,,the ,,artistic ,,crafts ,,series ,,of ,,technical ,,handbooks ,,edited ,,by ,w4 ,r4 ,,lethaby ,,bookbinding ,illustration3 ,,white ,,pigskin4--,basle1 #aeab4 ,,bookbinding1 ,,and ,,the ,,care ,,of ,,books ,a ,,handbook ,,for ,,amateurs ,,bookbinders ,,librarians ,,by ,,douglas ,,cockerell ,,with ,,drawings ,,by ,,noel ,,rooke ,,and ,,other ,,illustrations ,illustration ,,new ,,york ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company #aiaj ,,copyright1 #aija1 ,,by ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company ,all rights reserved ,,editor',s ,,preface ,in issuing this volume of a series of ,handbooks on the ,artistic ,crafts1 it will be well to state what are our general aims4 ,in the first place1 we wish to provide trustworthy text-books of workshop practice1 from the points of view of experts who have critically examined the methods current in the shops1 and putting aside vain survivals1 are prepared to say what is good workmanship1 and to set up a standard of quality in the crafts which are more especially associated with design4 ,secondly1 in doing this1 we hope to treat design itself as an essential part of good workmanship4 ,during the last century most of the arts1 save painting and sculpture of an academic kind1 were little considered1 and there was a tendency to look on design as a mere matter of appearance4 ,such ornamentation as there was was usually obtained by following in a mechanical way a drawing provided by an artist who often knew little of the technical processes involved in production4 ,with the critical attention given to the crafts by ,ruskin and ,morris1 it came to be seen that it was impossible to detach design from craft in this way1 and that1 in the widest sense1 true design is an inseparable element of good quality1 involving as it does the selection of good and suitable material1 contrivance for special purpose1 expert workmanship1 proper finish and so on1 far more than mere ornament1 and indeed1 that ornamentation itself was rather an exuberance of fine workmanship than a matter of merely abstract lines4 ,workmanship when separated by too wide a gulf from fresh thought--that is1 from design--inevitably decays1 and1 on the other hand1 ornamentation1 divorced from workmanship1 is necessarily unreal1 and quickly falls into affectation4 ,proper ornamentation may be defined as a language addressed to the eye2 it is pleasant thought expressed in the speech of the tool4 ,in the third place1 we would have this series put artistic craftsmanship before people as furnishing reasonable occupation for those who would gain a livelihood4 ,although within the bounds of academic art1 the competition1 of its kind1 is so acute that only a very few per cent4 can fairly hope to succeed as painters and sculptors2 yet1 as artistic craftsmen1 there is every probability that nearly every one who would pass through a sufficient period of apprenticeship to workmanship and design would reach a measure of success4 ,in the blending of handwork and thought in such arts as we propose to deal with1 happy careers may be found as far removed from the dreary routine of hack labour1 as from the terrible uncertainty of academic art4 ,it is desirable in every way that men of good education should be brought back into the productive crafts3 there are more than enough of us in the city1 and it is probable that more consideration will be given in this century than in the last to ,design and ,workmanship4 ,w4 ,r4 ,,lethaby4 ,,author',s ,,note ,it is hoped that this book will help bookbinders and librarians to select sound methods of binding books4 ,it is intended to supplement and not to supplant workshop training for bookbinders4 ,no one can become a skilled workman by reading text-books1 but to a man who has acquired skill and practical experience1 a text-book1 giving perhaps different methods from those to which he has been accustomed1 may be helpful4 ,my thanks are due to many friends1 including the workmen in my workshop1 for useful suggestions and other help1 and to the ,society of ,arts for permission to quote from the report of their ,special ,committee on leather for bookbinding4 ,i should also like to express my indebtedness to my master1 ,mr4 ,t4 ,j4 ,cobden-,sanderson1 for it was in his workshop that ,i learned my craft1 and anything that may be of value in this book is due to his influence4 ,d4 ,c4 ,november #aija4 ,,contents ,,part ,i ,,binding ,,page ,editor's ,preface #g ,author's ,note #aa ,,chapter ,i ,introduction #ag ,,chapter ,,ii ,entering--,books in ,sheets--,folding--,collating--,pulling to ,pieces--,refolding--,knocking out ,joints #cc ,,chapter ,,iii ,guarding--,throwing ,out--,paring ,paper--,soaking off ,india ,proofs--,mounting very ,thin ,paper--,splitting ,paper--,inlaying--,flattening ,vellum #ec ,,chapter ,,iv ,sizing--,washing--,mending #fg ,,chapter ,v ,end ,papers--,leather ,joints--,pressing #hj ,,chapter ,,vi ,trimming ,edges before ,sewing--,edge ,gilding #ib ,,chapter ,,vii ,marking up--,sewing--,materials for ,sewing #ih ,,chapter ,,viii ,fraying out ,slips--,glueing up--,rounding and ,backing #aad ,,chapter ,,ix ,cutting and ,attaching ,boards--,cleaning off ,back--,pressing #abd ,,chapter ,x ,cutting in ,boards--,gilding and ,colouring ,edges #aci ,,chapter ,,xi ,headbanding #adg ,,chapter ,,xii ,preparing for ,covering--,paring ,leather--,covering--,mitring ,corners--,filling-in ,boards #aeb ,,chapter ,,xiii ,library ,binding--,binding very ,thin ,books--,scrap-,books--,binding in ,vellum--,books covered with ,embroidery #agc ,,chapter ,,xiv ,decoration--,tools--,finishing--,toolin g on ,vellum--,inlaying on ,leather #ahh ,,chapter ,,xv ,lettering--,blind ,tooling--,heraldic ,ornament #bae ,,chapter ,,xvi ,designing for ,gold-,tooled ,decoration #bcj ,,chapter ,,xvii ,pasting down ,end ,papers--,opening ,books #bed ,,chapter ,,xviii ,clasps and ,ties--,metal on ,bindings #bei ,,chapter ,,xix ,leather #bfc ,,chapter ,,xx ,paper--,pastes--,glue #bhj ,,part ,,ii ,,care ,,of ,,books ,,when ,,bound ,,chapter ,,xxi ,injurious ,influences to which ,books are ,subjected #bia ,,chapter ,,xxii ,to ,preserve ,old ,bindings--,re-backing #cjb ,,specifications #cjg ,,glossary #cac ,,reproductions ,,of ,,bindings 7,eight ,collotypes7 #cai ,,index #ccg ,,part ,i ,,binding ,,chapter ,i ,,introduction ,the reasons for binding the leaves of a book are to keep them together in their proper order1 and to protect them4 ,that bindings can be made1 that will adequately protect books1 can be seen from the large number of fifteenth and sixteenth century bindings now existing on books still in excellent condition4 ,that bindings are made1 that fail to protect books1 may be seen by visiting any large library1 when it will be found that many bindings have their boards loose and the leather crumbling to dust4 ,nearly all librarians complain1 that they have to be continually rebinding books1 and this not after four hundred1 but after only five or ten years4 ,it is no exaggeration to say that ninety per cent4 of the books bound in leather during the last thirty years will need rebinding during the next thirty4 ,the immense expense involved must be a very serious drag on the usefulness of libraries2 and as rebinding is always to some extent damaging to the leaves of a book1 it is not only on account of the expense that the necessity for it is to be regretted4 ,the reasons that have led to the production in modern times of bindings that fail to last for a reasonable time1 are twofold4 ,the materials are badly selected or prepared1 and the method of binding is faulty4 ,another factor in the decay of bindings1 both old and new1 is the bad conditions under which they are often kept4 ,the object of this text-book is to describe the best methods of bookbinding1 and of keeping books when bound1 taking into account the present-day conditions4 ,no attempt has been made to describe all possible methods1 but only such as appear to have answered best on old books4 ,the methods described are for binding that can be done by hand with the aid of simple appliances4 ,large editions of books are now bound1 or rather cased1 at an almost incredible speed by the aid of machinery1 but all work that needs personal care and thought on each book1 is still done1 and probably always will be done1 by hand4 ,elaborate machinery can only be economically employed when very large numbers of books have to be turned out exactly alike4 ,the ordinary cloth binding of the trade1 is better described as casing4 ,the methods being different1 it is convenient to distinguish between casing and binding4 ,in binding1 the slips are firmly attached to the boards before covering2 in casing1 the boards are covered separately1 and afterwards glued on to the book4 ,very great efforts have been made in the decoration of cloth covers1 and it is a pity that the methods of construction have not been equally considered4 ,if cloth cases are to be looked upon as a temporary binding1 then it seems a pity to waste so much trouble on their decoration2 and if they are to be looked upon as permanent binding1 it is a pity the construction is not better4 ,for books of only temporary interest1 the usual cloth cases answer well enough2 but for books expected to have permanent value1 some change is desirable4 ,valuable books should either be issued in bindings that are obviously temporary1 or else in bindings that are strong enough to be considered permanent4 ,the usual cloth case fails as a temporary binding1 because the methods employed result in serious damage to the sections of the book1 often unfitting them for rebinding1 and it fails as a permanent binding on account of the absence of sound construction4 ,in a temporary publisher's binding1 nothing should be done to the sections of a book that would injure them4 ,plates should be guarded1 the sewing should be on tapes1 without splitting the head and tail1 or sawing in the backs1 of the sections2 the backs should be glued up square without backing4 ,the case may be attached1 as is now usual4 ,for a permanent publisher's binding1 something like that recommended for libraries 7page #agc7 is suggested1 with either leather or cloth on the back4 ,at the end of the book four specifications are given 7page #cjg74 ,the first is suggested for binding books of special interest or value1 where no restriction as to price is made4 ,a binding under this specification may be decorated to any extent that the nature of the book justifies4 ,the second is for good binding1 for books of reference and other heavy books that may have a great deal of wear4 ,all the features of the first that make for the strength of the binding are retained1 while those less essential1 that only add to the appearance1 are omitted4 ,although the binding under this specification would be much cheaper than that carried out under the first1 it would still be too expensive for the majority of books in most libraries2 and as it would seem to be impossible to further modify this form of binding1 without materially reducing its strength1 for cheaper work1 a somewhat different system is recommended4 ,the third specification is recommended for the binding of the general run of small books in most libraries4 ,the fourth is a modification of this for pamphlets and other books of little value1 that need to be kept together tidily for occasional reference4 ,thanks1 in a great measure1 to the work of ,mr4 ,cobden-,sanderson1 there is in ,england the germ of a sound tradition for the best binding4 ,the ,report of the ,committee appointed by the ,society of ,arts to investigate the cause of the decay of modern leather bindings1 should tend to establish a sound tradition for cheaper work4 ,the third specification at the end of this book is practically the same as that given in their ,report1 and was arrived at by selection1 after many libraries had been examined1 and many forms of binding compared4 ,up to the end of the eighteenth century the traditional methods of binding books had altered very little during three hundred years4 ,books were generally sewn round five cords1 the ends of all of these laced into the boards1 and the leather attached directly to the back4 ,at the end of the eighteenth century it became customary to pare down leather until it was as thin as paper1 and soon afterwards the use of hollow backs and false bands became general1 and these two things together mark the beginning of the modern degradation of binding1 so far as its utility as a protection is concerned4 ,the ,society of ,arts ,committee report that the bookbinders must share with the leather manufacturers and librarians the blame for the premature decay of modern bindings1 because-- #a4 ,books are sewn on too few1 and too thin cords1 and the slips are pared down unduly 7for the sake of neatness71 and are not in all cases firmly laced into the boards4 ,this renders the attachment of the boards to the book almost entirely dependent on the strength of the leather4 #b4 ,the use of hollow backs throws all the strain of opening and shutting on the joints1 and renders the back liable to come right off if the book is much used4 #c4 ,the leather of the back is apt to become torn through the use of insufficiently strong headbands1 which are unable to stand the strain of the book being taken from the shelf4 #d4 ,it is a common practice to use far too thin leather2 especially to use large thick skins very much pared down for small books4 #e4 ,the leather is often made very wet and stretched a great deal in covering1 with the result that on drying it is further strained1 almost to breaking point1 by contraction1 leaving a very small margin of strength to meet the accidents of use4 ,the history of the general introduction of hollow backs is probably somewhat as follows3 ,leather was doubtless first chosen for covering the backs of books because of its toughness and flexibility2 because1 while protecting the back1 it would bend when the book was opened and allow the back to throw up 7see fig4 #a1 ,a74 ,when gold tooling became common1 and the backs of books were elaborately decorated1 it was found that the creasing of the leather injured the brightness or the gold and caused it to crack4 ,to avoid this the binders lined up the back until it was as stiff as a block of wood4 ,the back would then not throw up as the book was opened1 the leather would not be creased1 and the gold would remain uninjured 7see fig4 #a1 ,b74 ,this was all very well for the gold1 but a book so treated does not open fully1 and indeed1 if the paper is stiff1 can hardly be got to open at all4 ,to overcome both difficulties the hollow back was introduced1 and as projecting bands would have been in the way1 the sewing cord was sunk in saw cuts made across the back of the book4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,the use of hollow backs was a very ingenious way out of the difficulty1 as with them the backs could be made to throw up1 and at the same time the leather was not disturbed 7see fig4 #a1 ,c74 ,the method of sawing in bands was known for a long time before the general use of hollow backs4 ,it has been used to avoid the raised bands on books covered with embroidered material4 ,if a book is sewn on tapes1 and the back lined with leather1 there is no serious objection to a carefully-made hollow back without bands4 ,the vellum binders use hollow backs made in this way for great account books that stand an immense amount of wear4 ,they make the hollow very stiff1 so that it acts as a spring to throw the back up4 ,but although1 if carefully done1 satisfactory bindings may be made with hollow backs1 their use has resulted in the production of worthless bindings with little strength1 and yet with the appearance of better work4 ,the public having been accustomed to raised bands on the backs of books1 and the real bands being sunk in the back1 the binders put false ones over the hollow4 ,to save money or trouble1 the bands being out of sight1 the book would be sewn on only three or sometimes only two cords1 the usual five false ones still showing at the back4 ,often only two out of the three bands would be laced into the board1 and sometimes the slips would not be laced in at all4 ,again1 false headbands worked by the yard by machinery would be stuck on at the head and tail1 and a hollow made with brown paper4 ,then leather so thin as to have but little strength1 but used because it is easy to work and needs no paring1 would be stuck on4 ,the back would often be full gilt and lettered1 and the sides sprinkled or marbled1 thus further damaging the leather4 ,in every large library hundreds of books bound somewhat on these lines may be seen4 ,when they are received from the binder they have the appearance of being well bound1 they look smart on the shelf1 but in a few years1 whether they are used or not1 the leather will have perished and the boards become detached1 and they will have to be rebound4 ,as long as librarians expect the appearance of a guinea binding for two or three shillings1 such shams will be produced4 ,the librarian generally gets his money's worth1 for it would be impossible for the binder to do better work at the price usually paid without materially altering the appearance of the binding4 ,the polished calf and imitation crushed morocco must go1 and in its place a rougher1 thicker leather must be employed4 ,the full-gilt backs must go1 the coloured lettering panel must go1 the hollow backs must go1 but in the place of these we may have the books sewn on tapes with the ends securely fastened into split boards1 and the thick leather attached directly to the backs of the sections4 7,see specification ,,iii4 page #cjg47 ,such a binding would look well and not be more expensive than the usual library binding4 ,it should allow the book to open flat1 and if the materials are well selected1 be very durable1 and specially strong in the joints1 the weak place in most bindings4 ,the lettering on the back may be damaged in time if the book is much used1 but if so it can easily be renewed at a fraction of the cost of rebinding1 and without injury to the book4 ,while the majority of books in most libraries must be bound at a small cost1 at most not exceeding a few shillings a volume1 there is a large demand for good plain bindings1 and a limited1 but growing1 demand for more or less decorated bindings for special books4 ,any decoration but the simplest should be restricted to books bound as well as the binder can do them4 ,the presence of decoration should be evidence that the binder1 after doing his best with the forwarding1 has had time in which to try to make his work a beautiful1 as well as a serviceable1 production4 ,many books1 although well bound1 are better left plain1 or with only a little decoration4 ,but occasionally there are books that the binder can decorate as lavishly as he is able4 ,as an instance of bindings that cannot be over-decorated1 those books which are used in important ceremonies1 such as ,altar ,books1 may be mentioned4 ,such books may be decorated with gold and colour until they seem to be covered in a golden material4 ,they will be but spots of gorgeousness in a great church or cathedral1 and they cannot be said to be over-decorated as long as the decoration is good4 ,so1 occasionally some one may have a book to which he is for some reason greatly attached1 and wishing to enshrine it1 give the binder a free hand to do his best with it4 ,the binder may wish to make a delicate pattern with nicely-balanced spots of ornament1 leaving the leather for the most part bare1 or he may wish to cover the outside with some close gold-tooled pattern1 giving a richness of texture hardly to be got by other means4 ,if he decides on the latter1 many people will say that the cover is over-decorated4 ,but as a book cover can never be seen absolutely alone1 it should not be judged as an isolated thing covered with ornament without relief1 but as a spot of brightness and interest among its surroundings4 ,if a room and everything in it is covered with elaborate pattern1 then anything with a plain surface would be welcome as a relief2 but in a room which is reasonably free from ornament1 a spot of rich decoration should be welcome4 ,it is not contended that the only1 or necessarily the best1 method of decorating book covers is by elaborate all-over gold-tooled pattern2 but it is contended that this is a legitimate method of decoration for exceptional books1 and that by its use it is possible to get a beautiful effect well worth the trouble and expense involved4 ,good leather has a beautiful surface1 and may sometimes be got of a fine colour4 ,the binder may often wish to show this surface and colour1 and to restrict his decoration to small portions of the cover1 and this quite rightly1 he aiming at1 and getting1 a totally different effect than that got by all-over patterns4 ,both methods are right if well done1 and both methods can equally be vulgarised if badly done4 ,a much debated question is1 how far the decoration of a binding should be influenced by the contents of the book8 ,a certain appropriateness there should be1 but as a general thing1 if the binder aims at making the cover beautiful1 that is the best he can do4 ,the hints given for designing are not intended to stop the development of the student's own ideas1 but only to encourage their development on right lines4 ,there should be a certain similarity of treatment between the general get-up of a book and its binding4 ,it is a great pity that printers and binders have drifted so far apart2 they are1 or should be1 working for one end1 the production of a book1 and some unity of aim should be evident in the work of the two4 ,the binding of manuscripts and early printed books should be strong and simple4 ,it should be as strong and durable as the original old bindings1 and1 like them1 last with reasonable care for four hundred years or more4 ,to this end the old bindings1 with their stout sewing cord1 wooden boards1 and clasps1 may be taken as models4 ,the question is constantly asked1 especially by women1 if a living can be made by setting up as bookbinders4 ,cheap binding can most economically be done in large workshops1 but probably the best bindings can be done more satisfactorily by binders working alone1 or in very small workshops4 ,if any one intends to set up as a bookbinder1 doing all the work without help1 it is necessary to charge very high prices to get any adequate return after the working expenses have been paid4 ,in order to get high prices1 the standard of work must be very high2 and in order to attain a high enough standard of work1 a very thorough training is necessary4 ,it is desirable that any one hoping to make money at the craft should have at least a year's training in a workshop where good work is done1 and after that1 some time will be spent before quite satisfactory work can be turned out rapidly enough to pay1 supposing that orders can be obtained or the books bound can be sold4 ,there are some successful binders who have had less than a year's training1 but they are exceptional4 ,those who have not been accustomed to manual work have usually1 in addition to the necessary skill1 to acquire the habit of continuous work4 ,bookbinding seems to offer an opening for well-educated youths who are willing to serve an apprenticeship in a good shop1 and who have some small amount of capital at their command4 ,in addition to the production of decorated bindings1 there is much to be done by specialising in certain kinds of work requiring special knowledge4 ,repairing and binding early printed books and manuscripts1 or the restoration of ,parish ,registers and ,accounts1 may be suggested4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,entering--,books in ,sheets--,folding--,collating--,pulling to ,pieces--,refolding--,knocking out ,joints ,,entering ,on receiving a book for binding1 its title should be entered in a book kept for that purpose1 with the date of entry1 and customer's name and address1 and any instructions he may have given1 written out in full underneath1 leaving room below to enter the time taken on the various operations and cost of the materials used4 ,it is well to number the entry1 and to give a corresponding number to the book4 ,it should be at once collated1 and any special features noted1 such as pages that need washing or mending4 ,if the book should prove to be imperfect1 or to have any serious defect1 the owner should be communicated with1 before it is pulled to pieces4 ,this is very important1 as imperfect books that have been pulled are not returnable to the bookseller4 ,should defects only be discovered after the book has been taken to pieces1 the bookbinder is liable to be blamed for the loss of any missing leaves4 ,,books ,,in ,,sheets ,the sheets of a newly printed book are arranged in piles in the printer's warehouse1 each pile being made up of repetitions of the same sheet or signature4 ,plates or maps are in piles by themselves ,to make a complete book one sheet is gathered from each pile1 beginning at the last sheet and working backwards to signature ,a4 ,when a book is ordered from a publisher in sheets1 it is such a gathered copy that the binder receives4 ,some books are printed double1 that is1 the type is set up twice1 two copies are printed at once at different ends of a sheet of paper1 and the sheets have to be divided down the middle before the copies can be separated4 ,sometimes the title and introduction1 or perhaps only the last sheet1 will be printed in this way4 ,publishers usually decline to supply in sheets fewer than two copies of such double-printed books4 ,if a book is received unfolded1 it is generally advisable at once to fold up the sheets and put them in their proper order1 with half-title1 title1 introduction1 c41 and1 if there are plates1 to compare them with the printed list4 ,should there be in a recently published book defects of any kind1 such as soiled sheets1 the publisher will usually replace them on application1 although they sometimes take a long time to do so4 ,such sheets are called imperfections1 and the printers usually keep a number of overs in order to make good such imperfections as may occur4 ,,folding ,books received in sheets must be folded4 ,folding requires care1 or the margins of different leaves will be unequal1 and the lines of printing not at right angles to the back4 ,books of various sizes are known as folio1 quarto1 octavo1 duodecimo1 c4 ,these names signify the number of folds1 and consequently the number of leaves the paper has been folded into4 ,thus1 a folio is made up of sheets of paper folded once down the centre1 forming two leaves and four pages4 ,the sheets of a quarto have a second fold1 making four leaves and eight pages1 and in an octavo the sheet has a third fold1 forming eight leaves and sixteen pages 7see fig4 #b71 and so on4 ,each sheet of paper when folded constitutes a section1 except in the case of folios1 where it is usual to make up the sections by inserting two or more sheets1 one within the other4 ,paper is made in several named sizes1 such as imperial1 royal1 demy1 crown1 foolscap1 c4 7see p4 #bhc71 so that the terms imperial folio or crown octavo imply that a sheet of a definite size has been folded a definite number of times4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,besides the traditional sizes1 paper is now made of almost any length and width1 resulting in books of odd shape1 and the names folio1 quarto1 c41 are rather losing their true meaning1 and are often used loosely to signify pages of certain sizes1 irrespective of the number that go to a sheet4 ,on receipt1 for instance1 of an octavo book for folding1 the pile of sheets is laid flat on the table1 and collated by the letter or signature of each sheet4 ,the first sheet of the book proper will probably be signature ,b1 as signature ,a usually consists of the half-title1 title1 introduction1 c41 and often has to be folded up rather differently4 ,the outer sides1 known by the signature letters ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 c41 should be downwards1 and the inner sides facing upwards with the second signatures1 if there are any1 ,b#b1 ,c#b1 ,d#b1 c41 at the right-hand bottom corner4 ,the pages of an octave book1 commencing at page #a1 are shown at fig4 #c4 ,a folder is taken in the right hand1 and held at the bottom of the sheet at about the centre1 and the sheet taken by the left hand at the top right-hand corner and bent over until pages #c and #f come exactly over pages #b and #g2 and when it is seen that the headlines and figures exactly match1 the paper1 while being held in that position1 is creased down the centre with the folder1 and the fold cut up a little more than half-way4 ,pages #d1 #ac1 #e1 #ab will now be uppermost2 pages #ab and #e are now folded over to exactly match pages #ac and #d1 and the fold creased and cut up a little more than half-way1 as before4 ,pages #h and #i will now be uppermost1 and will merely require folding together to make the pages of the section follow in their proper order4 ,if the folding has been done carefully1 and the register of the printing is good1 the headlines should be exactly even throughout4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,the object of cutting past the centre at each fold is to avoid the unsightly creasing that results from folding two or more thicknesses of paper when joined at the top edge4 ,a duodecimo sheet has the pages arranged as at fig4 #d4 ,the inset pages1 #aj1 #ae1 #ad1 #aa1 must be cut off1 and the rest of the section folded as for an octavo sheet4 ,the inset is folded separately and inserted into the centre of the octavo portion4 ,other sizes are folded in much the same way1 and the principle of folding one sheet having been mastered1 no difficulty will be found in folding any other4 ,plates often require trimming1 and this must be done with judgment4 ,the plates should be trimmed to correspond as far as possible with the printing on the opposite page1 but if this cannot be done1 it is desirable that something approaching the proportion of margin shown at fig4 #b 7folio7 should be aimed at4 ,that is to say1 the back margin should be the smallest1 the head margin the next1 the fore-edge a little wider1 and the tail widest of all4 ,when a plate consists of a small portrait or diagram in the centre of the page1 it looks better if it is put a little higher and a little nearer the back than the actual centre4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,plates that have no numbers on them must be put in order by the list of printed plates1 or instructions to the binder4 ,the half-title1 title1 dedication1 c41 will often be found to be printed on odd sheets that have to be made up into section ,a4 ,this preliminary matter is usually placed in the following order3 ,half-title1 title1 dedication1 preface1 contents1 list of illustrations or other lists4 ,if there is an index1 it should be put at the end of the book4 ,all plates should be guarded1 and any quarter sections1 that is1 sections consisting of two leaves1 should have their backs strengthened by a guard1 or they may very easily be torn in the sewing4 ,odd1 single leaves may be guarded round sections in the same way as plates4 ,when a book has been folded1 it should be pressed 7see p4 #hg74 ,there will sometimes be pages marked by the printer with a star4 ,these have some error in them1 and are intended to be cut out4 ,the printer should supply corrected pages to replace them4 ,,collating ,in addition to the pagination each sheet or section of a printed book is lettered or numbered4 ,each letter or number is called the sheet's signature4 ,printers usually leave out ,j ,w and ,v in lettering sheets4 ,if there are more sections than there are letters in the alphabet1 the printer doubles the letters1 signing the sections ,a ,a1 ,b ,b1 and so on1 after the single letters are exhausted4 ,some printers use an ,arabic numeral before the section number to denote the second alphabet1 as #b;,a1 #b;,b1 c41 and others change the character of the letters1 perhaps using capitals for the first alphabet and italics for the second4 ,if the sheets are numbered1 the numbers will of course follow consecutively4 ,in books of more than one volume1 the number of the volume is sometimes added in ,roman numerals before the signature1 as ,,ii ,a1 ,,ii ,b4 ,the main pagination of the book usually commences with ,chapter ,i41 and all before that is independently paged in ,roman numerals4 ,it is unusual to have actual numbers on the title or half-title1 but if the pages are counted back from where the first numeral occurs1 they should come right4 ,there will sometimes be one or more blank leaves completing sections at the beginning or end4 ,such blank leaves must be retained1 as without them the volume would be imperfect4 ,to collate a modern book the paging must be examined to see that the leaves are in order1 and that nothing is defective or missing4 ,the method of doing this is to insert the first finger of the right hand at the bottom of about the fiftieth page1 crook the finger1 and turn up the corners of the pages with it4 ,when this is done the thumb is placed on page #a1 and the hand twisted1 so as to fan out the top of the pages4 ,they can then be readily turned over by the thumb and first finger of the left hand 7see fig4 #e74 ,this is repeated throughout the book1 taking about fifty pages at a time4 ,it will of course only be necessary to check the odd numbers1 as if they are right1 the even ones on the other side of the leaf must be so4 ,if the pages are numbered at the foot1 the leaves must be fanned out from the head4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,plates or maps that are not paged can only be checked from the printed list4 ,when checked it will save time if the number of the page which each faces is marked on the back in small pencil figures4 ,in the case of early printed books or manuscripts1 which are often not paged1 special knowledge is needed for their collation4 ,it may roughly be said1 that if the sections are all complete1 that is1 if there are the same number of leaves at each side of the sewing in all the sections1 the book may be taken to be perfect1 unless of course whole sections are missing4 ,all unpaged books should be paged through in pencil before they are taken apart2 this is best done with a very fine pencil1 at the bottom left-hand corner2 it will only be necessary to number the front of each leaf4 ,,pulling ,,to ,,pieces ,after the volume has been collated it must be pulled1 that is to say1 the sections must be separated1 and all plates or maps detached4 ,if in a bound book there are slips laced in the front cover1 they must be cut and the back torn off4 ,it will sometimes happen that in tearing off the leather nearly all the glue will come too1 leaving the backs of the pages detached except for the sewing4 ,more usually the back will be left covered with a mass of glue and linen1 or paper1 which it is very difficult to remove without injury to the backs of the sections4 ,by drawing a sharp knife along the bands1 the sewing may be cut and the bands removed1 leaving the sections only connected by the glue4 ,then the sections of the book can usually be separated with a fine folder1 after the thread from the centre of each has been removed2 the point of division being ascertained by finding the first signature of each section4 ,in cases where the glue and leather form too hard a back to yield to this method1 it is advisable to soak the glue with paste1 and when soft to scrape it off with a folder4 ,as this method is apt to injure the backs of the sections1 it should not be resorted to unless necessary2 and when it is1 care must be taken not to let the damp penetrate into the book1 or it will cause very ugly stains4 ,the book must be pulled while damp1 or else the glue will dry up harder than before4 ,the separated sections must be piled up carefully to prevent pages being soiled by the damp glue4 ,all plates or single leaves pasted on must be removed4 ,these can usually be detached by carefully tearing apart1 but if too securely pasted they must be soaked off in water1 unless of course the plates have been painted with water-colour4 ,if the plates must be soaked off1 the leaf and attached plate should be put into a pan of slightly warm water and left to soak until they float apart1 then with a soft brush any remaining glue or paste can be easily removed while in the water4 ,care must be taken not to soak modern books printed on what is called ,art ,paper1 as this paper will hardly stand ordinary handling1 and is absolutely ruined if