculosis1 in its various forms1 takes the first rank4 ,of protean manifestations1 occurring in almost every part of the body and producing diseases of the brain1 of the nerves1 of the bones1 of the skin1 and of all of the internal organs--pre-eminent is the terrible malady we call consumption1 which is tuberculosis of the lungs4 ,it has been estimated that one-seventh of all the people born into the world die as a result of this malady in some one of its various forms1 and it is probable that one person out of every three dying between the ages of fifteen and sixty years1 succumb to this disease4 ,as a result of the labors of thousands of patient1 self-sacrificing investigators--many of the most distinguished of whom have died of this disease while carrying on their work--the peculiarities of this affection are now fairly well understood1 and if we were to apply the knowledge which we now possess in our attempts to free ourselves from its ravages1 there is no question but that within a comparatively short period of time the disease would practically cease to exist4 ,character and ,course of the ,disease4--,tuberculosis is produced by a minute vegetable parasite known as the ,bacillus tuberculosis1 a germ which not only occurs in the human being1 but is widely distributed among the lower animals4 ,tuberculosis of the lungs 7to restrict ourselves to this most important manifestation7 generally comes on insidiously1 there being usually no definite period from which the sufferer can date the onset of the malady4 ,in the early stages there is usually loss of appetite and a pronounced feeling of weakness followed by a slight cough2 the latter symptom frequently leads patients to erroneously believe that their trouble began with a bad cold1 when as a matter of fact1 the catarrhal trouble of the throat and bronchial tubes was originally produced by the germs of tuberculosis--there being no such thing as a cold changing into consumption4 ,as the disease progresses the patient complains of fever and chills1 these symptoms being oftentimes periodical1 and lead to the belief that the trouble is malarial fever3 this mistake is very common1 and whenever such symptoms appear a good physician should be immediately consulted4 ,the patient also suffers from exhausting night-sweats in many instances1 though this is not invariable4 ,a rapid loss of flesh is one of the earliest and most common symptoms4 ,the symptoms above enumerated continue and grow worse1 and in quite a proportion of the cases there is1 in addition1 spitting up blood1 which in some instances may be so pronounced that it becomes a distinct hemorrhage4 ,in the more rapid or galloping forms of the disease the patient frequently dies within a few weeks or a month or so1 while in the less severe types the malady may persist for many years before death occurs4 ,treatment4--,the treatment of tuberculosis by drugs has proven an entire failure1 but a large number of persons afflicted with this disease will recover1 if placed under proper hygienic conditions4 ,the patient should be put on a porch or in a tent1 whether it be winter or summer1 and kept in bed at absolute rest as long as there is any fever1 and should be fed in abundance with good1 wholesome food4 ,while this treatment appears simple it should always be carried out under the directions of a physician1 as it is only possible for those having a thorough knowledge of the subject to give such directions as would lead to a rapid cure of the patient4 ,modes of ,infection4--,hereditary tuberculosis1 notwithstanding a popular idea to the contrary1 is very rare1 but there is no question that those persons in whose family tuberculosis exists are much more prone to contract the disease than others4 ,in just what manner the germ of consumption gains entrance to the human body1 we are more or less uncertain1 but there are reasons for the belief that in many instances they pass in by means of the inhaled air2 there is no doubt that in a small percentage of cases the bacillus gains entrance to the body through an abrasion of the skin or of some mucous membrane2 finally the bacteria are often taken in with the foods that we eat1 or by putting objects upon which the germs are present into the mouth1 or eating with hands which have been contaminated and not washed4 ,of the foods that contain the germs of consumption1 milk is unquestionably the most common1 as there can be no question that fully #be per cent4 of our cows have this disease1 and under such circumstances their milk is usually infected with the bacillus that produces the malady2 meats1 likewise1 often contain germs of this disease1 but1 as they are usually cooked1 no harm1 as a rule1 results4 ,of quite as much importance as the introduction of the germ into the body is the resisting power of the individual at the time when this occurs1 since the disease can make no progress unless the tissues have become susceptible through lowered resistance4 ,all things then that have the effect of lowering the vitality of the body act as predisposing causes to consumption2 such1 for example1 as ,,want ,,of ,,proper ,,food1 ,,lack ,,of ,,sleep1 ,,improper ,,clothing ,,in ,,cold ,,and ,,wet ,,weather1 ,,and ,,living ,,in ,,damp ,,and ,,improperly ,,ventilated ,,houses2 excesses1 ,,particularly ,,the ,,taking ,,of ,,alcohol1 conduce to the development of the disease--long-continued inebriety being beyond doubt the cause that most frequently leads to consumption4 ,it is a common error that alcoholic stimulants tend to ward off consumption1 and it is absolutely certain that these substances not only do not act in a curative way in those who have already contracted the disease1 but are positively detrimental4 ,in order then to avoid consumption--and this is particularly of importance for those in whose family there is a predisposition to the disease--the individual should live soberly1 should try at all times to obtain a reasonable amount of good food1 should sleep a sufficient number of hours1 and should be clothed properly1 particularly in the winter4 ,those who devote their time and energy to the performance of their work--being careful of course not to labor excessively--are much more apt to escape consumption than those who do otherwise4 ,it is particularly of importance that those who have a tendency towards consumption should early learn1 and throughout life practice1 the habit of ,,breathing ,,through ,,the ,,nose3 if this rule be followed a large percentage not only of the germs of consumption1 but other bacteria as well1 are filtered out during their passage through the nose and do not reach the lungs4 ,cleanliness is also of much importance--a bath taken each morning in moderately cold water being conducive to health1 not only as regards consumption but other diseases as well4 ,it is of course necessary that dwelling houses should be kept thoroughly clean4 ,advice to ,diseased ,persons4--,in all cases where a person observes in himself1 or in those for whom he is responsible1 the symptoms already detailed1 it is his duty to at once consult an intelligent physician1 and if it be found that tuberculosis is present1 every precaution should be taken by the diseased individual to prevent the further spread of the malady4 ,,in ,,such ,a ,,case ,,the ,,sputum ,,that ,,is ,,constantly ,,being ,,coughed ,,up ,,contains ,,myriads ,,of ,,the ,,germs1 and it is of the utmost importance in order to prevent other persons in the neighborhood from being infected that this ,,sputum ,,be ,,destroyed4 ,the patient should at all times carry about with him either a small receptacle into which the sputum can be expectorated1 or a large cloth which would answer the same purpose1 and in either case the sputum should be burned2 if this be impracticable1 it should be placed in some good antiseptic1 such as a saturated solution of carbolic acid or a #a-to-#a1jjj solution of corrosive sublimate in water4 ,the patient's handkerchiefs should be thoroughly boiled1 and his clothing should receive like treatment4 ,every precaution should at all times be observed in order to prevent the sputum getting onto the furniture or floors1 as1 under such circumstances1 it quickly dries and being broken up into small particles is carried by means of the air to other parts of the house4 ,the patient should always remember that the quicker he is placed under proper treatment the more the chances of ultimate recovery2 in the early stages almost all of the cases of this kind are curable1 but later this is not often accomplished4 ,,typhoid ,,fever4 ,of all of the infectious diseases prevalent in the ,united ,states1 typhoid fever is one of the most common and fatal4 ,as a result of its ravages a vast amount of invalidism1 suffering and financial loss is brought about each year1 and a frightful mortality results4 ,it has for some time been recognized that typhoid fever is among the most preventable of all diseases1 and if our people would bestir themselves and carry out the comparatively simple rules that are necessary for its prevention1 the scourge would1 in a short time1 practically cease to exist among us4 ,character and ,course of the ,disease4--,typhoid fever1 enteric fever1 or abdominal typhus1 is an infectious disease believed to be caused by a specific bacterial germ known as the ,bacillus typhosus4 ,it develops1 as a rule1 quite slowly1 the first symptoms being loss of appetite1 headache1 and a marked fatigue on slight exertion4 ,these symptoms gradually grow worse1 fever develops1 and the patient oftentimes suffers with chilly sensations2 the temperature gradually rises1 and in the course of from a few days to a week reaches a height of #ajb degrees1 #ajc degrees1 #ajd degrees1 or #aje degrees ,f4 ,in many cases no symptoms exist that indicate trouble with the bowels1 but in the severe forms of the disease diarrhoea generally comes on during the first week and continues throughout the course of the disease4 ,during the second week the symptoms above detailed continue1 becoming often more severe1 and there develops great nervousness and delirium4 ,about this time there are frequently observed over the chest1 abdomen and thighs1 minute reddish spots resembling flea-bites2 these spots last for a few days and then pass away and are followed by a fresh crop in other situations4 ,during this period of the disease inflammation of the bronchial tubes frequently comes on1 and now and then pneumonia develops4 ,bleeding from the bowels is an occasional highly characteristic symptom of the second week4 ,when the disease follows a normal course1 the symptoms during the third week begin gradually to abate2 the fever lessens1 and the patient1 though much emaciated1 gradually returns to a normal condition4 ,unfortunately1 however1 the disease does not always pursue this favorable course1 for1 in quite a proportion of instances1 the symptoms increase in severity during the second or third week1 the patient becomes profoundly prostrated1 the delirium deepens1 and death occurs4 ,the hemorrhage from the bowels1 in some instances1 is so severe that death is produced even in comparatively early stages of the affection4 ,in many instances1 through indiscretion1 usually as a result of eating solid food1 patients who are apparently on the road to rapid recovery1 relapse1 and the disease repeats the course already detailed4 ,it is of importance to remember that now and then so-called walking cases of typhoid fever occur1 the disease in these instances being characterized by the fact that the symptoms are so slight that the sufferer does not feel it necessary to go to bed4 ,however1 in these mild cases1 fatal hemorrhage from the bowels is as frequent as in the severer types1 and as a consequence the patient should receive careful attention4 ,moreover1 it is of importance to remember that from this mild form of the affection the most malignant varieties of the disease may be contracted4 ,the mortality in typhoid fever varies from five to twenty per cent41 depending upon the character of the disease and the nature of the nursing and treatment that the patient receives4 ,modes of ,infection4--,it is clear that typhoid fever is the result of the entrance into the body of some minute form of germ-life1 whether this be the bacterium generally supposed to induce the disease or not4 ,this contagion is beyond question a living something which multiplies with great rapidity under proper conditions1 and1 escaping from the bodies of those infected with the disease1 in one way or another1 reaches other individuals4 ,it is beyond question true that the virus passes from the body of those infected by means of the urine and feces1 and it is likely that the secretions from the mouth and nose frequently contain the germs that cause the fever4 ,as the germs are certainly extraordinarily minute1 a very small amount of any of these excretions might produce the disease in healthy individuals if it were to get into their bodies through water1 milk1 or any uncooked food1 or if it were to find lodgment about the nose or mouth1 or get upon the hands of other persons4 ,it should also be remembered that the virus may easily get upon cooking-utensils1 drinking-cups1 bed-linen1 and other articles with which we are constantly brought into close contact1 and that the disease might be transmitted in this way4 ,it is also true that the malady may be carried from place to place by insects1 particularly flies2 the latter may readily get enough infectious material upon their legs in various ways1 and then1 crawling over the food1 leave the deadly poison deposited upon it4 ,treatment of ,typhoid ,fever4--,as soon as the symptoms appear1 a physician should be called and his directions faithfully and carefully followed out4 ,nothing in this disease is of more importance than careful nursing1 and it is absolutely necessary that the patient receive only liquid diet until the physician permits other food4 ,wherever possible then1 patients with typhoid fever should be completely isolated1 since1 if this is not done1 other members of the family are almost sure to contract the malady--a result which almost everyone has seen who has had any experience with the disease4 ,wherever possible patients should be sent to a hospital1 but where this cannot be done they should be placed in an outhouse1 if practicable1 or in an isolated room1 which should be thoroughly disinfected after the patient's recovery4 ,no one should visit a typhoid-fever patient1 except when compelled to do so1 and we should be particularly careful to prevent children from coming in contact with them1 as it has been shown that they contract the disease much more readily than grown people4 ,it is also of importance that persons should not sit for any length of time in the sick room1 and1 above all1 under no circumstances1 should cooking and eating be done there4 ,the room in which the patient is placed should be furnished only with those things absolutely necessary1 and it is particularly desirable that carpets and curtains should be removed4 ,it is well to wash the floor each day with some antiseptic solution4 ,those persons who come in contact with typhoid fever should wear outer clothing which can be easily washed and boiled4 ,after touching the patient1 or any of his clothing1 the hands should be at once thoroughly scrubbed in an antiseptic solution4 ,of course1 under no circumstances1 should the nurse eat or drink from the same vessels that the patient does4 ,none of the excretions from persons afflicted with typhoid fever should ever be emptied until thoroughly disinfected with creo-carboline or strong lime-water1 and under no circumstances should these be poured out in the neighborhood of springs or wells4 ,towels1 handkerchiefs1 and clothing that comes in contact with the patient should be thoroughly disinfected before being sent to the laundry4 ,this is best accomplished by thorough boiling1 but in cases where this can not be at once carried out1 it is advisable to use some chemical antiseptic2 of these1 perhaps the best is creo-carboline1 which may be employed in a #a-ejj solution in water2 where this solution is not obtainable1 a #e-per-cent4 solution of carbolic acid in water will answer4 ,it should also be remembered that the water in which typhoid-fever patients are bathed necessarily becomes infected1 and this should always be thoroughly disinfected before being emptied4 ,these precautions should be carried out for some time after the patient has recovered1 as it is well known that persons1 under such circumstances1 for some time frequently contain the poison in their evacuations4 ,after the patient recovers1 the room should be disinfected with formaldehyde gas obtained from the substance known as formalin4 ,this gas may now be obtained from the formalin without the use of heat in the following manner3 ,when everything is ready1 and the room properly sealed1 thirteen ounces of permanganate of potash to each quart of formalin are placed in a large vessel1 the room being closed immediately after the two substances are put together2 it is important that the permanganate be placed in the vessel first4 ,when this method is employed a quart of formalin should be used to each one thousand cubic feet of air-space in the room4 ,as the gas1 by this process1 comes off with great rapidity1 it is not necessary to keep the room closed more than about four hours4 ,this method is to be advised for the reasons that it acts more quickly than the older one1 and there is never danger of fire4 ,in cases where houses are too open to permit of disinfection by means of gas1 the sick chamber should be thoroughly washed with a solution of corrosive sublimate1 carbolic acid or some other good disinfectant4 ,,hook-,,worm ,,disease4 ,it has been only recently recognized that a large percentage of the invalidism and a great number of the deaths yearly in the southern portion of the ,united ,states are caused by a very small intestinal parasite known as the ,necator americanus1 or hook-worm4 ,this parasite has unquestionably existed over the area just named since the advent of the ,negro--recent investigations having shown that the worm