wetted4 ,the growing use of this paper in important books is one of the greatest troubles the bookbinder has to face4 ,the highly loaded and glazed surface of some of the heavy plate papers easily flakes off1 so that any guard pasted on these plates is apt to come away1 taking with it the surface of the paper4 ,moreover1 should the plates chance to be fingered or in any way soiled1 nothing can remove the marks2 and should a corner get turned down1 the paper breaks and the corner will fall off4 ,it is the opinion of experts that this heavily loaded ,art ,paper will not last a reasonable time1 and1 apart from other considerations1 this should be ample reason for not using it in books that are expected to have a permanent value4 ,printers like this paper1 because it enables them to obtain brilliant impressions from blocks produced by cheap processes4 ,in cased books1 sewn by machinery1 the head and tail of the sheets will often be found to be split up as far as the kettle stitches4 ,if such a book is to be expensively bound1 it will require mending throughout in these places1 or the glue may soak into the torn ends1 and make the book open stiffly4 ,some books are put together with staples of tinned iron wire1 which rapidly rust and disfigure the book by circular brown marks4 ,such marks will usually have to be cut out and the places carefully mended4 ,this process is lengthy1 and consequently so costly1 that it is generally cheaper1 when possible1 to obtain an unbound copy of the book from the publishers1 than to waste time repairing the damage done by the cloth binder4 ,generally speaking1 the sections of a book cased in cloth by modern methods are so injured as to make it unfit for more permanent binding unless an unreasonable amount of time is spent on it4 ,it is a great pity that publishers do not1 in the case of books expected to have a permanent literary value1 issue a certain number of copies printed on good paper1 and unbound1 for the use of those who require permanent bindings2 and in such copies it would be a great help if sufficient margin were left at the back of the plates for the binder to turn it up to form a guard4 ,if the plates were very numerous1 guards made of the substance of the plates themselves would make the book too thick2 but in the case of books with not more than a dozen plates1 printed on comparatively thin paper1 it would be a great advantage4 ,some books in which there are a large number of plates are cut into single leaves1 which are held together at the back by a coating of an indiarubber solution4 ,for a short time such a volume is pleasant enough to handle1 and opens freely1 but before long the indiarubber perishes1 and the leaves and plates fall apart4 ,when a book of this kind comes to have a permanent binding1 all the leaves and plates have to be pared at the back and made up into sections with guards--a troublesome and expensive business4 ,the custom with binders is to overcast the backs of the leaves in sections1 and to sew through the overcasting thread1 but this1 though an easy and quick process1 makes a hopelessly stiff back1 and no book so treated can open freely4 ,,refolding ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--;,dividers ,when the sheets of books that have to be rebound have been carelessly folded1 a certain amount of readjustment is often advisable1 especially in cases where the book has not been previously cut4 ,the title-page and the half-title1 when found to be out of square1 should nearly always be put straight4 ,the folding of the whole book may be corrected by taking each pair of leaves and holding them up to the light and adjusting the fold so that the print on one leaf comes exactly over the print on the other1 and creasing the fold to make them stay in that position4 ,with a pair of dividers 7fig4 #f7 set to the height of the shortest top margin1 points the same distance above the headline of the other leaves can be made4 ,then against a carpenter's square1 adjusted to the back of the fold1 the head of one pair of leaves at a time can be cut square 7see fig4 #g74 ,if the book has been previously cut this process is apt to throw the leaves so far out of their original position as to make them unduly uneven4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,accurate folding is impossible if the register of the printing is bad1 that is to say1 if the print on the back of a leaf does not lie exactly over that on the front4 ,crooked plates should usually be made straight by judicious trimming of the margins4 ,it is better to leave a plate short at tail or fore-edge than to leave it out of square4 ,,knocking ,,out ,,joints ,the old joints must be knocked out of the sections of books that have been previously backed4 ,to do this1 one or two sections at a time are held firmly in the left hand1 and well hammered on the knocking-down iron fixed into the lying press4 ,it is important that the hammer face should fall exactly squarely upon the paper1 or it may cut pieces out4 ,the knocking-down iron should be covered with a piece of paper1 and the hammer face must be perfectly clean1 or the sheets may be soiled4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,guarding--,throwing ,out--,paring ,paper--,soaking off ,india ,proofs--,mounting very ,thin ,paper--,splitting ,paper--,inlaying--,flattening ,vellum ,,guarding ,guards are slips of thin paper or linen used for strengthening the fold of leaves that are damaged1 or for attaching plates or single leaves4 ,guards should be of good thin paper4 ,that known as ,whatman's ,banknote paper answers very well4 ,an easy way to cut guards is shown in fig4 #h4 ,two or three pieces of paper of the height of the required guards are folded and pinned to the board by the right-hand corners4 ,a series of points are marked at the head and tail with dividers set to the width desired for the guards1 and with a knife guided by a straight-edge1 cuts joining the points are made right through the paper1 but not extending quite to either end4 ,on a transverse cut being made near the bottom1 the guards are left attached by one end only 7see fig4 #i71 and can be torn off as wanted4 ,this method prevents the paper from slipping while it is being cut4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,a mount cutter's knife 7fig4 #aj7 will be found to be a convenient form of knife to use for cutting guards4 ,in using the knife and straight-edge a good deal of pressure should be put on the straight-edge1 and comparatively little on the knife4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--,mount ,cutter's ,knife ,to mend the torn back of a pair of leaves1 a guard should be selected a little longer than the height of the pages and well pasted with white paste 7see page #bhh74 ,if the pair of leaves are not quite separated1 the pasted guard held by its extremities may be simply laid along the weak place and rubbed down through blotting-paper4 ,if the leaves are quite apart1 it is better to lay the pasted guard on a piece of glass and put the edges of first one and then the other leaf on to it and rub down4 ,on an outside pair of leaves the guard should be inside1 so that the glue may catch any ragged edges2 while on the inside pair the guard should be outside1 or it will be found to be troublesome in sewing4 ,in handling the pasted guards care is needed not to stretch them1 or they may cause the sheet to crinkle as they dry4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,plates must be guarded round the sections next them4 ,when there are a great many plates the back margin of each1 to which a guard will be attached1 must be pared 7see fig4 #aa1 ,a71 or the additional thickness caused by the guards will make the back swell unduly4 ,in guarding plates a number can be pasted at once if they are laid one on another1 with about an eighth of an inch of the back of each exposed1 the top of the pile being protected by a folded piece of waste paper 7see fig4 #ab74 ,to paste1 the brush is brought from the top to the bottom of the pile only1 and not the other way1 or paste will get between the plates and soil them4 ,guards should usually be attached to the backs of plates1 and should be wide enough to turn up round the adjoining section1 so that they may be sewn through4 ,should a plate come in the middle of a section1 the guard is best turned back and slightly pasted to the inside of the sheet and then sewn through in the ordinary way4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,if plates are very thick1 they must be hinged1 as shown at fig4 #aa1 ,b4 ,this is done by cutting a strip of about a quarter of an inch off the back of the plate1 and guarding with a wide guard of linen1 leaving a small space between the plate and the piece cut off to form a hinge4 ,it will save some swelling if the plate is pared and a piece of thinner paper substituted for the piece cut off 7see fig4 #aa1 ,c74 ,if the plates are of cardboard1 they should be guarded on both sides with linen1 and may even need a second joint4 ,a book that consists entirely of plates or single leaves must be made up into sections with guards1 and sewn as usual4 ,in books in which there are a great many plates1 it is often found that two plates either come together in the centre of a section1 or come at opposite sides of the same pair of leaves4 ,such plates should be guarded together and treated as folded sheets 7see fig4 #ac74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,in order to be sure that the pages of a book to be guarded throughout will come in their proper order1 it is well to make a plan of the sections as follows1 and to check each pair of leaves by it1 as they are guarded3-- ,thus1 if the book is to be made up into sections of eight leaves1 the pairs of leaves to be guarded together can be seen at once if the number of the pages are written out-- #a1 #c1 #e1 #g1--i1 #aa1 #ac1 #ae4 ,first the inside pair1 #g and #i1 are guarded together with the guard outside1 then the next pair1 #e and #aa1 then #c and #ac1 and then the outside pair1 #a and #ae1 which should have the guard outside4 ,a plan for the whole book would be more conveniently written thus-- #a-ae #ag-ca #cc-dg #c-ac #ai-bi #ce-de #e-aa #ba-bg #cg-dc #g-i #bc-be #ci-da1 and so on4 ,to arrange a book of single leaves for guarding1 it is convenient to take as many leaves as you intend to go to a section1 and opening them in the centre1 take a pair at a time as they come4 ,the number of leaves it is advisable to put into a section will depend on the thickness of the paper and the size and thickness of the book4 ,if the paper is thick1 and the backs of the leaves have been pared1 four leaves to a section will be found to answer4 ,but if the paper is thin1 and does not allow of much paring1 it is better to have a larger section1 in order to have as little thread in the back as possible4 ,the sheets of any guarded book should be pressed before sewing1 in order to reduce the swelling of the back caused by the guards4 ,,throwing ,,out ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4 ,maps or diagrams that are frequently referred to in the text of a book1 should be thrown out on a guard as wide as the sheet of the book4 ,such maps1 c41 should be placed at the end1 so that they may lie open for reference while the book is being read 7see fig4 #ad74 ,large folded maps or diagrams should be mounted on linen4 ,to do this take a piece of jaconet and pin it out flat on the board1 then evenly paste the back of the map with thin paste in which there are no lumps1 and lay it on the linen1 rub down through blotting-paper1 and leave to dry4 ,unless the pasting is done evenly the marks of the paste-brush will show through the linen4 ,if a folded map is printed on very thick paper each fold must be cut up1 and the separate pieces mounted on the linen1 with a slight space between them to form a flexible joint4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,a folded map must have in the back of the book sufficient guards to equal it in thickness at its thickest part when folded1 or the book will not shut properly 7see fig4 #ae74 ,,paring ,,paper ,for paring the edge of paper for mending or guarding1 take a very sharp knife1 and holding the blade at right angles to the covering-board1 draw the edge once or twice along it from left to right4 ,this should turn up enough of the edge to form a burr1 which causes the knife to cut while being held almost flat on the paper4 ,the plate or paper should be laid face downwards on the glass with the edge to be pared away from the workman1 the knife held in the right hand1 with the burr downwards4 ,the angle at which to hold the knife will depend on its shape and on the thickness and character of the paper to be pared1 and can only be learned by practice4 ,if the knife is in order1 and is held at the proper angle1 the shaving removed from a straight edge of paper should come off in a long spiral4 ,if the knife is not in proper order1 the paper may be badly jagged or creased4 ,,soaking ,,off ,,india ,,proofs ,place a piece of well-sized paper in a pan of warm water1 then lay the mounted ,india proof1 face downwards1 upon it and leave it to soak until the proof floats off4 ,then carefully take out the old mount1 and the ,india proof can be readily removed from the water on the under paper1 and dried between sheets of blotting-paper4 ,,mounting ,,very ,,thin ,,paper ,very thin paper1 such as that of some ,india proofs1 may be safely mounted as follows3--,the mount1 ready for use1 is laid on a pad of blotting-paper4 ,the thin paper to be mounted is laid face downwards on a piece of glass and very carefully pasted with thin1 white paste4 ,any paste on the glass beyond the edges of the paper is carefully wiped off with a clean cloth4 ,the glass may then be turned over1 and the pasted plate laid on the mount1 its exact position being seen through the glass4 ,,splitting ,,paper ,it is sometimes desirable to split pieces of paper when the matter on one side only is needed1 or when the matter printed on each side is to be used in different places4 ,the paper to be split should be well pasted on both sides with a thickish paste1 and fine linen or jaconet placed on each side4 ,it is then nipped in the press to make the linen stick all over1 and left to dry4 ,if the two pieces of jaconet are carefully pulled apart when dry1 half the paper should be attached to each1 unless at any point the paste has failed to stick1 when the paper will tear4 ,the jaconet and paper attached must be put into warm water until the split paper floats off4 ,,inlaying ,,leaves ,,or ,,plates ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4 ,when a small plate or leaf has to be inserted into a larger book1 it is best to inlay it2 that is to say1 the plate or leaf is let into a sheet of paper the size of the page of the book4 ,to do this1 a piece of paper as thick as the plate to be inlaid1 or a little thicker1 is selected1 and on this is laid the plate1 which should have been previously squared1 and the positions of the corners marked with a folder4 ,a point is made about an eighth of an inch inside each corner mark1 and the paper within these points is cut out 7see fig4 #af74 ,this leaves a frame of paper1 the inner edges of which will slightly overlap the edges of the plate4 ,the under edge of the plate1 and the upper edge of the mount1 should then be pared and pasted1 and the plate laid in its place 7with the corners corresponding to the folder marks74 ,if the edges have been properly pared1 the thickness where they overlap should not exceed the thickness of the frame paper4 ,if an irregular fragment is to be inlaid1 it is done in the same way1 except that the entire outline is traced on the new paper with a folder1 and the paper cut away1 allowing one eighth of an inch inside the indented line4 ,,flattening ,,vellum ,the leaves of a vellum book that have become cockled from damp or other causes may be flattened by damping them1 pulling them out straight1 and allowing them to dry under pressure4 ,to do this take the book to pieces1 clean out any dirt there may be in the folds of the leaves1 and spread out each pair of leaves as flatly as possible4 ,damp some white blotting-paper by interleaving it with common white paper that has been wetted with a sponge4 ,one sheet of wet paper to two of blotting-paper will be enough4 ,the pile of blotting-paper and wet paper is put in the press and left for an hour or two under pressure1 then taken out and the common paper removed4 ,the blotting-paper should now be slightly and evenly damp4 ,to flatten the vellum the open pairs of leaves are interleaved with the slightly damp blotting-paper1 and are left for an hour under the weight of a pressing-board4 ,after this time the vellum will have become quite soft1 and can with care be flattened out and lightly pressed between the blotting-paper1 and left for a night4 ,the next day the vellum leaves should be looked at to see that they lie quite flat1 and the blotting-paper changed for some that is dry4 ,the vellum must remain under pressure until it is quite dry1 or it will cockle up worse than ever when exposed to the air4 ,the blotting-paper should be changed every day or two4 ,the length of time that vellum leaves take to dry will vary with the state of the atmosphere1 and the thickness of the vellum1 from one to six weeks4 ,almost any manuscript or printed book on vellum can be successfully flattened in this way2 miniatures should have pieces of waxed paper laid over them to prevent the chance of any of the fibres of the blotting-paper sticking4 ,the pressure must not be great2 only enough is needed to keep the vellum flat as it dries4 ,this process of flattening1 although so simple1 requires the utmost care4 ,if the blotting-paper is used too damp1 a manuscript may be ruined2 and if not damp enough1 the pressing will have no effect4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,sizing--,washing--,mending ,,sizing ,the paper in old books is sometimes soft and woolly4 ,this is generally because the size has perished1 and such paper can often be made perfectly sound by resizing4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4 ,for size1 an ounce of isinglass or good gelatine is dissolved in a quart of water4 ,this should make a clear solution when gently warmed1 and should be used at about a temperature of #abj deg4 ,f4 ,care must be taken not to heat too quickly1 or the solution may burn and turn brown4 ,if the size is not quite clear1 it should be strained through fine muslin or linen before being used4 ,when it is ready it should be poured into an open pan 7fig4 #ag71 so arranged that it can be kept warm by a gas flame or spirit lamp underneath4 ,when this is ready the sheets to be sized can be put in one after another and taken out at once4 ,the hot size will be found to take out a great many stains1 and especially those deep brown stains that come from water4 ,if there are only a few sheets1 they can be placed between blotting-paper as they are removed from the size2 but if there is a whole book1 it is best to lay them in a pile one on the other1 and when all have been sized to squeeze them in the lying press between pressing-boards1 a pan being put underneath to catch the liquid squeezed out4 ,when the sheets have been squeezed they can be readily handled1 and should be spread out to dry on a table upon clean paper4 ,when they are getting dry and firm they can be hung on strings stretched across the room1 slightly overlapping one another4 ,the strings must first be covered with slips of clean paper1 and the sized sheets should have more paper over them to keep them clean4 ,before sizing it will be necessary to go through a book and take out any pencil or dust marks that can be removed with indiarubber or bread crumbs1 or the size will fix them1 and it will be found exceedingly difficult to remove them afterwards4 ,when the sheets are dry they should be carefully mended in any places that may be torn1 and folded up into sections and pressed4 ,a long1 comparatively light pressure will be found to flatten them better and with less injury to the surface of the paper than a short1 very heavy pressure1 such as that of the rolling-machine4 ,in some cases it will be found that sheets of old books are so far damaged as to be hardly strong enough to handle4 ,such sheets must be sized in rather a stronger size in the following way3--,take a sheet of heavily-sized paper1 such as notepaper1 and carefully lay your damaged sheet on that4 ,then put another sheet of strong paper on the top1 and put all three sheets into the size4 ,it will be found that the top sheet can then be easily lifted off1 and the size be made to flow over the face of the damaged sheet4 ,then1 if the top sheet be put on again1 the three sheets1 if handled as one1 can be turned over and the operation repeated1 and size induced to cover the back of the damaged leaf4 ,the three sheets must then be taken out and laid between blotting-paper to take up the surplus moisture4 ,the top sheet must then be carefully peeled off1 and the damaged page laid face downwards on clean blotting-paper4 ,then the back sheet can be peeled off as well1 leaving the damaged sheet to dry4 ,the following is quoted from ,chambers' ,encyclopaedia on ,gelatine3-- ,gelatine should never be judged by the eye alone4 ,its purity may be very easily tested thus3 ,soak it in cold water1 then pour upon it a small quantity of boiling water4 ,if pure1 it will form a thickish1 clear straw-coloured solution1 free from smell2 but if made of impure materials1 it will give off a very offensive odour1 and have a yellow1 gluey consistency4 ,,washing ,when there are stains or ink marks on books that cannot be removed by the use of hot size or hot water1 stronger measures may sometimes have to be taken4 ,many stains will be found to yield readily to hot water with a little alum in it1 and others can be got out by a judicious application of curd soap with a very soft brush and plenty of warm water4 ,but some1 and especially ink stains1 require further treatment4 ,there are many ways of washing paper1 and most of those in common use are extremely dangerous1 and have in many cases resulted in the absolute destruction of fine books4 ,if it is thought to be absolutely necessary that the sheets of a book should be washed1 the safest method is as follows3--,take an ounce of permanganate of potash dissolved in a quart of water1 and warmed slightly4 ,in this put the sheets to be washed1 and leave them until they turn a dark brown4 ,this will usually take about an hour1 but may take longer for some papers4 ,then turn the sheets out and wash them in running water until all trace of purple stain disappears from the water as it comes away4 ,then transfer them to a bath of sulphurous 7not sulphuric7 acid and water in the proportion of one ounce of acid to one pint of water4 ,the sheets in this solution will rapidly turn white1 and if left for some time nearly all stains will be removed4 ,in case any stains refuse to come out1 the sheets should be put in clear water for a short time1 and then placed in the permanganate of potash solution again1 and left there for a longer time than before2 then after washing in clear water1 again transferred to the sulphurous acid4 ,when sheets are removed from the sulphurous acid they should be well washed for an hour or two in running water1 and then may be blotted or squeezed off and hung up on lines to dry4 ,any sheets treated in this way will require sizing afterwards4 ,and if1 as is often the case1 only a few sheets at the beginning or end of the book have to be washed1 it will be necessary to tone down the washed sheets to match the rest of the book by putting some stain in the size4 ,for staining there are many things used4 ,a weak solution of permanganate of potash gives a yellowish stain that will be found to match many papers4 ,other stains are used1 such as coffee1 chicory1 tea1 liquorice1 c4 ,whatever is used should be put in the size4 ,to ascertain that the right depth of colour has been obtained1 a piece of unsized paper1 such as white blotting-paper1 is dipped in the stained size and blotted off and dried before the fire4 ,it is impossible to judge of the depth of colour in a stain unless the test piece is thoroughly dried4 ,if the stain is not right1 add more water or more stain as is needed4 ,experience will tell what stain to use to match the paper of any given book4 ,to remove grease or oil stains1 ether may be used4 ,pour it freely in a circle round the spot1 narrowing the circle gradually until the stain is covered4 ,then apply a warm iron through a piece of blotting-paper4 ,ether should only be used in a draught in a well-ventilated room on account of its well-known inflammable and anaesthetical properties4 ,a very dilute 7about one per cent47 solution of pure hydrochloric acid in cold water will be found to take out some stains if the paper is left in it for some hours4 ,when the paper is removed from the solution1 it must be thoroughly washed in running water4 ,it is important that the hydrochloric acid used should be pure1 as the commercial quality 7spirits of salts7 often contains sulphuric acid4 ,the following recipes are quoted from ,de l'organisation et de l'administration des ,bibliotheques1 par ,jules ,cusin3-- ,to remove stains from paper3--,mud ,stains4--,to take away these kinds of stains1 spread some soap jelly very evenly over the stained places1 and leave it there for thirty or forty minutes1 according to the depth of the stain4 ,then dip the sheet in clean water1 and then having spread it on a perfectly clean table1 remove the soap lightly with a hog's hair brush or a fine sponge2 all the mud will disappear at the same time4 ,put the sheet into the clear water again1 to get rid of the last trace of soap4 ,let it drain a little1 press it lightly between two sheets of blotting-paper1 and finish by letting it dry slowly in a dry place in the shade4 ,stains of ,tallow1 ,stearine1 or ,fat4--,to take away these stains cover them with blotting-paper and pass over them a warm flat-iron4 ,when the paper has soaked up the grease1 change it and repeat the operation until the stains have been sufficiently removed4 ,after that1 touch both sides of the sheets where they have been stained with a brush dipped in essence of turpentine heated to boiling-point4 ,then to restore the whiteness of the paper1 touch the places which were stained with a piece of fine linen soaked in purified spirits of wine warmed in the water-bath4 ,this method may also be employed to get rid of sealing-wax stains4 ,oil ,stains4--,make a mixture of #ejj gr4 of soap1 #cjj gr4 of clay1 #fj gr4 of quicklime1 and sufficient water to make it of the right consistency1 spread a thin layer of this on the stain1 and leave it there about a quarter of an hour4 ,then dip the sheet in a bath of hot water2 take it out1 and let it dry slowly4 ,you can also use the following method1 generally employed for finger-marks3-- ,finger-marks4--,these stains are sometimes very obstinate4 ,still they can generally be mastered by the following method3--,spread over them a layer of white soap jelly 7savon blanc en gelee71 and leave it there for some hours4 ,then remove this with a fine sponge dipped in hot water1 and more often than not all the dirt disappears at the same time4 ,if this treatment is not sufficient1 you might replace the soap jelly by soft soap 7savon noir71 but you must be careful not to leave it long on the printing1 which might decompose and run1 and that would do more harm than good4 ,sheets of very old books are best left with the stains of age upon them1 excepting1 perhaps1 such as can be removed with hot water or size4 ,nearly all stains can be removed1 but in the process old paper is apt to lose more in character than it gains in appearance4 ,,mending ,for mending torn sheets of an old book1 some paper that matches as nearly as possible must be found4 ,for this purpose it is the custom for bookbinders to collect quantities of old paper4 ,if a piece of the same tone cannot be found1 paper of similar texture and substance may be stained to match4 ,supposing a corner to be missing1 and a piece of paper to have been found that matches it1 the torn page is laid over the new paper in such a way that the wire marks on both papers correspond4 ,then the point of a folder should be drawn along the edge of the torn sheet1 leaving an indented line on the new paper4 ,the new paper should then be cut off about an eighth of an inch beyond the indented line1 and the edge carefully pared up to the line4 ,the edge of the old paper must be similarly pared1 so that the two edges when laid together will not exceed the thickness of the rest of the page4 ,it is well to leave a little greater overlap at the edges of the page4 ,both cut edges must then be well pasted with white paste and rubbed down between blotting-paper4 ,to ensure a perfectly clean joint the pasted edge should not be touched with the hand1 and pasting-paper1 brushes1 and paste must be perfectly clean4 ,in the case of a tear across the page1 if there are any overlapping edges1 they may merely be pasted together and the end of the tear at the edge of the paper strengthened by a small piece of pared paper4 ,if the tear crosses print1 and there are no overlapping edges1 either tiny pieces of pared paper may be cut and laid across the tear between the lines of print1 or else a piece of the thinnest ,japanese paper1 which is nearly transparent1 may be pasted right along the tear over the print2 in either case the mend should be strengthened at the edge of the page by an additional thickness of paper4 ,in cases where the backs of the sections have been much damaged1 it will be necessary to put a guard the entire length1 or in the case of small holes1 to fill them in with pieces of torn paper4 ,the edges of any mend may1 with great care1 be scraped with a sharp knife having a slight burr on the under side1 and then rubbed lightly with a piece of worn fine sand-paper1 or a fragment of cuttle-fish bone4 ,care must be taken not to pare away too much1 and especially not to weaken the mend at the edges of the sheet4 ,as a general rule1 the new mending paper should go on the back of a sheet4 ,sometimes it is thought necessary to fill up worm-holes in the paper4 ,this may be done by boiling down some paper in size until it is of a pulpy consistency1 and a little of this filled into the worm-holes will re-make the paper in those places4 ,it is a very tedious operation1 and seldom worth doing4 ,mending vellum is done in much the same way as mending paper1 excepting that a little greater overlap must be left4 ,it is well to put a stitch of silk at each end of a vellum patch1 as you cannot depend on paste alone holding vellum securely4 ,the overlapping edges must be well roughed up with a knife to make sure that the paste will stick4 ,a cut in a vellum page is best mended with fine silk with a lacing stitch 7see fig4 #ah74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4 ,mending is most easily done on a sheet of plate-glass1 of which the edges and corners have been rubbed down4 ,,chapter ,v ,end ,papers--,leather ,joints--,pressing ,,end ,,papers ,if an old book that has had much wear is examined1 it will generally be found that the leaves at the beginning and the end have suffered more than the rest of the book4 ,on this ground1 and also to enable people who must write notes in books to do so with the least injury to the book1 it is advisable to put a good number of blank papers at each end4 ,as these papers are part of the binding1 and have an important protective function to perform1 they should be of good quality4 ,at all times difficulty has been found in preventing the first and last section of the book1 whether end papers or not1 from dragging away when the cover is opened1 and various devices have been tried to overcome this defect4 ,in the fifteenth century strips of vellum 7usually cut from manuscripts7 were pasted on to the back of the book and on the inside of the boards1 or in some cases were merely folded round the first and last section and pasted on to the covers4 ,the modern1 and far less efficient1 practice is to overcast the first and last sections4 ,this is objectionable1 because it prevents the leaves from opening right to the back1 and it fails in the object aimed at1 by merely transferring the strain to the back of the overcast section4 ,in order to make provision for any strain there may be in opening the cover1 it is better to adopt some such arrangement as shown in fig4 #ai4 ,in this end paper the zigzag opens slightly in response to any strain4 ,the way to make this end paper is to take a folded sheet of paper a little larger than the book4 ,then with dividers mark two points an eighth of an inch from the back for the fold1 and paste your paste-down paper1 ,b ,b1 up to these points 7see fig4 #ai1 ,,ii74 ,when the paste is dry1 fold back the sheet 7,a#a7 over the paste-down paper1 and ,a#b the reverse way1 leaving the form seen in fig4 #ai1 ,,iii4 ,a folded sheet of paper similar to ,a is inserted at ,c 7fig4 #ai1 ,v1 ,h71 and the sewing passes through this4 ,when the book is pasted down the leaf ,a#a is torn off1 and ,b#a pasted down on the board4 ,if marbled paper is desired1 the marble should be made1 that is1 pasted on to ,b#a4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4 ,there are considerable disadvantages in using marbled papers1 as if they are of thick enough paper to help the strength of the binding1 the made sheet is very stiff1 and in a small book is troublesome4 ,on no account should any marble paper be used1 unless it is tough and durable4 ,the quality of the paper of which most marbled papers are made is so poor1 that it is unsuitable for use as end papers4 ,for most books a self-coloured paper of good quality answers well for the paste-down sheets4 ,it is a mistake to leave end papers to be pasted on after the book has been forwarded1 as in that case they have little constructive value4 ,every leaf of such an end paper as is described above will open right to the back1 and the zigzag allows play for the drag of the board4 ,paper with a conventional pattern painted or printed on it may be used for end papers4 ,if such a design is simple1 such as a sprig repeated all over1 or an arrangement of stars or dots1 it may look very well2 but over elaborate end papers1 and especially those that aim at pictorial effect1 are seldom successful4 ,ends may be made of thin vellum4 ,if so1 unless the board is very heavy1 it is best to have leather joints4 ,a single leaf of vellum 7in the place of ,b#a and #b1 ,,ii1 fig4 #ai7 should have an edge turned up into the zigzag with the leather joint1 and sewn through4 ,vellum ends must always be sewn1 as it is not safe to rely upon paste to hold them4 ,they look well1 and may be enriched by tooling4 ,the disadvantage of vellum is1 that it has a tendency to curl up if subjected to heat1 and when it contracts it unduly draws the boards of the book4 ,for large manuscripts1 or printed books on vellum1 which are bound in wooden or other thick boards and are clasped1 thicker vellum may be used for the ends2 that with a slightly brown surface looks best4 ,the part that will come into the joint should be scraped thin with a knife1 and a zigzag made of ,japanese paper4 ,silk or other fine woven material may be used for ends4 ,it is best used with a leather joint1 and may be stuck on to the first paper of the end papers 7,b#a1 ,no4 #b1 fig4 #ai71 and cut with the book4 ,the glaire of the edge gilding will help to stop the edges fraying out4 ,in attaching silk to paper1 thin glue is the best thing to use2 the paper1 not the silk1 being glued4 ,some little practice is needed to get sufficient glue on the paper to make the silk stick all over1 and yet not to soil it4 ,when the silk has been glued to the paper1 it should be left under a light weight to dry4 ,if put in the press1 the glue may be squeezed through and the silk soiled4 ,if the silk is very thin1 or delicate in colour1 or if it seems likely that it will fray out at the edges1 it is better to turn the edges in over a piece of paper cut a little smaller than the page of the book and stick them down4 ,this forms a pad1 which may be attached to the first leaf of the end papers2 a similar pad may be made for filling in the board4 ,before using1 the silk should be damped and ironed flat on the wrong side4 ,silk ends give a book a rich finish1 but seldom look altogether satisfactory4 ,if the silk is merely stuck on to the first end paper1 the edges will generally fray out if the book is much used4 ,if the edges are turned in1 an unpleasantly thick end is made4 ,,leather ,,joints ,leather joints are pieces of thin leather that are used to cover the joints on the inside 7for paring1 see page #aed74 ,they add very little strength to the book1 but give a pleasant finish to the inside of the board4 ,if there are to be leather joints1 the end papers are made up without ,a #a1 and the edge of the leather pasted and inserted at ,d1 with a piece of common paper as a protection 7see fig4 #ai1 ,,iv74 ,when the paste is dry1 the leather is folded over at ,e4 ,a piece of blotting-paper may be pasted on to the inside of the waste leaf1 leaving enough of it loose to go between the leather joint and the first sheet of the end paper4 ,this will avoid any chance of the leather joint staining or marking the ends while the book is being bound4 ,the blotting-paper1 of course1 is taken out with the waste sheet before the joint is pasted down4 ,joints may also be made of linen or cloth inserted in the same way4 ,a cloth joint has greater strength than a leather one1 as the latter has to be very thin in order that the board may shut properly4 ,with leather or cloth joints1 the sewing should go through both ,e and ,f4 ,,pressing ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--,standing ,press ,while the end papers are being made1 the sections of the book should be pressed4 ,to do this a pressing-board is taken which is a little larger than the book1 and a tin1 covered with common paper1 placed on that1 then a few sections of the book1 then another tin covered with paper1 and then more sections1 and so on1 taking care that the sections are exactly over one another 7see fig4 #bj74 ,a second pressing-board having been placed on the last tin1 the pile of sections1 tins1 and pressing-boards can be put into the standing-press and left under pressure till next day4 ,newly printed plates should be protected by thin tissue paper while being pressed4 ,any folded plates or maps1 c41 or inserted letters1 must either not be pressed1 or have tins placed on each side of them to prevent them from indenting the adjoining leaves4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--;,french ,standing ,press ,hand-printed books1 such as the publications of the ,kelmscott ,press1 should have very little pressure1 or the impression of the print and the surface of the paper may be injured4 ,books newly printed on vellum or heavily coloured illustrations should not be pressed at all1 or the print may set off4 ,the protecting tissues on the plates of a book that has been printed for more than a year can generally be left out1 unless the titles of the plates are printed on them1 as they are a nuisance to readers and often get crumpled up and mark the book4 ,in order to make books solid1 that is1 to make the leaves lie evenly and closely to one another1 it was formerly the custom to beat books on a stone with a heavy hammer4 ,this process has been superseded by the rolling-press2 but with the admirable presses that are now to be had1 simple pressing will be found to be sufficient for the extra binder4 ,at fig4 #ba is shown an iron standing-press4 ,this is screwed down first with a short bar1 and finally with a long bar4 ,this form of press is effective and simple1 but needs a good deal of room for the long bar1 and must have very firm supports1 or it may be pulled over4 ,at fig4 #bb is shown a ,french standing-press1 in which the pressure is applied by a weighted wheel1 which will1 in the first place1 by being spun round1 turn the screw until it is tight1 and give additional pressure by a hammering action4 ,this press ,i have found to answer for all ordinary purposes1 and to give as great pressure as can be got by the iron standing-press1 without any undue strain on supports or workmen4 ,there are many other forms of press by which great pressure can be applied1 some working by various arrangements of cog-wheels1 screws1 and levers1 others by hydraulic pressure4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,trimming ,edges before ,sewing--,edge ,gilding ,,trimming ,,before ,,sewing ,when the sheets come from the press the treatment of the edges must be decided upon1 that is1 whether they are to be entirely uncut1 trimmed before sewing1 or cut in boards4 ,early printed books and manuscripts should on no account have their edges cut at all1 and any modern books of value are better only slightly trimmed and gilt before sewing4 ,but for books of reference that need good bindings1 on account of the wear they have to withstand1 cutting in boards is best1 as the smooth edge so obtained makes the leaves easier to turn over4 ,gilt tops and rough edges give a book a look of unequal finish4 ,if the edges are to remain uncut1 or be cut in boards with the plough1 the book will be ready for marking up as soon as it comes from the press2 but if it is to be gilt before sewing1 it must be first trimmed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4 ,the sheets for trimming with end papers and all plates inserted must first be cut square at the head against a carpenter's square 7see fig4 #g74 ,then a piece of mill-board may be cut to the size1 it is desired to leave the leaves1 and the sections trimmed to it4 ,to do this three nails should be put into the covering board through a piece of straw-board1 and the back of the section slid along nails #a and #b until it touches ,no4 #c 7see fig4 #bc74 ,the board is slid in the same way1 and anything projecting beyond it cut off4 ,when the under straw-board has become inconveniently scored in the first position1 by shifting the lower nail 7#a7 a fresh surface will receive the cuts4 ,fig4 #bd is a representation of a simple machine that ,i use in my workshop for trimming4 ,the slides ,a ,a are adjustable to any width required1 and are fixed by the screws ,b ,b4 ,the brass-bound straight edge ,c fits on to slots in ,a ,a1 and as this1 by the adjustment of the slides1 can be fixed at any distance from ,b ,b1 all sizes of books can be trimmed4 ,as by this machine several sections can be cut at once1 the time taken is not very much greater than if the book were cut in the plough4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4 ,considerable judgment is required in trimming4 ,the edges of the larger pages only1 on a previously uncut book1 should be cut1 leaving the smaller pages untouched4 ,such uncut pages are called proof1 and the existence of proof in a bound book is evidence that it has not been unduly cut4 ,before gilding the edges of the trimmed sections1 any uncut folds that may remain should be opened with a folder1 as if opened after gilding1 they will show a ragged white edge4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4 ,,edge ,,gilding ,to gild the edges of trimmed sections1 the book must be knocked up to the fore-edge1 getting as many of the short leaves as possible to the front4 ,it is then put into the lying press1 with gilding boards on each side 7see fig4 ,no4 #be71 and screwed up tightly4 ,very little scraping will be necessary1 and usually if well rubbed with fine sand-paper1 to remove any chance finger-marks or loose fragments of paper1 the edge will be smooth enough to gild4 ,if the paper is very absorbent1 the edges must be washed over with vellum size and left to dry4 ,the next process is an application of red chalk4 ,for this a piece of gilder's red chalk is rubbed down on a stone with water1 making a thickish paste1 and the edges are well brushed with a hard brush dipped in this mixture1 care being taken not to have it wet enough to run between the leaves4 ,some gilders prefer to use blacklead or a mixture of chalk and blacklead4 ,a further brushing with a dry brush will to some extent polish the leaves4 ,it will then be ready for an application of glaire4 ,before glairing1 the gold must be cut on the cushion to the width required 7see p4 #bjj71 and may be either taken up on very slightly greased paper1 a gilder's tip1 or with a piece of net stretched on a little frame 7see fig4 #bf74 ,the gold leaf will adhere sufficiently to the net1 and can be readily released by a light breath when it is exactly over the proper place on the edge4 ,when the gold is ready1 the glaire should be floated on to the edge with a soft brush1 and the gold spread evenly over it and left until dry2 that is1 in a workshop of ordinary temperature1 for about an hour4 ,the edge is then lightly rubbed with a piece of leather that has been previously rubbed on beeswax1 and is ready for burnishing4 ,it is best to commence burnishing through a piece of thin slightly waxed paper to set the gold1 and afterwards the burnisher can be used directly on the edge4 ,a piece of bloodstone ground so as to have no sharp edges 7see fig4 #bg7 makes a good burnisher4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4 ,there are several different preparations used for gilding edges4 ,one part of beaten up white of egg with four parts of water left to stand for a day and strained will be found to answer well4 ,after the fore-edge is gilt the same operation is repeated at the head and tail4 ,as it is desirable to have the gilding at the head as solid as possible1 rather more scraping is advisable here1 or the head may be left to be cut with a plough and gilt in boards4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,marking up--,sewing--,materials for ,sewing ,,marking ,,up ,this is drawing lines across the back of the sections to show the sewer the position of the sewing cords4 ,marking up for flexible sewing needs care and judgment1 as on it depends the position of the bands on the back of the bound book4 ,nearly all books look best with five bands1 but very large1 thinnish folios may have six1 and a very small1 thick book may look better with four4 ,generally speaking1 five is the best number4 ,in marking up trimmed sheets for flexible sewing1 the length of the back should be divided from the head into six portions1 five equal1 and one at the tail slightly longer4 ,from the points so arrived at1 strong pencil lines should be made across the back with a carpenter's square as guide1 the book having been previously knocked up between pressing-boards1 and placed in the lying press4 ,it is important that the head should be knocked up exactly square1 as otherwise the bands will be found to slope when the book is bound4 ,in the case of a book which is to be cut and gilt in boards1 before marking up it will be necessary to decide how much is to be cut off1 and allowance made1 or the head and tail division of the back will1 when cut1 be too small4 ,it must also be remembered that to the height of the pages the amount of the squares will be added4 ,about a quarter of an inch from either end of the back of a trimmed book1 and a little more in the case of one that is to be cut in boards1 a mark should be made for the kettle or catch stitch4 ,this may be slightly sawn in1 but before using the saw1 the end papers are removed4 ,if these were sawn1 the holes would show in the joint when the ends are pasted down4 ,if the book is to be sewn on double cords1 or on slips of vellum or tape1 two lines will be necessary for each band4 ,it has become the custom to saw in the backs of books1 and to sink the bands into the saw cuts1 using hollow backs1 and putting false bands to appear when bound4 ,this is a degenerate form1 to which is due much of the want of durability of modern bindings4 ,if the bands are not to show on the back1 it is better to sew on tapes or strips of vellum than to use sawn-in string bands4 ,,sewing ,the sewing-frame need by bookbinders is practically the same now as is shown in prints of the early sixteenth century1 and probably dates from still earlier times4 ,it consists of a bed with two uprights and a crossbar1 which can be heightened or lowered by the turning of wooden nuts working on a screw thread cut in the uprights 7see fig4 #bi74 ,to set up for sewing1 as many loops of cord1 called lay cords1 as there are to be bands1 are threaded on to the cross piece1 and to these1 by a simple knot1 shown at fig4 #bh1 cords are fastened to form the bands4 ,the lay cords can be used again and again until worn out4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4 ,to fasten the cord below1 a key is taken 7see fig4 #bh7 and held below the press by the right hand2 the cord is then pulled up round it by the left1 and held in position on the key by the first finger of the right hand4 ,the key is then turned over1 winding up a little of the string1 and the prongs slipped over the main cord4 ,it is then put through the slit in the bed of the sewing-press1 with the prongs away from the front4 ,the cord is then cut off1 and the same operation repeated for each band4 ,when all the bands have been set up1 the book is laid against them1 and they are moved to correspond with the marks previously made on the back of the book1 care being taken that they are quite perpendicular4 ,if they are of the same length and evenly set up1 on screwing up the crossbar they should all tighten equally4 ,it will be found to be convenient to set up the cords as far to the right hand of the press as possible1 as then there will be room for the sewer's left arm on the inner side of the left hand upright4 ,a roll of paper that will exactly fill the slot in the sewing-frame is pushed in in front of the upright cords to steady them and ensure that they are all in the same plane4 ,when the sewing-frame is ready1 with the cords set up and adjusted1 the book must be collated to make sure that neither sheets nor plates have been lost or misplaced during the previous operations4 ,plates need special care to see that the guards go properly round the sheets next them4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4 ,the top back corner1 on front and back waste end paper1 should be marked4 ,when this has been done1 and all is found to be in order1 the book is laid on a pressing-board behind the sewing-frame1 the fore-edge towards the sewer1 and the front end paper uppermost4 ,as it is difficult to insert the needle into a section placed on the bed of the sewing-frame1 it will be found convenient to sew upon a largish pressing-board1 which will lie on the bed of the frame1 and may have small catches to prevent it from shifting4 ,when the board is in place1 the first section 7end paper7 is taken in the left hand and turned over1 so that the marks on the back come in the proper places against the strings4 ,the left hand is inserted into the place where the sewing is to be1 and with the right hand a needle and thread is passed through the kettle stitch mark 7see fig4 #bi74 ,it is grasped by the fingers of the left hand1 is passed out through the back at the first mark on the left-hand side of the first upright cord1 and pulled tight1 leaving a loose end of thread at the kettle stitch4 ,then with the right hand it is inserted again in the same place1 but from the other side of the cord1 and so on round all five bands1 and out again at the kettle stitch mark at the tail1 using right and left hands alternately4 ,the centre of the next section is then found1 and it is sewn in the same way from tail to head1 the thread being tied to the loose end hanging from the first kettle stitch4 ,another section is laid on and sewn1 but when the kettle stitch is reached1 the under thread is caught up in the way shown in fig4 #cj4 ,these operations are repeated throughout the whole book4 ,if the back seems likely to swell too much1 the sections can be lightly tapped down with a loaded stick made for the purpose1 care being taken not to drive the sections inwards1 as it is difficult to get such sections out again4 ,when all the sheets and the last end paper have been sewn on1 a double catch stitch is made1 and the end cut off4 ,this method is known as flexible sewing all along4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4 ,when one needle full of thread is exhausted1 another is tied on1 making practically a continuous length of thread going all along each section and round every band4 ,the weaver's knot is the best for joining the lengths of thread4 ,a simple way of tying it is shown at fig4 #ca4 ,a simple slip knot is made in the end of the new thread and put over the end of the old1 and1 on being pulled tight1 the old thread should slip through1 as shewn at ,b4 ,the convenience of this knot is1 that by its use a firm attachment can be made quite close up to the back of the book4 ,this is a great advantage1 as if the knot is made at some distance from the back1 it will have to be dragged through the section two or three times1 instead of only once4 ,the knot1 after having been made1 must be pulled inside the section1 and remain there4 ,considerable judgment is required in sewing4 ,if a book is sewn too loosely1 it is almost impossible to bind it firmly2 and if too tightly1 especially if the kettle stitches have been drawn too tight1 the thread may break in backing1 and the book have to be resewn4 ,one way to avoid having too much swelling in the back of a book consisting of a great many very thin sections is to sew two sheets on4 ,in this form of sewing two sections at a time are laid on the sewing-frame4 ,the thread is inserted at the kettle stitch of the lower section1 and brought out as usual at the first cord1 but instead of being reinserted into the lower section1 it is passed into the upper one1 and so on1 alternately passing into the upper and lower sections4 ,this will give1 if there are five bands1 three stitches in each section instead of six1 as there would be if the sewing were all along1 lessening the thread1 consequently the swelling by half4 ,it is usual to sew the first and last few sections all along4 ,the common method of sewing is to make saw cuts in the back1 in which thin cords can be sunk1 and the thread merely passes behind them and not round them1 as in flexible sewing4 ,this method1 although very quick and cheap1 is not to be recommended1 on account of the injury done to the backs of the sections by the saw1 and because the glue running into the saw cuts is apt to make the back stiff1 and to prevent the book from opening right to the back4 ,indeed1 were a sawn-in book to open right to the back1 as it is expected a flexibly-sewn book will do1 showing the sewing along the centre of each section1 the saw marks with the band inserted would show1 and be a serious disfigurement4 ,mediaeval books were usually sewn on double cords or strips of leather1 and the headband was often sewn at the same time1 as shown at fig4 #cb1 ,a4 ,this is an excellent method for very large books with heavy sections1 and is specially suitable for large vellum manuscripts1 in many of which the sections are very thick4 ,an advantage of this method is1 that the twist round the double cord virtually makes a knot at every band1 and should a thread at any place break1 there is no danger of the rest of the thread coming loose4 ,this is the only mode of sewing by which a thread runs absolutely from end to end of the sections4 ,the headband sewn at the same time1 and so tied down in every section1 is firmer and stronger than if worked on in the way now usual4 ,in the fifteenth century it was the custom to lace the ends of the headbands into the boards in the same way as the other bands4 ,this method1 while giving additional strength at the head and tail1 and avoiding the somewhat unfinished look of the cut-off ends of the modern headband1 is1 on the whole1 of doubtful advantage1 as it is necessary to cut the turn in at the point where strength in the leather is much wanted4 ,at fig4 #cb is shown in section the three methods of sewing mentioned4 ,a is the old sewing round double bands2 with the headbands worked at the same time with the same thread2 ,b is the modern flexible sewing1 and ,c the common sawn-in method4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4 ,books that are very thin or are to be bound in vellum1 are best sewn on tapes or vellum slips4 ,the easiest way to set up the sewing-frame for such sewing is to sling a piece of wood through two of the lay cords1 and to pin one end of the vellum or tape band round this1 pull the other end tight1 and secure it with a drawing-pin underneath the frame4 ,the sewing1 in the case of such flat bands1 would not go round1 but only across them4 ,to avoid undue looseness1 every three or four threads may be caught up at the back of the band1 as shown in fig4 #cc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4 ,,materials ,,for ,,sewing ,the cord used should be of the best hemp1 specially made with only two strands of very long fibres to facilitate fraying out4 ,for very large books where a double cord is to be used1 the best water line will be found to answer1 care being taken to select that which can be frayed out4 ,if tape is used it should be unbleached1 such as the sailmakers use4 ,thread should also be unbleached1 as the unnecessary bleaching of most bookbinder's sewing-thread seems to cause it to rot in a comparatively short time4 ,silk of the best quality is better than any thread4 ,the ligature silk1 undyed1 as used by surgeons1 is perhaps the strongest material1 and can be had in various thicknesses4 ,it is impossible to pay too great attention to the selection of sewing materials1 as the permanency of the binding depends on their durability4 ,the rebinding of valuable books is at best a necessary evil1 and anything that makes frequent rebinding necessary1 is not only objectionable on account of the cost involved1 but because it seriously shortens the life of the book4 ,experience is required to judge what thickness of thread to use for any given book4 ,if the sections are very thin1 a thin thread must be used1 or the swelling of the back caused by the additional thickness of the thread in that part will be excessive1 and make the book unmanageable in backing4 ,on the other hand1 if the sections are large1 and a too thin thread is used1 there will not be enough swelling to make a firm joint4 ,broadly speaking1 when there are a great many very thin sections1 the thinnest thread may be used2 and coarser thread may be used when the sections are thicker1 or fewer in number4 ,in the case of large manuscripts on vellum it is best to use very thick silk1 or even catgut4 ,vellum is so tough and durable1 that any binding of a vellum book should be made as if it were expected to last for hundreds of years4 ,in selecting the thickness of cord for a book1 some judgment is required4 ,on an old book the bands are best made rather prominent by the use of thick cord1 but the exact thickness to be used is a matter for taste and experience to decide4 ,a very thick band on a small book is clumsy1 while a very thin band on the back of a heavy book suggests weakness1 and is therefore unsightly4 ,in bindings of early printed books and manuscripts an appearance of great strength is better than extreme neatness4 ,when the sewing is completed1 the cords are cut off close to the lay cords1 and then the keys will be loose enough to be easily removed4 ,the knots remaining on the lay bands are removed1 and the keys slung through one of them4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,fraying out ,slips--,glueing up--,rounding and ,backing ,,fraying ,,out ,,slips ,,and ,,glueing ,,up ,after sewing1 the book should be looked through to see that all sheets and plates have been caught by the thread1 and special attention should be given to end papers to see that the sewing lies evenly4 ,the ends of the cords should next be cut off to within about two inches of the book on each side1 and the free portions frayed out4 ,if proper sewing cord is used1 this will be found to be very easily done1 if a binder's bodkin is first inserted between the two strands1 separating them1 and then again in the centre of each separated strand to still further straighten the fibres 7see fig4 #cd74 ,the fraying out of the thick cord recommended for heavy books is a more difficult operation1 but with a little trouble the fibres of any good cord can be frayed out4 ,vellum or tape bands will only require cutting off1 leaving about two inches free on each side4 ,the free parts of the bands are called slips4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4 ,the book is now ready for glueing up4 ,a piece of waste mill-board or an old cloth cover is put on each side over the slips1 and the book knocked up squarely at the back and head4 ,then it is lowered into the lying press and screwed up1 leaving the back with the protecting boards projecting about three-quarters of an inch4 ,if the back has too much swelling in it or is spongy1 it is better to leave the slips on one side free and to pull them as tight as possible while the book is held in the press1 or a knocking-down iron may be placed on one side of the projecting back and the other side tapped with the backing hammer to make the sections lie close to one another1 and then the slips pulled straight 7fig4 #ce74 ,the back must now be glued4 ,the glue for this operation must be hot1 and not too thick4 ,it is very important that it should be worked well between the sections with the brush1 and it is well after it has been applied to rub the back with a finger or folder to make quite sure that the glue goes between every section for its entire length4 ,if the book is too tightly screwed up in the press1 the glue is apt to remain too much on the surface2 and if not tightly enough1 it may penetrate too deeply between the sections4 ,if the glue is thick1 or stringy1 it may be diluted with hot water and the glue-brush rapidly spun round in the glue-pot to break it up and to make it work freely4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4 ,very great care is needed to see that the head of a previously trimmed book is knocked up exactly square before the back is glued1 for if it is not1 it will be very difficult to get it even afterwards4 ,,rounding ,,and ,,backing ,the amount of rounding on the back of a book should be determined by the necessities of the case2 that is to say1 a back that has1 through guarding1 or excess of sewing1 a tendency to be round1 is best not forced to be flat1 and a back that would naturally be flat1 is best not forced to be unduly round4 ,a very round back is objectionable where it can be avoided1 because it takes up so much of the back margins of the sheets1 and is apt to make the book stiff in opening4 ,on the other hand1 a back that is quite flat has to be lined up stiffly1 or it may become concave with use4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4 ,the method of rounding is to place the book with the back projecting a little over the edge of the press or table1 then to draw the back over towards the workman1 and1 while in this position1 to tap it carefully with a hammer 7see fig4 #cf74 ,this is repeated on the other side of the book1 and1 if properly done1 will give the back an even1 convex form that should be in section1 a portion of a circle4 ,rounding and backing are best done after the glue has ceased to be tacky1 but before it has set hard4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4 ,backing is perhaps the most difficult and important operation in forwarding4 ,the sewing threads in the back cause that part to be thicker than the rest of the book4 ,thus in a book with twenty sections there will be in the back1 in addition to the thickness of the paper1 twenty thicknesses of thread4 ,if the boards were laced on to the book without rounding or backing1 and the book were pressed1 the additional thickness of the back1 having to go somewhere1 would cause it to go either convex or concave1 or else perhaps to crease up 7see fig4 #cg74 ,the object of rounding is to control the distribution of this swelling1 and to make the back take an even and permanently convex form4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4 ,if the boards were merely laced on after rounding1 there would be a gap between the square ends of the board and the edge of the back 7see fig4 #ch71 though the convexity and even curve of the back would be to some extent assured4 ,what is done in backing is to make a groove1 into which the edges of the board will fit neatly1 and to hammer the backs of the sections over one another from the centre outwards on both sides to form the groove1 to ensure that the back shall return to the same form after the book has been opened4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4 ,to back the book1 backing boards are placed on each side 7leaving the slips outside7 a short distance below the edge of the back 7fig4 #ci74 ,the amount to leave here must be decided by the thickness of the boards to be used4 ,when the backing boards are in position1 the book and boards must be carefully lowered into the lying press and screwed up very tight1 great care being taken to see that the boards do not slip1 and that the book is put in evenly4 ,even the most experienced forwarder will sometimes have to take a book out of the press two or three times before he gets it in quite evenly and without allowing the boards to slip4 ,unless the back has a perfectly even curve when put in the press for backing1 no amount of subsequent hammering will put it permanently right4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4 ,the backs of the sections should be evenly fanned out one over the other from the centre outwards on both sides4 ,this is done by side strokes of the hammer1 in fact by a sort of riveting blow1 and not by a directly crushing blow 7see fig4 #da1 in which the arrows show the direction of the hammer strokes74 ,if the sections are not evenly fanned out from the centre1 but are either zigzagged by being crushed by direct blows of the hammer1 as shown in fig4 #db1 ,a1 or are unevenly fanned over more to one side than the other1 as shown in fig4 #db1 ,b1 the back1 although it may be even enough when first done1 will probably become uneven with use4 ,a book in which the sections have been crushed down1 as at fig4 #db1 ,a1 will be disfigured inside by creases in the paper4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd4 ,it is a mistake to suppose that a very heavy hammer is necessary for backing any but the largest books4 ,for flexible books a hammer with a comparatively small face should be used1 as by its use the book can be backed without flattening the bands4 ,it is well to have a hammer head of the shape shown in fig4 #dc4 ,by using the thin end1 the force of a comparatively light blow1 because concentrated on a small surface1 is effective4 ,at fig4 #dd is shown an ordinary backing hammer4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,cutting and ,attaching ,boards--,cleaning off ,back--,pressing ,,cutting ,,and ,,attaching ,,boards ,the first quality of the best black board made from old rope is the best to use for extra binding4 ,it will be found to be very hard1 and not easily broken or bent at the corners4 ,in selecting the thickness suitable for any given book1 the size and thickness of the volume should be taken into account4 ,the tendency of most modern binders is to use a rather over thick board1 perhaps with a view to bulk out the volume4 ,for manuscripts1 or other books on vellum1 it is best to use wooden boards1 which should be clasped4 ,from their stability they form a kind of permanent press1 in which the vellum leaves are kept flat4 ,in a damp climate like that of ,england1 vellum1 absorbing moisture from the atmosphere1 soon cockles up unless it is held tightly in some way2 and when it is once cockled1 the book cannot be made to shut properly1 except with very special treatment4 ,then also dust and damp have ready access to the interstices of the crinkled pages1 resulting in the disfigurement so well known and so deplored by all lovers of fine books4 ,for large books a made board1 that is1 two boards pasted together1 is better than a single board of the same thickness4 ,in making boards a thin and a thick board should be pasted together1 the thin board to go nearest the book4 ,it will not be necessary to put a double lining on the inside of such boards1 as a thin board will always draw a thick one4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de4 ,if mill-boards are used they are first cut roughly to size with the mill-board shears1 screwed up in the lying press4 ,the straight arm of the shears is the one to fix in the press1 for if the bent arm be undermost1 the knuckles are apt to be severely bruised against the end4 ,a better way of fixing the shears is shown at fig4 #de4 ,any blacksmith will bend the arm of the shears and make the necessary clips4 ,this method saves trouble and considerable wear and tear to the lying press4 ,where a great many boards are needed1 they may be quickly cut in a board machine1 but for extra work they should be further trimmed in the plough1 in the same way as those cut by the shears4 ,after the boards have been roughly cut to size1 they should have one edge cut straight with the plough4 ,to do this one or two pairs of boards are knocked up to the back and inserted in the cutting side of the press1 with those edges projecting which are to be cut off1 and behind them1 as a cut against1 a board protected by a waste piece of mill-board4 ,the plough1 held by the screw and handle1 and guided by the runners on the press1 is moved backwards and forwards4 ,a slight turn of the screw at each movement brings the knife forward4 ,in cutting mill-boards which are very hard1 the screw should be turned very little each time4 ,if press and plough are in proper order1 that part of the board which projects above the cheek of the press should be cut off1 leaving the edges perfectly square and straight4 ,if the edge of the press has been damaged1 or is out of truth1 a cutting board may be used between the cheek of the press and the board to be cut1 making a true edge for the knife to run on4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df4--,lying or ,cutting ,press ,the position of the plough on the press is shown at fig4 #df4 ,the side of the press with runners should be reserved for cutting1 the other side used for all other work4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg4 ,the plough knife for mill-boards should not be ground at too acute an angle1 or the edge will most likely break away at the first cut4 ,the shape shown at fig4 #dg is suitable4 ,the knife should be very frequently ground1 as it soon gets blunt1 which adds greatly to the labour of cutting4 ,after an edge has been cut1 each side should be well rubbed with a folder to smooth down any burr left by the plough knife4 ,then a piece of common paper with one edge cut straight is pasted on to one side of the board1 with the straight edge exactly up to the cut edge of the board4 ,then a piece of paper large enough to cover both sides of the board is pasted round it1 and well rubbed down at the cut edge4 ,after having been lined1 the boards are nipped in the press to ensure that the lining paper shall stick4 ,they are stood up to dry1 with the doubly lined side outwards4 ,the double paper is intended to warp the board slightly to that side1 to compensate for the pull of the leather when the book is covered4 ,if the board is a double one1 a single lining paper will be sufficient1 the thinner board helping to draw the thicker4 ,the paste for lining boards must be fairly thin1 and very well beaten up so as to be free from lumps4 ,it is of the utmost importance that the lining papers should stick properly1 for unless they stick1 no subsequent covering of leather or paper can be made to lie flat4 ,when the lined boards are quite dry1 they should be paired with the doubly lined sides together1 and the top back corner marked to correspond with the marks on the top back corners of the book4 ,then near the top edge1 with the aid of a carpenter's square1 two points are marked in a line at right angles to the cut edge4 ,the pair of boards is then knocked up to the back and lowered into the press as before1 so that the plough knife will exactly cut through the points4 ,the same operation is repeated on the two remaining uncut edges4 ,in marking out those for the fore-edge1 the measurement is taken with a pair of compasses 7fig4 #dh7 from the joint of the book to the fore-edge of the first section4 ,if the book has been trimmed1 or is to remain uncut1 a little more must be allowed for the squares1 and if it is to be cut in the plough1 it must be now decided how much is to be cut off1 remembering that it is much better to have the boards a little too large1 and so have to reduce them after the book is cut1 than to have them too small1 and either be obliged to get out a new pair of boards1 or unduly cut