is in all probability of ,african origin4 ,this hook-worm disease is probably the most common of all the serious diseases prevalent in the ,south1 and as it is easily curable1 and can be readily prevented1 there is no matter which should be of greater interest to the people in the infected regions1 especially those who live in villages or on farms4 ,character of the ,disease4--,the animal parasite called hook-worm closely resembles1 externally1 the pin-worm which so often occurs in children4 ,the female1 which is larger than the male1 measures somewhat more than half an inch in length1 and has the thickness of a knitting-needle2 the male is between a quarter and three-eighths of an inch in length as a rule4 ,the parasite possesses around its mouth a row of minute plates somewhat resembling hooklets1 by means of which it grasps hold of the mucous membrane of the intestine and bruises it sufficiently to cause the blood to flow2 with this blood the parasite nourishes itself4 ,at the same time the worm injects into the tissues a poison which has much to do with the symptoms that occur in the disease that it produces4 ,these worms are usually present in great numbers1 there being as a rule from #ejj to #b1jjj of them1 and as they unquestionably live at least eight or ten years1 the unfortunate victim suffers for a long period of time as a result of their presence4 ,while living in the intestines the females lay enormous numbers of eggs which pass out with the feces1 and under suitable conditions of temperature and moisture there develops within each of them1 within from two to three days1 a minute snake-like embryo which bursts through the shell of the egg and passes into the neighboring earth4 ,here the embryos live for considerable periods of time1 and1 ultimately1 may infect other individuals1 or those from whom the eggs were passed4 ,there are at least two ways by which these embryos gain entrance into the human body4 ,some do so by getting into drinking-water and being swallowed2 but1 extraordinarily1 they most frequently penetrate through the skin4 ,when this happens the parasite1 in passing through the skin1 produces the disease known as ground-itch4 ,the vast majority of the victims of this affection are children with whose skin the embryo comes in contact while they go barefooted during the summer months4 ,course of the ,disease4--,having entered through the skin1 the embryos of the hook-worm1 moving by a circuitous route finally reach the intestines1 and1 grasping hold of the mucous membrane with their saw-like teeth1 they begin to suck blood and grow until they reach the size of the adult worm in about a month or six weeks4 ,depending upon the number which have gained entrance1 and the susceptibility of the individual1 there now begins to develop symptoms of profound anaemia2 the skin of the child becomes very pale1 and assumes a sort of yellowish hue1 and in cases where there is a severe infection1 the victim begins to suffer with shortness of breath and dropsy4 ,when this occurs the patient sometimes dies1 but more commonly death results from contracting some other disease1 which1 under ordinary conditions1 would produce no serious results4 ,one of the most unfortunate effects of this malady is that when children become infected they cease to grow1 and frequently retain the appearance of early youth even after they have reached full maturity in years4 ,these unfortunates are generally incorrectly regarded as dirt-eaters4 ,the symptoms frequently last over a period of many years1 as in the intestines of these victims the worms that originally infect them live certainly eight or ten years1 and during this period it is beyond question true that additions to the original number are frequently received4 ,diagnosis and ,treatment4--,there is no disease that can be diagnosticated with more ease and certainty2 the eggs are present in the feces in great numbers1 and by means of a microscope they can always be detected4 ,in all cases where the disease is suspected1 a half-teaspoonful of the feces of the person supposed to be infected should be placed in a bottle and sent to a competent microscopist for examination4 ,this is done free of charge at the laboratories of most ,state ,boards of ,health in those parts of the country where the malady exists4 ,whenever an individual shows the symptoms above detailed1 an intelligent physician should at once be called4 ,we have medicines that act as specifics1 and the disease can always be cured in a very short period of time4 ,preventive ,measures4--,of course the best method of preventing this disease is to administer to those already infected the proper medicines1 and cause the expulsion from the intestines of the worms that lay the eggs4 ,the indiscriminate scattering of the feces around the stables1 so very common in many districts1 should be absolutely forbidden4 ,around the house where individuals have lived who have the disease every care should be taken to prevent contact with the earth in the neighborhood of places where the ground might have become infected4 ,it would be advisable for children and others to wear shoes for at least a year after the last individual having the disease was cured2 and as a precautionary measure it should be insisted upon that properly constructed privies or water-closets should be at every house1 and that they should be used by everyone in whom there is a possibility that the disease exists4 ,,diphtheria ,,and ,,its ,,treatment4 ,loeffler's discovery in #ahhd of the germ of diphtheria1 and its relation to the disease of the same name1 established the specific infectious nature of this malady1 and demonstrated beyond a doubt that membranous croup is not ordinarily an independent affection1 but is almost always simply diphtheria of the wind-pipe4 ,the discovery of antitoxin1 some time later1 reduced the mortality of diphtheria from an average of #cj to #aj in ten years2 its use has also shortened the course of the disease1 and decreased greatly the frequency of the paralytic conditions that not uncommonly follow this malady4 ,character and ,course of ,diphtheria4--,diphtheria is an affection caused by a bacterial microbe which produces a poison that acts locally upon the tissues invaded1 and also1 as a result of its introduction into the general circulation1 brings about more or less profound effects on the entire system4 ,the period of incubation is from two to ten days4 ,the onset is generally characterized by a rise of temperature from #ajj deg4,f4 to #ajd deg4,f41 chilliness1 headache1 and pain in the back and limbs4 ,albuminuria is common4 ,the glands of the neck often become swollen4 ,in mild attacks a slight sore throat is all that is complained of4 ,in the majority of cases the disease attacks the throat and tonsils1 and is characterized locally by the appearance of a membrane1 which is usually gray or yellowish-white1 elastic1 and adheres tightly to the surface upon which it lies4 ,at times1 however1 the membrane is soft and pliable1 and is easily separated from the tissue2 such cases are frequently diagnosticated as follicular tonsillitis4 ,a bad cold is occasionally the only symptom of the disease4 ,the diagnosis should always be confirmed by bacteriologic examination4 ,in some instances the wind-pipe is primarily attacked1 but when the disease affects this part of the throat it is generally a consequence of the extension of the membrane downward from the region of the tonsils4 ,in the former case the diagnosis is somewhat difficult1 as cultures taken from the throat may not show the presence of diphtheria bacilli1 though material that is coughed up may contain myriads of the germs2 in this phase of the disease interference with respiration is the symptom most to be feared4 ,the mucous membrane of the nose1 eyes1 ears and generative organs1 may be affected4 ,wounds are also liable to become infected with this organism4 ,in rare instances the membrane may extend down into the bronchial tubes and lungs1 and has been found on post-mortem examination covering the inside of the stomach4 ,as complications we may have broncho-pneumonia1 acute ,bright's disease1 inflammation of the internal structures of the ears1 bleeding from the nose1 inflammation of the valves of the heart1 and sometimes paralysis of this organ1 with death2 the last named sequel of diphtheria comes on during convalescence1 usually from two to four weeks after the subsidence of local symptoms1 and is due to inflammation of the nerves that control the heart4 ,much less commonly paralytic conditions of the palate1 throat1 eye muscles and the nerves of taste occur1 and under rare conditions1 paralysis of the lower extremities4 ,paralysis of some kind follows in from ten per cent4 to fifteen per cent4 of the cases1 and appears with equal frequency after the mildest as well as following the most severe cases4 ,mode of ,infection4--,the germs of diphtheria may be carried in articles used by persons with the disease1 or they may be communicated by direct contact4 ,the micro-organism is found in the secretions from the mouth1 throat1 or nose1 and in particles of detached membrane4 ,bedding1 utensils1 etc41 used in the room where a patient has diphtheria1 are liable to carry the germs if taken from the sick-room1 and consequently should be always properly disinfected before being removed4 ,milk-bottles carried into the sick-room1 or handled by persons caring for the patient1 should never be returned to the dealer without being disinfected4 ,cats1 and less frequently dogs1 may contract the disease and convey it to those with whom they come in contact4 ,unrecognized mild cases are a frequent means of spreading the disease1 as also is a too early release of patients after recovery4 ,it is a much safer method of procedure to require at least two negative examinations before releasing a patient from quarantine1 as during convalescence the germs may be entirely absent on one day and a few days later be quite abundant4 ,the bacilli may remain in the throat from a few days to several years after the disease is apparently entirely well1 and under such circumstances the persons carrying them become quite as great1 if not a greater1 menace to those with whom they came in contact as they were during the height of the disease4 ,a thorough disinfection of the room and everything used about the sick person should be carried out after the patient is released4 ,complete isolation should be observed during the illness1 and as long as the bacilli remains in the throat4 ,treatment4--,diphtheria antitoxin is the specific treatment of this malady1 and should be given early in the disease4 ,the chances of recovery decrease in proportion to the length of time existing between the onset of the affection and the time of administration of the drug4 ,antitoxin may be repeated in six hours after the initial injection if improvement is not noticed1 but ordinarily twenty-four hours should elapse between doses4 ,it is well to remember that it is safer to give too much antitoxin than too little4 ,the initial curative dose varies from #b1jjj to #e1jjj units1 according to the age of the patient and the severity of the disease4 ,when a case is seen late it is often advisable to begin with a large dose1--it being good practice under such circumstances to use at once as much as #aj1jjj units or even more4 ,the average case requires from the beginning to the end of the treatment a total of from #aj1jjj to #bj1jjj units1 but occasionally #ej1jjj or even #ajj1jjj units may be necessary4 ,there are very few risks in giving antitoxin4 ,in a series of #ej1jjj cases treated with it only two deaths occurred sufficiently early after the injections to warrant the belief that this unhappy result was produced by the drug4 ,it is worth remembering that asthmatic cases bear the administration of antitoxin very poorly2 a marked and sometimes serious embarrassment of respiration1 with cyanosis1 unconsciousness1 and general collapse may follow its use1 but recovery is usual in such cases4 ,a condition known as anaphylaxis or hypersensitiveness1 which at present is being much studied1 may sometimes occur in the human being4 ,this hypersensitiveness is manifested by the extraordinary peculiarity that any number of doses of antitoxin may be given provided they are administered within a period of less than ten or twelve days4 ,on the other hand a single minute dose may induce this state after the period named1 and1 as we never know whether a patient is going to develop it or not1 it becomes a question as to the safety of giving a second injection after ten or twelve days have elapsed following the administration of the initial treatment4 ,as it is true that this hypersensitiveness once established in animals may continue throughout life1 it becomes a question as to whether or not it is quite safe to administer antitoxin to an individual who has had the drug given him at some prior time1 and we are not as yet in a position to definitely determine the risks that are involved in such a procedure4 ,there is no reason to doubt that this hypersensitiveness is much less marked in man than in the lower animals1 and there can be no question that it much less commonly develops1 but notwithstanding this it would be the part of prudence to avoid a second administration of the drug after the interval referred to in all instances where this seems possible4 ,anaphylaxis is thus seen to bear an important relationship to what is commonly called the immunizing treatment to prevent diphtheria1 which consists in giving a moderate dose of antitoxin to a person immediately after exposure to the disease4 ,under such circumstances a degree of immunity is undoubtedly secured1 but this passes off in the course of a few weeks1 and the patient then becomes just as susceptible as he was before4 ,should he now contract diphtheria1 we would be confronted with the possibility that the treatment by means of antitoxin might possibly produce serious and even fatal results4 ,occasionally rashes occur several days after the inoculation1 but such disturbances are insignificant except for the immediate discomfort experienced4 ,antitoxin concentrated by the ,gibson method has reduced to a considerable extent the number of cases in which rashes occur4 ,treatment other than by antitoxin is symptomatic4 ,where the disease occurs in the wind-pipe1 it may be necessary to pass a tube into its upper opening to allow the patient to breathe1 and in other instances the wind-pipe is itself opened from the outside in order to permit a sufficient amount of air to enter the lungs to maintain life4 ,it is of the utmost importance that patients be kept in bed until all danger of complications has passed4 ,death from heart-failure several weeks after the diphtheria in the throat is well1 is not an uncommon result of the disease1 and is especially prone to follow even the slightest exertion4 ,patients under such circumstances have been known to die from raising themselves up in the bed4 ,,cerebrospinal ,,meningitis4 ,meningitis1 or spotted fever1 is one of the most terrible and fatal of all diseases1 every case proving fatal in some local epidemics4 ,although the cause of the disease has been known for a number of years1 the exact method by which the germ that produces it spreads from man to man was until quite recently entirely unrecognized1 and even now it cannot be said that the whole matter has been demonstrated4 ,character and ,course of the ,disease4--,cerebrospinal meningitis is produced by a minute vegetable 7bacterium71 the ,micrococcus intracellularis4 ,this germ does not appear to occur normally in any of the lower animals1 nor has it been found in the outer world1 and is therefore to be regarded as distinctly a human parasite4 ,it is very fortunately a germ of low vitality1 as it develops only at about blood heat1 and when expelled from its normal dwelling-place in the human body it dies very quickly4 ,the accompanying illustration shows how these bacteria appear under the microscope2 the drawing was made from fluid taken from the spinal canal of a patient suffering from cerebrospinal meningitis4 ,these germs get within the skull and spinal canal1 and produce violent inflammation of the coverings of the brain and cord2 these membranes are called meninges1 hence the name cerebrospinal meningitis4 ,within a short time after their entrance pus is produced1 and the condition becomes practically one of abscess around the brain and spinal cord4 ,in almost all cases the disease is preceded by a slight catarrhal condition of the nose and throat1 the symptoms being those of an ordinary cold4 ,the symptoms that point to the covering of the brain being attacked come on with great suddenness2 there is usually a chill1 followed by intense headache1 vomiting1 restlessness1 with great dread of noises and bright light2 in many cases reddish spots appear beneath the skin1 and these are usually tender on pressure4 ,in some cases the muscles of the neck become very stiff1 and contract so that the head is drawn backward4 ,the temperature is somewhat irregular1 but is always above normal in the beginning1 and sometimes goes very high2 the pulse as a rule is normal1 or but little accelerated4 ,after the patient remains in this condition for a period varying from a few hours to several days1 he generally becomes unconscious1 and in a comparatively short time dies4 ,in some cases the symptoms after starting off very violently quickly subside1 and the patient makes a comparatively rapid recovery4 ,in other instances the disease begins more mildly1 the patient having more or less of the usual symptoms1 but not so severely as is ordinarily the case2 in such cases the patient may die1 after lingering weeks or months2 or may make a protracted recovery1 frequently with partial paralytic conditions that permanently remain4 ,unfortunately we possess no specific for this disease4 ,recently there has come into vogue a treatment by a serum supposed to have antitoxic power against this disease1 but its exact value is1 as yet1 by no means settled2 it must be used early if any good is to be expected from it4 ,in addition to the antitoxin all that can be done is to keep the patient quiet with anodynes1 and to minister to his comfort in every way possible4 ,ice applications to the head sometimes alleviate the intense headache4 ,as the disease is practically an abscess around the brain and cord1 perhaps the most rational treatment would be to open up the skull and let the pus drain away4 ,mode of ,infection4--,as this disease is one that is due to a specific germ it is obvious that it cannot exist without the presence of this organism2 the malady is therefore infectious1 and must necessarily be to a certain extent contagious1 notwithstanding the fact that it is generally thought not to be so4 ,the reason that the affection has not been thought to be contagious may be explained by the following facts3 ,recent investigation has shown that in many1 if not all1 instances of this disease1 the germ may be found in the nose and throat1 where1 as has already been explained1 it sets up a condition resembling an ordinary cold4 ,in all probability the infection takes place in the nasal cavity first1 and the germ ultimately finds its way to the coverings of the brain4 ,now there is every reason to believe that in many1 and probably in a great majority of instances1 the germ goes no further than the mucous membrane of the nose1 and the patient merely has as a consequence what he considers an ordinary cold4 ,it is clear1 however1 that if another individual1 who was very susceptible to this germ1 should contract the disease from this person1 he might have the meningeal form of it4 ,in other words1 it is probably true that the vast majority of people who are attacked by this organism simply get colds as a consequence1 and only now and then does a person get meningitis as a result4 ,this explains why the disease does not ordinarily appear contagious4 ,the facts above stated are of much importance in combating the spread of this disease4 ,people who are exposed to those having meningitis should be exceedingly careful not to get upon their persons any of the secretions that come from the patient1 and during periods of epidemics those who observe a bad cold coming on should promptly consult their physicians1 and do everything to prevent the development of all catarrhal conditions in their noses4 ,during epidemics persons with colds should be very careful not to allow other people to become infected from them4 ,as cold and wet are undoubtedly predisposing causes to colds it is well for everyone to shun such exposure during periods when meningitis is prevalent2 debilitating influences1 such as alcoholic excess and lack of sleep1 should also be avoided4 ,,hydrophobia4 ,this disease1 as it occurs in man1 is practically always conveyed by the bite of some animal1 the dog being the usual offender4 ,the poison is present in the saliva of the diseased animal and is transmitted through wounds made by its bite4 ,as observed in the dog1 there are two types of the disease1--one the furious1 the other the paralytic4 ,in the furious type the animal first appears to be restless and somewhat excited4 ,he seeks dark places and apparently prefers to be by himself4 ,in this stage of the disease the dog's appetite is good and may be excessive2 he responds to orders although his attention can be attracted only for a moment at a time4 ,as the malady progresses the animal becomes more and more restless1 and develops a desire to tear those things about him into pieces4 ,there is described a peculiar bark at this stage of the disease2 instead of ending as it ordinarily does1 it is prolonged and terminates in a higher pitched note simulating a cry4 ,this is supposed to be very characteristic at this stage of the affection4 ,the appetite gradually diminishes1 food is refused1 and swallowing becomes difficult4 ,as the symptoms gradually progress the dog shows signs of delirium and begins to wander4 ,as a rule1 he goes about with his tail hung1 mouth wide open1 and with a wild look in his eyes1 biting as he goes1 anything that happens to be directly in his path2 seldom does he turn aside to disturb anything or anybody4 ,in the later stages of the disease paralysis generally develops1 beginning in the hind legs and soon involving the body4 ,if the animal be now carefully observed it will be seen that he cannot swallow4 ,there is no dread of water1 as the name hydrophobia implies1 and as is commonly thought1 the animal often attempting to drink1 but owing to the paralysis of the muscles of the throat this is impossible4 ,inability then to swallow either water or solid food is one of the surest and most reliable signs of rabies4 ,weakness becomes very marked1 and the animal finally lies down in a stupor and dies4 ,the entire course of this type may last from six to ten days2 generally it is four or five4 ,the paralytic type of the disease occurs in fifteen or twenty per cent4 of the cases4 ,the onset is1 as a rule1 the same as that observed in the furious type4 ,instead1 however1 of the dog beginning to wander1 as previously mentioned1 the animal becomes paralyzed1 the paralysis first affecting the muscles of the jaw1 later of the tongue4 ,as is the case in the furious type of the disease1 the animal loses the power to swallow both solids and liquids1 but has no fear of water4 ,the mouth remains wide open1 the tongue protruding1 and an abundant amount of thick saliva exudes4 ,the animal remains quiet1 does not attempt to bite any animal or individual4 ,death occurs on the second or third day of the disease4 ,precautions4--,when an individual is bitten by an animal either supposed or known to be rabid1 the wound should be immediately cauterized with some caustic1 preferably concentrated nitric acid4 ,this should be applied without fear because it is safer to use too much than too little4 ,in case this is not available any strong caustic may be used4 ,punctured wounds should be laid open with a knife and the surfaces freely cauterized4 ,it should not be forgotten that the slightest scratch from the tooth of a rabid animal may lead to the development of hydrophobia in man1 and it therefore behooves all persons bitten by dogs to take every precaution possible4 ,even though the animal at the time may appear to be healthy1 some strong antiseptic should be applied to the wound1 and the animal carefully watched until all possibility of his having the disease has passed4 ,many persons have died from slight wounds inflicted by animals appearing at the time to be perfectly well4 ,attention should also be directed to the fact that wounds where the teeth of the animal pass through the clothing are not so dangerous as those where no such protection intervenes4 ,bites about the face and head are much more frequently followed by rabies than those inflicted on the extremities1 and1 of course1 where wounds are deep the chances of infection are much greater2 where injuries of the latter kind are inflicted it is practically out of the question to thoroughly cauterize them1 and the patient should immediately receive the ,pasteur treatment4 ,it is probable that if thorough cauterization be not done within five minutes that it cannot be relied on to prevent the development of the disease2 where there is any doubt the only safety lies in the ,pasteur treatment4 ,where a person is bitten by a dog supposed to be rabid the animal should be caught1 if possible1 and kept carefully isolated for at least ten days2 should it appear well after the expiration of this period no fear need be felt as to the results of its bite1 but if it should die the head should be cut off1 packed in ice1 and sent to some laboratory for examination4 ,under no condition should the animal be killed1 as the best possible proof of the harmlessness of its bite would lie in its continuing to live4 ,treatment4--,since the epoch-making researches of ,pasteur1 laboratories have been installed in various parts of the world for the purpose of making a vaccine by means of which it is possible1 by gradual immunization1 to prevent the development of hydrophobia in persons bitten by rabid dogs4 ,this is done by a series of injections of a weak virus prepared according to the directions of ,pasteur4 ,it should always be remembered that no harm can come from the treatment whether the patient was bitten by a rabid dog or not1 and that in all cases of doubt no hesitation should be felt in resorting to it4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,hygiene ,,of ,,the ,,sick ,,room ,far too little attention is generally accorded to the proper care of the sick1--the prevailing opinion being that the royal road to recovery under the circumstances is opened up only through the taking of drugs1 and that provided the appropriate ones be given in sufficient quantities recovery will result4 ,no greater mistake is possible4 ,as a matter of fact1 there are very few diseases for which we have medicines that act in a specific manner1 and far more is usually to be hoped for from good nursing4 ,fortunately the general public is beginning to recognize the truth of the statements just made4 ,it has only been a short time since the trained nurse was unknown except in the larger medical centres1 but now her presence and beneficent influence is being felt from one end of the land to the other1 and her importance is destined to increase with the onward march of time2 she is undoubtedly the greatest advance that we have made in medicine during the last decade4 ,where persons are ill they should always be attended by a trained nurse if possible1 but if this is out of the question a few suggestions as to the sick room and its hygiene should certainly not be omitted from any book dealing with rural sanitation4 ,ventilation and ,warmth4--,the sick room if possible should be located on the sunny side of the house1 and should have fire in a fireplace if the weather be cold4 ,it is of the utmost consequence that the room have windows and doors by means of which it can be at all times thoroughly ventilated4 ,at all seasons of the year a room on the lowest floor of the house is more satisfactory1 since it is warmer in the winter and cooler in the summer4 ,the room should not be uncomfortably cold1 though it is much better to have the temperature too low than to have the air stuffy4 ,in most diseases ventilation is of supreme importance1 and should be secured at any cost4 ,where1 however1 it is compatible with thorough ventilation1 a temperature of about #gj deg4,f4 is generally considered most desirable4 ,before a patient is moved into a room all superfluous furniture should be taken out1 particularly carpets and hangings of all kinds4 ,it is likewise of the utmost importance that all insects1 particularly flies1 be excluded by proper screening4 ,the patient's bed should be narrow1 and a mattress is much to be preferred to a feather bed4 ,the mattress should be protected by a rubber sheet or newspaper pads2 oil-cloth cracks and wrinkles too badly to be of service for this purpose4 ,the rubber sheet should of course be kept under the sheet nearest the mattress4 ,the cover should consist of a sheet which is long enough to fold back at the head over the other covering for some distance1 and blankets should be used for warmth in preference to quilts4 ,the bed should be kept scrupulously clean1 and the linen and covering should be removed when soiled4 ,the nurse should see to it that bread-crumbs do not remain in the bed4 ,in removing soiled bed-clothes the following plan is the one usually adopted4 ,the patient is moved to one side of the bed as near the edge as possible1 and the sheet beneath him loosened at the head and the foot and on the opposite side2 it is then rolled up toward the patient and pushed well up under him1 leaving the side of the bed opposite to that upon which he is lying bare2 upon this the new sheet is placed1 which is then tucked under the edges of the mattress1 and the patient rolls or is pulled back over on it4 ,the soiled sheet is then removed and the edges of the fresh one pulled over the portions of the bed still uncovered1 and secured in the usual way4 ,general ,precautions4--,the room should also be kept scrupulously clean2 all sweepings should be burned4 ,soiled linen and all excretions from the patient should be promptly removed1 and if the latter need not be preserved for the inspection of the physician1 should be at once disinfected and properly disposed of4 ,milk and other food should not be left in the sick room2 and soiled glasses and dishes should be removed and washed at once in boiling water4 ,persons who are ill should not be allowed to have company4 ,there is nothing more important in connection with the looking after patients with infectious diseases than this precaution4 ,the writer has often seen in the country districts patients with typhoid fever and other infectious diseases surrounded by the neighbors from miles around1--the entire company often eating and drinking in the room occupied by the afflicted person4 ,the strain that results on the patient from a practice of this kind might well in many cases have fatal consequences1 and there is no question whatever that many diseases1 particularly typhoid fever1 are scattered in this way from house to house and from one community to another4 ,the diet should be given regularly and should consist strictly of only such things as are allowed by the physician4 ,all medicines should be given absolutely according to directions1 as otherwise having a doctor is worse than useless4 ,all patients should have a daily bath1 special attention being given to their hair1 teeth1 mouth and nails4 ,in many cases it is necessary to wash the patient's mouth frequently with some antiseptic wash4 ,this should only be done on the expressed instructions of the doctor4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,emergencies ,,and ,,accidents ,few things are of greater importance1 and nothing is more neglected than instructing school-children how to act in emergencies4 ,particularly is such knowledge of value in the country4 ,in cities the need of understanding matters of this kind is not so great1 since it is usually possible to secure at short notice some one capable of dealing with any situation that may arise4 ,children very quickly grasp knowledge of this character1 and opportunities frequently offer for an actual demonstration of the proper remedies in the case of accidents4 ,when the instructor speaks of cuts and burns they at once understand what is meant4 ,the most serious result of our neglect in this particular is that our children pass through life with the most meagre knowledge of the proper way in which to meet accidents of all sorts1 for where they are not taught during their school days they1 for the most part1 remain ignorant of matters of this kind throughout their maturer years4 ,it is much to be hoped--though this is somewhat of a digression--that the old unscientific and senseless system of teaching1 which persists even in the present time to a considerable degree1 may in the future give way to a more rational and practical plan of instruction--one that will deal with perceptible needs rather than abstractions4 ,the most common emergencies will now be taken up and considered in detail4 ,drowning4--,the subject of drowning is one of especial interest in rural districts1 since it is here that accidents of this kind are most apt to occur1 and skilled attention is most difficult to obtain4 ,it is of the utmost importance to remember that people may be resuscitated after having been under the water for considerable periods of time1 and we should1 therefore1 look upon no ordinary cases as hopeless until the proper restorative measures have failed4 ,on removing the body from the water we should not waste time by attempting to drain the water from the victim's mouth1 as the amount of this substance that enters the air-passages under such circumstances is so trifling that it may be entirely disregarded4 ,the drowned person should be placed face down upon the ground with the head slightly turned to the left1 and we should begin at once with artificial respiration4 ,artificial ,respiration4--,this is accomplished by the operator kneeling between the separated legs of the patient and placing his hands on the small of his back1 the thumbs nearly meeting at the middle of the spine1 and the other fingers spread out over the lower portion of the chest2 the operator then sways his body downward and forward slowly1 counting three during the movement1 then quickly swinging backward releasing the pressure on the patient's chest2 again count three and repeat the original movement4 ,the pressure should be brought to bear from twelve to fourteen times a minute1 and the movement should be kept up until the patient begins to show evidences of being restored1 or until it is quite evident that life is extinct4 ,this system of artificial respiration was originated by ,professor ,schafer1 as the head of a commission appointed by the ,british ,government1 and is now universally regarded as being by far the most satisfactory of all such methods4 ,in the accompanying figures are shown the positions assumed by the patient and operator while carrying on artificial respiration4 ,it should be remembered that the victims of accidents of this kind suffer considerably from lowering of the temperature of the body as a consequence of the long exposure to water1 and we should1 therefore1 also direct our attention toward bringing about an immediate reaction by means of warm blankets and hot bottles1 and by vigorous rubbing of the patient's body4 ,danger from ,wounds4--,wounds may be produced by a great variety of objects1 but chiefly1 of course1 by cutting instruments4 ,where they are caused by duller objects1 producing more or less tearing and bruising of the tissues1 they are more apt to be followed by infection with disease-producing germs than where smoothly cut1 and consequently require greater care in treatment4 ,germs sufficient to produce death may be introduced into the body by the most minute wound2 it is for example well known that fatal consequences have resulted from the bites of various insects1 