down the book4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di4 ,the height of the boards for a book that has been trimmed1 or is to remain uncut1 will be the height of the page with a small allowance at each end for the squares4 ,when a pair of boards has been cut all round1 it can be tested for squareness by reversing one board1 when any inequality that there may be will appear doubled4 ,if the boards are out of truth they should generally be put on one side1 to be used for a smaller book1 and new boards got out4 ,to correct a badly cut pair of boards1 it is necessary to reduce them in size1 and the book consequently suffers in proportion4 ,if the boards have been found to be truly cut1 they are laid on the book1 and the position of the slips marked on them by lines at right angles to the back4 ,a line is then made parallel to the back1 about half an inch in 7see fig4 #di74 ,at the points where the lines cross1 a series of holes is punched from the front with a binder's bodkin on a lead plate1 then the board is turned over1 and a second series is punched from the back about half an inch from the first4 ,if the groove of the back is shallower than the thickness of the board1 the top back edge of the board should be bevelled off with a file4 ,this will not be necessary if the groove is the exact depth4 ,when the holes have been punched1 it is well to cut a series of ,v-shaped depressions from the first series of holes to the back to receive the slips1 or they may be too prominent when the book is bound4 ,it will now be necessary to considerably reduce the slips that were frayed out after sewing1 and to remove all glue or any other matter attached to them4 ,the extent to which they may be reduced is a matter of nice judgment4 ,in the desire to ensure absolute neatness in the covering1 modern binders often reduce the slips to almost nothing4 ,on the other hand1 some go to the other extreme1 and leave the cord entire1 making great ridges on the sides of the book where it is laced in4 ,it should be possible with the aid of the depressions1 cut as described1 to use slips with sufficient margin of strength1 and yet to have no undue projection on the cover4 ,a slight projection is not unsightly1 as it gives an assurance of sound construction and strength1 and1 moreover1 makes an excellent starting-point for any pattern that may be used4 ,when the slips have been scraped and reduced1 the portion left should consist of long straight silky fibres4 ,these must be well pasted1 and the ends very slightly twisted4 ,the pointed ends are then threaded through the first series of holes in the front of the board1 and back again through the second 7fig4 #ej74 ,in lacing-in the slips must not be pulled so tight as to prevent the board from shutting freely1 nor left so loose as to make a perceptible interval in the joint of the book4 ,the pasted slips having been laced in1 their ends are cut off with a sharp knife1 flush with the surface of the board4 ,the laced-in slips are then well hammered on a knocking-down iron 7see fig4 #ea71 first from the front and then from the back1 care being taken that the hammer face should fall squarely1 or the slips may be cut4 ,this should rivet them into the board1 leaving little or no projection4 ,if in lacing in the fibres should get twisted1 no amount of hammering will make them flat1 so that it is important in pointing the ends for lacing in1 that only the points are twisted just sufficiently to facilitate the threading through the holes1 and not enough to twist the whole slip4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ea4 ,to lace slips into wooden boards1 holes are made with a brace and fine twist bit1 and the ends of the frayed out slips may be secured with a wooden plug 7see fig4 #eb74 ,old books were sometimes sewn on bands of leather1 but as those sewn on cord seem to have lasted on the whole much better1 and as1 moreover1 modern cord is a far more trustworthy material than modern leather1 it is better to use cord for any books bound now4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eb4 ,,cleaning ,,off ,,the ,,back ,,and ,,pressing ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec4 ,when the boards have been laced on and the slips hammered down1 the book should be pressed4 ,before pressing1 a tin is put on each side of both boards1 one being pushed right up into the joint on the inside1 and the other up to the joint1 or a little over it1 on the outside4 ,while in the press1 the back should be covered with paste and left to soak for a few minutes4 ,when the glue is soft the surplus on the surface can be scraped off with a piece of wood shaped as shown in fig4 #ec4 ,for important books it is best to do this in the lying press1 but some binders prefer first to build up the books in the standing press1 and then to paste the backs and clean them off there4 ,this has the advantage of being a quicker method1 and will1 in many cases1 answer quite well4 ,but for books that require nice adjustment it will be found better to clean off each volume separately in the lying press1 and afterwards to build up the books and boards in the standing press1 putting the larger books at the bottom4 ,it must be seen that the entire pile is exactly in the centre under the screw1 or the pressure will be uneven4 ,to ascertain if the books are built up truly1 the pile must be examined from both the front and side of the press4 ,each volume must also be looked at carefully to see that it lies evenly1 and that the back is not twisted or out of shape4 ,this is important1 as any form given to the book when it is pressed at this stage will be permanent4 ,any coloured or newly printed plates will need tissues1 as in the former pressing2 and any folded plates or diagrams or inserted letters will need a thin tin on each side of them to prevent them from marking the book4 ,again1 the pressure on hand-printed books must not be excessive4 ,the books should be left in the press at least a night4 ,when taken out they will be ready for headbanding1 unless the edges are to be cut in boards4 ,,chapter ,x ,cutting in ,boards--,gilding and ,colouring ,edges ,,cutting ,,in ,,boards ,the knife for cutting edges may be ground more acutely than for cutting boards1 and should be very sharp1 or the paper may be torn4 ,the plough knife should never be ground on the under side1 as if the under side is not quite flat1 it will tend to run up instead of cutting straight across4 ,before beginning to cut edges1 the position of the knife should be tested carefully by screwing the plough up1 with the press a little open1 and noting whereabouts on the left-hand cheek the point of the knife comes4 ,in a press that is true the knife should just clear the edge of the press4 ,if there is too much packing the knife will cut below the edge of the press1 and if too little1 it will cut above4 ,packing is paper inserted between the knife and the metal plate on the plough1 to correct the position of the knife4 ,when by experiment the exact thickness of paper necessary for any given knife is found1 the packing should be carefully kept when the knife is taken out for grinding1 and put back with it into the plough4 ,the first edge to be cut is the top1 and the first thing to do is to place the boards in the position they will hold when the book is bound4 ,the front board is then dropped the depth of the square required1 care being taken that the back edge of the board remains evenly in the joint4 ,a piece of cardboard1 or two or three thicknesses of paper1 are then slipped in between the end paper and the back board to prevent the latter from being cut by the knife4 ,the book is then carefully lowered into the press1 with the back towards the workman1 until the top edge of the front board is exactly even with the right-hand cheek1 and the press screwed up evenly4 ,the back board should show the depth of the square above the left-hand cheek4 ,it is very important that the edge of the back board should be exactly parallel with the press1 and if at first it is not so1 the book must be twisted until it is right4 ,the edges can now be cut with the plough as in cutting mill-boards4 ,the tail of the book is cut in the same way1 still keeping the back of the book towards the workman1 but cutting from the back board4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ee4 ,cutting the fore-edge is more difficult4 ,the waste sheets at each end of the book should be cut off flush with the edge of the board1 and marks made on them below the edge showing the amount of the square1 and consequently how much is to be cut off4 ,the curve of the back1 and consequent curve of the fore-edge1 must first be got rid of1 by inserting a pair of pieces of flat steel called trindles 7fig4 #ed7 across the back1 from the inside of the boards4 ,when these are inserted the back must be knocked quite flat1 and1 in the case of a heavy book1 a piece of tape may be tied round the leaves 7see fig4 #ee7 to keep them in position4 ,a pair of cutting boards is placed one on each side of the leaves1 the back one exactly up to the point that the edge of the board came to1 and the front one as much below that point as it is desired the square of the fore-edge should be4 ,the trindles are removed while the book is held firmly between the cutting boards by the finger and thumb2 book and boards are then lowered very carefully into the press4 ,the top edge of the front cutting board should be flush with the right-hand cheek of the press1 and that of the back a square above the left-hand cheek 7see fig4 #ef74 ,a further test is to look along the surface of the right-hand cheek1 when1 if the book has been inserted truly1 the amount of the back cutting board in sight should exactly correspond with the amount of the paper to be cut showing above the front board4 ,it will also be necessary before cutting to look at the back1 and to see that it has remained flat4 ,if it has gone back to its old curve1 or the book has been put into the press crookedly1 it must be taken right out again and the trindles inserted afresh1 as it is usually a waste of time to try to adjust the book when it is in the press4 ,the leaves are cut in the same way as those of the head and tail4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ef4 ,,gilding ,,or ,,colouring ,,the ,,edges ,,of ,a ,,cut ,,book ,gilding the edges of a book cut in boards is much the same process as that described for the trimmed book1 excepting that when gilt in boards the edges can be scraped and slightly sand-papered4 ,it is the custom to admire a perfectly solid gilt edge1 looking more like a solid sheet of metal1 than the leaves of a book4 ,as the essential characteristic of a book is1 that it is composed of leaves1 this fact is better accepted and emphasised by leaving the edges a little rough1 so that even when gilt they are evidently the edges of leaves of paper1 and not the sides of a block1 or of something solid4 ,to gild the edges of a cut book the boards should be turned back1 and cutting boards put on each side of the book flush with the edge to be gilt4 ,for the fore-edge the book must be thrown up with trindles first1 unless it is desired to gild in the round1 a process which gives the objectionable solid metallic edge4 ,after the edges have been gilt they may be decorated by tooling1 called gauffering4 ,this may be done1 either by tooling with hot tools directly on the gold while the leaves are screwed up tightly in the press1 or by laying another coloured gold on the top of the first and tooling over that1 leaving the pattern in the new gold on the original colour4 ,but1 to my mind1 edges are best left undecorated1 except for plain gold or colour4 ,if the edges are to be coloured1 they should be slightly scraped1 and the colour put on with a sponge1 commencing with the fore-edge1 which should be slightly fanned out1 and held firmly1 by placing a pressing-board above it1 and pressing with the hand on this4 ,the colour must be put on very thinly1 commencing from the centre of the fore-edge and working to either end1 and as many coats put on as are necessary to get the depth of colour required4 ,the head and tail are treated in the same way1 excepting that they cannot be fanned out1 and the colour should be applied from the back to the fore-edge4 ,if in the fore-edge an attempt is made to colour from one end to the other1 and if in the head or tail from the fore-edge to the back1 the result will almost certainly be that the sponge will leave a thick deposit of colour round the corner from which it starts4 ,for colouring edges almost any stain will answer1 or ordinary water-colours may be used if moistened with size4 ,when the colour is dry the edge should be lightly rubbed over with a little beeswax1 and burnished with a tooth burnisher 7see fig4 #eg74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eg4 ,in addition to plain colour and gilding1 the edges of a book may be decorated in a variety of ways4 ,the fore-edge may be fanned out and painted in any device in water-colour and afterwards gilded2 the painting will only show when the book is open4 ,the fore-edge for this must be cut very solid1 and if the paper is at all absorbent1 must be sized with vellum size before being painted4 ,the paints used must be simple water-colour1 and the edge must not be touched with the hand before gilding1 as if there is any grease or finger-mark on it1 the gold will not stick evenly4 ,painting on the fore-edge should only be attempted when the paper of the book is thin and of good quality4 ,more common methods of decorating edges are by marbling and sprinkling1 but they are both inferior to plain colouring4 ,some pleasant effects are sometimes obtained by marbling edges and then gilding over the marbling4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,headbanding ,,headbands ,modern headbands are small pieces of vellum1 gut1 or cord sewn on to the head and tail of a book with silk or thread4 ,they resist the strain on the book when it is taken from the shelf4 ,the vellum slip or cord must be of such a depth1 that when covered with silk it will be slightly lower than the square of the boards4 ,the cut edge of the vellum always slants1 and the slip must be placed in position so that it tilts back rather than forward on the book4 ,to start1 ease the boards slightly on the slips and pull them down with the top edges flush with the top edge of the leaves4 ,if this is not done the silk catches on the projecting edges as the band is worked4 ,stand the book in a finishing press1 fore-edge to the worker1 and tilted forward so as to give a good view of the headband as it is worked4 ,the light must come from the left1 and well on to the work4 ,a needle threaded with silk is put in at the head of the book1 and through the centre of the first section after the end papers1 and drawn out at the back below the kettle stitch with about two-thirds of the silk4 ,the needle is again inserted in the same place1 and drawn through until a loop of silk is left4 ,the vellum slip is placed in the loop1 with the end projecting slightly to the left4 ,it must be held steady by a needle placed vertically behind it1 with its point between the leaves of the first section4 ,the needle end of silk is then behind the headband1 and the shorter end in front4 ,the needle end is brought over from the back with the right hand1 passed into the left hand1 and held taut4 ,the short end is picked up with the right hand1 brought over the needle end under the vellum1 and pulled tight from the back4 ,this is repeated2 the back thread is again drawn up and over the band to the front1 the needle end crosses it1 and is drawn behind under the vellum slip1 and so on4 ,the crossing of the threads form a bead1 which must be watched1 and kept as tight as possible1 and well down on the leaves of the book4 ,whenever the vellum or string begins to shift in position1 it must be tied down4 ,this is done when the needle end of silk is at the back4 ,a finger of the left hand is placed on the thread of silk at the back1 and holds it firmly just below the slip4 ,the needle end is then brought up and over the slip1 but instead of crossing it with the front thread1 the needle is passed between the leaves and out at the back of the book1 below the kettle stitch1 and the thread gradually drawn tight1 and from under the left-hand finger4 ,the loop so made will hold the band firmly1 and the silk can then be brought up and over the slip and crossed in the usual way4 ,the band should be worked as far as the end papers1 and should be finished with a double tie down1 after which the front thread is drawn under the slip to the back4 ,both the ends of silk are then cut off to about half an inch1 frayed out1 and pasted down as flatly as possible on the back of the book4 ,the band should be tied down frequently4 ,it is not too much to tie down every third time the needle end of the silk comes to the back4 ,to make good headbands the pull on the silk must be even throughout4 ,when the ends of the silk are pasted down1 the ends of the vellum slip are cut off as near the silk as possible4 ,the correct length of the headband is best judged by pressing the boards together with thumb and finger at the opposite ends of the band1 so as to compress the sections into their final compass4 ,if the band then buckles in the least1 it is too long and must be shortened4 ,the mediaeval headbands were sewn with the other bands 7see fig4 #cb71 and were very strong1 as they were tied down at every section4 ,modern worked headbands1 although not so strong1 are1 if frequently tied down1 strong enough to resist any reasonable strain4 ,there are many other ways of headbanding1 but if the one described is mastered1 the various other patterns will suggest themselves if variety is needed4 ,for very large books a double headband may be worked on two pieces of gut or string--a thick piece with a thin piece in front4 ,the string should first be soaked in thin glue and left to dry4 ,such a band is worked with a figure of eight stitch4 ,headbands may also be worked with two or three shades of silk4 ,as vellum is apt to get hard and to break when it is used for headbanding1 it is well to paste two pieces together with linen in between1 and to cut into strips as required4 ,machine-made headbands can be bought by the yard4 ,such bands are merely glued on1 but as they have but little strength1 should not be used4 ,where leather joints are used1 the headbands may be worked on pieces of soft leather sized and screwed up4 ,if the ends are left long and tied in front while the book is being covered1 they may be conveniently let into grooves in the boards before the leather joint is pasted down4 ,this method1 ,i think1 has little constructive value1 but it certainly avoids the rather unfinished look of the cut-off headband4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,preparing for ,covering--,paring ,leather--,covering--,mitring ,corners--,filling-in ,boards ,,preparing ,,for ,,covering ,after the headband is worked1 a piece of brown or other stout paper should be well glued on at the head and tail1 care being taken that it is firmly attached to the back and the headband4 ,when dry1 the part projecting above the headband is neatly cut off1 and the part on the back well sand-papered1 to remove any irregularity caused by the tie-downs attaching the headband4 ,for most books this will be quite sufficient lining up1 but very heavy books are best further lined up between the bands with linen1 or thin leather4 ,this can be put on by pasting the linen or leather and giving the back a very thin coat of glue4 ,the only thing now left to do before covering will be to set the squares and to cut off a small piece of the back corner of each board at the head and tail1 to make it possible for the boards to open and shut without dragging the head-cap out of place4 ,the form of the little piece to be cut off varies with each individual binder1 but ,i have found for an octavo book that a cut slightly sloping from the inside cutting off the corner about an eighth of an inch each way1 gives the best result 7see fig4 #eh74 ,when the corner has been cut off1 the boards should be thrown back1 and the slips between the book and the board well pasted4 ,when these have soaked a little1 the squares of the boards are set2 that is1 the boards are fixed so that exactly the same square shows on each board above head and tail4 ,a little larger square is sometimes an advantage at the tail to keep the head-cap well off the shelf1 the essential thing being that both head and both tail squares should be the same4 ,in the case of an old book that has not been recut1 the edges will often be found to be uneven4 ,in such cases the boards must be made square1 and so set that the book stands up straight4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eh4 ,when the slips have been pasted and the squares set1 tins can be put inside and outside the boards1 and the book given a slight nip in the press to flatten the slips4 ,only a comparatively light pressure should be given1 or the lining up of the headbands or back will become cockled and detached4 ,,paring ,,leather ,while the slips are being set in the press the cover can be got out4 ,judgment is necessary in cutting out covers4 ,one workman will be able1 by careful cutting1 to get six covers out of a skin where another will only get four4 ,the firm part of the skin is the back and sides1 and this only should be used for the best books4 ,the fleshy parts on the flanks and belly will not wear sufficiently well to be suitable for good bookbinding4 ,the skin should be cut out leaving about an inch all round for turning in when the book is covered1 and when cut out it must be pared4 ,if the leather is of ,european manufacture most of the paring will have been done before it is sold1 and the leather manufacturer will have shaved it to any thickness required4 ,this is a convenience that is partly responsible for the unduly thin leather that is commonly used4 ,the better plan is to get the leather rather thick1 and for the binder to pare it down where necessary4 ,for small books it is essential1 in order that the covers may open freely1 and the boards not look clumsy1 that the leather should be very thin at the joint and round the edges of the boards4 ,for such books it is very important that a small1 naturally thin skin should be used that will not have to be unduly pared down1 and that the large and thicker skins should be kept for large books4 ,binders like using large skins because there is much less waste1 but if these skins are used for small books1 so much of the leather substance has to be pared away1 that only the comparatively brittle grained surface remains4 ,by the modern process of dyeing this surface is often to some extent injured1 and its strength sometimes totally destroyed4 ,when the cover has been cut to size the book is laid on it with the boards open1 and a pencil line drawn round them1 a mark being made to show where the back comes4 ,the skin is then pared1 making it thin where the edge of the boards will come4 ,great care must be taken that the thinning does not commence too abruptly1 or a ridge will be apparent when the leather is on the book4 ,the paring must be done quite smoothly and evenly4 ,every unevenness shows when the cover is polished and pressed4 ,care is needed in estimating the amount that will have to be pared off that part of the leather that covers the back and joints4 ,the object of the binder should be to leave these portions as thick as he can consistently with the free opening of the boards4 ,the leather at the head-caps must be pared quite thin1 as the double thickness on the top of the headband is apt to make this part project above the edges of the board4 ,this is a great trouble1 especially at the tail1 where1 if the head-cap projects beyond the boards1 the whole weight of the book rests on it1 and it is certain to be rubbed off when the book is put on the shelf4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ei4 ,the method of paring with a ,french knife 7fig4 #fj1 ,a7--the only form of knife in use by binders that gives sufficient control over the leather--is shown at fig4 #ei4 ,to use this knife properly1 practice is required4 ,the main thing to learn is that the knife must be used quite flat1 and made to cut by having a very slight burr on the under side4 ,this burr is got by rubbing the knife on the lithographic stone on which the paring is done4 ,the handle of the knife should never be raised to such a height above the surface of the stone that it is possible to get the under fingers of the right hand over the edge of the stone4 ,another form of knife suitable for paring the edges of leather is shown at fig4 #fj1 ,b4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj4 ,to test if the leather has been sufficiently pared1 fold it over where the edge of the board will come1 and run the finger along the folded leather4 ,if the paring has been done properly it will feel quite even the whole length of the fold2 but if there are any irregularities1 they will be very apparent1 and the paring must be gone over again till they have disappeared4 ,when even1 the book must be again laid on the leather with the boards open1 and a pencil line drawn round as before4 ,if there are leather joints they will have been pared before the book was sewn1 and care must be taken in paring the turn-in of the cover that it is of the same thickness as the leather joint1 or it will be impossible to make a neat mitre at the back corners4 ,,covering ,before covering1 the book must be looked at to see that the bands are quite square and at equal distances apart4 ,any slight errors in this respect can be corrected by holding the book in the lying press between backing boards and gently tapping the bands from one side or the other with a piece of wood struck with a hammer4 ,this is best done when the back is cleaned off1 but by damping the bands slightly it may be done just before covering4 ,the squares must be looked to1 and the edges of the board well rubbed with a folder1 or tapped with a hammer1 to remove any burr that may have been caused by the plough knife1 or any chance blow4 ,the back is then moistened with paste1 or1 in the case of a very large book1 with thin glue1 and left to soak4 ,the cover can then be well pasted with thickish paste1 that has been previously well beaten up4 ,when the cover is pasted1 it can be folded with the pasted sides together and left to soak for a few minutes while the back is again looked to1 and any roughness smoothed down with the folder4 ,before covering1 the bands should be nipped up with band nippers 7see fig4 #fa7 to make sure that they are sharp4 ,the coverer should have ready before covering a clean paring stone1 one or two folders1 a pair of nickeled-band nippers1 a clean sponge1 a little water in a saucer1 a piece of thread1 and a strip of smooth wood 7boxwood for preference71 called a band stick1 used for smoothing the leather between the bands1 a pair of scissors1 and a small sharp knife1 a pair of waterproof sheets the size of the book1 and1 if the book is a large one1 a pair of tying up boards1 with tying up string1 and two strips of wood covered in blotting-paper or leather4 ,it is best to have the band nippers for covering nickeled to prevent the iron from staining the leather4 ,the waterproof sheets recommended are thin sheets of celluloid1 such as are used by photographers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fa4 ,when these things are ready1 the pasted cover should be examined and repasted if it has dried in any place4 ,the amount of paste to be used for covering can only be learned by experience4 ,a thick leather will take more than a thin one1 but1 provided the cover sticks tight at every point1 the less paste used the better4 ,if there is too much1 it will rub up and make very ugly1 uneven places under the leather2 and if there is too little1 the cover will not stick4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fb4 ,take the pasted cover and look to see which is the better side of the leather4 ,lay the front of the book down on this exactly up to the marks that show the beginning of the turn-in4 ,then draw the leather over the back and on to the other side1 pulling it slightly1 but not dragging it4 ,then stand the book on its fore-edge on a piece of waste paper1 with the leather turned out on either side1 as shown at fig4 #fb1 and nip up the bands with nickeled band nippers 7see fig4 #fc74 ,after this is done there will probably be a good deal of loose leather on the back4 ,this can be got rid of by dragging the leather on to the side2 but by far the better plan1 when the back is large enough to allow it1 is to work up the surplus leather on to the back between the panels4 ,this requires a good deal of practice1 and is very seldom done2 but it can be done with most satisfactory results4 ,the book should now have the leather on the back stretched lengthways to make it cover the bands1 but not stretched the other way1 and the leather on the boards should lie perfectly flat and not be stretched at all4 ,the leather on the fore-edge of the board is then rubbed with the hand on the outside1 and then on to the edge1 and then on the inside4 ,the edge and the inside are smoothed down with a folder1 and any excessive paste on the inside squeezed out and removed4 ,when the fore-edge of both boards has been turned in1 the head and tail must also be turned in4 ,a little paste is put on to that part of the leather that will turn in below the headband1 and this portion is neatly tucked in between the boards and the back4 ,the turned-in edge must lie quite evenly1 or it will result in a ridge on the back4 ,the leather is turned in on the two boards in the same way as described for the fore-edge1 and the edge rubbed square with a folder4 ,at fig4 #fd is shown a convenient form of folder for covering4 ,at the corners the leather must be pulled over as far as possible with two folders meeting at the extreme point1 the object being to avoid a cut in the leather at the corner of the board4 ,the folds so formed must be cut off with the scissors 7see fig4 #fe1 ,a71 then one edge tucked neatly under the other1 7,b74 ,care must be taken throughout not to soil the edges of the leaves4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fd4 ,at the headband the fold of leather1 pared thin for the purpose1 must be squeezed together with a folder and pulled out a little to leave an even projection that can be turned over to form a head-cap4 ,when both ends have been turned in1 in this way1 the boards must each be opened and pressed against a straight-edge held in the joint 7fig4 #ff7 to ensure that there is enough leather in the turn-in of the joint to allow the cover to open freely2 and the leather of the turn-in at the head and tail must be carefully smoothed down with a folder4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fe4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ff4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fg4 ,the book may now be shut up if a waterproof sheet is put at each end to prevent the damp of the cover from cockling the paper4 ,it must then be stood on its fore-edge and the bands again nipped up with a pair of nickeled band nippers1 and the panels between the bands well pressed down with the band stick to cause the leather to stick at every point4 ,a piece of thread is tied round the back from head to tail1 squeezing the leather in the gap caused by the corners of the board having been cut off4 ,the book is then turned up on end1 resting the tail on a folder or anything that will keep the projecting leather for the head-cap from being prematurely flattened4 ,the head-caps 7fig4 #fg7 must now be set4 ,to do this the first finger of the left hand is placed behind it1 and a sharp folder is pressed into the corners of the head-cap between the headband and the thread4 ,the leather is then tapped over the headband1 and the whole turned over on the stone and rubbed at the back with a folder4 ,this operation requires great nicety4 ,the shape of head-cap is shown at fig4 #fg4 ,the nice adjustment of head-caps and corners1 although of no constructional value1 are the points by which the forwarding of a book is generally valued4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fh4 ,if the book is a large one1 it will be best to tie it up4 ,the method of tying up is shown in fig4 #fh4 ,the tying up cords will make marks at the side of the bands1 that are not unpleasant on a large book4 ,if they are objected to1 it is best to tie the book up for about half-an-hour1 and then to untie it1 and smooth out the marks with the band stick4 ,even with small books1 if the leather seems inclined to give trouble1 it is well to tie them up for a short time1 then to untie them1 to smooth out any marks or inequalities1 and to tie them up again4 ,,mitring ,,corners ,,and ,,filling ,,in ,a book that has been covered should be left under a light weight until the next day1 with waterproof sheets between the damp cover and the end paper to prevent the sheets of the book from cockling through the damp4 ,when the cover is thoroughly set the boards should be carefully opened1 pressing them slightly to the joint to ensure a square and even joint4 ,if1 as is sometimes the case1 the turn-in of the leather over the joint seems to be inclined to bind1 the cover should be merely opened half-way1 and the leather of the turns-in of the joint damped with a sponge1 and left to soak for a short time1 and then the cover can usually be opened without any dragging4 ,a section of a good joint is shown at fig4 #fi1 ,a1 and a bad one at ,b4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fi4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gj4 ,the next operation will be to fill in the board and mitre the corners4 ,to fill in the boards1 a piece of paper as thick as the turn-in of the leather 7engineer's cartridge paper answers very well7 should be cut a little smaller than the board1 with one edge cut straight2 then with the straight edge adjusted to the back of the board1 and a weight placed on the centre1 the paper is marked round with dividers set to the intended width of the turn-in of the leather4 ,then with a sharp knife1 paper and leather may be cut through together4 ,the paper should then be marked to show its position on the board1 and the ragged edges of the leather trimmed off4 ,this will leave an even margin of leather on three sides of the inside of the board1 and a piece of paper that will exactly fit the remaining space4 ,the corners must next be mitred4 ,to do this1 both thicknesses of leather are cut through from the corner of the board to the corner of the inside margin4 ,the knife should be held slightly slanting to make a cut1 as shown at fig4 #gj4 ,the corners should then be thoroughly damped1 and the overlapping leather from both sides removed1 leaving what should be a neat and straight join4 ,if the leather at the extreme corner should prove to be1 as is often the case1 too thick to turn in neatly1 the corners should be opened out and the leather pared against the thumb nail1 and then well pasted and turned back again4 ,the extreme corner may be slightly tapped on the stone with a hammer1 and the sides rubbed with a folder1 to ensure squareness and sharpness4 ,when all four corners have been mitred1 the filling in papers can be pasted in4 ,as they will probably stretch a little with the paste1 it will be well to cut off a slight shaving1 and they should then fit exactly4 ,when the boards have been filled in and well rubbed down1 the book should be left for some hours with the boards standing open to enable the filling-in papers to draw the boards slightly inwards to overcome the pull of the leather4 ,in cases where there are leather joints the operation is as follows3 ,the waste end paper is removed1 and the edge of the board and joint carefully cleaned from glue and all irregularities1 and if1 as is most likely1 it is curved from the pull of the leather1 the board must be tapped or ironed down until it is perfectly straight4 ,if there is difficulty in making the board lie straight along the joint before pasting down1 it will be well first to fill in with a well pasted and stretched thin paper1 which1 if the boards are left open1 will draw them inwards4 ,if the leather joint is pasted down while the board is curved1 the result will be a most unsightly projection on the outside4 ,when the joint has been cleaned out1 and the board made to lie flat1 the leather should be pasted down and mitred4 ,the whole