and the writer has personally seen a case where a pin-prick was followed by lockjaw and death4 ,such facts teach us that we should be careful in avoiding wounds of all kinds1 and1 that after they have been received1 they deserve attention1 however insignificant they may appear to be4 ,wounds resulting from objects more or less covered with dirt are particularly dangerous1 since under such circumstances the germs of lockjaw are apt to be introduced into the body1 and fatal consequences not uncommonly ensue4 ,it is astonishing how frequently the disease just referred to follows where a barefooted child sticks a dirty splinter or a rusty nail into its foot1 and it cannot be too strongly urged that it is the duty of the parent in such instances to call in a competent physician at once4 ,the reason that injuries of this kind are so apt to be followed by lockjaw is that the germ that produces the disease lives practically everywhere in the earth--being especially common in the rich soil of gardens and other highly fertilized earths2 and the germs are so minute that thousands of them might be present on the point of a pin without being visible to the naked eye4 ,the bacilli of lockjaw do not grow at all where exposed freely to the oxygen of the air1 and as a consequence of this fact we rarely see the disease that they produce developing after slight superficial wounds2 much more commonly the malady results from a wound made by some penetrating object1 such as a splinter of wood1 a nail1 or a pin4 ,the lesson that these facts teach is that where wounds are small and deep it is the part of wisdom to cut them open freely in order that they may be cleansed as far as is possible1 and at the same time allow the air to obtain free access to their deepest portions2 a wound of this kind should not be sewn up1 but should be left open and allowed gradually to heal up4 ,the reason why lockjaw so frequently follows wounds from the premature explosion of fireworks is that the paper used in fire crackers1 etc41 often contains the germs of the disease and is driven deeply into the tissues4 ,in view of the very considerable mortality that yearly occurs among the children of this country it seems incomprehensible that our legislatures--which commonly exhibit such an uncontrollable desire to regulate their neighbors in every possible way--should not long ago have placed the ban on fireworks of all kinds4 ,treatment of ,wounds4--,the treatment of wounds necessarily depends to a considerable extent on their character and general severity3 there are certain practices1 however1 that apply in all cases1 and should1 therefore1 be resorted to wherever injuries of this kind occur4 ,where the wound is superficial the bleeding is as a rule trifling in character1 and very quickly stops of its own accord4 ,in other cases1 particularly where deep1 larger blood-vessels may be severed1 and if they be of any considerable size1 the hemorrhage will not cease until the subject becomes exceedingly weak1 and in some instances the bleeding will go on until death results4 ,where bleeding is profuse1 it may generally be assumed that one of the larger vessels has been cut1 and under such circumstances it should be compressed until skilled assistance arrives4 ,there is a popular but very erroneous impression that arteries can only be stopped by tying2 as a matter of fact any one possesses sufficient strength in the fingers to pinch them enough to stop the hemorrhage4 ,if possible1 the operator should get his finger down into the wound1 after which he can quickly discover the exact point where pressure stops the bleeding4 ,one who is unaccustomed to surgical practices would1 of course1 hesitate at doing this1 but it cannot be too strongly urged that a procedure of this character produces little or no pain after the finger is first introduced1 and that no one should be deterred by foolish squeamishness from immediately doing that which in many instances can only save the life of the victim4 ,where arteries are evidently bleeding--which may be inferred from the spurting character of the hemorrhage--a tight bandage above the seat of the wound1 if on one of the extremities1 will often be followed by a cessation of the bleeding1 and where only small vessels are cut1 a bandage tightly applied over the wound itself may accomplish a similar result4 ,under such circumstances the reader should be warned that it is not safe to leave a limb tightly bandaged in this way for any considerable length of time1 as complete death of the part below may result4 ,where then a ligature is placed above or over a wound1 it should be loosened cautiously every twenty or thirty minutes1 and should be left off for a time4 ,if the wounded artery begins to bleed1 one should resort to local pressure upon it with the finger for five or ten minutes1 after which the bandage may again be applied4 ,as soon as all bleeding has ceased1 the wound should be thoroughly washed out by means of water that has been boiled and allowed to cool2 the operation may be greatly assisted by using a rag or a piece of cotton that was boiled in the water4 ,if there be grease or other dirt that does not readily come away soap may be freely used4 ,after the wound has been thoroughly cleansed1 some sort of antiseptic had better be applied4 ,unquestionably the best of all of these is tincture of iodine1 a small amount of which should be poured directly into the wound4 ,a saturated solution of carbolic acid in water is also a fairly good disinfectant1 and may be employed where the tincture of iodine cannot be obtained4 ,a solution of corrosive sublimate in water--one part of the former to one thousand parts of the latter--is much used as an antiseptic by surgeons1 but when placed directly in wounds has a tendency to cause much irritation1 and is by no means so efficient as either of the disinfectants just referred to4 ,in the country it is an old custom to use turpentine1 or resins from several different species of pines2 these are fairly efficient antiseptics1 and should be employed where it is impossible to obtain those that are better4 ,it should always be remembered that thorough washing out with boiled water and soap is in itself a procedure that will remove a considerable proportion of any germs that may have got into the wound1 and that if carefully done1 it is almost as efficient as the best antiseptic4 ,after the wound has been thoroughly cleansed by water and antiseptics1 it should then be bandaged with a cloth that has been previously boiled and dried1 if no regular surgical dressing is at hand4 ,every precaution should then be taken to prevent it being reopened4 ,collodion is sometimes used over small wounds1 and is quite efficient in that it forms a coating over any surface upon which it is placed that is impermeable to both air and water4 ,small wounds that have been thoroughly cleansed and disinfected with tincture of iodine may be safely and satisfactorily closed by means of the substance just mentioned1 but it should never be forgotten that the germ of lockjaw--which is the one1 ordinarily1 most to be dreaded in such injuries--lives and grows best in the absence of the oxygen of the air1 and that a covering of collodion would materially assist in the development of this dreadful disease4 ,in those instances where pus forms in wounds1 they should be at once reopened and allowed to drain4 ,it very often follows after cuts--particularly if they be not properly cleansed--that a scab forms on the outside1 holding beneath a greater or less amount of pus4 ,the presence of the latter can generally be inferred by a wound presenting a red and angry appearance around its edges1 and from swelling and pain4 ,as soon as such a condition is observed1 the scab should be thoroughly soaked in water and removed1 and it is then necessary that the wound be kept open and allowed to drain freely until it heals up from the bottom4 ,a failure to observe precautions of this kind may result in blood-poisoning1 and finally even in death4 ,after a wound begins to suppurate it does little good to put antiseptics into it1 as they cause considerable irritation1 and under no circumstances do they put an end to the pus formation4 ,open drainage of the wound1 and keeping up the general health of the patient1 are the only means that we possess of successfully combating conditions of this kind4 ,inasmuch as we possess an antitoxin that unquestionably has the power of preventing lockjaw1 if given sufficiently early1 it is the part of wisdom to administer at once a sufficient dose of this substance to any child who has received a penetrating wound from some dirty object1 or from the explosion of fire-crackers4 ,statistics show that under such circumstances lockjaw may be prevented in almost all cases4 ,if we wait until the disease develops1 the antitoxin is of no value4 ,care of ,sprains4--,the seriousness of sprains is very generally underestimated1 and as a consequence many persons go through life with ankles that are abnormally weak1 and even painful in bad weather1 and in which there is a tendency to swell and become exceedingly troublesome after a slight wrench4 ,in all true sprains there is more or less actual tearing of the ligaments that bind the joint together1 and1 if the injury be not properly treated and the joint thoroughly supported1 complete recovery in many instances never takes place4 ,as soon as a sprain occurs the injured joint should be immersed in water just as warm as can be borne1 and hot water should be from time to time added in order to keep the temperature sufficiently high4 ,the bath should be continued for several hours--the longer the better4 ,thus the pain and swelling will be greatly reduced1 and the tenderness which1 in the beginning1 is so excruciating1 will largely disappear4 ,the next step is to properly support the injured parts in order that unnecessary movement may be prevented1 thus avoiding further tearing of the ligaments4 ,this may be accomplished by means of various splints--the most popular being those made of plaster of ,paris1 or silicate of sodium1 either of which will require the services of a physician in order to have them properly applied4 ,within recent years a treatment has come much into vogue1 which is exceedingly satisfactory1 and has the advantage that it does not require the service of an expert in order to have it properly carried out4 ,this consists in the application of strips of adhesive plaster to the skin over the seat of the injury and for some distance both above and below the joint affected4 ,ordinary sticking-plaster is not the best for this purpose1 though in an emergency it might be used2 much better is the so-called mole-skin plaster1 which is much thicker1 and does not require moistening before being applied4 ,the plaster should be torn into strips about three-fourths of an inch wide and twelve to eighteen inches long4 ,where the ankle is the seat of the trouble1 a strip is firmly applied to the back of the foot1 beginning just behind the toes1 and is brought around the ankle and carried up on to the calf of the leg--thus partially winding the plaster around the leg4 ,the first strip having been applied1 another is put on in a similar way1 the edges of the latter overlapping those of the former4 ,this is continued until one side of the ankle is fairly well covered1 after which we may begin operations on the opposite side1 carrying the strips around the leg in such a way as to meet and overlap those first put on4 ,this process is continued until the entire joint is completely covered with the plaster4 ,it is of the utmost importance that the foot be put in a natural position before we begin to apply the plaster1 as1 otherwise1 it will be left in a constrained and uncomfortable position1 which will do away largely with the good effects of the splint4 ,where carried out in the proper way it is in the highest degree astonishing to see how perfectly the joint is supported1 with the effect that the use of the injured limb may be immediately resumed4 ,the writer recalls having seen a young lady with a frightful sprain1 who could not bear to touch her foot to the floor1 improve to such an extent under the treatment as outlined that she was able to go to a ball and dance through the evening on the day the injury occurred4 ,not only does the immediate resuming of the use of an injured limb1 when treated in this way1 appear not to be injurious1 but the ultimate recovery seems actually hastened4 ,after a day or so it is well to remove the plaster splint first applied and put on another1 as the former has by this time usually ceased to fit the injured joint--owing to the diminution in the swelling4 ,the splint may be changed three1 four1 or even five times1 if deemed necessary1 though two or three applications generally amply suffice4 ,this or some other splint should be kept on the injured joint for at least a month or six weeks1 as otherwise complete recovery frequently fails to occur1 with the permanent weakening of the joint as a consequence4 ,of course it is always desirable to have a physician apply the splints for a sprain where this is feasible1 but with a little care it may be done by any intelligent person who will observe closely the directions given4 ,the plaster should be put on moderately tight1 but the utmost care must be exercised in not carrying this to an extreme1 as in such cases serious results might ensue4 ,in order that it may be determined as to whether or not the splint is too tight1 it is advisable to watch the patient's toes for some hours after the plaster is put on1 and should they be found to be very cold1 and particularly should they begin to show a dusky discoloration1 it is evidence that the strips are exerting too much pressure1 and they should be at once removed4 ,under such circumstances1 in a half an hour or so1 the splint could be reapplied with safety4 ,the mole-skin plaster1 which is used in making the splint just referred to1 may be obtained in rolls of any width from all druggists2 and as the plaster keeps practically indefinitely1 it should be in the medicine-closet of everyone living at a distance from skilled medical aid4 ,after a sprained ankle the patient should wear shoes that come well up above the injured joint1 and they should be laced tightly until some time after all symptoms of trouble have disappeared2 it would be on the safe side to wear shoes of this kind from six months to a year1 depending upon the severity of the injury4 ,treating ,bruises4--,bruises are not usually followed by serious consequences if properly treated4 ,they result from injuries that tear the tissues beneath the skin to such a degree that hemorrhage from many minute blood-vessels occurs in the injured part4 ,in the course of a few hours they often present a truly alarming appearance1 being swollen and greatly discolored1 but they are not as a rule followed by any permanent ill results4 ,where bruises are slight no treatment of any kind is required1 as in a short time the effused blood is absorbed1 and the part returns to a normal condition4 ,where more severe it is not a bad practice to cover them with flannels wrung out from hot water1 the same being renewed from time to time1 and the applications kept up for from six to twelve hours4 ,usually at the end of this time the soreness and swelling will have considerably abated1 and the injured tissues quickly return to a normal condition4 ,the reader should be warned that under no circumstances should the skin be opened1 even though it may be quite obvious that there is a bluish mass of blood immediately beneath4 ,where this mistake is made1 infection of the injured tissues with the germs that produce pus inevitably results1 and as a consequence the patient suffers with a discharging wound for a considerable period of time4 ,in rare cases germs get into the injured parts without the skin having been opened1 and there results under such circumstances a condition which closely resembles that of an ordinary abscess4 ,the probability that this undesirable complication has arisen is shown by the swelling becoming greater and more painful some days after the injury has occurred1 and under such circumstances a good physician should be at once consulted1 as it will be necessary to make an incision into the diseased area4 ,soothing ,burns4--,one of the most common and painful of injuries are burns4 ,small superficial burns require no particular treatment4 ,where1 however1 they are of sufficient severity to merit attention1 the simplest and best of all treatments is to immerse the diseased part in cold water1 and here it should remain at least some hours1 or until competent medical aid can be secured4 ,medical treatment of injuries of this kind is not particularly satisfactory1 though there are some drugs that may be used with more or less benefit4 ,chief among them is picric acid1 which may be applied by means of a cloth wrung out of a one per cent4 solution of this substance in water4 ,another treatment which has some merit1 and which has long enjoyed a certain vogue among both medical men and the laity1 is a combination of equal parts of lime-water with either olive or linseed oil2 this is called carron oil and is applied in the same way as the picric acid solution4 ,all three of the remedies referred to act largely by preventing the access of air to the burned surface1 and they1 therefore1 may be replaced by any bland and non-poisonous substance which accomplishes like results4 ,accidents from ,heat and ,cold4--,the climate of the ,united ,states is characterized by extreme variations--there being over almost its entire extent during the winter months a series of cold waves1 during which excessively low temperatures are often experienced1--particularly in the northern and western portions of the country4 ,during the summer1 on the other hand1 we have almost everywhere periods during which the temperature goes very high--often accompanied by excessive atmospheric moisture4 ,as a consequence of these extremes in temperature it could only be expected that we would often experience bad effects1 so that serious illness1 and