depth of the turn-in of the covering leather in the joint must not be removed1 or it will be unduly weakened4 ,the mitring line should not come from the extreme corner1 but rather farther down1 and there it is well to leave a certain amount of overlap in the joint1 for which purpose the edge of the turn-in leather and the edge of the leather joint should be pared thin4 ,after pasting down the leather joints the boards should be left open till they are dry 7see fig4 #ga74 ,the turn-in and leather joint are then trimmed out1 leaving an even margin of leather all round the inside of the board1 and the panel in the centre filled in with a piece of thick paper4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ga4 ,when corners and filling in are dry1 the boards may be shut up1 and the book is ready for finishing4 ,it is a common practice to wash up the covers of books that have become stained with a solution of oxalic acid in water4 ,this is a dangerous thing to do1 and is likely to seriously injure the leather4 ,leather1 when damp1 must not be brought in contact with iron or steel tools1 or it may be badly stained4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,library ,binding--,binding very ,thin ,books--,scrap-,books--,binding on ,vellum--,books covered with ,embroidery ,,library ,,binding ,specifications ,,iii and ,,iv ,to produce cheaper bindings1 as must be done in the case of large libraries1 some alteration of design is necessary4 ,appearance must to some extent be sacrificed to strength and durability1 and not1 as is too often the case1 strength and durability sacrificed to appearance4 ,the essentials of any good binding are1 that the sections should be sound in themselves1 and that there should be no plates or odd sheets pasted on1 or anything that would prevent any leaf from opening right to the back2 the sewing must be thoroughly sound2 the sewing materials of good quality2 the slips firmly attached to the boards2 and the leather fairly thick and of a durable kind1 although for the sake of cheapness it may be necessary to use skins with flaws on the surface4 ,such flawed skins cost half1 or less than half1 the price of perfect skins1 and surface flaws do not injure the strength of the leather4 ,by sewing on tape1 great flexibility of the back is obtained1 and much time1 and consequent expense1 in covering is saved4 ,by using a ,french joint much thicker leather than usual can be used1 with corresponding gain in strength4 ,to bind an octavo or smaller book according to the specification given 7,,iii1 page #cjg72 first make all sections sound1 and guard all plates or maps4 ,make end papers with zigzags4 ,after the sections have been thoroughly pressed1 the book will be ready for marking up and sewing4 ,in marking up for sewing on tapes1 two marks will be necessary for each tape4 ,when there are several books of the same size to be sewn1 they may be placed one above the other in the sewing press1 and sewn on to the same tapes4 ,it will be found that the volumes when sewn can easily be slid along the tapes1 which must be long enough to provide sufficient for the slips of each4 ,the split boards may be made of a thin black mill-board with a thicker straw-board4 ,to make a pair of split boards the pieces of straw-and mill-board large enough to make the two are got out1 and the straw-board well glued1 except in the centre1 which should previously be covered with a strip of thin mill-board or tin about four inches wide4 ,the strip is then removed1 and the thin black board laid on the glued straw-board and nipped in the press4 ,when dry1 the made board is cut down the centre1 which will leave two boards glued together all over except for two inches on one side of each4 ,the boards then are squared to the book in a mill-board machine4 ,the back of the book is glued up1 and in the ordinary way rounded and backed4 ,the edges may be cut with a guillotine4 ,the ends of the tapes are glued on the waste end paper1 which should be cut off about an inch and a half from the back4 ,the split boards are then opened and glued1 and the waste end papers with slips attached are placed in them 7see fig4 #gb71 and the book nipped in the press4 ,to form a ,french joint the boards should be kept about an eighth of an inch from the back of the book4 ,the book is then ready for covering4 ,the leather must not be pared too thin1 as the ,french joint will give plenty of play and allow the use of much thicker leather than usual4 ,if time and money can be spared1 headbands can be worked1 but they are not absolutely necessary1 and a piece of string may be inserted into the turning of the leather at head and tail in the place of them4 ,when the book is covered1 a piece of string should be tied round the joints1 and the whole given a nip in the press4 ,the corners of the boards should be protected by small tips of vellum or parchment4 ,the sides may be covered with good paper1 which will wear quite as well as cloth1 look better1 and cost less4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gb4 ,the lettering of library books is very important 7see ,chapter ,,xv74 ,,binding ,,very ,,thin ,,books ,books consisting of only one section may be bound as follows3--,a sheet of paper to match the book1 and two coloured sheets for end papers1 are folded round the section1 and a waste paper put over all4 ,a strip of linen is pasted to the back of the waste1 and the whole sewn together by stitching through the fold4 ,the waste may be cut off and inserted with the linen in a split board1 as for library bindings4 ,the back edges of the board should be filed thin1 and should not be placed quite up to the back1 to allow for a little play in the joints4 ,the leather is put on in the ordinary way1 except that the linen at the head and tail must be slit a little to allow for the turn in4 ,if waterproof sheets are first inserted1 the ends may be pasted1 the boards shut1 and the book nipped in the press4 ,by substituting a piece of thin leather for the outside coloured paper1 a leather joint can be made4 ,,scrap-,,books ,scrap-books1 into which autograph letters1 sketches1 or other papers can be pasted1 may be made as follows3--,enough paper of good quality is folded up to the size desired1 and pieces of the same paper1 of the same height1 and about two inches wide1 are folded down the centre and inserted between the backs of the larger sheets1 as shown at fig4 #gc4 ,it is best not to insert these smaller pieces in the centre of the section1 as they would be troublesome in sewing4 ,if1 after sewing1 the book is filled up with waste paper laid between the leaves1 it will make it manageable while being forwarded4 ,it is best to use a rather darkly-toned or coloured paper1 as1 if a quite white paper is used1 any letters or papers that have become soiled1 will look unduly dirty4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gc4 ,autograph letters may be mounted in the following ways3--,if the letter is written upon both sides of a single leaf1 it may be either inlaid1 or guarded1 as shown at fig4 #gd1 ,a4 ,a letter on a folded sheet of notepaper should have the folds strengthened with a guard of strong thin paper1 and be attached by a guard made1 as shown at fig4 #gd1 ,b2 or if on very heavy paper1 by a double guard1 as shown at fig4 #gd1 ,c4 ,torn edges of letters may be strengthened with thin ,japanese paper4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gd4 ,thin paper1 written or printed only on one side1 may be mounted on a page of the book4 ,it is better to attach these by their extreme edges only1 as if pasted down all over they may cause the leaves to curl up4 ,letters or any writing or drawing in lead pencil should be fixed with size before being inserted4 ,silver prints of photographs are best mounted with some very quick-drying paste1 such as that sold for the purpose by the photographic dealers4 ,if the leaf on which they are mounted is slightly damped before the photograph is pasted down1 it will be less likely to cockle4 ,if this is done1 waterproof sheets should be put on each side of the leaf while it dries4 ,if photographs are attached by the edges only1 they will not be so liable to draw the paper on which they are mounted2 but sometimes they will not lie flat themselves4 ,in cases where very thick letters or papers have to be pasted in1 a few more leaves of the book should be cut out1 to make a corresponding thickness at the back4 ,,vellum ,,bindings ,vellum covers may be limp without boards1 and merely held in place by the slips being laced through them1 or they may be pasted down on boards in much the same way as leather4 ,if the edges of a book for limp vellum binding are to be trimmed or gilt1 that should be done before sewing4 ,for the ends a folded piece of thin vellum may replace the paste-down paper4 ,the sewing should be on strips of vellum4 ,the back is left square after glueing1 and headbands are worked as for leather binding1 or may be worked on strips of leather1 with ends left long enough to lace into the vellum 7see p4 #aea74 ,the back and headbands are lined with leather1 and the book is ready for the cover4 ,a piece of vellum should be cut out large enough to cover the book1 and to leave a margin of an inch and a half all round4 ,this is marked with a folder on the under side1 as shown at fig4 #ge1 ,a4 ,spaces #a and #b are the size of the sides of the book with surrounding squares2 space #c is the width of the back1 and space #d the width for the overlaps on the fore-edge4 ,the corners are cut1 as shown at #e1 and the edges are folded over1 as at ,b4 ,the overlap #d is then turned over1 and the back folded1 as at ,c4 ,the slips are now laced through slits made in the vellum4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ge4 ,a piece of loose1 toned paper may be put inside the cover to prevent any marks on the book from showing through2 and pieces of silk ribbon of good quality are laced in as shown1 going through both cover and vellum ends1 if there are any1 and are left with ends long enough to tie 7see fig4 #gf74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gf4 ,if paper ends are used1 the silk tape need only be laced through the cover1 and the end paper pasted over it on the inside4 ,another simple way of keeping a vellum book shut is shown at fig4 #gg4 ,a bead is attached to a piece of gut laced into the vellum1 and a loop of catgut is laced in the other side1 and looped over the bead as shown4 ,if the book is to have stiff boards1 and the vellum is to be pasted to them1 it is best to sew the sections on tapes or vellum slips1 to back the book as for leather1 and to insert the ends of the slips in a split board1 leaving a ,french joint1 as described for library bindings4 ,vellum is very stiff1 and1 if it is pasted directly to the back1 the book would be hard to open4 ,it is best in this case to use what is known as a hollow back4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gg4 ,to make a hollow back1 a piece of stout paper is taken which measures once the length of the back and three times the width4 ,this is folded in three4 ,the centre portion is glued to the back and well rubbed down1 and the overlapping edges turned back and glued one to the other 7fig4 #gh74 ,this will leave a flat1 hollow casing1 formed by the single paper glued to the back of the book and the double paper to which the vellum may be attached4 ,or it is better to line up the back with leather1 and to place a piece of thick paper the size of the back on to the pasted vellum where the back will be when the book is covered4 ,when the book is ready for covering1 the vellum should be cut out and lined with paper4 ,in lining vellum the paste must be free from lumps1 and great care must be taken not to leave brush marks4 ,to avoid this1 when the lining paper has been pasted it can be laid1 paste downwards1 on a piece of waste paper and quickly pulled up again2 this should remove surplus paste and get rid of any marks left by the brush4 ,when the vellum has been lined with paper1 it should be given a light nip in the press between blotting-paper1 and while still damp it is pasted1 the book covered1 and the corners mitred4 ,a piece of thin string is tied round the head-caps and pressed into the ,french joint4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gh4 ,waterproof sheets are placed inside the covers1 and the book then nipped in the press and left to dry under a light weight4 ,if the vellum is very stiff and difficult to turn in1 it may be moistened with a little warm water to soften it4 ,books with raised bands have sometimes been covered with vellum1 but the back becomes so stiff and hard1 that this method1 though it looks well enough1 cannot be recommended4 ,vellum is a durable material1 and can be had of good quality1 but it is so easily influenced by changes of temperature1 that it is rather an unsuitable material for most bindings4 ,,books ,,covered ,,with ,,embroidery ,,and ,,woven ,,material ,to cover a book with embroidered material bind it with split boards1 a ,french joint1 and a hollow back1 as described for vellum 7see fig4 #gh74 ,glue the back of the book with thin glue well worked up1 and turning in the head and tail of the embroidery1 put the book down on it so that the back will come exactly in the right place4 ,press down the embroidery with the hand to make sure that it sticks4 ,when it is firmly attached to the back1 first one board and then the other should be glued1 and the embroidery laid down on it4 ,lastly1 the edges are glued and stuck down on the inside of the board1 and the corners mitred4 ,velvet or any other thick material can be put down in the same way4 ,for very thin material that the glue would penetrate and soil1 the cover should be left loose1 and only attached where it turns in4 ,a loose lining of good paper may be put between the book and the cover4 ,the inside corners where the cover has been cut should be neatly sewn up4 ,the edges of the boards and head-caps may be protected all round with some edging worked in metal thread4 ,it is well in embroidering book covers to arrange for some portion of the pattern to be of raised metal stitches1 forming bosses that will protect the surface from wear4 ,should any glue chance to get on the surface1 the cover should be held in the steam of a kettle and the glue wiped off1 and the cover again steamed4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,decoration--,tools--,finishing--,toolin g on ,vellum--,inlaying on ,leather ,,decoration ,,of ,,binding--,,tools ,the most usual1 and perhaps the most characteristic1 way of decorating book covers is by tooling4 ,tooling is the impression of heated 7finishing7 tools4 ,finishing tools are stamps of metal that have a device cut on the face1 and are held in wooden handles 7fig4 #gi74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gi4 ,tooling may either be blind tooling1 that is1 a simple impression of the hot tools1 or gold tooling1 in which the impression of the tool is left in gold on the leather4 ,tools for blind tooling are best die-sunk1 that is1 cut like a seal4 ,the sunk part of the face of the tool1 which may be more or less modelled1 forms the pattern1 and the higher part depresses the leather to form a ground4 ,in tools for gold tooling1 the surface of the tool gives the pattern4 ,tools may be either complex or simple in design1 that is to say1 each tool may form a complete design with enclosing border1 as the lower ones on page #cbc1 or it may be only one element of a design1 as at fig4 #ajj4 ,lines may be run with a fillet 7see fig4 #hh71 or made with gouges or pallets4 ,gouges are curved line tools4 ,they are made in sets of arcs of concentric circles 7see fig4 #hj1 ,a74 ,the portion of the curves cut off by the dotted line ,c will make a second set with flatter curves4 ,gouges are used for tooling curved lines4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hj4 ,a pallet may be described as a segment of a roll or fillet set in a handle1 and used chiefly for putting lines or other ornaments across the backs of books 7see fig4 #ha74 ,a set of one-line pallets is shown at fig4 #hj1 ,b4 ,fillets are cut with two or more lines on the edge4 ,although the use of double-line fillets saves time1 ,i have found that a few single-line fillets with edges of different gauges are sufficient for running all straight lines1 and that the advantage of being able to alter the distances between any parallel lines is ample compensation for the extra trouble involved by their use4 ,in addition to the rigid stamps1 an endless pattern for either blind or gold tooling may be engraved on the circumference of a roll1 and impressed on the leather by wheeling4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ha4 ,the use of a roll in finishing dates from the end of the fifteenth century1 and some satisfactory bindings were decorated with its aid4 ,the ease with which it can be used has led in modern times to its abuse1 and ,i hardly know of a single instance of a modern binding on which rolls have been used for the decoration with satisfactory results4 ,the gain in time and trouble is at the expense of freedom and life in the design2 and for extra binding it is better to build up a pattern out of small tools of simple design1 which can be arranged in endless variety1 than to use rolls4 ,tools for hand-tooling must not be too large1 or it will be impossible to obtain clear impressions4 ,one inch square for blind tools1 or three-quarters of an inch for gold tools1 is about the maximum size for use with any certainty and comfort4 ,tools much larger than this have to be worked with the aid of a press1 and are called blocks4 ,,finishing ,the first thing the finisher does to a book is to go over the back with a polisher and smooth out any irregularities4 ,two forms of polisher are shown at fig4 #hb4 ,the lower one is suitable for polishing backs and inside margins1 and the upper for sides4 ,polishers must be used warm1 but not too hot1 or the leather may be scorched1 and they must be kept moving on the leather4 ,before using they should be rubbed bright on a piece of the finest emery paper1 and polished on a piece of leather4 ,new polishers often have sharp edges that would mark the leather4 ,these must be rubbed down with files and emery-paper4 ,leathers with a prominent grained surface1 such as morocco1 seal or pig skin1 may either have the grain rough or crushed flat4 ,if there is to be much finishing1 the grain had better be crushed1 but for large books that are to have only a small amount of finishing1 the grain is best left unflattened4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hb4 ,if the grain of the leather is to be crushed1 it may be done at this stage4 ,to do this1 one board at a time is damped with a sponge and put in the standing-press1 with a pressing plate on the grained side1 and a pad of blotting-paper1 or some such yielding substance1 on the other 7see fig4 #hc74 ,the press is then screwed up tight1 and the board left for a short time4 ,for some leathers this operation is best done after the binding has been finished and varnished1 in which case1 of course1 the boards cannot be damped before pressing4 ,no flexibly sewn book should be subject to great pressure after it has been covered1 or the leather on the back may crinkle up and become detached4 ,the next thing will be to decide what lettering and what decoration1 if any1 is to be put on the volume4 ,the lettering should be made out first 7see page #bae74 ,if the book is to be at all elaborately decorated1 paper patterns must be made out1 as described in ,chapter ,,xvi4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hc4 ,for tooling the back1 the book is held in the finishing press between a pair of backing boards lined with leather 7see fig4 #hd71 and the paper pattern put across the back1 with the ends either slightly pasted to the backing boards1 or caught between them and the book4 ,for the sides1 the pattern is very slightly pasted on to the leather at the four corners4 ,the book is then put in the finishing press1 with the board to be tooled open and flat on the cheek of the press1 unless the book is a large one1 when it is easier to tool the sides out of the press4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hd4 ,the selected tools1 which should be ready on the stove 7see fig4 #he71 are one at a time cooled on a wet pad1 and then pressed in their former impressions upon the paper4 ,the degree of heat required varies a good deal with the leather used1 and will only be learned by experience4 ,it is better to have the tool too cool than too hot1 as it is easy to deepen impressions after the paper is removed2 but if they are already too deep1 or are burnt1 it will be impossible to finish clearly4 ,generally speaking1 tools should hiss very slightly when put on the cooling pad4 ,in cooling1 care must be taken to put the shank of the tools on to the wet pad1 as1 if the end only is cooled1 the heat is apt to run down again1 and the tool will still be too hot4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #he4--;,finishing ,stove ,before removing the paper1 one corner at a time should be lifted up1 and the leather examined to see that no part of the pattern has been missed4 ,in some patterns where the design is close1 or in which the background is dotted in1 it will not be necessary to blind in every leaf and dot through the paper4 ,if the lines with perhaps the terminal leaves are blinded in1 the rest can be better worked directly through the gold4 ,this method implies the glairing in of the whole surface4 ,it is not suitable for open patterns1 where the glaire might show on the surface of the leather4 ,if the book is only to have lines1 or some simple straight line pattern1 it is often easier to mark it up without the paper1 with a straight-edge and folder4 ,in panelling a back1 the side lines of all the panels should be marked in at the same time with a folder1 working against the straight-edge1 held firmly at the side of the back4 ,if the panels are worked separately1 it is difficult to get the side lines squarely above each other4 ,the lines at the top and bottom of the panel may be marked in with a folder1 guided by a piece of stiff vellum held squarely across the back4 ,if there are lines to be run round the board1 they can be marked in with a pair of dividers guided by the edge of the board1 except those at the back4 ,these must be measured from the fore-edge of the board and run in with straight-edge and folder4 ,when straight lines occur in patterns that are blinded through the paper1 it will be enough if the ends only are marked through with a small piece of straight line1 and the lines completed with straight-edge and folder1 after the paper has been removed4 ,unless the finisher has had considerable experience1 it is best to deepen all folder lines by going over them in blind with a fillet or piece of straight line4 ,when the pattern has been worked in blind1 either through a paper pattern or directly on to the leather with the tools1 and any inlays stuck on 7see page #bac71 the cover should be well washed with clean water4 ,some finishers prefer to use common vinegar or diluted acetic acid for washing up books4 ,if vinegar is used it must be of the best quality1 and must not contain any sulphuric acid4 ,cheap1 crude vinegar is certain to be injurious to the leather4 ,porous leather1 such as calf or sheep skin1 will need to be washed over with paste-water1 and then sized4 ,paste-water is paste and water well beaten up to form a milky liquid1 and is applied to the leather as evenly as possible with a sponge4 ,when the paste-water is dry1 the leather should be washed with size4 ,size can be made by boiling down vellum cuttings1 or by dissolving gelatine or isinglass in warm water4 ,for the less porous leathers1 such as morocco1 seal1 or pig skin1 no paste-water or size is necessary1 unless the skin happens to be a specially open one1 or the cover has been cut from the flank or belly4 ,then it is best to put a little paste in the vinegar or water used for washing up4 ,when the leather is nearly1 but not quite1 dry the impressions of the tools must be painted with glaire4 ,finishers' glaire may be made from the white of eggs well beaten up1 diluted with about half as much vinegar1 and allowed to settle4 ,some finishers prefer to use old1 evil-smelling glaire1 but provided it is a day old1 and has been well beaten up1 fresh glaire will work quite well4 ,the impressions of any heavy or solid tools should be given a second coat of glaire when the first has ceased to be tacky1 and if the leather is at all porous1 all impressions had better have a second coat4 ,as glaire is apt to show and disfigure the leather when dry1 it is best to use it as sparingly as possible1 and1 excepting where the pattern is very close1 to confine it to the impressions of the tools4 ,it is not at all an uncommon thing to see the effect of an otherwise admirably tooled binding spoilt by a dark margin round the tools1 caused by the careless use of glaire4 ,glaire should not be used unless it is quite liquid and clean4 ,directly it begins to get thick it should be strained or thrown away4 ,the finisher should not glaire in more than he can tool the same day4 ,when the glaire has ceased to be tacky1 the gold is laid on4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hf4 ,at first it will be found difficult to manage gold leaf4 ,the essential conditions are1 that there should be no draught1 and that the cushion and knife should be quite free from grease4 ,the gold cushion and knife are shown at fig4 #hf4 ,a little powdered bath-brick rubbed into the cushion will make it easier to cut the gold cleanly4 ,the blade of the gold knife should never be touched with the hand1 and before using it1 both sides should be rubbed on the cushion4 ,a book of gold is laid open on the cushion1 and a leaf of gold is lifted up on the gold knife1 which is slipped under it1 and turned over on to the cushion4 ,a light breath exactly in the centre of the sheet should make it lie flat1 when it may be cut into pieces of any size with a slightly sawing motion of the knife4 ,the book with the pattern ready prepared1 and the glaire sufficiently dry 7not sticky71 is rubbed lightly with a small piece of cotton-wool greased with a little cocoanut oil4 ,the back of the hand is greased in the same way1 and a pad of clean cotton-wool is held in the right hand1 and having been made as flat as possible by being pressed on the table1 is drawn over the back of the hand4 ,this should make it just greasy enough to pick up the gold1 but not too greasy to part with it readily when pressed on the book4 ,as little grease as possible should be used on the book1 as an excess is apt to stain the leather and to make the gold dull4 ,after experiment it has been found that cocoanut oil stains the leather less than any other grease in common use by bookbinders1 and is more readily washed out by benzine4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hg4 ,if the gold cracks1 or is not solid when pressed on the book1 a second thickness should be used4 ,this will stay down if the under piece is lightly breathed upon4 ,for narrow strips of gold for lines1 a little pad covered with soft leather may be made1 as in fig4 #hg4 ,it will be found of advantage to first use the bottom leaf of gold in the book and then to begin at the top and work through1 or else the bottom leaf will almost certainly be found to be damaged by the time it is reached4 ,the gold used should be as nearly pure as it can be got4 ,the gold-beaters say that they are unable to beat pure gold as thin as is usual for gold leaf2 but the quite pure gold is a better colour than when alloyed1 and the additional thickness1 although costly1 results in a more solid impression of the tools4 ,the cost of a book of twenty-four leaves three and a half inches square of ,english gold leaf of good ordinary quality is from #as4 #c;d4 to #as4 #f;d41 whereas the cost of a book of double thick pure gold leaf is #cs4 to #cs4 #f;d4 ,for tooled work it is worth paying the increased price for the sake of the advantages in colour and solidity2 but for lines and edges1 which use up an immense amount of gold1 the thinner and cheaper gold may quite well be used4 ,besides pure gold leaf1 gold alloyed with various metals to change its colour can be had4 ,none of the alloys keep their colour as well as pure gold1 and some of them1 such as those alloyed with copper for red gold1 and with silver for pale gold1 tarnish very quickly4 ,these last are not to be recommended4 ,for silver tooling aluminium leaf may be used1 as silver leaf tarnishes very quickly4 ,when the gold is pressed into the impressions of the tools with the pad of cotton-wool1 they should be plainly visible through it4 ,the pattern must now be worked through the gold with the hot tools4 ,the tools are taken from the stove1 and if too hot cooled on a pad as for blinding-in4 ,the heat required to leave the gold tooling solid and bright and the impressions clear will vary for different leathers1 and even for different skins of the same leather4 ,for trial a tool may be laid on the pad until it ceases to hiss1 and one or two impressions worked with it4 ,if the gold fails to stick1 the heat may be slightly increased4 ,if the leather is slightly damp from the preparation the tools will usually work better1 and less heat is required than if it has been prepared for some time and has got dry4 ,before using1 the faces of all tools must be rubbed bright on the flesh side of a piece of leather4 ,it is impossible to tool brightly with dirty tools4 ,a tool should be held in the right hand1 with the thumb on the top of the handle1 and steadied with the thumb or first finger of the left hand4 ,the shoulder should be brought well over the tool1 and the upper part of the body used as a press4 ,if the weight of the body is used in finishing1 the tools can be worked with far greater firmness and certainty1 and with less fatigue1 than if the whole work is done with the muscles of the arms4 ,large and solid tools will require all the weight that can be put on them1 and even then the gold will often fail to stick with one impression4 ,tools with small surfaces1 such as gouges and dots1 must not be worked too heavily1 or the surface of the leather may be cut4 ,to strike a large or solid tool1 it should first be put down flat1 and then slightly rocked from side to side and from top to bottom1 but must not be twisted on the gold4 ,a tool may be struck from whichever side the best sight can be got1 and press and book turned round to the most convenient position4 ,it is difficult to impress some tools1 such as circular flower tools1 twice in exactly the same place4 ,such tools should have a mark on one side as a guide4 ,this should always be kept in the same position when blinding-in and tooling1 and so make it possible to impress a second time without doubling4 ,an impression is said to be doubled when the tool has been twisted in striking1 or one impression does not fall exactly over the other4 ,the hot tool should not be held hovering over the impression long1 or the preparation will be dried up before the tool is struck4 ,tooling will generally be brighter if the tools are struck fairly sharply1 and at once removed from the leather1 than if they are kept down a long time4 ,to strike dots1 the book should be turned with the head to the worker1 and the tool held with the handle inclining slightly towards him4 ,this will make them appear bright when the book is held the right way up4 ,gouges must be sighted from the inside of the curve1 and struck evenly1 or the points may cut into the leather4 ,short straight lines may be put in with pieces of line1 and longer ones with a fillet4 ,a one line fillet is shown at fig4 #hh2 the space filed out of the circumference is to enable lines to be joined neatly at the corners4 ,that the lines may be clearly visible through the gold1 the book should be placed so that the light comes from the left hand of the worker and across the line4 ,it is well to have a basin of water in which to cool fillets1 as there is so much metal in them1 that the damp sponge or cotton used for cooling tools would very rapidly be dried up4 ,when the fillet has been cooled1 the edge should be rubbed on the cleaning pad1 and the point exactly adjusted to the corner of the line to be run 7see fig4 #hh74 ,the fillet is then run along the line with even pressure4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hh4 ,for slightly curved lines1 a very small fillet may be used4 ,when all the prepared part of a pattern has been tooled1 it is well rubbed to remove the loose gold with a slightly greasy rag1 or with a piece of bottle indiarubber which has been softened in paraffin4 ,after a time the rubber or rag may be sold to the gold-beater1 who recovers the gold4 ,to prepare indiarubber for cleaning off gold1 a piece of bottle rubber is cut into small pieces and soaked in paraffin for some hours4 ,this should cause the pieces to reunite into a soft lump4 ,this can be used until it is yellow with gold throughout4 ,when all free gold is rubbed off1 the finisher can see where the tooling is imperfect4 ,impressions which are not solid must be reglaired1 have fresh gold laid on1 and be retooled4 ,but if1 as will sometimes happen with the best finishers1 the gold has failed to stick properly anywhere1 it is best to wash the whole with water or vinegar1 and prepare afresh4 ,as an excess of grease is apt to dull the gold and soil the leather1 it is better to use it very sparingly when laying on fresh gold for mending4 ,for patching1 benzine may be used instead of grease4 ,when the gold is picked up on the cotton-wool pad1 rapidly go over the leather with wool soaked in benzine1 and at once lay down the gold4 ,benzine will not hold the gold long enough for much tooling1 but it will answer for about half-an-hour1 and give plenty of time for patching4 ,imperfect tooling arises from a variety of causes4 ,if an impression is clear1 but the gold not solid1 it is probably because the tool was not hot enough1 or was not put down firmly4 ,if only one side of an impression fails to stick1 it is usually because the tool was unevenly impressed4 ,if an impression is blurred1 and the gold has a frosted look1 it is because the leather has been burned1 either because the tool was too hot1 or kept down too long1 or the preparation was too fresh4 ,to mend double or burnt impressions the leather should be wetted and left to soak a short time1 and the gold can be picked out with a wooden point4 ,when nearly dry the impressions should be put in again with a cool tool1 reglaired and retooled4 ,it is very difficult to mend neatly if the leather is badly burnt4 ,sometimes it may be advisable to paste a piece of new leather over a burnt impression before retooling4 ,if a tool is put down in the wrong place by mistake1 it is difficult to get the impression out entirely4 ,the best thing to do is to damp the leather thoroughly1 leave it to soak for a little while1 and pick up the impression with the point of a pin4 ,it is best not to use an iron point for this1 as iron is apt to blacken the leather4 ,leather is difficult to tool if it has not a firm surface1 or if it is too thin to give a little when the tool is struck4 ,when the tooling is finished1 and the loose gold removed with the rubber1 the leather should be washed with benzine1 to remove any grease and any fragments of gold that may be adhering by the grease only4 ,the inside margins of the boards are next polished and varnished1 and the end papers pasted down4 ,or if there is a leather joint1 the panel left on the board may be filled in 7see ,chapter ,,xvii74 ,when the end papers are dry1 the sides and back may be polished and varnished4 ,it is important that the varnish should be of good quality1 and not too thick1 or it will in time turn brown and cause the gold to look dirty4 ,some of the light ,french spirit varnishes prepared for bookbinders answer well4 ,varnish must be used sparingly1 and is best applied with a pad of cotton-wool4 ,a little varnish is poured on to the pad1 which is rubbed on a piece of paper until it is seen that the varnish comes out thinly and evenly4 ,it is then rubbed on the book with a spiral motion4 ,the quicker the surface is gone over1 provided every part is covered1 the better4 ,varnish will not work well if it is very cold1 and in cold weather both the book and varnish bottle should be slightly warmed before use4 ,should an excess of varnish be put on in error1 or should it be necessary to retool part of the book after it has been varnished1 the varnish can be removed with spirits of wine4 ,varnish acts as a preservative to the leather1 but has the disadvantage1 if used in excess1 of making it rather brittle on the surface4 ,it must1 therefore1 be used very sparingly at the joints4 ,it is to be hoped that a perfectly elastic varnish1 that will not tarnish the gold1 will soon be discovered4 ,as soon as the varnish is dry the boards may be pressed1 one at a time1 to give the leather a smooth surface 7see fig4 #hc71 leaving each board in the press for some hours4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hi4 ,after each board has been pressed separately the book should be shut1 and pressed again with pressing plates on each side of it1 and with tins covered with paper placed inside each board4 ,light pressure should be given to books with tight backs1 or the leather may become detached4 ,if1 on removing from the press1 the boards will not keep shut1 the book should be pressed again with a folded sheet of blotting-paper in each end4 ,the blotting-paper should have the folded edge turned up1 and be placed so that this turned-up edge will be in the joint behind the back edge of the board when the book is shut4 ,a small nipping-press suitable for giving comparatively light pressure1 is shown at fig4 #hi4 ,,tooling ,,on ,,vellum ,most covering vellum has a sticky surface1 that marks if it is handled4 ,this should be washed off with clean water before tooling4 ,the pattern is blinded in through the paper as for leather1 excepting that the paper must not be pasted directly to the vellum1 but may be held with a band going right round the board or book4 ,it is best to glaire twice1 and to lay on a small portion of gold at a time with benzine4 ,as vellum burns very readily1 the tools must not be too hot1 and some skill is needed to prevent them from slipping on the hard surface4 ,vellum must not be polished or varnished4 ,,inlaying ,,on ,,leather ,inlaying or onlaying is adding a different leather from that of the cover1 as decoration4 ,thus on a red book1 a panel or a border1 or other portion1 may be covered with thin green leather1 or only flowers or leaves may be inlaid1 while a jewel-like effect may be obtained by dots1 leaves1 and flowers1 tooled over inlays of various colours4 ,leather for inlaying should be pared very thin4 ,to do this the leather is cut into strips1 wetted1 and pared on a stone with a knife shaped somewhat as at fig4 #fj1 ,b4 ,when the thin leather is dry the inlays of the leaves and flowers1 c41 may be stamped out with steel punches cut to the shape of the tools2 or if only a few inlays are needed1 the tools may be impressed on the thin leather1 and the inlays cut out with a sharp knife4 ,the edges of the larger inlays should be pared round carefully4 ,for inlaying a panel or other large surface1 the leather is pared very thin and evenly with a ,french knife1 and a piece of paper pasted on to the grained side and left to dry4 ,when dry1 the shape of the panel1 or other space to be inlaid1 is marked on it through the paper pattern1 and leather and paper cut through to the shape required4 ,the edges must then be carefully pared1 and the piece attached with paste1 and nipped in the press to make it stick4 ,when the paste is dry1 the paper may be damped and washed off4 ,the object of the paper is to prevent the thin leather from stretching when it is pasted4 ,for white inlays it is better to use ,japanese paper than leather1 as white leather1 when pared very thin1 will show the colours of the under leather through1 and look dirty4 ,if paper is used1 it should be sized with vellum size before tooling4 ,when many dots or leaves are to be inlaid1 the pieces of leather1 cut out with the punch1 may be laid face downwards on a paring stone1 and a piece of paper1 thickly covered with paste1 laid on it4 ,this1 on being taken up1 will carry with it the inlays1 and they can be picked up one at a time on the point of a fine folder1 and stuck on the book4 ,inlays of tools are attached after the pattern has been blinded in1 and must be again worked over with the tool1 in blind1 when the paste is nearly dry4 ,on vellum an effect1 similar to that of inlays on leather1 can be obtained by the use of stains4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,lettering--,blind ,tooling--,heraldic ,ornament ,,lettering ,,on ,,the ,,back ,lettering may be done either with separate letters1 each on its own handle1 or with type set in a type-holder and worked across the back as a pallet4 ,although by the use of type great regularity is ensured1 and some time saved1 the use of handle letters gives so much more freedom of arrangement1 that their use is advocated for extra binding4 ,where a great many copies of the same work have to be lettered1 the use of type has obvious advantages4 ,a great deal depends on the design of the letters used4 ,nearly all bookbinders' letters are made too narrow1 and with too great difference between the thick and thin strokes4 ,at fig4 #ij is shown an alphabet1 for which ,i am indebted to the kindness of ,mr4 ,emery ,walker4 ,the long tail of the ,q is meant to go under the ,u4 ,it might be well to have a second ,r cut1 with a shorter tail1 to avoid the great space left when an ,a happens to follow it4 ,i have found that four sizes of letters are sufficient for all books4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ij4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ia4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ib4 ,to make out a lettering paper for the back of a book1 cut a strip of good thin paper as wide as the height of the panel to be lettered4 ,fold it near the centre1 and mark the fold with a pencil4 ,this should give a line exactly at right angles to the top and bottom of the strip4 ,then make another fold the distance from the first of the width of the back2 then bring the two folds together1 and make a third fold in the exact centre4 ,the paper should then be as shown at fig4 #ia4 ,supposing the lettering to be ,,the ,,works ,,of ,,robert ,,louis ,,stevenson1 select the size of letter you desire to use1 and take an ,e and mark on a piece of spare paper a line of ,e's1 and laying your folded paper against it1 see how many letters will go in comfortably4 ,supposing you find that four lines of five letters of the selected size can be put in1 you must see if your title can be conveniently cut up into four lines of five letters1 or less4 ,it might be done as shown at fig4 #ic4 ,but if you prefer not to split the name ,,stevenson1 a smaller letter must be employed1 and then the lettering may be as at fig4 #id4 ,to find out the position of the lines of lettering on a panel1 the letter ,e is again taken and impressed five times at the side of the panel1 as shown at fig4 #ib1 leaving a little greater distance between the lowest letter and the bottom of the panel1 than between the letters4 ,the paper is then folded on the centre fold1 and1 with dividers set to the average distance between the head of one letter and the head of the next1 five points are made through the folded paper4 ,the paper is opened1 turned over1 and the points joined with a fine folder worked against the straight-edge4 ,it should leave on the front five raised lines1 up to which the head of the letters must be put4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ic4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #id4 ,the letters in the top line are counted1 and the centre letter marked4 ,spaces between words are counted as a letter2 thus in ,,the ,,works1 ,w will be the centre letter1 and should be put on the paper first1 and the others added on each side of it4 ,some thought is needed in judging where to put the centre1 as the difference in the width of such letters as ,m and ,w and ,i and ,j have to be taken into account4 ,as a general rule1 lettering looks best if it comfortably fills the panel1 but of course it cannot always be made to do this4 ,the greatest difficulty will be found in making titles of books that consist of a single word1 look well4 ,thus if you have ,,coriolanus to place on a back which is not more than #e_/h-;inch wide1 if it is put across as one word1 as at fig4 #ie 7#a71 it will be illegible from the smallness of the type1 and will tell merely as a gold line at a little distance4 ,if a reasonably large type is used1 the word must be broken up somewhat1 as at 7#b71 which is perhaps better1 but still not at all satisfactory4 ,the word may be put straight along the back1 as at fig4 7#c71 but this hardly looks well on a book with raised bands1 and should be avoided unless necessary4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ie4 ,the use of type of different sizes in lettering a book should be avoided when possible1 and on no account whatever should letters of different design be introduced4 ,occasionally1 when the reason for it is obvious1 it may be allowable to make a word shorter by putting in a small letter1 supposing that only thus could reasonably large type be used4 ,it is especially allowable in cases where1 in a set of volumes1 there is one much thinner than the others4 ,it is generally better to make some compromise with the lettering of the thin volume1 than to spoil the lettering of the whole set by using too small a letter throughout 7see fig4 #aae74 ,on very thin books it is sometimes hardly possible to get any lettering at all on the back4 ,in such cases the lettering is best put on the side4 ,in the case of some special books that are to have elaborately decorated bindings1 and are on that account sufficiently distinct from their neighbours1 a certain amount of freedom is permissible with the lettering1 and a little mystery is not perhaps out of place4 ,but in most cases books have to be recognised by their titles1 and it is of the utmost importance that the lettering should be as clear as possible1 and should fully identify the volume4 ,for lettering half-bindings and other books on which much time cannot be spared1 it would take too long to make out a paper1 as described for extra bindings1 nor is there on such work much occasion for it4 ,for such books the lettering should be written out carefully1 the whole panel prepared and glaired in1 and the gold laid on4 ,then with a piece of fine silk or thread lines may be marked across the gold as a guide to the finisher1 and the letters worked from the centre outward1 as described for making out the paper pattern4 ,of course this method does not allow of such nice calculation and adjustment as when a paper pattern is made out2 but if a general principle of clear lettering is recognised and accepted1 very good results may be obtained4 ,,blind ,,tooling ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #if4 ,at the end of the book characteristic examples of blind-tooled books are given 7pages #cba-be74 ,it will be seen that most of the tools form complete designs in themselves4 ,although the use of detached die-sunk tools was general1 there were also simple tools used1 which1 when combined1 made up more or less organic designs1 and allowed more freedom to the finisher 7see figs4 #if and #ig74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ig4 ,some use may also be made of interlaced strap-work designs1 either worked with gouges1 or a small fillet4 ,a book bound in oaken boards1 with a leather back with knotted decoration1 is shown at page #ccj4 ,i have found that such binding and decoration is more satisfactory in scheme for old books1 than most forms of modern binding4 ,if a design is simple1 the cover is marked up with dividers1 and the tools impressed direct upon the leather2 or1 if it is elaborate1 a paper pattern is made out1 and the tools blinded through the paper1 as described for gold tooling4 ,the leather is then damped with water1 and the impressions retooled4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ih4 ,the panel lines on most of the bindings before #aejj show evidence of having been put in with a tool which has been pushed along the leather1 and not with a wheel4 ,i have found that a tool guided by a straight-edge1 and jiggered backwards and forwards1 makes by far the best lines for blind-tool work4 ,it should be borne in mind that the line is formed by the raised portion of leather1 and so the tool should be cut somewhat as at fig4 #ih4 ,this should leave three ridges on the leather4 ,blind tooling may be gone over and over until it is deep enough1 and may be combined with various other methods of working4 ,for instance1 in tooling such a spray as is shown at fig4 #ii1 the leaf would be formed by five impressions of the second tool1 shown at ,a1 the extremity of the impressions could be joined with gouges1 the stalk and veining could either be run in with a fillet or worked with gouges4 ,the grapes would best be worked with a tool cut for the purpose4 ,one edge of all gouge or fillet impressions can be smoothed down with some such tool as shown in section at ,b4 ,this has to be worked round the gouge lines with a steady hand1 and may be fairly hot if it is kept moving4 ,at ,c is shown a section of a gouge impression before and after the use of this tool4 ,the ground can be dotted in1 or otherwise gone over with some small tool to throw up the pattern4 ,blind tooling can sometimes be used in combination with gold tooling4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ii4 ,in the fifteenth century the ,venetian binders used little roundels of some gesso-like substance1 that were brightly coloured or gilt1 in combination with blind tooling 7see p4 #cbe74 ,this is a method that might be revived4 ,what is known as leather work is a further development of blind tooling4 ,this method of decoration has been revived lately1 but not generally with success4 ,leather work may be divided into two branches2 in one the surface of the leather is cut to outline the pattern1 and in the other the leather is embossed from the back1 while wet1 and the pattern outlined by an indented line4 ,sometimes the two methods are combined4 ,as embossing from the back necessitates the work being done before the leather is on the book1 it is not very suitable for decorating books4 ,leather first decorated and then stuck on the book1 never looks as if it was an integral part of the binding4 ,the cut leather work1 which may be done after the book is bound1 and leaves the surface comparatively flat1 is a better method to employ for books1 provided the cuts are not too deep1 and are restricted to the boards1 so as not to weaken the leather at the back and joints4 ,much of the leather used for leather work is of very poor quality1 and will not last2 for modelling it must be thick on the side of the book1 and for the book to open it must be pared thin at the joint1 thus making it necessary to use a thick skin very much pared down1 and consequently weakened 7see p4 #aee74 ,another very common fault in modelled leather work is1 that the two sides and the back are often worked separately and stuck together on the book1 necessitating a join1 and consequently a weak place in the hinge1 where strength is most wanted4 ,again1 in most modern leather work1 those who do the decoration do not1 as a rule1 do the binding1 and often do not understand enough of the craft to do suitable work4 ,all those engaged in leather work are advised to learn to bind their own books1 and to only use such methods of decoration1 as can be carried out on the bound book4 ,,heraldry ,,on ,,book ,,covers ,it is an old and good custom to put the arms of the owner of a library on the covers of the books he has bound4 ,the traditional1 and certainly one of the best ways to do this1 is to have an arms block designed and cut4 ,to design an arms block1 knowledge of heraldry is needed1 and also some clear idea of the effect to be aimed at4 ,a very common mistake in designing blocks is to try and get the effect of hand tooling4 ,blocks should be and look something entirely different4 ,in hand tooling much of the effect is got from the impressions of small tools reflecting the light at slightly different angles1 giving the work life and interest4 ,blocked gold being all in one plane1 has no such lights in it1 and depends entirely on its design for its effect4 ,provided the heraldry identifies the owner1 it should be as simply drawn as it can be2 the custom of indicating the tinctures by lines and dots on the charges1 generally makes a design confused1 obscuring the coat it is intended to make clear4 ,in designing heraldic blocks it is well to get a good deal of solid flat surface of gold to make the blocked design stand out from any gold-tooled work on the cover4 ,another way of putting armorial bearings on covers1 is to paint them in oil paint4 ,in the early sixteenth century the ,venetians copied the ,eastern custom of sinking panels in their book covers1 and painted coats of arms on these sunk portions very successfully4 ,the groundwork of the shield itself was usually raised a little1 either by something under the leather1 or by some gesso-like substance on its surface4 ,arms blocks should be placed a little above the centre of the cover4 ,generally1 if the centre of the block is in a line with the centre band of a book with five bands1 it will look right4 ,blocks are struck with the aid of an arming or blocking press4 ,the block is attached to the movable plate of the press called the platen4 ,to do this some stout brown paper is first glued to the platen1 and the block glued to this1 and the platen fixed in its place at the bottom of the heating-box4 ,in blocking arms on a number of books of different sizes1 some nice adjustment of the movable bed is needed to get the blocks to fall in exactly the right place4 ,for blocking1 one coat of glaire will be enough for most leathers4 ,the gold is laid on as for hand tooling4 ,the block should be brought down and up again fairly sharply4 ,the heat needed is about the same as for hand tooling4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,designing for ,gold-,tooled ,decoration ,,designing ,,tools ,for gold tooling1 such tools as gouges1 dots1 pieces of straight line1 and fillets are to be had ready-made at most dealers4 ,other tools are best designed and cut to order4 ,at first only a few simple forms will be needed1 such as one or two flowers of different sizes1 and one or two sets of leaves 7see fig4 #ajj74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajj 7reduced7 ,in designing tools1 it must be borne in mind that they may appear on the book many times repeated1 and so must be simple in outline and much conventionalised4 ,a more or less naturalistic drawing of a flower1 showing the natural irregularities1 may look charming1 but if a tool is cut from it1 any marked irregularity becomes extremely annoying when repeated several times on a cover4 ,so with leaves1 unless they are perfectly symmetrical1 there should be three of each shape cut1 two curving in different directions1 and the third quite straight 7see fig4 #aja74 ,to have only one leaf1 and to have that curved1 produces very restless patterns4 ,the essence of gold-tool design1 is that patterns are made up of repeats of impressions of tools1 and that being so1 the tools must be so designed that they will repeat pleasantly1 and in practice it will be found that any but simple forms will become aggressive in repetition4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aja4 ,designs for tools should be made out with ,indian ink on white paper1 and they may be larger than the size of the required tool4 ,the tool-cutter will reduce any drawing to any desired size1 and will1 from one drawing1 cut any number of tools of different sizes4 ,thus1 if a set of five leaves of the same shape is wanted1 it will only be necessary to draw one1 and to indicate the sizes the others are to be in some such way as shown at fig4 #ajb4 ,it is not suggested that special tools should be cut for each pattern1 but the need of new tools will naturally arise from time to time1 and so the stock be gradually increased4 ,it is better to begin with a very few1 and add a tool or two as occasion arises1 than to try to design a complete set when starting4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajb4 ,tools may be solid or in outline4 ,if in outline they may be used as inlay tools1 and in ordering them the tool-cutter should be asked to provide steel punches for cutting the inlays4 ,,combining ,,tools ,,to ,,form ,,patterns ,it is well for the student to begin with patterns arranged on some very simple plan1 making slight changes in each succeeding pattern4 ,in this way an individual style may be established4 ,the usual plan of studying the perfected styles of the old binders1 and trying to begin where they left off1 in practice only leads to the production of exact imitations1 or poor lifeless parodies1 of the old designs4 ,whereas a pattern developed by the student by slow degrees1 through a series of designs1 each slightly different from the one before it1 will1 if eccentricities are avoided1 probably have life and individual interest4 ,perhaps the easiest way to decorate a binding is to cover it with some small repeating pattern4 ,a simple form of diaper as a beginning is shown at fig4 #ajd4 ,to make such a pattern cut a piece of good1 thin paper to the size of the board of a book1 and with a pencil rule a line about an eighth of an inch inside the margin all round4 ,then with the point of a fine folder that will indent1 but not cut the paper1 mark up as shown in fig4 #ajc4 ,the position of the lines ,a ,a and ,b ,b are found by simply folding the paper1 first side to side1 and then head to tail4 ,the other lines can be put in without any measurement by simply joining all points where lines cross4 ,by continual re-crossing1 the spaces into which the paper is divided can be reduced to any desired size4 ,if the construction lines are accurately put in1 the spaces will all be of the same size and shape4 ,it is then evident that a repeating design to fill any one of the spaces can be made to cover the whole surface4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajc4 ,in fig4 #ajd1 it is the diagonal lines only that are utilised for the pattern4 ,to avoid confusion1 the cross lines that helped to determine the position of the diagonals are not shown4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajd 7reduced7 ,the advantage of using the point of a folder to mark up the constructional lines of a pattern instead of a pencil1 is that the lines so made are much finer1 do not rub out1 and do not cause confusion by interfering with the pattern4 ,any lines that will appear on the book1 such as the marginal lines1 may be put in with a pencil to distinguish them4 ,having marked up the paper1 select a flower tool and impress it at the points where the diagonal lines cross1 holding it in the smoke of a candle between every two or three impressions4 ,when the flower has been impressed all over1 select a small piece of straight line1 and put a stalk in below each flower2 then a leaf put in on each side of the straight line will complete the pattern4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aje 7reduced7 ,a development of the same principle is shown at fig4 #aje1 in which some gouges are introduced4 ,any number of other combinations will occur to any one using the tools4 ,frequently questions will arise as to whether a tool is to be put this way or that way1 and whether a line is to curve up or down4 ,whenever there is such an alternative open1 there is the germ of another pattern4 ,all-over diaper patterns may be varied in any number of ways4 ,one way is to vary the design in alternate spaces4 ,if this is done one of the designs should be such that it will divide down the centre both ways and so finish off the pattern comfortably at the edges4 ,the pattern may be based on the upright and the cross-lines of the marking up1 or the marking up may be on a different principle altogether4 ,the designer1 after a little practice1 will be bewildered by the infinite number of combinations that occur to him4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajf 7reduced7 ,the diaper is selected for a beginning1 because it is the easiest form of pattern to make1 as there is no question of getting round corners1 and very little of studying proportion4 ,it is selected also because it teaches the student the decorative value of simple forms repeated on some orderly system4 ,when he has grasped this1 he has grasped the underlying principle of nearly all successful tooled ornament4 ,diapers are good practice1 because in a close1 all-over pattern the tools must be put down in definite places1 or an appalling muddle will result4 ,in tooling2 a repeat of the same few tools1 is the best possible practice1 giving as it does the same work over and over again under precisely the same conditions1 and concentrating1 on one book cover1 the practice that might be spread over several backs and sides more sparingly decorated1 when variety of conditions would confuse the student4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajg4 ,when the principles of the diaper have been mastered1 and the student has become familiar with the limitations of his tools1 other schemes of decoration may be attempted1 such as borders1 centres1 or panels4 ,a form of border connected with cross-lines is shown at fig4 #ajf4 ,this is made up of a repeat of the spray built up of three tools and four gouges shown at fig4 #ajg1 with slight modification at the corners4 ,other schemes for borders are those in which flowers grow inwards from the edge of the boards1 or outwards from a panel at the centre1 or on both sides of a line about half an inch from the edge4 ,a pattern may also be made to grow all round the centre panel4 ,borders will be found more difficult to manage than simple diapers1 and at first1 are best built up on the same principle--the repeat of some simple element4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajh 7reduced7 ,the decoration may be concentrated on parts of the cover1 such as the centre or corners4 ,a design for a centre is shown at fig4 #ajh1 and below is shown the way to construct it4 ,a piece of paper is folded1 as shown by the dotted lines1 and an eighth of the pattern drawn with a soft pencil and folded over on the line ,a1 and transferred by being rubbed at the back with a folder4 ,this is lined in with a pencil1 and folded over on the line ,b and rubbed off4 ,this is lined in and folded over on ,a and ,c1 rubbed off as before1 and the whole lined in4 ,the overs and unders of the lines are then marked1 and gouges selected to fit4 ,of course it will take several trials before the lines will interlace pleasantly1 and the tools fit in4 ,another centre1 in which a spray is repeated three times1 is shown at fig4 #aji1 and any number of others will occur to the student after a little practice4 ,a change of tools1 or the slight alteration of a line1 will give an entirely new aspect to a pattern4 ,at page #ccd is shown an all-over pattern growing from the bottom centre of the board4 ,in this design the leather was dark green1 with a lighter green panel in the centre4 ,the berries were inlaid in bright red4 ,although at first glance it seems an intricate design1 it is made up like the others of repetitions of simple forms4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aji 7reduced7 ,when the student has become proficient in the arrangement of tools in combination with lines1 a design consisting entirely1 or almost entirely1 of lines may be tried4 ,this is more difficult1 because the limitations are not so obvious2 but here again the principle of repetition1 and even distribution1 should be followed4 ,at fig4 #aaj is shown a design almost entirely composed of lines1 built up on the same principle as the centre at fig4 #ajh4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaj 7reduced7 ,the ends of the bands form a very pleasant starting-place for patterns4 ,at pp4 #ccj1 #ccb-f are shown ways of utilising this method4 ,to look right1 a pattern must be consistent throughout4 ,the tools and their arrangement must have about the same amount of convention4 ,gold tooling1 dealing1 as it does1 with flat forms in silhouette only1 necessitates very considerable formality in the design of the tools and of their arrangement on the cover4 ,modern finishers have become so skilful1 that they are able to produce in gold tooling almost any design that can be drawn in lines with a pencil1 and some truly marvellous results are obtained by the use of inlays1 and specially cut gouges4 ,as a rule1 such patterns simply serve to show the skill of the finisher1 and to make one wonder who could have been foolish enough to select so limited and laborious a method as gold tooling for carrying them out4 ,generally speaking1 successful gold-tooled patterns show evidence of having been designed with the tools2 of being1 in fact1 mere arrangements of the tools1 and not of having been first designed with a pencil1 and then worked with tools cut to fit the drawing4 ,this does not of course apply to patterns composed entirely of lines1 or to patterns composed of lines of dots4 ,if artists wish to design for gold tooling without first mastering the details1 probably the safest way will be for them to design in lines of gold dots4 ,some successful patterns carried out in this way were shown at the ,arts and ,crafts ,exhibition some years ago4 ,designs for gold-tooled binding should always be constructed on some geometrical plan1 and whatever pattern there is1 symmetrically distributed over the cover4 ,if lettering can be introduced1 it will be found to be most useful when arranging a pattern4 ,it gives dignity and purpose to a design1 and is also highly decorative4 ,lettering may be arranged in panels1 as at page #ccb1 or in a border round the edge of the board1 and in many other ways4 ,it may either consist of the title of the book1 or some line or verse from it or connected with it1 or may refer to its history1 or to the owner4 ,anything that gives a personal interest to a book1 such as the arms of the owner1 the initials or name of the giver or receiver of a present1 with perhaps the date of the gift1 is of value4 ,the use of the small fillet makes it possible to employ long1 slightly-curved lines4 ,gold-tooled lines have in themselves such great beauty1 that designers are often tempted to make them meander about the cover in a weak and aimless way4 ,as the limitations enforced by the use of gouges tend to keep the curves strong and small1 and as the use of the small fillet tends to the production of long1 weak curves1 students are advised at first to restrict the curved lines in their patterns to such as can be readily worked with gouges4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaa4 ,it must be remembered that a gouge or fillet line is very thin1 and will look weak if it goes far without support4 ,for this reason interlaced lines are advocated4 ,gouge lines are easier to work1 and look better1 if a small space is left where the gouges end4 ,this is especially the case where lines bearing leaves or flowers branch from the main stem 7see fig4 #aaa74 ,gouges and fillets need not always be of the same thickness of line1 and two or three sets of different gauges may be kept4 ,a finisher can always alter the thickness of a gouge with emery paper4 ,one method of arranging gold-tooled lines is to treat them in design as if they were wires in tension1 and knot and twist them together4 ,provided the idea is consistently adhered to throughout1 such a pattern is often very successful4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aab4 ,a simple arrangement of straight lines will be sufficient ornamentation for most books4 ,three schemes for such ornamentation are shown4 ,in fig4 #aab the tie-downs may be in blind and the lines in gold4 ,the arrangement shown at fig4 #aac leaves a panel at the top which may be utilised for lettering4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aac4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aad4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aae4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aae4 ,,designing ,,for ,,backs ,the decoration of the back of a book is difficult owing to the very small space usually available in the panels4 ,the first consideration must be the lettering1 and when that has been arranged1 as described in ,chapter ,,xv1 a second paper is got out for the pattern4 ,the back panel should generally be treated in the same style and1 if possible1 with the same tools as the sides1 if they are decorated4 ,it will often be found far easier to design a full-gilt side than a satisfactory back4 ,a design may be made to fit one panel of the book and repeated on all those not required for lettering 7see pages #ccb-cd71 or it may be made to grow up from panel to panel 7see fig4 #aae74 ,in the case of sets of books in which the volumes vary very much in thickness1 some pattern must be made that can be contracted and expanded without altering the general look of the back 7see fig4 #aae74 ,,designing ,,for ,,inside ,,of ,,boards ,the inside margins of the board permit of a little delicate decoration4 ,at fig4 #aaf are shown two ways of treating this part of the binding4 ,the inside of the board is sometimes covered all over with leather1 and tooled as elaborately1 or more elaborately1 than the outside4 ,if there are vellum ends1 they may be enriched with a little tooling4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaf4 ,the edges of the boards may have a gold line run on them1 and the head-cap may be decorated with a few dots4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,pasting down ,end ,papers--,opening ,books ,,pasting ,,down ,,end ,,papers ,when the finishing is done1 the end papers should be pasted down on to the board2 or if there is a leather joint1 the panel left should be filled in to match the end paper4 ,to paste down end papers1 the book is placed on the block with the board open 7see fig4 #aag1 ,a71 the waste sheets are torn off1 the joints cleared of any glue or paste1 and the boards flattened1 as described at page #aga for pasting down leather joints4 ,one of the paste-down papers is then stretched over the board and rubbed down in the joint1 and the amount to be cut off to make it fit into the space left by the turn-in of the leather is marked on it with dividers1 measuring from the edge of the board4 ,a cutting tin is then placed on the book1 the paste-down paper turned over it1 and the edges trimmed off to the divider points with a knife and straight-edge1 leaving small pieces to cover the ends of the joint 7fig4 #aag1 ,a1 c74 ,the cutting and pasting down of these small pieces in the joint are rather difficult2 they should come exactly to the edges of the board4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aag4 ,when both paste-down papers are trimmed to size1 one of them is well pasted with thin paste in which there are no lumps1 with a piece of waste paper under it to protect the book4 ,the joints should also be pasted1 and the paste rubbed in with the finger and any surplus removed4 ,the pasted paper is then brought over on to the board1 the edges adjusted exactly to their places1 and rubbed down4 ,the joint must next be rubbed down through paper4 ,it is difficult to get the paper to stick evenly in the joint1 and great nicety is needed here4 ,all rubbing down must be done through paper1 or the paste-down will be soiled or made shiny4 ,some papers stretch very much when pasted1 and will need to be cut a little smaller than needed1 and put down promptly after pasting4 ,thin vellum may be put down with paste in which there is a very little glue1 but thicker vellum is better put down with thin glue4 ,in pasting vellum1 very great care is needed to prevent the brush-marks from showing through4 ,if the vellum is thin1 the board must be lined with white or toned paper with a smooth surface4 ,this paper must be quite clean1 as any marks will show through the vellum1 and make it look dirty4 ,when one side is pasted down the book can be turned over without shutting the board1 and the other board opened and pasted down in the same way 7see fig4 #aag1 ,b74 ,in turning over a book1 a piece of white paper should be put under the newly-pasted side1 as1 being damp1 it will soil very readily4 ,when both ends have been pasted down the joints should be examined and rubbed down again1 and the book stood up on end with the boards open until the end papers are dry4 ,the boards may be held open with a piece of cardboard cut as shown at fig4 #ga4 ,if there are