even death1 occasionally result4 ,of the two extremes1 excessive heat is much the more dangerous1 and is by far more frequently followed by fatal results--particularly in crowded cities4 ,fortunately for the dwellers in rural districts the precise conditions under which excessive heat is followed by serious consequences are not so frequently encountered as in the more populous centers1 and as a result we find that serious ill effects from high temperatures are by no means so common in the former as in the latter4 ,there are1 however1 two quite well defined and distinct morbid conditions that are the result of high temperatures1 and inasmuch as they differ in their symptoms as well as in their treatment1 it will be necessary to consider them separately4 ,sunstroke4--,sunstroke is characterized by a rapid onset1 the patient usually complaining of an uncomfortable sense of burning heat and a feeling of dizziness and depression4 ,nausea1 vomiting1 and diarrhoea are common1 frequently an intense headache1 and sooner or later a muttering delirium4 ,the patient's skin is dry and hot1 the face is flushed1 and the eyes suffused1 and a thermometer will show a bodily temperature of from #aje deg4 to #aaj deg4 or even #aab deg4,f4 ,in fatal cases it is usually some hours before the patient dies1 though sometimes he succumbs almost instantly4 ,when attacked1 the patient should at once be removed to some shady place1 and should be held in a sitting posture against any suitable object that may be at hand4 ,the clothing should be loosened at once1 and every endeavor should be directed towards lowering the temperature of the victim4 ,this is best done by pouring ice-water or the coolest water that can be secured freely over the entire body of the patient4 ,this treatment should be continued until the temperature approaches the normal--the vigor of the measure employed gradually decreasing1 as the patient shows signs of getting better4 ,improvement is shown by a gradual return of consciousness4 ,heat-,prostration4--,like true sunstroke1 heat-prostration comes on with an extreme suddenness4 ,the patient becomes suddenly dizzy1 and sinks to the ground in a state of collapse4 ,the skin is pale and cool1 the pulse limp and weak1 and the thermometer shows the temperature to be somewhat below normal4 ,the patient should be laid on the ground in a cool1 shady place1 and stimulants at once given4 ,by far the most efficient of them is a hypodermic injection of morphine and atropine1 to which strychnine in appropriate doses may be added4 ,guarding against ,sunstroke and ,heat-,prostration4--,excessive heat is the basis of both of these conditions1 but there are many contributing causes which play a more or less important part in their production4 ,notwithstanding the fact that they are regarded as being different1 and that the treatment and symptoms of the two conditions vary widely1 there can be no doubt that certain depressing influences1 in every way similar1 play an important part in their causation4 ,foremost among such influences alcohol claims first place1 and unquestionably not only predisposes to all diseases brought on by heat1 but lends much greater gravity to an attack--the drunkard rarely recovering from true sunstroke1 and frequently dying from the much less dangerous heat-prostration4 ,it is said that the latter condition is particularly prone to occur after freely indulging in beer or other malt liquors4 ,not only does alcohol predispose to these morbid states1 but other influences that depress the general vitality are more or less apt to predispose to the production of both1 such as loss of sleep1 overwork1 worry1 excessive eating1 and insufficient food4 ,the danger is greater when there is excessive moisture in the air1 so that at such times we should particularly avoid excesses of all kinds1 and as far as possible1 keep out of the direct rays of the sun4 ,frost-bite4--,in the extreme northern and northwestern portions of the ,united ,states frost-bite is not uncommon in winter4 ,the part attacked becomes suddenly bloodless1 presenting much the appearance of the skin after death4 ,the victim is usually not aware of the fact as at first there is no pain4 ,as soon as a condition of this kind is observed1--and in cold countries persons are quick to inform the victim when they notice it1--the place should be vigorously rubbed with a piece of ice1 or with a handful of snow1 and this should be continued until the circulation again returns as evidenced by the parts becoming reddened4 ,a rapid warming of the affected parts is not advisable1 the result being not unlike that of a burn4 ,chilblains4--,many persons suffer during the winter from chilblains--this being a state in which more or less pain and itching is produced in a part as the result of poor circulation4 ,such a condition is usually the result of a combination of cold with the affected part being more or less compressed1 and as a consequence1 we find that troubles of this kind are more frequently in the feet--particularly where tight shoes are worn4 ,the remedy for troubles of this character is to wear loose-fitting shoes1 and to thoroughly protect the parts by appropriate woolen socks4 ,it is particularly of importance to change the socks often1 since as soon as they become moistened with perspiration a tendency to a recurrence of the trouble is very great4 ,drugs are of no particular use in conditions of this kind4 ,chilblains are more commonly suffered in ,europe than in ,america4 ,one young ,american lady in ,paris acquired them one winter1 and knowing no better1 as she told the writer1 cured herself by boiling the chilblains--soaking her feet in the hottest water she could endure4 ,the affliction did not return2 and the novel recipe was delightedly followed by all the art-students of the neighborhood4 ,blisters4--,small blisters on the feet are not uncommon as the result of wearing tight1 or ill-fitting shoes4 ,wherever possible1 they should be quickly relieved from all compression1 and should under no circumstances be opened4 ,the treatment is very simple and quite efficient1 provided it be instituted while the skin is still intact1 and consists simply in placing over the affected area a small piece of mole-skin plaster1 which should extend for a short distance out on the normal skin surrounding the blister2 the same sort of plaster should here be used as was recommended for supporting sprained joints1 and is an article so useful that it should be kept in every house4 ,where blisters have ruptured1 the better plan is to apply some antiseptic1 like tincture of iodine1 and after having allowed it to dry1 stick on some plaster as already directed4 ,if no antiseptic be at hand the plaster should be used any way1 but it should be frequently removed in order to see that no suppuration is occurring beneath4 ,small blisters1 the result of burns1 may be treated in a similar way with good results4 ,tooth-ache4--,tooth-ache is a condition for which there is no excuse in the present state of knowledge4 ,as soon as decay begins in a tooth it should receive the attention of a competent dentist1 and where this is done a true tooth-ache never occurs4 ,where one has been so neglectful as to permit the exposure of the nerve of a tooth1 he can only be saved from much suffering by going at once to a dentist4 ,in the meantime1 various measures may be adopted to diminish the pain4 ,a piece of cotton dipped in dilute carbolic acid and thrust into the cavity will almost immediately relieve the suffering for the time being4 ,oil of cloves1 or a mixture of this substance with chloroform1 applied in a similar way will bring about a like result4 ,the reader cannot be too often reminded of the fact that bad teeth not only cause much suffering1 but likewise lead to many digestive disturbances1 and as a consequence little could be of more importance to the health of the body than to see to it that they be kept in perfect order4 ,where teeth are knocked out1 they will often grow back and render good service for many years afterwards if replaced immediately in their sockets4 ,bites of ,animals4--,wounds of this character1 particularly those produced by dogs and cats1 are not at all uncommon4 ,where it is definitely known that the animal is not rabid1 the treatment should be that of punctured wounds1--to the chapter on which the reader is referred for further information4 ,where there is reason to suspect that the animal has hydrophobia1 it should be1 if possible1 at once confined1 and watched for developments4 ,under no circumstances should it be killed4 ,if the animal is rabid1 it will be unable to eat or drink1 and will die in the course of a few days2 should it survive not the least fear need be felt as to it having had hydrophobia1 as no instance is on record where the disease was followed by recovery4 ,for further information on this subject1 the reader is referred to the special article on hydrophobia 7page #baa74 ,hiccough4--,hiccough is a condition caused by a spasm of the diaphragm4 ,all methods for the relief of this somewhat annoying condition are based upon the idea of having the patient hold his breath as long as is possible4 ,the remedy is best applied by the sufferer holding his breath and leaning as far backward as is possible1 and in the meanwhile distracting the attention by pointing the index finger of one hand towards the nose1 and bringing the former toward the latter as slowly as is possible4 ,sticking the tongue out and holding the breath at the same time will often relieve hiccough1 or if the victim can be induced to sneeze the distressing symptom will at once cease4 ,the slow swallowing of a few sips of water will frequently put an end to the trouble4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,what ,,to ,,do ,,when ,,poisoned ,the vast majority of cases of poisoning occur in children1 and are1 almost without exception1 due to carelessness of their elders1 and therefore preventable4 ,as soon as it is recognized that anyone has swallowed a poison of any kind1 a competent physician should be summoned with the utmost haste1 and in the meantime much may be done1 in most cases1 to minimize the effects of the substance taken4 ,the patient should at once be urged to drink as much water as is possible1 in order that the poison may be diluted1 and every effort should be made to induce vomiting2 this may often be brought about as soon as the stomach is full of water1 by tickling the throat with the finger1 or with any other object that can be readily introduced through the mouth4 ,as quickly as possible1 some warm water should be secured1 to a quart of which either a teaspoon of salt or mustard should be added1 and the patient urged to drink until the stomach is thoroughly distended2 following this1 particularly where aided by tickling the throat1 vomiting may be generally induced1 with the effect1 of course1 of expelling a greater or less proportion of the poison from the stomach4 ,if it be known that the poison is an acid1 ordinary cooking soda should be added to the water that the patient drinks1 as in this way all acid substances are at once neutralized4 ,if the patient has taken an alkaline poison1 he should immediately be given diluted vinegar1 or water into which the juice of lemons or oranges has been squeezed2 such harmless acids neutralize poisonous alkaloids just as harmless alkalies antidote poisonous acids4 ,arsenic poisoning usually results from the accidental swallowing of rat-poison or some insecticide1 as ,paris green1 or else some sort of green dye1 many of which contain salts of arsenic in some form4 ,an emetic should be at once given1 to be followed by the whites of several eggs dissolved in a small amount of water2 sweet milk may also be administered with benefit4 ,accidental poisoning by phosphorus1 results usually from children eating the heads of matches1 and it is rarely the case that enough of the substance is taken to produce serious results4 ,the poison1 however1 is a deadly one if taken in sufficient quantity1 and where it is found that substances containing it have been swallowed the most energetic measures should at once be resorted to4 ,warm water containing mustard or some other emetic should at once be given1 and this should be followed by whites of eggs and sweet milk4 ,it is well also to try to get rid of any of the phosphorus that might remain in the stomach by giving the patient some saline purgative like ,epsom salts4 ,where carbolic acid has been taken1 the fact can be readily determined by noting the characteristic smell of this substance on the patient's breath1 and by observing that the mouth and throat present a more or less whitish appearance4 ,the treatment to be of any avail1 should be of the most energetic character4 ,the patient should at once drink largely of water1 and vomiting should be induced as quickly as possible4 ,either milk or the white of an egg should then be given4 ,ordinary quick-lime1 or even plaster from the walls of the house1 may be stirred up in water and administered to the sufferer1 as both have a distinct value in antidoting the effects of this poison4 ,burns of the skin with carbolic acid are rarely followed by serious consequences4 ,as soon as the accident occurs the part should be thoroughly washed with water1 and if at hand a little alcohol may be rubbed over the part2 the affected tissues return to a normal condition in the course of a short time in the vast majority of cases4 ,strychnine poisoning is comparatively rare1 except when this substance is given with suicidal or murderous intent4 ,water should be given1 immediately followed by an emetic4 ,a mass of crystals of permanganate of potash as big as a pea may be administered in a glass of water1 if this substance be at hand4 ,after the poison has been absorbed nothing is usually of any avail if the amount was originally sufficient to produce death4 ,one of the commonest forms of poisoning is from opium in the form of morphine1 paregoric or laudanum4 ,when this happens the stomach should be washed out by water frequently1 even where the drug was administered hypodermatically4 ,this is best accomplished by causing vomiting by warm water to which a small amount of mustard has been added4 ,the patient should be given strong coffee or tea at frequent intervals1 and artificial respiration should be practiced4 ,where it is possible to obtain it1 permanganate of potash in a watery solution should be given1 enough of the chemical being used to make the water a deep purple color2 this may be frequently repeated1 as the substance is not poisonous in ordinary doses1 and destroys morphine and other alkaloids of opium very rapidly4 ,it should never be forgotten that infants and children are poisoned by comparatively very small doses of opium1 and consequently nothing containing any derivative of this substance should be given them except on the advice of a competent doctor4 ,many soothing syrups advertised for the relief of the minor ailments of children contain opium1 and there can be no doubt that many deaths have occurred as a consequence of taking such nostrums4 ,mushroom poisoning in this country is relatively rare1 but there are quite a number of popular notions on this subject that are totally incorrect1 chief among which is the idea that there is a difference between mushrooms and toad-stools1 the former being generally regarded as edible1 and the latter poisonous4 ,as a matter of fact1 those conversant with this subject make no distinction between the two1 using the terms toad-stool and mushroom as interchangeable4 ,it is likewise a common error to suppose that we possess any tests by which the poisonous toad-stools can be told from those that are wholesome4 ,although a skilled student of the subject can almost at a glance determine which are poisonous and which are not1 it is hazardous in the extreme to consume those selected by one who is inexperienced4 ,as a matter of fact1 for all practicable purposes1 there is only one species that is generally eaten1--the ,agaricus campestris1 or meadow mushroom4 ,this grows for the most part in open fields1 and in many parts of the world may be gathered in great number throughout the warmer seasons immediately following rains4 ,this mushroom has also the great advantage that it is the only one of the edible species that can be cultivated4 ,just as we have only one common mushroom that is ordinarily eaten1 there is only one common species of these plants that is highly dangerous1--the ,amanita phalloides1 which contains one of the most deadly poisons known--and one for which we possess no adequate antidote4 ,this mushroom is very common1 being frequently seen along the roadside1 and at the edges of fields2 it also grows in forests1 and is occasionally encountered in treeless areas4 ,it presents a rather attractive appearance1 being rather large1 and having a glistening white cap with a long stem1 around which there may always be seen a distinct collar2 on carefully removing the soil from around its roots1 it will be seen that its stem is surrounded just below the surface of the earth by a sheath-like structure1 the so-called death-cup1 which1 together with the peculiarities already mentioned1 clearly stamp this mushroom as being one of the most deadly of all known natural objects4 ,in addition to the rather inviting appearance of this toad-stool1 its flavor is agreeable1 thus in every way insidiously inviting1 it would seem1 the unwary to their doom4 ,less common than the species just considered is another closely related fungus known as the ,amanita muscarius1 or fly-agaric2 this handsome mushroom presents the same peculiarities of structure exhibited by the ,amanita phalloides1 but differs from it in the fact that the tip of its cap is scaly1 and is of a reddish-yellow color4 ,the fly-agaric is quite as poisonous as its more common relative1 and is equally to be shunned4 ,the reader should be warned that even handling either of the fungi just considered may result in poisonous symptoms--probably as a consequence of multitudes of the tiny spores of the plants being carried into the nose and mouth by the air4 ,some hours after eating the ,amanitas1 the patient is taken with vomiting1 diarrhoea1 cramps1 and extreme prostration2 in children1 convulsions may occur4 ,most unfortunately evidences of this poisoning do not usually develop until some hours after eating it4 ,as a consequence1 a considerable amount of the poison has usually been absorbed into the body before the victim is aware that anything is wrong1 and it1 therefore1 becomes impossible1 as a rule1 to greatly help matters by attempting to remove the offending material from the stomach by emetics4 ,notwithstanding this it would be proper to administer warm water1 into which a small amount of mustard had been stirred1 in order to assist nature by washing out of the stomach whatever portions of the fungus might remain4 ,when exhaustion begins to appear1 it should be combated with doses of aromatic spirits of ammonia1 and by the external application of heat4 ,as it is believed that atropine possesses some antidotal powers to the poison of the ,amanitas1 this substance should be injected hypodermatically in the usual dose as quickly as possible1 and an experienced physician should be called at once4 ,ivy ,poisoning from ,touch4--,one of the two species of ,rhus1 is exceedingly common in all portions of the ,united ,states1 producing a severe inflammation of the skin when handled1 or even in some persons by merely being near the plants or in the smoke of a fire where they are burning4 ,there are two varieties of the ,rhus toxicodendron1 one being the shrub commonly called poison oak1 and the other a climbing vine generally known by the name of poison ivy4 ,the ,rhus venenata grows in swampy localities all over the ,united ,states1 and is known as poison-sumac1 swamp dog-wood1 poison-elder1 and poison dog-wood4 ,about twenty-four to forty-eight hours after the exposure1 the skin begins to itch1 and this is shortly followed by an inflammation accompanied by the formation of numerous small blisters1 and still later by scaling4 ,it should not be forgotten that the berries and other portions of these plants are poisonous when taken internally1 giving rise under such circumstances to vertigo1 faintness1 dilation of the pupils1 trembling1 confusion of the senses1 and1 in some instances1 convulsions4 ,should it be discovered that anyone has been exposed to poisoning by these plants1 the skin should be washed as quickly as is possible with alcohol1 or some substance like whisky that contains it2 where this cannot be obtained1 hot water and soap should be liberally applied--the object1 in either case1 being the removal of as much of the poison as is possible4 ,after the irritation of the skin has begun1 the parts may be bathed in a one per cent4 solution of carbolic acid1 to be repeated every few hours1 as the necessities of the case may demand4 ,lead-water is also frequently used with benefit1 lime-water also appears to be of use1 but the various powders and salves sold in stores rarely help the patient much4 ,the best thing after all is soap and water as hot as it can be borne2 and ordinarily the itching and inflammation will disappear in four or five days1 followed by scaling4 ,,venomous ,,snakes ,,and ,,snake ,,bites4 ,much popular misapprehension exists on the subject of snakes1 both as to the results of their bites and the appropriate treatment under such circumstances4 ,it is not generally understood that a very large percentage of our ,american snakes are entirely harmless--the poisonous ones being decidedly more the exception than the rule4 ,within the confines of the ,united ,states there exist only two families of venomous serpents4 ,by far the most numerous are three genera of viperine snakes1 including the rattlesnakes and moccasins2 all of these have a pit-like depression between the nose and eyes1 and hence are called pit-vipers4 ,in the southern portion of our country there are two species of a colubrine genus closely related to the dreaded cobra of the ,east1 one of them being called the coral-snake or harlequin snake1 and the other1 which occurs in the southwest1 is known as the ,sonoran coral-snake4 ,while there are three genera of vipers in ,america1 two of them are so closely related1 and present characteristics that are so similar that the ordinary observer would regard them as being identical1 and inasmuch as the character of their poison seems in every way similar1 for practical purposes it would seem desirable to include them under one head2 in both genera1 the species have rattles on the tips of their tails1 the more common being the ordinary rattlesnakes 7genus ,crotalus71 of which there are twelve species in the ,united ,states1 and the ground-rattlesnakes 7genus ,sistrurus71 of which there are two species4 ,closely related to the rattlesnakes are the true moccasins1 of which there are two species1 one being the cotton-mouth or water-moccasin 7,ancistrodon piscivorus71 and the other the highland moccasin1 pilot-snake or copper-head1 7,ancistrodon contortrix74 ,the two species of poisonous colubrine serpents already referred to are known respectively as the ,elaps fulvius1 and the ,elaps euryxanthus1 both of which occur in the southern portions of the ,united ,states4 ,these snakes are fortunately of a very mild disposition1 and rarely attempt to bite1 even when handled4 ,that their poison is exceedingly deadly is attested by the fact that out of eight instances where it was known that persons were bitten by them1 six died1 and they should1 therefore1 be looked upon as among the most deadly of ,north ,american serpents4 ,mention should be made of the fact that there are at least six harmless reptiles that resemble the coral-snakes very closely1 and as a consequence of the former being mistaken for the latter1 the assertion has been frequently made by the ignorant that our elapine serpents are harmless4 ,a short description of the really deadly reptiles encountered in this country that would enable even the novice to distinguish them from those that are harmless would seem not inappropriate here1 for where a person is bitten by a snake it becomes at once a matter of vital importance to determine1 if possible1 its true character4 ,most non-venomous serpents will viciously bite when cornered1 and while they may produce slight wounds1 with a small amount of bleeding1 such injuries are entirely devoid of danger1 and need occasion no fear on the part of the victim4 ,there now follows a brief description of our venomous snakes1 by means of which it will be easy for any one to distinguish them from their innocent relatives4 ,true ,rattlesnakes4--,there are twelve species of these reptiles in the ,united ,states1 all of which1 with but two exceptions1 live west of the ,mississippi4 ,they vary very greatly in color1 but the common eastern forms generally have alternate transverse yellow and brownish-black marks over their bodies4 ,all possess rattles4 ,the body of the snake is thick in proportion to its length1 and the head1 which is more or less diamond-shaped1 is much larger than1 and is quite distinct from the neck4 ,the pupils of the eye are elliptical--a peculiarity which the pit-vipers alone possess of all the ,north ,american snakes4 ,between the eye and nose there is a comparatively deep depression or pit which gives to this group of snakes their name4 ,there are two large1 exceedingly sharp fangs in the front of the mouth1 in the position of a dog's canine teeth1 that are folded up against the roof of the mouth when the snake is in repose2--being brought forward in a position for stabbing as the serpent strikes4 ,the scales on the under surface of the body back of the anus do not divide along the middle line into two rows1 as in harmless snakes4 ,ground ,rattlesnakes4--,there are two species of the pygmy or ground-rattlesnakes4 ,they attain to a length of only about twenty inches1 and present the general characteristics of the true rattlesnakes1 with the exception that the rattle is small1 consisting of but one single button at the end of the tail4 ,these serpents are exceedingly vicious1 and usually bite without warning4 ,contrary to the general opinion1 however1 the wounds they inflict are rarely1 or never1 followed by serious consequences in man4 ,one species is southern4 ,the other occurs from ,ohio to ,nebraska1 where it is called massasauga4 ,cotton-,mouth ,moccasin4--,the largest specimens of the cotton-mouth moccasin attain to a length of about six feet4 ,the full grown reptile is of a dingy brownish-black color1 but the young are pinkish1 with coppery bands running transversely across the body4 ,with the exception that this reptile has no rattles1 it answers in its general peculiarities to the description already given of its near relatives the rattlesnakes4 ,the cotton-mouth moccasin is semi-aquatic1 being found around the edges of streams and other bodies of water4 ,the ,copper-head1 or ,highland ,moccasin4--,this serpent is found from ,florida and ,illinois to southern ,massachusetts2 also in parts of ,texas4 ,the largest specimens have a length of about three feet4 ,they resemble the cotton-mouth moccasin in their general peculiarities1 being1 however1 somewhat lighter in color4 ,the head has a coppery tinge1 from which the snake gets its name1 while the body is of a brownish color1 with transverse ,y-shaped bands of reddish-brown4 ,its favorite habitat is rocky hill-sides and the banks of mountain water-courses4 ,coral-snakes4--,the two coral-snakes resemble each other very closely1 and are long slender serpents1 whose heads are quite small1 and scarcely differentiated from their bodies4 ,the pupils are round1 and the head has no pits4 ,they possess two short permanently erect fangs1 which are by no means so well developed as those of the viperine reptiles--though perhaps capable of inflicting more deadly wounds than any of the latter1--with the possible exception of the diamond-back rattlesnake of the extreme southern portion of the country4 ,their coloration is exceedingly beautiful1 and when properly interpreted1 entirely characteristic4 ,from the head to the tail their skins exhibit alternate rings1 or encircling bands of black1 red and yellow--each band of the two former colors being bordered by yellow2 in other words there are as many yellow stripes as there are both black and red together4 ,stress is laid upon the characteristics just mentioned1 for the reason that half a dozen species of harmless serpents that greatly resemble them may1 without exception1 be differentiated from the true coral-snakes by the fact that there are as many black bands as both red and yellow4 ,where a snake has been killed1 it is of course quite easy to determine whether or not it is venomous by a search for the fangs1 which are never present in the non-poisonous reptiles4 ,fortunately1 the coral-snakes are only found in the extreme southern portion of the ,united ,states1 live under ground for the most part1 and are rarely encountered4 ,treatment of ,snake-,bite4--,as soon as a person has been bitten by a poisonous serpent1 a tight bandage1 or ligature of any kind1 should be applied above the wound if the injury has been received on any of the extremities1--which is fortunately the case in the vast majority of instances4 ,the part bitten should be at once exposed1 and search made for the point of entrance of the fangs4 ,it should be particularly noted as to whether there are one or two wounds1 as it is true in about one-half of the cases that only one fang enters the flesh1--in which case1 of course1 the probabilities of serious consequences resulting are largely diminished4 ,with a pocket-knife or other sharp instrument the wound should be enlarged1 and1 if possible1 someone should be persuaded to suck the wound2 this should not be done by one with decayed teeth1 as under such circumstances the poison might be absorbed and produce unpleasant consequences4 ,a doctor should be summoned as quickly as is possible1 but it must be confessed that in the present state of knowledge1 unless he should happen to possess--which he probably will not--some antitoxin for the particular snake doing the damage1 his services will likely be of no great value4 ,it has been asserted by some that very large doses of strychnine are directly antidotal to snake venom1 but more recent experience does not tend to confirm this view2 still there is no harm in making the trial1 and if the services of someone capable of giving the injections can be secured1 the treatment is certainly worth the trial4 ,the immediate injection into the tissues around the wound of a one-per-cent4 watery solution of chromic acid or potassium permanganate is thought to be of value by destroying the poison1 but in order to be efficient it must be administered within a short time after the bite has been received4 ,should the patient's condition become serious1 and the breathing finally stop1 artificial respiration may be resorted to4 ,as soon as the remedies suggested have been tried1 it is time for us to go back to the ligature1 which cannot be suffered to remain around the limb indefinitely1 as by cutting off the blood-supply it will sooner or later produce death of the tissues4 ,from time to time we should slowly loosen the bandage1 thus allowing a little of the poison to pass into the body1 and at the same time permit the entrance of a small quantity of blood into the tissues of the limb beyond the ligature2 the bandage should of course be tightened at the end of a half a minute1 and it should be alternately loosened and tightened every half hour until the patient is considered to be out of danger4 ,the reader cannot fail to have observed that nothing has been said concerning the use of alcohol in the treatment of snake-bite1 and the matter is only here referred to for the purpose of condemning it as being unsound in theory and bad in practice4 ,the idea that this drug is of value in snake bite doubtless originally arose from the fact that those bitten by poisonous serpents were depressed1 and1 as in the past alcohol was considered the best of all stimulants1 it is not surprising that its use was generally considered to be essential4 ,as we now know1 however1 that alcohol is a depressant rather than a stimulant1 and as numerous experiments carried out on animals have clearly shown that it does harm in snake bite rather than good1 there is every reason why we should cease to endanger the lives of those already poisoned by adding to the trouble by using this drug4 ,there is but little doubt that many more persons have been killed by the alcoholic treatment for snake bites than have died from the effects of snake venom4 ,inasmuch as there is a deep-rooted superstition among most people that alcohol is the panacea for snake bite--and such notions die hard--it may be well to say that all of the authenticated cases of this character that have occurred in this country have recently been collected1 with the result that it was shown that only about one man in ten dies who is bitten by a venomous serpent1 and it is1 therefore1 quite easy to understand why alcohol has maintained its reputation as being an antidote in such cases--the chances being nine to one in the victim's favor without any treatment whatever4 ,as soon as the patient's needs are attended to1 it is well to find if the snake that inflicted the wound was killed1 and an examination of it should at once be made as by determining the size and character of the reptile an accurate forecast to the probable results may be made4 ,in many instances it will be found that the snake was not venomous1 it having made only a few scratches which are of no more consequence than the prick of a brier4 ,if it be found that the serpent inflicting the wound belongs to one of the groups already referred to1 the probabilities of a serious result will depend upon the size and character of the snake1 and also to a considerable degree on whether one or both fangs entered the victim's body4 ,a full grown diamond-back rattlesnake1 which may attain the extreme length of eight feet1 is perhaps the most dangerous of all the ,american poisonous reptiles1 though a fully grown coral-snake may be regarded as almost1 if not quite as1 deadly4 ,next to these a large sized cotton-mouth moccasin is perhaps most to be dreaded1 to be followed1 depending upon their size1 by the other varieties of rattlesnakes1 the copperheads1 and finally the ground-rattler4 ,the larger the serpent inflicting the wound the greater is the result to be dreaded2 naturally it also follows that the larger the individual bitten the less the danger4 ,,appendix ,,recipes ,,for ,,cooking ,,common ,,foods ,by ,,dr4 ,,mary ,e4 ,,lapham ,,preparation ,,of ,,meats ,roast ,beef4--,the problem of roasting beef is to have it sufficiently cooked in the center without hardening and over-cooking the outside4 ,burned edges and a raw center testify to a lack of intelligence4 ,the ,english way of baking beef is to allow nine minutes to the pound for a rib-roast and eight minutes for a sirloin4 ,sprinkle pepper and salt over the meat and sprinkle with flour4 ,pour a little boiling water into the pan and bake in an oven hot enough to crisp and brown peeled raw potatoes cooked in the same pan4 ,do not forget to baste often4 ,this method gives a rich flavor to the beef and the gravy1 but the outside is apt to be cooked too hard while the inside is not enough cooked4 ,too hot a fire tends to make meat tough and dry4 ,the ,french have a safer way1 especially for small roasts4 ,the beef is cooked in a cool oven--so cool that a peeled1 raw potato will cook tender without browning4 ,allow about an hour and a quarter for a four-pound rib-roast4 ,in this way the heat penetrates to the center without hardening the outside4 ,when properly done the outside is very little more cooked than the inside1 and the roast throughout is tender1 rare1 and juicy1 with no hard-burned edges4 ,this way of baking makes inferior beef more tender and juicy than the ,english way4 ,it has the disadvantage of not leaving any gravy in the pan4 ,when baked after the ,english method the fat fries out into the pan1 and a delicious1 rich1 brown gravy may be