cloth joints they are put down with glue1 and the board paper is placed nearly to the edge of the joint1 leaving very little cloth visible4 ,in the process of finishing1 the boards of a book will nearly always be warped a little outward1 but the pasted end papers should draw the boards a little as they dry1 causing them to curve slightly towards the book4 ,with vellum ends there is a danger that the boards will be warped too much4 ,,opening ,,newly ,,bound ,,books ,before sending out a newly bound book the binder should go through it1 opening it here and there to ease the back4 ,the volume is laid on a table1 and the leaves opened a short distance from the front1 and then at an equal distance from the back1 and then in one or two places nearer the centre of the book1 the leaves being pressed down with the hand at each opening4 ,if the book is a valuable one1 every leaf should then be turned over separately and each opening pressed down1 beginning from the centre and working first one way and then the other4 ,in this way the back will be bent evenly at all points4 ,when a book has been opened1 it should be lightly pressed for a short time without anything in the joints4 ,if a book is sent out unopened1 the first person into whose hand it falls will probably open it somewhere in the centre1 bending the covers back and breaking the back2 and if any leaves chance to have been stuck together in edge-gilding1 they are likely to be torn if carelessly opened4 ,a book with a broken back will always have a tendency to open in the same place1 and will not keep its shape4 ,it would be worth while for librarians to have newly bound books carefully opened4 ,an assistant could open a large number of books in a day1 and the benefit to the bindings would amply compensate for the small trouble and cost involved4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,clasps and ,ties--,metal on ,bindings ,,clasps ,,and ,,ties ,some books need to be clasped to keep the leaves flat4 ,all books written or printed on vellum should have clasps4 ,vellum unless kept flat is apt to cockle1 and this in a book will force the leaves apart and admit dust4 ,if a book is tightly wedged in a shelf the leaves will be kept flat1 but as the chance removal of any other book from the row will remove the pressure1 it is much better to provide clasps for vellum books4 ,very thick books1 and those with a great many folded plates1 are better for having clasps to prevent the leaves from sagging4 ,as nearly all books are now kept in bookshelves1 and as any projection on the side of a book is likely to injure the neighbouring volume1 a form of clasp should be used that has no raised parts on the boards4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aah4 ,at fig4 #aah is shown a simple clasp suitable for small books with mill-board sides1 with details of the metal parts1 made of thick silver wire below4 ,double boards must be made1 and the flattened ends of the silver catch inserted between the two thicknesses1 and glued in place4 ,about one-eighth of an inch of the end should project4 ,in covering1 the leather must be pierced and carefully worked round the catch4 ,to make the plait1 three strips of thin leather are slipped through the ring1 and the ends of each strip pasted together4 ,the three doubled strips are then plaited and the end of the plait put through a hole in the lower board of the book about half an inch from the edge1 and glued down inside4 ,a groove may be cut in the mill-board from the hole to the edge before covering1 to make a depression in which the plait will lie1 and a depression may be scooped out of the inner surface of the board to receive the ends4 ,at fig4 #aai is a somewhat similar clasp with three plaits suitable for large books4 ,the metal end and the method of inserting it into wooden boards are shown below4 ,the turned-down end should go right through the board1 and be riveted on the inside4 ,when the three plaits are worked1 a little band of silver may be riveted on just below the ring4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aai4 ,a very simple fastening that is sometimes useful is shown at fig4 #gg4 ,a very small bead is threaded on to a piece of catgut1 and the two ends of the gut brought together and put through a larger bead4 ,the ends of the gut with the beads on them are laced into the top board of the book1 with the bead projecting over the edge1 and a loop of gut is laced into the bottom board4 ,if the loop can be made exactly the right length1 this is a serviceable method4 ,silk or leather ties may be used to keep books shut1 but they are apt to be in the way when the book is read1 and as hardly anybody troubles to tie them1 they are generally of very little use4 ,,metal ,,on ,,bindings ,metal corners and bosses are a great protection to bindings1 but if the books are to go into shelves1 the metal must be quite smooth and flat4 ,a metal shoe on the lower edge of the boards is an excellent thing for preserving the binding of heavy books4 ,bosses and other raised metal work should be restricted to books that will be used on lecterns or reading desks4 ,the frontispiece is from a drawing of an early sixteenth-century book1 bound in white pigskin1 and ornamented with brass corners1 centres1 and clasps2 and at page #cbc is shown a fifteenth-century binding with plain protecting bosses4 ,on this book there were originally five bosses on each board1 but the centre ones have been lost4 ,bindings may be entirely covered with metal1 but the connection between the binding and the book is in that case seldom quite satisfactory4 ,the most satisfactory metal-covered bindings that ,i have seen are those in which the metal is restricted to the boards4 ,the book is bound in wooden boards1 with thick leather at the back1 and plaques of metal nailed to the wood4 ,the metal may be set with jewels or decorated with enamel1 and embossed or chased in various ways4 ,jewels are sometimes set in invisible settings below the leather of bindings1 giving them the appearance of being set in the leather4 ,this gives them an insecure look1 and it is better to frankly show the metal settings and make a decorative feature of them4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,leather ,,leather ,of all the materials used by the bookbinders1 leather is the most important and the most difficult to select wisely4 ,it is extremely difficult to judge a leather by its appearance4 ,we find now1 that instead of leather made from sheep1 calf1 goat1 and pigskins1 each having1 when finished1 its own characteristic surface1 that sheepskins are got up to look like calf1 morocco1 or pigskin2 that calf is grained to resemble morocco1 or so polished and flattened as to have but little character left2 while goatskins are grained in any number of ways1 and pigskin is often grained like levant morocco4 ,so clever are some of these imitations1 that it takes a skilled expert to identify a leather when it is on a book4 ,there have been complaints for a long time of the want of durability of modern bookbinding leather1 but there has not been until lately any systematic investigation into the causes of its premature decay4 ,by permission1 ,i shall quote largely from the report of the committee appointed by the ,society of ,arts to inquire into the subject4 ,there are on this special committee leather manufacturers1 bookbinders1 librarians1 and owners of libraries4 ,the report issued is the result of an immense amount of work done4 ,many libraries were visited1 and hundreds of experiments and tests were carried out by the sub-committees4 ,there is much useful information in the report that all bookbinders and librarians should read4 ,the work of the committee is not yet finished1 but its findings may be accepted as conclusive as far as they go4 ,the committee first set themselves to ascertain if the complaints of the premature decay of modern bookbinding leather are justified by facts1 and on this point report that3-- ,as regards the common belief that modern binding leather does decay prematurely1 the sub-committee satisfied themselves that books bound during the last eighty or hundred years showed far greater evidence of deterioration than those of an earlier date4 ,many recent bindings showed evidence of decay after so short a period as ten1 or even five years4 ,the sub-committee came to the conclusion that there is ample justification for the general complaint that modern leather is not so durable as that formerly used4 ,to fix the date of the commencement of this deterioration was a difficult matter2 but they came to the conclusion that while leather of all periods showed some signs of decay1 the deterioration becomes more general on books bound after #ahcj1 while some leathers seem to be generally good until about #ahfj1 after which date nearly all leathers seem to get worse4 ,the deterioration of calf bindings at the latter end of the #aith century may be attributed as much to the excessive thinness as to the poor quality of the material4 ,the committee endeavoured to ascertain the relative durability of the leathers used for bookbinding1 and after visiting many libraries1 and comparing bindings1 they report as follows3-- ,as to the suitability of various leathers1 the sub-committee came to the conclusion that of the old leathers 7#aeth and #afth century71 white pigskin1 probably alum 'tanned1' is the most durable1 but its excessive hardness and want of flexibility renders this leather unsuitable for most modern work4 ,old brown calf has lasted fairly well1 but loses its flexibility1 and becomes stiff and brittle when exposed to light and air4 ,some of the white tawed skins of the #aeth and #afth century1 other than white pigskin1 and probably deerskin1 have lasted very well4 ,some #aeth and #afth century sheepskin bindings have remained soft and flexible1 but the surface is soft1 and usually much damaged by friction4 ,vellum seems to have lasted fairly well1 but is easily influenced by atmospheric changes1 and is much affected by light4 ,early specimens of red morocco from the #afth to the end of the #ahth century were found in good condition1 and of all the leathers noticed1 this seems to be the least affected by the various conditions to which it had been subjected4 ,in the opinion of the committee1 most of this leather has been tanned with sumach or some closely allied tanning material4 ,morocco bindings earlier than #ahfj were generally found to be in fairly good condition1 but morocco after that date seems to be much less reliable1 and in many cases has become utterly rotten4 ,during the latter part of the #ahth century it became customary to pare down calf until it was as thin as paper4 ,since about #ahcj hardly any really sound calf seems to have been used1 as1 whether thick or thin1 it appears generally to have perished4 ,sheepskin bindings of the early part of the century are many of them still in good condition4 ,since about #ahfj sheepskin as sheepskin is hardly to be found4 ,sheepskins are grained in imitation of other leathers1 and these imitation-grained leathers are generally found to be in a worse condition than any of the other bindings1 except1 perhaps1 some of the very thin calfskin4 ,undyed modern pigskin seems to last well1 but some coloured pigskin bindings had entirely perished4 ,modern leathers dyed with the aid of sulphuric acid are all to be condemned4 ,in nearly every case ,russia leather was found to have become rotten1 at least in bindings of the last fifty years4 ,on the question of the causes of the decay noticed and the best methods of preparing leather in the future1 ,i may quote the following3-- ,the work of a sub-committee1 which was composed of chemists specially conversant with the treatment of leather1 was directed specially to the elucidation of the following points3 an investigation of the nature of the decay of leather used for bookbinding2 an examination of the causes which produced this decay2 a research into the best methods of preparing leather for bookbinding2 and a consideration of the points required to be dealt with in the preservation of books4 ,taking these points in order1 the first one dealt with is the question of the nature of the decay of leather4 ,to arrive at their conclusions on this subject1 the sub-committee made a number of tests and analyses of samples of decayed leather bookbindings1 as well as of leathers used for binding4 ,the committee found that the most prevalent decay was what they term a red decay1 and this they think may be differentiated into old and new1 the old red decay being noticeable up to about #ahcj1 and the new decay since that date4 ,in the old decay1 the leather becomes hard and brittle1 the surface not being easily abraded by friction4 ,the older form is specially noticeable in calf-bound books1 tanned presumably with oak bark4 ,the new form affects nearly all leathers1 and in extreme cases seems absolutely to destroy the fibres4 ,another form of deterioration1 more noticeable in the newer books1 renders the grain of the leather liable to peel off when exposed to the slightest friction4 ,this is the most common form of decay noted in the more recent leathers4 ,in nearly all samples of ,russia leather a very violent form of red decay was noticed4 ,in many cases the leather was found to be absolutely rotten in all parts exposed to light and air1 so that on the very slightest rubbing with a blunt instrument the leather fell into fine dust4444 ,the second point is the cause of the decay4 ,an extensive series of experiments was carried out with a view of determining the causes of the decay of bindings4 ,the sub-committee find that this is caused by both mechanical and by chemical influences4 ,of the latter1 some are due to mistakes of the leather manufacturer and the bookbinder1 others to the want of ventilation1 and to improper heating and lighting of libraries4 ,in some cases inferior leathers are finished 7by methods in themselves injurious7 so as to imitate the better class leathers1 and of course where these are used durability cannot be expected4 ,but in the main the injury for which the manufacturer and bookbinder are responsible must be attributed rather to ignorance of the effect of the means employed to give the leather the outward qualities required for binding1 than to the intentional production of an inferior article4444 ,leathers produced by different tanning materials1 although they may be equally sound and durable mechanically1 vary very much in their resistance to other influences1 such as light1 heat1 and gas fumes4 ,for bookbinding purposes1 the sub-committee generally condemn the use of tanning materials belonging to the catechol group1 although the leathers produced by the use of these materials are for many purposes excellent1 and indeed superior4 ,the class of tanning materials which produce the most suitable leather for this particular purpose belong to the pyrogallol group1 of which a well known and important example is sumach4 ,east ,indian or ',persian' tanned sheep and goat skins1 which are suitable for many purposes1 and are now used largely for cheap bookbinding purposes1 are considered extremely bad4 ,books bound in these materials have been found to show signs of decay in less than twelve months1 and the sub-committee are inclined to believe that no book bound in these leathers1 exposed on a shelf to sunlight or gas fumes1 can ever be expected to last more than five or six years4 ,embossing leather under heavy pressure to imitate a grain has a very injurious effect1 while the shaving of thick skins greatly reduces the strength of the leather by cutting away the tough fibres of the inner part of the skin4 ,the use of mineral acids in brightening the colour of leather1 and in the process of dyeing1 has a serious effect in lessening its resistance to decay4 ,a good deal yet remains to be learned about the relative permanency of the different dyes4 ,on analysis free sulphuric acid was found to be present in nearly all bookbinding leather1 and it is the opinion of the committee that even a small quantity of this acid materially lessens the durability of the leather4 ,it has been shown by careful experiment1 that even a minute quantity of sulphuric acid used in the dye bath to liberate the colour is at once absorbed by the leather1 and that no amount of subsequent washing will remove it4 ,in a very large proportion of cases the decay of modern sumach-tanned leather has been due to the sulphuric acid used in the dye bath1 and retained in the skin4 ,we have examined very many samples of leather manufactured and sold specially for bookbinding purposes1 from different factories1 bought from different dealers1 or kindly supplied by bookbinders and by librarians1 and have found them to contain1 in a large number of cases1 free sulphuric acid1 from #j4e up to #a4f per cent4 ,the publication of the report should tend to fix a standard for bookbinding leather4 ,hitherto there has been no recognised standard4 ,bookbinders have selected leather almost entirely by its appearance4 ,it has now been shown that appearance is no test of durability1 and the mechanical test of tearing the leather is insufficient4 ,sound leather should tear with difficulty1 and the torn edges should be fringed with long1 silky fibres1 and any leather which tears very easily1 and shows short1 curled-up fibres at the torn edges1 should be discarded4 ,but though good bookbinding leather will tear with difficulty1 and show long fibres where torn1 that is in itself not a sufficient test2 because it has been shown that the leather that is mechanically the strongest1 is not necessarily the most durable and the best able to resist the adverse influences to which books are subject in libraries4 ,the report shows that bookbinders and librarians are not1 as a general rule1 qualified to select leather for bookbinding4 ,in the old days1 when the manufacture of leather was comparatively simple1 a bookbinder might reasonably be expected to know enough of the processes employed to be able to select his leather4 ,but now so complicated is the manufacture1 and so many are the factors to be considered1 that an expert should be employed4 ,the committee have satisfied themselves that it is possible to test any leather in such a way as to guarantee its suitability for bookbinding4 ,they have not come to any decision as to the desirability of establishing any formal or official standard1 though they consider that this is a point which well deserves future consideration4 ,it is to be hoped that some system of examining and hall-marking leather by some recognised body1 may be instituted4 ,if librarians will specify that the leather to be employed must be certified to be manufactured according to the recommendations of the ,society of ,arts ,committee1 there is no reason why leathers should not be obtained as durable as any ever produced4 ,this would necessitate the examining and testing of batches of leather by experts4 ,at present this can be done more or less privately at various places1 such as the ,yorkshire ,college1 ,leeds1 or the ,herolds' ,institute1 ,bermondsey4 ,in the near future it is to be hoped that some recognised public body1 such as one of the great ,city ,companies interested in leather1 may be induced to establish a standard1 and to test such leathers as are submitted to them1 hall-marking those that come up to the standard4 ,this would enable bookbinders and librarians1 in ordering leather1 to be sure that it had not been injured in its manufacture4 ,the testing1 if done by batches1 should not add greatly to the cost of the leather4 ,on the question of the qualities of an ideal bookbinding leather the committee report3-- ,it is the opinion of the committee1 that the ideal bookbinding leather must have1 and retain1 great flexibility4444 7,it7 must have a firm grain surface1 not easily damaged by friction1 and should not be artificially grained4444 ,the committee is of opinion that a pure sumach tannage will answer all these conditions1 and that leather can1 and will1 be now produced that will prove to be as durable as any made in the past4 ,the committee has so far only dealt with vegetable-tanned leather4 ,i have used1 with some success1 chrome-tanned calfskin4 ,chrome leather is difficult to pare1 and to work1 as it does not become soft when wet1 like vegetable-tanned leather4 ,it will stand any reasonable degree of heat1 and so might perhaps be useful for top-shelf bindings and for shelf edging4 ,it is extremely strong mechanically1 but without further tests ,i cannot positively recommend it except for trial4 ,while the strength and probable durability of leather can only be judged by a trained leather chemist1 there remains for the binders selection1 the kind of leather to use1 and its colour4 ,most of the leather prepared for bookbinding is too highly finished4 ,the finishing processes add a good deal to the cost of the leather1 and are apt to be injurious to it1 and as much of the high finish is lost in covering1 it would be better for the bookbinder to get rougher leather and finish it himself when it is on the book4 ,the leathers in common use for bookbinding are3-- ,goatskin1 known as morocco4 ,calf1 known as calf and russia4 ,sheepskin1 known as roan1 basil1 skiver1 c4 ,pigskin1 known as pigskin4 ,sealskin1 known as seal4 ,morocco is probably the best leather for extra binding if properly prepared1 but experiment has shown that the expensive ,levant moroccos are nearly always ruined in their manufacture4 ,a great many samples of the most expensive ,levant morocco were tested1 with the result that they were all found to contain free sulphuric acid4 ,calf4--,modern vegetable-tanned calf has become a highly unsatisfactory material1 and until some radical changes are made in the methods of manufacturing it1 it should not be used for bookbinding4 ,sheepskin4--,a properly tanned sheepskin makes a very durable1 though rather soft and woolly1 leather4 ,much of the bookbinding leather now made from sheepskin is quite worthless4 ,bookbinders should refuse to have anything to do with any leather that has been artificially grained1 as the process is apt to be highly injurious to the skin4 ,pigskin4--,pigskin is a thoroughly good leather naturally1 and very strong1 especially the alumed skins2 but many of the dyed pigskins are found to be improperly tanned and dyed1 and worthless for bookbinding4 ,sealskin is highly recommended by one eminent librarian1 but ,i have not yet had any experience of its use for bookbinding4 ,the leather that ,i have found most useful is the ,niger goatskin1 brought from ,africa by the ,royal ,niger ,company2 it is a very beautiful colour and texture1 and has stood all the tests tried1 without serious deterioration4 ,the difficulty with this leather is that1 being a native production1 it is somewhat carelessly prepared1 and is much spoiled by flaws and stains on the surface1 and many skins are quite worthless4 ,it is to be hoped that before long some of the manufacturers interested will produce skins as good in quality and colour as the best ,niger morocco1 and with fewer flaws4 ,much leather is ruined in order to obtain an absolutely even colour4 ,a slight unevenness of colours is very pleasing1 and should rather be encouraged than objected to4 ,that the want of interest in absolutely flat colours has been felt1 is shown by the frequency with which the binders get rid of flat1 even colours by sprinkling and marbling4 ,on this point ,i may quote from the committee3 ,the sprinkling of leather1 either for the production of 'sprinkled' calf or 'tree' calf1 with ferrous sulphate 7green vitriol7 must be most strongly condemned1 as the iron combines with and destroys the tan in the leather1 and free sulphuric acid is liberated1 which is still more destructive4 ,iron acetate or lactate is somewhat less objectionable1 but probably the same effects may be obtained with aniline colours without risk to the leather4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,paper--,pastes--,glue ,,paper ,paper may be made by hand or machinery1 and either laid or wove4 ,laid papers are distinguished by wire marks1 which are absent in wove paper4 ,a sheet of hand-made paper has all round it a rough uneven edge called the deckle1 that is a necessary result of its method of manufacture4 ,the early printers looked upon this ragged edge as a defect1 and almost invariably trimmed most of it off before putting books into permanent bindings4 ,book-lovers quite rightly like to find traces of the deckle edge1 as evidence that a volume has not been unduly reduced by the binder4 ,but it has now become the fashion to admire the deckle for its own sake1 and to leave books on hand-made paper absolutely untrimmed1 with ragged edges that collect the dirt1 are unsightly1 and troublesome to turn over4 ,so far has this craze gone1 that machine-made paper is often put through an extra process to give it a sham deckle edge4 ,roughly speaking1 paper varies in quality according to the proportion of fibrous material1 such as rag1 used in the manufacture4 ,to make paper satisfactorily by hand1 a large proportion of such fibrous material is necessary1 so that the fact that the paper is hand-made is to some extent a guarantee of its quality4 ,there are various qualities of hand-made paper1 made from different materials1 chiefly linen and cotton rags4 ,the best paper is made from pure linen rag1 and poorer hand-made paper from cotton rag1 while other qualities contain a mixture of the two or other substances4 ,it is possible to make a thoroughly good paper by machinery if good materials are used4 ,some excellent papers are made by machinery2 but the enormous demand for paper1 together with the fact that now almost any fibrous material can be made into paper1 has resulted in the production1 in recent years1 of1 perhaps1 the worst papers that have ever been seen4 ,this would not matter if the use of the poor papers were restricted to newspapers and other ephemeral literature1 but when1 as is often the case1 paper of very poor quality is used for books of permanent literary interest1 the matter is serious enough4 ,among the worst papers made are the heavily loaded ,art papers that are prepared for the printing of half-toned process blocks4 ,it is to be hoped that before long the paper makers will produce a paper that1 while suitable for printing half-toned blocks1 will be more serviceable1 and will have a less unpleasant surface4 ,several makers produce coloured handmade papers suitable for end papers4 ,machine-made papers can be had in endless variety from any number of makers4 ,the paper known as ,japanese ,vellum is a very tough material1 and will be found useful for repairing vellum books2 the thinnest variety of it is very suitable for mending the backs of broken sections1 or for strengthening weak places in paper4 ,the following delightful account of paper making by hand is quoted from ,evelyn's ,diary1 #afda-agjf4 ,i went to see my ,lord of ,st4 ,alban's house at ,byflete1 an old large building4 ,thence to the paper mills1 where ,i found them making a coarse white paper4 ,they cull the raggs1 which are linnen1 for white paper1 woollen for brown1 then they stamp them in troughs to a papp with pestles or hammers like the powder-mills1 then put it into a vessell of water1 in which they dip a frame closely wyred with a wyre as small as a haire1 and as close as a weaver's reede2 on this they take up the papp1 the superfluous water draining thro' the wyre2 this they dextrously turning1 shake out like a pancake on a smooth board between two pieces of flannell1 then press it between a greate presse1 the flannell sucking out the moisture2 then taking it out they ply and dry it on strings1 as they dry linnen in the laundry2 then dip it in alum-water1 lastly polish and make it up in quires4 ,they put some gum in the water in which they macerate the raggs4 ,the mark we find on the sheets is formed in the wyre4 ,the following are the more usual sizes of printing papers-- ,inches4 ,foolscap #ag x #ac-a_/b ,crown #bj x #ae ,post #ai-a_/d x #ae-a_/b ,demy #bb-a_/b x #ag-a_/b ,medium #bd x #ai ,royal #be x #bj ,double ,pott #be x #ae ,foolscap #bg x #ag ,super ,royal #bg x #ba ,double ,crown #cj x #bj ,imperial #cj x #bb ,double ,post #ca-a_/b x #ai-a_/b ,the corresponding sizes of hand-made papers may differ slightly from the above4 ,although the above are the principal sizes named1 almost any size can be made to order4 ,the following is an extract from the report of the ,committee of the ,society of ,arts on the deterioration of paper1 published in #ahih3 ,the committee find that the paper-making fibres may be ranged into four classes3-- ,a4 ,cotton1 flax1 and hemp4 ,b4 ,wood1 celluloses 7a7 sulphite process1 and 7b7 soda and sulphate process4 ,c4 ,esparto and straw celluloses4 ,d4 ,mechanical wood pulp4 ,in regard1 therefore1 to papers for books and documents of permanent value1 the selection must be taken in this order1 and always with due regard to the fulfilment of the conditions of normal treatment above dealt with as common to all papers4 ,the committee have been desirous of bringing their investigations to a practical conclusion in specific terms1 viz4 by the suggestion of standards of quality4 ,it is evident that in the majority of cases1 there is little fault to find with the practical adjustments which rule the trade4 ,they are1 therefore1 satisfied to limit their specific findings to the following1 viz41 ,normal standard of quality for book papers required for publications of permanent value4 ,for such papers they would specify as follows3-- ,fibres4 ,not less than #gj per cent4 of fibres of ,class ,a4 ,sizing4 ,not more than #b per cent4 rosin1 and finished with the normal acidity of pure alum4 ,loading4 ,not more than #aj per cent4 total mineral matter 7ash74 ,with regard to written documents1 it must be evident that the proper materials are those of ,class ,a1 and that the paper should be pure1 and sized with gelatine1 and not with rosin4 ,all imitations of high-class writing papers1 which are1 in fact1 merely disguised printing papers1 should be carefully avoided4 ,,pastes ,to make paste for covering books1 c41 take #b oz4 of flour1 and #a_/d oz4 of powdered alum1 and well mix with enough water to form a thin paste1 taking care to break up any lumps4 ,add a pint of cold water1 and heat gently in an enamelled saucepan4 ,as it becomes warm1 it should be stirred from time to time1 and when it begins to boil it should be continually stirred for about five minutes4 ,it should then form a thick paste that can be thinned with warm water4 ,of course any quantity can be made if the proportions are the same4 ,paste for use is best kept in a wooden trough1 called a paste tub4 ,the paste tub will need to be cleaned out from time to time1 and all fragments of dry paste removed4 ,this can easily be done if it is left1 overnight1 filled with water4 ,before using1 the paste should be well beaten up with a flat stick4 ,for pasting paper1 it should have about the consistency and smoothness of cream2 for leather1 it can be thicker4 ,for very thick leather a little thin glue may be added4 ,paste made with alum will keep about a fortnight1 but can be kept longer by the addition of corrosive sublimate in the proportion of one part of corrosive sublimate to a thousand parts of paste4 ,corrosive sublimate1 being a deadly poison1 will prevent the attack of bookworms or other insects1 but for the same reason must only be used by responsible people1 and paste in which it is used must be kept out of the way of domestic animals4 ,several makes of excellent prepared paste can be bought in ,london4 ,these pastes are as cheap as can be made1 and keep good a long time4 ,paste that has become sour should never be used1 as there is danger that the products of its acid fermentation may injure the leather4 ,paste tubs as sold often have an iron bar across them to wipe the brush on4 ,this should be removed1 and replaced by a piece of twisted cord4 ,paste brushes should be bound with string or zinc2 copper or iron will stain the paste4 ,,white ,,paste ,,for ,,mending ,a good paste for mending is made from a teaspoonful of ordinary flour1 two teaspoonsful of cornflour1 half a teaspoonful of alum1 and three ounces of water4 ,these should be carefully mixed1 breaking up all lumps1 and then should be heated in a clean saucepan1 and stirred all the time with a wooden or bone spoon4 ,the paste should boil for about five minutes1 but not too fast1 or it will burn and turn brown4 ,rice-flour or starch may be substituted for cornflour1 and for very white paper the wheaten flour may be omitted4 ,ordinary paste is not nearly white enough for mending1 and is apt to leave unsightly stains4 ,cornflour paste may be used directly after it is made1 and will keep good under ordinary circumstances for about a week4 ,directly it gets hard or goes watery1 a new batch must be made4 ,,glue ,it is important for bookbinders that the glue used should be of good quality1 and the best hide glue will be found to answer well4 ,to prepare it for use1 the glue should be broken up into small pieces and left to soak overnight in water4 ,in the morning it should be soft and greatly swollen1 but not melted1 and can then be put in the glue-pot and gently simmered until it is fluid4 ,it is then ready for use4 ,glue loses in quality by being frequently heated1 so that it is well not to make a great quantity at a time4 ,the glue-pot should be thoroughly cleaned out before new glue is put into it1 and the old glue sticking round the sides taken out4 ,glue should be used hot and not too thick4 ,if it is stringy and difficult to work1 it can be broken up by rapidly twisting the brush in the glue-pot4 ,for paper the glue should be very thin and well worked up with the brush before using4 ,the following is quoted from ,chambers' ,encyclopaedia article on ,glue3-- ,while ,england does not excel in the manufacture1 it is a recognised fact that ,scottish glue 444 ranks in the front of the glues of all countries4 ,a light-coloured glue is not necessarily good1 nor a dark-coloured glue necessarily bad4 ,a bright1 clear1 claret colour is the natural colour of hide glue1 which is the best and most economical4 ,light-coloured glues 7as distinguished from gelatine7 are made either from bones or sheepskins4 ,the glue yielded by these materials cannot compare with the strength of that yielded by hides4 ,a great quantity is now made in ,france and ,germany from bones4 ,it is got as a by-product in the manufacture of animal charcoal4 ,although beautiful to look at1 it is found when used to be far inferior to ,scottish hide glue4 ,,part ,,ii ,,care ,,of ,,books ,,when ,,bound ,,chapter ,,xxi ,injurious ,influences to which ,books are ,subjected ,gas ,fumes4--,the investigation of the ,society of ,arts ,committee shows that-- ,of all the influences to which books are exposed in libraries1 gas fumes--no doubt because of the sulphuric and sulphurous acid which they contain--are shown to be the most injurious4 ,the injurious effects of gas fumes on leather have been recognised for a long time1 and gas is being1 very generally1 given up in libraries in consequence4 ,if books must be kept where gas is used1 they should not be put high up in the room1 and great attention should be paid to ventilation4 ,it is far better1 where possible1 to avoid the use of gas at all in libraries4 ,light4--,the committee also report that light1 and especially direct sunlight and hot air1 are shown to possess deleterious influences which had scarcely been suspected previously1 and the importance of moderate temperature and thorough ventilation of libraries cannot be too much insisted on4 ,the action of light on leather has a disintegrating effect1 very plainly seen when books have stood for long periods on shelves placed at right angles to windows4 ,at ,oxford and ,cambridge and at the ,british ,museum ,library the same thing was noticed4 ,the leather on that side1 of the backs of books1 next to the light1 was absolutely rotten1 crumbling to dust at the slightest friction1 while at the side away from the light it was comparatively sound4 ,vellum bindings were even more affected than those of leather4 ,the committee advise that library windows exposed to the direct sunlight should be glazed with tinted glass4 ,some attempts have been made to determine the effect of light transmitted through glasses of different colours1 and they point to the fact that blue and violet glass pass light of nearly as deleterious quality as white glass2 while leathers under red1 green1 and yellow glasses were almost completely