made by adding flour and water4 ,strain the juice through a fine sieve and allow to stand a few minutes so as to be able to skim or pour off all the grease4 ,do not serve gravies with half an inch of pure grease on top4 ,it does not require a scientific education nor a herculean effort to remove the grease4 ,pot ,roast4--,if the beef is of an inferior quality1 the best way to cook it is in a heavy iron kettle1 preferably with a sloping bottom4 ,sprinkle the meat with salt and pepper2 place a little fat in the bottom of the kettle--enough to keep the meat from sticking--and allow the roast to brown slowly for half an hour4 ,now put a pint of boiling water in the pot4 ,cover very closely and let it simmer on the back of the stove for about four hours1 adding small quantities of hot water as necessary1 and turning often4 ,when cooked take up the meat2 skim the fat from the gravy and thicken with flour4 ,hamburg ,steaks4--,another way of preparing inferior cuts of beef is to make ,hamburg steaks4 ,chop the meat in fine pieces4 ,season with salt1 pepper and a little onion juice1 and shape into thin cakes4 ,put three or four slices of fat salt pork into a frying-pan1 and when brown remove it and place the steaks in the fat4 ,fry four minutes2 turn1 and fry three more1 and serve on a hot platter4 ,put a tablespoonful of flour into the fat and stir until brown4 ,gradually add a cupful of water or preferably milk and boil three minutes2 season well1 pour over the meat1 and serve immediately4 ,broiled ,beef4--,broiling is the simplest1 easiest1 and most delicious method of cooking meats1 but1 as a rule1 ignorance instinctively turns to the frying-pan1 and broiling is unknown in many homes4 ,this is partly due to not knowing how to manage the fire4 ,it seems so much easier to fry on top of the stove than to plan beforehand an adequate preparation of the coals4 ,it is necessary to have a bed of clear1 hot coals with no smoke4 ,have the steak cut three-quarters of an inch thick2 place in a wire broiler2 put over the coals and cover with a baking-pan4 ,turn every minute or two until the meat is sufficiently cooked4 ,when done1 place on a hot platter1 and season well with salt1 pepper1 and butter4 ,serve immediately4 ,it should take about ten minutes to cook a steak or thick mutton chop4 ,fried ,beef4--,if beef must be fried1 have a hot fire2 heat a thick iron frying-pan and grease it just enough to keep the meat from sticking4 ,have the meat three-quarters of an inch thick2 place in the hot pan and turn as soon as it is well seared4 ,turn often until done and then season well and serve at once4 ,there should be no gravy in the pan2 all the juices should be in the meat4 ,beef ,hash4--,take equal parts of beef and cold potatoes1 chopped moderately fine4 ,chop a small onion and fry in plenty of butter until brown2 add the meat and potatoes and just enough milk to keep from sticking4 ,cook for half an hour1 stirring frequently4 ,serve with thin1 dry toast or toasted crackers4 ,poached eggs are a very nice addition4 ,veal4--,veal1 when properly cooked1 is delicious and delicate4 ,like pork it should be cooked slowly for a long time to develop its full flavor4 ,unfortunately it is usually half-cooked1 tough1 and insipid4 ,the housewife who can cook veal properly has a distinct advantage over her less fortunate neighbor4 ,leg ,roast of ,veal4--,take out the bone and fill the space with stuffing made as follows3 ,take one half-cupful of chopped fat pork1 or unsmoked bacon1 and fry with a finely chopped onion until delicately brown4 ,add two cupfuls of bread crumbs2 season with salt and pepper and moisten with a little milk4 ,tie the veal closely2 sprinkle with pepper and salt2 rub thoroughly with flour and cover with buttered paper4 ,into the baking-pan put a generous number of thin slices of unsmoked bacon1 an onion and half a can of tomatoes4 ,add just enough boiling water to steam the veal4 ,cook gently in a moderate oven1 allowing twenty-five minutes to the pound1 and baste very frequently1 turning the meat about every half-hour4 ,when done1 put it on a hot platter in the warming oven1 and add enough water to make the requisite amount of gravy4 ,thicken with browned flour1 strain1 and pour over the roast4 ,fried ,veal4--,fried veal steak or cutlets are delicious1 but very difficult to prepare properly4 ,as a usual thing veal cutlets are either half raw1 or cooked until dry and hard4 ,when properly cooked veal should be spongy1 soft1 and velvety4 ,the chops should be not quite a half inch thick4 ,melt a little lard in a hot frying-pan2 sprinkle some salt and pepper on the veal and fry quickly until brown on both sides4 ,then cover tightly1 and place on the back of the stove and steam until thoroughly tender4 ,it requires from forty to forty-five minutes to fry veal4 ,broiled ,veal4--,the veal should be cut thin1 broiled quickly until brown1 and seasoned with salt1 pepper1 and melted butter1 to which a little chopped parsley and lemon juice have been added4 ,serve on a hot platter and eat at once4 ,if the veal is fat1 tender and nicely broiled1 it is almost as good as game4 ,veal ,stew or ,pot-pie4--,cut the meat from a knuckle of veal into pieces not too small2 put them into a pot with some small pieces of salt pork1 and plenty of pepper and salt2 pour over enough hot water to cover it well1 and boil until the meat is thoroughly done4 ,while the water is still boiling drop in1 by the spoonful1 a batter made as follows3 ,two eggs well beaten1 two and a half or three cupfuls of buttermilk1 one even teaspoonful of soda1 and flour enough to make a thick batter4 ,cover the pot1 and as soon as the batter is well cooked serve it4 ,veal ,stew4--,this is an exceedingly nutritious1 economical1 and appetizing dish4 ,cut the veal into small pieces about an inch square2 add three or four thin slices of salt pork2 one or two onions and potatoes cut up fine1 and a little turnip1 carrot1 parsley and celery1 if you have them4 ,cover well with boiling water and cook over a brisk fire until the meat is tender and the water pretty well cooked away4 ,this will require about an hour4 ,cover the meat well with fresh milk2 season to taste with pepper1 salt1 and a generous quantity of butter2 let the mess simmer on the back of the stove about twenty minutes1 and serve it in a hot covered dish4 ,jellied ,veal4--,jellied veal gives the impression of an expensive preparation1 and yet nothing is cheaper or simpler4 ,put a knuckle of veal into a pot that can be tightly covered2 season well with two or three slices of unsmoked bacon1 the heart of an onion1 salt1 pepper and a little butter1 adding just enough water to steam the meat thoroughly 7replenishing it from time to time as needed71 and cook over a slow fire until tender--probably about four hours4 ,when done there should be about two teacupfuls of broth4 ,prepare three cold hard-boiled eggs4 ,cut the veal into pieces the size of a walnut4 ,now choose a dish just large enough to hold the meat1 the eggs and the broth4 ,slice the eggs and place a few pieces on the bottom of the dish4 ,now put in a layer of veal2 then more egg and continue in this way until the veal is used4 ,strain the broth over the veal and set it away in a cool place1 preferably on ice1 until quite firm4 ,when about to serve it1 loosen by slipping a knife1 warmed in water1 between the meat and the dish4 ,garnish with parsley or lettuce1 and serve with salad of any kind4 ,roast ,pork4--,pork should be thoroughly cooked in a medium hot oven4 ,for the leg or the shoulder allow twenty-five minutes to the pound4 ,for the spareribs allow fifteen minutes4 ,sprinkle the spareribs well with salt1 pepper1 sage1 and a little chopped onion1 or bake a few onions in the same dish4 ,put a little water in the pan and add to it as it cooks away4 ,the leg1 the loin1 and the shoulder may be stuffed with well-seasoned sage stuffing4 ,to make this1 cut a few strips of fat pork into small dice and fry over a slow fire4 ,add a finely chopped onion and cook until brown4 ,crumble as many slices of dry bread as you will need1 and fry with the onion and pork over a slow fire until nicely browned4 ,moisten a little with milk or cream1 and fill the space left by removing the bones4 ,sew tightly together and bake thoroughly4 ,peeled1 raw potatoes are very nice baked in the same dish with the pork4 ,a medium sized potato will require a little over an hour to bake in a moderate oven4 ,apple sauce1 sauerkraut1 or cabbage cooked with a little vinegar1 are nice to serve with pork4 ,broiled ,pork4--,very thin slices cut from a leg of pork1 or the cutlets1 or the chops1 are extremely nice and delicate when broiled4 ,they must be cut thin2 the coals must be bright and hot2 and the meat turned very often4 ,serve on a hot platter4 ,fried ,pork4--,for frying1 pork should not be cut over a half an inch thick3 ,cook slowly from forty minutes to an hour1 with the pan closely covered1 to keep in the steam4 ,pork requires a long1 slow process to develop its flavor and tenderness4 ,nearly everyone cooks it too fast1 and for too short a time4 ,when thoroughly steamed and nicely seasoned with salt1 pepper1 sage and a little onion1 well fed pork is as toothsome and dainty as turkey4 ,make a brown gravy and pour over the meat4 ,serve with apple sauce4 ,boiled ,pork4--,take a leg of pork1 or a shoulder1 and remove the bones4 ,tie closely together and let it cook slowly in a tightly covered pot for half an hour1 adding a little fat if necessary to keep the meat from sticking4 ,now sprinkle with salt1 pepper and sage4 ,put two whole onions in the pot1 and just enough boiling water to thoroughly steam the meat4 ,place it on the back of the stove and cook over a slow fire for four or five hours until thoroughly tender and velvety4 ,when done put on a hot platter in the warming-oven4 ,thicken the gravy with flour1 adding a little water or milk if necessary1 then let it boil for five minutes and strain4 ,when properly cooked this is delicious cold1 and almost as good for salad as chicken or turkey4 ,if desired1 peeled raw potatoes may be browned in the pot with the meat4 ,these will take about an hour to cook4 ,curing ,ham and ,bacon4--,to have good ham and bacon the meat must first be properly cured so that the lean part is pink1 tender and soft to the touch1 while the fat is clear and white4 ,in many country homes the lean meat is about as tough1 hard1 and indigestible as sole leather4 ,a good recipe for curing is as follows3 ,for every gallon of water take two pounds of coarse salt and one-half ounce of soda4 ,boil all together and skim well1 and1 while hot1 pour over the meat4 ,put in a cold dry place with a stone to keep the meat well below the water4 ,after three weeks1 hang the meat and let it dry for two or three days before smoking4 ,broiled ,ham4--,nothing is more appetizing for supper than broiled ham1 served with mashed potatoes1 milk toast1 or a poached egg on dry toast4 ,cut the ham as thin as possible1 and broil quickly over hot coals1 turning constantly until the fat begins to shrivel4 ,have everything else ready so that it can be eaten immediately4 ,cold cabbage salad is nice with this4 ,boiled ,ham4--,if quite salty1 soak the ham twenty-four hours4 ,put it in a large kettle with a generous supply of water1 and allow twenty-five minutes to the pound for boiling4 ,take the pot from the fire and let the meat remain in the water until nearly cold4 ,sprinkle with pepper and rub thoroughly with brown sugar2 put the ham and the fat from the liquor into a baking-pan and brown for about an hour in the oven4 ,cut as thin as possible when serving4 ,frying ,ham4--,cut the ham in the thinnest possible slices1 with a large1 sharp knife4 ,have the frying-pan hot1 and cook the meat just enough to give the fat a delicate brown1 turning frequently4 ,to cook ham too much is to make it tough1 hard1 dry1 and indigestible4 ,put the ham on a hot platter in the warming oven4 ,add a cupful1 or more1 of fresh milk to the grease and thicken with flour4 ,serve with boiled potatoes4 ,instead of making a gravy1 eggs may be fried in the fat4 ,to do this nicely the fat must not be burned4 ,the eggs should be dropped in one by one1 allowing them plenty of room to spread out4 ,cook slowly and with a spoon baste the yolks with the hot fat until they sear1 being careful not to cook the egg too hard4 ,these eggs are very nice served on thin1 dry toast1 or one may be placed on each slice of ham4 ,fried ,bacon4--,cut the bacon into very thin slices1 and cook in a hot frying-pan just long enough to turn the fat to a delicate brown4 ,if cooked too long it is hard and indigestible1 besides losing its delicacy of flavor4 ,a very nice way to cook bacon1 instead of frying it1 is to roll the slices up into curls1 skewer them with toothpicks1 and place them in a baking-pan on the grate of a hot oven until they are slightly brown4 ,serve on dry toast4 ,they should be eaten at once4 ,broiled ,bacon4--,bacon can be broiled like ham4 ,a very nice way to serve it1 especially for an invalid1 is to toast it before the fire2 split a hot biscuit and make a sandwich with the bacon4 ,bacon toasted this way and eaten when very hot has a peculiarly appetizing flavor4 ,unsmoked ,bacon4--,cut in thin slices2 roll in flour or meal2 dust lightly with pepper2 fry over a moderately hot fire until delicately brown and crisp1 and put on a warm platter in the warming closet4 ,add sufficient fresh milk to the fat to make the requisite amount of gravy4 ,season with a little salt and pepper1 and thicken with flour4 ,do not pour over the meat4 ,serve in separate dish4 ,boiled ,mutton4--,mutton should be cooked very much like beef1--just enough to leave a faint pink1 but not enough to make it hard and develop a strong taste4 ,for boiled mutton allow ten minutes to the pound4 ,add a little rice to make the meat whiter and tenderer4 ,cover with boiling water and cook rapidly for fifteen minutes2 then place on the back of the stove where it will simmer nicely for two hours4 ,young turnips1 boiled with the mutton are a very nice addition4 ,mutton ,cutlets4--,the chops should be thick4 ,grease the bottom of a hot frying-pan just enough to keep the chops from sticking2 place over a hot fire1 and turn the meat constantly to keep it from burning until the center is a faint pink4 ,season with salt1 pepper1 and melted butter to which a little lemon juice and parsley may be added4 ,roast ,mutton4--,the ,french roast mutton in a slow oven in order that the heat may penetrate to the center without injuring the outside4 ,allow twenty minutes to the pound1 or1 if a very large roast1 twenty-five minutes may not be too much1 providing the oven is not too hot4 ,season with salt and pepper1 and put a generous supply of boiling water in the pan4 ,baste frequently1 and turn the meat every half hour4 ,place two or three peeled raw potatoes in the pan1 and watch them2 if they begin to brown1 the oven is too hot4 ,the potatoes should keep pace with the mutton1 and when the latter is half done the former should be cooked to the same degree4 ,broiled ,mutton ,chops4--,the chops should be cut an inch thick4 ,trim off the fat and scrape the bones4 ,roll in a little melted butter or oil1 and broil over a hot fire1 turning constantly until just pink within4 ,have ready a mound of hot mashed potatoes and lay the chops around it4 ,pour a little melted butter over them and serve with green peas4 ,,proper ,,cooking ,,of ,,cereals4 ,starchy foods in any form must be well cooked4 ,gluey1 slimy oatmeal1 full of hard lumps of half-cooked grains1 the whole forming a raw1 horrid mass1 is very different from the smooth1 well cooked1 easily digestible1 oatmeal prepared by a good cook4 ,rolled oats are more easily cooked than oatmeal1 as they are already prepared4 ,for four people1 put a quarter of a teaspoonful of salt into four cups of hot water and stir in slowly one cup of rolled oats1 being careful not to allow lumps to form4 ,cook for an hour in a double boiler4 ,hominy4--,hominy is seldom well cooked4 ,it is often lumpy and raw1 and yet has a burned taste which comes from being cooked in too little water1 while if too much is used it goes all to soup and can never be made good4 ,salt a quart of boiling water1 and very carefully stir into it a cup of hominy4 ,stir often and add a little water from time to time if it gets too dry4 ,cook until every grain is thoroughly done4 ,rice4--,rice is rarely well prepared1 the greatest trouble being to get each grain well cooked without making it mushy4 ,when properly cooked each grain will be firm and distinct1 and at the same time soft and tender4 ,wash half a cupful of rice thoroughly1 put it in a quart of boiling salted water1 and let it boil for half an hour2 then drain it thoroughly and steam it in a colander for an hour4 ,corn-,bread4--,corn-bread should be something like rice3 every particle thoroughly cooked and soft1 and yet not sticking together1 so that the inside is dry and crumbly while the outside is crisp and nutty4 ,the thinner corn-bread is baked the more perfectly it cooks4 ,it should not be more than an inch thick and preferably less4 ,a cannon-ball of raw meal1 with only the thinnest of surfaces decently baked1 is an insult to a man's intelligence as well as to his digestion4 ,this is the way to prepare it properly4 ,sift a teaspoonful of baking powder into a pint of corn meal4 ,mix in a piece of butter the size of a walnut and add sweet milk until you get a dough that can be kneaded into a cake4 ,bake in a hot oven until brown and well done4 ,a little richer corn-bread is made by heating a pint of sweet milk and pouring it over a pint of corn-meal4 ,melt a piece of butter the size of a walnut1 beat two eggs1 add a little salt1 and mix well into the meal4 ,put in a shallow dish1 and bake about a half hour in a quick oven4 ,biscuits4--,biscuits should be thin1 crisp1 delicately browned and free from flour4 ,the inside of a biscuit should be flaky and dry4 ,thick1 soggy1 heavy biscuits impose a severe task upon digestion4 ,make the biscuits about two inches in diameter1 and three-quarters of an inch thick4 ,bake them brown on both the top and the bottom4 ,it is much easier to make light1 wholesome biscuits with baking-powder than with soda4 ,buttermilk biscuits are very delicate and palatable1 but not quite so certain to turn out well4 ,if soda is not properly used you will have a yellow1 evil-smelling compound1 or else there will not be enough soda to make the biscuits rise1 and they will be dangerously heavy4 ,to make soda-biscuits sift one level teaspoonful of soda1 one half-teaspoonful salt1 and one quart of flour together three times so as to get the soda thoroughly well mixed in4 ,now rub two tablespoons of lard into the flour and add enough buttermilk to make a soft dough4 ,roll out into a sheet1 cut into small thin biscuits and bake in a hot oven until well browned4 ,baking-powder biscuits are made in the same way1 by using two teaspoonfuls of baking-powder in place of the soda1 and sweet milk instead of buttermilk4 ,yeast4--,put three hops in a pot containing two quarts of cold water4 ,place on the stove and see that it boils twenty minutes4 ,have a pint of flour in a large bowl and mix into it a tablespoonful of sugar1 one of salt and a teaspoonful of ginger4 ,strain the water from the hops into this1 stirring constantly4 ,allow it to cool4 ,when lukewarm put in a cup of yeast or a yeast-cake4 ,rolls4--,at night take one half-cup of lukewarm water1 one half-teaspoonful of salt1 three-quarters of a cup of yeast1 and enough flour to make a thin batter4 ,in the morning add to this a pint of milk1 a teaspoonful of sugar1 a half-cup of butter and beat in flour until it is no longer sticky4 ,set it in a warm place to rise and when well up knock back4 ,repeat this process1 and when it comes up the third time make it into rolls4 ,let it rise once more and then bake it4 ,,methods ,,with ,,chicken4 ,the simplest and easiest way to cook chicken is to fry it4 ,a poorly fed chicken is better stewed4 ,for baking and broiling the chicken must be fat4 ,in whatever way the chicken is cooked there is danger of its being tough1 dry1 stringy1 and tasteless4 ,plain1 artless1 boiling results in insipidity4 ,quick1 superficial frying means tough stringy fibres2 and a hot oven frequently dries the meat until it is not fit to eat4 ,fried ,chicken4--,all housewives think they can fry chicken1 but the results are vastly different1 according to the way it is done4 ,you may have a tender1 rich1 delicious morsel1 or tough masses of meat1 stringy1 tasteless and almost impossible to chew4 ,of course the condition of the chicken has a great deal to do with the results4 ,a tender1 well-fed chicken will fry far better and much more quickly than a thin1 scrawny one4 ,the thinner the chicken the greater the necessity for care in cooking it4 ,it must be cooked slowly1 over a moderate fire1 in a tightly covered pan1 until it is perfectly tender4 ,melt a little fat in the frying-pan2 flour1 salt1 and pepper the pieces of chicken and fry them in the fat until nicely browned on both sides4 ,now cover closely and place on the back of the stove where the chicken will steam for half an hour4 ,when tender take up on a hot platter and put in the warming oven4 ,make a rich1 brown gravy and pour over it4 ,boiled ,chicken4--,chickens may be boiled whole or cut into pieces4 ,to boil whole place a few pieces of unsmoked bacon in a stew-pan that is deep enough to hold the chicken and can be tightly covered4 ,cook slowly for an hour without adding water1 turning it often until it is evenly browned4 ,now add a small onion1 some raw peeled potatoes not larger than an egg1 and a little boiling water4 ,cook over a brisk fire for three-quarters of an hour4 ,salt and pepper the chicken and put it and the potatoes in a baking-dish in a hot oven while making the gravy4 ,a couple of hard-boiled eggs chopped very fine1 and a little chopped parsley1 improve the gravy4 ,baked ,chicken4--,a properly baked chicken is tender1 juicy1 and has a rich flavor1 while one improperly baked is tough1 dry1 stringy1 and tasteless4 ,to bake a chicken properly the oven must not be too hot2 the chicken must be repeatedly basted1 and cooked until it is tender1 but not until all dried up4 ,stuffing the chicken improves the flavor4 ,to make the dressing1 melt enough of any kind of wholesome fat in a hot frying-pan to keep the bread crumbs from sticking1 and fry in it a large onion1 chopped fine1 until it is tender4 ,place the dry bread-crumbs into the fat1 and cook for half an hour over a slow fire1 stirring often to keep from sticking1 until the crumbs are slightly browned and well dried4 ,season with salt1 pepper and a little celery-salt1 and moisten with just enough milk to make it stick together4 ,always taste the dressing to see if it is properly seasoned4 ,a well-fed chicken can be baked more rapidly than a thin one4 ,if the chicken is thin add plenty of fat to the water in the baking-pan2 cover closely and cook slowly and carefully until it is tender1 turning very often2 if it is fat and well-fed put plenty of wholesome grease in the baking-dish1 and without covering it1 cook in a hot oven1 basting frequently4 ,a young1 fat chicken will bake in an hour4 ,an older fowl may require two or three hours4 ,it is a good plan to allow the chicken plenty of time and then1 if done too soon1 to cover it closely and keep it warm on the back of the stove4 ,use just enough water while baking to keep the fat from sputtering4 ,if the water is cooked out towards the end1 and the chicken is thoroughly basted1 the skin will take on a rich1 thick glazing that is highly creditable to the skill of the cook4 ,delicious gravy can be made of the fat by adding milk and thickening with flour4 ,smothered ,chicken4--,use a frying-size chicken4 ,split it down the back and rub with a little salt4 ,put it in a pan with a slice of bacon and a pint of water4 ,cover the pan closely and let it simmer on top of the stove from one to two hours1 or until the chicken is thoroughly tender4 ,when done sprinkle with flour and baste well4 ,add a small tablespoon of butter1 and put in the oven and cook until brown4 ,broiled ,chicken4--,a young1 tender1 fat chicken is better broiled than any other way4 ,it has a finer flavor2 is tenderer1 more juicy and more easily digested2 in fact broiled chicken is one of the most delicious dishes that can be served4 ,there is no earthly use1 however1 in trying to broil a chicken that is not fat and nice4 ,if the chicken is a little too old to broil whole the breast will still be tender4 ,flatten the chicken by pounding it4 ,have a bed of clear1 bright coals and a hot gridiron well greased to prevent sticking4 ,cover with a baking-dish and turn often1 allowing the bony side to stay down longer than the other side4 ,from fifteen to twenty minutes should be enough1 but it is always best to test with a fork by pulling the fibres apart to see that they are not raw4 ,as soon as the raw look has disappeared the chicken is done4 ,the least over-cooking injures the flavor4 ,serve on a hot platter4 ,pour over a little melted butter1 seasoned with lemon juice and chopped parsley4 ,to bake or boil a turkey proceed the same as for chicken1 simply allowing more time4 ,an eight-pound turkey will require three hours to roast4 ,,making ,,good ,,soups4 ,vegetable ,soups4--,the simplest and most easily prepared soups are those made from peas1 beans1 tomatoes1 asparagus1 celery1 carrots1 onions1 and potatoes4 ,they require neither meat nor any previous preparation1 but can be made and eaten at once4 ,these soups are somewhat paradoxical because they are both cheap and rich2 deliciously simple and simply delicious4 ,take enough of any of these vegetables to furnish sufficient soup after they have been rubbed through a strainer and thinned with milk or cream4 ,cook the vegetables thoroughly until perfectly soft1 so that they can be easily rubbed through a coarse strainer4 ,add enough milk to this puree to make it about the thickness of cream4 ,season with salt1 pepper1 and a little celery-salt1 and serve with bits of bread browned crisp in the oven4 ,when the vegetables can be got fresh from the garden nothing is more delicious than these soups1 and in winter1 canned peas and dried beans make excellent substitutes4 ,in making potato puree two onions boiled with the potatoes improve the flavor4 ,potato soup without onion is tasteless2 a little celery boiled in with the potatoes and onion1 makes it still nicer4 ,tomato soup is also better slightly flavored with onion and a little carrot4 ,a little cold boiled rice1 simmered for a half-hour in the soup after the milk has been added1 is an excellent addition4 ,these soups are also delicious when made rather thin with milk and then thickened by putting the well-beaten yolks of two eggs into the hot soup-tureen1 and stirring vigorously while adding the soup2 this last soup must be served at once1 as it cannot stand after the eggs are added4 ,meat ,soups4--,these soups should always be made the day before required in order to thoroughly remove the fat1 which cannot be done until it hardens on the top of the soup4 ,nothing is more disgusting than greasy soup4 ,the foundation for an infinite variety of soups is made by boiling about a pound of meat in three pints of water4 ,after the meat is cooked to pieces strain it out and keep the well-skimmed liquor1 or stock1 as it is called1 in a stone jar in a cool place4 ,it should form a jelly1 and in order to prepare a different soup for each day1 it is only necessary to heat some of the jelly and flavor it differently4 ,for instance3 ,chop fine one small onion to each person and fry it in butter1 or in some of the grease taken off the soup1 until tender and slightly brown4 ,pour over enough stock and let stand for half an hour4 ,serve with a little grated cheese4 ,cabbage soup is made in the same way except that it takes longer to cook the cabbage4 ,instead of one vegetable several may be used4 ,turnips1 cabbage1 onions1 and carrots in about the same proportion1 chopped fine and fried tender1 without any water1 and added to the soup1 make what is known in ,france as ,julienne soup4 ,,eggs ,,in ,,several ,,forms4 ,coddled ,eggs4--,the most delicate way to cook an egg is to coddle it4 ,put six into a vessel that will hold two quarts4 ,fill with boiling water1 cover closely1 and let it stand in a warm place for ten minutes4 ,if you desire them better cooked let them stay in the water longer4 ,if you want to do but one egg1 put it in a quart of boiling water1 cover and let stand five minutes4 ,shirred ,eggs4--,to shirr an egg break it into a saucer or any small dish that has been well greased4 ,put into a hot oven and leave until glazed4 ,season and serve at once4 ,scrambled ,eggs4--,heat a teaspoonful of milk to each egg in a sauce-pan not more than a quarter of an inch deep and about the right size to hold the quantity of eggs desired4 ,add a little salt1 pepper1 and butter4 ,when hot put in the eggs1 and as they lie on the bottom of the pan1 scrape off with a spoon letting the raw part take the place of those portions already cooked1 and continue this until a creamy custard is formed4 ,be careful not to cook the eggs so long that this custard is changed to a hard mass4 ,,proper ,,cooking ,,of ,,vegetables4 ,the general tendency in cooking vegetables is to use altogether too much water so that they become soaked and tasteless4 ,the ideal way to cook most vegetables is to use as little water as possible2 just a little in the bottom of the pot so that the vegetables will not stick and burn1 but steam through in their own juices until thoroughly tender and full of their own flavor4 ,the fire should not be too hot2 the pot should be tightly covered2 a sufficient amount of butter must be added when the vegetable is about half done2 and plenty of time given to allow it to simmer and steam until thoroughly flavored4 ,onions1 beans1 carrots1 and cabbage are most delicate when chopped fine1 cooked until tender in a very little water1 seasoned with salt1 pepper1 and butter1 covered with milk1 and allowed to stand on the back of the stove for twenty minutes until the flavor is thoroughly developed4 ,boiled ,potatoes4--,potatoes should not be peeled before boiling1 but should be thoroughly washed and rinsed4 ,they should be put in an abundance of boiling water1 well salted1 and covered tightly4 ,when tender pour off all the water1 cover the pot with a towel and let it stand on the back of the stove for ten minutes4 ,baked ,potatoes4--,if baked potatoes stand they lose their flavor4 ,a baked potato1 eaten as soon as done1 is sweet1 dry and mealy4 ,allow them to stand even for ten minutes and the flavor is lost1 and they become wet and tasteless4 ,a pleasant change is to peel the potatoes before baking4 ,these must be eaten as soon as they come from the oven or they lose their crispness4 ,beans4--,nothing is more valuable for winter food than beans4 ,they give as much strength as beefsteak and are far less expensive4 ,soak them in plenty of water over night2 add a generous piece of unsmoked bacon2 let simmer on the back of the stove until they are tender and the water is well cooked away2 cover with milk1 and either let them stand on the back of the stove until the milk is thickened1 or put them into a shallow baking-dish and bake until nearly dry4 ,serve either hot or cold4 ,,some ,,capital ,,desserts4 ,apple ,pudding4--,peel and slice enough apples to nearly fill your pudding-dish1 sugar to taste1 and grate over them a little nutmeg4 ,also add a little water4 ,now make a batter as follows3 ,three quarters of a cup of sugar2 a piece of butter the size of a small egg1 one half-cup of milk1 one egg1 a pinch of salt1 a teaspoonful of baking-powder1 and one and one-eighth cups of flour4 ,this is an extremely nice1 wholesome pudding1 which can be served with either cream or hard sauce4 ,to make hard sauce take a half-cup of butter and cream it with a fork2 add a cupful of sugar and beat until nicely mixed and creamy4 ,flavor to taste and sprinkle a little nutmeg over it4 ,cottage ,pudding4--,one cupful of sugar1 one tablespoonful of butter1 one half-cupful of milk1 two eggs1 one and one-half cupfuls of flour1 and one teaspoonful of baking-powder4 ,for the sauce1 take three and a half cupfuls of boiling water and stir in it a cupful of sugar1 and a tablespoonful of either flour or corn-starch rubbed smooth with a little cold water4 ,cook well for two or three minutes2 take the pan from the fire1 add the butter and flavor as you prefer4 ,batter ,pudding ,boiled or ,baked4--,one quart of milk1 six eggs beaten separately1 six tablespoonfuls of flour worked gradually into the yolks of the eggs1 and a pinch of salt4 ,bake or boil about three-quarters of an hour4 ,serve with sauce4 ,cream of ,corn-starch4--,one quart of milk1 four eggs1 one half-cupful sugar1 four tablespoonfuls of corn-starch dissolved in a little milk4 ,into a pint of the milk put the sugar1 and place on the stove to heat4 ,when very hot gradually stir in the corn-starch and beat well4 ,have ready the whites of the eggs1 and beat them into the milk2 flavor as preferred4 ,take the other pint of milk1 the four yolks and four light tablespoonfuls of sugar1 and place them over the fire1 stirring constantly4 ,this makes a nice custard4 ,just before serving pour the custard over the pudding4 ,caramel ,custard4--,one egg for each person2 also one teaspoonful of milk for each person4 ,put the yolks and milk together with a tablespoonful of sugar to each egg4 ,have ready some caramel1 and stir in enough to give a decided flavor4 ,put this into cups or baking-dishes1 and set in a pan of hot water on top of the stove for twenty minutes2 then in the oven until the custard sets4 ,serve cold4 ,for the caramel1 take two cupfuls of sugar 7preferably brown7 and put it in a frying-pan with a teaspoonful of water4 ,cook until well burned4 ,add a cup of water1 and1 when cold1 put it in a bottle or fruit-jar4 ,this quantity will last a long time4 ,brown ,betty ,pudding4--,take a cupful of grated bread-crumbs1 two cupfuls of finely chopped1 tart apples1 half a cupful of brown sugar1 a teaspoonful of cinnamon1 and one tablespoonful of butter4 ,butter a deep pudding-dish1 and put a layer of apples on the bottom2 then sprinkle with sugar1 cinnamon and bits of the butter4 ,put in another layer of apples1 and proceed as before until all the ingredients have been used4 ,cover the dish and bake for three-quarters of an hour in a moderate oven2 remove the cover now and brown the pudding4 ,serve with sugar and cream4 ,rice ,pudding4--,one cupful of boiled rice 7better if still hot71 three cupfuls of milk1 three-quarters of a cup of sugar1 a tablespoonful of corn-starch1 and two eggs2 add flavoring4 ,dissolve the corn-starch with a little of the milk1 and stir it into the rest of the milk2 also add the yolks of the eggs and the sugar beaten together4 ,put this over the fire and when hot add the rice4 ,stir it carefully until it begins to thicken1 then take it off and add the flavoring4 ,put it into a pudding-dish and bake in the oven4 ,,the ,,end ,,index ,a ,accidents1 #bbc4 ,acid1 carbolic1 for ,rhus poisoning1 #bfj2 in wounds1 #bca2 poisoning by1 #bec2 of fruit1 #acc1 #adf2 picric1 #bda2 uric1 #adi4 ,acrodinia1 #i4 ,agaricus campestris1 #bef4 ,air1 #aha4 ,air-space1 #de4 ,albumin1 #aje4 ,albumins1 #ih1 #ajd1 #aag1 #aca4 ,alcohol and its effects1 #aee2 for ,rhus poisoning1 #bfj2 of no value in snake-poisoning1 #bgj2 predisposes to consumption1 #ahc2 predisposes to heat-prostration1 #bdd4 ,amanita muscarius1 #beh4 ,amanita phalloides1 #beg4 ,ammonia1 aromatic spirits of1 #bei4 ,anaphylaxis1 #bjd4 ,ancistrodon contortrix1 #bfc4 ,ancistrodon piscivorus1 #bfb4 ,animals1 bites of1 #bdi2 location of quarters1 #fa4 ,anopheles1 #da1 #aga1 #agd4 ,antidotes for poisons1 see under names of poisons4 ,antiseptics1 #bca1 #bdg4 ,antitoxin1 for diphtheria1 #aih1 #bjc2 for lockjaw1 #bcc4 ,apples1 #adg4 ,arrowroot1 #aab4 ,arsenic1 #beb4 ,arteries1 #bbi4 ,artichokes1 #acf4 ,asparagus1 #adb4 ,atropine1 #bei4 ,b ,bacillus tuberculosis1 #agi4 ,bacillus typhosus1 #ahf4 ,bacon1 broiled1 #bhb2 curing of1 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