protected4 ,there can be no doubt that the use of pale yellow or olive-green glass in library windows exposed to direct sunlight is desirable4 ,a large number of experiments have been made on the tinted 'cathedral' glasses of ,messrs4 ,pilkington ,bros41 ,limited1 with the result that ,nos4 #hab and #gab afforded almost complete protection during two months' exposure to sunlight1 while ,nos4 #gjd and #hjd may be recommended where only very pale shades are permissible4 ,the glasses employed were subjected to careful spectroscopic examination1 and to colour-measurement by the tintometer1 but neither were found to give precise indications as to the protective power of the glasses1 which is no doubt due to the absorption of the violet1 and especially of the invisible ultra-violet rays4 ,an easy method of comparing glasses is to expose under them to sunlight the ordinary sensitised albumenised photographic paper4 ,those glasses under which this is least darkened are also most protective to leather4 ,tobacco4--,smoking was found to be injurious1 and it is certainly a mistake to allow it in libraries4 ,the effect of ammonia vapour1 and tobacco fumes1 of which ammonia is one of the active ingredients1 was also examined4 ,the effect of ammonia fumes was very marked1 darkening every description of leather1 and it is known that in extreme cases it causes a rapid form of decay4 ,tobacco smoke had a very similar darkening and deleterious effect 7least marked in the case of sumach tanned leathers71 and there can be no doubt that the deterioration of bindings in a library where smoking was permitted and the rooms much used1 must have been partly due to this cause4 ,damp4--,books kept in damp places will develop mildew1 and both leather and paper will be ruined4 ,where possible1 naturally dry rooms should be used for libraries1 and if not naturally dry1 every means possible should be taken to render them so4 ,it will sometimes be found that the only way to keep the walls of an old house dry is to put in a proper dampcourse4 ,there are various other methods employed1 such as lining the walls with thin lead1 or painting them inside and out with some waterproofing preparation3 but as long as a wall remains in itself damp1 it is doubtful if any of these things will permanently keep the damp from penetrating4 ,bookshelves should never be put against the wall1 nor the books on the floor4 ,there should always be space for air to circulate on all sides of the bookshelves4 ,damp is specially injurious if books are kept behind closely-fitting doors4 ,the doors of bookcases should be left open from time to time on warm days4 ,should mildew make its appearance1 the books should be taken out1 dried and aired1 and the bookshelves thoroughly cleaned4 ,the cause of the damp should be sought for1 and measures taken to remedy it4 ,library windows should not be left open at night1 nor during damp weather1 but in warm fine weather the more ventilation there is1 the better4 ,heat4--,while damp is very injurious to books on account of the development of mildew1 unduly hot dry air is almost as bad1 causing leather to dry up and lose its flexibility4 ,on this point the ,chairman of the ,society of ,arts ,committee says3-- ,rooms in which books are kept should not be subject to extremes1 whether of heat or cold1 of moisture or dryness4 ,it may be said that the better adapted a room is for human occupation1 the better for the books it contains4 ,damp is1 of course1 most mischievous1 but over-dryness induced by heated air1 especially when the pipes are in close proximity to the bookcases1 is also very injurious4 ,dust4--,books should be taken from the shelves at least once a year1 dusted and aired1 and the bindings rubbed with a preservative4 ,to dust a book1 it should be removed from the shelf1 and without being opened1 turned upside down and flicked with a feather duster4 ,if a book with the dust on the top is held loosely in the hand1 and dusted right way up1 dust may fall between the leaves4 ,dusting should be done in warm1 dry weather2 and afterwards1 the books may be stood on the table slightly open1 to air1 with their leaves loose4 ,before being returned to the shelves1 the bindings should be lightly rubbed with some preservative preparation 7see chap4 ,,xxii74 ,any bindings that are broken1 or any leaves that are loose should be noted1 and the books put on one side to be sent to the binder4 ,it would be best when the library is large enough to warrant it1 to employ a working bookbinder to do this work2 such a man would be useful in many ways4 ,he could stick on labels1 repair bindings1 and do many other odd jobs to keep the books in good repair4 ,a bookbinder could be kept fully employed1 binding and repairing the books of a comparatively small library under the direction of the librarian4 ,,bookworms ,the insects known as bookworms are the larvae of several sorts of beetles1 most commonly perhaps of ,antobium domesticum and ,niptus hololencus4 ,they are not in any way peculiar to books and will infest the wood of bookshelves1 walls1 or floors4 ,a good deal can be done to keep worms away by using such substances as camphor or naphthaline in the bookcase4 ,bookworms do not attack modern books very much2 probably they dislike the alum put in the paste and the mill-boards made of old tarred rope4 ,in old books1 especially such as come from ,italy1 it is often found that the ravages of the bookworms are almost entirely confined to the glue on the backs of the books1 and it generally seems that the glue and paste attract them4 ,probably if corrosive sublimate were put in the glue and paste used it would stop their attacks4 ,alum is said to be a preventive1 but ,i have known bookworms to eat their way through leather pasted on with paste containing alum1 when1 in recovering1 the old wooden boards containing bookworms have been utilised in error4 ,when on shaking the boards of an old book dust flies out1 or when little heaps of dust are found on the shelf on which an old book has been standing1 it may be considered likely that there are bookworms present4 ,it is easy to kill any that may be hatched1 by putting the book in an air-tight box surrounded with cotton wool soaked in ether2 but that will not kill the eggs1 and the treatment must be repeated from time to time at intervals of a few weeks4 ,any book that is found to contain bookworms should be isolated and at once treated4 ,tins may be put inside the boards to prevent the worms eating into the leaves4 ,speaking of bookworms1 ,jules ,cousin says3-- ,one of the simplest means to be employed 7to get rid of bookworms7 is to place behind the books1 especially in the place where the insects show their presence most1 pieces of linen soaked with essence of turpentine1 camphor1 or an infusion of tobacco1 and to renew them when the smell goes off4 ,a little fine pepper might also be scattered on the shelf1 the penetrating smell of which would produce the same effect4 ,possibly ,keating's ,insect ,powder would answer as well or better than pepper4 ,,rats ,,and ,,mice ,rats and mice will gnaw the backs of books to get at the glue1 so1 means should be taken to get rid of these vermin if they should appear4 ,mice especially will nibble vellum binding or the edges of vellum books that have become greasy with much handling4 ,,cockroaches ,cockroaches are very troublesome in libraries1 eating the bindings4 ,keating's ,insect ,powder will keep them away from books1 but only so long as it is renewed at short intervals4 ,,placing ,,the ,,books ,,in ,,the ,,shelves ,the ,chairman of the ,society of ,arts ,special ,committee says on this point3-- ,it is important that a just medium should be observed between the close and loose disposition of books in the shelves4 ,tight packing causes the pulling off of the tops of book-backs1 injurious friction between their sides1 and undue pressure1 which tends to force off their backs4 ,but books should not stand loosely on the shelves4 ,they require support and moderate lateral pressure1 otherwise the leaves are apt to open and admit dust1 damp1 and mildew4 ,the weight of the leaves also in good-sized volumes loosely placed will often be found to be resting on the shelf1 making the backs concave1 and spoiling the shape and cohesion of the books4 ,in libraries where classification is attempted there must be a certain number of partially filled shelves4 ,the books in these should be kept in place by some such device as that in use in the ,british ,museum1 namely1 a simple flat angle piece of galvanised iron1 on the lower flange of which the end books rest1 keeping it down1 the upright flange keeping the books close and preventing them from spreading4 ,he also speaks of the danger to bindings of rough or badly-painted bookshelves3-- ,great care should be exercised when bookcases are painted or varnished that the surface should be left hard1 smooth1 and dry4 ,bindings1 especially those of delicate texture1 may be irreparably rubbed if brought in contact with rough or coarsely-painted surfaces1 while the paint itself1 years after its original application1 is liable to come off upon the books1 leaving indelible marks4 ,in such cases pasteboard guards against the ends of the shelves are the only remedy4 ,,chapter ,,xxii ,to ,preserve ,old ,bindings--,re-backing ,,to ,,preserve ,,old ,,bindings ,it is a well-known fact that the leather of bindings that are much handled lasts very much better than that on books which remain untouched on the shelves4 ,there is little doubt that the reason for this is that the slight amount of grease the leather receives from the hands nourishes it and keeps it flexible4 ,a coating of glair or varnish is found to some extent to protect leather from adverse outside influences1 but1 unfortunately1 both glair and varnish tend rather to harden leather than to keep it flexible1 and they fail just where failure is most serious1 that is at the joints4 ,in opening and shutting1 any coat of glair or varnish that has become hard will crack1 and expose the leather of the joint and back4 ,flexibility is an essential quality in bookbinding leather1 for as soon as the leather at the joint of a binding becomes stiff it breaks away when the boards are opened4 ,it would add immensely to the life of old leather bindings if librarians would have them treated1 say once a year1 with some preservative4 ,the consequent expense would be saved many times over by the reduction of the cost of rebinding4 ,such a preservative must not stain1 must not evaporate1 must not become hard1 and must not be sticky4 ,vaseline has been recommended1 and answers fairly well1 but will evaporate1 although slowly4 ,i have found that a solution of paraffin wax in castor oil answers well4 ,it is cheap and very simple to prepare4 ,to prepare it1 some castor oil is put into an earthenware jar1 and about half its weight of paraffin wax shredded into it4 ,on warming1 the wax will melt1 and the preparation is ready for use4 ,a little of the preparation is well worked into a piece of flannel1 and the books rubbed with it1 special attention being paid to the back and joints4 ,they may be further rubbed with the hand1 and finally gone over with a clean1 soft cloth4 ,very little of the preparation need be used on each book4 ,if bindings have projecting metal corners or clasps that are likely to scratch the neighbouring books1 pieces of mill-board1 which may be lined with leather or good paper1 should be placed next them1 or they may have a cover made of a piece of mill-board bent round as shown at fig4 #abj1 and strengthened at the folds with linen4 ,this may be slipped into the shelf with the book with the open end outwards1 and will then hardly be seen4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abj4 ,bindings which have previously had metal clasps1 c41 often have projecting fragments of the old nails4 ,these should be sought for and carefully removed or driven in1 as they may seriously damage any bindings with which they come in contact4 ,to protect valuable old bindings1 cases may be made and lettered on the back with the title of the book4 ,loose covers that necessitate the bending back of the boards for their removal are not recommended4 ,,re-,,backing ,bindings that have broken joints may be re-backed4 ,any of the leather of the back that remains should be carefully removed and preserved4 ,it is impossible to get some leathers off tight backs without destroying them1 but with care and by the use of a thin folder1 many backs can be saved4 ,the leather on the boards is cut a little back from the joint with a slanting cut1 that will leave a thin edge1 and is then lifted up with a folder4 ,new leather1 of the same colour is pasted on the back1 and tucked in under the old leather on the board4 ,the leather from the old back should have its edges pared and any lumps of glue or paper removed and be pasted on to the new leather and bound tightly with tape to make sure that it sticks4 ,when the leather at the corners of the board needs repairing1 the corner is glued and tapped with a hammer to make it hard and square1 and when it is dry a little piece of new leather is slipped under the old and the corner covered4 ,when the sewing cords or thread of a book have perished it should be rebound1 but if there are any remains of the original binding they should be preserved and utilised4 ,if the old boards have quite perished1 new boards of the same nature and thickness should be got out and the old cover pasted over them4 ,such places as the old leather will not cover1 must first be covered with new of the same colour4 ,generally speaking1 it is desirable that the characteristics of an old book should be preserved1 and that the new work should be as little in evidence as possible4 ,it is far more pleasant to see an old book in a patched contemporary binding1 than smug and tidy in the most immaculate modern cover4 ,part of the interest of any old book is its individual history1 which can be gathered from the binding1 book-plates1 marginal notes1 names of former owners1 c41 and anything that tends to obliterate these signs is to be deplored4 ,,specifications ,,specifications ,,for ,,bookbinding ,these specifications will require modification in special cases1 and are only intended to be a general guide4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,,sheets4 ,,end ,,papers4 ,,pressing4 ,,edges4 ,,sewing4 ,,back4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,to be ,to be sewn ,books on ,to be ,to be with,to be ,i4 carefullyon4 ,to be of handmade trimmed ligature kept ,for ,extra folded1 good paper paper not and giltsilk1 as ,binding or1 if made with to be before flexible1 flat suitable an old zigzag1 with pressed sewing4 round fiveas it for ,valuablebook1 allboard papers unduly4 ,to be bands of can be ,books4 ,wholedamaged of self- uncut4 best without ,leather4 leaves tocoloured sewing forcing be paper of good cord4 it and carefullyquality1 or without mended1 vellum4 ,or to danger the backsbe made with of its where leather becom- damaged joint4 ing to be concave made in use4 sound4 ,single leaves to be guarded round the sections next them4 ,all plates to be guarded4 ,guards to be sewn through4 ,no past- ing on or over- casting to be allowed4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,as ,no4 ,to be of good,same as ,to be ,to be with,same as ,,ii4 ,i41 paper made ,no4 ,i4 cut and unbleachedfor ,no4 ,for ,good exceptingwith zigzag1 gilt in thread1 ,i4 ,binding for that any with board boards flexible1 ,books of mending papers of or round five ,reference1 may be self-coloured colouredbands of ,catalogues1 done paper of good or to bebest c41 and rather quality4 uncut4 sewing other heavy with a ,large or cord4 ,books that view to heavy books may have a strength to have a great deal than cloth joint4 of use4 extreme ,to be sewn ,whole or neatness4on4 ,half ,leather4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,same as ,to be of good,same as ,to be ,to be with,same as ,,iii4 ,no4 ,,ii4 paper1 sewn ,no4 ,i4 uncut1 unbleachedfor ,for ,binding on1 made with or to bethread ,nos4 ,i4 for zigzag4 cut in across notand ,,ii4 ,libraries1 guillo- less than ,,iv4 for tine andfour ,books in gilt or unbleached current colouredlinen use4 ,half or to tapes4 ,leather4 have top edge only gilt4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,any ,same as ,no4 ,may be ,with ,back to ,,iv4 leaves ,,iii4 cut unbleachedbe left ,for ,library damaged smooth thread square ,bindings of at the in over threeafter ,books of back or guillo- unbleachedglueing little plates tine4 linen up4 ,interest or to be tapes4 ,value1 overcast ,cloth or into ,half ,linen4 sections4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,,specifications ,,for ,,bookbinding--7continued74 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,,boards4 ,,headbands4 ,,covers4 ,,lettering4,,decoration4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,to be of,to be ,goatskin ,to be ,to be as ,all work ,i4 the bestworked 7morocco71legible much or as to be ,for ,extra black with silk pigskin and to little as done in ,binding mill- on strips or seal- identify the nature the best suitable board4 of vellum skin manu-the of the bookmanner4 for ,valuable,two or catgut factured volume4 warrants4 ,books4 ,wholeboards or cord1 according ,leather4 to be with to the made frequent recommend- togethertie-downs4ations of for ,the head- the large bands to ,society books1 be set of ,arts' and all by pieces ,committee five of good on ,leather bands paper or for laced inleather ,book- through glued at binding4 two head and ,whole holes4 tail4 ,the binding2 back to beleather lined up to be with attached leather directly all over to the if the back4 book is large4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,same as ,same as ,same as ,same as ,to be ,work may ,,ii4 ,no4 ,i41 ,no4 ,i4 ,no4 ,i41 ,no4 ,i4 omitted1 orbe a ,for ,good or may excepting only to little ,binding for be of that consist of rougher1 ,books of good properly a few linesbut not ,reference1 grey prepared or dots or careless ,catalogues1 board4 sheepskin other or c41 and may be quite dirty4 other heavy added4 simple ,books that ,half- ornament4 may have binding1 a great deal leather of use4 only at ,whole or back4 ,half ,corners ,leather4 to be strength- ened with tips of vellum4 ,sides covered with good paper or linen4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,to be ,to be ,same as ,same as ,to be ,same as ,,iii4 split worked ,nos4 ,i4 ,nos4 ,i4 omitted4 ,no4 ,,ii4 ,for ,binding grey with and ,,ii41 and ,,ii4 for boards1 thread but skins ,libraries1 or or vellum may be for ,books straw- or cord1 used where in current board or to be there are use4 ,half with omitted surface ,leather4 black and a flaws that board piece of do not liner1 cord affect the with inserted strength4 ends into the ,leather to of tapesturn in be used attachedof the thicker to leather atthan is portion head and usual1 of wastetail in there sheet1 their being insertedplace4 ,french between joints4 them4 ,leather at ,boards back only2 to be paper left a sides2 short vellum distance tips4 from the joint to form a ,french joint4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,to be ,no ,whole ,same as ,to be ,same as ,,iv4 split headbands4buckram ,nos4 ,i4 omitted4 ,no4 ,,ii4 ,for ,library boards1 or half ,,ii4 and ,bindings of two linen and ,,iii4 ,books of straw- paper little boards sides4 ,interest or made ,value1 ,clothtogether or ,half and ends ,linen4 of slips insert- ed4 ,french joint to be left4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,,glossary ,arming press1 a small blocking press used for striking arms-blocks on the sides of books4 ,backing boards1 wedge-shaped bevelled boards used in backing 7see ,fig4 #dj74 ,backing machine1 used for backing cheap work in large quantities2 it often crushes and damages the backs of the sections4 ,bands1 7#a7 the cords on which a book is sewn4 7#b7 ,the ridges on the back caused by the bands showing through the leather4 ,band nippers1 pincers with flat jaws1 used for straightening the bands 7see ,fig4 #fa74 ,for nipping up the leather after covering1 they should be nickelled to prevent the iron staining the leather4 ,beating stone1 the stone on which books were formerly beaten2 now generally superseded by the rolling machine and standing press4 ,blind tooling1 the impression of finishing tools without gold4 ,blocking press1 a press used for impressing blocks such as those used in decorating cloth cases4 ,board papers1 the part of the end papers pasted on to the boards4 ,bodkin1 an awl used for making the holes in the boards for the slips4 ,bolt1 folded edge of the sheets in an unopened book4 ,cancels1 leaves containing errors1 which have to be discarded and replaced by corrected sheets4 ,such leaves are marked by the printer with a star4 ,catch-word1 a word printed at the foot of one page indicating the first word of the page following1 as a guide in collating4 ,cutting boards1 wedge-shaped boards somewhat like backing boards1 but with the top edge square2 used in cutting the edge of a book and in edge-gilding4 ,cutting in boards1 cutting the edges of a book after the boards are laced on4 ,cutting press1 when the lying press is turned1 so that the side with the runners is uppermost1 it is called a cutting press 7see ,fig4 #df74 ,diaper1 a term applied to a small repeating all-over pattern4 ,from woven material decorated in this way4 ,doublure1 the inside face of the boards1 especially applied to them when lined with leather and decorated4 ,end papers1 papers added at the beginning and end of a book by the binder4 ,extra binding1 a trade term for the best work4 ,finishing1 comprises lettering1 tooling1 and polishing1 c4 ,finishing press1 a small press used for holding books when they are being tooled 7see ,fig4 #hd74 ,finishing stove1 used for heating finishing tools4 ,folder1 a flat piece of ivory or bone1 like a paper knife1 used in folding sheets and in various other operations4 ,foredge 7fore edge71 the front edge of the leaves4 ,pronounced forrege4 ,forwarding1 comprises all the operations between sewing and finishing1 excepting headbanding4 ,gathering1 collecting one sheet from each pile in a printer's warehouse to make up a volume4 ,glaire1 white of eggs beaten up1 and used in finishing and edge gilding4 ,half binding1 when the leather covers the back and only part of the sides1 a book is said to be half bound4 ,head band1 a fillet of silk or thread1 worked at the head and tail of the back4 ,head cap1 the fold of leather over the head band 7see ,fig4 #fg74 ,head and tail1 the top and bottom of a book4 ,imperfections1 sheets rejected by the binder and returned to the printer to be replaced4 ,india proofs1 strictly first proofs only of an illustration pulled on ,india paper1 but used indiscriminately for all illustrations printed on ,india paper4 ,inset1 the portion of a sheet cut off and inserted in folding certain sizes1 such as duodecimo1 c4 7see ,fig4 #d74 ,inside margins1 the border made by the turn in of the leather on the inside face of the boards 7see ,fig4 #aaf74 ,joints1 7#a7 the groove formed in backing to receive the ends of the mill-boards4 7#b7 ,the part of the binding that bends when the boards are opened4 7#c7 ,strips of leather or cloth used to strengthen the end papers4 ,kettle stitch1 catch stitch formed in sewing at the head and tail4 ,lacing in1 lacing the slips through holes in the boards to attach them4 ,lying press1 the term applied to the under side of the cutting press used for backing1 usually ungrammatically called laying press4 ,marbling1 colouring the edges and end papers in various patterns1 obtained by floating colours on a gum solution4 ,millboard machine1 machine used for squaring boards2 should only be used for cheap work1 as an edge cut by it will not be as square as if cut by the plough4 ,mitring1 7#a7 lines meeting at a right angle without overrunning are said to be mitred4 7#b7 ,a join at #de deg4 as in the leather on the inside of the boards4 ,overcasting1 over-sewing the back edges of single leaves or weak sections4 ,peel1 a thin board on a handle used for hanging up sheets for drying4 ,plate1 an illustration printed from a plate4 ,term often incorrectly applied to illustrations printed from woodcuts4 ,any full-page illustration printed on different paper to the book is usually called a plate4 ,pressing plates1 plates of metal japanned or nickelled1 used for giving finish to the leather on a book4 ,press pin1 an iron bar used for turning the screws of presses4 ,proof1 edges left uncut as proof that the book has not been unduly cut down4 ,register1 7i47 when the print on one side of a leaf falls exactly over that on the other it is said to register4 7ii47 ,ribbon placed in a book as a marker4 ,rolling machine1 a machine in which the sheets of a book are subject to heavy pressure by being passed between rollers4 ,sawing in1 when grooves are made in the back with a saw to receive the bands4 ,section1 the folded sheet4 ,semee or ,semis1 an heraldic term signifying sprinkled4 ,set off1 print is said to set off when part of the ink from a page comes off on an opposite page4 ,this will happen if a book is pressed too soon after printing4 ,sheet1 the full size of the paper as printed1 forming a section when folded4 ,signature1 the letter or figure placed on the first page of each sheet4 ,slips1 the ends of the sewing cord or tape that are attached to the boards4 ,squares1 the portion of the boards projecting beyond the edges of the book4 ,start1 when1 after cutting1 one or more sections of the book come forward1 making the fore edge irregular1 they are said to have started4 ,straight edge1 a flat ruler4 ,tacky1 sticky4 ,t4 ,e4 ,g41 top-edge gilt4 ,trimmed4 ,the edges of a book are said to be trimmed when the edges of the larger 7or projecting7 leaves only have been cut4 ,tub1 the stand which supports the lying press4 ,originally an actual tub to catch the shavings4 ,uncut1 a book is said to be uncut when the edges of the paper have not been cut with the plough or guillotine4 ,unopened1 the book is said to be unopened if the bolts of the sheets have not been cut4 ,waterproof sheets1 sheets of celluloid1 such as are used by photographers4 ,whole binding1 when the leather covers the back and sides of a volume4 ,wire staples are used by certain machines in the place of thread for securing the sections4 ,groove1 that part of the sections which is turned over in backing to receive the board4 ,,reproductions ,,of ,,bindings ,i41 ,,ii41 ,,and ,,iii4 ,,fifteenth ,,century ,,blind-,,tooled ,,bindings ,,iv4 ,,sixteenth ,,century ,,binding ,,with ,,simple ,,gold-,,tooling ,v41 ,,vi41 ,,vii41 ,,and ,,viii4 ,,modern ,,bindings ,,designed ,,by ,,the ,,author ,illustration3 ,i4--,german ,fifteenth ,century4 ,pigskin4 ,actual size1 #h-c_/d x #f-a_/d4 ,illustration3 ,,ii4--,german ,fifteenth ,century4 ,calf4 ,actual size #ab-a_/b x #h-a_/b4 ,illustration3 ,,iii4--,italian ,fifteenth ,century4 ,sheepskin1 with coloured roundels4 ,actual size1 #aa-a_/b x #h-a_/d4 ,illustration3 ,,iv4--,italian ,sixteenth ,century4 ,actual size1 #ab-a_/b x #h-a_/b4 ,goatskin4 ,illustration3 ,v4--,half ,niger morocco1 with sides of ,english oak4 ,actual size1 #ag x #aa-a_/b4 ,illustration3 ,,vi4--,niger morocco1 inlaid green leaves4 ,actual size1 #h-a_/d x #e-a_/b4 ,illustration3 ,,vii4--,green levant1 inlaid with lighter green panel and red dots4 ,actual size1 #f-c_/d x #d-a_/b4 ,illustration3 ,,viii4--,niger morocco1 executed by a student of the ,central ,school of ,arts and ,crafts4 ,actual size1 #aa-c_/d x #i-a_/d4 ,,index ,,arming ,,press1 #bbi1 #cac ,arms blocks1 #bbh ,art paper1 #dh1 #bhb ,autograph letters1 #agi ,,backing1 #aag ,backing hammer1 #abc ,back1 lining up1 #aeb ,band nippers1 #afj1 #afc ,bands1 #cac ,bandstick1 #afj ,beating1 #ij ,beating stone1 #ij1 #cac ,benzine1 #bjg1 #bji ,binding1 decoration of1 #ba1 #cj1 #ahh1 #bcc ,binding1 collotype reproductions of1 #cba-ccf ,binding1 embroidered1 #ahf ,binding early printed books1 #ca1 #df1 #aac ,binding1 extra1 #cjh ,binding1 jewelled1 #bfc ,binding1 library1 #bg1 #agc1 #cjh ,binding1 manuscripts1 #ca1 #ajh1 #aac1 #abe1 #ace1 #bbc ,binding1 metal-covered1 #bfc ,binding1 vellum1 #ahj ,binding very thin books1 #agg ,blind tooling1 #ahh1 #bbb ,blocking press1 #bbi1 #cac ,blocks1 striking1 #bbi ,boards1 #abd ,boards1 attaching1 #acb ,boards1 cutting1 #abe ,boards1 filling in1 #agj ,boards1 lining1 #abi ,boards1 pressing1 #aic1 #baj ,boards1 split1 #bh1 #age1 #caa ,bodkin1 #aad ,bookbinding as a profession1 #cb ,books in sheets1 #cd ,bookworms1 #big ,borders1 designing1 #bdj ,borders1 inside1 #bec ,,calf1 #bg1 #bgg ,cancelled sheets1 #dc ,cased books1 #ai1 #di ,castor oil1 #cjc ,catch stitch1 #ii ,catch words1 #cad ,celluloid1 sheets of1 #afa ,centres1 designing1 #bda ,chrome leather1 #bgf ,clasps and ties1 #ahc1 #bei ,cleaning off back1 #acg ,cloth casing1 #ai1 #di ,cloth joints1 #hf1 #beg ,cobden-,sanderson1 ,t4 ,j41 xii41 #bb ,cockroaches1 #cjj ,cocoanut oil1 #bjj ,collating1 #dc ,colouring edges1 #add ,combining tools to form patterns1 #bcb ,compasses1 #aca ,cord sewing1 #aaa ,corners1 mitring1 #afe1 #afh ,cousin1 ,jules1 #gd1 #bii ,covering1 #bc1 #aei1 #agf1 #caj ,crushing the grain of leather1 #aib ,cutting in boards1 #aci ,cutting mill-boards1 #abd ,cutting press1 #abh ,,damp1 effect of1 on bindings1 #bid ,decoration of bindings1 #ba1 #cj1 #ahh1 #bcc ,designing tools1 #bcj ,diaper patterns1 #bcf ,dividers1 #ea ,dots1 striking1 #bje ,doubluves1 #bec1 #cad ,dressing for old bindings1 #cjb ,dust and dusting1 #bif ,,early printed books1 binding1 #ca1 #df1 #aac ,edge colouring1 #add ,edge gauffering1 #add ,edge gilding1 #ie1 #add ,edge sizing1 #ie1 #adf ,edges1 painted1 #adf ,embroidered bindings1 #ahf ,end papers1 #hj1 #bed ,end1 painted1 #hc ,end1 vellum1 #hd ,ends1 silk1 #hd ,entering1 #cc ,evelyn's ,diary 7quotation71 #bhb ,extra binding1 #cjh1 #cad ,,false bands1 #bf ,fillet1 #aij1 #bjf ,fillet1 small1 #bjf1 #bdf ,filling in boards1 #agj ,finishing1 #aia ,finishing press1 #aid ,finishing tools1 #ahh ,finishing stove1 #aie ,flattening vellum1 #fe ,folder1 #afd ,folding1 #cf ,fraying out slips1 #aad ,french joint1 #agf ,french paring knife1 #aef ,french standing press1 #ia ,,gas fumes1 effect of1 #bia ,gathering1 #ce ,gauffering edges1 #add ,gelatine1 #gj ,gilding edges1 #ie1 #add ,gilt top1 #ib ,glaire1 #ig1 #aih ,glass1 tinted1 for libraries1 #bib ,glossary1 #cac ,glue1 #bhi ,glueing up1 #aae ,goatskin1 #bgg ,gold cushion1 #bjj ,gold leaf1 #aii ,gold knife1 #bjj ,gold1 net for1 #if ,gold1 pad for1 #bja ,gold tooling1 #ahh1 #aia ,gouges1 #ahi1 #bje1 #bdg ,groove 7see ,joint7 ,guarding1 #db1 #ec ,guarding plates1 #ej1 #ef1 #caf ,,hammer1 backing1 #abc ,hand-made paper1 #bhj ,headbanding1 #ajh1 #adg1 #agf ,headcaps1 #aef1 #aff ,heat1 effect of1 on bindings1 #bie ,heraldry on bindings1 #bbg ,hinging plates1 #eg ,hollow backs1 #be1 #ahe ,,imperfections1 #ce ,india proofs1 soaking off1 #fb ,india proofs1 mounting1 #fc ,indiarubber for gold1 #bjg ,inlaying leather1 #bac1 #bcb1 #bdc ,inlaying leaves or plates1 #fd ,inset1 #dj1 #cae ,inside margins1 #bec ,,jaconet1 #fj1 #fd ,japanese 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#fg ,paper1 splitting1 #fc ,paper1 washing1 #ga ,paraffin wax1 #cjc ,paring leather1 #aed ,paring paper1 #fa ,paring stone1 #aeg1 #afj ,pastes1 #bhf ,paste water1 #aih ,pasting down end papers1 #bed ,patterns1 #bcb ,peel1 #caf ,permanent binding1 #ai ,persian morocco1 #bga ,pigskin1 #bgh ,plates1 detaching1 #dh ,plates1 guarding1 #ef ,plates1 hinging1 #eg ,plates1 inlaying1 #fd ,plates1 trimming1 #dj ,plough1 #abh ,plough knife1 #abi1 #aci ,polishing1 #aia ,preserving old bindings1 #cjb ,press1 arming1 #bbi1 #cac ,press1 blocking1 #bbi1 #cac ,press1 cutting1 #abh ,press1 finishing1 #aid ,press1 lying1 #abh ,press1 nipping1 #baa ,press pin1 #caf ,press1 sewing 7see ,sewing frame7 ,press1 standing1 #hh ,pressing boards1 #aic1 #baj ,pressing in boards1 #ach ,pressing plates1 #aib1 #caf ,pressing sections1 #hg ,proof1 #caf ,publishers' binding1 #bj ,pulling to pieces1 #df ,,quarter sections1 #db ,quires1 books in1 #cd ,,rats and mice1 #bii ,re-backing1 #cje ,re-binding1 #ah1 #cjf ,refolding1 #ea ,register of printing1 #eb1 #caf ,representations of bindings1 #cba-ccf ,roll1 #aij ,rounding1 #aag ,,sawing in1 #bj1 #be1 #ajj1 #ajh ,scrap books1 #agh ,sealskin1 #bgh ,sections1 pressing1 #hg ,sewing1 #ajj ,sewing cord1 #aaa ,sewing frame1 #ajj ,sewing keys1 #aja ,sewing on tapes1 #bf1 #aaa1 #agd ,sewing on vellum slips1 #aaa1 #aha ,sewing silk1 #aab ,sewing1 tape for1 #aab ,sewing thread1 #aab ,sheepskin1 #bgg-cjh ,sheets1 books in1 #cd ,sheets1 waterproof1 #afa ,signatures1 #cd1 #dc ,silk ends1 #hd ,silk sewing1 #aab ,sizes of paper1 #cf1 #bhc ,sizing1 #fg ,sizing edges1 #ie-adf ,sizing leather1 #aih ,sizing paper1 #fg ,slips1 #cag ,slips1 fraying out1 #aad ,slips1 lacing in1 #acb ,soaking off ,india proofs1 #fb ,society of ,arts1 ,report of ,committee on ,leather for ,bookbinding1 #bb1 #bfd ,society of ,arts1 ,report of ,committee on ,paper1 #bhd ,specifications1 #cjh ,split boards1 #bh1 #age1 #caa ,splitting paper1 #fc ,sprinkling leather1 #bg1 #bgi ,squares1 #aca1 #aec1 #cag ,standing press1 #hh ,standing press1 ,french1 #hi1 #ia ,staples1 wire1 #di ,starred sheets1 #dc ,stove1 finishing1 #aie ,stone1 lithographic1 #aeg1 #afj ,striking dots1 #bje ,striking tools1 #bjd ,,tape1 sewing on1 #bf1 #aab1 #agd ,temporary binding1 #bj ,testing leather1 #bgd ,thin books1 binding1 #agg ,thin paper1 mounting1 #fc ,thread1 sewing1 #aab ,throwing out maps1 #fj ,ties and clasps1 #ahc1 #bei ,tobacco smoke1 effect of1 on binding1 #bid ,tooling1 blind1 #ahh1 #bbb ,tooling1 gold1 #bd1 #ahh1 #aia ,tooling on vellum1 #bab ,tools1 designing1 #ahh1 #bcj ,tools1 finishing1 #ahh1 #bcj ,training for bookbinding1 #cb ,trimming before sewing1 #ic ,trimming machine1 #id ,trimming plates1 #dj ,tub1 #cag ,tying up1 #afg ,,varnish1 #bji ,vellum binders1 #bf ,vellum bindings1 #ahj ,vellum ends1 #hd ,vellum1 flattening1 #fe ,vellum1 ,japanese1 #bhb ,vellum1 mending1 #gi ,vellum slips1 sewing on1 #aaa1 #ahc ,vellum tooling on1 #bab ,,walker1 ,emery1 #baf ,washing1 #ga ,waterproof sheets1 #afa ,weaver's knot1 #ajf ,wooden boards1 #cb1 #ace1 #bbc1 #ccj ,worm holes1 #gh1 #big ,,the ,,artistic ,,crafts ,,series ,,of ,,technical ,,handbooks4 ,edited by ,w4 ,r4 ,,lethaby4 ,the series will appeal to handicraftsmen in the industrial and mechanic arts4 ,it consists of authoritative statements by experts in every field for the exercise of ingenuity1 taste1 imagination--the whole sphere of the so-called dependent arts4 ,,bookbinding ,,and ,,the ,,care ,,of ,,books4 ,a ,handbook for ,amateurs1 ,bookbinders1 and ,librarians4 ,by ,,douglas ,,cockerell4 ,with #abj ,illustrations and ,diagrams by ,noel ,rooke1 and #h collotype reproductions of binding4 #abmo4 #a4be net4 ,,silverwork ,,and ,,jewelry4 ,a ,text-,book for ,students and ,workers in ,metal4 ,by ,h4 ,,wilson4 ,with #afj ,diagrams and #af full-page ,illustrations1 #abmo4 #a4dj net4 ,,wood ,,carving3 ,,design ,,and ,,workmanship4 ,by ,,george ,,jack4 ,with ,drawings by the ,author and other ,illustrations4 #a4dj net4 ,,stained-,,glass ,,work4 ,a ,text-,book for ,students and ,workers in ,glass4 ,by ,c4 ,w4 ,,whall4 ,with ,diagrams by two of his ,apprentices1 and other ,illustrations4 #a4ej net2 postage1 #ad cents additional4 ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company1 ,,new ,,york4 ,,transcriber',s ,,notes ,obvious typographic errors have been corrected4 ,for the detailed list see below4 ,the tables have been slightly modified to optimize presentation4 page #jad--typo fixed3 changed ',making' to ',marking' page #ach--spelling normalized3 changed 'head-banding' to 'headbanding' page #aei--typo fixed3 changed 'wook' to 'wood' page #agc--typo fixed3 changed ',,chapter ,,viii' to ',,chapter ,,xiii' page #aih--typo fixed3 changed 'isinglas' to 'isinglass' page #bdi--spelling normalized3 changed 'tie downs' to 'tie-downs' page #bec--spelling normalized3 changed 'headcap' to 'head-cap' page #bih--spelling normalized3 changed 'millboard' to 'mill-board' page #cjc--spelling normalized3 changed 're-binding' to 'rebinding' page #cjd--spelling normalized3 changed 'millboard' to 'mill-board' page #caj--spelling normalized3 changed ',goat-skin' to ',goatskin' page #cad--spelling normalized3 changed 'head-banding' to 'headbanding' page #cae--spelling normalized3 changed 'millboards' to 'mill-boards' page #cci--spelling normalized3 changed 'millboards' to 'mill-boards' page #cda--spelling normalized3 changed ',re-folding' to ',refolding'